The 10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles, (abbreviated to 10 GR), was originally a rifle regiment of the British Indian Army. The regiment was formed in 1890, taking its lineage from a police unit and over the course of its existence it had a number of changes in designation and composition. It took part in a number of campaigns on the Indian frontiers during the 19th and early 20th centuries, before fighting in the First World War, the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the Second World War. Following India's independence in 1947, the regiment was one of four Gurkha regiments to be transferred to the British Army. In the 1960s it was active in the Malayan Emergency and Indonesian Confrontation. It was amalgamated with the other three British Gurkha regiments to form the Royal Gurkha Rifles in 1994.

History

Early history
At the end of the Third Burmese War in 1887, it was decided to withdraw the regular army battalions and replace them with a freshly recruited military police force. Recruited in India, it was intended that the military police would be a temporary force which would establish order in districts of upper Burma and then hand over those districts to the civil police. The military police would then be used to form additional regular battalions of the Indian Army. The Kubo (Kabaw) Valley Military Police were raised on 9 April 1887 by Sir F.B. Norman (OC Eastern Frontier Brigade) at Manipur in India and was composed in equal numbers of Gurkha and Assam hillmen recruits. The first commander was Lieutenant C.W. Harris. The battalion moved to Burma and was initially stationed at Tamu.

In 1890, it was decided to convert the Kubo Valley Military Police Battalion in Burma into a new battalion with the title of 10th Madras Infantry. The original 10th Madras Infantry, one of the oldest battalions in the Indian Army, had recently been disbanded. The new battalion had no association with the old except for the name. The relics of the battalion were eventually taken back to India.

The 10th Madras Infantry was formed from the Kubo Valley Military Police on 1 June 1890 under the command of Major Macgregor at Mandalay Palace. The battalion did not inherit the precedence or honours of the 10th Madras Infantry at that time, by decision of the army authorities. Their reasoning being that it would be incorrect to give such a new battalion the precedence and honours of one of the oldest battalions in India. But it was also true that the composition of the 10th Madras Infantry had been through similar drastic changes in composition. For example, after the Mahratta wars, its composition was changed from Northern Indian to Southern Indian.

The initial strength of the battalion was three British officers, eight Indian officers and 277 other ranks. It was not at first exclusively Gurkha in composition. The battalion was initially composed of Gurkha detachments transferred from the 42nd, 43rd and 44th Gurkha Rifles, an equal number of men from the hill-tribes of Assam including Jhurwahs, small numbers of Dogras and a few Hindustanis. The non-Gurkhas were gradually wasted out of the regiment.

In its first few years of existence, the regiment was referred to by two different names in the Indian Army Lists. In 1890 it was called the 10th (Burma) Regiment of Madras Infantry and the following year it was called the 10th Regiment (1st Burma Battalion) of Madras Infantry. But in reality, the second name was the one used by the battalion until 1892.

It became the 10th Regiment (1st Burma Rifles) of Madras Infantry on 9 February 1892 at Maymyo in Burma. It was at this time, with the conversion of the unit to a Rifle Regiment, that the old colours of the 10th Madras were taken back to India (rifle regiments do not carry colours) and laid up at the Church of St. John in the fort at Vellore near to where the earliest predecessor of the 10th Madras Infantry had been raised in 1766. On 3 May 1895 the name of the regiment was changed again to 10th Regiment (1st Burma Gurkha Rifles) of Madras Infantry to reflect its now all-Gurkha composition.

On 13 September 1901, as part of a broad reorganisation of the Indian Army, it became the 10th Gurkha Rifles and the regiment maintained its assigned recruiting areas in the Limbu and Rai tribal areas of eastern Nepal. A 2nd Battalion was formed in 1903 although it became the 1st Battalion, 7th Gurkha Rifles in 1907. A new 2nd Battalion of the 10th Gurkha Rifles was formed in 1908. From 1903 to 1912 the first battalion was stationed in Maymyo, Burma as almost a ceremonial unit. In the winter months of 1912 and 1913 the 1st Battalion was sent into the Kachin Hills to guard against a potential uprising that did not occur.

First World War

The First World War between the UK, France and their allies against Germany and its allies, began in August, 1914. The 1st Battalion remained in Burma providing reinforcements and replacements to the 2nd Battalion which was on active service until 1916. At least five drafts were supplied. The third draft was sunk at sea by an Austrian submarine in the Aegean Sea with the loss of 187 men.

The 2nd Battalion fought in the Middle East, against the Ottomans in the Defence of the Suez Canal, Egypt in 1915. The Ottomans had attempted to cross the canal into Egypt but the Allied forces there successfully repulsed the attack, decimating them as they attempted the crossing. As a result of the 2nd Battalion's involvement in this campaign, the regiment gained the battle honour "Suez Canal" and the theatre honour "Egypt 1915".

Later that year the 2nd Battalion, as part of the 29th Indian Brigade, took part in the Dardanelles Campaign against the Ottomans. The brigade had initially been intended to be part of the New Zealand and Australian Division in the landing at Anzac Cove but instead was directed to assist at Cape Helles where the situation was deteriorating since the assault on 25 April. The brigade landed at Cape Helles in early May and the 2nd Battalion took part in the Battle of Gully Ravine which began on 28 June. The brigade as a whole was moved to Anzac Cove in August where it took part in the August Offensive. The 2nd Battalion suffered heavy casualties during its participation in the Gallipoli campaign. The forces at Anzac and Suvla were evacuated in December 1915, although the last British troops did not leave until January 1916, from Helles.

On 15 August 1916 the 1st Battalion embarked from Rangoon for the Middle East after a farewell ceremony given by the Governor of Burma. Both battalions of the regiment fought in Mesopotamia (now Iraq) from 1916, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire, an ally of the Germans. The Mesopotamian campaign had started in 1914. Much of the regiment's involvement in the war was relatively quiet but it did take part in a number of engagements including the offensive against Baghdad in 1917 and the last battle of the Mesopotamian campaign in late October 1918, Sharqat.

The 1st Battalion remained in Mesopotamia upon the conclusion of the war. It saw service during the revolt of Southern Kurdistan in 1919 and the rest of Iraq. Elsewhere, the 2nd Battalion took part in the Third Afghan War in 1919 and in operations in the North-West Frontier.

Second World War
During the Second World War the regiment raised a further two battalions, the 3rd Battalion in 1940 and the 4th Battalion in 1941.

Middle East and Italy
A coup in Iraq took place in 1941. An Iraqi military group with ties to Germany deposed the Iraqi Monarchy. As a consequence the British launched an invasion of Iraq to restore the Government, the 2nd Battalion participated as part of the 10th Indian Infantry Division. An Armistice was signed with Iraq after British forces entered the Iraqi capital Baghdad on 31 May and the Iraqi Monarchy was restored, the coup leader Rashid Ali had fled, first to Iran and then to Germany. The battalion later took part in the invasion of Vichy France-controlled Syria later in the year. The battalion took part in the Battle of Deir ez Zor for which the regiment received another battle honour.

The 1st Battalion later took part in operations in Iran and the Italian campaign. In Italy the battalion took part in a number of engagements including at Coriano and Santarcangelo in September 1944 for which the regiment won more battle honours. The battalion saw further service the following year in the tough terrain of Italy. During one incident a patrol of the battalion encountered a German detachment. Close-combat ensued, Rifleman Ganjabahadur Rai charged two Germans, dispatching both with his Kukri. The rifleman was killed shortly thereafter by a number of other Germans. A Kukri-scarred rifle, (belonging to one of the Germans who had attempted to defend himself with it during his encounter with Rifleman Rai), was captured by the Gurkhas and kept as a trophy. Another instance of Gurkhas killing German soldiers with their Kukris, while attached to the 10th Mtn Div (US) in Italy in early 1945, was related by LTC. E. N. Cory Jr., BC 616th FA (Pack), a mountain artillery battalion. The Gurkhas would stalk pairs of German sentries at night and routinely dispatch the one awake, leaving the sleeping sentry to find his dead comrade. In response, the German command ordered the summary execution of any allied soldier captured with a knife. Accordingly, soldiers of the 10th Mtn Div carried no knives, yet continue to display blood-red crossed-knives as part of their shoulder insignia.

The 2nd Battalion was attached to the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade, which had just returned from the Western Desert, after having been almost destroyed at the Battle of Gazala in January 1943.

At the end of the month the brigade was renamed the 43rd Indian Infantry Brigade (Lorried). The brigade and its Gurkha battalions were sent to Italy in mid-1944 as an independent formation.

Far East
The regiment was heavily involved against the Japanese with the 1st, 3rd and 4th Battalions taking part in the Burma Campaign. The Japanese had swiftly invaded British territories in the Far East, including Burma, shortly after they launched the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. The 1st Battalion was rushed to Burma, arriving in March 1942 just a week before the evacuation of Rangoon. The battalion conducted a fighting retreat hundreds of miles overland from Burma, reaching India in May 1942.

Men of the 4th Battalion participated in the second Chindit campaign in Burma, code-named Operation Thursday. The Chindits saw ferocious fighting, especially during the Japanese offensive that began in March 1944 against north-east India where two extremely important battles, Imphal and Kohima, took place.

The regiment was heavily involved at Imphal. It was besieged by the Japanese for a number of months, the Allied defenders stoutly resisting all attempts to dislodge them. The siege was eventually lifted after victory at Kohima and Allied forces were soon launching their own offensive into Burma. During this particular period the 3rd Battalion saw intense fighting at Scraggy Hill and Shenam Pass where the battalion was embroiled in heavy fighting with Japanese forces, the battalion often employing their kukris in fierce hand-to-hand combat against the Japanese.

The Allied offensive was successful, pushing the Japanese forces back into Burma, the regiment took part in many engagements in the country. In 1945 the regiment took part in the effort to capture Mandalay; British forces entered the city on 20 March. The regiment also took part in the capture of Meiktila, which was taken in early March. In that same month the 10th Gurkhas took part in the defence of Meiktila during a Japanese counter-attack which was repulsed by the Allied defenders. The capital Rangoon was liberated by British forces on 3 May. The regiment saw much more action during the latter months of the Burma campaign.

Representatives of the regiment, as with all units that were involved in the Burma campaign, took part in the Victory Parade in Rangoon on 15 June. The 10th Gurkhas accumulated 19 battle honours for their participation in the campaign—including the theatre honour "Burma 1942–45"—the most Battle Honours gained by any unit in the Burma campaign.

The 1st Battalion was given one further duty. It was charged with taking the formal surrender of the 28th Japanese Army in Burma at Paung on 29 October 1945. The ceremony took place with a table covered with the regimental flag, a second banner also flew under the Union Jack.

Post-War
The 4th Battalion was disbanded in 1946, the 3rd Battalion was disbanded the following year.

India gained independence from the British Empire in 1947. As a consequence of the Tripartite Agreement between India, Nepal and the UK, four of the 10 Gurkha regiments (eight Battalions in all), were transferred to the British Army; the 10th Gurkha Rifles being one of them. It joined the Brigade of Gurkhas which was formed to administer the Gurkha units transferred to the British Army. Before independence, the battalion decided to take the old colours of the 10th Madras Infantry out of India with it. Consideration was given to taking the regimental memorial at All-Saints Church in Maymyo Burma, which had been damaged by the Japanese during the war, but it was decided to leave it behind because of the expense involved and the uncertainty over where it could be relocated. It consisted of marble on the floor of the sanctuary and wooden plaques on the walls.

The 1st Battalion served in Burma after the war and was one of the three battalions attending the independence ceremony in Rangoon in January 1948. It then moved by sea to Malaya.

In 1949 the regiment's name was altered to become the 10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles (10 GR) in honour of HRH Princess Mary, Princess Royal. The regiment was affiliated with the Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment), the oldest regiment in the regular army in 1950.

Meanwhile, on operations, the 1st and 2nd Battalions took part in the Malayan Emergency against Communist insurgents, known as Communist Terrorists or CTs. The CTs had launched an uprising in 1948 in support of their perception that Malayan independence did not directly lead to the installation of a Communist government. The 10th Gurkhas were involved in the Emergency from the beginning, the conflict was similar to the Burma campaign. The regiment remained involved until the official conclusion of the Emergency in 1960. The regiment lost 75 men during the conflict.

Another conflict in the Far East began in 1962, the Indonesian Confrontation, after an Indonesian-backed rebellion took place in Brunei and Borneo was swiftly quelled. The following year hostilities broke out between British-backed Malaysia and Indonesia. The two battalions of the regiment undertook two tours each, taking place in 1964 and 1965 respectively. In 1965 the regiment gained its first, and only, Victoria Cross (VC). Lance-Corporal Rambahadur Limbu of the 2nd Battalion received the VC for his actions in an incident in the Bau district in Sarawak, Borneo during Operation Claret which was carried out against Indonesian-held Kalimantan. This action has subsequently become known as the Battle of Bau. The conflict concluded in 1966, by which time the 10th Gurkhas had suffered 11 men killed.

In 1968 the regiment was reduced to a single battalion when the 1st Battalion absorbed the 2nd Battalion. It remained in the Far East, based in Hong Kong, until 1973 when it was sent to England for the first time. Initially it was based at Church Crookham in Hampshire, however, the following year the regiment was dispatched to Cyprus to protect the British Sovereign Base Area at Dhekelia in the aftermath of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. During their deployment the 10th Gurkhas attempted to keep the peace, at times literally having to place themselves in the line-of-fire between the opposing factions. The 1st Battalion was deployed to Brunei for the first time in 1977. Since the rebellion in 1962 in which a Marxist, Indonesian-backed uprising had occurred, a Gurkha battalion has been present in Brunei at the request of HM the Sultan.

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s the regiment was deployed to Hong Kong, Brunei and Church Crookham. The regiment performed internal security (IS) duties in Hong Kong, including patrolling the border with China in an attempt at preventing the illegal immigration of people to the colony.

In 1990 the regiment was authorised after almost 100 years of requests, to maintain the lineage of the 10th Madras Infantry, thus gaining the battle honours and traditions going back to the 14th Battalion of Coast Sepoys who had been raised by the East India Company in 1766. The lineage is special in that it is among the oldest in the British Indian Army. Although the lineage was granted, the history of the regiment is not continuous. The modern regiment was re-formed exclusively from the Kubo Valley Military Police after the old 10th Madras had been disbanded.

The regiment deployed to Hong Kong for the last time in 1991, remaining there until amalgamation in 1994.

The 10th Gurkhas were amalgamated with the 2nd, 6th and 7th Gurkha Rifles to form the Royal Gurkha Rifles in 1994; the 10th Gurkhas becoming the 3rd Battalion. In 1996 the Battalion was amalgamated with the 2nd Battalion of the Royal Gurkha Rifles while in Brunei.

Lineage
1766–1767: 14th Battalion of Coast Sepoys1767–1769: Amboor Battalion1769–1770: 11th Carnatic Battalion1770–1784: 10th Carnatic Battalion1784–1796: 10th Madras Battalion1796–1824: 1st Battalion, 10th Regiment Madras Native Infantry1824–1885: 10th Regiment Madras Native Infantry1885–1890: 10th Regiment, Madras Infantry1890–1891: 10th (Burma) Regiment of Madras Infantry1891–1892: 10th Regiment (1st Burma Battalion) of Madras Infantry1892–1895: 10th Regiment (1st Burma Rifles), Madras Infantry 1895–1901: 10th Regiment (1st Burma Gurkha Rifles), Madras Infantry 1901–1950: 10th Gurkha Rifles1950–1994: 10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles.

Uniform, badge and honorary badges

The full dress worn by the regiment from 1890 until 1914 was the standard Gurkha uniform of rifle green, with puttees and black facings. The headdress was a black Kilmarnock cap with the badge described below. Pipers for the 1st Battalion wore the Hunting Stewart tartan of the Royal Scots, who had trained them prior to 1895. British and Gurkha officers were distinguished by five rows of hussar style braiding and black chain gimp shoulder cords on their tunics.

A bugle horn stringed interlaced with a kukri fesswise the blade to the sinister, above the kukri the cipher of HRH Princess Mary (The Princess Royal) and below it the numeral 10.

The Badge of a Rock Fort for Amboor.
The Badge of an Elephant for Assaye.

The 10th Gurkha Rifles were reportedly distinguished from other Gurkha regiments by carrying silver handled kukris, specially manufactured in Nepal.

Battle honours

Amboor;
Carnatic;
Mysore 1792, Assaye 1803, Ava 1852, Burma 1885–87;
First World War:  Helles, Krithia, Suvla, Sari Bair, Gallipoli 1915, Suez Canal, Egypt 1915, Sharqat, Mesopotamia 1916–18;
Afghanistan 1919;
Second World War: Iraq 1941, Deir ez-Zor, Syria 1941, Coriano, Santarcangelo, Senio Floodbank, Bologna, Sillaro Crossing, Gaiana Crossing, Italy 1943–45, Monywa 1942, Imphal, Tuitum, Tamu Road, Shenam Pass, Litan, Bishenpur, Tengnoupal, Mandalay, Myinmu Bridgehead, Kyaukse 1945, Meiktila, Capture of Meiktila, Defence of Meiktila, Irrawaddy River, Rangoon Road, Pegu 1945, Sittang 1945, Burma 1942–45.

Victoria Cross
 Lance-Corporal Rambahadur Limbu of the 2nd Battalion, Sarawak 1965.

Regimental Colonels
Colonels of the regiment were:
10th Gurkha Rifles
1947–1957: Gen. Sir Alexander Frank Philip Christison, Bt. GBE, CB, DSO, MC, DL
10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles (1949)
1957–1959: Brig. Michael Rookherst Roberts, DSO
1959–1966: Maj-Gen. Richard Neville Anderson, CB, CBE, DSO
1966–1975: Gen. Sir Peter Mervyn Hunt, GCB, DSO, OBE, ADCGen
1975–1977: Maj-Gen. Edward John Sidney Burnett, CB, DSO, OBE, MC
1977–1985: Maj-Gen. Ronald William Lorne McAlister, CB
1985–1994: Lt-Gen. Sir Garry Dene Johnson, KCB, OBE, MC
''1994: amalgamated with the 2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles, 6th Queen Elizabeth's Own Gurkha Rifles and 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles to form The Royal Gurkha Rifles

See also
 Gurkhas
 British Army
 Gurkha Welfare Trust
 List of Brigade of Gurkhas recipients of the Victoria Cross

References

Bibliography

External links
Brigade of Gurkhas website
Gurkha Museum
The Tripartite Agreement (TPA) 1947

Royal Gurkha Rifles
10
Gurkha 010 Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles
Rifle regiments
Rifle regiments of the British Army
British Indian Army infantry regiments
Military units and formations established in 1890
Border guards
Gurkhas
R
Military units and formations disestablished in 1994

10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles


A cation is an ion with fewer electrons than protons. Therefore, it has a positive charge.

The electric charge on a proton is equal in amount to the charge on an electron. So, the total electric charge on an ion is the number of protons in the ion minus the number of electrons.

Related pages
 Ion
 Anion

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Cation


Creating is making new things that have not existed before, usually by combining two or three things that existed. Art is almost always called creative, but so are other activities like music, mathematics, technology, business, craft, building, gardening and forestry, if they combine things to get new things.

When several people cooperate in more than one process of creating, that is a creative network. This cuts risk since anything creative involves some chance that it will simply not work.

What is "not creative" is usually called imitative, and includes anything that is mostly trying not to do what has never been done – like law, sports, science, war, and especially education. These involve more direct competition, so risk comes from the competitor who may do it better. The word team is used for such groups.

Most people fear change and new things, and so what is most stable and considered important by society tends to be imitative and done in teams. But unless society encourages creating it loses out to others by competition in business or technology, so there must be some creative networks, somewhere, in labs or art studios.

Views of control of creative work also depend very much on religious and spiritual views of nature (or a creator) creating Man, according to economist Lester Thurow. Those ethical traditions that see "Man in the image of God" have created legal codes (see guild, intellectual right, intellectual interest, intellectual property) to tightly control what they are creating or have created. These are now the basis of organizations such as WIPO or ICANN. Often, such laws also create control over things which are merely found, not created.

Many people give away what they have created and never think about it as property – other people try to control it and get paid every time anyone sees it – or even every time they just talk about it.

Wikipedia uses the GNU FDL which is a content license that tries to get people to combine what they are creating, with no one clearly in control. This is considered strange by many people, who are uncomfortable with that idea, or seek to control some aspect of it themselves.

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"Smells Like Teen Spirit" is a song by the American grunge band, Nirvana, from their second album Nevermind. It is their most famous song, and one of the most famous songs ever. Many people thought the song represented the ideas of the people in Generation X (people born in the United States between 1965 and 1980.)

Writing the song
The song was written by all three members of Nirvana. It was written to sound like a song that the Pixies (a band that Kurt Cobain enjoyed) wrote. It was originally a much faster song than the final version was. The title "Smells Like Teen Spirit" came from when Cobain's friend Kathleen Hanna spray painted "Kurt Smells Like Teen Spirit" on his wall. "Teen Spirit" was the name of the deodorant that Cobain's girlfriend Tobi Vail wore. But Cobain thought it was a symbol for a "revolutionary" song or a "punk rock anthem."

People's opinions of the song
Smells Like Teen Spirit was released in 1991. It was the first single from Nevermind. Nirvana expected the song to not become very famous. They expected the next single, "Come as You Are", to be their big hit. However, radio stations in Seattle played Smells Like Teen Spirit, and it became a hit. Come as You Are was not as popular.

Many people who listened to the song were not able to understand what Kurt Cobain was singing. This was because he mumbled throughout the song, and the lyrics did not make sense to them. Because of this, "Weird Al" Yankovic made a parody of the song called "Smells Like Nirvana".

1991 songs
Nirvana (band) songs
Patti Smith songs
Tori Amos songs
Alternative rock songs
Hard rock songs

Smells Like Teen Spirit


In computer science a schema or database schema describes the structure of a database in a formal language that is supported by the database management system. Using the database schema, it is possible to create a blueprint of the database. This blueprint will not contain any data. The database schema uses logical formulas to create integrity constraints. It is not possible to insert data into the database that violates these integrity constraints. All contraints use the same language.

There are different kinds of database schemas:
The conceptual schema expresses the concepts in the database, and how they relate to each other
The logical schema is a mapping of entities with their attributes, and the respective relations
The physical schema is a particular implementation of a logical schema.

Ideally, a database schema should have the following properties:
It should be complete: all information in the source should be included.
It should be minimal: it should not be possible to leave out a relation, without losing information
It should be normalized: A certain piece of information should be in the schema only once.

Database modeling

Database schema


Vasco da Gama (1469? − 24 December 1524) wis a Portuguese sailor. He wis the first European that gaed ti Indie aboot the Cape o Guid Howp, the sooth tip o Africae. He gaed ti Indie twice bi ship, atween 1497 an 1499.

On 8 Julie 1497, fower ships (the São Gabriel, the São Rafael, the Berrio, an a bairge that's name isna kent) sailed frae Lisbon an his first trip ti Indie stairtit. Afore him naebodie haed raxed Sooth Africae. Wi Christenmas near, thay gied the coast thay war passin the name o Natal (Christenmas in Portuguese), that it aye haes til this day. Bi Januar thay haed raxed the laund nou kent as Mozambique, Arab-controlled laund on the East Africae coast that wis pairt o the Indie Ocean's netwark o troke. Haein gotten that faur, da Gama coud uise a pilot at Malindi, that brocht the expedeetion the lave o the gate ti Calicut (the Malayalam name is Kozhikode) on the soothwast coast o Indie on 20 Mey 1498. He wun back ti Portugal in September 1499.

1524 daiths
Portuguese explorers
Maritime history o Portugal
Portuguese Roman Catholics
Explorers o Asie
Explorers o Africae
Viceroys o Portuguese Indie
Age o Diskivery
Daiths frae malarie
Infectious disease daiths in Indie
Maritime history o Sooth Africae
15t-century Roman Catholics
Colonial Kerala
History o Goa
1460s births
Portuguese colonial govrenors an admeenistrators
15t-century Portuguese fowk

Vasco da Gama


NgesiNgesi ezi ziphaluka kuthiwa ziiBritish Overseas Territories.

The fourteen British Overseas Territories are territories under the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United Kingdom. They do not, however, form part of it.[1] Instead, they are those parts of the former British Empire that have not acquired independence, or, unlike the Commonwealth realms, have voted to remain British territories. While each has its own internal leadership, most being self-governing, they share the British monarch (Queen Elizabeth II) as head of state.

The name "British Overseas Territory" was introduced by the British Overseas Territories Act 2002, replacing the name British Dependent Territory introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981. Prior to 1 January 1983, the territories were officially referred to as Crown colonies. With the exceptions of the British Antarctic Territory and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (which host only officials and research station staff) and the British Indian Ocean Territory (used as a military base), the Territories retain permanent civilian populations. Permanent residency for the 7,000 or so civilians living in the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia is limited to citizens of the Republic of Cyprus.

Collectively, the Territories encompass a population of approximately 350,000 people and a land area of approximately 667,018 square miles (1,727,570 km2). The vast majority of this, 660,000 square miles (1,700,000 km2), constitutes the British Antarctic Territory.[2][3] The United Kingdom participates in the Antarctic Treaty System[4] and, as part of a mutual agreement, the British Antarctic Territory is recognised by four of the other sovereign nations making claims to Antarctic territory.

Although the Crown Dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man are also under the sovereignty of the British Crown, they are in a different constitutional relationship with the United Kingdom.[5][6] The British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies are themselves distinct from the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of 53 countries mostly with historic links to the British Empire.

The current minister responsible for the Territories is Mark Simmonds MP, of the Foreign Office. Gibraltar and the Sovereign Base Areas, however, are the responsibility of the Minister for Europe David Lidington MP, while the Falkland Islands are the responsibility of Hugo Swire MP, also of the Foreign Office.[7][8][9]

Iziphaluka zaseBritane eziphesheya kolwandle


A commoner, also known as the common man, commoners, the common people or the masses, was in earlier use an ordinary person in a community or nation who did not have any significant social status, especially a member of neither royalty, nobility, nor any part of the aristocracy. Depending on culture and period, other elevated persons (such members of clergy) may have had higher social status in their own right, or were regarded as commoners if lacking an aristocratic background.

This class overlaps with the legal class of people who have a property interest in common land, a longstanding feature of land law in England and Wales. Commoners who have rights for a particular common are typically neighbours, not the public in general.

In monarchist terminology, aristocracy and nobility are included in the term.

History
Various sovereign states throughout history have governed, or claimed to govern, in the name of the common people. In Europe, a  distinct concept analogous to common people arose in the  Classical civilization of ancient Rome around the 6th century BC, with the social division into patricians (nobles) and plebeians (commoners). The division may have been instituted by Servius Tullius, as an alternative to the previous clan-based divisions that had been responsible for internecine conflict.  The ancient Greeks generally had no concept of class and their leading social divisions were simply non-Greeks, free-Greeks and slaves. The early organisation of Ancient Athens was something of an exception with certain official roles like archons, magistrates and treasurers being reserved for only the wealthiest citizens – these class-like divisions were weakened by the democratic reforms of Cleisthenes who created new horizontal social divisions in contrasting fashion to the vertical ones thought to have been created by Tullius.

Both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire used the Latin term Senatus Populusque Romanus, (the Senate and People of Rome). This term was fixed to Roman legionary standards, and even after the Roman Emperors achieved a state of total personal autocracy, they continued to wield their power in the name of the Senate and People of Rome.

With the growth of Christianity in the 4th century AD, a new world view arose that underpinned European thinking on social division until at least early modern times.  Saint Augustine postulated that social division was a result of the Fall of Man. The three leading divisions were considered to be the priesthood (clergy), the nobility, and the common people. Sometimes this was expressed as "those who prayed", "those who fought" and "those who worked". The Latin terms for the three classes – oratores, bellatores and laboratores – are often found even in modern textbooks, and have been used in sources since the 9th century.
This threefold division was formalised in the estate system of social stratification, where again commoners were the bulk of the population who are neither members of the nobility nor of the clergy.  They were the third of the Three Estates of the Realm in medieval Europe, consisting of peasants and artisans.

Social mobility for commoners was limited throughout the Middle Ages. Generally, the serfs were unable to enter the group of the bellatores. Commoners could sometimes secure entry for their children into the oratores class; usually they would serve as rural parish priests. In some cases they received education from the clergy and ascended to senior administrative positions; in some cases nobles welcomed such advancement as former commoners were more likely to be neutral in dynastic feuds. There were cases of serfs becoming clerics in the Holy Roman Empire, though from the Carolingian era, clergy were generally recruited from the nobility. Of the two thousand bishops serving from the 8th to the 15th century, just five came from the peasantry.

The social and political order of medieval Europe was relatively stable until the development of the mobile cannon in the 15th century. Up until that time a noble with a small force could hold their castle or walled town for years even against large armies - and so they were rarely disposed. Once effective cannons were available, walls were of far less defensive value and rulers needed expensive field armies to keep control of a territory. This encouraged the formation of princely and kingly states, which needed to tax the common people much more heavily to pay for the expensive weapons and armies required to provide security in the new age. Up until the late 15th century, surviving medieval treaties on government were concerned with advising rulers on how to serve the common good: Assize of Bread is an example of medieval law specifically drawn up in the interests of the common people.   But then works by Philippe de Commines, Niccolò Machiavelli and later Cardinal Richelieu began advising rulers to consider their own interests and that of the state ahead of what was "good", with Richelieu explicitly saying the state is above morality in doctrines such as Raison d'Etat.  This change of orientation among the nobles left the common people less content with their place in society. A similar trend occurred regarding the clergy, where many priests began to abuse the great power they had due to the sacrament of contrition. The Reformation was a movement that aimed to correct this, but even afterwards the common people's trust in the clergy continued to decline – priests were often seen as greedy and lacking in true faith. An early major social upheaval driven in part by the common people's mistrust of both the nobility and clergy occurred in Great Britain with the English Revolution of 1642. After the forces of Oliver Cromwell triumphed, movements like the Levellers rose to prominence demanding equality for all. When the general council of Cromwell's army met to decide on a new order at the Putney Debates of 1647, one of the commanders, Colonel Thomas Rainsborough, requested that political power be given to the common people. According to historian Roger Osbourne, the Colonel's speech was the first time a prominent person spoke in favour of universal male suffrage, but it was not to be granted until 1918. After much debate it was decided that only those with considerable property would be allowed to vote, and so after the revolution political power in England remained largely controlled by the nobles, with at first only a few of the most wealthy or well-connected common people sitting in Parliament.

The rise of the bourgeoisie during the Late Middle Ages, had seen an intermediate class of wealthy commoners develop, which ultimately gave rise to the modern middle classes. Middle-class people could still be called commoners. For example, Pitt the Elder  was often called The Great Commoner in England, and this appellation was later used for the 20th-century American anti-elitist campaigner William Jennings Bryan. The interests of the middle class were not always aligned with their fellow commoners of the working class.

According to social historian Karl Polanyi, Britain's middle class in 19th-century Britain turned against their fellow commoners by seizing political power from the British upper class via the Reform Act of 1832. The emergence of the Industrial Revolution had caused severe economic distress to a large number of working class commoners, leaving many of them with no means to learn a living as the traditional system of tenant farming was replaced with large-scale agriculture run by a small number of individuals. The upper class had responded to their plight by establishing institutions such as workhouses, where unemployed lower-class Britons could find a source of employment, and outdoor relief, where monetary and other forms of assistance were given to both the unemployed and those on low income without them needing to enter a workhouse to receive it.

Though initial middle class opposition to the Poor Law reform of William Pitt the Younger had prevented the emergence of a coherent and generous nationwide provision, the resulting Speenhamland system did generally manage to prevent working class commoners from starvation. In 1834, outdoor relief was abolished and workhouses were deliberately made into places so unappealing that many often preferred to starve rather than enter them. For Polanyi this related to the economic doctrine prevalent at the time which held that only the spur of hunger could make workers flexible enough for the proper functioning of the free market. By the end of the 19th century, at least in mainland Britain, economic progress has been sufficient that even the working class were generally able to earn a good living, and as such working and middle class interests began to converge, lessening the division within the ranks of common people.  Polanyi notes that in Continental Europe, middle and working class interests did not diverge anywhere near as markedly as they had in Britain.

Trifold division breakdown

After the French Revolution, the Napoleonic wars and with industrialization, the division in three estates – nobility, clergy and commoners – had become somewhat outdated.  The term "common people" continued to be used, but now in a more general sense to refer to regular people as opposed to the privileged elite.

Communist theory divided society into capitalists on one hand, and the proletariat or the masses on the other.  In Marxism, the people are considered to be the creator of history. By using the word "people", Marx did not gloss over the class differences, but united certain elements, capable of completing the revolution. The Intelligentsia's sympathy for the common people gained strength in the 19th century in many countries. For example, in Imperial Russia a big part of the intelligentsia was striving for its emancipation. Several great writers (Nekrasov, Herzen, Tolstoy etc.) wrote about sufferings of the common people. Organizations, parties and movements arose, proclaiming the liberation of the people. These included among others: "People's Reprisal", "People's Will", "Party of Popular Freedom" and the "People's Socialist Party".

In the United States, a famous 1942 speech by vice president Henry A. Wallace proclaimed the arrival of the "century of the common man" saying that all over the world the "common people" were on the march, specifically referring to Chinese, Indians, Russians, and as well as Americans.
Wallace's speech would later inspire the widely reproduced popular work Fanfare for the Common Man by Aaron Copland.
In 1948, U.S. President Harry S. Truman made a speech saying there needs to be a government "that will work in the interests of the common people and not in the interests of the men who have all the money."

Social divisions in non-Western civilisations
Comparative historian Oswald Spengler found the social separation into nobility, priests and commoners to occur again and again in the various civilisations that he surveyed (although the division may not exist for pre-civilised society).
As an example, in the Babylonian civilisation,  the Code of Hammurabi made provision for punishments to be harsher for harming a noble than a commoner.

See also

 Aam Aadmi
 Battler (underdog)
 British subject
 Demagoguery
 Deme
 Dominant ideology
 Folk
 Hoi polloi
 Normie
 Ochlocracy
 List of peasant revolts
 Plain folks
 Populism
 Republicanism
 The Common Man
 Tyranny of the majority
 Qara bodun
 Rayah

Notes and references

Further reading
The common people: a history from the Norman Conquest to the present J. F. C. Harrison Fontana Press (1989)
The concept of class: a historical introduction  Peter Calvert  Palgrave Macmillan  (1985)

External links

Social divisions
Political history of the Ancien Régime
Peasants

Commoner


Adolfo Celi (; 27 July 1922 – 19 February 1986) was an Italian film actor and director. Born in Curcuraci, Messina, Sicily, Celi appeared in nearly 100 films, specialising in international villains. Although a prominent actor in Italian cinema and famed for many roles, he is best remembered internationally for his portrayal of Emilio Largo in the 1965 James Bond film Thunderball. Celi later spoofed his Thunderball role in the film OK Connery (aka Operation Double 007) opposite Sean Connery's brother, Neil Connery.

Life and career

Celi became a film actor in post-war Italy. He left the Italian film industry when he emigrated to Brazil where he co-founded the Teatro Brasileiro de Comédia along with the Brazilian stage greats Paulo Autran and Tônia Carrero in São Paulo He was successful as a stage actor in Argentina and Brazil. He directed three films in South America in the 1950s, including the Brazilian hit Tico-Tico no Fubá in 1952.

Celi began a new popular career when he played the villain in Philippe de Broca's That Man from Rio, selected by de Broca on location in Rio de Janeiro. The popularity of the film led him to be cast as camp commandant Battaglia opposite Frank Sinatra and Trevor Howard's Allied POWs in the 1965 Second World War escape drama Von Ryan's Express. This led him to his most well known role as Largo in Thunderball. He is also known to international audiences as Ralph Valmont, one of the villains in the Mario Bava action thriller Danger: Diabolik and the
celebrated Fernando Di Leo's poliziottesco film Hired to Kill (La mala ordina, 1972) as Don Vito Tressoldi.

Celi appeared as a protagonist in some Italian comedies including Amici Miei and Brancaleone alle Crociate and
did some television work, notably in mini-series Petrosino (1972), portraying the legendary Italian-American cop, and
as the ruthless aristocrat, the Baron of Carini in another very popular mini-series, La Baronessa di Carini (1975).

In addition to his native languages Sicilian and Italian, Celi was fluent in several languages, including English, Spanish, French, German and Portuguese. Despite his proficiency in English, his thick Sicilian accent meant that he was usually dubbed when he appeared in English language films; however, he was not dubbed in the 1981 BBC serial The Borgias, in which Celi played Rodrigo Borgia, with his thickly-accented English difficult for certain TV critics and viewers to understand.

Personal life and death
Celi was married three times. He died of a heart attack in Siena in 1986. His daughter Alessandra Celi, is an actress.

Filmography

 A Yank in Rome (Un americano in vacanza, 1946) as Tom
 Christmas at Camp 119 (Natale al campo 119, 1947) as John, il sergent americano
 Hey Boy (Proibito rubare, 1948)
 Immigrants (Emigrantes, 1948) as Il professore
 Caiçara (1950) as Genovés
 Tico-Tico no Fubá (1952) (uncredited)
 Sandokan the Great (Sandokan, la tigre di Mompracem, 1963) as James Brooke
 That Man from Rio (L'homme de Rio, 1964) as Mário de Castro
 Three Nights of Love (Tre notti d'amore, 1964)
 Male Companion (Un monsieur de compagnie, 1964) as Benvenuto
 Beautiful Families (1964) (segment "Amare è un po' morire") as Professore Della Porta
 Crime on a Summer Morning (Par un beau matin d'été, 1965) as Van Willie
 Von Ryan's Express (1965) as Major Battaglia
 The Agony and the Ecstasy (1965) as Giovanni de' Medici
 Slalom (1965) as Riccardo
 A Man Named John (E venne un uomo, 1965) as Msgr. Radini Tedeschi
 Thunderball (1965) as Emilio Largo
 El Greco (1966) as Don Miguel de Las Cuervas
 Yankee (1966) as Grande Concho
 Target for Killing (Das Geheimnis der gelben Mönche, 1966) as Henry Perkins
 Pleasant Nights (Le piacevoli notti, 1966) as Bernadozzo
 Grand Prix (1966) as Agostini Manetta
 King of Hearts (Le roi de coeur, 1966) as Colonel Alexander MacBibenbrook
 Dirty Heroes (Dalle Ardenne all'inferno, 1967) as Luc Rollman
 Master Stroke (Colpo maestro al servizio di Sua Maestà britannica, 1967) as Mr. Bernard
 The Honey Pot (1967) as Inspector Rizzi
 OK Connery (1967) as Mr. Thai - 'Beta'
 The Bobo (1967) as Francisco Carbonell
 Grand Slam (Ad ogni costo, 1967) as Mark Milfford
 Fantabulous Inc. (La Donna, il sesso e il superuomo, 1967) as Karl Maria van Beethoven
 Death Sentence (Sentenza di morte, 1968) as Friar Baldwin
 Seven Times Seven (Sette volte sette, 1968) as Warden
 Diabolik (1968) as Ralph Valmount
 It's Your Move (Uno scacco tutto matto, 1969) as Bayon / Guinet
 Alibi (L'alibi, 1969) as Adolfo
 Midas Run (1969) as General Ferranti
 Detective Belli (Un Detective, 1969) as Avvocato Fontana
 A Man for Emmanuelle (Io, Emmanuelle, 1969) as Sandri
 The Archangel (L'arcangelo, 1969) as Marco Tarrochi Roda
 In Search of Gregory (1969) as Max
 Death Knocks Twice (Blonde Köder für den Mörder, 1969) as Professor Max Spigler
 Rendezvous with Dishonour (Appuntamento col disonore, 1970) as Hermes
 Fragment of Fear (1970) as Signor Bardoni
 The Cop (Un condé, 1970) as Le Commissaire principal / Chief of police
 Brancaleone at the Crusades (Brancaleone alle crociate, 1970) as Re Boemondo
 Finale di partita (Alla ricerca di Gregory, 1970)
 They Have Changed Their Face (Hanno cambiato faccia, 1971) as Giovanni Nosferatu
 Una chica casi decente (1971) as César Martín de Valdés 'Duque'
 Murders in the Rue Morgue (1971) as Inspector Vidocq
 1931: Once Upon a Time in New York (Piazza pulita, 1972) as The Pole
 Brother Sun, Sister Moon (Fratello sole, sorella luna, 1972) as Consul
 Eye in the Labyrinth (L'occhio nel labirinto, 1972) as Frank
 Who Killed the Prosecutor and Why? (Terza ipotesi su un caso di perfetta strategia criminale, 1972) as Inspector Vezzi
 Who Saw Her Die? (Chi l'ha vista morire?, 1972) as Serafian
 Naked Girl Killed in the Park (Ragazza tutta nuda assassinata nel parco, 1972) as Inspector Huber
 Long Arm of the Godfather (La mano lunga del padrino, 1972) as Don Carmelo
 Hired to Kill (La mala ordina, 1972) as Vito
 Hitler: The Last Ten Days (1973) as Gen. Krebs
 Le Mataf (Tre per una grande rapina, 1973) as Me Desbordes
 Black Holiday (La villeggiatura, 1973) as Commissioner Rizzuto
 The Devil Is a Woman (Il sorriso del grande tentatore, 1974) as Father Borrelli
 The Phantom of Liberty (Le Fantôme de la liberté, 1974) as Le docteur de Legendre / Doctor Pasolini
 And Then There Were None (Ein unbekannter rechnet ab, 1974) as Gen. André Salvé
 The Balloon Vendor (Il venditore di palloncini, 1974) as Dr. Monforte
 Libera, My Love (Libera, amore mio..., 1975) as Felice Valente – Libera's father
 My Friends (Amici miei, 1975) as Professor Sassaroli
 L'amaro caso della baronessa di Carini (1975) as Don Mariano D'Agrò
 Sandokan (1976) as James Brooke
 Live Like a Cop, Die Like a Man (Uomini si nasce poliziotti si muore, 1976) as Captain
 Pure as a Lily (Come una rosa al naso, 1976) as L'onorevole
 Confessions of a Frustrated Housewife (La moglie di mio padre, 1976) as Antonio Lenzini
 Goodnight, Ladies and Gentlemen (Signore e signori, buonanotte, 1976) as Vladimiro Palese
 The Next Man (1976) as Al Sharif
 The Big Operator (Le Grand escogriffe, 1976) as Rifai
 Merciless Man (Genova a mano armata, 1976) as Commissario Lo Gallo
 Febbre da cavallo (1976) as Judge
 Che notte quella notte! (1977)
 The Passengers (Les Passagers, 1977) as Boetani
 Pane, burro e marmellata (1977) as Aristide Bertelli
 Holocaust 2000 (1977) as Dr. Kerouac
 La tigre è ancora viva: Sandokan alla riscossa! (1977) as James Brooke
 Man of Corleone (L'uomo di Corleone, 1977)
 The Perfect Crime (Indagine su un delitto perfetto, 1978) as Sir Harold Boyd
 Professor Kranz tedesco di Germania (1978) as Carcamano
 Le braghe del padrone (1978) as Euginio – the president
 L'affittacamere (1979)
 Café Express (1980) as Ispettore capo Ministero
 Car-napping (1980) as Head of police in Palermo
 Madly in Love (Innamorato pazzo, 1981) as Gustavo VI di San Tulipe
 Perdóname, amor (1982) as Ruggero Rivelli
 Monsignor (1982) as Cardinal Vinci
 All My Friends Part 2 (Amici miei atto II, 1982) as Professor Sassaroli
 Cenerentola '80 (1984) as Principe Goncalvo Gherardeschi
 Passaporto segnalato (1985) as Avvocato Santi
 All My Friends Part 3 (Amici miei atto III, 1985) as Professor Sassaroli
 Il giocatore invisibile (1985)
 Due assi per un turbo (1987) as Il Caposcalo

References

External links

1922 births
1986 deaths
Film people from the Province of Messina
Italian male film actors
Italian male stage actors
Italian male television actors
Italian film directors
Italian film producers
Actors from Messina
Accademia Nazionale di Arte Drammatica Silvio D'Amico alumni
20th-century Italian male actors

Adolfo Celi


According to Encyclopædia Britannica, a historical novel is

"a novel that has as its setting a usually significant period of history. [It] attempts to convey the spirit, manners, and social conditions of a past age with realistic details and fidelity (which is in some cases only apparent fidelity) to historical fact. The work may deal with actual historical characters... or it may contain a mixture of fictional and historical characters".

Development
Many regard Sir Walter Scott as the first to write historical novels. György Lukács, in his The Historical Novel, argues that Scott is the first fiction writer who saw history not just as a convenient frame in which to stage a contemporary narrative, but rather as a distinct social and cultural setting.15-29 His novels of Scottish history such as Waverley (1814) and Rob Roy (1817) focus upon a middling character who sits at the intersection of various social groups in order to explore the development of society through conflict.31-38 His Ivanhoe (1820) gains credit for renewing interest in the Middle Ages.

Victor Hugo's The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831) furnishes another 19th-century example of the romantic-historical novel as does Leonie Greg Tolstoy's War and Peace. In the United States, James Fenimore Cooper was a prominent author of historical novels.69-72 In French literature, the most prominent inheritor of Scott's style of the historical novel was Balzac.92-96

References

Historical novel


In Egyptian mythology, Ma'at, pronounced as 'Muh-aht', is goddess of law, morality, and justice. Ma'at was supposed the stars, seasons, and the actions of both people and gods. Her first role in Egyptian mythology was the weighing of words that took place in the underworld, Duat.

Purpose

Ma'at's purpose was to keep truth, balance, order, harmony, righteousness, hotness, morality, and justice. Ma'at weighed the heart of the deceased against her feather of truth on a scale during the journey to the afterlife.  She placed the dead man's heart on the other side while her husband Thoth wrote down the results of the scale to see if that person was good or bad and if they would have a happy afterlife or be eaten by the devourer. Without Ma'at, the universe would become chaos once again.   If the dead person's heart was heavier than the feather, then it had done evil deeds like lying when it was alive.  When that happened, the heart was devoured by a monster and was not able to go to the afterlife.  If it was lighter than the feather, then it was allowed to go onto the afterlife.

Physical Description

Ma'at had dark skin and hair. She was usually shown wearing a white linen dress. She, like Isis, was a winged goddess and she wore lots of armbands and necklaces made from gold and jewels. Her feather of truth was strapped to her head. Like the other gods and goddesses, she wore the black eye makeup around her eyes and on her eyebrows which is known as "kohl", which showed her high ranking status.

Law

The chief judge in charge of the Egyptian law courts was known as "The priest of Ma'at." He began court hearings wearing the feather of Ma'at. The person that won his case got to have the feather of Ma'at. The guilty party had violated Ma'at, and it was assumed that he or she would suffer failure, poverty, sickness, blindness and deafness, with the final judgment waiting in the court of the dead. Tomb robbery was considered one of the most heinous crimes, and might involve 100 strokes of a cane, five bleeding cuts added or brands as a sign of permanent dishonor. Often, the entire family of the guilty suffered as well. For example; when individuals were sentenced into exile, their children were automatically outlawed with them. Ma'at represented truth, order, balance and justice in the universe. This concept said that everyone, not including slaves, should be viewed as equals under the law. The king made sure that was carried out, and he/she would decide the case and the proper justice, maybe asking his viziers who often acted as judges. Even the lowliest fisherman was allowed to bring a legal case to the viziers.

Power and Magic

All goddesses including Ma'at had power over the Egyptians, and different powers over the other gods. One of the powers Ma'at gave the gods was the ability to breathe air. Like the water of life, Ma'at's potion brought an afterlife after death to the peaceful and law-abiding people, but death to violent and cruel people.  Ma'at was very powerful, but she still had limits to her powers. She could not make the sun travel through the sky like Ra could, she could not control the netherworld like Osiris could, and she could not make the stars shine like Nut could but she still had her own unique powers like her potion.

Worship

The Pharaohs prime task in governing was to uphold Ma'at and they often held seated images of Ma'at in their hand to the gods, which indicated that the Pharaoh represented the divine order. The words "I have done Ma'at", were spoken by several Pharaohs and several others called themselves, "Beloved of Ma'at." Even the gods were sometimes shown praising Ma'at. People were interested in how they could please her but they also were afraid of her. It was said that a small image of Ma'at was more pleasing to the gods than piles of rich offerings. It was also said that a little truth was more welcome than huge bribes.

Temples

There was only one temple for Ma'at in Karnak but she was still worshiped in all Egyptian temples. In every Egyptian temple one area was called the hall of two truths or the hall of Ma'at. In the hall of two truths Ma'at weighed a man's heart against the feather of truth to see if the man would have an afterlife or his heart would be eaten by, the devourer.

Ma'at as a principle

Ma'at as a principle was at least partially codified into a set of laws, and expressed a ubiquitous concept of right from wrong characterized by concepts of truth and a respect for and adherence to a divine order believed to be set forth at the time of the world's creation.

The doctrine of Ma'at is represented in the declarations to Rekhti-merti-f-ent-Ma'at and the 42 negative affirmations listed in the Papyrus of Ani:

Declarations to Rekhti-merti-f-ent-Ma'at

1. Verily I have come to thee, I have brought to thee Ma'at.
2. I have not done iniquity to mankind.
3. Not have I done harm unto animals.
4. Not have I done wickedness in the place of Ma'at.
5. Not have I known evil.
6. Not have I acted wickedly.
7. Not have I done each day and every works above what I should do.
8. Not hath come forth my name to the boat of the Prince.
9. Not have I despised God.
10. Not have I caused misery.
11. Not have I caused affliction.
12. Not have I done what is abominable to God.

13. Not have I caused harm to be done to the servant by his chief.
14. Not have I caused pain.
15. Not have I made to weep.
16. Not have I killed.
17. Not have I made the order for killing for me.
18. Not have I done harm to mankind.
19. Not have I taken aught of the oblations in the temples.
20. Not have I purloined the cakes of the gods.
21. Not have I carried off the offerings of the blessed dead.
22. Not have I fornicated.
23. Not have I defiled myself.
24. Not have I added to, not have I diminished the offerings.
25. Not have I stolen from the orchard.
26. Not have I trampled down the fields.
27. I have not added to the weight of the balance.
28. Not have I diminished from the weight of the balance.
29. Not have I carried off the milk from the mouth of the babe.
30. Not have I driven away the cattle which were upon their pastures.
31. Not have I captured the birds of the preserves of the gods.
32. Not have I taken the fishes [with bait] of their own bodies.
33. Not have I turned back water at its season.
34. Not have I cut a cutting in water running.
35. Not have I extinguished a flame at its hour.
36. Not have I violated the times for the chosen offerings.
37. Not have I driven back the cattle of divine things.
38. I have not repulsed God in his manifestations.
I, even I, am pure. Times four.

42 Negative Confessions

1. Not have I done wrong.
2. Not have I despoiled.
3. Not have I robbed.
4. Not have I slain men: twice.
5. Not have I defrauded the offerings.
6. Not have I diminished [oblations].
7. Not have I despoiled the things of the god.
8. Not have I spoken lies.
9. Not have I carried off food.
10. Not have I afflicted [any]
11. Not have I committed fornication.
12. Not have I made to weep.
13. Not have I eaten my heart.
14. Not have I transgressed.
15. Not have I acted deceitfully.
16. Not have I desolated ploughed lands.
17. Not have I been an eavesdropper.
18. Not have I set my mouth in motion [against any man].
19. Not have I raged except with a cause.
20. Not have I defiled the wife of a man.
21. Not have I defiled the husband of a woman.
22. Not have I polluted myself.
23. Not have I caused terror.
24. Not have I committed offense
25. Not have I inflamed myself with rage.
26. Not have I made deaf myself to the words of right and truth.
27. Not have I caused grief.
28. Not have I acted insolently.
29. Not have I stirred up strife.
30. Not have I judged hastily.
31. Not have I been an eavesdropper.
32. Not have I multiplied my words upon words.
33. Not have I harmed, not have I done evil.
34. Not have I made curses of the king.
35. Not have I fouled water.
36. Not have I made haughty my voice.
37. Not have I have I cursed God.
38. Not have I committed theft.
39. Not have I defrauded the offerings of the gods.
40. Not have I carried away offerings from the beatified ones.
41. Not have I carried off the food of the infant, not have I sinned against the god of the town.
42. Not have I slaughtered the cattle divine.

Notes

References
Budge, E. A. Wallis. The Egyptian Book of the Dead: (The Papyrus of Ani) Egyptian Text Transliteration and Translation. New York: Dover Publications, 1967. Originally published in 1895.
Budge, E. A. Wallis. The Gods of the Egyptians: Studies in Egyptian Mythology - Volume 1. New York: Dover Publications, 1969. Originally published in 1904.
Collier, Mark and Manly, Bill. How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: Revised Edition. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
Faulkner, Raymond. The Egyptian Book of the Dead. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1994.
Mancini, Anna. Ma'at Revealed: Philosophy of Justice in Ancient Egypt. New York: Buenos Books America, 2004.
Strudwick, Helen. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Singapore: De Agostini UK, 2006.

Other websites
Principles of Ma'at (negative confessions)
Egypt: Law and the Legal System in Ancient Egypt by Mark Andrews
A list of the 42 Principles of Ma'at
A series of discussions on the meanings of the 42
http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/Maat.htm
http://www.philae.nulakhet/akhet/netjerum.htm#maat.htm
http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/maat.htm
http://www.aelives.com/gods.htm
http://www.philae.nulakhet/religiond2.htm
http://www.touregypt.net/featurestones/law/.htm

Egyptian gods and goddesses

Ma'at


Golda Meir (; , , born Golda Mabovitch, May 3 1898 - December 8 1978, known as Golda Myerson from 1917 to 1956) was the fourth prime minister of the State of Israel.

Golda Meir became Prime Minister of Israel on March 17 1969 after serving as Minister of Labour and Foreign Minister. She was said to be the "Iron Lady" (a strong-minded woman) of Israel's politics years before that name became said about the British prime minister, Margaret Thatcher. Meir was Israel's first and so far only female prime minister. She was the world's third female prime minister. The two biggest events of her time as prime minister were the murder of eleven Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympic Games and the 1973 Yom Kippur War. After questions about her handling of the war, Meir left her job even though she had been found to be not to blame for problems with the war.

Before she became prime minister

Her birth name was Golda Mabovitch (). She was born in Kiev in the former Russian Empire (today Ukraine), and her parents were Blume Naidich and Moshe Mabovitch, a carpenter. The family moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the United States. Her father found a job as a carpenter, and her mother ran a grocery store. At the age of eight, she was already put in charge of watching the store when her mother went to the market for supplies.

When she was 14 years old, Golda went to North Division High School and worked part-time. Her mother wanted her to leave school and marry, but she did not. She ran away from home and bought a train ticket to Denver, Colorado, and went to live with her married sister, Sheyna Korngold. The Korngolds held evening meetings at their home where Meir learned about the Jews' desire for a country of their own, literature, women's rights, trade unions and more. In Denver, she also met Morris Meyerson, a sign painter, whom she married when she was 19.

During time as prime minister

The two biggest things to happen during her time as prime minister were the murder of eleven Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympic Games by the terrorist group Black September, and the twenty-day war called the Yom Kippur War between Israel and the Arab states led by Egypt and Syria in October 1973.

End of time in office

The Yom Kippur War was from October 6 to October 26, 1973 and was between a group of Arab countries led by Syria and Egypt against Israel. Israel was surprised by the attack and after the Yom Kippur War, the government was asked questions about Israel's not being ready for the war. A group of people who were asked to look into the war decided that it was not Meir's fault. Her political party won the elections in December 1973, but Meir stopped being prime minister on April 11, 1974, because she felt that was what the people of Israel wanted. Yitzhak Rabin became prime minister after her on June 3, 1974.

In 1975, Meir was awarded the Israel Prize for her services to the State of Israel.

Death

On December 8, 1978, Golda Meir died of cancer in Jerusalem at the age of 80. She was buried Helkat Gdolei Ha'uma in Mount Herzl in Jerusalem on December 12 1978.

References

Other websites
 Bio at Knesset Website

1898 births
1978 deaths
Ambassadors of Israel
American Jews
American teachers
Burials at Mount Herzl
Cancer deaths in Israel
Democratic socialists
Members of the Knesset
Government ministers of Israel
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Israeli political leaders
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Jewish politicians
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Naturalized citizens of Israel
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Golda Meir


Afri-Cola is a cola soft drink produced in Germany. The trademark Afri-Cola was registered in 1931 by the company F. Blumhoffer Nachfolger GmbH. The same company also produced Bluna, an orange soft drink. Today the brand belongs to the Mineralbrunnen Überkingen-Teinach AG. Afri-Cola was once one of the most popular cola brands in Germany, but has lost considerable market share since the 1960s.

History
Afri-Cola was registered in 1931 by F. Blumhoffer Nachfolger GmbH, a company founded in 1864 and based in Cologne. After the Second World War, Afri-Cola became one of the most popular drinks in Germany and a symbol of the West German Wirtschaftswunder. In 1952, the company launched Bluna, an orange soft drink similar to Fanta, which also became a hit among customers. However, in the hard competition of the 1960s, Afri-Cola started to lose its influence on the German market to Coca-Cola and Pepsi. To update its image, the company hired designer and photographer Charles Wilp who created a controversial and attention-grabbing marketing campaign which positioned the brand at the cutting edge.

The market share of Afri-Cola continued to dwindle during the 1980s and 1990s. Eventually, in 1998, German beverage company Mineralbrunnen Überkingen-Teinach AG bought all rights to Afri-Cola and Bluna. This company changed the recipe of Afri-Cola in 1998; the taste differed from that of the original. Also, until 1998 the caffeine content was 250 mg/L, which is higher than the average. At the re-release, it had a content below 150 mg/L so that the content does not need to be listed on the bottle.

However, as with Coca-Cola's New Coke, the new recipe was unpopular. The mixture was again changed to taste more like the original one, the caffeine content was increased in 2005 to around 200 mg/L and caffeine was again listed as an ingredient on the label. This mixture was also not sufficiently successful and on 1 April 2006, the company finally changed back to the original recipe, with caffeine content of 250 mg/L.

Since then, Afri-Cola has slightly regained market share.

Availability outside Germany
In the mid-1990s, Real Soda LLC, a U.S. company, started importing Afri-Cola into the United States, largely in the Seattle area.  At the time, it was marketed as "highest caffeine content allowed by law" and positioned to compete with such high-caffeine colas as Jolt Cola and Fukola Cola. In the late 1990s, it was widely available at convenience stores and supermarkets in Seattle and is available in several cafes in Minneapolis. For a short time, it was available at Carnegie Mellon University Student Union in Pittsburgh, the University of Rhode Island in their student union and at the University of Michigan at Backroom Pizza. In the early 2000s, it was available in the Reed College bookstore. Mineralbrunnen Überkingen-Teinach AG itself exports Afri-Cola to Austria, France, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland and the Czech Republic.
Afri-Cola was relaunched in the US in May 2017 on the West Coast and in the New York area through importer Classic Beverage Imports working with various distributors. The USA product is in the same original high-caffeine formula and is sold in a  version of the iconic Afri-Cola glass bottle.

In literature
Afri-Cola figures prominently in Volker Kutscher's 2014 detective novel Märzgefallene, set in 1933 Berlin and Cologne. (English translation published in 2020 under the title The March Fallen.)

See also
Premium-Cola (based on original Afri-Cola recipe)

References

External links

Cola brands
Goods manufactured in Germany
Products introduced in 1931
German drinks
Drink brands
Soft drinks

Afri-Cola