The Kingdom of Hungary between 1526 and 1867 existed as a state outside the Holy Roman Empire, but part of the lands of the Habsburg monarchy that became the Austrian Empire in 1804. After the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the country was ruled by two crowned kings (John I and Ferdinand I). Initially, the exact territory under Habsburg rule was disputed because both rulers claimed the whole kingdom. This unsettled period lasted until 1570 when John Sigismund Zápolya (John II) abdicated as King of Hungary in Emperor Maximilian II's favor.

In the early stages, the lands that were ruled by the Habsburg Hungarian kings were regarded as both the "Kingdom of Hungary" and "Royal Hungary". Royal Hungary was the symbol of the continuity of formal law after the Ottoman occupation, because it could preserve its legal traditions, but in general, it was de facto a Habsburg province. The Hungarian nobility forced Vienna to admit that Hungary was a special unit of the Habsburg lands and had to be ruled in conformity with its own special laws. However, Hungarian historiography positioned Transylvania in a direct continuity with the medieval Kingdom of Hungary in pursuance of the advancement of Hungarian interests.

Under the terms of the Treaty of Karlowitz, which ended the Great Turkish War in 1699, the Ottomans ceded nearly all of Ottoman Hungary. The new territories were united with the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary, and although its powers were mostly formal, the Diet of Hungary in Pressburg ruled the lands.

Two major Hungarian rebellions were the Rákóczi's War of Independence in the early 18th century and the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and marked important shifts in the evolution of the polity. The kingdom became a dual monarchy in 1867, known as Austria-Hungary.

Royal Hungary (1526–1699)

Royal Hungary (1526–1699), (, ), was the name of the portion of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary where the Habsburgs were recognized as Kings of Hungary in the wake of the Ottoman victory at the Battle of Mohács (1526) and the subsequent partition of the country.

Temporary territorial division between the rival rulers John I and Ferdinand I occurred only in 1538, under the Treaty of Nagyvárad, when the Habsburgs got the northern and western parts of the country (Royal Hungary), with the new capital Pressburg (Pozsony, now Bratislava). John I secured the eastern part of the kingdom (known as the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom). Habsburg monarchs needed the economic power of Hungary for the Ottoman wars. During the Ottoman wars the territory of the former Kingdom of Hungary was reduced by around 60 per cent. Despite these enormous territorial and demographic losses, the smaller and heavily war torn Royal Hungary was as important as the Austrian hereditary lands or the Lands of the Bohemian Crown in the late 16th century.

The territory of present-day Slovakia and northwestern Transdanubia were parts of this polity, while control of the region of northeastern Hungary often shifted between Royal Hungary and the Principality of Transylvania. The central territories of the medieval Hungarian kingdom were annexed by the Ottoman Empire for 150 years (see Ottoman Hungary).

In 1570, John Sigismund Zápolya abdicated as King of Hungary in Emperor Maximilian II's favor under the terms of the Treaty of Speyer.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5J09mqMWiogC&pg=PA40 István Keul, Early Modern Religious Communities in East-Central Europe: Ethnic Diversity, Denominational Plurality, and Corporative Politics in the Principality of Transylvania (1526–1691) 2009, pp. 61-255]</ref>

The term "Royal Hungary" fell into disuse after 1699, and the Habsburg kings referred to the newly enlarged country by the more formal term "Kingdom of Hungary".

Habsburg kings
The Habsburgs, an influential dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire, were elected Kings of Hungary.

Royal Hungary became a part of the Habsburg monarchy and enjoyed little influence in Vienna. The Habsburg king directly controlled Royal Hungary's financial, military, and foreign affairs, and imperial troops guarded its borders. The Habsburgs avoided filling the office of palatine to prevent the holders amassing too much power. In addition, the so-called Turkish question divided the Habsburgs and the Hungarians: Vienna wanted to maintain peace with the Ottomans; the Hungarians wanted the Ottomans ousted. As the Hungarians recognized the weakness of their position, many became anti-Habsburg. They complained about foreign rule, the behaviour of foreign garrisons, and the Habsburgs' recognition of Turkish suzerainty in the Principality of Transylvania. This was usually under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, however, it often had dual vassalage -Ottoman Turkish sultans and the Habsburg Hungarian kings- in the 16th and 17th centuries). Protestants, who were persecuted in Royal Hungary, considered the Counter-Reformation a greater menace than the Turks, however.
The Austrian branch of Habsburg monarchs needed the economic power of Hungary for the Ottoman wars. During the Ottoman wars the territory controlled by the Kingdom of Hungary shrank by around 60%. Despite these enormous territorial and demographic losses, the smaller, heavily war-torn Royal Hungary had remained as economically important to the Habsburg rulers as the Austrian hereditary lands or the Bohemian crownlands even in the late 16th century. Out of all his countries, the depleted Kingdom of Hungary was, at that time, Ferdinand I's largest source of revenue.

Reformation

The Reformation spread quickly, and by the early 17th century hardly any noble families remained Catholic. In Royal Hungary, the majority of the population became Lutheran by the end of the 16th century.

Archbishop Péter Pázmány reorganized Royal Hungary's Roman Catholic Church and led a Counter-Reformation that reversed the Protestants' gains in Royal Hungary, using persuasion rather than intimidation. The Reformation caused rifts between Catholics, who often sided with the Habsburgs, and Protestants, who developed a strong national identity and became rebels in Austrian eyes. Chasms also developed between the mostly Catholic magnates and the mainly Protestant lesser nobles.

Kingdom of Hungary in the early modern period until 1848

18th century

As the Habsburgs' control of the Turkish possessions started to increase, the ministers of Leopold I argued that he should rule Hungary as conquered territory. At the Diet of "Royal Hungary" in Pressburg, in 1687, the Emperor promised to observe all laws and privileges. Nonetheless, the hereditary succession of the Habsburgs was recognized, and the nobles' right of resistance was abrogated. In 1690 Leopold began redistributing lands freed from the Turks. Protestant nobles and all other Hungarians thought disloyal by the Habsburgs lost their estates, which were given to foreigners. Vienna controlled the foreign affairs, defense, tariffs, and other functions.

The repression of Protestants and the land seizures frustrated the Hungarians, and in 1703 a peasant uprising sparked an eight-year rebellion against Habsburg rule. In Transylvania, which became the part of Hungary again at the end of the 17th century (as a province, called "Principality of Transylvania" with the Diet seated at Gyulafehérvár), the people united under Francis II Rákóczi, a Roman Catholic magnate. Most of Hungary soon supported Rákóczi, and the Hungarian Diet voted to annul the Habsburgs' right to the throne. Fortunes turned against the Hungarians, however, when the Habsburgs made peace in the west and turned their full force against them. The war ended in 1711, when Count Károlyi, General of the Hungarian Armies agreed to the Treaty of Szatmár. The treaty contained the emperor's agreement to reconvene the Diet in Pressburg and to grant an amnesty for the rebels.

Leopold's successor, King Charles III (1711–40), began building a workable relationship with Hungary after the Treaty of Szatmár. Charles asked the approval of Diet for the Pragmatic Sanction, under which the Habsburg monarch was to rule Hungary not as emperor, but as a king subject to the restraints of Hungary's constitution and laws. He hoped that the Pragmatic Sanction would keep the Habsburg Empire intact if his daughter, Maria Theresa, succeeded him. The Diet approved the Pragmatic Sanction in 1723, and Hungary thus agreed to become a hereditary monarchy under the Habsburgs for as long as their dynasty existed. In practice, however, Charles and his successors governed almost autocratically, controlling Hungary's foreign affairs, defense, and finance but lacking the power to tax the nobles without their approval.

Charles organized the country under a centralized administration and in 1715 established a standing army under his command, which was entirely funded and manned by the non-noble population. This policy reduced the nobles' military obligation without abrogating their exemption from taxation. Charles also banned conversion to Protestantism, required civil servants to profess Catholicism, and forbade Protestant students to study abroad.

Maria Theresa (1741–80) faced an immediate challenge from Prussia's Frederick II when she became head of the House of Habsburg, facing the First Silesian War. In 1741 she appeared before the Diet of Pressburg holding her newborn son and entreated Hungary's nobles to support her. They stood behind her and helped secure her rule. Maria Theresa later took measures to reinforce links with Hungary's magnates. She established special schools to attract Hungarian nobles to Vienna.

Under Charles and Maria Theresa, Hungary experienced further economic decline. Centuries of Ottoman occupation and war had reduced Hungary's population drastically, and large parts of the country's southern half were almost deserted. A labor shortage developed as landowners restored their estates. In response, the Habsburgs began to colonize Hungary with large numbers of peasants from all over Europe, especially Slovaks, Serbs, Croatians, and Germans. Many Jews also immigrated from Vienna and the empire's Polish lands near the end of the 18th century. Hungary's population more than tripled to 8 million between 1720 and 1787. However, only 39 percent of its people were Magyars, who lived mainly in the center of the country.

In the first half of the 18th century, Hungary had an agricultural economy that employed 90 percent of the population. The nobles failed to use fertilizers, roads were poor and rivers blocked, and crude storage methods caused huge losses of grain. Barter had replaced money transactions, and little trade existed between towns and the serfs. After 1760 a labor surplus developed. The serf population grew, pressure on the land increased, and the serfs' standard of living declined. Landowners began making greater demands on new tenants and began violating existing agreements. In response, Maria Theresa issued her Urbarium of 1767 to protect the serfs by restoring their freedom of movement and limiting the corvée. Despite her efforts and several periods of strong demand for grain, the situation worsened. Between 1767 and 1848, many serfs left their holdings. Most became landless farmworkers because a lack of industrial development meant few opportunities for work in the towns.

Joseph II (1780–90), a dynamic leader strongly influenced by the Age of Enlightenment, shook Hungary from its malaise when he inherited the throne from his mother, Maria Theresa. In the framework of Josephinism, Joseph sought to centralize control of the empire and to rule it by decree as an enlightened despot. He refused to take the Hungarian coronation oath to avoid being constrained by Hungary's constitution. In 1781–82 Joseph issued a Patent of Toleration, followed by an Edict of Tolerance which granted Protestants and Orthodox Christians full civil rights and Jews freedom of worship. He decreed that German replace Latin as the kingdom's official language and granted the peasants the freedom to leave their holdings, to marry, and to place their children in trades. Hungary, Slavonia, Croatia, the Military Frontier and Transylvania became a single imperial territory under one administration, called the Kingdom of Hungary or "Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen". When the Hungarian nobles again refused to waive their exemption from taxation, Joseph banned imports of Hungarian manufactured goods into Austria and began a survey to prepare for the imposition of a general land tax.

Joseph's reforms outraged nobles and clergy of Hungary, and the peasants of the country grew dissatisfied with taxes, conscription, and requisitions of supplies. Hungarians perceived Joseph's language reform as German cultural hegemony, and they reacted by insisting on the right to use their own tongue. As a result, Hungarian lesser nobles sparked a renaissance of the Hungarian language and culture, and a cult of national dance and costume flourished. The lesser nobles questioned the loyalty of the magnates, of whom less than half were ethnic Hungarians, and even those had become French- and German-speaking courtiers. The Hungarian national reawakening subsequently triggered national revivals among the Slovak, Romanian, Serbian, and Croatian minorities within Hungary and Transylvania, who felt threatened by both German and Hungarian cultural hegemony. These national revivals later blossomed into the nationalist movements of the 19th and 20th centuries that contributed to the empire's ultimate collapse.

Late in his reign, Joseph led a costly, ill-fated campaign against the Turks that weakened his empire. On January 28, 1790, three weeks before his death, the emperor issued a decree cancelling all of his reforms except the Patent of Toleration, peasant reforms, and the abolition of the religious orders.

Joseph's successor, Leopold II (1790–92), re-introduced the bureaucratic technicality which viewed Hungary as a separate country under a Habsburg king. In 1791 the Diet passed Law X, which stressed Hungary's status as an independent kingdom ruled only by a king legally crowned according to Hungarian laws. Law X later became the basis for demands by Hungarian reformers for statehood in the period from 1825 to 1849. New laws again required approval of both the Habsburg king and the Diet, and Latin was restored as the official language. The peasant reforms remained in effect, however, and Protestants remained equal before the law. Leopold died in March 1792 just as the French Revolution was about to degenerate into the Reign of Terror and send shock waves through the royal houses of Europe.

First half of the 19th century
Enlightened absolutism ended in Hungary under Leopold's successor, Francis II (ruled 1792–1835), who developed an almost abnormal aversion to change, bringing Hungary decades of political stagnation. In 1795 the Hungarian police arrested Ignác Martinovics and several of the country's leading thinkers for plotting a Jacobin kind of revolution to install a radical democratic, egalitarian political system in Hungary. Thereafter, Francis resolved to extinguish any spark of reform that might ignite a revolution. The execution of the alleged plotters silenced any reform advocates among the nobles, and for about three decades reform ideas remained confined to poetry and philosophy. The magnates, who also feared that the influx of revolutionary ideas might precipitate a popular uprising, became a tool of the crown and seized the chance to further burden the peasants.

In 1804 Francis II, who was also the Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the other dynastic lands of the Habsburg dynasty, founded the Austrian Empire, in which Hungary and all his other dynastic lands were included. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, that had functioned as a composite monarchy for about three hundred years before. He himself became Francis I (Franz I.), the first Emperor of Austria (Kaiser von Österreich), ruling from 1804 to 1835, so later he was named the one and only Doppelkaiser (double emperor) in history. The workings of the overarching structure and the status of the new Kaiserthum'''s component lands at first stayed much as they had been under the composite monarchy that existed before 1804. This was especially demonstrated by the status of the Kingdom of Hungary, whose affairs remained to be administered by its own institutions (King and Diet) as they had been under the composite monarchy, in which it had always been considered a separate Realm. Article X of 1790, which was added to Hungary's constitution during the phase of the composite monarchy uses the Latin phrase "Regnum Independens". In the new situation, therefore, no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government.

By the start of the 19th century, the aim of Hungary's agricultural producers had shifted from subsistence farming and small-scale production for local trade to cash-generating, large-scale production for a wider market. Road and waterway improvements cut transportation costs, while urbanization in Austria, Bohemia, and Moravia and the need for supplies for the Napoleonic Wars boosted demand for foodstuffs and clothing. Hungary became a major grain and wool exporter. New lands were cleared, and yields rose as farming methods improved. Hungary did not reap the full benefit of the boom, however, because most of the profits went to the magnates, who considered them not as capital for investment but as a means of adding luxury to their lives. As expectations rose, goods such as linen and silverware, once considered luxuries, became necessities. The wealthy magnates had little trouble balancing their earnings and expenditures, but many lesser nobles, fearful of losing their social standing, went into debt to finance their spending.

Napoleon's final defeat brought recession. Grain prices collapsed as demand dropped, and debt ensnared much of Hungary's lesser nobility. Poverty forced many lesser nobles to work to earn a livelihood, and their sons entered education institutions to train for civil service or professional careers. The decline of the lesser nobility continued despite the fact that by 1820 Hungary's exports had surpassed wartime levels. As the number of lesser nobles who earned diplomas increased, the bureaucracy and professions became saturated, leaving a host of disgruntled graduates without jobs. Members of this new intelligentsia quickly became enamored of radical political ideologies emanating from Western Europe and organized themselves to effect changes in Hungary's political system.

Francis rarely called the Diet into session (usually only to request men and supplies for war) without hearing complaints. Economic hardship brought the lesser nobles' discontent to a head by 1825, when Francis finally convoked the Diet after a fourteen-year hiatus. Grievances were voiced, and open calls for reform were made, including demands for less royal interference in the nobles' affairs and for wider use of the Hungarian language.

The first great figure of the reform era came to the fore during the 1825 convocation of the Diet. Count István Széchenyi, a magnate from one of Hungary's most powerful families, shocked the Diet when he delivered the first speech in Hungarian ever uttered in the upper chamber and backed a proposal for the creation of a Hungarian academy of arts and sciences by pledging a year's income to support it. In 1831 angry nobles burned Szechenyi's book Hitel (Credit), in which he argued that the nobles' privileges were both morally indefensible and economically detrimental to the nobles themselves. Szechenyi called for an economic revolution and argued that only the magnates were capable of implementing reforms. Szechenyi favored a strong link with the Habsburg Empire and called for the abolition of entail and serfdom, taxation of landowners, financing of development with foreign capital, the establishment of a national bank, and introduction of wage labor. He inspired such projects as the construction of the Széchenyi Chain Bridge linking Buda and Pest. Szechenyi's reform initiatives ultimately failed because they were targeted at the magnates, who were not inclined to support change, and because the pace of his program was too slow to attract disgruntled lesser nobles.

The most popular of Hungary's great reform leaders, Lajos Kossuth, addressed passionate calls for change to the lesser nobles. Kossuth was the son of a landless, lesser nobleman of Protestant background. He practiced law with his father before moving to Pest. There he published commentaries on the Diet's activities, which made him popular with young, reform-minded people. Kossuth was imprisoned in 1836 for treason. After his release in 1840, he gained quick notoriety as the editor of a liberal party newspaper. Kossuth argued that only political and economic separation from Austria would improve Hungary's plight. He called for broader parliamentary democracy, rapid industrialization, general taxation, economic expansion through exports, and the abolition of privileges (equality before the law) and serfdom. But Kossuth was also a Hungarian patriotic whose rhetoric provoked the strong resentment of Hungary's minority ethnic groups. Kossuth gained support among liberal lesser nobles, who constituted an opposition minority in the Diet. They sought reforms with increasing success after Francis's death in 1835 and the succession of Ferdinand V (1835–48). In 1844 a law was enacted making Hungarian the country's exclusive official language.

1848–1867

After the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the emperor revoked Hungary's constitution and assumed absolute control. Emperor Franz Joseph divided the country into four distinct territories: Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia-Slavonia, and Vojvodina. German and Bohemian administrators managed the government, and German became the language of administration and higher education. The non-Magyar minorities of Hungary received little for their support of Austria during the turmoil. A Croat reportedly told a Hungarian: "We received as a reward what the Magyars got as a punishment."

Hungarian public opinion split over the country's relations with Austria. Some Hungarians held out hope for full separation from Austria; others wanted an accommodation with the Habsburgs, provided that they respected Hungary's constitution and laws. Ferenc Deák became the main advocate for accommodation. Deak upheld the legality of the April laws and argued that their amendment required the Hungarian Diet's consent. He also held that the dethronement of the Habsburgs was invalid. As long as Austria ruled absolutely, Deak argued, Hungarians should do no more than passively resist illegal demands.

The first crack in Franz Joseph's neo-absolutist rule developed in 1859, when the forces of Sardinia-Piedmont and France defeated Austria at the Battle of Solferino. The defeat convinced Franz Joseph that national and social opposition to his government was too strong to be managed by decree from Vienna. Gradually he recognized the necessity of concessions towards Hungary, and Austria and Hungary thus moved towards a compromise.

In 1866 the Prussians defeated the Austrians in the Austro-Prussian War, further underscoring the weakness of the Habsburg Empire. Negotiations between the emperor and the Hungarian leaders were intensified and finally resulted in the Compromise of 1867, which created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary, also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Demography

See also
 List of Hungarian rulers

Notes

References

External links

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1867 disestablishments in Austria-Hungary
Disestablishments in the Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1918)
Hungary (1526-1867)

Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)


The Bathurst 12 Hour, currently known as the Liqui Moly Bathurst 12 Hour for sponsorship reasons, is an annual endurance race for GT and production cars held at the Mount Panorama Circuit, in Bathurst, Australia. The race was first held in 1991 for Series Production cars and moved to Sydney's Eastern Creek Raceway in 1995 before being discontinued. The race was revived in 2007, again for production cars, before adding a new class for GT3 and other GT cars in 2011. This has led to unprecedented domestic and international exposure for the event. In all, twenty one races have taken place; twenty at Mount Panorama and one at Eastern Creek Raceway (Sydney Motorsport Park).

Background
The event was inspired by the long-running Bathurst 500 production car race, which began at the Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit in Victoria in 1960 (before moving to Bathurst in 1963) as a race for standard production cars with minimal modifications. In 1973 when the race was lengthened from 500 miles to 1000 kilometres, the regulations for cars entering the race changed from standard "series production" cars to improved touring cars. The Bathurst 12 Hour was intended to re-create the original feel of the Bathurst 1000, while providing a unique test in the longer race distance, rather than replicating the 1000 kilometre event.

History

Production origins
In 1990, Vincent Tesoriero, a race promoter and former Bathurst 1000 competitor, looked at the decline of Group A touring cars in Australia and saw an opportunity to run a 12-hour endurance race for Series Production cars at Mount Panorama. Tesoriero secured long time Bathurst 1000 sponsor James Hardie as a sponsor for the event in late 1990, leaving limited time to launch and organise the event for the Easter weekend in 1991. The race regulations were based on the Group 3E Series Production Car rules then in use in the Australian Production Car Championship for naturally aspirated four- and six-cylinder passenger sedans, but also allowed turbocharged and V8-engined cars which had been outlawed from the Production Car Championship in 1990. Despite the short deadline, twenty-four cars were entered for the first race, spread over six different classes based on engine capacity and sporting specification. Exotic mid-engined sports cars and GT cars were not eligible to enter.

The race was originally scheduled to run from 9am to 9pm but this was disallowed by Bathurst Regional Council. The race would instead run from 5:15am to 5:15pm, with the final two hours televised by Network Ten. Despite the event's length, the competitors proved extremely reliable, with twenty cars finishing the race. The race was won by Allan Grice, Peter Fitzgerald and Nigel Arkell racing Fitzgerald's 1989 Production Car Championship specification Toyota Supra Turbo.

In 1992, manufacturer-backed teams began to appear with large teams entered and funded by Mazda, Holden, Citroën and Peugeot. Porsche would also provide factory support from 1993 onwards. Honda, Nissan, Maserati, BMW and Lotus were also represented but not by factory-supported teams. The Mazda team would go on to dominate the event with the Mazda RX-7, winning the next three consecutive races at Mount Panorama.

Facing rising costs, the 1995 event was moved from Bathurst to Eastern Creek Raceway in Sydney, and from the Easter weekend to August, before the race was discontinued in 1996.

Hiatus
After no major race for production cars for a number of years, the concept was revived with the short-lived Bathurst 24 Hour races in 2002 and 2003. The races were run by Nations Cup owners PROCAR and were dominated by the Holden Monaro 427Cs of Garry Rogers Motorsport. The Bathurst 24 Hour only lasted two years before PROCAR owner Ross Palmer was forced to abandon the race due to rising costs.

Revival
The Bathurst 12 Hour was successfully revived in 2007 as part of the Bathurst Motorsport Festival While James O'Brien, who masterminded the return of the event, planned for GT cars to share the event with production cars, the return of the race began with regulations close to its original concept as a race for production cars. 32 cars were entered for the 2007 race, which was won by Garry Holt, Paul Morris and Craig Baird in a BMW 335i. The win was ten years after Morris and Baird had won the 1997 AMP Bathurst 1000 in a BMW only to later be disqualified for exceeding driver time regulations. The race proved a preview of this period of the race, which saw BMW and Mitsubishi as the main combatants. The 2007 Subaru entry of rally drivers Chris Atkinson, Dean Herridge and Cody Crocker would be the only other manufacturer to finish the race in the top two between 2007 and 2010.

The 2008 and 2009 races were won by Mitsubishi Lancers, with Rod Salmon and Damien White amongst both line-ups. The 2009 race was particularly dominated by Mitsubishi, with the marque finishing in the first four positions. Garry Holt would then repeat his 2007 victory in 2010, driving again with Morris and also with John Bowe. The race was interrupted for an hour after a tree fell across Conrod Straight. The number of entries grew over this production-based period, peaking at 48 in 2009, while the final race held strictly to production car regulations in 2010 attracted 42 entries. During this time, the event itself grew in stature each year, firmly entrenching itself as one of the biggest race meetings at the start of the domestic Australian racing season, along with the Adelaide 500 and the Australian Grand Prix.

International expansion
In 2011, GT3-specification cars were allowed into the 12 hour race for the first time. Despite this, the number of entries dropped dramatically as many of the production car teams, disillusioned by the move towards GT, decided not to race. Of the 26 cars that competed in 2011, just eight raced in the production car classes, compared with the 42 that made up the full 2010 field. The German-based Joest Racing dominated the 2011 event, with the team's two Audi R8 LMS GT3s finishing first and second, a lap ahead of the third-placed Porsche. 2012 saw another small field of just 25 cars. Audi won the race for the second consecutive year, this time with DTM and FIA GT1 team Phoenix Racing.

The 2013 event ended the two-year run of poor entry numbers, with a record field of over 50 cars. Another first for the event saw the opening round of the 2013 Australian GT Championship incorporated into the first hour of the race. The results of the GT Championship round were based on the positions of the cars that had elected to race for GT Championship points at the end of the first hour of racing. Teams could then either continue on and complete the full race, or withdraw their car after the first hour. Drivers were allowed to cross-enter between cars so that they could race one car in the one-hour GT Championship race and then drive another car that was entered for the full 12 hours. Erebus Motorsport took the first win for an Australian team under the GT regulations with German drivers Bernd Schneider, Thomas Jäger and Alexander Roloff taking their Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG to victory.

Maranello Motorsport took a poignant win in the 2014 event—the team's former driver Allan Simonsen was killed in a crash at the 2013 24 Hours of Le Mans—with V8 Supercar driver Craig Lowndes holding off a late charge from German driver Maximilian Buhk to take victory. 2014 also saw the introduction of the Allan Simonsen Pole Position Trophy, named in honour of Simonsen, to be awarded to the fastest car in qualifying. The 2015 race featured a record twenty safety car periods, the last coming just minutes from the end of the race. Katsumasa Chiyo, driving a Nissan GT-R, took the lead with two laps remaining to give Nissan its first major victory at Mount Panorama since the 1992 Bathurst 1000.

In August 2015, the V8 Supercars-owned company Supercars Events purchased 50% of the Bathurst 12 Hour, joining existing part-owners Bathurst Regional Council. This followed a date clash between the 2015 12 Hour and V8 Supercars' 2015 pre-season test day which saw V8 Supercar drivers, such as 2014 12 Hour-winner Lowndes, forced to take part in the test day and be unable to race in the 12 Hour. With an increasing focus on the outright GT3 cars and a dwindling number of production cars in the race, the former organisers of the 12 Hour, Yeehah Events, announced the production car-based Bathurst 6 Hour for 2016, to restore a Bathurst endurance race for the production category. The 6 Hour is now part of the Bathurst Motor Festival at Easter.

Intercontinental GT Challenge
The 2016 race was the inaugural race of the newly formed Intercontinental GT Challenge, which in its first year also included the Sepang 12 Hours and Spa 24 Hours and is managed by the Stéphane Ratel Organisation. The event itself saw record pace from Shane van Gisbergen in qualifying and the race to lead his Tekno Autosports McLaren 650S GT3 to victory alongside McLaren factory driver Álvaro Parente and Tekno team owner/driver Jonathon Webb. The 2017 event saw the introduction of an all-pro GT3 class for the first time, with the race receiving 55 entries, the highest in the event's revival. In the race itself, Maranello Motorsport repeated their 2014 triumph, with Finnish driver Toni Vilander teaming up with Lowndes and Jamie Whincup to receive the Australian Tourist Trophy, which became the perpetual trophy for the outright winner.

The 2018 race finished before the twelve hour duration due to a major crash at Sulman Park involving Ash Walsh, Bryce Fullwood and John Martin which saw Walsh and Martin transported to hospital. This meant that the Audi Sport Team WRT entry of Robin Frijns, Stuart Leonard and Dries Vanthoor took the flag, despite doubts over whether they had the fuel to win the race if there was no disruption. In 2019, the race had unprecedented amounts of green flag running leading to a distance record being set. After dropping from first to fourth in the final pit-stop phase, Matt Campbell completed three overtakes, including one on Chaz Mostert that required a post-race investigation, to take Porsche's first victory in the race alongside Dennis Olsen and Dirk Werner. The 2020 race again broke the distance record with Bentley taking their first victory in the event in six attempts. The field was reduced by five cars prior to the race with several heavy crashes in practice and qualifying.

Impact of COVID-19
In October 2020, the 2021 race was cancelled, predominantly due to the international travel restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. Supercars, part-owners of the event, instead ran the Mount Panorama 500 in February as the opening round of the 2021 Supercars Championship. After further COVID-19 concerns, the 2022 race was delayed from February to May. The 2022 event also featured several major regulation changes, including the removal of the all-professional class for the first time since 2016. Twenty cars entered the race, which featured extended pre-dawn running, cooler temperatures and rolling fog due to the autumn date, plus intermittent rain throughout the day. Having finished second in 2018, Kenny Habul, who owns a property on Conrod Straight, led his SunEnergy1 Racing team to victory. The driver line-up included Jules Gounon who won the event in consecutive runnings, having been part of the Bentley line-up in 2020.

Winners
Events which were not held at Mount Panorama Circuit are indicated by a pink background.

Notes
 – The 1995 race was staged at Eastern Creek Raceway as the 1995 Eastern Creek 12 Hour.
 – The 2010 race was red flagged for approximately an hour after a tree fell across Conrod Straight and had to be removed.
 – The 2018 race was red flagged on lap 273 following a multi-car accident at Sulman Park at 5:25 PM, with twenty minutes remaining in the race. As the debris was unable to be cleared to allow the race to restart before the deadline of 5:43 PM (race regulations state the race starts at 5:45 AM and ends with one full completed lap once the leader crosses the finish line after 5:43 PM), the race results were backdated to lap 271 meaning that two of the three cars involved in the incident were classified.
 – Race record for laps & distance covered.

Multiple winners

By driver

By manufacturer

Allan Simonsen Pole Position Trophy
In 2014, a trophy was introduced for the fastest time in qualifying, named after Allan Simonsen who died at the 2013 24 Hours of Le Mans. Simonsen, who had raced several times in Australia as part of a long and varied career, held the Bathurst 12 Hour race lap record at the time, as well as driving the fastest officially timed lap around Mount Panorama in a closed-wheel car. The introduction of the trophy coincided with the relaxing of qualifying restrictions from previous years, with the removal of the minimum allowed lap time (two minutes and six seconds), therefore allowing a major improvement in qualifying times. Despite the name, the trophy is given to the fastest qualifying time, not the car that starts on pole position in the case of a grid penalty, as initially occurred in 2019.

In 2014, Simonsen's former team at the 12 Hour, Maranello Motorsport, narrowly missed pole to Maro Engel by less than a tenth of a second. Maranello went on to win the race itself. In 2015, Laurens Vanthoor set the fastest ever officially recorded time of Mount Panorama in qualifying. This time was only to last twelve months, with Shane van Gisbergen beating the time by over one second in qualifying for the 2016 race. In 2017 a top ten shootout was introduced, as per the Bathurst 1000, with the fastest time winning the trophy. In 2018, Chaz Mostert became the first Australian to take the trophy as well as making BMW the fifth manufacturer to win the trophy in the five years since its inception.

The 2019 battle for the trophy had several twists, with the Aston Martin V12 Vantage GT3 of Jake Dennis initially taking the trophy after setting the fastest time in the Top 10 Shootout, despite a two-place grid penalty that he had earlier received for pit-lane speeding. Later, the car was excluded from the Top 10 Shootout for a technical infringement, granting the trophy to the Mercedes-AMG GT3 of Raffaele Marciello. On the race's return in 2022 from a one-year hiatus, the one-lap shootout was replaced by two fifteen minute sessions due to concerns over low tyre temperature, the first for 6th to 10th and the second from 1st to 5th in the earlier qualifying session. Over the sessions, Chaz Mostert became the first driver to win the trophy for the second occasion, taking pole by the smallest margin in the race's history.

Broadcasts
In the early days of the race in the 1990s, the race was broadcast on free-to-air television by Network Ten. On the race's return, the race was broadcast initially as a highlights package on SBS as well as being streamed online. In 2012, the event received its first live coverage since the 1990s, with pay television network Speed airing the final 90 minutes of the race, as well as producing a three-hour highlights package. Since the 2013 event, which was not broadcast live on television, commentary has been provided by Radio Show Limited who broadcast every session live on Radio Le Mans, building an international audience for the event. In 2014, RSL provided their commentary to SBS, who broadcast the final three hours of the race live on free-to-air. From 2015 onwards, the entire race has been broadcast live on the Seven Network and 7mate, still in partnership with RSL, and has continued to be streamed online. In 2020 and 2022, pay television channel Fox Sports and its streaming service Kayo Sports broadcast the event in addition to 7mate.

The estimated viewing audience for the 2014 race was over half a million people from 150 countries.

Event sponsors
 1991–94: James Hardie
 2007–09: Wright Patton Shakespeare (WPS)
 2010–12: Armor All
 2013–2020, 2022–: Liqui Moly

See also
 Bathurst 24 Hour
 Bathurst 1000
 Bathurst 6 Hour

References

External links

Motorsport in Bathurst, New South Wales
Sports car races
Touring car races
Endurance motor racing
Auto races in Australia
24H Series

Bathurst 12 Hour


One type of a forum is an online discussion site on the Internet. Users can type messages for others to see, and reply to other user's messages. Messages (or "posts") are organised by topic (or "thread"), with each poster either replying to an existing topic or creating a new topic for a new conversation.

Forums can be found on a lot of websites. Internet forums are often used to show people information. Things like pictures hyperlinks and images can also be put on the board, or "posted".

Many Internet forums have rules against things such as spamming and trolling. If people do those kind of things, they will be warned, and if they continue, they will be banned.

Forums also have their own set of rules. A rule which is used by many forums is not to comment or bring up old threads because those forums were made to discuss the newest events.

There are usually three different types of rankings on a forum:
 Member: which nearly everyone is, they can read and create posts.
 Moderator: someone whose job is to keep order on the forum. They can delete posts and warn or ban members who break the forum rules.
 Administrator, or admin: The highest rank, who can change settings on the forum and change user permissions.

People participating in a forum may make friends with each other and may form groups with the same ideas.

Internet communication

Internet forum


Leavenworth Times is an American daily newspaper published in Leavenworth, Kansas. The newspaper is owned by CherryRoad Media.

History
Founded in 1856 by future United States Senator Robert Crozier, the Times claims to be the oldest daily newspaper in Kansas. Daniel R. Anthony, brother of Susan B. Anthony, bought the paper in 1871 and the paper remained in the Anthony family until the 1960s, even after Daniel Anthony shot and killed rival publisher R.C. Satterlee of the Kansas Herald, in 1871 (he was acquitted at trial), and then was shot himself by rival editor William Embry of the Daily Appeal in 1875 (he survived).

In 1966, The Thomson Corporation bought the Leavenworth Times, selling it in 1995 to American Publishing Company (later Hollinger International). During Hollinger's divestment of most of its small papers, Liberty Publishing (later called GateHouse Media) bought the Times in 1999.

The Times is one of two daily newspapers GateHouse owns in the Kansas City metropolitan area, along with The Examiner across the river in Independence, Missouri. GateHouse also publishes two weekly newspapers alongside the Times, The Fort Leavenworth Lamp at Fort Leavenworth and Lansing This Week in Lansing, Kansas.

See also
 List of newspapers in Kansas

References

External links
 Official site

Newspapers published in Kansas
Leavenworth County, Kansas
Newspapers established in 1856
Gannett publications
1856 establishments in Kansas Territory

Leavenworth Times


Hydrogen has three main isotopes; protium (1H), deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H). These isotopes form naturally in nature. Protium and deuterium are stable. Tritium is radioactive and has a half-life of about 12 years. Scientists have created four other hydrogen isotopes (4H to 7H), but these isotopes are very unstable and do not exist naturally.

The main isotopes of hydrogen are unique because they are the only isotopes that have a name. These names are still in use today. Deuterium and tritium sometimes get their own symbols, D and T. However, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry does not like these names very much, even though they are often used. There are other isotopes that had their own names when scientists studied radioactivity. But, their names are no longer used today.

Protium (hydrogen-1)

Protium is the most common isotope of hydrogen. It makes up more than 99.98% of all the hydrogen in the universe. It is named protium because it's nucleus only has one proton. Protium has an atomic mass of 1.00782504(7) u. The symbol for protium is 1H.

The proton of protium has never decayed in an observation, so scientists believe that protium is a stable isotope. New theories of particle physics predict that a proton can decay, but this decay is very slow. The proton is said to have a half-life of 1036 years. If proton decay is true, then all other nuclei that are said to be stable are actually only observationally stable, i.e. they look like they are stable. Recent experiments have shown that if proton decay does occur, it would have a half-life of 6.6 × 1033 years.

Deuterium (hydrogen-2)

Deuterium, or 2H or sometimes D, is another stable isotope of hydrogen. The isotope has one proton and one neutron. It makes up about 0.0026 – 0.0184% of all atoms of hydrogen on Earth. Deuterium is less in hydrogen gas on Earth and is more in sea water (0.015% or 150 ppm). Deuterium is not radioactive, and it will not harm living things. Deuterium can also form water molecules. Water that has deuterium instead of protium is named heavy water.

Tritium (hydrogen-3)

Tritium (3H) is the most stable radioisotope of hydrogen. That is, of all radioactive isotopes of hydrogen, tritium is the least radioactive. It has a proton and 2 neutrons in its nucleus. Tritium decays through beta minus decay and changes to helium-3. It has a half-life of 12.32 years.

Tritium is formed naturally by the interaction between the gases in the upper atmosphere and cosmic rays. It is also created during nuclear weapons tests. Tritium and deuterium is used in D-T nuclear fusion in stars to give out a lot of energy.

Hydrogen
Hydrogen

Isotopes of hydrogen


The wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) is a common rodent. It is also known as the long-tailed field mouse, field mouse, common field mouse, and European wood mouse.

Habitat
Almost entirely nocturnal, field mice burrow extensively, digging a series of chambers and runs. Their usual habitat is woodlands, fields and hedgerows, although they are also found in open grassland.

History
The geographical isolation and recent glacial history of Shetland have resulted in a depleted mammalian fauna. The field mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus L.), along with the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berkenhout) and the house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus Schwartz & Schwartz), are one of only three recorded types of rodent present on the island. Based largely on moprphological studies of epigenetic variations, the source of the original founding population has been attributed to Norway with the most obvious date of introduction being presumed to be around the 9th century AD with the arrival of the Vikings. However, archaeological evidence now suggests that this species was present during the Middle Iron Age (around 200 BC - AD 400), and one theory proposes that Apodemus was in fact introduced from Orkney where a population had existed since at the least the Bronze Age.[3]

Field mouse
Field mouse is the name for a large group of mice in the UK but the real field mouse is the Long Tailed Field Mouse or wood mouse.

Appearance
They have a solid brown coat with a white belly as shown in the picture. For their size, they have very large eyes and ears. They grow to roughly 10 cm long and weigh 30 grams when full grown.

Eating habits
They are omnivorous and eat a range of seeds, worms, berries, small insects and carrion. In deciduous woodland they will eat acorns and sycamore seeds for the winter, buds in spring, insects and seeds in summer and berries and fungi in autumn. However, they will eat their own tail if faced with starvation.

Predators
They are prey to many animals, including owls and foxes and therefore have a short life, normally living for 6 to 12 months. However, in captivity they can live for over 20 months. They live in any place where it can find food or shelter but traditionally live in hedgerows, forests and grass lands. They make their nests wherever it is warm and there is cover. This means that they will usually nest underground but will nest in other warm environments.

Psychology
The Field mouse has been proven to be extremely intelligent. If given time, it will think out a strategy before doing something. They have extremely small but sharp claws, which they use to dig into houses to scavenge food. They assess a situation before doing anything. They will judge whether it is too risky, dangerous or useless and they often look out for each other. However, if they are being chased, they will dart undercover or into small nooks and crannies.

References
1. ^ Goaman, K., Amery, H. (1983). Mysteries & Marvels of the Animal World: pg.15

2. ^ Schlitter & Van der Straeten (2004). Apodemus sylvaticus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 11 May 2006. Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern

3. ^ Nicholson, R.A., Barber, P., and Bond, J.M. (2005). New Evidence for the Date of Introduction of the House Mouse, Mus musculus domesticus Schwartz & Schwartz, and the Field Mouse, Apodemus sylvaticus (L.) to Shetland. Environmental Archaeology 10 (2): 143-151

Old World rats and mice
Mammals of Europe

Wood mouse


Mary Ann Lee (18231899) was one of America's first professional ballerinas. She was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to theatrical parents, and trained there with Paul Hazard of the Paris Opéra. She made her ballet debut as Fatima in 1837 in The Maid of Cashmere at the Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia. Debuting in the same production was the great Augusta Maywood. Night after night, the two girls were showered with applause and bouquets.

Lee studied in New York City with James Sylvain, and made her New York debut in June 1839 at the Bowery Theatre. She did not confine herself to dance, but acted in melodramas and other stage works. She toured the United States, then studied with Ballet Master Jean Coralli in Paris. When she returned to the United States, she brought the directions for several popular ballets with her. She danced the first American performance of Giselle in Boston in 1846.

Lee danced and toured with George Washington Smith. She retired in 1847 at age 24 for health reasons. She married William Vanhook, a Philadelphia merchant. The couple had three children. She made a few returns to the stage, and taught dance in later life. She died in Philadelphia in 1899, and is buried in Laurel Hill Cemetery. Critics and ballet lovers alike were unanimous in their praise of Lee. If she had pursued her career rather than retirement, she would likely have become a star of international renown.

References

1823 births
1899 deaths
Ballerinas

Mary Ann Lee


Majorem is a games' studio creating online computer games and technology in the field of Massively Multiplayer Real-Time Strategy (MMORTS).
MMORTS combines real-time strategy (RTS) with a large number of simultaneous players over the Internet. It is a type of massively multiplayer online game.

Majorem was established in 2001 in Israel aiming to supply its MMORTS technology to other game studios. However, in the same year they turned into producing a game named Ballerium to demonstrate that technology.

Majorem's Game Ballerium was in development for several years, suspended in October 2004, but reported to be back in development in December 2004, after signing a publishing deal with Interplay Entertainment. Interplay Entertainment eventually cut funding to the studios, the production once again coming to an end, though the community found enough money to finance Majorem; eventually the production continued.

See also
MMORTS (Massively multiplayer online real-time strategy)

External links
 Majorem
 Ballerium

Video game companies established in 2001
Video game development companies

Majorem


Plutonium is the chemical element with the atomic number 94 and chemical symbol Pu.  It is a highly radioactive metal, and is the metal used in most nuclear weapons.  The chemical element plutonium has some different isotopes.  The most important isotope of plutonium is 239Pu (or plutonium-239). It takes 24,110 years for half of a sample of plutonium-239 to decay, which is called its half-life. It can be made from natural uranium.  It is fissile and a nuclear fuel.

The isotope that has the longest half-life is 244Pu (or plutonium-244). Plutonium-244 has a half-life of about 80 million years. The half-life of 244Pu is long enough that some of this isotope of plutonium is found in very small amounts in nature.
Plutonium-238 is used in Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators.

Like other transuranium elements, plutonium can react with water, oxygen, carbon, halogens, nitrogen, and silicon. It forms oxides and hydrides in moist air, causing the plutonium sample to expand by up to 70%. Plutonium from the expanding sample can flake off and catch fire at room temperature. Plutonium is also toxic, although it is less toxic than many people think. The reactivity and toxicity of plutonium make it difficult to handle.

Fresh plutonium has a silvery bright colour but takes on a dull grey, yellow or olive green tarnish when exposed to air.

Actinides
Synthetic elements

Plutonium


Ulleungdo is a South Korean island, the main part of Ulleung County, North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea, in the East Sea. This island is at 37°30'N 130°52'E. The part of this island is the peak of a mountain. This mountain is a large stratovolcano which rises from the seafloor. The formation time of this volcanic mountain is between the Cainozoic Third Era and the Cenozoic Fourth Era. The highest peak of Ulleungdo is Seonginbong peak at 984 meters. The Nari Basin and Albong Basin were made by the collapsing aldera crater in the northern slope. Ulleungdo is a pentagon shaped island. The length from east to west is 10 km, the length from south to north is 9.5 km, and the total length of the seashore is about 56.5 km.

History of Ulleungdo

The relics of the Bronze Age like dolmens or patternless earthenwares were unearthed in Hyunpo, Namsu and Judongri. According to Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa, there was Usan-guk in Silla. But in June 512, ruler Lee Sa Bu conquered the Usan-guk. In the early 1000's, Japanese called Ulleungdo Uruma. Tribute was continued during the Goryeo. In the early 11 century, after the Usan-guk people who was attacked by Yeojin ran away to the mainland, Ulleungdo and Dokdo became direct controlled territory of the Goryeo. In march 1407, the ruler of Tsushima Island sent envoy, presented the local products and sent back the victims for getting a approval that ruler of Tsushima Island administered the Ulleungdo. But the king of Chosun, Tae Jong, rejected it. In the formal term of Chosun, there were a lot of damages because of Japanese's plunder. So the king of Chosun, Tae Jong, enforced the "empty-island" policy. In Sejong True Record Geographical Feature Papers, there is a record about Ulleungdo which are called Usan-guk. In 1614, the ruler of Tsushima sent a letter that they should look around the Ulleungdo according to the order of Tokugawa Ieyasu. But the king of Chosun, Gwang Hae Gun also rejected it and issued an order that banned Japanese not to come-and-go the Ulleungdo. In 1618, the government of Tokugawa gave the license to Otani and Murikawa Family to go to Ulleungdo. But Chosun people already lived in Ulleungdo. That Families complained about that to the government of Tokugawa, but the government of Tokugawas could not give the practical support to them. After having a controversy about Ulleungdo, the Japan´s feudal government;the shogunate banned Japanese to go to Ulleungdo. In 1787, The LaPerouse Expedition Party of France measured the Ulleungdo at first time and they called the Ulleungdo Dagelet. Finally in 1884, the king of Go Jong removed the "empty island" policy and reclaimed the Ulleungdo.

Ecology of Ulleungdo

The vegetation of Ulleungdo is very diverse. There are about 650 species of various plants including aromatic trees, silver magnolia, camellia trees, 39 species of specialties and 6 species of natural monuments. Also there are 50 kinds of birds. 25 species are resident birds and 38 species are migratory birds. About 340 species of insects live in Ulleungdo. In the neighboring waters where the cold current and the warm current are meeting, a lot of cuttlefish, sauries, Alaska pollacks are caught.

Other Features of Ulleungdo

In Ulleungdo, there are 3無 5多. In Ulleungdo, there is no environmental pollution, no snakes and there is so much water, wind and so many beauties, stones, aromatic trees.
Ulleungdo county's tree is a silver magnolia. Ulleungdo county's flower is a camellia flower. And Ulleungdo county's bird is a wood pigeon.

Islands of South Korea
Volcanoes of Korea
VEI-6 volcanoes

Ulleungdo


Treasure Island is a book by Robert Louis Stevenson. It was published in 1883. It is about pirates (finding gold) and a treasure hunt on a tropical isle. Famous characters include Jim Hawkins, Long John Silver, and Ben Gunn. The book has been adapted to movies, comic books, and other media.

Movies
The story has been made into many movies. The story in the movie is often different to the story in the book.
Treasure Island (1934 movie), 1934 movie starring Jackie Cooper and Wallace Beery
Treasure Island (1950 movie), 1950 Disney movie starring Bobby Driscoll and Robert Newton
Animal Treasure Island (1971 Japanese animated movie) (Dobutsu Takarajima), a collaboration between Hiroshi Ikeda and Hayao Miyazaki at Toei Doga
Treasure Island (1972 movie), 1972 movie starring Orson Welles
Treasure Island (1972 animated movie), a 1972 movie released by Filmation
Return to Treasure Island, 1986 Disney mini-series starring Brian Blessed
Treasure Island (1988 animated movie), 1988 Soviet animated movie released by Kievnauchfilm
Treasure Island (1990 movie), 1990 movie starring Christian Bale and Charlton Heston
Treasure Island (1993 movie) (只要為你活一天), 1993 Taiwanese film
Muppet Treasure Island, 1996 movie rendition of Stevenson's novel starring The Muppets and Tim Curry
Treasure Island (1999 movie), 1999 movie starring Kevin Zeger and Jack Palance

References
 Cordingly, David (1995). Under the Black Flag: The Romance and Reality of Life Among the Pirates. ISBN 0-679-42560-8
 Letley, Emma, ed. (1998). Treasure Island (Oxford World's Classics). ISBN 0-19-283380-4
 Pietsch, Roland (2010). The Real Jim Hawkins: Ships' Boys in the Georgian Navy. ISBN 978-1-84832-036-9
 Reed, Thomas L. (2006). The Transforming Draught: Jekyll and Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson, and the Victorian Alcohol Debate.  ISBN 0-7864-2648-9
 Watson, Harold (1969). Coasts of Treasure Island;: A study of the backgrounds and sources for Robert Louis Stevenson's romance of the sea. ISBN 0-8111-0282-3

Other websites

1883 books
Books by Robert Louis Stevenson
British novels

Treasure Island


Politikin Zabavnik (Serbian Cyrillic: Политикин Забавник) is a popular magazine in Serbia, published by Politika Newspapers and Magazines.

The first issue came out on 28 February 1939. In the beginning it was printed in the form of a newspaper and issued biweekly, on Tuesdays and Fridays. Nowadays it comes out weekly, on Fridays. One part of the magazine is comics, while the other parts contain articles about science, nature, history, art and interesting events, written to appeal to the broadest audiences. The magazine's famous slogan labels it as "Za sve od 7 do 107" (For everyone from 7 to 107). The slogan once said "For everyone from 7 to 77", but was changed after the editor received a letter from a reader saying he had recently turned 78 and asking whether he was still fit to read it. The magazine was awarded the Sretenje order of the Republic of Serbia.

History

Pre-war years (1939–1941)
First editorship consisted of journalists from Politika, headed by Vladislav S. Ribnikar, Dušan Timotijević and Živojin Vukadinović. They were among the enthusiasts who were gathering Serbian intellectual left wing during the late 1930s. They had the idea about making an amusing newspaper containing novels, short stories and comic strips. On 31 December 1938 Politika came out with an open competition for the name of new edition. Between 34,998 coupons that arrived, one fifth voted for the name Politikin Zabavnik (Politika's Entertainer) among other suggestions. The magazine's first issue was published on 28 February 1939. It was issued in the form of Berliner newspaper (31×47 cm). It had 12 pages printed in black and white. Four of them were printed with addition of red color and its undertones. The concept of Politikin Zabavnik was balanced relation between comics and texts, such as novels, stories and interesting facts.

As comics editor Duda Timotijević was in charge of translation of American comic strips and Sunday strips. He gave Serbian names to many Disney's characters to reflect their characteristics. Beside Disney's comic strips Politikin Zabavnik published comics such as: Jungle Jim, Ming Foo, Little Annie Rooney, The Lone Ranger, Red Ryder, Thimble Theatre, , Brick Bradford, and King of the Royal Mounted. Domestic comic authors also had significant space: Đorđe Lobačev (comics related to Serbian folklore – Baš Čelik and Čardak ni na nebu ni na zemlji), Moma Marković (Rista sportista – adventures of Belgrade boys), Konstantin Kuznjecov (adaptation of Pushkin's tales in verse – The Tale of the Golden Cockerel and The Tale of Tsar Saltan), and Sergej Solovjev (adaptation of R. L. Stevenson's Treasure Island). The main difference between Politikin Zabavnik and concurrent comic publishers, such as Mika Miš and Mikijevo carstvo, was textual parts containing crosswords, novels, Ripley's Believe It or Not!, news from science to sport, and numerous short, interesting and edifying texts. Additionally it had exclusive rights on, in that time in Serbia, the extremely popular Walt Disney comics.

Editor of textual parts was Bata Vukadinović. Politikin zabavnik featured novels of Edgar Allan Poe, Mark Twain, H. G. Wells and many other famous writers.

Average magazine circulation came to 41,000 per issue, which was at the time a great number. But World War II stopped the publishing of the magazine. The last of the pre-war editions (No 220) came out on 4 April 1941, two days before the bombing of Belgrade.

After-war years (1952–1967)
After the war, the new communist regime banned comics. Their explanation was that comics are a decadent product of capitalism. However, after the end of Soviet influence in Yugoslavia, and especially after the Informbiro period, cultural bondages started to loose. First it started with caricatures and animated movies, and later some comics acquiescently started to be published in different editions.

Seven years after World War II, Vladislav Ribnikar decided to re-establish the magazine. The first post-war issue came out on 5 January 1952. Editor in chief was Kosta Stepanović, and his first assistant Bogdan Popović, (he later also became editor). Allegedly, it was prearranged by a visit of Athens' representative of Walt Disney Company. He suggested to president Josip Broz Tito to re-establish comic publishing in Yugoslavia. Tito's reputed answer was: "Why not, I like Donald Duck". The fact is that Disney's characters had significant space in Politikin Zabavnik.

Modern age (1968–present)
The first day of 1968 was a historical date for the magazine. Nikola Lekić, chief editor in that time, changed its form from newspaper to magazine format (25×33 cm), and it was now published in color. Another significant addition was a comic in the middle of the magazine. Before that, Politikin Zabavnik published only comic strips. The magazine now contained a complete episode of a comic separated into 2-3 parts.

Starting from 1971, Politikin Zabavnik was also printed in the Latin alphabet and Slovenian, and at its peak it reached a number of 330,000 copies per issue (1975). Printing of Slovenian Language edition stopped in 1989 after 843 numbers when sold circulation fell to 8000 copies, soon after that Latin alphabet version also stopped.

In January 1988, Zabavnik changed the format again, becoming a little smaller (21×30 cm). Although it has been slightly redesigned several times since, it is still published in that format.

In 2019 the Slovenian-language version was resurrected by the new publisher.

Logo
The logo of Politikin Zabavnik features Donald Duck as a newspaper seller. At the beginning of 1993, due to an embargo against FR Yugoslavia imposed by United Nations, Politikin Zabavnik had to stop publishing Disney's comic strips, and instead of Donald Duck just a silhouette of him appeared in the logo. After the Yugoslav wars Disney's characters returned to the magazine.

Sections
Every issue consists of recurring and periodical sections and other texts related to magazine content.
Constant sections:
 Веровали или не! (Ripley's Believe It or Not!)
 Јесте ли већ чули да... (Have You already Heard that...) — Interesting facts
 Хогар Страшни (Hägar the Horrible) — Comic strip
 Ма шта кажеш (You Don't Say) — Interesting news and anecdotes
 Живот пише драме (Life Writes Dramas) — Dramatic stories from real life
 Зашто? Како? (Why? How?) — Answers to various questions
 Забавникове логичке загонетке (Zabavnik's Logical Riddles) — Logical and mathematical problems
 Comic — 12-15 pages of one comic, usually separated on 3-5 sequels
 Енигматика (Enigmatic)
 Забавников ЗОО (Zabavnik's ZOO) — Texts about animals
 Хит страна (Hit Page) - Texts related to popular music
 High Tech — Articles about new technological gadgets
 Са Забавником у свет (Around the World with Zabavnik) — Photographs by the readers
 Ја ♥ ПТТ (I ♥ PTT) — Pages for letters of readers, and answers on their questions about miscellaneous topics
 Рекли су (They Said...) — Quotes by famous people
 Гарфилд (Garfield) — Comic strip

Periodical sections:
 Београд кога више нема (Belgrade that Is Gone) — Texts about history of Belgrade
 Живот је бајка (Life Is a Fairytale) — Stories about lives of famous and not so famous people
 Изуми, открића, достигнућа (Inventions, Discoveries, Achievements) — Technology and science texts
 На врх језика (On the Tip of Tongue) — Interesting orthographical facts
 Ово можда нисте знали (Maybe You Haven't Heard of This) — Interesting facts
 Пут око света за 120 динара (Journey around the World for 120 Dinars) — Texts about different countries or locations
 Забавников историјски Забавник (Zabavnik's historical Zabavnik) — Texts about historical topics
 Потрага за благом (Treasure hunt) - Texts about lost and found treasures
 Свака слика има причу (Every Picture Has a Story) — Texts about artists and artworks
 Свет у бројкама (World in Numbers) - Texts about various topics given through numbers
 Задаци за 21. век (Tasks for the 21st Century) — Science texts
 За читање и уживање (For Reading and Enjoyment) — Short stories
 Фантастика (Fantasy) — Fantasy and Science fiction stories

Comics
During the years Politikin Zabavnik has published numerous comics and strips. Mostly American, French, Belgian and those of domestic authors. Some of the famous comics often published in Politikin Zabavnik are:

 XIII
 The Adventures of Tintin
 Asterix
 Batman
 Bernard Prince
 Blacksad
 Blueberry
 Brick Bradford
 De Cape et de Crocs
 Cocco Bill
 Corto Maltese
 Dennis the Menace
 Dick Tracy
 Dikan
 Flash Gordon
 He-Man
 Iznogoud
 Jeremiah
 Katzenjammer Kids
 Largo Winch
 Lucky Luke
 Mandrake the Magician
 Michel Vaillant
 Modesty Blaise
 The Phantom
 Popeye
 Prince Valiant
 Rahan
 Rip Kirby
 Rocco Vargas
 Secret Agent X-9
 The Thread of Art
 Spirou et Fantasio
 Superman
 Zigomar

Politikin Zabavnik Literature Awards
Politikin Zabavnik Literature Award (Књижевна награда Политикиног забавника) is an annual award for the best book for the young readers, published in the previous calendar year. It was established in 1980 (for year 1979). The awards ceremony takes place every year on the foundation day of Politika - 25 January. Every youth book in Serbian or a language of national minorities in Serbia. has the right to participate in the contest.

Among the writers awarded are: Grozdana Olujić, Enes Kišević, Milovan Vitezović, Gradimir Stojković, Pavao Pavličić, Vladimir Stojšin, Branko V. Radičević, Slobodan Stanišić, Mirjana Stefanović, Milenko Maticki, Svetlana Velmar Janković, Vesna Aleksić, Vladimir Andrić, Uglješa Šajtinac and others.

Controversies
On January 18, 2019. Politikin Zabavnik published an article about Serbian WW2 far-right politician and ideologue Dimitrije Ljotić.

Notes

External links
 Official site - Serbian

Magazines published in Serbia
Weekly magazines
Serbian comics
Yugoslav comics
Yugoslav science fiction
Magazines established in 1939
Serbian-language magazines
1939 establishments in Yugoslavia
1939 establishments in Serbia

Politikin Zabavnik


Lemonade is a drink made with water, lemons or lemon juice, and sugar.

There are two main types: cloudy, and clear, each known simply as "lemonade" in their home countries. Cloudy lemonade, generally found in North America and India, is a traditionally homemade drink made with lemon juice, water, and sweetened with cane sugar or honey. Clear lemonade is a lemon, or lemon-lime flavored, carbonated soft drink. This type is common in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand.

To make 8 cups of lemonade, mix the juice of 8 freshly squeezed lemons with 1/2 a cup of sugar and 5 cups of water and serve over ice cubes. A diced (cut up) lemon or lime can also be added to mixture. The sugar is sometimes replaced by maple syrup.

Pink lemonade can be made by adding some grenadine or another red juice, or using pink lemons. Some pink lemonades are lightly carbonated, including French brand Lorina lemonade.

In the United Kingdom, Australia, Switzerland, and New Zealand, the term 'lemonade' refers to a clear, carbonated, sweet lemon-flavored soft drink. In India it is commonly referred to as 'Nimbu paani' meaning "lemon water" or 'Shikanji'. It is sold by street vendors, especially in North India.

Lemonade stands are a small shops made by kids especially in the U.S. Children sell it to adults to learn the basics of business and to earn some money.

References

Soft drinks

Lemonade


Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a 2005 movie adaptation of the 1964 book of the same name by Roald Dahl. The movie was directed by Tim Burton.

The movie stars Freddie Highmore as Charlie Bucket, David Kelly as Grandpa Joe, and Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka. The storyline concerns Charlie, who takes a tour he has won, led by Wonka, through the most magnificent chocolate factory in the world.

Depp said he refused to watch Gene Wilder's take of the character so that Depp could create his own version. Depp said his version of Wonka was inspired by Fred Rogers and Bob Keeshan.

Cast
 Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka
 Freddie Highmore as Charlie Bucket
 David Kelly as Grandpa Joe
 Helena Bonham Carter as Mrs. Bucket
 Noah Taylor as Mr. Bucket
 Deep Roy as Oompa-Loompas
 Missi Pyle as Mrs. Beauregarde
 James Fox as Mr. Salt
 Christopher Lee as Dr. Wilbur Wonka
 Adam Godley as Mr. Teavee
 Franziska Troegner as Mrs. Gloop
 AnnaSophia Robb as Violet Beauregarde
 Julia Winter as Veruca Salt
 Jordan Fry as Mike Teavee
 Philip Wiegratz as Augustus Gloop
 Blair Dunlop as Young Willy Wonka
 Liz Smith as Grandma Georgina
 Eileen Essell as Grandma Josephine
 David Morris as Grandpa George
 Geoffrey Holder as the Narrator

References

2005 movies
American fantasy movies
American adventure movies
American comedy movies
Movies based on books
Movies directed by Tim Burton
Movies composed by Danny Elfman
English-language movies
2005 adventure movies
Disney movies
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (franchise)

Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (movie)


General Merrill Barber Twining (November 28, 1902 – May 11, 1996) was a United States Marine Corps general who received a "tombstone promotion" to four-star general upon retirement. He was the brother of Air Force General Nathan Farragut Twining, and the nephew of Rear Admiral Nathan Crook Twining.

Biography
Twining was born on November 28, 1902, at Monroe, Wisconsin, and was commissioned a Marine second lieutenant upon graduation from the United States Naval Academy in 1923. During the next two years, he completed the Marine Officers' Basic School, served at Quantico, participated in Caribbean maneuvers with the 10th Marine Regiment, and was stationed at the Marine Barracks, Pensacola, Florida.

Twining was ordered to the Marine barracks at Pearl Harbor in November 1925, and after six months in Hawaii, he sailed for China, via the Philippine Islands. In China he served with the 4th and 12th Marine Regiments at Shanghai, Taku, Hsin Ho, Tientsin, and Peking. He returned to the United States in August 1928. He was promoted to first lieutenant in December 1928 while serving as commander of the Marine barracks at the Pacific Coast Torpedo Station, Keyport, Washington. He then served briefly as editor and publisher of Leatherneck Magazine in Washington, D.C.

In September 1929, Lieutenant Twining was assigned to the Office of the Judge Advocate General of the Navy. While stationed there, he obtained his Bachelor of Laws degree from George Washington University in 1932. He reported again to the Marine barracks at Pearl Harbor in November 1932, remaining there until January 1935. In March 1935, while attached to the Marine barracks at the Naval Air Station, Sunnyvale, California, he earned the Distinguished Pistol Shot's Gold Badge in the Western Division Rifle and Pistol Matches at San Diego, California. He was promoted to captain in May 1935.

From July 1935 to August 1936, Captain Twining was a student in the Army Infantry School, Fort Benning, Georgia. During the next year he served at Philadelphia as an instructor in the Marine Officers' Basic School. Moving to Quantico in June 1937, he served as a company commander with the 5th Marines, and two years later became an instructor in the Marine Corps Schools. He also participated in Caribbean maneuvers in 1938 and 1939. He was promoted to major in July 1939.

In November 1941, Major Twining joined the 1st Marine Division at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in January 1942 and moved with the division to the Pacific area in May 1942. He earned his first Legion of Merit with Combat "V" for meritorious service from 25 June to 10 December 1942 as the division's assistant operations officer and later, assistant chief of staff, G-3. In that capacity he helped prepare and execute plans for the Guadalcanal Campaign.

During the planning phase, Lieutenant Colonel Twining and Major William B. McKean were flown over the then Japanese-held island on 17 July 1942, for the first sighting of Guadalcanal by U.S. Marines in World War II. Following the Guadalcanal campaign, he served as assistant chief of staff, G-3, of I Marine Amphibious Corps, then commanded by General Alexander A. Vandegrift.

Returning to the United States in November 1943, Lieutenant Colonel Twining remained until 1947 at the Marine Corps Schools, Quantico. While there, he served successively as chief of operations and training, executive officer, and as a member of the schools' administrative staff. He was promoted to colonel in February 1945.

In August 1947, Colonel Twining reported to Pearl Harbor as chief of staff, Fleet Marine Force, Pacific. The following June, he was named fleet Marine officer on the staff of the commander-in-chief, Pacific Fleet. He served in that capacity until July 1949, when he returned to the Marine Corps Schools as senior resident member of the Marine Corps Board.

In August 1950, he reported to Camp Pendleton and the following month was promoted to brigadier general. He served there as commanding general, Marine Corps Training and Replacement Command, until November 1951, and later as Commander of Fleet Marine Force Troops and commanding general, 3rd Marine Division.

Upon leaving Camp Pendleton, Twining joined the 1st Marine Division in Korea in March 1952. For outstanding service as assistant division commander from March through May 1952, he received a Gold Star in lieu of his second Legion of Merit with Combat "V." He returned to the States that June, and subsequently served in the office of the Commandant of the Marine Corps. He was promoted to major general in September 1952. In January 1954, he was named deputy chief of staff at Headquarters Marine Corps.

General Twining returned to Korea in January 1955 as commander of the 1st Marine Division. In March of that year, he accompanied the division to Camp Pendleton, where he served until August 1956. In September 1956, he was promoted to lieutenant general and assumed duties as commandant, Marine Corps Schools, Quantico, the twenty-fifth Marine officer to head the schools. He served in that capacity until his retirement. He had retired from active duty with the Marine Corps on October 31, 1959, and died May 11, 1996, in Fallbrook, California.

Awards and decorations

General Twining also received the Faciat Georgius commemorative medal for service on Guadalcanal.

Books authored

References

Marine Corps biography

1902 births
1996 deaths
United States Marine Corps generals
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Korean War
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Commanders of the Order of Orange-Nassau
George Washington University Law School alumni
United States Naval Academy alumni
People from Monroe, Wisconsin
Military personnel from Wisconsin
Writers from Wisconsin

Merrill B. Twining


A grammar school is one of several different types of school in  the United Kingdom and some other English-speaking countries.

The term has been used for several centuries. Originally, they were schools teaching Latin. More recently, they are academically-oriented secondary schools.

In the late Victorian era grammar schools were reorganised for secondary education throughout England and Wales. Scotland had developed a different system. Grammar schools were also established in British territories overseas, where they have evolved in different ways.

They were described as "the selective tier of state-funded secondary education in England and Wales".
Grammar schools became "selective" in the mid-20th century, after World War II. This means they selected applicants whom they thought would get the most out of that kind of education. The selection was done by means of an 11+ test which included an IQ test. This was designed so that it was more based on native ability, rather than taught learning.

Labour governments in the 1960s and 70s made efforts to replace grammar schools with comprehensive schools. Comprehensive schools were open to children of all abilities, similar to high schools in the United States.

As a result, in the 1960s and 1970s some grammar schools became fully independent and charged fees. Many others were abolished or became comprehensive. In both cases, many of these schools kept "grammar school" in their names. There are still 164 state-run grammar schools in existence.

References

Types of educational institutions
Schools in the United Kingdom

Grammar school


A survivor is a person or animal which continues to live after something happens which might have killed them. They might be one person who lives when ten people die in a car crash.

Survivor could also mean:

Gaming

 Resident Evil: Survivor, a 2000 arcade game
 Survivor (video game), an action game released in 1987 by the Spanish software house Topo Soft
 Survivor (board game), board game based on the show.

Literature

 Survivor (1988 novel), a novel by Christina Crawford
 Survivor (novel), a novel by Chuck Palahniuk
 "Survivor" (story), the last novella in Accelerando by Charles Stross
 Survivor (Octavia Butler novel), a 1978 novel by Octavia Butler

Music

 Survivor (album), an album by Destiny's Child
 "Survivor" (song), the second single from Destiny's Child's third album, Survivor
 Survivor (band), a rock band whose hits include "Eye of the Tiger" and "Burning Heart"
 Survivor (Survivor album), an album by Survivor (band)
 Survivor (Funker Vogt album), an album by Funker Vogt
 Survivor Records, a British Christian Music record label

Television

 Australian Survivor, a television series based on the popular American reality show Survivor
 Celebrity Survivor, an Australian television series based on the popular reality television show Survivor
 Survivor (TV series), a reality television show
 Survivor (UK TV series), the British version of the American reality show Survivor
 Survivor Series, an annual professional wrestling pay-per-view event held in November by World Wrestling Entertainment

Other
 Survivor (horse), a racehorse which won the first Preakness Stakes in 1873
 Survivor (tournament), a series of writing tournaments that are held three times a year
 Survivor: The Ride!, a roller coaster in Paramount's Great America in Santa Clara, California

Survivor


Gaperon is a French cheese of the Auvergne region. The Gaperon has been produced for over 1200 years in Auvergne.

Gaperon is a cow's milk cheese flavored with cracked peppercorns and garlic. It has a fluffy coat and is shaped into a dome. The inside is ivory to pale yellow in color depending on the season. Gaperon is available all year round with no particular best season, principally because of the pepper and garlic flavoring. The flavor is tart when the cheese is young and under-ripe. As it matures, it develops a soft and buttery consistency and an intense garlic and pepper flavor.

History and making
Gaperon is a speciality of Auvergne country and originated from the plateau of Limagne, between Clermont-Ferrand and Vichy in the Puy de Dôme region. It was originally made with the babeurre, which is the leftover liquid from making butter (buttermilk). Milk which was left over after butter-making was mixed with fresh milk to make the cheese curds and further mixed with the local pink garlic and pepper. In the old days, the Gaperon was ripened in the fresh air as it was hung in the farmhouse kitchen or the storeroom.

References

See also
List of cheeses
List of French cheeses

French cheeses
Occitan cheeses
Cow's-milk cheeses
Cuisine of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes

Gaperon


Men in War is a 1957 black and white American war film about the Korean War directed by Anthony Mann and starring Robert Ryan and Aldo Ray as the leaders of a small detachment of American soldiers cut off and desperately trying to rejoin their division. The events of the film take place on one day; 6 September 1950. The picture was based on a 1949 World War II novel of the Normandy campaign Day Without End by Van Van Praag that was retitled Combat in 1951. Made soon after the end of the Korean War it was still very much in the minds of the American public.

Some sources claim that credited screenwriter Philip Yordan was actually fronting for the blacklisted Ben Maddow. The Pentagon refused any cooperation with the producer and condemned the film for its depiction of a US Army unit without discipline.

Most of the same cast and crew made God's Little Acre the following year.

Plot
On 6 September 1950, an isolated and exhausted platoon of the 24th Infantry Division is cut off. In addition to losing radio contact, the platoon is harassed by unseen North Korean infiltrators who silently kill the Americans and take their weapons. Platoon leader Lieutenant Benson has only vague instructions to reach a certain hill to link up with American forces.

The patrol stops a jeep driven by Staff Sergeant "Montana" and shell shocked passenger "the Colonel" from the First Cavalry Division. The Colonel is unable to speak and is tied to his seat. After the Battle of the Nakdong River, where "our men fell like rain", the tough experienced Montana decided he and his Colonel, whom he treats like his father, have had enough of the war. Benson commandeers their jeep for his platoon's equipment and the battle-fatigued Corporal Zwickley.

The platoon makes its way towards the hill. Montana disobeys Benson by instinctively shooting a surrendering North Korean sniper, who turns out to have a concealed weapon inside his hat. Sergeant Killian is killed while covering the rear after absentmindedly filling his helmet net with flowers. Montana takes his place and feigns fatigue, luring the infiltrators into the open, where he kills them.

The cynical Montana transforms the platoon back into a military formation while also curing Zwickley's neurosis by slapping him around. The platoon successfully carries on through sniper attack, artillery barrage, and land mines during which Platoon Sergeant Lewis panics and is killed.

When they reach the hill, they find it held by the North Koreans. Montana shoots three enemy soldiers disguised as Americans after a North Korean prisoner is used as bait and killed by his own men. Benson and his men launch an attack, but Montana and the Colonel sit it out. The Colonel comes to his senses, joins the assault, and is killed. Shamed, Montana joins Benson. They use grenades and a flamethrower to destroy a pillbox and machine gun nest.

Only Benson, Montana, and Sergeant Riordan survive. When American reinforcements arrive, Montana produces a container of medals that the Colonel meant to award his men. Benson calls the roll of the men in his platoon in alphabetic order (including those killed in the attack) as Montana throws the medals to the dead on the slope of the hill.

Cast
 Robert Ryan as Lieutenant Benson
 Aldo Ray as Staff Sergeant Joseph R. "Montana" Willomet
 Robert Keith as the Colonel
 Phillip Pine as Sergeant Riordan (as Philip Pine)
 Nehemiah Persoff as Sergeant First Class Nate Lewis
 Vic Morrow as Corporal James Zwickley
 James Edwards as Staff Sergeant Killian
 L. Q. Jones as Staff Sergeant Samuel Davis
 Scott Marlowe as Private Meredith
 Adam Kennedy as Private Maslow
 Race Gentry as Private Haines
 Walter Kelley as Private First Class Ackerman
 Anthony Ray as Private Penelli
 Robert Normand as Private Christensen
 Michael Miller as Private Lynch
 Victor Sen Yung as North Korean Prisoner / Sniper

Production

Unable to get tanks and military extras from the Pentagon, both Mann and composer Bernstein concentrate on the landscape, in this case filmed at Bronson Canyon. Enemy soldiers are rarely seen, and the isolation of the platoon is strongly conveyed. Mann had previously made film noirs in the late 1940s and Westerns in the early to mid-1950s and combined elements of both in his first war film.

Phil Yordan later recalled he wrote the film at 150 pages then Mann "went through the script, he reduced it to eighty-two pages. He threw out all the dialogue. Of course, I put all of the dialogue back in to get Aldo Ray and Robert Ryan to play it. I said to him, "What am I going to do if you send them this script? They won't show up!"

Notes

External links

1957 films
1957 war films
American war films
American black-and-white films
1950s English-language films
Films scored by Elmer Bernstein
Films based on American novels
Films based on military novels
Films directed by Anthony Mann
Korean War films
United Artists films
United States in the Korean War
1950s American films

Men in War


Academician Sakharov Avenue (, Prospekt Akademika Sakharova) is a street in the center of Moscow, in Krasnoselsky District. In the south, the street is limited by Turgenevskaya Square and the Boulevard Ring. In the north, Academician Sakharov Prospect ends at the T-shape crossing with Kalanchyovskaya Street, close to Komsomolskaya Square. In the middle, it crosses the Garden Ring (Sadovaya-Spasskaya Street).

The avenue was named in 1990 and commemorates Andrey Sakharov, a physicist and a Nobel Peace Prize winner.

History
The general plan of the development of Moscow released in 1935 suggested that a wide avenue should be built between Lubyanka Square in the center of Moscow and Komsomolskaya Square, which contains three of the main railway stations in Moscow. The entire blocks of historical buildings were to be demolished. It was decided that a number of administrative buildings, including ministries, would be built along the avenue. Some of the projects, including the building of People's Commissariat for Agriculture by Alexey Shchusev and Tsentrosoyuz building by Le Corbusier were completed, however, the avenue was not built because of the war.  The construction only resumed in the 1960s, with a number of modernist and post-modernist buildings. It was decided that after completion, the avenue will get the name of Novokirovsky Avenue (), however, the stretch to Turgenevskaya Square was only completed in the end of the 1980s, and the avenue got the name of Andrey Sakharov. The extension to Lubyanka Square has never been realized.

References

Streets in Moscow

Academician Sakharov Avenue, Moscow


Konstantin Ilyich Pluzhnikov (; born 1941) is a Russian tenor, soloist of the Kirov Opera, and Meritorious Artist of Russia. He was awarded the first prize at the Geneva International Music Competition in 1972. He is noted for his performances of roles in the operas of Rimsky-Korsakov under conductor Valery Gergiev and others. Including the title role of the wizard in the one-act opera Kashchey the Immortal and the traitor Grishka Kuterma in The Invisible City of Kitezh. Other roles include Herod in Richard Strauss' Salome.

Discography and videography
 Kaschey the Immortal (DVD) VAI

References

1941 births
Russian tenors
Honored Artists of the Russian Federation
Living people

Konstantin Pluzhnikov (tenor)


Calaveritas ("little skulls" in Spanish; formerly, Upper Calaveritas) is an unincorporated community in Calaveras County, California. It sits on the banks of the Calaveritas Creek at an elevation of 1,109 feet (338 m) above sea level and is located at . The community is in ZIP code 95249 and area code 209.

Founded by Mexicans in 1849, the mining camp was relatively successful and by 1853, Calaveritas was well established, with one livery stable, two butcher shops, several general stores, restaurants, saloons, gambling halls, and fandango houses. Notorious bandit Joaquin Murrieta was supposedly a frequent visitor to the latter two.

The town reached its peak in 1857, with an estimated population of around 800, the majority being Mexican or Chinese, but on August 3, 1858, a fire destroyed some of the buildings. By this time, the gold production had declined and some of its inhabitants moved to other locales.

The town today is registered as California Historical Landmark #255.

Early on, the town was called Upper Calaveritas to distinguish it from another settlement Lower Calaveritas about 3.5 miles to the west. Lower Calaveritas has since become abandoned.

Politics
In the state legislature Calaveritas is in , and . Federally, Calaveritas is in .

References

External links

Unincorporated communities in California
Unincorporated communities in Calaveras County, California
California Historical Landmarks
Populated places established in 1849
1849 establishments in California

Calaveritas, California


Wessex was an old Anglo-Saxon kingdom before England became one country. It was one of seven kingdoms in England. It was named after the West Saxons. It was in the south and southwest of England. Wessex was a kingdom from the 6th century until the English state was made in the 9th century. It was an earldom between 1016 and 1066. Then "Wessex" was not an official place name. The 19th century novelist Thomas Hardy wrote about Wessex in his books which tell stories set in that area.

His Royal Highness The Prince Edward was given the title "Earl of Wessex" when he married Sophie who became the Countess of Wessex. The title Earl of Wessex had not been used since the last earl, King Harold Godwinson, was killed at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.

Anglo-Saxons
Petty kingdoms of England
6th-century establishments in England

Wessex


Houston Cellular was a Houston-based cell phone company which provided AMPS and D-AMPS (TDMA) service in the Greater Houston area. It was formed in 1983 and was operated as a partnership between LIN Broadcasting Corp., Mobile Communication Corp. of America and BellSouth Co. Its headquarters were located in Houston, Texas.

Through a series of acquisitions and mergers, within 10 years, the company consisted of a two-way partnership between BellSouth and AT&T Wireless. This partnership was also known as BellSouth Mobility, LLC. Houston Cellular began providing service in May 1986.

History
Houston Cellular was formed as a result of the October 1983 Federal Communications Commission's ruling that set aside sufficient frequencies for the operation of two cellular systems in each metropolitan area. In the early 1990s, this ruling was expanded with the advent of the 800 and 1900 MHz protocols, which are also known as PCS). The ruling reserved one system for application by local phone companies. In Houston, the competing non-local company service was applied by GTE Mobilnet.

In June 2000, the above-mentioned FCC ruling was repealed and GTE merged with Bell Atlantic to form Verizon Wireless.  At that time, AT&T Wireless sold its 55% stake in Houston Cellular to BellSouth. AT&T Wireless then bought 20 MHz of the CDMA spectrum owned by the outgoing PrimeCo (which was swallowed in the formation of Verizon Wireless). This purchase of frequencies was used to directly compete in the Houston market with D-AMPS (TDMA) service. Additionally, Southwestern Bell Mobile Systems, a division of Southwestern Bell Telephone Company, was also partnered with GTE, a partnership which that was later dissolved.

In 2001, BellSouth partnered with Southwestern Bell Mobile Systems. This partnership renamed the division from BellSouth Mobility, LLC to Cingular Wireless, LLC. It also transformed Houston Cellular into Cingular Wireless.

Later Developments
In 2006, the parent company of Southwestern Bell Mobile Systems, AT&T Inc., acquired BellSouth. Eventually, this led to the renaming of Cingular Wireless, LLC to AT&T Mobility, LLC. The service was later branded as "Wireless from AT&T, formerly Cingular Wireless", "Wireless from AT&T", and is now simply "AT&T".

References

External links

Houston Cellular (Archive)
Cellular Mobile Services

Other sources
 Legal Battle with BellSouth over Domain Names: U.S. Supreme Court Case 05-718 Reuben Norman, Petitioner v. BellSouth Intellectual Property Corporation
 AT&T History and science resources at The Franklin Institute's Case Files online exhibit
 Brand evolution of AT&T companies
 Press Release announcing FCC Approval of SBC-Ameritech merger (1999-10-06)
 Stock Quote from Yahoo!
 July 2005 IEEE Article
 Yahoo! — AT&T Corp. Company Profile
 ATT's most recent conference call transcripts
 Unnatural Monopoly: Critical Moments in the Development of the Bell System Monopoly by Adam D. Thierer
 AT&T  Cell phone frequencies, and what do they mean?
 "AT&T buys IBM's Global Network", BBC News, December 8, 1998
 "SBC closes AT&T acquisition", CNet News, November 18, 2005
 "SBC launches 'new' AT&T", AT&T archive, November 18, 2005
 "AT&T to buy BellSouth for $67 billion", CNet News, March 5, 2006
 "AT&T gets final approval to acquire BellSouth, CNNMoney, December 29, 2006
 "AT&T and BellSouth Join to Create a Premier Global Communications Company", AT&T News Room, December 29, 2006
Yahoo! - AT&T Mobility LLC Company Profile

AT&T subsidiaries
Bell System
Defunct mobile phone companies of the United States
Defunct companies based in Texas
Companies based in Houston
American companies established in 1984
Telecommunications companies established in 1984
Telecommunications companies disestablished in 2006
1995 establishments in Texas
2006 disestablishments in Texas

Houston Cellular


Prince Luigi Marcantonio Francesco Rodolfo Scipione Borghese, commonly known as Scipione Borghese (11 September 1871, Migliarino – 18 November 1927, Florence), was an Italian aristocrat, industrialist, politician, explorer, mountain climber and racing driver belonging to the House of Borghese.

He is best known for participating in (and winning) the Peking to Paris race in 1907, accompanied by the journalist Luigi Barzini Sr. and  Ettore Guizzardi, the prince's chauffeur, who apparently did most of the driving.  Nevertheless, before 1907 he had already become known internationally as a traveller, explorer, diplomat and mountain climber.  In 1900 he had finished a journey in Asia from Beirut to the Pacific Ocean. His book In Asia: Siria, Eufrate, Babilonia (In Asia:  Syria, Euphrates, Babylon), published in 1903 and which proved a success, describes his journey from Beirut to Basra and the head of the Persian Gulf.  Subsequently, he also completed a journey across China, recounted in another book, Catching Fire.

Tall and abstemious, he was a man of few words, cold, with calm and measured manners, and with great self-control.  He was a deputy of the Partito Radicale in the Italian parliament of 1904 to 1913, fought bravely in the First World War, and began important improvement works in the "Agro Romano".

Family
Borghese was the eldest son of Paolo, 9th Prince of Sulmona (1845–1920) and his wife Ilona, Countess Apponyi de Nagy-Appony. He was twice married, firstly to Anna Maria de Ferrari (23 March 1874 – 25 November 1924), daughter of Gaetano, duca di Ferrari by his wife Maria Annenkov, on 23 May 1895, and they had two daughters.  His second marriage to Teodora Martini on 8 August 1926 produced no issue.  He was succeeded in the title Prince of Sulmona by his brother Livio Borghese, 11th Prince of Sulmona (1874–1939), second son of the 9th Prince.

Children
 Santa Borghese (1 November 1897 in Paris – 13 April 1997 in Rome). She married Astorre Hercolani, 9th Prince of Hercolani on 4 July 1925 at Isola Borghese, Lago di Garda. They had 7 children, whose surnames start with the letter A.
 Livia Borghese (4 March 1901 in Paris – 14 December 1969 in Bologna, nine months after the death of her husband); she married Alessandro, conte Cavazza (1895–1969) on 30 December 1930 at Isola Borghese, Lago di Garda, by whom she had three sons (the eldest apparently born in 1922, or eight years before her marriage), and several descendants.

Sources
This page is a translation of its Italian counterpart.

External links

Italian explorers
Italian businesspeople
Italian travel writers
20th-century travel writers
Italian male writers
Italian military personnel of World War I
Italian mountain climbers
Italian racing drivers
Italian Radical Party politicians
Deputies of Legislature XXII of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XXIII of the Kingdom of Italy
Scipione
1871 births
1927 deaths
People from the Province of Ferrara
20th-century Italian politicians
Italian International Olympic Committee members

Scipione Borghese, 10th Prince of Sulmona