The Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA), also known as the "Digital Telephony Act," is a United States wiretapping law passed in 1994, during the presidency of Bill Clinton (Pub. L. No. 103-414, 108 Stat. 4279, codified at 47 USC 1001–1010).

CALEA's purpose is to enhance the ability of law enforcement agencies to conduct lawful interception of communication by requiring that telecommunications carriers and manufacturers of telecommunications equipment modify and design their equipment, facilities, and services to ensure that they have built-in capabilities for targeted surveillance, allowing federal agencies to selectively wiretap any telephone traffic; it has since been extended to cover broadband Internet and VoIP traffic. Some government agencies argue that it covers mass surveillance of communications rather than just tapping specific lines and that not all CALEA-based access requires a warrant.

The original reason for adopting CALEA was the Federal Bureau of Investigation's worry that increasing use of digital telephone exchange switches would make tapping phones at the phone company's central office harder and slower to execute, or in some cases impossible. Since the original requirement to add CALEA-compliant interfaces required phone companies to modify or replace hardware and software in their systems, U.S. Congress included funding for a limited time period to cover such network upgrades.  CALEA was passed into law on October 25, 1994, and came into force on January 1, 1995.

In the years since CALEA was passed it has been greatly expanded to include all VoIP and broadband Internet traffic. From 2004 to 2007 there was a 62 percent growth in the number of wiretaps performed under CALEAand more than 3,000 percent growth in interception of Internet data such as email.

By 2007, the FBI had spent $39 million on its Digital Collection System Network (DCSNet) system, which collects, stores, indexes, and analyzes communications data.

Provisions of CALEA
In its own words, the purpose of CALEA is:

To amend title 18, United States Code, to make clear a telecommunications carrier's duty to cooperate in the interception of communications for Law Enforcement purposes, and for other purposes.

The U.S. Congress passed the CALEA to aid law enforcement in its effort to conduct criminal investigations requiring wiretapping of digital telephone networks. The Act obliges telecommunications companies to make it possible for law enforcement agencies to tap any phone conversations carried out over its networks, as well as making call detail records available. The act stipulates that it must not be possible for a person to detect that his or her conversation is being monitored by the respective government agency.

Common carriers, facilities-based broadband Internet access providers, and providers of interconnected Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) serviceall three types of entities are defined to be "telecommunications carriers" and must meet the requirements of CALEA.

The CALEA Implementation Unit at the FBI has clarified that intercepted information is supposed to be sent to Law Enforcement concurrently with its capture.

On March 10, 2004, the United States Department of Justice, FBI and Drug Enforcement Administration filed a "Joint Petition for Expedited Rulemaking" in which they requested certain steps to accelerate CALEA compliance, and to extend the provisions of CALEA to include the ability to perform surveillance of all communications that travel over the Internetsuch as Internet traffic and VoIP.

As a result, the Federal Communications Commission adopted its First Report and Order on the matter concluding that CALEA applies to facilities-based broadband Internet access providers and providers of interconnected (with the public switched telephone network) Voice-over-Internet-Protocol (VoIP) services.

In May 2006, the FCC adopted a "Second Report and Order", which  clarified and affirmed the First Order:

 The CALEA compliance deadline remains May 14, 2007.
 Carriers are permitted to meet their CALEA obligations through the services of "Trusted Third Parties (TTP)"that is, they can hire outside companies, which meet security requirements outlined in CALEA, to perform all of the required functions.
 Carriers are responsible for CALEA development and implementation costs.

Technical implementation
For Voice and Text messaging, CALEA software in the central office enables wiretap. If a call comes in for a number on the target phone a "conference bridge" is created and the second leg is sent to law enforcement at the place of their choosing. By law this must be outside of the phone company. This prevents law enforcement from being inside the phone company and possibly illegally tapping other phones.

Text messages are also sent to law enforcement.

There are two levels of CALEA wiretapping:

 The first level only allows that the "meta data" about a call be sent. That is the parties to the call, the time of the call and for cell phones, the cell tower being used by the target phone. For text message, the same information is sent but the content is not sent. This level is called "Trap and Trace".
 The second level of CALEA wiretap, when permitted, actually sends the voice and content of text messages. This is called "Title III" wiretap.

USA telecommunications providers must install new hardware or software, as well as modify old equipment, so that it doesn't interfere with the ability of a law enforcement agency (LEA) to perform real-time surveillance of any telephone or Internet traffic. Modern voice switches now have this capability built in, yet Internet equipment almost always requires some kind of intelligent deep packet inspection probe to get the job done. In both cases, the intercept function must single out a subscriber named in a warrant for intercept and then immediately send some (headers-only) or all (full content) of the intercepted data to an LEA. The LEA will then process this data with analysis software that is specialized towards criminal investigations.

All traditional voice switches on the U.S. market today have the CALEA intercept feature built in. The IP-based "soft switches" typically do not contain a built-in CALEA intercept feature; and other IP-transport elements (routers, switches, access multiplexers) almost always delegate the CALEA function to elements dedicated to inspecting and intercepting traffic. In such cases, hardware taps or switch/router mirror-ports are employed to deliver copies of all of a network's data to dedicated IP probes.

Probes can either send directly to the LEA according to the industry standard delivery formats (c.f. ATIS T1.IAS, T1.678v2, et al.); or they can deliver to an intermediate element called a mediation device, where the mediation device does the formatting and communication of the data to the LEA. A probe that can send the correctly formatted data to the LEA is called a "self-contained" probe.

In order to be compliant, IP-based service providers (broadband, cable, VoIP) must choose either a self-contained probe, or a "dumb" probe component plus a mediation device, or they must implement the delivery of correctly formatted data for a named subscriber on their own.

Controversy
The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) warns that:

 CALEA makes US software and hardware less attractive for worldwide consumers.
 CALEA is a reason to move research and development out of the US.
 CALEA-free devices will probably be available in the grey market.

Journalist Marc Zwillinger from the Wall Street Journal explains his concerns with proposed revisions to the CALEA that would require Internet companies to provide law enforcement with a method of gaining access to communication on their networks. Zwillinger warns this new mandatory access could create a dangerous situation for multinational companies not being able to refuse demands from foreign governments. These governments could "threaten financial sanctions, asset seizures, imprisonment of employees and prohibition against a company's services in their countries." In addition, the creation of this new mechanism could create an easier way for hackers to gain access to the U.S. government's key. Moreover, the U.S. telephone network and the global internet differ in that U.S. telephone carriers "weren't responsible for decrypting communications unless the carrier possessed the decryption key. In fact, CALEA's legislative history is full of assurances that the Department of Justice and FBI had no intention to require providers to decrypt communications for which they did not have the key." Therefore, a revision of the CALEA cannot necessarily secure companies from providing data on their devices during criminal investigations to foreign governments.

Lawsuits
Originally CALEA only granted the ability to wiretap digital telephone networks, but in 2004, the United States Department of Justice (DOJ), Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) filed a joint petition with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to expand their powers to include the ability to monitor VoIP and broadband Internet communicationsso that they could monitor Web traffic as well as phone calls.

The Electronic Frontier Foundation has filed several lawsuits to prevent the FCC from granting these expanded domestic surveillance capabilities.

The FCC's First Report and Order, issued in September 2005, ruled that providers of broadband Internet access and interconnected VoIP services are regulable as "telecommunications carriers" under CALEA. That order was affirmed and further clarified by the Second Report and Order, dated May 2006. On May 5, 2006, a group of higher education and library organizations led by the American Council on Education (ACE) challenged that ruling, arguing that CALEA did not apply to them. On June 9, 2006, the D.C. Circuit Court summarily denied the petition without addressing the constitutionality.

See also
 Carnivore (FBI)
 NSA ANT catalog
 Tempora
 DCSNET
 ECHELON
 Hepting v. AT&T
 Lawful interception
 Magic Lantern
 PositiveID
 Secrecy of correspondence
 Secure communication
 SORM (Russia)
 Surveillance
 Telecommunications Intercept and Collection Technology Unit
 Telephone tapping
 Total Information Awareness
 Patriot Act
 Verint

References

Further reading
 White Paper on Lawful Interception of IP Networks
 Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act of 1994
 FCC CALEA Home page
 EFF CALEA page
 Digital Surveillance: The Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act, Congressional Research Service, June 8, 2007
  - Cisco Architecture for Lawful Intercept in IP Networks
 CALEA for Broadband? The Critics Are Unanimous :: Lasar's Letter on the Federal Communications Commission
 Law enforcement groups have been lobbying for years for FCC Internet wiretapping plan: Lasar's Letter on the Federal Communications Commission
 Cybertelecom: CALEA Information
 Guide to lawful intercept legislation around the world
 CableLabs Cable Broadband Intercept Specification
 CALEA Q&A

External links
 Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (PDF/details) as amended in the GPO Statute Compilations collection

Surveillance
United States federal communications legislation
United States federal criminal legislation
Privacy of telecommunications
Privacy law in the United States
Mass surveillance
Encryption debate


DNA-binding protein RFX2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RFX2 gene.

This gene is a member of the regulatory factor X gene family, which encodes transcription factors that contain a highly-conserved winged helix DNA binding domain. The protein encoded by this gene is structurally related to regulatory factors X1, X3, X4, and X5. It is a transcriptional activator that can bind DNA as a monomer or as a heterodimer with other RFX family members. This protein can bind to cis elements in the promoter of the IL-5 receptor alpha gene. Two transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been described for this gene, and both variants utilize alternative polyadenylation sites.

References

Further reading

External links

Transcription factors

RFX2


Nanne Grönvall (born Marianne Elisabeth Nordqvist on May 18, 1962 in Stockholm) is a Swedish singer-songwriter. She's married to Peter Grönvall, who's the son of ABBA's Benny Andersson. Nanne has participated in the National part of Eurovision Song Contest 8 times, won it once with their group One More Time and ended up in 3:rd place in the international competition. She has, beside her musical career, had her own radiotalkshow and hosted many other radioshows, acted in several theatre and musical-productions, among others she did the leading part of Sweet Charity. She has toured Sweden many times in her own name and also had her own shows in the two biggest cities in Sweden, Stockholm and Gothenburg. She had great success around in Europe together with her group One More Time in the 90s and later on Ritchie Blackmore recorded their hitsong Highland with his group Blackmore's Night.

Nannes musical career started in the 1980s group Sound of Music. The trio participated twice in the Swedish Eurovision Song Contest selections, Melodifestivalen, finishing fourth both times; in 1986 with Eldorado and in 1987 with Alexandra. Over the following ten years she established herself as a songwriter in Melodifestivalen, writing two songs for the 1992 competition and the 1995 runner-up Det vackraste (The Most Beautiful Thing) performed by Cecilia Vennersten.

Other websites

1962 births
Living people
Swedish singer-songwriters
Writers from Stockholm
Singers from Stockholm

Nanne Grönvall


The Humboldt Current is a cold, low-salinity ocean current. It flows north along the west coast of South America from the southern tip of Chile to northern Peru. Also called the Peru Current, it flows in the direction of the equator. It extends 1,000 kilometers offshore.

The Humboldt Current is a large marine ecosystem, named after the Prussian naturalist Alexander von Humboldt. It is one of the major nutrient systems of the world, bringing nutrients up into the surface waters of the ocean. This supports an extraordinary abundance of marine life.  Upwelling occurs off Peru year-round but off Chile only during the spring and summer. This is  because the subtropical center of high pressure is displaced during the summer.

About 18-20% of the world's fish catch comes from the Humboldt Current. The species are mostly pelagic: sardines, anchovies and jack mackerel. This high productivity supports other important fishery resources as well as marine mammals (eared seals and cetaceans) and seabirds. The cold, nutrient-rich water upwelling to the surface drives the system's extraordinary productivity.

The Humboldt Current is part of a much larger system, the South Pacific Gyre.

Pacific Ocean
Ecosystems
Ocean currents
Bodies of water of South America

Humboldt Current


Marin Marais (31 May 1656, Paris – 15 August 1728, Paris) was a French composer and viol player. He is regarded as one of the great French musicians of the Baroque.

Marais, the son of a poor shoe maker, was educated in a choir school were he was taught to play the viol. He then learnt from Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe, a famous bass viol player. In six months he was said to be better than his teacher. In 1675, aged 19, he joined the orchestra of the Paris Opera. This was where he met Jean-Baptiste Lully, who was the director of the Opera. Lully taught him to compose music. Marais often conducted the operas Lully had written.

Marais was hired as a musician in 1676 to play at the royal court of Versailles. He did quite well as court musician. In 1679 he was appointed "ordinaire de la chambre du roy pour la viole", a title he kept until 1725.

He was a master of the basse de viol. He wrote a lot of music for that instrument, he was the most important French composer for it. He wrote five books of Pièces de viole (1686-1725). Most of the pieces in the book are suites with basso continuo. These were quite popular in the court, and for these he was remembered in later years as he who "founded and firmly established the empire of the viol" (Hubert Le Blanc, 1740). His other works include a book of Pièces en trio (1692) and four operas (1693-1709). Alcyone (1706) is well known for its storm scene. Marais became the conductor of the Paris Opera in 1706, but after the failure of his 1709 opera, Sémélé he gradually withdrew from public life. He married Catherine d'Amicourt, on 21 September 1676. They had 19 children together. Two of the children, Vincent Marais and Roland Marais also became famous musicians, as well as his grandson, Nicolas Marais.

Titon du Tillet wrote about Marais in his book Le Parnasse françois. He describes a piece from Marais' fourth book called The Labyrinth, which goes through lots of keys. The notes which are often dissonant, sometimes fast, sometimes slow, describe a man caught in a labyrinth. Eventually the man comes out of it happily and the music finishes with a gracious and natural chaconne. Another piece called La Gamme [The Scale], very gradually goes up the steps of the octave and then down again.

Facsimiles of all five books of Marais' Pièces de viole are published by Éditions J.M. Fuzeau. A complete critical edition of his instrumental works in seven volumes, edited by John Hsu, is published by Broude Brothers.

References in Film
Marais and his music were featured in the movie Tous les matins du monde (1991). The movie shows a detailed, imagined life of Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe. Marais' music is heard a lot, including his longer work Sonnerie de Ste-Geneviève du Mont-de-Paris (1723). A recording of the Sonnerie performed on a Fairlight synthesizer was used in the cult classic film Liquid Sky.

References

1656 births
1728 deaths
17th-century French composers
Baroque composers
French musicians
18th-century French composers

Marin Marais


Gene C. Amondson (October 15, 1943 – July 20, 2009) was a painter, woodcarver, Christian minister and prohibition activist, who was the 2004 US presidential nominee for one faction of the Prohibition Party and the nominee of the unified party in 2008.

The son of a logger, Amondson was born into a Pacific Northwest lumberjack culture laden with alcoholism. He became interested in the temperance movement while attending Divinity School. After establishing himself as a preacher and artist in the community of Vashon Island, Washington, Amondson began touring the nation reenacting Billy Sunday sermons and attending events dressed as the Grim Reaper to protest alcohol corporations.

Amondson's activism attracted notice from the Prohibition Party, which had been divided into two factions in 2003. In 2004, Amondson received the presidential nomination of the larger faction. On Election Day, he tallied over a thousand votes and finished in third place in several Louisiana parishes. With the death of the other faction leader in 2007, the party reunified. In 2008, Amondson again received the party's presidential nomination, but fell short of his 2004 vote total.

Early life
Gene Amondson was born to Owen and Ruby Amondson in Morton, Washington near the city of Centralia. His mother was a German American homemaker, originally from Nebraska and his father, who was nicknamed "Red", was a Norwegian American logger, an industry then rampant with alcoholism. As a child, neither of Gene's parents drank, but he saw drunken logger fights and attended school with children neglected by alcoholic parents. In addition, he remembered witnessing a drunk logger molest a classmate when Amondson was five years old.

Amondson was also exposed to politics. His uncle, Orville "Porky" Amondson was elected and served as sheriff in Lewis County, and his brother Neil served in the Washington State Senate as a Republican.

Amondson attended Warner Pacific College in Portland, Oregon, and graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in zoology. In college, he occasionally drank wine. His anti-alcohol views did not take root until he attended Asbury Theological Seminary in Kentucky in 1966, and learned about temperance leader and preacher Billy Sunday. Amondson estimated that after divinity school, he drank beer about twice a year. In the 1970s, he moved to the liberal community of Vashon Island, Washington, where he began preaching at Cove Road Church.

Activism

After moving to Vashon Island, Amondson grew closer to the temperance movement. He started touring the nation reenacting the Billy Sunday sermons Get on the Water Wagon, Booze. and The Sermon Against Alcohol. He visited churches, prisons, schools, and Alcoholics Anonymous meetings to spread the message of temperance. In addition, he traveled to New Zealand on a Women's Christian Temperance Union-financed trip, and toured Africa.

In protest of alcohol, Amondson often stood outside liquor establishments dressed as the Grim Reaper. He once stood outside a courtroom as the figure after a couple sued Jim Beam claiming its product caused their son to be born mentally retarded. During a 1989 interview, Amondson explained that he did not protest the individuals that drank, but the large corporations that distributed liquor. In 2005, he led a movement to stop the Washington legislature from allowing alcohol to be sold on Sundays, but was unsuccessful. Because of the passage, Amondson predicted "a lot more alcohol will be sold, [and] a few more children will suffer."

On Vashon Island, Amondson provided low rent housing for people with low income. He appeared in court a few times for zoning difficulties relating to the housing complexes but received legal aid from the Interfaith Council on Homelessness. Amondson was known to drive around Vashon Island in a Honda Civic accessorized with a fake elk head on the front and a license plate that read "Vote Dry." The car was also decorated with homemade bumper stickers that read "Dumb People Drink" and "Your Kids Need You Sober." While driving past taverns, he regularly honked the car horn twice in protest. In 2008, the car was installed with a hydrogen conversion kit that allowed it to be fueled by gasoline and water using electrolysis, significantly improving gas mileage. Amondson's car was one of the first in the nation to be fitted with such a kit.

Presidential campaigns

2004

In 2003, Amondson was approached by Thompson Township, Pennsylvania tax assessor James Hedges, the Prohibition Party's only elected official. He convinced Amondson to seek the nomination of his faction of the Prohibition Party, which split over perennial presidential nominee Earl Dodge's leadership of the party. Hedges' faction felt Dodge was more concerned with his campaign button business than advancing the party's goals. Dodge had run as the party's nominee in every election since 1984, but received only 208 votes in the 2000 election, down approximately 1,000 from the 1996 election. Amondson commenced his first presidential campaign with the nomination of Hedges' faction. Dodge received the other faction's nomination. According to Dodge, Amondson had previously contacted him about the vice presidential nomination, but it had already been filled. Dodge reasoned Amondson was "probably a very nice man ... [but] he may not have known exactly what he was getting into." Conversely, Amondson referred to Dodge as a "good man" with whom he shared the same message, but argued, "Dodge is just not getting the job done. He's too old. We need to send it to an earlier generation."

While speaking with the media during his campaign, Amondson voiced his anti-alcohol message and attempted to address concerns that prohibition increases crime. In an AP interview, he explained that during Prohibition, "the budget was balanced, prisons were emptied, mental institutions emptied and cirrhosis of the liver declined." He concluded, "I'd rather have 100 Al Capones in every city than alcohol sold in every grocery store." Amondson made an appearance on The Daily Show with comedian Jon Stewart. He spoke with correspondent Ed Helms who joked with the candidate. During the segment, Amondson remarked, "alcohol cuts the supply of oxygen to the brain and puts you in a kind of retarded state." A short clip followed that showed Amondson in his Grim Reaper attire. Earl Dodge also appeared on the show in a separate interview with Helms.

The race between Amondson and Dodge was viewed as a way to determine which faction would lead the party in the future. Amondson achieved ballot access in Louisiana as the nominee of the Prohibition Party and in Colorado as the nominee of the Concerns of People Party. Dodge achieved ballot access only in Colorado, where he was listed as the nominee of the Prohibition Party. Overall, Amondson won the contest, collecting 1,896 (1,512 of those were from Louisiana) votes compared to Dodge's 140. As expected, Amondson placed well behind both major candidates (George W. Bush received 1.1 million votes, and John Kerry received over 1 million votes). He placed eighth in a slate of 12 candidates on Colorado's ballot (Dodge placed last, even though it was his home state). Amondson's third-place finish in four Louisiana parishes was the first time since 1960 that the Prohibition Party nominee for President out polled-all other third party candidates for president in any county.

2008

Amondson was nominated for President at the 2008 Prohibition Party National Convention in Indianapolis. About 10 to 15 people attended the event. Earl Dodge died late in 2007, which reunified the split party. Similar to 2004, Amondson's based his campaign on media interviews. He spoke with Wikinews in June 2008, admitting that third party candidates such as himself have no chance of winning elections. Instead, he remarked, they "say wise things." When given a choice, Amondson favored the election of a Republican over a Democrat because of the policies on Israel and the ideological difference in justices nominated to the Supreme Court. Amondson wanted former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich as his running mate, but the designation went to activist Leroy Pletten.

During the summer, Amondson campaigned in Louisiana and walked Bourbon Street dressed as the Grim Reaper in protest of alcohol. While in New Orleans, he filmed a documentary with his three sons. In interviews, Amondson took stands on issues other than alcohol. He declared support for the War in Iraq and tougher immigration laws, and advocated limits on divorce, an increased role of religion in schools and a decrease in government welfare programs. In an August interview with Weekend America, he explained his platform, "[w]e want to have protected borders and keep our gun rights and a lot of conservative things, but the main thing is help America realize that 95 percent of violent crime is connected with alcohol."

After John McCain selected Alaska Governor Sarah Palin to be his running mate, Amondson complimented the Republican for picking a "beautiful woman." Despite his own campaign, Amondson effectively endorsed McCain, revealing he would probably vote for McCain. Amondson attained ballot access in Colorado, Louisiana and Florida by Election Day, and received a total of 653 votes overall.

Personal life
Amondson described himself as a "red-neck, Bible-thumbing preacher." He was married for 23 years and had four sons and one daughter, before divorcing. One of his sons died in infancy, and his remaining four children became involved in the motion picture industry upon adulthood.

Amondson appeared as a guest on The Oprah Winfrey Show in 1993 after writing a letter to the show expressing his interest in the 40,000 single women who entered a contest hoping to win a date with five widowers from Seattle. In the letter, which left Oprah staffers "quite interested" and "surprised," Amondson explained he was lonely and wanted someone "willing to work to help pay the taxes ... and my child support." On the show, he discussed his artwork, and was later invited for a second appearance. According to Amondson, following the appearance, he received hundreds of letters.

In his later years, Amondson split his time between Vashon Island and Alaska, where he hunted and found landscapes to paint. He cited painters John Singer Sargent and Joaquín Sorolla as his artistic influences. In addition, Amondson took an interest in woodcarving. His life-sized works can be found throughout Vashon Island. Along with painting and woodcarving, Amondson was an avid pie baker and published a book compiling his mother's pie recipes.

Death
On July 18, 2009, Amondson, who had previously been diagnosed with hypertension, suffered a stroke which caused him to fall into a coma. He died two days later at Harborview Medical Center in Seattle, aged 65. He was survived by his mother, his two brothers, his sister and four children. His funeral took place July 25 at the Bethel Evangelical Free Church in Vashon Island.

See also
 List of candidates in the United States presidential election, 2004
 List of candidates in the United States presidential election, 2008

References

External links

 Official website
 MySpace profile for the 2008 election
 Biography at Our Campaigns
 Politics1 profile
 Downloadable audio interview  with Free Talk Live
 Interview on Blog Talk Radio

1943 births
2009 deaths
20th-century American male artists
20th-century American painters
21st-century American male artists
21st-century American painters
21st-century American politicians
American Christian theologians
American male painters
American people of German descent
American people of Norwegian descent
American woodcarvers
Candidates in the 2004 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 2008 United States presidential election
Deaths from hypertension
People from Morton, Washington
People from Vashon, Washington
Prohibition Party (United States) presidential nominees
Warner Pacific University alumni
Washington (state) Prohibitionists

Gene Amondson


A desk is a piece of furniture where someone can sit and write, often with drawers or other places to put books, papers, pencils, pens and other things. Unlike a table, there is only one side of the desk where somebody could sit.

Desks come in many different sizes. There is a Armoire desk, which is very big. There is also a portable desk which is very small. Desks can be used at home. They can also be used in an office. Desks may also be used in schools.

A computer desk will have a computer inside or on top. The keyboard and mouse will pull out from underneath the desk.

Furniture

ro:Birou (mobilier)

Desk


The term economics of fascism refers to the economic systems that are used by fascist regimes. In general, Fascist regimes wanted to exert strong control over the economy, but also defend private property. The first cases of dirigisme happened in France. One of the first such movements is known as Colbertisme, after Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683). Colbert was the chief minister of finances of King Louis XIV of France. The ideas of Social Darwinism had a strong influence on Fascist regimes: Some people and enterprises did better than others; those that did better needed the support of the state, those that did not do as well, needed to be eradicated. Since most Fascist regimes were also influenced by racist ideas, the general tendency was to support the companies of the people of the "better" race. Gaetano Salvemini, an Italian historian said in 1936 that fascism made taxpayers responsible to private enterprise, because "the State pays for the blunders of private enterprise... Profit is private and individual. Loss is public and social." Fascist governments encouraged the pursuit of private profit and offered many benefits to large businesses, but they demanded in return that all economic activity should serve the national interest.

References

Economic systems
Fascism

Economics of fascism


The Elements of Style is an American English how-to-do-it writing style guide. It lists brief guidelines for writing simple English. The book ran to many reprints.

The original was composed by William Strunk Jr. in 1918, and was published by Harcourt in 1920. It had eight "elementary rules of usage", ten "elementary principles of composition", "a few matters of form", a list of 49 "words and expressions commonly misused", and a list of 57 "words often misspelled".

E. B. White much enlarged and revised the book for publication by Macmillan, in 1959. That was the first edition of the so-called "Strunk & White", which Time called in 2011 "one of the 100 best and most influential books written in English since 1923".

The first printing of the 1959 edition sold about two million copies. In the following four decades, more than ten million copies of the three printings (1959 edition, 1972 edition, and 1988 edition) have been sold.

References

Style guides
1920 books
Reference works
1959 books
1972 books
1988 books

The Elements of Style


Sadomasochism is a word which is mostly used in a social (non-medical) way. It means that people get together to either give or receive pain and humiliation. Usually it's a form of sex play.

Sadists enjoy inflicting pain on others or humiliating them. Masochists get pleasure from being tortured, hurt, or humiliated.

Paraphilias

Sadomasochism


Kochi is a city in the state of Kerala, in India. It used to be called Cochin. It is also called the "Queen of the Arabian Sea".

Geography
The city has the second-highest population in the state after the capital city of Kerala, Trivandrum. Kochi is the financial and commercial hub of the state.

Kochi has a very old synagogue. It is usually called by the name Ernakulam, which is the mainland part of the city.

Most regions in Kochi are at sea level. It has a coastline of almost . Kochi is the seat of the High Court of Kerala.

History
Kochi was an important spice trading centre on the west coast of India from the 14th century onward, and maintained a trade network with Arab merchants from the pre-Islamic era. Occupied by the Portuguese in 1503, Kochi was the first of the European colonies in colonial India. It remained the main seat of Portuguese India until 1530, when Goa was chosen instead. The city was later occupied by the Dutch and the British, with the Kingdom of Cochin becoming a princely state.

Tourism
Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourist arrivals in Kerala. The city was ranked the sixth best tourist destination in India according to a survey by the Nielsen Company on behalf of the Outlook Traveller magazine.

Economy
Kochi was one of the 28 Indian cities among the emerging 440 global cities that will contribute 50% of the world GDP by the year 2025, in a 2011 study done by the McKinsey Global Institute. In July 2018, Kochi was ranked the topmost emerging future megacity in India by global professional services firm JLL.

Cities in Kerala

Kochi, India


Al-Bahah (  ) is a province o Saudi Arabie. Al-Bahah is locatit in the sooth o the kintra, near Mecca. It haes an aurie o 15,000 km², an a population o 459,200 (1999). Its caipital is Al Bahah. The al- Bahah region includes al-Bahah ceety an Baljorashi. Baljorashi haes a famous traditional mercat kent as sooqe as-sabt, which translates tae Scots as "Seturday mercat". The Baljorashi mercat is vera auld an its exact age is unkent. This mercat opens efter the Fajr prayer, or aroond 5 A.M. local time. The mercat closes aroond noon. Fowk come frae aw ower the region tae buy an sell handmade goods. Ither ceeties in the al-Bahah region include Baljourashi, Almandaq, Rahwat Albar, Sabt Alalaya, a ceety bi the Red Sea cried Al Qunfunda. The al-Bahah region is the hame o twa tribes, the Ghamid an the Zahran.

Etymology
The wird al-Bahah (or Bahah athoot al which is equivalent tae "the" in Inglis an Scots) haes mony meanins; it means watter an the maximum o it, the courtyard o a hoose, the heich an abundant palm tree. In tales it refers tae an extremely deep bottomless well in al-Zafir fortress. It means "open space", "watter" an "abundant palm tree" an the "midline o a road".

Geography
Al-Bahah is the name o the province as well the main ceety. The toun is situatit in the north-wastren pairt o Ghamed territory.  The region is formit o mountains, plains, hills, valleys an desert stretches. The al-Bahah region is situatit in the soothwast o the Kinrick o Saudi Arabie atween langitudes 41/42 E an latitudes 19/20 N. occupyin a middle poseetion amang the bonnie tourist auries o the kinrick.  The region haes an aurie o aboot 36,000 km².

Cities
The main ceety o Al-Baha Region is Al Bahah as its caipital.  Ither main ceetes are :
 Balgorashi
 Almandaq
 Almaqah
 Alaqeeq

Topography
The al-Bahah region is dividit bi huge rocky steeps intae twa main sectors. Tae the wast is a coastal plain, Tihama. East is the muntain range o al-Sarawat, kent as al-Sarat, wi an elevation o 1,500 tae 2,450 m abuin see level.

Population
A genealogist haes confirmit that the majority o the population o Al-Baḥah are descendit frae the Azad Shenou`a tribe which emigratit frae the sooth o the Arabie peninsulae follaein some historical naitural events.

Al-Azad is an Arab tribe which dividit intae 24 tribes derivit frae fower stocks: Azad Shenou`a, Azad Al Sarat, Azad Ghassan an Azad Aman.  Al-Azad (or al-Assad "the Lion") wis the title gien tae Darda`e bin al-Ghot bin Nabt bin Malik bin Nassr al-Azad.  Kaab bin al-Harith haed seiven childer, includin Ghamed, who is Amr bin Abdullah bin Kaab. Zahran bin Kaab bin al-Harith haed sax childer, includin Abdullah bin Zahran who is the great grandfaither o the Zahran tribe.  The population o the region nou is aboot 500,000. Mony hae muivit tae major metropolitan auries for better livin an eddication.

Climate
The variation in topography influences the climate o the region. The al-Sarat aurie is exposed tae the formation o clouds an fog, an this aften happens in winter acause o air masses comin frae the Reid Sea, accompaniet bi thunderstorms. In ware an simmer the climate is mild an pleasant. The climate in the Tihama aurie is different frae that in al-Sarat awtho thay are separatit bi nae mair nor 25 km. Tihama is an undulatin coastal plain, het in simmer, warm in ware an mild in winter. The climate in general faws in the arid zone. Relative humidity varies atween 52% an 67% wi maximum temperaturs o 23 °C an minimum temperaturs o 12 °C.

Social structur
The social life o the indwallers o the al-Bahah region is based on Sunni Islam. In addition tae the well established Arab customs an tradeetion. Each tribe diveesion or subdiveesion haes its awn heid (sheikh).

Provinces o Saudi Arabie

Al Bahah Province


An inverse floating rate note, or simply an inverse floater, is a type of bond or other type of debt instrument used in finance whose coupon rate has an inverse relationship to short-term interest rates (or its reference rate). With an inverse floater, as interest rates rise the coupon rate falls. The basic structure is the same as an ordinary floating rate note except for the direction in which the coupon rate is adjusted. These two structures are often used in concert.

As short-term interest rates fall, both the market price and the yield of the inverse floater increase. This link often magnifies the fluctuation in the bond's price. However, in the opposite situation, when short-term interest rates rise, the value of the bond can drop significantly, and holders of this type of instrument may end up with a security that pays little interest and for which the market will pay very little. Thus, interest rate risk is magnified and contains a high degree of volatility.

Creation
An inverse floating rate note can be created two ways. The first is by placing an existing or newly underwritten fixed-rate security into a trust and issuing both a floating rate note and an inverse floating rate note. The second method is for an investment banking firm to underwrite a fixed-rate security and then enter into an interest rate swap that has a maturity less than the bond's term. The investor would then own an inverse floater until the swap agreement expires. When creating an inverse floater through the swap market, the need to sell in inverse floaters through a Dutch auction is eliminated. In the first scenario the original security placed in trust is referred to as the collateral, from this collateral both the floater and inverse floater are created. The dealer will split up the underlying fixed-rate asset at a specified ratio (e.g. 20/80) and assign each portion to inverse and floater.

The reference rate and the frequency at which the rate is reset are contractually set. The rate used is often some form of LIBOR, but it can take different forms, such as tying it to the consumer price index, a housing price index, or an unemployment rate. The rate can be allowed to reset on an immediate, daily, or some type of monthly or yearly schedule. The rate can be computed by taking its set stated rate and subtracting the reference rate at the reset date. Caps and floors are often placed within inverse floaters to avoid unattractive features to investors (such as a negative coupon). Typically, the floor is set at zero and a cap may be set (e.g. 10%). If a floater is involved, a cap is put on the floater to match up with the inverse's floor, and vice versa. This is done since both are derived from the same fixed-rate asset.

Issuers
Inverse floaters are issued in the collateralized mortgage obligation (CMO), municipal, and corporate markets.

CMO
The CMO market is the largest issuer of inverse floaters. The CMO inverse floater is considered a more complicated instrument to hedge and analyze, and is usually sold to sophisticated investors. The collateral in this market refers to mortgage-related products which create the CMO, this is known as "CMO collateral." The fixed-rate asset, or tranche, is used to create the floater and inverse floater is known as the "tranche collateral."

Municipal
In the municipal market, the investor of an inverse floater can purchase the corresponding floater at an auction and combine the two positions to essentially own the underlying asset. The investor can elect to split the issue again and retain the inverse floater portion. This option can be valuable to investors, but generally carries less yield than a comparable fixed-rate bond that does not carry this option. The ratio of floaters to inverse floaters is usually 50/50.

Corporate
Almost all corporate inverse floaters are issued as structured notes, which mean that they are part of an underlying swap transaction.

Leverage and valuation
Additional valuation of an inverse floater can be determined by looking at the security's coupon leverage. To illustrate, suppose the creator of the floater and inverse floater divides the underlying collateral up into 100 bonds, 20 inverse an 80 floater bonds.
The leverage in this structure is 4:1 of floater to inverse bonds. As such, the following relationship must hold:

Based on this formula and value of the collateral, it can not be assumed that a decrease in the reference rate will automatically translate into a gain for the inverse floater. Such scenarios can be attributed to changes in the overall market and the yield curve that negatively impact the collateral's value.

See also
Auction rate security
Collateralized debt obligation
Float (finance)
Inflation-indexed bond
 Structured note
 Equity-linked note
 Floating rate note
 Credit-linked note
 Market-linked note

External links
 "Open Yale" Lecture discussion on the subject from ECON251, Financial Theory.

References

Business terms
Bonds (finance)
Interest-bearing instruments

Inverse floating rate note


István Türr (, ; 10 August 1825 – 3 May 1908) was a Hungarian soldier, revolutionary, canal architect and engineer, remembered in Italy for his role in that country's unification and his association with Garibaldi. In the later years of his life became known as a peace activist.

Young age and Enlistment
Türr was born in the city of Baja, Hungary, the fifth child of an ironmonger. His mother was Terézia Udvary, whose father was a medical doctor. When young he was not a diligent pupil and left school early. As a teenager he tried his father's profession as well as working in a mill and as an unskilled mason, but did not show great aptitude for any of these three jobs.

The first time he tried to enlist in the Austrian Army he was rejected, but on his re-application in 1842 he was accepted at the age of 17. Moreover, officers found in him a hitherto unnoticed promise and encouraged him to improve himself and undergo officer's training at Pécs. By 1848 he was already a military engineer at the rank of lieutenant in a Hungarian grenadier regiment.

Deserting the Austrian Army, fighting for the 1848 Revolution in Italy

At the time when the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 engulfed his homeland, Türr was stationed in Lombardy, Italy. He was involved in early fighting against Piedmont and witnessed the cruel reprisals inflicted on rebellious Italians at Monza, where he was stationed, which caused him to change his loyalties.

On 19 January 1849 Türr crossed the bridge over the Ticino and went over to the Piedmont side. He was immediately placed in command of the newly formed "Hungarian Legion", comprising numerous deserters of the Austrian Imperial Army. Its ranks were swelled by the increasing desertion of Hungarian soldiers and officers, crossing the Ticino in small boats every night until the Austrian command moved them away.

In a parallel development, another Hungarian Legion, headed by Lajos Winkler (1810–1861) who would later become Türr's close associate, was formed at Venice and fought in defence of the revolutionary Repubblica di San Marco headed by Daniele Manin.

Thus, Türr became involved in the First Italian War of Independence, under the leadership of King Carlo Alberto of Piedmont. The final Austrian victory at Novara dashed the Italian hopes. Carlo Alberto had to abdicate and go into exile,  and Piedmont could no longer carry on the struggle.

From Italy to Baden

Under the terms of the ceasefire imposed on Piedmont, the Hungarian Legion (and a similar Polish Legion, also composed of deserters from the Austrian Army) were to be disbanded. Privates and NCO's up to the rank of sergeant-major were offered a pardon and a return home. This did not include the officers, but the Austrians did not object to their accepting commissions in the Piedmontese Army.

However, when Türr put it to his men, they voted by acclamation to reject the Austrian pardon, stay together and leave Piedmont in search of a place whose revolution was still holding out. At first they set out for the Roman Republic, but were blocked by the French forces besieging the city (thus, Türr's meeting with Garibaldi, at this time directing Rome's defence, was delayed for ten years).

Next, the Hungarians entered France itself via Nice, where they had to give up their arms and the authorities regarded them with considerable suspicion. The Hungarians, kept for a considerable time in Toulon, conceived the idea of going to the Ottoman Empire, where some Hungarians already got refuge (and many more would follow in the coming years). However, the French disliked this idea, attempting to send them instead to Algiers, where, Türr feared, the Hungarian Legion would "melt down". He then decided to try heading to Britain in the hope that from there it would be easier to get to Turkey.

Hearing of the revolutionary ferment at Baden, Germany, where "the army had joined with the people to overthrow the monarchial government", Türr decided to set out in that direction, also in the hope of eventually returning to a liberated Hungary via Germany. Two contingents of the Hungarian Legion did manage to cross into Germany and reach Baden; a third was stopped by the French and diverted to Folkestone, where the British put them on a ship headed to Turkey.

Bringing sorely needed reinforcements, Türr was warmly welcomed in Baden, made immediately upon arrival a colonel in its revolutionary army, and got three battalions of German troops under his command in addition to the Hungarians who came with him. He did not hold this position long, however, as the Baden revolution soon succumbed to an overwhelming Prussian attack. Together with the overthrown Baden Government, he and his troops had to seek refuge in Switzerland. The victors, in control of occupied Baden, were summarily executing the officers of the revolutionary army who fell into their hands.

In Bern, Türr got the bitter news of the revolution being crushed in his own homeland, too, after prolonged fighting throughout Hungary. He was faced with the prospect of an exile life of indefinite duration, with his life forfeit if he ever tried to go home.

Sending exiles to America

In the wake of the Hungarian Army's surrender at Világos (now Şiria, Romania) on 13 August 1849, the Austrians in the following month, September, renewed the offer of a free pardon to the men of the Hungarian Legion. This time, a considerable part of them accepted the offer, "tired of incessant fatigues and disappointments, and having lost all hope of ever being able to fight for their country's cause", and went back to defeated Hungary.

The sympathetic Government of Switzerland, described by Türr as "always humane and noble minded", financed and facilitated the sending the rest of the Hungarian soldiers to America. (This Federal Swiss government was newly installed, composed of the Radicals, who won the Swiss civil war two years earlier, one of the few regimes established by the Revolutions of 1848 that remained in power, inclined to help the less fortunate revolutionary refugees.)

Türr himself, dejected and in bad health, remained in Europe, alternating between Switzerland and Piedmont, and living on a pension that the Piedmont-Sardinian Government granted to him.

In October 1850, the above-mentioned Captain Lajos Winkler, who had fought at Venice, came over from Lombardy, in command of a party of about a hundred Hungarian privates that he had kept together under discipline. Türr's 1856 brochure, mentioning this and other events of the 1850s,
does not relate where Winkler and his men had been and what they had been doing during the year since the fall of Venice; evidently, they had gotten the help of sympathetic Italians.

With the Hungarian fortunes at their nadir, Türr and Winkler devised a plan of sailing with this troop to Montevideo, to join the Liberal forces fighting against Juan Manuel de Rosas in the Uruguayan Civil War. Since the 1830s, the prolonged struggle, especially the perilous Siege of Montevideo, gained the considerable support and sympathy of progressive Europeans, and it was there that Garibaldi first gained his reputation as a freedom fighter. With the European revolutions crushed, the war in Uruguay seemed to offer Türr the only place where he could still "contribute to the protection of freedom against oppression and tyranny".

Had Türr carried out this plan, his subsequent career might have been considerably different. However, at Genoa, they were faced with a firm Austrian demand for the extradition of the Hungarian deserters. To save them, Türr falsely declared that they had all belonged to the former Piedmontese-Hungarian Legion that he had commanded and thus covered by the amnesty offered to these.

Türr gained the Piedmontese Government's permission to take the Hungarian troops to Switzerland, whose friendly Federal Council in turn obtained French permission for them to go to America. As the Austrians had not completely given up their demands, Türr personally conducted the exiled troops as they made their way on foot to Le Havre and saw them safely embarked to their destination.

From the Austrian point of view, the demand for the Hungarian troops' extradition turned out to be a serious blunder. Instead of letting Türr neatly get rid of himself and devote his energies to Latin American struggles, the Austrians themselves ensured that he would stay on in Europe and become an increasingly disturbing thorn in the Habsburg Empire's side.

Many of the Hungarian "Forty-Eighters" who arrived in the US at this time are known to have later fought on the Union side in the American Civil War. The ones sent off by Türr might have been among them.

Mazzinian conspiracies and the Crimean War

Between 1850 and 1853 the exile Türr, facing execution as a deserter should he return to Hungary, moved between Switzerland, France, England and Piedmont.

In the early 1850s he became closely involved with fellow exile in Mazzinian conspiracies, such as the failed Milan uprising of 6 February 1853.

Following the outbreak of the Crimean War Türr was also involved in the plan of György Klapka, former War Minister of the 1848 revolutionary Hungarian government, to raise a force of Hungarian exiles to fight against Russia, whose intervention in 1848–49 had tipped the scales against the Hungarian rebels.

Even before the Crimean War, a considerable number of exiled Hungarians had already taken service with the Ottomans, some reaching high positions without having to convert to Islam (see Islam in Hungary). During the Siege of Kars in eastern Anatolia, Hungarian exiles took an active part in defending this border city against the invading Russians.

As Türr would later disclose to Italian friends, supporting the Ottoman Empire against the Russian Empire was far less satisfactory to him than taking part in the Italian struggle for liberation. It was more in the nature of "serving one barbarism, out of the hatred of another barbarism".

Arrest by the Austrians, court martial, release

During the Crimean War, in 1855 Türr was required to procure supplies for the British forces in the Danubian Principalities, at the time occupied by Austria though not annexed to the Habsburg Empire. He trusted to the protection of the British and to promises of safe-conduct by locally stationed Austrian officers, which were apparently overruled by Vienna.

In Bucharest Türr was arrested and sent on to Kronstadt (the present Brașov), where he was interrogated and court-martialed. He was sentenced to death for desertion and treason ("seeking to detach Italy and Hungary from Austrian rule"). However, the Emperor commuted his punishment to perpetual banishment, due to the strong British protests, apparently involving Queen Victoria personally.

At the time, the whole affair got considerable press attention all over Europe, and on his release Türr published a long and detailed account of it.

Disputed British naturalization

It was in 1856, after this intervention to save him that Turr asked for British citizenship. This was granted, but his naturalization was thereafter strongly contested, as can be seen from a then-classified British document stating tersely:

Naturalization by certificate of secretary of state: Naturalization Act 1844: Certificate obtained by fraud: Colonel Etienne Turr. False statements as to residence and intention to reside. Law officers advised that certificate could not be revoked by secretary of state.

The document was declassified only thirty years later and not given particular prominence even then. It does not seem to have influenced Turr's reputation.

1859 fighting, wounded at Brescia

With the outbreak of the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859 Türr returned to that country and joined Garibaldi's volunteer unit Cacciatori delle Alpi ("Hunters of the Alps"). Garibaldi held Türr in great esteem and in one speech dubbed him "The Fearless Hungarian".

On the circumstances of Turr's wounding on 15 June 1859, an eye-witness report is provided in a letter by Frank Leward, an English volunteer fighting with Garibaldi:

Col Türr, an' Hungarian who hates the Austrians like sin, had been sent with a lot more of our men to Rezzato a few miles from Brescia on the road to Preschiera and a battalion of Austrians came at them but Türr sent them off and was so excited he followed them up too far and fell into a sort of ambuscade they had waiting for him and he got awfully cut up. However he managed to keep the enemy at bay for some time. Castenodolo the place was called I think [where] Türr lost a heap of men(...).

The General [Garibaldi] was in an awful stew, [he] made me go with him to Castenodolo. On the way we met Türr badly wounded in an ambulance he was very bad but tried to sit up and sang out viva Italia then we met a lot more wounded being carried off.

Expedition of the Thousand, promotion to general

Türr had completely recovered from his wounds by the next year (1860), when he again followed Garibaldi and took a major part in the Expedition of the Thousand.

The 500 Hungarians led by Türr, helped by fellow exiles Adolf Mogyórody, Nándor Éber and Gusztáv Frigyesy, were the largest contingent of foreign volunteers fighting with Garibaldi, alongside French, Poles, Swiss, German and other nationalities. Like the Hungarians, most of the other internationals were fighting with a view to follow up the liberation of Italy with that of their own countries from foreign or domestic tyranny (see International Legion).

In later parts of the campaign, as Garibaldi's campaign gathered momentum and many local recruits in Sicily and South Italy, Türr was in command also of an increasing number of Italian troops.

In Talamone, en route to Sicily, Garibaldi promoted Türr to General and included him in the General Staff formed for the expedition. After the Siege of Palermo, Türr led the force that went through the rugged Sicilian interior towards Messina, while Garibaldi himself went on along the island's north shore. After crossing to the mainland, Türr led a force of 1,500 men towards Salerno.

Franco Catalano, analysing the Battle of Volturnus (1860), accuses Turr of "reckleness" that contributed to the initial Garibaldian defeats at Caiazzo and Castel Morrone, but the overall battle ended with Garibaldi's decisive victory, and at the time there were no recriminations.

In the aftermath of the fighting Türr was appointed by Garibaldi as Governor of Naples. In this role he conducted the plebiscite of 21 October 1860, in which the city's population voted overwhelmingly in favour of incorporation in the new Kingdom of Italy.

During the famous meeting of Garibaldi with King Victor Emmanuel II at Teano, the king refused Garibaldi's request that the soldiers and officers who took part in the Expedition of the Thousand be taken into the Italian Army, and most of them were in fact dismissed. Garibaldi afterwards went back to his home in Caprera, and his later relations with the King and the royal government were often tense. However, Victor Emmanuel not only confirmed Türr's rank as a general but also made him a royal aide-de-camp, and subsequently entrusted to Türr the handling of some sensitive diplomatic matters. Despite this divergence of political courses, Türr remained on highly cordial and friendly relations with Garibaldi until the latter's death in 1882.

Meanwhile, back in Austrian-ruled Hungary, the city of Debrecen on 6 February 1861, declared Türr and as Kossuth, Klapka and other exiled nationalists, to be its honorary citizen. This was an act of defiance, as at the time Türr stood to be executed out of hand had he attempted to arrive at the city whose honorary citizen he became,

Wedding and Napoleonic connection

On 10 September 1861, in Mantua, Türr married Adelina Bonaparte Wyse (1838–1899), granddaughter of Lucien Bonaparte, the brother of the Emperor Napoleon, which made her a cousin of the then Emperor Napoleon III of France. (Her legal parents were Sir Thomas Wyse, British Minister to Athens, and Princess Maria Letizia Bonaparte, Lucien Bonaparte's daughter; however, her real father was her mother's long-time lover British Army officer Captain Studholme John Hodgson., as Princess Letizia had separated from her husband).

Moreover, Adelina's sister, Laetitia Marie Wyse Bonaparte, married in the same year the Piedmontese statesman Urbano Rattazzi, who was the Italian Prime Minister several times during the 1860, thus became Türr's brother in law.

Türr is mentioned as having, with the help of his wife, carried out extensive diplomatic activity. Among other things, both of them are known to have conducted extensive correspondence with Prince Napoleon, the Emperor's cousin and advisor, a proponent of the anti-Clerical forces in the French imperial court and opponent of the policy of letting French troops preserve the Pope's temporal power over Rome

István Türr and his wife had one son, Raoul Türr (1865–1906).

Pallanza Dignitary

In October 1862, Türr acquired from the Milanese Carlo Lattuada a villa in Pallanza, described as "an elegant dwelling with a garden facing the lake" (i.e. Lake Maggiore).

The Türrs immediately became prominent figures in the town's social life, as seen in repeated reports in the local paper, the "Il Lago Maggiore". The return after a visit to France of "The Valorous Hungarian General and his Most Beautiful and Amiable Consort, Princess Bonaparte"  was a major local news item. The couple were hosted and feted by the town's dignitaries (sub-prefect, municipal councillors and the commander of the local National Guard) with a civic band playing various pieces, prominently ones associated with Garibaldi.

The Türrs also took considerable interest in the lower classes. Türr became the Honorary President of the local Labourers' Society (Società Operaia di Pallanza) and gave donations to be distributed among the needy. On 4 November 1862 the paper noted with regret that:

Now that the summer is over, the Türr Family has left and are not expected back until next spring. They carry with them the esteem and affection of the townspeople, who have come to appreciate their rare qualities. Before her departure, Mrs. Adelina Türr insisted upon visiting the orphanages, where the children greeted her with a most abundant dose of confetti. It was wonderful to see this scion of one of the greatest and most powerful families of Europe caress and kiss the sons of our labourers, and make the effort of conversing with them in their Pallanzese dialect.

In 1876, the Pallanza villa was sold to Cesar Bozzotti, apparently because Türr was able to return to Hungary after 1867 (see below) and, therefore, spent less time in Italy.

Romanian Negotiations

In 1863, Türr returned to the Romanian Principalities, now under the government of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who had shown some sympathy to the Hungarian exiles. Following upon an earlier (1861) delegation headed by Klapka, Türr sought an agreement on establishing Hungarian weapons and supplies depots on Moldavian soil, with a view to a new uprising against Habsburg rule.

In case of their independence being achieved, the Hungarians promised "a full autonomy" to the Romanian population of Transylvania. Nevertheless, disagreement on the Question of Transylvania prevented Türr and his fellows from reaching an agreement.

At the time, Türr was a confidential adviser to Italian King Vittorio Emanuele. With Venetia still held by the Austrians and a new war a distinct possibility, it was clearly in Italy's interest to have a Hungarian rebellion open a second front for the Austrians.

Planned Hungarian uprising in 1866

In 1866, in coordination with the Third Italian War of Independence and Garibaldi's campaign against the Austrians in the Trentino, Türr was assigned to prepare an uprising in Hungary involving György Klapka and other Hungarian exiles. It was supposed to be launched from Serbian territory, but because of the fast ending of the Prussian-Austrian War including its Italian part, it never came to implementation, and the next year's developments rendered all such plans moot.

Return to Hungary

Defeat in the war forced the Emperor Franz Josef to grant a Liberal Constitution as well as a renewed autonomy for the ancient Kingdom of Hungary; the unitary Austria became the dual Austria-Hungary. The changed political climate also included an amnesty for exiles such as Türr, who could at last return to his homeland.

Not long after his return, Türr, no longer an implacable foe of Austrian interests, was informally involved in (ultimately unsuccessful) negotiations aimed at creating an alliance between Austria, Italy and France.

Canal Architect and Engineer

Though often referred to as "General Türr" until the end of his life, in practice Türr did not take up an active military or political career in Hungary. Rather, he chose to devote his later years to working as a canal architect and engineer.

Using his wide international experience and personal contacts, he was a leading proponent of the building of navigation canals and river navigation systems in Hungary. On the basis of his international experience, Türr was charged with élaborating a plan for navigable canals connecting the Danube and Tisza rivers.

Türr was deeply involved with the Panama Canal at its earlier stage, being himself the President of the "Societe Civile Internationale du Canal Interoceanique" that proposed to build it.  In 1876, Türr as well as Béla Gerster, a younger Hungarian engineer who would be his partner in later projects, accompanied Ferdinand de Lesseps in an international expedition with the task of locating the most suitable route of an interoceanic canal that would eventually become the Panama Canal.

However, Türr was no longer involved in later stages of the French Panama project, having shifted his interest and gave his full attention to another canal, closer to home (see below). This saved Türr from public responsibility for the fiasco of the collapse of French Panama project and the appalling loss of thousands of workers to disease at Panama.

After 1881, Türr and Gerster were involved with the Greek Government's major project of planning and implementing the Corinth Canal, a project that gained considerable international attention. In his 1883 travel book, "To the Gold Coast for Gold", Richard Francis Burton mentioned meeting "that talented and energetic soldier, General Türr" in Venice, and predicted that the hitherto impoverished Patras "will have a fine time when [Türr] begins the piercing of the Isthmus."

In 1888, the company constructing the canal failed, putting the project's completion in danger. Türr then led a successful effort to get governments and individuals to invest further sums, so that on 6 August 1893, King George I of Greece and his wife, Queen Olga could solemnly inaugurate the artificial waterway.

Also in partnership with Gerster, Türr formulated monumental plans of water-supply engineering in Hungary itself. As well as promoting the canalization of the Danube he was distinguished for supporting the newborn Hungarian national industry.

1890s Transylvania Controversy

Like other Hungarian Nationalists, Türr in his later years was mainly concerned, not with confronting Austrian rule, a goal mostly if not completely achieved through the compromise of 1867, but in preserving Hungarian territory and interests against the demands of other nationalities.

In particular, Türr was opposed to the Transylvanian Memorandum movement of 1892, whose initiators demanded greater autonomy for Romanians, a demand seen as the prelude for altogether detaching Transylvania from Hungarian rule and therefore causing the Manifesto's organisers to be imprisoned by the Hungarian authorities.

In 1894 and 1895, Türr published articles condemning the Memorandum participants and their Bucharest-based partisans. One of the latter, V. A. Urechia, answered in kind in a series of articles of his own, debating Türr on the pages of the European press and in various international forums.

"The Pacifist General" of the Universal Peace Congresses

In 1878, the International Peace Congress ("Congrès International de la Paix") was held in Paris, bringing together a great a variety of peace activists from all over Europe to debate ways of working to prevent war. One of the organizers, the Swiss Valentine de Sellon who would later write a book on the congress noted with great satisfaction the participation of workers and women, and "even [of] a former general". The former general referred to was István Türr.

From that time until his death, Türr would increasingly become known in the role of "The Pacifist General", who became "a prominent personality of the international peace movement". In the 1890s, Türr was "a regular fixture" in the annual Universal Peace Congresses, held every year at a different location. In 1896 he was elected President of the Seventh Congress, held at Budapest.

The well-known Austrian pacifist Bertha Von Suttner recalls in her memoires the great impression of meeting, on that occasion, "the old warrior, General Türr" (he was seventy one at the time) and hearing from him that "he had seen so much of war that he came to thoroughly detest it".

Türr recalled, and Von Suttner later published, some horrors that he had witnessed during the Expedition of the Thousand, which had not been published in 1860 itself. For example, entering a village and discovering the bodies of Bourbon soldiers who had been burned to death by the inhabitants. When Garibaldi became extremely furious with the villagers for having perpetrated such an act, they responded that it was done in retaliation for the soldiers having earlier set houses on fire in the village and prevented their inhabitants from escaping.

"Yellow Peril" and The Boxer Rebellion

Türr was the first person known to have used in public the term "The Yellow Peril". He used it in June 1895; in an article mainly concerned with Otto von Bismarck, there was a passage referring to Japan's recent victory over China where Türr remarked: "The 'yellow peril' is more threatening than ever. Japan has made in a few years as much progress as other nations have made in centuries." This was widely republished and translated throughout the world (the quotation here is from the text published at the time in an Ohio paper, The Sandusky Register).

A few months later, in September 1895, Kaiser Wilhelm II took up the term and made extensive use of it, being indeed often credited as its originator. As interpreted by the German Emperor (and subsequently, by many others) this implied a concrete threat by "Yellow Hordes" in the Far East, poised to invade and overwhelm the West by sheer numbers. This attitude to "Yellow-skinned people" had very concrete results in Wilhelm, a few years later, explicitly exhorting German troops involved in putting down the Boxer Rebellion in China to particularly ruthless and cruel conduct.

There is, however, no record of Türr sharing such attitudes. In fact, "General Etienne Turr, Buda" is duly noted in the list of participants at the Tenth Universal Peace Congress held at Glasgow in 1901, where that Western expedition against the Boxer Rebellion, in the previous year, was strongly condemned. In that gathering, Dr. Spence Watson got applause when stating at the podium that "The swooping down of the Christian nations on China [was] the most detestable bit of greed that history records". The conference as a whole adopted resolutions clearly condemning that Western intervention in China (though in milder terms) and stating that defence of Western missionaries active in non-European countries, or of converts to Christianity, was not an acceptable reason for waging war.

The transcript does not record, however, any speech made by Türr himself, who was then 76 and had recently lost his wife.

Last years

Türr's wife Adelina died on 8 July 1899 at Berck, France. In his last years, Türr spent much of his time in Paris. He died in Budapest on 3 May 1908. His son Raoul predeceased him in 1906.

He was survived by his granddaughter Maria Stephanie Türr (1895–1994). Today, there are only a few descendants of István Türr and the granddaughter of Lucien Bonaparte, Adelina.

Gallery

References

External links
 Online biography (English)
 Online biography (Italian)
 Online biography (Hungarian)
 "István Türr: una biografia politica" by Pasquale Fornaro
 "Narrative of the arrest, trial, & condemnation of Colonel Türr" by István Türr, 48 p brochure published in London, 1856.
The Life and Correspondence of Thomas Slingsby Duncombe, Vol. 2, including detailed account of contacts and correspondence with István Türr (here usually spelled "tiir" or "Colonel Turk")
 Frank Leward' letter of July 29, 1859, recording the circumstances of Türr's wounding
 Bilingual Italian-English page on Garibaldi's campaign, including extensive reference to Türr and other Hungarians
 "The Illustrated London News", 1860 portrait of General Türr, Garibaldi Chief Aide-de-Camp
 "From Florence: The Question of an Italian War with Austria, Gen. Turr's Mission to Garibaldi, The Hungarian Question, The Siege of Gaeta", New York Times, February 19, 1861
 Photo of István Türr in Italian General's uniform, with numerous decorations
 "Stefan Turr, the emissary of Napoleon and Bismark", New York Times, August 29, 1870 (during the French-Prussian War), copied from the Pall Mall Magazine of August 18
 Online copy of the April 30, 1876 Borsszem Jankó, a Hungarian illustrated magazine, with a cartoon of Türr (on p.7) and an item making fun of Türr's canal-building schemes
 Türr's conversations with the Austrian Pacifist Bertha Von Suttner, recalling various parts of his life, as recorded in Von Suttner's "The Records of an Eventful Life", Volume 2, Ch. XLIX
 "Gen. Stephen Turr Dead; Was Garibaldian Veteran and Confidential Adviser of Kossuth": obituary in New York Times, May 4, 1908
 István Türr Museum

1825 births
1908 deaths
Hungarian soldiers
People of the Revolutions of 1848
People of the Italian unification
People from Baja, Hungary
Hungarian canal engineers
Members of the Expedition of the Thousand
Hungarian pacifists

István Türr


A sandbar, or shoal is a landform which is in or partly in a body of water. Usually it is made of sand, silt, and/or small pebbles.

Description
Shoals are long and narrow ridges. They can develop where a stream, river, or ocean current deposits sediment and granular material.

Shoals look like a coastal landform in the sea. They are classified as a type of ocean bank, or as fluvial landforms in rivers, streams, and lakes.

They are usually made up of sand. They can also be made up of soil, silt, gravel, cobble, shingle, or even boulders.

Landforms

Sandbar


Reality, frae Latin "res, rerum", meanin "the hing", is a philosophical conceipt that introduces the notion o reality, truith, suith. The opposite notion is "virtuality".

Ancient an modern notion

 Far the auld philosophers, reality is whit exists in twa warlds : the ane o the essences, the ane o the empirism.

Far Platon, ye maun eschew apparent sensiblity, aye changin, far tae gang in Idea's warld, whilka foonds aw that exist in sensible warld. Oor kent warld is sae illusion Bat Kant considers that reality for Man is jast whit appears tae us; jast bein a phenomenon. Sae, he thinks reality isnae truith.

Vision o a makar

The French makar Paul Valéry said ance: « Ma main se sent touchée aussi bien qu'elle touche. Réel veut dire cela, rien de plus ». It daes mean: "Ma haund feels the touchin o the hings altho it touches. Reality daes mean that, naethin mair.
The reflexion o the makar means sae that reality is jast the sensation o the hings, jast whit we live in, wioot complex philosophical sochts or thochts.

Uise in physics

Quantum mecanics, a branch o physics foondit in the early 20t century, haes establishit a nummer o hichly counterintuitive experimental results. Som individuals hae assertit those results are relevant tae a conception o reality. In parteecular, the experimental data suggests twa facts aboot the univers at gey smaa distance (on the scale o individual protons):

1. first, that the univers is non-deterministic, an
2. second, that the conceipt o an objective measurement is, strictly speakin, meaninless.

Thir twa truiths are interrelated bat worthy o separate attention.

Non-determinism o quantum seestems fallows directly the Schrödinger Equation. This equation solves anly far probabilities, nae far determinate values. Far saumple: a bairn haes $5, an wants tae spend $2. The bairn asks his faither haw much o the oreeginal $5 he will hae efter spendin $2, an the faither tells him that he will hae $3 remainin. The faither is uising the arithmetic tae offer a determinate prediction, whilka claims that if ye hae $5, an ye spend $2, ye'll haee $3. It is nae possible that ye will hae $1 remainin, it is nae possible that ye will hae $6 remainin: the amoont o the remainder is determinit tae be $3.

whaur

  is the imaginary unit
  is the wave function, which is the probability amplitude for different configurations of the system.
  is the reduced Planck's constant (often normalized to 1 in natural ::::units).
  is the Hamiltonian operator.

In contrast, if the bairn asks whilka side a flippit clink will land apon (heids or tails), the anser is different. This anser is probabilistic, in that it is nae a specific prediction, bat a general claim aboot the results as a whol: the clink haes a 50% chance o landin on heids, an the same chance far tails. Practically speakin, this rochly means that the mair times ye throw the clink, the closer yer heids-tails results will get tae bein hawf o ane, hawf o the ither. It daes nae tell ye the ootcome far ony parteecular clinks toss.

Photons as well as ither particles, hae been shawn tae possess wave-particle duality, meanin that thair probabilistic naitur is gien bi an oscillatin probability wave.

Concepts in metapheesics
Ontology

Reality


The Star-Spangled Banner je uradna himna Združenih držav Amerike. Avtor pesmi je Francis Scott Key. Ta pesem je nastala v letu 1814 na podlagi njegovih spominov, nastalih pri opazovanju obstreljevanja trdnjave McHenry v Baltimorju v zvezni državi Maryland. Trdnjavo so med vojno leta 1812 obstreljevali Angleži iz svojega ladjevja, zasidranega v bližnjem zalivu Cheasapeake.

Pesem je bila sprejeta za himno Združenih držav Amerike leta 1931.

Pesem je bila uvrščena na seznam Skladbe stoletja.

Izvirno besedilo
O say, can you see, by the dawn's early light,
What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming,
Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the perilous fight,
O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming?
And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air,
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there;
O say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?

On the shore, dimly seen thro' the mist of the deep,
Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes,
What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep.
As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?
Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam,
In full glory reflected, now shines on the stream
'Tis the star-spangled banner. Oh! long may it wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore
That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion
A home and a country should leave us no more?
Their blood has washed out their foul footstep's pollution.
No refuge could save the hireling and slave
From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave,
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

Oh! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
Between their loved homes and the war's desolation,
Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n-rescued land
Praise the Pow'r that hath made and preserved us a nation!
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just,
And this be our motto—"In God is our trust."
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

Himne
Dela leta 1814
Državni simboli Združenih držav Amerike

The Star-Spangled Banner


Spritus utawa denatured alcohol, methylated spirits ya iku etanol kang ditambahi bahan kimia supaya mendemi/beracun kanggo nyegah supaya diombe manungsa. Spritus kanggo bahan bakar nalika kemah lan kanggo manasake lenga setroli nalika nguripake lampu petromaks.

Denatured alcohol is used as a solvent and as fuel for spirit burners and camping stoves. Because of the diversity of industrial uses for denatured alcohol, hundreds of additives and denaturing methods have been used. The main additive has traditionally been 10% methanol, giving rise to the term "methylated spirit." Other typical additives include isopropyl alcohol, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, and denatonium.[1]

Denaturing alcohol does not chemically alter the ethanol molecule. Rather, the ethanol is mixed with other chemicals to form an undrinkable solution.

Different additives are used to make it difficult to use distillation or other simple processes to reverse the denaturation. Methanol is commonly used both because its boiling point is close to that of ethanol and because it is toxic. In many countries, it is also required that denatured alcohol be dyed blue or purple with an aniline dye.

Alkohol
Kimiya

ja:エタノール#利用

Spritus


Dr Lonnie D. Kliever (1932–2004) was chair of the Department of Religious Studies at the Southern Methodist University (SMU).

Early life
Kliever was born in Corn, Oklahoma, a small town in the southwestern part of the state; but spent most of his boyhood in Fort Worth.  He suffered a severe childhood case of rickets brought on by a calcium deficiency.  This stunted his growth, he stood well under 5 feet tall.

Education
Kliever was educated at Hardin–Simmons University, Union Theological Seminary in New York, and Duke University, where he received a Ph.D. in Religion and Philosophy in 1963.

Career
After spending a total of thirteen years teaching at three different institutions (University of Texas at El Paso, Trinity University in San Antonio, and the University of Windsor), he joined SMU's Department of Religious Studies in 1975 as professor and chair.  He served two terms as chair, the first from 1975 through 1986 and the second from 1993 to 1999.  During his twenty-nine-year career at SMU, he published four books on various theological and ethical topics, and wrote numerous articles and op-ed pieces. He received three of SMU's highest honors: the M Award, the Rotunda Teacher of the Year Award, and the Godbey Lecture Series Author's Award.

He was  accomplished in traditional areas such as theology, ethics and philosophy of religion.  One of the two of his most widely known books published in 1981, The Shattered Spectrum: A Survey of Contemporary Theology is an analysis of the proliferation of new theologies in the 1960s and 70s.

His expertise was on the rise of new religious movements, cults and sects exploring  the dynamics of that Unification Church community and its underpinnings.  He closely followed the siege of the Branch Davidian church near Waco in 1993 and was critical of the intervention by the federal government in the standoff.  He was often sought for consultation by  police and governmental agencies as they confronted issues related to new and little known religious communities. In 1997, Dr. Kliever was consulted about the Chen Tao ("True Way") religious movement in Garland, Texas. His consultation was kept quiet by mutual agreement with the Garland Police Department until after the successful conclusion of the apocalyptic prediction whereby God was supposed to come and pick them up in a "flying saucer". It was in large part due to Dr. Kliever's advice that there was no over-escalation or over-reaction on the part of law enforcement in the last hours where other groups had taken poison to kill themselves. His counsel was instrumental during the months before the events; He was given unprecedented access to the inner workings of the group which provided clues to indicate that they were not dangerous to themselves or the community. This become the model for law enforcement's role when interacting with new religious movements and determining what traits indication propensity for violence and which ones did not.

Outside of academia, Kliever was best known for his role in exposing a massive scandal involving SMU's football program in 1986 and 1987.  As SMU's faculty athletics representative from 1984 to 1987, Kliever started an investigation into the program after a former player alleged that players were being paid.  He worked very closely with the NCAA, with whom he had already gained a reputation for integrity.  He insisted that SMU cooperate fully with the NCAA investigators, resulting in the NCAA enforcement staff supporting his proposal to limit SMU to nine games in 1987 and 1988.  While the infractions committee ultimately imposed the "death penalty" on SMU by shutting down the program for the 1987 season, it praised Kliever for his work.

Bibliography

Books
 Radical Christianity: The new theologies in perspective (1968) 282 pp. Droke House, ASIN B0006BUD1E
 Shattered Spectrum: A Survey of Contemporary Theology. (1981) John Knox Pr.
 The Terrible Meek: Religion and Revolution in Cross Cultural Perspective (1987). Washington Inst Pr.
 Dax's Case: Essays in Medical Ethics and Human Meaning (1989) Ed. Southern Methodist Univ Pr; 1st ed. edition.
 H. Richard Niebuhr (Makers of the Modern Theological Mind) (1991) 205pp. Hendrickson Publishers.
 The reliability of apostate testimony about new religious movements. Freedom Publishing (1995) ASIN B0006QUW6A

Journal articles

References

Researchers of new religious movements and cults
Hardin–Simmons University alumni
Union Theological Seminary (New York City) alumni
American theologians
Duke University alumni
Southern Methodist University faculty
1932 births
2004 deaths
University of Texas at El Paso faculty
People from Washita County, Oklahoma
People from Fort Worth, Texas

Lonnie D. Kliever


Corduroy Mansions is the first online novel by Alexander McCall Smith, author of The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency series. In the first series, the author wrote a chapter a day, starting on 15 Sep 2008, the series running for 20 weeks and totaling 100 episodes. The daily chapters, read by Andrew Sachs were also available as an audio download.
The second and third series were published online, running from Monday 21 September 2009 and Monday 13 September 2010, respectively.

Episodic writing

The concept for Corduroy Mansions is based on Charles Dickens' episodic writing – which were novels serialised through journals in weekly or monthly instalments, in the 1800s. Following a meeting with acclaimed San Francisco novelist Armistead Maupin, Alexander McCall Smith pursued this method of writing in 2004 with his novel 44 Scotland Street. The story was serialised in instalments every weekday through The Scotsman newspaper.

As Corduroy Mansions was released online, readers had the opportunity to interact with each other and the author himself through online discussion boards. This was edited by the Daily Telegraph staff.

The project is a collaboration between Telegraph Media Group, Little Brown and Polygon (the fiction imprint of Birlinn Ltd).

Plot

The story is set in a fictional housing unit in London nicknamed Corduroy Mansions, and details the lives of the inhabitants of the large Pimlico house and others.

The main characters are Barbara Ragg, Basil Wickramsinghe, Berthea Snark, Caroline Jarvis, Dee Binder, Eddie French, Freddie de la Hay, Jenny Hedge, Jo Partlin, Marcia Light, Oedipus Snark, Terence Moongrove, and William French.

Book two in the award-winning Corduroy Mansions series, The Dog Who Came in from the Cold, ran from 21 Sept 2009 until 19 Dec 2009.

Book three in the series, A Conspiracy of Friends, ran from 13 Sept 2010 until 17 Dec 2010.

References

Novels first published in serial form
2008 British novels
Novels set in London
City of Westminster
Novels by Alexander McCall Smith
Novels first published online
Polygon Books books

Corduroy Mansions


An optical printer is a device. It can be used to copy rolls of movies. It is made of one or more movie projectors, which are linked to a movie camera. It allows filmmakers to re-photograph one or more strips of movie. The optical printer is used for making special effects for motion pictures or for copying and restoring old movie material.

Common optical effects include fade outs and fade ins, dissolves, slow motion, fast motion, and matte work. More complicated work needs dozens of elements, all combined into a single scene. Ideally, the audience in a theater should not be able to notice any optical printers work, but this is not always the case. For economical reasons, especially in the 1950s, and later in TV series produced on movie, printer work was limited to only the actual parts of a scene needing the effect, so there is a clear change in the image quality when the transition occurs.

The first, simple optical printers were constructed in the early 1920s. Linwood G. Dunn expanded the concept in the 1930s. The development continued well into the 1980s, when the printers were controlled with minicomputers.

Sice the late 1980s, digital compositing began to replace optical effects. Since the mid nineties the conversion to digital effects has been almost total. Optical printing today is used most widely by artists working exclusively with movie. As a technique, it proves particularly useful for making copies of hand painted or physically manipulated movie.

Printers

Optical printer