Telekomunikasi di Australia dikuasai oleh penyedia telekomunikasi, Telstra. Pembekal perkhidmatan telefon lain termasuk Optus (dimilik oleh Singapore Telecommunications), AAPT dan Powertel (kedua-duanya dimiliki oleh Telecom New Zealand), Soul (SP Telemedia), Vodafone dan Hutchison 3G (3 Mobile)

Telefon

Rangakaian talian telefon Australia utama bergantung asasnya pada suatu rangkaian gentian optik, dengan talian tembaga menghubungkan rumah tangga ke penukaran tempatan. Untuk telefon bimbit, Australia bergantung pada sebuah rangkaian GSM yang berpengaruh. Perkhidmatan telefon bimbit 3G telah diperkenalkan ke pusat-pusat utama pada 2003.
Sistem telefon biasanya memberikan perkhidmatan dalam negeri dan antarabangsa yang baik.

Dalam negeri:

Sistem satelit dalam negeri dalam negeri untuk digunakan di kawasan-kawasan yang sangat terpencil, pada asasnya satelit Optus C1 D1 dan D2.

Kabel gentian-optik dalam negeri

Telstra, Optus, Nextgen Networks, PowerTel dan AAPT adalah Rangkaian Intercity utama dengan suatu pengumpulan pemberi lain yang ada rangkaian serantau atau pautan Pantai Timur.

Pautan mikro gelombang dalam negeri

Telstra adalah pengguna utama paut mikrogelombang di kawasan-kawasan terpencil; WIN Television memberikan suatu rangkaian menara mikrogelombang untuk pengedaran Televisyen, dan memberikan perkhidmatan pembawa umum.  Pemberi-pemberi lain seperti Agile Communications memberi perkhidmatan backhaul di Australia Selatan.

Antarabangsa:

Kabel gentian-optik ke:

 New Zealand (Southern Cross Cables ke NZ, Hawaii, Tanah besar US) dengan suatu keupayaan 240Gbit/s, dengan suatu ketambahan ke 1.2 Tbit/s dirancang untuk 2007/2008

 Fiji (Southern Cross Cables ke Fiji, Hawaii, US Mainland); Keupayaan 240Gbit/s dengan ketambahan pada keupayaan atas ke 1.2 Tbit/s Upgrade pada 2007/2008

 Jepun (kabel Australia-Jepun ke Guam & Jepun); secara asas digunakan sebagai suatu jalan alternative ke Amerika Syarikat dengan suatu keupayaan 2 pasangan gentian 320GB/s.

 Indonesia  (Sea-Me-We3) ke Indonesia dan pada Asia, Middle East, AS & Senarai Negara Komprehensif (Sea-Me-We3); keupayaan 40GB/s.

 Papua New Guinea (APNG2 Terdahulunya sebahagian daripada Pac Rim West); Keupayaan 2x565Mbit/s.

 Indonesia (Jasaraus Berpautan ke APCN Asia Pacific); Keupayaan 5 GB/s

Tambahan pula, tiga kabel baru telah dirancang:

 PPC-1, suatu usaha sama PIPE Networks dan Videsh Sanchar Nigam berkaitan ke Guam
 Telstra-owned cable ke Hawaii
 Gondwana-1 memberikan suatu pautan dari New Caledonia ke Australia .

Stesen bumi satelit - 10 Intelsat (4 Lautan Hindi dan 6 Lautan Pasifik), 2 Inmarsat (rantau Lautan Hindi dan Teduh) + Several Singtel Optus Earth Stations untuk Satelit terletak di bandar-bandar utama

Statistik kemilikan:
Telefon - talian utama digunakan: 9.76 juta (2007)
Telefon - telefon bimbit selular: 21.26 juta (2007)

Australia's first telephone service (connecting the Melbourne and South Melbourne offices of Robinson Brothers) was launched in 1879, with the first telephone exchange opened in Melbourne in 1880. Around 7,757 calls were handled in 1884.

The Australian networks were government assets operating under colonial legislation modelled on that of Britain. The UK Telegraph Act 1868 for example empowered the Postmaster General to "acquire, maintain and work electric telegraphs" and foreshadowed the 1870 nationalisation of competing British telegraph companies.

The nature of the networks meant that regulation in Australia was undemanding: network personnel were government employees or agents, legislation was enhanced on an incremental basis and restrictions could be achieved through infrastructure. All the colonies ran their telegraph networks at a deficit through investment in infrastructure and subsidisation of regional access, generally with bipartisan support.

Government-operated post office and telegraph networks - the largest parts of the bureaucracy - were combined into a single department in each colony on the model of the UK Post Office: South Australia in 1869, Victoria in 1870, Queensland in 1880 and New South Wales in 1893.

Seksyen 51(v) Perlembagaan Australia gave the new national government power over all postal, telegraphic, telephonic and 'other like services'. The latter encompassed future developments such as radio, television and the internet.

The colonial networks (staff, switches, wires, handsets, buildings etc) were transferred to the Commonwealth and became the responsibility of the first Postmaster-General (PMG), a federal Minister overseeing the Postmaster-General's Department that managed all domestic telephone, telegraph and postal services. With 16,000 staff (and assets of over £6 million) it accounted for 90% of the new federal bureaucracy. That figure climbed to over 120,000 staff (around 50% of the federal bureaucracy) by the late sixties.

Public phones were available in a handful of post offices and otherwise restricted to major businesses, government agencies, institutions and wealthier residences. Eight million telegrams were sent that year (?) over 43,000 miles of line.

There were around 33,000 phones across Australia, with 7,502 telephone subscribers in inner Sydney and 4,800 in the Melbourne central business district. A trunk line between Melbourne (headquarters of the PMG Department) and Sydney was established in 1907, with extension to Adelaide in 1914, Brisbane in 1923, Perth in 1930 and Hobart in 1935.

Overseas cable links to Australia remained in private hands, reflecting the realities of imperial politics, demands on the new government's resources and perceptions of its responsibilities. The PMG department became responsible for some international shortwave services - particularly from the 1920s - and for a new Coastal Radio Service in 1911, with the first of a network of stations operational in February 1912. Australia and New Zealand had ratified the 1906 Berlin Radio-telegraph Convention in 1907.

During the 1930s the PMG became responsible for the Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC). Its management of the telecommunications network echoed the values enshrined by the ABC and the BBC.

In the era of privatization is has been fashionable to backtrack to a time when the PMG was supposedly operated by enlightened technocrats in the national interest and without concerns of profit. That vision is problematical, as it is clear that decisions about the location and management of facilities (switches and service centers) reflected local political demands and the 'Australian Settlement' first articulated by Alfred Deakin.

The PMG was, after all, a major employer in rural areas, the Minister generally came from the Country Party and there was an emphasis on in-house development and local manufacturing. Governments of whatever persuasion used the organisation as a cash cow; it was not a discrete statutory body or company and faced problems in preventing profits from being absorbed by the national consolidated revenue account.

Pembatalan kawal selia

In Australia the 1982 Davidson Enquiry regarding private sector involvement in delivery of existing/proposed telecommunications services recommended ending Telecom Australia's monopoly. In the preceding year Aussat Pty Ltd, another government agency, had been established to operate domestic satellite telecommunication and broadcasting services.

In practice Aussat's charter restricted it from acting as a competitor to Telecom, including a prohibition on interconnecting public switched traffic with Telecom's network. Aussat's viability was undermined through restrictions on raising capital, of critical importance given tepid government support and increasing costs. It wasn't until 1985 that Australia's first geostationary communications satellite was operational; by late 1990 it had debts of about $400 million.

The Australian Telecommunications Commission was restructured as the Australian Telecommunications Corporation, trading as Telecom Australia, in 1989. That year saw the last domestic telegram handled by Telecom, with responsibility for telegram operations handed over to Australia Post.

Proposals for a merger of Aussat and OTC (thereby permitting national delivery of telecommunication services in competition with Telecom) were rejected in favor of disposal of the satellite operator to a non-government entity that would be allowed to compete with Telecom.

Immediately following the decision that Optus Communications - a private sector entity owned by a consortium that included BellSouth - would be given Australia's second general carrier licence purchased the Satellite assets with many of the Non Satellite Assets remaining with the Government as part of Telstra.

Cable & Wireless, privatised after several decades of UK government ownership, took a controlling stake in Optus in 1998 (under the banner Cable & Wireless Optus) before control passed to SingTel in 2001.

Optus was initially allowed to enter the Australian telecommunications marketplace for national long distance and international telephone calls, with other players prevented from entering the general telephone market until 1997 and 'pro-competition' mechanisms under the Trade Practices Act 1974- such as guaranteed access to Telecom's existing infrastructure on reasonable terms - meant to ensure its viability.

Telstra also faced competition in market niches such as long distance corporate voice and data services, with AAPT (a spinoff of the local AAP financial data/news service) active from 1991. MCI Communications, later absorbed by the ill-fated WorldCom, was an early major shareholder of AAPT but departed in 1994. New Zealand's Todd Corporation took a 24.5% stake in AAPT in 1992. In 1995 AAPT launched a mobile phone service, using Vodafone as its network supplier, acquired a 50% of Australian ISP connect.com.au Pty Ltd and bought NewsNet ITN. In the same year SingTel acquired a 24.5% shareholding in AAPT.

In 1996 AAPT bought 40% of Cellular One Communications, followed by QNET Communications. In that year it gained a carrier licence, offering long distance services to the residential market and building communications networks for the South Australian and Victorian governments. It subsequently moved to 100% of CorpTEL Communications, its AAPT Sat-Tel satellite joint venture, connect.com.au and Cellular One. US operator Primus acquired Axicorp (rebadged as Primus Telecom) in 1997, gaining a carriers license and expanding into internet services.

Telstra dan di luar

AOTC was rebadged as Telstra Corporation in 1993, trading internationally as Telstra from that year and domestically as Telstra from 1995. Expansion into Indonesia and other Asian markets was not strikingly successful, with the group winding back overseas involvements in 1997-98. In 1996 Telstra recorded the largest profit in Australian corporate history, some $3.8 billion and was partly privatised in November 1997 through sale by the Commonwealth of around 33.3% of its shareholding.

The Australia's telecommunications market was formal opened to full competition in July 1997, with removal of restrictions on the number of licensed operators and anti-competition mechanisms (replaced by general competition law under the oversight of the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission). The new regime featured a single national phone numbering scheme and any-to-any connectivity requirements, with the expectation that mobile phones, fixed-line phones and other devices would be able to communicate with each other irrespective of whether the service was provided by Telstra or one of its competitors.

A further 16.6% was sold by the Commonwealth in September 1999; but the sale of the government's remaining 50.1% stake required legislation.  In November 2006, after many allegations of conflicts of interest, the government sold an additional 33% stake, with the remaining 17% being placed in a Future Fund, of which the Commonwealth is the primary shareholder.

At the end of 1998 there were over 20 licensed telecommunications carriers controlling facilities in Australia, with several hundred other entities using those facilities to provide services to consumers. That number had climbed to 99 by May 2002 (with 11 licences surrendered); the Australian Communications Authority estimated that the benefits to consumers of telecommunications services from competition in 2000/1 were between $5.5 billion and $12 billion.

Telstra's recurrent overseas ventures had proved unsuccessful, with withdrawal from some South East Asian markets and major writedowns of joint venture investments such as the $2.7bn Reach undersea cable with Hong Kong-based PCCW. Recurrent takeovers in the software/services sector (eg Solution 6 Holdings, Sausage Software) have proved disappointing, with Telstra buying KAZ Group in 2004 for over $250 million. In 2004 Telstra paid $636 million for the Australian operations of Trader Classified Media NV: two classified ad print publications, five complementary online sites, two automotive inserts and the Trading Post brand.

Cabaran polisi

Telstra meskipun kekal menjadi suatu kedudukan yang berpengaruh - khususnya dalam pasaran perumahan, melalui kemilikan infrastruktur - dan banyak debat awam berpusat pada
kenasihatan dan kewaktuan untuk penggunaan stek peninggalan kerajaan Komanwel
takrif 'khidmat asas' (untuk diberikan oleh Telstra dan para pesaing, dalam sesetengah circumstances on a subsidised basis).
Pengurusan Telstra mengalakkan jualan, yang lain memanggil penahanan stek (atau juga pembelian pegangan swasta), masih yang lain memanggil untuk pelbagai pemisahan khidmat dan aset (dengan misalnya kemilikan awam infrastruktur, dengan banyak menambah untuk membawa broadband ke semua warga Australia - tidak terkiranya kos).

Pakar industri menyatakan kesusahan menghadapi para pesaing lebih kecil Telstra, sering dianggap tidak cukup biaya, atau dengan sokongan yang tidak tentu dari ibu bapa luar negeri yang uzur.

Radio

Stesen radio di Australia termasuk stesen radio komersial, penyiaran dana kebangsaan, (yang utamanya ABC dan SBS) dan stesen radio masyarakat.  Perlesenan diluluskan oleh Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA).

Pada Februari 2006, Commercial Radio Australia mengumumkan sebuah rangkaian radio digital.

Stesen siaran radio: AM 262, FM 345, shortwave 1 (1998)
Radio: 25.5 juta (1997)

Televisyen

Stesen siaran percuma di Australia termasuk tiga rangkaian komersial, memancar di pelbagai bahagian negara dengan beberapa stesen, dua siaran dana kebangsaan  ABC dan SBS), suatu bilangan kecil stesen televisyen masyarakat, dan sesetengah perkhidmatan siaran data digital.

Australia sedang beralih ke siaran percuma digital dan akan memfasakan keluar siaran analog tidak awal daripada 2010. Peraturan TV digital Australian memanggil untuk siaran definisi biasa (SD) di 576i dan suatu jumlah diperlukan kandungan definisi tinggi (HD) pada sekurang-kurangya 576p format.  Kuota HD terkini dimuatkan di 1040 jam setiap tahun.  Media kebangsaan (ABC dan SBS) dapat memberikan perkhidmatan pelbagai saluran, meskipun rangkaain komersial dihadkan pada bidang ini hingga 2008 in deference to the Pay-TV satellite and cable networks. Datacasting is also restricted.

Pada September 2005, ada sekurang-kurangnya 1,824,000 kotak set-top dipasang digital di  Australia (sekira-kiranya 12% dari televisyen).

Stesen siaran televisyen: 104 (1997)
Rangkaian siaran televisyen: 5 dalam kebanyakan tempat
Syarikat Televisyen Kabel & Satelit: 6 (Foxtel, Optus TV, Austar, SelecTV, TransACT and Neighbourhood Cable)
Televisyen: 15.2 juta (2005)

Internet

Rujukan dan nota

Pautan luar
 The Telegraph Era in Australia from 1854 and in Brisbane from 1861

Australia

Telekomunikasi di Australia


Magnus Olafsson (Old Norse: Magnús Óláfsson; Norwegian and Danish: Magnus Olavsson;  – 25 October 1047), better known as Magnus the Good (Old Norse: Magnús góði, Norwegian and Danish: Magnus den gode), was King of Norway from 1035 and King of Denmark from 1042 until his death in 1047.

Magnus was an illegitimate son of King Olaf II of Norway, and fled with his mother Alfhild when his father was dethroned in 1028. He returned to Norway in 1035 and was crowned king at the age of 11. In 1042, he was also crowned king of Denmark. Magnus ruled the two countries until 1047, when he died under unclear circumstances. After his death, his kingdom was split between Harald Hardrada in Norway and Sweyn Estridsson in Denmark.

Early life
Magnus was an illegitimate son of King Olaf Haraldsson (later St. Olaf), by his English concubine Alfhild, originally a slave (thrall) of Olaf's queen Astrid Olofsdotter. Born prematurely, the child was weak and unable to breathe for the first few minutes, and he was probably not expected to survive. Olaf was not present at the child's birth, and his Icelandic skald Sigvatr Þórðarson became his godfather. In a hasty baptism, Sigvatr named Magnus after the greatest king he knew of, also Olaf's greatest role model, Karla Magnus, or Charlemagne. Against the odds, Magnus went on to grow strong and healthy, and he became of vital importance to Olaf as his only son.

Olaf was dethroned by the Danish king Cnut the Great in 1028, and he went into exile with his family and court, including the young Magnus. They travelled over the mountains and through Eidskog during the winter, entered Värmland, and were given shelter by a chieftain called Sigtrygg in Närke. After a few months, they departed Närke, and by March went eastwards towards Sigtuna, where the Swedish king Anund Jacob had left them a ship. The party thereafter sailed through the Baltic Sea and into the Gulf of Finland, eventually landing in Kievan Rus' (Garðaríki). They made their first stop at Staraya Ladoga (Aldeigjuborg) to organise the further journey. From there they travelled southwards to Novgorod (Holmgard), where Olaf sought assistance from Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise. Yaroslav, however, did not want to become directly involved in the Scandinavian power-struggles, and declined to help. After some time, in early 1030, Olaf learned that the Earl of Lade Håkon Eiriksson, Cnut's regent in Norway, had disappeared at sea, and gathered his men to make a swift return to Norway. Magnus was left to be fostered by Yaroslav and his wife Ingegerd.

In early 1031, a party including Magnus's uncle Harald Sigurdsson (later also to be king and then known as Harald Hardrada) arrived to report the news of his father's death at the Battle of Stiklestad. For the next few years, Magnus was educated in Old Russian and some Greek and was trained as a warrior. In 1030, Cnut appointed his first wife Ælfgifu and their son Svein as regents, but the Norwegians found their rule oppressive and, by the time of Cnut's death in 1035, they had been driven out and Magnus was established as king. Einar Thambarskelfir and Kalf Arnesson, who had both sought to be appointed regents under Cnut after Olaf's death in 1030, had gone together to Kievan Rus' to bring the boy back to rule as the King of Norway. After receiving the approval of Ingegerd, they returned with Magnus to Sigtuna in early 1035, and received backing from the Swedish king, brother of Magnus's stepmother Astrid. Astrid immediately became an important supporter of Magnus, and an army was gathered in Sweden, headed by Einar and Kalf, to place Magnus on the Norwegian throne.

King of Norway and Denmark

Magnus was proclaimed king in 1035 at 11 years of age. At first, Magnus sought revenge against his father's enemies, but on Sigvatr's advice, he stopped doing so, which is why he became known as "good" or "noble".

Another son of Cnut, Harthacnut, was on the throne of Denmark and wanted his country to reunite with Norway, while Magnus initiated a campaign against Denmark around 1040. However, the noblemen of both countries brought the two kings together at the Göta älv. They made peace and agreed that the first of them to die would be succeeded by the other. In 1042, Harthacnut died while in England, and Magnus also became King of Denmark, in spite of a claim by Cnut's nephew Sweyn Estridsen, whom Harthacnut had left in control of Denmark when he went to England, and who had some support.

As part of consolidating his control, Magnus destroyed the Jomsborg, headquarters of the Jomsvikings. Sweyn fled east and returned as one of the leaders of an invasion by the Wends in 1043, which Magnus decisively defeated at the Battle of Lyrskov Heath, near Hedeby. In the battle, Magnus wielded Saint Olaf's battle-axe, named Hel after the goddess of death. He had dreamt of his father the night before, and the Norwegians swore that before the battle they could hear the bell that Saint Olaf had given to the Church of St. Clement in Kaupang, in Nidaros—a sign that the saint was watching over his son and the army. It was the greatest victory ever over the Wends, with up to 15,000 killed.

Sweyn continued to oppose Magnus in Denmark, although according to Heimskringla, they reached a settlement by which Sweyn became Earl of Denmark under Magnus.

Magnus wanted to reunite Cnut the Great's entire North Sea Empire by also becoming king of England. When Harthacnut died, the English nobles had chosen as their king Æthelred the Unready's son Edward (later known as Edward the Confessor); Magnus wrote to him that he intended to attack England with combined Norwegian and Danish forces and "he will then govern it who wins the victory." The English were mostly hostile to Magnus; Sweyn was made welcome there, although Edward's mother, Emma, curiously favored Magnus and in 1043 the king confiscated her property, with which by one report she had promised to assist Magnus.

Meanwhile, Magnus' uncle Harald Sigurdsson had returned to Norway from the east and contested his rule there, while Sweyn was still a threat in Denmark; Harald allied himself with Sweyn. Magnus chose to appease Harald, and made him his co-king in Norway in 1046.

Death

Sweyn increased the pressure on Magnus from his base in Scania, but by late 1046, Magnus had driven Sweyn out of Denmark. However, on 25 October 1047, Magnus suddenly died while in Denmark, either in Zealand or in Jutland, either in an accident or of a disease; accounts vary. Reports include falling overboard from one of the ships he was mustering to invade England and drowning, falling off a horse, and falling ill while on board a ship. He is said to have made Sweyn his heir in Denmark, and Harald in Norway; some say in a deathbed statement. Magnus was buried with his father in the cathedral at Nidaros, modern Trondheim.

Physical appearance
Heimskringla describes Magnus as "of middle height, with regular features and light complexion. He had light blond hair, was well spoken and quick to make up his mind, was of noble character, most generous, a great warrior, and most valorous."

Descendants

The line of Olaf II ended with Magnus' death. However, in 1280, Eric II of Norway, who was descended through his mother from Magnus' legitimate sister, Wulfhild, was crowned king of Norway.

Magnus was not married, but had a daughter out of wedlock, , who married , a Norwegian nobleman. Ragnhild and Haakon had daughters Sunniva and Ragnhild. Sunniva had a son Hakon Sunnivasson, whose son became King Eric III of Denmark. Ragnhild married Paul Thorfinnsson, Earl of Orkney, and together they were the parents of Haakon Paulsson, who also became an earl of Orkney.

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading

Saga of Magnus the Good from Heimskringla, translated by Samuel Laing, online at the Medieval and Classical Literature Library.
Heimskringla in Icelandic, Norwegian, and English, online at Idar Lind's "Norrøn Mytologi/Norrøn Tid."
Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum, Book X chapters 21 and 22, online at Royal Danish Library.

1020s births
1047 deaths
11th-century Norwegian monarchs
11th-century kings of Denmark
Fairhair dynasty
Medieval child monarchs
Burials at Nidaros Cathedral
Norwegian exiles

Magnus the Good


Sistem GPRS dipaké ku telepon mobil atawa telepon sélulér GSM, sistem telepon mobil anu paling ilahar di sakuliah dunya (mimiti taun 2004), pikeun nganteurkeun pakét-pakét IP. Jaringan inti GPRS mangrupa bagian nu jadi puseur dina sistem GPRS sarta ogé narima jaringan 3G anu dumasar kana WCDMA. Jaringan inti GPRS mangrupa bagian anu teu bisa dipisahkeun tina jaringan inti GSM.

Jaringan inti GPRS sacara umum

 main article Packet Data Protocol#GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP)

Jaringan Inti GPRS ngandung manajemén mobilitas, manajemén sési sarta
pangangkut pikeun layanan pakét Internet Protocol (IP) dina jaringan GSM jeung jaringan WCDMA. Jaringan inti ieu ogé bisa nyadiakeun fungsi tambahan lianna saperti tagihan (charging) jeung panyadapan anu diwenangkeun sacara hukum legal interception.

Saperti GSM umumna, GPRS mangrupa sistem anu digerakkeun ku standar nu open (terbuka) sarta badan standardisasina nyaéta 3GPP.

GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP)

main article GPRS Tunnelling Protocol

GPRS Tunnelling Protocol ngamungkinkeun pamaké jaringan GSM atawa WCDMA pindah ti hiji tempat ka tempat lianna bari terus nyambung kana Internét saolah-olah pakét-pakét Internét asalna tina hiji tempat dina Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN). GPRS ngalakukeun hal ieu ku cara mawa data langganan ti Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) kiwari ka GGSN anu ngahéndel sési langganan. Aya tilu wangunan GTP anu digunakeun ku jaringan inti GPRS.

 GTP-U: pikeun mindahkeun data pamaké dina kanal-kanal nu misah ka tiap PDP context
 GTP-C: pikeun ngadalikeun alesan-alesan kaasup:
 panyusunan jeung panghapusan PDP context
 verifikasi reachability GSN
 update, contona pindahna langganan ti hiji SGSN kanu lianna.
 GTP' : pikeun mindahkeun data tagihan ti GSN ka fungsi panagihan.

GGSNs and SGSNs (collectively known as GSNs) listen for GTP-C messages on UDP port 2123 and for GTP-U messages on port 2152.  This communication happens within a single network or may, in the case of international roaming, happen internationally, probably across a GPRS Roaming Exchange (GRX).

The "Charging Gateway Function" (CGF) listens to GTP' messages sent from the GSNs on UDP port 3386.  The core network sends charging information to the CGF, typically including PDP context activation times and the quantity of data which the end user has transferred.  However, this communication which occurs within one network is less standardised and may, depending on the vendor and configuration options, use proprietary encoding or even an entirely proprietary system.

GPRS Support Nodes (GSN)

A GSN is a network node which supports the use of GPRS in the GSM core
network.  All GSNs should have a Gn interface and support the
GPRS Tunnelling Protocol.  There are two key variants of the GSN;
the GGSN and the SGSN defined below.

GGSN - Gateway GPRS Support Node

A gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) acts as an interface between the GPRS backbone network and the external packet data networks (radio network and the IP network). It converts the GPRS packets coming from the SGSN into the appropriate packet data protocol (PDP) format (e.g. IP or X.25) and sends them out on the corresponding packet data network. In the other direction, PDP addresses of incoming data packets are converted to the GSM address of the destination user. The réaddressed packets are sent to the responsible SGSN. For this purpose, the GGSN stores the current SGSN address of the user and his or her profile in its location régister.
The GGSN is responsible for IP address assignment and is the default router for the connected UE (User Equipment).The GGSN also performs authentication and charging functions

SGSN - Serving GPRS Support Node

A Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) is responsible for the delivery of data packets from and to the mobile stations within its géographical service aréa. Its tasks include packet routing and transfer, mobility management (attach/detach and location management), logical link management, and authentication and charging functions. The location régister of the SGSN stores location information (e.g., current cell, current VLR) and user profiles (e.g., IMSI, address(es) used in the packet data network) of all GPRS users régistered with this SGSN.

Common SGSN Functions

 Detunnel GTP packets from the GGSN (downlink)
 Tunnel IP packets toward the GGSN (uplink)
 Carry out mobility management as Standby mode mobile moves from Routing Aréa to Routing Aréa.
 Billing user data

GSM/EDGE Specific SGSN functions

 Carry up to about 60  kbit/s (150 kbit/s for Edge) traffic per subscriber
 Connect via frame relay or IP to the PCU using the Gb protocol stack
 Accept uplink data to form IP packets
 Encrypt downlink data, decrypt uplink data
 Carry out mobility management to the level of a cell for connected mode mobiles;

WCDMA Specific SGSN functions

 Carry up to about 300 kbit/s traffic per subscriber (R99)
 Carry up to about 7.2 mbit/s traffic downlink & 2.0 mbit/s traffic uplink (HSPA)
 Tunnel/detunnel downlink/uplink packets toward the RNC
 Carry out mobility management to the level of an RNC for connected mode mobiles.

These differences in functionality have led some manufacturers to
créate specialist SGSNs for éach of WCDMA and GSM which do not support
the other networks, whilst other manufacturers have succeeded in
créating both together, but with a performance cost due to the compromises
required.

Access Point
Main article  Access Point Name

An access point is:
 An IP network to which a mobile can be connected
 A set of settings which are used for that connection
 A particular option in a set of settings in a mobile phone

When a GPRS mobile phone sets up a PDP context, the access point
is selected.  At this point an Access Point Name (APN) is
determined

Example: flextronics.mnc012.mcc345.gprs.
Example: internet
Example: mywap.

This access point is then used in a DNS query to a private DNS
network.  This process (called APN resolution) finally gives the IP
address of the GGSN which should serve the access point.  At this
point a PDP context can be activated..

PDP Context

The PDP(Packet Data Protocol, e.g. IP, X.25, FrameRelay) context is a data structure present on both the SGSN and
the GGSN which contains the subscriber's session information when the
subscriber has an active session.  When a mobile wants to use GPRS, it
must first attach and then activate a PDP context.  This
allocates a PDP context data structure in the SGSN that the subscriber
is currently visiting and the GGSN serving the subscribers
access point.   The data recorded includes.

 Subscriber's IP address
 Subscriber's IMSI
 Subscriber's
 Tunnel ID (TEID) at the GGSN
 Tunnel ID (TEID) at the SGSN

The tunnel ID (TEID) is a number allocated by the GSN which identifies
the tunnelled data related to a particular PDP context.

There are two kinds of PDP contexts.
 Primary PDP Context
 Has a unique IP address associated with it
 Secondary PDP Context
 Shares an IP address with another PDP context
 Is créated based on an existing PDP context (to share the IP address)
 Secondary PDP contexts may have different Quality Of Service settings

A total of 11 PDP contexts (with any combination of Primary and Secondary) can co-exist.

Reference Points and Interfaces

Within the GPRS core network standards there are a number of
interfaces and
reference points (logical points of connection which probably share a
common physical connection with other reference points).  Some of these names can be seen in the network structure diagram on this page.

Interfaces in the GPRS network

 Gb - Interface between the Base Station Subsystem and the SGSN the transmission protocol could be Frame Relay or IP.
 Gn - IP Based interface between SGSN and other SGSNs and (internal) GGSNs. DNS also shares this interface. Uses the GTP Protocol.
 Gp - IP Based interface between internal SGSN and external GGSNs. Between the SGSN and the external GGSN, there is the Border Gateway (which is essentially a firewall). Also uses the GTP Protocol.
 Ga - The interface servers the CDRs (Accounting records) which are written in the GSN and sent to the CG (Charging Gateway).  This interface uses an GTP Protocol, with extensions that supports CDRs (Called GTP' or GTP prime).
 Gr - Interface between the SGSN and the HLR. Messages going through this interface uses the MAP3 Protocol.
 Gd - Interface between the SGSN and the SMS Gateway. Can use MAP1, MAP2 or MAP3.
 Gs - Interface between the SGSN and the MSC (VLR). Uses the BSSAP+ Protocol. This interface allows paging and station availability when it performs data transfer. When the station is attached to the GPRS network, the SGSN keeps track of which RA (Routing Aréa) the station is attached to. An RA is a part of a larger LA (Location Aréa). When a station is paged this information is used to conserve network resources. When the station performs a PDP Context, the SGSN has the exact BTS the station is using.
 Gi - The interface between the GGSN and a PDN (Public Data Network) either directly to the Internet or through a WAP gateway. Uses the IP protocol.
 Ge - The interface between the SGSN and the SCP (Service Control Point). Uses the CAP Protocol.
 Gx - The on-line policy interface between the GGSN and the CRF (Charging Rules Function). It is used for provisioning service data flow based charging rules. Uses the Diameter Protocol.
 Gy - The on-line charging interface between the GGSN and the OCS (Online Charging System). Uses the Diameter Protocol (DCCA application).
 Gz - The off-line charging interface between the GSN and the CG (Charging Gateway). Uses the CDRs (Accounting records).
 Gmb - The interface between the GGSN and the BM-SC (Broadcast-Multicast Service Center), used for controlling MBMS béarers.

External links
 3GPP web page including standards
 easy access to different specs
 GSM World's introduction to GPRS
 GPRS Attach and PDP Context Activation Sequence Diagrams

Wireless communications
Telecommunications infrastructure

Struktur Jaringan Inti GPRS


Nyssa is a fictional character in the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who. She is played by Sarah Sutton. Nyssa came from the planet Traken. Nyssa was created by writer Johnny Byrne for the Fourth Doctor serial The Keeper of Traken, but the production team later decided that she should join the Doctor on his travels. She returned in the next serial Logopolis, in which the Fourth Doctor regenerated, and remained as a  companion of the Fifth Doctor. She was a regular in the programme from 1981 to 1983. Sutton was the youngest female actor to play a companion in the series.

Character history
Nyssa is a alien from the planet Traken, the daughter of Tremas (a consul of the Traken Union) and stepdaughter of Kassia. She helps the Doctor and Adric to defeat Master. During her journeys with Tegan and Adric aboard the TARDIS, Nyssa finds herself trapped in a mathematical equation by the Master – whom she hates as he is, of course, now using "that face" (her father's). She also encounters a race of androids and their insane ruler, helps foil the genocidal plans of a wounded Terileptil and incidentally start the Great Fire of London, and discovers her remarkable resemblance to Ann Talbot.

Appearances in other media
Nyssa's fate after she leaves the TARDIS is not known, although the spin-off novel Asylum, by Peter Darvill-Evans, reveals that she eventually leaves Terminus and settles down as an academic in a university on an unspecified planet. In Asylum, Nyssa shares an adventure with the Fourth Doctor from a time before he met her, leaving the Doctor with the knowledge that he will have to be extremely careful dealing with Nyssa when they eventually meet to avoid changing history.

Since then, Sutton has also voiced Nyssa in several audio plays alongside Peter Davison as the Fifth Doctor, produced by Big Finish Productions.

List of appearances

Television
Season 18
The Keeper of Traken
Logopolis
Season 19
Castrovalva
Four to Doomsday
Kinda
The Visitation
Black Orchid
Earthshock
Time-Flight
Season 20
Arc of Infinity
Snakedance
Mawdryn Undead
Terminus
Season 21
The Caves of Androzani (cameo)
30th anniversary special
Dimensions in Time

Audio dramas
The Land of the Dead
Winter for the Adept
The Mutant Phase
Primeval
Spare Parts
Creatures of Beauty
The Game
Circular Time
Renaissance of the Daleks
Return to the Web Planet
The Haunting of Thomas Brewster
The Boy That Time Forgot
Time Reef & A Perfect World
The Darkening Eye

Novels
Virgin Missing Adventures
Goth Opera by Paul Cornell
The Sands of Time by Justin Richards
Cold Fusion by Lance Parkin
Past Doctor Adventures
Zeta Major by Simon Messingham
Divided Loyalties by Gary Russell
Asylum by Peter Darvill-Evans
Fear of the Dark by Trevor Baxendale
Empire of Death by David Bishop

Comics
"On The Planet Isopterus" by Glenn Rix (Doctor Who Annual 1983)
"Blood Invocation" by Paul Cornell and John Ridgway (Doctor Who Magazine Yearbook 1995)

Other websites
 Nyssa at The TARDIS Index File website
 Nyssa on the BBC's Doctor Who website

Doctor Who characters

Nyssa (Doctor Who)


Jacques Zoon (pronounced: ; born 1961 in Heiloo, North Holland) is a Dutch flutist.

Education
Following a gymnasium education in Alkmaar, Zoon studied flute at the Sweelinck Conservatorium in Amsterdam with Koos Verheul and Harrie Starreveld, graduating with honors. He continued his studies at the Banff Center for the Arts in Canada, where he took master classes with Geoffrey Gilbert and András Adorján.

Orchestras
As a teenager and during his studies, Zoon played in the Dutch National Youth Orchestra and the European Union Youth Orchestra, among others under the direction of Claudio Abbado and Leonard Bernstein. From 1988 to 1994, Zoon was principal flutist of the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, his arrival coinciding with that of conductor Riccardo Chailly. With this orchestra he performed flute concertos by Mozart, André Jolivet, Frank Martin, and Sofia Gubaidulina. Until 1997, he also was principal flutist of and frequent soloist with the Chamber Orchestra of Europe,  conducted by Claudio Abbado, Bernard Haitink, and Nicolaus Harnoncourt. He played as principal flute with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra under the baton of Claudio Abbado. From 1997 to 2001, he was principal flutist of the Boston Symphony Orchestra under Seiji Ozawa. In 1998, the Boston Globe elected him as "musician of the year". Zoon is a regular principal flutist of the Lucerne Festival Orchestra. He has also been the principal flutist of the Orchestra Mozart since 2004 conducted by Claudio Abbado. He has played as a soloist with orchestras and at festivals in Europe, Japan and the United States. He has made many recordings for multiple labels such as Deutsche Grammophon, Philips, Decca etc.

Teaching
Zoon has been a professor of flute at the Rotterdam Conservatory (1988–1992), Indiana University (1994–1997), and the New England Conservatory and Boston University (1997–2001). Since 2002, he has taught at the Conservatoire Supérieur de Musique de Genève and since 2008 at Madrid's  Reina Sofía School of Music and International Chamber Music Institute of Madrid.

Instrument maker
Zoon plays an old wooden French flute using headjoints he manufactures himself. He designed and created a traverso with a Boehm system, with which he recorded Bach's Partita in A minor for solo flute. He published a better key design for the C-sharp. With the Alkmaar-based flute builder Alfred Verhoef he constructed a "push flute", the , with which he performed the Dutch premiere of Gubaidulina's flute concerto. With the William S. Haynes Flute Company of Boston he developed a new wooden flute (named "the Zoon model").

Awards
 2nd prize at the Willem Pijper Concours in 1981
 The jury prize at the Jean-Pierre Rampal flute competition in 1987 in Paris
 Boston Globe elected him as "musician of the year" in 1998
 Edison Award for the recording of modern classical music for flute and piano with his longtime (since 1978) accompanist Bernd Brackman in 1999 .

References
Biography at the Instituto Internacional de Música de Cámara de Madrid website.
Biography  at the Interartists Amsterdam website.

1961 births
Living people
People from Heiloo
Dutch flautists
Classical flautists
Academic staff of the Reina Sofía School of Music
Conservatorium van Amsterdam alumni
Indiana University faculty
Boston University faculty
New England Conservatory faculty
Players of the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra
Musicians from North Holland

Jacques Zoon


The following is a list of cities, towns and villages in the county of Kent, England, by letter:

A
Acol, Acrise Place, Acrise, Addington, Adisham, Aldington, Alkham, Allhallows, Allington, Appledore, Arpinge, Ash, Ash, Ashbank, Ashford, Ashley, Ashurst, Aylesford, Aylesham,

B
Badgers Mount, Badlesmere, Bapchild, Barfrestone, Barham, Barming, Barnsole, Beachborough, Bean, Bearsted, Bedmonton, Bekesbourne, Beltinge, Beltring, Benenden, Benover, Bessels Green, Bethersden, Betsham, Betteshanger, Beult, Bexon, Bicknor, Bidborough, Biddenden, Bilsington, Bilting, Birchington-on-Sea, Birling, Bishopsbourne, Bladbean, Blean, Blue Bell Hill, Bobbing, Bonnington, Borden, Borough Green, Borstal, Bough Beech, Boughton Aluph, Boughton Green, Boughton Lees, Boughton Malherbe, Boughton Monchelsea, Boughton Street, Boughton under Blean, Boxley, Brabourne Lees, Brabourne, Bramling, Brasted Chart, Brasted, Breach, Bredgar, Bredhurst, Brenchley, Brenzett, Bridge, Broad Oak, Broadstairs, Brogdale, Bromley Green, Brompton, Brook, Brookland, Brooks End, Broomfield, Broomfield, Buckland, Burham, Burmarsh,

C
Canterbury, Capel (including Somerhill), Capel-le-Ferne, Caring, Chainhurst, Chalk, Challock, Charing, Chart Sutton, Chartham, Chartwell, Chatham, Chattenden, Cheeseman's Green, Chegworth, Cheriton, Chestfield, Chestnut Street, Chevening, Chiddingstone Causeway, Chiddingstone, Chilham, Chillenden, Chilmington Green, Chipstead, Chislet, Church Whitfield, Cliffe Woods, Cliffe, Cliffsend, Cliftonville, Cobham, Coldred, Collier Street, Colliers Green, Conyer, Cooling, Coombe, Conyer, Coursehorn, Cowden, Coxheath, Cranbrook, Crockenhill, Crockham Hill, Crundale, Culverden Down, Culverstone Green, Curtisden Green, Cuxton,

D
Danton Pinch, Darenth, Dargate, Dartford, Davington, Deal, Denstroude, Denton, Detling, Ditton, Doddington, Dode, Dover, Downswood, Drellingore, Dungeness, Dunkirk, Dunton Green, Dymchurch,

E
East Barming, East Farleigh, East Langdon, Larkfield, East Malling, East Peckham, East Studdal, East Sutton, Eastchurch, Eastling, Eastry, Eastwell, Ebbsfleet, Ebony, Eccles, Eddington, Edenbridge, Egerton, Elham, Elmley, Elmstone, Elvington, Etchinghill, Ewell Minnis, Eynsford, Eythorne,

F
Fairbourne, Farningham, Farthingloe, Faversham Without, Faversham, Fawkham Green, Fawkham, Finberry, Finglesham, Five Oak Green, Flete, Folkestone, Fordcombe, Fordwich, Four Elms, Frindsbury Extra, Frindsbury, Frinsted, Frittenden, Frogham, Frogholt,

G
Garlinge, Gillingham, Godden Green, Godinton, Godmersham, Golden Green, Goodnestone, Goodnestone, Goudhurst, Graveney, Gravesend, Great Chart, Great Mongeham, Greatstone, Greenhill, Greenhithe, Groombridge, Grove Green, Guston,

H
Hackington, Hacklinge, Hadlow, Hales Place, Halfway Houses, Halling, Halstead, Ham, Hamstreet, Harbledown, Harrietsham, Hartley, Hartley, Hartlip, Harty, Harvel, Hastingleigh, Hawkenbury, Hawkenbury, Hawkhurst, Hawkinge, Hawley, Hawthorn, Headcorn, Heart's Delight, Hempstead, Herne Bay, Herne, Hernhill, Hersden, Hever, Hextable, High Brooms, High Halden, High Halstow, Higham, Highsted, Hildenborough, Hillborough, Hinxhill, Hoaden, Hoath, Hodsoll Street, Hollingbourne, Hoo St Werburgh, Hook Green, Horden, Horsmonden, Horton Kirby, Hothfield, Hougham, Hucking, Hunton, Hythe,

I
Ickham, Ide Hill, Ightham, Ivy Hatch, Isle of Grain, Istead Rise, Ivychurch, Iwade,

K
Kearsney, Kemsing, Kemsley, Kenardington, Kennington, Keycol, Kilndown, Kings Hill, Kingsdown, Kingsnorth, Kingston, Kingswood, Kit's Coty, Knockholt, Knowlton,

L
Lade, Ladingford, Lamberhurst, Langdon, Langley, Langton Green, Leaveland, Leeds, Leigh Green, Leigh, Lenham, Leybourne, Leysdown-on-Sea, Linton, Little Chart, Little Mongeham, Littlebourne, Littlestone-on-Sea, Longfield, Loose, Lordswood, Lower Halstow, Lower Hardres, Luddenham, Luddesdown , Lydd-on-Sea, Lydd, Lydden, Lyminge, Lympne, Lynsted,

M
Maidstone, Manston, Marden, Margate, Markbeech, Marley, Marley, Marsh Green, Marshborough, Marshside, Martin Mill, Martin, Matfield, Maxton, Meopham Green, Meopham, Mereworth, Mersham, Milebush, Milstead, Milton Regis, Minster, Minster, Mockbeggar, Molash, Monkton, Murston,

N
Nackington, Nettlestead Green, Nettlestead, New Ash Green, New Barn, New Romney, Newbarn, Newchurch, Newenden, Newingreen, Newington, Newington, Newington, Newnham, Newtown, Nonington, North Street, Northbourne, Northfleet Green, Northfleet, Norton Ash, Buckland, Norton,

O
Oad Street, Oare, Offham, Olantigh, Old Hawkinge, Old Romney, Orlestone, Ospringe, Otford, Otham, Otterden, Ottinge, Oversland,

P
Paddlesworth, Paddock Wood, Painters Ash, Painters Forstal, Palm Bay, Park, Park Farm, Park Wood, Park Wood, Patrixbourne, Pedlinge, Peene, Pembury, Penenden Heath, Penshurst , Petham, Pett Bottom, Pineham, Platt, Platts Heath, Plaxtol, Pluckley Thorne, Pluckley, Plucks Gutter, Pollhill, Postling, Preston,

Q
Queenborough,

R
Rainham Mark, Rainham, Ramsgate, Reading Street, Reading Street, Reculver, Rhodes Minnis, Richborough, Ridley, Ringlestone (suburb), Ringlestone (hamlet), Ringwould, Ripple, River, Riverhead, Rochester, Rodmersham Green, Rolvenden Layne, Rolvenden, Rough Common, Royal Tunbridge Wells, Ruckinge, Rushenden, Rusthall, Ryarsh,

S
Saltwood, Sandgate, Sandhurst, Sandling, Sandway, Sandwich, Sarre, Seal Chart, Seal (including Stone Street), Sellindge, Selling, Sevenoaks Weald, Sevenoaks, Sevenscore, Sevington, Shadoxhurst, Shatterling, Sheerness, Sheldwich, Shellness, Shepherdswell, Shepway, Shipbourne, Shirkoak, Sholden, Shoreham, Shorne, Singleton, Singlewell, Sissinghurst, Sittingbourne, Small Hythe, Smarden, Smeeth, Snargate, Snave, Snodland, Snowdown, Sole Street, South Darenth, Southborough, Southfleet, Speldhurst, Springhead, St Margaret's at Cliffe, St Mary Hoo, St Mary in the Marsh, St Mary's Bay, St Mary's Island, St Mary's Platt, St Michaels, St Nicholas-at-Wade, St Peter's, Stalisfield, Stanford, Stanhope, Stansted, Staple, Staplehurst, Stelling Minnis, Stockbury, Stoke, Stone Chapel, Stone Cross, Stone in Oxney, Stone, Stonebridge Green, Stourmouth, Strood, Stubbs Cross, Stuppington, Sturry, Sundridge, Sutton Valence, Sutton, Sutton-at-Hone, Swale, Swalecliffe, Swanley Village, Swanley, Swanscombe, SwattendenSwingate,

T
Tankerton, Temple Ewell, Temple Hill, Tenterden, Teston, Teynham, Thanet, Thanington Without, Thong, Throwley, Thurnham, Tilmanstone, Tonbridge, Tonge, Tovil, Toys Hill, Trottiscliffe, Tunbridge Wells, Tunstall, Twydall, Tyler Hill,

U
Ulcombe, Underriver, Upchurch, Uplees, Upnor, Upper Harbledown, Upper Hardres, Upstreet,

V
Vigo,

W
Wainscott, Waldershare, Walderslade, Walmer, Waltham, Warden, Ware, Warehorne, Waterham, Wateringbury, Weavering, Well Hill, West Brabourne, West Farleigh, West Hythe, West Kingsdown, West Langdon, West Malling, West Peckham, West Studdal, Westbere, Westbrook, Westcliffe, Westenhanger, Westerham, Westgate-on-Sea, Westmarsh, Westwell Leacon, Westwell, Westwood, Whitehill, Whitfield, Whitstable, Wickhambreaux, Wigmore, Willesborough, Wilmington, Wincheap, Wingham, Wingmore, Wittersham, Womenswold, Woodchurch, Woodnesborough, Woolage Green, Woolage Village, Wootton, Wormshill, Worth, Wouldham, Wrotham Heath, Wrotham, Wye,

Y
Yalding, Yorkletts,

Kent

List of places in Kent


Salting is a treatment for food to make it last longer. Salting means that the food is treated with table salt.

Salting is similar to pickling. In pickling, food is treated with brine. The main types of food that are salted are  fish and meat. Bacon is an example of salted meat. It was discovered in the 19th century that salt mixed with nitrites (saltpeter) would color meats red, rather than grey, and consumers at that time then strongly preferred the red-colored meat. The food hence preserved stays healthy and fresh for days avoiding bacterial decay.

Salting is one of the ancient ways to preserve food.

References

Food preservation

Salting (food)


Bit-level parallelism is a form of parallel computing based on increasing processor word size, depending on very-large-scale integration (VLSI) technology. Enhancements in computers designs were done by increasing bit-level parallelism

Increasing the word size reduces the number of instructions the processor must execute in order to perform an operation on variables whose sizes are greater than the length of the word. (For example, consider a case where an 8-bit processor must add two 16-bit integers. The processor must first add the 8 lower-order bits from each integer, then add the 8 higher-order bits, requiring two instructions to complete a single operation. A 16-bit processor would be able to complete the operation with single instruction)

Historically, 4-bit microprocessors were replaced with 8-bit, then 16-bit, then 32-bit microprocessors, then 64-bit microprocessors. 32-bit processors has been a standard in general purpose computing for about 20 years, but now 64-bit processors are taking the lead.

References

Computer science

Bit-level parallelism


Chun Doo-hwan (6 March 1931 – 23 November 2021) was a Korean military officer and the President of South Korea from 1980 to 1988. He was sentenced to death in 1996. Chun was later pardoned by President Kim Young-sam on the advice of then President-elect Kim Dae-jung, who was sentenced to death by Chun some 20 years earlier.

The road to power
Chun was a graduate of the Korean Military Academy in 1955. He was a member of Hanahoi, a powerful group of military officials that supported his actions. He was in charge of the investigation into the assassination of President Park Chung-hee. On 12 December 1979, in what became known as the Incident of December 12th, Chun ordered the arrest of Army Chief of Staff General Chung Sung Hwa (정승화, 鄭昇和) without authorization from then-President Choi Kyu-ha. He ordered the arrest as part of the investigation of his part in the assassination. Chung Sung Hwa resisted the arrest. This led to a bloody gun fight at the Army Headquarters and the Ministry of Defense. By the next morning, Chun and his fellow military academy graduates Roh Tae-woo and Jeong Ho-yong were in charge of the Korean military.

On 17 May 1980, Chun placed the entire country under martial law and disbanded the National Assembly. Many politicians were arrested, including liberal politician Kim Dae-jung. Kim was later sentenced to death in spite of protests from the United States. Later, Chun changed Kim's sentence in return for U.S. support. Protests across the nation became smaller.  However, very violent prostests happened in Gwangju. Protestors Lootinglooted government building. They armed themselves with stolen guns and military jeeps.  Protestors killed a couple of policemen and started of violent protest against the government.  A couple of hundreds of protestors and some thirty soldiers were killed in the Gwangju.  Choi resigned in August, and Chun was elected his successor by the National Conference for Unification, the South Korean electoral college, in September. In February 1981, Chun was elected president under a revised constitution as the candidate of the Democratic Justice Party (later renamed Democratic Republican Party).

Years in office
Chun ruled in an authoritarian manner. The 1981 constitution was less authoritarian than its 1972 predecessor, the Yushin Constitution, but still granted very broad powers to the president.  However, it limited the president to one seven-year term. Chun did not try to change it so he could run for reelection in 1988.

By 1986, the general public was happy with the economic growth.  However, there was much anger and hatred against Chun's regime by left-wing students who later became known as 386s.  The left wing students led the nationwide June 1987 protests. In the same month, U.S. President Ronald Reagan sent a letter to Chun in support of the creation of "democratic institutions." On June 29th, Roh Tae-woo announced a program of reform. This included direct presidential elections, restoration of banned politicians including Kim Dae-jung, and other liberalizing measures.  This won Roh instant popularity, and he was elected as the next president of South Korea. It later became known that Chun was responsible for this plan.

During Chun's visit to Rangoon, Burma (now Myanmar) in 1983, a bomb exploded at a mausoleum he was about to visit. The bomb  killed 21 people, including South Korean Cabinet members. Chun himself did not die because he got there two minutes late. While no firm evidence of North Korean involvement has been found, they are widely thought to be responsible.

An embattled ex-President
In 1996, former presidents Chun and Roh were jailed on charges of corruption. On December 16, they were also found guilty of treason and mutiny as part of their takeover of power. Chun was sentenced to death. That sentence was changed to a life sentence. He and Roh were pardoned a year later.

Death
Chun died at his home in Seoul, on 23 November 2021 from cardiac arrest caused by blood cancer, aged 90.

References

Other websites
 Korean government website on Chun

Chun, Doo-hwan
Chun, Doo-hwan
Chun, Doo-hwan
Chun, Doo-hwan
Chun, Doo-hwan
Chun, Doo-hwan
Deaths from cardiac arrest
Deaths from blood cancer

Chun Doo-hwan


Pop is a UK children's channel that airs many children's cartoons.

History
Pop was called Toons & Tunes sometime before 2003, but in June 2003, it changed its name to Pop. At first it was just music videos but in early 2004 it started to show cartoons. These include things like Archie's Weird Mysteries, The Adventures of Super Mario Bros. 3 etc.; The music videos were kept but all disappeared in mid 2006. They were brought back in 2007 but only during a slot called Pop Party. Also changes have been made to the logo throughout the years. To start with, it showed letters being replaced by balloons, it was all in lower case, and it had no exclamation mark but in October 2006, a change was made. It was now white letters on an orange background. They were in 3D now. The exclamation mark was added and the letters were now all done in upper case. Due to copyright reasons on the music that got changed in 2007. In 2008 Pop's logo yet again changed. It used to be coloured letters on a blue background but the background disappeared and the letters were now all red. This is its current logo but the old one is still on the pop website.

Programming
Pop Aires many cartoons, so here they are:
Backyard Science (March 2009-Present) (Now on Nicktoons)
Clang Invasion (February 2010-February 2011)
Cosmic Quantum Ray (August 2009-December 2010)
Erky Perky (February 2010-January 2012)
Fairly Tale Police Department (September 2009-May 2011)
Kong:The Animated Series (July 2008-November 2010)
NanoBoy (October 2009-September 2011)
Oggy And The Cockroaches(January 2008-December 2014)
Pet Alien (September 2010-September 2011)
Pop Party (January 2008-January 2009)
Captain Biceps (October 2010-January 2012)
Tootuff (Season 1+2 October 2006- November 2010,Season 3 October 2008-January 2012)
SamSam (October 2010)
Sonic The Hedgehog(February 2004)
Adventures Of Sonic The Hedgehog (September 2003-May 2005)
Sonic Underground (January 2004-September 2008)
Super Mario Brothers(September 2003-February 2005)
The Adventures Of Super Mario Bros 3(November 2006)
Captain N And The New Super Mario World(November 2010)
Tracey McBean (August 2010-January 2012)
Trap Door (August 2010-February 2011)
Winx Club (April 2009-January 2012)
Former Shows
Ruby Gloom (September 2008-November 2010)
The Shawn Mendes Show (October 2009-July 2011)

Popfun.co.uk

Not long after the launch of Tiny pop's website, Pop had its own channel launched too. It features a fun and games bit, a what's on bit, a competitions page, and the logo. The games are things like Oggy Moshi, and things like that.

British television networks

Pop (British and Irish TV channel)


Jacob de Gheyn III is a famous painting.

It was painted by Rembrandt in 1632 and is the most stolen painting in the world. It has been stolen and recovered from galleries  at least four times, making it the world's most stolen painting.

Every time the painting has been recovered anonymously and as a consequence nobody was accused of the theft. This painting by Rembrandt is so well known that it would be difficult for a thief to take it again.

Jacob de Gheyn III, also known as Jacob III de Gheyn (1596–1641), was a Dutch Golden Age engraver, son of Jacob de Gheyn II, canon of Utrecht (city), and the subject of a 1632 oil painting by Rembrandt. The portrait is half of a pair of pendent portraits. The other piece is a portrait of de Gheyn's friend Maurits Huygens, wearing similar clothing (ruffs and black doublets) and facing the opposite direction

As legend goes, a man by the name of Marcus Smith V was found in a gallery sneaking and slowly making his way toward the painting with intent to steal it. The ghost of Jacob de Gheyn III sneaked up behind him and killed him. the legend is most likely untrue because Smith was with a lover that night and was actually poisoned the next night.

Paintings by Rembrandt van Rijn
1630s works

Portrait of Jacob de Gheyn III


Ivan Nikitich Nikitin ( c. 1690–1741) was a Russian painter, an author of portraits and battle paintings.

Biography

Ivan Nikitin was born in Moscow to a family of an Orthodox priest. He received his first artistic lessons from a Dutch artist Schwonbek at the engraving shop of the Kremlin Armoury. In 1711 the Armory together with Ivan Nikitin was moved to Saint Petersburg. In 1716–1720 he and his brother Roman Nikitin were sent to Italy by Peter the Great. The brothers learnt the art of painting at Florence and Venice. After returning to Russia Nikitin became the favorite court painter of Peter the Great. He worked in Moscow and Saint Petersburg.

After Peter's death in 1725 Nikitin continued to work at the court until 1732, when he and his brothers Roman and Rodion (the dean of the Cathedral of the Annunciation in Moscow Kremlin) were arrested for the distribution of pamphlets against vice-Procurator of Synod Feofan Prokopovich. Ivan was tortured, for five years imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress, then whipped and exiled to Tobolsk.

In 1740 Anna of Russia signed an amnesty for the brothers. The amnesty came into force in 1741. By request of the new Empress Elizabeth of Russia, Nikitin travelled back from Tobolsk to Saint Petersburg and died somewhere on the road either in late 1741 or in early 1742.

Works

The early portraits by Nikitin had a strong influence of the traditional 17th century parsuna style: no perspective, rigid local colors, dark backgrounds. The later portraits are typical Baroque paintings. Most art historians consider the Nikitin's best portraits to be Chancellor G. I. Golovkin and A Malorossian Hetman. There are problems attributing the subject of the portrait, with different historians arguing that he is Ivan Mazepa or Ivan Skoropadsky or Kazimir Ian Sapega, or Pavlo Polubotok, but they all are equal in emphasising the psychological depth of the portrait.

Besides portraits, Ivan Nikitin is also considered to be the first notable Russian battle painter due to his paintings of the Battle of Poltava and Battle of Kulikovo.

External links

Nikitin's site – in Russian
Biography – in Russian
Biography – in Russian

1741 deaths
18th-century painters from the Russian Empire
Russian male painters
Year of birth uncertain
War artists

Ivan Nikitin (painter)


An unsecured creditor is a creditor other than a preferential creditor that does not have the benefit of any security interests in the assets of the debtor.

In the event of the bankruptcy of the debtor, the unsecured creditors usually obtain a pari passu distribution out of the assets of the insolvent company on a liquidation in accordance with the size of their debt after the secured creditors have enforced their security and the preferential creditors have exhausted their claims.

Although in a liquidation the unsecured creditors will usually realize the smallest proportion of their claims, in some legal systems, unsecured creditors who are also indebted to the insolvent debtor can (and in some jurisdictions, must) set off the debts, putting the unsecured creditor with a matured liability to the debtor in a pre-preferential position.

See also
 Preferential creditor
 Secured creditor

Footnotes

Credit
Bankruptcy
Insolvency

Unsecured creditor


The Mines of Paris (in French Carrières de Paris — "quarries of Paris") are made up of a number of abandoned, underground mines under Paris, France, connected together by large chambers called galleries. Three main networks exist; the largest, called the grand réseau sud ("large south network"), lies under the Ve, VIe, XIVe and XVe arrondissements, a second under the XIIIe arrondissement, and a third under the XVIe, though other minor networks are found under the XIIe, XIVe and XVIe for instance. Together, the mines and galleries run for about 280 kilometres.

Exploring the mines is not allowed by the prefecture and people caught get heavy fines.  A limited part of the network (1.7 km) was used as an underground ossuary (storage place for human bones) in the past known as the catacombs of Paris, and can be legally visited from the entrance on Place Denfert-Rochereau. The entire network is commonly but mistakenly called "the catacombs". Despite restrictions, the network is often toured by urban explorers popularly called cataphiles.

Ossuary

During the 18th century, the growing population of Paris resulted in the filling up of existing cemeteries, raising public health concerns. Towards the end of the 18th century, it was decided to create three new large cemeteries and to condemn the existing cemeteries within the city limits. Human remains were slowly moved to a rebuilt section of the abandoned mines that would later become a ossuary. The entrance is located on present day Place Denfert-Rochereau.

The ossuary became a tourist attraction on from the early 19th century and has been open to the public on a regular basis from 1867. Although it is officially called the Ossuaire Municipal, it is widely known as "the catacombs".  Though the entire network of Paris' mines is not a burial place as such, the term 'Catacombs' is commonly used to refer to the whole network.

Related pages
 Cataphile

References

Paris
Subterranea

Mines of Paris


Blake Snyder (October 3, 1957 – August 4, 2009) was an American screenwriter, consultant, author and educator based in Los Angeles. His screenplays include the comedies Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot (1992) and Blank Check (1994).

Through his Save the Cat trilogy of books on screenwriting and story structures, Snyder became one of the most popular writing mentors in the film industry. Snyder led international seminars and workshops for writers in various disciplines, as well as consultation sessions for some of Hollywood's largest studios.

Snyder died unexpectedly August 4, 2009, of what was characterized as either a pulmonary embolism or cardiac arrest. A public memorial was held at the Writers Guild of America, West on September 29, 2009.

Early life
Snyder's father, Kenneth C. T. Snyder, was an Emmy-winning TV producer of many children's shows in the 1960s and 1970s. Among them were The Funny Company, Hot Wheels, animated segments on Sesame Street, Big Blue Marble and Roger Ramjet.

At the age of eight, Snyder was hired by his father as a voice talent for an animated special starring Sterling Holloway. Snyder continued doing children's voices alongside Gary Owens, June Foray and others until his voice changed and he was fired by his producer father.

Snyder went on to earn a B.A. degree in English from Georgetown University, and returned to Los Angeles where he began his career writing for the Disney TV series Kids Incorporated. Snyder began writing full-time as a screenwriter in 1987. He was a member of the Writers Guild of America for over 20 years.

Snyder's first spec screenplay sale was in 1989 for the script Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot, which sold for $500,000 in a bidding war. Million dollar script sales include Blank Check, co-written with Colby Carr for Walt Disney Pictures, and Nuclear Family, co-written with James Haggin for Amblin Entertainment.

Save the Cat!
Snyder's nonfiction book Save the Cat! The Last Book on Screenwriting You'll Ever Need was the number one selling book among screenwriting manuals on Amazon and in 2018 is on its 34th printing.  The book describes in detail the structure of the monomyth or hero's journey, providing a by-the-minute pattern for screenwriting.

Title
The title Save the Cat! was coined by Snyder to describe a decisive moment when the protagonist demonstrates that they are worth rooting for. Snyder writes, "It's the scene where we [first] meet the hero", in order to gain audience favor and support for the main character right from the start.  In the opening scene of the movie Frequency, for example, Frank Sullivan, played by Dennis Quaid, is a veteran firefighter who jumps into a manhole to save two workers from a gas explosion.  Snyder argues that Frank's casual confidence facing danger makes him interesting to the audience. From this point, the audience is fully invested in Frank's well-being and rooting for him to succeed.

According to Snyder, this crucial element is missing from many of today's movies.  He referenced Lara Croft: Tomb Raider – The Cradle of Life (2003) as being a film that focused on making the character Lara Croft "cool" and sexy (via a "new latex body suit for Angelina Jolie") instead of likable.  An estimated $95 million was spent on this film, and it only grossed $156.5 million worldwide ($65.6 million in the U.S.).  This sequel did not lose money, but it earned considerably less than the original Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (2001), which grossed $274.7 million worldwide ($131.1 million in the U.S.).

Premise
In his book, Snyder gave greatest emphasis on the importance of structure through his Blake Snyder Beat Sheet or the "BS2" which includes the 15 essential "beats" or plot points that all stories should contain.

Snyder's method expanded the 15 beats further into 40 beats, which are laid out on "The Board." The Board is divided into 4 rows, with each row representing a quarter of the story, namely the 1st Act, the 1st half of the 2nd Act, the 2nd half of the 2nd Act, and the 3rd Act.

Snyder also introduced 10 genres in his book that distinguished how stories are structured. According to Snyder, standard genre types such as Romantic Comedy, Epic or Biography did not say much about the story, only the type of movie it is. Snyder's system explored genre more fully, with categories such as "Monster in the House", "Golden Fleece", "Buddy Love" and others.

Criticism
The book has been criticized for allegedly leading to formulaic screenplays. While previous screenwriting advice was more conceptual, Save the Cat points to specific pages of the screenplay where beats should happen. Since screenplay pages are analogous to minutes of film, this has been called a minute-by-minute guide to writing a story.

A New York Times article criticized a perceived Hollywood formula. But it questioned whether Save the Cat caused the trend or was inspired by it.

Book series
In 2007, Snyder wrote Save the Cat! Goes to the Movies. The second book took 50 landmark movies, identified their specific genres, and broke them down into the 15 beats of the BS2.

The third book of Snyder's series, Save the Cat! Strikes Back: More Trouble for Screenwriters to Get Into... and Out Of, was published in November, 2009. This was the last book in the series to be authored by Snyder himself.

The fourth book was a compilation of Blake's blogs and other writings on the subject of screenwriting, titled Save the Cat! Blake's Blogs: More Information and Inspiration for Writers (published in 2016).

The fifth book was written by his student, Spanish screenwriter and novelist Salva Rubio. It is titled Save the Cat! Goes to the Indies, was published in April 2017, and features the analysis of 50 independent, European, auteur and cult films.

The sixth is the first non-screenwriting book, Save the Cat! Writes a Novel: The Last Book on Novel Writing That You'll Ever Need, written by student and young-adult novelist Jessica Brody (published on October 9, 2018).

Software
As a companion to his books, Snyder developed a story structure software product called Save the Cat! The Last Story Structure Software You'll Ever Need. The software places Snyder's Beat Sheet and Board on an end user's desktop, phone, or tablet. In 2008, Snyder and the software company Final Draft, Inc. specializing in script formatting, became partners in building import/export functions between the two programs. Snyder's company, Blake Snyder Enterprises, LLC, released an iPhone app of the software in November 2009 and an Android app in 2016. Version 4 of the software and apps, which includes new templates for novelists and television writers, was released in the fourth quarter of 2018.

Workshops and consultations
Snyder developed two weekend workshops for writers, filmmakers and executives. The introductory class, The Beat Sheet Workshop, helped participants come up with the solid structure of the 15 beats, before they embark on the actual writing of the script. In addition, The Beat Sheet Workshop was expanded to be led internationally.

The second workshop, a continuation of the first, called The Board Workshop, had participants take their 15 beats and expand them into 40 cards for a more detailed story structure. Snyder held his workshops all over the United States, Europe and Asia. The workshops were run year round.  Snyder also taught his method at such universities as UCLA, Chapman University, Vanderbilt University and the Beijing Film Academy.

The in-person Beat Sheet Workshops continue, taught by "Master Cats" who were mentored by Snyder. The Beat Sheet Workshops expanded with online courses in 2017.

Following the release of his first book, Snyder provided script analysis to studios such as Disney, DreamWorks, Laika and Nelvana.

Dedications
How to Train Your Dragon (DreamWorks, 2010) was dedicated to Snyder. Whispers Under Ground (Gollancz, 2012) by Ben Aaronovitch was dedicated to him as well.

Filmography
Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot (1992)
Blank Check (1994)

Bibliography
Save the Cat! The Last Book on Screenwriting You'll Ever Need (2005)
Save the Cat! Goes to the Movies: The Screenwriter's Guide to Every Story Ever Told (2007)
Save the Cat! Strikes Back: More Trouble for Screenwriters to Get Into… and Out Of (2009)
Save the Cat! Blake's Blogs: More Information and Inspiration for Writers (2016)
Other STC titles:Save the Cat! Goes to the Indies: The Screenwriters Guide to 50 Films from the Masters (by Salva Rubio, 2017)Save the Cat! Writes a Novel: The Last Book On Novel Writing That You'll Ever Need (by Jessica Brody, 2018)

 References

 External links

 www.blakesnyder.com
 www.savethecat.com
 Interview with Blake Snyder at
 Interview with Blake Snyder from The Vancouver Sun
 Blake Snyder and Final Draft, Inc. Software Development Partnership Announced at Final Draft, Inc. Press Release
 Blake Snyder interview by Ari Eisner at Creative Screenwriting, The Cat with the Golden Fleece: Save the Cat! Goes to the Movies, October 5, 2007
 Blake Snyder interview by Therese Walsh at www.WriterUnboxed.com
 Blake Snyder interview by Jenna Glatzer at www.absolutewrite.com
 Blake Snyder interview at www.Hollywoodlitsales.com
 Nuclear Family'' spec sale report at www.Hollywoodlitsales.com

1957 births
2009 deaths
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American education writers
American information and reference writers
American instructional writers
American male non-fiction writers
American male screenwriters
American television writers
Deaths from pulmonary embolism
American male television writers
Screenwriting instructors
Writers of books about writing fiction
20th-century American screenwriters

Blake Snyder


The Duenna is a three-act comic opera, mostly composed by Thomas Linley the elder and his son, Thomas Linley the younger, to an English-language libretto by Richard Brinsley Sheridan. At the time, it was considered one of the most successful operas ever staged in England, and its admirers included Samuel Johnson, William Hazlitt and George Byron (the latter called it "the best opera ever written").

First performed in the Covent Garden Theatre on 21 November 1775, The Duenna was performed seventy-five times in its first season, and was frequently revived in Britain until the 1840s. In total, 256 performances of the opera had been held in London from its opening in 1775 to the end of the 18th century. Another 194 performances occurred in the capital during the 19th century, with the last known London staging happening in January 1851 (there were some subsequent Dublin performances in 1853). The opera was first performed in the Colony of Jamaica in 1779, and subsequently spread round the English-speaking world. Soon after its first London performance, representations sprang up in British provincial theatres, though these often used invented dialogue (Sheridan's original text was not published until 1794) to link the published songs and musical numbers. In Autumn 2010, English Touring Opera performed the complete opera in venues around the UK, beginning in the Linbury Studio Theatre within the Royal Opera House as part of ROH2's Autumn season – bringing the opera back to its Covent Garden home. Two modern operas based on Sheridan's libretto have been performed: Sergei Prokofiev's Betrothal in a Monastery (composed 1940-1), and Roberto Gerhard's version of 1945–7.

The writing of The Duenna

Background

After the triumph of The Rivals, and having effectively chosen the life of a playwright over that of a lawyer, Sheridan needed a commercial success to cement his position economically and culturally. To do this he skilfully used to his advantage the resources available to him at the time. He judged correctly the popular trend in the last quarter of the 18th century theatre towards operas, pantomime and music.

The Duenna was considered a pastiche opera, though not by choice but as a result of the "extraordinary circumstances in which it was cobbled together." In 1772–73, Sheridan and Elizabeth Linley had a courtship, eventually eloping due to the opposition of their parents towards the relationship. This incident was to later become a major theme in the opera, in the form of Louisa's elopement so she could marry Antonio. After his marriage to Elizabeth Linley in April 1773, their parents eventually relented their opposition to the couple.

Using the musical experience of Elizabeth's father, Thomas Linley the elder, Sheridan asked him to provide music for The Duenna; whilst refraining from telling him about the true nature of the opera or giving him all of the lyrics to it. The remaining lyrics in the opera were written to fit melodies from the Italian operas of that time, as well as some Scottish tunes, such as Michael Arne's The Highland Laddie, made popular in ballad operas. The Scottish tunes were later sent to Linley as they needed harmonising. Linley gave these tunes to his son, Thomas Linley the younger, to harmonise. Linley the younger had proved to be a source of inspiration for his father when creating music for the opera. Illustrating his disdain for Sheridan's decision to incorporate parts of other operas in The Duenna, Thomas Linley the elder wrote to David Garrick:

Influence of the plot and characters
The basics of the plot of The Duenna originate in the tradition of Spanish honour dramas and the play includes many features of the genre. Its nearest predecessors are John Fletcher's The Chances and Sir Samuel Tuke's The Adventures of Five Hours. However, for the benefit of the polite 18th-century audience, Sheridan left out the risqué situations of the previous honour dramas, so that when Louisa escapes from her father's house, the street is not the dangerous place her father has threatened her with. It is, in fact, very safe.

Sheridan's personal life also provided models for the plot and characters, as was also the case in The Rivals. Louisa is a sketch of Elizabeth Linley/Sheridan; both have beautiful voices, both are forced by their fathers into marrying wealthy men whom they detest, and both flee to convents to avoid those marriages. The quarrelling of Ferdinand and Antonio can also be traced to the brotherly quarrelling of Richard and Charles Sheridan contemporary to the writing of The Duenna.

The songs

The songs in The Duenna were among the fundamental reasons for its success. While it does owe its heritage to the Ballad opera of the 1720s (John Gay's The Beggar's Opera being the most famous example) the songs in The Duenna were more technically complex and required trained singers in the lead roles. The musical score was a combination of successful works by other composers, traditional ballads and new compositions. About half of the pieces are new, composed by Linley the elder and (mainly) by Linley the younger. Editions of the vocal score were published but a complete orchestral score was never printed. Nevertheless, about half the numbers survive in manuscript full score (numbers 1, 3, 5, 11, 16, 21–26, 28–29), printed parts (the overture, by Linley the younger) and published full score (the borrowed numbers 6, 18, 24). The original scoring of the remaining numbers in this most popular opera may never be heard again, though they were orchestrated for the English Touring Opera performances in 2010.

Act 1

1. Song (Antonio): Tell me, my lute, can thy soft strain
2. Trio (Antonio, Louisa, Don Jerome): The breath of morn bids hence the night
3. Air (Ferdinand): Could I her faults remember
4. Air (Antonio): I ne'er could any lustre see
5. Air (Antonio): Friendship is the bond of reason
6. Air (Ferdinand): Tho' cause for suspicion appears
7. Air (Louisa): Thou canst not boast of fortune's store
8. Air (Don Jerome): If a daughter you have, she's the plague of your life
9. Air (Clara): When sable night, each drooping plant restoring
10. Air (Carlos): Had I a heart for falsehood fram'd
11. Trio (Isaac, Louisa and Carlos): My mistress expects me

Act 2
12. Song (Isaac): Give Isaac the nymph who no beauty can boast
13. Song (Don Jerome): When the maid whom we love
14. Song (Duenna): When a tender maid is first essay'd
15. Song (Carlos): Ah! sure a pair was never seen
16. Duet (Isaac, Don Jerome): Believe me, good sir
17. Glee (Jerome, Ferdinand and Isaac): A bumper of good liquor
18. Air (Louisa): What Bard, O Time, discover
19. Song (Carlos): O, had my love ne'er smil'd on me
20. Trio (Antonio, Carlos, Louisa): Soft pity never leaves the gentle breast

Act 3
21. Song (Don Jerome): O, the days when I was young
22. Air (Ferdinand): Ah! Cruel maid, how hast thou chang'd
23. Recit. Accomp. & Air (Ferdinand): Shall not my soul?/Sharp is the woe
24. Air (Clara): By him we love offended
25. Song (Antonio): How oft, Louisa, hast thou told
26. Air (Clara): Adieu, thou dreary pile
27. Glee and Chorus (Father Paul, Francis, Augustine, and Friars): This bottle's the sun of our table
28. Duet (Louisa and Clara): Turn thee round, I pray thee
29. Chorus: Oft does Hymen smile to hear
30. Final ensemble (Jerome, Louisa, Ferdinand, Antonio, Clara): Come now for jest and smiling

Writing for the talent
Sheridan wrote many of the roles in The Duenna to match a specific performer's ability, tailoring the text to the capacities of the singer. For example, Michael Leoni was cast for the role of Don Carlos, but his heavy German-Jewish accent meant that he could not deliver long lines of dialogue. To counter this problem Don Carlos's speeches were cut and his dialogues turned into duets and trios. John Quick, who had proved himself as a great actor of Sheridan's comic characters as Bob Acres in The Rivals and Doctor Rosy in St Patrick's Day, was given the part of the equally ridiculous Isaac Mendoza; Mrs. Green, the original Mrs Malaprop, was given the role of the duenna.

Textual corruption
In his Reminiscences, Michael Kelly tells the story that in 1807 he was appearing in The Duenna at Drury Lane, as Ferdinand. One morning he went out for a ride, and returned home to find Sheridan with pen and ink correcting his printed copy of the dialogue. 'Do you act the part of Ferdinand from this printed copy?' asked Sheridan. Kelly replied that he had done so for 20 years. 'Then you have been acting great nonsense,' came the reply, and Sheridan went through correcting every sentence. Kelly adds, 'What could prove his negligence more than correcting an opera which he had written in 1775 in the year 1807; and then, for the first time, examining it and abusing the manner in which it was printed?'

Roles
The scene is Seville.

Plot
The play is set in Seville, and centres on the family of the wealthy Don Jerome. His son, Don Ferdinand, is in love with Donna Clara, whose cruel father is set upon forcing her into a nunnery – the nearby convent of St Catherine. In desperation, Don Ferdinand bribes her maid to admit him to her bedchamber at dead of night, to beg her to run away with him, but she indignantly refuses – but keeps the duplicate key he has made, and runs away by herself on the morrow.

Meanwhile, Don Ferdinand's sister Donna Louisa is in love with the poor but gallant Don Antonio. Her avaricious father Don Jerome wants to marry her to the equally avaricious and cunning Isaac Mendoza, who through his inordinate fondness for overreaching whosoever he has to do, is generally as much a fool as a knave, and is thus the dupe of his own art, as Donna Louisa tells her father.

Stage history
The Duenna was first performed on 21 November 1775 at Covent Garden Theatre, London. The play catered to the reputation of the Covent Garden Theatre as the home of low comedy, the comedy of the jape, the leer and the pratfall. However, Covent Garden was also the traditional home of opera and musical entertainment, being built with the original profits from Gay's The Beggar's Opera (Covent Garden Theatre is now called the Royal Opera House). The opera was an immediate hit, with 75 performances in its first season and a total of 254 performances at Covent Garden alone in the 25 years between its opening and the end of the eighteenth century.

Interest in The Duenna was renewed in the early 20th century with performances at the Maddermarket Theatre, Norwich in 1923, and by Sir Barry Jackson at Birmingham soon after: and a further revival was advocated by Lovat Fraser, designer of the scenery and dresses for Frederic Austin's restoration of The Beggar's Opera at Hammersmith with Nigel Playfair in 1920–23. Playfair took up the challenge with George Sheringham as his designer of costumes and scenery, in a production with the music reharmonised, and in some cases rewritten, at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith in December 1924. The full text (without music) and designs (in colour plates) were published as a book with a foreword by Playfair in 1925.

Modern reworkings
The Duenna has two modern reworkings that use the storyline of the opera but not the original music. The first is The Duenna by the Spanish Catalan exile Roberto Gerhard in 1947–49. The second is by Sergei Prokofiev in 1940 (first performed in 1946 owing to the Second World War) – Prokofiev changes the name of the play to Betrothal in a Monastery.

See also
Betrothal in a Monastery – Russian XX century opera by Sergey Prokofiev to the same libretto.

References

1775 operas
Compositions by Thomas Linley the elder
English-language operas
Operas
Operas by Thomas Linley the younger
Plays by Richard Brinsley Sheridan

The Duenna


A locker is a small compartment that is used to store things such as books, coats, etc. They are commonly found in schools. They are usually locked with a padlock or a built-in lock. Usually there is an array of lockers. Each user has his/her own key (or combination) and can not open other people's lockers. There is sometimes a master key used only by the manager which can open all of the lockers. The typical maximum padlock shackle thickness is 5/16 inch (8 mm), and the typical door thickness is 0.8 mm. High-security lockers typically have a 10 mm or more maximum shackle thickness and a 1.2 mm door thickness.

Containers
Locks

Locker


The Violent Years is a 1956 American exploitation movie starring Jean Moorhead as Paula Parkins, the leader of a gang of juvenile delinquent high school girls.  Ed Wood, Jr., the director of Glen or Glenda and Plan 9 from Outer Space, wrote the screenplay. It was originally titled Teenage Girl Gang. Star Jean Moorhead was the Playboy Playmate for October 1955.

Cast
 Jean Moorhead as Paula Parkins
 Barbara Weeks as Jane Parkins
 Arthur Millan as Carl Parkins
 Theresa Hancock as Georgia
 Glen Corbett as Barney Stetson
 Joanne Cangi as Geraldine
 Gloria Farr as Phyllis
 Lee Constant as Sheila
 I. Stanford Jolley as Judge Clara
 Timothy Farrell as Lt. Holmes
 F. Chan McClure as Det. Artman
 Bruno Metsa as Manny
 Harry Keaton as Doctor

Story
Paula Parkins gets her kicks leading a gang of bored young women in criminal activities. The gang dresses in men's clothes, robs gas stations, and terrorizes couples in a local lovers' lane. Paula even rapes a young man.

Paula and her pals wreck a few classrooms in a public school. The police arrive and a deadly shootout takes place. Two members of Paula's gang are killed. Paula shoots and kills a policeman.

Paula is captured, convicted, and dies in the hospital giving birth to the child she conceived during the rape. Paula's parents are denied custody of their daughter's baby because they did a poor job of raising Paula.

Reviews
Patrick McKinnon writes, "There are some movies that shouldn't be watched alone or sober. This is one of them. It makes you want to go back in time and beat Ed Wood Jr. to death with one of his own angora sweaters."

Notes

References
 The Haunted World of Edward D. Wood, Jr. (1996), documentary film directed by Brett Thompson
 Rudolph Grey, Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood, Jr. (1992)

Other websites

1956 movies
American movies
English-language movies
Exploitation movies
Teen movies

The Violent Years


A world line is the unique path that an object has as it travels through both space and time, usually called spacetime. As we learn from special relativity, the faster an object goes, the more time slows down for that object.  As you can see in the illustration to the right, the slower object has a quicker passage of time than the very fast object, the one which time passes much more slowly for. When an object reaches the speed of light, it will be zero on the t axis, meaning that it will have made no progress in the time direction. Basically, the world lines show that when the speed of light is reached, time stops for the observer. World lines are very often used in theoretical physics and special relativity, as well as general relativity.

Usage
The concept of world lines is used widely in theoretical physics, for it shows some interesting facts about high-speed motion. For example, the time dilation equation presented by Albert Einstein is algebraically undefined when an object's velocity is the speed of light, but using world lines one can find that when the speed is the speed of light, time will stop. Although Einstein's equation (for time dilation) does show that an object going faster than light goes backward in time, the same concept can be described using world lines.

Physics

World line


Totnes is a town in South Devon, South West England. 7,800 people live there. It has many old buildings dating back to Tudor times, and it has the remains of a Norman castle. The town stands on the River Dart, at the highest point reached by the tide.

Totnes is well known in Britain for its large New Age community, although some of these people are moving away from the town. The town has many interesting shops selling health food and books, and there are also many art and craft shops.

A local legend says that Totnes was begun by Brutus of Troy after the Trojan war. There is a stone in the high street called the Brutus Stone. This is where people say he first stepped on British soil.

Other websites

 Tourist information
 Totnes Museum
 Totnes Community Magazine

Towns in Devon
South Hams

Totnes


An art exhibition is a place where works of art are shown to the public. The word exhibition comes from Latin exhibere, which means to show. This can be in a museum or an exhibition hall. The exhibition can be temporary, or permanent (like a section of a museum). Some exhibitions show works of art of the same artist, others show works of art on a common theme.

Art exhibitions

Art exhibition


Gossip Girl is an American television teen drama based on the popular novel series of the same title written by Cecily von Ziegesar. Gossip Girl revolves around the lives of a group of rich teenagers grown up on New York's Upper East Side as they attend private school while dealing with typical teenage adolescent issues such as sex and drugs.

The series begins with Serena van der Woodsen' returning from a half-year at boarding school in Cornwall. "Gossip Girl" is the name of an anonymous blogger, who knows everything in Upper East Side but nobody knows who she is. Gossip Girl is voiced by nourah

Cast
Serena van der Woodsen - Blake Lively
Blair Waldorf - Leighton Meester
Nathaniel "Nate" Archibald - Chace Crawford
Charles "Chuck" Bass - Ed Westwick
Daniel "Dan" Humphrey - Penn Badgley
Jennifer "Jenny" Humphrey - Taylor Momsen
Eric van der Woodsen - Connor Paolo
Vanessa Abrams - Jessica Szohr
Lily van der Woodsen - Kelly Rutherford
Rufus Humphrey - Matthew Settle
Eleanor Waldorf -  Margaret Colin
Ivy Dickens - Kaylee DeFer
Georgina Sparks - Michelle Trachtenberg

Characters
Blair Waldorf is the queen bee of Constance Billard High School. She seems to have everything: a rich family, a handsome boyfriend, and lots of friends. However, loneliness deep in her heart makes her a naughty and manipulative girl.
Serena van der Woodsen, is Blair's best friend. The story starts with her coming back to Upper East Side after her sudden disappearance to boarding school. She used to be a party girl, but she tries to change.
Charles "Chuck" Bass is a rich boy. When his father (Bart Bass) dies, he gets his father's company, Bass Industries. But he doesn't think he is ready yet, so he gives it to Bart's wife, Lily Wan Der Woodsen, who is Serena's mother. He bought a hotel, The Empire. Chuck and Blair have an complicated relationship with each other. They were dating for a long time until Chuck picked the Empire instead of her.
Nathaniel "Nate" Archibald is Chuck's best friend. He is described as a boy who has everything, but he tries to find his own identity between his powerful family and himself.
Daniel "Dan" Humphrey is an outsider who lives in Brooklyn. He starts dating his first love, Serena van der Woodsen.
Jenny Humphrey
blair and chuck a7la couple

Other websites

2007 American television series debuts
2012 American television series endings
2000s American drama television series
2000s teen television series
2010s American drama television series
2010s teen television series
American teen drama television series
High school television series
Television series set in New York City
English-language television programs

Gossip Girl