Archibald Lampman  (17 November 1861 – 10 February 1899) was a Canadian poet. "He has been described as 'the Canadian Keats;' and he is perhaps the most outstanding exponent of the Canadian school of nature poets." The Canadian Encyclopedia says that he is "generally considered the finest of Canada's late 19th-century poets in English."

Lampman is classed as one of Canada's Confederation Poets, a group which also includes Charles G.D. Roberts, Bliss Carman, and Duncan Campbell Scott.

Life

Archibald Lampman was born at Morpeth, Ontario, a village near Chatham, the son of Archibald Lampman, an Anglican clergyman. "The Morpeth that Lampman knew was a small town set in the rolling farm country of what is now western Ontario, not far from the shores of Lake Erie. The little red church just east of the town, on the Talbot Road, was his father's charge."

In 1867 the family moved to Gore's Landing on Rice Lake, where young Archie Lampman attended at the Barron's School. In 1868 he contracted rheumatic fever, which left him lame for some years and with a permanently weakened heart.

Lampman attended Cobourg Collegiate, followed by Trinity College School in Port Hope, Ontario, and then Trinity College in Toronto, Ontario (now part of the University of Toronto), graduating in 1882, with only second-class standing. While at university, he published early poems in Acta Victoriana, the literary journal of Victoria College. In 1883, after a frustrating attempt to teach high school in Orangeville, Ontario, he took an appointment as a low-paid clerk in the Post Office Department in Ottawa, a position he held for the rest of his life.

Lampman "was slight of form and of middle height. He was quiet and undemonstrative in manner, but had a fascinating personality. Sincerity and high ideals characterized his life and work."

On Sep. 3, 1887, Lampman married 20-year-old Maude Emma Playter. "They had a daughter, Natalie Charlotte, born in 1892. Arnold Gesner, born May 1894, was the first boy, but he died in August. A third child, Archibald Otto, was born in 1898."

In Ottawa, Lampman befriended poet William Wilfred Campbell. He also became a close friend of Indian Affairs bureaucrat Duncan Campbell Scott; Scott introduced him to camping, and Lampman introduced Scott to writing poetry. One of their early camping trips inspired Lampman's classic Morning on the Lièvre which, in 1961, became the text for, and subject of, an award-winning National Film Board of Canada film of the same name.

Lampman, Campbell, and Scott together wrote a literary column, "At the Mermaid Inn," for the Toronto Globe from February 1892 until July 1893. (The name was a reference to the Elizabethan-era Mermaid Tavern.) As Lampman wrote to a friend:

"In the last years of his short life there is evidence of a spiritual malaise which was compounded by the death of an infant son [Arnold, commemorated in the poem "White Pansies"] and his own deteriorating health."

Lampman died in Ottawa at the age of 37, due to his weakened heart. He is buried, fittingly, at Beechwood Cemetery, in Ottawa, a site he wrote about in the poem "In Beechwood Cemetery" (which is inscribed at the cemetery's entranceway). His grave is marked by a natural stone on which is carved only one word: Lampman. A plaque on the site carries a few lines from his poem "In November":

Writing

In May 1881, when Lampman was at Trinity College, someone lent him a copy of Charles G. D. Roberts's recently published first book, Orion and Other Poems. The effect on the 19-year-old student was immediate and profound:

Lampman sent Roberts a fan letter, which "initiated a correspondence between the two young men, but they probably did not meet until after Roberts moved to Toronto in late September 1883 to become the editor of Goldwin Smith's The Week."

Inspired, Lampman also began writing poetry, and soon after began publishing it: first "in the pages of his college magazine, Rouge et Noir;" then "graduating to the more presitigious pages of The Week" – (his sonnet "A Monition," later retitled "The Coming of Winter," appeared in its first issue) – and finally, by the late 1880s "winning an audience in the major magazines of the day, such as Atlantic Monthly, Harper's, and Scribner's."

Lampman published mainly nature poetry in the current late-Romantic style. "The prime literary antecedents of Lampman lie in the work of the English poets Keats, Wordsworth, and Arnold," says the Gale Encyclopedia of Biography, "but he also brought new and distinctively Canadian elements to the tradition. Lampman, like others of his school, relied on the Canadian landscape to provide him with much of the imagery, stimulus, and philosophy which characterize his work.... Acutely observant in his method, Lampman created out of the minutiae of nature careful compositions of color, sound, and subtle movement. Evocatively rich, his poems are frequently sustained by a mood of revery and withdrawal, while their themes are those of beauty, wisdom, and reassurance, which the poet discovered in his contemplation of the changing seasons and the harmony of the countryside."

The Canadian Encyclopedia calls his poems "for the most part close-packed melancholy meditations on natural objects, emphasizing the calm of country life in contrast to the restlessness of city living. Limited in range, they are nonetheless remarkable for descriptive precision and emotional restraint. Although characterized by a skilful control of rhythm and sound, they tend to display a sameness of thought."

"Lampman wrote more than 300 poems in this last period of his life, although scarcely half of these were published prior to his death. For single poems or groups of poems he found outlets in the literary magazines of the day: in Canada, chiefly the Week; in the United States, Scribner's Magazine, The Youth's Companion, the Independent, the Atlantic Monthly, and Harper's Magazine. In 1888, with the help of a legacy left to his wife, he published Among the millet and other poems," his first book, at his own expense. The book is notable for the poems "Morning on the Lièvre," "Heat," the sonnet "In November," and the long sonnet sequence "The Frogs"

"By this time he had achieved a literary reputation, and his work appeared regularly in Canadian periodicals and prestigious American magazines.... In 1895 Lampman was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, and his second collection of poems, Lyrics of Earth, was brought out by a Boston publisher."

The book was not a success. "The sales of Lyrics of Earth were disappointing and the only critical notices were four brief though favourable reviews. In size, the volume is slighter than Among the Millet — twenty-nine poems in contrast to forty-eight — and in quality fails to surpass the earlier work." (Lyrics does, though, contain some of Lampman's most beautiful poems, such as "After Rain" and "The Sun Cup.")

"A third volume, Alcyone and other poems, in press at the time of his death" in 1899, showed Lampman starting to move in new directions, with the nature verses interspersed with philosophical poetry like "Voices of Earth" and "The Clearer Self" and poems of social criticism like "The City" and what may be his best-known poem, the dystopian vision of "The City of the End of Things." "As a corollary to his preoccupation with nature," notes the Gale Encyclopedia, "Lampman [had] developed a critical stance toward an emerging urban civilization and a social order against which he pitted his own idealism. He was an outspoken socialist, a feminist, and a social critic." Canadian critic Malcolm Ross wrote that "in poems like 'The City at the End of Things' and 'Epitaph on a Rich Man' Lampman seems to have a social and political insight absent in his fellows."

However, Lampman died before Alcyone appeared, and it "was held back by Scott (12 specimen copies were printed posthumously in Ottawa in 1899) in favour of a comprehensive memorial volume planned for 1900." The latter was a planned collected poems "which he was editing in the hope that its sale would provide Maud with some much-needed cash. Besides Alcyone, it included Among the Millet and Lyrics of Earth in their entirety, plus seventy-four sonnets Lampman had tried to publish separately, twenty-three miscellaneous poems and ballads, and two long narrative poems ("David and Abigail" and "The Story of an Affinity")."  Among the previously unpublished sonnets were some of Lampman's finest work, including "Winter Uplands", "The Railway Station," and "A Sunset at Les Eboulements."

"Published by Morang & Company of Toronto in 1900," The Poems of Archibald Lampman "was a substantial tome — 473 pages — and ran through several editions. Scott's 'Memoir,' which prefaces the volume, would prove to be an invaluable source of information about the poet's life and personality."

Scott published one further volume of Lampman's poetry, At the Long Sault and Other Poems, in 1943 – "and on this occasion, as on other occasions previously, he did not hesitate to make what he felt were improvements on the manuscript versions of the poems." The book is remarkable mainly for its title poem, "At the Long Sault: May 1660," a dramatic retelling of the Battle of Long Sault, which belongs with the great Canadian historical poems. It was co-edited by E.K. Brown, who the same year published his own volume On Canadian Poetry: a book that was a major boost to Lampman's reputation. Brown considered Lampman and Scott the top Confederation Poets, well ahead of Roberts and Carman, and his view came to predominate over the next few decades.

Lampman never considered himself more than a minor poet, as he once confessed in a letter to a friend: "I am not a great poet and I never was.  Greatness in poetry must proceed from greatness of character — from force, fearlessness, brightness. I have none of those qualities. I am, if anything, the very opposite, I am weak, I am a coward, I am a hypochondriac. I am a minor poet of a superior order, and that is all." However, others' opinion of his work has been higher than his own.

Malcolm Ross, for instance, considered him to be the best of all the Confederation Poets:

Recognition

Lampman was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1895.

He was designated a Person of National Historic Significance in 1920.

A literary prize, the Archibald Lampman Award, is awarded annually by Ottawa-area poetry magazine Arc in Lampman's honour.

Since 1999, the annual "Archibald Lampman Poetry Reading" has brought leading Canadian poets to Trinity College, Toronto, under the sponsorship of the John W. Graham Library and the Friends of the Library, Trinity College.

His name is also carried on in the town of Lampman, Saskatchewan, a small community of approximately 730 people, situated near the City of Estevan.

Canada Post issued a postage stamp in his honour on July 7, 1989. The stamp depicts Lampman's portrait on a backdrop of nature.

Canadian singer/songwriter Loreena McKennitt adapted Lampman's poem "Snow" as a song, writing original music while keeping as the lyrics the poem verbatim. This adaptation appears on McKennitt's album To Drive the Cold Winter Away (1987) and, with a different arrangement, on her 1995 EP, A Winter Garden: Five Songs for the Season, which was replaced in 2008 by the album A Midwinter Night's Dream.

Publications

Poetry

Prose

See also

Canadian literature
Canadian poetry
List of Canadian poets

References

External links

 Selected Poetry of Archibald Lampman - Biography and 29 poems (At the Long Sault: May 1660, The City at the End of Things, Comfort of the Fields, Evening, The Frogs, The Growth of Love XI, Heat, In Beechwood Cemetery, In November (1), In November (2), A January Morning, Midnight, Morning on the Lièvre, A Niagara Landscape, On Lake Temiscamingue, On the Companionship with Nature, Outlook, The Railway Station, Reality, Storm, A Sunset at Les Eboulements, Temagami, A Thunderstorm, To a Millionaire, To the Ottawa, Voices of Earth, We too shall Sleep, Winter Evening, Winter Uplands, Winter-Solitude)
 Archibald Lampman at Canadian Poetry.
 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
 Website for the town of Lampman, Saskatchewan
 Archibald Lampman's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia
 The Lampman Medallion in the Trinity College Chapel
 Canadian Poetry: Studies/Documents/Reviews, No. 45 (Fall/Winter 1999). [Lampman centennial edition].
Records of Archibald Lampman are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books

1861 births
1899 deaths
19th-century Canadian poets
Canadian male poets
Canadian Anglicans
Canadian socialists
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
People from Chatham-Kent
Writers from Ontario
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Romantic poets
Sonneteers
Trinity College (Canada) alumni
University of Toronto alumni
19th-century Canadian male writers
Burials at Beechwood Cemetery (Ottawa)

Archibald Lampman


Fahrenheit (more precisely, a degree Fahrenheit) is a unit of measurement used to measure temperature. The conversion rate to Celsius is C= 5/9 x (F − 32).  The degree Fahrenheit is abbreviated °F.

History
This temperature scale was made in 1724 by a German scientist named Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit.  In the twentieth century, the unit became less used, and the degree Celsius more used.  Fahrenheit is still often used in the United States. In the United Kingdom, Fahrenheit is used on some websites, and on weather forecasts. The main reason for this is that the older population is more familiar with Fahrenheit.

The degree Fahrenheit is considered by many to be old fashioned and outdated way of measuring temperature. The degree Celsius has largely replaced Fahrenheit's use.

Overall, the use of the degree Fahrenheit is in decline throughout most of the world, with the USA being the main exception.

Examples

On the Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32° and boils at 212°.
 Room temperature is about 70 °F.
 A human's body temperature is usually close to 98.6 °F.
 Absolute zero is –459.67 °F.

Related pages
Celsius
Kelvin
Rankine
Delisle
Newton (Unit) (force)
Réaumur
Rømer

Imperial units
Units of temperature

Fahrenheit


The Snow Goose: A Story of Dunkirk is a novella by the American author Paul Gallico. It was first published in 1940 as a short story in The Saturday Evening Post, after which he expanded it to create a short novella which was published on 7 April 1941.

Plot summary
The Snow Goose is a simple, short written parable on the regenerative power of friendship and love, set against a backdrop of the horror of war. It documents the growth of a friendship between Philip Rhayader, an artist living a solitary life in an abandoned lighthouse in the marshlands of Essex because of his disabilities, and a young local girl, Fritha. The snow goose, symbolic of both Rhayader (Gallico) and the world itself, wounded by gunshot and many miles from home, is found by Fritha and, as the human friendship blossoms, the bird is nursed back to flight, and revisits the lighthouse in its migration for several years. As Fritha grows up, Rhayader and his small sailboat eventually are lost in the Dunkirk evacuation, having saved several hundred men. The bird, which was with Rhayader, returns briefly to the grown Fritha on the marshes. She interprets this as Rhayader's soul taking farewell of her (and realizes she had come to love him). Afterwards, a German pilot destroys Rhayader's lighthouse and all of his work, except for one portrait Fritha saves after his death: a painting of her as Rhayader first saw her – a child, with the wounded snow goose in her arms.

Reception
The Snow Goose was one of the O. Henry Prize Winners in 1941.

Critic Robert van Gelder called it "perhaps the most sentimental story that ever has achieved the dignity of a Borzoi [prestige imprint of publisher Knopf] imprint. It is a timeless legend that makes use of every timeless appeal that could be crowded into it". A public library put it on a list of 'tearjerkers'. Gallico made no apologies, saying that in the contest between sentiment and 'slime', "sentiment remains so far out in front, as it always has and always will among ordinary humans that the calamity-howlers and porn merchants have to increase the decibels of their lamentations, the hideousness of their violence and the mountainous piles of their filth to keep in the race at all."

Popular culture
 In 1944, Ronald Colman read The Snow Goose on Silver Theater on CBS radio (April 30, 1944).
 In 1948, a spoken word recording featuring Herbert Marshall, with music by Victor Young was issued on Decca records.
 In 1971, The Snow Goose, directed by Patrick Garland, was broadcast on BBC television. This film, from a screenplay by Gallico, features Richard Harris and Jenny Agutter. It won a Golden Globe for Best Movie Made for TV, and was nominated for both a BAFTA and an Emmy, with Agutter winning for Outstanding Supporting Actress, and was shown in the US as part of the Hallmark Hall of Fame.
 In 1976, Spike Milligan narrated an edited version, with music by Ed Welch, issued on RCA records.
 In 1990, Ruth Cracknell narrated an edited version, with music again by Welch, issued by EMI and ABC Records; this was nominated for the ARIA Award for Best Children's Album in 1992.
 In 2002, William Fiennes published The Snow Geese – a travel book about the snow goose and its migrations. The author was inspired by reading The Snow Goose as a child.
 In 2003, John Harvey and The Puppet Lab in Edinburgh, toured the UK with a puppet-adaptation of the book.
 In 2014, an excerpt from The Snow Goose was set as a comprehension passage in the Annual ISC Examinations conducted by CISCE.
 In 2016, author Michael Morpurgo acknowledged its influence on his much-loved War Horse in the foreword to the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust's 70th anniversary republication of the 1946 edition, featuring illustrations by Peter Scott.

Musical adaptations
In 1975, the British progressive rock group Camel made an orchestrated instrumental album based on Gallico's novel, initially titled The Snow Goose. Gallico threatened to sue the band for copyright infringement, and therefore the band had to change the title to Music Inspired by The Snow Goose. The album was a great success and established Camel as a successful group, leading to a sell-out performance with the London Symphony Orchestra at the Royal Albert Hall, London, in October 1975, which was later released as part of their first concert album A Live Record. Camel toured Europe in late 2013 and early 2014, performing the album in its entirety for the first time since 1975. In 2014, readers of Prog magazine voted it no. 31 in the Top 100 Prog Albums of All Time.

In 1976, RCA released an album called The Snow Goose with music written and orchestrated by Ed Welch and Spike Milligan. Contributions were made by Harry Edgington and Alan Clare. The album was produced by Welch and Stuart Taylor for Quarry Productions Ltd, with artistic direction from Milligan. Gallico's original story was adapted for this recording by Milligan in Australia in 1976. The music is published by Clowns Music Ltd. Milligan provided the narration throughout. Virginia, the widow of Paul Gallico, co-operated on the project.

John Ritchie composed "The Snow Goose" for flute and orchestra in 1982. In 1999 a version for flute and piano was created.

Allusions and references to real things

 The character Rhayader is loosely based on ornithologist, conservationist and painter Peter Scott, who also did the illustrations for the first illustrated English edition of the book, using his first wife Elizabeth Jane Howard as the model for Fritha.
 Rhayader is a town in Wales, and also the Welsh word for waterfall.

See also

 Little Ships of Dunkirk

References

Scott, Peter. (1961). The Eye of the Wind. An Autobiography. Hodder & Stoughton: London.

Sources
"The Snow Goose", information at PaulGallico.info
The Snow Goose on Theatre Royal: April 18, 1954

1940 American novels
American novellas
Novels set during World War II
Works originally published in The Saturday Evening Post
Novels set in Essex
Novels by Paul Gallico
Alfred A. Knopf books

eu:Elur-antzara

The Snow Goose (novella)


The Mukden Palace (), or Shenyang Imperial Palace (), was the former palace of the Later Jin dynasty and the early Qing dynasty. It was built in 1625, and the first three Qing emperors lived there from 1625 to 1644. Since the collapse of imperial rule in China, the palace has been converted to a museum that now lies in the center of Shenyang, Liaoning.

History
Early construction began in 1625 by Nurhaci, the founder of the Later Jin dynasty. By 1631, additional structures were added during the reign of Nurhaci's successor, Hong Taiji.

The Mukden Palace was built to resemble the Forbidden City in Beijing. However, the palace also exhibits hints of Manchu and Tibetan architectural styles.

After the Qing dynasty replaced the Ming dynasty in 1644 in Beijing, the Mukden Palace lost its status as the official residence of the Qing emperor. Instead, the Mukden Palace became a regional palace.

In 1780, the Qianlong Emperor further expanded the palace. Successive Qing emperors usually stayed at the Mukden Palace for some time each year.

In 1955, the Mukden Palace was converted into the Shenyang Imperial Palace Museum.

In 2004, it was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List as an extension of the Imperial Palace of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, or Forbidden City, in Beijing.

Structure
The Mukden Palace covers an area of around 60,000 square meters, with over 300 buildings and 20 courtyards. According to its layout, it can be divided into three parts: East Section, Middle Section and West Section, and set Middle Section as the main body. The East and West Sections were built in the Nurhachi Period. The layout of the building from the Eight Banners system in the East Section is a unique feature of the Mukden Palace. It is the stereotype of the minority system reflect on the architecture of the Qing dynasty. It combines the architectural features of the Han, Manchu and Mongol peoples.

The main part of the Middle Section is located in the centre of the ancient city of Shenyang, built in the Hong Taiji period. The buildings are arranged on a central axis with a number of symmetrical out-buildings on either side. The West Road building was built in 1783.

This kind of structure constitute with a clear primary and secondary status, strict functional division, and centralized the overall composition with obviously Manchu living feature, but also have disadvantages which are full in the column but lack in row.

East Section
The Dazheng Hall (大政殿) and the Shiwang Pavilion (十王亭) built for the Nurhachi period. It was founded in 1625 and is the place where the emperor held the "Great Ceremony" and the office of the Eight Banners Minister. Dazheng Temple is an octagonal heavy-duty building with a yellow glazed tile and green trimming, 16 multicoloured glazed ridges, large wooden frame structure, with Mortise and tenon joint, flying roof arch, colour painting and dragon plate, which is the traditional architectural form of the Han Dynasty. Additionally, the decoration of Cintamani and the Sanskrit ceiling add the feature of the religious and ethnic minority architecture style. The layout of the DazhengHall and the Shiwang Pavilion constitute a complete group of buildings in the East Section.

Middle Section
Daqing Gate (), Chongzheng Hall (), Fenghuang Building (), Qingning Palace (), etc., it was built from 1627 to 1635. It was the place where the emperor carried out political activities and the living palace of the Royal Intermarriage wives. The most representative building of the middle section is the Fenghuang Building, a palace which was built on the 4-meter-tall blue-brick platform, as the place of the emperor holding banquets and Sightseeing point. It opens in the east, the palace in Fenghuang Building is connected with religious rituals, and the room in the west is surrounded by Kang bed-stove, which uses as a way to keep warm in Northern part of China, and the chimney is located at the back, which is an architectural feature of the Manchu People.

West Section
Stage (), Jiayintang (), Wenshangge () and Yangxizhai () were built in 1782. When the emperor of Qing dynasty "East Tour" to Shengjing (Shenyang), It was the place reading books, watching dramas and room of storing the "Complete Library of the Four Treasuries". The entire architectural design and layout reflect the emperor's so-called "dignity" and strict feudal hierarchy. In Mukden Palace, only the roof is worth 680,000 Tael, which is equivalent to the annual ration of 450,000 poor peasants.

The Mukden Palace is not only an ancient palace complex but also famous for its rich and precious collections both in domestic and international. The Mukden Palace Museum displays a large number of artifacts which are left in the old-time, such as the sword of Nurhachi, the waist knife and antler chairs of Hong Taiji.

Collections
The collections of the Mukden Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection, including porcelain, enamel, lacquerware, sculpture, calligraphy and painting, weaving embroidery, etc. Which has both the historical and cultural features of the Early and late Qing dynasty costumes and palace art that has a rich cultural connotation and artistic value.

References

External links

English-language official website

Houses completed in 1625
Buildings and structures in Shenyang
Palaces in China
World Heritage Sites in China
Royal residences in China
Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Liaoning
Museums in Liaoning
Qing dynasty architecture
1625 establishments in Asia
National first-grade museums of China

Mukden Palace


A hall of fame is a type of museum for awards in certain areas where awards can be given, for example sport, art, theatre, music, agriculture, military and many more areas. A hall of fame is sometimes an actual building where awards, trophies and memrobilia are stored but sometimes a hall of Fame is just a list of award winners. To get into a hall of fame in any area, one must be the best in that area, or one of the best.

The first hall of fame was the Forum Augustum in Ancient Rome. It was built by Augustus who vowed to build a temple honoring Mars, the Roman God of war, during the battle of Philippi in 42 BC.  The Forum incuded statues of heroes of the Ancient world.

Hall of fame


Latin rock is a term to describe a music subgenre. It has traditional sounds and elements of Latin American and Caribbean folk music merged with with rock music. However, it is widely used in the English-language media to refer any kind of rock music featuring Spanish or Portuguese vocals.

The archaetypal latin rock band was led by Carlos Santana. His band Santana was far and away the most popular latin rock fusion  of the late 1960s to the early 2000s. Santana has sold more than 90 million records worldwide, making them one of the world's best-selling groups of all time.

In 1969, after the release of the debut album by Santana, Latin rock appeared in the US and other parts of the world. The band's musical style is a fusion of Latin American and Caribbean rhythms, soul, jazz, funk, blues, psychedelia and rhythm and blues based on rock music.

Equally important to their success was the use of English lyrics. In the United States of fifty years ago, to sing in Spanish was to limit the audience to Puerto Rican, Mexican and Cuban immigrants. To sing in English was to open up the chance of really wide popularity.

References

Rock music
Latin music
Music genres

Latin rock


Deafness is when someone cannot hear at all, or cannot hear well. Deafness is also known as 'hearing loss'. There were many famous people who were deaf, such as Ludwig van Beethoven and Helen Keller.

Definition

A person is considered to be deaf if they cannot hear the same range of sounds as a person with normal hearing ability. People that cannot hear any sounds are also deaf. People who are partially deaf may hear some sounds and may hear words.

People who cannot hear and understand words well are 'hard of hearing'. And people who cannot hear and speak are called "deaf-mute".

Things that help deaf people

 Hearing aid, which helps a deaf person to hear sounds.
 Teletypewriter (TTY), a machine that allows a deaf person to communicate with people.
 Sign language, a language which allows a deaf person to have a conversation with someone else.
 Hearing dog, a dog that has been trained to hear sounds and help a deaf person.

Causes

There are different causes of deafness:
Age: Many people hear less well as they get older. Few lose all hearing, and when they do, there is a specific reason.
Exposure to noise: Being in a noisy environment for a long time may damage ears and cause hearing loss.
Genetic conditions: There may be a history of deafness in the family. If the mother and/or father are deaf, their child will have a strong chance of being deaf.
Diseases: Certain diseases may cause deafness.
Drugs: Certain drugs may cause changes to hearing, including deafness.
Chemicals: Certain chemicals can damage the ear.
Natural: People are occasionally born deaf. Sometimes there is no explanation why they are deaf.

Categories of deafness
Generally, there are two views of deafness:
 Medical view: the effects of deafness and measuring type and how much of loss (as seen in categories below).
 Sign language in deaf culture: includes people who use sign language to communicate and are part of group of people who share life experiences. Referring to people of the cultural group the phrase "Deaf people" is used and deaf is capitalized (as shown previously). A person using the medical view would write "people who are deaf".
These categories may overlap.
 Unilateral hearing loss – loss of hearing in one ear only
 Pre-lingual deafness – deafness at birth or deafness that started before language is learned
 Peri-lingual deafness – deafness that started while learning a first language
 Post-lingual deafness – deafness that started after a language has been learned
 Partial loss of hearing – limited hearing loss
 Progressive hearing loss – hearing loss that becomes worse as time passes
 Profound hearing loss – complete or near-complete hearing loss
 Tone deaf – not able to hear differences in relative pitch (in music)
 Tinnitus – hearing damage that causes high pitched ringing.  This makes it so that the person cannot hear other sounds
 Conductive – hearing loss caused by sound being blocked from going into ears
 Sensorineural – hearing loss caused by hair cells in ears being damaged

Other websites

Hearing problems

Deafness


The heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) is  a type of bipolar junction transistor (BJT) which uses different semiconductor materials for the emitter and base regions, making a heterojunction. The HBT  can handle signals of much higher frequencies, (up to several hundred GHz) than BJT. HBT is commonly used in modern ultrafast circuits, mostly radio-frequency (RF) systems, and in applications requiring a high power efficiency, such as RF power amplifiers in mobile  phones. The idea of using a heterojunction is as old as the conventional BJT, dating back to a patent from 1951.

Materials

The principal difference between the BJT and HBT is in the use of different semiconductor materials for the emitter and base regions, making a heterojunction. This limits the injection of holes from the base into the emitter region, since the potential barrier in the valence band is higher than in the conduction band. Unlike BJT technology, this allows a high doping density to be used in the base. The high doping density reduces the base resistance while maintaining gain. The efficiency of the heterojunction is measured by the Kroemer factor.

References

Other websites

 HBT Optoelectronic Circuits developed in the Technion (15Mb, 230p)
 New Material Structure Produces World's Fastest Transistor  604 GHz Early 2005

Electronic components

Heterojunction bipolar transistor


FC Biel-Bienne is the most successful football club in the city of Biel/Bienne, Switzerland. The club was founded on 13 November 1896. The club played in a stadium called 'Jardin Anglais' at the beginning. They went to the Gurzelen Stadium in the year 1913. There they still play today. The Gurzelen Stadium has a capacity of 15,000.

The club got the name FC Biel-Bienne in 1911. Before they were called 'Football-Club de Bienne'. During World War I they didn't play in the league but they did a lot of charity projects.
FC Biel-Bienne plays in the Challenge League today. The second best football league in Switzerland.

They moved to the First League in the season 1989/90. This is the best League of Amateur-football in Switzerland. They went to the Challenge League again in 2008.
Because the Gurzelen Stadium is very old, FC Biel/Bienne has to play on the 'Maladière Stadium' in Neuenburg. But the club can come back in 2014 because the new stadium is going to be built. It will be opened in 2015.

Today
The president of the FC Biel-Bienne is Jean-Marc Hofstetter. He became president in 2013.
Before it was Jean-Pierre Senn.
The coach of the club is Phillipe Perret.

Achievements
In 1947 they became Swiss Champion. In 1961 they reached the final of the Swiss Cup. In 2011 they reached they reached the semifinal of the Swiss Cup. In 1968 they won the Uhrencup.

Biel/Bienne
Biel/Bienne, Switzerland
1896 establishments in Switzerland

FC Biel-Bienne


The former subdivisions of Pakistan are states, provinces and territories of Pakistan. Most of which existed between 1947 and 1975.

History
Pakistan's subdivisions originate from those of British India, during their rule the British had established provinces and chief commissioners. After 1947 Pakistan and India became independent when British India was divided.

From 1947 to 1971, Pakistan was split into two areas (East and West Pakistan) that were 1600 kilometres apart separated by India in the middle. The eastern wing had one province - East Bengal which included the Sylhet District from the former Indian province of Assam, and also the former district of East Pakistan province. The western wing was formed from three Governor's provinces (North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab and Sind (historical), one Chief Commissioner's Province (Baluchistan), several Princely states and parts of occupied Kashmir.

Related pages
 History of Pakistan

Other websites
 Government of Pakistan

Former subdivisions of Pakistan


The term tabloid is used to describe newspapers or magazines with pages smaller than regular journals, although there is no standard for the exact dimensions of a tabloid. It is also used (sometimes inappropriately or as an insult) to describe a newspaper that sensationalizes news stories, often with a focus on personalities and gossip, and much less detailed coverage of topics such as politics and economics than is offered by newspapers regarded as more serious. Tabloids usually include more "celebrity" news than political.

Related pages
Yellow journalism

Newspapers

Tabloid


Motor sports are sports where the people taking part use a motor vehicle. The usual vehicles are a car, motorcycle or boat. Some motor sports use aircraft or snowmobiles.

Motor sports can be based either on speed (the first one to reach the finish line wins) or on skill (the one with the least amount of penalty points wins). Speed-based motor sports are often called races. Motor sports based on skill are often called trials.

Well known motor sports are rally, Formula 1 and Nascar.

Motor sports


A nonprofit organization (NPO), or non-business entity, is an organization which does not give its surplus income to owners or shareholders.

It uses its revenue and/or capital to achieve its purpose or mission. The decision to adopt a non profit legal structure is one that will often have tax benefits. Governments may see them as supporting activities which help the community.

In England this is more often referred to as "not-for-profit", and includes local and national government. Non-profit organizations are allowed to pay their workers, but sometimes workers at non-profit organizations are volunteers who do not get paid for their work.

Sometimes a non-profit may make money to help other people, which might include helping them start their own business or providing them with food, clothing or shelter. Some non-profits try to help endangered animals or the environment. Some non-profits are small groups of people such as a block association or community group. Others such as trade unions, universities or religions are large and well established, with many assets and many paid workers.

When a non-profit organization deals with politics or international issues it can be called a non-governmental organization or NGO. The Wikimedia organization, which runs Wikipedia is a non-profit. It is based in Florida in the United States. It is also a not-for-profit corporation.

References

Related pages
Charitable organization

Nonprofit organization


Southampton Corporation Tramways was a transport company that opened in 1879 and closed in 1949. At first the trams were horse-drawn, but later they were powered by electricity.

Background
Southampton, a city of the United Kingdom located in Hampshire, was becoming bigger in the nineteenth century. The population was 27,000 people in 1841.  This was because the docks were becoming much more used. Also, a railway openened in 1839 and a horse-drawn omnibus service started at as well. By 1843 a regular service was running from the station to Millbrook, Eling, Bitterne, Shirley, Portswood, Totton and Romsey. Because of this, by 1861 the population had become 42,000.

By 1872 tramways were a lot more popular. The British and Foreign Tramway Company contacted Southampton Corporation with an idea to set up a tramway in the town. Lots of people were against the idea. The Corporation did not allow tram tracks to be put in the High Street and Above Bar. The British and Foreign Tramway Company stopped thinking about the idea.

In 1876 Southampton Corporation saw that their public transport was not as good as the public transport in other cities. The Southampton Tramways Company was made to build a new tramway system. The tramway started to be built in the summer of 1878.

Southampton Tramways Company

The first tram ran on 5 May 1879. The tramway made £26. Many people did not want the trams to run on a Sunday, and 3,500 people put their names on a petition to stop the trams running on a Sunday. The company's manager said that there were lots of people who rode on the trams on Sunday and that the service would continue. If the service made money on a Sunday, then the trams would keep running. The first tram route that opened was Stag Gate - Holy Rood. A second route opened on 6 May 1879 which was Alma Road - Canute Road - Oxford Street - High Street - Floating Dock and Stag Gates - Lodge Road - Portswood. The Tramway Junction - Commercial Road - Shirley route opened on 9 June 1879.

The company got into some trouble soon after it opened. One of the managers ran away with some money to America in 1881.  Another manager got the sack in 1882 because there was a problem with the company's money. By 1887 though the company had recovered. It had a good financial base to stand on, and it was paying divedends of 8% a year to its shareholders. On the 22 October 1889, the Portswood route ran via Spear Road and Avenue Road. Fares cost less money in 1896 because they changed from 3d to 2d for "through routes". The tram times became two times as fast to every 5 minutes from Stag Gates to Holy Rood. Four new trams and forty horses were needed to run this service.

The Southampton Tramway Company was bought by Southampton Corporation on 30 June 1898 for £51,000.

Trams
The tramway had twenty-three tramcars when it was bought in 1898. They were:
Fifteen double deck cars that were built in 1879. The upper decks later taken off to make the cars weigh less.
Four cars were built in 1881 by the Starbuck Car and Wagon Company who were based in Birkenhead. The cars were paid for in .
Four tramcars were built in 1986 by Brush of Loughborough. After the tramway was electrified they were used as trailer cars, and two of them were later converted into single deck trams, numbered 50 and 51.

Southampton Corporation bought the Southampton Electric Light and Power Company in 1896. Two years later in 1898 it bought the Southampton Tramway Company two years later in 1898. This allowed them to change the town's tramway system to electricity instead of horse power. In 1899 a group of people from the Corporation visited tram systems in Bradford, Dover, Glasgow, Liverpool and London for ideas. They decided that Southampton's was going to be based on Liverpool's. The first electric tram route from Junction to Shirley opened on 22 January 1900. The second route from Stag Gates to Holy Road via Prospect Place opened on 29 May 1900. Over the next 3 years the system slowly got bigger. The following routes opened:

The last route to open as part of the first stage of the electrified system was Portswood - Hampton Park on 25 July 1903.

Before World War One more routes were added:
Clock Tower - Northam Bridge, 17 December 1910.
Holy Rood - High Street - Royal Pier, in June 1911
Common (Highfield Road) - Common (Old Race Course) after July 1911. Common (Old Race Course) later became known as "Rest Camp".

After the war, more new routes were added:
Common (Rest Camp) - Bassett Crossroads, 25 March 1921.
Roberts Road - Millbrook, 5 January 1922.
Hampton Park - Swaythling, 23 February 1922.
Bitterne Park Triangle - Bullar Road - Bittern Station, 26 July 1923.
Bassett Crossroads - Burgess Road - Swaythling, 10 July 1930.

After thiese additions, the system was at its biggest. The only new lines opened after this were to miss out the Bargate Arch in Southampton. The east side opened on 24 April 1932 and the west side on 5 June 1938.

Before World War 2, two routes were also closed. Roberts Road - Millbrook closed on 2 October 1935 except for workmen's services. It did however re-open whilst the war was happening. The second route to close was Clock Tower - Northam Bridge, which closed on 4 June 1926.

Trams
When the electrified system opened it needed some new tramcars to replace the horse drawn ones. The first trams used on the system were built by G F Milnes & Co., Birkenhead. They had open upper deck had back-to-back "knifeboard" seats so that they could fit under Bargate arch. No.2 was changed into a "toastrack" car in 1916. It was sold to Portsmouth in 1919 where it became Number 104. In 1903 twelve trams were built by Hurst, Nelson & Co. The trams originally had three windows on each side on the bottom deck. This was later chnged to have four windows on each side because the original design did not give enough support for the top deck. Two bogie trams were ordered in 1910. This order was later cancelled. The system also bought six ex-London County Council Tramways cars with enclosed upper decks. These were numbered 75-80. A final sixteen trams were bought in 1918. As well as these, a number of trams were built by the tramway:
Number 52 was built at Portswood in 1908 with open upper deck.
Number 81 was built at Portswood in 1919 and was the first with a closed upper deck. This tram also was the longest running in service.
Sixty three other trams were built at Portswood between 1908 and 1931
Twelve trams were built at Portswood in 1931 which became known as the "Pullmans".

Round topped "Bargate" trams

Before 1932, the only road route between Southampton High Street and Above Bar was through the arch in the centre of the Bargate. In 1923 a new design of enclosed double deck tram was built by P.J Baker, General Manager of the tramways. It had a rounded top that would fit through the arch. These trams had smaller wheels to help reduce the tram's height. They were driven by high speed motors which produced more torque. However, the roadway through the arch in the Bargate still had to be lowered to allow the trams to pass through the arch. Some secret changing of the profile of the arch's masonry was also needed at the last minute. Trams started to pass around the East of the Bargate on 24 April 1932. The last tram to pass through the central archway did so on 4 June 1938. By this time part of Southampton ancient walls had been demolished so that the Bargate was passable on both sides.

World War One

Southampton Tramways were mainly affected by staffing issues during World War I. To try and stop this women were allowed to become "conductorettes". Because of this toastrack tram No.2 had a gangway cut through the middle of it. In the early years of the war a tram went round Southampton for two hours twice a week. It had a military band playing on the top deck. This was an effort to try and boost recruitment.

World War Two

World War II affected Southampton much more than World War One. Women were again employed by the company. Unlike in World War I though they were allowed to drive the trams this time.

Car No.31 was destroyed by an incendiary bomb on 30 November 1940. It was the only tram to be destroyed during the war. To save the fleet of trams from the intensive bombing of Southampton during World War II they were painted grey. Regular services stopped at 7pm and they were parked up overnight in Cemetery Road on Southampton Common for the same reason.

In November 1942, a tram was accidentally set in motion whilst parked up overnight. It took two other trams with it. The unmanned convoy of trams was stopped by a lorry before anybody was hurt. The incident caused some worry locally because it was thought that saboteurs were responsible. It later emerged that the incident was due to a young boy playing on the trams.

Closure
The trams in Southampton made good profits for Southampton Corporation. However the Corporation had not put those profits back into the tram system. Because of this the whole system needed modernisation by the end of the Second World War. This included the trams, the power supply and the track.

It was decided that buses were a better alternative to modernising the trams. The tramway system therefore closed. The first line to close was Bitterne Park - St. Mary's - Docks on 15 May 1948. Swaythling - Portswood - Lodge Road - Stag Gates closed on 30 October 1948. Swaythling - Burgess Road - Bassett Crossroads - Avenue Junction closed on 5 March 1949. Floating Bridge - Shirley, Holy Rood - High Street - Royal Pier and Roberts Road - Millbrook all closed on 31 December 1949. The last movement of a tram in Southampton was on 4 February 1950 when cars No.21 and No.101 were moved from Shirley depot to Portswood depot under their own power. After the system closed some trams were sold to Leeds. The majority though were sent to A F Harris's scrapyard at Bevois Valley for scrapping. A few were sold on from there to be used as sheds or summer houses. This allowed some trams to be preserved.

Preservation
Three Southampton trams have survived.
 11 was discovered in 1977. It had been used as a summer house near Winchester. This tram is under restoration by the Hampshire Industrial Archaeology Society (HIAS).
 45 was sold for £10 to the Light Railway Transport League in 1949. It was the very first tram to be preserved. It is now at Crich Tramway Village and runs regularly.
 57 was discovered in woods at Romsey in 1972. It was rescued in 1975. This tram is under restoration by HIAS.

References

Other websites
Fleet list

Tram transport in the United Kingdom
Southampton
Defunct companies of the United Kingdom
1879 establishments in the United Kingdom
1949 disestablishments
1940s disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in Hampshire

Southampton Corporation Tramways


Forward Versatile Disc (FVD) is an offshoot of DVD developed in Taiwan jointly by the Advanced Optical Storage Research Alliance (AOSRA) and the Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) as a less expensive alternative for high-definition content. The disc is similar in structure to a DVD, in that pit length is the same and a red laser is used to read it, but the track width has been shortened slightly to allow the disc to have 5.4 GB of storage per layer as opposed to 4.7 GB for a standard DVD. The specification allows up to three layers for total of 15 GB in storage.  WMV9 is used as the video codec allowing for 135 minutes of 720p video on a dual layer disc, and 135 minutes of 1080i video on a three-layer disc. FVD uses AACS copy protection which is one of the schemes used in both HD DVD and Blu-ray Discs.

An FVD disc can either be an FVD-1 or FVD-2 disc:
FVD-1: The coding format of the first generation of FVD adopts 8/16 modulation codes (same as DVD).
FVD-2: The second generation will use the more efficient 8/15 coding for increasing the ECC capability (to avoid DVD patents).

References

External links
CMC Magnetics (Archived From The Original)
The Register: FVD goes mass-market

120 mm discs
Rotating disc computer storage media
Video storage
Consumer electronics

Forward Versatile Disc


Cedar Point County Park is a  park in East Hampton, New York, owned by the government of Suffolk County, New York.  It has commanding views of Gardiners Bay and is famed for its decommissioned lighthouse.

History
Settled in 1651, Cedar Point was once a busy port for shipping farm goods, fish, and timber from Sag Harbor. The historic Cedar Point Lighthouse stood on an island 200 yards from shore when it was built in 1839. Its beacon served to guide whaling ships in and out of Sag Harbor during its hey-day as a major port. The New England Hurricane of 1938 transformed the shoreline, shifting sands to create a narrow, walkable strip that now connects the lighthouse with the mainland.

The 40 foot granite lighthouse which was built in 1868 was decommissioned in 1934 and replaced by an automatic light on a steel skeleton at breakwater.  The lighthouse, built in the Italianate style, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Virtually the entire park including the lighthouse was owned at one time by Phelan Beale, husband of Edith Ewing Bouvier Beale, whose dissolved marriage was the topic of movie, television and Broadway versions of Grey Gardens.  It operated as a hunting club called the Grey Goose Gun Club of Cedar Point. and was acquired by Suffolk County in 1967.  The lodge itself is now the park foreman's residence just north of the park's general store.

During the 1970s a small bush plane crash landed in the waters near the point. A father and son were killed instantly when their plane hit the water. The bodies were brought back to Coecles Harbor, Shelter Island and most of the plane parts were found and also brought back to Coecles.

In 1974 vandals burned the interior of the lighthouse.

The Long Island Chapter of the United States Lighthouse Society is currently working to restore the Cedar Island Lighthouse.  They are seeking $2 million to convert it to a museum and bed and breakfast.  Part of the plan includes restoring the lantern.

References

External links
 Suffolk County Park Site
 Cedar Island Lighthouse
 National Park Service List of New York Lighthouses

County parks in New York (state)
East Hampton (town), New York
Beale family
Parks in Suffolk County, New York

Cedar Point County Park


Septicemic (or septicaemic) plague is a deadly blood infection. It is one of the three main forms of plague (the other two being the bubonic and penumonic). It is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis.

Septicemic plague can cause the blood to form small blood clots through the body. Without treatment it is almost always fatal. The death rate in medieval times was 99-100 percent. Septicemic plague is the rarest of the three plagues that struck Europe in 1348, the other forms are bubonic and pneumonic plague. This disease is caused mainly by the bite of an infected rodent or insect. In rare cases it can also enter the body through an opening in the skin or by cough from another infected human.

In septicemic plague the bacteria grow quickly in the blood, causing severe sepsis. The endotoxins cause disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). This is tiny clots of blood throughout the body which stops the blood getting to some areas. This causes the cells in the area to die. DIC uses up the bodies ability to make blood clot, so that it can no longer control bleeding. This means there is bleeding into the skin and other organs, which can cause red and/or black patchy rash and  coughing up or vomiting of blood (hemoptysis/haemoptysis). There are bumps on the skin that look somewhat like insect bites. These bumps are usually red, and sometimes white in the center. Early treatment with antibiotics reduces the death rate to between 4 and 15 percent. People that get this disease must receive treatment in at most 24 hours or they will die. In some cases, people may even die on the same day they get the disease.

Symptoms

Abdominal pain
Bleeding due to blood clotting problems
Diarrhoea
Fever
Low blood pressure
Nausea
Organ failure
Vomiting

Note: Septicemic plague may cause death before any symptoms occur

Septicemic plague in Medieval times

The septicemic plague was the least common of the three plagues that occurred from 1348 to 1350. Like the others, the septicemic plague spread from the East through trade routes on the Black Sea and down to the Mediterranean Sea. Major port cities such as Venice and Florence were hit the hardest. The three plagues that are part of the Black Death were a major factor in the Peasant's Revolt of 1381.

Related pages
Septicemia
Meningococcemia
Bubonic Plague
Pneumonic plague
Black death

References

Other websites
Google Health - Plague
HowStuffWorks - "Septicemic Plague"

Plague

de:Pest#Pestsepsis

Septicemic plague


Edward Jenner (17 Mey, 1749 - 26 Januar, 1823) wis an Inglis physeecian wirkin in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, weel-kent for his wark bringin on the Smawpox vaccine.

In Jenner's time, the smawpox inoculation wis duin aa ower England. Houaniver, it haed twa muckle drawbacks: it wis dangerous, an afore the infection frae inoculation haed run its coorse, the subject wis smitten, an infectious, wi the rael smawpox. Sae thay war a risk til onie faimlie or freends that wisna yet immune.

Thare wis a local fowk tradeition amang them that milkit kye, that an infection wi the 'coupox' protectit a bodie frae gettin the smawpox. (It haes been theorised that the romantic eimage o the bonny milkmaid cam frae the fact that milkmaids aften gat the coupox, an wad aifter that be immune ti the disfeegurment o the smawpox.)

The coupox is relate ti the smawpox an Jenner jaloused that gin the fowk tradeition wis richt it wad be better nor the smawpox for inoculation. On 14 May, 1796, he tried oot the coupox, smittin an aicht year auld loun cried James Phipps in the same wey uised for smawpox inoculation, but uisin material frae a coupox pustule. The loun gat the coupox, an aifter sax weeks, recovert saufly. Jenner than applee'd the staundart smawpox inoculation; the loun wisna smitten at aw, shawin that the coupox haed made him immune tae the smawpox.he visted st giles junior schuil 1757.

Jenner cried his gate vaccination, sin the oreiginal infective material cam frae a cou (vacca is the Latin for cou). His wark wis published as "An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, a Disease Known by the Name of Cow Pox" in 1798. The wird virus wis first uised in that beuk.

Related topics
 Vaccine
 Vaccination

Fremmit airtins
 "EDWARD JENNER." LoveToKnow 1911 Online Encyclopedia. © 2003, 2004 LoveToKnow.
 Jenner's papers on vaccination: http://www.bartleby.com/38/4/
 The Jenner Museum: http://www.dursley-cotswolds-uk.com/Jenner%20museum.html
 The Jenner Museum: http://www.jennermuseum.com

1749 births
1823 daiths
Fowk eddicatit at Cirencester Grammar Schuil
Alumni o St George's, Varsity o Lunnon
19t-century Inglis medical doctors
18t-century Inglis medical doctors
Inglis scientists
Fellaes o the Ryal Society
Members o the Ryal Swadish Academy o Sciences
Vaccinologists
Breetish immunologists
Fowk frae Berkeley, Gloucestershire
Smaapox
Daiths frae stroke

Edward Jenner


Hephaestus (, Hēphaistos) is the Greek god of fire, metalworking, craftsmen, sculpture, metallurgy and volcanoes. His parents were Zeus and Hera, Hephaestus was the blacksmith of the gods. He was married to the goddess Aphrodite, who cheated on him with his brother Ares. His symbols were a smith's hammer, an anvil, and a pair of tongs. The donkey was his sacred animal. The god Vulcan is his Roman equivalent.

Description
When Hephaestus was born, he was ugly and weak, with a broken foot. Hera did not like the way he looked and threw him off her castle which  was on top of the clouds. Hephaestus fell for one day and one night before falling into the sea. The sea animals rescued him and took him to an island called Lemnos. There Hephaestus built his forge underneath a volcano.  He collected precious metals, pearls and pieces of coral to fashion extraordinary jewelry.  Hephaestus built little robots of gold to help him get around. Hephaestus even worked with the Cyclopes (one eyed creatures). To impress the gods and goddesses, he made a set of golden thrones for them.

Hera realized her mistake of throwing Hephaestus off Mount Olympus and wanted Hephaestus back.  Hephaestus politely refused, saying that he was quite happy where he was. Hephaestus denied because he knew that the only reason that Hera wanted him back, was because he could make her items. He then set to work and fashioned a beautiful golden throne and sent it to Hera as a 'thank you, but not really' gift. Hera felt delighted by his present. The instant she sat on it, golden ropes and chains flew out and tied her into the chair.

Hephaestus was still very angry with Hera because she threw him off Mount Olympus because of his disability. Hera was trapped on the throne three whole days without being able to eat or sleep.  Everyone tried to free Hera from the great trap, but Hephaestus' design was so clever that none of the gods could detach the ropes.  So, Zeus sent his son Ares, god of war, to bring Hephaestus back to let Hera loose.  Hephaestus made Ares run away by throwing firebrands at him, and Ares made a shameful retreat.  Zeus used trickery next and sent Dionysus, the god of wine, to get Hephaestus drunk. Hephaestus was not a regular drinker, and Hephaestus got drunk very quickly. Soon Dionysus was making his proud return to Mount Olympus, with drunk Hephaestus on the back of a mule. Hephaestus still refused to let his mother out. Zeus offered him Aphrodite (the goddess of beauty) as a wife if he let his mother out. Hephaestus agreed to his offer and finally freed Hera. He moved back to the forges because he did not like the busy life of the palace. Although, he still refused to forgive Hera.

Hera felt very guilty and gave him loads of supplies, materials, tools, and helpers for his workshop. Hephaestus made the best weapons, jewelry, and armor. Some of his greatest creations ever were the silver bows and arrows of Artemis and Apollo as well as Apollo's golden chariot. He also made the  shield of Achilles, Athena's spear, and Hercules' breastplate. In addition to this he made the scepter of Zeus and the battle armor of the Olympian armies.  He also made all of the gods and goddesses palaces (with help from Athena) and their unbreakable locks.  On top of all this, Hephaestus was and is still credited with the invention of the three-legged stool and the world's first robots. His helpers included a complete set of life size golden maids who helped around the house.

Marriage to Aphrodite
Hephaestus married Aphrodite. When Aphrodite emerged from the sea (created by the sperm of the severed member of Uranus,) Zeus feared that the gods would battle over her hand in marriage, so Zeus arranged that Aphrodite would marry Hephaestus if he let his mother out of the golden throne.  Hephaestus gave Aphrodite his best creations and even gave her a magic girdle that made her irresistible to men.  However, Aphrodite did not love him as she was married against her will and she didn't like Hephaestus' looks.  She spent most of her time with Ares.

It is said that when his wife, Aphrodite, does something unfaithful, he smashes some of his materials through rage and makes the volcano he lives under erupt. One time, Hephaestus caught Aphrodite and Ares on a bed while they Aphrodite and Ares were making love. Hephaestus out of rage, trapped them on the bed and sent them to Mount Olympus to be ridiculed and laughed at by the other gods.

Hephaestus was well liked by all of the Olympians.  He was not involved in their plots. Hephaestus preferred to be alone in his workshop. Hephaestus was also worshiped by the Greeks because he proved that those who labor are also noble.  Hephaestus reminds us of the value and dangers of losing our selves in work.

Related pages
Sethlans - Etruscan version of Hephaestus.
Vulcan - Roman version of Hephaestus.

References

Twelve Olympians

Hephaestus


Koyie Dolan Hill (pronounced 'Koy') (born March 9, 1979) is an American former professional baseball catcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Los Angeles Dodgers, Arizona Diamondbacks, Chicago Cubs, Miami Marlins, and Philadelphia Phillies. Hill resumed his playing career when he signed with the Kansas Stars in 2016.

Baseball career
While attending Wichita State University, Hill compiled a .355 batting average and 186 RBI primarily as a third baseman.

In , Hill played as the second baseman for Team USA. In the games, he totaled a .284 batting average, 3 home runs, and 21 RBI.

Los Angeles Dodgers
Hill made his debut in the Majors in  with the Los Angeles Dodgers. However, at the time, all-star catcher Paul Lo Duca was cemented as the Dodgers catcher, making Hill expendable. On July 31, , Hill was one of the most prominent names in a trade, going from the Dodgers to the Arizona Diamondbacks for veteran Steve Finley. He would go on to hit .250 with 1 home run and 6 RBI in 2004 before breaking his ankle in a collision at home plate.

Arizona Diamondbacks
In , Hill began the season as the starting catcher for the Diamondbacks. His offense, however, did not perform at the level expected, as he would spend the majority of the year platooning with backup catcher Chris Snyder. Hill played in only 34 games in 2005, and many in the MLB community felt as though Diamondbacks manager Bob Melvin did not give Hill ample time to develop.

Koyie entered the Diamondbacks  spring training locked in a battle with Snyder for the backup role to Johnny Estrada, a major off-season acquisition of the Diamondbacks. Although Hill compiled an impressive spring camp (15-30 for a .500 batting average), on April 2, Hill was designated for assignment.

New York Yankees
On April 6, the Yankees picked him up on waivers, only to designate him for assignment on April 14, 2006. On April 17, he accepted an assignment to the Yankees' Triple-A team, the Columbus Clippers. Once the 2006 season concluded, Hill was released from the Yankees organization.

Chicago Cubs
On November 16, 2006, Hill signed a minor league contract with the Chicago Cubs.

On June 1, , Hill was called up to replace the injured Henry Blanco. Hill saw action later that day as he was put into the game in the top of the sixth inning after Michael Barrett was taken out of the game after Barrett scuffled with teammate Carlos Zambrano.

On August 20, 2007, Hill was designated for assignment. The Cubs signed Hill to a minor league contract in the 2007 off-season so he could compete with Henry Blanco for the backup catcher role in spring training.

On September 1, , Hill's contract was purchased by the Chicago Cubs and he was called up to the expanded 40-man roster.

On March 30, , the Cubs released veteran backstop Paul Bako, making Hill the Cubs' backup catcher. Following an injury to Geovany Soto on July 7, , Hill became the Cubs' starting catcher; as of August 1, he had caught all but two-thirds of an inning of the Cubs' 21 games during that period.

On December 12, 2011, Hill was non-tendered and became a free agent, possibly because of other backups to Soto within their farm system.

St. Louis Cardinals
On January 10, 2012, Hill signed a minor league deal with the St. Louis Cardinals that included an invitation to Spring Training. He was released on March 25.

Cincinnati Reds
On April 29, 2012, he signed a minor league contract with the Cincinnati Reds and was assigned to their Double-A affiliate, the Pensacola Blue Wahoos.

Second Stint with Cubs
Hill was hitting .195 in 14 games with Pensacola when, on May 19, he was reacquired by the Cubs. This happened after 3 of their catchers, Steve Clevenger, Geovany Soto and Welington Castillo, all went down with injuries in a span of 24 days.

On June 17, 2012, Hill did not accept being outrighted to Triple-A Iowa, and became a free agent.

Washington Nationals
On June 19, 2012, he signed a minor league contract with the Washington Nationals.

Texas Rangers
He was released on August 12, 2012, and signed a minor league contract with the Texas Rangers on August 14, 2012. He was subsequently released by the Texas Rangers on September 4, 2012.

Miami Marlins
On March 24, 2013, Hill signed a minor league contract with the Miami Marlins. He was outrighted off the roster on October 7, 2013, and elected to become a free agent.

Second Stint with Nationals
Hill signed a minor league contract with the Washington Nationals on February 4, 2014.

Philadelphia Phillies
On March 17, Hill was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies in exchange for a player to be named later or cash considerations. His contract was selected from the Lehigh Valley IronPigs on June 27. He was outrighted off the roster on July 21. He  elected  free agency, but re-signed with the Phillies in December 2014. The deal included an invite to major league spring training.

Table saw accident
On October 16, 2007, he was using a table saw to cut wood for a window frame. Part of the wood got caught in the saw, and the saw grabbed and his hand was in the way. The saw severed his thumb and severely cut into the other 4 fingers of his hand. His fingers were repaired, and after many months of therapy, he was able to regain motion in them.

Personal life
Koyie Hill and his wife, Meghan, have two daughters, Phoenix and Charley, who were born on September 27, 2004, and fall 2008.
Hill graduated from Eisenhower High School in Lawton, Oklahoma.

References

External links

1979 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Lawton, Oklahoma
Baseball players from Tulsa, Oklahoma
Major League Baseball catchers
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Arizona Diamondbacks players
Chicago Cubs players
Miami Marlins players
Philadelphia Phillies players
Wichita State Shockers baseball players
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Koyie Hill


Anna Moffo (June 27, 1932 - March 9, 2006) was an Italian American operatic soprano particularly associated with lyric-coloratura roles in Italian and French operas, she was admired as much for her vocal gifts as her great beauty and affecting stage presence.

Life and Career

Born in Wayne, Pennsylvania, to Italian parents, she first studied at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia, with Eufemia Giannini-Gregory, and later at the Accademia di Santa Cecilia in Rome, Italy, with Mercedes Llopart and Luigi Ricci.

She made her operatic debut in Spoleto, Italy, in 1955, as Norina in Donizetti's Don Pasquale. Shortly after, she appeared in a television production of Puccini's Madama Butterfly, which made her an overnight sensation throughout Italy. She quickly appeared in other television productions (Falstaff, La sonnambula, Lucia di Lammermoor, La figlia del reggimento, La serva padrona) and was invited to sing at most of the major opera houses of Italy (Rome, Milan, Naples, Venice, Parma, etc.). As her reputation grew, she was invited to sing outside Italy, notably at the Aix-en-Provence Festival, the Salzburg Festival and the Vienna State Opera.

She made her American debut at the Chicago Lyric Opera in 1957, as Mimi in La bohème, opposite the great Swedish tenor Jussi Bjorling. Her Metropolitan Opera debut in New York took place on November 14, 1959, as Violetta in La traviata, a part that quickly became her signature role. She sang at the Metropolitan Opera for seventeen seasons to great acclaim in roles such as Lucia (Lucia di Lammermoor), Gilda (Rigoletto), Mimi (La bohème), Marguerite (Faust), Juliet (Romeo and Juliet), Manon (Manon), the four heroines in Les contes d'Hoffmann, etc. She also sang in San Francisco, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, etc., while making several appearances on American television.

She pursued a successful international career as well, singing in Monte Carlo, London, Berlin, Stockholm, Mexico City, Buenos Aires, etc. She remained very popular in Italy and performed there often and hosted her own television program The Anna Moffo Show from 1960 to 1973. She also appeared in movie versions of opera such as La traviata (1968) and Lucia di Lammermoor (1971), directed by her husband Mario Lanfranchi, as well as a few non-operatic movies.

Her career was cut short by vocal problems in the mid 1970s but she remained active in the opera world as a board member of the Metropolitan Opera Guild and by hosting galas and  giving occasional masterclasses. Moffo died in New York City of a stroke after a decade long battle with breast cancer at the age of 73. She is remembered as one of the most glamourous opera stars of her era.

A versatile and prolific recording artist she left a vast discography including opera, operetta, musical, art songs, pop songs, lieder, etc.

References
 Opera News, October 2009.

1932 births
2006 deaths
Sopranos
Italian opera singers

Anna Moffo


Jell-O is a brand name for a dessert. It is known for a number of gelatin desserts, such as fruit gels, puddings, and unbaked cream pies. including fruit gels, puddings and no-bake cream pies.

Description

Jell-O is sold as all prepared (ready to eat) or in powder form, and it is has many different colors and flavors. The powder has powdered gelatin, sugar, and artificial sweeteners. It is melted into hot water, and then chilled and eaten. Sometimes other ingredients are added to make them taste better. Jell-O must be put in a refrigerator until it is served, and usually eaten with a spoon.

There are also pudding and pie under the Jell-O brand. To make pudding, they are cooked on the stove with milk, then eaten.

Though the word Jell-O is a name brand, it is commonly used in the United States as a generic name for all gelatin products.

Other websites
 Official Kraft Jell-o website
 Upstate, Where It Was First Made, Unwavering Devotion to Jell-O New York Times May 4, 2008
 Thoughts on Jell-O With Antioxidants

Desserts

Jell-O


Stewart of Darnley, also known as the Lennox Stewarts, were a notable Scots family, a branch of the Clan Stewart, who provided the English Stuart monarchs with their male-line Stuart descent, after the reunion of their branch with the royal Scottish branch.

In 1565 the Darnley branch was re-united with the Royal House of Stewart when Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley married his half-first cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots. Despite what their common surname suggests, they were not related closely by virtue of both being Stewarts — being only ninth cousins once removed in the male line. It was rather through their shared grandmother, Margaret Tudor (daughter of King Henry VII of England) that they were related, and which gave both their claims to the English throne. The son of their union James VI of Scots succeeded to the throne of England and the throne of Ireland as James I.

Lord Darnley's claim to the Scottish throne was also not by virtue of his being a Stewart, rather he derived it through his great grandmother, Elizabeth Hamilton, a granddaughter of James II.

The later English kings and queens of the House of Stuart, from James I and Charles I onwards, were more properly members of the Stewart of Darnley branch, and all drew upon their feudal heritage in Lennox.

Origins and name

The Stewarts of Darnley were descended from Sir John Stewart (d. 1298), the second son of Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland. Their name is derived from Derneley, a barony in Eastwood parish, Renfrewshire. It was located  east of Barrhead, present day Darnley, within the city of Glasgow.

In 1356, Robert Stewart, High Steward of Scotland, granted the barony to Sir John Stewart, the eldest son of Sir Alan Stewart of Dreghorn. Like the Royal Stewarts, the Stewarts of Darnley used both the 'Stuart' and the 'Stewart' spelling of their surname.

Ancestors
Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland
Sir John Stewart (d.1298)
Alan Stewart of Dreghorn (d.1333)
Alexander Stewart of Darnley (d.1374)
Alexander Stewart of Darnley (d.1404)
John Stewart of Darnley (d.1429)
Alan Stewart of Darnley (d.1439)

Lordship of Aubigny

Sir John Stewart of Darnley (d. 1429) fought in the Hundred Years' War under his namesake and distant cousin John Stewart, 2nd Earl of Buchan, in the army of Charles VII of France. For his services, he was rewarded with the lands of Aubigny-sur-Nère and Concressault, which were given to the second son in the family so they could live in France to strengthen the Auld Alliance.

Notable members of this branch were:
Bernard Stewart, 4th Lord of Aubigny, commander of the Garde Écossaise; commander in the armies of Charles VIII of France and Louis XII of France during the Italian Wars.
Robert Stewart, 5th Lord of Aubigny, Marshal of France; fought in the Battle of Marignano and the Battle of Pavia.
George Stewart, 9th Seigneur d'Aubigny, fought with the French against the Spanish at the Battle of Montjuïc (1641); killed during the English Civil War at the Battle of Edge Hill.

Earldom of Lennox

The eldest son of Sir Alan Stewart of Darnley (d. 1439) was John Stewart, Lord Darnley, head of the House of Stewart of Darnley, who was created Earl of Lennox in 1488. He died in 1495 and was succeeded by the following descendants:
Matthew Stewart, 2nd Earl of Lennox (1488- ob Flodden, 1513)
John Stewart, 3rd Earl of Lennox (ob 1526)
Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox (1516–1571)

In 1580, the head of the House of Stewart, King James VI of Scots, granted the title of Duke of Lennox to Esmé Stewart, 1st Duke of Lennox, a cousin and a member of a French branch of the Royal Stewarts.

The following English members of the House of Stewart of Darnley were styled Earls of Lennox by the English Crown, although the King of Scots, in whose kingdom the earldom of Lennox lay, did not recognize the title:
Charles Stuart, 1st Earl of Lennox (1555–1576), second son of the 4th Earl of the second creation
Lady Arbella Stuart (1575–1615) (over-ridden)

Claimants to the English Throne
In 1544 Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox married Margaret Douglas, the granddaughter of Henry VII. Their sons Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley and Charles Stuart, 1st Earl of Lennox, were held by contemporaries to have a credible claim to the throne of England.

Margaret Douglas was the fruit of the 1514 union of Margaret Tudor, Dowager Queen of Scots and elder daughter of Henry VII with Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus. Born in England and raised at the court of her uncle Henry VIII, Margaret was Henry's officially recognized heir between the disgrace of Anne Boleyn and the birth of the future Edward VI.

In 1565 Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley married his cousin Mary Queen of Scots, like him a descendant of Margaret Tudor and Henry VII. Mary's descent from Margaret Tudor's first marriage to James IV of Scots also placed her in line for the English throne, but many argued that Margaret Douglas's claim was superior as Margaret and her sons Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley and Charles Stuart, 1st Earl of Lennox had been born in England. According to English custom it is desirable that the monarch be naturalized or born in England.

By marrying Darnley, Mary neutralized a dangerous rival claim to the throne of England whilst strengthening that of her own house. In 1603 Mary and Darnley's son, James VI of Scotland, succeeded Elizabeth I as King of England, thereby uniting the crowns of England and Scotland and laying the basis for the future United Kingdom.

See also

Duke of Aubigny
Duke of Richmond
Duke of Lennox
Earl of Lennox
Auld Alliance

References

House of Stuart
Scottish families

Stewart of Darnley


The banner o Jordan, offeecially adoptit on 16 Aprile 1928, is based on the banner o the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire durin Warld War I. The banner is black, white an green stripes that are aw connectit bi a reid triangle. The colors staund for the Abbasid, Umayyad an Fatimid Caliphates. The reid triangle is for the Hashemite dynasty an the Arab Revolt.

The seiven-pointit starn staunds for the seiven verses o the first surah in the Qur'an, an an' a' staunds for the unity o the Arab fowks. Some believe it an aa refers tae the seiven hills on which Amman, the caipital, wis biggit.

The colors o the Jordanian banner are those o the Pan-Arab banner. Thay wur first uised in 1917 tae represent "pan-Arabianism", which sought unthirldom frae the Ottoman Empire.

Features

The Jordan banner features three horizontal baunds. The three colors uised in the banner are black, white an green respectively. The colour black staunds for Abbasid Caliphate o Islam, white staunds for the Umayyad Caliphate o Islam an the colour green staunds for Fatimid Caliphate o Islam.

Aw these three baunds in the banner o Jordan are connectit tae a reid-colored seemmetrical triangle representin the Great Arab Revolt in 1916. The triangle an aa represents the Hashemite dynasty.

A white star wi seiven pynts is featurt on the hoist side o the reid triangle. The seiven pynts seembolise the seiven verses o Islamic belief, which is mentioned at the beginnin o Qur'an. The seiven pynts represent faith in ane God, humanity, humility, naitional spirit, virtue, social juistice an aspiration. The starn an aa staunds for the unity o the Arab fowk.

See an aa
Banner o Palestine

Freemit airtins

Jordan
Naitional seembols o Jordan

Banner o Jordan


Dealer's Choice is a play by Patrick Marber first performed at the Royal National Theatre (Cottesloe) in London in February 1995 where it won both the 1995 Evening Standard Award for Best Comedy and the Writers' Guild Award for Best West End Play.

It is set in a restaurant in London in the mid-1990s. The action takes place over three acts.  The third act centres on a game of poker.

The original cast included Nicholas Day, Nigel Lindsay, Phil Daniels, Tom Georgeson, David Bark-Jones and Ray Winstone.

Acts 1 and 2

Stephen owns a small restaurant which employs Sweeney (the cook), Mugsy and Frankie (waiters).   A third waiter, Tony, is mentioned but never appears in the play.  Every Sunday after closing, the staff and Stephen's son, Carl, play a poker game in the basement.

At the start of the play, we learn Mugsy is attempting to buy a public toilet in Mile End and convert it into a restaurant.  Mugsy does not have the money – he lost £3,000 at poker to Stephen several weeks ago.  Mugsy is hoping to convince Carl to get the money from his father, and plans to dump Carl once the restaurant is open.

Carl has his own problems.  He has a severe gambling addiction, which he believes he has kept hidden from his father.  He currently owes £4,000 to Ash, his poker mentor, who, in turn, owes £10,000 to other gamblers.  In the second act, Ash comes to the restaurant to get his money.  Carl, having again lost the money he had saved, convinces Ash to join the poker game under cover of being a former schoolteacher.  The staff, believing Ash's story, accept his inclusion; the absence of Tony has left a seat available.

Frankie spends much of the first act convincing Sweeney to play in the game that night. Sweeney has permission to see his daughter the following morning and does not want to stay up all night getting drunk and losing his money. Frankie is thought the best poker player in the group, and believes he is going to become a professional in Las Vegas.

Act 3

The second half of the play is the poker game. As the game goes on, Ash wins every game. At first he puts this down to beginner's luck, but it soon becomes apparent to most of the players that Ash is far more than just a beginner and that it was highly likely he was lying when he claimed to be Carl's former schoolteacher. Each player in turn ends up losing all their money to Ash until finally only Carl, Ash, Mugsy and Stephen are left playing. Carl has some winnings and is able to repay Mugsy for a debt incurred earlier however Mugsy immediately prepares to blow this on another hand of poker. Only Stephen remains in the game and claims to have an inferior hand allowing Mugsy to win and leave the game seven pounds richer. As Mugsy has only a small amount of money left he is convinced by Stephen to walk away with what he has got. Carl threatens to expose Stephen's deception because he believes his own father has treated Mugsby better than himself. He does not carry out this threat and Mugsy leaves happy and none the wiser.

Carl, Ash and Stephen are left alone and Stephen sends Carl out of the room to fetch some coffee. Once he has left, a heated interrogation starts and Stephen finds out who Ash really is. As the tension rises, the two men argue over which of them is truly addicted to gambling – Stephen, who plays poker every Sunday with his son and employees or Ash who owes £10,000 to other gamblers. Stephen has stated that he will return the £4,000 he just won from Ash in the previous round, even though he now knows Ash's circumstances. The men argue again until at the very peak of the argument Ash asks Stephen to toss a coin to decide which of them should get the money. Stephen refuses. Ash asks again and Stephen again refuses. Ash asks again, and again, and again. Each time Stephen refuses until eventually he gives in. Stephen bets heads and Ash bets tails. Ash tosses the coin. He is about to reveal which side the coin has landed on. He looks up at Stephen and states: "Four thousand pounds on the toss of a coin?". Nothing more is said for a while. It slowly dawns on both Stephen (and the audience) that although Ash is a gambler with debts to pay, Stephen is the real gambling addict.

Still without having seen the result of the coin, Stephen offers the four thousand pounds to Ash. Ash goes over to the cash box and removes it. He asks Stephen if he would like to check that he has removed the correct amount. Stephen shakes his head and says, "No, I trust you".

Production history
An American production ran from 16 April to 31 May 1998 at the Mark Taper Forum with Adam Scott as Carl.

2007 production

From 28 September 2007 to 17 November 2007, Dealer's Choice was presented at the Menier Chocolate Factory in London. It transferred to the Trafalgar Studios in Whitehall from 6 December 2007.  The director was Samuel West, and the cast was as follows:

Samuel Barnett – Carl
Ross Boatman – Sweeney
Roger Lloyd-Pack – Ash
Jay Simpson – Frankie
Malcolm Sinclair – Stephen
Stephen Wight – Mugsy

Stephen Wight won The Milton Shulman Award for Outstanding Newcomer at the 2007 Evening Standard Theatre Awards for his performances as Mugsy and in Patrick Marber's Don Juan in Soho. Dealer's Choice transferred to the Trafalgar Studios in London's West End, with previews from 6–10 December 2007. The opening performance took place on 11 December.  The production was subsequently nominated for an Olivier Award for Best Revival.

References

External links
 Review round-up of the 2007 revival at the Menier Chocolate Factory

Plays by Patrick Marber
1995 plays
1990s debut plays

Dealer's Choice (play)


The House of Glucksburg is a European dynasty. Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh belongs to this house. So do his descendants, including Charles, Prince of Wales, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex. Other members of the house have included Queen Margrethe II of Denmark and King Harald V of Norway. In 1980, Christoph, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein became the head of the house.

Royal dynasties

House of Glucksburg


Henry Ashby Turner, Jr. (April 4, 1932 – December 17, 2008) was an American historian of Germany who was a professor at Yale University for over forty years. He is best known for his book German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler (1985) in which he challenged the common theory that industrialists in Germany were the Nazi Party's most influential supporters.

Life and career
Turner was born in Atlanta, Georgia, and attended public schools in Maryland. He received his B.A. from Washington and Lee University in 1954 and spent the 1954-1955 academic year as a Fulbright scholar at the University of Munich and the Free University of Berlin in Germany. In the fall of 1955, Turner began graduate study at Princeton University. He completed his M.A. in 1957 and his Ph.D. in 1960 under the supervision of Gordon A. Craig.

Turner was hired by Yale University as an instructor in history in 1958. He was elevated to assistant professor in 1961, associate professor in 1964 and professor in 1971. From 1976 to 1979 he was chairman of the Yale History Department. During his career he held a number of endowed chairs in history at Yale and trained numerous graduate students in modern German history. From 1981 to 1991, Turner also served as Master of Davenport College, one of 12 residential colleges at Yale.

Turner retired in 2002 as the Stillé Professor of History. His papers are housed in the Manuscripts and Archives Division of Sterling Memorial Library at Yale .  He died from complications from melanoma on December 17, 2008, at Yale-New Haven Hospital.

Scholarship
In his essay "Fascism and Modernization" from the book Reappraisals of Fascism, following the arguments first made by David Schoenbaum, Turner argued National Socialism sought the total destruction of modern industrial society and its replacement with an agrarian society.  Germans would obtain that land, or Lebensraum, in Eastern Europe, where German colonists would settle and reduce the indigenous Slavic people to slaves. However, to accomplish these goals the Nazis, despite the nature against modernism of their ideology, were forced to modernize German society further. Turner called Nazi anti-modernism a "double" form of utopianism in that it was a vision that was both impractical and unachievable.

Turner is best known for his book German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler, published in 1985, in which he rebutted the claim that it was German big business which primarily financed and otherwise promoted the attainment of power by Adolf Hitler. Turner argued that the extent of business support for Hitler and his NSDAP had been much exaggerated. On the basis of careful examination of unpublished records of major German corporations and of the party, Turner concluded that the bulk of the Nazis' funds during their rise came from their party's members and other ordinary Germans. The principal political recipients of big business funding were the traditional center-right parties: the German People's Party and the German National People's Party. The only election campaign in which big business contributed significant amounts of money to the Nazis was the March 5, 1933 election, after the Nazis had already assumed power.

Despite this, Turner concludes that Hitler endorsed the "liberal principle of competition" and private property during his rule, if only "he could distort them into his social Darwinist view of economic life."

In Turner's view, the Third Reich was a possible but by no means inevitable result of German history, thus leading Turner to oppose the Sonderweg thesis. Turner contended that the acquisition of power by Adolf Hitler was heavily influenced by contingency and that military rule was a viable alternative to the Third Reich. In his 1996 book Hitler's Thirty Days To Power: January 1933, he maintained that it was the actions of a few individuals, such as German president Paul von Hindenburg and chancellors Franz von Papen and Kurt von Schleicher, which enabled Hitler to come to power through semilegal means. Political incompetence and personal rivalry between Papen and Schleicher ultimately led to Hitler's being appointed chancellor of Germany by President Hindenburg on January 30, 1933 although he had never won a majority in a national election.

Turner's General Motors and the Nazis (2005) examined the history during the Third Reich of Adam Opel AG, the German subsidiary of General Motors.

Works
 Stresemann and the Politics of the Weimar Republic, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963.
 Nazism and the Third Reich, New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972
 Faschismus und Kapitalismus in Deutschland, Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1972
 Reappraisals of Fascism (editor), New York: New Viewpoints, 1975.
 Hitler aus nächster Nähe: Aufzeichnungen eines Vertrauten 1929-1932 (editor), Frankfurt/M, Berlin, Wien: Ullstein, 1978.
 German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler, New York: Oxford University Press, 1985, translated as Die Grossunternehmer und der Aufstieg Hitlers, Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 1985.
 Hitler: Memoirs of a Confidant (editor), New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985.
 The Two Germanies since 1945, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987, revised as
 Germany from Partition to Reunification, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.
 Geissel des Jahrhunderts: Hitler und seine Hinterlassenschaft, Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 1989.
 Hitler's Thirty Days to Power: January 1933, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996.
 General Motors and the Nazis: The Struggle for Control of Opel, Europe's Biggest Carmaker, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005.

Endnotes

External links
 Hitler Could Have Been Stopped Review of Hitler's Thirty Days to Power by David Frum
 Hitler's Thirty Days to Power: January 1933 by John J. Reilly
 Henry Ashby Turner, Jr. Papers (MS 1691). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.

1932 births
20th-century American historians
American male non-fiction writers
Historians of Europe
Historians of Nazism
Yale University faculty
2008 deaths
Deaths from melanoma
Writers from Atlanta
Washington and Lee University alumni
Princeton University alumni
Historians from Georgia (U.S. state)
20th-century American male writers

Henry Ashby Turner


Harifian is a specialized regional cultural development of the Epipalaeolithic of the Negev Desert. It corresponds to the latest stages of the Natufian culture.

History
Like the Natufian, Harifian is characterized by semi-subterranean houses. These are often more elaborate than those found at Natufian sites. For the first time arrowheads are found among the stone tool kit.

The Harifian dates to between approximately 10,800/10,500bp and 10,000/10,200bp. It is restricted to the Sinai and Negev, and is probably broadly contemporary with the Late Natufian or Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA).

Microlithic points are a characteristic feature of the industry, with the Harif point being both new and particularly diagnostic – Bar-Yosef (1998) suggests that it is an indication of improved hunting techniques. Lunates, isosceles and other triangular forms were backed with retouch, and some Helwan lunates are found. This industry contrasts with the Desert Natufian which did not have the roughly triangular points in its assemblage.

There are two main groups within the Harifian. One group consists of ephemeral base camps in the north of Sinai and western Negev, where stone points comprise up to 88% of all microliths, accompanied by only a few lunates and triangles. The other group consists of base camps and smaller campsites in the Negev and features a greater number of lunates and triangles than points. These sites probably represent functional rather than chronological differences. The presence of Khiam points in some sites indicates that there was communication with other areas in the Levant at this time."

Harifian has close connections with the late Mesolithic cultures of Fayyum and the Eastern Deserts of Egypt, whose tool assemblage resembles that of the Harifian. Fusion with animal domestication elements of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) culture is hypothesised by Juris Zarins, to have led to the circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex, a group of cultures that invented nomadic pastoralism, and may have been the original culture which spread Proto-Semitic languages throughout the region.

See also
 Archaeology of Israel

References

Archaeological cultures in Egypt
Archaeological cultures of the Near East
Archaeological cultures in Israel
Epipalaeolithic cultures
Negev
9th-millennium BC establishments

Harifian culture


The Alasay District (Alah Say) is situated in the eastern part of Kapisa Province, Afghanistan. It borders Tagab District (Kapisa Province) to the south and east, Nejrab District to the north and Laghman Province to the east. The population is 38,642 (2015). The district center is Alasay, located in its southwestern part.

Security and operations
From approximately 2006 until March 2009 the area was considered insurgent controlled. In March, however, French forces from GTIA Kapisa and Chasseurs Alpins 27e Battalion, along with a battalion of Afghan troops were able to successfully drive them out and establish two Afghan National Army bases in the valley.

Geography
Most of the Alasay district is mountainous, and many of its villages are inaccessible by vehicles. The Alasay District contains three large valleys:
 Shibi dara (most populated)
 Masken data
 Alasay dara

There are approximately 70 villages in the district.

Education
Alasay currently has 13 schools:
 8 primary schools (7091 students, male and female)
 2 high schools (294 students, male only)
 1 madrassa (unknown number of students, male only)

Currently, the high schools and Madrassa in the district are boys' schools.

Economy
The Alasay district is poor, with only a small amount of land usable for agriculture. Other sources of income include animal husbandry and labor.

Health care
Currently, the Alasay district only contains four health facilities, located in the villages of Alasay, Ashpai, Koti, and Eskin.

References

External links
 District Profile
 AIMS District Map

Districts of Kapisa Province

Alasay District