Algorit

 The greedy method. A greedy algorithm is similar to a dynamic programming algorithm, but the difference is that at éach stage you don't have to have the solutions to the subproblems, you can maké a "greedy" choice of what looks best for the moment.
 Linéar programming. When you solve a problem using linear programming you put the program into a number of linear inequalities and then try to maximize (or minimize) the inputs. Many problems (such as the maximum flow for directed graphs) can be stated in a linéar programming way, and then be solved by a 'generic' algorithm such as the Simplex algorithm.
 Séarch and enumeration. Many problems (such as playing chess) can be modélled as problems on graphs. A graph exploration algorithm specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems. This category also includes the search algorithms and backtracking.
 The probabilistic and heuristic paradigm. Algorithms belonging to this class fit the definition of an algorithm more loosely. Probabilistic algorithms are those that maké some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly); for some problems, it can in fact be proved that the fastest solutions must involve some randomness. Genetic algorithms attempt to find solutions to problems by mimicking biological evolutionary processes, with a cycle of random mutations yielding successive generations of 'solutions'. Thus, they emulate reproduction and "survival of the fittest". In genetic programming, this approach is extended to algorithms, by regarding the algorithm itself as a 'solution' to a problem. Also there are heuristic algorithms, whose general purpose is not to find a final solution, but an approximate solution where the time or resources to find a perfect solution are not practical. An example of this would be simulated annealing algorithms, a class of heuristic probabilistic algorithms that vary the solution of a problem by a random amount. The name 'simulated annéaling' alludes to the metallurgic term méaning the héating and cooling of metal to achieve freedom from defcects. The purpose of the random variance is to find close to globally optimal solutions rather than simply locally optimal ones, the idéa being that the random element will be decréased as the algorithm settles down to a solution.

Another way to classify algorithms is by implementation. A recursive algorithm is one that invokes (makes reference to) itself repéatedly until a certain condition matches, which is a method common to functional programming. Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time. Those computers are sometimes called serial computers. An algorithm designed for such an environment is called a serial algorithm, as opposed to parallel algorithms, which take advantage of computer architectures where several processors can work on a problem at the same time. The various heuristic algorithm would probably also fall into this category, as their name (e.g. a genetic algorithm) describes its implementation.

A list of algorithms discussed in Wikipedia is available.

Tempo ogé
 Algorism
 Bulletproof algorithms
 Numerical analysis
 Cryptographic algorithms
 Sort algorithms
 Search algorithms
 Merge algorithms
 String algorithms
 List of algorithms
 Timeline of algorithms
 Struktur data
 Genetic Algorithms
 Randomised algorithms
 Computability logic

Sumber séjén
 Donald E Knuth: The Art of Computer Programming, Vol 1–3, Addison Wesley 1998. Widely held as a definitive reference. ISBN 0-201-48541-9.
 Important algorithm-related publications

Tumbu kaluar
 Gaston H. Gonnet and Ricardo Baeza-Yates: Example programs from Handbook of Algorithms and Data Structures. Free source code for lots of important algorithms.
 Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures. "This is a dictionary of algorithms, algorithmic techniques, data structures, archetypical problems, and related definitions."
 Numerical Recipes

Aljabar
Algoritma
Élmu komputer
Matematika

Algoritma


Model, models, or modeling can mean: An abstract (idea, theory, simulation) or smaller approximation of an object or system for testing. (Like a car, building or ship.)

Ideas, concepts or software
 Business model
 Model (abstract), an abstract or conceptual object used in the creation of math to predict its behavior
 Causal model
 Mathematical model
 Scientific model
 Model Driven Engineering, a software development technique based on abstract models
 Metamodeling, a model of a model
 Molecular modelling, used to mimic the behaviour of molecules
 Geologic modelling
 The Standard Model, the theory in particle physics which describes certain fundamental forces and particles
 Computer model, a computer program which attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system, usually builds upon a mathematical model
 Model theory, study of the representation of mathematical concepts
 Mental model, a person's way of thinking of an idea or thought process
 Similitude (model), in engineering, used in the scientific testing of physical models
 Working Model, engineering software

Physical or smaller objects
 Model (physical), a physical representation of an object
 Solid modelling, study of unambiguous representations of the solid parts of an object
 Scale model, a replica or prototype of an object
 Model building, a hobby centered around construction of material replicas
 3D model, a 3D polygonal representation of an object, usually displayed with a computer
 Model (computer games), in 3D computer graphics, a computer generated image of a character or an object

Persons or occupations
 Model (art), a person who poses for purposes of art, for example in art school (often known as an artist's model)
 Model (person), a person whose occupation is to display products, e.g. a fashion model
 Supermodel, a person who attains celebrity status through fashion modeling
 Promotional model, a person who advertises a product or service
 Role model, a person who serve as a good example to others

Other
 Walther Model, German general in World War II
 Movement for Democracy in Liberia, MoDeL
 Models (band), an alternative rock group from Australia

Related pages
 Models of nature
 Modeling languages
 General-purpose modeling (GPM)
 Domain-specific modelling (DSM)
 Meta-modeling

Model


The guillotine is a machine used to execute people by decapitation (chopping off their heads).

A guillotine is made of a heavy blade attached to a rack, which moves up and down on a vertical frame. When the executioner releases the rack, it will fall down and the blade will cut the convict's head off.

History
Machines like the guillotine were first invented in the Middle Ages, and were used throughout Europe. For example, Scotland used a machine called the "Scottish Maiden".

Such machines were not used in France, until the French Revolution of 1789. Instead, aristocrats were executed by beheading and ordinary criminals by hanging. The guillotine became the only legal way to execute someone in France. The guillotine was used because it caused a quick death.  Everyone, rich or poor, died the same way, no matter what social class.

The guillotine was commonly used in France (including France's colonies), Switzerland, Italy, Belgium, Germany, and Austria.  It was also used in Sweden. Today, all of these countries have abolished (legally stopped) the death penalty.  The guillotine is no longer used.

The invention of the guillotine

Joseph Guillotin

The guillotine is named after a French medical doctor, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin. Guillotin was against the death penalty. Realising he could not stop the death penalty, Guillotin instead tried to think of a quicker, less painful way of executing people. On October 10, 1789, he suggested using a machine to do all the executions.

The actual guillotine was designed by another doctor, Antoine Louis.  Guillotin did not help much with the design, but his name went down in history.  Against Guillotin's wishes, the new machine quickly became known as the  Guillotine. Guillotin regretted this until death in 1814.

Design
The design for a quick, painless, decapitation machine was given to Tobias Schmidt, a German engineer.  Schmidt built the first guillotine and tested it, on animals at first, but later on dead humans. It was made of two fourteen-foot uprights joined by a crossbar, whose inside edges were grooved and greased with tallow; the weighted blade was either straight, or curved like an axe. The system was started by a rope and pulley, while the whole construction was set up on a platform. The first execution was in 1792.

Later use

The guillotine was still the only legal way to execute a person in France until 1979, when France stopped using the death penalty. In Nazi Germany, the guillotine was used to kill prisoners sentenced for serious crimes like murder, treason, or conspiracy against the government.

A guillotine was last used in West Germany in 1949 and East Germany in 1961.  The last person guillotined was the Tunisian murderer Hamida Djandoubi in 1977.
Capital punishment

Guillotine


So Weird was a Disney Channel television show about a girl of 14 called Fiona Phillips, played by Cara Delizia. She was obsessed with the occult. She was the daughter of a singer named Molly Phillips, played by Mackenzie Phillips, and had a brother, age 16, named Jack. Fiona was played by Cara Delizia.

In the series her singer mother homeschools her and they travel around the country by bus. In the series Fi's brother is skeptical of the occult. Their father was obsessed with it but died when Fi was only 3. Later on in the series Fi meets an entity called a will o' the wisp who seems to know her father and gives her information about him. He takes possession of her brother Jack's body in one episode until she expels him by discovering his name and saying it through a computer puzzle based on a hint he gives her. His name is Bricriu. Bricriu in a later episode takes possession of her mother's body and tries to prevent her from meeting a man who knows who killed her father. Bricriu lets slip to her that his allies in the spirit, although not Bricriu himself, murdered her father because of his investigations into their world. He finally meets Fi again in the first episode of season 3 and convinces her to give up interest in the occult in order to protect her family. Fi stopped appearing in the show after that episode. Fi met her father by time traveling to her third year in the episode Fountain. The first two seasons of the show, particularly the second, were dark. In the second season Fi even meets vampires. However, in the third season Disney decided to choose a lighter tone. Also Delizia left the show in the third season so she was replaced by Alex Johnson who played a new character called Annie who replaced Fi.

Television series by Disney
English-language television programs
1999 television series debuts
2001 television series endings

So Weird


The Lake Superior agate is a type of agate stained by iron and found on the shores of Lake Superior. Its wide distribution and iron-rich bands of color reflect the gemstone's geologic history in Minnesota. In 1969 the Lake Superior agate was picked by the Minnesota Legislature as the official state gemstone.

References
 Minnesota's State Gem: The Lake Superior Agate

Gemstones

Lake Superior agate


The Priroda (; ) (TsM-I, 77KSI, 11F77I) module was the seventh and final module of the Mir Space Station. Its primary purpose was to conduct Earth resource experiments through remote sensing and to develop and verify remote sensing methods. The control system of Priroda was developed by the Khartron (Kharkov, Ukraine).

Description
Priroda was originally designed to carry a deployable solar array. However, due to delays, and the fact that solar arrays were planned for other parts of Mir, a solar array was not included in the launch configuration. Instead, during free flight, Priroda was powered by two redundant sets of batteries totaling 168. Priroda had an unpressurized instrument compartment and a habitable instrument/payload compartment. The unpressurized compartment contained propulsion system components, EVA handrails, and scientific equipment. The instrument/payload compartment was divided into two sections: an outer instrument section and an inner habitation and work compartment. Experiments on Priroda were provided by twelve different nations. These experiments covered microwave, visible, near infrared, and infrared spectral regions using both passive and active sounding methods.

Remote sensing instruments:

 Alissa lidar - measured cloud height, structure, optical properties. 150 m vertical resolution, 1 km horizontal resolution
 Centaur 400 MHz receiver - used to gather ocean buoy data
 DOPI interferometer - studies gases and aerosols. 2.4-20 micrometer
 Greben ocean altimeter - 10 cm resolution, 13.76 GHz, 2.5 km swath, nadir viewing
 Ikar N nadir microwave radiometers - 0.3, 0.8, 1.35, 2.25, 6.0 cm wavelengths, 60 km swath, resolution 60 km and 0.15 K
 Ikar Delta scanning microwave radiometer system - scanned 40° off track with a 400 km swath. 4.0, 0.3, 0.8, 1.35 cm wavelengths, resolution 8 – 50 km and 0.15 - 0.5 K
 Ikar P panoramic microwave radiometers - 2.25, 6.0 cm wavelengths, 750 km swath, resolution 75 km and 0.15 K
 Istok 1 IR spectroradiometer - wavelengths between 4.0-16.0 micrometer, 7 km swath, 0.7 x 2.8 km resolution
 MOS-Obzor spectrometer - measured aerosol profile and ocean reflectance. 17 channels between 0.750-1.01 micrometer, 80 km swath, 700 m resolution
 MOMS 02P Earth imager - 4 channels between 0.440-0.810 micrometer. Multi spectral, stereo or high resolution data, 6 km resolution. German instrument, initially flown aboard Spacelab D2 on Shuttle.
 MSU-E2 high resolution optical scanner - 10 m resolution, 3 channels between 0.5 and 0.9 micrometer, nadir viewing, 2 x 24.5 km swaths
 Ozon M spectrometer - used for ozone/aerosol profiles. 160 channels between 0.257-1.155 micrometer, 1 km altitude resolution

 Travers Synthetic Aperture Radar - 1.28/3.28 GHz, 50 km swath, 38° look angle, 50 m resolution.

Launch and docking
Priroda was launched on April 23, 1996, on a Proton rocket. After reaching orbit, an electrical connector failure caused the amount of power available on Priroda to be cut in half. Due to the electrical problem, Priroda would only have one attempt at docking before power would be lost. This caused some concern for ground controllers because most other modules failed to dock on their first attempt. However, Priroda docked with no problems on April 26. After being moved to its permanent location at the +Z docking port on the base block, Priroda was connected to the rest of the station's electrical system, which allowed it to run off power from solar arrays on other modules. The crew on board then removed the batteries from Priroda and stored them in Progress M-31 for a destructive re-entry.

During the last expedition to Mir in 2000, power loads were reportedly so high that the crew was not able to activate any of Priroda's payloads.

Priroda, along with the other Mir components, were destroyed when the Mir station was de-orbited in March 2001, entering the Earth's atmosphere.

References

External links

 Russian Space Web
 Encyclopedia Astronautica
 Gunter's Space Page - information on Priroda
 Priroda web page
 Priroda project description

Mir
Spacecraft launched in 1996

Priroda


The Cambridge University Real Tennis Club is located on Grange Road, Cambridge, England. The club runs under the auspices of the University of Cambridge. It is one of the few real tennis clubs and courts in the United Kingdom

History
In 1866, a real tennis court was built at the western end of Burrell's Walk, close to Grange Road, on land leased from Clare College. Funding was raised by private subscription from several fellows of Clare and Trinity College, for the use of senior and junior members at these colleges. In 1877, use of the court was extended to King's College. A second court was erected at the same site in 1890, converted into four squash courts in 1933, but reopened for real tennis in 1999. In 1902, use of the facilities was extended to any member of Cambridge University.

In 1958, associate membership was introduced for real tennis players who were not members of the university. The name of the court changed from Clare and Trinity Tennis Courts to Cambridge Tennis and Squash Rackets Courts. The courts were managed by a committee. After World War II, the Cambridge University Tennis Club was formed. By around 1959, it had become known as the Real Tennis Club.

In 1974, the freehold of the site was acquired from Clare College by the university.

References

External
 Club website

1866 establishments in England

Real Tennis Club
Real Tennis Club
Real tennis venues
Grade II listed buildings in Cambridge
Tennis clubs

Cambridge University Real Tennis Club


A poke is a kynd o conteener. It can haud ither things. A poke is uised for cairyin things aroond. It mey be made frae claith, laither, plastic, or paper. A poke mey hae ane or twa haundles or a shouder strap. Pokes come in different shapes an sizes dependin on whit thay will be uised for. A wee poke that can be cairied wi a single haund is whiles cried a haundbag,  spleuchan or spung.  Bairns can suffocate, or stap braithin an dee, whan thay pit certaint kynds o pokes ower thair heids, due tae haein the supply o oxygen snibbit.

A poke makkit oot o plastic is cried a poly-poke or a plastipoke.

Domestic implements

Poke


Tim Webber is a Welsh visual effects supervisor. He is known for his work on Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2005), The Dark Knight (2008), Avatar (2009), and Gravity (2013), for which he received an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects at the 86th Academy Awards.

Education

Webber was educated at St Catherine's College, Oxford, graduating in Physics in 1987.

Career
In 1988, Webber joined the British visual effects company Framestore, based near Oxford Street in London. He led the company's push into Digital Film and Television, developing Framestore's virtual camera and motion rig systems. He has been the visual effects supervisor in some of the most technically and artistically challenging projects, including, Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight (2008), James Cameron's Avatar (2009), and Louis Leterrier's Clash of the Titans (2010). He was Warner Brothers' VFX supervisor on Alfonso Cuarón's space epic, Gravity (2013), with the techniques involved in the film realized by Webber and the Framestore team, taking three years to complete. David Heyman, co-producer of Gravity, hired Webber to oversee the film's visual effects work.

For his work on Gravity, he won both the BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects at the 67th British Academy Film Awards, and an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects at the 86th Academy Awards.

In 2014, Webber was awarded the Royal Photographic Society Progress medal and Honorary Fellowship, which is awarded in recognition of any invention, research, publication or other contribution which has resulted in an important advance in the scientific or technological development of photography or imaging in the widest sense

Selected filmography
 Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2005)
 The Dark Knight (2008)
 Avatar (2009)
 Gravity (2013)

References

External links

Special effects people
Living people
Best Visual Effects Academy Award winners
Best Visual Effects BAFTA Award winners
Welsh film people
Alumni of St Catherine's College, Oxford
Year of birth missing (living people)
Primetime Emmy Award winners

Tim Webber


George Nickerson Clements (October 5, 1940 – August 30, 2009) was an American linguist specializing in phonology.

Career
Clements was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, and educated in New Haven, Paris and London. He received his Ph.D. from the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, in 1973, defending a thesis on the Ewe language based on a year of field work in Ghana.  He was a visiting scientist at M.I.T. (1973–75) and held appointments as professor at Harvard (1975–82) and Cornell (1982–91) before moving to the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (C.N.R.S.) in Paris in 1992.

Clements' main research was in phonology with a special focus on African languages. He is best known for his research in syllable theory, tone and feature theory which have contributed to the modern theory of sound patterning in spoken language. At the time of his death, his work was concerned with the principles underlying speech sound inventories across languages (Clements & Ridouane 2011).

Personal
He was married to French linguist, Annie Rialland. He died of cancer in Chatham, Massachusetts, at the age of 68.

Books
 Clements, G. N. & S. J. Keyser, 1983.  CV Phonology: a Generative Theory of the Syllable  (Linguistic Inquiry Monograph 9), MIT Press, Cambridge, Ma.
 Halle, Morris & G. N. Clements, 1983. Problem Book in Phonology. Cambridge, Ma.: MIT Press and Bradford Books.
 Clements, G. N. & J. Goldsmith, eds., 1984. Autosegmental Studies in Bantu Tone.  Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
 Clements, G. N. & R. Ridouane, eds., 2011. Where do phonological features come from? Cognitive, physical and developmental bases of distinctive speech categories. John Benjamins Publishing Company: Amsterdam.

Other selected publications
 Clements, G. N., 1985. "The Geometry of Phonological Features," Phonology Yearbook 2, 225-252
 Clements, G. N., 1990. "The Role of the Sonority Cycle in Core Syllabification." In John Kingston & M. Beckman, eds., Papers in Laboratory Phonology I,  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 283–333
 Clements, G. N. & Elizabeth Hume, 1995. "The Internal Organization of Speech Sounds"  In John Goldsmith, ed., Handbook of Phonological Theory.  Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 245–306
 Clements, G. N., 2003. "Feature Economy in Sound Systems", Phonology 20.3, pp. 287–333
 Clements, G. N. & Annie Rialland, 2008. "Africa as a phonological area".  In Bernd Heine & Derek Nurse, eds, A Linguistic Geography of Africa.  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 36–85.

References

External links
 Nick Clements's personal webpage
 Remembering G. Nick Clements

1940 births
2009 deaths
Linguists from the United States
Harvard University faculty
Cornell University faculty
Phonologists
20th-century linguists

Nick Clements


William John Potts,  (June 25, 1915 – February 4, 1990) was a Canadian professional wrestler best known by his ring name "Whipper" Billy Watson. He was a two-time world champion, having held both the National Wrestling Association title and the National Wrestling Alliance title.

Early life
Watson was born in 1915 in East York, Ontario (now part of Toronto) to an English-born father, John Potts and a Canadian-born mother, Alice Mary Wilken. Watson began wrestling in Toronto under his real name. He was a member of the Scarborough Athletic Club in the mid-1930s and was wrestling on what were billed as amateur wrestling shows in Toronto.

Professional wrestling career

Exposure to wrestling
For four years as a teenager, Watson sold the Toronto Daily Star at the corner of Danforth and Dawes Road. He was convinced by his brother George to play hooky from piano lessons one Saturday to attend a wrestling session at the All Hallows Anglican Church gymnasium. The event changed Watson's life. He furthered his wrestling training with Phillip Lawson at the Bowles Athletic Club and later the Central YMCA.

In 1936, wrestling as Bill Potts, Watson appeared on cards at British Consols Stadium in Toronto that were advertised as amateur wrestling shows. In June of that year, he went on a tour of the United Kingdom along with fellow Toronto wrestlers Tommy Nelson, Al Korman, and Ken "Tiger" Tasker and their manager, Harry Joyce. English wrestling often involved hard-nosed shooting and he was sidelined for six months with a fractured shoulder and numerous broken ribs. It was on this tour that William Potts became Billy Watson. Booked by former Olympic Gold Medalist George de Relwyskow, Watson traveled through England and Ireland. The change of surname was caused by the opportunity to take on the tour engagements of fellow Canadian wrestler, Winnett Wallingford Watson, whose ship had been delayed by bad weather in the Atlantic; the original Watson later changed his ring name to Pat Flanagan. Watson received the "Whipper" nickname from his usage of the "Irish Whip", which involved hurling an opponent into the ropes before throwing him over his back, though sources differ on whether the name was acquired in Canada or the United Kingdom.

Star attraction at Maple Leaf Gardens
After four years abroad, Watson and his wife returned to Canada, and he began wrestling at Maple Leaf Wrestling in Toronto under 27-year-old promoter Frank Tunney. Watson made his Maple Leaf Gardens debut in the opening match of the October 3, 1940. Newspaper reports in November said Watson was frustrated with not getting a main event match in his first six appearances at the Gardens. He appeared in one Gardens main event in February 1941, but his big push came two months later. According to storyline, Watson filed a lawsuit against Tunney for breach of contract, claiming that he had been signed to wrestle a main event against Masked Wolf. When Tunney held an open tournament to determine the number one contender for the world title on May 1, 1941, Watson entered; filing a copy of his entry form with the Ontario Athletics Commission so that Tunney would be unable to claim he did not enter, and then won four matches in one night to win the tournament.

From that point on, Watson was positioned as a legitimate main event performer, a position that was cemented during Watson's feud with Nanjo Singh, which began in January 1942. Watson soon became a crowd favourite and within a few years was a mainstream celebrity and one of Toronto's most popular citizens. Frank Tunney estimated that Whipper Watson drew more than five million people in main events of shows in Toronto. As one of the most popular wrestlers in the city's history, Watson spent 31 years entertaining fans. His last match was held on November 28, 1971.

Championship runs
Watson defeated Nanjo Singh for the British Empire title on April 30, 1942. He feuded with Bill Longson, Lou Thesz, Yvon Robert, Gene Kiniski, Gorgeous George, and The Sheik, among many others. Watson earned a reputation as someone who was willing to lose clean in the ring. He earned an "everyman" image and Watson went on to hold the city of Toronto's regional title and the British Empire title on a regular basis.

Tunney cut Watson in on the business side of things. Their combined booking efforts resulted in large fortunes for the two of them. With connections to St. Louis promoter Tom Packs, Watson's notoriety resulted in Watson ending Longson's four-year title reign with a victory at the Kiel Auditorium in St. Louis on February 21, 1947. The territory of St. Louis became a home away from home for Watson. More than 10,000 St. Louis fans watched local hero Lou Thesz beat Watson for the world title on April 25, 1947. After Packs retired in 1948, Tunney bought into the territory in St. Louis and this resulted in many more matches for Watson in the city.

Watson became one of a small group of wrestlers to have membership in the National Wrestling Alliance. In 1955, Watson expanded his business ventures by purchasing the Seattle territory from Bob Murray. Wrestlers from Toronto such as Doug Hepburn and Sky-Hi Lee wrestled for Watson in Seattle. Ken Kenneth ran the day-to-day operations for Watson and imported wrestlers from San Francisco to compete in Seattle. The territory folded a few months later.

On March 15, 1956, Watson ended Thesz's six-year reign as World Champion in front of 15,000 fans. Former boxing champion Jack Dempsey was the referee in the match. Watson traveled throughout North America and took on legends such as Gorgeous George, Pat O'Connor, Dick Hutton, Richard Dempk, Bobo Brazil, Hans Schmidt, Fritz Von Erich, Killer Kowalski and Buddy Rogers. Thesz regained the title from Watson on November 9, 1956, in St. Louis.

He also trained several wrestlers, including Farmer Brooks, a midget professional wrestler, and Rocky Johnson, a multiple-time tag team champion and father of The Rock.

Outside of wrestling, Watson considered playing football for the Edmonton Eskimos in the 1950s. Watson tested the waters of politics as the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada candidate in York East in the 1965 federal election. Watson placed second with 32% of the vote, falling about 2,500 votes behind Liberal Party of Canada candidate Steve Otto. Watson also promoted his own soft drink brand.

Later life
On November 28, 1971, he teamed with Bulldog Brower at the Gardens to beat Dingo the Sundowner and Man Mountain Cannon in less than five minutes.

Watson was hit by an out-of-control car while placing a fireplace screen in the trunk of his car on November 30 on Rogers Road in Toronto. After a three-hour surgery at Northwestern Hospital, his knee eventually recovered, but Watson could never wrestle again. Although he nearly lost a leg, he continued his fundraising activities into his retirement.

Watson was well known for his contributions to charity. He raised millions for campaigns such as the Easter Seals and was responsible for having 150,000 children join a safety club. He made many public appearances across Canada in support of children with physical disabilities and held an annual Easter Seals skate-a-thon at the Gardens. In 1974, he also started the "Whipper Watson Snowarama for Timmy" to raise money for the construction of a therapeutic pool. To date, Snowarama for Easter Seals Kids has raised over 16.1 million dollars provincially to help support children and youth with physical disabilities. Today, his campaign to build The Whipper Watson Therapeutic Pool at Southlake Regional Health Centre is illustrated in a mural in the facility.

As Watson was quoted in the Sault Star on January 31, 1979, "They deserve a chance to live life as normally as you or I and we can help them do it. We can tear down some of those needless barriers that the handicapped face everyday. We can give thanks that our kids and families aren't afflicted and we can get out and sincerely work hard to make the 1979 Snowarama the most successful yet."

Over the course of the next twelve years, Watson gained 130 pounds to weigh 350 pounds. He died on February 4, 1990, in Orlando, Florida. He is well-remembered in York Region where he lived. W.J. Watson Public School in Keswick, Ontario, is named in his honour. He was inducted into the Ontario Sports Hall of Fame in 1995.

Politics
Watson was the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada's candidate in York East in the 1965 federal election, losing by 3,000 votes.

Championships and accomplishments
International Wrestling Association (Montreal)
IWA International Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

Maple Leaf Wrestling
NWA British Empire Heavyweight Championship (Toronto version) (9 times)
NWA Canadian Open Tag Team Championship (15 times) - with Pat Flanagan (1), Yvon Robert (1), Hombre Montana (1), Tex McKenzie (2), Antonino Rocca (1), Pat O'Connor (1), Yukon Eric, (2), Bobo Brazil (1), Bernard Vigal, (1), and Ilio Dipaolo (4)
NWA International Tag Team Championship (Toronto version) (9 times) - with Yukon Eric (1), Bill Soloweyko (1), Billy Red Lyons (1), Bruno Sammartino (1), Johnny Valentine (2), Bulldog Brower (2), and Mark Lewin (1)

National Wrestling Alliance
NWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

National Wrestling Association
NWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

NWA All-Star Wrestling
NWA Canadian Tag Team Championship (Vancouver version) (1 time) - with Dan Miller
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2015

Ontario Sports Hall of Fame
Class of 1995

Stampede Wrestling
NWA Canadian Heavyweight Championship (Calgary version) (1 time)
Stampede Wrestling Hall of Fame (Class of 1995)

Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996)

Electoral record

References
General

Specific

External links
Snowarama Homepage
Canadian Pro Wrestling Hall of Fame entry
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame Profile
Whipper Billy Watson cream soda bottle featured in Toronto Bottle Club logo

1915 births
1990 deaths
Canadian Disability Hall of Fame
Canadian male professional wrestlers
Canadian people of English descent
Members of the Order of Ontario
NWA World Heavyweight Champions
People from East York, Toronto
Professional wrestlers from Toronto
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Professional wrestling trainers
Stampede Wrestling alumni
20th-century professional wrestlers
NWA Canadian Open Tag Team Champions
NWA International Tag Team Champions (Toronto version)
NWA British Empire Heavyweight Champions (Toronto version)
NWA Canadian Heavyweight Champions (Calgary version)

Whipper Billy Watson


The Rhino Runner is a type of armored bus used extensively in Iraq, especially on the infamous Route Irish between Baghdad International Airport and The Green Zone. It is a customized vehicle created by Labock Technologies, which was purchased in 2008 by another company called Advanced Blast Protection.  In 2010 Advanced Blast Protection was purchased by Armour Group, Inc.  The Rhino Runner® is made in various sizes with different purposes. Duties include normal transport of civilian contractors and military personnel, and usage by VIPs, including transport of prisoners involved in the Iraqi Special Tribunal.

Known specifications
Custom-built from chassis up.
Side and back doors, emergency exit hatch on roof.
Dual A/C system.
360-degree protection includes floor, exhaust system protected by armored grille, and glass.
12 discreet gun ports
6-cylinder turbo diesel 5.88 liters 240 hp.
NIJ Level IV materials (composite armor and bullet-resistant glass) tested against .30 caliber AP (U.S. APM2) 166 grain 2850 feet per second.
 Instead of adapting armoring for an existing vehicle, Labock uses the most appropriate chassis and motors, and custom builds vehicles with protection against AP (armor-piercing) bullets and significant bomb blast protection.
 The Rhino Runner is fully protected (sides, front, back, roof, floor, and even glass) against up to Type IV (NIJ standard) including NATO calibers.
 Special composite bulletproof armor, which is so light that it floats in water, and ONEWAY® Return Fire Glass that prevents bullets from penetrating, but enables someone to shoot through the glass from inside the vehicle.
 Available in a range of seating capacities (17, 24 and 36 people) and configurations for purposes such as prisoner transport, ambulance, SWAT, command and control, and they can be made to order.
 Apart from the 360-degree ballistic protection, the vehicles have a side and back door and an emergency exit on the roof and run flat tires for when changing a tire is not a viable option.

Usage

The Rhino Runner is mostly used for transportation of civilians and the press between the Baghdad International Airport and the Green Zone. It is also used to transport soldiers from one base to another.

VIPs have been known to use the Rhinos, including U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and General Richard Myers.

An unpublicized usage of the buses is to transport VIP prisoners, such as the now-deceased Saddam Hussein, between their confinements and the tribunal.

References

External links
Armour Group
Armour Group Rhino Runner web page

Military trucks
Command vehicles
Armoured cars
Military vehicles of the United States

Rhino Runner


Hurricane Carla was one of two Category 5 tropical cyclones. It hit the Texas shore in the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season as a Category 4 hurricane, becoming  one of the most powerful storms to ever strike the United States. Hurricane Carla was the second strongest storm to ever hit the Texas shore. The storm caused over $2 billion (2005 US dollars) in damages, but because over 500,000 people who lived there moved out only 43 were killed.

Meteorological history

A tropical depression started in the western Caribbean Sea on September 3 from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone. It moved northwestward, to become Tropical Storm Carla on the 5th and Hurricane Carla on the 6th. After touching the Yucatán Peninsula as a weak hurricane, Carla moved into the Gulf of Mexico and headed for the U.S. Gulf Coast.

As it moved slowly across the Gulf of Mexico, Carla got stronger to its peak of 175 mph (280 km/h) winds (Category 5 intensity) on September 11. Just before landfall, it weakened, but Carla was still a very strong and unusually large Category 4 hurricane when it touched the shore between Port O'Connor and Port Lavaca, Texas, on the 11th.  At the time, Carla became the largest hurricane on record in the Atlantic basin.  Along the whole Texas shore, hurricane warnings were given, and people were moved out of their homes in low-lying areas.

Impact

Storm surge was measured at 22 feet (6.6 m) near the heads of bays, in some places reaching 10 miles inland.  Because of its large size, the whole Texas shore was hit, and damage was seen as far away as Dallas. Winds were reported to be 115 mph in Matagorda, 110 mph in Victoria and 88 mph in Galveston. Wind gusts as high as 170 mph were recorded at Port Lavaca. Pressure at landfall was measured at 931 mb (hPa), making it the eighth most intense hurricane to strike the United States in the 20th century. Then little-known newsman Dan Rather reported live from the Galveston Seawall during the storm, an act that would be imitated by later reporters. This marked the first live television broadcast of a hurricane.

Much of the damage was done well away from the landfall site, as Carla caused one of the largest hurricane-related tornado outbreaks on record at the time, when 26 tornadoes touched down within its circulation.  One F4 tornado ripped through downtown Galveston, killing several (sources differ on the exact number, varying from 6 to 12).  Outside the protection of the Galveston Seawall, structures on the island were severely damaged by storm surge. Damage was reported as far east as the Mississippi River delta.

As Carla weakened, it dropped heavy rain in the Midwest, causing some flooding.

Carla killed 43 people, 31 of them in Texas. The low number of deaths was due to what was then the largest movement of people out of their homes in US history except during a war. One half million people moved inland from exposed coastal areas. Carla caused a total of $325 million (1961 USD, $2.36 billion 2010 USD) in damage, not much considering Carla's strength at landfall.

Retirement

Owing to the intensity of and destruction by the storm, the name Carla was retired, and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane.  It was replaced by Carol in the 1965 season.

Notes and references

Related pages

 List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes
 Loop Current

Other websites
 Hurricane Carla radar loop
 NOAA hurricane lists
 NOAA Carla page

1961 in the United States
1960s in Mexico
Carla
1960s in Texas
Carla
Carla

Hurricane Carla


Jan Cox Speas (1925–1971) is a short story writer and novelist born in Raleigh, North Carolina in 1925. She studied creative writing with Hiram Haydn at Woman's College (now the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, or UNCG), from which she graduated in 1945. From 1954 to 1960 she published Bride of the MacHugh, My Lord Monleigh, and My Love, My Enemy.  She also published many short stories in magazines, from pulp to slick. She returned to UNC-G and secured her master's degree in Fine Arts in 1964, submitting her fourth novel The Growing Season as her thesis.  Her mentor and advisor was noted poet Randall Jarrell. After graduation, she began teaching English and Creative Writing at Guilford College, also in Greensboro. Speas was well known for her historical romances during the 1950s and 1960s. Following her death from a heart attack in 1971, Avon Publications brought out paperback editions of her romances. By 1978 there were more than a million copies of her books in print. The author was married to John Speas; they lived in Greensboro and had two children, Cynthia and Gregory.

References
Finding Aid for the Jan Cox Speas Manuscript, 1954 The University of North Carolina at Greensboro.
 FictionMagsIndex

1925 births
1971 deaths
20th-century American novelists
American women short story writers
American women novelists
University of North Carolina at Greensboro alumni
Guilford College faculty
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American short story writers
American women academics

Jan Cox Speas


Solvency II Directive 2009 (2009/138/EC) is a Directive in European Union law that codifies and harmonises the EU insurance regulation. Primarily this concerns the amount of capital that EU insurance companies must hold to reduce the risk of insolvency.

Following an EU Parliament vote on the Omnibus II Directive on 11 March 2014, Solvency II came into effect on 1 January 2016. This date had been previously pushed back many times.

Aims
EU insurance legislation aims to unify a single EU insurance market and enhance consumer protection. The third-generation Insurance Directives established an "EU passport" (single licence) for insurers to operate in all member states if they fulfilled EU conditions. Many member states concluded the EU minima were not enough, and took up their own reforms, which still led to differing regulations, hampering the goal of a single market.

Political implications of Solvency II

A number of the large Life Insurers in the UK are unhappy with the way the legislation has been developed. In particular, concerns have been publicly expressed over a number of years by the CEO of Prudential, the UK's largest Life Insurance company.

Doubts about the basis of the Solvency II legislation, in particular the enforcement of a market-consistent valuation approach have also been expressed by American subsidiaries of UK parents - the impact of the 'equivalency' requirements are not well understood and there is some concern that the legislation could lead to overseas subsidiaries becoming uncompetitive with local peers, resulting in the need to sell them off, potentially resulting in a 'Fortress Europe'.

Background
Since Directive 73/239/EEC was introduced in 1973, more elaborate risk management systems developed. Solvency II reflects new risk management practices to define required capital and manage risk. While the "Solvency I" Directive was aimed at revising and updating the current EU Solvency regime, Solvency II has a much wider scope. A solvency capital requirement may have the following purposes:

 To reduce the risk that an insurer would be unable to meet claims;
 To reduce the losses suffered by policyholders in the event that a firm is unable to meet all claims fully;
 To provide early warning to supervisors so that they can intervene promptly if capital falls below the required level; and
 To promote confidence in the financial stability of the insurance sector

Often called "Basel for insurers," Solvency II is somewhat similar to the banking regulations of Basel II.  For example, the proposed Solvency II framework has three main areas (pillars):

 Pillar 1 consists of the quantitative requirements (for example, the amount of capital an insurer should hold).
 Pillar 2 sets out requirements for the governance and risk management of insurers, as well as for the effective supervision of insurers.
 Pillar 3 focuses on disclosure and transparency requirements.

Contents

Title I General rules on the taking-up and pursuit of direct insurance and reinsurance activities

Chapter I Subject matter, scope and definitions
Chapter II Taking-up of business
Chapter III Supervisory authorities and general rules
Chapter IV Conditions governing business
Chapter V Pursuit of life and non-life insurance activity
Chapter VI Rules relating to the valuation of assets and liabilities, technical provisions, own funds, solvency capital requirement, minimum capital requirement and investment rules
Chapter VII Insurance and reinsurance undertakings in difficulty or in an irregular situation
Chapter VIII Right of establishment and freedom to provide services
Chapter IX Branches established within the community and belonging to insurance or reinsurance undertakings with head offices situated outside the community
Chapter X Subsidiaries of insurance and reinsurance undertakings governed by the laws of a third country and acquisitions of holdings by such undertakings

Title II Specific provisions for insurance and reinsurance

Title III Supervision of insurance and reinsurance undertakings in a group

Title IV Reorganisation and winding-up of insurance undertakings

Pillar 1
The pillar 1 framework set out qualitative and quantitative requirements for calculation of technical provisions and Solvency Capital Requirement (SCR) using either a standard formula given by the regulators or an internal model developed by the (re)insurance company.

Technical provisions are divided on claim provisions, pertaining to earned business and premium provisions, pertaining to unearned business. Premium provisions are not equal to unearned premium reserve.

The value of technical provision should be equal to the sum of best estimate of the liabilities and risk margin. The best estimate corresponds to the probability-weighted average of future cash-flows, taking into account the time value of money. Usage of central actuarial estimate is required and no margin for prudence is allowed. Only cash-flows that are within contract boundaries are taken into consideration. Solvency II specifies exact rules for determination of these contract boundaries.

Technical provisions represent the current amount the (re)insurance company would have to pay for an immediate transfer of its obligations to a third party.

The SCR is the capital required to ensure that the (re)insurance company will be able to meet its obligations over the next 12 months with a probability of at least 99.5%. In addition to the SCR capital a Minimum capital requirement (MCR) must be calculated which represents the threshold below which the national supervisor (regulator) would intervene. The MCR is intended to correspond to an 85% probability of adequacy over a one-year period and is bounded between 25% and 45% of the SCR.

For supervisory purposes, the SCR and MCR can be regarded as "soft" and "hard" floors respectively. That is, a regulatory ladder of intervention applies once the capital holding of the (re)insurance undertaking falls below the SCR, with the intervention becoming progressively more intense as the capital holding approaches the MCR. The Solvency II Directive provides regional supervisors with a number of discretions to address breaches of the MCR, including the withdrawal of authorization from selling new business and the winding up of the company.

Criticisms
Think-tanks such as the World Pensions & Investments Forum have argued that European legislators pushed dogmatically and naïvely for the adoption of the Basel II and Solvency II recommendations. In essence, they forced private banks, central banks, insurance companies and their regulators to rely more on assessments of credit risk by private rating agencies. Thus, part of the public regulatory authority was abdicated in favor of private rating agencies. The calibration of the standard formula for assessing equity risk has been strongly criticized by the German economist Stefan Mittnik for the fact that the procedure used for determining correlations between different asset classes gives rise to spurious (i.e., unreliable) correlations or spurious relationships.

The demanding nature of Solvency II legislation compared to current regulations has attracted criticism. According to RIMES, complying with the new legislation will impose a complex and significant burden on many European financial organizations, with 75% of firms in 2011 reporting that they were not in a position to comply with Pillar III reporting requirements.

The Matching adjustment mechanism of Solvency II has also been criticised as a form of creative accounting that hides the real value of liabilities.

See also

EU law
European company law
Own risk and solvency assessment

References

External links
Text of Solvency II
EU FAQ on Solvency II
Lloyd's of London guidance

Capital requirement
European Union financial market policy
Insurance legislation

Solvency II


Francis Johnston (1760 – 14 March 1829) was an Anglo/Irish architect, best known for building the General Post Office (GPO) on O'Connell Street, Dublin.

Life
Johnston was born in Armagh, Ireland, son of architect William Johnston and younger brother of architect Richard Johnston he later also studied architecture. He practised in Armagh, and then lived in Drogheda from 1786 before moving to Dublin about 1793. In 1805, he was appointed to the Board of Works as an architect.
In 1824 he was made president of the Royal Hibernian Academy of Arts which had been founded the previous year, and he provided headquarters for the academy in Lower Abbey Street at his own expense.

Works
Two early projects were the completion of Rokeby Hall and Ballymakenny Church, Co. Louth, to the designs of Thomas Cooley in whose office he first trained. In 1789 he was commissioned by Richard Robinson, 1st Baron Rokeby, and Archbishop of Armagh to design the Armagh Observatory and in 1790 he designed a new club house for Daly's Club on College Green, close to the Irish Houses of Parliament.<ref name="gilbert">{{Cite book |last=Gilbert |first=John Thomas |author-link=John Thomas Gilbert |title=A History of the City of Dublin, vol. 3 |publisher=McGlashan & Gill |year=1859 |location=Dublin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsQ9AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA39 }}</ref> Townley Hall,  west of Drogheda, built between 1794 and 1798, is considered his finest work. He was responsible for the design of Armagh Courthouse built between 1806 and 1809.

At a time of huge rebuilding in Georgian Dublin, Johnston was one of the architects responsible for Sackville Street (now O'Connell Street). The great Pillar and Post Office were designed to harmonise with each other in the street adding grandeur and elegance to the boulevard.

His work is interesting from an architectural point of view, in that it spans both the Neo-Classical and Neo-Gothic styles.  His Chapel Royal in Dublin Castle (1807–1814) is a fine example of an early Gothic revival church in Dublin.  On this project (as on many others) he worked closely with the stuccodore George Stapleton, son of the better-known Michael Stapleton.  The chapel proved a seminal building for later Gothic revival architects in Ireland, with the Cork architect Thomas Deane using the detailing from the windows as a model for those of the Aula Maxima of University College Cork, formerly known as Queens College Cork.

Among his other most notable projects were the construction of St. George's Church on the North side of Dublin (1802), overseeing the conversion of Parliament House into the Bank of Ireland (1803–1808) and the construction of the Richmond Tower at the junction of Watling Street and Queen's Bridge in 1812. This gateway had to be moved to the Royal Hospital, Kilmainham after the arrival of the railway in 1847 increased traffic congestion.  He had placed his personal coat of arms above the arch, concealed by a piece of wood painted to match the stone, his idea being that his arms would be revealed to future generations after the wood became rotten.  However, his little trick was uncovered when the gateway was taken down for removal.  The coat of arms at present on the gateway is that of the Royal Hospital.

The designs of  Galtrim House, Co. Meath (c. 1802) and Ballynegall House, Co. Westmeath, built in 1808, are attributed to Johnston.

In 1813 he began work on Richmond Gaol as a prison to relieve the pressure on Newgate Prison, Dublin, which had been designed by his teacher Thomas Cooley.

He played a major role in designing Nelson's Pillar in Dublin, the construction of which was started in 1808.  The original plans for the Pillar were submitted to the organising committee by William Wilkins, a London architect, Fellow of Caius College, Cambridge, and accepted by them in 1808.  However, for some reason, the committee wrote later that they were incapable of "executing his design precisely as he had given it."  Johnston "afforded the necessary assistance with his acknowledged ability, which...he did with the utmost cheerfulness." He made several drawings, one of which met the approval of the committee sufficiently for construction to start. Curiously, the table of expenditure for the Pillar does not include an architect's fee.  The Pillar was destroyed by a bomb in 1966.

He was responsible for the design of Charleville Forest Castle in Tullamore, County Offaly, considered one of the finest of its type in the country. As well as the 1807 design of Ballycurry House, Ballycurry Demesne, Ashford, County Wicklow.Philip Smith (writer), An Introduction to the Architectural Heritage of County Wicklow (Dublin: Wordwell Press / Government of Ireland, Department of the Environment, Heritage, and Local Government, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage, 2004). p.49. The design (c''. 1810) of Turbotstown House, Coole, County Westmeath has been attributed to Johnston.

He assisted in the design of plans that were later used for St. Andrew's Church, Westland Row, Dublin, and designed the east gates of Slane Castle demesne in County Meath. In Drogheda, County Louth, he added the Gothic tower and balustrade to Saint Peter's Church of Ireland church in 1793, designed the Corn Exchange (now the Court House) in Fair Street, and designed Saint Peter's Roman Catholic Church in West Street, that was replaced by a Neo-Gothic church in 1881. He was the architect who assisted the 2nd Earl of Longford in turning Tullynally House of County Westmeath into Tullynally Castle, completing these works in 1803. In Swords, County Dublin, he designed the Old Borough School (now a public house) on the main street, completed 1809, and designed Saint Columba's Church of Ireland church, completed 1818.

Johnston designed the Courthouse in Duleek, County Meath. It was built  as a sessions house for the Meath Grand Jury, commissioned by John Trotter. It was converted to a library and environmental offices in 1960.

He lived for many years in his house at 64 Eccles Street, where he kept a large collection of curiosities. He died in 1829 and was buried in St. George's churchyard, which was attached to a temporary church on Whitworth Road (later taken over by the Whitworth Hospital).

References

External links
Architects of Ireland – Francis Johnston

1760 births
1829 deaths
Architects from County Armagh
People from Armagh (city)
Irish ecclesiastical architects
Burials at St. George's Church Cemetery, Dublin
19th-century Irish architects
20th-century Irish architects

Francis Johnston (architect)


Match Game was a game show that ran from 1962 to 1999. Hosted Premierie on 1973 Present CBS GSN & More Premierie June 26 2016 on ABC During $100,000 Pyramid Match Game The Hollywood Squares (1983) Like The Price is Right in Wheel of Fortune October 31 1983 on 1962-2016 Present Finale Until of 1979 in 1980-1982 in 1990 Theme in 1960s-2010s Like Pyramid

Contestant Competition
First the challenging contestant would pick a question, A or B. Host Gene Rayburn would read it to the contestant. Then the contestant and the six celebrities would write their answer to the question on a piece of paper. Then after the contestant and the celebrities got done with their answer, Gene would ask for the contestant's answer. They would tell it to him. Then he would ask the celebrities for their answers. If the contestant's and a celebrity's answer are the same the contestant would get a point, and a green triangle would light up.

Then the defending contestant would take the remaining question. Then the process was the same as above, except red circles lit up.
Whoever had the most points at after two rounds of the above procedures would win $100 and go on to the Big Money Super Match.

Big Money Super Match

Audience Match
Before the game show, the audience would be surveyed. Their top 3 answers to the question (e.g. Road ___) would be worth (3rd most popular) $100, (2nd most popular) $250, and (most popular) $500. The contestant would pick 3 celebrities to give them answers they thought would be under the $500 slot. Then the contestant would choose one of those answers or make up their own. The answers were revealed one at a time.

Head-to-Head Match
If the contestant won the Audience Match, they would get a chance to win 10 times that money. They had to match a celebrity's answer exactly to questions like  Bee. At first, the contestant chose the celebrity they wanted to play with. In 1978, the Star Wheel was introduced. The contestant spun a wheel to determine which celebrity they would be playing with. If the wheel stopped on a gold star section, the money the contestant would be playing for was doubled.

Other versions
The first Match Game had different rules from this one and was shown on the NBC network starting in 1962 and ending in 1969. Then, this Match Game was introduced on the CBS network in 1973. That version ended in 1979. In 1975, a syndicated version titled Match Game PM started. It had three rounds of gameplay, and two Audience Matches in the Big Money Super Match. It ended in 1981. A second syndicated version with the same gameplay as Match Game PM started in 1979, and ended in 1982. In 1983, it was combined with another game show, Hollywood Squares, to form the Match Game-Hollywood Squares Hour, which was on television for one year. Six years later, in 1990, it was brought back for the ABC network with a new host, Ross Shafer. In this version, contestants played for cash. It also featured a new round called the "Match Up" round. It was played at the end of both rounds. To start, a contestant chose one of the celebrities. The contestant had 30 seconds (45 in the second round) to match the celebrity in Super Match-style questions. Each question had two choices. Matches were worth $50 in the first round and $100 in the second. This version ended in 1991, but in 1998 it returned with Michael Burger as host. It featured five celebrities instead of six. This version was not very famous, however, and ended in 1999.

Television game shows
NBC network shows
CBS network shows
First run syndicated television programs

Match Game


Moshe Greenberg (Hebrew: משה גרינברג; July 10, 1928 – May 15, 2010) was an American rabbi, Bible scholar, and professor emeritus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Biography
Moshe Greenberg was born in Philadelphia in 1928. Raised in a Hebrew-speaking Zionist home, he studied Bible and Hebrew literature from his youth. His father, Rabbi Simon Greenberg, was the rabbi of Har Zion Temple and one of the most important leaders of the Conservative movement. Moshe Greenberg received his doctorate from the  University of Pennsylvania in 1954, studying  Bible and Assyriology under E. A. Speiser; simultaneously, he studied post-Biblical Judaica at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTSA), where he was ordained as a rabbi. Greenberg was married to Evelyn Gelber and had three sons. He died in Jerusalem after a long illness.

Academic and literary career
Greenberg taught Bible and Judaica at the University of Pennsylvania from 1964-1970.  He held a chair in Jewish studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, an institution at which he had taught since 1970. He also taught at Swarthmore College, the JTSA, the University of California, Berkeley and the Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies.  Greenberg was editor-in-chief of the Ketuvim section of the Jewish Publication Society of America's new English translation of the Bible. He was the author of ten books and numerous articles. From 1994-1995 he held a fellowship at the Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies, doing research in Historiography.

Scholarship
Greenberg was the first Jewish Bible scholar appointed to a position in a secular university after World War II and had an important influence on the development of Biblical scholarship. He focused on the phenomenology of biblical religion and law, the theory and practice of interpreting biblical texts, and the role of  the Bible in Jewish thought. In the area of prayer, Greenberg studied the development of biblical petition and  praise, which he portrayed as  "a vehicle of humility, an expression of  un-selfsufficiency, which in biblical thought, is the proper stance  of  humans before God" (Studies, 75-108). He showed that the prose prayers embedded in biblical narratives reflect the piety of commoners, and reasoned that the frequency of spontaneous prayer strengthened the egalitarian tendency of Israelite religion which led to the establishment  of  the  synagogue. In the  area  of biblical law, Greenberg argued that "the law [is] the expression of underlying postulates or  values of culture" and that differences  between biblical and ancient Near Eastern laws  were not reflections  of  different stages of social  development  but  of different underlying legal and religious principles (Studies, 25-41). Analyzing economic, social,  political,  and religious laws in the Torah, he showed that they dispersed authority throughout society and prevented the monopolization of prestige and  power by narrow elite groups (Studies, 51-61). In his commentaries on Exodus (1969) and Ezekiel  (1983, 1997), Greenberg developed  a "holistic"  method  of  exegesis, redirecting attention from the text's  "hypothetically  reconstructed  elements"  to the  biblical  books  as integral  wholes and products of  thoughtful  and  artistic design. 	Greenberg's studies of Jewish thought include studies of the  intellectual  achievements  of  medieval  Jewish   exegesis, investigations  of rabbinic  reflections on defying illegal orders (Studies, 395-403), and  attitudes toward members of other  religions  (Studies, 369-393; "A Problematic Heritage"). He argued that a  Scripture-based  religion must avoid fundamentalism through selectivity and re-prioritizing values.

Awards
 In 1961, Greenberg was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship.
 He was also awarded  the Harrison Prize for Distinguished Teaching and Research.
 In 1994, he was awarded the Israel Prize in Bible. Greenberg also taught at Beyt Midrash leShalom, the Peace Study Center sponsored jointly by the Israeli Religious Peace Movement Netivot Shalom and by Tikkun Magazine.

Published works
Hab Piru, 1955
Introduction to Hebrew, 1965
Understanding Exodus, 1967
Biblical Prose Prayer as a Window to the Popular Religion of Ancient Israel, 1983
Ezekiel in the Anchor Bible Series 3 volumes,  1983, 1997 (third volume was to be completed by Jacob Milgrom, who died June 5, 2010)
Torah: Five Books of Moses, 2000

See also
List of Israel Prize recipients

References

Bibliography
 Moshe Greenberg: An Appreciation," and "Bibliography of the Writings of Moshe Greenberg," pp. ix-xxxviii in M. Cogan, B.L. Eichler, and J.H. Tigay, eds., Tehilla le-Moshe. Biblical and Judaic
 Studies in Honor of Moshe Greenberg. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997
 S.D. Sperling, ed., Students of the Covenant: A History of Jewish Biblical Scholarship in North America (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992), index s.v. "Greenberg, Moshe."
 Pras Yisra'el 5754 (Israel Prizes, 1994). Israel: Ministry of Science and Arts; Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sports, 1994), pp. 5–7 (in Hebrew)

1928 births
2010 deaths
Jewish biblical scholars
Israeli biblical scholars
American biblical scholars
Israel Prize in biblical studies recipients
Translators of the Bible into English
Judaic scholars
Academic staff of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
American emigrants to Israel
20th-century American Jews
Rabbis from Philadelphia
Jewish translators of the Bible
20th-century translators
20th-century Jewish biblical scholars
20th-century Israeli rabbis

Moshe Greenberg


Bagi sistem pita yang digunakan untuk data komputer, lihat pemacu pita.

Satu perakam pita, dek pita atau mesin pita audio adalah peranti penyimpanan audio yang merekodkan dan memainkan semula bunyi, termasuk suara percakapan, yang biasanya menggunakan pita magnet, sama ada digulung pada gelendong atau dalam bentuk kaset, sebagai simpanan. Dalam bentuk hari ini, ia merakamkan isyarat turun naik dengan menggerakkan pita melalui kepala pita yang mengutubkan medan magnet dalam pita berkadaran dengan isyarat audio. Alat perakam pita termasuk dek pita gelendong ke gelendong dan dek kaset.

Penggunaan pita magnet untuk rakaman bunyi bermula sekitar 1930. Pita bermagnet mengubah kedua-dua industri penyiaran radio dan rakaman muzik. Ia memberikan artis dan pengeluar kuasa untuk merakam dan merakam semula rekod audio dengan kehilangan kualiti yang rendah serta mengedit dan menyusun semula rakaman dengan mudah. Teknologi rakaman alternatif pada era tersebut, cakera transkripsi dan perakam wayar , tidak mampu menyaingi tahap kualiti dan fungsi pada tahap yang serupa. Disebabkan beberapa peningkatan awal meningkatkan fideliti bunyi yang dihasilkan semula, pita magnetik memberikan kualiti rakaman analog tertinggi yang ada. Walau bagaimanapun, pada dekad pertama abad ke-21, pita magnetik analog kebanyakannya telah digantikan dengan rakaman teknologi digital bagi tujuan kebanyakan rakaman bunyi.

Sebelum pembangunan pita magnet, perakam wayar magnetik telah berjaya mempamerkan konsep rakaman magnetik, tetapi ia tidak pernah menawarkan kualiti audio yang setanding dengan rakaman dan penyiaran piwaian lain pada masa itu. Sesetengah individu dan organisasi membangunkan kegunaan inovatif bagi perakam wayar bermagnet manakala yang lain menyelidik teknologi variasi. Satu perubahan penting adalah pemakaian bedak oksida pada jalur kertas yang panjang. Ciptaan Jerman ini merupakan permulaan rentetan inovasi yang panjang yang telah membawa hingga perakam pita magnet pada hari ini.

Sejarah

Varian terawal: perakam jalur lilin bukan bermagnet
Perakam pita audio yang paling awal diketahui versi bukan bermagnet, bukan elektrik yang dicipta oleh makmal Volta Alexander Graham Bell dan dipatenkan pada tahun 1886  (). Ia menggunakan satu jalur kertas lilin 16/3 inci lebar (4.8 mm) yang dilindungi dengan mencelup ia dalam larutan lilin lebah dan parafin dan kemudian mempunyai satu sisi yang dikikis licin, sementara sisi yang lain dibenarkan mengeras. Mesin ini dibina dengan menggunakan kayu dan logam yang kukuh, dan berkuasa tangan melalui tombol yang dilekatkan pada roda tenaga . Jalur lilin melalui satu gelendung satu per lapan inci mengelilingi pinggir takal (dengan panduan bebibir) yang dipasang pada takal-V pada aci menegak utama, di mana ia bertembung dengan sama ada stylus perakam atau pemain balik. Pita itu kemudiannya digulung pada gelendong lain. Stylus perakam yang tajam, digetarkan oleh diafragma mika bergetar, mengukir lilin dari jalur. Dalam mod main balik, stylus tumpul, dipasang longgar, dilekatkan pada diafragma getah, membawa bunyi yang dihasilkan semula melalui tiub telinga kepada pendengar itu.

Kedua-dua kepala rakaman dan main semula, dipasang silang-seli pada dua tiang, yang boleh diselaraskan secara menegak agar beberapa rakaman boleh dipotong pada jalur 16/3 inci lebar (4.8 mm) yang sama. Walaupun mesin ini tidak pernah dibangunkan secara komersial, ia adalah satu moyang menarik bagi perakam pita magnetik moden yang menyerupai dari segi reka bentuknya. Pita dan mesin yang dibuat oleh syarikat-syarikat sekutu Bell, diperiksa di salah sebuah Institusi muzium Smithsonian, menjadi rapuh, dan kertas gulungan yang berat meleding. Kepala main balik mesin juga hilang. Jika tidak, dengan beberapa pemulihan, ia boleh dipulihkan kembali berfungsi.

Photoelectric variant
In 1932, after six years of developmental work, Merle Duston, a Detroit radio engineer, created a tape recorder that used a low-cost chemically treated paper tape, capable of recording both sounds and voice.  During the recording process, the tape moved through a pair of electrodes which immediately imprinted the modulated sound signals as visible black stripes into the paper tape's surface.  The sound track could be immediately replayed from the same recorder unit, which also contained photoelectric sensors, somewhat similar to the various motion picture sound-on-film technologies of the era.

On 13 August 1931, Duston filed USPTO Patent Application #556,743 for "Method Of And Apparatus For Electrically Recording And Reproducing Sound And Other Vibrations", and which was renewed in 1934.

Magnetic recording
Magnetic recording was conceived as early as 1877 by the American engineer Oberlin Smith and demonstrated in practice in 1898 by Danish engineer Valdemar Poulsen.  Analog magnetic wire recording, and its successor, magnetic tape recording, involve the use of a magnetizable medium which moves with a constant speed past a recording head. An electrical signal, which is analogous to the sound that is to be recorded, is fed to the recording head, inducing a pattern of magnetization similar to the signal. A playback head can then pick up the changes in magnetic field from the tape and convert it into an electrical signal.

Steel wire magnetic recorder variant

The first wire recorder was the Valdemar Poulsen Telegraphone of the late 1890s, and wire recorders for law/office dictation and telephone recording were made almost continuously by various companies (mainly the American Telegraphone Company) through the 1920s and 1930s. These devices were mostly sold as consumer technologies after World War II.

Widespread use of the wire recording device occurred within the decades spanning from 1940 until 1960, following the development of inexpensive designs licensed internationally by the Brush Development Company of Cleveland, Ohio and the Armour Research Foundation of the Armour Institute of Technology (later Illinois Institute of Technology). These two organizations licensed dozens of manufacturers in the U.S., Japan, and Europe.  Wire was also used as a recording medium in black box voice recorders for aviation in the 1950s.

Consumer wire recorders were marketed for home entertainment or as an inexpensive substitute for commercial office dictation recorders, but the development of consumer magnetic tape recorders starting in 1946, with the BK 401 Soundmirror,using paper-based tape, quickly drove wire recorders from the market.

Early steel tape recorders
In 1924 a German engineer, Dr. Kurt Stille, developed the Poulsen wire recorder as a dictating machine. The following year a fellow German Louis Blattner, working in Britain, licensed Stille's device and started work on the developments which produced the Blattnerphone, now using steel tape.

The BBC installed a Blattnerphone at Avenue House in September 1930 for tests, and used it to record King George V's speech at the opening of the India Round Table Conference on 12 November 1930. Though not considered suitable for music the machine continued in use and was moved to Broadcasting House in March 1932, a second machine also being installed.

The tape was 6mm wide and 0.08mm thick, travelling at 5 feet per second; the recording time was 20 minutes.

In September 1932 a new model was installed, using 3mm tape with a recording time of 32 minutes.

In 1933 the Marconi Company purchased the rights to the Blattnerphone, and newly developed Marconi-Stille recorders were installed in the BBC's Maida Vale Studios in March 1935. The quality was slightly improved, though it still tended to be obvious that one was listening to a recording, as was the reliability. A reservoir system containing a loop of tape helped to stabilize the speed (there was also a smaller one just before the heads). The tape was 3mm wide and travelled at 1.5 metres/second. By September there were three recording rooms, each with two machines.

They were hardly easy to handle. The spools were heavy (and expensive) and the tape has been described as being like a travelling razor blade. The tape was liable to snap, particularly at joints, which at that speed could rapidly cover the floor with loops of the sharp-edged tape. Rewinding was done at twice the speed of the recording.

However despite all this, the ability to make replayable recordings was extremely useful, and even with subsequent methods coming into use (direct-cut discs and Philips-Miller optical film) the Marconi-Stilles remained in use until the late 1940s.

German developments
Magnetic tape recording as we know it today was developed in Germany during the 1930s at BASF (then part of the chemical giant IG Farben) and AEG in cooperation with the RRG.  This was based on Fritz Pfleumer's 1928 invention of paper tape with oxide powder lacquered to it. The first practical tape recorder from AEG was the Magnetophon K1, demonstrated in Germany in 1935. Eduard Schüller of AEG built the recorders and developed a ring shaped recording and playback head.  It replaced the needle shaped head which tended to shred the tape. Friedrich Matthias of IG Farben/BASF developed the recording tape, including the oxide, the binder, and the backing material. Walter Weber, working for Hans Joachim von Braunmühl at the RRG, discovered the AC biasing technique, which radically improved sound quality.

During World War II, the Allies noticed that certain German officials were making radio broadcasts from multiple time zones almost simultaneously. Analysts such as Richard H. Ranger believed that the broadcasts had to be transcriptions, but their audio quality was indistinguishable from that of a live broadcast and their duration was far longer than was possible with 78 rpm discs. (The Allies were aware of the existence of the pre-war Magnetophon recorders, but not of the introduction of high-frequency bias and PVC-backed tape.) In the final stages of the war in Europe, the Allied capture of a number of German Magnetophon recorders from Radio Luxembourg aroused great interest. These recorders incorporated all of the key technological features of modern analog magnetic recording and were the basis for future developments in the field.

Commercialization

American developments
Development of magnetic tape recorders in the late 1940s and early 1950s is associated with the Brush Development Company and its licensee, Ampex.  The equally important development of the magnetic tape media itself was led by Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing (3M) corporation.

In 1938, S.J. Begun left Germany and joined the Brush Development Company in the United States, where work continued but attracted little attention until the late 1940s when the company released the very first consumer tape recorder in 1946: the Soundmirror BK 401. Several other models were quickly released in the following years. Tapes were initially made of paper coated with magnetite powder. Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Company (3M) replaced them by plastic tapes in 1948.

American audio engineer John T. Mullin and entertainer Bing Crosby were key players in the commercial development of magnetic tape.  Mullin served in the U.S. Army Signal Corps and was posted to Paris in the final months of WWII.  His unit was assigned to find out everything they could about German radio and electronics, including the investigation of claims that the Germans had been experimenting with high-energy directed radio beams as a means of disabling the electrical systems of aircraft.  Mullin's unit soon amassed a collection of hundreds of low-quality magnetic dictating machines, but it was a chance visit to a studio at Bad Nauheim near Frankfurt while investigating radio beam rumours, that yielded the real prize.

Mullin was given two suitcase-sized AEG 'Magnetophon' high-fidelity recorders and fifty reels of recording tape.  He had them shipped home and over the next two years he worked on the machines constantly, modifying them and improving their performance. His major aim was to interest Hollywood studios in using magnetic tape for movie soundtrack recording.

Mullin gave two public demonstrations of his machines, and they caused a sensation among American audio professionals; many listeners literally could not believe that what they were hearing was not a live performance.  By luck, Mullin's second demonstration was held at MGM studios in Hollywood and in the audience that day was Bing Crosby's technical director, Murdo Mackenzie.  He arranged for Mullin to meet Crosby and in June 1947 he gave Crosby a private demonstration of his magnetic tape recorders.

Bing Crosby's influence
Bing Crosby, a top movie and singing star, was stunned by the amazing sound quality and instantly saw the huge commercial potential of the new machines. Live music was the standard for American radio at the time and the major radio networks didn't permit the use of disc recording in many programs because of their comparatively poor sound quality. Crosby disliked the regimentation of live broadcasts 39 weeks a year, preferring the recording studio's relaxed atmosphere and ability to retain the best parts of a performance. He had asked NBC to let him pre-record his 1944-45 series on transcription discs, but the network refused, so Crosby had withdrawn from live radio for a year. ABC agreed to let him use transcription discs for the 1946-47 season, but listeners complained about the sound quality.

Mullin's tape recorder came along at precisely the right moment. Crosby realised that the new technology would enable him to pre-record his radio show with a sound quality that equalled live broadcasts, and that these tapes could be replayed many times with no appreciable loss of quality. Mullin was asked to tape one show as a test and was immediately hired as Crosby's chief engineer to pre-record the rest of the series.

Crosby's season premier on 1 October 1947 was the first magnetic tape broadcast in America. He became the first major American music star to use tape to pre-record radio broadcasts, and the first to master commercial recordings on tape. The taped Crosby radio shows were painstakingly edited through tape-splicing to give them a pace and flow that was wholly unprecedented in radio. Mullin even claims to have been the first to use "canned laughter"; at the insistence of Crosby's head writer, Bill Morrow, he inserted a segment of raucous laughter from an earlier show into a joke in a later show that hadn't worked well. Soon other radio performers were demanding the ability to prerecord their broadcasts with the high quality of tape, and the recording ban was lifted.

Keen to make use of the new recorders as soon as possible, Crosby invested $50,000 of his own money into the Californian electronics company Ampex, and the tiny six-man concern (headed by Alexander M. Poniatoff, whose initials became part of the company name) soon became the world leader in the development of tape recording, revolutionising radio and recording with its famous Model 200 tape deck, issued in 1948 and developed directly from Mullin's modified Magnetophons.

Tape recording at the BBC

The BBC acquired some Magnetophone machines in 1946 on an experimental basis, and these were used in the early stages of the new Third Programme to record and play back performances of operas from Germany (live relays being problematic because of the unreliability of the landlines in the immediate post-war period).

These machines were used until 1952, though most of the work continued to be done using the established media; but from 1948 a new British model became available from EMI: the BTR1. Though in many ways clumsy, its quality was good, and as it wasn't possible to obtain any more Magnetophones it was an obvious choice.

In 1963 The Beatles were allowed to enhance their recordings at the BBC by overdubbing. The BBC didn't have any multi track tapes. They would copy them onto another tape.

In the early 1950s the EMI BTR 2 became available (right); a much improved machine and generally liked. It became the standard in recording channels (rooms) for many years, and was in use until the end of the 1960s.

The machines were responsive, could run up to speed quite quickly, had light-touch operating buttons, forward-facing heads (The BTR 1s had rear-facing heads which made editing difficult), and were quick and easy to do the finest editing on.

The tape speed was eventually standardized at 15 ips for almost all work at Broadcasting House, and at 15 ips for music and 7½ ips for speech at Bush House. Broadcasting House also used the EMI TR90 and a Philips machine which was lightweight but very easy and quick to use: Bush House used several Leevers-Rich models.

The Studer range of machines had become pretty well the studio recording industry standard by the 1970s, and gradually these replaced the ageing BTR2s in recording rooms and studios. By the mid-2000s tape was pretty well out of use and had been replaced by digital playout systems.

Standardized products
Working with Mullin in The USA, Ampex rapidly developed two-track stereo and then three-track recorders.

The typical professional audio tape recorder of the early 1950s used ¼" wide tape on 10½" reels, with a capacity of 2400 feet (730 metres). Typical speeds were initially 15 in/s (38.1 cm/s) yielding 30 minutes' recording time on a 2400 ft (730 m) reel. 30 in/s (76.2 cm/s) was used for the highest quality work. Domestic and portable recorders used seven, five or even three inch reels (or spools). Early professional machines used single sided spools but double sided spools soon became popular (particularly for domestic use). Tape spools were usually made from transparent plastic but metal spools were also used.

Standard tape speeds varied by factors of two — 15 and 30 in/s were used for professional audio recording; 7½ in/s (19 cm/s) for home audiophile prerecorded tapes; 7½ and 3¾ in/s (19 and 9.5 cm/s) for audiophile and consumer recordings (typically on 7 in or 18 cm reels). 1⅞ in/s (4.76 cm/s) and occasionally even 15/16 in/s (2.38 cm/s) were used for voice, dictation, and applications where very long recording times were needed, such as logging police and fire department calls.

The 8-Track tape standard, promoted by Bill Lear in the early 1960s, popularized consumer audio playback in automobiles.  Eventually, this standard was replaced by the smaller and more reliable Compact Cassette.

Philips' development of the Compact Cassette in 1963 and Sony's development of the Walkman in 1979  led to widespread consumer use of magnetic audio tape.  In 1990, the Compact Cassette was the dominant format in mass-market recorded music.  The development of Dolby noise reduction technology in the 1960s brought audiophile quality recording to the Compact Cassette also contributing to its popularity.

Later developments
Since their first introduction, analog tape recorders have experienced a long series of progressive developments resulting in increased sound quality, convenience, and versatility.

 Two-track and, later, multi-track heads permitted discrete recording and playback of individual sound sources, such as two stereophonic channels, or different microphones during live recording. The more versatile machines could be switched to record on some tracks while playing back others, permitting additional tracks to be "laid down" in synchronisation with previously recorded material such as a rhythm track.
 Use of separate heads for recording vs. playback (three heads total, counting the erase head) enabled monitoring of the recorded signal a fraction of a second after recording. Mixing the playback signal back into the record input also created a primitive echo generator.
 Dynamic range compression during recording and expansion during playback expanded the available dynamic range and improved the signal-to-noise ratio. dbx and Dolby Laboratories introduced add-on products in this area, originally for studio use, and later in versions for the consumer market. In particular, "Dolby B" noise reduction became very common in all but the least expensive cassette tape recorders.

 Computer-controlled analog tape recorders were introduced by Oscar Bonello in Argentina. The mechanical transport used three DC motors and introduced two new advances: automated microprocessor transport control and automatic adjustment of bias and frequency response. In 30 seconds the recorder adjusted its bias for minimum THD and best frequency response to match the brand and batch of magnetic tape used. The microprocessor control of transport allowed fast location of any point on the tape.

Operation

Electrical
Electric current flowing in the coils of the tape head creates a fluctuating magnetic field. This causes the magnetic material on the tape, which is moving past and in contact with the head, to align in a manner proportional to the original signal. The signal can be reproduced by running the tape back across the tape head, where the reverse process occurs – the magnetic imprint on the tape induces a small current in the read head which approximates the original signal and is then amplified for playback. Many tape recorders are capable of recording and playing back at once by means of separate record and playback heads in line or combined in one unit.

Mechanical
Modern professional recorders usually use a three-motor scheme. One motor with a constant rotational speed drives the capstan. This, usually combined with a rubber pinch roller, ensures that the tape speed does not fluctuate. The other two motors, which are called Torque Motors, apply equal and opposite torques to the supply and take up reels during recording and play back functions and maintain the tape's tension. During fast winding operations the pinch roller is disengaged and the take up reel motor is supplied with a higher voltage than the supply motor. The cheapest models use a single motor for all required functions; the motor drives the capstan directly and the supply and take-up reels are loosely coupled to the capstan motor with slipping belts or clutches.  There are also variants with two motors, in which one motor is used for rewinding only.

Limitations
The storage of an analogue signal on tape works well, but is not perfect. In particular, the granular nature of the magnetic material adds high-frequency noise to the signal, generally referred to as tape hiss. Also, the magnetic characteristics of tape are not linear. They exhibit a characteristic hysteresis curve, which causes unwanted distortion of the signal. Some of this distortion is overcome by using an inaudible high-frequency AC bias signal when recording, though the amount of bias needs careful adjustment for best results. Different tape material requires differing amounts of bias, which is why most recorders have a switch to select this (or, in a cassette recorder, switch automatically based on cutouts in the cassette shell). Additionally, systems such as Dolby noise reduction systems (Dolby B, Dolby C, Dolby S and Dolby HX-Pro) have been devised to ameliorate some of the noise and distortion problems. Variations in tape speed cause flutter, which can be reduced by using dual capstans. Higher speeds used in professional recorders are prone to cause "head bumps," which are fluctuations in low-frequency response.

Tape recorder variety

There are a wide variety of tape recorders in existence, from small hand-held devices to large multitrack machines. A machine with built-in speakers and audio power amplification to drive them is usually called a "tape recorder" or – if it has no record functionality – a "tape player," while one that requires external amplification for playback is usually called a "tape deck" (regardless of whether it can record).

Multitrack technology enabled the development of modern art music and one such artist, Brian Eno, described the tape recorder as "an automatic musical collage device".

Uses

Magnetic tape brought about sweeping changes in both radio and the recording industry. Sound could be recorded, erased and re-recorded on the same tape many times, sounds could be duplicated from tape to tape with only minor loss of quality, and recordings could now be very precisely edited by physically cutting the tape and rejoining it. In August, 1948, Los Angeles-based Capitol Records became the first recording company to use the new process.

Within a few years of the introduction of the first commercial tape recorder, the Ampex 200 model, launched in 1948, American musician-inventor Les Paul had invented the first multitrack tape recorder, bringing about another technical revolution in the recording industry. Tape made possible the first sound recordings totally created by electronic means, opening the way for the bold sonic experiments of the Musique Concrète school and avant garde composers like Karlheinz Stockhausen, which in turn led to the innovative pop music studio recordings of artists such as Frank Zappa, The Beatles and The Beach Boys.

Tape enabled the radio industry for the first time to pre-record  many sections of program content such as advertising, which formerly had to be presented live, and it also enabled the creation and duplication of complex, high-fidelity, long-duration recordings of entire programs. It also, for the first time, allowed broadcasters, regulators and other interested parties to undertake comprehensive logging of radio broadcasts for legislative and commercial purposes, leading to the growth of the  modern media monitoring industry.

Innovations, like multitrack recording and tape echo, enabled radio programs and advertisements to be pre-produced to a level of complexity and sophistication that was previously unattainable and tape also led to significant changes to the pacing of program content, thanks to the introduction of the endless-loop tape cartridge.

An important use of tape recorders is the recording of video. Video cassette recorders differ substantially from audio recorders due to the use of a rotating magnetic head that uses a helical scan over the tape medium. Helical scans increase the relative speed of the tape surface over the head.

While they are primarily used for sound recording, tape machines were also important for data storage before the advent of floppy disks and CDs, and are still used today, although primarily to provide an offline backup to hard disk drives.

Tapedeck speeds
Professional decks will use higher tape speeds, with 15 and 30 inches per second being most common, while lower tape speeds are usually used for smaller recorders and cassette players, in order to save space where fidelity is not as critical as in professional recorders. By providing a range of tape speeds, users can trade-off recording time against signal quality with higher tape speeds providing greater frequency response.

There are many different tape speeds which are in use in all sorts of tape recorders. Speed may be expressed in centimeters per second (cm/s) or in inches per second (in/s).

Lihat juga
 Audio editing
 Audio tape length and thickness - Details of different audio tape formats.
 Digital audio – History of digital audio use in commercial recording
 Digital voice recorder
 Electromagnetism
 Electronic music
 History of sound recording – Magnetic recording - Magnetic tape in the context of the history of sound recording.
 Multitrack recording - Advanced usage of sophisticated tape recorders.
 Preservation of magnetic audiotape
 Reel-to-reel audio tape recording - Details of using old style recorders.
 Sound follower - For film
 Sound recording and reproduction
 Volta Laboratory-Sound recording
 Wire recording

Format pita

Nota

Rujukan
 This article incorporates text from the United States National Museum Bulletin, a government publication in the public domain.

Pautan luar

 Tape Recorder - Interactive Java Tutorial National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
 WikiRecording's Guide to Analog Tape
 A timeline of developments in magnetic recording.
 A History of Magnetic Recording BBC/H2G2
 A Selected History of Magnetic Recording
 Walter Weber's Technical Innovation at the Reichs-Rundfunk-Gesellschaft
 Timeline from U of San Diego's Archive
 History of Recording Technology (WayBack Machine)
 History of Magnetic Tape (WayBack Machine)
 Description of the recording process with diagrams. pg. 2, pg. 3, pg. 4, pg. 5.
 Recording at the BBC - a brief history of various sound recording methods used by the BBC.

Audio storage
Sound production technology
Sound recording
Sound recording technology
Articles containing video clips

Perakam pita


The World Geodetic System (WGS) is a standard for use in cartography, geodesy, and navigation including GPS.

It comprises a standard coordinate system for the Earth, a standard for raw altitude data, and a geoid that defines the nominal sea level. The latest revision is WGS 84.

Geocodes
Geodesy

World Geodetic System


Distribution is the action of sharing something out among a number of recipients.

The word distribution has several usages:

Mathematics
In mathematics a distribution is a generalization of a function to be able to model certain systems, inspired by physics, see distribution (mathematics).

Probability theory and statistics
In Probability theory, it refers to the way a certain number of samples can be assigned to different categories, see Frequency distribution.
In Statistics, it refers to the probability that a random variable has a certain value, or falls inside a given interval, see Probability distribution. This is the theoretical counterpart behind frequency distributions.

Economics
In Economics, it talks about getting a product from the producer to the client. See distribution (economics).
This incudes things like movies and video games

Computer science
In Computer science, it may refer to the practice of allocating a number of tasks to different machines, scattered over a network. See distributed computing.

Computing
With Software, a distribution is something that puts different applications in the same package. See Linux distribution for an example.

Biology
The study of the distribution of living things on the Earth is called biogeography.

Power system
 In power system, the process of delivering electricity to customer is called Electric power distribution.

Basic English 850 words
Movie distribution

Distribution


A rowing cycle is a wheeled vehicle propelled by a rowing motion of the body. Steering, braking, and shifting are usually done by the handlebars. Feet are on symmetrical foot rests, as opposed to rotating pedals. Unlike many rowing boats, the rider faces forward. Rowing cycles exist in numerous designs, particularly with respect to frames and drive mechanisms. Commercial production numbers for rowing cycles are small compared to that of standard bicycles.

History

The use of a rowing-like action to propel a land vehicle goes probably to the 1870s, as George W. Lee used a sliding-seat in a tricycle. Roadsculler races were held in Madison Square Garden in the 1880s. A toy catalog from FAO Schwarz in 1911 advertised a four-wheeled "Row-Cycle" for children, operated using two levers in a standing position and with steering done by the feet. In the 1920s, Manfred Curry in Germany designed and constructed the Landskiff ("land boat"), a four-wheeled vehicle that would be known as a Rowmobile in the English speaking countries.  A newsreel from 1937 shows a rowed bicycle that is very similar to today's Craftsbury SS rowing bicycle, Rowbike and VogaBike.

Propulsion and steering

Some rowed vehicles use a stroke similar to a boat, in that force is used only when straightening the body, the drive portion of the stroke, not the recovery. Other rowed vehicles, mostly those that use linkages and crankshafts in their drive trains, use force in both straightening and bending the body. On most, the handlebars move; most also have moving footrests and some have a moving seat.

The handle bars on some rowed vehicles travel on a semicircular path due to the handlebars being mounted to a fixed length lever pinned to the frame. Some attempt to simulate the more level stroke used in rowing a boat, for example Streetrower and Vogabike. The September 2007 issue of Velovision magazine claimed that Streetrower has "the most natural rowing action of any rowing vehicle to date".

The Streetrower uses a steering system actuated by servos and controlled by the rider with a joy stick.

Drive train
Rowed vehicles generally have one of three drive trains: chain, linkages, or cable.

The Rowbike brand uses a standard bicycle chain, rear gears, and derailleur. The chain does not travel in a loop, as is the case with a standard bicycle. It moves back and forth over the rear cog in a reciprocating motion. The chain is connected at one end to the frame of the rowbike and to a bungee cord on the other. As the rower pulls back the chain engages the rear cog and the bungee cord is extended, and when the rower returns forward the bungee cord contracts, pulling the chain back and ensuring there is no slack in the chain. All Rowbikes have a rear derailleur, even single speeds, due to the need to keep proper tension in the chain.

Rowbikes that use linkages include Champiot and Powerpumper. They use linkages connected to a crank shaft, similar to a pedal car.

The Thys Rowingbike and Streetrower use a cable which coils and uncoils about a spiral-shaped spool. Thys calls his version a snek drive (after the Dutch term for Fusee (horology)).

Tandem, three and four wheeled variants
Balancing on a two-wheeled rowed vehicle while rowing requires some practice, even for a skilled bicyclist. Tricycle and quadracycle forms are usually heavier but do not share this problem. The Streetrower is a tricycle with two wheels at the front and one at the rear; the Vogatrike also has three wheels. An early quadracycle, the 'Irish Mail', was similar to railroad handcars used by railroad workers to inspect tracks. The four-wheeled Champiot is reminiscent of the 'Irish Mail' type machine in that it uses linkages, not a chain, in its drive train.

Thys has produced a tandem rowingbike.

See also
Handcycles
Indoor rower
 Outline of cycling
Quadracycle (human-powered vehicle)
Tricycle

References

External links
A variety of rowing bikes
Irish Mails - an early 1900s rowed quadracycle
Landrower and Rowcycle tricycles

Rowing equipment
Cycle types

Rowing cycle