Robert Leon "Butch" Huskey (born November 10, 1971), is an American former professional baseball player who played in the major leagues primarily as an outfielder in 1993 and from 1995 to 2000.

Early life
Huskey was raised in Anadarko, Oklahoma by his grandmother until she sent him at age 10 or 11 to live with his father, a police officer in Lawton, Oklahoma. He lived there with five brothers and three sisters. Because of his proximity to the Oklahoma City 89ers, he grew up a Texas Rangers fan. Huskey attended Eisenhower High School in Lawton where he played football and was an All-State tight end. He was offered a scholarship to play college football for Oklahoma.

1989–1993
Huskey was drafted by the New York Mets in the seventh round of the 1989 Major League Baseball Draft as a third baseman. That year he was awarded the Doubleday Award for the Rookie level Gulf Coast Mets in Sarasota, Florida. Huskey posted a batting average of .263, with six home runs, 34 runs batted in, and four stolen bases in 54 games. Huskey won a second Doubleday Award following the 1991 season, this time playing for the Columbia Mets of the South Atlantic League as he posted a batting average of .287, with 26 home runs, 99 runs batted in, and 22 stolen bases. He won the award along with José Martínez, a right-handed pitcher.

Huskey won the award again in 1993, for the Binghamton Mets of the Eastern League, posting a batting average of .251, with 25 home runs, 98 runs batted in, and 11 stolen bases. By this time, Huskey had been labeled a top prospect by the Mets. Because of this, in August, Huskey was recalled to debut against the Houston Astros, with Darryl Kile on the mound, on the day Kile threw a no-hitter. Huskey was again recalled on September 1, 1993, when rosters expanded. He finished the season in the majors, batting .146 with no home runs, three runs batted in, and no stolen bases. (The Columbia Mets did not become the Capital City Bombers until 1993)

1994–1996
Huskey played the entire 1994 campaign with the Norfolk Tides of the International League. It was possible he would have been recalled again in September, but his hopes were dashed by the 1994 Major League Baseball strike. Huskey rebounded in 1995, winning a fourth and final Doubleday Award, this time along with right-handed pitcher Jason Isringhausen. Spending the season with Norfolk, he posted a batting average of .284, with 28 home runs, 87 runs batted in, and eight stolen bases. For his performance he was awarded with a September call-up, though he failed to impress at the big league level again, batting .189 with three home runs, 11 runs batted in, and one stolen base.

In 1996, Huskey was primed to compete with backup infielder Edgardo Alfonzo for the starting position at third base for the New York Mets, following the trade of incumbent Bobby Bonilla to the Baltimore Orioles the previous season. However, the unexpected play of shortstop Rey Ordóñez prompted Dallas Green to alter the infield alignment: Ordonez was awarded the starting shortstop position, with José Vizcaíno shifting to second base, and Jeff Kent shifting to third base. To compensate both Huskey and eager Mets fans, he was awarded the starting right field job, a position he had only played once previously at the Major League level. Huskey struggled defensively in the outfield, soon finding himself being replaced by more athletic natural outfielders, such as Carl Everett and Alex Ochoa, as well as being berated on several radio talk shows for his excessive weight. However, Huskey soon found himself in a platoon role with first baseman Rico Brogna, a left-handed hitter. Huskey went on to be the Mets' busiest first baseman that year, finishing with a .278 average, 15 home runs, 60 runs batted in, and one stolen base.

1997–1998
1997 proved to be another tumultuous season for the young right-hander.  With incumbent third baseman Jeff Kent traded away, Huskey was awarded the opening day third baseman's job. However, Huskey again struggled defensively, and was benched in favor of Edgardo Alfonzo, who went on to have a breakout season. Huskey once again found himself in right field, this time to platoon with the struggling Carl Everett. This season proved to be his most successful, as he posted a batting average of .287, with 24 home runs, 81 runs batted in, and eight stolen bases. Huskey was only 25 years old, and some scouts compared him to Mark McGwire.  One highlight of Huskey's 1997 season came on September 15, when he hit a home run off Philadelphia Phillies pitcher Matt Beech that landed in section 638 of Veterans Stadium.  He became only the third player to hit a ball into the stadium's 600 level, following Willie Stargell and Rubén Rivera.  Jim Thome would be the only other player to reach the 600 level with a batted ball before the stadium closed following the 2003 season.

All hopes seemed lost following the 1998 season, as Huskey regressed offensively, posting a batting average of .252, with 13 home runs, 59 runs batted in, and seven stolen bases. Following the season General Manager Steve Phillips announced that he would explore more options in right field. On November 11, 1998, the Mets re-acquired Bobby Bonilla, from the Los Angeles Dodgers, this time to play right field, in exchange for pitcher Mel Rojas. On December 14, 1998, the Mets traded Huskey to the Seattle Mariners in exchange for pitcher Lesli Brea.

1999–2001
Huskey was expected to have a limited bench role with Seattle, but his bat (15 home runs in only 262 at-bats) earned him more and more playing time. While Seattle had no playoff hopes at midseason, several other teams still did, and were looking to bolster their rosters. One such team was the Boston Red Sox, who acquired Huskey on July 26, 1999, in exchange for Robert Ramsay. Huskey served as a right-handed complement to Boston's left-handed designated hitter, Brian Daubach.  Huskey performed well in Boston, hitting seven home runs down in the second half of the season in only 124 at-bats and helped the Red Sox to a wild card berth.  Following the season, Huskey signed a one-year contract with the Minnesota Twins on January 27, 2000.

Huskey was expected to have a breakout season in 2000 with Minnesota as the Twins' everyday designated hitter, but he struggled offensively, hitting only five home runs in 215 at-bats.  On July 15, 2000, he was traded with Todd Walker to the Colorado Rockies in exchange for Todd Sears and cash.  The Rockies were in a pennant race and looking for power off of their bench.  Huskey did not disappoint, hitting four home runs in only 92 at-bats while playing mostly left field. On January 26, 2001, Huskey signed a one-year contract with the Cleveland Indians but failed to make the team in Spring Training and subsequently retired at the age of 29, as his meteoric rise in New York, Seattle, and Boston was equaled by his sudden downfall in Minnesota. In 2006, Huskey participated in Mets' fantasy camps in Port St. Lucie, Florida prior to the 2006 season.

His number
As a Met, Huskey started out his career in 1993 wearing number 10, and then wore the number 42 for the rest of his Met career from 1995 to 1998 when Major League Baseball retired the number in honor of Jackie Robinson on April 15, 1997, in a game between the Mets and Los Angeles Dodgers at Shea Stadium. A grandfather clause enabled him to wear the number for the remainder of his career if he so chose; he changed his number to 44 with the Red Sox in 1999, then reverted to 42 with the Twins before finishing out his career with the Rockies wearing number 35.

In popular culture
Huskey is mentioned in the Yo La Tengo song "Moby Octopad" (from the 1997 album I Can Hear the Heart Beating as One).

Notes

External links

1971 births
Living people
People from Anadarko, Oklahoma
Norfolk Tides players
Major League Baseball outfielders
New York Mets players
Seattle Mariners players
Boston Red Sox players
Minnesota Twins players
Colorado Rockies players
Baseball players from Oklahoma
International League MVP award winners
Sportspeople from Lawton, Oklahoma
Binghamton Mets players
Colorado Springs Sky Sox players
Gulf Coast Mets players
Kingsport Mets players
Salt Lake Buzz players
St. Lucie Mets players
African-American baseball players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople

Butch Huskey


An Editor is a person who makes changes to documents.
More specifically the word editor can  mean:
 a person who edits texts; see copy editing. A newspaper or magazine editor is a person who prepares articles for printing and sometimes chooses which articles to put in the newspaper. The main editor of a newspaper or magazine is called the "editor-in chief".
 a Wikipedia user who makes changes (also called "edits") to pages ("articles")
 text editor, an application program for editing an electronic text or media document
 one who, or that which, edits photos
 film editor, a person who edits movies
 a human or machine for movie film or video editing

Editor


John Hay Whitney (August 17, 1904 – February 8, 1982) was U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom, publisher of the New York Herald Tribune, and president of the Museum of Modern Art. He was a member of the Whitney family.

Early life

Whitney was born on August 17, 1904, in Ellsworth, Maine, Whitney was a descendant of John Whitney, a Puritan who settled in Massachusetts in 1635, as well as of William Bradford, who came over on the Mayflower. His father was Payne Whitney, and his grandfathers were William C. Whitney and John Hay, both presidential cabinet members. His mother was Helen Hay Whitney.

The Whitneys' family mansion, Payne Whitney House on New York's Fifth Avenue, was around the corner from James B. Duke House, home of the founder of the American Tobacco Co., father of Doris Duke.  Whitney's uncle, Oliver Hazard Payne, a business partner of John D. Rockefeller, arranged the funding for Duke to buy out his competitors.

Jock Whitney attended Groton School, then Yale College. He joined Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity (Phi chapter), as his father had. Whitney, his father, grandfather, and great-uncle were oarsmen at Yale, and his father was captain of the crew in 1898. He was a member of Scroll and Key. While at Yale, he inspired the coining of the term "crew cut" for the haircut favored by the rowing crew which still bears the name. After graduating in 1926, Whitney went to Oxford University, but the death of his father on May 25, 1927 necessitated his returning home. He inherited a trust fund of $20 million (approximately $343.9 million in 2023 dollars), and later inherited four times that amount from his mother.

Career

Business career

In 1929, Whitney, despite his vast wealth, was a clerk at the firm of Lee, Higginson & Co where, through his boss, J.T. Claiborne, Jr., he met former Lee, Higginson clerk Langbourne Meade Williams, Jr., who had come to Claiborne for help in his efforts to gain control of Freeport Texas Co. Williams was a scion of a founding investment firm in the sulfur mining company. In 1929, the year after Whitney became one of the wealthiest men in America, through inheritance, Williams enlisted the help of Whitney's boss, who then enlisted Whitney's financial participation, in his efforts to oust founder and Chairman Eric P. Swenson, casting Whitney in the role of corporate raider before the term existed. Whitney was soon Freeport's biggest shareholder, enabling Williams to replace the chairman and his management team. Claiborne was made a vice-president; Williams became Freeport's president in 1933, and Whitney was appointed chairman of the board.

In 1946, Whitney founded J.H. Whitney & Company, the oldest venture capital firm in the U.S., with Benno C. Schmidt, Sr.—who coined the term "venture capital"—with J. T. Claiborne as a partner. Whitney put up $10 million to finance entrepreneurs with business plans who were unwelcome at banks. Companies Whitney invested in included Spencer Chemical and Minute Maid. In 1958, while he was still ambassador to the United Kingdom, his company Whitney Communications Corp. bought the New York Herald Tribune, and was its publisher from 1961 to its closure in 1966. He was chairman of the International Herald Tribune from 1966 until his death. Whitney Communications also owned and operated other newspapers, magazines and broadcasting stations. Whitney's television stations were sold to Dun & Bradstreet in 1969.

Theatre and motion pictures
Whitney invested in several Broadway shows, including Peter Arno's 1931 revue Here Goes the Bride, a failure that cost him $100,000, but was more successful as one of the backers of Life with Father.

An October 1934 Fortune article on the Technicolor Corporation noted Whitney's interest in pictures. He had met Technicolor head Herbert Kalmus at the Saratoga Race Course. In 1932, Technicolor achieved a breakthrough with its three-strip process. Merian C. Cooper of RKO Radio Pictures approached Whitney with the idea of investing in Technicolor. They joined forces and founded Pioneer Pictures in 1933, with a distribution deal with RKO to distribute Pioneer's films. Whitney and his cousin Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney bought a 15% stake in Technicolor.

Whitney was also the major investor in David O. Selznick's production company Selznick International Pictures, putting up $870,000 and serving as chairman of the board. He put up half the money to option Margaret Mitchell's Gone with the Wind for the Selznick film version, in which he then invested, and later in Rebecca (1940).

Military career
Whitney served in the United States Army Air Forces as an intelligence officer during World War II, assigned to the Office of Strategic Services. This is where he met his good friend and former leader of the CIA, Allen Dulles.  He was taken prisoner by the Germans in southern France, but escaped when the train transporting him to a POW camp came under Allied fire.

Thoroughbred horse racing

Whitney inherited his family's love of horses, a predilection he shared with his sister, Joan Whitney Payson. Jock and his sister ran Greentree Stables in the U.S., owned by their mother. In 1928, he became the youngest member ever elected to The Jockey Club.

Whitney and his first wife "Liz" raced horses both in the United States and in Europe. He owned Easter Hero who won the 1929 and 1930 editions of the Cheltenham Gold Cup. In the 1929 Grand National, his horse twisted a plate and was beaten by a nose at the finish. Although Whitney entered the Grand National annually, he never again came close to winning.

The Whitneys entered four horses in the Kentucky Derby in the 1930s, "Stepenfetchit," which finished 3rd in 1932, "Overtime," which finished 5th in 1933, "Singing Wood," which finished 8th in 1934, and "Heather Broom," which finished 3rd in 1939.

Jock Whitney was also an outstanding polo player, with a four-goal handicap, and it was as a sportsman that he made the cover of the March 27, 1933, issue of Time magazine.

In 2015, Whitney was posthumously inducted to the National Museum of Racing's Hall of Fame as Pillar of the Turf.

Political life
Whitney was the major backer of Dwight D. Eisenhower and a member of the New York Young Republican Club.  Eisenhower appointed him United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom, a post held sixty years earlier by Whitney's grandfather John Hay. Whitney played a major role in improving Anglo-American relations, which had been severely strained during the 1956 Suez Crisis, when Eisenhower demanded that the British, French and Israelis terminate their invasion of Egypt.

Personal life
In 1930, Whitney purchased the Llangollen estate as a bridal gift for his fiancée, the Pennsylvania socialite Mary Elizabeth "Liz" Altemus. It was a  historic equestrian farm just outside Middleburg, Virginia. They were married on September 23, 1931. Although married to Altemus, Whitney was romantically linked to Tallulah Bankhead, Joan Bennett, Paulette Goddard and Joan Crawford.  Clark Gable and Carole Lombard met at one of Whitney's parties. In the early 1930s, Jock Whitney began an affair with Nina Gore Vidal; simultaneously, his wife had an affair with Nina Vidal's husband Eugene Vidal. The couple divorced in 1940, but Liz Whitney remained at Llangollen for the rest of her life, becoming an internationally renowned horse breeder and a member of the Virginia Thoroughbred Association Hall of Fame.

On March 1, 1942, he married Betsey Cushing Roosevelt Whitney, ex-wife of James Roosevelt, son of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and adopted her two daughters:
Kate Roosevelt Whitney
Sara Roosevelt Whitney (born March 13, 1932)

Whitney met Fred Astaire in New York City while the former was a student at Yale University and they became lifelong friends, sharing a passion for horse racing. Whitney became a major investor in two of Astaire's Broadway stage vehicles, The Band Wagon (1930) and Gay Divorce (1932), and played a crucial role in securing for Astaire a contract with RKO Pictures in 1933, using his contacts with Merion C. Cooper; both men were board members of Pan American Airways whose planes were prominently featured in Astaire's breakthrough film with Ginger Rogers: Flying Down to Rio (1933).

During the 1970s, Whitney was listed as one of the ten wealthiest men in the world. The residences at his disposal over the years included an estate on Long Island; an Atlantic Beach, NY beach house; Greenwood Plantation in Georgia; a townhouse and an elegant apartment in Manhattan; a large summer house on Fishers Island, near New London, Connecticut; a 12-room house in Saratoga Springs, which the Whitneys used when they attended horse races; a golfing cottage in Augusta, Georgia, where he was a member of the Augusta National Golf Club; and a spacious house Cherry Hill in Virginia Water, Surrey, England, near the Ascot Racecourse. Mr. Whitney also owned an estate in Aiken, South Carolina, which he considered his "retirement" home and where he hoped to spend his final days.

Whitney died on February 8, 1982, at North Shore Hospital, Manhasset, Long Island, after a long illness.

Philanthropy
Payne Whitney made substantial gifts to Yale, to the New York Presbyterian Hospital, and the New York Public Library. After his father's death, the family built the Payne Whitney Gymnasium at Yale in his honor. The family also financed Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic at New York Presbyterian Hospital in 1932.

Whitney created the John Hay Whitney Foundation for educational projects in 1946. The foundation provided fellowships to the racially and culturally deprived. He became a major contributor to Yale University, where he served as a Fellow of the corporation.

In 1951, he and his wife Betsey Cushing Whitney donated land from their "Greentree" estate in Manhasset, New York toward the building of North Shore Hospital. Currently called North Shore University Hospital, it is the flagship hospital of the 3rd largest not-for-profit secular healthcare system in the United States, the North Shore-Long Island Jewish Health System.

In 1953, Whitney received The Hundred Year Association of New York's Gold Medal Award "in recognition of outstanding contributions to the City of New York."

In the late 1960s/early 1970's John Hay Whitney donated two small parcels of land in Manhasset to the County of Nassau and to the Manhasset-Lakeville Volunteer Fire Department. The Nassau County parcel was the new home for the 6th Police Precinct of the Nassau County Police, located at the S/E intersection of Community Drive and East Community Drive. Just east of the 6th pct, at 2 E Community Dr., the M-LFD parcel was the new home of Fire Company #2 of the M-LFD, where John Hay Whitney was voted in by the membership of Company number two as an Honorary Member of the company.

Museum of Modern Art
In 1930 Whitney was elected to the board of trustees of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, and named President of the MoMA Film Library in 1935. In 1941 he succeeded Nelson A. Rockefeller as President of MoMA. In 1946 he succeeded Stephen C. Clark as chairman of the board of trustees

Art collection
When Whitney moved to England as United States ambassador, he took a number of his favourite artworks with him to enjoy during his posting. Before his return to the US, he agreed for the first time to loan part of his collection for the public to see. He provided the Tate Gallery with 56 paintings from the collection in England and specially brought in a further 11 paintings from the US. The exhibition, the John Hay Whitney Collection, ran from 16 December 1960 to 29 January 1961

In 1983 the National Gallery of Art, Washington held an exhibition of the John Hay Whitney Collection with paintings loaned by Whitney's wife, The Museum of Modern Art and Yale University Art Gallery

Among the paintings in his collection, Jock Whitney's prized possession was the Bal au moulin de la Galette painted in 1876 by the French artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir. In 1990, his widow put the painting up for auction with Sotheby's, New York and it sold for US$78 million to Japanese businessman, Ryoei Saito.

Whitney's widow donated a number of paintings from his collection to the Greentree Foundation. One of those paintings by Pablo Picasso, Garçon à la pipe was auctioned by Sotheby's in May 2004 for $104 million

The following works have been publicly exhibited or sold from the former collection of John Hay Whitney.

Albert Marquet, The Beach at Trouville
Alfred de Dreux, Cheval Blanc Effraye Par L'orage
Alfred de Dreux, Moorish Groom
André Derain, Charing Cross Bridge
André Derain, Collioure Landscape
Balthus (Balthasar Klossowski): Le Salon
Bazille, Jean-Frédéric: Pots De Fleurs
Bernard Perlin, Vacant Lots
Berthe Morisot, Hide and Seek (Cache-Cache)
Camille Pissarro, Jeanne with Flowers
Camille Pissarro, Pommes En Fleurs, Temps Gris, Eragny
Claude Monet, Bateaux Sur Le Galet
Claude Monet, Camille on the Beach
Edgar Degas, Avant la Course
Edgar Degas, Cheval de Selle
Edgar Degas, Chevaux de Course
Edgar Degas, La Promenade Des Chevaux
Edgar Degas, Le faux Depart
Edgar Degas, Le faux Depart (drawing)
Edgar Degas, Self Portrait
Édouard Manet, Les Courses au Bois de Bologne
Édouard Manet, Woman in a Decollete Gown
Édouard Vuillard, An Artist
Édouard Vuillard, Demoiselle en Rouge
Édouard Vuillard, Embroiders near a Window (Tapestry)
Édouard Vuillard, La Mère De Vuillard En Profil
Édouard Vuillard, Portrait of the Artist's Mother
Edward Hopper, Cape Cod Evening
Eugène Boudin, Hollyhocks
Eugène Boudin, Roses
George Bellows, Club Night
George Bellows, Crowd at Polo
George Bellows, Introducing John L. Sullivan
Georges Braque, Bouteiile et Verre
Georges Braque, Les Cabines
Georges Braque, The Port of La Ciotat
Georges Seurat, Grandcamp, Evening
Georges Seurat, The Island of La Grande Jatte
Gustave Courbet, The Hound
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Marcelle Lender Dancing the Bolero in "Chilperic"
Henri Fantin-Latour,  Roses
Henri Fantin-Latour, Vase of Flowers
Henri Matisse, Luxe, Calme et Volupte
Henri Matisse, Nature Morte au Purro II
Henri Matisse, Open Window, Collioure
Henri Rousseau, L'Heureux Quatuor (the Happy Quartet)
Henri Rousseau, Tropical Forest with Monkeys
Henri-Edmond Cross, Coast near Antibes
Henri-Edmond Cross, The Grape Harvest
Honoré Daumier, Joueurs Des Cartes
James McNeill Whistler, Wapping on Thames
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Chaumieres Et Moulins Au Bord D'un Torrent (Morvan Ou Auvergne)
Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, Still Life
John Constable, View of the back of a terrace of houses at Hampstead, with an elder tree
John Singer Sargent, Robert Louis Stevenson
John Singer Sargent, Venetian Courtyard
Kees van Dongen, Saida
Maurice de Vlaminck, Tugboat on the Seine, Chatou
Maurice Utrillo, The Rue des Abbesses, Montmartre
Odilon Redon, Fleurs Dans Un Vase Vert
Pablo Picasso, Ace of Clubs
Pablo Picasso, Garçon à la pipe Le jeune Apprenti
Pablo Picasso, Head of a Sleeping Woman
Pablo Picasso, Homme assis (seated man)
Pablo Picasso, Plant de Tomate
Pablo Picasso, Self Portrait
Pablo Picasso, Still Life (Le Journal)
Pablo Picasso, Still Life with a Bottle of Maraschino
Pablo Picasso, Still Life with Fruit and Glass
Pablo Picasso, Still Life with vase, Gourd and Fruit
Paul Cézanne, Route Tournante a Montgeroult
Paul Cézanne, Still Life With Curtain, Pitcher and Bowl of Fruit
Paul Gauguin, Parau-Parau
Paul Signac, Collioure  Le Mohamed-El-Sadok
Paul Signac, Fishing Boats in the Sunset
Paul Signac, The Yawl
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, La Foret de Marly
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, La Yole
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Liseuse
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Bal du moulin de la Galette
Raoul Dufy, Beach at Saint-Adresse
Raoul Dufy, Fete a Sainte-Adresse
Raoul Dufy, Jockeys et Turfistes À Epsom
Raoul Dufy, Sailboats at Le Havre
Roger de La Fresnaye, Still Life, Coffee, Pot and Melon
Rufino Tamayo, Women
Sir Alfred Munnings, Before the Start
Sir Alfred Munnings, Leaving The Paddock At Epsom Downs
Sir Alfred Munnings, The Red Prince Mare
Sir Alfred Munnings, The Winner
Sir John Lavery, Weighing in at Sandown Park
Théo van Rysselberghe, Port Cette
Théodore Géricault, Cheval de Napoleon
Théodore Géricault, Officier de Cavalerie à Cheval
Théodore Rousseau, The Isle of Capri
Thomas Eakins, Baby at Play
Thomas Eakins, The Oarsmen
Vincent van Gogh, Les Oliviers, St Remy
Vincent van Gogh, Self Portrait
William Blake, The Good and Evil Angels Struggling For Possession of a Child
Winslow Homer, Woodshopper in the Adirondacks
Fosburgh, Daisies

Sources:
John Hay Whitney Collection (Catalogue), Tate Gallery, 1960, John Hay Whitney Collection (Catalogue), National Gallery of Art, 1983, Sotheby's Catalogue, auction 10 May 1999, Sotheby's Catalogue, auction 5 May 2004

Anecdotes
Whitney gave Fred Astaire a pair of big-wheel roller skates as a present. A few years later roller skating was one of his most important dance numbers on film.

Whitney and Jimmy Altemus provided the lyrics for a sing composed by Fred Astaire, "Tappin' the Time."

President Dwight D. Eisenhower took pains to transmit to Ambassador Whitney in London, by telegram, the first round golf scores of the Masters Tournament at the Augusta National Golf Club on 5 April 1957.

Ambassador Whitney had a very demanding and exhausting scheduled but was not fazed by it. After having been to three or four receptions one day, his wife was not surprised to find their chauffeur, groggy from his rounds, dozing on the back seat of their limousine and the Ambassador driving the car.

Whitney: "I have just had a heart attack and am on a very strict diet. However if you will twist my arm a little, I will probably give in and we will consume a number of very large dry martinis"

William S. Paley (the legendary founder of CBS), who was Whitney's brother in law, had a gentle rivalry with Whitney. Once while watching television with Whitney at Greentree, Paley wanted to change the channel. 'Where's your clicker?' Paley asked, figuring Jock would have a remote-control switch at his fingertips. Jock calmly pressed a buzzer, and his butler walked up to the TV set to make the switch.

The White House Is Nice, But It's No Greentree! E. J. Kahn, Mr. Whitney's biographer, reported that one of his daughters, Kate, once took her own children on a tour of the White House. Mr. Kahn wrote, After inspecting it, they pronounced it nice enough but hardly on a par with Greentree. [Greentree was the more prestigious of his Long Island residences']

References

Sources

External links

 Philadelphia Inquirer Obituary 9 Feb 1982

 Manhasset-Lakeville Fire Department

1904 births
1982 deaths
20th-century American newspaper publishers (people)
Ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom
American art collectors
American escapees
American prisoners of war in World War II
Philanthropists from New York (state)
American socialites
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award recipients
New York Herald Tribune people
People from Ellsworth, Maine
Whitney family
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany
Yale College alumni
Groton School alumni
Private equity and venture capital investors
United States Army Air Forces officers
Virginia Republicans
New York (state) Republicans
People from Manhasset, New York
People from Middleburg, Virginia
Escapees from German detention
People of the Office of Strategic Services
20th-century American diplomats

John Hay Whitney


Brewsterite is the name of a series of tectosilicate minerals of the zeolite group.  Prior to 1997, brewsterite was recognized as a mineral species, but a reclassification in 1997 by the International Mineralogical Association changed it to a series name, with the mineral species being named brewsterite-Sr and brewsterite-Ba.  Brewsterite-Sr, the more common of these, is a hydrous strontium and aluminium silicate, .  Small amounts of barium is usually present replacing part of the strontium.  The appropriate species name depends on the dominant element.  The species are visually indistinguishable, and the series name brewsterite is still used whenever testing has not been performed.

It is generally considered to be monoclinic, though optical studies have suggested it might be triclinic. It has one plane of perfect cleavage.  The color is white, yellow-white, or gray.  The Mohs' hardness is 5. It is transparent to translucent.  The crystals are prismatic. Brewsterite is isomorphous with heulandite.

It is named after Sir David Brewster (1781–1868) who described it in 1822.  The type locality for the series and for brewsterite-Sr is Strontian, Argyll, Scotland.

It is a hydrothermal mineral occurring in volcanic rocks such as basalt.  Grayish crystals are found at the Giant's Causeway in County Antrim. It is found with harmotome in the lead mines at Strontian in Argyllshire.

References

 IMA Zeolite Classification
 Zeolites of the World, Rudy W. Tschernich, 1992

External links
structure type BRE

Zeolites
Monoclinic minerals
Minerals in space group 11

Brewsterite


Statistical process control (SPC) is the use of statistical methods to assess the stability of a process and the quality of its outputs. For example, consider a bottling plant. The entire system of production that produces filled bottles is termed a process. Suppose the weight of liquid content added to a bottle is critical for cost control and customer satisfaction. The content should weigh 250 grams, but it is acceptable if the actual weight is between 245 and 255 grams. Monitoring means that the weight of every bottle is measured and recorded; sampling means that only a few bottles (say one in a thousand) are actually weighed (analysis to determine the rate of sampling and to assess sample representativeness is a well-established part of SPC.)

SPC relies on quantitative and graphic analysis of measurements to evaluate observed variation. If the attributes of interest (content weight in this example) vary within an acceptable range, a process is said to be in control, in statistical control, or stable. When unacceptable variation is noted, actions are typically taken to determine and correct their cause. In the bottling example, suppose too many bottles are filled with less than 245 grams. Checking the plant equipment reveals that one of ten filler valves is malfunctioning.

SPC has had broad application in manufacturing since its introduction in the 1920s and in many other kinds of repetitive activities.

Much of the power of SPC lies in the ability to examine a process, for the sources of variation in that process, by using tools which give weight to objective analysis over subjective opinions and which allow the strength of each source to be determined numerically. Variations in the process, which might affect the quality of the end-product or service can be detected and corrected, thus reducing waste as well as the likelihood that problems will be passed on to the customer. With its emphasis on early detection and prevention of problems, SPC has a distinct advantage over other quality methods, such as inspection, which apply resources to detecting and correcting problems after they have occurred.

In addition to reducing waste, SPC can lead to a reduction in the time required to produce the product or service from end-to-end. This is partially due to a reduced likelihood that the final product will have to be reworked, but it may also result from using SPC data to identify bottlenecks, wait times, and other sources of delays within the process. Process cycle time reductions, coupled with improvements in yield, have made SPC a valuable tool from both a cost-reduction and a customer-satisfaction standpoint.

History
Statistical process control was pioneered by Walter A. Shewhart in the early 1920s. Shewhart created the basis for the control chart and the concept of a state of statistical control by carefully designed experiments. While Dr. Shewhart drew from pure mathematical statistical theories, he understood that data from physical processes seldom produces a "normal distribution curve" (a Gaussian distribution, also commonly referred to as a "bell curve"). He discovered how the observed variation in manufacturing data did not always behave the same way as data in nature (for example, Brownian motion of particles). Dr. Shewhart concluded that while every process displays variation, some processes display controlled variation that is natural to the process (common causes of variation), while others display uncontrolled variation that is not present in the process causal system at all times (special causes of variation). Uncontrolled variation is often associated with defective products, providing a data-driven means to identify problems and improve quality.

W. Edwards Deming later applied SPC methods in the U.S. during World War II, thereby successfully improving quality in the manufacture of munitions and other strategically important products. After the war ended, he was instrumental in introducing SPC methods to Japanese industry. Deming's approach of using SPC with related management practices came to be known as a quality management system.

Application
The following description relates to manufacturing rather than to the service industry, although the principles of SPC can be successfully applied to either. For a description and example of how SPC applies to a service environment, refer to Roberts (2005). Selden describes how to use SPC in the fields of sales, marketing, and customer service, using Deming's famous Red Bead Experiment as an easy to follow demonstration.

In mass-manufacturing, the quality of the finished article was traditionally achieved through post-manufacturing inspection of the product; accepting or rejecting each article (or samples from a production lot) based on how well it met its design specifications. In contrast, Statistical Process Control uses statistical tools to observe the performance of the production process in order to predict significant deviations that may later result in rejected product.

Two kinds of variation occur in all manufacturing processes: both these types of process variation cause subsequent variation in the final product. The first is known as natural or common cause variation and consists of the variation inherent in the process as it is designed. Common cause variation may include variations in temperature, properties of raw materials, strength of an electrical current etc. The second kind of variation is known as special cause variation, or assignable-cause variation, and happens less frequently than the first. With sufficient investigation, a specific cause, such as abnormal raw material or incorrect set-up parameters, can be found for special cause variations.

For example, a breakfast cereal packaging line may be designed to fill each cereal box with 500 grams of product, but some boxes will have slightly more than 500 grams, and some will have slightly less, in accordance with a distribution of net weights.  If the production process, its inputs, or its environment changes (for example, the machines doing the manufacture begin to wear) this distribution can change. For example, as its cams and pulleys wear out, the cereal filling machine may start putting more cereal into each box than specified.  If this change is allowed to continue unchecked, more and more product will be produced that fall outside the tolerances of the manufacturer or consumer, resulting in waste.  While in this case, the waste is in the form of "free" product for the consumer, typically waste consists of rework or scrap.

By observing at the right time what happened in the process that led to a change, the quality engineer or any member of the team responsible for the production line can troubleshoot the root cause of the variation that has crept in to the process and correct the problem.

SPC indicates when an action should be taken in a process, but it also indicates when NO action should be taken. An example is a person who would like to maintain a constant body weight and takes weight measurements weekly. A person who does not understand SPC concepts might start dieting every time his or her weight increased, or eat more every time his or her weight decreased. This type of action could be harmful and possibly generate even more variation in body weight. SPC would account for normal weight variation and better indicate when the person is in fact gaining or losing weight.

Basic Steps of SPC
Statistical Process Control may be broadly broken down into three sets of activities: understanding the process; understanding the causes of variation; and elimination of the sources of special cause variation. Key tools in SPC are control charts, a focus on continuous improvement and designed experiments.

In understanding a process, the process is typically mapped out and the process is monitored using control charts. Control charts are used to identify variation that may be due to special causes, and to free the user from concern over variation due to common causes. This is a continuous, ongoing activity. When a process is stable and does not trigger any of the detection rules for a control chart, a process-capability analysis may also be performed to predict the ability of the current process to produce conforming (i.e. within specification) product in the future.

When excessive variation is identified by the control-chart detection rules, or the process capability is found lacking, additional effort is exerted to determine causes of that variance. The tools used include Ishikawa diagrams, designed experiments and Pareto charts. Designed experiments are critical to this phase of SPC, as they are the only means of objectively quantifying the relative importance of the many potential causes of variation.

Once the causes of variation have been quantified, effort is spent in eliminating those causes that are both statistically and practically significant (i.e. a cause that has only a small but statistically significant effect may not be considered cost-effective to fix; however, a cause that is not statistically significant can never be considered practically significant). Generally, this includes development of standard work, error-proofing and training. Additional process changes may be required to reduce variation or align the process with the desired target, especially if there is a problem with process capability.

SPC and Software Quality
In 1989, the Software Engineering Institute introduced the notion that SPC can be usefully applied to non-manufacturing processes, such as software-engineering processes, in the Capability Maturity Model (CMM).  This idea exists today within the Level 4 and Level 5 practices of the Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI). However, this notion that SPC is a useful tool when applied to non-repetitive, knowledge-intensive processes, such as engineering processes, has encountered much skepticism, and remains controversial today. The problem lies in numerous areas of software which are not repetitive, but instead are one-time or one-off aspects of quality, rather than being observed for repeated performance over a long-term view.

Related pages
 Quality assurance
 Quality control
 ANOVA
 Sampling (statistics)
 Six sigma

References

Bibliography
Deming, W E (1975) On probability as a basis for action, The American Statistician, 29(4), pp146–152
Deming, W E (1982) Out of the Crisis: Quality, Productivity and Competitive Position
Oakland, J (2002) Statistical Process Control
Shewhart, W A (1931) Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product
Shewhart, W A (1939) Statistical Method from the Viewpoint of Quality Control
Wheeler, D J (2000) Normality and the Process-Behaviour Chart
Wheeler, D J & Chambers, D S (1992) Understanding Statistical Process Control
Wheeler, Donald J. (1999). Understanding Variation: The Key to Managing Chaos - 2nd Edition. SPC Press, Inc. .
Wise, Stephen A. & Fair, Douglas C (1998). Innovative Control Charting: Practical SPC Solutions for Today's Manufacturing Environment. ASQ Quality Press.

Other websites
''Note:  Before adding your company's link, please read WP:Spam#Other website spamming.
 Working example  of Deming's Red Bead Experiment
Statistical Process Control
Manufacturing Systems - Statistical Process Control
MIT Course - Control of Manufacturing Processes
NIST Engineering Statistics Handbook

Management

Statistical process control


The 'Siamese' is a breed of cat from Thailand. It is a well-known cat, especially for its blue eyes and brown face, ears, tail and paws, although not all of them look like this. In Thailand, it is a native breed, and they are called Wichian Mat (), which means moon diamond. There are two different types of Siamese Cat, the Traditional or Thai Siamese, and the Modern Siamese.

Appearance
The fur on all Siamese cats has the same sort of pattern, known as point coloration. This is when an animal has a pale body and a dark face, ears, feet and tail.

Traditional Siamese
The Traditional Siamese has a few features that are the same as the Modern Siamese, like the colour pattern and the short fur, but it is different because of its head and body shape. It has long legs, and is thin and is graceful.  It has a wedge shaped head and muzzle, and round cheeks. The ears are large and high. The eyes are between medium and large, and have the shape of an almond.

Modern Siamese
The body of a Modern Siamese is flexible and well-muscled. Its head is in the shape of a triangle, with a thin snout-like muzzle. Their eyes are also almond shaped, and their ears are tall and sit more on the side of the head than the Traditional Siamese. It's neck and tail are long and thin.

Behaviour

Siamese cats, both Traditional and Modern, are usually very friendly and loving cats, and will enjoy spending time with you,  although this depends on the cat.  They are known to bond to one person. They are also very smart, more so than some other cats. Some Siamese cats enjoy 'talking', which has been said to sound like a human baby, and always enjoy attention. Siamese cats love to play and run around as if they were kittens all their life.

Unlike most cats, they are less active at night, and prefer to sleep through it. This might be because their eyes lack something called tapetum lucidum, which allows cats to see better in the dark. Unlike many other blue-eyed cats, Siamese cats can still hear well. Cats that are white with blue eyes are often deaf.

In fiction
 Siamese cats named Si and Am have a minor role in Lady and the Tramp (1955) and its sequel, Lady and the Tramp II (2001). They were replaced with a different breed in the 2019 remake, the Devon Rex.
 The cover of the Blink-182 album Cheshire Cat features a Siamese cat.

References

Colorpoint cat breeds
Natural cat breeds

Siamese cat


Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (c. 485 – c. 585), commonly known as Cassiodorus (), was a Christian, Roman statesman, renowned scholar of antiquity, and writer serving in the administration of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. Senator was part of his surname, not his rank. He also founded a monastery, Vivarium (or "Castellum"), where he worked extensively the last three decades of his life.

Life
Cassiodorus was born at Scylletium, near Catanzaro in Calabria, Italy. Some modern historians speculate that his family was of Syrian origin based on his Greek name. His ancestry included some of the most prominent ministers of the state extending back several generations. His great-grandfather held a command in the defense of the coasts of southern Italy from Vandal sea-raiders in the middle of the fifth century; his grandfather appears in a Roman embassy to Attila the Hun, and his father (who bore the same name) served as comes sacrarum largitionum and comes rerum privatarum to Odovacer and as Praetorian Prefect to Theoderic the Great.

Cassiodorus began his career under the auspices of his father, about in his twentieth year, when the latter made him his consiliarius upon his own appointment to the Praetorian Prefecture. In the judicial capacity of the prefect, he held absolute right of appeal over any magistrate in the empire (or Gothic kingdom, later) and the consiliarius served as a sort of legal advisor in cases of greater complexity. Evidently, therefore, Cassiodorus had received some education in the law. During his working life he worked as quaestor sacri palatii c. 507–511, as a consul in 514, then as magister officiorum under Theoderic, and later under the regency for Theoderic's young successor, Athalaric. Cassiodorus kept copious records and letterbooks concerning public affairs. At the Gothic court his literary skill, which seems mannered and rhetorical to modern readers, was so esteemed that when in Ravenna he was often entrusted with drafting significant public documents. His culminating appointment was as praetorian prefect for Italy, effectively the prime ministership of the Ostrogothic civil government and a high honor to finish any career. Cassiodorus also collaborated with Pope Agapetus I to establish a library of Greek and Latin texts that were intended to support a Christian school in Rome.

James O'Donnell notes:
[I]t is almost indisputable that he accepted advancement in 523 as the immediate successor of Boethius, who was then falling from grace after less than a year as magister officiorum, and who was sent to prison and later executed. In addition, Boethius' father-in-law (and step-father) Symmachus, by this time a distinguished elder statesman, followed Boethius to the block within a year. All this was a result of the worsening split between the ancient senatorial aristocracy centered in Rome and the adherents of Gothic rule at Ravenna. But to read Cassiodorus' Variae one would never suspect such goings-on.

There is no mention in Cassiodorus' selection of official correspondence of the death of Boethius.

Athalaric died in early 534, and the remainder of Cassiodorus' public career was dominated by the Byzantine reconquest and dynastic intrigue among the Ostrogoths. His last letters were drafted in the name of Vitiges. Around 537–38, he left Italy for Constantinople, from where his successor was appointed; Cassiodorus remained in the eastern capital for almost two decades, concentrating on religious questions. He notably met Junillus, the quaestor of Justinian I there. His Constantinopolitan journey contributed to the improvement of his religious knowledge.

Cassiodorus spent his career trying to bridge the 6th-century cultural divides: between East and West, Greek culture and Latin, Roman and Goth, and between an orthodox people and their Arian rulers. He speaks fondly in his Institutiones of Dionysius Exiguus, the calculator of the Anno Domini era.

In his retirement, he founded the monastery of Vivarium on his family estates on the shores of the Ionian Sea, and his writings turned to religion.

Monastery at Vivarium

Cassiodorus' Vivarium "monastery school" was composed of two main buildings: a coenobitic monastery and a retreat, for those who desired a more solitary life. Both were located on the site of the modern Santa Maria de Vetere near Squillace. The twin structure of Vivarium was to permit coenobitic monks and hermits to coexist. The Vivarium appears not to have been governed by a strict monastic rule, such as that of the Benedictine Order. Rather Cassiodorus' work Institutiones was written to guide the monks' studies. To this end, the Institutiones focus largely on texts assumed to have been available in Vivarium's library. The Institutiones seem to have been composed over a lengthy period of time, from the 530s into the 550s, with redactions up to the time of Cassiodorus' death. Cassiodorus composed the Institutiones as a guide for introductory learning of both "divine" and "secular" writings, in place of his formerly planned Christian school in Rome:I was moved by divine love to devise for you, with God's help, these introductory books to take the place of a teacher. Through them I believe that both the textual sequence of Holy Scripture and also a compact account of secular letters may, with God's grace, be revealed.The first section of the Institutiones deals with Christian texts, and was intended to be used in combination with the Expositio Psalmorum. The order of subjects in the second book of the Institutiones reflected what would become the Trivium and Quadrivium of medieval liberal arts: grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. While he encouraged study of secular subjects, Cassiodorus clearly considered them useful primarily as aids to the study of divinity, much in the same manner as St. Augustine. Cassiodorus' Institutiones thus attempted to provide what Cassiodorus saw as a well-rounded education necessary for a learned Christian, all in uno corpore, as Cassiodorus put it.

The library at Vivarium was still active c. 630, when the monks brought the relics of Saint Agathius from Constantinople, dedicating to him a spring-fed fountain shrine that still exists. However, its books were later dispersed, the Codex Grandior of the Bible being purchased by the Anglo-Saxon Ceolfrith when he was in Italy in 679–80, and  taken by him to Wearmouth Jarrow, where it served as the source for the copying of the Codex Amiatinus, which was then brought back to Italy by the now aged Ceolfrith. Despite the demise of the Vivarium, Cassiodorus' work in compiling classical sources and presenting a sort of bibliography of resources would prove extremely influential in Late Antique Western Europe.

Educational philosophy
Cassiodorus devoted much of his life to supporting education within the Christian community at large. When his proposed theological university in Rome was denied, he was forced to re-examine his entire approach to how material was learned and interpreted. His Variae show that, like Augustine of Hippo, Cassiodorus viewed reading as a transformative act for the reader. It is with this in mind that he designed and mandated the course of studies at the Vivarium, which demanded an intense regimen of reading and meditation. By assigning a specific order of texts to be read, Cassiodorus hoped to create the discipline necessary within the reader to become a successful monk. The first work in this succession of texts would be the Psalms, with which the untrained reader would need to begin because of its appeal to emotion and temporal goods. By examining the rate at which copies of his Psalmic commentaries were issued, it is fair to assess that, as the first work in his series, Cassiodorus's educational agenda had been implemented to some degree of success.

Beyond demanding the pursuit of discipline among his students, Cassiodorus encouraged the study of the liberal arts. He believed these arts were part of the content of the Bible, and some mastery of them—especially grammar and rhetoric—necessary for a complete understanding of it.  These arts were divided into trivium (which included rhetoric, idioms, vocabulary and etymology) and quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. He also encouraged the Benedictine monks to study the medical texts of that era, the known herbals and texts of Hippocrates, Dioscorides and Galen.

Classical connections
Cassiodorus is rivalled only by Boethius in his drive to preserve and explore classical literature during the 6th century AD.  He found the writings of the Greeks and Romans valuable for their expression of higher truths where other arts failed. Though he saw these texts as vastly inferior to the perfect word of Scripture, the truths presented in them played to Cassiodorus' educational principles. Thus he is unafraid to cite Cicero alongside sacred text, and acknowledge the classical ideal of good being part of the practice of rhetoric.

His love for classical thought also influenced his administration of Vivarium. Cassiodorus connected deeply with Christian neoplatonism, which saw beauty as concomitant with the Good.  This inspired him to adjust his educational program to support the aesthetic enhancement of manuscripts within the monastery, something which had been practiced before, but not in the universality that he suggests.

Classical learning would by no means replace the role of Scripture within the monastery; it was intended to augment the education already under way. It is also worth noting that all Greek and Roman works were heavily screened to ensure only proper exposure to text, fitting with the rest of the structured learning.

Lasting impact
Cassiodorus' legacy is quietly profound. Before the founding of Vivarium, the copying of manuscripts had been a task reserved for either inexperienced or physically infirm devotees, and was performed at the whim of literate monks. Through the influence of Cassiodorus, the monastic system adopted a more vigorous, widespread, and regular approach to reproducing documents within the monastery. This approach to the development of the monastic lifestyle was perpetuated especially through German religious institutions.

This change in daily life also became associated with a higher purpose: the process was not merely associated with disciplinary habit, but also with the preservation of history. During Cassiodorus' lifetime, theological study was on the decline and classical writings were disappearing. Even as the victorious Ostrogoth armies remained in the countryside, they continued to pillage and destroy Christian relics in Italy. Cassiodorus' programme helped ensure that both classical and Christian literature were preserved through the Middle Ages.

Despite his contributions to monastic order, literature, and education, Cassiodorus' labors were not well acknowledged. After his death he was only partially recognized by historians of the age, including Bede, as an obscure supporter of the Church. In their descriptions of Cassiodorus, medieval scholars have been documented to change his name, profession, place of residence, and even his religion. Some chapters from his works have been copied into other texts, suggesting that he may have been read, but not generally known.

The works not assigned as a part of Cassiodorus' educational program must be examined critically. Because he had been working under the newly dominant power of the Ostrogoths, the writer demonstrably alters the narrative of history for the sake of protecting himself. The same could easily be said about his ideas, which were presented as non-threatening in their approach to peaceful meditation and its institutional isolationism.

Works
Laudes (very fragmentary published panegyrics on public occasions)
Chronica (ending at 519), uniting all world history in one sequence of rulers, a union of Goth and Roman antecedents, flattering Goth sensibilities as the sequence neared the date of composition
Gothic History (526–533), a lengthy and multi-volume work, survives only in Jordanes' abridgment Getica, which must be considered a separate work and is the only surviving ancient work about the Goths' early history
Variae epistolae (537), Theoderic's state papers. Editio princeps by M. Accurius (1533). English translations by Thomas Hodgkin The Letters of Cassiodorus (1886); S.J.B. Barnish Cassiodorus: Variae (Liverpool: University Press, 1992)
Expositio psalmorum (Exposition of the Psalms)
De anima ("On the Soul") (540)
Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum (543–555)
De artibus ac disciplinis liberalium litterarum ("On the Liberal Arts")
Codex Grandior (a version of the Bible)
De orthographia ( 580), a compilation of the works of eight grammarians to act as a guide to proper spelling. It is the last known work by Cassiodorus, completed when he was 93 years old.
Historiae Ecclesiasticae Tripartitae Epitome co-produced with Epiphanius Scholasticus

See also
 Benedict of Nursia
 Copanello

References

Sources
Barnish, S.J. Roman Responses to an Unstable World: Cassiodorus' Variae in Context in: Vivarium in Context 7–22 (Centre Leonard Boyle: Vicenza 2008).

O'Donnell, James J.  (1969). Cassiodorus University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
O'Donnell, James J. (1979 and 1995). Cassiodorus (Berkeley: University of California Press). Online e-text, 1995 Post-Print.

External links

Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon life, works, critical editions, translations and comprehensive bibliography on Cassiodorus.
James J. O'Donnell's Cassiodorus webpage: an assessment of Cassiodorus' cultural predicament

Opera omnia vol. 1, Joannes Garetius, ed., Rouen, 1679. (Google Books)
Opera omnia vol. 2, Joannes Garetius, ed., Rouen, 1679.  (Google Books)
History of the Christian Church/A.D. 590–1073 by Philip Schaff at 'ccel.org'
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire — Volume 4 by Gibbon at Project Gutenberg.
Cassiodorus – Catholic Encyclopedia article
Site of the Vivarium of Cassiodorus – An account of survey and recognition at the proposed archaeological site of Vivarium (Coscia di Staletti', Catanzaro, Calabria).
Societas internationalis pro Vivario for the study of Cassiodorus and his times
The fountain of Cassiodorus A spring situated at the Coscia di Staletti on the grounds of the monastery of Cassiodorus, with a grotto, formerly a site of pagan worship and eventually Christianized by the addition of two large crosses.
  Vivarium in Context. Book description and reviews of the essays by Sam J. Barnish and Lellia Cracco Ruggini.

480s births
580s deaths
5th-century Italo-Roman people
6th-century Italo-Roman people
6th-century Christians
6th-century writers in Latin
6th-century Byzantine writers
6th-century Roman consuls
Church Fathers
Letter writers in Latin
Praetorian prefects of Italy
Magistri officiorum
Christian writers
Italian music theorists
People from the Ostrogothic Kingdom
People from Squillace
Latin historians
Last of the Romans
School founders
Founders of Christian monasteries
Italian educators
6th-century Christian monks
6th-century Byzantine monks
Italian Christian monks
6th-century Italian writers
6th-century historians
6th-century mathematicians
6th-century Byzantine scientists

Cassiodorus


Sir Francis Galton FRS (Birmingham, 16 February 1822 – Surrey, 17 January 1911), half-cousin of Charles Darwin, was an English  scientist. His main field of work was human biology and inheritance of mental characteristics.

Galton was a polymath: an anthropologist, a eugenicist, a tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, psychometrician, and statistician. He was knighted in 1909.

Galton produced over 340 papers and books in his lifetime. He created the statistical concepts of normal distribution, correlation and regression toward the mean. He was the first to apply statistical methods to the study of human differences and inheritance of intelligence.

He was the first person to do twin studies. His method was to trace twins through their life-history, making many kinds of measurement. Unfortunately, though he knew about monozygotic (identical twins) and dizygotic twins, he did not appreciate the real genetic difference. Twin studies of the modern kind did not appear until the 1920s.

He also introduced the use of questionnaires and surveys to collect data on human communities. He needed such data for genealogical and biographical works and for his anthropometric studies. He was a pioneer in eugenics, coining the very term itself and the phrase "nature versus nurture". As an investigator of the human mind, he founded psychometrics (the science of measuring mental faculties) and differential psychology.

Galton created a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science. As the initiator of scientific meteorology, he devised the first weather map, proposed a theory of anticyclones, and was the first to establish a complete record of short-term climatic phenomena on a European scale. He also invented the Galton Whistle for testing differential hearing ability.

Books by Galton
1853 Narrative of an explorer in tropical South Africa.
1855. The art of travel, or shifts and contrivances available in wild countries. Murray, London.
1863. Meteorographica. Macmillan, London.
1869 [2nd ed 1892]. Hereditary genius: its laws and consequences. Macmillan, London.
1874. English men of science: their nature and nature.
1883. Inquiries into human faculty and its development. Macmillan, London.
1884. Record of family faculties. Macmillan, London.
1889. Natural inheritance. Macmillan, London.
1892. Fingerprints. Macmillan, London.
1893. Decipherment of blurred finger prints.
1895. Fingerprint directories.
1909. Memories of my life. Macmillan, London.
1909. Noteworthy families. Murray, London.

References

1822 births
1911 deaths
English biologists
English geneticists
British geographers
British meteorologists
People from Birmingham

Francis Galton


In Hinduism and Buddhism, a dakini is a female being like a goddess. They are mostly found in Tibetan Buddhism.Chinese: 空行母, Pinyin: Kōngxíng Mǔ and 狐仙,Pinyin:Hú xian ;明妃,Pinyin:Míng fēi} The dakini inspires spiritual practice. A dakini is often depicted as beautiful and naked. The nakedness represents the freedom of the mind.

The Chinese and Tibetan terms for dakini literally mean "she who travels in the sky"; this is sometimes written poetically as "sky dancer". Their bodies are depicted curved in sinuous dance poses.

Dakinis are associated with energy. They are linked with the revelation of the path of transformation. They help people to change the energy of negative emotions, called poisons (kleshas), into enlightened awareness.

Appearance
Images tend to show the dakini as a young, naked figure in a dancing posture, often holding a skull cup filled with menstrual blood or the elixir of life in one hand, and a curved knife in the other. She may wear a garland of human skulls, with a trident staff leaning against her shoulder. Her hair is usually wild and hanging down her back, and her face often wrathful in expression, as she dances on top of a corpse, which represents her complete mastery over ego and ignorance.

Events
Tibetan Buddhists believe that a Dakini gave a black hat to the third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorje (1284 - 1339), when he was three years old. The Black Crown became the emblem of this Tibetan lineage known as the Karma Kagyu.

Notes

References
 Beyer, Stephen (1973). The Cult of Tara: Magic and Ritual in Tibet. University of California Press.
 English, Elizabeth (2002). Vajrayogini: Her Visualizations, Rituals, and Forms. Wisdom Publications.
 Norbu, Thinley (1981). Magic Dance: The Display of the Self Nature of the Five Wisdom Dakinis. Jewel Publishing House, 2nd edition.
 Padmasambhava, translated by Erik Pema Kunsang (1999) Dakini Teachings. Rangjung Yeshe Publications, 2nd edition.
 Simmer-Brown, Judith (2001). Dakini's Warm Breath: The Feminine Principle in Tibetan Buddhism. Shambhala Publications.
 Yeshe, Lama (2001). Introduction to Tantra : The Transformation of Desire. Wisdom Publications, revised edition.

Other websites
 Dakini and the Female Spirit
 Dakini on khandro.net

Buddhist gods and goddesses

Dakini


Eight (stylized as Ei8ht) is a 1998 British short film directed by Stephen Daldry, written by Tim Clague and produced by Working Title Films.

Plot
Eight tells the story of the life of an eight-year-old football fan who has to come to terms with living in a strange new town and the loss of his father.

Eight opens with a boy wearing what appears to be a homemade Liverpool F.C.-shirt standing on a beach with his football shouting "My name is Jonathan and I am eight!". Jonathan has no father, but says he was "a flower person who liked pots and world peas" (the knowing adult viewer appreciates this means flower power / hippie, pot (marijuana) and world peace). Jonathan's best friend is Terry, who is a Manchester United-supporter. Together they watch tapes of England in the 1998 FIFA World Cup at Terry's, since Jonathan's mum does not allow football in the house. Terry has a father that Jonathan think is "great". Jonathan has recently moved to an English coastal town. Before then he had lived in Liverpool, where his dad went regularly to the Kop. Jonathan's mum is fed up with her son's football fanaticism, and wants him to get a new hobby.

Terry's father hits him when he gets angry. Terry wishes that he was Jonathan and had no father at all. Jonathan wonders what his dad's work was. He hopes that he was a train driver, a firefighter or maybe a pilot? Terry says he probably was a "stinky caretaker at a stinky school", Jonathan calls him a liar and they depart in anger. At home, alone with a football board game, Jonathan admits that he never knew his father, he died before he was born, at a football match he was watching, possibly referring to the Hillsborough disaster. The film ends with Jonathan sitting on the beach singing  "You'll Never Walk Alone".

Awards
Eight was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Short Film in 1999.

History
Eight was made through the Jerwood Foundation after Tim Clague's script (originally called "N'That") was selected to win the Jerwood Film Prize. The film was shot on location in the Bournemouth and Poole area.

External links

1998 short films
1998 films
1998 drama films
British drama short films
Films directed by Stephen Daldry
1990s English-language films
1990s British films

Eight (1998 film)


Gap or The Gap may refer to: Heath has a gap that is as big as a cave. You can walk in and explore.

General
 Gap (clothing retailer), a chain of clothing stores
 Gap (ecology), a spacing between large trees in a forest
 Gap (landform), a mountain pass, often carved by a river
 Gap year, a prolonged period between a life stage
 Gäp, the Tatar-based cant language
 Gaap, a mighty Prince and Great President of Hell in demonology
 Gap coverage, a type of vehicle insurance
 Band gap or energy gap, the energy interval in which particles cannot propagate

Places
 Gap, Hautes-Alpes, France
 Gap, Pennsylvania, United States
 The Gap, Brecon Beacons, an ancient mountain trail in the Brecon Beacons, Wales
 The Gap, Queensland, a suburb in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
 The Gap, New South Wales, an ocean cliff at Watsons Bay, New South Wales, Australia
 Darién Gap, a large swath of undeveloped swampland and forest separating Panama and Colombia
 Loughborough Gap, a disused section of the Great Central Railway in England
 Fulda Gap, an area in Germany of strategic importance during the cold war
 Mid-Atlantic Gap, in World War II, an area in the Atlantic Ocean with no air coverage

Entertainment
 The Gap Band, an American music group
 Gap Mangione, jazz pianist and bandleader
 The Gap (album), a 2000 album by Joan of Arc
 The Gap Cycle, a science fiction novel series by Stephen Donaldson
 El Boquete (The Gap), a 2006 Argentine film
 Gap FC, a French football club

Acronym
 .45 GAP, the "Glock Automatic Pistol" cartridge
 GAAP, Generally Accepted Accounting Principles, standard guidelines for financial accounting
 GAP, Good Agricultural Practices, any collection of value-based agricultural practices
 GAP, Generic access profile, an interoperability protocol used in wireless telephony
 GAP, Genocide Awareness Project, a movable pro-life display
 GAP, Government Accountability Project, a nonprofit organization
 GAP, Great Ape Project, an international organization advocating legal rights for great apes
 GAP computer algebra system (Groups, Algorithms and Programming), a software package
 GAP, Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi (Southeastern Anatolia Project), a land reform project in Turkey
 GAP, the license plate code for Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
 GAP, Gruppi di Azione Partigiana (Partisan Action Group), an Italian terrorist group founded by Giangiacomo Feltrinelli
 Graph automorphism problem
 Air Philippines (ICAO designator)

Chemistry
 GaP, Gallium(III) phosphide, a semiconductor material
 GAPs, GTPase activating proteins, a biochemical compound
 GAP, Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, a 3-carbon molecule metabolite important in both glycolysis and the Calvin cycle

Gap


A herd is a large group of animals. The term is used for mammals, particularly hoofed animals. Herding is a good example of collective animal behavior. Other terms are used for similar types of behavior in other types of animal. For example, a large group of birds is usually called a flock (this may also refer to certain mammals as well) and a large group of carnivores is usually called a pack.

In addition, special collective nouns may be used for particular cases: for example a flock of geese, if not in flight, is sometimes called a gaggle. However, in theoretical discussions in behavioural ecology, the term "herd" is used for all these kinds of assemblage. A herd may also refer to one that tends and cares for such groups (e.i. shepherds tend to sheep, and goatherds tend to goats, etc.).

When an association of animals (or, by extension, people) is described as a "herd", that means that the group tends to act together (for example, all moving in the same direction at a given time), but that this does not occur as a result of planning or co-ordination. Rather, each individual is choosing behaviour that corresponds to that of the majority of other members, possibly through imitation or possibly because all are responding to the same external circumstances. A herd can be contrasted with a co-ordinated group where individuals have distinct roles. Many human groupings, such as an army detachments or sports teams, show such co-ordination and differentiation of roles, but so do some animal groupings such as those of eusocial insects, which are co-ordinated through pheromones and other forms of animal communication. Conversely, some human groupings may behave more like herds.

Related pages
Collective animal behaviour

Zoology
Ethology

Herd


Eric Hilliard Nelson (May 8, 1940 – December 31, 1985) was an American rock and roll musician, singer-songwriter and actor. He was born in Teaneck, New Jersey. Nelson starred alongside his family in the radio and television series The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet. He was added into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on January 21, 1987.  In 1996 Nelson was ranked #49 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time. He starred in Rio Bravo (1959). He placed 53 songs on the Billboard Hot 100, and its predecessors, between 1957 and 1973, including "Poor Little Fool" in 1958.

Nelson and Sharon Kristin Harmon were married on April 20, 1963, and divorced in December 1982. They had four children: Tracy Kristine, twin sons Gunnar Eric and Matthew Gray, and Sam Hilliard.

Nelson was killed in a plane crash near De Kalb, Texas on December 31, 1985 at the age of 45.

Related pages
List of country musicians from New Jersey

References

1940 births
1985 deaths
Aviation deaths in the United States
American rock singers
American rock guitarists
American singer-songwriters
American pop singers
American pop musicians
American folk singers
American folk musicians
American movie actors
American television actors
American child actors
Singers from New Jersey
Musicians from New Jersey
Actors from New Jersey

Ricky Nelson


In Norse mythology, Sleipnir (Old Norse: "slippy" or "the slipper") is the eight-legged horse who serves as Odin's trusted steed. He is the son of Svaðilfari and the god/jötunn Loki, the latter of whom is actually his mother, having given birth to Sleipnir in the form of a mare. Sleipnir is described as the best and fastest of all horses.

Norse mythology

Sleipnir


The Hungry Tiger of Oz (1926) is the twentieth in the series of Oz books created by L. Frank Baum and his successors, and the sixth written by Ruth Plumly Thompson. It was illustrated by John R. Neill.

Plot summary

Thompson begins with a usurping tyrant, Irasha the Rough, the Pasha of Rash, a tiny kingdom in the southwest of Ev. The Pasha has a problem: his prison is too full to cram any more Rashers in. His Vizier's solution is to obtain a ferocious animal from nearby Oz to devour the luckless prisoners. Travelling to the Emerald City by his magical "hurry cane", the Vizier lures the Hungry Tiger (first seen in Ozma of Oz) to Rash. As might be expected from his history, however, the Hungry Tiger is too tenderhearted to eat prisoners.

Meanwhile, through an unfortunate series of events involving a winding road and a pair of Quick Sandals,  Betsy Bobbin (introduced in Tik-Tok of Oz) and her new acquaintance, Carter Green, the Vegetable Man, end up in Rash, and no sooner do they arrive than they're thrown into the crowded prison. There they meet the Scarlet Prince Evered (known as Reddy), the rightful ruler of Rash. Together with the Tiger, they escape, and have varied adventures with Big Wigs and Gnomes in their search for three magic rubies.

Back in Oz, Princess Ozma has troubles of her own: she is confronted by Atmos Fere, a balloon-like being who lives in the upper stratosphere. His plan is to kidnap her up to his own kingdom, to prove to his skeptical fellows that living beings can exist on the surface of the Earth. Ozma, however, has a secret weapon (a pin).

In time, the adventurers recover the magic rubies, and Reddy is restored to the Rashian throne. The Pasha and his evil Vizier end up stranded on a desert island in the Nonestic Ocean.

Promotion
Publisher Reilly & Lee mounted an imaginative promotional campaign for the book. The company returned to the tactic of issuing press releases in the form of the Ozmapolitan, the supposed newspaper of the Emerald City. They also formed a fan-club for children called the Ozmite Club — though it  lasted for only two years.

References

External links

 On The Hungry Tiger of Oz

Oz (franchise) books
1926 American novels
1926 fantasy novels
1926 children's books
Books about tigers

The Hungry Tiger of Oz


This Great Black Night is a 1998 EP by Weeping Tile.

It was recorded following the band's departure from Warner Music Canada. It was sold only at live shows; the band toured that year as a supporting act for Ani DiFranco.

The EP sold out, and is now considered a collector's item. However, three of the EP's five tracks were later rerecorded by Sarah Harmer on her 2000 solo album You Were Here, and another was rerecorded for her 2005 album I'm A Mountain.

Track listing
All songs written by Sarah Harmer.

"Weakened State"
"Lodestar"
"Odessa Nights"
"Coffee Stain"
"I'm A Mountain"

Weeping Tile (band) albums
1998 EPs

This Great Black Night


A royal family is the family of a monarch (king or queen of a country). Or, it is someone who is related to a queen, king or a monarch. A royal family may be called "House of" something, as in "House of Habsburg". Some royal families such as the British Royal Family participate in various ceremonies and royal duties. As of 2021, there are 26 royal families in the world.

Royalty

Royal family


vCard is a standard document format for electronic business cards. Very often, vCards are attached to E-Mail messages, but they can also be exchanged in other ways. There are also extensions to it, known as vCalendar or iCalendar. hCard is a broader format to do the same thing.

E-mail

VCard


A strategy map is a diagram that documents the strategic goals being pursued by an organization or management team. It is an element of the documentation associated with the Balanced Scorecard, and in particular is characteristic of the second generation of Balanced Scorecard designs that first appeared during the mid-1990s. The first diagrams of this type appeared in the early 1990s, and the idea of using this type of diagram to help document Balanced Scorecard was discussed in a paper by Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton in 1996.

The strategy map idea featured in several books and articles during the late 1990s by Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton.  Their original book in 1996, "The Balanced Scorecard, Translating strategy into action", contained diagrams which are later called strategy maps, but at this time they did not refer to them as such. Kaplan & Norton's second book, The Strategy Focused Organization, explicitly refers to strategy maps and includes a chapter on how to build them. At this time, they said that "the relationship between the drivers and the desired outcomes constitute the hypotheses that define the strategy". Their Third book, Strategy Maps, goes into further detail about how to describe and visualise the strategy using strategy maps.

The Kaplan and Norton approach to strategy maps has:
 An underlying framework of horizontal perspectives arranged in a cause and effect relationship, typically Financial, Customer, Process and Learning & Growth
 Objectives within those perspectives. Each objective as text appearing within a shape (usually an oval or rectangle). Relatively few objectives (usually fewer than 20)
 Vertical sets of linked objectives that span the perspectives.  These are called strategic themes.
 Clear cause-and-effect relationships between these objectives, across the perspectives. The strategic themes represent hypotheses about how the strategy will bring about change to the outcomes of the organisation.
Across a broader range of published sources, a looser approach is sometimes used. In these approaches, there are only a few common attributes. Some approaches use a more broad causal relationships between objectives shown with arrows that either join objectives together, or placed in a way not linked with specific objectives but to provide general euphemistic indications of where causality lies. For instance,  Olve and Wetter, in their 1999 book Performance Drivers, also describe early performance driver models, but do not refer to them as strategy maps.

The purpose of the strategy map in Balanced Scorecard design, and its emergence as a design aid, is discussed in some detail in a research paper on the evolution of Balanced Scorecard designs during the 1990s by Lawrie & Cobbold.

Origin of strategy maps
The Balanced Scorecard is a framework that is used to help in the design and implementation of strategic performance management tools within organizations.

One of the big challenges faced in the design of Balanced Scorecard-based performance management systems is deciding what activities and outcomes to monitor.  By providing a simple visual representation of the strategic objectives to be focused on, along with additional visual cues in the form of the perspectives and causal arrows, the strategy map has been found useful in enabling discussion within a management team about what objectives to choose, and subsequently to support discussion of the actual performance achieved.

Perspectives
Very early Balanced Scorecard articles by Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton proposed a simple design method for choosing the content of the Balanced Scorecard based on answers to four generic questions about the strategy to be pursued by the organization. These four questions, one about finances, one about marketing, one about processes, and one about organizational development evolved quickly into a standard set of "perspectives" ("Financial", "Customer", "Internal Business Processes", "Learning & Growth").

Design of a Balanced Scorecard became a process of selecting a small number of objectives in each perspective, and then choosing measures and targets to inform on progress against this objective. But very quickly it was realized that the perspective headings chosen only worked for specific organisations (small to medium-sized firms in North America - the target market of the Harvard Business Review), and during the mid to late 1990s papers began to be published arguing that other sets of headings would make more sense for specific organization types, and that some organisations would benefit from using more or less than four headings.

Despite these concerns, the 'standard' set of perspectives remains the most common, and traditionally is arrayed on the strategy map in the sequence (from bottom to top) "Learning & Growth", "Internal Business Processes", "Customer", "Financial" with causal arrows tending to flow "up" the page.

The 'standard' set of perspectives is arranged in the sequence (bottom to top) to allow a sequential linkage from the investment perspective of Learning and Growth to the outcome perspectives of Customer and Financial. A well-designed strategy map will allow the author to 'tell a story' from the bottom to the top along the lines of "If we invest in (training, education etc) it will allow us to improve our Internal Processes which will impact our Customers (in a positive way) and improve our Financial results. In other words, Learning and Growth drive Internal Process change which impacts Customer Satisfaction which in turn improves Profitability. In the early part of the century, it was recognized that the perspective Learning and Growth was lacking significant investment areas, that of infrastructure and IT. Today, the lower-most perspective has been renamed to Organisational Capacity.

Links between the strategy map and strategy development

The strategy map is a device that promotes three stages of conversation during the strategy development, implementation and learning process
 First to capture a strategy from a management team. To promote discussion amongst that team on the strategy, so they all leave the room telling the same story of their strategy.
 Secondly to communicate the strategy, focus organization efforts, and choose appropriate measures to report on an organisation's progress in implementing a strategy.
 Finally to provide a basis to review and potentially revise the strategy, (not simply the measures or targets) and support conversations and decision making, as the team learn from the strategy's implementation.
Over the years many have suggested that it can be used as, in part, a strategy development tool. Kaplan & Norton in their book The Strategy Focused Organisation argue that organisations could adopt 'industry standard' templates (basically a set of pre-determined strategic objectives).

See also
 Third-generation balanced scorecard

References

External links

Business models

Strategy map


Sui iuris is a Latin phrase that is used in law. Sometimes, the phrase is also spelled sui juris. It literally means of its own right. It is used to say that the legal status of an institution or entity is not comparable to anything else, and there are special laws that say how this institution or entity should work. An example use is in Canon law: The Roman Catholic church say that certain churches are sui iuris. That way the Eastern Catholic churches have their own government, and laws. Despite this, these churches still recognize the Pope of Rome as their spiritual leader.

"The Eastern Catholic Churches are not 'experimental' or 'provisional' communities; these are sui iuris Churches; One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic, with the firm canonical base of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches promulgated by Pope John Paul II."

In Roman law, the phrase is used for someone who was independent, and that could become pater familias.

References

Legal terms

Sui iuris


A reference ellipsoid is an ellipsoid which is used as a frame of reference for geodetic calculations. It is a figure like the shape of the Earth. It is easier to work with than the geoid, which is another shape like that of the Earth.

It is relatively easy to describe the reference ellipsoid using mathematical formulae. Describing the geoid is much more complex, as it results from precise measurements. The first such models were spheres, used since Ancient Greece. In the 17th century, there were doubts that the earth was a sphere. In 1688, Isaac Newton solved a controversy with Giovanni Domenico Cassini by demonstrating mathematically that the rotation of the earth would lead to a flattening around the area of the poles, and not at the equator.

In practice this was shown by Pierre Bouguer and Alexis-Claude Clairaut half a century later. The two had done an expedition to Peru and Lapland (1735-1741). Their measurement of the meridian arc lead to the definition of the metre. This was the ten-millionth part of the idealized distance between the pole and the equator, 1791. Because of different errors in measurement, it turned out to be 0.022% too short, and was redefined twice, in 1793, and 1799. The value of 1799 is still the official definition but it is about 0.197‰ too short.

In 1983, the metre was redefined as the distance, light travels in a certain amount of time, in a vacuum.

Navigation
Geodesy

Reference ellipsoid


Subiaco is a toun an comune in the Province o Roum, in Lazio, Italy,  frae Tivoli alangside the river Aniene. It is mainly renouned as a tourist an releegious resort for its saucrit grotto (Sacro Speco), in the medieval St. Benedict's Abbey, an for the Abbey o St. Scholastica.

At a time when several German monks haed been assigned tae the monastery, German printers established a printin press in the toun. They printit the first beuks in Italy in the late 15t century.

History
Auncient settlers o the aurie wur the Aequi, an Italic fowk. In 304 BC they wur conquered bi the Romans, who introduced their ceevilization an teuk advantage o the watters of the Aniene river. The present name o the ceety comes frae the airtificial lochs o the luxurious villa that emperor Nero haed biggit: in Latin Sublaqueum means "unner the loch." The name wis appleed tae the toun that developit nearbi. The biggest o the three Subiaco Dams wis the heichest dam in the warld till its destruction in 1305. Efter the faw o the Roman Empire, the villa an the toun wur abandoned, becomin amaist forgotten ruins.

When St. Benedict, at the age o fowerteen, retired frae the warld an livit for three year in a cave abuin the river Anio, he wis suppleed wi the necessars o life bi a monk, St. Roman. Frae this grotto, St. Benedict developed the concepts an organization o the Benedictine Order. He biggit twal monasteries an placit twal monks in each, includin ane at the grotto. In 854 a record notit its renovation. In this year, Pape Leo IV is said tae hae consecratit a altar tae Sts. Benedict an Scholastica an anither tae St. Sylvester. Anither renovation teuk place in 1053 unner Abbot Humbert o St. Scholastica. Abbot John V, creatit cardinal b Pape Gregory VII, made the grotto the terminus o a yearly procession, biggit a new road, an haed the altars reconsecratit.

In 1200 thare wis a commonty o twal, which Pape Innocent III made a priory; Pape John XXII in 1312 appointit a special abbot tae the monks. A new road was biggit by the city in 1688. The saucrit grotto is still a favourite pilgrimage. On 27 October 1909, Pape Pius X grantit a daily plenar indulgence tae those who receive Holy Communion thare an pray accordin tae the intention o the Pape (Acta. Ap. Sedis, II, 405).

The Abbey o St. Scholastica, aboot a mile an a hauf belaw the grotto, wis biggit bi St. Benedict aboot 520, an endoued bi the Roman patricians, Tertullus an Æquitius. The seicont abbot, St. Honoratus, chyngit the auld monastery intae a chapter room an biggit a new ane, dedicatin it tae Sts. Cosmas an Damian. It wis destroyed bi the Lombards in 601 an abandoned for a century. Bi order o John VII, it wis rebiggit bi Abbot Stephen an consecratit tae Sts. Benedict an Scholastica. Demolished in 840 bi the Saracens an again in 981 bi the Hungarians, it wis rebiggit again.

Pape Benedict VII consecratit the new kirk, an henceforth the abbey wis kent bi the name St. Scholastica. In 1052, Pape Leo IX came tae Subiaco tae settle various disputes an tae correct abuisses; a similar visit wis made bi Gregory VII. Special favour wis shown bi Paschal II, who teuk the abbey frae the jurisdiction o the Bishop o Tivoli an made it a abbacy nullius. Its temporal welfare wis a care o the papes an aw. Amangithers, Pape Innocent III at his visit in 1203 increased the revenues o the abbey.

Wi the decline o releegious fervour, strife an dissension arose tae such a extent that Abbot Bartholomew in 1364, bi command o the pape, haed tae dismiss some o the incorrigible monks an fill their places wi releegious frae ither monasteries. Numerous monks wur brocht in frae Germany, an for mony decades Subiaco wis a centre o German thrift, science, an airt. Urban VI (1378–1389) abolished the abbots for life, teuk awa frae the monks the richt o election, an gave the admeenistration an revenues tae a member o the Curia.

The assignment o German monks tae Subiaco attractit ither Germans. The printers Sweinheim an Pannartz established a printin press in Subiaco and printed Donatus pro parvulis, Lactantius (1465) an De Civitate Dei (1467). Those wur the first beuks tae be printit in Italy.

Pape Callixtus III, in 1455, gave the abbey in commendam tae a cardinal. The first o these wis the Spainyie Cardinal Juan de Torquemada an the seicont Roderigo Borgia (later Pape Alexander VI), who remodeled the Castrum Sublacence, ance the summer resort o the papes, an made it the residence o the commendatory abbot. Mony o these abbots cared little for the releegious life o the monks an leukit anerly for revenue. As a example, Pompeo Colonna, Bishop o Rieti, commendatory abbot syne 1506, squandered the guids o the abbey an gave the income tae unworthy subjects. On complaint o the commonty, in 1510 Pape Julius II readjustit matters an restored the monastic possessions. For spiritual benefit, a union haed been made atween Subiaco an the Abbey o Farfa, but it lastit a short time. In 1514, Subiaco joined the Congregation o St. Justina, whose abbot-general wis titular o St. Scholastica, while a cardinal remained commendatory abbot. Even efter this union, thare wur quarrels atween Subiaco an Farfa, Subiaco an Monte Cassino, essentially amang the Germans an the Italians.

Efter this little is kent frae historical records aboot the abbey an the ceety till the 19t century. In 1798-1799 an 1810-1814 French troops unner Napoleon entered the ceety, plunderin the monasteries an the kirks. In 1849 an 1867 Giuseppe Garibaldi conquered the ceety in his plan tae destroy the temporal rule o the Pape an unifee Italy: in 1870 the ceety become definitively pairt o the Regno d'Italia.

In 1891, a Benedictine abbey foondit earlier in wastren Arkansas, Unitit States, chyngit its name tae Subiaco as pairt o a effort tae mair closely align its teachins an practices tae those o the famous abbeys o the Italian namesak.

In the first years o the 20t century, the aurie wis impruivit bi naitional investment in infrastructur, wi the connection tae a railwey, a hydroelectric plant an a aqueduct. Electricity wis brocht tae the hooses an a hospital wis biggit. In Warld War II, Subiaco wis bombed bi Allied planes.

Main sichts

In addeetion tae the twa abbeys, noteworthy are an aw:
Rocca Abbaziale ("Abbots castle"), a massive medieval edifice lairgely rebiggit in the 16t an 17t centuries.
Kirk o Saint Francis (1327), haulds notable pentins frae the 15t an 16t centuries.
The medieval St. Francis' brig, a fortifeed brig featurin a span o 37m
The neo-clessical kirks o Sant'Andrea an Santa Maria della Valle.

Notable natives or residents
 Lucrezia Borgia (1480–1519)
 Francesco Graziani (born 1952), Italian international footballer
 Gina Lollobrigida (born 1927), film actress

References

Freemit airtins
Offeecial wabsteid

Subiaco, Lazio


Judea or Judaea (, Yehudah) is the ancient name of the mountainous surrounding Jerusalem. Its location falls in present-day Israel and the Palestinian West Bank.

History

Ancient Judea
Judea was the territory of the ancient Kingdom of Judah. Judea lost its Nationhood to the Romans in the 1st century BC, by becoming first a tributary kingdom, then a province, of the Roman Empire.

The first interference of Rome in the region dates from 63 BC, following the end of the Third Mithridatic war.

After the defeat of Mithridates VI of Pontus, general Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) stayed behind to make the area secure for Rome. Judea at the time was not a peaceful place. Queen Alexandra had recently died, and her sons were troubling the country with a civil war for power. They were Hyrcanus and Aristobulus.

In 63 BC, Aristobulus was surrounded in Jerusalem by his brother's armies, and the situation was bad. He sent a messenger to Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, Pompey's representative in the area. Aristobulus offered a large bribe to be rescued, that Pompey quickly accepted, but later, he tried to accuse Scaurus of extortion. This caused his downfall, because Scaurus was Pompey's brother in law and was protected by him. The general did not like what Aristobulus had done, and put the prince and high priest Hyrcanus in charge of the kingdom. Judea and Galilee became tributary kingdoms of Rome, which meant that they had to pay tribute to the Roman Republic to buy their protection.

After Caesar's death
Around the same time Pompey was defeated by Julius Caesar, Hyrcanus was followed by a member of his court, Antipater. Caesar and Antipater were both killed in 44 BC, and Herod, Antipater's son, was appointed as governor (tetrarch) by Rome in 41 BC. He became the king (basileus) of Judea in 37 BC, and was known as King Herod the Great. During his reign, the great port of Caesarea Maritima was built. He died in 4 BC, and his kingdom was divided among his sons. One of these was Herod Archelaus, who ruled Judea so badly that he was made to quit in 6 AD by the Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar, after his own people complained about him.

The kingdom of Judea now became part of a larger Roman province of Ivdaea. This was one of the few governed by a knight, not a former consul or praetor of senatorial rank, because its income to the Roman treasury was small, and the region was peaceful. Pontius Pilate was one of these procurators.

Between 41 and 44, Judea won a little more independence again, when Herod Agrippa was made king by emperor Claudius. After Agrippa's died, the province again went to direct Roman control for a short time. Judea was returned little by little to Agrippa's son, Marcus Julius Agrippa, in 48. However, there was still a Roman procurator in the area, responsible for keeping peace and raising taxes. When he died, around the year 100, the area returned once again to direct Roman control.

Rebellions
Judea was the stage of three major rebellions against the Romans. They were (see Judea rebellions for a full account):

66-70 - first rebellion, followed by the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple (see Great Jewish Revolt, Josephus)
115-117 - second rebellion, because of too much taxation
132-135 - third rebellion, led by Simon Bar Kokhba
After Bar Kokhba's revolt was stopped by the Roman forces, the emperor Hadrian changed the name of the province to Syria Palaestina, and Jerusalem became Aelia Capitolina in order to embarrass the Jewish people by attempting to erase the nation's name from the region.

Timeline
Until 63 BC - independent state
63 BC-6 AD - client kingdom of Rome
6-41 - Roman province
26-36 - procurator Pontius Pilatus
41-44 - ruling of Herod Agrippa (client king)
44-48 - Roman province
48-100 - ruling of Herod Agrippa II (client king)
66-70 - First rebellion
100 onwards - Roman province
115-117 - second rebellion
132-135 - third rebellion: Simon Bar Kokhba
135 - Judea renamed Syria Palaestina by emperor Hadrian.

Major cities
Major cities in this area are Hebron, Bethlehem, Efrat and Beitar Illit.

Other websites
The subjugation of Judea
Judaea 6-66 AD

History of the Middle East
Places of Ancient Rome
West Bank

Judea


The electron-volt or electron volt, symbol eV, is used to measure energy. It is defined as the amount of energy an electron gains after being accelerated by 1 volt of electricity. Joules are used often for energy measurement, but it is sometimes useful to use electron-volts for very small amounts of energy, such as that carried by a single subatomic particle. To convert joules into electron-volts, divide joules by the charge of an electron, which is about 1.602 coulomb.

E.g. 5 J = 5/1.602  5 J = 3.121 eV.

The electronvolt is often used in atomic, nuclear and particle physics. For example, the energy of photons can be measured by the voltage necessary to overcome their photoelectric effect.

Other websites
 Conversion Tool
 Electronvolt Citizendium

Units of energy
Physics

Electronvolt