Postmodernism is a way of thinking about culture, philosophy, art and many other things. The term has been used in many different ways at different times, but there are some things in common.

Postmodernism says that there is no real truth. It says that knowledge is always made or invented and not discovered. Because knowledge is made by people, a person cannot know something for sure - all ideas and facts are 'believed' instead of 'known'. People believe that they know what the truth is, but they will think that the truth is something different later. This is the opposite of 'objectivity', which says that the truth is always there and people have to discover it.

Since postmodernism says that the truth is just a thing that people invent, people can believe different things and think it is the truth and all be right. Postmodernism says that one person should not try to make another person believe what he believes, because it means nothing to say that one belief is right and the other is wrong. Postmodernism says that if somebody has a belief and tries to make somebody else believe it also, it means that they are just trying to have power over them.

Starting with the 18th century Enlightenment and into the early 20th century, many people believed that science and new knowledge would make the world better. When scientists or philosophers discovered something new, it would always make society a little bit better. They thought that social progress could not be stopped. Modernism especially believed this. But postmodernism says that there is no real social progress. It says that while some things about the world change, people only want to believe that the world is better than it was. It changes but does not get better, because there is no 'better.'

Postmodernism says that since peoples' opinions change, and since one person's opinion cannot be more right than another, it means nothing to say that (for example) one work of art is better than any other. Postmodernism says that art, music, and literature, for example, can be anything that its maker says that it is. Postmodern art and literature commonly talk about themselves and make fun of themselves. They make fun of 'serious' art and even the idea of art. Postmodernism has influenced many cultural fields, including literary criticism, philosophy, sociology, linguistics, architecture, visual arts, and music.

The term postmodernism was first commonly used in 1949 to talk about modern architecture. Many people did not like modern architecture because it had too many box-like shapes and people did not think it was pretty. Some of them started the postmodern architecture movement. Postmodern architecture uses surface ornament, historical reference, and less box-like shapes.

Postmodernist ideas can be seen in philosophy, the study of culture and society, literature, architecture, design, as well as in history and law. Postmodernism also led people to think differently about love, marriage, popular culture, and the change in much of the Western world from an industrial to service economy.

The term postmodernity usually means the period of time when postmodern ideas became common (the second half of the 20th century). Some experts think that postmodernism is now over, especially in literature.

Different definitions
The term "Postmodernism" is often used to refer to different, sometimes contradictory (they cannot both be right) concepts. Common definitions are:

Compact Oxford English Dictionary: "a style and concept in the arts characterized by distrust of theories and ideologies and by the drawing of attention to conventions".
Merriam-Webster: Either "of, relating to, or being an era after a modern one", or "of, relating to, or being any of various movements in reaction to modernism that are typically characterized by a return to traditional materials and forms (as in architecture) or by ironic self-reference and absurdity (as in literature)", or finally "of, relating to, or being a theory that involves a radical reappraisal of modern assumptions about culture, identity, history, or language".
American Heritage Dictionary: "Of or relating to art, architecture, or literature that reacts against earlier modernist principles, as by reintroducing traditional or classical elements of style or by carrying modernist styles or practices to extremes: 'It [a roadhouse] is so architecturally interesting ... with its postmodern wooden booths and sculptural clock.'"

Because the term postmodernism can be used to talk about so many different things and can mean many different things, some people say that it is only a buzzword that means nothing. Dick Hebdige, in his book 'Hiding in the Light', writes:

"When it becomes possible for a people to describe as 'postmodern' the décor of a room, the design of a building, the diegesis of a film, the construction of a record, or a 'scratch' video, a television commercial, or an arts documentary, or the 'intertextual' relations between them, the layout of a page in a fashion magazine or critical journal, an anti-teleological tendency within epistemology, the attack on the 'metaphysics of presence', a general attenuation of feeling, the collective chagrin and morbid projections of a post-War generation of baby boomers confronting disillusioned middle-age, the 'predicament' of reflexivity, a group of rhetorical tropes, a proliferation of surfaces, a new phase in commodity fetishism, a fascination for images, codes and styles, a process of cultural, political or existential fragmentation and/or crisis, the 'de-centring' of the subject, an 'incredulity towards metanarratives', the replacement of unitary power axes by a plurality of power/discourse formations, the 'implosion of meaning', the collapse of cultural hierarchies, the dread engendered by the threat of nuclear self-destruction, the decline of the university, the functioning and effects of the new miniaturised technologies, broad societal and economic shifts into a 'media', 'consumer' or 'multinational' phase, a sense (depending on who you read) of 'placelessness' or the abandonment of placelessness ('critical regionalism') or (even) a generalised substitution of spatial for temporal coordinates - when it becomes possible to describe all these things as 'Postmodern' (or more simply using a current abbreviation as 'post' or 'very post') then it's clear we are in the presence of a buzzword".

British historian Perry Anderson says that postmodernism is an important concept and is important for the study of contemporary (current) culture.

Postmodern intellectuals
Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida are sometimes said to be the philosophers of Postmodernism even though neither of them used the word Postmodern to describe themselves. (Derrida used the word deconstruction instead).

Related pages
Modernism
Postmodern art

References

Other sources
Bullock, Alan & Trombly, Stephen. 1988. The new Fontana dictionary of modern thought. HarperCollins, London. Post-modernism entry, p673, is by Sir Malcolm Bradbury.
Lyotard J-F. 1979. The postmodern condition.
Jameson F. 1991. Post-modernism: the cultural logic of late capitalism.
Marsden D.L. 1995. Post-modernism: a bibliography 1926-1994.

Other websites
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on postmodernism

Architectural styles
Art movements
Philosophical movements and positions

Postmodernism


William John Edrich  (26 March 1916 – 24 April 1986) was a first-class cricketer who played for Middlesex, Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), Norfolk and England.

Edrich's three brothers, Brian, Eric and Geoff, and also his cousin, John, all played first-class cricket. Locally in Norfolk the Edriches were able to raise a full team of eleven. In 1938 a team composed entirely of Edriches beat Norfolk in a one-day match.

Life and career
Born in Lingwood, Norfolk, Bill Edrich was an attacking right-handed batsman and right-arm fast bowler. Playing first for Norfolk in the Minor Counties at the age of 16, he qualified for Middlesex in 1937 and was an instant success, scoring more than 2,000 runs in his first full season. The following year, 1938, he scored 1,000 runs before the end of May and made the first of 39 Test match appearances, though with little success. In fact, Edrich achieved almost nothing in Tests until the final "Timeless Test" of the 1938–39 tour to South Africa at Durban, where his 219 enabled England to reach 654 for five wickets, at which point the Test was left drawn to enable the tourists to catch their ship home.

Having finally achieved Test match success, Edrich was promptly dropped for the 1939 series against the West Indians. Even so, he was a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in the 1940 edition of Wisden. Edrich played association football as an amateur for Norwich City and Tottenham Hotspur during the 1930s.

At the outbreak of war Edrich joined the Royal Air Force, in which he attained the rank of Squadron Leader, operating as a pilot for RAF Bomber Command. On 12 August 1941 he participated in a low-level daylight attack by Bristol Blenheim bombers against power stations in the Cologne area, described by The Daily Telegraph as "the RAF's most audacious and dangerous low-level bombing raid". Of the 54 Blenheims sent on the mission, twelve were shot down. For his part in the war he was awarded the DFC. He had "an immense relief that he survived" the war and as a result loved to party and lived for the day.

When cricket resumed after the Second World War, he quickly became a regular in the England team, batting at No. 3 and sometimes opening the bowling. He scored centuries against Australia in the 1946–47 Ashes series, two against the South Africans in 1947, another against Australia in 1948 and a final one against New Zealand in 1949. A gutsy batsman he was "almost indifferent to his own safety. No bowler is too fast to hook; no score too large to defy challenge" and was badly bruised standing up to the bouncers of Lindwall and Miller in 1946–47 and 1948.

The postwar years were Edrich's heyday and in 1947 he broke Tom Hayward's record, scoring 3,539 runs in the season and not being much overshadowed by Denis Compton, who scored 3,816. Compton's and Edrich's aggregates remain the highest ever in an English cricket season, and with the reduction in the number of first-class matches seem likely never to be overtaken. In addition to his runs, Edrich also took 67 wickets in the same season.

Edrich's Test career continued until The Ashes tour of 1954–55, but he played less regularly after 1950, when he appeared to have little answer to the West Indian spinners Sonny Ramadhin and Alf Valentine. When England retained the Ashes at Adelaide in 1954–55 the team consumed over 56 bottles of champagne and Edrich –  the life and soul of any party – climbed the marble pillar in the lounge of Glenelg's Pier Hotel and sang "Ginger".

All told, Edrich played in 571 first-class matches between 1934 and 1958, scoring 36,985 runs, with a highest score of 267 not out. His run total puts him 29th on the all-time lists. He scored 2,440 runs for England in his 39 Test matches, with the 219 not out at Durban his best. A professional before the Second World War, he turned amateur afterwards and captained Middlesex jointly with Compton in 1951 and 1952, continuing in sole charge from 1953 to 1957. After retiring from Middlesex, he returned to Norfolk and played Minor County cricket until he was 56, captaining the county until 1971.

A famously convivial man, Edrich was married five times and had two sons, Jasper and Justin. He died following a fall at his Chesham, Buckinghamshire home on 24 April 1986, aged 70. The MCC named the twin stands at the Nursery End at Lord's Cricket Ground, in his and Denis Compton's honour. Cricket writer, Colin Bateman, noted, "it is a dull, practical structure which does little justice to their mercurial talents and indomitable spirits".

Bibliography

Books by Bill Edrich
 Cricket Heritage, Stanley Paul, 1948
 Cricketing Days, Stanley Paul, 1950
 Round the Wicket, Muller, 1959
 Cricket and All That, Pelham, 1978 (with Denis Compton)

Books about Bill Edrich
 Ralph Barker, The Cricketing Family Edrich, Pelham, 1976
 Alan Hill, Bill Edrich: A Biography, Andre Deutsch, 1994
 Jerry Lodge, Bill Edrich, Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians, 2003

References

External links

1916 births
1986 deaths
Military personnel from Norfolk
Bill
People from Chesham
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Bill Edrich


An electron hole (often simply called a hole) is the absence or lack of an electron where an electron would normally be in an atom. Because electrons are negative and their charges are balanced by the positive protons, electron holes are positive in charge. Electron holes are not particles, they are classified as quasiparticles. Electron holes are different to positrons, which are the antiparticle to the electron. When electrons change energy levels, they leave an electron hole in their place.

Related pages
 Electron
 Atom
 Exciton
 Energy level

Physics

Electron hole


Pothinus or Potheinos (; early 1st century BC – 48 or 47 BC), a eunuch, was regent for Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. He is most remembered for turning Ptolemy against his sister and co-ruler Cleopatra, thus starting a civil war, and for having Pompey decapitated and presenting the severed head to Julius Caesar according to some sources.

When Ptolemy XII died in 51 BC, his will stated that Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra VII were to become co-rulers of Egypt, with the Roman Republic as their guardians. Ptolemy XIII was underage and Pothinus was appointed as his regent. The general Achillas and the rhetorician Theodotus of Chios were also guardians of the Egyptian king. When Ptolemy and Cleopatra were elevated to the status of senior rulers, Pothinus was maintained as the former's regent. Most Egyptologists believed that Pothinus used his influence to turn Ptolemy against Cleopatra. In the spring of 48 BC, Ptolemy, under Pothinus' guidance, attempted to depose Cleopatra in order to become sole ruler while Pothinus planned to act as the power behind the throne. They gained control of Alexandria, then the capital of Egypt, and forced Cleopatra out of the city. She soon organized her own army and a civil war began in Egypt, while Arsinoe IV also began to claim the throne for herself.

Rome was also enveloped in civil war, and after his defeat in the Battle of Pharsalus Pompey sought asylum in Egypt. Initially, Pothinus pretended to have accepted his request, but on September 29, 48 BC, Pothinus had the general murdered, hoping to win favor with Julius Caesar, who had defeated Pompey. When Caesar arrived, he was presented with the head of Pompey, but he responded with grief and disgust and ordered that Pompey's body be located and given a proper Roman funeral. Pothinus had neglected to note that Caesar had been granting clemency to his enemies, including Cassius, Cicero, and Brutus. Cleopatra used Pothinus's mistake to gain favor with Caesar and eventually became his lover.

Caesar then arranged for the execution of Pothinus and the marriage of Cleopatra to Ptolemy. In the last chapter of Commentarii de Bello Civili, however, it is described that Pothinus arranged for Achillas to attack Alexandria and upon sending a message not to hesitate but to fulfill the plan, the messengers were exposed, whereupon Caesar had Pothinus imprisoned and killed, probably with a knife. His death was shortly followed by the ten-month siege of Alexandria.

Depictions
Only Roman and Greek sources have mentioned Pothinus. He is thus criticized for his murder of Pompey and his insidious behavior with regard to Caesar, while both measures are generally believed to have served to keep Egypt out of Caesar's Civil War. As it happened, however, Caesar came to emerge as the sole credible contender for his position of power, with Pompey dead and a Roman protectorate installed in Egypt.

Pothinus's brief role and death have been depicted more fancifully in dramatic literature.

 In George Bernard Shaw's play Caesar and Cleopatra, Cleopatra arranges to have him secretly murdered by her female servant Ftatateeta after he embarrasses her (Cleopatra) in front of Caesar by telling him that she longs for his departure from Egypt so that she can rule alone. He is killed offstage. In the 1945 film based on this play, Caesar and Cleopatra, he was portrayed by Francis L. Sullivan, and in a 1976 television version of the play, he was portrayed by Noel Willman.
 In Cecil B. DeMille's 1934 film Cleopatra, in which he was portrayed by Leonard Mudie, Cleopatra kills him herself, after realizing that he is hiding behind a curtain, ready to murder Caesar.
 In the 1963 film Cleopatra, starring Elizabeth Taylor, he was portrayed by Grégoire Aslan. Pothinus tries to poison Cleopatra, but the plot is discovered in time, whereupon he is put on trial (with no witnesses testifying), pronounced guilty, and sentenced to death by Caesar. Cleopatra's faithful male servant Apollodorus follows Pothinus and the small procession of guards as they exit the room, and within a few seconds an off-screen death scream is heard. One of the returning guards approaches Caesar and gives him a dagger. Caesar then summons his servant Flavius and hands him the dagger with the words, "Please return this to Apollodorus.  You might clean it first; it has Pothinus all over it."
 Pothinus is depicted, portrayed by David Foxxe, in the 2002 TV miniseries Julius Caesar, as he pretends to welcome Pompey but rather silently orders for him to be assassinated by his own guards, and later welcomes Caesar, in the famous gift scene. He is later mentioned by Cleopatra while explaining the Civil War to Caesar.
 In "Caesarion", an episode of the television series Rome (2005–07), Pothinus is portrayed by actor Tony Guilfoyle; he is beheaded by the Romans and his head is placed on a spike on the outer wall of the palace.
 In The Judgment of Caesar (part of the Roma Sub Rosa series by Steven Saylor) he is forced to drink poisoned wine by Caesar.
 Pothinus is an antagonist in Assassin's Creed Origins, where he is depicted as a member (nicknamed "The Scorpion") of the Order of the Ancients, a precursor organization to the Templar Order. In the game, he is assassinated by the protagonist Bayek during the Battle of the Nile.

Notes

References
 Julian Morgan, Cleopatra: Ruling in the Shadow of Rome, The Rosen Publishing Group 2003, , pp. 26–32
 Prudence J. Jones, Cleopatra: The Last Pharaoh, Haus Publishing 2006,
 Lucanus, The Pharsalia of Lucan, Translated by Henry Thomas Riley, H. G. Bohn 1853
 Julius Caesar, The Civil War, Translated by Jane F. Gardner, Penguin Classics 1976, pp. 161ff.

Eunuchs
1st-century BC births
40s BC deaths
Cleopatra
Executed ancient Egyptian people
People executed by ancient Egypt
1st-century BC executions
People executed by stabbing
Ptolemaic regents
Ptolemaic courtiers
Ancient slaves
Egyptian slaves

Pothinus


East Brunswick is a township in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States. The suburban community is part of the New York City metropolitan area and is located on the southern shore of the Raritan River. It is adjacent to the city of New Brunswick.

History
The general area of central New Jersey was once occupied by the Lenape Native Americans.

References

Townships in New Jersey
Middlesex County, New Jersey

East Brunswick, New Jersey


A Druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the pre-Christian, ancient Celtic societies. These societies existed through much of Western Europe, until the Roman government took over and, later, Christianity arrived. Druids were part of the cultures of the tribal peoples who were called "Keltoi" (Κέλτοι) or "Keltai" (Κέλται) and "Galatai" (Γαλάται) by the Greeks and "Celtae" and "Galli" by the Romans. In the communities they served, druids combined the duties of priest, arbitrator, healer, scholar, and magistrate. Both men and women served as druids, although there is no early proof for female druids, or druidesses.

History
From what little we know of late druidic practices, it appears deeply traditional and conservative, in the sense that druids were conserving the old culture and lore for their communities.  It is impossible now to judge whether this continuity had deep historical roots and originated in the social transformations of the late La Tène culture, or whether there had been a discontinuity and then a religious innovation.

Greek and Roman writers on the Celts commonly made at least passing reference to druids, though before Julius Caesar's report merely as "barbarian philosophers"; They were not concerned with ethnology or comparative religion and consequently our historical knowledge of druids is very limited. Druidic lore consisted of a large number of verses learned by heart, and Caesar remarked that twenty years were required to complete the course of study.

Druidic culture are believed to be practicers of rituals and such magic, Druids were believed to be a neutral people they were known as Druid(ae) similar to priests and scholars believed to have studied rituals of Human sacrifice and Familiars (Known currently as a form of a pet from a practicer; Witch, Druidae, Warlock). The Druidic culture was believed to have some form of religious complication.
Druids are known to have practiced such as reincarnation as animals of worship (Bird, Lion, Tiger, Cat, Monkey), but such cannot be proved as what we know so far.
They were said to have lived in Roman times in Great Britain and Ireland it is said that they have some form of connection to Stonehenge and other monuments.

References

Religious leaders
Celtic peoples

Druid


Clear Brook is an unincorporated farming community in northern Frederick County, Virginia. The community lies approximately six miles (9.6 kilometers) north of the county seat of Winchester along Martinsburg Pike (U.S. Route 11). It is the site of the Kenilworth home, once owned by Harry K. Thaw, the old Hopewell Meeting House, Stonewall Elementary School, the Clearbrook Park, and the Frederick County Fairgrounds.

Sometimes referred to as Clearbrook, its name was decided upon by the Board on Geographic Names in 1966 as Clear Brook.

Clear Brook drew national attention when resident and Quaker peace activist Tom Fox was kidnapped in Baghdad on November 25, 2005.  Fox's body was found March 9, 2006.

Culture
Clear Brook was selected as the site for the Hogging Up BBQ & Music Festival, a Kansas City Barbeque Society sanctioned event deemed a "State Championship" by the Governor of Virginia for 2013. The event is an annual event supporting local charities under the guidance of Wayne Schafer, a barbecue pitmaster who runs the event.

Clear Brook is well known throughout Northern Virginia as well as the Route 11 and Highway 81 corridors for its annual holiday light display in Clear Brook Park. The light display typically opens the day after Thanksgiving and runs through early January.  The display is turned off at 10pm each night and is also closed on Christmas Eve, Christmas Day, and New Year's Eve.

External links

 Trelleborg Marine Systems produces marine fenders in Clear Brook
 Family Dining in Clear Brook, VA

References

Unincorporated communities in Frederick County, Virginia
Unincorporated communities in Virginia

Clear Brook, Virginia


Southern Ireland was the twenty-six county Irish state created by the Government of Ireland Act 1920.  This Act divided the island of Ireland in two, Northern Ireland (covering approximately fifteen percent of the island, in the northeast) and Southern Ireland (covering the remaining territory to the south and west). Both were given bicameral (two houses) parliaments and separate governments.

The king was represented by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, who also acted in Northern Ireland.

Southern Ireland never existed except on paper.  It was set up by law, but the first attempted meeting of its Parliament failed because it was short of a quorum (the number of members needed to hold a meeting).  The second sitting was only to confirm the decision of Dáil Éireann to confirm the Anglo-Irish Treaty, then dissolved it itself.

So the British government set up Southern Ireland but there was never any government to take power.

Birth of The Irish Free State
After the treaty was confirmed Michael Collins, head of Dáil Éireann's government became Chairman of the Provisional Government

According to the British he met the Lord Lieutenant and was made the King's prime minister.   According to the Irish viewpoint, Collins went to accept the surrender of Dublin Castle. Arthur Griffith became President of Dáil Éireann, and then both Dáil Éireann and the House of Commons of Southern Ireland were then replaced in a  new election, for the 'Third Dáil', sometimes called the 'Provisional Parliament' or the 'Constituent Assembly'.  When Griffith died and a week later Collins was assassinated both in August 1922, W.T. Cosgrave was appointed to both offices, so the Irish nationalist and the British both systems of government joined into one temporary system, until the 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State came into force in December 1922.

Footnotes
Southern Ireland is sometimes erroneously used as a name for the Republic of Ireland or the earlier Irish Free State. However, officially the term has been wrong since 1922.

Related pages

 Irish Home Rule

1920s in Ireland
1920s in the United Kingdom
1922 in Europe

Southern Ireland


Phrasal verb is the name given to an English verb which is composed of two or three words. One verb is combined with a preposition (like on, in, under) or an adverb (like up, down, away). Sometimes a phrasal verb can have a meaning that is very different to the meaning of at least one of those two or three words separately. Some text books call these verbs multi-word verbs. Phrasal verbs are used more frequently in everyday speech than in formal, official writing or speaking.

Here are some examples:

Maria didn't know the word, so she looked it up in the dictionary.

Oh no, we've run out of milk! I'll have to buy some more.

Farmers have to get up early in the morning.

The rocket took off with a loud roar.

Often these phrasal verbs have a one-word equivalent in other languages.
In Spanish, to get up can be translated as levantarse, in French as se lever etc.

Types of phrasal verbs
There are four different types of phrasal verbs.
These are:
 Phrasal verbs which take objects and are separable
 Phrasal verbs which take objects and are inseparable
 Phrasal verbs which do not take objects  (these are always inseparable)
 Three-word phrasal verbs

Instead of "separate" or "separable", some text books use the word "split" or "splittable".

A useful piece of advice to confused students of English is this:

If you do not know if a phrasal verb is separable or inseparable ALWAYS use a noun or noun phrase and do not try to separate the verb.

Parts of speech
English language

Phrasal verb


Daedalus was King Minos' head architect in ancient Greece and son of Athena.  When King Minos of Crete was having some sovereignty problems, he asked Poseidon, god of the sea, for an offering to sacrifice to him as a sign as true kingship.  So Poseidon sent a snow-white bull straight out of the sea foam.  Once the people of Crete saw the bull, they all agreed that it was a sign of true kingship.  However, once King Minos saw the bull, he refused to sacrifice the bull, kept it for himself, and sacrificed another bull to Poseidon, thus angering him.  Poseidon put a curse on Minos' wife, making her fall in love with the bull.  She loved it so much that she wanted to mate with it.  Minos called for the help of Daedalus, who built a wooden bull and put Queen Pasiphae inside it, thus calming her anxiety for mating with the bull.  She soon became pregnant with half-man, half-bull (also called the Minotaur).

King Minos was horrified and asked Daedalus to build some kind of prison to keep the Minotaur from destroying Crete.  So Daedalus built a labyrinth that was so complicated that the Minotaur could not get out.  Only Daedalus knew the course of the labyrinth.  Minos was afraid that Daedalus would tell the route through the labyrinth, and that he would tell that the Minotaur was the son of Minos' wife, he imprisoned Daedalus and his son Icarus, in a high tower.  Daedalus made some wings that he strapped to his and Icarus' arms and together they escaped from the tower.  However, Icarus, forgetting his father's words, flew too close to the sun, and the wax that held the feathers together melted.  Icarus fell into the ocean and drowned.  Daedalus landed safely on an island, and in grief, he named the sea that he and Icarus had flown across the Icarian Sea.

Other websites
http://www.pantheon.org/articles/m/minos.html

People in Greek mythology

Daedalus


The Argument from inconsistent revelations (also known as Avoiding the wrong hell problem) is an argument that says that God probably does not exist. There are many religions which are based on revelations. The problem with these revelations is that they contradict each other. A person must either accept or reject at least one of these revelations in order to be part of a religious group. That way, accepting one means rejecting some (if not all) of the others. Unless the revelation is personal, the follower must to some extent rely on the judgment or the stories of others. Assuming the revelation is personal, the follower is still ignoring the revelations of those before him.

Christians believe that Jesus is the savior of the world and the son of God; Jews believe just as strongly that he is not. Similarly, Muslims believe that the Qur'an was divinely authored, while Jews and Christians do not. There are many examples of such contrasting views. Positions where one religion contradicts another, or where one group of people contradicts another are common. There are many denominations in Christianity who do not agree about many things.

Religion
Critical thinking

Argument from inconsistent revelations


Alejandro Bustillo (18 March 1889 – 3 November 1982) was an Argentine painter and architect who designed numerous buildings including iconic landmarks in Buenos Aires, Mar del Plata, and Bariloche.

Biography
Born in Buenos Aires, son of María Luisa Madero and Dr. José María Bustillo, he completed his secondary school studies at Otto Krause Technical School.  He later entered the School of Architecture at the University of Buenos Aires, where he also excelled as a painter, earning a first prize at the 1912 National Salon of Painters for a self-portrait. He graduated with a degree in Architecture in 1914.

He obtained his first professional experience working on the design of estancias, the first of which was for Santiago Rocca in 1916. He married Blanca Ayerza in 1917, and the couple had eight children. Bustillo designed a country house for his own family, Estancia La Primavera, in 1918. Two years later he returned to Buenos Aires.  After a visit to Paris, Bustillo undertook two major projects for Carlos Tornquist in Buenos Aires, by designing the family's house (now the Belgium Embassy) in 1923, and the Tornquist Bank (today the Buenos Aires branch of Credit Lyonnais) in 1928.

From 1924 until 1937 he consolidated his career with a large number of works including commercial buildings, private houses and rental property. The Martínez de Hoz Building (1929) served as the Gran Hotel Argentino before its conversion into the Intelligence Secretariat. He undertook the remodel in 1931 of the interior of the Palais de Glace and in 1932 began the conversion of an old pumping station in Libertador Avenue, Buenos Aires, into the new headquarters for the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes.  He was contracted by the governor of Misiones Province in 1935 on the design of the governor's residence, San Martín Square, the municipal park, the police station and the surroundings of the Jesuit ruins of San Ignacio.

In 1938 he began some of his most important works by winning the competition for the design of the Llao Llao Hotel in San Carlos de Bariloche, an important tourist centre.  The building, made almost entirely of wood, was destroyed by fire soon after its completion in 1939 and a year later Bustillo built a new hotel out of reinforced concrete and stone. In the Nahuel Huapi National Park, he designed Inalco on the shores of Nahuel Huapi Lake in the heart of the 'Seven Lakes Route' () northwest of  Villa La Angostura, Neuquén, for Enrique García Merou. He designed the headquarters of the National Bank in Buenos Aires in both its phases, the first completed in 1944 and the second in 1955. Bustillo also designed numerous landmark works in Mar del Plata during the 1940s, including the Grand Provincial Hotel, the Casino, the seaside esplanade joining each, and City Hall.

Among Bustillo's best known later works was the National Flag Memorial in Rosario, designed in 1944 with fellow architect Ángel Guido and completed in 1957. His last works began in 1977 and he died in Buenos Aires in 1982 at the age of 93, having completed over 250 projects.

Selected works

References

Alberto Bellucci, The Bariloche Style, J. Decorative & Propaganda Arts, Argentine Theme Issue, 1992.,
El Portal de arte y arquitectura en Internet

1889 births
1982 deaths
Artists from Buenos Aires
Argentine people of Spanish descent
University of Buenos Aires alumni
Argentine architects
Burials at La Recoleta Cemetery
20th-century Argentine painters
Argentine male painters
20th-century Argentine male artists

Alejandro Bustillo


Across the Universe is a musical movie made in 2007. It is directed by Julie Taymor and written by Ian La Frenais and Dick Clement. The main characters are played by Evan Rachel Wood and Jim Sturgess. There are also other famous actors and singers who appear in the movie: Bono, who plays Dr. Robert, Eddie Izzard as Mr. Kite, Dana Fuchs as a musician called Sexy Sadie, and Salma Hayek as a nurse.

The movie was released in North America on 12 October in 2007.

Plot
The story starts in the early 1960s. A young ship builder from Liverpool named Jude (played by Jim Sturgess) travels by ship to the United States in search of his American G.I. father called Wes (Played by Robert Clohessy). They have never met and his father does not know Jude exists. While looking for his father at Princeton, Jude makes friends with somebody called Max (Played by Joe Anderson), a rebellious young man from a rich background, and Max's sister Lucy (Played by Evan Rachel Wood). When Max drops out of college and moves to New York City, Jude goes with him. Max works as a taxi driver, while Jude tries to find work as an independent artist. They become roommates in a bohemian area of the city where they share an apartment with other people, including a woman called Sadie (Played by Dana Fuchs) who is their landlady and who is also trying to become singer. Other people who live in the same house include Jojo (Played by Martin Luther McCoy), a guitarist who arrives from Detroit after the death of his younger brother; and Prudence (Played by T.V. Carpio), a young lesbian who hitchhikes to New York City from Dayton, Ohio. Lucy joins them in the New York flat after her boyfriend is killed in the Vietnam War.

Lucy and Jude begin dating, as well as Sadie and Jojo, which leaves Prudence depressed. When Max is sent to Vietnam, Lucy becomes involved in an extreme anti-war group, which leads to tension with the non-political Jude. He is unhappy with the amount of time she spends with the political group, suspecting that its leader, Paco (Logan Marshall-Green), is a man who obsessively seduces and deceives women. Jude's art and his relationship with Lucy both start to break down. Meanwhile, Sadie has formed a band called Sadie and the Po Boys, with Jojo as her lead guitarist. She gains the attention of a manager (James Urbaniak) who signs her to a record label, but he wants her to drop her backing band. This leads to a break up between Sadie and Jojo, both musically and romantically.

The differences between Jude and Lucy grow. One day, Jude goes into the offices of the political group where Lucy works and is kicked out after punching Paco. This causes a fight between the couple, resulting in Lucy leaving Jude. Jude finds her at an anti-war demonstration at Columbia University during which many protesters, including Lucy, are arrested. When trying to help her, Jude is also arrested. Though Wes (Jude's Father) persuades the police not to take further action for activity at the protest, he cannot prove that Jude is his son, and Jude is sent back to England.

Max is wounded in Vietnam and is emotionally and mentally troubled by his war experience, while Lucy remains involved in her anti-war group that is becoming more and more violent. After Lucy goes to the old headquarters of her anti-war group, she discovers Paco and some of his followers making bombs. She then decides to leave the group. One of Paco's bombs explodes, destroying the building. Jude reads about the explosion in a Liverpool newspaper and is concerned that Lucy has died. He then hears from Max that she is alive, and he arranges to return to the United States properly and without breaking the law. He meets Max, who drives him to Sadie's music headquarters where a Beatles-style rooftop concert is being held by Jojo, Sadie, and their band singing an anti-war song (Don't let me down). Lucy is supposed to be there to meet Jude again, but no one can find her, and the group is forced to leave when the police arrive. But Jude manages to sneak back onto the roof and begins to sing "All you need is Love", his eyes searching the crowd for Lucy. The rest of the band sneaks back onto the roof, too and they join him with their voices and instruments. Jude smiles sadly and turns to leave the roof, but Max suddenly points as they sing, and Jude turns to see Lucy standing on the roof across the street, singing along. They smile at one another with tears in their eyes, and the screen fades out to white clouds and blue sky.

Cast

Principal

 Jim Sturgess as Jude Feeny
 Evan Rachel Wood as Lucy Carrigan
 Joe Anderson as Maxwell "Max" Carrigan
 Dana Fuchs as Sadie
 Martin Luther McCoy as Jojo
 T.V. Carpio as Prudence

Cameos
 Bono as Dr. Robert
 Eddie Izzard as Mr. Kite
 Salma Hayek as Singing Nurses
 Joe Cocker as Bum/Pimp/Mad Hippie

Movie soundtrack
The movie's end credits show that a total of thirty-three separate Beatles songs featured in the movie, either in full or in part. All of these songs were written between 1963 and 1970 by the members of The Beatles (John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr) and recorded by The Beatles. Thirty of them are songs that are officially credited to the songwriting partnership of Lennon-McCartney. Three are credited to George Harrison. One title ("Flying") is a 1967 song credited to all four members of the Beatles (Lennon-McCartney-Harrison-Starkey).

Thirty-one of the soundtrack's songs feature vocals. Two of them ("And I Love Her" and "A Day in the Life") are brief instrumental versions of songs that were originally written with lyrics. One song ("Flying") was originally written as an instrumental.

Twenty-five of the vocal tracks are performed by one or more of the six lead cast members. Four of the songs are sung by stars with cameo roles (Bono, Eddie Izzard, Salma Hayek and Joe Cocker). One song ("Let It Be") is sung by supporting members of the cast. One song ("Blue Jay Way") is sung by indie Texan trio The Secret Machines. In twenty-nine of the vocal tracks, the vocalists are singing on-screen. Two of the vocal tracks ("Blue Jay Way" and "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds") are sung by off-screen vocalists.

The remaining three of the thirty-four songs are rendered instrumentally. "Flying" is performed by The Secret Machines, "And I Love Her" is heard briefly as part of the orchestral score, and "A Day in the Life" is performed on guitar by Jeff Beck in a version recorded for Sir George Martin's 1998 album In My Life.

In addition to the thirty-four Beatles songs, the soundtrack features an original score written by Elliot Goldenthal. Goldenthal worked on Taymor's previous movies Titus and Frida. (Goldenthal and director Taymor have also been partners since 1982.)

Beatles songs featured in the movie
This is a listing of the thirty-four songs written by members of The Beatles that are heard on the soundtrack, in the order featured in the movie. This listing includes notation of three songs that are heard twice in the course of the movie, so there are a total of thirty-seven individual music cues.

 "Girl" Performed by Jim Sturgess
 "Helter Skelter" Performed by Dana Fuchs (brief extract over movie montage - presaging later sequences in the movie) Longer version performed later in movie.
 "Hold Me Tight" Performed by Evan Rachel Wood and Lisa Hogg
 "All My Loving" Performed by Jim Sturgess
 "I Want to Hold Your Hand" Performed by T.V. Carpio
 "With a Little Help from My Friends" Performed by Joe Anderson, Jim Sturgess and "Dorm Buddies"
 "It Won't Be Long" Performed by Evan Rachel Wood and "Students"
 "I've Just Seen a Face" Performed by Jim Sturgess
 "Let It Be" Performed by Carol Woods, Timothy T. Mitchum and church choir
 "Come Together" Performed by Joe Cocker with Martin Luther McCoy performing the final verse
 "Why Don't We Do It in the Road?" Performed by Dana Fuchs
 "If I Fell" Performed by Evan Rachel Wood
 "I Want You (She's So Heavy)" Performed by Joe Anderson, "Soldiers", Dana Fuchs and T.V. Carpio
 "Dear Prudence" Performed by Dana Fuchs, Jim Sturgess, Evan Rachel Wood and Joe Anderson
 "Flying" Instrumental - brief extract performed by The Secret Machines (performers not seen on-screen)
 "Blue Jay Way" brief extract performed by The Secret Machines (performers not seen on-screen)
 "I Am the Walrus" Performed by Bono (accompanied by the Secret Machines - not seen on-screen)
 "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" Performed by Eddie Izzard
 "Because" Performed by Evan Rachel Wood, Jim Sturgess, Joe Anderson, Dana Fuchs, T. V. Carpio and Martin Luther McCoy
 "Something" Performed by Jim Sturgess
 "Oh! Darling" Performed by Dana Fuchs and Martin Luther McCoy
 "Strawberry Fields Forever" Performed by Jim Sturgess and Joe Anderson
 "Revolution" Performed by Jim Sturgess
 "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" Performed by Martin Luther McCoy (joined by Jim Sturgess for one verse)
 "Across the Universe" Performed by Jim Sturgess (the performance of this song is interwoven with the next song Helter Skelter)
 "Helter Skelter" Performed by Dana Fuchs (the performance of this song is interwoven with the preceding song Across the Universe)
 "And I Love Her" (brief extract incorporated into the orchestral score during the 'Across the Universe/Helter Skelter sequence)
 "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" Performed by Joe Anderson, "Patients" and Salma Hayek
 "Revolution" Brief extract performed by Evan Rachel Wood
 "A Day in the Life" Performed by Jeff Beck (instrumental version of the song recorded in 1998 for George Martin's In My Life album)
 "Blackbird" Performed by Evan Rachel Wood
 "Hey Jude" Performed by Joe Anderson (joined by Angela Mounsey for one verse)
 "Don't Let Me Down" Performed by Dana Fuchs and Martin Luther McCoy
 "All You Need is Love" Performed by Jim Sturgess, Dana Fuchs, T.V. Carpio and Martin Luther McCoy
 "She Loves You" Performed by Joe Anderson (chorus sung during the last part of the "All You Need Is Love" sequence) (see note below) "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" Performed by Bono (with backing vocals by The Edge), played over the beginning of the end credit sequence (performance not seen on-screen)
 "Flying" Instrumental - extended version performed by The Secret Machines played over the latter portion of the end credit sequence (performers not seen on-screen)

Production dispute
In March 2007, the media reported a dispute over the final cut of the movie. Concerned with the length of director Julie Taymor's cut of the movie, Revolution Studios (production studio) chairman Joe Roth tested a sneak preview of a shortened version without first informing Taymor. The incident caused a quarrel between the two, later involving Sony Pictures (distributor) Amy Pascal urging Taymor to agree to the shorter version.More Details of Taymor-Roth Feud . Movie & TV News. IMDB.com. 21 March 2007 After several months of dispute, Taymor's version was eventually reinstated as the theatrically released version.

Reception
The movie received mixed reviews from critics. As of January 6, 2008, the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 52% of critics gave the movie positive reviews, based on 130 reviews. However, the movie is currently at 80% with the Rotten Tomatoes community. Metacritic reported the movie had an average score of 56 out of 100, based on 29 reviews.

Top ten lists
The movie appeared on a few critics' top ten lists of the best movies of 2007.
 1st - Carrie Rickey, The Philadelphia Inquirer 7th - Roger Ebert, Chicago Sun-Times 9th - Stephen Holden, The New York Times''

Awards and nominations

Nominations
 65th Golden Globe Awards
 Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy
  80th Academy Awards
 Costume Design
  50th Grammy Awards
 Best Compilation Soundtrack Album

References

Other websites

 Official website - with trailer

 Article on filming in the Lower East Side
 Promotional pictures
 Pictures from the shoot  on Flickr.
 Next Subway Stop: Hollywood, New York Times, January 8, 2006
 Article about editing controversy New York Times, March 20, 2007
 3 trailers and a clip from the movie

2007 movies
American musical movies
Movies set in England
Movies set in the United States
Movies set in Vietnam
Columbia Pictures movies

Across the Universe (movie)


"The Tale of the Priest and of his Workman Balda" () is a fairy tale in verse by Alexander Pushkin. Pushkin wrote the tale on September 13, 1830, while staying at Boldino. It is based on a Russian folk tale which Pushkin collected in Mikhaylovskoye early on. The Tale of the Priest and of his Workman Balda consists of 189 extremely varied lines that range from three to fourteen syllables but made to rhyme in couplets.
In the summer of 1831, Pushkin read the tale to Nikolai Gogol who liked it a great deal. The Tale was first published posthumously by Vasily Zhukovsky in 1840 with considerable alterations due to censorship; the Priest character was replaced by a merchant.

Plot summary

The poem tells of a lazy priest who is wandering around a market looking for a cheap worker. There he meets Balda (Балда in Russian means a stupid or just simple, or not very serious person) who agrees to work for a year without pay except that he be allowed to hit the priest three times on his forehead and have cooked spelt for food. The priest, being a cheapskate, agrees. But then, after he gets a chance to observe Balda at work, he sees that he is not only very patient and careful, but also very strong. That worries the priest greatly and he starts giving Balda impossible missions to accomplish.

The Priest asks Balda to collect a fabricated debt from sea devils. Balda troubles the sea with rope and forces the leader of the devils, an "old Bies", to come out. He agrees to pay the debt if Balda will defeat his grandson at running and weight carrying. Balda tricks the "little Bies", first by getting a hare, whom he proclaims his "younger brother" to run in his stead, and then by "carrying" a horse between his two legs by riding on it.

The story ends when Balda gives the priest three blows to the forehead which results in the priest losing his mind. The final line is, "You shouldn't have gone rushing off after cheapness."

Adaptations
 1933-1936 - The Tale of the Priest and of His Workman Balda, USSR, animated film by Mikhail Tsekhanovsky, and the surviving film score by Dmitri Shostakovich
 1940 - The Tale of the Priest and of His Workman Balda, USSR, traditionally animated film by Panteleymon Sazonov.
1956 - The Tale of the Priest and of His Workman Balda, USSR, live-action and Puppetry/stop motion-animated film by Anatoly Karanovich.
1973 - The Tale of the Priest and of His Workman Balda, USSR, traditionally animated film by Inessa Kovalevskaya.

Portrayal of priest protested
On October 5, 2006, Sophia Kishkovsky reported in The New York Times that "In the northern city of Syktyvkar, the State Theater of Opera and Ballet of the Republic of Komi, a region once notorious as a center of the prison camp system, or Gulag, recently bowderlized
a commemorative performance of 'The Tale of Priest and his Workman Balda' ...after the local diocese objected to the portrayal of the priest in the work." The resulting production was "reduced to a series of numbers..., none of which included the priest."

Conflict over similar matters had also arisen in Dnepropetrovsk Opera and Ballet Theatre on Christmas & New Year Season of 2006/2007.

References

 Alexander Pushkin: A Critical Study by A.D.P. Briggs, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1982.

External links

 Сказка о попе и о его работнике Балде available at Lib.ru
Excerpts from the English translation by Oliver Elton

Poetry by Aleksandr Pushkin
Priest and of His Workman Balda
Fictional priests and priestesses
The Devil in fairy tales
1830 poems
Articles containing video clips
Devils


Héctor Téran Terán (3 April 1931 – 4 October 1998) was a Mexican politician, member of the National Action Party (PAN), and Governor of Baja California.

Terán Terán received his degree in Large Business Administration from the Centro de Enseñanza Técnica y Superior (CETYS), and was made leader of his party in the state of Baja California. He was a governor-candidate three times: in 1977, when he lost to the PRI candidate Roberto de la Madrid Romandia; in 1983, when he lost to Xicoténcatl Leyva Mortera; and finally in 1995, when he triumphed, becoming the second PAN governor of Baja California.

Previously, he was a local deputy in the Congress of Baja California between 1980 and 1983; a federal deputy in the 53rd Legislature from 1985 to 1988; and in 1989, Baja California's first governor from the PAN, Ernesto Ruffo Appel, appointed him to be the Secretario General de Gobierno (State Secretary General), holding this position until 1991 when he was elected to the federal Senate, becoming the first PAN senator in history. He asked the permission of the Senate to be the candidate for Governor of Baja California and won in the 1995 state election, assuming his post on November 1 of the same year.

Héctor Terán Terán died of a heart attack in office on October 4, 1998, while exercising on the Governor's Estate.

See also
Governors of Baja California

References

External links
Biografías de los gobernadores del estado de Baja California. (es)

1931 births
1998 deaths
Governors of Baja California
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)
Members of the Senate of the Republic (Mexico)
National Action Party (Mexico) politicians
Members of the Congress of Baja California
People from Moctezuma, Sonora
Politicians from Sonora
20th-century Mexican politicians
Centro de Enseñanza Técnica y Superior alumni

Héctor Terán Terán


William Jay Bowerman (February 19, 1911 – December 24, 1999) was an American track and field coach and co-founder of Nike, Inc. Over his career, he trained 31 Olympic athletes, 51 All-Americans, 12 American record-holders, 22 NCAA champions and 16 sub-4 minute milers.

Bowerman disliked being called a coach, and during his 24 years at the University of Oregon, the Ducks track and field team had a winning season every year but one, attained 4 NCAA titles, and finished in the top 10 in the nation sixteen times. As co-founder of Nike, he invented some of their top brands, including the Cortez and Waffle Racer, and assisted in the company moving from being a distributor of other shoe brands to one creating their own shoes in house.

Early life
Born in Portland, Oregon, Bowerman's father Jay was a former governor; his mother, Elizabeth Hoover Bowerman, had grown up in Fossil. The family returned to Fossil after the parents divorced in 1913. Bowerman had an older brother and sister, Dan and Mary Elizabeth "Beth"; and a twin brother, Thomas, who died in an elevator accident when he was two years old.

Bowerman attended Medford and Seattle schools before returning to Medford for high school. He played in the high school band and for the state-champion football team in his junior and senior years. Bowerman first met Barbara Young, the woman he married, while a high school student in Medford.

In 1929, Bowerman attended the University of Oregon to play football and study journalism. At the suggestion of longtime track coach Bill Hayward, he also joined the track team. He was a member of Beta Theta Pi Fraternity. After graduating, he taught biology and coached football at Franklin High School in Portland in 1934. In 1935, Bowerman moved back to Medford to teach and coach football during which won a state title in 1940.

Bowerman married Barbara Young on June 22, 1936. Their first son, Jon, was born June 22, 1938. William J. Bowerman, Jr. ("Jay") was born November 17, 1942. Their third son, Tom, was born May 20, 1946.

Military career
Bowerman had been in the ROTC and Army Reserve, and then joined the United States Army as a 2nd Lieutenant in the days following the Pearl Harbor attack. He was assigned to Fort Lawton in Washington and served a year there before being assigned to the 86th Mountain Infantry Regiment at Camp Hale in Leadville, Colorado. He was in the 87th Mountain Infantry Regiment, the regiment became a part of the 10th Mountain Division.

Bowerman's duty entailed organizing the troops' supplies and maintaining the mules used to carry the supplies in the mountains. On December 23, 1944, the division arrived in Naples, Italy and soon moved north to the mountains of northern Italy. During his tour of duty, Bowerman was promoted to commander of the 86th Regiment's First Battalion at the rank of Major. Bowerman negotiated a stand-down of German forces near the Brenner Pass in the days before the surrender of the German army in all of Italy. For his service, Bowerman received the Silver Star and four Bronze Stars. He was honorably discharged in October 1945.

Coaching career
After the war, Bowerman returned to his position at Medford High School. The family then moved to Eugene where he became the head track coach at his alma mater, the University of Oregon, on July 1, 1948.

University of Oregon
Bowerman's "Men of Oregon" won 24 NCAA individual titles (with wins in 15 of the 19 events contested) and four NCAA team crowns (1962, 1964, 1965, and 1970), and posted 16 top-10 NCAA finishes in 24 years as head coach. His teams also boasted 33 Olympians, 38 conference champions and 64 All-Americans. At the dual level, the Ducks posted a 114–20 record and went undefeated in 10 seasons. In addition, Bowerman coached the world record setting  relay team in 1962. This team consisted of Archie San Romani, Dyrol Burleson, Vic Reeve, and Keith Forman with a time of 16:08.9. Six years later, another Oregon team of Roscoe Divine, Wade Bell, Arne Kvalheim and Dave Wilborn improved the record to 16:05.0. Among athletes that Bowerman coached are: Otis Davis, Steve Prefontaine, Kenny Moore, Bill Dellinger, Mac Wilkins, Jack Hutchins, Dyrol Burleson, Harry Jerome, Sig Ohlemann, Les Tipton, Gerry Moro, Wade Bell, Dave Edstrom, Roscoe Divine, Matt Centrowitz, Arne Kvalheim, Jim Grelle, Bruce Mortenson, Phil Knight and Mel Renfro. Renfro was a track and football All-American, had a successful NFL career with the Dallas Cowboys and is in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.

Bowerman disliked being called a coach; he saw himself as more of a teacher. He expected his squad to excel in the classroom, and urged his charges to apply the lessons they learned on the track to everyday life.

In 1972, Bowerman stepped back from day-to-day coaching activities to conduct fundraising for renovating the Hayward Field grandstands that would be necessary for the consideration of hosting the U.S. Olympic Trials again in 1976. He also ran unsuccessfully for an House seat in the Oregon Legislature in 1970 as a Republican, losing by only 815 votes out of 61,000 cast.

Bowerman officially retired as head coach on March 23, 1973, and assistant coach Bill Dellinger was immediately promoted.

United States Olympic Track program
Bowerman created a training program for adjusting athletes for the high altitude that they would experience at the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games. This successful program led to his selection as the 1972 Munich Olympic track and field head coaching position, even though American miler favorite Jim Ryun lost to Kenyan Kip Keino, citing altitude as part of the reason for this upset. Bowerman coached members of teams from Norway, Canada, Australia, and the United States.

During the Munich Massacre at the 1972 Olympics in West Germany, where Bowerman was frequently blamed for a dismal performance by the U.S. track team, Israeli race walker Shaul Ladany escaped the PLO terrorists, and then awakened Bowerman and alerted the West German police. Bowerman called the U.S. consulate for a detachment of Marines to protect the U.S. Olympic compound, in which lived two high-profile Jewish athletes:  swimmer Mark Spitz and javelin thrower Bill Schmidt.

Running
During a trip to New Zealand in 1962, Bowerman was introduced to the concept of running as a fitness routine, including people of an advanced age, through a running club organized by his friend and coaching colleague Arthur Lydiard. Bowerman brought this concept back to the United States, and began to write articles and books about running. He also created a running program in Eugene that became a national model for fitness programs. A Jogger's Manual, a three-page guide, was published shortly after Bowerman returned from New Zealand. In 1966, along with cardiologist W.E. Harris, Bowerman published a 90-page book titled Jogging. The book sold over a million copies and was credited with igniting the jogging phenomenon in the United States.  The new crop of older athletic people contributed to the evolution of the sport of track and field to create a new division for these masters athletes. Due to the popularity of Jogging, Harris and Bowerman published a 127-page book in 1967.

Athletics West is an American running team formed by Bill Bowerman, Phil Knight and Geoff Hollister in 1977. At the time, America had no definitive running program for young athletes to continue competing outside of college. The formation and success of Athletics West, together with the success and popularity of American runners like Craig Virgin (charter member), Steve Prefontaine, Frank Shorter and Bill Rodgers helped inspire the 1970s running boom.

Nike

According to Otis Davis, a student athlete who Bowerman coached at the University of Oregon, who later went on to win two gold medals at the 1960 Summer Olympics, he was one of the guinea pigs for whom Bowerman customized shoes prior to being a cofounder of Nike. Davis states 'I didn't like the way they felt on my feet. There was no support and they were too tight. But I saw Bowerman make them from the waffle iron, and they were mine."

In 1964, Bowerman entered into a handshake agreement with Phil Knight, who had been a miler under him in the 1950s, to start an athletic footwear distribution company called Blue Ribbon Sports, later known as Nike, Inc. Knight managed the business end of the partnership, while Bowerman experimented with improvements in athletic footwear design. Bowerman stayed in Eugene, keeping his coaching job at the University of Oregon, while Knight operated the main office from Portland. Bowerman and Knight initially began importing the Onitsuka Tiger running shoes from Japan to sell in the United States. Initially, the partnership was 50-50, but shortly afterwards Bowerman wanted it changed to 51–49, with Knight having the higher ownership. He did this to avoid potential gridlock and have one of them be in charge of final decisions.

Bowerman's design ideas led to the creation of a running shoe in 1966 that was ultimately named "Nike Cortez" in 1968, which quickly became a top-seller and remains one of Nike's most iconic footwear designs. Bowerman designed several Nike shoes, but is best known for ruining his wife's Belgian waffle iron in 1970 or 1971, experimenting with the idea of using waffle-ironed rubber to create a new sole for footwear that would grip but be lightweight.
Bowerman's design inspiration led to the introduction of the so-called "Moon Shoe" in 1972, so named because the waffle tread was said to resemble the footprints left by astronauts on the moon. Further refinement resulted in the "Waffle Trainer" in 1974, which helped fuel the explosive growth of Blue Ribbon Sports/Nike. While Bowerman was experimenting with shoe design, he worked in a small, unventilated space, using glue and solvents with toxic components that caused him severe nerve damage. The nerve damage to his lower legs left him with significant mobility problems; as Kenny Moore notes in his book Bowerman and the Men of Oregon, Bowerman had rendered himself unable to run in the shoes that he had given the world.

Bowerman was obsessed with shaving weight off his athletes' running shoes. He believed that custom-made shoes would weigh less on the feet of his runners and cut down on blisters, as well as reduce the overall drag on their energy for every ounce he could remove from the shoe. By his estimation, removing one ounce (28 g) from a shoe, based on a six-foot gait for a runner, would translate in a reduction of 55 pounds (25 kg) of lift over a one-mile (1.6 km) span.

Knight once said of Bowerman's importance to the company, "If coach (Bowerman) isn't happy, Nike isn't happy."

Bowerman reduced his role with the company in the late 1970s and began passing down his stake in the company to other employees shortly before the IPO launched.

Legacy
Bowerman is a member of the National Distance Running Hall of Fame, the USA National Track and Field Hall of Fame, the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame, Oregon's Athletic Hall of Fame, the RRCA Distance Running Hall of Fame, and the National Inventors Hall of Fame. His statue and stopwatch grace the northwest corner of Hayward Field, home of the Prefontaine Classic at the University of Oregon. A biographical film, Without Limits, about the relationship between record-breaking distance runner Steve Prefontaine and his coach Bill Bowerman was made in 1998, and Bill Bowerman was played by Donald Sutherland. The headquarters for Nike is located on Bowerman Drive in homage to the company's co-founder. Also in his honor, the company created the "Bowerman Series" of performance running shoes, designed to provide longer-lasting, more training-focused products to compete with such running brands as Asics and Saucony.

In 2009, the U.S. Track & Field and Cross Country Coaches Association created The Bowerman, an award that is given to the most outstanding collegiate male and female track & field athlete in a given calendar year. Inaugural winners of the award were Oregon's Galen Rupp and Colorado's Jenny Barringer. The Bowerman trophy was designed by Tinker Hatfield, a Nike employee and former Oregon student-athlete coached by Bowerman.

Death
In declining health in late 1999, Bowerman died at age 88 at his home at an assisted care facility in Fossil, Oregon.

See also

 List of teachers portrayed in films
Without Limits

References

Sources

External links

 Bill Bowerman Papers at the University of Oregon
 National Distance Running Hall of Fame Induction
 Bill Bowerman Documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting

1911 births
1999 deaths
American male long-distance runners
American track and field coaches
Oregon Ducks track and field coaches
Nike, Inc. people
United States Army officers
Recipients of the Silver Star
North Medford High School alumni
University of Oregon alumni
Oregon Republicans
Sportspeople from Medford, Oregon
Track and field athletes from Portland, Oregon
Sportspeople from Portland, Oregon
People from Wheeler County, Oregon
Businesspeople from Oregon
20th-century American businesspeople
American company founders
20th-century American inventors
United States Army personnel of World War II

Bill Bowerman


A muezzin is a man who calls Muslim people to prayer through the adhan from the minaret of a mosque.

He leads the call (adhan) to Friday service and the five daily prayers (also known as the salat) from one of the mosque's minarets. Blind people often got the position; this is so that they could not see the places where women gathered. Today, many mosques have electronic amplification, and the muezzin no longer needs to be on the minaret.

In the city of Abu Dhabi, the call to prayer is coordinated, all mosques transmit the call of the muezzin of Sheikh Zayed Mosque. The idea for a similar system in Cairo failed in 2004.

References

Islamic religious leaders
Religious occupations

Muezzin


Evangelism is the Christian practice of preaching about Jesus Christ to both Christians and non-Christians. The purpose of most evangelism is to help others receive eternal (forever) salvation to people who have not heard of, or have denied God. Evangelism is done in obedience to the Great Commission, a command from Jesus to his disciples to convert others, as recorded in the New Testament.

Christians who are superior at evangelism are known as evangelists, whether in their areas or to far away places. Some Christian traditions consider evangelists to be in a leadership position, and they may be found preaching to large meetings.

Notable evangelists

Charles Finney was an evangelist in the 19th century. He was a leader in the Second Great Awakening, a time when many in America came to the Christian faith. Dwight L. Moody preached in the last half of the 19th century and also started a Christian school, the Moody Bible Institute. Aimee Semple McPherson  preached in the 1920s and 1930s. In the middle years of the 20th century Festo Kivengere, an Anglican Bishop preached in Africa with great results. A prominent evangelist in the 20th century was Billy Graham. His son Franklin Graham followed him, preaching in the 21st century.  Reinhard Bonnke (1940-2019) was an evangelist, largely in Africa. He preached to as many as 100,000  persons at a time. Many missionaries are evangelists, although missionaries also have done other work to promote their faith.

Types of Evangelism

Preaching can be done in churches or in special meetings.  Well known evangelists can draw crowds of many thousands of persons to hear their message.

Literature is used to spread the message.  Small papers with a one or two page message are called "tracts".  Some Christians give these to friends or even strangers. Many books have also been written to spread the Gospel.  Some are overtly Christian and others are less obviously so. C.S. Lewis has written extensively using both genres. The translation, printing and distribution of the Bible can also be a form of evangelism.

Personal Evangelism refers to people simply talking one on one to others about their faith.

Radio is widely used to present the Christian message.

Television has been used to broadcast both preaching and dramatic programs with an Evangelistic message.

Film Many films have been made with a Christian message.  "Jesus" was a film of the life of Christ based on the Gospel of Luke. It was funded by Bill Bright's Campus Crusade for Christ. It is probably the most watched  and most translated film of all time.

Christian Web Sites are often Evangelistic. Many Churches have Facebook pages or web sites with a link to something like "How to find God".

Music is used to attract listeners to hear a message.  Often the message of the song itself is a form of Evangelism.  Amazing Grace is a song with a Christian message that has found its way into popular culture. The Salvation Army has long used brass bands playing in public places to attract an audience to hear the gospel message.

Medicine is sometimes used in Evangelism.  Many Hospitals were founded by Christians to serve the physical needs of the public and at the same time showing them Christian love. This often leads to patients asking about the meaning of life and suffering.

Healing through prayer is sometimes promoted as a way of attracting interest in the Christian message.  It is recorded in the Bible that Jesus often did this.  Modern "faith healers" have been criticized for making false claims about persons being healed. But the practice is still common in Pentecostal circles. Catholic and mainline Protestant churches sometimes have healing services also.

Social programs are used by many churches to help persons in need of food, clothing and short term housing.  Some churches do this without any attempt to "preach" to those receiving the benefits.  Others, such as some "Rescue Missions" may require attendance at preaching meetings to receive the help.

Education has historically been a tool for Evangelism.  Many famous schools were founded to help spread the Christian message, even though many of them became secular over time.

Although most Christian denominations perform some sort of evangelism, Evangelical and Pentecostal denominations are very focused on this issue.

References

Christian theology
Evangelicalism

Evangelism


Grease is a 1971 musical by Jim Jacobs and Warren Casey. It takes its name from the 1950s United States working-class culture known as the greasers. It is set in 1959 in a made-up school called Rydell High in Chicago and is about the romance between high schoolers Danny Zuko and Sandy Dumbrowski.

Premieres
Grease had its world premiere in Chicago in 1971. Its Broadway premiere occurred at the Broadhurst Theatre on 7 June 1972. It closed on 13 April 1980 after a run of 3,388 performances. It opened on the West End in 1973.

Broadway musicals
West End musicals
1970s musicals

1971 works

Grease (musical)


The Arthur C. Clarke Award is a prize for excellent science fiction writing. It is a British award for a science fiction novel from the year before. To win, a the novel must be published first in the United Kingdom. The winner gets money as a prize. The prize amount increases each year. It is a number of pounds sterling equal to the year of the prize (£1987 for the first prize in 1987, and £2011 for the most recent prize).

The science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke gave money to start the prize. The first prize was given in 1987.  A group of judges choose the winning book. Judges come from the British Science Fiction Association, the Science Fiction Foundation and a third group. Now, that third group SF Crowsnest. The Serendip Foundation manages the prize.  Recently, the award has been presented on the first night of the SCI-FI-LONDON film festival.

List of winners
 1987: The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood
 1988: The Sea and Summer by George Turner
 1989: Unquenchable Fire by Rachel Pollack
 1990: The Child Garden by Geoff Ryman
 1991: Take Back Plenty by Colin Greenland
 1992: Synners by Pat Cadigan
 1993: Body of Glass by Marge Piercy (published as He, She and It in the U.S.)
 1994: Vurt by Jeff Noon
 1995: Fools by Pat Cadigan
 1996: Fairyland by Paul J. McAuley
 1997: The Calcutta Chromosome by Amitav Ghosh
 1998: The Sparrow by Mary Doria Russell
 1999: Dreaming in Smoke by Tricia Sullivan
 2000: Distraction by Bruce Sterling
 2001: Perdido Street Station by China Miéville
 2002: Bold As Love by Gwyneth Jones
 2003: The Separation by Christopher Priest
 2004: Quicksilver by Neal Stephenson
 2005: Iron Council by China Miéville
 2006: Air by Geoff Ryman
 2007: Nova Swing by M. John Harrison
 2008: Black Man by Richard Morgan
 2009: Song of Time by Ian R. MacLeod
 2010: The City and the City by China Miéville
 2011: Zoo City by Lauren Beukes
 2012: The Testament of Jessie Lamb by Jane Rogers
 2013: Dark Eden by Chris Beckett
 2014: Ancillary Justice by Ann Leckie
 2015: Station Eleven by Emily St. John Mandel
 2016: Children of Time by Adrian Tchaikovsky
 2017: The Underground Railroad by Colson Whitehead
 2018: Dreams Before the Start of Time by Anne Charnock

Related pages

 Hugo Award

Other websites
 Official Arthur C. Clarke Award site
 Reviews of current and previous winners
 Interview with Tom Hunter, Administrator of the Arthur C. Clarke Awards
 List of all winning and nominated novels

References

Literary awards
Science fiction awards
Lists of books

Arthur C. Clarke Award


Computer engineering is the practice of making computers and their parts. Computer engineers are always trying to make new parts smaller and better.  They can also work on software, especially software for embedded systems (specialized electronics like cell-phones and satellite receivers, not a general-purpose computer).

Computers are electrical machines that run programs.

Computer engineering has parts of both electrical engineering and computer science/software engineering. In computer engineering classes, students learn about the hardware and software of computers. They start with learning how transistors and computer chips are made and how they work (which uses quantum mechanics). Then the student learns how the chips talk to each other and how to make a complete printed circuit board (PCB), which is the electrical part. They also learn how to program the ROM or Flash memory so the computer can do something useful.

Because computer engineering is closely related to electrical engineering and computer science, the fields are found in the same department at many universities. Students also need to learn fundamental science subjects and mathematics, such as calculus and differential equations.

Computer engineering is difficult to learn, but computer engineers are needed. Software engineering companies, telecommunications firms, designers of digital hardware, and many other companies hire computer engineering majors upon graduation and pay them well.

Notes

Computer science
Engineering disciplines

Computer engineering


For other uses, see Victory Day, Beppe Grillo, व्हॅलेन्टाईन्स डे and Military designation of days and hours.

V-Day is a global movement to end violence against women and girls inspired by Eve Ensler's play, योनी मनीच्या गुजगोष्टी (नाटक). The movement was started in the late 1990s by author, playwright and activist Eve Ensler. Ensler has been quoted as saying that it was women's reactions to the play that launched V-Day.  After seeing योनी मनीच्या गुजगोष्टी (नाटक), women would line up after to tell Eve their personal experiences, most often of sexual violence.

  V-Day बद्दल
In 1998, a non-profit charity, "V-Day", was incorporated with the intent of using performances of योनी मनीच्या गुजगोष्टी (नाटक) to raise money to benefit female victims of violence and sexual abuse. Since its inception, the movement has expanded its use of art and activism to include film — most notably the documentary Until The Violence Stops (2004), readings of the compilation A Memory, Monologue, A Rant, and a Prayer, marches, and festivals such as UNTIL THE VIOLENCE STOPS: NYC (June 2006).

Beginning in early 2001, V-Day activities expanded to a host of international activities, with V-Day hosting leadership summits for women in Afghanistan, an international gathering of activists worldwide in Rome in September 2002, launching the Karama program in the Middle East,
and more. In some societies where the original monologues are considered too vulgar, such as Monte Carlo, Monaco, V-Day events revolve around the book A Memory, a Monologue, a Rant, and a Prayer, a collection of monologues written by acclaimed writers, at the request of Ensler to celebrate the play's tenth anniversary.

V-Day included the first ever all transgender version of योनी मनीच्या गुजगोष्टी (नाटक) in 2004, with a performance by eighteen notable transwomen under the mentoring of Jane Fonda and Andrea James of Deep Stealth Productions.

In 2008, over 3700 V-Day benefit events have been held or planned. These events are being coordinated by volunteer activists in over 1250 locations around the world, educating millions of people about the reality of violence against women and girls.

 Mission
According to www.vday.org, V-Day's vision is "a world where women live safely and freely''."  V-Day demands that rape, incest, battery, genital mutilation and sexual slavery end immediately and believes that "women should spend their lives creating and thriving rather than surviving or recovering from terrible atrocities".

The organization strives to unify and strengthen existing anti-violence efforts by raising money and consciousness, and to lay the groundwork for new educational, protective, and legislative endeavors throughout the world.

V-Day कँपेन्स

There are two types of V-Campaigns: The College Campaign and the Community Campaign.

The V-Day College Campaign engages members of college and university communities around the world to present benefit productions of योनी मनीच्या गुजगोष्टी (नाटक), A Memory, A Monologue, A Rant and A Prayer, Until the Violence Stops, Any One of Us, and What I Want My Words to Do to You on their campuses to raise money and awareness to stop violence against women and girls.

The V-Day Community Campaign invites communities around the world to present productions of योनी मनीच्या गुजगोष्टी (नाटक), A Memory, A Monologue, A Rant and A Prayer, Until the Violence Stops, Any One of Us, and What I Want My Words to Do to You to raise money and awareness to stop violence against women and girls.

Each year V-Day spotlights a particular group of women who are experiencing violence with the goal of raising awareness and funds to put a worldwide media spotlight on this area and to raise funds to aide groups who are addressing it. The 2009 spotlight focuses on the women and girls from the Democratic Republic of Congo.

टिका
V-Day has attracted considerable critcism for hijacking the occasion of valentines day. Critics argue that feminists should not be admonishing people to consider rape, incest and violence on an occasion designed to celebrate love and romance. Feminist Wendy McElroy stated that "V-Day embodies the same double standard and dishonesty that has characterized most feminist pronouncements for decades" and urged people to "take back Valentines Day". Glenn Sacks criticised V-Day for being misandrist and for causing division between the genders, stating "Valentine's Day, which in the past symbolized the romantic bonds between men and women, has been turned into a day which further separates them."

हेसुद्धा पहा
Domestic violence
Rape crisis center
Sexual assault
List of anti-sexual assault organizations in the United States

लेखात प्रयुक्त संज्ञा

शब्दाचा विशेष संदर्भ/अर्थ छटा

इंग्रजी मराठी  संज्ञा

संदर्भ

बाह्य दुवे
 The official V-Day site in the U.S.A.

व्ही दिवस


Alfred Lawrence Pearson (December 28, 1838 – January 6, 1903) was a lawyer and Union Army general in the American Civil War. He was awarded the U.S. military's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Lewis's Farm.

Biography
Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Pearson studied law at Meadville College and Jefferson College. He was admitted to the Allegheny County bar on January 14, 1862, but worked in the profession for only a few months before leaving to join the army.

He enlisted in the 155th Pennsylvania Infantry on April 2, 1862, and was commissioned a captain in Company A later that year, on August 23. Over the next few years he took part in all of his regiment's operations and received a series of promotions: to major on December 31, 1862, to lieutenant colonel on July 22, 1863, and to colonel on August 31, 1863. On December 14, 1864, President Abraham Lincoln nominated Pearson for appointment to the brevet grade of brigadier general of volunteers, to rank from September 30, 1864, and the U.S. Senate confirmed the appointment on February 14, 1865.

On March 29, 1865, in the last weeks of the war, Pearson participated in the Battle of Lewis's Farm in Virginia. When a Union brigade was pushed back by intense Confederate fire, Pearson rallied his regiment and led an attack which successfully regained the lost ground. For these actions, he was awarded the Medal of Honor several decades later, on September 17, 1897. In the last months of his military service he commanded the 3rd Brigade and later the 1st Brigade of 1st Division, V Corps. He was mustered out of the Army on June 2, 1865. On January 13, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated Pearson for appointment to the brevet grade of major general of volunteers to rank from May 1, 1865, and the U.S. Senate confirmed the appointment on March 12, 1866.

After the war Pearson returned to Pittsburgh and resumed the practice of law. He was elected Allegheny County's district attorney in October 1868 and served in that post until health problems forced him to retire from the legal profession. He later worked as a county gas inspector. Pearson was appointed a major general in the Pennsylvania National Guard in 1870 and placed in command of the 6th Division. He served in that capacity during the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, in which dozens of rioters were killed when his troops opened fire.

Pearson was active in veterans' affairs and was for many years a manager of the National Soldiers' Home. He was one of the organizers of the Grand Army of the Republic and was commander of the group's Department of Pennsylvania. He helped organize another veterans' group, the Union Veteran Legion, and was its first national commander. He was also a member of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion and the Medal of Honor Legion.

Pearson married Elizabeth Harwood Stewart and had a son, Alfred Laurence Pearson, who went on to become a successful businessman. He died on January 6, 1903, at age 64 and was buried at Allegheny Cemetery in Pittsburgh.

Medal of Honor citation
Pearson's official Medal of Honor citation reads:
Seeing a brigade forced back by the enemy, he seized his regimental color, called on his men to follow him, and advanced upon the enemy under a severe fire. The whole brigade took up the advance, the lost ground was regained, and the enemy was repulsed.

See also

List of American Civil War brevet generals (Union)
List of Medal of Honor recipients

Notes

References

Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
"In Memoriam: General A. L. Pearson, Esq.". Pittsburgh Legal Journal (Pittsburgh: Allegheny County Bar Association) N.S. Vol. XXXIII (27): 226. January 21, 1903. Retrieved 2009-02-19.
Fleming, George Thornton (1922). History of Pittsburgh and Environs. New York and Chicago: The American Historical Society, Inc.. pp. 236–237. Retrieved 2009-02-19.
"Civil War Medal of Honor recipients - (M–Z)". United States Army Center of Military History. January 27, 2009. Retrieved 2009-02-19.

External links

1838 births
1903 deaths
Lawyers from Pittsburgh
People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War
Washington & Jefferson College alumni
Union Army generals
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
Pennsylvania lawyers
American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor
Burials at Allegheny Cemetery
Military personnel from Pittsburgh
Grand Army of the Republic officials

Alfred L. Pearson


The Iapetus Ocean existed in the Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic eras (between 600 and 400 million years ago). The ocean was in the southern hemisphere, between three paleocontinents. The ocean disappeared when these three continents joined to form one big landmass. That large continent has been given various names, such as Laurussia or the Old Red Sandstone continent. Probably the best name is Euramerica, because basically it was American and Europe stuck together.

The Iapetus Ocean was between continental masses that would at a much later time roughly form the opposite shores of the Atlantic Ocean. It was a kind of precursor of the Atlantic.

At the start of the 19th century, American paleontologist Charles Doolittle Walcott noticed differences in early Paleozoic benthic trilobites either side of the line which later was called the Iapetus Suture.

The so called "Pacific fauna" of Laurentia, as found in Scotland and western Newfoundland, was quite different from those of Baltica, often called the "Atlantic fauna". The latter is found in the southern parts of the British Isles and eastern Newfoundland. Geologists of the early 20th century thought a large trough, a so-called geosyncline, had existed between Scotland and England in the early Paleozoic, keeping both sides separated.

With the development of plate tectonics in the 1960s geologists concluded the Atlantic Ocean must have had a precursor before the time of Pangaea. That ocean had closed as three continents joined, producing the Iapetus Suture.

Line of the suture

The Iapetus suture runs where the Iapetus Ocean was before.
In Great Britain the suture runs pretty much along the border between England and Scotland. On the east it runs through Lindisfarne, on the west through the Solway Firth.
On the Isle of Man it is the Niarbyl Fault, which is an exposed section of the suture.
On Ireland the suture runs from the east coast at Clogherhead in County Louth to the estuary of the River Shannon on the west.
In Canada, it runs through Newfoundland and New Brunswick.
In the United States the suture runs through the north-eastern states of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts and Connecticut.
There are other suture lines caused by the collision of continents in the run-up to Pangaea, but the Iapetus is the main one.

References

Geology
History of the British Isles
History of North America

Iapetus Ocean


The Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, is a large artefact or structure in the city of Rome. The construction of the Colosseum started around 70–72 AD and was finished in 80 AD. Emperor Vespasian started all the work, and Emperor Titus completed the colosseum. Emperor Domitian made some changes to the building between 81 and 96 AD. It had seating for 50,000 people. It is the biggest amphitheatre built by the Roman Empire, and the largest in the world. It was built between 81 and 96 AD.

The Colosseum is in Rome, the capital of Italy. More precisely, it is on the east bank of the Tiber, the river that crosses the city, east of the ancient Roman forum. A forum in antiquity was a geographical area in which were the main buildings of power, as well as the large square on which the population met. It was both a busy place to live, a place to get married, big parties, community meetings, and so on. The stadium was less than a kilometer to the southwest, the Capitol was a little over a mile to the west.

Colosseum was first called the Flavian Amphitheatre or in Latin, the Amphitheatrum Flavium. This was after Vespasian and Titus who had the family name of Flavius. It was used for gladiatorial contests, and other shows like animal hunts, in which animals would hunt and eat prisoners; or in which gladiators would fight against animals. There were also executions of prisoners, plays, and battle scenes; sometimes it was filled with water to fight sea battles. The people of Rome could go into the Colosseum without any costs; it was free.

In the Middle Ages, after the mid-fifth century, it was no longer used for performances. It was then used as housing, workshops, a Christian shrine, and as a supply of building stones.

It is now in ruins because of earthquakes. The Colosseum is a symbol of the Roman Empire. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions. On Good Fridays, the Pope leads a torch lit "Way of the Cross" procession around the various levels of the amphitheatre.

The Colosseum appears on the Euro five cent coins.

Sighting views

The building of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian in around 70–72 AD. The area was flat, in a valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills. There was a stream flowing through the valley, but this had been made into a canal. People had been living in this area for over 200 years, but the houses were destroyed in the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. The Emperor Nero took much of the land for his own use. He built a grand palace, the Domus Aurea which had a lake, gardens, paths covered with a roof held up by columns (porticoes), and large shelters (pavilions) to sit in. He had the Aqua Claudia aqueduct made longer to supply water to the area. There was also a big bronze statue of Nero, the Colossus of Nero, at the front of the Domus Aurea. In 68 AD, Nero lost control of the government. The Senate made him a public outlaw, and he killed himself soon after.

A great moment
To celebrate the end of Nero's rule, the Emperor Vespasian built the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake. This was seen as giving back the land to the people of Rome. The Romans often built monuments to celebrate important events, and the Colosseum is a part of that tradition.

Most of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land used for the Colosseum. Schools for gladiators and other buildings were put up in the old gardens of the Domus Aurea. The Colossus was left in place, but Nero's head was replaced. Vespasian renamed it after the sun-god, Helios (Colossus Solis). Many historians say that the name of the Colosseum comes from the statue, the Colossus. The Colosseum was originally structured to accomoodate a total of 70000 guests of which 60000 could be seated while rested 10000 can be stand. Usually in Roman cities, the amphitheatres were built on the edge of the city.
The Colosseum was built in the city centre; in effect, placing it in the real and symbolic heart of Rome.

Fights
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building opened by his son, Titus, in 80. Cassius Dio said that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the opening games. The building was changed by Vespasian's younger son, Emperor Domitian. He added the hypogeum, underground tunnels used to hold the animals and slaves used in the games. He also added a fourth level at the top of the Colosseum to add more seats.

Renovations

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by fire. Cassius Dio said the fire was started by lightning. The fire destroyed the wooden upper levels inside the amphitheatre. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. Theodosius II and Valentinian III (ruled 425–450), repaired damage caused by an earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. The last record of gladiator fights is about 435, while animal hunts continued until at least 523.

The Colosseum in medieval times

The Colosseum went through big changes of use during the medieval period. At the end of the 500's, a small church had been built into a part of the building. The arena was used as a cemetery. The areas under the seating was used for houses and workshops. There are records of the space being rented as late as the 1100s. About 1200, the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and made it into a castle.

During the great earthquake in 1349, the outer south side fell down. Most of the fallen stones were used to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings in Rome. In the middle of the 1300s, a religious group moved into the north part, and were still there in the 1800s. The inside of the Colosseum was used to supply building stones. The marble facade was burned to make quicklime. The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were ripped off the walls leaving marks that can still be seen today.

The Colosseum in modern times

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials looked for a use for the big and ruined building. Pope Sixtus V (1521–1590) wanted to turn the building into a wool factory to provide jobs for Rome's prostitutes, but he died and the idea given up. In 1671 Cardinal Altieri said it could be used for bullfights. Many people were upset by this idea, it was quickly dropped.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV said that the Colosseum was a sacred place where early Christians had been martyred. He stopped people from taking any more building stones away. He set up the Stations of the Cross inside the building. He said the place was made sacred with the blood of the Christian martyrs who had died there. However, there is no historical evidence that any Christians had been killed in the Colosseum.

Later popes started projects to save the building from falling down. They took out the many plants which had overgrown the building and were causing more damage. The facade was made stronger with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827. The inside was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The underground area was partly dug out in 1810–1814 and 1874. This digging was finished by Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.'

Description

The outside

The Colosseum is a free standing building, quite different to the earlier Greek theatres which were built into the sides of hills. It is really two Roman theatres joined together. It is oval shaped, 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide. It covers an area of . The outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet) high. The distance around the building was 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The arena is an oval  long and  wide, surrounded by a wall  high. Around the arena were raised rows of seating.

The outer wall was made from about  of travertine stone. This was held together by  of iron clamps. There was no mortar used to hold the wall together. The outside wall has been badly damaged over the years. Large sections have fallen down after earthquakes. The north side of the outside wall is still standing. It has triangular brick wedges at each end, added in the early 1800s to hold up the wall. The rest of the outside wall that can be seen today, is in fact the original inside wall.

References

Buildings and structures in Rome
1st-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Italy

Colosseum


Delft is a city in the province South Holland in the Netherlands. It is about halfway between Rotterdam and The Hague. It is famous for its Delft Blue pottery and the Delft University of Technology. It is the place where the royal family, the kings and queens, are buried. It has about 94,000 inhabitants.

Things to see
Delft is a city with typical Dutch canals, churches and large canal houses. The largest church in Delft is the Nieuwe Kerk (New Church).

Delft


A head coach, senior coach or manager is a person who trains and develops men and women who play sports. They usually hold a more public profile and are paid more than other coaches on the team. In some sports such as soccer and baseball, the head coach is called a manager.  In other sports, such as Australian rules football, they are called a senior coach.  Some sports that use the phrase "head coach" include American football and basketball.

These head coaches sometimes have other coaches that report to them.  These assistant coaches focus on one part of the team rather than the whole team.  Assistant coaches often work in offensive positions or defensive positions. They can sometimes coach just one position on the team such as a coach just for the quarterbacks in American football.

Sports occupations

Head coach


Brother Jean-Paul Desbiens, Frère Pierre-Jérôme, F.M.S., OC (March 7, 1927 – July 23, 2006) was a Quebec writer, journalist, teacher and member of the Catholic institute of  Marist Brothers.

He was born at Métabetchouan in the Lac Saint-Jean region of Quebec in 1927. He joined the Marist order in 1944 and studied at the Université de Montréal and the Université Laval, graduating with a degree in philosophy in 1958. He began a teaching career in high schools of his native Lac-St-Jean region.  His 1960 book Les insolences du Frère Untel (1960) (translated as The Impertinences of Brother Anonymous, 1962), is a strong attack on the quality of public education system in Quebec. The book, which also denounces the poor quality of the spoken and written French among the younger generations, is credited by many as inspiring the Quiet Revolution in Quebec. A follow-up, Sous le soleil de la pitié (translated as For Pity's Sake: The Return of Brother Anonymous, 1965) was published in 1965.

His identity revealed and his relationship with the church establishment strained, Desbiens left the Quebec intellectual scene and attended University of Fribourg, Switzerland, where he obtained a Ph.D. in philosophy. He later worked with the Ministry of Education in Quebec to help  improve the public school and junior college programs in the province. Desbiens was chief editorial writer for La Presse from 1970 to 1972.  He was also the provincial head of his religious congregation for some time. He wrote many essays, and published his personal journal. He was named an Officer of the Order of Canada in 2006.

He died in Quebec City of a heart attack on July 23, 2006, having had lung cancer.

References
W. H. New, ed. Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002: 288.

External links
Jean-Paul Desbiens (1927-2006) Homme d'Église, enseignant, écrivain (french)
Jean-Paul Desbiens entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia

1927 births
2006 deaths
Marist Brothers
Officers of the Order of Canada
People from Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean
Journalists from Quebec
Writers from Quebec
Université Laval alumni
Canadian writers in French

Jean-Paul Desbiens