BitLocker is a full volume encryption feature included with Microsoft Windows versions starting with Windows Vista. It is designed to protect data by providing encryption for entire volumes. By default, it uses the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) algorithm in cipher block chaining (CBC) or "xor–encrypt–xor (XEX)-based Tweaked codebook mode with ciphertext Stealing" (XTS) mode with a 128-bit or 256-bit key. CBC is not used over the whole disk; it is applied to each individual sector.

History
BitLocker originated as a part of Microsoft's Next-Generation Secure Computing Base architecture in 2004 as a feature tentatively codenamed "Cornerstone" and was designed to protect information on devices, particularly if a device was lost or stolen. Another feature, titled "Code Integrity Rooting", was designed to validate the integrity of Microsoft Windows boot and system files. When used in conjunction with a compatible Trusted Platform Module (TPM), BitLocker can validate the integrity of boot and system files before decrypting a protected volume; an unsuccessful validation will prohibit access to a protected system. BitLocker was briefly called Secure Startup before Windows Vista's release to manufacturing.

BitLocker is available on:
 Enterprise and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista and Windows 7
 Pro and Enterprise editions of Windows 8 and 8.1
 Windows Server 2008 and later
 Pro, Enterprise, and Education editions of Windows 10
 Pro, Enterprise, and Education editions of Windows 11

Features

Initially, the graphical BitLocker interface in Windows Vista could only encrypt the operating system volume. Starting with Windows Vista with Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2008, volumes other than the operating system volume could be encrypted using the graphical tool. Still, some aspects of the BitLocker (such as turning autolocking on or off) had to be managed through a command-line tool called manage-bde.wsf.

The version of BitLocker included in Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 Release 2 adds the ability to encrypt removable drives. On Windows XP or Windows Vista, read-only access to these drives can be achieved through a program called BitLocker To Go Reader, if FAT16, FAT32 or exFAT filesystems are used. In addition, a new command-line tool called manage-bde replaced the old manage-bde.wsf.

Starting with Windows Server 2012 and Windows 8, Microsoft has complemented BitLocker with the Microsoft Encrypted Hard Drive specification, which allows the cryptographic operations of BitLocker encryption to be offloaded to the storage device's hardware. In addition, BitLocker can now be managed through Windows PowerShell. Finally, Windows 8 introduced Windows To Go in its Enterprise edition, which BitLocker can protect.

Device encryption

Windows Mobile 6.5, Windows RT and core editions of Windows 8.1 include device encryption, a feature-limited version of BitLocker that encrypts the whole system. Logging in with a Microsoft account with administrative privileges automatically begins the encryption process. The recovery key is stored to either the Microsoft account or Active Directory (Active Directory requires Pro editions of Windows), allowing it to be retrieved from any computer. While device encryption is offered on all editions of Windows 8.1, unlike BitLocker, device encryption requires that the device meet the InstantGo (formerly Connected Standby) specifications, which requires solid-state drives, non-removable RAM (to protect against cold boot attacks) and a TPM 2.0 chip.

Starting with Windows 10 1703, the requirements for device encryption have changed, requiring a TPM 1.2 or 2.0 module with PCR 7 support, UEFI Secure Boot, and that the device meets Modern Standby requirements or HSTI validation.

In September 2019 a new update was released (KB4516071) changing the default setting for BitLocker when encrypting a self-encrypting hard drive. Now, the default is to use software encryption for newly encrypted drives. This is due to hardware encryption flaws and security concerns related to those issues.

Encryption modes
Three authentication mechanisms can be used as building blocks to implement BitLocker encryption:
 Transparent operation mode:  This mode uses the capabilities of TPM 1.2 hardware to provide for transparent user experience—the user powers up and logs into Windows as usual. The key used for disk encryption is sealed (encrypted) by the TPM chip and will only be released to the OS loader code if the early boot files appear to be unmodified. The pre-OS components of BitLocker achieve this by implementing a Static Root of Trust Measurement—a methodology specified by the Trusted Computing Group (TCG). This mode is vulnerable to a cold boot attack, as it allows a powered-down machine to be booted by an attacker. It is also vulnerable to a sniffing attack, as the volume encryption key is transferred in plain text from the TPM to the CPU during a successful boot.
 User authentication mode: This mode requires that the user provide some authentication to the pre-boot environment in the form of a pre-boot PIN or password.
 USB Key Mode: The user must insert a USB device that contains a startup key into the computer to be able to boot  the protected OS. Note that this mode requires that the BIOS on the  protected machine supports the reading of USB devices in the pre-OS  environment. BitLocker does not support smart cards for pre-boot authentication.

The following combinations of the above authentication mechanisms are supported, all with an optional escrow recovery key:
 TPM only
 TPM + PIN
 TPM + PIN + USB Key
 TPM + USB Key
 USB Key
 Password only

Operation
BitLocker is a logical volume encryption system. (A volume spans part of a hard disk drive, the whole drive or more than one drive.) When enabled, TPM and BitLocker can ensure the integrity of the trusted boot path (e.g. BIOS and boot sector), in order to prevent most offline physical attacks and boot sector malware.

In order for BitLocker to encrypt the volume holding the operating system, at least two NTFS-formatted volumes are required: one for the operating system (usually C:) and another with a minimum size of 100 MB, which remains unencrypted and boots the operating system. (In case of Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008, however, the volume's minimum size is 1.5 GB and must have a drive letter.) Unlike previous versions of Windows, Vista's "diskpart" command-line tool includes the ability to shrink the size of an NTFS volume so that this volume may be created from already allocated space. A tool called the BitLocker Drive Preparation Tool is also available from Microsoft that allows an existing volume on Windows Vista to be shrunk to make room for a new boot volume and for the necessary bootstrapping files to be transferred to it.

Once an alternate boot partition has been created, the TPM module needs to be initialized (assuming that this feature is being used), after which the required disk-encryption key protection mechanisms such as TPM, PIN or USB key are configured. The volume is then encrypted as a background task, something that may take a considerable amount of time with a large disk as every logical sector is read, encrypted and rewritten back to disk. The keys are only protected after the whole volume has been encrypted when the volume is considered secure. BitLocker uses a low-level device driver to encrypt and decrypt all file operations, making interaction with the encrypted volume transparent to applications running on the platform.

Encrypting File System (EFS) may be used in conjunction with BitLocker to provide protection once the operating system is running. Protection of the files from processes and users within the operating system can only be performed using encryption software that operates within Windows, such as EFS. BitLocker and EFS, therefore, offer protection against different classes of attacks.

In Active Directory environments, BitLocker supports optional key escrow to Active Directory, although a schema update may be required for this to work (i.e. if the Active Directory Services are hosted on a Windows version previous to Windows Server 2008).

BitLocker and other full disk encryption systems can be attacked by a rogue boot manager. Once the malicious bootloader captures the secret, it can decrypt the Volume Master Key (VMK), which would then allow access to decrypt or modify any information on an encrypted hard disk. By configuring a TPM to protect the trusted boot pathway, including the BIOS and boot sector, BitLocker can mitigate this threat. (Note that some non-malicious changes to the boot path may cause a Platform Configuration Register check to fail, and thereby generate a false warning.)

Security concerns

TPM alone is not enough
The "Transparent operation mode" and "User authentication mode" of BitLocker use TPM hardware to detect whether there are unauthorized changes to the pre-boot environment, including the BIOS and MBR. If any unauthorized changes are detected, BitLocker requests a recovery key on a USB device. This cryptographic secret is used to decrypt the Volume Master Key (VMK) and allow the bootup process to continue. However, TPM alone is not enough:
 In February 2008, a group of security researchers published details of a so-called "cold boot attack" that allows full disk encryption systems such as BitLocker to be compromised by booting the machine from removable media, such as a USB drive, into another operating system, then dumping the contents of pre-boot memory. The attack relies on the fact that DRAM retains information for up to several minutes (or even longer, if cooled) after the power has been removed. The Bress/Menz device, described in US Patent 9,514,789, can accomplish this type of attack. Similar full disk encryption mechanisms of other vendors and other operating systems, including Linux and Mac OS X, are vulnerable to the same attack. The authors recommend that computers be powered down when not in physical control of the owner (rather than be left in a sleep mode) and that the encryption software be configured to require a password to boot the machine.
 On 10 November 2015, Microsoft released a security update to mitigate a security vulnerability in BitLocker that allowed authentication to be bypassed by employing a malicious Kerberos key distribution center, if the attacker had physical access to the machine, the machine was part of a domain and had no PIN or USB flash drive protection.
 BitLocker still does not properly support TPM 2.0 security features which, as a result, can lead to a complete bypass of privacy protection when keys are transmitted over Serial Peripheral Interface in a motherboard.

All these attacks require physical access to the system and are thwarted by a secondary protector such as a USB flash drive or PIN code.

Upholding Kerckhoffs's principle
Although the AES encryption algorithm used in BitLocker is in the public domain, its implementation in BitLocker, as well as other components of the software, are proprietary; however, the code is available for scrutiny by Microsoft partners and enterprises, subject to a non-disclosure agreement.

According to Microsoft sources, BitLocker does not contain an intentionally built-in backdoor, so there is no Microsoft-provided way for law enforcement to have guaranteed access to the data on a user's drive. In 2006, the UK Home Office expressed concern over the lack of a backdoor and tried entering into talks with Microsoft to get one introduced. Microsoft developer and cryptographer Niels Ferguson denied the backdoor request and said, "over my dead body". Microsoft engineers have said that United States Federal Bureau of Investigation agents also put pressure on them in numerous meetings to add a backdoor, although no formal, written request was ever made; Microsoft engineers eventually suggested that agents should look for the hard copy of the encryption key that the BitLocker program suggests that its users make.

Niels Ferguson's position that "back doors are simply not acceptable" is in accordance with Kerckhoffs's principle. Stated by Netherlands-born cryptographer Auguste Kerckhoffs in the 19th century, the principle holds that a cryptosystem should be secure, even if everything about the system, except the encryption key, is public knowledge.

Other concerns
Starting with Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012, Microsoft removed the Elephant Diffuser from the BitLocker scheme for no declared reason. Dan Rosendorf's research shows that removing the Elephant Diffuser had an "undeniably negative impact" on the security of BitLocker encryption against a targeted attack. Microsoft later cited performance concerns, and noncompliance with the Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS), to justify the diffuser's removal. Starting with Windows 10 version 1511, however, Microsoft added a new FIPS-compliant XTS-AES encryption algorithm to BitLocker. Starting with Windows 10 version 1803, Microsoft added a new feature called "Kernel Direct Memory access (DMA) Protection" to BitLocker, to protect against DMA attacks via Thunderbolt 3 ports.

In October 2017, it was reported that a flaw enabled private keys to be inferred from public keys, which could allow an attacker to bypass BitLocker encryption when an affected TPM chip is used. The flaw is the Return of Coppersmith's Attack or ROCA vulnerability which is in a code library developed by Infineon and had been in widespread use in security products such as smartcards and TPMs. Microsoft released an updated version of the firmware for Infineon TPM chips that fixes the flaw via Windows Update.

See also
 Features new to Windows Vista
 List of Microsoft Windows components
 Windows Vista I/O technologies
 Next-Generation Secure Computing Base
 FileVault

References

External links

BitLocker Drive Encryption Technical Overview
System Integrity Team Blog

Windows Server 2008
Windows 11
Windows 10
Windows 8
Windows 7
Windows Vista
Cryptographic software
Microsoft Windows security technology
Disk encryption

BitLocker


Ioannes Ruskin (1819–1900) fuit praeclarissimus scriptor Anglicus, etiam sapiens, humanitatum litterarumque existimator, poeta, et artifex, cuius opera de arte architecturaque auctoritatem et potentiam Aevo Victoriano habuerunt.

Vita
Natus est Londini die 8 Februarii 1819, patre vini mercatore. Domi et postea apud Universitatem Oxoniensem doctus est. Sua studia erant vaga, sed praemium Newgate poesis, quae ars ei interfuit, cepit, itaque, cum valde aeger esset, gradu quarto laureatus universitati est. Mortuus est die 20 Ianuarii 1900.

Opera
 Poems (1835-1846)
 The Poetry of Architecture: Cottage, Villa, etc., to Which Is Added Suggestions on Works of Art (1837-1838)
 The King of the Golden River, or The Black Brothers (1841)
 Modern Painters
 Part I. Of General Principles (1843-1844)
 Part II. Of Truth (1843-1846)
 Part III. Of Ideas of Beauty (1846)
 Part IV. Of Many Things (1856)
 Part V. Mountain Beauty (1856)
 Part VI. Of Leaf Beauty (1860)
 Part VII. Of Cloud Beauty (1860)
 Part VIII. Of Ideas of Relation: – I. Of Invention Formal (1860)
 Part IX. Of Ideas of Relation: – II. Of Invention Spiritual (1860)
 Review of Lord Lindsay's "Sketches of the History of Christian Art" (1847)
 The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849)
 Letters to the Times in Defense of Hunt and Millais (1851)
 Pre-Raphaelitism (1851)
 The Stones of Venice
 Volume I. The Foundations (1851)
 Volume II. The Sea–Stories (1853)
 Volume III. The Fall (1853)
 Lectures on Architecture and Poetry, Delivered at Edinburgh, in November, 1853
 Architecture and Painting (1854)
 The True and the Beautiful in Nature, Art, Morals and Religion (1858)
 Letters to the Times in Defense of Pre-Raphaelite Painting (1854)
 Academy Notes: Annual Reviews of the June Royal Academy Exhibitions (1855-1859 / 1875)
 The Harbours of England (1856)
 "A Joy Forever" and Its Price in the Market, or The Political Economy of Art (1857 / 1880)
 The Elements of Drawing, in Three Letters to Beginners (1857)
 The Two Paths: Being Lectures on Art, and Its Application to Decoration and Manufacture, Delivered in 1858–9
 The Elements of Perspective, Arranged for the Use of Schools and Intended to be Read in Connection with the First Three Books of Euclid (1859)
 "Unto This Last": Four Essays on the First Principles of Political Economy (1860)
 Munera Pulveris: Essays on Political Economy (1862-1863 / 1872)
 Cestus of Aglaia (1864)
 Sesame and Lilies (1864-1865)
 The Ethics of the Dust: Ten Lectures to Little Housewives on the Elements of Chrystallisation (1866)
 The Crown of Wild Olive: Three Lectures on Work, Traffic and War (1866)
 Time and Tide by Weare and Tyne: Twenty-five Letters to a Working Man of Sunderland on the Laws of Work (1867)
 The Flamboyant Architecture of the Somme (1869)
 The Queen of the Air: Being a Study of the Greek Myths of Cloud and Storm (1869)
 Verona and its Rivers (1870)
 Lectures on Art, Delivered before the University of Oxford in Hilary Term, 1870
 Aratra Pentelici: Six Lectures on the Elements of Sculpture Given before the University of Oxford in Michaelmas Term, 1870
 Lectures on Sculpture, Delivered at Oxford, 1870–1871
 Fors Clavigera: Letters to the Workmen and Labourers of Great Britain
 Volume I. (1871)
 Volume II.
 Volume III.
 Volume IV. (1880)
 The Eagle's Nest: Ten Lectures on the Relation of Natural Science to Art, Given before the University of Oxford in Lent Term, 1872
 Love's Meinie (1873)
 Ariadne Florentia: Six Lectures on Wood and Metal Engraving, with Appendix, Given before the University of Oxford, in Michaelmas Term, 1872
 Val d'Arno: Ten Lectures on the Tuscan Art antecedent to the Florentine Year of Victories, given before the University of Oxford in Michaelmas Term, 1872
 Mornings in Florence (1877)
 Pearls for Young Ladies (1878)
 Review of Paintings by James McNeill Whistler (1878)
 Fiction, Fair and Foul (1880)
 Deucalion: Collected Studies of the Lapse of Waves and Life of Stones (1883)
 The Art of England: Lectures Given at the University of Oxford (1883-1884)
 St Mark's Rest (1884)
 The Storm-Cloud of the Nineteenth Century (1884)
 The Pleasures of England: Lectures Given at the University of Oxford (1884-1885)
 Bible of Amiens (1885)
 Proserpina: Studies of Wayside Flowers while the Air was Yet Pure among the Alps and in the Scotland and England Which My Father Knew (1886)
 Præterita: Outlines of Scenes and Thoughts Perhaps Worthy of Memory in My Past Life (1885-1889)

Bibliographia
 Thomas J. Wise & James P. Smart, A complete Bibliography of the Writings in Prose and Verse of John Ruskin, with a List of the more important Ruskiniana, Londonii 1893 (reimpressum 1964)
 Kirk H. Beetz, John Ruskin. A Bibliography 1900 - 1974, Scarecrow Press, Metuchen 1976

 Aevum Victorianum
 Libri Latine redditi
 Matthaeus Arnold
 Thomas Carlyle
 Ioannes Stuart Mill

Scriptores Angliae
Nati 1819
Mortui 1900
Auctores Anglici
Scriptores de artibus
Alumni universitatum et scholarum Londiniensium
Professores Universitatis Oxoniensis
Universitas Angliae Ruskinensis

Ioannes Ruskin


Chevrolet Van-simply called Chevy Van-refers to passenger or cargo vans which were full size. The vans went by the names of Sport Van, Beauville and Chevrolet G-Series. GMC's version of the vans were called Vandura and Rally Wagon. The vehicles were first made around 1964 under Chevrolet and GMC divisions of General Motors. They were discontinued after 1996. The post 1996 replacements were the Chevrolet Express and GMC Savana.

Vans

Chevrolet Van


Nisi Dominus, İncil'de 127 numaralı mezmur olup, ayrıca George Frideric Handel'in 1707 yılında tamamladığı HWV 238 numaralı eseridir.

8 ses için yazılmış olup çift koro ve yaylı orkestrası gerektirir. Aynı isimde Vivaldi'nin de bir eseri vardır.

Bölümler
 Soloists and chorus except the lord build the house: their labour is but lost that build it except the lord keep the city: the watchman waketh but in vain.
 Aria (tenor solo) it is but lost labour that ye haste to rise up early, and so late take rest, and eat the bread of carefulness.
 Aria (countertenor solo) for so he giveth his beloved sleep. lo, children and the fruit of the womb: are an heritage and gift that cometh of the lord.
 Aria (bass solo) like as the arrows in the hand of the giant: even so are the young children.
 Aria (tenor solo) happy is the man that hath his quiver full of them: they shall not be ashamed when they speak with their enemies in the gate.
 Double chorus glory be to the father, and to the son, and to the holy ghost: as it was in the beginning is now, and ever shall be: world without end. amen.

George Frideric Handel kompozisyonları
Mezmur ayarları

Nisi Dominus (Handel)


A muniment or muniment of title is a legal term for a document, title deed or other evidence, that indicates ownership of an asset. The word is derived from the Latin noun munimentum, meaning a "fortification, bulwark, defence or protection". Thus "muniments of title" means the written evidence which a land owner can use to defend title to his estate.

An example of muniment of title is the use of a death certificate of a joint tenant to prove that title resides with the surviving joint tenant.

In the United States the definition of "muniment" may differ in statutes state by state. For example, states often have their own version of a Marketable Record Title Act (MRTA) which will extinguish various interests, restrictions, or claims to a property within a certain time period unless renewed during that time period by muniments.

In the medieval period substantial landowners made use of dedicated chambers known as "muniments rooms" for the secure storage of muniments of title. Before the advent of capitalism and the stock-market investment, the ownership of land and operational manors was the principal asset used by the English gentry for the long-term storage of wealth. It was essential to prove "devolution of title" to an estate, which necessitated the retention of every historical deed which had been used at some time over decades if not centuries to transfer legal ownership of that estate. For example, if it had been determined historically in a court of law that "person X" had good title to an estate at some past date, the present owner, in order to have equally good title, needed to prove that he had obtained, in a valid manner, the asset directly or indirectly from person X. For example, if a royal charter survived granting a manor to person X, that would constitute an ideal starting point from which to prove devolution of title.  Thus several charters, indentures, entails, marriage settlements and last will and testaments of varying dates and contained within several sheets of parchment might form the complete devolution of title for just one estate. Many gentry families in England held particular estates for many centuries (the Berkeley family has held Berkeley Castle since the 12th century, and holds it still in 2021), generating a large volume of documents of title as the estate passed down the generations of the family. Such often large and highly verbose documents were generally folded up to form small packets and were then sealed with wax, with an epitome or summary of the document written in ink on the finished packet.

In 21st century England, the establishment of the Government department of the Land Registry and the compulsory requirement for persons and companies to register all land transactions, renders the use of title deeds superfluous and   devolution of title is not required to prove title as proof of title is now determined prima facie merely by an entry in the land register, a certificate certifying which entry can be provided by the registrar if required. In previous times title deeds were the main evidence of ownership (apart from physical possession of land, said by the old adage to form "nine tenths of the law"), and where a person owned dozens of estates, many of which he rarely or never visited, and ownership of which was frequently the subject of legal challenges, for example by distant relatives of testators, it was essential to safeguard title deeds. Security needed to provide not only against theft, but also against destruction of the parchment (i.e. animal skin) and ink by fire, excessive heat, sunlight, water, mould, insects and rodents. Thus in certain monasteries the muniments room was often situated above the warming house. Special chests were used, designed specifically to aid preservation. Rapid portability of muniments was also a consideration, in case of fire or armed attack of the building.

The intact muniments room of an ancient mansion house or castle  was frequently found by modern historians and genealogists to provide a rich source of materials for research purposes.

See also
Westminster Abbey Muniments

References

External links

Latin legal terminology

Muniment


"Hop o' My Thumb" (French: Le petit Poucet) is a fairy tale by Charles Perrault. It was first published in 1697 in Paris by Claude Barbin in Histoires ou contes du temps passé (Stories or Tales of Past Times), a collection of eight fairy tales by Perrault. The story tells of several brothers abandoned by their parents. The smallest brother is the same size as a person's thumb. He saves his brothers from an ogre. Perrault's rhyming moral at the end of the story tells readers that sometimes the smallest boy in the family brings good things to all.

References
 Betts, Christopher (Ed.) 2009. The Complete Fairy Tales. Oxford UP. pp. 187-90.
 Opie, Iona and Peter. 1974. The Classic Fairy Tales. Oxford UP. pp. 128-9.

Fairy tales
Works by Charles Perrault

Hop o' My Thumb


John Bull (born 1562 or 1563; died March 15, 1628) was an English composer, musician, and organ builder. He was famous for playing the harpsichord and organ.  Most of his compositions were written for keyboard instruments. He became a Gentleman, and then organist, at the Chapel Royal.  He was also known for getting into trouble for adultery.  He went to Europe and may have worked as a spy.  He died in Antwerp.

Together with Sweelinck and William Byrd he was one of the great composers of keyboard music in the early 17th century.  Many of his works are in the collection called the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book.

1560s births
1628 deaths
Bull, John
Bull, John
Bull, John

John Bull (composer)


Forest Hills is a part of the Jamaica Plain neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Forest Hills is characterized by hilly terrain and wooded areas within and adjacent to its borders.  In general, the area slopes upward from Hyde Park Ave and downward from Walk Hill Street.

Forest Hills is primarily residential, although a number of small businesses are located along Hyde Park Avenue.  Single family homes predominate south of Walk Hill Street, but triple deckers dominate near the train station. As in the rest of Jamaica Plain, many of the multi-unit houses have been converted into condominiums. A variety of home styles are represented including Arts & Crafts, Cape Cod, Colonial Revival, Queen Anne, Tudor Revival and Victorian. South of Walk Hill Street, Forest Hills is characterized by curving, tree-lined streets laid out in irregular patterns indicative of how the area was thoughtfully  transformed from country estates into a streetcar suburb.

History

The first European known to have settled in Forest Hills was Capt. Joseph Weld (ancestor of former Governor of Massachusetts William Weld), the youngest of three immigrant brothers from England and a veteran of the Pequot War of 1637.  For his efforts in that conflict and subsequent negotiations, the leaders of Massachusetts Bay Colony awarded him  untamed in what is now the Forest Hills area of Jamaica Plain.

His descendant Col. Eleazer Weld, one of seven Weld family members who fought in the American Revolutionary War, bequeathed some of his land to fellow patriot Benjamin Bussey.  His combined area was subsequently willed to Harvard University and become the basis for Arnold Arboretum.

In 1845, the Welds sold a large piece of land that would later become the Woodbourne area to William Minot, a fellow Yankee farmer.  As the New England economy shifted from an agricultural base to a mercantile base, the Welds divided their land into smaller parcels for elite Bostonian friends and relatives.  Some lived here year round; for others it was a rural retreat from Boston's summer heat and seasonal cholera outbreaks.

The Weld family and families to whom they were connected—especially Guild, Minot, Perkins, Olney, Peters and Rodman—were associated with Jamaica Plain for generations.  A number of local statesmen were drawn from these families, and many of them became wealthy or famous.

Richard Olney built what might be the first tennis court in Boston on what is now Patten Street.  George Minot won a Nobel Prize.  William Fletcher Weld (whose mother was a Minot) left behind a $20 million dollar fortune.  Stephen Minot Weld Jr. and George H. Perkins were Civil War heroes.  Andrew James Peters (who married a Minot), became Mayor of Boston.  A previous incarnation of Perkins School for the Blind stood atop Wachusett Street.

In the early 20th century, the arrival of public transportation brought increasing numbers of working-class people and rich Yankee families abandoned Forest Hills.  Some returned to ancestral haunts on Beacon Hill or in Brookline.  Others went farther south to Dedham or Westwood or even left the state entirely.

Geographic locale

Borders
Forest Hills is not an officially designated area of the city nor have its borders been defined.  Generally, "Forest Hills" refers to the area immediately surrounding the train station, plus the residential areas on the East side of Hyde Park Avenue extending perhaps as far as Cummins Highway or perhaps only as far as Walk Hill Street.

More often, Forest Hills refers to a roughly triangular area lying between Hyde Park Avenue, American Legion Highway and Morton Street, except for those areas separated from the rest by the cemeteries.

This triangle is bisected by Walk Hill Street. The blocks south of Walk Hill Street were once regarded as the White City area of Jamaica Plain. Now they are regarded as the Woodbourne area.

Subsections

White City

In 1914, four apartment buildings covered with light stucco were erected on Hyde Park Ave far South of the train station.  The complex was called "White City" in emulation of the World's Columbian Exposition a decade earlier. The name was later borrowed by the White City Food Store and the White City Cleansers (sic) on the corner of Hyde Park Ave and Eldridge Road, thus putting the "White City" name on two large signs visible even to those whizzing by on Hyde Park Ave. White City came to be regarded as a section of Forest Hills, but not a separate section of Jamaica Plain.  Its borders were seen as Walk Hill Street, Hyde Park Ave and St. Michael's Cemetery.  The area now thought of as "Woodbourne" was contained within.

White City was not an all-White area of Jamaica Plain. Jamaica Plain was always a diverse section of the City of Boston, as was made obvious by the diversity of Jamaica Plain High School, the most integrated school in the City of Boston in the late 1950s.  White City Cleansers was renamed around 2003; its sign was the last prominent reminder of the name that was once given to this section of Jamaica Plain. Racists had tried to link the name, White City, associated with the white stucco apartment buildings, with race.  However, white was simply the color of the stucco applied to two buildings on Hyde Park Ave.

Woodbourne

The Woodbourne Historic District is a historic residential subdivision in Forest Hills. It consists of a  parcel of land southwest of Forest Hills Cemetery, roughly bounded by Walk Hill Street, Goodway Road, and Wachusett Street.  This area was developed into house lots between 1890 and 1933 by financier Robert Winsor in an effort to create a sort of utopian community for middle-class families. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. was responsible for some of its layout.

The "bourne" element in streets such as Southbourne and Bournedale is taken from Bourne Street, a road established around 1820.  Bourne Street begins at Walk Hill Street across from Forest Hills Cemetery, meanders through a scenic residential area and St. Michael's cemetery, then comes to an end at Canterbury Street and Mt. Hope Cemetery. The most distinctive homes in this section are designed to resemble gabled English cottages and are situated around a common courtyard.  While the means to flatten out this terrain was readily available, developers chose to retain the uneven character of the landscape to preserve a country-like estate feel.

Since Woodbourne was designated as a historic district in 1999, homeowners and realtors have begun advertising homes there as belonging to the "Woodbourne area" rather than saying that they are in "Forest Hills".  Nevertheless, Woodbourne was designed and advertised with the proximity of the train station in mind, was an integral part of the Roman Catholic parish of St. Andrew the Apostle, and was thought of as part of Forest Hills by its residents throughout the 20th century.

Parks, cemeteries, and green space

Forest Hills is surrounded by the three final "links" of the Emerald Necklace park system designed by Frederick Law Olmsted in the 19th century: Arnold Arboretum, Arborway and Franklin Park.  While teaching on "Schoolmaster's Hill" in Franklin Park, Ralph Waldo Emerson boarded on Morton Street near present-day Forest Hills Station in the same house used by feminist Margaret Fuller.

There is a baseball field at the top of Wachusett Street which is bordered by trees and adjacent to the well-maintained Parkman Playground. There are also small, nameless patches of woodland, such as the one between Patten Street and Eldridge Road.

Outcroppings of Roxbury puddingstone dot the landscape, both within the green areas and in unexpected locations, such as the immense lump of puddingstone on Wachusett Street across from the Parkman School.

A large portion of Forest Hills is occupied by Forest Hills Cemetery, an active cemetery, also enjoyed as a  park and arboretum, recognized as one of the finest 19th-century rural cemeteries in the country and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Eugene O'Neill, e.e. cummings and William Lloyd Garrison are among the famous people buried here. St. Michael's Cemetery & Crematory (across Walk Hill Street from the Forest Hills Cemetery) is more contemporary in design. Calvary Cemetery, Mt. Hope Cemetery and New Calvary Cemetery are also large in size and are more contemporary (for example, level and sparsely wooded) burial grounds that lie on the opposite side of American Legion Highway. Together these cemeteries form a "dead area" that separates Forest Hills from the nearest sections of Mattapan and Roxbury.

Education

Parkman School

In 1896, the City of Boston acquired an acre of land from Andrew James Peters for a school designed by Charles B. Perkins to be placed at the corner of Wachusett Street and Walk Hill Street. The school was named after Francis Parkman, local scholar whose summer home overlooked Jamaica Pond.

Francis Parkman School has housed two city educational programs: the Barton Assessment Center and The Young Achievers School, a city-wide pilot school dedicated to science and mathematics. The later program also occupies space in the Upham Church and school officials are considering expansion into one or more of the properties that comprise St. Andrew's. In September 2009 the Young Achievers School moved out of the building to a new home in Mattapan and the new Boston Teachers Union (BTU) Pilot school moved into the building.

Seaver School

On the late 1920s, the City of Boston acquired land for a school to be built between Eldridge Road and Northbourne. The city leveled the parcel and built a huge concrete retaining wall in the rear. The red brick building was designed with a Georgian Revival style by John F. Cullen and completed in 1930.  Side wings were added the following year.

The school was eventually named after Edwin P. Seaver, Superintendent of Schools in Boston from 1880 to 1904. For much of the 20th century, this school provided education for grades K-8. Many local children attended kindergarten here, even those who would later attend St. Andrew's School from 1st grade and beyond.

The Edwin P. Seaver building was sold by the city and turned into condominiums in 1983 by the Finch/Abbey Group and is now one of the largest residential buildings in Forest Hills. The former schoolyards serve as parking for residents.

Churches

St. Andrew's Parish

St. Andrew the Apostle Church was built by the Archdiocese of Boston in 1918. It stands on the corner of Walk Hill Street and Wachusett Street diagonally across from where the city built the Parkman School some two decades earlier.

In 1942, St. Andrew the Apostle School was opened adjacent to the church. A convent next to the school housed the Sisters who staffed it. First it was staffed by the Sisters of the Congregation of Saint Joseph and later by the Sisters of Charity. A rectory next to the church was home to four or more priests at a time.   Eventually, a building directly across the street from St. Andrew's Church was purchased to serve as a "community hall." By the late 1940s, Forest Hills (on both sides of Walk Hill Street) was predominantly Irish Catholic. Catholics of other ethnic groups (particularly Italians but also French, Poles, Portuguese, Scots and others) were also present but were collectively outnumbered by the Irish. Although small numbers of non-Catholics remained in the area, for the second half of the 20th century, "Forest Hills" and "St. Andrew's Parish" were virtually synonymous.

The 1970s busing crisis that erupted with violence in Boston neighborhoods such as Dorchester and South Boston had less visible effect in Jamaica Plain parishes such as St. Andrew's or its  neighboring parent church St. Thomas Aquinas near Jamaica Plain Centre. Most White families in Jamaica Plain could afford to send their children to parochial schools, and did. During this time in which Forest Hills was mostly Irish-Catholic, two public schools operated within its borders: the Parkman and the Seaver. Students at these schools were mostly Black and Latino, reflecting the composition of Jamaica Plain as a whole. They travelled back and forth in yellow school buses and there was little interaction between these schools and the all-White residents of the area.

A thriving parish for much of the 20th century, St. Andrew's suffered a change at the end of the century. The surrounding area became increasingly heterogeneous, ethnically and culturally. Some locals resisted these changes and left the area in the process sometimes called "urban flight", further reducing the number of active parishioners. Another strong factor in the decline of attendance and revenue at St. Andrew's was dissatisfaction with the archdiocese in the wake of the Church sex scandal which came to light at this time. Forest Hills parishioners had particular cause to feel betrayed. John J. Geoghan, one of the most notorious molesters among Catholic clergy, served at St. Andrew's from 1974 to 1980 and ran the altar boy program. Patrick McSorley, one of Geoghan's most visible accusers, was from this parish.

St. Andrew's Church closed in 2000, although funeral masses were held there after that date. St. Andrew's School closed at the end of school year 2005.  Students who had not yet graduated were given the option to attend Sacred Heart School in Roslindale.

In 2008, St. Andrews church, school, rectory, and convent were purchased by the Bethel African Methodist Church, a 20-year-old church and longtime owner and occupant of the Parkside Christian School building on nearby Forest Hills Street. In August 2008, Bethel African Methodist Church leased the St. Andrews school building to the MATCH Charter School to launch its new grade 6-8 middle school, and the kindergarten building to the Young Achievers Pilot School to be used as an arts space.

Upham Church

Upham Memorial Church, a small Methodist church at the corner of Wachusett and Patten Streets, was completed in 1901. Previously, Forest Hills Methodist Society had been holding services in a rented hall in the Forest Hills area. Designed by James G. Hutchinson in a Tudor Revival style, this wooden church was built with a corner tower and half-timbering. A later addition was added in 1925.

As this area became increasingly Catholic after World War II, attendance dropped sharply. The church closed in 1969 and remained boarded up and unused until acquired by the Knights of Columbus in 1977. The K's of C added aluminum siding shortly thereafter, obscuring much of the architectural details of the original structure.

This building, along with the Parkman School, used to house The Young Achievers School, a city-wide pilot school. The building was converted to condos after The Young Achievers School relocated to Mattapan.

Transport

Forest Hills Station

Forest Hills is served by the Forest Hills Station, a local transportation hub operated by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA). This station is the southern end of the Orange Line, is a stop on the Commuter Rail's Needham Line, and was previously the terminal for the Green Line's E branch, until it was truncated to Heath Street in north Jamaica Plain.  Service along that route is provided by the 39 bus.  Orange line service runs from here north to Malden on the North Shore via Downtown Crossing.  Bus routes servicing the station are the 16, 21, 30, 31, 32, 34/34E, 25, 26, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 50 and 51, and are accessible from berths all around the station, on upper and lower levels.

This station created the impetus for development of the local area since the Boston & Providence Railroad opened in 1834.  The local area got its name after the establishment of the eponymous cemetery in 1848; subsequently, that name was applied to the station.

The original Forest Hills Station was a large red brick structure built in the 19th century.  In the early 20th century, the traditional tracks to the North were replaced with an elevated railway which lead into Boston and connected with the city's subway, the oldest in the nation. The elevated track and the original station were torn down in the late 1980s.  The station was replaced with the current, modern style station and clock tower designed by Cambridge Seven Associates and completed in 1987.

The Monsignor William J. Casey Overpass (a.k.a. Morton Street overpass) stood just north of the station, was built in the 1950s to bypass Forest Hills and connect the Arborway to Morton Street. and was demolished in 2015.

Toll Gate Bridge

Before the trains were built in the 1830s, the area that is now Forest Hills Station was known as (the) Toll Gate. The Norfolk and Bristol Turnpike was created in 1803, providing a main route between Boston and Providence, Rhode Island.  The Hartford and Dedham Turnpike was chartered the following year, serving as a main road through to Hartford, Connecticut.

At the facility that stood at what is now the MBTA station, carts and wagons from Roxbury and environs were weighed and charged a toll before being allowed onto the privately owned turnpike.  The turnpike became unprofitable and changed into a public road in 1857.  In 1874, it was renamed Washington Street and it remains one of the longest streets in the Commonwealth. Long after the train station had acquired the name "Forest Hills", its older identity was preserved in the name of the Toll Gate Bridge, a metal footbridge that crossed the railroad tracks to Washington Street at the point where Walk Hill Street meets Hyde Park Avenue.

In a state of disrepair, the stairs on both sides were removed during the 1990s after Ukraine Way (nearer the station) provided a crossing point for both pedestrians and traffic. The remaining bridge span was torn down in 2012. Adjacent to the footbridge entrance, the small, neglected Tollgate Catholic graveyard containing 19th and early 20th century headstones sits along Hyde Park Avenue. A monument to Irish-American war dead was created in the 1980s, and each year flags are placed on the graves of veterans.

Notes and references

Notes

References

Boston Area Homes
Boston Globe, "Catholic school set for closing"
Boston Globe, "Church allowed abuse by priest"
Dedham Historical Society, "A capsule history of Dedham"
Harvard Magazine, "The Welds of Harvard Yard"
Jamaica Plain Gazette, October 20, 2006
Jamaica Plain Historical Society, Boston Daily Globe article from July 5, 1908
Jamaica Plain Historical Society, "Guide to Jamaica Plain"
Jamaica Plain Historical Society, "Weld Family"
Jamaica Plain Historical Society, "Woodbourne and the Boston 1915 Movement"
Jamaica Plain Historical Society, "Woodbourne Historic District"
Rappaport Institute for Greater Boston, "Forest Hills MBTA Station"
Rappaport Institute for Greater Boston, "Forest Hills Street"

Bibliography

Bergeron, Ralph. Housing the Middle Class Man,  Technical World 14, no. 2, April 1913
Boston Dwelling House Company. Woodbourne: A Real Estate Development of the Boston Dwelling House Company. Boston: Walton Advertising and Printing Co..
Boston American. "Scientific Model House Community", December 19, 1911
Boston Herald. Articles (April 24, 1899; May 8, 1904; April 18, 1913; July 3, 6, 1913)
Candee, Richard and Greer Hardwicke. Early Twentieth Century Reform Housing by Kilham & Hopkins Architects of Boston, Winterthur Portfolio, Spring 1987, no. 1, vol. 22.
Channing, K.M. Minot Family Letters, 1773 -1871. Sherborn, Mass., 1957.
City of Boston. Inspectional Services Department. Building permits.
Croly, Herbert. "The Work of Kilham & Hopkins, Architects of Boston, Mass." Architectural Record 31, no. 2 (Feb. 1912).
Drake, Francis S. The Town of Roxbury. Boston: Alfred Mudge and Son, 1878.
Eggat, Gerald. Richard Olney, Evolution of a Statesman. 1847.
A Genealogical Record of the Minot Family in America and New England. Boston, 1897.
Heath, Richard. Summer House to Garden Suburb: A History of Woodbourne in the Forest Hills Section of Jamaica Plain, Boston, 1997.
O'Connor, Thomas H. Bibles, Brahmins, and Bosses: A Short History of Boston.Trustees of the Public Library of the City of Boston, 1984.
O'Connor, Thomas H. Boston Catholics: A History of the Church and Its People. Northeastern University Press, 2000.

Jamaica Plain, Boston
Neighborhoods in Boston
Streetcar suburbs
Historic districts in Suffolk County, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Boston
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts

Forest Hills, Boston


Yom Kippur is a Jewish festival. It is also known as the Day of Atonement. It lasts 25 hours. During this period, Jews ask God to forgive them for all their sins. People fast on this day, and they go to synagogue. Other things people are not allowed to do during Yom Kippur include washing, using perfumes and lotions. Many wear white as a symbol of purity. Even though people fast, Yom Kippur is considered a happy holiday. This is because Jews are sure that God will forgive them on this day.

Yom Kippur is the tenth day of the month of Tishrei in the Hebrew calendar. In Jewish tradition, God writes the fate of each person for the coming year into a "book" on Rosh Hashanah. God waits until Yom Kippur to "seal" the book. During the days between Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, Jews try to improve their behavior. They ask God to forgive them for sins against God. They also ask each other to forgive them for anything they did to hurt each other. The evening and day of Yom Kippur are used for public and private confessions of guilt (Vidui). At the end of Yom Kippur, Jews consider themselves absolved by God.

The Yom Kippur prayer service includes several special parts. One of them is the number of prayer services. A regular day has three prayer services (Ma'ariv, the evening prayer; Shacharit, the morning prayer; and Mincha, the afternoon prayer). A Shabbat or major Jewish holiday has four prayer services (these three plus Musaf, the additional prayer). Yom Kippur has a fifth prayer service: Ne'ilah, the closing prayer. All five prayer services include a public confession of sins (Vidui). The additional (Musaf) prayer includes a prayer dedicated to the special Yom Kippur avodah (service) of the High Priest in the Temple in Jerusalem.

Yom Kippur is one of the holiest of Jewish holidays. It is observed by many Jews who do not observe other holidays. More people come to synagogue on Yom Kippur than on any other day of the year.

Dates
 2017: 29-30 September
 2018: 18-19 September
 2019: 8-9 October
 2020: 27-28 September
 2021: 15-16 September
 2022: 4-5 October

Jewish festivals and holidays

Yom Kippur


The Irish Independent is an Irish daily newspaper. It is published in both compact and broadsheet sizes. It is the main publication of Independent News and Media. It is also called The Independent or Indo for short.

History
The Irish Independent was formed in 1905. Before then, there was a paper called Daily Irish Independent. This was an 1890s pro-Parnellite newspaper.

The Irish Independent was launched by William Martin Murphy. He was a controversial Irish nationalist businessman. He was against Charles Stewart Parnell.

During the 1913 Lockout of workers, Murphy was the leader among the employers. His paper, Irish Independent, published news reports and opinion pieces that were against the workers who were on strike. It wrote that the union's would lose that fight.

The Irish Independent said about the 1916 Easter Rising that it was "insane and criminal". It famously called for the shooting of its leaders.

In December 1919, during the Irish War of Independence, a group of twenty IRA men destroyed the printing works of the paper. They did this because the paper was not writing good things about the Irish Republican Army. They said the paper was pro-British and had a Unionist stance.

In 1924, the traditional nationalist newspaper, the Freeman's Journal, merged with the Irish Independent.

In the 1970s, it was taken over by former Heinz chairman Tony O'Reilly.

References

Other websites

Newspapers in Europe
Ireland

Irish Independent


The Colognian dialect, or Kölsch is a variety of the German languages. People in and around the city of Cologne in the West of Germany use Kölsch. Nowadays most of them have High German as their primary language or secondary language.

Usage
About 250,000 people actively speak Kölsch.
More than 2,500,000 people understand Kölsch well and use some Kölsch, or a variant, somehow.
An estimated 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 people understand it partially.

Pronunciation
How to say "Kölsch"? Take the beginning from "kernel" or "colonel"; next take a real dark, long "l" as in "bold", or "ball"; then append a "sh" as in "shrimps", or "ti" as in "nation". That's the sound "Kölsch". However, the German "ö" is not exactly the same as an English "o", but a sound between "o" and "e".

Etymology
The word 'Kölsch' comes from the Name of the City of Cologne.
It is 'Köln' in native tongue, yet 'Kölle' in Kölsch.
Now by ordinary German word building rules, 'kölnisch' means 'belonging to Cologne', 'related to Cologne', 'in Cologne', 'from Cologne'—as in 'kölnisch Wasser' (Eau de Cologne). The word 'kölnisch', or 'köllesch', shortened to 'kölsch' in local tongue, became a shorthand noun for the local beer and the local language, or dialect.

Today's name of the city stems from ancient times of the Roman occupation of Northern Germany 100 years before Christ, and later. In the place of a longer existing German tribal settlement, the Romans built a fort or castle —
then, approximately under the reign of Julius Caesar, enhanced it to a colony (Latin: colonia) with religious and city rights.
Part of its Roman name stuck, 'Colonia Clavdia Ara Agrippinensivm Oppidvm Vbiorum' became 'Köln' over the centuries.

History
Although Kölsch speakers occasionally claim that it is rooted in pre-Roman times, Kölsch's ripuarian base developed from a mix of Lower German and Middle High German in medieval times. It learned from other languages through political and trade connections during the times of the Hanse, and from various waves of immigration. In modern times, there were:
 Remarkable French influences since Napoleon's occupation of the city (1794-1815)
 Prussian influences as Prussian kings took over from the French army
 Dutch influences by immigration, trade, and neighborhood
 Some English influences through the British and American armies, European integration and worldwide globalization since 1945
 Recently minor influences by migrants from Southern Europe and Turkey start evolving

Special properties
Kölsch has outstanding or unique properties. Here are some:
 Richness. There is only one language in Europe that has as many different vowels as Kölsch. There are a huge number of different sounds that sound like 'sh', but if someone gets them wrong, he will be understood as a foreigner.
 Tolerance paired with individuality. Kölsch is not so outstanding among the many dialects around it. These are both similar and different. Kölsch integrates new variants and deviations easily and quickly. There is no concept of right or wrong, only of difference. It is all right to be different, as every individual is different somehow all the time.
 Kölsch is unusually well documented. Some linguists of the local universities have shown great interest in Kölsch and the ripuarian dialects, and research on them. Outside the world of science, the Akademie för uns Kölsche Sproch (Academy in favour of our Kölsch language) offers regular courses, classes, excursions for everybody. They publish a dictionary, a grammar, and phrase books. It is probably the only institute of its kind worldwide.

Socio-cultural
After the Second World War, Cologne took up and integrated a huge number of former inhabitants from the former East German regions, which now are part of Poland.
That has not had a remarkable impact on the Kölsch language; but on the immigrants.
They soon began to integrate into the social life and otherwise, they began to learn Kölsch.
Naturally they initially were not perfect speakers.
The Kölsch language recognized that, and quickly created a word for them: "imi" ('imitating' or 'imitated' Kölsch).
As they lerned Kölsch well over the years, you could hear the word 'imi' less often.
It came back recently, when the wall that separated East and West Germany was taken down.

People who speak Kölsch
 Jacques Offenbach, (1819–1880), cellist, composer, initiator of the genre 'operetta'
 Konrad Adenauer, (1876-1967), Cologne's mayor for long, later the first German prime minister (chancellor) after the second world war
 Karl Blömer, body builder, awarded "Mister Universum"
 Heinrich Böll, (1917-1985), writer and novelist, president of the German and the international Pen Club, received the nobel prize for literature in the year 1972
 Peter Müller 'Dä Aap', (1927-1992), middle-weight boxing champion
 Peter Ludwig, (1925-1996), industry leader, patron and collector of modern art, founder of six important museums spread over Western Germany
 Willy Millowitsch, (1909-1999), actor, TV-star, entertainer, proprietor of his own theatre in Cologne
 Mario Adorf, (born 1930), actor and writer
 Michael Schumacher, (born in 1969), formula-one car-racing world champion

Kölsch music
 Willi Ostermann, (1876-1936) was a parodist, poet, composer, singer, songwriter, editor and publisher. He is extremely popular in the Kölsch Region. He created a treasure of Kölsch songs. Many of Ostermann's songs are in everybody's active memory in Cologne and about. People sing them on various occasions and music groups ubiquitously performed them all the time until today.
Kölsch-Rock or Kölschrock is rock music in the language of the common people of Cologne and its surroundings.
 de Bläck Fööss (the Naked Feet) were the first publicly recognized beat band to sing in Kölsch language. The professional musicians, successful in other projects, just for fun recorded a nice Kölsch song together, in 1969. The record became a little local success, they decided to follow that path and started a huge success. Over the years, they had a series of local top hits, occasionally well received even outside the area where people understand Kölsch. Today they regularly draw audiences of 20,000 or 30,000 people several times a year. Their repertoire covers most styles of modern popular music, and various language variants of Kölsch.
 BAP is a Kölsch rock group. They always have been a tour band and successfully perform throughout Germany.
 de Höhner (the Cocks and Hens) is a group playing popular, rock, beat, dancing, and drinking songs, almost all of them use an easy Kölsch. They have had a top hit in Germany and Number One at the Oktoberfest in Munich. Munich is far away from Cologne; people in Munich have a completely different language, they usually do not comprehend Kölsch.
 Can was a Kölsch rock group that reveived much international acclamation from insiders in the late 1960s, when they started a new style of electronic music. General public became aware of them only about 20 years later. Then other musicians had successfully adopted their style. Most of their music is instrumental. If there is voice in their compositions, it is mostly used similar to any other instrument.

References

Other websites

 Moselfränkisches Wörterbuch (Mosel-Frankian Dictionary, in German)
 WiKoelsch  Test Wiki in Ripuarian languages, including Kölsch.

German dialects
Languages of Germany
Cologne

Colognian


John Potter  (c. 167410 October 1747) was Archbishop of Canterbury (1737–1747).

Life
He was the son of a linen draper at Wakefield, Yorkshire. At the age of fourteen he entered University College, Oxford, and in 1693 he published notes on Plutarch's De audiendis poetis and Basil's Oratio ad juvenes. In 1694 he was elected fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford and in 1697 his edition of Lycophron appeared. It was followed by his Archaeologia graeca (2 vols. 8vo, 1697–1698), the popularity of which endured till the advent of Dr William Smith's dictionaries. A reprint of his Lycophron in 1702 was dedicated to Graevius, and the Antiquities was afterwards published in Latin in the Thesaurus of Gronovius.

Besides holding several livings he became, in 1704, chaplain to Archbishop Tenison, and shortly afterwards was made Chaplain-in-Ordinary to Queen Anne. From 1708 he was Regius Professor of Divinity and canon of Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. He married Elizabeth Venner in St. Paul's Cathedral in 1709. She being a granddaughter of Thomas Venner, a Fifth Monarchy man hanged as a traitor. In 1715 he became Bishop of Oxford. In the same year appeared his edition of Clement of Alexandria. In 1707 he published a Discourse on Church Government, and he took a prominent part in the controversy with Benjamin Hoadly, Bishop of Bangor. Even though Potter was a notable Whig, he was a High Churchman and had opposed Hoadly. Bishop Potter also ordained John Wesley a deacon in the Church of England in September 1725, and ordained him a priest in 1728.

In January 1737 Potter was unexpectedly appointed to succeed William Wake in the see of Canterbury. While in that seat, he continued to represent a High Church position, but he was also ineffective at restoring the Convocation. Alexander Pope attacked him in the 1743 version of his The Dunciad (book II, 323).

Potter died on 10 October 1747. His Theological Works, consisting of sermons, charges, divinity lectures and the Discourse on Church Government, were published in three volumes.

He was buried in Croydon Minster in Surrey.

References

1670s births
1747 deaths
People from Wakefield
Bishops of Oxford
Archbishops of Canterbury
18th-century Anglican archbishops
Alumni of University College, Oxford
Fellows of Lincoln College, Oxford
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
People educated at Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Wakefield
Burials at Croydon Minster
Regius Professors of Divinity (University of Oxford)
18th-century Church of England bishops
17th-century Anglican theologians
18th-century Anglican theologians

Year of birth uncertain

John Potter (bishop)


Velocar was the name given to velomobiles made in the 1930s and 1940s by Mochet et Cie of Puteaux, France and colloquially to the company's recumbent bicycles.

 was the inventive maker of lightweight powered cyclecars (Le P'tit Auto) and pedal-powered cars (quadricycles), mainly two-seaters, built on a tubular-steel chassis with bicycle-sized wheels, variable gears, and aerodynamic bodywork, in effect a faired-in "sociable". The popularity of the little cars declined in the late 1930s as cheaper, powered cars became available, only to rise rapidly when petrol became almost unobtainable during World War II, 1939–1945.

However, Mochet's stroke of genius was to make what was the first performance recumbent bicycle, or vélo couché, using a design that was based on half of his four-wheeled Velocar. This machine, called by the factory the "Velo-Velocar", or "V-V" for short, broke many world cycling records in 1933. Although Mochet had verified with the UCI and the UVF that his recumbents were completely legal for competition, they were declared ineligible at a later hearing and permanently banned from competition by cycling's governing body, the UCI, it is thought at the behest of the makers of standard upright cycles. Mochet had perhaps also broken an unspoken rule that only "First-Category" riders could attempt records, his rider, Francis Faure, being only a second-category rider. Competition use was carried on in a limited fashion in UVF-governed events.

Although road and track versions of the recumbents were built in small numbers between 1933 and 1945, as well as, in 1935, a simplified version called the "Velorizontal", and record-breaking continued in non-UCI categories, the Recumbent impetus was lost after the war, the last Mochet model being the 1940 version of the "Vélorizontal". Around 35 Mochet recumbents survive (2011) in museums and private collections.

Re-discovery of the Mochet concept in California in the late 1970s led to the subsequent development of recumbent cycles that took place in the US in the 1980s.

Mochet had died suddenly in 1934 just after the UCI ban and the business was carried on by his widow and his son Georges. After the war, Georges continued making mainly powered microcars in the "Sans Permis" category from 1945 to 1957. Georges Mochet died in 2008.

See also
 Go-kart
 Mochet's Velocar
 Model car
 Velomobiles

References

'Mochet: Minimalisme sur roues' Hermann Bruning, Editions Cépadues, Toulouse, 2000.
'Bicycle of the Future, The Cycles of the Rue Roque de Fillol.' Bob Cordon Champ, 'The Boneshaker' (Journal of the Veteran-Cycle Club) 2004.

External links
Mochet.org
VELOCAR ROAD RACING IN THE 1930s by Arnfried Schmitz, Lioux, Provence, France
Current velomobiles in North America

Cycle manufacturers of France
Companies based in Île-de-France

Velocar


Things to Come (also known in promotional material as H. G. Wells' Things to Come) is a 1936 British black-and-white science fiction film from United Artists, produced by Alexander Korda, directed by William Cameron Menzies, and written by H. G. Wells. The film stars Raymond Massey, Edward Chapman, Ralph Richardson, Margaretta Scott, Cedric Hardwicke, Maurice Braddell, Sophie Stewart, Derrick De Marney, and Ann Todd.

H. G. Wells conceived his treatment as "a new story" meant to display the "social and political forces and possibilities" that he had outlined in his 1933 book The Shape of Things to Come, a work he considered less a novel than a "discussion" in fictional form that presented itself as the notes of a 22nd-century diplomat. The film was also influenced by previous works, including his 1897 story "A Story of the Days to Come" and his 1931 work on society and economics, The Work, Wealth and Happiness of Mankind. The cultural historian Christopher Frayling called Things to Come "a landmark in cinematic design".

Synopsis
In 1940, businessman John Cabal, living in the city of Everytown in southern England, cannot enjoy Christmas Day as the news speaks of possible war. His guest, Harding, shares his worries, while another friend, the over-optimistic Pippa Passworthy, believes that it will not come to pass, and if it does, it will accelerate technological progress. An aerial bombing raid on the city that night results in general mobilisation and then global war with the unnamed enemy. Cabal becomes a Royal Air Force pilot and serves bravely, even attempting to rescue an enemy pilot he has shot down.

The war continues into the 1960s, long enough for the people of the world to have forgotten why they are fighting. Humanity enters a new dark age. Every city in the world is in ruins, the economy has been devastated by hyperinflation, and there is little technology left other than greatly depleted air forces. A pestilence known as "wandering sickness" is inflicted by aerial bombing and causes its victims to walk around aimlessly in a zombie-like state before dying. The plague kills half of humanity and extinguishes the last vestiges of government.

By 1970, the warlord Rudolf, known as the "Boss", has become the chieftain of what is left of Everytown and eradicated the pestilence by shooting the infected. He has started yet another war, this time against the "hill people" of the Floss Valley to obtain coal and shale to render into oil for his ragtag collection of prewar biplanes.

On May Day that year, a sleek new monoplane lands in Everytown, startling the inhabitants who have not seen a new aircraft in many years. The pilot, a now elderly John Cabal, emerges and proclaims that the last surviving band of engineers and mechanics have formed a civilization called "Wings Over the World". They are based in Basra, Iraq and have outlawed war and are rebuilding civilisation throughout the Near East and the Mediterranean. Cabal offers the Boss the opportunity to join Wings, but he immediately rejects the offer and takes Cabal prisoner, forcing him to repair the obsolete biplanes and render them airworthy.

With the assistance of Cabal, the Boss's disillusioned mechanic Gordon contacts Wings Over the World. Gigantic flying wing aircraft arrive over Everytown and saturate its population with a "Gas of Peace" that temporarily renders them unconscious. The people awaken to find themselves under the control of Wings Over the World and the Boss dead from a fatal allergic reaction to the gas. Cabal promises them that Wings Over the World will usher in a new age of progress and peace.

Under Cabal's guidance, Wings Over the World quickly rebuilds civilization to even greater heights. By 2036, a stable mankind is now living in modern underground cities, including the new Everytown, and civilisation is at last devoted to peace and scientific progress. All is not well, however. The sculptor Theotocopulos incites the populace to demand a "rest" from all the rush of progress, symbolised by the coming first crewed flight around the Moon. When the mob threatens to destroy the space gun that will launch the ship to the moon, Oswald Cabal (the grandson of John Cabal and current head of government) is forced to move the launch ahead of schedule.

Oswald Cabal's daughter Catherine and fellow scientist Maurice Passworthy are the astronauts. As the projectile is just a tiny light in the immense night sky, Cabal debates the desirability of human progress with Passworthy's anxious father. To Passworthy's concerns that humanity shall never be able to rest, Cabal retorts that humans have no choice but to conquer the universe and its mysteries: "All the universe or nothingness? Which shall it be, Passworthy? Which shall it be?"

Cast

 Raymond Massey as John Cabal/Oswald Cabal
 Edward Chapman as Pippa Passworthy/Raymond Passworthy
 Ralph Richardson as Rudolf, "The Boss"
 Margaretta Scott as Roxana Black/Rowena Cabal
 Cedric Hardwicke as Theotocopulos
 Maurice Braddell as Dr. Edward Harding
 Sophie Stewart as Mrs Cabal
 Derrick De Marney as Richard Gordon
 Ann Todd as Mary Gordon
 Pearl Argyle as Catherine Cabal
 Kenneth Villiers as Maurice Passworthy
 Ivan Brandt as Morden Mitani
 Anne McLaren as The Child (2036)
 Patricia Hilliard as Janet Gordon
 Charles Carson as Great Grandfather (2036)

Uncredited
 Patrick Barr as World Transport official
 John Clements as enemy pilot
 Anthony Holles as Simon Burton
 Allan Jeayes as Mr. Cabal (1940)
 Pickles Livingston as Horrie Passworthy
 Abraham Sofaer as Wadsky

+
Cast notes
 Theotocopulos's scenes were originally shot with Ernest Thesiger. Wells found his performance to be unsatisfactory, so he was replaced with Cedric Hardwicke and the footage reshot.
 Terry-Thomas, who would become known for his comic acting, has an uncredited appearance as an extra in the film, playing a "man of the future."  It was his seventh film appearance.
 Margaretta Scott is credited with the dual role of Roxana Black and Rowena Cabal, but the latter character does not appear in the longest surviving cut of the film.

Production
Things to Come sets out a future history from 1940 to 2036. In the screenplay, or "treatment" that Wells published in 1935, before the film was released, the story ends in "A.D. 2054".

Wells is sometimes incorrectly assumed to have had a degree of control over the project that was unprecedented for a screenwriter. Posters and the main title bill the film as "H. G. Wells' Things to Come", with "an Alexander Korda production" appearing in smaller type. In fact, Wells ultimately had no control over the finished product, with the result that many scenes, although shot, were either truncated or not included in the finished film. The rough-cut reputedly ran to 130 minutes; the version submitted to the British Board of Film Censors was 117m 13s; it was released as 108m 40s (later cut to 98m 06s) in the UK, and 96m 24s in the United States (see below for later versions). Wells's script (or "film treatment") and selected production notes were published in book form in 1935 and reprinted in 1940 and 1975. An academic edition annotated by Leon Stover was published in 2007. The script contains many scenes that were either never filmed or no longer exist, although the extant footage also includes scenes not in the published script (e.g. the Boss's victory banquet after the capture of the colliery).

Wells originally wanted the music to be recorded in advance, and have the film constructed around the music, but this would have impeded editing, and so the score, by Arthur Bliss, was fitted to the film afterwards in a more conventional way. A concert suite drawn from the film has remained popular; as of 2015, numerous recordings of it were still in print.

The film was made at Denham Film Studios, while the site was still under construction.

After filming had already begun, the Hungarian abstract artist and experimental filmmaker László Moholy-Nagy was commissioned to produce some of the effects sequences for the re-building of Everytown. Moholy-Nagy's approach was partly to treat it as an abstract light show, but only some 90 seconds of material was used, e.g. a protective-suited figure behind corrugated glass. In the autumn of 1975 a researcher found a further four sequences which had been discarded.

The art design in the film is by Vincent Korda, brother of the producer. The futuristic city of Everytown in the film is based on London: a facsimile of St Paul's Cathedral can be seen in the background.

Reception
Things to Come was voted the ninth best British film of 1936 by Film Weeklys readers. It was the 16th most popular film at the British box office in 1935–36. In 2005, it was nominated for the AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores, a list of the top 25 film scores unveiled by the American Film Institute.

Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 93%, based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 7.46/10. The site's consensus read: "Eerily prescient in its presentation of a dystopian future, Things to Come's special effects may be somewhat dated, but its potent ideas haven't aged at all."

Writing for The Spectator in 1936, Graham Greene gave the film a mixed review. Although he made it clear that "a third of the film is magnificent", he felt that the second third (as the world of tomorrow reverts to barbarism and anarchy) seemed implausible, and began to lose interest with the introduction of the "Great Conspiracy" (an international force of airmen bent on restoring Earth's former glory) in the last third of the film. The optimism and idealism comes off as naive for him.

Science fiction historian Gary Westfahl has stated, "Things to Come qualifies as the first true masterpiece of science fiction cinema, and those who complain about its awkward pace and uninvolving characters are not understanding Wells's message, which is that the lives and actions of individuals are unimportant when compared to the progress and destiny of the entire human race". He also considered that "the film's episodic structure and grand ambitions make it the greatest ancestor of Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey".

Indeed, during early development of what would become 2001, co-writer Arthur C. Clarke had Kubrick watch Things to Come as an example of a grounded science fiction film; Kubrick, however, disliked it. After seeing 2001, Frederik Pohl complained in a 1968 Galaxy editorial:

Duration, releases, and surviving versions
The rough cut of the film was 130 minutes in length, while the version submitted for classification by the British Board of Film Censors (BBFC) was 117m 13s. By the time of the 21 February 1936 UK premiere and initial release, this had been reduced to 108m 41s, while the American print premiered on 18 April 1936 was further cut to 96m 31s. By late 1936, a 98m 07s print was in circulation in the UK, and a 76m 07s print was resubmitted for classification by the BBFC and was passed – after further cuts – at 72m 13s for a reissue  in 1943 by Exclusive Films, a film distribution company co-founded by William Hinds.

The 96m 31s American print was cut down to 93m 19s by the removal of three sections of footage for a reissue by British Lion Films in 1948, and subsequently to 92m 44s by the removal of one more segment. A continuity script exists for a version of approximately 106m 04s, which contains all the material in the 96m 31s and 92m 44s versions, plus a number of other sequences. It is not known if a version of this duration was actually in circulation at any time, or if it was simply an intermediate stage between the premiere and release versions.

For many years, the principal surviving version of the film was the 92m 44s print (in countries using PAL or SECAM video systems, it runs to 89m exactly). From at least the late-1970s until 2007, this was the only version "officially" available from the rights holders in the UK. In the United States, although the 92m 44s version was most prevalent, a version was also in circulation that included the four pieces of footage that were in the 96m 31s print, but not the 92m 44s version, although due to other cuts, actually ran shorter than the latter.

Home media
A cut version of the 92m 44s print was digitally restored and colourised by Legend Films, under the supervision of Ray Harryhausen (who had no connection with the making of the film) and released on DVD in the United States in early 2007.

In May 2007, Network DVD in the UK released a digitally restored copy of the 96m 31s version, the longest version remaining of the film. The two-disc set also contains a "Virtual Extended Version" with most of the missing and unfilmed parts represented by production photographs and script extracts. In 2011 Network released an updated and expanded version of this edition on Blu-ray in HD.

The Criterion Collection released the 96m 31s print on DVD and Blu-ray in North America on 18 June 2013. This includes the unused Moholy-Nagy footage as an extra.

Copyright status
Although the film lapsed into the public domain in the US in 1964 due to non-renewal, copyright remained in force in the UK, the European Union, and elsewhere. In the UK, copyright for films as "dramatic works" subsists for seventy years after the end of the year of release, or the death of either the director, the writer (or author of original story), or the composer of original music, whichever is the latest. As the composer, Arthur Bliss, did not die until 1975, copyright will not expire until after 31 December 2045. The current copyright holder is ITV Global Entertainment Ltd., while the longest surviving original nitrate print is held by the BFI National Archive, a copy of the 96m 31s print donated by London Films to the newly formed National Film Library in March 1936.

The film came back into copyright in the US in 1996 under the Uruguay Round Agreements Act (URAA), which, among other measures, amended US copyright law to reinstate copyright on films of non-US origin if they were still in copyright in their country of origin. The URAA was subsequently challenged in Golan v. Gonzales, initially unsuccessfully, later with partial success, but the challenge was ultimately defeated in Golan v. Holder and a new principle established that international agreements could indeed restore copyright to works which had previously come into the public domain.

See also
 The Man Who Could Work Miracles, a 1937 film based on Wells short story of the same name
 H. G. Wells' The Shape of Things to Come, a 1979 Canadian space opera film
 List of incomplete or partially lost films
 1936 in science fiction

References
Notes

Bibliography

 Cooper, Nick (2012) "Things to Come Viewing Notes", Network Blu-Ray

 Wells. H. G. (1935) Things to Come – A Film Story. London: Cresset.

External links

 Things to Come website by film expert Nick Cooper

1936 films
1930s science fiction war films
1930s dystopian films
British aviation films
British black-and-white films
British science fiction war films
British epic films
Films based on works by H. G. Wells
Films directed by William Cameron Menzies
Films produced by Alexander Korda
Films set in 1940
Films set in the 1940s
Films set in 1966
Films set in 1967
Films set in the 1960s
Films set in 1970
Films set in the 1970s
Films set in 2036
Films set in the future
London Films films
British post-apocalyptic films
Films with screenplays by H. G. Wells
Utopian films
Future history
Films shot at Station Road Studios, Elstree
1930s English-language films
1930s British films

Things to Come


The American College of Trial Lawyers (ACTL) is a professional association of trial lawyers from the United States and Canada. Founded in 1950, the College is dedicated to maintaining and improving the standards of trial practice, especially trial advocacy, the administration of justice and the ethics of the profession. Through its Board of Regents, its general committees, and its state and province committees, the College engages in a wide variety of activities to further those purposes.  The College also awards the Medal for Excellence in Advocacy on a yearly basis, as well as the awards are presented at various events or competitions judged by members of the College.

Foundation
The Foundation of the American College of Trial Lawyers (ACTL Foundation), established in 1965, and the Canadian Foundation of the American College of Trial Lawyers, established in 2010, are non-profit organizations founded to advance the initiatives and objectives of the College. The Foundation strives to improve the standards of trial and appellate advocacy, the ethics of the profession, and the administration of justice.

Publications
The College publishes the Codes of Conduct, papers, reports, and other items that contribute to the administration of justice and the profession. Reports may range from brief analyses of proposed amendments to the federal rules to a book-length manual on complex tort litigation.

The College publishes a series of lectures from distinguished speakers who presented at previous meetings of the College in honor of Lewis F. Powell, Jr., the twentieth President of the College and the ninety-ninth Justice to sit on the Supreme Court of the United States.

References

External links
Official website

Organizations established in 1950
Legal organizations based in the United States
Law-related professional associations

American College of Trial Lawyers


The Paul Hogan Show was a popular Australian comedy show which aired on Australian television from 1973 until 1984 for a total of 12 seasons and 60 episodes.  It made a star of Paul Hogan, who later appeared in Crocodile Dundee.  Hogan's friend (and producer of Crocodile Dundee) John Cornell also appeared in the show, playing Hogan's dim flatmate Strop.

Premise

Episodes of the series generally opened with Hogan, playing a version of himself he called 'Hoges', presenting a stand-up comedy routine dressed in his bridge rigger's costume of boots, shorts, and shirt with sleeves cut off.  The show then presented a series of comedy sketches, usually with Hogan in the lead role and playing various recurring characters. These include:
 Leo Wanker: an inept daredevil stuntman;
 George Fungus: a take-off of real-life television journalist George Negus of the Australian 60 Minutes;
 Super Dag: an ocker superhero complete with terry-towelling hat and zinc-creamed nose. His powers include his ability to use his esky in innovative ways;
 Perce the Wino: an old drunken derro who starred in a series of silent, Benny Hill-style, sketches;
 Donger: variants of this beer-gutted character include Sgt Donger, the tough cop with a bionic beer-gut, and Arthur Dunger, a caricature of the suburban tinny-chugging Australian male.
 Nigel Lovelace: a skateboarding eleven-year-old ("almost twelve" as they say in the show);
 The Phantom: a parody of the famous comic book hero The Phantom
 Arthur Dunger: a beer swilling pier bum.
Another recurring sketch featured Hogan again playing "himself" as Hoges, depicting the character's situation of living the carefree bachelor life in a disorderly apartment with his flatmate Strop.

The show would generally end with him in his bridge painter getup trying to flip cigarettes into his mouth.

The series also regularly featured attractive female models and actresses in its sketches - frequently in revealing costumes. Television actress and presenter Delvene Delaney (who later married Cornell) was the most frequent and best-known of these. Other women to appear in the series were Sue McIntosh, Karen Pini, Anya Saleky, Karen West and Abigail.

Many sketches in the show were parodies of contemporary television shows. These included "Thick 'Ead" (Mastermind), "Pot o'Brass" (Pot o'Gold), "A Casual Affair" (A Current Affair) "Sale of the Week" (Sale of the Century), and "Benny Five'O" (a Benny Hill-inspired take-off of Hawaii Five-O).

Theme music
The theme music was taken from the second movement of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No.5. This music was also used in contemporary advertisements for Winfield cigarettes, which featured Hogan.

Reception
The show was very popular in Australia and was compared to Saturday Night Live and The Benny Hill Show. The series also became popular in the UK as a result of its scheduling within peak time on the new Channel 4, and was one of the shows shown on its launch night on 2 November 1982.

Networks
After appearances on A Current Affair and specials for the Nine Network, Hogan and producer John Cornell fell out with network owner Clyde Packer. The first three seasons from 1973 to 1975 of the Paul Hogan Show were on the Seven Network until Kerry Packer took over Channel 9 and invited them back.

See also
List of Australian television series
Ocker

References

External links

The Paul Hogan Show at the National Film and Sound Archive

Seven Network original programming
Nine Network original programming
1973 Australian television series debuts
1984 Australian television series endings
1970s Australian comedy television series
1980s Australian comedy television series
Black-and-white Australian television shows

The Paul Hogan Show


Dual-ported video RAM (VRAM) is a dual-ported variant of dynamic RAM (DRAM), which was once commonly used to store the framebuffer in graphics adapters. Note that most computers and game consoles do not use this form of memory, and dual-ported VRAM should not be confused with other forms of video memory.

History

It was invented by F. Dill, D. Ling and R. Matick at IBM Research in 1980, with a patent issued in 1985 (US Patent 4,541,075). The first commercial use of VRAM was in a high-resolution graphics adapter introduced in 1986 by IBM for its RT PC system, which set a new standard for graphics displays. Prior to the development of VRAM, dual-ported memory was quite expensive, limiting higher resolution bitmapped graphics to high-end workstations. VRAM improved the overall framebuffer throughput, allowing low cost, high-resolution, high-speed, color graphics. Modern GUI-based operating systems benefitted from this and thus it provided a key ingredient for proliferation of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) throughout the world at that time.

Output port types

VRAM has two sets of data output pins, and thus two ports that can be used simultaneously. The first port, the DRAM port, is accessed by the host computer in a manner very similar to traditional DRAM. The second port, the video port, is typically read-only and is dedicated to providing a high throughput, serialized data channel for the graphics chipset.

Operation

Typical DRAM arrays normally access a full row of bits (i.e. a word line) at up to 1,024 bits at one time, but only use one or a few of these for actual data, the remainder being discarded. Since DRAM cells are destructively read, each row accessed must be sensed, and re-written. Thus, 1,024 sense amplifiers are typically used. VRAM operates by not discarding the excess bits which must be accessed, but making full use of them in a simple way. If each horizontal scan line of a display is mapped to a full word, then upon reading one word and latching all 1,024 bits into a separate row buffer, these bits can subsequently be serially streamed to the display circuitry. This will leave the DRAM array free to be accessed (read or write) for many cycles, until the row buffer is almost depleted. A complete DRAM read cycle is only required to fill the row buffer, leaving most DRAM cycles available for normal accesses.

Such operation is described in the paper "All points addressable raster display memory" by R. Matick, D. Ling, S. Gupta, and F. Dill, IBM Journal of R&D, Vol 28, No. 4, July 1984, pp. 379–393. To use the video port, the controller first uses the DRAM port to select the row of the memory array that is to be displayed. The VRAM then copies that entire row to an internal row-buffer which is a shift register. The controller can then continue to use the DRAM port for drawing objects on the display. Meanwhile, the controller feeds a clock called the shift clock (SCLK) to the VRAM's video port. Each SCLK pulse causes the VRAM to deliver the next data bit, in strict address order, from the shift register to the video port. For simplicity, the graphics adapter is usually designed so that the contents of a row, and therefore the contents of the shift-register, corresponds to a complete horizontal line on the display.

Shift to SDRAM

Through the 1990s, many graphic subsystems used VRAM, with the number of megabits touted as a selling point. In the late 1990s, synchronous DRAM technologies gradually became affordable, dense, and fast enough to displace VRAM, even though it is only single-ported and more overhead is required. Nevertheless, many of the VRAM concepts of internal, on-chip buffering and organization have been used and improved in modern graphics adapters.

See also
Video Random Access Memory

References

Types of RAM
Computer-related introductions in 1980
American inventions
20th-century inventions

Dual-ported video RAM


Marlon Ordell Anderson (born January 6, 1974) is an American former professional baseball second baseman and outfielder who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for six teams, over 12 seasons. He was widely known for his clutch hits, and writers for publications including The New York Times and Newsday had referred to him as one of the best pinch-hitters in the game.  Anderson was the hitting coach for the Brooklyn Cyclones in 2018.

High school years
Anderson attended Prattville High School from 1988 to 1992. Anderson was a student and a letterman in football and baseball.  He was coached by Roger Lambert who also coached Marlon's two younger brother's Keto Anderson and Randy Anderson.

College years
Anderson attended the University of South Alabama. As a senior, he posted a .357 batting average with thirteen home runs, and was the Sun Belt Conference Player of the Year and a Baseball America first team All-American. In 1994, he played collegiate summer baseball with the Wareham Gatemen of the Cape Cod Baseball League.

Professional career
Anderson was drafted by the Philadelphia Phillies in the second round of the  amateur draft. In , while playing for the Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons, he was named the International League Rookie of the Year. On September 8 of the same year, he made his Major League debut as a pinch hitter, hitting a home run off Mel Rojas of the New York Mets.

Philadelphia Phillies
Anderson was the Phillies starting second baseman in ,  and . In , because neither his offense nor his defense were considered exceptional, Plácido Polanco replaced him as the Phillies second baseman (also Chase Utley was then a top prospect of the Phillies' Triple-A Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons); Anderson was not offered a contract by the Phillies and signed as a free agent with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. In , Anderson signed with the St. Louis Cardinals and filled a niche as a utility infielder. He also became known for his skill at pinch hitting, tying for the National League lead in pinch hits with 17 that year.

New York Mets
In , Anderson signed with the New York Mets, where he served as a pinch hitter. Anderson batted over .300 in pinch-hit situations. Anderson's Met highlight occurred during an interleague game with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim on June 11, 2005, when he tied the score in the ninth inning with an inside-the-park home run off Angels closer Francisco Rodríguez. The ball caromed away from center fielder Steve Finley, who ran it down in right-center field as Anderson circled the bases. Anderson barely beat the play at the plate, colliding face-first into catcher José Molina's mask.

Washington Nationals

On November 18, 2005, Anderson signed a two-year contract with the Washington Nationals. His contract ensured that the only two big leaguers ever to be named Marlon (the other is Marlon Byrd) would be teammates again on the  Nationals.
They were also teammates on the Phillies in September 2002 when Byrd was called up.

Los Angeles Dodgers
On August 31, 2006, Anderson was traded by the Nationals to the Los Angeles Dodgers after scoring the winning run in a 6-5 thriller against the Phillies in Washington. At the time, Washington had been struggling for much of the season and was not a playoff factor while the Dodgers appeared to be headed for the playoffs with the NL West division crown. Anderson was brought in hopes to assist in the Dodgers' playoff push. He was intended to be a pinch hitter, but Anderson won the starting job in left field when rookie Andre Ethier struggled towards the end of the season.

On September 18, 2006, with the Dodgers playing the San Diego Padres for first place in the National League West with only two weeks left in the regular season, Anderson went five for five, including two home runs. His second home run that night was the last of a record tying four consecutive home runs in the bottom of the 9th inning, following home runs hit by Jeff Kent, J. D. Drew, and Russell Martin. Anderson's home run tied the score at 9-9 after the Dodgers trailed 9-5 to begin the inning. The Dodgers would eventually win the game on a walk-off home run by Nomar Garciaparra, and would tie San Diego for the NL West title. The tiebreaker however, went to San Diego as they had beaten the Dodgers 13 of 18 games in 2006. The Dodgers would still make the playoffs after being awarded the wild card spot.

The emergence of young Dodgers prospects Matt Kemp and James Loney contributed to Anderson's playing time diminishing during the first half of the  season and he was designated for assignment by the Dodgers on June 29, 2007, ending his tenure with the club. He cleared waivers and became a free agent on July 11. He was promptly signed to a minor league contract by the Mets on July 12.

New York Mets
One week later, on July 19, Anderson was called up to play for the Mets. He started his first game back with the Mets against the Dodgers, the team that had just released him. He had a 2-RBI single in that game.

On August 29, 2007, Anderson was part of a controversial call between the Mets and second-place Philadelphia Phillies at a game at Citizens Bank Park. With the Phillies leading 6-5 with one out and the bases loaded in the ninth inning, Shawn Green hit a high-chop ground ball to shortstop. In trying to break up a double play, Anderson slid into Tadahito Iguchi, the Phillies second baseman. The second base umpire, C.B. Bucknor, called him out on interference, resulting in a double play. Replays of the incident showed that Green would have easily beaten out the play. The Mets would go on to lose the final game of the series, resulting in a critical four-game sweep by the Phils, who would eventually take the division on the final day of the season from the Mets.

Anderson signed a two-year contract worth $2.2 million to return to the Mets in . On May 23, 2008, he seriously injured his hamstring in a game against the Colorado Rockies on a groundout.

On April 11, 2009, the Mets designated Anderson for assignment. Later that week, he was released by the Mets.

Newark Bears
On June 14, 2009, Anderson signed with the Newark Bears of the independent Atlantic League.

Post-playing career

Coaching
Anderson served as a hitting coach with the Hagerstown Suns in 2011 and 2012 and was hired to fill the same position with the Brooklyn Cyclones in 2018.

Broadcasting
Anderson served as a part-time color analyst for Philadelphia Phillies broadcasts during the 2014 season and was hired by Comcast SportsNet as a pre-game and post-game television studio analyst prior to the 2015 season alongside Ricky Bottalico.

References

External links

Marlon Anderson at SABR (Baseball BioProject)
Marlon Anderson at Baseball Almanac
Marlon Anderson at Baseball Biography
Marlon Anderson at Ultimate Mets Database

1974 births
Living people
African-American baseball coaches
African-American baseball players
Baseball coaches from Alabama
Baseball players from Montgomery, Alabama
Batavia Clippers players
Brooklyn Cyclones coaches
Clearwater Phillies players
Las Vegas 51s players
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Major League Baseball second basemen
Major League Baseball outfielders
New Orleans Zephyrs players
New York Mets players
Newark Bears players
Philadelphia Phillies announcers
Philadelphia Phillies players
Tampa Bay Devil Rays players
Reading Phillies players
Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons players
South Alabama Jaguars baseball players
St. Louis Cardinals players
St. Lucie Mets players
Wareham Gatemen players
Washington Nationals players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople

Marlon Anderson


Hindus believe that the Matsya was the First on God Vishnu Described a giant, fish often golden color connected to the rear half a Fish

first important avatar of Vishnu. As the Matsya avatar, Vishnu took the form of a big fish. Sometimes, it is said that he took the form of a half-man and half-fish. There is a story about this in Hindu scriptures. The story tells about a demon (an asura). That asura was very wicked. He snatched the Vedas, the holy books of the Hindus, and went deep inside the sea. At this point, Vishnu changed his form. He became a matsya, that is, a fish. He entered the sea and brought back the Vedas. He gave the Vedas to Manu. The Hindu scriptures say that Manu was the first man in the world. He may be compared with Noah or Adam.

Hinduism
Hindu mythology

Matsya


Noon is the time exactly halfway through the day (12.00-12:00 in the 24-hour clock and 12:00 PM-12:00 PM in the 12-hour clock). Midday also means noon, although this also means around noon, or very early afternoon.

Solar noon is when the sun appears the highest in the sky, compared to its positions during the rest of the day. It occurs when the Sun is exactly halfway between sunrise (dawn) and sunset. This is also the origin of the terms a.m. and p.m., ante meridiem and post meridiem.  At solar noon, the sun is due south seen from the Northern Hemisphere, and due north seen from the Southern Hemisphere. The sun is directly overhead at solar noon at the Equator on the equinoxes; at Tropic of Cancer  (latitude 23½°N) on the summer solstice in June; and at Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S) on the winter solstice in December.

Because of the use of time zones and daylight saving time, the highest point of the sun and a clock time of noon are usually different.

The opposite of noon is midnight.

Cultural meanings
In traditional magical thinking, noon represents with heaven, order and life.

Parts of a day

Noon