DeHackEd is an editor created by Greg Lewis for the executable of the original Doom that allows the operation of the executable to be changed. Version 3.1, the last update of the program, was released on February 26, 1997. Hit points, sounds, frame sequences, text strings, and several other miscellaneous values can be changed. Modifications can be distributed in the form of DeHackEd "patches" which can be applied to the executable. At the time DeHackEd was released, Doom was a closed-source program, and thus to allow new features to be made available, the only choice was to patch the executable (as opposed to being able to change the source, which can now be done since id Software has made public a release of the sources).

The most common patches add fast monsters and weapons, player-seeking-self-detonating barrels, and so on. However, more balanced and artistic modifications can and have been made. Even though many advanced effects can be achieved with DeHackEd, it does not offer the complete flexibility that a custom source port can provide. Monster AI and armor classes are fixed for example.

Older DeHackEd patches use a binary format of data to be applied to an executable file using the DeHackEd patching utility. Later versions of DeHackEd save their patches in a human-readable plain text format that can be edited with any text editor.

Boom included the ability to load DeHackEd patches and effect changes to the game upon startup without any modification to the executable file. Other source ports added similar functionality, and command-line loadable DeHackEd support is now common with most modern source ports. Boom also provided the BEX (Boom EXtended) extensions for DeHackEd support. BEX allows greater flexibility in string editing, application of codepointers to any frame, and extra codepointers.

External links
 DeHackEd homepage (via Wayback Machine)
 DeHackEd at Doomworld/idgames
 Enjay's DeHackEd info & tutorials
 ZDoom code pointers

Sources
 This article uses content from the GFDL Doom Wiki article "DeHackEd"

1993 video games
Doom (franchise)
Video game modification tools

DeHackEd


Odile Madeline Gertze (born c. 1988) is a former Namibian beauty queen from Windhoek.  She was crowned Miss Namibia 2010 on July 31, 2010 and became one of the top 25 semifinalists in Miss World 2010.

Early life
Gertze graduated from Elizabeth Galloway Fashion Academy in 2009, in South Africa, and while she was there, she took the opportunity to gain experience while working as a model during her studies.

She is currently working as a freelance journalist for The Namibian for their fashion section in The Weekender and previously worked on model work, such as Photography for Print Media, Model portfolio, Ramp/fashion shows, Meet & greet, Promotions and Fashion Shows.

Miss World 2010
As the official representative of her country to the 2010 Miss World pageant held in Sanya, China, Gertze became one of the Top 20 finalists during the Miss World Talent fast track event held on October 26, finishing her participation as one of the Top 25 semifinalists of Miss World 2010 on October 30.

References

External links
 Official Miss Namibia website

1980s births
Living people
Miss World 2010 delegates
Date of birth missing (living people)
People from Windhoek
Namibian beauty pageant winners

Odile Gertze


The White Nights Festival in St. Petersburg, Russia is an international cultural festival which is held every year. There are classical ballet, opera and music events. Many famous Russian dancers, singers, musicians and actors, take part, as well as famous international guest stars. The Scarlet Sails celebration is the big climax of the White Nights season, the largest public event anywhere in Russia. About a million people visit the festival.

The middle of summer in St Petersburg is known as the "White Nights" because, as it is so far north, the sky does not get completely dark during the short night.

The festival begins in May with the "Stars of the White Nights" at Mariinsky Theatre and ends in July. However, there are some performances that take place before and after the official dates.

The "Stars of the White Nights" is a series of classical ballet, opera and orchestral performances at the Mariinsky Theatre and the Mariinsky Concert Hall. The artistic director of the festival is Valery Gergiev.

The "Stars of the White Nights" festival was originally started by the first mayor of St. Petersburg, Anatoly Sobchak, and has been held every year since 1993. Some of the stars who performed here include Plácido Domingo, Olga Borodina, Alfred Brendel, Anna Netrebko, Carlo Maria Giulini, Yuri Temirkanov, Gidon Kremer, Esa-Pekka Salonen, Alexander Toradze, Deborah Voigt, James Conlon and many other classical performers.

A series of carnivals take place during the White Nights Festival in St. Petersburg. In one of the carnivals the actors dress in period costumes from the times of Peter the Great and Catherine the Great. Old carriages are ridden around the Peterhof park.

Every summer in St. Petersburg the Palace Square becomes a stage for international stars of popular music. This wide square has been used for official military parades and massive demonstrations, as well as for political events and large-scale shows and other entertainment. Recent performers have been Paul McCartney, the Rolling Stones, Scorpions and other stars.

Other websites
 White Nights Foundation: White Nights Foundation of America
 Valery Gergiev Official website

Saint Petersburg
Festivals

White Nights Festival


Emmental is a part of Switzerland. It is made of low hills. Most of it is in the Canton of  Berne.   Its biggest rivers are the Emme and the Ilfis. The biggest localities are Burgdorf, Langnau and Huttwil.

The landscape is mostly made of meadows. There are some forests too. Most of the people live from raising cattle (mostly cows), or from things closely related to cattle-raising. Emmental cheese has its name from this region. Langnau is known for Ceramics. Pottery from the region is also well-known.

There is also some industry. The Emmental had one of the first fully-electric railway lines in Switzerland.

Jeremias Gotthelf was a  famous writer who spent most of his life in the Emmental.

Valleys of Switzerland
Canton of Bern

Emmental


Douglas Anthony Clive Saunders (born 15 February 1949 in Kingston, Jamaica) is a Jamaican diplomat.

Biography
Ambassador the Honourable Douglas Saunders OJ CD is the Cabinet Secretary of the Jamaican Prime Minister's cabinet. Saunders is the third officer to take over the reins of this distinguished position as head of central government and has held this post from June 2008.

He was born in Westmoreland, in rural Jamaica on 15 February 1949 and graduated from Jamaica College in 1967. He completed a Bachelor of Science degree in Management Studies at the University of the West Indies in 1972 before obtaining a Certificate of Diplomacy from Oxford University in 1975. He is also Pope Paul VI Scholar of St. John's University in New York where he obtained a master's degree in Government and Politics, majoring in International Relations in 1981.

Ambassador Saunders spent the next thirty six years in the public sector in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Foreign Trade in various capacities. These include as Counsellor (Economic Affairs) at the Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York; Deputy Director of Foreign Trade; Deputy High Commissioner in London to Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Spain and Portugal; Director of European Affairs; Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the Republic of Cuba, the Kingdom of Belgium, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg, the Republic of France, Ireland as well as High Commissioner to the Republic of South Africa. He subsequently took the highest post in the Ministry as Permanent Secretary in September 2002.

Saunders has received a number of awards for his outstanding contribution to the public sector. These include the Long Service Award in 1998 for 25 years of service to the Government of Jamaica in 1998; l'Ordre des Palmes Académiques (Commandeur) of France in 2002, the Order of Distinction in the rank of Commander (CD) in 2003 and the Order of Jamaica (OJ) in 2011, the nation's fourth highest honour.

Family
His parents are Clive Douglas Sauders and Gloria Saunders. He is eldest of four children raised in Westmoreland Parish, Jamaica. His brother is attorney-at-law Revd. Maurice Saunders. He has four sons (Alexander, born 1979; Jason, born 1980; Christopher, born 1982; and Machel, born 1989), and is married to M. Angela Robertson, a lawyer, from Kingston. Douglas Saunders is cousin of cricketer George Alfonce Headley, Jr (1909–1983) of Jamaica.

References

UN.int
Jamaica-gleaner.com
MFAFT.gov.jm

Jamaican diplomats
1949 births
Living people
Ambassadors of Jamaica to Cuba
Ambassadors of Jamaica to Belgium
Ambassadors of Jamaica to the Netherlands
Ambassadors of Jamaica to Luxembourg
Ambassadors of Jamaica to France
Ambassadors of Jamaica to Ireland
High Commissioners of Jamaica to South Africa
Members of the Order of Jamaica
Commanders of the Order of Distinction
Politicians from Kingston, Jamaica
People educated at Jamaica College

Douglas Saunders


The weedy sea dragon or common sea dragon, Phyllopteryx taeniolatus, is a marine fish related to the seahorse. It is the only member of the genus Phyllopteryx. It is found in water 3 to 50 m deep around the south coast of Australia, from Port Stephens, New South Wales to Geraldton, Western Australia. It also found in the waters around Tasmania. Weedy sea dragons are named for the weed-like growth on their bodies. This camouflage hides them as they move among the seaweed beds where they live. The weedy sea dragon is the aquatic emblem for the state of Victoria.

Description

Weedy sea dragons can reach 45 cm in length. They feed on tiny crustaceans and other zooplankton, which they suck into the end of their long tube-like nose. They don't have a tail that can wrap around and hold on to things the way a seahorse can.  They swim in shallow reefs and weed beds, and look like weeds drifting over bare sand.

Breeding
Sea dragons, seahorses and pipe fish are the only species where the male carries the eggs. The male carries the fertilized eggs, joined under his tail. They stay there for about eight weeks until they hatch. The young can look after themselves as soon as they are born.  Breeding sea dragons in captivity is rare because scientists don't know what makes them breed in the wild. Keeping sea dragons in captivity is difficult.

The Aquarium of the Pacific in Long Beach, California, Melbourne Aquarium in Australia, and the Tennessee Aquarium in Chattanooga, Tennessee, are the only places in the world to have  bred weedy sea dragons, though others have been able to get them to lay eggs.

Leafy sea dragons
A relative of the weedy sea dragon is the leafy sea dragon Phycodurus eques. In the November 2006, the National Geographic magazine, reported that marine biologist Greg Rouse is looking at the DNA of the two sea dragon species.

References

Other websites
 Australian Museum Online - Leafy and Weedy Seadragons
 Leafy Seadragons and Weedy Seadragons
 Weedy Sea Dragon Monitoring Program in Botany Bay
 Leafy Sea Dragon Festival
 Weedy Sea Dragon
 Youtube Male Weedy Seadragon with eggs
 Youtube Weedy Seadragon
 Male Weedy Sea Dragon carrying eggs

Fish of Australia
Syngnathiformes

Weedy sea dragon


An examination (exam) is a test. Many things may be examined, but the word is most often used for an assessment of a person. It measures a test-taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness or ability or standing in some other topic. It is a set of questions designed to measure those things. Examinations change and evolve. They have been used since ancient times.

In its widest sense, to examine is to look at something very carefully, perhaps to find the cause of a problem.  Someone who is ill may need to go to a doctor for a medical examination. A mechanic may examine a machine to find why it is not working properly.

In education an examination is a test to show the knowledge and ability of a student. A student who takes an examination is a candidate. The person who decides how well the student has performed is the examiner. An examination may be a written test, an on-screen test or a practical test.  Examples of a practical test may be: driving a car, speaking a language, playing a musical instrument and doing a scientific experiment. An on-screen test is a test which uses the computer.

If the candidate is successful he will have passed the examination. If he is unsuccessful he will have failed. In some cases it is possible for a student who has failed to take the exam again another time.

A student who passes an examination may get a certificate or diploma. Some certificates are professional qualifications, allowing the person to do a particular job, e.g. plumber, teacher, doctor, lawyer.

References

Examinations

Examination


Gaullism () is a French political stance based on the thought and action of World War II French Resistance leader Charles de Gaulle, who would become the founding President of the Fifth French Republic. De Gaulle withdrew French forces from the NATO Command Structure, forced the removal of Allied bases from France, as well as initiated France's own independent nuclear deterrent programme. His actions were predicated on the view that France would not be subordinate to other nations.

According to Serge Berstein, Gaullism is "neither a doctrine nor a political ideology" and cannot be considered either left or right. Rather, "considering its historical progression, it is a pragmatic exercise of power that is neither free from contradictions nor of concessions to momentary necessity, even if the imperious word of the general gives to the practice of Gaullism the allure of a programme that seems profound and fully realised". Gaullism is "a peculiarly French phenomenon, without doubt the quintessential French political phenomenon of the 20th century".

Lawrence D. Kritzman argues that Gaullism may be seen as a form of French patriotism in the tradition of Jules Michelet. He writes: "Aligned on the political spectrum with the right, Gaullism was committed nevertheless to the republican values of the Revolution, and so distanced itself from the particularist ambitions of the traditional right and its xenophobic causes". Furthermore, "Gaullism saw as its mission the affirmation of national sovereignty and unity, which was diametrically opposed to the divisiveness created by the leftist commitment to class struggle".

Gaullism was nationalistic. In the early post-WWII period, Gaullists advocated for retaining the French Empire. De Gaulle shifted his stance on empire in the mid-1950s, suggesting potential federal arrangements or self-determination and membership in the French Community.

History
Berstein writes that Gaullism has progressed in multiple stages:
The first phase (1940–45) occurred during World War II. In this period, Gaullism is identified with those French who rejected the armistice with Nazi Germany and the Vichy collaborators led by Philippe Pétain, and joined with General Charles de Gaulle and the Free French Forces, who sought to put France back in the war on the Allied side.
 In the second phase (1946–1958), Gaullism was a type of opposition to the Fourth French Republic. Gaullists in this period challenged the unstable parliamentary government of the Fourth Republic and advocated its replacement with "a president of the republic with preeminent constitutional powers."
 In the third phase (1958–69), "Gaullism was nothing other than the support given to the general's own politics after he returned to power in 1958 and served as president of the newly formed Fifth Republic from 1959 until his resignation in 1969."

Since 1969, Gaullism has been used to describe those identified as heirs to de Gaulle's ideas. The Cross of Lorraine, used by the Resistant Free France (1940–1944) during World War II, has served as the symbol of many Gaullist parties and movements, including the Rally of the French People (1947–1955), the Union for the New Republic (1958–1967), or the Rally for the Republic (1976–2002).

Principles

Strong state
The "fundamental principle" of Gaullism is a "certain idea of France" as a strong state. In his War Memoirs, de Gaulle describes France as "an indomitable entity, a 'person' with whom a mystical dialogue was maintained throughout history. The goal of Gaullism, therefore, is to give precedence to its interests, to ensure that the voice is heard, to make it respected, and to assure its survival … to remain worthy of its past, the nation must endow itself with a powerful state." Kritzman writes that "the Gaullist idea of France set out to restore the honor of the nation and affirm its grandeur and independence" with de Gaulle seeking to "construct a messianic vision of France's historic destiny, reaffirm its prestige in the world, and transcend the national humiliations of the past." Accordingly, de Gaulle urged French unity over divisive "partisan quarrels" and emphasized French heritage, including both the Ancien Régime and the Revolution. The French political figures most admired by de Gaulle "were those responsible for national consensus—Louis XIV, Napoleon, Georges Clemenceau—who saw as their goal the creation of political and social unity by a strong state."

In order to strengthen France, Gaullists also emphasize the need for "a strong economy and a stable society." Gaullism believes, according to Berstein, that "it is the imperative of the state, as guardian of the national interest, to give impetus to economic growth and to guide it. Liberal opinion is accepted if it promises more efficiency than planning. As for social justice, so long as its natural distrust of big business can be allayed, it is less a matter of doctrine than a means of upholding stability. To put an end to class struggle, Gaullists hope to make use of participation, a nineteenth-century concept of which the general spoke frequently, but which he allowed his associates to ignore."

As part of a strong state, de Gaulle highlighted the necessity to found state institutions on a strong executive, contrasting with the French republican tradition, which emphasized the role of the elected assembly. During his time in office, de Gaulle sought to establish authority by holding direct universal votes and popular referendums and by directly engaging with the nation (via speeches broadcast over radio, press conferences, and trips to the provinces). Even though he frequently spoke on his respect for democracy, his political opponents perceived in his rule a tendency toward dictatorial power; many feared a Bonapartist revival or a republican monarchy. France remained a democracy, however, and de Gaulle's decision to step down as president following voters' rejection of the April 1969 constitutional referendum showed that his commitment to democratic principles was not merely a rhetorical ploy.

French exceptionalism
In foreign policy, Gaullists are identified with both realism and French exceptionalism, and de Gaulle sought to impose French influence on the global order. Gaullists supported decolonization, which freed France from the burden of empire. This was reflected in de Gaulle's resolution of the Algeria crisis (1954–1962), which was strongly influenced by de Gaulle's realpolitik, or "keen sense of political expediency." Realizing that decolonization was inevitable, and that a continued crisis and extended Algerian War would harm the French economy and perpetuate national disunity, "de Gaulle felt that it was in France's best interests to grant independence and desist from military engagement," thereby preserving French unity and grandeur.

Gaullists emphasize the need for France to "guarantee its national independence without resorting to allies whose interests might not coincide with those of France." The development of independent French nuclear capability, undertaken at significant effort despite much international criticism, was an outgrowth of this worldview. However, de Gaulle simultaneously initiated one of the first international nonproliferation efforts by quietly unshackling and distancing the French program from a diplomatically troublesome secret involvement with an Israeli junior partner, attempting to demilitarize and open to international oversight the Israeli nuclear arms program.

France under de Gaulle sought to avoid a post-World War II bipolar global political order dominated by the two superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union, and sought to avoid dependence on the United States. Kritzman writes: "Gaullist foreign policy was motivated by its need to distinguish itself from … the two great superpowers. Paradoxically, [de Gaulle] desired to be part of the Western alliance and be critical of it at the same time on key issues such as defense." Most notably, de Gaulle withdrew France from North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) military operations in 1966, and directed non-French NATO troops to leave France, although France remained a NATO member. Gaullists were also critical of the overseas economic influence of the U.S. and the role of the U.S. dollar in the international monetary system. Under de Gaulle, France established diplomatic relations with China earlier than most other Western nations; imposed an arms embargo against Israel (1967); and denounced American imperialism in the Third World.

De Gaulle and the Gaullists did not support Europe as a supranational entity, but did favour European integration in the form of "a confederation of sovereign states mutually engaged in "common policy, autonomous from the superpowers," and significantly influenced by France. De Gaulle's hopes to advance this sort of union largely failed, however, "in the face of the desire of the other European powers to remain closely allied to the United States."

Political legacy after de Gaulle
De Gaulle's political legacy has been profound in France and has gradually influenced the entirety of the political spectrum. His successor as president, Georges Pompidou, consolidated Gaullism during his term from 1969 to 1974. Once-controversial Gaullist ideas have become accepted as part of the French political consensus and "are no longer the focus of political controversy." For instance, the strong presidency was maintained by all of de Gaulle's successors, including the socialist François Mitterrand (1981–1995). French independent nuclear capability and a foreign policy influenced by Gaullism–although expressed "in more flexible terms"–remains "the guiding force of French international relations." During the 2017 presidential election, de Gaulle's legacy was claimed by candidates ranging from the radical left to the radical right, including Jean-Luc Mélenchon, Benoît Hamon, Emmanuel Macron, François Fillon and Marine Le Pen.

According to Berstein, "It is no exaggeration to say that Gaullism has molded post-war France. At the same time, considering that the essence of Gaullist ideas are now accepted by everyone, those who wish to be the legitimate heirs of de Gaulle (e.g., Jacques Chirac of the RPR) now have an identity crisis. It is difficult for them to distinguish themselves from other political perspectives." Not all Gaullist ideas have endured, however. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, there have been several periods of cohabitation (1986–1988, 1993–1995, 1997–2002), in which the president and prime minister have been from different parties, a marked shift from the "imperial presidency" of de Gaulle. De Gaulle's economic policy, based on the idea of dirigisme (state stewardship of the economy), has also weakened. Although the major French banks, as well as insurance, telecommunications, steel, oil and pharmaceutical companies, were state-owned as recently as the mid-1980s, the French government has since then privatized many state assets.

Currents

Traditional Gaullism
The term "traditional Gaullism" (Gaullisme traditionnel) has been used by scholars to describe the core values of Gaullism embodied by the actions and policies of Charles de Gaulle, generally in distinction with other Gaullist currents such as "social Gaullism" and "neo-Gaullism".

Resistant Gaullism (Gaullisme de Résistance) emphasizes the need for French political and military independence from potentially hostile powers, inspired by de Gaulle's role in the fight against Nazi Germany and Vichy France during World War II. The term "first-generation Chiraquian Gaullism" (Gaullisme chiraquien de première génération) has been used to describe politicians loyal to the populist stance and the opposition to European integration and the free market as initially advocated by Jacques Chirac in the late 1970s. This position was embodied in particular by Charles Pasqua and Philippe Séguin, who came to oppose Chirac's shift to neo-Gaullism during the 1990s.

Social Gaullism
Social Gaullism (or "left-wing Gaullism") focuses on the social dimensions of Gaullism, and has often been linked by scholars to social democracy. Opposed to the class conflict analysis of Marxism, which was perceived as a threat to national unity, de Gaulle advocated instead a "capital-labour association", that is the need for the direct participation of workers in their company's financial results and management, which he believed was a necessary condition for them to take an interest in its functioning and development. This aspect of Gaullism has been promoted by the Democratic Union of Labour between 1959 and 1967, and by politicians like René Capitant, Jacques Chaban-Delmas, Jean Charbonnel, Léo Hamon,  or Jean Mattéoli.

Neo-Gaullism
"Neo-Gaullism" has been used in the literature to describe a movement that emerged after the death of de Gaulle in 1970 and drew more influence from economic liberalism. Many aspects of neo-Gaullism, such as support for the Maastricht Treaty (1992) and French rapprochement with NATO under Chirac's presidency, have been described as difficult to reconcile with the historical idea of Gaullism. However, key components of Gaullism have remained, including the concept of a strong, independent state, the unity of the French people and references to de Gaulle's leadership. Neo-Gaullists have also conserved in some aspects the idea that France has a role to play in containing the world's "hyperpowers", as seen in Chirac's refusal to follow the US in the Iraq War in 2003.

Pompidolian Gaullism (Gaullism pompidolien) highlights the need for France to adapt its economy in an increasingly competing world that may threaten social peace at home, in the legacy of French president Georges Pompidou (1969–1974). "Second-generation Chiraquian Gaullism" (or "Chiraquian neo-Gaullism"), which emerged in the mid-1980s, has been influenced by neoliberalism and is more open to European integration, in the legacy of French president Jacques Chirac (1995–2007).

Gaullist political parties
The following is a list of Gaullist political parties and their successors:
 1947–1955: Rally of the French People (RPF)
 1954–1958: National Centre of Social Republicans (RS)
 1958–1962: Union for the New Republic (UNR)
 1958–1962: Democratic Union of Labour (UDT)
 1962–1967: Union for the New Republic – Democratic Union of Labour (UNR – UDT)
 1967–1976: Union of Democrats for the Republic (UDR)
 1974-1980's: Democrats Movement (MDD)
 1976–2002: Rally for the Republic (RPR)
 1993-2003: Citizen Movement (MDC)
 1994-2018: Movement for France  (MPF)
 1999–2011: Rally for France (RPF)
 2002–2015: Union for a Popular Movement (UMP)
 2003–present: Citizen and Republican Movement (MRC)
 2008–2014: Debout la République (DLR)
 2014–present: Debout la France (DLF)
 2015–present: The Republicans (LR)
 2017–present: The Patriots (LP)
 2018–present: Citizen Movement (MDC)

See also
 Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle
 Vive le Québec libre

References

Bibliography
 Choisel, Francis, Bonapartisme et gaullisme, Paris, Albatros, 1987.
 Choisel, Francis, Comprendre le gaullisme, L'Harmattan, 2016.
 Gordon, Philip H. A Certain Idea of France: French Security Policy and the Gaullist Legacy (1993) online edition
 Grosser, Alfred. French foreign policy under De Gaulle (1977)
 Jackson, Julian. De Gaulle (2018) 887pp; the most recent major biography.

 Kulski, W. W. De Gaulle and the World: The Foreign Policy of the Fifth French Republic (1966) online free to borrow
 Touchard, Jean, Le gaullisme (1940–1969), Paris, Seuil, coll. Points Histoire.1978.

Charles de Gaulle
Conservatism in France
Nationalism in France
Eponymous political ideologies
Populism
Politics of France
French Resistance
Progressive conservatism

Gaullism


Ministry, in Christianity, is the activity that is done by members of the church to serve the purposes of the church.

It can mean this activity as a whole, or specific activities, or organizations in a church that perform specific activities.

Age-specific Ministry
As churches attempt to meet the needs of their congregations, they often separate their members into groups according to age categories. Age-specific groups meet for religious study including Sunday school programs, fellowship, and other activities. These age divisions may include:
Nursery
Pre-school
Children, generally elementary age students
Youth, generally middle and high school students
College and career, designed for university-age students
Adults, which is often broken up into single adults, couples ministry, men's and women's ministries, and senior adults.

Nearly all churches have some form of worship music, whether from a choir, orchestra, or worship band.

Service and outreach
Many churches sponsor ministries designed to reach out others on a local and global scale, usually grouped under the heading of missions. There are many organizations which perform missions on a fully-funded and organized level, such as North American Mission Board, operated by the Southern Baptist Convention.

Related pages
Christianity
Sermon

Church organization
Christian behavior and experience

Religious ministry


Harald Sigurd Johan Sæverud (17 April 1897 – 27 March 1992) was a Norwegian composer. He is most known for his music to Henrik Ibsen's Peer Gynt, Rondo Amoroso, and the Ballad of Revolt (). Sæverud wrote nine symphonies and a large number of pieces for solo piano. He was a frequent guest conductor of his own works with the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra.

Background and early career
Harald Sæverud was born in Bergen and received his basic music education at the local conservatory where his teacher was the Leipzig-educated composer Borghild Holmsen. During his conservatory years he began working on what would become his first symphony, outlined as two large symphonic fantasies. The first fantasy was completed in 1919 and was accepted for performance in Kristiania (later Oslo) in 1920. It revealed an extraordinary talent and gained him a scholarship for further studies at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik, where Friedrich Koch was his teacher for two years. In Berlin, Sæverud completed the final part of his first symphony; this new section was premiered by the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra. The performance was conducted by his friend Ludwig Mowinckel, who had hired the orchestra to present a concert dedicated to modern Norwegian music. The critics were mostly favorable to Sæverud's symphony, and this further raised his interest for symphonic and orchestral music.

Harald Sæverud moved back to his hometown of Bergen in 1922, where he stayed, with few exceptions, for the rest of his life. His earliest compositions are coloured by a late Romantic musical style, but later he developed a personal idiom, often based on classical forms inspired by composers like Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. But his neoclassicism could often possess dissonant and strong expression. How he has utilized this is commented on by musicologist Lorentz Reitan: "His symphonies, for example, are studies in musical form: Thematic/motive development in accordance with the material's own rules and logic. Classic forms such as sonatas and fugue are for him, to a larger extent, overriding principles rather than forms to be filled out, and his circling around musical constructions often gives his music an abstract quality" (Cappelens Musikkleksikon).

Bergen

In the 1930s Harald Sæverud and his American-born wife Marie Hvoslef built a magnificent mansion on the outskirts of Bergen. It was named Siljustøl, and the family moved there in 1939. Their son is the composer Ketil Hvoslef. The composer came now into close contact with nature, which had a very strong impact on him and his compositions. His compositions turned towards a more Norwegian and "greener" style. In 1940 Nazi Germany invaded Norway. From this point, Sæverud's compositions became weapons against the occupying army. His main compositions from the period are the three "War symphonies": no. 5, Quasi una fantasia, no. 6, Sinfonia Dolorosa, and no. 7, Psalm. Also from this period comes his direct protest against the Nazis: Ballad of Revolt in versions for both piano and orchestra.

In contrast to these strong compositions he also shaped a number of lyric piano pieces inspired by nature and Norwegian folk music (he never borrowed directly from folk music) published in collections called Tunes and Dances from Siljustøl and Easy Pieces for Piano.

Post-war

After the war, Sæverud was considered to be the doyen of Norwegian composers and he gained wide popularity for a number of his compositions. Particularly noteworthy from his later years are his incidental music for Ibsen's Peer Gynt (1948), his symphonies no. 8, Minnesota (1958), and no. 9 (1966), the ballet Count Bluebeard's Nightmare, and concertos for piano, violin, and bassoon. During the two last decades of his long life the orchestra composer suddenly developed an interest in chamber music, and produced, among other works, three string quartets and two woodwind quintets.

Harald Sæverud was widely famous for his humour, mainly of a grotesque kind. "I was born on a graveyard," he said, and it is a fact that the ground under the house where he was born was both a former graveyard and a place of execution. He was convinced that his mother's nightmares there had influenced him both as a person and composer: "My music is terribly melancholy--wildly melancholy."

Besides his humour, his uniqueness as a composer is palpable. The English conductor Sir John Barbirolli said: "Whether you like Sæverud's music or not, there is never any doubt about who has written it, and this can be said about very few composers today."

Honours

Sæverud's central place in Norwegian and European music has resulted in a number of honorary awards: He received the State Guaranteed Income for Artists from 1955 until his death. He became an honorary member of the music society Harmonien (the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra) in 1957, and was awarded their gold medal. Also in 1957, he became a knight in the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav, and 20 years later became a commander in the same order. In 1979, he received the Arts Council Norway Honorary Award. He has also received awards from Sweden, Finland, Yugoslavia, and England.

Death
Harald Sæverud died in Bergen on 27 March 1992. The funeral ceremony, which took place in the Grieg Hall in Bergen, was broadcast by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation.

References

1897 births
1992 deaths
People educated at the Bergen Cathedral School
Grieg Academy alumni
20th-century Norwegian composers
20th-century classical composers
20th-century composers
Norwegian classical composers

Harald Sæverud


The Ballets Russes were a company of ballet dancers whose full title was Les Ballets Russes de Serge Diaghilev. They became extremely famous in Europe in the early part of the 20th century.

The group was formed and directed by the Russian Sergei Diaghilev. The Ballets Russes had more influence on ballet and ballet music than any other ballet company of their time. The dancers were from Russia, but the group travelled throughout Europe, spending a lot of their time based in Paris. Stravinsky was one of the many composers who wrote ballet music for them.

Sergei Diaghilev was an impresario who was extremely good at spotting good dancers and helping them to rise to great standards. He had very good taste in art and music and inspired some great composers to write music for his dancers. He got some of the most famous painters of his time to make set designs for his productions.

History of the ballet group
The group was started in 1909. By 1911 they had become a group who toured regularly. Many of the dancers had come from the Mariinsky Theatre in Saint Petersburg. They adapted the productions from the Mariinsky Theatre, performing ballets such as Prince Igor, Cleopatra and Le Festin and Les Sylphides.

During the World War I they were cut off from any contact with Russia. During these years they experimented with many new ideas. Productions such as Les Biches and Le Train Bleu were about the fashionable society around them. At the same time the company also had productions which reflected Russian folklore, Greek legends and the Orient.

Their fame continued after the war.

When Diaghilev died suddenly in 1929 the Ballets Russes broke up and the dancers moved to other companies. Some of them formed the Ballets Russes de Monte Carlo, who travelled to America and influenced dancing there.

The choreographers
The company worked with several very famous choreographers such as Marius Petipa, Michel Fokine, Vaslav Nijinsky, Leonide Massine, and the young George Balanchine. Nijinsky's dances reflect the art movement called Expressionism. Many of his new ideas could be seen in L'Apres-midi d'un Faune and The Rite of Spring.

Dancers

The Ballets Russes had many famous dancers. Many of them were from the Russian Imperial Theatres and they came to dance for Ballets Russes during the summer months. Some of the great dancers include Anna Pavlova, Tamara Karsavina, Olga Spessivtzeva, Mathilde Kschessinska, Ida Rubinstein, Bronislava Nijinska, Lydia Lopokova and Alicia Markova.

The company was particularly influential because they treated male dancers as important. Up until this time the female dancers had much more attention than the male dancers. Among the male dancers were Michel Fokine, Serge Lifar, Léonide Massine, George Balanchine, Adolphe Bolm, and, especially, Vaslav Nijinsky who became the greatest dancer of his time.

Music
The most famous music composed for Ballets Russes was that by the composer Igor Stravinsky. His ballets include The Firebird, Petrouchka, The Rite of Spring, Les Noces and Apollon musagète. The first time that The Rite of Spring was performed many in the audience hated it and booed and started to fight. Others thought it was brilliant. Stravinsky's music was original and shocking, and Nijinsky's choreography went beyond classical ballet technique. The audience found it difficult to understand the music and dance. They were used to the romantic music and classical ballet of the nineteenth century.

Diaghilev also used music which had already been composed. This included music by Debussy, Ravel, Darius Milhaud, Prokofiev and other famous composers of the time.

Set and costume design
The artists and designers who worked for the ballet included some of the 20th century's most famous names. Picasso, Bakst, Braque, Matisse, Coco Chanel, Miró, Dali, and Utrillo were some of the best-known.

Other websites

V&A: Diaghilev and the Ballets Russes.

1909 establishments in Europe
1929 disestablishments

Ballets Russes


Lakshya ("target" in Sanskrit) is an Indian remotely piloted high speed target drone system developed by the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) of DRDO. A variant Lakshya-1 is used to perform discreet aerial reconnaissance of battlefield and target acquisition.

The drone remotely piloted by a ground control station provides realistic towed aerial sub-targets for live fire training. The drone is ground or ship launched from a zero length launcher and recovery is by a two-stage parachute system developed by ADE (DRDO), for land- or sea-based recovery. The drone has a crushable nose cone, which absorbs the impact of landing, minimizing damage. The flight path may be controlled or pre-programmed, based upon the type of mission.

Development

The requirement for a pilotless target aircraft (PTA) arose in 1976. Feasibility studies were carried out by ADE to provide for a target system that met the requirements of all 3 services of the armed forces. An Inter Services Qualitative Requirement (ISQR), common to the three Services, was formulated by a Working Group constituted by the Ministry of Defence in January 1977 and 35 ISQR points were identified. Subsequently, based on a feasibility study carried out by ADE, the project for the design and development of Inter-Services PTA by ADE, satisfying the ISQR was sanctioned by Government in September 1980 at a cost of  including a foreign exchange element of . The development activity was planned for completion within five years.

PTAE-7 jet engine

In parallel, a development project for indigenous development of PTA Engine (PTAE-7) was also sanctioned at an estimated cost of  to Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in September 1980, based on a feasibility study and project proposal submitted by HAL. The engine was to be developed by HAL by September 1985, concurrently with the PTA. HAL announced the successful trial of the indigenously-designed and developed remote-controlled PTAE-7 jet engine on 24 January 2001.

Between December 1985 and July 1986, four Lakshya PTA prototypes powered by Microturbo TRI-60-5 engines were launched for trials. While the first two launches were successful for planned flight times of 20 and 38 minutes respectively, the next two launches failed. By June 1994, 18 Lakshya PTA prototypes were fabricated by ADE itself and 43 trials were conducted, 24 of which were between December 1985 and February 1992. Due to rigorous evaluation and stringent quality control, a total of 10 prototypes were lost during the testing phase between 1985 and 1990. The project was formally closed on June 1994 and a final closure report was issued in April 1995 after incurring a total expenditure of . The first 6 Lakshya drones were given to the Indian Air Force in 1998. Laskhya units are manufactured and overhauled at HAL's Aircraft division, Bangalore. The Lakshya was formally inducted into the services by CAS AY Tipnis, on 9 November 2000 at Interim test range (ITR) Chandipur. On 9 May 2002, an upgraded version of the Laskhya featuring the new engine from HAL was flown from ITR Chandipur, bringing user trials to a close. On 6 November 2002, HAL announced that they had received an initial order for 25 Lakshya drones and that limited series production to satisfy the order for all three services had already begun. By 16 January 2003, the drone had completed over 100 flights.

A modified reconnaissance version of the Lakshya is under development. This version was fitted with oblique cameras and a digital onboard computer with a faster data-link enabling the drone to carry out completely autonomous operations. The development of this version was formally announced by Dr VK Aatre, then Scientific Adviser to the Defence Minister, during his lecture on "Evolving Battlefields and Role of Technology" organized by Bangalore Science Forum on 5 July 2003.

India's Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) has just announced the successful flight test of a Lakshya-2 pilotless targeting drone. According to a DRDO statement on 21 dec 2010, "Users have indicated their requirement of flying pilotless target aircraft at very low altitudes (15 to 25 metres above sea level) to simulate the trajectory of low-level cruise missiles. Accordingly ADE has prepared Lakshya-2 with necessary hardware and software to meet those requirements."

The 20 Dec flight test lasted 32 minutes at a range of 10-km. The DRDO statement said, "The flight was stable and well-controlled. A mobile launcher to launch the PTA from anywhere, and GPS to locate for recovery were used successfully." The Lakshya-2 also demonstrated several manoeuvers. The system has been designed so that two Lakshya targets can be flown and controlled by the common ground control station.

Operational history

Indian Air Force has received the aircraft, ground systems and expendables in September 1999 and Indian Navy was scheduled to receive its first deliveries in November 2000. 23 Pilotless Target Aircraft Lakshya have been inducted into the defence services.

The production cost of one aircraft is  Rupees (US$450,000). Some countries, like Singapore, Malaysia and Israel have expressed interest for "paid demonstration" of the Lakshya aircraft as a target. A similar "paid demonstration" was conducted for Israel's Air Force during the year 2002. This information was given by the Defense Minister AK Antony on 5 September 2007.

Status

The advanced version of pilotless target aircraft (PTA) Lakshya-II was again successfully flight- tested at the Integrated Test Range (ITR) on 27 January 2012. The 11th flight demonstration was held from a mobile vehicle at launch complex-3 of the ITR, about 15 km from here. According to defence sources, the entire flight was pre-programmed and was totally successful.

Lakshya-II flew at sea skimming height of about 15 meters. In a flight lasting over 30 minutes, it was made to dive down from an altitude of around 800 m to just 12 m and maintained the requisite altitude for the specified time before demonstrating auto climb-out. It demonstrated various technologies and sub-systems to prevent loss of mission, engaging and flying in way point navigation mode while carrying tow targets. During the flight, one of the tow targets was released and the other was deployed while way point navigation was on.

Lakshya-II has been designed and developed by Bangalore- based Aeronautical Development Establishment, a premier DRDO lab specialising in UAVs and flight control systems.

On 23 August 2012, Air Force version of Lakshya-1 fitted with an advanced digitally controlled engine was test-flown to check the validity of its engine and duration enhancement. The drone flew over 30 minutes.

On 16 March 2017, Air Force version of Lakshya-2 was successfully test-flown for 30 minutes from the Integrated Test Range, Odisha.

Operators

 Indian Air Force (15 units)
 Indian Navy (5 units)
 DRDO (10 units)

Specifications (Lakshya PTA)

See also

 DRDO Abhyas – Derived from Lakshya's tow body

References

HAL aircraft
Military equipment of India
Unmanned military aircraft of India
Lakshya

DRDO Lakshya


A water bird is one who lives on or around water. It includes water fowl, sea birds, wading birds and shore birds. The term is quite useful in conservation biology for birds that live in or depend on bodies of water or wetland areas.

Seabirds (marine birds, such as penguins and gulls)
Shorebirds (waders, order Charadriiformes)
Anseriformes (ducks, geese, swans, magpie geese, screamers)
Grebes (order Podicipediformes)
Loons (order Gaviiformes)
Ciconiiformes (storks, herons, egrets, ibises, spoonbills and others)
Pelecaniformes (pelicans and others)
Flamingos (order Phoenicopteriformes)
Some members of the order Gruiformes (including cranes and rails, crakes, coots and moorhens)
Kingfishers
One family of passerines, the dippers

Birds

Water bird


In Norse mythology, Rindr is a jotun. She is the daughter of Billing, king of the Ruthenians; mate of the god Odin; mother of Vali. She appears only once in the existing Norse manuscripts, as the temporary wife of Odin. Rinda is a personification of the hard, frozen rind of the Earth. At first, she resists the woohooing of Odin (the Sun) but finally succumbs to his warmth and gives birth to Vali, the light god of spring. And bous, who would later grow up to Balderus.

Norse mythology

Rindr


Lloyd Phillips (14 December 1949 in Cape Town – 25 January 2013 in Los Angeles) was a South African-born New Zealand film producer. In 1980, he produced the movie The Dollar Bottom. The film received an Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film in 1981, making Phillips the first New Zealander to win an Academy Award in any category.

Phillips was an executive producer on films such as Inglourious Basterds,  The Tourist, and Man of Steel. His commercially most successful films had been Man of Steel which grossed US$649 million, Inglourious Basterds which grossed US$321 million and The Tourist which grossed US$278 million worldwide. Phillips died of a heart attack on 25 January 2013 in Malibu, California, at the age of 63. A message reading 'In Memory Of Lloyd Phillips 1949–2013' appears during the ending credits of Man of Steel.

Phillips' widow, film producer Beau St. Clair, died on January 9, 2016.

References

External links

1940s births
2013 deaths
Producers who won the Live Action Short Film Academy Award
New Zealand film producers

Lloyd Phillips


Toussaint L'Ouverture (c. 1743–1803) was the leader of the Haitian Revolution.  Toussaint L'Ouverture started his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in Saint-Domingue, which was a French colony.  When he did this he was a free black man (not a slave). Toussaint built and led a large army.  His army gradually took control over the whole island (also the Spanish part called Santo Domingo).  When he had power for years, he tried to improve the security and economy on Saint-Domingue.  He also restored the plantation system, by using paid workers.

Early life
Little is known for sure about Toussaint L'Ouverture's early life, because sources disagree.  The first records of his life were from his son, Isaac L'Ouverture. Most histories say Toussaint's father was Gaou Guinou, who was a son of King Arrada.  King Arrada, also called Great Arrada, was the king of what is now Benin.  His mother was Gaou Guinou's second wife.

Most sources tell us that Toussaint L'Ouverture was born on the plantation of Bréda at Haute de Cap in Saint Domingue.  His birthdate is unknown.  All Saints' Day is likely, because his name "Toussaint" means "all saints'" in French.  When the Haitian Revolution started he was probably about 50 years old. Different sources give birth dates from 1739 until 1746. When he was a child he was small and weak. But as an adult he was known by his great stamina and horse-riding skills.

Education
Most sources tell us that Toussaint was well-educated by his godfather, Pierre Baptiste. By age 20 he could speak three languages, French, Creole and some Latin. He also had a knowledge of medicinal plants.

Marriage and children
Toussaint married Suzanne Simone Baptiste in 1782. Suzanne was probably his cousin. People think that he had 16 children, and that 11 of them had already died before he did himself. His oldest son was adopted. The two sons born out of his marriage with Suzanne were Isaac and Saint-Jean.

Slavery, freedom and working life
Toussaint was known for being a slave until the start of the Revolution. He was free at the age of 33.
When he was free, he became wealthier and began to have more property. He made a good amount of money in the Revolution and he was the owner of several properties.

Religion and spirituality
During his life Toussaint L'Ouverture was considered to be a Roman Catholic.  The Vodou spirituality was also often used on the Bréda plantation. It was combined with Catholicism.  It is not known if Toussaint had anything to do with these religions and spiritualties.  When he was the ruler of Saint-Domingue, he said he did not.

L'ouverture was a Freemason.  The historians thought this, because he used a Masonic symbol in his signature.

Haitian revolution
Saint-Domingue (later Haiti) was the world's biggest sugar producer and provided sugar for many countries. It had more than 800 sugar plantations. With a few rich families and 500,000 African slaves on Haiti, the slaves totally outnumbered everyone else. To stop the slaves from revolting and taking the power, the French people used terrible methods to keep the slaves powerless.

The Haitian Revolution began when the French people who owned the plantations wanted independence. But the slaves wanted something else; they wanted freedom. In 1791, about 100,00 slaves revolted. They burned all the sugarcane in the fields and killed hundreds of slave owners. In this early stage, Toussaint L'Ouverture did not join yet. But after some weeks, he took his family to the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo to keep them safe and helped the supervisors of the plantation of Bréda to leave the island, if we believe surviving documents.

Toussaint L'Ouverture was one of the leaders of the rebellion. He took part in talks about strategy. He had contact with the Spanish people who supported the rebellion, because they provided food to the slaves who were in revolt. In 1801 he moved to Santo Domingo and took control of the territory.  He freed the slaves and wrote a constitution for Santo Domingo.

When Napoleon Bonaparte took power in France, he took back the rich sugar plantations on Saint-Domingue. In January of the year 1802, French soldiers landed in Saint-Domingue in order to get rid of Toussaint L'Ouverture. When Napoleon Bonaparte told Toussaint that he wanted Saint-Domingue back, Toussaint said that he would get it back if he would end slavery on Saint-Domingue forever. Napoleon agreed and took Toussaint with him to Paris to discuss the deal further.

Despite the deal, the French people later accused L'Ouverture of planning another revolt against the plantation owners.  He was sent to jail in the French Alps. The jail was called Fort-de-Joux. Ten months after he was sent to jail, on the 7th of April 1803, Toussaint died.

After his death, slavery in Haiti was started again, but was never to be the same. Toussaint had left an impression about slavery, and the slaves continued to fight the rich French plantation owners in a brutal way. This resulted in another revolution. Toussaint's General, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, took up Toussaint's job in the revolution after he died. Dessalines became the first Emperor of Haiti. Later in the revolt he was attacked and he died.

But before Dessalines died, yellow fever killed thousands of French people trying to calm the revolt in Haiti. On January 1, 1804, Saint-Domingue was renamed Haiti and was declared independent by Dessalines. In this way, Haiti became the first black republic in the world.

References

1743 births
1803 deaths
Haitian people
French generals

Toussaint L'ouverture


Grandes écoles are specialized universities in France. Each grande école only teaches a very limited number of subjects. Unlike the other universities in France, the grandes écoles can pick the students they admit. These students have to follow special courses and tests before they are admitted. The grandes écoles award degrees that correspond to a master's degree; they do not award bachelor's degrees. There is no exhaustive list, but in general, there are the following types of grandes écoles, along with some of the representative schools in each category:
Sciences: École normale supérieure
Engineering: École polytechnique, École centrale Paris, Mines ParisTech, Institut National des Sciences Appliquées
Aviation: École nationale de l'aviation civile, Institut polytechnique des sciences avancées
Politics and public administration: Institut d'études politiques de Paris, École nationale d'administration
Business: École des hautes études commerciales de Paris, Emlyon Business School
Military: École Navale, École de l'Air
Veterinary:, such as the École nationale vétérinaire d'Alfort
Archival science: École nationale des chartes

Education in France

Grande école


Monotheism is the belief in only one god, rather than two or more, which would be polytheism such as Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Ancient Egypt and partly Hinduism. Many religions are monotheistic, such as Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Baha'i Faith, Sikhism, Eckankar, Zoroastrianism, Cao Dai and Tenrikyo. Some pagan and neo-pagan religions are also monotheistic. Deism is the belief that a higher being like god exists, but rejects the belief in many gods, revelation, religions, rituals, sacred books (like the Bible or Quran), prophets (like Jesus or Muhammad), etc. Judaism and Zoroastrianism are thought to be the oldest living monotheistic religions.

Other websites
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Theology

Monotheism


The Papillon (, French for 'butterfly[-eared]'), also called the Continental Toy Spaniel, is a breed of dog, of the spaniel type. One of the oldest of the toy spaniels, it derives its name from its characteristic butterfly-like look of the long and fringed hair on the ears. A Papillon with dropped ears is called a Phalene.

Appearance and behavior

Papillons are very intelligent and self-assured dogs that have a very easy time learning new tricks. These dogs can be sociable with children and strangers, but are generally reserved around new people. They can also be socialized to get along well with other pets, but care should be taken with rambunctious pets or cats with claws, as they may injure them. If not properly socialized, Papillons can be distrustful and exhibit aggressive tendencies toward other dogs and people. Papillons may also be very playful and affectionate. Widely known as great companion dogs, they have the spirit and energy to keep up with active families, but can also be calm enough to be happy with sleeping in the arms of an equally affectionate owner. Due to their high energy level, they demand an augmented exercise routine, relative to the average companion breed. Papillons are known as excellent watchdogs, as they will alert their owner to changes in their environment. They may be considered garrulous like many other toy dogs. They can withstand heat, but are more sensitive to cold temperatures because of their single-coated fur, and should not be left outside unattended in cold weather.

The most iconic aspect of Papillons are their ears, which are large and well fringed, giving them a butterfly wing-like appearance. Papillons are particolored or white with patches of any color. An all-white dog or a dog with no white is disqualified from the conformation show ring. A blaze (area of white extending down between the eyes) and noseband is preferred over a solid-colored head, but not required. Nose, eye rims, and lips should be black. Paw pads vary in color from black to pink, depending on the coloring of the dog.

Papillons can be registered with the American Kennel Club as the following colors and markings, with types for show purposes indicated with S for standard or A for alternate:

The American Kennel Club breed standard indicates a conformance fault that may be penalized: failure of the non-white color to cover the front and back of both ears and to extend from the ears over both eyes. Not penalized are a slight extension of the white collar onto the base of the ears, or a few white hairs interspersed in the color – as long as "the butterfly appearance is not sacrificed".

Two ear variations of this breed are seen, the completely upright ears of the more common Papillon, and the dropped spaniel-like ears of the Phalène. The Phalène are likely a throwback to their spaniel ancestors. The American Kennel Club and the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) consider the Phalène and the Papillon the same breed.

Temperament

The temperament of Papillons is that of a happy, friendly, adventurous dog. They are generally neither shy nor aggressive. Papillons can make excellent family dogs, but should be watched around little children, as should any dog, due to a small child's lack of understanding of a dog's behavior and the likelihood that they will do something to upset the dog. Given the intelligence of Papillons, they require rigorous training and mental stimulation to prevent behavioral issues arising from boredom. According to Dr Stanley Coren, an expert on animal intelligence, Papillons are among the top ten brightest dogs, ranking 8th out of 138 breeds tested.

Lifespan
A 2002 Papillon Club of America survey found that the Papillons of their members lived an average of 11.45 years. However, with modern advancements in dog care and nutrition, Papillons are now known to typically have a lifespan ranging between 14 and 16 years, with some even living up to 17 years.

Health

Papillons have only minor health concerns, although patellar luxation, seizures, and dental problems can be issues. Additionally, they can be at risk for progressive retinal atrophy, intervertebral disk disease, and allergies.

Exercise
Play will take care of a lot of their exercise needs; however, as with all breeds, play is not sufficient for all exercise. Daily walks or runs are an excellent way to exercise a Papillon. They also enjoy a good romp in a safe open area off leash, such as a large, fenced yard. Papillons are a very active breed of dog and enjoy having a job to perform. Papillon breeders recommend dog agility, rally obedience, or obedience training for Papillons because of their intelligence and energy level.

History

The history of the Papillon is traced through works of art. The earliest toy spaniels resembling the papillon are found in Italy. Titian painted these small dogs in many famous paintings beginning around 1500, including the Venus of Urbino (1542). Other well-known artists who included them in paintings are Watteau, Gonzales Coques, Fragonard, Paolo Veronese, and Mignard. In a painting after Largillierre in the Wallace Collection in London, a Papillon is clearly shown in a family portrait of Louis XIV. Papillons are also in paintings of royal families around Europe and paintings of merchant-class families. The breed was popular in England, France, and Belgium, which are considered countries of origin by the FCI.

The "Titian spaniels" and those portrayed by later artists through Mignard and his contemporaries had the drooping ears characteristic of today's Phalène; the erect-eared appearance did not become fashionable until the end of the 19th century. The Titian spaniels were also exclusively red-and-white in coloration, in contrast to the many recognized colorations of today's Papillon.

The Papillon's history and long association with royalty have led to many stories about the breed. Marie Antoinette is said to have walked to the guillotine clutching her small dog under her arm, likely an apocryphal tale. However, tradition has it that Marie Antoinette's dog was a small spaniel that had been brought to the French court from Spain on the back of pack mules. According to the story, her pup was spared and cared for in a building in Paris still called the Papillon House. Marie Antoinette's dog was said to have descended from a very old drop-eared breed known as the Epagneul Nain, or Continental Dwarf/Toy Spaniel that appeared in church frescos and paintings as early as the 13th century.

The Papillon is still officially referred to as the Epagneul Nain (ENC) in non-English-speaking countries. The name Squirrel Spaniel also has been used, most likely referring to an earlier standard in which the tail set is described as "curling over the back as a squirrel's". One version of the history of the two varieties of ear shape in the ENC ("papillon" to denote the erect ear and "phalène" to denote the dropped ear) is that toward the end of the 19th century, breed fanciers bred a version of the spaniel whose ears stood up. This dog was said to have been nicknamed papillon based on the impressively large, erect ears that resembled the wings of a butterfly. The drop-eared variety of the breed came to be called the Phalène (which means "night moth"). Both types are still bred today and appear in the same litter. The papillon variety is much more common, although recently, the Phalène has undergone a resurgence in popularity.

The Papillon was first recognized by the AKC in 1935 with the formation of the Papillon Club of America. By the end of the war, the club was no longer functioning, but it was reactivated in 1948, with its first postwar specialty held in September 1954. In 1999, Ch. Loteki Supernatural Being (call name "Kirby") owned and handled by John Oulton of Norwalk, Connecticut, became the first Papillon to win the prestigious "Best in Show" at the annual Westminster Kennel Club dog show. Kirby also won international success for the breed by taking the World Dog Show in Helsinki, Finland, and the Royal Invitational in Canada in 1998. Papillons also enjoy success today in competitive fields outside of conformation, including obedience and agility.

In 2019, Planet Waves Forever Young Daydream Believers (call name "Dylan") became the first Papillon to win Best in Show at Crufts.

See also
 Dogs portal
 List of dog breeds
 Lap dog
 Companion dog
 Toy dog

References

External links

FCI breeds
Companion dogs
Dog breeds originating in France
Dog breeds originating in Belgium
Spaniels

Papillon dog


A hanok is a type of house. It is built in a traditional Korean style of architecture.

Features
The main feature of a hanok is that it has combination of ondol, the Korean under-floor heating system, and wooden floor for heating and cooling. This style is mainly used in Korea because of problems caused by the area having both a continental climate and an oceanic climate.

Shape

Regional differences
Hanoks have different shapes in different parts of Korea. In the northern part of the Korean peninsula, hanoks have the structure of a house with several wings. The wings are often built in either a square or the letter L. This helps keep the wind out of the house in the colder northern places and helps keep the house warm. These kind of house also has low roofs. In the warmer southern Korean peninsula, hanoks have a single wing and a wooden floor. This helps let the air in and out.

Class differences
The hanoks is also different based on the class of the people who live it.  Hanok of upper class people usually have tiled roofs (called giwa) while lower class houses have roofs made of rice-straw (called choga). Hanok for the upper-class people are built not only to be homes, but also to be very ornamental.

Buildings and structures in Korea
Houses

Hanok


Matthew Hanks LeCroy (born December 13, 1975) is an American former professional baseball catcher, first baseman, and designated hitter and current manager for the Rochester Red Wings. During his time in Major League Baseball (MLB), LeCroy had the distinction of being the active player with the most plate appearances without a stolen base in his career.

Career
LeCroy is a 1994 graduate of Belton-Honea Path High School in Honea Path, South Carolina and attended Clemson University to pursue a degree in elementary education. While at Clemson, he was named to the 1996 U.S. Olympic Baseball Team and helped the team to a bronze medal after losing to both Cuba (gold medal) and Japan (silver medal) before defeating Nicaragua in the bronze medal game. In 1997, he was drafted as a catcher in the first round (50th overall) of the Major League Baseball Draft by the Minnesota Twins. Although challenged defensively behind the plate, averaging double-digit passed balls while throwing out less than 30 percent of potential base stealers, LeCroy put up superior power numbers in the minor leagues, hitting 101 home runs over five years in the Twins' system. In 1999, LeCroy again competed at the international level when he played for the United States at the 1999 Pan American Games in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The United States took second place behind Cuba in games made notable by the first time professional baseball players were allowed to compete in international games.

LeCroy got his first taste of the majors in 2000 when he made the major league club out of spring training. From 2000 to 2002, LeCroy would split time between the Twins and their AAA teams, playing for the Salt Lake Buzz and later for the Edmonton Trappers after the Twins changed their minor league affiliate in 2001. Due to his struggles behind the plate, LeCroy also spent time at first base and designated hitter; totaling more games in the major leagues at the latter position than he did at first base and catcher combined. His peak years in the majors were 2003 (.287, 17 HR, 64 RBI in 107 games) and 2005 (.260, 17 HR, 50 RBI in 101 games). Despite his productive 2005 season, Minnesota chose not to resign LeCroy and he signed a minor league contract with the Washington Nationals.

Though battling bone spurs in his throwing knee, LeCroy was asked to fill in during a May 25, 2006, game against the Houston Astros at a time when Washington's starting catcher, Brian Schneider and backup Wiki Gonzalez, were out with injuries. He was replaced by utilityman Robert Fick in the middle of the seventh inning after the Astros stole seven bases and LeCroy committed two catching errors. After the game, manager Frank Robinson shed tears during the press conference regarding his removal of Matt in the middle of the seventh inning, which is usually considered embarrassing. LeCroy was designated for assignment July 18, which he accepted, and spent the rest of the year playing for the New Orleans Zephyrs, then Washington's AAA affiliate team.

LeCroy was signed to a minor league deal by the Twins in  after turning down an offer from the Washington Nationals to manage one of their minor-league teams. LeCroy started the 2007 season as designated hitter playing for the Rochester Red Wings in the International League. He had his contract purchased by the major league club on September 9, 2007, when their fourth catcher José Morales went down with an injury, and finished the season with the Twins.

LeCroy was outrighted to the minor leagues by the Twins on October 11, 2007, but he refused the assignment and became a free agent. On February 15, , LeCroy signed a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training with the Oakland Athletics. On March 16, 2008, LeCroy was reassigned to minor league camp and asked the Athletics to grant his release, which they did. LeCroy then signed with the Lancaster Barnstormers of the independent Atlantic League of Professional Baseball in April 2008. LeCroy would play 94 games with Lancaster (hitting .326 with 22 HR and 83 RBI) before retiring at the end of the season.

As a member of the Twins, LeCroy became one of the few major leaguers to pinch hit a walk-off grand slam in a win over the Toronto Blue Jays. He was always a threat to hit a home run, and hit 60 in his career of limited at bats in 472 games over his eight-year major league career.

Coaching career
In November 2008, LeCroy was hired by the Nationals to manage the team's Class A affiliate, the Hagerstown Suns. In 2011, LeCroy was moved up to the High Single-A Carolina League when he was named as the manager of the Potomac Nationals. In 2012, he was named the Double A Harrisburg Senators manager. In November 2013, he was named the bullpen coach on new Nationals manager Matt Williams' coaching staff, replacing Jim Lett. He was fired with Williams and the entire coaching staff after the 2015 season, but was brought back for his second stint as manager of the Harrisburg Senators for the 2016 season.

The Nationals announced December 15, 2020, that LeCroy was being promoted to manager of the Class-AAA Rochester Red Wings.

Personal life
LeCroy and his wife Holly have five children, daughter Isabella (b. 2004), daughter Maggie (b. 2006), son Noah (b. 2008), and fraternal twins Max and Mabree (b. 2012).

References

External links

1975 births
Living people
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
Baseball coaches from South Carolina
Baseball players at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Baseball players at the 1999 Pan American Games
Baseball players from Anderson County, South Carolina
Clemson Tigers baseball players
Edmonton Trappers players
Fort Myers Miracle players
Fort Wayne Wizards players
Lancaster Barnstormers players
Major League Baseball bullpen coaches
Major League Baseball catchers
Major League Baseball first basemen
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Minnesota Twins players
Minor league baseball managers
New Britain Rock Cats players
New Orleans Zephyrs players
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in baseball
Pan American Games medalists in baseball
Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States
People from Belton, South Carolina
Rochester Red Wings managers
Rochester Red Wings players
Salt Lake Buzz players
Washington Nationals coaches
Washington Nationals players
Medalists at the 1999 Pan American Games

Matthew LeCroy


Jute is a vegetable fibre. It is very cheap to produce, and its production levels are similar to that of cotton. It is a bast fibre, like hemp, and flax. Coarse fabrics made of jute are called hessian, or burlap in America. Like all natural fibres, Jute is biodegradable."Jute" is the name of the plant or fiber that is used to make burlap, Hessian or gunny cloth. It is very rough and is very difficult to cut or tear.

The jute plant is easily grown in tropical countries like Bangladesh and India. India is the largest producer of jute in the world. Jute is less expensive than cotton, but cotton is better for quality clothes. Jute is used to make various products: packaging materials, jute bags, socks, expensive carpets, espadrilles, sweaters etc.
It is obtained from the bark of the jute plant. Jute plants are easy to grow, have a high yield per acre and, unlike cotton, have little need for pesticides and fertilizers.

In Iran, archaeologists have found jute existing since the Bronze Age.

References

Fibers

Jute


Onions are plants in the genus, Allium. They are eaten as vegetables. Most species of onions have bulbs that people can eat. They have a strong flavour and a very distinctive smell.

Onions have been grown for a long time. They were probably first grown in Ancient Egypt, together with leek and garlic, but maybe earlier. Now, most of the world's cultures eat onions.

Cultivation
Farmers and gardeners can grow onions from seeds or from bulbs. If they plant seeds, they must later pull out most of the young plants so the rest can grow better. This is called 'thinning'. A different way to plant onions is to plant young bulbs. This is faster, but the onions that grow this way are weaker than the onions that started as seeds.

In food
Onions can be eaten in different ways:
 Fried sliced or chopped onions are often served on hot dogs.
 Onion rings are sliced, the slices dipped in batter, and deep-fried so the batter is crisp and onion is cooked soft.
 Pickled onions are eaten as a relish with chips or with salad.
 Raw onions:
 Sliced (cut into flat layers) for hamburgers and sandwiches
 Chopped or minced fine in salads or as garnish on cooked foods
 Cooked in soups, stews and curries
 Roasted whole alongside roasted meat

Why onions make eyes water
When you cut an onion, you open some cells of the onion. Then, some chemicals react. When one chemical floats through the air and reaches your eyes, they sting.
There are ways to keep the chemical away. You can:
 Cut the onion under water
 Keep the onion in the fridge, and cut when it is cold
 Leave the root end on until last
 Use a sharper knife
 Have a fan blowing away from you on the onion
 Wear goggles, like for swimming or skiing

The ability of plants to deter or limit being eaten is called defence against herbivory.

Gallery

Root vegetables
Allium

Onion


A Teachta Dála, is a member of Dáil Éireann, the lower house of the Irish parliament.  Usually only the initials TD are used, after the person's name.

The letters are used in the same way that MP is used to show that someone is a Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom.

Related pages
Member of Parliament

Politics of Ireland

Teachta Dála


Transloading, also known as cross-docking, is the process of transferring a shipment from one mode of transportation to another. It is most commonly employed when one mode cannot be used for the entire trip, such as when goods must be shipped internationally from one inland point to another. Such a trip might require transport by truck to an airport, then by airplane overseas, and then by another truck to its destination; or it might involve bulk material (such as coal) loaded to rail at the mine and then transferred to a ship at a port. Transloading is also required at railroad break-of-gauge points, since the equipment can not pass from one track to another unless bogies are exchanged.

Since transloading requires handling of the goods, it causes a higher risk of damage. Therefore, transloading facilities are designed with the intent of minimizing handling. Due to differing capacities of the different modes, the facilities typically require some storage facility, such as warehouses or rail yards. For bulk goods, specialized material handling and storage are typically provided (as, for example, in grain elevators). Intermodal transport limits handling by using standardized containers, which are handled as units and which also serve for storage if needed.

Transloading versus transshipment
Transloading may be confused with transshipment, but in modern usage they represent different concepts. Transloading concerns the mechanics of transport, while transshipment is essentially a legal term addressing how the shipment originates and is destined. Consider a load of grain that is transloaded at an elevator, where it is combined with grain from other farms and thus leaves on the train as a distinct shipment from that in which it arrived. It thus cannot be said to be transshipped. Or consider a package shipped through a package delivery service or by mail: it may change shipping mode several times along the trip, but since it is (from an external point of view) conveyed as a single shipment regardless of how it is conveyed or what else travels with it on the legs of its journey, it is not considered to be transshipped. Conversely, a load on a truck can be taken in one (legal) shipment to an intermediate point and then to its ultimate destination without ever leaving the truck. If this is specified as two shipments, then the goods are transshipped, but no transloading has taken place.

The modern distinction between transloading and transshipment was not well codified in the period of the mid-19th through mid-20th centuries, when discussions of break of gauge often used the word transshipment for what today's careful usage would call transloading, or for any combination of transloading and transshipment.

Transloading facilities

Transloading can occur at any place. A truck can pull up to another truck or a train, and transloading may be accomplished by no more elaborate means than teamsters and stevedores. In the interests of speed and efficiency, however, a variety of specialized equipment is used to handle the goods. Thus, intermodal facilities have specialized cranes for handling the containers, and coal piers have car dumpers, loaders, conveyors, and other equipment for unloading and loading railroad cars and ships quickly and with a minimum of personnel. Transloading facilities may also make use of a Bulk Transloading System to provide visibility of a transloading operation including rail, storage, over the road drivers, dray drivers, bookings, and the master load plan.

Often the equipment used to ship the goods is optimized for rapid transfer. For instance, the shipment of automobiles is expedited by autorack rail cars and roll-on/roll-off ships, which can be loaded without cranes or other equipment. Standardized containers allow the use of common handling equipment and obviate break bulk handling.

Transloading is often combined with classification and routing facilities, since the latter often require handling of goods. Transloading may occur at railway sidings and break-of-gauge stations.

Where ports are too small to handle large bulk carrier ships, transloading can occur at sea, using  transhipment platforms, ships, or floating cranes and barges.

See also
ExpressRail

References

 Origin, Destination, and Door-to-door Rail Transloading -

Freight transport
Intermodal transport

Transloading


The Kaghan valley is a valley in the Mansehra District of Hazara Division of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It has a reputation as a place of great natural beauty. This valley also suffered from the earthquake disaster on 8 October 2005.

Lay out
The valley is approximately 160 kilometers long, starting from Balakot in the 'Lower Kaghan' to Babusar Pass at the extreme end of the 'Upper Kaghan'. It is mostly surrounded by the forests and hills of the Lesvjzxbser Himalayas and the Kunhar River runs though most of its length. The valley is mostly inhabited by semi-nomadic Gujars, and some Swatis, Awans and Syeds.

Background and main sights
Historically speaking, Kaghan was long a backward and neglected area, until the 1880s-1890s when officers of British India established a strategic supply line via the Babusar Pass to the northern areas of the Gilgit Agency. After that, the area soon opened up to tourism and resort centers like Shogran and Naran Valley were developed in it. The famous and lovely Saiful Muluk Lake is also a special feature of this valley as are some other lakes like Ansoo Lake, Dudupat Sar, Lulu Sar and the Lalazar Meadows. Malika Parbat is a high peak in the area.

Between May and August each year, thousands of tourists from Pakistan and abroad dive up from Abbottabad and Mansehra, to visit these places in the valley. For most of the rest of the year, Kaghan area is locked in by heavy snows.

Related pages
Neelum Valley

Valleys of Pakistan
Mansehra District

Kaghan Valley


Sir John Sealy Edward Townsend, FRS (7 June 1868 – 16 February 1957) was an Irish-British mathematical physicist who conducted various studies concerning the electrical conduction of gases (concerning the kinetics of electrons and ions) and directly measured the electrical charge. He was a Wykeham Professor of physics at Oxford University.

The phenomenon of the electron avalanche was discovered by him, and is known as the Townsend discharge.

Career
John Townsend was born at Galway in County Galway, Ireland, son of Edward Townsend, a Professor of Civil Engineering at Queen's College Galway and Judith Townsend. In 1885, he entered Trinity College Dublin, was elected a Scholar of the College in 1888, and came top of the class in mathematics with a BA in 1890. He became a Clerk Maxwell Scholar and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became a research student at the same time as Ernest Rutherford. At the Cavendish laboratory, he studied under J. J. Thomson. He developed the "Townsend's collision theory". Townsend supplied important work to the electrical conductivity of gases ("Townsend discharge" circa 1897). This work determined the elementary electrical charge with the droplet method. This method was improved later by Robert Andrews Millikan.

In 1900, Townsend became a Wykeham Professor of Physics at Oxford. In 1901, he discovered the ionization of molecules by ion impact and the dependence of the mean free path on electrons (in gases) of the energy (and his independent studies concerning the collisions between atoms and low-energy electrons in the 1920s would later be called the Ramsauer–Townsend effect). On 11 June 1903, he was elected to Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS). He was awarded the Hughes Medal in 1914. During World War I, he researched, at Woolwich, wireless methods for the Royal Naval Air Service.

Townsend was a laboratory demonstrator when Brebis Bleaney was an undergraduate. Bleaney recounts an occasion when Townsend gathered together all the demonstrators and proceeded to refute both quantum mechanics and relativity.

Between the two world wars, Townsend led an effective small group of researchers, often Rhodes scholars, of whom some became distinguished physicists. However, by the 1930s he had become less effective. He was seen as a boring lecturer, a dogmatic supervisor, and out of touch with the wider world of physics. As the 1930s went on, no German refugees sought refuge in his laboratory, while Lindemann, Dr Lee's professor of Physics, gained eight refugee physicists, some of whom gave his department an international reputation in the world of low temperature physics. In the late 1930s, the University decided to build a new Clarendon Laboratory Building and looked closely at the relations between Oxford's two physics laboratories. There was a suggestion to convert the Wykeham chair into one for theoretical physics. In 1941, Townsend's career came to an unhappy end. He had refused to support the war effort by teaching service-men, and the university appointed a visitorial board. This found Townsend guilty of misconduct and advised him that he would be dismissed unless he agreed to resign. Townsend, knighted in January 1941, resigned in September, subject to confidentiality.

John Townsend spent his retirement in Oxford, where he died in 1957 in the Acland Nursing Home.

Townsend married Mary Georgiana Lambert, also from County Galway, and they had two sons. His wife took an interest in politics, became a city councillor, and was twice Mayor of Oxford.

Works
 The Theory of Ionisation of Gases by Collision (1910)
 Motion of Electrons in Gases (1925)
 Electricity and Radio Transmission (1943)
 Electromagnetic Waves (1951)

See also
 Townsend Building of the Clarendon Laboratory in Oxford

References

Further reading

External links

 "Papers and correspondence of Sir John Sealy Edward Townsend, 1868–1957". Bodleian Library, Oxford. (ed. compiled between 1914 and 1957.)
 Entry in The Townsend (Townshend) Family Records

1868 births
1957 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
British physicists
Electrical breakdown
Fellows of New College, Oxford
Fellows of the Royal Society
Knights Bachelor
People associated with electricity
People from Galway (city)
Scholars of Trinity College Dublin
Wykeham Professors of Physics

John Sealy Townsend


In computing, a window is an area on a computer screen. This area usually shows an application or folder. Windows can be made bigger or smaller, and can be opened or closed. They can also be minimized. They are usually in the shape of a rectangle.

Windows are very obvious in graphical user interfaces as they are the main means of displaying information to users. The most famous of these is the appropriately named "Windows" operating system made by Microsoft.

References

Computer terminology

Window (computing)


The Tethys Ocean, also called the Tethys Sea or the Neo-Tethys, was a prehistoric ocean during much of the Mesozoic Era and early Cenozoic Era, located between the ancient continents of Gondwana and Laurasia, before the opening of the Indian and Atlantic oceans during the Cretaceous Period.

The Tethys Ocean existed between the continents of Gondwana and Laurasia during much of the Mesozoic era. Several smaller versions have existed down to the present day. Today's Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Aral Sea are remnants of the Tethys Ocean.

Names
This is a list of names which have been used for different stages of the Tethys:
Proto-Tethys, from the latest Ediacaran to the Carboniferous 550–330 million years ago (mya)
Palaeo-Tethys or Paleo-Tethys, from Carboniferous to early Jurassic
Tethys Ocean proper, or Neo-Tethys, existed between the continents of Gondwana and Laurasia before the opening of the Indian and Atlantic oceans during the Cretaceous period. Roughly, a bigger Mediterranean, continuing right through to the Indian Ocean.
Alpine or Paratethys sea to the north of the Tethys, roughly where the Alps are today.

Oceans
Mesozoic

Tethys Ocean


Ice climbing is a type of mountaineering activity where people climb on ice formations. They might climb on frozen waterfalls or large rocks covered with ice. Ice climbers use special equipment like ice axes, ropes and crampons to climb ice and glaciers.

Ice climbing competitions started in Russia and have been held each winter since 1970.

Dangers to climbers include:
 rocks falling from the mountain
 extreme cold which can cause frostbite
 falls which can break climbers' legs and arms or even cause death

References
 International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation
 The Beginner's Guide to Ice Climbing .

Ice sports

Ice climbing


In philately, the term cover pertains to the outside of an envelope or package with an address, typically with postage stamps that have been cancelled and is a term generally used among stamp and postal history collectors. The term does not include the contents of the letter or package, although they may add interest to the item if still present. Cover collecting plays an important role in postal history as many covers bear stamps, postmarks and other markings along with names and addresses all of which help to place a cover at a given time and place in history.

History

The term originates from the practice of covering a letter by folding a separate sheet about it to physically protect it and prevent infringement of confidentiality. In the first half of the 19th century it became the fashion to cut the cover into a diamond or lozenge shape. This was the precursor of the version of the envelope known today. Its convenience and popularity led to the lozenge design being adopted for the special pre-paid postage envelopes and covers issued in 1840 after postal reforms were introduced by Rowland Hill and others.

A philatelic cover is an envelope or post card prepared with a stamp(s) and address and sent through the mail delivery system for the purpose of creating a collectible item.

Categories
There are several different basic categories for covers. Names for cover types is also terminology usually used by collectors of stamps and postal history. There exist a wide variety of covers that can fit into several basic categories. The categories begin with the most common types of collectible covers, such as first day covers or first flight covers. Sometimes there will be an area of overlap in the subject of categories. For example, there are First day covers that were also sent with mail aboard airplanes on First flight mail runs. Event covers can also include, First flights, or other types of covers. A military cover sent to a head of state can also be referred to as a Historic cover.

A first day cover is typically an envelope with a postage stamp canceled on its first day of issue. The design or theme of the stamp may be printed on the cover to enhance its appeal to the philatelic community.
 An event cover celebrates an event or notes an anniversary.
 Stamp on cover. This is a cover that is collected as an example of a given stamp postally used on a cover, however older stamps with recent cancellations are usually philatelic (mailed with the intention of recovering and collecting the item).
 A pre-stamped cover is a cover that already has an imprinted stamp.
 First flight covers are those carried on an aircraft, usually authorized by a government or postal administration, for the first time on a particular route.
 A stampless cover is an envelope or folded outer sheet bearing an address and manuscript or ink-stamped postal markings without prepaid adhesive postage stamps, normally from the period before adhesive postage stamps became available or common in the mid-to-late 19th Century.
 Military covers can include a wide variety of subjects that may include first flight covers, and prisoner of war covers. Mail sent from an Army Post Office (APO) or a Navy Post Office (Fleet Post Office, FPO) are common types of military covers.
 Railroad covers is mail that was processed aboard special rail cars outfitted with an official post office where mail is processed en route to its general destination.
 Historical covers are those that have special historical significance above and beyond that of the average collectible cover. These can include mail sent by Kings, Presidents or other heads of state. If the historical cover is i.e. to or from a General in an Army the cover then can also be classified as a military cover. Names for cover categories are usually used as general reference in philately. If aspects of a cover (date+postmark, name+address) are referenced in a historical capacity the category of the cover may not even be mentioned.
 Cover fronts are covers where, for some known or unknown reason, only the front side of the cover is kept. These covers are fully collectable, but when selling them or describing them, it must be mentioned they are fronts only.
 Postage meter covers are typically commercial envelopes with postage meter prints. Besides collecting them by country, they can be collected by manufacturer of the metering machine and by topic of the advertisement slogans of the meter clichés.

Other specialty types of covers include Censored covers along with Blockade mail, Pony Express covers, Prisoner of war covers and Patriotic covers, among others.

Availability
The availability of the different types of covers varies considerably and is something that often adds perspective to the historical and philatelic significance of the cover. For example, First Day covers and First Flight covers are generally common because the events that inspired the creation of these covers were somewhat common. In other examples, various types of military and historical covers are often scarce or rare because the circumstances or events that prompted the creation of these covers were conversely uncommon. While covers sent in recent decades tend to be common, they can also prove to be scarce simply because the circumstance that created these covers were (sometimes very) uncommon, as are the various examples of historical covers i.e. sent by a head of state to another officially prominent individual. At the same time there exist covers that are quite old but are still common and not very difficult to find, as are various types of post cards or commercial covers. Patriotic covers are generally common because the practice of sending these was popular, especially during periods of war. Patriotic cover availability here can vary also depending on the country and time period in question. Covers collected for the stamp on cover can vary greatly  in availability and generally depends on the availability of the stamp issue itself along with the demand for the use of a particular denomination. The denomination of a stamp often determines the availability of the issue on cover as the use of some, usually higher, denominations was uncommon because of the low demand for a particular postage rate. There are a number of circumstances that can affect the availability of a given cover type and which often contribute to a cover's historical and philatelic value.

See also
Airmail
Civil War covers
Crash cover
Disinfected mail
Philatelic cover
Prisoner of war mail
Stampless mail

References

External links

History of Envelopes – National Postal Museum

Envelopes
Philatelic terminology

Cover (philately)


Somerset Island is a member of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. It is a big island across the 2 km wide Bellot Strait from the Boothia Peninsula in the Qikiqtaaluk Region of Nunavut, Canada.  It has an area of 9,570 square miles (24,786 km²), making it the 45th biggest island in the world and Canada's twelfth biggest island. No one lives on Somerset Island

Islands of Canada
Arctic islands

Somerset Island


Harald Greycloak (Old Norse: Haraldr gráfeldr, lit. "Harald Grey-hide"; Norwegian: ; Danish: ; c. 935 – c. 970) was a king of Norway from the Fairhair dynasty.

Harald acquired his nickname "Gray-hide" after an encounter with the crew of an Icelandic merchant ship which carried a large load of vararfeldir, a type of faux fur made from sheep's wool. The Icelanders were having trouble selling their faux furs so when the king asked them if they would make a present to him of one of the furs, which happened to be grey, the sailors did not hesitate and the king immediately used it as a cloak. This set an instant fashion trend and before long the Icelanders had sold their entire load of previously unsalable furs to the king's men and the locals. Harald was ever after known as Harald "Gray-hide".

Harald was the son of Eric Bloodaxe and a grandson of Harald Fairhair. His mother was Gunnhild, the sister of King Harald Bluetooth.

After his father's death in 954, Harald and his brothers allied with their uncle, King Harald Bluetooth, against their half-uncle King Haakon the Good. They fought several battles against King Haakon including the Battle of Rastarkalv near the island of Frei in 955 and the Battle of Fitjar in 961.

After King Haakon's death at Fitjar, Harald and his brothers became kings of Norway, but they had little authority outside Western Norway. Harald, by being the oldest, was the most powerful of the brothers. In 961, their uncle King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark traveled to Norway and declared Harald Greycloak to be his vassal king in Norway.

Harald moved to strengthen his rule by killing the local rulers including Sigurd Haakonsson, Tryggve Olafsson and Gudrød Bjørnsson. Harald Greycloak thus took power over the country up to and including Hålogaland. Harald established control over the trade route along the Norwegian coast. He also undertook a Viking expedition to Bjarmaland, today the area of Arkhangelsk in northern Russia. Harald soon became less dependent on support from Harald Bluetooth.

In 970, he was tricked into coming to Denmark and killed in Hals in the Limfjord in a plot planned by Sigurd Haakonsson's son Haakon, who had become an ally of Harald Bluetooth. Haakon Sigurdsson had become the jarl of Lade after his own father was killed by Harald Greycloak's men in the autumn of 962. The surviving brothers of Harald Greyhide fled the country after his death. With the death of Harald Greycloak, King Harald Bluetooth won back power over Norway and he supported Haakon Sigurdsson as his vassal king.

References

Other sources

 Krag, Claus Harald Gråfell in Norsk biografisk leksikon 2. utg. Bd 4, 2001.
 Koht, Halvdan Harald Graafeld in Norsk biografisk leksikon, 1. utg. Bd 5, 1931.

930s births
970 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain
10th-century Norwegian monarchs
10th-century murdered monarchs
Fairhair dynasty
Norwegian people murdered abroad

Harald Greycloak