Solomon Lewis Spink (March 20, 1831 – September 22, 1881) was an American lawyer who served as a delegate for the Dakota Territory in the United States House of Representatives.

Solomon was born in Whitehall, Washington County, New York, and was admitted to the bar in 1856, beginning practicing in Burlington, Iowa.  He moved to Paris, Illinois in 1860 and became the editor and publisher of the Prairie Beacon newspaper. Spink was a member of the Illinois state House of Representatives in 1864.

In 1865 Spink was appointed as secretary of the Dakota Territory and moved to Yankton. He served as secretary until 1869.  He was elected as a Republican to be Dakota's non-voting delegate to the U.S. Congress and served from March 4, 1869, until March 3, 1871. He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1870 and returned to Yankton to practice law.  He ran again and was again unsuccessful in 1876.  He died in Yankton and is interred in the City Cemetery there.

References

External links

1831 births
1881 deaths
People from Whitehall, New York
Members of the Illinois House of Representatives
Delegates to the United States House of Representatives from Dakota Territory
Politicians from Burlington, Iowa
People from Paris, Illinois
People from Yankton, South Dakota
19th-century American politicians

Solomon L. Spink


A television program (British spelling: programme) or television show or television series, is something that people watch on television.  Several different kinds are made:

 A series of fictional programs with the same title and characters (a television series). Each television series is made as a series of programs. These individual programs are called episodes. Most series have between 12 and 24 episodes in each season. Some with fewer are called miniseries.
 A single show (episode) from a television series.
 An ongoing series of non-fiction shows that use the same title, for example: local and network news shows.
 A single program, for example a sporting event or an awards ceremony such as the Academy Awards.

Television broadcasting presents many different television programs, one after another. In between television programs, a channel may use an announcer to tell the audience what the next program will be. On many channels in many countries, advertisements are shown for short periods of time during and between program screenings. These advertisements are not a part of the television program.

Other websites

References

Television program


A Greek festival or Greek Fest is an annual celebration of Greek culture presented by many ethnic Greek American communities and organization in the United States and Canada, particularly Greek Orthodox churches. Typically, these events are intended for attendance by the general public.  Attendees can sample Greek music, cuisine, and dance, typically performed in traditional dress. Such events are often fundraisers for Orthodox churches of the Greek Archdiocese. These Greek festivals originate from celebrations in Greece for religious holidays, such as, Greek Orthodox Easter and non-religious holidays, such as, the Festival of Flowers (Protomayia).

Greek foods often served at Greek festivals include Lamb, Greek salad with olives and Feta cheese, Dolmades, Spanakopita, Tiropita, and Greek Coffee. Sweets include Baklava, Loukoumades, Diples, Galaktoboureko, Koulorakia, and Kourabiedes.

In a modern context, the term "Greek Fest" is also used to refer to the celebrations or festivities organized and held by college/university fraternities and sororities (Greek system organizations) in North America.

See also
 Athenian festivals, for a list of festivals celebrated in ancient Greece.

External links
http://www.yasas.com/greek/festivals/usa/

Culture of Greece
Greek-American culture
Greek-Australian culture
Greek-Canadian culture
Greek-New Zealand culture
Greek festivals
Cultural festivals in the United States
Cultural festivals in Canada

Greek festival


Clash by Night is a romantic triangle drama by Clifford Odets which premiered on Broadway in 1941 and was later adapted to film and television. The title derives from Matthew Arnold's poem "Dover Beach" (1867):
Ah, love, let us be true
To one another! for the world, which seems
To lie before us like a land of dreams,
So various, so beautiful, so new,
Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light,
Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain;
And we are here as on a darkling plain
Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight,
Where ignorant armies clash by night.

Broadway
The title carried a certain irony when Odets' play, produced by Billy Rose, debuted on Broadway at the Belasco Theatre three weeks after the Pearl Harbor attack. Directed by Lee Strasberg, the production opened December 27, 1941 and ran for a total of 49 performances before closing on February 7, 1942.

Tallulah Bankhead and Lee J. Cobb headed the cast as Mae and Jerry Wilenski with Katherine Locke as Peggy Coffey and Joseph Schildkraut as Earl Pfeiffer. Boris Aronson designed the setting of the Wilenski home on Staten Island in the summer of 1941. While Robert Ryan was acting in a 1941 summer stock production of A Kiss for Cinderella with actress Luise Rainer, he was seen by Odets (Rainer's ex-husband), who offered him the juvenile role of Joe Doyle in Clash by Night. Others in the cast were Seth Arnold, Ralph Chambers, Stephan Eugene Cole, Harold Grau, John F. Hamilton, William Nunn, Joseph Shattuck and Art Smith.

Despite the short run on Broadway, the play was published by Random House in 1942.

Film
When the play was adapted to film a decade later by screenwriter Alfred Hayes, the setting was changed from Staten Island to Monterey, California, and the character names were altered from Wilenski to D'Amato. Fritz Lang directed the 1952 black-and-white film noir/drama, Clash by Night, starring Barbara Stanwyck, Paul Douglas, Marilyn Monroe and Robert Ryan. By this time, Ryan had outgrown the juvenile role of Joe Doyle and instead co-starred as Earl Pfeiffer, the role Joseph Schildkraut created on Broadway. In the film's storyline, Mae Doyle (Stanwyck) returns to her home in a small town and a love triangle develops between Mae, fisherman Jerry D'Amato (Douglas) and film projectionist Earl Pfeiffer (Ryan), even after Mae and Jerry are married and have a baby. A subplot covers the blossoming romance between Peggy (Monroe) and Joe Doyle (Keith Andes). Others in the cast included Silvio Minciotti as Papa D'Amato and J. Carrol Naish as Uncle Vince.

Television
Five years after the movie, the Odets play was adapted for television. John Frankenheimer directed the Playhouse 90 production, telecast live June 13, 1957 on CBS with Kim Stanley in the lead role of Mae D'Amato, E. G. Marshall as Jerry D'Amato and Lloyd Bridges as Earl Pfeiffer. Also in the cast were John Bleifer and Edgar Stehli.

Current
Clash by Night is still performed today. John Mossman directed a revival in 2006 at Chicago's The Artistic Home that brought rave reviews, including Time Out:
The latest of Artistic Home's resurrections of great writers' assumed-dead works, Mossman's razor-sharp production slices open Odet's hard-boiled poem of the people. What's revealed is utterly devastating.

An earlier revival was by John McCormack's All Seasons Theater Group, a 1998 production with actress Jodie Markell. Peter Marks reviewed in The New York Times:
Clash by Night is best known as a flaccid 1952 B movie, directed by Fritz Lang and starring Barbara Stanwyck, that chronicles Mae's anguish in her marriage to a simple, hard-working guy, and her subsequent affair with a complicated, drifting layabout. The filmmaker tried to inject some energy by transplanting the story to California (and, for some reason, the fishing industry) and tacking on a happy ending. (In the play, Mae's affair comes to a violent end; in the movie, she ends the affair and goes back to her bland but loving husband.) The revival, directed by Richard Caliban, returns the play to its more credible roots, Staten Island just before the American entry into World War II. Mr. Caliban understands that this is, more than anything else, a period piece, the period marking the growing power and prominence of the blue-collar class. The director immerses us in a specific time and place; the evening begins with a young couple performing, in reverse chronological order, the dance crazes and musical styles of the last half of the 20th century, until they arrive in the summer of 1941 on Mae and Jerry's suitably ramshackle porch, designed by George Xenos. Still, even with global war looming, Odets and Ms. Markell can make it seem as if the only significant problem in the world is Mae's paralyzing depression. Because some of the other actors are not playing at Ms. Markell's level, the focus on Mae's hollowed-out life is all the more intense. Some of the best moments in Clash by Night, in fact, occur as Ms. Markell stands on the porch, a remote figure commenting on the folly of her existence.

Titles
The Matthew Arnold poem has been a source for numerous titles, including Norman Mailer's The Armies of the Night and Clifford Irving's On a Darkling Plain. The 1964 British film Clash by Night carries an identical title, but it is a different story, not based on Odets play.

Footnotes

External links
"Preserving television for future viewers" by Jake Ayres. Daily Bruin, May 30, 2007.

1941 plays
Broadway plays
Plays by Clifford Odets
American plays adapted into films
Films set in New York City
Staten Island in fiction

Clash by Night (play)


Lissa Explains it All is a website. It teaches beginners and children HTML as well as other things like JavaScript to help them make a website. It was made by Alyssa "Lissa" Daniels (born 1986) in 1998.

History

How Lissa Explains Began
Lissa did not plan on teaching HTML at first. She was an 11 year old girl who wanted to make a website but had problems remembering the HTML codes. She saved the codes on a webpage. Many people who saw her website asked her how she made it. Lissa gave them the address (URL) to the webpage she put the codes on. As more and more people went on the page, Lissa added more codes and information, and made the URL it became public.

Changes
A year later, so many people went on Lissa Explains that Lissa decided she needed a domain name for her website. She bought the domain name, lissaexplains.com. The website name was changed to Lissa Explains it All. Soon, even more people went on Lissa Explains, and her web hosters told Lissa that she would have to buy a plan that costed $100 a month. Lissa was upset because her parents would not pay so much money for her website.

Lissa Explains was a popular website that had a lot of visitors, so Lissa filled out many forms at agencies. The agency would pay her money to put their advertisements on her website, Lissa Explains. The money she made paid for her web hosting and other services on her website. The company that hosts Lissa Explains now is Dreamhost.

Now, with even more visitors, Lissa had to change the layout and design of her website again. She got rid of a lot of the pictures on her website to save money and bandwidth space. It changed from this to this, the way it looks right now.

Problems
Lissa's website was the first website that taught children HTML. Many people know about it, and it is being copied. For example, Lissaexplainsitall.com  has a URL that is almost the same as Lissa Explains, and it also has something to do with web design and HTML.

Services
Other than teaching HTML, Lissa Explains also has other services. Lissa teaches HTML, JavaScript, CSS, how to use frames and tables, and how to make a trailing cursor.

LissaMail
In April 2008 the website for LissaMail expired, leading to the conclusion that this service is no longer being provided.

Postcards
Lissa has postcards that users can send to their friends.

Color Tools
Lissa's Color Slider lets users choose a color in the shade they want and get the hexadecimal color code for it. She also has a color wheel for people who have Internet Explorer.

HTML Editor
Lissa's HTML Editor converts and changes formatted text into HTML codes.

Meta Tag Generator
At Lissa's Meta Tag generator, users can get the HTML code to make META tags.

Other websites
 Lissa Explains it All
 The Original Lissa Explains Website (Old Page)
Educational websites

Lissa Explains it All


Gyeongbokgung (), also known as Gyeongbokgung Palace, was the main royal palace of the Joseon dynasty. Built in 1395, it is located in northern Seoul, South Korea. The largest of the Five Grand Palaces built by the Joseon dynasty, Gyeongbokgung served as the home of the royal family and the seat of government.

Gyeongbokgung continued to serve as the main palace of the Joseon dynasty until the premises were destroyed by fire during the Imjin War (1592–1598) and abandoned for two centuries. However, in the 19th century, all of the palace's 7,700 rooms were restored under the leadership of Prince Regent Heungseon during the reign of King Gojong. Some 500 buildings were restored on a site of over 40 hectares.  The architectural principles of ancient Korea were incorporated into the tradition and appearance of the Joseon royal court.

In the early 20th century, much of the palace was systematically destroyed by Imperial Japan during its occupation of Korea. On January 21, 1963, it was designated as a cultural property. Since the 1990s, the walled palace complex is gradually being restored to its original form. It also houses the National Palace Museum and the National Folk Museum within the premises of the complex.

Overview

Gyeongbokgung Palace, located in north of Gwanghwamun Square, was built three years after the Joseon dynasty was founded and it served as its main palace. With the mountain Bugaksan behind it and the Street of Six Ministries (today's Sejongno) outside Gwanghwamun Gate, the main entrance to the palace, Gyeongbokgung was situated in the heart of the Korean capital city. It was steadily expanded before being reduced to ashes during the Japanese invasion of 1592.

For the next 273 years the palace grounds were left derelict until being rebuilt in 1867 under the leadership of Regent Heungseon Daewongun. The restoration was completed on a grand scale, with 330 buildings crowded together in a labyrinthine configuration. Within the palace walls were the Outer Court (oejeon), offices for the king and state officials, and the Inner Court (naejeon), which included living quarters for the royal family as well as gardens for leisure. Within its extensive precincts were other palaces, large and small, including Junggung (the Queen's residence) and Donggung (the Crown Prince's residence).

Due to its status as the symbol of national sovereignty, Gyeongbokgung was extensively damaged during the Japanese occupation of the early 20th century. In 1911, ownership of land at the palace was transferred to the Japanese Governor-General. In 1915, on the pretext of holding an exhibition, more than 90% of the buildings were torn down. Following the exhibition, the Japanese leveled whatever still remained and built their colonial headquarters, the Government-General Building (1916–26), on the site. Only a handful of iconic structures survived, including the Throne Hall and Gyeonghoeru Pavilion.

Restoration efforts have been ongoing since 1990. The Government-General Building was removed in 1996 and Heungnyemun Gate (2001) and Gwanghwamun Gate (2006-2010) were reconstructed in their original locations and forms. Reconstructions of the Inner Court and Crown Prince's residence have also been completed.

The current total area is .

History

14th–16th centuries

Gyeongbokgung was originally constructed in 1394 by King Taejo, the first king and the founder of the Joseon dynasty, and its name was conceived by an influential government minister named Jeong Do-jeon. Afterwards, the palace was continuously expanded during the reign of King Taejong and King Sejong the Great. It was severely damaged by fire in 1553, and its costly restoration, ordered by King Myeongjong, was completed in the following year.

However, four decades later, Gyeongbokgung Palace was burnt to the ground during the Japanese invasions of Korea of 1592–1598 when Koreans angry at the court of King Seonjo for evacuating Seoul torched the royal residence. The royal court was moved to the Changdeokgung Palace. The Gyeongbokgung palace site was left in ruins for the next three centuries.

19th century
In 1867, during the regency of Daewongun, the palace buildings were reconstructed and formed a massive complex with 330 buildings and 5,792 rooms. Standing on 4,657,576 square feet (432,703 square meters) of land, Gyeongbokgung again became an iconic symbol for both the Korean nation and the Korean royal family. In 1894, the Japanese occupied the palace and forced Gojong to establish a pro-Japanese government. In 1895, after the assassination of Empress Myeongseong by Japanese agents, her husband, Emperor Gojong, left the palace. The Imperial Family never returned to Gyeongbokgung.

20th–21st centuries

In 1915, it was used as the site for the Joseon Industrial Exhibition with new exhibition buildings being erected in the grounds.

Starting from 1911, the colonial government of the Empire of Japan systemically demolished all but 10 buildings during the Japanese occupation of Korea and hosted numerous exhibitions in Gyeongbokgung, ongoing demotion was opposed by Yanagi Sōetsu. In 1926, the government constructed the massive Japanese General Government Building in front of the throne hall, , in order to eradicate the symbol and heritage of the Joseon dynasty. Gwanghwamun Gate, the main and south gate of Gyeongbokgung, was relocated by the Japanese to the east of the palace. A further exhibition, the Chosun Exhibition, followed in 1929.

The palace faced further damage when the wooden structure of the relocated Gwanghwamun Gate was completely destroyed amid the devastation of the Korean War.

Gyeongbokgung's original 19th-century palace buildings that survived both the Japanese rule of Colonial Korea and the Korean War include:
Geunjeongjeon (the Imperial Throne Hall) — National Treasure No. 223.
Gyeonghoeru Pavilion — National Treasure No. 224.
Hyangwonjeong Pavilion; Jagyeongjeon Hall; Jibokjae Hall; Sajeongjeon Hall; and Sujeongjeon Hall.

Modern archaeological surveys have brought 330 building foundations to light.

Restoration

In 1989, the South Korean government started a 40-year initiative to rebuild the hundreds of structures that were destroyed by the colonial government of the Empire of Japan, during the period of occupied Colonial Korea (1910–1945).

In 1995, the Japanese General Government Building, after many controversial debates about its fate, was demolished in order to reconstruct Heungnyemun Gate and its cloisters. The National Museum of Korea, then located on the palace grounds, was relocated to Yongsan-gu in 2005.

By the end of 2009, it was estimated that approximately 40 percent of the structures that were standing before the Japanese occupation of Korea were restored or reconstructed.  As a part of phase 5 of the Gyeongbokgung restoration initiative, Gwanghwamun, the main gate to the palace, was restored to its original design.  Another 20-year restoration project is planned by the South Korean government to restore Gyeongbokgung to its former status.

Layout

Main Gates of Gyeongbokgung
Gwanghwamun (, The Main and South Gate)
Heungnyemun (, The Second Inner Gate)
Geunjeongmun (, The Third Inner Gate)
Sinmumun (, The North Gate)
Geonchunmun (, The East Gate)
Yeongchumun (, The West Gate)

Oejeon (, Outer Court)
Geunjeongmun (, The Third Inner Gate)
Geunjeongjeon (, The Throne Hall)
Sajeongjeon (, The Executive Office)
Sujeongjeon ()
Cheonchujeon ()
Manchunjeon ()

Naejeon (, Inner Court)
Gangnyeongjeon (, The King's Quarters)
Gyotaejeon (, The Queen's Quarters)
Jagyeongjeon (, The Queen Dowager's Quarters)

Donggung (, Palace of the Crown Prince)
Jaseondang (, The Crown Prince's and Princesses' Quarters)
Bihyeongak (, The Study of the Crown Prince)

Pavilions
Gyeonghoeru (, The Royal Banquet Hall)
Hyangwonjeong ()

Bridges
Yeongjegyo ()
Having passed through the initial main gate (Gwanghwamun Gate, ) and secondary gate (Heungnyemun Gate, ), visitors would pass over a small bridge named Yeongjegyo (). Located on the top of the canal right next to the bridge were several imaginary creatures known as Seosu.
Chwihyanggyo ()
Chwihyanggyo was originally located on the north side of the island and was the longest bridge constructed purely of wood during the Joseon Dynasty; however, it was destroyed during the Korean War. The bridge was reconstructed in its present form on the south side of the island in 1953.

Buildings

Gwanghwamun

Gwanghwamun () is the main gate of Gyeongbokgung Palace.

Geunjeongjeon

Geunjeongjeon (), also known as Geunjeongjeon Hall, is the throne hall where the king formally granted audiences to his officials, gave declarations of national importance, and greeted foreign envoys and ambassadors during the Joseon dynasty.  The building was designated as Korea's National Treasure No. 223 on January 8, 1985.
Geunjeongmun (), aligned and located directly to the south of Geunjeongjeon, is the main gate to the courtyard and to Geunjeongjeon. The gate is divided into three separate aisles, and only the king was allowed to walk through the center.

Geunjeongjeon was originally constructed in 1395 during the reign of King Taejo, but was burned down in 1592 when the Japanese invaded Korea. The present building was built in 1867 when Gyeongbokgung was being reconstructed. The name Geunjeongjeon, created by the minister Jeong Do-jeon, means "diligent governance hall".

Constructed mainly of wood, Geunjeongjeon sits on the center of a large rectangular courtyard, on top of a two-tiered stone platform. This two-tiered platform is lined with detailed balustrades and is decorated with numerous sculptures depicting imaginary and real animals, such as dragons and phoenixes. The stone-paved courtyard is lined with two rows of rank stones, called pumgyeseok (), indicating where the court officials are to stand according to their ranks.  The whole courtyard is fully enclosed by wooden cloisters.

Sajeongjeon

Sajeongjeon (), also called Sajeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the main executive office by the king during the Joseon Dynasty. Located behind Geunjeongjeon Hall, the king carried out his executive duties and held meetings with the top government officials in Sajeongjeon.

Two separate side buildings, Cheonchujeon () and Manchunjeon (), flank the west and east of Sajeongjeon, and while Sajeongjeon is not equipped with a heating system, these buildings are equipped with Ondols for their use in the colder months.

Gyeonghoeru

Gyeonghoeru (), also known as Gyeonghoeru Pavilion, is a hall used to hold important and special state banquets during the Joseon Dynasty. It is registered as Korea's National Treasure No. 224 on January 8, 1985.

The first Gyeonghoeru was constructed in 1412, the 12th year of the reign of King Taejong, but was burned down during the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592. The present building was constructed in 1867 (the 4th year of the reign of King Gojong) on an island of an artificial, rectangular lake that is 128 m wide and 113 m across.

Constructed mainly of wood and stone, Gyeonghoeru has a form where the wooden structure of the building sits on top of 48 massive stone pillars, with wooden stairs connecting the second floor to the first floor. The outer perimeters of Gyeonghoeru are supported by square pillars while the inner columns are cylindrical; they were placed thus to represent the idea of Yin & Yang. When Gyeonghoeru was originally built in 1412, these stone pillars were decorated with sculptures depicting dragons rising to the sky, but these details were not reproduced when the building was rebuilt in the 19th century.  Three stone bridges connect the building to the palace grounds, and corners of the balustrades around the island are decorated with sculptures depicting twelve Zodiac animals.

Gyeonghoeru used to be represented on the 10,000 won Korean banknotes (1983-2002 Series).

Sujeongjeon

Sujeongjeon (), a building located to the south of Gyeonghoeru, was constructed in 1867 and used by the cabinet of the Joseon dynasty.
It is Korea's Treasure No. 1760, where Jiphyeonjeon Hall was located during King Sejong's reign. The historical and architectural value is high because it is the only building that remains in the outer space corresponding to the west side of Geunjeongjeon Hall.

Gangnyeongjeon

Gangnyeongjeon  (), also called Gangnyeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the king's main residing quarters. First constructed in 1395, the fourth year of King Taejo, the building contains the king's bed-chamber. Destroyed during the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592, the building was rebuilt when Gyeongbokgung was reconstructed in 1867, but it was again burned down by a major fire in November 1876 and had to be restored in 1888 following the orders of King Gojong.

However, when Huijeongdang of Changdeokgung Palace was burned down by a fire in 1917, the Japanese government dismembered the building and used its construction materials to restore Huijeongdang in 1920. Current Gangnyeongjeon was built in 1994, meticulously restoring the building to its original specifications and design.

Gangnyeongjeon consists of corridors and fourteen rectangular chambers, each seven chambers located to the left and right side of the building in a layout out like a checkerboard. The king used the central chamber while the court attendants occupied the remaining side chambers to protect, assist, and to receive orders. The building rests on top of a tall stone foundation, and a stone deck or veranda is located in front of the building.

The noted feature of the building is an absence of a top white roof ridge called yongmaru () in Korean. Many theories exist to explain the absence, of which a prominent one states that, since the king was symbolized as the dragon during the Joseon dynasty, the yongmaru, which contains the letter dragon or yong (龍), cannot rest on top of the king when he is asleep.

Gyotaejeon

Gyotaejeon (), also called Gyotaejeon Hall, is a building used as the main residing quarters by the queen during the Joseon Dynasty.  The building is located behind Gangnyeongjeon, the king's quarters, and contains the queen's bed chamber. It was first constructed in around 1440, the 22nd year of King Sejong the Great.

King Sejong, who was noted to have a frail health later in his reign, decided to carry out his executive duties in Gangnyeongjeon, where his bed-chamber is located, instead of Sajeongjeon. Since this decision meant many government officials routinely needed to visit and intrude Gangnyeongjeon, King Sejong had Gyotaejeon built in consideration of his wife the queen's privacy.

The building was burned down in 1592 when the Japanese invaded Korea, but was reconstructed in 1867. Nevertheless, when Daejojeon of Changdeokgung Palace was burned down by a fire in 1917, the Japanese government disassembled the building and recycled its construction materials to restore Daejojeon.  The current building was reconstructed in 1994 according to its original design and specifications. The building, like Gangnyeongjeon, does not have a top roof ridge called yongmaru.

Amisan (), a famous garden created from an artificial mound, is located behind Gyotaejeon. Four hexagonal chimneys, constructed around 1869 in orange bricks and decorative roof tiles, adorn Amisan without showing their utilitarian function and are notable examples of formative art created during the Joseon Dynasty.  The chimneys were registered as Korea's Treasure No. 811 on January 8, 1985.

Hyangwonjeong

Hyangwonjeong (), or Hyangwonjeong Pavilion, is a small, two-story hexagonal pavilion built around 1873 by the order of King Gojong when Geoncheonggung residence was built to the north within Gyeongbokgung.

The pavilion was constructed on an artificial island of a lake named Hyangwonji (), and a bridge named Chwihyanggyo () connects it to the palace grounds. The name Hyangwonjeong is loosely translated as "Pavilion of Far-Reaching Fragrance", while Chwihyanggyo is "Bridge Intoxicated with Fragrance".

The bridge Chwihyanggyo was originally located on the north side of the island and was the longest bridge constructed purely of wood during the Joseon dynasty; however, it was destroyed during the Korean War. The bridge was reconstructed in its present form on the south side of the island in 1953, but is now being relocated to its original location on the north side. The reconstruction was completed in 2019.

Jagyeongjeon

Jagyeongjeon (), also called Jagyeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the main residing quarters by Queen Sinjeong (), the mother of King Heonjong. First constructed in 1865, it was burned down twice by a fire but was reconstructed in 1888. Jagyeongjeon is the only royal residing quarters in Gyeongbokgung that survived the demolition campaigns of the Japanese government during the Japanese occupation of Korea.

The chimneys of Jagyeongjeon are decorated with ten signs of longevity to wish for a long life for the late queen, while the west walls of the Jagyeongjeon compound are adorned with floral designs. The protruding southeast part of Jagyeongjeon, named Cheongyeollu (), is designed to provide a cooler space during the summer, while the northwest part of Jagyeongjeon, named Bogandang (), is designed for the winter months. The eastern part of Jagyeogjeon, named Hyeopgyeongdang () and distinguished by the building's lower height, was used by the late queen's assistants.

The building and the decorative walls were registered as Korea's Treasure No. 809 on January 8, 1985.

Jibokjae

Jibokjae (), located next to Geoncheonggung Residence, is a two-story private library used by King Gojong. In 1876, a major fire occurred in Gyeongbokgung Palace, and King Gojong, for a brief period, moved and resided in Changdeokgung Palace. He eventually moved back to Gyeongbokgung in 1888, but he had the pre-existing Jibokjae building disassembled and moved from Changdeokgung to the present location in 1891. Its name, Jibokjae, translates loosely in English as the "Hall of Collecting Jade".

The building uniquely shows heavy influence of Chinese architecture instead of traditional Korean palace architecture. Its side walls were entirely constructed in brick, a method commonly employed by the contemporary Chinese, and its roof formations, interior screens, and columns also show Chinese influences. Its architecture possibly was meant to give it an exotic appearance.

Jibokjae is flanked by Parujeong (), an octagonal two-story pavilion, to the left and Hyeopgildang () to the right. Parujeong was constructed to store books, while Hyeopgildang served as a part of Jibokjae. Both of the buildings are internally connected to Jibokjae.

Bohyeondang () and Gahoejeong (), buildings that also formed a library complex to the south of Jibokjae, were demolished by the Japanese government in the early 20th century.

Taewonjeon
Taewonjeon (), or Taewonjeon Shrine, is an ancestral shrine originally built in 1868 to house a portrait of King Taejo, the founder of the Joseon dynasty, and to perform rites to the deceased royalties. Completely destroyed by the Japanese government in the early 20th century, the shrine was accurately restored to its former design in 2005.

Donggung

Donggung (), located south of the Hyangwonjeong pavilion, were the living quarters for the crown prince and his wife. The four main buildings of the compound were Jaseondang and Bihyeongak, Chunbang (the lecture hall, where the prince received the preparatory education in order to become a future monarch), as well as Gyebang (the security building).

In the 19th century, the future Emperor Sunjong lived in the compound. Donggung was razed to the ground during the Japanese occupation. The restoration work started in 1999 but only Jaseondang and Bihyeongak were restored.
In 2020, the Royal Palaces and Tombs Center (hereinafter RPTC) of the Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA) announced its plans to restore the Donggung area to its original layout. The restoration work of the remaining buildings began in March 2020 and was planned to be completed in late Jan. 2023

Geoncheonggung

Geoncheonggung (), also known as Geoncheonggung Residence, was a private royal residence built by King Gojong within the palace grounds in 1873.

King Gojong resided in Geoncheonggung from 1888 and the residence was continuously expanded, but on October 8, 1895, Empress Myeongseong, the wife of King Gojong, was brutally assassinated by the Japanese agents at the residence. Her body was burned and buried near the residence.

Haunted by the experiences of the incident, the king left the palace in January 1896 and never again returned to the residence. Demolished completely by the Japanese government in 1909, the residence was accurately reconstructed to its former design and opened to the public in 2007.

Governor-General's Residence (dismantled)
The back garden of Gyeongbokgung used to contain the main part of the Japanese Governor-General's residence, that was built in the early 20th century during the Japanese occupation. With the establishment of the Republic of Korea in 1948, President Syngman Rhee used it as his office and residence. In 1993, after President Kim Young-sam's civilian administration was launched, the Japanese Governor-General's residence in the Cheongwadae compound was dismantled to remove a major symbol of the Japanese colonialism.

Tourism

In 2011 a survey was conducted by the Seoul Development Institute, which included 800 residents and 103 urban planners and architects. 39 percent of residents voted the palace as the most scenic location in Seoul, following Mount Namsan and Han River in the top spots.

Events
In a poll of nearly 2,000 foreign visitors, conducted by the Seoul Metropolitan Government in November 2011, stated that watching the changing of the guards at the main gate Gwanghwamun is their third favorite activity in Seoul. The royal changing of the guard ceremony is held in front of the main gate every hour from 10:00 to 15:00.
There are many tourists wearing hanbok while visiting Gyeongbokgung and there are also a number of rental shops nearby selling hanbok and other traditional Korean clothing.

At Gyeongbokgung Palace, in a program called "Suragan Tasting Sympathy", visitors can experience royal food and watch traditional performances.

On selected days from April to October, Gyeongbokgung offers special 'nighttime viewing' sessions from 7PM to 10PM. 4,500 tickets are offered each session which could be reserved online or purchased on-site (ID required). However, on-site tickets are available only for foreigners and senior citizens age 65 and over, for which 500 and 50 tickets are allocated respectively. In 2019, Gyeongbokgung held 71 nighttime viewing sessions.

From September 1, 2022 to November 6, 2022, Gyeongbokgung offers special 'nighttime viewing' sessions from 7PM to 9:30PM The admission fee is 3,000 won. Online reservations and on-site reservations are available, and up to two tickets are available per person.

Access

Today, the Gyeongbokgung Palace is open to the public and houses the National Folk Museum of Korea, the National Palace Museum of Korea, and traditional Korean gardens.

Transportation
Gyeongbokgung entry is located 22 Sajik-ro, Jongno-gu. The nearest subway station is
 Gyeongbokgung Station (Station #327 on Line 3).

There has been off and on talk to extending the Shinbundang Line near the palace including during a March 2012 campaign promise by Hong Sa-duk to expand the line near Gyeongbok Palace.

Entrance Fee

See also

 Joseon Dynasty architecture
 Five Grand Palaces — of Joseon Dynasty, in Seoul.
 Korean architecture
 History of Korea
 Imperial City of Huế
 Forbidden City
 Potala Palace

References

Bibliography

External links

 Official homepage
 Official guide from Cultural Heritage Administration
 Gyeongbok Palace
 Video of Royal Gate Ceremony, Gyeongbokgung
 The Seoul Guide : Gyeongbokgung Palace

Palaces in South Korea
Buildings and structures in Seoul
Historic house museums in Asia
History of Seoul
Buildings and structures in Jongno District
Joseon dynasty works
Museums in Seoul
Rebuilt buildings and structures in South Korea
Royal residences in South Korea
Tourist attractions in Seoul
World Heritage Sites in South Korea
Joseon Industrial

Gyeongbokgung


The Stingray Point Light was a lighthouse located at the mouth of the Rappahannock River.

History
Stingray Point took its name from an incident in which John Smith was stung by a stingray while fishing nearby. The light was built in 1858 to mark the entrance to the Deltaville harbor, just west of the point. A report from 1865 indicates repairs done after the light "plundered of all movable articles", but it is not indicated whether this reflects Confederate raids (as affected other lighthouses in the area during the Civil War).

The light remained in service until 1965, when the house was removed and a skeleton tower erected on the old foundation. It had just recently been automated. This light remains in service. Sections of dismantled house were sold to one Gilbert Purcell, who owned a boatyard and intended to reconstruct the light on his property. His plans were never realized, but the Stingray Point Marina later constructed a full size replica of the light which still stands.

References

Stingray Point Light, from the Chesapeake Chapter of the United States Lighthouse Society

External links
Stingray Point Marina website with pictures of the replica

Lighthouses completed in 1858
Houses completed in 1858
Lighthouses in Virginia
Rappahannock River
Lighthouses in the Chesapeake Bay

Stingray Point Light


Kyong Ho Seonsa (Korean: 경허선사, Hanja: 鏡虛禪師, 1849–1912) was a famous Korea Sŏn master, and the 75th Patriarch of Korean Sŏn. His original name was Song Tonguk (송동욱, 宋東旭); and his dharma name was Sŏng'u (성우, 惺牛). He is known as the reviver of modern Korean Sŏn Buddhism. Song Tonguk was born in southern Korea (Chŏnju, Chŏlla province), and entered the sangha at the age of nine in 1857. He ordained at Ch'ŏnggye monastery located at Uiwang, in Kyŏnggi province. The young monk studied under the tutelage of Kyehŏ–sŏnsa. When he was 14, in 1862, Kyehŏ–sŏnsa disrobed and sent Kyŏnghŏ–sŏnsa to Manhwa–sŏnsa for further study at Tonghak–sa. Kyŏnghŏ soon distinguished himself as a sūtra-lecturer until a dramatic incident took place in 1879 while Kyŏnghŏ was travelling to Seoul to meet his previous teacher Kyehŏ–sŏnsa. On the way he entered a village looking for shelter from a rainstorm and discovered that every inhabitant of the village had died from an epidemic. Kyŏnghŏ came to understand that his knowledge of Buddhist sūtras did not help him with the issues of life and death. When Kyŏnghŏ returned to his monastery, he summarily dismissed all of his students and began serious Sŏn meditation practice. The  he worked with was Master Lingyun's (771-853) "The donkey is not yet done and the horse has already arrived." He suddenly understood the meaning of his  when he was reading the words, "Even though I should become a cow, there will be no nostrils." Kyŏnghŏ attained enlightenment on November 15, 1887. After his awakening, Kyŏnghŏ wrote:

Upon hearing that there are no nostrils,
I realize the whole world is my home;
on the path under the Yŏnam mountain in June,
people in the fields enjoy the day,
singing the song of good harvest.

Kyŏnghŏ now devoted himself to teaching Sŏn at various monasteries including Pŏmŏ–sa, Haein–sa and Sŏnggwang–sa until his disappearance in 1905. His activities from 1905 until his death in 1912 are not clear. Some claim that he wandered around in the northern part of Korea as a beggar; and other sources report that he lived a life of a layperson, letting his hair grow and teaching Confucian classics.

Kyŏnghŏ's role in Korean Buddhism is great because his main disciples, Suwŏl–sŏnsa (1855–1928), Hyewŏl–sŏnsa (1861–1937), Man'gong–sŏnsa (1871–1946), and Hanam–sŏnsa (1876–1951) were extremely important in the transmission of the dharma. Kyŏnghŏ is recognized as the founder of modern Korean Sŏn Buddhism: he revived Chinul's idea of kanhwa Sŏn and also lived the life of a bodhisattva with his unobstructed actions, in the manner of his distant predecessor Wŏnhyo (617-686). Kyŏnghŏ was also a great proponent of teaching lay Buddhists Sŏn meditation, which was revolutionary because he both devoted himself to meditation in a hermitage and also lived among lay Buddhists in the secular world. Kyŏnghŏ's unconventional lifestyle and eccentric character brought him some criticism as well as fame amongst the followers of the "wild freedom" style Sŏn masters.

See also
 Mangong
 Hanam Jungwon
 Cheonggyesa

References

Seon Buddhist monks
75
1846 births
1912 deaths
Yeosan Song clan
Joseon Buddhist monks

Gyeongheo


The cork oak (Quercus suber) is a medium-sized, evergreen oak tree. It grows southwest Europe and northwest Africa.

It grows to up to 20 m, but in its native environment it is usually not that tall. The leaves are 4–7 cm long, dark green above, paler beneath, with the leaf margins often downcurved. The acorns are 2–3 cm long.

The tree forms a thick, corky bark. Over time this bark can develop considerable thickness and this is harvested every 10–12 years as cork. The harvesting of cork does not harm the tree and a new layer of cork regrows, making it a renewable resource. The tree is widely cultivated in Spain, Portugal, Algeria, Morocco, France, Italy and Tunisia. Cork oak forests cover approximately 2.5 million hectares in those countries. Portugal accounts for 50% of the world cork harvest. Cork oaks cannot legally be cut down in Portugal, except for forest management felling of old, unproductive trees.

Cork oaks live about 150–250 years. Virgin cork (or 'male' cork) is the first cork cut from generally 25-year-old trees. Another 10–12 years is required for the second harvest, and a tree can be harvested a dozen times in its lifetime. Cork harvesting is done entirely without machinery.

The European cork industry produces 340,000 tonnes of cork a year, with a value of €1.5 billion. 30,000 people work at it. Wine corks represent 15% of cork usage by weight but 66% of revenues.

Cork oaks are sometimes planted as individual trees. So they provide a small income to their owners. The tree is also sometimes cultivated for ornament. Hybrids with turkey oak (Quercus cerris) are regular, both in the wild in southwest Europe and in cultivation; the hybrid is known as Lucombe Oak Quercus × hispanica.

Some cork is also produced in eastern Asia from the related Chinese cork oak (Quercus variabilis).

Seed predation

In many different species of trees seed predation is considered a problem for the continued growth and reproduction of trees, in this case Rabbits are affecting the cork oak tree. During the development of a plant species the seed / acorn stage in development is considered to be the most important yet most vulnerable stage. The cork oak tree encounters many challenges during its seedling stage.

 Predation from other species
 Diseases and pathogens
 Limited resources

Seeds are often found in the form of acorns that fall to the ground close by to the base of the tree. Those acorns become the beginning development of new trees, which develop over time. However many different species use those acorns as a source of food. When rabbits are living in the same area as the cork oak tree seed regeneration is not affected in a negative way.

An acorn that has partial damage is classified as only having damage to the non-vital parts of the propagule.  Therefore, when the acorn embryo is damaged the development of the seed is negatively affected. The affected development causes a difference in shoot and root biomass because the cotyledon is lost. The cotyledon is a necessity of plants and in this case becomes the leaves of the plant. In other cases it helps scientists determine which type of flowering plant it will later develop into. The cotyledons are also an essential source of energy for the development of the seed and plant.

Community interaction
There are two common types of soil that are used in scientific studies, nutrient rich soil and nutrient poor soil. The predation of the seeds is not as important as the nutrient level of the soil. Different plants over time have adapted to grow in these different conditions over time. The acorns of the cork oak tree have better regeneration and development in nutrient rich soil. The smaller cotyledon acorns that grow in nutrient rich soil develop.

References

Other websites

 APCOR – Associação Portuguesa de Cortiça (Portuguese Cork Association)
 Photograph of cork oaks in Portugal
 Mancilla-Leytón J.M. et al Growth and survival of cork oak (Quercus suber) seedlings after simulated partial cotyledon consumption under different soild nutrient contents. Plant Soil. 370:380-392.
 Mancilla-Leytón J.M.  et al The impact of the common rabbit on cork oak regeneration in SW Spain. Plant Ecology. 213:1503-1510.

Oak, Cork
Trees

Cork oak


Mystery fiction (story, book, novel) is fictional work in which a professional or amateur detective investigates and solves a crime mystery. Usually the story begins with a crime and a few suspects, and ends when the protagonist detective identifies the criminal.

Sometimes the term is used to refer to supernatural or suspense stories and thrillers.

Related pages
Miss Marple
Sherlock Holmes
Nancy Drew
The Hardy Boys

Fiction genres
Mysteries

Mystery fiction


The Billups Neon Crossing Signal was a special signal to warn car and truck drivers that a train was coming.  It was placed at a  dangerous Illinois Central railroad crossing on Mississippi State Route 7 in Grenada, Mississippi.

It was put up in the mid-1930s by inventor Alonzo Billups.  Mr. Billups and the railroad were worried; the crossing had many accidents between trains and motor vehicles.  He wanted drivers who were going to cross the tracks to know that a train was coming and he wanted to do it in a very big way.  The Billups signal was built like a giant steel gantry which went up and over the entire highway.  This is similar to crossing signals used today in North America; Mr. Billups' signal may have been the very first time such a signal was built.  A pair of flashing red lights similar to those used today topped giant neon signs on either side of the big gantry.  The signs lit up with the words "Stop-DEATH-Stop" along with a neon skull and crossbones.  Flashing neon arrows pointed toward the train to tell drivers which way the train was coming.  The Billups Neon Crossing Signal even had a special way of warning drivers with sound.  Instead of the electric or electronic bells used now, this signal used a very loud air raid siren.

After World War II started, neon became hard to get.  The signal had electrical problems as well.  Often, the air raid siren would go off even if no train was coming and it wouldn't shut off until the railroad sent a repair crew.  No more of these special signals were ever built and the only one ever built was taken down after less than twenty years.

Other websites
Kalmbach Publishing, TRAINS Magazine, May 2003, Stop-DEATH-Stop, "Railroad Reading"

Rail infrastructure
Rail technologies

Billups Neon Crossing Signal


Pride and Prejudice is a book by Jane Austen. It was published in 1813. It was made into a movie in 1940 and again in 2005. There were two BBC television productions, in 1980 and 1995, and a 2005 movie.

Main characters
 Elizabeth Bennet: A clever, witty, and pretty lady of twenty. She is brave, intelligent, cheerful and likes to laugh at odd people. Her family's vulgarity often makes her uncomfortable and ashamed. She is not as beautiful as her sister Jane, but she has an attractiveness. Mr. Darcy, who is critical about beauty, at first calls her "tolerable; but not handsome enough to tempt me..." However, he later realizes that as soon as he made it clear to himself and his friends that her face is not beautiful, he started to understand that she was intelligent. There are also many other discoveries, such as that her figure, though not perfect, is "light and pleasing", and her manners, though they are not fashionable, have an "easy playfulness." She does not know that he likes her at first, and when he proposes to her, she angrily and quickly says no to him because she knew he was the person who separated her sister and Mr. Bingley, and because she thought he was a bad man who was unjust to Mr. Wickham. When she finds out her mistakes, however, and he is polite and kind to her, she begins to change her feelings. When he helps her sister Lydia, she falls in love with him. He proposes again, and they marry happily.
 Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy: He is very handsome, with a "fine, tall person (figure), with handsome features. He is very rich, with "ten thousand a year." He is also "clever". However, everybody in Elizabeth's town soon dislike him because he is too proud and cold to be pleasing ("his manners, though well-bred, were not inviting"), and they all like the cheerful and friendly Mr. Bingley better. Elizabeth dislikes him as much as anybody, but he is attracted to her because of her prettiness and "liveliness of mind." However, he much dislikes Elizabeth's family because they are so vulgar (he respects and likes Jane, though, and even says she is "pretty, but she smiled too much"). He learns to bend his pride, however, at the same time as Elizabeth gets rid of her prejudice, and loyally continues to love her. He is very kind to his sister, Georgiana Darcy, and loves her.
 Mr. Charles Bingley: a "good-looking, gentlemanlike" man. He is much friendlier than Mr. Darcy, and very cheerful. He makes friends everywhere he goes, and thinks Jane is "the most beautiful creature I ever beheld (saw)," and "he could not conceive (imagine) an angel more beautiful," and Elizabeth is "very pretty, and, I dare say, very agreeable." He is patient and very modest. He is not as clever as Mr. Darcy, but he is more "sure of being liked wherever he appeared." He is sweet-tempered and kind. Miss Bingley, his sister, says his handwriting is very careless, and that "he leaves out half his words, and blots the rest."
 Jane Bennet: Elizabeth's elder sister, who eventually marries Mr. Bingley.
 Lydia Bennet: the youngest sister. She runs away with George Wickham, though he has no intention of marrying her. She is 15 when the novel begins.
 George Wickham has known Mr Darcy since childhood. An officer in the army, he is superficially charming and rapidly forms an attachment with Elizabeth Bennet. He spreads tales against Mr Darcy, but eventually he is found to be the wrongdoer. He elopes with Lydia. This would have caused her complete disgrace, but Darcy bribes Wickham to marry her.
 Caroline Bingley: Mr. Bingley's rich but snobby sister. She tries to break up Elizabeth and Darcy, as she wants Mr. Darcy for herself.
 Lady Catherine de Bourgh: Mr. Darcy's rich and snobbish aunt. She tries to stop Darcy marrying Elizabeth.

Plot
"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife". (first line)

The story starts with Mr. Bingley, a wealthy, handsome young gentleman, who comes to town and rents a place near the Bennet family. He comes with quiet Mr. Darcy and his pretty sisters. Jane Bennet and Mr. Bingley begin to spend a lot of time with each other, even though the sisters of Mr. Bingley try to cut the attraction. Mr. Bingley is loved and admired by almost every woman in the town. Mr. Darcy is disliked by everybody, because of his arrogant way of talking and his mean attitude. Elizabeth Bennet, the second daughter of Mrs. Bennet, seems to despise Mr. Darcy. She despises him even more after he refused to dance with her at the ball.

Elizabeth soon grows to admire an officer named Wickham. He seems to equally hate Mr. Darcy. He tells her a sad story about how Mr. Darcy was mean to him. This story makes Elizabeth hate Mr. Darcy even more. Meanwhile, Mr. Darcy begins to fall in love with Elizabeth.

Bingley slowly begins to declare his proposal of marriage to Jane, when he suddenly has to leave to Netherfield. Netherfield is the house he lives at most of the time. He did not plan to leave for a long time but his sisters use this chance to move Bingley and Jane away from each other. The sisters follow Bingley to London. Bingley's quick leave makes Jane sad and confused. Elizabeth finds out that it is because of his sisters.

Before Mr. Bingley leaves, Mr. Collins, the man who was supposed to inherit all of Longbourn (where the Bennet family lives), appears. The rich and pompous Lady Catherine de Bourgh had employed him as a clergyman. Collins wanted to find a good wife from the daughters of Mr. Bennet. He tries to take Jane as his wife, but after learning about the relationship between her and Mr. Bingley, he tries to marry Elizabeth. He proposes, but Elizabeth rejects him. Her mother is angry because Elizabeth could have lived in Longbourn if she married Mr. Collins. Then Mr. Collins turns his attention to Elizabeth's friend, Charlotte Lucas. He decides to marry Charlotte. They marry and Charlotte invites Elizabeth over to her house for a short visit.

Elizabeth goes to Charlotte's house in the Spring. It is quite close to Rose Park. Rose Park is Lady Catherine de Bourgh's land. Mr. Darcy's aunt is Lady Catherine de Bourgh. He is staying there when Elizabeth visits and they meet. Elizabeth finds out that Mr. Darcy was the one who put an end to Mr. Bingley and Jane's love. She later rejects Mr. Darcy's proposal. She says all the mean thoughts she had about his cruelness towards Wickham and Jane and Mr. Bingley's relationship.

Darcy writes an explanation to Elizabeth in a letter. Mr. Wickham almost eloped with Darcy's 15-year-old sister, Georgianna. Mr. Wickham had only wanted her money. Also, Darcy told Bingley not to propose marriage to Jane because he thought that she did not actually love him. Elizabeth returns home soon after and thinks about Darcy's explanations and all her misunderstandings about him.

A few months later, Elizabeth visits Pemberly during her tour with her aunt and uncle. Pemberly is Darcy's land. Mr. Darcy meets them there. and is very kind to them during their visit. Mr. Darcy's kindness makes Elizabeth even more attracted to him. She also becomes friends with his sister Georgianna. Later, Elizabeths receives a letter from Jane. It contains sad news that their younger sister Lydia, has run off with Wickham. They find out that Wickham does not want to marry Lydia, but this would cause a scandal. Elizabeth and her uncle and aunt hurriedly return home. Elizabeth thinks that now Mr. Darcy will never speak to her again because of her sister's behavior.

Then, Lydia and Wickham are found and are married. They later visit Longbourn. While describing her wedding to Elizabeth, Lydia talks about Mr. Darcy. Elizabeth sends an inquiry to her aunt because she is surprised. She learns that Mr. Darcy had paid for all the wedding expenses and paid Wickham to marry Lydia.

Bingley and Darcy come to Longbourn. Bingley proposes to Jane, and she accepts. Mr. Darcy proposes to Elizabeth, even though Lady Catherine does not like Elizabeth. Elizabeth accepts the proposal. Jane and Elizabeth marry their lovers on the same day.

References

Other websites

 Pride and Prejudice free downloads in PDF, PDB and LIT formats
 Free audiobook from LibriVox
 Original line by line commentary  of Pride and Prejudice
 A new approach to literary criticism from Humanscience wikia
 http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/pride/

1810s books
Books by Jane Austen

Pride and Prejudice


A cub is the young of some large predatory animals such as bears, lions, wolves, and big cats.

Cub may mean:

 Cub, a member of Cub Scouts
 Cub player, a member of certain sports teams, e.g. the Chicago Cubs baseball club
 A novice or learner, particularly in newspaper reporting
 Cub (band), an indie rock band from Vancouver, British Columbia, which formed in 1992 and disbanded in 1997
 Cub (Happy Tree Friends), a character in Happy Tree Friends
 Cub Foods, a division of the U.S. Supervalu company
 Piper Cub, a line of light aircraft built from the 1930s to the 1980s
 "Cub": NATO reporting name for the Antonov An-12 Russian Turboprop transport
 Honda Super Cub, a range of small motorcycles produced by Honda
 "Cashed Up Bogan", a slang term used in Australia and New Zealand
 Kapcai, a class of mini motorcycles of Malaysia and Southeast Asia - Malaysian Cub Prix
 LDV Cub, a rebadged version of the Nissan Vanette van sold by LDV Limited
 Cub Records, a record label
 Farmall Cub, a model in the Farmall tractor model line
 Cub Buck (1892–1966), professional American football player
 Carlton & United Breweries, an Australian Alcohol Manufacturer

Cub


Blush or rouge is a type of cosmetic put on the cheeks, usually in red or pink. It can be a powder or a cream. Blush is almost always used by girls and not often used by boys except for in acting.

Blush was first used by Egyptians in 3000 BC. In the 1800s, wearing cosmetics made people think a woman had bad character, so people from that time would pinch their cheeks to make them red.

Cosmetics

Blush


The Lord of the Rings is a set of three fantasy movies: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Two Towers (2002) and The Return of the King (2003). The movies were based on J. R. R. Tolkien's book The Lord of the Rings.

The plot of The Lord of the Rings is about the war of the peoples of the fantasy world Middle-earth against a dark lord known as "Sauron." At the same time they try to destroy a ring which would give Sauron a lot of power if he got it, but the only place to destroy the ring is deep into Sauron's land Mordor.

The movie trilogy was directed by Peter Jackson. The screenplay was written by Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens, and Peter Jackson. It was distributed by New Line Cinema.

These were the first live-action Lord of the Rings movies made. They were filmed in New Zealand from October 1999 to December 2000, and released separately in December 20012003 by Warner Bros.

The movie trilogy
 The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)

Cast

The cast includes:
 Elijah Wood as Frodo Baggins
 Ian McKellen as Gandalf
 Viggo Mortensen as Aragorn
 Sean Astin as Samwise "Sam" Gamgee
 Dominic Monaghan as Meriadoc "Merry" Brandybuck
 Billy Boyd as Peregrin "Pippin" Took
 Orlando Bloom as Legolas
 Craig Parker as Haldir
 John Rhys-Davies as Gimli and the voice of Treebeard
 Sean Bean as Boromir
 David Wenham as Faramir
 Liv Tyler as Arwen
 Ian Holm as Bilbo Baggins
 Andy Serkis as Sméagol/Voice and motion-capture of Gollum/Voice of Witch-king of Angmar
 Christopher Lee as Saruman
 Bernard Hill as Théoden
 Miranda Otto as Éowyn
 Karl Urban as Éomer
 Brad Dourif as Gríma Wormtongue
 Marton Csokas as Celeborn
 Cate Blanchett as Galadriel
 Hugo Weaving as Elrond
 John Noble as Denethor
 Sala Baker as Sauron/"Maggoty-Bread" Uruk/Stunts
 Harry Sinclair as Isildur
 Lawrence Makoare as Lurtz/Gothmog/The Witch-king of Angmar/Stunts
 Paul Norell as the King of The Dead
 Bruce Spence as the Mouth of Sauron
 Joel Tolbeck as Orc Lieutenant
 Nathaniel Lees as Uglúk/Stunts
 Bruce Hopkins as Gamling
 John Bach as Madril
 Bruce Phillips as Grimbold
 Alistair Browning as Damrod
 Jed Brophy as Sharku/Snaga
 Bret McKenzie as Figwit
 Peter McKenzie as Elendil
 Sadwyn Brophy as Eldarion
 Ian Hughes as Irolas
 Mark Ferguson as Gil-galad

Changes from the book
Compared to the book, the Lord of the Rings movies differed in many ways. The plot and motivation of the characters changed, and parts of the story were cut. A few changes that many consider major include: "The Old Forest", "In the House of Tom Bombadil", and "Fog on the Barrow-Downs", from The Fellowship of the Ring; "Many Partings", "Homeward Bound", & "The Scouring of the Shire" from The Return of the King. These were left out, and other passages changed, because of dramatic flow and practical limits on what could be presented in three movies. The scripts are not exactly true to the story in the volumes of the book, yet have most of its most important elements.

Trivia
 Together the three movies were nominated for 30 Oscars at the Academy Awards. They won 17 Oscars, 11 of which were for Return of the King.
 The 3 movies cost 281 million dollars to make.
 Much of the filming was done in New Zealand, but some areas were made using computers.
 Each movie has a Special Extended Edition DVD which has a longer version of the movie.
 Together the movies are longer than 11 hours.
 All together the movies have more than 3,500 special effects.
 Each movie was released a few weeks before Christmas in 2001, 2002, and 2003.
 The movies made nearly 3 billion dollars.

Other websites

 Highlights of the Movie Trilogy : 5.1 MB Medium, and 62.2 MB Large versions (these play best when opened in a new window)
 Official Site of the Movie Trilogy
 The Fellowship of the Ring at RottenTomatoes , IMDb, & Apple Trailers
 The Two Towers at RottenTomatoes  & IMDb & Apple Trailers
 The Return of the King at RottenTomatoes , IMDb, & Apple Trailers
 HarperCollins: UK & Worldwide Publishers of the Books
 Houghton Mifflin: US Publisher of the Books

2000s fantasy movies
American fantasy movies
New Zealand fantasy movies
2000s epic movies
Series of movies
Movies based on books
English-language movies
Movies directed by Peter Jackson
New Line Cinema movies

Cult movies

The Lord of the Rings (movie series)


"Zangaléwa" or "Tsaminamina" is a 1986 hit song, originally sung by a makossa group from Cameroon called Golden Sounds who were popular throughout Africa for their silly dances and costumes. The song was such a hit for Golden Sounds that they eventually changed their name to Zangaléwa, too. The song pays tribute to African skirmishers (a.k.a tirailleurs) during WW2. Most of the band members were in the Cameroonian Army themselves and used make up, fake belly and fake butt for comic relief.

The song is still used today almost everywhere in Africa by soldiers, policemen, boy scouts, sportsmen and their supporters, usually during training or for rallying. It is also widely used in schools throughout the continent especially in Cameroon as a marching song and the lyrics are well-known among Cameroonians. The song was also popular in Colombia where it was known as "The Military" and brought to the country by West African DJs.

The men in the group often dressed in military uniforms, wearing pith helmets and stuffing their clothes with pillows to appear like they had a swollen buttocks from riding the train and overweight stomachs from eating too much. Music historians say the song, or at least part of it, is a criticism of Black military officers who were in league with Whites to oppress their own people. The rest is Cameroonian slang and jargon from the soldiers during the war.

Translation
Meaning of the words in Fang language:
 "Tsaminamina" means: Come.
 "Waka waka" means: Do it – as in perform a task. Waka is pidgin language meaning walk while working.
 "Tsaminamina zangalewa" means: where do you come from?.
 "Wana" means: it is mine.
 "Zambo" means: wait.

Other websites
 Youtube Video

1986 songs

Zangalewa


Konrad Zacharias Lorenz (Vienna, 7 November 1903 – Vienna, 27 February 1989) was an Austrian zoologist, naturalist, ornithologist and Nobel Prize winner. He is one of the founders of studies on animal behaviour (ethology). Lorenz studied instinctive behavior in animals, especially in Greylag geese and jackdaws.

Biography
In his autobiographical essay, published in 1973 in Les Prix Nobel (people who win the Nobel Prize are asked to write essays about their lives), Lorenz said that his parents were the main reason he was so successful. He also said that a book by Selma Lagerlof called The Wonderful Adventures of Nils that he read as a child was the reason he became interested in wild geese.

Lorenz began his studies in 1922 at Columbia University, but he returned to Vienna in 1923 to continue his studies at the University of Vienna until 1928. At this university he became an assistant professor from 1928 to 1935.
In 1936, Lorenz met his great friend and colleague Niko Tinbergen. Together they studied geese – wild, domestic, and hybrid.

In 1940 Lorenz became a professor of psychology at the University of Königsberg. He was drafted into the Wehrmacht in 1941. He tried to become a motorcycle mechanic, but instead he was assigned as a medic. He was a prisoner of war in the Soviet Union from 1942 to 1948. During this time, he continued to work as a medical doctor and "got quite friendly with some Russians, mostly doctors". When he was sent back home after the war, he was allowed to keep both the manuscript of the book he had been writing and his pet starling. He arrived back in Altenberg "with manuscript and bird intact." The manuscript became his book Behind the Mirror.

Lorenz shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for discoveries in individual and social behavior patterns" with two other important early ethologists, Niko Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch. In 1969, he became the first person to receive the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca.

Lorenz retired from the Max Planck Institute in 1973 but continued to research and publish from his family home, in Austria. Konrad Lorenz died on 27 February 1989, in Altenberg.

Politics
Lorenz joined the Nazi Party in 1938 and accepted a university position under Nazi Germany. In his application for membership to the Nazi-party NSDAP he wrote in 1938: "I'm able to say that my whole scientific work is devoted to the ideas of the National Socialists."

When he accepted the Nobel Prize in 1973, Lorenz apologized for a 1940 publication that included Nazi views of science, saying that "many highly decent scientists hoped, like I did, for a short time [that] National Socialism [would produce good results], and many quickly turned away from it with the same horror as I [did]."

Lorenz' ideas
Together with Niko Tinbergen, Lorenz formed the idea of an innate releasing mechanism to explain instinctive behaviors (fixed action patterns). Building on the ideas of William McDougall, Lorenz developed this into a "psychohydraulic" explanation of the motives (reasons) of behavior. Another contribution is his work on imprinting. His influence on a younger generation of ethologists, as well as his books, were important in bringing ethology to the attention of the general public.

Lorenz' vision of the challenges facing humanity
Lorenz predicted that market economics could eventually destroy Earth's ecosystem. In his 1973 book, Civilized Man's Eight Deadly Sins, Lorenz considered the following paradox:
"All the advantages that man has gained from his ever-deepening understanding of the natural world that surrounds him, his technological, chemical and medical progress, all of which should [help] to [ease] human suffering... tends instead to [make] humanity's destruction [more likely than it was before]."

Lorenz adopts an ecological model to attempt to explain how this contradiction can exist:
"To gain a desired prey, a dog or wolf will do things [that they would normally not do, such as] run through thorn bushes, jump into cold water and expose themselves to risks which would normally frighten them. All these inhibitory mechanisms... act as a counterweight to the effects of learning mechanisms... The organism cannot allow itself to pay a price which is not worth  paying". p53

In nature, these mechanisms tend towards a 'stable state' among the living beings of an ecology:
"A closer examination shows that these beings... not only do not damage each other, but often constitute a community of interests. It is obvious that the predator is strongly interested in the survival of that species, animal or vegetable, which constitutes its prey. ... It is not uncommon that the prey species derives specific benefits from its interaction with the predator species...". pages 31–33

Lorenz states that humanity is the only species that is not controlled by these mechanisms. This is because humans are the only species that can change its own environment: "[The pace of human ecology] is determined by the progress of man's technology". Not only that, but human ecology (economy) is governed by mechanisms of positive feedback, defined as a mechanism which tends to encourage behavior rather than to discourage it. p43

Positive feedback always involves the danger of an 'avalanche' effect... One particular kind of positive feedback occurs when individuals of the same species enter into competition among themselves... For many animal species, environmental factors keep... intraspecies selection from [leading to] disaster... But there is no force which exercises this type of healthy regulatory effect on humanity's cultural development; unfortunately for itself, humanity has learned to overcome all those environmental forces which are external to itself". p44

Lorenz does not see human independence from natural ecological processes as necessarily bad. Indeed, he states that  "a completely new [ecology] which corresponds in every way to [humanity's] desires... could, theoretically, prove as durable as that which would have existed without his intervention" p36. However, the principle of competition, typical of Western societies, destroys any chance of this:
"The competition between human beings destroys with cold and diabolic brutality... Under the pressure of this competitive fury we have not only forgotten what is useful to humanity as a whole, but even that which is good and advantageous to the individual. [...] One asks, which is more damaging to modern humanity: the thirst for money or consuming haste... in either case, fear plays a very important role: the fear of being overtaken by one's competitors, the fear of becoming poor, the fear of making wrong decisions or the fear of not being up to snuff...". pages 45-47

In this book, Lorenz proposes that the best hope for mankind lies in our looking for mates based on the kindness of their hearts rather than good looks or wealth.

Philosophical ideas
In his 1973 book Behind the Mirror: a search for a natural history of human knowledge, Lorenz considers an old philosophical question: Do our senses actually tell us about the world as it is? Or do they only give us an illusion? Lorenz' answer comes from evolutionary biology. Only things that help a species to survive and reproduce are kept. Anything that does not benefit a species is quickly removed through the process of natural selection. Lorenz argued that if our senses gave us wrong information about our environment, humanity would soon be extinct. Therefore we can be sure that our senses give us correct information, for otherwise we would not be here to be deceived.

Books and essays
Lorenz's best-known books are King Solomon's Ring and On aggression, both written for a popular audience. His scientific work appeared mainly in journal articles, written in German; they became widely known to English-speaking scientists through the descriptions of it in Tinbergen's 1951 book The study of instinct, though many of his papers were later published in English translation in the two volumes titled Studies in animal and human behaviour.

King Solomon's Ring (1949)
Man meets Dog (1950)
Evolution and modification of behaviour (1965)
On aggression (1966)
Studies in animal and human behaviour, Volume I (1970)
Studies in animal and human behaviour, Volume II (1971)
Behind the mirror (1973)
Civilized Man's eight deadly sins (1974)
The year of the Greylag Goose (1979)
The foundations of Ethology (1982)
The natural science of the human species: an introduction to comparative behavioural research – the Russian manuscript (1944-1948). (1995)

Other websites
 Short Autobiography of Lorenz on the Nobel Foundation website
 Review of Biologists Under Hitler

1903 births
1989 deaths

Naturalists
Zoologists
Austrian scientists
Austrian Nobel Prize winners
Ethologists

Konrad Lorenz


Niki (also styled as NIKI or flyNiki, legally NIKI Luftfahrt GmbH) was an Austrian low-cost airline headquartered in Office Park I at Vienna International Airport in Schwechat. It operated scheduled and charter services to European and North African leisure destinations from Vienna, Salzburg, Graz and Innsbruck and also started services from several German airports in March 2017. Niki had a variety of owners, including two stints of ownership under Niki Lauda (1949–2019). In January 2018, the airline was acquired by Lauda, an airline that also had ties to Niki Lauda.

History

Early years

In 2003, Niki Lauda, ex-Grand Prix driver and founder of Lauda Air, acquired the former Aero Lloyd Austria operation. The airline started operations on 28 November 2003.

Although Niki was often described as "low-cost", it provided full services, such as free refreshments, newspapers, and baggage. It offered a sandwich or a cold snack, soft drinks, juice, tea, and coffee on all short-haul flights as well as on charter routes to Greece, Tunisia, and Turkey. On mid-haul charter flights to the Canary Islands and Egypt, all passengers were offered a warm snack. Also, gourmet menus from Demel could be ordered before the flight. There was also a buy on board service.

Development as an Air Berlin subsidiary

On 9 January 2004, Niki announced cooperation with Air Berlin. In late 2011, Niki merged completely with Air Berlin, sharing operations, booking systems, and aircraft. On 20 March 2012, Niki became an "affiliate member" of Oneworld as a subsidiary company of Air Berlin. Starting in late 2012, Niki successively repainted their aircraft in the Air Berlin paint scheme, using the Niki logo only at the nose. The new paint scheme was applied during regular C checks.

In October 2014, Niki announced the cancellation of their flights from Vienna to Copenhagen, Moscow, and Frankfurt due to decreasing demand. In exchange, new leisure routes will be started by summer 2015. Also in spring 2015, Niki started to replace its fleet of Embraer 190s with Airbus A319-100s from its parent, Air Berlin, with the used Embraers being transferred to Helvetic Airways.

Sale to Etihad Airways
On 5 December 2016, parent company Air Berlin announced plans to sell its entire 49 percent stake in Niki to its own minority owner Etihad Airways. Etihad Airways itself would merge Niki into a new joint-venture to be created with the German leisure carrier TUIfly. At the same time, Niki and Air Berlin would exchange several aircraft to harmonize each fleet. It had also been announced that Niki would take over several routes to southern European, north African, and Turkish leisure destinations from Air Berlin as part of the new joint-venture. However, the sale never happened.

Also in December 2016, Niki announced the termination of its only medium-haul route, from Vienna to Abu Dhabi, Etihad's home base, by March 2017. Niki later also announced it plans to terminate all of its 12 routes from Vienna to non-leisure destinations such as Milan or Zürich by 30 January 2017. In January 2017, it was also announced that Niki will cease all operations to and from Linz Airport at short notice due to the restructuring measures. The announcement was made after the 2017 schedule had already been made available for booking. For the 2017 season, Niki reduced the number of flights from Austria to 56 flights a week to 20 destinations, compared to 34 destinations in 2016.

Shortly after, it was announced that Niki would take over several Air Berlin leisure routes to and from Germany. It also has been announced that Niki's fleet will be switched over to Airbus A321s only while the smaller A319s and A320s are handed over to Air Berlin. It has also been announced that TUI fly Deutschland will additionally start to operate 15 Boeing 737s currently wet-leased to Air Berlin for Niki.

Failed takeover by Lufthansa and IAG
On 17 August 2017, Niki's parent Air Berlin announced it was filing for bankruptcy but that all operations would continue until further notice. On 9 October 2017, Air Berlin told its staff that it would cease all remaining operations under its own brand name, but that Niki flights would continue after this date.

On 12 October 2017, it was announced that German Lufthansa would purchase some of the assets from Air Berlin which included Niki and operations would continue and jobs were to be saved. On 24 October 2017, it was announced that Niki was to be absorbed into Lufthansa's low-cost subsidiary Eurowings Europe. It was announced that Lufthansa plans to cease the Niki brand by the end of 2017 altogether.

However, on 13 December 2017, Lufthansa pulled out of the agreement due to signs from the European Commission that the merger would not be approved. Niki declared bankruptcy and ceased all operations on 14 December 2017. The day after, former owner Niki Lauda expressed interest in repurchasing the airline named after him.

On 29 December 2017, it was announced that International Airlines Group (IAG), parent company of British Airways, Iberia, Aer Lingus and Vueling, would acquire for 36.5 million euros major parts of Niki including 15 Airbus A321 aircraft and traffic rights in Düsseldorf, Munich, Vienna, Zürich and Palma de Mallorca. IAG planned to establish a new Austrian subsidiary of Spanish low-cost carrier Vueling as a replacement for Niki. For this purpose, a new subsidiary of Vueling in Austria was to be founded and act independently. Of the approx. 1000 Niki employees, 740 were to be retained. On January 8, 2018, a Berlin administrative court ruled that only an Austrian court had the jurisdiction to handle the insolvency of Niki.

Subsequent takeovers
On 23 January 2018, the Austrian Press Agency announced that Niki Lauda's company Lauda had beaten IAG in the bid for Niki, and would take over the company. Less than two months later, Ryanair agreed to purchase a majority stake in Laudamotion, initially acquiring almost 25 percent for less than 50 million euros ($61.7 million) with the intent to purchase another 50 percent at a later date. The deal was subsequently approved by the European Union. Eleven planes from Niki were being operated by Laudamotion as of April 2018.

Destinations
Niki operated scheduled services to leisure destinations mainly in Spain, Portugal, and North Africa from its home base in Vienna as well as several more airports throughout Austria, Germany, and Switzerland.

Codeshare agreements
Niki maintained codeshares with the following airlines:

 Alitalia
 American Airlines
 Etihad Airways
 Iberia

Fleet

Prior to the shutdown in December 2017, the fleet of Niki consisted of the following aircraft:

References

External links

Air Berlin
Etihad Airways Partners
Austrian companies established in 2003
Defunct airlines of Austria
Airlines established in 2003
Airlines disestablished in 2017
2017 disestablishments in Austria
Former Oneworld affiliate members
Austrian brands

Niki (airline)


"Treehouse of Horror II" is the sixth episode of The Simpsons third season, the second Simpsons Halloween episode, and the first Halloween episode where names in the closing credits were replaced by 'spooky name' parodies. The episode first started on October 31, 1991. The first part, "The Monkey's Paw", is a direct reference to W.W. Jacobs's short story The Monkey's Paw, in which the Simpsons's wishes all backfire on them after buying a cursed hand of a monkey. In the second part, "The Bart Zone", Bart has  powers, and turns Homer into a jack-in-the-box, resulting in the two spending more time together. The part was a parody of The Twilight Zone episode "It's a Good Life". In the last part, "If I Only Had A Brain", Mr. Burns's head is grafted onto Homer's head after Mr. Burns tries to create a robot with Homer's brain.

Other websites

1991 television episodes
The Simpsons (season 3) episodes
Treehouse of Horror

Treehouse of Horror II


Daniel Bruce Klein (born January 16, 1962) is an American professor of economics at George Mason University and an Associate Fellow of the Swedish Ratio Institute.  Much of his research examines the works of Adam Smith, public policy questions, libertarian political philosophy, and the sociology of academia.  He is the chief editor of Econ Journal Watch.

Klein received his doctorate in economics from New York University in 1990. He was a visiting scholar at the City University in Stockholm
and the Department of Economics, Stanford University.

Debates
In an article appearing in the August 2004 Econ Journal Watch he criticized libertarian paternalism, espoused by Cass Sunstein and Richard Thaler, as oxymoronic. He argued against what he perceived as an overly loose and weak definition of libertarianism on the grounds that Thaler and Sunstein made no meaningful distinction between liberty and coercion. In failing to define the concepts of liberty and coercion as fundamentally dissimilar processes. Libertarian paternalism uses a hyperrational behavior model of human nature as a definition for libertarianism, and neglects alternative definitions such as those advanced by Adam Smith and F.A. Hayek.

Selected publications

 "The Voluntary Provision of Public Goods?: The Turnpike Companies of Early America" in Economic Inquiry vol. 28 (1990)
 "Promise Keeping in the Great Society: A Model of Credit Information Sharing" in Economics and Politics vol. 4 (1992)
 Curb Rights: A Foundation for Free Enterprise in Urban Transit (co-authored with Adrian T. Moore and Binyam Reja) (1997)
 "Discovery and the Deepself" in Review of Austrian Economics vol. 11 (1999)
 "The Demand for and Supply of Assurance" in Economic Affairs vol. 21 (2001)
 "Economists' Policy Views and Voting" (co-authored with Charlotta Stern) in Public Choice vol. 126 (2006)
 "I Was Wrong, and So Are You" in The Atlantic vol. 307 (2011)
 Knowledge and Coordination: A Liberal Interpretation (2012)

Notes

External links
 Klein's bio at the Mercatus Center
 Klein's website at GMU
 Econ Journal Watch

1962 births
Living people
21st-century American economists
American male non-fiction writers
American people of Dutch descent
George Mason University faculty
Libertarian theorists
Cato Institute people

Daniel B. Klein