Hugh Broughton (1549 – 4 August 1612) was an English scholar and theologian.

Early life

He was born at Owlbury, Bishop's Castle, Shropshire. He called himself a Cambrian, implying Welsh blood in his veins. He was educated by Bernard Gilpin at Houghton-le-Spring and at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he matriculated in 1570. The foundation of his Hebrew learning was laid, in his first year at Cambridge, by his attendance on the lectures of the French scholar Antoine Rodolphe Chevallier.

Fellowship at Cambridge
Broughton graduated B.A. in 1570, and became fellow of St John's College and afterwards of Christ's College. He had influential patrons at the university; Sir Walter Mildmay made him an allowance for a private lectureship in Greek, and Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon, supported him with means for study. He was elected one of the taxers of the university, and obtained a prebend and a readership in divinity at Durham. On the grounds of his holding a prebend, he was deprived of his fellowship in 1579, but was reinstated in 1581, at the instance of Lord Burghley, the chancellor, who, moved by the representations of Richard Barnes, the Bishop of Durham, the Earl of Huntingdon, and the Earl of Essex, overcame the opposition of John Hatcher, the vice-chancellor, and Edward Hawford, master of Christ's. He resigned the office of taxer, and does not seem to have returned to the university.

Time in London

Broughton came to London, where he spent time in intense study, and distinguished himself as a preacher of puritan sentiments in theology. He is said to have predicted, in one of his sermons (1588), the scattering of the Spanish Armada. He found friends among the citizens, especially in the family of the Cottons, with whom he lived, and whom he taught Hebrew. In 1588 appeared his first work, A Concent of Scripture, dedicated to the queen. John Speed, the historian, saw the book through the press. The Concent was attacked in public prelections by John Rainolds at Oxford, and Edward Lively at Cambridge. Broughton appealed to the queen (to whom he presented a special copy of the book on 17 November 1589), to John Whitgift, and to John Aylmer, Bishop of London, asking to have the points in dispute between Rainolds and himself determined by the authority of the archbishops and the two universities. He began weekly lectures in his own defence to an audience of between 80 and 100 scholars, using the Concent as a text-book. The privy council allowed him to deliver his lectures (as Chevallier had done before) at the east end of St Paul's Cathedral, until some of the bishops complained of his audiences as conventicles. He then moved his lecture to a room in Cheapside, and then to Mark Lane, and elsewhere. Insecurity based on fear of the high commission made him anxious to leave the country.

Years of travel

Broughton left for Germany at the end of 1589 or beginning of 1590, taking with him a pupil, Alexander Top, a young country gentleman. Broughton on his travels took part in disputations against Catholics, and engaged in religious discussion with several rabbis. At Frankfurt, early in 1590, he disputed in the synagogue with Rabbi Elias. He was at Worms in 1590, and returned next year to England. His letter of 1590–1591 to Lord Burghley asks permission to go abroad to make use of King Casimir's library but he remained in London, where he met Rainolds, and agreed with him to refer their differing views about the harmony of scripture chronology to the arbitration of Whitgift and Aylmer. Nothing came of this, and Whitgift undermined Broughton with Elizabeth. In 1592 Broughton was again in Germany, and he continued to engage in discussion, to lobby for preferment, to increase his reputation with some scholars, and to offend others such as Joseph Justus Scaliger. He wrote against Theodore Beza fiercely in Greek; he held episcopacy to be apostolic.

Between 1605 and 1608 Broughton also played a central role in the establishment of the English Reformed Church in Amsterdam, which had been founded towards the end of 1605 for the "English people resident in Amsterdam and professing the Reformed religion."

Slights under James I

In 1603 he preached before Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, at Oatlands, on the Lord's Prayer. He soon returned to Middelburg, and became preacher there to the English congregation. This was written in the month following the king's letter (22 July) appointing fifty-four learned men for the revision of the translation of the Bible. Broughton's old adversary, Rainolds, had been more successful than he in pressing upon the authorities the need of a revision, and when the translators were appointed, Broughton, to his intense chagrin, was not included among them.

Subsequently, he criticised the new translation unsparingly, after his manner. His bitter pamphlet against Richard Bancroft did not improve his recognition as a scholar. Ben Jonson satirised him in Volpone (1605), and especially in The Alchemist (1610). He continued to write and publish assiduously. His translation of the Book of Job (1610) he dedicated to the king.

Return to England and death

In 1611 he was suffering from consumption. He made his last voyage to England, arriving at Gravesend in November. He told his friends he had come to die, and wished to die in Shropshire, where his old pupil Sir Rowland Cotton had a seat. His strength, however, was not equal to the journey. He wintered in London, and in the spring removed to Tottenham. Here he lingered until autumn, in the house of Benet, a Cheapside linen draper. His death occurred on 4 August 1612. He was buried in London, at St. Antholin's, on 7 August, James Speght preaching his funeral sermon. He had married a niece of his pupil, Alexander Top, named Lingen.

Works

In 1588 he published his first work, A Concent of Scripture. It dealt with biblical chronology and textual criticism, was attacked at both universities, and the author was obliged to defend it in a series of lectures.

While at Middelburg he printed An Epistle to the learned Nobilitie of England, touching translating the Bible from the Original, 1597. The project of better version of the Bible was one on which he had already addressed the queen. His plan, as given in a letter dated 21 June 1593, was to do the work in conjunction with five other scholars. Only necessary changes were to be made, but the principle of harmonising the scripture was to prevail, and there were to be short notes. Though his scheme was backed up by lords and bishops, his application for the means of carrying it out was unsuccessful. In a letter to Burghley, of 11 June 1597, he blamed Whitgift for hindering his proposed new translation.

In 1599 he printed his 'Explication' of the article respecting Christ's descent into hell. It was a topic he had touched upon before, maintaining with his usual vigour (against the Augustinian view, espoused by most Anglican divines) that Hades never meant the place of torment, but the state of departed souls.

In 1610 his A Revelation of the Holy Apocalyps was printed in which he argues that Hades has only two places, heaven and hell, and that purgatory is non-existent.

Some of his works were collected and published in a large folio volume in 1662, with a sketch of his life by John Lightfoot. Some of his theological manuscripts are in the British Library.

References

Attribution:

External links
 This page, which displays an image from Broughton's A Concent of Scripture, contains a brief biography of the scholar.

1549 births
1612 deaths
People from Bishop's Castle
Clergy from Shropshire
Alumni of Magdalene College, Cambridge
Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge
Fellows of Christ's College, Cambridge
16th-century English theologians
17th-century English theologians
Christian Hebraists
16th-century English Anglican priests
17th-century English Anglican priests
Writers from Shropshire

Hugh Broughton


Hans Knappertsbusch (born Elberfeld (Wuppertal), 12 March 1888; died Munich, 25 October 1965) was a German conductor. He conducted some of Europes best orchestras. He was especially known for conducting the music of Richard Wagner, Anton Bruckner and Richard Strauss.

Life
Knappertsbusch was born in Elberfeld, today's Wuppertal. His parents did not want him to be a musician and sent him to study philosophy at Bonn University. However, he soon started to go to the Cologne Conservatory to study conducting with Fritz Steinbach. For a few summers, he was assistant to Siegfried Wagner and Hans Richter at Bayreuth. When Bruno Walter left Munich to go to New York, Knappertsbusch succeeded him as conductor of the Bavarian State Orchestra. He stayed in Munich until 1936 when the Nazis made it impossible for him to continue. He then went to Vienna. There he conducted the Vienna State Opera and the Vienna Philharmonic.

When World War II ended, Knappertsbusch went back to Munich where he settled again. He often visited Vienna to conduct there. He appeared regularly at the Bayreuth Festival.

Knappertsbusch was a large man who was very popular with his audiences. He did not often travel abroad, and was never very interested in music that was being composed at the time. He did not like long rehearsals. He often thought that his orchestras were musical enough to play well without rehearsal. His recordings of Parsifal are very good indeed.

Knappertsbusch died in Munich in 1965.

References
 New Groves Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980;

1888 births
1965 deaths
German conductors
People from Wuppertal

Hans Knappertsbusch


Constantin von Monakow (4 November 1853 – 19 October 1930) was a Russian-Swiss neuropathologist who was a native of Bobretsovo in the Vologda Governorate.

He studied at the University of Zurich while working as an assistant at the Burghölzli Institute under the directorship of Eduard Hitzig (1839-1907). After graduation, he was an assistant at St. Pirminsberg, where he performed scientific investigations of cerebral anatomy. In 1885 he returned to Zurich, where he later became director of the brain anatomy institute. In 1917 he founded the journal Schweizer Archiv für Neurologie und Psychiatrie (Swiss Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry), and was its editor-in-chief until his death. He died in Zurich in 1930.

Neuropathological research
Monakow made numerous contributions in his analysis of the sensory and motor pathways of the brain. He was interested in the functional relationships amongst the different regions of the brain, and conceptualized that in faculties such as intellect, coordination was needed among its many diverse parts. From his brain research, he introduced the terms "chronogenic localization" and "diaschisis".

In 1910 Monakow coined the term "diaschisis" to describe how an injury to the brain can create behavioral deficiencies that may be followed by eventual recovery. The word is derived from Greek, meaning "shocked throughout". He believed the brain to exist as a delicate balance between its different components, and if a component became disturbed through injury it could affect other parts of the brain not seemingly associated with the site of injury. Therefore, if the damage wasn't too severe, functional behaviour would recover once the period of diaschisis wore off.

His name is lent to "Monakow's nucleus" (lateral cuneate nucleus) and to the "bundle of Monakow" (rubrospinal fasciculus). In addition, "Monakow's syndrome" bears his name, defined as contralateral hemiplegia, hemianaesthesia and homonomous hemianopsia due to occlusion of the anterior choroidal artery.

He was responsible for identifying the arcuate fasciculus as the fibre tract that connected the Broca's and Wernicke's speech areas. This anatomical link (which is now questioned)  "soon became a dogma in neurology and still today provides the backbone of anatomical models of language."

He is mentioned in Anti Oedipus, the first volume of Deleuze and Guattari's Capitalism and Schizophrenia, because of his work with Mourgue which they claim posits 'the introduction of desire into neurology.'

Selected writings
 Beitrag zur Localisation von Hirnrindentumoren, (Thesis/dissertation) (1881) – On localization of cerebral cortex tumors.
 Pathologie du cerveau, in German as Gehirnpathologie (1897) – Brain pathology.
 Über Lokalisation der Hirnfunktion (1910) – On localization of brain function.
 La localisation de l'encéphale et la dégradation fonctionelle par des lésions circonscrites du cortex cérébral, in German as Die Lokalisation im Grosshirn und Abbau der Funktion durch kortikale Herde (1914) – Localization in the cortex and the reduction of cortical function.
 Gefuhl, Gesittung und Gehirn, (1916); translated and published in English as "The emotions, morality and the brain"; Washington, Nervous and Mental Disease Pub. Co., 1925.
 Psychiatrie und Biologie, (1919) – Psychology and biology.
 Schizophrenie und Plexus chorioidei (with Kitabayashi), (1919) - Schizophrenia and the choroid plexus.

References
 Vologda Oblast Government, Biography

External links
 History of the Psychiatry Section of the Swiss Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry
 Monakow and Diaschisis

Emigrants from the Russian Empire to Switzerland
Neurologists from the Russian Empire
Swiss neurologists
1853 births
1930 deaths
People associated with the University of Zurich
History of psychiatry

Constantin von Monakow


The 1838 Druze revolt was a Druze uprising in Syria against the authority of Ibrahim Pasha and effectively against the Egypt Eyalet, ruled by Muhammad Ali. The rebellion was led by Druze clans of Mount Lebanon, with an aim to expel the Egyptian forces, under Ibrahim Pasha considering them as infidels. The revolt was suppressed with a bitter campaign by Ibrahim Pasha, after a major Druze defeat in the Wadi al-Taym, and the Egyptian rule effectively restored in Galilee and Mount Lebanon with a peace agreement signed between the Egyptians and Druze leaders on July 23, 1838.

Background

The tensions between the Druze and the Egyptians had been mounting since the 1834 Syrian Peasant Revolt (1834). The ruling classes of the region resented Egyptian authority and the Druze in particular resisted the rule of Ibrahim Pasha, who personally considered the Druze as heretics and oppressed them. What sparked the revolt itself, however, was the conscription decree of the Egyptian army.

Revolt
The first reports of the Druze uprising came in January 1838. Some 400 troops, led by Ali Agha al-Busayli, governor of Hauran, attacked the Druzes in Tha'la, and suffered the first defeat, as Ali and a large number of his troops were killed. The Egyptian troops, dispatched from Damascus were slaughtered by Druze peasants during the night. Later, a second force of 6,000 regulars was sent, requiring the Druze to reorganize for more serious fighting. The Egyptian army, led by Muhammad Pasha forced the Druze to withdraw but, exhausted from traversing the mountainous terrain, were repelled by the Druze fighters near Smaid. A new Egyptian force, led by Minikly Pasha, Egyptian Minister of War, and Sharif Pasha was again defeated by some 2,000 Druze insurgents.

The successive defeats prompted Ibrahim Pasha to arrive from Aleppo by himself. Ibrahim recruited loyal Albanians and recalled reinforcements from Hama, Acre and Aleppo, creating an army which according to British officials counted some 15,000 men. The force blockaded the Lajat field north of Hauran, while Sharif Pasha began negotiations with the insurgents. The Druze refused to lay down their weapons, but concerned with the size of the amounting armies, tried to enlist additional forces to support the revolt from across Syria and Lebanon. The attempt was largely unsuccessful, and effectively failed.

In early April, Shibli al-Aryan attempted to secure more fighters from the supportive villages and succeeded in raising some 8,000 fighters. Soon, the Druze of Mount Lebanon began streaming to join the rebel ranks, and from April it seemed the rebellion incorporated the entire Druze community. The main roads were cut by the Druze, disrupting the Egyptian army supplies. At this point, Ibrahim Pasha ordered Emir Bashir Shihab II, his ally, to send 1,000 men to Wadi al-Taym, where the clashes erupted on April 7. The Egyptian army was commanded by Ahmad Bek, consisting of an infantry regiment, 300 Bedouins and 500 irregulars, which succeeded to overwhelm the Druzes with 33 dead, scores wounded and four taken prisoner. Egyptian losses were 13 killed, 65 wounded.

Following the defeat by Ahmad Bek, Shibli occupied Rashayya and killed its governor, while Druze volunteers kept flowing in to join his forces. Another reinforcement of 4,000 men was requested by Ibrahim Pasha from Bashir Shihab II, and arrived under the command of Bashir's son. Joined by two sheikhs from Mount Lebanon—Hasan Junbalat and Nasir ad-Din al-Imad—the Druze fighters were led into Wadi Bakka, where on July 4 they suffered a decisive defeat, losing some 640 men including al-Imad.

In early July, tensions still mounted as the Druze captured an Egyptian garrison outside of Safed. The local Safed militia of several hundred was heavily outnumbered by the Druze, and the city was gripped in despair as the militia eventually abandoned the city and the Druze rebels entered the city on July 5. The resulting plunder by the Druze rebels, which targeted the Jewish community, lasted for three days. Much of the local population sought refuge in Acre.

Subsequently, Shibli moved to southern Wadi al-Taym, where he was attacked by the Christian fighters of Emir Bashir, led by his son Emir Khalil. The attack was unsuccessful, and the Druze succeeded in withstanding the pressure until July 17, when Egyptian reinforcements crushed them at Shebaa. Shibli and 1,500 of his men fled to Mount Hermon, while most of the insurgents in Hauran surrendered and were granted amnesty.

Agreement

The critical points to end the rebellion were the water war, engaged by Egyptian forces upon the Druze population and the effective defeat of the main insurgent force in Wadi al-Taym. It persuaded Druze leaders to negotiate peace with Ibrahim Pasha. Sheikh Hasan al-Bitar of Rashaya and the Christian Jiris Abu ad-Dibs mediated the agreement, whereby Ibrahim Pasha agreed to give amnesty to insurgents and to put the Druze into forced labor in lieu of exemption from conscription, in return for the surrender of Druze arms and those seized from Egyptians. The agreement was signed on July 23, 1838. At first, the Druze willingly surrendered their arms, but it soon became clear, that those were not the arms that had been used in the fighting, prompting Ibrahim Pasha to send his officers with a demand for an immediate surrender of the entire Druze arsenal. The process continued slowly, and lasted until August.

Aftermath
Small groups of insurgents still refused to lay their weapons, including Shibli in Mount Hermon and sheikh Husain Abu Asaf in Lajat. Shibli eventually fled to Baalbek, but forced into hiding, he finally surrendered to the Egyptians. When Shibli met Ibrahim Pasha, he proposed his services as an irregular, and was accepted into Egyptian service. Shibli was later sent out of the country, appointed to Sinar. Apparently, Shibli was still in service of Ibrahim by late 1840, when Egyptians began evacuating Syria and Lebanon. The last 100 Druze rebels in Lajat were joined by another 400 Druze insurgents by 1839, and were reportedly devastated a village near Hasbaya. The dominance of Ibrahim Pasha over Ottoman Syria diminished with the 1840 agreement, which was signed during the Second Egyptian-Ottoman War (1839-1841).

See also
1860 Lebanon conflict
Franco-Syrian War
List of conflicts in the Near East

References

Conflicts in 1838
Druze revolt
Druze revolt
19th-century rebellions
Rebellions in Ottoman Syria
History of the Druze
Wars involving Ottoman Egypt

1838 Druze revolt


Red Cloud's War (also referred to as the Bozeman War or the Powder River War) was an armed conflict between an alliance of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho peoples against the United States and the Crow Nation that took place in the Wyoming and Montana territories from 1866 to 1868. The war was fought over control of the western Powder River Country in present north-central Wyoming.

In 1863, European Americans had blazed the Bozeman Trail through the heart of the traditional territory of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Lakota. It was the shortest and easiest route from Fort Laramie and the Oregon Trail to the Montana gold fields. From 1864 to 1866, the trail was traversed by about 3,500 miners, emigrant settlers and others, who competed with the Indians for the diminishing resources near the trail.

The United States named the war after Red Cloud, a prominent Oglala Lakota chief allied with the Cheyenne and Arapaho. The United States army had built forts in response to attacks on civilian travelers, using a treaty right to "establish roads, military and other post". All three forts were located in 1851 Crow Indian territory and accepted by these Indians. The Crow believed they guarded their interests best by cooperating with the US army.

Red Cloud's War consisted mostly of constant small-scale Indian raids and attacks on the soldiers and civilians at the three forts in the Powder River country, wearing down those garrisons. The largest action of the war, the Fetterman Fight (with 81 men killed on the U.S. side), was the worst military defeat suffered by the U.S. on the Great Plains until the Battle of the Little Bighorn in the Crow Indian reservation ten years later. " ... the most dramatic battles between the army and the Dakota [in the 1860s and 1870s] were on lands those Indians had taken from other tribes since 1851."

With peace achieved under the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868, the Lakota and their allies were victorious. They gained legal control of the western Powder River country, took down the forts and permanently closed the Bozeman trail.  The Crow lost their hunting grounds in the Powder River region to their enemies. With the treaty, "... the [United States] government had in effect betrayed the Crows, who had willingly helped the army to hold the posts for two years". The victory of the Lakota and their allies endured for eight years until the Great Sioux War of 1876, when the US resumed taking their territories, including the sacred Black Hills. In a 1980 Supreme Court case, United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, the court ruled that tribal lands covered under the treaty had been taken illegally by the US government, and the tribe was owed compensation plus interest. As of 2018 this amounted to more than $1 billion.

Background

As early as 1805, a Crow camp allowed French-Canadian fur trader François Antoine Larocque to follow it across parts of the Powder River area. According to him, the Crow "... inhabit the Eastern part of the Rocky Mountains at the head of the Rivière aux Roches Jaunes (Yellowstone River) and its Branches, Bighorn River, Tongue River, Powder River and others and Close to the head of the Missouri".

From the late 17th century, the Lakota had been moving west into the Plains, enlarging their territory so that by the early 19th century, they controlled the mid-Missouri River region.
Cheyenne and Lakota warriors committed a carnage on a big Crow camp at Tongue River in 1820, known today as the Tongue River Massacre, making their enmity permanent. In 1843, United States explorer John Frémont said that Lakota had told him that they would soon fight the Crow and take their land, as the Crow country had about the best bison range in the west.

In 1851, the area in question was included in a treaty with the United States for the first time, namely in the Fort Laramie treaty. This peace agreement defined territories for the tribes, in an effort by the US to establish peace among them and protect its own settlers. The treaty was signed by representatives of some factions of the numerous tribes of the Plains and mountainous West, including Crow, Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho; Gros Ventre, Mandan, and Arikara; Assiniboine and other nations. Intertribal warfare had been common among the tribes to gain social and economic advantages in furs, slaves, horses, hunting grounds, and other interests. They continued to wage war against each other into the late 19th century, conducting affairs separate from interaction with US forces and representatives.

As the big game dwindled in the mid-1850s, the Lakota began to enlarge their hunting grounds and "ignored the boundaries" of the 1851 treaty. They crossed Powder River (the dividing line between the Lakota territory and that of the Crow) and launched their "own program for expansions" westward at the expense of other Natives. For the Crow, the plains near present-day Wyola, Montana became a field for "large-scale battles with invading Sioux". By 1860, the Lakota and their allies had driven the Crows away from their treaty-guaranteed hunting grounds on the west side of Powder River.

The Lakota winter count by Ben Kindle (Oglala) reflects the fighting between the Crow and the Oglala during these decisive years. In five out of eight "winters" (years) from 1857 to 1864, he refers to Oglala triumphs over the Crow or the reverse. The year 1857 is remembered for a battle in which "The Sioux killed ten Crow Indians." In an 1863 fight, "The Crow killed eight Oglala Sioux."

The discovery of gold in 1863 around Bannack, Montana was a catalyst for white settlers to find an economical route to the gold fields. While some emigrants went to Salt Lake City and then north to Montana, pioneer John Bozeman and John M Jacobs developed the Bozeman Trail from Fort Laramie north through the Powder River country east of the Bighorn Mountains to the Yellowstone, then westward over what is now Bozeman Pass. "It is apparent that the great northern routes of travel to and from Montana, both by land and water, lie through the country of the Crow Indians..." established the Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1867. However, the Lakotas "had gradually driven the Crows back upon the headwaters of the Yellowstone", and now they claimed "as a conquest almost the entire country traversed by what is called the Powder River route [Bozeman Trail] ...". The trail passed through the Powder River hunting grounds of the Lakota or Western (Teton) Sioux, . A second trail, the Bridger Trail, passed west of the Bighorns but was longer and therefore less favored.

The Powder River country encompasses the numerous rivers (the Bighorn, Rosebud, Tongue and Powder) that flow northeastward from the Bighorn Mountains to the Yellowstone. The Cheyenne had been the first tribe in this area, followed by bands of Lakota.  As more of the northern plains became occupied by white settlement, this region became the last unspoiled hunting ground of the Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho and several of the seven bands of the Lakota.The treaty breaking annexation of the Crow's Powder River area in the 1850s by the Lakotas was the basis for Red Cloud's War against the United States on exactly the same soil a decade later. The United States vs. the Lakota was a conflict between "... two expanding empires, with the most dramatic battles occurring on lands only recently taken by the Sioux from other tribes".
In 1865, Maj. Gen. Grenville M. Dodge ordered the Powder River Expedition against the Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho.  Three columns of soldiers numbering 2,675 men, commanded by Patrick E. Connor, moved into the Powder River country.  The expedition failed to defeat the Indians in any decisive battles, although it destroyed an Arapaho village at the Battle of the Tongue River. The expedition was a failure in most respects as Lakota Indian resistance to white emigrants traveling the Bozeman Trail became more determined than ever.

After the Powder River Expedition, the U.S. attempted to negotiate safe passage for settlers through Indian territory. In autumn 1865, it negotiated several treaties with Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho leaders. The treaties provided monetary compensation to the Indians in exchange for their agreement to withdraw from the overland routes, established and to be established, in the Powder River country. However, the signatories to these treaties were "Laramie loafers"—Indians who lived near Fort Laramie and lived off handouts. For a treaty to be effective, the Indians who had fought Connor, especially Red Cloud, had to be engaged.  No white man could be found to undertake a dangerous mission to find Red Cloud and bring him to Fort Laramie for negotiations, so several of the "loafers" took the task. On March 12, 1866, Red Cloud and his Oglala rode into Fort Laramie. Red Cloud committed to remain peacefully at the Fort until such time as the U.S.'s chief negotiator, E. B. Taylor, arrived with presents for the assembled Indians.

Crows such as Wolf Bow tried to push the whites to take action against the Indian intruders: "Put the Sioux Indians in their own country, and keep them from troubling us. Don't stop fighting them". When possible, the Crow warned the troops of imminent attacks from hostile Indians and they joined soldiers in fending off attempts to capture horses. The strikes and attacks on the soldiers by the Lakota "... appeared to be a great Sioux war to protect their land. And it was - but the Sioux had only recently conquered this land from other tribes and now defending the territory both from other tribes and from the advance of white settlers".

Council at Fort Laramie

Negotiations between Red Cloud and other Native American leaders and the United States' representatives began in June 1866. On June 13, however, with the worst possible timing, Colonel Henry B. Carrington commanding the 18th Infantry, arrived at Laramie with the two battalions of the regiment (approximately 1,300 men in 16 companies) and construction supplies. He had orders to establish forts in the Powder River country using the 2nd Battalion of the 18th Infantry. The 3rd Battalion was to garrison posts along the old Oregon Trail, now the Platte Road.  Carrington chose the 2nd Battalion because it contained 220 veteran soldiers consolidated after the American Civil War. When Carrington appeared at the negotiations the following day, Red Cloud refused to acknowledge him and accused the U.S. of bad faith in the negotiations.  Red Cloud, Young Man Afraid Of His Horses, and others withdrew from the negotiations and departed Fort Laramie.Negotiations continued with a reduced number of Indian leaders. The US offered a substantial inducement for their cooperation: 70,000 dollars per year for the Lakota and 15,000 dollars per year for the Cheyenne. The Indians may have learned that the US often failed to deliver on its promises in treaties for annuities. On June 29, Taylor reported to Washington that a treaty had been concluded and that a "most cordial feeling prevails" between white and Indian. He said that only about 300 warriors, led by Red Cloud, objected to the treaty. The US government expressed optimism that the treaty would be successful in keeping the peace. In December, President Andrew Johnson in his State of the Union address said that the Indians had "unconditionally submitted to our authority and manifested an earnest desire for a renewal of friendly relations." Unbeknownst to Johnson, Carrington at that time was under virtual siege by the Indians at Fort Phil Kearny.

The agreement was not ratified. The United States, as signer of the 1851 Fort Laramie treaty, could only undertake meaningful negotiations about the western Powder River plains with the legitimate holder of the area, the Crow tribe.

Opposing forces
Carrington left Fort Laramie for the Powder River Country on June 17, 1866. He led 700 soldiers, 300 civilians, including wives and children of soldiers, and civilian contractors; 226 wagons full of supplies, a 35-man regimental band, and 1,000 head of cattle for a supply of fresh meat. The number of soldiers reflected the reductions that had been made in the army since the Civil War. Previous military expeditions against the Sioux by Alfred Sully, Henry Hastings Sibley, and Patrick Edward Connor from 1863 to 1865 had numbered more than 2,000 soldiers.

Five hundred of Carrington's men were new recruits and most were infantry, rather than cavalry. He had much less ammunition than the 100,000 rounds promised him. Carrington's men were armed with muzzle-loading Springfield rifles from the Civil War rather than new, faster-firing Spencer carbines and breech loading rifles. He had been "equipped with the men, arms, and supplies to build and garrison forts, not to wage war with an active army."

Carrington did not use Indian scouts, but they could have provided him essential intelligence on his opponents and informed him of a mobile search-and-destroy attack force. Nearly all of the meager successes of the Powder River Expedition a year earlier were attributable to the Pawnee and Omaha scouts who had accompanied the expedition.  A scout in another Indian war would say of US soldiers, "Uncle Sam's boys are too slow for this kind of work." Carrington's guide was the seasoned Mountain man Jim Bridger.

Carrington's opponents, the migratory hunting and warrior societies of the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, had advantages in mobility, horsemanship, knowledge of the country, guerrilla hit-and-run tactics, and the capability to concentrate their forces to achieve numerical superiority. They also had many weaknesses as a fighting force, especially in organization and weapons. During winter and spring, the scarcity of natural resources resulted in their living in small, scattered autonomous groups.  In late summer and fall they congregated into large encampments for ceremonies and to make political decisions and plan collective action. Bands were highly decentralized and individual Indians felt little obligation to obey group decisions.  The Lakota consisted of seven independent bands, each made up of numerous sub-bands, all of whom operated independently. The Cheyenne had a more structured and centralized political organization.

Some historians have estimated that Red Cloud's warriors numbered up to 4,000 men. The total number of Lakota in 1865 was about 13,860. The Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho numbered about 3,000, adding up to a total of about 17,000 Indian men, women, and children. Thousands of people in all three of those tribes were not in the Powder River country with Red Cloud; others stayed aloof from warfare. As had been typical of United States militias, Indian men were part-time warriors. They had to spend much of summer and fall each year hunting buffalo and other game to feed their families. In the late winter and spring, they were limited in mobility until the grass turned green and their horses could recover their strength after the severe winters of the northern Great Plains. The effectiveness of Indian forces were diminished by their lack of cohesion and organization.

The Indians had few guns and little ammunition; only six of the 81 soldiers who were later killed in the Fetterman Fight had gunshot wounds, and two of those may have shot themselves accidentally. Their basic weapon was the bow and arrow. The short (usually less than four feet long) and stout Indian bow was designed for short-distance hunting from horseback. Although deadly at short range, it probably had less than one-half the range of the English longbow, which was effective to 200 yards (180 m). Indian warriors lacked the capability to do significant damage to their opponents at ranges of more than 100 yards (90 m). By contrast, the soldier's Springfield Model 1861 muskets had an effective range of 300 yards or more. The Springfield musket, however, had a much lower rate of fire than the bow, offsetting to an extent its range advantage.

War
Carrington and his caravan reached Fort Reno on June 28, and left two companies (about 100 men) there to relieve the two companies of the 5th U.S. Volunteers (nicknamed the "Galvanized Yankees"), who had garrisoned the fort over the winter. Proceeding north, on July 14, Carrington founded Fort Phil Kearny on Piney Creek, near present-day Buffalo, Wyoming.

From there two companies of the 18th advanced 91 miles to the northwest, where on August 13, they established a third post, Fort C. F. Smith on the Bighorn River. Given the typically early and severe winters of the high plains, the middle of August was very late in the year to begin constructing forts, but Carrington's march had been slowed by having to transport a large mechanical "grass-cutting machine."  With replacements and reinforcements, Carrington's total force did not much exceed 700, of whom 400 were located at Fort Kearny.

Carrington was an engineer and political appointee, inexperienced in combat. He spent manpower resources building superior fortifications. Arriving in the region in mid-July, he tried to prepare for winter. Given the severity of the Wyoming winters, this was reasonable, but many of his junior officers, anxious for battle, were infuriated. Most were Civil War veterans, but they were unfamiliar with Indian fighting and believed the warriors could be easily defeated.

On July 16, a group of Cheyenne, including Dull Knife and Two Moons, visited Carrington at Fort Reno and proclaimed their desire for peace. They said that Red Cloud was nearby with 500 warriors. Two white civilians were killed that day, and the Lakota campaign against the forts along the Trail began the next day. Red Cloud's warriors infiltrated the picket lines near the fort and stampeded 175 horses and mules. About 200 soldiers pursued the Indians in a running 15 mile fight, attempting unsuccessfully to recover the animals and suffering two men killed and three wounded.  Returning to the fort, they found the bodies of six civilian traders killed by the Indians.

On July 20, Red Cloud's warriors attacked a wagon train of 37 soldiers and civilians, killing two, at Crazy Woman Fork of the Powder River. After they attacked other civilian wagon trains, nearly all civilian traffic on the Bozeman Trail ceased. Carrington could only be re-supplied with food and ammunition by heavily guarded wagon trains. In the weeks and months that followed, the Indians repeatedly attacked the wagon trains that sallied out of Fort Kearny to cut construction timber in a forest six miles away. For defense, the wood trains were large, consisting of two parallel lines of 24 to 40 wagons guarded by mounted soldiers on either flank. In the event of an attack, the wagons were quickly drawn into an corral for defense. Fifteen Indian attacks near Fort Kearny between July 16 and September 27 resulted in the deaths of 6 soldiers and 28 civilians and the loss of several hundred horses, mules, and cattle. Carrington's hay-cutting machine was also destroyed.

Battle of the Hundred Slain/Fetterman Fight

In November 1866, Captains William J. Fetterman and James Powell arrived at Fort Phil Kearny from the 18th Infantry's headquarters garrison at Fort Laramie to replace several officers recently relieved of duty. Unlike Carrington, Fetterman had extensive combat experience during the Civil War. But he lacked experience fighting Native Americans.  Fetterman disagreed with Carrington's strategy, reportedly saying it was "passive" and boasting that given "80 men," he "would ride through the Sioux nation."  Later, Carrington reported these boasts while trying to defend his own reputation.

On December 6, a force of Company C, 2nd Cavalry tasked to protect a wood train, was attacked by Red Cloud. Commanding officer Second Lieutenant Horace S. Bingham was among those killed as he had followed them as they retreated over Lodge Trail Ridge and been overwhelmed. Carrington worried about his officers' tendency to blindly follow such Indian decoy parties. Fetterman was outraged by what he considered the ineffectiveness of Carrington's leadership.  He understood the commander of the Department of the Platte, Gen. Philip St. George Cooke, to have ordered the garrison to mount an aggressive winter campaign.

On the morning of December 21, 1866, the wood train was attacked again.  Carrington ordered a relief party, composed of 49 infantrymen of the 18th Infantry, 27 mounted troopers of the 2nd Cavalry, with Captain James Powell to command. Powell had led a similar effort two days earlier and declined to pursue the Indians over the ridge. However, by claiming seniority as a brevet lieutenant colonel, Fetterman asked for and was given command of the relief party. Powell remained behind. Another officer of the 18th, Lt. George W. Grummond, also a vocal critic of Carrington, led the cavalry, which had been leaderless since Lt. Bingham's death in early December. Captain Frederick Brown, until recently the post quartermaster and another of Carrington's critics, and two civilians, James Wheatley and Isaac Fisher, joined Fetterman, bringing the relief force up to 81 officers and men. The infantry marched out first; the cavalry had to retrieve its mounts before it could follow and catch up.

Colonel Carrington said he ordered Fetterman not to cross Lodge Trail Ridge, where relief from the fort would be difficult, and that he told Grummond to remind Fetterman of his order. Upon leaving the fort, Fetterman, instead of marching down the wood road to the relief of the wood train, turned north and crossed the Sullivant Hills toward Lodge Trail Ridge. Within a few minutes of their departure, a Lakota decoy party including Oglala warrior Crazy Horse appeared on Lodge Trail Ridge. Fetterman took the bait; several of the warriors stood on their ponies and insultingly waggled their bare buttocks at the troopers. Fetterman and his company were joined by Grummond at the crossing of the creek; they deployed in skirmish line and marched over the Ridge in pursuit. They raced into the Peno Valley, where an estimated 1,000-3,000 Indians were concealed. They had fought the soldiers there on December 6.

The ambush was not observed from the fort, but around noon, men at the fort heard gunfire, beginning with a few shots followed immediately by sustained firing. When the Oglala and Cheyenne sprang their trap, the soldiers had no escape; none survived. Evidence indicated the cavalry probably had charged the Indians; the bodies of the cavalry's most advanced group were found nearly a mile down the ridge beyond the infantry.

Reports from the burial party sent to collect the remains said the soldiers had died in three groups. The most advanced, and probably most effective, were the two civilians, armed with 16-shot Henry repeating rifles, and a small number of cavalrymen who had dismounted and taken cover in the rocks. Up the slope behind them were the bodies of most of the retreating cavalrymen, armed with new 7-shot Spencer carbines, but encumbered by their horses and lacking cover. Further up the slope were Fetterman, Brown, and the infantrymen. They had nearly obsolete Civil War muzzle-loading muskets; the Indians were armed with equally obsolete weaponry. These foot soldiers fought from cover for a short while, until their ammunition ran out and they were overrun.

Carrington heard the gunfire and immediately sent out a 40-man support force on foot under Captain Tenedor Ten Eyck. Shortly after, the 30 remaining cavalrymen of Company C were sent dismounted to reinforce Ten Eyck, followed by two wagons, the first loaded with hastily loaded ammunition and escorted by another 40 men. Carrington called for an immediate muster of troops to defend the post. Including the wood train detail, the detachments had left only 119 troops remaining inside the fort.

Ten Eyck took a roundabout route and reached the ridgetop just as the firing ceased about 12:45 p.m. He sent back a message reporting that he could not see Fetterman's force, but the valley was filled with groups of Indians taunting him to come down. Ten Eyck suffered severe criticism for not marching straight to battle, though doing so would have resulted only in the destruction of his force, too. Ten Eyck reached and recovered the bodies of Fetterman's men. Because of continuing Indian threat, they could not recover those of the cavalry for two days.

By that time, Fetterman and his entire 81-man detachment were dead. Carrington's official report said that Fetterman and Brown shot each other to avoid capture. Army autopsies recorded Fetterman's death wound as a knife slash. It remains a subject of debate.  The warriors mutilated most of the bodies of the soldiers. Most of the dead soldiers were scalped, beheaded, dismembered, disemboweled, and often castrated, facts widely publicized by the newspapers. The only body left untouched was that of a young teenage bugler, Adolph Metzler.  He was believed to have fought several Indians with just his bugle as a bludgeon. Aside from his fatal head and chest injuries, his body was left untouched and covered with a buffalo robe by the Indians. The reason for this remains unknown.

This battle was called the "Battle of the Hundred Slain" or the "Battle of the Hundred in the Hand" by the Indians and the "Fetterman Massacre" by the soldiers. It was the Army's worst defeat on the Great Plains until the Little Big Horn battle nearly ten years later.

After the Fetterman Fight

The evening after the Fetterman disaster, a civilian, John "Portugee" Philips," volunteered to carry a distress message to Fort Laramie. Carrington's message to General Cooke reported Fetterman's defeat and requested immediate reinforcements and supplies of repeating Spencer carbines. Philips accomplished the  ride to Fort Laramie in four days. A blizzard began on December 22, and Philips rode through a foot (30 cm) of snow and temperatures below . He did not see any Indians during his ride. He arrived at Fort Laramie late in the evening on December 25, during a full-dress Christmas ball. He staggered, exhausted, into the party to deliver his message.

General Cooke immediately relieved Carrington of command, replacing him with Brigadier General Henry W. Wessells. Wessells arrived safely at Fort Kearny on January 16 with two companies of cavalry and four of infantry.  One man in his command froze to death during the journey.  Carrington left Fort Kearny on January 23 with his wife and the other women and children, including the pregnant wife of the deceased Lt. Grummond, and braved temperatures as low as  during the journey to Fort Laramie.  One half of his 60-soldier escort suffered frostbite. General Ulysses S. Grant, commanding the U.S. Army, was not inclined to blame only Carrington.  He relieved Cooke on January 9, 1867.  Both an Army court of inquiry and the Secretary of the Interior investigated the Fetterman Fight.  The Army reached no official conclusion, and Interior exonerated Carrington.  After a severe hip injury, Carrington resigned his commission in 1870. He spent the rest of his life defending his actions and condemning Fetterman's alleged disobedience.

After the Fetterman Fight, the Indians dispersed into smaller groups for the 1866-1867 winter. Conflict subsided for the season. Wessells and his men at Fort Phil Kearny had a difficult time through the winter.  Food was short, most of the horses and mules died from lack of forage, and scurvy was common among the soldiers. He cancelled plans for a punitive winter campaign against the Indians.  In April, Indians began raids along the Oregon Trail in the North Platte River valley. Journalist Henry M. Stanley, (later achieving fame in Africa), said, "Murders are getting to be so tame from their plurality, that no one pays any attention to them."

Most serious was the Indian threat to the construction of the First transcontinental railroad routed through southern Wyoming.  Although army forces had been augmented along the Bozeman Trail and at Fort Laramie in the wake of the Fetterman disaster, resources were still insufficient to take the offensive against the Indians. Peace negotiations conducted by the friendly Lakota chieftain Spotted Tail with Red Cloud initially seemed promising, but proved to be only a delaying tactic by the Indians.  The Lakota held their annual Sun Dance in July, delaying the renewal of major hostilities.

Hayfield and Wagon Box fights

In late July 1867, the Lakota and Cheyenne took two different paths in attacks. A force composed primarily of Cheyenne and Arapaho gathered for an attack at Fort C. F. Smith on the Bighorn River in Montana. Another, mostly Lakota, decided to attack Fort Phil Kearny,  southeast. Crow people lived near Fort Smith and provided intelligence to the soldiers at the fort, warning of upcoming attacks.  On July 23, the fort was reinforced by two companies of infantry under Lt. Col. Luther P. Bradley, bringing the complement of the fort up to 350 soldiers.

Most importantly, the reinforcements were armed with breech-loading Springfield Model 1866 rifles, replacing the muskets the soldiers had previously been issued. The new rifles had a rate of fire of 8 to 10 shots per minute compared to 3 to 4 for the muzzle-loading muskets; also, they could be easily reloaded by men lying in a prone position.

The supply of the new Springfields was perhaps the biggest change in the conflict since the Fetterman Fight. They allowed the soldiers to reload quickly, ending the Indian tactic of charging defenses before the soldiers could reload.  With the new rifles, the soldiers could also remain behind cover while reloading.

The soldiers at Fort Smith were tasked with protecting civilians cutting hay for winter food for the fort's horses.  On the morning of August 1, 21 soldiers and 9 civilians were working in the hayfield  from Fort Smith, when several hundred mounted Indians charged them; the soldiers and civilians took cover behind logs in a makeshift fort and in rifle pits.  During the course of the day, the Americans repulsed several attacks with their fast-firing rifles.  The Indians broke off the attack in the afternoon.  American casualties were two soldiers and one civilian killed and three wounded.  The Indians claimed they had lost eight dead; the soldiers estimated they had killed 18 to 23.

The Wagon Box Fight near Fort Kearny the next day was similar. Twenty-six soldiers and 6 civilians were escorting a wood-cutting detail outside the fort. The heavy wooden boxes of 14 wagons had been placed on the ground in an oval corral near the main cutting site, and most of the soldiers and civilians took refuge there when hundreds of mounted Indian warriors suddenly appeared. Armed with the new breech-loading rifles, the Americans held off the Indians for six hours before being rescued by a relief force from Fort Kearny.  Three Americans were killed and two wounded in the corral, and four woodcutters were killed about  away.  The Wagon Box Fight was hailed at the time as the "greatest Indian battle in the world," with Indian casualties fancifully estimated at up to 1,500.  Historian George E. Hyde has said the Indians had 6 killed and 6 wounded and did not regard the fight as a defeat, as they captured a large number of mules and horses. Many years later Red Cloud claimed not to remember the Wagon Box Fight, although given the large number of Indians engaged that seems unlikely.

The outcomes of the Hayfield and Wagon Box fights discouraged the Indians from mounting additional large-scale attacks, but they continued harassment of the forts along the Bozeman Trail, killing soldiers and civilians. On August 7 the Indians attacked a Union Pacific Railroad train at Plum Creek near present-day Lexington, Nebraska, far from the Powder River Country and in a region considered by the US to be peaceful until then. This alarmed the government.

Treaty of Fort Laramie

Despite the military successes in the Hayfield and Wagon Box Fights, the U.S. government increasingly sought a peaceful rather than a military solution to Red Cloud's War.  The successful completion of the transcontinental railroad took priority, and the Army did not have the resources to defend both the railroad and the Bozeman Trail from Indian attacks.  The military presence in the Powder River Country was both expensive and unproductive, with estimates that 20,000 soldiers might be needed to subdue the Indians.

Peace commissioners were sent to Fort Laramie in the spring of 1868. Red Cloud refused to meet with them until the Army abandoned the Powder River forts, Phil Kearny, C. F. Smith, and Reno. In August 1868, Federal soldiers abandoned the forts and withdrew to Fort Laramie. The day after the soldiers left the forts, the Indians burned them. The Bozeman Trail was closed for all time.

Red Cloud did not arrive at Fort Laramie until November. He signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie of 1868, which created the Great Sioux Reservation, including the Black Hills. The reservation included all of South Dakota west of the Missouri River.  Northern Arapaho representatives also signed the treaty.  The treaty declared the Powder River country as "unceded Indian territory", as a reserve for the Indians who chose not to live on the new reservation, and as a hunting reserve for the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho. The treaty also accorded the Lakota Indians continued hunting rights in western Kansas and eastern Colorado, along with other peoples such as the Pawnees. These far, southern hunting grounds along the forks of Republican River remained holdings of the United States, as they had been since 1833, when the Pawnee Indians sold this area and other parts of their country to the whites. Most importantly, the treaty specified what Red Cloud sought: "no white person or persons shall be permitted to settle upon or occupy any portion" of the Powder River country "or without the consent of the Indians first had and obtained, to pass through" the Powder River country.

The Lakotas on their part allowed the construction of "any railroad" outside the reservation. They would give up "all right to occupy permanently the territory outside" it and "regard said reservation their permanent home". They accepted "not to attack any persons at home, or travelling ...".

Although a treaty between the United States and the Lakotas, it had profound consequences for the Crows. In order to realize the Lakota demand to the western Powder River area, the United States first had to buy it from the 1851 treaty right holder, the Crow, and then recognize the Lakota tribe as the next proprietor. Consequently, parallel with the negotiations with the Lakota, the United States had treaty talks with the Crow Indians. On May 7, 1868, the Crows accepted to sell large parts of their 1851 treaty territory to the United States. The ceded area included the western Powder River hunting grounds of the Crow, already for years taken in possession by the Lakotas and their allies without consent. The Crows also agreed to settle on a smaller reservation right on the south side of the Yellowstone, in the center of their 1851 territory. The Crow reservation included "The Valley of Chieftains", to the whites known as the valley of Little Bighorn River.

The small Ponca tribe was another Indian nation affected by the new Fort Laramie treaty. By mistake, the United States had given the Lakotas treaty right to the reservation of the Poncas.

Aftermath

Lakota Indian sovereignty over the Powder River country endured for eight years until renewed US interest in Great Sioux Reservation land due to the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, leading to the Great Sioux War of 1876 and violations of the treaty. In a 1980 Supreme Court case, United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, the court ruled that tribal lands covered under the treaty had been taken illegally by the US government, and the tribe was owed compensation plus interest. As of 2018 this amounted to more than $1 billion.

The peace of 1868 forced upon the whites allowed the Oglalas and other Lakotas to turn their focus on the intertribal wars again. In November, chief Red Cloud asked the United States for firearms to fight the Crows after the loss of two band members. The Lakotas also "continued their destructive raids" against the Poncas, "resentful of the Poncas living on what was now Sioux land". While using their new treaty right to hunt along the Republican River in United States' territory in the summer of 1873, two big Lakota camps made a large-scale attack on a travelling group of Pawnees in what has ever since been called the Massacre Canyon.

After 1868, Red Cloud lived on the reservation.  Seeing that the numbers of new emigrants and technology of the United States would overwhelm the Sioux, Red Cloud adapted to fighting the US Indian Bureau for fair treatment for his people.  He was an important leader of the Lakota through the years of transition from their plains culture to the relative confinement of the reservation system.  He outlived all the major Lakota leaders of the Indian wars.  He lived until 1909, when he died on the Pine Ridge Reservation and was buried there.

Fetterman, Brown and the U.S. soldiers killed in the 1866 Fetterman Fight were reinterred at the U.S. National Cemetery at Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, near Crow Agency, Montana.

References

External links
"War Shirt worn by Red Cloud" , National Park Service
 Map of Red Cloud's War / Bozeman War : forts, battles and skirsmishes

Indian wars of the American Old West
Wars between the United States and Native Americans
Native American history of Wyoming
Conflicts in 1866
Conflicts in 1867
Conflicts in 1868
1860s in Wyoming Territory
1860s in Montana Territory
Battles involving the Cheyenne
Lakota
Arapaho
Sioux Wars
1866 in Wyoming Territory
1866 in Montana Territory
1867 in Wyoming Territory
1867 in Montana Territory
1868 in Wyoming Territory
1868 in Montana Territory

Red Cloud's War


Cecil Blanche Woodham-Smith ( Fitzgerald; 29 April 1896 – 16 March 1977) CBE was a British historian and biographer. She wrote four popular history books, each dealing with a different aspect of the Victorian era.

Early life
Cecil Woodham-Smith was born in 1896 in Tenby, Wales. Her family, the Fitzgeralds, were a well-known Irish family, one of her ancestors being Lord Edward Fitzgerald, hero of the Irish Rebellion of 1798. Her father Colonel James FitzGerald had served in the Indian Army during the Sepoy Mutiny; her mother's family included General Sir Thomas Picton, a distinguished soldier who was killed at Waterloo.

She attended the Royal School for Officers' Daughters in Bath, until her expulsion for taking unannounced leave for a trip to the National Gallery. She finished her schooling at a French convent and afterwards entered St Hilda's College, Oxford. She graduated with a second-class degree in English in 1917.

In 1928 she married George Ivon Woodham-Smith, a distinguished London solicitor with whom she had an exceptionally close and deep relationship until his death in 1968. She possessed a gift for historical writing, but postponed her career until her two children had gone off to boarding school. In the meantime, she wrote pot-boilers under the pseudonym Janet Gordon; this training was to stand her in good stead as an historian, as she mastered the art of writing entertaining narrative.

Career
Her first book as a historian, a biography of Florence Nightingale published in 1950, took her straight to the top of her profession. Her meticulous research had taken nine years, and the book succeeded in restoring Nightingale's reputation, which had dwindled following Lytton Strachey's representation of her in Eminent Victorians. Acclaimed for its combination of scholarship and readability, Florence Nightingale won the James Tait Black Award for biography.

Her next book was equally well received. The Reason Why (1953) was a study of the Charge of the Light Brigade, a military disaster during the Crimean War and one of the defining events of the Victorian age. It became her most popular book, and afterwards she explained to a television audience how she wrote the Charge itself: working at a gallop through thirty-six hours non-stop without food or other break until the last gun was fired, when she poured a stiff drink and slept for two days. Though the work was critically acclaimed, it came to the conclusion that the allies had lost the Crimean War, which most historians conclude is not true.

She produced two more notable works. The first was The Great Hunger: Ireland: 1845-1849 (1962), a history of the Great Irish Famine of the 1840s that was critical of the British government's handling of the famine, in particular singling out Sir Charles Edward Trevelyan for criticism, although she did acknowledge that the British government assisted during the first phase of the famine.  The second was the first volume of Queen Victoria: Her Life and Times (1972). She was unable to complete the next volume of the biography, and died in London in 1977 at the age of 80.

Cecil Woodham-Smith was appointed CBE in 1960. She received honorary doctorates from the National University of Ireland in 1964 and the University of St Andrews in 1965. She also became an honorary fellow of St Hilda's College (her alma mater) in 1967.

Alan Bennett wrote of her:Cecil was a frail woman with a tiny bird-like skull, looking more like Elizabeth I (in later life) than Edith Sitwell ever did (and minus her sheet metal earrings). Irish, she had a Firbankian wit and a lovely turn of phrase. 'Do you know the Atlantic at all?' she once asked me and I put the line into Habeas Corpus and got a big laugh on it. From a grand Irish family she was quite snobbish; talking of someone she said: 'Then he married a Mitford … but that's a stage everybody goes through.' Even the most ordinary remark would be given her own particular twist and she could be quite camp. Conversation had once turned, as conversations will, to fork-lift trucks. Feeling that industrial machinery might be remote from Cecil's sphere of interest I said: 'Do you know what a fork-lift truck is?' She looked at me in her best Annie Walker manner. 'I do. To my cost.'

References

External links
LibraryThing author profile
The Great Hunger, Reference

British biographers
1896 births
1977 deaths
Alumni of St Hilda's College, Oxford
People educated at the Royal School for Daughters of Officers of the Army
People from Tenby
Great Famine (Ireland)
British women biographers
Welsh people of Irish descent
James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients
20th-century British historians
20th-century British women writers
British women historians
Historians of Ireland
20th-century pseudonymous writers
Pseudonymous women writers

Cecil Woodham-Smith


Belen is a toun an destrict o Hatay Province in the Mediterranean region o sooth-central Turkey.

Geography
The destrict o Belen consists o a sma toun o the same name an the surroondin veelages in the forestit slopes o the Nur Muntains. The Belen Pass is the main route athort the muntains an joins the coastal ceety o İskenderun wi Antakya. The pass is a key route atween Anatolie an the Middle East. The Belen destrict is kent for its ceul clean air (especially when compared wi the heat o the Mediterranean coast belaw) an its muntain spring watter.

The roadside restaurants in the pass hae lang been a stoppin place for travellers, servin the teepical dishes o Hatay, an especially "Belen tava", meats freed in tomatoes, garlic, spices an peppers.

Belen itsel is a sma mercat toun wi a post office an ither basics. The fowk o Belen are conservative; the municipality is currently (2010) controlled bi the Turkis far-richt MHP, wi the ither seats held bi the AKP.

History
Kent in earlier times as "Maziku Bagras" an "Bab-ı İskenderun" the pass wis brocht intae the Ottoman Empire in 1516 efter the battle o Mercidabık. The Ottomans postit a guard on the pass, the main route frae Sirie tae Anatolie, an gae the aurie the name "Belen". In 1535 follaein a veesit bi Suleyman the Magnificent a wall wis biggit tae secur the pass alang wi a caravanserai, a mosque an a bathhoose, an wi thir facilities Turkis families wur settled on the muntainside, pairtly actin as watchkeepers on the pass, alang wi the military garrison. This early Ottoman airchitectur is still in place.

The toun grew, acquirin the teepical Ottoman mix o Muslim an non-Muslim traders an veelagers. the 16t century traveller Evliya Çelebi notit the hersh climate, the nairae streets an the forest on the steep hillsides. Belen wis key tae the defence o the Ottoman Empire durin the struggle against the breakaway Egyptian airmy in 1827. 13,000 lives war lost durin the Egyptian struggle tae tak the pass, thay eventually succeedit but durin thair retreat frae Anatolie wur harriet bi bandits at Belen again.

Alang wi the rest o Hatay, Belen became pairt o Turkey in 1939.

Sources

Populatit places in Hatay Province
Yaylas in Turkey

Belen, Hatay


Nitric Acid (HNO3) is a very corrosive and toxic strong acid that can cause severe burns. It is also known as aqua fortis. Nitric Acid is used in rocket fuels, to help make wood look older, and is used in explosives.

It can react with metals such as copper to produce a brown toxic gas called nitrogen dioxide. It is made by reaction of nitrogen dioxide with water.

In alchemy, it is known as aqua fortis, or strong water. It can dissolve silver but leaves gold unharmed, making it a good test for gold. The term acid test came from this test.

Acids
Nitrogen compounds

Nitric acid


Casino Kid is a casino video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System released in 1989. It was developed and published by Sofel. In Japan, the game was released as  and is based on the manga series $1,000,000 Kid by Yuki Ishigaki.

Gameplay
Casino Kid takes place in a fictional Las Vegas (the Japanese version uses the actual city of Las Vegas, Nevada) where the object is to earn much money and to defeat the evil King of the Casino. Games at the casino include blackjack and five-card draw poker. Slot machines and roulette were omitted from the North American version. While the North American version uses a parody name for the Las Vegas casino, the Japanese version uses the actual Golden Nugget name.

In the Japanese version, it is possible to travel to other casinos like New York City and Japan for a substantial airfare cost. Players can essentially customize the game in the Japanese version by placing in their own name. Casino Kid has blue hair in the Japanese version and blond hair in the North American version.  A "free mode" is added into the Japanese version that allow for experimentation with gambling strategies.

There is a different introduction in the North American and Japanese version. The Japanese version has a kid imagining himself to be the casino champion while the North American version has the player compete in a tournament for the world's toughest gamblers. Both versions have waitresses in bunny costumes that gives hints to the player. Attempting to skip an opponent allow players to find the exact location of the previous opponent while skipping two or more opponents is frowned upon in this game.

Legacy

Casino Kid II is the sequel to Casino Kid, released in North America in April 1993 by the same company. The sequel was originally going to be titled The Prince of Othello and given a 1990 release until Sofel decided to temporarily cancel the project.

In Casino Kid II, the titular protagonist, after having defeated the top players in Las Vegas, is issued a challenge by the top gamblers around the world. The matches are organized by a mysterious leader, and to unveil the leader, the Casino Kid must defeat nine opponents from around the world in the games of roulette, poker, and blackjack. There is a story sequence that is more elaborate than in Casino Kid. Gameplay in Casino Kid II differs in that players no longer venture around the casino looking for rival gamblers, though the card games still operate in the same fashion as in the original Casino Kid. Players travel by plane to each destination either in the daytime or in the night; depending on which country that he is flying to.

Unlike Casino Kid, Casino Kid II was never released in Japan. The game is probably most well known for its music done by the EIM sound team of Kenji Eno and Michiya Hirasawa (both now deceased).

References

External links
 Casino Kid on GameSpot

1989 video games
1993 video games
Casino video games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Nintendo Entertainment System-only games
SOFEL games
Video games based on anime and manga
Video games developed in Japan
Video games set in the Las Vegas Valley
Video games set in Nevada
Single-player video games

Casino Kid


The Master of Business Administration (MBA) is a master's degree in business administration, which attracts people from a wide range of academic disciplines. The MBA designation originated in the United States, emerging from the late 19th century as the country industrialized and companies sought out scientific approaches to management. The core courses in the MBA program are designed to introduce students to the various areas of business such as accounting, marketing, human resources, operations management, etc. Students in the MBA program have the option to select an area of concentration and focus approximately one-third of their studies in this area.

Accreditation bodies exist specifically for MBA programs to ensure consistency and quality of graduate business education, and business schools in many countries offer MBA programs tailored to full-time, part-time, executive, and distance learning students, with specialized concentrations.

पार्श्वभूमी
The Tuck School of Business, part of Dartmouth College, was the first graduate school of business in the United States.  Founded in 1900, it was the first institution conferring advanced degrees (masters) in the commercial sciences, specifically, a Master of Science in Commerce degree, the forebear of the modern MBA degree.

In 1908, the Graduate School of Business Administration (GSBA) at Harvard University was established; it offered the world's first MBA program, with a faculty of 15 plus 33 regular students and 47 special students.

The University of Chicago Graduate School of Business first offered working professionals the Executive MBA (EMBA) program in 1940, and this type of program is offered by most business schools today.

In 1950, the first MBA degrees were awarded outside the United States by The University of Western Ontario in Canada, followed in 1951 with the degree awarded by the University of Pretoria in South Africa. The Institute of Business Administration, Karachi in Pakistan was established in 1955 as the first Asian business school by the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. In 1957, INSEAD became the first European business school to offer an MBA program.

The MBA degree has been adopted by universities worldwide, and has been adopted and adapted by both developed and developing countries.

Accreditation
Business schools or MBA programs may be accredited by external bodies which provide students and employers with an independent view of their quality, and indicate that the school's educational curriculum meets specific quality standards. The three major accrediting bodies in the United States are Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), which accredits research universities, the Association of Collegiate Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP), which accredits universities and colleges, and the International Assembly for Collegiate Business Education (IACBE), all of which also accredit schools outside the US. The AACSB and the ACBSP are themselves accredited in the United States by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA). MBA programs with specializations for students pursuing careers in healthcare management also eligible for accreditation by the Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Management Education (CAHME).

In the United States, a college or university must be accredited as a whole before it is eligible to have its MBA program accredited. Bodies that accredit institutions as a whole include the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA): Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools (MSA), New England Association of Schools and Colleges (NEASCSC), Higher Learning Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools (HLC), Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities (NWCCU), Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS), and Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC).

Accreditation agencies outside the United States include the Association of MBAs (AMBA), a UK based organization that accredits MBA, DBA and MBM programs worldwide, government accreditation bodies such as the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) that accredits MBA and PGDM programs across India, the Council on Higher Education (CHE) in South Africa, the European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS) for mostly European and Asian schools, and the Foundation for International Business Administration Accreditation (FIBAA) in Europe.

MBA कार्यक्रमाचे मुलभूत प्रकार
Two-year (Full Time) MBA  programs normally take place over two academic years (i.e. approximately 18 months of term time). For example in the Northern Hemisphere beginning in late August/September of year one and continuing until May of year two, with a three to four month summer break in between years one and two. Students enter with a reasonable amount of prior real-world work experience and take classes during weekdays like other university students.

Accelerated MBA programs are a variation of the two year programs. They involve a higher course load with more intense class and examination schedules. They usually have less "down time" during the program and between semesters. For example, there is no three to four month summer break, and between semesters there might be seven to ten days off rather than three to five weeks vacation.

Part-time MBA programs normally hold classes on weekday evenings, after normal working hours, or on weekends. Part-time programs normally last three years or more. The students in these programs typically consist of working professionals, who take a light course load for a longer period of time until the graduation requirements are met.

Executive MBA (EMBA) programs developed to meet the educational needs of managers and executives, allowing students to earn an MBA or another business-related graduate degree in two years or less while working full time. Participants come from every type and size of organization – profit, nonprofit, government — representing a variety of industries. EMBA students typically have a higher level of work experience, often 10 years or more, compared to other MBA students. In response to the increasing number of EMBA programs offered, The Executive MBA Council was formed in 1981 to advance executive education.

Distance learning MBA programs hold classes off-campus. These programs can be offered in a number of different formats: correspondence courses by postal mail or email, non-interactive broadcast video, pre-recorded video, live teleconference or videoconference, offline or online computer courses. Many respectable schools offer these programs; however, so do many diploma mills.

Dual MBA programs combine MBA degree with others (such as an MS or a J.D., etc) to let students cut costs (dual programs usually cost less than pursuing 2 degrees separately), save time on education and to tailor the business education courses to their needs. Some business schools offer programs in which students can earn both a bachelor's degree in business administration and an MBA in four or five years.

Admissions criteria
Most programs base admission on the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT), significant work experience, academic transcripts, essays, references or letters of recommendation and personal interviews. The Graduate Record Examination (GRE) is also accepted by some schools in lieu of the GMAT. Schools are also interested in extracurricular activities, community service activities and how the student can improve the diversity and contribute to the student body as a whole. All of these qualifications are important for admission; however, some schools do not weigh GMAT scores as heavily as other criteria. In order to achieve a diverse class, business schools also consider the target male-female ratio and local-international student ratios.

Program content
Most top MBA programs cover similar subjects within their core required courses.  For information about the typical content of an MBA program's core curriculum, see the overview at the Wikiversity MBA topic page.  MBA programs expose students to a variety of subjects, which students may choose to specialize in a particular area. Students traditionally study a wide breadth of courses in the program's first year, then pursue a specialized curriculum in the second year. Full-time students typically seek an internship during the interim.  Typical specializations include: accounting; economics;  Entrepreneurship; finance; international business; operations management; organizational behavior; marketing; real estate; and strategy, among others.

यूरोपातील  MBA शिक्षण

MBAचा यूरोपिय इतिहास
In 1957, INSEAD became the first European university offering the MBA degree, followed in 1964 by IESE (first two-year program in Europe), UCD Smurfit Business School in 1964, Manchester Business School and London Business School in 1965, The University of Dublin (Trinity College), the Rotterdam School of Management in 1966, the Cranfield School of Management in 1967 and in 1969 by the HEC School of Management (in French, the École des Hautes Études Commerciales) and the Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris. In 1991, IEDC-Bled School of Management became the first school in the ex-socialist block of the Central and Eastern to offer an MBA degree. See List of business schools in Europe

Bologna Accord
In Europe, the recent Bologna Accord established uniformity in three levels of higher education: Bachelor (three years), Masters (one or two years in addition to three or four years for a Bachelor), and Doctorate (an additional three or four years after a Masters). Students can acquire professional experience after their initial bachelor degree at any European institution and later complete their masters in any other European institution via the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System. A European masters degree in Management is therefore equivalent to the American MBA having additional scientific content; for example, a European MBA normally requires writing and defending a master's thesis.

Accreditation
Accreditation standards are not uniform in Europe. Some countries have legal requirements for accreditation (e.g. most German states), in some there is a legal requirement only for universities of a certain type (e.g. ऑस्ट्रिया), and others have no accreditation law at all. Even where there is no legal requirement, many business schools are accredited by independent bodies voluntarily to ensure quality standards.

यूनायटेड किंग्डम

The UK based Association of MBAs (AMBA) was established in 1967 and is an active advocate for MBA degrees. The Association's accreditation service is internationally recognised for all MBA, DBA and Masters in Business and Management (MBM) programs. AMBA also offer the only professional membership association for MBA students and graduates. UK MBA programs typically consist of a set number of taught courses plus a dissertation or project.

झेच रिपब्लिक
January 1998 saw the first meeting of the "Association of the Czech MBA Schools" (CAMBAS) . The Association is housed within the Centre for Doctoral and Managerial Studies of UEP, Prague. All of the founding members of the Association have their MBA programmes accredited by partner institutions in Great Britain or in United States of America.

जर्मनी आणि ऑस्ट्रीया

जर्मनी was one of the last western countries to adopt the MBA degree. In 1998, the Hochschulrahmengesetz (Higher Education Framework Act), a German federal law regulating higher education including the types of degrees offered, was modified to permit German universities to offer master's degrees. The traditional German degree in business administration was the Diplom but since 1999, bachelor's and master's degrees have gradually displaced the traditional degrees (see Bologna process). Today most German business schools offer the MBA. Most German states require that MBA degrees have to be accredited by one of the six agencies officially recognized by the German Akkreditierungsrat (accreditation council), the German counterpart to the US-American CHEA. The busiest of these six agencies (in respect to MBA degrees) is the Foundation for International Business Administration Accreditation (FIBAA). All universities themselves have to be institutionally accredited by the state (staatlich anerkannt).

In ऑस्ट्रिया, MBA programs of private universities have to be accredited by the ऑस्ट्रियाn Accreditation Council (Österreichischer Akkreditierungsrat). State-run universities have no accreditation requirements, however, some of them voluntarily undergo accreditation procedures by independent bodies. There are also MBA programs of non-academic business schools, who are enशीर्षकd by the ऑस्ट्रियाn government to offer these programs until 2010 (Lehrgang universitären Charakters). Some non-academic institutions cooperate with state-run universities to ensure legality of their degrees.

फ्रान्स आणि प्रेंच ऊपयोगकर्ते देश

In France and in the Francophone countries such as स्वित्झर्लंड, Monaco, Belgium, and Canada (Quebec), the MBA degree programs at the public accredited schools are similar to those offered in the Anglo-Saxon countries. Most French Business Schools are accredited by the Conférence des Grandes Écoles, which is an association of higher educational establishments outside the mainstream framework of the pu

ईटली
Italian MBAs programs at public accredited schools are similar to those offered elsewhere in Europe. Italian Business Schools are accredited by EQUIS and by ASFOR.

पोलंड

युक्रेन

Recently MBA programs appeared in Ukraine where there are now about ten schools of business offering a variety of MBA programs. Two of these are subsidiaries of European schools of business, while the remaining institutions are independent.

The MBA degree in ऑस्टेलिया, आफ्रिका आणि आशिया

Today, MBA and Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) designations can be found in many countries and even accessed through on-line, distance learning or e-learning.  Because of the varying standards of MBAs worldwide, many business schools are accredited by independent bodies.

ऑस्ट्रेलिया

In Australia, 42 Australian business schools offer the MBA degree.  Universities differentiate themselves by gaining international accreditation and focusing on national and international rankings.  Most MBAs are one to two years full time.  There is little use of GMAT, and instead each educational institution specifies its own requirements, which normally entails several years of management-level work experience as well as proven academic skills.

Ratings for Australian MBAs are carried out by the Graduate Management Association of Australia, which publishes an annual Australian MBA Star Ratings. See List of business schools in Australia.

दक्षीण आफ्रीका

In 2004, South Africa's Council on Higher Education (CHE) completed an extensive re-accreditation of MBA degrees offered in the country. The process was the first of its kind in the world to be undertaken by a statutory body and attracted widespread international media attention for its innovation and thoroughness. See List of business schools in South Africa.

घाना

Business schools of the traditional universities run a variety of MBA programs. In addition, foreign accredited institutions offer MBA degrees by distance learning in Ghana.

भारत

महाराष्ट्र

There are 1600 business schools in India offering two year MBA programs targeting predominantly fresh graduates without any work experience. Among those schools, the Indian Institutes of Management (IIM) are the oldest institutions for management education in India. Admission to any of the IIM schools or other business schools requires passing the Common Admission Test (CAT), XAT, GMAT, JMET or MAT each of which qualifies candidates for entrance into any management institutions in India, apart from these entrance tests there are few business schools which conducts aptitude test individually which qualifies candidates for that particular business school. The IIM and other autonomous business schools offer a post-graduate diploma in management (PGDM) which is recognized in India as similar to an MBA degree. Government accreditation bodies such as AICTE established that autonomous business schools can offer only the PGDM, whereas a post-graduate degree can be awarded by a university-affiliated colleges, in two-year full-time program. The curriculum of the PGDM and MBA degrees are equivalent, although the MBA degree is examination oriented and concentrates on theoretical aspects of management whereas the PGDM is industry-oriented and mainly focuses on building soft skills. However, a PGDM holder cannot pursue Ph.D. since the PGDM is not recognized. Non-government accredited, one-year fast-track programs have proliferated in India, especially for candidates with work experience. Such programs are commonly known as Post Graduate Programme (PGP) in Business Management. See List of business schools in India.

इतर आशिया

International MBA programs are acquiring brand value in Asia. For example, while a foreign MBA is still preferred in the Philippines, many students are now studying at one of many "Global MBA" English language programs being offered. English-only MBA programs are also offered in Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand. For North American students who want a different experience, many Asian programs offer scholarships and discounted tuition, to encourage an international environment in the classroom.

Rankings have been done for Asia Pacific schools by the magazine Asia Inc. which is a regional business magazine with distribution worldwide. The importance of MBA education in China has risen, too. See List of business schools in Asia.

MBA program rankings

Each year, well-known business publications such as US News & World Report, Business Week, Financial Times, The Economist, and the Wall Street Journal publish rankings of selected MBA programs that, while controversial in their methodology, nevertheless can directly influence the prestige of schools that achieve high scores.

The MBA degree has become one of the most popular masters' degrees. As more universities started offering the degree, differences in the quality of schools, faculty, and course offerings became evident. Naturally, establishing some criteria of quality is needed to differentiate among MBA programs, especially for prospective students trying to decide on where to apply. As MBA programs proliferated, a variety of publications began providing information on them. Some of these consisted of compilations of information gathered from the universities offering the degree, usually published in book form. Eventually periodicals began publishing articles describing various MBA schools and ranking them according to some perceived quality criteria. One of the most prominent of these is Business Week, which devotes a biennial issue to ranking MBA programs.

Different methods of varying validity were used to arrive at rankings of MBA programs. The Gourman Report, for example, did not disclose criteria or ranking methods, and these reports were criticized for reporting statistically impossible data, such as no ties among schools, narrow gaps in scores with no variation in gap widths, and ranks of nonexistent departments. In 1977 The Carter Report published rankings of MBA programs based on the number of academic articles published by faculty. Periodicals based their rankings on interviews with company recruiters who hired MBA graduates, surveys of MBA schools' deans, polls of students or faculty, and a variety of other means. The defunct MBA Magazine asked deans to vote on the best programs. The methods of obtaining ranks often changed from year to year. Initially, rankings included only a small number of universities consisting of the largest and best known Ivy League and state schools. There are also many privately compiled rankings, including the Global Top 100 Business Schools compiled by the QS network.

The ranking of MBA programs has been discussed in articles and on academic Web sites.
Critics of ranking methodologies maintain that any published rankings should be viewed with caution for the following reasons:
Rankings limit the population size to a small number of MBA programs and ignore the majority of schools, many with excellent offerings.
The ranking methods may be subject to biases and statistically flawed methodologies (especially for methods relying on subjective interviews of hiring managers).
The same list of well-known schools appears in each ranking with some variation in ranks, so a school ranked as number 1 in one list may be number 17 in another list.
Rankings tend to concentrate on the school itself, but some schools offer MBA programs of different qualities (e.g. a school may use highly reputable faculty to teach a daytime program, and use adjunct faculty in its evening program).
A high rank in a national publication tends to become a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Some leading business schools including Harvard, INSEAD and Wharton provide limited cooperation with certain ranking publications due to their perception that rankings are misused.

One study found that objectively ranking MBA programs by a combination of graduates' starting salaries and average student GMAT score can reasonably duplicate the top 20 list of the national publications. The study concluded that a truly objective ranking would be individualized to the needs of each prospective student. National publications have recognized the value of rankings against different criteria, and now offer lists ranked different ways: by salary, GMAT score of students, selectivity, and so forth. While useful, these rankings still are not tailored to individual needs, and their value is diminished if they use an incomplete population of schools, fail to distinguish between the different MBA program types offered by each school, or rely on subjective interviews.

MBA पदवी आणि चालू कार्यक्रम
The Financial crisis of 2007–2010 has raised new challenges and questions regarding the MBA degree. Graduates of MBA programs have a reported tendency to go into Finance shortly after receiving the degree. As the field of Finance is tightly linked to the global economic downturn, anecdotal evidence suggests new graduates are stepping onto alternate paths.

Deans at top business schools have acknowledged media and public perception of the MBA has shown some shifts as a result of the financial crisis. Articles about public perception related to the crisis range from schools' acknowledgment of issues related to the training students receive to general overviews of the MBA's role in society.

हेसुद्धा पाहा

सर्व साधारण माहिती
Wikiversity:Master of Business Administration, MBA Curriculum
Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT)
Business school, for a more comprehensive understanding of business programs
:वर्ग: Business schools
Business school rankings
Australian MBA Star Ratings

Other business degrees and certifications
Certifications
Certified Business Manager (CBM), a professional credential based on the MBA curriculum
Certified MBA (CMBA) a professional certification designed as an "objective measure of a student's grasp of the MBA skill set".

Undergraduate
Bachelor of Accountancy (BAcc or BAcy), a specialised accountancy degree
Bachelor of Business
Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA), a bachelor's degree in business administration
Bachelor of Business Science
Bachelor of Commerce and Administration (BCA) / Bachelor of Commerce (BComm), an undergraduate degree in commerce
Bachelor of Public Administration (BPA), an undergraduate degree in public administration

Graduate
Master of Accountancy (MAcc or MAcy) / Master of Professional Accountancy (MPA), a postgraduate degree in accounting
Masters in Business and Management (MBM), a postgraduate business degree
Master of Commerce (M.Comm.), a postgraduate business degree usually focused on an particular area
Master of Enterprise (MEnt), a postgraduate, technology & enterprise-based qualification
Master of Bioscience Enterprise (MBioEnt), a postgraduate degree focussed on the commercialisation of biotechnology
Master of Finance (MFin), a postgraduate degree in finance
Master of International Business (MIB), an emerging alternative to the MBA degree
Master of Management (MM), a postgraduate business degree
Master of Science in Management, a postgraduate business degree
Master of Marketing Research (MMR) a postgraduate degree focusing on research in the field of marketing
Master of Nonprofit Organizations (MNO or MNPO), the postgraduate degree for philanthropy and voluntary sector professionals
Master of Public Administration (MPA), a postgraduate public administration degree
Master in Sustainable Business (MSB).

Doctoral
Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), a doctorate in business administration
Doctor of Management (D.M.)
PhD in Management (PhD), a business doctoral degree

MBA accreditation agencies
 Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB)
 Association of Collegiate Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP)
 All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
 Association of MBAs (AMBA)
 European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS)
 International Assembly for Collegiate Business Education (IACBE)

लेखात प्रयुक्त संज्ञा

शब्दाचा विशेष संदर्भ/अर्थ छटा

इंग्रजी मराठी  संज्ञा

संदर्भ आणि नोंदी

बाह्य दुवे

 MBA: Mostly Bloody Awful, A Story on the Emergence of the MBA at ABC Radio National

MBA ranking स्रोत

Compilation of business school rankings between The Wall Street Journal, BusinessWeek, and U.S. News & World Report
US News & World Report graduate business school rankings for 2008
Financial Times  online rankings of MBA programs
The Economist online rankings of MBA programs
Beyond Grey Pinstripes  alternative business school rankings based on social and environmental curricula and research
Top 40 MBA program rankings  from the Official MBA Guide public database of MBA programs
Whitefield Consulting Worldwide Rankings  online rankings of MBA programs
Top 50 MBA programs as determined by the United Kingdom government (not in rank order)
Ranking Web of Business and MBA Schools of the World

संबधीत माहिती

ar:ماجستير إدارة الاعمال
fa:MBA
fi:Ylempi korkeakoulututkinto
fr:Master of Business Administration
it:Master in Business Administration
no:Master of Business Administration
tr:MBA

मास्टर ऑफ बिझनेस ॲडमिनिस्ट्रेशन


Sir John Laird Mair Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence, GCB, GCSI, PC (4 March 1811 – 27 June 1879), better known as Lawrence of the Punjab  was a famous British colonial officer, administrator and statesman in British India. He had the distinction of serving as the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab and later Viceroy of India from 1864 to 1869. He was the younger brother of Sir Henry Lawrence.

The Lawrence Gardens, Lahore (now renamed Bagh i Jinnah) were originally named after John Lawrence.

1811 births
1879 deaths
Colonial officials of British India
Viceroys

John Lawrence