Antonio Tabucchi (; 24 September 1943 – 25 March 2012) was an Italian writer and academic who taught Portuguese language and literature at the University of Siena, Italy.

Deeply in love with Portugal, he was an expert, critic and translator of the works of Fernando Pessoa from whom he drew the conceptions of saudade, of fiction and of the heteronyms. Tabucchi was first introduced to Pessoa's works in the 1960s when attending the Sorbonne. He was so charmed that when he returned to Italy, he took an introductory course in Portuguese for a better comprehension of the poet.

His books and essays have been translated in 18 countries. Together with his wife, Maria José de Lancastre, he translated many works by Pessoa into Italian and has written a book of essays and a comedy about the writer.

Tabucchi was awarded the French prize "Médicis étranger" for Indian Nocturne (Notturno indiano) and the premio Campiello, and the Aristeion Prize for Sostiene Pereira. In later life, he was mentioned as a contender for the Nobel Prize in Literature, a feat he never achieved.

Early life
Antonio Tabucchi was born in Pisa but grew up at his maternal grandparents' home in Vecchiano, a nearby village.

During his years at university, he travelled widely around Europe on the trail of the authors he had encountered in his uncle's library. During one of these journeys, he found the poem "Tabacaria" (tobacco shop) in a bookstall near the Gare de Lyon in Paris, signed by Álvaro de Campos, one of the pen names of the Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa. It was in the French translation by Pierre Hourcade. The book was a major influence on his writing life for at least twenty years.

A visit to Lisbon sparked his love of the city of the fado and of that country as a whole. As a result, he graduated in 1969 with a thesis on "Surrealism in Portugal". He specialized at the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in the seventies and in 1973 he was appointed as a teacher of Portuguese Language and Literature in Bologna.

That year he wrote his first novel, Piazza d'Italia (Bompiani 1975), in which he tried to describe history from the losers' point of view, in this case, the Tuscan anarchists, in the tradition of great Italian writers of a more or less recent past, such as Giovanni Verga, Federico De Roberto, Giuseppe Tomasi Di Lampedusa, Beppe Fenoglio, and contemporary authors, like Vincenzo Consolo.

Career
In 1978, he was appointed to the University of Genoa, and published Il piccolo naviglio, followed by Il gioco del rovescio e altri racconti in 1981, and Donna di porto Pim (1983). His first important novel, Indian Nocturne, was published in 1984, and became the basis of a 1989 film directed by Alain Corneau. The protagonist tries to trace a friend who has disappeared in India but is actually searching for his own identity.

He published Piccoli equivoci senza importanza  in 1985 and, the next year, Il filo dell'orizzonte. This novel features another protagonist (Spino) on a quest to discover something (here, the identity of a corpse) but who is also looking for his own identity—which was to become a common mission for Tabucchi protagonists. Whether these characters succeed in the attempt is uncertain, but they are compelled to face their image as mirrored by others. A film was drawn from this book in 1993, directed by the Portuguese Fernando Lopes.

In 1987, when I volatili del Beato Angelico  and Pessoana Minima were published, he received France's Prix Médicis for best foreign novel (Notturno indiano). The next year he wrote the comedy I dialoghi mancati. The President of Portugal appointed him the title Do Infante Dom Henrique in 1989, and that same year the French government named him a Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres.

Tabucchi published Un baule pieno di gente. Scritti su Fernando Pessoa (Feltrinelli) in 1990, and the next year, L'angelo nero (1991). In 1991 he wrote in Portuguese Requiem: A Hallucination, a novel later translated into Italian (winner of Premio P.E.N. Club italiano) and he published Sogni di sogni.

In 1994 he released Gli ultimi tre giorni di Fernando Pessoa, as well as the novel that brought him the most recognition: Sostiene Pereira, winner of the Prizes Super Campiello, Scanno and Jean Monnet for European Literature. The protagonist of this novel becomes the symbol of the defence of freedom for information for the political opponents of all anti-democratic regimes. In Italy, during the election campaign, the opposition against the controversial communication magnate Silvio Berlusconi aggregated around this book. The director Roberto Faenza drew from it the eponymous film (1995) in which he cast Marcello Mastroianni as Pereira and Daniel Auteuil as Dr. Cardoso.

In 1997 Tabucchi wrote the novel The Missing Head of Damasceno Monteiro (La testa perduta di Damasceno Monteiro) based on the true story of a man whose headless corpse was found in a park. It was discovered that the man had been murdered in a police station of the Republican National Guard (GNR). The news story struck the writer's sensitivity and imagination. The event's setting in Porto also gave the author the opportunity to show his love for the city. In order to finish this novel, Tabucchi worked on the documents gathered by the investigators at the Council of Europe in Strasbourg who enforce civil rights and the conditions of detention in Europe, including the relationship between citizens and police. The novel proved prophetic when police Sergeant José dos Santos later confessed to the murder, was convicted and sentenced to 17 years' imprisonment.

Also in 1997, Tabucchi wrote Marconi, se ben mi ricordo, followed the next year by L'Automobile, la Nostalgie et l'Infini (1998). That year the Leibniz Academy awarded him the Prize Nossack.

He wrote Gli Zingari e il Rinascimento and Ena poukamiso gemato likedes (Una camicia piena di macchie. Conversazioni di A.T. con Anteos Chrysostomidis) in 1999.

In 2001 Tabucchi published the epistolary novel, Si sta facendo sempre più tardi (English translation, 2006: It's Getting Later All the Time). In it, 17 letters which celebrate the triumph of the word, which like "messages in the bottle", have no addressee, they are missives the author addressed to an "unknown poste restante". The book received the 2002 Prize France Culture (the French cultural radio) for foreign literature.

He used to spend six months of the year in Lisbon, with his wife, a native of the city, and their two children. The rest of the year he spent in Tuscany, where he taught Portuguese literature at the University of Siena. Tabucchi considered himself a writer only in an ontological sense because from the existential point of view, he was glad to define himself as a "university professor". For Tabucchi, literature was not a profession, "but something that involves desires, dreams and imagination".

Tabucchi regularly contributed articles to the cultural pages of the newspapers Corriere della Sera and El País.

Death
Tabucchi died in a hospital in Lisbon on 25 March 2012, after a long battle with cancer. He was 68.

Honours
In 2007, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Liège. The Portuguese government named him Commander of the Order of Prince Henry on 7 April 1989. In 1989, the French government named him Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres. In 2004, he was awarded the Francisco de Cerecedo journalism prize, granted by the Association of European Journalists and bestowed by Spain's then heir to the throne, Felipe, Prince of Asturias, now King Felipe VI, in recognition of the quality of his journalistic work and his outspoken defence of freedom of expression.

Works
 Piazza d'Italia (1975),
 Il piccolo naviglio (1978)
 Il gioco del rovescio e altri racconti (1981, short story collection),
 Donna di Porto Pim (1983)
 Indian Nocturne (Notturno indiano, 1984)
 Little Misunderstandings of No Importance (Piccoli equivoci senza importanza, 1985, short story collection),
 Il filo dell'orizzonte (1986),
 The Flying Creatures of Fra Angelico (I volatili del Beato Angelico, 1987)
 Pessoana mínima (1987)
 I dialoghi mancati (1988),
 Un baule pieno di gente. Scritti su Fernando Pessoa (1990, essays),
 L'angelo nero (1991, short story collection),
 Sogni di sogni (1992)
 Requiem: A Hallucination (Requiem: uma alucinação, 1991),
 Gli ultimi tre giorni di Fernando Pessoa (1994),
 Pereira Maintains (Sostiene Pereira, 1994),
 Dove va il romanzo (1995, essay),
 Carlos Gumpert, Conversaciones con Antonio Tabucchi (1995)
 The Missing Head of Damasceno Monteiro (La testa perduta di Damasceno Monteiro, 1997),
 Marconi, se ben mi ricordo (1997),
 L'Automobile, la Nostalgie et l'Infini (1998)
 La gastrite di Platone (1998),
 Gli Zingari e il Rinascimento (1999),
 Ena poukamiso gemato likedes (Una camicia piena di macchie. Conversazioni di A.T. con Anteos Chrysostomidis, 1999)
 Dreams of Dreams and the Last Three Days of Fernando Pessoa (2000),
 It's Getting Later All the Time (Si sta facendo sempre più tardi. Romanzo in forma di lettere, 2001),
 Autobiografie altrui. Poetiche a posteriori (2003),
 Tristano muore. Una vita (2004),
 Time Ages in a Hurry (Il tempo invecchia in fretta, 2009),
 Viaggi e altri viaggi (2010)
 Racconti con figure (2011),
 Girare per le strade (2012)
 For Isabel: A Mandala (Per Isabel) (2017)

References

External links

 Interview with Tabucchi in 1999
 Antonio Tabucchi en Barcelona: Canal-L

1943 births
2012 deaths
Italian journalists
Italian male journalists
Italian male writers
People from Pisa
Portuguese people of Italian descent
Premio Campiello winners
Prix Médicis étranger winners
Translators from Portuguese
Translators to Italian
Translators of Fernando Pessoa
University of Paris alumni
Academic staff of the University of Siena
Viareggio Prize winners
20th-century translators

Antonio Tabucchi


The Open Document Management API is an API that simplifies the communication of desktop applications with document management systems (DMS). ODMA standardizes the access to the DMS, which  makes getting to these files as easy as if the files were in the actual local file system.

ODMA was an effort to standardize the API to be used by desktop applications on Microsoft Windows to interface with back-end, server based document management systems (DMS).  Version 1.0 of the API specification was completed in 1994, and went on to be supported by many of the major DMS vendors.  Version 2.0 of the specification was completed in 1997.
ODMA has subsequently been superseded by other, more standard ways of interfacing, such as WebDAV or CMIS.

See also
Enterprise content management

External links
ODMA Interoperability Exchange - ODMA Resources
 Orcmid's Lair -  ODMA: The Little Middleware That Could (Comments from current maintainer)
ODM Attributes

Document management systems

ODMA


Salvatore Giovanni Martirano (January 12, 1927 – November 17, 1995) was an American composer of contemporary classical music. Born in Yonkers, New York, he taught for many years at the University of Illinois. He also worked in electronic music and invented electronic musical instruments.

Professional background
Born in Yonkers, New York, Martirano received his undergraduate degree in 1951 from Oberlin College, where he studied composition with Herbert Elwell. A year later he completed his master's degree in composition at the Eastman School of Music, where he studied with Bernard Rogers. He then pursued further studies in Florence, Italy with Luigi Dallapiccola from 1952 through 1954.

Martirano worked in Italy from 1956 to 1959, when he was a resident fellow at the American Academy.

Between 1959 and 1964, Martirano received commissions, awards, and fellowships from the Guggenheim, Ford, Koussevitzky, and Fromm Foundations, as well as from the American Academy of Arts and Letters and Brandeis University.

In 1963, Martirano joined the Theory and Composition Department at the University of Illinois in Urbana. He served on the faculty until his retirement and death in 1995. Martirano was the second person to live in the 1955 "Garvey House" in Urbana after Garvey, for whom it was designed by notable architect Bruce Goff.

Music
Many of Martirano's early works incorporate twelve-tone compositional techniques as well as jazz, vernacular, and multimedia idioms. His best-known composition, "L's GA" (Lincoln's Gettysburg Address), was widely performed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It became associated with the anti-Vietnam War movement.

SAL-MAR Construction
In 1969, Salvatore Martirano, along with a group of engineers and musicians at the University of Illinois, began work on the design and construction of a musical electronic instrument. The instrument, named the SAL-MAR Construction, is a hybrid system in which TTL logical circuits (small and medium scale integration) drive analog modules, such as voltage-controlled oscillators, amplifiers and filters. The performer sits at a horizontal control panel of 291 lightable touch-sensitive switches (no moving parts). The two-state switches are used by a performer to dial sequences of numbers that are characterized by a variety of intervals and lengths. A sequence may bypass, address, or be added to other sequences forming an interlocked tree of control and data according to a performer's choice. The unique characteristic of the switch is that it can be driven both manually and logically, which allows human/machine interaction. The most innovative feature of the human/machine interface is that it allows the user to switch from control of macro to micro parameters of the information output. This is analogous to a zoom lens on a camera.

Legacy and honors
In the year following Martiano's death, a music composition award was established in his name, the Salvatore Martirano Memorial Composition Award, and has been given annually since 1996.

References

External links
Salvatore Martirano archive, The Sousa Archives and Center for American Music, University of Illinois

1927 births
1995 deaths
American male classical composers
American classical composers
American people of Italian descent
Musicians from Yonkers, New York
20th-century classical composers
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign faculty
Experimental Music Studios alumni
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
Oberlin College alumni
Centaur Records artists

Salvatore Martirano


The Four Freedoms is an important concept of American president Franklin D. Roosevelt. He presented them in the State of the Union of January 6, 1941, which is therefore also called the Four Freedoms Speech.

Roosevelt made the Four Freedoms public just eleven months before the American participation at World War II. The concept played an important role in the American propaganda during the war. After Roosevelts death in 1945, his wife Eleanor continued being an important advocate for including the Four Freedoms in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

"In the future days, which we seek to make secure, we look forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedoms:
 The first is freedom of speech and expression—everywhere in the world.
 The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way—everywhere in the world.
 The third is freedom from want which, translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants—everywhere in the world.
 The fourth is freedom from fear which, translated into world terms, means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor—anywhere in the world.
"That is no vision of a distant millennium. It is a definite basis for a kind of world attainable in our own time and generation. That kind of world is the very antithesis of the so-called new order of tyranny which the dictators seek to create with the crash of a bomb". Franklin D. Roosevelt, January 6, 1941

Art

To inspire a greater public for his concept, Roosevelt arranged the creation of the Four Freedoms Monument. The statue was made public in 1943 in New York City. In honor of one of the first Americans to be killed in action in World War II, Colin Kelly, Roosevelt had the statue moved to Kelly's former home in Florida.

In 1943 artist painter Norman Rockwell got inspired by the Four Freedoms and made a series of four paintings on this subject. Afterwards, the American authorities made use of these paintings to collect money for the world war.

Related pages

Four Freedoms Award

1941 in the United States
Human rights
Speeches
Freedom

Four Freedoms


The State of Muskogee was a proclaimed sovereign nation located in Florida, founded in 1799 and led by William Augustus Bowles, a Loyalist veteran of the American Revolutionary War who lived among the Muscogee, and envisioned uniting the American Indians of the Southeast into a single nation that could resist the expansion of the United States. Bowles enjoyed the support of the Miccosukee (Seminole) and several bands of Muscogee. He envisioned his state as eventually growing to encompass the Cherokee, Upper and Lower Creeks, Choctaw, and Chickasaw, in parts of present-day Georgia and Alabama.

History
Born into a Maryland Loyalist family, William Bowles was commissioned in the Maryland Loyalist Battalion at age 14 with the rank of Ensign.  Bowles was sent with the 1st Battalion of Maryland Loyalist as part of a provincial garrison stationed at Pensacola, where he was stripped of his rank for insubordination. (According to the article on William Augustus Bowles, he joined the British Battalion at the age of 13.) He fled north, living among the Muscogee of the Tallapoosa and Appalachicola, becoming fluent in the language, taking Cherokee and Hitchiti Muscogee wives and becoming heir to a Muscogee chiefdom. He led a band of Lower Creek warriors at the Battle at the Village and the Battle of Pensacola in 1781, a period when he developed a lifelong enmity with the Upper Creek chief Alexander McGillivray. After the war, he relocated to the Bahamas, where he was courted by Governor Lord Dunmore, who sought to break the monopoly of Panton, Leslie & Co. over the Indian fur-trade, and allowed him to return to the Muscogee as an agent of a rival company. During this period, he developed his idea of an American Indian state. He failed to capture Panton's St. Johns store, and became a fugitive from Spanish authorities, spending the next few years between Nova Scotia, the Bahamas, England, and the villages along the lower Chattahoochee River basin, where he gained support for a free state of Muskogee, assuring the Lower Creeks and Seminoles of British support.

On 16 January 1792, Bowles led a large band of Muscogee warriors who captured and looted the Panton, Leslie, and Co. store in the presidio of San Marcos de Apalache. He tried to negotiate with the Spanish for the establishment of a Muskogee state, but the Spaniards captured him instead. The Spanish wanted to remove him as far away from Florida as they could, and imprisoned him in Cuba, Madrid, and Manila.  While being returned to Spain, Bowles escaped and seized command of a ship to Africa, and eventually made his way back to Florida after stopovers in England and Nassau to regather his British supporters.

Arriving on the Apalachicola Bay in 1799, Bowles made himself "Director General and Commander-In-Chief of the Muskogee Nation", and, on October 31, he issued a proclamation declaring the 1796 treaty between Spain and the United States void because it ignored the Indians' sovereignty over Florida. (Pinckney's Treaty ceded all of West Florida above the 31st parallel to the United States.) He denounced the treaties Alexander McGillivray had negotiated with Spain and the U.S., threatened to declare war against the U.S. unless it returned Muscogee lands that he claimed it had taken illegally, and issued a death sentence against George Washington's Indian agent Benjamin Hawkins. He defied American planters by welcoming runaway slaves and enjoyed great support among the Black Seminoles. Bowles had the support of the Seminoles and lower Chattahoochee Creeks because of his generous supply of gunpowder, and of his promises to get more when he captured the Panton-Leslie store at the presidio of San Marcos de Apalache.

Spanish attacks forced him to relocate the capital to the Indian town of Miccosukee or Mikasuki on Lake Miccosukee, northeast of present-day Tallahassee, ruled by Mico Kinache, his father-in-law and most powerful ally. Several English adventurers from the Bahamas served as the government administrators. Bowles built a three-ship navy and attacked Spanish ships off the coast of Florida. In August 1800, a Spanish armed force set out to destroy Miccosuke, but was lost in the swamps. On 5 January 1802, Bowles led a large force of Seminoles (Miccosukees), Black Seminoles, fugitive slaves, white pirates, and Spanish deserters from Pensacola, and laid siege to San Marcos, but was forced to retreat after the arrival of several Spanish ships. The Treaty of Amiens in March 1802 briefly ended hostilities between Britain and France and Spain, and news of this ceasefire left Bowles discredited, the Seminoles (including Kinache) signing a treaty with Spain in August.

By 1803, the U.S. and Spain were conspiring against Bowles, who no longer enjoyed British support. Benjamin Hawkins laid a trap for him at a tribal council at the town of Tuckabatchee, where Bowles was captured and delivered to the Spanish governor in Pensacola. He was imprisoned in Morro Castle in Havana, where he died in 1805. The State of Muskogee demonstrated Spain's inability to control the interior of Florida.

In 1818, the town of Miccosuke was destroyed by General Andrew Jackson's army during the First Seminole War.

See also
Indian barrier state
Muscogee (Creek)
State of Sequoyah
Tecumseh's Confederacy
Western Confederacy
List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies

References

Short mention from official State of Florida web site

Muscogee
Spanish Florida
Native American history of Florida
Former countries of the United States
Former unrecognized countries
Former republics
1803 disestablishments in North America
States and territories established in 1799
Former enclaves
1799 establishments in North America
Pre-statehood history of Florida
Micronations in the United States
Former regions and territories of the United States
States and territories disestablished in 1803

State of Muskogee


The Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences (IBERS) is a department of Aberystwyth University within its Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, and is located in Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, Wales. It has a remit for teaching, research and business innovation in the area of bio-sciences, land use and the rural economy.

Sites
IBERS is currently situated on two main sites. The main teaching activity takes place at the Edward Llwyd, IBERS and Cledwyn buildings on the university's Penglais campus and the majority of its research activities take place at the far larger Gogerddan campus, two miles to the North East of Aberystwyth, near Penrhyncoch and Bow Street.

Teaching
Taught undergraduate degree schemes offered by IBERS include those in Agriculture, Biology, Biochemistry, Ecology, Genetics, Marine & Freshwater Biology, Microbiology, Plant Biology, Veterinary Biosciences, Zoology and Equine Science. IBERS offers a range of taught postgraduate courses and, in partnership with Bangor University, offers a distance learning postgraduate programme in Sustainable and Efficient Food Production. The institute has approximately 1300 undergraduate students, approximately 150 postgraduate students, 70 full-time lecturers and a similar number of part-time associate-lecturers.

Research
IBERS has three research themes: Animal and Microbial Science, Environmental Impact and Genome Diversity. The institute has a state of the art translational genomics facility and is home to the BBSRC National Phenomics Centre.

Plant Breeding
IBERS has active breeding programmes for forage and amenity grasses, forage legumes, grain legumes, oats and miscanthus.

History
IBERS' history is one of a complicated series of mergers.

University College of Wales (UCW)
The University College of Wales (UCW) opened in 1872 with classes in biological sciences starting in 1874. Its department of Agriculture opened in 1891.

Welsh Plant Breeding Station (WPBS)
The Welsh Plant Breeding Station was established in 1919 under the guidance of Sir George Stapledon. This was possible due to an initial donation of £10,000 from Sir Laurence Philipps, 1st Bt., with a further £1,000 for the following ten years. The WPBS was initially based at Alexandra Road in Aberystwyth as a department of UCW, with land at Penglais Farm and Frongoch Farm.
The station moved to new premises on Penglais hill in 1939, since renamed Aberystwyth University's Cledwyn building and housing various service departments of the university. The institute was subsequently moved to Plas Gogerddan, near Bow Street, in 1955 when it was officially opened by the Queen.

Grassland Research Institute (GRI)
The Grassland Improvement Station was established at Drayton, near Stratford upon Avon, Warwickshire, England. In 1949 it moved to a new site at Hurley, Berkshire and was renamed the Grassland Research Institute (GRI). GRI acquired the North Wyke site in Devon in 1981.

Welsh Agricultural College (WAC)

In 1970, the Welsh Agricultural College (WAC) was founded in Llanbadarn Fawr, near Aberystwyth. WAC merged with the Agriculture department of UCW in 1995 to form its Institute of Rural Sciences.

Animal and Grassland Research Institute (AGRI)
In 1985, GRI and the National Institute for Research in Dairying were merged to form the Animal and Grassland Research Institute (AGRI).

Institute of Grassland and Animal Production (IGAP)
WPBS ceased to be part of UCW in 1987 as part of restructuring of the Agricultural and Food Research Council funded research. The WPBS facilities at Gogerddan and Bronydd Mawr and the AGRI sites at Hurley and North Wyke were combined with parts of the Poultry Research Centre at Roslin to form the Institute of Grassland and Animal Production (IGAP).

Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research (IGER)
Further restructuring took place three years later with cessation of pig research and the transfer of the poultry department to the Institute for Animal Physiology and Genetics Research at Roslin. The remaining part was Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research (IGER) retained the facilities at Gogerddan, North Wyke and Bronydd Mawr as well as the Hurley site which closed in 1992. At the same time farm facilities at Trawsgoed were acquired.

Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences (IBERS)
In April 2008, IGER merged with Aberystwyth University's Institute of Biological Sciences and its Institute of Rural Sciences to form the Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, one of the largest departments for the life-sciences in the UK.

Directors of the institute

Welsh Plant Breeding Station
 Sir George Stapledon 1919–1942
 T.J. Jenkin 1942–1950
 E.T. Jones 1950–1958
 P.T. Thomas 1958–1974
 J.P. Cooper 1975–1983
 R.Q. Cannell 1984–1987
 J.L. Stoddart 1987

Institute for Grassland and Animal Production
 J. Prescott 1987–1988
 J.L. Stoddart 1988–1990

Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research
 J.L. Stoddart 1990–1993
 Chris Pollock 1993–2007
 Mervyn Humphries 2007–2008

Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences
 Wayne Powell 2008–2014
 Mike Gooding 2014–2019
 Iain Donnison 2019-

References

External links
IBERS home page
Bronydd Mawr
BBSRC institutes and centres

Aberystwyth University
Agricultural organisations based in Wales
Organisations based in Aberystwyth
Plant breeding
Agricultural research institutes in the United Kingdom


Ghanche District is the easternmost district of the Northern Areas, Pakistan. To its northeast is Xinjiang, China, to the north and northwest is Skardu District, to its west is Astore District and to its south is Leh District (Ladakh Division) in the Indian occupied territories of Jammu and Kashmir. The line of control along the eastern most region of Ghanche District cuts through the Siachen Glacier and is not permanent because of the conflict (It has been proposed by moderates in Pakistan and India to make the Siachen Glacier region a Peace Park).

The capital of Ghanche District is Khaplu. This is the coldest place within Pakistan also called the "Third Pole" with temperatures reaching below  in the winter. Khaplu and Hushe valleys form the gateway for the great Baltoro Muztagh, the subrange of Karakoram that includes the mighty peaks of K2 (8,611 m), Broad Peak (8,047 m), Gasherbrums (8,000+ m) and Masherbrum (7,821 m) (all of which are included in the Skardu District).

Tehsils
Khaplu Tehsil
Mashabrum Tehsil

Districts of Gilgit-Baltistan

Ghanche District


Reining is a competitive way of riding a horse. In reining, the horse performs spins, sliding stops, rollbacks and lead changes. Reining has twelve patterns the rider normally has to follow. The rider can perform freestyle where they make up their own pattern and ride it to music. This is all done under a western saddle.

History of the sport

Horses have been used by humans for thousands of years, and the skills associated with riding horses have been gradually developed throughout this history. The skills used today in reining originate from tasks done with work horses like to gather cattle together.

What is reining

In competition, the riders need to do many manoeuvres at a gallop. They need to guide precisely the horses with one hand through a complex pattern that includes stops, spins, rollbacks and circles. There are twelve different patterns. The rider and the horse are judged on various criteria. First, points can be given or removed for the obedience of the horse if it seemed easy and fluid for the rider to control him or if the horse showed some resistance. The show is also judged for the execution of the manoeuvres and the control of the rider. For example, if the manoeuvre was executed correctly no point are given and no point are removed, if the manoeuvre was executed badly the judge decides on how many points he removes and if the manoeuvre was executed I an excellent way, the judge can give points. The rider executing is pattern and the judge evaluating it takes about five minutes and after that, the judge gives mark on a total of seventy points for the execution of the choreography by the rider and the horse.

Other websites
 British Reining - the governing body for the sport in Great Britain
 National Reining Horse Association
 The American Quarter Horse Association.
 sample reining pattern
 United States Equestrian Federation
 Video about Reining
 The American Quarter Horse Association of the United Kingdom

References

Horse riding

Reining


Frederick Octavius Pickard-Cambridge (3 November 1860 – 9 February 1905) was an English arachnologist. He is sometimes confused with his uncle, Octavius Pickard-Cambridge (1828–1917), who was also an arachnologist and from whom F. O. Pickard-Cambridge picked up his enthusiasm for the study of spiders.

Life
F. O. Pickard-Cambridge was born in Warmwell, Dorset, where his father was rector. He became a curate at St Cuthbert's church in Carlisle for a few years after having been educated at Sherborne School and Exeter College, Oxford. He left to become a professional biological illustrator, and in 1894–1895 spent several months in the Amazon as a naturalist on board the SS Faraday. He found much of interest on his voyage and began writing papers in 1896 to describe the spiders he discovered.

He had a promising career ahead of him, but this promise was not to be fulfilled. Bristowe, writing in the book British Spiders, 1951, said of this time in F. O. Pickard-Cambridge's life: "Whilst he was still in his 30s, however, a marked change came over him which led to misfortune". He gave up the priesthood because of his extreme religious views, and became estranged from friends and family on account of his strong political opinions. This unfortunate new tendency also spilled over into his natural history work, and he had fierce arguments with other scientists, such as Karsch, over questions of nomenclature.

Work
F. O. Pickard-Cambridge's papers were published between 1889 and 1905, some posthumously. He worked on spiders from across the world, not just British ones, and as opposed to being a collector was more concerned with the study of specimens in reference collections and papers – work which was often passed over in previous decades when many new discoveries were being made by explorers and collectors. His work was largely taxonomic, consisting of a re-examination of the relationships between various species, including many described by his celebrated uncle. For example, he discovered several species which had been described more than once and so had more than one name, or, by contrast, more than one species which had only one name. He created several new genera and added sixteen species of spider to the British list.

His cousin Sir Arthur Pickard-Cambridge, said of him in 1918
[He] was a born naturalist and a very clever and artistic draughtsman, and was capable of very rapid and effective work, sometimes, indeed, too rapid, and marred by hasty conclusions and a tendency to treat the latest idea as if it were a new gospel, but almost always useful and suggestive; moreover, as a companion he was full of fun and resource. The extreme political and moral ideas which he felt it his duty to preach somewhat indiscriminately in the later years of his life ultimately brought about a partial severance between him and my father [O. Pickard-Cambridge], but his early death was undoubtedly a loss to science as well as to those who had delighted in his companionship.

His papers, chiefly on foreign Arachnida, showed great ability, and it was he who undertook so much of the treatment of the Araneidea for the Biologia Centrali-Americana as my father could not complete by himself.

Later in his career he used his considerable skill as an illustrator to illustrate many books and papers on natural history and other subjects.

Death
Hillyard says of F. O. Pickard-Cambridge's death "Fredrick Pickard-Cambridge is the only well-known spider specialist to have committed suicide with his own gun". He goes on to quote The Times from 1905 (no date given) which reported that no cause other than mental strain could be assigned for the act, and that a verdict of "Suicide while temporarily insane" was returned at the inquest.

His death is noted in The Times obituaries column, and dated to 9 February 1905. Hillyard confirms the date 1905 and Bristowe, writing in Locket & Millidge 1951, gives his dates as 1860–1905.  (In Bristowe's own book The World of Spiders he writes erroneously that F. O. Pickard-Cambridge's papers were published "between 1889 and 1905 (three years after his untimely death)".)

In the Proceedings of the Royal Society of London F. O. Pickard-Cambridge was described as "a very able naturalist too early lost to science". Hillyard speculated that "almost certainly he would have followed Reginald Innes Pocock in the position of arachnologist at the British Museum."

References

Further reading

Obituary Notices of Fellows Deceased, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character, Vol. 91, No. 641 (15 November 1920), pp. i–xxxvii+xxxviii-liii

External links

1860 births
1905 deaths
People from West Dorset District
People educated at Sherborne School
Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford
British arachnologists
Suicides by firearm in England
1905 suicides

Frederick Octavius Pickard-Cambridge


Jargon is a special way to use words that are shared only by a certain group of people.  They may not mean what the dictionary says they mean.  They have different meanings to the people using them than their everyday meaning.

For example, the ordinary words boot, net, and web also have special meanings for users of computers, the Internet, and the World Wide Web.  These, and to flame, to ping and many acronyms are part of net jargon.

An acronym means that only some of the letters in the word or phrase are used.  Often this is the first letter of each word. Other acronyms found online are simply common shorthand.

Usually, more jargon is created over time.

Jargon is common in the military and other complex organisations. It includes phrases like SNAFU.

Jargon can be used by a clique to prevent others from joining or understanding, but it also is often just used because it is shorter.
Terminology

Jargon


Icknield Street or Ryknild Street is a Roman road in Britain that runs from the Fosse Way at Bourton on the Water in Gloucestershire to Templeborough in South Yorkshire. It passes through Alcester, Birmingham, Lichfield and Derby.

Four Roman roads are named in the Laws of Edward the Confessor; Watling Street, Ermine Street, the Fosse Way and Hikenild (or Icknield) Street. Hikenild Street, is generally supposed to be connected with the Iceni. Various forms of the name, the earliest, in Anglo-Saxon, are Icenhilde Weg or Icenilde We. These roads are from the borders of Norfolk through Cambridgeshire, Bucks, Berks, Hants, and Wilts into Dorset. These locations however would identify the path as Icknield Way, an Iron Age trackway running from Norfolk to Dorset.

This road got the name Ryknild Street during the 12th century when it was named by Ranulf Higdon, a monk writing in 1344 in his Polychronicon. Higdon, gives the name of the fourth road as Rikenild Strete, which, he says, tends from the south-west to the north, and begins at St. David's and continues to the mouth of the Tyne, passing Worcester, Droitwich, Birmingham, Lichfield, Derby, and Chesterfield. It has borne that name, or Rigning, Reenald, or Rignall, from early times. In three of the four MSS. of Higdon, the name is given Rikenilde, Rikenyldes, and in the fourth, which is said to be one of the earliest, Hikenil Street. Trevisa's English translation (1387) calls it Rykeneldes Street. Harverfield writing in the Victoria County History of Warwickshire doubted if the road had any real and original right to either name, preferring Ryknild as no less correct, (or no more wrong) and being able to separate it from Icknield Street in Oxfordshire and Berkshire. It is now called Icknield or Ryknild Street to separate it from the older Icknield Way. A kept part of the Roman road can be seen at Sutton Park in Birmingham.

References
Birmingham Roman Roads Project
Metchley Fort, Birmingham
Derby City Council list of Scheduled Ancient Monuments
Full text of Roman Roads in Britain, Thomas Codrington
An History of Birmingham (1783) by William Hutton at Project Gutenberg

Archaeological sites in England
Roman roads in Britain

Icknield Street


Kunigunda Rostislavna (1245 – 9 September 1285; Czech: Kunhuta Uherská or Kunhuta Haličská) was Queen consort of Bohemia and its regent from 1278 until her death. She was a member of the House of Chernigov, and a daughter of Rostislav Mikhailovich.

Family
She was presumably born in Ruthenia, in the domains of her paternal grandfather Michael of Chernigov. Her grandfather was the last Grand Prince of Kiev, who was deposed not by a more powerful prince but by the Mongol Empire. Her parents were Rostislav Mikhailovich, future ruler of Belgrade and Slavonia, and his wife Anna of Hungary. After the death of her father's father, Kunigunda's family relocated to Hungary, where her mother's father, Béla IV of Hungary, made her father governor of certain Serbian-speaking regions in the Danube Valley. Her father proclaimed himself Emperor of Bulgaria in 1256 but did not stay there to defend his title.

Marriage

Kunigunda was married – as a token of alliance from her maternal grandfather Béla – to King Ottokar II of Bohemia (ca. 1233 – 1278) in Pressburg (now Bratislava) on 25 October 1261. Ottokar was paternally a member of the Přemyslid dynasty whose marriage to Margaret, Duchess of Austria (ca. 1204 – 1266) was annulled.

Kunigunda, 41 years Margaret's junior, bore Ottokar several children including:
 Kunigunde of Bohemia (January, 1265 – 27 November 1321). Married Boleslaus II of Masovia.
 Agnes of Bohemia (5 September 1269 – 17 May 1296). Married Rudolf II, Duke of Austria.
 Wenceslaus II of Bohemia (17 September 1271 – 21 June 1305).

Queen and regent of Bohemia

However, the peace between Bohemia and Hungary ended after 10 years, when Kunigunda's uncle Stephen came to power as the King of Hungary.

In 1278, King Ottokar tried to recover his lands lost to Rudolph I of Germany in 1276. He made allies and collected a large army, but he was defeated by Rudolph and killed at the Battle of Dürnkrut and Jedenspeigen on the March on 26 August 1278.

Moravia was subdued and its government entrusted to Rudolph's representatives, leaving Kunigunda, now Queen Regent of Bohemia in control of only the province surrounding Prague, while the young Wenceslaus was betrothed and married to one of Rudolph's daughters, Judith.

Kunigunda married secondly a Bohemian magnate Záviš, Lord of Falkenštejn, in Prague in 1285. However, she died only a few months later. Záviš survived her and married again to the Hungarian Princess Elisabeth. He was executed on behalf of the King on 24 August 1290.

Kunigunda's son Wenceslaus II kept the Kingdom of Bohemia, and also succeeded in obtaining Poland and Hungary although not very sustainably. Ultimately, she is one of the pivotal ancestresses of both the House of Luxembourg and the Habsburgs.

Ancestors

Literature

|-

1245 births
1285 deaths
People from Galicia–Volhynia
13th-century Hungarian people
13th-century Croatian people
13th-century people from Bohemia.
Olgovichi family
Queens consort of Bohemia
Hungarian people of Ukrainian descent
Hungarian people of Russian descent
Czech people of Ukrainian descent
Czech people of Russian descent
Czech people of Hungarian descent
13th-century women rulers
Princesses from Kievan Rus'
Ottokar II of Bohemia
Remarried royal consorts
13th-century women from Bohemia
13th-century Hungarian women
13th-century Croatian women
13th-century people from Kievan Rus'
13th-century women from Kievan Rus'
Queen mothers

Kunigunda of Halych


Allan Octavian Hume, CB ICS (4 June 1829 – 31 July 1912) was a member of the Imperial Civil Service (later the Indian Civil Service), a political reformer, collector of Madurai & administrator southern Bombay harbour ports. He was one of the founders of the Indian National Congress. A notable ornithologist, Hume has been called "the Father of Indian Ornithology" and, by those who found him dogmatic, "the Pope of Indian ornithology".

As an administrator of Etawah, he saw the Indian Rebellion of 1857 as a result of misgovernance and made great efforts to improve the lives of the common people. The district of Etawah was among the first to be returned to normality and over the next few years Hume's reforms led to the district being considered a model of development. Hume rose in the ranks of the Indian Civil Service and, in 1871 to the position of secretary to the Department of Revenue, Agriculture, and Commerce under Governor-General Lord Mayo.

He left India in 1894 to live in London from where he continued to take an interest in the Indian National Congress. After retiring from the civil services and towards the end of Lord Lytton's rule, Hume observed that the people of India had a sense of hopelessness and wanted to do something, noting "a sudden violent outbreak of sporadic crime, murders of obnoxious persons, robbery of bankers and looting of bazaars, acts really of lawlessness which by a due coalescence of forces might any day develop into a National Revolt." Concerning the British government, he stated that a studied and invariable disregard, if not actually contempt for the opinions and feelings of our subjects, is at the present day the leading characteristic of our government in every branch of the administration.
The idea of the Indian Union took shape and Hume initially had some support from Lord Dufferin for this, although the latter wished to have no official link to it. It has been suggested that the idea was originally conceived in a private meeting of seventeen men after a Theosophical Convention held at Madras in December 1884. Hume took the initiative, and it was in March 1885, when the first notice was issued convening the first Indian National Union to meet at Poona the following December.

He attempted to increase the Congress base by bringing in more farmers, townspeople and Muslims between 1886 and 1887 and this created a backlash from the British, leading to backtracking by the Congress. Hume was disappointed when Congress opposed moves to raise the age of marriage for Indian girls and failed to focus on issues of poverty. Some Indian princes did not like the idea of democracy. In 1892, he tried to get them to act by warning of a violent agrarian revolution but this only outraged the British establishment and frightened the Congress leaders. Disappointed by the continued lack of Indian leaders willing to work for the cause of national emancipation, Hume left India in 1894.
Many Anglo-Indians were against the idea of the Indian National Congress. The press in India tended to look upon it negatively, so much so that Hume is said to have held a very low opinion of journalists even later in life. A satirical work published in 1888 included a character called "A. O. Humebogue".

The organizers of the 27th session of the Indian National Congress at Bankipur (26–28 December 1912) recorded their "profound sorrow at the death of Allan Octavian Hume, C.B., father and founder of the Congress, to whose lifelong services, rendered at rare self-sacrifice, India feels deep and lasting gratitude, and in whose death the cause of Indian progress and reform sustained an irreparable loss."

1829 births
1912 deaths
British botanists
British ornithologists
British civil servants
Order of the Bath

Allan Octavian Hume


Florence Nightingale, OM (12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910), was an English nurse. She helped create the modern techniques of nursing. She became a leader of the team of nurses who helped wounded soldiers during the Crimean War.

Works
She was the first female to receive the Order of Merit, one of the highest honours awarded by the British monarch. As a nurse she was given the name 'The Lady with the Lamp' because at night, she checked on the wounded soldiers and always carried 'The Lamp' with her. Florence Nightingale was a wonderful woman, coming from a wealthy family. She refused the aristocrat lifestyle her family expected from her and instead focused on helping the poor, the injured, and the sick. She helped make modern nursing possible. Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer, and lived to be 90 years old.

In her lifetime she was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her books were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor reading skills. She also was an early user of graphs  and diagrams to display data.

Studies of statistics
Nightingale was helped to understand statistics by her country's leading expert on public statistics, William Farr. He was a founder of medical statistics, and epidemiology. Farr worked with her on all the statistics from the Crimean War, which she publicised in her writing. She proved that more men had died from disease than fighting, a very important piece of information. The disease in question was mostly cholera. Cholera is caused by a bacterium spread by people drinking water contaminated by sewage. Unfortunately, both she and Farr believed the disease was caused by foul air: this was called the miasma theory.

The miasma theory was refuted by John Snow, who discovered the real cause of an outbreak in London. The cause was foul water from a water pump in Broad Street, London. Snow's work was published in 1855, but it was 30 years before the germ theory was generally accepted. Farr publicly acknowledged he was wrong in 1866, but Nightingale never really gave up the miasma idea. London's cholera epidemics stopped once the authorities built sewage treatment plants, delivered cleaner water, and built a system of underground pipes that kept sewage from seeping into the water supply.

Life
Florence Nightingale was born into an upper class British family in 1820 in Florence, Tuscany, Italy. She was named after the town where she was born. The family moved back to London when Florence was a young girl. She was a Unitarian. Although her parents expected her to become a wife and a mother, in 1845 she decided to become a nurse. While she was training she campaigned for better conditions for poor people in Britain.

In 1854 to 1856, during the Crimean War, Florence was working in Harley Street in London. After reading many reports about the poor treatment of sick and injured soldiers, she travelled to Crimea to see for herself and discovered the hospitals were crowded and dirty.

She knew Sidney Herbert, who was Secretary of War during the Crimean War and he helped her.  At the hospital in Istanbul where the injured soldiers were sent, Florence realized that soldiers died more often from diseases like cholera than from their injuries in war. She used her knowledge of maths and statistics to show the British
government that providing better conditions for sick and injured soldiers would help them win the war. She was, however, quite wrong about how cholera spread.

There is a syndrome named after her called "Florence Nightingale Syndrome". It occurs when a soldier falls in love with a nurse. While she was working in Crimea she became known as "The Lady with the Lamp" because she would walk around the hospital in the evening carrying a lamp and check on the soldiers.

When she returned to England she started a school in 1860 for nurses at St. Thomas' Hospital in London.  She wrote her most important book Notes on Nursing.  She was a keen Christian but also believed that pagan and eastern religions also contained genuine worth. She was a strong opponent of discrimination against all types of Christians as well as against non-Christians. Nightingale believed religion helped provide people with the fortitude for arduous good work.

In 1907, Florence Nightingale became the first woman to be awarded the Order of Merit by King Edward VII.

Florence Nightingale died in her room peace fully in her sleep from heart attack in 1910 in London. There are many statues of her in Britain, including one in Waterloo Place in London and a Florence Nightingale museum, also in London.

References

1820 births
1910 deaths
British nurses
Unitarians
Order of Merit
People from Florence
People from London

Florence Nightingale


The Queen's apartment at Versailles () consists of several rooms: The Queen's Bedchamber; The Queen's Private Cabinets; The Room of the Queen's Gentlemen; The Queen's Antechamber; The Room of the Queen's Guard. The apartment overlooks the Parterre du Midi, and parallels the King's Apartment. When the King's Apartment was abandoned at the end of Louis XIV's reign, the Queens continued to occupy the Queen's Apartment.

The Queen's Bedchamber

 The main room in the Queen's Apartment is The Queen's Bedchamber.  It was designed for Louis XIV's Queen Marie Thérèse of Austria. Three queens occupied this room at different times: Maria Theresa of Austria, Marie Leszczyńska, and Marie Antoinette. After the death of Maria Theresa in 1683, it was occupied successively by two dauphines, Marie-Christine of Bavaria and Marie-Adélaïde of Savoy.

The ceiling dates to the days of Maria Theresa. The paintings by François Boucher and the wooden panels were made for Marie Leszczyńska. This decor was retained for Antoinette. Only the furniture and fireplace were upgraded for the last Queen of France.

The Queens spent most of their time in this room. The Queen slept here. She was sometimes joined by the King. Nineteen royal children were born in the Queen's Bedchamber. In the morning she received visitors. She performed her toilette in this room. This toilette was a public event.  Revolutionary rioters stormed the palace in October 1789. Antoinette fled through the little door to the left of the bed. The passage behind the door led to the Queen's Private Cabinets and the King's Apartment.

The palace was not looted during the French Revolution. Items were sold at an auction that lasted a year. The original Schwerdfeger jewel case and the firescreen (both visible in photo above right) were eventually returned to the room. Other items have been replaced with equivalents. The fabric on the walls and bed was rewoven from cartoons of the period. The bed and balustrade (railing) were rebuilt from documents in the archives.

The Queen's Bedchamber took 30 years of work to restore. This involved research and delicate reconstruction. Even the 1745 Baillou and Crescent clock Antoinette placed in the bedchamber has been restored to its place.  Other items returned to the room include Sené's chimney piece and the bedspread by Desfarges. Some of the original furniture (already mentioned) has been recovered including the andirons by Boizot and Thomire. Other items have been replaced with facsimiles: armchairs by Tilliard and folding stools taken from the suite of rooms belonging to the Countess d'Artois. The Savonnerie carpet was rewoven from documents.

Gallery: The Queen's Bedchamber

The Queen's Private Cabinets
 The Queen's Private Cabinets were accessible to Her Majesty through the alcove in the bedchamber. These rooms are situated on a mezzanine overlooking the inner courts. The rooms are poorly lit. The Meridian Cabinet was once the oratory of the Duchesse de Bourgogne. It was redecorated by the Rousseau brothers after Mique's drawings at the birth of the Dauphin in 1781. A table made of petrified wood once belonged to Charles I of England. It was gifted to Antoinette from her mother. The blue Grenadière Cabinet is a reproduction. The paneling decorations in the Gold Cabinet are taken from antiquity. They include tripods, sphinxes, and carytids at the fireplace. This room was once the Duc de Bourgogne's bedchamber. Antoinette placed Oudry's pineapple over the door as an homage to the botanical research done at the Trianon under Louis XV's patronage. Furniture in the rooms include a commode by Riesener (1779) and a harp by Naderman. The commode once belonged to the Comtesse d'Artois. It was brought from Antoinette's bedchamber at Marly.

Gallery: The Meridian Cabinet

The Room of the Queen's Gentlemen

 The Room of the Queen's Gentlemen (also The Room of the Nobles) is the room in which the Queen received ambassadors. Marie Leszczinska sat beneath a canopy. She held her solemn audiences here as well as her conversational circles for the ladies of the court. It was formerly known as the Queen's Drawing Room. In 1785 it was redecorated by Richard Mique. Marie-Antoinette kept only the paintings on the ceiling. She had the walls covered with apple green damask edged with a wide gold stripe. New furniture was delivered, very modern and sophisticated. Riesener, the Queen's favourite cabinet-maker followed the latest English fashion in building the commodes and cabinets.

The ceiling paintings by Michel Corneille depict Mercury Spreading his Influence over the Arts. A tapestry portrait of Louis XV by Cozette hangs on the wall with mythological paintings by Francois Boucher. The mantlepiece ornaments show a Turkish influence. The commodes and corner cupboards by Riesner and Gouthière are dated 1786. The overdoors depict Pygmalion and Dibutade by Regnault. The bronze fireplace ornaments are by Gouthière.

The Queen's Antechamber
The royal couple ate in The Queen's Antechamber. This was a public event. Louis XVI and Antoinette sat with their backs to the fireplace.  Only the royal family could sit at the table. The duchesses, princesses, and others of great rank were allowed to sit on stools facing the royals. Others of high rank stood.

Louis XIV enjoyed the dinner ritual. Louis XV preferred more private suppers. Louis XVI ate well. Antoinette was bored. A witness reports that: "The Queen sat on the King's left. They had their backs turned to the fireplace [...] The King ate with a good appetite, but the Queen did not remove her gloves and did not use her serviette (napkin), which was very wrong of her". To ease her boredom, the Queen asked for music at every meal. She had a platform set up for this purpose.

This room was once The Room of the Queen's Guard. In the 1680s, the room was sometimes used as a theatre. Royal virtues are illustrated in the ceiling paintings of ancient heroines by Vignon and Paillet. Portraits of Louis XVI's aunts by Madame Labille-Guiard are part of the decor. Above the doors are works by Madeline de Boulogne dated 1675.

The Room of the Queen's Guard

 The marble paneling in The Room of the Queen's Guard was enhanced with gilded bronze designed by Le Brun and executed by Le Gros and Massou. The room was used as a Chapel in 1672 and received its final decoration in 1676-1681. The paintings are by Noël Coypel and were taken from the Jupiter Drawing Room.

At the foot of the Queen's staircase, also known as the "marble staircase", one penetrated the Queen's Grand Apartment through this Guard room where, day and night, twelve bodyguards accomplished their service to their sovereign. At Versailles, only the King, the Queen and the Dauphin could have a personal guard composed of soldiers belonging to these elite units, the four companies of the king's bodyguards. The next grande salle, now called the Salle du Sacre [Coronation Room] was assigned to them, serving as the guard room.

The Queen's Guard Room is the only room in which the 17th century decor has been preserved: since the Queen had no use for the room, it was not necessary to modernize it. This is why the marble panels characteristic of the first state of the Grand Apartments as well as paintings placed there in 1680, which came from the former Jupiter room, later the War Room can still be seen here.

"The service of the bodyguards, at the château, consisted in guarding the doors of the apartments, taking up arms when the princes passed, man the chapel during mass and escort the dinners of the royal family. They had to know the dukes and peers because when they passed, the sentinel had to stand to attention and stamp the right heel twice. This sentinel also had to open the door and not allow it to be opened; but you can feel that the guard himself was very glad to be exempted from all these duties".

It was here in 1789, at dawn, that rioters demanding bread tried to reach the Queen's apartments. A chambermaid, warned by a bodyguard, bolted the door of the Room of the Queen's Gentlemen and advised the Queen to run away. Retracing their steps, the rioters then tried to penetrate through the King's Guard Room.

Miscellanea

Queens and Dauphines

References

Palace of Versailles

Queen's apartment at Versailles


Zack de la Rocha (born January 12, 1970) is the lead singer of American rock band Rage Against the Machine.  He was born in Long Beach, California.

Biography

Early life (1970-1991)
Zack was interested in punk rock - including bands such as the Sex Pistols and the Clash - from a young age. In seventh grade, Zack played guitar in a punk band called Juvenile Expression, along with his friend Tim Commerford, who played bass. As a teenager, Zack grew to like hardcore punk bands such as Minor Threat and Fugazi, and joined Hardstance as a guitarist. In 1988, Hardstance changed it's name to Inside Out, and Zack became vocalist. Inside Out broke up in 1991. In August of that year, while performing in a club, Zack was approached by Los Angeles local musicians Tom Morello, a guitarist, and Brad Wilk, a drummer and the three agreed to form a band called Rage Against the Machine, which was the name of a song Zack had written when he was vocalist. De la Rocha asked former Juvenile Expression bandmate Tim Commerford to play bass, and he agreed.

As a teenager, de la Rocha became a vegetarian for ethical reasons.

Rage Against the Machine (1991-2000: 2007-present)
Zack wrote most of Rage Against the Machine's songs, with lyrics that talked about politics and current events. The band signed with Epic Records in 1992 and released three original albums between 1992 and 1999- Rage Against the Machine in 1992, Evil Empire in 1996, and The Battle of Los Angeles in 1999. Zack left the band in October, 2000 for "political and creative differences". A fourth album, Renegades, was released in December.

On January 22, 2007, it was announced that they would reunite to play a show in Coachella, California. Since then, the band has been active in political causes and is planning to release a new album in 2011.

References

1970 births
Living people
Singers from California
Musicians from Long Beach, California

Zack de la Rocha


A federal destrict is a teep o admeenistrative diveesion o a federation, unner the direct control o a federal govrenment. Federal destricts aften include caipital destricts, an they exist in various kintras an states aw ower the warld.

Unitit States

The seat o the U.S. federal govrenment in Washington is a federal destrict kent as the "District of Columbia", which is no pairt o ony state. Ither federally admeenistered auries that are athin a state, but no unner its jurisdiction are cried federal enclaves. In main addeetion, the U.S. govrenment haes several ither kynds o "federal destricts" which are no specifically relatit tae a caipital ceety:

The federal court seestem divides ilka state principal, the District of Columbia, an Puerto Rico, intae ane or mair federal judicial destricts. A Unitit States destrict court and a bankruptcy court are locatit in ilka. There are also regional federal judicial circuits, ilka consistin o a group o states (except for the District of Columbia Circuit, which consists anerly o the federal destrict, an the Federal Circuit, whose jurisdiction is based on specific subject matter insteid o geografie); Puerto Rico an the Unitit States territorial courts are assigned tae circuits an aw. Ilka circuit haes a Unitit States court o appeals.

Laitin Americae

The term Distrito Federal, meanin "Federal Destrict" in baith the Spaingie an Portuguese leids, is used tae refer tae:

 Federal Caipital (Argentinae), formally Autonomous Ceety o Buenos Aires, syne 1994.
 Federal Destrict (Brazil)
 Federal Destrict (Mexico)
 Caipital Destrict (Venezuela)

Asie
In Malaysie, the term Federal Territory (Malay: Wilayah Persekutuan) is used for the three territories govrened directly bi the federal govrenment, namely Kuala Lumpur (naitional caipital), Putrajaya (federal govrenment admeenistrative centre) an Labuan (international offshore financial centre).

In Indie, the term Union Territory is uised for the seiven territories governed indirectly bi the federal naitional govrenment wi its awn Chief meenister an Govrenor. They include — Andaman an Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra an Nagar Haveli, Daman an Diu, Delhi, Lakshadweep an Puducherry. O these Delhi an Puducherry possess pairtial state heids wi their awn electit chief meenisters.

In Pakistan, the term Federal Territory is uised for the five zones an 12 union cooncils o Islamabad govrened directly bi the state govrenment as Islamabad Caipital Territory.

Roushie
Thare are aicht federal destricts o Roushie, which function as an addeetional admeenistrative layer atween ither subdiveesions an the Roushie Federation as a whole state. But these hae naething tae dae wi the territory surroondin a caipital ceety.  Housomeivver, thare are twa ceeties o federal significance an aw, established bi the Constitution — Moscow an Saunt Petersburg. Ilka ceety is treatit as separate subject o federation, an haes its awn legislative bouk. Such status is based on certain special functions which these twa ceeties hae, includin location o federal govrenment an federal judicial institutions.

References

Destricts
Admeenistrative diveesions
Teeps o kintra subdiveesions

Federal destrict


The Battle of Cape Fear River, also known as the Battle of the Sandbars, was fought in September 1718 between two sloops from the Province of South Carolina led by William Rhett and a group of pirate ships under the command of Stede Bonnet. Rhett's sloops defeated the pirates in the Cape Fear River estuary which led to Bonnet's eventual execution by hanging in Charleston, South Carolina.

Background

During the end of the Golden Age of Piracy, the Royal Navy was constantly in campaign against pirates in the Caribbean and off North America. Stede Bonnet was a very successful pirate, having captured several merchant ships and assembled his own squadron of pirate ships. In August 1718, Bonnet was sailing from the Delaware Bay to the Cape Fear River. He commanded his sloop-of-war flagship Royal James and two other armed sloops, Francis and Fortune. Royal James was a former flagship of Blackbeard which was armed with eight cannon. The other two sloops were similarly armed. All together, 46 pirates crewed them. Royal James was in need of careening and the hurricane season was soon to come so Bonnet chose the Cape Fear estuary as a reliable shelter against storms. For the next few weeks, Bonnet's crew repaired the Royal James with material salvaged from a captured shallop.

In late August, reports of Bonnet's sloops in the Cape Fear River reached South Carolina governor Robert Johnson. Johnson ordered Colonel William Rhett to command an operation to destroy the pirate threat. He did not have regular Royal Navy sailors under his command, but locally raised sailors from Charleston, South Carolina. At Rhett's disposal were two eight-gun sloops with a combined complement of 130 men.

Battle

Rhett's ships reached the Cape Fear River estuary on the night of September 26, 1718, and was sighted by Bonnet and his men. Believing the sloops to be that of merchants, the pirates boarded three canoes and headed for the unrecognized South Carolinian expedition. It was at this time that Rhett's flagship, Henry, ran aground on a sandbar. This allowed the canoes to approach close enough to discover the identity of the grounded vessel. Once they did they turned about and paddled back to their ships unharmed.

Instead of fleeing up the small river in darkness, Bonnet decided that he would fight his way back to the sea, so the next morning at daylight, the pirates prepared to pass the two sloops, which were now free of the sandbar. They dispersed amongst Royal James, Fortune and Francis and loaded their arms. At daylight the following morning, Bonnet raised his flag and attacked. They sailed for a few minutes until they came within range of the enemy ships, then opened fire with cannon and muskets. The sloops returned fire and split up, but Henry ran aground again along with the other ship. To avoid enemy fire, Stede Bonnet steered his vessels close to the western shore of the river, and they ran aground on sand.

At this point, only Henry and Royal James were within range of each other. For five to six hours, the two sides dueled, each unable to move. Henry was grounded in a position which left her crew with minimal cover from incoming fire. The opposite was true for Royal James, whose hull provided a bulwark against enemy fire. During the fighting, Bonnet stayed on deck with his pistol in hand and warned that he would shoot any man who showed cowardice. The pirates' morale was good though; they cheered each other on and dared the South Carolinians to board. After five hours of fighting the South Carolinians had suffered 30 casualties, with nine pirates also killed or injured.

The sloops were downstream, and when the water began to rise in the early afternoon, they were freed, while Bonnet's ships remained stranded. Rhett's ships repaired their rigging and raised their sails. Soon after, Henry was in a position to fire its starboard guns directly onto the deck of Bonnet's Royal James. Bonnet ordered his gunner George Ross to light the powder magazine and scuttle Royal James, but he was persuaded not to by his surviving crewmen who had already surrendered. After another few moments of conflict, Royal James was boarded and its crew captured.

Aftermath
The South Carolinians suffered twelve killed and eighteen wounded, while the pirates sustained twelve casualties and all the survivors were captured. Bonnet was taken to Charleston, arriving on October 3 to await trial on charges of piracy. Bonnet was separated from the majority of his crew and held for almost a month at the home of a Charleston provost marshal. With him was his boatswain, Ignatius Pell, and the sailing master, David Herriot, all of whom escaped with the help of two slaves and a Native American and possibly local merchant Richard Tookerman. Governor Robert Johnson immediately ordered a £700 bounty to be awarded to any man who could kill or capture the pirates. Herriott was shot and killed on Sullivan's Island a few days later and Bonnet, the Gentleman Pirate, was soon recaptured after a skirmish on Sullivan's Island and hanged on December 10, 1718.

References

Further reading
 Cordingly, David. Under the Black Flag: The Romance and Reality of Life Among the Pirates New York: Random House, (1996) .
 The Tryals of Major Stede Bonnet, and Other Pirates. London, Printed for Benj Cowse at the Rose and Crown in St Paul's Church-Yard, (1719)
 Woodard, Colin. The Republic of Pirates. New York: Harcourt, 2007. .
 Lee, Robert E., Blackbeard the Pirate, North Carolina: John F. Blair (1974)
 Moss, Jeremy (2020). The Life and Tryals of the Gentleman Pirate, Major Stede Bonnet. Virginia Beach: Koehler Books. p. 228. .

External links
 Queen Anne's Revenge: Archaeological Site, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources
 Piracy worries in pirate pursuit Blackbeard, Baltimore Sun
 Out to Sea, Elite Magazine
 National Register of Historic Places, National Park Service
 Scientists Show Relics From Ship Fit For Pirate, Possibly Blackbeard, Chicago Tribune

Piracy in the Atlantic Ocean
Cape Fear River
Cape Fear River
Cape Fear River
Cape Fear River 1718
1718 in the Thirteen Colonies
Cape Fear River 1718
Military history of the Thirteen Colonies
Colonial South Carolina
Colonial North Carolina

Battle of Cape Fear River (1718)


Louise "Lou" Henry Hoover (March 29, 1874 - January 7, 1944) was the wife of Herbert Hoover, the President of the United States. As the wife of the president, she acted as the First Lady of the United States from 1929 to 1933.

Early years
Her birthplace is Waterloo, Iowa. Her parents were Charles D. Henry and Florence. She spent her first ten years of her life at Iowa. Then, her father thought that the climate of southern California would be good for the health of Florence, his wife. The family came to live in Whittier, California. The place was later the childhood home of President Richard Nixon.

Her father, Charles Henry took her on camping trips. She became a very good horsewoman. She also hunted. She also developed interest for rocks, mineral, and mining.

She studied in two schools and got a certificate in teaching. Then she came to study at the Stanford University in 1894. She completed her course and became the first woman in Stanford's geology department. There she had met in a laboratory Herbert Hoover, her senior at the university.

Marriage & family
Lou and Herbert Hoover married in 1899. Once Herbert Hoover said that her blue eyes and broad grins had attracted him.

The newlywed couple went to China where her husband became famous as a mining engineer. He also worked in many other countries and places of the world: for examples, in places in Ceylon, Burma, Siberia, Australia, Egypt, Japan, and Europe.

She had two sons: Herbert Charles Hoover (August 4, 1903 - July 9, 1969) and Allan Hoover (July 17, 1907 - November 4, 1993).

Her husband, Herbert Hoover earned a lot of fame after the First World War. He became famous for his good work in managing emergency relief programs. She lived with him, but sometimes spent time with her two sons in California. In 1919, the couple started constructing a house at Palo Alto, California. By this time, her husband became United States Secretary of Commerce. The couple lived in Washington for eight years. She did well socially as a wife of the Cabinet Secretary. She also took an active role in the Girl Scouts of the USA. She also served as the president of the Girl Scouts of the USA.

The First Lady
In 1929, the Hoover couple came to live into the White House. Lou Henry Hoover had a long experience as wife of a famous man who had worked in the United States and in many foreign countries. She started her role as the First Lady. She was charming and dressed handsomely. She did it very well all through the term of her husband as the President. However, during this period, the Hoovers broke a tradition. On the New Year's Day of 1933, they were away from the White House. Thus, they were not present to greet the public personally. Their absence ended the tradition of the President and the First Lady greeting the public on the New Year's Day.

Retired life
In 1933, the Hoovers couple retired to Palo Alto. But, they also kept an apartment in New York. Mrs. Hoover died on 7th January 1944 at the age of 69. She died of a heart attack. After her death, Mr. Hoover came to know of many gifts given by his wife. She had helped many boys and girls to get education. Mr. Hoover described her as: "a symbol of everything wholesome in American life."

Now, their house in Palo Alto is the official residence of the President of Stanford University. The house is one of the National Historic Landmarks. Lou Henry Hoover Elementary School in Whittier (built in 1938) bears her name in her honor. Her statue stands at the place where her childhood home was at Waterloo, Iowa.

References
 Anne Beiser Allen and Jon L. Wakelyn; An Independent Woman: The Life of Lou Henry Hoover Greenwood Press, 2000

Other websites
 The Herbert Hoover Presidential Library-Museum

1874 births
1944 deaths
Herbert Hoover
First Ladies of the United States
People from Waterloo, Iowa

Lou Henry Hoover


Belgium's War Crimes Law invokes the concept of universal jurisdiction to allow anyone to bring war crime charges in Belgian courts, regardless of where the alleged crimes have taken place.

Note that this is a Belgian law and is different from the International Criminal Court, which is a treaty body to try war crimes, and also different from the International Court of Justice, which is a U.N. body to settle disputes between countries.  Both of these bodies reside in nearby The Hague, Netherlands, although some have said that American Servicemen's Protection Act passed by the United States was also directed against the War Crimes Law.

Background

The law took effect in 1993 and was expanded the following year after 10 Belgian soldiers were killed in Rwanda.

The law reached prominence after the Rwandan genocide. According to the Washington Post, the process of prosecution of Rwandans in Belgium for crimes committed in the violence were set in motion by Martine Beckers, a Brussels resident, whose sister Claire called her to tell her of being attacked by soldiers, who soon after killed her, her family, and 10 other villagers who were unable to reach a United Nations peacekeepers' compound.

Universal jurisdiction

Countries have long claimed jurisdiction over nationals of other countries or suits against countries themselves in matters Civil or criminal where those foreign nationals are alleged to have committed crimes against the complaining country's nationals, or have committed crimes in the complaining country.

What made this Belgian law controversial was that it afforded the right to anyone to submit a war crime for prosecution in Belgian courts that occurred anywhere in the world, whether on Belgian territory, and whether a Belgian national was involved as either criminal or victim. This concept called universal jurisdiction, or universal competence, was recently used in Germany to indict high-ranking US officials for their involvement in prisoner abuse in the war on terror under the command responsibility.

Problems with implementation of the law

The law soon ran into trouble when a number of parties worldwide filed cases criticized as politically motivated against leaders of various nations.

Over the years filings included cases against American officials, including George H. W. Bush, Dick Cheney, Colin Powell, Norman Schwarzkopf and Tommy Franks. Cases had also been filed against the leaders of many other countries, such as Iraq and Israel, and Cuba's Fidel Castro.  The paperwork backing several of these filings was very limited, consisting out of a single fax or several pages.

Critics assailed the law as an attempt to circumvent the sovereignty of other states and become a venue for partisan show trials of propaganda value but no legal consequence. Proponents respond by arguing that universal jurisdiction is often the only recourse victims of war crimes have, and that under the UN Charter countries are already obliged to prosecute those involved in war crimes.

In an effort by the United States to pressure Belgium, United States Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld threatened to remove the NATO Headquarters from Brussels unless the Law was changed.

Most cases dropped

On 12 July 2003, the incoming government of Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt announced that scrapping this law would be among the first acts carried out.

In September of that year, the Belgian Court of Cassation threw out the cases against the former President Bush and other US officials, as well as Israelis.

Modified law and criticism

Six human rights groups (Amnesty International Belgium, both the Dutch-speaking Human Rights League and the French-speaking Human Rights League of Belgium, the International Federation for Human Rights, Avocats Sans Frontières (Lawyers Without Borders) and Human Rights Watch) called that loss of the universal jurisdiction component "a step backwards in the global fight against the worst atrocities."

Human Rights Watch outlined the reduced scope of the law:

Belgian courts will only have jurisdiction over international crimes if the accused is Belgian or has his primary residence in Belgium; if the victim is Belgian or has lived in Belgium for at least three years at the time the crimes were committed; or if Belgium is required by treaty to exercise jurisdiction over the case. The new law also considerably reduces victims' ability to obtain direct access to the courts – unless the accused is Belgian or has his primary residence in Belgium, the decision whether to proceed with any complaint rests entirely with the state prosecutor.

Court of Arbitration
On 21 June 2006, the Constitutional Court of Belgium (called the Court of Arbitration at the time) annulled parts of the modified law which came in place of the Belgian War Crimes Law.

References

Belgian legislation
International criminal law
Law of war
1993 in law
1993 in Belgium
Belgium–Rwanda relations

War Crimes Law (Belgium)


When something is simple, it is very easy to understand or to do. The opposite is hard or complex or difficult. Simplicity is the quality of being simple.

Simple can mean something that is only made up of a few parts.  It lacks complexity.
 A bicycle is much simpler than a space ship.

Simple can mean that something or someone is humble (lowly) or common:
He lives very simply. "Simple living" is a way of life. It uses the ideas of Henry David Thoreau or Epicurus or Diogenes as its moral goals. Simple living says that a person needs only few and basic things to be happy.

Simple can also be used to refer to someone whose mind thinks in a very simple way. Calling a person "simple minded" is usually rude.

Related pages
Simpleton
Wikipedia:Simple English Wikipedia

Basic English 850 words

Simplicity


; "Ysbaddaden, Chief of Giants", is the primary antagonist of the Welsh romance Culhwch and Olwen. A vicious giant residing in a nigh unreachable castle, he is the father of Olwen and uncle of Goreu fab Custennin.

Culhwch's father, King Cilydd son of Celyddon, loses his wife Goleuddydd after a difficult childbirth. When Cilydd remarries, the young Culhwch rejects his stepmother's attempt to pair him with his new stepsister. Offended, the new queen puts a curse on him so that he can marry no one besides the beautiful Olwen, daughter of the giant Ysbaddaden. Though he has never seen her, Culhwch becomes infatuated with her, but his father warns him that he will never find her without the aid of his famous cousin Arthur. The young man immediately sets off to seek his kinsman. He finds him at his court in Celliwig in Cornwall and asks for support and assistance.

Arthur agrees to help, and sends six warriors to join Culhwch in his search for Olwen. They travel onwards until they come across the "fairest of the castles of the world", and meet Ysbaddaden's shepherd brother, Custennin. They learn that the castle belongs to Ysbaddaden, that he stripped Custennin of his lands and murdered the shepherd's twenty-three children out of cruelty. Custennin set up a meeting between Culhwch and Olwen, and the maiden agrees to lead Culhwch and his companions to Ysbadadden's castle. The warrior Cai pledges to protect the twenty-fourth son, Goreu, with his life.

The knights attack the castle by stealth, killing the nine porters and the nine watchdogs, and enter the giant's hall. Upon their arrival, Ysbaddaden attempts to kill Culhwch with a poison dart, but is outwitted and wounded, first by Bedwyr, then by the enchanter Menw, and finally by Culhwch himself. Eventually, Ysbaddaden relents, and agrees to give Culhwch his daughter on the condition that he complete a number of impossible tasks (anoethau), including hunting the Twrch Trwyth and recovering the exalted prisoner Mabon ap Modron. Culhwch accepts the giant's challenge and, with the help of Arthur and his knights, eventually completes the numerous tasks.

With the anoethau completed, Culhwch, Goreu and others who "wished ill to Ysbaddaden Bencawr" ride to his court. The giant's beard, skin and flesh are shaved off by Caw of Pictland and, accepting his humiliation and defeat, he is dragged away by Goreu, who avenges his murdered brothers by beheading the giant. Ysbaddaden's head is placed on the spike of the citadel, Goreu claims his uncle's lands as his own, and Olwen is free to marry her love.

References

Arthurian characters
Welsh giants
Welsh mythology

Ysbaddaden


Camillo Berneri (also known as Camillo da Lodi; 1877, Lodi–May 5 1937, Barcelona) was an Italian professor of philosophy, anarchist militant, propagandist and theorist.

Berneri, a World War I veteran, University of Florence professor of humanities, and a member of the Unione Anarchica Italiana, fought always Fascists, and he started to fight fascism until 1926, when he was forced to escape from Italy and he went in France, then Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and finally the Netherlands. In all these countries, Berneri was frequently placed under arrest, and then often expelled, because he was an anarchist. When he was in these countries he wrote lot of anti-clerical and anti-fascist articles.

With Carlo Rosselli, Berneri organized the first troop (column) of Italian volunteers to fight in the Spanish Civil War against Francisco Franco. After months he became highly critical of the involvement of Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) members in the Popular Front government, and he sent a letter to Federica Montseny (Anarchist minister for Health in the government against fascism).

During the Barcelona May Days, as troop of Communist Party of Spain members (apparently under orders from Joseph Stalin) searched  and then murdered him. His body, riddled with bullets, was found during the night, near the headquarters of the Generalitat de Catalunya.

He was married to Giovanna Berneri and was father of Marie-Louise Berneri and Giliane Berneri. The children were anarchists as the father Camillo.

Related pages
Anarchism in Italy

Other websites
 Camillo Berneri Page  on the Anarchist Encyclopedia site
 The Writings of Camillo Berneri

1877 births
1937 deaths
Italian people
Anarchist communists
Spanish Civil War

Camillo Berneri


Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate mixtures like DNA and proteins. The separation is based on how positively or how negatively charged a molecule is, and its size. Gel electrophoresis uses a gel (like gelatin) and an electric field is put through the gel.

The word electrophoresis comes from –electro, because an electric field is used, and –phoresis, which means movement.

Gel
The gel is made up of large and branched molecules called polymers. The amount of branches in the gel determines how easily molecules can squeeze through, depending on their size.

If there are a lot of branches, small molecules will be able to move through easily while big molecules will move through slowly or not at all. If there are few branches, both big and small molecules can move through more easily.

Charge on the molecule

If a large molecule has a big charge, its attraction to the opposite charge is also large. But, since the molecule is large, it will have a difficult time moving through the thick gel. In gel electrophoresis, large molecules are going to move slower.

A small charged molecule will move through the gel more easily. Shorter molecules move faster and move further than longer ones because shorter molecules get through the pores of the gel more easily. This phenomenon is called sieving.

If the molecule does not have any charge, it will not move.

Visualization
After the gel has been run by applying the electric field, you can look to see where the molecules have moved to. To do this, different stains can be applied to the gel: this allows the molecules to be seen. The stain makes the places where the molecules moved to appear as colored bands. Stains that are used to look at proteins, such as Coomassie blue, can often been seen by the human eye under normal light. Stains that are used to look at DNA, such as ethidium bromide and GelGreen, can only be seen with the help of an ultraviolet lamp.

Applications

DNA separation
Gel electrophoresis is the most commonly used technique to study DNA. DNA is a very large molecule that contains genetic information. DNA can be broken down to smaller pieces of different sizes and these pieces are then separated using gel electrophoresis.  DNA always has a negative charge, and moves towards the anode.

Proteins are large and complex molecules made of amino acids. Proteins can be studied by gel electrophoresis in two ways. One way is to take a mixture of proteins and separate them in the gel. The other way is to break down a single protein into smaller pieces. The smaller pieces can then be separated in the gel.  Proteins can be positively or negatively charged.  To separate proteins by size only, protein mixtures can be coated with a chemical called sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) to give all proteins a negative charge before putting the mixture into the gel.

Medicine
In medicine, there is a special type of electrophoresis called iontophoresis. Iontophoresis uses the same idea of gel electrophoresis to deliver drugs into the human body through the skin without using needles to inject the drug.

References

Molecular biology
Laboratory techniques

Gel electrophoresis


Title 21 is the portion of the Code of Federal Regulations that governs food and drugs within the United States for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), and the Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP).

It is divided into three chapters:
 Chapter I — Food and Drug Administration
 Chapter II — Drug Enforcement Administration
 Chapter III — Office of National Drug Control Policy

Chapter I
Most of the Chapter I regulations are based on the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.

Notable sections:

 11 — electronic records and electronic signature related
 50 Protection of human subjects in clinical trials
 54 Financial disclosure by clinical investigators
 56 Institutional review boards that oversee clinical trials
 58 Good laboratory practices (GLP) for nonclinical studies

The 100 series are regulations pertaining to food:

 101, especially 101.9 — Nutrition facts label related
 (c)(2)(ii) — Requirement to include trans fat values
 (c)(8)(iv) — Vitamin and mineral values
 106-107 requirements for infant formula
 110 et seq. cGMPs for food products
 111 et seq. cGMPs for dietary supplements
 170 food additives
 190 dietary supplements

The 200 and 300 series are regulations pertaining to pharmaceuticals :

 202-203 Drug advertising and marketing
 210 et seq. cGMPs for pharmaceuticals
 310 et seq. Requirements for new drugs
 328 et seq. Specific requirements for over-the-counter (OTC) drugs.

The 500 series are regulations for animal feeds and animal medications:

 510 et seq. New animal drugs
 556 Tolerances for residues of drugs in food animals

The 600 series covers biological products (e.g. vaccines, blood):

 601 Licensing under section 351 of the Public Health Service Act
 606 et seq. cGMPs for human blood and blood products

The 700 series includes the limited regulations on cosmetics:

 701 Labeling requirements

The 800 series are for medical devices:

 803 Medical device reporting
 814 Premarket approval of medical devices
 820 et seq. Quality system regulations (analogous to cGMP, but structured like ISO)
 860 et seq. Listing of specific approved devices and how they are classified

The 900 series covers mammography quality requirements enforced by CDRH.

The 1000 series covers radiation-emitting device (e.g. cell phones, lasers, x-ray generators); requirements enforced by the Center for Devices and Radiological Health. It also talks about the FDA citizen petition.

The 1100 series includes updated rules deeming items that statutorily come under the definition of "tobacco product" to be subject to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act as amended by the Tobacco Control Act. The items affected include E-cigarettes, Hookah tobacco, and pipe tobacco.

The 1200 series consists of rules primarily based in laws other than the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act:

 1240 Rules promulgated under 361 of the Public Health Service Act on interstate control of communicable disease, such as:
 Requirements for pasteurization of milk
 Interstate shipment of turtles as pets.
 Interstate shipment of African rodents that may carry monkeypox.
 Sanitation on interstate conveyances (i.e. airplanes and ships)
 1271 Requirements for human cells, tissues, and cellular and tissue-based products (i.e. the cGTPs).

Chapter II
Notable sections:

 1308 — Schedules of controlled substances
 1308.03(a) — Administrative Controlled Substances Code Number
 1308.11 — List of Schedule I drugs
 1308.12 — List of Schedule II drugs
 1308.13 — List of Schedule III drugs
 1308.14 — List of Schedule IV drugs
 1308.15 — List of Schedule V drugs

See also
 Title 21 of the United States Code - Food and Drugs
 EudraLex (medicinal products in the European Union)

References

External links
 Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations (current "Electronic CFR")

 21
Drug control law in the United States
Food law
Regulation of medical devices


Mark F. Jarman  (born in Mount Sterling, Kentucky) is an American poet and critic often identified with the New Narrative branch of the New Formalism; he was co-editor with Robert McDowell of The Reaper throughout the 1980s.  Centennial Professor of English, Emeritus, at Vanderbilt University, he is the author of eleven books of poetry, three books of essays, and a book of essays co-authored with Robert McDowell.  He co-edited the anthology Rebel Angels: 25 Poets of the New Formalism with David Mason.

Jarman's awards for poetry include a Joseph Henry Jackson Award, three grants from the NEA, and a fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Foundation.  His book The Black Riviera won the 1991 Poets' Prize.  Questions for Ecclesiastes was a finalist for the 1997 National Book Critics Circle Award in poetry and won the 1998 Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize from the Academy of American Poets and The Nation magazine. Bone Fires: New and Selected Poems won the 2013 Balcones Prize.

Biography
Mark Jarman was born while his father, Donald R. Jarman, was in seminary in Lexington, Kentucky. His parents, both Californians, moved back to California in 1954 and settled in Santa Maria, where his father served First Christian Church.  In 1958, responding to a call from his denomination, Mark's father moved his wife Bo Dee, his son, and daughter Katie, to Scotland to serve a small church in Kirkcaldy, Fife, a linoleum factory town on the Firth of Forth across from Edinburgh.  The three years he spent there were formative ones for the poet.  The family returned to California in 1961, where his father served South Bay Christian Church in Redondo Beach and his sister Luanne was born.  In 1970, Jarman entered the University of California at Santa Cruz and earned a B.A. with highest honors in English literature in 1974.  There he met his wife, soprano Amy Kane Jarman and his friend and long-time collaborator, Robert McDowell.  While at U.C.S.C., he studied with the poet and editor George Hitchcock (poet) and the short story writer and poet Raymond Carver.    In 1974, Jarman entered the Iowa Writers' Workshop and earned an M.F.A. in poetry in 1976. At Iowa he studied with Donald Justice, Charles Wright, Stanley Plumly, and Sandra McPherson.  His classmates included poets Chase Twichell, Brenda Hillman, James Galvin, and Rita Dove.  In 1976, he was hired to teach creative writing at Indiana State University in Evansville.  In 1978, a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts allowed him to quit his job and live in Italy where Amy studied singing in Perugia.  Returning to California in 1979, he was hired as a visiting writer at the University of California at Irvine.  Mark and Amy's oldest daughter was born in Mission Viejo in 1980.  That same year, Jarman took a position teaching creative writing at Murray State University in Kentucky.  Two years later the couple's second daughter was born in Murray.  In 1983, he left Murray State to teach at Vanderbilt University, where he has been since.  Amy joined the voice faculty at the Blair School of Music in 1986.  Since 2007, Jarman has been Centennial Professor of English at Vanderbilt and was Director of Creative Writing until 2013. In August 2020, he retired from Vanderbilt University and is now Centennial Professor of English Emeritus.

Jarman's early poetry reflects the influence of living by the Pacific and the North Sea at important times in his life, along with growing up in a strongly religious family.  As he has matured, his poetry has remained invested in family experience, a sense of place, and the presence of God in everyday life.  Though he is associated with the New Formalism, his poetry has always ranged widely in form and style, from narrative to lyric, free to metrical verse, verse to prose poetry.

Honors
  Balcones Poetry Prize, 2013
  Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize of the Academy of American Poets, 1998
  Finalist, National Book Critics Circle Award, 1997, for poetry
  National Endowment for the Arts Grant, 1992, for poetry
  The Poets' Prize, 1991
  Guggenheim Fellow (Poetry), 1991–92
  Robert Frost Fellowship in poetry, The Bread Loaf Writers' Conference, 1985
  Crazyhorse prize for poetry published in the journal during the past year, 1985
  National Endowment for the Arts Grant, 1984, for poetry
  Duncan Lawrie Prize, Sotheby's International Poetry Competition, 1982
  National Endowment for the Arts Grant, 1977, for poetry
  Academy of American Poets Prize, 1975, The University of Iowa
  The Joseph Henry Jackson Award, 1974, from the San Francisco Foundation, for a manuscript  of poetry

Works
North Sea, Cleveland State University Poetry Center, 1978,
The Rote Walker, Carnegie-Mellon University Press, 1981,
Far and Away, Carnegie-Mellon University Press, 1985,

Iris, Story Line Press, 1992,
Questions for Ecclesiastes, Story Line Press, 1997,
Unholy Sonnets, Story Line Press, 2000,
To the Green Man, Sarabande Books, 2004,
Epistles, Sarabande Books, 2007,
Bone Fires: New and Selected Poems, Sarabande Books, 2011,
The Heronry, Sarabande Books, 2017,
Zeno's Eternity, Paul Dry Books, 2023,

Non-fiction
The Reaper Essays, written with Robert McDowell (Story Line Press, 1996)
Rebel Angels: 25 Poets of the New Formalism, (editor, with David Mason) (Story Line Press 1996)
The Secret of Poetry, Story Line Press, 2001,
Body and Soul: Essays on Poetry, University of Michigan Press, 2002,
Dailiness:Essays on Poetry, Paul Dry Books, 2020,

Notes

References
  Flynn, Richard.  "Mark Jarman." Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 120:  American Poets Since World War II, Third Series.  Ed. R.S. Gwynn. Gale Research, 1992.
  Newberry, Jeff.  "Mark Jarman."  Facts on File Companion to 20th Century American Poetry.  Ed. Burt Kimmelman.  Facts on File, 2005.

External links
Poet of the Month (website curated by Mark Jarman, 1997–2007)
Academy of American Poets entry
Author note at Ploughshares
Author note at Poetry Foundation
 (website for Mark Jarman)

Living people
1952 births
American male poets
Iowa Writers' Workshop alumni
University of California, Santa Cruz alumni
People from Mount Sterling, Kentucky
University of California, Irvine faculty
University of Southern Indiana faculty
Murray State University faculty
Vanderbilt University faculty

Mark Jarman