Théophile "Théo" van Rysselberghe (23 November 1862 – 13 December 1926) was a Belgian neo-impressionist painter, who played a pivotal role in the European art scene at the turn of the twentieth century.

Biography

Early years

Born in Ghent to a French-speaking bourgeois family, he studied first at the Academy of Ghent under Theo Canneel and from 1879 at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts in Brussels under the directorship of Jean-François Portaels. The North African paintings of Portaels had started an orientalist fashion in Belgium. Their impact would strongly influence the young Théo van Rysselberghe. Between 1882 and 1888, he made three trips to Morocco, staying there in total a year and a half.

Age only eighteen, he had already participated at the Salon of Ghent, showing two portraits. Soon afterwards followed his Self-portrait with pipe (1880), painted in somber colours in the Belgian realistic tradition of the times. His Child in an open spot of the forest (1880) departs from this style and he makes his first steps towards impressionism. Soon he would develop his own realistic style, akin to impressionism. In 1881, he exhibited for the first time at the Salon in Brussels.

First trip to Morocco
The next year he travelled (following in the footsteps of Jean-François Portaels) extensively in Spain and Morocco together with his friend Frantz Charlet and the Asturian painter Darío de Regoyos. He especially admired the 'old masters' in the Museo del Prado. In Seville they met Constantin Meunier, who was copying Pedro Campaña's Descent from the Cross. From this Spanish trip stem the following portraits : Spanish woman (1881) and Sevillan woman (1882), already completely different in style. When he set foot in Tanger at the end of October 1882, a whole new world opened up for him: so close to Europe and yet completely different. He would stay there for four months, drawing and painting the picturesque scenes on the street, the kasbah and in the souk: Arabian street cobbler (1882), Arabian boy (1882), Resting guard (1883)

Back in Belgium, he showed about 30 works of his trip at the "Cercle Artistique et Littéraire" in Ghent. It was an instant success, especially The kief smokers, The orange seller and a seascape The strait (setting sun), Tanger (1882).

In April 1883 he exhibited these scenes of everyday Mediterranean life at the salon L'Essor, in Brussels, before an enthusiast public. It was also around this time that he befriended the writer and poet Emile Verhaeren, whom he would later portray several times.

In September 1883 van Rysselberghe went to Haarlem to study the light in the works of Frans Hals. The accurate rendering of light would continue to occupy his mind. There he also met the American painter William Merritt Chase.

Les XX

Théo van Rysselberghe was one of the prominent co-founders of the Belgian artistic circle Les XX on 28 October 1883. This was a circle of young radical artists, under the patronage, as secretary, of the Brussels jurist and art lover Octave Maus (1856–1919). They rebelled against the outmoded academism of the time and the prevailing artistic standards. Among the most notable members were James Ensor, Willy Finch, Fernand Khnopff, Félicien Rops, and later Auguste Rodin and Paul Signac. This membership brought van Rysselberghe in contact with other radical artists, such as James Abbott McNeill Whistler, who had exhibited in Les XX in 1884. His influence as a portrait painter can be seen in van Rysselberghe's portrait of Octave Maus as a dandy (1885). Van Rysselberghe would paint several portraits of Octave Maus and his wife between 1883 and 1890.

Second trip to Morocco
In November 1883 he left again, together with Frantz Charlet, for Tanger. During his stay of one year, he was in constant correspondence with Octave Maus, urging him to accept several new names for the first exhibition of "Les XX": Constantin Meunier, Alfred Verwee, William Merritt Chase. (He had met him in 1883 in Haarlem.) In April 1884 he visited Andalucia in the company of the American painter John Singer Sargent and the gentleman-painter Ralph Curtis. He also invited them to the exhibition in Brussels. This time, van Rysselberghe tried to surpass himself. His large, exotic painting Arabian phantasia, a theme introduced by Eugène Delacroix, is his best known work from this period. It is bathed in the harsh light of the hot Moroccan sun. From now on van Rysselberghe would be obsessed by light. But lack of funds forced him to return to Belgium at the end of October 1884.

At the second show of Les XX in 1885 Théo van Rysselberghe showed his Arabian phantasia and other images and paintings from his second Moroccan trip, such as Abraham Sicsu (interpreter in Tanger) (1884).

Impressionism

Yet his next portraits are in rather subdued colours, using different black or purple gradations contrasting with light colours: Jeanne and Marguerite Schlobach (1884), Octave Maus (1885), Camille Van Mons (1886), Marguerite Van Mons (1886) (to be compared with Portrait of Gabrielle Braun (1886) by Fernand Khnopff).

He saw the works of the impressionists Monet and Auguste Renoir at the show of Les XX in 1886. He was deeply impressed. He experimented with this technique, as can be seen in Woman with Japanese album (1886). This impressionist influence became prominent in his paintings Madame Picard in her Loge (1886) and Madame Oscar Ghysbrecht (1886) (painted in a palette of bright colours). In 1887 he painted some impressionist seascapes at the Belgian coast : Het Zwin at high tide (1887)

Rysselberghe influenced the work of his friend Omer Coppens away from realism towards indigenous impressionism and painted at least one portrait of him in oils.

Because of his growing ties with the Parisian art scene, Octave Maus sent Rysselberghe as a talent scout to Paris to look out for new talent for the next exhibitions of Les XX.

Neo-impressionism
He discovered the pointillist technique when he saw Georges Seurat's La Grande Jatte at the eighth impressionist exhibition in Paris in 1886. Together with Henry Van de Velde, Georges Lemmen, Xavier Mellery, Willy Schlobach and Alfred William Finch and Anna Boch he "imported" this style to Belgium. Seurat was invited to the next salon of Les XX in Brussels in 1887. But there his La Grande Jatte was heavily criticized by the art critics as "incomprehensible gibberish applied to the noble art of painting".

Théo van Rysselberghe abandoned realism and became an adept of pointillism. This brought him sometimes in heavy conflict with James Ensor. In 1887 van Rysselberghe already experimented with this style, as can be seen in his Madame Oscar Ghysbrecht (1887) and Madame Edmond Picard (1887). While staying in summer 1887 a few weeks with Eugène Boch (brother of Anna Boch) in Batignolles, near Paris, he met several painters from the Parisian scene such as Sisley, Signac, Degas and especially Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. He appreciated especially the talent of Toulouse-Lautrec. His portrait Pierre-Marie Olin  (1887) closely resembles the style of Toulouse-Lautrec of that time. He managed to invite several of them, including Signac, Forain, and Toulouse-Lautrec to the next exhibition of Les XX.

Third trip to Morocco
In December 1887 he was invited, together with Edmond Picard, to accompany a Belgian economic delegation to Meknès, Morocco. During these three months he made many color pencil sketches. He also drew a portrait of the sultan Hassan I. Back in Brussels, he started painting his impressions, relying on his photos, notes and sketches. His Nomad encampment (1887) is probably his first neo-impressionist work. In the Caravan in the mountains past Schliat, the influence of Seurat is unmistakable. His Gate of Mansour-El-Hay in Meknès (1887) and Morocco (the great souk) (1887) are also painted in pointillist style, but still with short strokes and not with points. These are among the rare pointillist paintings of Morocco. When he had finished these paintings, he stopped completely with this Moroccan period in his life.

He now turned to portraiture, resulting in a series of remarkable neo-impressionist portraits.

Pointillism

His famous portrait of Alice Sèthe (1888) in blue and gold would become a turning point in his life. This time he used merely points in the portrait. She would later marry the sculptor Paul Dubois. Her sister, Maria Sèthe, also a model of van Rysselberghe, would marry the renowned Art Nouveau architect Henry Van de Velde. In that period he made many Neo-impressionistic portraits, such as the portrait of his wife Maria and their daughter Elisabeth. He had married Marie Monnom in 1889. They went on their honeymoon to the south of England and then to Brittany. This would also result in a number of Neo-impressionistic paintings. In Paris he had a meeting with Theo Van Gogh and managed thus to invite Vincent van Gogh to the next exhibition in Brussels. That is where Van Gogh sold Vigne Rouge in Montmajour to Anna Boch, the only painting he ever sold.

Apart from the portraits, he also painted in this period many landscapes and seascapes : "Dunes in Cadzand" (1893), "The rainbow" (1894).

In the 1895 he made long journeys to Athens and Constantinople, Hungary, Romania, Moscow and Saint Petersburg in order to make posters for the "Compagnie des Wagons-lits". One famous work is the poster "Royal Palace Hotel, Ostende" (1899).

In 1897, van Rysselberghe moved to Paris. Along with Paul Signac, Maximilien Luce, , Alexandre Steinlen, Camille Pissarro, Van Dongen, George Willaume, etc., he contributed to the anarchist magazine .

In the final years of the 1890s, Théo van Rysselberghe had reached the climax of his Neo-impressionist technique. Slowly he abandoned the use of dots in his portraits and landscapes and began applying somewhat broader strokes : The hippodrome at Boulogne-sur-Mer (1900) and the group portrait Summer afternoon (1900), Young women on the beach (1901), Young girl with straw bonnet (1901), and The Reading (1903) (with the contrast between red and blue colours).

After all his years as talent scout for Octave Maus, van Rysselberghe made the mistake of his life: he didn't recognize the talent of the young Pablo Picasso (who was in his Blue Period at that time). He found his works "ugly and uninteresting".

Later years

After 1903, his pointillist technique, which he had used for so many years, became more relaxed and after 1910 he abandoned it completely. His strokes had become longer and he used more often vivid colours and more intense contrasts, or softened hues.  He had become a master in applying light and heat in his paintings. His Olive trees near Nice (1905) remind us of the technique used by Vincent van Gogh. These longer strokes in red and mauve become prominent in his Bathing ladies under the pine trees at Cavalière (1905)

After some prospecting, touring on his bike, together with his friend Henri-Edmond Cross, of the Mediterranean coast between Hyères and Monaco, he found an interesting spot in Saint-Clair (where Cross already resided). His brother (and neighbour), the architect Octave van Rysselberghe, built him there a residence in 1911. He retired now to the Côte d'Azur and became more and more detached from the Brussels art scene.

Here he continued painting, mostly landscapes of the Mediterranean coast, portraits (of his wife and daughter, and of his brother Octave). In 1910 he received an order for some large decorative murals and flower compositions for the residence of the family Nocard in Neuilly, France.

From 1905 on, the female nude becomes prominent in his monumental paintings : "After the bath" (1910). His painting The vines in October (1912) is painted in lively colours of red, green and blue. One of his last works was Girl in a bath tub (1925).

At the end of his life, he also turned to portrait sculpture, such as the Head of André Gide.

He died in Saint-Clair, Var, France on 14 December 1926 and was buried in the cemetery of Lavandou, next to his friend and painter Henri-Edmond Cross.

Much of the works of one of the greatest neo-impressionist painters still remain in private collections. They can only rarely be seen. One recent occasion was the retrospective Théo van Rysselberghe in Brussels and later in The Hague between February and September 2006. In November 2005, his work Port Cette (1892) fetched a record 2.6m € at an auction in New York.

Family

Van Rysselberghe married Marie Monnom in 1889, with whom he had a daughter, Elizabeth van Rysselberghe. Elizabeth became one of Rupert Brooke's lovers. His brother Octave van Rysselberghe (1855–1929) was a distinguished Belgian architect, who collaborated with Joseph Poelaert and Henry Van de Velde.

Honours
 1919: Commander of the Order of Leopold.

References

Bibliography

 P. & V. Berko, "Dictionary of Belgian painters born between 1750 & 1875", Knokke 1981, p. 719-721.
Only catalogue raisonné in existence on paintings pastels, watercolours, drawings, etchings, posters (about 1800 entries); including a supplement with a list of works(319 entries) considered not to be genuine. List of signatures and monogrammes; list of letters by van Rysselberghe to different addressees with short contents; bibliography and list of exhibitions. R.Feltkamp, Editions Racine 2003 Brussels.
Monography 237 pages R.Feltkamp, Editions Racine 2003 Brussels
Catalogue of the exhibition "Théo van Rysselberghe" at the "Palais des Beaux Arts", Brussels 'February–May 2006) and the "Gemeentemuseum", The Hague (June–September 2006)
Catalogue of the exhibition "Théo van Rysselberghe : neo-impressionist" at the "Museum of Fine Arts", Ghent 1993

External links

 Short biography in Dutch
 Flemish Art Collection: The Reading by Van Rysselberghe
  supplement to the catalogue raisonné
 Signac, 1863–1935, a fully digitized exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries, which contains material on Théo van Rysselberghe (see index)

1862 births
1926 deaths
Belgian painters
Post-impressionist painters
Artists from Ghent
Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts alumni

Théo van Rysselberghe


Gebhard I (died 27 March 1023), known as Gebhard of Swabia, was the Bishop of Regensburg from 994 until his death.

Following the death of Bishop Wolfgang, the cathedral canons elected Tagino to replace him, with the support of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria. Otto III, however, ignored the election and appointed his own royal chaplain, Gebhard, instead; he then took Tagino into his royal chapel.

During his episcopate, he founded Prüll Abbey and tried to revert the separation between the property of the diocese and that of St. Emmeram's Abbey, which his predecessor had effected. This gave rise to much dispute. In 996, Otto heard Abbot Ramwold's complaint and summoned Gebhard, whom he made promise not to confiscate further property from St. Emmeram's. He put the monastery under royal protection. He nevertheless remained in conflict over financial matters into the reign of the Emperor Henry II.

Gebhard also gained the right of coinage from Otto III. On his death, he was succeeded by Gebhard II.

Sources
Bernhardt, John W, 1993: Itinerant Kingship and Royal Monasteries in Early Medieval Germany, c. 936–1075. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

References

11th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Bavaria
1023 deaths
Roman Catholic bishops of Regensburg
10th-century births

Gebhard I (bishop of Regensburg)


Tārā or Ārya Tārā, also known as Jetsun Dolma in Tibetan, is a female Buddha linked with Buddhist tantra practice in Tibetan Buddhism. She is called the "mother of liberation". She stands for success in work and achievements.

Tārā is a tantric deity whose practice is used by followers of the Tibetan branch of Vajrayana Buddhism to develop their inner qualities and understand outer, inner and secret teachings about compassion  and emptiness.  Tārā is not found in the Japanese branch of Vajrayana Buddhism, Shingon.

There is more than one form of Tārā. They have to do with different forms of the same quality. Bodhisattvas are often considered metaphors for Buddhist virtues.

The most widely known forms of Tārā are:

 Green Tārā, known as the Buddha of enlightened activity
 White Tārā, also known for compassion, long life, healing and serenity; also known as The Wish-fulfilling Wheel, or Cintachakra
 Red Tārā, of fierce aspect associated with magnetizing all good things
 Black Tārā, associated with power
 Yellow Tārā, associated with wealth and prosperity
 Blue Tārā, associated with transmutation of anger
 Cittamani Tārā, a form of Tārā widely practiced at the level of Highest Yoga Tantra in the Gelug School of Tibetan Buddhism, portrayed as green and often conflated with Green Tārā
 Khadiravani Tārā (Tārā of the teak forest), who appeared to Nagarjuna in the Khadiravani forest of South India and who is sometimes referred to as the "22nd Tārā."

In some schools of Buddhism there are twenty-one Tārās. A practice text with the title In Praise of the 21 Tārās is recited during the morning in all four sects of Tibetan Buddhism.

The main Tārā chant or mantra is Oṃ tāre tuttāre ture svāhā. This Sanskrit mantra is pronounced by Tibetans and Buddhists who follow the Tibetan traditions as Oṃ tāre tu tāre ture soha.

Buddhas
Bodhisattvas

Tara (Buddhism)


Henry Grattan (3 July 1746 – 6 June 1820) was an Irish politician. He was a member of the Irish House of Commons. He wanted changes such as Catholic Emancipation and more self government for the kingdom. He did not believe that Ireland and Great Britain should become a single country. He was one of the people who were most important in creating the constitution of 1782. This gave Ireland self-government. He was also important in ending  Poynings law of 1494 and the Declaratory Act of 1720.

Irish politicians

1746 births
1820 deaths

Henry Grattan


Carolyn Keene is the pseudonym of the authors of the Nancy Drew mystery stories and The Dana Girls mystery stories, both produced by the Stratemeyer Syndicate. In addition, the Keene pen name is credited with the Nancy Drew spin-off, ''River Heights, and the Nancy Drew Notebooks.

Edward Stratemeyer, the founder of the Syndicate, hired writers, beginning with Mildred Wirt (later Mildred Benson), to write the manuscripts for the Nancy Drew books. The writers were paid $125 for each book and were required by their contract to give up all rights to the work and to maintain confidentiality.

Benson is credited as the primary writer of Nancy Drew books under the pseudonym Carolyn Keene. Harriet Adams (Stratemeyer's daughter) rewrote the original books and added new titles after the withdrawal of Benson.

Other ghostwriters who used this name to write Nancy Drew mysteries included Leslie McFarlane, James Duncan Lawrence, Walter Karig, Nancy Axelrad, Patricia Doll, Charles S. Strong, Alma Sasse, Wilhelmina Rankin, George Waller Jr., Margaret Fischer, and Susan Wittig Albert. Also involved in the Nancy Drew writing process were Harriet Stratemeyer Adams's daughters, who gave input on the series and sometimes helped to choose book titles; the Syndicate's secretary, Harriet Otis Smith, who invented the characters of Nancy's friends Bess and George; and the editors at Grosset & Dunlap.

In 1979, the Stratemeyer Syndicate changed publishers to Simon & Schuster, a move that the former publishers, Grosset & Dunlap, went to court to prevent, claiming a breach of contract. The decision was made in favor of the Syndicate, stating that they could choose which publisher they would like to use for subsequent entries in the series.

In 1985, the Syndicate was bought by publishers Simon & Schuster; the Drew books are now handled by Mega-Books, a New York book packager.

Ghostwriters

Nancy Drew

See also

 Franklin W. Dixon
 Nancy Drew Mystery Stories

References

External links

American mystery writers
Stratemeyer Syndicate pseudonyms
Nancy Drew
20th-century American novelists
American women novelists
Women mystery writers

Carolyn Keene


The Sthavira nikāya (Sanskrit "Sect of the Elders"; ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. They split from the majority Mahāsāṃghikas at the time of the Second Buddhist council.

Scholarly views

Origin
The Sthavira nikāya was one of the early Buddhist schools. The Sthavira nikāya split away from the majority Mahāsāṃghikas during the Second Buddhist council resulting in the first schism in the Sangha.

The Mahāsāṃghika Śāriputraparipṛcchā, a text written to justify this school's departure from the disciplinary code of the elder monks, asserts that the council was convened at Pāṭaliputra over matters of vinaya, and it is explained that the schism resulted from the majority (Mahāsaṃgha) refusing to accept the addition of rules to the Vinaya by the minority (Sthaviras). The Mahāsāṃghikas therefore saw the Sthaviras as being a breakaway group which was attempting to modify the original Vinaya.

Scholars have generally agreed that the matter of dispute was indeed a matter of vinaya, and have noted that the account of the Mahāsāṃghikas is bolstered by the vinaya texts themselves, as vinayas associated with the Sthaviras do contain more rules than those of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya. Modern scholarship therefore generally agrees that the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya is the oldest. According to Skilton, future scholars may determine that a study of the Mahāsāṃghika school will contribute to a better understanding of the early Dhamma-Vinaya than the Theravada school.

Language
The Tibetan historian Buton Rinchen Drub (1290–1364) wrote that the Mahāsāṃghikas used Prakrit, the Sarvāstivādins used Sanskrit, the Sthaviras used Paiśācī, and the Saṃmitīya used Apabhraṃśa.

Legacy
The Sthaviras later divided into other schools such as:

 Sarvāstivāda
 Vatsīputrīya
 Vibhajyavāda (Pali: Vibhajjavāda)

The Vibhajyavāda branch gave rise to a number of schools such as:

 Mahīśāsaka
 Dharmaguptaka
 Kāśyapīya
 Tāmraparnīya, later called "Theravāda"

Relationship to Theravāda

Scholarly accounts
The Theravāda school of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia has identified itself exclusively with the Sthaviras, as the Pali word thera is equivalent to the Sanskrit sthavira. This has led early Western historians to assume that the two parties are identical. However, this is not the case, and by the time of Ashoka, the Sthavira sect had split into the Sammitīya Pudgalavada, Sarvāstivāda, and the Vibhajyavāda schools.

The Vibhajyavāda school is believed to have split into other schools as well, such as the Mahīśāsaka school and the ancestor of the Theravada school. According to Damien Keown, there is no historical evidence that the Theravada school arose until around two centuries after the Great Schism which occurred at the Third Council.

Theravādin accounts
Starting with the Dīpavaṃsa chronicle in the 4th century, the Theravādins of the Mahāvihāra in Sri Lanka attempted to identify themselves with the original Sthavira sect. The Theravādin Dīpavaṃsa clarifies that the name Theravāda refers to the "old" teachings, making no indication that it refers to the Second Council. Similarly, the name Mahāsāṃghika is in reference to those who follow the original Vinaya of the undivided Saṃgha. The Dīpavaṃsa chronicle lauds the Theravāda as a "great banyan" and dismissively portrays the other early Buddhist schools as thorns (kaṇṭaka). Dīpavaṃsa, 4.90–91 says:
These 17 sects are schismatic,
only one is non-schismatic.
With the non-schismatic sect,
there are eighteen in all.
Like a great banyan tree,
the Theravāda is supreme,
The Dispensation of the Conqueror,
complete, without lack or excess.
The other sects arose
like thorns on the tree.
— Dīpavaṃsa, 4.90–91

According to the Mahāvaṃsa, a Theravādin source, after the Second Council was closed those taking the side of junior monks did not accept the verdict but held an assembly of their own attended by ten thousand calling it a Mahasangiti (Great Convocation) from which the school derived its name Mahāsāṃghika. However, such popular explanations of Sthavira and Mahāsāṃghika are generally considered folk etymologies.

Bhante Sujato explains the relationship between the Sthavira sect and the Theravāda:

See also
 Early Buddhist schools
 Schools of Buddhism
 Buddhist councils

References
 Citations

 Bibliography

External links
Sects & Sectarianism: The Origins of Buddhist Schools'', Santi Forest Monastery, 2006 by Bhikkhu Sujato

Nikaya schools
Sthaviravāda
Early Buddhist schools
ko:상좌부

Sthavira nikāya


San Cristobal is the capital city of the Táchira State in Venezuela, a mountain state. It is located in the southwest region of Táchira. San Cristobal was founded by Juan de Maldonado in March 31, 1561. San Cristobal makes a frontier by the west with Cúcuta, Colombia; by the east with the Apure state; and by the north with the states of Zulia, Barinas and Trujillo.

Education

San Cristobal has a large student population. There are many post-secondary schools, both public and private, in San Cristobal. Major colleges and universities of San Cristobal are listed below:

     Universidad Nacional Experimental del Táchira (UNET)
     Universidad de los Andes (ULA)
     Universidad Católica del Táchira (UCAT)
     Universidad Nacional Experimental de las Fuerzas Amadas (UNEFA)
     Universidad Nacional Abierta (UNA)
     Instituto Universitario Politecnico Santiago Mariño
     Instituto Universitario Antonio Jose de Sucre
     Instituto Universitario Monseñor Talavera
     Instituto Universitario Jesus Enrique Lozada

Climate

The weather in San Cristobal is tropical; the temperatures are between 19℃ and 28℃ (66 °F and 83 °F). San Cristobal is characterized has two seasons: summer and spring. The temperatures between those two seasons do not change a lot. However, there is more rain in the spring than in the summer.

Political Divisions
 Parroquia San Juan Bautista
 Parroquia La Concordia
 Parroquia Pedro María Morantes
 Parroquia San Sebastián
 Parroquia Francisco Romero Lobo

Sports

The Deportivo Táchira Fútbol Club was founded in 1974 by Gaetano Greco. The Stadium of the Deportivo Tachira is located in the north side of San Cristobal, and it is called Polideportivo de Pueblo Nuevo, and it has a capacity for 38,755 people.

Famous Citizens
 Rafael de Nogales Méndez, soldier and writer.
 Isaías Medina Angarita, served in the military and former president of Venezuela.
 Manuel Felipe Rugeles, poet and journalist.
 Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera, folklorist and musician.
 Francisco Arias Cárdenas, Former Governor of Zulia State, Presidential Candidate and Representat of Venezuela at the UN.
 Veruska Tatiana Ramírez, model and former Miss Venezuela.
 Giancarlo Maldonado, footballer.
 Tomas Rincon, footballer.
 Édgar Ramírez, actor.

Notes
1.Parroquia is a section of the city.

References

Other websites
Official website

Cities in Venezuela
Capitals of Venezuelan states
1560s establishments in South America
Táchira
1561 establishments

San Cristóbal, Táchira


Affirmative Insurance Holdings, Inc. is an American company that provides individual consumers non-standard personal automobile insurance policies and other related products through its subsidiaries, independent agents and unaffiliated underwriting agencies in the United States. The company provides liability-only policies including bodily injury liability coverage, property damage liability coverage, personal injury protection coverage and medical payment coverage.

History
In 1998, the company founded in Addison, Texas as Instant Insurance Holdings, Inc.

In 2003, the company completed the acquisition of two non-standard automobile insurance companies from Vesta Insurance Group, Inc.

In 2004, the company completed the initial public offering.

In 2007, the company completed the acquisition of USAgencies, a provider of non-standard automobile insurance.

In 2013, Confie Seguros, a rapidly growing national provider of personal lines insurance signed an agreement to acquire the retail distribution arm of Affirmative Insurance Holdings, Inc.

In 2015, the company filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy.

References

External links

Companies based in Texas
Insurance companies of the United States
Financial services companies established in 1998
1998 establishments in Texas
Insurance companies based in Texas

Affirmative Insurance


Bioleaching is getting metals from their ores by using living organisms. This is much cleaner than the traditional method using cyanide. Bioleaching is one of several methods used to recover copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, antimony, nickel, molybdenum, gold, silver, and cobalt.

Bioleaching uses certain types of bacteria to produce a solution called a "leachate". By leaving these bacteria with a low-grade metal ore, they can produce leachates which have a compound of that metal. Because this is in a solution it can be used in electrolysis to make the pure metal. This only produces small amounts each time, and is repeated to make it economically viable.

References

Metals

Bioleaching


A trips formation is an offensive football formation, initially used by Joe Gibbs and the Washington Redskins, in which three receivers line up on the same side of the field.  The side is usually specified by the quarterback calling "Trips right" or "Trips left" when he calls the play in the huddle.

There are multiple variables of the trips formation, and it may be combined with other types of formations.  For example, the call "Shotgun, trips right, slot left" formation would indicate that the tight end and two wide receivers would line up on the right side of the field, while two receivers would line up on the left side of the field (one "wide", the other slightly off the line of scrimmage in the "slot").  The quarterback would line up at least five yards behind the center.

The objective of a trips formation is to flood the defense on one side of the field in order to create and exploit holes in zone pass coverage.

See also
American football strategy

External links
http://incolor.inebraska.com/mays/playcalling.htm

American football formations
Canadian football terminology

Trips formation


Programme music (or "program music" in US English) is music for instruments which describes something or tells a story.  It is the opposite of "absolute music" which is not trying to describe anything, just the sound of the piece.  Programme music was very popular in the 19th century although some programme music was written earlier.

History
Some composers in the Renaissance and Baroque periods wrote music which described battles. Antonio Vivaldi wrote a very famous set of four concertos for violin and strings called The Four Seasons.  Each of the movements describe things happening during the year's seasons, e.g. the birds singing in the spring, snowy winter days, etc.

At the start of the 1800s, Beethoven wrote a pastoral symphony, Symphony No. 6 "Pastorale", which describes the peaceful life in the countryside.  This way of making music describe things became very popular with Romantic composers.  Mendelssohn wrote "concert overtures" which had nothing to do with an opera but were simply short pieces of music for orchestra which told a story.  Hebrides Overture, for example, describes the feel of the sea lapping into Fingal's Cave in the Scottish Inner Hebrides.

Franz Liszt made programme music very popular in his symphonic poems.  Hector Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique describes a story he made up himself about a man who has dreams about a woman he loves.  The woman he loves is represented by a tune (melody) which is heard in different ways during the symphony.  It is called an idée fixe (French for "fixed idea").  This way of linking a theme (tune) with a person led to Wagner's use of leitmotif in his operas in which a tune is linked to a person, event or idea.  At the start of the 19th century Richard Strauss  wrote several symphonic poems, often using a leitmotif to describe the person it is about.  They include Don Juan, Don Quixote and Ein Heldenleben (A hero's life).

Musical forms

Program music


Tsin Ting (; 1934 – 20 October 2022) was a Taiwanese singer and dubbing artist, sometimes known as the Marni Nixon of Hong Kong cinema.

Biography
Tsin Ting was born in Sichuan, China. She arrived in Hong Kong in 1949 with her brother after China came under communist rule. Left to fend for herself after her brother left for Taiwan, she sang in nightclubs to earn some money. In 1953, she recorded a Cantonese song, "One Day When We Were Young", on one side of a 78 but refused to do the other after finding her command of the language not up to par.

In 1954, she auditioned for EMI Pathé when they were recruiting new talent but was told by composer Yao Min who auditioned her that her vocals lacked power and energy. She was offered instead, a part in the chorus. In 1956, she was signed on as a solo artist after Miriam Wang, the chief executive, took notice of her. Her first record was two songs from the Shaw & Sons film Narcissus, where she dubbed for actress Shih Ying. Her self-taught ability to read music was an added bonus as this saved valuable studio time. Film studios soon began using her to dub their musical films.

During a recording session, director Li Han-hsiang (Li Hanxiang) heard her singing at the studio, dubbing a song for actress Yu Suqiu in the Shaw movie Lady in Distress (1957). Impressed with her voice, he had her dub for film star Lin Dai in his next film Diau Charn. The film was a great success all over Southeast Asia and won several Asian Film Festival awards. Thereafter, when Li went on to film The Kingdom and the Beauty, Tsin Ting was roped in to dub for Lin Dai once again.

Tsin Ting dubbed many of Shaw Brothers' Huangmei Opera movies from the 1950s to the 1960s. The most notable was The Love Eterne (1963), where she sang for lead actress Betty Loh Ti (Lè Dì 樂蒂) in the role of Zhu Yingtai. The pathos and emotional impact of her singing, along with Loh Ti's excellent acting, moved viewers to tears. She left Shaw Studio as a contract singer in 1970 but continued recording albums on EMI in the 1970s, Wing Hung in the 1980s, and Polygram in the 1990s.

In 2000, Tsin Ting made a remarkable career resurgence with soldout concerts at the Hong Kong Coliseum with Liu Yun, Tsui Ping and Wu Yingyin; she repeated the feat two years later with Liu, Wu and Billie Tam. In 2006, she was the guest singer at a Donald Cheung concert singing a famous Bai Guang classic and then duetting with Donald. This is available on DVD.

Tsin Ting died on 20 October 2022, at the age of 88.

Selected filmography
Shaw Brothers (Hong Kong) Limited

Huangmei Opera Movies

 Diau Charn – 1958
 The Kingdom and the Beauty – 1959
 Return of the Phoenix -1962
 The Story of Sue San – 1962
 The Adulteress – 1962
 The Love Eterne – 1963
 Three Sinners – 1962
 The Amorous Lotus Pan – 1963
 The Comedy of Mismatches – 1963
 The Female Prince – 1963
 The Butterfly Chalice – 1963
 A Maid From Heaven – 1963
 The Lotus Lamp – 1963
 Beyond the Great Wall – 1964
 The Mermaid – 1964
 The West Chamber – 1964
 The Midnight Murder -1964
 The Perfumed Arrow – 1966
 The Pearl Phoenix – 1967
 Forever and Ever – 1968
 The Mirror and the Lichee – 1968
 The Three Smiles – 1969

Contemporary Movies

 The Magic Touch
 The Shepherd Girl
 Till the End of Time
 Song of Tomorrow
 Pink Tears
 4 Sisters
 Poison Rose
 Swan Song
 Angel With the Iron Fists
 Hong Kong Nocturne
 Hong Kong Rhapsody
 The Dancing Millionairess
 Songfest
 My Dreamboat
 Moonlight Serenade
 Susanna
 The Warlord and the Actress
 The Millionaire Chase
 The Blue & Black

References

External links

1934 births
2022 deaths
Musicians from Sichuan
Pathé Records (Hong Kong) artists
Taiwanese women singers

Tsin Ting


St. Paul's Catacombs are some of the most prominent features of Malta's early Christianity archeology. The archeological clearing of the site has revealed an extensive system of underground galleries and tombs dating from the third to the eighth centuries CE.

The site was first fully investigated in 1894 by Dr. Antonio Annetto Caruana. It is now managed by Heritage Malta.

There are over 30 hypogea in the entire St. Paul's and St. Agatha's complex, over 20 of which are open to the public.

History
St. Paul's catacombs are part of a large cemetery once located outside the walls of the ancient Roman city of Melite, now covered by the smaller Mdina and Rabat. It also comprises the catacombs of Saint Agatha, San Katald, St. Augustine, and many others.

The cemetery probably originated in the Phoenician-Punic period. As in Roman tradition, Phoenician and Punic burials were located outside city walls. The many tombs discovered in areas outside the known line of the Roman city suggest that the city of Melite was close to equal size.

The early tombs consisted of a deep rectangular shaft with one or two chambers dug from its sides. This type of burial was used well into the Roman occupation of the islands, but the chambers grew larger and more regular in shape over time. It is probable that this enlargement joined neighboring tombs and led to the creation of small catacombs, which became the norm by the fourth century CE.

The catacombs were in use until the seventh, possibly eighth century. Some of the catacombs were used again during the re-Christianization of the Island around the 13th century.

Site

The site is open to the public every day from 09:00 until 17:00. Visitors can access over 20 of the catacombs in the St Paul's cluster. The main complex, covering an area of more than , is so far the largest catacomb ever to be found on the island. It is large enough to have served as a communal burial ground in successive phases of Malta's history. The two halls at the bottom of the entrance stairs show two agape tables (circular tables hewn out of the living rock and used for ceremonial meals commemorating dead relatives).

Although the complex contains almost all of the burial types found in the Maltese repertoire, the best represented are so-called baldacchino tombs. These free-standing, canopied burials dominate the main corridors of the complex; their four elegant arches and supporting pillars are exemplary. Other decorations within this catacomb include illustrations and written messages in red paint.

Another catacomb is much smaller than the first. The surgical tools carved in relief on one of the three blocking stones in the inner chamber suggest that it was the burial place of a particular family or group of surgeons.

The 24 catacombs show evidence of Christian, Muslim, Pagan, and Jewish burials side-by-side and no visible divisions.

Excavation and conservation

The excavation of the catacombs began in the late 1800s and, other than the construction of protective rooms, no further conservation was undertaken in the 20th century.

With funds from the European Union's European Regional Development Fund (Operational Program I—Cohesion Policy 2007–2013), Heritage Malta is performing extensive archeological and environmental research. Various other studies will be conducted in the coming few years, culminating in the development of new visitor facilities as well as the opening to the public of most of the smaller catacombs.

See also
Catacombs of Malta
Għar Għerduf catacombs

References

External links

 Heritage Malta
 St. Paul's Catacombs on Euromuse.net

Catacombs of Malta
Rabat, Malta
Sites managed by Heritage Malta

St. Paul's Catacombs


Sex is a type of reproduction common among living things. Sex is used by plants and animals, and also by fungi and various single-celled organisms. It usually needs two individuals which are different sexes from the same species. It works by combining genes from more than one source.

Biological type
Organisms may have more than one kind of reproduction:
 Asexual reproduction: an example is the binary fission of an amoeba. Sometimes jellyfish, and many insects split or produce eggs without fertilisation. These are all methods of asexual reproduction.
 Sexual reproduction: most plants and animals reproduce by a union of two different sexes. Each sex makes the special cells used for reproduction. The new organism is made when both types of cells are united in a fertilised egg or zygote. Organisms that can make both kinds of cells for reproduction are called hermaphrodites. For example, most snails are hermaphrodite.
 Those organisms that produce sperm are called male, those that produce ova (eggs) are called female.
 Some animals and plants are capable of reproducing either sexually or asexually.

Benefits and drawbacks
Asexual reproduction is easier than sexual reproduction, but there are benefits and drawbacks to both:
 An offspring produced asexually inherits genes only from its parent.
 Offspring produced sexually are genetically somewhat different from either parent. They inherit genes from both parents.

Humans

In humans, sex is normally either male or female. For example: John's sex is male. Jane's sex is female. Most of the time, the sex of a person depends on what sex chromosomes that person got from his or her parents. A woman's ovum (egg cell) contains one X chromosome. A man's sperm contains either an X or a Y chromosome. When a sperm and ova combine to form a fertilised egg, the baby may get either of these chromosomes from its father. If the baby gets two X chromosomes, it will develop into a female. If the baby gets one X and one Y, it will develop into a male. Before babies are born, their sex parts are already formed, but not ready yet. During Puberty, the sex parts finish developing as well as other parts of the body like breasts and body hair.

There are some exceptions to this rule. Sometimes, the process of meiosis, which makes the sex cells, can go differently. This can result in a person having 3 X chromosomes, or 2 Y chromosomes or XXY instead of XY. Other times, the body may not follow exactly what their chromosomes are telling it to do.

Evolution
Sexual reproduction first appeared about a billion years ago. It evolved within single-celled eukaryotes. The scientific community still discusses why it appeared, and why it still exists. Reasons commonly given include:
 Sex creates variation in offspring. If there are traits that give an advantage to the organism, they spread more easily. Traits that give a disadvantage tend to be removed quickly.

Sexual reproduction is a process that can only be found in eukaryotes. These cells have a nucleus and mitochondria. There are other kinds of organisms (other than animals, plants and fungi), the other eukaryotes – such as the malaria parasite – that also engage in sexual reproduction. Some bacteria use conjugation to transfer genetic material between bacteria.  This is not the same as sexual reproduction, but it results in a similar mixture of genetic traits.

In sexual reproduction the cells used for reproduction, called gametes, are either eggs or sperms. Fertilisation needs two different such cells. The mechanism of cell division only works when one sperm alone enters the egg. Once it is in, a fast reaction goes through the egg cell wall to shut off all other sperm.

Sex determination

Sex determination in biology is about the function of sex, not what individuals look like. In humans, males and females usually look different. In many species they do not, except for the sex organs.
Sex can be determined in different ways:
 Hermaphrodites produce both male and female gametes. This system can be found in some animals, for example snails, and in most flowering plants.
 In most cases there are separate sexes. This means that an organism either produces male gametes or eggs, but not both at the same time. The biological cause for an organism developing into one sex or the other is called sex determination.
 As a result of sex determination, the organism is either male, or female.

When there is sex determination there are basically two cases:
 The sex is determined through the genes the organism inherits from its parents.
 The sex is determined through the environment.

Genetic

Usually, sex is determined by an organism's genes. With genetic sex determination, most alleles or genes that influence sexual development are on the same chromosome. That chromosome is then called the sex chromosome. Because genetic sex determination is controlled by a pair of sex chromosomes (or if of one of the chromosomes is there or not), there are usually the same number of male and female offspring. In humans, for instance, sperms carry either an X or a Y chromosome, and they occur in roughly equal numbers.

Nongenetic
For some species sex is not determined by inheritance, but instead by environmental factors experienced during development or later in life. Many reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination: the temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism. In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1-2 °C.

Some fish change sex over the course of their life. This phenomenon is called sequential hermaphroditism. In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many wrasse the opposite is true—most fish are female at birth and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.

In some ferns the default sex is hermaphrodite. Ferns which grow in soil which has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by hormones remaining to develop as male.

Related pages
Asexual reproduction
The evolution of sex
Gender
Nudity
Sexual intercourse
Sexual reproduction

References

Biological reproduction

Sex


An artist's statement (or artist statement) is an artist's written description of their work. The brief text is for, and in support of, their own work to give the viewer understanding. As such it aims to inform, connect with an art context, and present the basis for the work; it is, therefore, didactic, descriptive, or reflective in nature.

Description
The artist's text intends to explain, justify, extend, and/or contextualize their body of work. It places, or attempts to place, the work in relationship to art history and theory, the art world and the times. Further, the statement serves to show that the artist is conscious of their intentions, aware of their practice and its position within art parameters and of the discourse surrounding it. Therefore, not only does it describe and place, but it indicates the level of the artist's own comprehension of their field and making. The artist statement serves as a "vital link of communication between you [the artist], and the rest of the world." Most people encounter a work of art through a reproduction first, and there are many elements that are not present within a reproduction. That is why it is imperative that the artist knows how to properly convey their work through their own words. What the artist writes in their statement may be integrated in wall text, handouts at an exhibition or a paragraph in a press release. Judgments will be made based both on the nature of the art, as well as the words that accompany it.

Artists often write a short (50-100 word) and/or a long (500-1000 word) version of the same statement, and they may maintain and revise these statements throughout their careers. They may be edited to suit the requirements of specific funding bodies, galleries or call-outs as part of the application process.

History
The writing of artists' statements is a comparatively recent phenomenon beginning in the 1990s.  In some respects, the practice resembles the art manifesto and may derive in part from it.  However, the artist's statement generally speaks for an individual rather than a collective, and is not strongly associated with polemic.  Rather, a contemporary artist may be required to submit the statement in order to tender for commissions or apply for schools, residencies, jobs, awards, and other forms of institutional support, in justification of their submission.

In their 2008 survey of North American art schools and university art programs, Garrett-Petts and Nash found that nearly 90% teach the writing of artist statements as part of the curriculum; in addition, they found that,

Like prefaces, forewords, prologues, and introductions to literary works, the artist statement performs a vital if complex rhetorical role: when included in an exhibition proposal and sent to a curator, the artist statement usually provides a description of the work, some indication of the work's art historical and theoretical context, some background information about the artist and the artist's intentions, technical specifications – and, at the same time, it aims to persuade the reader of the artwork's value. When hung on a gallery wall, the statement (or "didactic") becomes an invitation, an explanation, and, often indirectly, an element of the installation itself.

As subject matter
On at least two occasions, artist's statements have been the subject of gallery exhibitions. The first exhibition of artists' statements, The Art of the Artist's Statement,  was curated by Georgia Kotretsos and Maria Pashalidou at the Hellenic Museum, Chicago, in the spring of 2005. It featured the work of 14 artists invited to create artwork offering a visual commentary on the subject of artist statements. The second exhibition, Proximities: Artists' Statements and Their Works, was installed in the fall of 2005 at the Kamloops Art Gallery, Kamloops, British Columbia. Co-curated by W.F. Garrett-Petts and Rachel Nash, the exhibition asked nine contributing artists to respond to the topic of artists' statements by taking one or more of their own artist's statements and working with the text(s) in a manner that documented, represented, and annotated the original work, creating a new work in the process. In 2013, Workshop Press published a collection of 123 artist statements by British painter Tom Palin. The statements spanned a period of 21 years and came with a foreword by Michael Belshaw.

Artist's statements have been the subject of a research project on the professional language of the contemporary art world by sociologist Alix Rule and artist David Levine. Presented in their 2012 article International Art English, published in the American art journal Triple Canopy, Levine & Rule collated and analysed thousands of gallery press releases, published by e-flux since 1999, in an attempt to dissect and understand the peculiar language of the professional art world. It has since become one of the most widely circulated pieces of online cultural criticism.

See also

 Artwork title

References

External links
Detterer, Gabriele. Ed.  Art Recollection: Artists' Interviews & Statements in the Nineties. Florence: Danilo Montanari, Exit, and Zona Archives Editori, 1997.
"Garrett-Petts, W.F. Literary Artists' Statements", Canadian Literature, No. 176 (Spring 2003): 111–114.
Garrett-Petts, W.F., and Rachel Nash, eds. Proximities: Artists' Statements and Their Works Kamloops, B.C.: Kamloops Art Gallery, 2005.
"Nash, Rachel, and W.F. Garrett-Petts, eds. Artists' Statements & the Nature of Artistic Inquiry, Open Letter. Thirteenth Series, No. 4, Strathroy, Canada, 2007.
Garrett-Petts, W.F., and Rachel Nash. "Re-Visioning the Visual: Making Artistic Inquiry Visible." Rhizomes 18 (Winter 2008). Spec. issue on "Imaging Place".

Statements
Business of visual arts

Artist's statement


Mono no aware (物の哀れ) is a Japanese literary term.  It means "the pathos of things" in English. Pathos is the power in literature that creates feelings of sorrow, pity and tenderness. Mono no aware is a very important concept when reading old literature, so that the reader can understand the importance and beauty of the literature.  It is used to express the keen emotion and pathos of a piece of literature and the feeling it gives the readers' senses, such as the description of a sound or scenery.  The Tale of Genji, said to be the world's oldest novel, is a good example of literature that gives its readers the sense of mono no aware.

Origin
The term mono no aware was first used by Motoori Norinaga (1730-1801) to describe Heian Period (794 AD - 1185 AD) literature, especially Tales of Genji.

In contemporary culture
Notable manga artists who use mono no aware–style storytelling include Hitoshi Ashinano, Kozue Amano, and Kaoru Mori. In anime, both Only Yesterday, by Isao Takahata and Mai Mai Miracle, by Sunao Katabuchi make note of the passing of time in a gentle way by presenting the main plot against a parallel one from the past.  In addition, the Japanese director Yasujiro Ozu was well known for making a sense of mono no aware.

Japanese literature

Mono no aware


Frozen food is food that is frozen to be preserved for eating later. Frozen food is done this way to keep the food from spoiling as fast. Such products do not need preservatives. Frozen foods are usually packaged or put in containers.

Some foods that are often frozen are vegetables, pizzas and chicken.

Frozen food


A libretto is the text (the words) which are set to music to make an opera.  A libretto can also be the words for an oratorio, cantata, mass or a musical.  The person who writes the libretto is called a librettist.  The word "libretto" (plural: "libretti" or "librettos") is an Italian word which means "little book".

Sometimes a composer writes his own libretti, but usually a composer likes to have a librettist who can write the words for him so that he can set them to music.

Some libretti are original stories by the librettist, but very often they are based on a book by another writer.

In the 18th century Metastasio was a very famous librettist.  Many of his libretti were set several times by different composers. Another 18th century librettist was Lorenzo da Ponte, who wrote the libretti for three of Mozart's greatest operas, as well as for many other composers. In the 19th century Eugène Scribe wrote a very large number of libretti that were set to music by composers such as Meyerbeer, Auber, Bellini, Donizetti, Rossini and Verdi. Two French writers called Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy wrote many opera and operetta libretti for the composers Jacques Offenbach, Jules Massenet and Georges Bizet. Arrigo Boito, who wrote libretti for, among others, Giuseppe Verdi and Amilcare Ponchielli, composed two operas of his own.  Hugo von Hoffmansthal wrote libretti for Richard Strauss.

Wagner and Tippett are two composers who wrote their own libretti.

Usually a libretto is written before the music, but sometimes composers wrote some of the music first and then looked for words to go with it. Composers, such as Mikhail Glinka, Alexander Serov, Rimsky-Korsakov, Puccini, and Mascagni all did this sometimes.

Musicals usually have lyrics (the words for the songs), and a separate "book" (the spoken dialogue and the stage directions).  Sometimes these two are by different authors, e.g. the musical Fiddler on the Roof has a composer (Jerry Bock), a lyricist (Sheldon Harnick), and the writer of the "book" (Joseph Stein).

Opera terminology

Libretto


Ferrari S.p.A. is an Italian automobile company that makes fast luxurious automobiles. They are made in Italy and are very expensive. They usually cost $150,000 - $1,500,000.

Ferraris first car was the Ferrari 125 S.

Ferrari has a rich racing history and is a well known premium automobile brand. The fastest street Ferrari is the F50 GT1, which can go over 370 kph (about 222 mph).
The most powerful Ferrari is the FXX, which has about 800 horsepower. The FXX is a lighter, improved version of the F60 Enzo; it is Ferrari's most exclusive model. It is basically a race car that you can buy from Ferrari. The automobile is so extreme (completely flat tires, low ride height, and no roadcar safety features such as Airbags) that it cannot be driven on roads legally. Ferrari will keep it for you at their Factory in Maranello in Italy. You can go to Italy and drive it on their private race track, or have it transported to another race track around the world, the same as if you were driving for a racing team. Thirty have been built and all but two were sold to customers for $2,500,000 each. Ferrari gave one to seven-time Formula 1 World Champion Michael Schumacer, who had driven for Ferrari for ten years when he retired in 2006, having brought Ferrari much success. Ferrari made his FXX different by painting it black. The other twenty-nine are either red or white, with stripes painted in the other colour.

Other websites
 Official website

Ferrari


Charles James Berridge Aldis (16 January 1808 – 26 July 1872) was an English physician, son of Sir Charles Aldis.

Biography
He was born in London on 16 January 1808, and was educated at St Paul's School and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in January 1831. He studied medicine at Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, and St. George's Hospital, London, and became M.D. Cambridge in 1837, and fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1838. He lectured on medicine first at his own house, afterwards at the Hunterian School of Medicine and at the Aldersgate Street School. He was successively physician to the London Dispensary, 1839; the Surrey Dispensary, 1843; the Farringdon Dispensary, 1844; the Western Dispensary, Westminster; and the St. Paul and St. Barnabas Dispensary, Pimlico, founded in 1848. A great part of Aldis's life was occupied in the arduous and unremunerated service of these institutions.

Aldis took great interest in the sanitary condition of great towns, and co-operated with eminent sanitary reformers in drawing attention to the subject. He gave evidence before the Health of Towns Commission, 1844, and by his numerous publications contributed to the improvements which have since been effected. When medical officers of health were appointed under the Metropolis Local Management Act in 1855, Aldis was elected to that office in the parish of St. George's, Hanover Square. He discharged the duties of this office till his death with singular energy and devotion, and set the example of how such work ought to be done. He became well known also for his zeal in carrying out the provisions of the Workshops' Regulation Act as applied to the limitation of hours of work in dressmakers' and similar establishments in London. This field of work he made specially his own, and to no one man is a larger share of credit due for the amelioration which has been effected of late years in the condition of the poor women employed in such businesses. Aldis also took an active part in the Social Science Association, the Association of Medical Officers of Health, and similar bodies, and was in all ways one of the most energetic of medical sanitary reformers. He was an active member of the council of the College of Physicians, and in 1859 was selected to deliver the Harveian Oration (in Latin). He was a man of scholarship and culture. His practical wisdom is shown in a sensible lecture on the power of individuals to resist melancholy, and in other popular lectures.

Notwithstanding his unwearied industry and an integrity of character which won universal respect, it is understood that Aldis was far from prosperous. His life was spent in working and waiting for success which never came. In 1867 a testimonial of substantial value was presented to him by some well-known men interested in philanthropic and sanitary work. He died suddenly of heart disease on 26 July 1872.

Works
He wrote:
 'An Introduction to Hospital Practice,' &c., 8vo, London, 1835 and 1837.
 'On the Poisonous Effects of Coal Gas' in 'Med. Chir. Trans.' xlv. 99 and 107.
 'On the Power of Individuals to prevent Melancholy in themselves,' 12mo, London, 1860.
 'Lecture on the Sanitary Condition of Large Towns and of Belgravia,' 12mo, London, 1857.
 'Oratio ex Harveii Instituto,' 4to, London, 1859.
He also drew up numerous reports on the sanitary condition of London, and contributed papers to the medical journals.

Notes

References

19th-century English medical doctors
1808 births
1872 deaths
People educated at St Paul's School, London
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians
Physicians of the Surrey Dispensary

Charles James Berridge Aldis


Republic of Kalmykia (, Kalmyk: ) the subject of the Russian Federation, is a part of Southern federal district. It is formed on November, 4th, 1920.

Capital — Elista.

Borders in the south on Stavropol Territory, in the southeast — with Republic Dagestan, in the north — with the Volgograd region, in the northeast — with the Astrakhan region, in the west — with the Rostov region.

Geographical position

The republic Kalmykia places in the extreme southeast of the European part of Russia. Extent of territory from the north on the south — 448 km, from the West on the east — 423 km.

The region is possessed in zones of steppes, semi-deserts and deserts and takes territory with a total area of 75,9 thousand in km ² that there is more than territory of such states in the Western Europe as Belgium, Denmark, Switzerland and the Netherlands. The republic is in the southeast of the European part of the Russian Federation. Its co-ordinates constitute 44°50 ' and 40°10 ' east longitude both 41°40 ' and 47°35 ' northern width.

Three prirodno-economic zones are conditionally allocated for territories of Kalmykia: western, central and east. The western zone covers territories of Gorodovikovsky and Jashaltinsky areas, the central zone — territories of Maloderbetovsky, Sarpinsky, Ketchenerovsky, Virgin, Prijutnensky and Iki-Burulsky areas, east — territories October, Justinsky, Jashkulsky, Chernozemelsky, Lagansky * Dolbansky and Limansky areas. Most favourable on it is soil-environmental conditions the western zone is.
Rather large specific territory of east zone are the so-called Black earths.

From the south the territory of Kalmykia is limited by Kumo-Manychskoj a hollow and the rivers Manych and Kuma, in a southeast part is washed by Caspian sea, in the northeast on an insignificant plot the republic border approaches to the river Volga, and in the northwest the Ergeninsky height is possessed. Within republic territory northern part of Near-Caspian lowland is called Sarpinsky lowland, and in its southern part there are Black earths. Dominating type of a relief of the republic, the large part of its territory, plains are taking.

Minerals

There are stocks of hydrocarbons, the basic reconnoitered and maintained — Iki-Burulsky and Ermolinsky nonassociated gas fields. Deposits concern to near-Caspian gas-oil provinces.

Climate

Republic climate sharply continental — summer hot and very dry, winter is snowless, sometimes with the big colds. Continentality of a climate essentially amplifies from the West on the east. Average temperatures of January on all republic the negative: from −7 °C …-9 °C in southern and its southwest part to −10 °C … −12 °C in the north, the minimum temperature of January: −35 °C … −37 °C. The lowest temperatures sometimes reach −35 °C and more low in northern areas. Feature of a climate is significant duration of solar light which constitutes 2180–2250 hours (182–186 days) per a year. Duration of the warm period constitutes 240–275 days. Average temperatures of July constitute +23,5 °C … +25,5 °C. The absolute maximum of temperature in hot reaches year +40 °C … +44 °C.

Air rise in temperature is observed from the north on the south and the southeast of territory of republic. During the winter period there is thaw, in separate days — blizzards, and sometimes formed ice aggrieves to agriculture, causing an icing of herbage of pastures and winter crops.
Specific feature of territory of republic are droughts and dry winds: happen to 120 суховейных days in the summer. The region is the most droughty in the south of the European part of Russia. The annual amount of precipitation constitutes 210–340 mm. On conditions влагообеспеченности in republic four basic agroclimatic areas are allocated: very dry, dry, very droughty, droughty.

Thanks to prevalence of zones of strong winds the region has significant wind energy resources, realised only at a rate of 3-5 million kvt·h/year on Kalmyk Wind Electrostation.

Nature

In republic territory live about 60 species of mammals. On reservoirs of Kalmykia nest about 130 kinds of birds and more than 50 kinds meet during seasonal migrations. 20 kinds of reptiles and 3 kinds of the amphibious. Within republic 23 kinds of the birds brought in the Red book of the Russian Federation are noted.

Number of population of a saiga fluctuates from 270 thousand to 400 thousand goals

The republic territory is in the semi-desert zone which prominent feature is the completeness of a vegetative cover shown in a combination of steppe and deserted plots, and is most forestless region of the Russian Federation.

Kalmykia


An expert system is a program running on a computer. Like a human expert, it knows a lot about a subject. People can ask the expert system a question. The expert system will then use a set of rules and give answers to the question. This method of automated reasoning belongs to a field of computer science called artificial intelligence.

Different groups of people can have different kinds of access to an expert system. The people managing the network of computers have different needs than the office worker or secretary.

How expert systems work
Expert systems are made of
A set of facts, rules and principles
A set of data that is solved using its expertise
A user interface

When they are asked a question, they will filter the data with the rules they have. They might give back a result, or ask an additional question.

Categories of expert systems
Case-based expert systems have a number of cases; each case describes the problem in context, and  the solution of the problem, in the specific case. The current problem is matched as closely as possible to a case. The solution of the case found is then applied to the current problem. The main problem of such systems is to define how cases relate to each other, or are similar. An example of where such a system may be used is that of a patient: This patient shows a given number of symptoms, and the expert system could diagnose the patient.
Rule-based systems do not rely on cases; instead, there are a number of rules. These are expressed in the form IF A THEN B.  In most systems, human experts have to write the rules.
A third approach is to construct systems that are based on decision trees. Such systems are capable of learning, or of extending their knowledge base, using inductive reasoning. When the classification is done, the system uses a path through the tree. At the end, it arrives at a leaf, which indicates the class of solution to the problem.  Each bifurcation in the tree is based on an attribute, that is checked. The value of the attribute determines how to continue the path. Ideally, good results are obtained using small trees. The problem is finding good attributes to base the decisions on.

Artificial intelligence
Systems

Expert system


Jackson's pipit (Anthus cinnamomeus latistriatus) is a rare and little-known African bird of the pipit and wagtail family.

It occurs in montane grasslands, migrating to lower altitudes, in the east-central part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in southern Uganda.  Van Perlo shows an isolated population around the Malawi-Zambia border, apparently in Nyika National Park. One specimen, the type, has been taken in western Kenya.

In appearance Jackson's pipit suggests a dark African pipit. It averages about  long. The bill is dark with a pink lower mandible. The back is brown, darker than most other African pipits', with dark streaks. The head is the same color as the back and marked with white lores (unlike many African pipits) and a white eyebrow that curves around behind the cheek to join a white malar stripe. A dark sub-mustachial stripe separates this latter from the white throat. The underparts differ from the African pipit's in being buff instead of white and having streaks extending to the flanks. There is also a buff patch on the side of the neck. Many of the wing feathers have buff edges, and the outer tail feathers are white.

Jackson's pipit has been considered a subspecies of the long-billed pipit. (Sibley and Monroe suggested that it might be conspecific with the bannermani subspecies of the long-billed pipit.)  It has also been considered a subspecies or morph of the African pipit.  Van Perlo not only considers it a subspecies of the African pipit, but in turn, like some other authors, considers the African pipit conspecific with Richard's pipit.

References

Jackson's pipit
Birds of Central Africa
Birds of East Africa
Jackson's pipit

Jackson's pipit


For other uses see "Filament".

Filamentation is the anomalous (not normal) growth of certain bacteria, such as E. coli, in which cells continue to elongate but do not divide (no septa formation). Bacterial filamentation is a defect in completing replication and is observed in bacteria responding to a various stresses. This may happen, for example, when there is extensive DNA damage through the SOS response system. Nutritional change may also cause bacterial filamentation.

Microbiology

Filamentation


ᱴᱷᱩ ᱥᱮ ᱟᱛᱟᱨ ᱫᱚ is the act or process of discharging a projectile from a ranged weapon (such as a gun, sling, slingshot, crossbow, or bow). Even the acts of launching/discharging artillery, arrows, darts, grenades, rockets, and guided missiles can be considered acts of shooting.  When using a firearm, the act of shooting is often called firing as it involves initiating a combustion process (deflagration).

Shooting can take place in a shooting range or in the field, in shooting sports, hunting or in combat.  The person involved in the shooting activity is called a shooter.  A skilled, accurate shooter is a marksman or sharpshooter, and a person's level of shooting proficiency is referred to as their marksmanship.

Competitive shooting

Shooting has inspired competition, and in several countries rifle clubs started to form in the 19th century. Soon international shooting events evolved, including shooting at the Summer and Winter Olympics (from 1896) and World Championships (from 1897). The International Shooting Sport Federation still administers Olympic and non-Olympic rifle, pistol, shotgun, and running target shooting competitions, although there is also a large number of national and international shooting sports controlled by unrelated organizations.

Shooting technique differs depending on factors like the type of firearm used (from a handgun to a precision rifle); the distance to and nature of the target; the required precision; and the available time. Breathing and position play an important role when handling a handgun or a rifle. Some shooting sports, such as IPSC shooting and biathlon also include movement. The prone position, kneeling position, and standing position offer different amounts of support for the shooter.

Hunting with guns

In the United Kingdom shooting often refers to the activity of hunting game birds such as grouse or pheasants, or small game such as rabbits, with guns.  A shooter is sometimes referred to as a "gun".  Shooting may also refer to the culling of vermin with guns. Clay pigeon shooting is meant to simulate shooting live pigeons released from traps, after doing so was banned in the United Kingdom in 1921.

Weapons
Shooting most often refers to the use of a gun (firearm or air gun), although it can also be used to describe discharging of any ranged weapons like a bow, crossbow, slingshot or even blow tube.  The term "weapon" does not necessarily mean it is used as a combat tool, but as a piece of equipment to help the user best achieve the goal of their activities.

Shooting is also used in warfare, self-defense, crime and law enforcement.  Duels were sometimes held using guns.  Shooting without a target has applications such as celebratory gunfire, 21-gun salute, or firing starting pistols, incapable of releasing bullets.

Restrictions
In many countries, there are restrictions on what kind of firearm can be bought and by whom, leading to debate about how effective such measures are and the extent to which they should be applied.  For example, attitudes towards guns and shooting in the United States are very different from those in the United Kingdom and Australia.

Canting
Canting is an alignment issue that occurs in shooting. Because scopes need to be mounted to a rifle in perfect parallel to the barrel and to ensure the cross hairs sit exactly where a bullet will go (POI), a small variation of even ¼ of one degree can cause great problems at longer ranges. A locking bar holds the mount in a perfect 90 degree to the rail system whereas a non-locking bar system can cant to the left or right. This canting (sometimes called jamming of surfaces) is caused by not matching the clamping surface perfectly to the rail. When tightened down, stress exerted on the base can cause the scope to be off from the POI by as much as several feet at 100–200 yards and gets progressively worse as range increases. Lower grade materials used in manufacturing of scope bases, inconsistent design tolerances from one manufacturer to another and other factors can cause twisting stress and cause the mount to move out of parallel with the rifle barrel. The locking bar system allows for even stress to be distributed and prevent canting of the scope mount. Another form of scope canting is caused by the rings themselves. Some mounts either have two or four screws on top of the scope ring that hold the scope in place. With the two-screw style, the ring usually aligns well but does not have the strength of the four screw system. When tightening the screws of the four screw type, the scope can twist in place, causing misalignment.

Shooting positions
The four basic "NRA" or "competition" or "field" shooting positions, in order of steadiness/stability (the closer you get to the ground, the steadier you are), are prone, sitting, kneeling, and standing (also called "offhand").

Another common, but aided, shooting position is the bench shooting position. There are also numerous shooting aids from monopods to tripods to sandbags and complete gun cradles.

Prone
 The steadiest and by far the easiest to master. Done correctly. it can be as steady as shooting from a bench rest.
 Probably the least used in the field because, all too often, vegetation gets in the way and obscures the view.
 Variations:
 classic – with the body at an angle (left for right-handed people, right for left-handed)
 modern – with the body more directly behind the rifle with the shooter's strong side leg slightly bent.
 Test for correct body position: wrap your arm into the hasty sling and drop down into prone, sighting at the target. Close your eyes. When you open them you should still be aiming at the target. If you aren't, then your position is off. Also, if the shooter's sight picture returns after the firm kicks to each muzzle, then body alignment is good. If not, adjustment is needed.
 Usual advice is to use a sling for this position
 Aided prone position – prone with pack or bipod

Sitting
 This position is relatively easy to get into, but more difficult to get out of quickly and provides clearance for low to medium-height obstacles that would interfere with the prone position.
 Proper sitting position is extremely difficult to master.
 Variations:
 open leg
 cross leg (aka pretzel style) – the steadiest sitting position.
 cross ankle
 The test for correct body position is the same as prone.
 Usual advice is to use a sling for this position.
 Aided sitting position – sitting with tripod

Kneeling
 Best for times when shooter needs to shoot quickly, but it is a bit too far (or he is breathing a bit too hard) to risk a shot from the standing position.
 A lot steadier than standing position.
 For most people it is not nearly as steady as sitting but it is a lot faster to get in and out of.
 For some people this position can be almost as steady as the prone position.
 Strong-side knee is on the ground, weak-side knee and foot are pointing at the target while weak-side knee is supporting the elbow (It is important that the bony tip of the elbow not be planted on top of the knee cap – bone-on-bone contact allows for too much movement or it can slip.)
 Variations:
 sitting on strong-side foot
 with strong-side foot flat
 sitting on the strong-side foot's heel with the toes grounded
 Usual advice is to use a sling for this position.
Aided kneeling position – kneeling with crossed sticks or tripod

Standing (or offhand)
 The quickest position to assume and is useful for quick shots and for shooting over objects.
 By far is the least steadiest of all positions. Common trait is a bit of sway in this position. The trick is learning to control the sway and fire when shooter is at his steadiest.
 The most difficult position to shoot from and to master.
 Stock fit is essential in standing – perhaps more than in any other position. Shooter needs to have his cheek firmly welded to the stock.
 Variations:
 squared toward the target – advantages of this technique are that it allows the shooter to absorb the rifle's recoil much more effectively, to run the bolt and get back on target quickly. It also places the shooter in a more aggressive stance that allows him to move, in just about any direction, as his target requires.
 bladed stance of the rifle marksman
 Usual advice is not to use the sling for support in this position.
Aided standing position
Standing with sticks and stones
 Three-legged shooting sticks are almost universal in Africa.
 Whatever shooter's comfortable range is for offhand shooting, sticks should double it.

Rice paddy squat in rifle shooting

The rice paddy squat (or rice paddy prone) position is a moderate-stability position that supports both elbows, making it more stable than kneeling yet keeping a high level of mobility. Its higher center of gravity will still be less stable than sitting or prone. It was a traditionally taught marksmanship position but lost popularity after the Korean conflict. The heel-down squat/kneel combination has also been used to fire weapons – see image.

Slings
Shooting sling
The sling is used to create isometric pressure to increase steadiness. While the use of a sling is of questionable value when shooting from the standing position, it is very much worth using from kneeling, sitting or prone. Proper use of the sling locks the rifle into the body and enhances that solid foundation so critical to delivering an accurate shot.
Hasty sling
A type of shooting sling. All positions are strengthened through the use of a hasty sling. The formal tight sling is detached from the rear sling swivel and tightened above the bicep of the supporting arm. Almost any carrying strap can be used in the hasty sling mode. There is often a compromise between the most comfortable "carry" length for shooter's sling and the ideal tension for a hasty sling. The steadiness achieved is almost as good as a tight competition sling and it is a lot faster.

Competitions
In ISSF shooting events, 3 out of 5 shooting positions are used. Positions not used are rice paddy squat and sitting position.

WBSF governs benchrest shooting.

IPSC shooting events use prone, offhand and supported shooting positions.

There are some competitions, such as felthurtigskyting, in which shooting position is freestyle. That means that the shooter decides which one of the four positions he'll use.

ᱱᱚᱶᱟ ᱦᱚᱸ ᱧᱮᱞᱢᱮ

 ᱵᱟ.ᱱᱫᱩᱠ ᱨᱮᱭᱟᱜ ᱱᱟᱜᱟᱢ
 ᱴᱷᱩ ᱨᱮᱭᱟᱜ ᱡᱚᱥ

ᱥᱟ.ᱠᱷᱭᱟ.ᱛ

Projectile weapons

Combat
Hunting methods
Warfare of the Middle Ages

ᱴᱷᱩ


Michael Friedländer (29 April 1833 – 10 December 1910) was an Orientalist and principal of Jews' College, London.  He is best known for his English translation of Maimonides' Guide to the Perplexed, which was the most popular such translation until the more recent work of Shlomo Pines, and still remains in print.

Biography
Friedländer was born at Jutroschin, in the Grand Duchy of Posen.  His early secular education was at a local Catholic school, and his Jewish education came from attendance of a Cheder, and from his father, who was a talmudist and Hebrew grammarian.  He then attended the gymnasium, while continuing his Jewish studies under Rabbi Jacob Joseph Oettinger and Rabbi Elchanan Rosenstein.

In 1856, he began studies in classical languages and mathematics at the universities of Berlin and Halle/Saale (Ph.D. 1862), and concurrently with the university studies he pursued Talmudic learning. Settling in Berlin, he was appointed principal of the Talmud school, a position which he resigned in 1865 to accept that of the principal of Jews' College, London, in succession to Barnett Abrahams.  There he taught theology, biblical and rabbinical exegesis, Talmud, Jewish history, mathematics, and Arabic.

He retired from this position in 1907, and died on 10 December 1910.  His son-in-law was Moses Gaster (1856–1939), the Hakham of the Spanish and Portuguese congregation, London, and a Hebrew linguist.

Works

Friedländer displayed considerable literary activity. He authored a few dozen articles for the Jewish Encyclopedia. As a member of the Society of Hebrew Literature he published under its auspices:
The Commentary of Abraham ibn Ezra on Isaiah, translated into English with extensive annotations (available on Google Books)
An Essay on the Writings of Ibn Ezra
A translation from the original Arabic, with notes, of Maimonides' Guide of the Perplexed (1881).
The Jewish Religion (1890, American edition: 1946)
German commentary upon the Song of Songs (1867).

He also edited a Jewish Family Bible in English and Hebrew, compiled a Handbook of the Jewish Religion, made calculations on the Hebrew calendar, and contributed articles to the Jewish Quarterly Review, the Dictionary of National Biography, and other publications. Numerous papers read by him at Jews' College and elsewhere have been published.

References

 The JE cites the following works:
Jewish Year Book, 1899;
Jewish Chronicle, May 8, 1903.J

External links

1833 births
1910 deaths
People from Rawicz County
Talmudists
Judaic scholars
People from the Grand Duchy of Posen
English people of German-Jewish descent
English Jews
Academics of the London School of Jewish Studies
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg alumni
Jewish translators of the Bible
Translators of the Bible into English
19th-century translators

Michael Friedländer


Yanka Kupala ( – June 28, 1942) was the pen name of Ivan Daminikavich Lutsevich.  He was a Belarusian poet and writer. Kupala is said to be one of the greatest Belarusian-language writers of the 20th century.

Biography

Early life
Kupala was born on July 7, 1882 in Viazynka. His family was of Szlachta origins. Both of his parents were tenant farmers. Kupala received a traditional Belarusian education.  He finished his studies in 1898. After the death of his father in 1902, Kupala worked several short-term jobs.  These included being a tutor, a shop assistant, and a record keeper.

Kupala's first serious try at writing was Ziarno.  It was a Polish-language sentimental poem which he completed around 1903–1904. His first Belarusian-language work ("Мая доля") was dated July 15, 1904. Kupala's first published poem, "Мужык" ("Peasant"), was published about a year later.  It was in the newspaper on May 11, 1905. Several more poems by Kupala were in the Belarusian-language newspaper Nasha Niva from 1906 to 1907.

In Vilnius and St. Petersburg

Kupala moved from Belarus to Vilnius in 1908.  He continued with his career as a poet. The first published collection of his poems, Жалейка (The Little Flute) made the czarist government mad. The order for Kupala's arrest was ended in 1909.

Kupala left for St. Petersburg in 1909. In 1910 he published several works.  He left St. Petersburg and returned to Vilnius in 1913. Among those influencing Kupala in the 1910s was Maxim Gorky.

During the Soviet period
Kupala's writing changed to an optimistic tone after the Great October Revolution of 1917.

Kupala was awarded the Order of Lenin in 1941 for the poetry collection Ад сэрца (From the Heart).

In 1941 he moved to Moscow and then to Tatarstan. But even from there he wrote poems supporting Belarus fighting against Nazi Germany. He died mysteriously in 1942 in Moscow.  He fell down the stairwell in Hotel Moskva. The death was said to be accidental.  Some people think it was suicide or murder.

1882 births
1942 deaths
Belarusian writers
Recipients of the Order of Lenin

Yanka Kupala


Surveyor 1 was the first lunar soft-lander in the uncrewed Surveyor program of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, United States). This lunar soft-lander gathered data about the lunar surface that would be needed for the crewed Apollo Moon landings that began in 1969. The successful soft landing of Surveyor 1 on the Ocean of Storms was the first by an American space probe on any extraterrestrial body, occurring on the first attempt and just four months after the first soft Moon landing by the Soviet Union's Luna 9 probe.

Surveyor 1 was launched May 30, 1966, from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station at Cape Canaveral, Florida, and it landed on the Moon on June 2, 1966. Surveyor 1 transmitted 11,237 still photos of the lunar surface to the Earth by using a television camera and a sophisticated radio-telemetry system.

The Surveyor program was managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, in Los Angeles County, California, and the Surveyor space probe was built by  the Hughes Aircraft Company in El Segundo, California.

Mission description

The Surveyor series of space probes was designed to carry out the first soft landings on the Moon by any American spacecraft. No instrumentation was carried specifically for scientific experiments by Surveyor 1, but considerable scientific data were collected by its television camera and then returned to Earth via the Deep Space Network from 1966 to 1967. These spacecraft carried two television cameras — one for its approach, which was not used in this case, and one for taking still pictures of the lunar surface. Over 100 engineering sensors were on board each Surveyor. Their television systems transmitted pictures of the spacecraft footpad and surrounding lunar terrain and surface materials. These spacecraft also acquired data on the radar reflectivity of the lunar surface, the load-bearing strength of the lunar surface, and the temperatures for use in the analysis of the lunar surface temperatures. (Later Surveyor space probes, beginning with Surveyor 3, carried scientific instruments to measure the composition and mechanical properties of the lunar "soil".)

Surveyor 1 was launched May 30, 1966 and sent directly into a trajectory to the Moon without any parking orbit. Its retrorockets were turned off at a height of about 3.4 meters above the lunar surface. Surveyor 1 fell freely to the surface from this height, and it landed on the lunar surface on June 2, 1966, on the Oceanus Procellarum. This location was at .  This is within the northeast portion of the large crater called Flamsteed P (or the Flamsteed Ring).  Flamsteed itself lies within Flamsteed P on the south side.

The duration of the spaceflight of Surveyor 1 was about 63 hours, 30 minutes. Surveyor 1's lunar launch  weight was about , and its landing weight (minus expended maneuvering propellant, its solid-fueled retrorocket (which had been jettisoned), and its radar altimeter system) was about .

Surveyor 1 transmitted video data from the Moon beginning shortly after its landing through July 14, 1966, but with a period of no operations during the two-week long lunar night of June 14, 1966 through July 7, 1966. Because the Moon always presents the same face to Earth, "line-of-sight" radio communications with Surveyor 1 required only changes in ground stations as the Earth rotated. However, since it was solar-powered, Surveyor 1 had no electricity with which to function during the two weeks of the lunar nights.

The return of engineering information (temperatures, etc.) from Surveyor 1 continued through January 7, 1967, with several interruptions during the lunar nights.

The landing of Surveyor 1 was carried live on some television networks, and the success of the first Surveyor landing was considered surprising, especially after the failure of a number of the Ranger spacecraft en route to the Moon. Justin Rennilson, formerly of Jet Propulsion Laboratory, stated, "We figured the probability of success at around 10 to 15 percent." Among hundreds of other challenges, an uninterrupted communication link for navigation and control was critical to success.

Science instruments

Television

The TV camera consisted of a vidicon tube, a zoom lens operated at either end of its range resulting in 25 millimeter and 100 millimeter focal-lengths, resulting in optical fields of view of 25.3 or 6.43 degrees, a shutter, several optical filters, and iris-system mounted along an axis inclined approximately 16 degrees from the central axis of Surveyor 1. The camera was mounted under a mirror that could be moved in azimuth and elevation. The rotation of the mirror in the azimuth direction, while providing azimuth coverage capability results in an image rotation proportional to the angular azimuth position of the mirror. This is because the image plane and scanning raster of the vidicon are stationary with respect to the mirror azimuth axis. The mirror drive mechanism consisting of stepper motors provided a step size of 2.48° ±0.1° in elevation and 3.0° ±0.1° in azimuth. This calibrated stepping reference allowed the creation of large composite mosaics of the lunar surface and using the data read-back from the iris and focus positioning of the lens permitted some photogrammetric measurements of various lunar features. The TV camera's operation was dependent on the receipt of the proper radio commands from the Earth. Frame-by-frame coverage of the lunar surface was obtained over 360 degrees in azimuth and from +40 degrees above the plane normal to the camera's axis to -65 degrees below this plane. Both 600-line and 200-line modes of operation were used. The 200-line mode transmitted over an omnidirectional antenna for the first 14 photos and scanned one frame every 61.8 seconds. The remaining transmissions were of 600-line pictures over a directional antenna, and each frame was scanned every 3.6 seconds. Each 200-line picture required 20 seconds for a complete video transmission and it used a radio bandwidth of about 1.2 kilohertz.

Each 600-line picture required about one second to be read from the vidicon tube, and they required a radio bandwidth of about 220 kilohertz. The data transmissions were converted into a standard TV signal for both closed-circuit TV and broadcast TV. The television images were displayed on Earth on a slow-scan monitor coated with a long persistency phosphor. The persistency was selected to optimally match the nominal maximum frame rate. One frame of TV identification was received for each incoming TV frame, and it was displayed in real time at a rate compatible with the incoming image. These data were recorded on a video magnetic tape recorder. Over 10,000 pictures were taken by Surveyor 1's TV camera before the lunar sunset of June 14, 1966. Included in these pictures were wide-angle and narrow-angle panoramas, focus ranging surveys, photometric surveys, special area surveys, and celestial photography. Surveyor 1 responded to commands to activate the camera on July 7, and by July 14, 1966, it had returned nearly 1000 more pictures.

Strain gauge
Strain gauges were mounted on each leg shock absorber to record the peak axial forces at landing impact of the spacecraft. They were designed to accept a force of approximately 800 kgf (7.8 kN).

Legacy and Status

On January 6, 1967, Surveyor 1 was reactivated for 12 hours. The spacecraft returned data on the motion of the Moon, which would be used to refine the map of its orbital path around the Earth as well as better determine the distance between the two worlds.

See also

 List of artificial objects on the Moon

References

External links
 Surveyor 1 digitized panorama with color photometric target, from Surveyor Digitization Project

 Panoramas of the Surveyor 1 landing site, from The International Atlas of Lunar Exploration by Philip J. Stooke
 Surveyor Program Results (PDF) 1969
 Surveyor I – A Preliminary Report – June 1, 1966 (PDF)
 Surveyor I mission report. Part II – Scientific data and results – Sep 1966 (PDF)
 Details of Surveyor 1 launch, and also more on the Surveyor program
 Surveyor I images at Lunar and Planetary Institute
 Surveyor Site 1 Lunar Map at Lunar and Planetary Institute
 Surveyor Site 1 Lunar PhotoMap at Lunar and Planetary Institute
 Lunar Orbiter 1 photo 192, showing the northeastern part of Flamsteed P crater, where Surveyor 1 landed

1
Spacecraft launched in 1966
Missions to the Moon
Spacecraft launched by Atlas-Centaur rockets
Soft landings on the Moon
Derelict landers (spacecraft)
1966 on the Moon

Surveyor 1


Power uji statistik nyaéta tes probabilitas nu bakal nolak kasalahan null hypothesis, atawa dina basa séjén moal maké Type II error. Beuki luhur power, beuki gedé kamungkinan Type II error nurun tur sabalikna. Probablitas Type II error dumasar kana gedéna negatif kasalahan (β). Sanajan kitu power sarua jeung 1 − β.

Analisa power séjénna bisa saméméh (priori) atawa sanggeus (post hoc) data dikumpulkeun. A priori power analysis is conducted prior to the conducting of reséarch and is typically used to determine an appropriate sample size to achieve adequate power. Post-hoc power analysis is conducted after a study has been conducted and uses the obtained sample size and effect size to determine what the power was in the study assuming the effect size in the sample size is equal to the population effect size.

Statistical tests attempt to use data from samples to determine if differences or similarities exist in a population. For example, to test the null hypothesis that the mean scores of men and women on a test do not differ, samples of men and women are drawn, the test is administered to them, and the méan score of one group is compared to that of the other group using a statistical test. The power of the test is the probability that the test will find a statistically significant difference between men and women, as a function of the size of the true difference between those two populations.  Despite the use of random samples, which will tend to mirror the population due to mathematical properties such as the central limit theorem, there is always a chance that the samples will appéar to support or refute a tested hypothesis when the réality is the opposite. This risk is quantified as the power of the test and as the statistical significance level used for the test.

Statistical power depends on:
 the statistical significance criterion used in the test
 the size of the difference or the strength of the similarity (that is, the effect size) in the population
 the sensitivity of the data. d

A significance criterion is a statement of how unlikely a result must be, if the null hypothesis is true, to be considered significant. The most commonly used criteria are probabilities of 0.05 (5%, 1 in 20), 0.01 (1%, 1 in 100), and 0.001 (0.1%, 1 in 1000). If the criterion is 0.05, the probability of the difference must be less than 0.05, and so on.  One way to incréase the power of a test is to incréase (that is, wéaken) the significance level. This incréases the chance of obtaining a statistically significant result (rejecting the null hypothesis) when the null hypothesis is false, that is, reduces the risk of a Type II error.  But it also incréases the risk of obtaining a statistically significant result when the null hypothesis is in fact true; that is, it incréases the risk of a Type I error.

Calculating the power requires first specifying the effect size you want to detect.  The gréater the effect size, the gréater the power.

Sensitivity can be incréased by using statistical controls, by incréasing the reliability of méasures (as in psychometric reliability), and by incréasing the size of the sample. Incréasing sample size is the most commonly used method for incréasing statistical power.

Although there are no formal standards for power, most reséarchers who assess the power of their tests use 0.80 as a standard for adequacy.

A common misconception by those new to statistical power is that power is a property of a study or experiment. In réality any statistical result that has a p-value has an associated power. For example, in the context of a single multiple regression, there will be a different level of statistical power associated with the overall r-square and for éach of the regression coefficients. When determining an appropriate sample size for a planned study, it is important to consider that power will vary across the different hypotheses.

There are times when the recommendations of power analysis regarding sample size will be inadequate. Power analysis is appropriate when the concern is with the correct acceptance or rejection of a null hypothesis. In many contexts, the issue is less about determining if there is or is not a difference but rather with getting a more refined estimate of the population effect size. For example, if we were expecting a population correlation between intelligence and job performance of around .50, a sample size of 20 will give us approximately 80% power (alpha = .05, two-tail). However, in doing this study we are probably more interested in knowing whether the correlation is .30 or .60 or .50. In this context we would need a much larger sample size in order to reduce the confidence interval of our estimate to a range that is acceptable for our purposes. These and other considerations often result in the true but somewhat simplistic recommendation that when it comes to sample size, "More is better!"

However, huge sample sizes can léad to statistical tests becoming so powerful that the null hypothesis is always rejected for réal data. This is a problem in studies of differential item functioning.

Funding agencies, ethics boards and reséarch review panels frequently request that a reséarcher perform a power analysis. The argument is that if a study is inadequately powered, there is no point in completing the reséarch.

Tempo ogé
 Éfék ukuran
 Ukuran sampel

Tumbu kaluar

 G*Power – A free program for Statistical Power Analysis
 Free Post-hoc Statistical Power Calculator for Multiple Regression from Daniel Soper's Free Statistics Calculators website. Computes the observed power for a study, given the observed alpha level, the number of predictors, the observed R-square, and the sample size.
 Free A-priori Sample Size Calculator for Multiple Regression from Daniel Soper's Free Statistics Calculators website. Computes the minimum required sample size for a study, given the alpha level, the number of predictors, the anticipated effect size, and the desired statistical power level.

Rujukan
 Cohen, J.: Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 1988. ISBN 0-8058-0283-5.

Hypothesis testing

Power statistik