In international law a political entity needs to fulfill different criteria to become a state: One of these criteria is that other states must recognize it as a state. If more states recognize it, becoming a  de jure sovereign state will be easier.

Many of the territories listed below broke off (separated themselves) from their original parent state, and so they are often referred to as "break-away" states. They may have some military protection and informal diplomatic representation abroad. Another state may help them avoid forced reincorporation into its original state.

UN member states not recognized by at least 1 UN member state
  The Republic of Armenia was independent since 1991 after the Dissolution of the Soviet Union. The Republic of Armenia is not recognized by one UN member state, Pakistan, which has a position of supporting Azerbaijan since the First Nagorno-Karabakh War.

  The Republic of Cyprus is not recognized by one UN member state, Turkey and one non-UN member state, Northern Cyprus, due to the ongoing civil dispute over the island. Northern Cyprus claims the northeastern half of the island.

  The People's Republic of China is the more widely recognized of the two claimant governments of China, the other being the Republic of China (ROC, also known as Taiwan). The United Nations recognized the ROC as the sole representative of China until 1971 when it decided to give this recognition to the PRC instead (see United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758). The PRC and the ROC do not recognize each other's statehood, and each enforces its own version of the One-China policy meaning that no state can recognize both of them at the same time. The states that recognize the ROC (14 UN members and the Holy See as of 20 September 2019) regard it as the sole legitimate government of China and therefore do not recognize the PRC. Bhutan is the only UN member state that has never explicitly recognized either the PRC or the ROC. The Republic of China considers itself to be the sole legitimate government of China (including Taiwan), and therefore claims exclusive sovereignty over all territory controlled by the PRC.

  The State of Israel is not recognized by 28 UN members. The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) which enjoys majority international recognition as the sole representative of the Palestinian people, recognized Israel in 1993. In January 2018, the Palestinian Central Council voted to suspend recognition of Israel, but the decision has yet to be acted upon. The State of Palestine considers itself to be the legitimate government of the West Bank, much of which is under de facto occupation. The Syrian Arab Republic considers itself to be the legitimate government of the Golan Heights, a territory which Israel claims with limited recognition.

  The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is not recognized by three UN members: France, Japan and South Korea; and one non-UN member, Taiwan. South Korea considers itself to be the sole legitimate government of Korea, and claims all territory controlled by North Korea.

  The Republic of Korea is not recognized by one UN member, North Korea.  North Korea considers itself to be the sole legitimate government of Korea and claims all territory controlled by South Korea

UN observer states not recognized by at least one UN member
  The State of Palestine is a de jure sovereign state in Western Asia officially governed by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and claiming the West Bank and Gaza Strip with Jerusalem as the designated capital; in practice, however, only partial administrative control is held over the 167 "islands" in the West Bank, and Gaza is ruled by a rival government (Hamas). Israel regards the area claimed by Palestine as 'disputed' territory (that is, territory not legally belonging to any state). Israel gained control of the Palestinian territories as a result of the Six-Day War in 1967 but has never formally annexed them. The State of Palestine (commonly known as Palestine) was declared in 1988 by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which is recognized by a majority of UN member states and the UN itself as the sole representative of the Palestinian people. Since the end of the first Palestinian Intifada against Israel, the Israeli government has gradually moved its armed forces and settlers out of certain parts of Palestine's claimed territory, while still maintaining varying degrees of control over most of it. The Palestinian National Authority (PNA), which performs limited internal government functions over certain areas of Palestine, was established in 1994. In 2007, the split between the Fatah and Hamas political parties resulted in competing governments claiming to represent the PNA and Palestine, with Fatah exercising authority exclusively over the West Bank and enjoying majority recognition from UN member states, and a separate Hamas leadership exercising authority exclusively over the Gaza area (except for a short period from 2014 to 2016). Palestine is currently officially recognized as a state by 138 UN member states, the Holy See, and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. The remaining UN member states, including Israel, do not recognize the State of Palestine. The United Nations designates the claimed Palestinian territories as 'occupied' by Israel and accorded Palestine non-member observer state status in 2012. Palestine also has membership in the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and UNESCO.

Partially recognized states with de facto control over their territory
  Abkhazia in Georgia is a self-declared and mostly functioning independent state. It is recognized by the Russian Federation, Nicaragua and Venezuela. The country  is located between the Caucasus and the Black Sea. It is recognized by the Georgian government as a part of northwestern Georgia. During the Soviet period, Abkhazia became a part of Georgia in 1931. It was an autonomous republic within Soviet Georgia. The Abkhazian Soviets said it was independent from Georgia in 1992. A short war was fought from 1992 through 1994. In June 1994, a ceasefire ended the fighting and left Abkhazia outside the control of Georgia's central government.
United Nations member states that are only partially recognized by the totality of the other UN members are not listed here. (For example, 39 countries do not recognize Israel.)

  The Republic of China (R.O.C) controls only Taiwan and some of the islands of the Republic of China since losing the Chinese Civil War in 1949. It  lost most of its diplomatic recognition and UN seat to the People's Republic of China in October 25, 1971 by UN General Assembly Resolution 2758. It is now officially recognized by only 23 states. It has de facto (all but in name) relations with most countries through institutions such as the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Offices. (See political status of Taiwan).

  The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) was set up in northern Cyprus in 1975, following the intervention of the Turkish Army in 1974, in response to a coup d'état by the Greek junta aiming at "enosis". The TRNC declared independence in 1983 and it is recognised only by Turkey. A United Nations proposal to unify the two Cypriot states was accepted by the TRNC, but rejected in a referendum by the Greek Cypriot community, citing security concerns. Further attempts at reunification have thus far been unsuccessful.

  South Ossetia in Georgia is a self-declared and more or less functioning independent state with no international recognition from any other nation. After occupation of independent Georgia by Bolshevist Russia in 1921 it became the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast within Soviet Georgia. It proclaimed independence from Georgia in 1991, and a ceasefire was declared in 1992.

  Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan is (since 1991) a self-declared and more or less functioning independent state but is not recognised as independent.  It is internationally recognized as being part of Azerbaijan, but has an ethnic-Armenian majority.

More unrecognized states with de facto control over their territory

  Somaliland (since 1991) is located in north west of Somalia.  In May of 1991, north western clans declared an independent Republic of Somaliland that now includes five of the eighteen administrative regions of Somalia, corresponding to British Somali Coast Protectorate which is located between Ethiopia, Djibouti, Puntland and the Gulf of Aden. Three regions of north Somalia claimed by Somaliland, Sool, Sanaag and Cayn are disputed with neighbouring Puntland in the north east.

  Transnistria (Pridnestrovie), also spelled Transdniestria, is the part of Moldova east of the river Dniester and (since 1990) a self-declared and more or less functioning independent state with no international recognition from any sovereign state. It has a majority Slavic population, as opposed to majority Moldovan which Moldova has. Also known as the Dniester Republic, this de facto state has its own police, army, and currency and functions outside of the jurisdiction of Moldova, however, there is no sign so far of it becoming an internationally recognized country.

Partially recognized states largely under military occupation

  Western Sahara is a territory claimed and largely administered by Morocco since Spain abandoned the territory in 1976. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic controls the remainder of Western Sahara; it was proclaimed by the Front Polisario in 1976, is recognized by 46 UN member states, and a full member of the African Union. Sovereignty is unresolved and the United Nations is attempting to hold a referendum on the issue through the mission MINURSO. The UN-administered cease-fire has been in effect since September 1991. Western Sahara is on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories.

Internationally administered territory with de facto recognition
  Republic of Kosovo is recognized as an independent and sovereign country by 98 UN member states, including the U.S., 23 out of 28 EU members, etc. The International Court of Justice found that Kosovo's declaration of independence did not violate international law.

Historic unrecognized or partially recognized states with de facto control over their territory

Europe
 Banat Republic (proclaimed in 1918). Now part of Romania, Serbia, and Hungary.
 Baranya-Baja Republic (proclaimed in 1921). Now part of Hungary and Croatia.
 Carpatho-Ukraine (1939). Now part of Ukraine.
  Chechnya (1996-1999). Now controlled by Russian forces. See also Chechen Republic of Ichkeria.
  Independent State of Croatia (1941-1945). Between 1945 and 1991, Croatia was a people's/socialist republic within Yugoslavia. Since 1991, Croatia is an independent country. Recognized since 1992.
   Irish Republic (1919-1922).  Now it is divided into the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
  Finnish Socialist Workers Republic (1918)
 Free Derry (August 14 1969 to July 31 1972) Now it is part of Northern Ireland.
   Gagauzia (1990-1994). Now part of Moldova.
   Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia (1992-1994). Now part of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
  Lajtabansag State (1921). Now part of Austria.
  Limerick Soviet (1919). Now part of Republic of Ireland.
 Montenegro (1941-1944). Formerly in union with Republic of Serbia in Serbia and Montenegro.
 Serbia (1941-1944). Formerly in union with Republic of Montenegro in Serbia and Montenegro.
   Republic of Serbian Frontier (1991-1995). Now part of Croatia.
  Slovakia (1939-1945). Between 1945 and 1993, Slovakia was part of Czechoslovakia. Since 1993, Slovakia is an independent country.
  Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995). Now one of the two entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
  State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (1918). Now part of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia and Montenegro.
 Republic of Užice (1941). Now part of Serbia and Montenegro.
 Republic of West Bosnia (1993-1995). Now part of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Sealand

 Asia
  Kachin State is the northernmost state of Myanmar, controlled since 1962 by the Kachin Independence Organization but not diplomatically recognized by any country.  In 1994, KIO and the Union of Myanmar agreed to formalize the status quo by creating the "Kachin State Special Region 1", officially still a part of the Union of Myanmar but de facto controlled by KIO.
  "Wa State" is a de facto autonomous state within the Union of Burma. The Burmese government cannot control the region since independence. The ruling party calls itself "Wa State People's Government'. The Burmese government recognizes this state as part of the Shan State and officially uses "Wa Autonomous Division" and sometimes "Shan State Special Region 2".
  Kurdish Autonomous Region (1991-2003). A de facto independent state in Northern Iraq. Now part of the Kurdish autonomous region.
  Manchukuo (1932-1945). Out of 80 then existing nations 23 recognized the new state. Now part of the People's Republic of China.
  Tatarstan (1990 -1994). Now part of Russia
  Tuva (1921-1944). Now part of Russia
 Nakhichevan (1990). Now part of Azerbaijan.
 Talysh-Mugan Republic (proclaimed in 1993).  Now part of Azerbaijan.
 Tamil Eelam (1983-2009).  A part of Sri Lanka. For about 20 years the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam maintained a de facto state in the North and East of Sri Lanka until their defeat in 2009.

 Africa
 Anjouan (1997-2002). Now part of Comoros.
  Biafra controlled territory in eastern Nigeria between the time of its secession in May 1967 until its final military collapse in January 1970.  It was recognized by 12 nations.
 Katanga controlled the state of the same name within the former Belgian Congo after decolonisation, between 1960 and 1964.
  Mohéli (1997-1998). Now part of Comoros.
 Rhodesia. British Colony that unilaterally declared independence in 1965.  This action was not legally recognized by any other nation, nor the declaration of Rhodesia as a republic in 1970.  This entity remained until 1979, when it became Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.
 Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. Formed in 1979 after negotiations between white minority government and moderate black leaders. Existed 1 June to 12 December 1979, when it became the colony of South Rhodesia again. In 1980 it became the Republic of Zimbabwe.

 South African Homelands
Created by the Republic of South Africa from its own territory

 Bophuthatswana (1977-1994).  Former Thuisland formed and only recognized by South Africa, Transkei, Ciskei, and Venda.  Now part of South Africa.
 Ciskei (1981-1994). Former Thuisland formed and only recognized by South Africa, Bophuthatswana, Transkei, and Venda.  Now part of South Africa.
 Transkei (1976-1994). Former Thuisland formed and only recognized by South Africa, Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, and Venda.  Now part of South Africa.
  Venda (1979-1994). Former Thuisland formed and only recognized by South Africa, Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, and Transkei.  Now part of South Africa.

 Americas
 Independent State of Acre (1899-1903). Now part of Brazil.
 California Republic (1846-1848). Now part of the United States of America.
 Confederate States of America (1861-1865). Originally formed on February 4, 1861 by seven Southern slave states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Texas, and Louisiana) after confirmation of the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States. Jefferson Davis was selected as its first President the next day. After the American Civil War began, the states of Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina joined. Recognized diplomatically only by Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, though recognized by some nations as a "belligerent power". Now part of the United States of America.
  Republic of Hawaii (1894-1898). Now part of the United States of America.
  Republic of Texas (1836-1845).  Five nations recognized this entity. Now part of the United States of America.
 Vermont Republic (1771-1791). Now part of the United States of America.
 Piratini Republic (1836-1845). Today's Rio Grande do Sul, part of Brazil.
  Republic of the Rio Grande 1840. Now part of the United States.
  Republic of the Yucatán 1841-1843. Short-lived separatist state; reintegrated into Mexico.
 Republic of Canada (1837-1838). Now part of Canada.

 Oceania
 Bougainville (Republic of North Solomons) (1990-1997). Signed a peace deal with Papua New Guinea giving the island autonomy pending an independence referendum within a decade.
  Rotuma (1987-1988).  This Polynesian-inhabited island which is administered by (Melanesian) Fiji declared its independence from Fiji by separatists after the military coups in Fiji in 1987.
 (Kanaky). The Nouméa Accords of 1998 postponed a referendum on independence until after 2014.

 Historic unrecognized or partially recognized governments with de facto control over their territory
These regimes had control over the territory of a country for which most other states recognized a different government as being the legitimate government:

  Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996-2001). Only three states recognized this entity while the Taliban controlled it. See: History of Afghanistan.
   People's Republic of Kampuchea''' (1979-1989).  Set up by the Vietnamese after their invasion and rout of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia.  Only a few Soviet-Bloc nations recognized this entity, while the UN, China, and most other nations recognized the Khmer Rouge's Democratic Kampuchea government. Succeeded by the State of Cambodia, then the Kingdom of Cambodia.

Related pages
 List of countries

References

Lists of countries

List of states with limited recognition


Nord-Pas-de-Calais (sometimes also Nord-Pas de Calais)  used to be an administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Hauts-de-France. Its prefecture was Lille. In 2012, four million people lived there (365,000 in the urban area of Lille).

The two departments in the region were Nord and Pas-de-Calais.

The local economy was based on carbon, steel and textiles. The secondary sector (industry) employed 33.8% (of an 28.9% national average). Unemployment was at 12.9 per cent (9.8% national average). Structural investment in the TGV and the Channel Tunnel has shown some improvement though. The tourism industry does well thanks to the border with Belgium and closeness to England.

Other websites

Former administrative regions of France

Nord-Pas-de-Calais


Salter Point is a suburb of Perth, Western Australia, located in the City of South Perth local government area.

Around 1880, Samuel August Salter (after whom Salter Point was named) worked as a sawyer and timber contractor on the peninsula. At the time, the area was completely undeveloped, surrounded by dense bush with no road access.

Salter established a landing stage on the point known as "Salter's Landing", to which timber logs could be floated from where they were cut in Kelmscott and Jarrahdale for transportation to a mill by barge. Salter operated his business from this location for several years, leading to the area being renamed "Salter Point".

Samuel August Salter (1849–1930) son of British migrants Samuel and Sarah Salter, and brother to Hannah.  Hannah Buckingham (Salter) married Thomas Buckingham in 1871 and lived in Kelmscott.

In 1929 a road to the location was made.

In 1955, the area comprising Manning, Mt Henry, Salter Point and Waterford was annexed to the South Perth Road Board from the Canning Road Board.

In 1990, the suburb's name Salter Point was gazetted.

The foreshore along the Canning River has been studied for management plans.

Educational facilities
 Aquinas College, private boys' college, years 4–12

Notes

References
 Cecil C. Florey, Peninsula city: a social history of the City of South Perth, City of South Perth, 1995, p. 125-6.
 Heritage Council of Western Australia, Page 4 "Documentary Evidence"
 City of South Perth Municipal Heritage Inventory "Origin and Meaning of Street and Place Names" Updated September 2005 Page 87 - 88

Suburbs of Perth, Western Australia
Suburbs in the City of South Perth
Canning River (Western Australia)
Populated places established in 1890

Salter Point, Western Australia


The atomic number (symbol: Z) of an atom is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. The atomic number of an atom identifies which element it is. In a neutral atom, the atomic number is equal to the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus. The elements of the periodic table are listed in order of increasing atomic number.

Atomic number is not the same as:
 atomic mass (symbol: ma), which is the mass of a single atom, commonly expressed in unified atomic mass units
 mass number (symbol: A), which is the sum of the number of protons and number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
 relative atomic mass (also called atomic weight; symbol: Ar), which is the ratio of the average mass per atom of an element from a given sample to 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

The atomic number of the periodic table directly corresponds to the number of protons which is in the atom. Once another proton is added, it is no longer the same element. The same cannot be applied to when another neutron or another electron is added. Adding more electrons will give the atom a negative charge and removing electrons will give the atom a positive charge. Metals tend to lose electrons, which creates a positive charge. Non-metals tend to gain electrons, forming a negative charge. Electrons are the foundation for determining how compounds are formed among atoms.

Adding or removing neutrons within an atom changes its isotope. As an example, carbon-12 is the most stable isotope for a carbon atom. However, we can add two more neutrons and carbon-12 is now carbon-14, a less stable isotope of carbon. The number of an isotope directly correlates to the atomic mass of an element.  The amount of neutrons in any given atom by subtracting the atomic number from the atomic mass.

For example, oxygen has 8 protons. The atomic number is the number of protons an element has.  So, if an unidentified element has 8 protons, then it is oxygen. This is because each element has a certain number of protons.  If an element had 9 protons, it would not be oxygen, but an element can have 8 protons, and 9 neutrons and still be considered oxygen; we call this an isotope.

References

Related pages
Henry Moseley

Chemistry
Nuclear physics

Atomic number


Benny Goodman, born Benjamin David Goodman, (May 30, 1909 – June 13, 1986) was an American jazz musician who played the clarinet. He was called "The King of Swing", "Patriarch of the Clarinet", "The Professor", and "Swing's Senior Statesman".

Life

Early life
Goodman was the son of poor Jewish immigrants in Chicago, Illinois. They lived in Chicago's Maxwell Street neighborhood. He learned to play clarinet in a boys' band run by a charity. He became a strong clarinet player at an early age, and began playing professionally in bands while still wearing 'in short pants'.

Early influences
His early influences were New Orleans jazz clarinet players in Chicago such as Johnny Dodds, Leon Ropollo, and Jimmy Noone.

First band
Goodman joined one of Chicago's top bands, the Ben Pollack Orchestra, at the age of 16, He made his first recordings with them in 1926.  He started making records under his own name two years later.

Later life
Goodman left for New York City. He became a good session musician during the late 1920s and early 1930s. He was known as a solid player because he was prepared and reliable. He played with the nationally known bands of Red Nichols, Isham Jones, and Ted Lewis. Then he formed his own band in 1932.

In 1934, he tried out for the "Let's Dance" radio program. Since he needed new charts every week for the show, his friend John Hammond suggested that he buy some jazz charts from Fletcher Henderson, who had New York's most popular African-American band in the 1920s and early 1930s. The combination of the Henderson charts, his strong clarinet playing, and his band that practiced well made him a rising star in the mid-30s.

Fame
He performed at the Palomar Ballroom in Los Angeles on August 21, 1935. Because of this show, he became known across the United States  His radio broadcasts from New York were too late at night for many people on the East Coast to hear them, but Goodman had many fans in California, and a very excited crowd greeted Goodman.  This got a lot of attention across the nation, and made the Goodman Band popular very fast. Some writers have said that this was the start of the Swing Era.

Loss of fame
Goodman continued his fast rise throughout the late 1930s with his big band, his trio and quartet, and a sextet. On January 16, 1938, his band made a famous appearance at Carnegie Hall. By the mid-1940s, big bands became less popular. Some reasons for this are that talented musicians were entering the military or getting better-paying factory jobs, gasoline and rubber rationing during WWII, two long musician recording strikes, and the rise of popular singers like Frank Sinatra.

Death
Goodman continued to play on records and in small groups. He would sometimes organize a new band and play in a jazz festival, or go on a tour, playing in other countries. He continued to play the clarinet until he died in 1986 in New York, New York.

Other projects
Goodman also helped racial integration in America. In the early 1930s, black and white jazz musicians could not play together in most clubs or concerts. In the Southern states, racial segregation was enforced by law.  Benny Goodman broke with tradition by hiring Teddy Wilson to play with him and drummer Gene Krupa in the Benny Goodman Trio. In 1936, he added Lionel Hampton on vibes to form the Benny Goodman Quartet. Goodman was so famous that his band could afford to not go on tour in the southern states, where the people in his band might have been arrested because of their race.

References

1909 births
1986 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
American jazz musicians
American clarinetists
Bandleaders
Musicians from Chicago
20th-century American musicians

Benny Goodman


Víðarr (Old Norse: "the wide ruling one") is the god of vengeance in Norse mythology. A member of the Æsir, he is the son of Odin and the giantess Gríðr. During Ragnarök, when the monstrous wolf Fenrir swallows Odin whole, Víðarr is told to avenge his father's death, as he takes Fenrir by the jaw and tears his head apart, killing Fenrir. He will ultimately survive Ragnarök, as he will then meet with his brother Váli in Iðavöllr, where Asgard once lay; there they are joined by their brothers, Höðr and Baldr, as well as Thor's sons, Magni and Móði. After Ragnarok Víðarr will rule after Odin.

Norse gods and goddesses

Vidar


Dignity in humans involves the earning or the expectation of personal respect or esteem.

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood".
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

It is easy to show that many societies do not agree with this in practice. The civilised Greeks and Romans regarded other races as barbarians. A shocking example was Aristotle's advice to Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.p58 Many societies based on religion have treated persons of other religions harshly, with little dignity. And sometimes political movements have deliberately and openly talked about and treated some groups as not having human dignity. Nazi treatment of the Jews came after a long period of propaganda against their humanity and dignity.

Related pages
 Human rights
 Pride
 Self-esteem

References

Other websites
Dignity, article from Parenting For Everyone
Respect at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 Emotional Competency Entry describing Dignity.

Social issues
Virtues

Dignity


Nazi eugenics were a set of beliefs and rules that were very important to Nazi Germany during World War II.  These beliefs said that the Aryan race was the master race – the best race of all – and all other races were inferior (not as good).  There were also many other people who the Nazis believed were "life unworthy of life," like people with disabilities.  These ideas about eugenics were at the center of the Nazis' beliefs and eventually helped lead to the Holocaust.

Because they did not want these "inferior" people in German society, the Nazis decided to get rid of them, using many different strategies.  They began with people with disabilities.  The Nazis forced more than 400,000 people with disabilities to be sterilized (to have surgery that would make it impossible for them to have children).  They also killed over 300,000 people with disabilities in a program called Action T4.  In this program, the Nazis sent people with disabilities to places like Hadamar  and Hartheim Euthanasia Centres to be killed.  These people were killed with lethal injections and poison gas, in vans and gas chambers at the Euthanasia Centres.

Using what they learned by killing people with disabilities, the Nazis soon built extermination camps (death camps).  The Nazis' goal was to use these death camps to exterminate (kill all of) the Jewish and Roma people in Europe.  The Nazis also sent many other people who they thought were inferior to the death camps and to concentration camps, where they were forced to work as slaves.

Groups targeted by the Nazis

The Nazis' ideas about eugenics said that many different groups of people were "inferior" or "unworthy of life."  These included:
 Jewish people
 Roma people
 People with mental and physical disabilities
 These included people with epilepsy, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, deafness, and blindness
 People who disagreed with the Nazis' political beliefs (like communists and socialists)
 Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people
 People who could not work
 Slavic people
 Black people
 Criminals

Role of the United States

The eugenics movement was very popular in the United States by the time it spread to Germany. California eugenicists began writing things that encouraged eugenics and sterilization, and sent them to German scientists and medical professionals. By 1933, California had forced more people to get sterilized than all of the other U.S. states combined. The Nazis got the idea for their compulsory (forced) sterilization program partly from California's program.

In 1927, The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology (KWIA) was created in Berlin with a lot of financial support from the American philanthropic group, the Rockefeller Foundation. The KWIA's director was Eugen Fischer, a German professor of medicine, anthropology, and eugenics. Fischer said he had found scientific proof of the Nazis' eugenics ideas, and the Nazis used his work to justify their eugenics policies.

In 1934, California eugenics leader C.M. Goethe visited Germany.  At that time, more than 5,000 people per month were being forcibly sterilized in Germany. Goethe bragged to a coworker:

"You will be interested to know that your work has played a powerful part in shaping the opinions of the group of intellectuals who are behind Hitler in this epoch-making program. Everywhere I sensed that their opinions have been tremendously stimulated by American thought . . . I want you, my dear friend, to carry this thought with you for the rest of your life, that you have really jolted into action a great government of 60 million people."

Eugenics researcher Harry H. Laughlin often bragged that his Model Eugenic Sterilization laws had been put into action in Germany's Nuremberg Laws. In 1936, Laughlin was invited to an award ceremony at Heidelberg University in Germany. (The ceremony was scheduled on the anniversary of the day Hitler fired all Jews from the Heidelberg faculty two years earlier.) Laughlin was offered an honorary doctorate for his work on the "science of racial cleansing." Laughlin could not afford to attend, and had to pick his doctorate up from the Rockefeller Institute. Afterwards, he proudly shared the award with his co-workers, remarking that he felt that it showed the "common understanding of German and American scientists of the nature of eugenics."

Hitler's views on Eugenics

Adolf Hitler read racial hygiene books while he was in Landsberg Prison.  "Racial hygiene" was a set of ideas that said that only certain people should be allowed to have children.  People who belonged to races that were seen as "inferior" would not be allowed to have children.  This way, those races would eventually die out.

Hitler believed Germany had become weak, and had been poisoned by "inferior" people.  He believed these "inferior" people were ruining Germany's society, and were the cause of Germany's problems.

In his Second Book, which was never published during the Nazi era, Hitler praised the ancient Greek city of Sparta. In Sparta, all newborn infants were examined carefully.  Any infant that seemed weak, sick, or had any kind of disability was killed.  Only the healthy, strong children were allowed to live.  This meant that they were the only people alive to have children and continue the Spartan race.  Hitler praised this early model of eugenics:

The exposure of the sick, weak, deformed children, in short, their destruction [murder], was more decent and in truth a thousand times more humane than the wretched insanity of our day [in which the most disabled people are allowed to survive], and indeed at any price ... in order subsequently to breed a race of degenerates burdened with illnesses.

Basically, Hitler was saying it was better (and cheaper) to kill people with disabilities than to allow them to live and have children.  He thought that if people with disabilities were allowed to have children, their children would also have disabilities.  So people with disabilities should be killed to prevent them from "breeding [creating] a race of" "inferior" people.

Hitler would later apply these same ideas to other people he thought were "inferior."  The Holocaust was based on the idea that all of these "inferior" people should be killed so they would no longer exist in the Third Reich, Hitler's planned Nazi empire.

Nazi eugenics program
In organizing their eugenics program, the Nazis were inspired by the United States' programs of forced sterilization, and especially the eugenics laws that had been enacted in California.

On July 14, 1933, the Nazis passed the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring.  ("Hereditary diseases" are genetic disorders which are passed down from parents to children.  "Offspring" means "children.")  This law did a few things:
 It required everyone with a genetic disorder to be sterilized.
 It required doctors to report any patient with a genetic disorder to the Nazis (except in women over age 45).
 It created fines to punish doctors who did not cooperate with the law.

In 1934, nearly 4,000 people appealed against court decisions saying they would have to be sterilized. A total of 3,559 of the appeals (89%) failed. By the end of the Nazi regime, the Nazis had created over 200 Hereditary Health Courts ().  Based on their rulings, over 400,000 people were forced to be sterilized.

Nazi eugenics institutions

The Nazis made six psychiatric hospitals into "Euthanasia Centres," where people with disabilities (including children) were taken to be killed.  These six hospitals were Bernburg, Brandenburg, Grafeneck, Hadamar, Hartheim, and Sonnenstein Euthanasia Centres.

At first, the Nazis killed patients in gas vans.  The patients would be put into vansand exhaust gas from the vans' engines would be pumped into the vans.  The carbon monoxide in the exhaust gas killed the patients.  Later, gas chambers were built into the Euthanasia Centres and used pure carbon monoxide gas to kill the patients.

Identifying 'genetically sick' people
In July 1934, Nazi Germany passed the Law for Simplification of the Health System.  This law set out rules for how the Nazis would decide whether a person was 'genetically sick.' The person would be sent to a Genetic Health Court, which would decide whether the person should be sterilized.

Doctor's offices and welfare departments had to give the Nazis information about people who might be 'genetically sick.'

Nazi eugenics policies regarding marriage
The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 made anyone who wanted to get married get tested for genetic disorders. The goal of this rule was to make sure the "Aryan race" would stay "pure," without people with disabilities in it. While dating, everyone was encouraged to question their dating partner carefully about whether anyone in their family ever had a genetic disorder. Members of the Schutzstaffel'' (SS) were ordered to carefully interview possible marriage partners to make sure they had no family history of hereditary disease or insanity, but to do this carefully to avoid hurting the woman's feelings.  They were told that if they had to reject the woman for eugenic reasons, they should do it politely and not upset the woman.

Related pages
 Eugenics
 Euthanasia
 The Holocaust

References

Eugenics
Nazism
Nazi Germany
The Holocaust

Nazi eugenics


Gabrielle Renard (August 1, 1878 – February 26, 1959) was a French woman who became an important member of the family of the painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, first becoming their nanny, and subsequently a frequent model for the artist. The bond she developed with the Renoirs' second son, the future filmmaker Jean Renoir, lasted throughout their lives. Upon her marriage in 1921, she became Gabrielle Renard-Slade.

Early life
Born in Essoyes in the Aube  of France, she was a cousin of Aline Victorine Charigot Renoir, who had married the painter, Pierre-Auguste. The village was the birthplace of Aline also. At age sixteen, Gabrielle Renard moved to Montmartre to live and work as a nanny in her cousin's household, where the second of the three Renoir sons was about to be born. Renard became the subject of a number of Renoir's portraits, many of her with the children.

The Renoir family
Gabrielle Renard developed a strong bond with the infant, Jean Renoir, that would last throughout their lives. She introduced him to the Guignol puppet shows that were held in the Montmartre. Gabrielle was fascinated by the newly invented motion picture, and when Jean Renoir was only a few years old, she took him to see his first film. He became a renowned film maker.

During the final years of Pierre-Auguste Renoir's life he suffered from severe rheumatoid arthritis, but continued to paint with her help. When the family moved to a farm at Cagnes-sur-Mer near the Mediterranean coast, seeking a better climate for Renoir's arthritis, Gabrielle moved with them. While he worked in the studio at "Les Collettes", Gabrielle would place the paint brush between his crippled fingers.

Marriage
Devoted to her cousin's family, Gabrielle Renard did not marry until 1921, when the Renoir children were grown. Her husband,  (1871–1955), was an aspiring painter from a wealthy American family. They had a son whom they named Jean Slade.

The United States
Following the occupation of France by the Germans during World War II, Gabrielle and her family moved to the United States, her husband's native country. Jean Renoir also moved to the United States during the war. Being a successful film director, he settled in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California. When Gabrielle's husband died in 1955, she moved to Beverly Hills to be near Jean Renoir.

Death
Gabrielle Renard-Slade died at her home in Beverly Hills in 1959. In his memoirs, My Life and My Films, Jean Renoir begins and ends his book with discussion of Gabrielle Renard, and, throughout the autobiography, he recounts the profound influence Gabrielle had upon his life. He wrote, "She taught me to see the face behind the mask and the fraud behind the flourishes", and he concluded with the words he said he had often spoken as a child, "Wait for me, Gabrielle".

References

External links

1878 births
1959 deaths
Nannies
Pierre-Auguste Renoir
People from Aube
French emigrants to the United States
People who emigrated to escape Nazism
French artists' models
People of Montmartre
French domestic workers

Gabrielle Renard


Manama (Arabisc: المنامة Al-Manāmah) is hēafodstōl Bahraines and līþ be þǣm Persisc Sæsearme, in ēastnorðe Bahrain Īege. Hit is mǣst stede Bahraines mid folcrīm ymbe 150,000, fēorðlung þǣm full folcrīm Bahraines. Islamisc cranicas namiaþ Manamane at least as far back as 1345. Hit þā Portugliscmenn brǣcon in 1521 and æfter be þā Persiscmenn in 1602. Fram 1783 se hīred Al-Khalifa habbaþ hit gehealden and geƿealden, mid sceortum underbrecungum. Man hēt Manaman sƿā frēohæfene in 1958, and in 1971 hit ƿearþ hēafodstōl selfƿealdendes Baraines.

The economical base for Manama is identical to Barain as a whole - teorrele, oil refining, dhow bat timbrung, fiscoþ and meregrot dyfung. Manama is served by Barain International Flyhthæfen on þǣm īeglande Al Muharraq, to which it is connected with a causeway. Manama ēac is ham for þone Bahrain Irmengyld, se man āstealde in 1986.

Al Manamah was also one of the twelve municipalities of Barain, and it is now in the Capital Governorate.

Bahrain

Manama


An ethnic group is a group of people who are considered to be the same in some or multiple ways. They may all have the same ancestors, speak the same language, or have the same culture, which could sometimes include religion. They often live in the same or surrounding area.

Sometimes almost all of the people in one country are of the same ethnic group, but not always. Often one country may have several different ethnic groups, or the people of one ethnic group may live in several different countries.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ensures the rights of ethnic groups in Article 27 and also gives them the right to use their own language.

An example of an ethnic group is the Slavic peoples.

Related terms

 Supraethnicity or supra-ethnicity: a grouping of several interrelated ethnicities that have similar but unique cultures.

Related pages

 Ethnic groups of the United States
 Minority group

References

Ethnic group


The Vogelsberg Mountains are a group of low mountains in central Germany. They are in the middle of the state of Hessen. They are the product of ancient volcanic activity and are separated from the Rhön Mountains by the Fulda River and its valley.

The Vogelsberg is about 19 million years old. It is Germany's only shield volcano. It is the largest basalt formation of Central Europe. It consists of many layers which fall downward from their peak in ring-shaped terraces to the base.

The highest mountains of the Vogelsberg are Taufstein, 773 m (2,536 ft), and Hoherodskopf, 763 m (2,503 ft). Both are now in a national park, the Hoher Vogelsberg Nature Reserve.

Geography of Hesse
Mountain ranges of Germany

Vogelsberg Mountains


Silvio Sergio Bonaccorsi Barbato (born Candeias (Minas Gerais) (Brazil), 11 May 1959; died either in or over the mid-Atlantic Ocean, on the Air France Flight 447, 1 June 2009) was an Italian-Brazilian opera conductor and composer.

Life
He studied conducting at the University of Brasília and composition in Milan. He started his conducting career when he was 25 with a performance of Puccini's opera Tosca. He also helped to bring other operas to places in the middle of the Brazilian rainforest. He directed the music in a film about the Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos called Uma Vida di Paixao (A Life of Passion). In Rio de Janeiro he conducted operas which included world-famous singers such as Montserrat Caballé, Robert Alagna and Angela Gheorghiu. He also conducted choral works such as Berlioz's L'enfant du Christ.

Barbato was travelling to Kiev where he was due to conduct and teach. He was on board an Air France aeroplane flying from Rio de Janeiro to Paris early on 1 June 2009 when it mysteriously crashed over the Atlantic Ocean.

References
 Obituary "The Daily Telegraph" 6 June, 2009 p.33

1959 births
2009 deaths
Aviation deaths
Brazilian musicians
Italian conductors
Minas Gerais

Silvio Barbato


A pond is a bouk o staundin watter, either naitural or man-made, that is uisually smawer than a loch. Thay mey arise naiturally in fluidplains as pairt o a river seestem, or thay mey be somewhit isolatit depressions (examples include vernal puils an prairie potholes). Uisually thay contain shallae watter wi marsh an aquatic plants an ainimals. A few ainimals an aa mak ponds, includin baith alligators an beavers. The teep o life in a pond is generally determined bi a combination o factors includin watter level regime (parteecularly depth an duration o fluidin) an nutrient levels, but ither factors mey an aa be important, includin presence or absence o shadin bi trees, presence or absence o streams, effects o grazing ainimals, an salinity.

Humans mak ponds an aw. A wide variety o man-made bouks o watter are classifee'd as ponds.  Some ponds are creatit specifically for habitat restoration, includin watter treatment. Ithers, lik watter gairdens, watter featurs an koi ponds are designed for aesthetic ornamentation as laundscape or airchitectural featurs. Fish ponds are designed for commercial fish breedin, an solar ponds designed tae store thermal energy.

Staundin bodies o watter sic as puddles, ponds, an lochs are eften categorized separately frae flaein watter coorses, sic as a brook, creek, stream or river.

References

Fluvial laundforms
Habitats

Bouks o watter

Pond


Ferdinand VI (Fernando; 23 September 1713 – 10 August 1759) was a King of Spain July 1746 until his death in 1759 aged 49 He was the fourth son of the previous monarch Philip V and his first wife Maria Luisa of Savoy. The third Bourbon to rule Spain, he died childless and his half brother Charles became king.

Infancy

Born at the Royal Alcazar (Royal Palace) of Madrid, he was the youngest son of Philip V of Spain and his wife Queen Maria Luisa. His parents enjoyed a loving relationship, Ferdinand being their fourth child. However, his mother died in 1714 and the king married again, this time to Elisabeth Farnese, a niece of the Duke of Parma. Queen Elisabeth was a domineering woman who ruled her husband. As such, the new queen would have a further seven children including Ferdinand's own successor Charles III. Ferdinand was by temperament melancholy, shy and distrustful of his own abilities. When complimented on his shooting, he replied, "It would be hard if there were not something I could do." Shooting and music were his only pleasures, and he was the generous patron of the famous singer Farinelli, whose voice soothed his melancholy. As the younger son, his brother Louis, Prince of Asturias was heir to the throne. However, Louis died aged sixteen in 1724 having reigned for a mere eight months. As such Ferdinand became Prince of Asturias and heir to the throne.

Marriage

On 20 January 1729, Ferdinand married Barbara of Portugal, daughter of John V of Portugal and Maria Anna of Austria. This marriage further cemented a union with Portugal who had engaged Barbara's brother to Ferdinand's half sister. The very homely looks of his wife were thought by observers to cause the prince a visible shock when he was first presented to her. Yet he became deeply attached to his wife, and proved in fact nearly as adoring of her as his father was of Queen Maria Luisa.

Reign
When he came to the throne, Spain found itself in the War of the Austrian Succession which ended without any benefit to Spain. He started his reign by getting rid of the influence of the widow Queen Elisabeth and her Italian courtiers. As king he followed a firm policy of neutrality in the war between France and Britain, and refused to be tempted to join the war by the offers of either. The most important tasks during the reign of Ferdinand VI were carried out by the Marquis of Ensenada, the Secretary of the Treasury, Navy and Indies. He suggested that the state help modernise the country. To him, this was necessary to maintain a position of outward strength so that France and Great Britain would consider Spain as an ally without supposing Spain's renunciation of its claim to Gibraltar. Plans for modernising Spain included a new Treasury; the stimulation of commerce in the Americas; modernising the Navy; improving relations with the church and ensuring cultural progress.

The death of his wife Barbara, who had been devoted to him, and who carefully abstained from political intrigue, broke his heart. Between the date of her death in August 1758 and his own in August 1759, he fell into a state of prostration in which he would not even dress, but wandered unshaven, unwashed and in a nightgown around his park. He was buried at the Convent of the Salesas Reales, Spain.

Titles and styles

23 September 1713 – 31 August 1724 His Royal Highness The Infante Don Fernando of Spain
31 August 1724 – 9 July 1746 His Royal Highness The Prince of Asturias
9 July 1746 – 10 August 1759 His Majesty The King of Spain

Other websites

1713 births
1759 deaths
People from Madrid
Kings and Queens of Spain
Princes and Princesses of Asturias
Spanish House of Bourbon

Ferdinand VI of Spain


The International African Association (in full, "International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa"; in French Association Internationale Africaine, and in full Association Internationale pour l'Exploration et la Civilisation de l'Afrique Centrale) was a front organization established by the guests at the Brussels Geographic Conference of 1876, an event hosted by King Leopold II of Belgium. The Association was used by King Leopold ostensibly to further his purportedly altruistic and humanitarian projects in the area of Central Africa, the area that was to become Leopold's privately controlled Congo Free State. King Leopold volunteered space in Brussels for the International African Association's headquarters, and there were to be national committees of the association set up in all the participating countries, as well as an international committee. Leopold was elected by acclamation as the international committee's first chairman, but said that he would serve for one year only so that the chairmanship could rotate among people from different countries.

The new body was welcomed throughout Europe (contributions were sent by the Rothschilds and Viscount Ferdinand de Lesseps) and the national committees were to be headed by grand dukes, princes, and other royals, but most of them never got off the ground. The international committee met once in the following year, reelected Leopold as chairman, despite his earlier pledge not to serve again, and then disintegrated. Nevertheless, thanks to the Association, Leopold succeeded in his goal of convincing the Belgian people and the  major powers of Europe that his interest in Africa was purely altruistic and humanitarian-oriented. The Association was succeeded by the short-lived Committee for Studies of the Upper Congo, and the International Association of the Congo, which eventually dissolved when Leopold renamed the area the Congo Free State.

History

Creation
The organization was created at the 1876 Brussels Geographic Conference to which Leopold invited nearly forty well-known experts, who were mainly schooled in the geographic sciences or were wealthy philanthropists. They hailed from a number of European countries. As a result, the Association was originally conceived as a multi-person, scientific, and humanitarian assembly but it quickly became dominated by Leopold and his economic interests in Africa. Originally, the stated goal of the group was to "discover" the largely unexplored Congo and 'civilize' its natives, whence it full name "International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa". In his novella Heart of Darkness, the author Joseph Conrad therefore sarcastically referred to the Association as "the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs". The Association was intended to be a joint effort on the parts of all European countries present at the Conference, however, each nation formed its own national committee for exploration which would, in theory, share information with the whole of the Association, hence, a cooperative effort. However, national economic interests quickly took precedence over the group's supposedly philanthropic ideals. Each of these committees organized nationalized expeditions into the African interior and there was very little sharing of information, resulting in each nation claiming certain portions of African land for themselves.

Exploration of the Region
From 1879 to 1884 famed explorer Henry Morton Stanley returned to the Congo, this time not as a reporter, but as an envoy from Leopold, and under the guise of the Belgian Committee, with the secret mission to organize a Congo state. At the same time, the French marine officer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza traveled into the western Congo Basin and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881. The Kingdom of Portugal, which also claimed the area due to old treaties with the native Kongo Empire, made a treaty with Great Britain on February 26, 1884, to block off the Congo Society's access to the Atlantic.

At the same time, various European countries tried to acquire a foothold in Africa. France occupied Ottoman Tunisia and colonized today's Republic of the Congo in 1881, followed by the Rivières du Sud colony at the Gulf of Guinea in 1884. In 1882, Great Britain occupied the Khedivate of Egypt, an Ottoman vassal which ruled over much of present-day Sudan and parts of Somalia. In 1870 and 1882, Kingdom of Italy took possession of the first parts of Eritrea, while the German Empire declared Togoland, German Cameroon, and South-West Africa to be under its protection in 1884.

Disintegration
The large number of competing interests caused the Association to fracture and disintegrate over each member state's national interests. The Association's break-up eventually forced the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, effectively beginning what became known as the Scramble for Africa. Despite the failure of the initial committee, the Belgian Committee that the Association generated continued to sponsor "humanitarian" missions into the bush.

Formation of the International Association of the Congo
In 1879, the International Association of the Congo was also formed, having more economic goals, but still closely related to the former society. Leopold secretly bought off the foreign investors in the Congo Society, which was turned to imperialistic goals, with the Association serving primarily as a philanthropic front. By these means, Leopold morphed the organization's "ideology from an international philanthropic association to that of a private commercial enterprise…[and] the change from a commercial plan to a political reality: the Congo Free State."

See also
International Association of the Congo
Congo Reform Association

References

Further reading
 Neal Ascherson: The King Incorporated, Allen & Unwin, 1963.  (1999 Granta edition).
Petringa, Maria: Brazza, A Life for Africa, 2006.
 William Roger Louis and Jean Stengers: E.D. Morel's History of the Congo Reform Movement, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1968.

External links

Cooperativeresearch.org: Timeline for the Democratic Republic of the Congo
 Archive International African Association, Royal museum for central Africa

1876 establishments in Africa
1870s in Africa
Congo Free State
Front organizations
History of West Africa
Political history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
New Imperialism
Organizations established in 1876
Organizations disestablished in 1884
Leopold II of Belgium
Belgium–Democratic Republic of the Congo relations

International African Association


Texel is an island and municipality of the province of North Holland, the Netherlands. In 2016 the municipality had about 13,600 people. The municipality covers an area of 463 km², the island an area of 161 km².

Texel makes part of the West Frisian Islands (Dutch: Waddeneilanden).

It lies southwest of the island of Vlieland and northeast of the small island of Noorderhaaks (part of the municipality of Texel).

Main town is Den Burg.

Other websites

West Frisian Islands

Texel


Diplomatic immunity is a special law that covers people who work in embassies or consulates. The people are called diplomats. The diplomatic immunity means that although they live and work as a visitor inside a "host country", they are not ruled by the law of that country. They are only ruled by the law of their home country.

A diplomat can work without interference from the police and government of the country where he/she works.  Diplomatic immunity means that a diplomat can keep the secrets of his own country's government, without the government of the host country being able to find out about them.

Police from the host country cannot arrest a diplomat, or search a diplomat's house or office. They cannot even give a diplomat's car a parking ticket without the permission of the diplomat's government.

Honorary consuls only work part-time as diplomats, so only have diplomatic immunity when working as diplomats.  Police may search their offices, but not the part where they keep their diplomatic work.

Diplomacy

Diplomatic immunity


The Depairtment for Employ an Learnin is a devolved Northren Ireland govrenment depairtment in the Northren Ireland Executive.

The Depairtment's fower main auries o acteevity
 Betterin the proveesion o learnin an skeels, includin entrepreneurship, enterprise, management an leadership.
 Betterin the level o resairch an oncome, creauteevity an innovation in the Northren Ireland economy;
 Helpin fowk find jobs, includin sel-employment, an betterin the linkages atween employment programmes an skeels oncome; an
 The oncome an mainteenance o the framewark o employment richts an responsibeelities.

Govrenment o Northren Ireland

Depairtment for Employ an Learnin


The Gulf of Gonâve () is a large gulf along the western coast of Haiti. It is at . Port-au-Prince, the capital city of Haiti, is on the coast of the gulf. Other cities on the gulf coast include Gonaïves, Saint-Marc, Miragoâne, and Jérémie.

Several islands are in the gulf; the largest is Gonâve Island, followed by the much smaller Cayemites. The Artibonite River flows into this gulf.

Gonâve Island splits the gulf in two channels (a channel is a narrow part of the sea): the Saint-Marc Channel to the north and the Gonâve Channel to the south.

Geography of Haiti
Gulfs

Gulf of Gonâve


The Yellow Sea is the northern part of the East China Sea. It is between Mainland China and the Korean peninsula. The northwestern part is called the Bohai Sea. The  name "Yellow Sea" comes from the silt particles that color its water. The particles come from the Yellow River. Smaller rivers include the Yalu and Han Rivers.

Seas of the Pacific Ocean

Yellow Sea


The Short Victorious War is a science fiction novel by American writer David Weber, first published in 1994. It is the third book in the  Honor Harrington series.

Its title comes from a quotation by Vyacheslav von Plehve in reference to the Russo-Japanese War: "What this country needs is a short, victorious war to stem the tide of revolution."  That quotation is one of the novel's two epigraphs; the other is a quotation from Robert Wilson Lynd: "The belief in the possibility of a short decisive war appears to be one of the most ancient and dangerous of human illusions."

Plot summary
The People's Republic of Haven finds itself teetering at the edge of economic disaster.  Unable to maintain its massive welfare state in the face of inflation and deficit and with opposition to the government getting bolder, the leaders of the People's Republic decide to resort to war against Manticore. A short, victorious war, they believe, will both distract the proles from their current economic problems and allow them to use the riches of the Manticore system to prop up their welfare state.

Meanwhile, Honor returns to duty after injuries she sustained in The Honor of the Queen to command the brand-new battlecruiser HMS Nike, the pride of the Royal Manticoran Navy, with some of her old crew aboard and with her old Academy friend Michelle Henke as executive officer. But on their way to her post, the engineers of the Nike discover a flaw in one of her fusion reactors, which hampers her first operational deployment to the critical Manticoran base at Hancock Station.

Honor spends the time her ship is in dock by beginning her first real romantic relationship with the senior engineering officer of Hancock Station's maintenance facility, Captain Junior Grade Paul Tankersley.

The Havenites start the war Honor had been struggling to prevent in the previous books. Their plan is to launch probing missions on Manticoran Alliance members to push the Alliance into re-deploying its forces to create weak points and allow them to strike at Manticore directly.

They are aided greatly in this through the use of Project Argus, stealthy sensor platforms purchased from the Solarian League and planted in Alliance systems to watch the movements of Manticore forces.  Havenite ships on ballistic courses with no active systems are able to collect the data dumps from the sensor platforms without being detected by Manticore forces.  When Admiral Sarnow's superior deploys most of Hancock Station's ships to other star systems to guard against further Havenite provocation, the Argus net allows the Havenites to see this weakness in the Manticore position, and they decide to attack Hancock Station in force.

Honor joins Admiral Mark Sarnow's fleet alongside her old enemy, Pavel Young. With most of the Royal Manticoran Navy deployed elsewhere to prevent the Havenite provocations, Honor and Admiral Sarnow find themselves forced to defend Hancock Station from a vastly superior Havenite armada. With the help of Honor's unorthodox tactics, the task force is able to hold off the Havenites for long enough for reinforcements to arrive. In the final stages of the battle Pavel Young, startled by an impact on his ship and technically in command of the formation, orders the formation to scatter. Honor, realizing the battle can still be won by quickly closing Manticore reinforcements, reassembles the fleet, resulting in a crushing Havenite defeat. At the end of the novel, Young is removed from command, placed under arrest and is to be court-martialed at Manticore.  Capt. Tankersley is promoted to Captain of the List and ordered back to Manticore aboard Nike for reassignment.

After the first disastrous battles of the war, three Havenite revolutionaries—Robert S. Pierre, Oscar Saint-Just, and Cordelia Ransom—lead the overthrow of their "Legislaturalist" government by killing hereditary President Harris and nearly his entire government during his birthday celebration with an air strike by shuttles of the Havenite Navy.  They blame the killings on the Navy, and using the fear of a possible military coup form a "Committee of Public Safety" to rule the People's Republic "until a new government can be formed". They begin a purge of senior military officers and political figures to cement their rule.

Analysis
This novel is much less Honor-centered than the previous two, and the war is depicted from many perspectives.

Reviews

 Review by Carolyn Cushman (1994) in Locus, #398 March 1994
 Review by John C. Bunnell (1994) in Dragon Magazine, May 1994
 Review by Norm Hartman (1997) in Space & Time, Summer 1997

References

Baen Books available as e-books
American science fiction novels
Novels by David Weber
Honorverse books
1994 American novels
1994 science fiction novels

The Short Victorious War


A side chain in organic chemistry is a chemical group. It is attached to the molecule's "main chain" or backbone. A side chain is also known as a pendant chain.

Alkyl (saturated hydrocarbon) group side chains are represented by the placeholder R. Other non-carbon groups can be represented by X, Y, or Z.

Organic chemistry

Side chain


A course deviation indicator (CDI) is an avionics instrument used in aircraft navigation to determine an aircraft's lateral position in relation to a course to or from a radio navigation beacon. If the location of the aircraft is to the left of this course, the needle deflects to the right, and vice versa.

Use
The indicator shows the direction to steer to correct for course deviations.  Correction is made until the vertical needle centres, meaning the aircraft has intercepted the given course line. The pilot then steers to stay on that line. Only the receiver's current position determines the reading: the aircraft's heading, orientation, and track are not indicated.

The deflection of the needle is proportional to the course deviation, but sensitivity and deflection vary depending on the system being used:

 When used with a VOR or VORTAC, the instrument can be referred to as an "omni bearing indicator" ("OBI"). The course line is selected by turning an "omni bearing selector" or "OBS" knob usually located in the lower left of the indicator.  It then shows the number of degrees deviation between the aircraft's current position and the "radial" line emanating from the signal source at the given bearing. This can be used to find and follow the desired radial. Deflection is 10° deviation at full scale (each side), with each dot on the CDI representing 2°.  (See Using a VOR for usage during flight.)
 When used with a GPS, or other RNAV equipment, it shows actual distance left or right of the programmed course line.  Sensitivity is usually programmable or automatically switched, but  deviation at full scale is typical for en route operations.  Approach and terminal operations have a higher sensitivity up to frequently  at full scale. In this mode, the OBS knob may or may not have an effect, depending on configuration.
 When used for instrument approaches using a LDA or ILS the OBS knob has no function because the course line is usually the runway heading, and is determined by the ground transmitter.  A CDI might incorporate a horizontal needle to provide vertical guidance when used with a precision ILS approach where the glideslope is broadcast by another transmitter located on the ground.

A CDI is not used with an automatic direction finder (ADF), which receives information from a normal AM radio station or an NDB.

Operation
The CDI was designed to interpret a signal from a VOR, LDA, or ILS receiver.  These receivers output a signal composed of two AC voltages. When used with a VOR, a converter decodes this signal, and, by determining the desired heading or radial from a resolver connected to the OBS knob, provides a 150mV control signal  to drive the CDI needle left or right. Most older units and some newer ones integrate a converter with the CDI.  CDI units with an internal converter are not compatible with GPS units.
More modern units are driven by a converter that is standalone or integrated with the radio.  The resolver position is sent to the converter which outputs the control signal to drive the CDI.  For digital units, the desired position of the needle is transmitted via a serial ARINC 429 signal from the radio or GPS unit, allowing the CDI design to be independent of the receiver and by multiple receiver types.

See also
 Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics
 Horizontal situation indicator

References

External links
 Flash VOR type Course Deviation Indicator Simulator

Aircraft instruments
Avionics
Radio navigation

Course deviation indicator


Frigg (or Frigga) is the goddess of marriage, family, and motherhood in Norse mythology. She is the wife of Odin (chief of the Æsir), by whom she is the mother of Baldr and Höðr, and stepmother of Thor (Odin's eldest son) and Víðarr. Ruling Asgard as queen alongside the All-Father, Frigg often dwells in the dense, foggy lands of Fensalir (Old Norse: "Halls of Fen") when her husband is away on one of his quests for knowledge; additionally, she is the only one besides Odin permitted to sit on his throne Hliðskjálf, and look out across the Nine Realms. Serving as Frigg's attendants are Eir, the gods' doctor and goddess of healing, Hlín (a goddess of protection), Gná (a messenger goddess), and Fulla (a fertility goddess). It is unclear whether Frigg's companions and attendants are simply different aspects of Frigg herself (cf. avatar).

Norse gods and goddesses

Frigg


The Moskvitch 402 is a small family caur manufactured bi the Umwhile Soviet maker MZMA, first time introduced in 1956 as a seicont generation o the Moskvitch 400/401 series. Unlik its predecessor, which wis based on Opel Kadett's body, 402 featurt mony improvements sic as fower doors an a standard caur radio.

Moskvitch 402 shared the same 4-cylinder flathead ingine as its predecessors, houever, whose construction datit back in the late 1930s o German ingineerin. The maximal speed that coud be obtained on a free driveway wis 88–90 km/h (54 mph), nae mair nor a slicht increase ower the 401 series (an maistly due tae considerable reductions in body wecht). It wis no till 1958 that the ingine wis replaced wi MZMA's OHV development (amang ither changes tae the motor) which allowed tae obtain a maximal speed increase up tae 115 km/h (70 mph) an a muckle less noisy drive. The new ingine 402 model wis manufactured as Moskvitch 407.

In 1961, the 407 model wis further upgradit wi an even stranger, faster M-407D1-D2 ingine (allowin tae haundle the fowert speed on a manual transmission), self-adjustin brake cylinders an hydraulic clutch drive, alangside a completely restructured driver's interior panel. This model, manufactured as Moskvitch 403, served as a transition atween the seicont an the third generation o Moskvitches, which debuted in 1964. The 402 model wis completely discontinued bi August 1959, wi the 407 production endin in 1963 an the 403 in 1965.

Moskvitches 402 an 407 coud be considered as the first step in USSR/Roushie's automotive history towards producin customer-adaptit trim levels for various uises. While the 407 model providit greater drivin comfort at bigger expenses, ither trims an aa includit the 424 station wagon available for the general public, 431 delivery pick-up/ambulance van an even the 410/411 attempt o creatin an SUV-based sedan/station wagon.

Trims an body styles
 Moskvitch 402 — the oreeginal series, produced frae 1956 tae 1959.
 Moskvitch 407 — same series wi modified ingine an frontal grille, produced frae 1958 tae 1963.
 Moskvitch 403 — improved version o 407, wi notable interior accommodations. Produced frae 1961 tae 1965.
 Moskvitch 423 — seicont generation station wagon (efter Moskvitch 422-422K), produced atween 1957 an 1958.
 Moskvitch 423H — its upgradit version (407 ingine featurt), produced 1958 throu 1963.
 Moskvitch 410 — first Soviet crossover, briefly produced atween 1957 an 1958.
 Moskvitch 410H — an upgrade on the 410 model (seemilar tae the 403 upgrade o 407) featurin, houever, a lesser drivetrain. Produced 1961 throu 1964.
 Moskvitch 411 — a station wagon crossover, produced atween 1959 an 1961.
 Moskvitch 430 an 430H — baith twa-door delivery pick-ups, wi H bein its crossover variant. The H wis never released, houever, due tae increasin production costs, while 430 itself wis briefly manufactured in 1958.
 Moskvitch 424 — the 423 model redesigned tae featur a convertible passengers/cargo rear compartment, possible unification o 423 an 430 models released frae 1963 tae 1965.
 Moskvitch 432 — delivery pick-up variant based on 403 model, produced an discontinued in 1964 in favor o Moskvitch 433.
 Moskvitch 407 coupe — short-lived 2-door sport variant o 407, produced in 1962.

Moskvitch
Sedans
Station wagons
Rear wheel drive vehicles
Soviet automobiles
1950s automobiles
1960s automobiles
Vehicles introduced in 1958

Moskvitch 402


Antonio de Cabezón (born Castrillo de Matajudios, near Burgos, Spain, 1510; died Madrid, 26 March, 1566) was a Spanish composer and organist of the Renaissance.  He was blind from early childhood.  He is best known for the music he composed for the organ.

Life
His parents came from noble families and owned a lot of land.  He probably had his first organ lessons at the local church.  Then he had more music lessons in Palencia.  He probably had organ lessons from the cathedral organist.  He never had an official job at the cathedral, but he must have been an excellent student, and his teachers, who had a lot of influence, recommended him to the royal family.  In 1526 he became organist to Queen Isabella and played at the Spanish chamber concerts of King Charles V of Spain.

About 1538 he married the daughter of a rich family and he went to live in Avila where his wife came from.  They had five children who had important positions at the royal court when they grew up.

After Queen Isabella died he spent all his time working for Prince Philip, who became Philip II.  King Philip thought he was the world's greatest artist except for the painter Titian.  He often travelled with the king to countries such as Italy, Germany, Luxembourg and the Netherlands.  He influenced many European composers that he met, and they influenced him.  When the king moved to Madrid and made it the capital of Spain, Cabezón went there too.  He stayed there until his death.

His music
Cabezón was one of the greatest composers of his time.  He was good at writing music which sounded just right for the organ and the clavichord.  He used the techniques of other composers of his time, but added some very special effects.  Instead of just putting in a lot of ornamentation to make the music interesting, he enjoyed creating tension between harmony and melody.

He wrote diferencias (sets of variations) which use Spanish tunes which were often dances such as the folia, pavan and galliard.  Many of his organ compositions are called  glosas .  Each one has something very special to say.

1510 births
1566 deaths
Spanish organists
Renaissance composers
Spanish composers

Antonio de Cabezón


The Wattasid dynasty (; , al-waṭṭāsīyūn) was a ruling dynasty of Morocco. Like the Marinid dynasty, its rulers were of Zenata Berber descent. The two families were related, and the Marinids recruited many viziers from the Wattasids. These viziers assumed the powers of the Sultans, seizing control of the Marinid dynasty's realm when the last Marinid, Abu Muhammad Abd al-Haqq, who had massacred many of the Wattasids in 1459, was murdered during a popular revolt in Fez in 1465.

Abu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya was the first Sultan of the Wattasid Dynasty. He controlled only the northern part of Morocco, the south being divided into several principalities. The Wattasids were finally supplanted in 1554, after the Battle of Tadla, by the Saadi dynasty princes of Tagmadert who had ruled all of southern Morocco since 1511.

Overview
Morocco endured a prolonged multifaceted crisis in the 15th and early 16th centuries brought about by economic, political, social and cultural issues. Population growth remained stagnant and traditional commerce with the far south was cut off as the Portuguese occupied all seaports. At the same time, the towns were impoverished, and intellectual life was on the decline.

History
Morocco was in decline when the Berber Wattasids assumed power. The Wattasid family had been the autonomous governors of the eastern Rif since the late 13th century, ruling from their base in Tazouta (near present-day Nador). They had close ties to the Marinid sultans and provided many of the bureaucratic elite. While the Marinid dynasty tried to repel the Portuguese and Spanish invasions and help the kingdom of Granada to outlive the Reconquista, the Wattasids accumulated absolute power through political maneuvering. When the Marinids became aware of the extent of the conspiracy, they slaughtered the Wattasids, leaving only Abu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya alive. He went on to found the Kingdom of Fez and establish the dynasty to be succeeded by his son, Mohammed al-Burtuqali, in 1504.

The Wattasid rulers failed in their promise to protect Morocco from foreign incursions and the Portuguese increased their presence on Morocco's coast. Mohammad al-Chaykh's son attempted to capture Asilah and Tangier in 1508, 1511 and 1515, but without success.

In the south, a new dynasty arose, the Saadian dynasty, which seized Marrakesh in 1524 and made it their capital. By 1537 the Saadis were in the ascendent when they defeated the Portuguese Empire at Agadir.  Their military successes contrast with the Wattasid policy of conciliation towards the Catholic kings to the north.

As a result, the people of Morocco tended to regard the Saadians as heroes,  making it easier for them to retake the Portuguese strongholds on the coast, including Tangiers, Ceuta and Maziɣen. The Saadians also attacked the Wattasids who were forced to yield to the new power.  In 1554, as Wattasid towns surrendered, the Wattasid sultan, Ali Abu Hassun, briefly retook Fez. The Saadis quickly settled the matter by killing him and, as the last Wattasids fled Morocco by ship, they too were murdered by pirates.

The Wattasid did little to improve general conditions in Morocco following the Reconquista.  It was necessary to wait for the Saadians for order to be reestablished and the expansionist ambitions of the kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula to be curbed.

Coinage
Known Wattasid coins include a few extremely rare gold coins and also square silver dirhams and half dirhams, still following the Almohad Caliphate standard of roughly 1.5 grams.

The dynasty

Wattasid Viziers
1420–1448: Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi
1448–1458: Ali ibn Yusuf
1458–1459: Yahya ibn Abi Zakariya Yahya

Wattasid Sultans
1472–1504: Abu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya
1504–1526: Abu Abd Allah al-Burtuqali Muhammad ibn Muhammad
1526–1526: Abu al-Hasan Abu Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad
1526–1545: Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad
1545–1547: Nasir ad-Din al-Qasri Muhammad ibn Ahmad
1547–1549: Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad
1554–1554: Abu al-Hasan Abu Hasun Ali ibn Muhammad

Family tree

Chronology of events

According to the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1479), and to the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), Spain recognized the kingdom as being in the Portuguese sphere of influence.
1485: Treaty with Spain: The sultanate agrees to not help the Kingdom of Granada, Spain agreed to not capture Moroccan ships in the Alboran Sea.
1488: Portuguese conquer Safi.
1491: Muhammad XIII, Sultan of Granada (El Zagal) went to Fez, but was captured and blinded.
1492: Arrival of Spanish Muslims and Jews.
1497: Spain captures Melilla
1502: Portugal captures Mazagan.
1505: Portugal captures Agadir.
1506: Portugal captures Mogador.
1511: Saadians capture Rabat.
1524: Saadians capture Marrakesh.
1541: Saadians capture Agadir.
1541: Saadians capture Safi.
1542: Hasan Hâsim captures Tetuan.
1548: The last wattasid king is captured by the Saadians.
1550: Saadians conquer Fez.

See also
List of rulers of Morocco

References

Sources

Dynasties of Morocco
Medieval Morocco
15th century in Morocco
16th century in Morocco
Berber dynasties
Countries in medieval Africa
Sunni dynasties
15th-century establishments in Africa
1550s disestablishments in Africa

Wattasid dynasty


A resonator guitar or resophonic guitar is an acoustic guitar that produces sound by conducting string vibrations through the bridge to one or more spun metal cones (resonators), instead of to the guitar's sounding board (top). Resonator guitars were originally designed to be louder than regular acoustic guitars, which were overwhelmed by horns and percussion instruments in dance orchestras. They became prized for their distinctive tone, and found life with bluegrass music and the blues well after electric amplification solved the problem of inadequate volume.

Resonator guitars are of two styles:

 Square-necked guitars played in lap steel guitar style
 Round-necked guitars played in conventional guitar style or steel guitar style

There are three main resonator designs:

 The tricone, with three metal cones, designed by the first National company
 The single-cone "biscuit" design of other National instruments
 The single inverted-cone design (also known as a spider bridge) of Dobro brand instruments and instruments that copy the Dobro design

Many variations of all these styles and designs have been produced under many brand names. The body of a resonator guitar may be made of wood, metal, or occasionally other materials. Typically there are two main sound holes, positioned on either side of the fingerboard extension. In the case of single-cone models, the sound holes are either both circular or both f-shaped, and symmetrical. The older tricone design has irregularly shaped sound holes. Cutaway body styles may truncate or omit the lower f-hole.

History

National tricone

John Dopyera, responding to a request by the steel guitar player George Beauchamp, developed the resonator guitar to produce an instrument that could produce sufficient volume to compete with brass and reed instruments. Dopyera experimented with configurations of up to four resonator cones and with cones composed of several different metals.

In 1927, Dopyera and Beauchamp formed the National String Instrument Corporation to manufacture resonator guitars under the brand name "National". The first models were metal-bodied, and featured three conical aluminum resonators joined by a T-shaped aluminum bar that supported the bridge—a system called the tricone. National originally produced wooden-bodied Tricone models at their factory in Los Angeles, California. They called these models the Triolian, but made only 12 of them. They changed the body meant for tricones to single-cone models, but kept the name.

Dobro

In 1928, Dopyera left National to form the Dobro Manufacturing Company with his brothers Rudy, Emile, Robert, and Louis, "Dobro" being a contraction of Dopyera Brothers' and also meaning "good" in their native Slovak language. Dobro released a competing resonator guitar with a single resonator with its concave surface uppermost, often described as bowl-shaped, under a distinctive circular perforated metal cover plate with the bridge at its center resting on an eight-legged aluminum spider. This system was cheaper to produce, and produced more volume than National's tricone.

Over time, the word "dobro" has become a genericized trademark used to refer to any resonator guitar.

National biscuit

National countered the Dobro with its own single resonator model, which Dopyera had designed before he left the company. They also continued to produce the tricone design, which many players preferred for its tone. Both National single and tricone resonators remained conical, with their convex surfaces uppermost. Single resonator models used a wooden biscuit at the cone apex to support the bridge. At this point, both companies sourced many components from Adolph Rickenbacker, including the aluminum resonators.

National Dobro, Hound Dog, and Gibson
After much legal action, the Dopyera brothers gained control of both National and Dobro in 1932, and subsequently merged them into the "National Dobro Corporation". However, they ceased all resonator guitars production following the U.S. entry into World War II in 1941.

Emile Dopyera (also known as Ed Dopera) manufactured Dobros from 1959, before selling the company and trademark to Semie Moseley, who merged it with his Mosrite guitar company and manufactured Dobros for a time.

In 1967, Rudy and Emile Dopyera formed the Original Musical Instrument Company (OMI) to manufacture resonator guitars, first branded Hound Dog. In 1970 they again acquired the Dobro trademark, Mosrite having gone into temporary liquidation.

The Gibson Guitar Corporation acquired OMI in 1993, and announced it would defend its right to exclusive use of the Dobro trademark—which many people commonly used for any resonator guitar. , Gibson produces several round sound hole models under the Dobro name, and cheaper f-hole models both under the Hound Dog name and also its Epiphone brand. All have a single resonator, and many are available in either round or square neck.

Other National instruments
After the formation of the National Dobro Corporation, the term National was often used to refer to an instrument with a non-inverted cone, to distinguish these designs from the inverted-cone Dobro. Makers particularly used it for single-cone biscuit designs, as the relatively elaborate and expensive tricone was for some time out of production. Players and collectors also used the term for the older tricone instruments, which despite their softer volume and rarity were still preferred by some players.

In 1942, the National Dobro Corporation, which no longer produced Dobros or other resonator instruments, reorganized under the name Valco. Valco produced a large volume and variety of fretted instruments under many names, with National as its premium brand. By the early 1960s, Valco again produced resonator guitars for mail order under the brand name National. These instruments had biscuit resonators and bodies of wood and fiberglass.

In the late 1980s, the National brand and trademark reappeared with the formation of National Reso-Phonic Guitars. The company produces six-string resonator guitars of all three traditional resonator types, focusing on reproducing the feel and sound of old instruments. Its other resonator instruments include a 12-string guitar, ukuleles and mandolins.

Non-US instruments

Brazil
Casa Del Vecchio Ltda. of São Paulo, Brazil, has produced a wide range of guitars and other string instruments since Angelo Del Vecchio founded the company in 1902. In the 1930s, they began producing resonator guitars, resulting in their most famous model: the Dinâmico, (their trade term for resophonic instruments).
In addition to the Dinâmico guitar, which is still in production, Del Vecchio also produced Dinâmico cavaquinhos, approximately like a resonator ukulele, and resonator mandolins.  They also produce standard acoustic instruments, as well as Hawaiian-style lap steel guitars.

Czech Republic
In the late 1990s Amistar, a Czech Republic manufacturer, began marketing tricone resonator guitars.

Australia
Wayne Acoustic Guitars produced a spider bridge resonator guitar in the 1940s and 1950s in Australia. They were made out of cheap Australian timber using a tone ring rather than a tone well but they had no neck reinforcement and a pressed (rather than spun) cone, often called a pillow cone due to the shapes pressed into the face to strengthen the cone. Many examples exist today. As of 2010, Don Morrison was producing resonators under the Donmo brand name.

Asia
Asian brands such as Regal, Johnson, Recording King, Republic Guitars, and Rogue also produce or import a wide variety of comparatively inexpensive resonator guitars. Johnson has also produced resonator ukuleles and mandolins.

South Africa
A company called Gallotone in South Africa produced resonator guitars in the 1950s and 1960s..

Playing
Resonator guitars are popularly used in bluegrass music and in blues.  Traditionally, bluegrass players used square necked Dobro-style instruments played as a steel guitar while blues players favored round-necked National-style guitars, often played with a bottleneck.

Styles and positions

The resonator guitar is most often played as a lap steel guitar, and the more common square-necked version is limited to this playing position. Square neck instruments are always set up with the high action favored by steel guitar players, and tuned to a suitable open tuning.

The round necked version is equally capable in either lap steel or Spanish guitar position. It may be set up with a variety of action heights, ranging from the half-inch favored for steel guitar (making use of the frets almost impossible) to the small fraction of an inch used by conventional guitarists. A compromise is most common, allowing use of a bottleneck on the top strings but also use of the frets as desired, with the guitar played in the conventional position.

Many different tunings are used. Some square neck tunings are not recommended for round neck resonator guitars, owing to the high string tension required, which in turn requires the stronger square neck. Slack-key guitar tunings are most suitable for bottleneck playing, and conventional E-A-D-G-B-E guitar tuning is also popular.

Players

In bluegrass music

The resonator guitar was introduced to bluegrass music by Josh Graves, who played with Flatt and Scruggs, in the mid-1950s. Graves used the hard-driving, syncopated three-finger picking style developed by Earl Scruggs for the five-string banjo. Modern players continue to play the instrument this way, with one notable exception being the late Tut Taylor who played with a flat pick.

Tuning for the resonator guitar within the bluegrass genre is most often an open G with the strings pitched to D G D G B D or G B D G B D, from the lowest to highest. Occasionally variant tunings are used, such as an open D: D A D F# A D.

Other notable bluegrass players include Jerry Douglas, Mike Auldridge, Rob Ickes, Phil Leadbetter and Andy Hall.

In country music
The resonator guitar was used in older country music, notably by Bashful Brother Oswald of Roy Acuff's band, but was largely supplanted by the pedal steel guitar during the 1950s. Despite this, the instrument is still frequently used as an alternative to the steel guitar.
James Burton and Grady Martin played flat picked dobro on many recordings. Leon McAuliffe initially played a dobro before exclusively transitioning to electric lap and console steel guitars.

In blues music
The resonator guitar is also significant to the world of blues music, particularly the Southern style of country blues that grew out of the Mississippi Delta and Louisiana. Unlike country and bluegrass players, most blues players play the resonator guitar in the standard guitar position, with the fretboard facing away from the player. Many use slides or bottlenecks.

Many players in the 1920s and 1930s, including Bo Carter, and others like Bukka White, Son House, Tampa Red and Blind Boy Fuller, used the instruments because they were louder than standard acoustic guitars, which enabled them to play for a larger crowd in areas that did not yet have electricity for amplifiers. For the same reason street musicians like Arvella Gray used resonator guitars while busking, e.g. on Chicago's Maxwell Street.

One of the few Delta Blues players to play lap style in the 1930s was Black Ace, also known as B.K. Turner. He toured and recorded with his mentor Oscar "Buddy" Woods, who also played lap style Resonator guitar and Lap Steel. Woods, who was fifteen years older than Ace, taught him his guitar playing techniques.

The instrument is still used by some blues players, notably Taj Mahal, Eric Sardinas, Alvin Hart, The Deacon Brandon Reeves, Warren Haynes, Derek Trucks, Doyle Bramhall II, Roland Chadwick, John Hammond Jr., Roy Rogers, John Mooney, and Megan Lovell of Larkin Poe. Mark Knopfler has also played the guitar, and his National resonator is pictured on the cover of the Dire Straits album Brothers in Arms.

Varieties

Single resonator guitars with a bowl resonator and spider (Dobro style) are often heard in bluegrass music, while tricone (National style) instruments are still preferred by many blues players. Single-resonator biscuit (also sometimes called National style) instruments are also produced, and give a different sound again.

Many bluegrass players prefer wooden bodies, blues players either metal or wood. The early metal-bodied instruments were generally of better quality than the earliest wooden-bodied ones, but this may not be the case with more recent instruments. Metal bodies may be brass, aluminum or steel. Fiberglass has also been used as a body material, and a marble bodied resonator guitar is commercially available. Both metal and wooden bodies are often painted, or wooden bodies may be stained or lacquered, metal bodies may be plated or plain.

Bluegrass players tend to use square necks, while blues players tend to prefer round necks. Square-necked guitars give a slightly greater variety of possible tunings, while round-necked guitars give a much greater variety of playing positions.

Single resonator instruments can have round sound holes with screens, or round sound holes without screens, which many players used to remove to improve the bass response. They can also have f-holes, often with gauze screens that are also sometimes removed but have an important function in strengthening the belly particularly if the body is of wood.

An enormous number of combinations are possible, most can be found either on old or new instruments or both, and many styles of music can be played on any resonator guitar.

Electric resonators
Though the original aim of the resonator was increased volume, some modern instruments incorporate electric pickups and related technology. Many modern makers produce instruments with one of a variety of pickup types—and some players retrofit pickups to non-electric instruments. Most commonly, resonator guitars use piezoelectric pickups (contact type transducers) placed under the bridge or elsewhere on the instrument, or use specialized microphones placed inside the instrument or directly in front of the cone to preserve the resonator's distinctive tone.

However, all acoustic and semi-acoustic styles are very sensitive to audio feedback, making the design and placement of these pickups extremely critical and specialized. Some modern models are manufactured with both piezoelectric and magnetic pickups. In addition, some piezoelectric styles are active pickups, in that they incorporate a preamplifier that increases the output of the pickup to match modern amplifier inputs. More recently, solid body electric resonator guitars have appeared. These instruments incorporate one or more magnetic pickups, and are played via amplification.

Other resonator instruments
As well as resonator guitars, resonators have been used on:

 Basses, available from Regal
 Ukuleles, (see Resonator ukulele) produced by National and Dobro 1928-1940
 Banjos
 Tenor guitars
 Mandolins and mandolas
 Mountain/Appalachian dulcimers
 Viola guitars

Brands

Historic brands of resonator guitar still in use today include National, Dobro, and Regal.  None of these brands are still owned by their original companies.  Each returned after one or more long breaks in production:

 The National name is now used by National Reso-Phonic Guitars, a company founded in 1987 and unconnected to the original National, specializes in reproductions of historic instruments of all brands, not just National pattern instruments.
 The Dobro name has undergone several ownership changes throughout history, and has been owned by Gibson Guitar Corporation since 1993.  Gibson manufactured Dobro branded instruments under its Epiphone division up to 2020. Since then, no Dobro branded instruments have been produced.
 The Regal name, similar to Dobro, has been bought and sold several times since its original owners went defunct; the name has been a brand of Saga Musical Instruments since 1987.

US patents
 #1,741,453 covering the tricone.
 #1,896,484 covering the Dobro.
 #1,808,756 covering the biscuit single cone resonator, lodged in the name of Beauchamp.

See also

 Brahms guitar, a classical guitar that features an external resonator.
 Slide guitar

References

External links

 Resonator guitars
 Chanticleer (UK), maker of resophonic instruments
 Resonators Explained by Paul Kucharski
 American fretted musical instrument makers (pre-Civil War to WWII)
 Notecannons – Vintage resonator guitars

Acoustic guitars
Continuous pitch instruments
Resophonic instruments

Resonator guitar


Pennichuck Brook is one of the tributaries of the Merrimack River in New Hampshire in the United States. Its watershed is  and is one of the 14 subwatersheds of the Merrimack River. It passes through Nashua and Merrimack, New Hampshire and serves as the public water supply for greater Nashua.

Route description
Pennichuck Brook begins at Silver Lake in Hollis. It flows northeast under NH 122 and into Dunklee Pond, then continues northeast into Pennichuck Pond, on the boundary between Hollis and Nashua. Leaving Pennichuck Pond, it becomes the boundary between Nashua and the town of Merrimack, flowing northeast under Amherst Street (NH 101A), then turning east and flowing into Holts Pond and Bowers Pond. While part of Bowers Pond, it is crossed by the Everett Turnpike. Past the outlet of Bowers Pond, the brook drops into Harris Pond and Supply Pond, then goes under the Daniel Webster Highway (U.S. Route 3) before it flows into the Merrimack River. All of these water bodies are dammed. The brook runs roughly parallel to the Nashua River from Pennichuck Pond to the brook's mouth in Nashua.

See also
List of rivers of New Hampshire

References

External links

Pennichuck Corporation

Tributaries of the Merrimack River
Rivers of Hillsborough County, New Hampshire
Rivers of New Hampshire
Nashua, New Hampshire

Pennichuck Brook