Storm Bird (19 April 1978 – 3 December 2004) was a Canadian-bred, Irish-trained  Thoroughbred racehorse and sire. He was the outstanding European two-year-old of 1980, when he was unbeaten in five races, including the Anglesey Stakes, National Stakes and Dewhurst Stakes. His subsequent career was disrupted by injury and illness, and he was well beaten in his only race of 1981. He was then retired to stud, where he became a successful breeding stallion.

Background
Storm Bird was a bay horse with a white star and snip and two white socks bred in Canada by Windfields Farm. He was one of many important winners sired by Northern Dancer, who won the Kentucky Derby in 1964 before becoming one of the most successful breeding stallions in Thoroughbred history. His dam, South Ocean, had previously produced Northernette (also sired by Northern Dancer), the champion filly of her generation in Canada at two and three years of age. The colt was sent to race in Europe and was trained by Vincent O'Brien at Ballydoyle, County Tipperary.

Racing career
On his racecourse debut, Storm Bird started 2/5 favourite for a 19-runner maiden race over six furlongs at the Curragh in July. He was bumped by one of his opponents at the start, but recovered to win by six lengths. The colt was then moved up in class for the Group Three Anglesey Stakes at the same course in August. He took the lead two furlongs from the finish, but appeared to idle in front and won by only half a length from Prince Echo. The form of the race was boosted when Prince Echo won the Champagne Stakes at Doncaster in September. Two weeks after his win in the Anglesey Stakes, Storm Bird moved up in distance to contest the seven-furlong National Stakes, Ireland's most valuable race for two-year-olds. Ridden by Tommy Murphy, he started the 2/5 favourite and won in emphatic style, taking the lead two furlongs from the finish and beating Master Thatch by four lengths.

In the Larkspur Stakes at Leopardstown Racecourse in September, Storm Bird, ridden by Steve Cauthen, was required to concede weight to his five opponents, but won easily, beating Band Practice by four length despite being eased down in the closing stages. On his final appearance of the season, Storm Bird was sent to contest Britain's most prestigious two-year-old race, the Dewhurst Stakes over seven furlongs at Newmarket Racecourse. He was opposed by a strong field, including Miswaki, Kirtling (Chesham Stakes) and To-Agori-Mou. Ridden by Pat Eddery, he started the 4/5 favourite in a race run in cold, wet, and windy conditions. Storm Bird took the lead after two furlongs, and when he accelerated in the final quarter mile, only To-Agori-Mou was able to go with him. The two colts drew clear of the field, and after a protracted struggle, Storm Bird prevailed by half a length.

Storm Bird's three-year-old "career" became a complete disaster for his supporters. In early spring, he was attacked in his stable by a former stable lad, who cut off the hair from the horse's mane and tail. The colt appeared to be otherwise unharmed, but then sustained an injury to his hind leg and then developed a respiratory infection which ruled him out of the 2000 Guineas and Derby. It was then announced that the horse would be aimed at the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe at Longchamp Racecourse in October, and he was heavily backed for the race after reports that he had easily beaten Kings Lake in a training gallop at Ballydoyle. He finally reappeared in the Prix du Prince d'Orange at Longchamp in September, but ran very poorly to finish seventh of the 9 runners behind Vayrann.

Assessment
In 1980, Storm Bird was the highest-rated European two-year-old on the official International Classification, one pound ahead of To-Agori-Mou. The independent Timeform organisation rated him at 134. In their book A Century of Champions, John Randall and Tony Morris rated Storm Bird the 27th best two-year-old trained in Britain or Ireland in the 20th century.

Stud record
Retired to stand at stud at Ashford Stud in Versailles, Kentucky,  Storm Bird sired 63 stakes winners, including Summer Squall, Storm Cat, Balanchine, Indian Skimmer and Bluebird. Also, Storm Bird was the broodmare sire of winners of more than 100 stakes races, including Kentucky Derby winner Thunder Gulch and the lightning-fast gelding Commentator.

Pensioned from stud duties in 1999, Storm Bird had to be euthanized on 3 December 3 2004, after  suffering from colic.

Pedigree

References

Thoroughbred family 4-j
1978 racehorse births
2004 racehorse deaths
Racehorses bred in Ontario
Racehorses trained in Ireland

Storm Bird


Operation Passage to Freedom was a term used by the United States Navy to describe the propaganda effort and the assistance in transporting in 310,000 Vietnamese civilians, soldiers and non-Vietnamese members of the French Army from communist North Vietnam (the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) to non-communist South Vietnam (the State of Vietnam, later to become the Republic of Vietnam) between the years 1954 and 1955. The French and other countries may have transported a further 500,000. In the wake of the French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the Geneva Accords of 1954 decided the fate of French Indochina after eight years of war between the French Union forces and the Viet Minh, which fought for Vietnamese independence under communist rule. The accords resulted in the partition of Vietnam at the 17th parallel north, with Ho Chi Minh's communist Viet Minh in control of the north and the French-backed State of Vietnam in the south. The agreements allowed a 300-day period of grace, ending on May 18, 1955, in which people could move freely between the two Vietnams before the border was sealed. The partition was intended to be temporary, pending elections in 1956 to reunify the country under a national government.  Between 600,000 and one million people moved south, including more than 200,000 French citizens and soldiers in the French army while between 14,000 and 45,000 civilians and approximately 100,000 Viet Minh fighters moved in the opposite direction.

The 1954–1955 Great Migration of Northerners was facilitated primarily by the French Air Force and Navy. American naval vessels supplemented the French in evacuating northerners to Saigon, the southern capital. The operation was accompanied by a large humanitarian relief effort, bankrolled mainly by the United States government in an attempt to absorb a large tent city of refugees that had sprung up outside Saigon. For the US, the migration was a public relations coup, generating wide coverage of the flight of Vietnamese from the perceived oppression of communism to the "free world" in the south. The period was marked by a Central Intelligence Agency-backed propaganda campaign on behalf of South Vietnam's Roman Catholic Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem. The campaign was usually viewed to exhort Catholics to flee "impending religious persecution" under communism, and around 60% of the north's 1.14 million Catholics immigrated. The Viet Minh also tried to forcefully prevent would-be refugees from leaving, especially in rural areas where there were no French or American military forces.

The migration was conventionally supposed to boost the Catholic power base of Diem; whereas the majority of Vietnam's Catholics previously lived in the north, now most were in the south. Fearing a communist victory, Diem cancelled the elections. Believing the newly arrived Catholics to be a bastion of solid anti-communist support, Diem supposedly treated the new constituents as a special interest group. In the long run, the northern Catholics never fully integrated into Southern society and Diem's alleged favouritism toward them were often thought to cause tension that culminated in the Buddhist crisis of 1963, which ended with his downfall and assassination. In fact, Catholics moving to the South were foremost the active agents of their own lives, not because of the CIA or Ngô Đình Diệm's efforts. About 25% of the migrants were non-Catholic and a number of Catholics who moved to the South did not do so because of their religion. Northern Catholic émigrés actually brought complex challenges to the Church in South Vietnam, and Ngô Đình Diệm also did not resettle northern Catholics in and around Sài Gòn as a deliberate and strategic policy. As Vietnamese Catholics were far from monolithic, and were not in any way unified in their political stances, it is a myth to conflate "Catholic refugees with all Catholics, with all refugees or with staunch supporters of Ngô Đình Diệm". In reality, the Personalist Revolution under Diệm's regime promoted religious freedom and diversity to oppose communism's atheism. However, this framework itself ultimately enabled Buddhist activists to threaten the state that supported their religious liberty.

Background

At the end of World War II, the  Viet Minh had proclaimed independence under the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) in September 1945. This occurred after the withdrawal of Imperial Japan, which had seized control of French Indochina during World War II. The military struggle restarted in November 1946 when France attempted to reassert control over Indochina with an attack on the northern port city of Haiphong. The DRV was recognised by the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China (PRC), while the western powers recognised the French-backed State of Vietnam, nominally led by Emperor Bảo Đại, but with a French-trained Vietnamese National Army (VNA) which was loyal to the French Union forces. In May 1954, after eight years of fighting, the French were surrounded and defeated in a mountainous northern fortress at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. France's withdrawal from Indochina was finalised in the Geneva Accords of July 1954, after two months of negotiations between Ho's DRV, France, the PRC and the Soviet Union. Under the terms of the agreement, Vietnam was temporarily divided at the 17th parallel north pending elections in 1956 to choose a national government that would administer a reunified country.

The communist Viet Minh were left in control of North Vietnam, while the State of Vietnam controlled the south. French Union forces would gradually withdraw from Vietnam as the situation stabilised. Both Vietnamese sides were unsatisfied with the outcome at Geneva; Ngo Dinh Diem, Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam, denounced France's agreement and ordered his delegation not to sign. He stated "We cannot recognise the seizure by Soviet China . . . of over half of our national territory" and that "We can neither concur in the brutal enslavement of millions of compatriots". North Vietnamese Prime Minister Phạm Văn Đồng expressed bitterness after his Soviet and Chinese backers threatened to cut support if he did not agree to the peace terms; Dong had wanted to press home the Viet Minh's military advantage so they could lay claim to more territory at the negotiating table.

Under the accords, there was to be a period in which free civilian movement was allowed between the two zones, whereas military forces were compelled to relocate to their respective sides. All French Far East Expeditionary Corps and VNA forces in the north were to be evacuated south of the 17th parallel, while all Viet Minh fighters had to relocate to the north. The accords stipulated that civilians were to be given the opportunity to move to their preferred half of Vietnam. Article 14(d) of the accords stated that:

Article 14(d) allowed for a 300-day period of free movement between the two Vietnams, ending on May 18, 1955. The parties had given little thought to the logistics of the population resettlement during the negotiations at Geneva, and assumed the matter would be minor. Despite claiming that his northern compatriots had been "enslaved", Diem expected no more than 10,000 refugees. General Paul Ely, the French Commissioner-General of Indochina, expected that around 30,000 landlords and business executives would move south and proclaimed that he would take responsibility for transporting any Vietnamese who wanted to move to territory controlled by the French Union, such as South Vietnam. French Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France and his government had planned to provide aid for around 50,000 displaced persons. Mendes-France was sure that the FFEEC would be able to handle the work all by itself. The Americans saw the period as an opportunity to weaken the communist north.

Evacuation

The predictions made by Diem and Ely were extremely inaccurate. There had been heavy fighting in northern Vietnam, where the Vietminh were at their strongest, and many people had been forced to abandon their homes. Although French charities had been operating in the north, the refugee camps were disorganised and were able to provide little more than shelter. As a result, there was a great number of northerners who wanted to leave and start a new life in the south.

The French started their evacuation with their pre-conceived notion that few would want to head south. As knowledge of the migration program spread through the communist-controlled north, thousands of predominantly northern Catholic asylum-seekers descended on the capital Hanoi and the port of Haiphong, both of which were still in French control. This led to anarchy and confusion as the emigrants fought over limited shelter, food, medicine and places on the ships and planes that were bound for the south. By early August, there were over 200,000 evacuees waiting in Hanoi and Haiphong. Initially the ad hoc camps had insufficient sanitation and water quality control, leading to the possibility of outbreaks of disease. Some American representatives said that they were the worst conditions they had seen. The conditions continued to be poor and chaotic after the evacuation got into full swing, and did not improve significantly for a month. There was no organization infrastructure as far as registration or medical records and immunization of the waiting evacuees. The communists thus sent their propaganda activists through the camps and said that the lack of organisation proved that life for prospective refugees would be even worse in the south, where they would be completely under the control of South Vietnam.

The French Navy and Air Force had been depleted during World War II. They were unable to deal with the unexpectedly large number of refugees. This was exacerbated by their unwillingness to allow civilian evacuees to travel on trains from outlying districts to Hanoi and Haiphong, as their priority was evacuating their military personnel and equipment. France asked Washington for assistance, so the US Department of Defense ordered the US Navy to mobilise an evacuation task force.

The American government saw the evacuation as an opportunity to weaken the communists by providing for and thereby winning the loyalty of the refugees to the anti-communist cause. The United States Operation Mission proposed that aside from helping to evacuate refugees to the south and thereby draining the communist population base, the Americans should provide healthcare, shelter, food and clothing in order to help the anti-communists win the fidelity of their compatriots. Another benefit of participating in the evacuation was that American personnel would be on the ground in North Vietnam, allowing them to gather intelligence on communist activities.

Accordingly, Task Force 90 (CTF-90) was inaugurated under the command of Rear Admiral Lorenzo Sabin. US servicemen renovated and transformed cargo vessels and tank carriers to house the thousands of Vietnamese who would be evacuated in them. The repairs were frequently done en route to Haiphong from their bases at Subic Bay in the Philippines. Sabin had no prior involvement in humanitarian matters, and he and his staff prepared Operation Order 2–54—the 114-page policy framework for the operation—in the space of a week during their sea voyage from Japan to Vietnam.

The first US vessel to participate in the mass evacuation was the , which left Haiphong on August 17. It carried 1,924 refugees for a 1,600 kilometre, three-day journey to the southern capital. By this time, there were already 132,000 people registered at the waiting areas, although very few had any identification. As a result, there would be more work to be done in identifying their needs once they arrived in the south. The  followed on the next day, with 2,100 passengers. Both were originally built as attack transport vessels. In August, the US policy was liberalised so that Vietnamese and French military personnel could also be evacuated at the discretion of CTF-90 and the Chief Military Assistance Advisory Group (CHMAAG). To cope with the rising volume of southbound sea transport, CHMAAG established a refugee debarkation site at Vũng Tàu, a coastal port at the entrance of the Saigon River. This site relieved congestion in the Saigon refugee camps and decreased the traffic bottlenecks along the river. A setback occurred when a typhoon struck the Haiphong area, destroying almost half of the refugee staging area. Despite the problems, by September 3, the US Navy had evacuated 47,000 northerners after only two weeks of operations. The high rate of evacuation caused the South Vietnamese government to order that only one shipment of at most 2,500 passengers was to arrive in Saigon or Vũng Tàu per day, until September 25. The population pressure in the south was eased as incoming numbers fell due to Viet Minh propaganda campaigns and forcible detention, combined with the rice harvesting season, which had prompted some to delay their departure. Some were even waiting to finish all their business deals before moving in the Lunar New Year. On October 10, the Viet Minh were given full control of Hanoi, closing off one point of evacuation for those who wanted out. Some also decided to stay behind and see how the Viet Minh would treat the inhabitants of Hanoi before making a decision on whether to leave their ancestral lands. On October 20, the French authorities that were still in control of the ports decided to waive docking fees on US vessels engaged in the evacuation. Because of the high demand, the naval vessels had to travel quickly; one ship completed one round trip in a record of only six days. The record for the most passengers taken in one journey was set by the USS General Black, which sailed on October 29 with 5,224 Vietnamese aboard. In November, the evacuation was further hampered by another typhoon, while the entire crew of one American vessel were struck down by a scabies outbreak. In December, because of Viet Minh obstruction, which prevented people from rural and regional areas from travelling to Hanoi and Haiphong to emigrate, the French Navy sent ships to hover just off the coast near the regional town of Vinh to evacuate refugees.

According to COMIGAL, the South Vietnamese government agency responsible for the migration, French aircraft made 4,280 trips, carrying a total of 213,635 refugees. A total of 555,037 passengers were recorded on 505 sea trips. The French Navy accounted for the vast majority of the naval evacuees, with 388 voyages, while the US Navy made 109. British, Taiwanese and Polish ships made two, two and four journeys respectively. The official figures reported that a total of 768,672 people had migrated under military supervision.  Of this number around 190,000 were French and Saigon soldiers and returned prisoners; some 43,000 were military dependents, "15,000–25,000 Nung tribesmen who were military auxiliaries, between 25,000 and 40,000 French citizens, and about 45,000 Chinese residents." It also included several thousand people who had worked for the French and Vietnamese administrations in the North.  The official figures recorded that more than 109,000 people journeyed into the south by their own means, some arriving outside the 300-day period. These people typically crossed the river that divided the zones on makeshift rafts, sailed on improvised watercraft into a southern port, or trekked through Laos. As of 1957, the South Vietnamese government claimed a total of 928,152 refugees, of whom 98.3% were ethnic Vietnamese. The 1957 report said that 85% were engaged in farming or fishing for their livelihood and 85% were Catholics, while the remainder were Buddhists or Protestants. However, an October 1955 government report claimed that 76.3% were Catholics, 23.5% were Buddhists and 0.2% Protestants. In 1959, however, the head of COMIGAL, Bui Van Luong, admitted that the actual number of refugees could have been as low as 600,000. The official data excluded approximately 120,000 anti-communist military personnel and claimed that only 4,358 people moved north, though no historians consider this number credible. The northward migration was attributed to itinerant workers from rubber plantations who returned north for family reasons.

An independent study by the French historian Bernard B. Fall determined that the US Navy transported around 310,000 refugees. The French were credited with around 214,000 airlifted refugees, 270,000 seaborne refugees and 120,000 and 80,000 Vietnamese and French military evacuees respectively. During the US Navy voyages, 54 people died on board, and 111 babies were born. Fall believed that of the 109,000 refugees who went south by their own means, a large number hitchhiked on southbound French transport vessels that were not related to the migration operation. Fall felt that the figures were likely to have been overestimated, due to immigration fraud. Some refugees would travel south and register themselves, before smuggling themselves onto vessels returning north for another shipment of humans. They would then return south and re-register to claim another aid package. Likewise, with instances of entire villages moving south, the authorities frequently did not explicitly count the number of villagers, but simply took the word of the village leaders. The chiefs would often inflate the population figures to claim more aid rations. The mass exodus did not disrupt the north largely because whole villages often emigrated, instead of half a village moving and leaving the remainder of the community in disarray. Fall estimated that around 120,000 Viet Minh troops and their dependents went north. Most of these evacuations were attributed to Viet Minh military strategy, with some being ordered to stay behind in readiness for future guerrilla activities. The northward movement was facilitated by vessels leaving from assembly areas at Qui Nhơn and Cà Mau at the southernmost extremity of Vietnam. The voyages to North Vietnam were provided by empty French ships heading back north to fetch more southbound anti-communists, as well vessels from communist nations such as Poland. The Viet Minh also actively cultivated the Montagnard indigenous people of Vietnam, whose land in the Central Highlands was encroached upon by incoming northern settlers. The communists spread propaganda through broadcasts in tribal languages and infiltrated the highland areas. According to a study by the Michigan State University Group, some 6,000 tribespeople went north with the communists, accompanied by some Viet Minh who had adopted the indigenous culture.

The largest numbers of Catholic refugees came from the two northern dioceses with the highest percentage of Catholics in Vietnam. These were Phát Diêm and Bùi Chu, mainly located in modern-day Ninh Bình and Nam Định Provinces respectively. The bishops of the dioceses had been strident opponents of the communists, and both had organised Catholic paramilitary groups that fought against the Viet Minh, which had long identified Catholics with colonial collaborationism. When the communists had gained the upper hand in the north, many Catholics had already begun making preparations to move to the south, where the communists were less influential, and large movements began immediately when news of the partition came through. After the defeat of French Union forces at Dien Bien Phu, French officers had evacuated their troops from Bui Chu and Phat Diem to reinforce the area between Hanoi and Haiphong which they still controlled, making it very easy for the communists to progress through the Catholic strongholds.
The French withdrawal was not announced and was supposed to be secret, but the local church leadership found out quickly and the local Catholic community had already begun to move to the ports before end of talks in Geneva. By the time the accords were signed, 45,000 Catholic refugees were already waiting in Hanoi, Haiphong or Hải Dương. According to the records of the Catholic Church, over 70% of Catholics in Bui Chu and Phat Diem left, compared to around 50% in most other areas. The Catholic records claim that only a third of Hanoi Catholics left, and that around 80% of all clergy left. In all areas, a higher proportion of priests left than laypeople, which has been attributed to the communists inflicting heavier punishments on more prominent opposition figures, such as clerics. The departure rate was also lower in areas further removed from the coastal areas and departure ports; in Hưng Hóa, only 11.8% of Catholics were recorded by their diocese as have migrated. It has been speculated that the low rate of Hanoi residents choosing to depart may have been because the city was relatively untouched by the decade of fighting, and that the varying and high rate of departures among rural Catholics was due to the influence of the local clergy; priests in northern Vietnam were noted to be more theocratic and involved in civic decision-making. They used a variety of ways to persuade their disciples to migrate; some explained their belief that circumstances would be difficult for people who did not immigrate, some simply gave dogmatic reasons such as "God is not here any more", while others gave no reason at all and made declarations such as "We are leaving tomorrow" in the expectation that their followers would obey without question. Surveys on the immigrants suggested they were largely content to follow the recommendation of the local priest. In some areas, the bishop in charge of the diocese told Catholics to stay, but laypeople were more likely to leave or stay depending on the stance of the local priest with whom they had regular contact; in many cases, such as in Hanoi, a majority of priests ignored their bishop and left anyway.

In many cases, families left some members behind in the hope that they would retain land for the family, while there were reports that a minority of Catholics with links to the communists decided to stay willingly.

The US provided emergency food, medical care, clothing and shelter at reception centres in Saigon and elsewhere in the south. American sources donating through the United States Operations Mission (USOM) were responsible for 97% of the aid. The USOM sent public health professionals to help with sanitation in an attempt to prevent the spread of disease. Doctors and nurses were sent to help train local workers in healthcare procedures, so that they would eventually be able to take care of the medical needs refugees. In order of contributions to the aid efforts, the US were followed by France, United Kingdom, Australia, West Germany, New Zealand and the Netherlands. Australian sent farming equipment and accompanying technical instructors under the Colombo Plan.

With most of the refugees being Catholic, the voluntary agencies most prominent in helping the US and French governments with humanitarian relief efforts were Catholic. The National Catholic Welfare Conference and Catholic Relief Services contributed over US$35 million ($ as of ) and sent hundreds of aid workers to South Vietnam. US clerics such as Joseph Harnett spent more than a year supervising the establishment of humanitarian and religious projects in Saigon. These included the establishment and maintenance of orphanages, hospitals, schools and churches. Harnett's volunteers fed rice and warm milk to 100,000 refugees on a daily basis. Tens of thousands of blankets donated by the American Catholic organisations served as beds, makeshift roofs against monsoonal downpours and as temporary walls in mass housing facilities. The United Nations Children's Fund contributed technical assistance and helped to distribute merchandise, foodstuffs and various other gifts.

Role of propaganda campaigns

The US ran a propaganda campaign through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to enhance the size of the southward exodus. The program was directed by Colonel Edward Lansdale, who masqueraded as the assistant US air attaché in Saigon while leading a covert group that specialised in psychological warfare. Lansdale had advised Diem that it was imperative to maximise the population in the south in preparation for the national reunification elections. When Diem noted the limited ability of the south to absorb refugees, Lansdale assured him that the US would bear the burden. Diem thus authorised Lansdale to launch the propaganda campaign. According to the historian Seth Jacobs, the campaign "ranked with the most audacious enterprises in the history of covert action". Lansdale recollected that "U.S. officials wanted to make sure that as many persons as possible, particularly the strongly anti-communist Catholics, relocated in the South". While many Diem supporters claimed that the mass exodus was proof of the popularity of Diem and the people's hatred of communism, the CIA operative Chester Cooper said "the vast movement of Catholics to South Vietnam was not spontaneous". However, while Lansdale is often credited by historians—usually those critical of his influence—with the large exodus of refugees due to superstition, he rejected the notion that his campaign had much effect on popular sentiment, saying in later years: "People don't just pull up their roots and transplant themselves because of slogans. They honestly feared what might happen to them, and their emotion was strong enough to overcome their attachment to their land, their homes, and their ancestral graves. So the initiative was very much theirs—and we mainly made the transportation possible." Some northerners who stayed behind and were interviewed half a century later said that they had not come across any pro-migration propaganda and said that their decisions were based on discussions with fellow locals. They said that concerns over the possible effects of communist rule were discussed among themselves independent of outside information.

Lansdale employed a variety of stunts to encourage more northerners to move south. South Vietnamese soldiers in civilian clothing infiltrated the north, spreading rumours of impending doom. One story was that the communists had a deal with Vietnam's traditional enemy China, allowing two communist Chinese divisions to invade the north. The story reported that the Chinese were raping and pillaging with the tacit approval of the communists. Lansdale hired counterfeiters to produce bogus Viet Minh leaflets on how to behave under communist rule, advising them to create a list of their material possessions, so that the communists would be able to confiscate them more easily, thereby fomenting peasant discontent.

Lansdale's men forged documents allegedly issued by the Vietminh that promised to seize all private property. He claimed that "The day following distribution of these leatlets, refugee registration tripled". The Central Evacuation Committee in Haiphong, an American-funded group, issued pamphlets claiming that in South Vietnam, "the cost of living is three times less", and that there would be welfare payments and free ricelands, the latter two of which were false. They also said that "By remaining in the North you will experience famine and will damn your souls. Set out now, brothers and sisters!" The most inflammatory rumour spread by agents of the CIA was that Washington would launch an attack to liberate the north when all anti-communists had fled south. It claimed that the Americans would use atomic bombs and that the only way of avoiding death in a nuclear holocaust was to move south. Lansdale had CIA artists create pamphlets showing three mushroom clouds superimposed on a map of Hanoi, and CIA assets were infiltrated into North Vietnam and disseminated the pamphlets. Lansdale's saboteurs also poured sugar into the petrol tanks of Viet Minh vehicles. Soothsayers were bribed to predict disaster under communism, and prosperity for those who went south.

Lansdale's campaign focused on northern Catholics, who were known for their strongly anti-communist tendencies. His staff printed tens of thousands of pamphlets with slogans such as "Christ has gone south" and "the Virgin Mary has departed from the North", alleging anti-Catholic persecution under Ho Chi Minh. Posters depicting communists closing a cathedral and forcing the congregation to pray in front of Ho, adorned with a caption "make your choice", were pasted around Hanoi and Haiphong. Diem himself went to Hanoi several times in 1954 while the French were still garrisoned there to encourage Catholics to move, portraying himself as a savior of Catholics. The campaign resonated with northern Catholic priests, who told their disciples that Ho would end freedom of worship, that sacraments would no longer be given and that anyone who stayed behind would endanger their souls. A survey of refugees some five decades later confirmed that they felt their interests would be best served under a Catholic leader and that Diem had substantial personal appeal due to his religion. Some have argued that the Catholics would have left regardless of Lansdale's activities, as they had first-hand experiences of their priests and co-religionists being captured and executed for resisting the communist revolution.

The "Psywar theory" itself were not advanced by Lansdale and his supporters, but by Vietnamese communist officials. They claimed that Catholics were forced and seduced to immigrate by American imperialists and Ngô Đình Diệm clique. In fact, propaganda by Lansdale did not have much influence on Catholics' decision to move. The reasons why some Catholics moved to the South had little or nothing to do with Catholicism. They could be a diversity of concerns and motives just like about 25% of the migrants who were non-Catholic.

Regardless of the impact of the propaganda campaigns, the Catholic immigrants helped to strengthen Diem's support base. Before the partition, most of Vietnam's Catholic population lived in the north. After the borders were sealed, the majority were now under Diem's rule. The Catholics implicitly trusted Diem due to their common faith and were a source of loyal political support. One of Diem's main objections to the Geneva Accords—which the State of Vietnam refused to sign—was that it deprived him of the Catholic regions of North Vietnam, and he had unsuccessfully called for Bui Chu and Phat Diem to be omitted from the communist zone. With entire Catholic provinces moving south en masse, in 1956 the Diocese of Saigon had more Catholics than Paris and Rome. Of Vietnam's 1.45 million Catholics, over a million lived in the south, 55% of whom were northern refugees. Prior to this, only 520,000 Catholics lived in the Dioceses of Saigon and Huế combined. Lansdale employed the refugee movements as a cover for paramilitary activities from his Saigon Military Mission.

Apart from anti-communist campaigning, economics was another factor in moving south. The US gave handouts of US$89 () for each refugee who moved; the per capita income in Vietnam at the time was only $85 per year (). Others have pointed to natural geographic factors unrelated to and uncontrollable by political regimes. They point to the fact that the land in the south was seen as being more productive, and memories of the Great Vietnamese Famine of 1945, which killed millions in the north, as reasons independent of politics that motivated migrants. In the mid-1950s, northern Vietnam again suffered food shortages, and some migrants have cited food security as motive for relocation. Adding to this was a general perception that Saigon was a more modern city with more economic vibrancy. Earlier in the 20th century, there had also been instances of campaigns by Catholics to encourage southerly migration to exploit underdeveloped land in the south, so it was not a new concept for them.

The Viet Minh engaged in counter-propaganda campaigns in an attempt to deter the exodus from the north. They moved through the neighbourhoods of Hanoi and Haiphong on a daily basis, passing out their pamphlets. Evacuees reported being ridiculed by the Viet Minh, who claimed that they would be sadistically tortured before being killed by the French and American authorities in Haiphong. The communists depicted the personnel of Task Force 90 as cannibals who would eat their babies, predicting disaster in the jungles, beaches and mountains of South Vietnam. They further said that the Americans would throw them overboard to drown in the ocean. The Viet Minh boasted to the emigrants that it was a high and futile risk, asserting that the 1956 reunification elections would result in a decisive communist victory. The communist efforts were helped by the fact that many French or State of Vietnam offices in the north evacuated their personnel and sold or otherwise left behind their printing facilities, many of which fell into Viet Minh hands.

Communist prevention of emigration
Along with counter-propaganda, the Viet Minh also sought to detain or otherwise prevent would-be refugees from leaving. As the American and French military personnel were only present in the major cities and at air bases and on the waterfront, the communists tried to stop people from trying to leave through a military presence in the ruralside to interdict the flow of would-be refugees. According to Robert F. Turner and the Hoover Institution, as many as 2 million more might have left had it not been for the presence of Viet Minh soldiers, who according to them frequently beat and occasionally killed those who refused to turn back.

The communists were most effective in Nghệ An and Thanh Hóa Provinces, which they had long controlled; only 20% of Catholics in Thanh Hóa migrated. In parts of the Red River Delta, ferry services and other water traffic were shut down so that refugees would not be able to travel to Haiphong. In some cases there were reports of thousands-strong groups of refugees being forced back by similar numbers of armed communist cadres. As a result, many refugees headed directly for the nearest coastal point to wait for passing vessels. In one sweep of the coast near the Catholic stronghold of Phát Diêm, the French Navy picked up 42,000 stranded refugees in two days. The VNA also swept the area in late 1954 for two days, picking up several thousand refugees, but increasing communist attacks forced them to stop. In some rural coastal areas where it was common for refugees to converge before boarding vessels to connect to the long-distance naval vessels taking them south, the Viet Minh installed mortars on the beaches to deter prospective immigrants.

They prohibited mass gatherings in an attempt to stop entire villages or other large groups of people from emigrating together, and also isolated people who sold their water buffalo and other belongings, as this was a clear sign that they intended to end their farming. Both the Americans and the South Vietnamese lodged complaints to the International Control Commission about the violations of the Geneva Accords, but little action was taken. According to B. S. M. Murti, the Indian representative on the ICC, the communists did not try to stop the refugees at first, but increased their efforts over time as it became clearer that large proportions of the population wanted to emigrate.

Media and public relations

The United States reaped substantial public relations benefits from the mass exodus, which was used to depict the allure of the "free world". This was enhanced by the comparatively negligible number of people who voluntarily moved into the communist north. The event generated unprecedented press coverage of Vietnam. Initially however, the press coverage was scant, and Admiral Sabin bemoaned the lack of promotional work done by the US Navy to publicise the evacuation among the American media. At one point, a journalist from the Associated Press travelled from Manila to Haiphong, but was ordered back by superiors on the grounds that Americans were not interested in the subject.

However, over time, the media interest grew. Many prominent news agencies sent highly decorated reporters to cover the event. The New York Times dispatched Tillman and Peggy Durdin, while the New York Herald Tribune sent the Pulitzer Prize-winning war reporters Marguerite Higgins and Homer Bigart. Future US embassy official John Mecklin covered the event for Time Life. The press reports presented highly laudatory and emotional accounts of the mass exodus of Vietnamese away from the communist north. Time Life called the mass migration "a tragedy of almost nightmarish proportions ... Many [refugees] went without food or water or medicine for days, sustained only by the faith in their heart."

In the American Catholic press, the migration was given front-page coverage in diocesan newspapers. The accounts were often sensationalist, demonizing the communist Viet Minh as religious persecutors who committed barbaric atrocities against Catholics. Our Sunday Visitor called the "persecution" in Vietnam "the worst in history", alleging that the Viet Minh engaged in "child murder and cannibalism". San Francisco's Monitor told of a priest whom the Viet Minh "beat with guns until insensible and then buried alive in a ditch". Newark, Ohio's The Advocate posted an editorial cartoon titled "Let Our People Go!", depicting mobs of Vietnamese refugees attempting to break through a blood-laced fence of barbed wire. Milwaukee's Catholic Herald Citizen described two priests who had allegedly been chained together and "suffered atrocious and endless agony". Other papers depicted the Viet Minh blowing up churches, torturing children and gunning down elderly Catholics. One paper proclaimed that "the people of Vietnam became a crucified people and their homeland a national Golgotha". The Catholic media also ran stories about Buddhist refugees who converted, hailing it as proof of their religion's superiority.

Social integration
The mass influx of refugees presented various social issues for South Vietnam. The new arrivals needed to be integrated into society with jobs and housing, as long periods in tents and temporary housing would sap morale and possibly foster pro-communist sympathies. Diem had to devise programs to ease his new citizens into the economic system.

Diem appointed Bui Van Luong—a family friend and devout Catholic—as the head of COMIGAL, the government resettlement agency. COMIGAL worked in cooperation with the USOM, the non-military wing of the American presence and the Military Assistance Advisory Group. Although COMIGAL was purely dedicated to refugee issues, there was a constant turnover of public servants through their staff, and the benefits of continuity did not materialize. After only a few months in the job, Luong was replaced by Pham Van Huyen on December 7, 1954. COMIGAL were supplemented by American Catholic aid agencies and an advisory group from Michigan State University, where Diem had stayed while in self-imposed exile in the early 1950s. There were three phases in the resettlement program. With more than 4,000 new arrivals per day, the northerners were housed in Saigon and Vũng Tàu in 42 makeshift reception centers. These consisted of existing schools, vacated French barracks, churches and tent cities on the grounds of Tan Son Nhut Air Base and Phú Thọ Racecourse. These could not be used indefinitely as the grounds needed to be used for their preexisting purpose, and furthermore, such ad hoc areas were vulnerable to outbreaks of fire and disease.

The refugees needed buildings such as schools, hospitals, warehouses, places of worship were built for them. As part of the second phase, temporary villages were built and by mid-1955, most of the one million refugees were living in rows of temporary housing settlements, mostly near highways leading out of Saigon, in provinces adjacent to the capital. The largest concentration of housing in this second stage was located to the north of the capital. Only a minority could be sent to the fertile Mekong Delta, as the area was already overcrowded. It was also restive due to the presence of militant religious sects, so the most of the military evacuees were sent there.

Overcrowding was a serious problem in many of the ad hoc secondary camps set up in the Saigon region, and led to public health issues. The Biên Hòa region on the northeastern outskirts of Saigon was scheduled to have a capacity of 100,000 refugees, but this was soon exceeded. In the Ho Nai camp near Bien Hoa, which was supposed to hold only 10,000 refugees, more than 41,000 were present by the end of 1954. The area surrounding Thủ Dầu Một north of the southern capital had initially been allocated a quota of 20,000 even though there was no rice paddies in the area. The area near Tây Ninh was to accommodate 30,000 people, although the locals thought that 100,000 could fit in. Some large Catholic settlements such as Thủ Đức, Bình Thạnh and Gò Vấp on the outskirts of Saigon have now been subsumed by urban sprawl and are now districts of the city. Because of the excessive number of inhabitants, the infrastructure at many camps could not cope and the promises made to the refugees were not kept. American military doctors travelled around the south in groups of three, and because of the paucity of health professionals, saw around 150–450 patients per day. They were also hampered by customs law, which only allowed charities to bring medicine into the country without taxation. This forced them to turn to charitable organisations as a conduit, creating another layer of bureaucracy. This was exacerbated by the fact that some corrupt Vietnamese officials pocketed the medical aid.

The organisational ability of the government agencies charged with overseeing the integration of the refugees into society was frequently criticised by American officials. In many cases, the individual officials simply made their own decisions and the goal of resettling the northerners without disruption to the existing local economy or social structure was not achieved. In other cases, the northern Catholics formed their own committees and settled and built on areas as they saw fit. By the end of September, the shortage of funds and equipment had eased, but their distribution was not organised or coordinated effectively. At the same time, some Viet Minh cadres who stayed in the south after the partition pretended to be refugees and stirred up trouble inside the camps. Aside from disruption by communists, other non-communist movements such as the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng were strong in areas of central Vietnam, were opponents of Diem and some of them were military personnel. This sometimes caused hindrance in civilian-military cooperation in the resettlement program, as some of Diem's public servants were suspicious of the military's reliability as a working partner.

At the time, much of the rural ricelands had been abandoned due to war and lay fallow. The Americans pressured Diem to assume control of such lands and distribute it to the new settlers and to allow them to start their new lives and ease the overcrowding in the camps, but no action was taken in 1954. At the time, there was a severe wastage of personnel due to the placement of refugees in land that was inappropriate to them. Vietnamese officials had resolved to place the settlers in land similar to their northern origins so that they could be productive, but bureaucratic difficulties hampered COMIGAL and no plan was produced. Throughout 1954, 60% of the new arrivals identified themselves as having an agrarian background, but only 20% of the total refugees were placed in arable farming areas, meaning that at least 40% of the northerners were in areas not appropriate for their skill set. There were also severe problems in finding and then distributing farming equipment to the northerners so that they could get to work and resuscitate the agricultural sector that was hindered by the war.

The next objective was to integrate the refugees into South Vietnamese society. At the time, there was a lack of arable land in secure areas. In early 1955, the Viet Minh still controlled much of the Mekong Delta, while other parts were controlled by the private armies of the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects. The Bình Xuyên organised crime gang controlled the streets of Saigon, having purchased the operating license for the national police from Emperor Bảo Đại. The new arrivals could not be safely sent to the countryside until the Viet Minh had moved north and Diem had dispersed the sects and gangs. The urban areas were secured when the VNA defeated the Bình Xuyên in the Battle for Saigon in late April and early May. Lansdale managed to bribe many of the Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài military commanders to integrate into Diem's VNA, but some commanders fought on. It was not until early 1956 that the last Hoa Hao commander, Ba Cụt, was captured in an Army of the Republic of Vietnam campaign by General Dương Văn Minh. This allowed COMIGAL to send expeditions to survey the rural land for settlement.

The third phase of the resettlement involved the dispersal of the new arrivals from the temporary villages in regions surrounding the capital and other large cities. The areas where the refugees had gone initially were over settled, notably Biên Hòa, where the population had doubled during the migration period. In contrast, two thirds of South Vietnamese provinces had taken less than 10,000 refugees, and some of these less than 1,000. In the crowded provinces there were fears of social unrest due to a shortage of work.

COMIGAL dispatched inspection teams throughout South Vietnam to identify areas that were suitable for accommodating the new arrivals according to their professional skills. This required a search for arable land for farmers, favourable coastal areas for fishing and areas near large population centres for industrially oriented arrivals. Having identified the relevant areas, COMIGAL would set up plans for settlement subprojects, sending proposals to the USOM or the French Technical and Economic Cooperation Bureau to gain approval and funding. The bureaucracy was relatively low, with most applications taking less than a fortnight for finalising paperwork and receiving approval. Each subproject was given a nine-month deadline for completion.

When suitable areas were found, groups of refugees usually numbering between one and three thousand were trucked to the site and began creating the new settlement. This involved digging wells, building roads and bridges, clearing forests, bushes and swamps and constructing fishing vessels. Village elections were held to select members for committees that would liaise with COMIGAL on behalf of the new settlement.

COMIGAL provided the settlers with agrarian implements, fertilisers and farm animals. By mid-1957, 319 villages had been built. Of these, 288 were for farmers and 26 for fishermen. The refugees settled predominantly in the Mekong Delta, where 207 villages were built. The most notable scheme in the area was the Cai San Agricultural Resettlement Project, based along a system of canals near Long Xuyên. Another 50 villages were created further north near the border with North Vietnam, while 62 were built in the central highlands. A 1955 government report claimed that only 2% of the land in the central highlands, mostly inhabited by indigenous tribes were being used for economic purposes, and it was seen as a key area for exploitation and building settlements to block the advance of communism. The area was seen as an important means of alleviating overcrowding, fuelling rapid economic development, and the government hoped that the presence of ethnic Vietnamese development would prompt the indigenous tribespeople to abandon their hunter-gatherer lifestyle, thus "guiding them on the path to civilization and progress, so that they might join the ranks of the State's founders and liberators". In the Central Highlands town of Buôn Ma Thuột, the local sawmill was inundated with lumber to build houses and much of the surrounding forest was cleared for settlements. In total, 92,443 housing units were constructed, serviced by 317 and 18 elementary and secondary schools respectively. 38,192 hectares of land were cleared and some 2.4 million tons of potassium sulfate fertiliser were distributed. At the end of 1957, Diem dissolved COMIGAL, declaring that its mission had been accomplished.

Aftermath and criticism

The program had some loose ends that manifested themselves later. Many refugees were not economically integrated and lived from government handouts. Critics noted that the refugees had become a special interest group that fostered resentment. The COMIGAL officials often decided not to split up refugees belonging to the same village, hoping to maintain social continuity. In some cases, Catholic priests refused to obey government directives to settle in certain areas. Many of the refugees also refused to relocate from the camps on the outskirts of the capital, wanting to live an urban lifestyle, and objecting to Diem's desire that they help developed inhospitable frontier territory where disease was more common and the economy less developed. On occasions, the reluctance to disperse away from Saigon resulted in protests outside Diem's residence. Many Catholic villages were effectively transplanted into southern territory. This was efficient in the short run but meant that they would never assimilate into southern society. They had little contact with the Buddhist majority and often held them in contempt, sometimes flying the Vatican flag instead of the national flag. Peter Hansen, an Australian Catholic priest and academic scholar of religion, has added that tensions between northern and southern Catholics were also present, due to issues of regionalism and local traditions. Hansen also said that northern Catholics took a more defensive attitude towards other religions than their southern co-religionists, and were more likely to see non-Catholics as a threat. He further noted that northern Catholics had a more theocratic outlook in that they were more willing to listen to the advice of priests on a wide range of issues, not only spiritual and ecclesiastical matters. These differences and the sense of segregation persist to the current day.

Diem, who had a reputation for heavily favouring Catholics, granted his new constituents a disproportionately high number of government and military posts on religious grounds rather than merit. The disproportionate number of northerners who occupied leadership posts also raised tensions among some regional-minded southerners who regarded them as intruders. He continued the French practice of defining Catholicism as a "religion" and Buddhism as an "association", which restricted their activities. This fostered a social divide between the new arrivals and their compatriots. While on a visit to Saigon in 1955, the British journalist and novelist Graham Greene reported that Diem's religious favouritism "may well leave his tolerant country a legacy of anti-Catholicism". In 1963, simmering discontent over Diem's religious bias exploded into mass civil unrest during the Buddhist crisis. After the Buddhist flag was prohibited from public display for the Vesak celebrations commemorating the birth of Gautama Buddha, Diem's forces opened fire and killed nine protesters. As demonstrations continued through the summer, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces ransacked pagodas across the country, killing hundreds and jailing thousands of Buddhists. The tension culminated in Diem being overthrown and assassinated in a November coup.

The indigenous population in the central highlands complained bitterly about the settlement of ethnic Vietnamese Catholics in their regions. As a result of their discontent with the southern government, communists in the highlands found it easier to win them over.

About 25% of the migrants were non-Catholic and a number of Catholics who moved to the South did not do so because of their religion. Northern Catholic émigrés actually brought complex challenges to the Church in South Vietnam, and Ngô Đình Diệm also did not resettle northern Catholics in and around Sài Gòn as a deliberate and strategic policy. As Vietnamese Catholics were far from monolithic, and were not in any way unified in their political stances, it is a myth to conflate "Catholic refugees with all Catholics, with all refugees or with staunch supporters of Ngô Đình Diệm". The dispersed resettlements of Catholic refugees suggests that "being a refugee or being Catholic did not guarantee the president's favour." In reality, the Personalist Revolution under Diệm's regime promoted religious freedom and diversity to oppose communism's atheism. However, this framework itself ultimately enabled Buddhist activists to threaten the state that supported their religious liberty. Catholics in South Vietnam, including Northerner refugees, continued in a significant variety of humanitarian and political activities during the later periods.

References

Citations

General and cited sources

External links

1954 in Vietnam
1955 in Vietnam
Evacuations
Ngo Dinh Diem
South Vietnam–United States relations
Vietnamese migration

Operation Passage to Freedom


The Short Parliament in English history lasted from April 13 to May 5 1640. It is called "Short" because it only lasted for three weeks.

Background
Charles I of England, who was also king of Scotland, was having problems with the Church of Scotland and war with them was breaking out again.  Charles had spent the last 11 years ruling directly, without calling a Parliament even once.  He did this because he had little use for elected representatives trying to decide policy. But now with the problems with the Scots, Charles needed money to pay for his war. To get more money for war meant he had to call a Parliament so they could vote on it.

Problem
The problem was that the members of Parliament were unhappy about the things he had done since 1629, when he was ruling without them.  They wanted to talk about these things instead of giving the king his money.  John Pym, member for Tavistock, gave fiery speeches refusing to give money unless the abuses were talked about. Charles responded by closing the Parliament and sending them home again, and he tried to fight the Scots without the money.  But when this did not work and as a result of his defeat had to agree to pay the Scots, he was forced to call Parliament again.  This became known as the Long Parliament, and the Constitutional crisis that followed led to the bloody English Civil War.

History of the British Isles
Parliaments

Short Parliament


Dr. Clark Gilbert Reynolds, B.A., M.A. (History), Ph.D. (December 11, 1939 – December 10, 2005) was an historian of naval warfare, with a particular interest in the development of U.S. naval aviation.  In addition, he made contributions to the fields of world history, strategic history, and the history of maritime civilizations.

Biography

The eldest of the two sons of William G. and Alma E. (Clark) Reynolds, he was a native of San Gabriel, California and graduated with his bachelor of arts from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 1961. Reynolds went on the Duke University, where he earned his master of arts degree in history in 1963 and his Ph.D. in 1964 under Professor Theodore Ropp.

Reynolds began his career as an instructor, and later an associate professor, in the Department of English, History, and Government at the U.S. Naval Academy in 1964–1968. From there, he went to the University of Maine, where he served in the Department of History from 1968 to 1976 as Associate, and then full Professor. While at the University of Maine, he and William J. McAndrew conducted seminars in maritime and regional history, and Reynolds became a pivotal figure in helping to organize the North American Society for Oceanic History, serving as that organization's first secretary-treasurer.

From 1976 to 1978, he was Professor, and later head of the Department of Humanities with the rank of captain in the U.S. Merchant Marine at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point New York.

He served briefly as visiting professor at Mississippi State University in the autumn of 1979, but for most of the decade between 1978 and 1988, he was an independent scholar, working as the part-time curator and historian at the Patriot's Point Naval and Maritime Museum in Charleston, South Carolina.  In 1988, he was appointed professor of history and served as chairman of the History Department at the College of Charleston from 1988 to 1993. In 1999, he was appointed Distinguished Professor and served in that capacity until his retirement in 2002, when he was named Distinguished Professor Emeritus.

Bibliography

Carrier Admiral by J. J. Clark (1893–1971) with Clark G. Reynolds. (1967)
The Fast Carriers: The Forging of an Air Navy (1968; 1978; 1992; 2014)
Command of the sea: The History and Strategy of Maritime Empires (1974; 1983)
The Saga of Smokey Stover by Elisha Terrill Stover (1920–1944) and Clark G. Reynolds (1974)
Famous American Admirals (1978; 2002)
The Carrier War (1982)
The Fighting Lady: The New  Yorktown in the Pacific war (1986)
Global Crossroads and the American Seas edited by Clark G. Reynolds for the International Commission for Maritime History (1988)
History and the Sea: Essays on Maritime strategies (1989)
War in the Pacific (1990)
Admiral John H. Towers: the Struggle for Naval Air Supremacy (1991)
Navies in History (1998)
On the Warpath in the Pacific : Admiral Jocko Clark and the Fast Carriers (2005)

Dr. Reynolds also published fifty-seven journal articles in his field and contributed to a number of encyclopedias and biographical dictionaries.

Awards and honors

The American Military Institute awarded Reynolds with its Moncado Prize for articles that appeared in Military History in 1975 and 1988.

Reynolds received the 1992 Samuel Eliot Morison Award for Naval Literature from the Naval Order of the United States, and the Admiral Arthur W. Radford Award for Excellence in Naval Aviation History and Literature from the Naval Aviation Museum Foundation in Pensacola, Florida.

In 1993, the North American Society for Oceanic History (NASOH) awarded him its K. Jack Bauer Award for distinguished service to NASOH and for his lifetime of distinguished contributions to the field of maritime history. In his honor, the Society annually awards the Clark G. Reynolds Student Paper Award to the author of the best paper by a graduate student delivered at the society's annual conference.

Personal life

In 1963, Reynolds married Constance A. Caine of Garden City, New York, a Phi Beta Kappa student in Political Science at Duke University, with whom he had two sons and a daughter and who served throughout his career as his valued researcher, proof reader, and typist.

A lover of jazz music from the 1920–1940 era, Reynolds often served as a volunteer disk jockey on radio programs broadcast on the Maine Public Broadcasting Network and South Carolina Education Radio.

Dr. Clark G. Reynolds died on December 10, 2005, in Pisgah Forest, North Carolina.

Reynold's uncle had been Admiral Joseph James "Jocko" Clark's Flag Lieutenant, which is partly why he co-authored Admiral Clark's memoirs, and would later write his biography.

References

External links

  World History Lecture series on DVD set
  Resume
  "Time for Reality to Replace "PDB" History" @ Historically Speaking: The Bulletin of the Historical Society, March/April 2005 (Volume VI, Number 4)
  Obituary Notice @ H-Net – Humanities and Social Sciences Online

1939 births
2005 deaths
American military writers
American naval historians
American male non-fiction writers
College of Charleston faculty
Duke University alumni
Historians of aviation
Historians of the United States
People from San Gabriel, California
United States Merchant Marine Academy faculty
University of California, Santa Barbara alumni
Writers from California
University of Maine faculty
20th-century American male writers
Historians from California

Clark G. Reynolds


The Welsh leid () is a Celtic leid frae Wales. It is pairt o the Brythonic brainch o Celtic leids. It is maist sib wi Cornish an Breton. It is aiblins spak by as mony as 20% o the indwallers o Wales.

The touns and clanchans whaur maist o the fowk spiks Welsh is i the wast, and thai are cried bi some the Bro Gymraeg. The leid is still tynin grund here, akis thir airts is some o the bonniest pairts o the kintra and there mair and mair incummers frae Ingland that forordnar disna lern the leid.

S4C is the Welsh leid TV chainel that's braidcast in Wales as the fowert chainel, insteid o the Chainel 4 seen in Scotland, an it's braidcast throu SKY TV as S4C digidol (digital S4C). The deegital version haes mair Welsh programmes nor the analogue S4C.

Fowk
Some o the mair weel kent speakers o Welsh is John Hartson, Gary Speed, an Imogen an Glynn frae Big Brother. It made a muckle steuchie in Big Brother whan Glynn an Imogen wis telt aff for speakin their mither tung on the shaw.

References

Brittonic leids
Leids o the Unitit Kinrick
Verb–subject–object leids
Leids o Argentinae

Welsh leid


An aperture grille is one of two major technologies used to manufacture color cathode-ray tube (CRT) televisions and computer displays; the other is the shadow mask.

Fine vertical wires behind the front glass of the display screen separate the different colors of phosphors into strips. These wires are positioned such that an electron beam from one of three guns at the rear of the tube is only able to strike phosphors of the appropriate color. That is, the blue electron gun will strike blue phosphors, but will find a wire blocks the path to red and green phosphors.

The fine wires allow for a finer dot pitch as they can be spaced much closer together than the perforations of a shadow mask, and there need be no gap between adjacent horizontal pixels.

During the display of bright images, a shadow mask warms, and expands outward in all directions (sometimes called blooming). Aperture grilles do not exhibit this behavior; when the wires heat up, they expand vertically. Because there are no defined holes, this expansion does not affect the image, and the wires do not move horizontally.

The vertical wires of the aperture grille have a resonant frequency and will vibrate in sympathetic resonance with loud sounds near the display, resulting in fluttering and shimmering of colors on the display. To reduce these resonant effects, one or two horizontal stabilizing wires, called "damping wires", are welded across the grille wires, and may be visible as fine dark lines across the face of the screen. These stabilizing wires provide the easiest way to distinguish aperture grille and shadow mask displays at a glance. The stabilized grille can still vibrate but the sounds need to be loud and be emitted close to the display.

Additionally, aperture grille displays tend to be vertically flat and are often horizontally flat as well, while shadow mask displays usually have a spherical curvature.

The first patented aperture grille televisions were manufactured by Sony in the late 1960s under the Trinitron brand name, which the company carried over to its line of CRT computer monitors. Subsequent designs, whether licensed from Sony or manufactured after the patent's expiration, tend to use the -tron suffix, such as Mitsubishi's DiamondTron and ViewSonic's SonicTron.

Aperture grilles are not as mechanically stable as shadow or slot masks; a tap can cause  the image to briefly become distorted, even with damping/support wires.

See also
 Shadow mask
 Cromaclear
 Chromatron
 Trinitron

References

External links
 Aperture grille details

Cathode ray tube
Japanese inventions

Aperture grille


The Sound of Music is a musical. It was based on a 1956 German movie, Die Trapp-Familie and The Story of the Trapp Family Singers by Maria von Trapp. The book was written by Howard Lindsay and Russel Crouse. The lyrics were written by Oscar Hammerstein II. The music was written by Richard Rodgers. It was the last musical written by Rodgers and Hammerstein. Hammerstein died nine months after the Broadway opening.

Story
A young Austrian woman named Maria Rainer becomes the governess to the children of Captain Georg von Trapp, a widow. The children included Liesl (16), Friedrich (14), Louisa (13), Kurt (10 or 11), Brigitta (9), Marta (7) and Gretl (5). Maria teaches the children how to sing, during the famous song Do Re Mi. The captain and Maria fall in love and marry. Von Trapp refuses to join the Nazis and escapes from the Salzburg Festival, where his family performed. The story ends with Maria and her family leaving from Austria to Switzerland.

Productions
The Sound of Music was released on 16 November 1959 at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre on Broadway. It starred Mary Martin as Maria and Theodore Bikel as Captain von Trapp. It moved to the Mark Hellinger Theatre on 6 November 1962, and closed on 15 June 1963 after 1,443 performances. The musical opened on the West End at the Palace Theatre on 18 May 1961. It starred Jean Bayless as Maria and Roger Dann as Capt. von Trapp. The musical ran for 2,385 performances.

Awards
The musical won a Tony Award for Best Musical.

Adaptations
The musical was released as a 1965 movie starring Julie Andrews and Christopher Plummer.

1950s musicals
Broadway musicals
West End musicals
Musicals by Rodgers and Hammerstein
Musicals based on books
Cult movies
1959 works

The Sound of Music


A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particle movement is parallel to the direction of the wave propagation. This means that the particles move left and right which in turn makes the other particles start to oscillate. This creates a wave. Longitudinal waves are also called pressure waves, and sound waves are the most common kinds.
As with other waves, the particles do not move with the wave.

wave physics

Longitudinal wave


Max Knoll  (17 July 1897 – 6 November 1969) was a German electrical engineer.

Knoll was born in Wiesbaden and studied in Munich and at the Technical University of Berlin, where he obtained his doctorate in the Institute for High Voltage Technology. In 1927 he became the leader of the electron research group there, where he and his co-worker, Ernst Ruska, invented the electron microscope in 1931. In April 1932, Knoll joined Telefunken in Berlin to do developmental work in the field of television design. He was also a private lecturer in Berlin.

After World War II, Knoll joined the University of Munich as extraordinary professor and director of the Institute for Electromedicine. He moved to the USA in 1948, to  work at the Department of Electrical Engineering at Princeton University.

In 1956 he returned to Munich and engaged in a series of experiments at the Technische Hochschule, involving the generation of phosphenes by electrically stimulating the brains of himself and other subjects. He retired in 1966.

See also
Scanning electron microscope
Transmission electron microscopy

References
 Knoll, Max & Kügler, J. (1959). "Subjective Light Pattern Spectroscopy in the Electroencephalic Range". Nature (London) 184:1823–1824.

1897 births
1969 deaths
Engineering educators
German electrical engineers
Knoll, Max
Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
Microscopists
Princeton University faculty
Technical University of Munich alumni
Academic staff of the Technical University of Munich
Technical University of Berlin alumni
Scientists from Wiesbaden
Engineers from Hesse

Max Knoll


Canterbury is a city in Kent, England. It is about  from London. It was made famous by a book called The Canterbury Tales. It is also famous for Canterbury Cathedral. Thomas Becket was assassinated by knights who came from Sandlings.

Transportation
There are two railway stations in the city; Canterbury East and Canterbury West. The A2 road passes near the city. It goes west to London and south-east to Dover.

Education
The city has an estimated 31,000 students. This is the highest student/permanent resident ratio in the UK. There are three universities, and several other higher education institutions and colleges. At the 2001 census, 22% of the population aged 16–74 were full-time students, compared with 7% throughout England. The three universities: the University of Kent, Canterbury Christ Church University, and the University for the Creative Arts.

Sports
The St Lawrence Ground is the home ground of Kent County Cricket Club. It has hosted several One Day Internationals, including one England match during the 1999 Cricket World Cup.

History
The Canterbury area has been lived in since prehistoric times. Paleolithic stone axes, and Neolithic and Bronze Age pots have been found in the area. Canterbury was once the main settlement of the Celtic tribe of the Cantiaci, which lived in most of modern-day Kent. In the 1st century AD, the Romans captured the settlement and named it Durovernum Cantiacorum. The Romans rebuilt the city, with new streets in a grid pattern, a theatre, a temple, a forum, and public baths. Its position on Watling Street on route to the major Kentish ports of Rutupiae (now Richborough), Dubrae (now Dover), and Lemanae (now Lymne) made it important.

References

Canterbury


In net jargon, a server is a computer that serves many kinds of information to a user or client machine. Usually a server will only do a few things for many clients. Every type of thing a server does is called a service. Services are used by other computers that are called clients. The relationship between client and server is called a client-server relationship. For example, Wikipedia has web servers which have a service for sending web pages over the Internet. Your client computer talks to Wikipedia's web page service to get web pages for you. A server can also host internet games, share files, and give access to peripheral equipment such as printers. In simple words, the individual computers are connected to some powerful computers called servers. These store files and information in the form of website. With an Internet connection, different users anywhere in the world can access these files.

For servers and clients to talk to each other, they need to be connected to a network.  They need to use the same communication protocol, a set way for machines to talk to other machines.  It is like a language.  For example, the Wikipedia server runs the HTTP to send web sites to your computer, and your computer uses the HTTP Protocol to ask Wikipedia for pages.

Overview
Usually, servers are specially made to be more powerful and reliable.  They are usually more expensive than normal computers.  Sometimes, servers can be clustered, which means many servers are working together to do one service.

The server might slow down if there are too many people accessing the server at the same time, resulting in a high load.  An overloaded server might also shut itself down automatically.

In a peer-to-peer system, every computer is both a client and a server to the others. This is commonly put into file sharing and VOIP.  However, this can help in attempts at piracy.

Typical server operating systems are Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD.  Unlike other computers, a server often has no monitor, keyboard, or mouse.  When a server doesn't have to do very much, server software can run on a computer that is also doing other things.Initially, such servers were connected to clients known as terminals that did not do any actual computing. These terminals, referred to as dumb terminals, existed simply to accept input via a keyboard or card reader and to return the results of any computations to a display screen or printer. The actual computing was done on the server. Servers also have a special ip number that other devices use to find the servers.

Web server

A web server is a type of server that is used to host websites.  Examples of web server software include Apache or IIS.  A web server can host one, or many, websites.  The default port for a web server to listen to is port 80 (HTTP) or 443 (HTTPS).

Some web servers do other things than just serving a web page.  For example, they may have something called SSI that makes building a website easier.

Web servers use services like CGI to let software on the server make web pages. Some of the programming languages that can use CGI are scripting languages like Perl, Python, PHP, or ASP. Some are compiled languages like C++ or Java.

Reference

Related pages
File server

Reference
Internet
Servers
Computer science

Server


In concurrent computing, multiple calculations are made within overlapping time frames. It takes advantage of the concept that multiple threads or processes can make progress on a task asynchronously. This general approach to writing and executing computer programs is called concurrency.

Concurrency is different from parallel computing, as parallel computing uses multiple processors, each of which are assigned a single, synchronous thread.

Computer science

Concurrency (computer science)


Townsville (, ) is a city on the northern east coast of Queensland, Australia. It is the largest regional city in Queensland and in 2010 was made a second capital by Premier Anna Bligh to take the stress of governing off the southeast corner of Queensland.
Before the city was made a capital, Townsville was often referred to as the capital of North Queensland, but the split of the state never occurred.

Popular attractions include 'The Strand', a long tropical beach and garden strip; Riverway, a riverfront parkland attraction on the banks of Ross River; Reef HQ, a large tropical aquarium holding many of the Great Barrier Reef's native flora and fauna; the Museum of Tropical Queensland, built around a display of relics from the sunken British warship HMS Pandora; and Magnetic Island, a large neighbouring island, the vast majority of which is national park.

History
English explorer James Cook went by the area where Townsville was established in 1770, but did not land. Townsville City was established in 1863 by English explorer Robert Towns to build a new port for Australia. Since then Townsville grew into a livable city as people began moving to up to the city.

World War II history
During World War II, Townsville was used by the Americans as a military base. There were many airbases, bunkers, tunnels and fortifications around Townsville, some of these forts are still visible, where as others have been demolished.

These still standing forts include:

 No. 3 Fighter Sector RAAF
 Green Street Bunker
 Castle Hill Magazine
 Castle Hill Command Post
 Pallarenda Batteries

Townsville was once referred to as Australia's Saviour, but this slowly faded away as history from the war in Townsville was destroyed to hide tunnels from the public.

1970s onwards
On Christmas Eve in 1971, Townsville was hit by Tropical Cyclone Althea, which destroyed the port almost completely. In 1982 Flinders Street in the CBD was closed to traffic and turned into a shopping mall. The Strand Beach was redeveloped into a tropical beach park with features such as a waterpark, the rockpool, and the War Museum.

References

Cities in Queensland

Townsville


Édouard Séguin (January 20, 1812 – October 28, 1880) was a French physician and educationist born in Clamecy, Nièvre. He is remembered for his work with children having cognitive impairments in France and the United States.

Background and career in France
He studied at the Collège d'Auxerre and the Lycée Saint-Louis in Paris, and from 1837 studied and worked under Jean Marc Gaspard Itard, who was an educator of deaf-mute individuals, that included the celebrated case of Victor of Aveyron, also known as "The Wild Child". It was Itard who persuaded Séguin to dedicate himself to study the causes, as well as the training of individuals with intellectual disabilities. As a young man, Séguin was also influenced by the ideas of utopian socialist Henri de Saint-Simon.

Around 1840, he established the first private school in Paris dedicated to the education of individuals with intellectual disabilities. In 1846, he published Traitement Moral, Hygiène, et Education des Idiots (The Moral Treatment, Hygiene, and Education of Idiots and Other Backward Children). This work is considered to be the earliest systematic textbook dealing with the special needs of children with intellectual disabilities.

Achievements in the United States
Following the European revolutions of 1848, Séguin emigrated to the United States. After visiting various schools, modeled on his own, that had been established in the United States, and assisting in their organization, he settled in Cleveland, and later in Portsmouth, Ohio. Later he relocated to New York State and set up a medical practice in Mount Vernon (1860). In 1861 he received an M.D. from the University of the City of New York. In 1863 he moved to New York City, where he made efforts to improve conditions of children with disabilities at Randall's Island asylum.

In the United States, he established a number of schools in various cities for treatment of the mentally disabled.
In 1866 he published "Idiocy: and its Treatment by the Physiological Method"; a book in which he described the methods used at the "Séguin Physiological School" in New York City. Programs used in Séguin's schools stressed the importance of developing self-reliance and independence in the intellectually disabled by giving them a combination of physical and intellectual tasks.

Édouard Séguin became the first president of the "Association of Medical Officers of American Institutions for Idiotic and Feebleminded Persons", an organization that would later be known as the American Association on Mental Retardation. His work with individuals with intellectual disabilities was a major inspiration to Italian educator Maria Montessori.

In the 1870s, Séguin published three works in the field of thermometry, a field he had been devoting himself to since 1866: Thermomètres physiologiques (Paris, 1873); Tableaux de thermométrie mathématique (1873); and "Medical Thermometry and Human Temperature" (New York, 1876). He also devised a special "physiological thermometer" in which zero was the standard temperature of health. In addition, a medical symptom known as "Séguin's signal" is named after him, being described as an involuntary muscle contraction prior to an epileptic attack.

Works

Notes

References
 DHM: Library- In Memory Of Edouard Seguin, M.D. (Document)
 Parts of this article are based on a translation of the equivalent article from the German Wikipedia.

External links

 Excerpts of Séguin's 1866 Treatise on Treatment of the Mentally Handicapped
Scientific American, "Dr. Edward Seguin", 27 November 1880, p. 344

1812 births
1880 deaths
French physiologists
People from Nièvre
French educational theorists
Lycée Saint-Louis alumni
French emigrants to the United States
American physiologists
American educational theorists

Édouard Séguin


Syntagma Canonum is a canon law collection made in 1335 by Matthew Blastares, a Greek monk about whose life nothing certain is known.

The collector aimed at reducing canon law to a handier and more accessible form than it appeared in the Nomocanon of Photius, and to give a more comprehensive presentation than the epitomes and synopses of earlier writers such as Stephen (fifth century), Aristenus (1160), Arsenius (1255), et al. The author arranged his matter in alphabetical order. He made 24 general divisions, each marked off by a letter of the Greek alphabet. These sections he subdivided into 303 titles, themselves distinguished by letters; for example, the third section contains such topics as: peri gamou (about marriage), peri gynaikon (about women), etc. The titles ordinarily treat of the civil law (nomoi politikoi), as well as ecclesiastical law. Some titles however are purely ecclesiastical, others purely civil.

The church ordinances are quoted from previous collections, especially from the Nomocanon (883), while the extracts from the civil law are for the most part transcribed without any reference to their origin. The compilation soon came into general use among the clergy, and preserved its authority even under Ottoman rule. A translation into Serbian followed close upon its first publication. It even worked its way into the political life of the Serbian people through an abridgment which Serbian Emperor Dušan appended to his code of laws (1349). From this the purely ecclesiastical enactments were excluded, but the civil law contained in the Syntagma was reproduced whenever adaptable to the social condition of the people. In the sixteenth century the Syntagma Canonum was translated into Bulgarian; in the seventeenth century into Russian.

References

1335 books
Byzantine law
Law books
14th century in the Byzantine Empire
1330s in the Byzantine Empire
Canon law of the Eastern Orthodox Church

Syntagma Canonum


Bias means that a person prefers an idea and possibly does not give equal chance to a different idea. Bias can be influenced by a number of factors, such as popularity (for example, a newspaper might be biased towards a particular political party due to their employees sharing the same political beliefs as that party).

Bias in an article or editorial would show one point of view, using selected facts and quotes to support that point of view.  Facts or opinions that do not support the point of view in a biased article would be excluded.  For example, an article biased toward riding a motorcycle would show facts about the good gas mileage, fun, and agility.  An article biased against motorcycle riding would show facts about risk of injury and noise, and ignore positive facts about motorcycles.

An article biased against guns would show only facts and information that support the author's position.  They would list suicides, accidental shootings and other facts showing guns in a negative way.  An article biased for guns should show only information that supports the author's position.  The positively biased article would discuss 'lives saved' by guns, numbers of crimes prevented by civilian gun use, and other facts and data that put gun ownership and guns in a good light.

Bias in writing can also be shown by using bad or slang words to refer to groups of people or things.  "Broads" rather than "women"; "murdercycles" rather than "motorcycles".  Words or phrasing that make wide assumptions about races or groups of people also indicates bias.  "All Chinese people are good at math".

Bias also means mistakes in measurements. For example, a person may measure the height of another person wearing shoes.  The shoes make the height more than the same person without shoes.  If the extra height of the shoes (extra bias) was not explained, someone might think that the person had been measured without shoes on.  Data with extra parts not explained is called biased data.

Related pages
Cognitive bias
Prejudice

Other websites
Examples of Bias in Writing

Bias


Atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. It is primarily concerned with the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus and
the processes by which these arrangements change. This includes ions as well as neutral atoms and, unless otherwise stated, for the purposes of this discussion it should be assumed that the term atom includes ions.

The term atomic physics is often associated with nuclear power and nuclear bombs, due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in standard English. However, physicists distinguish between atomic physics — which deals with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons — and nuclear physics, which considers atomic nuclei alone.

As with many scientific fields, strict delineation can be highly contrived and atomic physics is often considered in the wider context of atomic, molecular, and optical physics. Physics research groups are usually so classified.

Isolated atoms
Atomic physics always considers atoms in isolation. Atomic models will consist of a single nucleus that may be surrounded by one or more bound electrons. It is not concerned with the formation of molecules (although much of the physics is identical), nor does it examine atoms in a solid state as condensed matter. It is concerned with processes such as ionization and excitation by photons or collisions with atomic particles.

While modelling atoms in isolation may not seem realistic, if one considers atoms in a gas or plasma then the time-scales for atom-atom interactions are huge in comparison to the atomic processes that are generally considered. This means that the individual atoms can be treated as if each were in isolation, as the vast majority of the time they are.  By this consideration atomic physics provides the underlying theory in plasma physics and atmospheric physics, even though both deal with very large numbers of atoms.

Electronic configuration
Electrons form notional shells around the nucleus. These are naturally in a ground state but can be excited
by the absorption of energy from light (photons), magnetic fields, or interaction with a colliding particle (typically other electrons).

Electrons that populate a shell are said to be in a bound state.  The energy necessary to remove an electron from its shell (taking it to infinity) is called the binding energy.  Any quantity of energy absorbed by the electron in excess of this amount is converted to kinetic energy according to the conservation of energy.  The atom is said to have undergone the process of ionization.

In the event the electron absorbs a quantity of energy less than the binding energy, it will transition to an excited state. After a statistically sufficient quantity of time, an electron in an excited state will undergo a transition to a lower state.  The change in energy between the two energy levels must be accounted for (conservation of energy).  In a neutral atom, the system will emit a photon of the difference in energy.  However, if the excited atom has been previously ionized, in particular if one of its inner shell electrons has been removed, a phenomenon known as the Auger effect may take place where the quantity of energy is transferred to one of the bound electrons causing it to go into the continuum.  This allows one to multiply ionize an atom with a single photon.

There are rather strict selection rules as to the electronic configurations that can be reached by excitation by light—however there are no such rules for excitation by collision processes.

History and developments

The majority of fields in physics can be divided between theoretical work and experimental work,
and atomic physics is no exception. It is usually the case, but not always, that progress goes
in alternate cycles from an experimental observation, through to a theoretical explanation
followed by some predictions that may or may not be confirmed by experiment, and so on. Of course, the current state of technology at any given time can put limitations on what can be achieved experimentally and theoretically so it may take considerable time for theory to be refined.

One of the earliest steps towards atomic physics was the recognition that matter was composed
of atoms, in the modern sense of the basic unit of a chemical element. This theory was developed by the British chemist and physicist John Dalton in the 18th century. At this stage, it wasn't clear what atoms were although they could be described and classified by their properties (in bulk) in a periodic table.

The true beginning of atomic physics is marked by the discovery of spectral lines and attempts to describe the phenomenon, most notably by Joseph von Fraunhofer. The study of these lines led to the Bohr atom model and to the birth of quantum mechanics. In seeking to explain atomic spectra an entirely new mathematical model of matter was revealed. As far as atoms and their electron shells were concerned, not only did this yield a better overall description, i.e. the atomic orbital model, but it also provided a new theoretical basis for chemistry
(quantum chemistry) and spectroscopy.

Since the Second World War, both theoretical and experimental fields have advanced at a rapid pace. This can be attributed to progress in computing technology, which has allowed larger and more sophisticated models of atomic structure and associated collision processes.  Similar technological advances in accelerators, detectors, magnetic field generation and lasers have greatly assisted experimental work.

Significant atomic physicists

 Pre quantum mechanics
 John Dalton
 Joseph von Fraunhofer
 Johannes Rydberg
 J.J. Thomson

 Post quantum mechanics
 Alexander Dalgarno
 David Bates
 Niels Bohr
 Max Born
 Clinton Joseph Davisson
 Enrico Fermi
 Charlotte Froese Fischer
 Vladimir Fock

 Douglas Hartree
 Ernest M. Henley
 Ratko Janev
 Harrie S. Massey
 Nevill Mott
 Mike Seaton
 John C. Slater
 George Paget Thomson

Related pages
Particle physics
Isomeric shift

References

Other websites

 Joint Quantum Institute at University of Maryland and NIST
 Atomic Physics on the Internet
 JILA (Atomic Physics)
 ORNL Physics Division

Nuclear physics
Quantum mechanics
Physical chemistry

Atomic physics