The Cathedral of St Andrew (often referred to as St Andrews Cathedral) is a ruined cathedral in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It was built in 1158 and became the centre of the Medieval Catholic Church in Scotland as the seat of the Archdiocese of St Andrews and the Bishops and Archbishops of St Andrews. It fell into disuse and ruin after Catholic mass was outlawed during the 16th-century Scottish Reformation. It is currently a monument in the custody of Historic Environment Scotland. The ruins indicate that the  building was approximately  long, and is the largest church to have been built in Scotland.

History

Founding and development

The cathedral was founded to supply more accommodation than the older church of St. Regulus (St. Rule) afforded. This older church, located on what became the cathedral grounds, had been built in the Romanesque style. Today, there remains the square tower, 33 metres (108 feet) high, and the quire, of very diminutive proportions. On a plan of the town from about 1531, a chancel appears, and seals affixed to the city and college charters bear representations of other buildings attached. To the east is an even older religious site, the Church of St Mary on the Rock, the Culdee house that became a Collegiate Church.

Work began on the new cathedral in 1158 and continued for over a century. The west end was blown down in a storm and rebuilt between 1272 and 1279. The cathedral was finally completed in 1318 and featured a central tower and six turrets; of these remain two at the east and one of the two at the western extremity, rising to a height of 30 metres (100 feet). On the 5th of July it was consecrated in the presence of King Robert the Bruce, who, according to legend, rode up the aisle on his horse.

A fire partly destroyed the building in 1378; restoration and further embellishment were completed in 1440.

The cathedral was served by a community of Augustinian Canons, the St Andrews Cathedral Priory, which were successors to the Culdees of the Celtic church.

Greyfriar (Franciscan) and Blackfriar (Dominican) friars had properties in the town by the late 15th century and possibly as late as 1518.

Abandonment and ruin

In June 1559 during the Reformation, a Protestant mob incited by the preaching of John Knox ransacked the cathedral; the interior of the building was destroyed. The cathedral fell into decline following the attack and became a source of building material for the town. By 1561 it had been abandoned and left to fall into ruin.

At about the end of the sixteenth century the central tower apparently gave way, carrying with it the north wall. Afterwards large portions of the ruins were taken away for building purposes, and nothing was done to preserve them until 1826. Since then it has been tended with scrupulous care, an interesting feature being the cutting out of the ground-plan in the turf. The principal portions extant, partly Norman and partly Early Scottish, are the east and west gables, the greater part of the south wall of the nave and the west wall of the south transept.

At the end of the seventeenth century some of the priory buildings remained entire and considerable remains of others existed, but nearly all traces have now disappeared except portions of the priory wall and the archways, known as The Pends.

St Rule's Tower

St Rule's tower is located in the cathedral grounds but predates it, having served as the church of the priory up to the early 12th century.  The building was retained to allow worship to continue uninterrupted during the building of its much larger successor.  Originally, the tower and adjoining choir were part of the church built in the 11th century to house the relics of St Andrew.  The nave, with twin western turrets, and the apse of the church no longer stand.  The church's original appearance is illustrated in stylised form on some of the early seals of the cathedral priory.  Legend credits St Rule (also known as St Regulus) with bringing relics of St Andrew to the area from their original location at Patras in Greece.  Today the tower commands an admirable view of the town, harbour, sea, and surrounding countryside.  Built in grey sandstone ashlar, and (for its date) immensely tall (33 m), it is a land- and sea-mark seen from many miles away, its prominence doubtless meant to guide pilgrims to the place of the Apostle's relics.  In the Middle Ages a spire atop the tower made it even more prominent.  The tower was originally ascended using ladders between wooden floors, but a stone spiral staircase was inserted in the 18th century.

Burials

In the cathedral
Roger de Beaumont (bishop) (d. 1202)
William Wishart (d. 1279)
William de Lamberton (1328, on the north side of the high altar)
William Fraser (bishop of St Andrews) (1297, his heart was buried in the wall of the church by his successor, William de Lamberton)
William de Landallis (1385, in the church's vestry)
James Kennedy (bishop) (1465, in a magnificent tomb which he had caused to be built in St Salvator's Chapel, the ruins of which are still visible)
Andrew Forman (d. 1521)

Cathedral burial ground
 Very Rev John Adamson DD
 John Anderson, Principal of St Leonards College
 Rev Alexander Anderson (1676-1737) son of above
 Rev Prof George Buist DD
 Robert Chambers
 Rev Prof George Cook DD FRSE
 Rev Prof John Cook DD FRSE
 Rev Prof William Crawford DD father of Thomas Jackson Crawford
 Sir Robert Anstruther Dalyell
 Prof James Donaldson (classical scholar)
 Adam Ferguson
 Andrew Forman
 Rev Prof James Gillespie
 Rev Prof Thomas Gillespie, Professor of Humanity
 Robert Haldane (mathematician)
 Thomas Halyburton
 Matthew Forster Heddle
 George Hill (minister)
 Prof Henry David Hill
 Rev Prof James Hunter
 Prof Thomas Jackson FRSE
 David Miller Kay, military hero, author and missionary
 Prof Peter Redford Scott Lang, mathematician
 Rev Prof John McGill LLD, translator of the Old Testament
 Norman MacLeod (The Wicked Man)
 Young Tom Morris
 Old Tom Morris
 William Henry Murray
 Rev Francis Nicoll DD Principal of St Salvator's College, St Andrews
 Hugh Lyon Playfair
 Rev James Playfair (minister) (memorial only)
 Lt Col Sir Robert Lambert Playfair LLD, soldier and author
 Prof Alexander Roberts
 Allan Robertson
 Rev Professor Daniel Robertson DD (1755-1817)
 Rev Prof Samuel Rutherford
 Saint Andrew (partial remains)
 Very Rev Robert Small (1732-1808) Moderator in 1791
 William Spalding (writer)
 Very Rev Prof Alexander Stewart DD Principal of St Andrews University in 1915, Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1911
 Rev Prof John Trotter
 Alexander Watson, Provost of St Andrews
 Major John and Lady Catherine Whyte-Melville (the large monument in the far corner of the churchyard)
 Prof William Wright (orientalist)

Eastern Cemetery
 Col Robert Hope Moncrieff Aitken, Victoria Cross recipient
Fr George Angus, first Roman Catholic priest in St. Andrews since the Reformation
 Warington Baden-Powell founder of the Sea Scouts
 Wilhelmina Barns-Graham
 Prof John Birrell
 Andrew Kennedy Hutchison Boyd
 Sir Napier Burnett
 Sir Guy Colin Campbell
 Reginald Fairlie
 William Lewis Ferdinand Fischer, FRS
 James Ross Gillespie, architect
 Sir James Heriot-Maitland
 Sir John Home
 Andrew Kirkaldy (golfer)
 Vice-Admiral Dashwood Fowler Moir, famed for his actions in the Battle of Jutland and who lost his life protecting the Atlantic Convoy
 Charles Metcalfe Ochterlony, 2nd baronet Ochterlony
 James Bell Pettigrew
 Lyon Playfair, Baron Playfair
 William Smoult Playfair
 Prof Thomas Purdie FRS
 Andrew Maitland Ramsay LLD FRSE
 Prof David George Ritchie
 Prof John Tulloch
 Charles Wordsworth

See also
 St Andrews Cathedral Priory
 St Andrews Sarcophagus
 The Way of St Andrews

References

External links

La Catedral de San Andrés, Escocia [Saint Andrews Cathedral, Scotland]

Buildings and structures completed in 1318
12th-century church buildings in Scotland
Listed monasteries in Scotland
St. Andrew, St. Andrews
Listed cathedrals in Scotland
Churches in Fife
St Andrews
Romanesque architecture in Scotland
Museums in Fife
Former Roman Catholic churches in Scotland
Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Fife
Religious museums in Scotland
Category A listed buildings in Fife
1158 establishments in Scotland
Ruins in Fife
1561 disestablishments in Scotland

St Andrews Cathedral


Groningen Airport Eelde  is a minor international airport in the northeastern Netherlands. It is located near Eelde in the Province of Drenthe,  south of the city of Groningen in the province of Groningen. In 2015, the airport handled 220,710 passengers. The airport is also the home base of the KLM Flight Academy, Noord Nederlandse Aero Club (NNAC) and General Enterprises.

The airport started under the name "Hakenkampsveld" in 1928 and was officially opened in 1931. It was renamed "Luchthaven Eelde" in 1933. During World War II, the German military occupied the airport. Since 1958, there have been European destinations from the airport. Since 1988, the airport has been called Groningen Airport Eelde.

History

1920s–1930s
Groningen Airport Eelde's (GAE) history can be traced back to 1927, when Hayo Hindriks, an ex-alderman of the municipality Eelde, approached KLM (without informing the community's council). He knew that the KLM would be interested in an air link between Rotterdam, Amsterdam and Groningen.

On July 13, 1928, the community's council agreed on a proposal to allocate the 'Hakenkampsveld', a 12 hectare terrain within the municipality of Eelde, as an airport. The airport was officially opened by mayor Jan Gerard Legro on May 23, 1931. 40,000 visitors watched the air show, which was held to celebrate the opening. On August 15 of the same year the first scheduled service between Eelde and Amsterdam/Schiphol started, which did not appear to be viable.

In 1933, the airport's name was changed to " NV Luchthaven Eelde". Stockholders were the provinces of Groningen and Drenthe, the municipalities of Groningen, Eelde and Assen and the Chambers of Commerce and Factories for Groningen, Drenthe and the peat-colonies. Now there was money to expand the airport. At that time the airport's area covered 12 hectares. A new service between the airport and Amsterdam/Schiphol was set up.

1940s: In and after World War II

During World War II, between 1940 and 1945, the airport was occupied by the German military. However, its hangars were completely destroyed by Dutch soldiers on their retreat. The occupation was a severe blow to the airport's promising expectations, but the airport played an important role in the war. During the occupation, the airport was considerably expanded by the Germans. Many hangars were built and the apron was expanded to accommodate fighter aircraft.

In early 1945, the Germans abandoned their "Fliegerhorst". During the German retreat, a member of the local resistance, W.W. Krijthe, prevented the airport from being blown up, by cutting the explosives' ignition wires. In the summer of 1945 Canadian soldiers used the airport to store vehicles of the 5th Canadian (Armoured) Division. The Canadians called the site "Finitocamp".

The airfield returned to NV Luchtvaartterrein Noord-Nederland. The national government shouldered most of the cost of restoring the damaged drainage system in the airfield. The government subsidized further developments at the airport so that it could meet international standards and remain registered for aviation.

The airport was appointed as an alternative airport for flights bound for Amsterdam/Schiphol in 1948. To cater for these deviating aircraft, a new base plan had to be designed for the levelling and drainage of the runways (with an 1,800 metres long main runway and a secondary runway measuring 1,500 metres), taxiways and apron. The new runways were finally ready for service in 1953, making the site an official aerodrome.

1950s
On August 16, 1954, the  Rijksluchtvaartschool (RLS) – or National Aviation Academy in English – moved to the airport from Gilze-Rijen. The KLM would acquire ownership of the RLS in 1991, becoming the KLM Flight Academy. In the course of the next two years after 1954, a flight theory school, the secondary and final flight education as well as other branches transferred to Eelde, making the airport an important aviation training site.

In 1956, the airport was renamed as "Luchthaven Eelde NV". The official opening of the airport building complex took place the following year on May 15, by Prince Bernard.

The first landing of a European aeroplane took place on July 13, 1958. Twelve passengers boarded the aircraft, making a trip to Mallorca for a fourteen-day vacation. In the same year, a new air traffic control tower was put into use.

1960s–1970s

During the 1960s, scheduled services were restored, initially, national flights operated by NLM. The airfield was seen to have the potential to operate usefully as a regional airport and to play a role in the infrastructure of the northern part of the Netherlands. The Study Committee for the Development of Eelde Airport was established. The committee suggested taking a closer look at regional airports in other countries and seeing how they had developed. Eelde Airport seemed to be a key part of a larger system of infrastructure in the region. Another finding was that aircraft noise was a bigger problem at Eelde than at similar airports. Therefore, a noise pollution committee was established.

In 1977, a new passenger terminal opened and more parking space for cars was constructed. Adding to this, a bus link to the city of Groningen was established, improving the airport's accessibility. Work started to expand the apron and add a hangar. In the same year, the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment published the Structural Plan for Civil Aerodromes. This plan stated that an expansion of the main runway by 500 metres should be undertaken. This would make flights of all aircraft types possible.

1980s–1990s

From 1979 to 1982, the buildings housing the State Aviation Service (Rijksluchtvaartdienst) and the meteorological service were modernised. A new air traffic control tower was constructed.

The aerodrome's name was changed once again in 1988, becoming officially "Groningen Airport Eelde NV". This was decided because the airport's international significance had steadily increased over the years.

With the airport becoming more crowded due to holiday flights, it was decided to join the two existing passenger halls together. This created a single departure hall capable of holding 200 passengers. The merge also resulted in an arrivals hall with a conveyor belt. A new car park was added as well. Groningen Airport Eelde received a sum of 2.5 million guilders for a new passage hall. This sum was donated by the European support fund ISP, which was granted by the province of Drenthe. This would finance almost one-third of the costs of the new hall.

In 1997, the Dutch government planned to stop financial support to most regional airports. Despite this, the airport was still entitled to 25 million guilders (about 11.3 million euros) for the expansion of its main runway. On November 12, 1999, the government agreed with the proposal to extend the runway, provided that the flying of training circuits by large aircraft be terminated.

2000s–2010s

In April 2000, the majority of the Dutch parliament had no objection against the runway extension, but due to changing environmental legislation and civil objection procedures, it would take 12 more years until the project was actually started.

Ryanair started a scheduled service to its London Stansted base in 2003. This service attracted many passengers to the airport. However, Ryanair terminated the service in May 2004. One reason for this was the limited length of the main runway, limiting the aircraft's effective range and maximum load.

Finally, the province's State of Council gave the final go-ahead for the runway extension on February 15, 2012. Ryanair announced three new routes, returning to the airport after eight years. The extended runway was put into service on April 24, 2013. However, Ryanair did not operate from Eelde for long, the last flight being in November 2014.

In June 2014, UK low-cost carrier Flybe commenced a new year-round service to London-Southend. From March 2018 this service was greatly expanded, from six to 18 flights per week.

On 19 September 2016, Nordica started operating two flights a day between Groningen and Copenhagen. In November 2018, Nordica announced it would close its base in Groningen by December, shutting down the year-round routes to Copenhagen and Munich as well as seasonal services to Ibiza and Nice.

On 4 March 2019, flights to Copenhagen resumed, now carried out by AIS Airlines with 19-seat BAe Jetstream 32 aircraft.

Runways
Groningen Airport Eelde has two asphalt paved runways but only runway 05/23 is in use. It measures , which was extended from 1,800 meters in 2013. Only runway 23 has a DME/ILS (localizer at 109,9 MHz, no markers).

Airlines and destinations

The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights to and from Groningen:

Statistics

Annual passenger and aircraft movements
From CBS Statistics Netherlands and annual reports Groningen Airport Eelde

Ground transportation

Car
Groningen Airport Eelde is accessible by car using exit 37 of the Motorway A28.

Bicycle
Separated bicycle infrastructure exists almost the entire way from the City of Groningen to Groningen Airport Eelde using either the Groningerweg/Hoofdweg or the bicycle paths parallel to the A28/E232 motorway.

Public transport
The closest major railway stations are in Assen and Groningen.

Buses connect the airport with Groningen. A bus connection to Assen is possible with a change in De Punt.

Line 9 is operated by Qbuzz and is a regular city bus that connects Groningen Noord railway station with the village of De Punt via the city centre, Groningen railway station, the town of Eelde and the airport. At De Punt bus station, line 9 connects with line 50 to Assen railway station. Lines 9 and 50 both operate half-hourly from Monday to Saturday during the morning and afternoon, and hourly on evenings and Sundays.

References

External links

 Official website

1931 establishments in the Netherlands
Airports established in 1931
Airports in Drenthe
Buildings and structures in Drenthe
Transport in Groningen (city)
Tynaarlo
International airports in the Netherlands
20th-century architecture in the Netherlands

Groningen Airport Eelde


I Believe - Nicene Creed

ಸತ್ಮಾಂತಾಂ ದೆವಾಕ್,
ಸರ್ಪದವೆದಾರ್ ಬಾಪಾಕ್,
ಸರ್ಗಾ ಆನಿ ಪೃಥುಮೆಚ್ಯಾ ರಚ್ಣಾರಾಕ್.
ಆನಿ ಜೆಜು ಕ್ರಿಸ್ತಾಕ್, ತಾಚ್ಯಾ ಎಕ್ಲ್ಯಾಚ್ ಪುತಾಕ್ ಆಮ್ಚ್ಯಾ ಸಂಯಾಕ್.
ತೊ ಪವಿತ್ರ್ ಆತ್ಮ್ಯಾ ವರ್ವಿಂ ಗರ್ಬಿಂ ಸಂಭ್ವಲೊ.
ಆಂಕ್ವಾರ್ ಮಾರ್ಯೆ ಥಾವ್ನ್ ಜಲ್ಮಲೊ,
ಪಂಸ್ ಪಿಲಾತಾ ಖಾಲ್ ತಾಣೆಂ ಕಶ್ಟ್ ಸೊಂಸ್ಲೆ,
ತಾಕಾ ಖುರ್ಸಾರ್ ಜೊಡ್ಲೊ ತೊ ಮೆಲೊ ಆನಿ ತಾಕಾ ನಿಖೀಪಿಲೊ,

ತೊ ಮೆಲ್ಲ್ಯಾಂ ಮದೆಂ ದೆಂವ್ಲೊ, ತಿಸ್ರ್ಯಾ ದಿಸಾ ಮೆಲ್ಲ್ಯಾಂತ್ಲೀಯ್ ಜಿವಂತ್ ಜಾಲೊ.
ಸರ್ಗಾರ್ ಚಡ್ಲೊ, ಸರ್ವಪದವೆದಾರ್ ದೆವಾ ಬಾಪಾಚ್ಯಾ ಉಜ್ವ್ಯಾಕ್ ಬಸ್ಲಾ,
ಥುಯಿಂ ಥಾವ್ನ್ ಜಿವ್ಯಾಂ ಆನಿ ಮೆಲ್ಲ್ಯಾಂಚಿ ಮನ್ಸುಬಿ ಕರುಂಕ್ ಯೆತ್ಲೊ.
ಸತ್ಮಾಂತಾಂ ಪವಿತ್ರ್ ಆತ್ಮ್ಯಾಕ್. ಕಾಥಲೀಚ್ ಪವಿತ್ರ್ ಸಭೆಕ್, ಭತ್ಕಾಂಚೊ ಎಕ್ತಾರ್,
ಪಾತ್ಕಾಂಚೆಂ ಭೊಗ್ಸಣೆಂ, ಕುಡೀಚೆಂ ಜಿವಂತಪಣ್, ಸಾಸ್ಣಾಚೆಂ ಜಿವಿತ್.

ಆಮೆನ್

Latin liturgical version

Credo in unum Deum,
Patrem omnipoténtem,
Factórem cæli et terræ,
Visibílium ómnium et invisibílium.
Et in unum Dóminum Iesum Christum,
Fílium Dei Unigénitum,
Et ex Patre natum ante ómnia sæcula.
Deum de Deo, lumen de lúmine, Deum verum de Deo vero,
Génitum, non factum, consubstantiálem Patri:
Per quem ómnia facta sunt.
Qui propter nos hómines et propter nostram salútem
Descéndit de cælis.
Et incarnátus est de Spíritu Sancto
Ex María Vírgine, et homo factus est.
Crucifíxus étiam pro nobis sub Póntio Piláto;
Passus, et sepúltus est,
Et resurréxit tértia die, secúndum Scriptúras,
Et ascéndit in cælum, sedet ad déxteram Patris.
Et íterum ventúrus est cum glória,
Iudicáre vivos et mórtuos,
Cuius regni non erit finis.
Et in Spíritum Sanctum, Dóminum et vivificántem:
Qui ex Patre Filióque procédit.
Qui cum Patre et Fílio simul adorátur et conglorificátur:
Qui locútus est per prophétas.
Et unam, sanctam, cathólicam et apostólicam Ecclésiam.
Confíteor unum baptísma in remissiónem peccatorum.
Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum,
Et vitam ventúri sæculi. Amen

English translations

The Apostles' Creed (Latin: Symbolum Apostolorum or Symbolum Apostolicum), sometimes titled Symbol of the Apostles, is an early statement of Christian belief, a creed or "symbol".n ot in the sense that the word "symbol" has in modern English, but in the original meaning of the word, derived from "Latin symbolum, sign, token, from Greek σύμβολον, token for identification (by comparing with its counterpart), from συμβάλλειν, to throw together, compare"

he Apostles' Creed was based on Christian theological understanding of the Canonical gospels, the letters of the New Testament and to a lesser extent the Old Testament. Its basis appears to be the old Roman Creed known also as the Old Roman Symbol. Because of the early origin of its original form, it does not address some Christological issues defined in the Nicene and other Christian Creeds. It thus says nothing explicitly about the divinity of either Jesus or of the Holy Spirit.

Catholic Church

The Catechism of the Catholic Church gives the following English translation of the Apostles' Creed. In its discussion of the Creed, the Catechism maintains the traditional division into twelve articles, the numbering of which is here added to the text.

 I believe in God the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth.
 I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord.
 He was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary.
 Under Pontius Pilate, He was crucified, died, and was buried.
 He descended to the dead. On the third day he rose again.
 He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father.
 He will come again to judge the living and the dead.
 I believe in the Holy Spirit,
 the holy catholic Church, the communion of saints,
 the forgiveness of sins,
 the resurrection of the body,
 and the life everlasting.
 Amen.

The English text used in the Mass of the Roman Rite since 2011 is:
I believe in God,
the Father almighty,
Creator of heaven and earth,
and in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord,
who was conceived by the Holy Spirit,
born of the Virgin Mary,
suffered under Pontius Pilate,
was crucified, died and was buried;
he descended into hell;
on the third day he rose again from the dead;
he ascended into heaven,
and is seated at the right hand of God the Father almighty;
from there he will come to judge the living and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Spirit,
the holy catholic Church,
the communion of saints,
the forgiveness of sins,
the resurrection of the body,
and life everlasting. Amen.

ಪಳೆಯಾತ್
Sotmantam

ರೊಮನ್ ಕಾಥ್ಲಿಕ್ ಆಂಚಿಂ ಮಾಗ್ಣಿಂ
ಕನ್ನಡ್ ಪಾನಾಂ

ಸತ್ಮಾಂತಾಂ


The Illinois State Capitol, located in Springfield, Illinois, houses the legislative and executive branches of the government of the U.S. state of Illinois. The current building is the sixth to serve as the capitol building since Illinois was admitted to the United States in 1818. Built in the architectural styles of the French Renaissance and Italianate, it was designed by Cochrane and Garnsey, an architecture and design firm based in Chicago. Ground was broken for the new capitol on March 11, 1868, and the building was completed twenty years later for a total cost of $4.5 million.

The building contains the chambers for the Illinois General Assembly, which is made up of the Illinois House of Representatives and the Illinois Senate. An office for the Governor of Illinois, additional offices, and committee rooms are also in the building. The capitol's footprint is cross-shaped, with four equal wings. Its tall central dome and tower roofs are covered in zinc to provide a silvery facade which does not weather. Architecture scholar Jean A. Follett describes it as a building that "is monumental in scale and rich in detail."  The interior of the dome features a plaster frieze painted to resemble bronze, which illustrates scenes from Illinois history, and stained glass windows, including a stained glass replica of the state seal in the oculus of the dome.

Description

With a total height of , the Illinois capitol is the tallest non-skyscraper capitol, even exceeding the height of the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. In contrast, the shortest skyscraper capitol stands a mere  tall. The only state capitols taller than it are the non-classical designs of Louisiana and Nebraska, whose governments opted for more modern structures. The dome itself is  wide, and is supported by solid bedrock,  below the surface. It is the highest (though not the tallest) building in Sangamon County. The Wyndham Springfield City Centre is taller than the capitol, however it is on lower ground, making the capitol building higher. A city statute does not allow buildings higher than the capitol. Each wing of the building is aligned to the 4 major compass directions; from the north end to the south end the building measures  and from the east end to the west end . The capitol occupies a nine acre plot of land which forms the capitol grounds. William Douglas Richardson served as one of the principal contractors for the construction of the capitol building, and Jacob Bunn, an in-law of W. D. Richardson, served as chairman of the capitol construction steering committee.

When the capitol was constructed, several empty shafts were included for the future installation of elevators. The original water-operated elevators were installed in 1887 and were sometimes the subject of ridicule by local newspapers as they were deemed inadequate for a building with the prestige of the State Capitol. Electric elevators were later installed sometime before 1939 when the legislature appropriated $30,000 for their repair.

Renovation

In 2011, the facility underwent a $50 million renovation, primarily focused on the west wing, to upgrade life safety, ADA accessibility and mechanical, electrical and plumbing infrastructure as well as architectural improvements to bring the capitol closer to its original 1870s appearance, the "period of significance" for the building. Improvements included refinishing of interiors and exposed brick arches in the basement; installation of maiden lamp posts for the grand staircase, new chandeliers, and copper-clad exterior doors; and removal of a second floor mezzanine.

The addition of the maiden statues is particularly notable, since they had been intended for the building since the 1870s when architect Alfred Piquenard designed them as part of the original plan. Piquenard was also architect for the Iowa State Capitol, which is of a similar style, albeit 3/4 the size.  Illinois legislators of the 1870s thought that the scantily clad women were too risqué but the Iowans had no objection. Illinois therefore had plain lamps installed at the base of its grand staircase, whereas the maiden lamps intended for Illinois were instead delivered to and installed at the Iowa State Capitol in Des Moines, where they remain to this day. The lamps now installed at Illinois as part of this renovation are replicas of those at Iowa's capitol.

In 2014, the renovation achieved LEED Gold certification under the US Green Building Councils New Construction and Major Renovation program.

In December 2021, officials began another renovation program focused on the north wing that will cost of $224 million and last until 2025.  Like the earlier work in the west wing, this will focus on updating fire protection systems, mechanical, electrical and HVAC systems and making additional areas ADA accessible. Work will also remove asbestos and add an underground garage and visitor screening area to improve security.  During the 1960s and 1970s, mezzanines were constructed in some offices to increase space for legislators. Work will remove these and restore the original paint colors.

Former capitols

Kaskakia Statehouse
The current Capitol of Illinois is the sixth such building in the history of the state. The first was located in Kaskaskia, Illinois, a city on the Mississippi River founded by the French in 1709. Kaskaskia had been the territorial capital of Illinois since 1809 and had been an administrative center for much of the 18th century, so it was deemed an appropriate location for the capital of the new state. The state leased the first capitol building, a two-story building, for the sum of $4.00 per day.

Wishing to site the capital in the state's interior, the first General Assembly petitioned Congress for a grant of suitable public land.  Congress offered, and the state accepted, a land parcel up the Kaskaskia River about eighty miles northeast of Kaskaskia. This location, which would be named Vandalia, Illinois, was selected partly with the hopes of encouraging settlers to locate in expanding areas of the state. The state allowed its lease on the first capital in Kaskaskia expire and relocated to Vandalia.

Vandalia Statehouses

Located in Vandalia,

Vandalia was the location of the second, third, and fourth capitol buildings, where the legislature met between 1820 and 1837. In 1820, with the completion of the new, or "second", capitol, Vandalia became the capital of the state. The structure burned soon thereafter and a third capitol quickly rose in 1824 at a cost of $15,000.  After its construction, many citizens began to advocate relocating the capitol to a location nearer the center of the state. A bill was introduced in 1833 for a statewide vote to determine a new location from a list of several choices including Alton, Jacksonville, Peoria, Springfield, Vandalia, and the state's actual geographic center. While Alton was the victor, the legislature determined the margin too small to be conclusive, and ignored the vote. In 1836, a young lawyer named Abraham Lincoln, along with colleagues of his of the legal profession, advocated moving the capital to Springfield. That summer the Vandalia capitol building was demolished by local citizens and replaced with the fourth capitol (built at a cost of $16,000) in an effort to keep the capital in Vandalia. Although the new brick structure was extravagant, the General Assembly ignored the gesture and voted to relocate the capital to Springfield on February 25, 1837.

Old State Capitol (built 1837)

Located in Springfield,

On July 4, 1837, the first brick was laid for Illinois' fifth capitol designed by John F. Rague, who also designed the nearly identical Iowa Territorial Capitol. In 1853, the capitol was completed for a total sum of $260,000, almost twenty times the cost of any such previous structure. The building was designed in the Greek Revival style from stone quarried 6 miles from the site. For many years, it was the largest and most extravagant capitol of the western frontier of the United States. The fifth capitol is closely associated with Abraham Lincoln as it was here that he argued cases before the Illinois Supreme Court, served in the State Legislature, first debated Stephen Douglas, delivered his famous "House Divided" speech, and lay in state after his assassination on April 14, 1865.

As Illinois prospered and experienced several booms in population, the fifth capitol became crowded, especially as a result of relocations after the Civil War. On February 24, 1867, the state voted to construct a new larger capitol. After breaking the ground for the sixth and current Capitol in 1868, the state recouped the costs of the fifth capitol by selling it to Sangamon County for $200,000. It served as the county court house until 1961 when the state re-purchased the building and restored it as a historic landmark, the Old State Capitol State Historic Site.

See also
List of state and territorial capitols in the United States
List of tallest domes

References

External links

Government buildings completed in 1839
Government buildings completed in 1888
State Capitol
State capitols in the United States
Government buildings with domes
Government buildings in Illinois
National Historic Landmarks in Illinois
Buildings and structures in Springfield, Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in Springfield, Illinois
Tourist attractions in Springfield, Illinois
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
Skyscrapers in Illinois
Skyscraper office buildings in Illinois
1839 establishments in Illinois
1888 establishments in Illinois

Illinois State Capitol


Immunosuppression means to lower the activity of the immune system. This can be done in case the immune system is likely to complicate a medical treatment such as an organ transplantation. Some diseases make the immune system attack healthy parts of the body, for example Lupus, Rheumatoid arthritis or Multiple sclerosis. By decreasing the effectiveness of the immune system, the damage caused by the illness can be reduced. The most common drug used for this purpose is Cortisol.

Immunology

Immunosuppression


Sir Lancelot is a character in the legend of King Arthur.  The legend says Sir Lancelot was a Knight of the Round Table.  Lancelot was a Red Cross Knight, which meant that he was on a quest to find the Holy Grail.

In Arthurian legend, Lancelot was raised by the Lady of the Lake.  For this reason, he was also called Lancelot Du Lac.

At one time, Lancelot was one of the most trusted knights of King Arthur's Round Table.  This changed when Lancelot fell in love with the king's wife, Queen Guinevere.  He later had an affair with Elaine of Configure.  As a result, he and Guinevere parted ways.

Lancelot is the father of Sir Galahad.  The legend is not clear about who was Galahad's mother.  It may have been Elaine of Configure.  Sir Galahad eventually became the greatest knight in all of Camelot.  Lancelot saw Galahad's ascension.

Lancelot was the only knight known to have defeated King Arthur in a jousting match.

He first appeared as a main character in Chrétien de Troyes' Le Chevalier de la Charrette ("The Knight of the Cart"), written in the 12th century.  A section called the Prose Lancelot includes stories about Lancelot's adventures.  Often, the stories contain conflicting background stories and chains of events.

is in Chrétien de Troyes' Le Chevalier de la Charrette ("The Knight of the Cart"), written in the 12th century, where his exploits are recounted in the section known as the Prose Lancelot, often with conflicting background stories and chains of events.

Related pages
Courtly love
Monty Python and the Holy Grail

Arthurian legend
Fictional knights

Lancelot


The Republic is a book by Plato. It was finished in 375 BC.
It asks the question 'why should people do good things?' and also the question 'are people punished for doing bad things?'.
Plato said that people should not do bad things because people who do bad things end up unhappy.
However, people who do good things end up happy.

He also said that if people who do bad things get power in a society then that society will become an unhappy one.
Plato believed that philosophers are best able to do good things and so they should be given power in a society.
He thought that non-philosophers should allow themselves to be ruled by philosophers and that if they do this then they will be happy, because the rule of peoples (democracy) often fall because of unreasonable confusion.
However, in order not to be tempted to do bad things, the philosophers who have power must not be able to have things or feel love.

Plato also talked about many other things while discussing these questions including metaphysics, psychology, religion and most branches of philosophy.
He introduced the philosophy called Platonism.

Plato's argument (Less Simple)
Plato thought that people and societies are very much alike.

Plato thought that people are made of three things:
 A mind that thinks and reasons
 A spirit or a self that looks after the person
 A body that does things, likes things, hates things and wants things (such as food, drink and sex).
He said that a good person will listen to all these things, but will let the mind control the other two.

Somebody who does not listen to all three parts, or who does not let the mind control the other two will be unhappy.
They might go mad because they do not let the mind control them.
Or they might do things that they later regret.
They will also be disliked by other people and will suffer because of that.
He said that they will be like a country in anarchy.

Plato also thought society should be made up of three things (types of people)
 Philosophers who think for the society
 Soldiers who look after the society
 Workers who do things in the society, who make food, drink and more workers.
He said that society needs all three things (types of people) but that only the philosophers will be good people.
The others will be dominated by their souls or bodies, not their minds.
The soldiers will not even listen to their minds, and the workers will not listen to their minds or their souls.
This is why the philosophers should rule and the other types of people should be soldiers and workers.

References

Works of philosophy
4th-century BC books
Classical Greek literature

The Republic


The Office of United States Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) was established by U.S. President Harry Truman on January 23 1946 with Admiral Sidney Souers occupying the position. The DCI was coordinating intelligence activities among and between the various United States intelligence agencies, also called the American Intelligence Community.

Until April 2005, the DCI also served as de facto Director of the Central Intelligence Agency and was often referred to colloquially as the "CIA Director." After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent investigation by the 9/11 Commission, a movement grew to re-organize the Intelligence Community. That movement prompted the creation, on April 21, 2005, of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (DNI), in whose purview was the job portfolio that had been performed previously by the Director of Central Intelligence. The latter position then ceased to exist.

List of Directors of Central Intelligence (in chronological order)

Director of Central Intelligence


Eugene de Salignac (1861–1943) was an American photographer who worked for the Department of Bridges/Plant and Structures in New York City.

Born in Boston in 1861 into an eccentric family of exiled French nobility, de Salignac had no formal training in photography.  In 1903, at the age of 42, his brother-in-law found him a job as an assistant to the photographer for the Department of Bridges, Joseph Palmer.  After 3 years of apprenticeship, Palmer suddenly died, and in October 1906, de Salignac assumed his duties.

As the sole photographer for the department from 1906 to 1934 (in 1916 it changed its name to the Department of Plant & Structures), he documented the creation of the city's modern infrastructure—including bridges, major municipal buildings, roads and subways.  Most notably, he documented the construction of the Manhattan Bridge and the Queensboro Bridge, and the Manhattan Municipal Building but his most famous image is that of painters posing nonchalantly on the cables of the Brooklyn Bridge.  Using a large-format camera and 8x10 inch glass-plate negatives, he shot over 20,000 images in his career.  Most of these negatives and over 15,000 vintage prints are held by the New York City Municipal Archives.  Into his 70s de Salignac was still climbing bridges and actively working, but he was forced to retire in 1934 despite a petition to Mayor La Guardia.

In his lifetime de Salignac's work was little seen outside of New York City government, and his name was forgotten after his death in 1943.  His images were rediscovered in the 1980s, but it was not until 1999 that an archivist realized the collection was mostly the work of one man. In 2007, Aperture published New York Rises, the first monograph of his work, which became a traveling exhibition that opened at the Museum of the City of New York.  Since then, his photographs have been widely reproduced and are part of a growing interest in industrial photography that has been left out of the traditional photography canon.

References

1861 births
1943 deaths
Photographers from New York City

Eugene de Salignac


Francis Healey Albertson (February 2, 1909 – February 29, 1964) was an American  actor who had supporting roles in films such as It's a Wonderful Life (1946) and Psycho (1960).

Early life
Albertson was a native of Fergus Falls, Minnesota, the first child of Frank (or Francis) B. and Mary ( Healey) Albertson. He spent his childhood first in nearby Frazee, and later in Puyallup, Washington. As a young man in Los Angeles, he worked as a laboratory assistant in a photographic shop, which resulted in contacts leading to his acting career.

Career

Albertson made well over 100 appearances (1923–1964) in movies and television. In his early career he often sang and danced in such films as Just Imagine (1930) and A Connecticut Yankee (1931). He was featured in Alice Adams (1935) as the title character's brother, and in Room Service (1938) he played opposite the Marx Brothers. He served in the U.S. Army Air Forces' First Motion Picture Unit making training films during World War II. As he aged. he moved from featured roles to supporting and character parts—in his later career he can be seen as Sam Wainwright, the businessman fond of saying "Hee-Haw" in the movie It's a Wonderful Life (1946).

On October 10, 1950, Albertson starred in "Give and Take" on Armstrong Circle Theatre. He portrayed future U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt in the 1956 episode "Rough Rider" of the television series My Friend Flicka. He guest-starred in the western series The Californians and twice in the crime drama Richard Diamond, Private Detective.

He was cast in 1959 and 1962 in different roles on Walter Brennan's sitcom The Real McCoys. In 1960, he appeared as General Devery in the episode "Strange Encounter" of the series Colt .45.

In 1960, Albertson appeared as Johnny Kent on Cheyenne in the episode titled "The Long Rope".

In 1960, he played the wealthy rancher Tom Cassidy at the beginning of Psycho (1960) who provides the $40,000 in cash that Janet Leigh's character later steals. In the 1960-61 television season, he played the character Mr. Cooper in five episodes of the sitcom Bringing Up Buddy, starring Frank Aletter. In 1962 he appeared as Henry Bildy on the TV western Lawman in the episode titled "Heritage of Hate".

In 1964, Albertson was cast as Jim O'Neal in the episode "The Death of a Teacher" of drama Mr. Novak. One of his latter screen appearances was as Sam, the bewildered mayor of Sweet Apple, Ohio in the 1963 film musical Bye Bye Birdie.

His last appearance was on The Andy Griffith Show, in which he played a Marine commander completing an inspection. The episode aired on May 19, 1964, three months after Albertson died.

Death
Albertson died in his sleep at his home in Santa Monica, California, on February 29, 1964, aged 55. The cause of death was an apparent heart attack. He had five children from his two marriages. He was buried in Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City, California.

Recognition
For his contributions to the film industry, Albertson received a motion pictures star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6754 Hollywood Boulevard. The star was dedicated on February 8, 1960.

Filmography

The Covered Wagon (1923) as Minor Role (uncredited)
The Farmer's Daughter (1928) as Allan Boardman Jr.
Prep and Pep (1928) as Bunk Hill
Blue Skies (1929) as Richard Lewis (episode 2)
Words and Music (1929) as Skeet Mulroy
Salute (1929) as Midshipman Albert Edward Price
Happy Days (1929) as Frankie Albertson
Men Without Women (1930) as Ensign Albert Edward Price
The Big Party (1930) as Jack Hunter
Son of the Gods (1930) as Kicker
Spring Is Here (1930) as Stacy Adams
Born Reckless (1930) as Frank Sheldon
So This Is London (1930) as Junior Draper
Wild Company (1930) as Larry Grayson
Just Imagine (1930) as RT-42
A Connecticut Yankee (1931) as Emile le Poulet / Clarence
Big Business Girl (1931) as Johnny Saunders
Traveling Husbands (1931) as Barry Greene
The Brat (1931) as Stephen Forester
Way Back Home (1931) as David Clark
The Tiger's Son (1931)
The Cohens and Kellys in Hollywood (1932) as Frank Albertson (uncredited)
Racing Youth (1932) as Teddy Blue
Huddle (1932) as Larry
Air Mail (1932) as Tommy Bogan
The Lost Special (1932, Serial) as Tom Hood
The Billion Dollar Scandal (1933) as Babe Partos
The Cohens and Kellys in Trouble (1933) as Bob Graham
Ann Carver's Profession (1933) as Jim Thompson
Dangerous Crossroads (1933)
Midshipman Jack (1933) as Russell H. Burns
Ever in My Heart (1933) as Sam Archer
Rainbow Over Broadway (1933) as Don Hayes
King for a Night (1933) as Dick Morris
The Last Gentleman (1934) as Allan Blaine, Augusta's adopted son
The Life of Vergie Winters (1934) as Ranny Truesdale
Hollywood Hoodlum (1934) as Daniel Patrick Ryan
Bachelor of Arts (1934) as Pete Illings
Enter Madame (1935) as John Fitzgerald
College Scandal (1935) as Student (scenes deleted)
Doubting Thomas (1935) as Jimmy Brown
Alice Adams (1935) as Walter Adams
Waterfront Lady (1935) as Ronny Hillyer aka Bill
Personal Maid's Secret (1935) as Kent Fletcher
East of Java (1935) as Larry Page
Kind Lady (1935) as Peter Santard
Ah, Wilderness! (1935) as Arthur
The Farmer in the Dell (1936) as Davy Davenport
Fury (1936) as Charlie
The Plainsman (1936) as A Young Trooper
Navy Blue and Gold (1937) as Weeks
Hold That Kiss (1938) as Steve Evans
Mother Carey's Chickens (1938) as Tom Hamilton Jr.
Fugitives for a Night (1938) as Matt Ryan
Room Service (1938) as Leo Davis
Spring Madness (1938) as Hat
The Shining Hour (1938) as Benny Collins
Bachelor Mother (1939) as Freddie Miller
Framed (1940) as Henry T. 'Hank' Parker
The Ghost Comes Home (1940) as Ernest
When the Daltons Rode (1940) as Emmett Dalton
Dr. Christian Meets the Women (1940) as Bill Ferris
Behind the News (1940) as Jeff Flavin
Ellery Queen's Penthouse Mystery (1941) as Sanders
Man Made Monster (1941) as Mark Adams
Father Steps Out (1941) as Jimmy Dugan
Citadel of Crime (1941) as Jim Rogers
Burma Convoy (1941) as Mike Weldon
Flying Cadets (1941) as Bob Ames
Louisiana Purchase (1941) as Robert Davis, Jr.
Man from Headquarters (1942) as Larry Doyle
Shepherd of the Ozarks (1942) as Lieutenant James J. 'Jimmy' Maloney, Jr.
Junior G-Men of the Air (1942, Serial) as Jerry Markham
Wake Island (1942) as Johnny Rudd
City of Silent Men (1942) as Gil Davis
Underground Agent (1942) as Johnny Davis
Silent Witness (1943) as Bruce L. Strong - Attorney
Keep 'Em Slugging (1943) as Frank Moulton
Here Comes Elmer (1943) as Joe Maxwell
Mystery Broadcast (1943) as Michael Jerome
O, My Darling Clementine (1943) as 'Dapper' Dan Franklin
Rosie the Riveter (1944) as Charlie Doran
And the Angels Sing (1944) as Oliver
I Love a Soldier (1944) as Little Soldier (uncredited)
Arson Squad (1945) as Tom Mitchell
How Doooo You Do!!! (1945) as Tom Brandon
Gay Blades (1946) as Frankie Dowell
They Made Me a Killer (1946) as Patrolman Al Wilson
Ginger (1946) as Barney O'Hara
It's a Wonderful Life (1946) as Sam Wainwright
The Hucksters (1947) as Max Herman
Killer Dill (1947) as William T. Allen
Shed No Tears (1948) as Lt. Hutton - Police Detective
Main Street to Broadway (1953) as Frank Albertson (uncredited)
Girl on the Run (1953) as Hank
The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) as Worker at the Taxidermist's (uncredited)
Nightfall (1957) as Dr. Edward Gurston
The Enemy Below (1957) as Lt. Crain
The Last Hurrah (1958) as Jack Mangan
Official Detective (1958, Episode: "Muggers") as Detective David 'King' Cassidy
Psycho (1960) as Tom Cassidy
Man-Trap (1961) as Paul Snavely
Don't Knock the Twist (1962) as Herbert 'Herb' Walcott
Papa's Delicate Condition (1963) as Gambler (uncredited)
Bye Bye Birdie (1963) as Sam, the Mayor
Johnny Cool (1963) as Bill Blakely

Selected television

Notes

References

External links

1909 births
1964 deaths
American male child actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
Male actors from Minnesota
Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City
People from Fergus Falls, Minnesota
People from Puyallup, Washington
First Motion Picture Unit personnel
20th-century American male actors

Frank Albertson


Iron(II) hydroxide is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Fe(OH)2. It has iron and hydroxide ions in it. The iron is in its +2 oxidation state.

Properties
When pure, it is a white solid. It very easily turns dark green in air, which is its normal form. It then reacts with more oxygen to turn brown as iron(III) oxide is formed. It is a reducing agent.

Preparation
It can be formed by electrolysis of water with a piece of iron metal as the anode (positive connector). A green slime will appear around it, and hydrogen will be released at the cathode (negative connector). It is normally made by reacting iron(II) sulfate with sodium hydroxide.

Uses
It was being investigated as a detoxifier in wetlands. Some wetlands have toxic selenite and selenate ions in them. Iron(II) hydroxide reduces them to selenium, which is much less toxic. It is also used in the nickel-iron battery.

Related pages
Iron(II) oxide
Iron(II) chloride

Iron compounds

Iron(II) hydroxide


Sergeant Lee Clegg (born c. 1969) is a British Army soldier who was convicted of murder for his involvement in the shooting dead of one teenage joyrider in West Belfast, Northern Ireland. His conviction was later overturned.

Shooting
The shooting took place in West Belfast on 30 September 1990. Clegg, then a private originally from Bradford, England, and his fellow soldiers manning the checkpoint on the Upper Glen Road, fired nineteen bullets into a stolen Vauxhall Astra that passed through their checkpoint travelling at high speed. Clegg fired four of the bullets, the last of which killed 18-year-old passenger Karen Reilly. The driver, 17-year-old Martin Peake, also died at the scene, and the third passenger, Markiewicz Gorman, escaped with minor injuries.

Sentencing
Clegg was sentenced to life imprisonment for murder in 1993, the court having decided that lethal force had been used without a lawful purpose.  The fourth bullet was said to have been fired through the back of the car as it was leaving the checkpoint and was therefore no longer a threat to the soldiers. The murder conviction was condemned by unionists and some newspapers, including the Daily Mail, which began a campaign for Clegg's release on the grounds that he was just doing his job in difficult circumstances.

Release and aftermath
Clegg was released under licence by then Northern Ireland Secretary Patrick Mayhew in 1995, which in turn led to rioting in Irish nationalist areas of Belfast. Sinn Féin repeatedly called the decision a "threat to the peace process".
The release followed after a test shooting on another Astra conducted by pathologist Iain West and forensic expert Graham Renshaw on 4 June 1995.

Appeals
A set of appeals to the Court of Appeal and House of Lords led to the quashing of the murder conviction in 1998 and a re-trial in March 1999, on the grounds that new evidence suggested that the fourth bullet entered the side of the car. At the retrial Clegg was cleared of murder, but a conviction for "attempting to wound" the driver of the car, Martin Peake, who also died in the incident, was upheld.

Another appeal, this time at the Northern Ireland Court of Appeal, led to that lesser conviction also being overturned on 31 January 2000 owing to uncertainty over the accuracy of evidence that initially suggested Clegg's final bullet was fired after the vehicle had passed.

Clegg continued to serve as part of 16 Air Assault Brigade. In September 2007 the Daily Mail reported that Clegg would be serving in Afghanistan in 2008 as combat medic with the 2nd Battalion Parachute Regiment.

References

Bibliography
BBC News Soldier cleared of murder (1999 report)
Guardian Unlimited Paratrooper Lee Clegg cleared of last charge over death of teenagers (2000 report)

1960s births
British Parachute Regiment soldiers
Living people
Overturned convictions in the United Kingdom
Military personnel from Bradford
Date of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
Soldiers imprisoned during the Northern Ireland conflict
Military scandals
People wrongfully convicted of murder

Lee Clegg


Xi ( or ) was the world's first console-based and virtual world-based alternate reality game. It was a one-time-only play, unfolding in real time, and only available on the PlayStation 3 through the social gaming network, PlayStation Home. The game was an adventure to help find "Jess" and the meaning of Xi by collecting fragments and butterflies found in a series of secret areas in Home that changed frequently. The game also challenged the users to search for clues in the real world. The game was created by nDreams who released several spaces for Xi.  The game was promoted through a teaser campaign of clues and hints during the month prior to its release on March 23, 2009. The clues were hidden in the Menu Pad and videos in the central meeting point.

The game lasted a total of 12 weeks from its release. Xi and all of the corresponding spaces were exclusive to the European and North American versions of PlayStation Home, though there were also websites, videos, printed media and live events which were accessible to anyone. In September 2009, it was reported that the number of visits to the Xi spaces, including the ones after Xi's completion, had exceeded 5 million visits. A sequel, Xi: Continuum, was released in December 2012.

History

Early history
"Xi started at the Edinburgh Interactive Festival a couple of years ago," (from 2009) says Patrick O'Luanaigh, the founder of nDreams. "I saw a talk from Pete Edwards, who runs Home for Sony. Home seemed really exciting, and I thought it would be really cool to have an ARG – something in there to grab people's attention and to make them want to come in. I came in and did a pitch to Phil Harrison and the Home team. They said: 'Wow, we really like it'."

One of the game's developers revealed that it took 18 months for nDreams to develop Xi. The developer also revealed that a challenge of Xi was that it was live and they had to change things in the game because of the players taking part in the game in real time.

The launch of Xi
A month before the game's official release on March 23, 2009, clues and hints were seen in the users Menu Pad and in videos in the central meeting point of Home. The Menu Pad is where users access different things such as personal settings; the clues and hints were found in the "News" and "Latest Update" sections of the Menu Pad.

The first clue to appear in the News section was "jess are you there?----------Xi is almost ready". This clue first appeared on February 6, 2009, in Europe and on February 11, 2009, in North America.

The first video appeared on February 12, 2009, in Home's Bowling Alley (North America) and Home Square (Europe) and featured a big black monolith bearing the Greek capital letter 'Xi' and the graffiti version of the 'Xi' logo (more specifically, the one that was located in Europe's Home Square).

The monolith was later revealed to be a big black door in The Hub of 'Xi'. The door remained locked until the final days of the game.

Between February 12 and March 23, there were many clues and videos released in Home hinting at the nature and launch date of Xi. The last clue told the users that the graffiti logo which had appeared in Europe's Home Square and North America's Central Plaza would teleport players to 'The Hub' - a new Home space that acted as the information centre for the game. Xi had begun in earnest.

When users first accessed The Hub, they experienced a fly-through tour with the voice of 'Thom' offering a guided tour of the space and a brief introduction to the game's story: he is a member of the alphaAFK alpha testers who had helped to build Home, and one of his colleagues, Jess, has gone missing. After Thom's introduction, the user was given the chance to opt in or out. If they opted in, Thom gave them their first task.

This introduction remained the same for all players, no matter what date they started the game.

Synopsis

The first task was to find scattered pieces of the AlphaAFK symbol within The Hub. Collecting these unlocked a weblink to the alphaAFK clan website, which Thom then told users to access via the Online Getaway found in The Hub. Thom guided the users through a simple "Odd One Out" puzzle. After solving the puzzle and entering the answer into the HoloPAD in The Hub, users acquired the first of 24 fragments.

Users were also invited to talk to Stapler, a robot who explained each of the 20 optional expeditions that offered 20 butterflies. The first butterfly expedition asked users to name Jess's favorite band The Automatic, which could be discovered by reading through the blog posts on CafeConMiguel.com - the blog of another alphaAFK member. The users then needed to input the answer into the HoloPAD to receive the first of 20 butterflies.

Initially, only one fragment and one butterfly were available. New fragments and butterflies were made available every few days, as the Xi spaces were updated. Fragments were won by playing mini-games, solving puzzles, and searching for clues in Home and in the associated Xi websites.  All 24 fragments were required to complete Xi; the butterfly expeditions were entirely optional (tougher) side-quests that often called for cooperation and collaboration between players in the real world.

The game's story followed Jess's struggle to protect a secret project she'd developed, codenamed 'Xi'. Its nature remained unclear throughout the game, though hints and speculation suggested it was some form of advanced technology. The main antagonist was a corporation called Veilcorp, which claimed Jess had been developing Xi for them until she absconded. This story was revealed through text-chat conversations between the alphaAFK testers; videos from Jess; blogs; puzzles; the Veilcorp website; and information discovered by players at live events.

Once the users had obtained all 24 fragments (which was first possible on 10 June 2009) they were able to pass through the monolith in The Hub and experience the game's conclusion. This restriction was lifted 24 hours later, as the alphaAFK enabled any player to pass through the monolith if they wished, regardless of how many fragments they had accumulated.

Immediately after passing through the monolith, players were prompted with a message asking the user if they wanted to complete Xi or return to The Hub. If they chose to complete Xi, they were prompted with another message warning them that if they continued Xi they will no longer be able to access the Xi spaces. After definitively choosing again to complete Xi, the users were taken to The White Hall.

[[File:PSHomeXiMysteryDoor.jpg|thumb|left|225px|The monolith, the mystery door in The Hub- the end of Xi'''s mystery.]]
At this point, the player was given a dilemma: Release Xi or Destroy Xi. The player had to choose one way or the other based only on the patchy information they had learned about Xi from the various biased sources during the game.

A video was then shown corresponding to the choice they made. In either case, the outcome was unpleasant: release Xi and it turns out to be a virus that brings down the banking system, causes global chaos, but perhaps resets the human race on a more sustainable course; destroy Xi and it turns out to have been an anti-spyware virus designed to protect the privacy of the world's citizens, and by destroying it, the player had allowed Veilcorp to take total control of business, government and all personal freedoms.

After the video, the player was taken deeper into The White Hall where they met a video-realistic version of Jess - or rather 'Jessica', who explained that this whole game was a recruitment exercise to attract and identify people with particular skills spanning the real and virtual worlds. She needed to find people who can make difficult decisions in unclear situations, particularly when it comes to guiding how the world uses technology in future. The player was then presented with a summary of their performance throughout the game before Jessica hints that she'll be in touch again when the time is right.

Depending on their performance, the player was given one or more digital rewards to keep in their Home apartment. The Xi Trophy was for simply completing the game. The Xi Fragment Master Trophy was for completing Xi with all 24 fragments; and the Xi Fragment Collector Trophy was for completing Xi with at least 12 fragments. The Xi Butterfly Master Trophy was for completing Xi with all 20 butterflies; and the Xi Butterfly Collector Trophy was for completing Xi with at least 10 butterflies.

Locations
There were a total of 12 physical spaces in Xi. The White Hall wasn't a physical space that users could walk freely in. Each space served a purpose in completing Xi. Each mini-game in each space either unlocked a Fragment or a Butterfly. Some of the weird markings on the walls in some of the spaces were used for a couple of the challenges. The only spaces that are now available in Home are the Xi Museum (formerly Xi Alumni Hub), the Alpha Zone 1 spaces, and the Alpha Zone 3 spaces.

Fragments
There were a total of twenty-four fragments that the users had to obtain through various puzzles and mini-games throughout Home and some puzzles in the real world.  The fragments are different pieces of a picture of the logo of Xi which were viewable in the HoloPAD under Display fragments. The fragments were the main objectives of Xi for the users to complete. In addition to obtaining the sixth fragment, users also received a Xi T-shirt for their avatar.

Butterflies
The butterflies were optional in completing Xi and were for the users who wanted a real challenge. There were twenty in all. Stapler was the robot that told the users what they must do or where to go in order to obtain the butterflies. The butterflies were viewable in the HoloPAD under Display butterflies.

Post-Xi
After completing Xi and being returned to the central meeting point, users were no longer able to access The Hub, but instead, were able to access the Xi Alumni Hub through the same Teleport that The Hub was accessed through. After entering the Xi Alumni Hub, users were presented with one final challenge in which completing this final challenge awarded the users a Xi Alumni T-shirt for their avatar.

On July 2, 2009, the Teleport and Manhole cover were removed from the central meeting point and the Xi Alumni Hub was added to the world map (now Navigator) under the Xi logo chip in the users Menu Pad . All of the Xi spaces were removed except the Xi Alumni Hub and Alpha Zone 1 - Game Test Area, Maximum-Tilt Lobby, & Adventure Lobby. The Alpha Zone 1 spaces were accessed through the teleport in the Xi Alumni Hub.

Patrick O'Luanaigh told Edge magazine that nDreams "ended up doing 12 spaces, 24 minigames, 108 videos and four huge websites." He also mentioned that "By and large" everything went according to plan. nDreams had a chart that was 12 weeks long and that every weekday, something new was happening. "Getting in on Sony's project early meant nDreams found itself in a privileged position" notes Edge magazine. "We were able to really push Home," says O'Luanaigh. "We were given carte blanche to mess around." He also notes how the company was fortunate that there was a fairly large Home community already there and were really satisfied how people of different languages were communicating with each other by posting in other forums, not of their own language, and helping each other out to solve Xi. "Normally, language players are fairly separate. It's rare for people to interact like that, and it's really satisfying" says O'Luanaigh.

The Xi Alumni Hub was temporarily removed from PlayStation Home on April 22, 2010. Due to changes introduced with the Home client update 1.35, these spaces needed to be rebuilt to ensure that they continued to function as designed. nDreams also took this opportunity to provide access to some content from Xi that hadn't been seen since Xi ended, along with some items from Xi that are available to own.

On September 24, 2010, Patrick O'Luanaigh, the CEO of nDreams, confirmed on his Twitter that the Xi Spaces will return by Christmas 2010 under the new name "Xi Museum". On December 23, 2010, the "Xi Museum" launched featuring an updated Xi Alumni Hub (now called the Xi Museum), the three Alpha Zone 1 spaces (Game Test Area, Maximum-Tilt Lobby, and Adventure Lobby), and the four Alpha Zone 3 mazes (Teamwork Maze, Ghost Maze, Ridde Maze, and The Expert Maze). New items can be unlocked from the Xi Museum and Alpha Zone spaces. In addition, the Xi Museum features a Xi Museum Shop, with items such as a Maximum-Tilt bike and the robot Stapler for users personal spaces. The public space "Party at Jess's Apartment" that was featured during Xi can now be purchased as a personal space for the users. In Europe, users had a chance to win a Stapler companion by following nDreams Twitter feed.

SequelXi: Continuum'' was announced on November 26, 2012, and launched the following month on December 12 in EU and US and December 19 in Asia. It took place over a period of 47 days, though users could complete it at their own pace. Over the 47 days, it featured new content each day, either in Home, on external websites, or via community tasks. The objective was to stop a character named EatFlamingDeath and prevent a bomb from destroying the Continuum, and in turn, Home.

References

Alternate reality games
Mixed reality
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation 3-only games
2009 video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
NDreams games

Xi (alternate reality game)


Neurosecretion is when nerve cells make, store and release hormones.

The hormonal system of the body is almost entirely controlled by the central nervous system. It normally does this by sending nerve impulses down axons to a gland. However, some special nerve cells can make hormones themselves, and deliver them to glands which act as storage organs. The neurons of the neuroendocrine system are large; they are mini factories for producing secretory products. These cells are called neurosecretory cells, and they make neurohormones.

Most neurohormones are secreted from nerve cells in the hypothalamus of the brain which (either immediately, or after storage) circulate in the blood. They are similar to normal endocrine cells and glands because they regulate both endocrine and nonendocrine cells.

There are also neuroendocrine cells in the adrenal glands, which are just above the kidneys. They are called chromaffin cells, and they release epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).

References

Neuroendocrinology

Neurosecretion


Miriam A. Ferguson (born Miriam Amanda Wallace; June 13 1875 — June 25, 1961) was a politician in Texas. She was nicknamed "Ma" Ferguson. She became the Governor of Texas on two different occasions. She was the second woman governor that served the United States.

Ferguson was born in Bell County, Texas. She died of heart failure, age eighty six.

Governors of Texas
1875 births
1961 deaths

Miriam A. Ferguson


Mio Technology Corporation (), a subsidiary of MiTAC International Corporation, is a Taiwanese electronics maker that manufactures and markets pocket PCs, personal digital assistants (PDAs), smartphones and personal navigation devices (PNDs).  It sells products under the "Navman" and "Mio" brands.

Mio Technology currently has operations in Taiwan, China, Japan, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe. Mio Technology is among the world's top three personal navigation device vendors, which also includes TomTom International BV and Garmin Ltd. Currently they make car and bicycle navigation units and dashboard cameras.

Products
Several Mio DigiWalker (C720t, C520 and C320) and Mio Moov (A470, A430, 370, 360 and 300) devices include traffic message channel (TMC).

Portable car navigation
 C7xx Series: C710, C720, C720t, C728
 C5xx Series: C510, C510E, C520, C520t
 C3xx Series: C310, C310s, C310x, C310sx, C320
 C2xx Series: C210, C210s, C220, C230, C250

The new range is the Mio Moov and the Mio Moov Spirit.
 Mio Moov range: Moov 150, Moov 200, Moov 210, Moov 300, Moov 310, Moov 330, Moov 360 (EEU only), Moov 370, Moov 500, Moov 510, Moov 550, Moov 580
 Moov Spirit range: Mio Moov Spirit S300 (S305), Mio Moov Spirit S500 (S505) and (S555), Mio Moov Spirit TV (V505) and (V735)
 Spirit 2010 Range: Mio Spirit 470, Mio Spirit 475, Mio Spirit 575.
There were variants produced for spot deals and limited runs.
 Spirit Range 2011: Mio Spirit 380, Mio Spirit 480, 485, 486, Mio Spirit 680 , 685, 686, 687, 688
 Spirit Range 2013: Mio Spirit 490LM, 495LM, 497LM, Mio Spirit 695lm, 697lm, 697LM with truck routing features

PDA navigation
 DigiWalker series (especially 168 and 180)
 Axx Series: A201
 Pxx Series: P350, P550, P360, P560

GPS PDA Phone
 Axx Series: A501, A502, A700, A701, A702

Handheld navigation
 Hxx Series: H610

Smartphones
 8xxx Series: 8380, 8390

Mio A700/A701
This model was one of the most popular Mio-branded products, since at its launch in 2006 it was one of the few on the market that combined GPS functions with a GSM phone.
 CPU: Intel PXA 270, 520 MHz
 Display: 16 bit TFT, 320x240 pixels
 GPS receiver: SiRFstarIII
 Expansion slots: SD/MMC (SDIO compatible)

Mio C310x
 Accuracy (feet) < 9.8
 Voice-guided commands
 Compass
 Display: 3.5" Touch-screen
 Memory: 1GB ROM, 64MB RAM, expandable
 MP3 playback
 Battery life : Up to 5 hours
 Dimensions : 4.3 x 3.0 x 0.8 inches
 Weight: 6 oz

Mio C720t
The C720t is a cumulative development on previous models of Mio Technology. This model has a 2-mega-pixel camera allowing the user to create their own points of interest (POI). The camera takes the picture of the destination and navigates back to it when needed. This camera also has  business card recognition software, which detects the card and stores its information in the contacts folder of the device.

Besides the new camera, the C720t comes complete with full media powers (pictures, video, and music), as well as Bluetooth capabilities. Mio provides for over 12 million POI's, more than any other companies at this time (October 2007). Available with this is the Traffic Messaging Channel (TMC) which detects and notifies upcoming traffic and helps the driver navigate around it.

Mio S495 LM
Mio S495 LM was launched in 2013 as the  mid-top range model for the Spirit series. It comes with Spirit software and maps of all the European countries. The device has the LM extension which means that it can update maps free of charge anytime you need. The S495LM comes equipped with the same Samsung CPU of 400 MHz present in 2012 models as well, and has a working memory of 128 MHz. As for the premium functions of this device it has: TMC, parking assistance and multiple route choice. Maps from the Tele Atlas provider are used which offer great coverage of most European countries but are less detailed in Eastern Europe. For instance in countries such as Romania or the Ukraine some county roads and roundabouts – that have been there for a year or two - are missing.

Knight Rider GPS
Mio created a GPS that features the voice of William Daniels, who played KITT in the hit 1980s television show Knight Rider. It has two LED lights on each side that are in sync with KITT's voice. The product was released on 24 September 2008 at RadioShack to coincide with the season premiere of the new Knight Rider series.

References

 Mio Technology Limited Becoming Senior Sponsor of Expo 2010 Shanghai
 Mio Launches Sponsorship Website to Celebrate 100 Days to World Expo 2010
 Mio to Unveil Moov V780 at CeBIT
 The Future of GPS? Mio GPS Adds DTV
 Mio Technology Announces New TV PNDs, GPS Phones and Litepad Series Netbooks at Computex 2009
 Mio Technology and Magellan Brands to Coexist in the US Following MiTAC Purchase
 Mio intros four PNDs with new Spirit interface at CES
 Mio Spirit To Hit CES 2009
 Mio intros four PNDs with new Spirit interface at CES

External links
 Mio Technology Limited
 Mio Corporate Blog
 Mio Facebook Fans Page
 Mio Technology Europe
 Knight Rider GPS by Mio

Taiwanese companies established in 2002
Companies based in Taipei
Navigation system companies
Mobile phone manufacturers
Electronics companies established in 2002
Taiwanese brands
Electronics companies of Taiwan

Mio Technology


"Sumer Is Icumen In" is a very old English song which can be sung as a round.  It is the oldest example of a round that we know of.  The composer is unknown.  It was written down around the middle of the 13th century by a monk but we do not know whether that monk composed it, or whether it had been composed earlier.

The title means "Summer has come in".  The round can be sung in six parts.  There are also two parts which can be repeated again and again (an ostinato) throughout the piece.  The language is Middle English and is based on the dialect spoken in Wessex, England at the time.

Music
This is the manuscript that the monk wrote:

To sing as a round, one singer (or group of singers) would begin at the beginning, a second singer would start at the beginning as the first got to the point marked with the red cross, then the third would join in when the second singer got to the red cross, and so on until all six were singing.  The repeated pattern is marked "Pes".  The instructions are written in Latin.

Here is the song in modern notation:

English lyrics (secular)
Here are the words with a modern English translation:

Medieval music

Sumer Is Icumen In


USS Constitution is a wooden, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy. Named by President George Washington after the Constitution of the United States of America, she is the world's oldest commissioned naval vessel afloat.

It was constructed in 1794. It was later launched in 1797, Constitution was one of six original frigates authorized for construction by the Naval Act of 1794 and the third constructed. Joshua Humphreys designed the frigates to be the young Navy's capital ships, and so Constitution and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than standard frigates of the period. Built in Boston, Massachusetts, at Edmund Hartt's shipyard, her first duties with the newly formed United States Navy were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the Quasi-War with France and to defeat the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War.

Constitution is most famous for her actions during the War of 1812 against Great Britain, when she captured numerous merchant ships and defeated five British warships: HMS Guerriere, Java, Pictou, Cyane and Levant.

On August 19, 1812, the Constitution and HMS Guerriere fought a battle about 400 miles (650 Km) southeast of Halifax, Nova Scotia.  The captains were Isaac Hull of U.S. andJames Richard Dacres of U.K.  At around 2:00pm the USS Constitution found the HMS Guerriere, and attacked and damaged the Guerriere.  One American officer was killed and another wounded by musket fire. Captain Dacres was also wounded.  A shot to the cabin set fire to the USS Constitution. The HMS Guerriere was also severely burned and damaged.  While Dacres was preparing to set sail and continue the battle against the Americans, it became obvious that the ship was about to sink.  Dacres was asked if he was ready for surrender.  He said he didn't know but that they could no longer fight.  Later, he surrendered and the HMS Guerriere sank.

The battle with Guerriere earned her the nickname of "Old Ironsides" and public adoration that has repeatedly saved her from scrapping. She continued to serve the nation as flagship in the Mediterranean and African squadrons, and circled the world in the 1840s.

During the American Civil War she served as a training ship for the United States Naval Academy and carried artwork and industrial displays to the Paris Exposition of 1878. Retired from active service in 1881, she served as a receiving ship until designated a museum ship in 1907, and in 1934 she completed a three-year, 90-port tour of the nation. Constitution sailed under her own power for her 200th birthday in 1997 and again in August 2012, to commemorate the 200th anniversary of her victory over Guerriere.

References

Other websites

 Official website
 3D Virtual Tour
 The Captain's Clerk —Extensive sources including ship logs, personnel rosters and research information

Naval transport
1794
1797 in the United States
Constitution

USS Constitution


Canvas is a thick material usually made of woven cotton.  It is used for tents and sails on boats and other places where a sturdy material would be good.  It is similar to the material in blue jeans. It is often a white or pale tan color. It can also be used for painting or even making shoes.

Canvas

Painting
Woven fabrics

Canvas


A conceptual metaphor or cognitive metaphor is a metaphor which refers to one domain (group of ideas) in terms of another. For example, treating quantity in terms of direction:
Prices are rising.
I attacked every weak point in his argument. (Argument as war rather than enquiry or search for truth).
Life is a journey.
Love talked about as if it were war or competition.
Time talked about as if it were a path through space, or a quantity that can be saved or spent or wasted.

The idea of a conceptual metaphor came from a book by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980: Metaphors we live by.
"The most recent linguistic approach to literature is that of cognitive metaphor, which claims that metaphor is not a mode of language, but a mode of thought". Donald Freeman.
A convention is to write conceptual metaphors in small capital letters, e.g. , with the target domain (idea being referred to) first, here "money," and the source domain (terms used to refer to it) second.

Political metaphors
 eminence grise: literally, "grey man," from French. Colloquially, the power-behind-the-throne. An official close to the president or monarch who has so much power behind the scenes that he or she may double or serve as the monarch.
 figurehead: a leader whose powers are entirely symbolic, such as a constitutional monarch.
 puppet government: a government that is manipulated by a foreign power for its own interests.
 star chamber: a secretive council or other group within a government that possesses the actual power, regardless of the government's overt form.
 character assassination: spreading (usually) manufactured stories about a candidate with the intent to destroy his or her reputation in the eyes of the public.
 landslide victory: a huge victory for one side.
 riding coattails: victories by local or state politicians because of the popularity of more powerful politicians.
 grassroots: a political movement driven by the constituents of a community.
 astroturfing: public relations campaigns in politics and advertising that try to create the impression of being spontaneous, grassroots behavior.
 straw man: the practice of refuting an argument that is weaker than one's opponent actually offers, or which he simply has not put forth at all. A type of logical fallacy.
 spin (public relations): a heavily biased portrayal of an event or situation.
 witch-hunt: the hysterical pursuit of political enemies
 bread and circuses: satisfaction of shallow or immediate desires of the populace at the expense of good policy; also, the erosion of civic duty and the public life in a populace.

There are many more, enough to prove the importance of the metaphor in our lives.

Notes

Metaphors

Conceptual metaphor


Louis Appignani, (born March 30, 1933, in Manhattan, New York City), is an entrepreneur and philanthropist from Miami, Florida. He is chairman and founder of Louja Realty Inc., he has been chairman and founder of Computer Education Inc. and, until 2000, Barbizon International Modeling School.

Biography
He was born March 30, 1933, in Manhattan in New York City. Appignani attended postgraduate studies in economics at Indiana University. He graduated from Baruch College of the City University of New York, earning his M.S. degree in finance from Columbia University. He has served on the boards a number of professional civic organizations.

In 2001 Appignani established the Appignani Foundation to "support secular activities that will address significant, viable and long term human goals on our planet." He also founded the IHEU Appignani Center for Bioethics, formerly a branch of the International Humanist and Ethical Union but now under the aegis of the American Humanist Association (AHA).  It is "dedicated to providing thoughtful, timely research and analyses of bioethical challenges facing the global community." He also founded the Appignani Humanist Legal Center, a project of the AHA that uses qualified humanist-minded attorneys to pursue cases that are "a violation of the law as well as of Humanist principles of what we consider religious liberty, freedoms, and civil rights."

References

1933 births
Living people
American atheists
American humanists
American business executives

Louis Appignani


Devaki was a woman mentioned in the Mahabharata. Her father's name was Devaka, and she was the younger sister of Kansha, a cruel king of Mathura of Ancient India. Devaki was married to Vasudeva, a son  of Sureshana. Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu (a god of Hindus)  was son of Devaki and Vasudeva.She was Krishna's real mother.

She had 8 sons in total including Krishna. The first six of her children were killed by her brother Kamsa. The seventh time there was a miscarriage and Balaram got carried to Mother Rohini's womb. All the time she was in prison by Kamsa till he released them out of pity. You can find more at the book Krsna by His divine Grace A.C Bhaktivedanta Swami Srila Prabhupada.

Hindu mythology

Devaki


A curtsey (also spelled curtsy or courtesy) is a traditional gesture of greeting, in which a girl or woman lowers her body by bending her knees. It is the female equivalent of male bowing in European cultures.  The word "curtsy" comes from "courtesy" which means "politeness".

According to Desmond Morris, the movements in the curtsey and the bow were similar until the 17th century. Only later did the difference between the female and the male gesture develop. The earlier, combined version is still performed by Restoration comedy actors.

When a curtsey is very formal, the girl/woman bends the knees outward (rather than straight ahead), often sweeping one foot behind her. She may also use her hands to hold her skirt out from her body. In Victorian times, when women wore floor-length, hooped skirts, they curtsied using the plié movement borrowed from second-position in classical ballet in which the knees are bent while the back is held straight. Both feet and knees point out so the body lowers straight down. In this way, the lady lowers herself evenly, not to one side.

Traditionally, women and girls curtsey to people who are of higher rank (more important) than they are, just as men and boys bow. Today this practice has become less common. In European cultures it is traditional for women to curtsey in front of members of the Royal family.  This is sometimes called a "court curtsey" and is often very deep. Some female domestic workers curtsey for their employers.

Female dancers often curtsey at the end of a performance to show thanks or acknowledge applause from the audience. At the end of a ballet class, students will also curtsey or bow to the teacher and the pianist to thank them. According to Victorian dance etiquette, a woman curtseys before beginning a dance. Female Scottish highland dancers performing the national dances and the Irish jig also curtsey as well (at both the beginning and end for the national dances and at the end for the Irish Jig). Some female ballroom dancers will curtsey to their partners before beginning the Viennese Waltz. In some cultures females bow instead of curtseying.

Related pages
Bowing

References

Other websites

How to Curtsey
The Lady's Courtesy in the Victorian Ballroom

Dance
Non-verbal communication

Curtsey


Burton Richter (born Mairch 22, 1931; deed Julie 18, 2018) wis a Nobel Prize-winnin American pheesicist. He led the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) team which co-discovered the J/ψ meson in 1974, alangside the Brookhaven Naitional Laboratory (BNL) team led bi Samuel Ting. This discovery wis pairt o the sae-cried November Revolution o pairticle pheesics. He wis the SLAC director frae 1984 tae 1999.

References

American physicists
1931 births
2018 daiths
Nobel laureates in Pheesics
American Nobel laureates
Enrico Fermi Awaird recipients
Members o the American Pheesical Society
Members o the Unitit States Naitional Academy o Sciences
Members o JASON
Stanford University SLAC faculty
Jewish American scientists
Jewish pheesicists
Massachusetts Institute o Technology alumni
Mercersburg Academy alumni
American fowk o German-Jewish strynd
Far Rockaway High School alumni
Fowk frae Far Rockaway, Queens
20t-century physicists
21st-century pheesicists
20t-century American scientists
21st-century American scientists

Burton Richter


The International Ice Patrol is an organization with the purpose of monitoring the presence of icebergs in the Atlantic and Arctic oceans and reporting their movements for safety purposes. It is operated by United States Coast Guard but is funded by the 13 nations interested in trans-Atlantic navigation. As of 2011 the governments contributing to the International Ice Patrol include Belgium, Canada (see Canadian Ice Service), Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Panama, Poland, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

The organization was established in 1914 in response to the sinking of RMS Titanic. The primary mission of the Ice Patrol is to monitor the iceberg danger in the North Atlantic Ocean and provide relevant iceberg warning products to the maritime community.

History

Founding
From the earliest journeys into the North Atlantic, icebergs have threatened vessels. A review of the history of navigation prior to the turn of the 20th century shows an impressive number of casualties occurred in the vicinity of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. For example,  sank in 1833 with a loss of 215 people. Between 1882 and 1890, 14 vessels were lost and 40 seriously damaged due to ice. This does not include the large number of whaling and fishing vessels lost or damaged by ice. It took one of the greatest marine disasters of all time to arouse public demand for international cooperative action to deal with this marine hazard. This disaster, the sinking of  on 15 April 1912, was the prime impetus for the establishment of the International Ice Patrol.

On her maiden voyage from Southampton, England bound for New York, Titanic collided with an iceberg just south of the tail of the Grand Banks and sank in less than three hours. The loss of life was enormous with more than 1,500 of the 2,224 passengers and crew perishing. Titanic, the brand new flagship of the White Star Line, was the largest passenger liner of her time displacing 45,000 tons and capable of sustained speed in excess of . The loss of Titanic gripped the world with a sobering awareness of an iceberg's potential for tragedy. The sheer dimensions of the Titanic disaster created sufficient public reaction on both sides of the Atlantic to prod reluctant governments into action, producing the first Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) convention in 1914.

After the Titanic disaster, the U.S. Navy assigned the cruisers  and  to patrol the Grand Banks of Newfoundland for the remainder of 1912. In 1913, the United States Navy could not spare ships for this purpose, so the Revenue Cutter Service (forerunner of the United States Coast Guard) assumed responsibility, assigning USRC Seneca and USRC Miami to conduct the patrol.

At the first International Conference on the Safety of Life at Sea, which was convened in London on 12 November 1913, the subject of patrolling the ice regions was thoroughly discussed. The convention signed on 30 January 1914, by the representatives of the world's various maritime powers, provided for the inauguration of an international derelict-destruction, ice observation, and ice patrol service, consisting of vessels, which should patrol the ice regions during the season of iceberg danger and attempt to keep the trans-Atlantic lanes clear of derelicts during the remainder of the year. Due primarily to the experience gained in 1912 and 1913, the United States Government was invited to undertake the management of the triple service, the expense to be defrayed by the 13 nations interested in trans-Atlantic navigation.

The second International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea was convened in London on 16 April 1929. Eighteen nations participated, all of which signed the final act on 31 May 1929. Because of the fear in the United States Senate as a result of ambiguities in Article 54 dealing with control, the 1929 convention was not ratified by the United States until 7 August 1936, and even then the ratification was accompanied by three reservations. At the same time, Congress enacted legislation on 25 June 1936, formally requiring the Commandant of the Coast Guard to administer the International Ice Observation and Ice Patrol Service (Chap. 807, para. 2 49 USC 1922) and describing in general fashion the manner in which this service was to be performed. With only minor changes, this remains today as the basic Coast Guard authority to operate the International Ice Patrol. Since 1929, there have been three SOLAS conventions (1948, 1960 & 1974). None of these have recommended any basic change affecting the Ice Patrol.

Every year since 1914, the United States Coast Guard and the International Ice Patrol lay a wreath from a ship or an aircraft at the site of the Titanic disaster on 15 April. The solemn ceremony is attended by the craft's crew and a dedication statement to the Titanic and her fatalities is read.

Administration

From its inception until the beginning of World War II, the Ice Patrol was conducted from two surface patrol cutters alternating surveillance patrols of the southern ice limits. In 1931 and thereafter a third ship was assigned to Ice Patrol to perform oceanographic observations in the vicinity of the Grand Banks. After World War II, aerial surveillance became the primary ice reconnaissance method with surface patrols phased out except during unusually heavy ice years or extended periods of reduced visibility. Use of the oceanographic vessel continued until 1982, when the Coast Guard's sole remaining oceanographic ship, , was converted to a medium endurance cutter. The aircraft has distinct advantages for ice reconnaissance providing much greater coverage in a relatively short period of time.

From 1946 until 1966, the Ice Patrol offices, operations center and reconnaissance aircraft were based at the Coast Guard Air Detachment Argentia, Newfoundland during the ice season.

Due to changing operational commitments and financial constraints the Coast Guard Argentia Air Detachment closed in 1966. Ice Patrol headquarters and operations center moved to Governors Island, New York where they remained until October 1983.

Today the International Ice Patrol is located at the NOAA Satellite Operations Facility in Suitland, Maryland. Previously, it was located at the Coast Guard Research and Development Center in New London, Connecticut. The ice reconnaissance detachment, usually composed of eleven aircrew and four ice observers flying in an HC-130 aircraft, continues to work out of Newfoundland.

The Ice Patrol disseminates information on icebergs and the limit of all known sea ice via radio broadcast from the U.S. Coast Guard Communications Command (COMMCOM) located in Chesapeake, Virginia via Inmarsat Safetynet, and radio facsimile chart. Ice Patrol information is also available via internet access. 2002 changes to SOLAS requires ships transiting the region guarded by the Ice Patrol to use the services provided during the ice season.

Aviation history of the International Ice Patrol

 6 February 1946 – A PBY-5A makes the first International Ice Patrol reconnaissance flight.
 24 February 1946 – Two PB4Y-1s arrive at Naval Station Argentia in Argentia, Newfoundland to become the first dedicated Ice Patrol aircraft.
 1 July 1946 – First helicopter deployments in International Ice Patrol. An HNS-1 helicopter, Sikorsky R-4, CGNR 39047, flew from  off the Greenland coast.
 1947 – A PB-1G becomes the Ice Patrol aircraft.
 1948 – Camera-equipped PB-1G begins an iceberg census off Baffin Island completed in 1949.
 1949 – Aircraft become the sole reconnaissance tools for the first time.
 1956 – Unsuccessful tests to identify icebergs by marking with dye markers, commercial dye, and used motor oil.
 1958 – Last ice patrol by a PB-1G.
 1959 – R5Ds replace PB-1Gs.
 June 1959 – Unsuccessful iceberg demolition experiments with magnesium and thermite incendiary bombs.
 May 1960 – Unsuccessful iceberg demolition experiments dropping high-explosive bombs from UF-2G.
 24 May 1962 – First Ice Patrol by HC-130B.
 1963 – R5Ds replaced by Doppler Navigation System equipped HC-130Bs.
 1964 – First successful use of Airborne radiation thermometer to detect changes in surface water temperature.
 1967 – First use of microwave radiometer to differentiate radar contacts as ship or iceberg.
 30 April 1970 – The ice reconnaissance detachment moved from Argentia to CFB Summerside in Prince Edward Island.
 1971 – Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) evaluation began.
 1973 – Inertial Navigation System installed on Ice Patrol aircraft.
 1973 – The ice reconnaissance detachment moved to St. John's International Airport, St. John's, Newfoundland.
 1982 – The ice reconnaissance detachment relocated to CFB Gander, Gander, Newfoundland.
 1989 – The ice reconnaissance detachment moved back to St. John's, Newfoundland.

References

External links
 United States Coast Guard International Ice Patrol Site
 Paper on the Patrol's Economic Value
 United States Coast Guard Aviation Association, The Ancient Order of the Pterodactyl

United States Navy and Coast Guard patrols
Navigation
Maritime organizations
United States Coast Guard
United States Coast Guard Aviation
International water transport
Ice in transportation
Organizations established in 1914

International Ice Patrol