The Black Seminoles, or Afro-Seminoles, are an ethnic group of mixed Native American and African origin associated with the Seminole people in Florida and Oklahoma. They are mostly blood descendants of the Seminole people, free Africans, and escaped former slaves, who allied with Seminole groups in Spanish Florida. Many have Seminole lineage, but due to the stigma of having mixed origin, they have all been categorized as slaves or freedmen in the past.

Historically, the Black Seminoles lived mostly in distinct bands near the Native American Seminoles. Some were held as slaves, particularly of Seminole leaders, but the Black Seminole had more freedom than did slaves held by whites in the South and by other Native American tribes, including the right to bear arms.

Today, Black Seminole descendants live primarily in rural communities around the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma. Its two Freedmen's bands, the Caesar Bruner Band and the Dosar Barkus Band, are represented on the General Council of the Nation. Other centers are in Florida, Texas, the Bahamas, and northern Mexico.

Since the 1930s, the Seminole Freedmen have struggled with cycles of exclusion from the Seminole Tribe of Oklahoma. In 1990, the tribe received the majority of a $46 million judgment trust by the United States, for seizure of lands in Florida in 1823, and the Freedmen have worked to gain a share of it. In 2004 the US Supreme Court ruled the Seminole Freedmen could not bring suit without the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, which refused to join them on the claim issue. In 2000 the Seminole Nation voted to restrict membership to those who could prove descent from a Seminole on the Dawes Rolls of the early 20th century, which excluded about 1,200 Freedmen who were previously included as members. Excluded Freedmen argue that the Dawes Rolls were inaccurate and often classified persons with both Seminole and African ancestry as only Freedmen.

Origins
The Spanish strategy for defending their claim of Florida at first was based on forcing the local Indian tribes into a mission system. The Native Americans in the missions were to serve as a militia to protect the colony from incursions from the neighboring colony of South Carolina. However, due to a combination of raids by South Carolinan colonists and newly introduced European diseases to which the Indians had no immunity, Florida's native population was quickly decimated.  After the local Native Americans had all but died out, Spanish authorities encouraged Native Americans and runaway slaves from the Southern colonies to move to their territory. The Spanish hoped that the increased number of inhabitants of Spanish Florida would be effective in case of potential raids by American colonists.

As early as 1689, enslaved Africans fled from the South Carolina Lowcountry to Spanish Florida seeking freedom. These were people who gradually formed what has become known as the Gullah culture of the coastal Southeast. Under an edict from King Charles II of Spain in 1693, the black fugitives received liberty in exchange for defending the Spanish settlers at St. Augustine. The Spanish organized the black volunteers into a militia; their settlement at Fort Mosé, founded in 1738, was the first legally sanctioned free black town in North America.

Not all the slaves escaping south found military service in St. Augustine to their liking.  More escaped slaves sought refuge in wilderness areas in northern Florida, where their knowledge of tropical agriculture—and resistance to tropical diseases—served them well.  Most of the black people who pioneered Florida were Gullah people who escaped from the rice plantations of South Carolina (and later Georgia). As Gullah, they had developed an Afro-English based Creole, along with cultural practices and African leadership structure. The Gullah pioneers built their own settlements based on rice and corn agriculture. They became allies of Creek and other Native Americans escaping into Florida from the Southeast at the same time. In Florida, they developed the Afro-Seminole Creole, which they spoke with the growing Seminole tribe.

Following the Treaty of Paris signed in 1763 at the conclusion of the Seven Years' War, Spanish Florida was ceded to the Kingdom of Great Britain. The area remained a sanctuary for fugitive slaves from the Southern colonies, as it was lightly settled. Many slaves sought refuge near growing Native American settlements.

In 1773, when the American naturalist William Bartram visited the area, he referred to the Seminole as a distinct people, their name apparently coming from the word "simanó-li", which according to John Reed Swanton, "is applied by the Creeks to people who remove from populous towns and live by themselves.". William C. Sturtevant says the ethnonym was borrowed by Muskogee from the Spanish word cimarrón, supposedly the source as well of the English word maroon used to describe the runaway slave communities of Florida and of the Great Dismal Swamp on the border of Virginia and North Carolina, on colonial islands of the Caribbean, and other parts of the New World. Linguist Leo Spitzer, however, writing in the journal Language, says, "If there is a connection between Eng. maroon, Fr. marron, and Sp. cimarron, Spain (or Spanish America) probably gave the word directly to England (or English America)."

Florida had been a refuge for fugitive slaves for at least 70 years by the time of the American Revolution. Communities of black Seminoles were established on the outskirts of major Seminole towns. A new influx of freedom-seeking black people reached Florida during the American Revolution (1775–83), escaping during the disruption of war. During the Revolution, the Seminole allied with the British, and African Americans and Seminole came into increased contact with each other. The Seminole held some slaves, as did the Creek and other Southeast Native American tribes. During the War of 1812, members of both communities sided with the British against the US in the hopes of repelling American settlers; they strengthened their internal ties and earned the enmity of American general Andrew Jackson.

Spain had given land to some Muscogee (Creek) Native Americans. Over time the Creek were joined by other remnant groups of Southeast American Native Americans, such as the Miccosukee, Choctaw, and the Apalachicola, and formed communities. Their community evolved over the late 18th and early 19th centuries as waves of Creek left present-day Georgia and Alabama under pressure from white settlement and the Creek Wars. By a process of ethnogenesis, the Native Americans formed the Seminole.

Culture

The black Seminole culture that took shape after 1800 was a dynamic mixture of African, Native American, Spanish, and slave traditions. Adopting certain practices of the Native Americans,  maroons wore Seminole clothing and ate the same foodstuffs prepared the same way: they gathered the roots of a native plant called coontie, grinding, soaking, and straining them to make a starchy flour similar to arrowroot, as well as mashing corn with a mortar and pestle to make sofkee, a sort of porridge often used as a beverage, with water added— ashes from the fire wood used to cook the sofkee were occasionally added to it for extra flavor. They also introduced their Gullah staple of rice to the Seminole, and continued to use it as a basic part of their diets. Rice remained part of the diet of the black Seminoles who moved to Oklahoma. In addition, the language of the black Seminoles is a mix of African, Seminole, and Spanish words. The African heritage of the black Seminoles, according to academics, is from the Kongo, Yoruba, and other African ethnic groups. African American linguist and historian, Lorenzo Dow Turner documented about fifteen words spoken by black Seminoles that came from the Kikongo language. Other African words spoken by black Seminoles are from the Twi, Wolof, and other West African languages.

Initially living apart from the Native Americans, the maroons developed their own unique African-American culture, based in the Gullah culture of the Lowcountry. black Seminoles inclined toward a syncretic form of Christianity developed during the plantation years. Certain cultural practices, such as "jumping the broom" to celebrate marriage, hailed from the plantations; other customs, such as some names used for black towns, reflected African heritage.

As time progressed, the Seminole and blacks had limited intermarriage, but historians and anthropologists have come to believe that generally the black Seminoles had independent communities. They allied with the Seminole at times of war.

The Seminole society was based on a matrilineal kinship system, in which inheritance and descent went through the maternal line. Children were considered to belong to the mother's clan, so those born to ethnic African mothers would have been considered black by the Seminole. While the children might integrate customs from both parents' cultures, the Seminole believed they belonged to the mother's group more than the father's. African Americans adopted some elements of the European-American patriarchal system. But, under the South's adoption of the principle of partus sequitur ventrem in the 17th century and incorporated into slavery law in slave states, children of slave mothers were considered legally slaves. Under the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, even if the mother escaped to a free state, she and her children were legally considered slaves and fugitives. As a result, the black Seminoles born to slave mothers were always at risk from slave raiders.

African-Seminole relations
By the early 19th century, maroons (free Black people and freedom seekers) and the Seminole were in regular contact in Florida, where they evolved a system of relations unique among North American Native Americans and Black people. Seminole practice in Florida had acknowledged slavery, though not on the chattel slavery model then common in the American south. It was, in fact, more like feudal dependency and taxation since African Americans among the Seminole generally lived in their own communities.

In exchange for paying an annual tribute of livestock, crops, hunting, and war party obligations, Black prisoners or fugitives found sanctuary among the Seminole. Seminoles, in turn, acquired an important strategic ally in a sparsely-populated region. They elected their own leaders, and could amass wealth in cattle and crops. Most importantly, they bore arms for self-defense. Florida real estate records show that the Seminole and Black Seminole people owned large quantities of Florida land. In some cases, a portion of that Florida land is still owned by the Seminole and black Seminole descendants in Florida. In the 19th century, the Black Seminoles were called "Seminole Negroes" by their white American enemies and Estelusti ("black People"), by their Native American allies.

Under the comparatively free conditions, the Black Seminoles flourished. US Army Lieutenant George McCall recorded his impressions of a Black Seminole community in 1826:

We found these negroes in possession of large fields of the finest land, producing large crops of corn, beans, melons, pumpkins, and other esculent vegetables.... I saw, while riding along the borders of the ponds, fine rice growing; and in the village large corn-cribs were filled, while the houses were larger and more comfortable than those of the Native Americans themselves.

Historians estimate that during the 1820s, 800 blacks were living with the Seminoles. The Black Seminole settlements were highly militarized, unlike the communities of most of the slaves in the Deep South. The military nature of the African and Seminole relationship led General Edmund Pendleton Gaines, who visited several flourishing black Seminole settlements in the 1800s, to describe the African Americans as "vassals and allies" of the Seminole.

The traditional relationship between Seminole Blacks and natives changed in the course of the Second Seminole War when the old tribal system broke down and the Seminole resolved themselves into loose war bands living off the land with no distinction between tribal members and Black fugitives. That changed again in the new territory when the Seminole were obliged to settle on fixed lots of land and take up settled agriculture. Conflict arose in the territory because the transplanted Seminole had been placed on land allocated to the Creek, who had a practice of chattel slavery. There was increasing pressure from both Creek and pro-Creek Seminole for the adoption of the Creek model of slavery for the Black Seminoles. Creek slavers and those from other Native groups, and whites, began raiding the Black Seminole settlements to kidnap and enslave people. The Seminole leadership would become headed by a pro-Creek faction who supported the institution of chattel slavery. These threats led to many Black Seminoles escaping to Mexico.

In terms of spirituality, the ethnic groups remained distinct. The Seminole followed the nativistic principles of their Great Spirit. Black enslaved people had a syncretic form of Christianity brought with them from the plantations. In general, the Black former-slaves never wholly adopted Seminole culture and beliefs but were accepted into Seminole society, as seen by the skin tone in the pictures of the early 1900s. They were not considered Native American by the middle of the 20th century.

Most Black former-slaves spoke Gullah, an Afro-English-based creole language. That enabled them to communicate better with Anglo-Americans than the Creek or Mikasuki-speaking Seminole. The Native Americans used them as translators to advance their trading with the British and other tribes. Together, in Florida, they developed Afro-Seminole Creole, identified in 1978 as a distinct language by the linguist Ian Hancock. Black Seminoles and Freedmen continued to speak Afro-Seminole Creole through the 19th century in Oklahoma. Hancock found that in 1978, some Black Seminole and Seminole elders still spoke it in Oklahoma and in Florida.

Seminole Wars
After winning independence in the Revolution, American slaveholders were increasingly worried about the armed black communities in Florida. The territory was ruled again by Spain, as Britain had ceded both East and West Florida. The US slaveholders sought the capture and return of Florida's black fugitives under the Treaty of New York (1790), the first treaty ratified under the Confederation.

Wanting to disrupt Florida's maroon communities after the War of 1812, General Andrew Jackson attacked the Negro Fort, which had become a black Seminole stronghold after the British had allowed them to occupy it when they evacuated Florida. Breaking up the maroon communities was one of Jackson's major objectives in the First Seminole War (1817–18).

Under pressure, the Native American and black communities moved into south and central Florida. Slaves and black Seminoles frequently migrated down the peninsula to escape from Cape Florida to the Bahamas. Hundreds left in the early 1820s after the United States acquired the territory from Spain, effective 1821. Contemporary accounts noted a group of 120 migrating in 1821, and a much larger group of 300 African-American slaves escaping in 1823, picked up by Bahamians in 27 sloops and also by canoes. Their concern about living under American rule was not unwarranted. In 1821, Andrew Jackson became the territorial governor of Florida and ordered an attack on Angola, a village built by black Seminoles and other free blacks on the south of Tampa Bay on the Manatee River. Raiders captured over 250 people, most of whom were sold into slavery. Some of the survivors fled to the Florida interior and others to Florida's east coast and escaped to the Bahamas. In the Bahamas, the black Seminoles developed a village known as Red Bays on Andros, where basket making and certain grave rituals associated with Seminole traditions are still practiced. Federal construction and staffing of the Cape Florida Lighthouse in 1825 reduced the number of slave escapes from this site.

 The Second Seminole War (1835–42) marked the height of tension between the U.S. and the Seminoles, and also the historical peak of the African-Seminole alliance. Under the policy of Indian removal, the US wanted to relocate Florida's 4,000 Seminole people and most of their 800 black Seminole allies to the western Indian Territory. During the year before the war, prominent white citizens captured and claimed as fugitive slaves at least 100 black Seminoles.

Anticipating attempts to re-enslave more members of their community, black Seminoles opposed removal to the West. In councils before the war, they threw their support behind the most militant Seminole faction, led by Osceola. After war broke out, individual black leaders, such as John Caesar, Abraham, and John Horse, played key roles. In addition to aiding the natives in their fight, black Seminoles recruited plantation slaves to rebellion at the start of the war. The slaves joined Native Americans and maroons in the destruction of 21 sugar plantations from Christmas Day, December 25, 1835, through the summer of 1836. Historians do not agree on whether these events should be considered a separate slave rebellion; generally they view the attacks on the sugar plantations as part of the Seminole War.

By 1838, U.S. General Thomas Sydney Jesup tried to divide the black and Seminole warriors by offering freedom to the blacks if they surrendered and agreed to removal to Indian Territory. John Horse was among the black warriors who surrendered under this condition. Due to Seminole opposition, however, the Army did not fully follow through on its offer. After 1838, more than 500 black Seminoles traveled with the Seminoles thousands of miles to the Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma; some traveled by ship across the Gulf of Mexico and up the Mississippi River. Because of harsh conditions, many of both peoples died along this trail from Florida to Oklahoma, also known as The Trail of Tears.

The status of black Seminoles and fugitive slaves was largely unsettled after they reached Indian Territory. The issue was compounded by the government's initially putting the Seminole and blacks under the administration of the Creek Nation, many of whom were slaveholders. The Creek tried to re-enslave some of the fugitive black slaves. John Horse and others set up towns, generally near Seminole settlements, repeating their pattern from Florida.

In the West and Mexico

In the west, the black Seminoles were still threatened by slave raiders. These included pro-slavery members of the Creek tribe and some Seminole, whose allegiance to the blacks diminished after defeat by the US in the war. Officers of the federal army may have tried to protect the black Seminoles, but in 1848 the U.S. Attorney General bowed to pro-slavery lobbyists and ordered the army to disarm the community. This left hundreds of Seminoles and black Seminoles unable to leave the settlement or to defend themselves against slavers.

Migration to Mexico

Facing the threat of enslavement, the black Seminole leader John Horse and about 180 black Seminoles staged a mass escape in 1849 to northern Mexico, where slavery had been abolished twenty years earlier. The black fugitives crossed to freedom in July 1850. They rode with a faction of traditionalist Seminole under the chief Coacochee, who led the expedition. The Mexican government welcomed the Seminole allies as border guards on the frontier, and they settled at Nacimiento, Coahuila.

After 1861, the black Seminoles in Mexico and Texas had little contact with those in Oklahoma. For the next 20 years, black Seminoles served as militiamen and Native American fighters in Mexico, where they became known as mascogos, derived from the tribal name of the Creek – Muskogee. Slave raiders from Texas continued to threaten the community but arms and reinforcements from the Mexican Army enabled the black warriors to defend their community. By the 1940s, descendants of the Mascogos numbered 400–500 in Nacimiento de los Negros, Coahuila, inhabiting lands adjacent to the Kickapoo tribe. They had a thriving agricultural community. By the 1990s, most of the descendants had moved into Texas.

Indian Territory/Oklahoma

Throughout the period, several hundred black Seminoles remained in the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma). Because most of the Seminole and the other Five Civilized Tribes supported the Confederacy during the American Civil War, in 1866 the US required new peace treaties with them. The US required the tribes emancipate any slaves and extend to the freedmen full citizenship rights in the tribes if they chose to stay in Indian Territory. In the late nineteenth century, Seminole Freedmen thrived in towns near the Seminole communities on the reservation. Most had not been living as slaves to the Native Americans before the war. They lived —as their descendants still do— in and around Wewoka, Oklahoma, the community founded in 1849 by John Horse as a black settlement. Today it is the capital of the federally recognized Seminole Nation of Oklahoma.

Following the Civil War, some Freedmen's leaders in Indian Territory practiced polygyny, as did ethnic African leaders in other diaspora communities. In 1900 there were 1,000 Freedmen listed in the population of the Seminole Nation in Indian Territory, about one-third of the total. By the time of the Dawes Rolls, there were numerous female-headed households registered. The Freedmen's towns were made up of large, closely connected families.

After allotment, "[f]reedmen, unlike their [Native] peers on the blood roll, were permitted to sell their land without clearing the transaction through the Indian Bureau. That made the poorly educated Freedmen easy marks for white settlers migrating from the Deep South."  Numerous Seminole Freedmen lost their land in the early decades after allotment, and some moved to urban areas. Others left the state because of its conditions of racial segregation. As US citizens, they were exposed to the harsher racial laws of Oklahoma.

Since 1954, the Freedmen have been included in the constitution of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma. They have two bands, each representing more than one town and named for 19th-century band leaders: the Cesar Bruner band covers towns south of Little River; the Dosar Barkus covers the several towns located north of the river. Each of the bands elects two representatives to the General Council of the Seminole Nation.

Texas community

In 1870, the U.S. Army invited black Seminoles to return from Mexico to serve as army scouts for the United States. The black Seminole Scouts (originally an African American unit despite the name) played a lead role in the Texas-Indian Wars of the 1870s, when they were based at Fort Clark, Texas, the home of the Buffalo Soldiers. The scouts became famous for their tracking abilities and feats of endurance. Four men were awarded the Medal of Honor, three for an 1875 action against the Comanche.

After the close of the Texas Indian Wars, the scouts remained stationed at Fort Clark in Brackettville, Texas. The Army disbanded the unit in 1914. The veterans and their families settled in and around Brackettville, where scouts and family members were buried in its cemetery. The town remains the spiritual center of the Texas-based black Seminoles. In 1981, descendants at Brackettville and the Little River community of Oklahoma met for the first time in more than a century, in Texas for a Juneteenth reunion and celebration.

Florida and Bahamas
Afro Seminole descendants continue to live in Florida today. They can enroll in the Seminole Tribe of Florida if they meet its membership criteria for blood quantum: one-quarter Seminole ancestry. About 50 black Seminoles, all of whom have at least one-quarter Seminole ancestry, live on the Fort Pierce Reservation, a 50-acre parcel taken in trust in 1995 by the Department of Interior for the Tribe as its sixth reservation.

Descendants of Afro Seminoles, who identify as Bahamian, reside on Andros Island in the Bahamas in an Area called Red Bay. A few hundred refugees had left in the early nineteenth century from Cape Florida to go to the British colony for sanctuary from American enslavement. After banning its participation in the Atlantic slave trade in 1807, in 1818 Britain declared that African slaves or slaves who arrived in the Bahamas from outside the British West Indies would be manumitted. In 1833 Britain abolished slavery throughout its Empire. They have been sometimes referred to as "African Indians or Black Indians", in recognition of their history.

Seminole Freedmen exclusion controversy
In 1900, Seminole Freedmen numbered about 1,000 on the Oklahoma reservation, about one-third of the total population at the time. Members were registered on the Dawes Rolls for allocation of communal land to individual households. Since then, numerous Freedmen left after losing their land, as their land sales were not overseen by the Indian Bureau. Others left because of having to deal with the harshly segregated society of Oklahoma.

The land allotments and participation in Oklahoma society altered relations between the Seminole and Freedmen, particularly after the 1930s. Both peoples faced racial discrimination from whites in Oklahoma, who essentially divided society into two: white and "other". Public schools and facilities were racially segregated.

When the tribe reorganized under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, some Seminole wanted to exclude the Freedmen and keep the tribe as Native American only. It was not until the 1950s that the black Seminole were officially recognized in the constitution. Another was adopted in 1969, that restructured the government according to more traditional Seminole lines. It established 14 town bands, of which two represented Freedmen. The two Freedmen's bands were given two seats each, like other bands, on the Seminole General Council.

There have been "battles over tribal membership across the country, as gambling revenues and federal land payments have given Native Americans something to fight over." In 2000, Seminole Freedmen were in the national news because of a legal dispute with the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, of which they had been legal members since 1866, over membership and rights within the tribe.

The Seminole Nation of Oklahoma held the black Seminoles could not share in services to be provided by a $56 million federal settlement, a judgement trust, originally awarded in 1976 to the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and the Seminole Tribe of Florida (and other Florida Seminoles) by the federal government. The settlement was in compensation for land taken from them in northern Florida by the United States at the time of the signing of the Treaty of Moultrie Creek in 1823, when most of the Seminole and maroons were moved to a reservation in the center of the territory. This was before removal west of the Mississippi.

The judgement trust was based on the Seminole tribe as it existed in 1823. Black Seminoles were not recognized legally as part of the tribe, nor was their ownership or occupancy of land separately recognized. The US government at the time would have assumed most were fugitive slaves, without legal standing. The Oklahoma and Florida groups were awarded portions of the judgement related to their respective populations in the early 20th century, when records were made of the mostly full-blood descendants of the time. The settlement apportionment was disputed in court cases between the Oklahoma and Florida tribes, but finally awarded in 1990, with three-quarters going to the Oklahoma people and one-quarter to those in Florida.

However, the black Seminole descendants asserted their ancestors had also held and farmed land in Florida, and suffered property losses as a result of US actions. They filed suit in 1996 against the Department of Interior to share in the benefits of the judgement trust of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, of which they were members.

In another aspect of the dispute over citizenship, in the summer of 2000 the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma voted to restrict members, according to blood quantum, to those who had one-eighth Seminole ancestry, basically those who could document descent from a Seminole ancestor listed on the Dawes Rolls, the federal registry established in the early 20th century. At the time, during rushed conditions, registrars had separate lists for Seminole-Indian and Freedmen. They classified those with visible African ancestry as Freedmen, regardless of their proportion of Native American ancestry or whether they were considered Native members of the tribe at the time. This excluded some black Seminole from being listed on the Seminole-Indian list who qualified by ancestry.

The Dawes Rolls included in the Seminole-Indian list many Intermarried Whites who lived on Native American lands, but did not include blacks of the same status. The Seminole Freedmen believed the tribe's 21st-century decision to exclude them was racially based and has opposed it on those grounds. The Department of Interior said that it would not recognize a Seminole government that did not have Seminole Freedmen participating as voters and on the council, as they had officially been members of the nation since 1866. In October 2000, the Seminole Nation filed its own suit against the Interior Department, contending it had the sovereign right to determine tribal membership.

In April 2002, the Seminole Freedmen's suit against the government was dismissed in federal district court; the court ruled the Freedmen could not bring suit independently of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, which refused to join. They appealed to the United States Supreme Court, which in June 2004 affirmed that the Seminole Freedmen could not sue the federal government for inclusion in the settlement without the Seminole Nation joining. As a sovereign nation, they could not be ordered to join the suit.

Later that year, the Bureau of Indian Affairs held that the exclusion of black Seminoles constituted a violation of the Seminole Nation's 1866 treaty with the United States following the American Civil War. They noted that the treaty was made with a tribe that included black as well as white and brown members. The treaty had required the Seminole to emancipate their slaves, and to give the Seminole Freedmen full citizenship and voting rights. The BIA stopped federal funding for a time for services and programs to the Seminole.

The individual Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood (CDIB) is based on registration of ancestors in the Indian lists of the Dawes Rolls. Although the BIA could not issue CDIBs to the Seminole Freedmen, in 2003 the agency recognized them as members of the tribe and advised them of continuing benefits for which they were eligible. Journalists theorized the decision could affect the similar case in which the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma excluded Cherokee Freedmen as members unless they could document a direct Native American ancestor on the Dawes Rolls.

Legacy and honors

Fort Mose Historic State Park in Florida is a National Historic Landmark at the site of the first free black community in the United States
A large sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park commemorates the site where hundreds of African Americans escaped to freedom in the Bahamas in the early 1820s, as part of the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom Trail.
A sign at the Manatee Mineral Spring marks the location where traces of Angola were uncovered
Red Bays, Andros, the historic settlement of black Seminoles in the Bahamas, and Nacimiento, Mexico are being recognized as related international sites on the Network to Freedom Trail.

Notable black Seminoles
Dosar Barkus, band leader from 1892 through allotment, namesake for contemporary band
Cesar Bruner, band leader from Reconstruction through statehood, namesake for contemporary band
Eugene Bullard, one of the first black American military pilots
John Horse, leader at the time of removal, founder of Wewoka, and co-leader of 1849 escape to northern Mexico
Sergeant John Ward
Pompey Factor and Isaac Payne - Medal of Honor recipients for their service in the 24th Infantry.

See also

 Afro-Seminole Creole
 black Indians in the United States
 black Seminole Scouts
 Ian Hancock
 List of topics related to black and African people
 One-Drop Rule
 Zambo

Notes

References

Primary sources
Mahon, John K. (1967). History of the Second Seminole War 1835-1842 (Revised Edition). University of Florida Press.
McCall, George A. Letters From the Frontiers. Philadelphia: Lippincott & Co., 1868.
Miller, David Hunter, ed. Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America. 2 vols. Washington: GPO, 1931.
Mills, Charles K. (2011). Harvest of Barren Regrets: The Army Career of Frederick William Benteen 1834–1898. University of Nebraska Press.
United States. Attorney-General. Official Opinions of the Attorneys General of the United States. Washington: United States, 1852–1870.
United States. Congress. American State Papers: Foreign Relations. Vol 4. Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1832–1860.
United States. Congress. American State Papers: Military Affairs. 7 vols. Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1832–1860.

Secondary sources
Akil II, Bakari. "Seminoles With African Ancestry: The Right To Heritage", The Black World Today, December 27, 2003.Army and Navy Chronicle. 13 vols. Washington: B. Homans, 1835–1842.
Baram, Uzi. "Cosmopolitan Meanings of Old Spanish Fields: Historical Archaeology of a Maroon Community in Southwest Florida" Historical Archaeology 46(1):108-122. 2012
Baram, Uzi. "Many Histories by the Manatee Mineral Spring". Time Sifters Archaeological Society Newsletter March 2014.
Brown, Canter. "Race Relations in Territorial Florida, 1821–1845." Florida Historical Quarterly 73.3 (January 1995): 287–307.
Foreman, Grant. The Five Civilized Tribes. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1934.
Foster, Laurence. Negro-Indian Relations in the Southeast. PhD. Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1935.
Giddings, Joshua R. The Exiles of Florida, or, crimes committed by our government against maroons, who fled from South Carolina and other slave states, seeking protection under Spanish laws. Columbus, Ohio: Follet, 1858.
Goggin, John M. "The Seminole Negroes of Andros Island, Bahamas." Florida Historical Quarterly 24 (July 1946): 201–6.
Hancock, Ian F. The Texas Seminoles and Their Language. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980.
Indianz.com (2004). "Seminole Freedmen rebuffed by Supreme Court", June 29, 2004.
Kashif, Annette. "Africanisms Upon the Land: A Study of African Influenced Placenames of the USA" , In Places of Cultural Memory: African Reflections on the American Landscape. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 2001.
Landers, Jane. Black Society in Spanish Florida. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999.
Littlefield, Daniel F., Jr. Africans and Seminoles. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1977.
Mahon, John K. History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842. 1967. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1985.
Mulroy, Kevin. Freedom on the Border: The Seminole Maroons in Florida, the Indian Territory, Coahuila, and Texas. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 1993.
Mulroy, Kevin. The Seminole Freedmen: A History (Race and Culture in the American West), Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007.
Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. The Black Seminoles: History of a Freedom-Seeking People. Eds Thomas Senter and Alcione Amos. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1996.
Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. The Negro on the American Frontier. New York: Arno Press, 1971.
Rivers, Larry Eugene. Slavery in Florida. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000.
Schneider, Pamela S. It's Not Funny: Various Aspects of Black History Charlotte PA: Lemieux Press Publishers, 2005.
Simmons, William. Notices of East Florida: with an account of the Seminole nation of Indians, 1822. Intro. George E. Buker. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1973, available online.
Sturtevant, William C. "Creek into Seminole." North American Indians in Historical Perspective. Eds Eleanor B. Leacock and Nancy O. Lurie. New York: Random House, 1971.
Twyman, Bruce Edward. The Black Seminole Legacy and Northern American Politics, 1693–1845. Washington: Howard University Press, 1999.
Wallace, Ernest. Ranald S. Mackenzie on the Texas Frontier. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1993.
Wright, J. Leitch, Jr. Creeks and Seminoles: The Destruction and Regeneration of the Muscogulge People. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986.

Further reading
 Hancock, Ian F. "A Provisional Comparison of the English-based Atlantic Creoles", Sierra Leone Language Review, 8 (1969), 7=72.
——— "Gullah and Barbadian: Origins and Relationships." American Speech, 55 (1) (1980), 17–35.
——— The Texas Seminoles and their Language, Austin: University of Texas African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, Series 2, No. 1, 1980.
Howard, Rosalyn A. black Seminoles in the Bahamas, Gainesville: University of Florida, 2002

Littlefield, Daniel C. Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981/1991, University of Illinois Press.
Littlefield, Daniel F. Jr. Africans and Seminoles: From Removal to Emancipation, University of Mississippi Press, 1977.
Opala, Joseph A. A Brief History of the Seminole Freedmen, Austin: University of Texas African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, Series 2, No. 3, 1980.
——— "Seminole-African Relations on the Florida Frontier", Papers in Anthropology (University of Oklahoma), 22 (1) (1981), 11–52.

External links

Bird, J.B (2005). "The Largest Slave Rebellion in U.S. History", Rebellion: John Horse and the black Seminoles Website
Bill Hubbard, "Story of Freedman Caesar Bruner", c. 1958, Seminole Nation of Oklahoma website
Seminole and black Seminole genealogical records, Freepages GenWeb
"Blood Feud", Wired Magazine'', Vol. 13.09, August 2005, article on DNA, ethnicity, and black Seminoles
"black Indians", ColorQWorld
Pilaklikaha at History of Central Florida Podcast
"Tragedy and Survival: Virtual Landscapes of 19th Century Florida Gulf Coast Maroons"

African–Native American relations
Gullah
Seminole Wars
Fugitive American slaves

Black Seminoles


In human anatomy, the thigh is the area between the hip (pelvis) and the knee. Anatomically, it is part of the human leg.

The single bone in the thigh is called the femur. This bone is very thick and strong (due to the high proportion of bone tissue), and forms a ball and socket joint at the hip, and a modified hinge joint at the knee.

Human body features

Thigh


Risotto (plural: risotti) is a typical Italian dish based on pasta. Originally it comes from Piedmont, where rice is commonly grown. It is very important for the cuisine of Milan. Common ingredients of the base recipe are white wine, and onions.

Risotto is a class of Italian pasta dishes cooked in broth to a creamy consistency.  The broth may be meat-, fish-, or vegetable-based. Many types of risotto contain Parmesan cheese, butter, and onion. It is one of the most common ways of cooking rice in Italy.

Risotto is normally a primo (first course), served on its own before the main course, but risotto alla milanese is often served together with ossobuco alla milanese.

Rice varieties
A high-starch (amylopectin), low-amylose round medium- or short-grain rice is usually used to make risotto. Such rices have the ability to absorb liquids and to release starch and so they are stickier than the long grain  varieties.

The principal varieties used in Italy are Arborio, Baldo, Carnaroli, Maratelli, Padano, Roma, and Vialone Nano. Carnaroli, Maratelli and Vialone Nano are considered to be the best (and most expensive) varieties, with different users preferring one over the other. They have slightly different properties.  For example, Carnaroli is less likely than Vialone Nano to get overcooked, but the latter, being smaller, cooks faster and absorbs condiments better.  Other varieties like Roma, Baldo, Ribe and Originario may be used but will not have the creaminess of the traditional dish. These varieties are considered better for soups and other non-risotto rice dishes and for making sweet rice desserts.  Rice designations of Superfino, Semifino and Fino refer to the size and shape (specifically the length and the narrowness) of the grains, and not the quality.

Basic preparation
There are many different risotto recipes with different ingredients, but they are all based on rice of an appropriate variety cooked in a standard procedure.

The rice is first cooked briefly in a soffritto of onion and butter or olive oil to coat each grain in a film of fat, this is called tostatura; white or red wine is added and has to be absorbed by the grains. When it has evaporated, the heat is raised to medium high and very hot stock is gradually added in small amounts while stirring gently, almost constantly: stirring loosens the starch molecules from the outside of the rice grains into the surrounding liquid, creating a smooth creamy-textured liquid. At that point it is taken off the heat for the mantecatura when diced cold butter and finely grated Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese are vigorously stirred in to make the texture as creamy and smooth as possible. It may be removed from the heat a few minutes earlier, and left to cook with its residual heat. Seafood risotti generally do not include cheese.

Properly cooked risotto is rich and creamy but still with some resistance or bite: al dente, and with separate grains. The traditional texture is fairly fluid, or all'onda ("wavy, or flowing in waves"). It is served on flat dishes and it should easily spread out but not have excess watery liquid around the perimeter. It must be eaten at once as it continues to cook in its own heat and can become too dry with the grains too soft.

Variations

Risotto can be made using many kinds of vegetable, meat, fish, seafood and legumes, and different types of wine and cheese may be used. There is even, exceptionally, an Italian strawberry risotto.

Many variations have their own names:

 Risotto alla milanese. Made with beef stock, beef bone marrow,  lard (instead of butter) and cheese, flavored and colored with saffron.
 Piedmont's risotto al Barolo is made with red wine and may include sausage meat and or Borlotti beans.
 Black risotto or risotto al nero di seppia made with cuttlefish cooked with their ink-sacs intact, is a specialty of the Veneto region.
 Risi e Bisi or "rice and peas" is a Veneto spring dish that is correctly served with a spoon not a fork; it is a soup so thick it looks like a risotto. It is made with green peas using the stock from the fresh young pods, flavored with Pancetta.

Notes

References
 Barrett, Judith, and Wasserman, Norma (1987). Risotto. New York: Scribner. .
 Hazan, Marcella (1992). Essentials of Classic Italian Cooking. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. .

Other websites

Free Culinary School Podcast Episode 4 A podcast episode that talks about the classical technique and science behind making risotto.
How to make Risotto Step-by-step instructions on how to make a perfect risotto.
Shrimp Risotto Recipe  Recipe to make heart-healthy risotto.

Italian food
Rice dishes

Risotto


Real3D, Inc. was a maker of arcade graphics boards, a spin-off from Lockheed Martin. The company made several 3D hardware designs that were used by Sega, the most widely used being the graphics hardware in the Sega Model 2 and Model 3 arcade systems. A partnership with Intel and SGI led to the Intel740 graphics card, which was not successful in the market. Rapid changes in the marketplace led to the company being sold to Intel in 1999.

History
The majority of Real3D was formed by research and engineering divisions originally part of GE Aerospace. Their experience traces its way back to the Project Apollo Visual Docking Simulator, the first full-color 3D computer generated image system. GE sold similar systems of increasing complexity through the 1970s, but were never as large as other companies in the simulator space, like Singer Corporation or CAE.

When "neutron" Jack Welch took over General Electric in 1981 he demanded that every division in the company be 1st or 2nd in its industry, or face being sold off. GE Aerospace lasted longer than many other divisions, but was eventually sold off to Martin Marietta in 1992. In 1995, Martin Marietta and Lockheed merged to form Lockheed Martin Corporation, the world's largest defense contractor.

Following the merger, Lockheed Martin decided to market their graphics technology for civilian use. In January 1995 they set up Real3D and formed a relationship with Sega. This led to the company's most successful product run, designing the 3D hardware using in over 200,000 Sega Model2 and Model3 arcade systems, two of the most popular systems in history.

The company also formed a partnership with Intel and Chips and Technologies to introduce similar technology as an add-in card for PC's, a project known as "Auburn". This project became a showcase for the Accelerated Graphics Port system being introduced by Intel, which led to several design decisions that hampered the resulting products. Released in 1998 as the Intel740, the system lasted less than a year in the market before being sold off under the StarFighter and Lightspeed brandnames.

By 1999 both relationships were ending, and Lockheed Martin was focussing on its military assets. On 1 October 1999 the company closed, and its assets were sold to Intel on the 14th. ATI hired many of the remaining employees for a new Orlando office. 3dfx Interactive had sued Real3D on a patent basis, and Intel's purchase moved the lawsuits to the new owner. Intel settled the issue by selling all of the intellectual property back to 3dFX.

By this point, nVidia had acquired all of SGI's graphics development resources, which included a 10% share in Real3D. This led to series of lawsuits, joined by ATI. The two companies were involved in lawsuits over Real3D's patents until a 2001 cross-licensing settlement.

References

External links

 Book: Funding a Revolution
 Wave-Report.com
 GameAI

American companies established in 1995
American companies disestablished in 1999
Computer companies established in 1995
Computer companies disestablished in 1999
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct computer hardware companies
Former Lockheed Martin companies
Graphics hardware companies
Intel acquisitions
Intel graphics

Real3D


Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked is a 2011 movie starring Jason Lee as David Seville. The main characters for the movie are Alvin, Simon, Theodore and the Chipettes. The movie was released on December 16, 2011.

Plot
Dave Seville (Jason Lee), the chipmunks, and the chipettes are on a cruise with Dave for a family vacation. Dave discovers that his old boss, Ian Hawke (David Cross) is working as a pelican on the Cruise. Dave warns Alvin to not have too much fun but Alvin does not listen and him and the other chipmunks get blown away while holding onto a kite and they end up stranded on a deserted island. Dave tries to take a hanglider to find the chipmunks but after Ian tries to stop him and they both end up in the ocean.

On the island, the chipmunks try to find food and they meet a castaway, Zoe (Jenny Slate). She shows the chipmunks her hut she built with a zip line. Eleanor sprains her ankle after falling from the zip line and Simon gets bitten by a spider. This gives him a neurotoxin disease making him believe he is a French explorer named "Simone." Simone asks Jeanette to dance, thinking she is beautiful, much to Alvin's dismay. Zoe takes Simone, Jeanette, Eleanor and Theodore to a waterfall and Simone finds a cave full of gold and jewellery.

The next day, Alvin and Brittnay notice the volcano on the island is active and decide they had better leave the island after Dave and Ian arrive at the island. They begin to build a raft to escape the island. Simone and Jeanette are still looking for food. Zoe knocks Simone out with a golf ball, and captures Jeanette. She forces her to give her all the gold, by tying Jeanette to a rope and putting her down into the cave. Even though Jeanette refuses, Zoe still makes her.

Later, Simon wakes up as his normal self and cannot remember anything after the spider bite. When the others cross a tree log to find Jeanette but when the ground  begins to rumble, Zoe lets go of the rope. Jeanette follows Dave and Alvin back but gets caught by Zoe who still forces Jeanette to give her the gold. Simon saves Jeanette from Zoe. Alvin cuts the rope, releasing Zoe's grip and as the log begins to crack, Dave hangs on and Ian finally convinces Zoe to help save Dave.

They escape the island on the raft just as the volcano erupts and later are rescued by a rescue helicopter, Jeanette gives Zoe a bracelet that Simone gave her as a present. Alvin and Dave reconcile.

The chipmunks and chipettes perform at the International Music Awards and Ian gets his job back by selling Zoe's story to Hollywood.

In the epilogue on the flight home, Alvin speaks on the pilot's microphone that the plane is heading for Timbuktu. The flight attendant says the flight will leave now and Alvin accidentally pushes the food cart and it hits Dave and Dave yells "ALLLLVINNN!!"

Cast
Jason Lee as Dave Seville
David Cross as Ian Hawke
Jenny Slate as Zoe
Justin Long as the voice of Alvin Seville
Matthew Gray Gubler as Simon Seville
 Alan Tudyk as Simone
 Jesse McCartney as Theodore Seville
 Christina Applegate as Brittnay Miller
 Anna Farris as Jeanette Miller
 Amy Poehler as Eleanor Miller

References

2011 movies
English-language movies
20th Century Fox movies
Alvin and the Chipmunks movies
Movies set on islands
Movies about volcanoes

Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked


An intersection is where two or more roads come together. Intersections are also known as junctions. At an intersection, there can be stop signs on one or both sides of the intersection. There can also be a traffic light.

Kinds of intersections
There are two major types of intersections.
3-way intersection
Also called a T intersection, 3-way intersections make a T-like shape.
4-way intersection
4-way intersections make a cross- or +-like shape.

Related pages
Interchange

Roads

Intersection (road)


The 2001 United States elections were held on November 6 of that year (with some exceptions for local elections and other special elections across the country). The 2001 recession was a dominant issue throughout the year as well as the September 11 attacks and subsequent war on terror.

Despite President George W. Bush's strong popularity amongst the American public due to the September attacks, the Democratic Party flipped the governorships of Virginia and New Jersey, a typical showing for an opposition party in off-year elections.

Federal elections
No elections to either the Senate or House were regularly scheduled to occur in 2001.

U.S. House of Representatives special elections
In 2001, seven special elections to fill vacancies in the House of Representatives were held. Special elections were held for Pennsylvania's 9th congressional district (on May 15), California's 32nd congressional district (June 5), Virginia's 4th congressional district (June 19), Massachusetts's 9th congressional district (October 16), Florida's 1st congressional district (October 16), Arkansas's 3rd congressional district (November 20), and South Carolina's 2nd congressional district (December 18). Only one district, Virginia's 4th congressional district, changed hands with state Senator Randy Forbes' (R) victory to the seat previously held by Norman Sisisky (D). Thus Republicans increased their majority in the House by one seat.

State elections

Gubernatorial elections

During the 2001 gubernatorial elections, the governorships of two states and one territory were up for election.

Going into the elections, Republicans held the Governorships of twenty-nine states and one territory, Democrats held the governorships of nineteen states, four territories, and the Mayorship of the District of Columbia, and two governorships were held by incumbents of neither party. Democrats gained the governorships of Virginia and New Jersey. However, Republicans retained the governorship of the Northern Mariana Islands. Thus the balance of power between Republicans and Democrats was changed from 29–19 to 27–21.

Other statewide elections
The offices of Lieutenant Governor (in Virginia as a separate election and the Northern Mariana Islands on the same ticket as the gubernatorial nominee) and state Attorney General in the former were up for election. There were no other statewide elective offices in New Jersey open with the office of governor aside.

State legislative elections

In 2001, seats in both houses of the New Jersey and Virginia legislatures, and both houses of the territorial legislature of the Northern Marina Islands were up for election.

Republicans maintained control of both houses of the Virginia legislature, while Democrats won control of the New Jersey General Assembly, and turned the state Senate from Republican to tied.

Local elections

Mayoral elections
During 2001, several Major American cities held mayoral elections in that year, including the following:
Albuquerque: former Mayor Martin Chavez (D) was elected to his previous job to serve a second term.
Boston: Incumbent Mayor Thomas Menino (D), breaking a campaign pledge he had made in his first election in 1993 to serve only two terms, was re-elected to a third term.
Buffalo: Incumbent Mayor Anthony Masiello (D) was re-elected.
Charlotte: Incumbent Mayor Pat McCrory (R) was re-elected to a fourth term.
Greensboro, North Carolina: Incumbent Mayor Keith Holliday won re-election in the runoff against Roch Smith Jr.
Houston: Incumbent Mayor Lee P. Brown (D) defeated Councilman Orlando Sanchez to win re-election to a third term.
Jersey City: Former Public Safety Director of Hudson County Glenn D. Cunningham (D) won an open seat election to succeed outgoing Mayor Bret Schundler (R). Cunningham became Jersey City's first Black mayor.
Kansas City, Kansas: Incumbent Mayor Carol Marinovich was re-elected.
Los Angeles: City Attorney James Hahn (D) defeated former State Assembly Speaker Antonio Villaraigosa (D) in the runoff to succeed term-limited Mayor Richard Riordan (R). Villaraigosa would defeat Hahn four years later.
Monroe: Chairman of the Monroe City Council Jamie Mayo was elected Mayor of Monroe, Louisiana, in 2001. Mayo is the second African-American to be elected Mayor of Monroe.
New York City: In a tight race to succeed term-limited Mayor Rudy Giuliani (R) that was complicated due to the 9/11 terrorist attacks, Democrat turned Republican billionaire Michael Bloomberg defeated then-Public Advocate Mark Green (D), thus giving the Republican party its third consecutive victory for the Mayorship of New York City despite that city's strong Democratic tendency.
Pittsburgh: Incumbent Mayor Thomas J. Murphy Jr. (D) was re-elected
Raleigh: Incumbent Mayor Paul Coble (R) was defeated by former Councilman Charles Meeker (D).

References

2001 elections in the United States
2001
November 2001 events in the United States

2001 United States elections


Kite surfing or Kite boarding is a kind of water sports that uses the wind to pull a rider on the water surface on a small surfboard or a kiteboard. There are a number of different styles of kiteboarding.

A kitesurfer or kiteboarder uses a board with or without foot-straps or bindings, combined with the power of a large controllable kite to propel the rider and the board across the water. In 2006, the number of kitesurfers has been estimated at around 150,000 to 210,000, with 114,465 inflatable kites sold that same year.  Various surfing styles have appeared to suit both kitesurfers and conditions, such as waveriding, freestyle, freeride, jumping, and cruising.

Notes

Surfing
Wind energy

Kite surfing


Rice (Oryza sativa) is a type of cereal and food. In origin, it is a swamp grass. It is eaten as staple food in many parts of Asia. It is grown in warm parts of the world, mainly Asia, Africa, northern Italy, and the west coast of North America.

Rice accounts for 80% of the calories eaten in Asia, or one-fifth of the calories eaten worldwide by humans. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production (rice, 741.5 million tonnes in 2014), after sugarcane (1.9 billion tonnes) and maize (1.0 billion tonnes). However, judged by value, the world trade in wheat is greater than all other crops combined. All these cereals are grasses.

Rice used to be the main diet in many countries. Various kinds of food processing prepare rice for eating. It is usually cooked. In some areas, such as Spain, rice is first fried in olive oil or butter, then cooked with water or soup. In other areas, such as India, rice is eaten with sauce, curry, or soup. Rice can also be used to make alcohol, such as Japanese sake rice wine.

Rice is believed to have been first grown in ancient southern China and India around 2500 BC. Rice-growing was brought to Japan possibly in the 1st century BC, and became popular during the 2nd century and the 3rd century. From India, rice spread to southern Europe and Africa.

Iran is also a producer of rice in Asia with a production of 2.4 MMT. The food consumption pattern of people in Iran shows that Iranians consume an average of 100 g of rice per day. Rice is the second most popular and favorite food in Iran after bread.

Rice is usually planted in a flat field filled with water. Before cropping, the water is drained from the field. Before farmers developed a good farming system and fertilizers, they used to let lands rest for 1 to 2 years while farming in other lands.

In some hot areas, close to the equator, farmers do double-cropping which means raising two crops in one year.

Rice contains a lot of carbohydrates. There are different ways of milling rice. Brown rice has only had the outer layer removed. It contains more fibre than the completely milled white rice.

Rice varieties
There are several grains called "rice": they have been cultivated for thousands of years. There are a huge number of varieties.

Asian rice (Oryza sativa) is most widely known and most widely grown, with two major subspecies and over 40,000 varieties. Also notable are varieties of African rice (Oryza glaberrima) and wild rice (genus Zizania). Rice may vary in genetics, grain length, color, thickness, stickiness, aroma, growing method, and other characteristics.

Rice can be divided into different categories on the basis of each of its major characteristics. The two subspecies of Asian rice, indica and japonica have different length and stickiness. Indica rice is long-grained and unsticky, while japonica is short-grained and sticky.

For instance, over nine major varieties of rice exist for the purpose of making sake alone.

IR8
A naturally occurring strain of rice, IR8, is believed to have saved many lives.

"In the 1950s... you only needed to plot population growth against rice production to see that, within a few years, there would not be enough to go around. Something needed to be done, and in 1960 two American charities, the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations, joined forces to found the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines. The new team began patiently cross-breeding the 10,000 different varieties they had collected.

"Most crosses between rice strains give only 1% or 2% improvements, [but] IR8 was different. It married a tall high-yielding strain from Indonesia (PETA) with a sturdy dwarf variety from China (DGWG). The results were astounding. There was never any instance in the history of the world where rice yields doubled in one step... In fact, according to some studies, IR8 yields in best conditions could be as much as 10 times that of traditional varieties".

The new strain, part of the Green Revolution, had defects. It lacked taste, and the team spent 20 years improving its quality, and its resistance to fungi and pests. The team's later work was to reduce its bad effect on diabetes type 2 and on its vitamin A content.

The countries that exported most rice (2022)
In 2022, the countries that exported most rice, were
India
Thailand
Vietnam
Pakistan

References

Other websites
 2004: International Year of Rice
 The International Rice Research Institute Knowledge Bank
  Origin of Chinese rice cultivation
 South Carolina rice planting photos from the early 1900s

Basic English 850 words

Rice


Sarah Grimké (1792-1873) and Angelina Grimké Weld (1805–1879), known as the Grimké sisters, were 19th-century American Quakers, educators and writers who supported abolitionism and women's rights.

The Grimké sisters were born in Charleston, South Carolina, USA. Sarah Moore Grimke was born on November 26, 1792 and Angelina Emily Grimke was born on November 26, 1805. They traveled in the North, talking about their experiences with slavery on their father's plantation. They were often mocked and laughed at. They both saw that women needed more freedom to help change society. They began helping the women's rights movement.

In 1838, the sisters became the first women to speak at a meeting of the Massachusetts state legislature. They spoke about slavery and abolitionism. People were very shocked. They helped attract thousands of women in New England to the movement. Many came to hear Sarah and Angelina speak at public lectures.

In 1838, Sarah wrote a paper called "Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women." It answered many questions which were asked in a letter by a group of ministers who did not like the sisters because they had stepped out of their "woman's proper sphere".

When Sarah was 80, she tried to vote.
They lived to see the end to slavery, and the beginning of women's rights.

References
Birney, Catherin H.  The Grimké Sisters.  Greenwood Publishing Group, 1969.
Ceplair, Larry, Editor.  The Public Years of Sarah and Angelina Grimké: Selected Writings 1835 - 1839.  Columbia University Press, New York, 1989.
Weld, Angelina Grimké. "Letters to Catharine E. Beecher, in reply to An Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism, addressed to A. E. Grimké (1837)."
Grimké, Sarah.  "Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Woman," addressed to Mary S. Parker, President of the Boston Female anti-Slavery Society, 1838.
Faragher, John Mack, Mary Jo Buhle, Daniel Czitrom, and Susan H. Armitage. Out of Many: A History of the American People. 5th Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006.
Lerner, Gerda, The Grimke Sisters From South Carolina: Pioneers for Women's Rights and Abolition.   New York, Schocken Books, 1971 and The University of North Carolina Press, Cary, North Carolina, 1998.
Willimon, William H.  Turning the World Upside Down; the story of Sarah and Angelina Grimké.  Sandlapper Press, 1972.

Other websites

Letters on the Equality of the Sexes; Letters to Catharine E. Beecher  Sunshine for Women, 2000.
An Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States , Sarah Grimké, 1836.
Grimké sisters' anti-slavery message revived in Massachusetts state house  NECN.com

American abolitionists
American feminists
People from Charleston, South Carolina
Quakers

Grimké sisters


Michael Peel is a British journalist.  He has written for various publications including Granta, New Republic, New Statesman and London Review of Books. He is currently Europe correspondent of the Financial Times.

Biography

Educated at Trinity College, Oxford, where he studied chemistry, Peel joined the Financial Times in 1996. From 2002-2005, Peel was the West Africa correspondent for the Financial Times, based in Lagos, Nigeria. From March 2005 until 2006, Peel was an Associate Fellow of Chatham House, and a freelance journalist. He was appointed legal correspondent of the Financial Times in 2006, and has been middle east correspondent for the newspaper since January 2011.

Michael Peel's first book, A Swamp Full of Dollars (2009) was shortlisted for the Guardian First Book Award 2009.

Bibliography

Peel, Michael (2006). Nigeria-Related Financial Crime and its Links with Britain. Chatham House Report.
Peel, Michael (2009). A Swamp Full of Dollars: pipelines and paramilitaries at Nigeria's oil frontier. London: I.B. Tauris.

References

External links
Michael Peel, official website
Guardian review of A Swamp Full of Dollars
Michael Peel interview for Guardian First Book Award
Michael Peel contributions to Granta magazine
The West and Michael Peel's Africa (critical comment by Uche Nworah)

Living people
British male journalists
British writers
Alumni of Trinity College, Oxford
Chatham House people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Michael Peel


The Diseases Database is a database on a free website that gives information about the relationships between medical conditions, symptoms, and medications. The database is run by Medical Object Oriented Software Enterprises Ltd, a small company based in London, UK.

The site's stated aim is "education, background reading and general interest" with an intended audience "physicians, other clinical healthcare workers and students of these professions". The editor of the site is stated as Malcolm H Duncan, a UK qualified medical doctor.

Organization
The Diseases Database is based around a collection of concepts related to human medicine. These concepts include diseases, drugs, symptoms, physical signs and abnormal laboratory results. These are referred to as 'items'.
There are around 8,000 items within the database.

References

Databases
Science websites
Medical manuals

Diseases Database


Siarnaq or Saturn XXIX, is a non-spherical moon of Saturn. It was found by Brett J. Gladman, et al. in 2000 and given the designation S/2000 S 3.

It was named in August 2003 after the giant Siarnaq (also known as Sedna) in Inuit mythology, it is the biggest member of the Inuit group of non-spherical moons.

Siarnaq is thought to be about 40 kilometres in diameter and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 17,500,000 km in 895 days.

The diagram illustrates its orbit in relation to other prograde non-spherical moons of Saturn. The eccentricity of the orbits is represented by the yellow segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre.

Siarnaq has light-red colours very similar to Paaliaq and Kiviuq, supporting that the moons formed during a break up of a bigger body.

Other websites
 David Jewitt pages
 Scott Sheppard pages

Saturn's moons

Siarnaq (moon)


Gustav Tafel (October 13, 1830 – November 12, 1908) was a German-born colonel in the Union Army during the American Civil War, and the mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio, from 1897 to 1900.

Biography
Tafel was born in Munich, Germany (München). He was one of the Forty-Eighters, meaning he fled Germany after the Revolution of 1848.  He started in Cincinnati as a printer, and later became a newspaper editor. He resided in a house at the  northeastern corner of 14th and Walnut streets from 1848 to 1870. At the time, Cincinnati had a large German population and a number of German language newspapers, and Tafel quickly became a leader in that community.

When war erupted and Governor William Dennison called for volunteers to join the army, Tafel enlisted with the Cincinnati "Turnverein" and served as a lieutenant in Company A, 9th Ohio Infantry, a mostly German regiment. In June 1862 he was assigned to command the 106th Ohio Infantry (aka, "The 4th German Regiment"), one of the last German regiments raised in the state.  However, because the organization was forced to take the field in September with only eight of its companies filled, Tafel's commission was modified to that of lieutenant colonel on November 11, 1862.  After the Perryville Campaign, Tafel's battalion was merged into the hard-luck Thirty-ninth Brigade, which was captured intact by Confederate General John Hunt Morgan at the Battle of Hartsville on December 7, 1862.

The 106th was thereafter paroled and sent to Columbus, Ohio, being formally exchanged on January 12, 1863.  Tafel superintended the unit's re-organization at Camp Dennison.  On March 24 the unit left for Lexington, Kentucky, to relieve the 103rd Ohio Infantry in suppressing guerrilla activity in Owen County.  Tafel effectively brought an end to the depredations, earning "praise from the citizens and State authorities, for the good conduct and soldierly bearing of both officers and men."

The regiment arrived in Nashville on May 4, and four weeks later took up guard duty along the Louisville & Nashville Railroad, from Nashville north to the Kentucky border, operating out of Gallatin, Tennessee.  At this time the unit had been formally assigned to the Third Brigade, Second Division, Reserve Corps, Army of the Cumberland.  The guerrillas of the area suffered so consistently from the ambuscade tactics of the 106th that their leader, Captain Ellis Harper, offered a reward for Tafel's head.  Harper's band was badly mauled on December 4, 1863, at Dry Fork in Sumner County, Tennessee, Harper himself escaping.

The growing skill and hardened reputation of the 106th Ohio under Tafel's leadership caused it to be reassigned to the garrison of Bridgeport, Alabama, on May 4, 1864, where it quickly displayed its refined "scouting" abilities in hounding the local guerrilla band of Rebel Captain Caperton throughout the Racoon Mountains.  Caperton was killed by mounted scouts of the 106th on June 10.  In October 1864, the 106th was finally recruited up to its full strength, officially attaining the status of a full, volunteer regiment.

Tafel and the 106th Ohio became cut off from all communication for a four weeks with Thomas's main army at Nashville when Confederate Lt. Gen. John B. Hood brought what was left of the Army of Tennessee back into Tennessee that same winter.  In January 1865 the 106th fought one of its last actions of the war at Mud Creek, Tennessee, encountering a portion of the Rebel cavalry forces under Brig. Gen. Hylan B. Lyon.  In June, the regiment was ordered back to Nashville for muster out, which occurred on June 29, 1865.  Tafel's commission was never upgraded to that of a full colonel.

Tafel was a Democrat in his political views, and served three years as mayor of Cincinnati around the start of the 20th century. He died in Cincinnati and is buried in Spring Grove Cemetery.

See also
German Americans in the Civil War

References
 Reid, Whitelaw. Ohio in the War: Her Statesmen, Generals and Soldiers, 2V, Cincinnati, The Robert Clarke Company, 1895, Vol. 2, pp. 572–575.
 Tafel, Gustav. "The Cincinnati Germans in the Civil War." Translated and edited with Supplements on Germans from Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana in the Civil War by Don Heinrich Tolzmann. (Milford, Ohio: Little Miami Publishing Co., 2010).

Notes

External links

1830 births
1908 deaths
Mayors of Cincinnati
People of Ohio in the American Civil War
Union Army officers
Bavarian emigrants to the United States
Burials at Spring Grove Cemetery

Gustav Tafel


In 1845, German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff described two laws about electrical circuits..
These laws are generalizations of Ohm's law.
Kirchhoff's circuit laws are very useful in solving circuit problems.

Kirchhoff's current law

Kirchhoff's current law is also known as Kirchhoff's first law and Kirchhoff's junction law.
This law states that 'The sum of current into a junction equals the sum of current out of the junction'.
This is the same as Kirchhoff's junction law.
In a junction, the electric charge's sum preservation law is applied.
If the entering value of the current is i2 and i3, this current splits into the current of i1 and i4. Then the equation (i1 + i4 = i2 + i3) is satisfied.
The right picture gives an example.
This Kirchhoff's first law is that charge is not destroyed or created in a junction point.
This is based by an electric charge preservation law.

Kirchhoff's voltage law

Kirchhoff's voltage law is also known as Kirchhoff's second law, a closed circuit law and Kirchhoff's loop law.

The algebraic sum of the voltage (potential) differences in any loop must equal zero.(This circuit is a closed circuit)
Any complex circuit can be divided into many closed circuits.
This law means that in the circuit there is an electric cell and electric resistance.
The electric cell gives the charge a electromotive force, and then the electric resistance dissipates this force.
But in electric resistance if the direction is opposite of the current's direction, this electric resistance adds to the electromotive force.
This Kirchhoff's second law is based on potential energy preservation law.
Electricity

Kirchhoff's circuit laws


Dom Gualdim Pais (1118 – 13 October 1195), a Portuguese crusader, Knight Templar in the service of Afonso Henriques of Portugal. He was the founder of the city of Tomar.

Biography
Gualdim Pais was born in Amares (a town in the province of Minho, near Braga) in 1118, son of Paio Ramires and Gontrode Soares. He fought alongside Afonso Henriques against the Moors, and received a knighthood by him in 1139, after the Battle of Ourique.

He departed for Palestine shortly thereafter, and during the next five years fought as a Knight Templar. He had a prominent role in the siege of the city of Gaza. He also fought in the Siege of Ascalon; in sieges and battles around  Sidon and Antioch, and other campaigns of the Zengid–Crusader and Fatimid-Cruzader wars, against the Sultans of Egypt and Syria.

He was ordained the fourth Grand Master in Portugal of the Order of Knights Templar in 1157, which then was ruled from Braga. He founded the Castle of Tomar in 1160, then near the frontier with the Muslim states, and transferred the seat of the order there. The famous Round Church of the Castle of Tomar, inspired by similar structures in Jerusalem, was built under his supervision. He issued a feudal charter (foral), to the town of Tomar in 1162. During his life, he supervised the building or restoration of several other frontier castles for the Templars: the Almourol, Idanha, Ceres, Monsanto and Pombal (founding the settlement of Pombal and issuing a foral in 1174).

Besieged in 1190 by vastly superior forces under the Almohad King of Morocco Yusuf I, he and his knights managed to defeat the monarch's forces, thus defending the north of the fledgling Kingdom.

He died in Tomar in the year 1195. His grave is located in the Church of Santa Maria do Olival in that city.

References

Sources

1118 births
1195 deaths
People from Amares
People of the Reconquista
Portuguese city founders
Portuguese knights
Medieval Knights Templar members
12th-century Portuguese people
Amares
Christians of the Second Crusade
Knights Templar

Gualdim Pais


Thomas Charles Leeson Rowbotham (1823 in Dublin – 30 June 1875 in Percy Lodge, Camden Hill, Kensington), was an Irish watercolour, landscape and marine artist and lithographer. He was the son of the watercolour artist, Thomas Leeson Scrase Rowbotham (1783–1853). He was trained by his father and first did serious works in 1847 on a sketching trip to Wales.  His work was exhibited at the Royal Academy and Suffolk Street Gallery and other prestigious galleries of the time and he was elected an associate of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1848 and a full member in 1851.  He succeeded his father as Professor of Drawing at the Royal Naval School, New Cross in Greenwich. They collaborated on The Art of Landscape Painting in Water Colours, and he provided the illustrations for his father's work, The Art of Sketching from Nature.

He published several works of English, Scottish and Irish scenery.

References

Dictionary of National Biography

1823 births
1875 deaths
19th-century Irish painters
Irish male painters
Irish lithographers
19th-century Irish male artists

Thomas Charles Leeson Rowbotham


The crankshaft, sometimes casually called the crank, is the part of an engine which changes the up and down motion of the pistons into rotation. To convert the motion, the crankshaft has one or more offset shafts. The pistons are connected to the crankshaft by these shafts. When the piston moves up and down, it pushes the offset shaft. This in turn rotates the crankshaft.

The pistons cause a pulsing affect in the rotation. A crankshaft usually connects to a flywheel. The flywheel smooths out the rotation. Sometimes there is a torsion or vibration damper on the other end of the crankshaft. This helps reduce vibrations of the crankshaft.

Large engines usually have several cylinders. This helps to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes. For some engines it is necessary to provide counterweights. The counterweight is used to offset the piston and improve balance. While counterweights add a lot of weight to the crankshaft, it provides a smoother running engine. This allows higher RPMs to be reached and more power produced.

Other websites
The FOUR-STROKE CYCLE / OTTO CYCLE
Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) - Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an e-book library of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering.

Motors

Crankshaft


Colonization is the act of one country settling another place, in order to become the new rulers of the new country, and to live in the new country. An early example is the settlers who went from the cities of Ancient Greece to start new cities.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the Americas. This is how the Europeans learned that North America and South America were there.  The Europeans colonized the Americas. Because of this, and the killing of many Native Americans, most people now living in North America are the descendants of Europeans.

Sometimes, science fiction stories talk about space colonization on space stations or planets other than Earth. Some science fiction stories like The Matrix speak of the robots the human beings made, taking over, and colonizing Earth.

Related pages
Annexation
Colonialism
Colony
Decolonization
Protectorate

International relations
Colonialism

Colonization


Dennis Brain (born 17 May 1921; died London, 1 September 1957) was a British horn player. During his short life he became world-famous. Many people thought of him as the greatest horn player ever. He made the horn very popular among classical music lovers in Britain.  His recordings include the four horn concertos by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart which he recorded with the Philharmonia Orchestra conducted by Herbert von Karajan.

Life

Early years
Dennis Brain was born in London on 17 May 1921.   Several of his family were horn players, including his father Aubrey, his grandfather Alfred Edwin Brain Sr and his uncle Alfred Edwin Brain Jr.   His mother Marion was a singer who had sung at Covent Garden.  He had a brother Leonard who was 6 years older and who was to become an excellent oboe player.

Dennis started to learn the piano.  He also played bugle in the school cadet band at Richmond Hill Preparatory School.  From there he was sent to St Paul's School in Kensington where he sang in the choir and played piano solos at concerts.  In 1936 he left school and got a scholarship to the  Royal Academy of Music where he learned the horn with his father as well as the piano and, from 1938, the organ.  He learned a lot from his organ teacher G.D.Cunningham who had taught his uncle Alfred the piano some 40 years before.

Dennis's first professional concert was at the Queen's Hall in 1938 when he played Bach's Brandenburg Concerto no 1 together with his father (there are important solo parts for two horns in this music).  Soon he was playing in other concerts and making gramophone recordings.

The war years
The outbreak of World War II in 1939 interrupted his last year of studies.  All theatre halls and concert-halls were closed.  He managed to get a job as principal horn with the RAF Central Band which were in Uxbridge in north-west London.  Dennis was always a very friendly person who got on well with everybody.  The older players in the band might not have liked a 17-year-old boy to have a principal's job, but everybody realized he had exceptional skills.  He played in concerts whenever possible.  There were lunch-hour concerts in the National Gallery during the war, and he often played in these.  He started to become famous.  He met Benjamin Britten and he persuaded him to compose his Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings.  He performed it in 1943 with the tenor  Peter Pears and they recorded it for Decca in 1944.  He toured the USA with the RAF Orchestra.  Several conductors heard him and wanted Brain to join their orchestra.

After the war
By 1945, Brain was the most famous horn player in England. He was still only 24. His father hurt himself in a fall and could not play much.  Dennis took over some of his work.  After the war two new orchestras were formed in London: the Philharmonia and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra.  Brain was made  principal horn player in both. Later, he left the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra because he did not have time.

Brain played a lot of chamber music, forming a wind quintet with his brother in 1946. This group got bigger and toured to  Germany, Italy and Austria. Brain also started a trio with the pianist Wilfrid Parry and violinist Jean Pougnet. The trio toured Scotland twice and there were plans to tour Australia in the winter of 1957.

In November 1953 Brain recorded the Mozart Horn Concertos Nos. 1–4 for EMI with the Philharmonia Orchestra with Karajan conducting.  He kept up his organ playing (his teacher had hoped he would become an organist) and in July 1954, again conducted by Karajan, Brain performed the organ part in a recording of the Easter hymn from Pietro Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana.

In 1955 Brain became known to millions of people when he presented a radio program called The Early Horn.

Brain had a good sense of humour.  Among the many concerts he played in was a music festival in 1956 which celebrated the life of Gerard Hoffnung, the artist who had drawn many cartoons about music.  Dennis played a Leopold Mozart horn concerto by blowing through rubber hose pipes.  He cut the hose to the length he needed with garden shears so that it was perfectly in tune.

Brain was known for being careless. The horn he played for many years had lots of dents in it because he kept knocking it or dropping it. Benjamin Britten gave him a second copy of music for a new work he had written. Inside he wrote: "For Dennis - in case he loses the other one". His Alexander horn was badly damaged in his fatal crash.  Normally it would have been thrown away, but it was saved and was restored by Paxmans of London and can be seen in the Royal Academy of Music's free museum.

New works
Brain often asked composers to write new works for him to perform. Many composers wrote for him without even being asked. Among them were Benjamin Britten Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings, Canticle III, Malcolm Arnold Horn Concerto No. 2, Paul Hindemith Concerto for Horn and Orchestra, York Bowen Concerto for Horn, Strings and Timpani, Peter Racine Fricker Horn Sonata (Dennis was at school with Peter), Gordon Jacob Concerto for Horn and String Orchestra, Mátyás Seiber Notturno for Horn and Strings, Humphrey Searle Aubade for Horn and Strings, Ernest Tomlinson Rhapsody and Rondo for Horn and Orchestra, Romance and Rondo for Horn and Orchestra, Lennox Berkeley  Trio for Horn, Violin and Piano and Elisabeth Lutyens.

Brain also made the two horn concertos by Richard Strauss very popular. He was the second to perform the Horn Concerto No. 2 in public in 1948.

His hobby: motoring
Apart from horns Dennis had one big passion: he loved cars.  At orchestral rehearsals he often had a car magazine on the music stand instead of his music (he knew the music from memory anyway).  His first car was an open Morris 8 with two seats.  He shared it during the war with his brother to motor from Uxbridge into London.  Later he had several cars.  Whenever a car did not work he bought another instead of repairing it.  He loved to drive and would often drive all the way home after a concert even if it was 100s of miles.   Elisabeth Schwarzkopf let him drive her huge Hudson saloon car over the Gotthard Pass in Switzerland when it was officially closed because of heavy snow.  On another occasion Herbert von Karajan let him drive his Mercedes 300SL.  Once he bought a very rare 1939 12-cylinder Lagonda, but he soon crashed it and it could not be repaired.  Other cars included a Citroen and a green TR2 sports car.

His death

On 31 August 1957 Dennis was at the Edinburgh Festival playing a concert in the Usher Hall.  The Philharmonia Orchestra were playing Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 6, Pathétique with the conductor Eugene Ormandy.  Unusually that day he seemed tired and Ormandy told him he should get more rest.  But Dennis had a recording session the next morning in London, so after the concert he got into his car (his TR2), put his horn on the back seat and set off on the 380-mile journey back home.

It was about 6.00am the next morning when he was near London.  It was raining heavily and he was on the A1 at the Barnet by-pass.  According to witnesses he was travelling very fast when he came to a bend, the car left the road, turned over and crashed into a tree.  The car was a complete wreck.  Dennis was dead. He was 36 years old. He was buried at Hampstead Cemetery in London.

His fame and playing
Whenever Dennis played his horn is sounded easy and effortless.  It had an extraordinary lyrical beauty and was always incredibly musical.  He was a very sensitive player who listened very carefully to the other players and blended in with them.  At first he played a French instrument, a Raoux piston-valve horn, similar to that used by his father. This type of instrument has a lovely smooth tone, but was less powerful than the German-made instruments which had become popular since the 1920s. In 1951 he changed to single B instrument made by Alexander, which was not quite as wide as the usual German instruments, still keeping the lighter sound of French horns.

Dennis had made the horn very popular as an instrument, not just through his concerts and recordings but also through the radio.  He played difficult music that other horn players could not play.  His Mozart recordings inspired Flanders and Swann's Ill Wind and his classical playing.  His sudden death added to the musical legend.

References
Oxford Music Online retrieved 21.11.2010
 Pettitt, Stephen. 1976. Dennis Brain: a biography''. London: Robert Hale.

1921 births
1957 deaths
British classical horn players

Dennis Brain


A team is a group of people who have a certain task to complete. In order to meet their target, the members of the group must work well with each other.

Successful team - a group of people who tend to meet their target despite barriers. The group members cooperate with each other and take other members' ideas into consideration.

Unsuccessful team - a group of people who have a very difficult time when attempting to complete a certain task. This may be because the members of the group think of only themselves and create an uncomfortable environment for other members of the team.

Relationships

Team


Tiong Bahru MRT Station (EW17) is an underground station located on the East West Line of the Mass Rapid Transit in Bukit Merah, Singapore. It is the last underground MRT station on the line westwards. The station is directly connected to a shopping mall, Tiong Bahru Plaza and is at Tiong Bahru Road and Jalan Membina. The MRT Station serves the surrounding residential neighborhoods of Bukit Ho Swee, Bukit Merah View and Tiong Bahru. This station was named after the Tiong Bahru Estate, together with Tiong Bahru Market and Tiong Bahru constituency.

It was the closest station to Sentosa before the opening of North East Line station on 20 June 2003. Shuttle bus services linking Sentosa to Tiong Bahru MRT operated for several years until it was eventually withdrawn in 2004.

References

Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations

Tiong Bahru MRT station


Engelbert Dollfuss (German: Dollfuß) (October 4, 1892 – July 25, 1934) was the Chancellor of Austria from 1932 until 1933. He led the country as a dictator from early 1933 until 1934.

He studied law in Vienna, and Economics in Berlin. During World War I, he served in the Alps and briefly became a Prisoner of War in 1918.

He became Chancellor on May 20, 1932 as head of a right-wing coalition government. He wanted to solve the problems caused by the Depression. He had problems finding majorities in parliament. The measures he liked to take to deal with inflation were not well liked. In March 1933, he suspended the Austrian parliament. He then governed by decree.

With Adolf Hitler as Chancellor in Germany, Dollfuss feared that the influence of the NSDAP would grow. This would then lead to a growth in popularity for its Austrian counterpart. Because of this, he banned the NSDAP in June 1933. He also banned the SDAPÖ in February 1934.

In September 1933 he formed an umbrella grouping to support the regime, the Vaterländische Front (Fatherland Front) and merged the Christian Social Party with the para-military Heimwehr (Home Guard), a Nationalist paramilitary group. The regime which was put into power by him and remained in power until 1938 is often called Austrofascism. The form of state he employed was called the Ständestaat.

On July 25, 1934, eight Austrian Nazis entered the Chancellery building and shot and killed Dollfuss in an attempted coup, as a prelude to Anschluss. The Nazis surrendered and were executed. Kurt Schuschnigg became the new dictator of Austria.

References

Other websites
 Video: Dollfuß holds a speech in Burgenland 1933 (mpeg, 6,1 kb)

1892 births
1934 deaths
Chancellors of Austria
Government ministers of Austria
Murders by firearm

Engelbert Dollfuss


William Sumner Maynard (April 25, 1802 – June 18, 1866) was a politician from the U.S. state of Michigan, who served as mayor of Ann Arbor, Michigan from 1856 to 1858 and again from 1865 to 1866. Maynard was born in Berkshire County, Massachusetts. He suffered from severe depression and (while still Mayor) killed himself in 1866 by an overdose of laudanum. Long notes of explanation were found in the pockets of his dressing gown, detailing Maynard's struggles with "The Evil One" (a synonym for Satan). The notes were published verbatim in Ann Arbor's several weekly newspapers. Maynard had been Ann Arbor's biggest land developer, a member and organizer in 1836 of the Ann Arbor Land Company, which acquired the former Henry Rumsey farm east of town, conveying 40 acres thereof to the newly formed State of Michigan as the site of the future University of Michigan, while hoping to profit by subdividing and selling town lots adjacent to the campus. Maynard also developed much of the land west of Ann Arbor's Main Street, as far west as the present Seventh Street. His own landmark dwelling was on the northwest corner of Main and William Street, and the estate stretched west to the present Ashley street, and halfway up the block to Liberty. For many years he owned a grocery, drug and dry-goods store and was said to be the wealthiest man in Ann Arbor at the time of his suicide. His grave is in Forest Hill Cemetery in Ann Arbor.

Maynard's first wife was Julia Guiteau (d. 1856), whose nephew, Charles Julius Guiteau, assassinated President James Garfield on July 2, 1881. For a short while in 1859 Charles Guiteau lived with his uncle in Ann Arbor, while trying to gain admission to the University of Michigan.

External links

 Mayors of Ann Arbor page at PoliticalGraveyard.com

1802 births
1866 deaths
Mayors of Ann Arbor, Michigan
American politicians who committed suicide
Drug-related suicides in Michigan
American Congregationalists
19th-century American politicians
University of Michigan campus
Politicians from Ann Arbor, Michigan
1860s suicides

William S. Maynard


An enkephalin is one of the first endorphins that were discovered in the brain. They are found in many parts of the brain, specially in the basal ganglia. They act as "natural pain killers".

Enkephalins are small proteins. They consist of five amino acids in each of their molecules. The last amino acid is either leucine (leu) or methionine (met).

Enkephalin is a brain neurotransmitter that is formed when tyrocine, glycine, glycine, phenylalanine, and methionine through a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis.

Endocrine system
Proteins

Enkephalin


1208 (MCCVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday in the 13th century.

Events
 January 31 – Inferior Swedish forces defeats the invading danes in Battle of Lena.
 June 21 – Philip of Swabia King of Germany and rival Holy Roman Emperor to Otto IV, assassinated in Bamberg by German Count Otto of Wittelsbach because Philip had refused to give him his daughter in marriage.
 With the help of the newly converted local tribes of Livs and Letts, the crusaders initiated raids into part of what is present-day Estonia and Estonian ancient fight for independence began (lasted until 1227).

Births
 February 2 – King James I of Aragon (died 1276)
 Humphrey de Bohun, 2nd Earl of Hereford, Constable of England (died 1275)
 Möngke Khan of the Mongol Empire
 Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester (died 1265)
 Akerian Redfern of the Redfern clan

Deaths
 April 22 – Philip of Poitou, Prince-Bishop of Durham
 June 21 – Philip of Swabia, king of Germany
 November 9 – Sancha of Castile, queen of Alfonso II of Aragon (born 1155)
 Amhaoibh O'Rothlain, Chief of Calruidhe Cuile Cearnadha

1208


In the placenta, the intervillous space is the space between chorionic villi, and contains maternal blood.

The trophoblast, which is a collection of cells that invades the maternal endometrium to gain access to nutrition for the fetus, proliferates rapidly and forms a network of branching processes which cover the entire embryo and invade and destroy the maternal tissues.  With this physiologic destructive process, the maternal blood vessels of the endometrium are opened, with the result that the spaces in the trophoblastic network are filled with maternal blood; these spaces communicate freely with one another and become greatly distended and form the intervillous space from which the fetus gains nutrition.

Maternal arteries and veins directly enter the intervillous space after 8 weeks gestation, and the intervillous space will contain about a unit of blood (400–500 mL).  Much of this blood is returned to the mother with normal uterine contractions; thus, when a woman has a cesarean section, she is liable to lose more blood than a woman who has a vaginal delivery, as the blood from the intervillous space is not pushed back toward her body during such a delivery.

References

External links

Embryology

Intervillous space


The Honda HR-V is a mini SUV produced bi the Japanese automaker Honda frae 1999 till 2006. The abbreviation HRV offeecially stands for High Rider Vehicle although sometimes referred tae as Hybrid Recreation Vehicle. The HR-V wis introduced tae cater for the demand for vehicles wi the benefits o SUVs (in particular its bigger brither the Honda CR-V) such as increast cargo room, hichter visibility, alang wi the maneuverability, performance an fuel economy o a smawer caur (such as the Honda Civic). Its main competitors at the time include the Toyota Rav4 an the Land Rover Freelander. Kent as ane o the earliest low emissions vehicles (in terms o nitrogen oxides) an unique character, the HR-V is nou considered ane o the first original crossower SUVs.

Oreeginally designed as the "Wild and Joyfull J-WJ" concept vehicle an exhibitit at the Tokyo Motor Show in 1997, the HR-V emerged as a futuristic an lichtweight cross-kintra vehicle in 1998. The Honda HR-V wis suin put intae production due tae its popularity, an marketit toward a yunger demographic as the "Joy Machine" in 1999. The HR-V wis shipt tae Europe wi either a 1.6L SOHC or a fower-wheel drive SOHC VTEC ingine. An automatic continuously variable transmission gearbox wis an' a' an ingine option, housomeivver, the main criticism o the HR-V wis the lack o a diesel ingine option. The three door versions wur discontinued in 2003 an five door versions in 2006. Unoffeecially, the Honda Crossroad (2008) is the follae up tae the HR-V.

The real time 4WD seestem comes frae the Honda CR-V and utilises a dual hydraulic pump rear differential whaur the 4WD seestem is hydraulically activatit when the front wheels lose traction. The HR-V an aa uises enhanced drive shafts an suspension. Variations wur produced for Australie, New Zealand, the Philippines, the Pacific Rim a for its hame mercat o Japan. The HR-V wis revised in 2002 wi some exterior stylin chynges an a new interior. Ahead o its time in terms o design for pedestrian safety, the HR-V seats fower fowk an includes modren safety features sic as ABS brakes wi EBD (electronic brakeforce distribution), dual SRS (supplemental restraint seestem) airbags, as well as ither features sic as electric mirrors, electric windaes, foldin rear seats, pouer steerin, heat absorbin windaes, air conditionin, front fog lichts an a rear spoiler hoosin an LED brake licht array.

External links
 HondaSUV - HR-V Forum
 Honda HR-V in Japan
 HR-V Japan
 Play the HR-V Hong Kong Club - HR-V Chinese Forum
 Honda HR-V Television advertisements

HR-V
Mini sport utility vehicles
Vehicles wi CVT transmission
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Aw-wheel-drive vehicles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
1999 introductions

Honda HR-V