The Americans with Disabilities Act (the ADA) is a law that was passed by the United States Congress in 1990.  President George H. W. Bush signed the ADA, making it an official United States law, on July 26, 1990.  Later, President George W. Bush amended (changed) the ADA and signed those changes into law.  The changes started on January 1, 2009.

The ADA is a detailed civil rights law whose goal is to protect people with disabilities from discrimination.  Before the ADA, people with disabilities did not have many legal protections.  In 1964, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed.  This law made it illegal to discriminate against people because of their race, religion, gender, national origin (home country), and many other things.  But people with disabilities were not included or protected under the Civil Rights Act of 1964.  The ADA gave the Civil Rights Act's protections - and some others - to people with disabilities.

Who Is Protected Under the ADA?

The ADA protects people with disabilities.  The ADA says that a disability is a physical or mental problem that makes it very difficult to do at least one "major life activity."  Major life activities are things like walking, breathing, learning, reading, communicating, seeing, hearing, thinking, and other very important tasks.

The ADA does not include a complete list of all possible disabilities, but it does give some examples.  As long as they make it very difficult to do at least one major life activity, examples of disabilities protected under the ADA include:
 Physical disabilities, like paralysis, missing arms or legs, cystic fibrosis, cerebral palsy, and muscular dystrophy
 Medical disabilities, like cancer, HIV infection, epilepsy, and diabetes
 Psychiatric disabilities, like depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
 Learning disabilities, like dyslexia
 Developmental disabilities, like Down syndrome, autism, and intellectual disabilities
 Alcohol and drug addiction

The ADA also counts some other groups of people as "people with disabilities" to protect them from discrimination:
 A person who has had a disability in the past (for example, a person who used to be a drug addict)
 Someone who has a relationship with a person with a disability (for example, someone whose wife or husband has HIV)
 When other people think a person has a disability, even if they are wrong, the person counts as a person with a disability

Who Is Not Protected Under the ADA?

The ADA lists some conditions that are not counted as disabilities.  People with these conditions are not protected by the ADA.  The goal of not including these people was to make sure the ADA's goal of protecting people with disabilities was not abused.

Conditions that do not count as disabilities under the ADA include:
 Problems with sexual behavior, like pedophilia, exhibitionism, and voyeurism
 Kleptomania
 Pyromania
 Being homosexual (gay) or bisexual
 Being pregnant

Sections of the ADA

The ADA has five sections, which are called titles.  Each title protects against a different kind of discrimination.  The titles are numbered in Roman numerals: I (one), II (two), III (three), IV (four), and V (five).

Title I: Employment

Title I of the ADA protects against discrimination in employment (work).

What Employers are Covered by the ADA?

Not every employer has to follow the ADA's rules.  Employers that are covered by the ADA, and have to follow the ADA's rules, are called "covered entities."

Employers that have to follow the ADA's rules include:
 Employers (including religious organizations) with 15 or more workers
 Employment agencies (places which help people find jobs)
 Labor organizations (unions)

What Do Employers Have to Do?

Title I says that employers who are covered by the ADA cannot discriminate against a person with a disability, as long as that person is qualified (able) to do their job.  Title I does not say that people with disabilities have to be hired for jobs that they are not qualified for.

These employers do have to give "reasonable accommodations" to workers with disabilities if needed.  An "accommodation" is a change in the way things are usually done.  It is a change that a worker needs because of a disability, to help them do their job.  If a worker with a disability needs reasonable accommodations to do their job, that does not mean they are not qualified to do their job.  As long as the worker is able to do their job with the help of accommodations, they are qualified to do the job.

Some accommodations are very simple, like letting a worker have a glass of water at their desk so they can take medicines.  Examples of other accommodations are:
 Letting a worker have special equipment that helps them do their job (like a special phone for a person who has trouble hearing)
 Changing the worker's schedule (for example, so they can go to doctor's appointments)
 Changing the way that work jobs are explained or chosen

However, the accommodation must be "reasonable."  An accommodation is not reasonable if it would be very difficult or very expensive.  If an accommodation is not reasonable, the employer does not have to give it.

What is Employment Discrimination?

Title I protects against many kinds of discrimination, including:
 Not hiring someone who can do a job, just because they have a disability
 Firing a worker who can do their job, just because they have a disability
 Not letting a worker get a better job, just because they have a disability
 Not letting a worker get the same training as workers without disabilities
 Keeping a worker with a disability separate from workers without disabilities
 Harassing a worker with a disability
 Paying a worker with a disability less than other workers without disabilities
 Not letting a worker with a disability have a reasonable accommodation to help them do their job

Usually, employers cannot ask workers or people applying for jobs whether they have a disability, or ask them to give details about their disability.

Complaints

If a person with a disability thinks their employer has discriminated against them, they can make a complaint to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).  The complaint has to be made within 180 days of when the discrimination happened.  If the EEOC thinks discrimination has happened, they will send a letter that tells the person with the disability that they have the right to sue (file a lawsuit against) their employer.  The person with the disability may then file a lawsuit in federal court.

Title II: State and Local Government Activities - and Public Transportation

Title II protects against discrimination in all activities of state and local governments.

What Do State and Local Governments Have to Do?

Government Activities
State and local governments have to give people with disabilities the same chances as people without disabilities to use all of their programs and services.  If people with disabilities need reasonable accommodations to be able to participate in these programs, the state or local government has to make them.

For example, people with disabilities must be allowed, just the same as people without disabilities, to:
 Go to public schools
 Work for state or local governments
 Have health care that is just as good as what people without disabilities have
 Use social services (programs run by the state or local government for people who need help)
 Use the courts
 Vote - in a place that meets any special needs that people with disabilities might have (for example, all voting places have to be accessible to people in wheelchairs)

State and local governments also have to:
 Make their buildings accessible to people with disabilities (for example, by building wheelchair ramps, adding elevators, and adding bathrooms that can be used by people in wheelchairs)
 Make reasonable accommodations to rules and ways of doing things, if a person with a disability needs this (for example, by letting a person with a disability have someone help them vote, if they cannot write, read, or see)
 Have ways to communicate with people who have disabilities in hearing, speaking, or seeing

Public Transportation

A special part of Title II covers public transportation.  It protects people with disabilities from being discriminated against by public transportation.  This includes city buses, subways, commuter trains, Amtrak, and all other transportation that the public can use.

Local and state governments have to:
 Make sure that any new vehicles they buy are accessible for people with disabilities
 Honestly try to buy or lease used buses that are accessible
 Remake buses to be accessible

Wherever there is a bus or train line that runs on a fixed route (it cannot make special stops), the government must provide paratransit.  Paratransit is a service for people with disabilities who cannot use the regular public transportation system.  Paratransit (usually a car or bus) picks them up and drops them off where they need to go.

Complaints

If a person with a disability thinks that they have been discriminated against by a state or local government, they can complain to the United States Department of Justice.  The complaint has to be made within 180 days of when the discrimination happened.  A few different things might happen after the person files their complaint:
 The complaint might be sent to a mediation program.  The person with a disability, someone from the state or local government, and a mediator will all meet together.  The mediator's job is to help everyone come up with a solution that everyone can agree to.
 The Department of Justice may bring a lawsuit against the state or local government

A person with a disability can also file their own lawsuit in a federal court, saying that the state or local government discriminated against them.  The person does not need to complain to the Department of Justice first, or have the Department of Justice tell them they have the right to sue.

Title III: Public Accommodations

Who Is Covered by Title III?

Title III protects against discrimination by "public accommodations."  Public accommodations are private organizations or people which own, lease, or run places meant for the public to use.  Examples of public accommodations include:

Title III also protects against discrimination by:
 Transportation services provided by private companies
 Commercial facilities (like office buildings, factories, and warehouses)
 Private companies that give tests and teach classes to people who want educational or job-related certification

There are two types of places that are exempt from Title III, and do not have to follow its rules.  These are:
 Places controlled by religious organizations, including churches, synagogues, mosques, and other places of worship
 Private clubs

What Do Public Accommodations Have to Do?
All public accommodations have to do these things:

 When a new building is built, the new buildings have to be accessible.
 If a building is being "altered" (changed), the changes have to make things accessible, if possible.  (For example, if a doorway is being moved, the new doorway must be wide enough for a wheelchair to get through.)  But public accommodations do not have to make their changes accessible if that would add more than 20% to the cost of making the change.
 Get rid of any barriers in their buildings that make those buildings not accessible.  (For example, by moving a table or vending machine that makes a hallway too narrow for a wheelchair to get through.)

The rules for what is "accessible" are set out in the 2010 ADA Standards for Accessibility Design.  Examples of these rules include:
 Adding elevators, wheelchair lifts, or wheelchair ramps to buildings that only have stairs
 Making doorways wide enough for wheelchairs to get through
 Adding special phones for people with hearing problems
 Putting Braille on elevator buttons for blind people

Most public accommodations (but not commercial facilities) have to do these things:

 Make sure that all people with disabilities have equal access to everything that people without disabilities do.  They have to create reasonable accommodations if this would help make things equal.  (For example, see the picture above: a state park has built a wheelchair ramp so that people in wheelchairs can fish in the same park as people without disabilities.  Without this ramp, people with disabilities would not have equal access to the park, because they would not be able to fish in the park like people without disabilities could.)
 When building or changing swimming pools, wading pools, and spas, they have to make an accessible way for people with disabilities to get in and out.
 Make sure people with disabilities can buy and do things in the same places people without disabilities can.
 Get rid of rules that make it impossible for people with disabilities to buy and do things in public accommodations.
 Make reasonable accommodations in rules and ways of doing things, to make sure that people with disabilities can buy and do things in public accommodations.  (For example, a clothing store might have a rule that only one person is allowed to be in a dressing room at one time.  Some people with disabilities need help getting dressed.  The store would have to change their rule to say that two people are allowed in a dressing room if one of them needs help getting dressed because of a disability.)
 Have special tools to communicate with people with disabilities (like a special phone for talking with people who are deaf or have trouble hearing).
 Make transportation accessible to people with disabilities (for example, private companies that provide transportation have to have at least some accessible vehicles, like wheelchair vans, or buses that can get closer to the ground so people in wheelchairs can get on without having to climb stairs)

Private companies that teach classes or give tests must make reasonable accommodations to make it possible for people with disabilities to take the classes or tests.  Some examples of reasonable accommodations are:
 Giving extra time for a person with a learning disability to take a test
 Changing the way a class or test is given to a person with a disability (for example, having a sign language interpreter for a deaf person, or having someone read books from the class out loud to a blind person)
 Making sure that the class or test is in an accessible building

Complaints
If a person with a disability thinks that they have been discriminated against by a public accommodation, they can complain to the United States Department of Justice.  They can write a letter, fax a letter, or use an online form at http://www.ada.gov/filing_complaint.htm.  A few different things might happen after the person files their complaint:
 The complaint might be sent to a mediation program.  The person with a disability, someone from the public accommodation, and a mediator will all meet together.  The mediator's job is to help everyone come up with a solution that everyone can agree to.
 The Department of Justice may bring a lawsuit against the public accommodation.

If a person is unable to write, fax, or type a complaint because of a disability, the Department of Justice will make reasonable accommodations to help.  The person can call the Department of Justice's ADA Information Line.  The Information Line is answered by ADA Specialists.  A person with a disability can explain their complaint, and the Specialist will write it down for them.  If the person is deaf and uses American Sign Language, a Specialist can take their complaint by videophone (so they can see each other and sign back and forth to each other).

A person can also file their own lawsuit against the public accommodation, without needing the Department of Justice to say they have a "right to sue."

Title IV: Telecommunications

Who Is Covered by Title IV?
Title IV of the ADA protects against discrimination by telecommunications companies in the U.S. (like phone companies).

Title IV protects any person with a disability, but it focuses on people with speaking and hearing disabilities, because they have the most trouble talking by phone.

What Do Telecommunications Companies Have to Do?
Title IV says that all telecommunications companies in the United States have to make sure that people with disabilities have equal access to telecommunication.  This means that they have to provide telecommunication services that are just as good as what people without disabilities get.  For example, they have to:
 Create relay services.  A relay service is a way for a telephone operator to help a person with a speaking or hearing disability to call a regular phone.  To do this, the person with the disability uses a keyboard or some other special tool.
 Make their relay services available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
 Not charge people with disabilities any more than they charge people without disabilities.

Relay services have changed a lot since 1990.  At first, the most common relay services were teletypewriter (TTY) and Telecommunications for the Deaf (TDD) devices.  These were like phones with typewriters attached.  Two people with TDDs could type back and forth to each other.  Or, if a person with a disability wanted to call a regular phone (like a pizza restaurant), they could type into the phone, an operator would read the message out loud to the pizza restaurant, listen to the restaurant's answer and type it back to the person with a disability.

Title IV also led every state in the U.S. to create Telecommunications Relay Services (TRS), such as STS relay.  STS stands for Speech-to-Speech.  It was created for people who have speaking problems.  STS relay operators listen to what the person is saying and repeats it in a clear voice to make it easier for the other person to understand. Today, many calls that use TRS are made over the Internet by consumers who use broadband connections. Some are Video Relay Service (VRS) calls, while others are text calls.  Either way, communication assistants translate between the signed or typed words of a consumer and the spoken words of others.  In 2006, according to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), VRS calls averaged two million minutes a month.

Complaints
Complaints about discrimination under Title IV go to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).

Title V: Miscellaneous
Title V includes various other extra rules.  For example, it says:
 Nothing in the ADA changes or cancels anything in Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. Section 504 was the first law to give any civil rights to people with disabilities.
 No one may be punished for using their ADA rights, or helping someone else use their ADA rights.  (Punishing a person for this reason is called retaliation.)

References

Other websites
 The ADA Information Line, run by the U.S. Department of Justice: Speak to an ADA Specialist who can help you understand what the ADA says and how it applies to a situation

1990 in the United States
United States federal legislation
1990s in law

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990


Security means to prevent dangers or losses. In general, security is similar to safety. The difference between the two is that security cares more than general safety about dangers from the outside.

Airports and banks usually have a lot of security measures. Prison security is used mainly to stop prisoners from escaping. It is also used to stop prisoners from harming prison employees or other prisoners.

Maximum security is found in or around prisons or other types of places where people need to be kept in or kept out. It is the highest security level for a building or area.

Related pages
 Law enforcement
 Insurance
 Hacking
 Police

References

Monahan, Torin, ed. (2006), Surveillance and Security: Technological Politics and Power in Everyday Life . New York: Routledge:
Operations Security Professional's Association Website ''http://www.opsecprofessionals.org.

Other websites
 ISO/IEC 15443-1: Overview and framework
 ISO/IEC 15443-2: Assurance methods
 ISO/IEC 15443-3: Analysis of assurance methods
 ISO/IEC 15408 refer also to Common Criteria
 ISO/IEC 17799:2005 Code of practice for information security management

Security


In criminal law, a sentence forms the final act of a judge-ruled criminal procedure. The sentence generally involves a decree of imprisonment, a fine and/or other punishments against a defendant convicted (found guilty) of a crime. For example, a man could be given a life sentence for murder.

Trials
Criminal justice

de:Urteil

Sentence (law)


Mark Boyle (11 May 1934 – 4 May 2005) was a Scottish artist born in Glasgow and known for his work in the cultural UK Underground of the 1960s around the Traverse Theatre, and from 1985 exhibited with Joan Hills and their children Sebastian and Georgia as Boyle Family.

Although Boyle Family have worked across a wide range of different media (including painting, photography, sculpture, film, projection, sound recordings and drawing), they are perhaps most well known for their Earth studies. These pictures – highly accurate painted casts that operate somewhere between painting and sculpture – involve the meticulous re-creation of randomly chosen areas of the Earth's surface using resin and fibreglass (as well as real materials collected from the original site) and have been exhibited internationally. Past shows have included the British Pavilion at the XXXIX Venice Biennale in 1978, Beyond Image - Boyle Family (Hayward Gallery, London) in 1986 and Boyle Family (Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh) - a major retrospective held in 2003.

In addition to developing highly original casting techniques, Mark Boyle and Joan Hills also pioneered the use of liquid light shows during the 1960s. These projections played a seminal role in the development of the counter-culture of the period. The light environments were used to accompany stage performances by such artists as Jimi Hendrix and jazz-rock pioneers Soft Machine.

Amongst others he collaborated with are George Brecht, Peter Schmidt (artist), Cornelius Cardew, and John Tilbury.

References

External links
 Boyle Family website, including chronology

1934 births
2005 deaths
British conceptual artists
Psychedelic artists
Scottish contemporary artists

Mark Boyle (artist)


No Smoking Day is an annual health awareness day in the United Kingdom which is intended to help smokers who want to quit smoking.  The first No Smoking Day was on Ash Wednesday in 1984, and it now takes place on the second Wednesday in March.

Each year, the campaign is promoted with a theme in the form of a short phrase.  In 2010, this theme was "Break free", encouraging smokers to break free from the chains of cigarettes and quit on No Smoking Day. The 2011 theme was "Time to quit?".  Research conducted by GfK NOP following the 2009 campaign found that 1 in 10 smokers quit on No Smoking Day.

The campaign was run by a charity of the same name, based in London with four full-time staff, until this was merged with the British Heart Foundation in 2011. It is funded by a coalition of governmental and voluntary sector organizations, with an interest in health.  No Smoking Day's most recent President was entrepreneur, TV personality, and anti-tobacco campaigner Duncan Bannatyne OBE. Bannatyne is an ex-smoker who publicly took on British American Tobacco at its AGM in April 2008.

See also
World No Tobacco Day
World AIDS Day
World Cancer Day

References

External links
No Smoking Day

Health awareness days
Smoking in the United Kingdom
March observances
Wednesday observances
Observances in the United Kingdom
Holidays and observances by scheduling (nth weekday of the month)
Tobacco control

No Smoking Day


Flora Dodge La Follette (September 10, 1882 – February 17, 1970), known as Fola La Follette, was an American actress and teacher turned women's suffrage and labor activist and editor/author from Madison, Wisconsin. At the time of her death in 1970, The New York Times quoted her on women's suffrage: "A good husband is not a substitute for the ballot."  She was the daughter of progressive politician Robert "Fighting Bob" La Follette and lawyer and women's suffrage leader Belle Case, wife of playwright George Middleton, a contributing editor to La Follette's Weekly Magazine, an actress, and, with her mother, a chronicler of her father's life.

Early life
On September 10, 1882, Fola La Follette was born the first child to lawyer and women's suffrage leader Belle Case La Follette and progressive politician Robert La Follette in Madison, Wisconsin. Her early education was at Wisconsin Academy in Madison. She went on to graduate from the University of Wisconsin.

Career

Actress
After graduating, La Follette acted on the stage for ten years, marrying playwright George Middleton in 1911 while retaining her maiden name.
She appeared on Broadway in such plays as Leo Ditrichstein's Bluffs (1908), Percy MacKaye's The Scarecrow (1911) and the Broadway production of her husband's Tradition.

Women's suffrage and labor activist
La Follette wrote for periodicals in the cause of women's suffrage (see below) and was active in helping her mother in the cause from an early age.

But it was in the merger of La Follette's women's suffrage and acting careers where she made her greatest impact. She performed numerous times in the one-woman play How the Vote was Won, first in 1910, and, in 1912, she appeared in Vaudeville to give a well-received suffragist speech. Anna Shaw, president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, wrote La Follette, praising the 1910 play: "I had the pleasure of being present at the benefit performance of 'How the Vote was Won' ... and I have wanted ever since to express to you and the others who took part with you, my appreciation for the splendid help that play was to our cause." For suffragists, La Follette became the embodiment of how they wished to be portrayed. Her wry, gracious performances stood as contradiction to the cliché of the "conventional traditional 'suffragists' who are the butt of the comic-joke maker."

In 1913, La Follette played a role in gaining her father's promise to intercede in the United States Senate on behalf of striking workers in the garment industry in New York City. She spent time as a strike picket and used the prominence of her voice as a member of an influential family and as a well-known actress to denounce the arrests and treatment of striking workers. It was a significant time in both the labor movement and women's movement, and the public's attention was caught by the concept of women picketing for their rights, and La Follette and other activists showed their support. In addition to picketing, La Follette gave a speech to the workers, went to court to testify on behalf of arrested workers and raised the issue of police brutality. Together with other society and college women, La Follette was part of what was referred to in this and other strikes as the "mink brigade", women whose dress and social status would give police pause in arresting them.

Together with other actors, La Follette helped found the actors' union Actors' Equity.

Political campaigner
In 1924, La Follette took the place of her mother Belle, who had become ill, in the presidential campaign of her father, Robert M. La Follette, Sr.

Teacher
From 1926 to 1930, La Follette taught at City and Country School in New York City, New York.

Author
La Follette served as a contributing editor to the family's eponymous progressive magazine and contributed to other periodicals.

La Follette's mother had begun a biography of Fola's famous father but died about one quarter of the way into the project. La Follette labored over the next 16 years to finish the biography, published in 1953, which the chief of the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress called "brilliant" and of which The New York Times reviewer wrote: "What we have here, in sum, is a wonderfully rich and detailed personal account that goes far to restore to us one of the giants of the past generation."

Death
La Follette died at the age of 87, of pneumonia, in a hospital in Arlington, Virginia on February 17, 1970.

Publications

References

Further reading

External links

American Women, Manuscript Division - Library of Congress

1882 births
1970 deaths
La Follette family
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
American suffragists
Wisconsin Progressives (1924)
20th-century American politicians
American women writers
Writers from Madison, Wisconsin
Actresses from Madison, Wisconsin
Writers from New York City
Writers from Washington, D.C.
American stage actresses
Deaths from pneumonia in Virginia
20th-century American actresses
Activists from New York City

Fola La Follette


Sao is a non-spherical moon of Neptune. It was found by Matthew J. Holman et al. on August 14, 2019.

Sao orbits Neptune at a distance of about 22.4 million km and is about 44 kilometers in diameter (assuming an albedo of 0.04).

Sao has a very inclined and eccentric orbit seen on the diagram in relation to other non-sperical moons of Neptune.

Sao, or Neptune XI, like many of the farther moons of Neptune, is named after one of the Nereids; Sao was associated with sailing and is referred to as "The rescuer" or "Safety". Before the announcement of its name on February 3, 2007 (IAUC 8802), Sao was known provisionally as S/2002 N 2.

Other websites
 Matthew Holman's Neptune's page
 David Jewitt's pages
 Scott Sheppard's pages

Neptune's moons

Sao (moon)


The Nordic Sami Institute is a research institution located at Guovdageaidnu (Kautokeino) in Norway. It is affiliated to Sámi University College. The mission of the institute is to strengthen and develop Sami languages, culture and social life. The institute is funded the Nordic Council of Ministers (a collaborative body of the Nordic governments), The Ministry of Education and Research (Norway), The Ministry of Education Research and Culture (Sweden), and The Ministry of Education (Finland).

References

External links
 Nordic Sámi Institute website—

Sámi in Norway
Sámi associations
Indigenous organisations in Norway
Kautokeino

Nordic Sámi Institute


David Randolph Cornwall (May 18, 1937 – November 7, 2006) was an American composer and systems engineer. He wrote music for piano, horns, woodwinds and orchestra, composing more than 40 works in a span of less than five years leading up to the time of his death in November 2006.

Biography
Cornwall was born in Denver, Colorado. Trained as a trombonist, Cornwall performed professionally with the New York City Opera and D'Oyly Carte Opera Company at the Central City Opera, where he performed in the world premiere of The Ballad of Baby Doe by Douglas Moore. After studying math and physics at Harvard College for one and a half years, he dropped out in 1957. Returning to Denver, he worked a systems engineer for United Airlines while performing for the Denver Philharmonic Orchestra (then known as the Denver Businessmen's Orchestra) and studying under its conductor, Antonia Brico. He was drafted by the US Army in 1961 and contributed to developing large systems for the Pentagon's National Military Command and Control Center, where he was named Chief Programmer for global nuclear war-game exercises.

After receiving an honorable discharge from the army, Cornwall returned to the airline industry, where he developed some of the first online systems for flight planning and real-time monitoring. Later in his career he received an MBA in economics from the University of Chicago.

Composer career
Upon his retirement in 2001, Cornwall returned to music, this time as a composer. Over the next five years, he composed dozens of works at the University of Denver Lamont School of Music. Initially composing in neo-classical and neo-baroque styles, his compositions took a modern turn, reflecting the influences of Igor Stravinsky, Anton Webern, Witold Lutosławski and Arnold Schoenberg, among others. Cornwall's orchestral works have been performed by the Lamont Symphony Orchestra, including March of the Bride and Groom (2004), Parade of the Wedding Party (2005), The Grieving Maiden (2005), Triple Concerto for Piano, Violin and Cello: Birth of a Mountain River (2006) and Sonata for Violin and Piano (2006).

Death
In late September 2006, several weeks after producing a draft of his final composition, Lullaby for Kayleigh, Cornwall developed severe sepsis following intestinal surgery. He died of complications from his illness on November 7, 2006 in Lone Tree, Colorado, a suburb of Denver. As part of his funeral the following week, his Fugue in Four Parts was performed on the pipe organ at the Cathedral of St. John in the Wilderness, Denver.

Selected works
A Wedding Suite (string quartet) (2003)
After the Rain (piano) (2004)
Buildings of Rome (horns, bass trombone, piano) (2004)
Exercise in Brass (horns, bass trombone) (2004)
Fugue in Four Parts (piano) (2004)
Greenwich Village Voiticals (horns, bass trombone, timpani, soprano, piano) (2004)
March of the Bride and Groom (orchestra) (2004)
Oh, Christmas (chorus and alto recorder) (2004)
The Puppet Dance (piano, later revised for quintet) (2004, 2005)
Storm Over Budapest (horns, bass trombone, timpani, soprano, piano) (2004)
Tender Moment (piano) (2004)
Dance of the Veiled Lady (piano) (2005)
The Grieving Maiden (chamber orchestra) (2005)
Parade of the Wedding Party (orchestra) (2005)
Yearning (quintet) (2005)
Notes on Concerto (piano) (2005)
Five Dances for Piano (piano) (2006)
Triple Concerto for Piano, Violin and Cello: Birth of a Mountain River (orchestra) (2006)
Sonata for Violin and Piano (orchestra) (2006)
Lullaby for Kayleigh (piano and violin) (2006)

External links
David Cornwall obituary - Denver Post, November 17, 2006
The Ballad of Baby Doe web site
Lamont School of Music
The Dancing Giraffe, performed by Ethan Rogers
Notes on Concerto for Piano Trio (2005)

1937 births
2006 deaths
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
American classical trombonists
Male trombonists
American male classical composers
American classical composers
Deaths from sepsis
Harvard College alumni
Musicians from Denver
University of Chicago Booth School of Business alumni
Infectious disease deaths in Colorado
21st-century American composers
21st-century classical trombonists
20th-century classical trombonists
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians

David Cornwall


Winter swimming is the activity of human swimming during the winter season, typically in outdoor locations, or in unheated pools or lidos. It is done mostly for health benefits. Many winter swimmers swim with standard swimming costumes rather than with wetsuits or other thermal protection.

In colder countries winter swimming may be synonymous with ice swimming. In Finland, Northern Russia, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia the ice swimming tradition has been connected with the sauna tradition.

Other websites

Cankar.org  on how to create an avanto
Winter Swimming — the technique of winter swimming and its healing effect.
Winter Swimming World Championships, pictures Oulu Finland 3.-5.3.2006
Winter Swimming Championships 2008  - held at Tooting Bec Lido, London, UK

References

Fitness
Survival skills
Water sports
Swimming

Winter swimming


The Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung () is an institute located in Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany specializing in chemical research on catalysis. It is one of the 86 institutes in the Max Planck Society (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft). It was founded in 1912 in Mülheim an der Ruhr as the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Coal Research (Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Kohlenforschung) to study the chemistry and uses of coal, and became an independent Max Planck Institute in 1949.

Research
The Institute carries out basic research in organic and organometallic chemistry, in homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis as well as in theoretical chemistry. The principal aim is to develop new methods for the selective and environmentally benign preparation of new compounds and materials.

The MPI KoFo has been at the forefront of research in chemistry since its formation. One of these is the development of the Fischer–Tropsch process through the efforts of Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch in 1925 when the institute was still organized as the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Kohlenforschung. Nobel Prize laureate Karl Ziegler also worked at the institute alongside his former student Hans-Georg Gellert to discover the aufbau reaction (Aufbaureaktion) or growth reaction among aluminum alkyl compounds.

Departments

Organic synthesis
Research in the Organic Synthesis Department, led by Tobias Ritter, focuses on the development of organic synthesis and novel reaction chemistry. It seeks to discover molecular structure and reactivity that can contribute to interdisciplinary solutions for challenges in science.

Homogeneous catalysis
The Homogeneous Catalysis Department, led by Nobel Prize laureate Benjamin List, focuses on the development of new catalysis concepts within the areas of organocatalysis, transition metal catalysis, and, to some extent, biocatalysis. Since 1999, the group concentrates on enantioselective organocatalysis as a fundamental approach complementing biocatalysis and transition metal catalysis. They have a profound interest in developing "new reactions", designing and identifying new principles for the development of organocatalysts, expanding the scope of already developed catalysts such as proline, using organocatalysis in the synthesis of natural products and pharmaceuticals, and also investigating the mechanism by which organocatalysts activate their substrates. Furthermore, in 2005 the department has first conceptualized another approach to asymmetric catalysis, namely Asymmetric Counteranion-Directed Catalysis (ACDC). This idea has not only progressed within the department but also at other institutions around the globe into a general strategy for asymmetric synthesis applied in organocatalysis as well as in transition metal catalysis and Lewis acid catalysis.

Heterogeneous catalysis
The Heterogeneous Catalysis Department, led by Ferdi Schüth, is concentrated on the synthesis and characterization of inorganic materials with an application focus in heterogeneous catalysis. Especially important are high surface area materials with controlled porosity and nanostructured catalysts. Reactions studied include model reactions, such as carbon monoxide oxidation, and energy relevant conversions, i.e. methane activation, biomass conversion, ammonia decomposition and catalyzed hydrogen storage. This research is supported by studies into the fundamental processes governing solids formation.

Organometallic chemistry
The Organometallic Chemistry Department, led by Alois Fürstner, is focused on the development and understanding of organometallic reagents and catalysts, as well as on their application to the synthesis of structurally complex targets of biological significance. Particular attention is paid to the development and validation of catalytic methods for Carbon–carbon bond formation. Long-term projects of current interest concern alkene and alkyne metathesis, the development and use of pi-acids (platinum, gold etc.), iron catalysis and cross coupling in general. Moreover, the group is engaged in the development of novel donor ligands, including carbenes and compounds containing formally "zerovalent" carbon atoms. All methods are scrutinized by applications to the total synthesis and "diverted total synthesis" of natural products and pharmaceutically active compounds.

Theoretical chemistry
The Department of Molecular Theory and Spectroscopy, led by Frank Neese, focuses on theoretical developments that extend the scope of computational methodology, especially for large molecules, and applies theoretical methods to study specific chemical problems, mostly in close cooperation with experimental partners. The activities of the group cover a broad methodological spectrum such as ab initio methods, density functional theory, semiempirical methods and combined quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical methods.

References

External links

Chemical research institutes
Coal technology
Coal Research
Mülheim
Organisations based in North Rhine-Westphalia
1912 establishments in Germany

Max Planck Institute for Coal Research


The kipunji (Rungwecebus kipunji), also known as the highland mangabey, is a species of Old World monkey that lives in the highland forests of Tanzania. The kipunji has a unique call, described as a 'honk-bark', which distinguishes it from its relatives, the grey-cheeked mangabey and the black crested mangabey, whose calls are described as 'whoop-gobbles'.

The kipunji was independently discovered by researchers from the Wildlife Conservation Society, the University of Georgia, and Conservation International, in December 2003 and July 2004, making it the first new African monkey species discovered since the sun-tailed monkey in 1984. Originally assigned to the genus Lophocebus, genetic and morphological data showed that it is more closely related to the baboons (genus Papio) than to the other mangabeys in the genus Lophocebus. Scientists subsequently assigned it to a new genus, Rungwecebus, named after Mount Rungwe, where it is found. The kipunji is the first new monkey genus to be discovered since Allen's swamp monkey in 1923.

Zoologists were initially skeptical of the existence of the kipunji until its discovery, as traditional tales of the Nyakyusa people described the monkey as both real and mythical.

Physical description

Adult male kipunjis have been observed at a typical length of 85 to 90 cm and are estimated to weigh between 10 and 16 kg. The kipunji's relatively long pelage is light or medium brown with white on the end of the tail and the ventrum. The pelage close to the hands and feet tends to be a medium to dark brown. Its hands, feet, and face are all black. These primates do not appear to show any sexual dimorphism in relation to pelage coloration.

One feature, in combination with their pelage coloration, that helps to separate kipunjis from their Cercocebus and Lophocebus relatives is the broad crest of hair on the crown of their heads.

Distribution

Around 1,100 of the animals live in the highland Ndundulu Forest Reserve, adjacent to Udzungwa Mountains National Park, and in a disjunct population 250 miles away on Mount Rungwe and in Kitulo National Park, which is adjacent to it. The forest at Rungwe is highly degraded, and fragmentation of the remaining forest threatens to split that population into three smaller populations. The Ndundulu forest is in better shape, but the population there is smaller.

Conservation

The kipunji is classified as an endangered species by the IUCN. In 2008, a Wildlife Conservation Society team found that the monkey's range is restricted to just 6.82 mi2 (17.7 km2) of forest in the two isolated regions, the Ndundulu forest and the Rungwe-Livingstone forest. The Ndundulu forest is the smaller of the two and was found to support a population of 75 individuals, ranging from 15 to 25 individuals per group. The Rungwe-Livingstone forest is suspected to contain 1,042 individuals in Rungwe-Kitulo, ranging from 25 to 39 individuals per group. All areas where the kipunji is found are considered protected areas, but  no management operations are currently in effect.

Several factors contribute to the projected decline of the species, including predation, habitat destruction, and hunting. The kipunji has only two known predators - crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus) and leopards (Panthera pardus). The biggest threats to the species come from human activities. Logging for timber and charcoal production are the most prominent threats, but locals are also known to hunt the kipunji due to its crop-destroying habits or simply as a food source. Continued habitat loss is anticipated to cause a loss of the Bujingijila Corridor that links two populations in the Mount Rungwe and Livingstone forests.

The species was included in the list of "The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates" in 2006 and 2008.

References

External links

WCS profile of Highland Mangabey
National Science Foundation press release
Highland Mangabey's honk-bark (in .WAV format)
Video of Highland Mangabey (in MPEG format)
ITIS Report: Rungwecebus kipunji

Papionini
Primates of Africa
Endemic fauna of Tanzania
Mammals of Tanzania
Critically endangered fauna of Africa
Mammals described in 2005

Kipunji


Kenneth Ray Carllile (April 2, 1931–July 31, 1987), better known as Thumbs Carllile (Carlisle in some collections), was an American country music guitarist and songwriter known for his innovative zither-like fingerstyle playing, sitting with his guitar in his lap while fretting, picking and strumming with his fingers and thumbs. He performed with Little Jimmy Dickens at the Grand Ole Opry in the early 1950s, and was a member of Roger Miller's band from 1964 to 1972.

Biography

Kenneth Carllile was born April 2, 1931, in St. Louis, Missouri, and grew up on his impoverished father's tenant farm in Harrisburg, Illinois. At age eight he began playing a Dobro resonator guitar won by his sister Evelyn, and after she hid the steel bar, Carllile began using his thumbs. When his father gave him a Silvertone guitar, his small thumb and fingers were too short to make it around the neck, so he played it on his lap like the Dobro.

Early career

In 1941, Carllile's family moved to Granite City, Illinois, and he later made his debut playing "Sweet Georgia Brown" at a Ferlin Husky concert at the Music Box Club in East St. Louis. He was expelled from high school at 16 for refusing to shave, and instead performed with Husky until he was discovered by Little Jimmy Dickens in 1949 during a St. Louis appearance. He joined Dickens' Country Boys after demonstrating he could play both parts of Dickens' twin guitar lines. Dickens gave him the nickname Thumbs, which Carllile never embraced. He played with the group until 1952, including performances at the Grand Ole Opry.

From 1952–54, Carllile served in the US Army, performing with its Special Services division. He was stationed in Stuttgart, Germany, where he met and married another servicemember, singer-songwriter Virginia Boyle, in 1955. After his discharge, Carllile regularly appeared on ABC-TV's Ozark Jubilee in Springfield, Missouri, from 1956 to 1957, both as a soloist and with Bill Wimberley's Country Rhythm Boys. They released Springfield Guitar Social on Starday in 1958. In the late 50s, he and Virginia performed in Billings, Montana and appeared on KOOK-TV.

In 1961, Carllile met guitarist Les Paul, who was impressed by Carllile's skill and his wife's songwriting, and they recorded enough tracks for two albums at Paul's home studio in Mahwah, New Jersey. Later that year, Carllile (as Thumbs Carlyle) released a duet on Epic with his wife Virginia (as Ginny O'Boyle), "Indian Girl, Indian Boy".

With Roger Miller

In 1963, Carllile joined the Wade Ray Five, and Ray's Las Vegas band, but left the following year to join Roger Miller's band, where he stayed until 1972. He appeared on Miller's 1966 NBC-TV show, and performed with him five times on NBC's Tonight Show during the 1960s. He also appeared at the Grammy Awards when Miller swept the country categories in 1964 with "Dang Me", and in 1965 with "King of the Road" (1965), for which Carllile provided the song's signature finger snaps.

Miller helped him sign with Smash Records, where he released two albums, Roger Miller Presents Thumbs Carllile and All Thumbs in 1965. He released several singles for Smash, including "My Bossa Nova/Candy Girl" (1966). Several tracks he recorded for the label were popular but did not chart, including "Let it Be Me", "Caravan", "No Yesterday", "Theme from Picnic", "Blue Skies", "Stranger On The Shore" and "Hold It". In 1968, Carllile signed with Capitol and recorded the album Walking in Guitar Land.

Later years

In 1986, he moved from Chattanooga, Tennessee, to Decatur, Georgia, where Virginia worked in a factory making springs. Carllile underwent surgery that year for colon cancer, which, despite fundraisers, left the family bankrupt. After recovering, he played with his trio, The Indecent 3; performed on Sagebrush Boogie, a weekly program on Atlanta's  WRFG-FM; and was a regular at such venues as the Freight Room in Decatur and The Point.

In late July 1987, Carllile suffered a mild heart attack while driving back to Decatur from Chattanooga with his newest release. He was preparing to perform as the regular opening act for guitarist Michael Hedges when he died on July 31. He was buried in Decatur Cemetery.

Family

Carllile's two daughters are also musicians: Kathy Carllile is a blues singer in Atlanta, Georgia, who once led Kathy Carllile and Tabasco, and had a minor hit with "Stay Until the Rain Stops" in 1986 on the Frontline label. She and Carllile were once winners on The Gong Show.

Tammy Carllile sang in the Cowboy Boogie Band in Las Vegas and won Nashville's Hall of Fame singing competition; and also sang vocals on albums with her father.  Her two sons, Joseph Carllile and Daniel Guidry, are musicians and aspire to make a career of it.

Notes

References

External links
Thumbs Carllile's official Web site
Thumbs Carllile discography

1931 births
1987 deaths
Singers from St. Louis
American country guitarists
American male guitarists
American country singer-songwriters
American session musicians
Fingerstyle guitarists
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American singer-songwriters
Singer-songwriters from Missouri
People from Harrisburg, Illinois
Guitarists from Missouri
Country musicians from Georgia (U.S. state)
Country musicians from Illinois
Country musicians from Missouri
20th-century American male musicians
American male singer-songwriters
Singer-songwriters from Illinois

Kenneth Carllile


A hypnotic is a drug designed to help you sleep. It is a type of psychoactive drug which acts as a soporific, and is also used for surgical anaesthesia. Many hypnotics are addictive, and have side-effects. Because of this, most are prescribed as a last resort, and only for a short time. Rohypnol is a particularly powerful example of a hypnotic.

References

Psychoactive drugs
Anesthetics

Hypnotic


In mathematics, the Gelfand–Naimark theorem states that an arbitrary C*-algebra A is isometrically *-isomorphic to a C*-subalgebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space.  This result was proven by Israel Gelfand and Mark Naimark in 1943 and was a significant point in the development of the theory of C*-algebras since it established the possibility of considering a C*-algebra as an abstract algebraic entity without reference to particular realizations as an operator algebra.

Details
The Gelfand–Naimark representation π is the direct sum of representations πf
of A where f ranges over the set of pure states of A and πf is the irreducible representation associated to f by the GNS construction.  Thus the Gelfand–Naimark representation acts on
the Hilbert direct sum of the Hilbert spaces Hf by

π(x) is a bounded linear operator since it is the direct sum of a family of operators, each one having norm ≤ ||x||.

Theorem. The Gelfand–Naimark representation of a C*-algebra is an isometric *-representation.

It suffices to show the map π is injective, since for *-morphisms of C*-algebras injective implies isometric. Let x be a non-zero element of A.  By the Krein extension theorem for positive linear functionals, there is a state f on A such that f(z) ≥ 0 for all non-negative z in A and f(−x* x) < 0.  Consider the GNS representation πf with cyclic vector ξ. Since

it follows that πf (x) ≠ 0, so π (x) ≠ 0, so π is injective.

The construction of Gelfand–Naimark representation depends only on the GNS construction and therefore it is meaningful for any Banach *-algebra A having an approximate identity.  In general (when A is not a C*-algebra) it will not be a faithful representation.  The closure of the image of π(A)  will be a C*-algebra of operators called the C*-enveloping algebra of A. Equivalently, we can define the
C*-enveloping algebra as follows: Define a real valued function on A by

as f ranges over pure states of A.   This is a semi-norm, which we refer to as the C* semi-norm of A.  The set I of elements of A whose semi-norm is 0 forms a two sided-ideal in A closed under involution.  Thus the quotient vector space A / I is  an involutive algebra and the norm

factors through a norm on A / I, which except for completeness, is a C* norm on  A / I (these are sometimes called pre-C*-norms). Taking the completion of A / I relative to this pre-C*-norm produces a C*-algebra B.

By the Krein–Milman theorem one can show without too much difficulty that for x an element of the Banach *-algebra A having an approximate identity:

It follows that an equivalent form for the C* norm on A is to take the above supremum over all states.

The universal construction is also used to define universal C*-algebras of isometries.

Remark. The Gelfand representation or  Gelfand isomorphism for a commutative C*-algebra with unit  is an isometric *-isomorphism from  to the algebra of continuous complex-valued functions on the space of multiplicative linear functionals, which in the commutative case are precisely the pure states, of A with the weak* topology.

See also
 GNS construction
 Stinespring factorization theorem
 Gelfand–Raikov theorem
 Koopman operator
 Tannaka–Krein duality

References

  (also available from Google Books)
 , also available in English from North Holland press, see in particular sections 2.6 and 2.7.

Operator theory
Theorems in functional analysis
C*-algebras

Gelfand–Naimark theorem


Nymphadora Tonks is a fictional character in the Harry Potter book series written by J. K. Rowling. The character is played by actress Natalia Tena in the Harry Potter movies.

Tonks, as she is known, is the only daughter of Andromeda Black and Ted Tonks. She is a Half-Blood, but both of her parents are actually magical. Her mother is a pureblood from the ancient wizarding family of the Blacks, and her father is a muggle born, therefore considering that the majority of her father's family are muggles she is considered a half-blood, even though he is not a muggle himself. Tonks is a metamorphmagus, which means that she can change her appearance at will. Her Patronus is a jack rabbit, but it changed into a wolf (Remus's Patronus) due to her love for Remus Lupin.

Tonks is first described in the books as having a pale heart-shaped face, dark twinkling eyes, and short, spikey hair that was a violent shade of violet. She knocked over a plate in the Dursley's kitchen when the 'Advance Guard' came to pick up Harry to take to number twelve, Grimmauld Place. She also knocked over the troll umbrella stand, which made Sirius's mother, Walburga Black, start screaming. She is known as "seriously clumsy."

Nymphadora was born between 1st september 1972 and 31st august 1973. She attended Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry from 1984-1991, the time of Charlie Weasley, and was Sorted into Hufflepuff House. She never became a Prefect in her 5th year, because her Head of House, Pomona Sprout, said she lacked necessary qualities, such as the ability to behave herself.

She works as an Auror in the Ministry of Magic under the eye of Mad-Eye Moody. She worked as a spy for the Order of the Phoenix. So did Arthur Weasley, Kingsley Shacklebolt, and a few others, as they themselves worked inside the Ministry.

In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, she marries the werewolf Remus Lupin (even though she is much younger than him), and many people disapprove of her choice. Remus Lupin feels that he has endangered her and her son, and leaves her at the beginning of the Deathly Hallows. Harry, already lost his parents and his godfather, mocks him to be a coward, resulting in Harry was thrown into a wall by an angry Remus. But Remus Lupin decided that Harry was right and come back a few days later. They have a son named Edward Remus 'Teddy' Lupin. He is a metamorphmagus, just like his mother, Tonks, and is known for having aqua colored hair. Both Tonks and Lupin die during the Battle of Hogwarts, Lupin by Antonin Dolohov, and Tonks by Bellatrix Lestrange.

Teddy Lupin lives under the care of Andromeda, Tonks's widowed mother, and his godfather, Harry Potter.

Harry Potter characters

Nymphadora Tonks


The Reconstruction  was after the American Civil War. It was the remaking of the Southern United States, after it had lost its war of rebellion and slavery was ended. The southern states were occupied territory. Andrew Johnson became President of the U.S. after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865. He wanted to make it easy to restore local rule in the previously rebellious states, and he permitted some of them to hold elections in 1865. Former leaders of the Confederate States of America who ran as Democrats were elected to Congress, and states passed laws that denied rights to former slaves.

Many members of the Republican Party wanted stricter terms before local rule was returned to the South. After the Republicans won a large majority of the Congressional seats in the 1866 elections, they refused to let former Confederate leaders take seats in the United States Congress. The Republicans passed laws that former leaders of the rebellion were temporarily denied suffrage, the right to hold office or vote in elections. Three new amendments to the U.S. Constitution were passed that ended slavery, made former slaves citizens, and gave them the right to vote. Some newly freed black slaves won elected offices. Many Northern carpetbaggers also went to the occupied territories to lead the people. Some became rich.

Many white people in the Southern United States resisted allowing former slaves to have equal rights and to vote. The Ku Klux Klan was formed to force black people out of political and economic power. After Reconstruction ended in 1877, white people in the South used their regained political rights to pass Jim Crow Laws. These laws enforced segregation (keeping blacks and whites separate) and took the vote away from African Americans whose parents or grandparents were slaves. After Reconstruction, white Southerners voted mostly for the Democratic Party for about 80 years.

Other websites
 Reconstruction -Citizendium

African-American history
American Civil War
1860s in the United States
1870s in the United States
Andrew Johnson
Rutherford B. Hayes

Reconstruction era


Ullin Thomas Place (24 October 1924 – 2 January 2000), usually cited as U. T. Place, was a British philosopher and psychologist. Along with J. J. C. Smart, he developed the identity theory of mind. After several years at the University of Adelaide, he taught for some years in the Department of Philosophy in the University of Leeds.

Life
Place was born in Northallerton, Yorkshire. He was educated at Rugby School and Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He studied under and was strongly influenced by Gilbert Ryle at Oxford University. There, he became acquainted with philosophy of mind in the logical behaviorist tradition, of which Ryle was a major exponent. Although he would later abandon logical behaviorism as a theory of the mind in favor of the type-identity theory, Place nevertheless continued to harbor sympathies toward the behavioristic approach to psychology in general. He even went so far as to defend the radical behaviorist theses of B.F. Skinner, as expressed in Verbal Behavior, from the criticisms of Noam Chomsky and the growing movement of cognitive psychology. Place died in Thirsk, Yorkshire.

Place, as well as J. J. C. Smart, nevertheless established his place in the annals of analytic philosophy by founding the theory which would eventually help to dethrone and displace philosophical behaviorism - the identity theory. In Is Consciousness a Brain Process?, Place formulated the thesis that mental processes were not to be defined in terms of behavior; rather, one must identify them with neural states. With this bold thesis, Place became one of the fathers of the current materialistic mainstream of the philosophy of mind.

His sister, Dorothy E. Smith, was a prominent Canadian sociologist and the founder of the field of institutional ethnography, and his brother, Milner Place, was one of England's leading poets.

Place's identity theory vs. that of Feigl and Smart
There are actually subtle but interesting differences between the three most widely credited formulations of the type identity thesis, those of Place, Feigl and Smart which were published in several articles in the late 1950s. Place's notion of the identity involved in the identity thesis is derived from Bertrand Russell's distinction among several types of is statements: the is of identity, the is of equality and the is of predication. Place's version of the relation of identity in the so-called identity thesis is more accurately described as an asymmetric relation of composition. For Place, higher-level mental events are composed out of lower-level physical events and will eventually be analytically reduced to these. To the objection that "sensations" do not mean the same thing as "brain processes", Place could simply reply with the example that "lightning" does not mean the same thing as "electrical discharge" since we determine that something is lightning by looking and seeing it, whereas we determine that something is an electrical discharge through experimentation and testing. Nevertheless, "lightning is an electrical discharge" is true since the one is composed of the other. Similarly, "clouds are water vapor" means that "clouds are composed of droplets of water vapor" but not vice versa.

For Feigl and Smart, on the other hand, the identity was to be interpreted as the identity between the referents of two descriptions (senses) which referred to the same thing, as in "the morning star" and "the evening star" both referring to Venus. So to the objection about the lack of equality of meaning between "sensation" and "brain process", their response was to invoke this Fregean distinction: "sensations" and "brain" processes do indeed mean different things but they refer to the same physical phenomenon. Moreover, "sensations are brain processes" is a contingent, not a necessary, identity.

Works
 Identifying the mind. Selected papers, OUP, Oxford 2004,
 "Is consciousness a brain process?" in: British Journal of Psychology 47 (1956), pp. 44–50
  "Skinner's Verbal Behavior - why we need it" in: Behaviorism, 1981.

Notes

References
 J. Franklin, Corrupting the Youth: A History of Philosophy in Australia, 2003, ch. 9.
 D.C. Palmer, In memoriam Ullin place: 1924–2000, BEHAV ANALYST (2000) 23: 95

External links
Ullin Thomas Place (1924-2000). Philosopher and psychologist. The intellectual legacy of a radical empiricist, complete bibliography with download links, compiled and edited by Thomas Place.

20th-century British philosophers
Philosophers of mind
English philosophers
1924 births
2000 deaths
Analytic philosophers
People educated at Rugby School
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Oxford
Academics of the University of Leeds

Ullin Place


The megamouth shark (Megachasma pelagios) is a large, slow-swimming, timid shark that was only discovered in 1976. It grows to 5.5 metres long. The megamouth is found in the Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans.

Description
The megamouth shark has a sturdy body, and a fat, round and long head. The snout is very short and wide. The gill slits are quite long but can not reach the dorsal surface of the head. The mouth is wide, with the corners extending behind the eyes. The first dorsal fin is located more closely to the pectoral fins than to the pelvic fin, and the second dorsal fin is less than half the size of the first dorsal fin. Both dorsal fins are low. The pectoral fins of the adults are shorter than the head in length.
The dorsal surface of the body, the pectoral and pelvic fins, the dorsal fins, the center of the anal fin, and the caudal fin are blackish-brown. The belly is white.

The shark has around fifty rows of very small teeth on each jaw, but only three rows are usable. Females seem to have fewer teeth rows than males. The upper and lower jaws have a symphyseal (where the two halves of the jaw meet) toothless space, but it is larger in the upper jaw. A difference between the upper and lower teeth was recognized on a female specimen: the first five upper teeth are smaller than the first five lower teeth.
The maximum length reported for the Megamouth shark is 5.5 metres (18 feet). Males mature when they are 4 metres (13 feet) long, and females mature when the are 5 metres (16 feet) long.

Distribution
Although there has only been a total of 53 confirmed sightings of the Megamouth shark, this species is now known to be found in the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. As with the two other known filter-feeding sharks, the basking shark and the whale shark, this species has a widespread distribution. However, the megamouth shark is less active, and a poorer swimmer than the basking shark and the whale shark. Its slow movement is probably because of its fleshy body, soft fins, and asymmetrical tail.

Predators
The only confirmed register of a Megamouth shark predator is an event of when sperm whales where seen attacking a Megamouth shark. This occurred in Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia (30th August 1998) near midday, while some researchers were observing the whales. The base of the dorsal fin and the gills of the shark showed signs of the whales' attack.

Behaviour
Although there have only been a few sightings of the megamouth shark, it is believed that this species of shark likes to live in the open ocean. The sixth specimen found was tagged and followed for two days, allowing insight into its habitat preference and behaviour. It stayed at a depth of 15 metres during the night, then dove to 150 metres at dawn and returned to shallow waters at dusk. So the megamouth is presumed to be a vertical migrator on a 24 hour cycle, spending the daytime in deep waters and ascending to midwater depths at night. This vertical migration may be a response to the movements of the small animals on which it feeds. The krill that make up part of the megamouth's diet also migrate from deep waters to the surface.

Feeding
The megamouth shark is one of the three giant filter-feeding sharks in the sea. The other two are the basking shark and the whale shark.

The exact details of the feeding behaviour of the megamouth shark is unknown, due to the few observations on a live, feeding specimen. The megamouth has a huge mouth that extends behind the eyes. Scientists believe that this shark swims slowly through groups of krill and other small prey with its mouth open, and sucks them in. Then it closes its mouth, and this action decreases the pharyngeal volume and makes it possible for the shark to get rid of any water through the gill openings.

All the specimens of the megamouth shark which have been studied have had krill in their stomach, indicating a filter-feeding habit. The stomach of the first megamouth captured had only one type of krill, Thysanopoda pectinata. The second megamouth's stomach had krill, copepods, and the jellyfish, Atolla vanhoeffeni.

References

Sharks

Megamouth shark


Delhi is a tobacco town in Norfolk County, Ontario, Canada that has fewer than 5000 people. It has a public library, a convience store, a cemetery, a funeral home, various other stores, and a tobacco museum.

The town also has a high school that has been threatened with closure numerous times by the school board for lack of attendance. Children from this town participate in little league baseball, ice hockey, and competitive swimming.

Towns in Ontario

Delhi, Ontario


Ertuğrul, launched in 1863, was a sailing frigate of the Ottoman Navy. While returning from a goodwill voyage to Japan in 1890, she encountered a typhoon off the coast of Wakayama Prefecture, subsequently drifted into a reef and sank. The shipwreck resulted in the loss of more than 500 sailors and officers, including Rear Admiral Ali Osman Pasha.
Only 69 sailors and officers survived and returned home later aboard two Japanese corvettes. The event is still commemorated as a foundation stone of Japanese-Turkish friendship.

Ship

Ertuğrul, ordered in 1854 by Ottoman Sultan Abdulaziz (reigned 1861–1876), was built in the Taşkızak Shipyard (Tersâne-i Âmire) in Galata, an area of Istanbul (previously known as Constantinople) and was launched on 19 October 1863 in presence of the Sultan. She was named for Ertuğrul (13th century), the father of Osman I, founder of the Ottoman Empire. A three-mast wooden ship, she was  long,  wide and had a draft of .

The frigate sailed to England in 1864, where she had steam engines and state of the art machinery installed, including electrical lighting.

On 18 February 1865, she left Portsmouth to return home with two other ships of the Ottoman Navy, Kosova and Hüdavendigâr, visiting some French and Spanish ports on the way. After arriving in Istanbul, she anchored awhile in the Bosphorus in front of the Dolmabahçe Palace and later took part in the campaign against the Cretan Revolt in 1866. Subsequently, she was locked up in Golden Horn during the reign of Abdul Hamid II (1876–1909).

Japanese-Ottoman relations
In November 1878, the sloop Seiki (清輝) of the Japanese Imperial Navy arrived in Istanbul en route to a training mission in Europe, and the envoy was received by Sultan Abdul Hamid II and honored with various medals. In 1881, a mission led by diplomat  (吉田 正春 Yoshida Masaharu) came to the court Yıldız Palace in an effort to conclude agreements relating to trade and wartime status. Upon the visit of Prince Komatsu Akihito to Istanbul in October 1887 and the presentation of Japan's highest order, the Order of the Chrysanthemum, to the Sultan, the government of the Ottoman Empire decided to send a ship on a goodwill voyage to Japan in return.

Appointment

The Grand Vizier Kâmil Pasha sent a note on 14 February 1889 to the head of the navy, Bozcaadalı Hasan Hüsnü Pasha, asking the name and possible departure date of a battleship, which was suitable to sail to the seas of Indo-China and Japan in order to put the theoretical knowledge of the Naval Academy graduates into practice.

On 25 February 1889, Hasan Hüsnü Pasha informed the Grand Vizier that the frigate Ertuğrul was suitable for the assignment and could accomplish the preparations required within one week and set sail within one month. The real reason of the journey and its importance was revealed then by the Grand Vizier as a goodwill visit to Japan for the presentation of gifts and the highest decoration of the Ottoman Empire, "Medal of High Honor", from the Sultan to the Japanese Emperor. Another aim of the voyage was to show the flag on the Indian Ocean.

On 6 April 1889, the naval ministry appointed as commanding officer Captain Ali Osman Bey, the most appropriate officer due to his knowledge of several foreign languages and his skills in seamanship.

Voyage to Japan

The ship, in service for 25 years, was overhauled shortly before the voyage, and most of the hull's wooden parts were renewed.

Ertuğrul, with 607 (disputed figure) sailors — including 57 officers — on board, was instructed to set sail from Istanbul on 14 July 1889, with Captain Ali Osman Bey commanding.

The initial route was designed to make various necessary stops on the way. The first stop was planned in Marmaris, and the next one in Port Said before the passage through the Suez Canal. Visits in Aden and Somalia would follow the stay in Jeddah. Considering the seasonal winds, the ship would stop by at Pondicherry and Calcutta in India. After staying in Port Akabod and Singapore, she would carry on to Malacca by way of the Strait of Malacca. Proceeding to the north, the ship would stop by in Saigon and then in some docks in China to arrive in Hong Kong. Amoy and Shanghai would be the last stops before reaching Japan. Finally, after a stay in Nagasaki, the ship would arrive her destination in Yokohama. The return was scheduled in October of the same year.

The ship experienced some problems during her long journey. On 26 July 1889, she entered the Suez Canal and ran ashore in Great Bitter Lake, destroyed the stern post and lost the rudder. After repairs, Ertuğrul set sail again on 23 September. While sailing in western Indian Ocean, the ship took on water from the bow. The crew was unable to conduct the necessary repairs until they reached Singapore. Ertuğrul was repaired in Singapore and departed on 22 March 1890. After a ten-day stop in Saigon, she arrived in Yokohama on 7 June 1890. The journey from Istanbul lasted around eleven months. Captain Ali Osman Bey was promoted to the rank of (Commodore/Rear Admiral) during the journey.

In Yokohama, Rear Admiral Ali Osman Pasha and the officers were received by  Emperor Meiji of Japan on 13 June 1890. The gifts and the medal sent by Sultan Abdul Hamid II were presented to their intended recipients. Ali Osman Pasha was honored with the First Class Order of the Rising Sun, and Skipper Ali Bey with the Third Class Order of the Rising Sun. Other navy officers were also decorated with medals. Subsequently, Ottoman officers were received by the Empress. On 14 June 1890, young Prince Yoshihito Haru received the Ottoman rear admiral. On the following days, many receptions, dinners and ceremonies took place.

During her stay of three months in Japan, Ertuğrul frigate lost twelve crew members to epidemic.

Shipwreck

At noon on 15 September 1890, Ertuğrul set sail from Yokohama for Istanbul. At the time of departure, the weather conditions were good, but the next morning a reverse wind began to blow, getting stronger towards evening. By nightfall, the wind came from below the bow so that the sails had to be folded. At the same time, violent waves began beating against the ship, which, under severe trial, could hardly make headway. The  high mizzen mast collapsed and caused severe damage by shaking from side to side and banging into the other (rigging) sails. While the storm continued gaining power, waves coming from the bow separated the deck boards from the front. Water broke through into the coal depots in the boiler room. Over the next four days, the crew tried to repair the damage by remedying the sails and tightening the shrouds. They also continuously tried to empty the water out of the coal containers (which were the ones most seriously in danger) using buckets, since the pumps were insufficient.

Despite all their efforts, the ship's disintegration was imminent and the only option was to seek sanctuary in a nearby port. They headed to Kobe, within  of the ship, in the gulf beyond the Kashinozaki Cape with Oshima Lighthouse. Seawater breaking through finally extinguished one of the furnaces in the engine room. Almost immobile without main sails and sufficient propulsion, and having only the wind and the waves behind, Ertuğrul drifted towards the dangerous rocks at the eastern coast of Kii Ōshima. As the crew tried just to stop the ship before the rocks by emergency anchoring, the ship hit the reefs and fell apart at the first impact around midnight on 18 September 1890.

At the site of the incident, more than 500 sailors, of whom fifty were officers including the commander Rear Admiral Ali Osman Pasha, lost their lives. Only six officers and sixty-three sailors survived. Six of the survivors were uninjured, nine severely wounded and the others sustained light injuries. After the rescue operation, two survivors were taken to Kobe by Japanese ships, two more by a Japanese battleship and sixty-five by German gunboats. All of the sixty-nine survivors were transported back to Istanbul aboard the Japanese corvettes  and , leaving Shinagawa, Tokyo, in October 1890. The Sultan met with the officers of the Japanese ships on 5 January 1891 and expressed his appreciation for the relief operation by decorating them with medals.

Commemoration

This accident created a general sympathy in Japan for Turkish people and led to the establishment of a strong basis for which friendship between Turkey and Japan was to later flourish.

In February 1891, a cemetery was established for the 150 bodies recovered from the sea, and a memorial next to it was built near the lighthouse in the town of Kushimoto, Wakayama. On 3 June 1929, Emperor Hirohito visited the cemetery, which was extended the same year. Turkey renovated the monument in 1939.

In 1974, a "Turkish Museum" was established in Kushimoto, in which a scale model of the ship, photographs and statues of the sailors are on exhibition.

The event is commemorated every five years on the day of the accident in Kushimoto, with the participation of high-level officials from Turkey and Japan. In June 2008, Turkish president Abdullah Gül, visiting Japan officially, proceeded from Tokyo to Kushimoto to take part at a commemoration together with regional officials.

A Japanese-Turkish drama film about the event, 125 Years Memory, was released in 2015.

Salvaging the wreckage
On 4 January 2007, an underwater archaeological project started the excavation of the wreck as a collaboration of the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) in Bodrum, Yapı Kredi Retirement Partnership and the Turkish Foundation of Nautical Archaeology. It is intended to exhibit the remains of the ship in the museum next to the Ertuğrul Monument in Kashino, Kushimoto. American and Japanese nautical archaeologists and historians joined the excavation team.

On 28 January 2008, the team of archaeologists, under the leadership of Tufan Turanlı (director of INA-Bodrum at the time), reached the ammunition store section of the wreck in a dive during the second phase of the underwater excavation project. Three cannonballs, each , of the ship's Krupp naval guns, tens of bullets and pieces of naval mines were recovered and safely brought to the Port of Kushimoto, where explosive experts of local police, the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force and Navy examined them. The artifacts were later taken to Ertuğrul Research Institute for conservation. Turanlı recalled that two Winchester rifles recovered earlier are on exhibition in the museum.

See also
 Kushimoto Turkish Memorial and Museum
 125 Years Memory
 Torajiro Yamada
 Mersin Martyrs' Memorial
 Turkish military memorials and cemeteries outside Turkey
 List of maritime accidents and disasters by death toll

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Ertuğrul salvage project official website

1863 ships
Archaeology of shipwrecks
Japan–Turkey relations
Maritime incidents in 1890
Maritime incidents in Japan
Sailing ships
Ships built in the Ottoman Empire
Shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Steamships
Three-masted ships

Ottoman frigate Ertuğrul


Dongchu (, 1907–1977) was a Chinese Ch'an Master in Mainland China and later in Taiwan, and also the teacher of respected modern-day Ch'an Master Sheng-yen. He is the 51st generation of Zen patriarch from the Caodong School (See Lineage Chart). He also established several monasteries and organizations in Taiwan that continue to exist and expand to this very day, including Chung-hwa Institute of Buddhist Culture and Nung Chan Monastery.

He was born in Jiangsu province, China. At his early education period, he studied with various prominent monks such as Master  and Master Nanting from the Zhulin Buddhist Institute in Zhenjiang. He then pursues his study further at Minnan Buddhist Institute in Xiamen, and studied under renowned scholar-monk and modernist Master Taixu. His peers in the institute include Master Yinshun, Zhumo, and Cihang (Tzuhang) – all of whom also became influential monks.

After graduating from Minnan Buddhist Institute, Ven. Dongchu then became dean of the prestigious school Jiaoshan Buddhist Institute. At the same time, he was abbot of the Dinghui Monastery in Zhenjiang, Jiangsu province. Dinghui Monastery (Monastery of Samadhi and Wisdom) was a very famous Ch'an monastery in China, it stands on an island in the Yangtze River, on a hill called Floating Jade Mountain. It was first built around 194-195 CE and changed names several times before finally became Dinghui Monastery during Qing Dynasty. He also taught classes at several other Buddhist institutes, including Jingan Si (Quiet Calm) Academy in Shanghai – at which young Sheng-yen, who was studying there, first encountered him. Ven. Dongchu had a reputation as a progressive thinker who, unlike most monks at his time, would not hesitate to criticize others. He was also known as a fierce teacher and his students gave him the nickname the 'Big Gun'. His paradigm was much influence by his teacher, Taixu.

He also became the first permanent council member in the Buddhist Association of the Republic of China in 1947. But it did not last long as within the next couple of years, the Communist Party drove Nationalists out of the Mainland China, and many religious leaders, in fear of the Communists' persecution, fled overseas – including Ven. Dongchu, who fled to Taiwan at 1949.

He took temporary shelter at Beitou, near Taipei, at the Fazang Monastery. Three months later, his passion for Buddhist education and culture led him to start the Humanity Magazine – the first Buddhist periodical in Taiwan. Its mission is to "purify the minds of the people and establish Life Buddhism." By the early 1950s, it had grown very popular and its circulation reached Southeast Asia and East Asia, and the United States.

Ven. Dongchu established his first monastery in Taiwan at 1955. It was located in Beitou, near Taipei, and was completed a year later. Instead of naming it a 'monastery', he named it Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Culture to establish a foundation for cultural work. In 1956, he started a charity program called 'Winter Relief Drive' to collect donations to buy rice, oil, and winter clothing for poor families and orphanages in Beitou, Tamsui, Sanchong, Yilan, Taoyuan, and Xinzhuang. Therefore, they could celebrate Chinese New Year with warmth and meal.

Ven. Sheng-yen, who had been an active writer in the Humanity Magazine under his pen-name Xing Shi Jiang Jun ("World Awakening General"), became Ven. Dongchu's disciple in 1959. Ven. Sheng-yen was a soldier in the intelligence unit at that time, he joined the Army unwillingly in order to escape from Mainland China. Despite his position in the intelligence, Ven. Sheng-yen's request to be dismissed from his post was accepted by his superior with Ven. Dongchu's help.

Aside from his intellectual and charity activities, Ven. Dongchu didn't spend much time leading Buddhist ceremonies or rituals. In his later years, he rarely went out to focus on his writings. Thus, he didn't have many followers and disciples. However, he was persistent and in the 1960s he bought a 2.5 acres of land in the Guandu Plain, near Taipei.
In the beginning it only serves as a farmland cultivated by Ven. Dongchu and his two disciples – Ven. Sheng-yen was in solitary retreat at southern Taiwan by the time. Step by step, he built a farmhouse, and after four years of works, he succeeded to establish another monastery, Nung Chan Monastery in 1975. In Nung Chan, meaning Farming Ch'an, the residents practice Ch'an while grow their own food. They live by the famous aphorism by Zen Master Baizhang Huaihai, "A day without work is a day without food". The monastery was dedicated to Bodhisattva Manjusri, which symbolizes great wisdom.

In 1976, Ven. Dongchu had a chance to visit his disciple Ven. Sheng-yen in New York. Ven. Sheng-yen was an abbot of a small monastery at the Bronx and he succeeded to gain a number of Western followers. They both had parted long before. Ven. Sheng-yen went to six-years solitary retreat in 1961. He then studied in Japan for some years and earned a doctorate degree before arriving in United States.

Ven. Dongchu died in 1977 in sitting position with no clear illness. In his last will he passed down the abbotship of Chung-hwa Institute of Buddhist Culture and Nung Chan to Ven. Sheng-yen. His ashes, which were kept in Chung-hwa Institute of Buddhist Culture before, were buried in the Life Memorial Garden of Dharma Drum Mountain in 2007.

The Chinese name of New York City's Ch'an Meditation Center () is named after Ven. Master Dongchu by his disciple Ven. Master Sheng-yen.

References

External links
 Ven. Dongchu Biography in Dharma Drum Mountain website

Chan Buddhists
Dharma Drum Mountain
Zen Buddhism writers
Zen Buddhist abbots
Chinese religious leaders
Taiwanese Zen Buddhists
Taiwanese religious leaders
Writers from Taizhou, Jiangsu
Soto Zen Buddhists
1908 births
1977 deaths
20th-century Chinese writers
Taiwanese writers
Taiwanese people from Jiangsu
20th-century Buddhist monks

Dongchu


Rabbi Moses Isserles (, ) (22 February  1530 / 25 Adar I 5290 – 11 May 1572 / 18 Iyar 5332), also known by the acronym Rema, was an eminent Polish Ashkenazi rabbi, talmudist, and posek (expert in Jewish law).

Biography
Isserles was born in Kraków, Poland. His father, Israel ben Josef (known as Isserl), was a prominent talmudist and independently wealthy, who had probably headed the community; his grandfather, Jehiel Luria, was the first rabbi of Brisk. (In an era which preceded the common use of surnames, Moses became known by his patronymic, Isserles.) He studied in Lublin under Rabbi Shalom Shachna, who would later become his father-in-law. Among his fellow pupils were his relative Solomon Luria (Maharshal)—later a major disputant of many of Isserles' halachic rulings, and Chayyim b. Bezalel, an older brother of the Maharal. His first wife died young, at the age of 20 and he later established the "Rema Synagogue" in Kraków in her memory (originally his house, built by his father in his honor—which he gave to the community). He later married the sister of Joseph ben Mordechai Gershon Ha-Kohen.

He returned to Kraków about 1550, establishing a large yeshiva where as a wealthy man, he supported his pupils. In his teaching, he was opposed to pilpul and emphasized simple interpretation of the Talmud. In 1553 he was appointed as dayan; he also served on the Council of the Four Lands.  He became a world-renowned scholar and was approached by many other well-known rabbis, including Yosef Karo, for Halachic decisions. He was one of the greatest Jewish scholars of Poland, and was the primary halakhic authority for European Jewry of his day.  He died in Kraków and was buried next to his synagogue.  On his tombstone is inscribed: "From Moses (Maimonides) to Moses (Isserles) there was none like Moses". Until the Second World War, thousands of pilgrims visited his grave annually on Lag Ba'omer, his Yahrzeit (date of death).

Not only was Isserles a renowned Talmudic and legal scholar, but he was also learned in Kabbalah and studied  history, astronomy, and philosophy. He taught that "the aim of man is to search for the cause and the meaning of things." He also held that "it is permissible to now and then study secular wisdom, provided that this excludes works of heresy... and that one [first] knows what is permissible and forbidden, and the rules and the mitzvot". Maharshal reproached him for having based some of his decisions on Aristotle. His reply was that he studied Greek philosophy only from Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed, and then only on Shabbat and Yom Tov - and furthermore, it is better to occupy oneself with philosophy than to err through Kabbalah.

Rabbi Isserles had several children: "Drezil (named after his maternal grandmother), wife of R. Bunem Meisels.  A daughter whose name is unknown to us....  A son, R. Yehuda....  A third daughter...who is totally unknown to us."  He is buried in the eponymous Remuh Cemetery in Kraków.

Genealogy
A reputed descendant of King David through Rashi, he has many notable descendants, among which are included members of the Meisel family, alongside Rabbi Yakov Kuli Slonim, son-in-law of the Mittler Rebbe, the composers Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, the pianist Julius Isserlis, the cellist Steven Isserlis, the author Inbali Iserles, the mathematician Arieh Iserles and the statistician Leon Isserlis.

Approach

Isserles is perhaps best known for his halakhic works, chief among them his notes to the Shulchan Aruch by Yosef Karo.  He is noted for his approach to customs (minhagim): "it should be remembered that R. Isserles did not regard the Jewish Minhag lightly.  On the contrary, he too expressed reverence and respect for it, and whenever possible endeavored to uphold it and also to explain its origin.  Only, unlike many great Talmudic scholars, he refused to follow it blindly.  When convinced of the unsound basis of a Minhag, he was ready to repudiate it regardless of its acceptance by the people."

Furthermore: "The Talmud is, of course, the great reservoir to which R. Isserles turns as the first step in attempting to solve a problem. The question at hand is immediately referred to an identical or similar case in the Talmud. The second step is the weighing of the opinions of the ראשונים, i.e. Alfasi (רי"ף), Tosafists, Nachmanides, etc. expanding and explaining the text. The opinion of the majority is followed by R. Isserles and even Maimonides, whom he respected very highly, is disregarded if he was in the minority. After the Rishonim, R. Isserles proceeds to examine writings of אחרונים, i.e. Mordechai, Ashri and Tur, and the latter is followed especially when the Tosafists agree with him. At this point, the Responsa of still later authorities are cited extensively in accordance with the well-established principle of הלכה כבתרא, paying due attention even to the opinions of contemporaries and to customs of Polish Jewry which the ב"י omitted. Thus, Isserles, in his responsa as well as in the ד"מ and his commentary on the Shulchan Aruch, served as a supplement and offered his community the code of Law adjusted to its authorities, customs, and needs. He spread the "cloth" over the table prepared by his contemporary, the ב"י."

Isserles, like Yosef Karo in the  Shulchan Aruch, often quotes Kabbalistic sources and opinions in his various works, and writes of his great joy upon finding that his ruling concurred with what he later found written in the "words of the Zohar which were given at Sinai...".

Writing to a friend who had become a rabbi in Germany, Moses Isserles expressed his preference for living in Poland over Germany: "You would be better off living with us in Poland on stale bread if need be, but safe".

Works
Isserles is renowned  for his fundamental work of Halakha (Jewish law), entitled ha-Mapah (lit., "the tablecloth"), an inline commentary on the Shulchan Aruch (lit. "the set table"), upon which his "great reputation as a halakist and codifier rests chiefly."

Darkhei Moshe
Darkhei Moshe (דרכי משה) is a commentary on the Tur as well as on the Beth Yosef, which is Yosef Karo's commentary on the Tur and the work underlying the Shulkhan Aruch. Isserles had originally intended the Darkhei Moshe to serve as a basis for subsequent halakhic decisions. As such, in this work he evaluates the rulings of the Tur—which was widely accepted among the Ashkenazim and Sephardim—comparing these with rulings of other halakhic authorities. The Beth Yosef was published while Isserles was at work on the Darkhei Moshe. Recognizing that Karo's commentary largely met his objectives, Isserles published the Darkhei Moshe in a modified form. "In publishing the דרכי משה, R. Isserles rendered a great service to Ashkenazic Jewry, for he reestablished its Talmudic authorities as the deciding factor in determining a law."  An abridgement of the original work is published with the Tur; the complete version of the Darkhei Moshe is published separately.

HaMapah
HaMapah (המפה) is written as a gloss to the Shulchan Aruch of Yosef Karo, discussing cases where Sephardi and Ashkenazi customs differ. Hamapah is the "tablecloth" for the Shulkhan Aruch, the "set table". Karo had based his normative positions on three authorities: Maimonides, Asher ben Jehiel (the Rosh), and Isaac Alfasi (the Rif). Of these, only Asher ben Jehiel had non-Sephardic roots, having lived most of his life in Germany before moving to Spain, but even so, his work is largely Sephardic in orientation. Isserles thus created a series of glosses, in which he supplemented Karo with material drawn from the laws and customs (Minhagim) of Ashkenazi Jewry, chiefly based on the works of  Yaakov Moelin, Israel Isserlein and Israel Bruna.

All editions of the Shulchan Aruch since 1578 include HaMapah embedded in the text (introduced by the word: הגה Hagahah, meaning "gloss"), and distinguished by a semi-cursive "Rashi script". Rabbi Isserles' HaMapah was "considered to be an interpretation and supplement to Karo's work, while also challenging its claim to universal authority by introducing Ashkenazic traditions and customs that differed from the Sephardic ones. Rather than challenge the status of the Shulhan 'Arukh, however, Isserles established the status of the Shulhan 'Arukh as the authoritative text. In most of the editions since 1574, the Shulhan 'Arukh was printed with HaMapah, thus creating an interesting tension that was realized on the printed page. It was an act of integrating the Sephardic tradition and its accommodation into the Ashkenazi world, the confirmation of the authority and its undermining appearing on the same page."

The citations "indicating the sources in earlier authorities of the decisions in the annotations to the Shulchan Aruch, were not placed by Isserles.  This may be seen from the fact that many times incorrect references are given. An anonymous scholar placed them at the end of each comment and gradually they have been mistaken as being indications of the author himself."

Rabbi Isserles' weaving "his comments into the main text as glosses, indicates, besides upholding the traditional Ashkenazi attitude to a text, that the work itself, meant to serve as a textbook for laymen, had been accepted in Rema's yeshivah at Krakow as a students' reference book. Instead of the Arba'ah Turim, the main text for the study of posekim in the Ashkenazi yeshivah up to Rema's day, he chose to use the new book, which was free of accumulated layers of glosses and emendations, up-to-date and lucid, and arranged along the same lines as the old Turim so that it could easily be introduced into the yeshivah curriculum. This was the crucial step in altering the canonical status of the Shulhan Arukh."

Today, the term "Shulchan Aruch" refers to the combined work of Karo and Isserles. This consolidation of the two works strengthened the underlying unity of the Sephardi and Ashkenazi communities. It is through this unification that the Shulkhan Aruch became the universally accepted Code of Law for the entire Jewish people, with the notable exception of Yemenite Jews who still follow the Rambam (Maimonides).

Ancestry

Other works
Rabbi Isserles also wrote:
Torath ha-Chatath, a legal guidebook focusing primarily on Jewish dietary laws
Torath ha-Olah, an in-depth philosophical explanation of the significance of the Temple in Jerusalem and of its rites
Mechir Yayin, a commentary on the Book of Esther
Teshuvot Rema, a collection of responsa - see History of Responsa: Sixteenth century

Published works
Shulchan Aruch Archives - Orach Chayim , Torah.org
Shulchan Aruch Archives - Yoreh De'ah, Torah.org
Torath ha-Olah fulltext (PDF, Hebrew)

Notes

References

External links

Isserles, Moses Ben Israel (ReMA), jewishencyclopedia.com
Rabbi Moses ben Israel Isserles, jewishvirtuallibrary.org
The Virtual Jewish History Tour: Lublin, jewishvirtuallibrary.org
18 Iyar - Reb Moshe Isserles, the ReMA, yarzheit.com
Moshe Isserles (REMA), The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot
Darkhei Moshe, Prof. Eliezer Segal
"Tablecloth", Prof. Eliezer Segal
The Remo (5280 - 5332), chabad.org
Rema Synagogue

1530 births
1572 deaths
16th-century Polish rabbis
Rabbis from Kraków
Polish Orthodox rabbis
Authors of books on Jewish law

Moses Isserles