The Life and Death of King Richard the Second, commonly called Richard II, is a history play by William Shakespeare believed to have been written around 1595. Based on the life of King Richard II of England (ruled 1377–1399), it chronicles his downfall and the machinations of his nobles. It is the first part of a tetralogy, referred to by some scholars as the Henriad, followed by three plays about Richard's successors: Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V.

Although the First Folio (1623) includes the play among the histories, the earlier Quarto edition of 1597 calls it The Tragedie of King Richard the second.

Characters

 King Richard II
 John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster – Richard's uncle
 Duke of York – Richard's uncle
 Duke of Aumerle – York's son
 Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk
 Queen – Richard's wife (an unnamed composite of his first wife, Anne of Bohemia, and his second, Isabella of Valois, who was still a child at the time of his death)
 Duchess of York – York's wife (an unnamed composite of York's first wife, Isabella of Castile, and his second, Joan Holland)
 Duchess of Gloucester – widow of Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester, uncle to the king

Rebels
 Henry Bolingbroke – Duke of Hereford, son of John of Gaunt, later Henry IV
 Earl of Northumberland
 Henry 'Hotspur' Percy – Northumberland's son
 Lord Ross
 Lord Willoughby
 Lord Fitzwater
 Sir Piers Exton

Richard's allies
 Duke of Surrey
 Earl of Salisbury
 Lord Berkeley
 Bushy – favourite of Richard
 Bagot – favourite of Richard
 Green – favourite of Richard
 Bishop of Carlisle
 Abbot of Westminster
 Sir Stephen Scroop

Others
 Lord Marshal (post held in 1399 by Duke of Surrey, though this is not recognised in the play)
 Welsh captain
 Two heralds
 Gardener
 Gardener's man
 Queen's ladies
 Keeper – jailer at Pomfret prison
 Groom
 Attendants, lords, soldiers, messengers, etc.

Synopsis
The play spans only the last two years of Richard's life, from 1398 to 1400. It begins with King Richard sitting majestically on his throne in full state, having been requested to arbitrate a dispute between Thomas Mowbray and Richard's cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, later Henry IV, who has accused Mowbray of squandering money given to him by Richard for the king's soldiers and of murdering Bolingbroke's uncle, the Duke of Gloucester. Bolingbroke's father, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, meanwhile, believes it was Richard himself who was responsible for his brother's murder. After several attempts to calm both men, Richard acquiesces and it is determined that the matter be resolved in the established method of trial by battle between Bolingbroke and Mowbray, despite the objections of Gaunt.The tournament scene is very formal with a long, ceremonial introduction, but as the combatants are about to fight, Richard interrupts and sentences both to banishment from England. Bolingbroke is originally sentenced to ten years' banishment, but Richard reduces this to six years upon seeing John of Gaunt's grieving face, while Mowbray is banished permanently. The king's decision can be seen as the first mistake in a series leading eventually to his overthrow and death, since it is an error which highlights many of his character flaws, including indecisiveness (in terms of whether to allow the duel to go ahead), abruptness (Richard waits until the last possible moment to cancel the duel), and arbitrariness (there is no apparent reason why Bolingbroke should be allowed to return and Mowbray not). In addition, the decision fails to dispel the suspicions surrounding Richard's involvement in the death of the Duke of Gloucester – in fact, by handling the situation so high-handedly and offering no coherent explanation for his reasoning, Richard only manages to appear more guilty. Mowbray correctly predicts that the king will sooner or later fall at the hands of Bolingbroke.

After an impassioned invective against the visiting king from his sick-bed, John of Gaunt dies and Richard seizes all of his land and money. This angers the nobility, who accuse Richard of wasting England's money, of taking Gaunt's money (belonging by rights to his son, Bolingbroke) to fund war in Ireland, of taxing the commoners, and of fining the nobles for crimes committed by their ancestors. They then help Bolingbroke to return secretly to England, with a plan to overthrow Richard. There remain, however, subjects loyal to the king. Among them are Bushy, Bagot, and Green, as well as the Duke of Aumerle (son of the Duke of York), cousin of both Richard and Bolingbroke. When King Richard leaves England to attend to the war in Ireland, Bolingbroke seizes the opportunity to assemble an army and invades the north coast of England.  Executing both Bushy and Green, Bolingbroke wins over the Duke of York, whom Richard has left in charge of his government in his absence.

Upon Richard's return, Bolingbroke not only reclaims his lands but lays claim to the very throne. After a dramatic, public ceremony where he has the captive king publicly renounce his crown, he crowns himself King Henry IV, and has Richard taken prisoner in the castle of Pomfret. Aumerle and others plan a rebellion against the new king, but York discovers his son's treachery and reveals it to Henry. The King executes every conspirator except Aumerle, who is spared after the Duchess of York intervenes on his behalf. After interpreting King Henry's "living fear" as a reference to the still-living Richard, an ambitious nobleman (Exton) goes to the prison and murders him. King Henry is appalled by the murderer and vows to journey to Jerusalem to cleanse himself of his part in Richard's death. In his final lines, Henry completes the tragic structure of the play by mourning over Richard's coffin and affording the deposed king forgiveness.

Sources

Shakespeare's primary source for Richard II, as for most of his chronicle histories, was Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotlande, and Irelande; the publication of the second edition in 1587 provides a terminus post quem for the play. Edward Hall's The Union of the Two Illustrious Families of Lancaster and York appears also to have been consulted, and scholars have also supposed Shakespeare familiar with Samuel Daniel's poem on the civil wars.

A somewhat more complicated case is presented by the anonymous play sometimes known as The First Part of Richard II. This play, which exists in one incomplete manuscript copy (at the British Museum) is subtitled Thomas of Woodstock, and it is by this name that scholars since F. S. Boas have usually called it. This play treats the events leading up to the start of Shakespeare's play (though the two texts do not have identical characters). This closeness, along with the anonymity of the manuscript, has led certain scholars to attribute all or part of the play to Shakespeare, though many critics view this play as a secondary influence on Shakespeare, not as his work.

Date and text

The earliest recorded performance of Richard II was a private one, in Canon Row, the house of Edward Hoby, on 9 December 1595. The play was entered into the Register of the Stationers Company on 29 August 1597 by the bookseller Andrew Wise; the first quarto was published by him later that year, printed by Valentine Simmes. The second and third quartos followed in 1598 – the only time a Shakespeare play was printed in three editions in two years. Q4 followed in 1608, and Q5 in 1615. The play was next published in the First Folio in 1623.

Richard II exists in a number of variations. The quartos vary to some degree from one another, and the folio presents further differences. The first three quartos (printed in 1597 and 1598, commonly assumed to have been prepared from Shakespeare's holograph) lack the deposition scene. The fourth quarto, published in 1608, includes a version of the deposition scene shorter than the one later printed, presumably from a prompt-book, in the 1623 First Folio. The scant evidence makes explaining these differences largely conjectural. Traditionally, it has been supposed that the quartos lack the deposition scene because of censorship, either from the playhouse or by the Master of the Revels Edmund Tylney and that the Folio version may better reflect Shakespeare's original intentions. There is no external evidence for this hypothesis, however, and the title page of the 1608 quarto refers to a "lately acted" deposition scene (although, again, this could be due to earlier censorship which was later relaxed).

Analysis and criticism

Structure and language
The play is divided into five acts and its structure is as formal as its language. It has a double complementary plot describing the fall of Richard II and the rise of Bolingbroke, later known as Henry IV. Critic John R. Elliott Jr. notes that this particular history play can be distinguished from the other history plays because it contains an ulterior political purpose. The normal structure of Shakespearean tragedy is modified to portray a central political theme: the rise of Bolingbroke to the throne and the conflict between Richard and Bolingbroke over the kingship. In Acts IV and V, Shakespeare includes incidents irrelevant to the fate of Richard that are later resolved in the future plays of the Richard II–Henry V tetralogy.

The literary critic Hugh M. Richmond notes that Richard's beliefs about the divine right of kings tend to fall more in line with the medieval view of the throne. Bolingbroke, on the other hand, represents a more modern view of the throne by arguing that not only bloodline but also intellect and political savvy contribute to the makings of a good king. Richard believes that as king he is chosen and guided by God. Therefore, in his eyes, he is not subject to human frailty and he may exert total control over his subjects. Elliott argues that mistaken notion of his role as king is what ultimately leads to Richard's failure. Elliott goes on further and points out that it is Bolingbroke's ability to relate and speak with those of the middle and lower classes that allows him to take the throne.

Although it is largely historically accurate, Richard II is a tragedy. Most of Shakespeare's tragedies follow a similar arc: a series of catastrophes lead to a death, which resolves in forgiveness. Richard II abides by this pattern. A long line of mistakes, mostly on the part of Richard himself, lead to the King's incarceration and murder. However, when his body is presented to Henry IV, the now-king declares that "although [he] did wish him dead, [he] hate[s] the murderer, love[s] the murderéd." This line affords Richard absolution and cements this play's place among Shakespeare's tragedies.

Unusually for Shakespeare, Richard II is written entirely in verse, and one of only four of his plays that are, the others being King John and the first and third parts of Henry VI.  It thus contains no prose. There are also great differences in the use of language amongst the characters. Traditionally, Shakespeare uses prose to distinguish social classes: the upper classes generally speak in poetry while the lower classes speak in prose. In Richard II, there is no prose, but Richard uses flowery, metaphorical language in his speeches, whereas Bolingbroke, who is also of the noble class, uses a more plain and direct language. In Richard II, besides the usual blank verse (unrhymed pentameters), there are long stretches of heroic couplets (pairs of rhymed pentameters). The play contains a number of memorable metaphors, including the extended comparison of England with a garden in Act III, Scene iv and of its reigning king to a lion or to the sun in Act IV.

The language of Richard II is more eloquent than that of the earlier history plays, and serves to set the tone and themes of the play. Shakespeare uses lengthy verses, metaphors, similes and soliloquies to reflect Richard's character as a man who likes to analyse situations rather than act upon them. He always speaks in tropes using analogies such as the sun as a symbol of his kingly status. Richard places great emphasis on symbols which govern his behaviour. His crown serves as a symbol of his royal power and is of more concern to him than his actual kingly duties.

Historical context

The play was performed and published late in the reign of Elizabeth I of England, at a time when the queen's advanced age made the succession an important political concern. The historical parallels in the succession of Richard II may not have been intended as political comment on the contemporary situation, with the weak Richard II analogous to Queen Elizabeth and an implicit argument in favour of her replacement by a monarch capable of creating a stable dynasty, but lawyers investigating John Hayward's historical work, The First Part of the Life and Raigne of King Henrie IV, a book previously believed to have taken from Shakespeare's Richard II, chose to make this connection. Samuel Schoenbaum contests that Hayward had written his work prior to Richard II, joking that "there is nothing like a hypothetical manuscript to resolve an awkwardness of chronology", as Hayward noted he had written the work several years before its publication. Hayward had dedicated his version to Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex and when Essex was arrested for rebellion in February 1601 Hayward had already been imprisoned, to strengthen the case against the earl for "incitement to the deposing of the Queen". That Hayward had made his dedication was fortunate for Shakespeare, otherwise he too might have lost his liberty over the affair.

Shakespeare's play appears to have played a minor role in the events surrounding the final downfall of Essex. On 7 February 1601, just before the uprising, supporters of the Earl of Essex, among them Charles and Joscelyn Percy (younger brothers of the Earl of Northumberland), paid for a performance at the Globe Theatre on the eve of their armed rebellion. By this agreement, reported at the trial of Essex by the Chamberlain's Men actor Augustine Phillips, the conspirators paid the company forty shillings "above the ordinary" (i.e., above their usual rate) to stage this play, which the players felt was too old and "out of use" to attract a large audience. Eleven of Essex's supporters attended the Saturday performance.

Elizabeth was aware of the political ramifications of the story of Richard II: according to a well-known but dubious anecdote, in August 1601 she was reviewing historical documents relating to the reign of Richard II when she supposedly remarked to her archivist William Lambarde, "I am Richard II, know ye not that?" In the same historical report the Queen is said to have complained that the play was performed forty times in "open streets and houses" but there is no extant evidence to corroborate this tale. At any rate, the Chamberlain's Men do not appear to have suffered for their association with the Essex group; but they were commanded to perform it for the Queen on Shrove Tuesday in 1601, the day before Essex's execution.

Themes and motifs

The King's Two Bodies
In his analysis of medieval political theology, The King's Two Bodies, Ernst Kantorowicz describes medieval kings as containing two bodies: a body natural, and a body politic. The theme of the king's two bodies is pertinent throughout Richard II, from the exile of Bolingbroke to the deposition of King Richard II. The body natural is a mortal body, subject to all the weaknesses of mortal human beings. On the other hand, the body politic is a spiritual body which cannot be affected by mortal infirmities such as disease and old age. These two bodies form one indivisible unit, with the body politic superior to the body natural.

Many critics agree that in Richard II, this central theme of the king's two bodies unfolds in three main scenes: the scenes at the Coast of Wales, at Flint Castle, and at Westminster. At the coast of Wales, Richard has just returned from a trip to Ireland and kisses the soil of England, demonstrating his kingly attachment to his kingdom. This image of kingship gradually fades as Bolingbroke's rebellion continues. Richard starts to forget his kingly nature as his mind becomes occupied by the rebellion. This change is portrayed in the scene at Flint Castle during which the unity of the two bodies disintegrates and the king starts to use more poetic and symbolic language. Richard's body politic has been shaken as his followers have joined Bolingbroke's army, diminishing Richard's military capacity. He has been forced to give up his jewels, losing his kingly appearance. He loses his temper at Bolingbroke, but then regains his composure as he starts to remember his divine side. At Flint Castle, Richard is determined to hang onto his kingship even though the title no longer fits his appearance. However at Westminster the image of the divine kingship is supported by the Bishop of Carlisle rather than Richard, who at this point is becoming mentally unstable as his authority slips away. Biblical references are used to liken the humbled king to the humbled Christ. The names of Judas and Pilate are used to further extend this comparison. Before Richard is sent to his death, he "un-kings" himself by giving away his crown, sceptre, and the balm that is used to anoint a king to the throne. The mirror scene is the final end to the dual personality. After examining his plain physical appearance, Richard shatters the mirror on the ground and thus relinquishes his past and present as king. Stripped of his former glory, Richard finally releases his body politic and retires to his body natural and his own inner thoughts and griefs. Critic J. Dover Wilson notes that Richard's double nature as man and martyr is the dilemma that runs through the play eventually leading to Richard's death. Richard acts the part of a royal martyr, and due to the spilling of his blood, England continually undergoes civil war for the next two generations.

The rise of a Machiavellian king
The play ends with the rise of Bolingbroke to the throne, marking the start of a new era in England. According to historical research, an English translation of Machiavelli's The Prince might have existed as early as 1585, influencing the reigns of the kings of England. Critic Irving Ribner notes that a manifestation of Machiavellian philosophy may be seen in Bolingbroke. Machiavelli wrote The Prince during a time of political chaos in Italy, and writes down a formula by which a leader can lead the country out of turmoil and return it to prosperity. Bolingbroke seems to be a leader coming into power at a time England is in turmoil, and follows closely the formula stated by Machiavelli. At the start of Richard II Bolingbroke accuses Mowbray and ulteriorly attacks the government of King Richard. He keeps Northumberland by his side as a tool to control certain constituents. From the minute Bolingbroke comes into power, he destroys the faithful supporters of Richard such as Bushy, Green and the Earl of Wiltshire. Also, Bolingbroke is highly concerned with the maintenance of legality to the kingdom, an important principle of Machiavellian philosophy, and therefore makes Richard surrender his crown and physical accessories to erase any doubt as to the real heir to the throne. Yet, Irving Ribner still notes a few incidents where Bolingbroke does not follow true Machiavellian philosophy, such as his failure to destroy Aumerle, but such incidents are minuscule compared with the bigger events of the play. Even Bolingbroke's last statement follows Machiavellian philosophy as he alludes to making a voyage to the Holy Land, since Machiavellian philosophy states rulers must appear pious. Therefore, this particular play can be viewed as a turning point in the history of England as the throne is taken over by a more commanding king in comparison to King Richard II.

Performance history
On 9 December 1595, Sir Robert Cecil enjoyed "K. Richard" at Sir Edward Hoby's house in Canon Row, and it might have been Shakespeare's Richard II, although some suspected that it was a different play, a painting, or a historical document.

Another commissioned performance of a different type occurred at the Globe Theatre on 7 Feb. 1601. This was the performance paid for by supporters of the Earl of Essex's planned revolt (see Historical Context above).

It is said that on 30 September 1607, the crew of Capt. William Keeling acted Richard II aboard the British East India Company ship The Red Dragon, off Sierra Leone, but the authenticity of this record is doubted.

The play was performed at the Globe on 12 June 1631.

The play retained its political charge in the Restoration: a 1680 adaptation at Drury Lane by Nahum Tate was suppressed for its perceived political implications. Tate attempted to mask his version, called The Sicilian Usurper, with a foreign setting; he attempted to blunt his criticism of the Stuart court by highlighting Richard's noble qualities and downplaying his weaknesses. Neither expedient prevented the play from being "silenc'd on the third day," as Tate wrote in his preface. Lewis Theobald staged a successful and less troubled adaptation in 1719 at Lincoln's Inn Fields; Shakespeare's original version was revived at Covent Garden in 1738.

The play had limited popularity in the early twentieth century, but John Gielgud exploded onto the world's theatrical consciousness, through his performance as Richard at the Old Vic Theatre in 1929, returning to the character in 1937 and 1953 in what ultimately was considered as the definitive performance of the role. Another legendary Richard was Maurice Evans, who first played the role at the Old Vic in 1934 and then created a sensation in his 1937 Broadway performance, revived it in New York in 1940 and then immortalised it on television for the Hallmark Hall of Fame in 1954. In England, Paul Scofield, who played it at the Old Vic in 1952, was considered the definitive Richard of more modern times. In the 1968–1970 seasons of the Prospect Theatre Company, Ian McKellen made a breakthrough performance as Richard, opposite Timothy West as Bolingbroke. The production, directed by Richard Cottrell, toured Britain and Europe, featuring in the Edinburgh Festival in 1969 and on BBC TV in 1970. In 1974, Ian Richardson and Richard Pasco alternated the roles of Richard and Bolingbroke in a production from John Barton at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre: nearly fifty years later this was still a standard by which performances were being judged. One of the most accessible versions was the 1978 television production by the BBC of the play, shown as part of "The Shakespeare Plays" (a several years-long project to put all of Shakespeare's plays on tape). This version, still available on DVD, starred Derek Jacobi as Richard, with John Gielgud making an appearance as John of Gaunt. In 1997, Fiona Shaw played the role as a man. More recently, the play was staged by Trevor Nunn in modern costume at the Old Vic in 2005, with Kevin Spacey in the title role, and by Michael Grandage at the Donmar Warehouse in 2011–12 with Eddie Redmayne in the title role.

Additionally the role was played by Mark Rylance at the Globe Theatre in 2003. An often overlooked production, the lead actor handles the character in, as The Guardian noted, perhaps the most vulnerable way ever seen. The play returned to the Globe in 2015 with Charles Edwards in the title role.

In summer 2012, BBC Two broadcast a filmed adaptation together with other plays in the Henriad under the series title The Hollow Crown with Ben Whishaw as Richard II.

No film version for cinema release has ever been made; however, the 1949 film Train of Events includes a sub-plot featuring an amateur dramatics society performing the last scenes of Richard II.

The Royal Shakespeare Company produced the play with David Tennant in the lead role in 2013. It has been released as a Cineplex Odeon special worldwide movie event. Tennant reprised the role for his U.S. stage debut, at BAM, in April 2016.

The Almeida Theatre, Islington, London, produced the play with Simon Russell Beale in the lead role in 2019.

See also
 List of screen adaptations of Richard II

References

Bibliography

Editions of Richard II
 Bate, Jonathan and Rasmussen, Eric (eds.), Richard II (The RSC Shakespeare; London: Macmillan, 2010)
 Black, Matthew W. (ed.) The Tragedy of King Richard the Second (The Pelican Shakespeare; London, Penguin, 1957; revised edition 1970)
 Dawson, Anthony B. and Yachnin, Paul (eds.) Richard II (The Oxford Shakespeare; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012)
 Dolan, Frances E. (ed.) Richard II (The Pelican Shakespeare, 2nd edition; London, Penguin, 2000)
 Dover Wilson, John (ed.) Richard II (The New Shakespeare; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1939; 2nd edition, 1951)
 Edmondson, Paul (ed.) Richard II (The New Penguin Shakespeare 2nd edition; London: Penguin, 2008)
 Evans, G. Blakemore (ed.) The Riverside Shakespeare (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974; 2nd edn., 1997)

 Greenblatt, Stephen; Cohen, Walter; Howard, Jean E. and Maus, Katharine Eisaman (eds.) The Norton Shakespeare: Based on the Oxford Shakespeare (London: Norton, 1997)
 Gurr, Andrew (ed.) King Richard II (The Cambridge Shakespeare; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984; 2nd edition 2003)
 Muir, Kenneth (ed.) Richard II (Signet Classic Shakespeare; New York: Signet, 1963; revised edition, 1988; 2nd revised edition 1999)
 Powell, Ivor B. (ed.) King Richard II (The Arden Shakespeare, 1st Series; London: Arden, 1912)
 Ure, Peter (ed.) King Richard II (The Arden Shakespeare, 2nd Series; London: Arden, 1956)
 Wells, Stanley (ed.) Richard II (The New Penguin Shakespeare; London: Penguin, 1969; revised edition 1997)
 Wells, Stanley; Taylor, Gary; Jowett, John and Montgomery, William (eds.) The Oxford Shakespeare: The Complete Works (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986; 2nd edn., 2005)
 Werstine, Paul and Mowat, Barbara A. (eds.) Richard II (Folger Shakespeare Library; Washington: Simon & Schuster, 1996)

Secondary sources
 Barroll, Leeds. "A New History for Shakespeare and His Time." Shakespeare Quarterly 39 (1988), 441–444.
 Bergeron, David. "The Deposition Scene in Richard II." Renaissance Papers 1974, 31–37.
 Bullough, Geoffrey. "Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare". Early English History Plays: Henry VI Richard III Richard II, volume III, Routledge: London, New York, 1960.
 Huke, Ivan and Perkins, Derek. Richard II: Literature Revision Notes and Examples. Celtic Revision Aids. 1981. .
 Chambers, E. K. William Shakespeare: A Study of Facts and Problems. 2 Volumes. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930.
 Rose, Alexander. Kings in the North – The House of Percy in British History. Phoenix/Orion Books Ltd, 2002,
 Smitd, Kristian. Unconformities in Shakespeare's History Plays, St. Martin's Press: New York, 1993.
 Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare's History Plays, Chatto & Windus: London, 1944.

External links

 King Richard the Second – Modern version of the play

1595 plays
Henriad
English Renaissance plays
Cultural depictions of English monarchs
Plays set in England
Richard II of England
British plays adapted into films
Biographical plays about English royalty
Plays set in the 14th century

Richard II (play)


A heuristic is a practical way to solve a problem. It is better than chance, but does not always work. A person develops a heuristic by using intelligence, experience, and common sense. Trial and error is the simplest heuristic, but one of the weakest. Rule of thumb and 'educated guesses' are other names for simple heuristics. Since a heuristic is not certain to get a result, there are always exceptions.

Sometimes heuristics are rather vague: 'look before you leap' is a guide to behaviour, but 'think about the consequences' is a bit clearer. Sometimes a heuristic is a whole set of stages. When doctors examines a patient, they go through a whole set of tests and observations. They may not find out what is wrong, but they give themselves the best chance of succeeding. This is called a diagnosis.

In computer science, a 'heuristic' is a kind of algorithm. Algorithms are written to get a good solution to a problem. A heuristic algorithm might usually find pretty good solutions, but there is no guarantee or proof that the solutions are correct. The time it takes to run the algorithm is another consideration.

Background
Heuristics is the art of finding an adequate solution to a problem, using limited knowledge and little time. More formally, heuristics are based on experience; they can speed up the search for a solution using simple rules. A complete search may take too long, or may be too difficult to do.

In more precise terms, heuristics are strategies using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to control problem solving in human beings and machines.

Heuristics can be used in some fields of science, but not in others: For economics, a solution that is one percent off is often acceptable; a telescope that has an error of one degree is probably unusable if aimed at a far-away object. The same telescope pointed to the window across the street will probably tolerate this error; missing by one degree will not have a big impact on a short distance.

Heuristics can be used to estimate an answer which is then made more clear by performing an exact solution at a very small scale, perhaps to save time, money or labor on a project - for example a heuristic guess as to how much weight a bridge is expected to carry can be used to determine whether the bridge should be made of wood, stone or steel, and appropriate quantities of the needed material can be purchased while the exact design of the bridge is being completed.

However, the use of heuristics in certain very technical fields may be damaging  computer science is one example. Programming a computer to perform more or less the desired actions may result in severe glitches. Therefore, computer tasks generally must be fairly exact. However, there are certain areas in which computers can calculate heuristic solutions safely  for example Google's search technology relies heavily on heuristics, producing "near-miss" matches to a search query when an exact match cannot be found. This enables a user to correct for any mistakes the search produces. Example: Searching for the name "Peter Smith" and unable to find that exact name, the search engine heuristically matches "Pete Smith" instead, and the person using the search engine must decide whether Pete and Peter are the same person.

Examples

Polya
Here are some other commonly used heuristics, from Polya's 1945 book, How to Solve It:
 If you are having difficulty understanding a problem, try drawing a picture.
 If you can't find a solution, try assuming that you have a solution and seeing what you can derive from that ("working backward").
 If the problem is abstract, try examining a concrete example.
 Try solving a more general problem first: the "inventor's paradox": the more ambitious plan may have more chances of success.

Packing problem

One example where heuristics are useful is a kind of packing problem. The problem consists of packing a number of items. There are rules that need to be respected. For example, each item has a value and a weight. The problem now is to get the most valuable items, with the least weight possible. Another instance is fitting a number of differently-sized items into a confined space, like the trunk of a car.

To get the perfect solution to the problem, all possibilities must be tried. This is often not a good option, as trying them takes a long time, and on average, half the possibilities must be tried until a solution is found. So what most people will do is to start with the biggest item, fit it in, and then try to arrange the other items around it. This will give a good solution, most of the time. There are cases however, where such a solution is very bad and another technique must be used.

Therefore, this is a heuristic solution.

References

Problem solving
Mathematics
Computer science

Heuristic


The Votadini, also known as the Uotadini, Wotādīni, Votādīni, or Otadini  were a Brittonic people of the Iron Age in Great Britain. Their territory was in what is now south-east Scotland and north-east England, extending from the Firth of Forth and around modern Stirling to the River Tyne, including at its peak what are now the Falkirk, Lothian and Borders regions and Northumberland. This area was briefly part of the Roman province of Britannia. The earliest known capital of the Votadini appears to have been the Traprain Law hill fort in East Lothian, until that was abandoned in the early 5th century. They afterwards moved to Din Eidyn (Edinburgh).

The name is recorded as Votadini in classical sources, and as Otodini on old maps of ancient Roman Britain. Their descendants were the early medieval kingdom known in Old Welsh as Guotodin, and in later Welsh as Gododdin .

One of the oldest known pieces of British literature is a poem called Y Gododdin, written in Old Welsh, having previously been passed down via the oral traditions of the Brythonic speaking Britons. This poem celebrates the bravery of the soldiers from what was later referred to by the Britons as Yr Hen Ogledd – The Old North; a reference to the fact that this land was lost in battle to an invading force at Catraeth (modern day Catterick).

Prehistory
The area was settled as early as 3000 BC, and offerings of that period imported from Cumbria and Wales left on the sacred hilltop at Cairnpapple Hill, West Lothian, show that by then there was a link with these areas. By around 1500 BC Traprain Law in East Lothian was already a place of burial, with evidence of occupation and signs of ramparts after 1000 BC. Excavation at Edinburgh Castle found late Bronze Age material from about 850 BC.

Brythonic Celtic culture and language spread into the area at some time after the 8th century BC, possibly through cultural contact rather than mass invasion, and systems of kingdoms developed. Numerous hillforts and settlements support the image of quarrelsome tribes and petty kingdoms recorded by the Romans, though evidence that at times occupants neglected the defences might suggest that symbolic power was sometimes as significant as warfare.

The Roman period
In the 1st century the Romans recorded the Votadini as a British tribe. Between 138–162 they came under direct Roman military rule as occupants of the region between Hadrian's and the Antonine Walls. Then when the Romans drew back to Hadrian's Wall the Votadini became a friendly buffer state, getting the rewards of alliance with Rome without being under its rule, until about 400 when the Romans withdrew from southern Great Britain. Quantities of Roman goods found at Traprain Law, East Lothian might suggest that this proved profitable, though this is open to speculation.

Since the 3rd century, Britannia had been divided into four provinces. In a late reorganisation a province called Valentia was created, which may have been a new province, perhaps including the Votadini territory, but is more likely to have been one of the four existing provinces renamed.

Excavations in Votadini territory, especially around Traprain Law, have unearthed silver Roman items, including several Gallic Roman coins, indicating some level of trade with the continent. It is unknown, however, whether the other items were traded for, or given to them by the Romans as an appeasement.

The post-Roman period
After the Roman withdrawal in the early 5th century, the lands of the Votadini became part of the area known as the Hen Ogledd (the "Old North").

By about 470, a new kingdom of Gododdin had emerged covering most of the original Votadini territory, while the southern part between the Tweed and the Tyne formed its own separate kingdom called Brynaich. Cunedda, legendary founder of the Kingdom of Gwynedd in north Wales, is said to have been a Gododdin chieftain who migrated south-west about this time.

Both kingdoms warred with the Angles of Bernicia; it is this warfare that is commemorated in Aneirin's late 6th/early 7th century poem-cycle Y Gododdin. However Gwynedd where Cunedda established a militaristic dynasty remained undefeated until the 13th century.

Modern references
The name has been taken by the Votadini Motorcycle Club, based in the North East of England.

See also
Dere Street
History of North-Humberland
History of Scotland
Yeavering Bell

References

Cited references

General references
 Scotland Before History – Stuart Piggott, Edinburgh University Press 1982,
 Scotland's Hidden History – Ian Armit, Tempus (in association with Historic Scotland) 1998,
 "Votadini and Traprain Law." - Caledonians, Picts and Romans. Education Scotland. Web. 27 Oct. 2015.

External links
Ancient Lothian – Histories – the romano-british era (use the search function for "Votadini" to find the article)
 The History Files: Post-Roman Celtic Kingdoms: Goutodin
BBC – History – The Gododdin 590
BBC – History – Tribes of Britain
A Very Rough Guide To the Main DNA Sources of the Counties of the British Isles John Eckersley, Katherine Hope Borges, 12 June 2006. Retrieved 5 September 2006.

Celtic Britons
Scotland in the Roman era
History of Northumberland
Roman buffer states
Tribes of ancient Scotland
Historical Celtic peoples
Tribes mentioned by Ptolemy
Roman client kingdoms in Britain

Votadini


Kristján Eldjárn (December 6, 1916 – September 14, 1982) was the 3rd president of Iceland.  He was president from 1968 to 1980.

He won as the underdog in the 1968 presidential election, winning 65.6% of the vote on a 92.2% voter turnout running against Gunnar Thoroddsen.

His son is Þórarinn Eldjárn who is a popular author in Iceland and his daughter Sigrún Eldjárn is also an author.

1916 births
1982 deaths
Presidents of Iceland

Kristján Eldjárn


In Object-oriented programming languages, inheritance is a way to add functionality. Object-oriented programming has the notion of classes (and perhaps interfaces). A derived class inherits most fields and methods from its parent class. It can modify the behaviour of the parent, by adding new fields and methods, or by modifying existing ones. Depending on the programming language used, there may be certain restrictions when extending a class.

Inheritance can be used to solve different types of problems:
 Specialisation: The child class extends the functionality of the parent. That way a Bank account may have fields for balance, account number and owner; a subclass interest-earning account may add fields like interest rate and interest received.
 Overriding: The child class can redefine the behaviour of the parent class.
 Code reuse: Code that is common to many classes can be placed in a parent class, and reused.

An example can be a Car class. You could create a Ferrari class which would inherit from Car, and also make a Toyota class which would also inherit from Car. This way, all the fields and methods (drive method, brake method, color field...) would also be inside of Ferrari and Toyota, and you wouldn't need to copy the code twice. However, maybe inside of Car you could have a brand field. This brand field would be equal to nothing, but inside of Ferrari the field might be equal to "ferrari" and in Toyota to "toyota". Of course, you could not just create a Car, because otherwise that field would be missing. In order to prevent people from just creating a Car, you turn the Car into an abstract class.

Object-oriented programming

Inheritance (object-oriented programming)


U2 are an Irish rock band. The four members of the band are lead singer Bono (born Paul David Hewson), lead guitarist The Edge (born David Howell Evans), bassist Adam Clayton, and drummer Larry Mullen Jr. and formerly dik Evans U2 are a very popular band all over the world and have been since the 1980s. They have sold more than 170 million albums and have won 22 Grammy Awards. This is more than any other rock band.

U2 formed in Dublin in 1976, when none of the members were very good musicians. However, they got better as they got older. They were more popular for playing live shows than for releasing albums. This changed with their hit record in 1987, The Joshua Tree. In 1991, U2 released a new album called Achtung Baby. This album sounded very different from their other albums because it was inspired by alternative rock and dance music. Achtung Baby and its worldwide Zoo TV Tour were both very popular. U2 experimented for the rest of the 1990s, making two other very different albums, Zooropa and Pop.

In the 21st century, U2 returned to a more traditional sound, but they continue to be very popular and successful. They are involved in charities and helping people with groups such as Amnesty International, Make Poverty History, the ONE Campaign, Live Aid, Live 8, Bono's DATA (Debt, AIDS, Trade in Africa) campaign, and Music Rising.

In 2014, the group won a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for their song Ordinary Love which was used in the movie Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom.

History

Formation (1976-1979)
U2 was formed in the city of Dublin, Ireland on September 25, 1976. It was founded by 14-year-old drummer Larry Mullen Jr. He posted a note on his school's notice board, asking for musicians to create a new band. There were seven teenage boys who went to their first practice. At first, the band called themselves "Feedback" but later changed their name to "The Hype". The band became smaller over time, eventually becoming just four people, and they finally changed their name to "U2" once Bono, The Edge, Clayton, and Mullen were left.

Influences
U2's influences include Brian Eno, Joy Division, Television, Lou Reed, Bob Dylan, Roxy Music, The Beatles, The Undertones, Roy Obison, Marc Bolan, David Bowie, Sex Pistols, The Clash, The Who, Thin Lizzy, Patti Smith, The Jam, The Rolling Stones, Van Morrison and Lee Clayton.

Albums

 Boy (1980)
 October (1981)
 War (1983)
 The Unforgettable Fire (1984)
 The Joshua Tree (1987)
 Rattle and Hum (1988)
 Achtung Baby (1991)
 Zooropa (1993)
 Pop (1997)
 All That You Can't Leave Behind (2000)
 How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb (2004)
 No Line on the Horizon (2009)
 Songs of Innocence (2014)
 Songs of Experience (2017)
 Songs of Surrender (2023)

References

Other websites
 U2 official website

20th-century establishments in the Republic of Ireland
1980s Irish music groups
1990s Irish music groups
2000s Irish music groups
2010s Irish music groups
Irish rock bands
Musical groups established in 1976
Musical groups from Dublin
Musical quartets

1976 establishments in Europe

U2


Ruffin Golson Pleasant (June 2, 1871 – September 12, 1937) was the 36th Governor of Louisiana, from 1916 to 1920, who is remembered for having mobilized his state for World War I. Prior to his governorship, Pleasant was the Louisiana attorney general from 1912 to 1916, and the city attorney of Shreveport from 1902 to 1908.

Early years and education
Pleasant was born in the community of Shiloh in Union Parish in north Louisiana to Benjamin Franklin Pleasant and the former Martha Washington Duty. An earlier governor, William Wright Heard, who served from 1900 to 1904, was also born near Shiloh. His parents' names hence evoked the spirit of patriotism that Pleasant extolled in his public life. He was educated at the former Ruston College in Ruston, the seat of Lincoln Parish, from 1885 to 1886. He then attended Mount Lebanon College, the forerunner of Baptist-affiliated Louisiana College from 1887 to 1889. In 1890 he began school at the Louisiana State University (LSU) in Baton Rouge, where he became a member of the Kappa Sigma fraternity. In 1893 he was chosen as captain of the LSU football squad and played in LSU's first match against Tulane. He graduated in 1894. Thereafter, he studied law at both Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts and Yale College in New Haven, Connecticut. He was admitted to the bar in 1899.

Pleasant served in the Spanish–American War in 1898 as a lieutenant-colonel of the First Louisiana Regiment of Infantry. After the war, he launched his law practice in Shreveport, a large city by Louisiana standards which is the seat of Caddo Parish in the northwestern corner of the state. On Valentine's Day 1906, Pleasant married the former Anne Ector, the daughter of Matthew Duncan Ector and the former Sarah "Sallie" Parish Chew.

Moving up the political ladder
Pleasant was first city attorney in Shreveport, then state attorney general, and finally governor. In the 1916 general election, Pleasant, as the Democratic nominee, faced the Progressive Party's John M. Parker. Pleasant prevailed with 80,807 votes (62.5 percent) to Parker's 37.2 percent. Parker, a friend of Theodore Roosevelt's until their political split in 1916, thereafter returned to the Democratic Party and won the 1920 gubernatorial election with Pleasant's support. At the time Louisiana governors could serve only one four-year term and could not seek a second term until four years had lapsed since the end of a previous term.

As governor, Pleasant encouraged volunteers and contributions for the war effort. Louisiana's support for the war was considered to have been among the strongest in the nation. He named Lee Emmett Thomas, a banker  and a former Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives, as the chairman of the Louisiana Tax Commission and then the state banking examiner. Thomas thereafter served as mayor of Shreveport from 1922 to 1930. Oddly, Thomas was born in Marion, Louisiana, and educated in Union Parish at Pleasant's birthplace of Shiloh.

In 1917, Pleasant signed into law a measure by the freshman state senator, Norris C. Williamson of East Carroll Parish, which authorized state funding for the eradication of the cattle tick pest.

When Pleasant was elected governor, voters also chose Harry D. Wilson, a former state representative from Tangipahoa Parish, who began a 32-year tenure (1916-1948) as the Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry. Pleasant named the cotton farmer C. C. McCrory of Ascension Parish as the adjutant general of the Louisiana National Guard. Later McCrory's son, Sidney McCrory, served a term as the state agriculture commissioner.

After leaving the governorship, Pleasant resumed his law practice in Shreveport. He soon  broke with his successor, John M. Parker, over tax policy and supported Huey Pierce Long, Jr. Not long afterward, he broke with Long too and became a leading spokesman for the anti-Long faction of the Louisiana Democratic Party.

Pleasant was elected as a member of the Louisiana Constitutional Convention of 1921. That particular constitution produced by the delegates was superseded in 1974 by a newer governing document.

Pleasant was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention of 1916, which renominated Woodrow Wilson for president and Thomas Marshall of Indiana for vice president. He was also a delegate to the Democratic convention in 1924, which took 103 ballots to nominate John W. Davis of West Virginia as the party's compromise presidential nominee.

The later years

Anne Ector Pleasant died in 1934 after accidentally drinking a poisonous antiseptic in a dark bathroom in their Shreveport home. She was the founder and headmistress of Pleasant Hall, a coed private school in Shreveport. She had sued then U.S. Senator Huey Long for having caused her to be arrested on false charges and for having demeaned her as a "drunken cursing woman" when she sought to examine state public records in the Capitol in Baton Rouge.

Pleasant died in Shreveport four years later. He was Presbyterian. The couple is interred at Forest Park Cemetery off St. Vincent Avenue in Shreveport.

References

Bibliography
 "Ruffin Golson Pleasant", A Dictionary of Louisiana Biography, Vol. 2 (1988), pp. 654–655
 Miriam G. Reeves, The Governors of Louisiana (1962)
 Roy Glashan, American Governors and Gubernatorial Elections, 1775–1975 (1975)
 US GenWeb – Union Parish, Louisiana – Biography

External links

 Cemetery Memorial by La-Cemeteries
 State of Louisiana – Biography
 National Governors Association
 Time Magazine – Obits – September 24, 1934
 Political Graveyard
 Spanish American War Veterans Buried in Louisiana

1871 births
1937 deaths
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
American Presbyterians
Harvard Law School alumni
Democratic Party governors of Louisiana
Louisiana Attorneys General
Louisiana State University alumni
19th-century players of American football
LSU Tigers football players
Politicians from Shreveport, Louisiana
People from Union Parish, Louisiana

Ruffin G. Pleasant


June Hill Robertson McCarroll (June 30 1867—March 30 1954) was a nurse (later a physician) with the Southern Pacific Railroad in the early twentieth century.  She has been credited by Caltrans with the idea of using a painted line to separate lanes of traffic on a highway.  This is now in use all over the world.

McCarroll was born and raised in the Adirondacks. She attended a medical college in Chicago.  She moved to Southern California in 1904 with her first husband, John Robertson.  They had hoped that the desert climate would help him with his tuberculosis, but Robertson died in 1914.  She later married Frank McCarroll, the local station manager for the Southern Pacific Railroad.  From 1907 to 1916, she was the only physician regularly practicing in the vast desert between the Salton Sea and Palm Springs.  She was also the only physician serving the area's five Indian reservations for the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

In the fall of 1917, McCarroll was driving on the road leading to her office near Indio, California on a stretch of highway that would later become part of U.S. Route 99.  Today, that part of the highway is part of Indio Boulevard.  She was literally run off the road by a truck, as she recalled many years later:
My Model T Ford and I found ourselves face to face with a truck on the paved highway.  It did not take me long to choose between a sandy berth [sic] to the right and a ten-ton truck to the left! Then I had my idea of a white line painted down the center of the highways of the country as a safety measure.

McCarroll soon told her idea to the local chamber of commerce and the Riverside County Board of Supervisors, but no one listened.  Finally, she took it upon herself to hand-paint a white stripe down the middle of the road.  This would later help drivers since they could now easily see the actual width of the lane and keep accidents like Nurse McCarroll's from happening again.  Through the Indio Women's Club and many similar women's groups, Nurse McCarroll launched a statewide letter writing campaign to tell of her proposal. In November 1924, the idea was adopted by the California Highway Commission and 3,500 miles of lines were painted at a cost of $163,000. It would not be long before the idea was adopted worldwide.

A memorial plaque to Dr. McCarroll may be found at the intersection of Indio Boulevard and Flower Street in Indio, California. On April 24, 2002, to honor her contribution to road safety, the State of California named the stretch of Interstate 10 near Indio east of the Indio Boulevard/Jefferson Street exit as "The Doctor June McCarroll Memorial Freeway."  To find the plaque with a GPS system, the coordinates are 33º43.260 N, 116º13.040 W.

References

Other websites
Doctor June Hill Robertson McCarroll             biography

1867 births
1954 deaths
American nurses

June McCarroll


Zinc oxide is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is ZnO. It contains zinc and oxide ions.

Properties
Zinc oxide is a white solid. It does not dissolve in water. It reacts with acids to make zinc salts. It can react with water to make zinc hydroxide. It reacts with phosphoric acid to make zinc phosphate, a cement. It reacts with hydrogen sulfide to make zinc sulfide. It dissolves in strong bases. It can be reduced by carbon to zinc metal.

Preparation
Zinc oxide can be made by heating powdered zinc metal. It can also be made by heating zinc hydroxide. It can be made by boiling zinc metal in air. Zinc carbonate makes zinc oxide when heated.

Uses
Zinc oxide is used in the vulcanization of rubber, preventing the rubber from becoming brittle. It also protects the rubber from fungi and ultraviolet light.

Zinc oxide can be added to concrete to help the making and hardening of concrete. Zinc oxide is used in calamine. It can be used as a deodorant and an antibacterial cream. Zinc oxide can be used as a sunscreen.

It can be added to food to add zinc to the diet. It can also be used in paint as a pigment. It also clings to certain metals better.

Safety
Zinc oxide is not toxic, but fine dust of zinc oxide can irritate the lungs when inhaled or aspirated.

Related pages
Zinc chloride
Zinc bromide

Zinc compounds
Oxides

Zinc oxide


In the United States, the Recording Industry Association of America awards certification based on the number of albums and singles sold through retail and other secondary stores.

List of certifications
Currently, the normal RIAA certifications for albums are:
 500,000 units: Gold album.
 1,000,000 units: Platinum album.
 2,000,000 units: Multi-Platinum album.
 10,000,000 units: Diamond album.

Special certifications exist for Latin albums (which the RIAA considers to be an album that is mostly sung in Spanish):

If a Latin album is certified on or after December 20, 2013:
 30,000 units: Disco de oro (which means "Gold album").
 60,000 units: Disco de platino (which means "Platinum album").
 120,000 units: Disco de multi-platino album (which means "Multi-Platinum album").
 600,000 units: Disco de diamante (which means "Diamond album").

If a Latin album was certified before December 20, 2013:
 50,000 units: Disco de oro.
 100,000 units: Disco de platino.
 200,000 units: Disco de multi-platino.
 1,000,000 units: Disco de diamante

References

Other websites
 RIAA Website
 The RIAA Diamond Awards
 Search RIAA Gold and Platinum Database
 Billboard Magazine - a magazine that publishes weekly music rankings

Music industry
Standards

RIAA certification


A Botnet (short for robot network) is a word which is sometimes used by computer scientists. Botnets are made up of many software agents. Each software agent is controlled remotely. Botnets are known for their ability to act as a unit.

Such networks are often used to send E-Mail Spam, but they can also be used to attack (and bring down) a computer through Denial of Service attacks, amongst others.

A Botnet can also be referred to as a group of hundreds, thousands, or even tens of thousands of zombie computers that are under the control of an attacker.

Computing

Botnet


Vancouver General Hospital (locally known as VGH, or Vancouver General) is a medical facility located in Vancouver, British Columbia. It is the largest facility in the Vancouver Hospital and Health Sciences Centre (VHHSC) group of medical facilities. VGH is Canada's third largest hospital by bed count, after Hamilton General Hospital, and Foothills Medical Centre.

Vancouver Coastal Health (VCH) is responsible for all operations at Vancouver General Hospital.

History
The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) first opened in 1886 a nine-bed tent, its primary use to treat railway workers. On June 13, 1886, a fire destroyed the tent hospital and by July, a new, one-storey building was built. In September, the City of Vancouver took over the facility, which became the City Hospital. In 1888, located at the southern edge of the original Gastown settlement, a 35-bed hospital opened, as the tent infirmary became too small. The upstairs ward was for female patients, the downstairs ward for males. In 1899, the Vancouver City Hospital Training School for Nurses was opened. In 1902, British Columbia provincial legislature transferred control from the city's board of health to a board of 15 directors. Vancouver City Hospital was renamed to Vancouver General Hospital.

In 1906, in Fairview Ridge, overlooking False Creek, a new building, the Heather Pavilion, began housing staff and patients. The University of British Columbia Medical School opened clinical facilities at VGH in 1950.

In 1959, VGH opened the "Centennial Pavilion" (named in commemoration of the centennial of the founding of British Columbia as a British Crown colony, in 1858), which at the time was the largest part of the VGH facilities.

In the 1960s, VGH build Canada's first intensive care nursery, equipped with the first effective apparatus used for natural breathing in infants with respiratory failure.

In 1996, VGH opened the first three floors of its newly constructed Laurel Pavilion. In 2000, the Laurel Pavilion was renamed to the Jim Pattison Pavilion and construction of the final 12 floors began in 2001. The Jim Pattison Pavilion opened in 2003.

In 2004, ground-breaking for the new Gordon and Leslie Diamond Health Care Centre began. This new building, adjacent to the Jim Pattison Pavilion, opened in August 2006 to provide acute day care services in a variety of areas.

The Lung Centre specializes in the treatment of pulmonary conditions such as asthma, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis, lung cancer, occupational and environmental lung diseases, sarcoidosis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, pulmonary hypertension and interstitial lung disease.

The Blusson Spinal Cord Centre, the world's largest, most advanced and most comprehensive facility devoted to spinal cord injury research and patient care was opened in November 2008. The six-storey, $45-million centre is home to ICORD (International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries), the Rick Hansen Institute and the Brenda and Davide McLean Integrated Spine Clinic and is a partnership of the University of British Columbia, the Rick Hansen Foundation, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, and the VGH & UBC Hospital Foundation.

The Robert H.N. Ho Research Centre, opened in September 2011, is a seven-storey,  facility that houses three of VGH's key research programs: the Vancouver Prostate Centre at VGH; the Centre for Hip Health and Mobility; and the Ovarian Cancer Research Initiative.

Facilities and amenities

VGH is the largest hospital in British Columbia, offering specialized and tertiary services to adult patients (18 and above) in Vancouver. The hospital accepts patients referred from other parts of the province requiring highly specialized services. Approximately 40% of the hospital's cases come from outside the Vancouver region. Vancouver General Hospital is an internal medicine hospital, with pediatric and maternal care services in the Vancouver region being offered by BC Children's Hospital and BC Women's Hospital & Health Centre, located roughly 2.5 km south of Vancouver General.

In addition to providing specialized and tertiary medical services, VGH is also a teaching hospital in affiliation with the University of British Columbia Faculty of Medicine, providing training and advanced education to students from all disciplines. Unique in Canada is the Gordon and Leslie Diamond Health Care Centre at VGH which includes the UBC Faculty of Medicine facilities. The facility houses teaching space for about 250 third and fourth year medical students and 500 postgraduate residents, and nine Faculty of Medicine programs as well as the UBC medical school library.

VGH's main cafeteria, Sassafras Cafeteria, is located on the second floor of the Jim Pattison Pavilion. The pavilion also has a café at its main entrance called Café Ami.

Facts and figures
 One emergency department
 24 operating rooms
 40 outpatient clinics
 27,400 inpatient (overnight) visits per year
 294,300 clinic visits per year
 94,348 emergency department visits per year (15/16 fiscal)
 23,000 outpatient and inpatient surgical cases per year

Divisions
 Respiratory Medicine and Thoracic Surgery
 Alzheimer Clinic
 BC Injury Prevention Centre
 Centre for Cardiac Rehabilitation and Risk Factor Management
 Domestic Violence
 Eye Care Centre, established in 1983 with funds raised with the help of Stephen M. Drance
 Leukemia/Bone Marrow Transplant Program
 Mary Pack Arthritis Centre
 Trauma Services/Orthopedic Trauma Service
 Outpatient Psychiatry Clinic
 CIBC Centre for Patients and Families
 Vancouver Prostate Centre
 Short Term Assessment and Treatment Centre (STAT)
 Skin Care Centre
 Work Adjustment Program
 Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute
 Centre for Hip Health

Emergency Room documentary series

In 2014, Knowledge Network premiered "Emergency Room: Life + Death at VGH" a six-part documentary series directed by Kevin Eastwood which follows several VGH emergency department staff and patients over a period of 80 days between February and May 2013. The series won twice at the 2014 Leo Awards, taking home Best Documentary Series and the People's Choice Award for Favourite TV Series.

The second season of Emergency Room: Life + Death at VGH began on April 12, 2016.

Notable deaths
Errol Flynn, Australian-American actor

References

External links

 VGH & UBC Hospital Foundation

Hospital buildings completed in 1886
Hospital buildings completed in 1959
Hospitals in British Columbia
University of British Columbia
Buildings and structures in Vancouver
Hospitals established in 1906
Heliports in Canada
Certified airports in British Columbia
1906 establishments in British Columbia

Vancouver General Hospital


The Model Y wis the first Ford speceifically designed for markets ootwi the Unitit States o Americae, replacin the Model A in Europe. The caur wis pouered bi a 933 cc, 8 (RAC)hp Ford sidevalve ingine, an wis in production in Ingland frae 1932 till September 1937, in Fraunce (whaur it wis kent as the Ford 6 CV) frae 1932 tae 1934 an in Germany as the Ford Köln frae 1933 tae 1936.  Smawer nummers wis assemmled in Australie an aw (whaur even a coupé version wis produced), Japan, Latvie (brandit as the Ford Junior) an in Spain (brandit as the Ford Forito).

The little Ford wis available in twa an fower door versions. In Juin 1935 a reduced specifition  twa door model wis the anerlie fully-plenisht caur ever tae sell in Breetain for juist £100, a price it held till Julie 1937.

Awtho o American Design, the Model 'Y' tuik the Breetish mercat bi storm an when it wis first introduced it made a major dent in the sales figures o Austin, Morris, Singer, an Hillman. It gaed on tae thrash them soondlie bi takkin ower 50% o the 8(RAC)HP sales. In Breetain it wis forby kent as the 'Ford 8' reflectin its fiscal horsepouer ratin.

For the first 14 month the oreeginal model wi a short radiator grille wis produced, this is kent as the 'short rad'. Efter this in October 1933 the 'lang rad' model, wi its langer radiator grille an front bumper wi the characteristic dip wis produced. Bi, piece an piece, impruivin production efficiency an bi simplifeein the body design the cost o a "Popular" Model 'Y' wis reduced tae £100, makkin it the cheapest true 4 seater saloon ever, tho maist customers wur perswadit tae pey the extra needit for a less austerne version o the caur. Baith 4 door (Fordor) an 2 door (Tudor) saloons wis produced an thae coud be haed aither wi a fixed ruif, or the wee bit mair expensive sclyin 'sun' ruif.

The suspension wis bi the traditional Ford transverse leaf springs front an rear an the ingine drove the rear wheels throu a three speed gearbox whilk, right frae the start, featurt synchromesh atween the tap twa ratios. The ootmaist speed wis juist unner 60 mph (95 km/h) an fuel consumpt wis 32 mpg.

Even bi the standards o the time, the UK biggit Ford 8, lik its major competitor the Austin Seven, wis foond parteecular for its "amaist unbelievable lack o brakes".

Anither thing offered wis an attractive 5cwt van whilk pruived vera popular wi sma businesses.

Ford didna produce an appen tap caur acause it wis thocht that the chassis wis ower flexible, housomever several specialist coach builders produced a range o bonnie Model 'Y' tourers.

Some 175,000 Model 'Y's wur produced warldwide (153,117 in Ingland, 11,121 in Germany) an the 'Y' an 'C' Register haes knowledge o approximately 1250 survivors.

The lairger an fester 10(RAC)hp Model 'C' didnae sell sae mony insaumples as the Model 'Y' tho thare wis a verra bonnie factory produced tourer. In 1935 the stylin wis enhanced wi some sma modifications an the model wis designated the 'CX'.

See also
Ford Köln

External links

 http://www.fordyandcmodelregister.co.uk/

Model Y
1932 introductions

Ford Model Y


Flight Lieutenant Charles Herbert Collet  (4 February 1888 – 19 August 1915) was a British naval airman during the First World War, regarded as one of the best naval airmen of his day.

Early life and education
Charles Collet was born in India, the son of an engineer James Francis Herbert Collet and his wife Teresa Collet (née Pilley). For a time the family lived on Guernsey. At the time of his death, Charles Collet's parents lived in Woodleigh, West End, Southampton. He was educated at Dulwich College.

Naval career
Collet was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Marine Artillery on 1 September 1905, and was promoted to lieutenant on 1 July 1906. On 21 October 1913 Collet was awarded Aviators' Certificate No. 666 after flying an Avro biplane at the Central Flying School at Upavon.

At the outbreak of the war on 4 August 1914, Collet was based at RNAS Eastchurch. On 10 August he took part in the Daily Mail–sponsored "Circuit of Britain" race, which was not cancelled despite the declaration of war. He flew a German-built DFW Mars (No. 154), which the RNAS had bought in 1913, and refitted with a Beardmore 120 hp engine. Unfortunately mechanical problems forced him to make an emergency landing at Scarborough racecourse, where he was promptly arrested and questioned. After repairs were made, Collet completed the race, coming second.

Collet's unit, under the command of Wing Commander Charles Rumney Samson, initially flew patrols along the North Sea coast, but on 27 August 1914 was moved to France. Renamed No. 3 Squadron RNAS, they were based at Saint-Pol-sur-Mer near Dunkirk, and operated a variety of aircraft and some improvised armoured cars.

The Düsseldorf Raid
On 22 September 1914 Collet, flying a Sopwith Tractor Biplane, led a raid by four aircraft, which flew two hundred miles to attack the Zeppelin sheds at Düsseldorf and Cologne, in the first British air raid of the war. Thick mist in the Rhine Valley meant that only Collet found his target, and he accurately dropped two  bombs from  on the shed at Düsseldorf, although the bombs failed to explode. Despite being hit by enemy fire, he returned safely, as did the other three aircraft; they had spent more than an hour flying over Cologne attempting to find their target, but after failing to do so they returned to base without dropping their bombs.

Collet's feat was described thusly:
Flight Lieutenant Collet approached the Zeppelin shed at Düsseldorf at an altitude of . There was a bank of mist below, which he encountered at . He traversed the depth of this layer and emerged there from at a height of only  above the ground. His objective was barely a quarter of a mile ahead. Travelling at high speed he launched his bombs with what proved to be deadly precision, and disappeared into cover almost before the enemy had grasped his intentions.

Collet was subsequently awarded the Distinguished Service Order on 21 October 1914.

On 23 February 1915 he was granted the temporary rank of captain whilst serving as a flight commander, and was promoted to the rank of flight lieutenant the following day. He was also twice mentioned in despatches.

In March 1915 his unit was moved from France to the island of Tenedos to take part in the Gallipoli campaign, were they flew reconnaissance and bombing missions over the Turkish positions. On 22 June Collet was flying a Voisin aircraft, with Major R.E.T. Hogg as observer, when he intercepted a German aircraft near Achi Baba. Hogg shot at it with a rifle, hitting it in the engine, and forcing it down.

Death
On 19 August 1915, Collet took off from an airfield on Imbros, and had reached a height of  when his engine failed. Collet turned to attempt a landing, but in the strong winds from the nearby cliffs he lost control, and his aircraft fell vertically to the ground, bursting into flames. His passenger, Chief Petty Officer Michael Sullivan Keogh of , broke his thigh in the crash, but nevertheless dragged Collet from the wreckage, receiving severe burns. However, Collet was fatally injured and died 30 minutes later. Keogh was awarded the Albert Medal (2nd Class) for his attempt to save Collet's life. Collet is buried at the Lancashire Landing Cemetery in Turkey.

Other notable achievements
Collet was also the first naval officer to loop the loop.

Further reading

References

External links

1888 births
1915 deaths
Military personnel from Kolkata
People educated at Dulwich College
Royal Marines officers
Royal Naval Air Service aviators
British World War I flying aces
British military personnel killed in World War I
Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in Turkey
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1915
Burials at Lancashire Landing Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery

Charles Collet


Under the Pink is the second solo album by singer-songwriter Tori Amos. It was released January 31, 1994. Four singles were released from it. The third single, "Cornflake Girl", reached number 4 on the UK Singles Chart. The album went straight to number 1 in the UK.

More Pink: The B-Sides
In Australia and New Zealand a special version of Under the Pink was released called More Pink: The B-Sides. It had a second disc with the album's fourteen B-sides.

1994 albums
Tori Amos albums

Under the Pink


Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial bodies. That means stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids, comets and nebulae are studied, as are supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation. Astronomy concerns the development, physics, chemistry, meteorology and movement of celestial bodies. The big questions are the structure and development of the universe.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. The patterns in the night sky were called constellations by the Arabs. They used the positions of the stars to navigate, and to find when was the best time to plant crops.

Astrophysics is an important part of astronomy. A related subject, cosmology, is concerned with studying the universe as a whole, and the way the universe changed over time. Astronomy is not the same as astrology, a belief that the motion of the stars and the planets may affect human lives.

There are two main types of astronomy, observational and theoretical astronomy. Observational astronomy uses telescopes and cameras to observe or look at stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects. Theoretical astronomy explains what we see. It predicts what might happen. Observations show whether the predictions work.  The main work of astronomy is to explain puzzling features of the universe.  For many years the most important issue was the motions of planets. Many other topics are now studied.

Day-time astronomy is possible. First, there's the Sun, but observing directly is dangerous. It is too bright, and can burn your eyes and can cause permanent blindness. To look at the Sun you need  proper shields and equipment. Some other individual bright stars and planets can be seen during daylight hours through a telescope or a powerful pair of binoculars.

History of astronomy

Ancient history
Early astronomers used only their eyes to look at the stars. They made maps of the constellations and stars for religious reasons and calendars to work out the time of year. Early civilisations such as the Maya people and the Ancient Egyptians built simple observatories and drew maps of the stars positions. They also began to think about the place of Earth in the universe. For a long time people thought Earth was the center of the universe, and that the planets, the stars and the sun went around it.  This is known as geocentrism. Astronomy is from the Greek astron (ἄστρον) meaning "star" and nomos (nόμος) meaning "law")

Ancient Greeks tried to explain the motions of the sun and stars by taking measurements. A mathematician named Eratosthenes was the first who measured the size of the Earth and proved that the Earth is a sphere. A theory by another mathematician named Aristarchus was, that the sun is the center and the Earth is moving around it. This is known as heliocentrism. Only a few people thought it was right. The rest continued to believe in the geocentric model. Most of the names of constellations and stars come from Greeks of that time.

Arabic astronomers made many advancements during the Middle Ages including improved star maps and ways to estimate the size of the Earth.  They also learned from the ancients by translating Greek books into Arabic.

Renaissance to modern era

During the renaissance a priest named Nicolaus Copernicus thought, from looking at the way the planets moved, that the Earth was not the center of everything. Based on previous works, he said that the Earth was a planet and all the planets moved around the sun. This brought back the old idea of heliocentrism. Galileo Galilei built his own telescopes, and used them to look more closely at the stars and planets for the first time. He agreed with Copernicus. The Catholic Church thought Galileo was wrong. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. Heliocentric ideas were soon improved by Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, who invented the theory of gravity.

After Galileo, people made better telescopes and used them to see farther objects such as the planets Uranus and Neptune. They also saw how stars were similar to our Sun, but in a range of colours and sizes. They also saw thousands of other faraway objects such as galaxies and nebulae.

Modern era
The 20th century after 1920 saw important changes in astronomy.

In the early 1920s it began to be accepted that the galaxy in which we live, the Milky Way, is not the only galaxy. The existence of other galaxies was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy. It was also Hubble who proved that the universe was expanding. There were many other galaxies at large distances and they are receding, moving away from our galaxy. That was completely unexpected.

In 1931, Karl Jansky discovered radio emission from outside the Earth when trying to isolate a source of noise in radio communications, marking the birth of radio astronomy and the first attempts at using another part of the electromagnetic spectrum to observe the sky. Those parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that the atmosphere did not block were now opened up to astronomy, allowing more discoveries to be made.

The opening of this new window on the Universe saw the discovery of entirely new things, for example pulsars, which sent regular pulses of radio waves out into space. The waves were first thought to be alien in origin because the pulses were so regular that (so it was thought) it implied an artificial source.

The period after World War II saw more observatories. Large and accurate telescopes were built and operated at good observing sites, usually by governments. For example, Bernard Lovell began radio astronomy at Jodrell Bank using leftover military radar equipment. By 1957, the site had the largest steerable radio telescope in the world. Similarly, the end of the 1960s saw the start of the building of dedicated observatories at Mauna Kea in Hawaii, a good site for visible and infra-red telescopes thanks to its high altitude and clear skies.

The next great revolution in astronomy was thanks to the birth of rocketry.  This allowed telescopes to be placed in space on satellites.

Space telescopes gave access, for the first time in history, to the entire electromagnetic spectrum including rays that had been blocked by the atmosphere.  The X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet light and parts of the infra-red spectrum were all opened to astronomy as observing telescopes were launched.  As with other parts of the spectrum, new discoveries were made.

From 1970s satellites were launched to be replaced with more accurate and better satellites, causing the sky to be mapped in nearly all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Discoveries
Discoveries broadly come in two types:  bodies and phenomena.  Bodies are things in the Universe, whether it is a planet like our Earth or a galaxy like our Milky Way.  Phenomena are events and happenings in the Universe.

Bodies
For convenience, this section has been divided by where these astronomical bodies may be found: those found around stars are solar bodies, those inside galaxies are galactic bodies and everything else larger are cosmic bodies.

Solar
 Planets
 Asteroids
 Comets

Galactic
 Stars

Diffuse Objects:
 Nebulas
 Clusters

Compact Stars:
 White dwarf stars
 Neutron stars
 Black holes

Cosmic
 Galaxies
 Galaxy clusters
 Superclusters

Phenomena
Burst events are those where there is a sudden change in the heavens that disappears quickly.  These are called bursts because they are normally associated with large explosions producing a "burst" of energy.  They include:
 Supernovas
 Novas

Periodic events are those that happen regularly in a repetitive way.  The name periodic comes from period, which is the length of time required for a wave to complete one cycle.  Periodic phenomena include:
 Pulsars
 Variable stars

Noise phenomena tend to relate to things that happened a long time ago.  The signal from these events bounce around the Universe until it seems to come from everywhere and varies little in intensity.  In this way, it is "noise", the background signal that pervades every instrument used for astronomy.  The most common example of noise is static seen on analogue televisions.  The principal astronomical example is: cosmic background radiation.

Methods

Instruments
 Telescopes are the main tool of observing. They take all the light in a big area and put in into a small area. This is like making your eyes very big and powerful. Astronomers use telescopes to look at things that are far away and dim. Telescopes make objects look bigger, closer, brighter.
 Spectrometers study the different wavelengths of light. This shows what something is made of.
 Many telescopes are in satellites. They are space observatories. The Earth's atmosphere blocks some parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, but special telescopes  above the atmosphere can detect that radiation.
 Radio astronomy uses radio telescopes. Aperture synthesis combines smaller telescopes to create a phased array, which works like a telescope as big as the distance between the smaller telescopes.

Techniques
There are way  astronomers can get better pictures of the heavens.  Light from a distant source reaches a sensor and gets measured, normally by a human eye or a camera.  For very dim sources, there may not be enough light particles coming from the source for it to be seen.  One technique that astronomers have for making it visible is using integration (which is like longer exposures in photography).

Integration
Astronomical sources do not move much: only the rotation and movement of the Earth causes them to move across the heavens. As light particles reach the camera over time, they hit the same place making it brighter and more visible than the background, until it can be seen.

Telescopes at most observatories (and satellite instruments) can normally track a source as it moves across the heavens, making the star appear still to the telescope and allowing longer exposures.  Also, images can be taken on different nights so exposures span hours, days or even months. In the digital era, digitised pictures of the sky can be added together by computer, which overlays the images after correcting for movement.

Adaptive optics
Adaptive optics means changing the shape of the mirror or lens while looking at something, to see it better.

Data analysis
Data analysis is the process of getting more information out of an astronomical observation than by simply looking at it. The observation is first stored as data. This data then has various techniques used to analyse it.

Fourier analysis
Fourier analysis in mathematics can show if an observation (over a length of time) is changing periodically (changes like a wave).  If so, it can extract the frequencies and the type of wave pattern, and find many things including new planets.

Subfields of astronomy
Pulsars pulse regularly in radio waves.  These turned out to be similar to some (but not all) of a type of bright source in X-rays called a Low-mass X-ray binary.  It turned out that all pulsars and some LMXBs are neutron stars and that the differences were due to the environment in which the neutron star was found. Those LMXBs that were not neutron stars turned out to be black holes.

This section attempts to provide an overview of the important fields of astronomy.

Solar astronomy

Solar astronomy is the study of the Sun. The Sun is the closest star to Earth at around 92 million (92,000,000) miles away. It is the easiest to observe in detail. Observing the Sun can help us understand how other stars work and are formed. Changes in the Sun can affect the weather and climate on Earth. A stream of charged particles called the Solar wind is constantly sent off from the Sun. The Solar wind hitting the Earth's magnetic field causes the northern lights.

Stellar Astronomy

Stellar Astronomy, sometimes generally stellar astrophysics is the scientific study of stars, their formation, evolution and fate (stellar evolution). In the most basic sense,Stellar Astronomy attempts to answer the questions to the universe's most common phenomena — stars. Heavily relating with Galactic and Planetary Astronomy.

Planetary astronomy
Planetary astronomy is the study of planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets and asteroids as well as other small objects that orbit stars. The planets of our own Solar System have been studied in depth by many visiting spacecraft such as Cassini-Huygens (Saturn) and the Voyager 1 and 2.

Galactic astronomy
Galactic astronomy is the study of distant galaxies.  Studying distant galaxies is a good way of learning about our own galaxy, as the gases and stars in our own galaxy make it difficult to observe.  Galactic astronomers try to understand the structure of galaxies and how they are formed by using different types of telescopes and computer simulations.

Gravitational wave astronomy
Gravitational wave astronomy is the study of the Universe in the gravitational wave spectrum.  So far, all astronomy that has been done has used the electromagnetic spectrum.  Gravitational waves are ripples in spacetime emitted by very dense objects changing shape, which include white dwarves, neutron stars and black holes.  Because no one has been able to detect gravitational waves directly, the impact of gravitational wave astronomy has been limited.

Unsolved problems
Great discoveries also produce unsolved problems. This is just a short-list:
Dark matter and dark energy: what are they?
Ultimate fate of the Universe? What will it be?
Why is lithium 4 times less than predicted?
Origin of supermassive black holes.
The source of ultra-high energy cosmic rays.
The existence of life elsewhere.

Related pages

 Asteroid
 Astrobiology
 Black hole
 Comet
 Galaxy
 Meteor
 Planet
 Planetarium
 Satellite (natural)
 Solar system
 Star
 Universe

References

Other websites

 Astronomy site specifically designed for kids and their parents.
 Astronomy Picture of the Day

Astronomy


Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) is a technology  designed to move data to and from computer storage devices such as hard drives and tape drives. It is a point-to-point serial protocol that replaces the parallel SCSI. SCSI  first appeared in the mid 1980s in corporate data centers. SAS  uses the standard SCSI command set. At present it is slightly slower than the final parallel SCSI implementation, but in 2009 it will double its present speed to 6 Gbit/s. This will permit much higher speed data transfers. The protocol is "downwards"-compatible with second generation SATA drives. These drives may be connected to SAS backplanes (controllers), but SAS drives can not be connected to SATA backplanes.

The SAS protocol is developed and maintained by the T10 technical committee of the International Committee for Information Technology Standards (INCITS) and promoted by the SCSI Trade Association (SCSITA).

SAS (Serial Attached SCSI) vs parallel SCSI
 The SAS bus is point-to-point while the SCSI bus is multidrop.  Each SAS device is connected by a dedicated link to the initiator,  unless an expander is used.  If one initiator is connected to one target,  there is no opportunity for contention;  with parallel SCSI,  even this situation could cause contention.
 SAS has no termination issues and does not require terminator packs like parallel SCSI.
 SAS eliminates clock skew.
 SAS supports up to 16,384 devices through the use of expanders while Parallel SCSI is limited to 8, 16, or 32 devices (including the SCSI controller) on a single channel.
 SAS supports a higher transfer speed (1.5 OR 3.0 Gbit/s) than most parallel SCSI standards. The speed is realized on each initiator-target connection, hence higher throughput whereas in parallel SCSI the speed is shared across the entire multidrop bus.
 SAS controllers are required by the standard to support SATA devices.
 Both SAS and parallel SCSI use the SCSI command-set.

SAS vs SATA
 SATA devices are uniquely identified by their port number connected to the Host bus adapter while SAS devices are uniquely identified by their World Wide Name (WWN).
 Most SAS drives provide Tagged Command Queuing, while most newer SATA drives provide Native Command Queuing, each of which has its pros and cons.
 SATA follows the ATA command set and thus only supports hard drives and CD/DVD drives. In theory, SAS also supports numerous other devices including scanners and printers. However, this advantage could also be moot, as most such devices have also found alternative paths via such buses as USB, IEEE 1394 (FireWire), and Ethernet.
 SAS hardware allows multipath I/O to devices while SATA (prior to SATA II) does not. Per specification, SATA II makes use of port multipliers to achieve port expansion. Some port multiplier manufacturers have implemented multipath I/O leveraging port multiplier hardware.
 SATA is marketed as a general-purpose successor to Parallel ATA and is now common in the consumer market, while the more expensive SAS is marketed for critical server applications.
 SAS error recovery and reporting utilize SCSI commands which have more functionality than the ATA SMART commands used by SATA drives.
 SAS uses higher signaling voltages (800-1600 mV TX, 275-1600 mV RX) than SATA (400-600 mV TX, 325-600 mV RX). When SAS is mixed with SATA, the SAS drives run at SATA-voltages. One reason for this higher voltage is so SAS may be used in server backplanes.
 Because of its higher signaling voltages, SAS can use cables up to 8 m (25 ft) long, SATA is limited to 1 m (3 ft).

Connectors

The SAS connector is much smaller than traditional parallel SCSI connectors allowing for the small  drives.  SAS supports point data transfer speeds up to 3 Gbit/s, but is expected to reach 12 Gbit/s by the year 2012.

The physical SAS connector is available in several different variants:

Other websites
T10 committee
SCSI Trade Association

Storage devices

Serial Attached SCSI


The Union of Fascist Little Ones (, Soyuz fashistskikh kroshek) was a youth organization of the Russian Fascist Party. It was founded by Russian immigrants in 1934 in Harbin, China. It was open to "Russian boys and girls who believe in God, love Russia and respect labor".

The Union's declared goal was "saving Russian children from the streets and denationalization impact, raising them for future Russia in the Fascist spirit of religion and nationalism". The Union's members were Russian emigrant children aged between 3 and 10. Their parent's letter affirming agreement was all that was needed to secure membership.

Structure
The membership was organised into levels named (from bottom to top) "Simple", "Clever", "Knowledgeable" and "Advanced". When a boy reached the age of 10 he moved to the Union of Young Fascists – Vanguard (boys), and a girl at that age moved to the Union of Young Fascists – Vanguard (girls).

The Union groups were called Focus groups. Members of each group lived near each other or were students at one school or in one class. Several Focus groups were then members of a District, and several Districts within certain territorial borders made up a Department.

Adult supervisors in the Union were the Focus Master (roughly, company leader), the District Master, and the Department Supervisor.

At the head of the Fascist Little Ones stood the Management Center Union, established by order of the Head of the Russian Fascist Party.

Fascist Little Ones wore uniforms. Boys wore black shirts, a sword belt, and black trousers. Girls wore a black sarafan and white blouses.

Publications
The Union published the newspaper Kroshka.

References
 Stephan, John J. The Russian Fascists: Tragedy and Farce in Exile, 1925-1945
 К. В. Родзаевский. Завещание Русского фашиста. М., ФЭРИ-В, 2001

External links
 Russian Fascist Party

Anti-communist organizations
Fascism in Manchukuo
Politics of the Soviet Union
Russian nationalist organizations
Russian Fascist Party
Youth wings of political parties in Russia
Youth organizations established in 1934
Youth wings of fascist parties

Union of Fascist Little Ones