André-Dieudonné Kolingba (12 August 1936 – 7 February 2010) was a Central African politician, who was the fourth President of the Central African Republic (CAR), from 1 September 1981 until 1 October 1993. He took power from President David Dacko in a bloodless coup d'état in 1981 and lost power to Ange-Félix Patassé in a democratic election held in 1993. Kolingba retained the strong support of France until the end of the Cold War in 1992, after which both internal and external pressure forced him to hold presidential elections which he lost.

His twelve-year term in office saw the growing influence of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank in decisions by donor-nations regarding financial support and management of the Central African state. Many members of Kolingba's ethnic group, the Yakoma people, obtained lucrative posts in the public, private and parastatal sectors of the CAR's economy during his era. This gave rise to growing tension between so-called  "southerners" (including the riverine Yakoma) and "northerners" (including the savanna Gbaya) in the CAR which led to violent confrontations between these groups during the Patassé era (1993–2003).

Biography

Early life and education
André-Dieudonné Kolingba was born on 12 August 1936 in Bangui, the capital of the French colony of Oubangui-Chari in French Equatorial Africa. A member of the riverine Yakoma ethnic group, Kolingba (meaning "male Buffalo") joined the French military in 1954 and was transferred to the Central African army at independence in 1960. He became a sub-lieutenant on 1 October 1964, a colonel, and then a brigadier general on 3 April 1973. As a battalion commander, he was named technical adviser to the minister of national defense, veterans and war victims on 1 March 1977, as well as aide-de-camp of Bokassa. He then served briefly as the CAR's ambassador to Canada — replacing Sylvestre Bangui — and the Federal Republic of Germany before being named minister in March 1979. When Bokassa was overthrown in 1979 and David Dacko was restored to power by the French, general Kolingba gained Dacko's favor and was made army chief of staff in July 1981.

Overthrow of David Dacko
In September 1981, general Kolingba overthrew Dacko in the 1981 Central African Republic coup d'état. There has been considerable speculation about who supported Kolingba's seizure of power. It has been suggested that local French military advisers helped him carry out the coup without the authorization or knowledge of Socialist President François Mitterrand and his entourage (Delayan 1985; Kalck 2004). The French supported Kolingba until the fall of the Berlin Wall and the democratization movement in Africa during the late 1980s and early 1990s led to local, French and international pressure to hold presidential elections.

Ruling years
After overthrowing Dacko in 1981, Kolingba established a military committee for national reconstruction to rule the country, but in fact he ruled as a military dictator, more corrupt than brutal, until 1986, when he submitted a Constitution to a national referendum. The document was approved with an implausible total of 92 percent. Under its terms, Kolingba was automatically elected president for a six-year term. It also established the Central African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement Démocratique Centrafricain, RDC) as the country's only legal party. Parliamentary elections were held in 1987, in which voters were presented with a single list of RDC candidates. With all candidates effectively handpicked by Kolingba, he effectively held complete political control over the country.

The end of the Cold War in 1992 made Western nations less willing to tolerate anti-communist Third World dictatorships.  Internal and external pressures eventually forced Kolingba to open up the regime. In March 1991 he agreed to share power with Edouard Frank, who he named prime minister. He also established a commission to make the constitution more democratic and pluralistic. In late 1991, the donor community (most notably a very vocal US ambassador) finally pressured Kolingba to hold free elections. These took place in 1992, assisted by the UN Electoral Assistance Unit and monitored by international observers. Kolingba finished dead last, with only 10 percent of the vote. In response, he had the constitutional council declare the election invalid. His presidential mandate was due to expire on 28 November 1992, but he carried out a "constitutional coup d'état" which extended his presidential term for another 90 days.

Election of Patassé
On 3 February 1993, Kolingba established an interim organ, the National Provisional Political Council of the Republic (Conseil National Politique Provisoire de la République). On 28 February 1993, Abel Goumba, leader of the opposition Democratic Forces for Dialogue (Concertation des Forces Démocratiques), announced President Kolingba was no longer president. Unwilling to give in, Kolingba remained in his post but the group of local donor representatives (GIBAFOR), notably from the USA and France, forced him to hold proper elections. The same team which the UN Electoral Assistance unit had provided for the earlier election, and which Kolingba's government caused to fail, was brought in to give its support. Kolingba came in fourth, with only 12 percent of the vote - well short of a spot in the runoff.  Angé Patassé won the presidency in the second round on 19 September 1993.  When Kolingba turned over the presidency to Patassé a month later, it marked the first - and to date - only time since independence when an incumbent president peacefully surrendered power to the opposition.

Attempted coup
On 28 May 2001, the 2001 Central African Republic coup d'état attempt against President Patassé but it failed. Patassé accused Kolingba and his partisans of attempting to destabilize his regime and wanted to put him on trial and so Kolingba took refuge in Uganda. Patassé was overthrown in the 2003 Central African Republic coup d'état by François Bozizé, who declared an amnesty for all those involved in the attempted coup d'état of 2001. Kolingba finally returned to Bangui on 5 October 2003 during the last days of a National Conference (Dialogue National) which Bozizé sponsored to promote reconciliation and reconstruction of the country. On 7 October 2003 Kolingba attended the conference and spoke to the delegates, publicly asking for forgiveness for the excesses committed during his rule. He then left for Paris on 2 November 2003 for a prostate operation. Kolingba died in Paris on 7 February 2010.

Awards and family
Kolingba was married to Mireille Kotalimbora-Kolingba (born 1947).

Kolingba was named officier de l'Ordre de l'Opération Bokassa (Officer of the Order of the Operation Bokassa) on 1 December 1971, officier de l'Ordre de la Médaille de la Reconnaissance Centrafricaine (Officer of the Order of the Medal of Central African Gratitude) on 1 January 1972, chevalier de l'Ordre du Merite Postal (Knight of the Order of Postal Merit) on 1 December 1972, commandeur (Commander) (1 January 1975) and dignité de Grand-Croix (Grand Cross) (1 December 1981) de l'Ordre du Mérite Centrafricain (Central African Order of Merit).

References

Sources

Delayen, Julie Anne. "Origins and Causes of Military Rule in the Central African Republic." M.A. thesis, University of Florida, 1985.

1936 births
2010 deaths
People from Bangui
French military personnel
People of French Equatorial Africa
Heads of state of the Central African Republic
Central African Republic exiles
Leaders who took power by coup
Central African Republic military personnel
Central African Democratic Rally politicians
Ambassadors of the Central African Republic to Canada
Ambassadors of the Central African Republic to West Germany
1980s in the Central African Republic
1990s in the Central African Republic

André Kolingba


The pigeonhole principle explains that when there are (n) pigeon-sized holes in a pigeon container, then it's impossible to fit more than (n) pigeons in that container, without having at least one hole containing more than one. The pigeons are used here as an example for anything that can be put into containers or subdivisions.

This theorem is important in computer science and mathematics, especially in graph theory.

Example

In one suitcase there are 12 blue socks and 18 black socks. If we close our eyes, how many socks must we pull out to be sure we have a pair of the same color?

If we think of the colors as holes or categories, we have 2 holes, so (n) = 2. If we pull three socks from the suitcase, at least two of them must be the same color, because 3 is a number greater than 2. So the correct answer here is three.

Computer science
Mathematics

Pigeonhole principle


In constitutional law, Advice is formal, usually binding instruction given by a constitutional officer of state to another. Heads of state in particular act on the basis of Advice issued by governments and prime ministers. For example, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom formally appoints Ministers of the Crown on the advice of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.

Law

Advice (constitutional)


A Jamaica coalition was the name given to a possible coalition government of Germany.

The government would have been formed by the CDU/CSU, the FDP and The Greens.

Their party colours are black, yellow and green, the same colours as the flag of Jamaica.

A Jamaica coalition was most talked about after the 1995 election in Germany when the CDU/CSU only had a few more seats that the SPD, and needed more seats the its usual partner the FDP had in order to have a majority.

Politics of Germany

Jamaica coalition


Alfred Henry Maurer (April 21, 1868 – August 4, 1932) was an American modernist painter. He exhibited his work in avant-garde circles during the early 20th century.

Maurer was born in New York City, the son of a German lithographer. At the age of sixteen, Maurer quit school to work at his father's lithographic firm. In 1897 Maurer left for Paris, where he stayed the next four years, joining a circle of American and French artists. At the time, Maurer's style was realist.

Briefly returning to New York, he was determined to show his skeptical father that he could paint. Maurer painted what arguably is his most famous painting An Arrangement, using a woman next door as a model and completing the work (on a borrowed piece of cardboard) in a matter of hours. The painting received first prize at the 1901 Carnegie International Exhibition. Other awards received by Maurer included the Inness Jr. prize of the Salmagundi Club in 1900 and a bronze medal at the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo, New York in 1901. In 1905 he won the third medal at the Liège International Exposition and a gold medal at the International Exposition in Munich.

At the age of thirty-six, in Paris, Maurer changed his methods sharply. From that point on he painted only in the cubist and fauvist manner. By 1909 he was an important American avant-garde painter. He had a two-man exhibition with John Marin in New York City at the 291 Gallery. Four of his paintings were included in the Armory Show of 1913.

Leaving Paris shortly before World War I, he returned to his father's house, but was denied support. For the next 17 years, Maurer painted in a garret in his father's house, and gained no critical acclaim. However, he took part in exhibitions at the Anderson Galleries and others. He exhibited regularly at the New York Society of Independent Artists and was elected their director in 1919. In 1924 the New York dealer Erhard Weyhe bought the contents of Maurer's studio and represented the artist for the remainder of his career.

American painters
People from New York (state)
1868 births
1932 deaths

Alfred Maurer


The National League System is the structure for senior men's football that operates directly below the English Football League, League Two. It stretches from the National League at Step 1 through to the various County Leagues at Step 7.

In total 57 leagues featuring a total of 84 divisions across the country provide a feeder system through to the  English Football League. The National League System aims to provide clubs with a level of competition appropriate to their playing ability, stadium/ground facilities and geographical location. The National League system also provides for the seasonal movement of clubs and provides a clear pathway from Step 7 through to the EFL.

English Football League

National League System


The Book of Enoch is a book claiming to be written by Enoch. He was the great-grandfather of Noah and son of Jared in the Bible. However, scholars consider it to be Pseudepigrapha. It is not part of the Bible canon and only the Ethiopian Orthodox Church says it is part of the Bible. The Book is an old Hebrew text, likely written in the 2nd century BC, and contains material on the origins of demons and giants, why some angels fell from heaven, an explanation of why Noah's Flood was morally necessary, and a description of the thousand-year reign of the Messiah. It is interesting to many Christians because the ninth verse of the first chapter is quoted in the Epistle of Jude 1:14-15.

Books of the Bible

Book of Enoch


Leviathan (, "twisted, coiled"), is a monster mentioned in the Bible. In Satanism Leviathan is believed to be one of the princes of Hell. The word has become synonymous with any large sea monster or creature. In classical literature (such as the novel Moby-Dick) it refers to great whales, and in Modern Hebrew, it means simply "whale."

Old Testament
Monsters

Leviathan


Besham (also known as Besham Qala) is the largest town and commercial centre of the Shangla District in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It is also the capital of Besham Tehsil.

Besham's shops are open 24 hours a day due to its location on the famous Silk route which connects Pakistan with China. Besham shops are famous for its china and international goods. In summer this small town is the centre of international and national holiday makers who use this route to visit the Northern areas of Pakistan. Besham has a few good hotels including PTDC Motel, Besham Continental Hotel, Hotel Paris and many more. People in this small town are friendly and hospitable. There is a civil hospital which was upgraded to the Tehsil level.

Settlements in Shangla District
Towns in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Besham


The Inline-four engine or Straight-four is an internal combustion engine with all four cylinders.  All four cylinders are mounted in a straight line along one crankshaft. It can be powered by different types of fuels, including gasoline, diesel and natural gas.

The single bank of cylinders may be in a vertical direction (straight up), or at an angle. When the cylinders are mounted at an angle, it is sometimes called a slant-four. When listed as an abbreviation, an inline-four engine is listed either as I4 or L4 (for longitudinal). L4 is often used to avoid confusion between the digit 1 and the letter I.

The inline-four layout is a mechanically simple engine. It has a natural basic engine balance. It is smoother than one, two, and three cylinder engines. This makes it popular for economy cars.  It does have a problem with secondary engine balance. This causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become worse as engine size and power increase. The more powerful engines used in larger cars use different an engine layout to avoid this problem.

Displacement
This inline-four gasoline configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement (engine size) up to 2.4 L. Porsche used a 3.0 L four in its 944 S2 and 968 sports cars. Antique vehicles tended to have larger displacements to develop horsepower and torque. The Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine.

Four-cylinder diesel engines are lower revving than gasoline engines. They often exceed 3.0 L. Toyota made a 4.1 L diesel engine that was used in the Toyota Mega Cruiser. Larger four-cylinder engines are used in industrial applications, are often made with displacements up to about 4.6 L.

Displacement can also be very small. Some cars sold in Japan have engines that are only 660 cc.

Racing use

The 1913 Indianapolis 500 was won by Jules Goux driving a Peugeot. This car was powered by an inline-four engine designed by Ernest Henry. This design was big influence for racing engines. It was the first to use dual overhead camshafts (DOHC) and four valves per cylinder. This became the standard design for racing inline-four engines.

This Peugeot was sold to the American driver "Wild Bob" Burman. Burman broke the engine in 1915. Because of World War I, Peugeot could not deliver a new engine. Burman asked Harry Arminius Miller to build a new engine. With John Edward and Fred Offenhauser, Miller created a new engine. Its design was based on the Peugeot inline-four engine. This was the first version of the engine that would dominate the Indianapolis 500 until 1976. At first, the engine was named Miller. Later it became known as Offenhauser. The Offenhauser engines won five straight races at Indianapolis from 1971 to 1976. It was not until 1981 that engines such as the Cosworth V8 engine eliminated them.

Many cars produced for the pre-WWII voiturette Grand Prix motor racing used inline-four engine designs. These cars were rebuilt and reused after the war. They formed the beginnings of what is now Formula One.

Motorcycle use

Modern inline-four motorcycle engines first gained their popularity with Honda's single overhead camshaft CB750 in the 1970s. The inline-four has become one of the most common engine configurations in street bikes The inline-four is common because of its relatively high performance-to-cost ratio. All of the Japanese motorcycle manufacturers offer motorcycles with inline-four engines.

References

Motors

Inline-four engine


Norepinephrine (NE), also called noradrenaline (NA) or noradrenalin, is an organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the brain and body as both a hormone and neurotransmitter. The name "noradrenaline" (from Latin ad, "near", and ren, "kidney") is more commonly used in the United Kingdom, whereas "norepinephrine" (from Ancient Greek ἐπῐ́ (epí), "upon", and νεφρός (nephrós), "kidney") is usually preferred in the United States. "Norepinephrine" is also the international nonproprietary name given to the drug. Regardless of which name is used for the substance itself, parts of the body that produce or are affected by it are referred to as noradrenergic.

The general function of norepinephrine is to mobilize the brain and body for action. Norepinephrine release is lowest during sleep, rises during wakefulness, and reaches much higher levels during situations of stress or danger, in the so-called fight-or-flight response. In the brain, norepinephrine increases arousal and alertness, promotes vigilance, enhances formation and retrieval of memory, and focuses attention; it also increases restlessness and anxiety. In the rest of the body, norepinephrine increases heart rate and blood pressure, triggers the release of glucose from energy stores, increases blood flow to skeletal muscle, reduces blood flow to the gastrointestinal system, and inhibits voiding of the bladder and gastrointestinal motility.

In the brain, noradrenaline is produced in nuclei that are small yet exert powerful effects on other brain areas. The most important of these nuclei is the locus coeruleus, located in the pons. Outside the brain, norepinephrine is used as a neurotransmitter by sympathetic ganglia located near the spinal cord or in the abdomen, as well as Merkel cells located in the skin. It is also released directly into the bloodstream by the adrenal glands. Regardless of how and where it is released, norepinephrine acts on target cells by binding to and activating adrenergic receptors located on the cell surface.

A variety of medically important drugs work by altering the actions of noradrenaline systems. Noradrenaline itself is widely used as an injectable drug for the treatment of critically low blood pressure. Stimulants often increase, enhance, or otherwise act as agonists of norepinephrine. Drugs such as cocaine and methylphenidate act as reuptake inhibitors of norepinephrine, as do some antidepressants, such as those in the SNRI class. One of the more notable drugs in the stimulant class is amphetamine, which acts as a dopamine and norepinephrine analog, reuptake inhibitor, as well as an agent that increases the amount of global catecholamine signaling throughout the nervous system by reversing transporters in the synapses. Beta blockers, which counter some of the effects of noradrenaline by blocking their receptors, are frequently used to treat glaucoma, migraine, and a range of cardiovascular problems. Alpha blockers, which counter a different set of noradrenaline effects, are used to treat several cardiovascular and psychiatric conditions. Alpha-2 agonists often have a sedating effect and are commonly used as anesthesia enhancers in surgery, as well as in treatment of drug or alcohol dependence. For reasons that are still unclear, some Alpha-2 drugs, such as guanfacine, have also been shown to be effective in the treatment of anxiety disorders and ADHD. Many important psychiatric drugs exert strong effects on noradrenaline systems in the brain, resulting in side-effects that may be helpful or harmful.

Structure

Norepinephrine is a catecholamine and a phenethylamine. Its structure differs from that of epinephrine only in that epinephrine has a methyl group attached to its nitrogen, whereas the methyl group is replaced by a hydrogen atom in norepinephrine. The prefix nor- is derived as an abbreviation of the word "normal", used to indicate a demethylated compound. Norepinephrine consists of a catechol moiety (a benzene ring with two adjoining hydroxyl groups in the meta-para position), and an ethylamine side chain consisting of a hydroxyl group bonded in the benzylic position.

Biochemical mechanisms

Biosynthesis

Norepinephrine is synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine by a series of enzymatic steps in the adrenal medulla and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system. While the conversion of tyrosine to dopamine occurs predominantly in the cytoplasm, the conversion of dopamine to norepinephrine by dopamine β-monooxygenase occurs predominantly inside neurotransmitter vesicles. The metabolic pathway is:

Phenylalanine → Tyrosine → L-DOPA → Dopamine → Norepinephrine

Thus the direct precursor of norepinephrine is dopamine, which is synthesized indirectly from the essential amino acid phenylalanine or the non-essential amino acid tyrosine. These amino acids are found in nearly every protein and, as such, are provided by ingestion of protein-containing food, with tyrosine being the most common.

Phenylalanine is converted into tyrosine by the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, with molecular oxygen (O2) and tetrahydrobiopterin as cofactors.  Tyrosine is converted into L-DOPA by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase, with tetrahydrobiopterin, O2, and probably ferrous iron (Fe2+) as cofactors. Conversion of tyrosine to L-DOPA is inhibited by Metyrosine, a tyrosine analog. L-DOPA is converted into dopamine by the enzyme aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (also known as DOPA decarboxylase), with pyridoxal phosphate as a cofactor. Dopamine is then converted into norepinephrine by the enzyme dopamine β-monooxygenase (formerly known as dopamine β-hydroxylase), with O2 and ascorbic acid as cofactors.

Norepinephrine itself can further be converted into epinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase with S-adenosyl-L-methionine as cofactor.

Degradation

In mammals, norepinephrine is rapidly degraded to various metabolites. The initial step in the breakdown can be catalyzed by either of the enzymes monoamine oxidase (mainly monoamine oxidase A) or COMT. From there, the breakdown can proceed by a variety of pathways. The principal end products are either Vanillylmandelic acid or a conjugated form of MHPG, both of which are thought to be biologically inactive and are excreted in the urine.

Functions

Cellular effects

Like many other biologically active substances, norepinephrine exerts its effects by binding to and activating receptors located on the surface of cells. Two broad families of norepinephrine receptors have been identified, known as alpha and beta adrenergic receptors.  Alpha receptors are divided into subtypes α1 and α2; beta receptors into subtypes β1, β2, and β3. All of these function as G protein-coupled receptors, meaning that they exert their effects via a complex second messenger system. Alpha-2 receptors usually have inhibitory effects, but many are located pre-synaptically (i.e., on the surface of the cells that release norepinephrine), so the net effect of alpha-2 activation is often a decrease in the amount of norepinephrine released.  Alpha-1 receptors and all three types of beta receptors usually have excitatory effects.

Storage, release, and reuptake

Inside the brain norepinephrine functions as a neurotransmitter, and is controlled by a set of mechanisms common to all monoamine neurotransmitters. After synthesis, norepinephrine is transported from the cytosol into synaptic vesicles by the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT). VMAT can be inhibited by Reserpine causing a decrease in neurotransmitter stores. Norepinephrine is stored in these vesicles until it is ejected into the synaptic cleft, typically after an action potential causes the vesicles to release their contents directly into the synaptic cleft through a process called exocytosis.

Once in the synapse, norepinephrine binds to and activates receptors.  After an action potential, the norepinephrine molecules quickly become unbound from their receptors. They are then absorbed back into the presynaptic cell, via reuptake mediated primarily by the norepinephrine transporter (NET). Once back in the cytosol, norepinephrine can either be broken down by monoamine oxidase or repackaged into vesicles by VMAT, making it available for future release.

Sympathetic nervous system

Norepinephrine is the main neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic nervous system, which consists of about two dozen sympathetic chain ganglia located next to the spinal cord, plus a set of prevertebral ganglia located in the chest and abdomen. These sympathetic ganglia are connected to numerous organs, including the eyes, salivary glands, heart, lungs, liver, gallbladder, stomach, intestines, kidneys, urinary bladder, reproductive organs, muscles, skin, and adrenal glands. Sympathetic activation of the adrenal glands causes the part called the adrenal medulla to release norepinephrine (as well as epinephrine) into the bloodstream, from which, functioning as a hormone, it gains further access to a wide variety of tissues.

Broadly speaking, the effect of norepinephrine on each target organ is to modify its state in a way that makes it more conducive to active body movement, often at a cost of increased energy use and increased wear and tear. This can be contrasted with the acetylcholine-mediated effects of the parasympathetic nervous system, which modifies most of the same organs into a state more conducive to rest, recovery, and digestion of food, and usually less costly in terms of energy expenditure.

The sympathetic effects of norepinephrine include:
 In the eyes, an increase in production of tears, making the eyes more moist, and pupil dilation through contraction of the iris dilator.
 In the heart, an increase in the amount of blood pumped.
 In brown adipose tissue, an increase in calories burned to generate body heat (thermogenesis).
 Multiple effects on the immune system. The sympathetic nervous system is the primary path of interaction between the immune system and the brain, and several components receive sympathetic inputs, including the thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes.  However the effects are complex, with some immune processes activated while others are inhibited.
 In the arteries, constriction of blood vessels, causing an increase in blood pressure.
 In the kidneys, release of renin and retention of sodium in the bloodstream.
 In the liver, an increase in production of glucose, either by glycogenolysis after a meal or by gluconeogenesis when food has not recently been consumed. Glucose is the body's main energy source in most conditions.
 In the pancreas, increased release of glucagon, a hormone whose main effect is to increase the production of glucose by the liver.
 In skeletal muscles, an increase in glucose uptake.
 In adipose tissue (i.e., fat cells), an increase in lipolysis, that is, conversion of fat to substances that can be used directly as energy sources by muscles and other tissues.
 In the stomach and intestines, a reduction in digestive activity.  This results from a generally inhibitory effect of norepinephrine on the enteric nervous system, causing decreases in gastrointestinal mobility, blood flow, and secretion of digestive substances.

Noradrenaline and ATP are sympathetic co-transmitters. It is found that the endocannabinoid anandamide and the cannabinoid WIN 55,212-2 can modify the overall response to sympathetic nerve stimulation, which indicates that prejunctional CB1 receptors mediate the sympatho-inhibitory action. Thus cannabinoids can inhibit both the noradrenergic and purinergic components of sympathetic neurotransmission.

Central nervous system

The noradrenergic neurons in the brain form a neurotransmitter system, that, when activated, exerts effects on large areas of the brain. The effects are manifested in alertness, arousal, and readiness for action.

Noradrenergic neurons (i.e., neurons whose primary neurotransmitter is norepinephrine) are comparatively few in number, and their cell bodies are confined to a few relatively small brain areas, but they send projections to many other brain areas and exert powerful effects on their targets.  These noradrenergic cell groups were first mapped in 1964 by Annica Dahlström and Kjell Fuxe, who assigned them labels starting with the letter "A" (for "aminergic").  In their scheme, areas A1 through A7 contain the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (A8 through A14 contain dopamine).  Noradrenergic cell group A1 is located in the caudal ventrolateral part of the medulla, and plays a role in the control of body fluid metabolism. Noradrenergic cell group A2 is located in a brainstem area called the solitary nucleus; these cells have been implicated in a variety of responses, including control of food intake and responses to stress.  Cell groups A5 and A7 project mainly to the spinal cord.

The most important source of norepinephrine in the brain is the locus coeruleus, which contains noradrenergic cell group A6 and adjoins cell group A4.  The locus coeruleus is quite small in absolute terms—in primates it is estimated to contain around 15,000 neurons, less than one-millionth of the neurons in the brain—but it sends projections to every major part of the brain and also to the spinal cord.

The level of activity in the locus coeruleus correlates broadly with vigilance and speed of reaction.  LC activity is low during sleep and drops to virtually nothing during the REM (dreaming) state.  It runs at a baseline level during wakefulness, but increases temporarily when a person is presented with any sort of stimulus that draws attention.  Unpleasant stimuli such as pain, difficulty breathing, bladder distension, heat or cold generate larger increases.  Extremely unpleasant states such as intense fear or intense pain are associated with very high levels of LC activity.

Norepinephrine released by the locus coeruleus affects brain function in a number of ways.  It enhances processing of sensory inputs, enhances attention, enhances formation and retrieval of both long term and working memory, and enhances the ability of the brain to respond to inputs by changing the activity pattern in the prefrontal cortex and other areas.  The control of arousal level is strong enough that drug-induced suppression of the LC has a powerful sedating effect.

There is great similarity between situations that activate the locus coeruleus in the brain and situations that activate the sympathetic nervous system in the periphery:  the LC essentially mobilizes the brain for action while the sympathetic system mobilizes the body.  It has been argued that this similarity arises because both are to a large degree controlled by the same brain structures, particularly a part of the brainstem called the nucleus gigantocellularis.

Skin
Norepinephrine is also produced by Merkel cells which are part of the somatosensory system. It activates the afferent sensory neuron.

Pharmacology

A large number of important drugs exert their effects by interacting with norepinephrine systems in the brain or body.  Their uses include treatment of cardiovascular problems, shock, and a variety of psychiatric conditions. These drugs are divided into: sympathomimetic drugs which mimic or enhance at least some of the effects of norepinephrine released by the sympathetic nervous system; sympatholytic drugs, in contrast, block at least some of the effects.  Both of these are large groups with diverse uses, depending on exactly which effects are enhanced or blocked.

Norepinephrine itself is classified as a sympathomimetic drug:  its effects when given by intravenous injection of increasing heart rate and force and constricting blood vessels make it very useful for treating medical emergencies that involve critically low blood pressure. Surviving Sepsis Campaign recommended norepinephrine as first line agent in treating septic shock which is unresponsive to fluid resuscitation, supplemented by vasopressin and epinephrine. Dopamine usage is restricted only to highly selected patients.

Antagonists

Beta blockers

These are sympatholytic drugs that block the effects of beta adrenergic receptors while having little or no effect on alpha receptors.  They are sometimes used to treat high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation and congestive heart failure, but recent reviews have concluded that other types of drugs are usually superior for those purposes.  Beta blockers may be a viable choice for other cardiovascular conditions, though, including angina and Marfan syndrome.  They are also widely used to treat glaucoma, most commonly in the form of eyedrops.  Because of their effects in reducing anxiety symptoms and tremor, they have sometimes been used by entertainers, public speakers and athletes to reduce performance anxiety, although they are not medically approved for that purpose and are banned by the International Olympic Committee.

However, the usefulness of beta blockers is limited by a range of serious side effects, including slowing of heart rate, a drop in blood pressure, asthma, and reactive hypoglycemia.  The negative effects can be particularly severe in people with diabetes.

Alpha blockers

These are sympatholytic drugs that block the effects of adrenergic alpha receptors while having little or no effect on beta receptors.  Drugs belonging to this group can have very different effects, however, depending on whether they primarily block alpha-1 receptors, alpha-2 receptors, or both.  Alpha-2 receptors, as described elsewhere in this article, are frequently located on norepinephrine-releasing neurons themselves and have inhibitory effects on them; consequently, blockage of alpha-2 receptors usually results in an increase in norepinephrine release.  Alpha-1 receptors are usually located on target cells and have excitatory effects on them; consequently, blockage of alpha-1 receptors usually results in blocking some of the effects of norepinephrine.  Drugs such as phentolamine that act on both types of receptors can produce a complex combination of both effects. In most cases when the term "alpha blocker" is used without qualification, it refers to a selective alpha-1 antagonist.

Selective alpha-1 blockers have a variety of uses. Since one of their effects is to inhibit the contraction of the smooth muscle in the prostate, they are often used to treat symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Alpha-blockers also likely help people pass their kidney stones. Their effects on the central nervous system make them useful for treating generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. They may, however, have significant side-effects, including a drop in blood pressure.

Some antidepressants function partly as selective alpha-2 blockers, but the best-known drug in that class is yohimbine, which is extracted from the bark of the African yohimbe tree.  Yohimbine acts as a male potency enhancer, but its usefulness for that purpose is limited by serious side-effects including anxiety and insomnia.  Overdoses can cause a dangerous increase in blood pressure.  Yohimbine is banned in many countries, but in the United States, because it is extracted from a plant rather than chemically synthesized, it is sold over the counter as a nutritional supplement.

Alpha-2 agonists

These are sympathomimetic drugs that activate alpha-2 receptors or enhance their effects. Because alpha-2 receptors are inhibitory and many are located presynaptically on norepinephrine-releasing cells, the net effect of these drugs is usually to reduce the amount of norepinephrine released.  Drugs in this group that are capable of entering the brain often have strong sedating effects, due to their inhibitory effects on the locus coeruleus.  clonidine and guanfacine, for example, are used for the treatment of anxiety disorders and insomnia, and also as a sedative premedication for patients about to undergo surgery.  Xylazine, another drug in this group, is also a powerful sedative and is often used in combination with ketamine as a general anaesthetic for veterinary surgery—in the United States it has not been approved for use in humans.

Stimulants and antidepressants

These are drugs whose primary effects are thought to be mediated by different neurotransmitter systems (dopamine for stimulants, serotonin for antidepressants), but many also increase levels of norepinephrine in the brain. Amphetamine, for example, is a stimulant that increases release of norepinephrine as well as dopamine. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are antidepressants that inhibit the metabolic degradation of norepinephrine as well as serotonin and dopamine. In some cases it is difficult to distinguish the norepinephrine-mediated effects from the effects related to other neurotransmitters.

Diseases and disorders

A number of important medical problems involve dysfunction of the norepinephrine system in the brain or body.

Sympathetic hyperactivation

Hyperactivation of the sympathetic nervous system is not a recognized condition in itself, but it is a component of a number of conditions, as well as a possible consequence of taking sympathomimetic drugs.  It causes a distinctive set of symptoms including aches and pains, rapid heartbeat, elevated blood pressure, sweating, palpitations, anxiety, headache, paleness, and a drop in blood glucose.  If sympathetic activity is elevated for an extended time, it can cause weight loss and other stress-related body changes.

The list of conditions that can cause sympathetic hyperactivation includes severe brain injury, spinal cord damage, heart failure, high blood pressure, kidney disease, and various types of stress.

Pheochromocytoma

A pheochromocytoma is a rarely occurring tumor of the adrenal medulla, caused either by genetic factors or certain types of cancer.  The consequence is a massive increase in the amount of norepinephrine and epinephrine released into the bloodstream.  The most obvious symptoms are those of sympathetic hyperactivation, including particularly a rise in blood pressure that can reach fatal levels.  The most effective treatment is surgical removal of the tumor.

Stress

Stress, to a physiologist, means any situation that threatens the continued stability of the body and its functions. Stress affects a wide variety of body systems:  the two most consistently activated are the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the norepinephrine system, including both the sympathetic nervous system and the locus coeruleus-centered system in the brain.  Stressors of many types evoke increases in noradrenergic activity, which mobilizes the brain and body to meet the threat.  Chronic stress, if continued for a long time, can damage many parts of the body.  A significant part of the damage is due to the effects of sustained norepinephrine release, because of norepinephrine's general function of directing resources away from maintenance, regeneration, and reproduction, and toward systems that are required for active movement.  The consequences can include slowing of growth (in children), sleeplessness, loss of libido, gastrointestinal problems, impaired disease resistance, slower rates of injury healing, depression, and increased vulnerability to addiction.

ADHD

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a psychiatric condition involving problems with attention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness. It is most commonly treated using stimulant drugs such as methylphenidate (Ritalin), whose primary effect is to increase dopamine levels in the brain, but drugs in this group also generally increase brain levels of norepinephrine, and it has been difficult to determine whether these actions are involved in their clinical value.  There is also substantial evidence that many people with ADHD show biomarkers involving altered norepinephrine processing. Several drugs whose primary effects are on norepinephrine, including guanfacine, clonidine, and atomoxetine, have been tried as treatments for ADHD, and found to have effects comparable to those of stimulants.

Autonomic failure

Several conditions, including Parkinson's disease, diabetes and so-called pure autonomic failure, can cause a loss of norepinephrine-secreting neurons in the sympathetic nervous system.  The symptoms are widespread, the most serious being a reduction in heart rate and an extreme drop in resting blood pressure, making it impossible for severely affected people to stand for more than a few seconds without fainting.  Treatment can involve dietary changes or drugs.

REM sleep deprivation
Norepiprephine prevents REM sleep, and lack of REM sleep increases noradrenaline secretion as a result of the locus coeruleus not ceasing producing it. It causes neurodegeneration if its loss is sustained for several days.

Comparative biology and evolution

Norepinephrine has been reported to exist in a wide variety of animal species, including protozoa, placozoa and cnidaria (jellyfish and related species), but not in ctenophores (comb jellies), whose nervous systems differ greatly from those of other animals.  It is generally present in deuterostomes (vertebrates, etc.), but in protostomes (arthropods, molluscs, flatworms, nematodes, annelids, etc.) it is replaced by octopamine, a closely related chemical with a closely related synthesis pathway.  In insects, octopamine has alerting and activating functions that correspond (at least roughly) with the functions of norepinephrine in vertebrates. It has been argued that octopamine evolved to replace norepinephrine rather than vice versa; however, the nervous system of amphioxus (a primitive chordate) has been reported to contain octopamine but not norepinephrine, which presents difficulties for that hypothesis.

History

Early in the twentieth century Walter Cannon, who had popularized the idea of a sympathoadrenal system preparing the body for fight and flight, and his colleague Arturo Rosenblueth developed a theory of two sympathins, sympathin E (excitatory) and sympathin I (inhibitory), responsible for these actions. The Belgian pharmacologist Zénon Bacq as well as Canadian and U.S. pharmacologists between 1934 and 1938 suggested that noradrenaline might be a sympathetic transmitter. In 1939, Hermann Blaschko and Peter Holtz independently identified the biosynthetic mechanism for norepinephrine in the vertebrate body. In 1945 Ulf von Euler published the first of a series of papers that established the role of norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter.  He demonstrated the presence of norepinephrine in sympathetically innervated tissues and brain, and adduced evidence that it is the sympathin of Cannon and Rosenblueth.

Stanley Peart was the first to demonstrate the release of noradrenaline after the stimulation of sympathetic nerves.

References

External links

TAAR1 agonists
Amphetamine
Alpha-adrenergic agonists
Beta-adrenergic agonists
Neurotransmitters
Hormones
Biology of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Catecholamines
Peripherally selective drugs
Phenylethanolamines

Norepinephrine


Rowing is about moving a boat on water using human muscle power. It can be a sport. The goal in rowing is to move as fast as possible on top of the water. The athletes use a boat. They move the boat forward by using two sculls or one oar. There are different types of rowing. The types depend on how many people are in the boat and if they have a coxswain or not. Rowing is a very popular sport in England, the Commonwealth, and the Northeastern United States. The old universities of the United States and England have yearly rowing matches.

Other websites

 FISA – The Official World Rowing Website
 Rachel Quarrell's Rowing Service – UK rowing news and information site.
 Row2k.com – Worldwide Rowing information site with news, results and photographs.

Summer Olympic sports

Rowing


BBC Weather is the BBC's department in charge of preparing and broadcasting weather forecasts and is now part of BBC News. The broadcast meteorologists are employed by the Met Office. The longest serving presenter of BBC weather was Michael Fish, now retired, who appeared for 30 years between 1974 and 2004.

History

Early history
The first BBC weather forecast was a shipping forecast read on the radio for the Met Office on 14 November 1922. The first daily weather forecast was broadcast 26 March 1923.

In 1936, the BBC experimented with the world's first weather maps on television. Weather maps were first published in The Times on 1 April 1875. The BBC started broadcasting the maps in 1949 after World War II. The map filled the whole TV screen, and an off-screen narrator would comment on the next day's weather.

Advance of technology
On 11 January 1954, George Cowling was the first weather forecaster to stand in front of a weather map. To do this, the maps were drawn by hand in the London Weather Centre and were taken across London. The forecasts were presented by the same person who had made them, and were not always right.

In 1962, a fax machine and an electronic computer were bought by the Met Office. This gave better and quicker forecasting.

Satellite photography was available from 1964, but was of a poor quality and was given on paper, with the coastline etched in felt-tip pen. This did not change until 1973 when a new computer was bought. This made forecasts twice as accurate as earlier ones.

Graphical technology
As computational capability improved, so did graphics technology. Early hand-drawn maps gave way to magnetic symbols, which in turn gave way to bluescreen (CSO) computer-generated imagery technology, each of which allowed the presenter greater control over the information displayed.

Early magnetic symbols tended to adhere poorly to the maps, and occasional spelling errors (such as the presenter writing 'GOF' instead of 'FOG') marred some broadcasts, but allowed the presenter to show how weather would change over time. The symbols were designed to be 'self-explicit', allowing the viewer to understand the map without a key or legend.

These were phased out in 1985 for computer graphics, although the basic design of symbols was kept the same. These forecasts were widely acclaimed for their simplicity, winning an award from the Royal Television Society.

Great Storm of 1987 Controversy
Possibly the most famous of the forecasters is the now retired Michael Fish. Famous for his informal manner and eccentric dress sense (he once wore a blue and green blazer emblazoned with all the weather symbols), he was a viewer favourite despite an unfortunate comment before The Great Storm of 1987.

During a weather forecast some hours before the storm, Michael Fish started his forecast with the now famous line
"Earlier on today, apparently, a woman rang the BBC and said she heard there was a hurricane on the way. Well, if you're watching, don't worry, there isn't".
Although he was actually referring to a Florida hurricane (Floyd), and went on to forecast stormy conditions over the South of England, the statement has gone down in popular culture as one of the worst mistakes made so publicly.

2000-05 graphics
On 2 October 2000 BBC Weather underwent a more significant change. Whilst there was not much change to the existing weather symbols new symbols giving information Pollen and Sun levels were introduced. A new more detailed map of Britain was used based on satellite data.

Today
16 May 2005 saw the end of the weather symbols on television after 29 years and 9 months on air.  They were replaced by a controversial format as the forecast underwent another redesign, with the flat map replaced by a 3D globe, and weather conditions shown by coloured areas. Cloud cover is indicated by the brightness of the map, while rain and snow are indicated by animated blue and white areas respectively.

The graphics are provided by Weatherscape XT, which was developed by the commercial arm of the New Zealand Metservice.

The move polarised opinion; some saw it as more accurate and modern, while others disliked the brown colour chosen for the landmass and the presumed high cost of the graphics. Poor angling of the map, in order to show the curvature of the Earth, led to Scotland appearing little larger than Devon, and  Shetland being almost invisible while exaggerating London and the South East. This led to many Scottish commentators claiming the BBC was guilty of a London bias. As a result, the map was realigned, and the moving tour of the UK was lengthened.

The new look won a prestigious Silver Award at the Promax/BDA Awards in 2006.  Criticism has been ongoing however, with some viewers complaining about the colour scheme, and of a lack of detail beyond 36 hours.

There have been continuous developments since May 2005. In 2006, a rippling effect was introduced to define seas and oceans.

Online forecasts
The BBC Weather website provides outlook weather forecasts for UK and international locations using animated symbols and a format similar in design to that used for the televised broadcasts.

The website also runs frequent special features about seasonal sports, White Christmas, nature and meteorological science. It also has world weather, UK outlook and weather news. A new beta weather site is currently being developed, to fit in with the rest of the BBC site style.

References

Other websites

Weather
Weather services

BBC Weather


Clara Oswald is a fictional character on the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. She is portrayed by Jenna Coleman. She first appeared in the show's seventh series.  Clara is a companion of the eleventh version of alien time traveller the Doctor (portrayed by Matt Smith).

During 2012 and 2013, the character is introduced as three different people with the same name. Each was played by the same actress. The first two incarnations die during the episode they appear in. The third becomes the Doctor's companion. While each one is different, the characters are meant to be seen as the same person. This sets up a mystery to be solved. Coleman took over as the show's female lead in the mid-series Christmas special. At that time, she was portraying Victorian governess and barmaid Clara Oswin Oswald. At the end of that episode, Coleman is seen playing a third version of the character. This character was from modern day London and was named Clara Oswald. Starting in the following episode, Clara Oswald travels as the Doctor's full-time companion. During her third introduction, she gives herself the nickname Oswin. It is a mixture of Oswald and win.

Coleman has said that she will be in the eighth series. It is to begin filming in September 2013.

Appearances
Oswin Oswald is first seen in the first episode of the seventh series, "Asylum of the Daleks". She is the only survivor of the Starship Alaska. The Alaska crashed on the Asylum, a prison planet for insane Daleks. She has lived on the planet for about a year when the Doctor (Matt Smith) and his companions Amy (Karen Gillan) and Rory (Arthur Darvill) go to the Dalek Asylum to turn off the planet's force field. They are trying to do this so that an army of sane Daleks can destroy the asylum. Clara communicates with them and helps them escape from the Daleks. She also removes all of the Daleks' memories of the Doctor. She helps the group escape and the Doctor tries to rescue her. He soon learns that she has already been captured and is now a Dalek cyborg. The Daleks had tried to keep Oswin's intellect.  Because her mind could not deal with being turned into a cyborg, it created a fantasy where she survived as a human. When she learned the truth, Oswin was almost taken over by her Dalek personality, but in the end she still would not kill the Doctor. She deactivated the force field. Clara makes a final request that the Doctor remember her. She then lets the Doctor, Amy, and Rory leave the planet before it is destroyed.

Clara is introduced a second time in the 2012 Christmas special "The Snowmen". This was her first episode as the Doctor's companion. She was a young barmaid and governess in 1892. She follows the Doctor after he saves her from an attack by living snowmen. The Doctor asks her to travel with him after she enters the TARDIS, his time and space machine. Soon after this, Clara falls to her death after being attacked. Her tombstone shows her full name to be Clara Oswin Oswald. The Doctor sees that she is the same woman as Oswin from the Asylum. She even says the same things Oswin had said. Intrigued by a woman who has lived and died two times in different periods of history, he begins look across time for another Clara. The episode ends with a young woman, who could be a modern-day Clara, walking through the graveyard and stopping by Clara Oswin Oswald's tomb. In a short prequel to the post-Christmas episode, the Doctor meets the modern Clara Oswald as a child, but he does not know it is her. In "The Bells of Saint John", the modern Clara meets the Doctor after being given his phone number by a woman in a shop. After an adventure in London, the Doctor asks Clara to become his companion. In "The Rings of Akhaten", the Doctor tries to learn more about who (or what) Clara really is. After watching her parents and her childhood, he finds nothing that is not normal. The episode shows that her mother died when she was a teenager. In "Hide", the Doctor goes to a haunted mansion to ask the psychic Emma Grayling about Clara. She says Clara is just an ordinary girl. "Hide" and "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS" also show that the TARDIS does not like Clara. In a version of time which was stopped from happening, the Doctor talks with Clara about the two previous versions of her he had met. She did not know what he is talking about.

References

Other websites

Clara  at BBC America's Doctor Who website
Clara Oswin Oswald at the Tardis Data Core

Doctor Who characters

Clara Oswald


A mad scene is a scene in a play, ballet, opera, or other theatre work that shows a character either insane or going insane. Three famous mad scenes are those in the play Hamlet, in the ballet Giselle, and the opera Lucia di Lammermoor. In Hamlet, Ophelia is truly mad while Hamlet pretends to be mad.

Theater
Opera

Mad scene


Kamoya Kimeu (born c. 1940), a Kamba tribesman, is one of the world's most successful fossil collectors. With paleontologists Meave Leakey and Richard Leakey, he found some of the most significant paleoanthropological discoveries. Kimeu found a Homo habilis skull known as KNM ER 1813, and an almost complete Homo erectus skeleton  known as Turkana Boy or Nariokotome boy. He has two fossil primates named after him: Kamoyapithecus hamiltoni and Cercopithecoides kimeui.

Kimeu began to work in paleoanthropology as a labourer for Louis Leakey and Mary Leakey in the 1950s. He was recruited for Mary Leakey's team when she took over as head of excavations at Olduvai. She preferred to hire Kamba men rather than Kikuyu, whom Louis preferred. In 1963 he joined with Richard Leakey's expeditions, accompanying him to the Omo River and Lake Rudolf (now Lake Turkana) in 1967.

He quickly became Richard  Leakey's right-hand man, controlling field operations in Leakey's absence. In 1977 he became the National Museums of Kenya's curator for all prehistoric sites in Kenya. Kimeu was awarded the National Geographic Society's LaGorce Medal by the US President Ronald Reagan in a ceremony at the White House.

Related pages
List of Kenyan scientists

References

Other websites
A list of fossils found at Lake Turkana
Footsteps through time - San Diego Museum of Man

Kenyan scientists
Anthropologists
Paleontologists
1940 births
Living people

Kamoya Kimeu


The orbital speed of a body, usually a planet, a natural satellite, an artificial satellite, or a multiple star, is the speed at which it orbits around the barycenter of a system, usually around a more massive body. It can be used to refer to either the mean orbital speed, the average speed as it completes an orbit, or instantaneous orbital speed, the speed at a particular point in its orbit.

The orbital speed at any position in the orbit can be computed from the distance to the central body at that position, and the specific orbital energy, which is independent of position: it equals the kinetic energy plus the potential energy, divided by the mass. It is also given by Kepler's Second Law.

Orbits

Orbital speed


The president pro tempore ( or ), or president pro tem, of the United States Senate is the longest serving senator from the majority political party in the United States Senate.  According to the Constitution, this is the fourth highest office in the United States. It is the third in the U.S. presidential line of succession (behind the vice president and the speaker of the House). Many state senates also use the office of President pro tem.

Officially the vice president is the person in charge of the Senate, but they are not a Senator.  Patty Murray (D-WA) is the president pro tempore, the first woman to hold this position. When the vice president cannot be in charge, the president pro tempore is in charge of the Senate. Many people still think of the president pro tempore as de facto president of the Senate. Benjamin Wade was only one vote away from becoming the president of the United States due to the impeachment of Andrew Johnson. No president pro tempore has taken over the presidency as of March 2020.

Probably the most famous presidents pro tempore were John Langdon (first in this office), David Rice Atchison (D-MO), Benjamin Wade (R-OH), Arthur Vandenberg (R-MI), Carl Hayden (D-AZ) Richard Russell, Jr. (D-GA), Strom Thurmond (R-SC), Robert Byrd (D-WV), Daniel Inouye (D-HI), Orrin Hatch (R-UT), Chuck Grassley (R-IA) and Patrick Leahy (D-VT).

When Senator Hubert Humphrey, a former vice president, was seriously ill, the Senate showed its respect for him by creating the office of Deputy President Pro tempore for any former president or vice president who is elected to the Senate.  No vice president since Humphrey has done this.

President pro tempore emeritus
Since 2001, the honorary title of president pro tempore emeritus has been given to a Senator of the minority party who has previously served as president pro tempore. The position has been held by:

 Strom Thurmond (R-South Carolina) (2001-2003)
 Robert Byrd (D-West Virginia) (2003-2007)
 Ted Stevens (R-Alaska) (2007-2009)
 Patrick Leahy (D-Vermont) (2015-2021)
 Chuck Grassley (R-Iowa) (since 2021)

References

President pro tempore of the United States Senate


Oscar Littleton Chapman (October 22, 1896 – February 8, 1978) was the U.S. Secretary of the Interior, during President Truman's administration, from 1949 to 1953.

Early life and career

Chapman was born in Omega, Halifax County, Virginia, to James Jackson Chapman, a Virginia farmer, and his wife, Rosa Archer Blunt. He started taking night classes at the University of Denver, spent the 1927–1928 school year at the University of New Mexico, before eventually receiving his LLB from the law school of Westminster University (now a part of the University of Denver) in 1929.

During World War I, Chapman served in the United States Navy Medical Corps, from 1918 to 1920. Chapman was manager of Edward P. Costigan's Senate campaign in 1930, and the Alva B. Adams Senate campaign in 1932. After Franklin Roosevelt's election in 1932, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Department of the Interior.

In 1939, Chapman was an early victim of the House Committee on Un-American Activities, as then-chairman Martin Dies, Jr. published a list of the government employees who were members of a Communist-controlled organization (Chapman was considered a member because there was a record that he had contributed two dollars to the American League for Peace and Democracy, which was raising money for the loyalists during the Spanish Civil War).

At the 1944 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Illinois, Chapman was impressed by Truman sticking to his early agreement to support the current Vice-President Henry A. Wallace. He was promoted to serve as the Under-Secretary by President Harry S. Truman in 1946. Chapman was one of Truman's advisers supporting the decision to recognize the state of Israel in May 1948 over the objections of the State Department.

Chapman worked to promote Truman in 1948 election, and late in 1949, was promoted to serve as Secretary of the Interior, replacing to Julius A. Krug, who had not supported Truman's campaign.

In 1951, Chapman denied a government loan to the Harvey Aluminum Company, because of a scandal that Harvey had sold artillery shells to the Navy during World War II that were dangerously out of specification.

After end of his service in the Department of the Interior, he practiced law in the firm of Chapman, Duff, and Paul.

Personal life and family

On December 21, 1920, aged 24, Chapman married his first wife, Olga Pauline Edholm, from the Methodist. His first wife died in 1932.

On February 24, 1940, after the death of his first wife, he married his second wife, the former Ann Kendrick (March 1, 1905 – April 4, 2003). They had one son, James Raleigh Chapman.

Chapman died in Washington, D.C., aged 81, and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.

References

1896 births
1978 deaths
United States Secretaries of the Interior
Truman administration cabinet members
20th-century American politicians
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Politicians from Denver

Oscar L. Chapman


Sylhet Division is the Northeastern division of Bangladesh. It is named after its main city, Sylhet. The division is bordered by the Meghalaya State of India on the north, Tripura State on the south, Assam State of India on the east and Dhaka and Chittagong divisions on the west. Bangladeshis also claims the Karimganj Thana as part of its country.

Demographics
The population of Sylhet Division is about 10 million. Followers of different religions are: Muslim 81.16%, Hindu 17.80%, Christian 0.06%, Buddhist 0.02% and others 0.96%.

History of Sylhet

In the late 18th century, the British East India Company became interested in Sylhet. They saw it as an area of strategic importance in the war against Burma. Sylhet gradually fell under British control and administration. It was governed as a part of Bengal. After the British administrative reorganization of India, Sylhet became a part of Assam. It remained a part of Assam for the rest of the era of British rule.

In 1947, after a referendum, almost all of Sylhet as a district became a part of East Bengal at the time and remained so after Bangladeshi independence. The Karimganj subdivision became part of the new Indian state of Assam. The referendum was held on 3 July 1947. There were a total of 546,815 votes cast on 239 polling stations. A majority of 43.8 per cent voted in favour of East Bengal. There were protests about false votes, but the referendum was acknowledged during India's independence on 18 July 1947.  In 1971, Sylhet became part of the newly formed country of Bangladesh.

References

Sylhet Division


A hotspot is a place where computers with the ability for wireless connections can connect to the Internet. Wi-Fi hot spots can be found in some public areas, sometimes for free. Some local libraries, coffee shops, and restaurants offer hotspots. Some passenger vehicles have a traveling hotspot for their customers. Some communication companies also offer hotspots in many different places for their customers.

Internet

Hotspot (computers)


Washington Historic District is a national historic district located at Washington, Beaufort County, North Carolina. It encompasses 512 contributing buildings and one contributing structure in the town of Washington. They include a variety of institutional, commercial, and residential buildings primarily dating from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.  Notable buildings include the Beaufort County Courthouse, Havens and Fowle warehouses, Mayo Law Office (c. 1830), Marsh House, Myers House, Hyatt House, Griffin House, Rodman House, Elmwood, Firehouse and City Hall (c. 1884), Post Office and Federal Courthouse (1913), railroad station, Presbyterian church, Saint Peter's Episcopal Church, First Methodist Church (1899), Singleton Primitive Baptist Church (c. 1880), Blount-Bragaw Building (1901-1904), Minor House, and George T. Leach House (c. 1890).

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Beaufort County, North Carolina

References

Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in North Carolina
Buildings and structures in Beaufort County, North Carolina
National Register of Historic Places in Beaufort County, North Carolina

Washington Historic District (Washington, North Carolina)


Sung Jae-ki(Korea:성재기 成在基, September 11, 1967 - July 26, 2013) kele Human right activists, liberalism philosophers of South Korea.

Lien externe
 Suicide performance and journalist ethics, News Dongah. (English)
 Police continue search for missing men's rights activist yonhapnews 2013.07.27 (English)
 Body of Sung Jae-gi found in Han River Koreaherald 2013.07.29 (English)
 Seoul 'Bridge of Life' Attracts More Suicide Attempts korearealtime 2013.11.08 (English)
 South Korean channel films suicide (English)
 In memoriam 2013:Sung Jae-ki (France)

Korea

Sung Jae-ki


The principle of Selectivity (Discrimination) is based upon an analysis of several circuit breaker characteristics. These include time-current (tripping) curves, peak-let-through-current (Ipeak) and energy let-through (I²T).

The maximum selectivity level with two nominated breakers in series under short-circuit conditions is often stated by vendors in Technical Reference manuals.

Selectivity can be enhanced beyond the breaking capacity of the downstream breaker provided it is backed up by an appropriately selected upstream breaker, which should not trip (unlatch) under the stated short circuit current.

Selectivity works as the upstream breaker heats up under fault conditions providing impedance in the fault circuit reducing the overall fault severity.

Related pages

 Electrical engineering

Electricity

Selectivity (electronic)


"The Passionate Shepherd to His Love" est carmen breve a Christophoro Marlowe scriptum annoque 1599 divulgatum, cui responsa confecerunt anno 1600 Gualtherus Raleigh, titulo "The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd", atque mox Iohannes Donne, titulo "The Bait". Quae carmina tria Isaacius Walton in opere suo The Compleat Angler anno 1655 citavit.

Carmen amoris pastoralis Marlovianum ita incipit:
Come live with me and be my love,
And we will all the pleasures prove
That hills and valleys, dale and field,
And all the craggy mountains yield ...

There I will make thee beds of roses
And a thousand fragrant posies,
A cap of flowers, and a kirtle
Embroider'd all with leaves of myrtle ...

Cui puella pessimista Raleghana respondet:
If all the world and love were young,
And truth in every shepherd's tongue,
These pretty pleasures might me move
To live with thee and be thy love ...

Thy gowns, thy shoes, thy beds of roses,
Thy cap, thy kirtle, and thy posies
Soon break, soon wither, soon forgotten, -
In folly ripe, in reason rotten ...

Iuvenis igitur ab Ioanne Donne depictus voluptates novas profert. Hic textus, sicut dicit Isaacius Walton, est "a copy of verses that were made by Doctor Donne, and made to show the world that he could make soft and smooth verses, when he thought fit and worth his labour."
Come live with me, and be my love,
And we will some new pleasures prove
Of golden sands, and crystal brooks,
With silken lines and silver hooks.

There will the river whisp'ring run
Warm'd by thy eyes, more than the sun ...

When thou wilt swim in that live bath,
Each fish, which every channel hath,
Will amorously to thee swim,
Gladder to catch thee, than thou him.

If thou, to be so seen, be'st loth,
By sun or moon, thou dark'nest both,
And if myself have leave to see,
I need not their light, having thee ...

Nexus externi
 Textus Marlowe, Raleigh et Donne apud Vicifontem Anglicam

Christophorus Marlowe
Scripta 1599
Angliae scripta
Litterae Anglicae
Carmina

The Passionate Shepherd to His Love


Cranbrook is a small town in the Shire of Cranbrook in the Great Southern region of Western Australia between Katanning, Kojonup and Mount Barker, situated 320 km south of Perth. It is billed as "The Gateway to the Stirlings", referring to the nearby Stirling Range National Park. At the 2006 census, Cranbrook had a population of 280.

The settlement grew after it was one of the original railway stations on the Great Southern Railway when the railway opened in 1889, and was gazetted a townsite in 1899.

The name is taken from the town of Cranbrook in Kent, England, about 65 kilometres south east of London. It is believed to have been named by Mr J A Wright, who was manager of the Western Australian Land Company which built the railway.

The town is a Cooperative Bulk Handling receival site.

References

External links

 Shire of Cranbrook

Towns in Western Australia
Grain receival points of Western Australia
Shire of Cranbrook

Cranbrook, Western Australia


Sœur Emmanuelle (born Madeleine Cinquin, November 16, 1908 – October 20, 2008) was a Belgian-born French nun.

She was born in Brussels, Belgium, the daughter of a family that made lingerie. At the age of six she saw her father drown. She learned at the Sorbonne, earning a degree in philosophy. In 1929 she made a religious promise and became a nun.

She worked in Notre-Dame de Sion high school in İstanbul in 1930s.

In 1971 she saw how poorly trash collectors in Cairo, Egypt were doing, and decided to live with them. She stayed until 1993, when she went back to France. After she went back, she became very famous in France and was liked by audiences and talk-show hosts.

Besides her work with the poor, she is also known for having had views that are not like how religion normally is, such as being for the use of birth control and being for the idea of priests to marry. She has been voted one of the most popular people in France, and has been compared to Mother Teresa. (Although she does not agree with this comparison). In 2003, French television broadcast Soeur Emmanuelle: An exceptional woman.

She died on 20 October 2008.

Les Amis de Soeur Emmanuelle (The Friends of Sister Emmanuelle) is a charitable organization based in Brussels.

Other websites
 95-year-old nun is France's favourite woman
  De Madeleine Cinquin à Sœur Emmanuelle

1908 births
2008 deaths
Belgian Roman Catholics
Nuns
People from Brussels

Sœur Emmanuelle


Standard Form 180 (SF-180, the Request Pertaining to Military Records) is a one-page authorization form (plus 2 pages of instructions) of the U.S. military. The form may be filled out by veterans of the U.S. military or their surviving next-of-kin to view and/or release a person's military record.

The SF 180 may also be used to request a one-time replacement of Medals earned in service.

The release of information is subject to restrictions imposed by U.S. Department of Defense regulations and the provisions of the Freedom of Information Act and Privacy Act of 1974.

You can obtain your military records from the National Personnel Records Center or the military if you were discharged recently.  You may also find private researchers who will obtain your record for a fee.  The National Archives has a list of independent researchers who will undertake a personal search for you.

References

The form itself, SF-180 (PDF)

American genealogy
Military history of the United States
United States military policies

SF-180


The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) operates 56 field offices in major cities throughout the United States. Many of these offices are further subdivided into smaller resident agencies that have jurisdiction over a specific area. These resident agencies are considered to be part of the primary field offices. FBI headquarters, located in Washington, D.C., controls the flow of the agents and support staff that work out of the field offices across the country. Each field office is overseen by a Special Agent in Charge (SAC), except those located in Los Angeles, New York City, and Washington, D.C., which due to their large size are each managed by an Assistant Director in Charge (ADIC), assisted by SACs responsible for specific programs or departments. The FBI also has offices overseas otherwise known as legal attachés. The FBI international offices are usually in American embassies.

Alabama
 Birmingham: Serves the counties of Bibb, DeKalb, Lauderdale, St. Clair, Blount, Etowah, Lawrence, Shelby, Calhoun, Fayette, Limestone, Sumter, Cherokee, Franklin, Madison, Talladega, Clay, Greene, Marion, Tuscaloosa, Cleburne, Jackson, Marshall, Walker, Colbert, Jefferson, Morgan, Winston, Cullman, Lamar and Pickens.  Four Resident Agencies in Florence, Gadsden, Huntsville and Tuscaloosa.
 Mobile: Serves the counties of Autauga, Coffee, Geneva, Monroe, Baldwin, Conecuh, Hale, Montgomery, Barbour, Coosa, Henry, Perry, Bullock, Covington, Houston, Pike, Butler, Crenshaw, Lee, Randolph, Chambers, Dale, Lowndes, Russell, Chilton, Dallas, Macon, Tallapoosa, Choctaw, Elmore, Marengo, Washington, Clarke, Escambia, Mobile and Wilcox. Resident Agencies in Auburn, Dothan, Monroeville, Montgomery, and Selma.

Alaska
 Anchorage: Entire state. Resident Agencies in Fairbanks and Juneau.

Arizona
 Phoenix: All counties except part of the Navajo Nation within Apache County which is served by Albuquerque, New Mexico. Resident agencies in Flagstaff, Lake Havasu City, Lakeside, Sierra Vista, Tucson, and Yuma.

Arkansas
 Little Rock: Entire state. Resident agencies in El Dorado, Fayetteville, Fort Smith, Hot Springs, Jonesboro, Marion, Pine Bluff and Texarkana.

California
 Los Angeles: Serves the counties of Los Angeles, Orange, San Bernardino, San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Riverside, and Ventura.  Resident Agencies in Lancaster, LAX, Long Beach, Orange, Palm Springs, Riverside, Santa Maria, Ventura, Victorville and West Covina. Located inside the Wilshire Federal Building.
 Sacramento: Serves Yosemite National Park and the counties of Alpine, Amador, Butte, Calaveras, Colusa, El Dorado, Fresno, Glenn, Inyo, Kern, Kings, Lassen, Madera, Merced, Mariposa, Modoc, Mono, Nevada, Placer, Plumas, Sacramento, San Joaquin, Shasta, Sierra, Siskiyou, Solano, Stanislaus, Sutter, Tehama, Trinity, Tulare, Tuolumne, Yolo, and Yuba.  Resident agencies in Bakersfield, Chico, Fairfield, Fresno,  Redding, South Lake Tahoe, and Stockton
 San Diego:  Serves the counties of Imperial and San Diego.  Resident agencies in Imperial and North County.
 San Francisco: Serves the counties of: Alameda, Contra Costa, Del Norte, Humboldt, Lake, Marin, Mendocino, Monterey, Napa, San Benito, San Francisco, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, San Mateo and Sonoma.  Resident agencies in Concord, Fortuna, Monterey Bay, Oakland, Palo Alto, San Jose and Santa Rosa.

Colorado
 Denver: Serves all counties and the state of Wyoming.  Resident agencies in Casper, Cheyenne, Colorado Springs, Durango, Fort Collins, Glenwood Springs, Grand Junction, Jackson Hole, Lander and Pueblo.

Connecticut
 New Haven: Entire state.  Resident agencies in Bridgeport, Meriden and New London.

Florida
 Jacksonville: Serves the counties of Alachua, Baker, Bay, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Clay, Columbia, Dixie, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Gilchrist, Gulf, Hamilton, Holmes, Jackson, Jefferson, Lafayette, Lake, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Madison, Marion, Nassau, Okaloosa, Putnam, St. Johns, Santa Rosa, Sumter, Suwannee, Taylor, Union, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Resident agencies in Daytona Beach, Fort Walton Beach, Gainesville, Ocala, Panama City, Pensacola, and Tallahassee.
 Miami (Miramar): Serves the counties of Broward, Highlands, Indian River, Monroe, Palm Beach, Miami-Dade, Martin, Okeechobee, and St. Lucie. Resident agencies in Fort Pierce, Homestead, Key West and West Palm Beach.
 Tampa : Serves the counties of Brevard, Charlotte, Collier, De Soto, Glades, Hardee, Hendry, Hernando, Hillsborough, Lee, Manatee, Orange, Osceola, Pasco, Pinellas, Polk, Sarasota, and Seminole. Resident agencies in Clearwater, Fort Myers, Lakeland, Melbourne, Naples, Orlando and Sarasota.

Georgia
 Atlanta:  Entire state.  Resident agencies in Albany, Athens, Augusta, Brunswick, Columbus, Dalton, Gainesville, Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport, Macon, Rome, Savannah, Statesboro, Thomasville and Valdosta.

Hawaii
 Honolulu (Kapolei): Serves all counties, the US territories of American Samoa, and Guam, and the Northern Marianas.  Resident agencies in Kona, Maite, Saipan, and Wailuku

Illinois
 Chicago: Serves the counties of Boone, Grundy, La Salle, Whiteside, Carroll, Jo Daviess, Lee, Will, Cook, Kane, McHenry, Winnebago, De Kalb, Kendall, Ogle, Du Page, Lake, and Stephenson.  Resident agencies in Lisle, Orland Park, Rockford, and Schaumburg.
 Springfield: Adams, Brown, Cass, Christian, DeWitt, Greene, Logan, Macon, Macoupin, Mason, Menard, Montgomery, Morgan, Pike, Sangamon, Schuyler, Scott, Champaign, Clark, Coles, Crawford, Cumberland, Douglas, Edgar, Ford, Iroquois, Jasper, Kankakee, Moultrie, Piatt, Shelby, Vermilion, Bond, Calhoun, Clinton, Effingham, Fayette, Jersey, Madison, Marion, Monroe, Randolph, St. Clair, Washington, Alexander, Clay, Edwards, Franklin, Gallatin, Hamilton, Hardin, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Lawrence, Massac, Perry, Pope, Pulaski, Richland, Saline, Union, Wabash, Wayne, White, Williamson, Fulton, Hancock, Livingston, Marshall, McDonough, McLean, Peoria, Putnam, Tazewell, Woodford, Bureau, Henderson, Henry, Knox, Mercer, Rock Island, Stark, and Warren. Resident agencies in Champaign, Decatur, Fairview Heights, Marion, Peoria and Quad Cities.

Indiana
 Indianapolis: Entire state. Resident agencies in Bloomington, Evansville, Fort Wayne, Lafayette, Merrillville, Muncie, New Albany, South Bend and Terre Haute.

Kentucky
 Louisville: Entire state. Resident agencies in Bowling Green, Covington, Hopkinsville, Lexington, London, Owensboro, Paducah and Pikeville.

Louisiana
 New Orleans: Entire state. Resident agencies in Alexandria, Baton Rouge, Lafayette, Lake Charles, Monroe and Shreveport.

Maryland
 Baltimore (Windsor Mill): Serves all counties and the state of Delaware. Resident agencies in  Annapolis, Bel Air, Calverton, Dover, Frederick, Rockville, Salisbury, and Wilmington.

Massachusetts

 Boston (Chelsea): Serves all counties and the states of Maine, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island. Resident agencies in Augusta, Bangor, Bedford (NH), Lakeville (MA), Lowell (MA), Portland (ME), Portsmouth, Springfield, Providence (RI) and Worcester.

Michigan
 Detroit: Entire state. Resident agencies in Ann Arbor, Bay City, Clinton Township, Flint, Grand Rapids, Kalamazoo, Lansing, Marquette, St. Joseph, Traverse City and Troy.

Minnesota
 Minneapolis (Brooklyn Center): Serves all counties and the states of North Dakota and South Dakota. Fifteen resident agencies, in Aberdeen, Bemidji, Bismarck, Duluth, Fargo, Grand Forks, Mankato, Minot, Pierre, Rapid City, Rochester, Sioux Falls, St. Cloud and St. Paul.

Mississippi
 Jackson: Entire state. Resident agencies in Columbus, Gulfport, Hattiesburg, Meridian, Oxford, Pascagoula, and Southaven.

Missouri
 Kansas City: Serves all of Kansas and the Missouri counties of Andrew, Atchison, Barry, Barton, Bates, Benton, Boone, Buchanan, Caldwell, Callaway, Camden, Carroll, Cass, Cedar, Christian, Clay, Clinton, Cole, Cooper, Dade, Dallas, Daviess, De Kalb, Douglas, Gentry, Greene, Grundy, Harrison, Henry, Hickory, Holt, Howard, Howell, Jackson, Jasper, Johnson, Laclede, Lafayette, Lawrence, Livingston, McDonald, Mercer, Miller, Moniteau, Morgan, Newton, Nodaway, Oregon, Osage, Ozark, Pettis, Platte, Polk, Pulaski, Putnam, Ray, Saline, St. Clair, Stone, Sullivan, Taney, Texas, Vernon, Webster, Worth and Wright. Resident agencies in Garden City, Jefferson City, Joplin, Manhattan, St. Joseph, Springfield, Topeka and Wichita.
 St. Louis: The city of St. Louis and the counties of Adair, Audrain, Bollinger, Butler, Cape Girardeau, Carter, Chariton, Clark, Crawford, Dent, Dunklin, Franklin, Gasconade, Iron, Jefferson, Knox, Lewis, Lincoln, Linn, Macon, Madison, Maries, Marion, Mississippi, Monroe, Montgomery, New Madrid, Pemiscot, Perry, Phelps, Pike, Ralls, Randolph, Reynolds, Ripley, Sainte Genevieve, Schuyler, Scotland, Scott, Shannon, Shelby, St. Charles, St. Francois, St. Louis, Stoddard, Warren, Washington and Wayne. Resident agencies in Cape Girardeau, Kirksville and Rolla.

Nebraska
 Omaha: Serves all counties and the state of Iowa. Resident agencies in Cedar Rapids, Des Moines, Grand Island, Lincoln, North Platte, Quad Cities, Sioux City and Waterloo.

Nevada
 Las Vegas: Entire state. Resident agencies in Elko, Reno and Stateline.

New Jersey
 Newark: Serves 19 counties.  Camden, Gloucester, and Salem counties are handled by the Philadelphia field office.  Resident agencies in Atlantic City, Franklin Township, Paterson, Red Bank and Trenton.

New Mexico
 Albuquerque: Serves all counties and the Navajo Nation. Resident agencies in Farmington, Gallup, Las Cruces, Roswell and Santa Fe.

New York

 Albany: Serves all of Vermont and the New York Counties of Albany, Broome, Cayuga, Chenango, Clinton, Columbia, Cortland, Delaware, Essex, Franklin, Fulton, Greene, Hamilton, Herkimer, Jefferson, Lewis, Madison, Montgomery, Oneida, Onondaga, Oswego, Otsego, Rensselaer, Saratoga, Schenectady, Schoharie, St. Lawrence, Tioga, Tompkins, Ulster, Warren and Washington. Resident agencies in Binghamton, Burlington, Ithaca, Plattsburgh, Rutland, Syracuse and Utica.
 Buffalo : Serves the counties of Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Chemung, Erie, Genesee, Livingston, Monroe, Niagara, Ontario, Orleans, Schuyler, Seneca, Steuben, Wayne, Wyoming and Yates. Resident agencies in Elmira, Jamestown and Rochester.
 New York City (Jacob K. Javits Federal Building): Serves the City of New York (counties of the Bronx, New York, Richmond, Queens & Kings) and the counties of Dutchess, Nassau, Orange, Putnam, Rockland, Suffolk, Sullivan and Westchester. Resident agencies in Brooklyn, Goshen, JFK Airport, Melville and Rye (formerly located in White Plains).

North Carolina
 Charlotte: Entire state. Resident agencies in Asheville, Fayetteville, Greensboro, Greenville, Hickory, Raleigh, and Wilmington.

Ohio

 Cincinnati: Serves the counties of Adams, Athens, Belmont, Brown, Butler, Champaign, Clark, Clermont, Clinton, Coshocton, Darke, Delaware, Fairfield, Fayette, Franklin, Gallia, Greene, Guernsey, Hamilton, Harrison, Highland, Hocking, Jackson, Jefferson, Knox, Lawrence, Licking, Logan, Madison, Meigs, Miami, Monroe, Montgomery, Morgan, Morrow, Muskingum, Noble, Perry, Pickaway, Pike, Preble, Ross, Scioto, Shelby, Union, Vinton, Warren, and Washington. Resident agencies in Athens, Cambridge, Columbus, Dayton and Portsmouth.
 Cleveland: Serves the counties of Allen, Fulton, Mahoning, Seneca, Ashland, Geauga, Marion, Stark, Ashtabula, Hancock, Medina, Summit, Auglaize, Hardin, Mercer, Trumbull, Carroll, Henry, Ottawa, Tuscarawas, Columbiana, Holmes, Paulding, Van Wert, Crawford, Huron, Portage, Wayne, Cuyahoga, Lake, Putnam, Williams, Defiance, Lorain, Richland, Wood, Erie, Lucas, Sandusky, and Wyandot. Resident agencies in Akron, Canton, Lima, Mansfield, Painesville, Sandusky, Toledo and Youngstown.

Oklahoma
 Oklahoma City: Entire state. Resident agencies in Ardmore, Durant, Elk City, Lawton,  Muskogee, Norman, Stillwater, Tulsa and Woodward.

Oregon
 Portland: Entire state. Resident agencies in Bend, Eugene, Medford, Pendleton and Salem.

Pennsylvania
 Philadelphia: Serves the Pennsylvania counties of Adams, Berks, Bradford, Bucks, Cameron, Carbon, Centre, Chester, Clinton, Columbia, Cumberland, Delaware, Dauphin, Franklin, Fulton, Huntingdon, Juniata, Lackawanna, Lancaster, Lebanon, Lehigh, Luzerne, Lycoming, Mifflin, Monroe, Montour, Montgomery, Northampton, Northumberland, Perry, Philadelphia, Pike, Potter, Schuylkill, Snyder, Sullivan, Susquehanna, Tioga, Union, Wayne, and Wyoming, and the New Jersey counties of Camden, Gloucester, and Salem. Eight resident agencies, in Allentown, Cherry Hill, Fort Washington, Harrisburg, Newtown Square, Scranton, State College and Williamsport.
 Pittsburgh: Serves all of West Virginia and the Pennsylvania counties of Allegheny, Armstrong, Beaver, Bedford, Blair, Butler, Cambria, Clarion, Clearfield, Crawford, Elk, Erie, Fayette, Forest, Green, Indiana, Jefferson, Lawrence, McKean, Mercer, Somerset, Venango, Warren, Washington, and Westmoreland. Ten resident agencies, in Beckley, Charleroi, Charleston, Clarksburg, Cranberry Township, Erie, Huntington, Johnstown, Martinsburg and Wheeling.

Puerto Rico
 San Juan: Serves all of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (two US territories) with resident agencies in Aguadilla, Fajardo, and Ponce, in Puerto Rico and St. Croix and St. Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands.

South Carolina

 Columbia : Entire state. Regional offices in Aiken, Charleston, Florence, Greenville, Hilton Head, Myrtle Beach, Rock Hill and Spartanburg.

Tennessee
 Knoxville: Serves the counties of Anderson, Bedford, Bledsoe, Blount, Bradley, Campbell, Carter, Claiborne, Cocke, Coffee, Franklin, Grainger, Greene, Grundy, Hamblen, Hamilton, Hancock, Hawkins, Jefferson, Johnson, Knox, Lincoln, Loudon, Marion, McMinn, Meigs, Monroe, Moore, Morgan, Polk, Rhea, Roane, Scott, Sequatchie, Sevier, Sullivan, Unicoi, Union, Van Buren, Warren, and Washington. Resident agencies in Chattanooga, Johnson City, Oak Ridge and Tullahoma
 Memphis: Serves the counties of Benton, Cannon, Carroll, Cheatham, Chester, Clay, Crockett, Cumberland, Davidson, DeKalb, Decatur, Dickson, Dyer, Fayette, Fentress, Gibson, Giles, Hardeman, Hardin, Haywood, Henderson, Henry, Hickman, Houston, Humphreys, Jackson, Lake, Lauderdale, Lawrence, Lewis, Macon, Madison, Marshall, Maury, McNairy, Montgomery, Obion, Overton, Perry, Pickett, Putnam, Robertson, Rutherford, Shelby, Smith, Stewart, Sumner, Tipton, Trousdale, Wayne, Weakley, White, Williamson and Wilson. Resident agencies in Clarksville, Columbia, Cookeville, Jackson, and Nashville.

Texas
 Dallas: Serves the counties of: Dallas, Allen, Ellis, Kaufman, Navarro, Brown, Callahan, Eastland, Fisher, Haskell, Howard, Jones, Mills, Mitchell, Nolan, Shackelford, Stephens, Stonewall, Taylor, Throckmorton, Armstrong, Briscoe, Carson, Castro, Childress, Collingsworth, Dallam, Deaf Smith, Donley, Gray, Hall, Hansford, Hartley, Hemphill, Hutchinson, Lipscomb, Moore, Ochiltree, Oldham, Parmer, Potter, Randall, Roberts, Sherman, Swisher, Wheeler, Comanche, Erath, Hood, Johnson, Palo Pinto, Parker, Tarrant, Wise, Collin, Denton, Hunt, Rockwall, Bailey, Brown, Cochran, Crosby, Dawson, Dickens, Floyd, Gaines, Garza, Hale, Hockley, Kent, lamb, Lubbock, Lynn, Motley, Scurry, Terry, Yoakum, Angelina, Houston, Nacogdoches, Polk, Sabine, San Augustine, Shelby, Trinity, Tyler, Brown, Coke, Coleman, Concho, Crockett, Glasscock, Irion, Menard, Reagan, Runnels, Schleicher, Sterling, Sutton, Tom Green, Cooke, Delta, Fannin, Grayson, Lamar, Bowie, Camp, Cass, Franklin, Hopkins, Morris, Red River, Titus, Anderson, Cherokee, Gregg, Harrison, Henderson, Marion, Panola, Rains, Rusk, Smith, Upshur, Van Zandt, Wood, Archer, Baylor, Clay, Cottle, Foard, Hardeman, Jack, King, Knox, Montague, Wichita, Wilbarger and Young.  Twelve resident agencies, in Abilene, Amarillo, DFW Airport, Fort Worth, Frisco, Lubbock, Lufkin, San Angelo, Sherman, Texarkana, Tyler and Wichita Falls.
 El Paso: Serves the counties of: El Paso, Culberson, Hudspeth, Andrews, Brewster, Crane, Ector, Jeff Davis, Loving, Martin, Midland, Pecos, Presidio, Reeves, Upton, Ward and Winkler. Two resident agencies, in Alpine and Midland.
 Houston: Serves the counties of: Harris, Hardin, Jasper, Jefferson, Liberty, Newton, Orange, Austin, Brazos, Colorado, Fayette, Grimes, Madison, Waller, Montgomery, San Jacinto, Walker, Aransas, Bee, Brooks, Duval, Jim Wells, Kenedy, Kleburg, Live Oak, Nueces, San Patricio, Brazoria, Chambers, Fort Bend, Galveston, Matagorda, Wharton, Calhoun, Goliad, DeWitt, Jackson, Lavaca, Refugio and Victoria. Six resident agencies, in Beaumont, Bryan,  Corpus Christi and Texas City.
 San Antonio: Serves the counties of: Atascosa, Bandera, Bexar, Comal, Frio, Gillespie, Gonzalez, Guadalupe, Karnes, Kendall, Kerr, Kimble, Mason, Medina, Real, Uvalde, Wilson, Bastrop, Blanco, Burleson, Burnett, Caldwell, Hays, Lampasas, Lee, Llano, McCullough, San Saba, Travis, Washington, Williamson, Cameron, Willacy, Dimmitt, Edwards, Kinney, Maverick, Terrell, Val Verde, Zavala, Jim Hogg, LaSalle, McMullen, Webb, Zapata, Hidalgo, Starr, Bell, Bosque, Coryell, Falls, Freestone, Hamilton, Hill, Leon, Limestone, McLennan, Milam and Robertson. Six resident agencies, in Austin, Brownsville, Del Rio, Laredo, McAllen and Waco.

Utah
 Salt Lake City: Serves all counties and the states of Idaho and Montana. Resident agencies in Billings, Boise, Bozeman, Coeur d'Alene, Glasgow, Great Falls, Havre, Helena, Kalispell, Lewiston, Missoula, Monticello, Ogden, Pocatello, Provo, Shelby, St. George and Vernal.

Virginia
 Norfolk: Serves Fort Monroe and the counties of Accomack, Gloucester, Isle of Wight, James City, Mathews, Northampton, Southampton, and York, plus the independent cities of Chesapeake, Franklin, Hampton, Newport News, Norfolk, Portsmouth, Virginia Beach and Williamsburg. One resident agency, in Newport News
 Richmond: Serves Dahlgren Naval Center, Fort Walker and all cities and counties not covered by either the Norfolk or Washington, D.C. office. Resident agencies in Bristol, Charlottesville, Fredericksburg, Lynchburg, Roanoke, and Winchester.

Washington
 Seattle: Entire state. Resident agencies in Bellingham, Everett, Olympia, Silverdale, Spokane, Tacoma, Tri-Cities, Vancouver and Yakima.

Washington, D.C.

 Washington, D.C.: District of Columbia and the Navy Annex, plus the Virginia counties of  Fauquier, Arlington, Prince William, Fairfax (City and County) and Loudoun. It also serves cities and towns including Quantico, Warrenton, Falls Church, Alexandria, Manassas, Leesburg and Vienna. One resident agency, in Manassas.

Wisconsin
 Milwaukee: Entire state. Resident agencies in Eau Claire, Green Bay, La Crosse, Madison and Wausau.

See also
 List of ATF field divisions
 List of United States Secret Service field offices

References

External links

 FBI—Listing by State

Local government-related lists

List of FBI field offices


Issler's Orchestra was probably the first band that became famous because of the records they made.

In or shortly before 1888, music teacher and pianist Edward Issler (1855 - ?) started a four-piece band. The instruments were piano, cornet, flute, and violin. Their first recordings were made in 1888 for Thomas Alva Edison, the inventor of the phonograph, the first device that could record and play back sound.

Soon, more instruments were added, including the trombone and clarinet, but the band started losing popularity to larger groups. After a client (Columbia) of the company Issler recorded most for (the United States Phonograph Co. of Newark, NJ) started its own studio orchestra, the band faded away. They made their last recordings in 1900, although they may have continued performing into the early 1900s.

The band's four core members were:

 Edward Issler (1855 - ?), piano
 David B. Dana (1855 - 1914), cornet
 George Schweinfest (1862 - 1949), flute and piccolo
 A. T. Van Winkle (? - ?), violin

Notable recordings
All of Issler's records were recorded on fragile hollow cylinders made of a waxy blend of materials that usually became brown-colored during the making of the blank cylinders, so they are called "brown wax cylinders" because of their shape and usual color. Their actual color can be anywhere from nearly white to a very dark brown. They are about 4¼ inches long and 2¼ inches in diameter. Not many cylinder records made in the 1890s have survived and the survivors are almost never in like-new condition, so the sound recorded on them is now less clear than what people heard when they were new and there is much more noise mixed in with it.

 One of their earliest records, and one of the earliest made by Edison, does not have a title. The cylinder is announced at the start of the recording as "Played at the Edison Phonograph Works, Orange, New Jersey, by the Issler Parlor Orchestra".
In March 1889 they recorded the Fifth Regiment March for Edison.
In 1891 they recorded Nanon Waltz, a charming piece by Richard Genee.
 In 1894 or 1895 they recorded the Electric Light Quadrille. Like many quadrille records made in the 1890s, it has an announcement in the middle. This one says that Issler's Orchestra will be performing free in Keystone Hall the night after the record was made and that the electric light will be used for the first time (meaning its first use in Keystone Hall, not in the whole world).
In 1895 they recorded what might be the first recording of Dixie.
In 1898 the group recorded March of the Marines.

References

American musical groups
1888 establishments in the United States

Issler's Orchestra


Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Hamilton Smith, KH, KW, FRS, FLS, (26 December 1776 in East Flanders, in the United Provinces of the Netherlands – 21 September 1859 in Plymouth) was an English artist, naturalist, antiquary, illustrator, soldier, and spy.

Military service
His military career began in 1787, when he studied at the Austrian academy for artillery and engineers at Mechelen and Leuven in Belgium. Although his military service, which ended in 1820 and included the Napoleonic Wars, had him travel extensively (including the West Indies, Canada, and United States), much of his time was spent at a desk job in Britain. One of his noteworthy achievements was an 1800 experiment to determine which colour should be used for military uniforms. The increasing accuracy of firearms, especially rifles, brought advantages to shades which offer a less distinctive target – by testing the accuracy of a rifle company against grey, green, and red targets, he showed scientifically the advantages of grey (and to a lesser extent, green) uniforms over red ones common at the time, and recommended that grey be adopted for riflemen and light infantry. The British Army did not heed his advice, with green becoming the colour associated with light infantry. Initially commissioned into the 60th (Royal American) Regiment, ten years later Smith transferred to the 6th Foot.

Antiquary, naturalist, and illustrator

As a prolific self-taught illustrator, he is also known in military history circles for Costume of the Army of the British Empire, produced towards the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and an accurate depiction of contemporary British uniform. As an antiquarian, he also produced, in collaboration with Samuel Rush Meyrick, Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands, 1815, and The Ancient Costume of England, with historical illustrations of medieval knights, ladies, ships, and battles. The majority of his vast body of work (he estimated it was over 38,000 drawings) was not military in character, but largely passed into obscurity. Notebooks of his observations as a naturalist have survived, as well as antiquarian illustrations of civilian life. He also wrote on the history of the Seven Years' War and the natural history of dogs. Smith was of Flemish origin; he wrote the military part of Cox's Marlborough and many military and natural history books.

The Natural History of the Human Species

Smith published The Natural History of the Human Species in 1848. In this book, he maintained that  three fundamentally distinct human types had always existed: the Caucasian, the Mongolian, and the Negro. Smith was nominally a monogenist, maintaining that the creation of humans was a single event, rather than multiple, but he was less convinced by the standard theories of the time coming from Count Buffon and Georges Cuvier on interfertility and species; the book also referred to the polygenist views held by Samuel George Morton.

Smith's book was reprinted in America, where Samuel Kneeland wrote an 84-page introduction to it. Kneeland laid out evidence that he maintained supported polygenist creationism, and argued that the Bible is compatible with multiple Adams.

On retirement, Smith settled in Plymouth, joining the Plymouth Institution (now the Plymouth Athenaeum). He delivered lectures and many of his 20 volumes of MSS notes, letters, and papers were deposited in the institution. His collection was destroyed when the Plymouth Athenaeum was bombed during the Blitz in 1941.

See also
:Category:Taxa named by Charles Hamilton Smith

References

1776 births
1859 deaths
English naturalists
English zoologists
English antiquarians
English illustrators
English taxonomists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers officers
Royal American Regiment officers
British spies
Spies of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
Knights Fourth Class of the Military Order of William
19th-century British zoologists

Charles Hamilton Smith