Andrew Simon Feldman, Baron Feldman of Elstree,  (born 25 February 1966) is a British barrister, businessman and Conservative fundraiser and politician.

The Financial Times described Feldman as "David Cameron's oldest political friend" since their days together at Brasenose College, Oxford. Feldman was responsible for fundraising David Cameron's successful Tory leadership campaign in 2005.

He was created a life peer by David Cameron in 2010, and then Chairman of the Conservative Party, first as co-chairman alongside Sayeeda Warsi and then Grant Shapps between 2010 and 2015, then on his own as sole chairman from May 2015. His tenure ended after David Cameron's administration ended in July 2016.

Early life and family
He was born into a Jewish family in London, the eldest son of Malcolm R Feldman (b. 1939) and his wife Marcia J, née Summers (b. 1944). His paternal grandmother was of Austrian descent.

He married Gabrielle Gourgey in 1999; they have two sons and one daughter. They live in a townhouse in Holland Park, just round the corner from David Cameron's pre-Downing Street family home in Notting Hill.

Feldman was educated at The Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, an independent school in Elstree in Hertfordshire, followed by Brasenose College at the University of Oxford, where he was awarded a first-class degree in jurisprudence. He went on to the Inns of Court School of Law.

Whilst at Oxford, he played for the Brasenose College tennis team, where he became friends with Cameron and Guy Spier. Feldman and Cameron together helped organise the college's May Ball in their second year. Feldman was chairman of the Ball committee, while Cameron booked the entertainment. Feldman has since remained a close confidant of Cameron, who gave him his own office in Downing Street.

Business career
Feldman worked as a management consultant at Bain & Co before being called to the bar in 1991 and working as a commercial barrister at One Essex Court until 1995.

He subsequently worked for the family fashion firm, Jayroma (London) Ltd, serving as Managing Director and later Chief Executive.

He has donated to the Conservative Party through his company Jayroma the following amounts: £8,500 in 2008, £30,000 in 2009, £17,200 in 2010, £13,000 in 2011, £8,690 in 2012.

David Cameron leadership campaign
With the encouragement and financial backing from Philip Harris, Baron Harris of Peckham, Feldman ran the operations and fundraising for David Cameron's 2005 leadership bid for the Conservative party.

Feldman himself gave £10,000 to Cameron's campaign from his family clothing company Jayroma and secured tens of thousands more from other business backers.

Chief Executive of the Conservative Party

In July 2008 David Cameron promoted Feldman to Chief Executive of the Conservative Campaign Headquarters, a key role in preparing the Tories for the 2010 general election.

In October 2008, Feldman was embroiled in the "Yachtgate" scandal with George Osborne. Both he and Shadow Chancellor Osborne were guests on billionaire Oleg Deripaska's yacht off Corfu when Osborne was accused of soliciting a £50,000 donation to the party, which would have been a violation of the law against political donations by foreign citizens. This was when Feldman was Cameron's chief fundraiser. Both denied they had discussed soliciting donations from Deripaska, contrary to the claim made at the time by Nathaniel Philip Rothschild who organised the party event.

In March 2016, Feldman was questioned by journalist Michael Crick about election expenses that may have broken the law.

Chairman of the Conservative Party

After the Conservatives entered government with the Liberal Democrats on 11 May 2010, Cameron appointed Feldman as the co-chairman of the party, with Sayeeda Warsi. His being given an office in Downing Street is a privilege never bestowed before on a party chairman. One of his jobs was to strengthen the voluntary party and increase membership.

On 17 December 2010, Feldman was created a life peer as Baron Feldman of Elstree, of Elstree in the County of Hertfordshire; he was introduced in the House of Lords, where he sits as a Conservative, on 20 December 2010.

In 2012, Feldman helped Cameron prepare for the Leveson Inquiry by roleplaying the lead counsel of the inquiry Robert Jay QC.

Feldman was severely criticised by one of his Conservative councillors, Catherine Faulks, for failing to vote for her in the 2011 by-election for the Norland ward in Kensington and Chelsea Borough Council. Feldman claimed at the time that he was prohibited from voting as a member of the House of Lords, although this was a misunderstanding.

In May 2013, Feldman was widely attributed with making a claim that Conservative parliamentary rebellions on both a referendum on European Union membership and same sex marriage were due to Conservative Associations being "all mad, swivel-eyed loons", a claim that he has denied. The alleged words were claimed to have been said on the evening of Wednesday 15 May during a Conservative Friends of Pakistan event held in St James's, central London.

References

External links
 Lord Feldman of Elstree—biography, www.parliament.uk

1966 births
Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford
Chairmen of the Conservative Party (UK)
Conservative Party (UK) life peers
Conservative Party (UK) officials
English Jews
Jewish British politicians
Living people
People educated at Haberdashers' Boys' School
People from Elstree
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Life peers created by Elizabeth II

Andrew Feldman, Baron Feldman of Elstree


The Civic Opera House is an opera house located at 20 North Wacker Drive in Chicago. It is part of a building which contains a 45-story office tower and two 22-story wings, known as the Civic Opera Building. This structure opened on November 4, 1929 and has an Art Deco interior.

The Civic Opera House has 3,563 seats, making it the second-largest opera auditorium in North America. Built for the Chicago Civic Opera, today it is the permanent home of the Lyric Opera of Chicago.

Buildings and structures in Chicago
Opera houses
1929 establishments in Illinois

Civic Opera House (Chicago)


The Buenos Aires Metrobús is a  network of dedicated separated lanes and stations for buses that serve the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Designed as a Bus Rapid Transit system, it mixes a few bi-articulated buses with conventional buses. The headway is the same as before the implementation of the system, and the buses on the system use the same brand as the main network, that is, maintaining their previous branding as common bus lines with their own numbers. The service operates 24 hours a day and 365 days a year, with 2-4 minute frequencies during the day and 10–15 minutes at night.

History

The first segment of the network opened to the public in May 2011, and runs all the way along Juan B. Justo Avenue linking the neighbourhoods of Liniers and Palermo. This segment consists of 21 stations and is  long.

The second segment of the network, opened on 24 July 2013, spans the length of the 9 de Julio Avenue, consisting of 17 stations running for .

The third segment of the network opened on 14 August 2013, and consists of 36 stops and is  long. This segment runs along important arteries in the southern area of the city, connecting commuters back and forth from the southern (Constitución) rail terminal of the General Roca Railway with the city proper (General Paz Avenue). In parts of this segment of the network (along Rabanal Avenue) the bus lines merge with the general traffic and return to the dedicated lane afterwards.

On 9 October 2013, the Government of the City announced plans for the extension of the network, which would involve a further extension of . When the network is complete, it will have a total of 7 lines carrying an estimated 1.2 million passengers per day.

The fourth line, Metrobús Cabildo, opened in June 2015 and connects Congreso de Tucumán (the terminus of Line D of the Buenos Aires Underground) with Vicente López in Greater Buenos Aires. This segment was originally going to be covered by Line D in its extension to the borders of the city proper, however the creation of this Metrobús line has meant that the Line D's extension is now unlikely.

An eighth line was announced in 2015 which would run from North to South in the West of the city, linking most of the East-West lines together. This line will most likely replace the planned Line I of the Buenos Aires Underground.  Parts of this new line will run underground and use electric buses.

Juan B. Justo Line

The Metrobús Juan B. Justo was the first to begin operations, opening in 2011 and running down the entire length of the Juan B. Justo Avenue. It is  long, has 21 stations and carries 100,000 passengers per day with a frequency of one bus every 2 minutes. It is estimated that the implementation of the Metrobús along the avenue has reduced bus journey times by 40%, while also providing links to lines B and D of the Buenos Aires Underground, as well as to the Sarmiento and San Martín commuter rail lines.

The same exclusive lane is utilised by emergency vehicles. The implementation of this Metrobús line was met with some criticism from shop owners along the avenue who could no longer receive deliveries during peak hours due to the lower number of lanes for regular traffic, something which has been remedied by having specific hours for deliveries. The segment also resulted in a 30% increase in bus passengers as a result of the faster travel times and increased frequencies of the services.

9 de Julio Line

The Metrobus 9 de Julio is  long with 13 stations and runs down the 9 de Julio Avenue, taking roughly the same route as Line C of the Buenos Aires Underground. It serves 11 bus lines and reduces bus travel time by 50% along the avenue. The main objective of this line is to join together the city's two busiest railway stations: Retiro and Constitución and to serve the approximately 250,000 passengers per day which use buses along the avenue. The current journey time is 15 minutes instead of the 30 minutes journey time for buses before the line was built.

When the line was initially opened, the National Government criticised the new bus line for overlapping with Line C of the Underground. However, there is no evidence that passenger numbers on Line C have declined. Similarly, during the construction of the line there were harsh criticisms that many trees along the avenue would disappear. However, the City has stated that after construction was completed, there were 550 more trees along the avenue than before construction began. In May 2015, new 90 metre and 230 metre tunnels on the southern end of the line were opened. These tunnels go to and from Constitución railway station and are designed to decrease surface traffic in the area around the station, as well as reducing journey times on the line.

Sur Line

The Metrobús Sur was inaugurated in 2013 and joins Constitución railway station to the south of the city, ending at Puente Noria at the border between the city proper and Greater Buenos Aires. The line has two branches, is  long and has 37 stations. It connects with the PreMetro E2 at its General Salvio terminus, with Underground Line H at Inclán and Line C's Constitución terminus where it also connects to the General Roca Railway.

The Sur Line will connect with Line H at Saenz once the line is extended there, and a larger transfer terminal was opened there in March 2015, where it will also connect with the Belgrano Sur commuter rail line. The line is estimated to carry around 250,000 passengers per day, with its creation increasing rider-ship by 30% and reducing journey times by 15%.

Cabildo Line

The Metrobús Cabildo opened on 17 June 2015, serving as a feeder service to Line D of the underground at its Congreso de Tucumán terminus (where new entrances were built to accommodate the Metrobús line) and making it the first Metrobús line to continue out of Buenos Aires into Greater Buenos Aires. It has a length of  and was designed to reduce congestion in the area because of the number of passengers that were boarding Line D, whilst creating a terminal at the limits of the city at General Paz Highway for passengers from suburbs in Northern Greater Buenos Aires, such as Olivos and Vicente López.

This Metrobús line cost an estimated AR$ 265 million to build and benefits an estimated 200,000 people. Having a feeder service to Line D had been discussed for many years, and at one point this was going to be done using a Buenos Aires PreMetro service with a new PreMetro Line D1.  However, the Metrobús ultimately proved the most appealing to city planners.

25 de Mayo Line

On 5 October 2015 the Metrobús 25 de Mayo was opened, being the first line to operate on an expressway. The line begins at the intersection of the Perito Moreno, Cámpora, Dellepiane and 25 de Mayo expressways and continues along the 25 de Mayo before arriving in the vicinity of Constitución railway station and the Perito Moreno expressway where it provides access to the Avenida 9 de Julio, the Metrobus 9 de Julio and Line C and Line E of the Buenos Aires Underground to the north, and the Roca Line, General Roca Railway and Line C to the south. The  line was expected to transport some 120,000 passengers daily.

The line has significantly different characteristics to the rest of the network, consisting of a single six-metre lane in the middle of the 25 de Mayo activated only during rush hour and shared with emergency vehicles. The space used for the Metrobúsbetween regular traffic was already in existence and no extra space was taken from the 25 de Mayo expressway, which continues to have four lanes per side. However, additional tunnels and access ramps had to be built to accommodate the Metrobús. The bus lane is open between 6 am and 12 noon in the morning towards the city and then again between 3 pm and 9 pm with buses heading away from the city centre.  The line is also the first to accommodate the long-distance buses entering and leaving the city to and from western and southern Argentina, and these are expected to make up the majority of traffic on the line, while journey times for both long distance and local buses using this line were expected to be reduced by 50%.

Along with the Metrobús line, the construction of a second bus terminal to reduce the strain on the Retiro bus terminal (by an estimated 40%) is being constructed at the start of the Metrobús line, at the intersections of the Dellepiane and 25 de Mayo expressways, with the intention of reducing the quantity of long distance buses making their way into the centre of the city. At the terminal, the Metrobús will connect with Line E of the Buenos Aires Underground at a proposed new station, while the terminal itself is expected to open in November. Prior to the opening of the Metrobús line, a new complex interchange was constructed at the western point of the line, over where the terminal is to be located.

Gallery

See also

Transport in Argentina
Trams in Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires Underground
Colectivo

References

Buenos Aires
Transport in Buenos Aires
2011 establishments in Argentina

Metrobús (Buenos Aires)


The White Sea is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea.  It is on the northwest coast of Russia. It is surrounded by Karelia to the west, the Kola Peninsula to the north, and the Kanin Peninsula to the northeast. All of the White Sea is under Russian control and considered to be part of the internal waters of Russia. It is divided between Arkhangelsk and Murmansk Oblasts and the Republic of Karelia.

The major port of Arkhangelsk is on the White Sea. It is an important Soviet naval and submarine base. The White Sea-Baltic Canal connects the White Sea with the Baltic Sea.

The White Sea is one of four seas named in English after common colour terms.  The others are the Black Sea, the Red Sea and the Yellow Sea.

Geography

There are four main bays or gulfs on the White Sea.  Kandalaksha Gulf is in the western part of the White Sea.  It is the deepest part of the sea, reaching 340 metres (1,115 feet). On the south, Onega Bay receives the Onega River. To the southeast, the Dvina Bay receives the Northern Dvina River at the major port of Arkhangelsk. On the east side, opposite the Kola peninsula, is Mezen Bay. It receives the Mezen River and the Kuloy River. Other major rivers flowing into the sea are the Vyg, Niva, Umba, Varzuga and Ponoy.

The seabed of the central part and Dvina Bay is covered in silt and sand.  The bottom of the northern part, the Kandalaksha Gulf and Onega Bay is a mixture of sand and stones.

The White Sea has a large number of islands, but most of them are small. The main island group is the Solovetsky Islands.  They are almost in the middle of the sea, near the entrance to Onega Bay. Kiy Island in Onega Bay is important due to a historic monastery. Velikiy Island, close to the shore, is the largest island in the Kandalaksha Gulf.

Fauna and economy
The sea has more than 700 species of invertebrates, about 60 species of fish, and 5 species of marine mammals. The fishing industry is small.  They mostly target harp seal, ringed seal, herring, saffron cod, European smelt, Atlantic cod and Atlantic salmon. There is a developing seaweed industry.

The White Sea is an important traffic centre of northwestern Russia. The White Sea – Baltic Canal links it through Onega Lake to the Baltic Sea and the major city and port of Saint Petersburg. The Baltic Sea, in turn, is connected by the Volga–Baltic Waterway to the Volga River, Black, Caspian, and Azov seas. The major ports on the White Sea are Arkhangelsk, Belomorsk, Onega, Mezen, Kem, Kandalaksha and Umba. Even though it is frozen in winter, boats can travel on the sea all year around because of the use of icebreakers.

References

Other websites

Seas of the Arctic Ocean
Seas of Russia

White Sea


Tsar is a title for the supreme ruler in several countries.

In Bulgaria, the title was used in 913–1422 and again in 1908–1946. The last tsar to rule Bulgaria was Boris III, who replaced Ferdinand I of Bulgaria 1918.

In Serbia, the title was used in 1346—1371. The last tsar to rule Serbia was Stephen Uroš V.

In the Russian Empire, the title was used from 1546 until 1721. Starting in 1721, the title of Russian emperors was imperator, but the word tsar remained in common use until the Russian Revolution in 1917. The last tsar to rule Russia was Nicholas II, who replaced Alexander III in 1894. The system of government used during the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire was called Tsarist autocracy, also known as Tsarism.

Tsar is also spelled tzar, czar, and csar. It is the Eastern European word for caesar. It can be translated to emperor.

Royalty and nobility

Tsar


The  is a cable-stayed bridge that is part of the Nishiseto Expressway, commonly known as the Shimanami Kaidō しまなみ海道.  The bridge has a center span of .  As of 2010, it has the fourth longest main span of any cable-stayed bridge after the Sutong Bridge.  The expressway is a series of roads and bridges that is one of the three routes of the Honshū-Shikoku Bridge Project connecting the islands of Honshū and Shikoku across the Seto Inland Sea in Japan.  The Kurushima-Kaikyō Bridge is on the same route.

The bridge, which opened on May 1, 1999, carries two lanes of traffic in each direction and has additional lanes for bicycles, motor bikes, and pedestrians.

The Tatara Bridge was originally planned as a suspension bridge in 1973. In 1989, the design was changed to a cable-stayed bridge with the same span.  By building a cable-stayed bridge a large excavation for an anchorage would not be needed, thereby lessening the environmental impact on the surrounding area. The steel towers are  high and shaped like an inverted Y. The side-spans are   and   respectively, and there are also three very small cable spans.

Construction of the bridge took a little more than six years and was accomplished without any accidents.  Many technological advancements were part of the design and testing of the bridge.

References

External links
 Tatara bridge at Honshū Shikoku Bridge Authority

Cable-stayed bridges in Japan
Bridges completed in 1999
Buildings and structures in Ehime Prefecture
Buildings and structures in Hiroshima Prefecture
Roads in Ehime Prefecture
Roads in Hiroshima Prefecture
1999 establishments in Japan

Tatara Bridge


Andrew Carwood  (born 30 April 1965) is the Director of Music at St Paul's Cathedral in London and director of his own group, The Cardinall's Musick.

Biography
He was educated at The John Lyon School, Harrow and was a choral scholar in the Choir of St John's College, Cambridge under  George Guest, a lay clerk at Christ Church, Oxford and Westminster Cathedral, London before holding the post of Director of Music at the London Oratory Church in London for five years. He is now Artistic Director of The Cardinall's Musick and Director of Music at St Paul's Cathedral in London.

Career
As a singer he is particularly known for his performances of the English repertoire, from consort songs by William Byrd to the role of the Male Chorus in Benjamin Britten's The Rape of Lucretia and for music of the Baroque. He has performed with many of the leading British ensembles both on disc and on the concert platform throughout the world, including the Tallis Scholars, the Orlando Consort, the Oxford Camerata and Pro Cantione Antiqua, and has undertaken solo roles for George Guest, Sir Roger Norrington, Joshua Rifkin, Harry Christophers, Richard Hickox, Paul McCreesh, Stephen Darlington, Philippe Herreweghe, Robert King and Christopher Hogwood. His discography includes works by Hassler, Vivaldi, Purcell, Haydn, Warlock, Grainger, Howells, Poulenc, Janáček and Christopher Headington. He is represented by Rayfield Artists.

As a conductor he also works with The Cardinall's Musick and together they have performed throughout the United Kingdom and Europe. With them he has made over thirty recordings of renaissance music and now records for Hyperion Records. He is an expert on music of the 16th and 17th centuries and has worked as guest conductor with The Sixteen, The King's Consort and the BBC Singers.

He was the Music Advisor for the National Theatre's 2001 production of Luther by John Osborne, and in 1995, 2006 and 2007 he won the Gramophone Early Music Award. He is Director of the Schola Cantorum at the annual Edington Festival and was made an Associate of the Royal School of Church Music in 2005. In 2007 he was appointed Principal Guest Conductor of the BBC Singers. In 2010 he once again won the Gramophone Award for Early Music and the Gramophone Record of the Year Award.

He was appointed to succeed Malcolm Archer as Director of Music at St Paul's Cathedral, London, taking up the post in September 2007, the first non-organist to hold the post since the 12th century.

Carwood was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2022 New Year Honours for services to choral music.

References

External links
  St Paul's Cathedral
 The Cardinall's Musick
  Rayfield Allied

Living people
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
British performers of early music
English choral conductors
British male conductors (music)
English tenors
People educated at The John Lyon School
1965 births
21st-century British conductors (music)
21st-century British male musicians
Members of the Order of the British Empire

Andrew Carwood


The Battle of Orthez was fought during the French Wars of Religion, at Orthez on Wednesday August 24, 1569. Huguenot forces under the leadership of Gabriel de Montgomery defeated Royalist forces under General Terride in French Navarre. Following the battle, Huguenot forces killed many of their Catholic prisoners.

Background
In the later half of the sixteenth century, all Aquitaine above the Garonne except for Bordeaux was in Protestant hands.  At that time, Orthez was the largest and most dynamic city of Béarn.  It was a market town which served as the main funnel for products making their way to Bayonne for export.  Orthez was therefore quite wealthy.  One wealthy Protestant, Adrien-Arnaud de Gachassin, had gifted his mansion in Orthez to Jeanne d' Albret in 1555 (today, it is called Maison of Jeanne d' Albret and has become a museum of how wealthy Protestants lived). The Huguenots were therefore desirous of capturing the important and wealthy town of Orthez.

En route to Orthez

The Protestant forces of Montgomery and Montamat had left Castres around noon on July 27, 1569.  They pillaged along the way, passing through Mazères in Foix. The troops crossed the Garonne and the Gave at Coarreze and by August 9, they reached Queen Jeanne d' Albret's castle at Navarrenx. On August 11, the troops were on the move again and now headed for Orthez.  By August 15, after a relentless siege, Montgomery had weakened Orthez greatly. On August 24, Huguenots captured the town and massacred many of the imprisoned Catholics. Among the victims were Terride, Bassillon, governor of Navarrenx, as well as other leadership and troops in Terride's defenses, local clergy, and people of Orthez.  A special death was contrived for the clergy - they were thrown to their deaths from the heights of Orthez's Le Pont-Vieux over the Gave de Pau. In addition, the local Moncade castle was destroyed as well as the town's churches and many homes.

Aftermath

Massacre of religious opponents characterised much of the Wars of Religion. Montgomery's Huguenot troops committed subsequent massacres of Catholics in Artix, Tarbes, and elsewhere, while a massacre of Protestants took place in Paris and a number of other cities in August-September 1572.

Jeanne III d'Albret (1528–1572), queen of Navarre, and considered "queen of the Huguenots" played a leading role during the French Wars of Religion in the vast territory of Guyenne in southwestern France.  Her goal was to create a Protestant Guyenne by force of arms. Based on correspondence and the memoirs of Jeanne III d'Albret, as well as the fact that the war was taken specifically to Orthez and Navarrenx by her direct orders, the historian Communay posits that she herself may have ordered the slaughter of the Catholic prisoners. Doubtless, however, the Huguenots were so enraged from the persecution inflicted on them by the Catholics that they could not be restrained from the massacre.

The massacre at Orthez occurred three years to the day before the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in Paris, which some historians suggest may have been a revenge killing for the massacre of Catholics in Orthez. In all, both events fit into the bigger picture of the Wars of Religion.

History of Catholicism in France
Battles of the French Wars of Religion
Battles in Nouvelle-Aquitaine
History of Pyrénées-Atlantiques
1569 in France
Conflicts in 1569

Battle of Orthez (1569)


Homotopies are studied in a branch of mathematics known as Algebraic Topology. A homotopy is a deformation (change of form) of one thing into another without cutting it. For example, if we imagine a stretchy object, then all the shapes we can stretch or twist it into are "homotopy equivalent". One famous example is the homotopy equivalence of a coffee cup and a donut. To a topologist, these two shapes are the same.

The first example of a homotopy that a topology student is introduced to is a homotopy between functions. A homotopy between two functions ''f'' and ''g''  provides a collection of functions that start at ''f'' and eventually become ''g''. What this means is that this homotopy takes a parameter and gives a function, and there is a possible parameter that gives ''f'' and one that gives ''g''. Typically, we choose the interval ''[0, 1]'' because this has a starting and ending point, and numbers are allowed to vary smoothly within ''[0, 1]''. To output a function, this means that the homotopy takes a second parameter, which is the argument of the output function. That is, if ''f'' takes a number in the interval and outputs pairs of real numbers, the homotopy takes a number in the interval as the parameter and another number in the interval for ''f''. The homotopy then outputs the interpolated function evaluated at the given pair. That is, if ''H'' is a homotopy from ''f'' to ''g'', then we know where and .

Topology

Homotopy


Lytel Spēonland is miclu īeg þæs Caribiscan Sǣs.  In tƿǣm rīcum is þēos īeg bedǣled, þā sindon Haitīeg sēo is hiere ƿesthealf and sēo Dominicanisce Cynewise sēo is hiere ēasthealf.

Earm is þis īegland. Hit is þæs Caribiscan Sǣs mǣsta īegland æfter Cūban and his stede is 29,530 mīla þæs fēowerscyte.

Caribisc Sǣ

Lytel Spēonland


Andrzej Gwiazda (born 14 April 1935 in Pińczów) is an engineer and prominent opposition leader, who participated in Polish March 1968 Events and December 1970 Events; one of the founders of Free Trade Unions, Member of the Presiding Committee of the Strike at Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk in August 1980, Vice President of the Founding Committee of Solidarity, then Vice President of Solidarity in 1980 and 1981; in December 1981 interned and next imprisoned with six other Solidarność leaders (see Martial Law in Poland). His wife, Joanna Duda-Gwiazda (they married in 1961) also was a prominent member of the anticommunist opposition in the 1970s and 1980s.

Life and activism
Gwiazda's father was a sailor of the Riverine Flotilla of the Polish Navy, stationed in Pińsk (now Belarus), where the family moved in 1939, a few months before the outbreak of World War II. His father Stanisław fought in the Polish September Campaign, as a soldier of Independent Operational Group Polesie. After capitulation of Poland he was caught by the Germans, and spent the war in Oflag II-C in Woldenberg. Young Andrzej, together with mother Zofia (née Zamojska) and grandmother, was in 1940 deported by the Soviets (see Soviet invasion of Poland, Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)) to Kazakhstan, where they stayed until 1946. After the return and reuniting with Stanisław Gwiazda, the family first settled in Upper Silesia, then they moved to Gdańsk, where Andrzej studied electronics at Gdańsk University of Technology, graduating in 1966. After graduation, he worked at Cybernetics Institute of the University, and in 1973 took a job at Power Supplies Factory Elmor in Gdańsk.

Gwiazda married Joanna Duda-Gwiazda in 1961. After marriage, Andrzej and Joanna became more active in anticommunist movements. In 1968, Andrzej was involved in student protests in opposition to the Polish government. In December 1970, he participated in demonstration protesting the dramatic rise in food prices. In 1976, together with his wife, he wrote a letter to the Polish Parliament, in which he expressed support of Workers' Defence Committee. Soon afterwards, the Gwiazdas were officially banned from leaving the People's Republic of Poland, they were also under the surveillance of Służba Bezpieczeństwa. In 1978, Gwiazda was one of the founders of Free Trade Unions of the Coast (WZZ), publishing and delivering "Worker of the Coast", a bulletin of the WZZ. On 16 August 1980, he initiated an industrial action at Elmor. He then became a member of the Inter-Enterprise Strike Committee, and co-authored the famous 21 demands of MKS. However, he did not sign the Gdańsk Agreement, claiming that the workers, upon advice of their legal experts, agreed for too many concessions to the government. Arrested on 13 December 1981 (see Martial law in Poland, he was transported to a prison camp in Strzebielinek. Later on, Gwiazda was transferred to a jail in Warsaw's district of Białołęka. Finally, Gwiazda was released on 22 July 1984, after an amnesty. On 16 December 1984, he was arrested again, after a scuffle with ZOMO officers, and sentenced to five months. After spending time in prisons in Gdańsk and Zabrze, he was released on 15 May 1985.

In 1986 - 1989, Gwiazda was one of leaders of Working Group of National Commission of Solidarity. The group was opposed to any forms of negotiations with Communist authorities. Unlike Lech Wałęsa, Gwiazda did not participate in creation of the Solidarity Citizens' Committee, nor in the negotiations of Polish Round Table Talks. He remains a firm skeptic about Wałęsa, saying that "from the beginning of the strike at the Gdańsk Shipyard, he was acting to the detriment of Solidarity". Also, he says that Wałęsa should never have been made "a symbol of Poland".

Bibliography

Works currently unavailable in English
 Outside the System (Poza układem) (2008)

Further reading
 Gwiazda, You were Right (Gwiazda miałeś rację) (Interviews with Andrzej Gwiazda by Wiesława Kwiatkowska, 1990)
 Constellation in "Solidarity" (Gwiazdozbiór w "Solidarności") (Interviews with Joanna and Andrzej Gwiazda by Remigiusz Okraska, 2009)

References

External links

 Who is Anna Walentynowicz?, a documentary film by Sylke Rene Meyer (2002) about Anna Walentynowicz, with Andrzej Gwiazda talking about Solidarity
 Motion for a resolution by the European Parliament (taking note of the open letter prepared by Andrzej Gwiazda in 2004)
 Website dedicated to Andrzej Gwiazda
 Robotnik Wybrzeża (The Coastal Worker), issues of the Free Trade Unions of the Coast underground newspaper of which Gwiazda was an editor
 Andrzej Gwiazda Freedom Collection interview

1935 births
Living people
Polish dissidents
Polish politicians
Solidarity (Polish trade union) activists
Polish deportees to Soviet Union
Gdańsk University of Technology alumni
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)

Andrzej Gwiazda


Marjorie Faith Barnard  (16 August 18978 May 1987) was an Australian novelist and short story writer, critic, historian—and librarian. She went to school and university in Sydney, and then trained as a librarian. She was employed as a librarian for two periods in her life (1923–1935 and 1942–1950), but her main passion was writing.

Barnard met her collaborator, Flora Eldershaw (1897–1956), at the University of Sydney, and they published their first novel, A House is Built in 1929. Their collaboration spanned the next two decades, and covered the full range of their writing: fiction, history and literary criticism. They published under the pseudonym M. Barnard Eldershaw. Marjorie Barnard was a significant part of the literary scene in Australia between the wars and, for both her work as M. Barnard Eldershaw and in her own right, is recognised as a major figure in Australian letters.

Life
Barnard was born in Ashfield, Sydney, to Ethel Frances and Oswald Holme Barnard, and was their only surviving child. She had polio as a child and was taught by a governess until she was 10 years old. She then attended the Cambridge School and Sydney Girls High School. After high school, she went to the University of Sydney, from which she graduated with first class honours and the first University Medal for History in 1918. She was offered a scholarship to Oxford, but her father refused her permission to go, and so she trained as a librarian at the Sydney Teachers' College. She worked as a librarian at the Public Library of New South Wales and then the Sydney Technical College until 1935 when she left to write full-time, at the encouragement of her friend, writer and literary critic, Nettie Palmer, and made possible through a small allowance from her father. She wrote to Nettie Palmer at the time that she was seeking "some sort of fulfilment, to run my vital energy into a creative mould instead of just letting it soak into the thirsty sand of a daily round".

She joined the Fellowship of Australian Writers in 1935, of which Flora Eldershaw was President for a couple of terms. During the next five years, she, Flora Eldershaw and Frank Dalby Davison were known as "the triumvirate" for their joint work on political and cultural policy. As well as Flora Eldershaw and Frank Dalby Davison, Marjorie Barnard knew many of the leading writers of her time, including Vance and Nettie Palmer, Miles Franklin, Katharine Susannah Prichard, Eleanor Dark, Xavier Herbert and Patrick White.

Barnard travelled overseas several times, the first time in 1933 with her mother. She loved travel but in 1986 stated that "I think it's dangerous for writers to leave their roots. I am—was—an Australian writer".

In the late 1930s, though she still lived at home, she and Flora Eldershaw took a flat in Potts Point where they held regular gatherings which operated something like a literary salon. Many of the leading literary and cultural figures of the time visited the flat, and it was here that she was able to spend time with Frank Dalby Davison whom she admitted many years later had been her love. She wrote of this relationship to her writer friend, Jean Devanny, "I was deeply in love with him ... We were lovers for eight years ... In 1942 I knew things were coming to an end ... I was, as he said, very naïve". She admitted to Devanny that the break-up of this relationship was the cause of a serious illness.

Her father died in 1940, leaving her with an ailing mother. She returned to library work in 1942, at the Public Library of New South Wales and then the CSIRO. However, her mother's death in 1949 left her 'modestly independent' enabling her to leave work in 1950.

Marjorie Barnard never married, and destroyed essentially all her correspondence. However, several of her correspondents, particularly Nettie Palmer and Jean Devanny, kept her letters to them, and some of these are now held in Australian libraries and archives, such as the National Library of Australia.

She died at Point Clare on the Central Coast of New South Wales, in 1987, aged 89.

Career

Marjorie Barnard's writing career spanned four decades, from the 1920s to the 1960s, with the majority of her works being written in the 1930s-1940s, a period in Australia noted for its flowering of women writers. Despite this, in an interview in 1986, she stated that there was no such thing as a "woman writer", that "there are writers good and bad. Only the work counts". In the same interview, she also said, "I never achieved what I set out to do; I never achieved the goals I set myself for each book. I suppose the only exception to that would be The Persimmon Tree". She wrote little in the last twenty years of her life.

Collaboration

Barnard's writing career was inspired by her meeting Flora Eldershaw in her first year at university, and her first work was a children's book, The Ivory Gate, published in 1920. However, on seeing an advertisement for The Bulletin prize, she and Eldershaw wrote their first collaborative novel, A House is Built, which went on to win the prize in 1928, shared with Katharine Susannah Prichard's Coonardoo.

Using the pseudonym M. Barnard Eldershaw, they wrote five novels, as well as a wide range of non-fiction works including histories and criticisms, such as their well-regarded Essays in Australian Fiction (1938). This book contained essays on Henry Handel Richardson, Katharine Susannah Prichard, Leonard Mann, Martin Boyd (under his pseudonym Martin Mills), Christina Stead and Eleanor Dark.

Their final collaborative novel was Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow. It was published in 1945 as Tomorrow and Tomorrow. It is considered to be one of Australia's major early science fiction novels and was highly regarded by Australia's only Nobel Prize winner for literature, Patrick White. However, it was censored for political reasons at the time and was not published in its entirety until Virago Press reissued it in 1983.

While it is generally accepted that Barnard was the more expressive writer of the two, and that Eldershaw contributed her acute critical sense, Rorabacher also states that in their early collaborative novels it is impossible to distinguish their separate contributions. Overall, Barnard did more of the creative writing while Eldershaw focused on the structure and development of their major works. However, because Eldershaw was the more outgoing and articulate of the two, it was frequently assumed, at the time, that she was the dominant partner. This did not spoil their partnership, which lasted two decades, bearing testament to the fact that both derived value from it.

Solo career
Barnard's most successful fictional work written in her own right is The Persimmon Tree and Other Stories (1943). It was reissued by Virago in 1985, with the inclusion of three additional stories not previously published in book form. The title story, The Persimmon Tree, is one of Australia's most anthologised stories. The stories were published soon after the end of her relationship with Davison, and were seen by Barnard as some "compensation for the hurt that was integral to their production". As Maryanne Dever writes, "stories such as 'The Persimmon Tree', 'The Woman Who Did the Right Thing' and 'Beauty is Strength' take as their themes the consequences of illicit love, rivalry between women and the withdrawal and stoicism sometimes demanded of injured lovers".

After Eldershaw's death, Barnard continued to write, mostly histories and literary criticism, including, in 1967, the first biography of Miles Franklin. She admired Franklin's character and energy but was less enamoured of her literary abilities, writing that 'her writings are eclipsed by her personality' and that 'she was no philosopher, displayed little skill in constructing her books, and not much originality in plot.'

Her History of Australia, published in 1963, was well-reviewed at the time. One reviewer compared it favourably with histories by Keith Hancock, A.G.L. Shaw, Max Crawford and Douglas Pike, writing that she "writes good narrative prose and avoids, on the whole, analysis, although she can provide good commonsense summaries (as on the convict tradition or the Federation movement) when she wishes". He goes on to say that "her argument is not original, but she states it with clarity, a well-calculated density of detail, and with authority, especially when she writes on the subject she knows best, Macquarie's world". He does however note that there are some errors and inconsistencies, and gaps in the bibliography.

Politics
While she never joined a political party, she was affected by the social and political upheavals of the 1930s. During this period, Barnard, Eldershaw and Frank Dalby Davison worked together to ensure the Fellowship of Australian Writers (FAW) functioned as a trade union of professional writers and that it adopted progressive positions on political questions. It was this work that resulted in their being known as 'the triumvirate'. Fiona Capp writes, for example, that through the FAW Barnard and Eldershaw actively lobbied against National Security regulations and infringements on the freedom of speech.

Barnard regarded herself as a 'nineteenth century liberal' and defined herself as a pacifist. In 1940, she joined the Peace Pledge Union. She edited a collection of essays defending freedom, which was not published, and a pamphlet The Case for the Future, which was banned by the censor. She also joined the Australian Labor Party as confirmed in several letters to Nettie Palmer, although later denied that she had ever joined. Dever suggests that this denial may be due to the Cold War witch hunts of the 1950s in which her name, among others, was mentioned. She suggests that Barnard received more criticism at that time than Eldershaw, who was frequently defended as a member of the CLF Advisory Board, and that, not being fond of publicity, she was likely to have been "deeply disturbed" by "the accusations and embarrassingly public attention".

FAW Marjorie Barnard Short Story Award
Barnard provided for a biennial prize in her will, in which $500 is offered as first prize for a short story of 3,000 words. When Yasmine Gooneratne won the award in 1991, it was titled the Marjorie Barnard Literary Award for Fiction.

2017: Gabrielle Leago: "The Dark Road Home"
2015: Dorothy Simmons: "Count Down"
2009: Sharyn Munro: "Live at the Bellevue"
2007: Geoffrey Dean: "The Man Who Forgot Himself"
2005: Jacqueline Winn: "Once More with Feeling"
Carolline Rhodes
 1999: Antonia Hildebrand: "To Breathe"
 1997: Helen Armstrong: "Encounter at Arkadi"
1991: Yasmine Gooneratne: A Change of Skies (novel)

Honours and awards

1928: The Bulletin Prize
1980: Medal of the Order of Australia (OAM)
1983: Patrick White Award
1984: NSW Premier's Special Award
1986: Honorary Doctor of Letters from the University of Sydney.

Selected works

Fiction

As Marjorie Barnard
The Persimmon Tree, and Other Stories (1943)

As M. Barnard Eldershaw

A House is Built (1929)
Green Memory (1931)
The Glasshouse (1936)
Plaque with Laurel (1937)
Tomorrow and Tomorrow (1947)

Non-fiction

As Marjorie Barnard
Macquarie's World (1941)
Australian Outline (1943)
A History of Australia (1962)
Miles Franklin: A Biography (1967)

As M. Barnard Eldershaw
Phillip of Australia: An Account of the Settlement of Sydney Cove, 1788-92 (1938)
Essays in Australian Fiction (1938)
The Life and Times of Captain George Piper (1939)
My Australia (1939)

Notes

References

Adelaide, Debra (1988) Australian women writers: a bibliographic guide, London, Pandora
Baker, Candida (1987) Yacker 2: Australian writers talk about their work, Sydney, Picador
Capp, Fiona (1993) Writers defiled, South Yarra, McPhee Gribble, pp. 180–181
Darby, Robert (1993) "Davison, Frank Dalby (1893-1970)" in Australian dictionary of biography Online edition
Dever, Maryanne (1989) "No time is inopportune for a protest: Aspects of the political activities of Marjorie Barnard and Flora Eldershaw" in Hecate, 15(2): 9-21
Dever, Maryanne (1995) Reading other people's mail, Lecture by Harold White Fellow, Maryanne Dever, at the National Library of Australia, Canberra, 25 October 1995
Dever, Maryanne (2006) "Eldershaw, Flora Sydney (1897-1956)" in Australian dictionary of biography Online edition
Dever, Maryanne (2008) Fifty books from fifty years: No. 15 Marjorie Barnard Retrieved: 2008-10-26
Goldsworthy, Kerryn (2000) "Fiction from 1900 to 1970" in Webby, Elizabeth (ed.) The Cambridge companion to Australian literature, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
Fellowship of Australian Writers NSW Inc
Goodwin, Ken (1986) A history of Australian literature ("Macmilllan history of literature" series), Basingstoke, Macmillan
Hooton, Joy (1993) "Life-lines in stormy seas: Some recent collections of women's diaries and letters", Australian Literary Studies, 16 (1)
Modjeska, Drusilla (1981) Exiles at home: Australian women writers 1925-1945, London, Sirius
Nelson, Elizabeth (2004) 'Marjorie Barnard: writer, historian, reluctant librarian' in NLA News Vol. XIV No. 11
Rorabacher, Louise E (1973) Marjorie Barnard and M. Barnard Eldershaw, New York, Twayne Publishers
SAWnet Yasmine Gooneratne
Vickery, Ann and Dever, Maryanne (2007) Australian Women Writers 1900-1950: An exhibition of material from the Monash University Library, Rare Book Collection, 29 March – 3 July 2007
Winks, Robin W. (1964) "A History of Australia, by Marjorie Barnard (Reviews of Books", The American Historical Review, 69 (4): 1070

1897 births
1987 deaths
Australian women novelists
20th-century Australian novelists
20th-century Australian women writers
Australian literary critics
Australian women literary critics
Australian biographers
Australian women historians
Australian science fiction writers
Writers from New South Wales
Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Australia
Patrick White Award winners
Australian women biographers
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
Australian women short story writers
20th-century biographers
20th-century Australian short story writers
People educated at Sydney Girls High School
University of Sydney alumni
Polio survivors
Australian writers with disabilities

Marjorie Barnard


Diffusion is a process where molecules of a material move from an area of high concentration (where there are many molecules) to an area of low concentration (where there are fewer molecules)until it has reached equilibrium (molecules evenly spread).

Diffusion usually happens in a mixture in gas, a liquid and occasionally colloids. It is possible to see diffusion happening when two liquids are mixed in a transparent container.
It describes the constant movement of particles in all liquids, gases and colloids. These particles move in all directions bumping into each other.

Examples

 A sugar cube is left in a beaker of water for a while.
 The smell of ammonia spreads from the front of the classroom to the back of the room.
 Fumes of perfume rise from the bottle when the top is removed.
 Food coloring dropped on the beaker spreads out.
 the smell of food spread in the whole house

Molecules tend to move from places of high concentration to places of low concentration, just by moving randomly. For example, there is more oxygen in a lung than there is oxygen in the blood so oxygen molecules will tend to move into the blood. Similarly, there is more carbon dioxide molecules in the blood than in the lung so carbon dioxide molecules will tend to move into the lung. It happens in cell biology, where small molecules simply diffuse through the cell membrane, but larger molecules only get through by using energy: see active transport.

The random movement of fluid molecules makes them spread out until a boundary stops them.

Diffusion is a passive process, therefore does not require energy as it occurs down a concentration gradient.

Osmosis and heat transfer are types of diffusion.

Rate of Diffusion
Diffusion is affected by:

 the concentration gradient - diffusion will be greater where gradient is larger
 the temperatures - diffusion will happen faster when temperatures are higher as there is more kinetic energy
 the surface area - diffusion will be greater where it's greater
 the diffusion distance - diffusion will be greater where there is a short diffusion distance

Surface Area and Volume
In small unicellular organisms, simple diffusion can exchange molecules quickly enough to keep them alive. A high surface area to volume ratio helps.

However, for multicellular organism simple diffusion is not enough. They need to move more material over longer distances to remain alive. They have evolved to have internal structures and systems for rapid distribution movement. For example, humans have lungs to make diffusion happen rapidly. The same happens in plants with the leaf.

Related pages
 Osmosis
Heat transfer

References

Physical chemistry
Thermodynamics

Diffusion


Pollyanna (1960) is a Walt Disney Productions movie. It stars child actress Hayley Mills and Jane Wyman. The movie is based on the 1913 children's novel Pollyanna by Eleanor Porter. David Swift wrote the screenplay and directed the movie. Pollyanna is the first of six movies Mills made for Disney. She won an Academy Juvenile Award for her performance as Pollyanna.

Story
Pollyanna is an orphan. She arrives in the town of Harrington to live with her rich Aunt Polly. The girl is a happy youngster who believes in the goodness of life. She makes many friends. Aunt Polly controls the town because she is the richest citizen. The people of Harrington want an old orphanage rebuilt. Aunt Polly opposes the idea. The people defy Aunt Polly and plan a bazaar to raise funds for a new building. Aunt Polly is furious. She forbids Pollyanna to participate. On the evening of the bazaar however, Pollyanna slips away and has a wonderful time. She returns home. She tries to avoid her Aunt by climbing a tree outside her bedroom window. She falls and injures her legs. Her cheerful spirits sink, making recovery doubtful. The people of Harrington learn of Pollyanna's accident. They visit her and assure her that she is loved. Pollyanna's spirits return to their usual cheerfulness. She leaves for Baltimore with Aunt Polly to have an operation on her legs.

1960s American drama movies
1960s English-language movies
Academy Award winning movies
American family movies
Disney movies
Movies based on books
American comedy-drama movies
American romantic drama movies
Buena Vista International movies
Movie remakes
Movies set in the 1910s
1960 romantic drama movies

Pollyanna (1960 movie)


Anna Sofia Helena Källgren, known as Sofia Källgren (born 17 August 1970, Högsbo, Sweden), is a Swedish singer. She sings in two other languages, English and Mandarin Chinese, in addition to in Swedish.

In 1982 she debuted on the TV-program Gomorron Sverige on Sveriges Television. In 1986 she performed the song "I Know Him So Well" from Chess in De okändas revy leading to participation in a televised talent show Folkparkernas talangjakt. In 1987 she was awarded the Ulla Billquist-scholarship.

Källgren performed a song, "Världen är vacker", entered to Melodifestivalen 1989. The song was not selected, but Källgren was offered to perform the song "Världen är vår" with Visitors. In Melodifestivalen 1990 she entered again and performed "Handen på hjärtat" solo backed up by three dancers wearing partial fursuits.

She has performed as Belle in the Swedish version of Beauty and the Beast, as Odette in The Swan Princess, and as Rainbow Twilight Brite, Rare Twilight Brite, Happy Twilight Brite, Pink Twilight Brite, Purple Twilight Brite, Unicorn Twilight Brite, Pegasus Twilight Brite, Cinderella, Alice, Princess Aurora, and Belle in The Powerpuff Girls' Adventure. She was awarded Guldmasken (The Golden Mask) for her 1998 performance in the musical Miss Saigon at Göta Lejon in Stockholm.

Källgren has performed in several church concerts and festivals. In 2000 she toured with Rhapsody in Rock, replacing Carola Häggkvist, and that Christmas she toured with Tito Beltran, Orsa spelmän and Kalle Moraeus. Together with Robert Wells she participated in Melodifestivalen 2003, but failed to reach the final.

Källgren lives in Bromma with her husband and their son and daughter.

Selected discography

Albums
Handen på hjärtat (1990)
Julen är kommen (1990)
Min älskade (1992)
Skönheten och odjuret (soundtrack) (1992)
Mina sånger (1994)
My Love (2003)
東方西方 (Eastward Westward) vol. 1 (2005)
東方西方 (Eastward Westward) vol. 2 (2006)
Cinema Paradiso (2008)

Singles
"Längtans vind" / "Världen är vacker" (1989)
"Phantom of the Opera" / "Wherever You Go" (duet with Uffe Persson) (1989)
"Världen är vår" / "The World in Our Hands" (with Visitors) (1989)
"This Time" / "Jag kan se en ängel" (1990)
"Kärleken är en hemlighet" / "Regnbågen" (1991)
"Beatrice" / "Luften jag andas (kärlekens mjuka röst)" (1992)
"Skönheten och odjuret" (duet with Tommy Körberg) / "Till marknaden" / "Kampen på torget" (1992)
"För längre än för alltid" (duet with Roger Pontare) (1995)
"Fri" / "En vinterdag" (from the film Sprängaren) (2001)
"My Love" (with Robert Wells) (2003)
"Eastward Westward" (2005)

The song "Handen på hjärtat" also charted on Svensktoppen

External links

Official webpage

English-language singers from Sweden
Musicians from Gothenburg
1970 births
Living people
20th-century Swedish women singers
21st-century Swedish women singers
Melodifestivalen contestants of 2003
Melodifestivalen contestants of 1990
Melodifestivalen contestants of 1989

Sofia Källgren


A terrestrial planet is mostly made of rock (silicate). Earth is the "original" terrestrial planet. When astronomers started understanding the kinds of planet they extended the term to include our nearest rocky neighbours: Mercury, Venus and Mars.

It is often said that they are similar to Earth. This is true of most of the structure and composition, but not the surface or the atmosphere. A terrestrial planet may be much hotter or colder than Earth, and may have much more or much less atmosphere.

With the discovery of planets orbiting other stars (exoplanets), the term terrestrial planet has been extended again to any rocky (silicate) planet orbiting any star.

Structure
All terrestrial planets have a core, a mantle, and a crust. They are a bit like a boiled egg: the central yolk is the core; the white albumin is the mantle; and the shell is the crust. The crust of a terrestrial planet is thin, with the core and the mantle taking up the vast bulk, sometimes with a very large core, sometimes much smaller. Terrestrial planets have metallic cores of mostly iron, with rocky mantles and crusts.

All terrestrial planets have the same type of structure: a central metallic core, mostly iron, with a surrounding silicate mantle.

The Moon is similar, but has a much smaller iron core. Io and Europa are also satellites that have internal structures similar to that of terrestrial planets. Terrestrial planets can have canyons, craters, mountains, volcanoes, and other surface structures, depending on the presence of water and tectonic activity. Terrestrial planets have secondary atmospheres, got from volcanism, meteorites, and photosynthesis. In the giant planets, their atmospheres are primary, captured directly from the original solar nebula.

References

Types of planet

Terrestrial planet


In electronics, a multiplexer or mux (occasionally the term mul-dex is also found, for a combination multiplexer-demultiplexer) is a device that selects one of many analog or digital input signals and outputs it into a single output line. This process is termed: multiplexing.

An electronic multiplexer makes it possible for several signals to share one expensive device or other resource, for example one A/D converter or one communication line, instead of having one device per input signal.

An analog multiplexer is a special type of analog switch that connects one signal selected from several inputs to a single output.

A digital multiplexer is a set of parallel switches, with selector that selects one of the input digital channels to outputs into the single digital output channel. The selector selects one of the input channels according to the digital command (number) it receives.

In electronics, a demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking a single input signal and selecting one of many data-output-lines, which is connected to the single input. A multiplexer is often used with a complementary demultiplexer on the receiving end.

An electronic multiplexer can be considered as a multiple-input, single-output switch, and a demultiplexer as a single-input, multiple-output switch.

In telecommunications and signal processing, a multiplexer is a device that combines several input information signals into one output signal, which carries several communication channels, by means of some multiplex technique. A demultiplexer is in this context a device that takes a single input signal that carries many channels and separates the channels over multiple output signals.

One cost-saving use for multiplexers is connecting a multiplexer and a demultiplexer (or demux) together (called mul-dex) over a single communication channel (by connecting the multiplexer's single output to the demultiplexer's single input). The image to the right demonstrates this.

In this case, the cost of implementing separate channels for each data source is more expensive than the cost of implementing the multiplexing/demultiplexing functions.

At the receiving end of the data link a complementary demultiplexer is normally required to break single data stream back down into the original streams.

In some cases, the far end system may have more functionality than a simple demultiplexer and so, at the same time as the demultiplexing still exists logically, it may never actually happen physically, such as in network address translation where a number of IP private network users are multiplexed over a single public IP address.

References
M. Morris Mano and Charles R. Kime, Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals, Prentice Hall, Inc., 2008

Electronic circuits

Multiplexer


In economics, price control is the idea that the government fixes the prices that can be charged for a given product or service, in a given market. The government either fixes an absolute price that is charged, or a price range, with a minimum and a maxium. Usually this is done so that goods such as staple food remain affordable. It can also be done to avoid people charging way too much for a good or service, which is known as price gouging. Another field where it is done is to ensure a minimum wage or salary that employers must pay.

The problem with the approach is that according to the Law of Supply and Demand, the price of a good or service depends on its supply compared with the demand for it. If the price is fixed below the price the market would normally ask, the demand will increase - the product is "cheaper" than it should be. In general, the supply is fixed- at some point it is not possible to increase the production, and the supply. In the long term, it will therefore not be possible to meet the demand, and there will be a shortage.

In the 4th century BC, Lactantius wrote that Diocletian "by various taxes he had made all things exceedingly expensive, attempted by a law to limit their prices. Then much blood [of merchants] was shed for trifles, men were afraid to offer anything for sale, and the scarcity became more excessive and grievous than ever. Until, in the end, the [price limit] law, after having proved destructive to many people, was from mere necessity abolished."  As with Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices, shortages lead to black markets where prices for the same good exceed those of an uncontrolled market. Furthermore, once controls are removed, prices will immediately increase, which can temporarily shock the economic system.

The Arab oil embargo between October 19, 1973 and March 17, 1974 is another example on how price controls cause shortages: Long lines of cars and trucks quickly appeared at retail gas stations in the U.S. and some stations closed because of a shortage of fuel at the low price set by the U.S. Cost of Living Council. The fixed price was below what the market would otherwise pay and, as a result, the inventory disappeared. It made no difference whether prices were voluntarily or involuntarily posted below the market clearing price. Scarcity resulted in either case. Price controls fail to achieve their proximate aim, which is to reduce prices paid by retail consumers, but such controls do manage to reduce supply. When price controls on gasoline were lifted, the shortage ended and the long lines of cars at gas pumps disappeared.

Nobel prize winner Milton Friedman said "We economists don't know much, but we do know how to create a shortage. If you want to create a shortage of tomatoes, for example, just pass a law that retailers can't sell tomatoes for more than two cents per pound. Instantly you'll have a tomato shortage. It's the same with oil or gas."

References

Microeconomics

Price controls


A tote board (or totalisator/totalizator) is a numeric or alphanumeric display used to convey information, typically at a race track (to display the odds or payoffs for each horse) or at a telethon (to display the total amount donated to the charitable organization sponsoring the event).

The term "tote board" comes from the colloquialism for "totalizator" (or "totalisator"), the name for the automated system which runs parimutuel betting, calculating payoff odds, displaying them, and producing tickets based on incoming bets. Parimutuel systems had used totalisator boards since the 1860s and they were often housed in substantial buildings.  However the manual systems often resulted in substantial delays in calculations of clients' payouts.

The first all-mechanical totalisator was invented by George Julius. Julius was a consulting engineer, based in Sydney. His father, Churchill Julius, an Anglican Bishop, had campaigned, in the early years of the twentieth century, against the iniquities of gambling using totalisators and its damage to New Zealand society. That attitude had changed by late 1907 when he argued that the totalisator removed much of the evil of gambling with bookmakers. Bishop Churchill was himself an amateur mechanic with a reputation for fixing clocks and organs in parishes he visited.

Initially, George Julius was attempting to develop a voting calculating machine for the Australian government, to automatically reduce the instances of voter fraud and create a cheat-free political environment. He went on to present his unique invention, only to have his design rejected as it was deemed to be excessive.

The first all-mechanical machine was installed at Ellerslie Racecourse in New Zealand in 1913 (first used on the Holy Saturday races on 22 March 1913), and the second was installed at Gloucester Park Racetrack in Western Australia in 1917. George Julius founded Automatic Totalisators Limited (ATL) in 1917, which supplied the "Premier Totalisator: now including electrical components". The first totalisators installed in the United States were at Hialeah Park, Florida, in 1932 (by ATL), and at Arlington Park racecourse, Chicago, in 1933 by American Totalisator. The first entirely electronic totalisator was developed in 1966.

Totalisators have been superseded by general purpose computers running specialised wagering software such as Autotote. In many cases beyond older systems, telethon tote boards have either been replaced by LCD displays showing totals, or scoreboards adapted to display dollar amounts.

Automatic totalisators

An automatic totalisator is a device to add up the bets in a pari-mutuel betting system.  The whole of the pot (the stakes on all competitors) is divided pro rata to the stakes placed on the winning competitor and those tickets are paid out. Essentially it implements a system of starting price (SP) betting.

In particular it refers to the invention of George Julius, the English-born, New Zealand educated, Australian inventor, engineer and businessman, though there have been other claimants, notably engineer Joseph G. Nash.

The term automatic refers to the fact that the bets were automatically summed and a ticket issued when a bet was registered on the issuing machines, and it provided a safe and virtually fraud-free method of betting, replacing the earlier jam-pot totes, which used either paper transactions or some method of counting bets like steel ball bearings. The machine did not actually calculate the payout.

The method was widely used in the Australian, New Zealand and American horse-racing industries and for greyhound racing in the UK, although there were other installations in countries as diverse as France, Venezuela and Singapore.

See also
 American Totalisator
 Harringay Stadium
 Tabulating machine

References

External links

 Totalisator History by B Conlon
 Hialeah Park, Florida installation by ATM
 Bob Doran,  The First Automatic Totalisator, The Rutherford Journal.
 Automatic Totalisators Ltd in Australia
 Who killed the Bookies New Zealand University of Canterbury thesis by R A Graham

Analog computers
Sports betting

Tote board


The Australasian zone is an ecological region which fits the geographic region of Australasia. That means Australia, New Guinea and neighbouring islands. The northern boundary is the Wallace Line.

The ecozone includes Australia, the island of New Guinea (including Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian province of Papua).

The smaller islands include the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago, including the island of Sulawesi, the Moluccan islands (the Indonesian provinces of Maluku and North Maluku) and islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores, and Timor, often known as the Lesser Sundas.

The Australasian ecozone also includes several Pacific island groups, including the Bismarck Archipelago, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, and New Caledonia. New Zealand and its surrounding islands are a distinctive sub-region of the Australasian ecozone.  The rest of Indonesia is part of the Indomalayan ecozone.

The Australasian continental plate was once attached to Antarctica as part of the Gondwana supercontinent. The peculiarity of its flora and fauna is due to its long separation from the rest of the world. Apart from some birds, and until recent introductions by man, the native life had been undisturbed by invasions. The ecozone has the only two living monotremes, and has no native eutherian mammals.

Almost all its native mammals (except the two monotremes) are marsupials. The indisputable remains of Australian placental mammals started from the Miocene, when Australia moved closer to Indonesia. After 15 million years ago (mya) bats appeared in the fossil record, and after 5-10 mya rodents did, and 1 mya rats arrived. This information is based on the fossil record. Several thousand years ago, man brought the dingo, and 200 years ago many more species. This information applies to Australia. The fauna of New Zealand, and the Pacific islands shows a different pattern. There the migrations from the Indomalayan ecozone mostly did not arrive.

Alfred Russell Wallace found the dividing line between the Australasian ecozone and the rest of the world. It runs between the islands of Lombok (Australasia) and Bali (Indomalaya).

Related pages
Australasia
Gondwana
Biogeography
Wallace Line
Animals of New Zealand

References

Ecozones
Australasia
Vanuatu

Australasian realm


Kraft Television Theatre is an American anthology drama television series running from 1947 to 1958. It began May 7, 1947 on NBC, airing at 7:30pm on Wednesday evenings until December of that year. It first promoted MacLaren's Imperial Cheese, which was advertised nowhere else. In January 1948, it moved to 9pm on Wednesdays, continuing in that timeslot until 1958. Initially produced by the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency, the live hour-long series offered television plays with new stories and new characters each week, in addition to adaptations of such classics as A Christmas Carol and Alice in Wonderland.  The program was broadcast live from Studio 8-H at 30 Rockefeller Plaza, currently the home of Saturday Night Live.

Beginning October 1953, ABC added a separate series (also titled Kraft Television Theatre), created to promote Kraft's new Cheez Whiz product. This series ran for sixteen months, telecast on Thursday evenings at 9:30pm, until January 1955. After Kraft cancelled the second show, the second show changed its sponsor to become Pond's Theatre on ABC-TV from March 1955, while the original Kraft Theatre continued on NBC-TV.

Background
A prestige show for NBC, it launched the careers of more than a few actors, directors and playwrights, including future Emmy-winning and Academy Award-nominated actress Hope Lange.

Actors on the series included James Dean, Janet De Gore, Colleen Dewhurst, Anne Francis, Lee Grant, Helen Hayes, Jack Lemmon, Grace Kelly, Jack Klugman, Cloris Leachman, Sam Levene, Patrick McVey, Michael Higgins, Felicia Montealegre Bernstein, John Newland, Paul Newman, Leslie Nielsen, Anthony Perkins, Judson Pratt, silent film icon Esther Ralston, Lee Remick, George C. Scott, Rod Steiger, Joan Tompkins (her first television role), Grace Carney and Joanne Woodward. Announcers for the show were Ed Herlihy (1947–1955) and Charles Stark (1955). In 1958, young performers Martin Huston and Zina Bethune appeared in "This Property Is Condemned", based on a Tennessee Williams play, the last show of Kraft Television Theatre.

Directors for the series included Sidney Lumet, Robert Altman, George Roy Hill, Fielder Cook, and John Boulting, and the many contributing writers included Rod Serling, William Templeton and JP Miller. Serling won an Emmy for scripting Patterns (January 12, 1955), the best remembered episode of the series. The drama had such an impact that it made television history by staging a second live encore performance three weeks later and was developed as a feature film, also titled Patterns.

In April 1958, Kraft sold the rights to David Susskind's Talent Associates, which revamped the series as Kraft Mystery Theatre. Under that title, it continued until September 1958. However, this eventually evolved into the 1963 filmed series Kraft Suspense Theatre, which concentrated exclusively on original dramas written for television, not on adaptations.

Between 1947 and 1958, the Kraft Television Theatre presented more than 650 comedies and dramas. The series finished #14 in the Nielsen ratings for the 1950–1951 season, #23 for 1951-1952 and #21 for 1953–1954.

Episode status
Excerpts from several 1947 episodes and part of a reel of 1947 television clips are held by the Library of Congress. In addition, the Library of Congress holds a large number of complete episodes, including five from 1948. The American Heritage Center  has a number of scripts from various episodes for the years 1947, 1948, and 1949 in the Edmund C. Rice papers.  These scripts, though authored by various people, were edited by Rice.

Episodes

References

External links

Kraft Mystery Theatre at CVTA with episode list

1947 American television series debuts
1958 American television series endings
1940s American anthology television series
1950s American anthology television series
1940s American drama television series
1950s American drama television series
Black-and-white American television shows
English-language television shows
NBC original programming
Kraft Foods
Television series by Talent Associates

Television shows filmed in New York City

Kraft Television Theatre


The Indo-Sri Lanka Peace Accord was an accord signed in Colombo on 29 July 1987, between Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan President J. R. Jayewardene. The accord was expected to resolve the Sri Lankan Civil War by enabling the thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka and the Provincial Councils Act of 1987. Under the terms of the agreement, Colombo agreed to a devolution of power to the provinces, the Sri Lankan troops were to be withdrawn to their barracks in the north and the Tamil rebels were to surrender their arms.

Importantly however, the Tamil groups, notably the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) (which at the time was one of the strongest Tamil forces), had not been made party to the talks and initially agreed to surrender their arms to the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) only reluctantly. Within a few months however, this flared into an active confrontation. The LTTE declared their intent to continue the armed struggle for an independent Tamil Eelam and refused to disarm. The IPKF found itself engaged in a bloody police action against the LTTE. Further complicating the return to peace, a Marxist insurgency began in the south of the island.

Background

Sri Lanka, from the early part of the 1980s, was facing an increasingly violent ethnic strife. The origins of this conflict can be traced to the independence of the island from Britain in 1948. At the time, a Sinhala majority government was instituted which passed legislation that were deemed discriminatory against the substantial Tamil minority population. In the 1970s, two major Tamil parties united to form the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) that started agitation for a separate state of Tamil Eelam within the system in a federal structure in the north and eastern Sri Lanka that would grant the Tamils greater autonomy. However, enactment of the sixth amendment of the Sri Lankan Constitution in August 1983 classified all separatist movements as unconstitutional, effectively rendering the TULF ineffective. Outside the TULF, however, factions advocating more radical and militant courses of action soon emerged, and the ethnic divisions started flaring into a violent civil war.

Indian involvement

According to Rejaul Karim Laskar, a scholar of Indian foreign policy, Indian intervention in Sri Lankan civil war became inevitable as that civil war threatened India's "unity, national interest and territorial integrity." According to Laskar, this threat came in two ways: On the one hand external powers could take advantage of the situation to establish their base in Sri Lanka thus posing a threat to India, on the other hand, the LTTE's dream of a sovereign Tamil Eelam comprising all the Tamil-inhabited areas (of Sri Lanka and India) posed a threat to India's territorial integrity.

India had, initially under Indira Gandhi and later under Rajiv Gandhi, provided support to Tamil interests from the very conception of the secessionist movement. This included providing sanctuary to the separatists, as well as support the operations training camps for Tamil guerrillas in Tamil Nadu of which the LTTE emerged as the strongest force. This was both as a result of a large Tamil community in South India, as well as India's regional security and interests which attempted to reduce the scope of foreign intervention, especially those linked to the United States, Pakistan, and China. To this end, the Indira Gandhi government sought to make it clear to Sri Lankan President J. R. Jayewardene that armed intervention in support of the Tamil movement was an option India would consider if any diplomatic solutions should fail.
Following the anti-Tamil riots, the Tamil rebel movement grew progressively strong and increasingly violent. However, after Indira Gandhi's assassination, the Indian support for the militant movement decreased. However, the succeeding Rajiv Gandhi government attempted to re-establish friendly relations with its neighbours. It still however maintained diplomatic efforts to find a solution to the conflict as well as maintaining covert aid to the Tamil rebels.

From 1985 however, the Sri-Lankan Government started rearming itself extensively for its anti-insurgent role with support from Pakistan, Israel, Singapore and South Africa. In 1986, the campaign against the insurgency was stepped up and in 1987, retaliating an increasingly bloody insurgent movement, Operation Liberation was launched against LTTE strongholds in Jaffna Peninsula, involving nearly four thousand troops, supported by helicopter gunships as well as ground attack aircraft. In June 1987, the Sri Lankan Army laid siege on the town of Jaffna. As civilian casualties grew, calls grew within India to intervene in what was increasingly seen in the Indian (and Tamil) media as a developing humanitarian crisis, especially with reports use of aerial support against rebel positions in civilian areas. India, which had a substantial Tamil population in South India faced the prospect of a Tamil backlash at home, called on the Sri Lankan government to halt the offensive in an attempt to negotiate a political settlement.

However, the Indian efforts were futile. Added to this, in the growing involvement of Pakistani and Israeli advisors, it was necessary for Indian interest to mount a show of force. Failing to negotiate an end to the crisis with Sri Lanka, India announced on 2 June 1987 that it would send a convoy of unarmed ships to northern Sri Lanka to provide humanitarian assistance but this was intercepted by the Sri Lankan Navy and turned back.

Following the failure of the naval mission, the decision was made by the Indian government to mount an airdrop of relief supplies in support of rebel forces over the besieged city of Jaffna. On 4 June 1987, in a blatant show of force, the Indian Air Force mounted Operation Poomalai in broad daylight. Five An-32s of the Indian Air Force under cover of heavily armed Indian fighter jets flew over Jaffna to airdrop 25 tons of supplies, all the time keeping well within the range of Sri Lankan radar coverage. At the same time the Sri Lankan Ambassador to New Delhi was summoned to the Foreign Office to be informed by the Minister of External Affairs, K. Natwar Singh, of the ongoing operation. It was also indicated to the ambassador that if the operation was in any way hindered by Sri Lanka, India would launch a full-force military retaliation against Sri Lanka. The ultimate aim of the operation was both to demonstrate the credibility of the Indian option of active intervention to the Sri Lankan Government, as a symbolic act of support for the Tamil Rebels, as well to preserve Rajiv Gandhi's credibility.

Faced with the possibility of an active Indian intervention and facing an increasingly war-weary population at home, the Sri Lankan President, J. R. Jayewardene, offered to hold talks with the Rajiv Gandhi government on future moves. The siege of Jaffna was soon lifted, followed by a round of negotiations that led to the signing of the Indo-Sri-Lankan accord on July 29, 1987 that brought a temporary truce. The terms of the truce specified that the Sri Lankan troops withdraw from the north and the Tamil rebels disarm, and saw the induction of the Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka.

Peace accord

Among the salient points of the agreement, the Sri Lankan Government made a number of concessions to Tamil demands, which included Colombo devolution of power to the provinces, merger (subject to later referendum) of the northern and eastern provinces, and official status for the Tamil language. More immediately, Operation Liberation — the successful, ongoing anti-insurgent operation by Sri Lankan forces in the Northern peninsula — was ended. Sri Lankan troops were to withdraw to their barracks in the north, the Tamil rebels were to disarm.India agreed to end support for the Tamil separatist movement and recognise the unity of Sri Lanka. The Indo-Sri Lanka Accord also underlined the commitment of Indian military assistance on which the IPKF came to be inducted into Sri Lanka.

In 1990, India withdrew the last of its forces from Sri Lanka, and fighting between the LTTE and the government resumed.

In January 1995, the Sri Lankan Government and the LTTE agreed to a ceasefire as a preliminary step in a government-initiated plan for peace negotiations. After 3 months, however, the LTTE unilaterally resumed hostilities.

The government of Sri Lanka then adopted a policy of military engagement with the Tigers, with government forces liberating Jaffna from LTTE control by mid-1996 and moving against LTTE positions in the northern part of the country called the Vanni. An LTTE counteroffensive, begun in October 1999, reversed most government gains; and by May 2000, threatened government forces in Jaffna. Heavy fighting continued into 2001.

Reaction
On the eve of the signing of the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, Rajiv Gandhi was assaulted by Leading Rate Vijitha Rohana at the Guard of Honour held for Gandhi in what seemed an attempted assassination. Four years later, in 1991, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by a LTTE suicide bomber. This radically reduced support for the LTTE within India. In 2009, 19 years after his assassination, the Sri Lankan army mounted a major military offensive in the north and eradicated the LTTE. The operation was not opposed by India and received Indian diplomatic and military support, despite condemnations from state of Tamil Nadu and Western nations for alleged human rights violations. Rajiv Gandhi's widow, Sonia Gandhi was the chairperson of India's ruling coalition at the time.

The validity of the Indo-Lanka Accord has been questioned by Sri Lankan politicians citing various reasons. In 2020 Minister of Public Security  Sarath Weerasekara claimed as India failed to disarm the LTTE the agreement is no longer valid and Sri Lanka is not bound to uphold the agreement on provincial councils.

Books
Ramakrishnan, T. (2018), Ore Inapirachinayum Ore Oppandhamum, The Hindu Publishing Group (in Tamil)

See also
 India–Sri Lanka relations
 Vijitha Rohana
 Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka

References

External links

Full Text of Indo-Sri Lanka Accord
Text of all peace accords for Sri Lanka
Tigers go back to Indo-Lanka accord for federal state
Muslims have a Case in Sri Lanka
Indo-Sri Lanka trade: Hype and reality
SRI LANKA: THE UNTOLD STORY Chapter 35: Accord turns to discord
PEACE PROCESS IN SRI LANKA --- WITH AND WITHOUT MEDIATION
ETHNIC PEACE ACCORDS AND ETHNIC CONFLICT RESOLUTION: A SURVEY
Dr. PC Alexander, former Principal Secretary of Rajiv Gandhi – bares it all on the Indo-Lanka Accord of 1987
"Peace for all with equal rights"Minister
Wickremesinghe Apprises I K Gujral of Stalled Peace Process in Sri Lanka
Tiger Rebels are either black or white but not both

PEACE PROCESS IN SRI-LANKA
TIGERS, 'MODERATES' AND PANDORA'S PACKAGE
The road ahead

LTTE to take Indo-Lankan accord in peace bid

Foreign intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War
Treaties concluded in 1987
Bilateral treaties of India
Treaties of Sri Lanka
India–Sri Lanka relations
1987 in India
1987 in Sri Lanka
1987 in international relations
History of Tamil Nadu (1947–present)
Military history of Sri Lanka
Tamil Eelam
Rajiv Gandhi administration

Indo-Sri Lanka Accord


The Chester County Courthouse is a historic courthouse building located in the county seat of West Chester, Chester County, Pennsylvania. It was built in 1846 at a cost of $55,346 and was designed by Thomas U. Walter. Walter also designed the dome of the United States Capitol. An addition, designed by T. Roney Williamson and constructed from Indiana Limestone, was added in 1893. Another addition was added in 1966.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 5, 1972, and located in the West Chester Downtown Historic District. It was documented by the Historic American Buildings Survey in July 1958.

Background
The first courthouse to serve Chester County was the 1724 Chester Courthouse in Chester, and it is now listed separately on the National Register of Historic Places.

Following the transfer of the county seat from Chester, now located in Delaware County, to West Chester in 1786, the means of judicial law were conducted in a courthouse built in 1786, characterized as "miserable specime[n] of architecture". When it became apparent that the existing courthouse was inadequate in size, grand juries and several petitioners proposed a new courthouse to be erected in 1845, located at 10 North High Street. Though some individuals demurred, claiming that the proposed courthouse would be a burden upon taxpayers, local officials supported the project. Architect Thomas U. Walter was commissioned to design the courthouse. Ground was broken in early 1846, and the cornerstone was placed on 4 July; the courthouse was completed in late 1847, with the total cost of the project reaching $55,345.98. After construction finished, the building gradually filled with items and individuals being transferred to the new offices; by December, the courthouse was fully in use. The courthouse, since then, was regularly used as a rendezvous for residents; during the Civil War, "rousing patriotic meetings" were held, and speeches famous individuals orated in the building.

After years of complaints, the Chester County Court designated a commission of representatives from the Chester County Bar Association in 1888 to investigate the issue of lack of space in the new courthouse. Among the proposals considered was the addition of an additional wing to the courthouse facing westward toward Market Street. In 1890, the land required to build such an extension was secured, and in 1891, T. Roney Williamson was commissioned to design the addition. Plummer E. Jefferis was paid $75,030 to construct the  annex, which was started in June 1891 and finished in early 1893. The courtroom within the addition was first used in late 1892 as a result of an uptick in the number of cases, making it necessary to utilize the extra space while still under construction. In December 1892, the old courtroom was refurbished as well, though the addition was used until January 1893, when the overhaul of the original courtroom was completed.
Thenceforth, both courtrooms were used simultaneously. The courtroom and renovation of the building was completed on 8 April 1893 at cost of $116,446.53. Courtroom 1 was later renovated again in 1966.

Ten Commandments plaque
On 1 March 1920, county commissioners received the gift of a plaque imprinted with the text of the Ten Commandments from the Council of Religious Education of the Federated Churches of West Chester, which was unveiled on 11 December. The Reverend Charles R. Williamson claimed that the tablet would serve as "a reminder, to all who read as they pass by, of their duty and responsibility to God and their fellow men." In 2002, Sally Flynn, representing the Freethought Society of Greater Philadelphia, filed a complaint against Chester County regarding the plaque and requested its removal, alleging it was a violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which stated that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion". Freethought Society v. Chester County resulted in a court order stating that the county was "permanently enjoined" from the preservation of the tablet under the First Amendment. The defendant, the county, filed an appeal which was considered by the court, concluding in a second court order changing the terms of the original one: to cover the plaque with a material of the same color as the stone. A second appeal was filed in 2003 and reviewed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, resulting in the reversal of the original order and re-allowed the exhibition of the tablet.

See also
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Chester County, Pennsylvania
 List of state and county courthouses in Pennsylvania

References

External links

Government buildings completed in 1846
County courthouses in Pennsylvania
Georgian architecture in Pennsylvania
Greek Revival architecture in Pennsylvania
Courthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
Buildings and structures in Chester County, Pennsylvania
Clock towers in Pennsylvania
West Chester, Pennsylvania
Thomas U. Walter buildings
1846 establishments in Pennsylvania
National Register of Historic Places in Chester County, Pennsylvania
Historic American Buildings Survey in Pennsylvania
Historic district contributing properties in Pennsylvania
Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in Pennsylvania

Chester County Courthouse (Pennsylvania)


Flytown was a neighborhood just northwest of downtown Columbus, Ohio, United States. Flytown encompassed portions of the present-day Arena District and western sections of the Victorian Village. In the 19th century, it was considered the center of the Irish-American community in the city after the arrival of immigrants fleeing the Great Famine, and Naghten Street, now Nationwide Boulevard, was nicknamed the "Irish Broadway".

Origins
Flytown began to spring up in the mid-19th century, when primarily Irish, German, and Welsh immigrants settled in the area to labor in nearby factories. The neighborhood comprised a 25-block area west of Neil Avenue, east of the Olentangy River, and south to a nearby industrial district along the Scioto River. The name "Flytown" resulted from homes which "flew up over night".

Flytown was first laid out in city plots in 1865.

Growth
As the immigrants moved in, the neighborhood became distinctive. West Goodale Street became its primary artery as commercial establishments took root to cater to the inhabitants, including saloons and shops, and boarding houses sprang up to house the laborers. Naghten Street, now Nationwide Boulevard, became known as the "Irish Broadway" being the center of the Irish-American community in the city. Industrial firms located in the area included Columbus Forge and Iron, Columbus Coop Foundry, the Simplex Foundry, Columbus Coffin Company, Capital City Products, and the Dresser-Ideco Company.

The immigrants went on to become domestic workers, civil servants, small businessman, police and fire officers, and became present in the political class, as well as the legal, medical, and education communities.

O'Shaughnessy family

Born to Irish immigrants north of Columbus in 1853, Jeremiah O'Shaughnessy began working at age 17 digging the foundation of what would become the city water works, located just west of Flytown. Working his way up to engineer, he eventually became superintendent of the Columbus City Water Works, dedicating much of his life to the city's water system. He would collaborate with the construction of the Columbus Experiment, at the time a revolutionary environmental project and one of the largest water plants built in the United States. In 1913, he pushed a storage dam project, which when completed in 1925, was considered the "best inland city reservoir and dam in the United States." It was named O'Shaughnessy Dam in his honor.

Aside from his water works activities, he would establish O'Shaughnessy Undertaking Co. in 1889, and his descendants, including his grandsons Thomas, Jeremiah, Jr. and Robert Emmet, would go on to become elected officials. Today, the political family is represented by former City Councilmember, Ohio Secretary of State candidate, and Franklin County Clerk of Courts Maryellen O'Shaughnessy, whose father Robert was a state senator and World War II veteran.

O'Shaughnessy's Public House in the Arena District is dedicated to the Irish-American experience in the city and named in honor of the family. It was completed with imported Irish fixtures constructed by native Irish artisans.

Melting pot
As the Irish immigrants became successful, they moved out. By the late nineteenth century, the neighborhood became a microcosm of America in becoming a melting pot neighborhood. Many Italian and eastern European natives moved in and it became known as a port-of-entry for the immigrants. The St. Francis of Assisi Church was constructed in 1895 on Buttles Avenue to cater to the  Irish and Italian immigrants. The Godman Guild House was built for troubled youth in 1898, eventually helping establish the neighborhoods first library, public bath, public gym, and first kindergartens.

Racial tensions
In the 1910s, many rural southern African Americans fleeing the Ku Klux Klan migrated to the city, settling in the neighborhood and becoming a considerably large population. Many European Americans and some of the African Americans native to the neighborhood moved out and racial tensions began to flare. Segregation became commonplace and enforced at the Godman Guild House, including at their summer resort, The Reservation.

Decline

The neighborhood, considered lower-class, was hit hard by the Great Depression, beginning a cycle of decline. By 1953, the Columbus Redevelopment Authority (CRA) declared the area blighted and a bond was passed to raze much of the neighborhood. The Goodale Expressway, which would eventually become Interstate 670, began construction, resulting in further destruction of the neighborhood as it cut through its heart.

In total,  were cleared, 547 families, 71 individuals, and 73 commercial businesses displaced by the CRA's renewal project.

Renewal
The Goodale Expressway was part of the city's renewal project for Flytown, one of three such projects, which included the Market-Mohawk downtown and Bolivar Arms on the Eastside. The city invested $6 million in what they called Thurber Village in Flytown's place and high-rise apartment complexes sprang up, including Thurber Towers and Westminster Terrace. The Thurber Village Shopping Center was constructed next to these towers. The project helped contribute to the renewal of nearby Victorian Village and the Short North, which was also faced with serious decline.

Present
Today, the neighborhood is rarely referred to as Flytown as neighboring areas have incorporated much of what was Flytown as part of their own. The Victorian Village and Arena District have become some of the city's most attractive neighborhoods, which have included the construction of Nationwide Arena, Huntington Park, commercial facilities, condominiums, and restoration of many homes and manors built from the previous centuries, which survived.

During the construction of Nationwide Arena, many Irish-American immigrant artifacts from the 19th century were unearthed, including dining plates and saucers. O'Shaughnessy's Public House was constructed to honor the former Irish-American center of the city and the Ohio Presbyterian Retirement Services, which operates the apartment towers in Thurber Village, proposed in 2010 a new 14-story, $43-million tower. However, in 2012, the parent company approved construction of only a seven-story, 67-unit building due to be completed in autumn 2015.

An Ohio historic marker at McFerson Commons in the Arena District notes the Flytown neighborhood, as well as a marker in Goodale Park.

Culture
The Flytown Soul Revue is a local band from city.

Rahsaan Roland Kirk was raised in Flytown.

References

External links

Irish-American culture in Ohio
Irish-American neighborhoods
Neighborhoods in Columbus, Ohio
Former neighborhoods in the United States

Flytown


The crucifixion of Jesus is an event recorded in all four Gospels in the Bible. The crucifixion happens after Jesus' arrest at Gethsemane and trial before Pontius Pilate. It includes his scourging, crucifixion on the cross, and burial. In Christian theology, the death of Jesus by crucifixion is a major event. (See salvation).

Christians believe that Jesus was God in human form. They believe that after he died on the Cross on Friday, he went down to Hell to free the souls of the people who had died before Jesus' coming. On Sunday, Christians believe that Jesus came back to life and left the tomb where he was buried. This is called the resurrection.

The crucifixion is, according to the Bible, necessary to Christianity. Christians believe that Jesus suffered very much on the cross as a way of paying for, or suffering the punishment for all of mankind's sins (bad actions, thoughts, and deeds). By taking on all of this suffering, mankind was freed from the punishment that God should have given to man (because of man's weakness and bad choices in life).

The crucifixion itself is a very sad event as Jesus had to suffer horribly. His friends and his own mother had to see it. However, Christians believe this was necessary for him to come back to life and to show that death had no power over him. Through the crucifixion, Christians believe that God has set us free and shown to the world that Jesus is God and that life is forever. According to the Bible, Jesus sacrificed himself for all of mankind not only to show his love but also to pay the penalty of our sin, restore our relationship with God, and to destroy the power of death and the grave.

A passion play is a play that tells this story of Jesus' trial and then his crucifixion. A recent version, The Passion of the Christ, was produced and released by Mel Gibson. It was and still is very popular with Christians and non-Christians alike.

Jesus
Gospels
Christian theology

de:Kreuzigung#Neues Testament

Crucifixion of Jesus