Lekianoba () was the name given to sporadic forays by Northeast Caucasian people into Georgia from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The term is derived from Leki, by which the Georgians knew the Lezgin people, with the suffix –anoba, which designates attribution. The references to these raids appear in the epic poetry of the Avars; the names of rulers who lead the most devastating attacks, Umma-Khan, Nursal-Bek, and Mallachi, are mentioned in Georgian sources.

The attacks began with the disintegration of the Kingdom of Georgia and the subsequent decline of its successor states in the incessant defence warfare against the Persian and Ottoman Empires. In the late 16th century, part of the Georgian marchlands in the Kingdom of Kakheti, later known as Saingilo, was given by the Persian shah Abbas I to his Dagestani allies, creating a base for subsequent invasions.

Though chiefly of small scale, these assaults were frequent enough to be rather devastating to the fragmentised country, with the marauders taking hostages and pillaging the border settlements. From time to time, these attacks evolved into major military operations involving thousands of troops and conducted by the Dagestani feudal warlords, often in alliance with either the Persians or Ottomans. The Kingdom of Kakheti and Kingdom of Kartli were the two eastern Georgian kingdoms that suffered the most. Often taken by surprise, the Georgians failed to build up an effective defence mechanism against Lekianoba largely due to the permanent internal wars and rivalry among the Georgian polities. Furthermore, Dagestani mercenaries were frequently used by rival Georgian kings and princes against each other.

In the early 1720s, the Georgian king Vakhtang VI intensified his efforts to counter the Dagestani inroads. In 1722, he decided to join his forces with the Russian tsar Peter I and mobilised a large army to campaign against the Dagestanis and their major ally, the Safavid Empire, during the Russo-Persian War (1722-1723). However, Peter soon made peace with the Persians, forcing Vakhtang to recall his troops. Georgia's independence finally collapsed again under the Ottoman and Persian aggression over the two subsequent decades, giving the Dagestani tribesmen more chances to attack. In 1744, Teimuraz II and his son Erekle II revived the kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti from their overlord, Nader Shah, and joined their forces to check the Dagestani assaults. From 1750 to 1755, they thrice successfully repulsed a large coalition of the Dagestani clans led by the Avar khan Nursal Bek. In 1774, Erekle II created a special military force that initially, under the command of Erekle's son Levan, served as an effective instrument against the Dagestani marauds. However, facing an internal crisis in his kingdom, Erekle was unable to finally eliminate the threats from the Caucasian mountaineers. In 1785 and 1787, the Avar khan Omar twice attacked Kakheti, leaving several border villages in ruins. Beginning in 1801 with the annexation of Georgia by the Russian Empire, the Dagestani inroads weakened significantly. During the Caucasian Wars, Imam Shamil invaded the Kakhetian marches in 1854, an attack largely considered the last incident of Lekianoba.

See also
 Battle of Ghartiskari

References

 Georgian (Soviet) Encyclopedia, vol. 6; Tbilisi, 1983: p. 164 (In Georgian)

Wars involving Georgia (country)
Early Modern history of Georgia (country)
History of Dagestan

Lekianoba


Kristine Sutherland (born Kristine Young on April 17, 1955, in Boise, Idaho) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Buffy Summers' mother Joyce Summers on the television series Buffy The Vampire Slayer.

Early life
Sutherland was born Kristine Young. She changed her name because she was often confused with another actress with a similar name. The last name "Sutherland" was after her cat, whom she named "Donald" after Donald Sutherland She attended high school in Lexington, Kentucky. After graduating, she studied at the University of Kentucky.

Kristine Sutherland is not related to Donald Sutherland or his son Kiefer Sutherland.

Career
Sutherland's first movie role was as Mae Thompson in the 1989 movie Honey, I Shrunk the Kids. In 1997, she tried out for the role of Joyce Summers on The WB Television Network's television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Creator Joss Whedon later said that one of the reasons he chose Sutherland for the role was the fact that she had a warm demeanor, as well as what he felt she look similar to actress Sarah Michelle Gellar, who was to play her daughter in the series. She was on the series often for the first five seasons. After she left at the end of season five, she returned for three more guest appearances. In April 2008, she had a guest starring role on New Amsterdam.

Personal life
Sutherland is married to actor John Pankow. He is best known as "Ira" on Mad About You. They have one daughter named Eleanore.

Filmography
1986 Legal Eagles
1989 Honey, I Shrunk the Kids
2002 The Cat Returns
2012 The Perfect Wedding

References

Other websites

1955 births
Living people
Actors from Idaho
American television actors
American movie actors
People from Boise, Idaho

Kristine Sutherland


eMedicine is an online research tool for clinical studies. It was founded in 1996 by two medical doctors, Scott Plantz and Richard Lavely. The website is searchable by keyword. It has about 6,800 articles, each of which is associated with one of 62 clinical subspecialty textbooks. Pediatrics, for example, consists of 14 subspecialty textbooks (endocrinology, genetics, cardiology, pulmonology, etc.).  For example, 750 articles are the textbook on emergency medicine.  Each article is authored by board-certified specialists in the subspecialty to which the article belongs. The article's authors are identified with their current jobs.  Each article is updated yearly and the date is published on the article.

History
It was sold to WebMD in January 2006.

The site is free to use, requiring only registration.  More than 10,000 contributors from several countries participated in the creation of the articles. It is operated as an e-book, the articles can be downloaded into a palm top device.

It was originally conceived in 1996 as an emergency medicine textbook but its content has expanded a lot since then to include allergy and immunology, cardiology, clinical procedures, critical care, dermatology, emergency medicine, endocrinology, gastroenterology. genomic medicine, hematology, infectious diseases, nephrology, neurology, obstetrics/gynecology, oncology, pathology, perioperative care, physical medicine and rehabilitation, psychiatry, pulmonology, radiology, rheumatology, and sports medicine. Surgical subspecialties include neurosurgery, ophthalmology, orthopedic surgery, (ENT) and facial plastic surgery, plastic surgery, thoracic surgery, transplantation, Trauma, urology, and vascular surgery.

References

Other websites
 eMedicine website
 Online Pharmacy USA

Databases
Medical manuals
Science websites

EMedicine


Faust is a grand opera in five acts. The music was composed by Charles Gounod.  The French libretto was written by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré. The libretto was based on Carré's play Faust et Marguerite. Carre's play was, in turn, based on the first past of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust. The opera was first performed at the Théâtre-Lyrique in Paris on 19 March 1859. It was well received. The opera was Gounod's greatest success.

Faust was one of the most popular operas of the 19th century. It was the first opera to be performed at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City in October 1883.  It is an expensive opera to perform because of its large cast and many sets and costumes. Productions of the opera have declined since 1950. References to the opera have been frequent in other media. It is the opera being performed in the 1925 silent movie The Phantom of the Opera, for example. Despite its cost, the opera is still performed. It is number 35 on the Operabase list of the most-performed operas worldwide.

Roles
 Doctor Faust - tenor
 Marguerite - soprano
 Mephistophélès - bass
 Valentin, a soldier and Marguerite's brother - baritone
 Siebel, Faust's student - mezzo-soprano
 Dame Marthe, Marguerite's guardian - mezzo-soprano
 Wagner, Faust's friend - Baritone
 Soldiers, students, demons, angels, etc.

Story
The opera takes place in Germany during the 16th century.

Act 1

Doctor Faust is an aging scholar. He decides that his studies have come to nothing. They have only caused him to miss out on life and love (Rien! En vain j'interroge). He tries to kill himself with poison. He stops when he hears a choir. He curses science and faith. He asks for guidance from Satan. Méphistophélès appears (duet: Me voici). He tempts Faust with a vision of the beautiful Marguerite at her spinning wheel. He persuades Faust to buy Méphistophélès's services on earth in exchange for Faust's in Hell. Faust's cup of poison magically becomes an elixir of youth. He drinks it. The aged doctor becomes a handsome young man. The two companions then set out into the world.

Act 2

Near the city gates, students, soldiers, and villagers sing a drinking song (Vin ou Bière). Valentin is leaving for war with his friend Wagner. Valentin asks his young friend Siébel to take care of his sister Marguerite (O Sainte Medaille). Méphistophélès appears. He provides the crowd with wine. He sings a rousing song about the Golden Calf (Le veau d'or). Méphistophélès says bad things about Marguerite. Valentin tries to strike him with his sword. The sword shatters in the air. Valentin and his friends use the cross-shaped hilts of their swords to drive off what they now know is an infernal power (chorus: De l'enfer). Méphistophélès is joined by Faust. The villagers dance a waltz (Ainsi que la brise légère). Marguerite appears. Faust declares his admiration. She declines to walk with Faust out of modesty.

Act 3

In Marguerite's garden, the lovesick Siébel leaves a bouquet for Marguerite (Faites-lui mes aveux). Faust sends Méphistophélès in search of a gift for Marguerite and sings a cavatina (Salut, demeure chaste et pure) idealizing Marguerite as a pure child of nature. Méphistophélès brings in a decorated box containing exquisite jewelry and a hand mirror and leaves it on Marguerite's doorstep, next to Siébel's flowers. Marguerite enters, pondering her encounter with Faust at the city gates, and sings a melancholy ballad about the King of Thulé (Il était un roi de Thulé).

Marthe, Marguerite's neighbour, notices the jewellery and says it must be from an admirer. Marguerite tries on the jewels and is captivated by how they enhance her beauty, as she sings in the famous aria, the Jewel Song (Ah! je ris de me voir si belle en ce miroir). Méphistophélès and Faust join the women in the garden and romance them. Marguerite allows Faust to kiss her (Laisse-moi, laisse-moi contempler ton visage), but then asks him to go away. She sings at her window for his quick return, and Faust, listening, returns to her. Under the watchful eye and malevolent laughter of Méphistophélès, it is clear that Faust's seduction of Marguerite will be successful.

Act 4

Marguerite's room / A public square outside her house / A cathedral
[Note: The scenes of acts 4 and 5 are sometimes given in a different order and portions are sometimes shortened or cut in performance.]

After being impregnated and abandoned by Faust, Marguerite has given birth and is a social outcast. She sings an aria at her spinning wheel (Il ne revient pas). Siébel stands by her. The scene shifts to the square outside Marguerite's house. Valentin's company returns from the war to a military march (Deposons les armes and Gloire immortelle de nos aïeux, the well-known "soldiers' chorus"). Siébel asks Valentin to forgive Marguerite. Valentin rushes to her cottage. While he is inside Faust and Méphistophélès appear, and Méphistophélès, thinking that only Marguerite is there, sings a mocking burlesque of a lover's serenade under Marguerite's window (Vous qui faites l'endormie). Valentin comes out of the cottage, now knowing that Faust has debauched his sister. The three men fight, Méphistophélès blocking Valentin's sword, allowing Faust to make the fatal thrust. With his dying breath Valentin blames Marguerite for his death and condemns her to Hell before the assembled townspeople (Ecoute-moi bien Marguerite). Marguerite goes to the church and tries to pray there but is stopped, first by Méphistophélès and then by a choir of devils. She finishes her prayer but faints when she is cursed again by Méphistophélès.

Act 5

The Harz Mountains on Walpurgis Night / A cavern / The interior of a prison

Méphistophélès and Faust are surrounded by witches (Un, deux et trois). Faust is transported to a cave of queens and courtesans, and Méphistophélès promises to provide Faust with the love of the greatest and most beautiful women in history. An orgiastic ballet suggests the revelry that continues throughout the night. As dawn approaches, Faust sees a vision of Marguerite and calls for her. Méphistophélès helps Faust enter the prison where Marguerite is being held for killing her child. They sing a love duet (Oui, c'est toi que j'aime). Méphistophélès states that only a mortal hand can deliver Marguerite from her fate, and Faust offers to rescue her from the hangman, but she prefers to trust her fate to God and His angels (Anges purs, anges radieux). At the end she asks why Faust's hands are covered in blood, pushes him away, and falls down motionless. Méphistophélès curses, as a voice on high sings "Sauvée!" ("Saved!"). The bells of Easter sound and a chorus of angels sings "Christ est ressuscité!" ('"Christ is risen!"). The walls of the prison open, and Marguerite's soul rises to heaven. In despair Faust follows it with his eyes; he falls to his knees and prays. Méphistophélès is turned away by the shining sword of the archangel.

Discography
 1912: Leon Beyle (Faust), Jeanne Campredon (Marguerite), Ardré Gresse (Méphistophélès), Jean Noté (Valentin); Chœurs et Orchestre du Théâtre de l'Opéra-Comique de Paris, François Ruhlman - (Marston)
 1920: Giuliano Romagnoli (Faust), Gemma Bosini (Marguerite), Fernando Autori (Mephistopheles), Adolfo Pacini (Valentin); Coro e Orchestra del Teatro alla Scala di Milano, Carlo Sabajno - (La Voce del Padrone)
 1958: Nicolai Gedda (Faust), Victoria de Los Angeles (Marguerite), Boris Christoff (Méphistophélès), Ernest Blanc (Valentin); Chœurs et Orchestre du Théâtre National de l'Opéra de Paris, André Cluytens - (EMI Classics)
 1966: Franco Corelli (Faust), Joan Sutherland (Marguerite), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Méphistophélès), Robert Massard (Valentin); Ambrosian Opera Chorus, London Symphony Orchestra, Richard Bonynge - (Decca)
 1978: Plácido Domingo (Faust), Mirella Freni (Marguerite), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Méphistophélès), Thomas Allen (Valentin); Chœurs et Orchestre du Théâtre National de l'Opéra de Paris, Georges Prêtre - (EMI Classics)
 1986: Francisco Araiza (Faust), Kiri Te Kanawa (Marguerite), Evgeny Nesterenko (Méphistophélès), Andreas Schmidt (Valentin); Chor und Symphonieorchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks, Colin Davis - (Philips)
 1991: Richard Leech (Faust), Cheryl Studer (Marguerite), José van Dam (Méphistophélès), Thomas Hampson (Valentin); Chɶur De L'Armée Française, Chœur et Orchestre du Capitole de Toulouse, Michel Plasson - (EMI Classics)
 1993: Jerry Hadley (Faust), Cecilia Gasdia (Marguerite), Samuel Ramey (Méphistophélès), Alexander Agache (Valentin); Chorus and Orchestra of Welsh National Opera, Carlo Rizzi - (Teldec/Warner Classics)
 2009: Piotr Beczala (Faust), Soile Isokoski (Marguerite), Kwangchul Youn (Méphistophélès), Adrian Eröd (Valentin); Chor und Orchester der Wiener Staatsoper, Bertrand de Billy - (Orfeo)

References

 Anderson, James. 1999. The Complete Dictionnary of Opera & Operetta.  Wings Books.

1880s operas
Faust

Faust (opera)


"Boolavogue" is an Irish ballad commemorating the campaign of Father John Murphy and his army in County Wexford during the Irish Rebellion of 1798. It was composed by Patrick Joseph McCall in 1898, the centenary of the Rebellion.

Topic
The ballad covers the victories of Father John Murphy of the village of Boolavogue in County Wexford as he led his parishioners in routing the Camolin Cavalry on 26 May 1798, to defeat the British at Oulart Hill, as well as at Enniscorthy. The Wexford insurgents fought bravely against professional troops, and were eventually defeated at the Battle of Vinegar Hill on 21 June. Father Murphy and the other leaders were hanged.

Father Murphy was a priest who at first tried to persuade people not to take part in the rebellion. He changed his opinion and became a reluctant rebel leader after soldiers burned down the homes of his parishioners whom they suspected of rebellion. The Lieutenant Thomas Bookey whose 'regiment' is mentioned in the song was the leader of the Yeoman Cavalry in the Boolavogue area.

Music
McCall, who also composed the popular ballads "Kelly the Boy from Killanne" and "Follow Me up to Carlow", wrote "Boolavogue" to the old air "Eochaill" (in English, "Youghal Harbour"). The tune had previously been borrowed for the Irish/Australian traditional song "Moreton Bay" (1830), about an Irish convict's brutal treatment in Australia, and would later be used by Seán Ó Riada as part of the film score for Mise Éire (1959). The song was inspired by songs contemporary to the events of 1798 such as "Come All You Warriors".

Liam Gaul  states that "Boolavogue" is the song most closely associated with PJ McCall, and has become an anthem for Wexford. Gaul notes that "Boolavogue" was not published in any of McCall's literary works, and was first printed in the Irish Independent on 18 June 1898 under the title Fr Murphy of the County Wexford. This title was still being used when it appeared in the 1922 edition of Padraig Breathnach's Songs of the Gael. It was only later that the song became widely known as "Boolavogue".

McCall was from Dublin, but often visited Wexford, and was familiar with its history and geography. "Boolavogue" contains references to people and places that played a major part in the 1798 Rising.

References

External links
 The tune as a midi file
 More background to Boolavogue at Irish Music Daily
 Musical description of the song, including first verse of lyrics.
 Four verses of the lyrics

Songs about revolutionaries
Ballads of the Irish Rebellion of 1798
County Wexford
Irish folk songs
Irish poems
Songs written by Patrick Joseph McCall
The Dubliners songs
1898 songs

Boolavogue (song)


Btrfs (B-tree filesystem) is a filesystem for Linux. It is currently considered beta (unfinished) software, but is reasonably feature complete and the on-disk format is finalized. It has many features that ext4 lacked, such spreading one filesystem over multiple hard drives (RAID), and transparent compression, which compresses files without the user having to decompress them manually.

Linux
Files

Btrfs


A Hard Day's Night was a 1964 album by The Beatles, released on 10 July of that year. It was the soundtrack to the movie of the same name, starring the Beatles and directed by Richard Lester. It was their third album. It is said that the title was accidentally said by Ringo Starr during the filming of the movie.

The movie was made because United Artists, a movie company, wanted to sell a soundtrack album. Many movies that included rock and roll were not good movies. The Beatles did not want to star in a movie unless it was well made, with a good plot. United Artists agreed, and a playwright, Alun Owen, was hired.

Alun Owen travelled with the Beatles on a concert tour. He was to write a fictional story at first, based on how the band interacted with other people, but Owen decided the best story to tell was real, based on what he saw. The "grandfather" character (played by Wilfrid Brambell) was added to appeal to older viewers. Brambell was a popular television actor, who starred in Steptoe and Son (a forerunner of Sanford and Son) as a "dirty old" junk dealer.

Even with a script, the Beatles improvised (made up) some of their own dialogue in the movie. They also acted out ideas from the director, Richard Lester.

Movie overview
In the movie's storyline, the Beatles go to London to perform in a television program. Paul's family send along his grandfather, so he and Paul can keep each other company. The grandfather is a "mixer", and likes to cause trouble between people. (He is also noticed often as being "very clean"; a play on Brambell's "dirty" television role.)

The Beatles enjoy breaking rules and expectations, and playing jokes. Their manager Norm and road manager "Shake" try to make things run smoothly, but have a busy time keeping up with both the Beatles and Paul's grandfather, and making sure the television show goes as planned. (Norm and Shake were based loosely on road managers Neil Aspinall and Mal Evans.)

Songs on the album
This is the only Beatles album on which all songs are by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, and their first to only have only songs written by the Beatles.

 A Hard Day's Night
 I Should Have Known Better
 If I Fell
 I'm Happy Just To Dance With You
 And I Love Her
 Tell Me Why
 Can't Buy Me Love
 Any Time At All
 I'll Cry Instead
 Things We Said Today
 When I Get Home
 You Can't Do That
 I'll Be Back

The first seven songs were used in the movie.

The Beatles albums
1964 albums
Rock and roll albums

A Hard Day's Night


Antimony pentachloride, also known as antimony(V) chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is SbCl5. It has antimony and chloride ions in it. The antimony is in its +5 oxidation state.

Properties
Antimony pentachloride is a colorless or yellow liquid. It releases toxic and odorous (bad odor) fumes in air. It melts at 2.8°C and boils at 140°C. It reacts with water to make antimony pentoxide and hydrochloric acid. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid. It dissolves in chloroform. It absorbs water to form a solid hydrate. It is a strong oxidizing agent.

Preparation
It is made by reacting liquid antimony trichloride with chlorine.

Uses
It is used in a test for caesium. It is also used in the making of chemicals and dyes.

Related pages
Antimony pentafluoride
Antimony trifluoride
Bismuth pentafluoride

Antimony compounds
Chlorine compounds

Antimony pentachloride


Computer recycling means taking things from old computers and using them in new computer things. The phrase is also used to mean that computers need to be thrown away in a special way, as they often have things that are bad for the environment or dangerous inside them that can cause problems if they are thrown away like usual waste (garbage).

Secure Recycling
Sometimes people are worried that the information inside a computer will be stolen when the computer is thrown away. For example, if you have a product design on an old computer, somebody might copy your design. Big companies have a lot of computers, with a lot of private information on them. They will often pay other companies to remove all the information from a computer before it is thrown away. This usually involves physically destroying the drive. It is possible to non-destructively erase the data on a hard drive by overwriting the entire drive with random numbers. With this method, only the data is destroyed, not the drive itself. This allows the drive to be reused.

Computers
Electronics
Recycling

Computer recycling


Alex Joseph Graman (born November 17, 1977) is former Major League Baseball pitcher. He bats and throws left-handed.  He retired (as a player) in 2014.

College career
Graman was a three-time letterman for coach Bob Warn at Indiana State University from 1997 to 1999. He finished his career as a second team All-MVC in 1998. Graman ranks fourth in Indiana State history with five games of 10+ strikeouts in a career and is seventh on the school's single season strikeout list with 112. He was drafted in the third round by the New York Yankees.

Minor league career
Graman spent 6 seasons in the New York Yankees system; 1999 with the Staten Island Yankees, where he went 6-3 and was named the Top Prospect in the New York–Penn League.  In 2000, he was with the Tampa Yankees of the Florida State League, compiled a record of 8-9 and was promoted to Double A with the Norwich Navigators of the Eastern League. he spent 2001 and part of 2002 with the Navigators as he went 17-11 and earned another promotion to Triple A with the Columbus Clippers of the International League in 2002.  He spent the next four seasons (2002–2005) in Columbus, going 31-31, and New York.  In 2004, he led the International League in strikeouts (129) and was selected as an All-Star for the Clippers.  He finished the 2005 season with the Louisville Bats, the top farm club of the Cincinnati Reds, where he compiled a record of 2–1.

Major League career
Graman made his debut in Major League Baseball with the New York Yankees in , after six seasons in the Yankee farm system. In his first start against the Chicago White Sox, he gave up 5 runs in 2 innings pitched. In his next start against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, he only lasted a third of an inning, giving up five earned runs, but avoided a loss in both appearances. He was outrighted to the Yankee Triple-A club in Columbus after the game with the Tampa Bay squad. He finished the year with a 19.80 ERA.

In , he fared only slightly better, giving up 2 earned runs in one and a third innings before being designated for assignment by the Yankees and later released. On August 10, 2005, Graman signed with the Cincinnati Reds. He pitched in 5 games for their Triple-A affiliate, the Louisville Bats, but despite having a 3.09 ERA, he was released on September 12, 2005.

In 5 Major League games, all with the Yankees, he has pitched in 6 innings and given up 17 hits and 13 runs all earned for an ERA of 18.47.

Japan
On January 15, 2006, Graman signed a one-year, 50 million yen (about US$467,000) contract with the Seibu Lions. Graman re-signed with the Lions after the season. Beginning in , he replaced Chikara Onodera as the closer.

Graman came into his own as a closer, finishing  with a 3–3 record, 31 saves, and a 1.42 ERA. He helped the Lions win the Pacific League championship and the Climax Series before saving Games 1 and 7 of the Japan Series as Seibu beat the Yomiuri Giants 4 games to 3. Graman tossed the final two innings of Game 7, allowing no hits or walks while striking out two. He finished the postseason by allowing two earned runs in five innings, but did not allow a run in three Japan Series frames.

Opening day 2009 found Alex with the defending champions, the Saitama Seibu Lions for his fourth season in the Japanese Pacific League.

Graman's development as a pitcher while in Japan, led many in baseball to believe he would return to the Major Leagues as a set-up man or long reliever.

Korea
On January 16, 2012, Graman signed a contract with a bonus of $50,000 with Kia Tigers of the Korea Baseball Organization. However, he failed the medical test and the pitching workout. Tigers decided not to sign Graman on February 5, 2012.

Coaching career
Following his retirement, Graman began a career in youth baseball; spending 4 years with the Indiana Bulls travel team and a similar tenure with Zionsville High School.  He is also an instructor at a sports development academy near Indianapolis.

References

External links

1977 births
Living people
Major League Baseball pitchers
Baseball players from Indiana
New York Yankees players
Indiana State Sycamores baseball players
American expatriate baseball players in Japan
Nippon Professional Baseball pitchers
Seibu Lions players
Saitama Seibu Lions players
Staten Island Yankees players
Tampa Yankees players
Norwich Navigators players
Columbus Clippers players
Louisville Bats players
People from Huntingburg, Indiana
People from Dubois County, Indiana

Alex Graman


National champions are corporations which are technically private businesses but due to governmental policy are ceded a dominant position in a national economy. In this system, these large organizations are expected not only to seek profit but also to "advance the interests of the nation"; the government sets policies which favor these organizations. The policy is practiced by many governments, in some sectors more than others (such as defense), but by giving an unfair advantage against market competition, the policy promotes economic nationalism domestically and global pre-eminence abroad contrary to the free market.  The policy also deters or prevents venture capitalism.

As the policy is the collective form of inequality of opportunity, it is irreconcilable with the paradigm of the neo-liberal (or "laissez faire") economy.  It was a major part of the dirigiste policy of 1945–1975 France.

Definition

Under a national champion policy, governments expect one domestic corporation or an oligopoly of such corporations, typically in strategic sectors (whether private or state-sponsored) to seek profit and to "advance the interests of the nation". The policy is practised or acquiesced to by every country in certain sectors (typically national defence and security and the printing of banknotes and often in the philanthropic, performing or subsidizing research and development of new technologies and through those National Institutes which produce marketable innovations).  By allowing corporations a real or perceived monopoly due to the amalgamation of enterprises and the active or supportive suppression of domestic and foreign-based market competition, the policy over time operates as a form of economic nationalism as it is contrary to the free market and enhanced innovation.

As the policy is a form of enforced inequality of opportunity, it is irreconcilable with the paradigm of the liberal economy advocated by 18th century economist Adam Smith, considered to be the intellectual father of modern capitalism.

European national champions
Academics often cite post-World War II Gaullist dirigisme in France as the pinnacle of the national champion policy. Other examples include the creation of the British Steel Corporation by the United Kingdom which acquired the country's largest 14 domestic steel companies in 1967. The prototypical British example was the establishment of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) in 1926, formed from the merger of four companies with the support of the British government: in the 1960s this policy was pursued further in the UK, in order to concentrate capital and create firms which could make the large capital investments and establish the large scale production required to exploit economies of scale and scope, with other examples including the General Electric Company (GEC) and British Leyland. The policy was abandoned by the government of Margaret Thatcher at the end of the 1970s, shifting instead to a more laissez-faire strategy aimed at maximising foreign investment. By 2005 all of Britain's "national champions" had come under foreign ownership, with the exceptions of the aerospace (BAE Systems and Rolls-Royce Holdings) and pharmaceutical (GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca) sectors.

The risk involved with such policies is exemplified by the unsuccessful challenges to IBM's period of dominance of the innovative computer market by UK's ICL, France's Bull, and Italy's Olivetti during the 1970s. Successful and rewarding challenges however are shown to be possible in recent years, as exemplified by European aircraft champion Airbus, and Chinese train champion CRRC.

Chinese national champions
In support of Jiang Zemin's aggressive promotion of overseas foreign direct investment as part of "going out," China's State Council assembled a team of 120 state-owned industry groups to be national champions between 1991 and 1997. The state-owned national champions received high levels of protection, state financial support, political advice and governmental support for operating in foreign environments, and special rights of management autonomy, profit retention, and investment decisions. The Chinese government also brokers partnerships between foreign investors and China's national champions. In addition to CRRC, notable examples of Chinese national champions include Huawei, Bank of China, and SINOPEC. Consistent with China's Belt and Road Initiative, national champions "going out" remain a Chinese government priority.

During the tenure of Chinese leader Xi Jinping, China has encouraged mergers in of its state-owned enterprises, motivated by a desire to create larger and more competitive national champions with a bigger global market share by reducing price competition among SOEs abroad and increasing vertical integration.

China has promoted its national champions particularly strongly since 2017, with a focus on national champions in the technology sector.

State-owned national champions in nonfinancial strategic sectors like energy, civil aviation, infrastructure, and strategic minerals are overseen by the State-Owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission of the State Council (SASAC).

Russian renewal

The policy is evident variously in the 21st century: Russia is its maximal exponent among the world's G-20. Other examples are the merger of E.ON with Ruhrgas backed by the German government in 2000 or the merger of GDF with Suez backed by the French government in 2008.

Russian President Vladimir Putin has made "national champions" a central axis of his policy.
The concept was introduced by Putin in his 1997 dissertation "Strategic Planning of the Reproduction of the Resource Bases". Putin, in turn, may have gotten the idea from a textbook by University of Pittsburgh analysts William King and David Cleland. Putin later expanded on the subject in an article published in 1999 in the Journal of the St. Petersburg Mining Institute.

Charles de Gaulle had also advocated similar ideas when he was the president of France in the 1950s.

Vertical integration
In his dissertation, Putin wrote: "The process of restructuring the national economy must have the goal of creating the most effective and competitive companies on both the domestic and world markets."

Putin's 1999 article proposes that the state should closely regulate and develop the natural resources sector through creating companies with close links to the power vertical, making the firms big enough to compete with multinationals. These companies would become "national champions", representing the state's interest in international commerce.

Most national champions are likely to be 50% or more owned by the Russian government, but there is no reason why predominantly private companies could not also serve as national champions, given the right guidance and pressure.

Advancing national interests
Instead of allowing the country's oligarch-controlled corporations to focus exclusively on making profit, Putin proposed that they should be used instead to advance the country's national interests, suggesting that Russia should reclaim some of the assets that were privatized during Yeltsin, and integrate them vertically into industrial conglomerates so they could compete better with Western multinational corporations.

One example of the concept is that energy corporations such as Gazprom should keep the prices inside Russia low, as a form of subsidy for the public, and only strive for maximal profit in foreign countries.

See also
 Corporatism
 Flag carrier
 National oil company
 State capitalism
 Nationalization
 East Asian model
 Economic nationalism
 Intellectual property
 Barriers to entry

References

Industrial policy
Economic history of France
Economic history of Germany
Economic history of Italy
Economic history of the United Kingdom
Economic nationalism
Economy of Russia
Politics of Russia
Economy of China

National champions


BigDog is a dynamically stable  quadruped military robot that was created in 2005 by Boston Dynamics with Foster-Miller, the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and the Harvard University Concord Field Station. It was funded by DARPA, but the project was shelved after the BigDog was deemed too loud for combat.

History

BigDog was funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the hopes that it would be able to serve as a robotic pack mule to accompany soldiers in terrain too rough for conventional vehicles. Instead of wheels or treads, BigDog uses four legs for movement, allowing it to move across surfaces that would defeat wheels. The legs contain a variety of sensors, including joint position and ground contact. BigDog also features a laser gyroscope and a stereo vision system.

BigDog is  long, stands  tall, and weighs , making it about the size of a small mule. It is capable of traversing difficult terrain, running at , carrying , and climbing a 35 degree incline. Locomotion is controlled by an onboard computer that receives input from the robot's various sensors. Navigation and balance are also managed by the control system.

BigDog's walking pattern is controlled through four legs, each equipped with four low-friction hydraulic cylinder actuators that power the joints. BigDog's locomotion behaviors can vary greatly. It can stand up, sit down, walk with a crawling gait that lifts one leg at a time, walk with a trotting gait lifting diagonal legs, or trot with a running gait. The travel speed of BigDog varies from a  crawl to a  trot.

The BigDog project was headed by Dr. Martin Buehler, who received the Joseph Engelberger Award from the Robotics Industries Association in 2012 for the work. Dr. Buehler while previously a professor at McGill University, headed the robotics lab there, developing four-legged walking and running robots.

Built onto the actuators are sensors for joint position and force, and movement is ultimately controlled through an onboard computer which manages the sensors.

Approximately 50 sensors are located on BigDog. These measure the attitude and acceleration of the body, motion, and force of joint actuators as well as engine speed, temperature and hydraulic pressure inside the robot's internal engine. Low-level control, such as position and force of the joints, and high-level control such as velocity and altitude during locomotion, are both controlled through the onboard computer.

BigDog was featured in episodes of Web Junk 20 and Hungry Beast, and in articles in New Scientist, Popular Science, Popular Mechanics, and The Wall Street Journal.

On March 23, 2008, Boston Dynamics released video footage of a new generation of BigDog known as AlphaDog. The footage shows BigDog's ability to walk on icy terrain and recover its balance when kicked from the side.

The refined equivalent has been designed by Boston Dynamics to exceed the BigDog in terms of capabilities and use to dismounted soldiers.

In February 2012, with further DARPA support, the militarized Legged Squad Support System (LS3) variant of BigDog demonstrated its capabilities during a hike over tough terrain.

Starting in the summer of 2012, DARPA planned to complete the overall development of the system and refine its key capabilities in 18 months, ensuring its worth to dismounted warfighters before it is rolled out to squads operating in-theatre. BigDog must be able to demonstrate its ability to complete a  trek in 24 hours, without refuelling, while carrying a  load. A refinement of its vision sensors will also be conducted.

At the end of February 2013, Boston Dynamics released video footage of a modified BigDog with an arm. The arm can pick up objects and throw them. The robot is relying on its legs and torso to help power the motions of the arm. It is believed that it can lift weights around .

Discontinuation
At the end of December 2015, the BigDog project was discontinued. Despite hopes that it would one day work like a pack mule for US soldiers in the field, the gas-powered engine was deemed too noisy for use in combat. A similar project for an all-electric robot named Spot was much quieter, but could only carry . Both projects are no longer in progress, but the Spot Mini was released in 2019.

Hardware
BigDog is powered by a two-stroke, one-cylinder,  go-kart engine operating at over 9,000 RPM. The engine drives a hydraulic pump, which in turn drives the hydraulic leg actuators.  Each leg has four actuators (two for the hip joint, and one each for the knee and ankle joints), for a total of 16. Each actuator unit consists of a hydraulic cylinder, servo valve, position sensor, and force sensor.

Onboard computing power is a ruggedized PC/104 board stack with a Pentium 4 class computer running QNX.

Gallery

See also
 Aibo
 Biorobotics
 Legged Squad Support System, the next phase of the BigDog project
 Gekko

References

External links

Boston Dynamics's BigDog page

2005 robots
Military robots
Robotic dogs
Robotics at Boston Dynamics
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Harvard University
DARPA projects

BigDog


Hiberno-Latin, also called Hisperic Latin, was a learned style of literary Latin first used and subsequently spread by Irish monks during the period from the sixth century to the tenth century.

Vocabulary and influence
Hiberno-Latin was notable for its curiously learned vocabulary. While neither Hebrew nor Greek was widely known in Europe during this period, odd words from these sources, as well as from Irish and British sources, were added to Latin vocabulary by these authors. It has been suggested that the unusual vocabulary of the poems was the result of the monks learning Latin words from dictionaries and glossaries which did not distinguish between obscure and common words; unlike many others in Western Europe at the time, the Irish monks did not speak a language descended from Latin.  During the sixth and seventh centuries AD, Irish monasticism spread through Christian Europe; Irish monks who founded these monasteries often brought Hiberno-Latin literary styles with them.

Notable authors whose works contain something of the Hiberno-Latin spirit include St Columba, St Columbanus, St Adamnan, and Virgilius Maro Grammaticus. St Gildas, the Welsh author of the , is also credited with the , or Breastplate, an apotropaic charm against evil that is written in a curiously learned vocabulary; this too probably relates to an education in the Irish styles of Latin. John Scotus Eriugena was probably one of the last Irish authors to write Hiberno-Latin wordplay. St Hildegard of Bingen preserves an unusual Latin vocabulary that was in use in her convent, and which appears in a few of her poems; this invention may also be influenced by Hiberno-Latin.

The style reaches its peak in the , which means roughly "Western orations"; these  are rhetorical descriptive poems couched in a kind of free verse.  is understood as a portmanteau word combining , Ireland, and , the semi-legendary "Western Isles" that may have been inspired by the Azores or the Canary Islands; the coinage is typical of the wordplay used by these authors.  A brief excerpt from a poem on the dawn from the  shows the Irish poet decorating his verses with Greek words:

One usage of  in classical times was as a synonym for Italy, and it is noticeable that some of the vocabulary and stylistic devices of these pieces originated not among the Irish, but with the priestly and rhetorical poets who flourished within the Vatican-dominated world (especially in Italy, Gaul, Spain and Africa) between the fourth and the sixth centuries, such as Juvencus, Avitus of Vienne, Dracontius, Ennodius and Venantius Fortunatus. (Thus the very word , plural  – a pseudo-archaic coinage from the classical verb , 'to speak' – is first recorded in the metrical Gospels  of Juvencus. Similarly, the word-arrangement often follows the sequence adjective 1 - adjective 2 - verb - noun 1 - noun 2, known as the "golden line", a pattern used to excess in the too-regular prosody of these poets; the first line quoted above is an example.) The underlying idea, then, would be to cast ridicule on these Vatican-oriented writers by blending their stylistic tricks with incompetent scansion and applying them to unworthy subjects.

On a much more intelligible level, the sixth-century abecedarian hymn  shows many of the features of Hiberno-Latin: the word , the "first sower" meaning creator, refers to God using an unusual neologism. The text of the poem also contains the word , meaning "hands;" this is probably from Hebrew  (, "two hands"). The poem is also an extended alphabetical acrostic, another example of the wordplay typical of Hiberno-Latin. Irish (but not Continental) manuscripts traditionally attributed the poem to the sixth-century Irish mystic Saint Columba, but this attribution is doubtful. Marking with an asterisk (*) words that are learned, neologisms, unusually spelled, or unusual in the context they stand, the poem begins:

Similar usage
 In Italian, Francesco Colonna created a similar style (in prose), packed with neologisms drawn from Hebrew, Greek and Latin, for his allegory  (1499).
 The Spanish Golden Century poet Luis de Góngora was the champion of culteranismo (sometimes called gongorism in English), a style that subjected Spanish to abstruse Latinate neologism, obscure allusions to Classical mythology and violent hyperbaton.
 In English, euphuism – a 16th-century tendency named after the character Euphues who appears in two works by its chief practitioner John Lyly – shows similar qualities.

See also
 Hermeneutic style

References

Bibliography
James Carney, Medieval Irish Lyrics Berkeley, 1967.
 Thomas Owen Clancy and Gilbert Márkus, Iona: the Earliest Poetry of a Celtic Monastery  Edinburgh, 1995.
Michael Herren, editor, The Hisperica Famina. (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronto)
Volume 1, 1974.
Volume 2, 1987.
Andy Orchard, "The Hisperica famina as Literature" University of Toronto, 2000.

External links
 Clavis Litterarum Hibernensium: Medieval Irish Books & Textss, c. 400 - c. 1600, http://www.brepols.net/Pages/ShowProduct.aspx?prod_id=IS-9782503548579-1

Languages attested from the 6th century
Latin language
Forms of Latin
Culture of Ireland
Early medieval Latin literature
Latin texts of medieval Ireland
Macaronic language
History of Christianity in Ireland

Hiberno-Latin


Speed metal is a sub-genre o hivy metal that originated in the early 1980s frae NWOBHM an hardcore punk roots. It is described bi Allmusic as "extremely fast, abrasive, an technically demanding" muisic.

Motorhead is aften creditit as the first baund to invent/play speed metal. Ither hivy metal baunds, like Judas Priest an Iron Maiden, haed significant influence on the genre. This can inspecially be haurd in their duelin guitar soond, that wad come tae be a staple o speed metal. Some o speed metal's earlier influences include Queen's "Stone Cold Crazy" (that wis eventually covered bi the thrash metal baund Metallica), frae their 1974 album Sheer Heart Attack, an Deep Purple's sang "Highway Star", frae their album Machine Head. The latter wis cawed 'early speed metal' bi Robb Reiner of speed metal band Anvil.

Speed metal eventually evolved intae thrash metal. Though a feck o fowk tend tae equate the twa subgenres, there a distinct differ atween the twa. In his book "Sound of the Beast: The Complete Headbanging History of Heavy Metal", Ian Christe states that "...thrash metal relies mair on lang, wrenching rhythmic breaks, while speed metal... is a cleaner an mair muisically intricate subcategory, still lyal tae the duelin melodies o classic metal."

Hivy metal subgenres

Speed metal


Sight (also called eyesight or vision) is one of the senses. Having sight means to be able to see. Seeing gives animals knowledge of the world. Some simple animals can only tell light from dark, but with vertebrates, the visual system is able to form images.

The ability to interpret visible light information reaching the eyes is called visual perception. Sight is the resulting perception. The components that are necessary for vision are known as the visual system.

Process
Light enters the animal's eyes, and a part of the eye called the lens sends information from the light to the back part of the eye called the retina. The retina is composed of light-sensitive cells which fire a signal down the optic nerve when light hits the cell. The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres from all over the retina.

When the information from the light leaves the retina, it goes to the brain. It travels along the optic chiasma until it reaches the optic cortex at the rear of the brain. The information is then processed to find out the shapes and colours of objects. From that and from memory, it can tell of what kind the object is. For example, it can somehow tell a tree from a house. The path on which this kind of information flows is called ventral stream.

The brain can also tell where objects are. For example, it can tell how far away an object is (this is called depth perception). This is needed when catching a ball. The path on which this kind of information flows is called dorsal stream.

What is sense of sight
The major problem in visual perception is that what people see is not simply a translation of an image on the retina. For one thing, we see the world right side up, even though the image on the retina is upside down (because it has passed through the lens). Therefore, it is difficult to explain what happens to create what we actually see. The key, which took centuries to be appreciated, is that the brain works on the data from the eyes, and marries it with memories and guesses, all at lightning speed. The result is an experience of the world which looks to each person as if it were simple reality. However, although based on reality, it is actually a mental construct, built by the brain.

History
Many figures in the ancient world had ideas about vision. Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy and Galen all had their ideas, but most of these ideas were speculation. They were not based on any scientific method.

Alhazen (965–c. 1040) carried out investigations and experiments on visual perception. He extended the work of Ptolemy on binocular vision, and commented on the anatomical works of Galen.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) is believed to be the first to recognize the special optical qualities of the eye. He wrote "The function of the human eye ... was described by a large number of authors in a certain way. But I found it to be completely different". His main experimental finding was that there is only a distinct and clear vision at the line of sight, the optical line that ends at the fovea. Although he did not use these words literally he actually is the father of the modern distinction between foveal and peripheral vision.

Hermann von Helmholtz examined the human eye and concluded that it was, optically, rather poor. The poor-quality information gathered by the eye seemed to him to make vision impossible. So he thought vision could only be the result of some form of unconscious inferences. As well as information from the eyes, the brain used information from previous experiences. The world as experienced is built up from assumptions and conclusions from incomplete data, using prior experience of the world.

Examples of well-known assumptions, based on visual experience, are:
 light comes from above
 objects are normally not viewed from below
 faces are seen (and recognized) upright.
 closer objects can block the view of more distant objects, but not vice versa
 figures (i.e., foreground objects) tend to have convex borders

The study of visual illusions (cases when the inference process goes wrong) has yielded much insight into what sort of assumptions the visual system makes.

Related pages
 Neuroscience
 Ophthalmology
 Color blindness
 Achromatopsia

References

Other websites

 Visual Perception 3 - Cultural and Environmental Factors
 Gestalt Laws
 The Organization of the Retina and Visual System
 Dr Trippy's Sensorium  A website dedicated to the study of the human sensorium and organisational behaviour

Perception

Sight


The critical path method (CPM), or critical path analysis (CPA), is an algorithm for scheduling a set of project activities. A critical path is determined by identifying the longest stretch of dependent activities and measuring the time required to complete them from start to finish. It is commonly used in conjunction with the program evaluation and review technique (PERT).

History
The CPM is a project-modeling technique developed in the late 1950s by Morgan R. Walker of DuPont and James E. Kelley Jr. of Remington Rand. Kelley and Walker related their memories of the development of CPM in 1989. Kelley attributed the term "critical path" to the developers of the PERT, which was developed at about the same time by Booz Allen Hamilton and the U.S. Navy. The precursors of what came to be known as critical path were developed and put into practice by DuPont between 1940 and 1943 and contributed to the success of the Manhattan Project.

Critical path analysis is commonly used with all forms of projects, including construction, aerospace and defense, software development, research projects, product development, engineering, and plant maintenance, among others. Any project with interdependent activities can apply this method of mathematical analysis. CPM was used for the first time in 1966 for the major skyscraper development of constructing the former World Trade Center Twin Towers in New York City. Although the original CPM program and approach is no longer used, the term is generally applied to any approach used to analyze a project network logic diagram.

Basic techniques

Components
The essential technique for using CPM is to construct a model of the project that includes:
 A list of all activities required to complete the project (typically categorized within a work breakdown structure)
 The time (duration) that each activity will take to complete
The dependencies between the activities
 Logical end points such as milestones or deliverable items

Using these values, CPM calculates the longest path of planned activities to logical end points or to the end of the project, and the earliest and latest that each activity can start and finish without making the project longer. This process determines which activities are "critical" (i.e., on the longest path) and which have "total float" (i.e., can be delayed without making the project longer). In project management, a critical path is the sequence of project network activities that adds up to the longest overall duration, regardless of whether that longest duration has float or not. This determines the shortest time possible to complete the project. "Total float" (unused time) can occur within the critical path. For example, if a project is testing a solar panel and task 'B' requires 'sunrise', a scheduling constraint on the testing activity could be that it would not start until the scheduled time for sunrise. This might insert dead time (total float) into the schedule on the activities on that path prior to the sunrise due to needing to wait for this event. This path, with the constraint-generated total float, would actually make the path longer, with total float being part of the shortest possible duration for the overall project. In other words, individual tasks on the critical path prior to the constraint might be able to be delayed without elongating the critical path; this is the total float of that task, but the time added to the project duration by the constraint is actually critical path drag, the amount by which the project's duration is extended by each critical path activity and constraint.

A project can have several, parallel, near-critical paths, and some or all of the tasks could have free float and/or total float. An additional parallel path through the network with the total durations shorter than the critical path is called a subcritical or noncritical path. Activities on subcritical paths have no drag, as they are not extending the project's duration.

CPM analysis tools allow a user to select a logical end point in a project and quickly identify its longest series of dependent activities (its longest path). These tools can display the critical path (and near-critical path activities if desired) as a cascading waterfall that flows from the project's start (or current status date) to the selected logical end point.

Visualizing critical path schedule
Although the activity-on-arrow diagram (PERT chart) is still used in a few places, it has generally been superseded by the activity-on-node diagram, where each activity is shown as a box or node and the arrows represent the logical relationships going from predecessor to successor as shown here in the "Activity-on-node diagram".

In this diagram, Activities A, B, C, D, and E comprise the critical or longest path, while Activities F, G, and H are off the critical path with floats of 15 days, 5 days, and 20 days respectively. Whereas activities that are off the critical path have float and are therefore not delaying completion of the project, those on the critical path will usually have critical path drag, i.e., they delay project completion. The drag of a critical path activity can be computed using the following formula:
 If a critical path activity has nothing in parallel, its drag is equal to its duration. Thus A and E have drags of 10 days and 20 days respectively.
 If a critical path activity has another activity in parallel, its drag is equal to whichever is less: its duration or the total float of the parallel activity with the least total float. Thus since B and C are both parallel to F (float of 15) and H (float of 20), B has a duration of 20 and drag of 15 (equal to F's float), while C has a duration of only 5 days and thus drag of only 5. Activity D, with a duration of 10 days, is parallel to G (float of 5) and H (float of 20) and therefore its drag is equal to 5, the float of G.

These results, including the drag computations, allow managers to prioritize activities for the effective management of project, and to shorten the planned critical path of a project by pruning critical path activities, by "fast tracking" (i.e., performing more activities in parallel), and/or by "crashing the critical path" (i.e., shortening the durations of critical path activities by adding resources).

Critical path drag analysis has also been used to optimize schedules in processes outside of strict project-oriented contexts, such as to increase manufacturing throughput by using the technique and metrics to identify and alleviate delaying factors and thus reduce assembly lead time.

Crash duration
"Crash duration" is a term referring to the shortest possible time for which an activity can be scheduled. It can be achieved by shifting more resources towards the completion of that activity, resulting in decreased time spent and often a reduced quality of work, as the premium is set on speed.
Crash duration is typically modeled as a linear relationship between cost and activity duration, but in many cases, a convex function or a step function is more applicable.

Expansion

Originally, the critical path method considered only logical dependencies between terminal elements. Since then, it has been expanded to allow for the inclusion of resources related to each activity, through processes called activity-based resource assignments and resource optimization techniques such as Resource Leveling and Resource smoothing. A resource-leveled schedule may include delays due to resource bottlenecks (i.e., unavailability of a resource at the required time), and may cause a previously shorter path to become the longest or most "resource critical" path while a resource-smoothed schedule avoids impacting the critical path by using only free and total float. A related concept is called the critical chain, which attempts to protect activity and project durations from unforeseen delays due to resource constraints.

Since project schedules change on a regular basis, CPM allows continuous monitoring of the schedule, which allows the project manager to track the critical activities, and alerts the project manager to the possibility that non-critical activities may be delayed beyond their total float, thus creating a new critical path and delaying project completion. In addition, the method can easily incorporate the concepts of stochastic predictions, using the PERT and event chain methodology.

Currently, there are several software solutions available in industry that use the CPM method of scheduling; see list of project management software. The method currently used by most project management software is based on a manual calculation approach developed by Fondahl of Stanford University.

Flexibility
A schedule generated using the critical path techniques often is not realized precisely, as estimations are used to calculate times: if one mistake is made, the results of the analysis may change. This could cause an upset in the implementation of a project if the estimates are blindly believed, and if changes are not addressed promptly. However, the structure of critical path analysis is such that the variance from the original schedule caused by any change can be measured, and its impact either ameliorated or adjusted for. Indeed, an important element of project postmortem analysis is the 'as built critical path' (ABCP), which analyzes the specific causes and impacts of changes between the planned schedule and eventual schedule as actually implemented.

In popular culture
 In Odds On, the first novel by Michael Crichton, robbers use a critical path computer program to help plan a heist.
 The Nome Trilogy (part 2 Diggers) by Terry Pratchett mentions "the doctrine of the critical path" and says that it means, "There's always something that you should have done first".

See also
 Gantt chart
 Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique
 Program evaluation and review technique
 Critical chain project management
 Liebig's law of the minimum
 List of project management software
 List of project management topics
 Main path analysis
 Project management
 Project planning
 Work breakdown structure

References

Further reading

External links

Business terms
Network theory
Project management techniques
Scheduling algorithms
Schedule (project management)

Critical path method


The East-West Schism (sometimes also called Great Schism) describes how Christianity developed into two big branches in the Middle Ages. The Western part later became the Roman Catholic Church. The Eastern part is known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. During the centuries views on politics and theology developed differently in several ways. It is distinct from the earlier schism that separated Oriental Orthodoxy from the church that split in half later.

During the 5th and 6th Centuries the East and West became isolated from each other due to the invasions of the Balkan peninsula.  They also had different languages. Latin was the most important language in the West. The East mainly spoke the Greek language. Because of this, talking to each other was difficult. The West came under Frankish influence (as opposed to Byzantine) in the 700s.

These were just some of the issues plaguing the Eastern and Western Christians that led to the Great Schism. It seems that even after 1054 relations between the east and west were not completely unfriendly, and the common peasant was probably not immediately affected by the schism.

Background
To understand the meaning of East-West Schism, it is useful to understand the meaning of schism. In very simple words, when differences arise among one group of persons or organizations and they divide themselves into two or more groups, this is schism.

The term East-West Schism describes the division which happened in Christianity. The Christian church became divided into two major groups: Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Most people accept that it happened in 1054. However, this separation was the result of differences that had begun many years before. One difference was the "filioque clause" in the Nicene Creed. This stated that the Holy Spirit came from the Father and the Son, although the original creed declared that It came from just the Father. One major reason for the division concerned the authority of the pope. The Eastern Orthodox group was of the opinion that the pope's authority over them was only honorary, and the pope had real authority only over the western Christians.

However instances of open division on doctrinal questions as well as daily matters had occurred long before the Great Schism of 1054. Leading up to the schism, Pope Leo IX (1002-1054) sent forth a party led by Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida to talk through the obvious problems between the papacy and Constantinople. Michael Cerularius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, rejected the claims put forward by the papal committee. Those from the western side of the church accused Constantinople of having altered the Nicene Creed, and those from the eastern side accused the western church of altering the creed. This in turn led to Cardinal Humbert putting forward a Bull of Excommunication against Michael Cerularius on the altar of the Hagia Sophia, and the Great Schism became official.

Nicene creed

The Roman Catholic Church changed the Nicene creed. It inserted a passage that is known as the Filioque. The Creed in its original form reads   In the West, the Creed was changed to read
 Some people said that the Holy Spirit was a creature. The filioque became a question of theological controversy since it was added to the Creed without an ecumenical council's approval.

Role of the pope
There were many bishops in the church, and in the East the Pope was considered the "first among equals", but Rome claimed that the Pope was the primary Apostolic see, being that of Peter. At first the Eastern Orthodox did not mind the Pope's claim for power over the West - as long as his power stayed in the West. But it came to pass that the Pope decided he also had power over Eastern Christendom as well and he tried to enforce his power on the eastern Patriarchates.  A letter written in 865 by Pope Nicholas claims the Pope's power extends "over all the earth, that is, over every church".  Pope Nicholas also went beyond his powers as stated in Canon 111 of the Council of Sardica (343) when he overturned a verdict and ordered a retrial on a matter concerning Photius and St. Ignatius, two Patriarchs of Constantinople. This was as a result of petitions to Rome by backers of Ignatius.  However, it should be noted that not all the Popes after Nicholas were as extreme - that is, until Pope Leo IX.  When, in 1053 Cerularius attempted friendly relations with Pope Leo IX after a disagreement, a bull (religious legal document) of excommunication (expulsion from the Church) was brought to Constantinople. Each Church excommunicated the other.

References
 Joseph P. Farrell.  God, History, & Dialectic: The Theological Foundations of the Two Europes and Their Cultural Consequences. Bound edition 1997. Electronic edition 2008.

Christianity of the Middle Ages

East-West Schism


Springfield is a city in Massachusetts, United States. In the year 2010, 153,084 people lived in the city and 700,000 people live in Metropolitan Springfield. Springfield is the largest city on the Connecticut River. It is at a natural crossroads where three rivers flow into the Connecticut River.

History
One of Springfield's nicknames is "The City of Firsts" because many famous inventions came from there, like:

 The sport of basketball was invented in Springfield in 1892. The James Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame is there.
 The American car was invented there in 1893.
 The American motorcycle was invented in Springfield in 1901.
 The modern fire engine was invented there in 1905.
 The commercial radio station was invented there in 1920.
 The UHF TV station was invented in Springfield in 1950.

Location
Springfield is near Hartford, Connecticut. The two cities are only 24 miles (38 km) apart. Airline service to Springfield and Hartford is provided from Bradley International Airport. Bradley is 12 miles (19 km) away from Springfield, and 12 miles (19 km) away from Hartford.

People
Many famous people are from Springfield: Dr. Seuss, the author, is from there. John Brown, the abolitionist, started his abolitionism here. James MacNeill Whistler, the famous painter, lived there too. Timothy Leary, the LSD activist was born there. Milton Bradley, the game-maker made his games, like "The Game of Life," and "Chutes and Ladders" there. Charles Goodyear, the man who invented vulcanized rubber, first made it in Springfield.

Environment
Springfield's other nicknames are "The City in a Forest," because it has a lot of trees in it, and "The City of Homes" because it has many big Victorian houses.

Sports
Springfield has two professional sports teams, the Springfield Falcons AHL ice hockey team, and the Springfield Armor NBA D-League basketball team. Both teams play home games at the MassMutual Center on Main Street in Springfield.

Transportation
Many trains and buses meet in Springfield, because it is close to big cities like New York City, Boston, Montreal, and Albany. It is also next to New England's largest river, the Connecticut River. Springfield has always been a city that has welcomed immigrants.

Sightseeing
If you visit Springfield, you can go to the Basketball Hall of Fame, or The Quadrangle museums - a group of art, science, and history museums around the Dr. Seuss sculptures. You could go to the Club Quarter, where there are many restaurants, bars, and discos. You could go to Forest Park, where there is a zoo, different sports fields, and a lake.

County seats in Massachusetts

Springfield, Massachusetts


Protected areas or conservation areas are locations with special protection. They are protected because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural importance. Areas are usually protected by law. The law can be local, from the country of the protected area, or even internationally.

Protected areas are important for biodiversity. They often provide an area safe from hunting or changes to the environment. This provides a safe habitat for threatened and endangered species. They are also important to protect naturally formed areas, like the Grand Canyon, from damage by humans.

There are many types of protected areas. One type is a marine protected area. A marine protected area is for seas, oceans, estuaries or large lakes.

Northeast Greenland National Park is an example of a protected area. The park protects a large variety of animals, such as musk oxen, walrus, and King Eider. Another example of a protected area is the Valley of the Kings in Egypt. This area is protected because it is an important archaeological site.

Related pages
Marine reserve
Nature reserve
World Heritage Site

Protected area


Rolf A. Faste (1943–2003) was an American designer who made major contributions to the fields of human-centered design and design education. He is best known for his contributions to design thinking which he advanced as a 'whole person' approach to problem solving centered on the perception of needs. He was professor of industrial design at the Syracuse University from 1971 to 1983, and professor of mechanical engineering and director of the Stanford Joint Program in Design from 1984 to 2003.

Early life and education
Faste was born in Seattle, Washington, the eldest child of Andreas Faste, a naval architect noted for his work on the MV Coho ferry, and Edith Morch Faste, an artist. Interested from a young age with the intersection between art and engineering, he earned a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from Stevens Institute of Technology in 1965, a master's degree in engineering design from Tufts University in 1971, and a second bachelor's degree in architecture from Syracuse University in 1977. Faste's graduate thesis work at Tufts on engineering creativity was advised by William J. J. Gordon, the originator of Synectics, and demonstrated a correlation between an individual's creative ability when working on science and engineering problems and their capacity to visualize solution concepts.

Career
Faste was a professor of design at Syracuse University from 1971 to 1984, where he taught classes on rapid visualization, prototyping, materials, computer-aided design, aesthetics and the creative process. He was active in the field of accessible design in the early 1970s, and as research associate on the ANSI A117 project he co-authored the national standards for accessibility to buildings. During this time he also served as an UNESCO consultant to the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India.

At Stanford Faste was noted for his contributions to engineering education and design research, developing courses to strengthen students' visual and creative skills such as Aesthetics of Machinery, Ambidextrous Thinking and Expression of Function. He was interested in exploring the way that the body and mind influence technical creativity, understanding needs and cultural meaning in the creation of products, and incorporating functional, aesthetic and humanistic concerns in design. He was a recipient of the Raymond J. Perrin Award for Teaching and Course Development, and held five patents and one patent pending for his innovations.

Foundation
In 2009, Faste's sons founded the Rolf A. Faste Foundation for Design Creativity, a non-profit center for creativity research. The foundation is dedicated to furthering Rolf's vision of design as a way of being in the world for the betterment of human society and mind.

Legacy

The Faste Laboratory, a centre for innovation in the area of functional products at Luleå University of Technology, Sweden, was named in his memory.

References

1943 births
2003 deaths
American industrial designers
Syracuse University faculty
Stanford University Department of Mechanical Engineering faculty
Design educators
Tufts University School of Engineering alumni
Syracuse University School of Architecture alumni

Rolf Faste


Dordrecht is a city in the Netherlands, in the province South Holland.

Dordrecht was founded in 1047 and got its City Rights in 1220. It was the first city in the west of the Netherlands to get City Rights.
In 1572 the Dutch Dukes under Willem van Oranien declared their independence from Spain in Dordrecht.

Dordrecht has about 120,000 inhabitants. It has a marine harbor, metal and food industry.

11th-century establishments in Europe

Dordrecht


Hyperthermia is a high body temperature.  It happens when a person is not able to control their body temperature.  This can happen for many reasons, like very hot weather, fever, and some medicines or illegal drugs.

Doctors define hyperthermia as a body temperature that is over 101 degrees Fahrenheit (equal to 38.3 degrees Celsius). This is higher than the average human body temperature, which is normally around 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 degrees Celsius). When a person gets hyperthermia, they can have heat-related injuries, where the high body temperature hurts the body.

There are three forms of heat-related injuries caused by hyperthermia: heat cramps (the least serious), heat exhaustion, and heat stroke (the most serious).

Causes of hyperthermia

All types of hyperthermia can be caused by the same things.  Some common causes are:
 Weather: Weather that is very hot, sunny, and humid
 Activity: Exercising or working a lot, especially if it is hot out
 Older people and infants can get hyperthermia even if they are resting inside, if the weather outside is hot and humid, and they are not getting enough cool air.  This can happen because very old and very young people have trouble controlling their body temperatures.
 Illegal drugs, especially ecstasy and amphetamines, can make the body's temperature get very hot, very quickly

Other things that make a person more likely to get hyperthermia, especially if they are exercising or working, include:
 Clothing: Wearing dark clothing, hats or helmets, or padded clothing (like football pads)
 Body weight: Having more body fat makes it harder for the body to cool down
 Dehydration (not having enough fluids in the body): This makes it harder for the body to cool itself down by sweating
 Fever: Because the body's temperature is already higher than normal
 Medicines: Some medications, like beta blockers and antipsychotic medicines

Heat cramps
Heat cramps are the least serious form of hyperthermia.  (A "cramp" is a sharp pain caused by a muscle getting tighter and shorter.)

Symptoms
The major symptoms of heat cramps are:
 Painful cramps, usually in the legs or abdomen
 Sweating a lot, which can cause dehydration and loss of electrolytes (important salts that the body needs)

Treatment
People with heat cramps usually do not need medical treatment.  The best treatments for heat cramps are:
 Moving to a cool place and resting
 Resting the muscles that hurt
 Drinking water or sports drinks to treat dehydration

Heat exhaustion
Heat exhaustion is more serious than heat cramps.  If affects the whole body instead of just certain muscles, like heat cramps.

Symptoms
Symptoms of heat exhaustion may include:
 Syncope (fainting) or dizziness
 Low blood pressure
 More serious dehydration
 The person may be orthostatic (this means they get dizzy or faint when they stand up; it is a sign of dehydration)
 Feeling very thirsty with a dry mouth
 Cool, clammy skin (because the body is trying as hard as it can to pull heat out of the body by sweating)
 Nausea or vomiting (because of dehydration)

Treatment
People with heat exhaustion may need medical treatment.

First aid for people with heat exhaustion includes:
 Moving the person to a cool place
 Having the patient take off extra layers of clothes
 Cooling the patient down by fanning them and putting wet towels on their body
 Having them lie down and put their feet up if they are feeling dizzy
 Having them drink water or sports drinks - but only if they are awake, not confused, and not vomiting
 Turning the person on their side if they are vomiting
If a person with heat exhaustion gets medical treatment, EMTs or doctors may:
 Give them oxygen
 Give them water and electrolytes intravenously (through a needle placed into a vein) if they are too confused to drink, or are vomiting

Heat stroke
Heat stroke is a medical emergency.  If it is not treated quickly enough, it causes brain damage and death.  It is one of the most common causes of death in sports that can be prevented.

Heat stroke happens when a person gets so hot that their body cannot do anything to bring their temperature down.  The body has tried every strategy it has to cool itself down.  But the body is so hot that none of those strategies work any more.  This causes the body temperature to rise very quickly.  The body gets so hot inside that its tissues, especially the brain, get damaged.  Usually, people with heat stroke have a body temperature of 104 degrees Fahrenheit or higher.  The brain cannot survive for long at these temperatures.  Heat stroke can very quickly cause damage to the brain, heart, kidneys, and muscles.

Symptoms

Early symptoms
Often, the first signs of heat stroke are:
 Agitation (the person gets upset and restless)
 Confusion
 A strong, fast heart rate

Late symptoms
As heat stroke gets worse, symptoms that can kill the person start to appear.  For example:
 Seizures, especially status epilepticus
 Very low blood pressure (too low to get blood and oxygen to the brain)
 A weak, slow heart rate (this is a sign that the heart cannot beat strongly enough to get blood and oxygen to the body)
 Delirium or coma (caused by the brain getting so hot that it cannot work, and not getting enough oxygen)
 The patient's skin will also be flushed (red), hot, and dry (because the body is no longer able to cool itself by sweating)

Treatment

People with heat stroke always need emergency medical treatment as soon as possible.  If a person might have heat stroke, 9-1-1 or another emergency telephone number should be called right away.  The emergency medical dispatcher can explain what to do to help the person until an ambulance gets there.

Once the person with heat stroke gets to an ambulance or a hospital, treatments for heat stroke may include:
 Cooling the person down as fast as possible.  Ways to do this include:
 Taking the person's clothes off
 Covering the person with wet towels
 Turning up the air conditioning or turning on a fan, if possible
 Putting ice packs in the person's armpits, on the back of their neck, and in their groin
 Putting the person into an ice bath
 Giving cold intravenous fluids, both to help cool the person down and to help with dehydration
 Giving benzodiazepines to stop shivering from being cooled down so quickly (shivering makes the body even warmer)
 Giving medicines to stop seizures
 Giving medicines to help heart problems caused by the heat stroke
 Giving oxygen, or putting a tube down the person's throat to help them breathe (this is called intubation)

Prognosis
The prognosis for people with heat stroke depends on how high their body temperature got, how quickly their body temperature increased, and how quickly they got treatment.

Up to 80% of people who do not get treatment for heat stroke right away die.  But cooling people with heat stroke down right away, and getting them treatment very quickly, can change this so that only 10% die.  But some people who survive have brain damage or other health problems caused by their heat stroke.

References

Health problems

Hyperthermia


Weak interaction,  the weak force or weak nuclear force, is one of the four fundamental forces in the universe.

It is carried by particles known as the W and Z bosons, which are gauge bosons. The weak force causes beta decay, a form of radioactivity. At extremely high energy levels, the force of weak interaction and electromagnetism begin to act the same, and this is called electroweak interaction.

Beta decay
Beta decay is what scientists call a neutron breaking down, in contrast with alpha decay where an atom breaks down. These types of breaking down are more commonly known as radioactive decay. In a beta decay a neutron breaks into a proton,  an electron and a neutrino. However, this is not a complete picture, there is an intermediary step. Notice that this process preserves the total charge. Conservation laws are very important when calculating the possible outcomes of these interactions.

With more detail, beta decay begins with a neutron, which is made of one up quark and two down quarks. Since up quarks have a charge of +2/3, and each down quark has a charge of -1/3 this results as giving 2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0 charge. Due to weak force, if there are too many neutrons in an atom nucleus, one of the down quarks in one of the neutrons turns into an up quark. This would change the charge of the neutron from 0 to (2/3 +2/3 -1/3) = 1. From this, the neutron is no longer a neutron, but actually a proton ( a particle with a charge of +1).

In a strange quantum effect, this transformation releases a particle called a W boson. This is the gauge boson (force-carrying particle) of weak force. Oddly, the W boson has a mass about 80 times as much as a neutron. This sort of thing actually happens very often in quantum mechanics, but it follows the conservation of energy because it happens so quickly. After 3x10–25 seconds, the W boson breaks into an electron and an electron antineutrino. (The electron antineutrino doesn't really do much). This releases the electron and basically creates a proton from a neutron.

Other websites
 Weak force -Citizendium

References

Nuclear physics
Force

Weak interaction


TV.com is a popular website owned by the CNET Games & Entertainment family of websites, which also includes GameSpot, GameFAQs and MP3.com. The website replaced the popular TV Tome website.

The website has information about television (mostly English-language television in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and Ireland). Other than episode guides, TV.com also has news, reviews, photos, trailers and TV listings.

People can also get accounts on TV.com like other CNET websites. Users get a user page and can keep track of television shows. They can also add things like episode details and cast members.

Other websites
 Official website

Entertainment websites

TV.com


Kenneth W. Meyer (July 14, 1925 – August 14, 2016) was an American football coach at the high school, collegiate and professional levels.  He may be best remembered as the head coach of the National Football League (NFL)'s San Francisco 49ers in 1977, and winning two college national championships at Alabama coaching under Bear Bryant. He was a head coach in Finland's top league Vaahteraliiga and for the Finland national American football team.

Early years
Ken Meyer was the son of Werner Meyer and Pauline (Uhrmacher). Meyer graduated from Ashtabula Harbor High School in 1943, and was inducted into the Ashtabula County Football Hall of Fame in 2004. He was proud to have served as a staff sergeant in the mighty 8th Air Force during World War II and flew 25 missions over Germany as a tail gunner on a B-17 Flying Fortress. He maintained close ties with the men in his bomber group, and was an active supporter and past president of the 305th Bomber Group Association.

Playing career
Meyer played quarterback at Denison University under legendary football coach Woody Hayes before Hayes became head coach at the Ohio State University. Meyer set several single season and career school records, one of which still stands, and the team's record was 22–3 during his varsity career. He was elected to Denison's Athletic Hall of Fame in 1987.

College coaching career
Meyer gained his first coaching experience as head coach at an Ohio high school.  From 1952 to 1957, he was an assistant at his alma mater before accepting an assistant coaching position at Wake Forest University in 1958.  After two years with the Demon Deacons, he moved on to take another assistant position, this time with the Florida State Seminoles. While with Florida State, he recruited and coached future NFL quarterback Steve Tensi and future Pro Football Hall of Famer Fred Biletnikoff.

Following three years in that capacity, Meyer accepted an assistant's role in 1963 at the University of Alabama under Bear Bryant.  During his five years with the Crimson Tide, he worked with the team's quarterbacks, a group which included future Pro Football Hall of Famer Joe Namath, as well as Super Bowl winning signal caller Ken Stabler. Alabama's combined record during this time was 47–6–2, including five straight top-10 seasons, an undefeated year finishing #3 in the country, plus two national championships.

NFL coaching career
When Dick Nolan was hired as head coach of the 49ers in 1968, he hired Meyer to tutor the team's offensive backs.  After one year, Meyer departed to accept a similar role with the New York Jets, reuniting him with Namath.  Despite coming off a win in Super Bowl III, the Jets were never able to recapture their magic during Meyer's four years with the team, with major injuries to Namath serving as a major culprit. On February 6, 1973, Meyer left the Jets to accept the position of offensive coordinator with the Los Angeles Rams, reuniting him with Chuck Knox, who had worked with him at Wake Forest. During four frustrating years, the team reached the NFC Championship game three times, but lost on each occasion.

Meyer became an NFL head coach when he was appointed by the 49ers on April 19, 1977, succeeding Monte Clark who had been forced out earlier that month as a result of losing a power struggle to general manager Joe Thomas. Following a 5–9–0 campaign, he was fired on January 10, 1978 and replaced by Pete McCulley who had actually been Thomas' first choice for the position before settling for Meyer. He returned to coaching nine weeks later as the offensive coordinator with the Chicago Bears under new head coach Neill Armstrong.  The Bears reached the postseason once in Meyer's three seasons, with the veteran coach resigning on December 24, 1980.

Meyer returned to the college ranks for the next two years, serving as offensive coordinator for Tulane University.  When former mentor Chuck Knox became head coach of the Seattle Seahawks, he hired Meyer as an assistant on February 24, 1983 where he was quarterbacks coach Seahawks through the 1991 season. He helped guide the Seahawks to the 1983 AFC Championship game and the 1988 AFC West Division title.

Finland coaching career
The American Football Association of Finland invited Meyer to run a quarterback clinic in 1992 and he returned to the country in 1993 to coach the Turku Trojans in the (Maple League) Vaahteraliiga. The Trojans reached the Maple Bowl Championship game before losing to the Helsinki East City Giants.  Meyer was named the head coach of the Finland national American football team from 1993–1997. Finland won the European Championship under Meyer in 1993, 1995, and 1997. He also was an assistant coach with Team Finland Juniors in the 1996 European Championship tournament held in Frankfurt where Team Finland won all its games. In September 2014 Meyer became the 20th person to be inducted to Finnish American Football Hall of Fame. He is also the first and currently only non-Finnish person to be inducted. He died in Gadsden, Alabama on August 14, 2016.

Head coaching record

NFL

References

External links

 Pro-Football-Reference.Com

1925 births
2016 deaths
American football quarterbacks
Alabama Crimson Tide football coaches
Chicago Bears coaches
Denison Big Red football players
Florida State Seminoles football coaches
Los Angeles Rams coaches
New York Jets coaches
San Francisco 49ers head coaches
Seattle Seahawks coaches
Tulane Green Wave football coaches
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football coaches
National Football League offensive coordinators
High school football coaches in Ohio
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
Sportspeople from Ashtabula, Ohio
Players of American football from Ohio
United States Army Air Forces soldiers
American expatriate sportspeople in Finland
American expatriate players of American football

Ken Meyer


Life cycle means the stages a living thing goes through during its life.

In some cases the process is slow, and the changes are gradual. Humans have various stages of growth during their lives, such as zygote, embryo, child and adult. The change from a child to an adult is slow and continuous. In many societies it is marked by ceremonies at puberty.

In most insects the transition is sharp and well-defined: egg > larva > pupa > imago (adult).

Different generations have different forms
In some animals, the parent generation looks different from the child. The most common case is that there are two different forms. One form will have sexual reproduction, the others might not reproduce, or might reproduce asexually.

Some plants and a few other organisms have a system called alternation of generations which is not quite the same because one form is haploid and the other is dipoid.

Parasites
Parasites are organisms that benefit from harming  other organisms. The organism they profit from is usually called host. Many parasites have complex life cycles, where they need different hosts for different stages of their development. As an example, the cycle egg > snail host > mammal host is common for parasites of herbivorous mammals. Malaria is caused by single-celled parasites. These parasites go through two stages in their development. One stage is in the blood of mosquitoes, the other in the blood of humans.

Cnidaria
Examples of this can also be found in the Cnidaria. These animals live in the sea or in freshwater and the structure of most is relatively simple. Some live as single animals, others form colonies. In a colony, many animals live together. Often, each animal in a colony is specialized, and needs the other animals of the colony to survive.

Complete cycle
A well-known example where different generations have different forms is the jellyfish. It has two:
 One is called medusa: it reproduces sexually, and is what most people associate with the word jellyfish.Very ofen the medusa is free-floating.
 The other form is called polyp. It does not reproduce sexually, and is usually sessile. Polyps are generally attached to the sea floor or another hard surface in the water. Coral reefs are colonies of polyps.
In a complete cycle, the offspring of a medusa will develop into a polyp, and the offspring of a polyp will be a medusa.

Incomplete cycle and variations
Sometimes the cycle is modified or incomplete. Anthozoa is a group of the Cnidaria which contains sea anemones and corals. In the anthozoa, there is only a polyp stage, and no medusa stage.

The  box jellyfish form another small group in the Cnidaria.  In the box jellyfish, the polyp transforms into the medusa. In some cases, only part of the polyp transforms, the part that is left regenerates to form a new polyp. People have also talked about the box jellyfish because many of them produce poison that is very effective, and that can be dangerous to humans.

In the stalked jellyfish, there is only one form, which has been interpreted as a sessile medusa.

Related pages
Metamorphosis
Parasitism
Life cycle (computing)
Alternation of generations

Biology

Life cycle


John McCarthy (September 4, 1927 – October 24, 2011) was an American scientist. He is mostly known for the work he did in the field of logic.

McCarthy was the first to use the term artificial intelligence, in an article he wrote in 1955. He invented LISP to be able to do logic programming, in 1958. This makes LISP the second-oldest high-level programming language that is still in use; FORTRAN is older. McCarthy studied mathematics. He invented Garbage collection to solve some of the problems LISP had. McCarthy's work received many awards, the Turing Award for his work on Artificial Intelligence, in 1971, or the National Medal of Science in 2003 are among them.

1927 births
2011 deaths
American computer scientists
Scientists from Boston

John McCarthy


Sodium hydroxide is an alkali which is also known as caustic soda. Caustic means "burning" and caustic soda takes its name from the way it can burn the skin.  It has the chemical formula of NaOH.

It is a base, meaning it has a high pH. It is the most common thing used to raise the pH of solutions; for example, to neutralize an acid.

As a solid, the alkali is deliquescent and readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide from the air. It dissolves easily in water, and makes the water warm when this happens. Sodium hydroxide is used as a solution called lye to make soap.  Lye is also used to unclog drains.  Its dissolving properties and its ability to easily break surface tension are fundamental for its uses. It works in two ways. First, it combines with grease to make soap. Second, it dissolves hair (which is soluble in any basic solution).

Making sodium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide can be made (with chlorine and hydrogen) using the chloralkali process. A solution of sodium chloride is electrolyzed and sodium hydroxide is made around the cathode, where water is reduced to hydrogen gas and hydroxide ion. The hydrogen is released and the hydroxide bonds with the sodium to make sodium hydroxide. Special care is required to prepare a solution of sodium hydroxide or NaOH in water because considerable heat is liberated by the exothermic reaction. The solution may splatter or boil.

2Na+ (from salt) + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2 at cathode
2 Cl- (from salt) → Cl2 at anode

References

Sodium compounds

Sodium hydroxide


George Irving Bell (August 4, 1926 – May 28, 2000) was an American physicist, biologist and mountaineer, and a grandson of John Joseph Seerley. He died in 2000 from complications of leukemia after surgery.

Education
Bell received a bachelor's degree in physics from Harvard University in 1947. He studied theoretical physics with Hans Bethe at Cornell University, obtaining his doctorate in 1951.

Physics
Immediately after receiving his PhD, Bell came to the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and joined the "T Division." At the time, this division was primarily occupied in the design of the first thermonuclear weapon. Bell contributed by solving problems of neutron transport.

Such problems are also crucial in the design and analysis of nuclear reactors, so it was natural that Bell became a leading expert on the physics of reactors. He co-authored the book Nuclear Reactor Theory with Samuel Glasstone.

Biology
Bell's interests turned to biology in the 1960s, creating quantitative models in immunology. He headed the Theoretical Biology and Biophysics group at Los Alamos from 1974 to 1990. He also worked on mathematical models in biophysics. In 1988, he became the founding director of the Center for Human Genome Studies, which became a major participant in the Human Genome Project. He was director for only one year (simultaneously acting as the head of T Division and the group leader for the Theoretical Biology and Biophysics group), and retired from Los Alamos in 1990. He continued to work as an associate of the laboratory until September 1999.

Bell was the author of over 100 research papers, and the co-editor of Theoretical Immunology (1978) and Computers and DNA (1989; ).

Mountaineering
Bell was an avid and accomplished mountaineer and participated in some of the most notable American expeditions of the 1950s and 1960s. His first climbs were during his high school years, in the Tetons, and he was an active participant in the Harvard Mountaineering Club. In the 1940s, he made first ascents of four peaks in the area around Mount Waddington in the Coast Range of British Columbia, on an HMC expedition. During this period, he also climbed in the Tetons, the Wind River Range, and the Cascades.

Bell then moved to more significant objectives, organizing the expedition in 1950 that made the first ascent of Yerupajá, , in the Huayhuash mountain range of Peru, one of the most difficult and dangerous peaks in the Andes. Bell did not make the summit, but reached an altitude of . He returned to Peru in 1952 to make the first ascent of another steep and difficult peak of the Peruvian Andes, Salcantay in the Vilcabamba mountain range. He made two significant return trips to Peru in 1954 and 1956.

Bell also climbed in the Karakoram of Pakistan, participating in two very notable expeditions. In 1953, Bell took part in the Third American Karakoram Expedition to K2 and was one of five climbers who fell on during a failed attempt of the first ascent of the peak.  Their fall was arrested by Pete Schoening in one of the greatest feats of mountaineering.  Bell went on several more Himalayan expeditions and made the first ascent of Masherbrum, the 22nd highest peak in the world, in 1960.

Bell's son, also named George, is also a climber.

References

External links
 Memorial page by George I. Bell Jr.

20th-century American physicists
People from Evanston, Illinois
Harvard College alumni
Cornell University alumni
Los Alamos National Laboratory personnel
1926 births
2000 deaths

George Irving Bell