Michael I (, ; 31 May 1640 – 10 November 1673) was the ruler of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 29 September 1669 until his death in 1673.

Michael was chosen partly because of the merit of his father, prince Jeremi Wiśniowiecki, a powerful border magnate who had helped suppress the Cossacks in eastern Poland during the Khmelnytsky Uprising. After Michael's early death, these setbacks were reversed at the Battle of Khotyn in 1673 by his successor, John III Sobieski, who defeated an Austrian candidate in the election.

In 1670 Michael I was married to Eleonora Maria of Austria (1653–1697), daughter of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, by his third wife Eleonora Gonzaga.

Biography

Michael was the son of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki and his wife Gryzelda Konstancja Zamoyska. His parents likely met each other in September 1637 in Warsaw during the crowning of Cecilia Renata of Austria, the Queen of Poland and consort to Władysław IV. They were engaged on 13 February 1638, over a month after the death of Gryzelda's father, Tomasz Zamoyski.

The wedding took place in Zamość on 27 February 1639, and over a year later, on 31 May 1640, Michael Korybut was most likely born in the village of Biały Kamień as Michał Tomasz Wiśniowiecki. The infant was then taken to Zamość, where he spent first two years of his life under care of his grandmother Katarzyna Zamoyska (née Ostrogska). In 1642, Michał was taken by his mother to Lubny. During the Khmelnytsky Uprising, he fled Left-bank Ukraine with his family and first settled in Wiśniowiec in Volhynia, before arriving in Zamość in autumn 1648.

Jeremi Wiśniowiecki died in 1651, when most of his enormous estate remained under Cossack or Russian control. From 1651 – 1655, young Michał was under the care of  Karol Ferdynand Vasa, the bishop of Wrocław and Płock. The boy stayed at the residence of the Bishops of Płock, in the town of Brok. After the death of Bishop Vasa on 9 May 1655, he was taken in by his wealthy uncle, Jan Zamoyski, Voivode of Sandomierz, who funded his education. Sometime in mid-1655, Michał found himself at the court of King John II Casimir.

Following the Swedish invasion of Poland, Michael, together with the royal court, fled to Głogówek in Upper Silesia. On 18 November 1655, following the request of the king, he went to Nysa, to study at the Jesuit College Carolinum and stayed there until March 1656.

In mid-1656, thanks to the support of Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga, Michał Korybut began studying at Charles University in Prague. He returned to Poland in June 1660, but soon afterwards, headed to Dresden and Vienna to meet Empress Eleonora Gonzaga. There he saw his future wife Eleanor of Austria, who was a child at that time, for the first time. On this trip, Michael improved his knowledge of languages; he spoke Latin, German, Italian, French and also likely Tatar and Turkish as well.

In 1663, Michel took part in the Russo-Polish War, and during the Lubomirski Rebellion, he loyally supported the king.

Election
On 16 September 1668, John II Casimir abdicated the Polish throne and left the country to live in France, making a new election necessary. The Bishop of Chełmno, Andrzej Olszowski, suggested that Michał Korybut should be listed as one of candidates for the throne. Wiśniowiecki was supported by the Polish nobility, who sensed that a poor and inexperienced prince would not pose a threat to their rights enshrined in the Golden Liberty.

The Free election of 1669 took place in May and June of that year. Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki was elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania on 19 June and became known as Michael I. Most of the gathered nobility voted for him as they wished to choose a native, Polish candidate (the so-called "Piast"), over foreign candidates. Wiśniowiecki won 11,271 votes and was crowned on 29 September 1669 in Kraków.

His election was immediately opposed by the pro-French camp, led by Primate of Poland Mikołaj Prazmowski and Crown Hetman John Sobieski.

On 27 February 1670 Michael I married Austrian princess Eleanor, and the ceremony was celebrated by Papal Nuncio, Cardinal Galeazzo Marescotti, as Primate Prazmowski refused to attend. The reception took place at the Denhoff Palace in Kruszyna.

Internal conflicts

Following the 1669 election, the Commonwealth was divided between two camps – pro-French, and royal. The pro-French camp had several influential members, including Primate Prazmowski, Hetman Sobieski, Andrzej Morsztyn, Voivode of Kraków Aleksander Michał Lubomirski, Voivode of Ruthenia Stanisław Jan Jabłonowski, Voivode of Poznań Krzysztof Grzymultowski, and Bishop of Kraków Andrzej Trzebicki.

In November 1669, the French camp broke the Coronation Sejm, hoping to dethrone Michael and elect Count Charles-Paris d'Orléans-Longueville. In 1670, the internal struggle moved to the local sejmiks, during which the nobility demanded to bring a Sejm lawsuit against Hetman Sobieski. To defend their commander, Sobieski's soldiers formed a Confederation near Trembowla.

To make matters worse, the divided Commonwealth was under constant Turkish threat. In 1671, the king supported a rebellion of a unit of Stanisław Wyżycki, who, against the explicit order of Sobieski, abandoned Volhynia, leaving the province defenceless. King Michael ordered Wyżycki and his men to spend the winter of 1671/72 in the wealthy starostwo of Sambor, and paid them their salaries, while Sobieski and his soldiers did not receive any money.

In 1672, the Ottoman Empire declared war on the Commonwealth, and the Polish–Ottoman War of 1672–76 began. Despite this, the situation in the Polish Crown was still chaotic, with the danger of a civil war. The nobility formed a confederation near Gołąb, demanding the removal of Primate Prazmowski. Its members looted real estate owned by Hetman Sobieski and his family. On 22 November 1672 Lithuanian soldiers formed their own confederation in Kobryń, declaring their support for the Gołąb confederation. In response, soldiers under Sobieski formed a confederation in Szczebrzeszyn. John Sobieski, together with his troops, headed to Łowicz, to meet Primate Prazmowski.

Negotiations between the two factions were carried out by Papal Nuncio Francesco Buonvisi and Bishop of Kraków Andrzej Trzebicki. Furthermore, Sultan Mehmed IV of the Ottoman Empire sent an offensive letter to Warsaw, demanding complete subordination of the Commonwealth. This greatly enraged the Poles but due to chaotic internal situation of the Commonwealth, both sides of the conflict reached an agreement in March 1672.

War with the Ottoman Empire
In June 1672, a 100,000-strong Ottoman army, under Mehmed IV, besieged the city of Kamieniec Podolski, which capitulated after 26 days. The invaders then approached Lwów, which paid a ransom. Mounted Crimean Tatar units penetrated as far as Hrubieszów, Jasło and Biecz.

In October 1672, Hetman John Sobieski, upon request of the senators, tried to stop the invaders, defeating them in the Battle of Niemirów, Battle of Komarno, and Battle of Petranka. Meanwhile, the Treaty of Buchach was signed on 18 October, in which the king ceded Podolia to the Ottomans and agreed to pay a yearly tribute. Under these terms, the once mighty Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was humbled by the Turks.

Soon afterwards, Michael I began preparation for a new military campaign against the Ottomans. On 8 October 1673 at Skwarzawa near Złoczów, some 40,000 Polish soldiers concentrated, with 50 cannons. Due to poor health, the king handed the command of the army to Sobieski, and the Poles marched southwards, to Chocim.

Death, funeral, and legacy

King Michael I Korybut died in the Palace of the Archbishops of Lwów, on 10 November 1673. His early demise seems to have been brought about by a severe case of food poisoning, although rumours persisted that he had been murdered by traitorous generals angered at the declining power of the Commonwealth.

The day after his death, John Sobieski won the  Battle of Chocim, which reversed some of the losses under Michael I's reign. On 19 May 1674 Hetman John Sobieski was elected the new monarch after the Free election of 1674.

After the funeral, the heart of the king was buried at a Camedule Monastery in the Bielany district of Warsaw. The bowels were placed in a wall of the Latin Cathedral in Lwów, while the body was buried in Wawel Cathedral in Kraków on 31 January 1676, the same day that John Sobieski was crowned as John III.

Michael's reign was considered to be less than successful as his ability to be a capable monarch were greatly hurt by Poland's quarrelling factions. His father's military fame notwithstanding, Michael lost the first phase of the Polish–Ottoman War of 1672–1676.

Gallery

Royal titles

 Official Latin version: Michael I, Dei Gratia rex Poloniae, magnus dux Lithuaniae, Russiae, Prussiae, Masoviae, Samogitiae, Livoniae, Smolensciae, Kijoviae, Volhyniae, Podoliae, Podlachiae, Severiae, Czernichoviaeque, etc.
(citation from one contemporary document: "Michael primvs, Dei gratia rex Poloniae, magnus dvx Lituaniae, Russiae, Prussiae, Masouiae, Samogitiae, Kiiouiae, Volhyniae, Podlachiae, Podoliae, Liuoniae, Smolensciae, Seueriae Czernihouiaeque etc")

 English translation: Michael I, by the Grace of God, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Ruthenia, Prussia, Masovia, Samogitia, Livonia, Smolensk, Kiev, Volhynia, Podolia, Podlaskie, Severia and Chernihiv, etc.

See also
 History of Poland (1569–1795)
 Wiśniowiecki family

References

External links

|-

1640 births
1673 deaths
17th-century Polish monarchs
Kings of Poland
Grand Dukes of Lithuania
People from Ternopil Oblast
Polish Roman Catholics
Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki
Knights of the Golden Fleece
Burials at Wawel Cathedral
Charles University alumni

Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki


A Binary image is a kind of raster graphic image. Each pixel of the image can only one of two different values, usually black and white. For this reason, only one bit is needed per pixel. Most of the time, the value 0 is coded as white, and 1 is used for black.

Binary images are used:
in image processing, for example for edge detection or pattern recognition
In newspaper printing
In laser printers, and fax machines

Computing

Binary image


A chemical equation is a way to predict the way that two or more chemicals will work together. Using what chemists know about the way chemicals act, we add the letter symbols together just like a math problem. In this way we can correctly guess if we will get a new chemical when we mix two or more chemicals together, and what that chemical will be.

Chemical equations are either worded or written using the elements' symbols, how much of the element and in what state (solid[s], liquid[l], gas[g]) it is in.

For example: An aqueous solution of sodium chloride (NaCl[aq]) and another aqueous solution of silver nitrate (AgNO3[aq]). These mixed together form sodium nitrate (NaNO3[aq]) and silver chloride (AgCl[s])

Which in symbols is:

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)

The solutions formed the solid AgCl. This formation can be called a precipitate and the reaction between the two solutions a precipitation reaction, because the solid produced is not dissolved, whereas all the other products are dissolved.

More about chemical equations
Chemical equations need to be balanced to satisfy the law of conservation of matter. Chemical equations tell that in a closed system matter is neither created nor destroyed. The chemical equation needs to be balanced so that it follows the law of conservation of mass. A balanced chemical equation happens when the number of the different atoms of elements on the reactants side is equal to that of the products side.

Balancing chemical equations is a process of trial and error. To balance the equation, the amounts of the reactants and products must be changed. As necessary, by adding coefficients in front of the appropriate formulas. When balancing an equation, never change the subscripts, because that changes the substance. To determine the number of atoms of each element, the coefficient is multiplied times the subscripts in each formula.

Methods of balancing chemical equations
A chemical equation is a written symbolic representation of a chemical reaction. The reactant chemicals are given on the left-hand side and the product chemical on the right-hand side. The law of conservation of mass says that no atoms can be made in a chemical reaction. Also, it cannot be destroyed. So the number of atoms that are present in the reactants has to balance the number of atoms that are present in the reaction.

There are two practices of balancing a chemical equation. The first one is balancing by Inspection. Balancing by inspection is the most basic method used. It works best for simple problems. More complicated ones require experience. The second one is Balancing by Numerical Method. The most important parts of the numerical methotrexate, contrary to the inspection method, it gives the answer. If the reaction can be balanced, coefficients can be seen. If the reaction can't be balanced, it means that there are more unidentified than independent statements, or that statements are opposite. With inspection method, it won't prove that the equation can't be balanced.

why do we need to balance a chemical equation?

we need to balance a chemical equation because "law of conservation of mass" state that mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

So number of elements involved in a chemical reaction should remain same at reactant and product side.

(reactant = product)

References

Other websites
 Master of Chemical Equations - Real chemical equation balancer.
 Chemical Equation Balancer - An open source chemical equation balancer.
 Classic Chembalancer - Play Chembalancer, a free online game at FunBasedLearning.com, to learn how to balance equations
 Online calculator, determines of the coefficients of a chemical equation
 Online Chemical Equation Balancer Balances equation of any chemical reaction (full or half-cell) in one click.
 Balance chemical equations  Teaches how to balance chemical equations
 Stoichiometry Add-In for Microsoft Excel  for calculation of molecular weights, reaction coëfficients and stoichiometry.

Chemical reactions
Equations

Chemical equation


Cuenca (full name Santa Ana de los cuatro ríos de Cuenca) is the capital of the Azuay Province. It is located in the highlands of Ecuador at about 2500 m above sea level. The center of the city is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Trust site because of its many historical buildings.

Cities in Ecuador
Capitals of Ecuadorian provinces
Azuay Province

Cuenca, Ecuador


A shabono (also xapono, shapono, or yano) is a hut used by the Yanomami indios, who live in southeastern Venezuela and in northern Roraima, Brazil. This hut is used as temporary shelter and is made with palm leaves and wood. Shabonos are built in clear parts of the jungle. Each family unit has a personal area in the shabono.

Accommodations

Shabono


Tagged queuing is a method for allowing a hardware device or controller to process commands received from a device driver out of order. It requires that the device driver attaches a tag to each command which the controller or device can later use to identify the response to the command.

Tagged queueing can speed up processing considerably if a controller serves devices of very different speeds, such as an SCSI controller serving a mix of CD-ROM drives and high-speed disks. In such cases if a request to fetch data from the CD-ROM is shortly followed by a request to read from the disk, the controller doesn't have to wait for the CD-ROM to fetch the data, it can instead instruct the disk to fetch the data and return the value to the device driver, while the CD-ROM is probably still seeking.

Computer peripherals

Tagged queuing


The Amazon rainforest is the largest rainforest in the world.

The forest is in a basin drained mainly by the Amazon River, with 1100 tributaries. It is a moist broadleaf forest which covers seven million square kilometers (1.7 billion acres). Of this, five and a half million square kilometers (1.4 billion acres) are covered by the rainforest.

This region includes territory from nine nations. Most of the forest is in Brazil, with 60% of the rainforest, followed by Peru with 13%, and Colombia with 10%. Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana have just a small amount of rainforest.

The Amazon has over half of the planet's rainforest area. It has many species of plants some include rosewood, mahogany and ebony.  It is the largest and most species-rich tract of tropical rainforest in the world. The forest was formed at least 55 million years ago, in the Eocene period.

Biodiversity

Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome. Tropical forests in the Americas have more species than African and Asian wet forests.

More than one-third of all species in the world live in the Amazon rainforest. It is the richest tropical forest in the world in terms of biodiversity.

The region is home to ~2.5 million insect species, tens of thousands of species of plants, and some 2000 species of birds and mammals and a similar number of fish. The diversity of plant species is the highest on earth with some experts estimating that one square kilometre may contain over 75,000 types of trees and 150,000 species of higher plants. These trees absorb tons of carbon dioxide every year and slow down the climate change along with producing 20% of earth's oxygen. Hence, they are also known as 'Lungs of Earth'. One square kilometre of Amazon rainforest can have about 90,000 tons of living plants. This is the largest collection of living plants and animal species in the world. One in five of all the birds in the world live here. To date, an estimated 438,000 species of plants of economic and social interest have been registered in the region with many more remaining to be discovered or cataloged.

Conservation

The rain forest is shrinking. Man is causing this. More than a fifth of the Amazon rainforest has already been destroyed. The forest which remains is threatened. People who care for the environment warn about the loss of biodiversity. They also point out that releasing the carbon which is stored in the trees will increase global warming.

Environmentalists are concerned about loss of biodiversity due to the destruction of the forest. Also, the release of the carbon in the vegetation would accelerate global warming. Amazonian evergreen forests account for about 10% of the world's productivity on land and 10% of the carbon stores in ecosystems.  of the order of 1.1 × 1011 metric tonnes of carbon. Amazonian forests are estimated to have accumulated 0.62 ± 0.37 tons of carbon per hectare per year between 1975 and 1996.

Some people have calculated that it may even pay to save the forest. They said that one hectare of Amazonian forest in Peru is worth about US$6280, if it is used to harvest fruits, latex and timber (wood). If all the wood is cut down for timber, it has a value of about US$1000. Obviously, this can only be done once; it is not sustainable. When the forest has been cleared, the hectare of land can be used as a pasture, and is worth about US$148. Not all people agree on the study; some have questioned the assumptions behind it.

The Brazilian Air Force has been using surveillance aircraft to monitor the forest. At a conference in 2004, scientists warned that the rainforest will no longer be able to absorb the millions of tons of greenhouse gases annually, as it usually does, because of the increased speed of rainforest destruction.

By 2018, about 17% of the Amazon rainforest had been destroyed. When 20–25% (3–8% more) is destroyed, the climate will change. It will flip to a non-forest ecosystem – degraded savannah. As their homelands continue to be destroyed by deforestation, rainforest peoples are also disappearing.

Rubber boom
Once the process of vulcanization was invented, companies began to make many kinds of new rubber products, such as boots and seals for machines.  American and European companies began buying large amounts of latex from Brazil.  This boom in Brazilian rubber began around 1870, but the need for automobile tires brought the greatest wealth to the new rubber producers.

Other rain forests have rubber trees, but Amazonia has by far the best.  However, the trees could not be farmed on plantations because if they were next to each other, the insects would eat them. Therefore, people had to find the trees in the rain forest, cut slits in them, leave cups to collect the latex, and come back later to get it.

Thousands of people moved to the rain forest to work collecting rubber. Most of these people were hired by rich rubber merchants. The rubber merchants loaned them money to come down the river and buy tools.  Each merchant's collectors had to sell the rubber only to their rubber merchant at low prices and buy supplies only from them at high prices. That meant the collectors were always in debt to their merchant and could not leave to do something else. The rubber merchants quickly became very rich.

The center of the rubber trade was Manaus on the Rio Negro.  It became first a boom town and then a beautiful, wealthy city. It had electricity before most of the cities in the United States did. The newly rich merchants built huge expensive homes and brought in automobiles to travel on the city's few roads. They built a magnificent opera house with crystal chandeliers and decorated tiles brought all the way from Europe.

However, the rubber boom only lasted about forty years, ending by 1913. Some men had taken the seeds of the Amazon rubber trees and began growing them in the Asian rain forests. The trees grew well there, and they could be grown on plantations. The insects that could destroy them were in South America. So the price of rubber began to fall, and the rubber boom stopped.

Related pages
 Ecology
 Forestry
 2019 Brazil wildfires
 2020 Brazil wildfires

References

Other websites

 Some links to help save the rainforest for free by clicking once every day
Amazon burning
  More info on the Amazon Rainforest

Rainforests
Regions of South America

Amazon rainforest


BBC Sport is part of the bbc.co.uk website run by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). It covers all sports from football and rugby to less high-profile sports such as hockey or badminton. The site includes an discussion board called 606 to allow fans to discuss events and sports-related news. BBC Sport also covers sporting events on BBC Radio 5 Live and BBC television, e.g. The Olympics.

Other websites

Sport
Sports media

BBC Sport


The International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) is a system introduced by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). It was introduced  to allow people to communicate how serious a nuclear accident is. Other people are then able to react faster  to take protection measures. For each level, there is a list of criteria (things) that must be there, for the accident to be of that level.

There are 7 levels on the INES scale:

   7Major accident(maximum credible accident)
   6Serious accident
   5Accident with off-site risk
   4Accident without off-site risk
   3Serious incident
   2Incident
   1Anomaly
   0Deviation, no safety relevance

Details

Level 7 is the highest level. Accidents of this type have a large impact (pollution, radiation) outside the site where they occur. The health of many people is put in danger. There are big effects on the environment. Examples: Fukushima nuclear disaster - 2011, Chernobyl disaster (former Soviet Union) - 1986.

Level 6 Accidents of this type have a large impact (pollution, radiation) outside the site where they occur. Several governments may need to take the full set of countermeasures to protect their population. Example: Mayak (former Soviet Union)- 1957. Because of the levels of f radioactive materials released, the Mayak accident would probably be rated at level 7 today.

Level 5 Accidents of this type do release some radiation. Some groups of people which are at risk may need special countermeasures.  Examples: Windscale fire (United Kingdom) - 1957, Three Mile Island accident (United States) - 1979.

The Levels 5-7 are related to severe damage of the reactor core and the radiological barriers.

Level 4 is related to significant damage of the reactor core / radiological barriers and/or a fatal exposure of a worker (or more), but the off-site impact is minor, resulting in public exposure of the order of the prescribed limits. Examples: Windscale (United Kingdom) - 1973, Saint-Laurent (France) - 1980, Buenos Aires (Argentina) - 1983.

Level 3 is characterized by very small off-site impact, although related to severe spread of contamination on-site / acute health effects to a worker (or more). It is a "near accident" event, when no safety layers are remaining. Example: Vandellos (Spain) - 1989, THORP plant Sellafield (United Kingdom) - 2005.

Level 2 is an incident with no off-site impact, related to significant spread of contamination on-site / overexposure of a worker.

Level 1 is an anomaly beyond the authorized operating regime.

Level 0 is a "below-scale event" of no safety significance.

There are also events of no safety relevance, characterized as "out of scale".

Other websites
International Nuclear Event Scale , IAEA
International Nuclear Event Scale, User's Manual , IAEA, 2001

Nuclear accidents

International Nuclear Event Scale


Karl Goldmark (born in Keszthely, Hungary, 18 May 1830; died in Vienna 2 January 1915) was a Hungarian composer.  His music was largely forgotten for a long time after his death, but is now starting to be played much more.

Life and career
Goldmark came from a large Jewish family. He was one of 20 children. His father was a chazan to the Jewish congregation at Keszthely. He learned to play the violin and was sent to Vienna to study music.  After the Revolution of 1848 the Conservatory had to close down and so he had to teach himself how to compose. He earned money by playing the violin in theatre orchestras and by teaching music.  For a short time one of his pupils was Jean Sibelius.

Wagner's music was an influence on his compositional style.  However, he could not form a proper friendship with Wagner because of Wagner's antisemitism.

Goldmark composed six operas, including Die Königin von Saba ("The Queen of Sheba").  It was very popular during his lifetime and continued to be performed by the Vienna State Opera until 1938.  His Violin Concerto No. 1 was also very popular indeed, then it lay forgotten for many years.  It is very Romantic and sounds very Hungarian.

Other works include a symphony called Ländliche Hochzeit (Rustic Wedding) and several other orchestral works, some chamber music and choral music.

1830 births
1915 deaths
Hungarian composers
Romantic composers

Karl Goldmark


A hydrogen bond is a type of chemical bond that weakly attaches a molecule to another molecule. It is based on the attraction between opposite electric charges.  The negative charge on an electronegative atom of one molecule is attracted to a positive charge on a hydrogen atom of another molecule. The hydrogen atom carries a positive charge because it is bonded to a second electronegative atom, which shifts electrons away from the hydrogen. This type of bond always involves a hydrogen atom, and two electronegative atoms. The electronegative atoms are often oxygen or nitrogen. Hydrogen bonds are important in polar solvents such as water and alcohol, in biomolecules, and in many other materials.

Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules (intermolecular bonds), or between different parts of a single molecule (intramolecular bonds). The typical hydrogen bond is stronger than van der Waals forces, but weaker than covalent, ionic and metallic bonds.

Water
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100 °C). Most molecules with hydrogen bonding have high boiling points and melting points. Because hydrogen bonds are what make water stick together so well, they also help other molecules that can make hydrogen bonds dissolve in water. This is because the molecules form bonds with the hydrogen in the water, too, helping them dissolve.

Biomolecules
Hydrogen bonds are important in many living organisms. They allow bonds between biomolecules that can be created and broken with control to allow life to proceed. For example, DNA that codes our genes contains two strands that are connected by many hydrogen bonds, like a zipper closing. Because the hydrogen bonds are not very strong, the two strands can later be unzipped and separated in order to read or copy the DNA. In protein molecules, intramolecular hydrogen bonds hold the protein molecule together in the shape that is needed. Intermolecular hydrogen bonds help connect protein molecules to each other to make many structures important for life, such as ribosomes that create new proteins.

References

 George A. Jeffrey. An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding (Topics in Physical Chemistry). Oxford University Press, USA (March 13, 1997).
 A New Intermolecular Interaction: Unconventional Hydrogen Bonds with Element-Hydride Bonds as Proton Acceptor Robert H. Crabtree, Per E. M. Siegbahn, Odile Eisenstein, Arnold L. Rheingold, and Thomas F. Koetzle Acc. Chem. Res. 1996, 29(7), 348 - 354.
 Polymerization of Formic Acid under High Pressure Alexander F. Goncharov, M. Riad Manaa, Joseph M. Zaug, Richard H. Gee, Laurence E. Fried, and Wren B. Montgomery Phys. Rev. Lett. 2005, 94, 065505.
 F. Cordier, M. Rogowski, S. Grzesiek and A. Bax. Observation of through-hydrogen-bond (2h)J(HC') in a perdeuterated protein. J Magn Reson. (1999) 140: 510-2.
 R. Parthasarathi, V. Subramanian, N. Sathyamurthy.Hydrogen Bonding Without Borders: An Atoms-In-Molecules Perspective. J. Phys. Chem. (A) (2006) 110: 3349-3351.

Chemical bonding

Hydrogen bond


Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth is a 1996 book by Claude S. Fischer, Michael Hout, Martín Sánchez Jankowski, Samuel R. Lucas, Ann Swidler, and Kim Voss. The book is a reply to The Bell Curve (1994) by Charles Murray and Richard Herrnstein and attempts to show that the arguments in The Bell Curve are flawed, that the data used by Murray and Herrnstein do not support their conclusion and that alternative explanations (particularly the effects of social inequality) better explain differences in IQ scores than genetic explanations.

The Bell Curve and social inequality
The book's particular focus is the book The Bell Curve, but to some extent this focus is to illustrate a doctrine that the authors attempt to refute:
 At its base is a philosophy ages old: Human misery is natural and beyond human re-demption; inequality is fated; and people deserve, by virtue of their native talents, the positions they have in society. From that ideological base, Herrnstein and Murray build a case that critics cannot simply dismiss out of hand.
Fischer et al. contend that Herrnstein and Murray's data explain, at best, only a limited amount of social inequality in the United States (between 5% and 10%) and that the analysis of the data in The Bell Curve is itself flawed.

Subordinate ethnic groups
In later chapters the book examines the supposed lower intelligence of a variety of ethnic groups in different societies and time periods. The book claims that ethnic groups placed in a subordinate role in caste system (or caste-like system) have poor school and test performance.
 subordination means material deprivation for students, which in turn impairs their achievement; two, subordination usually involves group segregation and concentration, which, by multiplying disadvantage and drawing all group members into difficult learning situations, undercuts academic achievement; and three, subordination produces a stigmatized identity of inferiority, which in turn breeds resignation or rebellion, both of which limit academic achievement. The histories of African Americans and Latino Americans, as well as their current conditions, more than suffice to explain why their members tend to score lower than whites on tests and also why they do less well in the race for success. The American case fits the global pattern; it is not genes but caste positions that explain the apparent differences in cognitive performance.

Notable examples of such groups include Koreans in Japan compared with Koreans in the United States, and the supposed change in perception of Jews in the United States from being regarded as "dull" in the early twentieth century to being regarded as part of a "cognitive elite" now.

Reviews
 Boston Globe, "Studies hit Bell Curve linking of race, IQ books say environment, not heredity, is major determinant of intelligence", May 7, 1996 Author: John Yemma, Globe Staff
 Civil Rights Journal, September 22, 1997 Author: Carlson, Ken
 New Statesman, Vol. 125 Issue 4315, "Nurture v nature". 12/20/96-01/03/97 Author: Malik, Kenan
 Personnel Psychology, Vol. 50, Issue 3, 741-746. "Review of Inequality by design: Cracking the Bell Curve myth, by C. S. Fischer, M. Hout, M. S. Jankowski, S. R. Lucas, A. Swidler, & K. Voss. P." Date: 1997. Author: Gottfredson, Linda
 Journal of the American Statistical Association'', Date: March 1, 1999 Author: Sconing, James

External links
 Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth, Chapter 1

Books about human intelligence
Books about The Bell Curve
1996 non-fiction books
Princeton University Press books

Inequality by Design


Takeoff is the part of flight in which an aircraft goes from moving along the ground (taxiing) to flying in the air, usually on a runway. For balloons, helicopters and some special aircraft (such as the Harrier), no runway is needed.  Takeoff is the opposite of landing.

Aviation

Takeoff


Alfred Ernest Whitehead (10 July 1887 – 1 April 1974) was an English-born Canadian composer, organist, choirmaster, music educator, painter, whose works are held in a number of important private collections, and an internationally recognized authority in the field of philately. His The Squared-Circle Cancellations of Canada  received its third edition shortly after his death.

Whitehead's music is tonal and sometimes modal; his output of motets and anthems was extensive and he took particular pride in the anthems Alleluia, Sing to Jesus (with organ accompaniment),Ye Choirs of New Jerusalem, Now God Be with Us, and O Light Beyond Our Utmost Light, the short motets Bread of the World, Grant Us Grace, and Almighty God, Whose Glory. Leo Sowerby, a leading American cathedral organist-composer, described Whitehead's Benedicite, based on the Gregorian Tonus peregrinus, as the "best Benedicite" he knew. Whitehead's eight-part motets Watch Thou, Dear Lord (words by St Augustine) and Love Unknown, the Brahmsian organ Prelude on Irby, and his many short carols for Christmas, are also noteworthy.

Early life and education
Whitehead was born in Peterborough, England, where he received his early musical education as an articled pupil of Peterborough Cathedral organists Haydn Keeton and C. C. Francis. He studied in London with organist and theorist A. Eaglefield Hull at the Royal College of Music, earning an Associateship in 1910. In 1912, he emigrated to Canada, and in 1913 was the first person to earn the Fellowship of the Canadian Guild of Organists (FCGO), from the organization now known as the Royal Canadian College of Organists.  Then, by successful examination and submission of composition exercises, he earned the external Bachelor of Music of the University of Toronto in 1916, and Doctor of Music of McGill University in 1922.

Career
From 1913 to 1915, Whitehead was both organist-choirmaster of St Andrew's Presbyterian Church, Truro, Nova Scotia and instructor of organ and music theory at Mount Allison University. From 1915 to 1923, he was organist-choirmaster of St Peter's Anglican Church, Sherbrooke and privately taught piano, organ and theory; one student there was the composer Allan McIver.

From 1922 through 1947, Whitehead was organist-choirmaster of Christ Church Cathedral. There he "became the acknowledged leader of Montreal's Protestant church music scene." In 1936, Wilfrid Pelletier invited Whitehead's Cathedral Singers to perform with the Montreal Symphony Orchestra for the opening of the very first Montreal Festivals. Thereafter, Whitehead prepared the festival choruses for performances of Johann Sebastian Bach's St Matthew Passion and Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 9, Bach's Mass in B Minor, Giuseppe Verdi's Requiem, and Beethoven's Missa solemnis.

From 1922 to 1930, Whitehead taught organ, theory, and composition at McGill University's music faculty. He was twice elected president of the RCCO (1930-1931, 1935-1937). Later, the college named him honorary vice-president (1971–1973) and honorary president (1973-1974).
From 1947 to 1953, he was head of Mount Allison University's music department. His notable pupils include Alexander Brott, Graham George, Hector Gratton, Frances James, and Ethel Stark.

On retiring from Mount Allison, he was organist-choirmaster (1953 to 1971) of Trinity-St. Stephen's United Church, Amherst, Nova Scotia. He died in Amherst in 1974, at the age of 86.

The Library and Archives Canada holds many of his papers and original manuscripts as well as a large portion of his private library. He is listed as an Associate Composer of the Canadian Music Centre.

References

1887 births
1974 deaths
Alumni of the Royal College of Music
English classical organists
British male organists
English composers
English conductors (music)
British male conductors (music)
19th-century English painters
English male painters
20th-century English painters
McGill University School of Music alumni
Academic staff of McGill University
Academic staff of Mount Allison University
Canadian music educators
University of Toronto alumni
20th-century organists
20th-century British conductors (music)
20th-century British male musicians
19th-century English male artists
20th-century English male artists
Male classical organists

Alfred Whitehead


The map lichen is a species of lichen, Rhizocarpon geographicum. It grows on rocks in areas of low air pollution. Each lichen is a flat patch bordered by a black line of spores. These patches grow next to each other. This makes the lichen look like a map or a patchwork field.

Map lichen is a lichen widely used by climatologists to determine  the relative age of deposits. As an example, they might use it in  a moraine systems, to tell how long a rock has been exposed. With this they can also tell about glacial advances. The process is called lichenometry.

Lichenometry is based on the assumption that the largest lichen growing on a rock is the oldest individual. If the growth rate is known, the maximum lichen size will give a minimum age for when this rock was deposited.

Growth rates for different areas and species can be obtained by measuring maximum lichen sizes on substrates of known age, such as gravestones, historic or prehistoric rock buildings, or moraines of known age (e.g. those deposited during the Little Ice Age).

Fungi

Map lichen


Fedor Jeftichew, better known as Jo-Jo the Dog-Faced Boy (1868 - January 31, 1904) was a Russian sideshow performer. Like his father, Adrien, with whom he performed, Jo-Jo was afflicted with hypertrichosis, an abnormal growth of hair over the face and body. Jo-Jo was covered with long, silky hair and was said to resemble a Skye terrier.

Jo-Jo was born in St Petersburg, Russia in 1868. He began touring Europe in 1873. He was five feet eight inches tall, had only four or five teeth, and spoke Russian, German, and a little English. He dressed like a Russian cavalryman. He would bark at an audience, and would perform as often as 23 times a day. In 1886, he was making US$500 a week.

Jo-Jo toured Europe and Russia, playing in fairgrounds. He was discovered by Charles Reynolds in London, England. Jo-Jo was performing with his father, Adrien, who resembled a poodle. Reynolds realized the Dog-Faced Boy could be presented in a more professional manner. He took the boy to the United States on the City of Chicago on 12 October 1884.

A press conference was called. Journalists were allowed to pull Jeftichew's hair to be assured it was real and not pasted on. The New York Herald described Jeftichew as "the most extraordinary and absorbingly interesting curiosity that has ever reached these shores."

In 1884, Jeftichew signed with P. T. Barnum. Barnum stated (falsely) that Jo-Jo was captured by a hunter in the wilds of central Russia. Barnum advertised him as "the most prodigious paragon of all prodigies secured by P. T. Barnum in fifty years. The Human Skye Terrier, the crowning mystery of nature's contradictions."

He toured Europe with Barnum and Bailey's Greatest Show on Earth in 1901 and 1902. He died in Greece in 1904 while on tour of pneumonia. He was the subject of a song recorded by Annette Funicello in the 1960s and was referenced in an episode of the television series, Buffy the Vampire Slayer.

Notes

References
 Bondeson, Jan. 2000. The Two-Headed Boy, and Other Medical Marvels. Cornell University Press. pp. 19–26.
 DeMello, Margo. 2012. Faces Around the World: A Cultural Encyclopedia of the Human Face. ABC-CLIO. p. 176.
 Hartzman, Marc. 2006 (pbk).American Sideshow: An Encyclopedia of History's Most Wondrous and Curiously Strange Performers. Penguin. pp. 51–52.
 Hornberger, Francine. 2005. Carny Folk: The World's Weirdest Sideshow Acts. Citadel Press. p. 144.
 Nickell, Joe. 2005. Secrets of the Sideshows. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 155–156.

1868 births
1904 deaths
Deaths from pneumonia
People from Saint Petersburg
Russian entertainers
Sideshow performers

Jo-Jo the Dog-Faced Boy


Iraj Bashiri (; born July 31, 1940) is professor of history at the University of Minnesota, United States, and one of the leading scholars in the fields of Central Asian studies and Iranian Studies. Fluent in English, Persian, Tajik, and several Turkic languages, Bashiri has been able to study and translate works otherwise inaccessible to the mostly Russian-speaking Central Asian studies community. Bashiri's career focus started on Iran, and engaged also with Central Asia, notably the Tajik identity and the relations between Tajiks and the Turkic people of Central Asia, namely the Uzbeks.

Biography
Iraj Bashiri was born on July 31, 1940, in Behbahan, Iran. He completed his early education in the towns of Damaneh and Daran in Fereydan and his high school in Isfahan and Shiraz.

He graduated in 1961 with a diploma in mathematics from Haj Qavam High School in Shiraz. While in high school, Bashiri showed a distinct talent for the English language. In 1959, he emerged from the national competitions held at Ramsar as Iran's top student in English.  Between 1960 and 1963, Bashiri studied English Language and Literature at Pahlavi University (present-day Shiraz University) and in 1963 graduated at the top of his class. While studying at Pahlavi, he also worked as a regional reporter for the Kayhan Daily in the Fars province and taught English at the British Council in Shiraz and English literature at Pahlavi University.

In 1964, Bashiri left Iran to study English Literature in the United Kingdom and, in 1966, he traveled to the United States to continue his education. In 1968, he received his M.A. degree in General Linguistics from the University of Michigan and, in 1972, his Ph.D. in Iranian Linguistics from the same university. Bashiri's dissertation is based on Ibn Sina's concept of Existence (budan). He shows that the Persian verb budan (to be) has its own syntax. This syntax in the context of the concept of Becoming (shodan) expresses transition, and in the context of Doing (kardan) expresses action.

In the United States, too, in addition to studying linguistics, Bashiri taught Persian at the University of Michigan and trained Peace Corps volunteers in Vermont, New York, and New Jersey. In 1972, he was employed as a Visiting Assistant Professor of Iranian and Turkish Languages and Literatures at the University of Minnesota. During his early years at Minnesota, he used the theoretical framework that he had developed in his dissertation as the base for writing Persian for Beginners. This book, which has been revised four times, is available in both English and Russian languages. Bashiri was promoted to Associate Professor in 1977 and to Professor in 1996.

Bashiri is currently a professor of history at the University of Minnesota. Professor Bashiri's courses at Minnesota include Iranian history (from ancient to modern times), Persian Literature (poetry and prose), and Iranian Languages and Linguistics. He also has developed and taught courses on the history of the peoples of Central Asia and Afghanistan. In 1980, he was recognized as one of the College of Liberal Arts' Distinguished Teachers.

Bashiri has traveled extensively in Iran and Central Asia, including stints as a visiting scholar in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Bashiri has also worked closely with the Tajik division of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.

While teaching at the University of Minnesota, Bashiri also taught and carried out research at other universities including the University of Michigan, the University of Texas at Austin, the State University of Kyrgyzstan, and the Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan.

Finally, while carrying out research and teaching, Prof. Bashiri has also been involved in the administration of his home University. Between 1975 and 1979, he was the head of the Middle East Studies Department and later the South Asian Studies Department at the University of Minnesota. Several times between 1987 and 2005, he was the Chair of, first, the Russian and East European Studies, and later the Slavic and Central Asian Languages and Literatures. He also has been active in College committees, especially in relation to curricula. In 2005, he was both the Head of the College of Liberal Arts Assembly and the Head of the Executive Council of the college. Currently, he is the Interim Director of the Institute of Linguistics, English as a Second Language and Slavic Languages and Literatures.

Bashiri is married to Carol L. Sayers and together they have three children and five grandchildren. His hobbies include writing realist fiction, fishing, and painting Central Asian and Iranian rural life.

Partial list of published works

Books:
 Persian for Beginners, 1972, 1975, 1981, 1991.
 Persidskij yazyk dla nachinaushchikh Osnovnoj kurs (trans., Persian for Beginners by V. Bazukin), 2000.
 'To Be' as the Origin of Syntax: A Persian Framework, 1973.
 The Fiction of Sadeq Hedayat, 1984.
 The Black Tulip (novella in English and Persian), 1984.
 The Pearl Cannon (ed.), 1986.
 Firdowsi's Shahname: 1000 Years After, 1994.
 From the Hymns of Zarathustra to the Songs of Borbad, 2003.
 Kamal Khujandi: Epoch and Its Importance in the History of Central Asian Civilization, 1996.
 The History of a National Catastrophe, by Rahim Masov (trans.), 1996.
 The Samanids and the Revival of the Civilization of the Iranian Peoples, 1998.
 Tajikistan in the 20th Century,(ed). RFE/RL, 1999–2002.
 Beginnings to AD 2000: A Comprehensive Chronology of Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Iran, 2001.
 Prominent Tajik Figures of the Twentieth Century, 2003.
 The Nowruz Scrolls, published in 4 languages (novella in English, Persian, Tajiki, Russian), 2004.
 The Impact of Egypt on Ancient Iran, 2007.
 The Ishraqi Philosophy of Jalal al-Din Rumi, 2008.
 Ancient Iran: Cosmology, Mythology, History by Iraj Bashiri, Cognella Publishers, 2012.
 Audible Audio Edition: Ancient Iran: Cosmology, Mythology, History by Iraj Bashiri, Cognella Publishers, 2013.
 The Blind Owl,, 3rd. revised translation, 2013.
 Modern Iranian Philosophy: From Ibn Sina to Mulla Sadra Shirazi by Iraj Bashiri, Cognella Publishers, 2014.

External links
 Bashiri working papers on Central Asia and Iran
 Iraj Bashiri biography
 Prominent Tajik Figures of the Twentieth Century
 Works available by Iraj Bashiri at Amazon.com

20th-century Iranian historians
Iranian expatriate academics
Iranian emigrants to the United States
Central Asian studies scholars
People from Behbahan
1940 births
Living people
University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts alumni
Members of the Tajik Academy of Sciences
American writers of Iranian descent
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
American male non-fiction writers

Iraj Bashiri


The following is a list of the 533 different communes of the Isère département, in France.

 (CUB) Agglomeration community of Grenoble Alpes Métropole, created in 2000.
 (CAVI) Agglomeration community of Pays Viennois, created in 2002, also partly in the Rhône département.
 (CAVO) Agglomeration community of Pays Voironnais, created in 2000.
 (SANI) New agglomeration syndicate of Isle-d'Abeau, created in 1984.

Isere

Communes of the Isère department


Susanne Aartun Sundfør (born 19 March 1986 in Haugesund) is a Norwegian singer-songwriter. She has released five studio albums since 2007. She is currently making her sixth album. She has made songs with Röyksopp ("Ice Machine", "Running to the Sea"), Timbuktu ("Kapitulera"), Morten Myklebust ("Away"), Maps ("A.M.A."), Nils Petter Molvær ("Baboon Moon"), Real Ones ("Sister to All"), M83 ("Oblivion"), and Siri Nelsen and Susanna ("Death Hanging"). Odd Martin Skålnes sings on "Morocco" on Susanne Sundfør. Sundfør produced Bow to Each Other's 2013 single "Darkness". Christian Wallumrød, Ådne Meisfjord, Øystein Moen, and Morten Qvenild composed A Night At Salle Pleyel. She is a member of Hypertext. Her music contains elements of classical, jazz, and electronic music. She has been given two Norwegian Grammy Awards. Her first album Susanne Sundfør reached #3 in the Norwegian chart. The Brothel and The Silicone Veil reached number 1 in Norway. She released her first all instrumental album in 2011, A Night At Salle Pleyel. Her fifth album, The Silicone Veil, was released in 2012. Three singles were released from it in Norway: "White Foxes", "The Silicone Veil", and "Among Us". "White Foxes" was made for the movie Verden Venter. It reached 19 in the Norwegian chart. In 2015 Sundfør's sixth album Ten Love Songs was released. She lives in Oslo. She did her first tour in the United States in 2013.

References

1986 births
Living people
Norwegian singer-songwriters
Musicians from Oslo

Susanne Sundfør


The Battle of Carberry Hill took place on 15 June 1567, near Musselburgh, East Lothian, a few miles east of Edinburgh, Scotland. A number of Scottish lords objected to the rule of Mary, Queen of Scots, after she had married the Earl of Bothwell, who was widely believed to have murdered her previous husband Lord Darnley. The Lords were intent to avenge Darnley's death. However, Bothwell escaped from the stand-off at Carberry while Queen Mary surrendered. Mary abdicated, escaped from prison, and was defeated at the battle of Langside. She went to exile in England while her supporters continued a civil war in Scotland.

The conflict
In May 1567 Queen Mary of Scotland married James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell. Many of the Queen's allies who previously supported her, including Maitland, Morton, Balfour, and Murray of Tullibardine, disapproved of this and chose to oppose her. Many of the same Lords who claimed disapproval in June had signed the Ainslie Tavern Bond only two months earlier in April, pledging support for the marriage.

In April, Bothwell, along with several others, had been accused of Lord Darnley's murder. Bothwell was acquitted of the charge. His chief prosecutor, Lord Darnley's father, the Earl of Lennox, failed to appear at the trial despite multiple summons. His 3,000 troops were turned back when confronted by Bothwell's 4,000, and then Lennox chose not to appear. Scottish law of the time prohibited an accuser from bringing armed troops to a trial. Many Scottish nobles disputed the trial verdict, and James Murray, brother of the Laird of Tullibardine, offered to duel with Bothwell or prove the guilt of Darnley's murder on Bothwell's henchmen. Despite this very public dissent, Mary made Bothwell the Duke of Orkney and Marquis of Fife on 12 May 1567, then married him three days later. On 11 June 1567 Bothwell's enemies assembled in armour in Edinburgh, with a printed proclamation of their intention to deliver the Queen, revenge Darnley's murder, and preserve the Prince.

Stand-off at Carberry Hill
With only the support of the Hamiltons, Queen Mary and Bothwell left Fa'side Castle on the morning of 15 June 1567 and took position on the nearby field of battle at Carberry Hill against her enemies, the rebel Confederate Lords. Mary's army, according to John Knox, took their position at Carberry Hill in an entrenchment made by the English for the Battle of Pinkie twenty years before. They were armed with cannon and pole-arms brought from Dunbar Castle. According to a letter sent to the Archbishop of Glasgow, the Queen had 200 "hagbutters" commanded by Captains Alexander Stewart and Hew Lauder of her royal guard.  Seven or eight cannon were brought from Dunbar Castle to defend the Queen's position at the "auld fort" by Fawside Castle. Bothwell's men had also brought 300 pikes from the armoury at Dunbar. After the surrender these weapons were captured and dispersed, and in September 1567 the Scottish Privy Council wrote to the villages around Carberry asking for their return.

The Confederate Lords approached from Musselburgh with an army of equal force. David Calderwood wrote they were 2,000 but with only a few "harquebusiers" who were volunteers from Edinburgh. Knox, with local knowledge, wrote that they rounded the hill to get an easier ascent and make an approach from Carberry village without the sun in their eyes. At first during this manoeuvre Mary's army thought the Confederate Lords were bypassing them and fleeing to Dalkeith.  The stand-off lasted from 11 o'clock in the morning till 5 o'clock in the afternoon. With the armies marshalled against each other, the French ambassador tried to negotiate, and received from the Earl of Morton his firm resolution to fight against the murderer of Lord Darnley. Bothwell's first action was to fire his cannon at cavalry 'prickers' who tried to draw the Queen's party out to fight.

Queen Mary's supporters carried the banner of the Lion of Scotland; the rebel Lords' banner depicted the murder scene showing Darnley dead under a tree with the infant James VI, with the motto, "Judge and Revenge my cause, O Lord"." This banner had been flown as a flag at Edinburgh castle.

Bothwell offered single combat to any of the Confederate Lords. William Kirkcaldy accepted the challenge,  but Bothwell would not fight him as he was merely a baron. He also refused Murray of Tullibardine, and then Lord Lindsay. It was hot and Queen Mary's supporters had nothing to drink. The day dragged on. Two of Bothwell's supporters, Edmund Blackadder and the laird of Wedderburn, understanding that Bothwell was intending to leave, made their apologies to the Queen and rode away. In response to an oath made by the rebel Lords, Queen Mary agreed to surrender to Kirkcaldy.  He led her horse by the bridle down from the hill, while Bothwell rode off to Dunbar Castle with 25 horsemen. A drawing of the battlefield sent to London with a newsletter survives and gives a schematic idea of the events.

When William Drury, Marshall of Berwick sent a drawing of the Confederate Lord's banner and the plan to London, he added this postscript:"The Queen's apparel in the field was after the fashion of the women of Edinburgh, in a red petticoat, sleeves tied with points a "partlyte," a velvet hat and muffler. She used great persuasions and encouragements to her people to have tried it by battle. For welcome the Lords showed her the banner with the dead body, which seeing they say that she wished she had never seen him. The banner was hanged out before her window at the Provost's house (in Edinburgh), wherewith she seemed much offended. George Buchanan wrote that Mary surrendered "dressed only in a short shabby robe, that scarcely reached below her knee." Mary had left her more elaborate outfit in a chest at Fawside Castle: a black dress sewn with grains of jet, a crimson coat and cloak, and her gold and silver embroidered hat.

Queen and King's men
According to the later chronicle called The Historie of James the Sext, Queen Mary's supporters at Carberry were George Seton, 7th Lord Seton, Lord Hay of Yester, Lord Borthwick, John Cockburn of Ormiston, Home of Wedderburn, Blackadder of Tulliallan, and Cockburn of Langtoun.

The Confederate Lords included the Regent Morton, John Erskine, Earl of Mar, Alexander Cunningham, 5th Earl of Glencairn, the Lords Lindsay, William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie, Alexander Home, 5th Lord Home, Lord Sempill, Lord Sanquhar, and the lairds William Murray of Tullibardine, Douglas of Drumlanrig, Kirkcaldy of Grange and all their horsemen and foot soldiers.

Aftermath
The rebel Lords took Queen Mary to Edinburgh and then, betraying their oath at Carberry Hill, imprisoned her in Lochleven Castle, near Kinross, where her keeper was Sir William Douglas, half brother to James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray. William Kirkcaldy was infuriated at the rebel Lords' betrayal of the oath, which he had represented to her in good faith. According to George Buchanan the spy Ninian Cockburn raced to the French court with news of Mary's capture. On the way he overtook her ambassador, William Chisholm, Bishop of Dunblane, who was ignorant of Mary's defeat, and upstaged him in front of Charles IX of France and Catherine de Medici.

Queen Mary remained in prison for eleven months while accusations continued by the Lords who deposed her at Carberry Hill. Bothwell obtained a ship and first went to Shetland, where he was helped by Olave Sinclair. He evaded Murray of Tullibardine and William Kirkcaldy whose ship the Lion ran aground. Then he crossed the sea to Norway, captivity, and madness.

Mary escaped from Lochleven and made for Dumbarton Castle in the west of Scotland. She was drawn into battle at Langside and defeated. Mary sought safety in England, became a closely watched captive, and was executed in 1587. In Scotland, her supporters continued a civil war for the next five years.

External links
Contemporary drawing of the battle, UK National Archives
Carberry from Marie-Stuart.co.uk
Carberry from AboutScotland.com
Carberry from TheReformation.info
Calendar State Papers, Foreign Elizabeth, vol.8, July 1567, (British History Online)

Footnotes

Conflicts in 1567
Battles involving Scotland
16th-century Scottish clan battles
1567 in Scotland
History of East Lothian
Mary, Queen of Scots

Battle of Carberry Hill


Dina matematika, watesan optimisasi nujul kana pangajaran ngeunaan masalah nu mibanda bentuk
Given: a fungsi f : A -> R from some set A to the real numbers
Sought: an element x0 in A such that f(x0) ≥ f(x) for all x in A ("maximization") or such that f(x0) ≤ f(x) for all x in A ("minimization").

Such a formulation is sometimes called a mathematical program (a term not directly related to computer programming, but still in use for example for linear programming - see history below). Many réal-world and théoretical problems may be modéled in this general framework.

Typically, A is some subset of Euclidean space Rn, often specified by a set of constraints, equalities or inequalities that the members of A have to satisfy.
The elements of A are called the feasible solutions and the function f is called the objective function. A féasible solution that maximizes (or minimizes, if that is the goal) the objective function is called an optimal solution.

In general there will be several local maxima and minima, where a local minimum x* is defined as a point such that for some δ > 0 and all x such that ||x - x* || ≤ δ the formula f(x) ≥ f(x*) holds; that is to say on some ball around x* all of the function values are gréater than the value at that point. Local maxima are defined similarly. In general, it is éasy to find local minima, however additional facts about the problem (e.g. the function being convex) are required to ensure that the solution found is a global minimum.

Notasi

Masalah optimization biasa dilambangkeun ku notasi husus. Here are some examples:

minx in R x2+1

Keur nyebutkeun nilai minimum dina rumus x2+1, nu mana x aya dina "rentang" real numbers R. Nilai minimum dina kasus ieu nyaéta 1, dina waktu x=0.

maxx in R 2x

This asks for the maximum value for the expression 2x, where x ranges over the réals. In this case, there is no such maximum as the expression is unbounded, so the answer is "infinity" or "undefined".

arg minx in [-∞,-1]   x2+1

This asks for the value(s) of x in the interval [-∞,-1] which minimizes the expression x2+1. (The actual minimum value of that expression does not matter.) In this case, the answer is x = -1.

arg maxx in [-∞,5], y in R   x · cos(y)

This asks for the (x,y) pair(s) that maximize the value of the expression x·cos(y), with the added constraint that x cannot exceed 5. (Again, the actual maximum value of the expression does not matter.) In this case, the solutions are the pairs of the form (5,2πk) and (-5,(2k+1)π), where k ranges over all integers.

Teknik

tehnik keur ngarengsekeun program matematik gumantung kana kondisi alami fungsi obyektif fungsi jeung constraint set. The following major subfields exist:

 linear programming studies the case in which the objective function f is linéar and the set A is specified using only linéar equalities and inequalities
 integer programming studies linéar programs in which some or all variables are constrained to take on integer values
 quadratic programming allows the objective function to have quadratic terms, while the set A must be specified with linéar equalities and inequalities
 nonlinear programming studies the general case in which the objective or constraints or both contain nonlinéar parts
 program stokastik nalungtik kasus nu gumantung kana variabel acak
 dynamic programming studies the case which has optimal substructure and overlapping subproblems.

For twice-differentiable functions, unconstrained problems can be solved by finding the places where the gradient of the function is 0 (i.e. the stationary points) and using the Hessian matrix to classify the type of point. If the hessian is positive definite, the point is a local minimum, if negative definite, a local maximum, and if indefinite it is some kind of saddle point.

Should a function be convex over a region of interest (as defined by constraints) then any local minimum will also be a global minimum. Robust, fast numerical techniques exist for optimizing doubly differentiable convex functions. Outside of these functions, less idéal techniques must be used.

Constrained problems can often be transformed into unconstrained problems with the help of the Lagrange multiplier.

Several techniques exist for find a good local minimum in nonlinéar optimization problems with many poor local minima:
 simulated annealing
 particle swarm optimization
 stochastic tunneling
 random-restart hill climbing

Pamakean

Additionally, problems in rigid body dynamics (in particular articulated rigid body dynamics) often require mathematical programming techniques, since you can view rigid body dynamics as attempting to solve an ordinary differential equation on a constraint manifold; the constraints are various nonlinéar géometric constraints such as "these two points must always coincide", "this surface must not penetrate any other", or "this point must always lie somewhere on this curve". Also, the problem of computing contact forces can be done by solving a linear complementarity problem, which can also be viewed as a QP (quadratic programming problem).

Many design problems can also be expressed as optimization programs. This application is called design optimization. One recent and growing subset of this field is multidisciplinary design optimization, which, while useful in many problems, has in particular been applied to aerospace engineering problems.

Another field that uses optimization techniques extensively is operations research.

Sajarah

Historically, the first term to be introduced was linear programming, which was invented by George Dantzig in the 1940s. The term programming in this context does not refer to computer programming (although computers are nowadays used extensively to solve mathematical programs). Instéad, the term comes from the use of program by the United States military to refer to proposed training and logistics schedules, which were the problems that Dantzig was studying at the time. (Additionally, later on, the use of the term "programming" was apparently important for receiving government funding, as it was associated with high-technology reséarch aréas that were considered important.)

Tempo ogé
 arg max
 game theory
 compilers keur basa pamrograman
 operations research
 fuzzy logic
 random optimization
 genetic algorithm
 variational inequality
 mixed complementarity
 simplex algorithm

Tumbu kaluar

 NEOS Guide
 Online curve and surface fitting

Optimisasi

Optimisasi (matematik)


Les Invalides is a landmark in Paris, France. It was built between 1670 and 1676 as a place for retirement of French war veterans. It consists of several buildings. It was also used as a burial place for French marshals and generals. Les Invalides is best known for housing the tomb of Napoleon Bonaparte. Nowadays, the complex houses the Museum of Arms, the Museum of Contemporary History, and the Museum of Plains-Reliefs.

Buildings and structures in Paris

Les Invalides


Kaskaskia is a village in Randolph County, Illinois, United States. In 2020 the population was only 21, making it the third-smallest incorporated community in Illinois. It was a major French colonial town of the Illinois Country. Its peak population was about 7,000 when it was a regional center. Kaskaskia became the capital of the Illinois Territory on February 3, 1809. In 1818, Illinois became the 21st U.S. state and Kaskaskia was its capital until 1819.

In April 1881, the Mississippi River moved its path to the east. This flooded most of the town. The river now passes east rather than west of the town. The state boundary line, however, remained in its original location. Kaskaskia is on a small part of Illinois west of the river. It can only be reached from Missouri.

History

The town was named after the Native American word for the Kaskaskia River. The site of Kaskaskia had been a Native American village for thousands of years. In 1703 French Jesuit missionaries started a mission. They wanted to change the Illini (Native American) people's religion to Catholicism. The first stone church was built in 1714. The French also had a fur trading post at the village.  French settlers came to farm and mine lead on the Missouri side of the river. In 1718 Kaskaskia became the capital of Upper Louisiana and a fort, Fort de Chartres,was built.
From its beginning, Kaskaskia was a French/Indian settlement, with a few French men and many Illinois and other Native Americans. In 1707, the population was about 2,200. Most were Illinois, who lived somewhat apart from the Europeans. From the French, the Native Americans, and their mixed-race descendants at Kaskaskia came the voyageurs and coureurs des bois. They explored and hunted in the Missouri River country. The French wanted to trade with all the Prairie tribes, and with the Spanish colony in New Mexico. This idea horrified the Spanish. The explorer Claude Charles Du Tisne  set up trade relations with the Plains Indians in 1719.

King Louis XV sent a bell to Kaskaskia in 1741 for its church.  During French rule, Kaskaskia and the other farming settlements in the Illinois Country were important for supplying Lower Louisiana, especially New Orleans, with wheat and corn. Farmers sent tons of flour south over the years. These staple crops could not grow in Louisiana's climate.

In 1733, the French built Fort Kaskaskia. The British destroyed the fort in 1763 during the French and Indian War. After the war France gave up the territory east of the river. Many French-speaking people from Kaskaskia and other colonial towns moved west of the Mississippi to the Spanish-held, Upper Louisiana settlements of  Ste. Genevieve, St. Louis, and other areas.

On July 4 1778, during the American Revolution, the city was captured by George Rogers Clark and his force of 200 men including Captain Leonard Helm. It was one of the western-most battles of the Revolution. The parish rang the church bell in celebration, which has since been called the "liberty bell".  The bell is housed in a brick building near the Church of the Immaculate Conception.  The brick church was built in 1843 in the squared-off French style.

As a center of the regional economy, Kaskaskia was the capital of Illinois Territory from 1809 until Illinois became a state in 1818. Zaskaskia continued as the state capital until 1819.  Its peak population was about 7,000 before the capital moved in 1819 to Vandalia.  Although introduction of steamboats on the Mississippi River helped the economies of river towns in the 19th century, their use also had devastating environmental effects.  Loss of trees (Deforestation) along the river banks was caused by steamboat crews' cutting trees to feed the engine fires. River banks became unstable and collapsed into the water.

At first, the town had a good site where the Kaskaskia and Mississippi Rivers joined. But from St. Louis to the junction of the Ohio River, the Mississippi became wider and more shallow, with more severe flooding. Much of Kaskaskia and other French colonial towns have been lost through flooding and erosion.  Following the Great Flood of 1844, Kaskaskia was rebuilt to the south. The original site became an island, surrounded by the Mississippi River.  The flood of 1881 destroyed the original town, and the Mississippi shifted into the channel of the Kaskaskia River, passing east instead of west of the town. Parts of the town were rebuilt in the new area.

As the Mississippi continued to flow through its new bed, earth was deposited so that the village became physically attached to the west bank of the river, which is in the state of Missouri. Now a bayou, the old river bed, is regularly flooded. It has a bridge to carry traffic over it. In 1893, the people of the town moved and rebuilt the Church of the Immaculate Conception on Kaskaskia Island.

By 1950 only 112 people lived in Kaskaskia. By 1970 the population had fallen to 79, and it continued to fall to 33 in 1980.  The town was flooded with nine feet of water by the Great Flood of 1993, which reached the roofs of the buildings.  By 2000, with a only nine residents, Kaskaskia was almost a ghost town and the least populous incorporated community in the State of Illinois.

Geography

Kaskaskia is located at .
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total land area of 0.2809 km² (0.1085 sq mi, or 69.41 acres), all land.  However, the village is only a small part of Kaskaskia Precinct, which includes all of Randolph County's land west of the Mississippi.  Kaskaskia Precinct has a land area of 24.037 square miles (62.255 km²) and a 2020 census population of 31 persons. In 1993 the Mississippi River almost completely flooded the island.

References

 Kaskaskia village and Kaskaskia precinct, Randolph County, Illinois United States Census Bureau

Other websites
 ''The Randolph County Herald Tribune
 "Images -Kaskaskia, IL" , Computer Chair Traveler
 "Immaculate Conception Church on Kaskaskia Island" , GuidepostUSA
 "Kaskaskia Bell State Historic Site" , GuidepostUSA
 Stead v. Commons of Kaskaskia, 1 Scam. 239 (1909)
 "Curse of Kaskaskia" . Prairie Ghosts

Villages in Illinois
Former United States state capitals
1703 establishments
18th-century establishments in the French colonial empire

Kaskaskia, Illinois


Brillat-Savarin is a soft, white-crusted cow's milk cheese with at least 75% fat in dry matter (roughly 40% overall), named after the 18th century French gourmet Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin. The cheese was created in the 1930s by cheese-maker Henri Androuët.

Brillat-Savarin is produced all year round, mainly in Normandy. It comes in 12–13 cm wheels and approximately 4 cm thick, and is aged for one to two weeks. It is also available as a fresh cheese (non affine) that resembles rich cream cheese.

It is a triple cream Brie that is  creamy and faintly sour. It goes well with medjool dates and also champagne. Because of its creaminess combined with its Brie aroma and slight sharpness, it has been described as "Dairylea for grownups" or "what Dairylea tastes like in heaven".

Pairing with red wines is difficult, as any mushroominess or "mouldy" taste will bring out the tannins of the wine. Brillat-Savarin is also quite salty when ripe, which may disturb the taste of red wine. It does pair well with Pale Ale and Champagne. The carbonation wipes the fattiness from the palate and the malts enhance the creaminess of the cheese.

The French cheese making company Rouzaire also produces an older Brillat Savarin under the name Pierre Robert. The extra aging time concentrates the proteins and salt in the cheese, resulting in deeper earthy flavours and more intense salty taste. Wheels of Pierre Robert are physically shorter (due to loss of moisture), yet creamier than the regular-aged Brillat-Savarin.

Related pages
 List of cheeses

References
Description and history of Brillat Savarin cheese

Dishes named after people
French cheeses

Brillat-Savarin cheese


Astrid Lulling (born 11 June 1929, in Schifflange) is a politician in Luxembourg. She was a Member of the European Parliament (1965–1974 and 1989–2014) for the Christian Social People's Party, part of the European People's Party.

Positions held
	Member of the Parliament's Bureau.
	Member of the Quaestors.
	Member of the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs.
	Member of the Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality.
	Member of the Delegation for relations with the countries of Central America.
	Member of the Delegation to the Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly.
	Substitute of the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development.
	Substitute of the Delegation for relations with the countries of Southeast Asia and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

Curriculum vitae

 Studied political economy at the University of Saarbrücken (1953–1955).

 Secretary and editor of the Luxembourg Workers' Union (1949–1963).

 Worked for the Miners and Metalworkers Contact Office with the ECSC, Luxembourg (1950–1958).

 Chairwoman of Socialist Women, Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (1963–1971).

 Member of the Social Democratic Party (PSD) executive committee (1971–1982).

 Member and Vice-Chairwoman of the Luxembourg-Centre section of the PCS (1984–2004).

 Member of the National Christian Social Women's Committee (since 1984).

 Secretary-General of the Unions of Agricultural Workers and of Food Industry Workers, at the European Community Trade Union Secretariat in Brussels (1963–1971).

 Member of Schifflange communal council (1970–2000).

 Mayor of Schifflange (1970–1985).

 Chairwoman of the PSD parliamentary group in the Chamber of Deputies (1974–1979).

 Member of the Bureau of the Chamber of Deputies (1984–1988).

 Member of the Consumers' Consultative Committee, European Commission (1974–1982).

 Member of the European Parliament (1965–1974 and 1989–2014).

Decorations
 Commander of the Order of Merit of the Republic (Italy)
 Grand Officer of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Luxembourg)
 Grand Officer of the Order of the Oak Crown (Luxembourg)

Other Informations
 Mrs Lulling is the author with her grand nephew Jerome of a luxembourgish video course for foreigners interested in the Luxembourg national language.
 One of her former assistants, Christophe Hansen (politician) stood as candidate in the 2014 European elections for the Christian Social People's Party.

External links

 AstridLulling.com - the official site
 Astrid Lulling TV - TV Shows with Astrid Lulling on Google Video
 Luxdico.com - luxembourgish dictionary. Patronage: Astrid Lulling
 Strasbourg loses allure as 'shuttle democracy' host - Astrid Lulling in the Financial Times (5/15/05)

MEPs for Luxembourg 2004–2009
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)
Councillors in Schifflange
Christian Social People's Party politicians
Social Democratic Party (Luxembourg) politicians
Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party politicians
Women mayors of places in Luxembourg
1929 births
Living people
People from Schifflange
Christian Social People's Party MEPs
21st-century women MEPs for Luxembourg
20th-century women MEPs for Luxembourg
MEPs for Luxembourg 1989–1994
MEPs for Luxembourg 1994–1999
MEPs for Luxembourg 1999–2004
MEPs for Luxembourg 2009–2014
Commanders of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Grand Officers of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
Officers of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg

Astrid Lulling


Booker Taliaferro Washington (April 5, 1856, – November 14, 1915) was an American political leader, teacher and author. He was born into slavery, but was eventually freed. He was one of the most important people in African American history in the United States from 1890 to 1915.

Washington helped start the Tuskegee Institute, which was a university for African-American  students, after attending the Hampton Institute.  Washington believed that in order to create a peaceful post-slavery society, black and white people needed to "cast down the bucket" and become friends with each other.  He saw violence and protests against discrimination of blacks as holding grudges between the races.  Washington also stated that freed blacks should not aim for Congress right away, they needed to start by being able to support themselves economically.

Visit to president
Washington was invited to dinner by President Theodore Roosevelt. The President wanted to appoint Washington to advise him on issues of race. This upset some American people. African Americans had visited the White House before but had never been asked to dine there. In reaction several newspapers published a racist poem called Niggers in the White House. The poem was published again when the wife of Representative Oscar DePriest had tea with wife of President Hoover.

References

Washington, Booker T.
Politicians from Virginia
1856 births
1915 deaths

Booker T. Washington


The Order of Leopold (, ) is one of the three (current) Belgian national honorary orders of knighthood. It is the highest order of Belgium. It is named in honour of King Leopold I. It consists of a military, a maritime and a civilian division. The maritime division is only awarded to personnel of the merchant navy, and the military division to military personnel. The decoration was established on 11 July 1832. It is awarded for extreme bravery in combat or for meritorious service of immense benefit to the Belgian nation. The Order of Leopold is awarded by Royal Decree.

During the Second World War, the Order of Leopold was awarded to officers of foreign militaries who had helped to liberate Belgium from the occupation of German forces. Famous recipients include Brand Whitlock, George S. Patton, Bernard Montgomery, Dwight Eisenhower, and Wesley Clark. Medal of Honor recepient Sergeant Francis S. Currey was awarded the Order of Leopold for his actions at Malmedy, Belgium in late 1944. The medal was also granted to Karel Bossart in 1962, and Josip Broz Tito in 1970.

References

Orders, decorations, and medals
Belgian culture

Order of Leopold (Belgium)


An optical illusion (also called a visual illusion) is one which shows images that differ from normal reality.

The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a perception. That is normal, but in these cases the appearance does not tally with a physical measurement of the stimulus source.

There are three main types of visual illusion:
literal optical illusions that create images which are different from the objects that make them
physiological illusions: they are the effects on the eyes and brain of over-stimulation of brightness, colour, size, position, tilt, movement
cognitive illusions, the result of unconscious inferences (brain makes the wrong decision).

The general explanation for most illusions is the way the brain works on sense data to produce a meaningful perception. A great 19th century psychologist Hermann von Helmholtz described perception as "unconscious inferences from sensory data and past experience". Richard Gregory discussed how the brain makes an hypothesis about what's out there, and sometimes the hypothesis does not quite work out. His model of perception is an interaction between data from sense organs and previous knowledge and experience.

Researcher Mark Changizi of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in New York thinks optical illusions are due to a 'neural lag'. When light hits the retina, about one-tenth of a second goes by before the brain translates the signal into a visual perception of the world. Scientists have known of the lag, and have discussed how humans compensate for it. Some suggest that our motor system somehow modifies our movements to offset the delay.

Changizi asserts that the human visual system has evolved to compensate for neural delays by generating images of what will occur one-tenth of a second into the future. This foresight enables humans to react to events in the present, enabling humans to perform reflexive acts like catching a fly ball and to maneuver smoothly through a crowd. Illusions occur when our brains attempt to perceive the future, and those perceptions do not match reality.

Essentially, the ideas of Helmholz, Gregory and Changizi are similar. We do not mechanically turn sense data into a picture of the world, as some had thought. What we do is use our brains to work out what it is we are looking at. This involves the use of memory and logic, though at a fast rate. The process is very good, but not foolproof. When it fails we get an illusion.

References

Related pages
Impossible object

Psychology
Illusions
Vision

Optical illusion


The Colonial Clash is an annual American College Football rivalry game played between the University of Massachusetts and the University of New Hampshire. These are traditionally the two best programs in the championship subdivision of college football in New England.

The rivalry adopted the name "Colonial Clash" on August 18, 2010, just two months before becoming the first college football match-up ever at Gillette Stadium. Robert Kraft, owner of Gillette Stadium and its tenants, the New England Patriots and New England Revolution, called it "a fitting name for a border rivalry between schools who represent two of the original colonies." The game is scheduled to be held at the professional venue in both 2010 and 2011.

The two schools have played each other every year since 1952, with UMass holding a 43-26-3 advantage. UNH captured the 2008 game 52-21 while UMass won on homecoming in 2009, 23-17. In 2006, the schools played twice, meeting first on November 4th in Durham, NH (with UMass winning 28-20), then again on December 2nd in Amherst for the NCAA FCS Quarterfinals (UMass winning 24-17). After each regular season meeting, the Billy Knight Trophy is awarded to the MVP of the game.

Since the separation of Division I college football into two separate tiers in 1978, UMass has played for the National Championship three times (1978, 1999, 2006), winning in 1999. While New Hampshire has not yet reached a National Championship game, they were the #1 overall seed in the 2005 FCS playoffs.

References

Colonial Clash


A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is inveesible but is responsible for the maist notable property o a magnet: a force that pulls on ither ferromagnetic materials, sic as airn, an attracts or repels ither magnets.

A permanent magnet is an object made frae a material that is magnetised an creauts its awn perseestent magnetic field. An iveryday ensample is a refrigerator magnet uised tae haud notes on a refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetised, that are an aw the anes that are strangly attractit tae a magnet, are cried ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic). Thir include airn, nickel, cobaut, some alloys o rare-yird metals, an some naiturally occurrin meenerals sic as lodestane. Awtho ferromagnetic (an ferrimagnetic) materials are the anerly anes attractit tae a magnet strangly eneuch tae be commonly conseedert magnetic, aw ither substances respond waikly tae a magnetic field, bi ane o several ither teeps o magnetism.

Ferromagnetic materials can be dividit intae magnetically "saft" materials lik annealed airn, that can be magnetised but dae nae tend tae stay magnetised, an magnetically "haurd" materials, that dae. Permanent magnets are made frae "haurd" ferromagnetic materials sic as alnico an ferrite that are subjectit tae special processin in a strang magnetic field in manufactur tae align thair internal microcrystalline structur, makkin them verra haurd tae demagnetize. Tae demagnetise a saturatit magnet, a certaint magnetic field maun be applee'd, an this thrashel depends on coercivity o the respective material. "Haird" materials hae heich coercivity, whauas "saft" materials hae low coercivity.  The oweraw strenth o a magnet is meisurt bi its magnetic moment or, alternatively, the tot magnetic flux it produces. The local strenth o magnetism in a material is meisurt bi its magnetisation.

An electromagnet is made from a coil o weir that acts as a magnet whan an electric current passes throu it but staps bein a magnet whan the current staps. Eften, the coil is wrapped aroond a core o "saft" ferromagnetic material sic as steel, that greatly enhances the magnetic field produced bi the coil.

Kins o magnets
Magnetism

Magnet


was a Japanese court noble and writer of the 14th century who supported the Southern Court in the Nanboku-cho period, serving as advisor to five Emperors. Some of his greatest and most famous work was performed during the reign of Emperor Go-Daigo, under whom he proposed a series of reforms, amounting to a revival or restoration of political and economic systems of several centuries earlier. In addition to authoring a history of Japan and a number of works defending the right of Go-Daigo's line to the throne, Kitabatake fought in defense of the Southern Court as a member of the Murakami branch of the Minamoto clan.

Politics
Kitabatake, in his writings, held a strong distaste for the Ashikaga clan, the ruling family at the time who held the position of shōgun and maintained a rival Imperial court known as the Northern Court. This disdain came not only because they were warriors rather than nobles, who were clumsy and uncouth at court, but because they were of a less distinguished branch of the famous Minamoto clan than Kitabatake's own Murakami branch. In particular, he disliked Ashikaga Takauji, the first Ashikaga shogun, who had originally supported Go-Daigo's claim to the Throne, but who ultimately headed the Northern Court and sought to destroy all who supported the Emperor's Southern Court.

Kitabatake also wrote of Nitta Yoshisada, one of the greatest military supporters of Go-Daigo, in a bad light. He saw Nitta as a warrior, little different from the Shoguns, but also accused him of never being available when the Emperor called upon him. Had Nitta been more available in the south of the country, instead of fighting his own battles in the north, Kitabatake claims, Nitta could have prevented the death of his son Akiie.

When Go-Daigo died in 1339, Kitabatake was under siege in his stronghold in Hitachi Province. He sent copies of his major works to the new emperor, twelve-year-old Emperor Go-Murakami, advising him and his advisors. Though he is most well known for his writings and his role as Imperial advisor, Kitabatake was also a competent commander in battle, and held off the superior forces of the shogunate on many occasions. The siege of Hitachi lasted four years, and though his fortress ultimately fell to the supporters of the shogunate, Kitabatake escaped to Yoshino, the capital of the Southern Court, where he advised the Emperor until his own death in 1354.

Works
In his writings on the legitimate imperial lineage, Kitabatake delved into the subject of land ownership. In one document he denounces the Provincial Shugo and Jitō (Constables and Stewards) as land-hungry, and writes that the creation of this system in 1190 altered the traditional state of the country, and caused it to lose the art of government.

Though the full details of his ideas for reform are unknown, it is likely that Kitabatake sought a return to the governmental structures set down during the Taihō Era, in 702, before the rise of feudalism and military rule. He recognized that certain privileges gained by the bushi (great warrior families) and kuge (court nobility) in that time would not be relinquished, but he did seek to abolish the systems of land tenure and tax collection that supported the power of the bushi. Kitabatake viewed the bushi, and by extension the bakufu (shogunate), the military government, as enemies of the throne.

In 1339, he wrote Jinnō Shōtōki, a chronicle which relates the history of Japan through analysis of the Imperial reigns, from the earliest legendary semi-mythical emperors down to Daigō II (Emperor Go-Daigo) and his successor Murakami II (Emperor Go-Murakami). It was intended largely as a guide to the young Murakami, and as a treatise defending the Southern Court's legitimacy. It was largely written on the road, and recompiled and edited in 1343.

One of the issues it addressed was the chaotic and unbalanced distribution of land, which he blamed on the government. But he also blamed the government officials and feudal lords who claimed the land. He wrote that seeking rewards was not part of proper behavior, and that it was a warrior's place to give up land and even his life for duty. He also claimed that the chaos of feudalism was derived, ultimately, from an unlimited number of people claiming a limited amount of land.

Kitabatake's other major work, Shokugen-shō, was also written in 1339, largely from memory, as the author, under siege in his home province, was unable to perform research at Court. It described the origins and organization of governmental offices and structures, as well as the author's opinions on the promotion and appointment of officials.

Legacy
Kitabatake is considered one of the greatest men of his time, along with his rival Ashikaga Takauji. Though his works are heavily colored by his personal bias and political motives, they are some of the most detailed accounts available on the history of Japan's feudal government and Imperial line.

Honours
Senior First Rank (April 2, 1908; posthumous)

See also
 Kitabatake clan
 Abeno Shrine
 Tenryū-ji
 Prince Kaneyoshi, contemporary ally

Notes

References
  Iwao, Seiichi, Teizō Iyanaga, Susumu Ishii, Shōichirō Yoshida, et al. (2002).  Dictionnaire historique du Japon. Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose. ;
 McGready, Ian, ed. (1995). Great Thinkers of the Eastern World. (H. Paul Varley, "Kitabatake Chikafusa."). New York: HarperCollins.
 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1962).  Sovereign and Subject. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.
 Sansom, George.  (1961).  A History of Japan: 1334-1615. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ;

Minamoto clan
Kuge
1293 births
1354 deaths
Deified Japanese people
14th-century Japanese historians

Kitabatake Chikafusa


Breskens is a harbour town on the Westerschelde in the municipality of Sluis, Netherlands. Its population is 4,787 ().

The town is noted for the Visserijfeesten (Fishery Festival), the largest festival in Zeeland.

A ferry connection exists between Breskens and Vlissingen. After the opening of the Western Scheldt Tunnel near Terneuzen in 2003, the ferry now only carries pedestrian and bicycle traffic.

Sights

The lighthouse of Breskens is the oldest remaining cast-iron lighthouse in the Netherlands. It was built in 1867 and became a monument in 1982.

History

In early 1487 Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, granted the coastal region of the Scheldt as a fief to Philip of Cleves. The coastal areas were drained and the village of Breskens was founded in 1510.

On 14 May 1940, with the German army approaching, the Dutch government fled to London. Queen Wilhelmina initially ordered the British captain removing her from The Hague to set sail for Breskens from where she wished to lead the resistance against the invading armies. One of the reasons was that Breskens, having two fortresses in the vicinity, could be well defended.
She was advised by the captain that he was under orders not to make contact with the Dutch shore as it was under heavy air attack, so Wilhelmina took the decision reluctantly to go to Britain, planning to return as soon as possible.

On 11 September 1944, during Operation Switchback, the town was carpet-bombed by Allied forces, leaving very little of the historical centre intact. After the war, the town was rebuilt and became a centre for the Dutch fish industry and other maritime-related businesses.

In the nineties, with the fish-industry in terminal decline, tourism became the main economic focus and a number of high-rise apartment blocks were built on the waterfront.

Prior to 1 January 2003, the town was incorporated in the municipality of Oostburg.

Gallery

References

 "Geschiedenis van Breskens 1610-1825" (in Dutch)

Populated places in Zeeland
Former municipalities of Zeeland
Populated places established in 1510
Sluis
Zeelandic Flanders
Port cities and towns of the North Sea

Breskens