A fantasy world or fictional world is a world created for fictional media, such as literature, film or games. Typical fantasy worlds feature magical abilities. Some worlds may be a parallel world connected to Earth via magical portals or items (like Narnia); an imaginary universe hidden within ours (like Wizarding World); a fictional Earth set in the remote past (like Middle-earth) or future (like Dying Earth); an alternative version of our History (like Lyra's world); or an entirely independent world set in another part of the universe (like the Star Wars Galaxy).

Many fantasy worlds draw heavily on real world history, geography, sociology, mythology, and folklore.

Plot function
The setting of a fantasy work is often of great importance to the plot and characters of the story. The setting itself can be imperiled by the evil of the story, suffer a calamity, and be restored by the transformation the story brings about. Stories that use the setting as merely a backdrop for the story have been criticized for their failure to use it fully.

Even when the land itself is not in danger, it is often used symbolically, for thematic purposes, and to underscore moods. For readers, fantasy worlds offer a "place...[where] assumptions and desires [about the genre] are confirmed" and emotional satisfaction that comes from various elements of the world fulfill readers' expectations for quality.

History
Early fantasy worlds appeared as fantasy lands, part of the same planet but separated by geographical barriers. For example, Oz, though a fantasy world in every way, is described as part of this world.

Although medieval peasants who seldom if ever traveled far from their villages could not conclusively say that it was impossible that, for example, an ogre could live a day's travel away, distant continents were necessary from the Renaissance onwards for such fantastic speculation to be plausible, until finally, further exploration rendered all such terrestrial fantasy lands implausible.

Even within the span of mere decades, Oz, which had been situated in a desert in the United States when first written about in 1900, was relocated to a spot in the Pacific Ocean.

An early example of the fantasy land/world concept can be seen in the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), where places of which little was known, but where the occurrence of marvels was thus more credible, had to be set "long ago" or "far away". This is a process that continues and finally culminates in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. A more recent example of a fantasy land with definite connections to the actual world is Austin Tappan Wright's Islandia. Islandia's remoteness and aura of mystery, as well as its preservation of an arcadian society, are explained by means of a law that allows only limited contact with foreigners.

Dream frames were also once common for encasing the fantasy world with an explanation of its marvels. Such a dream frame was added to the story of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz for the movie version; in the book, Oz is clearly defined as an actual place. H.P. Lovecraft made active use of the dream frame, creating elaborate geographies accessible to humans only when they were asleep and dreaming. These dream settings have been criticized, and are far less frequent today.

This change is part of a general trend toward more self-consistent and substantive fantasy worlds. This has also altered the nature of the plots; earlier works often feature a solitary individual whose adventures in the fantasy world are of personal significance, and where the world clearly exists to give scope to these adventures, and later works more often feature characters in a social web, where their actions are to save the world and those in it from peril.

Common elements
The most common fantasy world is one based on medieval Europe, and has been since William Morris used it in his early fantasy works, such as The Well at the World's End. and particularly since the 1954 publication of J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. Such a world is often called "pseudo-medieval"—particularly when the writer has snatched up random elements from the era, which covered a thousand years and a continent, and thrown them together without consideration for their compatibility, or even introduced ideas not so much based on the medieval era as on romanticized views of it. When these worlds are copied not so much from history as from other fantasy works, there is a heavy tendency to uniformity and lack of realism. The full width and breadth of the medieval era is seldom drawn upon. Governments, for instance, tend to be uncompromisingly feudal-based, or evil empires or oligarchies, usually corrupt, while there was far more variety of rule in the actual Middle Ages. Fantasy worlds also tend to be economically medieval, and disproportionately pastoral.

Careful world-building plus meticulous attention to detail is often cited as the reason why certain fantasy works are deeply convincing and contain a magical sense of place.
Heavy and faithful use of real-world setting for inspiration, as in Barry Hughart's Bridge of Birds, clearly derived from China, or Lloyd Alexander's use of real-world cultures such as Welsh for The Chronicles of Prydain or Indian for The Iron Ring, make the line between fantasy worlds and alternate histories fuzzy. The use of cultural elements, and still more history and geography, from actual settings, pushes a work toward alternative history.

Conversely, the creation by an author of an imaginary country—such as Ruritania or Graustark—does not automatically transform that imaginary country into a fantasy world, even if the location would be impossible in reality owing to a lack of land to contain it; but such Ruritanian romances may be pushed toward the category of fantasy worlds by the introduction of figures such as witches and wise women, where it is not clear if their magic is effectual.

According to Lin Carter in Imaginary Worlds: the Art of Fantasy, fantasy worlds, by their nature, contain some element of magic (paranormal). This element may be the creatures in it (dragons, unicorns, genies and so on) or the magical abilities of the people inhabiting the world. These are often drawn from mythology and folklore, frequently that of the historical country also used for inspiration.

Constructed worlds

Fantasy worlds created through a process called world building are known as a constructed world. Constructed worlds elaborate and make self-consistent the setting of fantasy work. Worldbuilding often relies on materials and concepts taken from the real world.

Despite the use of magic or other fantastic elements such as dragons, the world is normally presented as one that would function normally, one in which people could actually live, making economic, historical, and ecological sense. It is considered a flaw to have, for example, pirates living in lands far from trade routes, or to assign prices for a night's stay in an inn that would equate to several years' income.

Furthermore, the fantastic elements should ideally operate according to self-consistent rules of their own; for example, if wizards' spells sap their strength, a wizard who does not appear to suffer this must either be putting up a facade or have an alternative explanation. This distinguishes fantasy worlds from Surrealism and even from such dream worlds as are found in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass.

Examples
L. Frank Baum created the Land of Oz for his novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and its original sequels. He was one of the few authors before Tolkien to use consistent internal geographies and histories to enrich his world.
C. S. Lewis, author of The Chronicles of Narnia, set that series' novels mostly in a magical land called Narnia. Lewis was a colleague of Tolkien, and their fictional worlds share several key elements.
Terry Pratchett created Discworld, a large disc resting on the backs of four huge elephants, which are in turn standing on the back of an enormous turtle, as it slowly swims through space.
J. R. R. Tolkien created Middle-earth, a famous fantasy world. He introduced several revolutionary concepts to fantasy fiction and popularized the idea of intricately detailed fantasy worlds. He wrote at some length about the process, which he called "sub-creation". Middle-earth is intended to be Earth's Old World in a fictional ancient era.
George R. R. Martin created a fictional world for his novel series A Song of Ice and Fire. Martin said in 2003 that complete world maps were deliberately not made available so that readers may better identify with people of the real Middle Ages who were unilluminated about distant places. Most of the story is set in the western continent of Westeros, though some are set in the Eastern continent Essos. The Southern continent of Sothoryos is also shown on maps, with a possible fourth continent, Ulthos, to its East. A map of the world is shown in the title sequence of the HBO TV adaptation, Game of Thrones.
Robert Jordan created unnamed fictional world for his opus magnum The Wheel of Time.
Due to the fuzzy boundary between fantasy and science fiction, it is sometimes difficult to make a hard-and-fast distinction between "fantasy worlds" and planets in science fiction. For example, the worlds of Barsoom, Darkover, Gor, and the Witch World combine elements of both genres and fantasy worlds may have nonexistent, powerful technology.

Fairytale and comic fantasy
Fairytale fantasy may ignore the normal world-building in order to present a world operating by the same logic as the fairytales from which they are derived, though other works in this subgenre develop their worlds fully. Comic fantasy may ignore all possible logic in search of humor, particularly if it is parodying other fantasies' faulty world-building, as in Diana Wynne Jones's Dark Lord of Derkholm, or the illogic of the setting is integral to the comedy, as in L. Sprague de Camp's Solomon's Stone, where the fantasy world is populated by the heroic and glamorous figures that people daydream about being, resulting in a severe shortage of workers in the more mundane, day-to-day industries. Most other subgenres of fantasy suffer if the world-building is neglected.

Retreat of magic
Rather than creating their own fantasy world, many authors choose to set their novels in Earth's past. In order to explain the absence of miraculous elements, authors may introduce "a retreat of magic" (sometimes called "thinning") that explains why the magic and other fantastic elements no longer appear: For example, in The Lord of the Rings, the destruction of the One Ring defeated Sauron, but also destroyed the power of the Three Rings of the elves, resulting in them sailing to the West at the end of the story. A contemporary fantasy necessarily takes place in what purports to be the real world, and not a fantasy world. It may, however, include references to such a retreat. J. K. Rowling's Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them explains that wizards eventually decided to conceal all magical creatures and artifacts from non-magic users.

Role-playing games
Dungeons & Dragons, the first major role-playing game, has created several detailed and commercially successful fantasy worlds (called "campaign settings"), with established characters, locations, histories, and sociologies. The Forgotten Realms is perhaps the most extensively developed of these worlds.

See also
List of fantasy worlds
List of fictional universes
Mythopoeia
Paracosm
Worldbuilding

Notes

References

Poul Anderson, "On Thud and Blunder"
Diana Wynne Jones: The Tough Guide To Fantasyland explains and parodies the common features of a standard fantasy world
Patricia C. Wrede, "Fantasy Worldbuilding Questions"

External links
Bardic Web - A community for writers collaborating on original speculative and non-speculative fiction, worldbuilding, mythos creation, and character development. No fanfic.
The Santharian Dream - Creative, the cooperative fantasy world-building in the style of J.R.R. Tolkien. An epic, constantly evolving fantasy world on the web since 1998.

World
Fiction
Imagination
Setting

it:Mondo immaginario

Fantasy world


Craig Steven Wilder is a professor of American history at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Biography
He grew up in Bedford-Stuyvesant in Brooklyn, New York. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University focusing on urban history, under the tutelage of Kenneth T. Jackson, as well as Barbara J. Fields and Eric Foner. His doctoral dissertation was titled Race and the History of Brooklyn, New York which followed the history of Brooklyn from the arrival of the Dutch to the present day, focusing on the experiences of African-Americans. He has appeared on the History Channel's F.D.R.: A Presidency Revealed and on Ric Burns' PBS series, New York: A Documentary Film. Wilder was an assistant professor and Chair of African-American Studies at Williams College from 1995 to 2002, when he joined the faculty at Dartmouth. He remained at Dartmouth from 2002 to 2008 when he joined the faculty at MIT.

He is the author of A Covenant with Color: Race and Social Power in Brooklyn (2000), In The Company of Black Men: The African Influence on African American Culture in New York City (2001) and Ebony & Ivy (2013). He was awarded The University Medal of Excellence by Columbia University in 2004.

External links
 Craig Steven Wilder MIT Faculty Website
 Columbia News: Celebratory Commencement Marks University's 250th Year
 Noyes Academy: The Struggle for a Black College in New Hampshire.

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
Columbia University alumni
MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences faculty
People from Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn
Williams College faculty
Dartmouth College faculty
Historians from New York (state)
American male non-fiction writers

Craig Steven Wilder


Arrow's impossibility theorem, Arrow's theorem, or Arrow's paradox is a statement from social choice theory, named after economist Kenneth Arrow, who first described it in 1950: Suppose there is a vote, and voters have at least three different options to choose from. Each voter will then rank the options according to his or her preference. Arrow said, that in such a case, there is no way to convert these rankings into a  community-wide complete and transitive ranking while also meeting certain criteria.

Arrow demonstrated the theorem in his doctoral thesis. He  popularized it in his 1951 book Social Choice and Individual Values.  The original paper was titled "A Difficulty in the Concept of Social Welfare".

In short, the theorem states that no rank-order electoral system can be designed that always satisfies these three "fairness" criteria:

 If every voter prefers alternative X over alternative Y, then the group prefers X over Y.
 If every voter's preference between X and Y remains unchanged, then the group's preference between X and Y will also remain unchanged (even if voters' preferences between other pairs like X and Z, Y and Z, or Z and W change).
 There is no "dictator": no single voter possesses the power to always determine the group's preference.

References

Economics theorems

Arrow's impossibility theorem


Brunswick is an inner-city suburb in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia,  north of Melbourne's Central Business District, located within the City of Merri-bek local government area. Brunswick recorded a population of 24,896 at the 2021 census.

Traditionally a working class area noted for its large Italian and Greek communities, Brunswick is currently known for its bohemian culture and strong arts and live music scenes. It is also home to a large student population owing to its proximity to the University of Melbourne and RMIT University, the latter of which has a campus in the suburb. Brunswick's major thoroughfare is Sydney Road, one of Melbourne's major commercial and nightlife strips. It also encompasses the northern section of Lygon Street, synonymous with the Italian community of Melbourne, which forms its border with Brunswick East.

Brunswick takes its name from George IV and the city of Brunswick, Germany, which lay within his ancestral Kingdom of Hanover. It is bordered to the south by the suburbs of Princes Hill and Parkville, to the east by Brunswick East, to the north by Coburg and to the west by Brunswick West.

History

Early history

Brunswick is in the area known as Iramoo by the Aboriginal people who inhabited and hunted in it. It was occupied by the Wurundjeri people who spoke the Woiwurrung dialect. White settlement began in the 1830s, with Assistant Surveyor Darke surveying the area under the instruction of Robert Hoddle. North and south boundaries were drawn up, running in an east–west direction between Moonee Ponds Creek and Merri Creek. These boundaries would become Moreland Road and Park Street, respectively. A narrow road was surveyed down the centre to service what were intended to be agricultural properties, which would eventually become the major thoroughfare of Sydney Road. Ten allotments were drawn up on each side of this road, with each block of land running all the way to either Moonee Ponds Creek or Merri Creek. These wide strips of land are still reflected in the current street layout.

The land was sold at auction in Sydney and attracted speculators, many of whom would never see the land they purchased. Only one original buyer, James Simpson, settled on his land. Simpson subdivided his land and marked out two streets, Carmarthon Street (later Albert Street) and Landillo Street (later Victoria Street). Because the land was too marshy he left the area in 1859 with much of the land unsold.

In 1841 two friends, Thomas Wilkinson and Edward Stone Parker, bought land from one of the original buyers. Stone soon left but Wilkinson stayed on and subdivided his land for sale or rent. He marked two roads which would eventually become extensions of the roads marked out by Simpson. Wilkinson named the streets Victoria Street (after Queen Victoria) and Albert Street (after her husband Prince Albert).

Wilkinson's office opened in 1846, taking on the name of Wilkinson's estate and thus establishing the name of the whole area.

In October 1842, Miss Amelia Shaw became the licensee of the first hotel in the area, the Retreat Inn. The hotel also had a weighbridge so bullock drivers could refresh themselves whilst their wagons were weighed. The establishment was rebuilt in 1892 and renamed the Retreat Hotel; it still stands today.

Also in 1842, work began on a new road along the central surveyors' division. The road was originally known as Pentridge Road; it led to the bluestone quarries of Pentridge (now Coburg). In 1843, William Lobb established a cattle farm on his allotment and the area became known as Lobb's Hill. A laneway down the side of his property, originally called Lobb's Lane, would later be named Stewart Street.

In 1849, one of the original land purchasers, Michael Dawson, completed work on an ivy-covered mansion on his property called Phoenix Park. The property was named after Phoenix Park near Dublin, Ireland. Dawson cited his address not as Brunswick but as Philiptown, after a town in Ireland which has since reverted to its original name of Daingean. Philiptown eventually grew into a village along the track which led from Phoenix Park to Sydney Road. This track was later named Union Street.

Goldrush era

Henry Search opened a butcher's shop in 1850, on the south-west corner of Albert Street and Sydney Road. This was the first retail establishment in Brunswick. By 1851, gold diggers began making their way through the area, on their journey from the populous suburbs of Fitzroy and Collingwood. Brunswick provided a convenient place for lunch, before the diggers reached the beginnings of the roads to the goldfields, near present-day Essendon. A small village sprang up to meet the needs of the travellers, near the present day Cumberland Arms Hotel. The village included a tent market, described as being like a bazaar, where miners could buy goods needed for the goldfields. Brunswick Post Office opened on 1 January 1854.

In 1859, Wilkinson established the area's first newspaper, The Brunswick Record, which changed its name in 1858 to The Brunswick & Pentridge Press.

By 1857, the local population was estimated at 5000. The Brunswick Municipal Council was established in that year at the Cornish Arms Hotel, which still stands. The first municipal chambers were established in 1859 on Sydney Road at Lobb's Hill, between Stewart and Albion Streets. The present Brunswick Town Hall is an imposing Victorian edifice built in 1876 on the corner of Dawson Street and Sydney Road, near the centre of Brunswick.

In the 1850s, quarries and a large brickworks established in Brunswick, using the local clay and bluestone, quickly became the largest industry in the area. In 1884 the first Brunswick railway line opened, running from North Melbourne to Brunswick and Coburg. The line ran directly into the Hoffmans Brickworks, reflecting the importance of the brick-making industry to the local community. Prior to World War I, Brunswick was the "brickyard capital of Victoria". Remnants of the brickyards are still visible in some parts of Brunswick but most of the yards have long been converted to residential housing or parks. A few years later – in 1887 – a cable tram line was laid along Sydney Road.

Post-goldrush era

In 1908, Brunswick officially became a city. Textiles became a large industry in the area in the early decades of the 20th century, while quarrying declined with the depletion of reserves. In the latter half of the 1920s, thousands of Brunswick residents worked in the textile and rope manufacturing industries. By 1930, there were 300 factories in Brunswick employing over 6,000 workers.

"Free Speech" campaigns occurred in Brunswick during 1933, as protestors countered the actions of police who sought to prevent "street meetings" of communists. On 19 May 1933, two incidents occurred on Sydney Road. Large numbers of police officers were in the area to prevent expected street meetings and, when Reginald Patullo was spotted addressing a crowd from the roof of a tram, the police gave chase. As Patullo attempted to evade capture, one of the pursuing officers tripped and shot Patullo in the thigh.

On the same night, a "well-dressed young man" appeared in a cage on the back of a lorry. He used a megaphone to address the crowd and the cage itself bore slogans such as "We want free speech". Police dispersed the crowd and the young man was eventually freed and then arrested. By June 1933, Brunswick residents and local council members were criticising the police action, and Councillor Wylie stated: "Without any discretion, mounted troopers drove men, women, and children off the footpaths in Sydney road into the path of traffic on Friday nights."

Post-World War II era

In the post-World War II era, Brunswick became the home of a large number of migrants from southern Europe, particularly from Italy, Greece and Malta. More recently, migrants from Lebanon, Turkey and other countries have arrived. The brickworks and much of the textile industry also began to close as gentrification accelerated in the 1990s. Many old buildings were renovated and new residential developments begun during this period.

In 2004, Brunswick and nearby Carlton were the location of several murders in what has been widely reported in Melbourne's media as an "underworld war".

Commerce

Commercial activity is mainly centred on Sydney Road and Lygon Street in neighbouring Brunswick East. While separated from the tourist strip in Carlton, northern Lygon Street has a substantial number of restaurants. Barkly Square, extensively renovated in 2014, is Brunswick's major covered shopping centre, located on the east side of Sydney Road, close to Jewell railway station, although there is a wide variety of supermarkets to be found all along the Sydney Road strip.

Demographics

In the , there were 24,896 people in Brunswick.
 The most common ancestries were English 31.1%, Australian 25.2%, Irish 15.5%, Scottish 10.8% and Italian 10.4%.
 66.4% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were England 3.6%, New Zealand 3.0%, Italy 2.6%, Greece 2.5% and United States of America 1.3%.
 72.9% of people spoke only English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Greek 4.5%, Italian 3.9%, Mandarin 1.8%, Arabic 1.8% and Spanish 1.4%.
 The most common responses for religion were No Religion 61.2%, Catholic 13.8%, Eastern Orthodox 5.6%, Not stated 4.8% and Islam 2.9%.

Politics

During the Great Depression in 1933, Brunswick was the site of free speech meetings by members of the Unemployed Workers Movement, who were harassed and suppressed by the police. The young artist Noel Counihan played a significant part in this campaign. A Free Speech memorial was built in 1994 outside the Mechanics' Institute on the corner of Sydney and Glenlyon Roads to commemorate the free speech fights. Counihan's work as an artist and local resident is also commemorated by the Counihan Gallery in the Brunswick Town Hall, at the corner of Sydney Road and Dawson Street, run by the City of Merri-bek.

Brunswick has long been a stronghold of left-wing politics in Melbourne, with the federal and state parliamentary seats held by the Australian Labor Party with very comfortable margins. In the 21st century these margins have been encroached upon by the increasingly popular Australian Greens, who at the 2016 Australian federal election polled a majority of the two-party-preferred vote against the Australian Labor Party in every booth in Brunswick. However, as well as the "mainstream" left, Brunswick and nearby suburbs have for many years been a holdout of other left-wing parties, radical socialists, and anarchists.

In 2018 the Victorian state electoral district of Brunswick elected a Greens member, Tim Read, for the first time. He was re-elected in 2022 with an increased margin of 13.5%, making Brunswick a safe seat for the Greens.

Brunswick falls into the local City of Merri-bek's South Ward; at the 2020 election, the South Ward elected two Greens (James Conlan and Mark Riley) and one Labor councillor (Lambros Tapinos). James Conlan would later leave the Greens in February 2023.

The Brunswick Progress Association, formed in 1905, has had an active role in representing residents, particularly on local issues to Merri-bek Council, but also at the state and federal levels.

Culture

In the 1980s, Brunswick's major nightspot was the Bombay Rock, a notoriously dangerous venue that saw considerable violence between ethnic groups. It was featured in the 1991 movie Death In Brunswick and destroyed by a fire in the mid-1990s.

The Sarah Sands Hotel has hosted tours from a number of local and international acts, mostly punk, skinhead, goth or alternative in nature. By 2017, it was again for sale.

Pubs in Brunswick include: Bridie O'Reilly's, The Brunswick Hotel, The Cornish Arms, Phoenix Public House, The Retreat Hotel, The Sporting Club Hotel, The Grandview, Zagame's (renamed The Duke of Edinburgh Hotel), the Noise Bar (The Railway Hotel), the Moreland Hotel, the Union Hotel, the Quarry Hotel, the Lyndhurst and the Victoria Hotel; seven of these are located on Sydney Road, and two on Lygon Street.

Brunswick was the location of the "Brunswick Massive" art collective, which was run by local youths involved in Australian Hip Hop and Electronic Music events.

The Sydney Road Street Party, held annually in late February, is a major event in the suburb, during which a large proportion of Sydney Road is closed to all traffic. The festival is a prelude to the Brunswick Music Festival, held in March, featuring blues, roots, and world music.

Sport

Brunswick has two soccer clubs, Brunswick Juventus and Brunswick City, but Moreland United, Moreland City and Essendon Royals also have strong links to the suburb. There are two cricket clubs,(Brunswick Cricket Club, and Royal Park). The Brunswick Cricket Club, located at Gillon Oval, has a long history dating back to the 1860s and for the last 80 years has been part of the Victorian Sub-District Cricket Association. There is a tennis club (West Brunswick, which is actually located at Raeburn Reserve) and three Australian Rules football clubs. The main sites for sporting activity in Brunswick are focused around Clifton and Gilpin Park and the Gillon Oval, though there are many other ovals and pitches around the suburb. A hockey ground is located at Brunswick Secondary College. The hockey ground is owned by Brunswick Hockey Club. The Brunswick Velodrome is in Brunswick East. Brunswick Athletic Club has been operating since 1953, competes in the North West Region of Athletics Victoria and has produced athletes who have represented Victoria and Australia. West Brunswick Football Club, North Old Boys Football Club and North Brunswick compete in the VAFA. Brunswick Netball Club is for all ages. The Brunswick Junior Football Club is based at Gillion Oval, West Brunswick. The North Brunswick Junior Football Club is based at Allard Park, East Brunswick. Both of these teams play in the Yarra Junior Football League. The Brunswick Netball Club is also based at Gillion Oval. The Brunswick Bowling Club is located in East Brunswick at 104-106 Victoria Street. The Brunswick Trugo Club is in Temple Park, at 29 Hodgson Street.

Facilities and services

Among the most notable, popular and long-standing of Brunswick's community facilities is the Brunswick City Baths in Dawson Street, opening in 1914. After protracted and expensive renovations from 2012, it reopened in 2014 with remodelled change rooms, indoor and outdoor heated pools and children's indoor play pool, fitness program rooms, steam room and sauna, spa and gymnasium. It is owned by Merri-bek Council and managed by the YMCA.

The Counihan Gallery is in the Brunswick Town Hall building which also housed the Brunswick Library, part of Merri-bek City Libraries, during the library's renovation in 2013–14. Certain municipal administrative functions still operate from the Brunswick Town Hall, while the former council offices are now used by community organisations.

While several of Brunswick's schools were sold off by the Kennett Government in the 1990s for private housing, the former Brunswick Secondary College building on Victoria Street was saved and has found a new use as the Brunswick Business Incubator, run by the economic development unit of Merri-bek Council.

Brunswick has a large number of social service agencies, from large Commonwealth corporate providers such as Centrelink, local government services and community-based organisations. Among the most notable are the two services for asylum seekers and refugees, the Asylum Seeker Welcome Centre and Foundation House.

Education
Brunswick has a variety of educational facilities. While Brunswick North Primary School in Albion Street is the only government primary school within the boundaries of Brunswick, residents of the suburb have access to four additional primary schools in the vicinity: Brunswick South Primary School, Brunswick East PS (in Brunswick East), Brunswick South West PS and Brunswick North West PS, as well as two Catholic primary schools. There are two government secondary schools (Brunswick Secondary College and the Sydney Road Community School), a Catholic secondary school and a Maronite Catholic college. There is a campus of RMIT University focusing on Textiles and Printing in Dawson Street.

Brunswick East High School, which had been located on Albert Street, was closed permanently due to low student enrolments in 1992 and demolished and replaced by Rendazzo Park and townhouses. It had initially opened as Brunswick Domestic Arts School for Girls in the 1920s.

Public open space
The main areas of open space in Brunswick are on its western edge, comprising several recreational areas that almost combine into a single space: the Alex Gillon Oval, Raeburn Reserve, Brunswick Park, Clifton Park and Gilpin Park. These areas are separated by Victoria and Albert Street. The remaining open spaces within Brunswick are small to tiny 'pocket parks' and reserves. The most notable are Temple Park, Warr Park and Randazzo Park, the latter having won awards for its contemporary landscape design. The southern edge of Brunswick faces directly onto Royal Park and Princes Park, which are large areas of regionally-significant open space in the suburbs of Parkville and Carlton North. Though not actually within Brunswick, there is good access to the Merri and Moonee Ponds Creeks, which are linear open spaces with bike paths along them, in Brunswick East and Brunswick West respectively.

Places of worship
Brunswick's diverse religious communities have many places of worship. Various Christian denominations have prominent churches, including Anglican, Serbian Orthodox (located in Brunswick East), Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Baptist, and Uniting Church. Other Christian groups with places of worship are the Church of the Latter Rain and Jehovah's Witnesses. There are also two mosques and a Buddhist centre. Most of these places of worship are located along Sydney Road or its immediate hinterland.

Transport

The area is among the best-served by public transport in Melbourne.

Bus
Seven bus routes service Brunswick:
 : Essendon station – East Brunswick via Albion Street. Operated by Moonee Valley Coaches.
 : Moonee Ponds Junction – Clifton Hill station via East Brunswick. Operated by Dysons.
 : Moonee Ponds Junction – Westgarth station via Brunswick. Operated by Moonee Valley Coaches.
 : Alphington station – Moonee Ponds Junction via Northcote and Brunswick. Operated by Dysons.
 : Brunswick West – Barkly Square Shopping Centre via Hope Street and Sydney Road. Operated by Dysons.
 : Essendon station – Ivanhoe station via Brunswick, Northcote and Thornbury. Operated by Moreland Buslines.
 Night Bus : Brunswick station – Glenroy station via West Coburg (operates Saturday and Sunday mornings only). Operated by Ventura Bus Lines.

Cycling
Brunswick itself is relatively flat and is ideal for cycling. Brunswick East is bounded by the Merri Creek Trail, and Brunswick West by the Moonee Ponds Creek Trail, though neither of these can be described as flat. The Upfield Bike Path follows the Upfield railway line from Fawkner, through Coburg and Brunswick, joining the Capital City Trail at Park Street. Streets in Brunswick vary, from too narrow for two cars to pass, to reasonably wide. Not all of the wider streets have cycle lanes, though even riding in lanes in the narrower street often means riding close to parked cars, presenting a significant hazard to cyclists from opening car doors.

Train
Three railway stations service Brunswick: Jewell, Brunswick and Anstey stations, all located on the Upfield line.

Tram
Five tram routes service Brunswick:
 , which travels along Sydney Road, Royal Parade and Elizabeth Street to Flinders Street railway station, past Melbourne University campuses, hospitals and the Queen Victoria Market.
  and , formerly 8 to Toorak, travelling along Lygon Street.
 , which travels through Royal Park and to the city from nearby Brunswick West.
 , traveling down Nicholson Street in nearby Brunswick East past Parliament House and Southern Cross railway station.

Landmarks and notable places

The most prominent structures in Brunswick are the heritage listed chimneys of Hoffmann's brickworks on Dawson Street. At their base, one of the brick kilns has been preserved, though the remainder of this site has been redeveloped as medium-density attached housing and low-rise apartment blocks. Other landmark buildings are the many churches along Sydney Road like Brunswick Baptist Church, the Brunswick Tram Depot, and the large bluestone warehouses in Colebrook Street.

Of the newer structures, the four new buildings at the RMIT University campus on Dawson Street are of notable contemporary character, each having its own unique architectural style, with two buildings by noted Melbourne architect John Wardle. The Brunswick Community Health Centre, on Glenlyon Road, completed in the late 1980s, presents a collection of eclectic, differently coloured forms juxtaposed on a small site. It was designed by Melbourne architecture firm Ashton Raggatt McDougall, who have since become internationally prominent.

Being one of Melbourne's oldest suburbs, Brunswick has a large number of places of heritage significance, in the form of individual buildings as well as urban conservation precincts covering entire streets or substantial parts of them.

Notable people

Sister cities
  Solarino, Italy
  Sparta, Greece

Brunswick has more Greeks of Laconian origin than anywhere else in Australia. The president of the Greek Community first suggested a sister city connection between Sparta and Brunswick in 1970. The sistership protocols were signed in 1987. A party comprising the Mayor of Sparta and eight dignitaries came to Brunswick for the official function in 1988, at which Talbot Street, (off Sydney Road, one block north of Victoria Street) was pedestrianised and renamed Sparta Place in recognition of the political and cultural link between the two places. In 2005, Sparta Place was significantly remodelled.

See also
 City of Brunswick – Brunswick was previously within this former local government area.
 Death in Brunswick – a 1991 film set in Brunswick, starring Sam Neill, Zoe Carides and John Clarke.
 Janis and Saint Christopher – a 2013 urban fantasy e-novel set in Brunswick that features Janis Joplin.
 Kick (TV series) – a 2007 SBS series set in Brunswick.
 Downs & Son –  an early 20th century rope manufacturing factory in Brunswick, which remains the most intact rope works in the suburb.

References

Note: Moreland Council demographic data – look for the page numbers in the text of the document (centre, bottom etc.) as these are out of sync with the pdf page-numbering.

Further reading
 Barnes, Les (Ed)(1987) It Happened in Brunswick: 1837–1987, Brunswick: Brunswick Community History Group ()
 Brunswick Community History Group (2005) Brunswick Green: Historic Parks in Moreland, Brunswick: Brunswick Community History Group with Moreland City Council
 Brunswick Community History Group (1993) A Walk Along The Upfield Line, Brunswick: Brunswick Community History Group (No ISBN)
 Cunningham, L. and Burchell, L. (4th ed, 1999) Brunswick's Hotels, Brunswick: Brunswick Community History Group (No ISBN)
 Eckersall, K. (2006) The Pillars of Our Land: Brunswick Citizen Pioneers, Brunswick: Brunswick Community History Group ()
 Folk-Scolaro, F. (Ed)(2002) Faith of Our Fathers: Churches of Sydney Road, Brunswick, Brunswick: Brunswick Community History Group ()
 Himbury, A (2000) "As long as you could see the Hoffman's Chimneys you wasn't lost": Saving Brunswick's Brickworks, Brunswick: Save the Brickworks ()
 Penrose, H (Ed)(1994) Brunswick: One History – Many Voices, Melbourne: Victoria Press ()
  – An account of a women's hydrotherapy group at the Brunswick Baths.

External links

Suburbs of Melbourne
Suburbs of the City of Merri-bek

Brunswick, Victoria


Nuclear force is the force between nucleons. It is the force that pulls protons and neutrons into atoms. It is very hard to break the bond, or tie, between protons and neutrons in an atom, because nuclear force holds them together. When the bond is broken, this is called nuclear fission.

Nuclear physics

yi:שטארקע נוקלעארע קראפט

Nuclear force


Brian Aker, born August 4, 1972, in Lexington, Kentucky, US, is an open-source hacker who has worked on various Apache modules, the Slash system, and numerous storage engines for the  MySQL database. Aker was Director of Architecture at MySQL AB until it was acquired by Sun Microsystems. He led Sun's web scaling research group, where he worked on the Drizzle database project. He later became a Distinguished Engineer for Sun Microsystems. After leaving Sun when Oracle acquired it, he became the CTO of Data Differential and provided support to open source projects such as libmemcached, Gearman and the Drizzle database project. Aker is currently a Fellow and VP at Hewlett Packard Enterprise.

After graduating with triple majors in environmental science, computing and mathematics, from Antioch College, Aker contributed to his first open source project, the 386BSD operating system. He then moved to work on Slashdot, where his initial task was to rewrite the database back-end to use Oracle. However, he extended the system to ensure it allowed multiple database back-ends, and became a published author along the way, writing Running Weblogs with Slash () with chromatic and Dave Krieger. From 2001 to 2007 he posted stories on Slashdot under the Author name of "Krow".

Aker first involved himself with the MySQL project in 1998. In 2001 he released an early prototype of MySQL with Perl-based functions and later went from VA Linux Systems to MySQL to lead development of the 4.1 and 5.0 versions of the MySQL Database Server. He has presented projects integrating MySQL with a number of technologies, including a working version of MySQL with Java-based functions with Eric Herman in 2004

Aker has been known to offer a Perl Certification Course at the University of Washington. He has also worked on the Virtual Hospital project, providing the Internet's first medical website, while at the University of Iowa Hospital and Clinics.

While not traveling and presenting at about six open source related conferences a year, he resides in Seattle, Washington. Some of the conferences Aker has presented at are OSCON, LinuxFest Northwest, Southern California Linux Expo, and the MySQL Users Conference & Expo. He is also the maintainer of the C client library for the Memcached server. He also maintains the current version of Gearman.

He is a commentator on the prolific creation of NoSQL databases giving Ignite talks on its evolution.

A list of MySQL projects Brian Aker has created:
 The Drizzle Database server
 MySQL Archive Storage Engine
 MySQL Federated Storage Engine
 Memcached Storage Engine
 CSV Storage Engine
 Blackhole Storage Engine
 WebMethods (HTTP) Storage Engine

References

External links

Portrait: Brian Aker, database strategist
Interview with Brian Aker
Slashdot Interview with Brian Aker
Brian Aker's Blog
Audio Interview with Brian Aker on the Future of Databases
Interview with Brian Aker on how to get a job as an open source developer
Public Open Source Software Repository
Interview with Brian Aker on FLOSS Weekly

Living people
People from Lexington, Kentucky
Antioch College alumni
1972 births
Geeknet
Sun Microsystems people
Hewlett-Packard people

Brian Aker


The "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy" is a dance for a ballerina. It is the third movement in The Nutcracker pas de deux. This pas de deux is from Act 2 of the 1892 ballet The Nutcracker.  It is danced by the principal female dancer. The number was choreographed by Lev Ivanov to music written by Tchaikovsky.

Choreographer Marius Petipa wanted the Sugar Plum Fairy's music to sound like "drops of water shooting from a fountain". Tchaikovsky found the ideal instrument to do this job in Paris in 1891. It was then that he came across the recently invented celesta. This instrument looked like a piano. It sounded like bells. Tchaikovsky wrote, "[The celesta is] midway between a tiny piano and a Glockenspiel, with a divinely wonderful sound." He wanted to use the celesta in The Nutcracker. He asked his publisher to buy one. He wanted to keep the purchase a secret. He did not want other Russian composers to "get wind of it and ... use it for unusual effects before me."

Tchaikovsky  introduced the celesta to Russian music lovers on 19 March 1892 when the Nutcracker Suite was performed for the Russian Musical Society in St. Petersburg. The instrument is forever identified with the Sugar Plum Fairy. It is heard in other parts of Act 2 of The Nutcracker besides the Sugar Plum Fairy's dance. The "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy" is one of the ballet's best known musical numbers. It is often "jazzed up" for television commercials at Christmas time.

There is little information about the Sugar Plum Fairy's original choreography. In the first performances the presto at the end of the dance was cut. According to Roland John Wiley, the dance appears to have consisted of short pointe steps, petite batteries, and attitudes in various combinations. He describes the dance as having "a sense of dynamic build up: from delicate angularity ... to circular shapes, to plainer but more virtuoso movementspirouettes to rounds de jambenear the end."

The first Sugar Plum Fairy was Antonietta Dell'Era. She was a good technician, but Tchaikovsky's brother Modest described her as pudgy and unattractive. Although the Sugar Plum Fairy is the prima ballerina of The Nutcracker, she has very little dancing to do. This was a considered a major defect among early critics. Dell'Era tried to expand the role of the Sugar Plum Fairy in later performances by putting a gavotte by Czibulka into the score.

References
Notes

Sources
 Anderson, Jack. 1979. The Nutcracker Ballet. Gallery Books.
 Brown, David. 1991. Tchaikovsky: the final years, 1885-1893. Norton.
 Wiley, Roland John. 1985. Tchaikovsky's Ballets. Oxford University Press.
 Luke Cibelli. 1985.

Ballets by Lev Ivanov
Compositions by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Ballets first performed by the St. Petersburg Imperial Ballet

Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy


Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann (17 September 1826 near Hanover  20 July 1866 Selasca, Italy) was a German mathematician. He had a short life and did not write down very much about his discoveries, but the things he discovered were all extremely important and had a revolutionary effect on mathematics.  He contributed to many fields of mathematics, such as analysis, geometry, mathematical physics and number theory. Today, many people see him as a great mathematician. He was among the first mathematicians that worked on complex analysis. The kind of geometry he started (which is called Riemannian geometry today) is one of the bases of the theory of relativity, developed by Albert Einstein.

Life

Childhood
Bernhard Riemann was the second child in a family of six children.  His father was a Lutheran pastor.  The family was very poor and did not have much to eat.  Several of the children died, and Bernhard always had poor health.  His parents were loving, but he was a very shy boy.  Later in life he had to try very hard to be brave enough to speak in public.  His father was one of his first teachers.  The young boy was very keen to learn about everything.  When he was ten he had a specialist maths teacher, but he was often better at maths than his teacher.  When he was 14, he went to Hanover where he lived with his grandmother so that he could go to a Gymnasium school.  His father wanted him to be a priest, but Bernhard was much too shy to preach to people.  In the end he let him study maths.

There is a well-known story from Riemann's school days.  The school director excused him from maths lessons because the lessons were much too easy for him.  Bernhard asked the director whether he could borrow a difficult maths book to read, so the director lent him Théorie des Nombres (Theory of Numbers) by Legendre.  This was a huge book with maths that was so difficult that only a few people in the world would have understood it all.  The director was disappointed when the boy brought the book back after only six days.  He asked him how far he had got.  The boy said he had read the whole book.  This was true, and he had understood and remembered it all.  Later in life, when Riemann was 33, he developed the famous Riemann hypothesis.  This was an article that was only 8 pages long, but he developed his idea from what Legendre had written.  Mathematicians ever since have struggled to try to prove what Riemann wrote.

University life

Riemann studied at the universities of Göttingen and Berlin.  During his student days he was developing ideas that were to become very important to modern mathematical physics.  In 1851 he got his doctorate for a dissertation called Foundations for a General Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable.  This was to become very useful in topology which deals with position and place.  When he became lecturer at Göttingen he had to offer three lectures from which the professors would choose one.  One of the professors was Carl Friedrich Gauss who was one of the greatest mathematicians who ever lived.  Gauss asked him to talk about On the Hypotheses that form the foundations of Geometry.  Gauss himself had worked on this subject.  Riemann was terribly nervous about lecturing on this subject in front of the famous Gauss.  When he gave the lecture, it became one of the most famous events in the history of mathematics.  Gauss did not often give praise to younger mathematicians, but he was very enthusiastic.  Riemann's ideas made it possible for Einstein to develop his theory of relativity more than half a century later.

At first Riemann had no salary.  He depended on fees from the students.  After four years he was given a small salary.  In 1857 he became associate professor and in 1859 full professor, succeeding Dirichlet who had succeeded Gauss four years earlier.  Riemann suffered from bad health.  Overwork often resulted in periods of depression. There were many deaths in his family, but he worked very hard and made several discoveries that are now named after him.  He was becoming very famous.  On a visit to Berlin Borchardt, Kummer, Kronecker and Weierstraß - all very famous mathematicians - showered him with praise.  He went to Paris where he met Hermite who greatly admired him.  He was honoured by the Royal Society of London and the French Academy of Sciences.

He married and for a short time he was happy.  Then he became ill.  He suffered from pleurisy and made several visits to Italy for his health.  He died in Selasca on Lago Maggiore aged 39.

Related pages
Riemann sum
Riemann hypothesis
Riemann zeta function

References

1826 births
1866 deaths
Deaths from pleurisy
Infectious disease deaths in Italy
German number theorists
German geometers

Bernhard Riemann


William Sylvester Taylor (October 10, 1853 – August 2, 1928) was the 33rd Governor of Kentucky. He was initially declared the winner of the disputed gubernatorial election of 1899, but the Kentucky General Assembly, dominated by the Democrats, reversed the election results, giving the victory to his Democratic opponent, William Goebel. Thus, Taylor served only 50 days as governor.

A poorly educated but politically astute lawyer, Taylor began climbing the political ladder by holding local offices in his native Butler County. Though he was a Republican in an overwhelmingly Democratic state, divisions in the majority party resulted in his election as Attorney General of Kentucky on a ticket with the Commonwealth's first Republican governor, William O. Bradley. Four years later, Taylor was elected in 1899 to the governorship.

When the General Assembly reversed the election results after a dispute, incensed Republicans armed themselves and descended on Frankfort. Taylor's Democratic opponent, William Goebel, was shot and died after being sworn in on his deathbed. Taylor exhausted his finances in a legal battle with Goebel's running mate J. C. W. Beckham over the governorship. Taylor ultimately lost the battle, and was implicated in Goebel's assassination. He fled to neighboring Indiana. Despite eventually being pardoned for any wrongdoing, he seldom returned to Kentucky. Taylor died in Indianapolis, Indiana in 1928.

Early life
William Taylor was born October 10, 1853, in a log cabin on the Green River, about five miles from Morgantown, Kentucky. He was the first child of Sylvester and Mary G. (Moore) Taylor. He spent his early years working on the family farm, and did not attend school until age fifteen; thereafter, he attended the public schools of Butler County and studied at home. In 1874, he began teaching, specializing in mathematics, history, and politics. He taught until 1882, and later became a successful attorney, but continued to operate a farm.

On February 10, 1878, Taylor married Sara ("Sallie") Belle Tanner. The couple had nine children, including six daughters and a son that survived infancy.

Political career
Taylor's political career began in 1878 with an unsuccessful bid to become county clerk of Butler County. In 1880, he was an assistant presidential elector for Greenback candidate James Weaver. Two years later, he was elected county clerk of Butler County. He was the first person in the history of the county to successfully challenge a Democrat for this position.

Taylor became a member of the Republican Party in 1884. In 1886, he was chosen to represent the third district on the Republican state central committee. That same year, the party nominated a full slate of candidates for county offices, including Taylor as the nominee for county judge. In the ensuing elections, the full Republican slate was elected. Taylor was a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1888. He was re-elected as county judge in 1890.

In 1895, Taylor was elected Attorney General of Kentucky, and served until 1899. During his term, state senator William Goebel proposed an election law that created a state Board of Elections which was empowered to appoint all election officers in every county and certify all election results. The board was to be appointed by the General Assembly, and there were no requirements that its composition be bi-partisan. The law was widely seen as a power play by Goebel, designed to ensure Democratic victories in state elections, including Goebel's own anticipated run for governor. The law passed the General Assembly, but was vetoed by Republican governor William O. Bradley. The General Assembly promptly overrode the veto. As attorney general, Taylor opined that the bill was unconstitutional. The measure was adjudicated by the Kentucky Court of Appeals and found to be constitutional.

Gubernatorial election of 1899

Bradley's election in 1895 had marked the first time in Kentucky's history that the Commonwealth had elected a Republican governor. Angry Democrats, who had controlled the governorship since the fall of the Whig Party in 1855, sought to regain what they had lost. Bitter divisions in the party led to a contentious convention that nominated William Goebel as the party candidate. A faction of the Democratic Party held a second nominating convention and chose former governor John Y. Brown as their nominee.

The Republicans were initially no less divided than the Democrats. Senator William J. Deboe backed Taylor for governor. Governor Bradley backed Judge Clifton J. Pratt of Hopkins County, and the Republicans of Central Kentucky backed state auditor Sam H. Stone. Taylor organized a strong political machine and seemed in a solid position to obtain the nomination. Bradley was incensed that the party would not unite behind his candidate and boycotted the convention. Taylor unsuccessfully tried to woo him back with a promise to make his nephew, Edwin P. Morrow, secretary of state. Because Taylor represented the western part of the state, the so-called "lily white" branch of the Republican Party, black leaders also threatened not to support him; Taylor responded by hiring one of the black leaders his permanent secretary, and promised to appoint other black leaders to office if he won the election. Seeing that Taylor's nomination was likely, all the other candidates withdrew, and Taylor won the nomination unanimously.

During the campaign, Taylor was attacked by Democratic opponents because of his party's support from black voters and its ties to big business, including the Louisville and Nashville Railroad. They also charged that Governor Bradley had run a corrupt administration. Republicans answered with charges of factionalism and use of political machinery by Democrats. In particular, they derided the Goebel Election Law, which Taylor claimed subverted the will of the people.

Ex-Confederates were usually a safe voting bloc for the Democrats, but many of them deserted Goebel because he had, in 1895, while cashing a check, met and quickly shot his main local political opponent, the esteemed banker and former Confederate colonel John Sandford, in what he declared was an act of self-defense, but some see as more of an (illegal) duel, as both fired pistols at each other. Sandford, who received a fatal head wound, was a grandson of Revolutionary War General and US Congressman Thomas Sandford.
On the other hand, blacks had historically been a safe bloc for the Republicans, but Taylor had alienated many of them by not strongly opposing the Separate Coach Bill, which would have racially segregated railroad facilities. Goebel also risked losing support to minor party candidates. Besides John Y. Brown, the dissenting Democrats' nominee, the Populist Party nominated a candidate, drawing votes from Goebel's populist base. To unite his traditional base, Goebel convinced William Jennings Bryan, a hero to most populists and Democrats, to campaign for him. As soon as Bryan finished his tour of the state, Governor Bradley reversed course and began speaking in favor of Taylor. While Bradley insisted that his motives were to defend his administration, journalist Henry Watterson believed Taylor had promised to support Bradley's senatorial bid if elected.

Governorship and later life
In the general election, Taylor secured just 2,383 more votes than Goebel. The Democrat-controlled General Assembly challenged the election results. Under the Goebel Election Law, a three-man Board of Elections (dominated by Democrats) were to review the results and certify the winner in the contest. Two of the members of the board had openly campaigned for Goebel, and all three owed their appointments to him, but in a surprising decision, the board voted 2–1 to certify Taylor as the winner.

The board claimed that the Goebel Election Law did not give them the power to hear proof of vote fraud or call witnesses, although the wording of their decision implied that they would have invalidated Taylor votes if they had been empowered to do so. Taylor was inaugurated on December 12, 1899. Days later, the Democratic-dominated General Assembly convened in Frankfort. They claimed the power to decide disputed elections, and formed a partisan commission (ten Democrats and one Republican) to examine the election results.

Fearing Democrats in the Assembly would "steal" the election, armed men came to Frankfort from various areas of the state, primarily Eastern Kentucky, which was heavily Republican. On January 30, Goebel was shot while entering the state capitol building. Taylor declared a state of emergency and called out the militia. He called a special session of the legislature, holding it in heavily Republican London, Kentucky rather than the capital. Democrats refused to heed the call, and met in Democratic-dominated Louisville instead. They certified the election commission's report that disqualified enough Taylor votes for Goebel to be declared the winner of the election. Shortly after being sworn in as governor, Goebel died from the gunshot wound he had received days earlier.

With Goebel dead, Democrats and Republicans met jointly and drafted a proposal to bring peace. Under terms of the proposal, Taylor and his lieutenant governor, John Marshall, would step down from their offices and be granted immunity from prosecution in the events surrounding the election and Goebel's assassination. The Goebel Election Law would be repealed, and the militia would disperse from Frankfort. Prominent leaders on both sides signed the agreement, but on February 10, 1900, Taylor announced he would not. The legislature convened on February 19, 1900, and agreed to put the election in the hands of the courts.

On March 10, 1900, the circuit court of Jefferson County upheld the General Assembly's actions that certified Goebel as governor. The case was appealed to the Kentucky Court of Appeals, then the court of last resort in Kentucky. On April 6, 1900, the Court of Appeals ruled 6—1 that Taylor had been legally unseated. Taylor appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States, and on May 21, 1900, the Court refused to hear the case. Only Kentuckian John Marshall Harlan dissented from this refusal. With Taylor's legal options exhausted, Goebel's lieutenant governor, J. C. W. Beckham, ascended to the governorship. During his short term as governor, Taylor had done little beyond making a few appointments and issuing a few pardons.

Taylor was indicted as an accessory in the assassination of Goebel. He fled to Indianapolis, where the governor refused to extradite him. At least one attempt to abduct him by force failed in 1901. Despite being pardoned in 1909 by Republican Governor Augustus E. Willson, Taylor seldom returned to Kentucky.

Financially strapped by the costs of challenging the election, Taylor became an insurance executive and practiced law. Shortly after arriving in Indiana, his wife died. In 1912, he briefly returned to Kentucky to marry Nora A. Myers. The couple returned to Indianapolis and had a son together. Taylor died of heart disease on August 2, 1928, and was buried at the Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis.

See also

Taylor v. Beckham

References

Bibliography

External links

Taylor v. Beckham court case at FindLaw

1853 births
1928 deaths
Recipients of American gubernatorial pardons
American Presbyterians
Burials at Crown Hill Cemetery
Republican Party governors of Kentucky
Kentucky Attorneys General
Kentucky lawyers
People from Butler County, Kentucky
Kentucky Greenbacks
Indiana Republicans
People from Morgantown, Kentucky
19th-century American lawyers
19th-century American politicians

William S. Taylor (Kentucky politician)


Bascom Lamar Lunsford (March 21, 1882 – September 4, 1973) was a folklorist, performer of traditional Appalachian music, and lawyer from western North Carolina. He was often known by the nickname "Minstrel of the Appalachians."

Biography

Bascom Lamar Lunsford was born at Mars Hill, Madison County, North Carolina in 1882, into the world of traditional Appalachian folk music. At an early age, his father, a teacher, gave him a fiddle, and his mother sang religious songs and traditional ballads. Lunsford also learned banjo and began to perform at weddings and square dances.

After qualifying as a teacher at Rutherford College, Lunsford taught at schools in Madison County.  In 1913, Lunsford qualified in law at Trinity College, later to become Duke University. He began to travel and collect material at the start of the 20th century, often meeting singers on isolated farms. Lunsford has been quoted as saying he spent "nights in more homes from Harpers Ferry to Iron Mountain than anybody but God".

Appalachian music
Lunsford gave lectures and performances while dressed in a starched white shirt and black bow tie. This formal dress was part of his campaign against the stereotyping of "hillbillies".

In 1922 Frank C. Brown, a song collector, recorded 32 items on wax cylinders from Bascom. In 1928, Lunsford recorded "Jesse James" and "I Wish I Was a Mole in the Ground" for the Brunswick record label. Harry Smith included "I Wish I Was a Mole in the Ground" on his Anthology of American Folk Music in 1952. Smith's anthology also includes Lunsford's performance of the gospel song "Dry Bones", recorded in 1928.

Lunsford played in a style from Western North Carolina, which had a rhythmic up-stroke brushing the strings. It sounds similar to clawhammer banjo playing, which emphasises the downstroke. He also played a "mandoline", an instrument with mandolin body and a five-string banjo neck. He occasionally played fiddle for dance tunes such as "Rye Straw". He censored the canon, avoiding obscene songs or omitting verses. His repertoire included Child Ballads, negro spirituals and parlor songs. A CD collection of Lunsford's recordings, from the Brunswick recordings of the 1920s to the recordings for the  Archive of American Folk Song at the Library of Congress in 1949, Ballads, Banjo Tunes and Sacred Songs of Western North Carolina, was released by Smithsonian Folkways Records in 1996.

The Mountain Dance and Folk Festival

In 1927 the Asheville Chamber of Commerce organized a 'Rhododendron Festival' to encourage tourism. The Chamber asked Lunsford to invite local musicians and dancers. 1928 was the first year of the Mountain Dance and Folk Festival, often claimed as the first event to be described as a "Folk Festival". After a few years the rhododendron element disappeared but the festival continues to this day. He was the organiser and performed there every year until he suffered a stroke in 1965.

Lunsford cofounded the Bascom Lamar Lunsford "Minstrel of Appalachia" Festival, taking place at Lunsford's birthplace at Mars Hill University in Mars Hill, North Carolina, just 20 minutes north of Asheville.

Politics and fame
Bascom was involved in the politics of the Democratic Party. He managed the campaign for Congressman Zebulon Weaver for North Carolina. From 1931 to 1934 he was a reading clerk of the North Carolina House of Representatives. Charles Seeger employed him in the mid-30s to promote singers in "Skyline Farms", as part of the "New Deal". Lunsford was invited to the White House by President Roosevelt in 1939, when he performed his music for King George VI.

Personal
Lunsford married Nellie Sarah Triplett (1881-1960). They had six daughters (Sarah, Ellen, Lynn, Nellie, Merton & Josefa) and one son (Blackwell). After Nellie's death Lunsford married Freda English nee Metcalf (1913-1974). Bascom Lunsford died on 4 September 1973. Fifteen months after Bascom's death, Freda took her own life.

Influence
In 1964, the North Carolina fantasy and horror writer Manly Wade Wellman dedicated his book "Who Fears the Devil?" to Lunsford. Wellman's fictional protagonist, Silver John, was an Appalachian folk singer, like Lunsford.

Bob Dylan, who listened to the Anthology of American Folk Music, echoed a line from "I Wish I Was a Mole In the Ground." Lunsford sang, "'Cause a railroad man they'll kill you when he can / And drink up your blood like wine," which is echoed by Dylan's line "Mona tried to tell me / To stay away from the train line / She said that all the railroad men / Just drink up your blood like wine" on his song "Stuck Inside of Mobile With the Memphis Blues Again", recorded in 1966 for the album Blonde on Blonde.

Greil Marcus discussed the meaning of "I Wish I Was a Mole In the Ground" both in his liner notes to Bob Dylan and The Band's album, The Basement Tapes (1975), and in his book Lipstick Traces.

Lunsford's original recording of "Good Old Mountain Dew" was used as the first advertising theme for the newly created Mountain Dew soda. He sold the rights to the song for a train ticket home.

In 1964 Lunsford was the subject of a documentary film, shot with a 16mm hand held camera, by New York City filmmaker, David Hoffman.

Discography

 Song and Ballads of American History and of the Assassination of American Presidents (1952)
 Smokey Mountain Ballads (1953) (Folkways)
 Minstrel of the Appalachians (1956) (Riverside: RLP 12-645)
 Bascom Lamar Lunsford (1956) (Riverside)
 Music from South Turkey Creek (1976) (Rounder Records)
 Ballads, Banjo Tunes and Sacred Songs of Western North Carolina (1996) (Smithsonian Folkways)

Notes

References

 Jones, Loyal.  Minstrel of the Appalachians: The Story of Bascom Lamar Lunsford (Appalachian Consortium Press, 1984; Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2002).
 Jones, Loyal. 2017. My Curious and Jocular Heroes: Tales and Tale-Spinners from Appalachia.  Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

External links
 Listen to "Dry Bones" at the Internet Archive's Open Source Audio collection (30 - second sample)
 Listen to "I Wish I Was A Mole In The Ground" at the Internet Archive's Open Source Audio collection
 Listen to "Mountain Dew" at the Internet Archive's Open Source Audio collection
 Listen to "Lost John Dean" at the Internet Archive's Open Source Audio collection (30 - second sample)

  by David Hoffman

1882 births
1973 deaths
People from Mars Hill, North Carolina
American fiddlers
American banjoists
American folk-song collectors
Old-time musicians
20th-century American lawyers
Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences alumni
North Carolina Democrats
Appalachian old-time fiddlers
20th-century violinists

Bascom Lamar Lunsford


In normal cosmology, 'comoving' distance or 'proper distance' is one of several distances measured by cosmologists to define distances between objects.

Method
To talk about the shape of the Universe, scientists want to forget that the Universe is expanding. So they separate the shape from time and pretend that the Universe is not expanding. They remember that, really, the Universe is expanding, but they write this in a variable called the scale factor. Then, the distances they talk about, while putting the scale factor to the side, are called comoving distances. When they think about the Universe using comoving distance, they think of the Universe as not expanding. This way, some calculations are easier.

Purpose
When the part of the Universe which we can see today started, it was very small. Everything in this part of the Universe was much closer together than today. It was also very hot and photons (particles of light) were moving in different directions. Light moves very fast, but the light speed is limited and the Universe was expanding very fast.

Comparison
Think of two ants on the surface of an expanding balloon. One ant starts moving towards another, but the balloon itself is also expanding. After a long time the balloon starts expanding more slowly. Eventually one ant reaches another. That's like photons in our universe. Some of the light from the stars you see at night traveled for billions of years to reach your eye. Surprisingly, it started very close to where you were (or the atoms of which your body consists), but just could not keep up with the universe expansion. Of course, if something else started out very close to where you were, but was not traveling toward you, it would be very far away from you now because of the expansion.

Cosmology
Physical quantity

Comoving distance


John Kendrick Bangs (May 27, 1862 – January 21, 1922) was an American writer, humorist, editor and satirist.

Biography
He was born in Yonkers, New York. His father Francis N. Bangs was a lawyer in New York City, as was his brother, Francis S. Bangs.

He went to Columbia College from 1880 to 1883 where he became editor of Columbia's literary magazine, Acta Columbia, and contributed short anonymous pieces to humor magazines. After graduation in 1883 with a Bachelor of Philosophy degree in Political Science, Bangs entered Columbia Law School but left in 1884 to become Associate Editor of Life under Edward S. Martin. Bangs contributed many articles and poems to the magazine between 1884 and 1888. During this period, Bangs published his first books.

In 1888 Bangs left Life to work at Harper's Magazine, Harper's Bazaar and Harper's Young People, though he continued to contribute to Life. From 1889 to 1900 he held the title of Editor of the Departments of Humor for all three Harper's magazines and from 1899 to 1901 served as active editor of Harper's Weekly. Bangs also served for a short time (January–June 1889) as the first editor of Munsey's Magazine and became editor of the American edition of the Harper-owned Literature from January to November 1899.

In 1894, Bangs ran for the office of mayor of Yonkers, New York, but was defeated. He also was a member of the Board of Education in Yonkers.

He left Harper & Brothers in 1901 and became editor of the New Metropolitan magazine in 1903. In 1904 he was appointed editor of Puck, perhaps the foremost American humor magazine of its day. In this period, he revived his earlier interest in drama. In 1906 he switched his focus to the lecture circuit.

During the period between 1901 and 1906 Bangs was known to have spent at least parts of his summers at the Profile House in Franconia, New Hampshire. He owned one of the 20 connected cottages adjacent to the large hotel, which he sold to Cornelius Newton Bliss in August 1906. As a satirical writer, he was also known in the "Profile Cottage" circles as a jokester and prankster and was frequently the jovial topic of hotel guests and cottage owners alike.

In 1918, he lectured for YMCA and allied troops on the battle front in France during World War I.

In 1886, he married Agnes L. Hyde, with whom he had three sons. Agnes died in 1903. Bangs then married Mary Blakeney Gray of New York in 1904. In 1907 they moved from Yonkers to Ogunquit, Maine. John Kendrick Bangs died from stomach cancer in 1922 at age fifty-nine, in Atlantic City, New Jersey.

Works

Books published in three story series are listed separately (Series, below): Associated Shades, The Idiot, and Raffles (the latter created by E. W. Hornung).

The Lorgnette (1886) with S. W. Van Schalck, New York: George J. Coombes
Roger Camerden: A Strange Story (1887); New York: George J. Coombes
Katharine: A Travesty (1887); New York: Gilliss Brothers and Turner, Art Age Press
New Waggings of Old Tales by Two Wags (1888) with Frank Dempster Sherman and Oliver Herford; Boston: Ticknor
Mephistopheles: A Profanation (1889); New York: Gilliss Brothers & Turner, Art Age Press
Tiddledywink Tales (1891), illus. Charles Howard Johnson; New York: R. H. Russell & Son
The Tiddledywink's Poetry Book (1892), illus. Charles Howard Johnson; Dewitt Publishing House
In Camp with a Tin Solder (1892), illus. E. M. Ashe; New York: R. H. Russell & Son
 Half Hours with Jimmieboy (1893), illus. Frank Verbeck, Charles Howard Johnson, J. T. Richards (F.T.?), P. Newell, and others; New York: R. H. Russell & Son
Toppleton's Client: or A Spirit in Exile (1893); London: Osgood, McIlvaine; New York: Harper & Brothers
Three Weeks in Politics (1894); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
The Water Ghost, and Others (1894); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
 "Thurlow's Christmas Story" (1894) – included in Ghosts I Have Met and Some Others (1898) and in  American Fantastic Tales, ed. Peter Straub (The Library of America, 2009)
A Summers Sojourn (1895)
Mr. Bonaparte of Corsica (1895), illus. H. W. McVickar (Henry W.); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
The Paradise Club (1895)
A Rebellious Heroine (1896), illus. W. T. Smedley (William T.); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
The Bicyclers, and Three Other Farces (1896); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
The Mantel-Piece Minstrels, and Other Stories (1897); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
A Prophecy and a Plea (1897)
Paste Jewels: Being Seven Tales of Domestic Woe (1897); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
Ghosts I Have Met and Some Others (1898), illus. Peter Newell, A. B. Frost, and F. T. Richards; New York and London: Harper & Brothers
Peeps at Peoples: Passages from the Writings of Anne Warrington Witherup, Journalist (1899), illus. Edward Penfield; New York and London: Harper & Brothers
The Dreamers: A Club: Being a More or Less Faithful Account of the Literary Exercises of the First Regular Meeting of That Organization (1899), illus. Edward Penfield; New York and London: Harper & Brothers
Cobwebs from a Literary Corner (1899); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
In Camp with a Tin Soldier (1900), illus. E. M. Ashe, New York: R. H. Russell
The Booming of Acre Hill and Other Reminiscences of Urban and Suburban Life (1900); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
Over the Plum-Pudding (1901); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
Bikey the Skicycle and Other Tales of Jimmieboy (1902); New York: Riggs Publishing Company
Emblemland, by Bangs and editorial cartoonist Charles Raymond Macauley (1902); New York: R. H. Russell; also issued as Rollo in Emblemland
Mollie and the Unwiseman (1902), illus. Albert Levering and Clare Victor Dwiggins; Philadelphia: Henry T. Coates & Co.
Olympian Nights (1902); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
 Uncle Sam, Trustee (1902); New York: Riggs Publishing Company
Over the Plum Pudding (1902)
Under Difficulties (1905)
The Worsted Man, A Musical Play for Amateurs (1905); New York: Harper & Brothers
The Andiron Tales (1906); Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Co.
Alice in Blunderland: An Iridescent Dream (1907), illus. Albert Levering; New York: Doubleday, Page & Company
The Whole Family: A Novel by Twelve Authors (1908) – one chapter by Bangs
Potted Fiction: Being a Series of Extracts from the World's Best Sellers, Put Up in Thin Slices for Hurried Consumers (1908), edited by Bangs; New York: Doubleday, Page & Co.
The Real Thing and Three Other Farces (1909); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
The Autobiography of Methuselah (1909), illus. F. G. Cooper; New York: B. W. Dodge & Company
Mollie and the Unwiseman Abroad (1910), illus. Grace G. Wiederseim; Philadelphia and London: J. Lippincott Company
Songs of Cheer (1910); Boston: Sherman French & Company
Jack and the Checkbook (1911), illus. Albert Levering; New York and London: Harper & Brothers
Echoes of Cheer (1912); Boston: Sherman French & Company
A Little Book of Christmas (1912), illus. Arthur E. Becher; Boston: Little, Brown, and Company
A Line o' Cheer for Each Day o' the Year (1913); Boston: Little, Brown, and Company
A Chafing Dish Party (1913); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
The Foothills of Parnassus (1915); New York: Macmillan
A Quest for Song (1915)
From Pillar to Post, Leaves from a Lecturer's Note-book (1916), illus. Jno. R. Neill, New York: The Century Co.
The Cheery Way (1919); New York and London: Harper & Brothers

Series

The Idiot
There were 1899 editions of both Coffee and Repartee, copyright 1893, and Coffee and Repartee and the Idiot, copyright 1893, 1895, 1899 (both available online at HathiTrust Digital Library, HDL). Perhaps one or both works were revised.
 Coffee and Repartee (1893), illustrated; New York and London: Harper & Brothers
The Idiot (1895), illus. F. T. Richards; New York and London: Harper & Brothers
The Idiot at Home (1900), illus. Richards; New York and London: Harper & Brothers
The Inventions of the Idiot (1904); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
The Genial Idiot: His Views and Reviews (1908); New York and London: Harper & Brothers
Half-Hours with the Idiot" (1917); Boston: Little, Brown, and Company
Illustrations in Coffee and Repartee, unsigned, and The Idiot, clearly signed "F. T. Richards", were not credited (both available online at HDL). The Library of Congress reports "F.T. Richards" credited on the title page of The Idiot at Home, 1900 (first edition).

Associated Shades
Originally the Associated Shades is an exclusive men's club in Hades, whose members are the shades of famous people, including Adam and Baron Munchausen but primarily historical writers: Homer, Confucius, Shakespeare, president Walter Raleigh, Johnson and Boswell, and many others.
All four books were illustrated by Peter Newell.A House-Boat on the Styx, Being Some Account of the Divers Doings of the Associated Shades (1895); New York: Harper & BrothersThe Pursuit of the House-Boat, Being Some Further Account of the Divers Doings of the Associated Shades, Under the Leadership of Sherlock Holmes, Esq. (1897); New York: Harper & BrothersThe Enchanted Type-Writer (1899) – collection; New York and London: Harper & BrothersMr. Munchausen: Being a True Account of Some of the Recent Adventures Beyond the Styx of the Late Hieronymus Carl Friedrich, Sometimes Baron Munchausen of Bodenwerder, as Originally Reported for the Sunday Edition of the Gehenna Gazette by Its Special Interviewer the Late Mr. Ananias Formerly of Jerusalem and Now First Transcribed from the Columns of that Journal (1901) – featuring Baron Munchausen, one of the Associated Shades; Boston: Noyes, Platt

Raffles series
These two short story collections are sequels to the Raffles books by E. W. Hornung.Mrs. Raffles: Being the Adventures of an Amateur Cracks Woman, Narrated by Bunny (1905), edited by Bangs, illus. Albert Levering; New York and London: Harper & BrothersR. Holmes & Co.: Being the Remarkable Adventures of Raffles Holmes, Esq., Detective and Amateur Cracksman by Birth (1906), illus. Sydney Adamson; New York and London: Harper & Brothers

References

Other sources
* "John Kendrick Bangs". The Literature Network''.

External links

 The Elf-man, words by John Kendrick Bangs, music by John Barnes Wells at the Sibley Music Library digital scores collection –  publication withdrawn 2011-06-22 for file quality upgrade
 John Kendrick Bangs at Fantastic Fiction

 Bangs Family Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

1862 births
1922 deaths
American fantasy writers
Bangsian fantasy
Absurdist fiction
American satirists
American parodists
American satirical novelists
Parody novelists
People from Yonkers, New York
Deaths from stomach cancer
Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery
19th-century American novelists
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American male writers
American male novelists
Columbia College (New York) alumni
19th-century American male writers
Columbia Law School alumni
20th-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
Deaths from cancer in New Jersey
Harper's Weekly editors

John Kendrick Bangs


A Newtonian fluid is a fluid, where the ratio between shear stress changes linearly in proportion to the stress it is exposed to. This proportion is known as viscosity. Note that the inverse is not true; there are fluids with constant viscosity, that are Non-Newtonian fluids: one example is the Boger fluid.

Fluid mechanics

Newtonian fluid


101 Dalmatians is an animated Disney television series. Is based on the 101 Dalmatians movie. The series was originally shown from September 1, 1997 to March 4, 1998 in first run syndication and on ABC's One Saturday Morning lineup. It had a total of 65 episodes.

Main Characters
The main characters in the series are Lucky, Cadpig, Rolly, and Spot. Lucky is the most adventurous of the 99 puppies and is unique in having his only spots in the shape of a horseshoe on his back. Cadpig is another runt of the litter and the smallest of the 99 puppies but quite possibly the most intelligent, if not deluded. She is unique in having long floppy ears, a big head, a kind personality, and she's also quite strong for her size. Rolly is the very hungry one. Almost all his decisions are based on food and this, at times, gets him and the pups into trouble. He is, however, a loyal and helpful sibling, especially when it comes to his incredible sense of smell. Spot is a chicken who wants to become a Dalmatian. She is a voice of reason for the foursome but, more often than not, is ignored. She is easily frightened and is prone to literally bouncing off the walls. She is, however, a good dancer (which has to count for something, according to her) and appears to be good at math. She is also able to fly. Patch appears in the series in his look from the Dodie Smith novel; he appears to be more laid-back unlike his movie counterpart. Dipstick retains a bit of his movie look; he is portrayed as dimwitted but loyal. Wizzer changed quite a bit from his movie look, being smaller and with white ears and a red collar. He follows Mooch's orders without question and is still prone to having accidents as in the live-action movie. Two-Tone changed quite a bit from her movie appearance, now having two black ears, a gold hoop earring in her right ear, a chubby body, a blue collar instead of pink, and a lower black body with white spots. She was Mooch's girlfriend and second in command of his gang until she dated Lucky in "Love 'Em and Flea 'Em." Since then, Two-Tone has gone off on her own.

The main villains in the series are Cruella de Vil and her henchmen, Horace and Jasper. Cruella is now a corporate criminal and most of her plans revolve around getting richer, tormenting the Dalmatians, and plotting to steal the Dearly Farm. Horace and Jasper are usually hired to perform her plans, usually failing.

Other characters include Roger Dearly, Anita Dearly, Nanny, Pongo, Perdita, Mooch, Scorch, the Colonel, Sergeant Tibbs, Captain, Lt. Pug, Thunderbolt, Lucy, Swamp Rat, Steven the alligator, Cydne the snake, and the entire de Vil family.

Other websites

1997 television series debuts
Television series by Disney
Animated television series
First run syndicated television programs
1998 television series endings
English-language television programs

101 Dalmatians: The Series


Pullman, one of Chicago's 77 defined community areas. It is a neighborhood located on the city's South Side. Twelve miles from the Chicago Loop. It is named after Chicago industrialist George Pullman.

Since the late 20th century, the Pullman neighborhood has been gentrifying. Many residents are involved in the restoration of their own homes, and projects throughout the district as a whole. Walking tours of Pullman are available.

Pullman has many historic and architecturally significant buildings; among these are the Hotel Florence; the Arcade Building, which was destroyed in the 1920s. The area is home to churches in Chicago built in Polish Cathedral style, the former church of St. Salomea. It is now used by Salem Baptist Church of Chicago.

In a contest sponsored by the Illinois Department of Commerce and Economic Opportunity, Pullman was one of seven sites nominated for the Illinois Seven Wonders.

Other websites
Official City of Chicago Pullman Community Map
Pullman State Historic Site

Community areas of Chicago

Pullman, Chicago


Myrina () was one of the Aeolian cities on the western coast of Mysia, about 40 stadia to the southwest of Gryneion. The former bishopric is now a Latin Catholic titular see.

Its site is believed to be occupied by the modern Sandarlik at the mouth of the Koca Çay, near the town of Aliağa in Izmir Province, in the Aegean Region of Turkey, near Kalavas(ar)i.

History

It is said to have been founded by one Myrinus before the other Aeolian cities, or by the Amazon Myrina. Artaxerxes gave Gryneium and Myrina to Gongylus, an Eretrian, who had been banished from his native city for favoring the interests of Persia.

Myrina was a very strong place, though not very large, and had a good harbor. Pliny the Elder mentions the fame of its oysters and that it bore the surname of Sebastopolis; while, according to Syncellus, it was also called Smyrna. An inscription (Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, V, 283) tells us that Myrina formed part of the Attalid kingdom in the 3rd century BC. For some time Myrina was occupied by Philip V of Macedon; but the Romans compelled him to evacuate it, and declared the place free.
Under Roman rule, Myrina was part of the Roman province of Asia Prima. It twice suffered severe earthquakes; first in the reign of Tiberius, on which occasion it received a remission of duties on account of the loss it had sustained; and a second time in the reign of Trajan. The town was restored each time, and continued to exist until a late period. It was the birthplace of Agathias, a Byzantine poet and historian of the 6th century. Myrina minted coins in Antiquity, some of which survive. Around 20 AD, Myrina minted a coin celebrating the betrothal of Claudius Drusus, son of the future emperor Claudius, to a daughter of Sejanus, commander of the Praetorian Guard under Tiberius.

Remains
The site of Myrina was discovered at the mouth of the river that was the ancient Pythicos, whose alluvia have covered what was the city's harbour. Excavations (1880–1882) brought to light about four thousand tombs, dating from the last two centuries BC, in which were found numerous objects representing the divinities of the Greek pantheon; children's toys, reproductions of famous works, etc.: most of these may be seen today in the Museum of the Louvre. Archaeologist Dorothy Burr Thompson carried out a study of the 117 Hellenistic terracotta figures from Myrina in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Ecclesiastical history
Under Roman rule, Myrina was part of the Roman province of Asia Prima and its bishopric was a suffragan of the capital's Metropolitan see of Ephesus. The names of some of its bishops are known: Dorotheus, 431 AD; Proterius, 451; John, 553; Cosmas, 787.

It still existed as a residential see in the 14th century, but was suppressed.

Titular see
It is now included in the Catholic Church's list of titular bishoprics, . nominally restored in the 18th century.

It is vacant, having had the following incumbents, of the lowest (episcopal) rank :
 Matthaeus Prichard, Recollect Fathers (O.F.M. Rec.) (1713.09.20 – 1750.05.22)
 Karl Aloys von Königsegg und Rothenfels (1770.03.12 – 1796.02.24)
 John Ryan (1825.09.31 – 1828.03.17)
 Pietro India (1836.02.01 – 1837?)
 François-Alexis Rameaux (穆導沅), Vincentians (C.M.) (1838.12.11 – 1845.07.14)
 Pierre Lavaissière (石伯鐸), C.M. (1846.03.27 – 1849.12.19)
 Raffaele Bacchettoni (1880.12.13 – 1881)
 Giovanni Rosati (1882.03.30 – 1884.03.14)
 Joseph-André Boyer (包), Paris Foreign Missions Society (M.E.P.) (1886.04.13 – 1887.03.08)
 Isidorus Barriga (1890.06.26 – 1894?)
 Maximilian Gereon Graf von Galen (1895.07.16 – 1908.11.05)
 Joseph Gaudentius Anderson (1909.04.29 – 1927.07.02)
 Edward John Galvin (高爾文), Missionary Society of St. Columban (S.S.C.M.E., founder) (1927.07.14 – 1946.04.11), as first Apostolic Vicar of Hanyang (China); previously first Apostolic Prefect of Hanyang (November 1, 1924 – July 14, 1927), later first bishop of Hanyang (April 11, 1946 – February 23, 1956)
 Alfred-Jean-Félix Ancel, Prado (1947.02.17 – 1984.09.11)

Notable residents
 Agathias, Byzantine historian and poet

References

Sources and external links

 asiaminorcoins.com, Ancient coins of Myrina
 Gigacatholic with titular incumbent biography links

Aeolian dodecapolis
Greek colonies in Mysia
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
Roman towns and cities in Turkey
Catholic titular sees in Asia
Former populated places in Turkey
Members of the Delian League
Populated places in ancient Aeolis
Greek city-states
Aliağa District
History of İzmir Province

Myrina (Aeolis)


In the canon law of the Catholic Church, a procurator is one who acts on behalf of and by virtue of the authority of another. In a monastery, the procurator is the friar, monk or nun charged with administering its financial affairs. Bishops have been represented at councils by procurators, as Peter Canisius attended the Council of Trent as procurator for the Bishop of Augsburg.

Procurator at Rome
Catholic Religious institutes, societies of apostolic life and autonomous particular Churches sui iuris (especially Eastern Catholic, each using a non-Latin rite) may have representatives resident in Rome acting on their behalf in business they may have with the Holy See.

Thus a Prelate (not Ordinary elsewhere) is appointed as Procurator for the Patriarch of Antioch of the Greek-Melkite Church. Such procuration may be combined with the office of Apostolic Visitator for that rite-specific church (especially in Europe)

Internal regular procurators
Within the above regular institutes of consecrated life and societies of apostolic life, the person charged with matters such as the purchase of provisions, furniture, books and other supplies may be called a procurator. This officer may be called a provincial procurator or a procurator general, if looking after the needs of a province or of the institute as a whole. In other institutes, the terms used may be bursar or econome.

Canonical litigation
A party to litigation may generally appoint a procurator instead of responding personally.

The name "fiscal procurator" or "fiscal promoter" was previously used in canon law for the official known since the publication of the 1917 Code of Canon Law as the promoter of justice, whose function is to safeguard the public welfare in cases brought before ecclesiastical tribunals.

In canonization cases, the corresponding official was called the promoter of the faith or, in popular parlance, the devil's advocate.

See also
 Apocrisiarius
 Proctor

References

Sources and external links
 GCatholic passim, here page Recent Appointments in the Eastern Churches

Canon law of the Catholic Church
Catholic ecclesiastical titles
Tribunals of the Catholic Church

Procurator (Catholic canon law)


The bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus) is a long-tailed tit found in North America. It is the only species in the family found in the New World, and the only member of the genus Psaltriparus.

The bushtit lives in mixed open woodlands. It also lives in parks and gardens. It lives in the western United States and highland parts of Mexico all year, ranging from Vancouver through the Great Basin and the lowlands and foothills of California to southern Mexico and Guatemala.

The bushtit is one of the smallest passerines in North America, at 11 cm in length and 5.3 g in weight. It is gray-brown overall, with a large head, a short neck, a long tail, and a short stubby bill. The male has dark eyes and the adult female, yellow.

The bushtit is active and gregarious, searching for small insects and spiders in mixed-species feeding flocks with species such as chickadees and warblers, of 10 to over 40 birds. Members of the group keep making calls to each other that can be described as a short tsit.

Birds of North America
Birds of Central America
Birds of the United States
IUCN Red List least concern species
Passeri

Bushtit


Arya Samaj Primary School Fiji ke Hindustani logan ke school hae, jiske Arya Samaj, 1930 me Samabula, Suva me Arya Kanya Pathshala, Samabula ke naam se, Hindustani larrki logan ke sikchha de ke khatir Pandit Ami Chandra suruu karis rahaa. 1946 me ii school, abhi ke jagha, Kula Street, Samabula me kar dewa gais rahaa.  Ii ek co-educational aur multi-racial school hae.

Aur dekho
 Fiji ke school
The concept of the Rishikul Primary School was formulated by the girmitayas living in the area and in the surrounding districts extending in the Suva-Nausori corridor. The head of the girmitayas at the time was a indentured laborer named Gudarie who finished his term partly in Labasa and eventually in Ba where his tenure of ten years expired. Upon the expiry of the tenure, he moved to live in the area of Nasinu now called Makoi 8 miles.
With his family of 9 children and other retired girmitayas, they formed a satsang which later formulated the idea of building school for the now defunct girmitayas children.
Gudarie led the team of constructions and carried building materials from SCIL, a stone and sand company still trading at 7 miles in Nasinu. During this time manual labor was the norm and painstakingly the school was completed. Initially the school was equipped with 2 water wells, a cottage for the head teacher and some other amenities.
Today the school boasts of bigger and better rooms with council water supply and a high school situated approximately 500m away with separate internal administrative bodies.

References
 Arya Samaj Primary School, Samabula

Suva ke school
Arya Samaj

Arya Samaj Primary School


Agenda is a literary journal published in London and founded by William Cookson. Agenda Editions is an imprint of the journal operating as a small press.

History and editorial orientation
Agenda was started in 1959, after Cookson had met Ezra Pound in Italy the previous year. Pound had originally suggested that Cookson edit pages in an existing publication, but when these plans did not come to fruition, the bookseller and poet Peter Russell suggested that Cookson found his own magazine.  Agenda was edited with Peter Dale and then Patricia McCarthy, who continues to edit the journal following Cookson's death in 2003.

The editorial preoccupations of Agenda reflected Cookson's own passions. The journal continued to champion Pound long after the poet's death. A "Special Issue in Honour of Ezra Pound's Eighty-Fifth Birthday" (Vol. 8, Nos. 3–4) was a significant early issue of the journal in 1970, and a special issue on "Dante, Ezra Pound and Contemporary Poetry" (Vol. 34, Nos. 3–4) was published as late as 1996.

Cookson also used Agenda to promote the reputation of David Jones, devoting two major special issues to him (in 1967 and 1974) in addition to articles in several other issues. Agenda Editions published several major Jones volumes. These included The Kensington Mass (1975, published with a photographic reproduction of the manuscript) and The Roman Quarry (1981), a full-length volume of until then unpublished material. Agenda Editions published volumes of Jones's letters in 1979 and 1996.

Agenda is also notable for its focus upon the art of translation. Recent issues include "Translation as Metamorphosis" in 2005 (Vol. 4, No. 4).

Agenda: An Anthology 1959-1993 (1994)

Poets, translators and reviewers included were:

Michael Alexander
W. H. Auden
Jonathan Barker
John Bayley
William Bedford
Anne Beresford
Heather Buck
Basil Bunting
Stanley Burnshaw
John Cayley
Humphrey Clucas
William Cookson
Arthur Cooper
Peter Dale
Donald Davie
Peter Dent
Ronald Duncan
T. S. Eliot
Thom Gunn
Donald Hall
Michael Hamburger
Ian Hamilton
Seamus Heaney
David Heidenstam
A. L. Hendriks
Geoffrey Hill
Peter Jay
Roland John
David Jones
Peter Levi
Saunders Lewis
Eddie Linden
Edward Lowbury
Robert Lowell
Patricia McCarthy
Hugh MacDiarmid
Seán Mac Falls
Jean MacVean
Eve Machin
Sylvia Mann
Virginia Maskell
Alan Massey
Ruth Mead
Matthew Mead
Moelwyn Merchant
W. S. Milne
Marianne Moore
George Oppen
Alan Neame
Pénélope Palmer
Rachel Pelham Burn
Stuart Piggott
Ezra Pound
Kathleen Raine
Norman Rea
Theodore Roethke
David Rokeah
Peter Russell
N. K. Sandars
Tom Scott
C. H. Sisson
W. D. Snodgrass
Henry Swabey
R. S. Thomas
Charles Tomlinson
Peter Whigham
Julie Whitby
William Carlos Williams
Caroline Wright
Louis Zukofsky

References

External links

Literary magazines published in the United Kingdom
Quarterly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines published in London
Magazines established in 1959
Poetry magazines published in the United Kingdom

Agenda (poetry journal)