The Bureau des Longitudes () is a French scientific institution, founded by decree of 25 June 1795 and charged with the improvement of nautical navigation, standardisation of time-keeping, geodesy and astronomical observation.  During the 19th century, it was responsible for synchronizing clocks across the world.  It was headed during this time by François Arago and Henri Poincaré.  The Bureau now functions as an academy and still meets monthly to discuss topics related to astronomy.

The Bureau was founded by the National Convention after it heard a report drawn up jointly by the Committee of Navy, the Committee of Finances and the Committee of State education.  Henri Grégoire had brought to the attention of the National Convention France's failing maritime power and the naval mastery of England, proposing that improvements in navigation would lay the foundations for a renaissance in naval strength. As a result, the Bureau was established with authority over the Paris Observatory and all other astronomical establishments throughout France.  The Bureau was charged with taking control of the seas away from the English and improving accuracy when tracking the longitudes of ships through astronomical observations and reliable clocks.

The ten original members of its founding board were:

Joseph-Louis Lagrange, geometer;
Pierre-Simon Laplace, geometer;
Joseph Jérôme Lefrançais de Lalande, astronomer;
Pierre Méchain, astronomer;
Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre, astronomer;
Dominique, comte de Cassini, astronomer;
Jean-Charles de Borda, Navy officer;
Jean-Nicolas Buache, geographer;
Louis Antoine de Bougainville, Navy officer;
Noël Simon Caroché, manufacturer of telescopes.

By a decree of 30 January 1854, the Bureau's mission was extended to embrace geodesy, time standardisation and astronomical measurements.  This decree granted independence to the Paris Observatory, separating it from the Bureau, and focused the efforts of the Bureau on time and astronomy.  The Bureau was successful at setting a universal time in Paris via air pulses sent through pneumatic tubes.  It later worked to synchronize time across the French colonial empire by determining the length of time for a signal to make a round trip to and from a French colony.

The French Bureau of Longitude established a commission in the year 1897 to extend the metric system to the measurement of time. They planned to abolish the antiquated division of the day into hours, minutes, and seconds, and replace it by a division into tenths, thousandths, and hundred-thousandths of a day.  This was a revival of a dream that was in the minds of the creators of the metric system at the time of the French Revolution a hundred years earlier. Some members of the Bureau of Longitude commission introduced a compromise proposal, retaining the old-fashioned hour as the basic unit of time and dividing it into hundredths and ten-thousandths. Poincaré served as secretary of the commission and took its work very seriously, writing several of its reports. He was a fervent believer in a universal metric system. But he lost the battle. The rest of the world outside France gave no support to the commission's proposals, and the French government was not prepared to go it alone. After three years of hard work, the commission was dissolved in 1900.

Since 1970, the board has been constituted with 13 members, 3 nominated by the Académie des Sciences. Since 1998, practical work has been carried out by the Institut de mécanique céleste et de calcul des éphémérides.

Publications
Connaissance des temps, astronomical ephemerides, published annually since 1679;
Annuaire du Bureau des longitudes, almanac and calendar for public and civil use, published annually since 1795;
Éphémérides nautiques, (from 1889) for marine navigation;
Éphémérides aéronautiques, (from 1938) for civil and military aerial navigation.
Procès-verbaux du Bureau des longitudes

See also
 Institut de mécanique céleste et de calcul des éphémérides
 History of longitude
 List of astronomical societies

References
Bureau Des Longitudes (French)
 Galison, Peter Louis (2003). Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time. Hodder & Stoughton. .
Dyson, Freeman J. (November 6, 2003). Clockwork Science. The New York Review of Books 50 (17)
  The Office of Longitudes (French)

External links
Official website (in French)
IMCCE Institut de Mécanique Céleste et de Calcul des Éphémérides - This institute hosts ephemeris calculations formerly hosted by the BDL.

Geodesy organizations
Astronomy organizations
1795 establishments in France
Scientific organizations established in 1795
Astronomy in France
Meridians (geography)
Navigation organizations

Bureau des Longitudes


A baseball is a ball used in the sport of the same name, baseball. It is between 9 inches (22.9 cm) and 9¼ inches (23.5 cm) in circumference (around). The ball weighs 8 ounces. Different size balls may be used in children's leagues.

The balls can be made in many different, but similar ways. The center of most balls is cork, rubber, or a mixture of the two. It is sometimes layered. Yarn and twine and sometimes wool are wrapped around the center core. A leather cover is put on, in two pieces, and stitched together using 108 stitches of waxed red cotton thread. Official Major League balls sold by Rawlings are made to the exact MLB specifications (5 ounces, 108 stitches).

Baseball equipment

Baseball (ball)


See Parliament of Canada for an overall explanation of the functioning and composition of the Parliament of Canada
See Department of Canadian Heritage for an overall explanation of the responsibilities of the Department of Canadian Heritage

The objective of the Canadian Parliamentary Flag Program is to enable Canadian parliamentarians, from both Senate and House of Commons, to promote national symbols and to encourage Canadians to express pride in their symbols.

In December 1972, Cabinet approved a program under which senators and members of the House of Commons of Canada would receive flags and flag pins for distribution to constituents. An annual quota was established and the Canadian Parliamentary Flag Program went into effect on April 1, 1973.

Administration

In January each year the various government whips receive a letter from the Department of Canadian Heritage addressed to all members of parliament (MPs) and senators, explaining the Canadian Parliamentary Flag Program and the items to be included in the allotment.

Enclosed with this letter is a form which each parliamentarian must complete and then fax to the offices of the Department of Canadian Heritage in order to secure their allocation.

Allocation

Whilst a number of different items are included in the allocation, the type and quantity sent to each parliamentarian is fixed. MPs receive approximately twice the amount of promotional items as senators. The Department of Canadian Heritage sets aside a reserve in case an election is called, so that all new members of parliament would automatically receive an allotment package.

See also
 Parliament of Canada
 Department of Canadian Heritage
 Flag of Canada
 Maple Leaf
 National symbols of Canada
 Royal coat of arms of Canada

References

Canadian Heritage. "Administration of the Parliamentary Flag Program" (archived)
Nick Weekes, FFI. "Official Promotion of Flags and Flag Flying in Canada, Australia and New Zealand"

External links
Flag of Canada Song (1965) Freddie Grant
 National Flag of Canada (Department of Canadian Heritage)
 George F.G. Stanley's Flag Memorandum, 23 March 1964
 Royal Proclamation
 Flag Etiquette in Canada

 CBC Digital Archives – The Great Canadian Flag Debate
 Canadian Flag Clip Art Gallery

National symbols of Canada
Flags of Canada

Canadian Parliamentary Flag Program


François, Baron Englert (; born 6 November 1932) is a Belgian theoretical physicist and 2013 Nobel Prize laureate.

Englert is professor emeritus at the Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), where he is a member of the Service de Physique Théorique. He is also a Sackler Professor by Special Appointment in the School of Physics and Astronomy at Tel Aviv University and a member of the Institute for Quantum Studies at Chapman University in California. He was awarded the 2010 J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics (with Gerry Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, Tom Kibble, Peter Higgs, and Robert Brout), the Wolf Prize in Physics in 2004 (with Brout and Higgs) and the High Energy and Particle Prize of the European Physical Society (with Brout and Higgs) in 1997 for the mechanism which unifies short and long range interactions by generating massive gauge vector bosons.

Englert has made contributions in statistical physics, quantum field theory, cosmology, string theory and supergravity. He is the recipient of the 2013 Prince of Asturias Award in technical and scientific research, together with Peter Higgs and the CERN.

Englert was awarded the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics, together with Peter Higgs for the discovery of the Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism.

Early life

François Englert is a Holocaust survivor. He was born in a Belgian Jewish family. During the German occupation of Belgium in World War II, he had to conceal his Jewish identity and live in orphanages and children's homes in the towns of Dinant, Lustin, Stoumont and, finally, Annevoie-Rouillon.  These towns were eventually liberated by the US Army.

Academic career

He graduated as an electromechanical engineer in 1955 from the Free University of Brussels (ULB) where he received his PhD in physical sciences in 1959. From 1959 until 1961, he worked at Cornell University, first as a research associate of Robert Brout and then as assistant professor. He then returned to the ULB, where he became a university professor and was joined there by Robert Brout who, in 1980, with Englert coheaded the theoretical physics group. In 1998 Englert became professor emeritus. In 1984 Englert was first appointed as a Sackler Professor by Special Appointment in the School of Physics and Astronomy at Tel-Aviv University. Englert joined Chapman University's Institute for Quantum Studies in 2011, where he serves as a distinguished visiting professor.

The Brout–Englert–Higgs–Guralnik–Hagen–Kibble mechanism

Brout and Englert showed in 1964 that gauge vector fields, abelian and non-abelian, could acquire mass if empty space were endowed with a particular type of structure that one encounters in material systems. Focusing on the failure of the Goldstone theorem for gauge fields, Higgs reached essentially the same result. A third paper on the subject was written later in the same year by Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble. The three papers written on this boson discovery by Higgs, Englert and Brout, and Guralnik, Hagen, Kibble were each recognized as milestone papers for this discovery by Physical Review Letters 50th anniversary celebration. While each of these famous papers took similar approaches, the contributions and differences between the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers is noteworthy.

To illustrate the structure, consider a ferromagnet which is composed of atoms each equipped with a tiny magnet. When these magnets are lined up, the inside of the ferromagnet bears a strong analogy to the way empty space can be structured. Gauge vector fields that are sensitive to this structure of empty space can only propagate over a finite distance. Thus, they mediate short range interactions and acquire mass. Those fields that are not sensitive to the structure propagate unhindered. They remain massless and are responsible for the long range interactions. In this way, the mechanism accommodates within a single unified theory both short and long-range interactions.

Brout and Englert, Higgs, and Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble introduced as agent of the vacuum structure a scalar field (most often called the Higgs field) which many physicists view as the agent responsible for the masses of fundamental particles. Brout and Englert also showed that the mechanism may remain valid if the scalar field is replaced by a more structured agent such as a fermion condensate. Their approach led them to conjecture that the theory is renormalizable. The eventual proof of renormalizability, a major achievement of twentieth century physics, is due to Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus Veltman who were awarded the 1999 Nobel Prize for this work. The Brout–Englert–Higgs–Guralnik–Hagen–Kibble mechanism is the building stone of the electroweak theory of elementary particles and laid the foundation of a unified view of the basic laws of nature.

Major awards

 1978 First Prize in the International Gravity Contest (with R. Brout and E. Gunzig), awarded by the Gravity Research Foundation for the essay "The Causal Universe".
 1982 Francqui Prize, awarded by the Francqui Foundation once every four years in exact sciences "For his contribution to the theoretical understanding of spontaneous symmetry breaking in the physics of fundamental interactions, where, with Robert Brout, he was the first to show that spontaneous symmetry breaking in gauge theories gives mass to the gauge particles, for his extensive contributions in other domains, such as solid state physics, statistical mechanics, quantum field theory, general relativity and cosmology, for the originality and the fundamental importance of these achievements".
 1997 High Energy and Particle Physics Prize (with R. Brout and P.W. Higgs), awarded by the European Physical Society "For formulating for the first time a self-consistent theory of charged massive vector bosons which became the foundation of the electroweak theory of elementary particles".
 2004 Wolf Prize in Physics (with R. Brout and P.W. Higgs), awarded by the Wolf Foundation "For pioneering work that has led to the insight of mass generation, whenever a local gauge symmetry is realized asymmetrically in the world of sub-atomic particles".
 2010 J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics (with Guralnik, Hagen, Kibble, Higgs, and Brout) awarded by The American Physical Society "For elucidation of the properties of spontaneous symmetry breaking in four-dimensional relativistic gauge theory and of the mechanism for the consistent generation of vector boson masses".
 By Royal Decree of 8 July 2013 François Englert was ennobled a baron by King Albert II of Belgium.
 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics, shared with Peter Higgs  "for the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles, and which recently was confirmed through the discovery of the predicted fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN's Large Hadron Collider".
 2013 Prince of Asturias Award for Technical and Scientific Research (with Peter Higgs and CERN) "for the theoretical prediction and experimental detection of the Higgs boson".

See also

 List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References

External links

 François Englert's personal webpage

1932 births
Living people
People from Etterbeek
Holocaust survivors
Belgian Jews
Barons of Belgium
Belgian physicists
Belgian Nobel laureates
Jewish physicists
Particle physicists
Theoretical physicists
Cornell University faculty
Free University of Brussels (1834–1969) alumni
Wolf Prize in Physics laureates
J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics recipients
Nobel laureates in Physics
Recipients of Princess of Asturias Awards

François Englert


Carlo Fruttero (19 September 1926 – 15 January 2012) was an Italian writer, journalist, translator and editor of anthologies.

Fruttero was born in Turin.  He is mostly known for his joint work with Franco Lucentini, especially as authors of crime novels. The duo were also editors of the science-fiction series Urania from the 1960s to the 1980s, and of the comic-strip magazine Il Mago.

Fruttero died in Roccamare, Castiglione della Pescaia in 2012, aged 85.

Bibliography
 Volti a perdere (1999)
 Visibilità zero (1999; bylined as "Fruttero & Fruttero" - playing on the usual "Fruttero & Lucentini" - tells with more humour than satire the story of the imaginary member of parliament Aldo Slucca)
 Donne informate sui fatti (2006)
 Ti trovo un po' pallida (2007; see below, under the joint works with Lucentini)
 Mutandine di chiffon (2010; autobiographical writings)
 with Massimo Gramellini: La Patria, bene o male, Mondadori, Milano 2010, .

Works with Franco Lucentini
 Il secondo libro della fantascienza (1961; the first of several successful anthologies of science fiction short stories edited by F&L; literally, "The second science fiction book")
 L'idraulico non verrà (1971; poetry collection; lit., "The plumber will not come")
 La donna della domenica, (1972, translated into English by William Weaver as The Sunday Woman in 1973; the first and most famous novel by F&L, and one of the first examples of Italian crime novels)
 L'Italia sotto il tallone di F&L (1974; a humorous political fantasy in which Fruttero & Lucentini become dictators of Italy with the help of Muammar al-Gaddafi; the novel was inspired by the actual harsh reaction of the embassy of Libya to a satirical article by F&L in La Stampa, very critical of Gaddafi; lit., "Italy under F[ruttero] & L[ucentini]'s heel")
 Il significato dell'esistenza (1974; lit., "The meaning of existence")
 A che punto è la notte (1979; crime novel; lit., "What of the night", as in the Bible, Isaiah 21:11).
 La cosa in sé (1982; play "in two acts and a licence" about a man who realises that solipsism is real and all the universe is created by his mind; lit., "The thing in itself", as in the philosophical term)
 Il Palio delle contrade morte (1983, lit., "The Palio of the dead quarters")
 Ti trovo un po' pallida (1983; a ghost story set in sunny Tuscany, originally appeared in the L'Espresso magazine in 1979; it was actually written by Fruttero alone, as explained in the afterword to the 2007 edition; lit., "You look quite pale")
 La prevalenza del cretino (1985; a collection of "L'Agenda di F. & L." columns form the newspaper La Stampa, about all forms of stupidity; lit., "The supremacy of the cretin")
 Il colore del destino (1987; collection of three novellas: Notizie dagli scavi (by Lucentini) and Ti trovo un po' pallida (by Fruttero), already published, and Il colore del destino (written jointly); it is the only book by the two authors having the byline "Lucentini & Fruttero" rather than "Fruttero & Lucentini"; lit., "The colour of destiny")
 La verità sul caso D (1989, translated into English by Gregory Dowling as The D. Case: or The Truth about the Mystery of Edwin Drood; a completion and elaboration on Dickens' The Mystery of Edwin Drood; lit., "The truth on the D case")
 L'amante senza fissa dimora (1986; a novel about a successful Italian woman meeting a mysterious man in romantic Venice: an apparently standard love story with a twist; lit.. Published in english by Chatto & Windus in 1999 as "No fixed abode")
 Storie americane di guerra (1991, editor; anthology of "American war stories")
 Enigma in luogo di mare (1991; crime novel set in a seaside community in Tuscany; lit., "Riddle in a sea town")
 Il ritorno del cretino (1992; more columns from "La Stampa"; lit., "The comeback of the cretin")
 Breve storia delle vacanze (1994; lit., "Short history of vacations")
 La morte di Cicerone (1995; lit., "Cicero's death")
 Il nuovo libro dei nomi di battesimo (1998; a non-fiction handbook about how to choose a name for a son, with amusing information and trivia on names' meaning and use)
 Il cretino in sintesi (2002; still more columns from "La Stampa"; lit., "The cretin in synthesis")
 Viaggio di nozze al Louvre (2002; lit., "Honeymoon at the Louvre")
 I nottambuli (2002; lit., "The nightwalkers")
 I ferri del mestiere (2003; a collection of articles and short stories edited by Domenico Scarpa; lit., "The tools of the trade")

References

External links

1926 births
2012 deaths
Writers from Turin
Journalists from Turin
Italian male journalists
Italian crime fiction writers
Italian male writers

Carlo Fruttero


Tom Larscheid (born April 6, 1940) is a former Vancouver-based radio sports broadcaster and football player. After a career playing college and CFL football, he was the colour commentator for the CFL's BC Lions and the NHL's Vancouver Canucks for many years. After 45 years in broadcasting and covering the Canucks for 27 seasons, he did his last game on October 9, 2010 for the 2010-11 season opener.

Early life and sports career
Larscheid, born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin and raised in California, was a running back for Utah State University, where he was an All-American in 1960. In that year he led the nation with a rushing average of 8.4 yards. Highlights of his playing days at Utah State include a 76-yard pass reception against Hawaii in 1959, a 102-yard kickoff return against BYU in 1960, and an 85-yard punt return versus Utah in 1961.

Larscheid was selected in the 18th round (251st overall) of the 1962 NFL Draft by the Philadelphia Eagles, but ended up signing with the British Columbia Lions of the Canadian Football League, where he played only two seasons before being forced to retire due to knee injuries.

Broadcasting career
After his retirement from football, he became the colour commentator for the BC Lions on CKNW beginning in 1965, working alongside play-by-play commentator Jim Cox. In 1977, he added hockey broadcasting to his duties, joining Jim Robson in the booth for Vancouver Canucks radio broadcasts.  When the Lions radio rights moved to CFUN in 1983, Larscheid went with them and left the Canucks broadcasts.  In 1984, Cox retired and J. P. McConnell became the new "voice of the Lions". In 1988, the Lions moved back to CKNW and Larscheid resumed his work with the Canucks.  Larscheid's duties included television as well, when the Canucks simulcasted their radio broadcasts on BCTV or CHEK-TV.  From 1987 to 1990, Larscheid did television work for football as well, working on the CFL-produced Canadian Football Network, where he worked as a colour commentator on the network's secondary broadcast team and worked four Grey Cups as a sideline reporter and field-level analyst.  In 1994, Jim Robson retired from radio and Larscheid's new hockey partner became Jim Hughson.  In 1999, Hughson moved back to television full-time and Larscheid was paired with John Shorthouse. All through this time, he continued to juggle both football and hockey.  However, this meant frequent scheduling conflicts and in 2000 he was pulled off Lions broadcasts in order to work full-time on Canucks games.

In 2006,  Larscheid and Shorthouse moved to radio station CKST ("The Team 1040"), when that station won the Canucks broadcasting rights from CKNW.  In addition to acting as a colour commentator, Larscheid regularly interviewed guests between periods in the broadcast booth.

In early March 2007, Larscheid hinted that he might retire from his colour commentary duties at the end of the 2006–07 hockey season, his 24th with the Canucks. However, Larscheid on May 15, 2007 signed a new 1-year contract with TEAM 1040 to continue being the colour commentator for the Vancouver Canucks.

Tom also made daily appearances on the "Canucks Lunch with Blake Price and Dave Tomlinson" radio show.

On July 28, 2010, Larscheid announced that he would be retiring at the start of the 2010–11 season. His final radio call was the Vancouver Canucks season opener against the Los Angeles Kings on October 9. He spent 27 seasons as the colour commentator for the Vancouver Canucks and was replaced by Dave Tomlinson.

On-air personality
Larscheid was known for his enthusiasm. He didn't hide his support for the Canucks or the Lions. He would criticize players, coaches and officials, including players of the home teams whom he didn't think gave a maximum effort.

There were couple of incidents where he has uttered expletives on the air, for which he later apologized. One was during Game 1 of the 1994 Western Conference Final, when Toronto defenceman Jamie Macoun speared Vancouver's Murray Craven, causing an angered Larscheid to exclaim, "That's just bullshit!" Another was during the famous incident in 2000 when Boston defenceman Marty McSorley two-handed Vancouver's Donald Brashear over the head, which prompted Larscheid to react in a similar way.

See also
 List of NCAA major college yearly punt and kickoff return leaders

References

External links
Tom Larscheid on Canucks.com

1940 births
Living people
BC Lions players
Canadian Football League announcers
Canadian radio sportscasters
National Hockey League broadcasters
Canadian football running backs
American football running backs
Players of American football from Milwaukee
Sportspeople from Milwaukee
Utah State Aggies football players
Vancouver Canucks announcers

Tom Larscheid


Hinton on the Green is a village and civil parish in the Wychavon district of Worcestershire in England. It is situated at the foot of Bredon Hill, about two miles south of Evesham.

Description
At a little over three square miles, the land is largely agricultural. Most of the 101 houses and 254 residents (as of 2001) are grouped in a small area between the church and the site of the former railway station.  The River Isbourne valley divides Hinton into the "East Village", near to the church, and the "West Village".

Most of the houses in the East Village date from the 19th century; many of the properties to the West of the Isbourne are much newer.  Most of the farmland, and many of the properties in the East Village, are leased from a Laslett's charity, a trust set up in 1879 by William Laslett, a Worcestershire lawyer, landowner and MP. The charity supports Church of England churches and makes grants to community welfare organisations.

The building that formerly housed a village school has been converted into houses. The single shop in the village is specialised in the sale of agricultural machinery.

The main A46 from Evesham to Cheltenham passes through the parish and is crossed by the Broadway to Pershore Road (formerly The London Road) at Hinton Cross, but the majority of the houses are located on a quiet loop.

The Isbourne is three or four metres wide and less than a metre deep, and occasionally floods. The most notable recent flood was in July 2007 when the small river became a torrent about a hundred metres wide and five metres deep. Two houses built on the river bank suffered serious damage, but the rest of the village is well above the flood plain and avoided the devastation that hit nearby Sedgeberrow just a mile upstream.

Church
The Church of England parish church of St Peter is Grade II* listed.

Railways
The former railway station, known simply as Hinton, belonged to the Midland Railway (later part of the LMS), and was on a lengthy loop line, the Gloucester Loop Line, branching off the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway main line at Ashchurch, passing through Evesham station, Alcester and Redditch, and rejoining the main line at Barnt Green, near Bromsgrove. The loop was built to address the fact that the main line bypassed most of the towns it might otherwise have served, but it took three separate companies to complete.

The loop officially closed between Ashchurch and Redditch in June 1963, but poor condition of the track had brought about withdrawal of all trains between Evesham and Redditch earlier, in October 1962, being replaced by a bus service for the final eight months. Redditch to Barnt Green remains open on the electrified Birmingham suburban network. Hinton station house still stands.

References

External links

 Hinton on the Green – Gloucestershire Victoria County History, 1968
 River Isbourne flood warnings
 Bellringing at St.Peter's
 Pictures at geograph.org.uk
 Worcester Branch of the Birmingham and Midland Society for Genealogy and Heraldry

Villages in Worcestershire
Civil parishes in Worcestershire
Wychavon

Hinton on the Green


The World Charter for Nature was adopted by United Nations member nation-states on October 28, 1982. It proclaims five "principles of conservation by which all human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged."

 Nature shall be respected and its essential processes shall not be impaired.
 The genetic viability on the earth shall not be compromised; the population levels of all life forms, wild and domesticated, must be at least sufficient for their survival, and to this end necessary habitats shall be safeguarded.
 All areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be subject to these principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas, to representative samples of all the different types of ecosystems and to the habitats of rare or endangered species.
 Ecosystems and organisms, as well as the land, marine and atmospheric resources that are utilized by man, shall be managed to achieve and maintain optimum sustainable productivity, but not in such a way as to endanger the integrity of those other ecosystems or species with which they coexist.
 Nature shall be secured against degradation caused by warfare or other hostile activities.

The vote was 111 for, one against (United States), 18 abstentions.

See also
 Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (16 June 1972)
 [A/35/141 Annex I]
 The Earth Charter (29 June 2000)

References

External links
 Text from UN.org
 Full text
 Monitoring Ecological Change by Ian F. Spellerberg

United Nations General Assembly resolutions
1982 in the United Nations
October 1982 events
Environmental conservation

World Charter for Nature


Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) has roughly 4 billion IP addresses. This is a problem because there are more than 4 billion Internet-connected computers in the world. This has led to a shortage of IPv4 addresses.

Solutions

IPv6
The long term solution is to switch to Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6). IPv6 has trillions of trillions of addresses, enough to give every computer in the world a unique IP address. Unfortunately, IPv6 is mostly incompatible with IPv4, and implementing it often requires replacing equipment such as routers. Not all ISPs currently offer IPv6. There are several backward compatibility protocols such as Protocol 41 and Teredo that allow a computer with only an IPv4 address to obtain an IPv6 address.

Network Address Translation
Network Address Translation (NAT) splits a single public IPv4 address into multiple private IPv4 addresses. It is considered a short term solution because it does not usually allow incoming connections without manual configuration of port forwarding.

Carrier-grade Network Address Translation
Carrier-grade Network Address Translation (CGN or CGNAT) is Network Address Translation done by the Internet Service Provider (ISP). It is a short-term solution to provide IPv4 access where the ISP has more customers than public IP addresses. In this setup, multiple customers share a single public IPv4 address. CGN has the major drawback that it does not allow incoming connections at all, because the address translator does not know which customer an incoming connection was intended for. This makes it impossible or very difficult to host services such as websites or file servers. It also causes problems with some online games, online security cameras, and BitTorrent. Most land-line ISPs don't use CGN yet, but mobile providers often do. The address block 18.104.22.168/10 is reserved for CGN, although many ISPs improperly use 10.0.0.0/8 instead. ISPs that use CGN usually offer a public IPv4 address to customers that request one. They may offer this for free, charge a one-time fee, or charge a monthly or yearly fee. In the future they might not offer public IPv4 addresses or might charge a large fee for them, due to supply and demand.

Class E addresses
Another proposal was to assign the class E IPv4 addresses, which are 240.0.0.0 - 255.255.255.254, for use on the public Internet. These addresses are currently reserved for "future" or "experimental" use. This would only add about 268 million addresses to the IPv4 Internet - not enough to prevent running out of addresses. Another issue with this approach is that most operating systems (including Windows), routers, servers, and other equipment block these addresses, as they assume that they are invalid. Using these addresses would require updating every computer, router, and server to recognize them as valid - effort which would better be spent on deploying IPv6.

Notes

References

Internet protocols

IPv4 address shortage


The 2017 Atlantic hurricane season was the most active since 2012. It officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30. It was an extremely active and tragic season. With a damage total of at least $282.16 billion (USD), it was the costliest season on record. With over 3,300 deaths, 2017 was the deadliest season since 2005. More than 99.7% of the season's damage was due to Harvey, Irma, and Maria. Nate, was the worst natural disaster in Costa Rican history. Harvey, Irma, Maria, and Nate had their names retired due to their high damage costs and loss of life. Featuring 17 named storms, 10 hurricanes, and 6 major hurricanes, the 2017 season is the fifth active season.

Tropical Storm Arlene in April was the first storm of the season that formed on April 19. This was the third consecutive season in which storms form before the official start of the hurricane season. In late August, Hurricane Harvey became the first major hurricane to make landfall in the United States since Wilma in 2005 and the first Category 4 hurricane since Charley in 2004. It also tied the record for the costliest tropical cyclone on record along with the most rainfall dropped by a tropical cyclone in the United States. In early September, Hurricane Irma became the first Category 5 hurricane to impact the northern Leeward Islands on record. It later hit the Florida Keys as a Category 4 hurricane. Irma is the strongest hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic Ocean outside of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. In late September, Hurricane Maria became the first Category 5 hurricane to strike the island of Dominica on record; and later it made landfall in Puerto Rico as a high-end Category 4 hurricane. Most of the deaths from this season occurred from Maria, and caused a human crisis in Puerto Rico. In early October, Hurricane Nate became the fastest-moving hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico while also becoming the fourth hurricane of the year to make landfall in the contiguous United States. Slightly over a week later, Hurricane Ophelia became the easternmost major hurricane in the Atlantic basin on record, and later impacted most of Northern Europe as an extratropical cyclone. The season ended with Tropical Storm Rina, which became post-tropical on November 9.

Storm names

The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 2017. The names not retired from this list will be used again in the 2023 season. This was the same list used in the 2011 season, with the exception of Irma which replaced Irene. Irma was previously used in 1978, and it's only used once as an Atlantic hurricane during this season.

Arlene
Bret
Cindy
Don
Emily
Franklin
Gert

Harvey
Irma
Jose
Katia
Lee
Maria
Nate

Ophelia
Philippe
Rina
Sean
Tammy
Vince
Whitney

Retirement

On April 11, 2018, the names Harvey, Irma, Maria, and Nate were retired by the World Meteorological Organization due to the very expensive amount of damage and significant number of deaths they caused. They will not be used again for a future Atlantic hurricane. The names will be replaced with Harold, Idalia, Margot, and Nigel for the 2023 season, respectively.

References

2017 Atlantic hurricane season

2017 Atlantic hurricane season


French food has influenced the style of cooking throughout Europe, and its chefs work in restaurants throughout the world.

The roots of modern haute cuisine lie in chefs like La Varenne (1615–1678) and the notable chef of Napoleon, Marie-Antoine Carême (1784–1833). These chefs developed a lighter style of food compared to the food of the Middle Ages. They used fewer spices, and more herbs and creamy ingredients.

Typical ingredients like roux and fish stock, and techniques such as marinading, and dishes such as ragout, were invented. Carême was an expert pâtissier (pastry-maker), and this is still a mark of French cooking. He developed basic sauces, his 'mother sauces'; he had over a hundred sauces in his repertoire, based on the half-dozen mother sauces.

French cooking was introduced in the 20th century by Georges Auguste Escoffier (1846–1935). He was a genius at organisation. He worked out how to run large restaurants, as in a big hotel or a palace: how the staff should be organised; how the menu was prepared. He had methods for everything. Escoffier managed the restaurants and cuisine at the Savoy Hotel and Carlton Hotel in London, the Hôtel Ritz Paris, and some of the greatest cruise ships of the day.

Escoffier's other main contribution was the publication of Le Guide Culinaire in 1903, which spread the understanding of French cookery. However, Escoffier left out much of the culinary character to be found in the regions of France.

Gastro-tourism and the Guide Michelin helped to acquaint people with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had great influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country. Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine, playing different roles regionally and nationally. In the north of France, people often prefer to use butter to cook. In the south, they prefer olive oil and garlic. In France, each region has its own special dish; choucroute in Alsace, quiche in Lorraine, cassoulet in the Languedoc-Roussillon, tapenade in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, bouillabaisse in Marseille.

In November 2010, French gastronomy was added by UNESCO to its lists of the world's 'intangible cultural heritage'.

References

Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity

French food


Margaret Mackall Smith Taylor (September 21, 1788 – August 14, 1852), was the wife of Zachary Taylor, the President of the United States. She was First Lady of the United States from 1849 to 1850. Some people called her Peggy Smith.

She was born in Calvert County, Maryland. Her mother's name was Ann Mackall and her father's name was Walter Smith. Her father was a major in the American Revolutionary War. When she was visiting her sister in Kentucky in 1809, she met Zachary Taylor. Taylor was a lieutenant at that time. They married in June 1810. For sometime, she stayed in a farm she had got as a marriage gift from her father. There she gave birth to her first baby. But, then she started to live with her husband. Taylor's garrison moved from one location to other on the western front, and she also moved with him.

Their two small daughters died in 1820. As described by Taylor, the children had died of "a violent bilious fever." They had three other girls and a boy. All four grew to adulthood. Taylor knew the difficult life of a military man. He was always against their daughters marrying military men, but all the three married military persons from the United States Army.

At the White House, Peggy Taylor participated in the household activities and personal functions. She did not participate in formal and official functions. Her youngest daughter, Mary Elizabeth Bliss, acted as the official hostess for her mother.

1788 births
1852 deaths

Zachary Taylor
First Ladies of the United States
People from Maryland

Margaret Taylor


Boothby Graffoe (born James Martyn Rogers, 1962) is an English comedian, singer, songwriter and playwright. He is particularly known for his surreal sense of humour and work with Canadian band Barenaked Ladies.

Early life
Rogers was born in 1962 in Hull, East Riding of Yorkshire, England. For the latter part of his schooling, he attended Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School, Horncastle. At the age of 18, he became a member of the redcoats at a Butlins on the south coast. He named his alter ego after an English village while driving back from a gig in the late 1980s. His family still live in the Tattershall area. He claims to be the only comedian in the world named after a Lincolnshire village.

Stand-up comedy
Graffoe often incorporates guitar playing into his stage act, through his oddball (and usually slightly twisted) songs, including such titles as "Planet Dog", "Woof" and his album's title track, "Wot Italian" (sometimes referred to as "Umbrella Head Boy"). Some of his song titles are still more surreal, in that they do not reflect the subject matter, such as "Giraffes Don't Play Harmonicas, So It Can't Be a Giraffe" and "The Consequences of Living in a Container". He is currently accompanied by the violinist Nick Pynn, having previously toured with acoustic guitarist Antonio Forcione.

He explained his reasons for increasingly irrelevant song titles as – essentially – ways to avoid giving away the key phrases or punchlines in his songs. For instance, he renamed "Umbrella Head Boy" to "Wot Italian" after realising that audiences familiar with his work would ask him to "Play Umbrella Head Boy", thus rendering the surprise element of this line in the song redundant to others.

In 2005 he participated in the Danish stand-up tour "Stand-up DK|UK|OK" with Danish comedians Rune Klan, Carsten Eskelund and Geo, this went on tour around Denmark and was never released on DVD.

On a tour of Scotland in February–March 2007, Graffoe announced his intention to retire from stand-up comedy and concentrate on writing for Omid Djalili. He subsequently toured as a warm-up act for Djalili and Barenaked Ladies, but has recently announced a new tour and album (Songs for Dogs' Funerals). He is a regular performer at the annual Edinburgh Festival Fringe.

Graffoe has won several awards, including the 2002 Adelaide Fringe Award for Excellence, and the Time Out Comedy Award. He has been nominated for British comedy's prestigious Perrier Award.

Radio
Graffoe started his career in 1988 on BBC Radio Lincolnshire, when he presented a two-hour programme (Boothby Graffoe Live) on Friday evenings until late 1990.

He appeared regularly on BBC Radio 4's Loose Ends with Ned Sherrin.

He made the following comedy and music series for Radio 4:
 The Big Booth Radio 4 (2000–01)
 Boothby Graffoe In No Particular Order Radio 4 (2003–05)

Television
In 2003, Graffoe appeared on NBC's Late Night with Conan O'Brien and also caused a stir on Opportunity Knocks during the late 1980s when he wrapped sellotape around his head for comedy effect.
In 2013 he appeared as one of a number of acts in The Alternative Comedy Experience performing at The Stand in Edinburgh and also being interviewed backstage by the curator of the show Stewart Lee.

Music
In 2004 Graffoe released his first album of songs with Antonio Forcione, Wot Italian?. A second disc followed in 2006, a live recording of a show in Brighton billed as Boothby Graffoe & the Following People, the backing band including Nick Pynn.

Graffoe has acted as support for Canadian band Barenaked Ladies on its "Last Summer on Earth" 2013 tour and on four of Barenaked Ladies' UK tours: first in 2004 for the Barenaked for the Holidays tour, then in 2007 on the Barenaked Ladies Are Me tour,  again in 2010 on the band's All In Good Time tour and finally on the band's Detour de Force tour in 2022. Boothby mostly performs solo, with various members of the band joining him to play bass (Jim Creeggan), keyboard (Kevin Hearn) and drums (guitarist Ed Robertson) for some of the songs.

In January 2008, Graffoe joined the line-up for Barenaked Ladies' cruise Ships and Dip, where he performed solo and with members from BNL and other bands on board. The cruise, with a capacity of 2500, provided some North American attendees with their first experience of Graffoe and his comedy. He returned for two further Ships and Dip cruises in 2009 and 2011.

Boothby's third album, Songs For Dogs, Funerals..... was released in February 2011, featuring studio recordings of three tracks from Boothby Graffoe & The Following People together with a selection of all-new tracks. Musicians appearing on the album included Nick Pynn, Theseus Gerard and Dean Friedman.

His fourth album, Bang! Is This Your Vehicle, Sir? was released on 27 February 2012. The album features guest appearances from Nick Pynn, Kevin Hearn, Omid Djalili, and members of Canadian band Thin Buckle.

A fifth album, Nomad, was released in March 2013, following a successful campaign on Kickstarter.

He has championed the work of surreal songwriter Syd Meats, often including Meats' songs, such as "Far Too Serious", in his set.

In the summer of 2013, he served as the first act on Barenaked Ladies' 'Last Summer On Earth Tour,' which also featured Guster and Ben Folds Five.

During 2020, he began a series of online concerts via the Zoom platform, with performances from himself and invited guests such as Robyn Hitchcock and Tim Vine.

Stage plays written by Boothby Graffoe
 The Condition of the Virgin, 2001
 One Night Stand: God and Adam, 2002
 Hitler Sells Tickets, 2004
All three plays were subsequently adapted for BBC Radio.

Books
 Sit-Down Comedy (contributor to anthology, ed Malcolm Hardee & John Fleming) Ebury Press/Random House, 2003.  ;

DVDs
 Boothby Graffoe and the Following People – May 2009
 The Boothby Graffoe Mish Mash – March 2013

References

External links

1962 births
Living people
English stand-up comedians
English dramatists and playwrights
English comedy musicians
English male comedians
English male songwriters
Musicians from Kingston upon Hull
People from Horncastle, Lincolnshire
Butlins Redcoats
People educated at Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School, Horncastle
Writers from Kingston upon Hull
English male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century English comedians
21st-century English comedians
Comedians from Yorkshire
Comedians from Lincolnshire

Boothby Graffoe (comedian)


The Cook–Levin theorem is a theorem from theoretical computer science, which says that the Boolean satisfiability problem is NP-complete. A deterministic Turing machine can change a problem in NP in polynomial time to the problem of determining whether a Boolean formula is satisfiable. An important consequence of the theorem is that if there exists a deterministic polynomial time algorithm for solving Boolean satisfiability, then there exists a deterministic polynomial time algorithm for solving all problems in NP. The same follows for any NP-complete problem.

The question of whether such an algorithm exists is called the P versus NP problem and it is widely considered the most important unsolved problem in theoretical computer science. The theorem is named after Stephen Cook and Leonid Levin, who first described it in the 1970s.

Theoretical computer science

Cook–Levin theorem


Universidade Estadual de Londrina (abbreviated UEL; State University of Londrina) is one of the public universities of the State of Paraná, Brazil.

UEL was created in 1970, being recognized officially by Federal Ordinance 69.234/71. In 1987 'free teaching' was implemented at the Institution, and in 1991 it gained autonomy from the State. Since the 2005 admission exam, UEL adopted an official system of quotas for black students, as well as quotas for applicants originating from public schools, in order to attend to social and minority support policies.
It is located in the city of Londrina, second largest city in the state and fourth largest in the southern region of the country.

Admissions
Students are admitted by an entrance exam, also known as vestibular exam, composed by two steps:

First Phase is composed of 60 multiple-choice questions (Chemistry, Math, Physics, Geography, History and Biology, Philosophy, Sociology, Art History).
Second Phase is performed in two days and consists of 30 questions lenses (first day), and 12 essay questions and the composition (which may be 2 to 6) (the second day). The 30 consist of 20 objective questions related to Portuguese Literature and 10 related to foreign language (English, Spanish or French). The other 12 essay questions (second day), three related themes (can be: Portuguese, Chemistry, Mathematics, Physics, Geography, History and Biology, Philosophy, Sociology, History of Art) with career choice.

Academic career
 Teaching Assistant (Auxiliar de Ensino) - MS-2 (must have a Master degree and be enrolled in the PhD graduation program)
 Professor - MS-3 (must have a PhD or equivalent title)
 Associate Professor - MS-4 (must have a Livre Docente title or recognition by the academic community)
 Professoral Dean - MS-5 (top rank, only MS-5 is allowed to be conducted to main positions in the University such as Director or Rector)

Departments/Programs
  Cabinet of the Rectory
  For-rectory of Graduation
  For-rectory of Research and Masters degree
  For-rectory of Extension
  For-rectory of Administration and Finances
  For-rectory of Human resources
  For-rectory of Planning
  Coordenadoria of Selective Processes
  Coordenadoria of Communication
  City hall of the Academical Campus
  Consultantship Auditing Interns
  Consultantship of International Relationships

Supplemental Departments
  Historical museum of Londrina
  Office of Application of Juridical Subjects
  Academical hospital (Hospital Universitário Regional Norte do Paraná)
  Odontological and Academical Clinic
  School of Application (Colégio de Aplicação - Professor José Aloísio de Aragão)
  House of Culture
  Veterinary hospital
  School Farm
  Laboratory of Production of Medicines
  Cine Theater Green Gold (Cine teatro Ouro Verde)

University Services and Resources
 Consultantship of Technology of Information
 Central Library
 Laboratory of Education Technology
 Service of Well-being to the Community
 Publishing
 Educational broadcasting
 System of Files

Centers of Study

Center of Humanities and Languages (CCH)
The Center of Humanities and Languages occupies an area of 9.079,17 m2.  The department employs 180 instructors, 50 ancillary employees, and consists of the following sub-faculties:
  Department of Modern Foreign Languages  (LEM)
  Department of Vernacular and Classic Letters  (LET)
  Department of Philosophy  (FIL)
  Department of Social sciences  (SOC)
  Department of History  (HIS)

Center of Biological Sciences (CCB)
The Center of Sciences Biological contains 10 departments:
  Department of Anatomy
  Department of Animal and Vegetable Biology
  Department of General Biology
  Department of Physiologic Sciences
  Department of Pathological Sciences
  Department of Foundations of Psychology and Psychoanalysis
  Department of Histology
  Department of Microbiology
  Department of General Psychology and Analysis of the Behavior
  Department of Social and Institutional Psychology

Center of Exact Sciences (CCE)
The Center of Exact Sciences has 7 departments:
  Department of Biochemistry
  Department of Computation
  Department of Physics
  Department of Geosciences
  Department of Mathematics
  Department of Applied Mathematics
  Department of Chemistry

Center of Applied Social Studies (CESA)
The Center of Applied Social Studies has 6 departments:
  Department of Administration
  Department of Accounting Sciences
  Department of Private Law
  Department of Public Law
  Department of Economic Science
  Department of Social Service

Center of Health Sciences (CCS)
The Center of Health Sciences has 11 departments:
  Department of Surgical Clinic
  Department of Medical Clinic
  Department of Nursing
  Department of Physiotherapy
  Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics
  Department of Maternal-infantile and Community Health
  Department of Oral Medicine and Infantile Dentistry
  Department of Restoring Dentistry
  Department of Applied Pathology, Legislation and Deontologia
  Department of Pediatrics and Pediatric Surgery
  Department of Collective Health

Center of Education, Communication and Arts (CECA)
The Center of Education, Communication and Arts are composed of 6 departments:
  Department of Visual Art
  Department of Sciences of the Information
  Department of Communication
  Department of Design
  Department of Education
  Department of Music and Theater

Center of Agrarian Sciences (CCA)
The Center of Agrarian Sciences is composed of 5 departments:
  Department of Agronomy
  Department of you Practice medicine Veterinary
  Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine
  Department of Technology of Foods and Medicines
  Department of Zootechny

Center of Technology and Urbanization (CTU)
The Center of Technology and Urbanization is composed of 4 departments:
  Department of Architecture and Urbanization
  Department of Building site
  Department of Electric Engineering
  Department of Structures

Center of Physical education and Sports (CEF)
The Center of Physical education and Sports are composed of 3 departments:
Department of Sport Science
Department of Physical Education
Department of Human Movement Studies

Other websites
 Official Page of the State University of Londrina (in Portuguese)
 Page about Admissions at the State University of Londrina  (in Portuguese)

Colleges and universities in Brazil
Paraná State
1970 establishments
1970s establishments in Brazil

State University of Londrina


Guilherme de Brito Bollhorst (January 3, 1922 – April 28, 2006), known as Guilherme de Brito, was a Brazilian sambista, singer, songwriter, and painter.

Biography
Guilherme de Brito Bollhorst was born in Vila Isabel, a traditional neighborhood with regard to samba, the home of 12 years older Noel Rosa, with whom he was acquainted and who often gave him rides on his car. Brito was the son of Alfredo Nicolau Bollhorst and Marieta de Brito Bollhorst. Guilherme de Brito got a cavaquinho as a present when he was eight; later he became also a violonista. With the death of his father when he was 12, Brito had to drop his studies and start working. He got a job at old Casa Edson, one of the first recording studios to function in Brazil. His aptitude as an artist arose at an early age; when still a boy, he used to draw with pencils and coal.

Guilherme de Brito met his most important partner, 11 years older Nelson Cavaquinho, when the latter, already famous and known, used to play in the bars of Rio de Janeiro suburbs.

Guilherme de Brito wrote 153 songs, the great majority being sambas, almost all of them in partnership, being 75 with Nelson Cavaquinho. They were recorded by many samba artists besides himself, such as Cartola, Elizeth Cardoso, Paulinho da Viola and especially Beth Carvalho, who had a great reverence for the work of the duo Guilherme de Brito-Nelson Cavaquinho. Some of their most famous songs include "A Flor e O Espinho", "Quando eu me Chamar Saudade", "Pranto de Poeta", "Folhas Secas" and "Minha Festa".

As a painter, Guilherme de Brito has his works exhibited in galleries across Brazil, the United States, Japan and Australia.

Discography
 2003 - A Flor e o Espinho
 2001 - Samba Guardado
 1990 - Folhas Secas
 1988 - Guilherme de Brito
 1980 - Guilherme de Brito

External links
 Cliquemusic
 Quando eu me Chamar Saudade at Paixão e Romance
 Guilherme de Brito - Dicionário Cravo Albin da Música Popular Brasileira

1922 births
2006 deaths
20th-century Brazilian male singers
20th-century Brazilian singers
Samba musicians
Singers from Rio de Janeiro (city)

Guilherme de Brito


Fred Niblo (born Frederick Liedtke; January 6, 1874 – November 11, 1948) was an American pioneer film actor, director and producer.

Biography
He was born Frederick Liedtke (several sources give "Frederico Nobile", apparently erroneously) in York, Nebraska to a French mother and a father who had served as a captain in the American Civil War and was wounded at the Battle of Gettysburg. Using the stage name Fred Niblo, Liedtke began his show business career performing in vaudeville and in live theater.  After more than 20 years doing live performing as a monologist, during which he traveled extensively around the globe, he worked in Australia from 1912 through 1915, where he turned to the burgeoning motion picture industry and made his first two films.

On June 2, 1901, Niblo married Broadway actress Josephine Cohan, the older sister of George M. Cohan. He managed the Four Cohans in their two big successes: The Governor's Son and Running for Office. From 1904 to 1905, Fred resumed his stage career, appearing as Walter Lee Leonard in The Rogers Brothers in Paris and then returned to vaudeville.

Josephine died in 1916, the year he began acting and directing motion pictures. While in Australia, he met actress Enid Bennett, whom he later married. As a Hollywood director, he is most remembered for several notable films, beginning with his 1920 work The Mark of Zorro which starred Douglas Fairbanks. The following year he teamed with Fairbanks in The Three Musketeers and then directed Rudolph Valentino in Blood and Sand.

In 1924, Niblo directed the film Thy Name Is Woman.

In 1925, Niblo was the principal director of the epic Ben-Hur, one of the more expensive films of the day but became the third highest-grossing silent film in cinema history. Niblo followed this success with two major 1926 works: The Temptress starring Greta Garbo in her second film in America and Norma Talmadge in Camille. Niblo directed some of the great stars of the era, including Joan Crawford, Lillian Gish, and Ronald Colman. In 1930, he directed his first sound film with two of the bigger names in show business: John Gilbert and Renée Adorée in a film titled Redemption.

Niblo and Bennett commissioned architect Wallace Neff to design their house on Angelo Drive, which they named Misty Mountain. It was completed in 1926 and sold by Niblo to Jules C. Stein in 1940 after a decline in his fortunes.

Actress Marion Shilling, who worked with Niblo on Young Donovan's Kid, said, "One of the reasons for his success as a director, certainly, was that he had been an actor himself. He could empathize, see and feel a scene from an actor's viewpoint. He never talked down to us. He was a lovely human being."

Niblo retired in 1933 after more than 40 years in show business. The last 16 years were used to make more than 40 films, most of which were feature-length projects. He was an important personality in the early years of Hollywood and was one of the original founders of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. In recognition of his role in the development of the film industry, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7014 Hollywood Boulevard on February 8, 1960. His Ben-Hur film has been selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

Niblo died in New Orleans, Louisiana, and is interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery near his wife, Enid Bennett, with whom he had three children, in Glendale, California. His son with Josephine Cohan, Fred Niblo, Jr. (1903–1973), was an Academy Award-nominated screenwriter.

Filmography

References

External links

Fred Niblo page at York, Nebraska's public library

Fred Niblo at Virtual History

Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences founders
American male stage actors
American male film actors
American male silent film actors
American film producers
Vaudeville performers
Male actors from Nebraska
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
1874 births
1948 deaths
People from York, Nebraska
American people of French descent
20th-century American male actors
Film directors from Nebraska

Fred Niblo


The Partitions of Poland were three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place toward the end of the 18th century and ended the existence of the state, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland and Lithuania for 123 years. The partitions were conducted by the Habsburg monarchy, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Russian Empire, which divided up the Commonwealth lands among themselves progressively in the process of territorial seizures and annexations.

The First Partition was decided on August 5, 1772 after the Bar Confederation lost the war with Russia. The Second Partition occurred in the aftermath of the Polish–Russian War of 1792 and the Targowica Confederation of 1792 when Russian and Prussian troops entered the Commonwealth and the partition treaty was signed during the Grodno Sejm on January 23, 1793 (without Austria). The Third Partition took place on October 24, 1795, in reaction to the unsuccessful Polish Kościuszko Uprising the previous year. With this partition, the Commonwealth ceased to exist.

In English, the term "Partitions of Poland" is sometimes used geographically as toponymy, to mean the three parts that the partitioning powers divided the Commonwealth into, namely:  the Austrian Partition, the Prussian Partition and the Russian Partition. In Polish, there are two separate words for the two meanings. The consecutive acts of dividing and annexation of Poland are referred to as  (plural: ), while the term  (plural: ) refers to parts of the Commonwealth that were annexed in 1772–95 and which became part of Imperial Russia, Prussia, or Austria. Following the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the borders of the three partitioned sectors were redrawn; the Austrians established Galicia in the Austrian partition, whereas the Russians gained Warsaw from Prussia and formed an autonomous polity of Congress Poland in the Russian partition.

In Polish historiography, the term "Fourth Partition of Poland" has also been used, in reference to any subsequent annexation of Polish lands by foreign invaders. Depending on source and historical period, this could mean the events of 1815, or 1832 and 1846, or 1939. The term "Fourth Partition" in a temporal sense can also mean the diaspora communities that played an important political role in re-establishing the Polish sovereign state after 1918.

History

During the reign of Władysław IV (1632–1648), the  was developed, a policy of parliamentary procedure based on the assumption of the political equality of every "gentleman/Polish nobleman", with the corollary that unanimous consent was needed for all measures. A single member of parliament's belief that a measure was injurious to his own constituency (usually simply his own estate), even after the act had been approved, became enough to strike the act. Thus it became increasingly difficult to undertake action. The  also provided openings for foreign diplomats to get their ways, through bribing nobles to exercise it. Thus, one could characterise Poland–Lithuania in its final period (mid-18th century) before the partitions as already in a state of disorder and not a completely sovereign state, and almost as a vassal state, with Polish kings effectively chosen in diplomatic maneuvers between the great powers Prussia, Austria, Russia, and France. This applies particularly to the last Commonwealth King Stanisław August Poniatowski, who for some time had been a lover of Russian Empress Catherine the Great.

In 1730 the neighbors of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (), namely Prussia, Austria and Russia, signed a secret agreement to maintain the : specifically, to ensure that the Commonwealth laws would not change. Their alliance later became known in Poland as the "Alliance of the Three Black Eagles" (or 's Treaty), because all three states used a black eagle as a state symbol (in contrast to the white eagle, a symbol of Poland). The Commonwealth had been forced to rely on Russia for protection against the rising Kingdom of Prussia, which demanded a slice of the northwest in order to unite its Western and Eastern portions; this would leave the Commonwealth with a Baltic coast only in Latvia and Lithuania. Catherine had to use diplomacy to win Austria to her side.

The Commonwealth had remained neutral in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), yet it sympathized with the alliance of France, Austria, and Russia, and allowed Russian troops access to its western lands as bases against Prussia. Frederick II retaliated by ordering enough Polish currency counterfeited to severely affect the Polish economy. Through the Polish nobles whom Russia controlled and the Russian Minister to Warsaw, ambassador and Prince Nicholas Repnin, Empress Catherine the Great forced a constitution on the Commonwealth at the so-called Repnin Sejm of 1767, named after ambassador Repnin, who effectively dictated the terms of that Sejm (and ordered the capture and exile to Kaluga of some vocal opponents of his policies, including bishop Józef Andrzej Załuski and others). This new constitution undid the reforms made in 1764 under Stanisław II. The  and all the old abuses of the last one and a half centuries were guaranteed as unalterable parts of this new constitution (in the so-called Cardinal Laws). Repnin also demanded the Russian protection of the rights of peasants in private estates of Polish and Lithuanian noblemen, religious freedom for the Protestant and Orthodox Christians and the political freedoms for Protestants, Orthodox Christians and Eastern Catholics (Uniates), including their right to occupy all state positions, including a royal one. The next king could be a member of the Russian ruling dynasty now. The Sejm approved this. Resulting reaction among some of Poland's Roman Catholics, as well as the deep resentment of Russian intervention in the Commonwealth's domestic affairs including the exile to Russia of the top Roman Catholic bishops, the members of the Polish Senate, led to the War of the Confederation of Bar of 1768–1772, formed in Bar, where the Poles tried to expel Russian forces from Commonwealth territory. The irregular and poorly commanded Polish forces had little chance in the face of the regular Russian army and suffered a major defeat. Adding to the chaos was a Ukrainian Cossack and peasant rebellion in the east (Koliyivshchyna), which erupted in 1768 and resulted in massacres of Polish noblemen (), Jews, Uniates, ethnic minorities and Catholic priests, before it was put down by Russian and governmental Polish troops. This uprising led to the intervention of the Ottoman Empire, supported by Roman Catholic France and Austria. Bar confederation and France promised Podolia and Volhynia and the protectorate over the Commonwealth to the Ottoman Empire for armed support.

In 1769 the Habsburg monarchy annexed a small territory of Spisz and in 1770 it annexed Nowy Sącz and Nowy Targ. These territories had been a bone of contention between Poland and Hungary, which was a part of the Monarchy. Nevertheless, the Ottoman Empire, the Bar confederation and its French and European volunteers were defeated by Russian forces and Polish governmental ones with the aid of Great Britain. As Russia moved into the Crimea and the Danubian Principalities (which the Habsburg monarchy long coveted), King Frederick II of Prussia and Maria Theresa were worried that the defeat of the Ottoman Empire would severely upset the balance of power in Eastern Europe. Frederick II began to construct the partition to rebalance the power in Eastern Europe.

First Partition

In February 1772, the agreement of partition was signed in Vienna. Early in August, Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves. However, fighting continued as Bar confederation troops and French volunteers refused to lay down their arms (most notably, in Tyniec, Częstochowa and Kraków). On 5 August 1772, the occupation manifesto was issued, to the dismay of the weak and exhausted Polish state;
The partition treaty was ratified by its signatories on September 22, 1772.

Frederick II of Prussia was elated with his success; Prussia took most of Royal Prussia (except Gdańsk) that stood between its possessions in Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, as well as Ermland (Warmia), northern areas of Greater Poland along the Noteć River (the Netze District), and parts of Kuyavia (but not the city of Toruń).

Despite token criticism of the partition from Empress Maria Theresa, Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, was proud of wresting as large a share as he did, with the rich salt mines of Bochnia and Wieliczka. To Austria fell Zator and Auschwitz (Oświęcim), part of Lesser Poland embracing parts of the counties of Kraków and Sandomir and the whole of Galicia, less the city of Kraków.

Empress Catherine II of Russia was also satisfied despite the loss of Galicia to the Habsburg monarchy. By this "diplomatic document" Russia gained Polish Livonia, and lands in eastern Belarus embracing the counties of Vitebsk, Polotsk and Mstislavl.

By this partition, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost about 30% of its territory and half of its population (four million people), of which a large portion had not been ethnically Polish. By seizing northwestern Poland, Prussia instantly gained control over 80% of the Commonwealth's total foreign trade. Through levying enormous customs duties, Prussia accelerated the collapse of the Commonwealth.

After having occupied their respective territories, the three partitioning powers demanded that King Stanisław and the Sejm approve their action. When no help was forthcoming and the armies of the combined nations occupied Warsaw to compel by force of arms the calling of the assembly, no alternative could be chosen to save passive submission to their will. The so-called Partition Sejm, with Russian military forces threatening the opposition, on September 18, 1773, signed the treaty of cession, renouncing all claims of the Commonwealth to the occupied territories.

In 1772, Rousseau was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the Considerations on the Government of Poland (1782), which was to be his last major political work.

Second Partition

By 1790 the Commonwealth had been weakened to such a degree that it was forced into an unnatural and terminal alliance with its enemy, Prussia. The Polish–Prussian Pact of 1790 was signed. The conditions of the Pact contributed to the subsequent final two partitions of Poland–Lithuania.

The May Constitution of 1791 enfranchised the bourgeoisie, established the separation of the three branches of government, and eliminated the abuses of the Repnin Sejm. Those reforms prompted aggressive actions on the part of its neighbours, wary of the potential renaissance of the Commonwealth. Arguing that Poland had fallen prey to the radical Jacobinism then at high tide in France, Russian forces invaded the Commonwealth in 1792.

In the War in Defense of the Constitution, pro-Russian conservative Polish magnates, the Confederation of Targowica, fought against Polish forces supporting the constitution, believing that Russians would help them restore the Golden Liberty. Abandoned by their Prussian allies, Polish pro-constitution forces, faced with Targowica units and the regular Russian army, were defeated. Prussia signed a treaty with Russia, agreeing that Polish reforms would be revoked, and both countries would receive chunks of Commonwealth territory. In 1793, deputies to the Grodno Sejm, last Sejm of the Commonwealth, in the presence of the Russian forces, agreed to Russian territorial demands. In the Second Partition, Russia and Prussia helped themselves to enough land so that only one-third of the 1772 population remained in Poland. Prussia named its newly gained province South Prussia, with Poznań (and later Warsaw) as the capital of the new province.

Targowica confederates, who did not expect another partition, and the king, Stanisław August Poniatowski, who joined them near the end, both lost much prestige and support. The reformers, on the other hand, were attracting increasing support, and in 1794 the Kościuszko Uprising began.

Third Partition

Kosciuszko's ragtag insurgent armies won some initial successes, but they eventually fell before the superior forces of the Russian Empire. The partitioning powers, seeing the increasing unrest in the remaining Commonwealth, decided to solve the problem by erasing any independent Polish state from the map. On 24 October 1795, their representatives signed a treaty, dividing the remaining territories of the Commonwealth between their three countries. One of Russia's chief foreign policy authors, Alexander Bezborodko, advised Catherine II on the Second and Third Partitions of Poland.

The Russian part included  and 1.2 million people with Vilnius, the Prussian part (new provinces of New East Prussia and New Silesia)  and 1 million people with Warsaw, and the Austrian  with 1.2 million and Lublin and Kraków.

Aftermath
The King of Poland, Stanisław August Poniatowski, under Russian military escort left for Grodno where he abdicated on November 25, 1795; next he left for Saint Petersburg, Russia, where he would spend his remaining days. This act ensured that Russia would be seen as the most important of the partitioning powers.

With regard to population, in the First Partition, Poland lost over four to five million citizens (about a third of its population of 14 million before the partitions). Only about 4 million people remained in Poland after the Second Partition which makes for a loss of another third of its original population, about a half of the remaining population. By the Third Partition, Prussia ended up with about 23% of the Commonwealth's population, Austria with 32%, and Russia with 45%.

(Wandycz also offers slightly different total annexed territory estimates, with 18% for Austria, 20% for Prussia and 62% for Russia.)During the Napoleonic Wars and in their immediate aftermath the borders between partitioning powers shifted several times, changing the numbers seen in the preceding table. Ultimately, Russia ended up with most of the Polish core at the expense of Prussia and Austria. Following the Congress of Vienna, Russia controlled 82% of the pre-1772 Commonwealth's territory (this includes its puppet state of Congress Poland), Austria 11%, and Prussia 7%.

As a result of the Partitions, Poles were forced to seek a change of status quo in Europe. Polish poets, politicians, noblemen, writers, artists, many of whom were forced to emigrate (thus the term Great Emigration), became the revolutionaries of the 19th century, as desire for freedom became one of the defining parts of Polish romanticism. Polish revolutionaries participated in uprisings in Prussia, the Austrian Empire and Imperial Russia. Polish legions fought alongside Napoleon and, under the slogan of For our freedom and yours, participated widely in the Spring of Nations (particularly the Hungarian Revolution of 1848).

Poland would be briefly resurrected—if in a smaller frame—in 1807, when Napoleon set up the Duchy of Warsaw. After his defeat and the implementation of the Congress of Vienna treaty in 1815, the Russian-dominated Congress Kingdom of Poland was created in its place. After the Congress, Russia gained a larger share of Poland (with Warsaw) and, after crushing an insurrection in 1831, the Congress Kingdom's autonomy was abolished and Poles faced confiscation of property, deportation, forced military service, and the closure of their own universities. After the uprising of 1863, Russification of Polish secondary schools was imposed and the literacy rate dropped dramatically. In the Austrian sector which now was called Galicia, Poles fared better and were allowed to have representation in Parliament and to form their own universities, and Kraków with Lemberg (Lwów/Lviv) became centers of Polish culture and education. Meanwhile, Prussia Germanized the entire school system of its Polish subjects, and had no more respect for Polish culture and institutions than the Russian Empire. In 1915 a client state of the German Empire and Austria-Hungary was proposed and accepted by the Central Powers of World War I: the Regency Kingdom of Poland. After the end of World War I, the Central Powers' surrender to the Western Allies, the chaos of the Russian Revolution and the Treaty of Versailles finally allowed and helped the restoration of Poland's full independence after 123 years.

Fourth Partition

The term "Fourth Partition of Poland" may refer to any subsequent division of Polish lands, including:
 after the Napoleonic era, the 1815 division of the Duchy of Warsaw at the Congress of Vienna;
 the 1832 incorporation of the "Congress Kingdom" into Russia, the 1846 incorporation of the Republic of Kraków into Austria, and the 1848 incorporation of the Grand Duchy of Posen into Prussia; and
 the 1939 division of Poland between Germany and the Soviet Union pursuant to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.
If one accepts more than one of those events as partitions, fifth, sixth, and even seventh partitions can be counted, but these terms are very rare. (For example, Norman Davies in God's Playground refers to the 1807 creation of the Duchy of Warsaw as the fourth partition, the 1815 Treaty of Vienna as the fifth, the 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as the sixth, and the 1939 division of Poland between Nazi Germany and the USSR as the seventh.)

The term "Fourth Partition" was also used in the 19th and 20th centuries to refer to diaspora communities who maintained a close interest in the project of regaining Polish independence. Sometimes termed Polonia, these expatriate communities often contributed funding and military support to the project of regaining the Polish nation-state. Diaspora politics were deeply affected by developments in and around the homeland, and vice versa, for many decades.

Reasons, legality and justifications
More recent studies claim that partitions happened when the Commonwealth had been showing the beginning signs of a slow recovery and see the last two partitions as an answer to strengthening reforms in the Commonwealth and the potential threat they represented to its power-hungry neighbours.

As historian Norman Davies stated, because the balance of power equilibrium was observed, many contemporary observers accepted explanations of the "enlightened apologists" of the partitioning state. 19th-century historians from countries that carried out the partitions, such as 19th-century Russian scholar Sergey Solovyov, and their 20th century followers, argued that partitions were justified, as the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had degenerated to the point of being partitioned because the counterproductive principle of  made decision-making on divisive issues, such as a wide-scale social reform, virtually impossible. Solovyov specified the cultural, language and religious break between the supreme and lowest layers of the society in the east regions of the Commonwealth, where the Belarusian and Ukrainian serf peasantry was Orthodox. Russian authors emphasized the historical connections between Belarus, Ukraine and Russia, as former parts of the medieval old Russian state where dynasty of Rurikids reigned (Kievan Rus'). Thus, Nikolay Karamzin wrote: "Let the foreigners denounce the partition of Poland: we took what was ours." Russian historians often stressed that Russia annexed primarily Ukrainian and Belarusian provinces with Eastern Slavic inhabitants, although many Ruthenians were no more enthusiastic about Russia than about Poland, and ignoring ethnically Polish and Lithuanian territories also being annexed later. A new justification for partitions arose with the Russian Enlightenment, as Russian writers such as Gavrila Derzhavin, Denis Fonvizin, and Alexander Pushkin stressed degeneration of Catholic Poland and the need to "civilize" it by its neighbors.

Nonetheless, other 19th century contemporaries were much more skeptical; for example, British jurist Sir Robert Phillimore discussed the partition as a violation of international law; German jurist Heinrich Bernhard Oppenheim presented similar views. Other older historians who challenged such justifications for the Partitions included French historian Jules Michelet, British historian and politician Thomas Babington Macaulay, and Edmund Burke, who criticized the immorality of the partitions. Nonetheless, most governments accepted the event as a fait acompli. The Ottoman Empire was one of only two countries in the world that refused to accept the partitions, (the other being the Persian Empire), and reserved a place in its diplomatic corps for an Ambassador of Lehistan (Poland).

Several scholars focused on the economic motivations of the partitioning powers. Hajo Holborn noted that Prussia aimed to take control of the lucrative Baltic grain trade through Gdańsk. In the 18th century the Russian peasants were escaping from Russia to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (where the once dire conditions have improved, unlike in Russia) in significant enough numbers to become a major concern for the Russian Government sufficient to play a role in its decision to partition the Commonwealth (one of the reasons Catherine II gave for the partition of Poland was that thousands of peasants escaped from Russia to Poland to seek a better fate"). Increasingly in the 18th century until the partitions solved this problem, Russian armies raided territories of the Commonwealth, officially to recover the escapees, but in fact kidnapping many locals. Piotr Kimla noted that the Russian government spread international propaganda, mainly in France, which falsely exaggerated serfdom conditions in Poland, while ignoring worse conditions in Russia, as one of the justification for the partitions.

Legacy
, the Italian national anthem, contains a reference to the partition.

The ongoing partitions of Poland were a major topic of discourse in The Federalist Papers, where the structure of the government of Poland, and of foreign influence over it, is used in several papers (Federalist No. 14, Federalist No. 19, Federalist No. 22, Federalist No. 39 for examples) as a cautionary tale for the writers of the U.S. Constitution.

See also
 Administrative division of Polish–Lithuanian territories after partitions
 Administrative division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the course of partitions
 Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland (1763–1794)
 Three Emperors' Corner at the border of the Russian, Austrian and the German Empires

Notes

References

Further reading

 Lewitter, L. R. "The Partitions of Poland" History Today (Dec 1958) 8#12 pp 813–820.
 Lewitter, Lucjan R. "The Partitions of Poland" in A. Goodwyn, ed. The New Cambridge Modern History: vol 8 1763–93 (1965) pp. 333–59.
 Lord, Robert. The second partition of Poland; a study in diplomatic history (1915) online
 Lukowski, Jerzy. The Partitions of Poland 1772, 1793, 1795 (1998); online review
 McLean, Thomas. The Other East and Nineteenth-Century British Literature: Imagining Poland and the Russian Empire (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) pp. 14–40.</ref>

External links

 Krzysztof Wroński, Rozbiory Polski w XVIII w. " ich uwarunkowania i skutki
 Where Is Poland?, a multimedia guide created by Culture.pl to the 123-year period during which Poland was partitioned

Military occupations of Poland
1770s in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1790s in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Partitions of Poland


Durham House, also known as Durham Inn, was the historic London town house of the Bishop of Durham in the Strand. Its gardens descended to the River Thames.

History

Origins
Bishop Thomas Hatfield built the opulent Durham House as a London residence in about 1345. It had a large chapel and a high-ceilinged great hall supported by marble pillars. On the Strand side its gatehouse led to a large courtyard.  The hall and chapel faced the entrance, and private apartments overlooked the river.

Accounts describe Durham House as a noble palace befitting a prince. King Henry IV, his son Henry, Prince of Wales (later Henry V), and their retinues stayed once at the residence.

Tudor and Jacobean era
While Durham House remained an episcopal palace, Catherine of Aragon lived as a virtual prisoner there between her marriages to Arthur, Prince of Wales and King Henry VIII. Eventually, Bishop Cuthbert Tunstall relinquished it to King Henry VIII, who contracted to give the bishop in return Coldharbour in Dowgate Ward, London, and other residences but never honoured that promise. Henry FitzRoy, Duke of Richmond and Somerset, in his youth, resided in Durham House, having been granted it in 1525. Anne Boleyn lived in Durham House in 1532 while Henry courted her prior to their marriage in 1533. Henry granted Durham House to his daughter Lady Elizabeth (later queen) for life, or until she was otherwise advanced. Henry's son King Edward VI later confirmed the grant, and thereby deprived Tunstall of his palace. However, on her accession to the throne Queen Mary removed the house from the possession of Lady Elizabeth and restored it to Tunstall, together with his see, as it had become apparent that Tunstall no longer had a London residence.

Mary's predecessor, Lady Jane Grey, the "Nine Days" Queen of England, was married at Durham House on May 21 or 25, 1553 to Guilford Dudley. On the same date and place, Guildford's sister Katherine married Henry Hastings, the Earl of Huntingdon's heir; and Jane's sister Katherine  married Lord Herbert, the heir of the Earl of Pembroke.

Upon her accession, Elizabeth seized possession of Durham House again, and deprived Tunstall of his see; she kept possession of the residence until 1583, when she granted it to Sir Walter Raleigh.  Raleigh spent £2,000 on repairs and lived there until Elizabeth's death. John Aubrey said that he well remembered the room which Raleigh used as his study; it was in a little turret that looked over the Thames and had a view of Westminster, Whitehall Palace and the Surrey hills.

It was in Durham House that Raleigh hosted Manteo and Wanchese, the first Native American Algonquin Indians to travel to England from the New World. In 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh had dispatched the first of a number of expeditions to Roanoke island to explore and eventually settle the new land of Virginia. Early encounters with the natives were friendly and, despite the difficulties in communication, the explorers were able to persuade "two of the savages, being lustie men, whose names were Wanchese and Manteo" to accompany them on the return voyage to London.

Once safely delivered to England, the two Indians quickly made a sensation at the royal court. Raleigh's priority however was not publicity but rather intelligence about his new land of Virginia, and he restricted access to the exotic newcomers, assigning the scientist Thomas Harriot the job of deciphering and learning the Carolina Algonquian language, using a phonetic alphabet of his own invention in order to effect the translation.

Upon Elizabeth's death and Raleigh's resultant loss of influence at court, Tobias Matthew, then bishop of Durham, reclaimed Durham House for the see and offered it for use of the Privy Council. The new king, James I of England, approved the move.

Decline
Neither Matthew nor any of his successors resided at Durham House and it became dilapidated as a result. The stables were demolished for construction of the New Exchange, a market which was occupied by milliners and seamstresses in shops along upper and lower tiers on each side of a central alley. In the 1630s it was the setting for the Durham House Group, including Richard Neile, William Laud and other high church Anglicans.

The best portion of the house was tenanted by Thomas Coventry, 1st Baron Coventry "Lord Keeper Coventry", who died there in 1640.  What remained of the house was subsequently obtained by Philip Herbert, 5th Earl of Pembroke. He rented it from the see for £200 per year and intended to build a fine house on the site, which was never realised. Pembroke engaged the architect John Webb who made several drawings for the house. Instead, Pembroke built on a site in Durham Street, which ran through the old remains down to the River Thames and the upper portion of which survives at its junction with the Strand. It is a short, steep street that descends under the headquarters of the Society of Arts and disappears in the gloom of the dark arches of the Adelphi.

The last portion of the ruins was cleared away early in the reign of King George III (1760-1820), when the brothers Robert Adam and James Adam constructed the Adelphi Buildings thereby raising the whole level on lofty arches.

See also
Other Strand mansions:
Somerset House
York House, Strand

Notes

Sources
Durham House (LondonOnline)
de Lisle, Leanda (2008): The Sisters Who Would Be Queen: Mary, Katherine and Lady Jane Grey. A Tudor Tragedy Ballantine Books
Ives, Eric (2009): Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery Wiley-Blackwell

Bibliography
Borer, Mary Cathcart. The City of London: A History. (NY: McKay, 1977) (pp 157)
Milton, Giles, Big Chief Elizabeth - How England's Adventurers Gambled and Won the New World, Hodder & Stoughton, London (2000)
Stone, Lawrence. Family and Fortune: Studies in Aristocratic Finance in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1973) (pp 96–97, 100, 103)
Stow, John A Survey of London. Reprinted from the Text of 1603. Ed. Charles Lethbridge Kingsford. 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1908) (2:400)
Williams, Neville (1971). Henry VIII and His Court. Macmillan Pub Co.

1345 establishments in England
Buildings and structures completed in 1345
Houses completed in the 14th century
18th-century disestablishments in England
Buildings and structures demolished in the 18th century
Episcopal palaces of the bishops of Durham
Episcopal palaces in London

Former houses in the City of Westminster
Catherine of Aragon
Strand, London
Anne Boleyn
Elizabeth I
Lady Jane Grey
Walter Raleigh
Lord Guildford Dudley

Durham House, London


Justice is a concept on ethics and law that means that people behave in a way that is fair, equal and balanced for everyone.

In law
Governments, and especially the police and courts, see that the laws are obeyed in most societies.  Because they can punish a person for not obeying the law, most people agree that laws should be fair and the same for everyone.  But governments sometimes  make laws that many people believe are not just.  If many people believe this, people may lose respect for the law and may even disobey it.  However, in democratic societies, the law itself has ways to change or get rid of these unjust laws.

Related pages
 Ethics
 International Court of Justice
 International Criminal Court
 Morality
 Napoleonic Code
 Rationality
 Social justice

References

Other websites

Law
Virtues
Ethics

Justice


Joan Louise Barfoot (born May 17, 1946) is a Canadian novelist. She has published 11 novels, including Luck (2005), which was a nominee for the 2005 Scotiabank Giller Prize, and Critical Injuries (2001), which was longlisted for the 2002 Man Booker Prize. Her latest novel, Exit Lines, was published in 2009.

Life and career
Joan Barfoot was born on May 17, 1946, in Owen Sound, Ontario, and graduated with a degree in English from the University of Western Ontario in 1969. She worked as a reporter and editor for various newspapers in Ontario including the Windsor Star, the Toronto Sun and the London Free Press. As a child, while she and her mother watched a squirrel in their back yard from their kitchen, her mother told Barfoot to tell her the squirrel's story and she'd write it down. Barfoot doesn't remember the story but remembers her delight when her mother read the story back to her and the power of creating it. Barfoot was also encouraged to write by a teacher who told Barfoot she wrote well and to consider some word-related career. In addition to writing Barfoot occasionally teaches creative writing classes though she believes writing ought to be an entirely private pleasure and a puzzle.  She lives in London, Ontario.

In 1986, her second novel, Dancing in the Dark (1982), became a film of the same name, starring Martha Henry. It won three Genie Awards, including Best Art Direction, Best Adapted Screenplay, and  Best Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role. Dancing in the Dark is a novel about the reflection of a criminally insane woman who is serving time in prison for the murder of her unfaithful husband. She explains her reasoning for the murder throughout the novel while looking for psychological freedom.

Barfoot's work has been compared internationally with that of Anne Tyler, Carol Shields, Margaret Drabble, Fay Weldon and Margaret Atwood.

Barfoot's first novel to win an award was Abra. Abra is about a young mother who abandons her home, husband and children and moves to the Canadian Wilderness.

In 1992, she won the Marian Engel Award, presented each year by the Writers' Trust of Canada to a female Canadian novelist who is in the middle of her career.

Critical commentary
In 2005, the Giller jury committee, describing Luck, wrote that "Joan Barfoot is at the peak of her powers with this splendidly realized tragicomedy about a household in the wake of an unexpected death. With its note-perfect narration, mordant wit and wonderfully neurotic cast of characters, Luck shows how death can reveal life in all its absurdity and complexity. This scintillating comedy of manners is also a profound meditation on fate, love, and artifice."

Prizes and honours
1978 Books in Canada First Novel Award, for Abra
1992 Marian Engel Award
2001 Shortlist, Trillium Book Award, for Critical Injuries
2002 Longlist, Man Booker Prize, for Critical Injuries
2005 Nominee, Scotiabank Giller Prize, for Luck
2005 Huron University College medal of distinction

Bibliography
Abra (1978) (UK title: Gaining Ground) McGraw-Hill Ryerson
Dancing in the Dark (1982) Macmillan of Canada
Duet for Three (1985)
Family News (1989)
Plain Jane (1992)
Charlotte and Claudia Keeping in Touch (1994)
Some Things About Flying (1997) Key Porter Books
Getting Over Edgar (1999) Key Porter Books
Critical Injuries (2001) Key Porter Books
Luck (2005) Alfred Knopf Canada
Exit Lines (2009) Alfred Knopf Canada

References

20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
1946 births
Living people
Writers from London, Ontario
University of Western Ontario alumni
Canadian women novelists
20th-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian women writers
Amazon.ca First Novel Award winners

Joan Barfoot


Francis William Bird Park is an   landscaped and waterscape park located in Walpole, Massachusetts. The Trustees of Reservations owns and maintains the park. Features include over  of walking and bicycle paths that wind through the park, traversing streams across granite bridges and passing through rolling lawns punctuated with mature shade trees, groves, and ponds.

Facilities at the park include bike racks, benches, trash receptacles, public restroom (open seasonally), a "tot lot" with children's play equipment, four tennis courts, a basketball backboard, and an outdoor stage. As of June 2010, the "tot lot" no longer features a children's play area. A parking lot is located on Polley Lane in East Walpole.

History
Bird Park was created and endowed in 1925 by local industrialist Charles Sumner Bird, Sr. and his wife Anna in memory of their eldest son, Francis William Bird who had died seven years earlier.

Landscape architect and town planner John Nolen, a protégé of Frederick Law Olmsted, designed the park. A social reformer, Nolen believed that parks were critical to the health of urban residents and should be designed to provide a place of respite and relaxation in nature. In his original design plan, Nolen wrote that this park should be
"... a sequestered breathing place in the heart of East Walpole ... a combination of broad, sun-swept meadowlands, speckled with shadowed glades, higher tree-screened knolls for the lover of shade, the whole set to the music of a babbling stream."

For most of its history, the park was owned and maintained by the Francis William Park Trust. By the later decades of the 20th century, parts of the park suffered badly from vandalism and neglect.

In 1998, Irene Kennedy of Foxborough, Massachusetts, was murdered in the woods of the park. In 2003, DNA found on the victim was matched with that of Martin Guy, a pizza delivery man already incarcerated for the murder of his neighbor, Christopher Payne. A plaque in the ground under the park's news board celebrates Kennedy's memory.

The Trustees of Reservations gained possession of the property in 2002 and engaged in a number of renovations, including the planting of ornamental trees such as Cherry and Japanese Maple and the installation of flower beds. Recently, The Trustees of Reservations have begun the recreation of the Rhododendron Pathway through a memorial gift program.

Ellis Field
Recognizing the need for many forms of recreation, the Bird family provided a sister property for active sports when Bird Park was created. Now known as Ellis Field or Bird Athletic Field, this nearby  recreation area (at June and East Streets in Walpole) was originally used by workers from mills owned by the Bird family. It is currently used by the town for team sports.

References

External links
Francis William Bird Park Management Plan (112 page PDF file)
The Trustees of Reservations
The Trustees of Reservations: Francis William Bird Park

Bird
Parks in Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Walpole, Massachusetts
Protected areas established in 1925
1925 establishments in Massachusetts

Francis William Bird Park