Rochester Castle stands on the east bank of the River Medway in Rochester, Kent, South East England. The 12th-century keep or stone tower, which is the castle's most prominent feature, is one of the best preserved in England or France.

Situated on the River Medway and Watling Street, Rochester was a strategically important royal castle. During the late medieval period it helped protect England's south-east coast from invasion. The first castle at Rochester was founded in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest. It was given to Bishop Odo, probably by his half-brother William the Conqueror. During the Rebellion of 1088 over the succession to the English throne, Odo supported Robert Curthose, the Conqueror's eldest son, against William Rufus. It was during this conflict that the castle first saw military action; the city and castle were besieged after Odo made Rochester a headquarters for the rebellion. After the garrison capitulated, this first castle was abandoned.

Between 1087 and 1089, Rufus asked Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, to build a new stone castle at Rochester. He established the current extent of the castle. Though much altered through the centuries, some parts of Gundulf's work survive. In 1127 King Henry I granted the castle to the Archbishop of Canterbury in perpetuity. William de Corbeil built the massive keep that still dominates the castle today. Throughout the 12th century the castle remained in the custody of the archbishops.

During the First Barons' War (1215–1217) in King John's reign, baronial forces captured the castle from Archbishop Stephen Langton and held it against the king, who then besieged it. The Barnwell chronicler remarked "Our age has not known a siege so hard pressed nor so strongly resisted". After resisting for just over seven weeks, the garrison surrendered. The castle had been greatly damaged, with breaches in the outer walls and one corner of the keep collapsed, and hunger eventually forced the defenders' hand. The castle did not stay under John's control for long: in 1216 it was captured by the French Prince Louis, who was the new leader of the baronial faction. John died and was succeeded by his son King Henry III in 1216; the next year, the war ended and the castle was taken under direct royal control.

Rochester was besieged for the third time in 1264 during the Second Barons' War (1264–1267). The castle's royal constable, Roger de Leybourne, held Rochester in support of Henry III. Rebel armies led by Simon de Montfort and Gilbert de Clare entered the city and set about trying to capture the castle. Again the castle's defenders resisted, this time with a different outcome. After a week, the rebel armies raised the siege in the face of relief from Henry himself. The garrison did not surrender, and the castle suffered extensive damage that was not repaired until the following century. The castle saw military action for the last time in 1381 when it was captured and ransacked during the Peasants' Revolt. As Rochester Castle fell out of use its materials were reused elsewhere and custodianship relinquished by the Crown. The castle and its grounds were opened to the public in the 1870s as a park. At various points during the 19th and 20th centuries repairs were carried out. The castle is protected as a Grade I listed building and Scheduled Monument. Today the ruins are in the guardianship of English Heritage and open to the public.

Early history

Castles were introduced to England by the Normans in the 11th century and their construction, in the wake of the conquest of 1066, helped the Normans secure their new territory. Rochester was an important city, built on the site of a Roman town at the junction of the River Medway and Watling Street, a Roman road. It has long been assumed that the first castle was located next to the river, just outside the south-west corner of the town walls. The conjectural site of the early castle later became known as "Boley Hill". Archaeologist Tom McNeill has suggested that these earliest castles in England may have been purely military in character, built to contain a large number of troops in hostile territory.

According to the Domesday Book of 1086, the Bishop of Rochester was given land valued at 17s 4d in Aylesford, Kent, in compensation for land that became the site of Rochester Castle. Of the 48 castles mentioned in the survey, Rochester is the only one for which property-owners were reimbursed when their land was taken to build the castle. From the 11th century the castle-guard was a feudal obligation in England. This often took the form of knights garrisoning castles for their lords for a set period. There is no comprehensive list of which castles were owed service in this form, but military historian Cathcart King notes that they seem to have been predominantly high-status castles. Rochester's castle-guard consisted of 60 knights' fees, marking it as a particularly important fortification.

It was probably William the Conqueror who gave the city and its castle to Bishop Odo of Bayeux, the king's half brother. On William's death in September 1087 his territories were divided between his two sons. Robert, the elder, inherited the title of Duke of Normandy and William Rufus became King of England. A significant number of Norman barons objected to dividing Normandy and England, and Bishop Odo supported Robert's claim to the English throne. Several others, including the earls of Northumberland and Shrewsbury and the Bishop of Coutances came out in support of Robert. Odo prepared Rochester Castle for war and it became one of the headquarters of the rebellion. Its position in Kent made it a suitable base for raids on London and its garrison could harry William's forces in the county. William set off from London and marched towards Rochester to deal with the threat. Before he arrived, news reached the king that Odo had gone to Pevensey Castle, which was under the control of Robert, Count of Mortain. William turned away from Rochester and seized Pevensey. The captured Odo was forced to swear to hand over Rochester to William's men. The king despatched a force with Odo in tow to demand Rochester's surrender. Instead of yielding, the garrison sallied and captured the entire party. In response William laid siege to the city and castle. Contemporary chronicler Orderic Vitalis recorded that the siege began in May 1088. Two siege-castles were built to cut off the city's supply lines and to protect the besiegers from sorties. Conditions within the city were dire: disease was rampant, exacerbated by the heat and flies. The garrison ultimately capitulated and terms were agreed. Odo, Eustace, Count of Boulogne, and Robert de Belleme, son of the Earl of Shrewsbury, were allowed to march away with their weapons and horses but their estates in England were confiscated. This marked the end of the castle's role in the rebellion, and the fortification was probably abandoned shortly afterwards. The siege-castles were abandoned after the conclusion of the siege and have since vanished.

After the abandonment of Rochester's first castle it was replaced by another on the current site, in the south-west corner of the town walls. Founded between 1087 and 1089, some parts of the castle survive, much altered by use and reuse in subsequent centuries. William the Conqueror had granted Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, the manor of Haddenham in Buckinghamshire – which as of the Domesday Survey had an annual income of £40 – for the duration of his life. In turn, the archbishop had granted the manor to Rochester's monks, so on the Conqueror's death Lanfranc and Gundulf, who was appointed Bishop of Rochester in 1077, had to appeal for reconfirmation of the original grant from the new king. William Rufus demanded £100 in exchange for confirmation of the grant. The two bishops felt such a sum was beyond their means and sought a compromise. Instead it was agreed that Gundulf would build a new stone castle at Rochester. Initially the two bishops were concerned that the cost would exceed the king's original request and that they would be responsible for the castle's upkeep. Henry, Earl of Warwick convinced them that a castle suitable for the king could be constructed for £40, and that following its completion the castle would be handed over to someone else. The actual cost to Gundulf was £60. The bishop was a skilled architect and supervised the construction of the Tower of London's eponymous White Tower on behalf of William the Conqueror. Gundulf's castle was adjacent to Rochester Cathedral. According to archaeologist Oliver Creighton, when castles were positioned close to churches or cathedrals it suggested a link between the two, and in this case both were owned by the Bishop of Rochester. Often the same craftsmen and architects would work on these closely related buildings, leading to similarities in some of their features. Along with Durham and Old Sarum, Rochester is one of the best examples of a closely linked castle and religious building.

In 1127 King Henry I granted Rochester Castle to the Archbishop of Canterbury, William de Corbeil, and his successors in perpetuity. He was given permission to build "a fortification or tower within the castle and keep and hold it forever". Corbeil is responsible for building the great tower or keep that still stands today, albeit in an altered state. The 12th century saw many castles in England rebuilt in stone, an advancement in sophistication of design and technology. Rochester had already been given a stone curtain wall by Bishop Gundulf, and the keep dates from this period. It visually dominated the rest of the castle, towering above its outer walls, and acted as a residence containing the castle's best accommodation. A sturdy fortification, it could also serve as a stronghold in the event of military action. Such was the importance of the keep as a symbol of Rochester it was depicted on the town's seal in the 13th century.

Construction progressed at a rate of about  per year. It was probably finished before Corbeil died in 1138 and definitely before 1141, when Robert, Earl of Gloucester, was imprisoned there during the Anarchy of King Stephen's reign. It is likely that after the keep was built there was no further building activity in the 12th century, only maintenance. The castle was held by the Archbishops of Canterbury under the king, but the monarch was still responsible for financially supporting it. Continuous records of royal expenditures known as "Pipe Rolls" began in the reign of Henry II, and included in the rolls are details of expenditure on Rochester Castle's upkeep. During the 12th century, these were generally small figures, but in 1172–1173 more than £100 was spent on the castle, coinciding with the rebellion of Henry II's sons. Following the fall of Normandy in 1204 to the French forces of King Philip II, King John increased his expenditure on the castles in south-east England in preparation for a possible invasion. Amongst these was Rochester and in 1206 John spent £115 on the castle's ditches, keep, and other structures. Under England's Angevin kings royal castles in south-east England were invested in to protect the country from invasion; Rochester was one of the most important.

King John
Custody of Rochester Castle remained with the Archbishops of Canterbury until the end of the 12th century. Despite ascending to the throne in 1199 King John did not confirm Hubert Walter as the castle's custodian until July 1202. John may have wished to regain direct control of what was an important castle. The crisis of John's rule began in 1212 with the discovery of a plot to overthrow him. Defeat at the Battle of Bouvines in July 1214 marked the end of John's ambitions to retake Normandy and exacerbated the situation in England. He returned to England in October and a few months later barons in the north of England rose against him. A group of barons renounced their feudal ties to John in May 1215 and captured London, Lincoln, and Exeter. John persuaded Stephen Langton, the new Archbishop of Canterbury, to give control of Rochester Castle to a royal constable, Reginald de Cornhill. Under the terms of the agreement, the castle was to revert to the control of the archbishop at Easter 1215. This period was later extended to Easter 1216. Letters Patent dated 25 May 1215 requested that other royal constables would take over from Cornhill. The castle would still be returned to the archbishop when the agreement expired or if peace was restored to the kingdom before Easter 1216. In the meantime, control reverted to Langton whom John had asked to hold the castle "in such a way that by it no ill or harm shall come to us or our kingdom".

John met the rebel barons at Runnymede, and on 19 June 1215 they renewed their vows of fealty. A peace treaty, which later became known as Magna Carta, was sealed. Shortly after the treaty the agreement between John and Langton to appoint a royal constable in charge of Rochester Castle was dissolved, returning control to the archbishop. The peace did not last and the First Barons' War broke out. A group of rebels headed to Rochester to hold the city against John. The events of the rebel takeover of the castle are unclear but the contemporary chronicler Ralph of Coggeshall recorded that the king demanded Langton hand over the castle to royal control and the archbishop refused. Langton held out against the king's demands but the rebels feared he would eventually succumb to pressure from the king and seized control of the castle. According to Ralph of Coggeshall, this was done with the consent of the castle's constable, Reginald de Cornhill, who seems to have switched allegiance from the king to the archbishop after John appointed him as royal constable of the castle. Langton left the country that same month, leaving the castle in the hands of the king's enemies. In a letter that year to justiciar Hubert de Burgh John expressed his frustration towards Langton, calling him "a notorious traitor to us, since he did not render our castle of Rochester to us in our so great need". After this point, Rochester Castle was no longer considered to be in the perpetual custody of the archbishops of Canterbury.

At the time, John was in south-east England recruiting mercenaries in preparation for his war with the barons. Rochester blocked the direct route to London, which was also held by the rebels. According to Roger of Wendover, the rebels at Rochester were led by William d'Aubigny, lord of Belvoir. Estimates of the size of Rochester's garrison vary, with the chroniclers' figures ranging from 95 to 140 knights, supported by crossbowmen, sergeants and others. Hearing the news that the city was in enemy hands, John immediately rode to Rochester and arrived on 13 October. Royal forces had arrived ahead of John and entered the city on 11 October, taking it by surprise and laying siege to the castle. Rochester bridge was pulled down to prevent the arrival of a relief force from London. The siege that followed was the largest in England up to that point and took nearly two months.

Boley Hill to the south of the castle may have been used as John's headquarters during the siege. According to the Barnwell chronicler, five siege engines hurled a barrage of stones at the castle's wall day and night. These were supported by missiles from smaller bows and crossbows. The Barnwell chronicler claimed they smashed a hole in the castle's outer walls; Roger of Wendover asserted they were ineffective and that John turned to other methods to breach the defences. A letter dated 14 October indicates John was preparing to undermine the castle's walls. He wrote to Canterbury, asking for the production "by day and night of as many picks as you are able" and that they be sent to Rochester. On 26 October a relief force of 700 horse was sent from London. They turned back before arriving, perhaps because they heard the king was advancing to meet them.

When the castle's outer walls were breached, the defenders retreated to the relative safety of the keep. It too withstood the efforts of the siege engines and once again John turned to mining to bring down the walls. The mine was dug beneath the south-east corner of the keep. A letter sent from Rochester on 25 November offers insight into the methods of medieval siege craft. John ordered Hugh de Burgh to "send to us with all speed by day and night forty of the fattest pigs of the sort least good for eating to bring fire beneath the tower". The wooden props supporting the tunnel dug beneath the keep were set alight to collapse the mine, bringing down one corner of the keep. Still the garrison held out and sought safety behind the stone partition or cross-wall in the keep, abandoning half the building. The Barnwell chronicler remarked that "for such was the structure of the stronghold that a very strong wall separated the half that had fallen from the other".

Conditions within the keep worsened by the day and the garrison were reduced to eating horse flesh. To reduce the demand on limited provisions, some members were sent out of the keep, beginning with those least capable of fighting. Some sources record that they had their hands and feet amputated by the besiegers. On 30 November the garrison eventually surrendered and were taken captive. Initially John wanted to execute them all as was the custom of the time when a garrison had forced a long and bloody conflict. Savaric de Mauléon, one of John's captains, persuaded the king otherwise, concerned that similar treatment would be shown to royal garrisons by the rebels. Only one person was executed: a crossbowman who had previously been in the service of the king since childhood was hanged. Many of the rebels were imprisoned, sent to royal castles such as Corfe for safe-keeping. Of the siege the Barnwell chronicler wrote, "Our age has not known a siege so hard pressed nor so strongly resisted ... Afterwards few cared to put their trust in castles". Prince Louis of France, son of Philip II, was invited by the barons to become the new leader of the rebellion and become king in the event of their victory. In 1216 he arrived in England and captured Rochester Castle; it is not known how, as no documentary evidence recording the event survives.

Henry III

John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his nine-year-old son, Henry, with the support of the barons. With no prospect of becoming King of England, Louis returned to France. Rochester Castle was returned to royal control in 1217. Given the damage incurred during John's siege, the castle was in dire need of repairs. Between 1217 and 1237 around £680 were spent on repairs, of which £530 were taken up by work on the keep. In 1225 and 1226 the town walls were enhanced by the addition of a ditch at the cost of £300. The new ditch enclosed Boley Hill, possibly to deny the position to future aggressors who might attack the castle. Repairs began with the castle's outer curtain wall. At the same time a chapel was built within the castle. In 1226 the hall, buttery, and dispensary were repaired. Work probably did not begin on the keep until 1226. It was mostly repaired by 1227, but work continued on it until 1232. During 1230 and 1231 a stone wall dividing the castle's enclosure into two parts was built which no longer survives. While attention was paid to making the castle a working fortification, Henry III also funded construction of residential and other buildings. In 1244, £132 was spent on building a second chapel next to the royal apartments. Stables and an almonry were added in 1248. The main gatehouse was rebuilt between 1249 and 1250 at a cost of over £120. Further repairs were carried out on the keep in 1256, this time costing more than £120. Later in the decade further attention was paid to the castle's defences, possibly in response to Henry III's worsening relations with his barons.

Henry III's reign was in crisis in 1258. He had recently suffered defeat in Wales, there were agricultural problems leading to a famine, and relations with the pope were worsening. Discontent amongst England's magnates led Henry to promise reform, but under continued pressure his authority disintegrated. A royal council of fifteen magnates was formed in June that year, and the rule of the country transferred from the king to the council. With foreign help Henry's reign was restored in 1261 as the council were reluctant to start a civil war. Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, raised a rebellion. In 1264 civil war broke out between those loyal to the king and the baronial forces led by de Montfort.

Rochester's constable in 1264, Roger de Leybourne, held the castle in support of Henry. John de Warenne, Earl of Surrey, was the garrison's co-commander. A baronial army led by Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Hertford, laid siege to the castle on 17 April that year. Having marched from the earl's castle to Tonbridge the army attacked from the Rochester side of the river, either the south or west. While the army advanced towards the city the royalist garrison set alight the suburbs. The king's hall within the castle was also burned down. An army under Simon de Montfort marched from London with the intention of attacking the city from another direction. The earl's first two attempts to cross the Medway were fought back, but he was successful on 18 April, Good Friday using a fire-ship. The smoke may have been used as cover for the rebels, or the ship may have been used to burn the bridge while the army travelled by water. In a co-ordinated attack that had been pre-arranged, the armies of de Montfort and de Clare attacked the city. They entered Rochester in the evening and that night the cathedral was raided. The following day the rebels captured the castle's outer enclosure and the royal garrison retreated to the keep. Because the next day was Easter Sunday there was no fighting; hostilities resumed on the Monday. Siege engines were set up and targeted the keep. As in 1215 the keep proved resistant to missiles, and after a week had not succumbed. According to one contemporary source, the besiegers were about to dig a mine beneath the tower, but the siege was abandoned on 26 April when the earls received news of a relief force led by Henry III and his son, Prince Edward.

Later history
Though the garrison had held out within the keep, the rest of the castle had incurred severe damage, but no attempt was made to carry out repairs until the reign of Edward III (1327–1377). It was noted in 1275 that the castle's constables had not only failed to make any effort to repair the structure but had caused further damage: they stole stone from the castle for reuse elsewhere. In 1281 John of Cobham, the constable, was granted permission to pull down the castle's hall and chambers which had been left as burnt-out ruins after the 1264 siege. Numerous surveys in the following century bear testament to the castle's sorry state and follow its steady decline. A survey from 1340 estimated that repairs would cost around £600; another conducted 23 years later stated that it would cost £3,333 6s 8d. Natural weathering worsened the condition of the castle, and in 1362 a "great wind" damaged the structure. By 1369 few of the castle's buildings still stood: the keep, gatehouses, a hall, kitchen, and stable were all that survived, and even then in a state of ruin. The keep was in desperate need of repair, but it was still in use and was the centre of the domestic life at the castle.

Elizabeth de Burgh Queen of Scots, captured by English in 1306, was confined in the castle in 1314 from March to June.

Between May 1367 and September 1370 repairs costing £2,262 were carried out. Records show that sections of the curtain wall were repaired and two mural towers built, one of them replacing a tower on the same site. The towers were positioned north-east of the keep and still stand. More work was undertaken between 1370 and 1377, the year of Edward's death. The royal apartments built during Henry III's reign were never repaired; it has been suggested this was because by the 14th century, when considerable sums were being spent on repairs elsewhere in the castle, Rochester had fallen out of favour as a royal residence. As the castle's importance as a high-status residence waned, its role as a barracks and administrative centre came to the fore. The reign of Richard II (1377–1400) saw the investment of £500 in repairing the castle. This was in part in response to French raids on England's southern coast during the Hundred Years' War as England's fortunes in the conflict worsened. The most significant of these works was the construction of a tower at the north end of the castle, overlooking the bridge over the Medway. Records document the sum of £350 spent on a new tower between 1378 and 1383, and it mostly likely refers to the one guarding the bridge. Rochester Castle saw fighting for the final time during the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. It was besieged and captured by a group of rebels who plundered the castle and released a prisoner. It has been suggested that the £66 10s spent in 1384–1388 and the £91 13s spent in 1395–1397 may have been partially in response to damage incurred during the revolt.

During the reigns of Henry IV (1399–1413) and his successor Henry V (1413–1422), Rochester Castle was in the guardianship of William, Earl of Arundel and his brother Richard. The castle was given to Henry V's widow, Catherine of Valois, in 1423 as part of her dower to support her financially. She died in 1437, at which point the castle came under the custodianship of the clerk of the King's works. Despite this, there are no records of building work during the 15th century and almost nothing is known about Rochester Castle between then and the second half of the 16th century. The decline of the castle's military significance is marked by the leasing of the surrounding ditch, beginning in 1564 at the latest. Between 1599 and 1601 stone from Rochester Castle was reused to build nearby Upnor Castle, an artillery fort.

In 1610 James I granted Sir Anthony Weldon control of the castle. Anne of Denmark and her daughter Princess Elizabeth came to the castle and had dinner on 14 April 1613 before Elizabeth sailed from Margate on her journey to Heidelberg. Diarist Samuel Pepys commented on the condition of Rochester Castle, and as early as the 17th century the castle may have acted as a tourist attraction. By this time many castles were in a state of ruin, and Rochester was amongst those in need of repair, although still in use. During the English Civil War, Anthony Weldon declared for the Parliamentarian cause. The castle did not see fighting during the war, even when the city was captured by Royalists in 1648; this may indicate that the castle was not a serviceable fortification by this point. Weldon's support for the Parliamentarians may have spared the castle from slighting (demolition) in the aftermath, a fate suffered by many other castles. Walker Weldon inherited the castle and carried out the destruction of part of the outer wall in the 18th century to sell off the building material; he had originally intended to dismantle more of the castle, but the plans were abandoned. A drawing from around this time suggests that the cross wall had been removed by this point. While other parts of the castle were dismantled, the two towers in the south-east wall were still being used for accommodation. In 1743 prisoners were held at the castle, probably in huts. Rochester Castle descended through the Weldon family until it was bequeathed to Thomas Blechynden in the 18th century. By 1774 Robert Child was in possession of the castle, and it remained in the possession of his family until 1884. There were unsuccessful plans in 1780 to reuse Rochester Castle as an army barracks, after the commander of the Royal Engineers for Chatham, Colonel Hugh Debbieg, asked the Child family for permission. The castle ruins inspired a painting by artist J. M. W. Turner in the late 18th century, one of his first oil paintings. Turner was renowned for his love of nature and was at the forefront of the picturesque movement, during which such ruins became fashionable.

By the 19th century, gardens were created within the castle's enclosure. Charles Dickens lived in Rochester and included the castle ruins in The Pickwick Papers and The Mystery of Edwin Drood. Through the words of one of his characters, Dickens described the castle as a "glorious pile – frowning wall – tottering arches – dark nooks – crumbling stones". Many of England's historic buildings, particularly ruins, have acquired myths and legends, and some are rumoured to be haunted. Rochester is no exception, and is reportedly haunted by a white lady. Dickens is also said to haunt the moat on Christmas Eve.

The 19th century saw efforts to preserve the castle. In 1826 repairs were made to the well in the keep. At the same time a survey was carried out by A. W. N. Pugin and he excavated around the keep, investigating how it was built. He descended into the well in a bucket in an unsuccessful search for treasure. Victor Child Villiers, 7th Earl of Jersey, leased the castle to the Corporation of Rochester in 1870 for use as a public park; when it opened to the public in 1872, Rochester Castle was presented as a picturesque ruin, with trees planted in the enclosure and the walls overgrown with ivy. In 1884 the Corporation bought the castle for £6,572 (equivalent to £3.4 million in 2009 terms). Between 1896 and 1904, George Payne carried out repairs. In the first quarter of the century the gardens acquired a German field gun, a tank from the First World War, and a bandstand; these were removed by 1961. Ivy was removed from the keep between 1919 and 1931 and the planting in the castles scaled back. In 1960 the origin of Boley Hill was investigated archaeologically, but the excavations failed to provide firm dating evidence.

The castle's state was assessed in 1961, and the cost of repairs estimated at £30,000 (equivalent to £1.1 million in 2009 terms). The Ministry of Public Building and Works took over care of the castle from the Corporation of Rochester in 1965. Records of the Ministry's conservation work have gone missing, so precisely what was done is unclear. Between 1962 and 1965 the council removed buildings from the castle's ditch. Guardianship transferred to English Heritage in 1984. Since 1995 the City of Rochester has been responsible for daily management of the castle. Descaling at the start of the 21st century contributed to the decay of the keep, and one of the mural towers was in need of maintenance. Due to the decayed state of the keep, public access is restricted and netting has been erected to protect visitors. The possibility of adding floors and a roof to the keep was discussed in the 1970s and 1990s, but there were concerns that a roof would change the climate within the building. The castle is a Scheduled Monument, a "nationally important" historic building and archaeological site which has been given protection against unauthorised change. It is also a Grade I listed building, and recognised as an internationally important structure. The castle is open to the public.

Architecture

Little is known about the design of the first castle at Rochester as it has since vanished, and even the exact site is uncertain. It most likely took the form of a motte-and-bailey castle, with a mound and an outer enclosure defended by a timber palisade and earthen banks. Boley Hill has been suggested as the site of the first castle, an outwork reinforcing the castle's defences, or an abandoned siege castle like those documented in the 1088 siege. Boley Hill is a natural outcrop of rock, and could have acted as a motte.

The castle built by Bishop Gundulf in the late 12th century was enclosed by a stone wall. Situated in the south-west corner of the city, the castle used the remains of the Roman town walls as foundations. The circuit had at least one tower; it was replaced in the 14th century. The original gateway was radically altered in the 13th or 14th century. From across the River Medway, the twin landmarks of Rochester's castle and cathedral would have dominated the medieval landscape, symbolic of the authority of the church and nobility in the period. Most castles were built by secular nobles, but the work by Gundulf and his successor Corbeil provide examples of the role of the church in castle building.

According to military historian Allen Brown Rochester's keep is "among the finest and oldest in all England". Since its construction it has undergone limited alteration, aside from the rebuilding of one corner, and although now in a state of ruin it remains significantly intact and is considered one of the most important surviving 12th-century keeps in England and France. The keep was richly decorated with hangings and furnishings. Dating from the second quarter of the 12th century, it is Rochester Castle's dominant feature. It had a square plan, and measures  externally with pilaster buttresses at each corner. The keep was built in the castle's southern corner, close to the curtain wall. The primary building material was local Kentish Ragstone; Caen stone used to face the keep was imported from Normandy. The same material was imported for the Tower of London's White Tower in the 11th century. The tops of the turrets rise  above the ground, 12 ft above the battlements. Below the latter are rectangular holes, marking where wooden hoarding would have been attached. The walls of the keep are 12 ft thick at the base, and taper to 10 ft at the top. It is the tallest keep in England, and only those at Dover, the Tower of London, Colchester, and Norwich are larger. During John's siege of Rochester in 1215, the south-east corner collapsed; during Henry III's reign it was rebuilt as a cylinder. The windows increase in size higher up the walls; those in the uppermost were decorated. A spiral staircase in the north-east corner provided access to all floors, and another in the south-west corner went from the first floor to the top floor. The north-west corner tower contains small chambers, and the south-east probably had a similar layout before it was rebuilt.

Keeps were traditionally built with an entrance at first-floor level, and Rochester's follows this pattern. A forebuilding attached to the north side guarded the entrance. A stone staircase began on the west side of the keep before turning and meeting the forebuilding, which could be entered by crossing a drawbridge across a gap  wide. There was another entrance in the west of the forebuilding, and at some point a new doorway was knocked through to the keep at the bottom of the drawbridge pit. The original door from the forebuilding into the keep was protected by a portcullis.

The stone-built keeps of the 11th century generally had simple plans, with few rooms and an uncomplicated layout. Rochester's keep bears testament to a developing complexity, and provides an early example of a keep divided into separate areas for the lord and his retinue. The thickness of the walls allowed rooms to be built into them, as can also be seen at the Hedingham Castle's contemporaneous keep, or the slightly later one at Dover. The keep's interior is divided for its entire height by a cross wall running east–west. The ground floor was used for storage, with the three storeys above providing accommodation. The first floor probably contained a hall and great chamber, divided by the cross wall. This level may have been the accommodation of the castle's constable who looked after it during the owner's absence. There is a room called "Gundulf's Chamber" built into the thickness of the wall in the north-west corner; it may well have been the constable's private chamber. The second floor contained the keep's best accommodation and some of its most elaborate decoration. It is  high and surrounded by a gallery in its upper half built into the thickness of the walls. The floor also had a chapel measuring about . At some unknown point in the post-medieval period, a fire gutted the keep, leaving it in its present state without floors or a roof. On the second floor, there are openings in the cross wall, broken by a series of Romanesque columns between round-headed arches. The cross wall carried a well shaft, with a well-head at each floor. The third floor had a second chapel and access to the roof, and may have held additional accommodation.

The current entrance in the north-east occupies the approximate location of the main gatehouse constructed by Gundulf and then rebuilt during 1249–1250. It was pulled down in the 1870s when the enclosure was converted into a municipal garden. An engraving from 1735 by the Buck brothers gives some indication of the gatehouse's form: the gate was an archway between two towers projecting from the curtain wall. It was reached by a stone causeway across a ditch, rather than a drawbridge. A tower containing a postern gate was located in the north-west corner of the enclosure, built at the close of the 14th century to guard the bridge over the Medway. The tower and postern no longer stands, but 19th-century antiquary and engineer G. T. Clark made some notes on the structure while it was still standing and commented that it had mechanisms to lift supplies for the castle from the river. The western part of the stone outer wall, a stretch facing the river, dates from when Gundulf built the first wall enclosing the castle. In the 19th century a revetment was added to strengthen the decaying wall. Like the keep, it was constructed using Kentish Ragstone. This part of Gundulf's wall was  thick at the base, narrowing to  at the top; it rose to a height of around . Four embrasures were added to this part of the wall in the 13th century; the builders imitated Norman design. At the northern end of the 12th-century stretch of western wall are the remains of a building, probably a hall, dating from the 13th century. Its vaulted undercroft is no longer standing.

In the south Gundulf's wall survived into the modern period, but has now been dismantled. The current wall is a 19th-century replacement. At the eastern end of this wall, near the southern corner of the castle, is a two-storey rounded tower  in diameter dating from the early 13th century. It was built to fill the breach in the curtain wall caused when John's army besieged the castle and to reinforce a weak point in the defences. The section from the tower to the location of the former main gatehouse in the north-east dates from about 1367 to 1370. Two towers were built along the wall, each two storeys high and again using Kentish Ragstone. The one nearest the keep is relatively plain and the northernmost one more elaborate. The latter was intended for use as a residence and in the modern period was converted into a cottage. The wall between these two towers was reduced in the modern period, possibly to give a better view of the cathedral. Apart from the west side, the castle was surrounded by a ditch, much of which has since been filled in.

See also
 Governor of Rochester Castle - including list of governors or constables
 Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
 List of castles in England
 List of tallest structures built before the 20th century
 Ironclad

References
Notes

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

 Rochester Castle on English Heritage website
 Gatehouse Gazetteer record of sources relating to Rochester Castle
 Photos, 3d model and floor plans

Buildings and structures completed in 1127
Castles in Kent
English Heritage sites in Kent
Grade I listed buildings in Kent
Grade I listed castles
Reportedly haunted locations in South East England
Castle
Ruins in Kent
Scheduled monuments in Kent

Rochester Castle


Lambing Flat was the name of a gold field in New South Wales, Australia. People were digging for gold at Lambing Flat in the 1860s. It was part of the  Burrangong goldfields which also included Spring Creek, Stoney Creek, Back Creek, Wombat, Blackguard Gully, and Tipperary Gully. Burrangong is now the town of Young, New South Wales. Frank Gardiner, a bushranger, had a butcher shop  at  Lambing Flat. Ben Hall, who also became a bushranger, sold cattle to Gardiner for his shop.

Lambing Flat Riot
Lambing Flat is most famous for an anti Chinese riot. This was just one of a number of  riots on the Burrangong goldfields  between November 1860 and September 1861. Several place names are sometimes used when talking about these events. Lambing Flat, the name which is name used most often, was a grass area where sheep were kept. It was where one of the more violent riots took place.

Dislike of the Chinese
There were many things that made the European miners dislike the Chinese miners on the gold fields in the 1850s. Most of the trouble was the way Chinese miners looked for gold. The gold was alluvial gold, small pieces of gold mixed in with soil and clay close to the surface. It was found in very old river beds called "leads" which had been buried for thousands of years. Getting the gold did not need much skill, but it was hard work. European miners worked alone or in small groups. They often left one area of ground to dig in another where others had said there was more gold. Many gold miners did not make enough money to buy food and clothing. Only a few miners became rich.

The government began to tax the miners by making them pay for "Miner's Licence". They had to pay to be allowed to dig rather than pay for the gold they had found. The miners did not like this tax. There were several angry and violent protests in Victoria and New South Wales. The most famous was at the Eureka Stockade in Ballarat, Victoria where over 30 miners were killed.

The Chinese usually worked in large groups of 30 - 100 men. They were able to share the small amounts of gold they found. They looked for gold on land that other miners had searched before. The European miners thought that the land was still their land. The Chinese miners lived and worked together. Most of them had been farmers in China. They were used to long hours of hard work. They were used to basic food and houses. It has been said that they "rarely paid for the mining leases". They were happy to find a lot of small pieces of gold, instead of looking for one big piece that would make them rich.

The first public display of anti-Chinese feelings took place in Bendigo in July 1854. Some these displays were attempts to keep the Chinese from working on the goldfields. There were fights between European and Chinese miners at Daylesford and Castlemaine. A group of Chinese on their way to the Victorian goldfields found gold at Ararat. They were forced off the new goldfield by European miners. The same things were also taking place in New South Wales. European miners forced the Chinese off the diggings at Rocky River in New England in 1856. Serious fights took place Adelong in 1857 and Tambaroora in 1858. There was a big riot at the Buckland River goldfield near Beechworth in July 1857.

Burrangong 1860

There were not many Chinese miners in New South Wales. Victoria had cut the number of Chinese arriving by making them pay a tax of £10 to enter Victoria. The Chinese were now starting to arrive in NSW instead. The government tried to stop the Chinese coming in 1858, but the parliament would not pass the new laws. In 1860 the Chinese and British governments signed the Convention of Peking. This meant that Chinese and British people would have the same rights in each country. Australia was a British colony, so could New South Wales keep out people from China? A new law, the Chinese Immigration Regulation Bill, was being talked about in Parliament when the first gold miners were getting to Burrangong.

Trouble began in 1860 with the starting of the Miners Protective League. The European miners held big meetings, called roll ups, to force the Chinese to leave the goldfields. They would put up signs telling the Chinese to leave. At first there was not a lot of trouble. Most of the Chinese moved to another part of the goldfield, with some going back soon after. This happened a few times over the next eight months. As long as the Chinese stayed in certain places on the goldfield at Burrangong, the European miners would put up with them.

The Riot
The most well known riot took place on the night of 30 June, 1861. A group of about 3,000 miners marched to Lambing Flat led by a brass band and two men carrying the roll up banner. They forced the Chinese to leave Lambing Flat. Tents were set on fire and items belonging to the Chinese were smashed or stolen. They then went to the Back Creek diggings and set fire to more tents. Many of the Chinese were cruelly beaten, but no one was killed. About 1,200 Chinese left the area and set up camp near Roberts' farm at Currowang, 20km away. Two things started the riot. In Sydney the parliament did not pass the anti-Chinese laws. Also an untrue story went around the goldfields. The story said that a new group of 1,500 Chinese were on the road to Burrangong. The police got to Burrangong in the next few days. They arrested three of the leaders of the riot. The miners were angry and on the night of July 14, 1,000 miners attacked the police camp. The police fired their guns and rode their horses into the miners. One miner was killed and many were hurt.

The police were forced to leave. A group of 280 soldiers, sailors and extra police came from Sydney and stayed on the goldfields for a year. The Chinese came back and lived in a separate part of the diggings. The leaders of the riots were arrested and two were sent to gaol. At the end of the year, Burrangong was quiet and the Chinese were still there.

Other websites
 The Lambing Flat Roll Up Banner

References

1860
1861
19th century in Australia
New South Wales
Riots
Racially-motivated violence

Lambing Flat


Anatol Rapoport (; ;  May 22, 1911January 20, 2007) was an American mathematical psychologist. He contributed to general systems theory, to mathematical biology and to the mathematical modeling of social interaction and stochastic models of contagion.

Biography
Rapoport was born in Lozova, Kharkov Governorate, Russia (in today's Kharkiv Oblast, Ukraine) into a secular Jewish family. In 1922, he came to the United States, and in 1928 he became a naturalized citizen. He started studying music in Chicago and continued with piano, conducting and composition at the Vienna Hochschule für Musik where he studied from 1929 to 1934. However, due to the rise of Nazism, he found it impossible to make a career as a pianist.

He shifted his career into mathematics, completing a Ph.D. in mathematics under Otto Schilling and Abraham Adrian Albert  at the University of Chicago in 1941 on the thesis Construction of Non-Abelian Fields with Prescribed Arithmetic. According to The Globe and Mail, he was a member of the American Communist Party for three years, but quit before enlisting in the U.S. Army Air Forces in 1941, serving in Alaska and India during World War II.

After the war, he joined the Committee on Mathematical Biology at the University of Chicago (1947–54), publishing his first book, Science and the Goals of Man, co-authored with semanticist S. I. Hayakawa in 1950. He also received a one-year fellowship at the prestigious Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University

From 1955 to 1970, Rapoport was Professor of Mathematical Biology and Senior Research Mathematician at the University of Michigan, as well as founding member, in 1955, of the Mental Health Research Institute (MHRI) at the University of Michigan.  In 1970, during the Vietnam War, Rapoport moved to Toronto "to live in a country that was not committed to a messianic role—a small peaceful country with no aspiration to major power status". He was appointed professor of mathematics and psychology at the University of Toronto (1970–79). The university appointed him professor emeritus in 1980. He lived in bucolic Wychwood Park overlooking downtown Toronto, a neighbour of Marshall McLuhan. On his retirement from the University of Toronto, he became director of the Institute of Advanced Studies (Vienna) until 1983.

University of Toronto appointed him professor of peace studies in 1984, a position he held until 1996, but continued to teach until 2000.

In 1984 he co-founded Science for Peace, was elected president and remained on its executive until 1998.

In 1954 Anatol Rapoport co-founded the Society for General Systems Research, along with the researchers Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Ralph Gerard, and Kenneth Boulding. He became president of the Society for General Systems Research in 1965.

Anatol Rapoport died of pneumonia in Toronto. He was survived by his wife Gwen, daughter Anya, and sons Alexander and Anthony.

Work
Rapoport contributed to general systems theory, to mathematical biology, and to the mathematical modeling of social interaction and stochastic models of contagion. He combined his mathematical expertise with psychological insights into the study of game theory, social networks, and semantics.

Rapoport extended these understandings into studies of psychological conflict, dealing with nuclear disarmament and international politics. His autobiography, Certainties and Doubts: A Philosophy of Life, was published in 2001. An article celebrating his legacy and thinking includes a career overview alongside testimonials by scholars and family that provide a glimpse of Anatol Rapoport, the scientist and the person.

Philosopher and physicist Mario Bunge called Rapoport a polymath whose work Bunge found congenial because of its applicability to real-life problems, its use of mathematics, and its "avoidance of holistic blabber".

Game theory
Rapoport had a versatile mind, working in mathematics, psychology, biology, game theory, social network analysis, and peace and conflict studies. For example, he pioneered in the modeling of parasitism and symbiosis, researching cybernetic theory. This went on to give a conceptual basis for his lifelong work in conflict and cooperation.

Among many other well-known books on fights, games, violence, and peace, Rapoport was the author of over 300 articles and of "Two-Person Game Theory" (1966) and "N-Person Game Theory" (1970). He analyzed contests in which there are more than two sets of conflicting interests, such as war, diplomacy, poker, or bargaining. His work led him to peace research, including books on The Origins of Violence (1989) and Peace, An Idea Whose Time Has Come (1993).

In the 1980s, he won a computer tournament which was based on Robert Axelrod's The Evolution of Cooperation and was designed to further understanding of the ways in which cooperation could emerge through evolution. The contenders had to present programs that could play iterated games of the prisoner's dilemma and these were pitted against each other. Rapoport's entry, Tit-for-Tat, has only four lines of code. The program opens by cooperating with its opponent. It then plays exactly as the other side played in the previous game. If the other side defected in the previous game, the program also defects; but only for one game. If the other side cooperates, the program continues to cooperate. According to Peace Magazine author/editor Metta Spencer, the program "punished the other player for selfish behaviour and rewarded her for cooperative behaviour—but the punishment lasted only as long as the selfish behaviour lasted. This proved to be an exceptionally effective sanction, quickly showing the other side the advantages of cooperating. It also set moral philosophers to proposing this as a workable principle to use in real life interactions".

His children report that he was a strong chess player but a bad poker player because he non-verbally revealed the strength of his hands.

Social network analysis
Rapoport was an early developer of social network analysis. His original work showed that one can measure large networks by profiling traces of flows through them. This enables learning about the speed of the distribution of resources, including information, and what speeds or impedes these flows—such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, proximity, and kinship. This work linked social networks to the diffusion of innovation, and by extension, to epidemiology. Rapoport's empirical work traced the spread of information within a school. It prefigured the study of degrees of separation by showing the rapid spread of information in a population to almost all—but not all—school members (see references below). His work on random nets predates the random graphs as defined by the Erdős–Rényi model and independently by Edgar Gilbert.

Rapoport is also the originator of the theory behind the interpretation of bias in social networks, which pertains to the extent to which a network deviates from a random base model. He introduced what is now known as "preferential attachment mechanism" in biased networks. It is a stochastic process that involves connected nodes that snowball into more connections. Rapoport also published an article that outlined a probabilistic approach to animal sociology, which is one of the earliest efforts at modeling simple social structures.

Conflict and peace studies
According to Thomas Homer-Dixon in the Toronto Globe and Mail, Rapoport "became anti-militarist quite soon after World War II. The idea of military values became anathema". He was a leading organizer of the first teach-ins against the Vietnam War at the University of Michigan, a model that spread rapidly throughout North America. He told at a teach-in: "By undertaking the war against Vietnam, the United States has undertaken a war against humanity…This war we shall not win". (Ann Arbor News, April 1967). He said he was an abolitionist, rather than a total pacifist: "I'm for killing the institution of war". In 1968, he signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War.

Rapoport returned to the University of Toronto to become the founding (and unpaid) Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies programme, working with George Ignatieff and Canada's Science for Peace organization. As its sole professor at the start, he used a rigorous, interdisciplinary approach to the study of peace, integrating mathematics, politics, psychology, philosophy, science, and sociology. His main concern was to legitimize peace studies as a worthy academic pursuit. The Trudeau Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies continued to flourish at the University of Toronto under the leadership of Thomas Homer-Dixon, and, from 2008, under Ron Levi. When Rapoport began, there was one (unpaid) professor and twelve students. In 2007, there were three paid professors and ninety students.

Rapoport's students report that he was an engaged and inspiring professor who captured their attention, imagination and interest with his wide-ranging knowledge, passion for the subject, good humor, kind and generous spirit, attentiveness to student concerns, and animated teaching style.

In 1981 Rapoport co-founded the international non-governmental organization Science for Peace. He was recognized in the 1980s for his contribution to world peace through nuclear conflict restraint via his game theoretic models of psychological conflict resolution. He won the Lentz International Peace Research Prize in 1976. Professor Rapoport was also a member of the editorial board of the Journal of Environmental Peace published by the International Innovation Projects at the University of Toronto.

Publications

Books
 1950, Science and the Goals of Man, Harper & Bros., New York
 1953, Operational Philosophy: Integrating Knowledge and Action, Harper & Bros., New York
 1960, Fights, Games, and Debates, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor
 1965, Prisoner's Dilemma, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. (co-author; Albert M. Chammah)
 1966, Two-Person Game Theory: The Essential Ideas, Ann Arbor, MI, The University of Michigan Press. (reprinted by Dover Press, Mineola, NY, 1999).
 1969, Strategy and Conscience, Shocken Books, New York, NY. (first published in 1964)
 1970, N-Person Game Theory. Concepts and Applications, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. (reprinted by Dover Press, Mineola, NY, 2001).
 1974, Conflict in Man-made Environment, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books.
 1975, Semantics, Crowell.
 1986, General System Theory. Essential Concepts and Applications, Abacus, Tunbridge Wells.
 1989, The Origins of Violence: Approaches to the Study of Conflict, Paragon House, New York.
 1989, Decision Theory and Decision Behaviour, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
 1992, Peace: An Idea, Whose Time Has Come, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI.
 2000, Certainties and Doubts: A Philosophy of Life, Black Rose Books, Montreal, 2000. His autobiography.
 2001, Skating on Thin Ice, RDR Books, Oakland, CA.
  (English version: ).

Selected articles
 1948, "Cycle distributions in random nets." Bull. Math. Biophysics 10(3):145–157.
 1951, with Ray Solomonoff, "Connectivity of random nets." Bull. Math. Biophysics 13:107–117.
 1953, "Spread of information through a population with sociostructural bias: I. Assumption of transitivity." Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 15, 523–533.
 1956, with Ralph W. Gerard and Clyde Kluckhohn, "Biological and cultural evolution: Some analogies and explorations". Behavioral Science 1:6–34.
 1957, "Contribution to the Theory of Random and Biased Nets." Bulletin of Mathematical Biology 19:257–77.
 1960 with W.J. Horvath, "The theoretical channel capacity of a single neuron as determined by various coding systems". Information and Control, 3(4):335–350.
 1962, "The Use and Misuse of Game Theory". Scientific American, 207:108–114.
 1963, "Mathematical models of social interaction". R. D. Luce, R. R. Bush, & E. Galanter (Eds.), Handbook of Mathematical Psychology, Vol. II, pp. 493–579. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
 1974, with Lawrence B. Slobodkin, "An optimal strategy of evolution". Q. Rev. Biol. 49:181–200
 1979, "Some Problems Relating to Randomly Constructed Biased Networks." Perspectives on Social Network Research:119–164.
 1989, with Y. Yuan, "Some Aspects of Epidemics and Social Nets." Pp. 327–348 in The Small World, ed. by Manfred Kochen. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

About Rapoport

See also

References

External links

 Anatol Rapoport, 1911–2007. anatolrapoport.net.
 Science for Peace website. scienceforpeace.ca.
 History of Science for Peace. peacemagazine.org.
 Profile of Anatol Rapoport. isss.org.
 Anatol Rapoport archival papers held at the University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services

1911 births
2007 deaths
Deaths from pneumonia in Ontario
People from Lozova
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
American tax resisters
Soviet emigrants to the United States
Game theorists
American systems scientists
Academic staff of the University of Toronto
Peace and conflict scholars
Ukrainian Jews
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Jewish American scientists
University of Michigan faculty
Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences fellows
20th-century American psychologists
20th-century American Jews
Presidents of the International Society for the Systems Sciences
Network scientists

Anatol Rapoport


Peter John Gzowski  (July 13, 1934 – January 24, 2002), known colloquially as "Mr. Canada", or "Captain Canada", was a Canadian broadcaster, writer and reporter, most famous for his work on the CBC radio shows This Country in the Morning and Morningside. His first biographer argued that Gzowski's contribution to Canadian media must be considered in the context of efforts by a generation of Canadian nationalists to understand and express Canada's cultural identity. Gzowski wrote books, hosted television shows, and worked at a number of newspapers and at Maclean's magazine.  Gzowski was known for a friendly, warm, interviewing style.

Life and career
Gzowski was born in Toronto, Ontario, the son of Margaret McGregor (née Young) and Harold Edward Gzowski. His paternal great-great-grandfather was Sir Casimir Gzowski, of Polish nobility, who became a prominent engineer in Canada, noted in particular for his work on the Grand Trunk Railway and the Welland Canal.  Sir Casimir Gzowski was an aide de camp of Queen Victoria - who knighted him - and briefly acted as the Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, when his predecessor died in office.

The marriage of Gzowski's parents ended shortly after Gzowski was born, with Harold Gzowski leaving the marriage for a Depression-era vagabond life. Gzowski and his mother were supported by Harold Gzowski's family, following Harold Gzowski's departure.  Gzowski's mother then married Reg Brown, a sales manager of a local textile mill, and the family relocated to Galt, Ontario, in 1939, when Gzowski was five.

Gzowski encountered difficulties succeeding in high school in Galt.  During the Christmas break in his Grade 11 year, Gzowski reconnected with his father in Toronto, living with him for a short period, before his father encouraged him to attend Ridley College boarding school, in St. Catharines, Ontario, which Gzowski's father had also attended.  Gzowski's mother died the summer following the commencement of Gzowski's studies at Ridley College. Gzowski's mother was 40; Gzowski was 16.

Gzowski attended the University of Toronto but never graduated; he was later awarded 11 honorary degrees. Midway through university, he took time off to work for the Timmins Daily Press. During his last year, 1956–57, at the U of T, he edited the student newspaper The Varsity. In the spring of 1957, he became city editor of the Moose Jaw Times-Herald. After a few months in Moose Jaw, he was hired by the Chatham Daily News. In September 1958, he joined the staff of Maclean's magazine. When he was 28 he became the youngest-ever managing editor of Maclean's. In the 1960s he moved to the Toronto Star and became the last editor of The Star Weekly magazine until it was sold in 1968.

His first regular radio show was Radio Free Friday, 1969–1970. In 1971 he became host of radio the CBC's This Country in the Morning. From 1976 to 1978 he hosted the television show 90 Minutes Live on CBC Television. In 1982 he returned to his former morning radio program, which had by now been renamed Morningside, where he remained until 1997. He also narrated a few Heritage Minutes. He returned to Moose Jaw, to host his last episode of Morningside from the Temple Gardens Mineral Spa Resort.
In 1986, Gzowski held the first fundraising golf tournament for literacy, a cause that was very important to him. That tournament has evolved and is now held in every province and territory of Canada and has raised more than $13-million for volunteer-based literacy programs.
As part of its activities, it honours a Canadian each year with the Peter Gzowski Award for contributions to adult literacy in Canada.

Throughout most of his life, Gzowski had been a heavy smoker of cigarettes, consuming up to 75 cigarettes per day.  In 2000, Gzowski stopped smoking through attending a treatment centre for persons with addictions.  A few months following the completion of treatment, Gzowski developed emphysema, following a chest infection.  By the fall of 2001, he was largely confined to his home, breathing with the assistance of an oxygen tank. In 2001, he contributed the essay "How to Quit Smoking in Fifty Years or Less" to Addicted:  Notes from the Belly of the Beast, edited by Lorna Crozier and Patrick Lane, and published by Greystone Books.  The essay was reprinted in September 2001 by The Globe and Mail as "Out of breath". He also wrote the essay "Life after smoking", which was published in 50+ Magazine in June 2001 and included in A Peter Gzowski Reader, published by McClelland and Stewart in October, 2001.  The book is a collection of Gzowski's written works, commencing from his time as a writer for The Varsity at the University of Toronto, collected and with commentary by Gzowski.  Gzowski died of emphysema in Toronto on January 24, 2002.

Gzowski was divorced from his first wife, Jennie Lissaman, from Brandon, Manitoba, whom he met while residing in Moose Jaw and with whom he had five children (Alison, Maria, Peter, John and Mick). He was survived also by two common-law partners, Jan Walter and Gillian Howard, whom he called his "Partner for Life". Gzowski was the father of a son (Robert Lawrence Perkins), born in 1961, from an extra-marital relationship.

Following his death, his remains were placed in the family tomb at St. James Cemetery in Toronto.

Gallery

Honours
 1974, 1985, 1987 ACTRA Awards for the best host-interviewer on radio
 1981 – National Magazine Award for his profile of Wayne Gretzky
 1982 – Became host of Morningside on September 6.
 1984 – Honorary Doctor of Letters, University of New Brunswick
 1986 – Officer of the Order of Canada
 1988 – Honorary Doctor of Laws, Trent University
 1995 - Governor General's Performing Arts Award
 1997 – International Peabody Award for broadcasting
 1997 – Gold Medal from the Royal Canadian Geographical Society
 1998 – Companion of the Order of Canada.
 1999 – Appointed Chancellor of Trent University, a position he held until his death
 2002 – The Peter Gzowski Foundation for Literacy was funded by the federal government and named in honour of Gzowski's work in promoting literacy in Canada
 2003 – Gzowski College at Trent University opens in honour of Peter Gzowski
 2006 – The Peter Gzowski Festival of Stories
 2006 – Georgina Public Libraries renamed their Sutton Branch the Peter Gzowski Branch

Bibliography

Books
 1974 Peter Gzowski's Book about This Country in the Morning (Hurtig Publishers)
 1979 Peter Gzowski's Spring Tonic (Hurtig Publishers)
 1980 The Sacrament: A True Story of Survival (Atheneum Books)
 1981 The Game of Our Lives (McClelland and Stewart)
 1983  An Unbroken Line (McClelland and Stewart)
 1985  Morningside Papers (McClelland and Stewart)
 1987 The New Morningside Papers (McClelland and Stewart)
 1989 The Latest Morningside Papers (McClelland and Stewart)
 1989 The Private Voice: A Journal of Reflections (McClelland and Stewart)
 1991 The Fourth Morningside Papers (McClelland and Stewart)
 1994 The Fifth (and Probably Last) Morningside Papers (McClelland and Stewart)
 1998 The Morningside Years (McClelland and Stewart; with foreword by Dalton Camp)
 1998 Friends, Moments, Countryside:  Selected Columns from Canadian Living, 1993-1998 (McClelland and Stewart)
 2001 A Peter Gzowski Reader (McClelland and Stewart)

Other
 1989 Afterword to Mordecai Richler, The Incomparable Atuk (New Canadian Library)
 1994 Introduction to Festival of the Written Arts, The Great Canadian Literary Cookbook (Harbour Publishing)
 1999 Foreword to Steve Dryden (Ed.), Total Gretzky: The Magic,The Legend, The Numbers (McClelland and Stewart)
 2001 "How to Quit Smoking in Fifty Years or Less", contained in Lorna Crozier and Patrick Lane (eds), Addicted:  Notes from the Belly of the Beast (Greystone Books)
 2002 Foreword to Chris Czajkowski,  Cabin at Singing River: One Woman's Story of Building a Home in the Wilderness (Raincoast Books)

Biographies
 Aleksandra Ziolkowska-Boehm, "Dreams and Reality Polish Canadian Identities", chapter: The King of CBC, Toronto 1984,
 Aleksandra Ziolkowska-Boehm, "Kanada, Kanada", chapter: Gwiazdor Kanadyjskiego Radia CBC, Warsaw 1986.
 1994 Marco Adria, Peter Gzowski: An Electric Life (ECW Press)
 2002 Edna Barker (ed.), with introduction by Shelagh Rogers, Remembering Peter Gzowski: A Book of Tributes (Douglas Gibson Books)
 2010 R.B. Fleming, Peter Gzowski: A Biography (Dundurn Press)

Audio CD
 2003  A Celebration of Peter Gzowski (CBC Audio) - Collection of Gzowski interviews, compiled by Barbara Brown and Patsy Stevens.

In music
 Gzowski co-wrote the song "One Single River"/"Song For Canada " with Ian Tyson. The song, advocating Canadian unity, was performed by Ian and Sylvia, as well as by Bob Dylan and The Band, during their Basement Tapes sessions.
 Scottish post-rock band Mogwai use an audio recording of Gzowski's interview with Iggy Pop in the song "Punk Rock", the first song from their album Come on Die Young (1999).

References

External links

 Entry at thecanadianencyclopedia.ca

1934 births
2002 deaths
Journalists from Toronto
Writers from Toronto
People from Cambridge, Ontario
20th-century non-fiction writers
Canadian magazine editors
Canadian magazine journalists
Canadian non-fiction writers
Canadian people of Polish descent
Canadian television talk show hosts
Canadian newspaper journalists
Canadian male journalists
Canadian talk radio hosts
Chancellors of Trent University
Companions of the Order of Canada
Peabody Award winners
Ridley College alumni
CBC Radio hosts
University of Toronto alumni
Maclean's writers and editors
Deaths from emphysema
Burials at St. James Cemetery, Toronto
Governor General's Award winners
Writers from the Regional Municipality of Waterloo

Peter Gzowski


The province of West Pakistan was created on 14 October 1955 by the merger of the provinces, states and tribal areas of the western wing. The province was composed of twelve divisions and the provincial capital was established at Lahore. The province of East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan with the provincial capital at Dacca. The federal government moved in 1959 from Karachi to Rawalpindi (provisional capital until Islamabad was finished), whilst the federal legislature moved to DACCA.

West Pakistan formed a block whose people seemed homogeneous (similar to each other). However, the new region included people of different ethnicities and languages. The "One Unit Policy" was regarded as a rational administrative reform which would reduce spending and eliminate provincial prejudices. However with the military coup of 1958, trouble loomed for the province when the office of Chief Minister was abolished and the President took over executive powers for West Pakistan. The province of West Pakistan was dissolved in July 1970 by President Yahya Khan.

General elections held in December 1970 saw the Awami League under Mujibur Rahman win an overall majority of seats in parliament (all but two of the 162 seats allocated to East Pakistan). The Awami League advocated greater autonomy (or self-rule) for East Pakistan, but the military government did not permit Mujibur Rahman to form a government.

Stamp showing both the East and west divisions of Pakistan Before the secession of Bangladesh. On March 25th 1971, West Pakistan began a civil war to subdue the democratic victory of East Pakistanis. This began the war between the Pakistani military and the Mukhti Bahini. The resulting refugee crisis led to the intervention by India, eventually leading to the surrender of the Pakistani Army. East Pakistan suffered a genocide of its Bengali population. East Pakistan became the independent state of Bangladesh on December 16, 1971. The term West Pakistan became redundant.

Related pages
 Dominion of Pakistan

References

20th-century establishments in Pakistan
Former subdivisions of Pakistan
1947 establishments in Asia
1970 disestablishments
1970s disestablishments in Asia

West Pakistan


Edward Paul Flanders (December 29, 1934 – February 22, 1995)  was an American actor. He is best known for playing Dr. Donald Westphall in the medical drama series St. Elsewhere (1982–1988). Flanders was nominated for eight Primetime Emmys and won three times in 1976, 1977, and 1983.

He received a Tony Award and a Drama Desk Award for his performance in the 1973 production of A Moon for the Misbegotten.

Early life
Flanders was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of Bernice (née Brown) and Francis Michael Grey Flanders. His mother was killed in an automobile crash when he was 14. After graduating from Patrick Henry High School (where he played hockey) in 1952, he enlisted in the United States Army, where he served as an X-ray technician.

Early career
After his service with the United States Army ended, Flanders began his acting career on Broadway before moving on to guest parts in television series. From 1967 through 1975, Flanders appeared in more than a dozen American TV shows, including six appearances on Hawaii Five-O (as five different characters). During this time, he was also prolific in TV movies. He married actress Ellen Geer, with whom he had a son, Ian Flanders (born 1966) before they divorced.

In the late 1970s, Flanders moved away from small TV roles to take major credits in both TV and feature films, while continuing his stage career. In 1974, Flanders won a Tony Award for Best Supporting or Featured Actor in a Dramatic Presentation for A Moon for the Misbegotten by Eugene O'Neill on Broadway. He also won an Emmy award in 1976 for the TV movie adaptation of A Moon for the Misbegotten.

St. Elsewhere
In 1982, he began his role in St. Elsewhere that earned him five Emmy Award nominations as Outstanding Lead Actor in a TV Series, winning the award in 1983. After a stormy departure from the series in 1987, he returned for two more episodes in 1988, including the series finale. During a scene in which Westphall addressed the staff, Flanders began speaking extemporaneously about the quality of art and had to be edited for broadcast. Although he later returned for guest appearances, his exit on St. Elsewhere as a regular cast member was titled Moon for the Misbegotten after the play that won him a Tony Award. The episode gained much publicity as Westphall left the hospital after "mooning" his new boss, Dr. John Gideon (played by Ronny Cox). Flanders continued his working relationship with executive producer Bruce Paltrow in the short-lived 1994 CBS series The Road Home.

Notable roles
In addition to his six-year role as Dr. Donald Westphall, Flanders is noted as the actor who has played President Harry Truman more times, and in more separate productions, than any other. He portrayed Truman at the end of World War II and during the Korean War in Truman at Potsdam, Harry S. Truman: Plain Speaking, and MacArthur. In MacArthur, Flanders had second billing to Gregory Peck's lead as General Douglas MacArthur.

In feature films, Flanders performed major roles in two dark movies based on novels by William Peter Blatty. In the first, The Ninth Configuration (1980), he plays Col. Richard Fell, a self-effacing medic at a secret U.S. Army psychiatric facility who assists Marine psychiatrist Col. Vincent Kane (Stacy Keach). The film was based on Blatty's 1978 novel of the same name, itself a reworking of his earlier, darkly satirical novel Twinkle, Twinkle, "Killer" Kane (1966). In 1990, Flanders played Father Dyer alongside star George C. Scott in Blatty's The Exorcist III based on the novel Legion.

Flanders was in the first season M*A*S*H episode "Yankee Doodle Doctor", playing film director Lt. Duane William Bricker, who is making a documentary about M*A*S*H units and visits the 4077th.  After Hawkeye and Trapper sabotage his effort, Bricker abandons the project and leaves.

Flanders also played nationally known journalist William Allen White in the 1977 made-for-TV movie Mary White. This movie was based on the famous eulogy White wrote about his daughter after her death in 1922 due to a blow to the head while riding her horse. He also appeared in the 1979 made-for-TV-horror-miniseries Salem's Lot as Dr. Bill Norton. He also played news anchor John Woodley in the 1983 made-for-TV suspense drama Special Bulletin, about a group of environmentalists who threaten to detonate a nuclear weapon in Charleston, South Carolina.

Later life and death
After three divorces, chronic pain from a back injury sustained in an automobile crash in 1989, and a lifelong battle with depression, Flanders died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound on February 22, 1995, in Denny, California at the age of 60. No suicide note was found, and his remains were cremated.

Filmography

Television
1967: Cimarron Strip (episode: "The Roarer") as Arliss Blynn
1969: Daniel Boone (episode: "The Traitor") as Lackland
1971: The Name of the Game (episode: "Beware of the Watchdog") as Lazlo Subich
1971: Travis Logan D.A. as Psychiatrist
1971: Bearcats! (episode: "The Hostage") as Ben Tillman
1971: Goodbye, Raggedy Ann (TV movie) as David Bevin
1971: McMillan & Wife (episode: "Husbands, Wives and Killers") as Tom Benton
1971: Mission Impossible (episode: "Blues") as Joe Belker
1972: Mannix (episode: "A Walk in the Shadows") as Tom Farnom
1972: Nichols a.k.a. James Garner as Nichols (episode: "Fight of the Century")
1972: Cade's County (episode: "The Fake") as Ben Crawford
1972: Ironside (episode: "Five days in the Death of Sgt. Brown: Part 1") as Phil McIver
1972: The Bold Ones: The New Doctors a.k.a. The New Doctors (episode: "Five Days in the Death of Sgt Brown: Part II") as Phil McIver
1972: M*A*S*H (episode: "Yankee Doodle Doctor") as Lt Dwayne Bricker
1972: Banyon (episode: "Just Once") as Sergeant Randall
1973: Kung Fu (episode: "The Salamander") as Alonzo Davis
1973: Marcus Welby, M.D. a.k.a. Robert Young, Family Doctor (episode: "The Comeback") as Magruder
1974: Barnaby Jones (episode: "Death on Deposit") as "Doc" Fred Tucker
1969–1975: Hawaii Five-O (6 episodes):
1969 "Up Tight" as David Stone
1970 "Three Dead Cows at Makapuu" (2-part episode) as Dr Alexander Kline
1970 "The Guarnerius Caper" as Dmitri Rostov
1972 "While You're at It, Bring in the Moon" as Byers
1974 "One Born Every Minute" as Joe Connors
1975 "And the Horse Jumped Over the Moon" as Bernie Ross
1975: The Mary Tyler Moore Show (episode: "Mary's Father") as Father Terrance Brian
1975: The Legend of Lizzie Borden as Hosea Knowlton
1975: Attack on Terror: The FBI vs. the Ku Klux Klan as Justice Department attorney Ralph Paine
1976: Hallmark Hall of Fame (episode: "Truman at Potsdam") as President Harry S Truman
1979: Backstairs at the White House (episodes 1.1, 1.2 and 1.4) as President Calvin Coolidge
1979: Blind Ambition (TV mini-series) as Charles Shaffer
1979: Salem's Lot a.k.a. Blood Thirst as Dr Bill Norton
1982–1988: St. Elsewhere - 120 episodes as Dr. Donald Westphall
1993: Jack's Place (episode: "Who Knew?") as Marcus Toback
1994: The Road Home (pilot episode) as William Babineaux

Films
1970: The Grasshopper or Passions or The Passing of Evil as Jack Benton
1972: The Trial of the Catonsville Nine as Father Daniel Berrigan
1972: The Snoop Sisters or The Female Instinct (TV Movie) as Milo Perkins
1973: Hunter (TV Movie) as Dr Miles
1974: Indict and Convict (TV Movie) as Timothy Fitzgerald
1974: Things in Their Season (TV Movie) as Carl Gerlach
1975: The Legend of Lizzie Borden (TV Movie) as Hosea Knowlton
1975: Attack on Terror: The FBI vs. the Ku Klux Klan (TV Movie) as Ralph Paine
1975: A Moon for the Misbegotten (TV Movie) as Phil Hogan
1976: Eleanor and Franklin (TV Movie) as Louis Howe
1976: The Sad and Lonely Sundays (TV Movie) as Dr Frankman
1976: Harry S. Truman: Plain Speaking (TV Movie) as President Harry S. Truman
1977: The Amazing Howard Hughes (TV Movie) as Noah Dietrich
1977: MacArthur as President Harry S. Truman
1977: Mary White (TV Movie) as William Allen White
1979: Salem's Lot as Dr. Bill Norton
1980: The Ninth Configuration or Twinkle, Twinkle, Killer Kane as Col. Richard Fell
1981: Inchon as President Harry S. Truman (voice, uncredited)
1981: True Confessions as Dan T. Campion
1981: The Pursuit of D.B. Cooper or Pursuit as Brigadier
1981: Skokie or Once They Marched Through a Thousand Towns (UK title) (TV Movie) as Mayor Albert J. Smith
1982: Tomorrow's Child (TV Movie) as Anders Stenslund
1983: Special Bulletin (TV Movie) as John Woodley
1989: The Final Days (TV Movie) as Leonard Garment
1990: The Exorcist III as Father Joseph Dyer
1991: The Perfect Tribute (TV Movie) as Warren
1992: Citizen Cohn (TV Movie) as Joseph N. Welch
1993: Message from Nam as Ed Wilson
1995: Bye Bye Love as Walter Sims (final film role)

Awards and honors

Emmy nominations
 1979 – Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or a Special, for: Backstairs at the White House
 1984 – Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, for: St. Elsewhere
 1985 – Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, for: St. Elsewhere
 1986 – Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, for: St. Elsewhere
 1987 – Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, for: St. Elsewhere

Emmy Awards (won)
 1976 – Outstanding Single Performance by a Supporting Actor in Comedy or Drama Special, for: A Moon for the Misbegotten
 1977 – Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama or Comedy Special, for: Harry S. Truman: Plain Speaking
 1983 – Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, for: St. Elsewhere

Theatrical awards
Flanders won the 1974 Tony Award for Best Supporting or Featured Actor in a Dramatic Presentation for his performance in A Moon for the Misbegotten by Eugene O'Neill, for which he also received the 1974 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Performance.

References
Notes

External links

  (from where list of film and TV appearances are accessible)

1934 births
1995 deaths
American male film actors
American male stage actors
Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
Tony Award winners
Suicides by firearm in California
20th-century American male actors
1995 suicides
 United States Army soldiers

Ed Flanders


A Fever You Can't Sweat Out is the first album made by the rock band, Panic! at the Disco. It was released on September 27, 2005 by Fueled by Ramen.

The album is split in two, with tracks 1 through 7 being played by electronic instruments such as synthesizers and drum machines and tracks 9 through 13 using traditional instruments such as the accordion and organ. Track 8 (Intermission) acts as a link between the two parts, starting with techno-style dance beats before switching to the piano. On the vinyl record version of the album, side A holds songs 1-8 while side B holds songs 9-13, further showing the split in the album.

The album mostly deals with social problems that the band shows on through various songs. Topics such as sanctity of marriage, adultery, alcoholism, prostitution, and religion are seen throughout the album. Guitarist Ryan Ross also relates two of the songs to living with an alcoholic father. The album has sold more than 1.6 million copies in the U.S. alone.

Track listing
"Introduction" – 0:36
"The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage" – 2:54
"London Beckoned Songs About Money Written by Machines" – 3:23
"Nails for Breakfast, Tacks for Snacks" – 3:23
"Camisado" – 3:11
"Time to Dance" – 3:22
"Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off" – 3:20
"Intermission" – 2:35
"But It's Better If You Do" – 3:25
"I Write Sins Not Tragedies" – 3:06
"I Constantly Thank God for Esteban" – 3:30
"There's a Good Reason These Tables Are Numbered Honey, You Just Haven't Thought of It Yet" – 3:16
"Build God, Then We'll Talk" – 3:40

Bonus tracks
<li>"I Write Sins Not Tragedies (Live in Denver)" (Japanese Bonus track) – 3:46

Credits
Brendon Urie – vocals, guitar, keyboard, piano, accordion, organ
Ryan Ross – guitar, lyrics, keyboard, piano, accordion, organ
Spencer Smith – drums, and percussion
Brent Wilson - bass (Panic now denies he performed on the album but his name is shown in the credits for the album's Notes and Thank Yous)

Additional instruments
William Brousserd - trumpet on tracks 9,12
Heather Stebbins - cello on tracks 8,10,12,13
Samantha Bynes - violin on tracks 10,12

Related pages
 Panic at the Disco

References

Other websites

Debut albums
Panic! at the Disco albums
2005 albums
Rock albums

A Fever You Can't Sweat Out


The Boeing Satellite Development Center is a major business unit of Boeing Defense, Space & Security. It brought together Boeing satellite operations with that of GM Hughes Electronics' Space and Communications division in El Segundo, California.

History
The facility was originally built by Nash Motors in 1946 and begun production in 1948, building the Nash Rambler. Howard Hughes' Hughes Aircraft Company formed the Aerospace Group within the company when they bought the facility in 1955, when the Nash company became American Motors Corporation and divided the facility into:
 Hughes Space and Communications Group
 Hughes Space Systems Division

In 1953, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) was formed, and Hughes Aircraft reformed as a subsidiary of the foundation. The charity status of the foundation allowed Hughes Aircraft to avoid taxes on its huge income.

In 1961, the two Aerospace Group divisions were reformed as Hughes Space and Communications Company. Hughes Space and Communications Company launched the first geosynchronous communications satellite, Syncom, in 1963.

On 5 April 1976 Howard Hughes died at the age of 70, leaving no will. In 1984, the Delaware Court of Chancery appointed eight trustees of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, who decided to sell Hughes Aircraft to General Motors for US$5.2 billion—this transaction was completed in 1985. GM merged Hughes Aircraft with its Delco Electronics unit to form Hughes Electronics. This group then consisted of:
 Delco Electronics Corporation
 Hughes Aircraft Company
 Hughes Space and Communications Company
 Hughes Network Systems
 DirecTV

In 1995, Hughes Space and Communications Company became the world's biggest supplier of commercial satellites. In 1997 GM transferred Delco Electronics from Hughes Electronics to its Delphi Automotive Systems and later in the year sold the aerospace and defense operations of Hughes Electronics (Hughes Aircraft) to Raytheon.

Hughes Space and Communications Company remained independent until 2000, when it was purchased by Boeing and became Boeing Satellite Development Center.

In 2005, Boeing Satellite Systems sold Boeing Electron Dynamic Devices to L3 communications.

Current operations
Hughes added the following to Boeing's portfolio:
 HS-376 – MEASAT, Marcopolo, and others
 HS-601 – ProtoStar II, and others
 HS-702, now the Boeing 702
 U.S. Navy UHF replacement – Military version of HS-601
 NASA Tracking and Data Relay Satellites (TDRS) – Communications with Space Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS)
 NASA Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES)
 HSGEO Mobile – Based on the 702 bus, for Thuraya Satellite Communications, United Arab Emirates, and for SkyTerra

The purchase of Hughes Space and Communications Company in 2000 gave Boeing an impressive range of products for design, manufacture, launch and support of satellites. This was in addition to Boeing Integrated Defense Systems' other space assets, e.g. Delta launch vehicles, older-generation GPS satellites, and Rocketdyne and Rockwell's space operations (which include much of the hardware used in NASA's crewed space program, such as the Space Shuttle, International Space Station, rocket engines, etc.)

Currently projects at the Boeing Satellite Development Center (spacecraft being designed, built, tested, or prepared for launch) are satellites made for XM (satellite radio), DirecTV (satellite television), MSV (satellite mobile telephony), Spaceway (data networks), GPS (satellite navigation), and for the Wideband Global SATCOM system (military communications). Designs for ISAT (military orbital radar demonstrator), for additional GOES satellites (meteorology), and for other spacecraft, are currently being developed and proposed.

Subsidiaries
 Spectrolab – world's leading manufacturer of space solar cells and panels
 Electron Dynamic Devices – sold to L3 communications in 2005
 Millennium Space Systems

See also

 List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit

References

External links
 Boeing Satellite Development Center
 Complete list of past satellites and space probes from Boeing Satellite Systems
 Complete list of current navigation and communications satellites projects at Boeing Satellite Systems
 Complete list of satellites built on the 376, 601, and 702 platforms (almost every BSS satellite is an adaptation of one of these three designs)
 Boeing contributions to space exploration projects, past (e.g., X-15, Apollo) and current (e.g., Shuttle, ISS) - includes the work of companies since acquired by Boeing, such as Rockwell International and North American Aviation.

Boeing
Defense companies of the United States
Spacecraft manufacturers
El Segundo, California

Boeing Satellite Development Center


Morse code is an old system of encoding messages that is used to send telegraphic information using signals and rhythm. In written communication,  Morse code uses dots and dashes to represent a limited number of alphabet letters, numbers, punctuation and special characters of a given message. When messages are sent by sound, radio signals or light flashes, dots are short beeps or clicks or flashes, and dashes are longer ones. For example, Wikipedia written in Morse code is .-- .. -.- .. .--. . -.. .. .-

Morse code is named after Samuel Morse, who helped invent it. It is not used as much today as it was in the 19th and 20th centuries. Teletypewriters were invented in the early 20th century with their own codes and gradually replaced Morse code. Other types of technology that are easier to use for communication became even more common.

Some amateur radio operators still use Morse code to communicate and were previously required to learn and pass telegraphy exams to qualify their licenses. The requirements were lifted after 2003.

There are different types of Morse code for some different countries.

There are three different symbols in Morse code; there's a short one, usually called 'dit', a long one, called 'dah', and the pause. A dah is three times as long as a dit, and the pause has the same length as the dit.

Today, Morse codes can be easily generated through smartphone applications or through a web application, which take text as input and outputs the Morse code in copyable text or downloadable audio form. Its usage as a method of sending secret messages has become obsolete in favor of more powerful encryption techniques provided by advanced modern computer machines.

Different ways to send Morse code
Morse code can be sent in different ways. On ships, flickering lights were often used instead of radio communication.

The history of the S.O.S
The S.O.S as it is used today, was introduced by the Imperial German Marine in 1904. It was mandatory for all German ships starting in 1905. It was meant as a distress signal, and should be repeated until all other stations stopped sending. Afterwards the real message would be sent. Also, there is no pause between the characters.

At the time, the market was controlled by two companies; one was Telefunken, and the other was Marconi. Marconi was under British control, Telefunken was German. Marconi used CQD as a distress signal.

The people doing the communication were employees of either Marconi or Telefunken; they were not employed by the ships' owners. These operators were not allowed to answer calls sent by the competing company, which also included distress signals. As this was against the laws of the sea, a conference in Berlin decided to use the German distress signal internationally. This started in 1908. When the ship Republic sent a distress signal in 1909, it was still CQD, and the Titanic also sent CQD at first, in 1912.

The first ship to use the new signal was the RMS Slavonia, in 1909.

Replacing the S.O.S signal
The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) is a satellite-based system that was introduced in 1999 to handle distress situations. It defines four different regions, three of which are covered by satellite. The fourth, which covers the polar regions, is covered by shortwave radio. With the introduction of GMDSS, the S.O.S signal is no longer used.

References

Signalling
Encodings
Telegraphy

Morse code


About 98% of languages spoken in Pakistan are Indo-Iranian (sub-branches: 70% Indo-Aryan and 30% Iranian), a branch of Indo-European family of languages. Most languages of Pakistan are written in the Perso-Arabic script, with significant vocabulary derived from Arabic and Persian. Urdu (or Lashkari), Balochi, Pashto, Sindhi, Seraiki, Kashmiri (Koshur), Punjabi (Shahmukhi), etc. are the general languages spoken within Pakistan. Pakistanis belong to various Indo-Aryan-speaking ethnic groups as well as Iranic peoples and Dardic language groups. In addition, small groups language isolates such as Burusho and Brahui-speaking peoples also live in the country. The major ethnic groups of Pakistan in numerical size include: Punjabis, Pashtuns, Sindhis, Seraikis, Muhajirs, Balochis, Chitralis and other smaller groups.

The population comprises several main ethnic groups (2009):

 Punjabis (40.20%) 70.7 million
 Pashtuns (19.80%) 35.2 million
 Sindhis (14.1%) 24.8 million
 Seraikis (10.53%) 14.8 million
 Muhajirs (7.57%) 13.3 million
 Balochs is (3.57%) 6.3 million
 Others (4.66%) 11.1 million

Smaller ethnic groups, such as Kashmiris, Kalash, Burusho, Brahui, Khowar, Shina, and Turwalis are mainly found in the northern parts of the country. The people of the Potohar Plateau in Northern Punjab, (Paharis/Potoharis or Panjistanis) are sometimes listed separately from Punjabis. This would tend to decrease the Punjabi's population further.

Hindkowan/Pahari/Pothwari or Modern Panjistani
Hindkowans is a general term applied to the inhabitants of the Hazara Division of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The area falls in between the 'proper' Pashtun districts of the province, the Northern Punjab and Kashmir. Thus, it is a 'transitional' area where the Hindko dialect, or language, is mostly spoken, with a little Pashto and other languages. It must be noted that as such, there are no people or races of this name, but it is a purely linguistic definition or term. The people inhabiting the 'Hindko-speaking belt' are in fact from a number of ethnic origins—Pathan settlers such as the Yusufzai, Tanoli, Tarin, Jadoon, Kakkar, Utmanzai and others, as well as representatives of various Punjabi and Kashmiri tribes, as well as several indigenous hill and aboriginal tribes such as the
Awan, Mughal, Turk, Karlal, Dhund Abbasi, Gujar, Swatis and so on.

Whilst the term is generally applied to the inhabitants of Hazara (especially Abbottabad, Haripur and Mansehra districts)it is also applied, by extension to sizable pockets of Hindko-speaking populations of Peshawar city, Kohat and Dera Ismail Khan in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and in Dera Ghazi Khan and Mianwali in Punjab.

Sometimes Pahari/Pothwari/Mirpuri are linked with Hindko and are collectively termed Panjistani people who are all closely related.
Since the 2022 National Census the Panjistani people are collectively given separate status from Eastern Panjabi people.

Hazara
The Hazara ethnicity (not to be confused with the inhabitants of the Hazara region) are a Persian language-speaking people. The local or Pakistani Hazara are residing in Quetta, Balochistan,  and a small number from Afghanistan as refugees in the Islamabad area and a very few in Peshawar city too in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. They are closely related to the Eurasian people and the Uyghur people. The total estimated population of Pakistani Hazaras is believed to be more than 200,000. Afghan refugee Hazaras are not more than between 10,000 to 12,000.

Makrani
The Makranis are the inhabitants of Makran coast of Balochistan in Pakistan. They are the black people of Pakistan. They are the descendants of slaves first brought to Pakistan by Arab merchants in medieval times from the Bantu-speaking parts of eastern Africa.

Tajik
The Tajiks are a Persian-speaking people, with traditional homelands in present-day Afghanistan, Tajikistan, southern Uzbekistan, northern Pakistan and western China. The Pakistani Tajiks live amongst other majority Central Asian-origin peoples such as the Dardic and Chitralis, the Hunzukuts, Shina, Baltis etc., and proper Tajiks are estimated to be no more than between 100,000 to 125,000.

Balti
The Baltis are an ethnic group of Tibetan descent with some Dardic admixture in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan and Ladakh. In Pakistan they mainly live in major urban centres of Lahore, Karachi and Islamabad/Rawalpindi. The Balti language belongs to the Tibetan language family and is a sub-dialect of Ladakhi.

References

Ethnic groups in Pakistan

Ethnic groups of Pakistan


The Manhattan Community Board 10 is a New York City community board encompassing the neighborhoods of Harlem and Polo Grounds in the borough of Manhattan. It is delimited by Fifth Avenue and Mount Morris Park on the east, Central Park on the south, Harlem River drive, Edgecombe Avenue, Saint Nicholas Avenue, the 123rd street and Morningside Avenue on the west, as well as by the Harlem River on the north.

Demographics
As of 2010, the Community Board has a population of 115,723 up from 107,109 in 2000 and 99,519 in 1990. Of them, 72,858 (63.0%) are African-American, 11,050 (9.5%) are White non Hispanic, 2,833 (2.4%) Asian or Pacific Islander, 356 (0.3%) American Indian or Native Alaskan, 362 (0.3%) of some other race, 2,572 (2.2%) of two or more races, 25,692 (22.2%) of Hispanic origins. 42.7% of the population benefit from public assistance as of 2012, down from 45.3% in 2005.

The land area is 897 acres, or .

References

External links
Official site of the Community Board

Community boards of Manhattan

Manhattan Community Board 10


Events
 May 7 – The Second Council of Lyons, held by the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church convenes to consider the conquest of the Holy Land via Crusades and address the East-West Schism with the Byzantine church. The Council eventually approves a tithe to support efforts to conquer the Holy Land from Muslims, and reaches apparent resolution of the schism which ultimately proves unsuccessful.
 November – The diet at Nuremberg orders that all crown estates seized since the death of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor be restored to Rudolph I of Germany; almost all European rulers agree, with the notable exception of King Otakar II of Bohemia, who had benefited greatly by conquering or otherwise coming into possession of many of those lands.
 Pope Gregory X decrees that conclaves (meetings during which the electors have no contact with the outside) should be used for papal elections, reforming the electoral process which had taken over three years to elect him.

1274