The February 30 or 30 February doesn't exist in both Julian and Gregorian calendar. The month February has only 28 days (29 days in a leap year).

Real life
February 30 was a real date in few calendars.

Early Julian calendar
Johannes de Sacrobosco claimed that from 45 BC to 8 BC, the February had 30 days in leap year. In 8 BC, Augustus added 31 days in August. It made the February shorter.

Swedish calendar

In 1700, Sweden tried to change their Julian calendar date to Gregorian calendar date by removing all leap years from 1700. However, the 1704 and 1708 became leap days by mistake. So Sweden added 2 leap days in February 1712 to match their dates with the Julian calendar. They changed to Gregorian calendar in 1753 by removing the 11 days from February.

Soviet calendar
Many sources claimed that from 1929 to 1940, Soviet union used a new calendar. It had 5-6 weeks and 30 days each month. Other 5 days were holidays in the calendar, just like the French Republican Calendar.

Fictional calendars
In J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium, the Hobbits have developed the Shire Reckoning.

According to Appendix D to The Lord of the Rings, this calendar has 12 months and 360 days. The month the Hobbits call Solmath actually says February in the text. The month shows 30 days.

February 30, 1951, is the last night of the world in Ray Bradbury's short story, "Last Night of the World".

References

Days

February 30


Komét (simbol: ) nyaéta banda leutik dina sistim suryamandala nu ngorbit kana panonpoé sarta (kadang-kadang) mintonkeun koma (atawa atmosfir) jeung/atawa buntut — duanana utamana disababkeun ku ayana pangaruh radiasi panonpoé kana inti komét, nu mana manéna sorangan mangrupa banda leutik nu diwangun ku batu, kebul, jeung és. Orbit komét robah kalayan konstan: asalna di saluareun sistim suryamandala, sarta miboga kacenderungan kacida dipangaruhannana (atawa dikacokeun) ku planét gedé nu rélatif deukeut. Sababaraha di antarana pindah kana orbit sungrazing nu ngaruksak komét nalika manéhna deukeuteun paponpoé, sedengkeun lianna mah kapiceun ka saluareun sistim suryamandala salilalana.

lolobana komét dipercaya asalana tina halimun (Oort cloud) dina jarak nu jauh ti Srangéngé nu ngandung debris  nu tinggaleun tina kondénsasi nébula srangéngé; sisi luar nébula ieu cukup tiis sahingga cai ogé aya dina kaayaan nu mangrupa padetan (lain gas). Asteroid asalna ngaliwatan prosés nu béda, tapi komét nu geus kacida kolotna, nu geus leungiteun sakabéh bahan volatile-na, bisa ogé jadi sarupaning asteroid.

Kecap komét asalna tina basa Inggris nu ngaliwatan basa Latén cometes. Tina kecap basa Yunani komē mah, hartina téh "buuk na hulu," Aristotélés mimiti maké kecap turunan komētēs keur ngagambarkeun komét miangka "béntang buukan."

Pasipatan fisik

Long-period comets are believed to originate in a distant cloud known as the Oort cloud (after the astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort who hypothesised its existence). They are sometimes perturbed from their distant orbits by gravitational interactions, falling into extremely elliptical orbits that can bring them very close to the Sun. One théory says that as a comet approaches the inner solar system, solar radiation causes part of its outer layers, composed of ice and other materials, to melt and evaporate, but this has not been proven.
The stréams of dust and gas this reléases form a very large, extremely tenuous atmosphere around the comet called the coma, and the force exerted on the coma by the Sun's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous tail to form, which points away from the sun. The stréams of dust and gas éach form their own distinct tail, éach pointed in slightly different directions. The tail made of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail. At the same time, the ion tail, made of gases, always pointing directly away from the Sun, as this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than dust is, following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory.  While the solid body of comets (called the nucleus) is generally less than 50 km across, the coma may be larger than the Sun, and the ion tails have been observed to extend 150 million km (1 Astronomical unit) or more.

Both the coma and tail are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible from the Earth when a comet passes through the inner solar system, the dust reflecting sunlight directly, and the gases glowing from ionisation. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a telescope, but a few éach decade become bright enough to be visible with the naked eye. Before the invention of the telescope, comets seemed to appéar out of nowhere in the sky and gradually vanish out of sight. They were usually considered bad omens of déaths of kings or noble men, or coming catastrophes. From ancient sources, such as Chinese oracle bones, it is known that their appéarances have been noticed by humans for millennia.  One very famous old recording of a comet is the appéarance of Halley's Comet on the Bayeux Tapestry, which records the Norman conquest of England in AD 1066.

Surprisingly, cometary nuclei are among the darkest objects known to exist in the solar system. The Giotto probe found that Comet Halley's nucleus reflects approximately 4% of the light that falls on it, and Deep Space 1 discovered that Comet Borrelly's surface reflects only 2.4% to 3% of the light that falls on it; by comparison, asphalt reflects 7% of the light that falls on it. It is thought that complex organic compounds are the dark surface material. Solar héating drives off volatile compounds léaving behind héavy long-chain organics that tend to be very dark, like tar or crude oil. The very darkness of cometary surfaces allows them to absorb the héat necessary to drive their outgassing.

In 1996, comets were found to emit X-rays. These X-rays surprised reséarchers, because their emission by comets had not previously been predicted. The X-rays are thought to be generated by the interaction between comets and the solar wind: when highly charged ions fly through a cometary atmosphere, they collide with cometary atoms and molecules. In these collisions, the ions will capture one or more electrons léading to emission of X-rays and far ultraviolet photons.

Sipat orbit

 Comets are classified according to their orbital periods. Short period comets have orbits of less than 200 yéars, while Long period comets have longer orbits but remain gravitationally bound to the Sun, and main-belt comets orbit within the asteroid belt. Single-apparition comets have parabolic or hyperbolic orbits which will cause them to permanently exit the solar system after one pass by the Sun.

modérn observations have revéaled a few genuinely hyperbolic orbits, but no more than could be accounted for by perturbations from Jupiter. If comets pervaded interstellar space, they would be moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars néar the Sun (a few tens of kilometres per second). If such objects entered the solar system, they would have positive total énérgies, and would be observed to have genuinely hyperbolic orbits. A rough calculation shows that there might be 4 hyperbolic comets per century, within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude.

On the other extreme, the short period Comet Encke has an orbit which never places it farther from the Sun than Jupiter. Short-period comets are thought to originate in the Kuiper belt, wheréas the source of long-period comets is thought to be the Oort cloud. A variety of mechanisms have been proposed to explain why comets get perturbed into highly elliptical orbits, including close approaches to other stars as the Sun follows its orbit through the Milky Way Galaxy; the Sun's hypothetical companion star Nemesis; or an unknown Planet X.

Because of their low masses, and their elliptical orbits which frequently take them close to the giant planets, cometary orbits are often perturbed. Short period comets display a strong tendency for their aphelia to coincide with a giant planet's orbital radius, with the Jupiter family of comets being the largest, as the histogram shows. It is cléar that comets coming in from the Oort cloud often have their orbits strongly influenced by the gravity of giant planets as a result of a close encounter. Jupiter is the source of the gréatest perturbations, being more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined, in addition to being the swiftest of the giant planets.

A number of periodic comets discovered in éarlier decades or previous centuries are now "lost."  Their orbits were never known well enough to predict future appéarances. However, occasionally a "new" comet will be discovered and upon calculation of its orbit it turns out to be an old "lost" comet. An example is Comet 11P/Tempel-Swift-LINEAR, discovered in 1869 but unobservable after 1908 because of perturbations by Jupiter.  It was not found again until accidentally rediscovered by LINEAR in 2001.

Comet nomenclature
The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries. Before any systematic naming convention was adopted, comets were named in a variety of ways. Prior to the éarly 20th century, most comets were simply referred to by the yéar in which they appéared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the "Great Comet of 1680" (Kirch's Comet), the "Great September Comet of 1882," and the "Daylight Comet of 1910" ("Great January Comet of 1910"). After Edmund Halley demonstrated that the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 were the same body and successfully predicted its return in 1759, that comet became known as Comet Halley. Similarly, the second and third known periodic comets, Comet Encke and Comet Biela, were named after the astronomers who calculated their orbits rather than their original discoverers. Later, periodic comets were usually named after their discoverers, but comets that had appéared only once continued to be referred to by the yéar of their apparition.

In the éarly 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains so today. A comet is named after up to three independent discoverers. In recent yéars, many comets have been discovered by instruments operated by large téams of astronomers, and in this case, comets may be named for the instrument. For example, Comet IRAS-Araki-Alcock was discovered independently by the IRAS satellite and amateur astronomers Genichi Araki and George Alcock. In the past, when multiple comets were discovered by the same individual, group of individuals, or téam, the comets' names were distinguished by adding a numeral to the discoverers' names; thus Comets Shoemaker-Levy 1–9. Today, the large numbers of comets discovered by some instruments (in August 2005, SOHO discovered its 1000th comet) has rendered this system impractical, and no attempt is made to ensure that éach comet has a unique name. Instéad, the comets' systematic designations are used to avoid confusion.

Until 1994, comets were first given a provisional designation consisting of the yéar of their discovery followed by a lowercase letter indicating its order of discovery in that yéar (for example, Comet Bennett 1969i was the 9th comet discovered in 1969). Once the comet had been observed through perihelion and its orbit had been established, the comet was given a permanent designation of the yéar of its perihelion, followed by a Roman numeral indicating its order of perihelion passage in that yéar, so that Comet Bennett 1969i became Comet Bennett 1970 II (it was the second comet to pass perihelion in 1970)

Incréasing numbers of comet discoveries made this procedure awkward, and in 1994 the International Astronomical Union approved a new naming system. Comets are now designated by the yéar of their discovery followed by a letter indicating the half-month of the discovery and a number indicating the order of discovery (a system similar to that alréady used for asteroids), so that the fourth comet discovered in the second half of February 2006 would be designated 2006 D4. Prefixes are also added to indicate the nature of the comet, with P/ indicating a periodic comet, C/ indicating a non-periodic comet, X/ indicating a comet for which no reliable orbit could be calculated, D/ indicating a comet which has broken up or been lost, and A/ indicating an object that was mistakenly identified as a comet, but is actually a minor planet. After their second observed perihelion passage, periodic comets are also assigned a number indicating the order of their discovery. So Halley's Comet, the first comet to be identified as periodic, has the systematic designation 1P/1682 Q1. Comet Hale-Bopp's designation is C/1995 O1.

There are only four objects that are cross-listed as both comets and asteroids: 2060 Chiron (95P/Chiron), 133P/Elst-Pizarro (7968 Elst-Pizarro), 60558 Echeclus (174P/Echeclus) and 4015 Wilson-Harrington (107P/Wilson-Harrington).

History of comet study

Early observations and thought
Historically, comets were thought to be unlucky, or even interpreted as attacks by héavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants. Some authorities interpret references to "falling stars" in Gilgamesh, Revelation and the Book of Enoch as references to comets, or possibly bolides.

In the first book of his Meteorology, Aristotle propounded the view of comets that would hold sway in Western thought for néarly two thousand yéars.  He rejected the idéas of several éarlier philosophers that comets were planets, or at léast a phenomenon related to the planets, on the grounds that while the planets confined their motion to the circle of the Zodiac, comets could appéar in any part of the sky. Instéad, he described comets as a phenomenon of the upper atmosphere, where hot, dry exhalations gathered and occasionally burst into flame.  Aristotle held this mechanism responsible for not only comets, but also meteors, the aurora borealis, and even the Milky Way.

A few later classical philosophers did dispute this view of comets.  Seneca the Younger, in his Natural Questions, observed that comets moved regularly through the sky and were undisturbed by the wind, behavior more typical of celestial than atmospheric phenomena.  While he conceded that the other planets do not appéar outside the Zodiac, he saw no réason that a planet-like object could not move through any part of the sky, humanity's knowledge of celestial things being very limited. However, the Aristoteléan viewpoint proved more influential, and it was not until the 16th century that it was demonstrated that comets must exist outside the éarth's atmosphere.

In 1577, a bright comet was visible for several months.  The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe used méasurements of the comet's position taken by himself and other, géographically separated, observers to determine that the comet had no méasuréable parallax.  Within the precision of the méasurements, this implied the comet must be at léast four times more distant from the éarth than the moon.

Orbital studies

Although comets had now been demonstrated to be in the héavens, the question of how they moved through the héavens would be debated for most of the next century.  Even after Johannes Kepler had determined in 1609 that the planets moved about the sun in elliptical orbits, he was reluctant to believe that the laws that governed the motions of the planets should also influence the motion of other bodies—he believed that comets travel among the planets along straight lines.  Galileo Galilei, although a staunch Copernicanist, rejected Tycho's parallax méasurements and held to the Aristoteléan notion of comets moving on straight lines through the upper atmosphere.

The first suggestion that Kepler's laws of planetary motion should also apply to the comets was made by William Lower in 1610. In the following decades, other astronomers, including Pierre Petit, Giovanni Borelli, Adrien Auzout, Robert Hooke, Johann Baptist Cysat, and Giovanni Domenico Cassini, all argued for comets curving about the sun on elliptical or parabolic paths, while others, such as Christian Huygens and Johannes Hevelius, supported comets' linéar motion.

The matter was resolved by the bright comet that was discovered by Gottfried Kirch on November 14, 1680. Astronomers throughout Europe tracked its position for several months. In 1681, the Saxon pastor Georg Samuel Doerfel set forth his proofs that comets are héavenly bodies moving in parabolas of which the sun is the focus. Then Isaac Newton, in his Principia Mathematica of 1687, proved that an object moving under the influence of his inverse square law of universal gravitation must trace out an orbit shaped like one of the conic sections, and he demonstrated how to fit a comet's path through the sky to a parabolic orbit, using the comet of 1680 as an example.

In 1705, Edmond Halley applied Newton's method to twenty-four cometary apparitions that had occurred between 1337 and 1698. He noted that three of these, the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682, had very similar orbital elements, and he was further able to account for the slight differences in their orbits in terms of gravitational perturbation by Jupiter and Saturn. Confident that these three apparitions had been three appéarances of the same comet, he predicted that it would appéar again in 1758-9. (éarlier, Robert Hooke had identified the comet of 1664 with that of 1618, while Jéan-Dominique Cassini had suspected the identity of the comets of 1577, 1665, and 1680. Both were incorrect.)  Halley's predicted return date was later refined by a téam of three French mathematicians: Alexis Clairaut, Joseph Lalande, and Nicole-Reine Lepaute, who predicted the date of the comet's 1759 perihelion to within one month's accuracy. When the comet returned as predicted, it became known as Comet Halley or Halley's Comet (its official designation is 1P/Halley).  Its next appéarance is due in 2061.

Among the comets with short enough periods to have been observed several times in the historical record, Comet Halley is unique in consistently being bright enough to be visible to the naked eye.  Since the confirmation of Comet Halley's periodicity, many other periodic comets have been discovered through the telescope. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit was Comet Encke (official designation 2P/Encke). Over the period 1819-1821 the German mathematician and physicist Johann Franz Encke computed orbits for a series of cometary apparitions observed in 1786, 1795, 1805, and 1818, concluded they were same comet, and successfully predicted its return in 1822. By 1900, seventeen comets had been observed at more than one perihelion passage and recognized as periodic comets.  As of April 2006, 175 comets have achieved this distinction, though several have since been destroyed or lost.  In ephemerides, comets are often denoted by the symbol .

Studies of physical characteristics

Isaac Newton described comets as compact, solid, fixed, and durable bodies: in other words, a kind of planet, which move in very oblique orbits, every way, with the gréatest freedom, persevering in their motions even against the course and direction of the planets; and their tail as a very thin, slender vapour, emitted by the héad, or nucleus of the comet, ignited or héated by the sun.  Comets also seemed to Newton absolutely requisite for the conservation of the water and moisture of the planets; from their condensed vapours and exhalations all that moisture which is spent on vegetations and putrefactions, and turned into dry éarth, might be resupplied and recruited; for all vegetables were thought to incréase wholly from fluids, and turn by putrefaction into éarth. Hence the quantity of dry éarth must continually incréase, and the moisture of the globe decréase, and at last be quite evaporated, if it have not a continual supply. Newton suspected that the spirit which makes the finest, subtilest, and best part of our air, and which is absolutely requisite for the life and being of all things, came principally from the comets.

Another use which he conjectured comets might be designed to serve, is that of recruiting the sun with fresh fuel, and repairing the consumption of his light by the stréams continually sent forth in every direction from that luminary —

"From his huge vapouring train perhaps to shake
Reviving moisture on the numerous orbs,
Thro' which his long ellipsis winds; perhaps
To lend new fuel to declining suns,
To light up worlds, and feed th' ethereal fire."
 —James Thomson, "The Seasons" (1730; 1748).

As éarly as the 18th century, some scientists had made correct hypotheses as to comets' physical composition. In 1755, Immanuel Kant hypothesized that comets are composed of some volatile substance, whose vaporization gives rise to their brilliant displays néar perihelion.  In 1836, the German mathematician Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, after observing stréams of vapor in the 1835 apparition of Comet Halley, proposed that the jet forces of evaporating material could be gréat enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit and argued that the non-gravitational movements of Comet Encke resulted from this mechanism.

However, another comet-related discovery overshadowed these idéas for néarly a century. Over the period 1864–1866 the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli computed the orbit of the Perseid meteors, and based on orbital similarities, correctly hypothesized that the Perseids were fragments of Comet Swift-Tuttle.  The link between comets and metéor showers was dramatically underscored when in 1872, a major metéor shower occurred from the orbit of Comet Biela, which had been observed to split into two pieces during its 1846 apparition, and never seen again after 1852. A "gravel bank" modél of comet structure arose, according to which comets consist of loose piles of small rocky objects, coated with an icy layer.

By the middle of the twentieth century, this modél suffered from a number of shortcomings: in particular, it failed to explain how a body that contained only a little ice could continue to put on a brilliant display of evaporating vapor after several perihelion passages. In 1950, Fred Lawrence Whipple proposed that rather than being rocky objects containing some ice, comets were icy objects containing some dust and rock. This "dirty snowball" modél soon became accepted. It was confirmed when an armada of spacecraft (including the European Space Agency's Giotto probe and the Soviet Union's Vega 1 and Vega 2) flew through the coma of Halley's comet in 1986 to photograph the nucleus and observed the jets of evaporating material. The American probe Deep Space 1 flew past the nucleus of Comet Borrelly on September 21 2001 and confirmed that the characteristics of Comet Halley are common on other comets as well.

The Stardust spacecraft, launched in February 1999, collected particles from the coma of Comet Wild 2 in January 2004, and returned the samples to éarth in a capsule in January 2006. Claudia Alexander, a program scientist for Rosetta from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory who has modéled comets for yéars, reported to space.com about her astonishment at the number of jets, their appéarance on the dark side of the comet as well as on the light side, their ability to lift large chunks of rock from the surface of the comet and the fact that comet Wild 2 is not a loosely-cemented rubble pile.

Forthcoming space missions will add gréater detail to our understanding of what comets are made of.  In July 2005, the Deep Impact probe blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior. And in 2014, the Européan Rosetta probe will orbit comet Comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko and place a small lander on its surface.

Rosetta observed the Deep Impact event, and with its set of very sensitive instruments for cometary investigations, it used its capabilities to observe Tempel 1 before, during and after the impact. At a distance of about 80 million kilometres from the comet, Rosetta was the only spacecraft other then Deep Impact itself to view the comet.

Debat ngeunaan kandungan komét

As late as 2002, there is conflict on how much ice is in a comet. NASA's Deep Space 1 téam, working at NASA's Jet Propulsion Lab, obtained high-resolution images of the surface of comet Borrelly. They announced that comet Borrelly exhibits distinct jets, yet has a hot, dry surface. The assumption that comets contain water and other ices led Dr. Laurence Soderblom of the U.S. Géological Survey to say, "The spectrum suggests that the surface is hot and dry. It is surprising that we saw no traces of water ice." However, he goes on to suggest that the ice is probably hidden below the crust as "either the surface has been dried out by solar heating and maturation or perhaps the very dark soot-like material that covers Borrelly's surface masks any trace of surface ice".

The recent Deep Impact probe has also yielded results suggesting that the majority of a comet's water ice is below the surface, and that these resevoirs feed the jets of vaporised water that form the coma of Tempel 1.

Komét nu kasohor

Komét gedé
While hundreds of tiny comets pass through the inner solar system every yéar, only a very few comets are noticed by the general public.  About every decade or so, a comet will become bright enough to be noticed by a casual observer — such comets are often designated Great Comets.  In times past, bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population, being thought of as bad omens.  More recently, during the passage of Halley's Comet in 1910, the éarth passed through the comet's tail, and erronéous newspaper reports inspired a féar that cyanogen in the tail might poison millions, while the appéarance of Comet Hale-Bopp in 1997 triggered the mass suicide of the Heaven's Gate cult.  To most péople, however, a gréat comet is simply a béautiful spectacle. See images of Hale-Bopp at the Comet Hale-Bopp Images webpage.

Predicting whether a comet will become a gréat comet is notoriously difficult, as many factors may cause a comet's brightness to depart drastically from predictions.  Broadly spéaking, if a comet has a large and active nucleus, will pass close to the Sun, and is not obscured by the Sun as seen from the éarth when at its brightest, it will have a chance of becoming a gréat comet.  However, Comet Kohoutek in 1973 fulfilled all the criteria and was expected to become spectacular, but failed to do so.  Comet West, which appéared three yéars later, had much lower expectations (perhaps because scientists were much warier of glowing predictions after the Kohoutek fiasco), but became an extremely impressive comet.

The late 20th century saw a lengthy gap without the appéarance of any gréat comets, followed by the arrival of two in quick succession — Comet Hyakutake in 1996, followed by Hale-Bopp, which réached maximum brightness in 1997 having been discovered two yéars éarlier.  As yet, the 21st century has not seen the arrival of any gréat comets.

Komét nu teu ilahar
Of the thousands of known comets, some are very unusual. Comet Encke orbits from inside the orbit of Jupiter to inside the orbit of Mercury while Comet 29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann orbits in a néarly circular orbit entirely between Jupiter and Saturn. 2060 Chiron, whose unstable orbit keeps it between Saturn and Uranus, was originally classified as an asteroid until a faint coma was noticed. Similarly, Comet Shoemaker-Levy 2 was originally designated asteroid 1990 UL3. Some near-earth asteroids are thought to be extinct nuclei of comets which no longer experience outgassing.

Some comets have been observed to bréak up.  Comet Biela was one significant example, bréaking into two during its 1846 perihelion passage.  The two comets were seen separately in 1852, but never again after that.  Instéad, spectacular metéor showers were seen in 1872 and 1885 when the comet should have been visible.  A lesser metéor shower, the Andromedids, occurs annually in November, and is caused by the éarth crossing Biela's orbit.

Several other comets have been seen to bréak up during their perihelion passage, including gréat comets West and Comet Ikeya-Seki.  Some comets, such as the Kreutz Sungrazers, orbit in groups and are thought to be pieces of a single object that has previously broken apart.

Another very significant cometary disruption was that of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, which was discovered in 1993.  At the time of its discovery, the comet was in orbit around Jupiter, having been captured by the planet during a very close approach in 1992.  This close approach had alréady broken the comet into hundreds of pieces, and over a period of 6 days in July 1994, these pieces slammed into Jupiter's atmosphere — the first time astronomers had observed a collision between two objects in the solar system. However, it has been suggested that the likely object responsible for the Tunguska event in 1908 was a fragment of Comet Encke. Less likely is the attribution to an Encke fragment of having caused the formation of the Giordano Bruno (crater) on the Moon in 1178.

Komét nu kiwari bisa ditempo
Komét SWAN, nu ditandaan ogé minangka C/2006M4, kapanggih ku SWAN/SOHO tanggal 20 Juni 2006, as of October 6 katempo maké toropong di langit wanci janari leutik dina konstélasi Canes Venatici. Périhéliumna mah 28 Séptémber.

Komét ieu meta kacida gancangna ka Aquila tur jadi targé nu gampang pikeun ditoropong di langit wanci munggaran peuting salila bulan Oktober. Kiwari mah geus pudar alatan nambahna jarak ti Bumi ka Srangéngé.

Tempo ogé
 Daptar komét périodis
 Daptar komét non-périodis
 Kajadian tubrukan
 Skala Torino keur ngagolongkeun bahya tubrukan
 Komét dina fiksi

Référénsi
 Européan Southern Observatory. (2003). "A Brief History of Comets." Available online: Part I , Part II .
 Vigyan Prasar (2001). "Development of Cometary Thought." Available online:  Part I , Part II .

Tumbu luar

 Cometography.com
 David Jewitt overview of the comets
 ESSAY ON COMETS , which gained the first of Dr. Fellowes's prizes, proposed to those who had attended the University of Edinburgh within the last twelve yéars. By David Milne. Publisher: Edinburgh, Printed for A. Black; 1828. (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF  format)
 Everything you wanted to know about comets and asteroids — Provided by New Scientist.
 Listing of newly discovered comets

 Seiichi Yoshida's Comet Information website
 Source of useful comet-related material on the Web

Planét leutik

Komét


Lieutenant commander is an officer rank in several navies.

In the Royal Navy, It is junior to commander and senior to the naval rank of lieutenant. Royal Navy ranks are matched up with Royal Air Force ranks. In this case the equivalent rank would be a squadron leader.

Lieutenant commander (LCDR) is a mid-ranking officer in the United States Navy, the United States Coast Guard, and several other public uniformed services.

In the Royal Canadian Navy, the rank of lieutenant commander (LCdr) (French: capitaine de corvette or capc) is the naval rank equal to major in the army or air force. It is the first rank of senior officer.

This rank would be usual for a commander of a minor warship, or an executive officer in a larger ship.

Military ranks

Lieutenant commander


Public health is the science dealing with prevention there is a disease that is a threat to the overall health of a community, as well as with prolonging life and promoting health. The aims are achieved through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, public and private organizations, communities and individuals.

It bases on health analysis of a handful of people or all the inhabitants of several continents rather than on an individual.  Public health includes such parts as epidemiology, biostatistics, health services, environmental, social, behavioral, and occupational health.

Public health intervention prevents rather than treats a disease through surveillance of cases and promotes healthy behaviors such as hand washing, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms. In outbreaks of an infectious disease, treating a disease may be vital to preventing it in others.

Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, to respond to domestic health issues. Many diseases are preventable through simple, non-medical methods. Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and through international non-governmental organizations. In the developing world, there may not be enough trained health workers or monetary resources to provide a basic level of medical care and disease prevention.

History of public health
Public health has roots in antiquity. From the beginning, human civilization recognized that polluted water and lack of proper waste disposal spread communicable diseases. Early religions attempted to regulate behavior related to health, from types of food eaten, to behaviors, such as drinking alcohol or sexual relationships. Governments placed responsibility on leaders to develop public health policies and programs in order to gain some understanding of the causes of disease, ensure social stability prosperity, and maintain order.

The Chinese developed the practice of variolation following a smallpox epidemic around 1000 BC. The practice of vaccination did not become prevalent until the 1820s. During the 14th century Black Death in Europe, burning parts of cities resulted in benefit, since it destroyed the rodent infestations. The development of quarantine in the medieval period restricted effects of other infectious diseases.

Later they started build of sewers, the regular collection of garbage, incineration or disposal, providing clean water and draining standing water to prevent the breeding of mosquitos. The industrial revolution initially caused the spread of disease through large conurbations around workhouses and factories.

Modern public health

The increase in average life span in the 20th century is credited to public health achievements, such as vaccination programs and control of infectious diseases, effective safety policies of motor vehicle and occupational safety, improved family planning, chlorination of drinking water, smoke-free measures, and programs on decreasing chronic disease such as cancer, heart disease and more physical exercise.

Sometimes, the developing world is plagued by largely preventable infectious diseases, due to malnutrition and poverty. The focus of public health has moved from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality, poverty, and education. There is recognition that our health is affected by where we live, genetics, our income, our educational status and our social relationships.

England
Public health in England is mostly run by local government since 2012.  They pay for

 health visitors and school nurses
 drug and alcohol treatment
 sexual health services
 tobacco control
 physical activity
 suicide prevention
 health protection

Education and training

Schools of public health offer:
Professional degrees are oriented towards practice in public health settings: the Master of Public Health (M.P.H.), Doctor of Public Health (Dr.PH.) and the Master of Health Administration (M.H.A.). They deal with public health in health departments, managed care and community-based organizations, hospitals and consulting firms.
Academic degrees are oriented towards the scientific basis of public health and preventive medicine, research, university teaching in graduate schools, policy analysis and development, and other high-level public health positions. Examples of academic degrees are the Master of Science (M.S.), Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), and Doctor of Science (Sc.D.).

Public health programs

Most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, and the effects of aging, although public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. In recent years, public health programs providing vaccinations have made strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox.

An important public health issues facing the world currently are HIV/AIDS, antibiotic resistance, leading to the re-emergence of diseases such as Tuberculosis, diabetes. As non-communicable diseases caused by smoking have been threatening public health, public health started controlling smoking. The global health system needs to find a way to even out communicable and non communicable diseases. Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places.

References

Related pages
 World Health Organization
 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
 Occupational Safety and Health Administration
 Health care in Canada
 Health Ministry of Germany
 Hygiene

Medicine

Public health


The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection is a book by R.A. Fisher first published in 1930 by Oxford University Press which combines Mendelian genetics with Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. It is one of the most important books of the modern evolutionary synthesis.

Editions
A second, slightly revised edition was published in 1958. In 1999, a third variorum edition, with the original 1930 text, annotated with the 1958 alterations, notes and alterations accidentally omitted from the second edition was published.

Its significance
When Fisher started his career, genetics was not a well-understood science. There were biologists who did not see how evolution by natural selection could happen with heredity as they understood it. The main effect of the book was to show the small changes in genes could indeed lead to the large changes seen in the fossil record. Fisher's second chapter, the Fundamental theory of natural selection, convinced most biologists that Darwin's idea and modern genetics were compatible (could work together). Fisher's view was reinforced by Julian Huxley, J.B.S. Haldane, Sewell Wright, Theodosius Dobzhansky, and G. Ledyard Stebbins. All of these men were in touch with genetics. With the addition of two field biologists, Ernst Mayr and Bernhard Rensch and a palaeontologist, George Simpson, the group put together the modern synthesis.

Fisher also developed ideas on sexual selection, mimicry and the evolution of dominance. He showed that mutations with big effects usually reduce the fitness of the individual. He also proved that larger populations carry more variation and have a greater chance of survival. He set the foundations for population genetics.

About a third of the book concerned the applications of genetics to humans. Using the British census data of 1911, he showed there was an inverse relationship between fertility and social class. This was partly due, he believed, to the rise in social status of families who were not capable of producing many children but who rose because of the financial advantage of having a small number of children. Therefore he suggested subsidies (he called them allowances) to families with larger numbers of children, with the allowances proportional to the earnings of the father. He himself had two sons and six daughters.

Reviews
The book was reviewed, among others, by physicist Charles Galton Darwin, a grandson of Charles Darwin's. After his review, C.G. Darwin sent Fisher his copy of the book, with notes in the margin. The marginal notes became the food for a correspondence running at least three years.

Although Fisher's book was immediately understood by the few who understood genetics, it was a long time before the general biologist appreciated it. It is now agreed to be one of the foundations of modern population genetics and evolution.

Fisher's book also had a major influence on W.D. Hamilton and the development of his theories on the genetic basis for kin selection. Hamilton, a leading theoretician of the later 20th century, said:

"This is a book which, as a student, I weighed as of equal importance to the entire rest of my undergraduate Cambridge BA course... through the time I spent on it, I think it notched down my degree. Most chapters took me weeks, some months.
"For a book that I rate only second in importance in evolution theory to Darwin's Origin [and] its supplement The Descent of Man, [it is] undoubtedly one of the greatest books of the twentieth century...
"In some ways some of us have overtaken Fisher; in many, however, this brilliant, daring man is still far in front."

References

Biology books
1930s books


Egon Schweidler, (* 10 February 1873, in Vienna; † 10 February 1948, in Salzburg Seeham) was an Austrian physicist.

Biography
He was born in 1873 as the son of the court and Gerichtsadvokaten Emil von Schweidler born in Vienna. After studying physics and mathematics, he earned his doctorate with a dissertation "On the internal friction of mercury and some Amalgamen" (1895). He was assistant to Franz Exner.

Career
In 1899, he went to the University of Vienna. In 1911 he was appointed as an associate professor. From 1911 to 1926, he was the head of the Department of Experimental Physics at the University of Innsbruck, where he was dean in 1924 and rector in 1925/26. In 1926, he returned as per his appeal as an Ordinary II at the Physics Institute of the University of Vienna. There, he also worked as a secretary (1929-1933), Secretary-General (1933-1938), and Vice President (1939-1945) of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. In 1933, he was also elected chairman of the German Physical Society.

Legacy
From an historical view, his major works in the field of atmospheric electricity should be mentioned. Schweidler's scientific work was recognized very early (1907) with the award of "Baumgartner Prize" of the Vienna Academy of Sciences for the study of the anomalies in the behavior of dielectrics. He pointed (in 1899) with Stefan Meyer, among others, the statistical nature of the radioactive decay or the magnetic deflection of beta radiation as fast electrons. His predicted variations (1905) of the ionization radiation formed in the end a large number of theoretical and experimental investigations.

Publications
 Die atmosphärische Elektrizität, 1903 (mit H. Mach)
 TR: The atmospheric electricity, 1903 (with H. Mach)
 Über Schwankungen der radioaktiven Umwandlung, Comptes Rendus du Premier Congres International pour L'etude de la Radiologie et de Ionisation, Liege, 12.-14.
 TR: About fluctuations of the radioactive transformation, Comptes Rendus Prime du Congres International pour la de L'etude et de Radiologie ionization, Liege, 12.-14. September 1905 September 1905
 Standardwerk über Radioaktivität, (mit S. Meyer), 1916 (2. Auflage 1927)
 TR:Standard work on radioactivity, (with S. Meyer), 1916 (2nd edition 1927)

Sources
 Berta Karlik, Erich Schmid: Franz Serafin Exner und sein Kreis. Verlag der Österreichischen Akadademie der Wissenschaft, Wien 1982,
 TR: Franz Exner and his circle.
 Wolfgang L. Reiter: Stefan Meyer: Pioneer of Radioactivity. Physics in Perspective. Volume 3, Issue 1, pp. 106–127, 2001 106-127 2001
 Max von Laue: History of Physics. 1966

1873 births
1948 deaths
Scientists from Vienna
University of Vienna alumni
Austrian physicists
Academic staff of the University of Innsbruck
Burials at Döbling Cemetery
Physicists from Austria-Hungary

Egon Schweidler


Kelowna is a city in British Columbia, Canada. It is on Okanagan Lake in the Okanagan Valley. The name "Kelowna" comes from the Okanagan word for "grizzly bear". Kelowna is the 22nd largest metropolitan area in Canada. In 2011, it had a population of 179,839.

The communities nearby include the district municipality of West Kelowna (also called Westbank, Westside) to the west across Okanagan Lake.  Lake Country and Vernon are to the north. Peachland is to the southwest and Summerland and Penticton further south.

Kelowna is also sometimes called "Ktown" for short.

Cities in British Columbia

Kelowna


The Alaska Interior covers most of the U.S. state's territory. It is largely wilderness. Mountains include Mount McKinley (Denali) in the Alaska Range, the Wrangell Mountains, and the Ray Mountains.

The largest city in the interior is Fairbanks, which is Alaska's second-largest city. Other towns include North Pole, Eagle, Tok, Glennallen, Delta Junction, Nenana, Anderson, Healy and Cantwell.

Climate

Temperatures in Interior Alaska change a lot between the seasons. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks are usually around −12 °F (−24 °C) and summer temperatures  are around 62 °F (17 °C). Temperatures there can get as low as −65 °F (−54 °C) in mid-winter, and as high as 99 °F (37 °C) in summer. Both the highest and lowest temperature records for the state were set in the Interior, with 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon and −80 °F (−64 °C) in Prospect Creek. Temperatures within a given winter can ghange a lot also. Long cold snaps can be followed by sudden warmth with temperatures above freezing.  this is because of changes in the  wind.

Summers can be warm and dry for a long time. This can make it easy for wildfires to start. Weak thunderstorms can produce lightning that starts a fire. These fires are often left to burn if they are far away from where people live. The 2004 season had the most fires. Over  were burned.

The average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 11.3 inches (28.7 cm).  Most of this is snow during the winter.  Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the Gulf of Alaska. Most of these storms are  blocked or weakened by passing over the mountains.

The months from May to July in the summer have no darkness at night. They only have a twilight during the night hours. The months of November to January are the other way around. They have little daylight.  It is light for about 21 hours every day between May 10 and August 2. It is light less than four hours each day between November 18 and January 24. On clear winter nights, the aurora borealis, or "Northern lights" can often be seen dancing in the sky.
A lot of the ground in the Interior has permafrost, meaning that there is a layer of soil that is always frozen.

References

Geography of Alaska

Alaska Interior


Shorinji kenpo is the style of kenpo (a kind of martial art). It was created by Nakano Michiomi.

History
A Japanese with the name Nakano Michiomi - he later changed his name to So Doshin - incorporates his martial art school into his Buddhist teachings. So Doshin said, that he taught martial arts mostly in order to attract young people to Buddhism. Religious societies didn't pay the taxes, and So Doshin probably considered it, too. Until 1972, So Doshin said that he was the 21st grand master of an esoteric northern Shaolin system called Iher Man Thuen. In 1972 he changed his mind because the Japanese court gave an official decision that his style was not Chinese, but a mixture of karate (perhaps Wado-ryu) and jujutsu (perhaps Hakko-ryu). Consequently, the style's name was changed from "Shorinji Kempo," meaning "kung fu of Shaolin Temple," to "Nippon Shorinji Kempo," meaning "Japanese Way of Fist of Shaolin." The students of Nippon Shorinji Kempo have signs of manji on their kimonos, but it is not treated as the symbol of fascism, it signifies happiness in Buddhism.

Japanese martial arts

Shorinji kenpo


The BAE Systems Skylynx II is an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) developed to support US Marine Corps Tier II regiment-level reconnaissance, surveillance and target acquisition missions. The aircraft flew its maiden flight on August 9, 2006, at the Yuma Proving Grounds, Yuma, Arizona. The Skylynx II is equipped with an electro-optical (EO) and infrared imaging system, and during test flights it was able to locate and track human and vehicle targets. Powered by a UAV Engines UEL-741 engine driving a single propeller, the aircraft is designed to be launched without a runway, and to carry payloads of up to .

The Skylynx II aircraft is part of an integrated unmanned aerial system that is made up of three aircraft, launcher, ground control station and remote receiver terminal. The system is designed to be operated by six Marines. The entire package can be transported to battlefield sites by two CH-46 Sea Knights or two HMMWVs.

References

"BAE Systems successfully tests Skylynx II unmanned aircraft system", Aerotech News and Review, August 18, 2006.
BAE news release, including image

Unmanned aerial vehicles of the United States
British Aerospace aircraft
2000s United States military reconnaissance aircraft

BAE Systems Skylynx II


The Æsir (Old Norse: singular ǫ́ss or áss; feminine ásynja, plural ásynjur) are the principal group or tribe of deities in Norse mythology. Including Odin, Frigg, Thor, and Baldr, the Æsir reside in the realm of Asgard, at the top of Yggdrasil's highest branch. Alongside the Æsir exists a second family of gods known as the Vanir, who joined with the Æsir to form a single, unified pantheon after the devastating war between the two tribes of deities. The Vanir were native to Vanaheimr, the god Njörðr and his children, Freyr and Freyja chief among them. The Æsir gods were usually connected with power and war, while the Vanir were associated with fertility and nature.

Norse mythology
The things that happened between the Æsir and the Vanir are an interesting part of Norse mythology. While other cultures have had "elder" and "younger" generations of gods, as with the Titans and the Olympians of ancient Greece, the Æsir and Vanir were portrayed as contemporaries. The two tribes fought battles, concluded treaties, and exchanged hostages; Freyr and Freyja were said to be hostages. Some believe that events that occurred between the Æsir and Vanir were a reflection of events common between different Norse clans at the time.

The Æsir did not grow old, instead remaining young by eating the apples of Iðunn. While they did not age, they could be killed. It was said that most of them will die at Ragnarök.

List of Æsir
 Baldr—God of light and radiance, he is the most beloved of the gods. He is the son of Odin and Frigg and younger brother of Thor.
 Frigg—Wife of Odin and goddess of marriage, she rules Asgard as queen alongside the All-Father.
 Heimdallr—Known as the All-Seeing, he is the guardian of the rainbow bridge Bifröst.
 Höðr—God of winter and darkness; a blind god, he is the son of Odin and Frigg.
 Iðunn—Goddess of youth, she was keeper of the apples that grant the gods their phenomenal longevity and youth.
 Loki—Though oftentimes referred to as the god of trickery and mischief, Loki is not counted among the Æsir. The son of the (female) jötunn Laufey and Fárbauti (Old Norse: "cruel striker"), he is Odin's blood brother.
 Odin—God of wisdom, poetry and war, he is chief of the Æsir and ruler of Asgard.
 Sif—Goddess of agriculture and fertility, she is the beloved wife of Thor, known across the Nine Worlds for her golden hair, which was sheared by Loki.
 Thor—God of thunder and lightning, he is Asgard's greatest champion. He is the eldest son of Odin, born to him by Jörð, the personification of the Earth.
 Týr—God of law and heroic glory, he is one-handed. Either the son of Odin or the jǫtnar Hymir and Hroðr (Old Norse: "famed").
 Ullr—God of the hunt and archery, he is the son of Sif and Thor's stepson.
 Viðarr—God of vengeance, he is the son of Odin and the female jötunn Gríðr.

Other websites
 W. Wagner's "Asgard and the Home of the Gods" e-book
 Peter Andreas Munch's "Norse Mythology: Legends of Gods and Heroes" e-book

Norse gods and goddesses

Æsir


The 2010 United Kingdom General Election was an election held on 6 May 2010 to elect 650 members to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The three party leaders are shown below.

Outcome
The election resulted in a hung parliament, where no political party has an overall majority of seats. This is the first time this has happened since 1974.

The Conservative Party won 307 out of the 650 seats available making them the largest party in the House of Commons. A coalition was then formed between the Conservative Party and the Liberal Democrats who together had enough seats for a majority. This is the first coalition government in the United Kingdom since World War II.

The Leader of the Conservative Party David Cameron became Prime Minister of the United Kigdom on 11 May 2010 and the leader of the Liberal Democrats Nick Clegg became the Deputy Prime Minister. Before the election, the Leader of the Labour Party Gordon Brown was the Prime Minister.

This was the first British general election where the leaders of the three main parties took part together in a series of debates for television. The first debate was shown on ITV and was moderated by Alastair Stewart. It was on the subject of domestic affairs and polls taken after the debate showed that most people thought Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg had done the best and the Liberal Democrats then saw a large rise in support in opinion polls, even beating Labour for second place behind the Conservatives.

The second debate, on the subject of Foreign Affairs was shown on Sky News and was moderated by Adam Boulton. Polls after this debate showed that Nick Clegg and David Cameron had done best with Gordon Brown slightly behind. The third and final debate was shown on BBC One and was moderated by David Dimbleby. It was on the subject of the economy and taxes and most opinion polls indicated that David Cameron had performed the best out of the three leaders.

The Conservative Party gained support from the following newspapers: the Daily Express, the Daily Mail, the Sun, the Daily Telegraph, the Times, the Daily Star, the Evening Standard, the Financial Times, Sunday Express, the Mail on Sunday, the News of the World, the Sunday Telegraph and the Sunday Times. The Liberal Democrats were supported by: the Guardian, the Observer and the Independent. Only the Daily Mirror and the Sunday Mirror supported the Labour Party and the People newspaper favoured a coalition.

This election saw the Conservative Party return to government for the first time since 1997 and also saw the Liberal Democrats get their first ever representation in government. Peter Robinson, the First Minister of Northern Ireland and leader of the Democratic Unionist Party unexpectedly lost his seat to the Alliance Party. The Green Party of England and Wales gained its first ever seat in the House of Commons and the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland gained its first seat in the House of Commons since 1974. Former Labour Party Home Secretaries Jacqui Smith and Charles Clarke both lost their seats. The Ulster Unionist Party and the Respect Party won seats in the 2005 General Election but lost their seats in the 2010 Election.

Results by party
The final results of the election were:

 Conservative Party (306 MPs, 36.1% of vote)
 Labour Party (258 MPs, 29.0 % of vote)
 Liberal Democrats (57 MPs, 23.0% of vote)
 UK Independence Party (0 MPs, 3.1% of vote)
 British National Party (0 MPs, 1.9% of vote)
 Scottish National Party (6 MPs, 1.7% of vote) – Scotland only
 Green Party (1 MP, 1.0% of vote) – England and Wales only
 Sinn Fein (5 MPs, 0.6% of vote) – Northern Ireland only
 Democratic Unionist Party (8 MPs, 0.6% of vote) – Northern Ireland only
 Plaid Cymru (3 MPs, 0.6% of vote) – Wales only
 Social Democratic and Labour Party (3 MPs, 0.4% of vote) – Northern Ireland only
 Ulster Unionist Party (0 MPs, 0.3% of vote) – Northern Ireland only, In an alliance with UK Conservative Party
 English Democrats (0 MPs, 0.2% of vote) – England only
 Alliance Party of Northern Ireland (1 MP, 0.1% of vote) – Northern Ireland only
 Respect Party (0 MPs, 0.1% of vote)
 Traditional Unionist Voice (0 MPs, 0.1% of vote) – Northern Ireland only
 Christian Party (0 MPs, 0.1% of vote)
 Scottish Green Party (0 MPs, 0.1% of vote) – Scotland only

The seat of North Down was won by an Independent candidate and the seat of Buckingham was won by the Speaker of the House of Commons John Bercow, who is not considered to be of any political party.

Notes

2010 in the United Kingdom
2010 elections
United Kingdom general elections

2010 United Kingdom general election


In maritime law, flotsam, jetsam, lagan an derelict describe specific kynds o wreck. Heestorically the wirds haed specific nautical meanings, wi legal consequences.

Definitions
Thare is a technical difference atween the twa maist commonly-kent terms, Flotsam an Jetsam:

 Flotsam describes guids that are floatin on the watter athoot haein been thrown in deliberately, aften efter a shipwreck, while
 Jetsam haes been voluntarily cast intae the sea (jettisoned) bi the crew o a ship,  uisually in order tae lichten it in an emergency.
 Ligan (or lagan), describes guids that hae been markit bi bein tee'd tae a buoy sae that its awner can fynd an retrieve it later.
 Derelict is property which haes been abandoned an desertit at sea bi those who wur in chairge athoot ony howp o recoverin it. This includes vessels an cargae.

Law o the sea

Flotsam an jetsam


is a Shingon Buddhist temple in Ukyō-ku, a western ward in the city of Kyoto, Japan. The site was originally a residence of Emperor Saga (785–842 CE), and later various emperors conducted their cloistered rule from here. The Saga Go-ryū school of ikebana has its headquarters in the temple.  The artificial lake of the temple, Ōsawa Pond, is one of the oldest Japanese garden ponds to survive from the Heian period.

History

The origins of the temple dates back to the Heian period in the year 814 CE, when Emperor Saga had a palace, known as the Saga-in, constructed on the site. The palace later became his seat of retirement, known as Saga Rikyu imperial villa. According to tradition, when Japan suffered a serious epidemic, the Buddhist monk Kobo Daishi, the founder of Shingon Buddhism, suggested that the Emperor Saga personally copy an important Buddhist religious document called the Heart Sutra (Hannya Shingyō).  The emperor made a handwritten copy, and the epidemic is said to have ended. The handwritten sutra is kept at the Shingyōden hall of the temple, and is displayed to the public once every sixty years, the next time being in 2078.  Pilgrims still come to the temple to make copies of the sutra, which are kept in the temple with the original.

In 876, thirty-four years after the death of Emperor Saga, his daughter Princess Masako (正子内親王; 810–879), who was consort of Emperor Junna, turned the complex into a temple and gave it the name Daikaku-ji. It was a monzeki temple (門跡), which means by tradition that only imperial princes were appointed abbot of the temple. Over the years, it became the retirement home of several emperors. In the 13th and 14th centuries the temple became the residence of retired emperors such as Emperor Go-Saga, Emperor Kameyama and Emperor Go-Uda, who could be ordained as monks, but continued to wield power in what became known as cloistered rule.

In 1336, during the upheaval between the Kamakura period and the Muromachi period, the temple burned down, but was later rebuilt. During the Edo period, Emperor Go-Mizunoo brought in Momoyama period buildings from the Kyoto Imperial Palace. The temple was placed in a graveled courtyard next to the pond.
The hondō, or main hall, and the Founder's Hall were also moved from the Kyoto Imperial Palace. The main images are of the Five Wisdom Kings, centered on Fudō.

The sliding door painting in the Okanmuri-no-ma room of the Shōshinden were painted by Kanō Sanraku and Shikō Watanabe. They feature peony trees and red and white plum blossoms. The hawk painted with Indian ink is a unique motif. The wooden beam above the doors has a painting of a hare. All these works of art are designated as Important Cultural Properties.

Tsujii Kōshū (辻井弘洲) (born 1872), who was one of Ohara Unshin's disciples from the Ohara-ryū school of ikebana, established his own school in the early part of the Taishō era. He was invited by Daikaku-ji to set up the Saga Go-ryū school in 1936.

Pond and garden

The Ōsawa Pond is older than the temple itself. It is an artificial lake of 2.4 hectares that was created by Emperor Saga, either during his reign (809-823) or between his retirement from power and his death in 842. The pond is supposed to reflect the outlines of Dongting Lake in China, which has a special significance in Chinese culture. It was an imperial garden of the style known as chisen-shuyu: a garden meant to be seen from a boat, similar to the Imperial Chinese garden of the period.  The lake was created by damming a stream which came from the Nakoso waterfall. At the north end of the pond are two islands, one large and one small - the small island being known as Chrysanthmum Island.  Between the two islands are several small rocky islets, meant to resemble Chinese junks at anchor. On a hillside north of the lake is what appears to be a dry cascade (karedaki), a kind of Japanese rock garden or zen garden, where a real waterfall is suggested by a composition of stones.

The garden was celebrated in the poetry of the period.  A poem by Ki no Tomonori in an anthology from the period, the Kokinshū, described the Kiku-shima, or island of chrysanthemums, found in the Ōsawa pond.

I had thought that here
only one chrysanthemum can grow.
Who therefore has planted
the other in the depths
of the pond of Ōsawa?

Another poem of the Heian period, in the Hyakunin isshu, described a cascade of rocks, which simulated a waterfall, in the same garden:

The cascade long ago
ceased to roar,
But we continue to hear
The murmur
of its name.

The pond and the flowers are therefore by tradition to said to be the birthplace of the Saga school of ikebana, which is named in honour of the emperor.

The lake was created as a particularly good place for viewing the rising of the moon from boats. It also became, and remains, a popular place for viewing the cherry trees in bloom around the lake. A moon-viewing party is held in the garden every autumn for three days, around the date of the harvest moon; it features costumed dancers and musicians and dragon boats in the style of the Heian period. Today the lake is a popular park for the city's residents.

In addition to the garden around the lake, there is a large courtyard garden between the buildings of the temple.

See also
 Rokkaku-dō
 Enshō-ji (Nara)
 List of Buddhist temples in Kyoto
 List of National Treasures of Japan (ancient documents)
 List of National Treasures of Japan (writings)
 For an explanation of terms concerning Japanese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhist art, and Japanese Buddhist temple architecture, see the Glossary of Japanese Buddhism.

Notes

References
David and Michiko Young, (2005) The Art of the Japanese Garden, Tuttle publishers, Singapore, ()
Nitschke, Gunter,  (1999)  Le Jardin japonais - Angle droit et forme naturelle, Taschen publishers, Paris (translated from German into French by Wolf Fruhtrunk), ()
 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1956). Kyoto: The Old Capital of Japan, 794-1869. Kyoto: The Ponsonby Memorial Society.

External links

旧嵯峨御所 大覚寺 門跡 Kyū Sagano Gosho Dakaku-ji Monzeki(in Japanese)
Saga Goryū school of ikebana (in Japanese)
 Kyoto National Museum  -- "Treasures of Daikaku-ji," including portrait of Go-Uda and the former-emperor's will

876 establishments
Buddhist temples in Kyoto
Historic Sites of Japan
Imperial residences in Japan
Important Cultural Properties of Japan
Religious organizations established in the 9th century
Shingon Buddhism
9th-century establishments in Japan
9th-century Buddhist temples
Monzeki

Daikaku-ji


The Deadly Bees  is a 1967 British horror film based on H.F. Heard's 1941 novel A Taste for Honey.  It was directed by Freddie Francis, and stars Suzanna Leigh, Guy Doleman, and Frank Finlay. The original screenplay was by Robert Bloch but was rewritten by Anthony Marriott. The film was released theatrically in the United States in 1967 and was featured in a 1998 episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000.

Heard's novel, which was a sort of Sherlock Holmes pastiche, had been previously adapted for television as a 60-minute drama episode of The Elgin Hour: Season 1, Episode 11 under the title "Sting of Death" (22 February 1955), starring Boris Karloff as the detective character from Heard's novel, Mr Mycroft. According to H.F. Heard's official website, kinescopes of this TV dramatization survive, and, in 2014, it was made commercially available for home video as one of several features in a DVD, released by Synergy Entertainment, titled Sherlock Holmes: The Archive Collection Vol. 1.

Plot
The film opens with two men from an unnamed ministry commenting on a spate of letters from a beekeeper claiming to have developed a strain of killer bees. They dismiss him as a lunatic, though his letters claim he will start killing people if he is not taken seriously.

Meanwhile, pop singer Vicki Robbins (Suzanna Leigh) collapses from exhaustion on television and is sent to recuperate in a cottage on Seagull Island. The proprietors of the "rest home" are a depressed, disgruntled couple, Ralph and Mary Hargrove (Guy Doleman and Catherine Finn).  Ralph is a beekeeper, as is his neighbor, H.W. Manfred (Frank Finlay). Manfred claims to control his bees via a tape recording of a high note made by a death's-head moth, which hypnotizes them.

Vicki begins to notice mysterious happenings. Mary's dog and later Mary herself are attacked by the bees and killed, leading Vicki to suspect Hargrove. She and Manfred start to snoop around; he encourages her to search through Hargrove's papers, and she discovers that Hargrove has managed to isolate "the smell of fear" into a liquid form. Manfred tells her this must mean that Hargrove has been baiting the bees with this substance. Bees soon attack Vicki in her room at the cottage, and she later escapes to Manfred's house. He tells her he will go back to Hargrove's farm to collect evidence, but this arouses Vicki's suspicion.

Vicki searches Manfred's house and discovers his secret laboratory, and when he returns, he admits that he was the killer. He tells her that he used his visit to the other farm as a pretense to plant the fear pheromone and kill Hargrove, his target all along, as he suspected Manfred's ill intentions. Now that she knows his secret, he must kill Vicki too. However, she thwarts his attempt by destroying his moth recording, leading him to be stung to death and crash through a banister but also accidentally setting the house on fire. Meanwhile, Manfred's bees swarm and attack the pubmaster, investigating the Hargrove place. Hargrove chases after him with a smoker and saves him by telling him to throw away the jacket. Hargrove and the pubmaster rush to Manfred's and see the house on fire, and they save a trapped Vicki just in time.

Vicki leaves the island the next day, just as a bowler-hatted ministry official finally arrives to investigate the deaths.

Cast
 Suzanna Leigh as Vicki Robbins
 Frank Finlay as H.W. Manfred
 Guy Doleman as Ralph Hargrove
 Catherine Finn as Mary Hargrove
 John Harvey as Thompson
 Michael Ripper as David Hawkins
 Anthony Bailey as Compere
 Tim Barrett as Harcourt
 James Cossins as Coroner
 Frank Forsyth as Doctor
 Katy Wild as Doris Hawkins
 Greta Farrer as Sister
 Gina Gianelli as Secretary
 Michael Gwynn as Dr. George Lang
 Maurice Good as Agent

The television sequence toward the beginning features a performance by British pop group The Birds (not to be confused with American group The Byrds). The group's lead guitarist is Ronnie Wood (later of The Faces and The Rolling Stones) and the sequence was filmed on 14 January 1966 at Shepperton Studios.

Production

Though the script was originally adapted from Heard's novel by noted author Robert Bloch, best known for Psycho, critics invariably derided the film, citing its uninspired acting, ludicrous special effects (including plastic flies glued to actors' faces to show them being "stung"), and continuity errors.

Bloch blamed the film's poor showing on the fact he wrote it for Christopher Lee and Boris Karloff (to reprise his performance from the TV version), who were both unavailable due to scheduling difficulties; and on the fact that director Freddie Francis and writer Anthony Marriott had decided to 'improve' Bloch's script. Bloch's screenplay featured Mr Mycroft from Heard's novel; this character was removed under instruction from Amicus. According to Bloch: "I still felt the story and characters strong enough to warrant preservation, and tried to retain as much of the basic plot and atmosphere as possible, working with a synopsisation Milton Subotsky provided...I did put my kindly old villain in a wheelchair - which made the part right for Boris Karloff of course - and my red herring character was designed for Christopher Lee. But while the producers were away...the director decided to improve my work; besides, Karloff and Lee were too expensive anyway...My concept was a far cry from what emerged as Frank Finlay's part. When the script was re-written the result was, in my opinion, a hybrid affair with no inner consistency or logical story-line: the bees were menacing but the characters were not. I'm sure that if Freddie Francis and I could have...discussed our disparate approaches we might well have come to an agreement which could have resulted in a stronger film; unfortunately, that wasn't feasible...as with Caligari and The Couch, I shudder every time this item is mentioned or shown...Everything in pre-production had been planned for it, and they didn't have the money to scrap all the preproduction sets, so they had to go ahead...That came off I think rather badly. This is no reflection on Anthony Marriott, the writer who took my script over there and did the rewrites. He did what he was told, and I'm sure he's a very competent man, but it didn't come off in the slightest as I had written it."

Bloch wrote in his autobiography: "Once the completed screenplay arrived in England, the problem of matching stellar schedules - and salaries - put the roles into other hands and the script itself into the hands of its director. As is often the case, he decided to improve it, with the aid of a writer called Anthony Marriott, but apparently without the knowledge of Rosenberg and Subotsky [Amicus Films' producers], who left prior to production. Both of them had liked my original version, but by the time they returned, the screenplay had been improved past recognition and the shoot was already beginning. Sometime during 1966 the film was released under a new title [which implies Bloch's script was titled, as the novel was, A Taste for Honey] The Deadly Bees. As such it soon buzzed off into critical oblivion, unwept, unhonoured and unstung." Bloch is reputed to have been so annoyed by the interference with his script that he never bothered to see the completed film.

Critical reception
 Allmovie gave the film a negative review, writing, "there's little in Bees worth watching."
 Referencing The Birds, the New York Times regretted "Mr. Hitchcock would never have sanctioned a sloppy, raucously framed little thriller like this"

DVD/Blu-Ray
The Deadly Bees was released on DVD and Blu-ray on 27 October 2015, in 1.78:1 aspect ratio, by Olive Films, under license from Paramount Pictures.

References

External links

 The Monster Shack's review

1966 films
1966 horror films
British science fiction horror films
1960s science fiction horror films
British natural horror films
Fictional bees
Films about bees
Amicus Productions films
Paramount Pictures films
Films based on British novels
Films with screenplays by Robert Bloch
1960s English-language films
1960s British films
Films shot at Shepperton Studios

The Deadly Bees


Carlisle is a city of Kentucky in the United States. Carlisle is the county seat, of Nicholas County.
Carlisle has a population of around 2,000 people, and is located around the middle of Kentucky. It is also along Kentucky Route 36 and Kentucky Route 32, both which are large roads.

Cities in Kentucky
County seats in Kentucky

Carlisle, Kentucky


Ocean surface waves are surface waves that occur in the upper layer of the ocean. They usually result from wind. Some are made by geologic effects like earthquakes or vulcanicity and may travel thousands of miles before striking land. They range in size from small ripples to huge tsunamis. There is little actual forward motion of individual water particles in an unbroken wave, despite the large amount of energy and momentum it may carry forward. When a wave hits shallow water, it "breaks" because the bottom moves more slowly than the top.

Wave formation

The great majority of large breakers one sees on an ocean beach result from distant winds. Three factors influence the formation of these "wind waves":

 Wind speed
 Distance of open water that the wind has blown over.
 Length of time the wind has blown over a given area.

All of these factors work together to determine the size and shape of ocean waves. The greater each of the variables, the larger the waves. Waves are measured by:

 Height (from trough to crest)
 Wavelength (from crest to crest)
 Period (time interval between arrival of consecutive crests at a stationary point)

Waves in a given area typically have a range of sizes. For weather reporting and for scientific analysis of wind wave statistics, their size over a period of time is usually expressed as "significant wave height." This figure represents the average height of the highest one-third of the waves in a given time period (usually twelve hours) or in a specific storm system or event.  Given the variability of wave size, the largest individual waves are likely to be twice the reported significant wave height for a particular day or storm.

References

 "Anatomy of a Wave" Holben, Jay boatsafe.com captured 5/23/06
 Carr, Michael "Understanding Waves" Sail Oct. 1998: 38-45.
 Rousmaniere, John. The Annapolis Book of Seamanship, New York: Simon & Schuster 1989
 National Weather Service

Other websites
 Introductory oceanography chapter 10 - Ocean Waves
 Understanding waves waves, storm, tsunamis, seiches, bores, deadwater, etc. (18pp)
 HyperPhysics - Ocean Waves
 SHOM - in French
 Water Waves Wiki
 Wave equation
 Waverider Buoys for South East Queensland
 Costalwatch.com : Australian Wave Prediction for Surfers Website

Oceanography

Ocean surface wave


Espadrilles are flat casual shoes or high heel sandals usually consisting of canvas or cotton fabric uppers and flexible sole made of jute, a natural fiber with vulcanized rubber underneath. These are worn primarily by women, although men wear the shoes also. These shoes are usually manufactured in Bangladesh and Spain. The soles of an espadrille are usually flat or platform wedge shape. These shoes are usually closed toed and closed backed, although some are open. Espadrilles can be easily slipped on the foot.

Classic espadrilles

Closed toe canvas upper with flat wedge sole made of jute braids are the most popular casual espadrilles known as Classic or Cotheeka Basic espadrilles in the world. Different colored cotton or jute canvas uppers are used for this style of espadrille that made it very popular among the women as well as men. Striped canvas uppers are also used for these shoes.

Fashion espadrilles
High wedge jute sole with uppers of different materials like fabrics, leather etc. are used to make Fashion espadrilles which are also very popular among the women. Super models put on these style of espadrilles at fashion shows. These espadrilles are also known as Party espadrilles. Almost all the designer brands of Europe and North America design these styles of espadrilles.

Footwear

Espadrille


Betrayal is when a person breaks the trust and faith of others that trust them.

In an article made by Rodger L. Jackson, it says that "there is not much definition for this word". In psychology, they say betrayal is the breaking of a social (friendship) related things. But for some people, for example, philosophers called Judith Shklar and Peter Johnson, a person can understand the word better by literature (writings).

Betrayal trauma
Betrayal trauma happens when someone that a person trusts betrays their trust, and it messes up their memory because of anger. An example of betrayal trauma is childhood physical or childhood problems. Betrayal trauma is similar to post traumatic stress disorder. The difference is that post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is made by fear. Betrayal trauma makes a person fight, and also get into serious crimes for example, discrimination or bullying.
ethics

Betrayal


In common speaking and geometry, a cone is a solid object that one gets when one rotates a right triangle around one of its two short sides, the cone's axis. The disk made by the other short side is called the base, and the point of the axis which is not on the base is the cone's apex or vertex. An object that is shaped like a cone is conical.

In more technical terms, a cone is formed by a set of line segments, half-lines, or lines connecting a common point, the apex, to all of the points on a base that is in a plane that does not contain the apex. Depending on the author, the base may be restricted to be a circle, any one-dimensional quadratic form in the plane, any closed one-dimensional figure, or any of the above plus all the enclosed points. If the enclosed points are included in the base, the cone is a solid object; otherwise it is a two-dimensional object in three-dimensional space. In the case of a solid object, the boundary formed by these lines or partial lines is called the lateral surface; if the lateral surface is unbounded, it is a conical surface.

In the case of line segments, the cone does not extend beyond the base, while in the case of half-lines, it extends infinitely far. In the case of lines, the cone extends infinitely far in both directions from the apex, in which case it is sometimes called a double cone. Either half of a double cone on one side of the apex is called a nappe.  The volume  of a cone is one third of the product of the area of the base  and the height

Related pages
Conic section
Cylinder

References

Three-dimensional shapes

Cone


Sir Peter Neville Luard Pears  ( ; 22 June 19103 April 1986), was an English tenor and life-long partner of the composer Benjamin Britten.

Education
Pears was at school at Lancing College.  He then studied music at Keble College, Oxford. He was organist at Hertford College, Oxford but left Oxford without taking his degree. He later studied singing for two terms at the Royal College of Music.

Music
He met Britten in 1934, when he was a member of the BBC Singers. Pears and Britten gave their first recital together in 1937 at Balliol College, Oxford.  In 1939 they went to America together because of World War II.  However, in 1942 they decided to return to their own country.  Back in England they performed Britten's song cycle Seven Sonnets of Michelangelo together at the Wigmore Hall in London (Britten was an excellent pianist), and then recorded them for EMI, their first recording together.

Peter Pears was a great inspiration for Britten's vocal writing.  Many of Britten's operas have a main tenor role which was written for Pears to sing.  Britten also wrote over 100 songs with piano accompaniment.  Britten also wrote works for tenor and orchestra.  These include Les Illuminations,  Nocturne, the Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings and the Canticles.  In Britten's operas he sang Peter Grimes and Albert Herring (title roles), The Beggar's Opera (Macheath),  Owen Wingrave (Sir Philip Wingrave), Billy Budd (Captain Vere), The Turn of the Screw (Quint), Death in Venice (Aschenbach) and the three Church Parables.

Pears helped to write the words for A Midsummer Night's Dream, based on the Shakespeare play.  In most of Britten's operas Pears sang serious roles, but in A Midsummer Night's Dream he had a comic role: the part of Flute the Bellowsmender.  In this role he was dressed up as a female and did a parody of the great opera singer Joan Sutherland singing the mad scene from Lucia di Lammermoor .

Pears's voice was a lyrical tenor, not a heavy, operatic one.  Britten was extremely skilful in writing music for him which suited his voice very well.  He sang regularly at the Royal Opera House and many other opera houses in Europe and the United States.

He was also a great singer of Franz Schubert's Lieder, usually with Britten as accompanist, and he often sang the part of the Evangelist in Johann Sebastian Bach's Passions.

His last great role written for him by Britten was as Aschenbach in Death in Venice.  He sang this in 1973 at the Aldeburgh Festival, and the following year in the Royal Opera House.  Britten by then had heart disease and was too ill to go to the performances, dying in 1976.

Pears continued to live in the Red House, Aldeburgh.  After he retired from performing he continued to teach young singers at the Britten-Pears Foundation. He was awarded a CBE in 1955 and knighted in 1977.

Death
In his last years Pears also suffered from heart disease.  He died ten years after Britten. He is buried next to him in the churchyard of Saint Peter and Saint Paul's Church in Aldeburgh.

Recordings
There are many recordings of Pears's singing including almost all the music that Britten wrote for him as well as the roles of the Evangelist in Johann Sebastian Bach's St Matthew Passion and St John Passion  and Gerontius in Elgar's Dream of Gerontius.

Related pages
Benjamin Britten
Snape Maltings
Aldeburgh Festival

1910 births
1986 deaths
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English LGBT people
Gay men
Knights Bachelor
LGBT singers
Singers from Surrey
English opera singers
British tenors

Peter Pears


A punch is when a person puts their hand in a fist and thrusts it forward. This can be used for combat, or in some sports like boxing. Punch is the name of the blows that are thrown with the closed fist, striking, usually to other person, with the purpose of defence or attack.

The technique of the normal punch is performed closing the fist and striking with it. The fist is formed in a horizontal line along with the arm, being the element of usage of all the force performed the arm. There is other kind of punch in which the fist is placed vertically (with the palm of the hand directing towards a side instead of towards down) and directing slightly towards down in relation to the arm, in form where the fingers that blow are only the index finger and the ring finger. It is this latter the punch used usually in Kung-fu and the advised to person who had not had a proper training (because in this form it is much more difficult injury the wrist in case of doing it badly).

The punch is used, with different names and different techniques, in many martial arts, and also in systems of personal defence and attack without weapons, like in Tai-Jitsu.

Martial arts
Boxing

Punch (strike)


The Allied invasion of Italy was the invasion of mainland Italy by the Allies during World War II. The Allies landed on the mainland on 3 September 1943. The invasion followed the successful invasion of Sicily during the Italian Campaign.

The invasion was done by General Harold Alexander's 15th Army Group. This included Lieutenant General Mark Clark's U.S. Fifth Army and General Bernard Montgomery's British Eighth Army.

The main invasion force landed near Salerno on the western coast in Operation Avalanche. Two other attacks were done in Calabria (Operation Baytown) and Taranto (Operation Slapstick).

Allied plan

Following the defeat of the Axis Powers in North Africa, there was disagreement between the Allies as to what to do next. Winston Churchill wanted to invade Italy.

When they realized that no invasion could be done in 1943, they decided to invade Sicily.  The Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943 was successful. Many of the Axis forces managed to avoid capture and escape to the mainland. Benito Mussolini was removed as head of the Italian government. Operation Baytown was the plan in which Eighth Army would land near the tip of Calabria on 3 September 1943. The Allies sent the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment to airfields near Rome.

The main landings (Operation Avalanche) were on 9 September. The main force would land near Salerno on the western coast.  The Avalanche plan was for the Fifth Army to land. On the German side, Albert Kesselring realized he could not stop the Salerno landing.

Battle

On 3 September 1943, British Eighth Army's XIII Corps launched Operation Baytown.  Italian troops surrendered. On 4 September, 5 Division reached Bagnara. Progress was slow as blown up bridges, roadblocks and mines delayed Eighth Army. Heinrich von Vietinghoff's 10th Army was ready to attack the Allied landings. On 8 September (before the main invasion), the surrender of Italy to the Allies was announced. Italian troops stopped fighting and the Navy sailed to Allied ports to surrender. The German forces in Italy moved into important defensive positions. Operation Slapstick started on 9 September.

Operation Avalanche was the main invasion at Salerno by the U.S. 5th Army. It began on 9 September 1943. Major General Rudolf Sieckenius commander of 16th Panzer Division had organised his forces into four groups. By the end of the first day the 5th Army had made a good start. X Corps' two divisions had moved between  inland.

For the next three days, the Allies fought to get more beach territory. The Germans defended. By 12 September, X Corps had taken a defensive position. On 13 September, the Germans launched their attack. The Herman Göring battle groups attacked the northern part of the beach. The main attack was between the two Allied Corps. On 15 September 16th Panzer Division and 29th Panzergrenadier Division took up defensive positions. On 15 September, Kesselring said the attack by XIV Panzer Corps must be successful. If this failed, Tenth Army must pull back from the battle.

On 14 September, the Allies advanced. By 16 September 5th, the Infantry Division had reached Sapri. The Germans decided to pull out of the battle. They withdrew on 18/19 September.

The Salerno battle was where the Salerno Mutiny happened. About 500 men of the British X Corps refused to join new units. Eventually the corps commander, McCreery, got about half of the men to follow their orders. The rest were court-martialled.

With the Salerno beach secure, Fifth Army began its attack northwest towards Naples on 19 September.

References

1943 in Italy
Invasions of World War II
September events

Allied invasion of Italy


Parliamentary opposition is a political position. It is a type of opposition to the government. It is usually used in countries that use the Westminster system of parliament. Parties that have second-most seats usually make up the opposition. They are called the "Official Opposition" sometimes. Examples of countries with an Official Opposition are Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom.

Related pages
 Leader of the Opposition

Parliamentary procedure

Parliamentary opposition