José "Pepe" Chichioco Cojuangco Sr. (July 3, 1896 – August 21, 1976) was a Filipino politician who served as Representative of the 1st District of Tarlac in the Philippines from 1934 to 1946. Cojuangco is one of the patriarchs of the Cojuangco clan. He was the father and grandfather of future Philippine presidents Corazon Aquino and Benigno Aquino III, respectively.  His other grandchildren include actresses Kris Aquino and Mikee Cojuangco.

Family

Parents

His grandfather Khó͘ Gio̍k-khoân () was the first José Cojuangco ("El Chino" José), the progenitor of the Cojuangco clan, from Hongjian, in Jiaomei Township, Zhangzhou in Fujian province.

His father was Melecio Cojuangco y Estrella, who was a skilled carpenter. Melecio helped build churches in Binondo, Bulacan and in Gapan, Nueva Ecija.  Melecio's mother was Antera Estrella of Gapan, Nueva Ecija, a daughter of Felipe Estrella, a Spaniard and Martina Calub Cruz, a local woman. With the Estrella connection, the Cojuangcos gained their initial foothold in Nueva Ecija.

Melecio's wife was a Chinese mestiza, Tecla Chichioco y Jumaquio of Malolos and Hagonoy, Bulacan. She was a scion from the Spanish Valenzuela clan of Malolos, the Chinese Chichioco clan of Malolos, and the Japanese descendant hacienderos (plantation owners) Jumaquio clan of Kapitangan, Paombong, Bulacan. Tecla was the great-grandniece of Don Tiburcio Jumaquio and Doña Urzula Gutierrez, hacienderos and merchants of Kapitangan, Paombong, Bulacan. One of her blood relatives was Don Catalino Gutierrez Jumaquio, of Calizon, Paombong, Bulacan, in the late 1800s and one of the sons of Don Tiburcio and Doña Urzula. Melecio's siblings include elder sister Ysidra, who massively enlarged the already considerable Cojuangco fortune by buying land and dabbling in sugar mills and real estate; and younger sister, Trinidad, who died a spinster.

Siblings
Cojuangco was the oldest of four siblings:

Juan "Itoy" Chichioco Cojuangco (2nd sibling / 2nd older brother / 1st marriage to Elena Garcia / 2nd marriage to Lualhati Aldaba).  His first wife, Doña Elena García Cojuangco, was a daughter of Spanish mestizo Gregorio García, who owned a rival sugar mill in Paniqui, Tarlac.  His second wife, Lualhati "Hatì" Aldaba was a sister of Opera Guild of the Philippines founder Dalisay Aldaba and also the sister of the Philippine Government's first Social Secretary, Estefania Aldaba Lim.  Juan Cojuangco died without legitimate heirs, although he sired a daughter through his sister-in-law, Imelda García.
Antonio Cojuangco, Sr., who married Victoria Uychuico, a Chinese mestiza from Tarlac. Antonio was a doctor in Manila.  He was massacred at De La Salle College by the Japanese in the final days of the Second World War, together with his wife, adopted son Ricardo ("Carding"), daughter Trinidad, household staff and neighbors.  His daughter Trinidad was married to Servillano "Billy" Aquino Jr. (a half brother of Benigno Aquino Jr.). His son, Ramón ("Monching"), was the owner of the PLDT and the father of Antonio, Jr. ("Tony Boy"), former chairman of TV5.
Eduardo "Endeng" Chichioco Cojuangco Sr. was José's youngest brother. He married Josephine Murphy, a Miss Baguio beauty queen and only daughter of Alhambra Theater owner John J. Murphy. Murphy, who later made Baguio his home, was a former United States Army soldier and paymaster to Colonel Lyman Kennon (for whom Kennon Road was named). Murphy and his battalion initially pursued Emilio Aguinaldo up to the Sierra Madre. Endeng is the father of Eduardo Cojuangco Jr.

Among the four male heirs of the Cojuangcos, Don Pepe (as José was remembered) was the only one born in Malolos, Bulacan, where his father Melecio built the secret stairway in Barasoain Church used by the Spanish friars to smuggle women into their private quarters.  The old Cojuangco-Chichioco mansion still stands a few meters from the Barasoain Church on land inherited by Tecla from her father.  It is maintained for the Cojuangcos by their Chichioco-Jumaquio relatives.  The physical address used to be 540 Paseo del Congreso but the locals called it Calle de las Mestizas (Street of the Mestizas) on account of the numerous women who lived there, offspring of the friars nearby.  After World War II, the name was changed to Santo Niño Street, Mestizohin District.

Wife and children
Cojuangco was married to Demetria "Metring" Sumulong, daughter of Senator Juan Marquez Sumulong of Rizal province and sister to Lorenzo Sumulong, also a Philippine senator. Their law offices were located within Manila's Plaza Cervantes where Metring used to serve as legal assistant.  Demetria was also related to Senator Ceferino de Leon of San Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan (Senator De Leon's daughter was Philippine Carnival Queen Trinidad Roura de Leon, wife of President Manuel Roxas, whose grandson Mar Roxas would be Demetria's grandson Noynoy Aquino's vice president running mate.) Family lore has it that Don Pepe's grandfather, "El Chino" José,  insisted his eldest grandson to marry Metring since she had a mole under her nose, which would bring Pepe wealth beyond compare during his lifetime.  The most obedient of the four boys, Don Pepe did not object to the marriage.

The couple had eight children:

Ceferino (died 26 August 1925)
Pedro or "Pete" (19 October 1926 - 20 July 2011), married to Rosario "Sari" Cacho. Their younger son, Fernando "Nando" Cojuangco, is the administrator of Hacienda Luisita. Cacho is aunt to Louise "Lisa" Cacho Araneta, wife of Bongbong Marcos
Josephine (26 November 1927 - 26 July 2011), married to Nicanor Reyes, Jr., whose family founded Far Eastern University and the FEU-Nicanor Reyes Medical Foundation.  She was named after Josephine Murphy Cojuangco, wife of her uncle Eduardo "Endeng" Cojuangco Sr.  She was president of FEU from 1985 to 1989 and held graduate degrees in education.
Teresita or "Terry" (26 March 1929 - 16 January 2005), married to Ricardo "Baby" Lopa, was born in 1929. The Lopa clan, through their patriarch Manuel Lopa, Sr. and matriarch Purificacion Tagle-Abad, (grandniece of the famed José Tagle - hero of the Battle of Imus and immortalized in a beautiful Fernando Amorsolo painting), were close business associates of the Cojuangcos who have mutual investments in Mantrade, First Manila Management, Pantranco, First United Bank, Central Azucarera de Tarlac, and Nissan Philippines. The Lopas made their fortune in the automotive and transportation industries, and were co-founders of Equitable Bank (now BDO Unibank). Lopa and his siblings were known for their extensive collection of Manansala, Amorsolo and other Filipino masterpiece paintings amassed during the 1960s when his father, Don Manuel, and father-in-law, Don Pepe, were at the height of their wealth.
Carmen, (20 June 1931 - 25 September 1932)
Corazon or "Cory" (25 January 1933 - 1 August 2009), In 1954, she married Senator Benigno S. Aquino Jr. Benigno, or "Ninoy", with President Ramon Magsaysay as one of the sponsors.  Ninoy's grandfather, Servillano Aquino, was a general in the revolutionary army against Spain while his father, Benigno Aquino, Sr. was the Speaker of the National Assembly during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines. Honest politicians, General Servillano and his son were known to refuse any government salary or stipend.  To finance their political activities, the Aquinos hocked their three largest haciendas away:  Hacienda Lawang, Hacienda Murcia and Hacienda Tinang. Ninoy was previously the youngest governor of Tarlac and a Philippine senator, the staunchest critic of President Ferdinand Marcos and a protégé of President Ramon Magsaysay. Ninoy was assassinated at the tarmac of Manila International Airport on August 21, 1983. She became the 11th president of the Philippines.
José Jr. or "Peping" (born 19 September 1934), married to Margarita "Tingting" Manzano de los Reyes.  Peping was president of the Philippine Olympic Committee and previously a representative of the first legislative district of Tarlac. Margarita was governor of Tarlac (1992–1998).  Through her de los Reyes side of the family, she is related to Gilbert Teodoro (Teodoro's great-grandfather was a de los Reyes love child), Manila Carnival Queen and billionaire attorney Pacita de los Reyes y Ongsiako (later married to an American serviceman) and Imelda de la Paz Ongsiako (who married Ramon Cojuangco).  One of Peping's daughters married into the Benetton family of Italy that owns the iconic United Colors of Benetton brand, as well as vineyards and lands estancias in Argentina.
Maria Paz or "Passy" (3 May 1938 - 2 June 2015), married to Ernesto "Esting" Teopaco. The Teopacos were the neighbors of the Cojuangcos on Roberts Street in Pasay. Other families residing on said road were the Elizaldes, Sorianos, Quezons, Lopas, Cu-Unjiengs and the Oppens (the parents of Gretchen Oppen, the wife of Danding Cojuangco).  The Teopaco-Cojuangcos were once known for their winning collection of gamecocks in the 1960s and 1970s.

Cojuangco was the founder the Philippine Bank of Commerce and the First United Bank. He also acquired shareholdings in the Manila Trading and Supply Company (Mantrade) and the Pantranco bus company during the 1960s.

World War II
In the 1940s, with less than a day's notice, he left the Cojuangco mansion (built in 1933) along Agno Street (near De La Salle College) in Malate, Manila for the safety of Antipolo, Rizal (political bailiwick of his wife's relatives).  Meanwhile, his aunt Ysidra and brother Eduardo Sr. ("Endeng") fled to Baguio city where they thought the Japanese would not go and where there were large Cojuangco apartments.  (Endeng's mother-in-law Gregoria Beley Murphy was in Baguio as well.)  His relative Antonio stayed behind due to his son's fever.

While Ysidra, her nephews and their families all sought shelter at the Baguio Cathedral during the bombardments, the Antonio Cojuangcos were trapped in the De La Salle College chapel where they were massacred by the desperate Japanese.  Only two survived, the siblings Lourdes ("Lulu") and Ramon ("Monching").  Monching's wife, Natividad "Nene" de las Alas, was also hacked to death.  Lulu was saved when a bayonet hit Monching's first born, who she was holding.  Lulu would later marry Luis Tirso Rivilla of Ormoc City and Monching would later marry Imelda dela Paz Ongsiako.

As the eldest Cojuangco male, Pepe felt partly to blame for the near decimation of the Antonio Cojuangco branch.  From that day on, Cojuangco and his relatives never lived in Malate ever again.  He sent Monching, Lulu and his own children to the United States for their studies. (Ravenhill Academy, College of Mount Saint Vincent, et al.).  He cared for Antonio's children as if they were his own.

1950s
As his businesses outside of Tarlac flourished, Cojuangco invited the rest of his family to join him.  His brother, Itoy, and Antonio's son, Monching, benefited from this arrangement. Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco Jr., eldest son of Endeng, declined.

In 1953, Endeng became ill and needed treatment in the United States. At that time, the U.S. Dollar was strictly regulated. Don Pepe's wife and holder of the entire clan's purse, Doña Metring, his wife, was unable to obtain the necessary funds to facilitate Endeng's medical expenses. Endeng would shortly die of kidney failure. Also in 1953, President Ramon Magsaysay offered to sell Hacienda Luisita to Cojuangco, as the Hukbalahap rebels caused much fear and the Spanish owners, Compañía General de Tabacos de Filipinas (Tabacalera), wanted to sell.  (President Magsaysay was avoiding the wealthier hacienderos from Negros island and Iloilo, specifically the brothers Fernando Lopez and Eugenio Lopez, from owning too much as they already purchased the PASUMIL consortium in Del Carmen, Pampanga.)  Negotiations began but President Magsaysay died when his airplane crashed on Mount Manunggal in Cebu.

The deal was closed five years later during the term of President Carlos Garcia. Hacienda Luisita was the second largest contiguous piece of property in Luzon island.  Cojuangco was able to secure American dollars required by Tabacalera.  Unlike before, he called on his friend, Philippine Central Bank governor Miguel Cuaderno to help him.  The hacienda was separate from the lands his aunt Doña Ysidra Cojuangco assembled in the previous decades.  He and his son-in-law, Benigno Aquino Jr. ("Ninoy"), introduced strong social programs favoring the farmers of the hacienda.

While Cojuangco was genuinely loved by the farmers under his management (free healthcare, free schooling, adult education, veterinary medicines for the farm animals), designated areas for employee housing, the stark treatment concerning the dollars relating to Endeng's survival and his subsequent death versus the grand business move in purchasing Hacienda Luisita added insult to injury to Endeng's family.  Besides the opposing views in politics and the abandonment of the Antonio Cojuangcos in Manila during the war, the situation concerning his younger brother's death would eventually cause for a collision course between the heirs of Cojuangco and Endeng.

1960s
In the 1960s, Cojuangco's bus company (Pantranco) and banking arm expanded to open satellite offices all over the country.  The Philippine Bank of Commerce (PBC) was the preferred intermediary/ local bank of American companies in Manila.  He then divested from PBC less than a month before the stockholder's meeting to avoid the embarrassment of being unseated by his brother Itoy, his nephew Danding and his other nephew Monching, who wanted greater influence in the bank.  Afterwards, he opened First United Bank.  With perseverance First United became a major bank under his helm.

Due to the geographical proximity of his Hacienda Luisita and the Paniqui Sugar Mills, which he managed on behalf of the entire family, there were times when more than 90% of all raw sugar milled in central Luzon were processed through Cojuangco-owned companies.  The Cojuangco family owned so much land in Central Luzon that they could dictate the price of rice and non-Visayan sugar.

1970s
When the 1970s set in, Don Pepe had already resigned from his Philippine Bank of Commerce (PBC) position and sold all his shares to avoid a boardroom coup by the other branches of the Cojuangco family.  This was particularly sentimental for Don Pepe, as he was the one who founded PBC and nurtured it from bankruptcy.  It was also the one company where he insisted that all four families of the Cojuangco co-own, not knowing that the same generosity will swallow him in his twilight years.

Meanwhile, his bus company Pantranco was coerced to file for bankruptcy after the Marcos-led administration refused to allow rate hikes even when market forces deemed an increase in bus fares.  The same happened to Mantrade. Unable to expand his businesses due to political pressures, in 1975, he sold First United Bank.  The buyer was the Philippine Government which would evolve the bank to become the United Coconut Planters Bank.

Political life
Cojuangco was representative of the First District of Tarlac to the 10th Philippine Legislature in 1934–35, the First Philippine National Assembly in 1935–1938, the Second National Assembly in 1938-1941 and the Third National Assembly in 1941–1946.

He represented Tarlac in the same way that his father Don Melecio Cojuangco did as the first ever representative of Tarlac in the First Philippine Legislature of 1907–1909.  (Don Melecio's political career was cut short when he suffered a fatal heart attack in the Urdaneta-Manila train while defending his sons Jose (Pepe) and Juan (Itoy) from American soldiers wanting to sidestep the youngsters from their seats.  Mauricio Ilagan served the remaining 4 years (till 1912) of his term).

While in Congress, Don Pepe was one of two representing the province of Tarlac.  The other one was Benigno S. Aquino Sr., whose son from his second marriage, Ninoy Aquino became the husband to Don Pepe's daughter, Cory Aquino. In essence, the current Philippine President Noynoy Aquino's paternal and maternal grandfathers sat side by side for Tarlac from 1935 to 1938 and again from 1941 to 1946.

Don Pepe Cojuangco retired from politics after World War II and thus avoided a clash with his younger brother, Eduardo Sr. or Endeng Lalake, the charismatic governor of Tarlac province.  When he quit politics, his personal wealth was preserved unlike his good friend and future in-law Benigno Aquino Sr's, whose lands and cash holdings decreased dramatically by using it for social welfare programs in their home province.

Death
He died on August 21, 1976.

He died during the darkest days of the Martial Law. All of his businesses were under extreme scrutiny by the Marcoses.

Many banks refused to extend credit for fear of government retaliation.  Only Chinabank of Binondo, whose owners Don Pepe assisted when they themselves were just starting out, defied the government and helped him.  (His granddaughter Victoria Eliza Cojuangco Aquino or Viel, would later marry into this banking family now headed by former Ambassador to the Vatican Howard Dee).

His sons Pete and Peping lost the bid to own the Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company after it was awarded to Monching Cojuangco, Antonio Meer, and brother-in-law Oscar Ongsiako.  Monching's wife, Imelda Ongsiako, was a "Blue Lady" of Imelda Marcos and wedding sponsor to presidential daughter Irene Marcos Araneta.

His First United Bank was renamed and was spun off by President Marcos as a front to illegally collect coconut levy funds, hence the reason why United Coconut Planters Bank is sometimes referred to as Cocobank.

The transportation companies he owned with the Lopa family were also lost to Marcos cronies. Benjamin "Kokoy" Romualdez, brother of Philippine First Lady Imelda Marcos, took over the First Manila Management Corp., the mother company of Mantrade (which handled the distribution of Ford Motors and other motor vehicles) and the Pantranco bus company (painted with vibrant hearts of every color, the fleet earned the moniker "Lovebus"), shortly after the death of Cojuangco's business partner, Manuel Lopa, Sr., in 1974. (With his death, the conglomerate lost their immunity from the Marcoses, since Lopa shared a close friendship with Imelda's late uncle, Daniel Romualdez y Zialcita, Speaker Pro Tempore of the Philippine Congress, who died suddenly via a heart attack, a few months before his niece Imelda Marcos rose as Philippine First Lady, in 1965.) Lopa's son (and Cojuangco's son-in-law), Ricardo "Baby" Lopa, was then ousted from the company.

Cojuangco no longer controlled the Bank of Commerce, which was closest to his heart, as it was the first non-agricultural company he founded.  Also, it was the last company that, out of family solidarity, he formed insisting that all four branches of the Cojuangco should co-own.  His departure from Bank of Commerce left Don Pepe's psyche bruised and his spirit betrayed.

His lawyer, Juan Ponce Enrile, a son of his old friend and attorney, the Spanish mestizo Alfonso Ponce Enrile (father of Armida Siguion Reyna and Irma Potenciano), has since not been able to help him speak to President Marcos even when the latter was the designated Defense Minister.

Neither can his nephew, Danding Cojuangco, a Marcos associate, could do anything to help Cojuangco.  He himself comforted his old uncle, saying "Tio Pepe, huwag na po kayong umiyak"  (Uncle Pepe, please do not cry).

One of his lasting words to his family was "Kawawa naman si Cory" (Oh how pitiful Cory is!), as he died broken hearted to see this daughter of his harassed and harangued by the Marcos government for being the woman Ninoy Aquino chose as his wife.

In 1979, his last surviving brother, Juan Cojuangco, died.  Some of his wealth devolved back to his six nephews and eight nieces.  The rest was left to his second wife, Doña Hati, who formed the Cojuangco Aldaba Foundation.

Exactly seven years after his death, his son-in-law, Ninoy Aquino, was assassinated, triggering the EDSA Revolution 3 years later.

Ten years after Don Pepe's death, in 1986, Cory Aquino would become Philippine President, while President Ferdinand Marcos, Benjamin Romualdez, Danding Cojuangco, and their extended families, fled to Hawaii and mainland United States.

Present
At present, Don Pepe Cojuangco's male line is preserved through his elder son, Pedro Cojuangco who has five sons.  His younger son and namesake Jose Jr. (Peping), has 5 daughters.

His grandson through his daughter Corazon, is Senator Benigno Aquino III who sat in the Upper House together with Senator Juan Ponce Enrile, the former Cojuangco family lawyer.  With the help of sisters Kris Aquino, Maria Elena Cruz, Aurora Corazon Abellada, Victoria Eliza Dee, plus Antonio Ongsiako Cojuangco, other relatives, Mar Roxas and his family headed by mother Judy Araneta Roxas, and most importantly, numerous volunteers, Noynoy Aquino campaigned and won the Philippine presidency that his mother Cory Aquino once occupied.  (One of his opponents was Gilbert Teodoro, Danding Cojuangco's nephew through sister Mercedes).

Hacienda Luisita's ownership is currently being questioned in the media due to proviso verbiage in the sale indicating a land redistribution.

Meanwhile, the Antonio Cojuangco branch lost the Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company through a sale brokered by President Joseph Ejercito Estrada.

The two junior branches of the family, the Eduardo Cojuangcos and the Antonio Cojuangcos, controlled the United Coconut Planters Bank (formerly First United Bank) and the Bank of Commerce, respectively.  Recently, San Miguel Corporation (chaired by Danding Cojuangco) acquired the controlling interest in Bank of Commerce from the Antonio Cojuangco branch.

In popular culture
Cojuangco was portrayed by Jim Paredes in the Maalaala Mo Kaya episode entitled Kalapati, the first of the two-part special featuring the love story of Ninoy and Cory Aquino.

Notes

References

External sources
Aquino-Cojuangco Clan

1896 births
1976 deaths
Members of the House of Representatives of the Philippines from Tarlac
Cojuangco family
People from Malolos
Members of the Philippine Legislature
Members of the National Assembly of the Philippines
Filipino politicians of Chinese descent

José Cojuangco


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Comics featurin anthropomorphic chairacters
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American comic strips
1978 comics debuts
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The National Gallery, London is an art gallery in London, England, which has one of the finest collections of European paintings in the world.
What makes this gallery so important is that, although there are bigger galleries, The National Gallery has many paintings of very high quality and also because it has paintings by famous artists whose works are very rare. These rare paintings include works by Duccio, Masaccio, Uccello, Piero della Francesca, Leonardo, Giorgione, Michelangelo, Caravaggio, Vermeer, Chardin, Klimt, Rousseau and Redon.

The National Gallery is on Trafalgar Square, which is one of the busiest tourist places in London. It is a grand building of pale grey limestone, with a central dome and a large Classical style porch (portico) like an Ancient Greek temple. To the left side, the gallery has a large new building called The Sainsbury Wing.

History
In 1823 a collector called Sir George Beaumont offered to give his famous collection of paintings to the British Government to start a public art gallery. In 1824 another famous collection of paintings was on sale. The owner, John Julius Angerstein, had died. It looked as if his paintings would be sold outside England. Then there was another offer of paintings from a third collector, The Reverend Holwell Carr. The Parliament had to make a quick decision.

The Parliament voted that a national collection should be started and a gallery should be built. They gave 60,000 Pounds Sterling to buy the Angerstein paintings. They got 38 pictures and were able to display them publicly in the Angerstein House.

The collection grew quickly with the Beaumont and Holwell Carr paintings, and others, being bought or given. A new gallery was needed. In 1831 the plans of the architect William Wilkins were accepted. The site which looks over Trafalgar Square was chosen, old buildings were demolished and the magnificent new gallery was opened on April 9, 1838.

When the National Gallery opened, there was a strong opinion that paintings of the High Renaissance period of the late 1400s to Baroque paintings of the 1600s were the finest type of art. The word primitive was used to describe Italian paintings from the 1300s and early 1400s. Luckily, the director of the Gallery, Sir Charles Eastlake, thought it was important to collect some of these primitive paintings, as well as the more popular High Renaissance paintings. That is how the National Gallery came to own so many very rare works from the Late Middle Ages and Early Renaissance periods.

In the 1870s the Gallery was lucky to get two collections of paintings by famous Dutch artists. The building had to be made larger to house them. The Gallery was also given paintings by famous British artists; soon there were so many that most of them were moved out to a new gallery called the Tate.

By the 20th century, it was getting more difficult to buy very important paintings; there were other galleries in the United States and Germany who were trying to buy the same paintings. So the National Gallery began to buy works by more modern painters and soon had a collection of 19th and early 20th century paintings. This is not a large part of the National Gallery's collection, but it does show small works by many very important artists, particularly the Impressionists.

Important paintings

Early Italian
 Duccio, Madonna and Child, c.1300, Sienna
 Masaccio, Madonna and Child, c.1426, Florence
 Fra Angelico, Christ in Glory, c.1435, Florence

 Uccello, St George and the Dragon, c.1450, Florence
The story of this painting is Christian legend about dragon that has stolen a princess. The princess charmed the dragon and tied it with her belt, but she could not escape. The noble George came to her rescue and killed the Dragon. There are many paintings of Saint George in the National Gallery because he is the patron saint of England. Uccello has tried to show the perspective of the landscape by arranging light and dark areas on the ground. Diagonal lines are important in this picture. The line made by the dragon's wing and leg go the same direction as George's spear while the body and tail go in the opposite direction.
 Piero della Francesca, The Baptism of Christ, c.1450, Umbria
 Mantegna, The Agony in the Garden, 1460, Mantua
 Pollaiuolo, The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian, 1475, Florence

 Sandro Botticelli, Mars and Venus, 1480s, Florence
The story of this painting comes from Roman Mythology. Mars the God of War, has been making love to Venus, the Goddess of Love. He is so tired that he does not know that little fauns are playing with his weapons. But one is about to blow a big shell loudly in his ear. The message of this painting is that Love can win over War. The design is based on a big W. which makes the painting symmetrical. Botticelli did this for the bedroom of Giuliano de'Medici, a wealthy nobleman from Florence. He painted Mars to look like Giuliano and Venus to look like his girlfriend but Giuliano did not have much time to enjoy his paintings as he was murdered only a short time later.
 Perugino, Madonna and Child with the angels Michael and Raphael, 1496, Perugia
 Giovanni Bellini, Portrait of Leonardo Loredano, Doge of Venice, 1501, Venice

Early Northern European painting

 Unknown painter, The Wilton Diptych, c.1395, England or France
The Wilton Diptych is one of the most precious paintings in the National Gallery, because most small art works from Middle Ages in England were destroyed. This painting shows King Richard II of England being presented to the Virgin Mary by his three patron saints. It is painted in tempera; the colours are mixed with egg. The word "diptych" means it is in two parts and can be closed like a book. The background is covered with thinly beaten gold leaf. The blue is made from ground-up semi-precious stone, lapis lazuli. It may have been painted as a wedding present for the King while he was in France .
 Jan van Eyck, The Arnolfini Wedding, 1434, Belgium
 Hans Memling, Virgin and Child with saints and donors, 1477, Bruges
 Rogier van der Weyden, Pieta, c.1460, Brussels
 Hieronymous Bosch, The Mocking of Christ, c.1480, Bois-le-Duc
 Albrecht Durer, The Painter's Father, 1497, Nuremberg

 Gerard David, Virgin and Child with saints and a donor, 1505, Bruges.
This painting is an altarpiece for a church. It shows the Virgin Mary seated like a queen on a throne with the Child Jesus. He is worshipped by three female saints and by the man who has paid the artist to do the picture for the church. He is called the "donor". Everything in the picture has been painted in great detail, the clothes, the tiles, the jewelry, the buildings and the flowers. Many of the things in the picture are symbols. The little dog is the symbol of faithfulness. The lilies are the symbol of the purity of the Virgin Mary. The painting does not show part of a story or a moment in time. The picture has been painted to help the viewer calm the mind for prayer.
 Lucas Cranach, Cupid, stung by a bee, 1522, Weimer
 Hans Holbein, The Ambassadors, 1533, born Augsburg died London. See below.
 Pieter Breughel the Elder, The Adoration of the Kings, 1564, Brussels

Italy in the 1500s
 Leonardo da Vinci, The Virgin of the Rocks, c.1506, Milan. See below.
 Michelangelo, The Entombment of Christ, c.1506, Rome. See below.
 Raphael, The Ansidei Madonna, c.1505,
 Giorgione, Adoration of the Kings, 1507, Venice

 Titian, Bacchus and Ariadne, 1523, Venice
This picture comes from Greek Mythology. Princess Ariadne has been shipwrecked on Naxos, the island of Bacchus. Bacchus sees Ariadne and falls in love at first sight. Titian shows him leaping from his chariot which is pulled by cheetahs, while Ariadne turns to run away. But Ariadne has looked into Bacchus's eyes, and she has fallen in love also. In the sky is the crown of stars which Bacchus gave her at their wedding. Titian has painted a spiral movement in many of the figures. It can be seen in Ariadne's red scarf. Although this painting is about Mythology, the figures are very realistic.
 Parmigiano, Madonna and Child with St John, 1527, Parma

 Lorenzo Lotto, Lady as Lucretia, 1530, Venice
 This portrait shows a woman in a richly coloured velvet dress, holding a drawing of Lucretia, a noble woman of Ancient Rome who committed suicide by stabbing herself after she had been raped. The painting may have been done for a family who wanted their daughter to marry well. The symbolism of the painting shows firstly that the young woman is rich and secondly, she is sexually pure. These two things were important in making a good marriage. Lotto has used contrast of colour in the orange and green dress to make a rich effect. He has also made an unusual use in the contrast of tone. Very light areas such as her face, bosom and hand control the centre of the painting. Three more very light areas are placed to the right side, the drawing, hand and note. This arrangement is asymmetrical
 Bronzino, Allegory, c.1550, Florence. See below.
 Tintoretto, St George and the Dragon, 1560s, Venice

Italy, France and Spain in the 1600s

 Caravaggio, The Supper at Emmaus, c.1600, Rome
This painting is based on a story from the Bible. Two of Jesus' followers were walking on the road to Emmaus, talking sadly about the death of Jesus. A man came and walked with them, but at first they did not know him. That night, having dinner at an inn, they suddenly knew it was Jesus who had risen from the dead and was now alive. Caravaggio has shown this moment in time as if it was a photograph. The things that make this picture seem so real are the light, the movement and the details. Caravaggio has painted the light coming from one side as if there was a large lamp. The head of the innkeeper makes a shadow behind Jesus that is like a halo. The picture has caught a single second when Jesus has raised his hand, one man starts to stand up and the other is throwing his arms out. Only the innkeeper is still. The view of Jesus' hand, the man's arms and the other man's elbow are foreshortened. The details show ordinary people with ordinary clothes that are old and torn. There is also a still life of the basket at the edge of the table. Caravaggio's lighting and realism were copied by many other painters, including Rembrandt and Velazquez.
 El Greco, Christ driving the Traders from the Temple, c.1600, Toledo
 Annibale Carracci, Quo vadis?, 1602, Rome

 Claude Le Lorrain, Departure of the Queen of Sheba, 1648, France and Rome
 This imaginary landscape is based on a story from the Bible. In this scene, the Queen of Sheba is setting out on her journey from Africa to Palestine to meet King Solomon. But what the artist really wanted to show was the misty morning light of the sunrise over the sea. He has also painted three different types of buildings. To the left is an ancient ruin like the ones the artist saw in Rome. In the background is a castle and tower from the Middle Ages.  To the left the Queen is coming out of a grand palace in the new style of the Renaissance. Nothing in this painting has anything to do with Africa or Palestine. It is about Rome. By showing the Queen of Sheba, Poussin is saying that the city of Rome, with all its history for 2000 years, is like the most beautiful and intelligent Queen that ever lived. This sort of painting is called an "allegory".

 Nicholas Poussin, Bacchanale, 1603, France and Rome
 This painting is a scene from Roman Mythology. The women are nymphs, the spirits of the forest. Some of the men are satyrs and have goats' horns and hoofs. They live on Naxos, the island of Bacchus, and spend a lot of time getting drunk, dancing and making love. In this wild party, even the babies are drinking wine. One nymph is about to smash a wine jug on the head of a satyr, who is trying to kiss her friend. Poussin has used big areas of bright colour. At first, the painting looks like a jumble of bodies, but everything is very carefully arranged to give a dancing effect to the whole picture. A big triangular shape contains all the figures. Outside the triangle on the right is a statue of Pan. On the left side is a beautiful landscape.

 Diego Velazquez, The Rokeby Venus, 1649, Madrid.
This picture is taken from Roman Mythology. It shows Venus, Goddess of Love and Beauty, looking into a mirror held by her son Cupid. Velazquez spent most of his time painting portraits for the Royal Family of Spain and their relatives. He is one of the most famous portrait painters of all time. But this painting was probably done for himself, and when he did it, he put himself in danger of serious punishment. In Spain, although the King ruled, the Church was in control. They watched everything that everybody did, and had a very large number of people put to death. It was against the law in Spain to paint nude pictures like this one. Velazquez has been very careful to only show her back. The image of the face is not very clear. Old mirrors were not as clear as modern ones. Perhaps Velazquez wanted to disguise the face of the woman for her protection. The arrangement and colouring in this painting is very simple. The graceful lines of the body are repeated in the grey and white bed covers. The red curtain is at the same angle as her head, and is a warm colour, like her pink flesh.
 Murillo, The Two Trinities, 1681, Seville

Holland and Flanders in the 1600s
 Gerrit von Honthorst, Christ before the High priest, 1617, Utrecht

 Rembrandt, Belshazzar's Feast, 1630s, Leyden
Rembrandt is best known as a painter of portraits, in particular for the many self portraits that record his life from when he was a teenager to his old age. He also painted many scenes from the Bible like this one. Prince Belshazzar's father had taken the Jewish people to Babylon as slaves. Belshazzar was giving a party and he sent servants to bring the gold cups that had been stolen from the Temple in Jerusalem. Suddenly a strange hand appeared and wrote a message on the wall. No-one knew what it meant so Balshazzar asked Daniel, who was a Jewish prophet. Daniel said "You have been weighed and measured by God. You do not meet God's rules. Your days are numbered!" This painting shows how much the Dutch painters learnt from Caravaggio. This painting can be compared to the Supper at Emmaus. It is another scene full of drama. Rembrandt has placed two of the figures at unusual angles. Belshazzar's body is facing the viewer, but his head is screwed around to see what is happening behind him. As he leaps up from his chair, he knocks the golden cup held by one of his wives. She is also at an odd angle because the viewer lookes down on her head and shoulders. Rembrandt has made a contrast between the rich texture of his robes and his flabby face and fat belly.
 Anthony van Dyck, Charles I of England on Horseback, 1631, London. See below.

 Peter Paul Rubens, The Judgement of Paris, 1632, Antwerp
Rubens was such a popular painter that he became rich and famous. He painted portraits and many scenes from the Bible and Mythology. The story of this painting is from Greek and Roman Mythology. Paris was a prince who was brought up by a shepherd. He was given a golden apple and asked to judge a beauty contest between three Goddesses: Juno, the Goddess of the Family; Minerva, the Goddess of War and Venus, the Goddess of Love. Each one offered a reward: wealth, success in battle and the most beautiful woman in the world as his wife. Paris chose the last and gave the apple to Venus. This made two very powerful people angry. And, what he did not realise was that the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Troy, was already married.  Rubens has painted a picture to decorate the wall of the home of a rich patron. The painting has lots of details that help to tell the story. These include little Cupid, a sheepdog, Juno's peacock, Minerva's scary shield and sheep grazing in the beautiful landscape. But the most important things in the painting are the three beautiful nudes. This was what made Ruben's pictures so popular.

 Franz Hals, Family group, 1640s, Antwerp
 Pieter der Hoogh, Courtyard in Delft, 1658, Delft. See below.
 Johannes Vermeer, Young Woman at the Virginals, c.1670, Delft. See below.

 Meyndert Hobbema, The Avenue, 1689, Middelharnis
 Landscape painting became very popular in Holland in the 1600s. In this picture perspective is very important. In a very flat country, it can be hard to judge how far away things are. Hobbema has used this straight road with two rows of tall trees to give a feeling of how far away the town is. At first glance this painting seems quite symmetrical. But Hobbema has added lots of differences to make the painting more interesting, balancing a farmhouse on one side with a church on the other and making the two rows of trees quite different.

The 1700s
 Watteau, The Lovers, c.1720, France
 Giambattista Pittoni ,The Sacrifice of Polyxena, 1740, Venice
 Canaletto, The Basin of St Mark's on Ascension Day, c.1740, Venice
 Chardin, The little Teacher, c.1740, Paris. See below.
 William Hogarth, Marriage a la Mode ( a story in six pictures), 1743, London

 George Stubbs, A Family in their Phaeton, c.1750, England
 In the 1700s, landscape paintings were popular in England, but they were more than just pictures of the beautiful countryside painted as decorations for a room. Most landscape paintings were also records of a family and the land that they owned. They were a sign of the family's wealth and status. In this painting the landowners show off their private park with its variety of trees. They also show off their splendid pair of horses and their elegant carriage called a "phaeton". Together, this coach and horses are the 18th century equivalent of a very expensive car. Stubbs was most famous for painting horses. He was a master at composing beautiful pictures. Here, he has created a balance between the lady's large fashionable hat set against the dark tree and the black horses against the pale sky.
 Tiepolo, Allegory of Love and Time, 1754, Italy
 Joshua Reynolds, Sir Banastre Tarleton, 1782, London
 Thomas Gainsborough, The Morning Walk, 1786, London
 Goya, The Duke of Wellington, 1812, Spain and France

1800 onwards

 Turner, The Temeraire, 1838, London
This is a sad painting. Its full name is The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken up as scrap. This is the last journey for one of the great warships that had fought for England against the French Fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar. Her tall elegant shape makes a contrast to the dirty black tugboat with smoking funnel that is towing her away. Turner, who was expert at painting the sea, the sky and the weather, has placed the moon in the sky near the sailing ship. The moon is in its last phase. On the other side of the picture, the sun rises with a red glow like fire on the water. The waning moon is the symbol of the passing of the age of great sailing ships. The blazing sun on the water is the symbol of the new age of the steam engine.
 Constable, The Haywain, 1821, Suffolk
 Ingres, Madame Moitessier, 1856, Paris
 Courbet, Women on the Bank of the Seine, 1857, France

 Henri Fantin-Latour, Apples on a Dish, 1861, France
This picture is a still life. In the Renaissance, carvings of still lifes were often part of the wooden decoration inside important rooms in a palace. In the 1600s and 1700s paintings of still lifes also became common and were most often seen in the dining room, where fruit, flowers and animals that had been killed for meat were fashionable decoration. In the 1800s many artists like Fantin-Latour painted small still lifes like this one to practice their skills at arranging a picture, at studying light and at studying texture. Many artists also painted still lifes because they were too poor to pay for an artist's model, or the weather was too bad to paint landscapes. Fantin-Latour did a large number of small pictures like this. He has arranged four apples of different colours and shapes and has made a study of how the light looks on their curved surfaces.
 Manet, The Waitress, 1879, Paris
 Claude Monet, The Houses of Parliament, London, French painter. See below.
 Renoir, The Umbrellas, c.1880, France

 Seurat, The Bathers at Asnieres, 1884, France
Seurat was a friend of the French Impressionist painters. He had a theory that all colour was made up of lots of colours which were sorted out when light passed into the eye. He experimented with colour by painting in tiny dots. His style of painting is called Pointillism. This large painting took a long time to do. Even though it is an outdoor scene with lots of figures, it is very still, as if time has stopped. When the painting is looked at closely, it can be seen that even the parts that seem white or black are made of hundreds of tiny dots of colour.
 Edgar Degas, Combing Hair, c.1885, Paris
 Cezanne, Mountains in Provence, 1890, Provence

 Vincent van Gogh, Landscape with Cypress Pine, c.1890, France
Vincent van Gogh had a difficult and troubled life. He was born in Holland but went to paint in France. He had very few friends and had difficulty selling his paintings. Luckily he had the support of his brother Theo and a doctor for whom he painted pictures. This landscape is a good example of his style. In the painting, everything seems to have a life of its own. The clouds are like great beasts that roll across the sky, the waving grain reaches out like hands, the mountains are rumbling and the cypress pine looks quite dangerous. Vincent used each brush stroke to help create this flame-like movement. Another important thing in this painting is contrast. The colours change from warm reddish-orange to ice-blue. The big dark tree to the right is in tonal contrast with the white clouds. The vertical direction of the tree is in contrast to the horizontal direction of the landscape. In 1890, Vincent took his own life after painting hundreds of pictures in only five years.
 Henri Toulouse-Lautrec, Woman in the Garden, 1891, France
 Douanier Rousseau, Tiger frightened by a Storm, 1891, Paris
 Gustav Klimt, Portrait of Hermine Gallia, 1904, Vienna

Gallery

Related pages
 Uffizi
 Louvre
 Hermitage

References
 Michael Wilson, The National Gallery, London, 1977, Charles Letts and Co.

Museums in London
Art museums in the United Kingdom
National museums

National Gallery, London


Alexey Ekimyan (,  (April 10, 1927, Baku - April 24, 1982, Moscow) was a famous Armenian-Russian composer, and author of popular songs. Ekimyan was also a General of Soviet militsia (police) and was the head of Criminal Investigation Department of Moscow region. He was considered the only popular composer in the world who ruled a law-enforcement department at the same time. Ekimyan awarded by the "Renowned Master of the Arts" Armenian SSR official title.

Ekimyan's first song for the Moscow International Festival (1957) was approved by Vano Muradeli ("I don't know if you would become a general, but you would become a composer!"). His songs were performed and recorded by prominent Soviet singers that include Lyudmila Zykina, Iosif Kobzon, Lusine Zakaryan. Some hits by Ekimyan were chosen for the "Song of the Year" all-Soviet festivals during the 1970s-'80s.

The documentary film-concert "Paths of My Memory" (1979, 27 min.) by Yerevan Studio is dedicated to the Alexey Ekimyan.

Ekimyan died on April 24, 1982. He is buried in Yerevan, Armenia.

Discography
Artashes Avetyan sings: songs by Alexey Ekimyan, U.S.S.R.: Melodiya, 1978 (LP). C60-10619-20
Alexey Ekimyan. Beregite druzey..., Russia: Melodia, 2006 (CD)
Alexey Ekimyan. Vot i vstretilis, Russia: Melodia, 2007 (CD)

Other websites
Alexey Ekimyan's biography (in Russian)

References

1927 births
1982 deaths
Armenian composers
Soviet musicians
Musicians from Baku

Alexey Ekimyan


Jack Francis Trudeau (born September 9, 1962) is a former professional American football player and morning show co-host on Fox Sports Radio.  He was selected by the Indianapolis Colts in the second round of the 1986 NFL Draft. A quarterback from the University of Illinois, Trudeau played ten  NFL seasons from 1986 to 1995.

Early life
Trudeau was born in Forest Lake, Minnesota.  He graduated from Granada High School in Livermore, California.

College
Trudeau was the starting quarterback of the Illinois Fighting Illini football team from 1983-85, his sophomore through senior years. As a sophomore, he helped the Illini become the first and only Big Ten team to beat all nine conference opponents in a single season. The Illini went to the 1984 Rose Bowl where they lost to UCLA, 45-9. Trudeau earned All-Big Ten honors in 1984 and 1985. He set Illinois school records in pass attempts (1151), completions (737), yards (8146) and touchdowns (51).  He also set an NCAA record with 215 consecutive pass attempts without an interception. In 1984, he finished runner-up to Doug Flutie for the Davey O'Brien Award, given to the top college quarterback in the nation.

NFL career
During his rookie season, Trudeau started eleven games - all Colts' losses.  After splitting time with Gary Hogeboom and Blair Kiel in 1987, Trudeau led the Colts to three wins in their final four games and the franchise's first playoff appearance since moving to Indianapolis in 1984.  He started the Colts' 38-21 Divisional Round loss in Cleveland, throwing two touchdown passes in the defeat.  In 1988, he played in just two games as Chris Chandler supplanted him under center.  Trudeau had his best season as a pro in 1989, starting twelve games and throwing for career-highs in yards (2,317) and touchdowns (15) en route to being named the Colts' Offensive MVP.  However, in the 1990 NFL Draft, the Colts traded with Atlanta to select Indianapolis native Jeff George with the first overall pick, and George began that next season as the starter.  Over the next four seasons, Trudeau made only fourteen more starts and was mostly a backup.

During the 1994 season, Trudeau signed with the New York Jets to back up Boomer Esiason.  When Esiason went down with an injury early in the season, Trudeau started two games - including one against the Colts, his former team.  Trudeau was selected by the Carolina Panthers in the 1995 NFL Expansion Draft to become the third-string quarterback behind Frank Reich and Kerry Collins in the team's inaugural season.  After appearing in just one game with Carolina, Trudeau retired following the 1995 season.

Trudeau finished his ten-year NFL career with 10,243 passing yards, 42 touchdowns, 69 interceptions, and a 63.3 passer rating in 67 games.

Personal life
He and his ex-wife Lisa have a daughter (Danielle) and three sons (John, Beau, and Trey). His brother Kevin was drafted at age 18 as a pitcher for the New York Yankees organization. After retiring from football, Jack Trudeau invested to be a co-owner of Wolf Run Golf Club in Indiana. .  He was a weekly guest on The Bob and Tom Show, broadcast out of Indianapolis, for many seasons, discussing the Colts and other happenings in the NFL.

Radio career
In 2010, Trudeau began hosting a local sports talk morning show with Zakk Tyler on WNDE in Indianapolis. The next year, the show (called Zakk and Jack) was picked up for national syndication by Fox Sports Radio to replace the departing Stephen A. Smith. The show was cancelled by FSR later that same year, as the pair were replaced by Andy Furman and former NFL defensive back Artrell Hawkins.

Trudeau was involved in a controversial exchange in August 2011 with then first-year Indiana Hoosiers football head coach Kevin Wilson.  During the interview, Wilson responded to Trudeau's mocking of Indiana's football team by pointing out the former quarterback's criminal history.

DUI Arrest
Trudeau was arrested for his second DUI in Indiana in July 2015 along with allegations of intimidating a police officer after testing 0.31 on a breath test and threatening to kill an Indiana officer. He was arrested previously in 1990.

References

1962 births
Living people
People from Forest Lake, Minnesota
Sportspeople from Washington County, Minnesota
People from Livermore, California
Players of American football from Alameda County, California
American football quarterbacks
Illinois Fighting Illini football players
Indianapolis Colts players
New York Jets players
Carolina Panthers players
Granada High School (California) alumni

Jack Trudeau


The rectus abdominis muscle is a muscle in the human body. It is commonly referred to as "Abs". It is a paired muscle that runs vertically from the lower chest to the pubic region people usually try to put stress to make it look as if they have huge abs and they help us run.

Muscles

Rectus abdominis muscle


Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (18 February 1745 – 5 March 1827) was a Lombard physicist known especially for the development of the first electrical cell in 1800. He was born in Como in Lombardy, Italy.

Volta worked on the electrophorus that makes a static electric charge in 1775. Volta also studied what we now call capacitance, developing separate means to study both electrical potential V and charge Q, and discovering that for a given object they are proportional. This may be called Volta's Law of Capacitance, and likely for this work the unit of electrical potential has been named the volt. Around 1791 he began to study "animal electricity". In this way he discovered Volta's Law of the electrochemical series, and the law that the electromotive force (emf  ) of a galvanic cell. In 1800, he invented the voltaic pile, an early electric battery, which made a steady electric current. It is credited as the first electrochemical cell.

In honor of his work in the field of electricity, Napoleon Bonaparte made him a count in 1810. A museum in Como, the Voltian Temple, has been built in his honor and exhibits some of the original equipment he used to conduct experiments. In 1881, an important electrical unit, the volt(V), was named in his honor. There have also been innovations and discoveries named after Alessandro Volta including the Chevy Volt, and the Volta Crater on the Moon.

Volta married the daughter of Count Ludovico Peregrini, Teresa.  They raised three sons. In 1779 he became professor of experimental physics at the University of Pavia.  He had the job for almost 25 years. Volta is buried in the city of Como. At the Tempio Voltiano near Lake Como there is a museum about him and his work.

1745 births
1827 deaths
Italian physicists
People from Como

Alessandro Volta


A peer is a member of the nobility.  It is sometimes used instead of 'Lord'. In formal or old British documents, the House of Lords is called the House of Peers.

Ranks

In the United Kingdom there are five ranks of the peerage:

 Baron is the lowest. In Scotland this is called a Lord, short for Lord in Parliament.
 Viscount
 Earl - this is an old Saxon word. In Continental Europe this rank is called 'count', the lord in charge of a county. An earl's wife is called a countess
 Marquess - A special rank higher than an earl because a marquess's land was in the Marches, the border areas that must be defended. A marquess's wife is called a marchioness.  There were not many marquesses in Scotland, and they usually spelled the title 'marquis' like the French
 Duke - the highest rank.

Informally Barons, Viscounts, Earls and Marquesses are called lords, and instead of their name when speaking to them, the term 'my lord' is used. A Duke is never called a lord. 'Your grace' is used for a Duke.

Since 2004 a list of peers has been kept by the Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice. This list, called the Roll of Peerage had to be kept to prove who was a peer.  The list of members of the House of Lords used to be the same until the hereditary peers were excluded. Official documents can only call someone a peer if their name is on the Peerage Roll.

Precedence
Sorting out which peer should precede (come in front of) in a procession or other event depends on three different things:
The rank.  All dukes come before all marquesses, then earls, then viscounts and finally barons.
Country the peerage was created in.  All Dukes first created by the King of England come before those created by the King of Scotland.  After this come Dukes of Great Britain whose titles were created between 1707 and 1801 (during the existence of the United Kingdom of Great Britain). In 1801, the kingdom of Ireland joined with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, so Dukes of Ireland come next, followed by Dukes of the United Kingdom. The other types of peer follow in the same order.
England
Scotland
Great Britain
Ireland
United Kingdom
Finally the order is decided on the year the title was created.

Exceptions

The only exceptions are the royal dukes, and the Duke of Abercorn.
The dukes of Gloucester, Kent, Edinburgh, York, Cambridge, and Sussex are the most junior dukes, but because they are princes they rank ahead of all other dukes.  In 1952 the Queen ordered that her husband, the Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, would be second only to her. The Duke of Edinburgh is now Elizabeth II's son, Prince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh.
The Duke of Abercorn.  When the Irish Marquess of Abercorn was "promoted" in 1868 the duke was listed as a duke of the kingdom of Ireland, but was given precedence as if it was a peerage in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Irish peers cannot attend the House of Lords.

References

British nobility
Peerages

Peerage


Niccolò Tommaseo (; 9 October 1802 – 1 May 1874) was a Dalmatian Italian linguist, journalist and essayist, the editor of a  (A Dictionary of the Italian Language) in eight volumes (1861–74), of a dictionary of synonyms (1830) and other works. He is considered a precursor of the Italian irredentism.

Biography
Born at Sebenico (Šibenik), which was in quick succession under Venetian, Napoleonic and Habsburg domain, Tommaseo was culturally and ethnically Italian, but expressed also a genuine interest in the Illyrian popular culture. His education, pursued at Spalato (Split), was a humanistic one with a sound Catholic basis.

He moved to Italy to graduate in law at the University of Padua in 1822. He then spent several years as a journalist roving between Padua and Milan, where he came in contact with Alessandro Manzoni and Antonio Rosmini-Serbati. In this period of life, he began his collaboration in the Antologia of Giovan Pietro Vieusseux, founder of the Gabinetto Vieusseux, the reading room and intellectual centre in Florence. He also corresponded with Petar II Petrović Njegoš of Montenegro and Medo Pucić. Nikola Tomazeo (Niccolò Tommaseo) is regarded as part of both the Italian and Serbian literary corpus according to critic Jovan Skerlić who included him in his Istorja nove srpske književnosti (1914).

Having moved to Florence in the autumn of 1827, he became a friend of Gino Capponi and soon became one of the important voices in the Antologia. In 1830 appeared the Nuovo Dizionario de' Sinonimi della lingua italiana which confirmed his public reputation. Following the protests of the Austrian government against an article defending the Greek revolution that resulted in the closure of the journal in which he was publishing, he sought voluntary exile in Paris.

During his years in Paris he published the political work Dell'Italia (1835), the volume of verses, Confessioni (1836), the historical fiction Il Duca di Atene (1837), a commentary on the Divine Comedy (1837), and his Memorie Poetiche (1838).

From Paris, he moved to Corsica, where with the support and collaboration of the magistrate and essayist of Bastia, Salvatore Viale, he worked to compile the copious Italian oral traditions of the island, where he claimed to find the purest Italian dialect in the book Canti populari: Canti Corsi.

In Venice he published the first two installments of his novel Fede e Bellezza, praised today as an early example of the psychological novel. His anthology of popular songs, Canti popolari italiani, corsi, illirici, greci (1841) and the Scintille/Iskrice (1842) are rare examples of a metropolitan culture above nationalism.

In 1847 he returned to the journalistic forum, and as an outspoken defender of liberalizing laws for a wholly free press was arrested, causing a scandal: he was freed during the liberal revolution headed by Daniele Manin and assumed responsibilities in the briefly renewed Venetian Republic, which cost him an exile (because accused of Italian irredentist) in Corfù when Habsburg control was reasserted over Lombardy-Venetia. In Corfù, with his eyesight failing, he nevertheless managed to write numerous essays, among which, in Rome et le monde (written in French), he declared, as a good Catholic, the necessity of the Church's relinquishing temporal power in the Papal States. In this time he abandoned his hopes for the "moderate" road to the Unification of Italy through the House of Savoy.

In 1854, with his sight ever more compromised, he moved to Turin (1854), then once again to Florence (1859), where he took a villa at Settignano. His opposition to the House of Savoy made him refuse all honours, including a seat in the Senate. In his final years he devoted himself to the weighty dictionary of the Italian language, in seven volumes, which was completed in 1874, after his death.

Main works
 Nuovo Dizionario de' Sinonimi della lingua italiana (1830)
 Canti popolari italiani, corsi, illirici, greci (1841)
 Le lettere di Santa Caterina di Siena (1860, 4 Bde.)
 Il secondo esilio (1862, 3 Bde.), eine Sammlung seiner politischen Schriften
 Sulla pena di morte (1865)
 Nuovi studj su Dante (1865)
 Dizionario di sinonimi della lingua italiana (7. Aufl. 1887, 2 Bde.)
 Leben Rosminis
 Dizionario estetico (neue Aufl. 1872)
 Pensiero Morali

Bibliography
 Bernardi Vita e scritti di Niccolò Tommaseo Torino, 1874
 K. Hillebrand in der Allgemeinen Zeitung (Mai 1874)

References

External links

 Memorie poetiche (ed. 1964)
 La questione dalmatica riguardata ne'suoi nuovi aspetti: osservazioni 1861 Niccolò Tommaseo
 Il secondo esilio, scritti concernenti le cose d'Italia e d'Europa dal 1849 ... Niccolò Tommaseo
  Nuovi studi su Dante Niccolò Tommaseo
 Vita di S. Giuseppe Calasanzio, fondatore delle Scuole Pie scritta da - Niccolò Tommaseo
 Canti popolari: Corsi illirici Niccolò Tommaseo
 Nuovo dizionario de' sinonimi della lingua italiana Niccolò Tommaseo
 Scritti di Gasparo Gozzi: con giunta d'inediti e rari, scelti, Vol: 2-3 Gasparo Gozzi (conte),Niccolò Tommaseo
 Della pena di morte Niccolò Tommaseo
 Il serio nel faceto: scitti varii Niccolò Tommaseo
 Dizionario estetico Niccolò Tommaseo

1802 births
1874 deaths
Dalmatian Italians
Italian irredentism
Italian journalists
Italian male journalists
Linguists from Italy
People from Šibenik
People from the Kingdom of Dalmatia
19th-century journalists
19th-century Italian male writers
Italian exiles

Niccolò Tommaseo


An alternator is a generator which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current. There is one in every car, with the exception of older cars that use a DC generator.

Most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature. The armature reacts to the rotating field and carries the current caused by the rotation.

In principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator, but usually the term refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines.

An alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic field is called a magneto. Alternators in power stations driven by steam turbines are called turbo-alternators.

History
Alternating current generating systems were known from the discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current. The early machines were developed by pioneers such as Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii.

Electricity
Machines

Alternator


Magik was a four-issue comic book limited series published by Marvel Comics in 1983–1984, starring the fictional characters Magik and Storm. The series title is consistently displayed on the covers as Storm and Illyana: Magik, but the official title as listed in the indicia is the reverse: Magik: Illyana and Storm. It was written by Chris Claremont and illustrated by John Buscema, Ron Frenz, Sal Buscema,  and Tom Palmer.

Publication
Because of the popularity of the Uncanny X-Men during the 1980s under Chris Claremont, a number of mutant related properties were created, most notably The New Mutants from which this series spun off.

Continuity
The main plot takes place in mere seconds of canonical Marvel time, but covers seven years of Illyana's life in Limbo. The events occur between panels of The Uncanny X-Men #160 (Aug. 1982), with a very brief cameo in The New Mutants #14 (April 1984). In The Uncanny X-Men #160 Illyana is kidnapped by Belasco at age 6 and returns in the same issue at age 13.

Plot
Magik tells the story of Illyana Rasputin from a six-year-old child to a thirteen-year-old mutant/sorceress. The narrative is framed by Illyana reflecting on these events on her fourteenth birthday.

Belasco, demon lord of Limbo, wants to use Illyana to help the Elder Gods destroy Earth. To do this he has to place five bloodstones in a pentagram locket he has given to Illyana. When he first captures her at age six, he takes part of her soul and remakes it in his image, creating a bloodstone which he places in the locket. An elderly sorceress version of Storm (a former apprentice of Belasco) and an elderly, part beast version of Kitty Pryde (codenamed Cat) rescue Illyana. Storm transports them to her garden sanctuary in Limbo. Unable to remove Belasco's corruption from Illyana, Storm decides to help her combat it by taking her on as an apprentice. She spends a year showing Illyana how to separate her astral body from her physical form, while showing her a massive oak that grew from an acorn she created. Disapproving of Illyana being trained in sorcery, Cat kidnaps her.

Cat takes Illyana to a replica of the Savage Land in Limbo, where she trains her physically and teaches her to sword fight. They then storm Belasco's tower. It is protected by a corrupted version of Nightcrawler, whom Cat kills. Cat then attempts to use her phasing power to take her and Illyana to Earth, but Belasco intercepts them. Belasco turns Cat into a feline demon and gives Illyana a knife. Illyana cuts herself, and the blood forms the second bloodstone in the locket.

Illyana spends three years learning magic from Belasco, while secretly reading every book in his library, plotting his downfall. Alone in her room, she attempts to imitate the creation powers Storm showed her by forming an acorn from a part of herself, only to find the acorn is black and rotten. Hearing Belasco's voice outside her room, she panics, and her mutant power to create teleportational light discs manifests itself. Illyana uses a disc to enter Belasco's library, hoping to steal his grimoire, but Storm intervenes, accidentally sending her into another disc. She finds herself in the past, witnessing Storm "killing" Belasco, who claims to be immune to death while in Limbo; it is this act which binds Storm to Belasco. She teleports back to the present to find Storm battling Belasco. Cat fatally wounds Storm, then attacks Illyana. She kills Cat in self-defense. Belasco orders her to sacrifice Storm's soul to the Elder Gods. Instead, she kills Storm to save her soul and teleports to Storm's garden, where she buries her. Enraged by her defiance, Belasco captures Illyana, extracts another bloodstone from her essence, and casts her out into a wintery wilderness as punishment.

Illyana finds Storm's massive oak and spends years trying to use it to help create a living acorn from her essence, only to produce still more rotten acorns. When the oak finally crumbles to dust from her efforts, Illyana realizes that she was only trying to create life as a means to an end: destroying Belasco. She tries instead to manifest her desire directly, using the last of her power to create a "Soulsword". The enchantment that held her in Storm's garden is banished in the process and she takes a stepping disc to confront Belasco. While fighting Belasco she realizes she is replaying the same scene by which Storm was corrupted, so she spares his life and he escapes. She then uses a light circle to return to Earth, rejoining the X-Men seconds after she had left them.

Collection
 After being out-of-print for a few decades, the series was collected as a hardcover graphic novel titled X-Men - Magik: Storm & Illyana and released in Dec. 2008.

See also
The New Mutants

References

External links
Chronological timeline for Illyana Rasputin (Magik) at cuug.ab.ca
Magik at comicsresearch.com

1983 comics debuts
1984 comics endings
Comics by Chris Claremont
Marvel Comics limited series

Magik (comics)


甩嘴係指套戲嘅聲畫面唔同步,唔夾。即係喺畫面入便嘅角色個嘴喐咗都未聽到佢把聲,又或者係聽到個角色講嘢把聲都未見佢個嘴喐。

其他
甩嘴可以係話唱歌嗰時唔記得歌詞。
話啲BB食人奶嗰時咬唔實個乳頭。

Sync 唔啱
Sync 唔啱有幾樣:
During creation AV-sync errors happens because of
Internal AV-sync error: Different processing delays between image and sound in video camera and microphone. The AV-sync delay is normally fixed.
External AV-sync error: If a microphone is placed far away from the sound source, the audio will be out of sync because the speed of sound is much lower than the speed of light. If the sound source is 340 meters from the microphone, then the sound arrives approximately 1 second later than the light. The AV-sync delay increases with distance.
During mixing of video clips normally either the audio or video needs to be delayed so they are synchronized. The AV-sync delay is static, but can vary with the individual clip.
剪片效果。
聲片同底片對錯位:35mm 菲林

Examples of transmission (broadcasting), reception and playback that can get the AV-sync incorrectly synchronized:
A video camera with built-in microphones or line-in may not delay sound and video paths by the same number of milliseconds. A video camera should have some sort of explicit AV-sync timing put into the video and audio streams. Solid state video cameras (e.g. CCD and CMOS image sensors) can delay the video signal by one or more frames.
An AV-stream may get corrupted during transmission because of electrical glitches (wired) or wireless interruptions - this may cause it to become out of sync. The AV-sync delay normally increases with time.
There is extensive use of audio and video signal processing circuitry with significant delays in television systems. Particular video signal processing circuitry which is widely used and contributes significant video delays include frame synchronizers, digital video effects processors, video noise reduction, format converters and MPEG pre-preprocessing.
The video monitor processing circuit may delay the video stream. Pixelated displays require video format conversion and deinterlace processing which can add one or more frames of video delay.
A video monitor with built-in speakers or line-out may not delay sound and video paths by the same amount of milliseconds. Some video monitors contain internal user-adjustable audio delays to aid in correction of errors.

睇埋
配音
咪嘴

攷

拎

 Further detailed information on lip sync error and audio synchronizer may be found by searching for these terms at the United States Patent and Trademark Office web site at .

電影

甩嘴


The Yukon River is a river in northwestern North America. It starts in British Columbia, continues through the Yukon Territory, and ends in Alaska. It empties into the Bering Sea. It is the longest river in Alaska and the Yukon. It was one of the main ways that people travelled during the 1896–1903 Klondike Gold Rush.

Yukon
Rivers of Canada
Rivers of Alaska
Geography of British Columbia

Yukon River


電算同語言學入面,解析(,又叫  )係指分析一串語言資訊,決定佢喺某種()中嘅語法結構()嘅過程。

喺電算,上面講嘅語言資訊並唔係源碼,而係一種叫 (臺譯 「符記」)嘅數據, 係已經用掃描器(,又叫 )將原碼掃咗一次,而得出嘅識別碼、保留字、字串、數字或者其他符號,而解析就係指將 token 重新組合成一種對應原內容語法結構嘅數據結構,方便以後處理,用嘅數據結構通常會係一棵樹,叫解析樹(),而做呢樣嘢嘅嘢就叫解析器()。

Parsing is also an earlier term for the diagramming of sentences of natural languages, and is still used for the diagramming of inflected languages, such as the Roman languages or Latin.

There are tools, called parser generators, that can automatically generate a parser (in some programming language) from a grammar written in Backus-Naur form (e.g. Yacc - yet another compiler compiler).

人話

In some machine translation and natural language processing systems, human languages are parsed by computer programs. Human sentences are not easily parsed by programs, as there is substantial ambiguity in the structure of human language. In order to parse natural language data, researchers must first agree on the grammar to be used. The choice of syntax is affected by both linguistic and computational concerns; for instance some parsing systems use lexical functional grammar, but in general, parsing for grammars of this type is known to be NP-complete. Head-driven phrase structure grammar is another linguistic formalism which has been popular in the parsing community, but other research efforts have focused on less complex formalisms such as the one used in the Penn Treebank. Shallow parsing aims to find only the boundaries of major constituents such as noun phrases. Another popular strategy for avoiding linguistic controversy is dependency grammar parsing.

Most modern parsers are at least partly statistical; that is, they rely on a corpus of training data which has already been annotated (parsed by hand). This approach allows the system to gather information about the frequency with which various constructions occur in specific contexts. (See machine learning.) Approaches which have been used include straightforward PCFGs (probabilistic context free grammars), maximum entropy, and neural nets. Most of the more successful systems use lexical statistics (that is, they consider the identities of the words involved, as well as their part of speech). However such systems are vulnerable to overfitting and require some kind of smoothing to be effective.

Parsing algorithms for natural language cannot rely on the grammar having 'nice' properties as with manually-designed grammars for programming languages. As mentioned earlier some grammar formalisms are very computationally difficult to parse; in general, even if the desired structure is not context-free, some kind of context-free approximation to the grammar is used to perform a first pass. Algorithms which use context-free grammars often rely on some variant of the CKY algorithm, usually with some heuristic to prune away unlikely analyses to save time. (See chart parsing.) However some systems trade speed for accuracy using, eg, linear-time versions of the shift-reduce algorithm. A somewhat recent development has been parse reranking in which the parser proposes some large number of analyses, and a more complex system selects the best option.

程式語言

The most common use of a parser is as a component of a compiler. This parses the source code of a computer programming language to create some form of internal representation. Programming languages tend to be specified in terms of a context-free grammar because fast and efficient parsers can be written for them. Parsers are usually not written by hand but are generated by parser generators.

Context-free grammars are limited in the extent to which they can express all of the requirements of a language. Informally, the reason is that the memory of such a language is limited. The grammar cannot remember the presence of a construct over an arbitrarily long input; this is necessary for a language in which, for example, a name must be declared before it may be referenced. More powerful grammars that can express this constraint, however, cannot be parsed efficiently. Thus, it is a common strategy to create a relaxed parser for a context-free grammar which accepts a superset of the desired language constructs (that is, it accepts some invalid constructs); later, the unwanted constructs can be filtered out.

Overview of process
The following example demonstrates the common case of parsing a computer language with two levels of grammar: lexical and syntactic.

The first stage is the token generation, or lexical analysis, by which the input character stream is split into meaningful symbols defined by a grammar of regular expressions. For example, a calculator program would look at an input such as "12*(3+4)^2" and split it into the tokens 12, *, (, 3, +, 4, ), ^ and 2, each of which is a meaningful symbol in the context of an arithmetic expression. The parser would contain rules to tell it that the characters *, +, ^, ( and ) mark the start of a new token, so meaningless tokens like "12*" or "(3" will not be generated.

The next stage is syntactic parsing or syntactic analysis, which is checking that the tokens form an allowable expression. This is usually done with reference to a context-free grammar which recursively defines components that can make up an expression and the order in which they must appear. However, not all rules defining programming languages can be expressed by context-free grammars alone, for example type validity and proper declaration of identifiers. These rules can be formally expressed with attribute grammars.

The final phase is semantic parsing or analysis, which is working out the implications of the expression just validated and taking the appropriate action. In the case of a calculator, the action is to evaluate the expression; a compiler, on the other hand, would generate code. Attribute grammars can also be used to define these actions.

解析器嘅款

The task of the parser is essentially to determine if and how the input can be derived from the start symbol of the grammar. This can be done in essentially two ways:
Top-down parsing - A parser can start with the start symbol and try to transform it to the input. Intuitively, the parser starts from the largest elements and breaks them down into incrementally smaller parts. LL parsers are examples of top-down parsers.
Bottom-up parsing - A parser can start with the input and attempt to rewrite it to the start symbol. Intuitively, the parser attempts to locate the most basic elements, then the elements containing these, and so on. LR parsers are examples of bottom-up parsers. Another term used for this type of parser is Shift-Reduce parsing.

Another important distinction is whether the parser generates a leftmost derivation or a rightmost derivation (see context-free grammar). LL parsers will generate a leftmost derivation and LR parsers will generate a rightmost derivation (although usually in reverse).

解析器嘅例

Top-down parsers
Some of the parsers that use top-down parsing include:
 Recursive descent parser
 LL parser

Bottom-up parsers
Some of the parsers that use bottom-up parsing include:
 Precedence parser
 Operator-precedence parser
 Simple precedence parser
 BC (bounded context) parsing
 LR parser
 SLR parser
 LALR parser (Shift Reduce)
 Canonical LR parser
 GLR parser
 CYK parser

參攷
Parsing Techniques - A Practical Guide web page of book includes downloadable pdf.

再睇下

解析器嘅概念
 Chart parser
 Compiler-compiler
 Deterministic parsing
 Lexing
 Shallow parsing

整解析器嘅軟件
See also: List of Parsers comparison table.

自由軟件
 ANTLR
 Bison
 Coco/R
 GOLD
 JavaCC
 Lemon Parser
 Lex
 Rebol
 SableCC
 Spirit Parser Framework
 SYNTAX
 YACC

維基媒體

商
 LRGen
 Visual BNF

註

電算

解析


Marvin W. Meyer (April 16, 1948 – August 16, 2012) was a scholar of religion and a tenured professor at Chapman University, in Orange, California.

He was the Griset Professor of Bible and Christian Studies at Chapman University and Director of the Albert Schweitzer Institute. He was also Director of the Coptic Magical Texts Project of the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity. Dr. Meyer authored numerous books and articles on Greco-Roman and Christian religions in antiquity and late antiquity, and on Albert Schweitzer's ethic of reverence for life. He had been interviewed on television programs that aired on ABC, BBC, CNN, PBS, A&E, the Discovery Channel, the History Channel, and the National Geographic Channel.

Professor Meyer was best known for his translations of the texts of documents associated with the ancient mystery religions, early Christian magic, and Gnostic texts, of which the most notable have been the Gospel of Thomas and the Gospel of Judas, the former of which is included among the Nag Hammadi library. Meyer edited a collection of English translations of the Nag Hammadi texts for the HarperOne imprint, the most recently revised edition of which has been released as the Nag Hammadi Scriptures in 2007, including help from James M. Robinson who has edited an earlier publication of the library. He was regarded as an authority on Gnosticism and had worked on many books on the subject.

Meyer died of melanoma on August 16, 2012.

References

1948 births
2012 deaths
20th-century American translators
American religion academics
Chapman University faculty
Deaths from melanoma
Historians of Gnosticism
People from Grand Rapids, Michigan

Members of the Jesus Seminar

Marvin Meyer


Rana is a genus of frogs. There are over 90 species of these frogs. These include the pond frogs such as the common frog which lives in Europe. The brown frog, leopard frog, and the American bullfrog are also included. Members of Rana can be found in Eurasia, North American, Africa, Central America, and the northern parts of South America.

Species of Rana are very large in length. They have slim waists and wrinkled skin. Most of Rana frogs do not have warts like many toads. Rana frogs are great jumpers because of their long slender legs. All of the Rana frogs, including most frogs, have webbed feet. This allows them to swim in water. Rana frogs are mostly green and have brown on the top. They have darker and yellowish spots on their bodies.

Books
 Dubois, A. & Ohler, A. (1995) Frogs of the subgenus Pelophylax (Amphibia, Anura, genus Rana): a catalogue of available and valid scientific names, with comments on the name-bearing types, complete synonymies. proposed common names, and maps showing all type localities. In: : II International Symposium on Ecology and Genetics of European water frogs, 18-25 September 1994, Wroclaw, Poland. Zoologica Poloniae 39(3-4): 139-204
 Frost, Darrel R. (2006): Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 4, 2006-AUG-17.
 Hillis, D. M. & Wilcox, T. P. (2005): Phylogeny of the New World true frogs (Rana). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 34(2): 299–314.  PDF fulltext
 Matsui, Masafumi (2007): Unmasking Rana okinavana Boettger, 1895 from the Ryukyus, Japan (Amphibia: Anura: Ranidae). Zool. Sci. 24: 199–204.  (HTML abstract)
 Pauly, Greg B., Hillis, David M. & Cannatella, David C. (2009): Taxonomic freedom and the role of official lists of species names. Herpetologica 65: 115-128.  PDF fulltext
 Stuart, Bryan L. (2008): The phylogenetic problem of Huia (Amphibia: Ranidae). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 46(1): 49-60.  (HTMl abstract)

Other websites

AmphibiaWeb
Amphibian and Reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia

Frogs of South America
Frogs of Europe
Frogs of Asia
Frogs of North America

Rana (genus)


A grave field is a prehistoric cemetery, typically of Bronze Age and Iron Age Europe.

Grave fields are distinguished from necropoleis by the former's lack of remaining above-ground structures, buildings, or grave markers.

Types
Grave fields can be classified by type of burial custom:
tumulus (kurgan) fields
flat graves
row graves: grave fields arranged in rows
ossuaries
shaft tombs
urnfields

Celtic grave fields
Hallstatt culture
Kinding-Ilbling, Eichstätt district, Germany
La Tène culture
Münsingen-Rain, Berne, Switzerland

Northern Europe

Scandinavia
Nordic Bronze Age
 Jordbro Grave Field, Jordbro, Sweden
Sammallahdenmäki, Finland
Ekornavallen, Falköping Municipality, Sweden
Gettlinge, Öland, Sweden
Itzehoe tumulus, Germany
Vendel period
Vendel, Uppland, Sweden
Greby, Bohuslän, Sweden
Smålandsstenar, Gislaved Municipality, Sweden
Trullhalsar, Gotland, Sweden
Blomsholm, Bohuslän, Sweden
Högom, Medelpad, Sweden
Vätteryd, Skåne County, Sweden
Hjortahammar, Blekinge, Sweden
Li, Halland, Sweden
Valsgärde, Uppsala County, Sweden
Viking Age
Järvsta, Gävle, Sweden

Northern European Lowlands
Jastorf culture
Mühlen Eichsen, Schwerin, Germany

Alemannic grave fields

Alemannic grave fields date to the 5th to 8th century. Before the middle of the 5th century, grave fields are small, often including less than five graves, probably corresponding to a single homestead or family. The sparsity of graves in the early period may suggest partial cremation. In the mid- to late 5th century, burial customs appear to change, with the introduction of larger row-grave fields.

Grave fields are often arranged on elevated ground outside settlements. The arrangement of graves is often east to west — the head of the body placed on the western end, looking east.

Until the beginning of the 6th century, these row graves are accompanied by more prestigious single graves including precious grave goods. Quast (1997) assumes that the 5th-century change in burial practice was due to a renewed influx of Elbe Germanic settlers (Danube Swabians displaced by Gothic migration).

Male graves often include weapons — in the mid-5th century typically a Francisca axe, besides spathas and seaxes. Female graves often include jewellery, such as bracelets, ear-rings and fibulae.

Large Alemannic row grave fields have been excavated at Lauchheim, Gammertingen, Weingarten, Ravensburg, all in Swabia, the one in Ravensburg including over 1,000 graves dating to between 450 and 710. The field in Sasbach includes over 2,000 graves. Mengen has over 1,000 graves.

Alemannic graves appear south of the Rhine, in the Swiss Plateau, from the 6th century. Alemannic colonization of the Swiss plateau apparently took place from the Basel area, since the number of graves there declines simultaneously. Significant influx of Alemannic settlers to the Swiss plateau begins only in the 7th century. Grave fields from this period include one at Elgg-Ettenbühl near Winterthur; with 340 graves it is the largest field south of the High Rhine.

Christianization of the Alemanni during the 7th century brings about the end of the grave field traditions. The dead from this period were buried in graveyards near churches. Prestigious graves of local nobility appear to have resisted the Christianization of burial customs into the 8th century, possibly until the 786 decree of Charlemagne outlawing pagan burial.

See also
Burial mound
Chariot burial
Megalithic tomb
Ship burial
Viking funeral

References

Die Alamannen. ed. Archäologisches Landesmuseum Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart 1997.
Dieter Quast: Vom Einzelgrab zum Friedhof. Beginn der Reihengräbersitte im 5. Jahrhundert.
Ingo Stork: Als Persönlichkeit ins Jenseits. Bestattungssitte und Grabraub als Kontrast.
Michael Hoeper: Alamannische Besiedlungsgeschichte im Breisgau, Reihengräberfelder und Gemarkungsgrenzen. In: Römer und Alamannen im Breisgau. Studien zur Besiedlungsgeschichte in Spätantike und frühem Mittelalter. Sigmaringen 1994. (In dr Reihe Archäologie und Geschichte. Freiburger Forschungen zum ersten Jahrtausend in Südwestdeutschland. Rüsgä vum Hans Ulrich Nuber, Karl Schmid, Heiko Steuer un em Thomas Zotz.)

Cemeteries
Archaeology in Europe
Archaeology of death
Bronze Age Europe
Iron Age Europe

Grave field


Bayswater is an aurie o Central Lunnon in the Ceety o Wastmeenster . It is a biggit-up destrict locatit 3 mile (4.8 km) wast-north-wast o Charing Cross, borderin the north o Hyde Park  an haein a population densitie o 17,500 per square kilometre.

Bayswater is ane o Lunnon's maist cosmopolitan auries, wharein a diverse local population is augmentit bi a heich concentration o hotels. In addition tae the native Inglis, thare is a significant Arab population towards Edgware Road, a lairge Greek commonty attractit bi Lunnon's Greek Orthodox Cathedral, mony Americans an Lunnon's main Brazilian commonty.

The aurie haes attractive streets an gairden squares lined wi Victorian stucco terraces, maistly nou subdividit intae flats an buirdin hooses.  The property ranges from very expensive apairtments tae sma studio flats. Thare are purpose-biggit apairtment blocks datin frae the inter-war period as well as mair recent developments an aw, an a lairge council estate, the 650-flat Hallfield Estate, designed bi Sir Denys Lasdun an nou lairgely sauld aff.

Queensway an Westbourne Grove are its busiest main streets, baith haeing mony ethnic-cuisine restaurants.

History

The laund nou cried Bayswater belongit tae the Abbey o Wastmeenster when the Domesday Book wis compiled; the maist considerable tenant unner the abbot wis Bainiardus, probably the same Norman associate o the Conqueror who gae his name tae Baynard's Castle. The strynd o the laund held bi him canna be clearly tracit: but his name lang remained attached tae pairt o it; an, as late as the year 1653, a parliamentary grant o the Abbey or Chapter launds describes "the common field at Paddington" as being "near a place commonly cried Baynard's Watering." In 1720, the launds o the Dean an Chapter are describit tae be the occupation o Alexander Bond, o Bear's Watering, in the same parish o Paddington. It mey tharefore fairly be concludit that this portion o grund, aaways remarkable for its springs o excellent watter, ance supplee'd watter tae Baynard, his hoosehauld, or his cattle; that the memory o his name wis preservit in the neebourheid for sax centuries; an that his wattering-place nou taks the abbreviatit name Bayswater.

Notable residents
Damon Albarn
James Dundas
Brett Anderson
Mike Atherton
J. M. Barrie, playwricht an novelist, author o Peter Pan, an his wife Mary née Ansell, at 100 Bayswater Road
Tony Blair
Winston Churchill
A. J. Cronin
Ade Edmondson
Roger C. Field, inventor an designer whose first hame wis flat D, 15 Cleveland Square
Alexander Fleming
Mariella Frostrup
Ferdinand de Géramb
Reginald Gray (Erse Airtist) lived wi his wife Catherine at 105a Queensway from 1958 to 1963.Efter thair divorce in 1975 Catherine mairit jazzman Chris Barber.
J. B. Gunn, physicist, livit wi his mither, the Freudian psychoanalyst L. F. Gunn / Grey-Clarke, at 14 Dunbar Terrace, in the 1940s
Alice Hart-Davis
Dylan Jones
Jonathan King
Keira Knightley
Guglielmo Marconi (the pioneer o wireless communication) livit at 71 Hereford Road atween 1896 an 1897 wi his mither upon arrival in Ingland (markit bi a Blue Plaque)
Rik Mayall
Stella McCartney
Dermot O'Leary
Irfan Orga (exile, writer) livit at 29, 35 an 21 Inverness Terrace frae 1942 till the mid fifties, publishin his memoirs Portrait of a Turkish Family in 1950.
Jennifer Saunders
Paul Simonon
Sting occupied a basement flat at 28A Leinster Square in the late seiventies durin the formative years o The Police. Trudie Styler, nou his wife, livit in a basement flat twa doors doun.

Various persons of internaitional renown are frequently reportit as buying property in the aurie, includin Claudia Schiffer.

Local politics

The aurie elects sax cooncillors tae Wastmeenster Ceety Cooncil, currently aw Conservative. Three are electit frae the wairds o Bayswater, whare the Conservatives hae a majority in excess o 250 votes ower the Leeberal Democrats.  Three are electit frae Lancaster Gate an aw, which is a safe Conservative waird, representit bi leader o the Cooncil Simon Milton.

Education

Nearest places
 Paddington
 Notting Hill
 St John's Wood
 Knightsbridge
 Maida Vale
 Little Venice
 Kilburn

Nearest tube stations
The nearest London Underground stations are Bayswater, Queensway, Royal Oak an Lancaster Gate.

Places o interest
Whiteleys Shopping Centre
Marble Arch
Hyde Park
St Sophia's Cathedral
Opus Dei UK heidquairters

Hotels in Bayswater

umi Hotel London
Hempel Hotel
Queens Park Hotel

References in fiction
In John le Carré's The Spy who Came in from the Cold, Liz is a member o the Bayswater South Branch o the Communist Party.
In le Carré's Smiley's People, the retired Roushie major lives in a dingy flat on Westbourne Grove.
Mony o the chairacters in Samuel Selvon's novel The Lonely Londoners live in Bayswater.
The Alfred Hitchcock film Frenzy wis filmed in the aurie.
In Martin Amis's Success, the twa main chairacters live thegither in a flat in Bayswater, which he calls 'the destrict of transients.'
In Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest, Lady Bracknell indicates that the perambulator (carrying Jack, as a baby) wis foond "standing by itself in a remote corner of Bayswater".
In Saki's short story "Cross Currents" (1909), Vanessa Pennington lives on a "Bayswater back street" but wad hae preferred "smarter surroundings."
In Evelyn Waugh's novel Brideshead Revisited, Charles Ryder's faither lives in Bayswater.
Whiteleys is frequently seen in film, e.g. Love Actually, Closer, and wis referred to in My Fair Lady as Eliza Dolittle is sent "to Whiteleys to be attired" in Pygmalion. It an aa haes recording studios on the tap floor.
Scenes in Alfie (1966) war filmed aroond Chepstow Road.
The main chairacter in Iris Murdoch's novel A Word Child, Hilary Burde, haes a "flatlet" near Bayswater Tube Station.
Scenes in The Black Windmill refer to, an war filmed aroond, the aurie.
In the Italian comics series Dylan Dog  the main chairacter lives in Craven Road.
Nick Jenkins meets Uncle Giles for tea at the Ufford Hotel, "riding at anchor on the sluggish Bayswater tide", in The Acceptance World (1955), Volume three of A Dance to the Music of Time bi Anthony Powell.
The Poisonous Seed a novel bi Linda Stratmann is set awmaist entirely in Victorian Bayswater.
In Lauren Willig;s Pink Carnation Series, her chairacter Eloise Kelly lives in Bayswater while writing her doctoral thesis.

See an aw
In reference tae the Bayswater river, refer tae River Westbourne
Aeroford - automobile manufactured in Bayswater
Leinster Gardens - a false façade on this street hides a London Underground line from view
Craven Hill Gardens

References

Destricts o the Ceety o Wastmeenster
Auries o Lunnon

Bayswater


The Lorentz transformations is a set of equations that describe a linear transformation between a stationary reference frame and a reference frame in constant velocity. The equations are given by:

 ,
 ,
 ,

where represents the new x co-ordinate,  represents the velocity of the other reference frame,  representing time, and  the speed of light.

On a Cartesian coordinate system, with the vertical axis being time (t), the horizontal axis being position in space along one axis (x), the gradients represent velocity (shallower gradient resulting in a greater velocity). If the speed of light is set as a 45° or 1:1 gradient, Lorentz transformations can rotate and squeeze other gradients while keeping certain gradients, like a 1:1 gradient constant. Points undergoing a Lorentz transformations on such a plane will be transformed along lines corresponding to  where n is some number

Equations of physics
Relativity
Functions and mappings
Time

Lorentz transformation