Imperialism is a policy (way of governing) in which large or powerful countries seek to extend their authority beyond their own borders. The policy of imperialism aims at the creation of an empire.

Imperialist countries take control of other countries.  They may use military force to do this. However, they may also avoid using military force.  They may simply establish economic and/or political control over the other country.

Imperialist policies of countries or kingdoms have goals of taking over more land to create bigger empires.

The ruler of an empire gains natural resources such as agricultural and mining products.  Human resources are also gained. Conquered peoples may be forced into slavery or into low-wage work. They may also be called into military service on behalf of the empire.  Trade markets are also gained. The people under an imperial government may be forced to buy products from that government or from that government's industries.

Thus, a policy of imperialism can vastly enrich the imperialist country. This benefit can extend over a long period of time.

Imperialism has been practised throughout recorded history. However, there is one historical period that is specifically known as the Age of Imperialism. This period extends from the early 18th century to the mid-20th century.

During the Age of Imperialism, modern and industrialised countries competed for control of pre-industrial parts of the world. In pre-industrial areas, natural and human resources were widely and cheaply available.  The imperialist countries that acquired the largest empires during the Age of Imperialism are The United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, and the United States.

Some writers use the term "imperialism" informally.  They use the term to mean any type of domination of one country over another part of the world. Domination especially happened in Asia and Africa.

Related pages
Neocolonialism

Other websites
 Imperialism Quotations
 State, Imperialism and Capitalism by Joseph Schumpeter
 Economic Imperialism by A.J.P.Taylor
 Imperialism Entry in the Columbia Encyclopedia (Bartleby)
 The Nation-State, Core and Periphery: A Brief sketch of Imperialism in the 20th century.

Imperialism


Disney California Adventure, also called just California Adventure, is a theme park in Anaheim, California, across from Disneyland Park and part of the larger Disneyland Resort. The park is owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company. It opened on February 8, 2001 as Disney's California Adventure Park. On May 28, 2010, it was announced through the official Disney Parks Blog that Disney's California Adventure Park would be renamed Disney California Adventure.

The park is  and has of five areas: Sunshine Plaza, Hollywood Pictures Backlot, The Golden State, A Bug's Land and Paradise Pier. Each space is meant to look like different parts of California, its culture, landmarks and history.

In 2009, the park had around 6.05 million guests, making it the 11th-most visited theme park in the world, its highest ever attendance total for a calendar year. The previous record-holder was Warner Bros. Movie World, 338 days after its opening.

Areas

Sunshine Plaza
Sunshine Plaza is the main entrance into the park. It is designed to look like a California postcard. After guests pass the ticket counter, they walk under a mock-up of San Francisco Bay's Golden Gate Bridge, which disguises a portion of the resort's monorail track. At the ends of the faux Golden Gate Bridge are two massive murals of various landmarks and mountain ranges in California. After passing under the bridge, guests reach the main area of Sunshine Plaza that leads to the park's Hollywood Picture Backlot and Golden State. Sunshine Plaza is also home to a replica of the California Zephyr, which houses the plaza's two counter service restaurants: Baker's Field Bakery and Bur-r-r Bank Ice Cream.

Paradise Pier
Paradise Pier is themed after a Victorian-era California boardwalk, based on popular coastal boardwalks such as the Santa Monica Pier and the Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk. The land's attractions, such as California Screamin', resemble the classic amusement park rides found at many boardwalks. California Screamin' recently got new audio on the ride and was given a complete repaint (track, supports and trains). Toy Story Midway Mania! is an interactive 3D ride inspired by classic midway games.

Mickey's Fun Wheel (formerly the Sun Wheel) is a -wide Ferris wheel overlooking Paradise Bay, a large body of water that dominates the Paradise Pier area. World of Color is a show performed by water fountains, water cannons, and multicolored lights in Paradise Bay. It plays on select evenings and showcases many Disney and Pixar movie moments.

A section of Paradise Pier was themed after the Historic U.S. Route 66, a desert road area that starts with Paradise Pier's crashed fireboat, the S.S. Rustworthy. Notable attractions are the Jumpin' Jellyfish and Golden Zephyr.

Golden State
This land looks like natural California, with lots of plants native to the state. It is split into five sub-lands:

Condor Flats

This sub-land is themed after an airfield in tribute to California's pilots and engineers from the 1940s to the mid-60s. It has walls made of old railroad ties, and World War II runway mats out and around. The main ride here is Soarin' Over California, a ride that simulates a hang glider tour of California. Also in this area are the Taste Pilot's Grill counter service restaurant, a shop, and a water play area outside of Soarin' Over California, with a giant rocket jet that sprays mist. The number 47 is hidden in various places as a reference to 1947, the year the sound barrier was broken. Also, the clock on the Fly 'N Buy Souvenir Shop is stopped at the exact time the sound barrier was broken on Oct 14, 1947 by Chuck Yeager.

Grizzly Peak Recreation Area
This sub-land is themed after California's wilderness, such as Yosemite and Redwood national parks. Attractions include Grizzly River Run, a fast-paced river rapids ride around Grizzly Peak, the park's icon. Nearby is the Redwood Creek Challenge Trail; a playground area which includes a show with characters from Disney's Brother Bear called The Magic of Brother Bear. A special entrance to Disney's Grand Californian Hotel is also in this area.

The Bay Area
This sub-land is themed after the San Francisco Bay area. It used to feature Golden Dreams, a film about the history of California, starring Whoopi Goldberg. Its last showing was on September 7, 2008. Outside of the theatre is a mural and a replica of the Palace of Fine Arts. The Bay Area also includes an avenue of houses similar to the Victorian architecture of many townhouses found in San Francisco. The main area is scheduled to be converted to The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Undersea Adventure (Voyage of The Little Mermaid), which is currently under construction. When Voyage of the Little Mermaid opens, this area will become part of Paradise Pier.

Golden Vine Winery
This sub-land is themed after Northern California's Napa Valley and the winemaking industry. Included in this area is Wine Country Trattoria, a casual restaurant that serves wines and Italian foods. The former main attraction in this area, Seasons of the Vine, a film showcasing Napa Valley and the changes throughout the seasons, was housed in a wine cellar-like theatre. It closed on March 30, 2008 and was converted into the Walt Disney Imagineering Blue Sky Cellar, which opened in October 2008. The new attraction displays the upcoming changes to the park. The exhibits will be rotated every few months until 2012, when the major park improvement project is scheduled to be finished. Guests also have the opportunity to taste several wines for an additional price.

Pacific Wharf

This sub-land is based on Monterey's Cannery Row area, especially as depicted in John Steinbeck's novels, and also resembles San Francisco's Fisherman's Wharf. This area includes the Cocina Cucamonga Mexican Grill, Pacific Wharf Cafe, and The Lucky Fortune Cookery Chinese restaurant, along with a Karl Strauss beer truck and a margarita stand. This sub-land also features attractions such as the Mission Tortilla Factory, which features a tour on how tortillas were once made, and showcases working corn and flour tortilla machines. Another attraction is the Boudin Bakery Tour, which is a tour of the sourdough bread making process with Rosie O'Donnell and Colin Mochrie as video tour guides.

Hollywood Pictures Backlot
Hollywood Pictures Backlot is an area styled to appear as Hollywood boulevards and movie backlots, with Hollywood, television, and movie-themed attractions. A version of the Tower of Terror attraction from Disney's Hollywood Studios opened in the Hollywood Pictures Backlot in 2004. The Monsters, Inc. Mike & Sulley to the Rescue! attraction is based on the characters from Monsters, Inc.. The 2000-seat Hyperion Theater currently plays Disney's Aladdin: A Musical Spectacular.

Also there since the park's opening is Muppet Vision 3-D, a show that also originated at Disney's Hollywood Studios. Both the Tower of Terror and Muppet Vision 3-D benefited from the many advances and new technology made available to the imagineers since the original attractions opened in Florida.

The Hollywood Pictures Backlot sign at the area's entrance, featuring two ceramic elephants sculptures atop columns, is an homage to a huge set constructed for the epic 1916 Hollywood film Intolerance, directed by D.W. Griffith.

The area's bathrooms are in the style of Frank Lloyd Wright's Storer House, in the Hollywood Hills area of Los Angeles. The stamped concrete structure is typical of Wright's pioneering design.

"A Bug's Land"
"A Bug's Land" is supposed to make guests feel as small as a bug, like the character of "Flik" from A Bug's Life. Oversized human items are scattered around the land. This land features Flik's Fun Fair, It's Tough to be a Bug! and the Bountiful Valley Farm, based on the Disney-Pixar film A Bug's Life. The land opened in 2002 and offers various kid-friendly attractions. Such attractions include Fliks Flyers, Francis' Ladybug Boogie, Tuck & Roll's Drive 'em Buggies, Heimlich's Chew Chew Train, and Dot's Puddle Park.

Live entertainment

Characters
Many Disney characters can be found throughout the park, greeting visitors, interacting with children, and posing for photos. Some characters have specific areas where they are scheduled to appear, but can be found wandering as well.

World of Color
World of Color is a new nighttime show at Disney California Adventure that was designed by Walt Disney Creative Entertainment. This show has more than 1200 fountains and includes lasers, lights, and fire with high-definition projections on mist screens similar to the ones used in Fantasmic! at Disneyland and Disney's Hollywood Studios at Walt Disney World in Lake Buena Vista, Florida.  The show is expected to change regularly and have special shows for Halloween and Christmas, says show creator Steve Davison.

Pixar Play Parade
Pixar Play Parade features floats and characters based on the Disney·Pixar films Monsters Inc, The Incredibles, Ratatouille, Finding Nemo, A Bug's Life, and Cars.

ElecTRONica
Disney's "ElecTRONica" is an interactive nighttime dance party in Hollywood Pictures Backlot.  It is considered a similar experience to Glow Fest, which was staged in the same area in summer 2010, but this party is themed to Disney's new film, Tron: Legacy.  ElecTRONica features lights, music, projections, and more to promote the new film. Past performances from live DJs include: Giang Star (Fridays), Michael Paul (Saturdays), Adam Auburn (Sundays) and Josh Billings.

Initial lack of success
Disney's California Adventure was expected to draw large crowds when it opened in 2001. A January 14, 2001, Los Angeles Times article titled "The most Jam-Packed Theme Park on Earth?" stated, "Senior Disney officials acknowledge that there will be days when California Adventure will have to turn patrons away, particularly in the first weeks after the park opens, during spring break and again in the summer." The actual attendance was not close to the size that Disney expected for the park back in 2001. It is the fourth Construction to get a construction opening, following Universal Studios Japan, Marina Bay Sands, and Six Flags Magic Mountain.

Various reasons for this have been suggested:
 Bad word-of-mouth from early visitors discouraged future visitors, stating the park was lacking in Disney-quality attractions.

 Lack of rides for young children.

 The park's Californian theme was criticized as being redundant, seeing as the park itself was in the same state it represented. Various tourist attractions and landmarks such as the Hollywood Sign and the beaches were located less than an hour away from the park.

 Fans criticized the Paradise Pier area of the park because many of the attractions in this area were generic rides that guests do not expect to find at a Disney park. This was ironic because Walt Disney had created the neighboring Disneyland to provide a theme park experience unlike boardwalk piers and amusement parks of the era, wanting to create a park where the entire family could enjoy themselves.

 With an estimated price tag of $600 million, the park was criticized for being built "on the cheap", with a small number of attractions and minimal theming.

 Many guests complained that a single-day admission ticket to Disney's California Adventure cost the same as a single day admission ticket to Disneyland Park, yet contained fewer attractions, shows and entertainment.

 According to a December 13, 2010, article in the Los Angeles Times, "DCA's extreme makeover was necessitated by the on-the-cheap, off-the-shelf nature of the nearly decade-old theme park that even Disney Chief Executive Bob Iger now calls 'mediocre'."

Disney's chief executive officer Bob Iger went on record during the company's annual stockholder meeting on March 10, 2006 when someone asked about a potential third park being built in Anaheim. "We're still working to assure the second gate is successful", Iger said, referring to California Adventure. "In the spirit of candor, we have been challenged."

Re-imagineering and expansion plan
On October 17, 2007, The Walt Disney Company announced a multi-year, $1.1 billion expansion plan for Disney's California Adventure Park. Current plans for the renovation and expansion are on display for park visitors inside the Blue Sky Cellar at the Golden Vine Winery. Disney listened to the public and several of the attractions which drew criticism from the public will be removed in the redesign and expansion. Other rides will be redesigned or replaced with a larger focus on Disney characters and stories. On May 28, 2010, it was announced through the Disney Parks Blog that the park would also be receiving a slight name change, to Disney California Adventure, as well as a new logo. The new name took effect on June 11, 2010, appearing on park maps and banners, but was first used in a commercial promoting World of Color a few days prior. World of Color premiered on June 11, 2010, as part of Disney's Summer Nighttastic. The park, along with Six Flags Discovery Kingdom, marks the first time Construction opening two parks in one year.

Gallery

References

Other websites

Disney California Adventure web page
Official Blue Sky Cellar web page (California Adventure Expansion)

Disney theme parks
Anaheim, California
2001 establishments in California
Theme parks in California

Disney California Adventure


Constitution Party, Constitutional Party, or Constitutionalist Party may refer to one of several political parties.

Active parties
 Constitution Party (Egypt), in Egypt
 Constitution Party (Estonia), or "Estonial United People's Party", in Estonia
 Constitution Party (United States), formerly "US Taxpayers Party", in the United States
 Constitutionalist Party of Iran, or "Iranian Constitutional Movement", a now-banned Iranian political party
 Constitutional Democratic Party, in the Russian Empire
 Constitutional Party (Malta), in Malta
 Constitutional Party (Spain), in Spain
 Constitutional Party (Uruguay), in Uruguay
 Constitutional Union (Morocco), in Morocco
 Constitutionalist Liberal Party, in Nicaragua
 National Constitution Party, in Hungary
 New Constitution Party of Canada, an unregistered party in Canada
 Progressive Constitutionalist Party (Malta), in Malta
 Progressive Constitutionalist Party (Mexico), in Mexico
 Progressive Party (China), originally known as the Constitutionalist Party, in the Republic of China
 Zhi Xian Party (literally: "Constitution-Foremost Party of China"), in the People's Republic of China

Historical parties

 Constitution Party (United States, 1952), a former party in the United States
 Constitutional Union Party (United States), a pre-Civil War party in the United States

Alternate names

 Destour. or the "Constitutional Liberal Party", in Tunisia
 Junimea, a Romanian movement briefly active as the "Constitutional Party"
 Rikken Teiseitō or "Constitutional Imperial Rule Party", in Japan
 Rikken Kaishintō or "Constitutional Reform Party", in Japan
 Kenseitō or "Constitutional Party", in Japan
 Kensei Hontō or "Constitutional Main Party", in Japan
 Rikken Seiyūkai or "Constitutional Association of Political Friendship", in Japan
 Rikken Kokumintō or "Constitutional Nationalist Party", in Japan
 Rikken Dōshikai or "Constitutional Association of Allies", in Japan
 Kenseikai or "Constitutional Association", in Japan
 Rikken Minseitō or "Constitutional Democratic Party", in Japan

Related pages

 Constitutionalism

Constitution Party


Alley Cat is a video game created by Bill Williams and published by Synapse Software for the Atari 8-bit family in 1983. The player controls a character named Freddy the Cat, who enters people's homes through open windows to perform various tasks in order to reach his love, Felicia. A port for the IBM PC as a self-booting disk and the IBM PCjr were published in 1984 by IBM. These use four-color CGA graphics.

Alley Cat was based on a one-screen prototype by John Harris. Harris had become unhappy with the direction of the game and handed it over to Williams who expanded the concept into a finished game.

Gameplay

In the main screen, which is the alley, the player is presented with a tall fence in front of an apartment building with several windows. Each window periodically opens to throw out random objects (a phone, shoe, etc.). Every once in a while a dog may come running along the bottom edge of the screen. If the cat touches this dog, they get into a fight and one life is taken away.

By jumping and climbing trash cans, the fence, and clotheslines, the cat can enter various rooms through the open windows. Each room contains one of several challenges:

In one room there's a table with a birdcage on it in the middle of the room. Here the objective is to push the birdcage off the table and then catch the bird which escapes from the broken cage.
In another room, there's a fishbowl which the cat can enter and must eat all the fish while dodging electric eels and repeatedly coming up for air to avoid drowning.
Another room contains a huge chunk of cheese with a number of holes. In each hole mice appear randomly, which the cat must catch.
The cat may also find itself in a room with a number of sleeping dogs, some of which have feeding dishes in front of them. The cat must empty each dish without waking up any of the dogs.
In another challenge, the cat must collect three ferns from the top of a bookshelf while avoiding a disproportionately large spider that may lower itself upon the cat from above.

Most rooms have a broomstick that constantly moves around the screen. The cat can keep the broom busy by making footprints on the ground (at the bottom edge of the screen). When there are no footprints, the broom will constantly chase after the cat.

The broom is harmless in the sense that it never kills the cat, but it pushes the cat around, enough to make it more difficult if it is not kept busy. In particular, the broom might often throw the cat right at the above-mentioned dog or spider, or throw it right back out of the window.

Successful completion of the challenge is awarded with a number of points proportional to the time taken to complete it. The player then returns to the alley where open windows now show a female cat calling him.

Upon entering such a window, the player encounters a room in which there are several platforms (a bit like shelves) made out of valentine hearts on which other cats walk left and right. The object is to reach the cat at the top while maneuvering around the other cats, which cause the player to fall a level if touched.

Each platform has areas the player can stand on as well as areas where they fall through (the other cats, however, never fall through). These areas are hearts which switch between normal and broken as they are touched by heart-shaped arrows that are constantly shot diagonally across the screen by cherubs on either side of the screen. These arrows also cause the player to fall down a level.

There are also gifts on the bottom row that can be used to eliminate an unfriendly cat for a short period of time. If the player falls from the bottom row, they fail and must return to the alley and complete another task.

If the cat manages to kiss the female cat in the special room, the level advances by one and the player gains an extra life. The game's difficulty level continues to increase until the multiplier reaches level 30, at which point it stays the same. Gameplay at this level can continue indefinitely, but running out of lives means game over.

Reception
Describing Alley Cat as "a challenging and interesting game with something of a storybook quality to it", Antic in 1985 praised its "really superb" graphics. The magazine concluded that it "is simply a lot of fun to play!".

Legacy
In 2006, the first fan remake Alley Cat 2 made its debut.
An unofficial fan remake entitled Alley Cat Remeow Edition was freely released in 2018.

References

External links
Alley Cat at Atari Mania

1983 video games
Action games
IBM software
Synapse Software games
Atari 8-bit family games
Video games about cats
Video games developed in the United States

Alley Cat (video game)


Jamaica, Land We Love je državna himna Jamajke.

Besedilo
Eternal Father bless our land,
Guard us with Thy Mighty Hand,
Keep us free from evil powers,
Be our light through countless hours.
To our Leaders, Great Defender,
Grant true wisdom from above.
Justice, Truth be ours forever,
Jamaica, Land we love.
Jamaica, Jamaica, Jamaica land we love.

Teach us true respect for all,
Stir response to duty's call,
Strengthen us the weak to cherish,
Give us vision lest we perish.
Knowledge send us Heavenly Father,
Grant true wisdom from above.
Justice, Truth be ours forever,
Jamaica, Land we love.
Jamaica, Jamaica, Jamaica land we love.

Državni simboli Jamajke
Jamajka

Jamaica, Land We Love


A population model is a type of mathematical model that is applied to the study of population dynamics.

Rationale

Models allow a better understanding of how complex interactions and processes work. Modeling of dynamic interactions in nature can provide a manageable way of understanding how numbers change over time or in relation to each other. Many patterns can be noticed by using population modeling as a tool.

Ecological population modeling is concerned with the changes in parameters such as population size and age distribution within a population. This might be due to interactions with the environment, individuals of their own species, or other species.

Population models are used to determine maximum harvest for agriculturists, to understand the dynamics of biological invasions, and for environmental conservation. Population models are also used to understand the spread of parasites, viruses, and disease.

Another way populations models are useful are when species become endangered. Population models can track the fragile species and work and curb the decline.

History
Late 18th-century biologists began to develop techniques in population modeling in order to understand the dynamics of growing and shrinking of all populations of living organisms. Thomas Malthus was one of the first to note that populations grew with a geometric pattern while contemplating the fate of humankind. One of the most basic and milestone models of population growth was the logistic model of population growth formulated by Pierre François Verhulst in 1838. The logistic model takes the shape of a sigmoid curve and describes the growth of a population as exponential, followed by a decrease in growth, and bound by a carrying capacity due to environmental pressures.

Population modeling became of particular interest to biologists in the 20th century as pressure on limited means of sustenance due to increasing human populations in parts of Europe were noticed by biologist like Raymond Pearl. In 1921 Pearl invited physicist Alfred J. Lotka to assist him in his lab. Lotka developed paired differential equations that showed the effect of a parasite on its prey. Mathematician Vito Volterra equated the relationship between two species independent from Lotka. Together, Lotka and Volterra formed the Lotka–Volterra model for competition that applies the logistic equation to two species illustrating competition, predation, and parasitism interactions between species. In 1939 contributions to population modeling were given by Patrick Leslie as he began work in biomathematics. Leslie emphasized the importance of constructing a life table in order to understand the effect that key life history strategies played in the dynamics of whole populations. Matrix algebra was used by Leslie in conjunction with life tables to extend the work of Lotka. Matrix models of populations calculate the growth of a population with life history variables. Later, Robert MacArthur and E. O. Wilson characterized island biogeography. The equilibrium model of island biogeography describes the number of species on an island as an equilibrium of immigration and extinction. The logistic population model, the Lotka–Volterra model of community ecology, life table matrix modeling, the equilibrium model of island biogeography and variations thereof are the basis for ecological population modeling today.

Equations

Logistic growth equation:

Competitive Lotka–Volterra equations:

Island biogeography:

Species–area relationship:

Examples of individual-based models

See also
 Population dynamics
 Population dynamics of fisheries
 Population ecology
 Moment closure

References

External links
  GreenBoxes code sharing network.   Greenboxes (Beta) is a repository for open-source population modeling code. Greenboxes allows users an easy way to share their code and to search for others shared code.

Conceptual models
Population models

Population model


The Caledonian Railway (CR) was a major Scottish railway company. It was formed in the early 19th century to form a link between English railways and Glasgow. It steadily extended its network and reached Edinburgh and Aberdeen. It also had a dense network of branch lines in the area surrounding Glasgow. It was absorbed by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway in 1923 under the Railways Act 1921. Many of its main routes are still used. The original main line between Carlisle and Glasgow is now part of the West Coast Main Line.

Rail transport in Scotland

Caledonian Railway


Hydrobromic acid is an acid. Its chemical formula is HBr.  It is a very strong acid. It is used to make bromides by reaction with metals or metal oxides.

It can be made by reacting bromine, sulfur dioxide, and water. This reaction makes hydrobromic acid and sulfuric acid. It is made by dissolving hydrogen bromide in water. It can also be made by reacting bromine with sulfur and phosphorus. It can also be made by electrolysis of a bromide solution. It can be made by reacting bromides with non-oxidizing acids, because oxidizing acids would turn the bromides into bromine.

Related pages
Hydrochloric acid
Hydriodic acid
Hydrofluoric acid

Acids
Bromine compounds

pl:Bromowodór#Kwas bromowodorowy

Hydrobromic acid


Long pieces of classical music are often divided into movements.  They are like different sections of the piece. Movements can be quite short, or extremely long.  If you listen to a symphony it may often be divided into four movements.  In the time of Haydn and Mozart the four movements were normally: a fast movement, a slow movement, a dance-like movement (minuet) and a fast movement to end the work.

Concert programmes usually show how many movements there are in the work that is being performed.  It may show this using Italian musical terms (e.g. Allegro meaning fast, Presto meaning very fast or Andante meaning a gentle walking pace).   Here is an example:

Robert Schumann:   Symphony no 4 in D minor op.120

 Andante con moto – Allegro di molto
 Romanze: Andante
 Scherzo: Presto
 Finale: Allegro vivace - Presto

Sometimes an orchestra will take a minute or two to retune their instruments, especially in a symphony by Mahler or Shostakovich where one movement might be as long as 25 minutes.  At other times the conductor or performer will want to go almost straight on with hardly any break.  Sometimes the composer shows that there should be no break at all between movements.

Audiences in the olden days often used to clap between movements, but usually these days they wait until the end of the work to applaud.

The German word for "movement" (in this musical sense) is "Satz" which really means "sentence".  A movement is like a sentence: a collection of things that belong together to make sense.  All the movements together are like several sentences: they tell the whole story.

Musical forms

Movement (music)


A quark is an elementary particle which makes up hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons. Atoms are made of protons, neutrons and electrons. It was once thought that all three of those were fundamental particles, which cannot be broken up into anything smaller, but after the invention of the particle accelerator, it was discovered that electrons are fundamental particles, but neutrons and protons are not. Neutrons and protons are made up of quarks, which are held together by gluons.

There are six types of quarks. The types are called flavours. The flavours are up (u), down (d), strange (s), charm (c), top (t), and bottom (b). Up, charm and top quarks have a charge of +, while down, strange and bottom quarks have a charge of -. Each quark has a matching antiquark. Antiquarks have a charge opposite to that of their quarks; meaning that up, charm and top antiquarks have a charge of - and down, strange and bottom antiquarks have a charge of +.

Only up and down quarks are found inside of atoms of normal matter. Two up quarks and one down make a proton ( +  -  = +1 charge) while two down quarks and one up make a neutron ( -  -  = 0 charge). The other four flavours are not seen naturally on Earth, but they can be made in particle accelerators. Some of them may also exist inside of stars.

When two or more quarks are held together by the strong nuclear force, the particle formed is called a hadron. Quarks that make the quantum number of hadrons are named 'valence quarks'. The two families of hadrons are baryons (made of three valence quarks) and mesons (which are made from a quark and an antiquark). Some examples of baryons are protons and neutrons, and examples of mesons are pions and kaons.

When quarks are stretched farther and farther, the force that holds them together becomes bigger. When it comes to the point when quarks are separated, they form two sets of quarks, because the energy that is put into trying to separate them is enough to form two new quarks. So scientists think it is not possible to have one quark by itself.

Quarks also have color charge and react via the weak force. For baryons, each quark is green, red or blue. One can be one color at one time. For mesons, the quark is red, green or blue and the antiquark is antired (cyan), antiblue (yellow) or antigreen (pink). Quarks can change color by emitting a W boson. For example, if a green color-charged quark emits a red-antigreen W boson to a red quark, the green quark will become red and the red quark will become green. Therefore, W and Z bosons (which mediate the weak force for neutrinos) help particles react via the weak interaction.

This also causes the beta and beta-plus decay of atoms where a neutron decays into a proton, electron and electron antineutrino, and makes a proton turn into a neutron, positron and electron neutrino.

The idea (or model) for quarks was proposed by physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964. Other scientists began searching for evidence of quarks, and succeeded in 1968.

References

Other websites
 Basic quark site

Quark


The National Institute of Virology, Pune is India's Premier Virology Research institute, part of  Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It was previously known as 'Virus Research Center' and was founded in collaboration with the Rockefeller Foundation. Today it has been  is now designated as WHO H5 reference Laboratory for SE Asia region

The Virus Research Center (VRC), Pune came into existence in 1952 under the joint auspices of the ICMR and the Rockefeller Foundation, as a part of the global programme of investigations on the arthropod-borne group of viruses. In view of its expanded scope and activities, the VRC was redesignated as the National Institute of Virology (NIV) in 1978.

The NIV is identified today as the WHO Collaborating Center for arboviruses reference and hemorrhagic fever reference and research. NIV is also the National Monitoring Center for Influenza, Japanese encephalitis, Rota , Measles and Hepatitis.

इतिहास
The National Institute of Virology is one of the major Institutes of the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It was established at Pune, Maharashtra State in 1952 as Virus Research Centre (VRC) under the auspices of the ICMR and the Rockefeller Foundation (RF), USA. It was an outcome of the global programme of the RF for investigating the Arthropod Borne viruses. Since the studies on arboviruses and their arthropod vectors involve most of the basic principles and techniques of general virology, entomology and zoology, these viruses were also considered to be an ideal group, to begin with, for intensive training and research in virology in our country. The RF withdrew its support in 1967 and since then the Institute is entirely funded by the ICMR

The Institute was designated as one of the collaborating laboratories of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1967 and it started functioning as the regional centre of the WHO for South-East Asia for arbovirus studies from 1969. Since 1974, it has been functioning as a WHO collaborating centre for arbovirus reference and research. In 1995 it has been redesignated as the WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Haemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research and Rapid Diagnosis of Viral Diseases. NIV is also the National Centre for Hepatitis and Influenza. The field unit of NIV at Bangalore is one of the centers under National Polio Surveillance Program conducting surveillance of acute flaccid paralysis cases from Kamataka as a part of Global Polio Eradication Prograrnme of the WHO South-East Asia region since 1997. Institute also conduct M.Sc. (Virology) & PhD course under aegis of University of Pune.

यश
The research activities of the center were made more meaningful and self reliant by organizing new areas of research, such as Cell repository, Electron microscopy, Rickettsioses, Hepatitis, Influenza and related viruses, Clinical virology, Biochemistry, Virus registry, and Biostatistics. The research activities of the Institute are coordinated by a Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC) consisting of eminent scientists.

By the 70s the Institute had developed deep scientific roots, nurtured through the sustained efforts of many dedicated workers. With the expertise in virological training and research and emphasis on self-reliance, the centre was well prepared to undertake full responsibility as a National Institute. On the recommendation of the SAC, the VRC acquired its status of national importance and was renamed as National Institute of Virology (NIV) in 1978. Subsequently studies on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), Rotavirus gastroenteritis, acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis, Rabies, Herpes sirnplex, Buffalo pox, Measles, and Poliomyelitis were also initiated

A Microbial Containment Complex (MCC) having P-3 biosafety levels for handling microorganisms of highly infectious nature is being established at Pashan, 11 km off the main laboratory at Pune. This laboratory will provide National Containment facility for safe handling of highly hazardous pathogens.

विभाग

 Animal House
 Avian Influenza Group
 Bioinformatics Division
 BSL-3 Facility
 Central Library Facility
 Chandipura Group
 Dengue group
 Diagnostics Division
 Electron Microscopy Division
 Entomology Division
 Hepatitis group
 Influenza group
 Japanese Encephalitis Group
 Measles Group
 Outbreak Response Group
 Rota Group
 M.Sc.(Virology)

संपर्क
Head Office
Pashan Office

Address: 20/ A, Dr. Ambedkar Road.
                Post Box No. 11, India
                Pune 411001

Tel.No. : 91-020-26127301 / 91-020-26006290
Fax No. : 91-020-26122669/ 91-020-26126399

E-mail address : firstname.lastname@example.com

Address : MCC 130/1 Sus Road.
                 Pashan, India
                 Pune 411021

Tel.No.  : 91-020-26006390
Fax No. : 91-020-25871895

E-mail address : email@example.com

संदर्भ

बाह्य दुवे
 National Institute of Virology, अधिकृत संकेतस्थळ

राष्ट्रीय विषाणूविज्ञान संस्था


An ellipsoid is a shape like a sphere, but it may be longer in one or more directions, like a rugby ball. It is the 3 dimensional analogue of an ellipse.

The Earth is shaped slightly like an ellipsoid. Its shape is called an oblate spheroid. An ellipsoid shaped like the Earth, called a reference ellipsoid, is often preferred to the geoid because it makes calculations simpler.

Related pages
Ellipse
Oblate spheroid
Geoid

Three-dimensional shapes
Geodesy

Ellipsoid


In England, a civil parish is a unit of local government.  Civil parishes are the lowest tier of local government, below districts and counties. It is an administrative parish, in comparison to an ecclesiastical (church) parish.

The parish council can decide to call itself a town, village, neighbourhood or community; and in a limited number of cases has city status granted by the monarch. Civil parishes only cover part of England; about 35% of the population.

There are currently no civil parishes in Greater London, and before 2008 their creation was not permitted within a London Borough.

History

Ancient origins
The creation of ancient parishes was linked to the manorial system.  The parishes often shared the same boundaries as the manor of the local lord. At first the manor was the main unit of local administration and justice in the early rural economy. Eventually the church replaced the manor court as the rural administrative centre and levied a local tax on produce known as a tithe. Responsibility for things such as relief of the poor passed from the Lord of the Manor to the church, but in practice it was administered by monasteries. After the dissolution of the monasteries, the power to charge (levy) a rate to fund relief of the poor was given to the parish authorities by the 1601 Act for the Relief of the Poor.

The parish authorities were known as vestries and were made up of all the inhabitants of the parish. As the population was growing it became increasingly difficult to hold meetings as an open vestry. In some, mostly built up, areas the select vestry took over responsibility from the community at large. This innovation improved efficiency, but allowed governance by a self-perpetuating elite. The administration of the parish system relied on the monopoly of the Church of England. As religious membership became more fractured, such as through the revival of Methodism, the legitimacy of the parish vestry came into question and the perceived inefficiency and corruption inherent in the system became a source for concern. Because of this scepticism, during early the 19th century the parish progressively lost its powers to ad-hoc boards and other organisations, such as the loss of responsibility for poor relief through the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834. The replacement boards were each able to levy their own rate in the parish. The church rate ceased to be levied in many areas and was abolished altogether in 1868.

Civil and ecclesiastical split
The ancient parishes split into two distinct units during the 19th century. The Poor Law Amendment Act 1866 declared that all areas that levied a separate rate —extra-parochial areas, townships, and chapelries— become civil parishes as well. The parishes for church use continued unchanged as ecclesiastical parishes. The latter part of the 19th century saw most of the ancient irregularities inherited by the civil system cleaned up, with the majority of exclaves abolished.

Reform
Civil parishes in their modern sense were established afresh in 1894, by the Local Government Act 1894. The Act abolished vestries, and established elected parish councils in all rural civil parishes with more than 300 electors. These were grouped into rural districts. Boundaries were altered to avoid parishes being split between counties. Urban parishes continued to exist, and boundaries were usually changed to be the same as the urban district or municipal borough in which they were situated. Large towns originally split between multiple parishes were, for the most part, eventually joined into one parish. No parish councils were formed for urban parishes, and their only function was as areas electing guardians to Poor Law Unions. With the abolition of the poor law system in 1930 the parishes had only a nominal existence.

In 1965 civil parishes in London were formally abolished when Greater London was created, as the legislative framework for Greater London did not make provision for any local government body below a London Borough (since all of London was previously part of a metropolitan borough, municipal borough or urban district, no actual parish councils were abolished). In 1974 the Local Government Act 1972 retained civil parishes in rural areas and small urban areas, but abolished them in larger urban areas. Many former urban districts and municipal boroughs that were being abolished rather than succeeded were continued as new parishes.  Urban areas that were considered too large to be single parishes were refused this permission and became unparished areas. The Act also led to the possibility of sub-division of all districts (apart from London boroughs, reformed in 1965), into multiple civil parishes. For example, Oxford, whilst entirely unparished in 1974, now has four civil parishes, covering part of its area.

Revival
The creation of town and parish councils is encouraged in unparished areas. The Local Government and Rating Act 1997 gave local residents the right to demand that a new parish and council be created in unparished areas. This was extended to London boroughs by the Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007 - with this, the City of London is at present the only part of England where civil parishes cannot be created.

If enough electors in an area of a proposed new parish (ranging from 50% in an area with less than 500 electors to 10% in one with more than 2,500) sign a petition demanding its creation, then the local district council or unitary authority must consider the proposal. Recently established parish councils include Daventry (2003), Folkestone (2004), and Brixham (2007). In 2003 seven new parish councils were set up for Burton upon Trent, and in 2001 the Milton Keynes urban area became entirely parished, with ten new parishes being created. In 2003, the village of Great Coates (Grimsby) regained parish status. Parishes can also be abolished where there is evidence that this in response to "justified, clear and sustained local support" from the area's inhabitants. Examples include Birtley, which was abolished in 2006 and Southsea abolished in 2010.

Governance

Every civil parish has a parish meeting, consisting of all the electors of the parish.  Generally a meeting is held once a year.  A civil parish may have a parish council which exercises various local responsibilities given by statute. If a parish has fewer than 200 electors it is usually deemed too small to have a parish council, and instead will only have a parish meeting; an example of direct democracy. Alternatively several small parishes can be grouped together and share a common parish council, or even a common parish meeting. In places where there is no civil parish (unparished areas), the administration of the activities normally undertaken by the parish becomes the responsibility of the district or borough council. There are about 8,700 parish and town councils in England, and about 1,500 parishes with only parish meetings. Since 1997 around 100 new civil parishes have been created, in some cases splitting existing civil parishes, but mostly by creating new ones from unparished areas.

Powers and functions
Typical activities undertaken by parish or town councils include:

 The provision and upkeep of certain local facilities such as allotments, bus shelters, parks, playgrounds, public seats, public toilets, public clocks, street lights, village or town halls, and various leisure and recreation facilities.
 Maintenance of footpaths, cemeteries and village greens
 Since 1997 parish councils have had new powers to provide community transport (such as a minibus), crime prevention measures (such as CCTV) and to contribute money towards traffic calming schemes.
 Parish councils are supposed to act as a channel of local opinion to larger local government bodies, and as such have the right to be consulted on any planning decisions affecting the parish.
 Giving of grants to local voluntary organisations, and sponsoring public events, including entering Britain in Bloom.

The role played by parish councils varies. Smaller parish councils have only limited resources and generally play only a minor role, while some larger parish councils have a role similar to that of a small non-metropolitan district. Parish councils receive funding by levying a "precept" on the council tax paid by the residents of the parish.

Councillors and elections
Parish councils are run by volunteer councillors who are elected to serve for four years and are not paid. Some councils have chosen to pay their elected members a small allowance as permitted under Part 5 of the Local Government Act 2000 The Local Authorities (Members' Allowances) (England) Regulations 2003. The number of councillors varies roughly in proportion to the population of the parish. Most parish councillors are elected to represent the entire parish, though in parishes with larger populations or those that cover large areas, the parish can be divided into wards. These wards then return a certain number of councillors each to the parish council (depending on their population). Only if there are more candidates standing for election than there are seats on the council will an election be held. However, sometimes there are fewer candidates than seats.  When this happens, the vacant seats have to be filled by co-option by the council. When a vacancy arises for a seat mid-term, an election is only held if a certain number (usually 10) of parish residents request an election. Otherwise the council will co-opt someone to be the replacement councillor. Every Parish Council in England must adopt a code of conduct, and parish councillors must comply with its standards, enforced by the Standards Board for England.

Status and styles
A parish can have city status but only if that is granted by the Crown. In England, there are currently eight parishes with city status, all places with long-established Anglican cathedrals: Chichester, Ely, Hereford, Lichfield, Ripon, Salisbury, Truro and Wells.

The council of an ungrouped parish may unilaterally pass a resolution giving the parish the status of a town. The parish council becomes a "town council". Around 400 parish councils are called town councils.

Under the Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007, a civil parish may now be given an "alternative style" meaning one of the following:

community
neighbourhood
village

The chairman of a town council will have the title "town mayor" and that of a parish council which is a city will usually have the title of mayor. As a result, a parish council can also be called a town council, a community council, a village council or occasionally a city council (though most cities are not parishes but principal areas, or in England specifically metropolitan boroughs, non-metropolitan districts).

Charter trustees
When a city or town has been abolished as a borough, and it is considered desirable to maintain continuity of the charter, the charter may be transferred to a parish council for its area.  Where there is no such parish council, the district council may appoint charter trustees to whom the charter and the arms of the former borough will belong.  The charter trustees (who consist of the councillor or councillors for the area of the former borough) maintain traditions such as mayoralty. An example of such a city was Hereford, whose city council was merged in 1998 to form a unitary Herefordshire.  The area of the city of Hereford remained unparished until 2000 when a parish council was created for the city.  The charter trustees for the City of Bath make up the majority of the councillors on Bath and North East Somerset Council.

Geography
Civil parishes do not cover the whole of England.  There are none in Greater London and very few in the other conurbations. Civil parishes vary greatly in size: many cover tiny hamlets with populations of less than 100, whereas some large parishes cover towns with populations of tens of thousands. Weston-super-Mare, with a population of 71,758, is the most populous civil parish. In many cases, several small villages are in a single parish. Large urban areas are mostly unparished, as the government at the time of the Local Government Act 1972 discouraged their creation for large towns or their suburbs, but there is generally nothing to stop their establishment. For example, Birmingham has a parish, New Frankley, whilst Oxford has four, and Northampton has seven. Parishes could not however be established in London until the changing of the law in 2007 and as yet none have been established there.

Deserted parishes
The 2001 census recorded several parishes with no inhabitants.  These were Chester Castle (in the middle of Chester city centre), Newland with Woodhouse Moor, Beaumont Chase, Martinsthorpe, Meering, Stanground North (subsequently abolished), Sturston, Tottington, and Tyneham.  The last three had been taken over by the British Armed Forces during World War II and remain deserted.

Detached parts and divided parishes
Ancient parishes often had detached parts, exclaves and enclaves which were not joined to the rest of the parish.  In some cases the detached part was in a different county.  In other cases, an entire parish was in a detached part of the county to which it belonged.  There were also many examples of parishes divided between two or more counties.

These anomalies were mostly fixed in the 19th century.  Before civil parishes were introduced, the Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844 transferred many (but not all) parishes which were detached parts of a county to the county in which they were geographically located.  The remaining detached parishes were transferred in the 1890s and in 1931.  The detached part of the parish of Tetworth, Huntingdonshire, surrounded by Cambridgeshire, remained until the boundaries were changed in 1965.

Other laws, including the Divided Parishes and Poor Law Amendment Act 1882, eliminated most instances of civil parishes belonging to two (or more) counties, and by 1901 Stanground in Huntingdonshire and the Isle of Ely was the sole remaining example.  Stanground was split into two parishes, one in each county, in 1905.

Related pages
List of civil parishes in England

References

Civil parishes in England


A watermill is an engine that uses a water wheel or turbine to drive a mechanical process such as flour or lumber production, or metal shaping (rolling, grinding or wire drawing). A watermill that only generates electricity is more usually called a hydroelectric plant.

History

China
In 31 AD, a Chinese engineer named Du Shi (Wade-Giles: Tu Shih) "invented the first water-powered bellows.  This was a complicated machine with gears, axles, and levers that was powered by a waterwheel,".  This invention aided the forging of cast iron smelted from the blast furnace.  More extensive descriptions appear in literature of the 5th century.

Greece and Rome
The ancient Greeks and Romans used the technology. In the 1st century BC, the Greek epigrammatist Antipater of Thessalonica was the first to make a reference to the waterwheel. He praised it for its use in grinding grain and the reduction of human labor.

The Romans used both fixed and floating water wheels and introduced water power to other countries of the Roman Empire. So-called 'Greek Mills' used water wheels with a vertically mounted shaft. A "Roman Mill" features a horizontally-mounted shaft. Greek style mills are the older and simpler of the two designs, but only operate well with high water velocities and with small diameter millstones. Roman style mills are more complicated as they require gears transmit the power from a shaft with a horizontal axis to one with a vertical axis. An example of a Roman era watermill would be the early 4th century site at Barbegal in southern France, where 16 overshot waterwheels were used to power an enormous flour mill.

The Cistercian Order built huge mill complexes all over Western Europe during the medieval period.

Medieval Europe
In a 2005 survey the scholar Adam Lucas identified the following first appearances of various industrial mill types in Western Europe. Noticeable is the preeminent role of France in the introduction of new innovative uses of waterpower.

Operation of a watermill

Typically, water is diverted from a river or impoundment or mill pond to a turbine or water wheel, along a channel or pipe (variously known as a flume, head race, mill race, leat, leet, lade (Scots) or penstock). The force of the water's movement drives the blades of a wheel or turbine, which in turn rotates an axle that drives the mill's other machinery. Water leaving the wheel or turbine is drained through a tail race, but this channel may also be the head race of yet another wheel, turbine or mill. The passage of water is controlled by sluice gates that allow maintenance and some measure of flood control; large mill complexes may have dozens of sluices controlling complicated interconnected races that feed multiple buildings and industrial processes.

Watermills can be divided into two kinds, one with a horizontal waterwheel on a vertical axle, and the other with a vertical wheel on a horizontal axle. The oldest of these were horizontal mills in which the force of the water, striking a simple paddle wheel set horizontally in line with the flow turned a runner stone balanced on the rynd which is atop a shaft leading directly up from the wheel. The bedstone does not turn. The problem with this type of mill arose from the lack of gearing; the speed of the water directly set the maximum speed of the runner stone which, in turn, set the rate of milling.

Types of watermills
 Gristmills grind grains into flour. These were undoubtedly the most common kind of mill.
 Fulling mills or Walkmills were used for a finishing process on cloth (see also fulling).
 Blade mills were used for sharpening newly made blades.
 Sawmills cut timber into lumber
 Barking mills stripped bark from trees for use in tanneries
 Spoke mills turned lumber into spokes for carriage wheels.
 At the beginning of the industrial revolution, cotton mills were usually powered by a water wheel.
 Carpet mills for making rugs were sometimes water-powered.
 Textile mills for weaving cloth were sometimes water-powered.
 Powder mills for making black powder or smokeless powder were sometimes water-powered.
 Blast Furnaces, finery forges, slitting mills, and tinplate works were until the introduction of the steam engine invariably water powered and were sometimes called iron mills.
 Prior to the introduction of the cupola (a reverberatory furnace), lead was usually smelted in smelt mills.
 Paper mills used water not only for motive power but also in large quantities in the manufacturing process.

Related pages
 Hydropower
 Renewable Energy
 Renewable resource

References

Further reading
 Woods, Michael and Mary (2000). Ancient Machines: From Wedges to Waterwheels. Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books.
 Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.

Other websites

 17 Jun 2003, Deutsche Welle: The World's First Underwater Windmill Starts Turning
 U.S. Mill Pictures and Information
 Tidal power station
 Mill database with over 10000 European mills
 Watermills in Norfolk, England
 Mills in Hampshire, England
 Upwey Mill, Weymouth, Dorset
 The International Molinological Society (TIMS)
 The Society for the Preservation of Old Mills (SPOOM)

Machines
Hydropower

Watermill


A Different Light was a chain of four LGBT bookstores in the United States, active from 1979 to 2011.

History
George Leigh, a Toronto attorney met Norman Laurila, an employee of Toronto's Glad Day Bookshop in 1976. Leigh was impressed enough with Laurila's knowledge of LGBT literature and business acumen that in 1978 he suggested they look at opening a specialty bookstore in the U.S. Several cities were considered - Atlanta, New York, Chicago and Los Angeles but Laurila quickly narrowed it down to Los Angeles as the best bet for a new startup. It was felt that the Los Angeles gay and lesbian community both needed and was able to support a specialty gay and lesbian bookstore. Leigh and Laurila formed an equal partnership were Leigh provided 75% of the startup costs and Laurila providing the rest with the understanding that Laurila would move to Los Angeles and manage the store. Laurila and his then-partner Richard Labonté moved to Los Angeles to open the book store. At the time, Labonté was a journalist for the Ottawa Citizen. Leigh remained in Ontario, where he was a corporate lawyer for Texaco's Canadian division. The name of the bookstore came from the title of the novel A Different Light by science fiction author Elizabeth Lynn, suggested by Labonté. Gordon Montador, Laurila's close friend from Toronto, decided to take a year off from work to write his first novel in Los Angeles, and he was instrumental in helping set up A Different Light. His ideas and enthusiasm made the first year very successful.

The first A Different Light Bookstore opened at 4014 Santa Monica Blvd. in Los Angeles' Silver Lake neighborhood in October 1979, followed by a branch in New York City's Greenwich Village in 1983 and a branch in San Francisco's Castro (489 Castro St.) district in 1985. In May 1990, a second Los Angeles store opened at 8853 Santa Monica Blvd. in West Hollywood, and the New York City store moved from its original location on 548 Hudson Street to 151 19th Street in Chelsea, Manhattan. Supplanted by the West Hollywood store, the original store in Silver Lake closed in 1992.

For 22 years, the store were immensely successful and influential. By the time ADL moved to Chelsea in New York City, it was hosting over 300 author events a year in its three stores. Each store became a serious part of the local LGBT community and fostered the careers of many LGBT authors. At its zenith, it employed over 80 people.

Apex
At its height, the chain was one of the most influential LGBT booksellers in the United States, serving as a cultural hub and social center for LGBT people. It hosted events including author readings, art shows, reading groups, writing conferences, art exhibitions and panel discussions. In the mid-1970s, mass market publisher Avon was the largest publisher of gay and lesbian books including Patricia Nell Warren's best selling novel The Front Runner. A significant part of A Different Light bookstore's first inventory was from Avon Book's backlist.

The Silverlake bookstore was located in the Sunset Junction area of Los Angeles where the Santa Monica and Sunset Boulevard met at Sanborn Avenue. Laurila and Leigh had to choose between either West Hollywood or Silverlake, both areas home to a large populations of gays and lesbians. At that time West Hollywood was not incorporated as a separate city. The decision was made to open the store in Silverlake where many gay men had purchased homes, and in anticipation of the gentrification of the Silverlake area as had happened in The Castro district of San Francisco.

The building rented for the bookstore was originally intended to house and repair Red Car system trolleys. The space had been minimally upgraded to allow for renting to retail businesses. With an unusual slanting front facade, high ceilings and mock-Tudor appearance, the store appeared to have occupied its space for decades. At the end of the first year, A Different Light expanded it to the next storefront by opening up wall in between the two locations, more than doubling the floor space. The store fixtures were built by a master carpenter who was a friend of Laurila's. With high ceilings and ample display space above the shelving, the bookstore worked with local artists and photographers to display artwork on a rotating basis.

Gay and lesbian authors made A Different Light bookstore part of their book signing tours, including Quentin Crisp, Ned Rorem, Judy Grahn, Katherine V. Forrest, Armistead Maupin, Christopher Isherwood and his partner Don Bacardi, David Hockney Mark Thompson, Michael Nava, Joseph Hansen, Paul Monette, William Burroughs, Edmund White and hundreds of others. The first author to have a signing was local author John Rechy, best known for his gay novel City of Night. Rechy appeared several times at the store, and he was coincidentally the last author to do a book signing at the original store before it closed.

On February 18, 1984, bookstore employee Ann Bradley initiated the first reading of "The Lesbian Writers Series".  Later playwright and store employee James Carroll Pickett would launch "The Gay Writers Series" and hosted the monthly readings from 1987 to 1990. In New York, bookstore employee Emanuel Xavier introduced spoken word poetry to the community with his "Realness & Rhythms" monthly readings.

Decline and closure

Leigh unexpectedly died in 1998 in West Hollywood while on vacation. The original Mission Statement from 1979 had a primary goal of getting LGBT literature as widely available as possible. ADL was instrumental in making that happen. By the mid-90s most serious independent bookstores had LGBT sections with Barnes & Noble stores throughout the country entering the market and offering substantial discounts. Amazon was next. They too heavily discounted LGBT books. The three ADL stores were in high rent cities and could not afford to match their prices. Laurila sold the three stores in 2000 to Bill Barker and Stanley Newman, who closed the New York City store in 2001, citing Manhattan's high rent and retained the two stores in California.

Following several years of increased financial difficulty amid extreme competition with online book sellers, Barker and Newman closed the West Hollywood store in 2009, and the Castro branch in 2011. The chain's closure was part of a spate of LGBT bookstore closings in the United States early in the 21st century, including New York's Oscar Wilde Bookshop and Washington, D.C.'s Lambda Rising.

Laurila now works for New York City's Museum of Modern Art as its book manager.  Labonté continued to work as an editor of LGBT literary anthologies for Cleis Press and Arsenal Pulp Press before his death in 2022.

References

Bookstores in California
Bookstores in Manhattan
Bookstores in the San Francisco Bay Area
Independent bookstores of the United States
LGBT bookstores
LGBT culture in Los Angeles
LGBT history in New York City
LGBT history in San Francisco
Bookstores established in the 20th century
American companies established in 1979
Retail companies established in 1979
Retail companies disestablished in 2011
1979 establishments in California
2011 disestablishments in California
Defunct companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Defunct retail companies of the United States

A Different Light (bookstore)


USS Bowfin (SS/AGSS-287), is a  of the United States Navy named for the bowfin fish. Since 1981, she has been open to public tours at the USS Bowfin Submarine Museum & Park in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, next to the USS Arizona Memorial Visitor Center.

Bowfin was laid down by the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard at Kittery, Maine, on 23 July 1942, and launched on 7 December 1942 by Mrs. Jane Gawne, wife of Captain James Gawne, and commissioned on 1 May 1943, Commander Joseph H. Willingham in command.

First patrol
Following fitting out, the submarine proceeded via Newport, Rhode Island, to New London, Connecticut, her base for shakedown training. Early in July 1943, she got underway for the Pacific war zone, and after transiting the Panama Canal and crossing the Pacific, reached Australia. After-voyage repair at Brisbane preceded her getting underway on 19 August to move north and west along the Australian coast to Darwin. She topped off her fuel tanks at that port and sailed on the morning of 25 August for her first war patrol.

The warship reached the Mindanao Sea on 2 September, but plied its waters for more than three weeks without encountering any worthwhile targets. On 24 September, she met with  to conduct coordinated operations. The next day, the two submarines began tracking a six-ship convoy and continued the chase for some five hours before Bowfin finally attained a suitable attack position. She then launched her six bow torpedoes – four at a freighter and two at a trailing transport. Three exploded against the side of the first ship and both of those fired at the second struck home. The submarine immediately turned her fantail toward the convoy and emptied her stern tubes, sending four torpedoes in the direction of a tanker. Gunfire at her periscope forced Bowfin to go deep, so prevented her crew from observing the progress of her last salvo, but they heard its torpedoes explode. When the submarine rose to periscope depth about an hour later, the 8,120-ton passenger-cargo ship Kirishima Maru was slowly sinking, the tanker was on fire, and the transport seemed to be settling by the stern. However, the two latter ships apparently were able to limp back to port, for the sinking of neither was confirmed by postwar study of Japanese records. Later in the day, members of Bowfin'''s crew heard distant explosions and inferred that Billfish was going after the remnants of the convoy, a conclusion that proved to be correct, for their sister ship managed to damage two Japanese ships totaling about 12,000 tons. Although the submarines continued to pursue the remaining enemy vessels as they fled during the night, the battered group of Japanese ships finally managed to slip away in the darkness.

The following morning, after Bowfins radar had picked up an enemy plane also equipped with radar, the submarine was forced to submerge to avoid detection. Two days later, she came across a 1,400-ton interisland steamer and shadowed her until reaching a firing position about three hours later. She then launched three torpedoes. One stopped before reaching the target, and the other two missed.

On 30 September, as she left the Mindanao Sea, Bowfin chanced upon a diesel-propelled barge carrying over 100 Japanese soldiers, and opened fire on it with her four-inch gun. When the target responded with machine gun fire, the submarine's 20-mm guns entered the fray. The battle came to an abrupt end when a four-inch round struck the enemy's magazine and blew apart the already sinking barge.

On 2 October, as the submarine continued through the Makassar Strait toward Australia, her crew sighted a schooner off Balikpapan. Willingham fired two shots across the stranger's bow, but failed to bring her to and sank her with gunfire.Bowfin arrived at Fremantle on 10 October, ending a successful patrol. Rear Admiral Ralph W. Christie, who commanded American submarines in the area, was lavish in his praise of the submarine's performance; he rewarded her commanding officer with the opportunity of heading a submarine division. To free him for the new role, Lieutenant Commander Walter Thomas Griffith relieved Willingham as commanding officer of Bowfin on 26 October.

 Second patrol

Upon completion of refitting, Bowfin got underway on 1 November and headed for the South China Sea. From time to time during this patrol, she again cooperated with Billfish. On 8 November, Bowfin picked up the trail of a group of five schooners. When she pulled within range of them, she opened fire with her four-inch gun and sank three before bombs from a Japanese plane forced the submarine to dive, allowing the two surviving vessels to slip away. After staying down until dark, Bowfin surfaced and resumed patrolling. Before long, she discovered and opened fire upon a large sailing ship, which went down after suffering hits by two four-inch shells. Two days later, she found her next victims, two small steamers heading for Tawi-Tawi Bay, and set both ablaze with gunfire.

Her luck was even better on the morning of 26 November, while she was approaching the coast of Indochina during a blinding rainstorm. Without prior knowledge that any other vessels were near, she unexpectedly found herself surrounded by Japanese shipping. After barely avoiding a collision with a tanker by backing all engines, she torpedoed and sank the 5,069-ton tanker Ogurasan Maru and then dispatched the 5,407-ton freighter Tainan Maru. A few hours later, her torpedoes ended the career of Van Vollenhoven, a 691-ton coastal cargo ship that the Japanese had taken from her French owners when they overran Indochina almost two years before. On 28 November, after having sent a small passenger-cargo ship to the bottom with a single torpedo, Bowfin joined Billfish in attacking a convoy and quickly sank Sydney Maru, a 5,425-ton freighter and Tonon Maru, a 9,866-ton tanker.

Meanwhile, one of the Japanese ships fired on Bowfin and scored hits, which opened leaks in her starboard induction line; while serious, they did not prevent the submarine from getting off her last two torpedoes. Repair efforts at daylight slowed, but did not completely stop the flooding, and Bowfin began her voyage back to Australia. En route to her base on 2 December, she came across a "two-masted yacht...which...," in Griffith's words, "...looked like it might have been some planter's yacht taken over by the Japs." The submarine's deck gun promptly destroyed this stranger; thereafter, Bowfin enjoyed an uneventful passage that brought her to Fremantle a week later. There, Rear Admiral Christie praised her performance as the "classic of all submarine patrols".

 Third patrol

The submarine got underway on 8 January 1944 for her third war patrol. She proceeded through the Java, Banda, and Flores Seas to Makassar Strait, where – on 16 January – she encountered a small schooner, surfaced, and sank the sailing vessel with her deck gun. The following day, she came across a cargo ship and two escorts, but her attacks on these targets were frustrated by malfunctioning torpedoes. One from her first spread of four bow torpedoes hit and stopped the freighter, but the other three missed, and two shots from her bow tubes detonated before reaching the target. After reloading her tubes, she returned to the convoy the following day and finished off the crippled cargo ship with four torpedoes, which sent the 4,408-ton Shoyu Maru to the bottom. She also managed to hit one of the escorts with two "fish", but did not sink her.

Out of torpedoes, Bowfin returned to Darwin for more, and while in port, picked up Rear Admiral Christie, who remained on board the submarine for the rest of the patrol to check on torpedo performance, first hand, and to learn the secret of Bowfins remarkable success. The day after she returned to sea, the submarine put three torpedoes into a small cargo ship. Lt. Comdr. Griffith claimed the target sank and his distinguished passenger confirmed the kill, but the sinking was not borne out by postwar examination of Japanese records – possibly because Bowfins alleged victim was too small to be listed. About daybreak on 28 January, Bowfin began trailing a large tanker, and she continued the chase until reaching striking range that evening. She then fired all six bow torpedoes, but since the target simultaneously changed course, none struck home. After a rapid reload, she sent six more toward the tanker, and this time, two exploded against the side of the Japanese ship, sending towers of fire and smoke skyward. Nevertheless, the tanker remained afloat. As Bowfin closed to administer the coup de grace, the enemy ship began fighting back with her main battery and machine-gun fire. Undaunted, the submarine kept up the attack, and during the ensuing 20 minutes, fired six more torpedoes - two misses, followed by a pair of hits, then a miss, and finally another hit. At this point, the tanker's fire was becoming more accurate and forced the submarine to dive. When she came up, the Japanese vessel was retiring from the scene, and by dawn had disappeared over the horizon.

The next day, Bowfin laid a minefield in Makassar Strait before beginning the voyage back to Australia. On 30 January, she came across two small schooners, which she destroyed with her four-inch gun. The submarine moored at Fremantle on 5 February and began preparations for her next mission.

 Fourth patrol
Underway on 28 February 1944, the submarine headed for the Celebes Sea. On 10 March, her crew sighted a convoy of four ships screened by two escorts. Bowfin fired six bow tubes, but four of the torpedoes exploded prematurely. Japanese planes forced Griffith to dive, thus preventing anyone on board from observing the fate of the two other torpedoes. During the ensuing action, in which the escorts searched for the submarine, and she, in turn, strove to hide at some 350 ft below the surface, a chain dragged by one of the Japanese hunters scraped across Bowfins hull. Meanwhile, depth charge explosions – more than 20 – shook the submarine severely, but did no debilitating damage. When Griffith dared to rise to the surface, he saw a freighter down by the stern being taken under tow. Despite the efforts of the enemy escorts and of five circling Japanese aircraft, Bowfin attacked the convoy, but could not follow the progress of her torpedoes because one of them had boomeranged and threatened her by running in a circular pattern. She dived to escape the danger and did not come up again until the next day. She attacked the freighter again, but the Japanese escorts drove her down once more. Later that day, she rose to periscope depth, found the damaged ship alone, and finished the 4,470-ton Tsukikawa Maru off with four well-aimed torpedoes.

The submarine then began looking for the rest of the convoy, caught up with it well after dark, and fired her remaining torpedoes, but none scored. She then headed back to Darwin for more, and stood out to sea again on 15 March with a fresh supply. Three days later, she emptied her bow tubes while attacking a small convoy, but all six either ran under their targets or missed wide of their marks. The inevitable depth charge barrage followed, but proved to be equally ineffective. When Bowfin attacked again later that day, she launched four torpedoes – all of which were wasted.

She did better on the night of 24 March, when at the end of a long chase, she attacked a five-ship convoy in the Celebes Sea, sinking two freighters – 5,139-ton Shinkyo Maru and 5,395-ton Bengal Maru. She also damaged a third ship, but could not finish her off for want of torpedoes. As a result, she headed back to Darwin, where she arrived on 1 April.

 Fifth and sixth patrols

There, Commander John H. Corbus relieved Lt. Commander Griffith in command of the submarine, which got underway again on 24 April and headed for the Palaus. Although this sixth patrol proved to be her longest in both time and distance, she only managed to put two torpedoes into a freighter on 14 May, and it refused to sink. She performed lifeguard duty before heading, via Midway, for Pearl Harbor, where she arrived on 21 June.

On 16 July, Bowfin left Hawaii and headed for the Ryukyu Islands. She encountered no worthwhile targets until 9 August, when her crew sighted four ships heading for the harbor at Minami Daito. She trailed them into port, and after they had moored, fired her bow torpedoes, blowing up two and damaging a third. A stray torpedo hit a dock, sending a bus careening into the water, later an incident the Cary Grant comedy film Operation Petticoat incorporated into its story line in 1959 (Grant yelling "We sunk a truck!" in the film after an unintentional misfire caused by a nurse on board). However, no sinkings were confirmed by Japanese records – again possibly because of the small size of the alleged victims.

An authenticated kill came off the Tokara Islands on 22 August, when she attacked a convoy, hit several ships, and claimed several kills, including two destroyers, but apparently only sank the 6,754-ton transport . According to Tsushima-maru Commemoration Association data, the ship was carrying 1,661 civilian evacuees, including 834 schoolchildren (of whom 775 were killed). Shortly after the sinking, a "gag order" was enforced, and families and survivors rarely spoke about the incident. The number of victims who have been identified by name, based on notifications from bereaved families (as of 22 August 2012), include 780 schoolchildren.

On 28 August, Bowfin set a little trawler afire with her four-inch gun. However, since she had futilely fired her last four torpedoes at this target before surfacing, the submarine headed via Midway and Pearl Harbor for the U. S. West Coast. She reached San Francisco, California, on 21 September and entered the Mare Island Navy Yard for overhaul.

 Seventh through ninth patrols

At the end of the yard work, Commander Alexander K. Tyree relieved Commander Corbus on 16 December 1944; later that day, the submarine got underway westward back across the Pacific. Following training in Hawaiian waters, she headed for a station near the Japanese home islands south of Honshū, where she performed lifeguard services for American planes – both naval and Army – raiding strategic enemy targets in Japan. On 17 February, Bowfin attacked two Japanese subchasers and sank the 750-ton Coast Defense Vessel No. 56 with torpedoes and then survived a 26-depth-charge attack by her victim's consort, which had herself barely escaped destruction when some of Bowfins torpedoes exploded prematurely. The submarine later sank a Japanese sea truck with one torpedo. On 19 March about 15 miles south of Shikoku at 09:30, the submarine was on watch when a lone Navy torpedo bomber with white stars on its wings and its tail shot up headed in low toward the submarine. The plane had been hit moments earlier by enemy flak during its bombing run over the Kure Naval Yard. The plane landed in the water dead ahead, about 500 yards off the bow. It floated for two minutes and then nosed down and sank. Both men in the plane jumped out and hung onto an inflated raft. Eleven minutes later, the crew of Bowfin had them aboard. She rescued the pilot, Lieutenant R. U. Plant, and gunner, J. Papazoglakis (Pakis) of the downed Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bomber of Torpedo Squadron 83 (VT-83) from the aircraft carrier . The two men were cold and wet from just a few minutes in that water, but otherwise safe and sound. The captain ordered the life raft sunk and the dye marker destroyed with small arms fire and then resumed patrol on the lifeguard station. The submarine soon set a course for the Marianas and ended the patrol upon her arrival at Guam on 25 March.

Underway on 23 April for her eighth war patrol, the submarine plied the waters north of Honshū and Hokkaidō. Her first kill came on 1 May, when two of her torpedoes sank the 2,719-ton transport Chowa Maru. A week later, she overtook, torpedoed, and destroyed an 880-ton freighter Daito Maru No. 3, but that proved to be the last score of the patrol. After a fortnight of futile searching for targets, she arrived at Apra Harbor, Guam, for refit.

While training for her ninth and final patrol of the war, Bowfin rescued a Marine Corps pilot whose fighter had crashed. She got underway on 29 May and pointed her bow back toward the enemy homeland. One of 9 submarines protected by newly developed mine-detecting sonar and sent into the Sea of Japan, she carefully threaded her way through the dangerous minefields of Tsushima Strait, which guarded this previously sacrosanct maritime heart of the Japanese Empire, but found little enemy shipping. Nevertheless, she wasted neither of her two possible contacts: the first, the 1,898-ton cargo ship  took four torpedoes before sinking on 11 June; and the second, the 887-ton freighter Akiura Maru met a similar fate on 13 June.

The submarine left the Sea of Japan by La Pérouse Strait (Soya Misaki) and headed for Hawaii. She reached Pearl Harbor on Independence Day and began preparations to return to action. Early in August, Bowfin sailed for the Marianas, her staging point for her 10th war patrol. However, while en route, she received word of Japan's capitulation. As a result, she reversed course and returned to Hawaii and, then, headed for the Panama Canal on her way to the east coast of the United States. Bowfin arrived at Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York, on 21 September 1945. She served in the Atlantic Fleet until decommissioned at New London on 12 February 1947 and placed in reserve.

 Post-war

Reactivated because of the Navy's need to expand the fleet to support United Nations-led forces during the Korean War, the submarine was recommissioned on 27 July 1951, and following shakedown training, sailed for the Pacific. After arriving at San Diego, California, on 6 October, she worked from that port for the next two years, devoting her time to training operations and local exercises. The nominal ending of hostilities in Korea in the summer of 1953 reduced the Navy's need for active submarines and prompted Bowfins second inactivation. She arrived at San Francisco on 8 October 1953, and was placed out of commission, in reserve, at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard on 22 April 1954. The warship remained there until moving to Seattle, Washington, on 1 May 1960 to replace  as the Naval Reserve training submarine there, and to begin a little over a decade's service. Her name was finally stricken from the Navy list on 1 December 1971, and she was taken back to Pearl Harbor, where she now serves as a memorial. Audio tours are available to the general public at Pearl Harbor. Some areas of the boat are off limits.

Bowfin was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1986. and   In 1987, she was drydocked and refitted to be used as a floating location to portray three different submarines in the epic miniseries War and Remembrance. She was drydocked again in 2004, and a third time in 2022.

Sunken enemy vessels
The passenger-cargo ship Kirishima Maru on 25 September 1943
 The tanker Ogurasan Maru and cargo ship Tainan Maru on 26 November 1943
 The Vichy France cargo ship Van Vollenhoven on 26 November or 27 November 1943
 The passenger-cargo ship Sydney Maru and the 9,866-ton tanker Tonan Maru on 28 November 1943
 A pair of schooners she destroyed with her four-inch gun on 30 November (1943)
 The cargo ship Shoyu Maru on 17 January 1944
 The cargo ship Tsukikawa Maru on 10 March 1944
 The cargo ships Shinkyo Maru and Bengal Maru on 24 March 1944
 The passenger-cargo ship Tsushima Maru on 22 August 1944
 Assisted  in the sinking of the 4,500-ton cargo ship Bisan Maru on 14 May 1944
 The frigate Coastal Defense Vessel No. 56 on 17 February 1945
 The auxiliary patrol boat  on 2 March 1945
 The passenger-cargo ship Chowa Maru on 1 May 1945
 The cargo ship Daito Maru No. 3 on 8 May 1945
 The cargo ship Shinyō Maru No. 3 on 11 June 1945
 The cargo ship Akiura Maru on 13 June 1945

The sinking of Tsushima Maru
Tsushima Maru was an unmarked Japanese cargo ship sunk by Bowfin between 22:00 and 22:30 local time on 22 August 1944 as the ship was carrying hundreds of schoolchildren from Okinawa to Kagoshima. Attacked while in convoy, Tsushima Maru sank close to the island of Akusekijima. About 1,484 civilians, including 767 schoolchildren, were killed; 59 children survived the sinking.

On her sixth patrol, Bowfin destroyed a pier at Minami Daito that contained a crane and a bus. Thirteen small vessels were sunk by Bowfins deck guns.

USS Bowfin Submarine Museum & Park
The submarine is owned and operated by the Pacific Fleet Submarine Memorial Association, and is now part of the USS Bowfin Submarine Museum & Park''' in Pearl Harbor, on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. Visitors can tour the submarine with an audio narration of life in the vessel during World War II.

The park's museum features exhibits and artifacts about submarines and the history of the United States Submarine Service, including detailed models, weapon systems, photographs, paintings, battleflags, recruiting posters, and a memorial honoring the 52 American submarines and the more than 3,500 submariners lost during World War II.

The museum's other exhibits include a Kaiten torpedo and a 40-mm quad gun, along with Poseidon C-3 and Regulus I missiles. The park is located within walking distance of the visitor center for the USS Arizona Memorial and it is across the Harbor from the Battleship Missouri Memorial.

See also
List of maritime museums in the United States

References

External links

 USS Bowfin at World War II Database
 US Submarines in World War II

 USS Bowfin Submarine Museum and Park
 Kill record: USS Bowfin

Balao-class submarines
1942 ships
World War II submarines of the United States
Cold War submarines of the United States
World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument
Museum ships in Hawaii
Museums in Honolulu
Maritime museums in Hawaii
Military and war museums in Hawaii
Naval museums in the United States
World War II museums in Hawaii
Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in Hawaii
National Historic Landmarks in Hawaii
Ships on the National Register of Historic Places in Hawaii
Ships built in Kittery, Maine
World War II on the National Register of Historic Places in Hawaii
National Register of Historic Places in Honolulu

USS Bowfin


USS Owen (DD-536), was a  of the United States Navy.

Namesake
Elias K. Owen was born on 21 November 1834, in Chicago, Illinois. In 1848, Congressman Abraham Lincoln of Springfield, took Owen to Washington and had him entered in United States Naval Academy, at the age of 14 years as a Midshipman on 7 December 1848. He graduated on 15 July 1854, was promoted to Master on 15 September 1855, Lieutenant on 16 September 1855, Lieutenant Commander on 16 July 1862 and Commander on 25 July 1866. During the Civil War he served in the Mississippi Squadron, commanding  and a division of Admiral David Porter's squadron. After the Civil War he commanded the steam sloop Seminole in Panama, 1868–1869. He retired on 9 June 1876 and died on 8 April 1877 at Kaskaskia, Illinois.

Construction and commissioning
Owen (DD–536) was laid down 17 September 1942 by the Bethlehem Steel Corp., San Francisco, California; launched 21 March 1943; sponsored by Mrs. Hope Owen; and commissioned 20 September 1943.

Owen, assigned to Destroyer Squadron 52 (DesRon 52), completed shakedown off California and training in Hawaii in time to join the Fast Carrier Task Force (then called TF 58, as it was then part of the 5th Fleet) for Operation Flintlock. Operating with the carriers throughout most of World War II, she escorted them to their objectives; screened them as they launched dive bombing, strafing, and torpedo attacks; and covered them as they retired.

1944

On 16 January 1944 Owen departed Pearl Harbor for the Marshalls. Between 29 January and 3 February she screened the carriers of Task Group 58.2 off Kwajalein, then retired to Majuro. From Majuro her group raided Truk 16 February and then retired briefly to Pearl Harbor, returning to Majuro in mid-March.

On 22 March, the carriers, supported by battleships and cruisers and screened by a ring of destroyers, departed the atoll with Owen in the outer ring of steel. Completing strikes at Palau, Yap, Ulithi, and Woleai, 29 March – 1 April, they returned to Majuro, whence they headed for New Guinea. There they supported Army assault forces with raids on Hollandia, Wakde, Sewar and Sarmi, 21 April – 22 April and then struck at Truk, Satawan and Ponape 29 April – 1 May. Next the force hit Marcus and Wake Islands, 19 May – 23 May and then prepared for the Marianas campaign.

On 6 June, the carrier force again sortied from Majuro. From 11 May through 17 May, its ships and planes ranged from the Volcanoes and Bonins to the southernmost Marianas in support of the assault on Saipan. On the 17th, after screening the carriers during strikes against Saipan, Tinian, Rota and Guam, Owen received word of a Japanese fleet en route from the Philippines. On 18 May, screening continued as she waited. On 19 May, enemy dive bombers opened the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Throughout the two day battle, which permanently crippled the Japanese sea-borne aerial arm, she carried out her protective mission in the screen of .

Strikes on Pagan Island preceded a brief upkeep at Eniwetok. In July, the force struck Iwo Jima and Chichi Jima, Palau, Ulithi, and Yap. During August there were further operations in the Marianas and against the Bonins. September raids against Palau, Mindanao, Leyte, Luzon and Samar in support of the Palau campaign were followed in October by a foray into the East and South China Seas. On 20 October, the force supported amphibious operations on Leyte and Samar.

Owen, forced by boiler trouble to miss the China Seas operations, rejoined the force for the Leyte landings. On 25 October, Owen, temporarily with TG 34.5, sailed to assist TF 77 units which had engaged enemy forces attempting to enter Leyte Gulf. Shortly after midnight, off the eastern end of San Bernardino Strait, an enemy destroyer, , was taken under fire. After several exchanges, Owen and  closed to deliver the final blows. They accomplished their mission in under 20 minutes. Nowaki was sunk with the loss of all hands and also those survivors of the  who were picked up a day before.

Raids against enemy installations in the Philippines continued into November. On 25 November the force retired to Ulithi, whence it sortied, 11 December, to support amphibious operations on Mindoro. Strikes on Formosa preceded another return to the Philippines in support of amphibious landings, this time in Lingayen Gulf.

1945

Following the Luzon assault, the carrier force's sorties into the South and East China Seas were stepped up. The ships and planes repeatedly blasted installations from Saigon to the Ryukyus and frequently sailed north to raid Japan's industrial heart. On 19–21 February 1945, the force supported the assault in Iwo Jima, then steamed west again to pound the Tokyo plain. By mid-March, an intensified raiding campaign against the Ryukyus and Japan was well underway, preparing the way for an invasion force.

On 19 March, an enemy dive bomber penetrated the screen to score a direct hit on  Following rescue operations, Owen was detached, with others, to escort the damaged carrier back to Ulithi.

Owen departed Ulithi 5 April for her last operation. For the next 53 days she screened TG 58.2 as it provided air cover for forces fighting the battle of Okinawa and raided Kyu-shu-. On 28 May, she departed the intensely disputed Okinawan combat area. Sailing south, she anchored in Leyte Gulf until 20 June, when she set a homeward course. She arrived at San Francisco, California 9 July and was there when the war ended.

Post-war service

Assigned to the 19th Fleet (Pacific Reserve Fleet), Owen decommissioned 10 December 1946 and was berthed at San Diego. She remained there until reactivated during the Korean War. She recommissioned 17 August 1951, becoming flagship of DesDiv 282, and reported for duty with the Atlantic Fleet in November. Cold weather operations in the North Atlantic in early 1952 were followed by overhaul at Charleston Naval Shipyard and training operations in the Caribbean.

On 7 January 1953, she sailed, with her division, for the Far East. Steaming via the Panama Canal, she arrived at Sasebo, Japan, 12 February; joined the 7th Fleet; and immediately commenced operations off the embattled Korean peninsula. Owen divided her five months tour with the United Nations Force between the fast carriers (TG 77) and the Blockade and Escort Force (TF 95). With the former, her operations were similar to her World War II missions—screening and plane guard. With the latter, she patrolled from Wonsan to Chongjin and acted as flagship for the Yong Do and Wonsan Defense and Blockade Units. Defense of friendly islands, coastal patrol, shore bombardment to silence enemy batteries and impede their transport and communications activities, and mine destruction were included in these assignments.

On 26 June, Owen departed Sasebo to return to NS Norfolk via the Suez Canal. Completing her round-the-world voyage 22 August, she remained on the east coast until January 1954. A 3-month Mediterranean deployment followed, after which she returned to spend the remainder of the year in the western Atlantic.

In January 1955, she was transferred to the Pacific Fleet, arriving at Long Beach on 26 January. On reporting, her division was redesignated DesDiv 192. From 1955 to 1958, the destroyer alternated EastPac training operations and shipyard overhauls with WestPac tours. In December 1957, she returned from her last 7th Fleet deployment and reported for inactivation at Mare Island Naval Shipyard. She decommissioned 27 May 1958 and was again berthed in California as a unit of the Pacific Reserve Fleet, berthed at Stockton.

Owen was stricken 15 April 1973, sold 27 November 1973, and broken up for scrap.

Honors
Owen earned 9 battle stars during World War II; 2 during the Korean War.

References

External links
   navsource.org: USS Owen
 hazegray.org: USS Owen

World War II destroyers of the United States
Cold War destroyers of the United States
Korean War destroyers of the United States
Ships built in San Francisco
1943 ships
Fletcher-class destroyers of the United States Navy

USS Owen