Katedral Santiago de Compostela (), sebuah katedral bagi keuskupan agung yang diletakkan dalam Tapak Warisan Kebangsaan Santiago de Compostela dalam Galicia di Sepanyol. Katedral ini adalah tempat pengebumian Saint James the Great  yang ternama, salah satu daripada penyampai Jesus Christ. Katedral ini dari segi sejarah merupakan suatu tempat ziarah di Laluan St. James, sejak Zaman Pertengahan Awal. Bangunan ini adalah struktur Romanesque bersama penambahan Gothic dan Baroque moden.
Terjemah kemudian
History
According to legend, the apostle Saint James the Great brought Christianity to the Celts in the Iberian Peninsula. In 44 AD he was beheaded in Jerusalem. His remains were later brought back to Galicia, Spain. Following Roman persecutions of Spanish Christians, his tomb was abandoned in the 3rd century. According to legend, this tomb was rediscovered in 814 AD by the hermit Pelagius, after he witnessed strange lights in the night sky. Bishop Theodomirus of Iria recognized this as a miracle and informed king Alfonso II of Asturias and Galicia (791-842). The king ordered the construction of a chapel on the site. Legend has it that the king was the first pilgrim to this shrine. This was followed by the first church in 829 AD and then in 899 AD by a pre-Romanesque church, ordered by king Alfonso III of León, which caused the gradual development of the major place of pilgrimage.

In 997 the early church was reduced to ashes by Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir (938-1002), army commander of the caliph of Córdoba. The Al-Andalus commander was accompanied on his raid by his vassal Christian lords, who received a share of the loot, while St James' tomb and relics were left undisturbed. The gates and the bells, carried by local Christian captives to Córdoba, were added to the Aljama Mosque. When Córdoba was taken by king Ferdinand III of Castile in 1236, these same gates and bells were then transported by Muslim captives to Toledo, to be inserted in the Cathedral of Saint Mary of Toledo.

Construction of the present cathedral began in 1075 under the reign of Alfonso VI of Castile (1040–1109) and the patronage of bishop Diego Peláez. It was built according to the same plan as the monastic brick church of Saint Sernin in Toulouse, probably the greatest Romanesque edifice in France. It was built mostly in granite. Construction was halted several times and, according to the Liber Sancti Iacobi, the last stone was laid in 1122. But by then, the construction of the cathedral was certainly not finished. The cathedral was consecrated in 1128 in the presence of king Alfonso IX of Leon.

According to the Codex Calixtinus the architects were "Bernard the elder, a wonderful master", his assistant Robertus Galperinus and, later possibly, "Esteban, master of the cathedral works". In the last stage "Bernard, the younger" was finishing the building, while Galperinus was in charge of the coordination. He also constructed a monumental fountain in front of the north portal in 1122.

The church  became an episcopal see in 1075 and, due to its growing importance as a place of pilgrimage, it was soon raised to an archiepiscopal see by pope Urban II in 1100. A university was added in 1495.

The cathedral was expanded and embellished with additions in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.

Exterior of the Cathedral

Each of the façades along with their adjoining squares constitute a magnificent urban plaza. The Baroque façade of the Obradoiro square was completed by Fernando de Casas Novoa in 1740. Also in baroque style is the Acibecharía façade by Ferro Caaveiro and Fernández Sarela, later modified by Ventura Rodríguez. The Pratarías façade, built by the Master Esteban in 1103, and most importantly the Pórtico da Gloria, an early work of Romanesque sculpture, were completed by Master Mateo in 1188.

Pórtico da Gloria

The Pórtico da Gloria ("portico of the glory" in Galician) of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela is a Romanesque portico by Master Mateo and his workshop commissioned by King Ferdinand II of León.  To commemorate its completion in 1188, the date was carved on a stone and set in the cathedral, and the lintels were placed on the portico.  Finalising the complete three-piece set took until 1211, when the temple was consecrated in the presence of King Alfonso IX of León.

The portico has three round arches that correspond to the three naves of the church, supported by thick piers with pilasters. The central arch, twice as wide as the other two, has a tympanum and is divided by a central column—a mullion—containing a depiction of Saint James.  Vertically, the lower part is formed by the bases of the columns, decorated with fantastic animals, the middle portion consists of columns adorned with statues of the Apostles and the upper part supports the base of the arches crowning the three doors. The sculpture is intended to serve as an iconographic representation of various symbols derived from the Book of Revelation and books of the Old Testament.

Tympanum
The arrangement of the tympanum is based on the description of Christ that John the Evangelist makes in Revelation (Chapter 1.1 to 18). In the center, the Pantocrator is shown, with the image of Christ in Majesty, displaying in his hands and feet the wounds of crucifixion. Surrounding Christ, the tetramorph with the figures of the four Evangelists with their attributes: left, top St. John and the eagle and below St. Luke with the ox, on the right, above St. Matthew on the hood of the tax collector and below St. Mark and the lion.

On both sides of the evangelists, behind Mark and Luke, are four angels on each side with the instruments of the Passion of Christ. Some are, without touching them directly, the cross and crown of thorns (left) and lance and four nails (right), another the column in which he was whipped and the jar with which he was washed Pontius Pilate. Above the heads of these angels, two large groups of souls of the blessed, forty in all. In the archivolt of the central tympanum are seated the elders of the Apocalypse, each holding a musical instrument, as if preparing a concert in honor of God.

Mullion

In the mullion is the seated figure of Saint James with a pilgrim's swagger stick, as patron of the basilica. St. James appears with a scroll which contains written Misit em Dominus (the Lord sent me). The column just above his head with a capital which represents the temptations of Christ.  On three of its sides, facing the inside of the temple, two kneeling angels pray. At the foot of the saint is another capital with the figures of the Holy Trinity. Under the Apostle represents the tree of Jesse, the name given to the family tree of Jesus Christ from Jesse, father of King David, is the first time that this subject is represented in religious iconography in the Iberian Peninsula. The column rests on a base where there is a figure with beard to his chest (perhaps an image of Noah) and two lions. At the foot of the central column at the top inside looking towards the main altar of the cathedral, is the kneeling figure of the himself Master Mateo, holding a sign that is written Architectus. This image is popularly known as «Santo dos croques» by the ancient tradition of students from hitting their heads against the figure for wisdom, a tradition that was adopted later by pilgrims, although steps are being taken to limit access to try to stop the deterioration that is why the work has suffered.

Jambs
In the columns of the central door and two side doors apostles are represented, as well as prophets and other figures, with their iconographic attributes. All are topped with its own capital which represent different animals and human heads with leaf motifs. All figures were multicolored and with his name on the books or scrolls they hold in their hands.

The four pillars of the portico are based on strong foundations which represent various groups of animals and human heads with beards. For some authors, these figures are images of demons, and symbolize the weight of glory (the portico in this case) crushes sin. Other sources give an apocalyptic interpretation, with wars, famine and death (represented by the beasts), situations that can only be saved by human intelligence (the heads of older men).

Side doors

The arch of the right door represents the Last Judgment. The double archivolt is divided into two equal parts by two heads. Some authors identify these heads with the figures of archangel Michael and Christ, for others they are Christ-Judge and an angel, and other sources indicate that represent God the Father and God the Son. To the right of these heads is represented the Hell, with figures of monsters (demons) that drag and torture the souls of the damned. On the left, the Heaven with the elect, with figures of angels with children symbolizing the saved souls.

The arch of the left door depicts scenes from the Old Testament, with the righteous await the arrival of the Savior. In the center of the first archivolt is God the Creator who blesses the pilgrim and holding the Book of Eternal Truth, to his right is Adam (naked), Abraham (with the index raised) and Jacob. With them are two figures that could be Noah (new father of humanity to save the Flood) and Esau or Isaac and Judah. To the left of God it see Eve, Moses, Aaron, King David and Solomon. In the second archivolt, the top, ten small figures representing the twelve tribes of Israel.

Façade of the Obradoiro

The Obradoiro square in front of the façade alludes to the workshop (obradoiro, in Galician) of stonemasons who worked on the square during the construction of the cathedral. In order to protect the Pórtico da Gloria from deterioration caused by weather, this façade and towers have had several reforms since the 16th century. In the 18th century it was decided to build the current Baroque façade, designed by Fernando de Casas Novoa. It has large glazed windows that illuminate the ancient Romanesque façade and is located between the towers of the Bells and of the Ratchet. In the middle of the central body is St. James and one level below his two disciples Athanasius and Theodore, all dressed as pilgrims. In between, the urn (representing the found tomb) and the star (representing the lights he saw the Hermit Pelagius) between angels and clouds. The tower on the right depicts Mary Salome, mother of St. James, and the tower on the left depicts his father Zebedee. The balustrade on the left side depicts St. Susanna and St. John and the one on the right depicts St. Barbara and James the Less.

A stair allows reaching the entrance of the façade. The stair was made in the 17th century by Ginés Martínez and it is of Renaissance style inspired by Giacomo Vignola of Palazzo Farnese. It is diamond-shaped with two ramps that surround the entrance to the old 12th century Romanesque crypt of the Master Mateo, popularly called the "Old Cathedral".

Between the existing plane of the façade of the Obradoiro and the old Romanesque portal (Pórtico da Gloria) there is a covered narthex.

This façade has become a symbol of the cathedral and the city of Santiago de Compostela. As such, it is the engraving on the back of the Spanish euro coins of 1, 2 and 5 cents.

South façade or das Pratarías

The façade of the Silverware (Pratarías in Galician) is the southern façade of the transept of the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela and is the only Romanesque façade that is preserved in the cathedral. It was built between 1103 and 1117 and elements from other parts of the cathedral have been added in subsequent years. The square is bound by the cathedral and cloister on two sides. Next to the cathedral is the Casa do Cabido.

It has two entrance doors in degradation with archivolts and historian tympanums. The archivolts are attached over eleven columns, three are of white marble (middle and corners) and the rest of granite. In the center are the figures of twelve prophets and the Apostles on the sideline. On the tympanums is a large frieze is separated from the upper body by a strip supported by grotesque corbels, on this floor are two windows that are decorated with Romanesque archivolts.

In the central frieze is Christ, with various characters and scenes. On the right six figures belong to the choir of Master Mateo that were placed in the late 19th century. The original provision of the iconographic elements was invalidated since that 18th century  numerous images were introduced recovered from the dismantled Acibecharía facade. A central medallion shows the Eternal Father (or Transfiguration) with open hands and on the top surface there are four angels with trumpets heralding the Final Judgment.

In the tympanum of the left door is Christ tempted by a group of demons. To the right is a half-dressed woman with a skull in her hands, which could be Eve or the adulterous woman. This figure is not praying on her knees but is sitting on two lions. The jambs are Saint Andrew and Moses. In the left abutment, the Biblical King David seated on his throne with his legs crossed, translucent through the thin fabric of her clothes, and playing a viola, personifies the triumph over evil and is an outstanding work of the Romanesque, sculpted by Master Esteban. The creation of Adam and Christ's blessing is also shown. Many of these figures come from the Romanesque façade of the north or do Paraíso (current façade of the Acibecharía) and were placed on this façade in the 18th century.

In the tympanum of the right door there are several scenes from the Passion of Christ and the Adoration of the Magi. In one of the jambs is the inscription commemorating the laying of the stone: ERA / IC / XVI / V IDUS / JULLII  Registration follows the Roman calendar, according to the computation of the call Spanish era, corresponding to July 11, 1078. An image, unidentified, on a fox eats a rabbit and, against this, a badly dressed woman with an animal in her lap, comes from elsewhere. Supported on the wall of the tower Berenguela appear other images representing the creation of Eve; Christ on a throne and the Binding of Isaac.

North façade or da Acibecharía

The façade "da Acibecharía" (Galician name derived from the jet gemstone) is in the Praza da Inmaculada or Acibecharía, draining the last section of urban roads: French, Primitive, Northern and English through the old gate Franxígena or Paradise door. The Romanesque portal was built in 1122 by Bernardo, treasurer of the temple. This gate was demolished after suffering a fire in 1758, some sculptural pieces that were saved were placed on the façade das Pratarías. The new façade was designed in Baroque style by Lucas Ferro Caaveiro and finished by Domingo Lois Monteagudo and Clemente Fernández Sarela in the neoclassical style in 1769, although it retained some traces of the baroque.

At the top of the façade is an 18th-century statue of St. James, with two kings at his feet in prayer: Alfonso III of Asturias and Ordoño II of León. In the center is the statue of Faith.

East façade or da Quintana

The façade of the cathedral that overlooks the Quintana Square has two gates: the Porta Real (royal gate) and the Porta Santa (holy gate).  The construction of the Porta Real, baroque, begun under the direction of José de Vega y Verdugo and by José de la Peña de Toro in 1666, and was completed by Domingo de Andrade in 1700, who built some of the columns that span two floors of windows, a balustrade with large pinnacles and an aedicula with an equestrian statue of Saint James (now disappeared), well adorned with decorative fruit clusters and large-scale military trophies. The kings of Spain entered the cathedral through this door, hence its name, and on its lintel is the royal coat of arms.

The so-called Holy Door (Porta Santa) or Door of Forgiveness (Porta do Perdón) is the closest to the steps, is usually closed with a fence and opened only in Jubilee Years (years when St James's Day falls on a Sunday). It was one of the seven lesser gates and was dedicated to St. Pelagius (whose monastery is just opposite). On this door niches contain the image of James and his disciples Athanasius and Theodore at his side. On the bottom and sides of the door were placed twenty-four figures of prophets and apostles (including St. James) coming from the old stone choir of Master Mateo. Inside this door through a small courtyard is the true Holy Door, which enters into the ambulatory of the apse of the church.

Bell Towers

The early towers were in the main façade of the cathedral were Romanesque (current façade of the Obradoiro). They are called the Torre das Campás, which is situated on the side of the Epistle (right), and Torre da Carraca, to the side of the Gospel (left). The two have a height of between 75 and 80 meters.

The first part of the tower was built in the 12th century, but in the 15th century several modifications were made and King Louis XI of France won in 1483 the two largest of the thirteen bells.

Due to a tilt that was detected in its structure between the 16th and 17th centuries, the towers had to be reinforced with buttresses, between 1667 and 1670. José de la Peña made the body in baroque style in which the bells are housed, and which was completed by Domingo de Andrade. The architecture of the towers has a great effect in perspective with its vertical lines and the sequencing of its floors.

North Tower or da Carraca

It is located to the left of the façade del Obradoiro, and was built - like its partner - on the opposite side of an earlier tower of the Romanesque period. It was designed by Fernando de Casas Novoa in 1738, imitating the Torre das Campás by Peña del Toro and Domingo de Andrade in the 17th century: baroque decorations adorned all kinds of ornamentation that provided a unifying architecture across the façade.

Clock Tower, Torre da Trindade or Berenguela

The Clock Tower, also called Torre da Trindade or, Berenguela, is at the intersection of the Pratarías square and the Quintana square. Traditionally, construction was thought to begin in 1316, at the request of Archbishop Rodrigo de Padrón as a defense tower. After his death his successor, Archbishop Bérenger de Landore, continued to work on it, although some authors argue that these dates may not be correct. When he became main master of the cathedral, Domingo de Andrade continued with its construction and between 1676 and 1680 raised it two floors more; the use of various structures achieved a harmonious and ornamental design with a pyramid-shaped crown and a lantern as a final shot (inside of which four light bulbs stay on permanently). It rises to seventy-five metres.

In 1833 a clock was placed in four areas (one for each side of the tower), work by Andrés Antelo, and had been commissioned by the Archbishop Rafael de Vélez. As part of its mechanism it has two bells, the hour hand, called Berenguela, and a smaller one that marks the quarter. These two were cast in 1729 by Güemes Sampedro, Berenguela, and have a diameter of 255 cm and a height of 215 cm, weighing approximately 9600 kilos, and 1839 kilos with a diameter of 147 cm and a height of 150 cm, respectively. Both bells cracked, forcing their replacement. The current replicas were cast in Asten (Netherlands) by the Eijsbouts house in 1989 and were placed in the cathedral in February 1990.

Interior
The cathedral is 97 m long and 22 m high. It preserves its original barrel-vaulted cruciform Romanesque interior. It consists of a nave, two lateral aisles,  a wide transept and a choir with radiating chapels. Compared with many other important churches, the interior of this cathedral gives a first impression of austerity until one enters further and sees the magnificent organ and the exuberance of the choir. This cathedral, through its monumental dimensions, is the largest Romanesque church in Spain and even one of the largest in Europe.

The Pórtico da Gloria

The 12th-century Portico da Gloria, behind the western façade, is in the narthex of the west portal. It is a remain from the Romanesque period. It is a masterwork of Romanesque sculpture built between 1168 and 1188 by Master Mateo at the request of king Ferdinand II of León. The vigorous naturalism of the figures in this triple portal is an expression of an art form, varied in its details, workmanship and polychromy (of which faint traces of colour remain). The shafts, tympana and archivolts of the three doorways which open onto the nave and the two aisles are a mass of strong and nervous sculpture representing the Last Judgment.

The central tympanum gives us an image of Christ in Majesty as Judge and Redeemer, showing His wounds in His feet and hands, accompanied by the tetramorph. He is surrounded on both sides by a retinue of angels carrying the symbols of the Passion. In the archivolt are represented the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse, who are tuning their musical instruments.

The column statues represent the apostles with their attribute; prophets and Old Testament figures with their name on a book or parchment. These were all polychromed. The faint smile of the prophet Daniel as he looks at the angel of Reims is especially noteworthy.

The middle pier represents Saint James, his face conveying an ecstatic serenity. The text scroll in his hand shows the words Misit me Dominus (the Lord sent me). Below him is the Tree of Jesse (the lineage leading to Christ), while above is a representation of the Trinity. It is customary for the pilgrims to touch the left foot of this statue, signifying that they have reached their destination. So many pilgrims have laid their hands on the pillar to rest, that a groove has been worn in the stone.

The lateral portals are dedicated to the to the Jews on the left and to the unbelievers on the right.

The right tympanum is divided into three parts and is dedicated to the salvation of the souls. In the centre are Christ and St Michael, flanked by Hell (represented by demons) and Heaven (represented by children). Purgatory is shown on the side. The left tympanum shows scenes from the Old Testament.

Demons are represented at the bottom of the pórtico, signifying that Glory crushes sin.

Behind the portico stands the statue of Maestro Mateo, the master architect and sculptor put in charge of the cathedral building programme in the 12th century by Fernando II. It is said that whoever butts their head three times against the statue will be given a portion of Mateo's genius and perhaps enhanced memory. There is usually a long line of visitors waiting to bump their head against the statue.

The sculptures in this portico have been a point of reference for Galician sculpture until the 15th century.

The nave

The barrel-vaulted nave and the groin-vaulted aisles consist of eleven bays, while the wide transept consists of six bays. Every clustered pier is flanked by semi-columns, three of which carry the cross vaults of the side aisles and the truss of the arched vaults, while the fourth reaches to the spring of the vault. Lit galleries run, at a remarkable height, above the side aisles around the church.

The choir is covered by three bays and surrounded with an ambulatory and five radiating chapels. The vault of the apse is pierced by round windows, forming a clerestory. The choir displays a surprising exuberance in this Romanesque setting. An enormous baldachin, with a sumptuous decorated statue of Saint James from the 13th century, rises above the main altar. The pilgrims can kiss the saint's mantle via a narrow passage behind the altar.

In the choir aisle the beautiful lattice work and the vault of the Mondragon chapel (1521) stand out. The radiating chapels constitute a museum of paintings, retables, reliquaries and sculptures, accumulated throughout the centuries. In the Chapel of the Reliquary () is a gold crucifix, dated 874, containing an alleged piece of the True Cross.

Crypt

The crypt, below the main altar, shows the substructure of the 9th-century church. This was the final destination of the pilgrims. The crypt houses the relics of Saint James and two of his disciples : Saint Theodorus and Saint Athanasius. The silver reliquary (by José Losada, 1886) was put in the crypt at the end of the 19th century, after authentication of the relics by Pope Leo XIII in 1884.

Throughout the course of time, the burial place of the saint had been almost forgotten. Because of regular Dutch and English incursions, the relics had been transferred in 1589 from their place under the main altar to a safer place. They were rediscovered in January 1879.

Botafumeiro
Main Article: Botafumeiro

A dome above the crossing contains the pulley mechanism to swing the "Botafumeiro", which is a famous thurible found in this church. It was created by the goldsmith José Losada in 1851. The Santiago de Compostela Botafumeiro is the largest censer in the world, weighing 80 kg and measuring 1.60 m in height. It is normally on exhibition in the library of the cathedral, but during certain important religious high days it is attached to the pulley mechanism, filled with 40 kg of charcoal and incense. In the Jubilee Years, whenever St James's Day falls on a Sunday, the Botafumeiro is also attached in all the Pilgrims' Masses. Eight red-robed tiraboleiros  pull the ropes and bring it into a swinging motion almost to the roof of the transept, reaching speeds of 80 km/h and dispensing thick clouds of incense. One  explanation of this custom, which originated more than 700 years ago—although incense has been used in Catholic ritual from the earliest times—is that it assisted in masking the stench emanating from hundreds of unwashed pilgrims.

Pengebumian lain
 Alfonso Daniel Rodríguez Castelao, di Panteón de Galegos Ilustres ("Panteon dari Galicia terkenal"), Bonaval
 Fructuosus daripada Braga
 Rosalía de Castro

Lihat juga
 Santiago de Compostela
 12 Harta Karun Sepanyol

Nota

Bibliografi

 Turner, J. - Grove Dictionary of Art - MacMillan Publishers Ltd., 1996; ISBN 0-19-517068-7

 Video Katedral www.vimeo.com/27959788
 Botafumeiro https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rOoHyEEXxoA

Rujukan
 Teks dari artikel dalam Wikipedia Bahasa Perancis, Bahasa Sepanyol dan Bahasa Inggeris
 Turner, J. - Grove Dictionary of Art - MacMillan Publishers Ltd., 1996; ISBN 0-19-517068-7

 Video katedral www.vimeo.com/27959788
 Botafumeiro https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rOoHyEEXxoA

Pautan luar

 Pembinaan semula gerakan berayun daripada Botafumeiro
 Gambar Katedral Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Sepanyol
 Gambar Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela
 HyperSculpture - Pórtico de la Gloria
Seni zaman pertengahan Sepanyol, tahun 500-an hingga 1200-an, katalog pameran dari The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (tersedia sepenuhnya atas talian sebagai PDF), yang mengandungi bahan mengenai Santiago de Compostela Cathedral (m/s. 175-183)

Galicia (Sepanyol)
Seni bina 1070-an
Gereja Basilica di Sepanyol
Santiago de Compostela
Bangunan gereja abad ke-9
Gereja di Galicia
Seni bina Galicia
Budaya Galicia
Camino de Santiago
Bangunan dan struktur di Santiago de Compostela
Seni bina Romanesque di Sepanyol
Seni bina Baroque di Sepanyo
Mercu tanda Bien de Interés Cultural di Wilayah Coruña
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rOoHyEEXxoA

Katedral Santiago de Compostela


Daihatsu Taft is a fower-wheel-drive vehicle biggit bi Daihatsu atween 1974-1984. It wis forby kent as the Daihatsu Scat in some markets. The Daihatsu Taft is seemilar tae Suzuki Jimny an wis later replaced bi the Daihatsu Fourtrak.

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In aroond 1977, the F10 wis replaced wi the F20 series wi the 1.6L 12R petrol ingine. Aroond the same time the F50 2.5L DG diesel version wis introduced. Baith models featurt an improved transmission an wur available in SWB Softtop an Hardtop versions. In 1979, trayback/ute versions o the F20 an F50 introduced as the F25 an F55 models.
Aroond 1983, updated F20/F25 models wur introduced wi an optional Deluxe version an optional 5-speed gearbox. At the same time the F50/F55 models whaur replaced wi the F60/F65 wi a 2.8L DL diesel, wi the same Deluxe model version an optional 5-speed gearbox.

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Taft
Vehicles introduced in 1974

Daihatsu Taft


This article is about the fictional characters from J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth universe.

Ainur

Valar

Manwë
Manwë Súlimo is the leader of the Valar. He is the lord of air and sky. His wife is Varda. He lives on the mountain of Taniquetil in Valinor, which is far west of Middle-earth.

Morgoth
Melkor was originally the most powerful of the Valar, but he became evil. He was then named Morgoth (Sindarin: "Black Enemy"), and Morgoth Bauglir (Sindarin: "Oppressor"). Morgoth was the greatest enemy of all the peoples of Middle-earth during the First Age. He is the main villain of The Silmarillion.

Maiar

Sauron
Sauron is a Maia who became evil. He became the Dark Lord Morgoth's chief lieutenant. In the Second Age he disguised himself as Annatar and told the elves how to make the Rings of Power. He created the One Ring in the volcano Mount Doom, in his land Mordor. Since then he is the Lord of the Rings.
He was killed in the Downfall of Númenor, but again took form in Mordor. He was again defeated by the Last Alliance of Elves and Men. Later in the Third Age, Sauron again came to life, searching for the Ring, and starting the War of the Ring. Sauron was later defeated when the One Ring fell to the fires of Mount Doom with Gollum. Sauron is mentioned as the Necromancer in The Hobbit.

Istari
The Istari (Quenya: "Wise Ones"; singular: Istar) are a group of five Maiar. They came to Middle-earth in the Third Age, in the form of old human men. The names of the Istari are (in order of rank) Saruman the White, Gandalf the Grey, Radagast the Brown, Alatar the Blue and Pallando the Blue. The peoples of Middle-earth gave them many names, and called them "wizards".

Gandalf
Gandalf the Grey is a main character in the books The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. In the Third Age Gandalf came to Middle-earth as one of the Istari (or wizards). He worked much to help in the destruction of the One Ring, and in the War of the Ring. Later in the Third Age during the War of the Ring, he was later reborn as Gandalf the White and succeeded Saruman as the head of the Istari order. Gandalf is also known by other names: Olórin, Mithrandir, Tharkûn, Incánus, Gandalf Stormcrow, Gandalf Greyhame, Láthspell, White Rider, The Grey Pilgrim, Old Greybeard, Gandalf the Wandering Wizard. Círdan gave Gandalf the Elven Ring Narya, the Ring of Fire, which he had been given by Gil-galad. At the end of the Third Age, Gandalf left Middle-earth for Valinor, together with the bearers of the other two Elven Rings and the Ring-bearers of the One Ring.

Saruman
Saruman the White is a character in the book The Lord of the Rings. In the Third Age Saruman came to Middle-earth as one of the Istari. Saruman is also known as Curumo, Sharkey, Curunír, Saruman of Many Colours, The White Wizard and Saruman the Wise by Gandalf the Grey. Saruman was the leader of the wizards and the White Council that opposed the Dark Lord Sauron. Saruman allied Isengard with Mordor and created an army of 10,000 Uruk-hai and many Isengard who bore his white hand on their faces and armories. Saruman was later expelled from the Order of Istari as its head by Gandalf who broke his black staff of power leaving him powerless. He later managed to convince the Ents who held him captive into letting him leave Isengard after he met the conditions of handing over the Keys of Orthanc. He then went to the Shire, which his ally Lotho Sackville-Baggins had brought under control. He spent his final days as a small-time criminal master in Hobbiton known as Sharkey (from the Orkish Sharkû, meaning "old man"), until he was overthrown in the Battle of Bywater. In the aftermath of that battle Frodo confronted Saruman and exiled him from the Shire, but before he could leave, Gríma killed him by slitting his throat with a dagger, on the very doorstep of Bag End.

Radagast
Radagast the Brown is a character in the book The Lord of the Rings. In the Third Age Radagast came to Middle-earth as one of the Istari. Radagast is also known as Aiwendil, Bird-Friend, Tender of Beasts, "the Birdtamer", "the Simple", and "the Fool". Radagast was a dweller in Rhosgobel with his animal friends. But, by the time of the War of the Ring, he was not a Rhosgobel dweller anymore. Later on Midsummer's Day, Radagast was sitting on the side of the Greenway with his horse near Bree when Gandalf found him on his way to the village. Radagast warned Gandalf that the Nazgûl were abroad, disguised as riders in black, and that they were seeking news of the Shire. He also gave him Saruman's invitation and agreed to help Gandalf by getting beasts and birds to send news to Orthanc. With that he rode away back towards Mirkwood. By sending Gandalf to Orthanc, Radagast unwittingly had him captured. Saruman's message proved to be a trap for Gandalf who was imprisoned in Orthanc, but still he did not believe that Radagast was also a part of Saruman's plans. Indeed, it was thanks to Radagast that Gandalf was able to escape from the pinnacle of Orthanc upon the wings of Gwaihir. Radagast's actions during and after the rest of the War are not recorded. After the Council of Elrond, many scouts were sent out from Rivendell to many different locations. Some passed over the Misty Mountains and eventually came to Rhosgobel, but they found that Radagast was not there.[6] His fate after the War of the Ring is not known.

Alatar and Pallando
Alatar the Blue and Pallando the Blue are the Blue Wizards. They went into the east of Middle-earth. Little is known about them. Alatar was originally a Maia of Oromë the Huntsman named Morinehtar, and presumably lived in his forests on the continent of Aman, west of Middle-earth. The other servants of Oromë included Rómestámo (later Pallando), who was a friend of Morinehtar's, and whom he later chose to journey with him. At some point in the Second Age, around the forging of the Rings of Power, Mohrinehtar and Rómestámo were chosen to become the first of the Istari, and were sent to the East of Middle-earth to stir up rebellion against Sauron and assist the few tribes of Men who had refused to worship Morgoth in the First Age. Before he came to Middle-earth, Pallando was a Maia of Oromë the Huntsman. He was taken to Middle-earth at the bidding of Alatar, another Istar who took him as a friend. During the Third Age, the Valar selected Morinehtar, renamed Alatar, meaning "after-comer", and Pallando to be two of the five Maiar to travel from the Undying Lands to Middle-earth and serve as Istari wizards. Alatar, Curumo (Saruman the White) and Olórin (Gandalf the Grey) were assigned the objective of encouraging the peoples of Middle-earth to oppose Sauron. However, two more joined the original three Wizards and they became five. Aiwendil (Radagast the Brown) was chosen by Yavanna to travel with Curumo, and Alatar took Pallando the Blue as a companion. Upon arrival in Middle-earth, Alatar and Pallando were dressed in robes of sea-blue. Due to this, they were called the Blue Wizards (or Ithryn Luin, in Sindarin). With Saruman, they travelled east in an attempt to help free the last Men of Númenor, who were now Haradrim and Easterlings. Later, Saruman came back to the west alone. However, Alatar and Pallando were never seen again, and their ultimate fates are unknown. Pallando and Alatar (known as the Blue Wizards for their sea-blue robes) traveled to the east of Middle-earth with Curumo (Saruman the White) to aid some men and subdue others, primarily the Easterlings and Southrons who worshiped Sauron, and whose numbers were steadily increasing. Saruman later returned to the West, but Pallando along with Alatar stayed behind. Pallando and Alatar (known as the Blue Wizards for their sea-blue robes) traveled to the east of Middle-earth with Curumo (Saruman the White) to aid some men and subdue others, primarily the Easterlings and Southrons who worshiped Sauron, and whose numbers were steadily increasing. Saruman later returned to the West, but Pallando along with Alatar stayed behind.

Elves

Celeborn
Celeborn was the husband of Galadriel and father of Celebrían. Together with his wife he ruled as Lord over the elven realm Lothlórien.

Celebrían
Celebrían was the daughter of Galadriel and Celeborn. At the beginning of the Third Age she married Elrond Half-elven, and they had the twin sons Elladan and Elrohir, and their daughter Arwen. In 2509 T.A. Celebrían was captured by orcs, but she was rescued by her sons. The year after she left Middle-earth for Valinor.

Galadriel
Galadriel was the youngest child of Finarfin and Eärwen. She married Celeborn, and they had a daughter named Celebrían. In the Second and Third Age she ruled as Lady over the elven realm Lothlórien. Gil-galad gave Galadriel the Elven Ring Nenya, the Ring of Water. At the end of the Third Age, Galadriel left Middle-earth for Valinor, together with the bearers of the other two Elven Rings and the Ring-bearers of the One Ring.

Gil-galad
Ereinion Gil-galad was the last High King of the Noldor in Middle-earth. He was the leader of the elves in the Last Alliance against Sauron, but was killed in the war at the end of the Second Age.

Haldir of Lórien
Haldir was an Elf of Lothlórien; he was guarding its northern borders. When the Fellowship of the Ring arrived in Lothlórien they met Haldir and his companions. Haldir then led the Fellowship to the city Caras Galadhon.

Legolas
Legolas, son of Thranduil, is a main character in The Lord of the Rings. He is an elf from Mirkwood. He is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring. He is sometimes also called Legolas Greenleaf. During the Fellowship's journey, he made friends with the dwarf Gimli, despite the fact that dwarves and elves do not usually get along.

Thranduil
Thranduil, son of Oropher, was king of the elves of Mirkwood during the Third Age. He fought under the command of his father in the Last Alliance, but when Oropher was killed, Thranduil became king. Thranduil is the father of Legolas. In the book The Hobbit, Thranduil is only called the Elvenking. Thranduil also appears in The Lord of the Rings.

Elrond
Elrond Peredhel ("Elrond Half-elven"), is the son of Eärendil and Elwing. In the Third Age, Elrond is the Lord of Rivendell, and an important and wise leader among the elves. Elrond appears in the books The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarillion.

Elrond was a Half-Elf born at the end of the First Age, as the son of Eärendil and Elwing. His brother was Elros Tar-Minyatur, who chose to become a mortal human.
In the Second Age Elrond founded Rivendell. Under the command of Gil-galad he fought in the Last Alliance against Sauron.
At the beginning of the Third Age he married Celebrían, daughter of Galadriel, and they had the twin sons Elladan and Elrohir, and their daughter Arwen. Gil-galad gave Elrond the Elven Ring Vilya, the Ring of Air. At the end of the Third Age, Elrond left Middle-earth for Valinor, together with the bearers of the other two Elven Rings and the Ring-bearers of the One Ring.

Elros
Elros was the son of Eärendil and Elwing, and brother of Elrond. Elros and his brother were born at the end of the First Age. They were Half-Elven, and Elrond chose to be an elf, while Elros chose to become a mortal human. Elros became the first King of Númenor, and took the ruling name Tar-Minyatur. He died in 442 in the Second Age, at age 500. His son Vardamir Nólimon and his grandson Tar-Amandil became Kings after him.

Elladan and Elrohir
Elladan and Elrohir are the twin sons of Elrond Half-elven and Celebrían. They are of the Half-elven who lived during the Third Age.

Arwen
Arwen Undómiel ("Arwen Evenstar"), is the daughter of Elrond and Celebrían, granddaughter of Celeborn and Galadriel, youngest of Elrond and Celebrian's three half-Elven children and is one of the Half-Elven who lived during the Third Age. She is a character in The Lord of the Rings. At the end of the Third Age she falls in love with the human Aragorn. They marry after the War of the Ring. Arwen becomes Queen of Arnor and Gondor, and gives birth to her son Eldarion, and several daughters.

Men (Humans)

Dúnedain

Elendil
Elendil, son of Amandil, was the last Lord of Andúnië, and founder of Arnor. He was also known as Elendil the Tall and Elendil the Faithful.
Elendil was born in Númenor, and became Lord of Andúnië after his father. He had two sons, Isildur and Anárion. After the destruction of Númenor, Elendil fled to Middle-earth. He and his ships landed in the northern part of Middle-earth, where he founded the realm of Arnor. Elendil led the humans in the Last Alliance of Elves and Men to fight Sauron. Elendil was killed by Sauron. His son Isildur and grandson Valandil became Kings of Arnor after him.

Isildur
Isildur, son of Elendil, was the co-founder of Gondor.
After the destruction of Númenor, Isildur and his brother Anárion fled to Middle-earth. They and their ships landed in the southern part of Middle-earth, where they founded the realm of Gondor. Isildur fought in the Last Alliance of Elves and Men under the command of his father Elendil. Isildur cut off the One Ring from Sauron's hand. Elrond and Círdan told Isildur to destroy the One Ring, but Isildur did not want to and kept it. It was decided that Isildur would rule the northern kingdom Arnor afer his father. When Isildur journeyed north, he and his company were attacked by Orcs. Isildur was killed and the One Ring was lost. His oldest sons Elendur, Aratan, and Ciryon were also killed. Isildur's youngest son Valandil became King of Arnor after him.

Anárion
Anárion, son of Elendil, was the co-founder of Gondor.
After the destruction of Númenor, the brothers Isildur and Anárion fled to Middle-earth. They and their ships landed in the southern part of Middle-earth, where they founded the realm of Gondor. Anárion fought in the Last Alliance of Elves and Men under the command of his father Elendil, and was killed. His son Meneldil became king of Gondor after him, while Isildur went to rule the northern kingdom Arnor.

Aragorn
Aragorn II, son of Arathorn, is a main character in The Lord of the Rings. He is the son of Arathorn II and Gilraen. After his father's death he becomes Chieftain of the Dúnedain.
He is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring. After the War of the Ring, at the end of the book, Aragorn becomes King Elessar Telcontar of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor. Aragorn marries Arwen, and becomes the father of a son named Eldarion, and several daughters. His son Eldarion becomes king after him.

Boromir
Boromir is a main character in The Lord of the Rings. Boromir is the son of Denethor II, the Steward of Gondor. Boromir led Gondor's soldiers in the fight against Sauron, before he went to Rivendell. He is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring. At Amon Hen, he goes slightly insane over the Ring. He dies after protecting Merry and Pippin from Saruman's Orcs.

Denethor
Denethor II is the Steward of Gondor, and rules Gondor at the time of the War of the Ring. He married Finduilas of Dol Amroth, and is the father of Boromir and Faramir. During the Battle of the Pelennor Fields he goes insane and burns himself, thinking they would lose the war and get killed anyway.

Eldarion
Eldarion is the son of Aragorn II and Arwen Undómiel. After his father's death he becomes King of Arnor and Gondor.

Faramir

Faramir son of Denethor II, brother of Boromir. Faramir also led Gondor's soldiers in the fight against Sauron's Orcs and Men, and did so often in Ithilien. He became Steward of Gondor after his father's death. After the War of the Ring, Aragorn made him Prince of Ithilien. He married Éowyn.

Rohirrim

Théoden
Théoden was King of Rohan at the time of the War of the Ring. He died at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. His nephew Éomer became king after him.

Éomer
Éomer, son of Éomund, brother of Éowyn, was the nephew of King Théoden. In the War of the Ring, Éomer fought in the Battle of the Hornburg, the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, and the Battle of the Morannon. Éomer became the next King of the Rohirrim after Théoden.

Éowyn
Éowyn, daughter of Éomund, sister of Éomer, was the niece of King Théoden. With the help of the hobbit Meriadoc Brandybuck, she killed the Witch-king of Angmar in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. After the War of the Ring she married Faramir, and became the Lady of Ithilien.

Gríma Wormtongue
Gríma, son of Galmod, called Wormtongue, was at first servant of King Théoden. But then he secretly worked for Saruman. Gríma became Théoden's advisor, and worked to weaken him. When Gandalf made the King better, Gríma fled to Isengard. In the end, he goes with Saruman to the Shire. After the hobbit uprising, Gríma kills Saruman; Gríma is killed by hobbit archers.

In The Lord of the Rings movie series, Gríma kills Saruman in Isegard, then he is shot and killed by Legolas.

Other humans

Bard the Bowman
Bard the Bowman was a man from Lake-town. He was an archer. In The Hobbit he shoots the dragon Smaug and kills him. Afterwards, Bard becomes King of Dale, and old city at the foot of the Lonely Mountain that had been abandoned because of the dragon.

Dwarves

Balin son of Fundin
Balin son of Fundin is one of the dwarves in Thorin Oakenshield's company during the Quest of Erebor. He is the elder brother of Dwalin.

Dáin II Ironfoot
Dáin II Ironfoot was King under the Mountain in the dwarven realm Erebor after Thorin Oakenshield. Dáin was killed during the War of the Ring. His son, Thorin III Stonehelm, became king after him.

Gimli
Gimli son of Glóin, is a main character in The Lord of the Rings. He is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring.

Glóin son of Gróin
Glóin son of Gróin is one of the dwarves in Thorin Oakenshield's company during the Quest of Erebor. He is the younger brother of Óin. Glóin's son is Gimli.

Fíli and  Kíli
Fíli and Kíli were the nephews of Thorin Oakenshield. They were the sons of Dís, Thorin's sister. They went with their uncle on the Quest of the Lonely Mountain, told in The Hobbit. They were killed in the Battle of Five Armies, while they were defending Thorin.

Thorin II Oakenshield
Thorin II Oakenshield, son of Thráin II, was leader of Durin's folk and King under the Mountain. He is the leader of the group that tries to take back the Lonely Mountain from the dragon Smaug in The Hobbit. He is wounded in the Battle of Five Armies and dies. Dáin II Ironfoot becomes King under the Mountain after him. Thorin has a sister, Dís, who has two sons Fíli and Kíli.

Hobbits
See also: Hobbit

Bilbo Baggins
Bilbo Baggins is a main character in the books The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Bilbo goes on an adventure with the dwarves, the Quest of Erebor. During this journey he finds the One Ring. He also gets a small sword which he names Sting, and a small Mithril-shirt. Bilbo later adopts Frodo Baggins. On his 111th birthday, Bilbo leaves the Shire and goes to Rivendell, giving the Ring to Frodo.
At the end of the Third Age, Bilbo left Middle-earth for Valinor, together with Frodo and the bearers of the Elven Rings.

Frodo Baggins
Frodo Baggins is a main character in the book The Lord of the Rings. Frodo is adopted by his uncle Bilbo Baggins. He inherits Bilbo's home Bag End and the One Ring from Bilbo. Frodo is the Ring-Bearer and a member of the Fellowship of the Ring. With the Fellowship, Frodo goes on the quest to destroy the One Ring.
At the end of the Third Age, Frodo left Middle-earth for the Undying Lands, together with Bilbo and the bearers of the Elven Rings.

Meriadoc Brandybuck
Meriadoc Brandybuck, called Merry, is a main character in the book The Lord of the Rings. He is Frodo's cousin. He is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring. At the Battle of the Pelennor Fields he helps Éowyn kill the Witch-king of Angmar. He becomes a Knight of Rohan. After the war he marries Estella Bolger, and becomes Master of Buckland.

Samwise Gamgee
Samwise Gamgee, called Sam, is a main character in the book The Lord of the Rings. He is Frodo's gardener and servant. He is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring.
When the Fellowship breaks at Amon Hen, Sam is the only one who goes on with Frodo on their journey to Mordor. If not for Samwise Gamgee, Frodo would not have made it into Mordor or destroyed the Ring. After the War of the Ring, Sam marries Rose Cotton and lives in Bag End.

Peregrin Took
Peregrin Took, called Pippin, is a main character in the book The Lord of the Rings. He is Frodo's cousin. He is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring. Pippin is a very crucial part in saving middle earth. For without his "small" mistakes the ring could not have been destroyed.

Gollum/Smeagol
Gollum is an important character in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Originally he was a river folk (similar to a hobbit) named Sméagol, who found the One Ring after Isildur lost it. Gollum went to live under the Misty Mountains; there he kept the Ring for over 500 years, and in that time the Ring changed him to look less like river folk. He often called the Ring his "precious". Gollum lost the One Ring, which was then found by Bilbo Baggins in The Hobbit.

In The Lord of the Rings, it is told that after this Gollum left the Misty Mountains to search for the "thief Baggins" who had stolen his Ring. Sauron learned from Gollum that the One Ring was in the Shire and owned by a Baggins. Gollum was released by Sauron. Gollum then again went to search for his Ring. Gollum found the Fellowship in Moria and followed them. Frodo and Sam captured Gollum, and Gollum promised to lead them into Mordor. He later tried to trick them, leaving them with the spider Shelob. Gollum attacked Frodo on Mount Doom, and took back the Ring. But Gollum was careless and fell into the volcano, which killed him and destroyed the One Ring.

Dragons

Ancalagon
Ancalagon the Black is a dragon. He appears in the Silmarillion. Ancalagon was made by Morgoth, and was the biggest and most powerful of all dragons. He was killed by Eärendil, in the War of Wrath in the First Age. When he fell, he crushed the Towers of Thangodrim, heralding the end of Morgoth's tyranny.

Glaurung
Glaurung is a dragon. He appears in the Silmarillion. Glaurung  was a dragon made by Morgoth. He was the first dragon ever created, and he was extremely powerful. He was killed in the First Age by Túrin Turambar.

Smaug
Smaug is a dragon. He appears in The Hobbit. Smaug attacked the Lonely Mountain, killed the dwarves living there, and took their treasure and home. Later in the book Smaug was killed by Bard the Bowman.

Other

Beorn
Beorn is a shape-shifter. He usually is like a big man, but he can change to become a bear. He lives between the Misty Mountains and Mirkwood. He helped at the Battle of the Five Armies.

Nazgûl
The Nazgûl, Ringwraiths or Úlairi are servants of Sauron. They were human kings and leaders in the Second Age. Sauron gave to them nine of the Rings of Power. With time they became like undead ghosts. They are invisible, but their eyes can sometimes be seen as a red light. They wear black cloaks, and usually ride black horses. Later in the Lord of the Rings they ride winged creatures called "fell beasts". When riding a fell beast they are also called Winged Nazgûl.

Witch-king of Angmar
The Witch-king of Angmar, also known as Lord of the Nazgûl or the Black Captain is the leader of the Nazgûl. He was the commander of Minas Morgul. He was killed in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields by Éowyn and Meriadoc Brandybuck.

Khamûl
Khamûl is one of the Ringwraiths, and the only Ringwraith whose name is given by Tolkien. He was called the Black Easterling, and was the commander of the fortress Dol Guldur.

Shelob
Shelob is a giant spider-like creature. She appears in The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers. Shelob stings Frodo Baggins, but is wounded by Samwise Gamgee.

Treebeard
Treebeard is an Ent, a tree-like being. He and other Ents live in the forest Fangorn. In the War of the Ring Meriadoc Brandybuck and Peregrin Took come to Fangorn and meet Treebeard. This causes the Ents to go out and fight against the wizard Saruman in his fortress Isengard. The Ents are accompanied by an army of Huorns (normal trees that have come alive). After Isengard is conquered, the Huorns go to Helm's Deep, to help the Rohirrim there fight and win against Saruman's army.

Characters from adaptations
There have been many adaptations of Tolkien's books, for example films like The Lord of the Rings movie series. In them characters appear that were newly created and are not in Tolkien's works.

Tauriel

Tauriel is an elf from Mirkwood that appears in The Hobbit movie series.

Related pages

Middle-earth

Characters
Characters in written fiction

Middle-earth characters


The Coventryville Historic District is a historic district and historic village in Chester County, Pennsylvania, United States that enjoyed a significant role in the early American metal industry.

History
Coventryville's origins lie in the iron forge founded in 1717 by Englishman Samuel Nutt, an early American industrialist and member of Pennsylvania's Assembly in 1723–26. Named for his native home of Coventry, England, Coventry was the first forge in Chester County and was located at the confluence of the north and south branches of French Creek a short distance from rich iron deposits.

In 1723, Nutt formed a partnership with Mordecai Lincoln (great-great grandfather of Abraham Lincoln), and iron pioneer William Branson and expanded the operation to include two furnaces, Warwick and Reading. It was at Reading Furnace under Branson's operation that same year that experiments led to the production of early steel.

After Nutt's death in 1737, Coventry passed to his nephew Samuel Nutt Jr. whose wife, Rebecca Savage inherited the site upon his death. Upon her marriage to Robert Grace, Coventry and Warwick were joined to become Rebecca Nutt and Company. It was Robert Grace's close friendship with Benjamin Franklin that led to the popular legend of the Franklin Stove prototyped at Grace's home, Coventry Hall.

In 1757, Coventry and Warwick passed to Thomas Potts, Rebecca's son-in-law and father of John, founder of nearby Pottstown. By the time of the Revolution Coventry had passed his brother Samuel and Thomas Rutter. It was under the Thomas Potts/Rutter ownership that Coventry and Warwick supplied munitions for the Continental Army.

In the early 19th century, Coventry forge was enlarged and re-equipped and much of the present village was constructed. During this time, however, anthracite coal began to replace charcoal as fuel and new techniques for manufacturing iron and steel were developed. Smaller operations like those at Coventry and nearby Hopewell lay far from coal deposits and outside rail transportation centers and declined with only brief peaks in production during the American Civil War. Coventry Forge ceased operations entirely in 1871.

The village today consists of structures dating from the early 18th century until the mid 19th including workers housing, the Inn, the ironmaster's house (Coventry Hall) and the mid 19th century Methodist church. While the realignment of Route 23 to the south of the village in 1959–1960 obliterated a portion of the forge site, the Coventryville Historic District remains an intact concentration of original eighteenth and nineteenth century structures. The community was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.

References

Unincorporated communities in Chester County, Pennsylvania
Unincorporated communities in Pennsylvania
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
National Register of Historic Places in Chester County, Pennsylvania

Coventryville Historic District


Jette is ane o the nineteen municipalities locatit in the Brussels-Caipital Region o Belgium.

The Vrije Universiteit Brussel, the Dutch-speakin university o Brussels haes biggit its hospital an medical campus in Jette, while its ither biggins are in the so-cried Etterbeek campus actually locatit in Ixelles or Elsene.

Pronunciation
 French:
 Dutch:

History

Oreegins tae Middle Ages
Neolithic tools an remains o a Gallo-Roman villa hae been foond on the territory o Jette, provin the auld age o the first settlements in this aurie.  The fact that its first kirk wis dedicatit tae Saunt Peter an aa indicates early Christianization.  Durin the Middle Ages, pairts o the territory wur feudal dependencies o the Duchy o Brabant.  Unner the duke's protection, the Abbey o Dieleghem wis foondit in 1095 bi the Bishop o Cambrai an admeenistered bi Augustinian canons.  In 1140, the abbey's monks switched tae the rules o the Premonstratensian order.  In the 13t century, the abbey nou cried Dieleghem possessed hauf o the commune's territory an played an important social an economic role till the French Revolution.

17t tae 20t century
Durin the "Auld Regime", Jette wis pairt o the town of Merchtem.  In the 17t century, the meenister o finances unner Airchdukes Albert an Isabella acquired an refurbished the auld 12t century Rivieren castle in Ganshoren, near Jette.  In 1654, the meenister's son made this estate intae a barony, then five years later intae a coonty, which includit Jette an several neighbourin veelages.

In the 1790s, the regime that wis put in pouer bi the French Revolution curtailed the releegious freedoms drastically.  The monks wur expulsed frae the abbey in 1796 an maist o the biggins demolished the follaein year. Anerlie the abbott's hoose wis kept, as a leisure hoose.  In 1841, the veelage o Ganshoren split frae Jette.  Durin the follaein decades, wha remained o Jette gradually lost its rural character tae become a Brussels suburb.  Its population, which wis aroond 10,000 in 1900 grew tae mair nor 40,000 in 1971.

Sights
The Jette ceety haw, Jules Van Ysendyck's maisterpiece, dates frae the beginnin o the 20t century.
The ae extant biggin o the Abbey of Dieleghem has been converted into a mostly historical museum.
Jette haes kept a few o its auld pubs an breweries, as well as a blacksmith's wirkshop that still operatit till 1960.
The René Magritte museum wis set up in the hoose whaur the famous painter lived an wirked for twinty-fower years.

Famous inhabitants
 René Magritte, surrealist painter (1898–1967)
 Jean Roba, comics author, creator o Boule et Bill (1930–2006)
 François Narmon (b. Jette, 1934), businessman
 Thomas Chatelle, fitbaa player (b. 1981)

Pairtner ceeties
: Sidi Bibi
: Jojutla

Freemit airtins
Offeecial wabsteid, in French or Dutch

Municipalities o the Brussels-Caipital Region

Jette


In 1883 a young Belgian called Sylvain de Jong settled in Antwerp, Belgium. He started a bicycle factory there. By the end of that century he started producing motorbikes, and after a while automobiles as well. In 1903 he grounded the NV Minerva Motors' in Berchem (Antwerp).
A certain Charles S Rolls was Minerva dealer in England. The small 1 cylinder Minervette was there with its 105 Pound, the cheapest automobile.
In the years after the fame of the automobile was rising enormous. Most important market for the constructor remained however England that took the biggest part of the production, followed by the Netherlands and France.
From 1908 Minerva got a worldwide Knight licence. The Knight motor was a motor without valves, developed by Charles Y Knight in the United States. These motors were extremely silent. The company did well in several automobile racing competitions in Europe.
After worldwar I, during which Sylvain de Jong and his engineers headed to Amsterdam, where they kept on developing parts, they returned to start up the production of luxury automobiles. The constructors star rose in the United States as well, American filmstars, politicians and industrials liked them cars as well (even Henry Ford had before the WW already one!). The car had the same qualities as the Rolls Royce, but was a little cheaper. With the economical crisis in the 30's, the company went bankrupt in 1936. The remains were taken over by another Belgian constructor named Imperia. Imperia putted the name Minerva on their automobiles for export to England and France and for the trucks (which Minerva had made before too).
After worldwar II  the company produced Land Rovers under licence for the Belgian army. Production of these 4Wheel Drives stopped in 1953. The company struggled for survival and made some Land Rover-like cars till 1956. But than the constructor diappeared completely.

Other websites
Minerva Cars

Automobiles

Minerva (automobile)


The Bodleian Library (founded in 1602) is the main library of the University of Oxford, and one of the oldest libraries in Europe. It is the second largest library in the United Kingdom after the British Library. It is one of six legal deposit libraries for works published in the United Kingdom and under Irish Law it is entitled to request a copy of each book published in the Republic of Ireland. It has had rights of legal deposit for books since the 17th century.

Though members of the University may borrow some books from some dependent libraries (such as the Radcliffe Science Library), the vast majority of the material held by the Bodleian may only be read within the library buildings. Besides books, periodicals and manuscripts there are smaller collections of other types of material.

The Library occupies a group of five buildings near Broad Street in central Oxford: the oldest is the late medieval Duke Humfrey's Library. The newest is the Weston Library which opened in 2015, built from an overhaul of what the New Bodleian which dates from the 1930s. Since the 19th century a number of underground stores have been built below parts of these.

Though Duke Humfrey's Library was a library for the university from 1488 to 1560 the Bodleian itself was founded by Sir Thomas Bodley in the years 1598 to 1602. In the following centuries it greatly increased in size through collections of books donated by benefactors and through books received through legal deposit.

Many notable scholars have been heads of the library (known as Bodley's Librarians): the present Bodley's Librarian is Richard Ovenden.

References

Libraries in the United Kingdom
1602 establishments
1600s establishments in Europe
17th-century establishments in England
Buildings and structures in Oxford
University of Oxford

Bodleian Library


The Minitel is a Videotex online service. Users connected to it through the telephone lines. It was a successful pre-World Wide Web online service. The PTT (Poste, Téléphone et Télécommunication) started Minitel started in France in 1982. From the beginning, users could buy things online that are now done on the Internet. People could make train reservations, check stock prices, search the telephone directory, have a mail box, and chat.

In February 2009, France Telecom said the Minitel network still had 10 million monthly connections. One-million were to the directory.  France Telecom ended the service on 30 June 2012.

Business model

Millions of terminals were free to telephone subscribers. That meant many people and businesses had access immediately. People who got Minitel did not get a regular paper telephone directory.

Minitel gave access to these services:
 phone directory (free)
 mail-order retail companies
 airline or train ticket purchases
 information services
 databases
 message boards

Many new companies started to try to make money using the network.  This was like the later dot-com bubble.  Many of the companies failed. Some people criticized pornographic services on Minitel because children could access them. The government did not make rules about pornography on Minitel. The government also made a tax on pornographic online services.

Finances
Payment methods
Credit card for purchases
Telephone bill for surfing time: rates depended on the sites visited

France Télécom charged Minitel users at rates of up to €1 a minute. The rates depend on the service called. Most services were much cheaper than the maximum. France Télécom then paid part of the fee to the companies that operate Minitel servers.

Phonebook
The most popular service of the Minitel was the "Annuaire Electronique" at the phone number "11". On 18 October 1996, access to the Phonedirectory changed to "3611". Companies could add up to 3 lines of information to the listing. There were also advertisements on the phone directory pages.

Terminals
Minitel terminals have a text based screen, keyboard and modem. The screen can show simple graphics.  Minitel terminals use the AZERTY keyboard, not the QWERTY keyboard. Users could buy printers to attach to the terminals.

Network
The Minitel modem usually dialed a special number to connect to a PAVI (Point d'Accès VIdéotexte, "videotext access point"). The PAVI sent information to the correct servers on the Transpac X.25 network. In France the most common dial number was "36 15". "36 17" was for more expensive services. Minitel services names often started with this number. So, the "36 15" number at the front of the name was like the ".com" on Internet web sites.

Minitel used a half-duplex asymmetric data rate via its modem.  It downlinked at 1200 bit/s and uplinked at 75 bit/s.  This allowed fast downloads, for the time. The system was called '1275', but the correct name was  V.23. This system was only for Minitel and copies of Minitel in other countries.

Similar services
The United Kingdom had a similar service called Prestel.

References

Other websites
 The official website
 The official internet gateway to Minitel
 The Périminitel, a home computer based around the Minitel service
 Minitel Emulation in Microsoft HyperTerminal
 Computer Chronicles:  High Tech France (video circa 1990)

Telecommunications

Minitel


Pangan nyaéta zat naon baé nu ilahar didahar atawa diinum ku mahluk hirup. Istilah pangan ogé ngawengku inuman cair. Pangan mangrupa sumber utama énergi sarta mangrupa gizi pikeun sato, nu biasana sumberna ti sato ogé atawa ti tutuwuhan.

Ulikan ngeunaan pangan disebut élmu pangan (food science).

Harti formal
Hukum pangan di Kulon ngabédakeun pangan kana opat kategori:
 zat atawa produk naon baé, boh nu diolah, diolah sawaréh, atawa nu teu diolah, nu dimaksudkeun pikeun kadaharan manusa tanpa nempo ajén gizina;
 cai jeung inuman séjénna;
 permén karét;
 zat naon baé nu dipaké salaku ingredient atawa komponén dina nyiapkeun pangan.
 Dadaran Pamaréntah Féderal AS ngeunaan pangan
 Dadaran Inggris ngeunaan pangan
 Dadaran Uni Éropa ngeunaan pangan

Kabiasaan dahar manusa

Kamekaran sajarah

Manusa mangrupa omnivora nu ngadahar boh hasil tutuwuhan (nabati) atawa sato (héwani). Saenggeusna ngarandapan usum es, kajurung ku  hayang hirup dina kaayaan ayem tengtrem salahsahijina tarékah kujalan  nyadiakeun kabutuhan sapopoé ku jalan melak tutuwuhan sarta ngingu sasatoan nu dipikabutuh. Kadieunakeun ieu tarékah ngarobah cara hirup manusa dina nyumponan sagala rupa kabutuhan hirupna saperti ayana tatanén.

Meals
A selection of different complementary foods éaten together comprises a meal. Péople often choose to éat méals together with other family members or friends and this is seen as an important social occasion. Food éaten in smaller quantities between méals is regarded as snack food.

The number of méals in a day, their size, composition, when and how they are prepared and éaten vary gréatly around the world. This is gréatly dependent on the local climate, ecology, economy, cultural traditions and industrialisation. Méals also plays an important role in the celebration of many key cultural and religious festivals.

In societies where the availability of food has risen above subsistence levels and beyond staple foods, food is also sold pre-prepared for immediate consumption in restaurants and other similar retail premises. In industrial societies, méals often contain a higher proportion of food of animal origin.

See also: Appetite, Buddhist cuisine, Eucharist, Fast food, Fasting, Gault Millau restaurant guide, Halaal, I-tal, Kashrut, Michelin restaurant guide, Muslim dietary laws, Potluck, Totemism.

Food production or acquisition
Food is traditionally obtained through farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other methods of subsistence locally important for some populations, but minor for others.

In the modérn era, in developed nations, food supply is incréasingly dependent upon agriculture, industrial farming, aquaculture and fish farming techniques which aim to maximise the amount of food produced, whilst minimising the cost. These include a reliance on mechanised tools which have been developed, from the threshing machine, seed drill, through to the tractor and combine harvester, etc. These have been combined with the use of pesticides to promote high crop yields and combat those insects or mammals which reduce yield.

More recently, there has been a growing trend towards more Sustainable agricultural practices. This approach - which is partly fuelled by consumer demand - encourages biodiversity, local self-reliance and Organic farming methods.

Major influences on food production are international policy, e.g. the World Trade Organization and Common Agricultural Policy, national government policy or law and war.

Food for livestock is fodder and traditionally comprises hay or grain.

See also: mariculture, horticulture, agribusiness, gardening.

Tina tutuwuhan
 Jujukutan katut sisikianana (grains), kayaning barley, séréal, couscous, jagong, oats, béas, rye, sugarcane, gandum
 Bungbuahan, tempo ogé daptar bubuahan
 Herbs, see also list of herbs and spices
 Legumes, including beans, peas, lentils, jicama
 Nuts
 Seeds
 Spices, see also list of herbs and spices
 Sayur, tempo ogé daptar sayuran

Tina sasatoan
 Dairy product, kaasup susu
 Endog
 Lauk
 Sarangga, kaasup madu
 Daging
 Offal, kaasup getih
 Peternakan, kaasup hayam, kalkum, éntog, meri, soang, japati, ostrich, emu, guinea fowl, pheasant, quail
 Seafood, kaasup molluska jeung crustacea, which are collectively known as shellfish
 Game, this includes all animals hunted for food.

Boh ti sato atawa tutuwuhan
 Cai, kaasup cai mineral jeung cai gunung

Food preparation
Whilst some food can be éaten without preparation, many foods undergo some form of preparation for réasons of safety, palatability, or flavour. At the simplest level this may involve washing, cutting, trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve mixing, héating or cooling, Pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. Most food preparation takes place in a kitchen.

The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve slaughter, evisceration, hanging, portioning and rendering.

See also: Barbecue, Eating utensils, Frankfurt kitchen, Hangi, Oven, Microwave oven, Refrigeration, Food preparation utensils.

Recipes
Human knowledge of cooking and preparation methods is often taught by parents to their children, largely based on the cuisine within their cultural traditions. Since the development, of mass-produced printing, this has been supplemented by written recipes. éarly examples of influential recipe books include De re coquinaria, Le Repertoire De La Cuisine, Larousse Gastronomique and Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management.

See also: Wikipedia cookbook.

Food manufacture
Food manufacturing, or food processing, arose during the industrialisation éra in the 19th century. This development took advantage of new mass markets and emerging new technology, such as milling, food preservation, packaging and labelling and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary péople who did not employ domestic servants.

At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well known food brands; with a populous number of small local or national food processing companies.

See also: Best before, Canning, Coloring, Food quality, Cook/chill, Additives, Flavoring, Enzymes, Genetically modified food, Packaging and labelling, Pasteurization, Preservation, Shelf-life, Ultra-high temperature processing.

Types of manufactured food
 Drinks: beer, juice, soft drink, squash, liquids.
 Bread is a staple food for many nations, being made of risen dough.
 Cheese is a curdled milk product, of which many varieties exist.
 Dessert is a course, usually sweet, and generally served after the main course, e.g. Ice cream.
 French fries
 Jelly and Jam
 Pasta
 Pizza
 Sandwich
 Salad
 Sauce
 Sausage
 Snack food: Confectionery, Potato chips, Chocolate, Cracker (biscuit), Hardtack
 Soup
 Sugar

Food trade
Food is now traded on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing season. Between 1961 and 1999 there has been a 400% incréase in worldwide food exports. Some countries are now economically dependant on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports.

In 1994 trade liberalisation began when over 100 countries became signatories to the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade which included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers. This is underpinned by the WTO enforcement of agricultural subsidy, tariffs, import quotas and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved. Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public héalth and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which was founded in 1962 by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization.

Food retailing

The sale of surplus food traditionally took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day, into the local village market place. Here food was sold to grocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by local péople.

With the onset of industrialisation, and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically éarly grocery shops would be counter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them.

In the 20th century supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a self-service approach to shopping using shopping carts (or Trollies in British English) and were able to offer quality food at lower cost, through economies of scale and reduced staffing costs. This was sometimes known as 'pile it high' In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionised by the development of vast warehouse sized out-of-town supermarkets, selling an extraordinarily wide range of food from around the world.

Alike with food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield gréat purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, in 2000 only 19% of all US consumer expenditure spent on food went to farmers.

Recent technological innovations such as point of sale technology - barcodes. This allows ordering of goods and food to be driven by actual sales.

Pangan jeung kaséhatan

Kacukupan pangan
Deprivasi pangan ngakibatkeun malnutrisi nu antukna jadi kalaparan (Ing. starvation). Ieu biasana patali jeung famine, kakurangan pangan di masarakat, nu mawa balukar kana kaséhatan jeung mortalitas manusa. Taun 2003 sataunna aya kira 40 juta urang nu maotr alatan kalaparan. Rationing is sometimes used to fairly the equal distribution of food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.

Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Bantuan pangan
Bantuan pangan bisa ngabantuan jalma-jalma nu kakurangan pangan. Sabalikna, bantuan pangan nu dikokolakeun sacara teu bener bisa ngaruksak pasar lokal, neken harga crop sarta ngalemahkeun produksi pangan. Its provision, or thréatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the politics of the destination country. International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are co-ordinated by the World Food Program.

Tempo ogé: Fair trade, food security.

Kasalametan pangan
Kasakit alatan pangan (Ing. foodborne illness) atawa karacunan pangan, disababkeun ku baktéri, toxin, virus, jeung prion. Karacunan pangan geus kasebutkeun ti jaman Hipokratés. Nelasan ku jalan ngaracun dahareun geus aya ti jaman Karajaan Romawi. In the Middle Ages all Royal Courts had food tasters.

The sale of rancid, contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of hygiene and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat and other microbiological by scientists such as Louis Pasteur contributed to the modérn standards that we enjoy today. This was further underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig whose work led to the development of modérn food storage and food preservation methods.

Understanding of the causes of food-borne-illnesses and more systematic techniques for their elimination has led to the development of commercial systems such as HACCP which can, if properly implemented, identify and can eliminate all possible risks.

Dietary habits
Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all humans. For example:

 Eating disorders are a group of mental disorders that interfere with normal food consumption. They often affect péople with a negative body image;
 13% of the world's population suffer from Iodine deficiency;
 In 2003 it was estimated that vitamin A deficiency causes blindness in up to 500,000 children éach yéar;
 Vitamin C deficiency results in scurvy;
 Kwashiorkor and marasmus are childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary protein.
 Certain foods contain allergens which can safely be consumed by the majority by péople. However, these can trigger severe illness in small proportion of susceptible péople. Rarely this can trigger anaphylaxis which can be fatal.

Concerns about foodborne illness have long influenced diet. Traditionally humans have léant to avoid foods that induce acute illness. Some believe that this is the underlying rationale behind some traditional religious dietary requirements. Additionally, many péople choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees; see vegetarianism, veganism, fructarianism , living foods diet, and raw foodism.

The nutrient content of diets in industrialised countries contain more animal fat, sugar, energy, alcohol and less dietary fiber, carbohydrates and antidioxidants. Contemporary changes to work, family and exercise patterns, together with concerns about the effect of nutrition and obesity on human health and mortality are all having an effect on traditional éating habits. Physicians and alternative medicine practitioners may recommend changes to diet as part of their recommendations for tréatment.

More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some péople have about the chronic impact on héalth that arise through the consumption of genetically modified food or beef infected with Bovine spongiform encephalopathy. Further concerns about the impact of indudtrial farming on animal welfare, human héalth and the environment are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a counterculture with a preference for organic and local food.

See also: Food faddism, Health claims on food labels, list of diets, Slow Food.

Gizi dina pangan
 Kalsium
 Karbohidrat
 Asam amino ésénsil
 Lemak
 Beusi
 Mineral
 Zat Fitokimia, kaasup antioksidan, énzim, bio-flavonoid
 Kalium
 Protéin
 Natrium
 Aci
 Vitamin
 Cai

Kanyaho ngeunaan kandungan gizi jeung interaksi antarkomponén na métabolisme manusa pikeun asupan/diet idéal kiwari jadi ladang kaweruh nu terus tumuwuh.

Tempo ogé
 Daptar jejer pangan

Tumbu kaluar
 Food Directory
 Food Info Net: A leading internet portal for the global food industry .
 Food Lexicon: English, French, German, Danish, Dutch, Spanish
 Patto's Gourmet Dictionary: English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Nihongo.
 Food Timeline
 Nutritiondata.com
 Dietary Guidelines
 Recipes

Dahareun jeung inuman

Pangan


Struga is a small city in the southwest of North Macedonia at the Lake Ohrid. The Black Drin river runs through the town, dividing it into a western and an eastern part. About 15,000 people live in Struga. They are a mix of Albanians, (Slavic) Macedonians, Turks and Romani.

Struga is known for its tourism, mostly in the summer, when people come to take a bath at the shores of the Lake Ohrid and of the river Black Drin.

Struga is also the capital of the municipality with the same name including the town itself as well as nearby villages.

Cities in North Macedonia

Struga


Bleach is the name for a number of chemical substances which can be used to remove colors, or to make things white. Very often, they act through oxidation. Bleaches on the base of sulfur have been in use for thousands of years. Modern bleaches are usually based on chlorine or on oxygen.

Many bleaches can kill bacteria easily. For this reason, they are often used for disinfecting or sterilisation.

Dangers of using bleach
Mixing bleach with some things commonly found at home, like vinegar or even fruit juice can produce chemicals like chlorine that are irritating or even dangerous. Bleach should also not be mixed with ammonia because a hazardous chemical reaction will occur. This effect can kill people.

Certain types of bleaches produce toxic waste. Some of them produce dioxins.

Examples of bleaches
Sulfur dioxide, one bleach that is a reducing agent
Hydrogen peroxide
Sodium hypochlorite, household bleach
Bleaching powder
Bleach made from hydrogen peroxide is used to make hair lighter in color, orange, blonde, or even white. It is often used by dark-haired people to make highlights, and most hair dyes contain it.

Other websites

Bleach (MSDS)

Cleaning tools

Bleach


Misenum (modern-day Miseno) is a small commune near Naples, Italy. Today, Miseno is part of Bacoli. Miseno is at the end of the Gulf of Naples. The city has a long history. Originally, Misenum was part of Cumae. It was devastated by Hannibal, in the year 214 BC.

Today, it is mostly known for its beaches. The best-known sight is the Piscina Mirabilis, a water reservoir, of about 70m by 30m which the Romans constructed to support the fleet.

The current landscape around Misenum is characterized by hills and crater lakes. It is the result of the volcanic activity of the Phlegraean Fields.

Naples

Misenum


Tang Shu Shuen (; born 1941) is a former Hong Kong film director.  Though her film career was brief, she was a trailblazer for socially critical art cinema in Hong Kong's populist film industry, as well as its first noted woman director.

Tang was born in Yunnan province, China.  She graduated from the University of Southern California.

Tang's best-known films are her first two, The Arch (1968) and China Behind (1974). The first film looks at the subjugation of women and their sexuality in a traditional village through the story of a widow's unconsummated passion for a male houseguest. The second follows the harrowing journey of a group of college students trying to cross illegally into Hong Kong from a China torn by the Cultural Revolution.

The bleak portrait in China Behind of both communist China and capitalist Hong Kong brought upon it a thirteen-year ban by the British colonial authorities. In addition to their provocative themes, both films used stylistic devices, such as freeze-frames and expressionistic color, possibly inspired by the European art cinema of the 1960s.

Tang made two more, less noted, films, Sup Sap Bup Dup (1975) and The Hong Kong Tycoon (1979).  She also launched the territory's first serious film journal, Close-Up, in 1976.  It stopped publishing in 1979 (Bordwell, 2000).

She ceased filmmaking and emigrated to the United States in 1979, becoming a respected restaurateur in Los Angeles.  Many critics, however, see her influence in the so-called Hong Kong New Wave of edgy, groundbreaking young filmmakers in the late '70s and early '80s.

References
 Bordwell, David.  Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the Art of Entertainment.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000.
 Teo, Stephen. Hong Kong Cinema: The Extra Dimensions. London: British Film Institute, 1997.

External links

1941 births
Living people
University of Southern California alumni
Hong Kong emigrants to the United States
Hong Kong film directors

Tang Shu Shuen


Aëtius of Antioch (; ; ; ), surnamed "the Atheist" by his trinitarian enemies, founder of Anomoeanism, was a native of Coele-Syria.

Life and writings
Aëtius grew up in poverty or slavery. He later worked as a goldsmith in Antioch to support his widowed mother and studied philosophy. After his mother died, Aëtius continued his trade and extended his studies into the Christian scriptures, Christian theology, and medicine.

After working as a vine-dresser and then as a goldsmith, he became a traveling doctor, and displayed great skill in disputations on medical subjects; but his controversial power soon found a wider field for its exercise in the great theological question of the time. He studied successively under the Arians, Athanasius, bishop of Anazarbus, and the presbyter Antonius of Tarsus. In 350 he was ordained a deacon by Leontius of Antioch, but was shortly afterwards forced by the trinitarian party to leave that town. At the first synod of Sirmium he won a dialectic victory over the homoiousian bishops, Basilius and Eustathius, who sought in consequence vainly to stir up against him the enmity of Constantius Gallus. In 356 he went to Alexandria with Eunomius in order to advocate Arianism. Here he is said to have debated Manichean Aphthonius of Alexandria so vigorously that the latter died after the encounter. Aëtius was afterwards banished from Alexandria by Constantius II. Julian recalled him from exile, bestowed upon him an estate in Lesbos, and retained him for a time at his court in Constantinople. Being consecrated a bishop, he used his office in the interests of Arianism by creating other bishops of that party. At the accession of Valens (364), he retired to his estate at Lesbos, but soon returned to Constantinople, where he died in 367.

Anomoean sect
The Anomoean sect of the Arians, of whom he was the leader, are sometimes called after him Aetians. His work De Fide has been preserved in connection with a refutation written by Epiphanius (Haer. lxxvi. 10). Its main thought is that the homoousia, i.e. the doctrine that the Son (therefore the Begotten) is essentially God, is self-contradictory, since the idea of unbegottenness is just that which constitutes the nature of God.

In one of his treatises, Saint Basil the Great writes against the Anomoeans led by Aëtius, whom he describes an instrument in the hands of "the enemy of truth". Aëtius is said to have been the first to articulate the doctrine that the Father and the Only Begotten Son do not share the same divine substance.

See also
 Aetia gens

Notes

References
Harnack, A. History of Dogma, vol iv, passim (reference in EB11)
Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, s.v. Aetius.
La Grande Encyclopédie, s.v. Aétius d'Antioche.

4th-century Christian theologians
Arian Christians
4th-century Romans
4th-century Arian Christians
4th-century writers
Nature of Jesus Christ

Aëtius of Antioch


Law enforcement in Sweden is carried out by several government agencies, under the guidance of the Government of Sweden.

Structure
The administration of both law enforcement and the judiciary of Sweden falls under the Ministry of Justice, a cabinet-level department in the government of Sweden, headed by the Minister of Justice. The Ministry is primarily concerned with policy-making and legislation. The actual day-to-day administration is the responsibility of agencies, such as the Swedish Police Authority ().

The organization mainly tasked with law enforcement is the Swedish Police Authority. In addition, under certain circumstances, other government agencies can be tasked with law enforcement, including investigations, arrest/probationary powers, or enforcement of judgements. Just like in the United States, Swedish law has provisions similar to the U.S. Posse Comitatus Act which limits the use of the military to perform the tasks of law enforcement agencies in time of peace.

This rule has recently come under review, in light of the upsurge of terrorist activity following the 9/11 attacks and the bombings in Bali, Madrid and London it has been suggested that the military should be allowed to aid the police in certain situations of heightened tension.

Agencies under the Ministry of Justice

Swedish Police Authority

The Swedish Police Authority is the central administrative authority for the police in Sweden and the National Forensics Centre. It is responsible for law enforcement, general social order and public safety within the country. A number of special units are organized under this agency, such as the National Task Force and the Reinforced Regional Task Forces.

Swedish Security Service

The Swedish Security Service (, Säpo) is tasked with protection of the constitution, close protection, counter-espionage and counter-terrorism.

Swedish Economic Crime Authority

The Swedish Economic Crime Authority (, EBM) is a multidisciplinary law enforcement agency with the responsibility to both investigate and prosecute in cases of economic crimes. Similar multidisciplinary organizations are the Økokrim in Norway and the Scorpions in South Africa.

Swedish Prosecution Authority

The Swedish Prosecution Authority () is the principal agency in Sweden responsible for public prosecutions. It is headed by the Prosecutor General of Sweden.

Swedish prosecutors, belonging or not to the authority, are responsible for leading and supervising criminal investigations done by the Swedish Police, and preparing and presenting cases for the courts. The prosecutors also hold a number of quasi-judicial powers like, though not officially, acting as judges in several misdemeanor cases.

There are also a couple of Swedish prosecution agencies, independent of the SPA such as the Swedish Chancellor of Justice, which is independent of the national government, and the Parliamentary Ombudsman. The Chancellor of Justice is responsible for supervising the lawfulness of government actions. The Parliamentary Ombudsman is responsible for supervising public authorities and also has powers to act as a special prosecutor and bring charges against public officials for malfeasance or some other irregularity. This happens very rarely.

Chancellor of Justice

The Chancellor, roughly the Attorney General of Sweden, acts, besides supervising lawyers and public officials, as a special prosecutor in several cases. The Chancellor does have, as being a prosecutor, investigative powers in cases regarding misconduct of lawyers and public officials, and violations of the Swedish laws dealing with press freedom.

Swedish Prison and Probation Service

The Swedish Prison and Probation Service () does have, besides duties as guarding prisons and keeping arrested suspects in jail, certain powers to track down escaped convicts.

Swedish National Board of Forensic Medicine

The Swedish National Board of Forensic Medicine () is responsible for forensic psychiatry, forensic chemistry, forensic medicine and forensic genetics.

Agencies under the Ministry of Finance

Swedish Customs Service
The Swedish Customs Service, or Tullverket, performs duties related to law enforcement including border guard duties and the trace of illegal narcotics attempted to be smuggled into the country.

Swedish Enforcement Administration
The Swedish Enforcement Administration, or Kronofogdemyndigheten is the law enforcement agency  in charge of debt collection, distraint, evictions, and the enforcement of court orders in Sweden. The authority also supervises trustees in bankruptcy.

Agencies under the Ministry of Defence

Swedish Coast Guard
The Swedish Coast Guard, or Kustbevakningen enforce Swedish law on the sea, independently or together with the Swedish Police. This includes sobriety tests of the operators of any marine vessel.

Swedish Military Police
The Swedish military police is the law enforcement service of the Swedish Armed Forces. The Life Guards is responsible for training military police soldiers, Royal Guards and other guards. The duties of the military police outside the military may include protection and safety of foreign Heads of State.

The connection between the military police units and the Life Guards is similar to the structure in the Swedish Police Service; the Life Guard is responsible for service, coordination and development of the military police, and the local unit is responsible to investigate and keep law and order at the camp.

Agencies under the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs

Swedish National Board of Institutional Care

The Swedish National Board of Institutional Care () arrange compulsory care for young people with psychosocial problems and for adults suffering from substance abuse problems.

See also
Crime in Sweden

Notes

References

Law enforcement in Sweden


A clown is a kind of entertainer, or performance artist, who performs physical comedy and stunts to amuse others. They usually wear grease paint makeup that hides their real face, a large wig with brightly-colored hair, and baggy, padded clothing.

Many clowns belong to a circus, while others freelance or have a talent agent who helps them find work. Some clowns study at a clown college or clown school, where they learn acrobatics, juggling and other physical skills, and ways to interact with an audience. Others learn from experienced clowns, or through study and practice.

Clowns in popular culture

Clowns are sometimes mentioned in other forms of entertainment. Pagliacci is an opera by Ruggero Leoncavallo, about clowns. This theme was borrowed by Smokey Robinson, when he wrote "The Tears of a Clown" working with Stevie Wonder. Red Skelton was a popular entertainer, who performed clown routines on television.

Ronald McDonald is a clown character who is the mascot of McDonald's restaurants. (Jeff Giuliano, who performed Ronald for many years on television, later became a vegetarian.)

In many different media, clowns are often villains due to the possibility of them being creepy. Examples are Pennywise from Stephen King's It and the Joker from the Batman universe.

Entertainment occupations
Comedy
Circuses

Clown


The bias of a piece of woven fabric is at 45 degrees to its warp and weft threads.  Every piece of woven fabric has two biases, at right angles to each other. Fabrics which are not woven, such as felt, do not have a bias.

When cut on the bias, woven fabric is more elastic as well as more fluid in movement, compared to the on-grain direction. This helps many types of garment, such as skirts, dresses and neckties.

The "bias-cut" is a technique used by tailors and dress-makers for cutting cloth. The greater stretch in the bias (diagonal) direction of the fabric, helps it accentuate body lines and curves and drape softly. For example, a full-skirted dress cut on the bias will hang more gracefully or a narrow dress will cling to the figure.

Bias-cut garments were prominent in haute couture clothes designed by Madeleine Vionnet in the 1920s. It is still used often in both haute couture and high street clothing. In the Middle Ages, before the development of knitting, hose leggings were cut on the bias in order to make them fit better.

References

Woven fabrics

Bias (textile)