Anne Neville (11 June 1456  16 March 1485) was Princess of Wales as the wife of Edward of Westminster and was the queen of Richard III of England.  She had just one son, Edward.  She was the daughter of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick,

Marriage
Anne was formally betrothed to Queen Margaret's son, Edward of Westminster at the Chateau d'Amboise in France.  They were married in Angers Cathedral probably on 13 December 1470. Because of the death of Prince Edward at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May 1471, she was taken prisoner along with Queen Margaret.  She was taken first to Coventry and then to the Duke of Clarence's house in London.  The Duke of Clarence was Richard's (the future King's) brother and married to Anne's sister Isabella.  He wanted to keep all the Neville money and would not let her leave.  Richard rescued Anne. They were married the next year.

The wedding of Anne Neville and Richard, Duke of Gloucester (later Richard III of England) took place on 12 July 1472, at Westminster Abbey.  They lived in Middleham Castle. Upon her marriage, she was called Duchess of Gloucester.  They had only one child, Edward, born at Middleham around 1473.

Later years
On 9 April 1483, Edward IV died. Richard was named Lord Protector for his 12-year-old nephew Edward V. On 25 June 1483, Edward was said to be illegitimate. Richard took the throne as King Richard III. Anne was crowned on 6 July 1483. Her son was made Prince of Wales.

Edward died suddenly on 9 April 1484, at Sheriff Hutton, while his parents were absent. He was then 10 years old.  After the death of his son and heir, rumours said that Richard planned to divorce Anne and marry his niece, Elizabeth of York. There is little evidence for this.  After the death of her son, Anne began to raise Richard's nephew, Edward, Earl of Warwick, the nine-year-old son of George of Clarence. Richard made the boy his heir. After Anne died, Richard quickly named another nephew, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, as his heir.

Anne died on 16 March 1485 of tuberculosis, at Westminster.

People buried in Westminster Abbey
Kings and Queens consort of England
1456 births
1485 deaths

Anne Neville


Antoninus Pius (Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus, 19 September 86 – 7 March 161), or simply Antoninus, was Roman Emperor from 138 to 161.

Life

Marriage and children
As a private citizen between 110 and 115, he married Annia Galeria Faustina the Elder. They are believed to have enjoyed a happy marriage.Faustina was a beautiful woman, renowned for her wisdom. She spent her whole life caring for the poor and assisting the most disadvantaged Romans.

Faustina bore Antoninus four children, two sons and two daughters. They included Faustina the Younger, a future Roman Empress, who married her maternal cousin, future Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

When Faustina died in 141, Antoninus was greatly bereaved and had a temple built in the Roman Forum in her name, had coins with her portrait struck in her honor, and created a charity called Girls of Faustina, which assisted orphaned girls.

Favor with Hadrian
Having filled with success the offices of quaestor and praetor, he was consul in 120. He was appointed by Hadrian as one of the four proconsuls to administer Italia, then Asia. The Emperor Hadrian adopted him as his son and successor on 25 February 138, after the death of his first adopted son Lucius Aelius. The condition was that Antoninus would in turn adopt Marcus Annius Verus, the son of his wife's brother, and Lucius, son of Aelius Verus, who afterwards became the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus

Emperor
There are no records of any military related acts in his time. One modern scholar has written "It is almost certain not only that at no time in his life did he ever see, let alone command, a Roman army, but that, throughout the twenty-three years of his reign, he never went within five hundred miles of a legion".  His reign was the most peaceful in the entire history of the Principate.

Unrest in Britannia is believed to have led to the construction of the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, although it was soon abandoned.

He was virtually unique among emperors in that he dealt with crises without leaving Italy once during his reign. He dealt with provincial matters through their governors or through imperial letters to the cities such as Ephesus (of which some were publicly displayed). This style of government was highly praised by his contemporaries and by later generations.

Those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful in comparison to those before and after his reign. We might think that he wisely cut the activities of the Roman Empire to a careful minimum. Perhaps he was uninterested in events away from Rome, and his inaction contributed to the troubles which faced Marcus Aurelius and other emperors of the third century.

German historian Ernst Kornemann, in his Römische Geschichte (roman history) [2 vols., ed. by H. Bengtson, Stuttgart 1954], said that the reign of Antoninus comprised "a succession of grossly wasted opportunities", given the upheavals that were to come. There is more to this argument, given that the Parthians in the East were themselves soon to make no small amount of mischief after Antoninus' passing. Kornemann's brief is that Antoninus might have waged preventive wars to head off these outsiders.

After the longest reign since Augustus (surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months), Antoninus died of fever about twelve miles (19 km) from Rome, on 7 March 161. The last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password was "aequanimitas" (equanimity).

References

86 births
161 deaths
2nd-century Roman emperors

Antoninus Pius


Islamic studies is a term that can mean two different things.

"Islamic studies" can mean researching or learning any topic in a way that agrees with Islamic knowledge.  It includes all the traditional forms of religious thought, such as Kalam  (Islamic theology) and Fiqh (Islamic law). It also looks at areas of study that look at secular topics from an Islamic understanding. For example, Islamic science and Islamic economics.

"Islamic studies" can also mean studying the history of Islam and Islamic philosophy.  Academics from many different disciplines (areas of study) study and share knowledge on Muslim societies as it is today and as it has been in the past.  Some non-Muslim scholars have written works which are read by many Muslims.  Before 1980, such non-Muslim scholars in this field had been called "Islamicists". The field of study was often a part of  Oriental studies It is now more often said to be a part of Asian studies. Many universities have degrees on the subject of Islamic studies.

Asian studies

Islamic studies


The People's Liberation Army (PLA) was founded by N. Bisheshwar Singh on September 25, 1978. It is a separatist armed revolutionary group fighting for a separate independent socialist state of Manipur. It was the first organization from Manipur to have been trained by the China's People Liberation Army at Lhasa in the eighties. It was also trained by the NSCN in Myanmar during this time.

Organizations based in Manipur
Separatist movements of India
1978 establishments in Asia
Rebel militia groups in Asia
1970s establishments in India

People's Liberation Army of Manipur


Self-organized time-division multiple access (STDMA) is a channel access method designed by Håkan Lans, based on time-division multiplexing.

The term "self-organized" describes the manner in which time slots are assigned to users. Time-division multiple access (TDMA) divides a channel into frames, which furthermore are subdivided into a vast number of time slots. Users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using their own time slot. One of the drawbacks of TDMA is that it requires a central station for slot assignment and time synchronisation. STDMA proposes  for assigning slots without the involvement of a central station. Time synchronisation is usually taken care of using Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).

STDMA is in use by the Automatic Identification System (AIS), a standard marine short-range coastal tracking system, and is the base of the International Civil Aviation Organization VHF Data Link Mode 4.

While the method was patented, a US patent ex-parte reexamination certificate was issued in 2010 canceling all claims.

References

External links
 Håkan Lans, designer of STDMA (DMOZ entry)
 GP&C Systems International AB Holding company of STDMA patent rights in Europe

Maritime communication


Sweetbreads or ris are culinary names for the thymus or the pancreas glands especially of the calf (ris de veau) and lamb (ris d'agneau) (although beef and pork sweetbreads are also eaten).

Various other glands used as food have also been called 'sweetbreads', including the parotid gland, the sublingual glands, and testicles (cf. Rocky Mountain oyster). The "heart" sweetbreads are more spherical in shape, and surrounded symmetrically by the "throat" sweetbreads, which are more cylindrical in shape.

One common preparation of sweetbreads involves soaking in salt water, then poaching in milk, after which the outer membrane is removed.  Once dried and chilled, they are often breaded and fried.  They are also used for stuffing or in pâtés. They are grilled in many Latin American cuisines, such as in the Argentine asado, and served in bread in Turkish cuisine.

The word "sweetbread" is first known in the 16th century, but the logic behind the name is unclear. "Sweet" is perhaps used since the thymus is sweet and rich tasting, as opposed to savoury tasting muscle flesh. "Bread" may come from brede 'roasted meat'.

References

Glands
Offal

Sweetbread


Pollination is part of sexual reproduction in plants. It describes how the pollen grains get to the female parts of a plant. Pollen grains, which contain the male gametes, need to get to where the female gamete(s) are.

What happens is basically the same as sexual reproduction in animals. Each pollen grain is haploid: it has half of the DNA (genetic information) that is needed to make a new plant. During fertilization this combines with the DNA that is in the egg of the female part and a zygote is formed. In seed plants a seed is started.

Ways of pollinating
In flowering plants, pollen has to get from one flower to another. There are two main ways that this can happen: by non-living things like wind or water, or by living things such as insects or birds.

 Maize and the wind
Maize (called corn in some parts of the world) is pollinated by wind. The male anthers let go of their pollen and it blows over to a nearby female flower on another corn plant. Most of the flowers are either male or female on a corn plant (monoecious), rather than both sexes in one flower (hermaphrodite).

Maize flowers have evolved (changed over time) to use wind for pollination. They do not need pretty petals. The pollen is light so it can blow around, and the ends of the female parts (stigma) are fluffy to catch all the tiny pollen grains.

 Tomatoes and bees
With tomato plants, bees move the pollen from the male parts of one flower (anthers), to the female parts of another flower (stigma). The bee moves between flowers as it collects the nectar that the flowers make. The bees take the nectar and some pollen back to their hive, and the tomato plants get to reproduce (make new tomato plants).

Because the tomato flowers have evolved to attract bees, they have spread-out petals and are white to human eyes (bees, like most insects, can see into the ultraviolet range as well as our visual range of wavelengths). The pollen is often stuck together in clumps called pollinia, which in turn get stuck to the bee. Bees are extremely hairy, and carry tiny electric charges which attract the pollen onto their bodies. Honey bees have special pollen baskets, usually on their rear legs; they groom the pollen off their bodies into these pockets.

Much of the pollen gets taken back to the nest or hive, where it is used as a source of protein, most needed by the larvae. Some gets rubbed off on the next flower, where the female stigma is sticky. A pollen tube grows down to permit the male gamete to fertilize an egg and make a seed.

90% of flowering plants are pollinated by animals, and only 10% use abiotic (non-living) pollination. Of these abiotic pollinations, 98% is done by wind and just 2% by water.

What happens after pollination

What happens after pollination is fertilisation. In plants it is a double fertilisation in which two sperm cells fertilize cells in the plant ovary. One of these is a normal fertilisation, which produces the embryo. The other is a unique kind of fertilisation which produces the seed endosperm.

The process begins when a pollen grain sticks to the stigma of the pistil (female reproductive structure). Then it germinates, and grows a long pollen tube. While this pollen tube is growing, a haploid cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. This cell divides by mitosis into two haploid sperm cells.

As the pollen tube grows, it makes its way from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. Here the pollen tube reaches the ovule and releases its contents (which include the sperm cells). One sperm makes its way to fertilize the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with two cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell.

As the zygote develops into an embryo, the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, which serves as the embryo's food supply. The ovary now will develop into a fruit and the ovule will develop into a seed.

Gymnosperms
There is evidence that some gymnosperms were insect-pollinated in the Triassic period, but pollination by animals is not the main method in this group. Most are wind-pollinated. Some gymnosperms and their insect pollinators are co-evolved for pollination. The best-known examples are members of the order Cycadales and their associated species of beetle.

Families of flowering plants
Really widespread and specialised animal pollination came with the Angiosperms (flowering plants). Different families of flowering plants usually specialise in a particular pollination method. Sometimes a few genera shift from one method to another.p53
Ranunculaceae: pollinated by insects. Only one genus is pollinated by wind.
Compositae (Asteraceae): this, the largest family, is almost entirely pollinated by insects. Two groups of genera have changed to wind pollination.
Cyperaceae: almost entirely wind-pollinated. One genus is insect-pollinated.
Moraceae: this, the mulberry family, is the best example of a widespread change from wind to insect pollination. All its related families (Ulmaceae, Cannabaceae, Urticaceae) are wind pollinated.
Gramineae (Poaceae): the grasses have extreme adaptations for wind pollination. Only two genera have changed to insect pollination.

Pollination syndrome
Pollination syndrome is the set of adaptive traits which help flowers to get pollinated.

Wind pollination
Wind pollinated flowers are usually small and inconspicuous (not showy). They do not have a scent or produce nectar. The anthers may produce a large number of pollen grains, while the stamens are generally long and stick up out of the flower. Their stigmas may be large and feathery to catch the pollen grains. Insects may visit them to collect pollen; there are some examples of flowers which are both wind and insect pollinated.

Animal pollination
Beetle pollination
Beetle-pollinated flowers are usually large, greenish or off-white in color and heavily scented. Scents may be spicy, fruity, or similar to decaying organic material. Most beetle-pollinated flowers are flattened or dish shaped, with pollen easy to get at. They may have traps to keep the beetle longer. The plant's ovaries are usually well protected from the biting mouthparts of the beetles. Beetles are important pollinators in some parts of the world, such as dry areas of southern Africa and southern California, and the montane grasslands of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa.

Fly pollination

Some flies feed on nectar and pollen as adults (particularly bee flies and hoverflies). The flowers they visit often have a strong scent, and tend to be purple, violet, blue, and white.

On the other hand, male fruit flies are attracted to some wild orchids which do not produce nectar. Instead, they produce a precursor of the fly's sex pheromone. Flies which normally visit dead animals or dung are attracted to flowers that mimic these smelly items. They get no reward and would quickly leave, but the plant may have traps to slow them down. These plants have a strong, unpleasant odor, and are brown or orange in colour.

Their sheer numbers and the presence of some flies throughout the year make them important pollinators for many plants. Flies tend to be important pollinators in high-altitudes and high-latitudes where they are numerous, and other insect groups may be lacking.

Bee pollination
Bee-pollinated flowers tend to be yellow or blue, often with ultraviolet nectar guides and scent. Nectar and/or pollen are offered as rewards in varying amounts. The sugar in the nectar tends to be mostly sucrose. There are different types of bees which differ in size, tongue length and behaviour (some solitary, some colonial). Some plants can only be pollinated by bees because their anthers release pollen internally, and it must be shaken out by buzzing ("sonication"). Bumblebees are the only animals that do this.

Bee pollination from mobile beehives is of great economic value for orchards such as apple or almond.

Wasp pollination
Wasps are also responsible for the pollination of several plants species, being important pollen vectors and, in some cases, even more efficient pollinators than bees.

Lepidoptera pollination
Butterfly-pollinated flowers tend to be large and showy, pink or lavender in colour, often have a landing area, and are usually scented. Since butterflies do not digest pollen (with one exception), more nectar is offered than pollen. The flowers have simple nectar guides with the nectaries usually hidden in narrow tubes or spurs, reached by the long tongue of the butterflies.

Among the more important moth pollinators are the hawk moths (Sphingidae). Their behaviour is similar to hummingbirds: they hover in front of flowers with rapid wingbeats. Most are nocturnal or twilight feeders. So moth-pollinated flowers tend to be white, night-opening, large and showy with tubular corollas and a strong, sweet scent produced in the evening, night or early morning. A lot of nectar is produced to fuel the high metabolic rates needed to power their flight.

Other moths fly slowly and settle on the flower. They do not need as much nectar as the fast-flying hawk moths, and the flowers tend to be small (though they may be aggregated in heads).

Bird pollination
Hummingbirds are the most familiar nectar-feeding birds for North Americans, there are analogous species in other parts of the world. Flowers attractive to hummingbirds, which hover in front of the flower, tend to be large red or orange tubes with a lot of dilute nectar produced during the day. Since birds do not have a strong response to scent, they tend to be odourless. Perching birds need a substantial landing platform, so sunbirds, honeyeaters, and the like are less associated with tubular flowers.

Bat pollination

Bat-pollinated flowers tend to be large and showy, white or light coloured, open at night and have strong odours. They are often large and bell-shaped. Bats drink the nectar, and these plants typically offer nectar for long periods. Sight, smell, and echo-location are used to initially find the flowers, and excellent spatial memory is used to visit them repeatedly. In fact, bats can identify nectar-producing flowers using echolocation. Bat-pollinated plants have bigger pollen than their relatives.

Honey guides

Honey guides, nectar guides or floral guides are markings on flowers which tell insects where to go for nectar (many insects can see in the ultraviolet range). Most of these guides are invisible to humans unless seen in ultraviolet light. The benefit to the plant is that the guides increase the supply of pollinators at a relatively low cost.

History

A full understanding of pollination is quite recent.

In 1672 Nehemiah Grew had some idea that pollen was the means of fertilisation in higher plants. Using a microscope, he was the first to describe pollen in detail. This led to the discovery that all pollen grains in a species were alike. The study of pollen grains is called palynology. It is much used in micropaleontology. Sex in plants was discovered in 1694, when Rudolf Camerarius put his discovery into a letter.

In 1793 Christian Sprengel (1750–1816) published a work on the pollination of flowers by insects which made all the main points. Unfortunately, "his work was so far outside the standard thinking and interests of the period that it was almost completely ignored".

Two lines of work solved the main issues. One was done by studies of how the pollen cells worked to fertilise the ovum, and the other was to recognise the coevolution of the animal pollinators and the flowering plants. Both these lines of work became essentially 'modern' in the middle of the nineteenth century.

References

Plants
Biological reproduction
Coevolution
Bees
Botany

Pollination


The Ford Mustang is a very popular American sports car built by the Ford Motor Company beginning in 1964. The first cars were built in Ford's Dearborn, Michigan factory on March 9 of that year and the car was first shown to the public on April 17 at the New York World's Fair. It did not cost a lot of money, but it was still very fancy and looked like a much more expensive car. People could order their Mustang with many options and body styles, such as a convertible, 2+2 (fastback), or coupe. Many different engines were available, from the 170 CID six-cylinder to some of Ford's biggest and most powerful V-8 engines in later years. This meant car buyers could have a Mustang that saved gas or a more powerful and fast car. More than one million Mustangs were sold in only two years. The Mustang is still being sold today and is still very popular. It was so popular and so different when it was introduced that the Mustang and other cars from other makers which looked like the Mustang were given the name "ponycar."

The so-called "1964 1/2" Mustang was designed by Joe Oros and Dave Ash of Ford's Mercury division, was based on another Ford car, the Falcon and was proposed by Ford's president, Lee Iacocca. The Falcon was not expensive to build and that helped Iacocca get the Mustang the approval it needed to be built. The people who ran the Ford company did not want to take a chance on a car like that because they lost a lot of money on another car, the Edsel, just a few years back. It set sales records and became one of the best selling cars of all time. It would remain mostly the same until 1966. So popular was the Mustang that three Ford assembly plants worked to build it. Not only was the Mustang built in Dearborn, but in Metuchen, New Jersey and San Jose, California as well.

The very first Mustang built to be sold to the public was a white convertible with a black interior and a V-8 engine. It was purchased by a pilot from Newfoundland. Ford offered the one millionth Mustang to the owner in exchange for the first one. That first Mustang, serial number 5F08F100001, is still on display at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn.

Its second bodystyle came out in 1967, its third in 1969 and its fourth in 1971. Bigger, more powerful engines were offered starting in 1967, making some Mustangs into musclecars. Some of those special Mustangs had special names such as Mustang GT, Mach 1, Boss 302, Boss 351, Boss 429 and 429 SCJ, or "Super Cobra Jet." By 1971, the Mustang had become a much larger car. The car grew in size so that Ford could put its biggest engines in it, but insurance companies were charging very high prices to insure powerful cars and sales began to drop. Many people missed the original, smaller Mustang.

A new second generation Mustang came out in 1974 called Mustang II and was based on the Ford Pinto, although far less than the original car had been based on the Falcon. This new car was almost the same size as the original car, but emissions controls and the Arab oil embargo meant that the Mustang II was not a very powerful car. 1974 was not only the first time Ford had built a car which looked like an older model, it was also the first American car to be built on the metric system. The short, low hood meant that neither the inline six-cylinder engine nor V-8 would fit, so engine choices were changed to a 2.3 liter four-cylinder engine built by Ford in Brazil and a more expensive V-6 engine built by Ford in Germany. A 5.0 liter V-8 engine was offered in 1975 which meant that Ford engineers had to redesign much of the car to make it fit. No matter which engine was used, the Mustang II was a heavier car than the 1964-66 model.

The Mustang II helped keep the ponycar alive between 1974 and 1978. General Motors almost stopped building their popular Chevrolet Camaro and Pontiac Firebird; Chrysler Corporation stopped building the Dodge Challenger and Plymouth Barracuda during that time. General Motors stopped building the Camaro in 2002, but they brought back a new version in 2009. Chrysler brought back a new Challenger in 2008 as well; they, like today's Mustang, are made to look like older models.

The new third generation Mustang that came out in 1979 may have been the most important Mustang ever. One reason was the return of a powerful V-8 in 1982 which was developed in later years into an even more powerful engine. The basic design continued all the way through the 1993 model year, with a fourth generation launching for the 1994 model year but still using the platform of the old car, but with hundreds of thousands of improvements over the years, very few parts except for some minor chassis parts stayed unchanged.

The 2005 model was the first all-new Mustang since 1979. Because the original Mustang was and is one of the most popular cars ever, Ford made the new Mustang coupe and convertible look very much like the first Mustangs, especially the 1967 and 1968 models. The engines of the 2005 Mustang were based on the older engines, but had more power. The 4.0-liter V6 engine made 210 hp and the 4.6-liter V8 300 hp, which rose to 315 hp on the 2008 Bullitt. All models were available with manual and automatic transmissions.

Both Ford and Carroll Shelby recently brought back the a new version of the very fast Shelby GT-500 Mustang in 2007. Mr. Shelby helped create the special Shelby GT-350 and GT-500 versions of the Mustang beginning in 1965. The 2007 Shelby GT500 had a 5.4-liter V8, which produced 500 hp. In 2008 a KR version with 540 hp was added.

The 2010 Mustang in turn looks much like the 2005-09 model, but all the body parts except for the roof are different. The rear turn signals of the 2005-2010 cars blink in a one-two-three sequence like the 1967-68 Mercury Cougar and 1964-66 Ford Thunderbird. Power for the V8 rose to 315 hp. In 2011, the Mustang received new engines, a 3.7-liter V6 base engine with 305 hp and a new 5.0-liter engine with 412 hp. Power on the Shelby GT500 rose to 550 hp and later to 662 hp in 2013. A Boss 302 performance version powered by a 444 hp V8 was introduced for 2012.

For 2015, a completely new Ford Mustang was introduced. This included a 5.0 V8 engine which produced 435hp, and was really a stylish and morden look.

That was the Ford Mustang in 2015 but in 2016, Shelby decided to boost the 6th generation Mustang by creating the all new Shelby GT350R which had a 5.2 litre V8 with 526hp at 7500RPM. This was a great increase in performance since the 2015 Mustang. It also included many carbon fibre pieces that were put into the car to reduce its weight. The stock rims in fact were the first ever carbon fibre rims created by NASA, a space station in the USA. The GT350R also had a mounted carbon fibre spoiler and quad exhaust pipes. The same Mustang will be sold in America until 2018, where Ford is rumoured to give us a brand new facelifted Mustang...

Beginning with the 2021 model year, Ford also uses the Mustang name on a new, large electric crossover model called the Mach-E.

The 2021 Mustang Mach-E is Ford's first all-electric crossover, and it was designed and named after the company's iconic pony car. The Mach-E also pays homage to the "Mach 1" moniker that has been used on high-performance Mustangs of old. Ford said it went with the name because it needed the electrified crossover to be as desirable as a Tesla to usher in its new era of electric vehicles. It's expected to provide 300 miles of driving range when paired with the extended-range battery and rear-wheel drive.

References

Other websites
 Ford Mustang Reviews & Pictures

1960s automobiles
1970s automobiles
1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
Mustang

Ford Mustang


A parking lot (or car park) is an area where cars and other vehicles are parked and left temporarily. Parking lots are usually flat. The surface is usually made of asphalt, concrete, or gravel. Some lots may be bare earth. The paving material in a parking lot can heat quickly in the sun. A parked car can get hot, too. Children, older people, and animals such as dogs and cats should not be left in a parked car. They can die in a hot car.

Lines are put on paved lots to create the outlines of parking spaces. People leave their cars in these spaces while they go shopping, go to work, or do errands. Some spaces are set aside for disabled drivers or disabled passengers. These spaces are clearly marked. A disabled driver needs a special badge or insignia issued by the government to use these spaces. Disabled spaces are usually close to the front of a lot. Drivers who are not disabled can be fined or their cars towed if they use these spaces.

Parking lots are usually near businesses, hospitals, government buildings, schools, hotels, zoos, etc. If many people go to these places, then the parking lots will be large. If not too many people go to these places, then the parking lots will be small. Small lots are usually unsupervised. Large lots are usually supervised by an attendant stationed in a small booth at the lot's entrance. He may issue a pass to a vehicle's driver that is stamped with the vehicle's arrival time. He will collect a fee from the driver when the vehicle leaves the lot. Some hotels provide free parking and those parking lots are big enough with lot of entrance.

At a rural event such as a county fair, concert, auction, barn sale, corn maze, or pick-your-own strawberry patch, a parking lot may be nothing more than a large area of bare earth or a meadow that has been mowed for parking. Ropes or bales of hay may be used to mark the area for parking. An attendant may or may not be present. If present, he or she will advise a driver where to park in the lot and may or may not collect a fee.

Parking lots can be dangerous, especially at night. Some lots are poorly supervised and dimly lit. Persons intent on mischief such as tire-slashers or criminal activity such as prostitutes, burglars, thieves, rapists, and drug dealers can operate without being easily seen. Anything valuable such as money, weapons, packages, children, or animals should never be left alone in a parked car. These will tempt thieves and child or animal snatchers.
Broken glass, rusty nails, potholes, and rats can be parking lot hazards to people and their vehicles.

Automated Parking System
The automated parking system works with a combination of conveyance devices, software technology, and a mobile app for the best user experience. The system consists of an array of electro-mechanical infrastructure and computer-controlled robots. The conveying devices are capable of vertical and horizontal movement and used to store/retrieve vehicles to/from available multi-depth parking positions without human intervention. The very first automated parking garage was built in 1905: Garage Rue de Ponthieu in Paris, France.

References

Related pages
Parking

Road transport
Traffic

Parking lot


The Opium Wars were two wars between China and Western countries during the Qing dynasty. The first was between Great Britain and China and lasted from 1839 until 1842. The second was from 1856 to 1860 and involved France as well.

It was the British or, rather, the British East India Company, which brought opium to China. They brought it from the Bengal region of India to pay for Chinese goods such as porcelain.

The wars were about many things other than opium. They were also about opening China to European and American trade and colonizations. Defeat weakened the Qing dynasty.

Opium is a natural substance in the seeds of the opium poppy.  Opium is extracted from the poppy seeds. It was usually smoked for its narcotic effect.  It can be converted into opiates. By 1787, the Company was sending 4,000 boxes of opium (each 77 kg) per year. This trade grew more in the 19th century.

Beginning of the opium trade
British merchants began selling opium to China.  At that time, opium was grown in India and not in China.  Opium had been used in traditional Chinese medicine for a long time before the British came, mostly to treat disease.   However, opium can also be used as a psychoactive drug that changes the user's state of mind.  Opium is also an addictive drug.

When the British began importing large amounts of the drug, the Chinese began using opium for its mind-changing effect. More and more people grew addicted to opium. So, the British were able to export more and more opium. By selling this drug, the British slowly began to make more money on their exports to China than they spent on their imports of Chinese goods. British exports of opium to China increased greatly. They went from an estimated 15 tons in 1730, to 75 tons in 1773. Opium was shipped in "chests". Every chest had 67 kilograms (140 pounds) of opium inside.

The First Opium War
Early in the 19th century, British merchants began to take opium into China in return for bringing Chinese tea back to Britain. In 1839, China said that the British could not bring opium into their country, so the British did not tell China about the opium they had brought with them.  Chinese officials found a lot of opium in Canton, a part of southern China which is now called Guangzhou, and destroyed it. The British were upset at this and sent gunboats in 1840 to attack Chinese cities along the coast. China had no weapons to protect themselves, and so they lost the war.

China was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanking and Treaty of the Bogue. This forced China to open up some of its ports for trade to Western countries, not just Great Britain.  British people in China also received the right of extraterritoriality, meaning when accused of crime they could be tried by their own officials rather than those of China. Finally, China had to give up Hong Kong Island, which became a British colony. Britain had nothing to give back in return, and so these treaties became the first of those known as the "unequal treaties".  Other Western countries soon signed similar treaties with China.

The Second Opium War
The Second Opium War was also known as the Arrow War or Anglo-French War in China. French soldiers also took a big part in this war, which started when the Chinese took over one of the British ships in the port of Guangzhou, called The Arrow. Britain and France, along with troops from Russia and the United States, attacked more Chinese cities. This included the Battle of Canton of 1857, and in 1860 the Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan) in Beijing was burned to the ground. At the end of this war, the Chinese had to sign more of the "unequal treaties". They included making opium legal in China, opening up all their ports for trade, and to give up part of the Kowloon Peninsula to the British, which became part of the colony of Hong Kong.

In 1898, after the First Sino-Japanese War, Britain would take control of the New Territories under a 99-year lease. At the end of the 99 years, it would return the entire colony of Hong Kong, including the leased land, to China. This happened on July 1, 1997, making Hong Kong the first of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China.

References

19th century in China
Wars involving China
Wars involving France
Wars involving the United Kingdom
Wars involving the United States
1850s in France
1830s in the United Kingdom
1840s in the United Kingdom
19th-century conflicts

Opium Wars


A Special Administrative Region (SAR) is a region in China that has a high level of autonomy, or a lot of power to rule itself.  There are two SAR's in China, Hong Kong and Macau.  Unlike other regions in mainland China, SAR's have a Basic Law, a constitution that is different from that of the People's Republic of China (PRC).  Basic Law allows Hong Kong and Macau to have freedoms that are not in the rest of China, like freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the Press, freedom of assembly, and freedom to petition. Basic Law also allows the SAR's to decide the economic rules of their region, which is why the economies are a lot less controlled in Hong Kong and Macau than in mainland China, as well as giving them the freedom to choose who to let into their own regions without needing a visa. As a result, Hong Kong and Macau have their own currencies, passports, official languages, etc. This is commonly known as the "one country, two systems" policy.

Chinese is an official language in both SAR's, but unlike mainland China where Mandarin is the main spoken language and simplified Chinese is the main written language, Cantonese is the most spoken language and traditional Chinese is the main written language in these areas.  The vagueness of simply stating Chinese as the official language allows this to happen.  Also, English and Portuguese, the main languages of the nations that controlled Hong Kong and Macau in the past in respective order, are also official languages in the respective SAR's.

History
After the British Empire defeated China in the Opium Wars, China was forced to give up Hong Kong to the British after signing unequal treaties that favored British interests. They had to give up control of Hong Kong Island in 1842, Kowloon Peninsula in 1860, and were made to lease New Territories for a period of 99 years in 1898. In the 1980s, when its lease of New Territories was nearly over, the United Kingdom sought to renew its lease of New Territories. However, China refused to renew the lease. Since New Territories had half of Hong Kong's people and most of its water supply, having Kowloon and Hong Kong Island without New Territories would have ruined Hong Kong's economy. Reluctantly, Britain decided in 1984 to begin talks on giving Hong Kong back in 1984. In 1988, China agreed to uphold Basic Law, which would make Hong Kong into an SAR when it gets returned to China, and in 1997, Hong Kong was returned to the PRC.

IN 1557, the Portuguese Empire made a permanent settlement on Macau, after being given permission from China to dock and trade there. However, it took over Taipa in 1951 and Coloane in 1864, and in 1887, China was forced to sign a treaty to make Macau a permanent colony of Portugal. However, after a military coup overthrew the Portuguese government in 1974, the new government made a promise to give back all the lands it took overseas. In 1986, Portugal and China began talks on how to bring control of Macau back to China peacefully, and in 1999, Macau became an SAR in the PRC.

Regional status in China
As SAR's, China agrees that "commercial, social and legal life of Hong Kong/Macau will remain as it is" until after their first 50 years of being part of the PRC. For Hong Kong, its uninterrupted status will last until 2047, and for Macau, it will last until 2049. Afterwards, the PRC is allowed to rule over Hong Kong and Macau as it pleases.

References

Subdivisions of China

Special Administrative Region


Chilton Company (AKA Chilton Printing Co., Chilton Publishing Co., Chilton Book Co. and Chilton Research Services) is a former publishing company, most famous for its trade magazines, and automotive manuals. It also provided conference and market research services to a wide variety of industries. Chilton grew from a small publisher of a single magazine to a leading publisher of business-to-business magazines, consumer and professional automotive manuals, craft and hobby books, and a large, well-known marketing research company.

In the early years, its flagship magazine was Iron Age. In 1955, Chilton's profit reached $1 million for the first time, of which Iron Age accounted for $750,000. By 1980, Iron Age'''s revenue and status had declined due to the reduction in the size of the US metalworking manufacturing industry, and Jewelers Circular Keystone captured the position of Chilton's most profitable magazine. While Chilton had leading magazines in several different industries, the Chilton name is most strongly associated with the consumer and professional automotive manuals, which Cengage continues to license or publish.

 History
The company's origins go back to July 1896, and the first issue of Cycle Trade Journal, edited by James Artman who became the first president of the future Chilton Company.   In 1899, the magazine changed its name to Cycle & Automobile Trade Journal. A 1900 magazine masthead listed Musselman & Buzby as the exclusive advertising representatives for Cycle & Automobile Trade Journal.  In 1900, George Buzby, C. A. Musselman, and James Artman merged their companies to form the Trade Advertising & Publishing Co.  The new company expanded into automotive catalogs, booklets, circulars, and posters.

The company selected the name Chilton from the Mayflower's passenger list. The earliest known use of the corporate name Chilton Company was in 1904. It appears on a corporate seal that reads "Chilton Company of Pennsylvania, incorporated March 31, 1904." In 1907, the three partners purchased a printing company that they renamed the Chilton Printing Company, only publicly adopting the name Chilton Company in 1910.

In March 1911, Chilton published the first issue of Commercial Car Journal. In February 1912, they renamed the original Cycle & Automobile Trade Journal to Automobile Trade Journal, and eventually merged it into Motor Age magazine.

In 1923, the partners sold Chilton to United Publishers Corp of New York for $1,635,000, and Artman and Buzby retired. In the same year, Chilton opened a new printing plant at 56th and Chestnut Streets in Philadelphia.  This location became the Chilton Company corporate headquarters in the late 1940s.

Shortly after the purchase, United Publishers merged their Class Journal subsidiary and Chilton into what became known as the Chilton Class Journal Co, with C. A. Musselman as its president.  This merger brought several future flagship magazines (such as Iron Age, Motor Age, Dry Goods Economist, Jewelers Circular, Hardware Age, and Automotive Industries) into the Chilton stable of magazines.

In 1934, the company underwent a complete reorganization. J. Howard Pew provided an infusion of cash that saved the company from bankruptcy, in exchange for a majority of the stock.  All subsidiaries merged into one company and incorporated in the state of Delaware as Chilton Company. While the cash infusion from J. Howard Pew saved the company, it became the single biggest inhibitor to its growth, as Pew did not permit Chilton to seek outside funding for acquisitions.  As a result, Chilton Company's growth over the next thirty years lagged behind competitors like McGraw Hill and Penton.

George Buzby's son G. C. (Carroll) Buzby became president of Chilton in the early 1950s and remained the Chief Executive Officer until he retired in the late 1960s.  George C. Buzby died of cancer in 1970. In 1972, Philadelphia native William A. Barbour was elected president of Chilton.

In 1979, the American Broadcasting Company purchased the Chilton Company and made it an operating unit of ABC Publishing. ABC already owned Farm Progress, owner of the collectibles publisher Wallace-Homestead. Wallace-Homestead later became a division of Chilton. In 1985, Capital Cities purchased ABC, and in 1996, the Walt Disney Company purchased Capital Cities/ABC.  Over-extended financially by its acquisition of Capital Cities ABC, Disney had to sell assets to reduce its debt—and Chilton, despite its status and recognition as an excellent business-to-business magazine publisher, was not considered a core business.  Disney therefore decided to split up and sell the Chilton Company profit centers to multiple buyers:
 Krause Publications purchased the Chilton non-automotive book titles
 Reed Elsevier purchased the Chilton building and the magazine, trade show, and research division for $444 million in 1997. The research division was sold on to Taylor Nelson AGB in 1998.
 The Hearst Corporation purchased the Chilton professional automotive assets. In December 1999, a court injunction, effective for three years, divided those assets and rights between Hearst and Nichols Publishing.
 Nichols Publishing purchased the Chilton consumer automotive group assets and brand.

In 2001, Nichols sold the do-it-yourself automotive print manuals to Haynes Publishing Group (publishers of Haynes Manuals), while retaining licensing rights to the Chilton do-it-yourself brand for print products for 10 years.

In 2003, Nichols sold the remaining automotive assets to Thomson Learning. In 2007, Thomson Learning became Cengage Learning. In 2011, Cengage Learning became owner of the Chilton brand for do-it-yourself print manuals as well. Cengage continues to publish or license the professional and consumer automotive products and assets.

 Offices

After acquisition by United Publishers in 1923, the corporate office moved to New York City.  In 1955, all former United Publishers magazines and their staffs relocated from New York City to the corporate headquarters at 56th and Chestnut Streets in Philadelphia. In 1968, Chilton moved their corporate offices to Decker Square in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania.  This served as temporary headquarters until 1972 when Chilton moved into its new corporate headquarters building in Radnor, Pennsylvania.

 Automobile repair manuals

Chilton currently publishes hundreds of automobile repair manuals that cover thousands of models. Here are some of the manufacturers covered in the Chilton do-it-yourself library:

Acura
Alfa Romeo
American Motors
Audi
Austin
BMW
Buick
Cadillac
Chevrolet
Chrysler
DeSoto
Dodge
Fiat
Ford
Frazer
Geo
GMC
Honda
Hyundai
Infiniti
International
Jaguar
Jeep
Kaiser
Kia
Lexus
Lincoln
Mazda
Mini
Mitsubishi
Mercedes-Benz
Mercury
MG
Nash
Nissan
Oldsmobile
Opel
Peugeot
Plymouth
Pontiac
Porsche
Renault
Saab
Saturn
Scion
Studebaker
Subaru
Toyota
Triumph
Volkswagen
Volvo

 Fiction publishing
After many years of publishing business-to-business magazines and automotive manuals, Chilton acquired the trade publisher Greenberg: Publisher in 1958. Chilton published the celebrated science fiction novels Dune by Frank Herbert (1965), and The Witches of Karres (1966) by James H. Schmitz.  Each was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Novel in its respective year, and Dune'' won the award.

Discontinuation
As of January 7, 2022 Chilton has discontinued sales of ChiltonDIY, and will not be making any further updates to the application. Chilton, like its main competitor Haynes, has reduced the availability of its product greatly. Haynes is now the sole provider of widely distributed repair manuals in the USA, and it, too, openly plans to stop selling any new paperback or digital books after 2020.  Chilton still sells paperback books but plans to discontinue in the near future as well.

See also
 Clymer repair manual
 Haynes Manuals

References

External links
 Chilton Cengage—the website of Chilton Cengage, current publisher of Chilton's automotive manuals.
 DIY Auto Repair by Chilton Online Car Manuals
 Chilton Print Manuals by Chilton Manuals, part of Haynes North America, Inc.

Book publishing companies based in New York (state)
Cengage
Automotive handbooks and manuals
Publishing companies established in 1896
Former subsidiaries of The Walt Disney Company

Chilton Company


Daniel Santos (June 6, 1916 – November 27, 1992) was a Puerto Rican singer and composer of boleros, and an overall performer of multiple Caribbean music genres, including guaracha, plena and rumba. Over the course of his career he adopted several names created by the public and became known as "El Jefe" and "El Inquieto Anacobero".

Early years
Santos (birth name: Daniel Santos Betancourt) was born and raised with his three sisters, Sara, Rosa Lydia and Luz América in Trastalleres, a poor section of Santurce, Puerto Rico. He attended Las Palmitas Elementary School.
In 1924, his family moved to New York City looking for a better way of life. When his parents, Rosendo and María enrolled him in school, he had to start from the first grade again because he did not know enough English. Santos joined his high school's choir, but he dropped out of high school in his second year and moved out of his parents' apartment. When he was fifteen years old he began looking for work in Manhattan.

Santos moved into a small apartment, where, one day, he started to sing "Te Quiero, Dijiste" (You said 'I Love You'). A member of the Trío Lírico was passing by and heard him sing. He then knocked on Santos' door. The trio member invited Daniel to join the trio and he accepted. Santos debuted with them on September 13, 1930; he sang in various social events and was paid a dollar for every song that he sang. He returned to Puerto Rico only to return once more to Manhattan after he unsuccessfully tried to acquire a job as a singer at WKAQ, which was one of the island's main radio stations.

Musical career

"Cuarteto Flores" with Pedro Flores
In late 1933 and 1934, Santos performed in a nightclub named Los Chilenos located near Broadway and was paid twenty dollars per weekend. Personally, Santos led a life of excesses, including maintaining several romantic relationships at once. In 1938, Santos was working at the Cuban Casino Cabaret in Manhattan, which was normally visited by Puerto Ricans and other Latinos. His chores included singing, waiting on tables and on occasions he was the master of ceremonies for which he was paid a salary of thirty dollars. On one occasion, he was singing "Amor Perdido" (Lost Love), without knowing that the composer of the song Pedro Flores was in the audience. Flores liked what he heard and invited Santos to join his group "El Cuarteto Flores" which also included Myrta Silva, and would in the future also include Pedro Ortiz Dávila (also known by his stage name "Davilita"). Santos recorded many songs with the Cuarteto Flores and started to gain fame. Among the songs he recorded were: "Perdon"; "Amor"; "El Ultimo Adios" "Si Yo Fuera Millonario" by singer/composer Miguel Poventud and Borracho no Vale'.

Participation in World War II

In the early 1940s, many young Puerto Rican men were drafted for World War II, among them Santos. Santos recorded "Despedida" (My Good-bye), a farewell song written by Flores from the viewpoint of an Army recruit who had to leave behind his girlfriend and his ailing mother, which became a hit. Santos recalled in an interview once that he had to hold back tears while recording the song, since his draft papers had just arrived and he would soon have to live a situation similar to what the song's lyrics described, but that a friend started mocking him at the control booth, to which he decided to curse him on the spot, trading the word mama'o (an extremely vulgar term in Puerto Rican Spanish) for mamá (mother). This incident produced two mannerisms that Santos eventually adopted in his singing style: chopped delivery (almost syllable by syllable, as suggested by Flores) and stretched last vowel in the last verse of each stanza, in almost every song he recorded afterwards.

He was sent to Maui Island, after completing his basic military training in Kentucky. In Maui, he was assigned to a US Army infantry unit which was used to replenish casualties in the Pacific theatre. Santos would joke that he escaped the "replenishment levies" because of his guitar playing skills.  Nevertheless, he was sent to Okinawa towards the end of the war.  While in the military Santos teamed up with Juanito Jiménez as a part of a duo dubbed Los Cumbancheros. After the war concluded Santos returned to New York, where he received a tribute upon his arrival. There he recorded "Linda", written specially for him by Flores for one of Santos' old girlfriends.

International performances
Santos became active in the Puerto Rican Independence Movement and identified himself with the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and its president Pedro Albizu Campos after he was discharged from the military because of the prejudice which he experienced within the Army. His devotion for Albizu lasted throughout his life, to the point of commissioning, later in his life, a bronze bust of Albizu for his estate in Puerto Rico. With Davilita, he recorded "Patriotas" ("Patriots") and "La Lucha por la Independencia de Puerto Rico" ("The Fight for Puerto Rico's Independence"), which was adopted from one of Juan Antonio Corretjer's poems.

In March 1946, Santos inaugurated a bar and restaurant named Borinquen, and administrated the establishment for some weeks. Two months later he began singing Mexican music and boleros at Greenwich Village. Later that year he visited the Dominican Republic, where he had legal problems and was jailed briefly.

Santos in Cuba
By this time Santos' fame had grown and he decided to travel to Cuba, establishing a residence in Havana in 1946. At the moment Cuba was experiencing economic growth and Santos developed an interest in the island. Upon arriving he experienced success, making presentations in Paseo del Prado, Miramar and Vedado. These included a special presentation titled Alegrias de Hatuey, which was broadcast by "Radio Progreso", a radio station. He participated and sang for several other stations, including RHC-Cadena Azul and CMQ, where he participated in a program named Cascabel. This exposition came after he established friendships with local public figures. The Cuban public created two names adopted by Santos, these were Inquieto and Anacobero, which he later fused and became known as El Inquieto Anacobero. He also made five presentations in theaters, among them the Martí Theater.

In 1948, Santos was invited to perform in the Cuban National Palace by the president in office, Carlos Prío Socarrás. This year also marked Santos' debut with La Sonora Matancera, where he served as vocalist. His first successful single was titled Bigote de Gato, based on an area of Havana named "Luyano", which was infamous for serving as the home for fortune tellers. Later that year Santos was arrested after becoming involved in a fight where he accidentally injured a woman after trying to defend himself. Santos was subsequently pardoned by Prío Socarrás, but he asked to remain in jail twelve additional days to spend the Christmas celebration with some of the inmates. While in prison he composed a single named El Preso and was asked to write Amnistía as part of a campaign to promote the well-being of inmates. This was followed by several successful productions with Sonora Matancera. These included Dos gardenias and Pa' fricasé los pollos, which were based on Cuban music. Among several other contemporary records were: El juego de la vida, El 5 y 6, El ajiaco, El niño majadero, Ramoncito campeón and El tíbiri tábara.

On March 10, 1952, Fulgencio Batista organized a successful coup d'état and took control of the island's government. Santos, known for his Puerto Rican independentist preferences, was never in the good graces of the dictator.  He made his nationalistic and democratic views well known throughout Latin America.  As many people during those days, he viewed Fidel Castro's fight against Batista very favorably.  In 1958, forbidden by Batista from returning to the island, he composed the song "Sierra Maestra", which borrowed parts of the official hymn of the 26th of July Movement.  Santos donated the profits from "Sierra Maestra" to the Cuban Revolution.

Return to Puerto Rico
He returned to the island later that year and began an international tour on 1953, among the countries visited were Venezuela, Colombia and Mexico. In 1954, he returned to Puerto Rico and performed in hotels located in San Juan before continuing his tour throughout America which extended from 1955 to 1956. The tour concluded with a presentation in New York and he is returned to Cuba. Later that year he visited Ecuador for the first time in his artistic career. Here he was contracted to perform in a theater named "Apolo", where he worked with a band named the "Costa Rica Swing Boys". During his third presentation Santos lost his voice without completing the scheduled show, he tried to explain the situation to the public but was unable to calm them down and a riot erupted. While in Ecuador he composed two successful singles, Cataplum pa' and Cautiverio. Late in 1956, Santos recorded with a Venezuelan record label named "Discomoda".

In 1959, he briefly returned to Cuba.  It was during this trip that he confronted Raul Castro and Ernesto "Che" Guevara about the political nature of the Cuban Revolution he had supported.  He left Cuba abruptly, never to return, when Castro and Guevara failed to convince him that the Cuban Revolution was "nationalistic".  A self proclaimed "anti-communist", he explained that he had supported the Cuban Revolution because its leadership had assured him that it was not communist.

On July 22, 1972 he performed in the inauguration ceremony of El Balcon del Pueblo, a building owned by Radio Cristal, which was located at Guayaquil. In this activity he performed for two consecutive hours, working an additional hour due to public acclaim.

Later years
During the last years of his life, Santos toured the United States and Latin-America, while experiencing health problems. He continued performing with several music groups. While he performed with the Sonora Matancera, Santos suffered a heart attack while he was sleeping in a hotel located in La Reforma after eating dinner. Santos continued performing during the following decades, making presentations in several Latin American countries. He continued to sing the songs which he had written during his career until he finally retired and established a residence in Florida.

In 1991, Santos visited some friends in New York City's Barrio Latino, during this visit Santo's was walking through the street on a Saturday evening when he fainted and collapsed. He was attended by some bystanders and residents of the neighborhood who called the New York City Police Department. When the police arrived at the scene they transported him to a local hospital, Santos was released two days after. During this time Santos was also suffering from mental illnesses, including memory loss due to Alzheimer's disease. Despite his health he made final presentations in some of Puerto Rico's municipalities where he received recognitions in San Juan and Ponce. Santos was also invited to participate in a music festival in Cuba, where he was supposed to receive a homage, but he was unable to attend.

Over the course of his life Daniel Santos was legally married on twelve separate occasions. His first marriage took place in 1934, where he married Lucy Montilla when he was eighteen years old. In 1947, he married Cuban socialite Eugenia Pérez Portal, who gave him his first son in 1948, Daniel Jr. After this he was involved in several relationships with women of several Latin American countries, on occasions having more than one consecutively. When he was fifty-six years old he married Luz Dary Padredin. The couple had two children, Danilú and David Albizu. Santos' last marriage was with Ana Rivera, who was originally of Puerto Rico.

Daniel Santos died on November 27, 1992, aged 76, at his ranch, "Anacobero's Ranch" in Ocala, Florida. He is buried at what is virtually Puerto Rico's national pantheon Santa María Magdalena de Pazzis Cemetery in Old San Juan, geographically quite close to where Albizu Campos and Pedro Flores were interred. Due to the scarcity of empty space in the cemetery, when fellow Puerto Rican singer and Santos' boyhood friend Eladio Peguero (commonly known as "Yayo El Indio") later died, he was also buried in Santos' tomb.

Legacy
Santos' life was the subject of one semi-autobiography, El Inquieto Anacobero: confesiones de Daniel Santos a Héctor Mújica, written as Santos told his story to Venezuelan  author Héctor Mújica in 1982.  His life was also the subject of four biographical books: Mi Vida Entera (2020) written by his daughter Danilú Santos-Price,; Vengo a decirle adiós a los muchachos (1989) by Josean Ramos; La importancia de llamarse Daniel Santos (1988), by Luis Rafael Sánchez, El Inquieto Anacobero'', by Salvador Garmendia.

See also
List of Puerto Ricans
Puerto Rican Nationalist Party

Notes

References

1916 births
1992 deaths
Burials at Santa María Magdalena de Pazzis Cemetery
Musicians from Santurce, Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican people of Spanish descent
Musicians from Ocala, Florida
Singers from New York City
20th-century Puerto Rican male singers
Puerto Rican Army personnel
Members of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party
Puerto Rican male composers
Puerto Rican independence activists
Singers from San Juan, Puerto Rico
United States Army soldiers

Daniel Santos (singer)


Sodium croscarmellose is an internally cross-linked sodium carboxymethylcellulose for use as a superdisintegrant in pharmaceutical formulations.

E468 is the E number of crosslinked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, used in food as an emulsifier.

Background
The cross-linking reduces water solubility while still allowing the material to swell (like a sponge) and absorb many times its weight in water. As a result, it provides superior drug dissolution and disintegration characteristics, thus improving formulas′ subsequent bioavailability by bringing the active ingredients into better contact with bodily fluids.

Sodium croscarmellose also resolves formulators′ concerns over long-term functional stability, reduced effectiveness at high tablet hardness levels, and similar problems associated with other products developed to enhance drug dissolution. It is a very commonly used pharmaceutical additive approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Its purpose in most tablets – including dietary supplements – is to assist the tablet in disintegrating in the gastrointestinal tract promptly. If a tablet disintegrating agent is not included, the tablet could disintegrate too slowly, in the wrong part of the intestine or not at all, thereby reducing the efficacy and bioavailability of the active ingredients.

Croscarmellose is made by first soaking crude cellulose in sodium hydroxide, and then reacting the cellulose with sodium monochloroacetate to form sodium carboxymethylcellulose. Excess sodium monochloroacetate slowly hydrolyzes to glycolic acid and the glycolic acid catalyzes the cross-linkage to form sodium croscarmellose.
Chemically, it is the sodium salt of a cross-linked, partly O-(carboxymethylated) cellulose.

Sodium croscarmellose was first used as a stabilizer in horse supplements.

References

Excipients
Organic sodium salts
Cellulose
E-number additives

Sodium croscarmellose


A Race condition (also called race hazard) is a problem with the design of a system. With a race condition, the result of a calculation or the behaviour of the system as a whole is dependent on how long a certain calculation takes, or when it is started. Race conditions occur in logic circuits and computer software, especially with multi-threaded or distributed systems.

Example
It is often difficult to explain what a race condition is, but the metaphor of a horse race can be used as an explanation.

A computer program is like a horse race. The computer program does several things at the same time, similarly to how several horses run at the same time in a horse race. Each horse represents what is usually called a thread of execution. That way, one such thread may handle network communication, another one may be responsible for redrawing the user interface. In the case of a race condition, the application works properly if a given horse wins the race. For example, the application may work if horse number five wins, but it will crash if any other horse wins the race. One solution to the problem is to use synchronization. This is like several jockeys teaming up, to make sure horse number five is ahead.

On different computers, or in different situations, computers programs can run at different speeds. Sometimes, they will be faster, other times slower. This may mean that on some systems, the race condition will never show up, even though it may be easy to show it on others. Race conditions can be difficult to find. Bugs caused by race conditions are a frequent source of frustration within the profession of software development.

Computer hardware

Race condition


The naitional coat o airms o Armenie (Armenian:Հայաստանի Զինանշան) consists o an eagle an a lion supportin a shield. The coat o airms combines new an auld seembols. The eagle an lion are auncient Armenian seembols datin frae the first Armenian kinricks that existit prior tae Jesus Christ.

The current coat o airms wis adoptit on Aprile 19, 1992, bi the Armenian Supreme Cooncil decision. On Juin 15, 2006, the law on the state coat o airms o Armenie wis passed bi the Armenian Parliament.

Seembolism

Shield
The shield itself consists o mony components. In the centre is a depiction o Munt Ararat wi Noah's Ark sittin atop it. Accordin taeo tradeetion, the ark is said tae hae finally restit on the muntain efter the great fluid. Ararat is considered the naitional seembol o Armeni an sicweys is o principal importance tae the coat o airms. Surroondin Munt Ararat are seembols o auld Armenian dynasties. In the lawer left portion o the shield, thare are twa eagles leukin at ilk ither, seembolisin the lenth o the Armenian territory durin the reign o the Artaxiad Dynasty that ruled in the 1st century BC. In the upper left portion, thare is a lion wi a cross, the emblem for the Bagratuni dynasty that ruled durin the Middle Ages, atween 7t an 11t centuries. Unner this dynasty, Armenie blossomed culturally, makin its caipital, Ani, ane o the maist important cultural, social an commercial centers o its time. Bagratuni wis destroyed bi the Byzantine Empire's encroachment an bi Seljuk conquests in the 11t century. In the upper richt portion, thare is a twa-heidit eagle, the emblem o the first dynasty tae reign ower a Christian Armenie, the Arsacid Dynasty o Armenie. Tiridates III o Arsacid Dynasty made Armenie the first Christian naition in 301. This dynasty ruled frae the 1st century tae 428. In the lawer richt portion, thare is a lion wi a cross, the emblem o the Rubenid dynasty. This dynasty reigned in Armenian Kinrick o Cilicie, a state that expandit an prospered durin the 12t an 13t centuries, till the Mamelukes an Turks eventually conquered it.

Eagle an Lion
The eagle supports the shield on the left side o the coat o airms, while the lion on the richt side. The eagle wis the seembol o the Artaxiad Dynasty an later on the seembol o the Arsacid Dynasty o Armenie. It haulds the Artaxiad Dynasty's branch o the shield. Whereas, the lion wis the seembol o the Bagratuni Dynasty an later on the seembol o the Rubenid Dynasty. It haulds the Rubenid Dynasty's branch o the shield.

Baith o thir ainimals wur chosen acause o thair pouer, courage, patience, wisdom, an nobility in the ainimal kinrick.

Five vital elements
 The swuird represents the pouer an strength o the naition, breakin the chains o oppression.
 The broken chain represents effort shawn bi the naition tae gain freedom an unthridom.
 The wheat lugs represent the haurd wirkin naitur o the Armenian fowk.
 The feather represents the intellectual an cultural heritage o the Armenian fowk.
 The ribbon represents the colors o the banner o Armenie.

History

Coat o airms o the Democratic Republic o Armenie
The present-day Armenian coat o airms haes its oreegins wi the establishment o the Democratic Republic o Armenie (DRA) in 1918. In that year, an early variation  the coat of airms wis adoptit bi the DRA. The seembols on this earlier version wur placed in a slichtly different order an the eagle an lion hae thair tongues oot, givin them a mair menacin leuk. It's an aa worthy tae note that ae Munt Ararat (alang wi Little Ararat) are depictit while Noah's Ark is absent. The coat o airms wis designed bi architect an member o the Roushie Academy o Fine Airts Alexander Tamanian (best kent for his wirk on Yerevan's ceety plan) an airtist Hakob Kojoyan.

Transcaucasian SFSR

In 1922, Armenie wis incorporatit intae Transcaucasian SFSR wi Georgie an Azerbaijan. The coat o airms o the Transcaucasian SFSR wis adoptit bi the govrenment o the Transcaucasian SFSR. It is uncertain when exactly it wis adoptit. It incorporates designs frae each o the three major groups that combined in the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Armenians, Azeri an Georgians, an unuisually features Islamic airt an communist elements side bi side. The latticewirk in the starn itsel bespeaks the umwhile coat o airms o Georgie frae 1918–1921 an adoptit again frae 1991–2004; the crescent moon represents the Muslim Azeris, on a backgrund depictin the naitional seembol o the Armenians, Munt Ararat.

Soviet coat o airms

In 1937, a new coat o airms wis adoptit. Lik the DRA coat o airms, this coat prominently featurt Munt Ararat alang wi the Soviet hammer an sickle an red starn ahint it. The inclusion o Ararat brocht objections frae Turkey acause the muntain is pairt o its territory. The Kremlin retortit that awtho the Turkish seembol wis the crescent, surely it did no mean that thay laid claim tae the moon. The Soviet Union brak apairt in 1991 an Armenie sicweys became an independent republic. In 1992, a slichtly modified version o the DRA's coat o airms wis adoptit an haes remained in place iver syne.

References

Freemit airtins
 Coat o airms o Armenie at Flags of the World
 The Evolution of the Armenian Flag and Coat of Arms
 Armenica.org - Symbolic values an information aboot the Armenian banner an coat of arms
 National Coat of Arms of the Republic of Armenia - offeecial wabsteid
 Atlas of Conflicts: Examples of Old Armenian Heraldry

Naitional seembols o Armenie
Armenie

Coat o airms o Armenie


The National Gallery of Victoria is an art gallery and museum in Melbourne, Australia. Started in 1861, it is the oldest and the largest public art gallery in Australia. The main gallery is located in St Kilda Road, at Southbank, with a branch gallery at Federation Square. The St Kilda Road Gallery, designed
by Sir Roy Grounds, opened in 1968. Since December 2003, NGV has operated across two sites – NGV International on St Kilda Road, redesigned by Mario Bellini, and The Ian Potter Centre: NGV Australia at Federation Square, designed by LAB Architecture Studio.

When the gallery opened, Victoria had been an independent colony for ten years. After the Victorian gold rush, it was easily the richest part of Australia, and Melbourne the largest city. Generous gifts from rich citizens, including the industrialist Alfred Felton, made it possible for the National Gallery to start buying large collections of overseas works from both old and modern masters. It has over 65,000 works of art.

The National Gallery of Victoria Art School began in 1867. It was the leading centre for art training in Australia until about 1910. The School's graduates, such as Sidney Nolan, went on to become some of Australia's most significant artists.

References

Buildings and structures in Melbourne
Art museums
National museums
Museums in Australia
1861 establishments in Australia

National Gallery of Victoria


Events
 Robert de Sorbon founds the Collège de Sorbonne at Paris, giving a formal college (and still-common name) to the already existing University of Paris in France.
 Matthew Paris, English historian, personally interviews King Henry III of England for a week straight while compiling his major work of English history, Chronica Majora.
 King Henry III of England orders the production of an twenty pence English coin of pure gold, the first high-denomination coin minted in England and the first to use gold. Unfortunately for King Henry, the bullion value of the coins was about 20% higher than the nominal face value, leading to poor circulation as coins were melted down by individuals for their gold content.
 The second Genoese War breaks out between Genoa and Venice in Outremer known as the War of Saint Sabas.
 The city of Kraków is rebuilt by Boleslaus V of Poland after being nearly destroyed in the Tatar invasions in 1241.
 The Japanese Kōgen era ends, and the Shōka era begins.
 Mongols take Annam (northern Vietnam).
 Aberdeen Grammar School opened.

Births
 October 14 – King Przemysł II of Poland (d. 1296)
 Beatrice of Burgundy (died 1310)
 King Sancho IV of Castile and León (died 1295)

Deaths
 June 4 – Duke Przemysł I of Greater Poland
 August 15 – Saint Hyacinth
 December 24 – John I, Count of Hainaut (born 1218)

1257


A telegram (Greek tele: distant and gramma: letter) is a written message transmitted by using an electric device. The message was carried along wires, and the text written or printed and delivered by hand or teleprinter.

Telegrams were very widely used, because private telephones were not usual. Nowadays they are not useful because most people have private telephones and the use of e-mail. The idea was developed by the British Post Office as a service for urgent letters.

Related pages
Telegraphy

Other websites

Postal services

Telegram


Léopold Victor Delisle (24 October 1826, Valognes (Manche) – 21 July 1910, Chantilly, Oise) was a French bibliophile and historian.

Biography

Early life
He was taken on as a young man by the antiquarian and historian of architecture, Charles-Alexis-Adrien Duhérissier de Gerville, who engaged him to copy manuscripts in his collection, and taught him enough of the basics of paleography that he was able to gain entrance to the École des Chartes in 1846. Here, Delisle's career was remarkably brilliant and he published his first article on mortuary rolls in 1847. His valedictory thesis was an Essai sur les revenus publics en Normandie au XIIe siècle (1849), drawn in part from manuscripts of Duhérissier de Gerville, who was Delisle's mentor, and it was to the history of his native Normandy that he devoted his early works. Of these the Études sur la condition de la classe agricole et l'état de l'agriculture en Normandie au Moyen Âge (1851), condensing an enormous mass of facts drawn from the local archives, was reprinted in 1905 without change, and remains authoritative.

Bibliothèque nationale
In November 1852 he entered the manuscript department of the Bibliothèque imperiale (nationale), of which in 1874 he became the official head in succession to Jules Taschereau. He was already known as the compiler of several invaluable inventories of its manuscripts. When the French government decided on printing a general catalogue of the printed books in the Bibliothèque, Delisle became responsible for this undertaking and took an active part in the work; in the preface to the first volume (1897) he gave a detailed history of the library and its management.

Under his administration the library was enriched with numerous gifts, legacies and acquisitions, notably by the purchase of a part of the Ashburnham manuscripts. Delisle proved that the bulk of the manuscripts of French origin which the Earl of Ashburnham had bought in France, particularly those bought from the book-seller Jean-Baptiste Barrois, had been purloined by Count Libri, inspector-general of libraries under King Louis-Philippe, and he procured the repurchase of the manuscripts for the library, afterwards preparing a catalogue of them entitled Catalogue des manuscrits des fonds Libri et Barrois (1888), the preface of which gives the history of the whole transaction. He was elected member of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres in 1859, and became a member of the staff of the Recueil des historiens de la France, collaborating in vols xxii. (1865) and xxiii. (1876) and editing vol. xxiv. (1904), which is valuable for the social history of France in the 13th century.

When the Paris Commune sought to replace him with an unqualified appointee during the siege of Paris in 1870, Delisle courageously refused to leave his post. The jubilee of his fifty years' association with the Bibliothèque nationale was celebrated on 8 March 1903.

Retirement

After his retirement (21 February 1905) he brought out in two volumes a catalogue and description of the printed books and manuscripts in the Musée Condé at Chantilly, left by the duc d'Aumale to the French Institute. He produced many valuable official reports and catalogues and a great number of memoirs and monographs on points connected with palaeography and the study of history and archaeology (see his Mélanges de paleographie et de bibliographie (1880) with atlas; and his articles in the Album paléographique (1887).

Scholarly work
Of his purely historical works special mention must be made of his Mémoire sur les actes d'Innocent III (1857), and his Mémoire sur les operations financières des Templiers (1889), a collection of documents of the highest value for economic history. The thirty-second volume of the Histoire littéraire de la France, which was partly his work, is of great importance for the study of 13th and 14th century Latin chronicles.

Delisle was undoubtedly the most learned man in Europe with regard to the Middle Ages; and his knowledge of diplomatics, palaeography and printing was profound. His output of work, in catalogues, etc., was enormous, and his services to the Bibliothèque nationale in this respect cannot be overestimated. The Bibliographie des travaux de L. Delisle (1902), by Paul Lacombe, may be consulted for a full list of his numerous works.

Private life
Delisle was a patriot (both French and Norman) and a Christian. He was motivated to a great extend by the destruction the French Revolution had brought upon medieval manuscripts and buildings; for Delisle, the publication of texts was necessary not only for the preservation of the past but also of civilisation. He married on 10 June 1857 Louise-Laure Burnof, daughter of Eugène Burnouf, who was for many years his collaborator. She acquired skill as a Latin palaeographer and contributed to her husband's work through her knowledge of several languages, a weak point of Delisle. Their marriage, though affectionate, was childless which both regretted. Loise-Laure Burnof died on 11 March 1905, a few days after the couple had learned of his retirement in the Journal officiel.

References

Sources
 Dictionary of Art Historians: "Léopold Victor Delisle"
 Conference on Léopold Delisle, 2004

External links
 Léopold Victor Delisle on data.bnf.fr

1826 births
1910 deaths
19th-century Christians
19th-century French historians
20th-century French historians
French librarians
French palaeographers
École Nationale des Chartes alumni
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
People from Manche
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
French male non-fiction writers
19th-century French male writers
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy

Léopold Victor Delisle


The Twelfth Soviet Antarctic Expedition was an expedition by the Soviet Union to Antarctica.

During this expedition, a new method was used for measuring the thickness of the ice cap of Antarctica using radar. Glaciologists on the team surveyed the area around Mirny Station and measured the thickness of the glacier.

The investigations discovered that the central part of the glacial cap in Eastern Antarctica is the largest and most ideal elevated plain in the world. Soviet geologists also did surveys of Queen Maud Land and Enderby Land where they found deposits of coal and iron ore.

References
 Nepomnyashchi, A. (September 1968) "Russians in the Antarctic" in Arctic. 21(3):204–05

 12
Antarctic Expedition 12
Antarctic Expedition 12
Antarctic Expedition 12
1966 in Antarctica
1967 in Antarctica
1968 in Antarctica

12th Soviet Antarctic Expedition


An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. In some cases the axle may be fixed in position with a bearing or bushing sitting inside the hole in the wheel or gear to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. In other cases the wheel or gear may be fixed to the axle, with bearings or bushings provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type is referred to as a spindle.

Vehicle axles

Axles are an important structural component of a wheeled vehicle. The axles maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other and to the vehicle body. Since for most vehicles the wheels are the only part touching the ground, the axles must bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo.

Related pages
Wheel
Machine

Machines

Axle


Barrel racing is an event often seen in rodeos. It involves a rider and horse going around 3 barrels in a cloverleaf pattern, started on either the right or the left side, but more often than not, the right side. Riders go from one barrel to the next making a square pattern around each and then running back past the timer in want of the fastest time.

Horse riding

Barrel racing


Tim Pritlove (born 25 November 1967 in Gehrden, Germany) is a British/German podcaster, media artist and discordianist. He lives and works in Berlin.

Pritlove studied computer science but never graduated. From 1998 to 2005 he was the main organizer of the Chaos Communication Congress and the Chaos Communication Camps. Also, until 2006 he was in charge as managing director of the "Chaos Computer Club Veranstaltungs GmbH". He also filled a central role in the Chaos Computer Club, where he is settled as a member.

As discordianist Pritlove appeared under the pseudonym Theodor Prinz. With this name he blogged until March 2008 in the MobileMacs blog. Since the beginning of April 2008 he is blogging at MobileMacs by his civic name.

Media-art
At the beginning of the 1990s Pritlove belonged to the developers of the first interactive, telephone based communication platform Die Villa.
He is coordinator and co-developer of the Project Blinkenlights. In the last years he was a scientific assistant in the Institut für zeitbasierte Medien at the Berlin University of the Arts. In 1996 he founded the first T-shirt label of the hacker culture named interhemd modebewusstseinserweiterung.

Podcasting
Pritlove was involved with Chaosradio, a radio show the CCC runs with Radio Fritz. He later spun off Chaosradio Express (which was renamed into CRE: Technik, Kultur, Gesellschaft in December 2011), Chaosradio Express International and Chaos TV, as podcasts. Additionally he writes his own weblog called The Lunatic Fringe.

He is involved in the production of several, predominantly German podcasts, as well as the English podcast "Newz of the World". His podcasts are often focused on technology, such as Raumzeit he produced for the ESA.

In 2014 Pritlove was one of the most popular German bloggers.

Personal life
Born British citizen, motivated by Brexit, Pritlove applied for German citizenship, which was granted on 17 October 2018.

References

External links

 Pritlove's Weblog "The Lunatic Fringe"
 Freakshow podcast (german)
 "Across two ends", The Hindu
 Podcast: CRE: Technik, Kultur, Gesellschaft (formerly known as Chaosradio Express) (german)

German artists
German podcasters
1967 births
Living people
Members of Chaos Computer Club
Discordians
Academic staff of the Berlin University of the Arts

Tim Pritlove


W. Herbert McCauley (born May 2, 1957, in Durham, North Carolina) is an American Thoroughbred horse racing jockey who has been called  "one of the most talented and aggressive riders of his generation" by John Piesen, an odds-maker for the  New York Post and the Daily Racing Form.

While still a small boy, Herb McCauley began riding  horses on his grandfather's farm. At age sixteen, he embarked on a career in Thoroughbred racing, breaking yearlings at William L. McKnight's Tartan Farms near Ocala, Florida. Within two years, McCauley moved north where he began his riding career at Monmouth Park Racetrack in New Jersey. In October 1975 he rode the first of his more than three thousand career winners at Keystone Racetrack in Philadelphia. For the next twenty-three years McCauley was a top jockey at tracks in the U.S. northeast and notably rode five winners from five mounts in a single racecard on November 18, 1985, at Meadowlands Racetrack in East Rutherford, New Jersey.

On July 10, 1998, Herb McCauley suffered compound fractures to the tibia and fibula of his left leg in an accident at Monmouth Park. The injury resulted in him undergoing four surgical proceedings followed by a lengthy rehabilitation process. With his career in ruins, McCauley's personal life suffered and he turned to alcohol in a misguided effort to cope. Having suffering from bulimia since his teens, in a May 1999 conference on the various disorders some athletes have to deal with, McCauley spoke publicly for the first time about his battle as a jockey to maintain riding weight that resulted in constant binging and purging.

Unable to ride, for a time McCauley served as an agent for jockeys but more than eight years after being sidelined he decided to attempt a comeback. Following an intense training program, in September 2007 he returned to riding competitively and a few weeks later earned his first win in nine years at Meadowlands Racetrack.

In 2007, Herb McCauley was nominated for induction in the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame.

References

 Reprint of a May 23, 1999 article by Bill Handleman of the Asbury Park Press at Mind Body and Sports
 Herb McCauley at the NTRA
 October 18, 2007 Bloodhorse.com article on Herb McCauley

1957 births
Living people
American jockeys
Sportspeople from Durham, North Carolina

Herb McCauley


The Wisconsin River is a river in the United States. It is a tributary of the Mississippi River. It is located in the state of Wisconsin. It is approximately 692 km long.

The source of the Wisconsin is in the forests of northern Wisconsin. The source is a small lake on the border between Wisconsin and Michigan. The river flows south across Wisconsin. It flows through a plain made by a glacier during the last ice age. It passes the cities of Wausau and Stevens Point.

In southern Wisconsin, the river meets a moraine. The moraine was made during the last ice age. The river enters a beautiful gorge, called the Wisconsin Dells. North of the city of Madison, the river turns to the west. It flows west through the hills of southwest Wisconsin. It joins the Mississippi 15 km south of the city of Prairie du Chien.

The river is an important source of hydroelectric power.
Rivers of Wisconsin

Wisconsin River


Cfront was the original compiler for C++ (then known as "C with Classes") from around 1983, which converted C++ to C; developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at AT&T Bell Labs. The preprocessor did not understand all of the language and much of the code was written via translations. Cfront had a complete parser, built symbol tables, and built a tree for each class, function, etc. Cfront was based on CPre, a C compiler started in 1979.

As Cfront was written in C++, it was a challenge to bootstrap on a machine without a C++ compiler/translator.  Along with the Cfront C++ sources, a special "half-preprocessed" version of the C code resulting from compiling Cfront with itself was also provided. This C code was to be compiled with the native C compiler, and the resulting executable could then be used to compile the Cfront C++ sources.

Most of the porting effort in getting Cfront running on a new machine was related to standard I/O. Cfront's C++ streams were closely tied in with the C library's buffered I/O streams, but there was little  interaction with the rest of the C environment. The compiler could be ported to most System V derivatives without many changes, but BSD-based systems usually had many more variations in their C libraries and associated stdio structures.

Cfront defined the language until circa 1990, and many of the more obscure corner cases in C++ were related to its C++-to-C translation approach. A few remnants of Cfront's translation method are still found in today's C++ compilers; name mangling was originated by Cfront, as the relatively primitive linkers at the time did not support type information in symbols, and some template instantiation models are derived from Cfront's early efforts. C++ (and Cfront) was directly responsible for many improvements in Unix linkers and  object file formats, as it was the first widely used language which required link-time type checking, weak symbols, and other similar features.

Cfront 4.0 was abandoned in 1993 after a failed attempt to add exception support. The C++ language had grown beyond its capabilities; however a compiler with similar approach became available later, namely Comeau C/C++.

Analogous to the way cfront can process C++ source code into something that can be compiled by previously-available C compilers, cppfront processes source code written in new and experimental C++ 'syntax 2' into something that can be compiled by previously-available 'syntax 1' C++ compilers.

References

Notes

External links
 Cfront Releases at C++ Historical Sources Archive
 cfront v3, the cfront re-port for the 4th edition of Plan 9 from Bell Labs
 Cfront 3.0.3, "AT&T/Bell Labs C++ to C translator from 1994, modified to build on modern hardware"

C++ compilers
Unix programming tools

fr:Cfront

Cfront


Backspace is the keyboard key (sometimes labeled as:  ← ) that originally pushed the typewriter carriage one position backwards, and for modern computer screens, moves the cursor one position backwards, deletes the preceding character, and shifts back the text after it by one position.

In typewriters, a typist would, for example, type a lowercase letter "a" with acute accent (á) by typing a lowercase letter "a" then backspace, and then the acute accent key (also known as overstrike). This is the basis for such spacing modifiers in computer character sets such as the ASCII caret (^, for the circumflex accent). Backspace composition no longer works with digital displays or typesetting systems. It has to some degree been replaced with the combining diacritical marks mechanism of Unicode, though such characters do not work well with many fonts, and precomposed characters continue to be used. Some software like TeX or Microsoft Windows use the opposite method for diacritical marks, namely positioning the accent first, and then placing the base letter at that position.

Pressing the backspace key on a computer terminal would generate the ASCII code 08, BS or Backspace, a control code which would delete the preceding character. That control code could also be accessed by pressing Control-H, as H is the eighth letter of the Latin alphabet. Terminals which did not have the backspace code mapped to the function of moving the cursor backwards and deleting the preceding character would display the symbols ^H (caret, H – see Caret notation) when the backspace key was pressed. This sequence is still used humorously for epanorthosis by computer literates, denoting the deletion of a pretended blunder, much like a strikethrough.

Example:

 My slave-dri^H^H^H^H^H^H^H^H^Hboss decided to stall the project.

A more concise alternative sometimes seen is ^W, which is the shortcut to delete the previous word in the Berkeley Unix terminal line discipline. One ^W can replace a whole string of ^H's. This shortcut has also made it into the Vi text editor. For really embarrassing blunders, ^U (kill line) can outdo a series of ^W.

The backspace is distinct from the delete key, which in paper media for computers would punch out all the holes to strike out a character, and in modern computers deletes text following it. Also, the delete key often works as a generic command to remove an object (such as an image inside a document, or a file in a file manager), while backspace usually has no effect.

In modern systems, the backspace key is often mapped to the delete character (0x7f in ASCII or Unicode), although the backspace key's function of deleting the character before the cursor remains.

In a mainframe environment, to backspace means to move a magnetic tape backwards, typically to the previous block.

The backspace key is commonly used to go back a page when exploring folders in graphical environments, or when browsing the Web in web browsers.

Although the term "backspace" is the standard name of the key which deletes the character to the left of the cursor, the actual key may be labelled in a variety of ways, for example delete, Erase (for example in XO-1, One Laptop Per Child), or with a left pointing arrow.

References

Computer keyboard
Control characters

Backspace