A local option is the ability of local political jurisdictions, typically counties or municipalities, to allow decisions on certain controversial issues within their borders, usually referring to a popular vote. It usually relates to the issue of alcoholic beverage, marijuana sales, and now mask wearing.

Prohibition of alcohol
As described by an encyclopedia in 1907, local option is the "license granted to the inhabitants of a district to extinguish or reduce the sale of intoxicants in their midst." A 1911 Encyclopædia describes it as "specifically used in politics of the power given to the electorate of a particular district to choose whether licences for the sale of intoxicating liquor should be granted or not." This form of "local option" has also been termed "local veto."

Local option regarding alcohol was first used in the temperance movement as a means to bring about prohibition gradually. In the 1830s, temperance activists mobilized to restrict licenses in towns and counties in New England. By the 1840s, temperance reformers demanded state laws to allow local voters to decide whether any liquor licenses would be issued in their localities. Some 12 states and territories had some form of the early local option laws by the late 1840s. Controversy over the measures gave rise to the first major confrontation in the United States over the propriety and the constitutionality of ballot-box legislation, or referendums. Opponents of local option, which included drinkers and liquor dealers, many of whom were immigrants, argued that local option authorized the "tyranny of the majority" and infringed upon the rights of the liquor-dealing and liquor-consuming minority.

Local option, as a method of alcohol control, made a resurgence after the Civil War. The Anti-Saloon League initially decided to use local option as the mechanism to bring about nationwide prohibition. Its intent was to work across the country at the local level. In many instances, however, it was not the agenda. For instance, several wards in Ontario, Canada, passed local option but were vehemently against province-wide prohibition since they preferred to isolate alcohol sales, rather than ban them altogether. That is particularly evident in Toronto's Junction neighbourhood, part of which remained notoriously dry as late as 2000, the last area of Ontario to repeal prohibition.

Following the repeal of federal Prohibition in the United States in 1933, some states chose to maintain prohibition within their own borders. Others chose to permit local option on the controversial issue. In the remainder of states, there was no prohibition. Overlying the patchwork of prohibition, many states (known as alcoholic beverage control states) decided to establish their own monopolies over the wholesaling and/or retailing of alcoholic beverages. Montgomery County, Maryland, for example, has used local option to establish its alcohol control monopoly within its borders.

Face masks
As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic some states in the United States of America, such as Georgia, implemented the local option to control laws about public mask wearing enforcement.

See also
 Alcoholic beverage control state
 Dry county

References

External links

Alcohol law
Local government

Local option


In Botany, an annual plant is a plant that usually germinates, flowers and dies in one year. True annuals will only live longer than a year if they are prevented from setting seed. Some seedless plants can also be considered annuals even though they do not flower.

In gardening, annual often refers to a plant grown outdoors in the spring and summer and surviving just for one growing season.
Many food plants are, or are grown as, annuals, including most domesticated grains. Some perennials and biennials are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience, particularly if they are not considered cold hardy for the local climate. Carrot, celery and parsley are true biennials that are usually grown as annual crops for their edible roots, petioles and leaves, respectively. Tomato, sweet potato and bell pepper are tender perennials usually grown as annuals.

Ornamental annuals are often called bedding plants. Annuals are often used in gardens to provide splashes of color, as they tend to have a longer season of bloom than hardy herbaceous perennials.

Examples of true annuals include corn, lettuce, pea, cauliflower, watermelon, bean, zinnia and marigold.

Summer annuals
Summer annuals sprout, flower and die within the same spring/summer/fall. The lawn weed, crabgrass, is a summer annual.

Related pages
Biennial plant
Perennial plant

References

 Eduard Strasburger, Peter Sitte, Elmar Weiler, Andreas Bresinsky, Christian Körner: Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen. Heidelberg 2002 (35.).

Botany
Types of plants

Annual plant


Engelbert III von der Mark (English: Engelbert III of the Mark) (1304 – 25 August 1368) was the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne from 1364 until 1368 and the Prince-Bishop of Liège (as Engelbert) from 1345 until 1364.

Engelbert was the second son of Count Engelbert II of the Mark. Through the influence of his uncle Adolph II of the Marck, Bishop of Liège, he became the Provost of Liège in 1332. Later he was also mentioned as being a Provost in Cologne.

After the death of his uncle, he was appointed Prince-Bishop of Liège by Pope Clement VI. In 1362 he applied to become the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne, but his nephew Adolph III gained it in 1363. Nevertheless, after Adolph abdicated in the following year he was appointed Archbishop-Elector in 1364 by Pope Urban V and resigned the Prince-Bishopric of Liège. Engelbert was beset by health problems soon after taking office. In 1366 he accepted coadjutors to assist in the running of the archdiocese, and the Archbishop-Elector of Trier Kuno II of Falkenstein was selected.

Engelbert died in 1368 and was buried in Cologne Cathedral.

References

1304 births
1368 deaths
House of La Marck
Archbishop-Electors of Cologne
Dukes of Westphalia
14th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the Holy Roman Empire
Burials at Cologne Cathedral
Prince-Bishops of Liège

Engelbert III of the Mark (archbishop)


Sir Timothy John "Tim" Berners-Lee OM KBE FRS (born 8 June 1955) is the English inventor of the World Wide Web and he created a new computer language called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) which most web pages are written in. The first web page was available on 6 August 1991.

Berners-Lee now leads the World Wide Web Consortium. That is an organization that looks after the World Wide Web.
He is the author of the book Weaving the Web. He is a director of The Web Science Research Initiative (WSRI), and a member of the advisory board of the MIT Center for Collective Intelligence. In April 2009, he was elected as a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences, based in Washington, D.C. In 1999, Time Magazine named Berners-Lee one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century.
In March 2000 he was awarded an honorary degree from the Open University as Doctor of the university.

Early life
Tim Berners-Lee was born in London, on 8 June 1955. He is the son of Conway Berners-Lee and Mary Lee Woods. First, he attended Sheen Mount primary school. Then he went on to Emanuel School in London, from 1969 to 1973. After that, he studied at Queen's College, Oxford, from 1973 to 1976. While he was there, he received a first-class degree in Physics.

Longer Biography
For those who want details for some reason. This is more or less a collection of everything which has been asked for to date.

Background
In 1989, while working at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland, Tim Berners-Lee proposed a global hypertext project, to be known as the World Wide Web. Based on the earlier "Enquire" work, it was designed to allow people to work together by combining their knowledge in a web of hypertext documents. He wrote the first World Wide Web server, "httpd", and the first client, "WorldWideWeb" a what-you-see-is-what-you-get hypertext browser/editor which ran in the NeXTStep environment. This work was started in October 1990, and the program "WorldWideWeb" first made available within CERN in December, and on the Internet at large in the summer of 1991.

Through 1991 and 1993, Tim continued working on the design of the Web, coordinating feedback from users across the Internet. His initial specifications of URIs, HTTP and HTML were refined and discussed in larger circles as the Web technology spread.

Tim Berners-Lee graduated from the Queen's College at Oxford University, England, 1976. Whilst there he built his first computer with a soldering iron, TTL gates, an M6800 processor and an old television.

He spent two years with Plessey Telecommunications Ltd (Poole, Dorset, UK) a major UK Telecom equipment manufacturer, working on distributed transaction systems, message relays, and bar code technology.

In 1978 Tim left Plessey to join D.G Nash Ltd (Ferndown, Dorset, UK), where he wrote among other things typesetting software for intelligent printers, and a multitasking operating system.

A year and a half spent as an independent consultant included a six-month stint (Jun-Dec 1980) as consultant software engineer at CERN. Whilst there, he wrote for his own private use his first program for storing information including using random associations. Named "Enquire" and never published, this program formed the conceptual basis for the future development of the World Wide Web.

From 1981 until 1984, Tim worked at John Poole's Image Computer Systems Ltd, with technical design responsibility. Work here included real time control firmware, graphics and communications software, and a generic macro language. In 1984, he took up a fellowship at CERN, to work on distributed real-time systems for scientific data acquisition and system control. Among other things, he worked on FASTBUS system software and designed a heterogeneous remote procedure call system.

In 1994, Tim founded the World Wide Web Consortium at the then Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS) which merged with the Artificial Intelligence Lab in 2003 to become the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Since that time he has served as the Director of the World Wide Web Consortium a Web standards organization which develops interoperable technologies (specifications, guidelines, software, and tools) to lead the Web to its full potential. The Consortium has host sites located at MIT, at ERCIM in Europe, and at Keio University in Japan as well as Offices around the world.

In 1999, he became the first holder of 3Com Founders chair at MIT. In 2008 he was named 3COM Founders Professor of Engineering in the School of Engineering, with a joint appointment in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at CSAIL where he also leads the Decentralized Information Group (DIG). Co-Chaired by Dr. Lalana Kagal, the DIG Research Group works on projects including: how to re-decentralize the Web and help radically change the way Web applications work today, resulting in true data ownership; working to ensure the rights of users in big data and analytics and systems; as well as harnessing mobile technologies to aid during disaster relief and help society. In 2016, Sir Tim joined the Computer Science Department at the University of Oxford as a professor.

In 2008 he founded and became Director of the World Wide Web Foundation. The Web Foundation is a non-profit organisation devoted to achieving a world in which all people can use the Web to communicate, collaborate and innovate freely. The Web Foundation words to fund and coordinate efforts to defend the Open Web and further its potential to benefit humanity.

In June 2009 then Prime Minister Gordon Brown announced that he would work with the UK Government to help make data more open and accessible on the Web, building on the work of the Power of Information Task Force. Sir Tim was a member of The Public Sector Transparency Board tasked to drive forward the UK Government's transparency agenda. He has promoted open government data globally, is a member of the UK's Transparency Board.

In 2011 he was named to the Board of Trustees of the Ford Foundation, a globally oriented private foundation with the mission of advancing human welfare. He is President of the UK's Open Data Institute which was formed in 2012 to catalyse open data for economic, environmental, and social value.

He is the author, with Mark Fischetti, of the 1999 book "Weaving the Web" on the past, present and future of the Web.

On March 18 2013, Sir Tim, along with Vinton Cerf, Robert Kahn, Louis Pouzin and Marc Andreesen, was awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering for "ground-breaking innovation in engineering that has been of global benefit to humanity."

On 4 April 2017, Sir Tim was awarded the ACM A.M. Turing Prize for inventing the World Wide Web, the first web browser, and the fundamental protocols and algorithms allowing the Web to scale. The Turing Prize, called the "Nobel Prize of Computing" is considered one of the most prestigious awards in Computer Science.

Awards
 1995:
 World Wide Web Hall of Fame
 Kilby Foundation's "Young Innovator of the Year" Award
 ACM Software Systems Award (co-recipient),  Honorary Prix Ars Electronica Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society
 1997:
 Awarded an Order of the British Empire (OBE) and the IEEE Koji Kobayashi Computers and Communications Award
 Duddell Medal of the Institute of Physics Interactive Services Association's Distinguished Service Award, MCI Computerworld/Smithsonian Award for Leadership in Innovation,  International Communication Institute's Columbus Prize
 1998:
 Charles Babbage award, Mountbatten Medal of the National Electronics Council, Lord Lloyd of Kilgerran Prize from the Foundation for Science and Technology, PC Magazine Lifetime Achievement Award in Technical Excellence, MacArthur Fellowship, The Eduard Rhein Technology Award, Honorary Fellow of the Institution of Electrical Engineers
 1999:
 Named "One of the greatest minds of the century" by Time Magazine, World Technology Award for Communication Technology, Honorary Fellowship of the The Society for Technical Communications
 2000:
 Paul Evan Peters Award of ARL, Educause and CNI Electronic Freedom Foundation's Pioneer Award, George R Stibitz Computer Pioneer Award, American Computer Museum  Special Award for Outstanding Contribution of the World Television Forum
 2001:
 Sir Frank Whittle Medal, the Royal Academy of Engineering Fellow, Royal Society Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 2002:
 Japan Prize, the Science and Technology Foundation of Japan, Prince of Asturias Foundation Prize for Scientific and Technical Research (shared with with Larry Roberts, Rob Kahn and Vint Cerf) Fellow of the Guglielmo Marconi Foundation, Albert Medal of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Art, Manufactures and Commerce (RSA)
 2003
 The Royal Photographic Society's Progress Medal and Honorary Fellowship (HonFRPS)
 Computer History Museum Fellow Award
 2004:
 Knighted (KBE) by H.M. the Queen for services to the global development of the Internet, Millennium Technology Prize Special Award of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, Member of the American Philosophical Society
 2005:
 Common Wealth Award for Distinguished Service for Mass Communications, Die Quadriga Award, Financial Times Lifetime Achievement Award
 2006:
 President's Medal, the Institute of Physics
 2007:
 Awarded the Order of Merit by H.M. the Queen, Charles Stark Draper Prize, National Academy of Engineering Lovelace Medal, British Computer Society D&AD President's Award for Innovation and Creativity, MITX (Massachusetts Innovation & Technology Exchange) Leadership Award, Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Engineering
 2008:
 BITC Award for Excellence
 IEEE/RSE Wolfson James Clerk Maxwell Award Fellow, IEEE Pathfinder Award, Harvard Kennedy School of Government
 2009:
 Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences, Given the title of Royal Designer by the Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufacture and Commerce, Webby Awards Lifetime Achievement Award
 2010:
 UNESCO Niels Bohr Gold Medal Award
 2011:
 The Mikhail Gorbachev Award
 DAMA Web Awards, Bilbao Web Summit
 2012:
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Internet Hall of Fame, Innovation 101 Lifetime Achievement Award
 Sultan Qaboos Order for Culture, Science and Arts (First Class)
 DNA Summit Lifetime Achievement Award
 2013:
 Shared the Queen Elizabeth II Prize for Engineering with Bob Kahn, Vint Cerf, Louis Pouzin and Marc Andreessen. Visionary of the Year Award, Society for New Communication Research.
 2014:
 Honorary Freedom of the City of London, Lifetime Achievement Award from the Oxford Internet Institute
 Pride of Britain "Special Award for Outstanding Achievement"
 Webby award for Lifetime Achievement
 Public Knowledge IP3 Award
 Bradford Wasburn Award, Museum of Science, Boston
 Mohammed bin Rashid Knowledge Award (with Jimmy Wales)
 2015:
 Gottlieb Duttweiler Prize, Zurich, Switzerland
 The 1st class Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, Republic of Estonia
 2016:
 John Maynard Keynes Prize
 2017:
 ACM A.M. Turing Prize, San Francisco, California

 Honorary Degrees:

 Parsons School of Design, New York (D.F.A., 1995)
 Southampton University (D.Sc., 1995) Essex University (D.U., 1998) Southern Cross University (PhD, 1998) Open University (D.U., 2000) Columbia University (D.Law, 2001) Oxford University (D.Sc., 2001) University of Port Elizabeth (DSc., 2002)  Lancaster University (D.Sc., 2004) Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (Dr. Hon. 2008)
 University of Manchester (D.Sc., 2008)
 Universidad Politecnica de Madrid (Dr. Hon. 2009) University of Liege  (Dr. Hon. 2009)
 VU University Amsterdam (Dr. Hon., 2009)
 Harvard University (D.Sc., 2011)
 University of the Arts, London (Dr. Hon., 2012)
 University of St. Andrews (Dr. Hon., 2013)
 Yale University, (Doctor of Engineering and Technology, 2014)
 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,  D.Sc

Selected Publications
Berners-Lee, T.J., et al., "", Electronic Publishing: Research, Applications and Policy, April 1992.

Berners-Lee T.J., et al, "", Communications of the ACM, Volume 37 Issue 8, August 1994, Pages 76-82

Tim Berners-Lee with Mark Fischetti, Harper San Francisco, 1999

Tim Berners-Lee, Dan Connolly, Ralph R. Swick "", W3C Note, 1999/6-7.

Berners-Lee, Tim. and Hendler, James "", Nature, April 26 2001 p. 1023–1025.

Berners-Lee, Tim; Hendler, James and Lassila, Ora "", Scientific American, May 2001, p. 29-37.

James Hendler, Tim Berners-Lee and Eric Miller, '', Journal of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan,

Vol 122(10), October, 2002, p. 676-680

Hendler, J., Berners-Lee, T.J., and Miller, E., '  ', Journal of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan, Vol 122(10), October, 2002, p. 676-680.

Nigel Shadbolt, Wendy Hall, Tim Berners-Lee, "", IEEE Intelligent Systems Journal, May/June 2006, pp 96-101

, 12th-13th September, 2005. Hosted by the British Computer Society, London

Tim Berners-Lee, Wendy Hall, James Hendler, Nigel Shadbolt, Daniel J. Weitzner, Science Vol. 313, 11 August 2006, pp. 769-771

Tim-Berners Lee, Wendy Hall, James A. Hendler, Kieron O'Hara, Nigel Shadbolt and Daniel J. Weitzner, Foundations and Trends in Web Science, Volume 1, Issue 1 (also available as a book:  144pp September 2006)

Nigel Shadbolt, Tim Berners-Lee "", Scientific American, Vol. 299, No. 4, P. 76, October 2008

Christian Bizer, Tom Heath, Tim Berners-Lee, "" (pdf), International Journal on Semantic Web and Information Systems (IJSWIS), 5(3): 1-22. DOI: 10.4018/jswis.2009081901, 2009

Tim Berners-Lee, ", Scientific America, Vol. 22, November 2010
 (See a full list of publications)

Education
The Queen's College, Oxford University, England, BA Hons (I) Physics, 1973–1976.

Emanuel School, London 1969–73

Born London, England, 8 June 1955. Married to Rosemary Leith.

Alumni of the University of Oxford
Fellows of the Royal Society
Knights and Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Order of Merit
Royal Society of Arts
Scientists from London
1955 births
Living people
Software engineers

Tim Berners-Lee


Mule is a lightweight enterprise service bus (ESB) and integration framework provided by MuleSoft. The platform is Java-based but can act as broker for interactions between other platforms such as .NET using web services or sockets.

The architecture is a scalable, distributable object broker that can manage interactions across legacy systems, in-house applications, and modern transports and protocols.

Supporting tools

Design and development tools
Anypoint Studio: An Eclipse-based graphical development environment for designing, testing, and running Mule flows. It consists of two types of editors for development: Visual editor and an XML editor.
Anypoint Enterprise Security: A suite of security-related features for secure access and transactions to Mule applications.
Mule Healthcare Toolkit: Provided to process HL7 standard messages used in healthcare organizations.
Mule IDE (now deprecated): A set of Eclipse plug-ins for developing, deploying, and managing Mule projects.

Management tools
Mule Management Console: A user interface that provides a run-time management facility for deployment to the Mule Repository and clusters.

Mule has an integration engine, but the community edition lacks support for Advanced Management interfaces. MuleSoft offers an Enterprise Edition of Mule that provides a management console, a Service registry, and higher availability.

Cloudhub
Cloudhub is Mulesoft's Cloud-based integration platform as a service (iPaaS) to connect apps, data, and devices with integration connectors (like one to Twitter, etc.).

Mule ESB and messaging

AMQP support
AMQP (Advanced Message Queuing Protocol) support is based on the RabbitMQ Java Client and supports AMQP up to 0.9.1.

JMS support
JMS (Java Message Service) is a Message-oriented middleware API provided by Oracle for communication between different components of an application. This provides reliable, loosely coupled, and asynchronous message-based communication, supporting two models: point-to-point (queues) and publish-subscribe (topics). Mule supports all functionality of JMS specification versions 1.0.2b and 1.1, and provides an endpoint for the same.

WMQ support
WMQ or Websphere MQ is IBM Message Oriented Middleware product for communication for distributed systems. Mule also provides support for WMQ called Mule WMQ Transport which works with 7.0, 7.1, and 7.5 versions and provides an endpoint for the same.

Universal Message Object
The Universal Message Object Application Programming Interface is part of high-level design methodologies used to describe and define aspects of a data object used in conjunction with the Mule ESB. The idea is to, by staged events, wrap the work into sensible bundles and process it in stages that can conform to models of transaction-based processing that are useful in time or mission-critical applications such as financial transactions, where subsequent successful outcomes are required to permit the desired outcome. But if the user fails to supply needed data or a run-time error occurs, then the model will allow for state-full back-off, meaning "no harm done", the user may then complete a transaction without losing too much work or cancelling  an entire transaction.

Universal Message Object defines the parameters that the program will use for internal messaging communications and its components to set and get variables based upon the user's needs and the program's functionality.

References

Further reading
 Tijs Rademakers and Jos Dirksen, "Open-Source ESBs in Action" (Manning Publications: Oct 2008, ; )
 Peter Delia and Antoine Borg, "Mule 2: A Developer's Guide" (Apress: Nov 2008, ; ),
 David Dossot and John D'Emic, "Mule in Action" (Manning Publications: Apr 2009, ; )
 Getting Started with Mule Cloud Connect (O'Reilly Media: Dec 2012, Print ; ; Ebook ; )
 David Dossot, John D'Emic and Victor Romero, "Mule in Action, Second Edition" (Manning Publications, Early Access Program)

External links

Java enterprise platform
Message-oriented middleware

Mule (software)


James Carter (December 18, 1925 – November 26, 2003) was an American singer. He was born a Mississippi sharecropper and as a young man was several times an inmate of the Mississippi prison system. He was paid $20,000, and credited, for a four-decade-old lead-vocalist performance in a prison work song used in the 2000 film O Brother, Where Art Thou?

Biography

Early life
In 1959, Carter was a prisoner in Camp B of Parchman Farm, Mississippi State Penitentiary near Lambert, Quitman County, Mississippi, when Alan Lomax and Shirley Collins recorded him in stereo sound leading a group of prisoners singing "Po' Lazarus", an African-American "bad man ballad" (which is also a work song), while chopping logs in time to the music. The recording and an iconic cover photograph of the prisoners in striped uniforms were issued on volume nine, Bad Man Ballads, in Alan Lomax's 1959  Southern Journey LP series on Atlantic Records.

Legacy
Decades later, the recording was licensed for use in the soundtrack to the Coen brothers' film O Brother, Where Art Thou? with music produced by T-Bone Burnett. Burnett's soundtrack topped the Billboard charts for many weeks and went on to win a Grammy for Album of the Year. Alan Lomax's daughter Anna Lomax Chairetakis (now Anna Lomax Wood), director of the Alan Lomax Archive, and Don Fleming, director of Licensing for the Archive, hoped that Carter was still alive and determined to track him down:Searching through the archives of the Mississippi penal system, Social Security files, property records and other public records and various databases, the record's producer, T-Bone Burnett; the Lomax archives; and an investigative journalist for a Florida newspaper found Mr. Carter in Chicago with his wife, Rosie Lee Carter, a longtime minister of the Holy Temple Church of God. Chairetakis and Fleming flew to Chicago to personally present Carter with a royalty check. Carter who had spent much of his adult life working as a shipping clerk, told them he did not remember having sung the song 40 years previously. Fleming then informed him that the soundtrack album was outselling the latest CDs of Michael Jackson and Mariah Carey. "I told him, you beat both of them out,"  Mr. Fleming said. "He got a real kick out of that. He left the room to roll a cigarette and when he came back, he said, You tell Michael that I'll slow down so that he can catch up with me." Carter flew to Los Angeles to attend the Grammy Award ceremony and to Tennessee for the benefit concert held in Ryman Auditorium in Nashville, which featured repeat performances by the performers of other numbers on the soundtrack (although Carter himself did not perform).

As the other prisoners have not been identified (and likely never will be), the official credit for the artist on the soundtrack is for "James Carter & the Prisoners".

Death
On November 26, 2003, Carter died of a stroke in Chicago, at age 77.

References

External links

Singers from Mississippi
1925 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American singers

James Carter and the Prisoners


"Lullaby of Broadway" is a popular song with music written by Harry Warren and lyrics by Al Dubin, published in  1935. The lyrics salute the nightlife of Broadway and its denizens, who "don't sleep tight until the dawn."

The song was introduced by Wini Shaw in the musical film Gold Diggers of 1935, and, in an unusual move, it was used as background music in a sequence in the Bette Davis film Special Agent that same year. Furthermore, again that year, it was sung by Jeane Cowan in a night club scene in the James Cagney film G Men. In three Warner Bros. films, it won the 1935 Academy Award for Best Original Song.

Lyrics
Unlike the song "Manhattan" and many others, "Lullaby of Broadway" does not name-check any Broadway locations. The line, "The daffydils who entertain / At Angelo's and Maxie's" references a fictitious place (or places), presumably within the context of the film. "Daffydils" — often sung as "daffodils" — was a slang term for chorus girls (or indeed boys, depending on the venue). Since the song was written, several real establishments have opened on or around Broadway, adopting the name from the song, rather than vice versa.

Popular recordings
Hit versions in 1935 were by:
The Dorsey Brothers Orchestra (vocal by Bob Crosby)
Little Jack Little
Reginald Foresythe
Hal Kemp (vocal: Bob Allen)
Chick Bullock

Other versions have been recorded by:
1944 The Andrews Sisters - recorded August 24, 1944 for Decca Records.
1951 Doris Day recorded the song twice in 1950. The first was with the Norman Luboff Choir and the Buddy Cole Quartet on December 8. This was included in the album Lullaby of Broadway. The second was on December 28, 1950 with Harry James and his orchestra. (Doris Day discography).
1956 Bing Crosby recorded the song  for use on his radio show and it was subsequently included in the box set The Bing Crosby CBS Radio Recordings (1954-56) issued by Mosaic Records (catalog MD7-245) in 2009.
1957 Tony Bennett for his album The Beat of My Heart.
1959 Ella Fitzgerald recorded the song on her Verve release Ella Fitzgerald Sings Sweet Songs for Swingers, accompanied by the Frank DeVol Orchestra.
1962 The song was recorded by Connie Francis in 1962 and 1963 and a version can be found on her album Connie Francis Sings Award Winning Motion Picture Hits (1963).
1964 Caterina Valente - included on her album I Happen to Like New York.
1973 Bette Midler recorded a cover of the song for her album Bette Midler. The song is performed as a medley with "Optimistic Voices".  It also appears on her album Live At Last.
1977 The Pasadena Roof Orchestra included on their album The Show Must Go On.
1979 Bram Tchaikovsky as a single.
2003 Dianne Reeves recorded it on her album, A Little Moonlight.
2004 Chelsea Krombach covered this song on her debut album Profile.
2006 Tony Bennett and the Dixie Chicks as a track for his album Duets: An American Classic.
2016 Swing revivalists the Cherry Poppin' Daddies recorded a version for their album The Boop-A-Doo, a cover album of 1920s and 1930s jazz standards, taking its title from a lyric from the song.

Film appearances
1935  Gold Diggers of 1935,
1935  Special Agent
1935  G Men
1935 Page Miss Glory (Merrie Melodies cartoon), based on a Dubin-Warren song, the Dorsey Brothers Orchestra version served as part of the background music.
1951 Lullaby of Broadway, sung by Doris Day.
1993 Life With Mikey

In popular culture
It is also featured in an episode of Taxi (performed by Marilu Henner) and the Broadway musical 42nd Street, originated by Jerry Orbach playing Julian Marsh in the 1980 original cast.

In 1976, Wini Shaw's original recorded version of the song was released as a 45rpm single and made No. 42 in the UK Charts. Subsequently, the BBC interviewed Wini Shaw O'Malley in New York about her new success with it. She could not believe it.

The song was used in a commercial for the Milford Plaza Hotel, where it was called the "Lullabuy of Broadway".

The song was performed by a group of Muppet eskimos in the Gilda Radner episode of The Muppet Show.

In Lisa Stansfield's 1990 music video for her cover of Cole Porter's Down in the Depths, the beginning and ending are both references to the song. The video begins with her disembodied head zooming in, while singing the opening to the song, and ends with it zooming out, while singing the outro.

Linda Lavin and Martha Raye sang this song in the 1970s TV show Alice in the episode [Sharples vs Sharples]

In 2005, Idina Menzel recorded a pop/hip-hop version of the song for the end credits of ShowBusiness: The Road to Broadway.

The song appears on the dancing game Dance on Broadway.

References

1935 songs
Songs with music by Harry Warren
Songs with lyrics by Al Dubin
Bette Midler songs
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songs
Doris Day songs
Tony Bennett songs
The Chicks songs
Bing Crosby songs
Connie Francis songs
Ella Fitzgerald songs
Caterina Valente songs
Songs about New York City

Lullaby of Broadway (song)


The Wolseley Expedition was a military force put together to capture the Canadian Métis leader Louis Riel. It was led by Colonel Garnet Wolsely. The expedition took place in 1870 and went from Toronto to Winnipeg. Because of the fact that the expedition had to carry so much equipment and guns, the Wolsely Expedition is thought to be one of the most difficult in all of recent history.

1870
History of Canada

Wolseley Expedition


An electric utility is a company in the electric power industry (often a public utility) that engages in electricity generation and distribution of electricity for sale generally in a regulated market. The electrical utility industry is a major provider of energy in most countries.

Electric utilities include investor owned, publicly owned, cooperatives, and nationalized entities. They may be engaged in all or only some aspects of the industry. Electricity markets are also considered electric utilities—these entities buy and sell electricity, acting as brokers, but usually do not own or operate generation, transmission, or distribution facilities. Utilities are regulated by local and national authorities.

Electric utilities are facing increasing demands including aging infrastructure, reliability, and regulation.

In 2009, the French company EDF was the world's largest producer of electricity.

Organization

Power transactions
An electric power system is a group of generation, transmission, distribution, communication, and other facilities that are physically connected. The flow of electricity within the system is maintained and controlled by dispatch centers which can buy and sell electricity based on system requirements.

Executive compensation

The executive compensation received by the executives in utility companies often receives the most scrutiny in the review of operating expenses. Just as regulated utilities and their governing bodies struggle to maintain a balance between keeping consumer costs reasonable and being profitable enough to attract investors, they must also compete with private companies for talented executives and then be able to retain those executives.

Regulated companies are less likely to use incentive-based remuneration in addition to base salaries. Executives in regulated electric utilities are less likely to be paid for their performance in bonuses or stock options. They are less likely to approve compensation policies that include incentive-based pay. The compensation for electric utility executives will be the lowest in regulated utilities that have an unfavorable regulatory environment. These companies have more political constraints than those in a favorable regulatory environment and are less likely to have a positive response to requests for rate increases.

Just as increased constraints from regulation drive compensation down for executives in electric utilities, deregulation has been shown to increase remuneration. The need to encourage risk-taking behavior in seeking new investment opportunities while keeping costs under control requires deregulated companies to offer performance-based incentives to their executives. It has been found that increased compensation is also more likely to attract executives experienced in working in competitive environments.

In the United States, the Energy Policy Act of 1992 removed previous barriers to wholesale competition in the electric utility industry. Currently 24 states allow for deregulated electric utilities: Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, Virginia, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, and Washington D.C. As electric utility monopolies have been increasingly broken up into deregulated businesses, executive compensation has risen; particularly incentive compensation.

Oversight

Oversight is typically carried out at the national level, however it varies depending on financial support and external influences. There is no existence of any influential international energy oversight organization. There does exist a World Energy Council, but its mission is mostly to advise and share new information. It does not hold any kind of legislative or executive power.

Alternative energy promotion

Alternative energy has become more and more prevalent in recent times and as it is inherently independent of more traditional sources of energy, the market seems to have a very different structure. In the United States, to promote the production and development of alternative energies, there are many subsidies, rewards, and incentives that encourage companies to take up the challenge themselves. There is precedent for such a system working in countries like Nicaragua. In 2005, Nicaragua gave renewable energy companies tax and duty exemptions, which spurred a great deal of private investment.

The success in Nicaragua may not be an easily replicated situation however. The movement was known as Energiewende and it is generally considered a failure for many reasons. A primary reason was that it was improperly timed and was proposed during a period in which their energy economy was under more competition.

Globally, the transition of electric utilities to renewables remains slow, hindered by concurrent continued investment in the expansion of fossil fuel capacity.

Nuclear energy

Nuclear energy may be classified as a green source depending on the country. Although there used to be much more privatization in this energy sector, after the 2011 Fukushima district nuclear power plant disaster in Japan, there has been a move away from nuclear energy itself, especially for privately owned nuclear power plants. The criticism being that privatization of companies tend to have the companies themselves cutting corners and costs for profits which has proven to be disastrous in the worst-case scenarios. This placed a strain on many other countries as many foreign governments felt pressured to close nuclear power plants in response to public concerns. Nuclear energy however still holds a major part in many communities around the world.

Customer expectations
Utilities have found that it isn't simple to meet the unique needs of individual customers, whether residential, corporate, industrial, government, military, or otherwise. Customers in the twenty-first century have new and urgent expectations that demand a transformation of the electric grid. They want a system that gives them new tools, better data to help manage energy usage, advanced protections against cyberattacks, and a system that minimizes outage times and quickens power restoration.

See also
Consumer Advocate for Customers of Public Utilities
Electricity transmission
Rate Case
Rate base (energy)

References

Electric power
Public utilities
Economics of transport and utility industries

Electric utility


National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality and Another v Minister of Justice and Others is a decision of the Constitutional Court of South Africa which struck down the laws prohibiting consensual sexual activities between men. Basing its decision on the Bill of Rights in the Constitutionand in particular its explicit prohibition of discrimination based on sexual orientationthe court unanimously ruled that the crime of sodomy, as well as various other related provisions of the criminal law, were unconstitutional and therefore invalid.

The case was the first in a series of Constitutional Court rulings advancing LGBT rights in South Africa which culminated in the case Minister of Home Affairs and Another v Fourie and Another, a judgment which led to the legalisation of same-sex marriage in South Africa by the Civil Union Act, 2006. In the interim the court extended to same-sex couples immigration-related rights, pension benefits, the ability to adopt, and parental rights over children conceived by artificial insemination.

Argument in the case was heard on 27 August 1998 before President of the Constitutional Court Arthur Chaskalson, Deputy President Pius Langa, and Justices Ackermann, Goldstone, Kriegler, Mokgoro, O'Regan, Sachs and Yacoob. The decision was handed down on 9 October of the same year; the majority judgment was authored by Justice Ackermann, while Justice Sachs wrote a separate concurring judgment.

History

Sodomy in South African law
South Africa inherited the crime of "sodomy" from the Roman-Dutch law, which was introduced by the Dutch East India Company settlers at the Cape, and still forms the basis of South African law. In the Roman-Dutch law, sodomy originally encompassed a number of sexual acts considered unnatural, including heterosexual anal sex, masturbation and bestiality, as well as homosexual sex. Over time, however, in South African common law it was reduced to refer only to male-male anal sex, the legal definition being "unlawful and intentional sexual intercourse per anum between human males". The common law also prohibited "unnatural sexual offences", defined as "the unlawful and intentional commission of an unnatural sexual act by one person with another person"; the definition of "unnatural" had been held to include fellatio, mutual masturbation and intercrural sex, but it only applied to acts between men and not to acts between a man and a woman.

"Sodomy" and "unnatural sexual offences" were common law crimes, derived from the Roman-Dutch law and developed by judges. South African statute law also contained, in section 20A of the Sexual Offences Act, a provision known as the "men at a party" offence; this criminalized any sexual acts between men at a party, where "a party" was defined as any occasion with more than two people present.

Gay men were frequently prosecuted under these laws until about 1970, after which date prosecutions for private consensual sex became less common. Nonetheless, they remained on the books as prosecutable offences. In particular, sodomy was listed as a Schedule 1 offence in the Criminal Procedure Act, placing it in the same category as murder, rape and fraud. This listing also allowed police officers to arrest people suspected of sodomy without a warrant, and to use deadly force against them if they attempted to flee.

Prior case law
In the 1993 case of S v H the defendant plead guilty in the Magistrate's Court to a charge of sodomy, and received a suspended sentence of one year's imprisonment; the act alleged was private and consensual. The conviction was reviewed by Judge Lourens Ackermann in the Cape Provincial Division of the Supreme Court. At that time, before the Interim Constitution and its Bill of Rights had come into force, the conviction was valid in law and the court did not reverse it; however, the sentence was replaced by a nominal caution and discharge. Judge Ackermann referred to the various draft constitutional texts then under negotiation, and pointed out that the drafts proposed by the ANC, the DP and the IFP all explicitly forbade discrimination based on sexual orientation, while the draft proposed by the NP-controlled government forbade discrimination on the basis of "natural characteristics". He used these facts to justify a ruling that custodial sentences were not appropriate for cases of consensual private sodomy. Significantly, he also wrote:

The Interim Constitution, which came into force on 27 April 1994, did indeed explicitly prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. The first challenge to the sodomy laws under this new dispensation came in the case of S v Adendolf; however, this appeal was rejected by the Cape Provincial Division because the alleged sex was nonconsensual, and the court regarded the question of constitutionality as purely theoretical. The court did state that they would have considered the case had the act in question been consensual.

S v Kampher was such a case of consensual sex, although distinguished by the fact that it had occurred between prisoners in a correctional centre. The defendant was sentenced to a year's imprisonment, suspended for three years. The conviction and sentence was reviewed by Judge Ian Farlam in the Cape Provincial Division; he specifically questioned whether the crime of sodomy was compatible with the anti-discrimination and privacy provisions of the Constitution. The magistrate who had convicted Kampher claimed that it was compatible, referring to Ackermann's judgment in S v H, which had suggested that sex between prison inmates might be a "special situation" in which the state had a legitimate interest in proscribing sexual relationships. The Attorney-General of the Cape disputed this, submitting that the crime of sodomy was indeed incompatible with the Bill of Rights. The court agreed with the Attorney-General and set aside the conviction and sentence; it did not, however, strike down the crime of sodomy in general.

The High Court judgment
The final Constitution, which came into force on 4 February 1997, contained similar equality protections to those in the Interim Constitution, providing in section 9(3) that:

In 1997 the National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality, an association representing a broad spectrum of South African LGBT organisations, launched a constitutional challenge in the Witwatersrand Local Division of the High Court. The Coalition was joined as applicant by the South African Human Rights Commission, an independent chapter nine institution created by the Constitution and tasked with the promotion and protection of human rights. Named as respondents were the Minister of Justice, the national minister responsible for criminal law; the Minister of Safety and Security, the national minister responsible for policing; and the Attorney General of the Witwatersrand, the official responsible for prosecutions in the Witwatersrand Division. (The position of Attorney General has since been replaced by that of Director of Public Prosecutions within the National Prosecuting Authority.)

The applicants asked the High Court to:
 invalidate as unconstitutional the common-law offences of sodomy and commission of an unnatural sexual act, and section 20A of the Sexual Offences Act (the "men at a party" offence).
 invalidate any conviction for any of the three offences for acts committed after 27 April 1994 (the date that the Interim Constitution came into force) if the case was still under appeal or review.
 invalidate the inclusion of sodomy as a Schedule 1 offence in the Criminal Procedure Act, 1977 (which had the effect that people could be arrested without a warrant on reasonable suspicion of having committed sodomy, and deadly force could be used to prevent fleeing from arrest), and its inclusion in the Schedule of the Security Officers Act, 1987 (which had the effect of disqualifying those convicted of sodomy from being registered as security officers).
 invalidate any action taken under the authority of the inclusion of sodomy in Schedule 1 of the CPA or the Schedule of the Security Officers Act.
The Minister of Justice only opposed the last of these requests, and after the applicants withdrew it the government did not offer any opposition to the case. The applicants also withdrew the second requestthe blanket invalidation of past convictionsas they realised that some convictions related to non-consensual acts and should instead be converted into convictions for indecent assault.

The applicants argued that because the offences applied only to men and only to sex between men, they infringed the equality clause of the Constitution because they unfairly discriminated in terms of gender and sexual orientation. They also argued that "commission of an unnatural sexual offence" was so vaguely defined that it was not compatible with the rule of law, as a person could not be certain what acts it criminalised.

The High Court's judgment, authored by Judge Jonathan Heher and handed down on 8 May 1998, considered each of the attacked offences in terms of the equality guarantee in the Constitution. The offence of sodomy, he ruled, amounted to unfair discrimination both in terms of gender, because it criminalised an act between men that would not be a crime between a man and a woman, and in terms of sexual orientation, because anal intercourse is the gay male analogue to vaginal intercourse for heterosexuals. He then examined whether the discrimination could be justified, and observed that the only arguments for justification were based on prejudice or religious beliefs, which are irrelevant in a constitutional secular state; protection of public morals, which could be achieved by non-discriminatory sex offence laws; or the prevailing public opinion. Addressing the last point, the judgment referred to S v Makwanyane, in which the Constitutional Court had abolished the death penalty despite acknowledging that the weight of public opinion was opposed to abolition. The court therefore ruled that the offence of sodomy was inconsistent with the Constitution and invalid.

Considering the offence of "commission of an unnatural sexual act", Judge Heher dismissed the vagueness argument, and stated that there were some acts potentially covered by the offencebestiality being an examplethat should remain criminalised. He did accept, however, that the offence had primarily been used to prosecute gay men, and ruled that it was discriminatory and unjustifiable, and therefore invalid, to the extent that it criminalised acts between men that would not be criminal between women or between a man and a woman. Continuing to section 20A of the Sexual Offences Act, Judge Heher ruled that, as in the case of sodomy, it was discriminatory in terms of both gender and sexual orientation. Looking to justification, he proposed that Parliament might have enacted the section for the purpose of suppressing "sexual license", but considered that since the government had not seen fit to criminalise similar heterosexual or lesbian activities, the argument was not persuasive.

The offence of sodomy having been declared to be invalid and unconstitutional, it followed that its inclusion in the Schedules to the CPA and the Security Officers Act must also be invalid.

Confirmation by the Constitutional Court

South African law requires that court orders declaring acts of Parliament to be unconstitutional be confirmed by the Constitutional Court; the High Court therefore referred its order to the Constitutional Court for confirmation. The court heard argument from the applicants on 27 August 1998; the government did not oppose the application and presented no argument.

The Constitutional Court handed down its decision on 9 October 1998; the judges were unanimous in confirming the order of the High Court. The majority judgment was written by Justice Lourens Ackermann, while Justice Albie Sachs authored a separate concurrence. The court, recognising that the criminalisation of sodomy was clearly discrimination, assessed the fairness or otherwise of the discrimination by examining its effects on the groups affected, i.e. gay men and, indirectly, lesbians. Referring frequently to an influential article written by Edwin Cameron, then a professor and now himself a Constitutional Court judge, it observed that the sodomy laws "[reinforce] already existing societal prejudices" and worsen the effects of those prejudices, reducing gay men to "unapprehended felons" and thereby encouraging discrimination against them.

The court referred to the judgments of the European Court of Human Rights in Norris v. Ireland and of the Supreme Court of Canada in Vriend v. Alberta, finding that heterosexist discrimination causes psychological harm to gays and lesbians and affects their dignity and self-esteem. It also observed that the criminalisation of sodomy legitimises blackmail, entrapment and "queer-bashing". Noting that gay men are a permanent minority in society who have been severely affected by discrimination, and that the conduct that is criminalised is consensual and causes no harm to others, the judgment determined that the discrimination is unfair and therefore infringes on the constitutional right to equality.

The judgment then proceeded to examine the sodomy laws against the constitutional rights to human dignity and privacy. Observing that the laws punish an act that society associates with homosexuality and thereby stigmatise gay men, as well as putting them at risk of prosecution for "[engaging] in sexual conduct which is part of their experience of being human", the court determined that the right to dignity was infringed.

Dealing with privacy, the court referred again to Cameron's article; he had suggested that the argument based on privacy was inadequate because it implied that the protection against discrimination should be limited to tolerance of private acts. The court noted that the article was published at a time when the inclusion of sexual orientation as a ground for anti-discrimination protection was still being debated, and that Cameron's argument did not apply when the judgment had already found the discrimination to be unconstitutional on the grounds of equality and dignity.

Having found that the sodomy laws breached constitutional rights, the court then proceeded to ask whether the infringement was justifiable "in an open and democratic society based on human dignity, equality and freedom". The court found that, on the one hand, the criminalisation of sodomy had severe effects on the lives of gay men, and, on the other hand, that no valid purpose had been suggested for the infringement. It pointed out that religious views could not influence constitutional jurisprudence in a secular country.

The court also examined the situation in other democratic countries, observing that sodomy had been decriminalised in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, and throughout Western Europe. The court did take note that Bowers v. Hardwick was still (at that time) law in the United States, but pointed out its inconsistency with Romer v. Evans. The result of the balancing test was that the infringements of the rights of gay men could in no way be justified in an open and democratic society.

The court noted that male rape could be prosecuted as indecent assault, and that the Sexual Offences Act created a separate statutory offence criminalising same-sex sexual acts with a person under the age of 19. There was therefore no need to retain a limited offence of sodomy to deal with non-consensual or underage sex, and it could be entirely struck out of the common law. Considering the "men at a party" offence, the court described it as "absurdly discriminatory" and declared it to be unconstitutional for the same reasons that the offence of sodomy was.

The final question before the court was the exact nature of the order to be made and, in particular, to what extent it should be retroactive. The court ruled that, in law, the offences in question ceased to exist on 27 April 1994, when the Interim Constitution came into force. The order, however, provided that past convictions should only be invalidated if they were for consensual acts and the case had not been completely finalised; the court pointed out that those whose cases were final could apply for leave to appeal and condonation of their delay in appealing, in light of the judgment. The order also provided that actions taken as a result of the inclusion of sodomy in the schedules to the Criminal Procedure Act and the Security Officers Act should not be invalidated unless a court found that it would be just and equitable to do so.

Subsequent events
The judgment was the first by the Constitutional Court to deal with LGBT rights. It was followed by a series of rulings relating to the recognition of same-sex relationships which granted, amongst others, immigration benefits, the ability to adopt, medical and pension benefits, rights related to artificial insemination, and intestate inheritance rights. This trend was completed by the ruling in Minister of Home Affairs v Fourie, which led to the Civil Union Act and the legalisation of same-sex marriage.

The court's ruling on the sodomy laws did not address the inequality in the Sexual Offences Act, which set the age of consent at 16 for heterosexual sex but 19 for homosexual sex. This discrepancy was addressed in 2007 by the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, which reformed and codified the law relating to sexual offences to place it on a gender- and orientation-neutral basis, setting a uniform age of consent at 16. The erstwhile discrepancy was declared to be unconstitutional in 2008, in the case of Geldenhuys v National Director of Public Prosecutions.

See also
 LGBT rights in South Africa
Similar cases:
Dudgeon v United Kingdom (1981), Norris v. Ireland (1988) and Modinos v. Cyprus (1993), decided by the European Court of Human Rights.
Toonen v. Australia (1994), decided by the United Nations Human Rights Committee.
Case No. 111-97-TC (1997), decided by the Constitutional Tribunal of Ecuador.
Lawrence v. Texas (2003), decided by the United States Supreme Court.
Thomas McCosker v The State (2005), decided by the High Court of Fiji.
Naz Foundation v. Govt. of NCT of Delhi (2009), decided by the Delhi High Court.

References

External links
 Text of the judgment at SAFLII

South African LGBT rights case law
1998 in LGBT history
Constitutional Court of South Africa cases
1998 in South African case law
South African criminal case law
Sex laws in South Africa

National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v Minister of Justice


Workforce housing is a term that is increasingly used by planners, government, and organizations concerned with housing policy or advocacy. It is gaining cachet with realtors, developers and lenders. Workforce housing can refer to any form of housing, including ownership of single or multi-family homes, as well as occupation of rental units. Workforce housing is generally understood to mean affordable housing for households with earned income that is insufficient to secure quality housing in reasonable proximity to the workplace.

Overview
Consideration of workforce housing includes these four principal factors:

Workforce
The term "workforce" is meant to connote those who are gainfully employed, a group of people who are not typically understood to be the target of affordable housing programs. Workforce housing, then, implies an altered or expanded understanding of affordable housing. Workforce housing is commonly targeted at "essential workers" in a community i.e. police officers, firemen, teachers, nurses, medical personnel. Some communities define "essential" more broadly to include service workers, as in the case of resort communities where one finds high real estate costs and a high number of low-paying service jobs essential to the local economy. Workforce housing may be targeted more generally at certain income levels regardless of type of employment, with definitions ranging from 50% to 120% of Area Median Income (AMI).

Affordability
Mortgage lenders typically impose a limit of 28% to 36% of household income allowable for principal, interest, taxes and insurance (PITI). Pricing calculations aimed at renters, who represent approximately one third of US households, define a desirable workforce housing cost as at or below 30% of household income. Affordability is a function of the relationship between one's income and the housing costs of the area, which leads to variation in the percentage of AMI that may be used to describe people who might need workforce housing.

Proximity
Most appropriately, "workforce housing" is located in or near employment centers. The expanding distance between gainful employment and housing made affordable by the income it provides has caused people to seek housing on the periphery of settled areas. This is cited as a contributor to urban sprawl, typified by traffic congestion, lengthy commutes, convenience stores and strip retail centers, and the rapid consumption of open space due to the building of new homes taking place at the outer edges of metropolitan areas where land is typically cheaper. While prevalent in US metropolitan areas, workforce housing issues may arise anywhere that land values or other restrictions on creation or availability of quality affordable housing units are constrained by zoning, market forces or physical boundaries.

Quality and supply
In recent decades, federal programs have focused on providing housing subsidy or vouchers, or building and maintaining public housing projects for low income households. Housing affordability for all others has been supported mainly through programs for home buyers, especially through mortgage financing.  Whether seeking to rent or to buy, in areas facing an identified shortage of workforce housing, such units as can be found in close proximity to workplaces are often of poor quality. New housing built during the economic boom has included low numbers of affordable units, affordable units are often means-tested to exclude all but the poorest residents, and the less expensive housing tends to be built at a distance where land is cheaper.  Proximity to work often means a tradeoff in quality of housing stock, school quality, personal safety. In real terms, living in low quality housing or marginal neighborhoods is a tradeoff between access to income and access to resources such as rising home equity or quality education.

History
The concept of workforce housing has its early roots in the ski towns of Telluride and Aspen, Colorado. In 1974, in response to locals not being able to purchase homes due to the disparity between wages and the cost of homes and land rising sharply due to buyers from New York and Hollywood, a conference was organized at the Aspen Institute.  In Aspen a plan was developed to create a secondary and separate "local worker" housing market which was based on local wages and affordability. One standard tool invented to create affordably priced homes for local workers that would stay affordable for future generations was a deed restriction,  which in its most simple form states that to qualify for purchasing a home the applicant must live in the community, not own another home in the community, must work essentially full-time and must have lived in the community for a minimum period of time. Also, the owner can only sell the home to someone that meets the same criteria. Later provisions added over the years of "trial and error" include income restrictions to qualify, and capped rates on the amount of profit an owner is allowed to make in order to guarantees that the home will remain affordable forever. Three per cent per annum has been a justifiable number over the years.

The workforce housing problem seemed to be an anomaly in the ski resorts, made worse due to limited land for development due to mountains and federally owned land, which made "sprawling" unrealistic. Instead, it seems to have been a precursor to the problems now facing  vacation communities and metropolitan areas all around the country and the world. In the early 2000s record low mortgage interest rates spurred a nationwide surge in housing demand. Record housing construction and record housing prices in many communities drove land costs higher. Construction materials and labor costs, propelled by disastrous hurricanes in 2004 and 2005 that damaged or destroyed hundreds of thousands of homes in Florida and on the Gulf Coast, amplified the problem to create a critical dilemma: in many communities, average income households cannot afford a median-priced home. For a while, the low interest rates and availability of creative financing options bridged the gap between housing costs and income for some households, enabling people to obtain mortgages that consumed more than 30% of their income or to use rising equity in their home to compensate for the affordability gap. The subprime mortgage crisis and current economic downturn raise questions as to the ability financing tools and private developers to effectively solve current or future affordable housing shortages.

Housing has played an important role in economic advancement and the growth of America's middle class. Federal housing policy has at times in the past created programs to assist the population currently targeted for workforce housing.  For instance, after World War II the needs of returning veterans and the baby boom led to the G.I. Bill which included provisions for favorable mortgage terms and fueled suburban development, creating affordable home ownership opportunities for a generation of Americans. Public housing projects also provided rental housing to many urban families. In later decades means-testing, white flight, and mismanagement would change the nature and perception of public housing, but in mid-century America they were still providing quality, affordable housing to thousands of working and middle-class families.

Study and policy
Systems like original Aspen scheme have not proliferated. However, the issue of workforce housing continues to affect non-metropolitan communities, particularly resort communities where one finds the acute effects of the triple impact of high land values, land limited by geographic features (i.e. coastline or mountains) and a prevalence of lower paying service-sector employment. Currently, the majority of advocacy and policy activity is centered on metropolitan areas with housing costs higher than the national average.

The term "workforce housing" is appearing in policy discussions at national and state levels. While typically defined by local terms - area median income, fair market rent, and the employment base of the particular region - without the ability fund initiatives or to create sufficient incentives or mandates, it is difficult to have any impact on affordable housing. As with all affordable housing initiatives, local governments may use existing tools like inclusionary zoning, upzonings, density bonuses to create desired outcomes. Incentives may include waiver of fees like building permit fees, water and sewer fees. Real estate transfer taxes and retail sales taxes may provide funding in states where local governments have the power to raise revenue in this way.  In Missouri, some examples of policy recommendations for changes at the state level that might accelerate creation of workforce housing include bond issues to fund projects, and mandated inclusion of workforce housing in the comprehensive plans required for the state's largest municipalities.

Metrics to define and address the issue of workforce housing are evolving. Many organizations cite the National Low Income Housing Coalition report "Out Of Reach" which includes data maps to illustrate the mismatch between housing and incomes across the country.  A 2010 report from the Washington, D.C. based non-profit Urban Land Institute entitled "Priced Out" is one example of in-depth study for a specific area. It provides an overview of workforce housing issues in the Boston Metropolitan Region. ULI concludes that the Boston area is 25,000 units shy of the number needed to house the current workforce, and will face a shortage of an additional 11,000 units by 2020. While this example is drawn from one of the most acutely affected areas of the country, it illustrates the usefulness of defining the scope and scale of the problem as a necessary precursor to solving it. The report also includes examples of some typical Boston region families to illustrate that workforce applies to people who are typically perceived to be middle class, such as assistant college professors and civil engineers. Many workforce housing advocates hope that it may find broader support than previous affordable housing initiatives, because it is targeted towards essential members of the community and towards people who are perceived to be hard-working, good neighbors who will not negatively impact real estate values, and more deserving than those who are truly poor.

The National Association of Realtors, the country's largest trade association for real estate professionals, now offers a Workforce Housing Certification and support for related projects through the Ira Gribin Workforce Housing Grant.

Legislation and projects
In 2013 Teachers Village was completed in Newark New Jersey. This mixed use development complex includes charter schools, ground-floor retail, and rental units for 200 Newark teachers. While significant numbers of luxury housing units had been added to Newark during the early 2000s, Teachers Village is one of the first significant additions of housing for moderate or middle-income households.

In the California Bay Area affordable workforce housing has been targeted to retain teachers when it was discovered that high housing costs were a main reason for high turnover. One developer received a density bonus, i.e. the right to build more units than current zoning allowed, in exchange for providing units geared towards people making 80-120% of AMI. Sonoma County, CA is imposing impact fees to fund workforce housing.

Florida has faced record growth for most of its history, including during the recent economic boom. The Florida Housing Coalition has served for almost 20 years as one of the leading U.S. innovators in housing advocacy and helped to create the Sadowski Affordable Housing act in 1991. The South Florida Workforce Housing Initiative has compiled a comprehensive list of approaches to promote workforce housing development, ranging from land banking and financing options, to zoning recommendations and incentives.

New Hampshire passed workforce housing legislation in 2008  and plans for the first project to be built under this legislation were approved in 2010.

In 2008 New York enacted the Long Island Workforce Housing Act which received support in part because long-time residents are seeing their young adult children move away due to housing costs.

See also
 Key worker, a term used in the United Kingdom to refer to essential public sector employees who are often the intended customers for workforce housing schemes in that country

References

External links
U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
Nelson, Arthur C. et al., (February 2002) The Link Between Growth Management and Housing Affordability: The Academic Evidence The Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, Retrieved 2011-01-30.
Worker / Labor Accommodation Camps (Dorce)

Affordable housing

Workforce housing


Otto H. Königsberger (13 October 1908 – 3 January 1999) was a German architect who worked mainly in urban development planning in Africa, Asia and Latin America, with the United Nations. He also   proposed some plans for developing new cities like Bhubaneswar and Jamshedpur under the vision of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru who wanted to build planned cities in India.

Early life

Königsberger was born in Berlin in 1908, and trained as an architect there at the Technical University of Berlin, graduating in 1931. In 1933, he won the Schinkel Prize for Architecture for a design for the Olympic Stadium in Berlin. However, with the rise to power of the Nazi Party, Königsberger was forced to leave the country, as was his uncle, physicist Max Born. Königsberger later illustrated Born's popularized physics text, The Restless Universe (published 1935).

Königsberger spent the next six years in the Swiss Institute for the History of Egyptian Architecture in Cairo, where he gained his doctorate. When his uncle Max Born was in Bangalore as a guest of  Raman, the Diwan Mirza Ismail enquired if he know of any trained architect. Thanks to Born's introduction, Königsberger was appointed chief architect and planner to Mysore State, India in 1939. His buildings during this period include some buildings in the Indian Institute of Science (1943–44), the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in Bombay (Mumbai), the bus station, Serum Institute and Victory Hall (1946, renamed as Town Hall) in Bangalore, the town plan for Bhubaneswar, and some town planning for Jamshedpur with the vision of  Tata. After Indian Independence he became director of housing for the Indian Ministry of Health from 1948 to 1951, working on resettling those displaced by partition.

Career
In 1953 Königsberger moved to London and became head of the Department of Development and Tropical Studies at the Architectural Association, which later became the Development Planning Unit of University College, London, where he worked as a professor until his retirement in 1978.

Königsberger taught that town planners in the developing world should be prepared to dynamically adapt their plans, and involve local communities and techniques, as opposed to imposing a static master plan based on Western ideas – an approach he called Action Planning. He served as a senior adviser to the United Nations Economic and Social Council from the 1950s, and helped launch Habitat International in 1976, which he edited until 1978. His Manual of tropical housing and building was published in several languages and remains a standard course text in many parts of the world.

Awards and legacy
In 1989, Königsberger was one of the first recipients of the UN Habitat Scroll of Honour, the most prestigious award given by the United Nations in recognition of work carried out in the field of human settlements development. The same year, University College London established the Otto Koenigsberger Scholarship to enable young professionals from developing countries to study urban planning in the UK.

See also
Mahoney tables

Bibliography

References

1908 births
1999 deaths
German urban planners
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom
Architects from Berlin
Academics of University College London
20th-century German architects

Otto Königsberger


Macro photography is a kind of photography. Macro photography is about photographing objects that are very close to the lens, the film or the sensor. Using the classic definition, in macro photography the image shown on the film plane (or sensor) is nearly as big as the object photographed. There are different ways to achieve this. The most common one is to use a specialised macro lens. Such lenses are good at focussing sharply on a small area approaching the size of the film frame.  Most 35mm format macro lenses achieve at least 1:2, that is to say, the image on the film is half the size of the object being photographed.  Many 35mm macro lenses are 1:1, meaning the image on the 135 film is the same size as the object being photographed.  Another important difference is that lenses designed for macro are usually at their sharpest at macro focus distances and are not quite as sharp at other focus distances.

In recent years, the term macro has been used in marketing material to mean being able to focus on a subject close enough so that when a regular 6×4 inch (15×10 cm) print is made, the image is life-size or larger. With 35mm film this requires a magnification ratio of only approximately 1:4, which demands less of lens quality than 1:1. With digital cameras the actual image size is rarely stated, so that the magnification ratio is largely irrelevant; cameras instead advertise their closest focusing distance.

Typical subjects are still life, such as fruit, flowers, jewelry and small household objects. Macro photography often reveals details of the subject not visible with the naked eye.

Different ways to do macro photography
Using a specialised macro lens. These exist in different focal length, from what should be a normal lens (40-60mm for 35mm flim), to medium to long telephotos (around 100mm, and 180-200mm). Very often they offer reproduction ratios of 1:2, or 1:1.
Sometimes ordinary lenses have a macro position. They usually offer reproduction ratios around 1:4.
Using what are called extension tubes. These are small inserts between the lens and the camera. They move the lens farther away from the camera, increasing reproduction ratio, decreasing depth of field. The main problem with that is that they cost light, usually cutting brightness by a factor between two and four. It may also be impossible to get a sharp view of the object photographed, if it is farther away. An extension tube where the distance can be changed continuously is called bellows.
Using a close-up lens, in front of the lens. This will act like a magnifying glass
Using a telephoto extender. This will change the focal length of the lens, and give a bigger image.

Problems with macro photography
There are two main problems with macro photography:
The Depth of field can be extremely shallow. This means that objects that are even a millimetre closer of farther away can be out of focus - blurry.
Getting enough light: The more magnified an image is, the more difficult it is to get enough light. There are also special flashes, called ring flashes. These are mounted on the lens. Another option is to use a telephoto macro lens (which is more expensive). This means working distance is increased.

Photography

Macro photography


Star Wars: TIE Fighter is a space flight simulator game that came out in 1994. It takes place in the Star Wars universe and has starfighters and other spacecraft from the movies and books. The player flies starfighters for the Galactic Empire in various missions.

Story
TIE Fighter takes place in several parts with different storylines. In early missions the player fights against members of the Rebel Alliance, as well as space pirates and other enemies. There is also a story section where the player helps the Empire mediate between two groups that have been at war but say they want a peace treaty.

Later in the game, the player helps find out about a plot by a traitor Admiral to leave the Empire and join the Rebellion, and steal Imperial ships and technology. The rest of the game is about the player working with the Empire to stop the traitors.

Gameplay
In TIE Fighter, the player is a starfighter pilot who flies in combat missions. The game is normally played in first person from the view of the cockpit, but the player can also choose third person camera. There are many starfighters the player can fly, but some can not be used until later in the game. For many missions the player can choose which starfighter to fly and what warheads to use during the mission.

Most missions are combat missions. The player fights enemy starfighters, as well as "capital ships", which are very large starcraft that are hard to destroy. Different missions have different goals. Sometimes the player will escort supplies, scan other spacecraft, or simply hunt enemy ships.

Since the game is in space there is no gravity and the player can fly in any direction. Each starfighter the player can use has laser guns and many have warheads and rechargeable shields.

Star Wars games
Simulator video games
1994 video games
DOS games

Star Wars: TIE Fighter


Clinton Dermott "Casey" Vincent (November 29, 1914 – July 5, 1955) was an American flying ace who became the second youngest general officer in United States Army Air Forces history. Vincent was one of Claire Chennault's two top fighter commanders in the China Burma India Theater of World War II. He served as the model for two comic strip characters by Milton Caniff: "Colonel Vince Casey", and "Brigadier General P.G. 'Shanty' Town".

Vincent planned and carried out daring offensive air tactics in China, forming the 14th Air Force Forward Echelon which staged out of forward airfields to attack the enemy unexpectedly. The successful concept was twinned and reorganized by Chennault into two mixed-aircraft groups, with Vincent commanding one of them, the 68th Composite Wing. A string of Allied victories throughout 1943 caused the Japanese to plan a major retaliatory move. Beginning in May 1944, the airmen were hit repeatedly and forced into retreat as the Japanese implemented Operation Ichi-Go. Vincent's men demolished their valuable airbases and fell back to Chennault's stronghold at Kunming. Vincent returned to the U.S. afterward, his tour of duty complete.

Back home, Vincent was put in command of a training wing and in 1946 was asked to teach at the Air War College. Following this, he held the position of second-in-command of the Western Air Defense Force. Vincent died of a heart attack in 1955. The United States Air Force (USAF) named an air base after him in 1956: the Vincent Air Force Base in Yuma, Arizona. The airfield was turned over to the Marines in 1962, and is today the Marine Corps Air Station Yuma (Vincent Field).

Early career
Clinton Dermott Vincent was born in 1914 in the small town of Gail, Texas. His parents, Carvin Wyoming Vincent and the former Rosa Lee Burgess, produced 10 or 11 children—Vincent was the youngest. He was nicknamed "Casey" from youth. While still a small child, Vincent moved with his family to Natchez, Mississippi, where he went to school. After excelling in high school, Vincent was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point, becoming a cadet on July 1, 1932. Vincent graduated on June 12, 1936, and became a second lieutenant.

Vincent transferred to the Air Corps and took primary flight training at Randolph Field in Texas, about  from his parents back home. In January 1937, during his primary training, his mother died in Natchez at the age of 65. Following primary, Vincent took the attack course in advanced flying at Kelly Field in San Antonio, Texas. During a dance held at the officer's club, he met Margaret "Peggy" Hennessey, a young woman with an infant daughter, and fell in love. In November 1937, he was posted operations officer for the 19th Pursuit Squadron at Wheeler Field near Pearl Harbor. Hennessey traveled to Hawaii to be with him, and on February 10, 1938, they married—the couple celebrated the birth of a daughter named Thayer on December 17. The young father rose in rank to first lieutenant in June 1939, then was promoted to captain on October 7, 1940. In November 1940, Vincent transferred to the newly formed 35th Pursuit Group at Hamilton Field in Northern California where he served as squadron commander. The Group trained in several fighter aircraft types, including Seversky P-35s, P-36 Hawks, P-39 Airacobras and P-40 Warhawks. Vincent advanced to group operations officer, then executive officer, then in December 1941 was made group commander.

On December 5, two days before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Vincent's wife pinned the gold leaves of a major on his shoulders. That evening, the 35th Pursuit Group shipped out for overseas duty in Manila, to join the group's 21st and 34th Squadrons already there. The next day Peggy Vincent began to drive her two daughters to San Antonio to be with family. On December 7 when Hawaii was attacked by Japanese naval forces, the unarmed ship carrying Vincent, traveling with no escort, was ordered to return immediately to San Francisco Bay. Vincent remained in California for another month, joined by his wife and daughter, during which time he learned that Manila had fallen, and that fellow Group pilot Sam Marrett, a friend from West Point, had died in its defense. On January 12, 1942, the USS Mariposa sailed in convoy with Vincent aboard, headed for the Far East.

China
Vincent arrived in Melbourne, Australia, in early February, then sailed in a different convoy to Perth. In March, he sailed to Karachi, India, and was posted to Karachi American Air Base, one of the more distant ports that supplied The Hump. There, Vincent served as Director of Pursuit Training for the Tenth Air Force at the rank of lieutenant colonel. Wishing for a combat post, in November 1942 he was ordered by Clayton Bissell, commander Tenth Air Force, to transfer to China to join General Claire Chennault and his China Air Task Force (CATF), a group formed from the Flying Tigers. Bissell's orders specified Vincent take the position of Chennault's executive officer, to apply a dose of West Point regimen to the haphazard CATF paperwork, but Chennault, irked at this maneuver by his  distant superior, instead assigned Vincent operations officer. Three days into the new job, Vincent wrote in his diary, "Any similarity between the China Air Task Force and a military organization is purely accidental." He observed that administrative procedures were poor. "...the Group just runs by itself. All Colonel Scott (Robert Lee Scott, Jr.) cares about is fighting—and he is good at that!"

Vincent cared little what title he served under—he just wanted to fly in combat. After instituting procedural changes regarding the format of official reports originating from CATF, he assigned himself his first air combat flight on November 22, escorting bombers against the harbor of Haiphong on the coast of French Indochina, during which he dropped a bomb from his fighter into the harbor's dock area. Five days later, he scored his first aerial victory: a fixed-undercarriage Japanese fighter he encountered during an attack on Canton in which 10 B-25s and 22 P-40s downed some 16 to 22 enemy aircraft. Vincent noted that he was effectively serving three desk jobs—Exec', 'Intelligence', and 'Operations—but that Chennault was pleased to find his new administrator a skilled pilot eager to fight.

In the final weeks of 1942, the CATF was often grounded by bad weather. Vincent flew combat in Peggy I on December 12, but two days later he was ordered by Chennault, at Bissell's insistence, to refrain from flying a mission he had planned. Another pilot took Peggy I on that mission but belly-landed the aircraft on a road. Vincent borrowed a different aircraft to fly reconnaissance missions on December 17 and 19, but stayed on the ground again during a short visit by Bissell, to satisfy his expectations. General Joseph Stilwell flew in on December 22 to award Chennault the Distinguished Service Medal, and to take him to Chungking, the provisional wartime capital of China. Left in charge of CATF for the rest of December, Vincent led the combat missions he put together. On December 24 he was awarded the Silver Star for his combat performance.

In early January 1943, Vincent was officially made executive officer of the CATF, taking over the multiple leadership roles held previously by Scott and by Merian C. Cooper, who were both heading home. He checked out in a C-53 transport, flew it to Chungking for a "short visit with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek", and was promoted to colonel. On January 24, Albert "Ajax" Baumler flew a captured and repaired Mitsubishi A6M Zero from Kweilin, and Vincent put it through its paces to become one of only five pilots in the "Zero Club"—China-based U.S. pilots who test-flew this particular aircraft. Starved of fuel and supplies in February, the CATF mounted few missions; during the same period, Commanding General of the USAAF Henry H. Arnold visited with Chennault and Vincent to inform them that a group of fuel-hungry heavy bombers were to be assigned to the CATF, under Colonel Royden Eugene Beebe, Jr.

Fourteenth Air Force
On March 10, 1943, the China Air Task Force became the Fourteenth Air Force, and Vincent was made chief of staff. He prevailed upon Chennault to let him take a fighter squadron deeper into enemy territory via advance bases where the fliers would stop to refuel and re-arm. In May 1943, a forward echelon commanded by Vincent with Tex Hill as vice commander was flown out of bases in east China, along the Hengyang–Kweilin line. This bold thrust into enemy-held territory put all major Japanese airbases from north China to Indochina and Thailand under threat of U.S. air attack. Flying Peggy II, a new P-40K he received on June 2, Vincent racked up four more aerial victories, making him an ace, then number six on August 26, 1943. For this, he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Legion of Merit; the latter "for outstanding leadership of a small force, which, against numerically superior air strength, succeeded in disrupting enemy communications and routing troop columns." Chennault forbade him from any further combat missions.

Meanwhile, back home in San Antonio, Texas in early 1943, Peggy Vincent wrote to cartoonist Milton Caniff to tell him that her husband was working under Chennault in China, much like the characters in Caniff's comic strip Terry and the Pirates. Peggy Vincent sent Caniff photographs of her husband and told the cartoonist about his flying exploits. Caniff worked the flier into his comic strip as "Colonel Vince Casey" around March 1943. In September and October 1943, Vincent was rotated back home on leave during which he met Caniff. Nine months after the visit, a second daughter was born to the Vincents, named Patricia.

Upon his return to CBI, Vincent was informed that reconnaissance flights over Formosa (Taiwan) showed a growing concentration of Japanese aircraft. To Vincent, they appeared vulnerable to attack from advance bases, so he and Hill planned a long-range mission. On Thanksgiving Day, November 25, 1943, Vincent sent Hill in command of a mixed force of eight early Allison-engined P-51 Mustangs, eight P-38 Lightnings and fourteen B-25 Mitchells against 100 bombers and 112 fighters at Hsinchu Air Base—the attackers destroyed 15 of 20 defending fighters as well as 27 enemy bombers on the ground without loss to themselves. Four days later flying escort to B-24 Liberator heavy bombers, Vincent led the 23d Fighter Group against Tien Ho airdrome at Canton—the group shot down 13 of 20 defending fighters.

The Formosa attack was one of the most devastating in the CBI Theater—it catalyzed the Japanese to lay plans to invade and seize the advance airfields Vincent had developed in east China. These plans became one of the two primary goals of Operation Ichi-Go, Japan's 1944 invasion of east China.

As an expansion of the 14th Air Force Forward Echelon, the 68th Composite Wing was formed in December 1943. Vincent commanded the 68th for its first year. The mixed unit was composed of fighters, fighter bombers and medium bombers, flown by both American and Chinese airmen. Vincent flew a B-25 Mitchell bomber to lead his men in some of the bombing raids. More than 500,000 tons of Japanese shipping were sunk by Vincent's airmen, and the Japanese air power was greatly reduced south of the Yangtze River. On June 2, 1944, Vincent was promoted to temporary brigadier general, the second youngest general officer in the USAAF. It had taken him only seven years to rise from second lieutenant to general. An article about the meteoric rise of young military officers was printed in Time on June 19, 1944. Among other officers mentioned, Vincent was described as  tall, , a six-kill ace and the prototype for the cartoon character Vince Casey. Of Vincent, Caniff said that he "picked his brain" about living and fighting conditions in China.

Vincent commanded the 68th Composite Group with Tex Hill as his deputy during the whole of the Japanese Operation Ichi-Go of 1944. The Americans in their advance bases were thrown on the defensive. In late June, Vincent ordered the evacuation of the base built at Hengyang, destroying it with explosives so that the Japanese could not make use of the buildings or the airstrip. Directly afterward, Vincent was called to attend a formal dinner with American and Chinese generals and ambassadors, honoring Vice President Henry A. Wallace who was on a fact-finding mission. Meeting after dinner in his office, Vincent told Wallace "the unvarnished truth—that, barring a miracle, the Japanese will have all of east China by July 15!"

Japanese supply problems in east China were as critical as American ones, and the Japanese advance was slowed until September when Vincent was forced to retreat and destroy his advance base at Tanchuk. The same treatment befell his own headquarters at Kweilin in October. As he circled Kweilin one final time in his command B-25, he said to Time magazine writer Theodore H. White (who was evacuating as well), "I'm going to write a book about this campaign. I'm going to call it Fire and Fall Back." A month later, Vincent's HQ, relocated to Liuchow, was abandoned, with the 68th retreating to the 14th Air Force stronghold at Kunming. On December 13, 1944, both Hill and Vincent completed their tours of duty and left China, Vincent to command the 30th Training Wing at Turner Field in Georgia.

Postwar career
In 1946, Vincent reverted to the permanent rank of captain and began teaching at the Air War College. During this time, the United States Air Force (USAF) was formed from the USAAF. From 1949 to 1955, Vincent rose in rank, reaching temporary brigadier general once again in 1951. A son was born to him, named Clinton D. Vincent, Jr., nicknamed Casey Junior.

In 1951 Caniff, who had started a comic strip titled Steve Canyon four years earlier, used Vincent as a model for a new character, this time making him the youthful "Brigadier General P.G. 'Shanty' Town". Caniff made General Town into a hard-working peacetime general, concerned with the defense of America.

In 1953, Vincent was placed second in command under Major General Walter E. Todd, Commander Western Air Defense Force. Todd's station was at Hamilton Air Force Base near San Francisco. As Vice Commander, Vincent took an active role in defense developments such as the EC-121 Warning Star, a large radar-equipped aircraft that held a rotating crew of 31 for extended flights, used to detect the approach of enemy aircraft and to coordinate fighter interception. Vincent held the position until mid-1955.

Death and legacy
In 1955, Vincent was ordered to Ent Air Force Base in Colorado Springs, Colorado where he was to serve as deputy chief of staff for operations of the Continental Air Command. On July 5 at the age of 40, after one full day at his new post, Vincent went to bed at his residence on the air base and died of a heart attack in his sleep. His wife, three daughters and one son were still at their residence on Hamilton AFB in California, preparing to move, when they received word. Caniff responded to the tragic news by having his character General Town die from overwork.

On September 1, 1956, Yuma Air Force Base was renamed Vincent Air Force Base in Vincent's honor. A plaque commemorating the event was unveiled by Vincent's widow, Peggy Vincent, at a ceremony held on October 12.

In 1975, Vincent's war diaries were made into a book: Fire and Fall Back: the World War Two "CBI" story of "Casey" Vincent, compiled and edited by author Glenn E. McClure. "Tex" Hill said of Vincent and the diaries "He was strong, smart—just one hell of a good man. He was never recognized for what he did. He handled it well in China. But you could tell in his diary that he felt like he'd been left hanging."

Awards and decorations

References
Notes

Bibliography

Cornelius, Wanda, and Thayne Short. Ding Hao: America's Air War in China, 1937–1945. Pelican Publishing Company, 2005.
McClure, Glenn E. Fire and Fall Back: the World War Two "CBI" story of "Casey" Vincent. Universal City, Texas. Barnes Press. 1975.
Samson, Jack. The Flying Tiger: The True Story of General Claire Chennault and the U.S. 14th Air Force in China. Globe Pequot, 2005.
White, Theodore E. and Annalee Jacoby. Thunder Out of China, London, 1947. Reprint 2007, .

External links

USAF Biography: Brigadier General Clinton D. "Casey" Vincent
4701 EC-121 Warning Star introduction, including 1953 and 1954 photographs of Clinton D. Vincent

1914 births
1955 deaths
American World War II flying aces
Aviators from Texas
Burials at Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery
People from Borden County, Texas
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Air Medal
United States Air Force generals
United States Army Air Forces generals
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
United States Military Academy alumni
United States Army Air Forces generals of World War II
Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Military personnel from Texas

Clinton D. "Casey" Vincent


The Immaculate Conception is the Catholic doctrine which says that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was conceived in the womb of her mother, Saint Anne, without original sin. The Catholic Church teaches this because they believe that Jesus, as God, had to be conceived in a mother whose soul was without any kind of sin, since God does not like sin. The Immaculate Conception became official Catholic teaching in 1854, announced by Pope Pius IX. Four years later, people claimed that Mary appeared to a girl named Bernadette in Lourdes, France, and that Mary told Bernadette: "I am the Immaculate Conception."

The Immaculate Conception does not mean the conception of Jesus in the womb of his mother Mary. This is correctly called the Incarnation.

The Feast of the Immaculate Conception is celebrated on December 8 each year.

Mary, mother of Jesus
Catholicism
Christian theology

Immaculate Conception