Finland (Finnish: Suomi) is a country in Northern Europe and is a member state of the European Union. Finland is one of the Nordic countries and is also part of Fennoscandia. Finland is located between the 60th and 70th latitudes North. Its neighbours are Sweden to the west, Norway to the north, Russia to the east and Estonia to the south, beyond the sea called Gulf of Finland. Most of western and southern coast is on the shore of the Baltic Sea.

The capital of Finland is Helsinki; the second largest city is Tampere. The official currency of the country is the euro (EUR); before 2002 it was the markka, the Finnish mark (FIM). The president of Finland is Sauli Niinistö. 5.5 million people live in Finland. Finnish and Swedish both are the official languages of Finland; the most spoken languages is Finnish, mother tongue of about 90% of the population. Swedish is spoken by the Swedish speaking minority of Finland, called the Finnish Swedes, who make up 5% of the total population. Finland became independent of Russia on 6 December 1917.

The most important cities and towns in Finland are Helsinki, Espoo, Tampere, Vantaa, Turku, Oulu, Lahti, Kuopio, Jyväskylä and Pori.

Finland is a highly industrialised First World country. The most important Finnish industrial products are paper, and steel products such as machines and electronics. Nokia (the mobile company) is originally a company of Finland, named after a small town called Nokia.

Finland has been top of the list of least corrupt countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index more times than any other country.

People and culture
The people of Finland are called Finns. Most Finns speak Finnish as their mother tongue. About six percent of Finns have the Swedish language as their mother tongue. They live mostly in the western part of Finland and on Åland (Finnish Ahvenanmaa)

Finns also study mandatory English and Swedish in school. Most Finns work either in services (that is: shops, banks, offices or businesses) or in factories. Finns often like saunas and nature. Many Finnish families have summer cottages, small houses where they go to relax on their summer holidays. The most important festivals that Finnish people celebrate are Midsummer and Christmas.

The most popular sports in Finland are ice hockey, skiing, track and field and association football (soccer). Finns have also won events in swimming, motor sports and gymnastics.

There is a group of a few thousand Sámis (also called Lapps) in the most northern part of Finland, called Lapland. Most of the Samis live in Norway and Sweden. Many Sami people farm reindeers. Originally, Samis were hunter-gatherers. In the past the Sami were nomads, but nowadays they live in regular houses.

Very few people in Finland are from other countries. In 2016 about 4% of residents were born in another country.

Nature and weather

Most of Finland is covered by pine forest. The swan, which was considered holy long ago, is the national bird of Finland. Wood is the most important natural resource of Finland. It is estimated that up to one-third of all wood resources of the European Union are in Finland.

The national animal of Finland is the brown bear. The largest animal is the elk, a type of moose, which is a member of the deer family.

There are hundreds of rivers and thousands of fresh water lakes. Fishing is a popular sport. It is estimated there are almost 180,000 lakes in Finland.

Many islands in the Baltic Sea belong to Finland, too. Thousands of islands are part of the Åland archipelago. Tourists from all over the world come to see the fells and the northern lights in Lapland.

The highest mountain of Finland is Halti, which is 1328 meters high. The largest lake is Saimaa, 4,400 square kilometres. The longest river of Finland is Tornionjoki. The largest river (by watershed) is Kemijoki, 552 kilometres long.

The weather in Finland varies widely by season. Summer usually lasts from May to early September, and temperatures can reach up to +30 °C. Autumns are dark and rainy. Winter snow usually begins to fall in Helsinki in early December (in Lapland it can fall as early as October) and in the winter the temperature can drop to -40 °C. Highest temperature recorded in Finland is +37,2 °C and lowest temperature is -51,5 °C. Winter usually lasts to mid-March, when the snow melts in Helsinki (in Lapland the snow usually doesn't melt until early May), and Spring lasts till late May. Spring can be erratic, and the weather can change from frost to sunshine within a matter of days. The famed Northern Lights are common in Lapland.

History
People first came to Finland 10,000 years ago. That was just after an ice age, after a glacier that covered the ground had receded.

Some think the first people in Finland already spoke a language similar to the Finnish language that is spoken today. It is known that an early form of the Finnish language was spoken in Finland in the Iron Age. (The Iron Age in Finland was 2,500–800 years ago).

The first residents in Finland hunted animals, as "hunter-gatherers". Some people started to farm crops about 5,200 years ago. Farming slowly became more and more popular and became the major way of life until the modern age.

The ancient Finns were pagans. The most important god of the Finnish pantheon was Ukko. He was a god of sky and thunder, much like Odin, another Scandinavian god-king. These powers were common among the pagan god kings in pantheons ranging from the Finnish Ukko, to the Scandinavian/Germanic/Saxon Odin, all the way east to Zeus of the Greeks and Jupiter of the Romans.

Around a thousand years ago, when most of Europe was adopting Christianity, Finland also began following Christianity. During the Reformation of Christianity in the 16th century, most Finns became Protestants. Some pagan practices still remain amongst the now Christian Finns, such as bear worship.

From the Middle Ages Finland was a part of Sweden. Then, in the year 1809, Russia took Finland from Sweden. Finland was a part of Russia, but after a short period of time it became autonomous. The Finns essentially controlled Finland, though the Tsar was in control officially. Finns could create their own laws and had their own currency, (called the markka), their own stamps and own customs. However, Finland did not have its own army.

During the 1905 Russian Revolution, in the Grand Duchy of Finland:
the Social Democrats organised the general strike of 1905 (). The Red Guards were formed. On , Russian artillerymen and military engineers rose to rebellion in the fortress of Sveaborg (later called Suomenlinna), Helsinki. The Finnish Red Guards supported the Sveaborg Rebellion with a general strike, but the mutiny was quelled by loyal troops and ships of the Baltic Fleet within 60 hours.

After independence
On 6 December 1917, Finland became independent, which meant that it no longer was a part of Russia. There was a communist revolution in Russia and after 1922 Russia was a part of the Soviet Union. There were communists in Finland too, who tried to create a revolution in Finland
This attempt at revolution caused the Finnish civil war. The communists lost the civil war, and Finland did not change its old capitalist system

Stalin, who was the leader of the Soviet Union, did not like having a capitalist country as its neighbour. Stalin wanted Finland to become a communist state and be a part of the Soviet Union. The leaders of Finland refused: they wanted to stay independent. The Soviet Union sent many troops across the eastern border of Finland to try to make Finland join them, which resulted in the Winter War. The Soviet Union eventually won, and took most of Karelia and other parts of Finland.

Adolf Hitler was the dictator of Germany, and he wanted to invade the Soviet Union. Finland wanted to retrieve the areas that it had lost, so they joined the German invasion, which started with Operation Barbarossa in 1941. The Finnish part of the Second World War is called the Continuation War in Finland. However, Finland was not a fascist or an antisemitic country. Finns were interested in freedom rather than dictatorship.

While Germany was losing the war, Finland had already progressed into the Soviet Union in order to regain the areas lost in the previous peace. Finland wanted to end the war with the Soviet Union, which resulted in peace. Once again Finland had to give up the areas they had conquered. This time, the peace with the Soviet Union made Finland and Germany enemies. Finns fought the Germans, and Germans retreated to Norway, burning down all of Lapland behind them. This is called the Lapland War. Finland remained independent.

After the war, many factories were built in Finland. Many people moved from farms to cities. At that time, big factories manufactured products like paper and steel. More and more people worked in more advanced jobs, like high technology. Also, many people went to universities to get a good education. Finland was one of the first countries where most people had Internet connections and mobile phones. A well-known company that makes mobile phones, Nokia, is from Finland.

Finland joined the European Union in 1995. The Finnish currency was changed to the euro in 2002.

Finland joined NATO in 2023, after the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

Economy
Finland has a mixed economy. Free market controls most of production and sales of goods, but public sector is involved in services. In 2013, taxes were 44% of gross national product. This is 4th largest in Europe, after Denmark, France and Belgium.

In 2014 services were 70% of the gross national product.

The largest company in 2014 was oil refinery Neste Oil. The second largest was Nokia. Two forest industries Stora Enso and UPM-Kymmene, were numbers three and four. Number five was Kesko which sells everyday goods in K-supermarkets.

Elections
Elections are organized to select 200 members to the Parliament of Finland. Also selected are the president of Finland, members of town and city councils and Finnish members to the European Parliament. The elections are secret and direct. People vote directly for the person they want to be elected. In presidential elections votes are only cast for a person, not for a political party. All the other elections are proportional. The system is a combination of voting for individuals and parties. The right to vote is universal and equal. In general elections everybody has one vote.

Famous Finnish people

 Alvar Aalto, architect
 Markku Alen, 1978 World Rally Champion
 Valtteri Bottas, current Formula One driver
 The Dudesons, also known as Duudsonit, a four-man stunt group with several TV shows and a movie. Close friends with the Jackass crew
 Akseli Gallen-Kallela, artist
 Marcus Gronholm, 2000/02 World Rally Champion
 Mika Häkkinen, 1998 and 1999 Formula One World Champion
 Tarja Halonen, former President of Finland
 Tuomas Holopainen, founder of the internationally famous band Nightwish
 Sami Hyypiä, football coach; 2005 UEFA Champions League winner
 Juha Kankkunen, 1986/87/91/93 World Rally Champion
 Urho Kekkonen, former President of Finland during the cold war
 Jari Kurri, 5 time Stanley Cup Winner, NHL Hall Of Famer
 Eino Leino, poet
 Elias Lönnrot, compiler of National epic Kalevala
 Jari Litmanen, footballer; 1995 UEFA Champions League winner
 Tommi Makinen, 1996-99 World Rally Champion
 Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, a president and military commander
 Karita Mattila, world famous opera singer, winner of the first Cardiff singer of the world competition
 Hannu Mikkola, 1983 World Rally Champion
 Paavo Nurmi, famous Olympic long-distance runner
 Kimi Räikkönen, 2007 Formula One World Champion
 Keke Rosberg, 1982 Formula One World Champion
 Timo Salonen, 1985 World Rally Champion
 Timo Sarpaneva, famous designer mainly in glass
 Teemu Selanne, 2007 Stanley Cup Winner
 Jean Sibelius, the most important Finnish composer
 Lauri Törni, later known as Larry Thorne, a winner of the Mannerheim Cross during the Continuation War
 Linus Torvalds, the creator of Linux
 Tarja Turunen, former member of the internationally famous band Nightwish
 Ville Valo, Lead Singer songwriter of HIM
 Ari Vatanen, 1981 World Rally Champion
 Tapio Wirkkala, designer and artist

References

Other websites
 History
 Finland Travel Community - Discussion Forum (English)
 Finland -Citizendium

European Union member states
Nordic countries
Members of NATO
1917 establishments in Europe

Finland


Alonzo Church (April 9, 1793 – May 18, 1862) was the sixth president of the University of Georgia (UGA). He served in that capacity from 1829 until his resignation in 1859.

Church was born on April 9, 1793, in Brattleboro, Vermont. He was an 1816 graduate of Middlebury College. He initially joined the UGA faculty as a Professor of Mathematics and served in that capacity for ten years before assuming the presidency.

Although Church served longer than any president of the University, there were numerous clashes with student and faculty during his tenure which resulted in declines in enrollment and faculty upheaval.

During Church's tenure, the following campus buildings were erected: Classroom/Library (Southern half of current Academic Building, 1831), the Chapel (1832), Phi Kappa Hall (1836), Lumpkin House (Rock House, 1844), Lustrat House (1847), Garden Club House (1857) and  The Arch (1858) (funded through sale of the University Botanical Garden for $1,000).

President Church's son, Alonzo Webster Church, was Librarian of the United States Senate. President Church's great-grandson, Alonzo Church, was a renowned Professor of Mathematics; he taught at both Princeton University (his alma mater) and UCLA.

President Church's daughter, Julia, married George Alexander Croom, owner of Casa de Laga Plantation in Tallahassee, Florida, Father of Alonzo Church Croom, Comptroller of the State of Florida from 1900 until his death on December 7, 1912, and brother of Hardy Bryan Croom, a planter and recognized naturalist, who discovered the rare Torreya tree and established Goodwood Plantation.

Death and legacy
Church Street in Athens, Georgia, is named in Church's honor.

References

 History of the University of Georgia, by Thomas Walter Reed, University of Georgia, 1949. (See especially Chapters IV and V.)
 Church, Alonzo, in The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, vol. IX, James T. White & Company, 1899, pp. 180–181.
 Rev. Dr. Alonzo Church in A Standard History of Georgia and Georgians by Lucian Lamar Knight, The Lewis Publishing Company, 1917, vol. V, pp. 2659–2660.
 From Ahmedunggar to Lavonia Presidents at the University of Georgia 1785-1997 , University of Georgia Libraries, Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library
 Alumni Heritage: The Portrait of Dr. Alonzo Church, University of Georgia Alumni Association.
 Famous people of Eatonton and Putnam County, Eatonton-Putnam Chamber of Commerce and Putnam Development Authority.
 Portrait of Alonzo Church from Catalogue of the Officers and Students of Franklin College, University of Georgia, Athens, 1852-53.
 Church-Waddel-Brumby House (built by Church, currently serves as the Athens Welcome Center).
 Homewood (Church's summer residence).

1793 births
1862 deaths
Presidents of the University of Georgia
People from Brattleboro, Vermont
American slave owners

Alonzo Church (college president)


Malawi, a landlocked country in southeastern Africa, is defined by its topography of highlands split by the Great Rift Valley and enormous Lake Malawi. The lake's southern end falls within Lake Malawi National Park – sheltering diverse wildlife from colorful fish to baboons – and its clear waters are popular for diving and boating. Peninsular Cape Maclear is known for its beach resorts.

Malawi


Hitoshi Matsumoto (born September 8, 1963 in Amagasaki Hyōgo) is an Japanese comedian, actor, producer and director. Matsumoto is probably best known for being one-half of the comedy duo, Downtown where he is the boke also with member Masatoshi Hamada who is the tsukkomi. While apart of Downtown, Matsumoto and Hamada made two television shows, Downtown no Gaki no Tsukai ya Arahende!! and Hey! Hey! Hey! Music Champ. He directed, produced and starred in a movie called Big Man Japan. The movie was shown at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival in the Directors' Fortnight section. The movie was nominated in 2007 for "Best Film" at the Sitges - Catalonian International Film Festival and in 2008 for "Best Visual Effects" at the Asian Film Awards. He is married to his wife Ihara Rin and they have a daughter that was born on October 6, 2009.

References

Official website
Hitoshi Matsumoto at the Internet Movie Database

1963 births
Living people
Japanese comedians
Japanese movie actors
Japanese movie directors
Japanese movie producers
Japanese television personalities
Actors from Hyōgo Prefecture

Hitoshi Matsumoto


Folk metal is a type of heavy metal music that started in Europe in the 1990s. This music is a mixture of heavy metal and traditional folk music. Many times, folk instruments are used in it. Sometimes traditional singing styles are also used.

The earliest example of folk metal was the English band Skyclad. Their first album, The Wayward Sons of Mother Earth was made in 1990. In 1994 and 1995 more folk metal bands appeared in Europe and Israel. Some of these early bands were the Irish band Cruachan, the Israeli band Orphaned Land, and the German band Subway to Sally. Each band started to develop their own type of folk metal. These styles became Celtic metal, Oriental metal and Medieval metal.

In the 1990s, folk metal was not well known and there were not many folk metal bands. In the early 2000s, folk metal became a lot more popular. It was very popular in Finland. Some folk metal bands in Finland were Ensiferum, Turisas, Korpiklaani, Finntroll and Moonsorrow.

Different bands play folk metal music in different ways. A lot of different instruments are also used. Many bands have six or more members so they can play many different instruments at the same time. A few bands also use keyboards to make the sound of folk instruments. Lyrics in folk metal are normally about nature, fantasy, mythology and history.

Heavy metal subgenres

Folk metal


Jesse Paine Wolcott (March 3, 1893 – January 28, 1969) was a politician and soldier from the U.S. state of Michigan.

Wolcott was born to William Bradford Wolcott and Lillie Betsy (Paine) Wolcott in Gardner, Massachusetts and attended the common and high schools there. After moving to Michigan, he attended the Detroit Technical Institute and graduated from the Detroit College of Law in 1915. He was admitted to the bar the same year and commenced practice in Detroit. In 1927, he married Grace Sullivan.

During the First World War, Wolcott served overseas as a second lieutenant in a machine gun company of the Twenty-sixth Infantry, First Division, from 1917 to 1919. After the war he settled in Port Huron and resumed the practice of law. He served as assistant police judge of Port Huron in 1921, assistant prosecuting attorney of St. Clair County from 1922 to 1926, and prosecuting attorney from 1927 to 1930.

In 1930, Wolcott defeated incumbent U.S. Representative Louis C. Cramton in the Republican Party primary elections. He went on to win the general election to be elected from Michigan's 7th congressional district to the 72nd United States Congress, and was subsequently re-elected to the twelve succeeding Congresses, serving from March 4, 1931 to January 3, 1957.  He was chairman of the Committee on Banking and Currency in the 80th and 83rd Congresses, and of the Joint Committee on Economic Report in the 83rd Congress. He was not a candidate for re-nomination in 1956.

In 1958, Jesse Wolcott was appointed a director of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation by U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower and served as chairman until January 1964.  He was a Universalist or Congregationalist and a member of American Legion, Veterans of Foreign Wars, Freemasons, Elks, Knights of Pythias, Lions, Moose, and Odd Fellows. He resided in Chevy Chase, Maryland until his death and is interred in Arlington National Cemetery.

References

Jesse P. Wolcott at The Political Graveyard

External links

1893 births
1969 deaths
Detroit College of Law alumni
People from Gardner, Massachusetts
Military personnel from Massachusetts
United States Army personnel of World War I
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan
20th-century American politicians
Chairs of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
Eisenhower administration personnel

Jesse P. Wolcott


Saunt Emma (ca. 975-980 – 3 December 1038) wis a German noblewumman an Christian saunt endue tae her beneficence. Emma wis jaloused tae be fae strynd o the legendar wild Widukind, an her mither wis a wumman cried Adela. Emma hersel wis kent for bein temperamental an pauchtie,  as veeolent an aw. Emma mairiet the sonsefu Coont Ludger an haed a son cried Imad. Her brither, Meinwerk, wis bishop o Paderborn, an Imad wis later bishop o the same see.

Coont Ludger dee'd aboot 1010, an Emma, nou a chynged sowel, gracied the lave o her life tae ser. She wared her fortuin biggin kirks an monasteries in the See o Bremen. Her guid wirks wis legendar. She is conseedert tae hae dee'd c. 1050. Efter her daith, a cultus developed aboot her, an her graff wis opened for translation o her relics efter she wis canonized. Whan the tomb wis opened, her bodie haed mirled tae smurach cept for her richt haund. That relic wis placed in the abbey o Saunt Ludger at Verden.

Her feast day in the Roman Catholic Kirk is 19 Aprile.

970s births
1038 daiths
German coontesses
German Roman Catholic saunts
History o Bremen (ceety)
Fowk frae Lawer Saxony
Fowk frae Bremen
Weemen o medieval Germany
Christian female saunts o the Middle Ages
11t-century Christian saunts
Hoose o Immedinger

Saunt Emma


Songs of Faith and Devotion, Depeche Mode'un sekizinci stüdyo albümü. 22 Mart 1993'te Mute Records etiketiyle yayımlandı.

Track listings
All tracks was writing by Martin Gore.
1. I Feel You - 4:35
2. Walking in My Shoes - 5:35
3. Condemnation - 3:28
4. Mercy in You - 4:20
5. Judas - 5:14
6. In Your Room - 6:26
7. Get Right with Me - 3:32
8. Rush - 4:35
9. One Caress - 3:30
10. Higher Love - 5:58

2006 reedition (Bonus Tracks)
1. My Joy - 3:58
2. Condemnation (Paris Mix) - 3:22
3. Death's Door (Jazz Mix) - 6:38
4. In Your Room (Zephyr Mix) - 4:50
5. I Feel You (Life's Too Short Mix) - 8:35
6. Walking in My Shoes (Grungy Gonads Mix) - 6:24
7. My Joy (Slowslide Mix) - 5:12
8. In Your Room (Apex Mix) - 6:43

Curiosities
1. In the track "Judas" David Gahan with Andy Fletcher are playing the dudes, Martin Gore with Alan Wilder and Andy Fletcher are singing, and Alan Wilder is playing the drums.
2. In the tracks "I Feel You", "Walking in My Shoes", "Condemnation" and "Mercy in You" Alan Wilder is playing the piano.
3. In the track "Condemnation" Martin Gore is playing the organs.
4. In the alomst tracks (without "One Caress") Alan Wilder is playing the drums.
5. In the original version of track "In Your Room" Martin Gore is playing the bass guitar, David Gahan is singing and playing the electric guitar, Alan Wilder is playing the drums and Andy Fletcher is playing the keyboards. In the single version of "In Your Room" (mixed by Butch Vig), David Gahan is playing the piano and singing, Andy Fletcher is playing the keyboard, Martin Gore is playing the bass guitar and Alan Wilder is playing the drums.
6. Single version of "Condemnation" (mixed by Steve Lyon and Depeche Mode) differs from the original version of track.
7. All singles from this album are the first singles that they haven't 12" versions.
8. "One Caress" was singing alone by Martin Gore.
9. "Rush" and "One Caress" were released as a promotional singles.
10. "Mercy in You", "Judas", "One Caress" and "Higher Love" are very dark tracks from this album.
11. "Songs of Faith and Devotion" is the last studio album, which the band recorded with Alan Wilder. Alan Wilder left the band in the time of Devotional Tour, in 1995.

Müzisyenler
1. David Gahan - lead vocals (without "Judas" and "One Caress"), dude ("Judas"), violin ("One Caress"), drum machine (without "Condemnation", "Judas", "In Your Room", "Get Right with Me", "Rush", "One Caress"), electric guitar ("Walking in My Shoes", "Mercy in You", "In Your Room", "Higher Love"), producer
2. Martin Gore - keyboard (all tracks), producer, lead vocals ("Judas", "One Caress"), bass guitar ("Walking in My Shoes", "Mercy in You", "In Your Room", "Higher Love"), electric guitar ("I Feel You", "Get Right with Me", "Rush"), backing vocals ("Walking in My Shoes", "Condemnation", "Mercy in You", "In Your Room", "Higher Love"), violin ("One Caress"), organs ("Condemnation")
3. Alan Wilder - drums (without "One Caress"), backing vocals ("Walking in My Shoes", "Condemnation", "Mercy in You", "Judas", "Get Right with Me", "Rush", "Higher Love"), dude ("Judas"), contrabass ("One Caress"), piano ("I Feel You", "Walking in My Shoes", "Condemnation", "Mercy in You"), producer
4. Andy Fletcher - keyboard (all tracks), backing vocals ("Condemnation", "Mercy in You", "Judas", "Rush", "Higher Love"), producer, violoncello ("One Caress")

Singles
1. I Feel You (Yayımlanma - 15 Şubat 1993)
2. Walking in My Shoes (Yayımlanma - 26 Nisan 1993)
3. Condemnation (Yayımlanma - 13 Eylül 1993)
4. In Your Room (Yayımlanma - 10 Ocak 1994)

1990 albümleri
Depeche Mode albümleri
Sire Records albümleri
Billboard 200'de bir numara olan albümler

Songs of Faith and Devotion


Wichelen is a municipality locatited in the Denderstreek in the Belgian province o East Flanders. The municipality comprises the touns o Schellebelle, Serskamp an Wichelen proper. On January 1, 2006 Wichelen haed a total population o 11,145. The total aurie is 22.87 km² which gives a population density o 487 inhabitants per km².

Municipalities o East Flanders
Wichelen

Wichelen


The National Emblem of Oman () consists of a khanjar dagger in a sheath that is superimposed upon two crossed swords. This is the traditional symbol of Oman. It is found on numerous flags as well as the currency of Oman and on the planes of the Omani Air Force, among other locations.

National symbols of Oman
Oman

Coat of arms of Oman


A ticket is a piece of printed paper that gives you the right to enter somewhere or do something. Tickets are often used as proof that you have paid for public transport, theaters, cinemas or sporting events. Tickets often display printed information like serial number, barcode, price, expiry date, seat number and class of ticket.

Sometimes, you have to take a ticket, such as at the start of a toll road, to help calculate how much you should pay the at end of your journey. Some tickets are becoming electronic barcodes, and are displayed on a screen instead of paper.

Basic English 850 words
Everyday life

Ticket (admission)


Elizabeth Ann Bayley Seton (August 28, 1774 – January 4, 1821) was the first native-born citizen of the United States to be made a saint by the Roman Catholic Church. She was canonized on September 14, 1975.

Seton started the first Catholic school in the country. This school was at Emmitsburg, Maryland. She also founded the first American congregation of religious sisters. It is called the Sisters of Charity.

Life

Elizabeth Ann Bayley was born on August 28, 1774. She was the second child of Dr. Richard Bayley and Catherine Charlton of New York City. They were Protestants.

On January 25, 1794, at age 19, Elizabeth married William Magee Seton, aged 25. He was a wealthy businessman. They had five children. William Seton brought the first Stradivarius violin to America.

Seton's husband died in Italy on December 27, 1803. Seton learned about Roman Catholicism in Italy. After she came back to the United States, she joined the Catholic Church. She was received on March 14, 1805 by the Rev. Matthew O'Brien, pastor of St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church, New York.

In 1809, Seton moved to Emmitsburg, Maryland. A year later she started the Saint Joseph's Academy and Free School. That school was dedicated to the education of Catholic girls.

On July 31, Elizabeth established a religious community in Emmitsburg. This community took care of poor children. This was the first congregation of religious sisters to be founded in the United States. Its school was the first free Catholic school in America. This was the start of the Catholic parochial school system in the United States.

Seton spent the rest of her life developing her religious community. She died of tuberculosis on January 4, 1821. She was 46. Her remains are in the National Shrine of Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton in Emmitsburg, Maryland.

References

People from New York City
Christian saints
1774 births
1821 deaths

Elizabeth Ann Seton


Peter Gowan (15 Januari 1946, Glasgow – 12 Juni 2009) adalah dosen hubungan internasional di London Metropolitan University, aktivis, penulis, dan pembicara asal Britania Raya. Ia adalah anggota dewan redaksi New Left Review dan salah satu pendiri Labour Focus on Eastern Europe. Ia meninggal dunia tanggal 12 Juni 2009 pada usia 63 tahun setelah menderita mesotelioma peritoneum, penyakit yang disebabkan asbestos.

Karya

Buku
 A Calculus of Power: Grand Strategy in the Twenty-First Century (Verso 2010)
 The Search for Order: Historical Reflections on the Crisis of Grand Strategies (Verso 2008)
 The Twisted Road to Kosovo  (Manifest, Stockholm, 2000)
 The Global Gamble: Washington's Faustian Bid for World Dominance (Verso, 1999)
 Crisis East and West: Must it be Global Barbarism? (Spokesman Books 1997)
 The Question of Europe - Peter Gowan; Perry Anderson (eds) (Verso 1997)
 European Union Policy Towards the Visegrad States (London Metropolitan University 1996)

Artikel
 Friedrich Von Hayek and the Construction of a Neoliberal Europe  in ContreTemps , No. 4, Feb 2011
 'Crisis in the Heartland' in New Left Review, 55, January–February 2009
 'Twilight of the NPT?' in New Left Review, 52, July–August 2008
 'War in the Contest for a New World Order' (unpublished paper 2007)
 'A Radical Realist' in New Left Review, 41, September–October 2006
 'America, Capitalism, and the Interstate System' in Critical Asian Studies Volume 37, No. 3 (2005)
 A Salutary Shock for Bien Pensant Europe in Radical Philosophy, 133, September/October 2005
 'PAX EUROPÆA' in New Left Review, 34, July–August 2005
 'Economics and Politics within the Capitalist Core and the Debate on the New Imperialism'  (unpublished paper 2005)
 'Peter Gowan and the Capitalist World Empire' (text by Peter Gowan plus additional comments by four other contributors) in Journal of World-Systems Research, Vol 10, No. 2, pp. 471–539 (Summer 2004).
 'American Lebensraum' in New Left Review, 30, November–December 2004
 'Europe and the New Imperialism' in Labour Focus on Eastern Europe, No 75'76, pp. 113–141, (Summer-Autumn 2004)
 'Triumphing towards International Disaster: The Impasse in American Grand Strategy' in Critical Asian Studies Volume 36, No. 1 (2004)
 'The Concept of Empire Today' in Temas, Cultura, Ideologia, Sociedad, Numero 34, 2004 (Cuba, 2004)
 'An Empire as "Superstructure"' in Security Dialogue, 35, 2, June 2004 (International Peace Research Institute Oslo, 2004)
 'US:UN' in New Left Review, 24, November–December 2003
 'US Hegemony Today' in Monthly Review, July–August, 2003
 'Cooperation and Conflict in Transatlantic Relations After the Cold War', in Interventions International Journal of Postcolonial Studies, Vol. 5, No.2, 2003.
 'Instruments of Empire' in New Left Review, 21, May–June 2003.
 'The New American Century?' in The Spokesman No. 76 (2002)
 '11 September, American Grand Strategy and World Politics' in Recherches Internationales, no. 66, (2002)
 'After Kosovo: Unanswered Questions' in Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans. Winter edn., 2002
 'A Calculus of Power' in New Left Review, 16, July–August, 2002
 'Book review - The Global Political Economy and Post-1989 Change' in The American Political Science Review, Vol. 96, No. 2 June 2002
 'After America?' in New Left Review, 13, January–February 2002
 'American Global Government: Will It Work?' in Current Marx, 2002
 'Neoliberal Cosmopolitanism' in New Left Review, 11, September–October 2001
 'The Origins of Atlantic Liberalism' in New Left Review, 8, March–April 2001
 'Explaining the American Boom: The Roles of Globalisation and US Global Power' in New Political Economy, Vol. 6, No. 3, 2001
 'The New Liberal Cosmopolitanism' IWM Working Paper, No. 2/2000: Vienna
 'A Spanish Singleton' in New Left Review, 6, November–December 2000
 'Placing Serbia in Context' in Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans Volume 1, Issue 2, November 1999
 'The Twilight of the European Project' in CounterPunch, June 1999
 'The NATO Powers and the Balkan Tragedy' in New Left Review, I/234, March–April 1999
 'Communists and Workers in Ex-Communist Europe' in Monthly Review, May, 1998
 'EU Eastwards Enlargement: the Uncertainties Remain'  in Labour Focus on Eastern Europe, No. 59, 1998
 'The Dynamics of European Enlargement'  in Labour Focus on Eastern Europe, No. 56, 1997
 'Eastern Europe, Western Power and Neo-Liberalism' in New Left Review, I/216, March–April 1996
 'Neo-Liberal Theory and Practice for Eastern Europe' in New Left Review, I/213, September–October 1995
 'The Return of Carl Schmitt' in Debatte: Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe, Vol 2, Issue 1, 1994
 'Old Medicine, New Bottles: Western Policy Toward East Central Europe' in World Policy Journal, Vol. 9, No. 1, Winter, 1991/1992
 'The Gulf War, Iraq and Western Liberalism' in New Left Review, I/187, May–June 1991
 'Western Economic Diplomacy and the New Eastern Europe' in New Left Review, I/182, July–August 1990
 'The Origins of the Administrative Elite' in New Left Review, I/162, March–April 1987
 'The Polish Vortex: Solidarity and Socialism' in New Left Review, I/139, May–June 1983 (writing as Oliver MacDonald)
 'The Third Round In Poland' in New Left Review, I/101-102, January–April 1977 (writing as Peter Green)

Bab buku
 'Industrial Development And International Political Conflict In Contemporary Capitalism' in Alexander Anievas (ed) Marxism and World Politics: Contesting Global Capitalism (Routledge 2010)
 'Crisis in the Heartland' in Martijn Konings (ed) The Great Credit Crash (Verso 2010)
 'American Primacy and Europeanist Responses' in Nam-Kook Kim (ed) Globalization and Regional Integration in Europe and Asia (Ashgate Publishing Limited 2009)
 'Global Economy' in Michael Cox, Doug Stokes (eds) US foreign policy (Oxford University Press, USA 2008)
 'World Market, State System and World Order Question' in International Conference Kapitalismus Reloaded (ed) Kapitalismus Reloaded: Controversy to Imperialism, Empire and Hegemony (VSA 2007)
 'The Trans-Atlantic Conflict over Primacy' in Faruk Tabak (ed) Allies As Rivals: The U.S., Europe, and Japan in a Changing World-System (Paradigm Publishers 2007)
 'Contemporary IntraCore Relations and World-Systems Theory' in Christopher Chase-Dunn, Salvatore J. Babones (eds) Global Social Change: Historical and Comparative Perspectives (Johns Hopkins University Press 2006)
 'The Bush Turn and The Drive for Primacy' in Alejandro Colás and Richard Saull (eds) The War on Terror and the American 'Empire' after the Cold War (Routledge 2006)
 'US Hegemeny Today' in Bellamy Foster, J., and Mcchesney R.W. (eds) Pox Americana: Exposing the American Empire (Monthly Review Press, 2004)
 'The Transatlantic Impasse' in Tariq Faruk (ed) A New Era of Triadic Conflict (Georgetown University, 2004)
 'The New Liberal Cosmopolitanism' in Daniele Archibugi (ed) Debating Cosmopolitics (Verso, 2003)
 'The American Campaign for Global Sovereignty' in Leo Panitch & Colin Leys (eds) Socialist Register 2003: Fighting Identities (Merlin, 2002)
 'The EU and the East: Diversity without Unity?' in M. Newman, S. Fella and M. Farrell (eds) European Integration, Unity and Diversity (Sage, 2002)
 'World System Theory and Contemporary Intra-Core Relations' in A. Fisun and T. Zhurzhenko (eds) World-System Theory and Contemporary Global Transformations (Kharkiv University Press, 2002)
 'The War and its Aftermath' in Philip Hammond, Edward S. Herman (eds) Degraded Capability: The Media and the Kosovo Crisis (Pluto Press 2000)
 'Making Sense of NATO's War on Yugoslavia' in Leo Panitch & Colin Leys (eds) Socialist Register 2000: Necessary and Unnecessary Utopias (Merlin, 1999)
 'The Euro-Atlantic Origins of NATO's attack on Yugoslavia' in Tariq Ali (ed) Masters of the Universe: Nato's Balkan Crusade (Verso 2000)
 'Passages of the Russian and Eastern Europe Left' in Leo Panitch & Colin Leys (eds) Socialist Register 1998: Communist Manifesto Now (Merlin, 1998)
 'British Euro-Solipsism' in P. Gowan, P. Anderson (eds) The Question of Europe (Verso, 1997)
 'The Post-Communist Socialists in Eastern and Central Europe' in D. Sassoon (ed) Looking Left: European Socialism After the Cold War (I.b. Tauris, 1997)
 'Poland's Transition from State Socialism to Capitalism' in Gerd Nonneman (ed) Political and Economic Liberalization: Dynamics and Linkages in Comparative Perspective (Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996)

Wawancara dan diskusi
 Peter Gowan - The Ways of the World Interview with Mike Newman and Marko Bojcun, New Left Review 59, September–October 2009
 Peter Gowan on U.S. financial crisis Interview with This is Hell!, 2009
 Peter Gowan on U.S. foreign policy since 1945 Interview with Against the Grain, 2009
 Turbulence in the Imperial Dollar system , speech, October 2007
 Universidad Nómada 2007 Conference, Peter Gowan Talks
 The Abduction of Europa  Interview with Minerva, February 2006
 America's Global Gamble Interview with International Viewpoint, April 2002
 The State, Globalisation and the New Imperialism: A Roundtable Discussion , July 2001
 Russia and Chechnya, Interview with Democracy Now, January 2000
 Which class rules in the USSR? A debate on the character of the Soviet Union, August 1989 (as Oliver MacDonald)

Referensi

Pranala luar
 Peter Gowan Obituary, The Guardian
 London Metropolitan University Obituary
 Transnational Institute - Peter Gowan: In Memoriam
 Peter Gowan Obituary Debatte Journal
 Death of a comrade – Peter Gowan: 1946–2009
 Marx Site - An Appreciation
 Obituary - Peter Gowan (1946-2009)
 Peter Gowan, author of The Global Gamble Obituary
 Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies Editorial on Peter Gowan
 Peter Gowan, Marxism and Geopolitics by Stathis Kouvelakis
 Peter Gowan's Theorization of the Forms and Contradictions of US Supremacy: A Critical Assessment
 An appreciation of Peter Gowan's contribution to the field of International Political Economy
 The Peter Gowan Prize

Marxis Britania Raya
Anggota International Marxist Group
Ilmuwan hubungan internasional
Trotskyis Britania Raya
Kelahiran 1946
Kematian 2009
Akademisi London Metropolitan University
Alumni Universitas Southampton
Penulis tentang globalisasi

Peter Gowan


Solid bleached board (SBB) or solid bleached sulphate (SBS) is a virgin fibre grade of paperboard.

This grade is made purely from bleached chemical pulp and usually has a mineral or synthetic pigment coated top surface in one or more layers (C1S) and often also a coating on the reverse side (C2S). It is a medium density board with good printing properties for graphical and packaging end uses and is perfectly white both inside and out. It can easily be cut, creased, hot foil stamped and embossed. Its other properties, such as being hygienic and pure with no smell and taste, make it usable for packaging aroma and flavour sensitive products such as chocolate, cigarettes and cosmetics.

See also
Folding boxboard
Solid unbleached board
White lined chipboard

References

 Brody, A. L., and Marsh, K, S., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 1997,
 Soroka, W, "Fundamentals of Packaging Technology", IoPP, 2002,

Paperboard
Coated paper
Paper

Solid bleached board


Jonathan "John" Silver (born 1950) was the second drummer for the English rock band Genesis. He replaced Chris Stewart in the summer of 1968. Silver left the band in August 1969. He was replaced by John Mayhew. Silver appears on the band's first full length album, From Genesis to Revelation and on the Genesis Archive 1967-75 box set.

Silver lives in London with his wife, Lucy, and children, Leo, Max, and Libby.

1950 births
Living people
English drummers
Genesis members

John Silver


The Chowchilla River is a river in central California, United States and a minor tributary of the San Joaquin River. It flows for  from the western side of the Sierra Nevada Range to the San Joaquin River system in the San Joaquin Valley.

Most of the lower half of the river forms the border between Merced and Madera County.

Course
The river begins as three separate forks in southern Mariposa County.

West Fork
The West Fork (officially known as West Fork Chowchilla River) is formed by the confluence of Jones Creek and Snow Creek, north of the town of Bootjack, California. It flows roughly south from Bootjack, receiving Pegleg Creek, Humbug Creek, Italian Creek and Blade Creek before converging with the Middle Fork.

Middle Fork
The Middle Fork (officially known as Middle Fork Chowchilla River) is formed by the confluence of Magoon Creek and Fox Creek, on the east side of Magoon Hill in the Sierra Nevada. It flows roughly south along the west side of Stumpfield Mountain, receiving a few unnamed tributaries, before converging with the West Fork.

East Fork
The East Fork (officially known as East Fork Chowchilla River) is the longest of the three forks and is formed by the confluence of several small, unnamed streams on the south side of Chowchilla Mountain, in the Sierra National Forest. It flows roughly south past the locality of Harris Ranch, receiving Oliver Creek and several other small, unnamed tributaries along the way. It converges with the West Fork south of Bailey Flats, and a few miles south of where the Middle and West Forks converge.

Main river
The Chowchilla River begins in name at the point where the West and East forks converge and flows southwest to Eastman Lake.  The lake, which holds  of water from the Chowchilla, was created in 1975 by the construction of Buchanan Dam, an earth and rockfill structure which is .  The lake and dam's primary purpose is flood control and irrigation.  In the summer months, Eastman Lake is a popular boating, fishing, camping and hiking destination for residents of the Madera and Chowchilla areas.

Below Eastman Lake, the river continues roughly west, past the City of Chowchilla, to the San Joaquin River System.

Lower river
Seven miles downstream of Eastman Lake, the Chowchilla's water is diverted into both the Berenda and Ash sloughs, with excess water continuing down the main river channel.  The river flows west-southwest for most of the rest of the journey before flowing west in the last few miles.  The last  of the river doubles as an irrigation canal for farms located along its banks.

The main river channel ends abruptly about  east of the San Joaquin River. The river has never had a defined natural outlet to the San Joaquin, as evidenced by the fact that the riverbed shrinks considerably in size as it travels west. A natural outlet never existed because the river only has a seasonal flow, and natural water flow would normally dry up before it had a chance to reach the San Joaquin. In rare years of torrential rains, there would still be water in the river at the end of the riverbed, at which point the water would simply flood the area past the end of the riverbed. Those floodwaters would eventually find their way into the San Joaquin River.

As part of the Lower San Joaquin River Flood Control Project, a diversion canal was built to connect the end of the riverbed with the Eastside Bypass, allowing the Chowchilla's water a controlled outlet to the San Joaquin River during years of heavy rains.

The Chowchilla River serves at the outlet of the Madera Canal.

Tributaries
In addition to many small unnamed streams, the Chowchilla River receives the water from the following streams:
Rock Creek
Willow Creek
Split Rock Creek
Cow Creek

Towns
Towns along the Chowchilla River include:
Harris Ranch (Unincorporated)
Bootjack (Unincorporated)
Raymond (Unincorporated)
Chowchilla

Crossings
There are numerous crossings over the Chowchilla River in Madera and Merced Counties.  Crossings are listed here beginning at the source and working downstream:
Madera County above Eastman Lake
Bailey Flats Road
Green Mountain Road
Madera County below Eastman Lake
Eastman Lake Park Access Road
Santa Fe Drive
Santa Fe Railroad next to Santa Fe Drive crossing
Road 19
Road 15
State Route 99
Road 13
Avenue 26
Road 11
Hemlock Road
Road 8
Avenue 25
Road 5½
Road 5
Merced County
South Orchard Way
State Route 59

See also
List of rivers of California

References

External links
Wildernet - Eastman Lake
San Joaquin River White Paper

Rivers of the Sierra Nevada (United States)
Tributaries of the San Joaquin River
Rivers of Mariposa County, California
Rivers of Madera County, California
Rivers of Merced County, California
Geography of the San Joaquin Valley
Central Valley Project
Chowchilla, California
Rivers of Northern California
Rivers of the Sierra Nevada in California

Chowchilla River


A virtuoso is someone (usually in the performing arts) who is an expert in his or her field.

A musical virtuoso is one who plays a musical instrument very well.  Musicians who have exceptional talent and can play extremely fast and difficult music are "virtuosi" (plural of "virtuoso").  In the 19th century Niccolò Paganini was a virtuoso violinist as well as a composer.  Franz Liszt was a virtuoso pianist and composer.

Musicians may sometimes talk about "virtuoso music" meaning music which is so difficult that only a virtuoso could play it.

References

Music
Performing arts

Virtuoso


Niflheim is the world of frost and cold of Norse Mythology. Frost Giants live there. The river Hvergelmir also is there. Yggdrasil has one of its roots in the spring of the river. The serpent Nidhogg gnaws at this root.

Niflheim is ruled by the Giantess Angrboda.

Places in Norse mythology

Niflheim


"Amazing Grace" is a poem written in 1772 by Englishman John Newton. The poem named, "Faith's Review and Expectation", was where the song came from. It was set to music. A seventh stanza, by an unknown author, has been added to most versions since 1829, beginning with the words, "When we've been there ten thousand years". In some versions, stanzas five and six to the song are cut and go directly to the seventh.

John Newton and the lyrics to Amazing Grace
Amazing Grace

Amazing grace, how sweet the sound
   That sav'd a wretch like me!
I once was lost, but now am found,
   Was blind, but now I see.

'Twas grace that taught my heart to fear,
   And grace my fears reliev'd;
How precious did that grace appear,
   The hour I first believ'd!

Thro' many dangers, toils and snares,
   I have already come;
'Tis grace has brought me safe thus far,
   And grace will lead me home.

The Lord has promis'd good to me,
   His word my hope secures;
He will my shield and portion be,
   As long as life endures.

Yes, when this flesh and heart shall fail,
   And mortal life shall cease;
I shall possess, within the veil,
   A life of joy and peace.

The earth shall soon dissolve like snow,
   The sun forbear to shine;
But God, who call'd me here below,
   Will be forever mine.

           (Anonymous 1829 addition:)
When we've been there ten thousand years,
   Bright shining as the sun,
We've no less days to sing God's praise
   Than when we'd first begun.

Christian hymns
18th-century British poems
1772
1770s works

Amazing Grace


Rock & Roll Jeopardy! was a music-themed television game show. It ran from August 8, 1998 to May 12, 2001 on VH1. It was hosted by Jeff Probst. It was a spin-off of the game show Jeopardy!.

Gameplay

Rock & Roll Jeopardy! played the same as Jeopardy!. All of the questions were music-themed. Dollar amounts were $100-$500 in the Jeopardy! round and $200-$1000 in the Double Jeopardy! round. The winner kept their winnings, with a minimum of $5,000. The other players won parting gifts. For the first two seasons, players played for points, and the winner won $5,000. Unlike Jeopardy!, there were no returning champions.

Music

The Jeopardy! main theme and think music that plays during Final Jeopardy! were remixed to fit the show's premise. The main theme of this show is currently heard on Jeopardy! during special tournaments.

Jeopardy!
1998 television series debuts
2001 television series endings

Rock & Roll Jeopardy!


Sediment is a naiturally occurring material that is broken doun bi processes o watherin an erosion, an is subsequently transportit bi the action o wind, watter, or ice, an/or bi the force o gravity actin on the pairticle itself.

Sediments are maist eften transportit bi watter (fluvial processes), wind (aeolian processes) an glaciers.  Beach sands an river channel deposits are ensaumples o fluvial transport an deposeetion, tho sediment an aa eften settles oot o slow-movin or staundin watter in lochs an oceans. Desert saund dunes an loess are ensaumples o aeolian transport an deposeetion.  Glacial moraine deposits an till are ice-transportit sediments.

Sediments
Sedimentology
Environmental soil science
Petrology

Sediment


Chain stores are retail stores which share a brand and central management, usually with standardized business methods and practices. They may all have the same owners or may be franchised. Many restaurants are also chains.

Related pages

 List of supermarkets, contains a number of chain stores

Business organizations

Chain store


Beverley Gail Allitt (born 4 October 1968) is an Inglis nourice an serial killer who wis convictit o murtherin fower childer, attemptin tae murther three ither childer, an causin grievous bodily harm tae a further sax childer. The creemes wur committit ower a period o 59 days atween Februar an Aprile 1991 in the childer's waird at Grantham and Kesteven Hospital, Lincolnshire, whaur Allitt wis employed as a State Enrolled Nurse. She admeenistered lairge doses o insulin tae at least twa victims an a lairge air bubble wis foond in the body o anither, but polis wur unable tae establish hou aw the attacks wur carriet oot. In Mey 1993, at Nottingham Crown Court, she receivit 13 life sentences for the creemes. Mr. Juistice Latham, sentencin, tauld Allitt that she wis "a serious danger" tae ithers an wis unlikely iver tae be considered safe enough tae be released. She is detained at Rampton Secure Hospital in Nottinghamshire.

Victims
Liam Taylor (seiven weeks auld) – wis admittit tae the waird for a chest infection an wis murthert on 21 Februar 1991.
Timothy Hardwick (eleiven year auld) – a boy wi cerebral palsy who wis admittit tae the waird efter haein an epileptic seizur. He wis murthert on 5 Mairch 1991.
Kayley Desmond (than ane year auld) – admittit tae the waird for a chest infection. Allitt attemptit tae murther her on 8 Mairch 1991 but the bairn wis resuscitatit an transferred tae anither hospital, whaur she recovered.
Paul Crampton (than five month auld) – admittit tae the waird for a chest infection on 20 Mairch 1991. Allitt attemptit tae murther him wi an insulin owerdose on three occasions the day afore he wis transferred tae anither hospital, whaur he recovered.
Bradley Gibson (than five year auld) – admittit tae the waird for pneumonia. He suffered twa cardiac arrests on 21 Mairch 1991, due tae Allitt's admeenisterin insulin owerdoses, afore he wis transferred tae anither hospital, whaur he recovered.
Yik Hung Chan (kent as Henry an aw, than twa year auld) – admittit tae the waird follaein a faw on 21 Mairch 1991. He suffered an oxygen desaturation attack afore he wis transferred tae anither hospital, whaur he recovered.
Becky Phillips (twaw months auld) – admittit tae the waird for gastroenteritis on 1 Aprile 1991. She wis admeenistered an insulin owerdose bi Allitt an dee'd at hame twa days later.
Katie Phillips (than twa month auld) – Becky's twin wis admittit tae the waird as a precaution follaein the daith o her sister. She haed tae be resuscitatit twice efter unexplained apnoeic episodes (which wur later foond tae be caused bi insulin an potassium owerdoses). Follaein the seicont time that she stoppit braithin, she wis transferred tae anither hospital but, bi this time, haed suffered permanent brain damage, pairtial paralysis an pairtial blindness due tae oxygen deprivation. Her parents haed been sae grateful tae Allitt's care o Becky that thay haed askit her tae be Katie's godmither. In 1999 Katie wis awairdit £2.125 million, bi Lincolnshire Health Authority, tae pey for treatment an equipment for the rest o her life. Lincolnshire Health Authority did no accept liability, but did acknawledge that Katie wis entitled tae compensation.
Claire Peck (fifteen months auld) – admittit tae the waird follaein an asthma attack on 22 Aprile 1991. Efter bein put on a ventilator, she wis left alane in Allitt's care for a short interval durin which time she haed a cardiac arrest. She wis resuscitatit but dee'd efter a seicont cardiac arrest, again follaein a period when she wis left alane wi Allitt.

Trial an impreesonment
Allitt haed attackit thirteen childer, fower fatally, ower a 59 day period afore she wis brocht up on chairges for her creemes. It wis anerlie follaein the daith o Claire Peck that medical staff became suspicious o the nummer o cardiac arrests on the childer's waird an polis wur cried in. It wis foond that Allitt wis the anerlie nourice on duty for aw the attacks on the childer an she haed access tae the drogs an aw.

Fower o Allitt's victims haed dee'd. She wis chairgit wi attemptit murther an grievous bodily harm in November 1991. On Friday 28 Mey 1993 she wis foond guilty on each chairge an sentencit tae 13 concurrent terms o life impreesonment, which she is servin at Rampton Secure Hospital in Nottinghamshire.

Allitt's trial judge recommendit she serve a minimum term o 40 years (ane o the langest minimum terms iver suggestit bi a trial judge, Heich Court judge or politeecian), which wad keep her in preeson till at least 2032 an the age o 64, an even then she coud be released anerlie if she wis nae langer considered tae be a danger tae the public. In August 2006, Allitt launched an appeal on the lenth o her sentence. On 6 December 2007, the Heich Court ruled that Allitt wad hae tae serve at least 30 years in preeson, meanin she will nou hae tae wait till at least 2022 an the age o 54 till she can apply for parole.

Allitt's motives hae niver been fully explained. Accordin tae ane theory, she showed symptoms o factitious disorder, kent as Münchausen syndrome an aw. Münchausen syndrome bi proxy, kent as factitious disorder bi proxy an aw mey expleen her actions. This controversial disorder is describit as involvin a pattern o abius in which a perpetrator ascribes tae, or pheesically falsifees illnesses in someane unner thair care tae attract attention.

In popular cultur
In 2005, the BBC made a dramatisation o the story, "Angel of Death", in which Charlie Brooks played the role o Allitt.

In 2008, the Beverley Allitt story wis tauld as pairt o the production company Title Role's recreation documentaries, "Crimes That Shook Great Britain" in its awn episode, wi a young Lexi Wolfe playin Allitt.

References

1968 births
Livin fowk
1991 in Ingland
1993 in Ingland
Murther in 1991
Inglis female murtherers
Inglis murtherers o childer
Inglis nourices
Inglis fowk convictit o murther
Inglis prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Inglis serial killers
Female serial killers
Halth care profeesionals convictit o murtherin patients
Nourices convictit o killin patients
Fowk convictit o murther bi Ingland an Wales
Fowk frae South Kesteven
Fowk wi factitious disorders
Place o birth missin (livin fowk)
Preesoners sentencit tae life impreesonment bi Ingland an Wales

Beverley Allitt


Flyte is a 2006 children's novel by Angie Sage and the second book in the Septimus Heap series. The book's cover was modelled after the in-story book: How to Survive Dragon Fostering: A Practykal Guide with the Flyte Charm lying on top. Flyte was released in March 2006 through HarperCollins and Bloomsbury Publishing.

Plot
The book begins with a "fair haired" boy rowing a canoe to the place where Necromancer DomDaniel drowned, along with his ship. His skeleton climbs into the canoe, while the fair haired boy thinks about exacting his revenge on all the people who underestimated him. He thinks that they'll be sorry, especially when he becomes the ExtraOrdinary Wizard.
Septimus Heap has become the apprentice to Marcia Overstrand, the ExtraOrdinary Wizard, and a year has gone by. Septimus's older brother, Simon, had run away after an argument between him and Sarah and Silas Heap about Septimus, who Simon dislikes. He comes back and kidnaps Jenna on his horse, Thunder. Septimus goes to search for her and he is assisted in his search by his brother Nicko, who helps build boats at Jannit Maarten's boatyard. Along the way, Septimus meets his old friend Boy 409 from the young army, who went missing before the events of Book 1. He is now called Wolf Boy. Jenna runs away from Simon's observatory in The Badlands and makes her way towards The Port. Eventually Septimus is able to rescue Jenna with his elder brother Nicko's help from the Port but they are tracked by Sleuth, Simon's tracking ball.

They make their way to the Marram Marshes where they take the Dragon-Boat from Aunt Zelda's cottage and fly her to the Castle. However, they are pursued by Simon, who used a Flyte Charm to fly in the sky. Simon drops a huge Thunderflash on the Dragon-Boat's wing and it drops over Jannit Marten's Boatyard. Septimus, Jenna, and Aunt Zelda are able to revive her through the Transubstantiation Triple spell.

Septimus is also in search of the long lost Flyte charm. He finds the separated charm and unites it along with the small pair-of-wings Flyte charm that Marcia had given him as a token for his apprenticeship. Eventually he is able to fly and even warns Simon never to harm Jenna again. Also, the rock that Jenna gave him at Aunt Zelda's cottage turns out to be the egg of a dragon and eventually it hatches. Septimus absolutely adores the dragon and names him Spit Fyre. The dragon, based on the seeing-is-believing basis, identifies Marcia as his mother after yelling at him on the dragon launch pad.

Septimus rescues Marcia by identifying the shadow that has been trailing her. He also finds out that the ShadowSafe Marcia is developing contains, unbeknownst to her, the bones of the dead Necromancer, DomDaniel, which, once reassembled, tries to kill Marcia. With Septimus's help, Marcia is able to Identify him and he is once again destroyed.

Characters

Other characters
Marcia Overstrand: The current ExtraOrdinary Wizard. An extremely powerful wizard, Marcia is known for her short tempers and ambition. She has Septimus as her apprentice.
Alther Mella: The ex-ExtraOrdinary Wizard whose ghost now helps Septimus to look for Jenna and also gives advice to Marcia.
DomDaniel: Ex-ExtraOrdinary wizard and Necromancer. DomDaniel was destroyed by Marcia in Magyk, but his bones were placed in Marcia's ShadowSafe to make a Placement on her.
Billy Pot: The Palace gardener who is also the inventor of the Contraption- a machine used as a lawn mower.
Ellis Crackle: Once an apprentice to DomDaniel. DomDaniel Reduced him into a Shadow.
Hugh Fox: The Chief Hermetic Scribe at Manuscriptorium. He has had secret dealings with Simon Heap. He is the one who gave Simon the half of the Flyte with Simon Heap.
Merrin Meredith: He thought he was Septimus Heap. He was once an apprentice to and then later Consumed by Necromancer DomDaniel. But Aunt Zelda saved him from being gone forever. He was apprenticed to Simon Heap near the end of the book.
Morwenna Mould: Current Witch Mother of the Wendron Witch Forest Coven. Saved from a pack of wolverine by Silas.
Nurse Meredith: The landlady of the Doll House after Florrie Bundy, the old landlady, drowned in a drain after having a Shrink Spell done on her by Linda, one of the witches in the Port Witch Coven. She was the Matron Midwife who snatched Septimus Heap from Sarah for DomDaniel.
Lucy Gringe: She is in love with Simon Heap, and often fights with her parents about it, as they despise all Heaps.
Professor Weasal Van Klampff: The professor in charge of constructing the Shadow Safe.
Sleuth: The faithful servant to Simon Heap.  He used to be a bald, old tennis ball in a dumpster, but then Simon dug him out and enchanted him, making him a tracker ball.
Stanley: Once a message rat, he is now employed in the Secret Rat Service. He is sent to find Jenna when she is kidnapped.
Una Brakket: Weasal Van Klampff's grumpy housekeeper.
Gringe: Gate keeper, Lucy's father
Rupert Gringe: Gringe's son who works Jannit Martin's Boatyard
Sally Mullin: Dock side cafe owner, and Sarah Heap's best friend
Wolf Boy: Also called Boy 409, Wolf Boy was Septimus' best friend in the Young Army.

Dragons
Spit Fyre: A young green dragon that hatches from a green rock that Jenna, the Queenling, had given Septimus. Spit Fyre is able to breathe Fyre and he has had his FirstFlyte with Septimus and Jenna, the Navigator. Spit Fyre seems to be a fun loving and very clumsy dragon. He loves to eat.
The Dragon Boat: A half-dragon, half-boat is stolen by all the bad guys in the kingdom. Many years ago, the dragon's master, Hotep-Ra, was fleeing from people who wanted to dispose of him. The dragon made the once-in-a-lifetime Transformation into a boat to save her master. She is permanently a boat. Jenna must visit her once a year on Mid-Summer's Day, the time when the dragon's magic is the strongest.

Reception
Critical reception for the book was positive, with the School Library Journal giving positive reviews for the print book and its audio version. The Toronto Star gave a positive review for Flyte, saying that it "soars past Magyk".

References

External links
Official Septimus Heap site

2006 British novels
British fantasy novels
British children's novels
Children's fantasy novels
Septimus Heap books
Novels by Angie Sage
HarperCollins books
2006 children's books
2006 fantasy novels

Flyte


The Geo Metro was a car sold by Chevrolet from 1989 to 2001. The Metro was made by Suzuki and sold at Chevrolet dealerships. The Metro was the twin car of the similar Suzuki Cultus, with only minor differences in grilles and interior.  The other names for this car were the Chevrolet Sprint, Suzuki Swift, and Pontiac Firefly. From 1989-1997 the Metro was offered as a convertible, sedan and three-door/five-door hatchback. In 1997 the car was absorbed into the Chevrolet brand along with its Geo siblings. From 1998-2001 it was sold under Chevrolet as a three-door hatchback and a sedan. In 2001 the Metro was reduced strictly to rental and fleet status. The Metro was discontinued after 2001. Only to be replaced by the Chevrolet Aveo (derived from the Daewoo Kalos, a Korean model) in 2004. It had the best fuel economy of any gasoline vehicle in the US, with 41 MPG.

1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
Chevrolet automobiles
Suzuki automobiles

Geo Metro


Norman Finkelstein is a Professor o Poleetical science an a gey controversial feegur in regairds tae the state o Israel. He hissel is the wean o Holocaust survivors, an haes statit on mair nor ain occasion hou serious he regards holocaust denial. Maugre o this, an bein Jewish, he haes been accuised o anti-semetism follaein his creeticism o Israeli policy an offeecial history. In beuks sic as the ane cried "Beyond Chutzpah: On the misuse of Anti-Semetism and the abuse of History", he pits forrit the argiement that pro-Israeli, or "Zionist" writers/defenders/apologists haes uised the fact o the holocaust ceenically for tae blur the negative response tae Israeli policy wi raigards tae Palestinians, an hou the idea o "New Anti-Semetism" is a Zionist idea an aw, shaped tae ser the Israeli staundin in public opeenion bi garrin cretics feart tae say ocht negative aboot the state.

1953 births
American atheists
American fowk o Pols-Jewish strynd
American poleetical scientists
American poleetical writers
Binghamton Varsity alumni
DePaul Varsity faculty
Historians o Jews an Judaism
Historians o the Holocaust
Historians o the Middle East
Hunter College faculty
Jewish American historians
Jewish atheists
Jewish peace activists
Livin fowk
New York Varsity faculty
Princeton Varsity alumni
Rutgers Varsity faculty
Writers on Zionism
American historians

Norman Finkelstein


Weippe Prairie is a "beautiful upland prairie field of about two by three miles bordered by farmland made from cleared pine forests" at 3,000 feet elevation in Clearwater County, Idaho, at Weippe, Idaho.  Camas flowers grow well there, and attracted native gatherers of the camas roots.  It is the location in Idaho where the Lewis and Clark Expedition emerged from crossing the Bitterroot Mountains on the Lolo Trail and first met the Nez Perce tribe of Native Americans.

The field is now part of Nez Perce National Historical Park.

On September 20, 1805 the first members of Lewis and Clark's Corps of Discovery, including Clark himself, emerged starving and weak onto the Weippe Prairie.  There they encountered the Nez Perce, who were attracted to the area by the abundant hunting, as well as the fields of camas flowers, whose roots were a staple of their diet.  The Nez Perce "had never before seen white men", and "proved to be the most helpful of the tribes which the explorers encountered in their travels".  By September 22, 1805, the entire expedition made it to Weippe Prairie.  Lewis and Clark met many of the Nez Perce chiefs.  One of them, Red Bear, gave them dressed buckskins.  Lewis and Clark reciprocated with presents of "beads and a few other articles".  The Nez Perce "later found the white man's gifts to be cheap."

The Nez Perce purportedly were predisposed to be friendly to the white explorers due to the positive stories told by a young woman of their tribe who had been stolen and sold into slavery, eventually sold to and lived with white people, and then returned to the Nez Perce.  This woman, named Watkuweis (meaning "returned from a faraway country"), when hearing of the arrival of Lewis and Clark, pleaded that they not be harmed. Her tales of the kindness she had experienced with the white people reportedly convinced the Nez Perce to offer friendship to the explorers. The Nez Perce provided camas root cakes and other food, helped them build canoes for their continued westward journey and mapped out the water route the expedition would follow.  The expedition cached some materials there, and found the caches untouched when they returned in spring 1806.  They also left the expedition's horses.  The Nez Perce were divided about returning the horses, but the Corps eventually regained most of them.  Upon their return in 1806, they spent an extended time from May to late June with the Nez Perce, due to the late spring in the Bitterroot Mountains.

The part of Weippe Prairie most associated with the Lewis and Clark expedition, covered with camas and close to the town of Weippe, Idaho, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1966.  It is one of 38 scattered sites covered by the Nez Perce National Historical Park which interprets the site.  The name Weippe, pronounced WEE-ipe, is derived from a Nez-Perce name whose meaning has been variously defined as a "very old place" or as referring to a spring of water or the camas grounds.  A literal translation has not been found.

"This national historic landmark is also associated with the 1877 Nez Perce War; the nontreaty bands held a council on this prairie following the Clearwater Battle."

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in Idaho
National Register of Historic Places listings in Clearwater County, Idaho

References

External links

Nez Perce National Historic Park: Sites in Idaho - includes Weippe Prairie
Photo gallery including, at bottom, photos of Weippe Prairie camas flowers blooming, at LewisAndClarkPictures.Com

National Historic Landmarks in Idaho
Native American history of Idaho
Pre-statehood history of Idaho
Protected areas of Clearwater County, Idaho
Grasslands of Idaho
Nez Perce National Historical Park
Natural features on the National Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places in Clearwater County, Idaho

Weippe Prairie


Jan Zaanen (born 17 April 1957) is professor of theoretical physics at Leiden University, the Netherlands. He is best known for his contributions to the understanding of the quantum physics of the electrons in strongly correlated material, and in particular high temperature superconductivity. Zaanen's areas of interest are in the search for novel forms of collective quantum phenomena realized in systems build from mundane constituents like electrons, spins, and atoms.

He introduced the so-called Zaanen-Sawatzky-Allen diagram, the LDA+U band structure method and he became particularly well known for his discovery of the stripe instability of the doped Mott insulator. His present research is focused on the quantum critical point and unconventional phases of quantum matter. He is a well-known proponent of the application of Holographic principle to condensed matter physics. He is also well known for his many editorial contributions to the journals Nature and Science. He is currently on the board of reviewing editors of the latter journal and also editor of the Journal of High Energy Physics.

Career
Jan Zaanen was born on 17 April 1957 in Leiden. He received his degree in chemistry with honours in 1982 at the University of Groningen, where he also received his doctorate four years later, again with honours. He was under supervision with Spinoza Prize winner George Sawatzky. After a postdoctoral fellowship at the Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research in Stuttgart, he worked for some years as a researcher at AT&T Bell Laboratories in the USA. In 1993 Zaanen returned to the Netherlands, where he worked at Leiden University as a Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) fellow. He has been a professor at Leiden since 2000. Furthermore, in 2004 he was appointed as a visiting professor for one year at Stanford University.

In 2004-2005 he spent a year at Stanford University sponsored by the Fulbright Program and in 2006 he received the Spinoza Prize, the "Dutch Nobel prize", for his scientific accomplishments. Recently Zaanen is one of the driving forces behind the scientific cooperation between the fields of string theory and high-temperature superconductivity. In an interview with Dutch newspaper, De Volkskrant, he stated:

After winning the Spinoza Prize, it was no longer necessary to worry whether I was proving myself enough. You start looking at things you really like. Furthermore I wanted to prove that I was not too old to learn new things. String theory really is another ballgame than the rest of physics] and I'm proud that I was able to learn it.

Zaanen was a visiting professor of Theoretical Physics at the Ecole Normale Superieur, Paris, France. In 2012 and 2013 he respectively was a Solvay Professor of Physics at the Solvay Institute, Brussels, Belgium and a fellow of the Newton Centre at the University of Cambridge. At present he is Professor of theoretical physics at Leiden University.

Since 2012 Zaanen is member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

High-temperature superconductivity

Recently Zaanen is known for his contribution to the understanding of high-temperature superconductivity. In most high-temperature superconductors the copper atoms are arranged in thin layers. Each atom has its own magnetic field which is opposite to that of its neighbor. Electrons can scarcely move in such an environment, as they are also magnetic. Recently, Zaanen and colleagues Cubrovic and Schalm applied string theory to explain a physical phenomenon. Initially their use of string theory attracted a lot of criticism. However, in recent years an increasing amount of experimental evidence has been collected in its favor. Its latest accomplishment is the development of the AdS/CFT correspondence theory, sometimes called Maldacena duality or gauge/gravity duality.

Once it was realised that AdS/CFT could be applied to a broader spectrum of physical phenomena, Zaanen was inspired to use these ideas for his own area of High-temperature superconductivity. Zaanen stated:

"It has always been assumed that once you understand this quantum-critical state, you can also understand high temperature super-conductivity. But, although the experiments produced a lot of information, we hadn't the faintest idea of how to describe this phenomenon. We hadn't expected it to work so well, the maths was a perfect fit; it was superb. When we saw the calculations, at first we could hardly believe it, but it was right."

Other areas of involvement
General relativity and string theory
Fermion minus sign problem
Stripe microscopy and Stripe fractionalisation
Geometrical order in Luttinger liquids
Duality in quantum elasticity: quantum liquid crystals and cosmology
Quantum criticality

Recent publications
A. Mesaros, K. Fujita, H. Eisaki, J.C. Davis, S. Sachdev, J. Zaanen, E.-A. Kim and M. Lawler, How topological defects couple the smectic and nematic electronic structure of the cuprate pseudogap states, Science, 426 (2011).
R.J. Slager, A. Mesaros, V. Juricic and J. Zaanen, The space group classification of topological band-insulators, Nature Physics, 98 (2013).
Y. Liu, K. Schalm, Y.-W. Sun and J. Zaanen, Lattice potentials in holographic non Fermi-liquids: hybridizing local quantum criticality, Journal of High Energy Physics, 036 (2012).
J. Zaanen, Holographic duality: stealing dimensions from metals, Nature Physics 9, 609 (2013)
L. Rademaker, Y. Pramudya, J. Zaanen and V. Dobrosavljevic, Influence of long-range interactions on charge ordering phenomena on a square lattice, Physical Review E 88, 032121 (2013)
L. Rademaker, J. van den Brink, H. Hilgenkamp and J. Zaanen, Enhancement of spin propagation due to interlayer exciton condensation, Physical Review B 88, 121101(R) (2013)
A.J. Beekman, K. Wu, V. Cvetkovic and J. Zaanen, Deconfining the rotational Goldstone mode: the superconducting quantum liquid crystal in 2+1 dimensions, Physical Review B 88, 024121(2013)

References

External links

Article from Startpagina Universiteit Leiden
Article from Science magazine
Article  from Science Daily

1957 births
20th-century Dutch physicists
Academic staff of Leiden University
Living people
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Spinoza Prize winners
Theoretical physicists
University of Groningen alumni
21st-century Dutch physicists
Fellows of the American Physical Society

Jan Zaanen


Jacob is a figure in the Abrahamic religions. He was a patriarch of the Hebrew people, as told in the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, the New Testament and the Qur'an. He was the ancestor of the tribes of Israel, which were named after his male children. He had 13 children, 12 sons and a daughter.

Jacob had an older brother, Esau. His mother was named Rebecca and his father named Isaac. According to the Talmud, immediately after Abraham died, Jacob prepared a lentil stew as a traditional mourner's meal for his father. The Hebrew Bible says that Esau, who was very hungry, begged Jacob to give him some of the stew. (Esau called the dish, "that red, red stuff", which is why he is called Edom,  (`Edom, meaning "Red").) Jacob said, "If you give me your birthright I will give you some stew." Esau agreed. Soon, Issac became almost blind. Rebecca tricked Issac into giving Jacob the blessing. Jacob's brother got angry, so Rebecca sent Jacob away.

Jacob works for his uncle Laban so he can marry his daughter Rachel. But he is tricked into marrying Leah, her older sister as well. He has children with both women, and with their concubines.

He is very upset when his son Joseph is sold into slavery in Egypt by his brothers. Jacob moves to Egypt when there is a famine. He dies and is buried in Canaan.

References

Old Testament people

Jacob


Information technology (or IT) is a term that encompasses all forms of technology used to create, store, exchange, and use information in its various forms (business data, voice conversations, still images, motion pictures, photos, multimedia presentations, and other forms, including those not yet conceived).

The modern term "Information Technology" was coined by Leavitt and Whisle. In 1958 a Harvard Business Review included, "The new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology."

Information technology is the concept that includes every process of information flow, such as data collection, processing, storage, search, transmission, and reception. In the information society, information technology is one of the most necessary industries. As technology advances day by day, IT has developed into an essential part. It is also attracting future industries. In the future, the use of information technology will be more important in the overall industry. The development of the internet made it possible for the world to be connected. IT will be a power that makes an increasing number of promising occupations and science and technology.

Now, people have been using it to refer to other aspects of technology.  It now covers many more fields of study than it has covered in the past.

History
Four basic periods
Characterized by a principal technology used to solve the input, processing, output and communication problems of the time:
 Premechanical,
 Mechanical,
 Electromechanical, and
 Electronic

A. The Premechanical Age: 3000 B.C. – 1450 A.D.
 Writing and Alphabets—communication.
 First humans communicated only through speaking and picture drawings.
 3000 B.C., the Sumerians in Mesopotamia (what is today southern Iraq) devised cuneiform
 Around 2000 B.C., Phoenicians created symbols
 The Greeks later adopted the Phoenician alphabet and added vowels; the Romans gave the letters Latin names to create the alphabet we use today.
 Paper and Pens—input technologies.
 Sumerians' input technology was a stylus that could scratch marks in wet clay.
 About 2600 B.C., the Egyptians write on the papyrus plant
 around 100 A.D., the Chinese made paper from rags, on which modern-day papermaking is based.
 Books and Libraries: Permanent Storage Devices.
 Religious leaders in Mesopotamia kept the earliest "books"
 The Egyptians kept scrolls
 Around 600 B.C., the Greeks began to fold sheets of papyrus vertically into leaves and bind them together.
 The First Numbering Systems.
 Egyptian system:
 The numbers 1-9 as vertical lines, the number 10 as a U or circle, the number 100 as a coiled rope, and the number 1,000 as a lotus blossom.
 The first place value numbering systems similar to those in use today were invented between 100 and 200 A.D. in India who created a nine-digit numbering system.
 Around 875 A.D., the concept of zero was developed.

 The First Calculators: The Abacus.

One of the very first information processors.

B. The Mechanical Age: 1450 – 1840
 The First Information Explosion.
 Johann Gutenberg (Mainz, Germany)
 Invented the movable metal-type printing process in 1450.
 The development of book indexes and the widespread use of page numbers.
 The first general purpose "computers"
 Actually people who held the job title "computer: one who works with numbers."
 Slide Rules, the Pascaline and Leibniz's Machine.
Early 1600s, William Oughtred, an English clergyman, invented the slide rule.

C. The Electromechanical Age: 1840 – 1940.
The discovery of ways to harness electricity was the key advance made during this period. Knowledge and information could now be converted into electrical impulses.

 The Beginnings of Telecommunication.
 Voltaic Battery.
 Late 18th century.
 Telegraph.
 Early 1800s.
 Morse Code.
 Developed in 1835 by Samuel Morse
 Dots and dashes.
 Telephone and Radio.
 Alexander Graham Bell.
 1876
 Followed by the discovery that electrical waves travel through space and can produce an effect far from the point at which they originated.
 These two events led to the invention of the radio
 Guglielmo Marconi
 1894

2. Electromechanical Computing
 Herman Hollerith and IBM.Herman Hollerith (1860–1929) in 1880.
 Mark 1
 Howard Aiken, a Ph.D. student at Harvard University
 Built the Mark I
 Completed January 1942
 8 feet tall, 51 feet long, 2 feet thick, weighed 5 tons, used about 750,000 parts

D. The Electronic Age: 1940 – Present.
 First Tries.
 Early 1940s
 Electronic vacuum tubes.
 Eckert and Mauchly.
 ENIAC, fixed, not stored, program
3. The First Stored-Program Computer(s)
 Early 1940s, Mauchly and Eckert began to design the EDVAC - the Electronic Discreet Variable Computer.
 John von Neumann's influential report in June 1945:
 "The Report on the EDVAC"
 British scientists used this report and outpaced the Americans.
 Max Newman headed up the effort at Manchester University
 Where the Manchester Mark I went into operation in June 1948--becoming the first stored-program computer.
 Maurice Wilkes, a British scientist at Cambridge University, completed the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) in 1949—two years before EDVAC was finished.
 Thus, EDSAC became the first stored-program computer in general use (i.e., not a prototype).
 The First General-Purpose Computer for Commercial Use: Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC).
 Late 1940s, Eckert and Mauchly began the development of a computer called UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)
 Remington Rand.
 First UNIVAC delivered to Census Bureau in 1951.
 But, a machine called LEO (Lyons Electronic Office) went into action a few months before UNIVAC and became the world's first commercial computer.
3. The Four Generations of Digitalg Computing.

The First Generation (1951–1958).
 Vacuum tubes as their main logic elements.
 Punch cards to input and externally store data.
 Rotating magnetic drums for internal storage of data and programs
 Programs written in
 Machine code
 Assembly language
 Compiler language
The Second Generation (1959–1963).
 Vacuum tubes replaced by transistors as main logic element.
 AT&T's Bell Laboratories, in the 1940s
 Crystalline mineral materials called semiconductors could be used in the design of a device called a transistor
 Magnetic tape and disks began to replace punched cards as external storage devices.
 Magnetic cores (very small donut-shaped magnets that could be polarized in one of two directions to represent data) strung on wire within the computer became the primary internal storage technology.
 High-level programming languages
 e.g., FORTRAN and COBOL
The Third Generation (1964–1979).

Individual transistors were replaced by integrated circuits.
 Magnetic tape and disks completely replace punch cards as external storage devices.
 Magnetic core internal memories began to give way to a new form, metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) memory, which, like integrated circuits, used silicon-backed chips.
 Operating systems
 Advanced programming languages like BASIC developed.

 The Fourth Generation (1979–Present).
 Large-scale and very large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs and VLSICs)
 Microprocessors that contained memory, logic, and control circuits (an entire CPU = Central Processing Unit) on a single chip.
 Which allowed for home-use personal computers or PCs, like the Apple (II and Mac) and IBM PC.
 Apple II released to public in 1977, by Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs.
 Initially sold for $1,195 (without a monitor); had 16k RAM.
 First Apple Mac released in 1984.
 IBM PC introduced in 1981.
 Debuts with MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
 Fourth generation language software products
 e.g., VisiCalc, Lotus 1-2-3, dBase, Microsoft Word, and many others.
 Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) for PCs arrive in early 1980s
 Apple's GUI (on the first Mac) debuts in 1984.
 Microsoft Windows debuts in 1985.
 Windows wouldn't take off until version 3 was released in 1990

Field of Study
 A Bachelor of Information Technology (abbreviations BIT, BInfTech, B.Tech(IT) or BE(IT)) is an undergraduate academic degree that generally requires three to five years of study. While the degree has a major focus on computers and technology, it differs from a Computer Science degree in that students are also expected to study management and information science, and there are reduced requirements for mathematics. A degree in computer science can be expected to concentrate on the scientific aspects of computing, while a degree in information technology can be expected to concentrate on the business and communication applications of computing. There is more emphasis on these two areas in the electronic commerce, e-business and business information technology undergraduate courses. Specific names for the degrees vary across countries, and even universities within countries.

This is in contrast to a Bachelor of Science in Information Technology which is a bachelor's degree typically conferred after a period of three to four years of an undergraduate course of study in Information Technology (IT). The degree itself is a Bachelor of Science with institutions conferring degrees in the fields of information technology and related fields.

Many employers require software developers or programmers to have a Bachelor of Science in Computer Science degree; however, those seeking to hire for positions such as network administrators or database managers would require a Bachelors of Science in Information Technology or an equivalent degree. Graduates with an information technology background are able to perform technology tasks relating to the processing, storing, and communication of information between computers, mobile phones, and other electronic devices. Information technology as a field emphasizes the secure management of large amounts of diverse information and its accessibility via a wide variety of systems both local and world-wide.

Related pages
 Digital divide
 Information systems
 Telecommunication

References

Other websites
 Search data center
 A History of Information Technology and Systems

Computing
Technology

Information technology