Textual criticism is the study of different copies of books or manuscripts. The purpose is to find the original, and see what changes were made to the later versions.

Textual criticism started with the study of the Bible, but now these techniques are used to study many texts.

Basic notions and objectives
The basic problem, as described by Paul Maas, is as follows:
"We have no autograph manuscripts of the Greek and Roman classical writers and no copies which have been [compared] with the originals; the manuscripts we possess derive from the originals through an unknown number of intermediate copies, and are consequentially of questionable trustworthiness. The business of textual criticism is to produce a text as close as possible to the original". p1

The lack of autograph manuscripts applies to many cultures other than Greek and Roman. In such a situation, a key objective becomes the identification of the first exemplar before any split in the tradition. That exemplar is known as the archetype. "If we succeed in establishing the text of [the archetype], the reconstruction of the original is considerably advanced".pp22–23

The textual critic's ultimate objective is the production of a "critical edition". This contains a text most closely approximating the original, which is accompanied by a critical apparatus that presents:
the evidence that the editor considered (names of manuscripts),
the editor's analysis of that evidence and
a record of rejected variants (often in order of preference).pp22–23

Related pages
Criticism
Philology

References

Literature

Textual criticism


A bogie (called a truck in North American English) is a chassis, with wheels, attached to a rail vehicle, such as a boxcar. A bogie usually has four or six wheels. Each rail vehicle has a pair of bogies. The bogies can turn slightly to allow the rail vehicle to pass easily around curves in the railway track.

Rail technologies

Bogie


Megiddo (، ) is a kibbutz in northern Israel, built in 1949. Located in the Jezreel Valley, it falls under the jurisdiction of Megiddo Regional Council. In , it had a population of .

The kibbutz is located near Megiddo Junction, the intersection of highways 65 (from Hadera to Afula) and 66 (running from Haifa south to the West Bank). The junction is the site of a bus terminal and a high-security prison. The kibbutz was built 600 metres north-east of the site of the depopulated Arab village of Lajjun, currently known as Einot Kobi.

In Christian apocalyptic literature, Mount Megiddo, the hill overlooking the valley where the current kibbutz is located, is identified as the site of the final battle between the forces of good and evil at the end of time, known as Armageddon and mentioned in the New Testament in Revelation 16:16.

Geography
The kibbutz is located near the site of the several Battles of Megiddo and Tel Megiddo, a rich archeological site. According to the Bible, the town was apportioned to the tribe of Manasseh (). In 2005, Israeli archaeologists discovered the remains of an ancient church, perhaps the oldest in the Holy Land, under the grounds of the prison. Authorities are speculating about moving the prison so the site can be accessible to tourists.

History

Antiquity
Tel Megiddo is considered one of the most ancient settlements in the Middle East. It guarded the western branch of a narrow pass and trade route connecting Ancient Egypt and Assyria. The site was inhabited from approximately 7000 BCE to 586 BCE though the first significant remains date to the Chalcolithic period (4500–3500 BCE). However, the town experienced a decline in the Early Bronze-Age IV period (2300–2000 BCE), but the city was somewhat revived around 2000 BCE. Following massive construction, the town reached its largest size in the Middle Bronze Age, at 10–12 hectares. Though the city was subjugated by Thutmose III, it still prospered, and a massive and highly elaborate palace was constructed in the Late Bronze Age.

Iron Age (biblical era)
The city was destroyed around 1150 BCE, and the area was resettled by what some scholars have identified as early Israelites, before being replaced with an unwalled Philistine town. When the Israelites captured it, though, it became an important city, before being destroyed, possibly by Aramaean raiders, and rebuilt, this time as an administrative center for Tiglath-Pileser III's occupation of Samaria. However, its importance soon dwindled, and it was finally abandoned around 586 BCE. Since that time Megiddo has remained uninhabited, and surviving ruins pre-dating 586 BCE have had no new settlements to disturb the ruins. Since then, the town of Lajjun (not to be confused with the el-Lajjun archaeological site in Jordan) was built near the site, but without any new habitation or disturbance of the tell itself.

Ottoman period
During the Ottoman Period, Lajjun was the capital of Turabay Emirate (1517-1683), which encompassed the Jezreel Valley, Mount Carmel, Beit She'an Valley, northern Samaria, Ramot Menashe, the northern part of the Sharon plain. It was the center of an eponymous Sanjak (district) and one of Palestine' provincial Capitals during the 16th century. Around 1600, the seat of the Turabays moved to Jenin.

First World War
The Battle of Megiddo was fought during World War I between Allied troops, led by General Edmund Allenby, and the defending Ottoman army near the site of the ancient ruin.

State of Israel

The kibbutz was founded on 2 February 1949 by a gar'in of Holocaust survivors from Hungary and Poland who organized at the end of World War II and fought in the 1948 Arab–Israeli war. At first the members settled on the ruins of the Arab village al-Lajjun and several years later, relocated to a nearby hill. In 1952 a gar'in of migrants from Lebanon and Mexico joined the kibbutz. In 1959, another gar'in of migrants from Argentina and in the next years more gar'ins joined and youth organizations volunteered in the kibbutz, but the population did not grow as members left the kibbutz.

The kibbutz had problems developing demographically and economically. The number of residents remained low, with a high turnover of residents until the late 1990s. In November 2000, due to demographic problems and economic instability, members of the kibbutz decided to change the lifestyle and structure of the kibbutz in a way that every member is now responsible for his or her own livelihood and the kibbutz provides only some welfare services. Also, the members of the kibbutz decided to transfer the ownership of the housing units and businesses from the kibbutz to the residents.

In 2007, two new neighbourhoods were built on the western and northern parts of the kibbutz with 108 housing units.

Twin towns – sister cities
Megiddo is twinned with:
 Ixelles, Belgium
  Hita, Japan

See also
Legio

References

External links
Megiddo Regional Council

Kibbutzim
Kibbutz Movement
Populated places established in 1949
Populated places in Northern District (Israel)
1949 establishments in Israel

Megiddo, Israel


Subject ( "lying beneath") may refer to:

Education
 Subject (school), a course of academic instruction

Library and information science
 Subject (documents) (subject classification; subject indexing; subject searching)
 Subject term or index term, descriptor of a document used in bibliographic records

Philosophy
Subject (philosophy), a being that has subjective experiences, subjective consciousness, or a relationship with another entity
Subject–object problem, the issue of how actors or observers relate to things that are observed or acted upon

Linguistics
 In general, any topic currently under consideration; see subject (school)
 Subject (grammar), who or what a sentence or a clause is about
 Subject case or nominative case, one of the grammatical cases for a noun

Computing
 Subjects (programming), core elements in the subject-oriented programming paradigm

Music
 The melodic material presented first in a fugue
 Either of the two main groups of themes (first subject, second subject) in sonata form

People
A subject is an individual subjected to the rule by an elite, see feudalism
subjects in medieval feudalism, see commoners
subjects in modern constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, see British subject

Statistics and psychology
 A subject is someone or something that undergoes testing in a scientific experiment.

Subject


For the 1936-1939 Spanish Civil War units, see Louise Michel Battalions

Louise Michel (1830-1905) was a French anarchist, school teacher and medical worker. She sometimes used the pseudonym Clémence and was also known as the red virgin of Montmartre.

Life
Louise Michel was born at the Château of Vroncourt (Haute-Marne) on 29 May 1830, the daughter of Marianne Michel, and of Etienne Charles Demahis. She was brought up by her father's parents, and received a libertaria education. After her grandfather's death in 1850 she was trained to teach, but after few times she saw that Napoleon III prevented her from serving in a state school. She became violently anti-Bonapartist, and is said to have thought about the assassination of Napoleon III. She became anarchist in 1866 to a school in the Montmartre quarter of Paris, where she saw that his destiny was to work for charity and follow the revolution.

Paris
She was active during the Paris Commune as an ambulance woman, she helped mutilated or injured on the barricades. During the Siege of Paris she was in resistance against the Prussians. On the establishment of the Commune, she joined the National Guard. She offered to shoot Thiers, and suggested the destruction of Paris for its surrender.

She was with the Communards who made their last stand in the cemetery of Montmartre, and was closely allied with Théophile Ferré, who was executed in November 1871. Michel dedicated a moving farewell poem to Ferré, l'œillet rouge (The Red Carnation). It is without a doubt that upon learning of this loss, Victor Hugo dedicated his poem to Michel, Viro Major. This ardent attachment was perhaps one of the sources of the exaltation which marked her career, and gave many handles to her enemies. After December 1871, she began composing revolutionary propaganda; demanding assistance for poor people, other measures which threatened the government, and calls for the disenfranchised to arm themselves. She herself took up arms as well and donned a military style uniform. She never renounced the Commune, and after various legal maneuvers city judges sentenced her to death. She spent twenty months in prison and was sentenced to deportation.

Deportation
She was put onto the ship Virginie on the 8th of August, 1873, to be deported.  She arrived in New Caledonia 4 months later. On board, she met Henri Rochefort, a famous polemist, who became her friend until her death. She also met Nathalie Lemel, another figure active in the commune. Louise was in New Caledonia for seven years. She refused special treatment reserved for women. In 1878 she was a leader in a revolt. The following year, she received authorisation to become a teacher in Nouméa for the children of the deported—among them many Kabyles (Kabyles du Pacifique) from Cheikh Mokrani's rebellion (1871)—and later in schools for girls.

Return to France
Michel returned to Paris in 1880 after amnesty was given to the Communards. Her revolutionary spirit never died and she controlled freely a libertarian school. She travelled everywhere in France, supporting revolution. In 1883 she led a Paris mob which pillaged a baker's shop. For this she was given six years imprisonment, but was released in 1886, at the same time as Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists. After a short period of freedom she was again arrested for speaking bad about the social system.

She was soon free again, but, hearing that her enemies hoped to put her in a lunatic asylum, she went to England in 1890. She returned to France in 1895, taking part in the revolt made by the Dreyfuss affair in 1898. Few months ago she was constantly followed by the police, until she died in "Room 11", in the Hotel Oasis, Marseilles on January 10, 1905.

The women in the social
Michel became highly admired by French workers and revolutionaries, particularly for her association with the Paris Commune. From after her death until 1916, a demonstration was held every year at her tomb at Levallois-Perret. Frequently, the language used to describe her is that reserved for saints and heretics; she is often referred to as "Bonne Louise" (Good Louise) or the "Vierge rouge" (red Virgin). She was always respected same in periods when women were without right.

The Metrò
On May 1, 1946, the Parisian métro station "Vallier" was renamed Louise Michel, see: Louise Michel (Paris Metro).

Articles and books
 À travers la vie, poetry, Paris, 1894.
 Le Bâtard impérial, by L. Michel and J. Winter, Paris, 1883.
 Le claque-dents, Paris.
 La Commune, Paris, 1898.
 Contes et légendes, Paris, 1884.
 Les Crimes de l'époque, nouvelles inédites, Paris, 1888.
 Défense de Louise Michel, Bordeaux, 1883.
 L'Ère nouvelle, pensée dernière, souvenirs de Calédonie (prisoners' songs), Paris, 1887
 La Fille du peuple par L. Michel et A. Grippa, Paris (1883) Fleurs et ronces, poetry, Paris,
 Le Gars Yvon, légende bretonne, Paris, 1882.
 Lectures encyclopédiques par cycles attractifs, Paris, 1888.
 Ligue internationale des femmes révolutionnaires, Appel à une réunion. Signed "Louise Michel", Paris, 1882.
 Le livre du jour de l'an : historiettes, contes et légendes pour les enfants, Paris, 1872.
 Lueurs dans l'ombre. Plus d'idiots, plus de fous. L'âme intelligente. L'idée libre. L'esprit lucide de la terre à Dieu... Paris, 1861.
 Manifeste et proclamation de Louise Michel aux citoyennes de Paris, Signed "Louise Maboul", Paris, 1883.
 Mémoires, Paris, 1886, t. 1.
 Les Méprises, grand roman de mœurs parisiennes, par Louise Michel et Jean Guêtré, Paris, 1882.
 Les Microbes humains, Paris, 1886.
 La Misère by Louise Michel, 2nd part, and Jean Guêtré 1st part, Paris, 1882.
 Le Monde nouveau, Paris, 1888
 Vol. I. Avant la Commune. Preface by Laurent Tailhade, Alfortville, 1905.
 Les Paysans by Louise Michel et Émile Gautier, Paris, (Incomplete).
 Prise de possession, Saint-Denis, 1890.
 Le Rêve (in a work by Constant Martin), Paris, 1898.
 Légendes et chants de gestes canaques. Présentation. Gérard Oberlé. Edition 1900. 1988.
 , edition established by Xavière Gauthier, Édition de Paris-Max Chaleil, 1999.

Related pages
 Anarchism in France
 Louise Michel Battalions - Spanish Civil War

References

Other websites

 Louise Michel archive at the Anarchy Archives
 Les Louise Mitchels - French D.I.Y. jazz-punk band influenced by the life and work of Louise Michel

1830 births
1905 deaths
Anarchists
French teachers

Louise Michel


The National Opera and Ballet () is a national cultural institution in Bulgaria that covers opera and ballet. It is based in an imposing building in Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria.

The first opera company in Bulgaria was founded in 1890 as part of the Capital Opera and Drama Company. The two sections split in 1891 to form the Salza i Smyah theatrical company and the Capital Bulgarian Opera. It was, however, disbanded the next year due to lack of government funding and financial difficulties.

The Bulgarian Opera Society was established in 1908 and staged its first test performance. The first full opera was performed in 1909 — Pagliacci by Leoncavallo. The first Bulgarian opera works were also presented in the period, including Siromahkinya by Emanuil Manolov, Kamen i Tsena by Ivan Ivanov and Václav Kaucký, Borislav by Georgi Atanasov and Tahir Begovitsa by Dimitar Hadzhigeorgiev.

As the company evolved under the ensemble system and style, the permanent troupe of soloists, choir, orchestra, ballet, technical and production teams produced up to 10 opera and ballet premieres a year, in addition to concert programs. Gradually, the basic repertory of world opera classics was established at the same time as the theatre began to attract Bulgarian composers who created new national works. 20th Century performers such as Nicolai Ghiaurov, Nicola Ghiuselev, and Ghena Dimitrova began their careers within the structure of the National Opera, as did later singers such as Irena Petkova and Kiril Manolov.

The institution became a national one in 1922 and changed its name to National Opera. A ballet company was established and gave its first performance in 1928. The opera ceased its activity for a while after the 1944 bombing of Sofia, but was restored shortly afterward with a significant increase of government funding.

The National Opera and Ballet's building was designed in 1921 and built for the most part between 1947 and its opening in 1953.

In 2000, the company co-organized the Boris Christoff Twelfth International Competition for Young Opera Singers with the idea of attracting a younger audience and supporting young and upcoming singers.

The repertoire historically tended to favour the Italian and French repertoire with little Wagnerian tradition, although since 2010, the artistic director of the opera company Plamen Kartaloff began a Ring Cycle with entirely Bulgarian casts. Following the entry of Parsifal and Tristan und Isolde into the repertoire, the complete cycle was performed both in Moscow and Sofia during 2018.

References

External links

 More pictures

Opera houses in Bulgaria
Ballet companies
Theatres in Sofia
1890 establishments in Bulgaria
Bulgarian opera companies
Ballet venues
Buildings and structures in Sofia
Tourist attractions in Sofia
Theatres completed in 1953
Music venues completed in 1953

National Opera and Ballet of Bulgaria


Maple Hill Cemetery is the oldest and largest cemetery in Huntsville, Alabama, United States. Founded on two acres (8,000 m2) in about the year 1822, it now encompasses nearly 100 acres (400,000 m2) and contains over 80,000 burials. It was added to the Alabama Historical Commission's Historic Cemetery Register in 2008, and to the National Register of Historic Places in 2012. Its occupants include five governors of Alabama, five United States senators, and numerous other figures of local, state, and national note. It is located east of the Twickenham Historic District.

History

The original two acres (8,000 m2) of the cemetery were sold to the city of Huntsville on September 14, 1822, by planter LeRoy Pope. Though early burials are difficult to document, there is substantial evidence that the land had been in use as a cemetery for some time prior to its official establishment. The oldest grave with marker intact is that of Mary Frances Atwood, infant daughter of William and Martha Caroline Atwood, who died September 17, 1820. Headstones are sparse in the oldest section, many having decayed over time and been discarded, and it is likely that many unmarked graves share a similarly early date.

The cemetery was expanded at some point after 1849 to include the two acres (8,000 m2) on which LeRoy Pope and his family were buried. There are some indications that this land, which had until then remained a part of the Pope estate, may already have been in use as a burial ground. Pope's son-in-law John Williams Walker had died in 1823, Pope's wife Judith in 1827, and Pope himself in 1844. It is known that the Popes maintained a private cemetery on their plantation, but it is unclear whether the Pope graves were moved to their present location following the sale of the Pope estate in 1849, or whether this property in fact contained the existing Pope cemetery. Several other monuments in this section suggest its use at least as early as 1844.

During the Civil War, Maple Hill Cemetery became the burial site of 187 unknown Confederate soldiers and an uncertain number of Union soldiers. Most of the Confederate soldiers, buried in the Confederate section on the north side of the cemetery, died early in the war of disease or accidents while training in camps close to Huntsville. The names of many of them are known, but it is unknown who lies in which grave. Numerous Union troops who died during the federal occupation of Huntsville are believed to have been buried in unmarked graves throughout the oldest section of the cemetery. Most of the Union graves were moved to Chattanooga National Cemetery in 1867, though some may have been missed.

In 1873, the cemetery was further expanded through the purchase from James J. Donegan of 12.45 acres (50,380 m2) that had previously been a part of the Pope estate. In this new addition were two sections consecrated for religious congregations, a Hebrew burial ground and a Catholic burial ground.

To accommodate increasing growth in Huntsville because of industrialization, the city purchased an additional 3.2 acres (13,000 m2) in 1881 from Morris and Henrietta Bernstein. In 1903, it purchased another 6.14 acres (24,800 m2) from Mary Y. McClelland of St. Louis, Missouri.

In 1901, the cemetery, which had until then been called only "the burying ground," was given its official name.

Automobile magnate Albert Russel Erskine made a substantial gift to the cemetery in 1918 of about 12 acres (49,000 m2). Erskine, a descendant of several prominent Huntsvillians buried in the cemetery, had acquired the land from a neighboring residential development, probably prompted by the death of his mother in 1915. On a circular plot in the center of the addition, Erskine constructed an imposing mausoleum to contain the remains of his parents, his wife, and himself. The cemetery's stone entrance and the wide road proceeding from it to the mausoleum were also funded by Erskine. Three additional properties, purchased in 1920, completed the Erskine Addition.

The purchase from James B. Stevens in 1924 of 59 acres (240,000 m2) on the east side of the cemetery more than tripled its size and gave it its present shape.

In 1987, a private company, Maple Hill Cemetery, Inc., developed a cemetery adjacent to the cemetery proper on land formerly used by the city of Huntsville for athletic fields.

In 2007, the city owned part of the cemetery had virtually run out of available plots and attempted to enlarge the cemetery by first removing playground equipment and picnic tables of an adjoining city park with a plan to create burial plots on the park land.  This was met with extreme resistance from residents in nearby neighborhoods. The public outcry of city actions without the proper due process was enough to stop the encroachment into the park and neighborhoods.

The playground on the grounds of the cemetery is referred to as "Dead Children's Playground" by locals and is considered to be Alabama's most haunted site. Visitor's cite glowing orbs, ghosts of children who died in the Flu Epidemic of 1918, and the swings going without being touched. Despite local legends it is a regular teen hangout for many generations and was the driving force in the restoration of the playground after it was taken down in 2007.

The Huntsville Meridian

The Huntsville Meridian intersects Maple Hill Cemetery. Plotted in 1807 by surveyor Thomas Freeman, it is the longitudinal line from which all land in North Alabama was surveyed. Freeman died in 1821 and is buried in the cemetery. The tallest monument in the cemetery was erected on the meridian by another surveyor, Richard W. Anderson, "in memory of deceased relatives and to perpetuate the Huntsville Meridian."

Notable burials

Governors of Alabama

 Thomas Bibb (1782–1839), served 1820 to 1821.
 Clement Comer Clay (1789–1866), served 1835 to 1837; formerly a U.S. representative; later a U.S. senator.
 Reuben Chapman (1799–1882), served 1847 to 1849; formerly a U.S. representative.
 Robert M. Patton (1809–1885), served 1865 to 1868.
 David P. Lewis (1820–1884), served 1872 to 1874.

United States senators

 John Williams Walker (1783–1823), Alabama's first senator, served 1819 to 1822.
 Clement Comer Clay (1789–1866), served 1837 to 1841; formerly a governor and U.S. representative.
 Jeremiah Clemens (1814–1865), served 1849 to 1853.
 Clement Claiborne Clay (1816–1882), served 1853 to 1861; later a Confederate States senator.
 John J. Sparkman (1899–1985), served 1946 to 1979.

United States representatives

 Clement Comer Clay (1789–1866), served 1829 to 1835; later a governor and U.S. senator.
 Reuben Chapman (1799–1882), served 1835 to 1847; later a governor.
 Peter Myndert Dox (1813–1891), served 1869 to 1873.
 Joseph Humphrey Sloss (1826–1911), served 1871 to 1875.
 William Willis Garth (1828–1912), served 1877 to 1879.
 William M. Lowe (1842–1882), served 1879 to 1881 and 1882.
 William N. Richardson (1839–1914), served 1900 to 1914.
 Jabez Leftwich (1765–1855), served the state of Virginia 1821 to 1825.
 Addison White (1824–1909), served the state of Kentucky 1851 to 1853.
 Lowndes Henry Davis (1836–1920), served the state of Missouri 1879 to 1885.

Confederate leaders

 Thomas Fearn (1789–1863), deputy to Provisional Confederate Congress (resigned after first session).
 Nicholas Davis, Jr. (1825–1875), delegate to Alabama Secession Convention; deputy to Provisional Confederate Congress, April 1861 to 1862; lieutenant colonel in Confederate States Army.
 Clement Claiborne Clay (1816–1882), Confederate States senator, 1862 to 1864; formerly a U.S. senator.
 Richard Wilde Walker (1823–1874), deputy to Provisional Confederate Congress, 1861 to 1862; Confederate States senator, 1864 to 1865.
 David P. Lewis (1820–1884), deputy to Provisional Confederate Congress (resigned after first session); later governor.
 LeRoy Pope Walker (1817–1884), first Confederate States secretary of war, 1861; also a Confederate brigadier general.

Military figures

 Dr. David Moore (1787–1845), family physician of General Andrew Jackson, State Legislator in 1830–1835.
 Egbert J. Jones (d. 1861), colonel of the 4th Alabama Infantry Regiment, CSA, killed in the First Battle of Manassas.
 William T. H. Brooks (1821–1870), Union brigadier general.
 Gilbert M. L. Johnson (1837–1871), Union brevet brigadier general.
 LeRoy Pope Walker (1817–1884), Confederate brigadier general; formerly Confederate secretary of war.
 Robert L. Spragins (d. 1964), Major general who commanded 71st and 44th Infantry Divisions in World War II.

Other people

 Thomas Freeman (d. 1821), United States Surveyor General.
 LeRoy Pope (1765–1844), early planter and "Father of Huntsville."
 Priscilla Holmes Drake (1812–1892), woman suffragist.
 Virginia Clay-Clopton (1823–1915), wife of Clement Claiborne Clay, memoirist and socialite.
 Albert Russel Erskine (1871–1933), automobile magnate and president of Studebaker Motors.
 W. T. Hutchens (1859–1940) Mayor of Huntsville, politician.
 Harry Rhett Townes (1914–2001), Actor, Episcopal minister.
 Konrad Dannenberg (1912–2009), German-American rocket pioneer and member of the German rocket team brought to the United States after World War II.
 Don Mincher (1938–2012), Major League Baseball player.
 Georg von Tiesenhausen (1914–2018), German-American rocket pioneer and member of the German rocket team brought to the United States after World War II.

Notes

References
 Robey, Diane, Dorothy Scott Johnson, John Rison Jones, Jr., and Frances C. Roberts. Maple Hill Cemetery: Phase One. Huntsville: Huntsville-Madison County Historical Society, 1995.
 Kestenbaum, Lawrence. The Political Graveyard. Accessed April 3, 2006.
 Marsh, Louise and Minnie Marie Hedden. Maple Hill Cemetery, Huntsville, Alabama. Huntsville: Twickenham Woman's Club.
 Wells, Charles R. "Maple Hill Cemetery Confederate Burials." Copied from The Valiant Survivors: The United Confederate Veterans of Madison County.

External links

 City of Huntsville Cemetery Department

Cemeteries in Huntsville, Alabama
National Register of Historic Places in Huntsville, Alabama
Cemeteries on the National Register of Historic Places in Alabama
1822 establishments in Alabama
Cemeteries established in the 1820s

Maple Hill Cemetery (Huntsville, Alabama)


Telephone counseling refers to any type of psychological service performed over the telephone. Telephone counseling ranges from individual, couple or group psychotherapy with a professional therapist to psychological first aid provided by para-professional counselors. In-person therapists often advise clients to make use of telephone crisis counseling to provide the client with an avenue to obtain support outside of therapy if they cannot be reached in an emergency or at the conclusion of a therapeutic relationship.

Telephone counseling is also provided by crisis hotlines, quitlines, and child helplines.

Professional counseling by telephone
Researchers have begun observing a growing trend in which licensed psychotherapists and psychologists are now seeing at least some of their clients via the telephone. A body of research exists comparing the efficacy of telephone counseling to in-person counseling and to no treatment. A recent study found that more than half of clients (58%) who had experienced both in-person and phone counseling preferred phone counseling. A 2002 study found that phone counseling clients rate their counseling relationship similarly to in-person clients. Phone counseling has been established as an effective treatment for diagnoses ranging from depression to agoraphobia.

Crisis hotlines

Crisis hotlines, also known as helplines, provide telephone support services which   often serve the primary function of suicide prevention.  However, many of these helplines also accept calls from people who are not in active suicidal crisis, and the term "emotional support helpline" is sometimes used to avoid the implication that a caller must be in crisis to use these services. Some emotional support services employ email and messaging technologies. Crisis hotlines may be state-funded or provided by churches or charities.

Quitlines

Quitlines are helplines that offer advanced treatment for addiction and behavior change. Quitlines should not be confused with centralized call centers offering advice in a wide spectrum of fields for the purpose of receiving and transmitting a large volume of requests.

Child helplines
Child helplines are help and support services for children, run by civil society organizations and or government bodies. Child helplines specialize in offering information, support, advice or counseling to people 18 years of age or younger. Child Helpline International, an international network of child helplines, was formed in 2003 to support the development of child helplines and enable the information gathered by child helplines around the world on children's rights and welfare issues to be assembled for advocacy purposes.

Advantages over in-person therapy
Unlike other forms of counseling, telephone counseling is potentially free of certain constraining factors that affect traditional therapy, including geography, time, duration, and cost, making this form of counseling more accessible for a number of people who would be unable to attend traditional psychotherapy. It also provides a degree of anonymity that is comforting to some callers, reducing the intimidation that some people may feel at the prospect of seeking treatment with a traditional in-person therapist and encouraging disclosure. Also research shows telephone counseling to have better results among patients with depression.

Disadvantages over in-person therapy
Being physically present with your counselor may help you feel more connected with him or her; the telephone may contribute to "distance" in the therapeutic relationship.  Some people feel safer letting themselves become emotional in the physical presence of another person.

Because the client often calls from a location that is part of their day-to-day life, calls often center around, or are interrupted by, situational pressures that the person is currently immersed in. This can have both positive and negative effects on the counseling provided; by allowing the counselor some insight into the person's situation, the counselor can be more objective. Conversely, the disruptions and pressures of situational factors may make it difficult for the client to adopt a reflective state or maintain full focus on the counseling session.

In the case of para-professional counseling (meaning a non-licensed therapist), there may not be guaranteed privacy; the electronic technologies involved make it difficult to prevent multiple phone connections, loudspeakers, or recording of the interactions. This fact may present a problem to a paranoid personality who suspects that others are monitoring his or her calls.

If the counseling is provided by an organization staffed by a number of employees or volunteers, a repeat caller cannot develop a relationship with a counselor in the same way as in traditional therapy, which may impede progress. These organizations typically limit calls in time and frequency, preventing deeper analysis and thus the use of therapeutic modalities that depend on it (i.e. psychoanalysis).

Phone counseling is not appropriate for people who are homicidal, suicidal, self injuring, or requiring more care than one session per week. Phone counselors may not be acquainted with local emergency service options.  Counselors at locally operated suicide hotlines are trained in emergency services and acquainted with local resources.

Examples of nonprofit telephone counseling services
 The Jeevan Aastha Helpline is an initiative by the Gandhinagar Police Department, Gujarat to provide assistance to those seeking immediate mental health counselling across India. The helpline has a toll free number 1800 233 3330 which can be called on 24/7. The team comprises eight counsellors and one senior counsellor, all of whom have at least a master's degree in Psychology.
 The Volunteer Emotional Support Helplines (VESH) is an organisation representing helplines in 61 countries. It has been formed by
New Zealand has a community-based, youth-oriented Telephone counseling service, Youthline. Based in 11 local centers around the country, Youthline enlists 1100 volunteers nationwide (100 of whom are working in an online context).
Australia has a national Telephone counseling service, Lifeline.  Also, the larger cities in Australia have other specialised Telephone counseling services, for example:  domestic violence, war-victims, youth, gambling, finances, substance abuse, parenting or child care.
The United States has a government-funded suicide prevention hotline called the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline, which provides 24/7 crisis intervention counseling to suicidal callers.  It involves thousands of volunteers at over 120 crisis centers nationwide.  It also has a 24/7 National Domestic Violence Hotline.
In the United Kingdom, well known helplines include ChildLine and The Samaritans. There are a range of specialist helplines for victims of rape, sexual violence and sexual abuse run by third sector organisations, many of which are brought together through membership of The Survivors Trust network.
In Canada, Kids Help Phone is the best known youth helpline, operating since 1989. Naseeha is the first youth helpline specifically for Muslim youth in Canada.
Childline India Foundation: CHILDLINE "1098"  is a non-profit helpline for children.
In Egypt, National council for childhood and motherhood provides the only helpline for domestic violence, reproductive health issues, family planning, marriage counseling, health education. Also receive reporting on any form of child trafficking victims. Clients are invited for in-person counseling sessions.
 Healmind is an initiative by the students of  National Institute for Empowerment of Persons with Multiple Disabilities in kerala to help those seeking mental health counselling in south india including Kerala , Tamilnadu ,Karnataka  their online service available  24/7. The team Healmind comprises six Clinical Psychologist whom have MPhil in Psychology.

See also
 Crisis hotline
 Telepsychiatry
 List of counseling topics
 Online counselling
 Helpline
 Suicide helpline

References

External links
 Tele-psychology tool for Psychologists and Counselors

Psychotherapies
Counseling
Crisis hotlines
Telemedicine

Telephone counseling


Samara (Russian: Самара) is the ninth largest city in Russia. It is the administrative center of Samara Oblast. About 1,164,685 people live in the city.

It is in the southeastern part of European Russia at the confluence of the Volga and Samara Rivers. It is on the east bank of the Volga. Samara is the economic and cultural center in European Russian. They hosted the European Union–Russia summit in May 2007.

From 1935 to 1991 the city was known as Kuybyshev (Russian: Куйбышев).

Cities and towns in Samara Oblast
Capitals of oblasts of Russia

Samara, Russia


A rib is a bone that forms a structure around the thorax of vertebrates. This is known as the rib cage. Humans have 24 ribs, 12 on each side.

It is a common urban legend that male humans have one fewer pair of ribs than female humans. However, this is not true. This came from the Christian bible explaining the creation of Eve from the rib of Adam.

Other websites

Bones

Rib


Cumulants sebaran probabiliti

Dina probability theory jeung statistik, cumulants κn tiprobability distribution dirumuskeun ku

nu mana X nyaéta unggal variabel random sebaran probabiliti is the one whose cumulants are taken.  In other words, κn/n! is the nth coefficient in the power series representation of the logarithm of the moment-generating function.  The logarithm of the moment-generating function is therefore called the cumulant-generating function.

The "problem of cumulants" attempts to recover a probability distribution from its sequence of cumulants.  In some cases no solution exists; in some cases a unique solution exists; in some cases more than one solution exists.

Some properties of cumulants

Invariance and equivariance

The first cumulant is shift-equivariant; all of the others are shift-invariant.    To state this less tersely, denote by κn(X) the nth cumulant of the probability distribution of the random variable X.  The statement is that if c is constant then κ1(X + c) = κ1(X) + c and κn(X + c) = κn(X) for n≥ 2, i.e., c is added to the first cumulant, but all higher cumulants are unchanged.

Homogeneity

The nth cumulant is homogenéous of degree n, i.e. if c is any constant, then

Additivity

If X and Y are independent random variables then κn(X + Y) = κn(X) + κn(Y).

Cumulants and moments

The cumulants are related to the moments by the following recursion formula:

The nth moment μ′n is an nth-degree polynomial in the first n cumulants, thus:

The "prime" distinguishes the moments μ′n from the central moments μn.  To express the central moments as functions of the cumulants, just drop from these polynomials all terms in which κ1 appéars as a factor.

The coefficients are precisely those that occur in Faà di Bruno's formula.

Cumulants and set-partitions

These polynomials have a remarkable combinatorial interpretation: the coefficients count certain partitions of sets.  A general form of these polynomials is

where

π runs through the list of all partitions of a set of size n;
"B ∈ π" méans B is one of the "blocks" into which the set is partitioned; and
|B| is the size of the set B.

Thus éach monomial is a constant times a product of cumulants in which the sum of the indices is n (e.g., in the term κ3 κ22 κ1, the sum of the indices is 3 + 2 + 2 + 1 = 8; this appéars in the polynomial that expresses the 8th moment as a function of the first eight cumulants).  A partition of the integer n  corresponds to éach term.  The coefficient in éach term is the number of partitions of a set of n members that collapse to that partition of the integer n when the members of the set become indistinguishable.

Cumulants of particular probability distributions

Cumulant sebaran normal mibanda nilai ekspektasi μ sarta varian σ2 mangrupa κ1 = μ, κ2 = σ2, sarta κn = 0 keur n > 2.

Sakabéh cumulant sebaran Poisson sarua jeung nilai ekspektasi.

A distribution with arbitrary given cumulants κn can be approximated through the Gram-Charlier or Edgeworth series.

Joint cumulants

The joint cumulant of several random variables X1, ..., Xn is

where π runs through the list of all partitions of { 1, ..., n }, and B runs through the list of all block of the partition π.  For example,

The joint cumulant of just one random variable is its expected value, and that of two random variables is their kovarian.  If some of the random variables are idependent of all of the others, then the joint cumulant is zero.  If all n random variables are the same, then the joint cumulant is the nth ordinary cumulant.

The combinatorial méaning of the expression of moments in terms of cumulants is éasier to understand than that of cumulants in terms of moments:

where κ(XB) is the joint cumulant of those among the random variables  X1, ..., Xn whose indices are included in the block B.  For example:

Conditional cumulants

The law of total expectation and the law of total variance generalize naturally to conditional cumulants.  The case n = 3, expressed in the language of (central) moments rather than that of cumulants, says

The general result stated below first appéared in 1969 in The Calculation of Cumulants via Conditioning by David R. Brillinger in volume 21 of Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics, pages 215-218.

In general, we have

where

 the sum is over all partitions π of the set { 1, ..., n } of indices, and
 π1, ..., πb are all of the "blocks" of the partition π; the expression κ(Xπk) indicates that the joint cumulant of the random variables whose indices are in that block of the partition.

History

Cumulants were first introduced by the Danish astronomer, actuary, mathematician, and statistician Thorvald N. Thiele (1838 - 1910) in 1889.  Thiele called them half-invariants.  They were first called cumulants in a 1931 paper, The derivation of the pattern formulae of two-way partitions from those of simpler patterns, Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2, v. 33, pp. 195–208, by the gréat statistical geneticist Sir Ronald Fisher and the statistician John Wishart, eponym of the Sebaran Wishart.  The historian Stephen Stigler has said that the name cumulant was suggested to Fisher in a letter from Harold Hotelling.  In another paper published in 1929, Fisher had called them cumulative moment functions.

"Formal" cumulants

More generally, the cumulants of a sequence { mn : n = 1, 2, 3, ... }, not necessarily the moments of any probability distribution, are given by

where the values of κn for n = 1, 2, 3, ... are found "formally", i.e., by algebra alone, in disregard of questions of whether any series converges.  All of the difficulties of the "problem of cumulants" are absent when one works "formally".  The simplest example is that the second cumulant of a probability distribution must always be nonnegative, and is zero only if all of the higher cumulants are zero.  "Formal" cumulants are subject to no such constraints.

One well-known example

In combinatorics, the nth Bell number is the number of partitions of a set of size n.  All of the cumulants of the sequence of Bell numbers are equal to 1.  The Bell numbers are the moments of the Poisson distribution with nilai ekspektasi 1.

Cumulants of a polynomial sequence of binomial type

For any sequence { κn : n = 1, 2, 3, ... } of scalars in a field of characteristic zero, being considered formal cumulants, there is a corresponding sequence { μ ′ : n = 1, 2, 3, ... } of formal moments, given by the polynomials above.  For those polynomials, construct a polynomial sequence in the following way.  Out the polynomial

make a new polynomial in these plus one additional variable x:

... and generalize the pattern.  The pattern is that the numbers of blocks in the aforementioned partitions are the exponents on x.  éach coefficient is a polynomial in the cumulants; these are the Bell polynomials, named after Eric Temple Bell.

This sequence of polynomials is of binomial type.  In fact, no other sequences of binomial type exist; every polynomial sequence of binomial type is completely determined by its sequence of formal cumulants.

Probability theory
Statistika

Cumulant


In algebra, commutative ring is a set of elements in which you can add and multiply and have multiplication distribute over addition. An example of a commutative ring is the set of integers. If we add two integers, we get an integer and if we multiply two integers we get another integer. Moreover, multiplication distributes in the sense that if a, b, and c are integers, then c*(a+b)=ca+cb.

Abstract algebra

Commutative ring


USS Wayne (APA-54) was a  that served with the US Navy during World War II.

Wayne was originally laid down as a type C2-S-E1 ship under Maritime Commission contract (MC hull 476), yard hull 7 (U.S. Official Number 251508) on 20 April 1942 as Afoundria at Chickasaw, Alabama, by the Gulf Shipbuilding Corporation. The ship was renamed Wayne and classified as a transport, AP-99, on 26 October 1942; launched on 6 December 1942; sponsored by Mrs. N. G. Nicolson; reclassified an attack transport, APA-54, on 1 February 1943; acquired by the Navy on 30 April 1943; delivered to the Navy the following day, 1 May 1943, and simultaneously placed in commission "in ordinary."

Taken to the Bethlehem Steel Corporation at Key Highway Yard, Baltimore, Maryland, Wayne was converted for naval service. Decommissioned on 11 May 1943 for the duration of the conversion work, Wayne (APA-54) was recommissioned at Baltimore on 27 August 1943.

World War II
Wayne departed Baltimore on 1 September and headed down the eastern seaboard to Norfolk, Virginia., where she arrived the following day to take on fuel, stores, equipment and a full complement of landing craft. After shakedown training in Chesapeake Bay, Wayne departed Hampton Roads on 4 October, bound for New York. Upon finishing loading at New York, she put to sea on 13 October and, escorted by destroyer  and destroyer escort , headed for the Pacific. The attack transport transited the Panama Canal on 21 and 22 October and arrived at Naval Base San Diego at the end of the month. For the remainder of 1943, Wayne operated out of San Diego on training exercises with various battalion landing teams of the 4th Marine Division.

On 13 January 1944, Wayne got underway with marines of the 3rd Battalion (Reinforced), 24th Marines embarked and steamed in convoy for the Hawaiian Islands. She arrived at Lahaina Roads, Maui, Territory of Hawaii, on the 21st. There, she fueled from oiler  and took on stores from store ship . She departed Hawaiian waters two days later, bound for the Marshall Islands.

Invasion of Kwajalein

Arriving off Kwajalein on 30 January as part of the northern landing force, Wayne transferred her marines to LSTs which then carried them inside the lagoon to the beachhead. After retiring to the open sea at night, the attack transport returned to the transport area the next morning, lowered her boats, and commenced unloading cargo.

On the afternoon of 1 February, Wayne left the Marshalls and put in at Funafuti, in the Ellice Islands, on the 9th. Fueling there, Wayne and attack transport  were detached from the homeward-bound convoy on the 17th, near Efate, in the New Hebrides, and anchored in Havannah Harbor. Nine days later, Wayne and her consort shifted to Guadalcanal. Wayne trained with marines in the Solomons before she moved to Nouméa, New Caledonia, on 21 March. Subsequently, after discharging naval passengers at Guadalcanal, she shifted to Emirau, St. Matthias Islands.

Wayne disembarked marine replacements for the garrison there on 11 April. That same day, she stood out of Emirau harbor on a return run to Guadalcanal with the 1st Battalion, 4th Marine Division, embarked. Wayne performed a similar reinforcement mission to New Britain where American forces had been fighting to push back Japanese troops since the previous December. At the time the attack transport arrived there, Allied troops had established a line about halfway across the island toward Rabaul and were awaiting more aid before continuing the push.

On 18 April, Wayne began embarking men of the 213th Field Artillery Battalion, 4th Marine Division, and on the 20th stood out to relieve the 1st Marine Division on New Britain, arriving on 23 April. Wayne then began a complicated cargo and man-handling task. While troops and equipment of the 213th Field Artillery Battalion were being disembarked and unloaded on one side of the ship, men of the 4th Battalion, 11th Marines, were being embarked on the other. Completing that assignment on the 25th, Wayne sailed to the Russells, where she unloaded cargo and disembarked more troops on the 28th before moving on to Guadalcanal the same day. From 10 May to 3 June, Wayne trained at Guadalcanal.

Invasion of Saipan
On 4 June, the attack transport stood out for Kwajalein – the staging area for the forthcoming Marianas campaign – and, from the 9th to the 12th, participated in staging and rehearsal operations. On the latter day, Wayne got underway for the Marianas. Her embarked Marines – 1st Battalion, 21st Marines, 3rd Marine Division – were earmarked to land at Guam if not needed at Saipan.

On 15 June, transports under Vice Admiral Richmond K. Turner landed Marines under the command of Lt. Gen. Holland M. Smith, USMC, on Saipan, covered by intensive naval gunfire and carrier-based air support. Wayne steamed offshore for several days after the initial assault. During the Battle of the Philippine Sea, which took place between the 19th and the 21st, Wayne remained on station about 250 miles east of Guam, while the action was taking place some 500 miles to the west of the island. On 25 June, her troops as yet unused, the attack transport – part of Task Group 53 (TG 53) – was ordered to retire to the Marshalls to await further orders.

Invasion of Guam
Wayne remained at anchor in Eniwetok lagoon from the end of June through mid-July. Underway on 17 July, the attack transport proceeded to Guam, where she arrived three days later. There, she witnessed part of the intensive preinvasion shelling by the gunfire support ships in the task force under Rear Admiral R. L. Conolly. Carrier-based air attacks also assisted in the "softening up" process.

At 08:28 on 21 July, Wayne'''s embarked marines headed for shore in the first wave of the invasion. The attack transport completed her unloading of equipment on the morning of the 23rd. During her stay, she received 177 wounded troops from the beaches, and her medical department rendered sterling work in the care and treatment of those men. Wayne stood by for two additional days after finishing her unloading before departing the Marianas on the 25th and carrying 165 wounded fighting men to Espiritu Santo, in the New Hebrides. Putting into Espiritu Santo on 5 August, Wayne discharged her disabled passengers and stood by to await further orders.

Invasion of Peleliu
The attack transport remained at anchor in the New Hebrides until 14 August, when she shifted to Guadalcanal, en route to Renard Sound, in the Russell Islands, where the 1st Marine Division was encamped. From the 17th to the 26th, Wayne carried out practice landings in preparation for the next operation, the assault on the Palau Islands. On 26 August, the attack transport sailed with TG 32.3 and devoted the ensuing days of the voyage to drills and briefings for the upcoming landings.

On the morning of 15 September, marines of the 1st Marine Division moved ashore at Peleliu. Waynes troops were among those who landed that morning. They were later followed by boatloads of high-priority cargo: ammunition and medical supplies. By 11:00, three and one-half hours after the initial waves waded ashore, the first of the casualties began to arrive back on the ship for medical treatment, evidence of the intense and bloody struggle going on ashore. Japanese guns swept the beaches and waters offshore with deadly accuracy. Casualties among the marines and boat crews were high. In the days that followed, Wayne kept up a steady pace of discharging cargo and receiving casualties during the day and retiring seaward at night.

On the night of 20 September, she was ordered to move close inshore to serve as casualty evacuation ship, 1,000 yards off the reef. As the attack transport closed the island, enemy artillery opened up, lobbing two shells over the ship. Later during the night, machine gun fire from Japanese guns passed overhead. Wayne retired from the Palaus on 21 September and proceeded to Humboldt Bay, New Guinea. Between 1 and 12 October, Wayne participated in staging operations, including loading troops of the 2d Battalion, 19th Infantry, 24th Division, USA, and their equipment on the 8th and a practice landing at Sko Skai beach, eight miles east of Humboldt Bay, on the 12th.

Invasion of Leyte
On the morning of the 13th, the attack transport got underway for Leyte, Philippines, and arrived off the town of Palo on the 20th, the first day of the invasion. An enemy plane, a twin-engined "Nick", passed by the ship and was taken under fire by Waynes 5-inch battery for a brief time before it dove steeply over friendly ships astern.

As the ship's commanding officer later recounted, the landings on Leyte were "accomplished with surprising ease." The beach upon which Wayne had landed her troops and equipment had been "... lightly defended at best ...", facilitating a rapid unloading. The operation was not without cost to the ship, however, as a Japanese gun scored a direct hit on one of the ship's LCVP landing craft, killing some of the Army personnel embarked and slightly wounding the boat's coxswain.

By 16:00 on D-Day, all cargo and troops had been unloaded, and Wayne got underway for Humboldt Bay – but only to return to Leyte with troops of the 1st Battalion, 128th Infantry, 32nd Infantry Division, together with their cargo.

Departing Dutch New Guinean waters on 9 November, the attack transport arrived off Leyte on the 13th. While no enemy planes made an appearance close to Wayne that morning, a solitary "Jill", carrying a torpedo, attacked the convoy to which she was attached. At 17:00, the enemy aircraft appeared forward of the convoy, briefly took a parallel course to it, and then when aft of Wayne position, banked to starboard and began a low-altitude run on LSV . The torpedo missed, but Catskills gunners did not and the raider splashed into the sea. Later that day, more enemy aircraft appeared in the vicinity, prompting the ships to go to general quarters, but did not come close enough to draw fire. By the time the word came to secure from general quarters, the convoy was in approach disposition in Leyte Gulf.

Aircraft kill

At 07:35 on the 14th, Wayne'''s lookouts observed three "Zeke" fighters forward of the ship at a range of 7,000 yards. The planes maneuvered back and forth, closing the range steadily and drawing fire from the ships of the convoy. Wayne forward 5-inch gun managed to get off one round to include in the scattered gunfire. Apparently the antiaircraft barrage sufficed to force the enemy to stay out of range. Attracted by the firing, American P-38s soon showed up and downed two of the "Zekes." The third "Zeke", however, returned to the area, going into a strafing dive.

At a range of 400 yards, the plane swooped low at 150 feet altitude. Wayne starboard guns opened fire and tracers began striking the plane. The "Zeke" changed course, crossing Waynes bow at 200 yards. The attack transport's port batteries now commenced firing, scoring hits. Flames burst from the fuselage, and the "Zeke" executed a fatal wingover and spun out of control into the sea.

Within the space of a day, Wayne unloaded her cargo and disembarked her troops and, by 16:30 on the 14th, was ready for sea, her boats hoisted on board and secured. Departing that day, the attack transport moved to Seeadler Harbor, at Manus, in the Admiralties. Provisioning and taking on fuel after her arrival there on the 20th, Wayne departed on 30 November, bound for Aitape, British New Guinea. Arriving there on 1 December, Wayne remained at anchor through Christmas.

Invasion of Luzon
Loading cargo on the 17th, the attack transport had fueled on Christmas Eve and, on the 26th, took the main body of troops – from the 3d Battalion, 172d Infantry, 43rd Division, United States Army – on board. After landing exercises at Aitape on the 27th, Wayne departed British New Guinea the following day, as part of the San Fabian Attack Group, bound for Lingayen Gulf.

As the ship's commanding officer later recalled, "the most memorable feature of the assault on Luzon, from the standpoint of the transports involved, was the long and difficult journey which the ships were forced to make through enemy waters between Leyte and Luzon." The convoy passed through the Surigao Strait into the Mindanao Sea on 5 January 1945 and entered the Sulu Sea west of the islands of Panay and Mindoro on the 6th.

On 9 January, Army forces landed at Lingayen Gulf under cover of gunfire from ships offshore and carrier based aircraft overhead. Wayne disembarked her troops in her fifth assault landing and remained in the transport area offshore until the evening of 10 January. Air activity was heavier than the ship had encountered in any previous operation. The Japanese often attacked at dawn and at dusk, frequently utilizing single planes.

Friendly fire incidentWayne had opened fire on a low flying twin-engined "Dinah" but scored no hits. Later that day, at 18:35, a twin-engined "Frances" flew over the transport area dropping a stick of bombs that fell near Wayne. The danger of heavy antiaircraft fire laid down in the vicinity of "friendly" ships was amply demonstrated when two men in Waynes crew were wounded by fragments from "friendly" gunfire.Wayne departed the transport area on the 10th and, upon receipt of an enemy plane alert at 1905, went to general quarters. At 19:14, a single enemy aircraft under fire from the ships in column on both flanks of Wayne, crashed into the port side of attack transport , the column leader directly ahead of Wayne. An explosion followed, and DuPage was rapidly shrouded in smoke. Wayne sheared out of the column to port; but DuPage held her course and speed in column, prompting Wayne to move back into formation astern. The following morning, she transferred two medical officers and eight corpsmen to DuPage to treat casualties caused by the suicide plane.

On the afternoon of 15 January, Wayne reached Leyte Island, and anchored off Taytay Point, receiving on board an advance detail of the 1st Battalion, 128th Infantry, 32nd Division – the same battalion that she had brought to Leyte almost three months before. Almost nightly air raid alerts enlivened the ship's ensuing stay at Tacloban, Leyte, and the ship's company became accustomed to almost nightly "red alerts."

On 24 January, Wayne departed Leyte; en route back to Luzon, her convoy came under attack by Japanese torpedo planes. One succeeded in hitting the dock landing ship , just astern of Wayne in the steaming disposition. Shadwell, able to proceed on one engine, consequently veered out of formation and returned to Leyte. Wayne, meanwhile, continued onward with the rest of the convoy and reached Lingayen Gulf with her embarked reinforcements on the 27th.

Between 08:30 and 13:31, Wayne unloaded her troops and cargo and got underway to return to Leyte at 18:17 that evening. By 21:00 on the 30th, the attack transport was back off Taytay Point. There was little rest for the ship, however, for she soon received orders directing her to Guadalcanal, as part of Transport Squadron 12 (TransRon 12). Departing Leyte on 2 February, Wayne arrived at Tulagi harbor on the 11th. Assigned to carry the 2d Battalion, 22d Marines, of the 6th Marine Division, Wayne spent a bit over a month fueling, provisioning, loading cargo, and carrying out the inevitable training exercises.

Invasion of Okinawa
Early on the morning of 15 March, TransRon 12 got underway, bound, via the Carolines, for the Ryūkyūs. A week later, Wayne arrived at Ulithi, the staging point for the invasion of Okinawa. There, a number of the marines and sailors embarked at Tulagi were transferred to tank landing ships (LSTs). On the afternoon of 27 March, Wayne and the other ships of the invasion force set sail for Okinawa itself. "All hands anticipated that the attack on Okinawa would be a difficult and dangerous undertaking", wrote Waynes chronicler.

Her troops went ashore on D-Day – Easter Morning, 1 April 1945 – on a small beach dominated by high ground and protected by a reef. The actual landing, gratifyingly, seemed "puzzlingly easy" to observers in Wayne. Her embarked troops went ashore against slight resistance. During the day, unloading progressed until 17:45, when Wayne and her consorts headed seaward in night retirement disposition. Red alerts, however, continued throughout the night—alerts that had resulted in the ship's being called repeatedly to general quarters.

At 05:43 on the 2nd, Wayne returned to the transport area and observed heavy antiaircraft fire from other ships in the vicinity, as well as enemy planes attacking ships close to the beaches. By evening, Wayne had made satisfactory progress in the unloading and then was ordered to move closer inshore. She anchored for the night close to the beach and completed unloading the remainder of her cargo before standing out to sea at 00:15 on the morning of 3 April. However, instead of being ordered from the area, Wayne was directed instead to put into Kerama Retto, by way of "Point Oboe." She consequently loaded empty brass shell casings from heavy cruiser  before she moved into Kerama Retto to take on more brass and to receive on board casualties from other ships that had been sunk or damaged during the nearly incessant Japanese air raids.

Wayne remained at Kerama Retto from 5 to 9 April, spending much of that time moored alongside the battle-battered attack transport  that had been damaged by a suicide plane on 31 March. Wayne fed the crew of that ship and provided her with power. Red alerts and air raids continued almost without letup; "more than once enemy planes were observed making suicide attacks on other ships in the vicinity."

Loaded with empty brass, survivors, and casualties, Wayne weighed anchor on 9 April and headed for the Marianas. She anchored in Saipan harbor on the 13th before she shifted to the Marshalls, arriving at Eniwetok on the 18th. From there, the attack transport steamed on to Hawaii, arriving at Pier 8, Honolulu, on the morning of 27 April. Proceeding independently from Hawaii to the west coast of the United States, Wayne departed Pearl Harbor on 29 April and reached San Francisco on 6 May. After disembarking casualties and survivors from the Okinawa crucible there, she sailed north to Astoria, Oregon, on 12 May for an overhaul. Completing repairs late in July, Wayne departed Astoria on the 27th, bound for San Diego, and arrived there soon thereafter. On 10 August, Wayne sailed for the Marianas with naval and marine passengers – replacements bound for the forward areas of the Pacific theater.

After hostilities
The end of the war in mid-August found Wayne at sea, steaming to the western Pacific. She made a fuel stop at Eniwetok on 26 August and reached Guam shortly thereafter where she unloaded her cargo and disembarked her passengers. Wayne embarked men of the 3d Battalion, 6th Marines, at Saipan and, on 18 September, got underway for Japan. She disembarked the marines at Nagasaki on 23 September and then proceeded to the Philippines, touching at Manila first and later at Mindoro. The attack transport departed the Philippines in late October, stopped at Guam for fuel on the 21st and arrived at San Diego on 6 November.

Between 21 November 1945 and 7 January 1946, Wayne made one similar trip to the Philippines, returning Navy veterans to the United States in Operation Magic Carpet. Subsequently, visiting Seattle and San Diego, she cleared the latter port on 26 January 1946 and transited the Panama Canal on 6 February.

Decommission
Making port at New Orleans on the 11th, Wayne later shifted to Mobile and thence moved to her building site at the Gulf Shipbuilding Corporation where she was decommissioned on 16 March 1946. Her name was struck from the Navy List on 17 April 1946, and, on 1 August of the same year, she was transferred to the War Shipping Administration.

Decorations
Wayne (APA-54) received seven battle stars for her World War II service.

Commercial service
The ship was purchased by the Waterman Steamship Corporation, of Mobile, Alabama, on 24 February 1947 and renamed Beauregard. The ship was then transferred to Waterman Airlines, Inc. 5 May 1949 and then to Pan Atlantic Steamship Corporation in May 1954. Beauregard was sold back to Waterman Steamship Corporation in April 1956 and then, in March 1958, sold to the Wilmington, Delaware-based Beauregard, Inc. and converted to a van ship. On 16 November 1964 Beauregard was sold to Litton Industries Leasing Corporation and again, on 28 February 1975, to the Reynolds Leasing Corporation. Beauregard was scrapped after sale to Lien Hung Steel Enterprise Co. at Kaohsiung, Taiwan on 4 May 1977.

Footnotes

References

USS Wayne (APA-54), DANFS Online
APA-54 Wayne, Navsource Online

Sumter-class attack transports
Ships built in Chickasaw, Alabama
1942 ships
World War II auxiliary ships of the United States
World War II amphibious warfare vessels of the United States

USS Wayne


Anne Henrietta Martin (September 30, 1875 – April 15, 1951) (pseudonym, Anne O'Hara; nickname, Little Governor Anne) was a suffragist, pacifist, and author from the state of Nevada. Her main achievement was taking charge of the state legislation that gave women of Nevada the right to vote.  She was the first head of the department of history of the University of Nevada (1897–1901) And was active in the suffrage movement in England in 1909–1911, working with Emmeline Pankhurst. She was president of the Nevada equal franchise society in 1912, and the first national chairman of the National Woman's Party in 1916. She was the first  woman to run for the United States Senate; She lost twice, in 1918 and 1920.

Early years
Martin was the daughter of William O'Hara Martin, of Irish descent, who served as a Nevada State Senator, and her mother, Louise Stadtmuller Martin, was Bavarian. She attended Bishop Whitaker's School for Girls in Reno. Anne attended the University of Nevada (1891–1894), where she earned a degree in History. She earned a second B.A. in 1896 and an M.A. in History in 1897 from Stanford University.

Career
In 1897, Martin established the University of Nevada's department of history. After two years in the department, she left to study at Columbia University, Chase's Art School, University of London, and University of Leipzig; but returned to the department in 1901–1903. During her leave from the university, Martin recommended the Board of Regents replace her with Jeanne Wier, a friend of hers from Stanford who was just finishing her degree.

Martin returned from Europe in 1901 to attend her father's funeral. Her father's death gave her a revelation, "suddenly made a feminist of me! . . . I found that I stood alone in my family against a man-controlled world." Martin traveled in Europe and Asia and experienced the women's revolution in England between 1909 and 1911, she became a Fabian Socialist, and wrote short stories and political articles, occasionally under the pen name of Anne O'Hara. Martin was arrested in 1910 over an issue of trying to enfranchise British women. Her friend from Stanford, Lou Henry Hoover, sent husband, Herbert Hoover, to pay Martin's bail, but Frederick Pethick-Lawrence had already taken care of that.

After returning to Nevada in the fall of 1911, she became president of the Nevada Equal Franchise Society in February 1912 and organized a campaign over sparsely populated deserts that convinced male voters to enfranchise women on November 3, 1914. This success led to her representation of the national movement as a speaker and executive committee member of the National American Woman Suffrage Association and the Congressional Union. Martin helped organize voting women in the West in 1916 to challenge Democrats. She was one of the Silent Sentinels, National Woman's Party women who picketed for suffrage in front of the White House on July 14, 1917; as a result, she was sentenced to Occoquan Workhouse, but was pardoned less than a week later by President Woodrow Wilson.

In 1918, representing Nevada, Martin was the first American woman to run for the US Senate. Martin's campaigns focused on illuminating how women could act as a positive influence in the political world. Her platforms focused on providing better working conditions for men and women and nationalization of railroads and public utilities alienated women suffragists.
Between her 1918 and 1920 campaigns Martin wrote a series of articles and essays and in these essays Martin urges women to form autonomous political organizations.

Martin moved to Carmel, California, in 1921, and recuperated from a heart attack in 1930. In 1945, she received an honorary Doctorate of Laws from the University of Nevada. She also wrote two articles for the Encyclopædia Britannica, one on Josephine Butler in the 1944 edition, and one on white slavery for the 1948 edition.

Death
Anne Henrietta Martin died in Carmel, California  in 1951.

See also
List of suffragists and suffragettes
Timeline of women's suffrage
Women's suffrage organizations

References

Further reading
 Howard, Anne Bail (1985), The long campaign: a biography of Anne Martin,

External links
Anne Henrietta Martin Papers BANC MSS P-G 282. Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley
Anne Martin campaign literature, 96-25. Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Nevada, Reno
When darkness covers me, NC468. Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Nevada, Reno. Manuscript of poem written by Martin in 1903

1875 births
1951 deaths
Writers from Reno, Nevada
University of Nevada, Reno alumni
University of Nevada, Reno faculty
Stanford University alumni
American suffragists
Contributors to the Encyclopædia Britannica
Alumni of the University of London
Leipzig University alumni
Columbia University alumni
Parsons School of Design alumni
Women in Nevada politics
American pacifists
National Woman's Party activists
People from Carmel-by-the-Sea, California
Activists from California
American women academics

Anne Henrietta Martin


Bruno Hoffmann (15 September 191311 April 1991) was a German glass harpist.  Hoffmann is widely acknowledged as the virtuoso who reanimated contemporary interest in the glass harp and glass harmonica.

Bruno Hoffmann was born in Stuttgart, Germany, the son of a church music director.  He was trained in piano and organ playing, but on encountering the "musical glasses" at age 16, his lifelong devotion to resurrecting this unearthly beauty was begun. He discovered and mastered the old repertoire for glass harp by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Johann Friedrich Reichardt, Karl Leopold Röllig, Johann Abraham Peter Schulz, Johann Gottlieb Naumann and others, and also inspired several modern composers to write new works for him.

He was the author of the Glasharmonika article in the German music encyclopedia Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart. He designed and built his own instrument beginning in 1929 (aged 16), consisting of a set of wine glasses mounted in a wooden box, whose rims were rubbed to produce the tone.  He appeared all over Germany and the British Isles, performing solo and with various chamber and orchestral ensembles, and during his lifetime was featured on innumerable radio and television broadcasts and several recordings (including Federico Fellini's Casanova).

Hoffmann also appeared in several films, including a Benjamin Franklin documentary.  He is also featured in the original score by Jack Nitzsche on the soundtrack of The Razor's Edge. He died in Stuttgart in 1991, aged 77.

See also
Glass harmonica

External links

1913 births
1991 deaths
Glass harp players
Musicians from Stuttgart
20th-century German male musicians
20th-century German musicians

Bruno Hoffmann


Lēodic is Belga miclu burg and is sēo mǣste ceaster in his agane underrīce Lēodic Underrīce.  Hiere nama is in þǣre rīces missenlicum gereordum Liège in Frencisce (and Lidje in Ƿǣlisce), Luik in Niðerlendisce and Lüttich in Ðeodsce.

Lēodic sēo līð in Mæsan dēne, Belgices ēastdǣle, nēah þǣre rīces gemearc ƿiþ þǣm Niðerlandum.

Byrig on Belgum

Lēodic


The House of Commons (French: Chambre des communes) is the lower house of the Parliament of Canada. The House of Commons is an elected body, of 338 members, who are known as Members of Parliament (MPs).  Members are elected for a maximum of four years at a time. Each member is elected by one of the country's federal electoral districts which are usually called ridings.

The House of Commons was established in 1867, when the British North America Act 1867  created the Dominion of Canada, and was modelled on the British House of Commons. The House of Commons is sometimes called the "lower house", even though it has more power than the "upper house", the Senate. Both Houses is must agree to new laws but the Senate very rarely rejects bills passed by the Commons (though the Senate does occasionally amend bills). The Government of Canada is responsible only to the House of Commons. The Prime Minister stays in office only as long as he or she has the support of the Lower House.

The Canadian House of Commons is  in the Centre Block of the Parliament Buildings on  Parliament Hill, in Ottawa, Ontario.

Unlike the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the powers of the Parliament of Canada are limited, because provincial legislatures have the sole right to pass laws about some things.

Until 1982 only the Parliament of the United Kingdom had the power to change the British North America Act, this was to protect the rights and powers of the provincial legislatures.  This was changed by the Canada Act.  In Canada the British North America Act is now called the Constitution Act.

A lot of the work of the House of Commons is done by committees which can spend more time investigating a subject than the whole House of Commons could

Seat distribution

The table below shows how many seats each political party has in the Parliament. Many of the MPs were elected in the 2019 election.

Notes

List of committees
Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development
Access to Information, Privacy and Ethics
Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canadian Heritage
Citizenship and Immigration
Environment and Sustainable Development
Finance
Fisheries and Oceans
Foreign Affairs and International Development
Government Operations and Estimates
Health
Human Resources, Social Development and the Status of Persons with Disabilities
Industry, Science and Technology
International Trade
Justice and Human Rights
Liaison Committee
National Defence
Natural Resources
Official Languages
Procedure and House Affairs
Public Accounts
Public Safety and National Security
Status of Women
Transport, Infrastructure and Communities
Veterans Affairs

References

Canada
Parliament of Canada
1867 establishments in Canada

House of Commons of Canada


The Nationaal Luchtvaart-Themapark Aviodrome (also known simply as Aviodrome) is a large aerospace museum in the Netherlands that has been located on Lelystad Airport since 2003. Previously the museum was located at Schiphol Airport.

History

In 1955 several organisations, such as the airline KLM and aircraft manufacturer Fokker, initiated a foundation called "Stichting voor het Nationaal Luchtvaartmuseum" with the single goal of creating a national aviation museum.

The first installment of this aviation museum opened its doors in 1960 at Schiphol airport under the name Aeroplanorama and had only seven aircraft on display. It closed its doors in 1967 and a new museum called Aviodome was opened in 1971 at Schiphol. The main building was a large aluminium geodesic dome designed by Buckminster Fuller, the largest in the world at the time, which housed most of the aircraft on display. Hence the 'dome' in the name Aviodome.

Over time, the location became too small for the growing aircraft collection and in 2003 the museum was moved to a new location on Lelystad Airport. The building at Schiphol was demolished and the name was changed to Aviodrome. On the current location, it has three buildings: the main building where most of the aircraft on display are located and where there's a restaurant and a cinema, a replica of the old Schiphol terminal building from 1928 and a hangar for aircraft storage with limited access for visitors. Added to the aviation theme were several artifacts from several Dutch space programs, such as the backup flight-article of ANS (Astronomical Netherlands Satellite), a mockup of IRAS and the high-speed windtunnel model of the Huygens probe. In doing so the aviation museum became an aerospace museum.

Due to bankruptcy, the museum closed on 25 December 2011, but it reopened on 28 April 2012 after a takeover by the Libéma Group.

Collection

Aircraft collection
Note that not all aircraft listed are currently on display or even present at the museum. The museum also frequently houses or is visited by aircraft that are not owned by the museum.
 Aérospatiale Dauphin 2
 Agusta - Bell 204B UH-1
 Alsema Sagitta
 ANR-1 airship gondola
 Antonov An-2
 Auster J.1 Autocrat
 BAC Jet Provost (cockpit only)
 B.A.T. F.K.23 Bantam
 4x balloon basket

 Ballooncapsule Dutch Viking
 Beechcraft D-18, used in the James Bond movie Octopussy
 Birdman Cherokee
 Blackburn Buccaneer (cockpit only)
 Blériot XI
 Boeing 747-200 Louis Blériot
 Bölkow Bo 105
 Cierva C.30A Autogiro
 Consolidated PBY5A Catalina
 Cessna 172 (still active for aerial photography)
 De Havilland Canada Beaver (cockpit only)
 De Havilland DH.82A Tiger Moth
 2x De Havilland DH.104 Dove (one complete and one cockpit)
 DFS Olympia
 2x Douglas C-47 Skytrain
 2x Douglas DC-2 (one flying, the other in bad state and incomplete)
 Douglas DC-3
 Douglas DC-4 Skymaster
 Evans VP-1 Volksplane
 V-1 "Flying bomb" (model)
 Firebird ultralight
 2x Fokker Spin
 Fokker Dr.I
 Fokker F.2
 Fokker B-4A (incomplete)
 Fokker C-5D
 Fokker F-7a
 Fokker F-8 "Duif"
 Fokker S-4 (incomplete)
 4 x Fokker S-11 instructors (used in airshows)
 Fokker S-12
 Fokker S-13 (tailpiece only)
 Fokker S-14 machtrainer
 2x Fokker F-27 Friendship (one still airworthy)
 Fokker F-27-050 (F-50 prototype based on F-27)
 Fokker 100
 Mock-up cockpit Fokker 100
 Fouga Magister (flying)
 2x Grumman S2N Tracker
 Grunau Baby

 Hawker Sea Fury
 Hawker Hunter Mk.4
 Hawker Sea Hawk
 Junkers Ju 52 (license built by CASA)
 Lilienthal Gleitflugzeug (German for glider) replica
 Lockheed L-749 Constellation
 2x Lockheed F-104 Starfighter
 Lockheed SP2H Neptune
 MiG-21 PFM Fishbed-F
 2x Mignet HM-14 Pou du Ciel
 N.H.I. H.2 Kolibri
 N.H.I. H.3 Kolibri
 Noorduyn C-64 Norseman (in restoration)
 Noorduyn Harvard
 North American B.25 Mitchell (incomplete)
 Pander Zögling
 Piper J-3 Cub
 Raytheon Hawk missile
 Rienks R-1B giroglider
 Rogallo sailplane "Engel" prototype
 Rogallo sailplane Penguin
 Rogallo sailplane La Mouette Cobra
 Saab 91D Safir
 Saab Viggen

 3x Schleicher Ka-4 Rhönlerche (only one in good condition)
 Schleicher Ka-8B
 Sikorski S-55
 3x Stearman Hammond Y-1S
 Sud Aviation SE.210 Caravelle (cockpit only)
 Supermarine Spitfire (replica)
 Van Ommeren VO-3
 Westland WS-51 Dragonfly
 Wright Flyer replica

Space collection
 Astronomical Netherlands Satellite (backup flight-article)
 Infrared Astronomy Satellite - IRAS (mockup partially built from structural spares)
 Huygens probe (windtunnel model)

Noteworthy projects

Jumbo's touchdown

In 2004 the last of KLM's classic Boeing 747-200's named Louis Blériot was sold to the Aviodrome for the symbolic amount of 1 euro. Though the aircraft could still fly, Lelystad Airport was too small to handle such a large aircraft so the aircraft was partially disassembled and moved over water on a barge with the wings, engines and empennage removed and stored alongside the fuselage so the aircraft could fit under bridges along the way. After the journey over water that attracted a lot of attention the aircraft was lifted from the barge at Harderwijk and the last bit of the trip took place over land. At its final location the aircraft was re-assembled and opened to the public. The tail was fitted with a top beacon since, technically, the Boeing now is a building.

Connie's comeback
Perhaps one of the most spectacular pieces in the collection of the Aviodrome is the Lockheed L-749 Constellation, often just called Connie. After several years of restoration work it was flown over to the Netherlands in 2002 from the United States where it had been in storage. More work, including a new paint job, was done to the aircraft in the Netherlands but the aircraft suffered from engine problems in 2004. To resolve this, two replacement engines coming from the Korean Air museum were fitted. However, it hasn't flown since 2004, performances by the aircraft being limited to engine runs only.

De Uiver

De Uiver was the name of a Douglas DC-2 that placed second in the 1934 MacRobertson Air Race, only being beaten by a purpose built de Havilland DH.88 racer Grosvenor House.  The real Uiver, which is an old Dutch word for Stork, no longer exists. The Aviodrome owns one of the last still airworthy DC-2s in the world. This DC-2 is a former US Navy aircraft painted in the Uiver's original KLM colors. After an unexpected gear collapse the aircraft suffered some minor damage, but after the needed funds were raised the aircraft was repaired.

Fokker Friendship
The Fokker F-27 Friendship was Fokker's best selling aircraft model of all time. Production of this first post-war Fokker airliner started in 1955 and many of them are still in service today. The Aviodrome purchased the oldest still flying series produced F-27 from its Australian owner in 2004 and painted it in the colors of the no longer existing Nederlandse Luchtvaart Maatschappij (NLM). Exactly fifty years after the first flight of the first F-27 on 24 November 1955 this aircraft made a memorial flight as a tribute to fifty years Fokker Friendship.

References

External links

 Aviodrome, official website

Aerospace museums in the Netherlands
Museums in Flevoland
Buildings and structures in Lelystad

Aviodrome


Clairet is a type of French red wine. It is also known as Bordeaux after its region of appellation d'origine contrôlée. This is the French system which certifies where food and drink comes from.

History
The wine from Bordeaux was a dark rosé spiced drink in the Middle Ages. That's why it was called "claret", from the French clairet. It changed to the present dry dark red in the 18th century.

Crisis
The wine industry in Bordeaux has economic problems. It faces fierce  competition from New World wines. Also, the French drink less wine nowadays.

In 2004, exports to the U.S. dropped 59% in value over the previous year. Sales in Britain dropped 33% in value during the same period. The UK, a major market, now imports more wine from Australia than from France. Chilean red wine is also extremely popular now.

Probably there is no single reason for these changes. Bordeaux wines are almost always blends from two or more types of vine. Many New World wines are single vine strains such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot noir, Syrah (Shiraz), and the white wine grapes Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc. Bottles labelled by type of grape (and so by taste) has caught on with the public. Also, the cheaper French wines are much more expensive when exported. All wines and spirits into countries like the UK are heavily taxed. A cheap French (or Spanish or Italian) wine which might sell in at home fore under £1, will sell for £4 or more in the UK. Customers have evidently decided that wine from elsewhere is a better deal.

The situation is quite different for sophisticated Bordeaux wines. The Waitrose wine list for 2015/16 lists 11 red Bordeaux wines which sell for over £100 a bottle, and the top prices are:
Château Lafite Rothschild 2007 Pauillac Premier Cru Classé: £750 per bottle
Château Mouton Rothschild 2009 Pauillac Premier Grand Cru Classé: £900 per bottle.

Notes

French wines

Clairet


Bauhaus were an English gothic rock band formed in Northampton in March 1978. The group was of Peter Murphy (vocals), Daniel Ash (guitar), Kevin Haskins (drums) and David J (bass). The band was originally Bauhaus 1919 before they dropped the number part of their name within a year of formation. With their dark and gloomy sound and image, Bauhaus are generally known the first gothic rock group.

Bauhaus first broke up in 1983. Peter Murphy began a solo career while the other members continued as Tones on Tail and, later, Love and Rockets. Both enjoyed greater commercial success in the United States than Bauhaus had, but disappeared from the charts in their homeland. The band reunited for a 1998 tour and on a more permanent basis in 2005. The group announced plans to break up again following the release of their final album, Go Away White, in 2008.

References

English musical groups

Bauhaus (band)


Fair trade is a social movement which tries to help people who make things in developing countries. The movement helps people to work in better conditions and helps them get more money for what they make. These things give workers the opportunity to improve their lives and plan for their future, and they help reduce poverty. The movement also tries to keep the environment the same or improve the state that it is in. it is a way to help poverty

Fair trade helps people in developing countries sell to people in developed countries. Things that are sold in international trade include handicrafts and other manufactured goods, agricultural products such as grains, coffee, cocoa, sugar, tea, bananas, honey, cotton, quinoa, fresh fruit, chocolate, wine and flowers, and minerals such as iron and petroleum.

Merchandise that has fair trade status must be given a fair trade certificate. This says it follows rules about fairness to workers and the environment. This will mean the product can put the Fairtrade symbol on their packaging if they earn the certificate.

Related pages
Moral purchasing
Oxfam

Other websites
FLO International
FLO-CERT

Trade

Fair trade


Erdal İnönü (6 June 1926 – 31 October 2007) was a Turkish theoretical physicist and politician, who served as the interim prime minister of Turkey between 16 May and 25 June 1993. He also served as the deputy prime minister of Turkey from 1991 to 1993 and as the minister of foreign affairs from March to October 1995. He served as the leader of the Social Democracy Party (SODEP) from 1983 to 1985 and later the Social Democratic Populist Party (SHP) from 1986 to 1993. He was the son of the second president of Turkey, İsmet İnönü.

İnönü initially founded the SODEP in 1983 with the intention of contesting the 1983 general election. However, the National Security Council that had been established following the 1980 military coup banned İnönü from standing for office. Standing down as chairman in order to be replaced by a politician that could seek office, İnönü was succeeded by Cezmi Kartay. However, SODEP was banned completely from contesting the election, resulting in İnönü taking over as leader for a second time shortly after. His party contested the 1984 local elections and came second with 23.4% of the vote. SODEP merged with the People's Party in 1985 and İnönü became the leader of the new Social Democratic Populist Party (SHP) in 1986. In the 1986 parliamentary by-elections, the SHP came third with 22.7% of the vote and İnönü was elected as a member of Parliament for İzmir. He was the only successful SHP candidate.

Following the 1991 general election, the SHP formed a coalition with Süleyman Demirel's True Path Party (DYP) and İnönü became Deputy Prime Minister. He briefly served as the acting prime minister in 1993 after Demirel was elected president. After the DYP elected Tansu Çiller as their leader and she formed a government, İnönü continued as deputy prime minister until he resigned as party leader in 1993. He later served as foreign minister in 1995 until he stepped down as an MP in the 1995 general election.

Early life

He graduated from the Physics Department of the Faculty of Sciences of Ankara University in 1947 and received his PhD from California Institute of Technology in 1951; with Eugene Wigner, he pioneered the study of group contractions. Upon his return to Turkey, İnönü worked at first as an assistant professor in Ankara University. Between 1964 and 1974, he was professor of physics and the first chairman of the Department of Theoretical Physics at the Middle East Technical University (1960–1966). He initiated research on neutron transport during that period. Between 1969 and 1971, he was the dean of the university's Faculty of Art and Sciences. He served as president of METU between 1970 and 1971. In 1974, İnönü moved to Boğaziçi University in Istanbul and lectured there until his venture into politics when he founded the Social Democracy Party (SODEP) in 1983. While at Boğaziçi, he served as the dean of the Faculty of Art and Sciences between 1976 and 1982.

Political career
Although the military government banned İnönü's party in 1983 elections, SODEP managed to survive and became the second party in 1984 local elections. In November 1985 SODEP and another party named People's Party (Halkçı Parti) formed a union, the Social Democratic Populist Party (SHP). According to consolidation agreement İnönü briefly lost his post. But he became the leader of SHP in May 1986. SHP was one of the parties which weighed the heaviest in Turkey's political scene during the late 1980s and early 1990s. İnönü challenged the liberal conservative party of Turgut Özal, ANAP, both in 1987 and 1991 elections. One of the main reasons why SHP could not win an election was the division of the moderate left votes between SHP and DSP, the party of the former CHP leader Bülent Ecevit. Erdal İnönü was also a member of the Socialist International. He joined discussions as the deputy chairman of the organization.

Erdal İnönü was deputy prime minister in the two coalition governments formed between center-right DYP and SHP, which were led by Demirel at first (from 1991 to 1993) and when Demirel became the president, by Tansu Çiller, in a unity largely caused by their resentment at the time against the outgoing Motherland Party. (See 49th government of Turkey and 50th government of Turkey)

After resignation

In the summer of 1993 he announced that he would not run for the leadership of the party in the coming congress. During the 4th general congress of the party on 11–12 September 1993, he resigned from the leadership of the party and consequently he also resigned from his post in the government. Murat Karayalçın replaced him in both posts. In February 1995 SHP and recently refounded Republican People's Party (CHP) merged. Upon Erdal İnönü's suggestion the new party was named CHP. In CHP Erdal İnönü was given the title of honorary chairman. In 1995 he served as the minister of foreign affairs for about six months.

Later life
He was the 2004 recipient of the Wigner medal, given by the Group Theory and Fundamental Physics Foundation, for his contributions to group contractions. İnönü was also known for his work on the history of science in the Republic of Turkey and the Ottoman Empire. He lectured at Sabancı University and the Feza Gürsey Institute from 2004 to 2007.

Death
Erdal İnönü died in Houston, Texas, United States, on 31 October 2007, where he was being treated for leukaemia. His body was flown to Turkey and was buried at the Zincirlikuyu Cemetery in Istanbul on 4 November 2007 following a state funeral held before the building of Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara the previous day and then an Islamic funeral in the Teşvikiye Mosque in Istanbul.

See also

Cezmi Kartay
Necdet Calp
Aydın Güven Gürkan

References

External links
  Biography from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
  Interview with Erdal Inonu about Physics
  Right after his death, news includes a picture gallery

1926 births
2007 deaths
20th-century prime ministers of Turkey
People from Ankara
Social Democracy Party (Turkey) politicians
Social Democratic Populist Party (Turkey) politicians
Republican People's Party (Turkey) politicians
Turkish scientists
Turkish physicists
Leaders of political parties in Turkey
Deputy Prime Ministers of Turkey
Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Turkey
Academic staff of Boğaziçi University
Academic staff of Middle East Technical University
Academic staff of Sabancı University
Ankara University alumni
Burials at Zincirlikuyu Cemetery
Deaths from leukemia
Deaths from cancer in Texas
İsmet İnönü
California Institute of Technology alumni
Rectors of Middle East Technical University
Leaders of the Opposition (Turkey)
Deputies of Izmir
Recipients of TÜBİTAK Science Award
Mathematical physicists
Members of the 49th government of Turkey
Members of the 50th government of Turkey
Children of presidents of Turkey
Children of prime ministers of Turkey
Turkish Kurdish politicians

Erdal İnönü


Melanesia is a region of islands in Oceania.

It stretches from the western side of the Eastern Pacific Ocean, to the Arafura Sea, northeast of Australia. Its name was invented in 1832 and means "black islands".

The following islands and groups of islands since the 19th century have been considered part of Melanesia:
 Bismarck Archipelago
 Fiji
 New Caledonia
 New Guinea (Papua New Guinea mainland and the Indonesian province of Papua)
 Maluku Islands
 Solomon Islands
 Torres Strait Islands
 Vanuatu
 Palau Islands

Islands whose long-established inhabitants are of mixed ancestry and do not necessarily self-identify as Melanesian:
 Flores
 Nauru
 Sumba
 Timor

Some of the islands to the west of New Guinea such as Halmahera, Alor, and Pantar can also be considered part of Melanesia, although people in this area do not make use of the term.

Australasia

Melanesia