USS John Paul Jones (DD-932/DDG-32), named for John Paul Jones, was a Forrest Sherman-class destroyer of the United States Navy.

John Paul Jones was laid down by the Bath Iron Works Corporation at Bath in Maine on 18 January 1954, launched on 7 May 1955 by Mrs. Carney, wife of Admiral Robert B. Carney and commissioned on 5 April 1956, Comdr. R. W. Hayler, Jr., in command.

History
John Paul Jones, second of the initial class destroyers of post-war design, conducted exhaustive shakedown training out of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, after which she departed for a cruise to Northern Europe and the British Isles. During this voyage Commander Hayler and members of the crew visited the birthplace of John Paul and presented the ship's emblem to the people of Kirkcudbright. She returned to her home port, Newport, 8 October 1956.

The new destroyer departed for her first cruise with Sixth Fleet 25 March 1957. In May she took part in an operation in support of King Hussein of Jordan. After successfully averting his overthrow, John Paul Jones sailed for Newport once more, arriving 6 June 1957. NATO maneuvers in the North Atlantic followed in October. After another brief cruise to the Mediterranean, she arrived in Fall River, Massachusetts, on 27 November, and in January 1958 she took part in fleet exercises in the Caribbean.

In the spring of 1958 John Paul Jones operated with Canadian ships on training maneuvers in the Atlantic. After further training off the East Coast and in the Caribbean, she sailed again for the Mediterranean 17 March 1959. This tour with the 6th Fleet on its peace-keeping mission ended 24 July when the ship arrived Boston.

The year 1960 began with 2nd Fleet operations out of Newport, and in June the destroyer embarked midshipmen for a training cruise. She then departed 22 August for a cruise to South America. As part of Operation Unitas, she circumnavigated the continent, visiting many of America's southern allies and taking part in joint exercises with their navies. After transiting the Straits of Magellan and the Panama Canal, John Paul Jones returned to Newport 13 December 1960. During 1961 and 1962 the ship carried out antisubmarine exercises in the Caribbean and out of Newport. In April 1962 she took part in a fleet review and weapons demonstration for President John F. Kennedy, and in July she again embarked midshipmen for training. In October 1962 the ship was on station with the Atlantic Recovery Forces during the orbital flight of Commander Wally Schirra, and soon afterward moved off the coast of Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

The following year saw the veteran ship embark on another Mediterranean cruise 6 February to 1 July; the remainder of 1963 was spent on antisubmarine exercises in the Atlantic.

Operations along the Atlantic Coast continued until John Paul Jones began another 6th Fleet deployment 20 June 1964. She operated primarily in the western Mediterranean, on ASW assignments until returning home 3 September 1964. Early in 1965 she participated in Operation "Spring board" in the Caribbean. In March the destroyer received a Gemini-recovery crane and on the 19th sailed for her recovery station some 200 miles south of Bermuda. She was to pick up astronauts Major Virgil Grissom and Lt. Cmdr. John W. Young and their space craft in the event that they ended their flight after two rather than the three scheduled orbits. However, all went well so she returned to Norfolk 27 March without headlines.

John Paul Jones headed back to the Mediterranean 18 June for NATO exercises with units of the French, Greek and British navies.

John Paul Jones was converted to a guided missile destroyer at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard between 20 December 1965 and 15 March 1967 and designated DDG-32.

Fate
John Paul Jones was a member of the U. S. Pacific Fleet when she was decommissioned on 15 December 1982.  She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 30 November 1985 and sunk as a target off the coast of California on 31 January 2001.

References

External links
Destroyer Photo Index USS John Paul Jones (DD-932) Navsource

Forrest Sherman-class destroyers
Cold War destroyers of the United States
Ships built in Bath, Maine
1955 ships
Ships sunk as targets

USS John Paul Jones (DD-932)


Molecular symmetry is a basic idea in chemistry. It is about the symmetry of molecules. It puts molecules into groups according to their symmetry. It can predict or explain many of a molecule's chemical properties.

Chemists study symmetry to explain how crystals are made up and how chemicals react. The molecular symmetry of the reactants help predict how the product of the reaction is made up and the energy needed for the reaction.

Molecular symmetry can be studied several different ways. Group theory is the most popular idea. Group theory is also useful in studying the symmetry of molecular orbitals. This is used in the Hückel method, ligand field theory, and the Woodward–Hoffmann rules. Another idea on a larger scale is the use of crystal systems to describe crystallographic symmetry in bulk materials.

Scientists find molecular symmetry by using X-ray crystallography and other forms of spectroscopy. Spectroscopic notation is based on facts taken from molecular symmetry.

Historical background
Physicist Hans Bethe used characters of point group operations in his study of ligand field theory in 1929. Eugene Wigner used group theory to explain the selection rules of atomic spectroscopy. The first character tables were compiled by László Tisza (1933), in connection to vibrational spectra. Robert Mulliken was the first to publish character tables in English (1933). E. Bright Wilson used them in 1934 to predict the symmetry of vibrational normal modes. The complete set of 32 crystallographic point groups was published in 1936 by Rosenthal and Murphy.

Symmetry concepts
Mathematical group theory has been adapted to study of symmetry in molecules.

Elements
The symmetry of a molecule can be described by 5 types of symmetry elements.

 Symmetry axis: an axis around which a rotation by  results in a molecule that appears identical to the molecule before rotation. This is also called an n-fold rotational axis and is shortened to Cn. Examples are the C2 in water and the C3 in ammonia. A molecule can have more than one symmetry axis; the one with the highest n is called the principal axis, and by convention is given the z-axis in a Cartesian coordinate system.
 Plane of symmetry: a plane of reflection through which an identical copy of the original molecule is given. This is also called a mirror plane and abbreviated σ. Water has two of them: one in the plane of the molecule itself and one perpendicular (at right angles) to it. A symmetry plane parallel with the principal axis is dubbed vertical (σv) and one perpendicular to it horizontal (σh). A third type of symmetry plane exists: if a vertical symmetry plane additionally bisects the angle between two 2-fold rotation axes perpendicular to the principal axis, the plane is dubbed dihedral (σd). A symmetry plane can also be identified by its Cartesian orientation, e.g., (xz) or (yz).

 Center of symmetry or inversion center, shortened to i. A molecule has a center of symmetry when, for any atom in the molecule, an identical atom exists diametrically opposite this center an equal distance from it. There may or may not be an atom at the center. Examples are xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4) where the inversion center is at the Xe atom, and benzene (C6H6) where the inversion center is at the center of the ring.
 Rotation-reflection axis: an axis around which a  rotation by , followed by a reflection in a plane perpendicular to it, leaves the molecule unchanged. Also called  an n-fold improper rotation axis, it is shortened to Sn, with n necessarily even. Examples are present in tetrahedral silicon tetrafluoride, with three S4 axes, and the staggered conformation of ethane with one S6 axis.
 Identity (also E), from the German 'Einheit' meaning Unity. It is called "Identity" because it is like the number one (unity) in multiplication. (When a number is multiplied by one, the answer is the original number.) This symmetry element means no change. Every molecule has this element. The identity symmetry element helps chemists use mathematical group theory.

Operations
Each of the five symmetry elements has a symmetry operation. People use a caret symbol (^) to talk about the operation rather than the symmetry element. So, Ĉn is the rotation of a molecule around an axis and Ê is the identity operation. A symmetry element can have more than one symmetry operation associated with it. Since C1 is equivalent to E, S1 to σ and S2 to i,  all symmetry operations can be classified as either proper or improper rotations.

Point groups

A point group is a set of symmetry operations forming a mathematical group, for which at least one point remains fixed under all operations of the group. A crystallographic point group is a point group which will work with translational symmetry in three dimensions. There are a total of 32 crystallographic  point groups, 30 of which are relevant to chemistry. Scientists use Schoenflies notation to classify point groups.

Group theory

Mathematics define a group. A set of symmetry operations form a group when:
 the result of consecutive application (composition) of any two operations is also a member of the group (closure).
 the application of the operations is associative: A(BC) = (AB)C
 the group contains the identity operation, denoted E, such that AE = EA = A for any operation A in the group.
 For every operation A in the group, there is an inverse element A−1 in the group, for which AA−1 = A−1A = E

The order of a group is the number of symmetry operations for that group.

For example, the point group for the water molecule is C2v, with symmetry operations E, C2, σv and σv'. Its order is thus 4.  Each operation is its own inverse.  As an example of closure, a C2 rotation followed by a σv reflection is seen to be a σv' symmetry operation: σv*C2 = σv'. (Note that "Operation A followed by B to form C" is written BA = C).

Another example is the ammonia molecule, which is pyramidal and contains a three-fold rotation axis as well as three mirror planes at an angle of 120° to each other. Each mirror plane contains an N-H bond and bisects the H-N-H bond angle opposite to that bond. Thus ammonia molecule belongs to the C3v point group which has order 6: an identity element E, two rotation operations C3 and C32, and three mirror reflections σv, σv' and σv".

Common point groups
The following table contains a list of point groups with representative molecules. The description of structure includes common shapes of molecules based on VSEPR theory.

{|align="center"  class="wikitable"
 |Point group
 | Symmetry elements || Simple description, chiral if applicable || Illustrative species
 |-
 |C1 || E || no symmetry, chiral || CFClBrH, lysergic acid
 |-
 |Cs || E σh || planar, no other symmetry || thionyl chloride, hypochlorous acid
 |-
 |Ci || E i || Inversion center || anti-1,2-dichloro-1,2-dibromoethane
 |-
 |C∞v || E 2C∞ σv || linear || hydrogen chloride, dicarbon monoxide
 |-
 |D∞h || E 2C∞  ∞σi i  2S∞ ∞C2 || linear with inversion center || dihydrogen, azide anion, carbon dioxide
 |-
 |C2 || E C2 || "open book geometry," chiral || hydrogen peroxide
 |-
 |C3 || E C3 || propeller, chiral || triphenylphosphine
 |-
 |C2h || E C2 i σh || planar with inversion center || trans-1,2-dichloroethylene
|-
 |C3h || E C3 C32 σh S3 S35|| propeller || Boric acid
 |-
 |C2v || E C2 σv(xz) σv'(yz) || angular (H2O) or see-saw (SF4) || water, sulfur tetrafluoride, sulfuryl fluoride
 |-
 |C3v || E 2C3 3σv || trigonal pyramidal || ammonia, phosphorus oxychloride
 |-
 |C4v || E 2C4 C2 2σv 2σd || square pyramidal || xenon oxytetrafluoride
 |-
 |D2 || E C2(x) C2(y) C2(z) || twist, chiral || cyclohexane twist conformation
 |-
 |D3 || E C3(z) 3C2|| triple helix, chiral || Tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) cation
 |-
 |D2h || E C2(z) C2(y) C2(x) i σ(xy) σ(xz) σ(yz)|| planar with inversion center || ethylene, dinitrogen tetroxide, diborane
 |-
 |D3h || E 2C3 3C2 σh 2S3 3σv || trigonal planar or trigonal bipyramidal || boron trifluoride, phosphorus pentachloride
 |-
 |D4h || E 2C4 C2 2C2' 2C2 i  2S4 σh 2σv 2σd || square planar || xenon tetrafluoride
 |-
 |D5h || E 2C5 2C52 5C2 σh 2S5 2S53 5σv || pentagonal || ruthenocene, eclipsed ferrocene, C70 fullerene
 |-
 |D6h || E 2C6 2C3 C2 3C2' 3C2 i 3S3 2S63 σh 3σd 3σv || hexagonal || benzene, bis(benzene)chromium
 |-
 |D2d || E 2S4 C2 2C2' 2σd || 90° twist || allene, tetrasulfur tetranitride
 |-
 |D3d || E C3 3C2 i 2S6 3σd || 60° twist || ethane (staggered rotamer), cyclohexane chair conformation
 |-
 |D4d || E 2S8 2C4 2S83 C2 4C2' 4σd || 45° twist || dimanganese decacarbonyl (staggered rotamer)
 |-
 |D5d || E 2C5 2C52 5C2 i 3S103 2S10 5σd || 36° twist || ferrocene (staggered rotamer)
 |-
 |Td || E 8C3 3C2 6S4 6σd || tetrahedral || methane, phosphorus pentoxide, adamantane
 |-
 |Oh || E 8C3 6C2 6C4 3C2 i 6S4 8S6 3σh 6σd || octahedral or cubic || cubane, sulfur hexafluoride
 |-
 |Ih || E 12C5 12C52 20C3 15C2 i 12S10 12S103 20S6 15σ || icosahedral || C60, B12H122-
 |-
|}

 Representations

Symmetry operations can be written in many ways. A good way to write them is by using matrices. For any vector representing a point in Cartesian coordinates, left-multiplying it gives the new place of the point transformed by the symmetry operation. Composition of operations is done by matrix multiplication.  In the C2v example this is:

Although an infinite (going on forever) number of such representations (ways of showing things) exist, the irreducible representations (or "irreps") of the group are commonly used, as all other representations of the group can be described as a linear combination of the irreducible representations. (The irreps span the vector space of the symmetry operations.) Chemists use the irreps to sort the symmetry groups and to talk about their properties.

 Character tables
For each point group, a character table summarizes information on its symmetry operations and on its irreducible representations. The tables are square because there are always equal numbers of irreducible representations and groups of symmetry operations.

The table itself is made of characters which show how a particular irreducible representation changes when a particular symmetry operation is applied (put to it). Any symmetry operation in a molecule's point group acting on the molecule itself will leave it unchanged. But for acting on a general entity (thing), such as a vector or an orbital, this does not have to be what happens. The vector could change sign or direction, and the orbital could change type. For simple point groups, the values are either 1 or -1: 1 means that the sign or phase (of the vector or orbital) is unchanged by the symmetry operation (symmetric) and -1 denotes a sign change (asymmetric).

The representations are labeled according to a set of conventions:

 A, when rotation around the principal axis is symmetrical
 B, when rotation around the principal axis is asymmetrical
 E and T are doubly and triply degenerate representations, respectively
 when the point group has an inversion center, the subscript g ( or even) signals no change in sign, and the subscript u (ungerade or uneven) a change in sign, with respect to inversion.
 with point groups C∞v and D∞h the symbols are borrowed from angular momentum description: Σ, Π, Δ.

The tables also tell the Cartesian basis vectors, rotations about them, and quadratic functions of them transformed by the symmetry operations of the group. The table also shows which irreducible representation transforms in the same way (on the right hand side of the tables). Chemists use this because chemically important orbitals (in particular p and d orbitals) have the same symmetries as these entities.

The character table for the C2v symmetry point group is given below:

For example, water (H2O) which has the C2v symmetry described above.  The 2px orbital of oxygen is oriented perpendicular to the plane of the molecule and switches sign with a C2 and a σv'(yz) operation, but remains unchanged with the other two operations (obviously, the character for the identity operation is always +1). This orbital's character set is thus {1, -1, 1, -1}, corresponding to the B1 irreducible representation. Similarly, the 2pz orbital is seen to have the symmetry of the A1 irreducible representation, 2py B2, and the  3d''xy orbital A2. These assignments and others are in the rightmost two columns of the table.

References

Other websites
 Molecular symmetry at the University of Exeter
 Molecular symmetry at Imperial College London
 Molecular Point Group Symmetry Tables
 Molecular symmetry at Otterbein University
Pictorial overview of the 32 groups

Symmetry
Theoretical chemistry

Molecular symmetry


A birth name is the family name someone has when he or she is born, or at least from the time he or she is a child. This term can be used by a man or a woman who changes a name later in life for any reason.

A maiden name is the family name—usually the birth name—a woman has before she marries.

A married name is the family name taken by a married person at the time of the marriage. The most common example is when a woman takes the family name of her spouse at the time of marriage. But sometimes a man changes his name at marriage. Also, sometimes both people change their names, such as to a hyphenated or other mixed name.

Sometimes the words "né" (for a man) or "née" (for a woman) are used to show a birth name or maiden name. These words mean "born", and are borrowedv.2 from French.

Names

Birth name


A tulku (also tülku, trulku) is a Tibetan Buddhist lama who has achieved the ability to consciously determine to be reborn, often many times, in order to continue their Bodhisattva vow. The most famous example is the lineage of Dalai Lamas, who are said to be reincarnations of the previous thirteen Dalai Lamas, beginning with Gendun Drup (1391 – 1474). It is held in the Vajrayana tradition that the oldest lineage of tulkus is that of the Karmapas (spiritual head of the Karma Kagyu lineage), which began with Düsum Khyenpa (1110-1193).

In addition to Tibetans and related peoples, Tibetan Buddhism is the traditional religion of the Mongols and their relatives. The Mongolian word for a tulku is qubilγan, though such persons may also be called by the honorific title qutuγtu (Tib: phags-pa / Skt: ārya), or hutagt in the standard Khalkha dialect.

A recent Chinese word for tulku is huófó (活佛), which literally means "living Buddha". Thus the term Living Buddha is used to mean tulku.

 References
 Logan, Pamela (2004). "Tulkus in Tibet" . Harvard Asia Quarterly'' 8''' (1) 15-23.

Buddhism

Tulku


Artie Shaw (May 23, 1910 – December 30, 2004) was an American musician. He is considered to be one of the best jazz musicians of his time.  He was a jazz clarinet player, composer, and bandleader. He also wrote both fiction and non-fiction writings.

Early life
He was born Arthur Jacob Arshawsky in New York, New York. He began learning the saxophone when he was 15. By age 16 he began to tour with a band. He returned to New York City and became a session musician. During the Swing Era, his big bands were very popular with hits like "Begin the Beguine" and "Stardust".

During the War
During World War II he joined the U.S. Navy. He served in the Pacific theater as the leader of a service band (similar to Glenn Miller's wartime band in Europe).

Political problems
In 1953, Shaw was brought up before the House Un-American Activities Committee for his leftist activities. The committee was investigating a peace activist organization, the World Peace Congress, which it considered a communist front.

Writing career
Throughout his musical career, Shaw would take time off. He would quit the music business and pursue his writing career. In 1955, Shaw stopped playing the clarinet. After that, he focused on writing, especially semi-biographical fiction.

Legacy
In 1981, he organized a new Artie Shaw Band with clarinetist Dick Johnson as bandleader and soloist. Shaw himself would guest conduct from time to time, ending his self-imposed retirement.

In 1991, Artie Shaw's band library and manuscript collection was donated to the University of Arizona. In 2004, he was presented with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.

Personal life and death
Shaw was married eight times: Jane Cairns (1932); Margaret Allen (1934-37); Lana Turner (1940); Betty Kern (1941-43), daughter of songwriter Jerome Kern; Ava Gardner (1945-46); Forever Amber author Kathleen Winsor (1946-48); Doris Dowling (1952-56) and Evelyn Keyes (1957-85). He had two sons by Kern and Dowling.

In his later years, Shaw lived and wrote in the Newbury Park section of Thousand Oaks, California. Shaw had adult onset diabetes. In December 2004, he died due to the disease at age 94.

References

American jazz musicians
American clarinetists
Bandleaders
Grammy Award winners
Musicians from New York City
1910 births
2004 deaths

Artie Shaw


Sophene (Armenian: ) was a province of the Armenian Kingdom and of the Roman Empire, in the southwest of the kingdom. It is currently in modern-day southeastern Turkey.

According to Anania Shirakatsi's Ashkharatsuyts ("World Atlas," 7th century), Tsopk was the 2nd among the 15 provinces of Greater Armenia. It consisted of 8 cantons (gavars): Khordzyan, Hashtyank, Paghnatun, Balahovit, Tsopk (Shahunyats), Andzit, Degiq, and Gavreq (Goreq).

Tsopk was part of the kingdom of Urartu in the 8th-7th cc BC. After unifying the region with his kingdom in the early 700s BC, king Argishtis I of Urartu resettled many of its inhabitants to his newly built city of Erebuni (modern day Armenian capital Yerevan). Around 600 BC, Tsopk became part of the newly emerged ancient Armenian Kingdom of Orontids.

After Alexander the Great's campaigns in 330s BC and the subsequent collapse of the Achaemenid Empire, Tsopk remained part of the newly independent kingdom of Greater Armenia. In the early 200s BC, at the instigation of the Seleucid Empire, which was trying to weaken the Armenian kingdom, Tsopk, along with Commagene, split from Greater Armenia, forming the Hellenistic kingdom of Tsopk-Commagene. The kingdom was ruled by a branch of the Armenian royal dynasty of Orontids. Tsopk later split from the Tsopk-Commagene kingdom as well, forming an independent kingdom.

Around 200 BC, in his attempt to finally subjugate Armenia, Seleucian king Antiochus III conquered both Greater Armenia and Tsopk, installing Armenian generals Artaxias I and Zariadres as governors-strategoses respectively in each kingdom. Following Antiochus' defeat by Romans at the battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, both Zareh and Artashes declared themselves independent kings. Zareh and his descendants ruled the kingdom of Tsopk until it was reunified with Greater Armenia by Tigranes the Great in the 80s BC.

Pompey gave Sophene to Tigranes, after defeating his father Tigranes the Great.
Sophene later become part of the Roman Empire, and was made into a province of the Roman Empire. The capital was Amida (modern Diyarbakır). Around 54, the province was ruled by Gaius Julius Sohaemus.
In 530, Sophene was included into the province of Armenia IV.

References

Places of Ancient Rome
Ancient Armenia
3rd-century BC establishments
1st-century BC disestablishments

Sophene


The two-nation theory (Urdu: دو قومی نظریہ do qaumī nazariya) is the basis of the creation of Pakistan. The two-nation theory in its simplest way means that cultural, political, religious, economic and social dissimilarities between the two major communities, Hindus and Muslims of the Subcontinent. These differences of outlook, in fact, were greatly instrumental in giving rise to two distinct political ideologies which were responsible for the partition of the sub-continent into two independent states. The two-nation theory was a founding principle of the Pakistan Movement (i.e. the ideology of Pakistan as a Muslim nation-state in South Asia), and the partition of India in 1947.

The ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of Indian Muslims and Hindus was postulated by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who termed it as the awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan. As a consequence, it spawned creation of many Hindu nationalist organisations, with causes including working towards making India a similar state for the majority of Hindus residing there.

There are varying interpretations of the two-nation theory, based on whether the two postulated nationalities can coexist in one territory or not, with radically different implications. One interpretation argued for sovereign autonomy, including the right to secede, for Muslim-majority areas of the Indian subcontinent, but without any transfer of populations (i.e. Hindus and Muslims would continue to live together). A different interpretation contends that Hindus and Muslims constitute "two distinct and frequently antagonistic ways of life and that therefore they cannot coexist in one nation." In this version, a transfer of populations (i.e. the total removal of Hindus from Muslim-majority areas and the total removal of Muslims from Hindu-majority areas) is a desirable step towards a complete separation of two incompatible nations that "cannot coexist in a harmonious relationship".

Opposition to the theory has come from two sources. The first is the concept of a single Indian nation, of which Hindus and Muslims are two intertwined communities. Even after the formation of Pakistan, debates on whether Muslims and Hindus are distinct nationalities or not continued in India. The second source of opposition is the concept that while Indians are not one nation, neither are the Muslims or Hindus of the subcontinent, and it is instead the relatively homogeneous provincial units of the subcontinent which are true nations and deserving of sovereignty across the subcontinent.

Reference of two nation theory

History of Pakistan
History of Bangladesh
Partition of India

Two-nation theory


The Church of the United Brethren in Christ is an evangelical Christian denomination with churches in 17 countries. It is Protestant, with an episcopal structure and Arminian theology, with roots in the Mennonite and German Reformed communities of 18th-century Pennsylvania, as well as close ties to Methodism. It was organized in 1800 by Martin Boehm and Philip William Otterbein and is the first American denomination that was not transplanted from Europe.  It emerged from United Brethren churches that were at first unorganized, and not all of which joined this church when it was formally organized in 1800, following a 1789 conference at the Otterbein Church (Baltimore, Maryland).

In 1889, a controversy over membership in secret societies such as the Freemasons, the proper way to modify the church's constitution, and other issues split the United Brethren into majority liberal and minority conservative blocs, the latter of which was led by Bishop Milton Wright (father of the Wright Brothers). Both groups continued to use the name Church of the United Brethren in Christ.

The majority faction, known as the Church of the United Brethren in Christ (New Constitution), merged with the Evangelical Church in 1946 to form a new denomination known as the Evangelical United Brethren Church (EUB). This in turn merged in 1968 with The Methodist Church to form the United Methodist Church (UMC).

The Wright-led faction, The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Old Constitution, continues today as the denomination of about 550 congregations, with 47,300 members in fifteen countries. The US National Conference consists of about 200 churches and 25,000 members in the United States, plus mission districts in Haiti and India. The United States national office is located in Huntington, Indiana, as is the denomination's only college, Huntington University.

History

Though the church was not organized until 1800, its roots reach back to 1767.  In May of that year, a Great Meeting (part of the interdenominational revival movement the First Great Awakening) was held at a barn belonging to Isaac Long in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Martin Boehm (1725–1812), a Mennonite preacher, spoke of his becoming a Christian through crying out to God while plowing in the field. Philip William Otterbein (1726–1813), a Reformed pastor at York, Pennsylvania, left his seat, embraced Boehm and said to him, "Wir sind Brüder (we are brethren)."

The followers of Boehm and Otterbein formed a loose movement for many years.  It spread to include German-speaking churches in Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, and Ohio. In 1800, they began a yearly conference. Thirteen ministers attended the first conference at the home of Peter Kemp in Frederick, Maryland. At that conference in 1800, they adopted a name, the United Brethren in Christ. Boehm and Otterbein, now in their 70s, were elected as bishops. The United Brethren Church claims to be the first denomination to actually begin in the United States, rather than be transplanted from Europe. A Confession of Faith was adopted in 1815 (similar to one written by Otterbein in 1789), and it has remained the statement of church doctrine to the present. In 1841, they adopted a Constitution. It has remained mostly intact, being changed perhaps a dozen times.

William Otterbein retained a connection with the Reformed Church, pastoring a Reformed Church in Baltimore, Maryland from 1774 until his death in 1813. Martin Boehm was excluded by the Mennonites in 1775. He joined the Methodist Church in 1802, while remaining bishop of the United Brethren until his death in 1812. Francis Asbury, bishop of the Methodist Church in America, spoke at the memorial services of both of these United Brethren bishops. Otterbein had assisted in Asbury's ordination.

The United Brethren took a strong stand against slavery in 1821. After 1837, slave owners were no longer allowed to remain as members of the United Brethren Church. In 1847, the United Brethren founded Otterbein University in Westerville, Ohio, which continues today. In 1853, the Home, Frontier, and Foreign Missionary Society was organized. Expansion occurred into the western United States, but the church's stance against slavery limited expansion to the south.

Church of the United Brethren in Christ (Old Constitution)
By 1889, the United Brethren had grown to over 200,000 members with six bishops. In that same year they experienced a division. Denominational leaders desired to make three changes: to give local conferences proportional representation at the General Conference; to allow laymen to serve as delegates to General Conference; and to allow United Brethren members to hold membership in secret societies. However, the consensus process for amending the Constitution at the time made it difficult to amend; amendments required a 2/3 majority of all church members. However, the denomination believed these changes were necessary for the good of the church, and chose to enact them without this near consensus at the 1889 General Conference, held in York, Pennsylvania. They also adopted a new Confession of Faith.

A minority, mostly conservative faction felt the changes violated the Constitution because they were not made by a 2/3 majority of all church members. Milton Wright (the father of aviation pioneers Wilbur Wright and Orville Wright) was the only one of the church's six bishops to side with the minority. He and 13 other conference delegates left the meeting and resumed the session at the York Opera House. Arguing that based upon church constitution requirements the majority faction had effectively withdrawn from the denomination, they declared themselves to be the true United Brethren Church.

US Legal Courts saw it differently. Most of the congregations that sided with Wright lost their property. Wright led this group— comprising from 10,000 to 15,000 constituents— in those early years as they reorganized. A new headquarters began taking shape in 1897 in Huntington, Indiana, with the establishment of a publishing house, national offices, and Huntington College. Wright served as bishop until 1905.

Until 1946 two groups operated under the name Church of the United Brethren in Christ, distinguished by whether they were the Church of the United Brethren in Christ (Old Constitution) or the Church of the United Brethren in Christ (New Constitution). Both claimed 1800 as their founding date, with heritage dating to 1767, and the same history up to 1889.

In 1946, the larger New Constitution United Brethren church merged with the Evangelical Association to form the Evangelical United Brethren Church. That body in turn merged with The Methodist Church (USA) in 1968 to form the United Methodist Church. The present United Brethren Church is descended from the Old Constitution faction. This group eventually adopted two of the changes that led to the division of 1889 – local conferences have proportional representation at General Conference, and half of the delegates are laypersons. The present church contends that unlike in 1889, these changes were adopted constitutionally, by near consensus.

Theology
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ is a conservative Trinitarian body of Christians that hold the deity, humanity, and atonement of Jesus; that the Bible, in both the Old and New Testaments, is the inspired Word of God; and that salvation is through faith, repentance and following after Christ. The church holds two ordinances: baptism and the Lord's supper. The church takes a neutral position on the observance of feet washing, stating, "the example of washing feet is left to the judgment of every one to practice or not...".

Branches and connections
For the first several decades the Church of the United Brethren in Christ was loosely organized, and known simply as the United Brethren Church. When they officially organized into a denomination they adopted the name "Church of the United Brethren in Christ" in order to avoid confusion with the Unitas Fratrum (Unity of the Brethren), or as it more commonly was called in English, the United Brethren (also known as the Moravian Church.)  Although there was influence by Pietism and the Moravians on the founders of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, there is no direct organizational link.

Likewise, there are no organizational connections with the Brethren denominations coming out of the German Brethren and Swiss Brethren movements, nor are there any connections with various Latter Day Saint groups that use "United Brethren" in their name.

Brethren in Christ
Known branches of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ include several congregations led by United Brethren founder Martin Boehm. Initially known as River Brethren, they developed into several denominations, including the Brethren in Christ Church, Calvary Holiness Church, Old Order River Brethren/Yorker Brethren, and United Zion Church. While they were associated with the United Brethren during the early decades, they never joined when the movement formalized into a denomination.

Missionary Church
During the 19th century, John Swank and a small number of supporters left the United Brethren Church. They joined with a small faction that had broken from the larger Brethren in Christ Church. Led by John Wegner, this group was also known by the name "Brethren in Christ". Part of this group, led by John Swank, later broke off and merged to become part of the Mennonite Brethren in Christ.  The Mennonite Brethren in Christ eventually contributed to the convergence of denominations of what is now the Missionary Church, USA, headquartered in Fort Wayne, Indiana. The remainder of the Wegner/Swank Brethren in Christ became the Pentecostal Brethren in Christ before becoming part of the Pilgrim Holiness Church, which merged to become part of the Wesleyan Church.

United Christian Church
In addition a small group of members withdrew (primarily over a desire for a stronger stand on pacifism) to form one of the denominations known as the United Christian Church around the middle of the 19th century.

Christian Union / Churches of Christ in Christian Union Church

In 1848 a small group withdrew to form the Republican United Brethren Church. They later merged with another small splinter group called the Reformed United Brethren Church to create the Evangelical United Brethren Association.
The Evangelical United Brethren Association is believed to have united with several other groups to form the Christian Union in 1864.  In 1909 the Christian Union split into the Christian Union and the Churches of Christ in Christian Union.

They are not to be confused with the Evangelical Association that later was known as the Evangelical Church, before merging to become The Evangelical United Brethren Church.

United Methodist Church & United Church of Canada
The largest "branching" came in 1889 when the main body divided into two groups. The larger group embraced a new constitution while the smaller group retained the original constitution.  The larger group was known as the Church of the United Brethren in Christ or, later, The United Brethren Church (UB). In 1946 the United Brethren Church merged with the Evangelical Church to form the Evangelical United Brethren Church (EUB). In 1968 the Evangelical United Brethren Church merged with the Methodist Church to form the United Methodist Church (UMC).

In Canada the more liberal United Brethren group after 1889 joined with the Congregationalists in 1906.  The Congregationalists then joined with the Methodist Church and most of the Presbyterian Churches in Canada in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada.  The more conservative United Brethren Church after 1889 continues to this day as the United Brethren Church in Canada. When EUB churches in the United States entered the UMC in 1968, congregations in Central Canada merged with the United Church of Canada.

Evangelical Church of North America & Evangelical Missionary Church of Canada
In 1968, a number of the Evangelical United Brethren Churches in the US and Canada left the Evangelical United Brethren Church/United Methodist Church. Some rejoined the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, other denominations, or remained independent. Most joined together to form the Evangelical Church of North America.  Later, because of international laws and legal requirements by Revenue Canada, the Canadian branch of the Evangelical Church of North America withdrew to form its own denomination. The Evangelical Church in Canada then merged with the Missionary Church of Canada to form the Evangelical Missionary Church in Canada.  Fraternal ties between the Evangelical Church and the Evangelical Missionary Church have been maintained.

The Association of Evangelical Churches
In 1981 a group of former Evangelical United Brethren churches in Pennsylvania separated from the Evangelical Church of North America over concerns regarding the ownership of congregational property. They established the Association of Evangelical Churches. The Association began an annual slate of ministry events with Family Camp in August 1982, and has since added Men's Retreat, Ministers' Retreat, Youth Retreat, and Ladies Retreat. In addition, its Board of Ministry trains, licenses, and ordains workers for ministry. The Association was a member of the Christian Holiness Partnership. Four chairmen have served the Association since its inception: Rev. Evans Mitchell 1982-1986; Rev. Gary Lyons 1986-1998; Rev. James Nelson 1998-2006; and Rev. Allen Young since 2006.

United Believers in Christ
All but one of the churches of California Conference of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, USA, withdrew from the denomination during the fall of 2005 and started their own group, called United Believers in Christ. The denomination had just gone through a two-year effort to merge into the Missionary Church USA denomination. Although the California churches had strongly supported the initiatives of UBHope, a group which opposed joining with the Missionary Church, USA, and although many of the ideas ultimately adopted originated from UBHope, the California churches continued to disagree with the direction of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, USA.

Church of the United Brethren in Christ (Old Constitution)
The smaller group of churches resulting from the 1889 division became known as the Church of the United Brethren in Christ (Old Constitution).  Later, after the other Church of the United Brethren in Christ (New Constitution) changed names with its 1946 merger with the Evangelical Church, "Old Constitution" was dropped from the name. Today, they are often casually referred to as United Brethren (UB) or the United Brethren Church (UBC).

Church of the United Brethren in Christ, International

In the late 1980s through the early 21st century, a need to comply with changing international laws resulted in the creation of a number of self-governing United Brethren "national conferences," organized by country. These independent national denominations covenanted together to create an interdependent body called the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, International. They must all agree to follow the Confession of Faith of 1815, as well as a set of seven Core Values adopted in 2001. The other international governing documents include a Constitution and By-Laws.

The General Conference of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, International, meets every three years. It is the highest governing body of the church, and is composed of representatives from the ten national conferences. Each national conference can send two delegates, usually its Bishop or General Superintendent and its Missions Director. The national conference of each country elects its own highest official (often called the bishop). These national conference officials make up an international Executive Committee. The Executive Committee meets annually, usually electronically, to take care of business between sessions of the General Conference. Canadian Bishop Brian Magnus is the current chair of the United Brethren International Executive Committee.

National conferences
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, International currently consists of ten self-governing national conferences. Seven of them existed when the international structure was adopted in 2001. Two more conferences, Mexico and the Philippines, were accepted as part of the denomination in 2005, and the U.B. churches in Guatemala became the tenth national conference in 2010. The Philippines National Conference was removed from membership by the 2017 General Conference. A group of nearly 30 churches in Haiti, which had affiliated with the United Brethren in 2000 as a mission district, and operated under the supervision of the Canadian national conference, organized as a national conference in 2019. Here is the total list of national conferences:
The United Brethren Church in Canada
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Honduras
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Hong Kong
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Jamaica
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Mexico
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Nicaragua
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Sierra Leone
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, USA
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Guatemala
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Haiti

Mission districts
In addition there are various mission districts. A mission district is a collection of churches in a country which are not yet organized into a national conference. Instead, those churches are under the supervision of a national conference. For example, UB Global, the joint mission organization of the United Brethren churches in the United States and Canada, currently oversees a mission district in India and the two churches in Macau, while the Hong Kong Conference oversees the work in Thailand. Any mission district can seek status as a national conference if it meets and maintains the following criteria:
 It consists of at least five churches within that country.
 It is a legally recognized entity within that country.
 No other United Brethren national conference exists in that country.
 It is organized with a constitution and other governing documents.
 Its governing documents, teachings, and practices do not conflict with the Confession of Faith, Core Values, Constitution, and Bylaws of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, International.

If a mission district meets those requirements, it can apply for national conference status through this procedure:
 The churches in the mission district vote to seek membership in the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, International.
 They develop their governing documents and submit them to the international Executive Committee for review.
 The General Conference approves, by a two-thirds vote, the request for membership.

These are the current mission districts:
 Costa Rica (oversight by Nicaragua)
 El Salvador (oversight by Honduras)
 Germany (oversight by Sierra Leone)
 India (oversight by UB Global [USA])
 Macau (oversight by UB Global [USA])
 Thailand (oversight by Hong Kong)
 Liberia (oversight by Sierra Leone)
 France (oversight by UB Global [USA]))

(see also: other Protestant missionary societies in China during the 19th century)

Organization
The General Conference of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, International, meets every three years. It is the highest governing body of the church, and is composed of representatives from the various national conferences. Each national conference can send two delegates. The national conference of each country elects its own highest official (often called the bishop). These national conference officials make up an international Executive Committee. The Executive Committee meets annually to take care of business between sessions of the General Conference.

Church of the United Brethren in Christ, USA

Organization
The Church of the United Brethren in Christ, USA is the United Brethren national conference for the United States. Its national offices are located in Huntington, Indiana. Led by an elected bishop, it is composed of clergy and lay representatives from US congregations and US-sponsored mission fields. The national conference meets every two years.

On October 14, 2003, the Executive Leadership Team of the United Brethren Church, USA voted to pursue joining with the Missionary Church. The joining was tentatively scheduled to occur in 2005 but was defeated by a vote of the membership in 2004. This action, had it received a favorable vote, would have combined the United Brethren churches in the United States into the Missionary Church USA, so that all of those congregations would have become Missionary Church congregations.

At the 2005 National Conference of the United Brethren Church, USA significant changes were passed that initiated a major restructuring and refocusing of the denomination. The new organizational structure eliminated the multiple geographical "annual conferences" which had existed since 1810, and replaced them with smaller groupings, called "clusters", consisting of 5-10 churches and their senior pastors. Clusters were designed to better equip congregations and their leadership while building stronger relationships and accountability.

The new structure did the following:

Moved the National Conference from a four-year cycle to a two-year cycle.
Required each United Brethren church in the United States to affirm its continued support for a covenant agreement. The covenant agreement lays out the minimum expectations to be a United Brethren church.
Required that all pastors and their congregations work together with other pastors and congregations in groups of 5-10 churches called "clusters."  The new structure allowed flexibility in the formation and focus of a cluster. Each cluster receives ongoing training to equip the pastors in the cluster to equip their churches. All cluster leaders are appointed by the United States bishop.
Allowed for a variety of mission-focused networks and associations to be created. These groups could revolve around world evangelism, camps, church planting, or any number of other affinities.
Required a "partnership fee" of 3.5% of a church's income. Before 2005, most churches paid around 12% of their income toward conference and denominational interests. The elimination of the annual conferences, a mid-level geographic entity with its own leaders and programs, enabled the fee to be drastically reduced and thereby keep more finances at the local church level.

The covenant must be signed by each church and reciprocally signed by the bishop. If a church chooses not to sign the covenant, they are basically withdrawing from the denomination. The covenant, as most recently revised, includes these points:
 We commit to the Confession of Faith and Core Values of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, International.
 We agree to abide by the Constitution and Discipline of the US National Conference.
 We will prioritize our assets, energies, and ministries toward fulfilling the Great Commission.
 We will support the broader ministry and mission of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, USA, through prayer, promotion of its interests, and the annual partnership fee.

Affiliated ministries

 UB Global (formerly Global Ministries), located in Huntington, Indiana, is the official agency of the Church of the United Brethren Church, USA, for worldwide evangelism and discipleship.  Areas of responsibility include overseeing mission conferences, certifying missionaries, and promoting connections between US and non-US congregations. The United States and Canadian national conferences work together under a joint ministry agreement; two representatives from the Canadian church serve on the UB Global Leadership Team.
 Huntington University is owned and operated by the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, USA. The successor of Hartsville Seminary, Huntington University was founded in 1897 as Central College. In 1917, the name was changed to Huntington College, and it became Huntington University on July 1, 2005.
 Laurel Mission is a holistic ministry meeting physical, social, and spiritual needs in rural Kentucky.
 Rhodes Grove Camp is a campground located near Chambersburg, Pa. It was the campground of the Mid-Atlantic Conference until 2005, when Rhodes Grove became an independent entity with its own board of directors. The camp's strong connections with United Brethren churches continue.
 Camp Living Waters is a United Brethren campground in Luther, Mich. In 2005, Camp Living Waters became an independent entity, while retaining strong connections with the founding United Brethren churches.
 Camp Cotubic, located in Bellefontaine, Ohio, was the campground of the former Central Conference of the US National Conference. It became an independent entity, with its own board of directors, in 2006, though the historic connections with United Brethren churches in Ohio and Indiana continue.

Key national leader
 Rev. Todd Fetters, Bishop

Publications
 UB.org is the official website of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, USA.
 UBGlobal.org is the official website of UB Global.
UBCentral.org is the official news portal for the United Brethren church.
 "Worldview" is the official publication of UB Global and is published quarterly.

Status
The total number of United Brethren churches is 600, with a membership of 47,300. In 2017, membership in the United States was around 20,000 in 180 congregations. The majority of United Brethren churches are located in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan. Outside the United States, there are churches in Canada, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Hong Kong, India, Jamaica, Liberia, Macau, Mexico, Nicaragua, Sierra Leone, France, and Thailand.

Higher education
Since its beginning in the 18th century, the Church of the United Brethren in Christ founded 34 colleges, seminaries, and academies in the United States. Only Huntington University is part of the current Church of the United Brethren in Christ. The complete list of colleges surviving as independent entities, include:

 Huntington University, Huntington, Indiana (UBC)
 Lebanon Valley College, Annville, Pennsylvania (associated with the UMC)
 Otterbein University Westerville, Ohio (UMC)
 United Theological Seminary, Dayton, Ohio (UMC)
 University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana (UMC)
 Shenandoah University, Winchester, Virginia (UMC)

Notable United Brethren people
 Clarence E. Coe, pioneer of Palms, California, and member of the Los Angeles City Council, 1931–33
 James M. Cox, 1920 Democratic presidential candidate, twice governor of Ohio, and founder of Cox Enterprises.
 Francis Scott Key, who wrote "The Star-Spangled Banner", was a Sunday school teacher for the United Brethren.
 Benjamin Hanby, a United Brethren bishop's son who wrote the songs "Darling Nelly Gray," "Up on the Housetop," and "Jolly Old St. Nicholas."
 Lillian Resler Keister Harford (1851–1935), church organizer and editor.
 Orville D. Merillat, founder of Merillat Industries and a noted philanthropist, was a United Brethren member.
 J. Edward Roush, who represented Indiana's 4th Congressional District 1959–1977, and was instrumental in establishing the nationwide 911 emergency system.
 Orville and Wilbur Wright, who invented the airplane, were the sons of United Brethren bishop Milton Wright.

References

Further reading

 Drury, Augustus Waldo. History of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ (Otterbein Press, 1924) online; covers The majority faction, known as the Church of the United Brethren in Christ (New Constitution) (now UMC),.

 Berger, Daniel. History of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ (United Brethren Publishing House, 1897) online.

Handbook of Denominations in the United States, by Frank S. Mead, Samuel S. Hill, and Craig D. Atwood
Trials and Triumphs, Paul R. Fetters, editor. A history of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ up to 1981.
"Theological Perspectives", Paul R. Fetters, editor.
"All for Christ," volumes 1 and 2, written by Steve Dennie and published in June 2017. A history of the United Brethren in Christ with a focus on 1981 to the present.

External links

 Church of the United Brethren in Christ
 UB Global
 Huntington University
 United Brethren Historical Center

Religious organizations established in 1889
River Brethren
Evangelical denominations in North America
Anabaptist organizations established in the 19th century
Evangelical denominations established in the 19th century
Protestantism in Ohio
Members of the National Association of Evangelicals
Arminian denominations

Church of the United Brethren in Christ


Andrew Wellington Cordier (March 1, 1901 – July 11, 1975) was a United Nations official and President of Columbia University.

Early life
Cordier was born on a farm near Canton, Ohio and attended high school in Hartville, Ohio where he became quarterback of the football team and valedictorian of his graduating class.  He graduated in 1922 from Manchester University and went on to earn a Ph.D. in Medieval History at the University of Chicago in 1927.  He married the former Dorothy Butterbaugh in 1924.  He studied at the Graduate Institute of International Studies in Switzerland in 1930–1931 where he made surveys of the situations in the Sudetenland, Danzig, and the Chaco War.  He returned to Manchester University to teach in the Department of History and Political Science and at Indiana University extension.

He became an international security advisor at the U.S. State Department in 1944 and was part of the U.S. delegation to the San Francisco Conference.  The State Department sent him to London in 1945 to help organize the United Nations.

United Nations
From 1946 to 1961, Cordier served as Undersecretary in Charge of General Assembly and Related Affairs and took on assignments as a special representative of the Secretary General in the Korean War and the Suez Canal and Congo crises.  Cordier was dubbed a "demon parliamentarian" for his ability to cite the specific rules governing matters of procedure on the spot.

Cordier is noted for convincing Dean Rusk and Ambassador Yakov Malik to meet in the basement of his Great Neck, New York home to discuss how to lessen U.S.–Soviet tensions.

Cordier was considered responsible for facilitating the first US-supported coup against Congo Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba by closing airports and radio stations to him while his opponents had such facilities available to them.  Both Belgian and UN documents show Cordier as doing this purposefully.

In 1962, Cordier resigned from his post after the Soviets criticized him for usurping too much of the Secretary General's responsibilities.

Columbia University
After leaving the U.N., Cordier joined Columbia University as the Dean of the School of International Affairs (SIA).  When Grayson L. Kirk resigned in 1968, Cordier assumed the presidency on an interim basis while remaining Dean of SIA.  The trustees were sufficiently pleased with his work that they gave him the permanent title in 1969; Cordier accepted on the condition that the search for a new president continue.  He was president until 1970, when he was succeeded by William J. McGill. Cordier continued as Dean of SIA after leaving the president's office.

As president he enjoyed moderate success in dealing with student unrest and unhappiness by maintaining an open-door policy (facilitated by Ted Van Dyk, brought in the CU by the Trustees), attending student rallies (sponsored by Students for a Restructured University (SRU), led by Neal H. Hurwitz, College grad '66 and Graduate Student/teaching assistant) to listen and respond to student concerns, and speaking out against U.S. involvement in Vietnam.
Columbia College awarded him its highest honor, the Alexander Hamilton Medal, in 1970.

Later years
Cordier, aged 74, died of cirrhosis of the liver at the Manhasset Medical Center on Long Island.
He is buried with his wife, Dorothy Butterbaugh Cordier, in the Oaklawn Cemetery, North Manchester Indiana. Manchester University, located in North Manchester, named its 1100-seat auditorium after Andrew Cordier.

Notes

American political scientists
American officials of the United Nations
Presidents of Columbia University
Columbia University faculty
Indiana University faculty
Manchester University (Indiana) alumni
Manchester University (Indiana) faculty
University of Chicago alumni
University of Geneva alumni
Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies alumni
People from Canton, Ohio
People of the Congo Crisis
1901 births
1975 deaths
Deaths from cirrhosis
20th-century American academics
20th-century political scientists

Andrew W. Cordier


Mexican tea culture is known for its traditional herbal teas which are reputed to have medicinal properties. In recent decades, imported tea beverages have also become popular in Mexico. Mexican tea recipes have grown in popularity beyond Mexico as well.

History
Mexico has numerous indigenous herbs that native cultures used to make infusions for centuries before Spanish colonization. Teas from Europe and Asia were not introduced to Mexican agriculture, however, and have yet to reach the level of popularity that they have in many other countries. The climate of Mexico is diverse, ranging from deserts to mountain plateaus and tropical rainforests in the southeast. The southeastern region may be suitable for cultivating imported teas.

A small number of prominent establishments in Mexico City have formal tea rooms, where British-style tea is served, including the Hotel Marquis Reforma and the Presidente Inter-Continental Mexico City hotel.

Herbal teas

Herbal teas are common in Mexico. Many herb varieties, both indigenous and imported, are sold at Mexican markets. Traditional medicinal infusions are common in some Mexican immigrant communities in the United States.

Poleo is a tea made from the Hedeoma drummondii plant. Aside from being used to make a beverage in Mexico, this plant has also been used as a culinary spice by native cultures north of Mexico. Poleo has been found to be rich in antioxidants.

Hierba buena (Good herb) is a name given to a variety of mint teas sold loose in many markets. This is similar to yerba mate, used throughout many Latin American countries as mate, and widely regarded to have health benefits. Mild stomach upset is often remedied with a drink made from lemongrass, or Limón.

Traditional Mexican teas should be consumed with great caution, as incorrect doses of some can be toxic.

Damiana tea made from damiana leaves is typically drunk in Mexico and Brazil for impotency. Damiana was used by the Aztecs centuries ago.

Chamomile is popular in Mexico.

Modern teas

Jamaica iced tea is a popular herbal tea made of the flowers and leaves of the Jamaican hibiscus plant (Hibiscus sabdariffa), known as flor de Jamaica in Mexico. It is served cold and quite sweet with a lot of ice. The ruby-red beverage called hibiscus tea in English-speaking countries is called agua de Jamaica (water of Jamaica) in Mexico, where it is widely available in restaurants and from street vendors.

Champurrado
Champurrado is a Mexican chocolate drink, sometimes incorrectly called "Mexican chocolate tea". It is a popular recipe exported to the United States. This drink is made with chocolate and spice with cinnamon. Champurrado is related to xocoatl, which is a traditional Aztec cocoa-bean drink.

See also

 Mexican cuisine
 Tea
 Herbal tea
 Agua fresca
 Tepache
 Tejate
 Tejuino
 Traditional medicine
 Health effects of tea

References

Mexican cuisine
Tea culture by country
Tea in North America
Traditional medicine
Day of the Dead food
Cuisine of the Southwestern United States

Mexican tea culture


The Ford GT90 wis a concept caur manufactured bi the Ford Motor Company. It wis unveiled in Januar 1995 at the Detroit Auto Show as "the warld's mightiest supercaur". Claimed performance includit a tap speed 235 mph (378 km/h) frae a 720 hp (537 kW;730 PS) quad-turbochairged V12 ingine DOHC, the exhaust o which wis claimed tae be het enough tae damage the body panels, requirin ceramic tiles seemilar tae those on the space shuttle tae prevent this.

The mid-ingined caur wis a spiritual successor tae the Ford GT40, takin frae it some stylin cues, sic as doors that cut intae the roofline, but little else. Aw angles an gless, the Ford GT90 wis the first Ford tae display the company's "New Edge" design philosophy. The GT90 wis biggit aroond a honeycomb-section aluminum monocoque an its body panels war moulded frae carbon fiber.

The GT90 wis biggit bi a smaw team in juist ower sax month an, as a result, borrowed mony components frae anither hie profile stablemate—the Jaguar XJ220. The aw-roond double wishbone suspension an the five-speed manual gearbox came frae the Jaguar, while the ingine wis a siamesed  4.6L DOHC V8 block (frae the Lincoln Mark VIII) wi 2 cylinders cut aff.

The GT90's 48-valve V12 wis a sax-litre ingine which, if Ford haed iver produced it in volume, might hae produced up tae 720 hp (537 kW), thanks tae fower Garrett AiResearch T2 turbochairgers.  The ingine wis based on the Ford Modular ingine.  Twa Lincoln V8 ingines each haed portions removed, namely the last pair o cylinders frae the rear o ane ingine an the first pair o cylinders frae the front o the ither ingine an the cut doun ingines wur weldit thegither. In tot, this yieldit a 90-degree V12, wi 90.2 mm bore an 77.3 mm stroke.

Jacques Nasser, then a Ford executive an eventually CEO, wis vera proud o the caur, an kept a model o it on his desk, as seen in a documentary on the U.K. telly netwirk Channel 4 on the Firestone tire incidents.

In the Top Gear episode first broadcast on October 26, 2003, Jeremy Clarkson statit "I actually drove this an it wis horrid. It haed a top speed o 40 (mph) an it handled like it wis in a cartoon".

References
 John McCormick "No White Elephant" AUTOCAR, 9 August 1995.
 Top Gear -  Series 3 Episode 1 aired 26 October 2003
 Ford GT90 offeecial U.S. Press Release - 4 December 1994

External links
 Ford GT90 Concept

GT90

Ford GT90


The Client is a 1994 American melodramatic legal crime drama movie. It was directed by Joel Schumacher. It is based on the novel of the same name. This is about murder, suicide and Mafia activities in New Orleans. Brad Renfro plays Mark Sway. Tommy Lee Jones plays Reverend Foltrigg. Susan Sarandon plays Regina Love. Mary-Louise Parker plays Dianne.

The movie was released on July 20, 1994. It got positive reviews from most critics. It made a lot of money.

1994 crime drama movies
American crime drama movies
1990s English-language movies
1990s legal movies
Movies based on books
Movies directed by Joel Schumacher
Suicide in movies
Movies set in New Orleans
Movies set in Tennessee

The Client


The halogens are chemical elements under the second-to-right column in the periodic table, also known as Group 17. The elements in the group are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine, and tennessine. Halogen literally means "salt becomer", but it is often said to mean "salt producer". They are very reactive, so they are likely to join with other elements on the left side of the periodic table to make compounds. This is because they are missing one electron. They are rarely found alone in nature. Fluorine is the most reactive, while iodine is the least reactive. Astatine is very radioactive and hard to get.

Halogens

Halogen


Events
 January 14 – Hampton Court conference with James I of England, the Anglican bishops and representatives of Puritans
 September 20 – Capture of Ostend by Spanish forces under Ambrosio Spinola after a three-year siege.
 October 9 – Supernova 1604 is observed. As of this writing, this was the last supernova to be observed in the Milky Way.
 November 1 – At Whitehall Palace in London, the William Shakespeare tragedy Othello is presented for the first time.
 The Sikh Holy Scripture Guru Granth Sahib is compiled and edited by Guru Arjan .
 Luis Váez de Torres is the first European to sail through the Torres Strait.
 France begins settling Acadia, first successful French North American colony
 France begins settling French Guiana.
 England concludes the Treaty of London with Spain, ending its involvement in the Eighty Years' War.
 Peter Blundell founds Blundell's School in Tiverton, England.
 Za Dengel deposed as Emperor of Ethiopia by Za Sellase, who restores his cousin Yaqob.
 The first known English Dictionary to be organized by alphabetical ordering was published.

1604


Pernell Roberts (May 18, 1928 - January 24, 2010) was an American actor.

Career
Early in his career, Roberts got a small role in the film Desire Under the Elms (1958) with Sophia Loren and Anthony Perkins.

He worked in the western film starring Glenn Ford, The Sheepman (1958).

In 1959, Roberts got a co-star role in the western film Ride Lonesome, with Randolph Scott.

In 1959, he contracted with Lorne Greene, Michael Landon and Dan Blocker to star in the NBC television series Bonanza. Roberts played Adam Cartwright, the eldest son of Ben Cartwright (Lorne Greene).

Roberts left the show after starring in 202 episodes between 1959 and 1965

In the 1970s he starred in westerns such as Four Rode Out (1970) and TV Western The Bravos (1972) with George Peppard.
He also starred in the television western High Noon, Part II: The Return of Will Kane (1980) with Lee Majors.

His other success in television was in the series Trapper John, M.D. (1979-1986). He played the doctor John McIntyre.

For this series, Pernell Roberts was nominated for an Emmy in 1981.

Roberts was a special guest star in many TV shows like Tombstone Territory (1958), Zane Grey Theater (1958), The Detectives starring Robert Taylor (1960), Jim West, Gunsmoke (1967), Mission Impossible (1967-1973), Banacek (1972), Mannix (1973), Police Story (1974-1975), The Six Million Dollar Man (1976), Baretta (1977), Vega$ (1980) and Diagnosis Murder (1994-1997).

Other websites

American television actors
Actors from Georgia (U.S. state)
1928 births
2010 deaths

Pernell Roberts


Antalya is a city in southern Turkey. The city is in the Mediterranean Region and along the coast of Mediterranean Sea. 2.158.265 people live there. Antalya is the most important tourism destination in Turkey and one of the best in Mediterranean. The city created a good image and its name started to be known to tourists. Every year mostly British, Russian, and German tourists come to city for beautiful beaches and the ancient destinations.

Other websites
 Akdeniz Univeresity

Cities in Turkey
Antalya Province

Antalya


Roseau is the capital city of the Caribbean island of Dominica. It is home to more than fourteen thousand people.

National capitals in North America
Settlements in Dominica

Roseau (Dominican Creole: Wozo) is the capital and largest city of Dominica, with a population of 14,725 as of 2011.[1] It is a small and compact urban settlement, in the Saint George parish and surrounded by the Caribbean Sea, the Roseau River and Morne Bruce. Built on the site of the ancient Island Carib village of Sairi, it is the oldest and most important urban settlement on the island of Dominica.

It is on the west (leeward) coast of Dominica and has a combination of modern and colonial French architecture.

Roseau is Dominica's most important port for foreign trade. Some exports include bananas, bay oil, vegetables, grapefruit, oranges, and cocoa. The service sector is also a large part of the local economy. There are several private institutions registered in Dominica, like Ross University, Ballsbridge University, international university for graduate studies, All Saints University, New World University, Western Orthodox University.

There is a prominent diocese called Roman Catholic Diocese of Roseau.

Roseau


Manchester Velodrome is an indoor cycle-racing track (or velodrome) in Manchester, in the north west of England. It opened in September 1994 and is the United Kingdom's leading indoor Olympic-standard track. Today it is home to the National Cycling Centre, and the headquarters of British Cycling, the national governing body. It is open to the public.

It hosted the track cycling in the 2002 Commonwealth Games, and the UCI world championships in 1996, 2000 and 2008.

The track has a reputation for speed. By 30 March 2008, more than 15 world records had been set there. The records include Chris Boardman's 1996 and 2000 hour records and the 4000 metre team pursuit record set by the Great Britain men's team at the 2008 World Championships.

The track is 250 metres long. Its bankings reach 42 degrees in the middle. The track is as steep at the top as it is on the black (racing) line. On 21 May 2007 the velodrome closed to be re-surfaced. The old track was relaid with Siberian pine. It reopened on 16 July 2007, and is now considered smoother to ride.

Revolution Series

The Revolution Series was introduced in 2003 to make track cycling more popular. Its goal was to try and build on the success of the well attended events like the World Championships and World Cup Classics Meetings. It was also to provide more regular events for fans to go to. The series started with 4 events over the winter season and quickly built up good regular crowds. The first close to sell out crowd came at the 7th meeting, in 2005, when all seats were sold with a further number of fans standing. The first official complete sell out came at Revolution 14 and is now a regular occurrence.

Alongside the senior racing, the Future Stars competition also runs at each Revolution event. This series involves young riders, usually 15-16 year olds, and puts them through a number of races each night to test both their sprint and endurance skills.

Hosted events

An incomplete list of events which Manchester Velodrome has hosted:
 1996 UCI world championships
 2000 UCI world championships
 2002 Commonwealth Games (track cycling events only)
 2003/2004 Revolution Series 1
 2004 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 3
 2004-2005 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 3
 2004/2005 Revolution Series 2
 2005-2006 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 2
 2005/2006 Revolution Series 3
 2006/2007 Revolution Series 4
 2006–2007 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 4
 2007/2008 Revolution Series 5
 2008–2009 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 1
 2008 UCI world championships
 2009–2010 UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics Round 1

Cycling For All

The velodrome is not just solely for the use of professional riders. Cycling fans can also have the opportunity of riding around the famous boards as well. Regular sessions are run every week at the velodrome, starting from taster sessions right up to serious training. A taster session involves some basic training and an hour riding the track.

Other events

On 2 July 2009 cycling fans Kraftwerk performed at the Manchester Velodrome as part of the 2009 Manchester International Festival. During the performance of the song Tour de France, four members of the British Olympic Cycling Team entered the velodrome and cycled circuits.

Other websites
 Manchester Velodrome
 The Revolution Series
 British Cycling

References

Buildings and structures in Manchester
1994 establishments in England
Cycle races

Manchester Velodrome


James Martin Beglin (born 29 July 1963) is an Irish former professional footballer and current co-commentator for RTÉ, CBS Sports, TNT Sports, and Premier League Productions.

Playing career

Shamrock Rovers
Beglin played schoolboy football in his native city with Bolton and Waterford Bohs before joining Shamrock Rovers in 1980. He went on to spend three years at Milltown, making four appearances in Europe and scoring one goal.

In 1982 Beglin was part of the League of Ireland XI that toured New Zealand where they played the New Zealand men's national football team.

Liverpool
Beglin was the last signing made by Liverpool manager Bob Paisley when he joined from Shamrock Rovers for  in May 1983. He was gradually brought into the first team over the next 18 months by Joe Fagan, before being given regular games in the left back slot by new player-manager Kenny Dalglish as a replacement for Alan Kennedy in the 1985–86 season. He made his debut in the left sided midfield position on 10 November 1984 in the 1–1 league draw with Southampton at Anfield. He scored his first goal for the club 5 months later on 10 April 1985 in the 4–0 European Cup Semi-final first leg victory over Greek side Panathinaikos at Anfield. Beglin's 85th-minute strike put the tie out of reach for the Greek club. Liverpool won the second leg 1–0 to set up a showdown in the final with Italian giants Juventus at the Heysel Stadium in Belgium however a retaining wall collapsed during a riot at the "neutral" end, and 39 Juventus supporters died, in what came to be known as the Heysel Stadium Disaster. Liverpool also lost the final.

Liverpool won the League championship and FA Cup, pipping Merseyside rivals Everton to both, with Beglin picking up medals for each. He also began playing for the Republic of Ireland, picking up the first of 15 caps.

Seven months after lifting the league and cup double, his leg was badly broken following a mistimed tackle from Everton's Gary Stevens in the League Cup fifth round game in January 1987. Former manager Bob Paisley said that it was one of the worst leg breaks he had ever seen, joking that he would break his own leg to prove a point to the FA. Furthermore, Liverpool defender Alan Hansen stated that the tackle was "a mile high and an hour late". Recovering from the break, Beglin sustained a knee cartilage injury playing for Liverpool's reserves in October 1988 which effectively finished his time at Anfield.

Leeds United
In June 1989, he joined Leeds United, where he helped the club to become Second Division champions and spent periods on loan with both Plymouth Argyle and Blackburn Rovers before a recurrence of his knee injury forced him into an early retirement in 1991, when still only 27.

International career
He also began playing for the Republic of Ireland, earning 15 caps.

Media career
Beglin is a co-commentator for BT Sport, Premier League Productions, and CBS Sports, and was a co-commentator on ITV and a sports journalist on Granada Television. He commentated for RTÉ in the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2018 Fifa World Cup. In the past for RTÉ he has worked on coverage of Premier League, UEFA Champions League matches and Republic of Ireland internationals. Beglin has also been employed by Liverpool as a voice–over artist for the club's official DVD and video releases. He has also been the co-commentator in the Pro Evolution Soccer video game series since Pro Evolution Soccer 2011, alongside Jon Champion and later Peter Drury.  On 4 May 2021, during a live broadcast of a champions league semi-final, Beglin attributed Di Maria's red card to his "Latino temperament", for which he later apologized. On 15 January 2022, during a live broadcast of a Premier League match, Beglin called the Etihad Stadium the 'Emptihad', but later he has issued an apology to the Manchester City fanbase.

Honours
Liverpool
Football League First Division: 1985–86
FA Cup: 1985–86
FA Charity Shield: 1986

Leeds United
Football League Second Division: 1989–90

References

External links
 Official past players at Liverpoolfc.tv
 Player profile at LFChistory.net
 Biography at sporting–heroes.net

1963 births
Living people
Association footballers from Waterford (city)
Association footballers from County Waterford
Republic of Ireland men's association footballers
Republic of Ireland men's international footballers
Republic of Ireland men's B international footballers
Republic of Ireland men's under-21 international footballers
Shamrock Rovers F.C. players
Liverpool F.C. players
Leeds United F.C. players
Plymouth Argyle F.C. players
Blackburn Rovers F.C. players
League of Ireland players
League of Ireland XI players
English Football League players
Men's association football fullbacks

Jim Beglin


Terminator 2: Judgment Day (some people call it T2) is a 1991 American action-science fiction movie set in Los Angeles. It was directed, co-produced, and co-written by James Cameron, and stars Arnold Schwarzenegger, Linda Hamilton, Edward Furlong and Robert Patrick. It is the second movie of the series, the 1984 movie The Terminator was the first, and picks up ten years after the events of the first movie. It follows Sarah Connor, her 10-year-old son John, and a helper from the future (as in the first movie), as they try to stop Judgment Day, a day in the future when machines will start to kill all humans.

T2 was a good movie as audience and critics say. It had an impact on people, and is known by many to have had power in the genres of action and science fiction. The movie's visual effects include many discoveries in computer made special effects, marking the first use of natural human movement for a CG character and the first computer made main character.

Story
In 1995, eleven years after Sarah Connor (Linda Hamilton) killed the original Terminator that was sent to kill her with the help of Kyle Reese (Michael Biehn), two men arrive in Los Angeles from the year 2029. The first is a Terminator (Arnold Schwarzenegger) identical to the one that Sarah first met, while the second is an unknown man (Robert Patrick).

John Connor (Edward Furlong) is now living with foster parents. He has grown up being told by his mother that he would someday lead the human race to beat the machines. Sarah has changed a lot because since the first movie - being stronger in mind and body - making people think she is crazy, and so she is sent to a mental hospital - Pescadero State Hospital.

Meanwhile, the Terminator and the unknown man both find John Connor in a shopping mall. Then, there is a twist: the unknown man is not the one who is meant to stop John getting killed, as the people watching thought so based on the first movie. The Terminator from the first movie is now the one meant to stop John getting killed, and the other man is another Terminator trying to kill John. When the good Terminator rescues John, he tells him what is happening. He is a Model 101, made by the future John Connor to act as the one to keep him from harm. The other Terminator is a T-1000, sent to kill him. It is made of mimetic polyalloy, or liquid metal, making it able to morph anyone or anything he touches of equal size, except "complex machines" like "guns and explosives" because they "have chemicals, moving parts." It can however form "knives and stabbing weapons."

When John learns that the T-1000 will copy Sarah and then kill her, he and the Terminator go to rescue her. Sarah is very afraid by it, but after seeing it fight off the T-1000, she accepts that they need its help. As they escape the city, the Terminator tells her about the future of Skynet, the supercomputer that will get rid of humans. He tells her about its maker, Miles Bennet Dyson (Joe Morton), who makes a learning computer that suddenly becomes self-aware on August 4, 1997. It begins learning very quickly, and on August 29, 1997, it launches nuclear missiles that kills most humans.

Sarah, John, and the Terminator arrive in the desert at her friend Enrique Salceda's camp, who has kept an underground weapons stash in the event that the war does happen. Sarah plans to take John and flee over the line that is between the US and Mexico. While at the camp, she finds out that by killing Dyson, she can stop Skynet from being made, stopping the war with the machines. After she leaves, John and the Terminator figure out what she is going to do and take off after her. At Dyson's home, Sarah tries to shoot him with sniper rifle, but when she misses, she finds that she can not kill him up close in front of his family. When John and the Terminator arrive, they tell Dyson of the bad things that will happen of his research. They make sure he knows why they must break all the things to do with his chip idea, including the CPU and arm from the first Terminator.

Sarah, John, the Terminator, and Dyson break into the Cyberdyne building and find the parts from the first Terminator. While make bombs to blow up the rest, security tells the police who show up in force. When the SWAT team enters the building, they shoot Dyson quite a few times which really hurts him, he stays behind to press the button to blow the place up, which killed Dyson.

They leave in a SWAT van, with the T-1000 chasing them, first in a helicopter, then a liquid nitrogen truck. The truck crashes into a steel mill, this makes the tank to open and liquid nitrogen to spill all over the place, freezing the T-1000. Even though the Terminator breaks him into many small pieces by shooting him, they thaw and come back together. The T-1000 and Model 101 begin to fight hand to hand, with the T-1000 stabbing him through the power cell with a metal pole, switching him off. The T-1000 then goes to hunt John, he turns himself into a Sarah copy. As John finds the two Sarah's, the Terminator, who had turned itself back on using a different power source, shoots the T-1000 with a grenade launcher, throwing it back into a pit of molten metal, melting it.

After John throws the parts from the first Terminator into the molten metal, the Terminator tells him that he too must die to stop his technology from being used to create Skynet. He tells Sarah that he cannot kill himself, and she must lower him into the steel. As he goes down, he reaches up with a thumbs up, the last thing to go under. The movie ends with a dark highway at night, and Sarah's repetition of the phrase that Reese told her in the first movie. "The future is not set."

References

Other websites

 Terminator 2: Judgment Day - Script

1991 action movies
1991 science fiction movies
1990s sequel movies
2010s 3D movies
American action movies
American science fiction movies
American sequel movies
English-language movies
Movies directed by James Cameron
Movies set in Los Angeles
Movies set in the future
Movies set in the 1990s
Movies that won the Best Makeup Academy Award
Movies that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award
Robot movies
Chase movies
Science fiction action movies
Terminator (franchise)
Time travel movies
3D re-releases
Movies about nuclear war and weapons
Post-apocalyptic movies
Apocalyptic movies
Dystopian movies

Terminator 2: Judgment Day


A Juggalo is someone who listens to Psychopathic Records and or likes Insane Clown Posse. They usually drink a drink called Faygo.

The name started at a 1994 concert by Insane Clown Posse.  In the song "The Juggla", Violent J called the audience "Juggalos".  It became popular.  They wrote the songs "What Is a Juggalo?" and "Down with The Clown" for their 1997 album The Great Milenko.

The Gathering of the Juggalos is a yearly festival put on by Psychopathic Records.  It has performances by the entire label as well as many well-known musical groups and underground artists. It was started by Robert Bruce, Insane Clown Posse, and their label in 2000.

References

Fandom
Insane Clown Posse

Juggalo


Spinefarm Records is a Finland-based record label focusin mainly on hivy metal airtists. In 1999, a sub-label titled Spikefarm Records wis startit bi Sami Tenetz frae Thy Serpent. Syne 2002, Spinefarm haes been pairt o Universal Music Group, but operates as an independent business unit.

In Hairst 2007, Spinefarm launched in the UK, startin wi re-issuin deluxe versions o the first 5 Nightwish albums, includin the 'Ower The Hills And Far Away' EP.

Baunds
Spinefarm Records consists o five sub-labels, Spinefarm (mainstream metal, haurd rock an progresive rock), Spikefarm (extreme metal, industrial metal an fowk metal), Ranka (Finnish muisic), Ranch (rock) an Odor (pop an onything else that is no rock or metal).

Finnish record labels
Black metal record labels
Hivy metal record labels

Spinefarm Records


Eschatology is a branch of Christian theology. At large Eschathology consists on a series of studies on the Ultimate Destiny of Humanity and the Human Soul as it is written in the Holy Bible.

Eschatology is concerned with the final events in history and it's most relevant studies are about Death, Life after Death, Resurrection of the Dead and the Final Judgement.

Etymology: The word Eschatology arises from two Greek notions (eschatos) meaning "last" and (logy) meaning "the a study of", and was first used in English around 1844.

Christian eschatology


Tamouz () was an Israeli rock band which released the influential album "End of the Orange Season" (סוף עונת התפוזים) in 1975.
The band did not attain much commercial success, but they are a reference point in Israeli Rock, with hits like: "Sof Onat Ha'Tapuzim" (End of the Orange Season) and "Ma She'Youter Amok Yoter Cachol" (The Deeper The Bluer).  The album is considered by many listeners to be the best Israeli rock album of all time.  Both principal songwriters and singers in the band, Shalom Hanoch and Ariel Zilber became very successful solo stars in Israel.

Band members

 Shalom Hanoch - Vocals, Guitar
 Ariel Zilber - Vocals, Keyboards
 Yehuda Eder - Guitars
 Ethan Gedron - Bass
 Meir Israel - Drums

External links

Israeli rock music groups

Tamouz (band)


The President of the Republic of Poland (Polish: Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej) is the president of Poland. The president directly elected by the people to serve a term of five years. He can be reelected only once. His rights and responsibilities are determined by the Constitution of the Republic of Poland.

In agreement with the current Constitution, the President of the Republic of Poland is the head of state, the supreme representative of Poland and the guarantor of the continuity of government and is prevented from holding office for more than two consecutive terms. This means that the President heads the executive authority, is appointed to represent Polish interests on the international arena, ensures the observance of the Constitution, and is responsible for the security of the state. The President calls elections to the Sejm and the Polish Senate. He has a right to dissolve the parliament when it fails to form a Council of Ministers or pass the budget act. He can (with the Senate's consent) call a national referendum in matters important for the state, requiring the decision of all the citizens.

Living former Presidents
There are three living former Polish Presidents:

References

President of the Republic of Poland


San Nicolas Island is the  farthest from shore of California's Channel Islands. It is part of Ventura County. The 14,562 acre (58.93 km² or 22.753 sq mi) island is used by the United States Navy for a weapons testing and training. The only people who live on the island are about 200 people with the military. The island has a small airport and a big billboard.

History
San Nicolas was once the home of the Nicoleño people, who were probably related to the Tongva of the mainland and Santa Catalina Island. It was named for Saint Nicholas by Spanish sailor Sebastián Vizcaíno after he saw the island on the saint's feast day (December 6) in 1602. Vizcaíno reported that there were a lot of people living on the island. By 1800 the number of people on the island had gone down. In 1811 a group of Kodiak men from Alaska were put on to San Nicholas to hunt otters. They fought with the Nicoleños. When the Kodiaks left there were less than 100 of the original population left. By 1835 the population was about 12. The Nicoleños were taken off the island in the 1835 by the members of the California mission system. Within a few years of leaving the island the Nicoleño all died.

Lone Woman of San Nicolas Island
The most famous person from San Nicolas Island was the "Lone Woman of San Nicolas Island". She was left on the island in 1835 when the rest of the Nicoleños were moved to the missions. She lived on the island alone for 18 years before she was found and brought back to Santa Barbara in 1853. By this time there was no-one left who could speak her language. Her real name was never known, but as she was dying she was named Juana Maria.  She died from dysentery seven weeks later. Her story was used for Scott O'Dell's award winning 1961 novel Island of the Blue Dolphins.  Today, a commemorative plaque about her life has been placed on the back of the east bell tower at Mission Santa Barbara. In 2012 scientists rediscovered a buried cave on the island where they believe the woman lived.

Rocket experiments
From 1957 and 1973, and in 2004, U.S. rockets were launched from San Nicolas Island.

Plants and animals
There are few kinds of plants and animals on San Nicolas Island. Sheep ate many of the plants before they were taken away in 1943. Even so, there are several plants that can only be found on the island. Three kinds of animals are there and nowhere else: deer mouse, island fox, and island night lizard. The island also has many birds.

References

GlobalSecurity.org: San Nicolas Island
Naval Auxiliary Air Station, San Nicolas Island
Photo of Juana Maria's Whalebone Hut

Landforms of California
Islands of the United States
Pacific islands

San Nicolas Island


MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH is a German manufacturer of commercial internal combustion engines founded by Wilhelm Maybach and his son Karl Maybach in 1909. Wilhelm Maybach was the technical director of Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (DMG), a predecessor company of the German multinational automotive corporation Daimler AG, until he left in 1907. On 23 March 1909, he founded the new company, Luftfahrzeug-Motorenbau GmbH (Aircraft Engine Manufacturing Corp), with his son Karl Maybach as director. A few years later the company was renamed to Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH (Maybach Engine Manufacturing Corp), which originally developed and manufactured diesel and petrol engines for Zeppelins, and then railcars. The Maybach Mb.IVa was used in aircraft and airships of World War I.

The company first built an experimental car in 1919, with the first production model introduced two years later at the Berlin Motor Show. Between 1921 and 1940, the company produced various classic opulent vehicles. The company also continued to build heavy duty diesel engines for marine and rail purposes. During World War II, Maybach produced the engines for Germany's medium and heavy tanks. The company was renamed MTU Friedrichshafen in the 1960s and continued to supply the engines for the Leopard 2 main battle tank.

MTU derives from  meaning 'Motor (Engine) and Turbine Union'.

MTU Friedrichshafen remained a subsidiary of DaimlerChrysler until 2006 when it was sold off to the EQT IV private equity fund, becoming a part of the Tognum Corporation.

Rolls-Royce Holdings and Daimler AG acquired Tognum in 2011. In 2014, Tognum was renamed Rolls-Royce Power Systems, having become a wholly-owned subsidiary of Rolls-Royce Holdings.

The company manufactures diesel engines for trains, ships, oil and gas installations, military vehicles, agriculture, mining and construction equipment, as well as diesel generators and molten carbonate fuel cells.

History

 1909: Foundation of Luftfahrzeug-Motorenbau GmbH in Bissingen an der Enz as part of the Zeppelin corporation. The company manufactures engines for airships.
 1912: 1911/12 relocation to Friedrichshafen; the name is changed to Motorenbau GmbH.
 1918: Motorenbau GmbH is renamed Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH. After the end of the First World War the company began to manufacture car engines.
 1966: Merger of the two companies Mercedes-Benz Motorenbau Friedrichshafen GmbH and Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH to form Maybach Mercedes-Benz Motorenbau GmbH.
 1969: Maybach Mercedes-Benz Motorenbau GmbH is renamed Motoren und Turbinen-Union Friedrichshafen GmbH. The company is a subsidiary of MTU München GmbH which is owned at equal shares by Daimler-Benz AG and MAN AG until 1985.
 1989: Incorporation of MTU Friedrichshafen in Deutsche Aero-space AG (DASA), a company of the Daimler-Benz Group.
 1994: Cooperation of MTU Friedrichshafen with Detroit Diesel Corporation
 1995: MTU Friedrichshafen and MTU München go their separate ways; MTU Friedrichshafen becomes a direct subsidiary of Daimler-Benz AG.
 2001: MTU Motoren- und Turbinen-Union Friedrichshafen GmbH is renamed MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH.
 2005: In late 2005, the DaimlerChrysler Off-Highway business unit, including MTU Friedrichshafen and the Off-Highway division of Detroit Diesel Corporation, is sold to the Swedish financial investor EQT Partners.
 2006: The business is transferred into the new holding company Tognum, with MTU Friedrichshafen as its core company.
 2009: MTU Friedrichshafen celebrates its centenary. In the same year introduction of the new Series 1600, rounding off the performance range at the lower end of the product portfolio.
 2011: Rolls-Royce Holdings and Daimler AG announced they were buying Tognum
 2014: Tognum was renamed Rolls-Royce Power Systems
 2014: From 26 August Rolls-Royce Power Systems became a 100 per cent subsidiary of Rolls-Royce Holdings

Diesel engines

Gallery

See also

Bergen Marine
Daimler AG
Detroit Diesel
List of WWII Maybach engines
Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH
Rolls-Royce Holdings
Rolls-Royce Power Systems
Wilhelm Maybach

References

External links

 History of the company
 MTU spare parts
 Maybach tank engines
 MTU Western U.S. Distributor: Pacific Power Group

DaimlerChrysler
Rolls-Royce
Gas engine manufacturers
Defence companies of Germany
Diesel engine manufacturers
Companies based in Friedrichshafen
Marine engine manufacturers
Manufacturing companies established in 1909
1909 establishments in Germany

Engine manufacturers of Germany
Electrical generation engine manufacturers
Locomotive engine manufacturers

MTU Friedrichshafen


Naitural philosophy or physics (frae the Greek  (), "naitural", an  (), "naitur") is a science o naitur in the braidest furm. Naitural philosophy deals wi maiter an energy an the fundamental virrs o naitur that owersees the interactions atween particles. Physicists studie a braid reenge o physical phenomenae, frae the sub-nuclear particles that maks up aw ordinar maiter (particle physics) tae the maiteral Universe as a hail (cosmologie).

Physics is the natural science at involves the study ay matter and its motion ben space and time, alang wi related concepts sic as energy and force. Mair broadly, it is the general analysis ay nature, conducted in order tae kin hoo the universe behaves. It is a body ay the oldest academic disciplines, aiblins the oldest ben its inclusion ay astronomy. Ower the lest tois millennia, physics was a part ay naitural philosophy alang wi chemistry, certain branches ay mathematics, and biology, but durin the scientific revolution in the 17th century, the naitural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their ain reit. Physics intersects wi mony interdisciplinary areas ay research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boondaries ay physics arenae rigidly defined. New ideas in physics aft explain the fundamental mechanisms ay other sciences while openin new avenues ay research in areas sic as mathematics and philosophy.

Physics

Naitural philosophy


A drinking straw (or "straw") is a utensil used to consume cold drinks such as milk shakes, smoothies, cola, and fruit juice. Drinking straws are usually made from plastic that is formed into a tube. To use a drinking straw, a person places the straw in a glass that contains a liquid and then sucks the straw with their mouth. Straws are mainly plastic, but some straws are paper or cardboard to protect the environment.

The oldest straw found is over 5000 years old. Straws have been found in Sumerian temples made of gold and lapis lazuli. The straws popularity came in the 1800s during the industrial revolution. Those straws were made of paper and turned to mush quickly. An inventor named Joseph Friedman invented a straw made of paper coated in glue so that it did not dissolve.

References

Food utensils

Drinking straw