Economics is the social science which studies economic activity: how people make choices to get what they want. It has been defined as "the study of scarcity and choice" and is basically about the choices people make. It also studies what affects the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in an economy.

Investment and income relate to economics. The word comes from Ancient Greek, and relates to οἶκος oíkos "house" and νόμος nomos "custom" or "law". The models used in economics today were mostly started in the 19th century. People took ideas from political economy and added to them because they wanted to use an empirical approach similar to the one used in the natural sciences.

Subjects and objects in economics
The subjects (actors) in economic study are households, business companies, the government (the state), and foreign countries. Households offer their "factors of production" to companies. This includes work, land, capital (things like machines and buildings) and information. In exchange for their factors of production, households get income which they use to consume (buy) goods from other subjects.

Business companies produce and sell goods and services and buy factors of production from households and from other companies.

The state or public sector includes institutions and organisations. The state takes some of the earnings from the business companies and households, and uses it to pay for "public goods" like streets or education, to be available for everyone. The last subject is foreign countries. This includes all households, business companies and state institutions, which are not based in one's own country. They demand and supply goods from abroad.

The objects (things acted upon) in economic study are consumer goods, capital goods, and factors of production. Consumer goods are classified as "usage goods" (for example, gasoline or toilet paper), as "purpose goods" (for example, a house or bicycle), and as "services" (for example, the work of a doctor or cleaning lady). Capital goods are goods which are necessary for producing other goods. Examples of these are buildings, equipment, and machines. Factors of production are work, ground, capital, information, and environment.

General economic rules
 All people have to decide between their options.
 The cost of goods is what a person gives up for the goods.
 When a person gives up something (like money) to get a good, they also give up other things that they could have gotten instead. This means that the true cost of something is what you give up to get it. This includes money, and the economic benefits ("utility") that you didn't get because you can no longer buy something else.This is called opportunity cost.
 People choose between options based on the rewards ("incentives") or bad things ("disincentives") they expect from each option. Adding to the rewards for an option will often make more people choose it.
 Trade can make everyone better off.
 Markets are usually good for the organisation of economic life. In the free market, goods will be shared by people and companies making small decisions. The "invisible hand" of the market (Adam Smith) states that if everyone tries to get what they want, everyone will be as well-off as they could possibly be.
 Sometimes prices do not fully show the cost or benefit to society. For example, air pollution is bad for society, and education is good for society. The government can put a tax (or do something to reduce sales) on items that are bad for society. It can also support (like giving money for) items that are good for society.
 The living standard of a country depends on the skills to produce services and goods. Productivity is the amount of the produced goods divided by total working hours.
 When there is an increase in the total money supply, or when the cost to produce things rises, prices go up. This is called inflation.

History
 18th century analysis of wealth
 Physiocracy
 Classical economics
 Marxist economics
 Austrian economics
 Neoclassical economics
 Welfare economics

The ideas that economists have depend a lot on the times they live in. For example, Karl Marx lived in a time when workers' conditions were very poor, and John Maynard Keynes lived through the Great Depression of the 1930s. Today's economists can look back and understand why they made their judgments, and try to make better ones.

Branches of economics
The two main branches of economics are microeconomics and macroeconomics.

Macroeconomics is about the economy in general. For example, macroeconomists study things that make a country's wealth go up and things that make millions of people lose their jobs. Microeconomics is about smaller and more specific things such as how families and households spend their money and how businesses operate.

There are a number of other branches of economics:

 Behavioral economics
 Business economics
 Constitutional economics
 Cultural economics
 Development economics
 Ecological economics
 Economic geography
Economic policy Analysis
 Environmental economics
 Energy economics
 Financial economics
 Industrial economics
 Information economics
 International economics
 Labor economics
 Managerial economics
 Mathematical economics or econometrics
 Resource economics
 Urban economics
 Public economics
 descriptive, theoretical and policy economics
 monetary economics

Famous economists

Famous economists in history include:
 Adam Smith (His works include The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments. First introduce the concept of "Invisible Hand").
 Thomas Malthus (Author of An Essay on the Principle of Population.  Establish the theory of population ).
David Ricardo (First introduce the theory of Comparative advantage).
 Karl Marx (His works include Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto; a famous critique of Capitalism).
 John Maynard Keynes (Founder of the school of Keynesian economics).
Milton Friedman (Proponent of monetarism. His works include Capitalism and Freedom ).

Famous economists of the 19th and 20th century include Friedrich August von Hayek, Wassily Leontief,  Carl Menger, and Léon Walras.

Related pages
Political economy
Constitutional economics

References

Other websites

 Economics Citizendium

Economics


Knitting creates flexible fabric by looping thread or yarn together using two or more knitting needles or a knitting machine.

Types of knitting

Flat knitting
Flat knitting, which is usually done on two straight needles, makes a length of cloth and is used to create things like blankets, scarves, and the backs, fronts, and sides of sweaters.

Circular knitting

Circular knitting, which is done on circular needles, or needles that have points on both ends, produces a seamless tube and is used to create things like hats, socks, mittens, rings, and sleeves.

Cable knitting

Patterns called cables are typically used on sweaters, particularly on fancy Aran sweaters from Ireland.
Different kinds of stitches create different patterns in knitting. For example, the stretchy ends of knitted sleeves are called ribbing.

Materials

Yarn

Yarn for knitting can be made from any number of natural or synthetic (man made) fibers such as wool, cotton, silk, or acrylic. Some yarns are made from a blend of several kinds of fibers.

Yarns come in many thicknesses or weights from fine to thick: lace, fingering, sock, sport, double-knit (or DK), worsted, Aran, bulky, and super-bulky. Thinner yarns are generally used with smaller knitting needles, and thicker yarns are used with larger knitting needles.

Needles
Knitting needles come in various shapes: straight, double-pointed, cable, and circular. They can be made from bamboo, aluminum, steel, or plastic.

Needlework

oc:Tricot

Knitting


is a supernatural thriller fantasy manga written by Tsugumi Ōba and illustrated by Takeshi Obata. The work was adapted into an anime series directed by Tetsurō Araki. It is about a Japanese teenage high school student boy named Light Yagami, who finds a supernatural notebook. The notebook, dropped on earth by a bored shinigami named Ryuk, is called a "Death Note". When a person's name is written in the notebook, that person dies. If the cause of death is not specified, they die of a heart attack. Light, aiming to create a crime-free utopia, uses the notebook to kill criminals, anonymously gaining world fame as "Kira" ("キラ" in Japanese - based on the English word "killer") - some people see him as justice, while others see him as a murderer.

The best detective in the world, an eccentric genius named "L", works with the Japanese police, as well as Light's own father, to find out Kira's identity and catch him. He suspects all along that it's Light, who, as a part of the police department, works alongside L in the investigation. It becomes a contest of wit and intelligence between L and Light, both of whom are very clever. At one point, Light temporarily gives up the Death Note, along his memories of it, as an ally continue writing the names of criminals. This "proves" to the police that he is not Kira. However, he later gets the Death Note back and kills L with it.

After L dies, his successors, two orphans named "Mello" and "Near", take over the Kira investigation. Near is a child prodigy who clearly mirrors L, and Mello is an impulsive, antisocial teen obsessed with one-upping Near. Mello refuses to work with Near and leaves the orphanage, joining the American Mafia; Near forms a task force to catch Kira.  In the end, Near proves that Light is Kira, leading to Light's death.

Besides the manga and anime, Death Note was also made into a light novel, various video games, two animated films, a live-action television drama, a musical, and several live-action films.

References

Other websites
Death Note official website
Shueisha's Death Note manga official website
Official anime website
Madman Entertainment's Death Note website

Death Note


Nineteen Eighty-Four is a novel written by George Orwell in 1948.

The book is what Orwell thought the world might look like in the future. It describes a terrifying world where governments control and watch everyone's lives.

The main character is Winston Smith. He lives in a country that is ruled by a powerful "Party" and its leader Big Brother. He dreams of changing this. He falls in love with Julia, who agrees with him, and he leads her into rebellion against the government.

The book is famous. Many of its words and phrases are also famous. Among these are Big Brother, Newspeak, Room 101 and unperson. In 2005, Time (a magazine) called it one of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005.

In the European Union, and the United Kingdom, the copyright of the book ran out on 1 January 2021. That means anyone can reprint the book, or use it as a basis for the story on another medium.

Plot
The year 1984 is viewed from 1948. The world of the future is divided into three massive countries that are in endless war with each other: Oceania, Eurasia and Eastasia. Each country has a totalitarian government, meaning that the government tries to control everything that its people do. Great Britain is now named "Airstrip One" and is part of Oceania. Oceania is ruled by "the Party". They use the "thought police" and "telescreens" (two-way televisions) to spy on people. People also have to show love for the Party and its leader, Big Brother. While pictures of Big Brother are everywhere, he is never seen for real, and he may not even exist.

Winston Smith is an ordinary member of the Party. He works for the "Ministry of Truth". His job is to re-write history when the Party wants him to. The Party kills anyone whom it thinks threatens its grip on power, sometimes for reasons that make no sense. When these people are killed, the Party also hides any sign that they existed. Winston works hard and pretends to love the Party. His secret is that he hates the Party and dreams of fighting them. Winston buys a diary from a shopkeeper called Mr Charrington.

Smith hides the diary in his room, where he writes about his secrets. He falls in love with a woman called Julia. The Party will not allow this, so they go out into the countryside to meet in secret. Later, they start meeting in a room at Mr Charrington's shop. O'Brien, an important member of the Party, tells Winston that he also hates the Party. Winston and Julia meet O'Brien at his home, where he gives them a book. The book is about how the Party stays in power. It says that the Party can be stopped if ordinary people rise up against it.

Winston and Julia are betrayed. Winston is taken to the "Ministry of Love". This is the prison of Oceania. O'Brien tells Winston that he was only pretending to be his friend. Winston is hurt badly and told he must stop hating the Party and do everything they want him to do, even if he has to say that "2 + 2 = 5". O'Brien says that once this is finished, Winston will leave the Ministry of Love and will return to a normal life for some months or years. After this, they will shoot him. But first, they want to make him turn against Julia.

In the end, Winston is taken to "Room 101", where he must face his worst fear: rats. As a cage of hungry rats is pushed against his face, Winston tells them to "Do it to Julia!" After Winston leaves the Ministry of Love, he meets Julia. He says he turned against her in Room 101, and she says she did the same. Winston then sits alone in a café. The last words of the story are: "He loved Big Brother".

Background
Orwell got the idea for the book from the London newspapers. They printed how much the country's supplies increased during World War II, while they were actually very low on supplies. He started writing a political satire of the possible condition of Britain in 50 years. He wrote it in 1948, mostly during a visit to Jura, Scotland. He sent the work to his publishers in December 1948.

Setting

The main character, Winston Smith, lives in the town of London, United Kingdom (although in the novel, the United Kingdom is called "Airstrip One"). Airstrip One is only a small part of the mega-state (big country) of Oceania. Oceania is a very large country. The Americas, Greenland, Iceland, South Africa, Madagascar, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea, all come together to create the country of Oceania. There are two other countries in the novel - Eurasia, and Eastasia. Europe (not including the United Kingdom), Russia, and half of Mongolia, make up the country of Eurasia. China, Japan, Korea, and some north-west countries in Asia, make up the country of Eastasia. The equatorial countries (the Middle East, North Africa, etc.) are not part of any of these three countries, as Oceania, Eurasia, and Eastasia are always fighting over these places.

People in Oceania belong to three groups:
 Inner Party: The most powerful people in the country. They live like rich people.
 Outer Party: People like Winston and Julia. They have a better life than most people. They are always being watched.
 Proles: Ordinary people. They are poor, but have more freedom than the Outer Party.

Party workers belong to four ministries:
 Ministry of Truth: They tell people what to think. They also make all of the country's art.
 Ministry of Peace: They run the military
 Ministry of Plenty: They run the economy
 Ministry of Love: A prison

The leader of Ocenia is Big Brother. His picture is seen everywhere, along with the words "Big Brother is watching you." However, it is not clear if he is a real person. Emmanuel Goldstein and O'Brien both say that the main role of Big Brother is to be a symbol for the Party. O'Brien also says that Big Brother will never die.

Ideas
The book was an attack on totalitarianism (when a government tries to control people's lives) and dictatorship (rule by one person).

George Orwell was a conservative democratic socialist who was against any form of dictatorship. He once wrote:   Later he repeated that idea, writing about 1984

Newspeak
Newspeak is a fictional language (artlang) that appears in the book Nineteen Eighty-Four. It is the official language of Oceania. At the end of his book, George Orwell described Newspeak. It started out as the English language, but the number of words gets smaller each year. The Party are trying to stop people from rebelling, so it destroys words like "freedom" and "love", saying that people cannot think of it if there is no word for it. In the society, this is supposed to prevent thoughtcrime, which is thinking against the Party, or thinking about the past.

For example, a person could not say "I want to be free", because there was no word for "free" any more, so the person could not describe what he or she was feeling. At the time, it was supposed to make fun of what was later called "politically correct" speech, and "thoughtcrime" made fun of censorship. "Newspeak" is also used for military reasons, such as Oceania's Ministry of Peace (in Newspeak: "Minipax"), really the war department. Words like "Peace", "Truth", "Love", and "Plenty" were used in Newspeak a lot to mean their exact opposites. Another "Newspeak" word, joycamp, means "forced labor camp". Other "Newspeak" words were used for political reasons. Words like "crimethink" were defined by the "Party", and became laws of the land.

Others
 2 + 2 = 5: The idea that if a government is so powerful, it can make people think that "2 + 2 = 5".
 Big Brother: The leader of Oceania, though he is never seen and he may not even be real. Emmanuel Goldstein (who may not be real either) says that the Party makes people think Big Brother is its leader because people find it easier to love one person than a group of people.
 doublethink: When someone can think that two opposing things are true (e.g., "Oceania is winning the war." "Oceania will lose the war unless it sends more soldiers.").
 endless war: These large wars are being fought just to keep people busy. The sides in the wars sometimes change. When this happens, they pretend there was no change and that the sides were always the same.
 Ingsoc: This is short for "English socialism". This is the Party's idea on how Oceania should be run.
 memory hole: A hole that things can be thrown down, which leads to a furnace.
 Room 101: A room in the Ministry of Love where someone faces their worst fear.
 telescreen: A type of television. People can watch things on the telescreen, but it is also has a camera for watching people.
 Thought Police: A police who catch people who commit thoughtcrime.
 thoughtcrime: When someone has thoughts that the Party does not want them to think.
 unperson: A person who has been killed by the Party. When this happens, all signs that this person existed are destroyed.
 vaporized: When someone is turned into an unperson.

Reception
Book magazine ranked the character of Big Brother as #59 on its "100 Best Characters in Fiction Since 1900" list.

Nineteen Eighty-Four's movie adaptation received a 74% (from critics) on Rotten Tomatoes, and on Metacritic received a 67.

Related pages
 Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984 movie)
 [[Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century|Le Monde'''s 100 Books of the Century]]

References

 Aubrey, Crispin & Chilton, Paul (Eds). (1983). Nineteen Eighty-Four in 1984: Autonomy, Control & Communication. London: Comedia. .
 Hillegas, Mark R. (1967). The Future As Nightmare: H.G. Wells and the Anti-Utopians. Southern Illinois University Press.

  Afterword by Erich Fromm (1961) pp. 324–337.
Orwell's text has a "Selected Bibliography", pp. 338–9; the foreword and the afterword each contain further references.

 Tuccille, Jerome. (1975). Who's Afraid of 1984? The case for optimism in looking ahead to the 1980s''. New York: Arlington House. .

Other websites

  On-line comic version of 1984

1949 books
English novels
Books by George Orwell

Nineteen Eighty-Four


The Virginia Association was a series of non-importation agreements adopted by Virginians in 1769 as a way of speeding economic recovery and opposing the Townshend Acts. Initiated by George Washington, drafted by George Mason, and passed by the Virginia House of Burgesses in May 1769, the Virginia Association was a way for Virginians to stand united against continued British taxation and trade control. The Virginia Association served as the framework and precursor to the larger and more powerful 1774 Continental Association.

Background
The adoption of the Virginia Association resolutions was preceded by a push from northern Virginians for expanded domestic industry.  Starting in the mid-1760s, most Virginians were heavily impacted by a minor economic recession. The economic downturn was a result of the severe costs of the French and Indian War in addition to local climate difficulties, which had led to a series of poor crop yields. The economic struggles for many Virginians were exacerbated by the passage of the Stamp Act. The colonist reaction in Virginia was to encourage domestic manufacturing growth and economic diversification.  After the passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767, general sentiment in Virginia pushed eagerly for some action.

George Washington, at the time, a plantation owner in northern Virginia, promoted the implementation of some sort of non-importation scheme and conveyed his thoughts to his neighbor, George Mason. Washington contended that if the scheme was adopted on a large scale, the benefits would outweigh the costs of the loss of British imports. Mason, along with Washington and Richard Henry Lee, spent several weeks formulating the language of a non-importation association that would ultimately help strengthen the state's economy.

Gathered at the Raleigh Tavern (run by Anthony Hay) in Williamsburg, VA, the House of Burgesses, on May 17, began discussing the Mason draft. After amending some of the articles and the preamble, the House of Burgesses, which was made up two representatives from each of the countries, proceeded to pass the Virginia Association resolutions.

Content and effects
In the preamble of the Virginia Association resolutions, it was declared that the "Townshend Acts were unconstitutional and destructive to the cause of liberty." The preamble also emphasized the hard times faced by Virginian plantation owners.  As part of the agreement, colonists were prohibited from purchasing, after September 1, 1769, any article on a long list of enumerated goods. However, because there were some goods that could not be replaced by Virginia manufacturers, the signers made exceptions for coarse and cheap goods.

The association was also given the power to call future meetings. A meeting of one hundred signers was necessary to revise the terms of the agreement unless the British Parliament met the specific demands that were detailed in the Association resolutions.

The Association was not as successful as initially intended because there were many merchants who did not follow the boycott. British exports to the colonies declined by 38% in 1769, but British producers remained profitable because certain merchants failed to adhere to the conditions. After Britain lifted the Townshend duties from all items except tea, the Association gradually weakened, and finally collapsed in 1771.

See also
 Continental Association

Notes

1769 documents
Documents of the American Revolution
Virginia in the American Revolution
George Mason
1769 in Virginia

Virginia Association


Julianne "Anne" Abernathy (born April 12, 1953) is a luge athlete from the United States Virgin Islands and is the oldest female athlete to compete in the Winter Olympics. The 2006 Winter Olympics were her sixth. Despite her age, she is a strong competitor with numerous international podium finishes, and she is consistently ranked in the top 20 world rankings. She is known within luge circles as "Grandma Luge."  She is training for the 2024 Summer Olympics as an archer.

Career

Her top finishes include third place at the Nations Cup in Igls, Austria in January 2004, and third place at the Nations Cup in Königssee, Germany, February 2004. She finished in the top 10 in seven of the eight events in the 2004–2005 Nations Cup series. Abernathy finished 25th in the 37th World Championships in 2004 in Nagano, Japan, but did not compete in the 2005 championships in Park City, Utah, due to injuries suffered during homologation at the Cesana Pariol track in Cesana, Italy, three weeks earlier.

Abernathy suffered a serious accident during a World Cup race in Altenberg, Germany in January 2001 that resulted in a severe brain injury. To recover from the injury, she used an alternative medicine treatment involving controlling rockets in a video game through electrical impulses from brain waves, a therapy designed to help her retrain her brain to compensate for the damaged areas. The therapy was successful and Abernathy was able to return to competition in time to qualify for the 2002 Winter Olympics. The story of Abernathy's crash and recovery was featured on the Discovery Health Channel series Impact: Stories of Survival.

During practice for the competition at the 2006 Winter Olympics, Abernathy crashed and broke her wrist and her scapula, and was forced to withdraw from competition.

Abernathy is the oldest woman to ever compete in the Winter Olympic Games, breaking the old record during the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympics.  She is the only woman to qualify for six Winter Olympic Games and one of only two female athletes to compete in five Winter Olympics.  In 2006, she became the first woman over 50 to qualify for the Winter Olympics.

Abernathy was the first woman to qualify for six Winter Olympics. In the 2002 Winter Olympic Games in Salt Lake City she became the oldest woman to ever compete in the Winter Games. She is the oldest female Olympian in any Olympic Games (Winter or Summer) and the first woman over the age of 50 in the Winter Olympics.

During the Albertville Winter Olympics, she became the first athlete to compete with a camera on board, a feat that was nominated for an Emmy in technical broadcast achievement.

In the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway, Abernathy became the first athlete to create an online diary (now known as a blog) which was an exclusive on AOL.

Before her first Olympic appearance in 1988, Abernathy was diagnosed and treated for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (cancer). Although the cancer returned several times during her sports career, the fact was kept hidden from the public through three Olympic appearances until it was revealed in a front page article of The Washington Post'' prior to the 1998 Nagano Olympics.

References

External links

 Safety issues addressed following the unsuccessful luge homologations in January 2005, featuring Abernathy

1953 births
American women bloggers
United States Virgin Islands female lugers
Lugers at the 1988 Winter Olympics
Lugers at the 1992 Winter Olympics
Lugers at the 1994 Winter Olympics
Lugers at the 1998 Winter Olympics
Lugers at the 2002 Winter Olympics
Lugers at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Living people
Olympic lugers for the United States Virgin Islands
People from Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands
20th-century American sportswomen
21st-century American sportswomen

Anne Abernathy


Laminar flow is characterized by the smooth flow of a liquid. This tends to happen at low velocities when there are few disturbances, such as in a straight, smooth pipe. In laminar flow through a pipe, it is assumed that the velocity of the fluid is zero at the boundaries of the pipe and is at a maximum in the center; mathematically, the velocity profile is parabolic. Microscopically, the particles or pieces of the liquid flow in a straight line along the direction of the pipe and do not mix with other layers of fluid. The layers slide past one another like playing cards. This is in contrast to turbulent flow, when a fluid swirls around.

Even though there is no mixing, there is still some friction in the flow. This friction will cause a pressure drop and its numerical value is given by the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.

Fluid mechanics

Laminar flow


House Husbands is an Australian television show that began in 2012 on Channel 9. It starts Gary Sweet, Rhys Muldoon, Gyton Grantley and Firass Dirani as fathers who stay at home to look after their children, while their wives go to work. The wives are played by Julia Morris, Anna McGahan and Natalie Saleeba.

The series was created by Ellie Beaumont and Drew Proffitt, produced by Sue Seeary and Drew Proffitt and directed by Geoff Bennett and Shirley Barrett. Channel 9's Jo Rooney and Andy Ryan plus Playmaker's David Maher and David Taylor are executive producers.

It has been announced that the show would be back for a second season, due to high ratings.

Australian television
2012 television series debuts
Drama television series
2010s establishments in Australia
English-language television programs

House Husbands


Messolonghi is a Greek city. It is the capital of the Aitoloakarnania prefecture. It is build on the bank of a lagoon. Its population is 14,209 inhabitants. Messolonghi is known because of the Greek War of Independence. During that time the siege of Messolonghi took place. During the siege the residents of Messolonghi fought with the Turks and the majority of them were killed there. During the siege of Messolonghi Lord Byron died, in 1824.

Cities in Greece

Messolonghi


Sophie d'Artois (5 August 1776 – 5 December 1783) was a member of the House of Bourbon as the elder daughter and second child of Princess Maria Theresa of Artois and Charles X of France.

Early life

Sophie d'Artois was born at the Palace of Versailles during the reign of her paternal uncle, Louis XVI. Her father was Charles Philippe de France, known as the Comte d'Artois. Her mother was Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy, third daughter of Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia and Maria Antonia of Spain.

Biography
She was known as Mademoiselle – a very prestigious style of address which was given to the most senior unmarried princess at the court of Versailles. Sophie was also titled Mademoiselle d'Angoulême and Mademoiselle d'Artois – the former reflecting the Duke of Angoulême which was the title of her brother Louis Antoine d'Artois. Artois was derived from her father's Appanage of the County of Artois.

Her father, as a son of Louis, Dauphin of France, held the rank of Grandson of France. Louis XVI declared that his niece and her siblings would be regarded as Grandchildren of France, despite not being born to a King or Dauphin of France. This rank of Grandchild, which immediately followed the Children of France allowed Sophie to use the style of Royal Highness, but she was always known as Mademoiselle.

Sophie died at the Palace of Versailles at the age of seven. She was buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis outside Paris, the traditional burial place of Bourbon royalty. Portraits of Sophie and her family exist at Versailles, one of them being by the famous Élisabeth-Louise Vigée-Le Brun.

Ancestors

References

1776 births
1783 deaths
18th-century French people
18th-century French women
Sophie
People from Versailles
Sophie
Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis
Royalty who died as children
Daughters of kings

Sophie d'Artois


The marches from Selma to Montgomery, led President Lyndon B. Johnson to sign the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The first March occurred on March 7, 1965 and became known as Bloody Sunday. Between 500-600 civil rights protesters began the march on March 7 but were stopped by Sheriff Jim Clark. The Sheriff of Dallas County (where Selma is located) ordered that all white men over the age of 21 to report to the court house steps where he made them deputies and equipped them to counter the protesters. They were joined by state troopers and beat protesters so severely that 17 were hospitalized. They beat the protesters with night clubs, fired tear gas into the crowd, and charged them from horseback.

After the events were televised, President Johnson issued an order mobilizing the Alabama National Guard to protect the marchers on their 54 mile (87 km) journey from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama. This second march would start on March 21, 1965 and end on March 25, 1965 at the steps of the state capitol in Montgomery, Alabama. Before the second march even began President Johnson went to congress to ask them for a bill that would guarantee voting rights for all citizens and end discrimination at polling places (such as poll taxes and literacy tests).

History of Alabama
1965 in the United States
March events
Selma, Alabama
Montgomery, Alabama
1960s protests
Martin Luther King Jr.
1960s conflicts

Selma to Montgomery marches


Mark Christopher Milson Porter, MBE (born 12 November 1962 in Ross-on-Wye, Herefordshire, England) is a GP and medical correspondent for The Times. He also presents on Radio 4 Case Notes and Inside Health.  He joined The One Show on BBC One in 2011.

Porter is in general practice in Wotton-under-Edge in Gloucestershire and he lives in the Cotswolds with his wife and two daughters  (born April 1989 and July 1990). He married Rosalind in July 1987 in Axbridge in Somerset.
He is the cousin of Jeremy Clarkson

Education
He grew up in Ross-on-Wye in Herefordshire, and went to the independent schools Monmouth and  Wycliffe College. He studied at University College, London and Westminster Hospital Medical School (now Imperial College School of Medicine) and graduated in 1986. He has been a GP since 1990 and was appointed MBE for services to medicine in 2005.

Media
He joined the BBC in 1992 as the doctor for the morning show Good Morning with Anne and Nick and was there for the show's whole run. He was the health editor for the Radio Times from 1993-2003. He presented the BBC1 programme Watchdog Healthcheck. He took over from Dr Thomas Stuttaford as The Times doctor in January 2009, and is doctor to The One Show (BBC One). He presents Inside Health, a  BBC Radio 4 series discussing health issues, which had its first broadcast on 10 January 2012. He also regularly appeared on 'The Jimmy Young Programme' on Radio 2 answering medical questions from listeners.

See also
List of doctors working in the British media

References

External links
 Mark Porter's website
 BBC Biography
 Radio 4 Case Notes

20th-century English medical doctors
21st-century English medical doctors
English television presenters
English radio presenters
BBC Radio 4 presenters
BBC television presenters
People educated at Wycliffe College, Gloucestershire
Alumni of University College London
1962 births
Living people
People from Ross-on-Wye
People from Stroud
Members of the Order of the British Empire

Mark Porter (general practitioner)


This article is about Edo. For more information, see Tokyo (disambiguation).
 is the former name of the Japanese capital Tokyo, and was the seat of power for the Tokugawa shogunate which ruled Japan from 1603 to 1868. During this period it grew to become one of the largest cities in the world.

History
The site of the city, on what is now known as Tokyo Bay, had been settled for several centuries, but first became historically significant with the building of Edo Castle in 1457 by order of Ōta Dōkan. Kyoto was the site of the Japanese emperor's residence and the capital of Japan for many centuries, until the Tokugawa shogunate was established in 1603 and Edo became its seat of government. From that point Kyoto remained merely the formal capital of the country, while the de facto capital was now Edo, the center of real political power. Edo consequently rapidly grew from what had been a small, virtually unknown fishing village in 1457 to a big city of 1,000,000 residents by 1721, the largest city in the world at the time.

In 1868, when the shogunate came to an end, the city was renamed Tokyo, meaning "eastern capital", and the emperor moved his residence to Tokyo, making the city the formal capital of Japan.

Gallery

Related pages

 Edo period

References

 Alternate spelling from 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article

History of Tokyo
1457 establishments
1868 disestablishments in Japan
15th-century establishments in Asia

Edo


Germination occurs when a spore or seed starts to grow. It is a term used in botany. When a spore or seed germinates, it produces a shoot or seedling, or (in the case of fungi) a hypha. The biology of spores is different from seeds.

A spore germinates if and when conditions are right. It has a very limited lifespan. The method of spore-bearers, which are lower plants such as mosses, ferns and also fungi, is to produce vast numbers of spores, of which only a small percentage germinate.

Seeds contain an embryo, a store of food (the endosperm), and a protective coat. Seed plants include Gymnosperms (such as conifers) and Angiosperms (such as flowering plants). Seeds can survive much longer than spores, sometimes for hundreds of years. The strategy of seed-bearing plants is to invest energy and material in the substance of seeds, and they have evolved more sophisticated methods of dispersal than just wind.p98

Seeds do not germinate until their requirements are met, and these needs differ from species to species.
 The dormancy period must be over. Dormancy is governed by changes inside the seed. Each species has its own dormancy period, and will not germinate until that period is over.
 Their hibernation must be over. The hibernation is ended when events in the environment trigger germination. Sometimes this is just temperature and water, sometimes fire, sometimes the seed must go through a long cold spell.

The requirements for fruits is the same as for seeds. A fruit is just a seed with one or more extra layers derived from parts of the flower.

References

Botany
Plant physiology

Germination


The Old Red Lion is a pub and fringe theatre, at Angel, in the London Borough of Islington.

The theatre was founded in 1979 as the Old Red Lion Theatre Club. The pub was Grade II listed in 1994 by Historic England.

History

Construction
The pub in itself is one of the oldest in London, having first been built in 1415 in what was then the rural village of Islington in open countryside and fields.  A house called Goose Farm and some nearby cattle pens (for herds being driven to Smithfield Market) were the only structures to adjoin it, and St John Street (then called Chester Road) was a country lane.

18th century
In the late 18th century Chester Road became notorious for highwaymen, with patrols being provided to protect those travelling along it at night.  At this time descriptions state that the Old Red Lion was a small brick house with three trees in its forecourt, visited by William Hogarth (who portrayed it in the middle distance of his painting "Evening", with the foreground being Sadler's Wells), Samuel Johnson and Thomas Paine (who wrote The Rights of Man in the shade of the trees in its forecourt).

Reconstruction
The Old Red Lion was rebuilt in 1899, designed by Eedle and Myers, adding two exits onto different streets.  This gave the pub the nickname "the In and Out", since taxi passengers could avoid paying their fare by entering it through one door and disappearing through the other.

Theatre
In 1979 a small studio theatre opened on the pub's first floor, as the Old Red Lion Theatre Club. Under artistic director Charlie Hanson, it became a place for actors, directors, designers, writers and technicians to experiment. After the King's Cross fire in 1987, the theatre was threatened with closure due to the tightening of fire regulations. Artistic Director Ken McClymont raised funds to keep the theatre from closing.

Notable past productions
Nina Raine, winner of the 2006 Most Promising Playwright Award, staged her first show, Rabbit, at the Old Red Lion Theatre in  March to April 2006. Who is Eddie Linden, a play based upon Sebastian Barker's biography of poet and editor Eddie Linden, was staged in 1995.

Today
It is the main pub for the Capital Canaries, the official London fan club for Norwich City F.C.

Literary department
The literary department reads over 1,000 scripts each year, under an open submissions policy.

Artistic directors
Charlie Hanson (1979–1981)
Jane Goldman (1981–82)
Mike Gilmore (1982-74)
Richard Hansom (1984–88)
Ken McClymont (1988–2002)
Melanie Tait (2002–2004)
Helen Devine (2004–2010)
Henry Filloux-Bennett (Artistic Director 2010-2011) (Co-Artistic Director) (2011–2012)
Nicholas Thompson (Co-Artistic Director) (2011–2012) (Artistic Director 2012-2014)
Stewart Pringle (Artistic Director) (2014–2016)
Clive Judd (Artistic Director) (2016-2017)
Katy Danbury (Artistic Director & Theatre Manager) (2017–2019)
Alexander Knott (Artistic Director) (2019–present)

Awards
Old Red Lion Theatre won the Dan Crawford Pub Theatre Award for 2006.

References

External links

Old Red Lion

Theatres in the London Borough of Islington
Pub theatres in London
Pubs in the London Borough of Islington
Grade II listed pubs in London
Buildings and structures in Islington

The Old Red Lion, Islington


The Arab–Israeli conflict  is a term used to describe the political tensions and open hostilities between the Arab countries of the Middle East and North Africa and the State of Israel. The conflict has gone on since 1948.

The Arab–Israeli conflict began from earlier tensions between the Arab and Jewish communities in British Mandatory Palestine, with the rise of two nationalist movements - Zionist movement among Jews and Arab nationalism among the Arabs.  The ethnic conflict in Mandatory Palestine was also a result of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, which created tension over the division and ownership of the land.  While the Jewish people saw the land as their historical homeland of the Land of Israel, the Palestinian people and Pan-Arab movement saw the land as Palestine belonging to the Arabs and in the Pan-Islamic context, as territory regarded as Muslim lands.

The modern conflict started with the 1948 Arab-Israeli war in parallel with the creation of state of Israel by the Jews. Later, on the course of the 1948 War, the All-Palestine Government was created in Gaza Strip by the Arab League, as an Arab Palestinian state.  Israel won the 1948 war, and the All-Palestine Government moved to Cairo in Egypt and were not allowed to return to Gaza.  They gradually lost importance, until abolished in 1959 by the Egyptian President Nasser.

In 1964, another Palestinian political organization was formed by Yasser Arafat (named Palestinian Liberation Organization), and became the most important Palestinian movement. In 1967, Arab countries and Israel fought the Six-Day War, resulting in Israeli takeover of Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, West Bank from Jordan and Golan Heights from Syria.  Jordan, Egypt and PLO soon began a low-level War of Attrition, which lasted from 1967 to 1970 with no significant benefits to any side.  In 1973, another major war, the Yom Kippur War, was started by Egypt and Syria to regain the territory lost in the Six Day War.  Egypt liberated part of the Sinai, and Syria was pushed back to Damascus. Egypt and Israel both claimed victory and till now historians argue as to whom the victory belongs to.

Over the years, it has changed from the large-scale Arab–Israeli conflict to a more local Israeli-Palestinian conflict, though the Arab World and Israel still disagree with each other over specific territory.

Notes

Arab–Israeli conflict


The bald eagle (Latin name: Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a bird of prey that lives in North America. It is the national bird of the United States of America. The bald eagle is a kind of sea eagle.

It can be found in most of Canada, all of the United States, and the northern part of Mexico. It lives near big areas of water, where there are trees to nest in and there is a lot of food to eat. It is called bald because of its white head and neck. (There is more information on the bald eagle's name in the section below called "Name.")

The species almost died in the United States (while its numbers were growing in Alaska and Canada) late in the 20th century. Now it has a more stable population.

Description
The bald eagle is a large bird. It is usually as tall as  and its wingspan is . Female eagles are about 25 percent larger than males. Adult females weigh , while males weigh . The adult bald eagle has a brown body, and its head and tail are white. It also has yellow feet with large talons, and a hooked yellow beak. The males and the females' wings have the same colors.

Before bald eagles become adults, their wings are brown. Their wings are usually speckled with white dots until the fifth year.
The size of the bird depends on where it lives. The smallest birds are in Florida, where an adult male is only about . The largest Bald Eagles are in Alaska, where large females may be as much as .

The bald eagle is closely related to a species called the golden eagle. The bald eagle is physically and mentally different from the golden eagle. The bald eagle has a bigger head and a bigger beak, and its legs do not have feathers.

When bald eagles "call," (make sounds), they chirp weakly and whistle. The young birds whistle more shrilly than adults.

Bald eagles usually live for around 20 years if they live in nature. The oldest ones sometimes live for 30 years. When bald eagles live in captivity, such as in zoos, they can live much longer.

Name

This sea eagle gets both its common and scientific names from its head. Bald in the English name is from the word piebald, which means, "one with a white head". The scientific name is from Haliaeetus, which is Latin for "sea eagle".

The bald eagle was one of the many species written in Carolus Linnaeus's 18th century book Systema Naturae. Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who made the binomial nomenclature system.

There are two main subspecies of the bald eagle:
H. l. leucocephalus (named by Linnaeus, 1766) is one of the subspecies. It is found in the southern United States and Baja California.
H. l. washingtoniensis (named by Audubon, 1827) is the northern subspecies. It is larger than the southern kind, leucocephalus. It is found in the northern United States, Canada, and Alaska. The bald eagle looks a lot like the Eurasian white-tailed eagle. These species both have white heads of the same size, although the white-tailed eagle has a more pale feather color. The pair probably parted into two at the North Pacific. The white-tailed eagle is in Eurasia, and the bald eagle is in North America. The bald eagle has a name because it can reach speeds to (30)mph.

Habitat

The bald eagle's natural home is in most of North America, including most of Canada, all of the United States, and northern Mexico.

The most bald eagles live near seas, rivers, large lakes, oceans, and other large places with open water and a lot of fish.

Bald eagles need old trees with hard wood to live, sleep, and make nests. They like trees that have holes and are safe from predators. However, the height or kind of tree is not as important as its distance from a body of water. Bald eagles need to live near water.

The bald eagle does not like to be near humans. It is are found mostly in places where there are no humans, or very few of them. However, a few bald eagles live in places with trees inside of big cities. They may live in city parks. Bald eagles live in a city in Oregon. A family of bald eagles recently moved into Harlem, which is a place in the middle of New York city.

Behavior

The bald eagle flies very fast. It can move at speeds of 56–70 kilometers per hour (35–43 mph) when gliding or flapping its wings. However, when it is carrying fish, it flies about . Its dive speed is , though it does not dive a lot. The bald eagle is usually migratory, which means that it travels (migrates) between homes which are very far away from each other. In some places, bald eagles are not migratory. If a bald eagle's territory has water near by, it will remain there all year. But if the water where it lives freezes in the winter, it must migrate to the south or to the coast to find something to eat.

Diet
The bald eagle eats mostly fish. In the Pacific Northwest, spawning trout and salmon are the main food of the Bald Eagle.

Sometimes, eagles may eat a lot of carrion, especially in winter. They will also scavenge dead bodies up to the size of whales. However, eagles eat more large dead fish than whales. They also sometimes eat the leftover food from campsites or garbage dumps. The mammals they eat include rabbits, hares, raccoons, muskrats, beavers, and deer fawns. Some of the birds they eat include grebes, ducks, gulls, and geese. Reptiles, amphibians and crustaceans (especially crabs) are also eaten.

To hunt fish the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the fish out of the water with its talons. They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other. Eagles have special things on their toes called spiricules that help them hold the fish more easily. Bald eagles have powerful talons. They have been seen flying with a 7 kg fawn. Sometimes, when the fish is too heavy, the eagle will be dragged into the water with it. Sometimes, eagles swim back to the shore and live, but sometimes they may drown or die because of hypothermia (a condition when one's body gets so cold the body temperature drops below normal). Other times, bald eagles steal fish and other kinds of food away from other animals. Healthy adult bald eagles are not eaten anywhere in the wild. This makes them thought as one of the top animals of the food chain.

Reproduction

Bald eagles become adults when they are four or five years old. When they are old enough to mate, they usually come back to the place where they were born. It is thought that bald eagles mate for life. However, if one of the pair dies or disappears, the other will choose a new mate. A pair which can not get a chick after trying for a long time, may split up and look for new mates. When bald eagles court, they call and show their flying skills. When they do so, two mates may fly high, and then lock their talons together, and fall, parting again right before hitting the ground.
The nest of the bald eagle is larger than any other nest in North America. This is because it is used again and again, and every year more is added to the nest until it may soon become as large as  deep,  across and weigh 1 tonne. One nest in Florida was found to be  deep,  across, and to weigh . The nest is built out of branches, usually in large trees near water. If there are no trees, the bald eagle will make its nest on the ground. Eagles have between one and three eggs per year. Both the male and female take turns incubating the eggs. The other parent will hunt for food or look for more to add onto the nest. The eggs are about  long.

Relationship with humans

Fall and rise of population
Once easily seen on the continental United States, the bald eagle was close to becoming extinct because of the use of the pesticide DDT. The DDT destroyed an adult bird's calcium, and it would become unable to lay more healthy eggs. Female eagles laid eggs that were too weak to withstand the weight of its parents. In the early 1700s, the number of bald eagles were 300,000–500,000, but by the 1950s there were only 412 nesting pairs in the United States.
Other things that stopped bald eagles from producing well was the loss of habitat and illegal hunting of bald eagles. Also, oil and lead were other big reasons why bald eagles began to die out.

The species was first protected in the United States and Canada by the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty. The 1940 Bald Eagle Protection Act in the United States also tried to stop the killing of the bald eagle and the golden eagle. The bald eagle was an endangered species in 1967, and the penalties for people who killed the species grew more and more. Also, in 1972, DDT was banned in the United States. DDT was completely banned in Canada in 1989.

Because of all this hard work, the bald eagle's population began to rise again. It was officially taken out from the United States list of endangered species on July 12, 1995.

To keep bald eagles in captivity, the workers had to be experienced in caring for eagles. The bald eagle can live a long time in captivity if well cared for, but does not mate well, even under the best care.

The National Bird of the United States
The bald eagle is the national bird of the United States. It appears on most of its seals, including the Seal of the President of the United States. The Continental Congress made the design for the Great Seal of the United States with a bald eagle holding thirteen arrows and an olive branch with thirteen leaves in its talons on June 20, 1782.

The bald eagle can be found on both national seals and on the back of several coins (including the quarter dollar coin until 1999). Between 1916 and 1945, the Flag of the President of the United States showed an eagle facing to its left.

There is a popular legend that Benjamin Franklin once supported the wild turkey as a symbol of the United States instead of the bald eagle. However, there is no evidence that this is true. The legend comes from the letter Franklin wrote to his daughter in 1784 from Paris. However, this letter was about the Society of the Cincinnati, and it did not say anything about the bald eagle or the wild turkey.

In Native American culture
The Bald Eagle is a holy bird in some North American cultures. Its feathers are thought to be special. They are used very much in spiritual customs among the Native Americans. Eagles are thought as messengers between gods and humans. Eagle feathers are often used in traditional things, especially in fans. The Lakota people, for instance, give an eagle feather as a symbol of honor to a person who achieves a task. In modern times, it may be given on an event such as a graduation from college. The Pawnee people thought eagles as symbols of nature and fertility. This is because their nests are built high off the ground, and because they protect their young very bravely. The Choctaw explained that the bald eagle, who can see the sun more directly, is a symbol of peace.

During the Sun Dance, which is danced by a lot of Native American tribes, the eagle is included in many different ways. A whistle made from the wing bone of an eagle is used during the dance. Also during the dance, a medicine man may direct his fan, which is made of eagle feathers, to people who need healing. The fan is then held up toward the sky, so that the eagle may send all the sick prayers to the god.

However, Native American tribes cannot use bald or golden eagle feathers for their religious or spiritual use anymore. This is because of a law called the eagle feather law. The eagle feather law usually defends Native Americans by providing many exceptions to wildlife laws, but it presently does not yet allow Native American tribes to use them yet. This made the Native American groups angry because they insisted that it was stopping their ability to use their religion freely.

References

Further reading

Identification
 Grant, Peter J. (1988) The Co. Kerry Bald Eagle Twitching 1(12): 379-80 – describes plumage differences between Bald Eagle and White-tailed Eagle in juveniles

Other websites

Birds of North America
Symbols of the United States
Accipitriformes

Bald eagle


A volcanic bomb or lava bomb is a mass of partially molten rock (tephra) larger than 64 mm (2.5 inches) in diameter, formed when a volcano ejects viscous fragments of lava during an eruption. Because volcanic bombs cool after they leave the volcano, they are extrusive igneous rocks. Volcanic bombs can be thrown many kilometres from an erupting vent, and often acquire aerodynamic shapes during their flight. Bombs can be extremely large; the 1935 eruption of Mount Asama in Japan expelled bombs measuring 5–6 m (16-20 ft) in diameter up to  from the vent. Volcanic bombs are a significant volcanic hazard, and can cause severe injuries and death to people in an eruption zone. One such incident occurred at Galeras volcano in Colombia in 1993; six people near the summit were killed and several seriously injured by lava bombs when the volcano erupted unexpectedly. On July 16, 2018, 23 people were injured on a tour boat near the Kilauea volcano as a result of a basketball-sized lava bomb from the 2018 lower Puna eruption.

Volcanic bombs are known to occasionally explode from internal gas pressure as they cool, but in most cases, most of the damage they cause is from impact, or subsequent fire damage. Bomb explosions are most often observed in "bread-crust" type bombs.

Bomb types

Bombs are named according to their shape, which is determined by the fluidity of the magma from which they are formed.
 Ribbon or cylindrical bombs form from highly to moderately fluid magma, ejected as irregular strings and blobs. The strings break up into small segments which fall to the ground intact and look like ribbons. Hence, the name "ribbon bombs". These bombs are circular or flattened in cross section, are fluted along their length, and have tabular vesicles.
 Spherical bombs also form from high to moderately fluid magma. In the case of spherical bombs, surface tension plays a major role in pulling the ejecta into spheres.
 Spindle, fusiform, or almond/rotational bombs are formed by the same processes as spherical bombs, though the major difference being the partial nature of the spherical shape. Spinning during flight leaves these bombs looking elongated or almond shaped; the spinning theory behind these bombs' development has also given them the name 'fusiform bombs'. Spindle bombs are characterised by longitudinal fluting, one side slightly smoother and broader than the other. This smooth side represents the underside of the bomb as it fell through the air.
 Cow pie bombs are formed when highly fluid magma falls from moderate height, so the bombs do not solidify before impact (they are still liquid when they strike the ground). They consequently flatten or splash and form irregular roundish discs, which resemble cow dung.
 Bread-crust bombs are formed if the outside of the lava bombs solidifies during their flight. They may develop cracked outer surfaces as the interiors continue to expand.
 Cored bombs are bombs that have rinds of lava enclosing a core of previously consolidated lava. The core consists of accessory fragments of an earlier eruption, accidental fragments of country rock (such as xenoliths) or, in rare cases, bits of lava formed earlier during the same eruption.

References

External links

 USGS Volcano Hazards Program

Tephra
Volcanic rocks

Volcanic bomb


Cisco Systems, Inc. is an American multinational technology conglomerate headquartered in San Jose, California, in the center of Silicon Valley. Cisco develops, manufactures and sells networking hardware, telecommunications equipment and other high-technology services and products. Through its numerous acquired subsidiaries, such as OpenDNS, WebEx, Jabber and Jasper, Cisco specializes into specific tech markets, such as Internet of Things (IoT), domain security and energy management.

Cisco stock was added to the Dow Jones Industrial Average on June 8, 2009, and is also included in the S&P 500 Index, the Russell 1000 Index, NASDAQ-100 Index and the Russell 1000 Growth Stock Index.

Cisco Systems was founded in December 1984 by Leonard Bosack and Sandy Lerner, two Stanford University computer scientists. They pioneered the concept of a local area network (LAN) being used to connect geographically disparate computers over a multiprotocol router system. By the time the company went public in 1990, Cisco had a market capitalization of $224 million. By the end of the dot-com bubble in the year 2000, Cisco had a more than $500 billion market capitalization.

References

American computer hardware manufacturers
1984 establishments in California
Companies based  in the San Francisco Bay Area
Multinational technology companies

Cisco Systems


Shaanxi (Chinese:陕西, also sometimes called Shenshi) is a province in east China. The word "Shaan" (viz Shanzhou) is a place in Henan Province. "Xi" means "west". So "Shaanxi" means "the place to the west of Shaan".

Although in pinyin, "Shaanxi" is spelled exactly the same as "Shanxi", the only difference in how the two words are pronounced is that the first syllable in "Shanxi" is said using the first tone in Mandarin, while the first syllable in "Shaanxi" is said with the third tone. Since tone markers are not usually used to show how to pronounce the two different names, the first word in "Shaanxi" is spelled using the Gwoyeu Romatzyh method instead, which indicates tones by adding extra letters to a syllable.

The river Wei He runs across it. It has a large population of more than 30 million people. The capital of Shaanxi is Xi'an. It abbreviates as Shan (陕) or Qin (秦), also known as SanQin (三秦, meaning Three Qins).

History
January 23, 1556 – A massive earthquake, measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale, strikes Shaanxi, killing over 850,000 people. This is the most devastating earthquake in recorded history.

Political divisions

Shaanxi Province is divided into ten municipalities:

 Xi'an Municipality(西安市)
 Ankang Municipality(安康市)
 Baoji Municipality(宝鸡市)
 Hanzhong Municipality(汉中市)
 Shangluo Municipality(商洛市)
 Tongchuan Municipality(铜川市)
 Weinan Municipality(渭南市)
 Xianyang Municipality(咸阳市)
 Yan'an Municipality(延安市)
 Yulin Municipality(榆林市)

Provinces of China

Shaanxi


Cellular architecture is a type of computer architecture prominent in parallel computing. Cellular architectures are relatively new, with IBM's Cell microprocessor being the first one to reach the market. Cellular architecture takes multi-core architecture design to its logical conclusion, by giving the programmer the ability to run large numbers of concurrent threads within a single processor. Each 'cell' is a compute node containing thread units, memory, and communication. Speed-up is achieved by exploiting thread-level parallelism inherent in many applications.

Cell, a cellular architecture containing 9 cores, is the processor used in the PlayStation 3. Another prominent cellular architecture is Cyclops64, a massively parallel architecture currently under development by IBM.

Cellular architectures follow the low-level programming paradigm, which exposes the programmer to much of the underlying hardware. This allows the programmer to greatly optimize their code for the platform, but at the same time makes it more difficult to develop software.

See also
Cellular automaton

External links
 Cellular architecture builds next generation supercomputers
 ORNL, IBM, and the Blue Gene Project
 Energy, IBM are partners in biological supercomputing project
 Cell-based Architecture

Parallel computing
Computer architecture
Classes of computers

Cellular architecture


John H. Dialogue (1828–1898) was an American industrialist.

Early life and family

John H. Dialogue was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on May 13, 1828, to Adam and Sallie Dialogue. The family was of French-German ancestry. His father, Adam, was also an entrepreneur and inventor, and established himself as a manufacturer of riveted fire hose. Dialogue grew up in Philadelphia and was educated at Central High School, graduating in 1846. His uncle taught him machine work and drafting, and in 1850, Dialogue moved to Camden, New Jersey.

He married Mary Easby of Philadelphia in 1850, and they had four children: John Dialogue Jr., who eventually took over his father's shipbuilding works, and three daughters, Adelaide, Stella, and Lillie.

Community efforts

In addition to his work in the industrial field, Dialogue remained involved in civic affairs. Despite being a Democrat, Dialogue ran unsuccessfully for New Jersey state senator from Camden in a voting district that was strongly Republican.  He also served in a variety of community groups, such as serving on the Board of Education in 1875 and on the Camden city council in 1878, serving several terms and then becoming president of the council. In 1880 he was a presidential elector for the Hancock-English ticket and was later chosen as the president of the Electoral College of the State.

Repairing locomotives

Dialogue started his enterprises in Camden by repairing locomotives for the Camden & Amboy Railroad Company, as well as working on Camden and Philadelphia and West Jersey Ferry Companies ferryboats, which were then common at the time at Camden, located on the Delaware River.

Producing engines

In 1854, he purchased the Elias Kaighn foundry where his workers performed general machine work, as well as building Corliss stationary engines under a special license for the inventor. The Corliss engine was a new invention, and it greatly increased a steam engine's efficiency because of its innovative governor and valve design.

Shipbuilding

He founded in 1862 the Camden National Iron Armor and Shipbuilding Company, which constructed small ships, but the company closed before the American Civil War ended. Dialogue then acted as subcontractor for Wilcox and Whiting, which took over the shipyard during the "weak" economic period from 1865 to 1870.

In 1870 he founded the River Iron Works, Dialogue & Wood, proprietors, which built iron ships. When Mr. Wood died, Dialogue became partner in the firm with his son, which then became known as John H. Dialogue & Son. This shipyard produced a large number of tugboats, both for civilian use and for the U.S. Navy. The shipyard was innovative, and was one of the first to adopt the compound marine engine and Scotch boiler. By the late 19th century, the Dialogue & Company shipyard was quite large and had the honor of doing reconstruction work on the famous USS Constitution.

Suffering heart disease

After trying to restore his ailing heart by resting at his home at Atlantic City, Dialogue died October 23, 1898, and his son, John H. Dialogue Jr., took over the shipyard and continued work until just before World War I, when the younger Dialogue was forced into bankruptcy in late 1913. The property was purchased by the Reading Railroad, through hidden buyers, at less than half its appraised value, and the shipyard was demolished and was reconstructed into Reading's Camden terminal.

Mrs. Mary Dialogue died in 1882.

See also
 Dialogue & Company

References

External links
 John H. Dialogue - Dialogue Shipyard
 City of Camden New Jersey

1828 births
1898 deaths
History of Camden, New Jersey
People from Camden, New Jersey
Businesspeople from Philadelphia
Central High School (Philadelphia) alumni
American shipbuilders
19th-century American businesspeople
American people of French descent
American people of German descent

John H. Dialogue


The Lower Cretaceous is the first geological epoch in the Cretaceous. It began 145 million years ago, and ended 100.5 million years ago.

Lasting for about 46 million years, this is the longest stage in the Phanerozoic eon. It is longer than some of the geological periods in the Phanerozoic.

The Lower Cretaceous is best displayed in England, where it is composed of two series of rocks. Between the two is a major rise in sea level.
Lower, the Wealden Beds, laid down in freshwater or brackish conditions. Sands came from the flood plain of a huge tropical braided river. Clays came from a coastal lagoonal plain.
Upper, the Greensands, an olive-green sandstone deposited in the sea; and the Gault Clay, a formation of stiff blue clay deposited in a calm, fairly deep water marine environment. It overlays the Lower Greensand formation.

The two parts of the Cretaceous represent the sea level where the divisions were first defined. In the Lower Cretaceous, the sea level was much lower than in the Upper Cretaceous. In the Wealden, Southern England was a huge tropical river delta; in the Greensand the same areas were just offshore. However, in the Upper Cretaceous the deposits were made in deeper water, on what was then the continental shelf. Sea level then stood at its highest level in the Mesozoic.

References

Cretaceous

Lower Cretaceous


Michael Seitz (born March 29, 1959) is an American retired professional wrestler and former musician. Seitz is best known for leading The Fabulous Freebirds under the ring name Michael "P.S." ("Purely Sexy") Hayes and for his role as an announcer under the name "Handsome" Dok Hendrix in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). He is currently employed with WWE as Vice President, Creative Writing & Booking and is also a senior producer.

Professional wrestling career

Early career (1977–1982)
Hayes started wrestling in 1977 in the Tennessee regional promotions. In 1978, he wrestled his first tour overseas in Germany for Catch Wrestling Association. In 1979, wrestling for Mid South Wrestling at the suggestion of Bill Watts he formed a tag team with Terry "Bam Bam" Gordy winning the Mid South Tag Team Championship 3 times and became the wrestling faction called The Fabulous Freebirds. Hayes became Michael "P.S." Hayes, and they strutted their way to many tag team titles along with Buddy "Jack" Roberts. Hayes also started moonwalking in the ring like Michael Jackson used to do at his concerts. The Freebirds spent 1980 through 1982 in the NWA's Georgia Championship Wrestling area, where they won the NWA National Tag Team Championship a few times, split and feuded, then mended fences.

World Class Championship Wrestling (1982–1986)
In 1982, they left for World Class Championship Wrestling (WCCW), where they had one of their most famous feuds. Hayes was chosen by the fans to be the special guest referee during the Ric Flair-Kerry Von Erich NWA World Heavyweight Championship steel cage match at Christmas Star Wars. Hayes at one point knocked Flair out so Von Erich could get the pin and the title. Von Erich refused to pin him after the dirty deed which ultimately led to Gordy slamming the cage door on Von Erich's head. As this later cost him the title, it triggered the legendary feud between The Fabulous Freebirds and The Von Erichs and ended a good respectful friendship between both groups. The Freebird-Von Erich feud ended for good in 1993 during a memorial card in tribute to Kerry Von Erich. Hayes was always the leader of the group with his exceptional mic skills and he recorded the team's new theme song, Badstreet USA, in 1983. The video to the song features all three of The Fabulous Freebirds as well as Jimmy Garvin, who was often considered the fourth Freebird. They had used the Lynyrd Skynyrd song "Free Bird" and Willie Nelson's version of "Georgia on My Mind" up to that point and would on occasion in the future.

In 1984, The Freebirds had a brief stint in the WWF but left when management wanted to split them up. The Freebirds then spent a few months in the AWA in 1985, feuding with The Road Warriors over the AWA World Tag Team Championship, winning the belts temporarily at the inaugural SuperClash event before the AWA overturned the decision. The Freebirds interfered in the match where the Warriors lost the belts to Jimmy Garvin and Steve Regal, and subsequently returned to Texas. In 1986, Hayes appeared in the opening credits of Highlander alongside The Fabulous Freebirds, working his Purely Sexy gimmick on the turnbuckle while writhing free of his ring robe.

Universal Wrestling Federation/Jim Crockett Promotions (1986–1988)
The Freebirds also spent several months in the Universal Wrestling Federation in 1986 and early 1987 with Sunshine as their manager. There they feuded with The Fantastics (Bobby Fulton and Tommy Rogers) and with "Dr. Death" Steve Williams. In 1986, Hayes' partner in the Freebirds, Terry Gordy, became the first holder of the UWF heavyweight title. After losing the title by default to One Man Gang, the Freebirds engaged in a major heel vs heel feud with Skandor Akbar's Devastation Inc. group. The feud continued even after Akbar double-crossed Gang and helped Big Bubba Rogers win the title from him, and saw the Freebirds form an alliance with their former enemy Williams against Devastation Inc.

After the breakup of the Freebirds, Hayes became a full-fledged babyface and remained in the UWF, which was later sold to Jim Crockett Promotions (JCP) on April 9, 1987. At the JCP/UWF co-promoted pay-per-view event Starrcade '87, Hayes teamed with Jimmy Garvin (also now a babyface after reconciling with kayfabe brother Ron Garvin) and Sting to face the team of Eddie Gilbert, Rick Steiner and Larry Zbyszko whom they wrestled to a time-limit draw. He later challenged NWA World Champion Ric Flair and frequently teamed with Jimmy Garvin.

Return to WCCW (1988)
Hayes returned to World Class Championship Wrestling to find that his former Freebird partners Gordy and Roberts, in alliance with Iceman Parsons and The Angel of Death, had resumed their feud with the Von Erichs. After Gordy and Roberts helped Parsons win the World Class heavyweight title from Kerry Von Erich by bashing Kerry with socks loaded with weights while the arena lights were mysteriously turned off, a disgusted Hayes allied himself with the Von Erichs against his former Freebird 'brothers'. At the 1988 Parade of Champions, Gordy defeated Hayes in a hair vs hair "triple dome of terror" (three vertically stacked cages) match. After the match, however, Gordy refused to cut Hayes' hair and instead turned babyface on Roberts and cut his hair. Subsequently, Hayes and Gordy reunited as babyfaces and feuded with Roberts and his Samoan Swat Team as well as old Freebird enemies Devastation Inc, of whom Parsons was now a member.

While all this was going on, Hayes continued with his music career, often playing concerts with his Badstreet Band at the Dallas Sportatorium, World Class's main arena. Inevitably, the music career overlapped with World Class' storylines when, at one such concert, Roberts appeared onstage and hit Hayes over the head with a guitar. Hayes also formed a new tag team with "Do It To It" Steve Cox and together they twice briefly beat the Samoan Swat Team for the World Class tag team titles, on September 12–16, 1988 and October 15–17, 1988.

World Championship Wrestling (1989–1994)
In 1989, Hayes went to World Championship Wrestling (WCW) (formerly JCP) where he wrestled as a face. He turned on U.S. Champ Lex Luger during a match with Hiro Matsuda's "Yamazaki Corporation" and joined them. The stable included Ric Flair, Barry and Kendall Windham, and Butch Reed. Hayes feuded with Luger and won the U.S. Title from him after Terry Gordy surprised everybody and interfered in the match. Luger later regained the title from Hayes and The Freebirds entered the tournament to crown new NWA World tag team champions. At Clash of the Champions VII, on June 14, 1989, Jimmy Garvin showed up as the newest Freebird and he and Hayes won the tournament and titles (thus reuniting their old tag team from JCP circa 1987). The new champions immediately feuded with The Midnight Express (Bobby Eaton and Stan Lane). Gordy left in late 1989 and Hayes and Garvin feuded with The Rock 'n' Roll Express (Ricky Morton and Robert Gibson).

In 1991, The Freebirds feuded with "The Young Pistols" (Steve Armstrong and Tracy Smothers). They soon added another Freebird, the masked Badstreet. He helped them win the U.S. Tag Team Titles and they all won the Six-Man Titles. They also had two managers briefly, Big Daddy Dink and Diamond Dallas Page. Once Badstreet departed from the group in late 1991, The Freebirds were left with no real direction. The Freebirds turned face, and Garvin's wife Precious became their on-screen manager. Although they won the U.S. Tag Titles again, The Freebirds disbanded by late 1992. Hayes then turned heel again and started managing Arn Anderson and Bobby Eaton, who were still members of the Dangerous Alliance. He became a member of sorts and even helped Paul E. Dangerously in his feud with Madusa. In 1993, Hayes became a fan favorite again and feuded with Paul Orndorff over the TV Title and then briefly teamed (and later feuded) with Johnny B. Badd and also did some commentating before quitting WCW in January 1994, after being offered a $75,000 a year contract (Hayes would make one final appearance in WCW at SuperBrawl IV in February).

Return to Dallas (1994–1995)
He went back to Dallas to the Global Wrestling Federation and reunited with Garvin and Gordy as The Freebirds, whom he managed them to win their Tag Team Championship, before the company folded that September. After the GWF folded, Hayes remained in Dallas for the National Wrestling Alliance's stay in Dallas, which lasted until April 1995.

World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE (1995–present)

Dok Hendrix (1995–1999)
Michael Hayes received a tryout match with the WWF on February 21, 1995 at a WWF Superstars taping in Augusta, Georgia. Wrestling in a dark match, Hayes competed as a face and defeated Ken Raper. However he retired from active competition due to a serious back injury he suffered while in WCW and after the NWA's Dallas promotion ended, and debuted on April 14 instead as Dok Hendrix, WWF Action Zone co-host with Todd Pettengill. As Dok Hendrix, he interviewed wrestlers before their matches and initially acted more like a heel, though that was later dropped. Among other interviews, it was Hayes who conducted the interview with Steve Austin at King of the Ring 1996 where Austin first used the "Austin 3:16" catchphrase. Hayes also worked as a color commentator in 1995 with Vince McMahon on WWF Superstars and on the In Your House 1 and the 1995 King of the Ring pay-per-view events and replaced Jerry Lawler for the last two matches at SummerSlam 1995.

Managing The Hardy Boyz (1999)
Hayes returned to active competition in 1999 for Power Pro Wrestling, where he won the promotion's title. He soon came back to WWF TV as the manager for The Hardy Boyz (Matt and Jeff Hardy). The Hardy Boyz lost the Tag Team Titles to The Acolytes at Fully Loaded when Hayes was pinned in a handicap match; he was fired by them in August.

Backstage roles (1999–present)
He then became a backstage road agent (producer) and color commentator for the WWF. Initially appearing for one night on the September 23, 1999 broadcast of SmackDown!, Hayes became a color commentator on Sunday Night Heat alongside Michael Cole and Kevin Kelly from 2000 to 2001, although he was mostly used on the international broadcasts of that show. At WrestleMania X-Seven on April 1, 2001, he competed in the gimmick Battle Royal, but was eliminated by the One Man Gang. During the December 5, 2005 episode of RAW, he became involved in verbal sparring with Edge in which Hayes attacked Edge's lack of main event experience and the details of his love life (with regard to Matt Hardy and Lita). Hayes was later attacked by Edge.

In October 2006, Hayes became the head creative writer for the SmackDown brand after Alex Greenfield's departure from the company. He can be seen on the second season of WWE Classics on Demand series Legends of Wrestling. Hayes made occasional appearances on WWE programmes: on the December 7, 2007 episode of SmackDown, Hayes was a guest of MVP's VIP Lounge. Hayes promoted the new Triumph and Tragedy of WCCW DVD and reinforced its anti-drug message. However, Hayes ended up being attacked by MVP before being saved by Rey Mysterio, Jr. On the June 28, 2010 episode of Raw, Hayes was one of several Legends who accompanied Ricky "The Dragon" Steamboat, who was out to promote his new DVD. Hayes and the other legends were later attacked by the NXT season 1 graduates, collectively known as The Nexus. On the May 12, 2011 episode of WWE Superstars, Hayes accompanied Tyson Kidd to the ring but turned on him a week later after Kidd lost his match to Yoshi Tatsu. Hayes hit Kidd, stating he had better things to do than hang around losers.

In October 2013, Hayes took a leave of absence from WWE for personal reasons, but he returned to work on December 2, 2013. On August 1, 2014 Hayes appeared in a short segment on the online series JBL and Cole Show in which he stared at a "Free Birds, call to enquire" flier. In February 2015, Hayes partook in a WWE.com interview alongside Arn Anderson with Michael Cole to discuss Triple H and Sting's match at WrestleMania 31. On April 2, 2016, Hayes was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame with the Fabulous Freebirds. Hayes accepted the award alongside Jimmy Garvin.

Music career
In 1987, on the back of the popularity of the "Badstreet USA" theme, Hayes recorded and released an album, Off The Streets. He also performed live concerts to promote the album with his backing band, the Badstreet Band. The July 1988 issue of Pro Wrestling Illustrated (written circa March 1988) contained a (possibly kayfabed) column by writer Dave Rosenbaum in which he visited the box office for a Badstreet Band show and surveyed what sort of people would actually go to Hayes' concerts. In 1992, Hayes performed a duet with music producer Darwin Conort called "Freebird Forever" on the WCW album, Slam Jam 1. In 2011, Hayes paid tribute to his Freebird brother Terry Gordy, who died of a heart attack caused by a blood clot in 2001, with a song entitled "Freebird Road" produced with Darwin Conort, based on Johnny VanZant's "Brickyard Road" (with permission). His music video was an emotional and stirring trip down memory lane as a Freebird and shows shots of him at Gordy's grave.

Championships and accomplishments
Cauliflower Alley Club
Lou Thesz Award (2014)
Georgia Championship Wrestling
NWA Georgia Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Terry Gordy
NWA National Tag Team Championship (4 times) – with Terry Gordy (3) and Otis Sistrunk (1)
NWA United National Championship (1 time)
Mid-South Wrestling Association
Mid-South Tag Team Championship (2 time) – with Terry Gordy
NWA Mid-America
NWA Mid-America Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Terry Gordy
Power Pro Wrestling
PPW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2015 as a member of The Fabulous Freebirds
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI Tag Team of the Year award in 1981 – with Terry Gordy
PWI ranked him #56 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1992
PWI ranked him #71 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the "PWI Years" in 2003
PWI ranked him #3 of the top 100 tag teams of the "PWI Years" with Terry Gordy in 2003
World Championship Wrestling
NWA United States Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
NWA (Mid-Atlantic)/WCW World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Jimmy Garvin
WCW United States Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Jimmy Garvin
WCW World Six-Man Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Jimmy Garvin and Badstreet
World Class Championship Wrestling / World Class Wrestling Association
NWA American Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Terry Gordy
NWA (Texas)/WCWA World Six-Man Tag Team Championship (7 times) – with Terry Gordy & Buddy Roberts (6 times) and Kerry Von Erich & Kevin Von Erich (1)
WCWA World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Steve Cox

 WWE
 WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2016) as a member of The Fabulous Freebirds
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Most Charismatic (1981)
Best Three-Man Team (1984) with Terry Gordy & Buddy Roberts
Best Heel (1983,1986)
Feud of the Year (1983, 1984) with Buddy Roberts and Terry Gordy vs. the Von Erichs
Match of the Year (1984) with Buddy Roberts and Terry Gordy vs. the Von Erichs (Kerry, Kevin, and Mike) in an Anything Goes match on July 4
Best Color Commentator (1986)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 2005) – as part of The Fabulous Freebirds

Discography

Single
Badstreet USA Grand Theft Records 1984

Album
Off The Streets – Grand Theft Records 1987
Track list:
 "Everything Is Alright" (4:00)
 "When The Love Comes Down" (3:55)
 "The Night You Can't Remember" (4:14)
 "Ain't Superstitious" (3:46)
 "Touch My Level" (3:32)
 "I Gotta Have It" (3:35)
 "The Boys Are Back In Town" (4:49)
 "You Made Me The Way I Am" (4:49)
 "Blue Jean Queen" (5:25)
 "Heartbeat Away" (4:42)
 "Badstreet USA" (4:21)

References

External links

 Accelerator Profile

1959 births
21st-century American composers
21st-century American male musicians
American color commentators
American male composers
American male professional wrestlers
American male television writers
American television writers
Dangerous Alliance members
Living people
NWA/WCW/WWE United States Heavyweight Champions
Professional wrestlers from Florida
Professional wrestlers from Georgia (U.S. state)
Professional wrestling announcers
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Professional wrestling managers and valets
Professional wrestling trainers
Professional wrestling writers
Screenwriters from Florida
Screenwriters from Georgia (U.S. state)
Sportspeople from Marietta, Georgia
Sportspeople from Pensacola, Florida
The Four Horsemen (professional wrestling) members
WWE executives
WWE Hall of Fame inductees
20th-century professional wrestlers
NWA United National Champions
WCW World Tag Team Champions
NWA/WCW United States Tag Team Champions
NWA Georgia Tag Team Champions
NWA National Tag Team Champions
Professional wrestlers who use face paint
WCWA World Six-Man Tag Team Champions
WCWA World Tag Team Champions

Michael Hayes (wrestler)


The Dictionary of the Middle Ages  is a 13-volume encyclopedia of the Middle Ages published by the American Council of Learned Societies between 1982 and 1989. It was first conceived and started in 1975 with American medieval historian Joseph Strayer  of Princeton University as editor-in-chief. A "Supplement 1" was added in 2003 under the editorship of William Chester Jordan.

The encyclopedia covers over 112,000 persons, places, things and concepts of "legitimate scholarly interest" in 7,000 distinct articles in more than 8,000 pages written by over 1,800 contributing editors from academic institutions mainly in the United States but also Europe and Asia.

It is the largest and most detailed modern encyclopedia of the Middle Ages in the English language, comparable to the nine volume German Lexikon des Mittelalters.

The "upside-down-T in a circle" symbol on the spine and cover is an artistic interpretation of the T and O map, which was first described in the Etymologiae, the most influential encyclopedic work of the Middle Ages.

Notes

References
Joseph Strayer, editor (1989). Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Charles Scribner's Sons.  OCLC 8474388
William Chester Jordan, editor (2003). Dictionary of the Middle Ages: Supplement 1. Charles Scribner's Sons.

Encyclopedias of history
Medieval studies literature
1982 non-fiction books
American encyclopedias
English-language encyclopedias

Dictionary of the Middle Ages


Hamilton is a medium-sized city in the Canadian province of Ontario.

Factories and businesses
For over 150 years, Hamilton has had factories. For over 100 years, most of them have been steel factories like Stelco and Dofasco. Since the strike of 1946, the workers at Stelco have had a trade union. The workers at Dofasco do not have a trade union. There was also a Studebaker car factory in Hamilton until 1966.

Since the 1980s, industries in Hamilton have had trouble making money and keeping people working. In 2004, Stelco filed for bankruptcy. This means Stelco asked the courts if it could stop paying money it borrowed back to banks. The future for industry does not look good for Hamiltonians.

However, other businesses look much better. People might not think of schools like McMaster University and Mohawk College as businesses, but they are. Students and teachers come to Hamilton and spend their money here. Doctors, teachers, nurses and other professionals train here. Even Tim Hortons doughnut stores started in Hamilton in 1965.

Media
CKOC 1150

CHCH CH

Television, film, music, and newspapers
CH has been a local TV station in Hamilton since 1954. Steve Smith, known for starring in The Red Green Show, started working at CH. Tiny Talent Time is another popular show on CHCH which features many children.

Some movies were filmed in and around Hamilton, such as Anne of Green Gables,5ive Girls and Rocky V, because it looks like other places.

Folksinger Stan Rogers was born in Dundas, which became part of Hamilton in 2001. The Appleton sisters, now famous in Britain, were born in Hamilton. Daniel Lanois is an important singer himself and helped the band U2 with its music. He lived in Hamilton and recorded at Grant Avenue Studios.

The Hamilton Spectator newspaper has been around since the 1840s. It offers tours showing its giant printing press and writers' offices. It also has school projects which include a classroom subscription to the newspaper for every student.

Government
Government is how people organize themselves to be directed by politics. Hamilton was part of Wentworth County until 1974. Wentworth County included the townships of: Ancaster, Barton, Beverly, Binbrook, East Flamborough, West Flamborough, Glanford and Saltfleet. Here is how the government of Hamilton changed over the years:

 About 1814 the area became capital of Wentworth County
 1815 George Hamilton laid out a townsite in Barton Township and named it after himself
 1816 Hamilton became capital of Gore District
 1833 Hamilton became a police village
 1833 Hamilton became a city
 1974 Hamilton remained a city and became part of Hamilton-Wentworth Region which also had five other communities: Ancaster, Dundas, Flamborough, Glanbrook and Stoney Creek (how many of these look the same as the original townships of Wentworth County?)

 2001 Hamilton-Wentworth Region and all six of its communities became one city called Hamilton

Politics
Politics is the way people choose the leaders of their communities and the things they decide are important enough to do. Hamiltonians like choosing socially minded people to governm themselves, especially women and minorities. Many people who were mayors, members of Provincial Parliament (MPPs) or members of Parliament (MPs) have things named for them in the city, such as:

 Sam Lawrence was mayor in the 1940s. Lawrence Park on the Mountain is named after him.
 Ellen Fairclough became Canada's first female cabinet minister in 1957. A government office building is named after her.
 Lloyd D. Jackson was mayor in the 1960s. Jackson Square in downtown Hamilton is named after him.
 John Munro was an MP and cabinet minister under Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. The Hamilton airport  was named after him.
 Lincoln 'Linc' Alexander was Canada's first black MP in 1965, first black cabinet minister in 1979 and first black lieutenant governor in 1985. A public school and the expressway are named after him.
 Victor Copps was mayor in the 1970s. He is the father of Sheila Copps, who used to be an MP until 2004. Copps Coliseum is named after him.

History
Netural and Mohawk Native Canadians of the Six Nations were the first people to live in this area. In 1616, Étienne Brûlé probably became the first European to visit what is now Hamilton. United Empire Loyalists moved into the Hamilton area during and after the American Revolution. The Battle of Stoney Creek was fought during the War of 1812 in what is now Hamilton.

In the mid- to late 1800s, Hamilton became an industrial city with lots of factories . It was close to limestone from the Niagara Escarpment, coal from the United States, iron ore mined from northern Ontario. But factories demanded that people work hard jobs for long hours. In 1872, Hamilton workers marched for a work day of no more than nine hours! The two large steel factories were Stelco (the Steel Company of Canada), created in 1910 and the Dofasco (Dominion Steel Casting Company) in 1912. Dominion is an old word often heard to describe Canada when it was part of the British Empire.

Many schools were built between 1910 and 1930, including Adelaide Hoodless School, Memorial School (for the First World War, Viscount Allenby School (WWI general) and Earl Kitchener School (WWI general). The First World War is often shortened to WWI.

In the 1930s, the Great Depression hit Hamilton. People were unemployed and poor. Factories stoped running. Times were hard. Then the Second World War started and people got jobs again in the army and building guns for the army. August 19, 1942, hundreds of young men from Hamilton were killed by the German army when they tried to attack Dieppe in France.

Sports
There are a few professional sports in Hamilton. The Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League play at Ivor Wynne Stadium. Hamilton would like a National Hockey League team but it does not have one. The Hamilton Bulldogs of the Ontario Hockey League  play at Copps Coliseum.

There are many amateur sports in Hamilton. People of all ages can run in the Around the Bay Race . It takes 30 km to go around the edge of Hamilton Harbour or Burlington Bay. The Hamilton Spectator also hosts amateur indoor games. Every year, children from Hamilton and Flint, Michigan compete in the Canusa Games.

The Commonwealth Games  are like the Olympics for people who used to be ruled by Britain. In 1930, Hamilton became the first ever host for what ere then called the Empire Games. The city also tried to host the 2010 Commonwealth Games.

McMaster University and Mohawk College have produced national championship teams  in a number of sports. McMaster University is a perennial powerhouse in Men's Basketball and Football.

Here in Hamilton we also have recreational leagues for kids to enjoy their childhood by playing many recreational sports such as Hockey(Stoney Creek Minor Hockey), Soccer(Stoney Creek Soccer Club), and Football with (Steelcity Ironmen). In addition, there are a number of other community sport clubs like the Mt Hamilton Youth Soccer Club which has provided an avenue for children to play soccer since 1964.

Buses and trains
There are many buses, apart from the school buses operated by the Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board. For $2.55, the Hamilton Street Railway  or HSR takes people inside and across the city.

Travellers can also get to places like Niagara Falls, Dunnville, Buffalo, Kitchener, and London. These buses are run by companies called Greyhound, Trentway Wagar and McCoy. GO Transit has buses and trains that go to Toronto. Using GO however is not a part of the HSR.

City streets
The city streets in the old city of Hamilton follow a pattern. The big streets going north and south are in straight lines. When they are on the Mountain, they have "Upper" in front of their names, except for Garth Street which should be Upper Dundurn Street.

Streets are called "North," such as "James Street North," if they are north of King Street or Queenston Road.  Streets are called "South" if they are south of King or Queenston. Streets are called "East," such as "East 5th Street" or "Main Street East," if they are east of James Street or Upper James Street. Streets are called "West" if they are west of James or Upper James.

King and Main Streets are major roads that are almost parallel or side by side one another. They cross at the Delta in east Hamilton. For most of King and Main, cars could only travel one way. So instead of thinking of them as two streets, think of them as one street with a very wide boulevard between them.  This changed in the early 2000s, and most of the streets in Downtown Hamilton are now two-way.

Throughout the city there are some neighbourhoods with weird or strange street names. For example, Birdland has streets named after birds like Cardinal, Blue Jay and Swallow.  Another neighbourhood on the Mountain has streets named after people from the French Revolution, such as Napoleon, Josephine, and Robespierre.  Riverdale West, in the Lower City, has streets named after types of berries.

Other websites
(These links may also appear above.)
 The City of Hamilton
 Industrial History of Hamilton
 The Hamilton Spectator World War 2 Newspaper Archives 1939-1945
 Hamilton Public Library
 McMaster University
 Royal Botanical Gardens
 The Royal Hamilton Light Infantry
 The Weather Network - Hamilton Ontario
 The Hamilton Spectator - Hamilton Newspaper
 Hamilton Scores!  - Hamilton Amateur Sports News

Hamilton, Ontario


The master boot record is the first 512 kilobytes of a partitioned mass-storage device such as a hard drive. The master boot record gives the BIOS information on things like partitioning, file systems, location of the operating system, etc.

Because the master boot record is crucial for running the operating system, any changes to it may make the contents of a hard drive unreadable until they have been fixed. In the past, there have been instances of malware making changes to the master boot record. One noticeable example of this is CIH.

Computing

Master boot record


Louis-Ferdinand Céline was a pen name of Louis-Ferdinand Destouches (Courbevoie, 27 May 1894 – Meudon 1 July 1961) was a French writer and physician. Céline was his grandmother's first name. He is thought to be one of the most important writers of the twentieth century. He created a new style of writing that modernized both French and world literature. His most famous work is Journey to the End of the Night. He is a controversial person because of his anti-Semitic pamphlets. He was married to dancer Lucette Destouches.

Works

 1932: Journey to the End of the Night (Voyage au bout de la nuit)
 1936: Death on Credit  (Mort à crédit)
 1936: Mea Culpa
 1937: Trifles for a Massacre (Bagatelles pour un massacre
 1938: School for Corpses (L'École des cadavres),
 1941: A Nice Mess (Les Beaux Draps)
 1944: Guignol's Band
 1949: Cannon-fodder (Casse-pipe) 1949
 1952: Fable for Another Time (Féerie pour une autre fois)
 1954: Normance: Fable for Another Time II (Normance - Féerie pour une autre fois II)
 1955: Conversations with Professor Y (Entretiens avec le Professeur Y)
 1957: Castle to castle (D'un château l'autre),
 1960: North (Nord)
 1964: London Bridge: Guignol's Band II (Le Pont de Londres − Guignol's band II
 1969: Rigadoon (Rigodon)

1894 births
1961 deaths
French novelists
French physicians
Writers from Hauts-de-Seine
People from Courbevoie

Louis-Ferdinand Céline