थ्व पौयात उल्था याये ल्यं दनि

कार्ल फ्रायडरिच बेन्ज (नोभेम्बर २६ ई सं १८४४ – अप्रिल ४ ई सं १९२९) छम्ह जर्मन इञ्जिन डिजाइनर व अटोमोबाइल इञ्जिनियर ख। वय्‌कःयात ग्यासोलिनं सनिगु अटोमोबाइलया आविष्कारक धका म्हसीकिगु या।

सन् १८८५स बेञ्जं हलिंया दकलय् न्हापांगु कमर्सियल अतोमोबाइल "मोतरव्यागन" (Motorwagen) दयेकादील। थ्व गसाः इन्तर्नल कम्बस्चन इञ्जिन छ्येला सनिगु या। थ्व गसालय् स्वचाः घःचाः दयाच्वन। न्ह्यःनेया घःचालं निर्देश याइगु व गःसालय् गइपिं यात्रु व इञ्जिनयात ल्युनेया निचाः घःचाया च्वे तयाः दयेकूगु थ्व मोदेलयात त्राइ-कार (Tri-Car) धका नं म्हसीकिगु या। बेञ्जजुं दयेकादीगु कारया मेमेगु कुचालय् कार्बोरेतर, एसेलेरेतर, ब्यात्रिया स्पार्कं सनिगु इग्निसन व्यवस्था, स्पार्क प्लग, क्लच, गियर शिफ्त, व लः छ्येलीगु रेदियतर आदि ला।

सन् १८९६स कार्ल बेञ्जं हलिंया दकलय् न्हापांगु इन्तर्नल कम्बस्चन "बक्सर इञ्जिन"या दिजाइन व प्यातेन्त यानादिल। थ्व इञ्जिनस अःखलं दूगु पिस्तन दयाच्वन। थ्व दिजाइन सिद्धान्त आःया इलय् तक मोतरकासाय् ब्वति काइगु तःच्वलं ब्वाकीगु इञ्जिनय् छ्येलीगु या।

भाजु बेञ्जं बेञ्ज कम्पनि पलिस्था यानादिल। थ्व कम्पनिं लिपा दायम्लर बेञ्ज, मर्सिदिल बेञ्ज व दायम्लर क्राइस्लर कम्पनि बुयावल। मदयेस्वया न्ह्यः वय्‌कलं, वय्‌कःया आविष्कारय् आधारित सन् १९२०या दशकया अतोमोबाइलया क्रान्ति खनादिल।

प्राथमिक जीवनी
Karl Benz was born Karl Friedrich Michael Vaillant, in Karlsruhe, Germany to locomotive driver Johann George Benz and Josephine Vaillant. When Karl was two years old, his father was killed in a railway accident, and his name was changed to Karl Friedrich Benz in remembrance of his father.

Despite living near poverty, his mother strove to give him a good education. Benz attended the local Grammar School in Karlsruhe and was a prodigious student. In 1853, at the age of nine he started at the scientifically oriented Lyzeum. Next he studied in the Poly-Technical University under the instruction of Ferdinand Redtenbacher.

Benz had originally focused his studies on locksmithing, but eventually followed his father's steps toward locomotive engineering. On September 30, 1860, at age fifteen he passed the entrance exam for mechanical engineering at the University of Karlsruhe which he subsequently attended. He was graduated on July 9, 1864.

During these years, while riding his bicycle he started to envision concepts for a vehicle that would eventually become the horseless carriage.

Following his formal education, Benz had seven years of professional
training in several companies, but did not fit well in any of them. The training started in Karlsruhe with two years of varied jobs in a mechanical engineering company. He then moved to Mannheim to work as a draftsman and designer in a scales factory. In 1868 he went to Pforzheim to work for a bridge building company Gebrüder Benckiser Eisenwerke und Maschinenfabrik. Finally, he went to Vienna for a short period to work at an iron construction company.

Benz's Factory and his first inventions (1871 to 1882)

१८७१य्, २७ दं दुबिले कार्ल बेन्ज नं अगस्ट रिट्टर यात म्यानहेइमय् छगु मेक्यानिकल ज्याकुथि न्ह्यथनेत ग्वाहालि याना दिल। वेकलं in launching a mechanical workshop in Mannheim, also dedicated to supplying construction materials: the Iron Foundry and Mechanical Workshop, later renamed, Factory for Machines for Sheet-metal Working.

The enterprise's first year was a complete disaster. Ritter turned out to be unreliable and local authorities confiscated the business. Benz then bought out Ritter's share in the company using the dowry provided by the father of his fiancée, Bertha Ringer.

In जुलाई २०, ई सं १८७२ Benz and Ringer married, later having five children: Eugen (1873), Richard (1874), Clara (1877), Thilde (1882), and Ellen (1890).

Despite such business misfortunes, Karl Benz led in the development of new engines. To get more revenues, in 1878 he began to work on new patents. First, he concentrated all his efforts on creating a reliable gas two-stroke engine, based on Nikolaus Otto's design of the four-stroke engine . A patent on the design by Otto had been declared void. Benz finished his engine on New Year's Eve and was granted a patent for it in 1879.

Karl Benz showed his real genius, however, through his successive inventions registered while designing what would become the production standard for his two-stroke engine. Benz soon patented the speed regulation system, the ignition using sparks with battery, the spark plug, the carburetor, the clutch, the gear shift, and the water radiator.

Benz's Gasmotoren-Fabrik Mannheim (1882 to 1883)
Problems arose again when the banks at Mannheim demanded that Benz's Gas Factory enterprise be incorporated due to the high production costs it maintained. Benz was forced to improvise an association with photographer Emil Bühler and his brother (a cheese merchant), in order to get additional bank support. The company became the joint-stock company Gasmotoren Fabrik Mannheim in 1882.

After all the necessary agreements, Benz was unhappy because he was left with merely 5% of the shares and a modest position as director. Worst of all, his ideas weren't considered when designing new products, so he withdrew from that corporation just one year later, in 1883.

Benz & Cie. and the Motorwagen

Benz's lifelong hobby brought him to a bicycle repair shop in Mannheim owned by Max Rose and Friedrich Wilhelm Eßlinger. In 1883 the three founded a new company producing industrial machines: Benz & Company Rheinische Gasmotoren-Fabrik, usually referred to as, Benz & Cie. Quickly growing to twenty-five employees, it soon began to produce gas engines as well.

The company gave Benz the opportunity to indulge in his old passion of designing a horseless carriage. Based on his experience with, and fondness for, bicycles, he used similar technology when he created an automobile with a four-stroke engine of his own design between the rear wheels. Power was transmitted by means of two roller chains to the rear axle. Benz finished his creation in 1885 and named it the Benz Patent Motorwagen. It was the first automobile entirely designed as such, not simply a motorized carriage, which is why Karl Benz is regarded by many as the inventor of the automobile.

The beginnings of the Motorwagen in 1885 were less than spectacular. The tests often attracted many onlookers who laughed mockingly when it smashed against a wall because it initially was so difficult to control. The Motorwagen was patented on January 29, 1886 as DRP-37435: "automobile fueled by gas". The first successful tests were carried out in the early summer of 1886 on public roads. The next year Karl Benz created the Motorwagen Model 2 which had several modifications, and in 1887, the definitive Model 3 with wooden wheels was introduced.

Benz began to sell the vehicle—advertising it as the Benz Patent Motorwagen—making it the first commercially available automobile in history. The first customer, in late summer of 1888, is alleged later to have been committed to an insane asylum. The second buyer, the Parisian Emile Roger, who purchased an 1888 Benz, had a profound effect on Benz's success. Roger had been building Benz engines under a license from Karl Benz for several years, and in 1888, decided to add his automobiles to the line. Many of the early Benz automobiles were indeed built in France and sold by Roger, since the Parisians were more inclined to purchase automobiles at the time.

Early customers faced significant problems. At the time, gasoline was available only from pharmacies that sold it as a cleaning product, and they didn't stock it in large quantities. The early-1888 version of the Motorwagen had to be pushed when driving up a steep hill. This limitation was rectified after Berta Benz made her famous trip driving one of the vehicles a great distance and suggested the addition of another gear to her husband. The popular story goes that, on the morning of August 5, 1888, Berta Benz took this vehicle (without the knowledge of her husband), and embarked on a 106 km (fifty miles) trip from Mannheim to Pforzheim to visit her mother, taking her sons Eugen and Richard with her. In addition to having to scrounge for fuel at pharmacies on the way, she also overcame various technical problems and finally arrived at nightfall announcing the achievement to Karl Benz by telegram. Today the event is celebrated in Germany with an antique automobile rally.

Benz's Model 3 made its widescale debut to the world in the 1889 World's Fair in Paris, and about twenty-five Motorwagens were built during the period between 1886 and 1893.

Benz & Cie. expansion

The great demand for stationary, static internal combustion engines forced Karl Benz to enlarge the factory, and in 1886 a new building located on Waldhofstrasse (operating until 1908) was added. Benz & Cie. had grown in the interim from 50 employees (1890) to 430 (1899). During the last years of the 19th century—Benz & Company—was the largest automobile company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899.

Because of its size, in 1899 the Benz & Cie. became a joint-stock company with the arrival of Friedrich Von Fischer and Julius Ganß, who came aboard as members of the Board of Management. Ganß worked in the commercialization department.

The new directors recommended that Karl Benz should create a less expensive automobile suitable for mass production. In 1893 Benz created the Victoria, a two-passenger automobile with a 3 hp engine, which could reach the top speed of 11 mph and a pivotal front axle operated by a roller-chained tiller for steering. The model was successful with 45 units sold in 1893.

In 1894 Benz improved this design in his new Velo model. This automobile was produced on such a remarkably large scale for the era—1200 units from 1894 to 1901—that it is considered the first mass-produced automobile. The Benz Velo also participated in the first automobile race: Paris to Rouen 1894.

In 1895 Benz designed the first truck in history, with some of the units later modified by the first bus company: the Netphener, becoming the first buses in history.

In 1896, Karl Benz was granted a patent for his design of the first boxer engine with horizontally-opposed pistons. His design created an engine in which the corresponding pistons reach top dead centre simultaneously, thus balancing each other with respect to momentum. Flat engines with four or fewer cylinders are most commonly boxer engines and are also known as, horizontally-opposed engines. This continues to be the design principle for high performance, automobile racing engines such as Porsches.

Although Gottlieb Daimler died in March of 1900—and there is no evidence that Karl Benz and Daimler knew each other nor that they knew about each other's early achievements—eventually, competition with Daimler Motors (DMG) in Stuttgart began to challenge the leadership of Benz & Cie.. In October of 1900 the main designer of DMG, Wilhelm Maybach, built the Mercedes-35hp to the specifications of Emil Jellinek under a contract for him to purchase thirty-six of them and for him to become a dealer of the model. Maybach would quit DMG in 1907, but he designed the model and all of the important changes. After testing, the first one was delivered to Jellinek on December 22, 1900. Jellinek continued to make suggestions for changes to the model and obtained good results racing the automobile in the next few years, encouraging DMG to increase their production of automobiles.

Benz countered with his Parsifil automobile, introduced in 1903 with 2 vertical cylinders and a top speed of 37 mph. Then, without consulting Benz, the other directors hired some French designers. France was a country with an extensive automobile industry based on Maybach's creations. Because of this action, after difficult discussions, Karl Benz announced his retirement from design management on January 24, 1903, although he remained as director on the Board of Management until his death in 1929. Benz's sons Eugen and Richard also left the company, but Richard returned in 1904 as designer of passenger vehicles.

By 1904 the sales of Benz & Cie. were up to 3480 automobiles and the company remained the leading manufacturer of automobiles. Along with continuing as a director of Benz & Cie., Karl Benz soon would found another company—with his son, Eugen—that was closely held within the family, manufacturing automobiles under another brand.

In 1909 the Blitzen Benz was built by Benz & Cie. and the racecar set a land speed record of 228.1 km/h, said to be "faster than any plane, train, or automobile" at the time. The racecar was transported to several countries, even to the United States, to establish multiple records of this achievement. The bird-beaked, aerodynamically-designed vehicle contained a 21.5-liter displacement, 200-horsepower engine. The land speed record of the Blitzen Benz was unbroken for ten years.

Benz-Söhne (1906 to 1923)
Karl Benz, Bertha Benz, and his son Eugen then moved to live in nearby Ladenburg, and solely with their own capital, founded the company Benz Sons (Benz-Söhne) in 1906, producing automobiles and gas engines. The latter type was replaced by petrol engines because lack of demand. This company never issued stocks publicly, building its own line of automobiles independently from Benz & Cie.

The Benz-Söhne automobiles were of good quality and became popular in London as taxis. In 1912, Karl Benz liquidated all of his shares in Benz-Söhne and left the company to Eugen and Richard, but remained as a director of Benz & Cie. On November 25 1914, the 70 year-old Karl Benz was awarded an honorary Doctor title by the Karlsruhe University.

Almost from the very beginning of the production of automobiles, participation in sports car racing became a major method to gain publicity for manufacturers. At first, the production models were raced and the Benz Velo participated in the first automobile race: Paris to Rouen 1894. Later, investment in developing racecars for motorsports produced returns through sales generated by the association of the name of the automobile with the winners. Unique race vehicles were built at the time, as seen in the photograph here of the Benz, the first mid-engine and aerodynamically designed, Tropfenwagen, a "teardrop" body introduced at the 1923 European Grand Prix at Monza.

In the last year of the Benz-Shone company, 1923, three hundred and fifty units were built. Finally, in the following year, 1924, Karl Benz built two additional 8/25 hp units tailored for his personal use, which he never sold; they are still preserved.

Toward Daimler-Benz and the Mercedes Benz of 1926

During the First World War, Benz & Cie. and Daimler Motors (DMG) both had massively increased their production for the war effort. After the conflict ended, both manufacturers resumed their normal activities, but the German economy was chaotic. The automobile was considered a luxury item and as such, was charged a 15 % extra tax. At the same time, the country suffered a severe lack of petroleum. To survive this difficult situation, in 1919 Benz & Cie. proposed a cooperation suggested by Karl Benz through a representative, Karl Jahn, but DMG rejected the proposal in December.

The German economic crisis worsened. In 1923 Benz & Cie. produced only 1,382 units in Mannheim, and DMG made only 1,020 in Stuttgart. The average cost of an automobile was 25 million marks because of rapid inflation. Negotiations between the two companies resumed and in 1924 signed an Agreement of Mutual Interest valid until the year 2000. Both enterprises standardized design, production, purchasing, sales, and advertising—marketing their automobile models jointly—although keeping their respective brands.

In 1926] (June 28) Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the Daimler-Benz company, baptizing all of its automobiles Mercedes Benz in honor of the most important model of the DMG automobiles, the Mercedes-35hp. The name of that DMG model had been selected after ten-year-old Mercedes Jellinek, the daughter of Emil Jellinek (by then one of DMG'''s partners) who had set the specifications for the new model. A new logo was created—consisting of a three pointed star (representing Daimler's motto: "engines for land, air, and water") surrounded by traditional laurels from the Benz logo—and was labeled, Mercedes-Benz. The next year, 1927, the number of units sold tripled to 7918 and the diesel was launched for truck production. In 1928 the Mercedes Benz SS'' was presented.

अप्रिल ४, १९२९य् वेकयागु मृत्यु ८४ दंय् वेकयागु छें ल्याडेनबर्गय् सोंयागु ब्रोन्काइटिस नं जुल। Until her death on May 5, 1944, Bertha Benz continued to reside in their home. The Benz home has been designated as historic and is used as a scientific meeting facility for a nonprofit foundation that honors both Bertha and Karl Benz for their roles in the history of automobiles.

नोट

स्वया दिसं
 बेन्ज (युनिट)

पिनेयागु स्वापूतः
 Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz Foundation - founded in 1997 at the last residence of Karl Benz
 Karl Benz on 3-wheelers.com
 Marco Benz the Great Great Grandson of Karl Benz joined the United States Army
 Photographs of the 1909 Blitzen Benz - "faster than any plane, train, or automobile" setting a land speed record of 228.1 km/h

Benz, Karl
Benz, Karl
Benz, Karl
Benz, Karl
Benz, Karl
जीवनी

कार्ल बेन्ज


AboutUs.com is a wiki Internet domain directory. It lists websites along with information about their content. As a wiki, AboutUs allows Internet users to add entries or modify information. It was created by Ray King in 2006. It started in Portland, Oregon, where the website's headquarters is today. Ray King started AboutUs with only five people working with him, but, now he has more than thirty-five employees. AboutUs is in two different continents now, and they have an office in the city of Lahore, Pakistan.

References

Other websites

Websites

AboutUs.com


There are lots of different varieties of Indian music. Most of the different types of music are similar to Western music types. Pop, classical, and folk are all included. India's classical music has a history originating hundreds of years back and is still popular in India today, as religious inspiration or pure entertainment. Girl and boy bands are common in India. Farida Vakil founded one of the first female bands in India, The Ladybirds. Like Africa, India has many different ethnic groups, speaking their own languages, and having very distinct cultural traditions.

The tal, or tala, is a repeating rhythm pattern usually played by the tabla. It usually has between six and sixteen beats. The beats are grouped into small sections in the pattern. The first note in the pattern is called a 'sam'. It shows the beginnings and ends of improvisation, so it is often emphasized.

The Raga is also a pattern, but it differs from Western scales or melodies. Ragas are sort of a mix of scales and melodies. They have particular ascending and descending patterns. Ragas are used to symbolize the time of day, season, mood or special occasion.

A drone is a note that's either held or repeated throughout a piece of music. It's usually the tonic note, the starting note. Nowadays, the drone is played by an electrical box, but traditionally, it is played using the tanpura, which is also known as the Tambura.

Improvisation is when the player does not have a prepared piece or an incomplete piece of music, and they make up notes as they play. Improvisation is recognized as a form of composition.

There are 4 types of structure in Indian Music, Alap, Jhor, Jhala and Gat/Bandish. Each of these has different roles in a piece of Indian music.

Alap is the name for the opening part of a piece of classical music from North India. It is a type of melodic improvisation that includes a Raga in it. Only the singer and the drone can be heard at this point.

Jhor is a more elaborate version of the Raga that is included in the Alap. It forms the beginning of the performance. This comes after Alap and before Jhala.

Jhala indicates the fast-paced ending of the Raga. It is often distinguished by the overcoming of the melodic component by the rhythm.

The Gat, or Bandish is a permanent composition set in a specific Raga. It is accompanied by the Tabla, a drone and melodic accompaniment by a sarangi , violin or harmonica.

Entertainment in India

Indian music


Lassie is a dramatic children's television series. It was televised on CBS from September 12, 1954 to March 24, 1973. The series is about the adventures of a collie and her human and animal friends.

The show was the brainchild of television producer Robert Maxwell and animal trainer Rudd Weatherwax. They created a story about a struggling midwestern farm family and its dog. Weatherwax's dog actor Pal was chosen to play the title character. Pal had played Lassie in the seven MGM movies about the dog character. Pal made the two pilots for the television series, and then retired. The television Lassies that followed were all descendants of Pal, all were male, and all were trained by Weatherwax.

In 1957, oil millionaire Jack Wrather took over the show as producer. He guided it through its greatest years with his wife Bonita Granville Wrather. The first ten years of the series are set on a farm in the American midwest. These years focus on the relationship between Lassie and a young farm boy. The next seven years are about the dog and her Forest Ranger friends. In the last two years, Lassie lives at a home for troubled children. The show was famous for its "Whistle Theme" by Muzzy Marcellino. The Campbell's Soup Company sponsored the show's entire 19-year run. Spin-off merchandise was produced for children such as comic books, play sets, and clothing. The show won two Emmy Awards in its early years.

The show had a large cast over the years. Tommy Rettig played the farm boy for the first three years. Jon Provost became the farm boy in 1957 when Rettig left the show.  Jan Clayton played Rettig's mother and June Lockhart played Provost's. Hugh Reilly played Provost's father. Both actresses were nominated for Emmys. The show had its best ratings during the Provost years of the early 1960s. Some episodes from these years were put together to make a color adventure movie for theatres.

Provost left the show in 1964. A new story was developed that took Lassie off the farm. She became the friend of three Forest Rangers. They all had adventures in America's most beautiful natural areas such as Monument Valley and Alaska. In the early 1970s, new rulings about prime time were handed down by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). These rulings meant that Lassie would be moved to the 8 pm time slot. Lassie had been shown for nineteen years in the 7 pm time slot. Producers felt that this move would not work for the show's child audience. The show was cancelled. Since the cancellation, Lassie has played in reruns and has never been off the air.

1954 television series debuts
1973 American television series endings
1950s American television series
1960s American television series
1970s American television series
American children's television series
American drama television series
Black and white television series
CBS network shows
Emmy Award winning programs
English-language television programs
1960s American children's television series
1970s American children's television series

Lassie (TV series)


Kristallnacht (also called Reichskristallnacht, Reichspogromnacht, ) was a two-day pogrom that happened against Jews in Nazi Germany and parts of Austria. It was between 9 and 10 November 1938. About 30,000 Jews were moved to concentration camps, and over 1,500 synagogues were pillaged and partly destroyed. Also, almost all Jewish cemeteries in Germany and Austria were destroyed. This marked the change from discriminating against Jews to actively persecuting and deporting them.

Herschel Grynszpan (sometimes also spelled Grünspan), a 17-year-old Jew living in Paris, learned that his whole family had been made to go back to Zsbaszyn in Poland, even though the younger children had been born in Germany. He got a gun, and with this he fired shots at Ernst Eduard vom Rath, who was a secretary of the German embassy in Paris. This was on 7 November. Vom Rath died of his wounds on 9 November.

The motive of Grynszpan is unclear. In a judicial hearing in 1942, he said it was revenge. He meant to shoot the ambassador, but hit the secretary instead.

The NSDAP used this event as an excuse to seize Jewish property. There had been a similar event in February 1936 but there were almost no consequences. Then, a Jewish student, David Frankfurter, had fired shots at the NSDAP secretary Wilhelm Gustloff. At that time, the NSDAP could not act because of the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin.

Photo gallery

Further reading
 Schultheis, Herbert. Die Reichskristallnacht in Deutschland nach Augenzeugenberichten (Bad Neustädter Beiträge zur Geschichte und Heimatkunde Frankens 3). Bad Neustadt a. d. Saale: Rötter Druck und Verlag. 1985. .

1938 in Germany
1930s in Austria
Nazism
Judaism in Austria
Judaism in Germany
November events

Kristallnacht


The word texture means: what things are made of and how they feel.

Textures can be described as "rough", "smooth", "hard", "soft",  "liquid", "solid", "lumpy", "gritty" etc.  The word "texture" is used for many different things.  It can even be used in abstract senses, e.g. for music and poetry.

Food

People like or dislike food because of its taste, but the texture of the food also plays a part in whether we like it or not. We enjoy the feel of it in our mouth. Food can be hard, soft, lumpy, gritty (e.g. a cake made with ground rice). Adding some lettuce to a cheese sandwich will change the texture of the sandwich: it makes it more crunchy.

Architecture

In architecture we often talk about "texture".  This can mean: the things that the buildings are made of.  It can also mean: the general way it looks, e.g. whether everything is built close together or whether there is plenty of space.  This is an abstract use of the word, because it compares the way we see things to the way things feel.

Painting

Painters talk about the texture of paintings. This can be seen clearly in pointillism which is a way of painting by using lots of little dots. This gives the painting a very interesting texture.

Music

In music, we can talk about the texture of a piece of music.  If there are a lot of notes being played at once, we could call this a "thick" texture.  If there are just two or three notes being played so that every note can be heard clearly, we could call this a "thin" or "clear" texture.  Music may have a "polyphonic" texture or a "chordal" texture.  The word "texture", this time, is being used to describe something we hear instead of something we feel.

Vocabulary
Sensory system

Texture


Pentium 4 is a seventh generation single core Microprocessor of x86 architecture (32-bit), manufactured by Intel. Its first complete redesign CPU (called NetBurst) since the processor Pentium Pro, released in 1995. Compared to the Pentium II, Pentium III and Celeron processors, its architecture is little similar to the Pentium Pro/P6 processor design. The NetBurst microarchitecture contains a very deep instruction pipeline to be able to achieve very high frequencies. The Pentium 4 was known for being inefficient and producing a large amount of heat. Because of this, Intel introduced the Core 2 in 2006. Intel stopped making the Pentium 4 in 2008.

Intel processors
Processors released in the 21st century

Pentium 4


A league is an old unit of length. It was the distance a person could walk in about one hour. The Romans adopted the league and it became a common unit of measurement throughout western Europe and Latin America.

In English-speaking countries the league was usually three statute miles (4.828032 kilometres) on land or three nautical miles (5.556 km) at sea. However, in writing the word league often means the Spanish, Portuguese or French league.

Ancient Rome
The league was used by Ancient Rome, which defined it as being  Roman miles (7500 Roman feet or 2.22 km). The origin is the "leuga gallica"  (also: leuca Gallica), the league of Gaul. The ancient league was short but the unit grew longer over time.

Argentina
In Argentina a league is a distance of 5 km.

Brazil
In Brazil the league was 6 km but it is not used anymore.

France
The French league had different values at different times: 10 000, 12 000, 13 200 and 14 400 French feet, about 3.25 km to about 4.68 km. It was used for a while together with the metric system but it is not used now. The French league was three nautical miles.

Mexico
In the Mexican countryside the league is still commonly used in the original sense of the distance a person can walk in an hour. So a league along a good road on level ground is longer than a league on a difficult path over rough ground.

Spain
The Spanish league was originally set as a fixed unit of distance of 5,000 varas (a Spanish yard), about 2.6 miles or 4.2 km. In 1568 Philip II of Spain officially abolished the league. However, in parts of Latin America, people still use it (with different meanings in different countries).

References

Old units of measurement
Units of length

League (unit)


Drury Rock () is a rock, about  high, lying 0.3 nautical miles (0.6 km) south-southeast of Shag Island and 6 nautical miles (11 km) north of Heard Island. This rock, though positioned several miles too far westward, appears to have been first shown on an 1860 sketch map compiled by Captain H.C. Chester, an American sealer operating in the area during this period. It was more accurately charted on an 1874 chart by a British expedition under George Nares in the Challenger. It was surveyed in 1948 by the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions, who named it for Alan Campbell-Drury, a radio operator and photographer with the party.

References

Rock formations of Antarctica
Landforms of Heard Island and McDonald Islands

Drury Rock


Nancy Wynne Newhall (May 9, 1908 – July 7, 1974) was an American photography critic.  She is best known for writing the text to accompany photographs by Ansel Adams and Edward Weston, but was also a widely published writer on photography, conservation, and American culture.

Biography
Newhall was born Nancy Wynne in Lynn, Massachusetts, and attended Smith College in that state. She married Beaumont Newhall, the curator of photography at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, and substituted for him in that role during his military service in World War II. During the 1940s she wrote essays on popular art and culture for small magazines and journals, in which she called for a society more attuned to art, and particularly to visual art.  Newhall was always more interested in a popular audience than an academic one; in a 1940 essay, she explores the possibilities of the new medium of television for popularizing the visual arts, suggesting techniques for teaching art and photography on camera:
.. . the cameras should approach an object as an actual spectator does, and, like him, be influenced by empathy.  Long shots become closeups, the flow of compositional directions, and, with due care for the results on the screen, studies of detail and texture under dramatic lighting, are all ways of lending motion to motionless things.
In another, she argues for the centrality of photography for understanding and teaching American history ("Research").  Newhall became close to photographer Edward Weston during this period, championing his early work and regarding his controversial 1940s work, which juxtaposed still lifes and nudes of considerable beauty and delicacy with wartime items such as gas masks, with some anxiety.

In 1945, Newhall wrote the text for a book of photographs, Time in New England, by Paul Strand.  The work would begin a new phase for her career, in which she became a vocal proponent and a central pioneer of the genre of oversized photography collections.  The best known and most influential of these is This Is the American Earth, a collaboration with Ansel Adams, published in 1960.  Like Adams, Newhall was involved with the Sierra Club, and wrote often about issues of conservation. Newhall was sometimes accused of political heavy-handedness on that subject—one uncharitable review of American Earth calls her prose "so full of Message that there is no room for poetry" (Deevey)—but her explication of the political context and motivation of Adams' work has been important for the Sierra Club and the conservation movement in general.

Nancy and Beaumont spent three summers at Black Mountain College beginning in 1946. In addition to lecturing and teaching, the Newhalls photographed the college campus and its people, taking portraits of Leo Amino, Ilya Bolotowsky, Gwendolyn Knight, Jacob Lawrence, and Buckminster Fuller's venetian-blind experiment. Some of Nancy and Beaumont Newhall's work is archived at the Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona, and at the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles, California. Nancy Newhall's photography has been the subject of an exhibition in its own right.

She died on July 7, 1974, at St. Johns Hospital in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, from injuries received in an accident which occurred on the Snake River of Grand Teton National Park.

Major books
Photographs, 1915-1945: Paul Strand. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1945.
The Photographs of Edward Weston. Edward Weston and Nancy Newhall, Museum of Modern Art, NY 1946.
Time in New England: Photographs by Paul Strand. New York: Aperture, 1950.  Reprinted New York: Harper and Row, 1980.
A Contribution to the Heritage of Every American: The Conservation Activities of John D. Rockefeller, Jr. New York: Knopf, 1957.
(with Beaumont Newhall) Masters of Photography. New York: Braziller, 1958.
(with Ansel Adams)This Is the American Earth. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1960.
Words of the Earth, photographs by Cedric Wright. Sierra Club Books, 1960
Alvin Langdon Coburn: A Portfolio of Sixteen Photographs. Rochester: George Eastman House, 1963.
Edward Weston, Photographer: The Flame of Recognition: His Photographs, Accompanied by Excerpts from the Daybooks & Letters, Edward Weston and Nancy Newhall, Published by Aperture, Inc. NY, 1968.
The Daybooks of Edward Weston, by Edward Weston, edited by Nancy Newhall, v. 1. Mexico.--v. 2. California, Millerton, N.Y., Aperture, 1973.
Ansel Adams. Sierra Club, 1964.  Reprinted (with photographs) as Ansel Adams: The Eloquent Light. New York: Aperture, 1980.
(with Beaumont Newhall) T. H. O'Sullivan: Photographer. Eastman, 1966.
(with Ansel Adams)Fiat Lux: The University of California. New York: McGraw Hill, 1967.
P. H. Emerson: The Fight for Photography as a Fine Art. Aperture, 1975.

References

Sources
Deevey, Edward S. Review of This is the American Earth. Science, Vol. 132, No. 3441 (1960), 1759.

Klochko, Deborah, Merry Foresta, MaLin Wilson, et al. Nancy Newhall: A Literacy of Images, San Diego, Calif.: Museum of Photographic Arts, 2008.
Newhall, Nancy. "The Need for Research in Photography." College Art Journal, Vol. 4, No. 4 (1945), 203-206.
—. "Television and the Arts." Parnassus, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1940), 37-38.
Sternberger, Paul. "Reflections on Edward Weston's 'Civilian Defense.'" American Art, Vol. 17, No. 1 (2003), 48-67.

External links
 Nancy Newhall, Tioga Mine, California photo by Ansel Adams
 Finding Aid for Beaumont and Nancy Newhall papers, 1843-1993 at the Getty Research Institute
Finding aid for the Beaumont and Nancy Newhall collection, 1930 - 1983 at the Center for Creative Photography, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ.

1908 births
1974 deaths
American art critics
American women journalists
Photography critics
Women science writers
American women critics
Sierra Club people
Smith College alumni
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American women writers
American nature writers
Historians of photography

Nancy Newhall


John Kramer—known as The Jigsaw Killer or simply Jigsaw—is a fictional character who appears in the Saw franchise as the main antagonist.

Jigsaw made his appearance in the first movie of the series, Saw, and he later appeared in Saw II, Saw III, Saw IV, Saw V, Saw VI, Saw 3D and, eventually, Jigsaw. He is played by American actor Tobin Bell.

Jigsaw ranks No. 30 in Empire magazine's "100 Greatest Movie Characters" list.

Background
In the series' narrative, Kramer is a former civil engineer dying from an inoperable frontal lobe tumor that had developed from colon cancer. After a failed suicide attempt, Kramer found a new appreciation for his life, and went to dedicate the rest of his life to inspiring the same appreciation in others by testing their will to live.

Tests
His methods include forcing his subjects through deadly scenarios, which he referred to as "games" or "tests", in which they were forced to inflict pain upon themselves or others in order to escape. These tests were typically symbolic of what Jigsaw perceived as a flaw in each person's moral character or life. The Jigsaw name was given to him by the media for his practice of cutting a puzzle piece shape of flesh from those who fail.

His videos are recorded with a cheap homemade camera with Billy the Puppet instructing the subjects what to do to live.

References

Other websites
 Jigsaw character description in the Saw video game

Fictional American people
Fictional characters introduced in 2004
Fictional murderers
Movie characters
Saw (franchise)

Jigsaw (Saw character)


America's Army is a multiplayer first-person shooter computer game series. It can be played using Windows, Macintosh, or Linux. It is the official game of the United States Army. The first version was free. It came out on July 4, 2002. It has been updated many times since then. The second important release was America's Army: Special Forces in November 2003. America's Army was made by the MOVES Institute at the Naval Postgraduate School. It is based on the Unreal engine.

Overview
America's Army is a tactical shooter. The Boston Globe called it a "serious game", "part of a new wave of computer simulations that provide entertaining lessons about real-world activities". According to the game's website, America's Army "provides civilians with an inside perspective and a virtual role in today's premier land force: the U.S. Army. The game is designed for verisimilitude and to provide an accurate portrayal of Soldier experiences across a number of occupations. In the game, players will explore progressive individual and collective training events within the game. Once they successfully completed these events they will advance to multiplayer operations in small units."

On February 20, 2005 there were 4.6 million registered players, and 2.7 million of them had finished basic training. Also, there were more than 15,000 servers being used, and 1.3 million rounds being played each day. The game has been changed a lot. This keeps people interested in the game. It can be found as a free download on the Internet or on a CD-ROM at recruiting centers around the United States.

History
In 1999, Lieutenant Colonel E. Casey Wardynski, a professor at the U.S Military Academy at West Point decided to tell the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel and the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Military Manpower about his idea for an online computer game. His basic idea eventually became America's Army. In the same year, fewer people were joining the army. . Congress decided to use "aggressive, innovative experiments" including America's Army to get more people to join the Army.

The first release was July 4, 2002, and other changes (called patches) were added. On November 6, 2003, version 2.0 of America's Army: Special Forces was made. (Go here for more information about the different version). The Army is spending about USD$3 million a year to make more versions of the game.

Another AA version called America's Army: Rise of a Soldier is available on Playstation 2 and Xbox. This version was developed by UbiSoft.

Since America's Army was created, people have complained about its purpose. People have argued about the Army using its money to make a game. They are also worried about how this game will change people's lives.

Gameplay
In America's Army there are teams of soldiers fighting in a war. The person who is playing controls a soldier of the US Army from the character's eyes. This is called first person.
Players fight as either the US Army or Indigenous forces ("IF"). They fight against a team called "OPFOR" (Army lingo for "Opposing Forces"). There are different kinds of OPFORs called insurgents, enemy forces or terrorists.

US/OPFOR Transformation for Teams
One of America's Army'''s different features is the way the enemies are. The players are split into two different teams. There is usually an assault group and a defense group. The assault loses the round if the time limit runs out, which is usually ten minutes.

The players on each team see themselves as American soldiers with American weapons, such as the M16A2. Their opponents look like non-uniformed people with Eastern bloc weapons, like the AK-47 (the counterpart of the M16A2 in the game). In training maps the only distinguishing features are the players' uniforms. The development team did this to make the game realistic for players on both sides. They allowed everyone to play on the side of the American forces. They also avoided the problem of asking players to kill American soldiers.

On the Special Forces maps, players can also play as non-uniformed people with Eastern bloc weapons (known as Indigenous forces ("IF") in the game), but be on the same team as regular army forces.

This is confusing to many players because when they pick up an enemy weapon, it works differently than the US version. An AK-47 removed from a fallen opponent is fully automatic, more powerful, but less accurate than his M16. But when his opponent had it, to him it was an M16. The important thing is that each weapon behaves as the owner sees it. It transforms when it is picked up. If people pay a lot of attention might notice that the enemies weapons behave wrong, but it is hard to notice.

Every round starts with both teams spawning at the same time. Players can join the other team, but cannot play as the OPFOR. Equipment is not bought but selected through choosing a class.

Goals and scoring system
The goal of the game is to complete the objectives, kill the enemy team. For example, one objective could be to kill the V.I.P., who is trying to survive and escape. If a player joined the other team, he would have to protect the same V.I.P. The round is over if a team wins0, or if the time limit is reached. For a listing of missions gohere.

The game remembers how many people each player has killed, how many times each team has won, how many times each player has been killed, and how well the player is completing the objectives. The game then distributes score which calculates the player's "Honor" level.

Every time a player is killed, every time he fails to protect an objective which he is assigned to defend, and especially every killing of teammates or his allies caused by friendly fire is called a violation of the ROE (Rules of engagement) in the game and has an extremely negative effect on his score and "Honor". If too many points are lost in a round, the player is put in "jail" and kicked out of the server. As of February 2005 95.2% of AA players had 0-20 HONOR points, 3.3% had 20-40 points, 1% had 40-60, and .4% had 61-80 points.

Every healing of injured teammates and every killing of opponents increases a players score and "Honor". Completing the game's missions affects a player's score in a good way and his "Honor" points as well. The score is saved in the player's account that was being used. Some servers only allow players with certain Honor levels to join. The most common is to not let anyone with less than 10 Honor in because this is the base level that everyone starts with. Some also do not let players with too much Honor in. The developers say that "Honor" is based on the values of the Army: "Loyalty, Duty, Respect, Selfless Service, Honor, Integrity and Personal Courage or Leadership". Its main purpose in the game is stop "team-killing", which is a problem in a lot of online first-person shooters (see team killer).

Game content
Weaponry and equipment
The game depicts real guns. The guns have all the same traits as the real versions. Each gun has different accuracy, power, recoil, and rate of jamming. To aim, there are cross-hairs and iron sights.

Players may select a "class" like squad leader, rifleman, automatic rifleman, grenadier, or sniper; these classes decide what weapon the player will have at the beginning of each round. Some players from each team may be medics. Medics can help their teammates get better after they get shot. Being a medic is an extra ability which is added to the class. The Honor points are used to decide which players gets which class. Players with more Honor usually get to pick their class first.

Each gun also can jam in action. When a gun jams it means that it stops working because a part is stuck. The player then needs to press a button to fix the gun. This can be a problem because it makes it so that the player cannot shoot for a few seconds. AA was the first game ever to have player's guns jam.

Every firearm in the game has either iron sights or a telescopic sight (for sniper rifles); while using the sights, a zoom effect enlarges objects in view. The iron sights enlarge to a small degree, the telescopic sights to large one. Until he stops zooming, the player's moving speed is additionally decreased.

In the first few versions, weapons could only hurt players and glass. For example, a grenade could not destroy a television but a gun could put a bullet hole in the screen. Compared to most games, the grenades and are more deadly. They tried to make the blast radius of grenades more like real life than it usually is in other games. Getting hurt by weapons always leads to some bleeding, which causes a player's health gauge to go down over time. Injuries make players slower, they also make it harder for the player to shoot where they are aiming. Sometimes, if the player does not get help from a medic, they will die.

In the newer versions of the game players can make changes to their weapons. For example, the M4 Carbine can be change in different ways and let the soldier have features that work better on a certain map. For example, on a large map a scope and a bi-pod might be picked, but in a city a player might choose only iron sights and a M203 grenade launcher.

Classes and weaponry
Every player starts the round with one or two guns, some grenades and, on some maps, night vision goggles or binoculars. A list of the weapons is here:

 Firearms
 Riflemen:
 M16A2
 M4A1 carbine
 M136 AT-4 anti-tank weapon on some maps
 OpFor uses AK-47, AKS-74U
 Grenadiers:
 M203 mounted under an M16A2
 OpFor uses GP30 mounted under an AK-47
 Automatic Riflemen:
 M249 Squad Automatic Weapon
 OpFor uses the 75 round RPK
 Special Operations Weapons Sergeants:
 M4A1 SOPMOD including one of these options from each category,
 Special Forces: Standard M4 Carbine with SOPMOD kit including one of these options from each category.
 Top Rail
 Standard Ironsight - the basic carrying sights
 ACOG 4x Sight - a zoom-in sight for your m4a1
 M68 Reflex Sight - a dot sight for your m4a1
 HeatShield - a shield to prevent burns
 Front Rail
 CQB Reflex Sight (Must Be used with Ironsight on Top Rail) - the other part of the dot sight
 Leaf Sight (Only applicable with M203 Grenade Launcher)
 HeatShield - a shield to prevent burns
 Bottom Rail
 M203 Grenade Launcher (Must Be used with Leaf Sight on Front Rail)- an explosive shell that fires once before reloading
 Flare Launcher (Must Be used with Leaf Sight on Front Rail) - a flare grenade
 Harris Bipod - a bipod structure to stabilize your weapon
 HeatShield - a shield to prevent burns
 Muzzle
 QD Suppressor - a silencer witch stops a great deal of the noise produced when firing your weapon
 HeatShield - a shield to prevent burns
 Left and Right Rails
 HeatShield - a shield to prevent burns
 OpFor AKS-74U SpetsNaz with Modifications
 Advanced Marksmen (Sniper): Snipers carry the M9 Pistol
 Barrett M82A1
 M24 SWS
 Special Purpose Rifle (SPR)
 OpFor carry the Makarov pistol and the Dragunov, Mosin-Nagant and VSS Vintorez
 Hand grenades:
 M67 fragmentation grenade(s) (replaced with MILES grenade(s) in training levels)
 M83 HC white smoke grenade(s)
 AN-M14 TH3 incendiary hand grenade(Thermite grenade)
 M84 stun grenade(s)
 Indigenous Forces (IF):
 IF 47: TheAK-47
 IF 74: The AKS-74U
 IF RPK: The RPK
 IF RPG: The RPG-7
 M141 Bunker Defeat Munitions (BDM) (new in Q-Course (version 2.4))
 AGP-DB14 Door Breacher (new in Q-Course (version 2.4))
 US Stryker Armoured Personnel Carrier looks like a Russian BTR-80 if on the other side. In old releases A 50-caliber machine gun on the roof can be controlled from inside, but cannot be driven around.

Weapons planned for future versions

 The XM25 weapon. The XM25 in AA will be an assault weapon that fires an Airburst round using a special launcher.
 TALON Robot. The robot will be a radio controlled machine that looks like the Goliath from World War II, but instead of exploding it has special tools that can be used for defusing a bomb or helping people that are stuck in dangerous locations.
 JAVELIN Rocket Launcher. The Javelin is an anti-vehicle, self-guided rocket. It can also be used against bunkers and other strong locations. In AA it will have a special scope target system and can be carried on a player's back. (Note: Included in version 2.8)
 Other planned game weapons include small bombs used to open locked doors (included in 2.8), a shotgun (also used to open doors), and land mines. The land mines are armed and placed like a hand grenade, but they would not explode until triggered. They are also working on making more drivable vehicles, like an armored HMMWV, which was in a video at the Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), and has also been included in version 2.8, though only in one mission.

Missions and maps
The map list is sorted by the version they were released with, with newer maps coming first. The game currently has 28 multiplayer maps and 14 single player training missions. Completing these training missions unlocks things like the ability to play online or to become a medic, a special forces unit or a sniper. Maps have different sizes, objectives, and weapons that players can have.
However, no known custom maps have been made because there is no level editor for the game and the developers made it impossible for players to use the level design computer program UnrealEd, which works for other Unreal engine games.

 AA: Special Forces (Direct Action) (v2.5)
 SF Dockside SF Extraction AA: Special Forces (Q-Course) (v2.4)
 SF Courtyard SF PCR (Precious Cargo Recovery) SF Blizzard SF WaterTreatment AA: Special Forces (Firefight) (v2.3)
 Woodland Assault, a forest map where one side must find and destroy a collection of weapons, and the other side defend it.
 Urban Assault, a city map in a desert. Each side must find collection of weapons.
 AA: SF (Vanguard) (v2.2)
 SF Taiga, a winter map in a forest.
 SF Oasis, set in a desert one side must get out of a canyon and the other must stop them.
 AA: SF (Downrange) (v2.1)
 SF Village, a city map in a desert.
 SF Arctic, a winter map, one side must defend a group of vehicles traveling together (convoy). Includes Stryker vehicles that cannot be driven.
 AA: SF (v2.0 and v2.0a)
 SF Sandstorm (came with Sandstorm v2.0a), a desert map set during a sand-storm among buildings and ruins.
 SF CSAR, a city desert map with a crashed blackhawk helicopter. Can play as US Army or indigenous soldiers against the OPFOR.
 SF Pipeline, a new version of the original Pipeline map, but with SF things. The map's layout and objectives stay the same.
 SF Recon, a large desert night map in which one side must find a bunch of things, and the other must stop them.
 SF Hospital, a VIP rescue or defense map set in a city environment surrounding and inside a hospital and helicopter landing pad
 AA: Medics (v1.9)
 Mountain Pass SE, a new version of the original Mountain Pass from AA:0.
 AA: Operations
 Bridge SE (came with v1.7), a bigger version of Bridge Crossing which adds extra ways to get around the bridge and is less foggy.
 Radio Tower (v1.6), a desert map with several objectives.
 Weapons Cache SE (v1.5), a bigger and different version of Weapons Cache with different objectives.
 River Basin (v1.4), is a large MILES training map with objectives in grassy hills, in a daylight summer environment.
 Mountain Pass (v.1.3), a large winter map with lots of hills.
 JRTC Farm (v1.2.1), one side spawns in by using parachutes and must destroy a parked helicopter, the other side must defend it.
 Weapons Cache (v1.2.1), a city map with objectives inside a big building.
 Mountain Ambush (v1.2), objectives in a mix of forest and grassy environments.
 Swamp Raid (v1.2), A dark map that focuses on the rescue or defense of a prisoner. The Rescue side has night vision.
 FLS Assault (v1.2), a night map centering on the defense or attack of a field landing strip. The attacking side parachutes in from a C-17 and has night-vision.
 AA: Recon (v1.0)
 HQ Raid, a MILES map set at night, in a forest area with hills.
 Collapsed Tunnel, a dark level in sewer tunnels. Each side must secure objective points.
 Insurgent Camp, set at night in Afghanistan, the attackers must get into a building and access computers.
 Pipeline, a winter map that takes place at a pumping station in Alaska. One side defends the station, and the other completes objectives inside, such as turning of valves.
 Bridge Crossing, a foggy winter map with each side starting on one side of a long bridge. One side must stop the other from crossing.
 MOUT McKenna, a training level in a fake city, kind of like city paintball courses. This map features MILES.

Versions
Newest Version is 126.96.36.199

Version 2.7 came out June 2006

Version 2.6 is available for Microsoft Windows, Linux and for Mac OS X.

 Version 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 - America's Army: Recon — (released July 4, 2002) (Windows)
 Version 1.2.0 - America's Army — (released August 23, 2002) (Windows)
 Version 1.2.1 - America's Army: Operations — (released August 27, 2002) (Windows)
 Version 1.4.0 - America's Army: Operations — (released November 27, 2002) (Windows)
 Version 1.5.0 - America's Army: Operations — (released December 23, 2002) (Windows)
 Version 1.7.0 - America's Army: Operations — (released May 1, 2003) (Windows, Linux, Mac)
 Version 1.9.0 - America's Army: Operations — (released August 10, 2003) (Windows, Linux, Mac)
 Version 2.0 - America's Army: Special Forces — (released November 6, 2003) (Windows, Linux, Mac)
 Version 2.0a - America's Army: Special Forces — (released December 23, 2003) (Windows, Linux, Mac)
 Version 2.1.0 - America's Army: Special Forces (Downrange) — (released June 1, 2004) (Windows, Linux, Mac)
 Version 2.2.0 - America's Army: Special Forces (Vanguard) — (released October 19, 2004) (Windows, Linux)
 Version 2.2.1 - America's Army: Special Forces (Vanguard) — (released November 18, 2004) (Windows, Linux)
 Version 2.3.0 - America's Army: Special Forces (Firefight) — (released: February 18, 2005) (Windows)
 Version 2.4.0 - America's Army: Special Forces (Q-Course) — (released: May 16, 2005) (Windows)
 Version 2.5.0 - America's Army: Special Forces (Direct Action)'' — (released: October 13, 2005) (Windows, Linux, Mac)

References

Other websites
 Official America's Army Website
 AA-Overview.com  (Independent and non-sponsored fansite)
 AAO-Tracker (The biggest AA community in the world)
 French America's Army Website
 Americas Army Custom Mapping Website

Shooter video games
2002 video games

America's Army


Charley Burley (September 6, 1917 – October 16, 1992) was an American boxer who fought as a welterweight and middleweight from 1936 to 1950. Archie Moore, the light-heavyweight champion who was defeated by Burley in a 1944 middleweight bout, was one of several fighters who called Burley the greatest fighter ever. Burley was the penultimate holder of both the World Colored Welterweight Championship and the World Colored Middleweight Championship.

Early life
He was born Charles Duane Burley in Bessemer, Pennsylvania on September 6, 1917 to a mixed-race couple: his father was a black coal miner and his mother a white Irish immigrant from County Cork.  Raised in Bessemer, the only son of seven children, the family moved to Pittsburgh when his father was killed in an industrial accident in 1925.

He began boxing at the  age of 12 at a Boys Club and, as a lightweight, won city, state and national junior boxing titles and a Golden Gloves junior title. As a welterweight, he won a Golden Gloves Senior and lost the 1936 National Senior Championship finals. That same year, he refused an invitation to participate in the Olympic trials due to his objection to the Nazi regime. He did accept an invitation to attend a scheduled 'Workers Games' to be held in Republican Spain as a protest to the 1936 Berlin Summer Olympics, but the games were cancelled by the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.

Burley had also excelled at baseball. He reportedly was offered a contract by the Homestead Grays, the local Negro leagues franchise.

Pro boxing career

The 5'9 ½ Burley fought at weights between 145 and 162 lbs. He made his pro debut on September 29, 1936, fighting as a welterweight at 150¾ lbs., at Pittsburgh's Moose Temple. He knocked out George Liggins in the fourth round of a four-round bout.  Less than two years later, on August 22, 1938, Burley met the Cocoa Kid at Hickey Park in Millvale, Pennsylvania for the World Colored Welterweight Championship. He won a unanimous decision in the 15-round bout, knocking the Kid to the canvas three times and defeating him decisively, taking his title.

Burley did not defend that title, possibly as part of a strategy to win a shot at Henry Armstrong's World Welterweight title. He won the World Colored Middleweight Title in a ninth round technical knockout against Holman Williams at Victory Arena in New Orleans, Louisiana on 14 August 1942. In their rematch for the title two months later at the same venue, Williams won a 15-round decision. Jack Kincaid of the Times-Picayune reported that Burley had won nine rounds of the fight and had been the aggressor throughout.

Burley was never granted a world title shot by any of the world welterweight and world middleweight champions of his era and was avoided by many of the top white contenders.  Among the fighters who "ducked"  Burley were Hall of Famers Billy Conn (who fought Joe Louis for the heavyweight title), Frenchman Marcel Cerdan (who was supposed to face Burley in his American debut) and even Sugar Ray Robinson, considered by many boxing historians as the best pound-for-pound fighter of all time.

Of course, not everyone ducked the slick Pittsburgh warrior. Burley won two out of three matches against future welterweight champion Fritzie Zivic, defeated the great Archie Moore by decision, and easily defeated future NYSAC middleweight king Billy Soose. Burley also faced future heavyweight champion Ezzard Charles, but dropped two 10-round decisions to him (the bouts were contested within a five-week period, sandwiching a fight against Williams). Another notable Burley fight was the one against heavyweight J.D. Turner, who outweighed him by around 70 lbs. "Turner, face beaten to raw beefsteak in six rounds, failed to answer the bell for the seventh." (The Ring, June 1942).

Burley himself was never stopped in 98 bouts. He compiled a record of 83 wins (50 by knockout) against 12 losses and two draws with 1 "no contest". He also battled financial problems at times during his career (which is why he's thought to have lost some of the fights he did) and was forced to work as an aircraft mechanic and garbage man in order to earn enough money to live off.

Legacy
Burley's second fight with Oakland Billy Smith in 1946 is the only known boxing film for him that is known to exist. It shows a conservative counter-puncher taming a much larger opponent with relative ease.

Burley's former sparring partner A.J. "Blackie" Nelson offers this comparison: "I see a lot of Charley in this kid, Roy Jones Jr. Both had unorthodox styles, could hit you from any angle, both hard to hit. Charley jabbed more than Jones, if Jones would concentrate on boxing as Charley did, he would become an all-time great."

Eddie Futch, the great trainer, called Burley "the finest all-around fighter I ever saw."

Burley was named to the Ring Magazine's list of 100 greatest punchers of all time, elected to the Boxing Hall of Fame in 1983 and the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1992.

Burley was ranked 39th on Ring Magazine's list of the 80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years.

An exhibit at the Western Pennsylvania Sports Museum at Pittsburgh's Senator Heinz History Center states that Burley was the model for the character Troy in August Wilson's play Fences.

Professional boxing record

See also
List of bare-knuckle boxers
Murderers' Row (Boxing)

External links

References

1917 births
1992 deaths
Bare-knuckle boxers
Welterweight boxers
World colored welterweight boxing champions
World colored middleweight boxing champions
Boxers from Pittsburgh
Sportspeople from Lawrence County, Pennsylvania
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
American male boxers

Charley Burley


A touchscreen is a computer screen that can be used by touching it with a finger or a stylus pen, instead of using a mouse and keyboard. It can be described as a touchpad with a screen built-in to it.

Today, all kinds of devices, both big and small, make use of touchscreens. However, tablet computers and smartphones have made them popular and are the most widely known and used products that use touchscreens.

History
In 1965, E.A Johnson of England's Royal Radar Establishment, invented the first touchscreen that was used in the U.K for air traffic control up until around 1995. The first resistive touch screen was invented by G. Samuel Hurst in 1975, and produced in 1982. Back in 1970, Hurst and nine friends discovered that a touchscreen on a computer monitor made for an excellent method of interaction. Pressure on the cover sheet allowed voltage to flow between the X wires and the Y wires, which could be measured to indicate coordinates. This discovery helped found what we today refer to as resistive touch technology (because it responds purely to pressure rather than electrical conductivity, working with both a stylus and a finger).

Much later in 2005, three friends from France created a multi-touch screen capable of tracking any numbers of fingers. By 2005, their company named JazzMutant released the Lemur, a music controller with a multi-touch screen interface. This new technology helped influenced the TactaPad also made in 2005. Two years later, in January 2007, the iPhone was released, which was controlled entirely by a multi-touch screen. It, and the iPad which came out in September 2010, were very successful and would eventually lead to more companies adding touchscreens to their products. They included Samsung, Sony, Motorola, and many companies who adopted the touch-friendly Android operating system.

In response to the popularity of touchscreens, Microsoft, maker of the Windows family of operating systems for personal computers, would introduce a new interface in Windows 8 in 2011, which has large tiles that are meant to be easily usable with touch technology like those on tablets. It would come out the next year, along with the Microsoft Surface tablet.

Usage
Because of how easy they are to use, touchscreens can be found in many places. Along with general computing and consumer electronics devices such as smartphones, tablets, smartwatches and personal computers, touchscreens are also widely used on kiosks, which are used for information systems in cities and museums. They are also found on machines including Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs), cash registers and retail point-of-sale terminals, GPS navigation systems such as those in cars and other vehicles, medical equipment and industrial control panels. The touchscreen built into kiosks use simple point and click interaction. Interactive whiteboards, which can be found in many schools, also use a simple form of touch technology.

Types

Different kinds of touchscreens work in different ways. There are two main technologies used for touchscreens:
 A resistive touchscreen has a layer of conducting polyester plastic. When you press on it, you force the polyester to touch the glass and complete an electric circuit. A chip under the screen identifies the coordinates of the place you touched. These screens can sense only one finger at a time and get confused if you try to press in two places at once. They are often used in industrial equipment because it is strong and responds to any kind of input, such as when wearing gloves.
 A capacitive touchscreen has multiple layers of glass. Both the innermost and outermost layers of glass conduct electricity. The screen behaves like two electrical conductors separated by an insulator—in other words, a capacitor. Unlike resistive screens, capacitive screens can easily detect and distinguish more than one press at once. This is called multi-touch.

Unlike resistive screens, capacitive screens don't work if you touch them with a plastic stylus because the plastic acts as an insulator. Some stylus pens, such as the Apple Pencil for the iPad Pro, are made to work with capacitive screens. They are pressure sensitive and let you to do different things by pushing harder or more gently. For example, you can draw a wider or narrower line in programs like Microsoft OneNote and Adobe Photoshop.

References

Data input

Touchscreen


Deep Economy: The Wealth of Communities and the Durable Future is a non-fiction work by environmentalist Bill McKibben published in the field of ecological economics in 2007. The work promoted sustainable economy in close-knit communities. These include regions that generate their own food, their own energy, their own culture, and their own entertainment. McKibben defined a "deep economy" as one that "cares less about quantity than about quality; that takes as its goal the production of human satisfaction as much as surplus material; that is focused on the idea that it might endure and considers durability at least as important as increases in size." The book has been generally well-received, though some critics have questioned his proposed solutions.

Overview
The long-standing presumption that "more" equals "better" in economic growth is questioned by McKibben, who asks if in fact this idea is valid. McKibben also suggests that unfettered growth is not a realistic, sustainable goal. According to McKibben, the invention of the steam engine and the Industrial Revolution in 1712 resulted in a mindset which rapidly altered expectations of economic growth. He also said that, "The current political assumption ignores both the problems of resource depletion and inequity, which leads to human unhappiness." In its place, McKibben suggested that the focus should be on "deep economy", which includes, rather than constant growth, a consideration of human satisfaction.

As an example of the problem with the current philosophy, McKibben focuses extensively on global, industrial agriculture, which he argues has endangered localized farming communities, damaged the environment, increased the risk of terrorist sabotage of a central food supply, increased food-borne illnesses, led to more mistreatment of farmworkers, and accelerated the depletion of water and oil. The solution to these problems, he suggests, is community-centered farming as currently practiced in Cuba, with similar projects in New England and Detroit. He also examines the West's attitude towards economic inequity. The mega-rich are praised and admired, a symptom of the "hyper-individualization" that McKibben regards as a social failure, ecologically, politically and morally. Human beings are psychologically healthier, not to mention happier, when part of a community. Accordingly, community-based economies, wherein goods are locally produced and consumed, foster neighborliness and happiness.

To the end of fostering close communities, McKibben offers several suggestions, ranging from encouraging the use of public transportation to offering a close living environment where multiple residents share living spaces in interconnected condominiums; from developing sustainable alternative energy sources to developing and utilizing a local currency (such as BerkShares) in addition to a national one.

By contrast to such economists and commentators as Deirdre McCloskey, Thomas Friedman and Jeffrey Sachs, McKibben does not promote globalization in the developing world, which he views as an ineffective means of raising the global standard of living and unsustainable given limited global resources.

Critical reception
The book was generally well-received, with critics praising the presentation though sometimes questioning his solutions. Preceding their interview with the author, Salon.com described his future as "credible" and his account of the problems the world faces and the path to the current crisis "compelling." Bloomberg suggested that "the book is given to one-sidedness and oversimplification", with answers that may not be workable, but added that it isn't gloomy or "tedious...: it has barely a dull sentence" as McKibben "makes his case with flair and a wealth of fascinating detail...." A review in The New York Times by Lance Morrow noted that the book was "suffused with a certain Vermontlichkeit" and offers the occasional "ghastly idea", but cautioned, "It would be unwise to dismiss McKibben's ideas as pipe dreams or Luddism. He makes his case on anecdotal, environmental, moral and, as it were, aesthetic grounds."

References

Further reading

External links
"Diving into Deep Economy", OneBookUTA, University of Texas at Arlington.
Bill McKibben: "Deep Economy", Interview. KQED-FM.

2007 books
Ecological economics
Localism (politics)
Henry Holt and Company books
Interdisciplinary subfields of economics

Deep Economy


Carl Gustaf Hellqvist (15 December 1851 – 19 November 1890) was one of Sweden's most popular historical painters in the 19th century.

Biography
He was born in Kungsör, between Arboga and Eskilstuna at Lake Mälaren, Sweden, where he grew up and went to school.
In 1864 Hellqvist started to study art at the Swedish Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Stockholm, and in 1875 he was awarded the Royal Academy's highest prize for his painting " Gustav Vasa  accuses Peder Sunnanväder and Mäster Knut in front of the chapter in Västerås" Swedish: Gustav Vasa  anklagar Peder Sunnanväder och Mäster Knut inför domkapitlet i Västerås.

Two years later in 1877 Hellqvist was awarded a travelling scholarship from the Academy, and he travelled around the European continent. He moved together with his fiancée, to Munich in 1879.

In 1882 he and Julie Karoline Friederike Thiersch (1859-1933) were married and left for Paris, where Hellqvist earlier had been present at the Paris Salon with his oil painting "The Death of Sten Sture the Younger on the Ice of Lake Mälaren" (Swedish: Sten Sture d y:s död på Mälarens is).

In August 1882 he was awarded the gold medal for his magnificent historical painting "Valdemar Atterdag Holding Visby to Ransom, 1361" (Swedish: Valdemar Atterdag brandskattar Visby) in Vienna, Austria.

In 1886 Hellqvist suffered from severe headaches which forced him to take a leave from his teaching at Königliche akademische Hochschule für die Bildenden Künste at Berlin. He ended his period of historical painting at the same time.

In 1889 Hellqvist received treatment for his disease and he was ordered on a diet.

In 1890 it was announced that Hellqvist's studio-objects were to be sold. Probably the most famous photograph of his studio was taken at the same time, which shows how a historical painter's studio looked like during the late 19th century.

From March 1889 he stayed in a mental hospital in Munich, and he died there on 19 November 1890 at the age of 38. He was buried in Munich.

Works

References

Other sources
Rudnert, Sune (1991) I historiemålarens verkstad: Carl Gustaf Hellqvist – liv och verk (Lund, Sweden : Lund University Press) .
Rudnert, Sune (1989) Carl Gustaf Hellqvist och hans historiemålning Valdemar Atterdag brandskattar Visby den 27 juli 1361 (Lund, Sweden : Lund University Press)

External links

1851 births
1890 deaths
People from Kungsör Municipality
19th-century Swedish painters
Swedish male painters
19th-century painters of historical subjects
19th-century Swedish male artists

Carl Gustaf Hellqvist


These are some Italian football teams that are or have been in the past years in the main professional division (Serie A).

 Juventus F.C. from Turin
 A.C. Milan from Milan
 F.C. Internazionale Milano from Milan
 Torino F.C. 1906 from Turin
 Brescia Calcio from Brescia
 Bologna F.C. 1909 from Bologna
 Genoa C.F.C. from Genoa
 A.S. Roma from Rome
 S.S. Lazio from Rome
 S.S.C. Napoli from Napoli
 A.C.F. Fiorentina from Florence
 Hellas Verona F.C. from Verona
 U.C. Sampdoria from Genoa
 Parma F.C. from Parma
 Udinese Calcio from Udine
 Atalanta B.C. from Bergamo
 Chievo Verona from Verona
 Perugia Calcio from Perugia
 A.C. Siena from Siena

Lists of football teams
Italy-related lists

List of football clubs in Italy


John Anthony Mostil (June 1, 1896 – December 10, 1970) was an American center fielder in Major League Baseball who played his entire career for the Chicago White Sox (1918, 1921–29). Born in Chicago, Illinois, he had a career batting average of .301.

Career
Mostil led the American League in runs scored in 1925, and in stolen bases in 1925 and 1926. Mostil attempted suicide in 1927. He recovered, but only played two more years.
He hit .300 four times with a high of .328 in 1926.

In a 10-season career, Mostil posted a .301 batting average (1054-3507), with 23 home runs, 618 runs, and 375 RBI in 972 games played. His on-base percentage was .386 and slugging percentage was .427.

After baseball
After retiring as an active player, Mostil became a minor league manager and a scout for the White Sox. In the 1960s, he coached at the Chicago White Sox Boys Camp, a sports camp in Brothertown, Wisconsin, owned by the Chicago White Sox.  Mostil died at age 74 in Midlothian, Illinois.

See also
List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual stolen base leaders
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise

External links

References

American League stolen base champions
Major League Baseball center fielders
Chicago White Sox players
Chicago White Sox scouts
Baseball players from Illinois
1896 births
1970 deaths
Minor league baseball managers
Milwaukee Brewers (minor league) players
Toledo Mud Hens players
Little Rock Travelers players
Eau Claire Cardinals players
Eau Claire Bears players
Grand Forks Chiefs players
Jonesboro White Sox players
Waterloo Hawks (baseball) players
People from Midlothian, Illinois

Johnny Mostil


Low kick is a leg technique used in certain boxes pieds-poings (Burmese boxing, kickboxing and Thai boxing Muay Thai) and certain martial arts. It consists in striking a blow with shinbone or a kick in the lower limb of the opponent (thigh or leg). According to the official rules concerning sport, it can be carried to the outer and to the inner part of the lower limb.

In fights in full contact (so-called K.O. system), these kicks are allowed in order to make an opponent not stable, indeed to have an advantage.

In the matter of hits in the legs, several kicks exist: circular or roundhouse kick, semicircular kick, balanced kicks (stick kick, crescent kick, axe kick...), kicks along the straight line (front kick and side kick), hooked-type kicks (hook kick), kicks that go down (hammer kick), etc.

In American or Japanese kickboxing, this type of kick can be only circular or semicircular according to the official rules.

Martial art techniques

Low kick


Transport in Cardiff, capital and most populous city in Wales involves road, rail, bus, water and air. It is a major city of the United Kingdom and a centre of employment, government, retail, business, culture, media, sport and higher education.

Welsh Government statistics for 2008/09 showed that Cardiff had the lowest percentage of the population who travelled to work by car, van or minibus, suggesting the highest public transport usage to work out of all 22 local authorities in Wales.

Between 2008 and 2009, car and taxi usage dropped from 59.7% to 52.3%, while walking was up by 1.4% to 18.3%. For bus usage, the figure had risen by 3% to 15.5% and cycling use increased from 1.6% to 7.4%. Train usage also rose from 3.8% to 4.7% over the same period.

Road
The M4 motorway connects Cardiff to towns and other cities in Britain. To the east: Newport, Bristol, Bath, Swindon, Reading and terminating at London. To the west: Bridgend, Swansea, Llanelli and terminating near Carmarthen. It is part of the unsigned European route E30. Cardiff can be accessed directly from junctions 29 – 34 inclusive:

Junctions

The A48(M) motorway connects Junction 29 to the city centre with exits for the Cardiff suburbs of St. Mellons (westbound only), where it becomes the A48, Pontprennau (M4 junction 30 via the A4232), Pentwyn, Rumney, Llanedeyrn and also for the University Hospital of Wales.

The A4232 (also known as the Peripheral Distributor Road) connects M4 junction 33 with junction 30 by bypassing through the south of the city.  From junction 33, exits are at Culverhouse Cross Interchange, Leckwith Interchange, Ferry Road Interchange (for Barry and Penarth) and Butetown, the road ends at Queen's Gate Roundabout, where the long-awaited Eastern Bay Link Road will eventually link with the Southern Way Link Road.  It then goes onto the M4 at junction 30 via the A48 (Eastern Avenue) and the Pentwyn Link Road (A4232).

The A470 road is the main North – South Wales route running from Cardiff Bay to Llandudno via exits for the suburbs of Tongwynlais and Taff's Well. The A470 is a major road within the city that provides an important link with the Heads of the Valleys road, Mid and North Wales.

As with many other cities car traffic has caused congestion problems and as such the council has designated bus lanes to improve transport into and out of the city centre. The Welsh Assembly Government is considering the introduction of variable congestion charging in the city centre, but only once there has been significant investment in the city's public transport network.

There are several road and rail bridges that cross the River Taff in Cardiff. These include the Clarence Road Bridge, a comparatively modern bridge which replaced a swing bridge. The original bridge was named after the Duke of Clarence.

Much of Cardiff's central shopping zone is pedestrianised, and further pedestrianisation is planned as part of the current St David's 2 regeneration scheme.

Rail

The largest stations in Cardiff (and Wales) are Cardiff Central and Cardiff Queen Street which over 10 million people use each year. They are both operated by Transport for Wales and controlled by ticket barriers.

National

Cardiff Central is the 10th busiest station in the United Kingdom outside London with eight platforms. Cardiff Central is situated on the South Wales Main Line providing national services while Cardiff Queen Street station is the hub of the Valley Lines suburban rail network (See Below).

Central station provides regular services to London Paddington via Bristol Parkway, with other links to Swansea and West Wales on the South Wales Main Line while other national services connect Cardiff with Bristol Temple Meads, Birmingham New Street, Nottingham, Manchester Piccadilly, Southampton Central and Portsmouth Harbour.

Improvements to the north-south Wales rail networkwere  introduced in 2010 and there are now services every two hours that connect Wrexham General, Llandudno and Holyhead in North Wales to Cardiff in the south.

Suburban rail

Cardiff has an urban rail metro network operated by Transport for Wales known as Valley Lines. With Cardiff Central and Queen Street as the hubs, it connects Cardiff's northern, southern and western suburbs to the city centre. There are eight lines that connect Central and Queen Street stations to 20 smaller stations in the city, 26 in the wider urban area (including Taffs Well, Penarth and Dinas Powys) and more than 60 in the South Wales valleys and the Vale of Glamorgan. The council is investigating converting the Cardiff City Line, Coryton Line and Butetown Branch Line into light rail lines and extending them in the near future.

Bus

Cardiff has a comprehensive bus network, with council-owned Cardiff Bus providing the vast majority of routes in the city and as well as Newport, Penarth, Barry, Cardiff Airport and Llantwit Major. Stagecoach South Wales, Edwards Coaches and EST Buses also provide services in the city.

National
Stand B at Central station is used for services to destinations outside Cardiff and the Vale such as TrawsCambria X40 to Aberystwyth, Shuttle 100 to Swansea, Stagecoach services to the Valleys and all National Express services (e.g. Birmingham, London, Leeds).

The Megabus service to London, and to Newcastle via Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds stops outside Cardiff Castle on Castle Street.

Local
Cardiff Bus used stands B, C, D, E, F and W at Central station and Wood Street, until the closure of Cardiff Central bus station in 2015 and the redevelopment of Central Square. Other bus stops in the city are located in Westgate Street, St. Mary Street, Castle Street, Kingsway, Greyfriars Road, Dumfries Place and Queen Street Station. Cardiff Bus operates a comprehensive Overground network. Work on the new transport interchange to replace the Cardiff Central bus station began in January 2008, though construction did not begin until 2020.

Cardiff Bus has introduced articulated buses on the popular 17 and 18 Capital City Red routes to Canton, Ely and Caerau and on the Baycar route. Other notable routes include the Capital City Green, four park & ride services and the now-withdrawn Free b shuttle bus.

Park and ride

There are four Park and Ride services in the city:
Cardiff West Park and Ride is based at the Cardiff City Stadium at Leckwith.
Cardiff South Park and Ride operates from County Hall in Cardiff Bay.
Cardiff North Park and Ride operates at Crown Way, off North Road between Gabalfa and Cathays.
Cardiff East, which is the newest Park and Ride after opening in late 2009, runs to Queen Street station from Pentwyn.

The new park and ride is part of Cardiff council's Sustainable Travel City initiative, which is partly funded by the Welsh Assembly Government. There are plans to extend the number of space from 340 to 1,100 due to its sudden increase in usage.

Cycling

Cycling in Cardiff is facilitated by its easy gradients and large parks. In 2005, 4.3% of people commuted to work by cycling, compared to 2% in London and 5% in Berlin.  However, cyclists in the city appear to be influenced by deterrents to cycling and as a result will need a greater level of improved facilities to increase cycling numbers, according to research by Cardiff University.

There are 3 major off-road cycle routes in Cardiff, each following a major river in the city. The Taff Trail follows the River Taff south to north from Cardiff Bay, through the City Centre, Maindy, Llandaff, Radyr and Tongwynlais towards Brecon. The Ely Trail follows the River Ely west to east from St Fagans through Fairwater, Leckwith and Grangetown to Cardiff Bay. This route is connected to Penarth via Pont y Werin cyclist bridge. The Rhymney Trail follows the River Rhymney east to west in Pentwyn and Llanrumney.

Water

The Aquabus runs every hour between the city centre (Taff Mead Embankment) and Cardiff Bay (Mermaid Quay), and between Cardiff Bay and Penarth (Cardiff Bay barrage). Throughout the year Cardiff Waterbus
sail between the Pierhead on Cardiff's Waterfront and the Penarth end of the Cardiff Bay Barrage with short sightseeing cruises. Between March and October boats also depart from Cardiff Bay to take visitors to Flat Holm Island. The Paddle Steamer Waverley and MV Balmoral sail from Britannia Quay (in Roath Basin) to various destinations in the Bristol Channel.

Air

Cardiff, as well as South and West Wales, is served by Cardiff Airport (CWL). Scheduled, charter, and low-cost flights are operated on a regular basis to Anglesey, other UK destinations, Europe, Africa and North America all year round.

It is located at Rhoose, south west of the city and has a dedicated railway station at Rhoose Cardiff International Airport railway station and is linked by bus to Cardiff Central bus station.

The Cardiff Heliport was the main operating base of police support services, and could also handle passenger traffic. It closed on 30 November 2014.

Plans
There are a number of plans in Cardiff to help facilitate traffic into the city centre and reduce chronic congestion that has plagued the city in recent years. The main city centre thoroughfare, St. Mary's Street, was closed to private vehicles in 2007.

Road
Construction began on 17 March 2016 on the  Eastern Bay Link Road (A4232) which will run from the Queen's Gate Roundabout to the Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout on the Southern Way Link Road, although at present only the first phase between Queen's Gate Roundabout and Ocean Way Interchange. This will complete the outer ring road and will help to reduce congestion in the city centre.

Rail and light rail
There are plans to open more railway stations on existing lines to encourage more people to leave their cars at home and help reduce city centre congestion. Services on the Merthyr Line doubled to two per hour and a new rail service began on 6 February 2008 on the Ebbw Valley Railway. Further improved frequencies with Pontypridd and Caerphilly to 7 per hour and 5 per hour respectively are expected.

Also of note is the long-held plan to introduce a light rail line connecting Cardiff Bay. However it is likely to have been shelved due to rising costs.

A new out of town parkway-style station with 3,500 parking spaces has been proposed.

References

External links

Transport in Wales

Transport in Cardiff


Hydrochloric acid is a chemical compound. It is a solution of hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas that is dissolved in water. In the past, people called it muriatic acid. It is widely used in industry, and it is also made by the stomach to help digest food. Hydrochloric acid, like all acids, react with bases to produce salts (chlorides).

Safety

In high concentrations, hydrochloric acid can make acidic mists. Both the mist and the solution hurt human tissue. They are caustic, and can cause chemical burns. These can damage the eyes, the skin, the respiratory system, and other organs of the human body.

When hydrochloric acid is mixed with certain chemicals such as bleach, the toxic gas chlorine is made. When working with hydrochloric acid, certain safety measures should be taken. These include using rubber or PVC gloves, wearing goggles to protect the eyes, as well as special clothing that is resistant to chemicals.

Hydrochloric acid reacts with some metals, corroding them and making flammable hydrogen gas.

The risks of coming in contact with hydrochloric acid depend on its concentration. The following table lists the EU classification of hydrochloric acid solutions:

The Environmental Protection Agency says hydrochloric acid is a toxin.

References

Acids
Chlorine compounds

Hydrochloric acid


The pharynx is an organ in the back of the throat. It is also the meeting point of the digestive and the respiratory systems. The opening of the respiratory system in the pharynx is called the glottis. It is guarded by a cartilagenous flap called the epiglottis which prevents food or liquid from going into the respiratory system. It closes during swallowing action. As such, it is part of the gastrointestinal system. It comes after the mouth and before the esophagus. Food and air go through the pharynx. The pharynx keeps food and liquids out of the lungs.

The pharynx has 3 parts:
 Nasopharynx - the upper part of the back of the throat, that leads up into the nose
 Oropharynx - the part at the back of the throat
 Laryngopharynx - the bottom part, before the windpipe and esophagus split from 1 into 2 tubes

Neck

Pharynx


Chlorine trifluoride is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is ClF3. It contains chlorine and fluoride ions. The chlorine is in its +3 oxidation state.

Properties
Chlorine trifluoride is a colorless gas, but it can be compressed to a light yellow liquid. Chlorine trifluoride is normally sold compressed. It is an interhalogen, and is very reactive. It can burn plastics, sand, skin, hydrogen sulfide, metals, phosphorus, and sulfur. Since it is a much stronger oxidizing agent than oxygen, it can burn things that normally can't burn, like concrete or sand. It reacts with water very violently to make hydrofluoric acid and hydrochloric acid. It can ignite glass after being in it for a while.

Preparation
Chlorine trifluoride is made by reacting chlorine with fluorine. This makes other chlorine fluorides which have to be taken out.

Uses
Chlorine trifluoride is used to make uranium hexafluoride by reacting it with uranium metal. It was looked at as a rocket propellant. It was also looked at as a poison gas. It is too difficult to make and store, though. Chlorine trifluoride can be used to clean areas where semiconductors are made.

Safety
Chlorine trifluoride is extremely toxic and dangerous. It is one of the most dangerous chemicals there is. It can catch many things on fire, including things that are usually non-flammable, such as asbestos, concrete, and glass. The fires are almost impossible to put out. It reacts with most things.

Related pages
Chlorine dioxide
Bromine trifluoride

References

Fluorine compounds
Chlorine compounds

Chlorine trifluoride


A protectorate is a state that is protected by another, larger and stronger country based on an agreement between the protectorate and the protecting country. These were very common in the 19th century, especially in Africa and South Asia, when European countries would give protection to small states or places there. Often they also made an international trade agreement which restricted the trade of other foreign states.

The British Empire had many protectorates around the world. The first was The Protectorate of the Commonwealth of England in the 1660s, Bahrain was also a British protectorate until it gained independence. Later, Kuwait was a British protectorate from 1899 to 1961 and is now independent. Sikkim was a protectorate of India until 1975 and now is a state of India. Bhutan is also a protected state of India.

Related pages
 Annexation
 Colonization
 Client state

Countries

Protectorate


A Schmitt trigger is an electronic device which can moderate analog signal values only to zero or one (0 / 1). It can be made of a couple transistors, or several triggers can be arranged in an integrated circuit.

Uses
Converting analog signals to digital
Oscillators

Electronic circuits

Schmitt trigger


This article is about the instrumental ballade that was popular in the 19th century.
For the medieval French ballade see Ballade.

A ballade is a piece of music, usually for piano. It has several tunes, and one can easily imagine that it is telling a story (a ballade is a medieval French song which tells a story).

The first composer who used the title "ballade" for his piano pieces was Frédéric Chopin. He wrote four ballades. They are quite free in form. Chopin does not tell us about any particular story he had in mind. Perhaps they are just musical stories. They are four of his finest works.

Later on other composers also wrote ballades: César Franck and Franz Liszt in particular. Johannes Brahms wrote ballades for piano which are quite like songs in their form. Edvard Grieg wrote a ballade which was based on a Norwegian song.

Gabriel Fauré wrote a ballade for piano and orchestra. Some composers wrote ballades for orchestra, but they are really like short symphonic poems.

Musical forms

Ballade (classical music)


A chain letter is a message that tries to cause the person who gets it to make copies of the letter and then pass them on to as many people as possible. A chain letter can be a type of meme. Common ways used in chain letters include stories that make the recipient feel sorry for the person, get-rich-quick pyramid schemes, and the use of superstition to threaten the recipient with bad luck, physical violence or death if he or she "breaks the chain" and does not follow the instructions given in the letter.

E-mail
Letters

Chain letter


An intellectual is a person who uses his or her intellect and critical thinking skills to work, study, reflect, or ask and answer questions about a wide variety of different ideas. Intellectuals are often times authors, artists, writers for newspapers, and college professors.

There are some people who do not like intellectuals because they are not traditional or practical. This is called "anti-intellectualism".

Other websites
Intellectual checklist

Academia
Thought
Intelligence

Intellectual


Dragoş (Drágfi of Béltek) was a Maramureş Voivode ruling over the lands of what was to become Moldavia (between 1351 and 1353). He left Maramureş by orders from the Hungarian King Louis I, in order to establish a defense line against the Golden Horde. He was succeeded by his son, Sas (Szász or Sas of Béltek) (ruled 1354-1358).

Moldova
Romanian leaders

Dragoş


Neil Finn,  (born 27 May 1958) is a rock singer. He was born in New Zealand. Together with his brother Tim, he was the lead singer for Split Enz. He is the frontman of Crowded House. He has released solo albums. He has created the 7 Worlds Collide project and the Pajama Club band.

Musical career
In the late 1970s he replaced singer songwriter Phil Judd in Split Enz. Split Enz was his brother Tim's band. Neil went on to write some of the biggest hits for the band. Examples are "One Step Ahead", "History Never Repeats", "I Got You" and "Message to My Girl". Split Enz broke up in 1984.

After that, Neil formed Crowded House with Split Enz's final drummer Paul Hester and bass player Nick Seymour in 1985. They became famous worldwide in 1987 when they released the single "Don't Dream It's Over". He ended Crowded House in 1996 to start a solo career.

Neil Finn has recorded two solo albums to date:  Try Whistling This (1998) and One Nil (2001).  (One Nil was released in the US and Canada – remixed, reordered and renamed One All – in 2002.) He has also worked together with his brother Tim on two Finn Brothers albums, Finn (1995) and Everyone Is Here (2004).

In 2001, he released a live album/DVD (7 Worlds Collide) with songs that were recorded at St James Theatre in Auckland, New Zealand. Other musicians that were on stage with him were Lisa Germano, Sebastian Steinberg (Soul Coughing), Ed O'Brien and Phil Selway (Radiohead), Johnny Marr (The Smiths), Eddie Vedder (Pearl Jam), Paul Jeffrey, Tim Finn, and Betchadupa.

In 2009, another album was released under the "7 Worlds Collide" name. This was The Sun Came Out. It was a charity studio record for Oxfam.  This album has songs by Jeff Tweedy and three other members of Wilco, Scottish singer-songwriter KT Tunstall, and New Zealand songwriters Don McGlashan and Bic Runga.

Finn has contributed solo music to various film and TV soundtracks including Rain, Boston Legal, Boston Public, The Waiting Game, Antz, and Sports Night.

In 2007, Finn reformed Crowded House with Beck's former drummer Matt Sherrod. They released two albums Time on Earth (2007) and Intriguer (2010).

In 2011, he has formed Pajama Club with his wife Sharon, New Zealand indie artist SJD and Alana Skyring. They released an album.

In 2014, Dizzy Heights, a Neil Finn solo album was released.

Personal life
Finn married Sharon Dawn Johnson, on 13 February 1982. The song "I Love You Dawn", available on Afterglow was written in her honour. Sharon makes chandeliers in her workshop in Auckland. She has appeared on backing vocals on various albums such as Crowded House and Alex Lloyd's Watching Angels Mend She also features prominently on the second 7 Worlds Collide project, co-writing (and sharing lead vocal) the track 'Little By Little' with her husband and sings on the track 'Isolation' on the new Crowded House album, Intriguer. In 2011, she becomes part of the Pajama Club band after a jam session with Neil.

They have two sons, Liam Mullane Finn (born 1983) and Elroy Timothy Finn (born 1989). Both sons have performed alongside their father. Liam had his own band, Betchadupa, originally based in Auckland, then London before releasing a solo album, I'll Be Lightning in 2008. He also plays in Crowded House's touring band lineup. Elroy Finn is drummer for the psychobilly band The Tricks and has been filling in on drums for Cut Off Your Hands.

References

Rock musicians
1958 births
New Zealand singers
Fleetwood Mac members
Living people

Neil Finn


Marconi Beach is part of the Cape Cod National Seashore in Wellfleet, Massachusetts. The beach is named for Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi. In 1903, the first transatlantic wireless communication originating in the United States was successfully transmitted from nearby Marconi Station; a message from U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt to King Edward VII of the United Kingdom. The beach was also used by the former Camp Wellfleet for artillery and rocket testing.

There is a broad, sweeping view of the Atlantic Ocean and Cape Cod Bay from the overlook atop the steep sand cliff above the beach. The National Park Service has built a display on-site that describes the history of wireless telegraphy, though parts have been removed due to beach erosion. During the summer season, restrooms and outdoor showers are available to beachgoers, along with on-site parking and access from the nearby bike trail via a two-lane road.  Admission is charged for vehicles and pedestrians at the rate for all Cape Cod National Seashore beaches.

Marconi Beach is popular among locals and tourists for surfing and boogie boarding. It is one of five Cape Cod national seashore beaches that are on the ocean side of the Cape, generally providing a better surf than beaches on the bay side. Low tide exposes a fairly flat stretch of beach, making it also popular for skimboarding.

Seals can frequently be seen in the waters at Marconi, frequently confounding the efforts of surfcasters to land the bluefish and striped bass cruising beyond the breakers during the summer and fall.

References

External links

The National Park Service Web page for Marconi Beach

Beaches of Massachusetts
Cape Cod National Seashore
Landforms of Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Tourist attractions in Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Wellfleet, Massachusetts

Marconi Beach