River of Smoke (2011) is a novel by Indian novelist Amitav Ghosh. It is the second volume of the Ibis trilogy.

Synopsis
The promotional text refers to the storyline which can be summarized as follows: After the incidents on Ibis, which was caught in a storm and eventually ended up in Mauritius, but with a few passengers less, the story help in this novel begins from where it left off. From the details of the changing lives and traditions of Indian migrants in Mauritius, the novel traces the fate of other characters from Ibis and describes the opium trade in China.
The novel has a rich tapestry of characters from various cultural and geographical backgrounds whose common interest is trade with China. The plot is set in Fanqui town, a small strip of land used by foreigners to trade with local Chinese traders, a year before the first opium war.

Plot introduction
In the year 1838, three ships are caught in a raging storm in the Andaman Sea. The Anahita, owned by Bahram Moddie, a Parsi opium trader from Bombay, the Redruth, owned by Fitcher Penrose, on an expedition to collect rare species of plants from China and the Ibis (from Sea of Poppies) carrying convicts and indentured labourers. The convicts Neel Rattan, a Bengali Zamindar, and Ah Fatt, a criminal from Canton, escape from the ship along with a couple of lascars.

The story traces the lives of these principal characters in Canton. Bahram Modi, a lowly son-in-law of a rich Parsi Ship builder Rustamjee Mistrie, convinces his father in law to provide him seed capital to enter into opium trade, carries out multiple successful expeditions to China and creates considerable wealth in the process for his in-laws. However, on the sudden demise of his father-in-law, he is forced by his brothers-in-law to retire from the Export division. Bahram decides to ship a large consignment of opium to China, as he is confident that he would be able to earn a sizeable profit to buy out the Export division, in spite of a ban on trading of Opium issued by the Chinese officials. Bahram also has a son (Ah Fatt) through a Chinese boat woman, Chi Mei, unknown to his family back in Bombay.

Fitcher Penrose, a botanist, is on an expedition to China to collect rare plants. He is joined by Paulette Lambert aka Puggly, daughter of a French botanist, in his search for the rare Golden camellias. They are helped by Robin Chinnery, a fictional illiegitimate son of the English painter George Chinnery.

Neel and Ah Fatt have escaped from Ibis and they meet Bahram Moddie, Ah Fatt's father. Neel joins Bahram as his Munshi.

Does Mr. Moddie manage to sell his opium and redeem himself in spite of the Chinese government's crackdown? Does Mr. Penrose find the rare plant he is looking for? Does Neel manage to evade the long arm of the law?

Characters
Bahram Moddie - Parsi Merchant from Bombay and father of Ah Fatt
Chi Mei - A Cantonese Tanka woman who is the lover of Bahram Moddie
Ah Fatt or Framjee (Freddie) Pestonjee Moddie- Son of Bahram Moddie and Chi Mei
Neel Rattan Halder -  the Raja of Raskhali and later Munshi to Bahram Moddie
Vico - Bahram Moddie's purser
Zadig Bey - Armenian watch maker and friend of Bahram Moddie
Fitcher Penrose - A Cornish botanist on an expedition to collect rare plants in China
Paulette Lambert - Daughter of a French botanist who accompanies Mr. Fitcher on his expedition
Robin Chinnery - Artist, Paulette's friend and illegitimate Anglo-Indian son of George Chinnery
Commissioner Lin Zexu - The incorruptible Chinese mandarin who is appointed by the Emperor of China to put an end to opium trading

Reception

The novel has received generally positive reviews from critics. David Davidar writing in Outlook notes "Conventional wisdom has it that in the age of Twitter long striders in the world of fiction are doomed to extinction. Attention spans have dwindled, the pundits say, brevity is all, and the grand narrative is to be consigned to the trash heap. Well, thank God, Amitav Ghosh hasn't been paying attention to the so-called experts but has decided to go where his inclinations have led him. Generous helpings of humour, adventure (the hunt for the golden camellia was a favourite), history, romance, villainy and suspense are expertly blended into the narrative to make for a rich and entertaining read".

Anjana Rajan writing in The Hindu says "To have read Sea of Poppies is no pre-condition to enjoy the second. What is perhaps a pre-condition is an appetite for detail, a taste for complexities, and a love for words and their strange journeys. Robin Chinnery's conversation transports us to Jane Austen's England. And we are charmed by the sing-song of pidgin as Chi-mei sympathises with Bahram."

Tessa Hadley in The Guardian says "In historical novels the past can sometimes feel tamed; hindsight, hovering just off the page, tells us that we know what it all added up to and what came of it (the First Opium War, during which British gunboats enforced a treaty opening Chinese ports to international trade, comes shortly after the ending of this novel). But Ghosh's novels somehow succeed in taking us back inside the chaos of when "then" was "now". His grasp of the detail of the period is exhaustive – he is so thoroughly submerged in it – that readers can't possibly remember all the things he shows them, or hold on to all the life-stories of all the characters he introduces.". She also goes on to lament "The novel feels stitched together clumsily in a few places. In particular, the section narrated in letters from Robin Chinnery (illegitimate, mixed-race and presumably fictional son of George Chinnery, a real-life painter of South China scenes) to Paulette the botanist, who appears in the previous book. Paulette is too absent and Robin feels like a contrivance to take us inside certain aspects of Canton life where Bahram can't go."

In Paste Magazine, writer Zack Shlachter calls the Ibis trilogy "one of the most inspired explorations of global encounters by a 21st-century writer," noting that in River of Smoke Ghosh focuses on the simultaneous dangers and potential—for exploitation as for more benevolent kinds of exchange—inherent in trade.

The novel has received some awards and recognition. It was shortlisted for 2011 The Hindu Literary Prize; longlisted for the 2011 Man Asian Literary Prize; and shortlisted for the 2013 DSC Prize for South Asian Literature. NPR listed the book as one of the year's best historical novels.

References

External links
Amitav Ghosh website

2011 Indian novels
Fiction set in 1838
Indian historical novels in English
Works about opium
Novels set in British India
Novels set in Guangdong
Novels set in Hong Kong
Novels set in the Qing dynasty
Novels set in Mauritius
Novels set in the 1830s
Novels set on ships
Postcolonial novels
Penguin Books India books
Novels about colonialism

River of Smoke


Giffnock is a sma toun seetuatit in East Renfrewshire, Scotland juist sooth o Glesga. It furms pairt o Greater Glesga an had a population o 16,178 as o the 2001 census. Maist o Giffnock's indwallers wark in Glesga but the toun dis hae local companies an aw- masitly locatit on Fenwick Road whit is the main gate that gaes throu the toun. The aurie haes twa primary schuils- Braibar Primary Schuil an Giffnock Primary Schuil an the heich schuil for maist fowk in Giffnock is Woodfarm Heich Schuil. Some o the maist kent pynts in the toun are Giffnock Library an Giffnock Railway Station whilk are baith locatit on Station Road juist aff Fenwick Road. Giffnock haes monie kirks an severals Boys' Brigade Companies an aw.

Touns in East Renfrewshire
Places o Scotland

Giffnock


A sprain is a type of injury in which a person hurts the part really bad, but it is not broken. It has common side affects of a broken bone, but it is less serious.

Degrees

The first degree is only a minor tear or stretch of a ligament.

The second degree is a tear of a ligament, which is usually followed by pain or swelling.

The third degree is a complete rupture.

Signs and symptoms
The typical signs and symptoms associated with a sprain are the main signs of inflammation:
 localized pain
 swelling
 loss of function

Joints involved
Although any joint can experience a sprain, some of the more common include:
 the ankle. It is the most common.
 the knee. Perhaps one of the more talked about sprains is that to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) of the knee. This is a disabling sprain common to athletes, especially basketball, soccer, and judo players.
 the fingers.
 the wrist. The wrist is also a popular sprain area.

Prevention
Sprains can best be prevented by proper use of safety equipment (wrist, ankle guards), warm-ups and cool-downs (including stretching), being aware of your surroundings and maintaining strength and flexibility. Physical conditioning is the best way to avoid or lessen the degree of sprains.

Other websites
 More information and treatment at nhsdirect.nhs.uk

Skeletal system
Injuries

Sprain


In linguistics, noun phrases have grammatical number. Plural is one kind of grammatical number. In English, plural noun phrases are counted as more or less than one (e.g., 32 degrees, no bananas, 0.5 liters, 1.2 grams, two times, three fish, 20 mothers). In contrast, a singular noun phrase usually refers to something that you would count as one only (e.g., one time, a glass, the sun, my mother, Jennifer). Noun phrases that cannot be counted are also singular in English (e.g., water, the meat, some space, etc.).

In many languages, a suffix (word ending) is added to a word to show that the word is plural. In English, the normal plural suffix is -s (e.g., cat is singular, and cats is plural).

Plurals in English
There are a number of exceptions:
Singulars ending in s are usually the same in plural: species, mumps, innings and so on. However, proper nouns ending in 's' take add 'es' in plural: Jones becomes the Joneses.
Compound words add the plural to the noun part: sons-in-law, Lord Mayors, Courts Martial.
Singulars ending in y become ies in the plural if a consonant is before the suffix: day becomes days, but spy becomes spies. Personal names are again exceptions: the plural of Mary is Marys.
Singulars ending in f usually changes to ves: dwarf to dwarves, leaf to leaves, and so on.
Special cases: some plurals just have to be learnt. The plural of person is normally people, but sometimes persons is used.
Invariant nouns: The common names of animals is often used as both singular and plural. One can say "We shot grouse today" correctly no matter what number were killed. With "fish" there is a choice. The traditional English usage is that the word is used for both singular and plural, but American usage seems to prefer fishes as the plural. With groups of animals, one uses the singular, as in a herd of bison or a shoal of herring. However, if the animals are known as individuals then, for example, we feed the ducks, or stroke our cats. There are other cases where there is no plural at all, as with sheep, salmon, deer. Other general words which add no suffix in plural are aircraft and offspring. Some look like singular but are always plural, such as vermin, livestock, cattle, people.

It is fair to say that most native English-speakers make mistakes in this area, which is one of the more troublesome aspects of English.

Other languages
All European languages have plural forms. The suffix that is used in each language is different from the one that is applied to English nouns.

In other languages, such as Chinese, Korean and Japanese, there is usually no plural ending.

References

Grammar

Plural


Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen, the first element. Deuterium has one proton and one neutron. Hydrogen does not have a neutron, only a proton. Another isotope of hydrogen, tritium, has two neutrons. The chemical symbol for Deuterium is 2H but D is also used often.

Two deuterium atoms combined with an oxygen atom is sometimes called "heavy water." This is because it is like water (H2O), but heavier because deuterium has one more neutron in its nucleus. Heavy water is sometimes used in nuclear reactors. It is also used as a solvent for NMR spectroscopy. This is because it will dissolve the sample, like normal water, but it will not be detected by the magnet in an 1H NMR.

Other websites

 Deuterium -Citizendium

Hydrogen
Isotopes

Deuterium


The Coat of arms of Afghanistan has appeared in some form on the Flag of Afghanistan since the inception of that nation. The most notable absence was during the 1980s when a Communist regime ruled the nation, and in the late 1990s, during the rule of the Taliban.

The latest incarnation of the coat of arms has the added inscription of the shahadah in Arabic at the top. Below it is the image of a mosque with a mehrab that is facing Mecca with a prayer mat inside. Attached to the mosque are two flags, taken to stand for flags of Afghanistan. Beneath the mosque is an inscription that states the name of the nation. Around the mosque is a garland. It is white

Afghanistan
National symbols of Afghanistan

Emblem of Afghanistan


George Louis Eyser (August 31, 1870 – March 6, 1919) was a German-American gymnast who competed in the 1904 Summer Olympics, earning six medals in one day, including three gold and two silver medals. Eyser competed with a wooden prosthesis for a left leg, having lost his leg after being run over by a train. Despite his disability, he won gold in the vault, an event which then included a jump over a long horse without aid of a springboard.

Life
Eyser was born on August 31, 1870, in Kiel, Germany, as the only child of Georg Sophus Jasper Eÿser and Auguste Friederike Henriette Eÿser (née Marxen). When he was 14, his family emigrated to the United States (Eyser obtained US citizenship in 1894). The family first lived in Denver, Colorado, but George moved to St. Louis, Missouri, sometime around 1902–1903 where he worked as a bookkeeper for a construction company. There, he joined a local gymnastics club Concordia Turnverein Saint Louis. At some point in his youth, he lost most of his left leg, which had to be amputated after a train ran over it. It was replaced by a wooden prosthesis which allowed physical activities such as running and jumping. A keen sportsman, Eyser pursued training, aiming for the 1904 Olympics.

Olympic career
The 1904 Olympics, held in St. Louis, were the third Olympics and the first ones where gold, silver and bronze medals were introduced for the first three places. Cups or trophies were given to the winners at the previous games. The 1904 games in general had a confusing program of events, which were spread out over several months, and the gymnastics competition was no different. There were two sets of gymnastic events: International Turners' Championship, which was held on July 1–2 and comprised the all-around, triathlon, and team events, and Olympic Gymnastics Championships, held on October 29, which comprised seven individual apparatus events and the combined event. The individual all-around was a combination of the gymnastic triathlon competition and the athletics triathlon. The team competition was a combination of individual scores from the individual all-around. The parallel bars, horizontal bar, vault, and pommel horse scores for each gymnast were summed to get the "combined" score.

Eyser competed in both sets and did poorly in the first one. He was placed 10th in gymnastic 9-event all-around competition, which included 3 routines on both the horizontal bar and parallel bars, two on pommel horse and one on vault. Eyser was 71st in another gymnastic all-around event, which included the same devices, but smaller number of routines. He also competed in the athletics triathlon, but finished the last with the results of 8 m (26.1 ft) in shot put, 15.4 s in 100 meters sprint and 4 m (13 ft) in the long jump.

Eyser performed much better in the second competition set. On a single day of October 29, he won 6 medals in total, of which 3 were gold (parallel bars, long horse vault, and 25-foot rope climbing), two silver (pommel horse and 4-event all-around), and one bronze (horizontal bar). His main rival was another American, Anton Heida, who also won 6 medals, 5 gold and one silver. Heida shared gold with Eyser in the vault, was second after Eyser on parallel bars, but won the horizontal bar, pommel horse, all-around and team competitions. In the team competition, which was then held by the clubs, Concordia finished fourth.

Prior to 2008, Eyser was the only person with an artificial leg to have competed at the Olympic Games. Later, in 2008 Natalie du Toit,a South African swimmer who lost her left leg in a traffic accident, participated in the 10 km swimming marathon at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing and finished 16th, and in 2012 Oscar Pistorius, a South African double-leg amputee runner, participated in the 2012 Summer Olympics in London in the 400-metre race and the 4x400 relay.

Later life
After his Olympic success, Eyser continued competing for Concordia, with the club winning the 1908 international meet in Frankfurt, Germany, and the 1909 national meet in Cincinnati, Ohio. He died on March 6, 1919, in Denver.

See also

List of multiple Olympic medalists at a single Games
Olivér Halassy

References

External links
 George Eyser at databaseOlympics

1870 births
1919 deaths
American male artistic gymnasts
Child amputees
Gymnasts at the 1904 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in gymnastics
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in gymnastics
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in gymnastics
Emigrants from the German Empire to the United States
American amputees
American disabled sportspeople
Medalists at the 1904 Summer Olympics

George Eyser


Stingy Jack is a character in Irish folklore. He was a poor, dirty man who was often drunk. He outsmarted the devil at least three times.

He invited the devil to have a drink with him. Jack did not want to pay for the drink. He persuaded the devil to change himself into a coin. The devil did so, and Jack put the coin in his pocket. There was a silver cross in his pocket that made it impossible for the devil to return to his original shape. Jack eventually allowed the devil to resume his shape, but only after he promised not to bother Jack for a whole year and to not try to claim his soul when he died.

On another occasion, Jack persuaded the devil to climb an apple tree to gather apples. Jack quickly carved crosses into the trunk of the tree, making it impossible for the devil to come down. Jack allowed the devil to come down, but only after he promised not to bother Jack for ten years and not to claim his soul when he died.

On the third occasion, Jack died before the ten-year time limit. God did not want Jack in Heaven, so he was sent to Hell. The devil could not claim his soul, so Jack was sent back into the world. The devil gave him a glowing coal to light his way in the darkness. Jack put the coal into a hollowed-out turnip. He is said to still walk the earth with his lantern, and can be seen around All Saints Day November 1.

Jack became known as "Jack of the lantern". This name was shortened to "Jack-o'-lantern". In the United States, his lantern became a pumpkin rather than a turnip. Pumpkins were common in the U.S. and easier to carve. The story of Jack is little known, perhaps because he was an unsuitable role model for entertaining children.

References

Folklore
Irish culture
Fictional European people

Stingy Jack


An herb grinder (or simply, a grinder) is a cylindrical device with two halves (top and bottom) that separate and have sharp teeth or pegs aligned in such a way that when both halves are turned, material inside is shredded.  Though the manufacturers claim they are intended for use with herbs and spices for cooking, they are often used to shred cannabis, and are often unsuitable for actual use with spices (which instead are prepared using a burr grinder), resulting in a product that can be more easily hand-rolled into a "joint" that burns more evenly.  Herb grinders are typically made of either metal or plastic and come in a variety of colors and polished metals.

Some grinders have two or three compartments instead of just one, with fine screens separating the bottom compartments from the ones above, thus allowing the marijuana trichomes, also called kief, to be collected separately.

The widespread adoption of cannabis as a recreational drug in recent times has caused herb grinders to become synonymous with weed grinders. There are many types of herb grinders out there, from electric to hand cranked, in various styles.  Advertisements describing them as "spice grinders" have sometimes confused buyers who were unaware about the actual intended use.

References

External links

Cannabis smoking
Drug paraphernalia
Food grinding tools

Herb grinder


Point After is a program that aired on the NFL Network. This program contained press conferences and interviews given by National Football League and college football players and coaches. Most material was pre-recorded, but occasionally the network went live to the press briefings.

The show aired Monday through Friday during the football season. The starting time is 4 p.m. Eastern time, for Tuesday-Friday and for Monday at 8:30 p.m. Eastern time. The hosts were Fran Charles, Derrin Horton and Alex Flanagan. Jim E. Mora, Jamie Dukes and Adam Schefter provided analysis.

Show history
Point After has been on NFL Network from its beginning during the 2003 season. The original version was basically an automated program that aired on Sunday nights. A voice-over announcer briefly described the games of that NFL Sunday, then the comments of the players and coaches in that game aired.

When NFLN revamped for 2006, mainly to mark the start of live regular-season play-by-play, this program became NFL Scoreboard and Point After became a more polished five-day-a-week show. Also, college soundbites were added as part of an additional emphasis on collegiate football.

Successor
In 2008, NFL Network cancelled this program and replaced it with Team Cam, which has a similar format but which also includes contributions from beat writers and bloggers.  The host is Randy Moss (the former ESPN sportscaster, not the New England Patriots wide receiver of the same name). It airs weekdays at 4 p.m. Eastern time for two hours an episode.

References

NFL Network original programming
2003 American television series debuts
2008 American television series endings

Point After


Pablo Neruda (July 12, 1904 – September 23, 1973) was a Chilean poet. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1971. He wrote in Spanish. Most of his works have been translated into many other languages.

Biography

Neruda was born in the City of Parral in Chile on July 12, 1904 born under the name Ricardo Neftali Reyes. Neruda's mother died shortly after he was born, but the child, Neruda came to love his stepmother (Dona Trinidad Candia Malverde) as if she had been his real mother. Neruda started to write poetry as a young boy against the wishes of his father who wanted him to focus on mathematics - so he could become a teacher. In his youth he became a great admirer of the poetry of Jan Neruda and Paul Verlaine and chose the pen name of Pablo Neruda after Paul Verlaine (Pablo is the Spanish version of Paul) and Jan Neruda.

Neruda was mainly interested in literature and writing poems, which he would mail out to magazines; to prevent his parents from discovering that he was doing this he changed his name to Pablo Neruda. In 1920 Neruda moved to Santiago to study French at the University of Chile, which he did to please his parents who wanted him to become a teacher. Soon Neruda became deeply involved in his poetry and in 1923 he published his first book: Crepusculario(Twilight Book).

After a number of years Neruda became a very famous person in his country and the world and was assigned diplomatic posts in various countries for long periods of time, such as Indonesia, Spain and France.

Neruda was suffering from cancer when he died of heart failure in hospital at the age of 69 on September 23, 1973 about a fortnight after the overthrow of Salvador Allende by military forces led by Pinochet. Many people today believe Neruda may have been poisoned by Pinochet's secret police, DINA, who feared Neruda's prominence and influence in creating an opposition to the military dictatorship.

Neruda had a number of siblings, he had a sister that was stillborn when he was 3 or 4 years old and from his father's second marriage, a stepbrother, Ricardo Reyes Candia, and a stepsister, Laura Reyes Candia, - both children from his "mother" Trinidad Candia and his father DonReyes.

Some of Neruda's dog and also Tierney poetry is very difficult to understand because they are about events of World history such as the colonization of America, the Spanish Civil War, Nazi Germany and other conflicts. Neruda also references (mentions) important figures of World history. In some of his poetry Neruda tends to link historical events from different eras (periods of history) and different parts of the world into one major conflict as in his Canto General (1950).

But Neruda also wrote poetry that can be easily appreciated by all, such as his odes which Neruda wrote on all sorts of common things, such onions, lemons, and the common cat.

Neruda was very concerned in how his poetry sounded, he liked rhythm and many claim he had a "musical intelligence" i.e. he wrote with music in his mind. He would record many of his poems on a tape recorder and many of his recordings were sold like records in the Spanish speaking world.

Importance

Many academics and scholars consider Neruda to be one of the most important and widely read poets of the 1900s. Many go as far as to place him alongside Shakespeare and Dante. This is probably because Neruda wrote poems on all sorts of topics, appealing to people of all ages and interests: poems about love, on historical events (like wars), he wrote about native people, about nature and about simple things.

Neruda was also an avid collector of all sorts of things. He had one of the largest collections of seashells in the world and collected bottles, model ships, water taps - among other odd objects.

Many of Neruda's poems have been used in movies and in music, such as in the classical music of the Greek composer Mikis Theodorakis, and in the movies, such as "Il Postino" or "Patch Adams". Many famous people have also recorded narrations (spoken word) of his poems, such as Julia Roberts, Madonna, Andy Garcia, and Glen Close. Also, he fought his whole life for the freedom of others.

2020s
In 2023, results from analysis of "tooth material", made some people think that the results are evidence of Neruda being poisoned (and that being the cause of death); However, the (kind of) bacteria (clostridium botulinum) that was found, has not been proven to come from a mysterious injection at the hospital; The bacteria could have come into his body, from food that Neruda ate, according to a professor of Medicine; Also, not all variants of that bacteria, produce the botuline toxin.

Other websites

Pablo Neruda Study Guide - Sources and References
Ode To My Socks hear the poem (English)

1904 births
1973 deaths
Chilean poets
People from Parral
Pen names

Pablo Neruda


Back to the Future Part II & III is a 1990 video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System based on the second and third films in the Back to the Future trilogy. The game was produced by Beam Software and published by Acclaim Entertainment under their LJN label.

Plot

Part II
When Doc takes Marty to the year 2015 to prevent his future son from committing a crime, old Biff takes the Gray's Sports Almanac and travels back to 1955 and gives the book to his younger self. Over the next three decades, young Biff uses the information to win money on the outcome of each sporting event he bets on, making him the richest and most powerful man in the world by 1985. To ensure that no one else gets their hands on the almanac, Biff travels through time and collects various items and puts them behind locked doors in three different periods. This action has caused a disruption in time, and now the space-time continuum is falling apart. With Hill Valley in ruins, Marty must now travel to all three periods, then find and return all the items back to their original places in order to retrieve the almanac and destroy it.

Part III
After Marty returns all items to their rightful places and burns the almanac, Marty then receives a letter from Doc via a courier that was written in 1875 (although 1885 in the film). According to the old letter, Doc has become stranded in the past and must be rescued or else this will start to threaten the future. Now, Marty must go back in time in order to rescue Doc with the aged but repaired DeLorean. Before they can return to 1985, Marty must find and return ten more items to their rightful location.

Gameplay

Street level
The player controls Marty and attempts to defeat enemies by jumping on or throwing projectiles at them. The player must also collect fuel for the time machine and junk food for extra lives as they progress through each timeline.

Scattered and hidden throughout each timeline are Object Rooms (containing objects which must later be returned to other locations) and alleyways used to navigate street to street within the timeline. Some alleyways appear in all three timelines while others appear in one or two but not all three. At other points the player must use the DeLorean to navigate large chasms that appear on different timelines.

Object rooms
As the player progresses through the level they obtain keys by killing certain enemies. These keys are used to unlock the various object rooms throughout each level. Within each object room the player must obtain one of the items ostensibly scattered by Biff. The rooms appear as locked doors in Part II and caves or various buildings in Part III.

To retrieve the items Biff scattered, the player must participate in a mini-game within the object room involving collecting a certain number of stop watches in 60 seconds while avoiding enemies and obstacles such as cacti, quicksand and falling pellets.

Puzzle rooms
Puzzle rooms are hidden throughout each level and found in various drainage pipes and manholes. Each puzzle room contains the scrambled name of the object that belongs there. The player must unscramble the word and select the proper item from their inventory. Correctly choosing the item that belongs within the room reveals one section of a picture puzzle. However, if the player chooses the wrong item, the item is removed from their inventory and returned to the object room in which it was previously located, forcing the player to complete the challenge within that room to re-obtain the object.

In Part III, puzzle rooms are located under rocks that the player must break open by jumping on them a few times.

Time travel
After finding the remote control to summon the DeLorean, players can time travel between 1955, 1985 and 2015. However, adequate fuel must be collected before being able to time travel using the DeLorean.

Additionally, each time the player time travels a clone of Marty is created in that year which, when touched, will instantly kill the player.

Some platforms are out of reach in certain areas which need to be accessed to progress through the level. A player can plant an acorn in 1955 and then revisit that same location in 1985 or 2015 where a full-grown tree appears, allowing the player to access the previously unattainable space.

Reception

Skyler Miller of AllGame acknowledged Back to the Future Part II & III had little to do with the source material and had nonsensical elements, it was "a decent Super Mario Bros. rip-off" with "reasonably tight" controls and "passable" graphics. GamePro, also comparing the game to Super Mario Bros., suggested its various arcade-style mini-game levels makes this cart as challenging and that they provide hours of fun.

Stan Stepanic of Gamefreaks365.com gave Back to the Future II & III positive remarks in regards to similarities with The Goonies II, but gave it a largely negative review due to the lack of a password or save feature coupled with its notorious length, although there was a code to skip to the second half of the game. Stepanic stated that it took him roughly six hours just to map it, and he spent so much time trying to finish it he actually turned it off out of boredom.

Notes

References

External links

1990 video games
Back to the Future (franchise) video games
Beam Software games
LJN games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Nintendo Entertainment System-only games
North America-exclusive video games
Platform games
Single-player video games
Video game sequels
Video games set in 1955
Video games set in 1985
Video games set in the 19th century
Video games set in 2015
Alternate history video games
Video games developed in Australia
Fiction set in 1875
Video games set in California

Back to the Future Part II & III


Klymentiy Sheptytsky (, ; 17 November 1869 – 1 May 1951), was an archimandrite of the Order of Studite monks of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church and was a hieromartyr. Klymentiy has been beatified by the Catholic Church, as well as awarded the title of Righteous Among the Nations by the State of Israel for saving Jews. As effective leader of the church, he was arrested and died a prisoner of the Soviet Union.

Early life
Sheptytsky was born as Kazimierz Maria Szeptycki on 17 November 1869 in the village of Prylbychi, Yavorich Region, near Lviv in Galicia to an old Polish-Ruthenian noble family. The Szeptycki family lived in the eastern part of Poland, near Zamość, in Labunie's Palace. At that time, the area was of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.  He was a younger brother of the future Venerable, Metropolitan Bishop Andrey Sheptytsky, and received his education first at home and starting in 1882 at Krakow.  Sheptytsky later also studied in Munich and Paris. In 1892 he became a doctor of law at the Jagiellonian University. After finishing his studies, he returned home to manage the family estates and look after his aging parents. In 1900 Casimir Sheptytsky was elected to the Austrian parliament, and a member of the National Council,  however after its dissolution in 1907 he decided to withdraw from politics.

In 1911 Sheptytsky decided to become a monk and entered the Benedictine (Latin Rite) Beuron Archabbey (Baden-Württemberg), Germany. After a year he decided to follow the example of his older brother, returning to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church of their ancestors and entered the Studite Monastery at Kamenica, near Čelinac, Bosnia-Herzegovina. He took the religious name of Clement, after Pope Clement I, martyred in Chersonesos, who together with Andrew the Apostle is considered to be the founder of Christianity in the Balkans. In 1913 he undertook theological studies at the University of Innsbruck and on 28 August 1915 he was ordained a priest by the Greek Catholic Bishop of Križevci, Croatia, Eparch Dionisije Njaradi, while he studied. After finishing them in 1919 returned to Ukraine to settle in the Holy Dormition Lavra, currently in Lviv Raion of Lviv Oblast.

In 1926, Sheptytsky was named the hegumen (prior) of the Univ Lavra and in 1944, became the Archmandrite (abbot). In 1937 he came to Lviv to aide his ailing brother Andrew (Andrey). In 1939 the region was occupied by communists, the Soviet "liberators" immediately implemented a plan to eliminate the Ukrainian intellectual elites and church. At the time they did not arrest the Metropolitan himself, fearing his great authority among the nation, but went after his family attempting to capture Sheptytsky and murdering their brother Leon along with his family. During that time the Metropolitan divided the Soviet union into four exarchates and named Sheptytsky the exarch of Russia.

World War II

In 1941 the persecution of Christians was interrupted with the outbreak of the Nazi-Soviet war and the German occupation of Ukraine, however the situation did not improve much. During that time Sheptytsky helped his brother Andrey Sheptytsky rescue Jews, harboring them in Studite monasteries and organizing groups that would aid them in escaping to Hungarian-controlled Governorate of Subcarpathia.

From 1941 to 1944, when the region was occupied by Nazi Germany, Jewish boys were hidden at the monastery in Univ, home to monks of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. Univ was particularly important because it was the main Studite monastery; with its large community of monks, younger boys would go unnoticed by authorities. Along with the handful of holy men who were the children's daily caretakers, three figures were instrumental in their safekeeping: Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky, the head of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, his brother Klymentiy, and Omelyan Kovch, a priest from the nearby town of Peremyshliany. Kurt I. Lewin, whose father was Lviv's last rabbi and who would later become a renowned businessman, and David Kahane, later chief rabbi in the Israeli Air Force, were both harbored by Sheptytsky in Lviv. Later in their lives, both men would write about their experiences, Lewin in A Journey Through Illusions and Kahane in the Lvov Ghetto Diary.

Sheptytsky was recognized as one of the Righteous among the Nations by the State of Israel in 1995.

Soviet persecution
With the return of the Soviets in 1944 a coordinated action to destroy the church and subject it to the Moscow Patriarchate was implemented. After the death of the Metropolitan, his successor, Joseph Slipyj, named Sheptytsky the Archimandrite of the Studite Order. This meant that at the time of the mass arrest of church hierarchs carried out by the NKVD in 1945 he was one of the highest ranking clergymen left. As such he became an informal leader of the church, meeting with monks and priests and strengthening them in their resolve. On 5 June 1947, he himself was arrested by Soviet authorities and held, first in an NKVD prison in Lviv, then in Kyiv, and finally, after his steadfast refusal to renounce his faith and serve the Moscow Patriarchate, sentenced to eight years imprisonment. Ivan Kryvytskyi described him:

He died on 1 May 1951 in Vladimir Central Prison.

Veneration
Sheptytsky was beatified on 27 June 2001 by Pope John Paul II in Lviv, during his apostolic journey to Ukraine, together with 27 other members of the Ukrainian Catholic Church previously declared Venerable.

On 29 July 2011, a monument to Andrey and Klymentiy Sheptytsky was unveiled in their home village of Prylbychi.

Legacy
In November 2011, James Temerty, chairman of the Ukrainian-Jewish Encounter Initiative (UJE) donated $1.2 million to establish three endowed chairs in Jewish Studies at the Ukrainian Catholic University in Lviv, Ukraine.

A human rights activist, who served time in Soviet prisons, Myroslav Marynovych, the vice Rector of the Ukrainian Catholic University, said: We have always wanted to plunge more deeply into the legacy of previous generations of ethnic Ukrainians and Jews who lived on historically Ukrainian lands. This legacy knows not only pain and injustice, but also the experience of tolerant co-existence and mutual assistance. In order to guarantee a humane outline for the future, we must not forget the former and actively the experience the latter. For example, the spiritual inheritance of the Sheptytsky brothers alone, Andrey and Klymentiy, is sufficient to reveal to the contemporary person all the beauty of the love of humanity.

References

External links
Patron Saints Index: Blessed Clement Sheptytsky
Pastor of the 20th century
Klymentiy Sheptytsky at Yad Vashem website

1869 births
1951 deaths
Clergy from Lviv Oblast
Klymentiy
Ukrainian nobility
19th-century Polish nobility
Polish Austro-Hungarians
Ukrainian Austro-Hungarians
Members of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
Ukrainian priests
Members of the Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria
Members of the Austrian House of Deputies (1901–1907)
Members of the Austrian House of Deputies (1907–1911)
Ukrainian politicians before 1991
Eastern Catholic beatified people
Jagiellonian University alumni
Studite Brethren
Ukrainian beatified people
Ukrainian Righteous Among the Nations
Ukrainian Christian monks
Ukrainian expatriates in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Polish anti-fascists
Catholic resistance to Nazi Germany
Eastern Catholic Righteous Among the Nations
Ukrainian anti-communists
Ukrainian people who died in Soviet detention
20th-century venerated Christians
Archimandrites
20th-century Eastern Catholic martyrs
Founders of Eastern Catholic religious communities
Ukrainian anti-fascists
20th-century Polish nobility

Klymentiy Sheptytsky


ꯂꯣꯟꯃꯤꯠ(linguistics) ꯇꯥ, ꯂꯣꯟꯆꯠ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯏꯪꯂꯤꯁ ꯂꯣꯟꯗ ꯍꯟꯗꯣꯛꯂꯒꯅꯥ ꯒ꯭ꯔꯥꯃꯥꯔ(Grammar) ꯍꯥꯏꯕ ꯑꯗꯨꯅꯤ,ꯃꯁꯤ ꯂꯣꯟ ꯱ ꯒꯤ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ ꯑꯣꯏꯗꯨꯅꯥ ꯂꯣꯟ ꯑꯗꯨꯒꯤ ꯋꯥꯍꯩ, ꯋꯥꯍꯩ ꯆꯕꯨꯟ ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯃꯈꯥꯄꯣꯟꯕ ꯋꯥꯔꯦꯡ,ꯋꯥꯍꯩꯄꯔꯦꯡ ꯑꯁꯤꯅꯆꯤꯡꯕ ꯃꯌꯥꯝ ꯉꯥꯛ ꯁꯦꯟꯂꯤ ꯫ ꯋꯥꯍꯩ ꯑꯁꯤꯅ ꯑꯁꯤꯒꯨꯝꯕ ꯄꯊꯥꯞꯁꯤꯡ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯇꯝꯅꯕꯁꯨ ꯈꯪꯅꯩ, ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯂꯝ ꯑꯁꯤꯗ ꯐꯣꯅꯣꯂꯣꯖꯤ, ꯃꯣꯔꯐꯣꯂꯣꯖꯤ, ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯁꯤꯟꯇꯦꯛꯁ ꯌꯥꯎꯔꯤ, ꯃꯈꯣꯏꯁꯤꯡ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯑꯌꯥꯝꯕꯅ ꯐꯣꯅꯦꯇꯤꯛꯁ, ꯁꯦꯃꯦꯟꯇꯤꯛꯁ ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯄ꯭ꯔꯦꯒꯃꯦꯇꯤꯛꯁꯅꯥ ꯃꯄꯨꯡ ꯐꯥꯍꯜꯂꯤ ꯫

ꯂꯣꯜ ꯑꯃꯒꯤ ꯋꯥꯉꯥꯡꯂꯣꯏꯁꯤꯡꯅꯥ ꯂꯣꯜ ꯑꯗꯨ ꯁꯤꯖꯤꯟꯅꯅꯕꯒꯤꯗꯃꯛ ꯏꯟꯇꯔꯅꯦꯂꯥꯏꯖ ꯇꯧꯔꯕ ꯔꯨꯜꯁꯤꯡꯒꯤ ꯁꯦꯠ ꯑꯃꯥ ꯂꯩ[ꯄ] ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯔꯨꯜꯁꯤꯡ ꯑꯁꯤꯅꯥ ꯂꯣꯜ ꯑꯗꯨꯒꯤ ꯒ꯭ꯔꯥꯃꯥꯔ ꯑꯗꯨ ꯁꯦꯝꯃꯤ ꯫ ꯒ꯭ꯔꯥꯃꯥꯔꯗ ꯌꯥꯎꯔꯤꯕ ꯏꯅꯐꯣꯔꯃꯦꯁꯅꯒꯤ ꯑꯌꯥꯝꯕꯥ ꯁꯔꯨꯛ ꯑꯁꯤ – ꯌꯥꯃꯗ꯭ꯔꯕꯗ ꯀꯅꯥꯒꯨꯝꯕ ꯑꯃꯒꯤ ꯃꯃꯥꯂꯣꯟꯒꯤ ꯑꯣꯏꯅꯗꯤ – ꯀꯟꯁꯆꯤꯌꯁ ꯁ꯭ꯇꯗꯤ ꯅꯠꯇ꯭ꯔꯒ ꯏꯟꯁꯠꯔꯛꯁꯅꯒꯤ ꯈꯨꯠꯊꯥꯡꯗ ꯅꯠꯇꯦ, ꯑꯗꯨꯕꯨ ꯑꯇꯣꯞꯄꯥ ꯋꯥꯉꯥꯡꯂꯣꯏꯁꯤꯡꯕꯨ ꯌꯦꯡꯗꯨꯅꯥ ꯐꯪꯕꯅꯤ꯫ ꯃꯁꯤꯒꯤ ꯊꯕꯛ ꯑꯁꯤꯒꯤ ꯑꯌꯥꯝꯕꯥ ꯁꯔꯨꯛ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯑꯉꯥꯡ ꯑꯣꯏꯔꯤꯉꯩꯗꯥ ꯄꯥꯡꯊꯣꯀꯏ; ꯄꯨꯟꯁꯤꯒꯤ ꯃꯇꯨꯡꯗꯥ ꯂꯣꯜ ꯑꯃꯥ ꯇꯝꯕꯗꯥ ꯃꯍꯧꯁꯥꯅ ꯍꯦꯟꯅ ꯃꯌꯦꯛ ꯁꯦꯡꯕ ꯇꯝꯕꯤꯕꯒꯤ ꯆꯥꯡ ꯌꯥꯎꯏ ꯫ ꯑꯁꯨꯝꯅ, ꯒ꯭ꯔꯥꯃꯥꯔ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯂꯣꯜ ꯁꯤꯖꯤꯟꯅꯕꯒꯤ ꯃꯈꯥ ꯄꯣꯜꯂꯤꯕ ꯀꯣꯒꯅꯤꯇꯤꯕ ꯏꯅꯐꯣꯔꯃꯦꯁꯅꯅꯤ ꯫  Thus, grammar is the cognitive information underlying language use.

The term "grammar" can also be used to describe the rules that govern the linguistic behaviour of a group of speakers. The term "English grammar", therefore, may have several meanings. It may refer to the whole of English grammar, that is, to the grammars of all the speakers of the language, in which case, the term encompasses a great deal of variation. Alternatively, it may refer only to what is common to the grammars of all, or of the vast majority of English speakers (such as subject–verb–object word order in simple declarative sentences). Or it may refer to the rules of a particular, relatively well-defined variety of English (such as standard English for a particular region).

A specific description, study or analysis of such rules may also be referred to as a grammar. A reference book describing the grammar of a language is called a "reference grammar" or simply "a grammar" (see History of English grammars). A fully explicit grammar that exhaustively describes the grammatical constructions of a language is called a descriptive grammar. This kind of linguistic description contrasts with linguistic prescription, an attempt to discourage or suppress some grammatical constructions, while promoting others. For example, preposition stranding occurs widely in Germanic languages and has a long history in English. John Dryden, however, objected to it (without explanation), leading other English speakers to avoid the construction and discourage its use.

Outside linguistics, the term grammar is often used in a rather different sense. In some respects, it may be used more broadly, including rules of spelling and punctuation, which linguists would not typically consider to form part of grammar, but rather as a part of orthography, the set of conventions used for writing a language. In other respects, it may be used more narrowly, to refer to prescriptive grammar only and excluding those aspects of a language's grammar that are not subject to variation or debate. Jeremy Butterfield claimed that, for non-linguists, "Grammar is often a generic way of referring to any aspect of English that people object to."

ꯋꯥꯄꯣꯛꯂꯣꯟ ꯊꯤꯂꯦꯜ
ꯂꯣꯟꯆꯠ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯃꯤꯇꯩꯂꯣꯟ ꯒꯤ ꯅꯧꯅꯥ ꯁꯦꯝꯕ ꯋꯥꯍꯩ ꯑꯃꯅꯤ ꯫ ꯃꯁꯤꯅꯥ ꯃꯤꯇꯩꯂꯣꯟ ꯉꯥꯡꯅꯔꯤꯕ ꯀꯥꯡꯕꯨꯗ ꯍꯦꯟꯅ ꯈꯨꯗꯣꯡꯆꯥꯕ ꯄꯤꯔꯤ ꯑꯃꯗꯤ ꯒꯔꯥꯃꯃꯥꯔ(grammar)  ꯍꯥꯏꯕ ꯋꯥꯍꯩ ꯁꯤ ꯑꯔꯤꯕ ꯒ꯭ꯔꯤꯛ ꯂꯣꯟ ꯗꯒꯤ ꯑꯣꯏꯔꯛꯄꯅꯤ "γραμματικὴ τέχνη "(grammatikē technē), ꯃꯁꯤꯒꯤ ꯋꯥꯍꯟꯗꯤ "ꯃꯌꯦꯛ ꯁꯤꯡꯒꯤ ꯍꯩꯁꯤꯡꯕ", γράμμα (gramma), ꯗꯒꯤ ꯬꯬꯫ ꯃꯁꯤꯒ ꯆꯞ ꯃꯥꯟꯅꯕ ꯒ꯭ꯔꯤꯛ ꯃꯔꯨ(ꯃꯔꯥ)ꯁꯨ ꯎꯠꯂꯛꯂꯤ graphics, grapheme, and photograph ꯗꯥ ꯫

ꯄꯨꯋꯥꯔꯤ

ꯕꯦꯕꯤꯂꯣꯟ ꯀꯥꯡꯕꯨꯁꯤꯡꯅꯥ ꯑꯍꯥꯟꯕ ꯑꯣꯏꯅꯥ ꯂꯣꯟꯒꯤ ꯃꯇꯥꯡꯗ ꯁꯟꯗꯣꯛꯅꯥ ꯇꯥꯛꯅꯕ ꯍꯣꯠꯅꯔꯝꯃꯤ, ꯑꯗꯨꯕ ꯑꯍꯥꯟꯕ ꯊꯧꯁꯤꯜ ꯅꯥꯏꯕ ꯂꯣꯟꯆꯠ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯁꯤꯖꯤꯟꯅꯕ ꯍꯧꯕꯁꯤ  ꯁꯥꯟꯁꯀ꯭ꯔꯤꯠ, ꯍꯣꯔꯛꯐꯝꯅꯥ ꯏꯟꯗꯤꯌꯥ ꯌꯣꯠꯀꯤ ꯆꯍꯤ ꯃꯇꯥꯡꯅꯥ ꯑꯣꯏ, ꯂꯣꯏꯅꯅ ꯌꯥꯁꯀꯥ (꯶ ꯁꯨꯕ ꯆꯥꯍꯤ ꯆꯥ ꯖꯤꯁꯨꯁ ꯄꯣꯛꯇ꯭ꯔꯤꯉꯩ ꯃꯃꯥꯡꯗ), ꯄꯥꯅꯤꯅꯤ (꯶-꯵ ꯁꯎꯕ ꯆꯥꯍꯤ ꯆꯥ ꯖꯤꯁꯨꯁ ꯄꯣꯛꯇ꯭ꯔꯤꯉꯩ ꯃꯃꯥꯡꯗ)) ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯃꯍꯥꯛꯀꯤ ꯋꯥꯉꯥꯡꯂꯣꯏ ꯄꯤꯟꯒꯥꯂꯥ (c.꯲꯰꯰ ꯕꯤ ꯁꯤ), Katyayana, and Patanjali (2nd century BC). Tolkāppiyam, the earliest Tamil grammar, is mostly dated to before the 5th century AD.

In the West, grammar emerged as a discipline in Hellenism from the 3rd century BC forward with authors like Rhyanus and Aristarchus of Samothrace, the oldest extant work being the Art of Grammar (Τέχνη Γραμματική), attributed to Dionysius Thrax (c. 100 BC). Latin grammar developed by following Greek models from the 1st century BC, due to the work of authors such as Orbilius Pupillus, Remmius Palaemon, Marcus Valerius Probus, Verrius Flaccus, and Aemilius Asper.

A grammar of Irish originated in the 7th century with the Auraicept na n-Éces.
Arabic grammar emerged with Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali in the 7th century.
The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appeared in the High Middle Ages, in the context of Mishnah (exegesis of the Hebrew Bible). The Karaite tradition originated in Abbasid Baghdad. The Diqduq (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Ibn Barun in the 12th century compares the Hebrew language with Arabic in the Islamic grammatical tradition.

Belonging to the trivium of the seven liberal arts, grammar was taught as a core discipline throughout the Middle Ages, following the influence of authors from Late Antiquity, such as Priscian. Treatment of vernaculars began gradually during the High Middle Ages, with isolated works such as the First Grammatical Treatise, but became influential only in the Renaissance and Baroque periods. In 1486, Antonio de Nebrija published Las introduciones Latinas contrapuesto el romance al Latin, and the first Spanish grammar, Gramática de la lengua castellana, in 1492. During the 16th-century Italian Renaissance, the Questione della lingua was the discussion on the status and ideal form of the Italian language, initiated by Dante's de vulgari eloquentia (Pietro Bembo, Prose della volgar lingua Venice 1525). The first grammar of Slovene language was written in 1583 by Adam Bohorič.

Grammars of non-European languages began to be compiled for the purposes of evangelization and Bible translation from the 16th century onward, such as Grammatica o Arte de la Lengua General de los Indios de los Reynos del Perú (1560), and a Quechua grammar by Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás.

From the latter part of the 18th century, grammar came to be understood as a subfield of the emerging discipline of modern linguistics. The Deutsche Grammatik of the Jacob Grimm was first published in the 1810s. The Comparative Grammar of Franz Bopp, the starting point of modern comparative linguistics, came out in 1833.

Theoretical frameworks

Frameworks of grammar, which attempt to give a precise scientific theory of the syntax rules of grammar and their function, have been developed in theoretical linguistics. Most mainstream frameworks are based on the conception of an innate "universal grammar", an idea developed by Noam Chomsky. The most prominent theories are:

Generative grammar: algorithmic constituency aka "phrase structure" relation (Noam Chomsky 1950)
Transformational grammar (1960s)
Generalised phrase structure grammar (late 1970s)
Head-driven phrase structure grammar (1985)
Principles and parameters grammar (Government and binding theory) (1980s)
Lexical functional grammar
Categorial grammar (lambda calculus)
Montague grammar
Minimalist program-based grammar (1993)
Dependency grammar: dependency relation (Lucien Tesnière 1959)
Link grammar
Cognitive grammar / Cognitive linguistics
Construction grammar
Fluid Construction Grammar
Word grammar
Stochastic grammar: probabilistic
Operator Grammar
Functional grammar: usage-oriented (behaviorist)
Danish Functionalism
Systemic functional grammar
Role and reference grammar

Parse trees are commonly (but not always) used by such frameworks to depict their rules. There are various additional notation schemes for some grammars:
Constraint grammar
Tree-adjoining grammar
Affix grammar over a finite lattice
Lambda calculus
X-bar theory
Backus–Naur form

ꯂꯣꯟꯆꯠ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ ꯆꯥꯎꯈꯠꯂꯛꯄꯒꯤ ꯃꯇꯥꯡꯗ

Grammars evolve through usage and also due to separations of the human population. With the advent of written representations, formal rules about language usage tend to appear also. Formal grammars are codifications of usage that are developed by repeated documentation over time, and by observation as well. As the rules become established and developed, the prescriptive concept of grammatical correctness can arise. This often creates a discrepancy between contemporary usage and that which has been accepted, over time, as being correct. Linguists tend to view prescriptive grammars as having little justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes, although style guides may give useful advice about standard language employment, based on descriptions of usage in contemporary writings of the same language. Linguistic prescriptions also form part of the explanation for variation in speech, particularly variation in the speech of an individual speaker (an explanation, for example, for why some people say "I didn't do nothing", some say "I didn't do anything", and some say one or the other depending on social context).

The formal study of grammar is an important part of education for children from a young age through advanced learning, though the rules taught in schools are not a "grammar" in the sense most linguists use the term, particularly as they are often prescriptive rather than descriptive.

Constructed languages (also called planned languages or conlangs) are more common in the modern day than they used to be, although still extremely uncommon compared to natural languages. Many have been designed to aid human communication (for example, naturalistic Interlingua, schematic Esperanto, and the highly logic-compatible artificial language Lojban). Each of these languages has its own grammar.

Syntax refers to the linguistic structure above the word level (e.g. how sentences are formed)—though without taking into account intonation, which is the domain of phonology. Morphology, by contrast, refers to structure at and below the word level (e.g. how compound words are formed), but above the level of individual sounds, which, like intonation, are in the domain of phonology. No clear line can be drawn, however, between syntax and morphology. Analytic languages use syntax to convey information that is encoded via inflection in synthetic languages. In other words, word order is not significant and morphology is highly significant in a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology is not significant and syntax is highly significant in an analytic language. Chinese and Afrikaans, for example, are highly analytic, and meaning is therefore very context-dependent. (Both do have some inflections, and have had more in the past; thus, they are becoming even less synthetic and more "purely" analytic over time.) Latin, which is highly synthetic, uses affixes and inflections to convey the same information that Chinese does with syntax. Because Latin words are quite (though not completely) self-contained, an intelligible Latin sentence can be made from elements that are placed in a largely arbitrary order. Latin has a complex affixation and simple syntax, while Chinese has the opposite.

ꯃꯍꯩ ꯃꯁꯤꯟ
ꯂꯣꯟꯆꯠ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯌꯥꯝꯅꯥ ꯅꯧꯔꯤꯉꯩ ꯃꯇꯝ ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯃꯌꯥꯝ ꯑꯣꯏꯕ ꯃꯍꯩ ꯃꯁꯤꯡ ꯇꯝꯂꯤꯕ ꯃꯤꯑꯣꯏꯁꯤꯡꯗ ꯇꯥꯛꯄꯤ ꯇꯝꯕꯤ ꯃꯍꯩꯂꯣꯏꯁꯪꯁꯤꯡꯒꯤ ꯎꯖꯥꯁꯤꯡꯅꯥ ꯫

ꯃꯑꯣꯡ ꯇꯥꯔꯕ ꯂꯣꯟ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯂꯣꯟ ꯑꯗꯨꯗꯥ ꯏꯕꯥ, ꯃꯍꯩ ꯃꯁꯤꯡ ꯇꯝꯕꯤꯕꯥ ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯂꯣꯟ ꯑꯗꯨ ꯃꯤꯌꯥꯝ ꯇꯤꯟꯕ ꯃꯐꯝꯗ ꯄꯥꯛ ꯁꯟꯅꯥ ꯉꯥꯡꯅꯕ ꯑꯣꯏꯒꯗꯕꯅꯤ ꯫ ꯃꯁꯤꯒꯤ ꯈꯦꯠꯅꯕꯅꯥ ꯃꯃꯥꯂꯣꯟ ꯗꯒꯤ ꯈꯖꯤꯛ ꯈꯔꯥꯛ ꯍꯦꯟꯗꯣꯛꯅꯥ ꯌꯥꯎꯒꯅꯤ ꯫ ꯃꯄꯤ ꯂꯥꯏꯔꯤꯛ ꯇꯥꯛꯄ ꯃꯇꯝꯗ ꯂꯣꯟꯆꯠ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯤꯖꯕ ꯇꯝꯕꯤꯅꯕ ꯍꯣꯠꯅꯩ ꯑꯗꯨꯝꯑꯣꯏꯅꯃꯛ ꯆꯌꯦꯠꯅꯕꯗꯤ ꯃꯔꯛ ꯃꯔꯛꯇꯥ ꯊꯣꯛ ꯏ ꯃꯔꯝꯗꯤ ꯂꯣꯟꯆꯠ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯄꯨꯊꯣꯛꯂꯤ ꯃꯤꯑꯣꯏꯁꯤꯡ ꯑꯃꯥꯒ ꯑꯃꯥꯒ ꯃꯥꯟꯅꯗꯦ ꯂꯥꯏꯔꯤꯛ ꯑꯣꯏꯅꯥ ꯄꯨꯊꯣꯛꯄ ꯃꯇꯝꯗꯁꯨ ꯈꯦꯠꯅꯕ ꯃꯌꯥꯝ ꯊꯣꯛꯂꯛ ꯏ ꯃꯁꯤ ꯂꯣꯟꯆꯠ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯂꯩꯄꯥꯛ ꯑꯃꯒꯤ ꯊꯥꯧꯇꯥ ꯄꯨꯊꯣꯛꯄ ꯉꯝꯗꯕꯒꯤꯅꯤ

ꯏꯀꯨꯏꯀꯨꯏꯗꯔꯤꯕꯗ, ꯋꯥꯈꯜ ꯂꯧꯁꯤꯡ ꯈꯔꯥ ꯍꯥꯞꯆꯤꯟꯂꯦ ꯃꯇꯝꯁꯤꯒ ꯆꯥꯟꯅꯕ ꯃꯑꯣꯡꯗ ꯃꯍꯩ ꯃꯁꯤꯟ ꯗ ꯂꯣꯟꯃꯤꯠ ꯑꯍꯥꯟꯕꯒꯤ ꯃꯤꯠꯌꯦꯡ ꯆꯠꯅꯗꯔꯕ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ ꯁꯤꯖꯤꯟꯅꯕꯗꯒꯤ ꯀꯟꯅꯕ ꯍꯣꯠꯅꯕ ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯑꯆꯨꯝꯕꯗ ꯌꯨꯝꯐꯝ ꯑꯣꯏꯕ ꯑꯗꯨꯅꯤ ꯫

The pre-eminence of Parisian French has reigned largely unchallenged throughout the history of modern French literature. Standard Italian is not based on the speech of the capital, Rome, but on the speech of Florence because of the influence Florentines had on early Italian literature. Similarly, standard Spanish is not based on the speech of Madrid, but on that of educated speakers from more northerly areas like Castile and León (e.g. see Gramática de la lengua castellana). In Argentina and Uruguay the Spanish standard is based on the local dialects of Buenos Aires and Montevideo (Rioplatense Spanish). Portuguese has, for now, two official standards, respectively Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese.

The Serbian language is divided in a similar way; Serbia and the Republika Srpska use their own separate standards. The existence of a third standard is a matter of controversy, some consider Montenegrin as a separate language, and some think it is merely another variety of Serbian.

Norwegian has two standards, Bokmål and Nynorsk, the choice between which is subject to controversy: Each Norwegian municipality can declare one of the two its official language, or it can remain "language neutral". Nynorsk is endorsed by a minority of 27 percent of the municipalities. The main language used in primary schools normally follows the official language of its municipality and is decided by referendum within the local school district. Standard German emerged from the standardized chancellery use of High German in the 16th and 17th centuries. Until about 1800, it was almost entirely a written language, but now it is so widely spoken that most of the former German dialects are nearly extinct.

Standard Chinese has official status as the standard spoken form of the Chinese language in the People's Republic of China (PRC), the Republic of China (ROC) and the Republic of Singapore. Pronunciation of Standard Chinese is based on the local accent of Mandarin Chinese from Luanping, Chengde in Hebei Province near Beijing, while grammar and syntax are based on modern vernacular written Chinese.
Modern Standard Arabic is directly based on Classical Arabic, the language of the Qur'an. The Hindustani language has two standards, Hindi and Urdu.

In the United States, the Society for the Promotion of Good Grammar designated 4 March as National Grammar Day in 2008.

ꯁꯤꯖꯨ ꯌꯦꯡꯉꯨ
 :Category:Grammars of specific languages
 Ambiguous grammar
 Government and binding
 Grammeme
 Harmonic Grammar
 Higher order grammar
 Linguistic typology
 List of linguists
 Paragrammatism
 Usage

ꯇꯦꯟꯇꯛꯅ ꯏꯕꯁꯤꯡ

ꯂꯧꯔꯛꯐꯝꯁꯤꯡ

 ꯃꯤꯇꯩꯂꯣꯟ ꯂꯣꯟꯆꯠ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ
 American Academic Press, The (ed.). William Strunk, Jr., et al. The Classics of Style: The Fundamentals of Language Style From Our American Craftsmen. Cleveland: The American Academic Press, 2006. .
 Rundle, Bede. Grammar in Philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. .

ꯃꯄꯥꯟꯒ ꯁꯝꯅꯕꯁꯤꯡ
 Cite EB1911 |last=Sayce |first=Archibald Henry |wstitle=Grammar|short=x}}
 Grammar from the Oxford English Dictionary

ꯂꯣꯟꯆꯠ ꯄꯊꯥꯞ


The University of Alaska Southeast (UA Southeast, Alaska Southeast, or UAS) is a public university with its main campus in Juneau, Alaska and extended campuses in Sitka and Ketchikan. It is part of the University of Alaska System and was established on July 1, 1987, with the restructuring and consolidation of the former University of Alaska Juneau, Ketchikan Community College, and Islands Community College (Sitka). The university is accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities.

Campuses

Juneau
The University of Alaska Southeast's main campus is located in Juneau. The majority of the campus lies between Auke Bay and Auke Lake. The campus consists of classrooms, studios, teaching and research labs, the Anderson Science building (North Pacific Marine Lab), the William A. Egan Library, housing, the Student Recreation Center (Charles Gamble Jr.-Donald Sperl Joint Use Facility), and office and administrative spaces. UAS also has a Technical Education Center, located in downtown Juneau, which consists of technical, construction and mechanical labs, a mine simulator, and classroom and office space. The Juneau campus offers Occupational Endorsements, Certificates, Associate, Baccalaureate, and Graduate degrees.

Sitka
The Sitka campus was founded as Sitka Community College in 1962. The campus awards Occupational Endorsements in administrative office support, network support technician, web development, network administration, healthcare information technology, residential and light construction, law enforcement, and welding; Certificates in computer information and office systems, accounting technician, healthcare privacy and security, small business management, fisheries technology, pre-nursing and pre-radiologic technician qualifications, and health information management coding specialist; and associate degrees in health information management, general education, nursing (in partnership with the University of Alaska Anchorage), fisheries technology, apprenticeship technology, and health sciences.

Ketchikan
The Ketchikan campus is the oldest campus in Southeast Alaska, and was originally established as Ketchikan Community College in 1954. Now a branch campus of the University of Alaska Southeast (UAS), the Ketchikan campus offers small class sizes, face-to-face classroom experiences, a large selection of online courses as well as blended face-to-face and online classroom experiences, and staff and advisors.  The Ketchikan campus is a leader in the State university system for online degree offerings including the only interdisciplinary Bachelor of Liberal Arts and Bachelor of Arts, Social Science.  Students can achieve degrees in education, business, public administration, health care including nursing, career education, social sciences, and liberal arts through local and online programs.

The Ketchikan campus also houses the Ketchikan Regional Maritime and Career Center, which is the only regional provider of U.S. Coast Guard-approved maritime industry training courses and programs. UAS Ketchikan is the only campus in the State of Alaska to offer an Associate of Applied Science in Marine Transportation. In addition to training mariners, the campus offers a U.S. Coast Guard-approved marine oiler (Qualified Member of the Engine Department) program, welding course work and a State of Alaska approved Certified Nurse Aide program.

UAS Ketchikan works closely with the Vigor Alaska Shipyard in Ketchikan and offers training opportunities for both shipyard incumbent workers and residents who want to work for Vigor Alaska.  The campus also works closely with the Alaska Marine Highway System, Southeast Alaska Pilots' Association and other maritime and maritime-related business and organization to meet the training needs of Southeast Alaska's employers.

Academics

Schools
UAS has three academic schools:
the School of Arts and Sciences
the School of Career Education
the School of Education

Research partnerships
UAS supports a wide array of collaborative research activities, including partnerships with the:
Alaska Coastal Rainforest Center
Alaska Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR)
Alaska Climate Science Center
Pacific Northwest Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit
Alaska Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit
UAS Spatial Ecosystem Analysis Lab (SEALAB)
University of Alaska Fairbanks School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences

Libraries
Juneau
William A. Egan Library
The William A. Egan Library develops physical and electronic collections in support of the programs and services provided by the University of Alaska Southeast to its diverse student body, the UAS community, and the residents of Juneau.  The library has an extensive collection of Pacific Northwest Coastal Art.
Sitka
Sitka students, faculty and staff receive library services from the UAS Egan Library in Juneau. Computer labs on campus facilitate access to online resources and reference assistance.
Ketchikan
The Ketchikan Campus Library is located on the second floor of the A.H. Ziegler Building at the upper campus on Seventh Avenue. The library contains approximately 36,000 volumes, 120 periodicals in print, and a collection of federal government documents. The library is a member of the First City Libraries Consortium .

Recreation center
The Student Recreation Center (Charles Gamble Jr.-Donald Sperl Joint Use Facility) is a shared facility with the Alaska Army National Guard (AANG). This facility includes basketball and volleyball courts, a suspended running/walking track, a thirty-foot climbing wall, a weight training room, and a dance and cardio studio. The Student Recreation Center opened in September 2005 and replaced the older Student Activities Center.

Athletics
UAS has an array of intramural sports, activities, physical education courses and an Outdoor Studies Program. The Outdoor Studies Program provides students with training and leadership in a variety of popular outdoor activities including backcountry skiing, ice and rock climbing, sea kayaking and mountaineering. UAS did have an intercollegiate sports program that was shut down along with Sheldon Jackson College and Alaska Pacific University in 1990.

Publications
The student news publication of UAS is Whalesong. Whalesong was founded in 1981 and has a circulation of 1,000. In 2023, Whalesong announced its switch from physical newspapers to a news podcast. The student literary magazine is Tidal Echoes.  An academic journal titled "Summit" is published annually through the student Writing Center.

References

External links

Southeast
Southeast
Buildings and structures in Juneau, Alaska
Buildings and structures in Ketchikan Gateway Borough, Alaska
Buildings and structures in Sitka, Alaska
Universities and colleges established in 1972
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
Education in Juneau, Alaska
Education in Ketchikan Gateway Borough, Alaska
Education in Sitka, Alaska
1972 establishments in Alaska

University of Alaska Southeast


The vulnerability index is a tool for finding out who among the street homeless population needs health care and housing the most. It is being used in more and more cities in the USA. Volunteeers conduct a survey of people living in homeless shelters, warming centers and people who do not have any housing at all.

The  vulnerability index is from the work of Dr. Jim O'Connell of Boston's Healthcare for the Homeless. He was concerned about the causes of death of unsheltered homeless individuals living on the street. A national drive is underway by Common Ground to  work with the HUD homeless count. Since communities are doing the count, he believes that is a good time to do the vulnerability index too. Its' people say that using it will help getting needy individuals off the street.

The vulnerability index has been tried out in a lot of other places not just the East Coast. These include Charlotte, North Carolina, Albuquerque, New Mexico and Santa Monica, California.

References

Homelessness
Sociology

Vulnerability index


Scandinavian Heritage Park is a park located in the Upper Brooklyn neighborhood of Minot, North Dakota. Scandinavian Heritage Park features remembrances and replicas from each of the Scandinavian countries: Norway, Sweden and Denmark, as well as Finland and Iceland.
The park was established during 1988 to celebrate and preserve Scandinavian heritage. The first building was dedicated October 9, 1990.

It is believed to be the only park in the world representing all five Nordic countries. The park is supported by the Scandinavian Heritage Association and Norsk Høstfest, both of which have offices at the park.

Park Highlights
 Casper Oimoen statue - Norwegian born captain of the ski team for the United States at the 1936 Winter Olympics
 Dala Horse - 30 feet tall replica of brightly colored horses from the province of Dalarna, Sweden
 Danish Windmill - working windmill on rock and concrete base built locally in 1928
Finnish Sauna - authentic free standing sauna built in traditional Finnish style
 Flag Display - flags of the five Nordic countries, Canada and the United States
 Gol stave church - replica of the original Gol Stave Church that was built in Gol, Hallingdal, Norway
 Hans Christian Andersen statue - Danish writer famous for his fairy tales
 Leif Eirikssen statue - bronze statue of the Icelandic explorer
 Nordic Pavilion - Arts and Picnic Shelter
 Observatory - 48-inch diameter spinning marble globe fountain
 Plaza Scandinavia - granite map of the five Nordic countries
 Scandinavian Heritage Center - office of the Scandinavian Heritage Association
 Sigdal House - 200-year-old house relocated from the Vatnas area of Sigdal, Norway
 Sondre Norheim statue - Norwegian born father of modern skiing
 Sondre Norheim eternal flame - monument represents the sport of skiing
 Stabbur - replica of a storehouse from a farm near Telemark, Norway
 Waterfall - cascading waterfall and rippling stream that flows down to serene ponds

References

External links

Scandinavian Heritage Association

Museums in Minot, North Dakota
Danish-American culture in North Dakota
Ethnic museums in North Dakota
Finnish-American culture in North Dakota
Icelandic-American culture in North Dakota
Norwegian-American culture in North Dakota
Open-air museums in North Dakota
Parks in North Dakota
Protected areas of Ward County, North Dakota
Swedish-American culture in North Dakota
European-American museums
Norwegian-American museums
Swedish-American museums
Scandinavian-American culture
Protected areas established in 1988
1988 establishments in North Dakota

Scandinavian Heritage Park


The Gender Studies and Human Rights Documentation Centre (Gender Centre) is a non-profit, non-governmental organization that strives to address the issues of gender inequality in Ghana.  Based in Accra, Ghana, the Gender Centre has conducted studies on issues ranging from sexual and psychological violence against school girls to the ways in which social norms lead women to have a higher risk of HIV infection than men. The centre works with local, national, and international organizations in its work towards addressing the problems facing women in Ghanaian society. The Gender Centre conducts research to provide both quantitative and qualitative data that will lead to new laws, fresh outlooks, and community discussions concerning women in this region of the world.

Dorcas Coker-Appiah is the executive director of the Gender Centre.

History

The Gender Studies and Human Rights Documentation Centre was founded in 1995. Since that time it has conducted numerous studies and published its findings in two books, Violence Against Women & Children in Ghana and Gender Norms, Violence Against Women, HIV/AIDS, a Case Study in Ghana.

Projects

The Gender Centre publishes its research, as well as manuals, a semiannual newsletter, and an annual report, for other organizations and individuals to use in striving to combat women's inequality.

Nkyinkyim Anti-Violence Project
The Gender Centre successfully conducted the Nkyinkyim Anti-Violence Project, which began in 1998 and continues today. The project aims to abolish violence against women through conducting community-based research and pursuing a grassroots approach in which meetings with traditional leaders, religious leaders, and community members lead to local teams responsible for raising awareness, dealing with domestic violence crises, and counseling women who have been victims of violence. The project initially began with 3 communities and expanded in 2005 to include a total of 18 communities around Ghana.

Safe Schools Project
The Safe Schools Project, funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) endeavors to address the pressing issue of sexual, physical, and psychological abuse of schoolgirls in Ghana. Over the course of two years the Gender Centre trained 120 counselors from thirty communities in the Central Region of Ghana to provide effective counseling to victimized school girls and to prevent further abuse by teachers and peers.

Ghanaian Women and HIV/AIDS
The Gender Centre's most recent work concerns women's susceptibility to contracting HIV due to certain social norms and gender roles that exist in Ghanaian society. For this qualitative research project, interviewers were trained to ask probing questions and used tape recorders in order to encourage conversation flow with the anonymous interviewees. The final report, published by the Gender Centre, is meant to complement empirical evidence already existing about the rate of HIV/AIDS in West Africa. The Ghanaian government has adopted the popular ABCs of HIV prevention (abstinence, be faithful, use a condom), but the research by the Gender Centre shows that gender norms and domestic violence make this approach to combating the spread of HIV somewhat ineffective. Women in Ghana are traditionally sexually submissive, meaning that they are not always able to deny their male partners sex or insist on condom use. Men, on the other hand, are often free to take multiple sexual partners and even multiple wives. The practice of wife inheritance in which a widow will marry her deceased husband's relative can promote the spread of HIV as well, since the woman may have the virus herself or can contract it from her new husband's other wives or partners. Additionally, the social stigmatization faced by women already infected discourages them from revealing their positive status, putting others at risk for contracting the disease. After this initial research, the Gender Centre has been conducting meetings and workshops to raise awareness about how such social norms are putting women at a higher risk for contracting HIV. The Center endeavors to reverse these detrimental gender norms by holding support meetings in major cities all over the country and by running a series of radio shows about women's vulnerability to HIV/AIDS conducted in the local languages of Twi, Ewe, and Wale, as well as English.

Collaborations

The Gender Centre has collaborated with other organizations and agencies as it works to promote awareness about the issues facing women in Ghana today. The centre has most recently worked with the Department for International Development (DFID), Rural Watch, Academy for Educational Development (AED), Bawku East Women's Development Association (BEWDA), The Centre for the Development for People (CEDEP), Amasachina Self Help Association, and the General Agricultural Workers' Union (GAWU) of the Ghana Trades Union Congress (TUC).

Publications

The Gender Centre has published three works of research and analysis, Breaking the Silence & Challenging the Myths of Violence Against Women & Children in Ghana: Report of a National Study on Violence edited by Dorcas Coker-Appiah and Kathy Cusack, Gender Norms, Domestic Violence and Women's Vulnerability to HIV/AIDS, and its most recent work, officially launched on 4 May 2010, The Architecture for Violence Against Women in Ghana edited by Kathy Cusack and Takyiwaa Manuh.

References

External links
 Gender Studies and Human Rights Documentation Centre
 Academy for Educational Development
 Centre for the Development of People

Gender studies organizations
Human rights in Ghana
Women's rights organizations
1995 establishments in Ghana


The emblem of Guatemala was adopted in 1871. It comprises:
 A wreath of bay laurel branches, the symbol for victory;
 The resplendent quetzal, a bird that symbolizes liberty;
 A parchment scroll on which is written LIBERTAD 15 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE 1821 in gold (15 September 1821 is the date of Central America's independence from Spain);
 Two crossed Remington rifles with bayonets indicating Guatemala's willingness to defend itself by force if need be;
 Two crossed swords, representing honor.

The emblem was designed by Swiss artist and engraver Johan-Baptist Frener, who lived in Guatemala from 1854 until his death in 1897.

The emblem also appears on the middle third of the flag of Guatemala. The quetzal previously appeared in the flag of Los Altos, Central America in the 1830s.

Other websites
 Guatemala - Coat of Arms at Flags of the World

Guatemala
National symbols of Guatemala

Coat of arms of Guatemala


Lacrima is a rare red wine grape that is native to the Marche region of Italy.  It is almost entirely found in the Italian DOC Lacrima di Morro d'Alba.  The grape's name (meaning "tear" in Italian) is derived from its tear-like shape, or, alternatively, its thin skin that allows tear-like drops of juice to drip from the grape. Lacrima is low in tannins and is considered usually best for drinking young.

References

Red wine grape varieties
Wine grapes of Italy

Lacrima (grape)


Kingdom Under Fire: Circle of Doom is a 2007 action role-playing game developed by Blueside and published by Microsoft Game Studios for the Xbox 360. It is the fourth installment in the Kingdom Under Fire series. Chronologically the game's story follows Kingdom Under Fire: The Crusaders released in 2004. Unlike the previous Kingdom Under Fire games, Circle of Doom lacks the real-time strategy elements, with much of the gameplay focus being on hack and slash combat.

It was released in Australia on December 5, 2007, in Japan on December 13, 2007, in North America on January 8, 2008, and in Europe on February 1, 2008.

Premise
The story begins when Nibel The Lord of Light made a pact with Encablossa Lord of Darkness, the pact being that each lord will rule his age and the other will wait until the other finishes his rule. But eons pass and Nibel grows weary of seeing his creatures becoming monsters and being tortured so when the Age of Light was about to end Nibel didn't give his rule to Encablossa. Encablossa was angry so he gathered his Dark Legion and attacked the world, many ages pass but in Crusaders, Walter's soldiers destroyed the ancient heart (a powerful relic and the center of the conflict in 'Kingdom Under Fire') and Encablossa appeared in the form of a great demon, but he is defeated by Kendal and Regnier's forces but the heroes then become trapped in Encablossa's Dimension as old heroes. In Regnier's campaign it is explained that the dark dimension is about to explode with the resulting blast poised to consume both dimensions.

Gameplay
Unlike the previous instalments in the Kingdom Under Fire series, Circle of Doom is entirely a hack and slash role-play, much in the vein of dungeon crawlers and focuses entirely on the player's chosen character out of five (sixth can be unlocked), thus lacking the real-time strategy formula of the previous games. Much of the gameplay revolves around close quarter combat with multiple AI controlled opponents throughout each level. As the player progresses with each kill, they gain experience that eventually leads to gaining a level, the maximum being level 120. Each time the player levels up they receive a given number of experience points to boost their overall health, skill points and luck. Higher-level players will also be able to wield better weapons and armour and allow more options for magic use. Levels are also generated at random, with differing paths and amount of foes between each (while foes are still confined to certain areas) and destructible environments with the use of heavier weapons.

While the player has a standard health bar, the skill points forms another (SP bar) that when the player performs an attack or uses magic, their SP becomes depleted and recovers when nothing is performed, so the player will be unable to attack if there isn't enough SP at that moment of use. The more SP and the faster rate it can recover allow longer chains of attacks. The Luck skill determines the quantity and quality of loot and gold dropped by slain foes. The Luck skill can also help in the game's "synthesis" system, one which lets players pay gold combine items to improve one, for example combining a powerful weapon with a weaker one will result in its overall attack power being somewhere in between, with enchantments from both also present. Luck improves the chances of a successful synthesis along with a larger investment of gold.

Items can also be bought and sold when the player encounters an Idol in each level that serves as buyers and sellers of various items. There are three different Idols in total; Death, Love and Greed who excel more in certain items than others who appear at certain times of the in game's "moon phases". The Idol also provides a safe sanctuary where foes cannot enter, thus allowing players to "sleep". When the player sleeps, they appear in the dream world where they interact with other characters who progress the story by providing quests, insight and allowing players to learn new skills, most usually requiring a certain number of particular foes to be killed. Magic and weapons can assigned to 4 commands buttons on the Xbox 360 controller at any given time, X and A buttons for use of weapons/attack and B and the right trigger for use of magic. Potions that can quickly boost health and SP or cure magic affects inflicted by enemies can be applied to the left and right bumper buttons. The player also has Accessory slots where armour and stat increasing jewellery are applied for effect, more being available for purchase from Idols.

The game features three difficulty levels; Normal, Hard and Extreme that differ between the strength of foes, but however only Normal can be played to begin with and the other difficulties are unlocked by completing Normal (then Hard for Extreme mode) and are only playable with the character that unlocked them.

Circle of Doom also allows up to four players to play through each level and corresponding boss fights over Xbox Live. This allows joining players to play through levels they have yet to progress to as long as the host has = players that receive items and experience online will still reap the benefit for their character offline at the same time, thus allowing players to trade items and complete quests with others but foes toughness increases the more players there are. The Xbox Live headset is also supported for use.

Reception

Upon release, Circle of Doom was met with mixed responses, with an average critic score of 56% at GameRankings based on 46 reviews. Official Xbox Magazine praised the game, enjoying the lack of RTS elements of its predecessors, delivering a more "straight-up combo-heavy hack-and-slash action" that "manages to look lovely while you slap around your foes" while Play Magazine noted the variety in usable items to mix up gameplay, that "you've never had this much fun tinkering with weapons, spells, and items--I guarantee it."

A common criticism was directed at the basic gameplay causing repetition. GameSpot found that while "slicing your way through the hordes is as compelling as you would expect from the genre", being "a proven one", the "action gets incredibly repetitive". They however noted that the online co-op over Xbox Live "can increase the entertainment value significantly". UGO concluded that while "there's entertaining gameplay to be found at the core of Circle of Doom", they felt it was "overwhelmed by too much repetition" and pointed out the massive differences between it and the previous titles in the series that "for any fun there is to be had, it's tough not to wonder what BlueSide was thinking in calling this a Kingdom Under Fire game." GameSpy also felt disappointed over the "minimal amount of direct character customization" and felt the skill points player stat would be the "most annoying aspect of the game for button-mashers".

On the game's story, GameTrailers found it "vague" and IGN felt it was more of a way of providing simple variety in character choice that "you feel a bit like you're playing a separate adventure rather than just a new character" yet found the dialogue "cheesy" and "comical". They did however find the soundtrack to be one of its highest points, being "a reasonably powerful soundtrack that chimes in when moments of action are about to transpire". Eurogamer however thought it was an "insanely inappropriate repetitive metal guitar noodling".

References

External links
Kingdom Under Fire: Circle of Doom official website

2007 video games
Blueside games
Microsoft games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Role-playing video games
Video game sequels
Video game spin-offs
Video games about vampires
Video games developed in South Korea
Video games featuring female protagonists
Xbox 360 games
Xbox 360-only games

Kingdom Under Fire: Circle of Doom


The Corvidae are the crow family.  They are all passerines, but unusually they do not have musical voices. They are intelligent.

There are over 120 species in the family. The word 'crow' is also used to describe birds in the genus Corvus. This genus includes the crows, jackdaws and ravens.

Crows are found on every continent except for the southern area of South America and Antarctica. Most crows are found in South America, Central America, Europe and Asia. There are 10 species each in Africa, Australia and North America.

A group of crows is called a murder and, indeed, they are distinctly carnivorous.

Description
Most members of the crow family are black, such as crows, rooks, choughs, ravens and jackdaws. However, not all crows are black. Magpies and treepies can be black and white, or blue and green, or brown. Jays are often blue and white.

Crows are some of the most intelligent birds in the world. Crows and rooks are good at using tools, for example sticks or twigs. Magpies can see themselves in a mirror and they understand that it is a reflection. Many crows live near to humans in towns and cities. Some crows (such as treepies) live in forests. They are more shy than the crows that live in cities.

Some crows in North America, Europe and northern Asia migrate. This means they travel to different places in summer or winter. Most crows are resident birds. This means they live in the same place all year round.

Many crows live in large groups. For example, many rooks nest together in large groups at the top of trees. This is called a rookery. Crows in big groups are often noisy. However, when it is the breeding season (this means when birds nest and have babies), crows can become angry and will scare off other crows.

Crows eat a variety of food. They will eat fledglings (baby birds) and eggs from nests, small animals (mice and rats), carrion (dead animals), vegetables and garbage. for much of the year, crows and rooks dig into grassland with their strong beaks, and eat various kinds of insect grubs and worms. Because they may attack the nest of other birds, crows may get mobbed by other species. This is when the defending birds group together to chase off the crow. Also, on farms, crows will eat vegetables and seeds. Farmers do not want this to happen so they make a scarecrow. This is an object made of straw and old clothes. It looks like a man and it may scare the crows away.

Crows make their nests in tall trees. They make the nest from large sticks. They usually lay 3–8 eggs. Both parents look after the fledglings.

Main species
The family includes:
 crows
 rooks
 jackdaws
 ravens
 jays
 magpies
 treepies
 choughs
 nutcrackers.

Corvidae


An apocalypse  is a revelation: seeing something which has been hidden. It comes from the Greek word, Apokálypsis, which means "lifting of the veil", or finding out something secret. Often this secret is discovered in a dream or a vision.

In religion, the word describes Armageddon or the end of the world. This might have come from the words, apokalupsis eschaton, meaning all the secrets will be discovered "at the end of the æon, or age". In Christianity The Apocalypse of John is the Book of Revelation, the last book of the Bible. It describes the end of the world, and the second coming of Jesus Christ.

Christian eschatology

Apocalypse


The Battle of Radzymin was one of a series of engagements between the 1st Byelorussian Front of the Red Army and the Army Group Centre of the German Army. The battle was part of the Lublin-Brest Offensive between 1 and 4 August 1944 at the conclusion of Operation Bagration the Belorussian strategic offensive operation near the town of Radzymin in the vicinity of Warsaw, part of which entailed a large tank battle at Wołomin. It was the largest tank battle on the territories of Poland during the war.

The approach of the Red Army towards Warsaw served to initiate the Warsaw Uprising by the Home Army with expectation of help from the Red Army. The battle ended in a Soviet defeat and the encirclement and destruction of the Soviet 3rd Tank Corps; it is unclear to what extent this defeat contributed to the Soviet decision not to aid the Warsaw Uprising.

Before the battle
After crossing into Poland, the Red Army's 1st Byelorussian Front of Konstantin Rokossovsky continued its advance towards Warsaw. The 65th Army (12 divisions) together with the attached 1st Guards Tank Corps, was to advance towards the town of Serock and then outflank Warsaw from the north. The 28th Army (9  divisions) together with 1st Mechanized and 9th Tank Corps was advancing directly towards Warsaw and was separated from the 47th Army by the Siedlce-Mińsk Mazowiecki line, and from the 65th Army by the Sokołów Podlaski-Węgrów-Radzymin line. Both armies, additionally supported by the 2nd and 4th Guards Cavalry Corps, were destined to take part in repelling a German tactical counter-assault at Radzymin and Wołomin near Warsaw. At the same time, the 47th Army (10 divisions) was to seize the southern approaches to Praga, seize right-bank Warsaw and cross the river through the bridges in Warsaw or through a temporary bridge in Góra Kalwaria. The 70th Army (4 divisions) was to follow the 47th and serve as a tactical reserve.

At the same time the remaining forces of the front were to support the assault on Warsaw by crossing the Vistula south of it, near Magnuszew and outflanking the city from the South and West. The 8th Guards Army (9 divisions) together with the 1st Polish Army (3 divisions) and 69th Army (9 divisions aided by the 11th Tank Corps) were to cross the river at Magnuszew.

Battle
After the Soviet reconnaissance units reached Warsaw in late July, on 1 August 1944 the Warsaw Uprising started. Starting from an area south of Mińsk Mazowiecki, Major General Nikolai Vedeneev's 3rd Tank Corps (part of the Soviet 2nd Tank Army) thrust northwest through Okuniew and Wołomin to Radzymin, reaching an area only three miles (five kilometers) from the strategic bridge over the Narew River at Zegrze.

In response to Vedeneev's thrust, the Germans started a tactical counter-attack near Radzymin on 31 July. The offensive, carried out by 4 understrength Panzer divisions, was to secure the eastern approaches to Warsaw and Vistula crossings, and aimed to destroy the three tank corps of the Second Tank Army in detail. Under the leadership of German Field Marshal Model, the 4th, 19th, Hermann Göring, and 5th SS Panzer Divisions were concentrated from different areas with their arrival in the area of Wołomin occurring between 31 July and 1 August 1944. Although the 3rd Tank Corps gamely defended the initial assaults of the Hermann Göring and 19th Panzer Divisions, the arrival of the 4th Panzer and 5th SS Panzer Divisions spelled doom for the isolated and outnumbered unit.

Already on 1 August, the leading elements of the 19th and 5th SS Panzer Divisions, closing from the west and east respectively, met at Okuniew, cutting the 3rd Tank Corps off from the other units of the Second Tank Army.  Pressed into the area of Wołomin, the 3rd Tank Corps was pocketed and destroyed on 3 August 1944. Attempts to reach the doomed tank corps by the 8th Guards Tank Corps and the 16th Tank Corps failed, with the 8th Guards Tank Corps taking serious losses in the attempt. Although Model had planned to attack the 8th Guards Tank Corps next, the withdrawal of the 19th and Hermann Göring Panzer Divisions to shore up the German defenses around the Magnuszew bridgehead forced the remaining German forces around Okuniew to go on the defensive.

For unknown reasons, on 2 August 1944 all armies that were to assault Warsaw had their orders changed. The 28th, 47th and 65th Armies were ordered to turn northwards and seize the undefended town of Wyszków and the Liwiec river line. The 2nd Tank Army was left in place and had to fight the Germans alone, without support of the infantry. Also, 69th Army was ordered to stop while the 8th Guards Army under Vasily Chuikov was ordered to halt the assault and await a German attack from the direction of Garwolin.

Further combat lasted until 10 August, when the Germans finally withdrew. Soviet losses were heavy, but not heavy enough to affect the overall course of their thrust to the vicinity of Warsaw. The 3rd Tank Corps was destroyed, the 8th Guards Tank Corps took heavy losses, and the 16th Tank Corps took significant losses as well. Overall, the Second Tank Army's losses were significant enough that it was withdrawn from the front lines by 5 August 1944.

Aftermath
Altogether, between 1 and 10 August, the 2nd Tank Army lost 409 killed in action, 1,271 wounded and 589 missing. In addition, it lost 284 tanks and self-propelled guns (40% of these losses were non-recoverable, amounting to 113 armored vehicles lost permanently) out of 679 available to the army on 30 July. After World War II, communist propaganda used the example of the Battle of Radzymin of 1944 as a proof that the German counter-attack prevented the Red Army from helping the Warsaw Uprising. However, it remains unknown why the Soviet assault was halted as some Russian archives are still closed to historians. Some Polish and Western historians argue that the Soviet assault was halted because Stalin wanted the Warsaw insurgents, loyal to the Polish government in exile (known for its anti-Soviet stance), destroyed.

The Soviet command apparently did not blame Lieutenant-General N. D. Vedeneev for the encirclement and destruction of the 3rd Tank Corps.  Vedeneev survived the battle and remained in command. The 3rd Tank Corps was honored by being designated the 9th Guards Tank Corps in November 1944.

Order of Battle, 1st Belorussian Front on 1 August 1944
8th Guards Army
4th Guards Rifle Corps
28th Guards Rifle Corps
29th Guards Rifle Corps
11th Guards Heavy Tank Brigade
28th Army
3rd Guards Rifle Corps
20th Rifle Corps
128th Rifle Corps
22nd Artillery Division
47th Army
77th Rifle Corps
125th Rifle Corps
129th Rifle Corps
60th Rifle Division
48th Army
29th Rifle Corps
42nd Rifle Corps
53rd Rifle Corps
194th Rifle Division
65th Army
18th Rifle Corps
46th Rifle Corps
80th Rifle Corps
105th Rifle Corps
115th Rifle Brigade
26th Artillery Division
69th Army
25th Rifle Corps
61st Rifle Corps
91st Rifle Corps
68th Tank Brigade
70th Army
96th Rifle Corps
114th Rifle Corps
2nd Tank Army
8th Guards Tank Corps
3rd Tank Corps
16th Tank Corps
Polish 1st Army
1st Army Corps
2nd Army Corps
1st Tank Corps
2nd Guards Cavalry Corps
4th Guards Cavalry Corps
7th Guards Cavalry Corps
4th Breakthrough Artillery Corps
1st Guards Tank Corps
1st Mechanized Corps
9th Tank Corps
11th Tank Corps

German units present at the Battle of Wołomin
 73rd Infantry Division (facing Soviet 16th Tank Corps)
 19th Panzer Division (facing Soviet 3rd Tank and 8th Guards Tank Corps)
 Hermann Göring Panzer Division (facing Soviet 3rd Tank Corps)
 4th Panzer Division (facing Soviet 3rd Tank Corps)
 5th SS Panzer Division (facing Soviet 3rd Tank and 125th Rifle Corps)

See also
 Lead up to the Warsaw Uprising
 Lack of outside support in the Warsaw Uprising
 Operation Bagration

Notes
In 1941, a massive tank battle  took place in the vicinity of Brody; this area was nominally a part of Poland until border agreements with USSR were signed in 1945. However, the official Polish historiography during the communist period was that the river Bug formed Poland's eastern border and the Polish territories east of it were called "Western Ukraine and Belarus". Nevertheless, the battle of Radzymin remains the largest tank battle on the territory of present-day Poland.
 The 19th PzD had 70 armored fighting vehicles (AFV), meaning tanks, assault guns, and tank destroyers, the Hermann Göring had 63 AFVs, the 5th SS PzD had 66 AFVs, and the 4th PzD had 78 AFVs. Source for this data is Germany and the Second World War, p. 581.
 When Titans Clash, p. 213.
 Germany and the Second World War, pp. 582–583.
 Танковый удар: танковая армия в наступательной операции фронта по опыту Великой Отечественной войны by Радзиевский Алексей Иванович, Map of 2nd Tank Army operations map
 Танковый удар: танковая армия в наступательной операции фронта по опыту Великой Отечественной войны by Радзиевский Алексей Иванович link
 Germany and the Second World War, p. 584, notes that Second Tank Army's strength in tanks and assault guns was 810 on 22 July 1944, and that this had dwindled to 263 armored fighting vehicles by 4 August 1944.

References

Further reading
Norman Davies, Rising '44. The Battle for Warsaw, Macmillan, 2004,

External links
 Jan Sidorowicz, Co działo się na wschód od Wisły w czasie Powstania Warszawskiego?, Sep 8, 2004

Battle of Radzymin (1944)
Warsaw Uprising
Operation Bagration
Military operations of World War II involving Germany
Tank battles involving Germany
Tank battles involving the Soviet Union
Battle of Radzymin (1944)
Tank battles of World War II
Encirclements in World War II

Battle of Radzymin (1944)


Implication and inference are two related words which are opposites.

To imply is to suggest something is true without actually saying it. Examples:

Your former spouse: suggests you did have a spouse to whom you are no longer married.
Have you finalized the divorce proceedings? suggests not only that you are married, but that you have been in the process of divorce.

To infer is to see the implication in the sentence. When you realize the meaning of the second sentence, and protest "I have never beaten her", you have made an inference.

Here are the rules:
The person who makes the suggestion implies it.
The person who recognises the suggestion infers it (or draws an inference).
Inference always comes after an implication: I imply, then you infer.

An implication is always verbal, but inferring is not always verbal. A non-verbal response might show the indirect message (implication) had been accurately interpreted (inferred) by the receiver. Example: I hate you! may contain unspoken implications, according to circumstance and tone of voice. Between two lovers it might mean:
Bitter feelings after a quarrel. This is the literal meaning and not an implication.
A statement of love. Response might be "I love you, too" (verbal) or to blow a kiss (non-verbal).

Related pages
 Implication (logic)

Words
Human communication

Implication and inference


Hedjet is the name for the White Crown of Upper Egypt, used in Ancient Egypt. The crown was white and after Lower and Upper Egypt joined together, it was combined with the Deshret, the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. This Double Crown was called the Pschent. The symbol sometimes used for the Hedjet was the vulture goddess Nekhbet. This would be shown next to the head of the cobra goddess  Wadjet, the Uraeus  on the Pschent.

History
The white crown has a long history, going back into the Predynastic Period. This shows that kingship had been the base of Egyptian society for some time. The earliest image of the Hedjet was thought to have been in the Qustul in Nubia. New discoveries, particularly the excavation of Cemetery U and the tome U-j, dating to Naqada IIIA have shown that it appears earlier in Egypt.

Nekhbet, the protective goddess of Nekhebet (modern el Kab) near Hierakonpolis, was shown as a woman, sometimes with the head of a vulture, wearing the White Crown. The falcon god Horus of Hierakonpolis (Egyptian: Nekhen) was generally shown wearing a White Crown. The White Crown is on the Narmer Palette found at Hierakonpolis. It shows the king of the South wearing the hedjet, triumphing over his northern enemies.  The kings of the united Egypt saw themselves as successors of Horus. Vases from the reign of Khasekhemwy show the king as Horus wearing the White Crown.

As with the Deshret (Red Crown), no example of the White Crown has survived.  It is unknown how it was made or what materials were used. It is possible it was made from felt or leather. The fact that no crown has ever been found, might suggest that the crown was passed from one ruler to the next, much as in present day monarchies.

References

Ancient Egypt

Hedjet


Landser is a Neo-Nazi, Rock Against Communism rock band from Germany. Because of laws in Germany against speaking badly about the people that died during the Holocaust of World War II, several members of the band were put in prison.

The Supreme Court of Berlin sentenced the members of the band to prison and fines for forming a criminal union as well as for incitement of the people and the distribution of radically right-wing propaganda in December 2003.

In March 2005, the Federal Supreme Court in Karlsruhe upheld the prison sentence against a band member.  This was the first time that a band had been called a criminal association by the highest federal court.

German rock bands
Rock Against Communism

Landser (band)