Duke Nukem 3D is a first-person shooter video game. It was made by 3D Realms and sold by Apogee Software. It was first sold on January 29, 1996. Duke Nukem 3D is based on the main character from the platform games Duke Nukem and Duke Nukem II which were also published by Apogee. The character is voiced by Jon St. John.

Gameplay
In the game, players control Duke Nukem, an action hero from Earth. Players must fight invading aliens that want to take over Earth. The game is made up of 28 levels spread over three chapters. An add-on pack called The Plutonium Pak, later added a fourth episode of 11 new levels, new enemies, and one new weapon.

The game is a first person shooter, so the player sees the game from Duke's eyes. Instead of following the character around like a third-person shooter, Duke Nukem is like being inside Duke, and the player can see Duke's hands and weapons on the screen. The player fights the aliens, most often by shooting at them with different guns, but Duke can also kick, and throw pipe bombs like grenades. The player must also sometimes solve puzzles to find the way through the level.

Duke Nukem 3D is set "sometime in the early 21st century", starting in a badly worn down Los Angeles. The game moves on to places such as lunar space stations. An alien transgenic species has invaded Earth while Duke has been fighting in space. Duke crash lands back on Earth and finds most humans are gone. Only a few women remain as slaves for the aliens. America has been turned into a wasteland, and pornography has become the only entertainment.

Structure

Level design
The levels of Duke Nukem 3D take the player outdoors and indoors, on the street, inside military bases, deserts, flooded cities, space stations, moon bases and Japanese villas. Levels were designed with many routes so that players can climb through air ducts, back doors and sewers to avoid enemies or find hidden secrets. This makes the levels well suited to multiplayer deathmatchs. The secret items also include (light switches to make it easier to see, water fountains and broken hydrants provide some health points) or simply provide a touch of diversion and strippers who Duke tells jokes to and sometimes they open up their clothes.

Weapons and equipment
The game includes a range of weapons, some of which, even today, are still unique to the Duke Nukem series. They range from Duke's foot for kicking, a pistol, a "Chain gun" (similar in design to the Nordenfelt gun), pipe bombs, freeze- and shrink-rays, and laser-trip-mines.

Aside from weapons, Nukem can also find 'medkits' to heal himself whenever the player chooses. Steroids make the player move faster, as well as removing the effects of the shrink-ray. Nightvision goggles allow players to see enemies in the dark. The "HoloDuke" device projects a fake hologram of Duke that can be used to trick enemies. Protective boots allow the player to cross dangerously hot or toxic floors. For underwater scenes, scuba gear (an aqua-lung) can be used to let Duke breathe. One of the favorite items is the jetpack which allows the player to fly up in the sky, often to reach hidden weapons or extra health. Many of the secret items such as the jetpack, the scuba gear and the night vision goggles only last for a short time. Weapons also have a limited number of ammunition.

Monsters
There are many monsters in the game. Some of these are aliens, others mutated humans (the LAPD has been turned into monster pigs). Similar to many first-person shooter games, Nukem encounters a large number of weaker enemies, and a small number of boss enemies (extremely powerful). Like Duke, these "boss" enemies have a wide range of weapons and equipment (some weaker enemies have jet packs).

Multiplayer
In 1996, at the time of the game's release, Internet-based gaming was just beginning and Duke Nukem 3D could be played on IPX LAN or modem. Duke Nukem 3D players often used the IPX network utility Kali or the Total Entertainment Network (TEN) online service.  Kali allowed users to join a chat room to find opponents. The Total Entertainment Network had hundreds of Duke 3D players online at any time, but players had to pay money monthly for it. The game's levels are often used as the battlegrounds for these online players, bur users are able to create their own levels ("maps"). The game also features co-operative play (co-op) which allows players to fight against the aliens instead of each other. In the "Atomic" version, a new game play mode was introduced: Duke Tag, a "capture the flag" style mode.

Technology
Ken Silverman's Build engine allowed complicated levels.  The game could use slopes in the floors. It also supports upwards and downwards mouse aiming (though aiming up and down distorts the graphics due to not having perspective correction).

Duke Nukem 3D Build engine had doors/walls that can move sideways. The Build scripting system allows a whole string of moving and sliding parts with sound effects, such as buildings falling down, earthquakes, and walls that break apart when hit with explosives. One of the more advanced effects is the horizontal sliding platform that can move the player inside a small sliding room, which made it possible to create subway cars moving in a timed sequence around a ring-shaped track.

The Build engine makes horizontally moving platforms possible by allowing several objects to pass through the same 2D space. While inside one of these spaces, it is not possible to see into the other space, and so the Byuild 2.5D engine has no problem rendering one space or the other even though the map data literally shows the two areas to be occupying the same place. Several Duke Nukem 3D maps use this feature to create bizarre mind-bending maps where multiple large rooms all seem to be occupying one 3D space. One secret level in particular ("Lunatic Fringe" from episode 2, Lunar Apocalypse) has a map where the player can travel 720 degrees around a circle and not cross their path. This would be much more difficult to duplicate with modern true-3D map editors and engines.

An early beta (testing) version of Duke Nukem 3D called LameDuke was released by 3D Realms as a "bonus" one year after the release of the official version. It has been released as is, with no support.

LameDuke features four episodes. Some weapons were removed and/or altered from the original versions.

Adult content
Duke Nukem 3D is often thought of as one of the first videogames to have adult humor and sexual themes, especially in the first-person shooter genre. Jokes about American consumerism, Hollywood culture, and sex in the media are made all through the game. Duke's world is out of control and virtually all forms of entertainment in this future have been reduced to pornography by the aliens.

The game has been heavily attacked by some critics, who claim that it supports pornography and murder. Media Watch made the following comments about the game.

"Duke Nukem 3D moves the 'shooter' through pornography stores, where Duke can use XXX sex posters for target practice. Duke throws cash at a prostituted woman telling her to 'Shake it, Baby' his gun ever ready. In the game bonus points are awarded for the murder of these mostly prostituted and partially nude women. Duke blows up stained glass windows in an empty church or goes to strip clubs where Japanese women lower their kimonos exposing their breasts. Duke is encouraged to kill defenseless, often bound women.— Media Watch, Teaching Boys To Kill

In reality, Duke Nukem 3D does not contain a "bonus points" system; even accidental shooting of innocents in the game is, sometimes, punished by a sudden group of enemies attacking.

Duke Nukem 3D was banned in Brazil, along with Quake, Doom and several other violent first-person shooters. As a response to complaints, censored versions of the game were sold in some countries to avoid being banned. In Germany, the BPjM placed the game on the List of Media Harmful to Young People.

Add-on software
Many spin-offs and modifications to the original Duke Nukem 3D were produced after the game's initial launch.

Plutonium PAK/Atomic Edition: The Atomic Edition of Duke Nukem 3D was first sold in November 1996, and contained the original 3 episode game as well as a new eleven-level fourth episode. The Plutonium PAK was also sold as an upgrade package to convert the first available version of Duke Nukem 3D (v1.3d) to the new Atomic Edition (v1.4, later upgraded again to v1.5). It includes three new enemies: the Protector Drone, the Pig Cop Tank, and a new boss known as The Alien Queen. It also includes a new weapon, the Microwave Expander, with its own special ammunition. It also has several improvements to the software of the game, which allow the game's players to create new enemies and items. Also this version includes a computer controlled second player to simulate multiplayer games.

EDuke (Enhanced Duke Nukem 3D): created by Matthew Saettler was given away as a patch for Atomic Edition users on July 28, 2000. On this version 3D Realms removed the copyrights from the software so that players could do anything they liked with it and included a demo mod made by several beta testers. The demo included new Sector-Based Effects, Sprite-Based Elevators, Ladders, a Bouncing Particle Fountain, a Personal Teleporter, and a Sophisticated Translucent Water Effect. Saettler has kept records of his original Eduke site hee for reference.

Duke Caribbean: Life's a Beach: This is an add-on created by Sunstorm Interactive. Duke relaxes on a tropical island when he discovers that the aliens are having their own "vacation" there. This unofficial add-on has a sunny Caribbean atmosphere, nice beaches and hotels as well as some of the original Duke Nukem 3D stuff fit in.  It includes levels created by Charlie Wiederhold, who later worked for 3D Realms to work on Duke Nukem Forever, the upcoming sequel to Duke Nukem 3D.

Duke it out in D.C.: In this storyline, President Bill Clinton is captured by alien forces, and it is up to Duke to save him. This pack has levels that are based on real locations of Washington DC, such as the White House, the FBI headquarters, the Smithsonian museum, and the Washington Monument and others. This game was also developed by Sunstorm Interactive.

Duke: Nuclear Winter: This one was developed by Simply Silly Software. In the storyline, Santa Claus is mind-controlled by aliens into causing trouble on Earth. Several of the levels take place near the North Pole. This game has sometimes been criticized for using content from the original Duke Nukem 3D.

Duke Xtreme: An add-on developed by Sunstorm Interactive and contained 50 levels and many items. This version had many technical problems.

Duke!Zone (Parts 1 and 2): Was sold by WizardWorks and had over 500 levels made by fans of Duke Nukem 3D. Duke!ZONE II, contained three episodes designed by WizardWorks.

Compilations
Duke Nukem 3D has been included in several compilations. A bundle called East Meets West included the full versions of Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition and Shadow Warrior. A bundle called Duke Nukem: Kill-A-Ton Collection featured Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition, Duke Xtreme, Duke!ZONE II, Duke Nukem I (Duke Nukum), Duke Nukem II, and various other utilities. Both of these compilations are no longer sold. Earlier packages of Duke Nukem 3D also included the complete versions of Duke Nukem I and II as a bonus.

In 1998, 3D Realms filed a lawsuit against Micro Star over its add-on pack
Nuke It and won.

Software projects working with the GPL licensed source code
The source code to the Duke Nukem 3D v1.5 executable, which uses the Build engine, was released as free software under the GPL on April 1, 2003. The artwork remains copyright protected. Many programmers altered so that it can be played on modern computers. As of 2007, these projects gave the game a second life in multiplayer games through the Internet and a growing community is still actively playing.

The first modern Duke Nukem 3D project was from icculus.org. It is a cross-platform project that allows the game to be played on BeOS, FreeBSD, Linux, Mac OS X, Solaris, Windows and prossibly others. The icculus.org software would later be used in the Rancidmeat, and later, the xDuke projects.

One popular project is Jonathon Fowler's JFDuke3D, which the original creator of 'Duke Nukem 3D, Ken Silverman, gave support to, in December 2003. Fowler and Silverman produced a new version of JFDuke3D using Polymost, an OpenGL software product for Build, which uses much more advanced 3D models, and 32-bit color. Another project JFDuke3D called xDuke (not related to the xDuke project by icculus.org/duke3d) was created for play on the Xbox.

Silverman has helped Fowler with a lot of other software work related to the game.

Here is a list of some of the most popular Duke Nukem 3D versions played in 2008:
 icculus.org/duke3d — to play on BeOS/FreeBSD/Linux/Mac OS X/Solaris/Microsoft Windows/Some others (made in 2005)
 JFDuke3D  — to play on Microsoft Windows/Linux/Some others (2005)
 xDuke — to play on Microsoft Windows (made in 2006)
 Duke3d_w32 — to play on Microsoft Windows (made in 2006)
 EDuke32 — to play on Microsoft Windows/Linux/64bit/Mac OS X (made in 2008)

Enhancement by fans
Projects such as the Duke Nukem 3D High Resolution Pack  were started to give the game the same quality as modern games. There are plans to continue enhancing the Duke Nukem 3D software but no new versions of JFDuke3D have appeared since 2005.

A few projects have been created from the EDuke version (most notably WinEDuke and EDuke 2.1.1), but it was not until the release of Richard Gobeille's EDuke32 (a version of JFDuke3D using Saettler's EDuke software) in 2004 that EDuke became a the most popular with programmers. EDuke32 has been capable of playing OGG music since September 2007. A pack of music was compiled is planned to be part of future versions of the High Resolution Pack.  In June 2008, EDuke32 became the first Duke Nukem 3D project to be played as 64-bit software thanks to the DOSBox team.

 Console versions

In 1997, Duke Nukem 3D versions were sold for all the major consoles of the time.

PlayStation
The PlayStation version, Duke Nukem: Total Meltdown, includes six extra areas and a secret level, which was also included in the PC version.  It has some music from the PC version, some from the original, in Streaming XA-Audio made by Mark Knight, new enemies and a new boss.

Sega Saturn
The Sega Saturn version was created by Lobotomy Software and sold by Sega. It uses Lobotomy's SlaveDriver software. This version uses the Sega NetLink for online play, and is played with the Saturn's analog pad. It also includes a hidden multiplayer mini-game called Death Tank Zwei. The Nintendo 64 version was named Duke Nukem 64 and can be played by four players on a split-screen. There is no music in this version and many items have been renamed to avoid drug and sex references. Other changes include a fully 3D model for the final boss.

Mega Drive/Genesis
In 1998, a Sega Mega Drive version was sold by Tec Toy. The artwork is very simple and only one third of the original game was included. This version was sold in Brazil only.

Tiger Electronics
A version of Duke Nukem 3D'' was also released for the Game.com, Tiger's handheld system.

Xbox Live Arcade
A Duke Nukem 3D''' version has been sold for Xbox Live since September 24, 2008. This version includes the ability to "rewind" the game to any point if Duke gets killed, video recording and online multiplayer games. The music is slightly better quality using modern MIDI tools.

References

Other websites
 Official Duke Nukem 3D homepage
 Duke4.net fansite, featuring Duke3D Content

1996 video games
Windows games
PlayStation games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games
Sega Saturn games
Video game sequels
Sega Genesis games

Duke Nukem 3D


The Treaty of Asunción was a treaty between the countries of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay signed on March 26, 1991. The objective of the treaty, signed in Asunción, was to establish a common market among the participating countries, popularly called Mercosur (Southern Common Market). Later, the Treaty of Ouro Preto was signed to supplement the first treaty, establishing that the Treaty of Asunción was to be a legally and internationally recognized organization.

The treaty defined a program of gradual elimination of import/export fees that would reach a free commerce zone by the end of 1994. Even though the dates of the program were not followed and the free zone was not yet reached, the treaty established the basis for the "Mercado Común del Sur" (Mercosur).

History

Since the Spanish American wars of independence, there have been various types of organizations and treaties with the intention of social and economic integration of South America. The Economic Commission of Latin America was created on February 25, 1948, with the object of conducting studies aimed to the integration of these countries, and increase the national markets and industrial development. The Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA) was created in 1960, with the same objective of regional integration, but during the 1970s, the LAFTA was unable to establish a common market among them. The South American countries could not compete with the international free markets, and the integration crisis worsened due to the 1973 oil crisis.

The Andean Pact, signed in 1969, integrated the markets of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Chile, with Venezuela joining soon after, and Chile later becoming an observer. The Latin American Integration Association was created in 1989 to establish economic integration between Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela. Brazil and Argentina signed the Treaty of Buenos Aires that was to establish economic integration between the two countries, and the Treaty of Asunción was signed to complement the Treaty of Buenos Aires, with Uruguay and Paraguay joining them.

References

Treaty of Asunción (in English)
Treaty of Asunción (in Spanish)
History of Mercosur (in Portuguese)
Tratado de Asunción: description (in Spanish)

Mercosur
Economy of South America
Treaties of Argentina
Treaties of Brazil
Treaties of Paraguay
Treaties of Uruguay
Treaties concluded in 1991
Argentina–Brazil relations
Argentina–Paraguay relations
Argentina–Uruguay relations
Brazil–Paraguay relations
Brazil–Uruguay relations
Paraguay–Uruguay relations
1991 in Paraguay
Customs treaties
March 1991 events in South America

Treaty of Asunción


Adam Johann von Krusenstern (also Krusenstjerna in Swedish; , tr. ; 10 October 177012 August 1846) was a Russian admiral and explorer who led the first Russian circumnavigation of the globe.

Life

Krusenstern was born in Haggud, Kreis Harrien, Governorate of Estonia, Russian Empire into a Baltic German family descended from the Swedish aristocratic family von Krusenstjerna, who remained in the province after the country was ceded to Russia. In 1787, he joined the Russian Imperial Navy, and served in the war against Sweden. Subsequently, he served in the Royal Navy between 1793 and 1799, visiting America, India and China.

After publishing a paper pointing out the advantages of direct communication by sea between Russia and China by passing Cape Horn at the southern tip of South America and the Cape of Good Hope at the tip of South Africa, he was appointed by Tsar Alexander I to make a voyage to the Far East coast of Asia to endeavour to carry out the project. Under the patronage of Alexander, Count Nikolay Petrovich Rumyantsev and the Russian-American Company, Krusenstern led the first Russian circumnavigation of the world. The chief object of this undertaking was the development of the fur trade with Russian America (Alaska). Other goals of the two-ship expedition were to establish trade with China and Japan, facilitate trade in South America, and examine the coast of California in western North America for a possible colony.

The two ships, Nadezhda ('Hope', formerly the British merchant Leander) under the command of Krusenstern, and Neva (formerly the British merchant Thames) under the command of Captain-Lieutenant Yuri F. Lisianski, set sail from Kronstadt in August 1803, rounded Cape Horn of South America, reached the northern Pacific Ocean, and returned via the Cape of Good Hope at South Africa. Krusenstern arrived back at Kronstadt in August 1806. Both seafarers made maps and detailed recordings of their voyages.

Upon his return, Krusenstern wrote a detailed report, "Reise um die Welt in den Jahren 1803, 1804, 1805 und 1806 auf Befehl Seiner Kaiserlichen Majestät Alexanders des Ersten auf den Schiffen Nadeschda und Newa" ("Journey around the World in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, and 1806 at the Command of his Imperial Majesty Alexander I in the Ships Nadezhda and Neva") published in Saint Petersburg in 1810. It was published in 1811–1812 in Berlin; this was followed by an English translation, published in London in 1813 and subsequently by French, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, and Italian translations. His scientific work, which includes an atlas of the Pacific, was published in 1827 in Saint Petersburg.

The geographical discoveries of Krusenstern made his voyage very important for the progress of geographical science. His work won him an honorary membership in the Russian Academy of Sciences. He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1816 and to the American Philosophical Society in 1824.

As director of the Russian naval school Krusenstern did much useful work. He was also a member of the scientific committee of the marine department, and his contrivance for counteracting the influence of the iron in vessels on the compass was adopted in the navy. Krusenstern became an admiral in 1841 and he was awarded the Pour le Mérite (civil class) in 1842. He died in 1846 in Kiltsi manor, an Estonian manor he had purchased in 1816, and was buried in Tallinn Cathedral.

Legacy

The Russian training tall ship Kruzenshtern is named after him. To commemorate the 200th anniversary of Krusenstern's circumnavigation, the ship retraced his route around the globe in 2005–2006.

Another ship named after him is the 1964-built Russian Project 97A icebreaker Ivan Kruzenstern that was renamed after him in 1966. Also, an Aeroflot Airbus 320 VP-BKC  is named after him.

Mount Kruzenshtern, the highest mountain in Novaya Zemlya, as well as crater Krusenstern on the Moon are named after him. There is Krusenstern Island in the Bering Strait, as well as a small group of islands in the Kara Sea, southwest of the Nordenskiöld Archipelago, called Krusenstern Islands. Cape Krusenstern in Northwest Alaska is the site of Cape Krusenstern National Monument (1978), one of the most important archaeological sites in the state.

In Russia (as well as in other Russophone places), a fictional steamship Admiral Ivan Fyodorovich Kruzenshtern from the popular Prostokvashino animated film series is well-known, often as part of a catchphrase "Admiral I. F. Kruzenshtern, a man and a steamship", "pirated" from the title of a requiem poem by Vladimir Mayakovsky, To Comrade Nette, a Man and a Steamship. As a third-level linguistic derivation, there is a Russophone Israel klezmer-rock band, Kruzenshtern & Parohod ("Krusenstern and Steamship").

Another legacy is that the Cook Islands in the South Pacific bear that name thanks to von Krusenstern. Previously known as the Hervey (or Harvey) Islands (or Group), he changed their name in 1835 to honour Captain Cook. More accurately, he changed the name of those which comprised the Southern Group and it was subsequently applied to all 15 islands when the New Zealand Parliament passed "The Cook Islands and other Islands Government Act" in 1901. He recorded the new name in his Atlas de l'Océan Pacifique published at St. Petersburg between 1824 and 1835.

Bibliography
 Reise um die Welt in den Jahren 1803, 1804, 1805 und 1806 auf Befehl Seiner Kaiserl (1811)
 Voyage Round the World in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805 & 1806 translated by Richard Belgrave Hoppner (1813)
 A Voyage Round the World, in the Years 1803, 4, 5, & 6 translated by Yuri Lysianskyi (1814)

See also
 Otto von Kotzebue
 Empire of Japan–Russian Empire relations
 European and American voyages of scientific exploration
 List of Baltic German explorers

References

External links

 Family Krusenstern from Adam Johan von Krusenstern
 Ilya Vinkovetsky, Circumnavigation, Empire, Modernity, Race: The Impact of Round-the-World Voyages on Russia's Imperial Consciousness "Meeting of Frontiers" Conference, 2001
 Kiltsi manor (in German: Schloss Ass) at Estonian Manors Portal
 Hagudi manor (in German: Haggud) at Estonian Manors Portal
 Biographic entry from Nordisk familjebok (in Swedish)
  Baltic nobility genealogy handbook Adam Johann von Krusenstern's family

1770 births
1846 deaths
People from Rapla Parish
People from the Governorate of Estonia
Baltic-German people
Estonian explorers
Explorers from the Russian Empire
Imperial Russian Navy admirals
Russian explorers of the Pacific
Russian polar explorers
19th-century explorers
Circumnavigators of the globe
Demidov Prize laureates
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Burials at St Mary's Cathedral, Tallinn
18th-century Estonian people
19th-century Estonian people
Founding members of the Russian Geographical Society

Adam Johann von Krusenstern


The Finnish Board of Film Classification (; ) was an official institution of the Finnish Ministry of Education. From 1946 until the end of year 2011, the VET/SFB was responsible for inspecting and rating the content of movies and video games. In the beginning of 2012, the VET/SFB was dissolved and its functions were transferred to the Finnish Centre for Media Education and Audiovisual Media ( or ; ), likewise operating under the Ministry of Education.

Scope

Only material intended to be accessible to minors (those under 18 years of age) was subject to mandatory inspection before being released to the public. A proper notification was usually sufficient for adult material, but the board has the right to inspect any material suspected of violating laws or material. Until 2001, VET also inspected material intended for adult audiences and could prevent releasing it in Finland if the board deemed it exceedingly violent.

Distributors and producers could appeal against decisions of VET/SFB to the government-appointed Appeal Board. Since 2003, Finland has been a participant of the pan-European PEGI-system for rating interactive games.

Age ratings

The Finnish Board of Film Classification had a film classification system under which films were classified into one of the following categories:
 S – For all ages
 K-7 – For people 7 years or older. Under 7s require parental guidance for admittance into the film.
 K-12 – For people 12 years or older. Under 12s require parental guidance for admittance into the film.
 K-16 – For people 16 years or older. Under 16s require parental guidance for admittance into the film.
 K-18 – Only for adults over 18. Minors are not admitted. May contain very coarse language (although language cannot be used as a justification for age rating), explicit sexual content, extreme graphic violence (with or without sadistic manners) sexual violence, pornography, explicit drug references and/or explicit drug use which is considered unsuitable for children under 18. All cinemas in Finland are legally required to check the identity of any patron that wishes to view a K-18 rated film and the cinema strictly prohibits persons under 18 to view K-18 films.
 KK – Banned from commercial distribution. There were several grounds on which a movie could be banned in 1966–2001: 1. violation of good manners, 2. immorality, 3. demoralization, 4. detrimental to mental health, 5. harmful to public peace or safety or to national defence, 6. worsening of Finland's relations to foreign powers.

A person at most two years younger (currently three years) than the given rating was permitted to see a film in a movie theater when accompanied by an adult, except for movies rated 18 which were (and still are) not allowed to anyone under 18 (even if accompanied with an adult)

References

External links
 Finnish Centre for Media Education and Audiovisual Media
 The official site of the Finnish Ministry of Education

Video game content ratings systems
Film organisations in Finland
Censorship in Finland
Motion picture rating systems
Entertainment rating organizations

Finnish Board of Film Classification


Saint Jacques Street (officially in ), or St. James Street, is a major street in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, running from Old Montreal westward to Lachine.

The street is commonly known by two names, "St. James Street" in English (after St. James's, London) and rue Saint-Jacques in French. Both names are used in English and French, although Saint-Jacques is the most common for geographical reference. St. James Street is usually used in reference to the street's historic importance as a financial district.

History

A main thoroughfare passing through Old Montreal, the street was first opened in 1672. The portion between McGill Street and place Saint Henri was originally called Bonaventure Street (rue Saint-Bonaventure). This name has passed down to Place Bonaventure, Bonaventure Expressway, and Bonaventure Metro station, despite the disappearance of their original referents.

In the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, St. James Street was the centre of Montreal's financial district and where several major English insurance, banking, and trust companies built their Canadian head offices. Prior to World War I, Canadian, provincial, and major municipal governments along with important industries such as the railways, public utility and canal companies obtained most of their capital financing in the United Kingdom or the United States. At the end of the War, St. James Street grew rapidly and although by the 1920s there were stock exchanges in  Toronto, Winnipeg, Calgary and Vancouver, St. James Street's stock brokerage houses and the Montreal Stock Exchange were the most important in all of Canada. At the time of its construction in 1928, the Royal Bank of Canada's new headquarters at 360 St. James Street  was the tallest building in the British Empire. The St James St. area was also the head office of the Bank of Montreal, and the informal head office of the Bank of Nova Scotia.  It was also home to the major brokerage houses such as Nesbitt, Thomson and Company, Pitfield, MacKay, Ross, Royal Securities Corporation and others.

Some companies, past and present, located on St. James Street are:

 50 : Ottawa Hotel, Montreal
 60 :  Versailles Building
 100 : New York Life Insurance Company
 105-107 : Royal Trust
 119 : Bank of Montreal - main Montreal branch
 201-215 : Canadian Pacific Express
 210-212 : Yorkshire Insurance Company
 215 : McMaster Meighen, lawyers
 225 : National Trust Company
 231-235 : Montreal Star
 240 : Guardian Trust Company - The Dominion Bank
 244 : Royal Securities Corporation
 249-251 : Jones-Heward Financial Services
 262-266 : Montreal City and District Savings Bank
 265 : Canadian Bank of Commerce
 275 : Canada Life
 278-288 : Molson Bank
 355 : Merchants Bank of Canada
 360 : Royal Bank of Canada
 388-390 : Sovereign Bank of Canada then Union Bank and Commercial Union Assurance Co.
 393 : Crown Trust Company
 437 : Eastern Townships Bank then the Commercial Union Assurance Co. and the Bank of Nova Scotia

East of Place d'Armes square, the street was home to two French-Canadian financial institutions, the Banque Canadienne Nationale and the Banque du Peuple, long gone now.

Decline
A number chose to gradually move their official head offices to Toronto, Ontario, while others shifted all future expansion to Toronto or other major Canadian centres. As a result, the St. James Street financial district has all but disappeared.

Recent history

During the 1990s, the Montreal Expos baseball club unveiled plans to build a new stadium in downtown Montreal, right off St. Jacques Street, just south of the Bell Centre. When provincial funding for the new building fell through, the Expos did not continue with their plan and sold the property to developers. That stretch of Saint Jacques is now undergoing considerable gentrification.

Today, the stretch of St. Jacques Street between McGill Street and Saint Laurent Boulevard is still notable mostly for its grand Neo-Classical buildings on the part of the street running through the Old Montreal district. These include Bank of Montreal's domed Montreal Main Branch, the former headquarters of Royal Bank of Canada, the Canadian Bank of Commerce, the Molson Bank and the Canada Life Insurance Company. More modern buildings include the Montreal World Trade Centre and the Stock Exchange Tower.

Farther west, St. Jacques Street runs through the residential neighbourhoods of Little Burgundy, Saint-Henri, Notre-Dame-de-Grâce and Lachine, as well as the suburb of Montreal West, where it is instead known as Avon Road. Square-Victoria–OACI,  Lionel-Groulx and Place-Saint-Henri Metro stations are located on St. Jacques, to the west, it gives access to Autoroute 20 in Notre-Dame-de-Grâce, where it passes through a largely industrial and large-surface commercial district at the top of the Falaise Saint-Jacques. The McGill University Health Centre superhospital fronts Saint-Jacques in Notre-Dame-de-Grâce.

Image gallery

References

External links

 City of Montreal website for St. James St.

Economic history of Canada
Financial districts in Canada
Old Montreal
Streets in Montreal

Saint Jacques Street


The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare around 1603. It was first performed on 1 November 1604 at Whitehall Palace in London. More recently, Othello was shown on Masterpiece Theater on PBS. The opera Otello of Giuseppe Verdi is based on this play.

Outline

At the start of the play Othello, a Moorish general in the army, promotes Cassio to lieutenant. Iago, his ensign, is angry and jealous, so he plots against Cassio by making him look bad and making Othello uncertain about keeping him as his lieutenant. Some of the things he does are to get him drunk and to start a fight with someone else from the army. Iago also tells Othello that his wife, Desdemona, is cheating on him with Cassio. Cassio is demoted and Iago is promoted to lieutenant. Othello kills Desdemona and is then told by Iago's wife, Emilia, that Iago plotted against him. He goes after Iago, and injures him but does not kill him. Othello then kills himself next to his wife after saying sorry to Cassio for what he has done.

Characters of Othello
Othello
Iago
 Roderigo
 Montano
 Cassio
 Brabantio
 Desdemona
 Bianca
Emilia

Plays by William Shakespeare
1600s plays

Othello


Phillips Academy (also called Andover, Phillips Andover, or  PA) is a high school for boys and girls in Andover, Massachusetts, near Boston, USA.  The school is a boarding school.  75% of the students live there.

Phillips Academy is one of the oldest private boarding schools in the United States.  Two American Presidents, George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, went to school there.

Phillips Academy was founded during the American Revolution as an all-boys school in 1778.  The great seal of the school was designed by Paul Revere. George Washington's nephews went to the school, and he once spoke at an assembly while visiting. John Hancock, the famous signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, signed the articles of incorporation.

Phillips Exeter Academy was made three years later in Exeter, New Hampshire by Samuel Phillips' uncle John.  The football teams have played against each other almost every year since 1878.  This makes their rilvalry one of the oldest high school rivalries in the country.

Paul Revere put bees, a beehive, and the sun into the school's great seal.  The school's main motto, Finis Origine Pendet, means "the end depends upon the beginning." It is written at the bottom of the seal. The school's second motto, Non Sibi means "not for self."

Schools in Massachusetts
1778 establishments in the United States
18th-century establishments in Massachusetts

Phillips Academy


Mackenzie Presbyterian University (Portuguese: Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie) is a private university in São Paulo, Brazil.
The Mackenzie Presbyterian University is an institution of higher learning that has strong tradition and history in Brazil. It has campuses for undergraduate and postgraduate studies in São Paulo (Campus Higienópolis), Campinas, Barueri (Campus Alphaville), Brasilia, Curitiba and Rio de Janeiro

Founded in 1870 as the American School, Mackenzie is one of the oldest institutions of higher education in Brazil. The university is regarded nationally and internationally as a center of excellence having graduated numerous important names in Brazilian history.

History

In 1870, the American Presbyterian missionary Rev. George Whitehill Chamberlain and his wife Mary Annesley founded a private grammar school inside their home. The classes were held in their living room and, a few years later, the "American School" was established as a center of excellence in São Paulo. The Chamberlains' American School was revolutionary for the Brazilian standards at that time: no corporal punishment on students was permitted, and both boys and girls could attend classes. Even though the Chamberlains were openly Presbyterians, students from all ethnic backgrounds, social classes, and religious denominations were welcome. The fame of academic rigor allied to religious tolerance soon reached the United States.

In 1896, John Theron Mackenzie, an attorney from Phelps, New York, and his sisters donated US$50,000 "for the establishment of an engineering school to be built under the auspices of Mr. Chamberlain". The Mackenzie building was built the next year, and the college was named in their honor.

After the establishment of Mackenzie College, the institution saw rapid expansion of its activities with the creation of a School of Architecture, a School of Economics, and a Law School, gaining the status of university in 1952.

Notable alumni
In 130 years of history (as of 2000), it is estimated that Mackenzie University has 300,000 alumni, many of them important personalities of Brazilian politics and civil society. Among them surrealist artist André Breton is claimed as an alumnus, although this might reflect a mixup with his friend and collaborator Benjamin Péret, who lived in Brazil in 1929-1931; modernist painter Anita Malfatti; Brazil's most known basketball player Oscar Schmidt; car racer Émerson Fittipaldi; sea explorer Amyr Klink; Olympic golden medalist Robert Scheidt; journalists Boris Casoy and Ney Gonçalves Dias; businessmen Márcio Cypriano (CEO Bradesco), Ivan Zurita (CEO Nestlé, Brasil), Danilo Talanskas (Otis Elevator Company) and Emerson Kapaz; jurists Álvaro Villaça Azevedo and Carlos Miguel Aidar (former Brazilian Law Society President); Brazilian Supreme Court Justice Eros Roberto Grau; lawyer and scholar Antonio Carlos Rodrigues do Amaral; lawyer José Roberto Batochio; legal scholar Sérgio Pinto Martins (judge and labor law scholar), Roberto Justus; Tales Castelo Branco; and architect Paulo Mendes da Rocha.

Schools and colleges

 School of Engineering
 Graduate School of Theology
 School of Architecture and City Planning
 Biological Sciences and Health College (CCBS, former FCBEE)
 College of Economics, Accounting, Business and Marketing (CCSA)
 College of Computer Science and Information Technology
 College of Communication and the Arts
 School of Law
 College of Physical Education
 College of Philosophy, Language, and Education
 College of Psychology

Other information

MackGraphe
MackGraphe is the Graphene and Nanomaterials Research Center at Mackenzie Presbyterian University, which aims to master processes in all stages of technology development, from the modeling of nanomaterials to their application. MackGraphe expects to have a huge impact on society by developing new technologies to fulfil their needs.

See also
 Brazil University Rankings
 Universities and Higher Education in Brazil

References

External links

 Official site

Universities and colleges established in 1870
1870 establishments in Brazil
Presbyterian universities and colleges
Universities and colleges in São Paulo
Christian universities and colleges in Brazil
Universities and colleges in São Paulo (state)

Mackenzie Presbyterian University


John Ireland (born near Manchester, 13 August 1879; died Washington, Sussex, 12 June 1962) was an English composer. He is particularly remembered for his Piano Concerto and for his church music, especially the anthem Greater love hath no man, the song The Holy Boy and the hymn tune to My song is love unknown.  He had an unhappy childhood, and he always felt unsure of himself and rather lonely.

Life

John Ireland was born in Bowdon, Greater Manchester.  His father, who was 70 years old, was  a publisher who owned a newspaper.  He had married for a second time after his wife had died, and John was the youngest of five children from the second marriage.  His mother was 30 years younger than her husband.   When John was 14 his mother died, and his father died the next year.

John Ireland studied piano and organ at the Royal College of Music. Later he also had composition lessons from Charles Villiers Stanford. He later became a teacher at the College himself.  His pupils included the composers Alan Bush and
Geoffrey Bush (who were not related), Ernest Moeran and Benjamin Britten.  Geoffrey Bush later helped to prepare a lot of Ireland's works for publication.   Ireland mostly made his living as an organist and choirmaster.

Ireland enjoyed going to the Channel Islands.  He liked the landscapes there. He was evacuated from them just before the German invasion during World War II.

John Ireland married once, but his marriage only lasted a few months.

On 10 September 1949, his 70th birthday was celebrated in a special Prom concert.  The soloist in the Piano Concerto  was the pianist Eileen Joyce, who later made the first gramophone recording of the concerto.

Ireland retired in 1953.  He moved to a tiny village in  Sussex, where he lived in an old windmill which had been changed into a home.

He died  aged 82 in Washington, Sussex of heart failure.

Music

John Ireland was never much influenced by folksong like many other English composers of his time.  His music is more related to Impressionism.  He liked the music of French composers such as Debussy and Ravel as well as Igor Stravinsky and  Bartók.  His Piano Concerto is one of his best works. It shows that he developed his own personal style of harmony.  Most of his other good works are short pieces, including many for piano solo. His best-known piece is the song The Holy Boy.  It is heard in many different arrangements. His songs to poems by A. E. Housman, Thomas Hardy, Christina Rossetti, John Masefield, Rupert Brooke and others, are among some of the best English art songs.. He also wrote hymns, carols, and other sacred choral music; among choirs he is probably best known for the anthem Greater love hath no man, often sung in services that remember the victims of war.  Another choral work, These things shall be expresses his deepest hopes for mankind, although in his last years he said that he hated the work.

References
 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980;

Other websites
The John Ireland Trust

1879 births
1962 deaths
20th-century English composers
English organists

John Ireland


USS Antigone (ID-3007) was a transport for the United States Navy during World War I, and the first ship of that name for the U.S. Navy. She was originally SS Neckar for North German Lloyd from her 1900 launch until seized by the U.S. in 1917. After her war service she was SS Potomac for United States Lines.

SS Neckar
Neckar was launched on 8 December 1900 at Geestemünde, Germany, by Joh. C. Tecklenborg and was owned and operated by North German Lloyd. Neckar was 500 feet long, had twin screw propulsion and quadruple expansion engines. During 1900–1914, she was the third largest transporter of steerage passengers (nearly all immigrants) to the United States, most of whom disembarked in New York and Baltimore. In the North Atlantic at the outbreak of World War I in the summer of 1914, the passenger and freight liner sought sanctuary at the neutral port, Baltimore, Maryland—lest she fall prey to the warships of the Royal Navy—and was interned, ostensibly for the duration of the conflict.

World War I
When the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917, American customs agents seized the ship. She was transferred to the Navy by the United States Shipping Board on 12 July 1917; converted for naval service as a troop transport at the Norfolk Navy Yard in Portsmouth, Virginia; renamed Antigone on 1 September 1917; and placed in commission on 5 September 1917.

Antigone was assigned to the Cruiser and Transport Force, Atlantic Fleet, on 14 September, and she departed Norfolk on 29 November. After coaling and completing sea trials, she proceeded to Hoboken, New Jersey, and embarked approximately 2,000 American troops. The transport sailed from New York City en route to France on 14 December and, during the next 11 months, made eight round-trip voyages to France, each of which terminated in either Brest or Saint-Nazaire. The ship also carried medical supplies and general cargo—as well as 16,526 troops—to Europe before hostilities ended.

After the armistice was signed on 11 November 1918, the transport continued her transatlantic voyages and returned more than 22,000 veterans to the United States. She completed her last trip from France upon her arrival at New York City on 15 September 1919. She was decommissioned there on 24 September 1919, and her name was simultaneously struck from the Navy list. The ship was then transferred to the War Department for service in the Army Transport Service.

References

External links

Ships built in Bremen (state)
Ships of Norddeutscher Lloyd
Transport ships of the United States Army
Transports of the United States Navy
World War I auxiliary ships of the United States
1900 ships
Ships of the United States Lines

USS Antigone (ID-3007)


In physics, buoyancy (lit: float force) () is a force on an object making that object rise or move upward. It comes from the Spanish word for "float", boyar. Buoyancy is made by the difference in pressure put on the object by the Fluid or air that the object is in.

The net upward buoyancy force is equal to the magnitude of the weight of fluid that is displaced by the body. This force enables the object to float or at least to seem lighter. Buoyancy is important for many vehicles such as boats, ships, balloons, and blimps.

Density
If the object has exactly the same density as the liquid, then its buoyancy is the same as its weight. It will not sink or float.

If the object has a higher average density than the liquid, then its buoyancy is less than its weight. It will sink. That is why pebbles do not float.

If the object has a lower average density than the liquid, then its buoyancy is greater than its weight. That is why, although a ship may be made of steel which is more dense than water, it floats because it encloses a volume of air and the resulting shape has an average density less than that of the water.

Related pages
 Submarine
 Thrust

Other websites
Falling in Water (Animation 1)
Falling in Water (Animation 2)
Falling in Water

Fluid mechanics
Force

Buoyancy


Mitilene is a capital of lesbos island. Lesbos is the third biggest island in Greece. It is a beautiful city with important history. It is located in the east of Lesbos island. Mytilene has 36.196 inhabitants. In the past, Mytilene was a rich town and this seems from the rich houses in the city. Also, it has got a big port which connect Mytilene with Piraeus and other ports.

Cities in Greece

Mytilene


The Hare Census () is a Bulgarian satiric comedy film released in 1973, directed by Eduard Zahariev, starring Itzhak Fintzi, Nikola Todev, Georgi Rusev, Evstati Stratev, Philip Trifonov and Todor Kolev.

Although the film features one of the most remarkable Bulgarian actors, the biting satire of nonsensical activity made the authority keep the film away from the widespread presentation during the totalitarian system in Bulgaria. In the 1990s, after the advent of democracy, the film came into broad view and became an eminent badge for the Bulgarian Film Art from those years.

Plot

The daily routine in the village of Yugla is shaken by the statistician clerk Asenov (Fintzi) who come with a mission to take the census of the hares in the locality. He makes the village mayor Bay Georgi (Todev) mobilize the local men in realization of the absurd task. On the very day all the village men are in the field. The mayor, the teacher, the veterinarian... even an old man joins
the group.

Naturally all the efforts failed in fulfilling the mission since not a single hare came into sight. The undertaking ends with an open area banquet, with a grape brandy, and wine under a tree. The last episode presents Asenov leaving the village with his small noisy Russian car loaded to the top with fresh cabbage.

Production
Production company:
Studio of Featured Films (SFF) - a Film Unit MLADOST
Working title: Well-dressed Men

Director:
Eduard Zahariev has 11 full-length films. The Hare Census is probably the most popular with them and undoubtedly the most mature. He served up serious problems  with such an irony and sarcasm developed into generalization about the lack of coincidence between reality and intentions.

Writer:
Georgi Mishev's dramaturgy  became a subject of eminent interpretations in the beginning of the 70s. His screenplays found co-authors as Eduard Zahariev, Lyudmil Kirkov, Ivan Andonov, Maya Vaptsarova who in their own way entered into the unique universe of Mishev's characters.

Director of Photography:
Venets Dimitrov did his second independent work in this film. He created memorable image of the absurd daily round of those years.

Filmed: 1973; Premiere: 30.November.1973

The film was released on DVD in 2000s.

Cast
Itzhak Fintzi as Asenov
Nikola Todev as Bay Georgi (the village mayor)
Georgi Rusev as the veterinarian
Evstati Stratev as the village school teacher
Todor Kolev as the young hunter
Filip Trifonov as the young engineer
Maya Dragomanska as Krasimira

Response
A reported 372,813 admissions were recorded for the film in cinemas throughout Bulgaria in the 70s.

The film was subsumed among the 50 golden Bulgarian films in the book by the journalist Pencho Kovachev. The book was published in 2008 by "Zahariy Stoyanov" publishing house.

There were the following publications:
FILM ART magazine, vol. 11,1973,p. 30 - by I. Bozhinova
Otechestven Front news paper, vol.9061-05.12.1973 - by E. Vasileva
Bulgarian Film Magazine, vol.4, 1973,p. 18 - by Ya. Valchanova
Narodna Mladezh news paper, vol.290-06.12.1973 - by B. Doneva
New Films Magazine, vol.7-1975,p. 32 - by S. Ivanova
Trud news paper, vol.282-05.12.1973 - by B. Mihaylov
Film News Magazine, vol. 10–1973,p. 6 - M. Nikolova
Zemedelsko Zname news paper, vol. 5-284 - by A. Svilenov
National Culture news paper, vol. 50–08.12.1973 - by I. Stefanov
Literature Front news paper, vol. 50–13.12.1973 - by G. Chernev

Awards and honors
FBFF Varna'73 (Festival for Bulgarian Featured Films)
 Second Award for screenwriter Georgi Mishev, director Eduard Zahariev, cameraman Venets Dimitrov, composer Kiril Donchev and the actor Itzhak Fintzi
 The Critics Award with the Union of Bulgarian Filmmakers

Locarno Film Festival'74 (Swiss)
 Second Award by the international jury

Notes

References
Galina Gencheva, Bulgarian Feature Films vol.3, Dr. Petar Beron 2008 with the Bulgarian Cinematheque
Pencho Kovachev, 50 Golden Bulgarian Films, Zahariy Stoyanov 2008
Bulgarian National Film Archive
The film in the Bulgarian National Television
BNT Details

External links

Bulgarian satirical films
1970s Bulgarian-language films
1973 films
Films set in Bulgaria
Films shot in Bulgaria
Films directed by Eduard Sachariev

The Hare Census


Over-the-counter drugs (OTC) are drugs that do not need a prescription to be bought. When they are properly used, these drugs do not put the health of the patient in danger. Many OTC drug ingredients which were prescription drugs are now considered safe enough for use without a prescription. In many countries, there are special government agencies that regulate OTC drugs, such as the Food and Drug Administration and the Drug Enforcement Administration in the United States. Certain drugs are classified as over-the counter drugs, but may only be given by a pharmacist. This is often the case with emergency contraception medicine. It may also be the case that a small packet of a certain  drug is available over the counter, but that larger packets require a prescription.

Related pages
Pharmacy

Pharmacy

Over-the-counter drug


The Vikram era, or Vikram samvat is an Calendar System(mostly followed in Hinduism and Sikhism from people of Indian Subcontinent) starting in 57 BC. The Vikram Samvat calendar starts half a century before the Gregorian calendar and works on an Indian calendar cycle.

The calendar starts in the month of Vaishak, which usually falls in the Gregorian month of February/March.

The date marks the day when the King Vikramāditya beat the Sakas, who had invaded Ujjain. A new calendar was started to honor this achievement.

The story
The story of this event is told by a sadhu (Jain monk) called Mahesara Suri.

The powerful king of Ujjain, called Gardabhilla, kidnapped a sadhvi (Jain nun), who was the sister of the sadhu. The sadhu went to the Saka King to get help, and in the end, the Saka King beat Gardabhilla and captured him and made him a prisoner. But in the end, Gardabhilla was forgiven and run away to a forest, where he was killed by a tiger.

Later on Vikramaditya invaded Ujjain and drove away the Sakas. To commemorate this event he started a new era called the Vikrama era.

History of India
50s BC establishments
Calendars

Vikram Samvat


Article 5- Citizenship at the commencement of the constitution.
Article 6- Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan.
Article 7-Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan.
Article 8- Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin residing outside India.
Article 9-Person voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign state not to be citizens.
Article 10- Continuance of the Rights of citizenship.
Article 11- Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law.

Law of India
Nationality
Rights

Indian nationality law


Mitte was the most central locality of Berlin (Mitte is German for centre). It was set up in 1920, when Groß-Berlin was set up, and in 2001 it was joined with Wedding and Tiergarten to make a new borough called Bezirk Mitte.

Mitte was in East Berlin, and had a lot of Berlin's historic sites. The Pergamon Museum, Unter den Linden and the Brandenburg Gate were in Mitte.

In 2001 Mitte was joined with two boroughs from West Berlin. This helped to break down the idea of a divided city, and put the important tourist centre of Berlin under one local government.

Related pages
 Berlin-Mitte

Mitte (locality)


A robot is a term that's uised for tae descrive a mechanical device that's for daein things that's seen as owerly borin, tae dangerous or ower muckle quirkie for a body tae cairy oot.

The term robot cam aboot frae the Czech wird "robota" meanin trauchle.

Acause o science feection, the term robot sugeests a machine that's like a body's bouk, or haes a wheen human capacities, that is mair richtly cried an Android.

Maistly robots is seen in modren industry, performin ettles sic as waldin, dreelin an the pentin o bouks o caurs.

Robot


या च्वसा नां ख। वय्‌कः मेइजी काल(१८६८-१९१२)या दक्ले नांजाम्ह जापानी उपन्यासकार ख। वय्‌कःयात साधारणकथं सोसेकी धका म्हसीकी। वय्‌कःयात वय्‌कःया उपन्यास कोकोरो, बोत्छान, व आइ एम अ क्यातया निंतिं लुमंकी। वय्‌कः बेलायती साहित्यया स्कलर, हाइकु च्वमि, चिनिया पहया चिनाखँमि, व दन्त्य बाखँ च्वमि नं ख। १९८४ निसें  २००४ तक्क वय्‌कःया किपा जापानी येन १०००या नोतय् खने दत।

प्रारम्भिक जीवन

Born as Natsume Kinnosuke in the town of Babashita in the Edo region of Ushigome (present Kikui, Shinjuku), Sōseki began his life as an unwanted child, born to his mother late in her life. His parents foisted him off on a former household servant (Shiobara Masanosuke) and his wife, by whom he was brought up until the age of nine. He returned to his household and was welcomed by his mother although regarded as a nuisance by his father. His mother died when he was fourteen, and his two eldest brothers in 1887, intensifying his sense of insecurity.

Sōseki attended the First Tokyo Middle School (now Hibiya High School), where he became enamored with Chinese literature, and fancied that he might someday become a writer. However, his family disapproved strongly of this course of action, and when Sōseki entered the Tokyo Imperial University (now the University of Tokyo) in September of 1884, it was with the intention of becoming an architect. He began studying English at that time, feeling that it might prove useful to him in his future career.

In 1887, Sōseki met Masaoka Shiki, a friend who would give him encouragement on the path to becoming a writer, which would ultimately be his career. Shiki tutored him in the art of composing haiku. From this point on, Sōseki began signing his poems with the name Sōseki, which is a Chinese idiom meaning "stubborn". In 1890, Sōseki entered the English Literature department, and quickly became a master of the English language. Sōseki graduated in 1893, and enrolled for some time as a graduate student and part-time teacher at the Tokyo Normal School.

Sōseki began teaching at Matsuyama Middle School in Shikoku, in 1895, which is the setting of his novel Botchan. Along with fulfilling his teaching duties, Sōseki published haiku and Chinese poetry in a number of newspapers and periodicals. He resigned his post, in 1896, and began teaching at the Fifth High School in Kumamoto. On June 10 of that year, he married Nakane Kyoko.

सोसेकी बेलायतय्, १९०१-१९०३
In 1900, the Japanese government sent Sōseki to study in Great Britain. He visited Cambridge and stayed a night there, but gave up the idea of studying at the university because he could not afford it on his government scholarship. He had a miserable time of it in London, spending most of his days indoors buried in books, and his friends feared that he might be losing his mind. He also visited Pitlochry in Scotland.

He lived in four different lodgings. Nevertheless, despite his poverty and loneliness, he solidified his knowledge of English literature and returned to Japan in 1903. Five years later, in his preface to Bungakuron (The Criticism of Literature), he wrote about the period:
The two years I spent in London were the most unpleasant years in my life. Among English gentlemen I lived in misery, like a poor dog that had strayed among a pack of wolves.

In 1984, Sammy I. Tsunematsu opened the Soseki Museum at 80b, The Chase, London SW4 0NG.

After his return to the Empire of Japan, he replaced Koizumi Yakumo at the First Higher School, and subsequently became a professor of English literature at Tokyo Imperial University, where he taught literary theory and literary criticism.

साहित्यिक जीवन
Sōseki's literary career began in 1903, when he began to contribute haiku, renku (haiku-style linked verse), haitaishi (linked verse on a set theme) and literary sketches to literary magazines, such as the prominent Hototogisu, edited by his former mentor Masaoka Shiki, and later by Takahama Kyoshi. However, it was the public success of his short story Wagahai wa neko de aru ("I Am a Cat") in 1905 that won him wide public admiration as well as critical acclaim.

He followed on this success with short stories, such as Rondon to ("Tower of London") in 1905 and the novels Botchan ("Little Master"), and Kusamakura ("Grass Pillow") in 1906, which established his reputation, and which enabled him to leave his post at the university for a position with Asahi Shimbun in 1907, and to began writing full-time. He began writing one novel a year until his death from a stomach ulcer in 1916.

Major themes in Sōseki's works include ordinary people fighting against economic hardship, the conflict between duty and desire, loyalty and group mentality versus freedom and individuality, personal isolation and estrangement, the rapid industrialization of Japan and its social consequences, contempt of Japan's aping of Western culture, and a pessimistic view of human nature. Sōseki took a strong interest in the writers of the Shirakaba (White Birch) literary group. In his final years, authors such as Ryūnosuke Akutagawa and Kume Masao became close followers of his literary style.

मू ज्या
सोसेकीया मू ज्या थ्व कथं दु:

स्वयादिसँ
 एङ्ग्लो-जापानी स्वापू
 जापानी साहित्य
 जापानी च्वमितेगु धलः
 फुसानोसुके नात्सुमे - सोसेकीया छेय्

स्रोत
 Bargen, Doris D. Suicidal Honor: General Nogi and the Writings of Mori Ogai and Natsume Sōseki. University of Hawaii Press (2006). ISBN 0-8248-2998-0
 Doi,Takeo. The Psychological World of Natsume Sōseki. Harvard University Asia Center (1976). ISBN 0-674-72116-0
 Gessel, Van C. Three Modern Novelists: Soseki, Tanizaki, Kawabata. Kodansha International, 1993
 Keene, Donald. Dawn to the West: Japanese Literature of the Modern Era: Fiction, Chapter 12.  2nd Revised Edition, Columbia University Press, 1998.
 Milward, Peter. The Heart of Natsume Sōseki: First Impressions of His Novels. Azuma Shobo (1981). ASIN: B000IK2690
 Olson, Lawrence. Ambivalent Moderns: Portraits of Japanese Cultural Identity. Savage, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield (1992). ISBN 0-8476-7739-7
 Ridgeway, William N. A Critical Study of The Novels of Natsume Sōseki, 1867-1916. Edwin Mellen Press (January 28, 2005). ISBN 0-7734-6230-9
 Yu, Beongchoeon. Natsume Sōseki. Macmillan Publishing Company (1984). ISBN 0-8057-2850-3

लिधंसा

पिनेया स्वापूत
 Natsume Sōseki at かまくら GreenNet, the website of Kamakura City

 Sōseki page including links to the entire text of Kokoro
 Natsume Sōseki on aozora.gr.jp (complete texts with furigana)

सन् १८६७य् बुगु
सन् १९१६य् मदुगु
टोक्योया मनु
जापानया मेइजी कालया मनु
जापानी उपन्यासकमि
जापानी चिनाखँमि
जापानी चिहाकगु बाखँ च्वमि
बेलायतय् जापानी एक्स्प्यात्रियत
टोक्यो विश्वविद्यालय अलुम्नाइ

नात्सुमे सोसेकी


The zebra mussel is a small shellfish. It is a bivalve mollusc, a type called a mussel.

Color patterns vary, with only dark or colored shells or no stripes. They are typically found attached to objects, surfaces, or each other by threads underneath the shells. Although similar in appearance to the quagga mussel, the two species can be easily distinguished. When placed on a surface zebra mussels are stable on their flattened underside while quagga mussels, lacking a flat underside, will fall over.

These musssels spread rapidly by sticking to boats. They spread by this passive method to many places where they have no natural predators. That explains their huge growth in numbers.

Zebra mussels are a problem in  Northern America's Great Lakes region because they reproduce fast. They colonize water supply pipes of hydroelectric and nuclear power plants, public water supply plants, and industrial facilities. As a result, they clog water sources.  They colonize pipes constricting flow, therefore reducing the intake in heat exchangers, condensers, fire fighting equipment, and air conditioning and cooling systems. It is estimated that zebra mussels will continue to populate the Great Lakes and even enter the Mississippi River region.

Bivalves

Zebra mussel


Young Poland (in Polish: Młoda Polska) is a period modernist of Polish art, literature and music. This period covered about the years since 1890 until 1918. It was one of the effects of the strong opposition to the ideas of the positivism and developed the nature of decadence, of neoromanticism, of symbolism, of impressionism, and of the Art Nouveau.

History
The expression was known after one of the manifestos written by Artur Górski. The manifesto was published in the daily (newspaper) Życie ("Life"), seated in Cracow, in the year 1898, and was immediately accepted in all the parts of the divided Poland, by analogy with other similar expressions as Young Germany, Young Belgium, Young Scandinavia and so on.

Literature
Polish literature of the period was based on two main understandings:
 The first understanding was the usual modernist state of being disappointed by bourgeoisie, its way of life and its culture. The artists who follow this understanding believed also in the decadence, in the end of all the culture, in the conflict between the people and its civilisation, and in the understanding of art as highest value (in Latin: ars gratia artis). Among other writers there are Kazimierz Przerwa Tetmajer, Stanisław Przybyszewski, Wacław Rolicz-Lieder and Jan Kasprowicz.
 The second understanding was the continuation of the romanticism, and for this reason is called neoromanticism. The group of writers which followed this idea was less organized and the writers independently covered a wide area of subjects in their writings: from the sense of the mission of the Polish in the prose of Stefan Żeromski to the social inequality described by Władysław Reymont and Gabriela Zapolska, to criticizing the Polish people and to the history of Poland described by Stanisław Wyspiański.

Other important writers of the period were:
 Wacław Berent
 Jan Kasprowicz
 Jan Augustyn Kisielewski
 Antoni Lange
 Jan Lemański
 Bolesław Leśmian
 Tadeusz Miciński
 Andrzej Niemojewski
 Franciszek Nowicki
 Władysław Orkan
 Artur Oppman
 Włodzimierz Perzyński
 Tadeusz Rittner
 Wacław Sieroszewski
 Leopold Staff
 Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer
 Maryla Wolska
 Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński

Music
In music, the expression Young Poland is put into use to an informal group of composers which include Karol Szymanowski, Grzegorz Fitelberg, Ludomir Różycki and probably also Mieczysław Karłowicz. This group worked under the strong influence of the neoromanticism of the music, and especially of composers from another countries as Richard Strauss and Richard Wagner. The composers would be also strong links with the The Five, a group of composers Russian which included Modest Musorgski, Alexander Borodin and Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov.

Art
In the period of the Young Poland there were not any great artistic currents in Polish art. The painters and the sculptors attempted to continue in the romantic tradition, in bringing new ways of expression already popular in another countries. The more influential current was the Art Nouveau, even if the Polish artists started attempting also new forms of national style. The sculptura just like the painture of the period were strongly influenced by all the forms of the symbolism.

Main artists of the period
 Olga Boznańska
 Konstanty Brandel
 Xawery Dunikowski
 Julian Fałat
 Jacek Malczewski
 Józef Mehoffer
 Józef Pankiewicz
 Ferdynand Ruszczyc
 Jan Stanisławski
 Władysław Ślewiński
 Wojciech Weiss
 Leon Wyczółkowski
 Stanisław Wyspiański
 Jan Bukowski

Gallery of Young Poland art

History of Poland
Art movements

Young Poland


In South Africa, there are two main branches of legal practitioner: attorneys, who do legal work of all kinds, and advocates,  who are specialist litigators. Attorneys may form professional firms and practice in partnerships, ranging in size to the "Big Five" law firms. The profession is regulated by the Attorneys Act, 1979 (Act No. 53 of 1979). See: Advocates in South Africa. There are currently around 21400 attorneys and 5000 candidate attorneys in South Africa, each of which are represented by the LSSA (Law Society of South Africa)

Training

For admission as an attorney, the academic qualification required is an LLB from a South African university; see  and Legal education in South Africa. (Historically, the B.Proc. degree was also offered.) One then serves "articles" as a candidate attorney with a practicing attorney for a period specified according to the qualification of the candidate (generally two years if an appropriate legal degree has been obtained); the length of articles may be reduced by attending a practical legal training course or performing community service. The candidate must also write a "board exam" set by the relevant provincial Law Society. The examination comprises the following:
Paper 1: Practice and procedure (criminal procedure, supreme court procedure, magistrates' court procedure and motor vehicle accident claims);
Paper 2: Wills and Estates;
Paper 3: Attorneys' practice, contracts and rules of conduct;
Paper 4: Legal bookkeeping.

Attorneys may additionally qualify as Notaries and Conveyancers, via the Conveyancing and Notarial Practice Examinations; those with technical or scientific training may further qualify as patent attorneys, see  §South Africa there.

Although not formally required for practice, further training, e.g. in tax, is usually via specialised postgraduate diplomas or LL.M. programmes. See .

LSSA

The LSSA (Law Society of South Africa) consists of the regulatory and disciplinary bodies for practising attorneys in South Africa. Attorneys are required to register at the relative provincial law society where they practice in terms of the Attorneys Act, 1979.

Attorneys and Advocates

Attorneys are engaged directly by clients, acting as the "manager" of litigious cases.  Although both attorneys and advocates may appear in the High Court of South Africa, they will 'brief' an advocate when specialist litigation, is required.

The split between attorney and advocate in South Africa mirrors the split between solicitor and barrister in other Commonwealth countries, with attorneys having broadly equivalent roles to solicitors and advocates having broadly equivalent roles to barristers.

References

Region-specific legal occupations
Law of South Africa
South African lawyers

Attorneys in South Africa


A streetlight is a light bulb on a pole used for lighting streets. Streets can be lit for safety or visibility reasons, so people can see where they are walking at night. Streetlights are normally either orange or blue. The blue ones are mercury-vapor lamps. They are older and last longer. The orange ones are sodium vapor lamps. They are newer and more efficient.

Related pages
Incandescent bulb, rarely used in streetlights
Fluorescent bulb

Light sources

Streetlight


The federal district is the area around the national capital in some federal countries that are organized as
capital districts and territories.

A federal district is made so that no state in the country can claim to be more important than the others because the national capital is inside the state, or to stop one state trying to have control over the national capital.

Countries with a federal district include:

 , Washington is in the federal district of the District of Columbia
 , Canberra is in the Australian Capital Territory
 , Islamabad City is in the Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)

Belgium is a federal country, but its capital (Brussels) is not a federal district, but is its own language region. To show that the French language and the Flemish language are equal, Brussels is a special bilingual (two-languages) region. Similarly, Vienna is the capital of Austria and is also one of the states of Austria.

Political subdivisions

de:Hauptstadtdistrikt
fa:حوزه فدرال

Federal district


Berthold Karl Hölldobler BVO (born 25 June 1936) is a German zoologist, sociobiologist and evolutionary biologist who studies evolution and social organization in ants. He is the author of several books, including The Ants, for which he and his co-author, E. O. Wilson, received the Pulitzer Prize for non-fiction writing in 1991.

Biography
Hölldobler was born June 25, 1936, in Erling-Andechs, Bavaria, Germany; he was the son of Karl and Maria Hölldobler. He studied biology and chemistry at the University of Würzburg. His doctoral thesis was on the social behavior of the male carpenter ant and their role in the organization of carpenter ant societies. He was named professor of zoology at the University of Frankfurt in 1971. From 1973 to 1990, he was professor of biology and the Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1989, he returned to Germany to accept the chair of behavioral physiology and sociobiology  at the Theodor-Boveri-Institute of the University of Würzburg. From 2002 to 2008 Hölldobler was an Andrew D. White Professor at Large at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. Since his retirement in 2004 Hölldobler has worked as a research professor in the School of Life Sciences at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona. There he is one of the founders of the Social Insect Research Group (SIRG) and the Center for Social Dynamics and Complexity.

Research fields and publications
Hölldobler  is one of the world's leading experts in myrmecology. His experimental and theoretical contributions cover sociobiology, behavioral ecology, and chemical ecology. His primary study subjects are social insects and in particular ants. His work has  provided valuable insights into mating strategies, regulation of reproduction, the evolution of social parasitism, chemical communications, and the concept of "superorganisms". Publications on these topics include:

 1965. with U. Maschwitz, Der Hochzeitsschwarm der Rossameise Camponotus herculeanus L. (Hym. Formicidae). Z. Vergl. Physiol. 50:551-568
 1971. Sex pheromone in the ant Xenomyrmex floridanus J. Insect. Physiol. 17:1497-1499
 1973. with M. Wüst Ein Sexualpheromon bei der Pharaoameise Monomorium pharaonis (L.) Z. Tierpsychol. 32:1-9
 1974. Home range orientation and territoriality in harvesting ants Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 71:3274-3277
 1976. Recruitment behavior, home range orientation and territoriality in harvester ants, Pogonomyrmex Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1:3-44
 1978. with H. Engel, Tergal and sternal glands in ants Psyche 85:285-330
 1980. with C. Lumsden, Territorial Strategies in Ants Science 210:732-739
 1982. with H. Engel, R.W. Taylor, A New Sternal Gland in Ants and its Function in Chemical Communication Naturwissenschaften 69:90
 1983. with E.O. Wilson, Queen Control in Colonies of Weaver Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Ann. of the Ent. Soc. of America 76:235-238
 1984. with N.F. Carlin, Nestmate and Kin Recognition in Interspecific Mixed Colonies of Ants Science 222:1027-1029
 1987. with N.F. Carlin, Anonymity and specificity in the chemical communication signals of social insects J. Comp. Physiol. A 161:567-581
 1992. with K. Sommer, Coexistence and dominance among queens and mated workers in the ant Pachycondyla tridentata Naturwissenschaften 19:470-472
 1998. with M. Obermayer, G.D. Alpert, Chemical trail communication in the amblyoponine species Mystrium rogeri Forel (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Ponerinae) Chemoecology, 8:119-123
 1999 with K. Tsuji, K. Egashira, Regulation of worker reproduction by direct physical contact in the ant Diacamma sp. from Japan Animal Behaviour 58:337-343
 2003. with J. Gadau, C.P. Strehl, J. Oettler, Determinants of intracolonial relatedness in Pogonomyrmex rugosus (Hymenoptera; Formicidae) – mating frequency and brood raids, Molecular Ecology 12: 1931-1938
 1999. with J. Liebig, C. Peeters, Worker policing limits the number of reproductives in a ponerine ant Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 266:1865-1870

Awards
 John Simon Guggenheim Fellowship (1980)
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (1990)
 Pulitzer Prize (1991) for The Ants together with Edward O. Wilson
  U.S. Senior Scientist Prize of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation
  Werner Heisenberg-Medal of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation
 Körberpreis for the European Science (1996)
 Karl Ritter von Frisch Medal and Science Prize of the German Zoological Society (1996)
 Benjamin Franklin-Wilhelm v. Humboldt Prize of the German-American Academic Council ( 1999)
 Honorary doctor Biology of the University of Konstanz (2000)
 Order of Merit First Class of the Federal Republic of Germany (2000)
 Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art (2003)
 Alfried-Krupp-Wissenschaftspreis (2004)
 Treviranus-Medal of the Verband deutscher Biologen (vdbiol) (2006)
 Lichtenberg Medal (2010)
 Ernst-Jünger-Prize for Entomology Baden-Württemberg (2010)
 Cothenius-Medal in Gold of the Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (2011)
 Exemplar Award by the American Animal Behavior Society (2013)
 Fabricius medal (2019) (German entomological society)

Academic associations
 Fellow of the American Animal Behavior Society (1992)
 Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (1986 korrespondierend, 1995 ordentlich)
 American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 Deutsche Nationale Akademie der Wissenschaften Leopoldina (1975)
 Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (1979)
 Academia Europaea (1994)
 Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1995)
 National Academy of Sciences (United States) (1998)
 American Philosophical Society (1997)
 Fellow of the Entomological Society of America (2019)

Documentary films
In addition to his published scientific papers and books, Hölldobler's work was the subject of the documentary film Ants - Nature's Secret Power the  winner of the 2005 Jackson Hole Wildlife Film Festivals Special Jury Prize.

Books

 Bert  Hölldobler, E.O. Wilson: The Ants, Harvard University Press, 1990,
 Bert  Hölldobler, E.O. Wilson: Journey to the Ants: A Story of Scientific Exploration, 1994,
 Bert  Hölldobler, E.O. Wilson: The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies, W.W. Norton, 2008.
 Bert  Hölldobler, E.O. Wilson: The Leafcutter Ants: Civilization by Instinct, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2011,
 Bert  Hölldobler, Christina L. Kwapich: The Guests of Ants: How Myrmecophiles Interact with Their Hosts, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2022,

Notes

References

External links

 Curriculum vitae
 Faculty website
 Darwin Distinguished Lecture Series
 Jackson Hole Wildlife Film Festival
  The Social Nature of Nature - Ask A Biologist Audio Interview

Web interviews
Hölldobler's 2007 interview on the Ask A Biologist podcast program details his early life growing up in Germany as well as his interest in ants and writing.

 UC Riverside. Leading Entomologist to Give Talk at UC Riverside on Communication and Cooperation in Ant Societies

1936 births
Living people
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize winners
German entomologists
Myrmecologists
Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction winners
University of Würzburg alumni
Academic staff of the University of Würzburg
Academic staff of Goethe University Frankfurt
Harvard University faculty
Cornell University faculty
Arizona State University faculty
20th-century German writers
21st-century German writers
21st-century German male writers
Members of the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina
Members of Academia Europaea
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the Entomological Society of America
People from Starnberg (district)
German expatriates in the United States
Chemical ecologists
Entomological writers
Sociobiologists
Members of the American Philosophical Society

Bert Hölldobler


United States Declaration of Independence is an important document in the history of the United States of America. It was ratified on July 4, 1776. It says that the Americans were no longer under British rule. Instead, the thirteen British colonies came together to become a union of free and independent states. In the conclusion of the Declaration of Independence a quote was: "with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."

Before the Declaration
Before 1776, the United States of America was not a country. The individual states were colonies of the British Empire. They were called British Colonies. This means that the King and Parliament of Great Britain ruled the Colonies. "Plundered our seas,..." meant that the founding Fathers blamed the British for the American Revolution.

Effects
During this time, many American people were angry at Great Britain. Many Americans did not like paying taxes to Great Britain when they did not have anyone to speak for them in Parliament. The American people wanted to be treated like British citizens.

Taking action

Responding to actions taken by Great Britain, including the Intolerable Acts, the different colonies formed a Continental Congress to make decisions for all of the colonies. They met in the American city of Philadelphia. During a meeting of the Second Continental Congress, on June 11, 1776, they chose five people to write a document that would become the Declaration of Independence. These people were:
 John Adams, from the Massachusetts Bay Colony
 Benjamin Franklin, from the Province of Pennsylvania
 Thomas Jefferson, from the Virginia Colony
 Robert R. Livingston, from the Province of New York
 Roger Sherman, from the Connecticut Colony

The Declaration of Independence

Picking a Writer
The committee decided that one person would write the document, while the rest would give him advice on what to write. John Adams decided that Thomas Jefferson should write the document. He bought him a few drinks and told him that he was more qualified to write it because he was a Virginian and he was simply a better writer. Jefferson got to work.

What it says
In the Declaration, Jefferson starts by writing about people's rights, and what the government should and should not do. This part of the Declaration is called the Preamble. He then lists specific bad things that the British government did to the colonies. He says these included putting people in jail with no reason; making taxes that were too high; and not respecting people who lived in the colonies.

Agreeing on the Declaration

On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress argued about the Declaration and made some changes to it. After making changes, they approved the Declaration. They declared their independence from the British Empire that day, at the Pennsylvania State House.

However, the Continental Congress did not officially approve the Declaration until July 4. On that day, twelve of the thirteen groups that represented the colonies approved and ordered the Declaration to be printed. (The Province of New York did not vote.) This version of the Declaration was signed only by the President of the Congress, John Hancock.

On July 15, the New York group agreed with the rest of the colonies' groups. This meant that everyone in the Congress agreed on the Declaration.

On July 19, the Declaration's title was changed from "A Declaration of the Representatives of the United States of America in General Congress assembled" to "the unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America."

Overall, 56 men signed the Declaration. However, some people signed at different times. Many people signed a parchment paper copy of the Declaration on July 2. Many of these signers were not there when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4. One signer, Matthew Thornton, from the Province of New Hampshire, signed on November 4, 1776.

Effects of the Declaration
The Declaration of Independence had many different effects.

Effects on Great Britain

When the King of Great Britain, King George III, and Parliament heard about the Declaration, they were angry. Great Britain and the people in America had already been fighting in a war called the American Revolution. America won the war, and in 1783 Great Britain had to recognize the independence of the new country, the United States, at the Treaty of Paris.

Effects on America
The people of America know that the Declaration of Independence is very important. Every year on July 4, they have a holiday called 'Independence Day'. They celebrate this holiday to remember the day that the Declaration was approved, and the day that the United States of America became its own country. They often celebrate with parades, fireworks, and songs.

The Declaration of Independence also talks about the simple ideas that the people who started the United States believed in. It says that every person in this U.S. has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It also says that the government has to listen to its own people. These things were what made America a free independent country.

Text

Starting text
The initial text says that a declaration of independence must be well-reasoned:
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

The Preamble
The preamble of the declaration is the best-known part.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.

Simple English translation
We think these truths are obvious:
 That all men are created equally
 That their Creator gives them rights that cannot be taken away
 That these rights include the rights to life, freedom (liberty), and pursuit of happiness(property/wealth)
 That governments are created to protect these rights
 That governments have power only if the people they are governing agree that they do
 That whenever a government no longer protects these rights, the people it governs have a right to change or eradicate that government. They also have a right to create a new government that is more likely to protect their safety and freedom
 That governments which have existed for a long time should not be changed for small reasons. However, if a government abuses the people which they govern over and over again, the people have the right to get rid of that government, if they so choose.

Present day
The Declaration of Independence can be viewed at the National Archives Museum near the National Mall in Washington, D.C.

Related pages
 Continental Congress
 American Revolutionary War
 Colonialism
 Independence Day (United States)

References

Other websites

 Declaration of Independence, with Jefferson's account, all the signers, extensive related information, from ushistory.org
 The Rough Draft of the Declaration of Independence  - Text of the rough draft at Duke University's website
 Library of Congress: Declaration of Independence and related resources
 PBS/NOVA: The Preservation and History of the Declaration
 National Geographic News: "U.S. Independence Celebrated on the Wrong Day?" (July 2, 2004)
 Colonial Hall: A line by line historical analysis of the grievances
 Virtualology: A Brief History of the Declaration and ownership of Dunlap printings
 "The Speech of the Unknown" from the book Washington and His Generals: or, Legends of the Revolution by George Lippard, published in 1847

Maps, photos, and other media
 Deutsches Historisches Museum: First Printing in German of the Declaration of Independence
 "Drafting of the Declaration of Independence. The Committee: Franklin, Jefferson, Adams, Livingston, and Sherman."  1776. Copy of engraving after Alonzo Chappel. (large version )
 "The Declaration of Independence"  by John Trumbull. (large version )
 Interactive Flash Version of John Sumit Trumbull's "Declaration of Independence"
 Interactive High-resolution viewer with annotations of the Declaration on Footnote.com

Signers
 The Price They Paid Sorting Fact from Fiction.
 Signers of the Declaration of Independence

More reading

1776 in the United States
Declaration of Independence
Thomas Jefferson
Declarations of independence


Karl Arnold (born 21 March 1901 in Herrlishöfen, died 29 June 1958 in Düsseldorf) was a German politician. He was Minister President of North Rhine-Westphalia from 1947 to 1956.

Life and profession

After 1920 Arnold worked full-time basis for the Christian trade union movement. He became Secretary of the Düsseldorf District of the Christian trade union in 1924.

In 1928 Arnold married Arnold Liesl Joeres. Their son Gottfried was born in 1933 and was a member of the German Bundestag between 1961 and 1983.

Arnold was partner in a business in Düsseldorf in 1933. During the Third Reich the Gestapo watched and followed him. He was arrested after Count von Stauffenberg tried to assassinate (murder) Hitler on 20 July 1944.

Arnold helped to found the industrial unions, today's DGB, with Hans Böckler in the Rhineland in 1945.

He got permission from the American Army to publish the Rheinische Post (Rhenish Post) daily newspaper. His family still own part of the paper today.

He died of a heart attack on 29 June 1958, during the Landtag (state parliament) election campaign.

Karl Arnold was buried in Düsseldorf's South Cemetery.

Political party

Arnold joined the Centre party in 1920.

After the World War II Arnold founded the of Düsseldorf Christian democratic party in 1945. Later this became a part of CDU. Arnold was the CDU's deputy federal chairman from 1956 until his death.

Public offices
1925 to 1933 he was a member of the city council of Düsseldorf and acting chairman the of the Centre Party group.

He was a member of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia from 1946 until his death. Between 1947 and 1949 he was also a member of the parliament of the Bizone (which was the British and American occupation zones).

In 1957 Arnold was elected to the Bundestag with 72.6% of the votes in the Gelsenkirchen-Erkelenz Jülich constituency . He was deputy chairman of the CDU/CSU parliamentary group.

On 29 January 1946 Arnold was appointed mayor of Düsseldorf by the American Military Government. He was elected mayor in the first free elections on 26 October 1946.

From December 1946 until 1956 he was Minister President of North Rhine Westphalia.

From 7 September 1949 to 6 September 1950 he was the first President of the Bundesrat.

This also mean that between 7 and 13 September 1949 he was Acting President of Germany, until Theodor Heuss was elected Federal President.

Arnold lost a constructive vote of 'no confidence' on 20 February 1956. His successor (person who followed) as Minister President was Fritz Steinhoff.

Arnold died one week before the next state elections, in 1958. He was only 57 years old.

1901 births
1958 deaths
German mayors
Ministers-President of North Rhine-Westphalia
Politicians from Baden-Württemberg
Politicians of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany
Presidents of Germany

Karl Arnold


Business System 12, or simply BS12, was one of the first fully relational database management systems, designed and implemented by IBM's Bureau Service subsidiary at the company's international development centre in Uithoorn, Netherlands.  Programming started in 1978 and the first version was delivered in 1982. It was never widely used and essentially disappeared soon after the division was shut down in 1985, possibly because IBM and other companies settled on SQL as the standard.

BS12's lasting contribution to history was the use of a new query language based on ISBL, created at IBM's UK Scientific Centre. Developers of the famous System R underway in the US at the same time were also consulted on certain matters concerning the engine, but the BS12 team rejected SQL unequivocally, being convinced that this apparently unsound and difficult-to-use language (which at that time was also relationally incomplete) would never catch on.

BS12 included a number of interesting features that have yet to appear on most SQL-based systems, some a consequence of following the ISBL precedent, others due to deliberate design. For instance, a view could be parameterised and parameters could be of type TABLE. Thus, a view could in effect be a new relational operator defined in terms of the existing operators.  Codd's DIVIDE operator was in fact implemented that way.

Another feature that could have easily been included in SQL systems was the support for update operations on the catalog tables (system tables describing the structure of the database, as in SQL).  A new table could be created by inserting a row into the TABLES catalog, and then columns added to it by inserting into COLUMNS.

In addition, BS12 was ahead of SQL in supporting user-defined functions and procedures, using a Turing complete sublanguage, triggers, and a simple "call" interface for use by application programs, all in its very first release in 1982.

Example
Sample query for determining which departments are over their salary budgets:

 T1 = SUMMARY(EMP, GROUP(DEPTNUM), EMPS=COUNT, SALSUM=SUM(SALARY))
 T2 = JOIN(T1, DEPT)
 T3 = SELECT(T2, SALSUM > BUDGET)

Note the "natural join" on the common column, DEPTNUM. Although some SQL dialects support natural joins, for familiarity, the example will show only a "traditional" join. Here is the equivalent SQL for comparison:
-- (SQL version)
SELECT d.Deptnum, Count(*) as Emps,
  Sum(e.Salary) as Salsum, Budget
FROM Emp as e
JOIN Dept as d ON e.Deptnum = d.Deptnum
GROUP BY d.Deptnum, Budget
HAVING Sum(e.Salary) > Budget

References

External links
Business System 12 (BS12)
TQL/SMEQL - A draft query language influenced by BS12

Business System 12
Proprietary database management systems
1982 software
Query languages

IBM Business System 12