Japanese folklore is the folklore of Japan. It is very influenced by Shinto and Buddhism, the two most important religions in the country. It usually includes humorous or strange characters and situations. It also includes many supernatural creatures, such as kami (gods and revered spirits), yōkai (monster-spirits) (like oni, kappa, and tengu), onryō (ghosts), dragons, and animals with supernatural powers like the kitsune (fox), tanuki (raccoon dog), mujina (badger), and bakeneko (transforming cat).

Japanese folklore is often divided into several categories: "mukashibanashi," tales of long-ago; "namidabanashi", sad stories; "obakebanashi", ghost stories; "ongaeshibanashi", stories of kindness; "tonchibanashi", witty stories; "waraibanashi", funny stories; and "yokubaribanashi", stories of greed.

Some famous Japanese folktales and legends include:

The story of Kintarō, the superhuman Golden Boy.
The story of Momotarō, the hero Peach Boy.
The story of Urashima Tarō, who rescued a turtle and visited the bottom of the sea.
The story of Issun-Bōshi, the One-inch Boy.
The story of the evil fox-woman Tamamo-no-Mae.
The story of Hōmyō dōji who converts a king to Buddhist
Shita-kiri Suzume, the story of the sparrow with its tongue cut off.
The story of Kiyohime, who wanted revenge, and who became a dragon.
Banchō Sarayashiki, the ghost story of Okiku and the Nine Plates.
Yotsuya Kaidan, the ghost story of Oiwa.
Kachi-kachi Yama, the story of an evil raccoon-dog and a heroic rabbit.
Hanasaka Jiisan, the story of the old man that made the flowers bloom

Related pages
Japanese mythology

References

Japanese folklore

Japanese folklore


Asbestosis is a disease of the lungs caused by inhaling fibers of asbestos. It is not to be confused with mesothelioma, a cancer of the lungs which is also caused by inhaling asbestos fibers. Asbestosis has been the subject of many lawsuits, and many lawyers specialize in asbestosis and mesothelioma.

References

Related pages
Pneumoconiosis
Silicosis

Breathing problems
Asbestos

Asbestosis


Roderick Parry Clements (born 17 November 1947 in North Shields, Northumberland) is a British guitarist, singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist. He formed the folk-rock band Lindisfarne with Alan Hull in 1970, and wrote "Meet Me on the Corner", a UK Top 5 hit in March 1972, which won Clements an Ivor Novello Award. Lindisfarne broke up in 1973 and Clements became a founding member of Jack the Lad, also working with Ralph McTell and Bert Jansch.  Lindisfarne reformed in 1977 and Clements continued to be part of the line-up until 2003. Rod rejoined Lindisfarne in 2015 and is currently touring and performing with the band.

Career
Clements was an only child, and grew up in a household in which neither parent was especially active musically, though his mother did play the piano. His father was a lover of classical music and he encouraged his son to attend concerts. Clements attended The King's School, Tynemouth after which, at the age of 12, he was sent to Durham School. He subsequently attended Durham University (St. Cuthbert's Society) graduating with a BA in ancient history and anthropology.

From an early age he had been able to pick up a tune and play it and his first inspiration to play the guitar came from hearing the hits of Duane Eddy, The Shadows and The Ventures. By 1965 he had formed an R&B group called Downtown Faction.

As a bass guitarist, Clements teamed up with local musicians in North Shields to form a blues band (also called the Downtown Faction). The band was later renamed Brethren, and became regular performers at folk clubs in the North East. Clements befriended a Newcastle singer/songwriter called Alan Hull, and formed the folk-rock band Lindisfarne with him and several members of Brethren in 1970. Although Hull was Lindisfarne's main songwriter, Clements provided the band with its first hit in "Meet Me on the Corner", a UK Top 5 hit in March 1972. Clements won a Certificate of Honour at the Ivor Novello Awards for the song.

Lindisfarne broke up in 1973 and Clements became a founding member of Jack the Lad, which also included two other former Lindisfarne members, on whose debut album It's Jack The Lad he played a significant role as multi-instrumentalist and songwriter. In 1974 he played bass on Ralph McTell's "Streets of London", which topped the UK charts at Christmas that year. Clements went on to tour and record several albums with McTell. He also worked with Bert Jansch, touring Britain and Europe and working as Producer on Bert's comeback album A Rare Conundrum. Clements and Jansch also recorded a Woody Guthrie tribute album, Woody Lives!, and the jointly credited Leather Launderette.

Lindisfarne reformed in 1977 and Clements continued to be part of the line-up, contributing many songs to albums such as Back and Fourth, The News, Sleepless Nights and Dance Your Life Away. Following Alan Hull's death in 1995 Rod became the band's main songwriter who, in partnership with producer and co-writer Nigel Stonier, provided the bulk of material for Lindisfarne's two last albums, Here Comes The Neighbourhood (1998) and Promenade (2002). The band finally broke up following a concert in Newcastle Opera House in November 2003.

Clements' main role in Lindisfarne was that of bassist until 1990, when he moved to slide guitar and mandolin; his former role was filled thereafter by Steve Cunningham and latterly Ian Thomson.  Clements also played violin from time to time, most notably in the instrumental break of "Fog on the Tyne", both on stage and on disc.

Clements has also toured and recorded with Rab Noakes and Michael Chapman and performed on albums by Peter Hammill, Wizz Jones and Kathryn Tickell amongst others. He has also supplied bass, dobro, and guitar parts to albums by singer/songwriter Thea Gilmore, who has herself appeared on Rod's solo albums.

Clements released the album One Track Mind in 1994, and followed this with Stamping Ground in 2000, having written or co-written each of the tracks. Another album, Odd Man Out was released in 2006. It was produced by Nigel Stonier. Spring 2008 saw the reissue with bonus tracks of One Track Mind. He continues to tour regularly, performing a mixture of Lindisfarne and solo songs.

Songs written by Clements have been covered by artists including Melanie Safka and Joe Brown; and a Clements/Stonier composition, "Can't Do Right For Doing Wrong", was a British Top 30 hit for Erin Rocha at Christmas 2003.

Clements re-joined Lindisfarne in 2015, replacing co-founder Ray Jackson retired from the band, with the band he now performs vocals, slide guitar, mandolin, violin.

Discography
Solo albums
 One Track Mind (1994)
 Stamping Ground (2000)
 Live Ghosts (2004)
 Odd Man Out (2006)
 One Track Mind 2008 (2008) – with bonus tracks

Lindisfarne albums with Clements
 Nicely Out of Tune (1970)
 Fog on the Tyne (1971)
 Dingly Dell (1972)
 Back And Fourth (1978)
 The News (1979)
 Sleepless Nights (1982)
 Dance Your Life Away (1986)
 Amigos (1989)
 Elvis Lives on the Moon (1993)
 Blues from the Bothy (EP) (1997)
 Here Comes the Neighbourhood (1998)
 Promenade (2002)

Jack the Lad
 It's Jack the Lad (1973)

 with Bert Jansch
 "In the Bleak Midwinter" (single) (1974)
 A Rare Conundrum (1976)

 Bert Jansch & Rod Clements
 Leather Launderette (1988)

 with Ralph McTell
 "Streets of London" (single) (1974)
 Streets (album) (1975)
 Right Side Up (1976)
 Songs from Alphabet Zoo (1983)

 with Prelude
 Owl Creek Incident (1975)

 with Dando Shaft
 Kingdom (1977)

 with Michael Chapman
 The Man Who Hated Mornings (1977)
 Looking for Eleven (1980)
 Plaindealer (2005)

 with Jim Rafferty
 Don't Talk Back (1978)

 with Rab Noakes
 Rab Noakes (1980)
 Under the Rain (1983)
 Throwing Shapes (Rab Noakes & The Varaflames) (2000)

 with Thea Gilmore
 The Lipstick Conspiracies (2000)
 Songs from the Gutter (2002)

 with Nigel Stonier
 Golden Coins (1993)
 Brimstone & Blue (2002)

 with Peter Hammill
 Fool's Mate (1971)

 with Wizz Jones
 Happiness Was Free (1976)

 with Kathryn Tickell
 Borderlands (1986)

 with Pentangle
 So Early in the Spring (1989)

 with Mark Knopfler
 Newport Mount Rag (recorded 1974)

Various artists
 Woody Lives! (Woody Guthrie tribute album) (1987)
 People on the Highway (Bert Jansch tribute album) (2000)

References

External links

 Discography
 Odd Man Out

1947 births
Living people
English folk musicians
British folk rock musicians
English folk guitarists
English male guitarists
English blues musicians
English blues guitarists
Slide guitarists
English bass guitarists
Male bass guitarists
English multi-instrumentalists
Folk fiddlers
British mandolinists
English male singers
English male songwriters
People from North Shields
Musicians from Tyne and Wear
People educated at The King's School, Tynemouth
Alumni of St Cuthbert's Society, Durham
Pentangle (band) members
Lindisfarne (band) members
21st-century violinists
21st-century British male musicians

Rod Clements


Gotthard Deutsch (; 31 January 1859 – 14 October 1921) was a scholar of Jewish history.

Education
Deutsch was born in Dolní Kounice, Moravia, Austria, as Eliezer Deutsch, the son of Bernhard L. Deutsch, a merchant, and Elise Wiener. He always called himself Gotthard, an attempted translation into German of his Jewish given name. Deutsch entered Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau in October 1876. While attending seminary classes, he also enrolled in afternoon classes at the University of Breslau. At the seminary, he was influenced by the noted Jewish historian Heinrich Graetz. Matriculating in 1879 at the University of Vienna, two years later he received his Ph.D. in history. While attending the university, he enrolled in a Talmudic course taught by Isaac Hirsch Weiss at Beth Hammidrash. During his studies in Vienna, Deutsch drew inspiration and guidance from both Weiss and Adolf Jellinek, an authority in Midrashic research. Shortly after his graduation, Deutsch received Semichah (ordination) from Weiss.

Rabbinical and academic career
In 1881 Deutsch accepted a probational position as sabbath schoolteacher for a Jewish congregation in Brno, Moravia. The following year he was appointed to teach religion at the city's German high school. After teaching for six years (1881–1887) at Brno, he entered the rabbinate. His first and only charge came in 1887, in the town of Most, Bohemia. Deutsch was far from content at his new vocation. Soon, he yearned for an academic milieu and the opportunity of satisfying his craving for knowledge. At Most, he married in May 1888 Hermine Bacher; the couple had three sons and two daughters.

In 1891, at the invitation of Isaac Mayer Wise, Deutsch moved to the United States to accept the chair of Jewish history and philosophy at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati. After eleven years of teaching there, he was appointed dean. In February 1903, after the death of Moses Mielziner, he was designated acting president of the college, a position he held until October of the same year.

In 1912, Deutsch delivered lectures on Jewish history at the University of Chicago. While speaking at schools throughout the United States, Deutsch was also a guiding force at the local level. This included his association with the Cincinnati German Club and in 1909 his election to the Cincinnati Board of Education, a position he held for four years. Much of Deutsch's time was also spent as an editor and chief contributor to the Jewish Encyclopedia, as corresponding secretary for the Central Conference of American Rabbis, and as chairman of the conference's Committee on Contemporaneous History.

World War I
One of the turning points in Deutsch's life came with the United States's entry into World War I. His lifelong love for Germany had led Deutsch to support Woodrow Wilson's neutrality while aligning himself with the People's Council of America for Democracy and Peace. In the tide of anti-German hysteria, Deutsch found himself alone and ostracized. He spoke out singularly, sometimes bitterly, against his adopted country's wartime role. On 5 October 1917, federal agents and local detectives raided the council's headquarters.

Shortly thereafter, at a friend's naturalization hearing, Deutsch refused to answer the question "Who do you want to win in this war?" Those activities and subsequent newspaper headlines led many colleagues and the public to demand his immediate removal from the college's faculty. Only the staunch support of his students, friends, and leading Reform rabbis enabled Deutsch to continue teaching.

Death
Deutsch died at his home in Cincinnati at age 62. He was mourned by Jew and non-Jew, progressive and conservative; thousands filled the Cincinnati Crematory to pay their last respects.

Work and legacy
Although a biblical scholar, Deutsch is also known for his two novels and works on history and language. One of the world's greatest Jewish scholars, Deutsch possessed a knack for memorizing facts, biblical scriptures, secular literature, and world history. He also wrote in several languages, including Hebrew, Yiddish, German, French, and English.

A prolific writer, Deutsch produced hundreds of newspaper and journal articles with commentary; these appeared mainly in the Jewish Chronicle, American Hebrew, Central Conference of American Rabbis Yearbook, Hebrew Union College Journal, American Israelite, and American Journal of Theology. Besides contributing to Die Deborah, he succeeded Isaac Wise in 1901 as its editor. His list of scholarly works is equally impressive:

 Paradigmen-Tafeln zur hebräischen Grammatik (1886)
 Die Symbolik in Cultus und Dichtung bei den Hebräern (1886)
 Philosophy of Jewish History (1897)
 Andere Zeiten, eine Erzählung aus dem jüdischen Leben der jüngsten Vergangenheit (1898)
 Unlösbare Fesseln, eine Erzählung aus dem jüdischen Leben der Gegenwart (1903)
 Memorable Dates of Jewish History (1904)
 Four Epochs of Jewish History (1905)
 Israel Bruna, an Historical Tragedy in Five Acts (1908)
 The History of the Jews (1910)
 Der Glaube an Hobelspäne (1914)
 Scrolls (2 vols., 1917; 3rd vol., 1919), and other pamphlets and reprints. His works are considered by many to be the authoritative word on questions relating to the Jewish faith.

Sources
 The Bernhard Felsenthal Papers, in the Hebrew Jewish Archives, contain an extensive record of correspondences between Deutsch and Bernhard Felsenthal.
 Adolph S. Oko, Selected List of the Writings of Gotthard Deutsch (1916), presents an extensive bibliography of Deutsch's major publications.
 Biographical sketches of Deutsch are in Max Raisin, Great Jews I Have Known (1952), pp. 143–52, and an excellent unpublished sketch by Raisin in the Hebrew Jewish Archives.
Celebrating Deutsch's semi-jubilee, the Hebrew Union College Monthly (2, no. 8 [May 1916]) published a series of tributes and editorials by E. L. Heinsheimer, Henry Englander, Abraham Jehiel Feldman, S. Felix Mendelsohn, H. B. Cantor, and Jacob I. Meyer, among others. These papers treat Deutsch's religious concerns, contribution to literature, and his role in Jewish history.
 A useful history of Hebrew Union College is Samuel E. Karff, ed., Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion at One Hundred Years (1976).
 A comprehensive memorial by Henry Englander is in "Memorial Addresses and Resolutions: Gotthard Deutsch", Central Conference of American Rabbis 32 (1922): 145–49. Obituaries are in The New York Times, 15 Oct. 1921; American Hebrew, 21 Oct. 1921; B'nai B'rith News, Oct. 1921; Hebrew Union College Monthly 8, no. 5 (Mar. 1922); and Jewish Advocate, 20 Oct. 1921.
 Carl Edwin Lindgren, "Gottard Deutsch" American National Biography Online Feb. 2000 (Oxford University Press)

1859 births
1921 deaths
People from Dolní Kounice
Czech rabbis
19th-century Czech people
19th-century Austrian people
19th-century American people
Austrian Reform rabbis
Emigrants from Austria-Hungary to the United States
American Reform rabbis
Jewish historians
Historians of Jews and Judaism
Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion faculty
Jews and Judaism in Cincinnati
University of Breslau alumni
University of Vienna alumni
University of Chicago faculty
American people of Czech-Jewish descent
Religious leaders from Ohio
20th-century American rabbis
19th-century American rabbis

Gotthard Deutsch


Thallium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Tl. It has the atomic number 81. Its standard atomic weight is 204.4. It is found in Group 15 of the periodic table. Thallium is a gray metal that is very toxic.

Properties

Physical properties
Thallium is a soft, malleable, grayish post-transition metal. It can be cut with a knife at room temperature. It melts at a low temperature, 304 °C. This is typical of a post-transition metal. Thallium has 25 isotopes and two stable (nonradioactive) ones. It is extremely toxic.

Chemical properties

Thallium is a moderately reactive metal. It corrodes easily in air with a blue-gray color that is similar to lead. If it is kept in air for a long time, a large amount of thallium(I) oxide will build up. It corrodes in the presence of water to make the hydroxide. It burns with a greenish flame. It reacts with most acids.

Chemical compounds
Thallium makes chemical compounds in two oxidation states: +1 and +3. The +1 state is more common and less reactive. Its chemical compounds are very similar to potassium or silver compounds. It makes a hydroxide that in a strong base when dissolved in water. Most other transition metal and post-tranansition metal hydroxides do not dissolve in water. This reacts with carbon dioxide to make thallium(I) carbonate, which is also water-soluble and very heavy. It is the only heavy metal carbonate that can dissolve in water. Other compounds are similar to silver compounds. Thallium(I) bromide turns yellow when exposed to light, similar to silver(I) bromide. Thallium(I) sulfide is black, similar to silver(I) sulfide. The +3 state compounds are oxidizing agents. The black oxide, thallium(III) oxide and the hydroxide, thallium(III) hydroxide, are the only stable +3 compounds. They break down to oxygen and thallium(I) oxide when heated. Thallium and its compounds are rare because they are toxic and polluting.

+1 compounds
+1 compounds are quite unreactive. It is the more common oxidation state. They are made when thallium dissolves in acids or corrodes in air.
 Thallium(I) bromide, yellowish solid, turns black when in light
 Thallium(I) carbonate, colorless solid, dissolves in water
 Thallium(I) chloride, colorless solid, does not dissolve in water
 Thallium(I) fluoride, colorless solid, dissolves in water
 Thallium(I) hydroxide, yellow solid, strong base, dissolves in water
 Thallium(I) iodide, yellow or red solid, does not dissolve in water
 Thallium(I) oxide, black solid, dissolves in water
 Thallium(I) sulfate, colorless solid, dissolves in water
 Thallium(I) sulfide, black solid, does not dissolve in water

+3 compounds
+3 compounds are oxidizing agents. They are quite rare.
 Thallium(III) halide, the thallium(III) fluoride, chloride, and bromide
 Thallium(III) hydroxide, white solid
 Thallium(III) oxide, white solid, semiconductor

History
Thallium was found by spectroscopy in 1861 by a bright green line in its spectrum. The main use for thallium, rat poison, was banned in many countries in the 1970s. Thallium was used to poison people, similar to the more popular arsenic.

Occurrence

Thallium is found most in certain clays and granites. It cannot be gotten easily from these, though. Thallium is normally gotten from the waste after other ores like galena are processed. Hutchinsonite is another mineral that has thallium in it.

Preparation
When lead and zinc are taken from their ores, many impurities are left behind. Sulfuric acid is used to dissolve the thallium from it as thallium(I) sulfate. Then the thallium(I) sulfate is electrolyzed to make thallium metal.

Uses
It is used in rat poisons and insecticides. The use of thallium as a poison has been reduced or banned in many countries because these countries think that thallium might cause cancers. It is also used in infrared detectors. It has been used in some murders. Like arsenic, the use of thallium in murders has given it the name "inheritance powder". Thallium compounds are used in glass for infrared light. Thallium was also used to kill skin infections, but it is too toxic to be used for that now. A superconductor that can work at higher temperatures than normal ones do uses thallium. A radioactive thallium isotope was used for nuclear scans. An alloy of thallium and mercury has a low freezing temperature and is a liquid. A very dense solution of a thallium compound was used to test minerals for specific gravity, but it is too toxic for use.

Safety
Thallium is very toxic. It can be absorbed through skin. Many of its salts easily dissolve. Some are colorless, tasteless, and odorless, but are very toxic. Some think that it is a carcinogen. Thallium can be a pollutant if the thallium waste from metal processing is washed away.

References

Post-transition metals

Thallium


A confederation is a group of countries that, by treaty, have given some of their powers to a central government. They do this in order to coordinate their actions in a number of areas. This is like a federation, but without the association being a new country.

A confederation is not the same as a federation, but they have a similarity. A confederation is a group of countries, a federation is a country.

The only example today is the European Union. Switzerland has the Latin name Confœderatio Helvetica, although it is not a confederation in this sense, but a federation.

International relations

Confederation


Zhao Jiong (20 November 939 – 8 May 997), known as Zhao Guangyi from 960 to 977 and Zhao Kuangyi before 960, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizong of Song, was the second emperor of the Song dynasty of China. He reigned from 976 to his death in 997. He was a younger brother of his predecessor Emperor Taizu, and the father of his successor Emperor Zhenzong.

Why Emperor Taizong succeeded his brother rather than Emperor Taizu's grown sons (Zhao Dezhao and Zhao Defang, who both died in their twenties during his reign) is not entirely understood by later historians. According to official history, his succession was confirmed by Emperor Taizu on their mother Empress Dowager Du's deathbed as a result of her instruction. A popular story dating back from at least the 11th century suggests that Emperor Taizong murdered his brother in the dim candlelight when the sound of an axe was allegedly heard. Whatever the truth, Zhao Guangyi had been prefect of the Song capital Kaifeng since 961 where he gradually consolidated power. He was the only living prince during Emperor Taizu's reign (as Prince of Jin) and placed above all grand councilors in regular audiences.

In the first three years of his reign, he intimidated the Qingyuan warlord Chen Hongjin and Wuyue king Qian Chu into submission and easily conquered the Northern Han, thus reunifying China proper for the first time in 72 years. However, subsequent irredentist wars to conquer former Tang dynasty territories from the Liao dynasty in the north and the Early Lê dynasty in the southeast proved disastrous: after the failures in the Battle of Gaoliang River and the Battle of Bạch Đằng, the Sixteen Prefectures and Northern Vietnam (at least in their entirety) would remain beyond Han control until the Ming dynasty in the 14th century.

Emperor Taizong is remembered as a hardworking and diligent emperor. He paid great attention to the welfare of his people and made the Song Empire more prosperous. He adopted the centralization policies of the Later Zhou, which include increasing agricultural production, broadening the imperial examination system, compiling encyclopaedias, expanding the civil service and further limiting the power of jiedushis.

All subsequent emperors of the Northern Song were his descendants, as well as the first emperor of the Southern Song. However, from Emperor Xiaozong onwards, subsequent emperors were descendants of his brother, Emperor Taizu. This largely stemmed from the Jingkang Incident, whereby most of Emperor Taizong's descendants were abducted by the Jin dynasty, forcing Emperor Gaozong to seek a successor among Taizu's descendants, as Gaozong's only son had died young.

Early life
Emperor Taizong was born in 939 in Kaifeng. After his brother Emperor Taizu took the throne, he was appointed prefect of Kaifeng. He was the Prince of Jin in his brother's reign.

Succeeding the throne and suspected fratricide
Emperor Taizong succeeded the throne in 976 after the death of his elder brother, Emperor Taizu, who was 49 and had no recorded illness. It is rather unusual in Chinese history for a brother rather than the son to succeed the throne, so the event fueled popular belief that foul play was involved.

According to official history, Empress Dowager Du before her death in 961 asked the 34-year-old Emperor Taizu to promise that his brother will succeed him so as to ensure the continuation of the Song dynasty. She reportedly asked Emperor Taizu, "Do you know why you came to power? It was because Later Zhou had a seven-year-old emperor!" The so-called "Golden Shelf Promise" () was also allegedly recorded and sealed, by secretary Zhao Pu and reopened after Emperor Taizong's succession to prove the latter's legitimacy.

Emperor Taizu's eldest son, Zhao Dezhao, was already 25 years old in 976, certainly old enough to handle an emperor's duties. Also suspicious is that Zhao Pu, banished in 973 by Emperor Taizu for allegations of corruption, returned to the capital in 976 and was made the chancellor in 977.

Wen Ying, a Buddhist monk who lived in the era of Emperor Taizong's grandson, Emperor Renzong, wrote an account about the last night of Emperor Taizu. According to this account, he was dining and drinking with Emperor Taizong, then still the "Prince of Kaifeng", beside some candles. Palace eunuchs and maids standing in a distance saw that Emperor Taizong's shadow on the window moved a lot and appeared antsy. It was getting late and several inches of snow have fallen on the inside of the hall. Then they heard an axe chopping the snow, with Emperor Taizu saying, "Do it right! Do it right!" Soon enough Emperor Taizu was heard snoring. Several hours later, he was pronounced dead by his brother, who spent the night in his palace. This legend has been referred to as "sound of the axe in the shadow of the flickering candle" () and proved to be popular to this day.

Modern historians were unable to find any concrete evidence suggesting murder; however they generally accept that the "Golden Shelf Promise" as fraud fabricated by Emperor Taizong and Zhao Pu.

Also worth mentioning is the suicide of Zhao Dezhao, Emperor Taizu's eldest son, three years after his father's death. During Emperor Taizong's first campaign against the Khitan-led Liao dynasty, Zhao Dezhao was leading an army when rumours spread that Emperor Taizong had disappeared, and that Zhao Dezhao should be the new emperor. Upon hearing that, Emperor Taizong did not award the troops when they returned. When Zhao Dezhao asked him, Emperor Taizong barked back, "You do that when you become the new emperor!" According to this account, Zhao Dezhao immediately went to his palace and killed himself and when Taizong heard about the suicide, he was very sad and hugged the corpse crying.

Emperor Taizu's second son, Zhao Defang, died in 981 from an unidentified illness. Just 22, he was unusually young. Emperor Taizong was very sad and visited Defang's grave and cancelled meetings for 5 days. During the same year, Emperors Taizong and Taizu's younger brother, Zhao Tingmei (previously known as Zhao Guangmei and Zhao Kuangmei), was also stripped of his title "Prince of Qi" and sent to the Western Capital. He died three years later. Moreover, when Emperor Taizu's widow Empress Song died, her body was not buried with her late husband and not given the recognition according to tradition.

After Emperor Taizong's ascension to the throne, there were persistent doubts as to the legitimacy of the succession, and a popular prophecy arose that Taizu's descendants will rightfully return to the throne one day (). This prophecy proved true when Taizu's seventh-generation descendant Xiaozong became emperor after the capture of most of Taizong's line by the Jurchens during the Jingkang incident and Gaozong, the first emperor of the Southern Song dynasty, whose own son Zhao Fu died young, lacked an heir.

Military campaigns

Conquering Northern Han
Emperor Taizong personally led the campaign against Northern Han in 979 and ordered the flooding of enemy cities by releasing the Fen River. The Northern Han ruler Liu Jiyuan was forced to surrender, thus ending all the kingdoms and dynasties in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

First campaign against the Liao dynasty
Having conquered Northern Han in 979, Emperor Taizong took advantage of the momentum and launched another military campaign against the Khitan-led Liao dynasty. In May 979, Emperor Taizong embarked on his campaign from Taiyuan and took Zhuo and Yi Prefectures easily. He besieged Yanjing (present-day Beijing) after the success. However, the siege failed when the Liao defending general Yelü Xuegu defended the fortress firmly.

Concurrently, Liao reinforcements led by Yelü Xiuge arrived from the Gaoliang River region, west of Yanjing. Emperor Taizong ordered his army to attack the reinforcements. Initially, he received reports that the Liao army was suffering heavy casualties. He ordered a full assault on the Liao army as he thought that the whole battle was under his control. Just then, Yelü Xiuge and Yelü Xiezhen's armies attacked from two sides. Yelü Xiuge concentrated on attacking Emperor Taizong's main camp. Emperor Taizong was shocked and evacuated from the battlefield. During the evacuation, the Song army was divided and obliterated by the Liao cavalry.

Amidst the onslaught, Emperor Taizong fled towards Yi Prefecture and arrived there safely with his generals protecting him. He sustained an injury from an arrow and was unable to ride on his horse and had to travel by carriage back to Ding Prefecture. Emperor Taizong ordered a retreat after that. The Song army was without a commander as Emperor Taizong was separated from his troops. The troops suggested that Emperor Taizu's eldest son, Zhao Dezhao (Emperor Taizong's nephew), be the new emperor. Emperor Taizong's suspicions were raised when he heard that and eventually he ordered Zhao Dezhao to commit suicide.

The Battle of Gaoliang River was significant as it was one of the major contributing factors to the Song dynasty's decision to adopt a defensive stance. The early Song army suffered its first major defeat in battle. Meanwhile, Emperor Taizong was also troubled by the possibility that Zhao Dezhao would launch a coup. After the battle, Emperor Taizong personally inspected and focused more on the development and strengthening of his military forces. He ignored his subjects' advice and regarded state affairs as of lower importance. He also limited the power and control that the imperial family and military officers had over the army.

Second campaign against the Liao dynasty

After the death of Emperor Jingzong of Liao in 982, the 12-year-old Emperor Shengzong of Liao ascended to the throne of the Liao Dynasty. As Emperor Shengzong was too young to rule the kingdom, Empress Dowager Xiao became the regent. Emperor Taizong decided to launch the second campaign against Liao in 986, following the advice of his subjects.

During this time, Zhao Yuanzuo, Taizong's oldest son became insane after the death of his uncle, Zhao Tingmei, and that he was not invited to the Double Night Daylight Feast which ultimately caused Yuanzuo to burn down the palace. As a result, Taizong, under the pressure of his censors demoted Yuanzuo to commoner status and exiled him. This, was changed when 100 officials rejected Yuanzuo's exile and pressured Taizong to let Yuanzuo remain in the palace. Three officials who had responsibility for Yuanzuo asked to be punished by Taizong in which Taizong said "This son, even I have been unable to reform through my teaching. How could you guide him?" in response.

In 983, the practice of officials tutoring imperial princes began under his reign. One notable case was Emperor Taizong's son Zhao Yuanjie and his tutor Yao Tan (935–1003) in which Yao constantly berated the young prince for being idle and lazy causing resentment from the prince. Yao attempted to complain to Taizong who said "Yuanjie is literate and enjoys learning; that should be sufficient to make him a worthy prince. If when young he is immoderate, then it is necessary to have entreaties to rein in his ridicule. But if you slander him without good reason, how is that going to help him?" However, Yuanjie under peer pressure from his friends feigned illness and began neglecting his duties. Concerned, Taizong checked the Prince's progress daily. He summoned Yuanjie's wet nurse after the Prince still was "ill" for a month with the wet nurse stating "The Prince is basically not sick; it's just that with Yao Tan checking up on him, he can seldom follow his inclinations, and thus has become sick." This enraged Emperor Taizong ordering her to be caned.

Emperor Taizong remained in Bianjing and directed the war there without personally entering the battlefield. He split the army into three sections – East, Central and West. The East Army was led by Cao Bin, the Central Army by Tian Zhongjin and the West Army by Pan Mei and Yang Ye. All the three armies would attack Yanjing from three sides and capture it. The campaign was termed as the Yongxi Northern Campaign as it took place in the third year of the Yongxi era of Emperor Taizong's reign.

The three armies scored some victories initially but they became more divided later as they acted individually without cooperation. Cao Bin took the risk by attacking without the support of the other two armies. He succeeded in taking Zhuo Prefecture but the lack of food supplies forced him to retreat. As there was miscommunication between the three armies, the East Army attacked Zhuo Prefecture again. However, this time, Empress Dowager Xiao and Yelü Xiuge each led an army to support Zhuo Prefecture. The East Army was inflicted with a crushing defeat and almost completely destroyed.

Emperor Taizong was aware that the failure of the East Army would affect the entire campaign and he ordered a retreat. He ordered the East Army to return, the Central Army to guard Ding Prefecture and the West Army to guard four prefectures near the border. Following the defeat of the East Army, the Liao army led by Yelü Xiezhen attacked them as they retreated. The West Army led by Pan Mei met Yelü Xiezhen's army at Dai Prefecture and faced another defeat at the hands of the Liao army. The two commanders of the West Army started to argue about retreating. Yang Ye proposed that they should retreat since the East and Central Armies had already lost the advantage following their defeats. However, the other generals on Pan Mei's side began to doubt Yang's loyalty to Song as Yang Ye used to serve Northern Han. Yang Ye led an army to face the Liao troops but they were trapped and Yang committed suicide eventually. Pan Mei was supposed to arrive with reinforcements to support Yang but he failed to do so.

Emperor Taizong ordered another retreat following the Song armies' defeats by Yelü Xiuge and Yelü Xiezhen. The failure of the second campaign was attributed to the miscommunication between the three armies and their failures to operate together. Besides, Emperor Taizong had also restricted the decisions of his generals as he had arbitrarily planned the whole campaign against Liao and his generals had to adhere to his orders strictly. These failures led to internal rebellions which were crushed swiftly.

In 988, the Liao armies led by Empress Dowager Xiao attacked the Song border again. Emperor Taizong did not order a counter-attack and merely instructed the troops to defend firmly.

Later reign after 988
Emperor Taizong felt that he could not surpass his brother (Emperor Taizu) in terms of military conquests and achievements and decided to focus more on developing his dynasty internally and establish his legacy. He implemented a series of economic and literary reforms which were better than his brother's. He also initiated many construction projects and inducted new systems absent in Emperor Taizu's reign.

Emperor Taizong died in 997 after reigning for 21 years at the age of 57. He was succeeded by his third son, who became Emperor Zhenzong.

Family
Consorts and Issue:
 Empress Shude, of the Yin clan ()
 unnamed daughter
 Empress Yide, of the Fu clan (; 941–975)
 Empress Mingde, of the Li clan (; 960–1004)
 Unnamed son
 Empress Yuande, of the Li clan (; 943–977)
 Zhao Yuanzuo, Prince Hangongxian (; 965–1027), first son
 Zhao Heng, Zhenzong (; 968–1022), third son
 Unnamed daughter
 Unnamed daughter
Noble Consort Sun, of the Sun clan (貴妃孫氏)
Worthy Consort, of the Gao clan (贤妃 高氏)
Virtuous Consort, of the Zhu clan (德妃 朱氏, d. 1035), personal name Chonghui (冲惠)
Able Consort, of the Shao clan (賢妃 邵氏, d. 1016), personal name Zhaoming (昭明)
 Noble Consort, of the Zang clan ()
 Zhao Yuancheng, Prince Chugonghui (; 981–1014), seventh son
 Princess Hejing (; d. 1033), fourth daughter
 Married Chai Zongqing (; 982–1044) in 1002
 Princess Ciming (; d. 1024), personal name Qingyu (), sixth daughter
 Noble Consort, of the Fang clan (; d. 1022)
 Princess Xianmu (; 988–1051), ninth daughter
 Married Li Zunxu (; 988–1038) in 1008
 Virtuous Consort, of the Wang clan ()
 Zhao Yuanyan, Prince Zhougongsu (; 986–1044), eighth son
Shuyi, of the Li clan (淑儀 李氏)
Shuyi, of the Wu clan (淑儀吳氏)
 Unknown
 Zhao Yuanxi, Crown Prince Zhaocheng (; 966–992), second son
 Zhao Yuanfen, Prince Shanggongjing (; 969–1005), fourth son
 Zhao Yuanjie, Prince Yuewenhui (; 972–1003), fifth son
 Zhao Yuanwo, Prince Zhengongyi (; 977–1018), sixth son
 Zhao Yuanyi, Prince Chong (), ninth son
 Princess Heqing ()
 Princess Yinghui (; d. 990), second daughter
 Married Wu Yuanyi (; 962–1011) in 984
 Princess Chunmei (; d. 983), third daughter
 Princess Yishun (; d. 1004), fifth daughter
 Married Wang Yiyong (; 986–1056) in 1003

Ancestry

See also
 Chinese emperors family tree (middle)
 List of emperors of the Song dynasty
 Architecture of the Song dynasty
 Culture of the Song dynasty
 Economy of the Song dynasty
 History of the Song dynasty
 Society of the Song dynasty
 Technology of the Song dynasty
 Battle of Bạch Đằng (981)

References

Sources

External links
The Veritable Records of the Song Emperor Taizong

939 births
997 deaths
Northern Song emperors
10th-century Chinese monarchs
People from Kaifeng

Emperor Taizong of Song


Francisco de Eliza y Reventa (1759 – February 19, 1825) was a Spanish naval officer, navigator, and explorer. He is remembered mainly for his work in the Pacific Northwest. He was the commandant of the Spanish post in Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island, and led or dispatched several exploration voyages in the region, including the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Strait of Georgia.

Early life
Francisco de Eliza was born in El Puerto de Santa María, Spain, in 1759. He began his career with the Spanish Navy in 1773, graduating from the Real Colegio de Guardiamarinas in Cadiz. In 1775 he served in the Spanish expedition against Algiers. He was sent to America in 1780 and later took part in the siege of Pensacola, Florida, during the American Revolution.

Pacific Northwest

Nootka Sound and the Nuu-chah-nulth
In 1789 Eliza and several other officers were chosen by Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra to serve at San Blas, the naval station on the west coast of Mexico, then part of New Spain. Bodega y Quadra was the newly appointed commandant of San Blas. The San Blas naval department was responsible for supporting and exploring the coast north of Mexico, including Alta California and the Pacific Northwest to southern Alaska.  The viceroy of New Spain, Juan Vicente de Güemes, Count of Revillagigedo, gave Eliza command of an expedition to reoccupy the Spanish establishment at Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island. The outpost, which the Spanish called Santa Cruz de Nuca, had been established by Esteban José Martínez in 1789 and then abandoned in October of the same year, after the "Nootka Incident", which triggered an international crisis between Spain and Great Britain known as the Nootka Crisis.

The King of Spain, Carlos IV, issued the Royal Order of April 14, 1789, requiring the establishment at Nootka Sound be maintained with "honour and firmness". Neither the king nor Viceroy Revillagigedo nor Bodega y Quadra was aware of the abandonment of the post at Nootka until December 1789, when Martínez arrived at San Blas. Eliza's expedition to relieve Martínez at Nootka became one to reoccupy the site and establish a permanent settlement.

Eliza sailed to Nootka Sound in command of the ships Concepción, San Carlos (el Filipino), and Princesa Real (formerly the British ship Princess Royal), arriving on April 3, 1790. There were no Europeans present when they arrived. For several years the Spanish pressed their territorial claims to the Pacific Northwest, with Nootka Sound, Francisco Eliza, and other Spanish commanders playing key roles. In addition to the sailing crews of the three ships, Eliza's expedition included 76 soldiers of the Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia, under the command of Pere d'Alberni. This group of people constructed a small fort, and various buildings, planted a garden, and began to organize exploring parties. The outpost was built on a small sheltered cove inside Nootka Sound, called Friendly Cove by the English and Puerto de la Santa Cruz de Nuca by the Spanish (today it is Yuquot, British Columbia). Some Spanish maps show it as Cala de Los Amigos, a translation of the English name. The small fort built by the Spanish was called San Miguel, and was located on a small island at the entrance to the cove.

In May 1790 two exploring voyages were dispatched by Eliza. Salvador Fidalgo made a voyage north to visit the Russian outposts in Alaska, while Manuel Quimper examined the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Quimper's pilot was Gonzalo López de Haro. Some of the important sites found and charted during Quimper's expedition include Neah Bay, Esquimalt Harbour, Admiralty Inlet, Haro Strait, Rosario Strait, and Deception Pass.

The relationship between the Spanish and the Nootka natives (Nuu-chah-nulth) was tense. The year before Eliza arrived a Nootka chief, Callicum, had been killed by the Spanish. Several hostile encounters occurred while Eliza's party was building their settlement. On one occasion, five Nootkas were killed. Nonetheless, Eliza was able to improve the relationship somewhat. At least some of the Nootkas grew friendlier and provided assistance to the Spanish.

The winter of 1790-1791 was difficult for the Spanish under Eliza. A lack of fresh food resulted in outbreaks of scurvy. During the winter 9 men died and 32 more, too sick to remain, were sent to California to recover.

Straits of Georgia and Juan de Fuca
Further exploration voyages were undertaken in 1791. During the winter Spain had proposed to Great Britain that the Strait of Juan de Fuca could serve as the boundary between Spanish and British territory. If accepted, Spain would have to relocate its Nootka Sound post to a site south of the Strait. This, in addition to the need for a better understanding of the Strait's geography led the viceroy of New Spain to order another exploring expedition, this time led by Francisco Eliza himself.

In early May, Eliza set out in command of the San Carlos, with Juan Pantoja and José Antonio Verdía as first and second pilots. The San Carlos was accompanied by the small schooner, the Santa Saturnina, nicknamed La Orcasitas and under the command of José María Narváez, with Juan Carrasco as pilot.

Narváez explored the inner waters of Clayoquot Sound and Barkley Sound while Eliza, investigating the outer edge of Clayoquot Sound, met and befriended Wickaninnish, chief of the Tla-o-qui-aht people. Narváez and Eliza entered the Strait of Juan de Fuca separately, rejoining at Esquimalt (called "Cordova" by the Spanish) on June 11, 1791. Eliza's pilots then took the Santa Saturnina and a longboat and spent ten days exploring Haro Strait and the found it opened up into a wide body of water to the north. This was the Strait of Georgia, which was previously unknown to Europeans. Eliza remained at Esquimalt during this time. After the pilots returned to Eliza and reported their findings, a longer exploration expedition was fitted out. Narváez led the voyage in the Santa Saturnina. Eliza considered taking the San Carlos along, but his pilots convinced him of that the larger ship would find the narrow channels hazardous. In addition, Eliza fell sick. The entire expedition moved its base of operations from Esquimalt to Port Discovery ("Puerto de Quadra" to the Spanish). Then on July 1, 1791, Narváez, with Carrasco, sailed north, passing through Rosario Strait, past Bellingham Bay, and into the Strait of Georgia.

For three weeks they followed the Strait northward, reaching as far as Texada Island, which they gave the name "Isla de Texada". They noted various inlets which, along with the presence of whales led Eliza to think, correctly, that there was another passage to the open ocean. Although the idea of a Northwest Passage to the Atlantic Ocean was by this time an extremely remote possibility, the inlets of the Strait of Georgia rekindled the hope, which led to the 1792 expedition of Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdes. A rough map of the Strait of Georgia produced from the voyage of Santa Saturnina showed a particularly large opening to the east. Eliza's report stated that if a Northwest Passage existed at all, it must lie beyond this opening. The Spanish named the inlet "Canal Floridablanca", the investigation of which was made a priority for the expedition of Galiano and Valdes. It turned out to be the mouth of the Fraser River. The Santa Saturnina had been too far offshore to see the low-lying land.

At the start of Narváez's voyage the Santa Saturnina passed Admiralty Inlet, the entrance to Puget Sound (called "Ensenada de Caamaño" by the Spanish). Narváez saw that it was a large channel leading to the south and planned to explore it after returning from the north. But the Strait of Georgia proved larger than expected and Narváez ran out of food, the Santa Saturnina being very small. Narváez had to return directly to Port Discovery, and then Eliza was eager to then return to Nootka Sound and send a report about the Strait of Georgia. The Spanish thus missed the opportunity of preempting the British exploration of Puget Sound, which took place a year later under George Vancouver.

While sailing back to Nootka Sound Eliza's expedition entered the deep harbor of present-day Port Angeles and gave it the name "Puerto de Nuestra Señora de Los Angeles". Eliza, with Narváez in the San Carlos, returned to Nootka Sound in August, 1791. The Santa Saturnina, under Carrasco during the return to Nootka, was unable to beat upwind to Nootka and instead sailed to Monterey, California.

Over time Eliza has received most of the credit for the discoveries made and places named during the 1791 expedition, but he actually did no exploring himself. Most of the credit should go to his pilots Narváez, Carrasco, Pantoja, and Verdía.

The winter of 1791-1792 was easier than the previous one. Shipments of food from Mexico and assistance from the Nootkas helped Eliza's small outpost survive.

On July 24, 1792, Francisco de Eliza left Nootka Sound for Mexico, having completed his mission of re-establishing the Spanish outpost there. The position of commandant at Nootka Sound passed to Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra.

Later life
In 1793 Eliza commanded an expedition that explored the coast of California. From 1795 to 1801 he was the commander of the naval base at San Blas. In 1803 he was transferred to Cádiz, Spain.

Eliza continued to serve in the Spanish navy. When Spain was occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, Eliza held a number of political posts at Cádiz.

Legacy
Eliza Island was named in his honor.

References

Explorers of British Columbia
Spanish explorers of North America
Spanish history in the Pacific Northwest
Spanish naval officers
18th-century Spanish people
19th-century Spanish people
1759 births
1825 deaths
People from El Puerto de Santa María
Explorers of Alaska
People of the Peninsular War
Spanish commanders of the Napoleonic Wars

Francisco de Eliza


Edmonton is the capital city of Alberta. In 2008, there were about 1,102,000 people in the Edmonton area.
Edmonton is just south of the middle of Alberta in the prairie part of the province. There are many farms close to Edmonton.

The city started as a trading post on the North Saskatchewan River. Edmonton turned into a city mostly over the last 100 years.

Edmonton has of one of the world's largest shopping malls. This mall is called the West Edmonton Mall. This mall has over 800 stores, a hotel, an indoor water park, an indoor theme park, an ice skating rink, movie theatres, places to eat and drink, and other things to see. Many, many people visit the West Edmonton Mall.

Edmonton also has more sun than all other cities in Canada. But other cities are warmer than Edmonton. Winter temperatures often are below -20 degrees Celsius. It is common for it be even colder (below -30 degrees Celsius) for a few days in January or February. However, the summer can be warmer than 25 or 30 degrees. The sun does not set until after 11 pm in June.

The city is also well known for its festivals. There are many popular events in both summer and winter, such as Heritage Days, the Folk Festival, and the Fringe.

Edmonton has many interesting places to visit. Places such as The Francis Winspear Centre for Music, the Valley Zoo, Fort Edmonton Park, the Muttart Conservatory,and Telus World of Science.

Edmonton is known as the city of champions, is home to the Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League, the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League. The Edmonton Oilers have 5 Stanley Cup Championships, the Eskimos have 23 Western Division Championships, and 13 Grey Cup Championships.

The Edmonton tornado was the second deadliest tornado in Canada that struck the east side of the city on July 31, 1987.

Edmonton


Fuléréna nyaéta molekul nu diwangun sagemblengna ku karbon, nu ngabentuk bal sphere, élipsoid, solobong, cingcin, atawa planar. Dina basa Inggris katelah ogé buckyballs.

Ngaranna dicokot ti ngaran Richard Buckminster Fuller, inohong arsiték nu nyiptakeun kubah géodésik. ku sabab buckminsterfullerenes mibanda bentuk nu sarupa jeung kubah éta, jadi baé diaranan kitu.

Fullerin sarupa bentukna jeung struktur grafit, nu diwangun ku salambar cingcin héxagonal numbu, tapi cingcinnna péntagonal (atawa kadang héptagonal) nu nyegah lambaranana jadi planar. Fullerin nyolobong mindengna disebut tabungnano (nanotubes). The smallest fullerene in which no two pentagons share an edge (which is destabilizing — see pentalene) is C60 (buckminsterfullerene), and as such it is also the most common.

The structure of C60 is that of a truncated icosahedron, which resembles a round soccerball of the type made of hexagons and pentagons, with a carbon atom at the corners of éach hexagon and a bond along éach edge. A polymerized single-walled nanotubule (P-SWNT) is a substance composed of polymerized fullerenes in which carbon atoms from one buckytube bond with carbons in other buckytubes.

Until the late twentieth century, graphite and diamond were the only known allotropes of carbon. Then, in molecular béam experiments, discrete péaks were observed corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of 60, 70, or gréater numbers of carbon atoms. Harold Kroto, from the University of Sussex, James Heath, Sean O'Brien, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley, from Rice University, discovered C60 and the fullerenes. Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their roles in the discovery of this class of compounds. C60 and other fullerenes were later noticed occurring outside of a laboratory environment (e.g. in normal candle soot). By 1991 it was relatively éasy to produce grams of fullerene powder using the techniques of Donald Huffman and Wolfgang Krätschmer. As of the éarly twenty-first century, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes are still under héavy study, in both pure and applied reséarch labs. In April 2003, fullerenes were under study for potential medicinal use — binding specific antibiotics to the structure to target resistant bacteria and even target certain cancer cells such as melanoma. In October 2004, reséarchers at the University of Manchester
and Institute of Microelectronics Technology and High Purity Materials  at Chernogolovka discovered the first two-dimensional fullerene, called graphene.

Fullerenes are not very réactive due to the stability of the graphite-like bonds, and are also fairly insoluble in many solvents. Reséarchers have been able to incréase the réactivity by attaching active groups to the surfaces of fullerenes.

Other atoms can be trapped inside fullerenes, and indeed recent evidence for a metéor impact at the end of the Permian period was found by analysing noble gases so preserved.

Superconductivity is one of the more recently explored properties.

A common method used to produce fullerenes is to send a large current between two néarby graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere. The resulting carbon plasma arc between the electrodes cools into sooty residue from which many fullerenes can be isolated.

Bahya
Najan fullerin sacara téori kawilang inert, dina hiji présentasi di American Chemical Society bulan Maret 2004 sarta artikel na New Scientist 3 April 2004, disebutkeun yén molekul ieu bisa nyilakakeun organisme. Hiji percobaan ku Eva Oberdörster di Southern Methodist University di Dallas nu ngasupkeun fullerin kana cai dina kadar 0.5 ppm nunjukkeun yén largemouth bass nandangan karuksakan sélular 17 kali lipet dina jaringan otakna sanggeus 48 jam. Karuksakanana mangrupa péroksidasi lipid, nu mémang ngaganggu fungsi mémbran sél.

Tempo ogé
 Tabungnano karbon
 grafin

Tumbu kaluar
 Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology
 Dr. Smalley's brief autobiography
 Dr. Smalley's webpage
 Potential use of fullerenes in medicine
 Carbon Fullerene & Nanotube Models  Vincent Herr, Houston, TX
 Discovery of graphene

Karbon, Fullerin

Fuléréna


The shoal bass (Micropterus cataractae) is a species of freshwater fish in the sunfish family (Centrarchidae) of order Perciformes. One of the black basses, it is native to waters in Florida and Georgia.  It is also occasionally found in rivers and streams of East Alabama where it has been declared an endangered species and cannot legally be kept if caught by fishermen. Of typical size for a black bass, M. cataractae reaches a maximum recorded length of  and a maximum published weight of 8 pounds, 12 ounces.

Only described for the first time in 1999, ichthyologists are still expanding what is known about the species. The shoal bass is often confused with the redeye bass, due to its red-tinted eyes.  It is also often confused with the smallmouth bass, due to its faint vertical stripes along the side of its body.

Description
This species was formerly considered either a redeye bass or subspecies of the redeye bass. In 1999 it was described as a new species.

The red color of eyes associates this species with the redeye and Suwannee bass at first glance. However, it is more closely related morphologically to the spotted bass. Shoal bass are generally olive green to nearly black along the back. A dusky dark blotch about 50 to 67 percent of the size of the eye occurs on the back edge of the gill cover. Three diagonal black lines radiate along the side of the head looking like war paint. Ten to fifteen vertical blotches appear along the sides with tiger-stripes often appearing in between.

The belly is creamy or white and wavy lines may appear slightly above the white belly on the sides. The dorsal, caudal and anal fins are dark olive green to grayish black. Pelvic fins may have a cream colored leading edge with dark spots.

The shoal bass has scales on the base portion of the soft-rayed dorsal fins, clearly connected first and second dorsal fins, and an upper jaw bone that does not extend beyond the eyes.

There are no known subspecies of the shoal bass.

Range and habitat
The shoal bass is becoming increasingly uncommon in the Apalachicola and Chipola Rivers because so few shoals exist and competition with non-native spotted bass has increased. It is also known in the Chattahoochee river drainage; and is most plentiful in the relatively undammed Flint River of Georgia, as well as lakes such as Blackshear and West Point. Shoal bass are closely associated with rock shoals and are uncommon in other habitat due to its unique spawning requirements.

The conservation status of shoal bass is vulnerable throughout its range. Good fishing still exists in Georgia's Flint River, but anglers are encouraged to catch and release. Conversely, anglers are urged to keep all spotted bass caught on the Flint River because of its competition with and potential for hybridizing with the shoal bass.

Behavior
Shoal bass spawn in coarse gravel at the heads of creek pools in April and May, to early June. They prefer a spawning temperature of . Like the largemouth, the male prepares the nest and guards the eggs and fry.

Shoal bass feed mainly on aquatic insects on the surface. They also feed on larval insects, crayfish and fish. Shoal bass grow much faster than redeye bass.

Sporting quality

Shoal bass offer similar sporting quality to that of other species of black bass. They can be caught using worms, minnows, or crayfish as well as small spinners and a wide variety of small surface lures. Some have been known to reach more than eight pounds. As a sport fish, specific bag and size limit regulations apply, and you can register a qualifying catch as part of the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission's "Big Catch" program.

The shoal bass has white, flaky meat, which tends to be drier than that of a largemouth or spotted bass.

The world record shoal bass was 8 pounds, 12 ounces according to the International Game Fish Association. The fish was caught October 23, 1977, in the Apalachicola River, Florida. This bass was a shoal bass, but originally reported as the Apalachicola form of redeye bass.

Shoal bass are also popular targets for fly fishers, who find them easy to access in their preferred river environments.  The practice of fly fishing for shoal bass is becoming more widespread.

The shoal bass fights harder than its cousin, the largemouth bass, and has more stamina. They prefer moderate to heavy current and will take crawdad patterns aggressively. Five pound shoal bass are considered trophies, but fish above seven pounds are caught each year.

Citations

References

External links
"Big Catch" Angler Recognition Program, Florida fishing regulations
"Native Shoal Bass: Unique Habitat Conditions Foster a Popular Fishery", article at Sherpa Guides
, research report on status of Shoal Bass in East Alabama

Micropterus
Fish described in 1999
Freshwater fish of the Southeastern United States
Freshwater fish of North America

Shoal bass


Sir Edward Buller, 1st Baronet (24 December 1764 – 15 April 1824) was an officer of the Royal Navy who served during the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.

Buller was born into a prominent West country family in 1764 and began his naval career twelve years later, serving with Lord Mulgrave during the American War of Independence. He initially saw action at the Battle of Ushant in 1778, before travelling to the East Indies with Sir Edward Hughes and participating in several of the engagements with the Bailli de Suffren. Appointed to his first command during his time off India, Buller narrowly survived a hurricane and a hazardous journey back to Britain. He commanded a sloop off the North American coast after the end of the war, and received his promotion to post-captain in 1790. Buller spent the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars escorting convoys and serving on the Cape of Good Hope, before returning to Britain and spending some time ashore, and some time at sea commanding ships in the English Channel.

He embarked on a political career during the Peace of Amiens, being elected Member of Parliament for East Looe in 1802, a seat that had been controlled by the Buller family for a number of years, and which his father and brother had both previously represented. The outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 led to Buller's return to active naval service, commanding  in the blockade of the French and Spanish ports. He was with Sir Robert Calder's fleet at the Battle of Cape Finisterre in 1805, at times bearing the brunt of the fighting, and helping to capture two Spanish ships. He afterwards served in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, taking part in several daring operations before ill health obliged him to return home. He was promoted to rear-admiral in 1808 and accepted a dockyard position the following year. He served in this role until 1812, when he was promoted to vice-admiral. He received no further active employment from the navy, though he continued his political career, representing East Looe continually until 1820. He was also recorder for the borough from 1807 until his death in 1824 at the age of 59.

Early life
Edward Buller was born in Admiralty House, Whitehall, Westminster on 24 December 1764. He was the second son of John Buller and his wife Mary, daughter of Sir John St Aubyn, 3rd Bt. The Bullers were a prominent family in Cornwall and Devon, and Edward's father was Member of Parliament for East Looe, a Lord of the Admiralty and later a Lord of the Treasury. Edward was sent to be educated at Westminster School in 1774, and jointed the navy in 1777, at the age of 12. He became a midshipman aboard Lord Mulgrave's 74-gun , and took part in the Battle of Ushant on 27 July 1788. Buller received his commission as lieutenant in 1782 and joined the 64-gun  under Captain Samuel Graves. The Sceptre went out to the East Indies as part of Sir Edward Hughes' fleet, and Buller saw action at most of the subsequent engagements between Hughes and the Bailli de Suffren, being wounded during one of them.

Acquitting himself well under fire, Buller was promoted to master and commander on 26 April 1783 and given command of the 18-gun sloop . Chaser was present at the Battle of Cuddalore in June, and was at sea off the Coromandel Coast in November when she became caught in a great hurricane that swept the area. For some time it was feared by those on shore at Madras and Bombay that Chaser had foundered with the loss of all aboard, but Buller had managed through skilful seamanship to navigate the Gulf of Mannar, a passage previously thought unsafe for navigation, and so survive the storm. Soon after this Buller sailed the Chaser back to Britain, a passage made hazardous by her worn out state, but she arrived safely, whereupon Buller paid her off.

North America
Buller was then appointed to command the 16-gun sloop  and sent to North America to combat smuggling operations there. He also used his time to make detailed surveys of the harbours and anchorages along the coast. In April 1789 news reached Buller that a large merchant vessel had been wrecked on the Isle of Sable, and that a number of the crew had survived, but were now stranded on the island at risk of starvation. Buller requested and was given permission to attempt a rescue mission, and despite the risk involved, anchored the Brisk off the shore and for three days attempted a landing, hampered by the sandbanks and shoals. Despite firing signal guns, no sign of any shipwrecked men could be found and after realising that the initial reports were probably groundless, Buller returned to Halifax.

French Revolutionary Wars
Promotion to post-captain came on 19 July 1790, with an appointment to command the 28-gun . Buller returned to Britain and paid her off at the end of the year, and was given command of the 24-gun  in 1792. He served in the English Channel, before being transferred to take command of the 44-gun . While escorting a convoy of 13 Dutch merchants from Nova Scotia to Britain he was intercepted by a French squadron, and narrowly escaped. The merchants were released from his protection after being escorted past the danger, but were then promptly rounded up by British cruisers following the embargo placed on Dutch property. Buller was appointed to command  in 1795 and joined Captain William Essington's HMS Sceptre in escorting the India fleet to the Cape of Good Hope. During the voyage a Spanish squadron was spotted, consisting of a ship of the line and two frigates. Initially mistaking them for French ships Buller and Essington bore up to attack them, but broke off when the Spanish raised Spanish ensigns. The British captains were unaware that Spain had allied with France and was now at war with Britain, a fact known to their Spanish counterparts, and so unknowingly passed up the opportunity to attack the Spanish ships, which were heavily laden with specie from the Caribbean.

Arriving with the convoy at the Cape of Good Hope, Buller spent some time on the station and was present with Lord Keith's fleet when the Dutch squadron surrendered at Saldanha Bay. He was then compelled to return home to attend to personal matters, and transferred into the 64-gun  for the voyage home. Unable to take up a sea-going command due to his personal affairs, Buller accepted command of the Sea Fencibles based from the Lyme to Cawsand Bay.

Buller returned to sea in 1799, taking command of the 74-gun  in the English Channel. He transferred to the 74-gun  in April 1801, and took part in the blockade of the French ports of Brest and Rochefort.

Napoleonic Wars

Buller went ashore during the Peace of Amiens, and was elected as Member of Parliament for East Looe in 1802, but with the outbreak of hostilities again in 1803, was appointed to the 80-gun  and employed in the blockade of the French and Spanish Atlantic ports. He was made a Colonel of Marines on 28 April 1805, and was assigned to the fleet under Sir Robert Calder and took part in the Battle of Cape Finisterre on 22 July 1805. During the battle Buller found himself isolated from the rest of the fleet due to the patchy fog and failing light, and was surrounded by five enemy ships. He fought them off, forcing the Spanish 84-gun San Rafael to strike, and afterwards sending the Maltas boats to take possession of the Spanish 74-gun Firme. Malta had suffered considerably during the battle, having her mizzen top mast and mizzen sail yard shot away, and her mizzen and main masts damaged. Her rigging and sails were cut up, with her casualties amounting to five dead and forty wounded.

Buller remained with Malta into 1806, and in August was placed with Sir Thomas Louis' squadron to escort troops for a secret expedition. Before the force sailed news reached them that a French fleet had put to sea under Jérôme Bonaparte. Louis ordered the troops to be disembarked, and immediately set of in pursuit. Since Louis' assigned flagship,  was not yet ready to take his flag, Buller offered the Malta as a replacement, and Louis accepted. The British force was unable to bring Bonaparte's fleet to battle before they escaped back into Lorient, but on 27 September they encountered the 44-gun French frigate Président, returning from the Caribbean where she had cruised with L'Hermite's expedition. Président was chased down by the British squadron and forced to strike her colours. During the cruise Malta sprang her mainmast and was sent back to Britain by Louis to effect repairs.

The Malta, with Buller still in command, went to sea again in early January 1807 with orders to join Lord Collingwood's fleet in the Mediterranean. Collingwood placed Buller in command of the inshore squadron, where he continued to distinguish himself. In one particular instance he destroyed the beached transport Mary, which had run aground carrying stores for 25,000 troops, and which Buller burnt to prevent them falling into enemy hands. On another occasion while Malta was refitting at Gibraltar, Buller learnt that a Portuguese frigate had been wrecked on the Spanish coast. Buller at once went out and attempted to save the crew, working for several hours in pounding surf and twice being swept away, but refusing to leave until there were no more men to be saved. Perhaps because of these exertions, Buller became seriously ill with a fever, but recovered to resume his station. His health had been weakened however, and he applied to be superseded, returning to Britain later in 1807.

Flag rank and later life
Buller was promoted to rear-admiral on 28 April 1808, and was created a baronet on 30 October 1809. He was appointed second in command at Plymouth in late 1809, holding the position until autumn 1812, during which time he was promoted to vice-admiral on 12 August 1812. While at Plymouth Captain Robert Corbet, a man notorious for his harsh discipline and, at times, tyrannical behaviour was appointed to a new ship, Africaine. The crew of Africaine at first refused to hear his commission, forcing the commander at Plymouth, Admiral William Young, to bring another ship alongside and run out her guns to prevent any mutinous actions. Buller was appointed to investigate the matter, and one day while sitting near Buller at table, Corbet was heard to remark 'The service will not be good for any thing until captains can flog their lieutenants if needful, as well as the ship's company; absolute power over all in the ship is the thing.' Buller replied 'Why then, admirals must in justice have the power of flogging captains - have a care, Corbet, and don't come under my orders, for I won't spare you!'

Buller received no further active employment after this. He continued to hold the seat of East Looe until 1820, and in 1807 succeeded his brother, John Buller as recorder for the borough. Sir Edward Buller died at his seat of Trenant Park on 15 April 1824 at the age of 59. The baronetcy became extinct upon his death.

Family and issue
On 15 May 1790, in Halifax, Edward Buller married Gertrude Van Cortlandt (1772–1849), a descendant of Stephanus Van Cortlandt, the Schuyler family and the de Peyster family. They had one son, John St. Aubyn Buller, who died in infancy; and one daughter, Anna Maria Buller, who married James Drummond Elphinstone. James and Anna Maria's son became William Buller Fullerton Elphinstone, 15th Lord Elphinstone.

Notes

References

External links

1764 births
1824 deaths
Royal Navy vice admirals
Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
Royal Navy personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
UK MPs 1802–1806
UK MPs 1806–1807
UK MPs 1807–1812
UK MPs 1812–1818
UK MPs 1818–1820
Military personnel from Westminster
People educated at Westminster School, London
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for constituencies in Cornwall

Sir Edward Buller, 1st Baronet


Tenure is a category of academic appointment existing in some countries. A tenured post is an indefinite academic appointment that can be terminated only for cause or under extraordinary circumstances, such as financial exigency or program discontinuation. Tenure is a means of defending the principle of academic freedom, which holds that it is beneficial for society in the long run if scholars are free to hold and examine a variety of views.

History

Tenure was introduced into American universities in the early 1900s in part to prevent the arbitrary dismissal of faculty members who expressed unpopular views.

One notable instance was the case of the resignation of Brown University president Elisha Andrews, who advocated silver coinage to reduce the impact on Americans and farmers who owed larger and larger loans due to deflation. The board of Brown University, many of whom were creditors and landowners (positions that benefited from deflation), told Andrews to cease his public advocacy. The Dean of Yale Law School, Francis Wayland, argued that Andrew's free expression threatened donations to Brown, and that money was the life blood of universities. In 1897 Andrews was forced to offer his resignation, but there was a backlash by faculty and students who advocated that he should be protected under the principles of free speech. The board reversed its decision and refused Andrews' resignation. A year later, Andrews resigned anyway.

Before Nazism, Germany had been a leader in academic tenure, but free speech and tenure were severely curtailed under the Third Reich. Hitler called universal education "the most corroding and disintegrating poison". He appointed Education Minister Bernard Rust, to ensure Nazi racial theories were integrated in university curriculums. This caused a purge of 1500 professors, and by 1939, nearly half of all faculty posts were occupied by Nazis.

In the late 1940's, the University of Illinois at Urbana fired several prominent economists for teaching Keynesian economics.

By country

Denmark
Danish universities in advertisements for faculty positions usually state that professor positions are tenured. However, the interpretation of tenure at Danish universities has been a matter of controversy.

Denmark adopted a more hierarchical management approach for universities in the early 2000s. This new system was introduced by parliament on proposal by the Minister of Science, Technology and Development, Helge Sander, based on his vision that Danish universities in the future should compete about funding in order to increase their attention to marketing and industry.

The controversial understanding of tenure in Denmark was demonstrated by University of Copenhagen in 2016, when the university fired the internationally renowned professor, Hans Thybo, due to what they regarded as unacceptable and untenable behavior (putting pressure on postdoc in regards of an employment survey and using private emails for work related matters despite repeated warnings about it). The handling of the firing was criticized by other researchers. A later court decision ruled that the dismissal had not followed the collective agreements and Thybo received an economic compensation. Thybo had insisted that he should be reinstated in his previous position, but this was not supported by the court and the university did not rehire him.

United Kingdom

The original form of academic tenure was removed in the United Kingdom in 1988 through the Education Reform Act. In its place, there is the distinction between permanent and temporary contracts for academics. A permanent lecturer in UK universities usually holds an open-ended position that covers teaching, research and administrative responsibilities.

Germany

Academics are divided into two classes: On the one hand, professors (W2/W3&C3/C4 positions in the new and old systems of pay grades) are employed as state civil servants and hold tenure as highly safeguarded lifetime employment; On the other hand, there is a much larger group of "junior staff" on fixed-term contracts, research grants, fellowships and part-time jobs. In 2010, 9% of academic staff were professors, 66% were "junior staff" (including doctoral candidates on contracts), and 25% were other academic staff in secondary employment. Permanent research, teaching and management positions below professorship as an "Akademischer Rat" (a civil service position salaried like high school teachers) have become relatively rare compared to the 1970s and 1980s and are often no longer refilled after a retirement. In order to attain the position of Professor, in some fields, an academic must usually complete a "Habilitation" (a kind of broader second PhD thesis; the very highest degree available within the university, entitling the holder to be a "full professor"), after which they are eligible for tenureship. This means that, compared to other countries, academics in Germany obtain tenure at a relatively late age, as on average one becomes an Academic Assistant at the age of 42. In 2002 the "Juniorprofessur" position (comparable to an assistant professor in the US, but not always endowed with a tenure track) was introduced as an alternative to "Habilitation". However, the degree of formal equivalence between a "Habilitation" and a successfully completed "Juniorprofessur" varies across the different states (Bundesländer), and the informal recognition of having served as a "Juniorprofessur" as a replacement for the "Habilitation" in the appointment procedures for professorships varies greatly between disciplines.

Due to a university system that guarantees universities relative academic freedom, the position of professor in Germany is relatively strong and independent. As civil servants, professors have a series of attendant rights and benefits, yet this status is subject to discussion. In the W pay scale the professorial pay is related to performance rather than merely to age, as it was in C.

United States and Canada

Under the tenure systems adopted by many universities and colleges in the United States and Canada, some faculty positions have tenure and some do not. Typical systems (such as the widely adopted "1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure" of the American Association of University Professors) allow only a limited period to establish a record of published research, ability to attract grant funding, academic visibility, teaching excellence, and administrative or community service. They limit the number of years that any employee can remain employed as a non-tenured instructor or professor, compelling the institution to grant tenure to or terminate an individual, with significant advance notice, at the end of a specified time period. Some institutions require promotion to Associate Professor as a condition of tenure. A university may also offer research positions or professional track and clinical track academic positions which are said to be "non-tenure track". Positions with titles such as Instructor, Lecturer, Adjunct Professor, Research Professor etc. do not carry the possibility of tenure, have higher teaching loads (other than maybe the research positions), have less influence within the institution, lower compensation with few or no benefits (see Adjunct professor), and little protection of academic freedom.

In response to Nazi manipulations of university faculty in Germany, the modern conception of tenure in US higher education originated with the American Association of University Professors' (AAUP) 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure. Jointly formulated and endorsed by the AAUP and the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U), the 1940 Statement is endorsed by over 250 scholarly and higher education organizations and is widely adopted into faculty handbooks and collective bargaining agreements at institutions of higher education throughout the United States. This statement holds that, "The common good depends upon the free search for truth and its free exposition" and stresses that academic freedom is essential in teaching and research in this regard.

In the United States, tenure rights for teachers serving in (K-12) public schools also have been in existence for more than a hundred years.

Arguments in favor

Defenders of tenure, like Ellen Schrecker and Aeon J. Skoble, generally acknowledge flaws in how tenure approvals are currently run and problems in how tenured professors might use their time, security, and power; however, as Skoble puts it, the "downsides are either not as bad as claimed, or [are] costs outweighed by the benefits"—and he points out that the very debate about tenure in which he is engaging is made possible by the academic freedom which tenure makes possible. "Tenure remains scholars' best defense of free inquiry and heterodoxy," writes Skoble, "especially in these times of heightened polarization and internet outrage. Let us focus on fixing it, not scrapping it."

The job security granted by tenure is necessary to recruit talented individuals into university professorships, because in many fields private industry jobs pay significantly more; as Schrecker puts it, providing professors "the kind of job security that most other workers can only dream of" counterbalances universities' inability to compete with the private sector: "Universities, after all, are not corporations and cannot provide the kinds of financial remuneration that similarly educated individuals in other fields expect."  Furthermore, Schrecker continues, because research positions require extreme specialization, they must consolidate the frequency and intensity of performance evaluations across a given career, and they cannot have the same flexibility or turnover rates as other jobs, making the tenure process a practical necessity: "A mathematician cannot teach a class on medieval Islam, nor can an art historian run an organic chemistry lab.  Moreover, there is no way that the employing institution can provide the kind of retraining that would facilitate such a transformation... even the largest and most well-endowed institution lacks the resources to reevaluate and replace its medieval Islamicists and algebraic topologists every year.  Tenure thus lets the academic community avoid excessive turnover while still ensuring the quality of the institution's faculty.  It is structured around two assessments – one at hiring, the other some six years later – that are far more rigorous than those elsewhere in society and give the institution enough confidence in the ability of the successful candidates to retain them on a permanent basis."  Tenure also locks in the non-pecuniary aspects of academic compensation, lowering the required salary.

Above all, however, tenure is essential because it protects academic freedom: not only in cases in which a scholar's politics may run counter to those of their department, institution, or funding bodies, but also and most often in cases when a scholar's work innovates in ways that challenge received wisdom in the field.  As much as Ellen Schrecker identifies its flaws, she asserts tenure's crucial role in preserving academic freedom:

In elementary and secondary schools, tenure also protects teachers from being fired for personal, political, or other non-work related reasons: tenure prohibits school districts from firing experienced teachers to hire less experienced, less expensive teachers as well as protects teachers from being fired for teaching unpopular, controversial, or otherwise challenged curricula such as evolutionary biology, theology, and controversial literature.

If the "social justice" element of Schrecker's defense makes it seem like present-day assurances of academic freedom create a politically left echo chamber in academic departments, Skoble observes that tenure thus becomes all the more necessary to preserve a diversity of ideas: "There is an orthodoxy in the academy, a well-documented leftward slant in political affiliation.  To Bruce, this is an argument against tenure, but my point is that the more I am persuaded that there is groupthink orthodoxy afoot, the more I want assurances that I would not get fired if I write an essay on free trade or the Second Amendment or a book on anarchism.  I take it the counterargument is that the more entrenched the orthodoxy becomes, the less likely a heterodox scholar will be tenured, or even hired, in the first place... I can see that this poses a problem but fail to see how abolishing tenure would help.  As things stand, some heterodox scholars do get hired and tenured.. If only the heterodox need formal protection, and we have a problem with growing orthodoxy, then eliminating the formal protection will exacerbate the problem."

Skoble argues categorically and plainly against critics that say "tenure protects incompetent professors": "My argument is that when this happens, it is a malfunction of the system, not an intrinsic feature of its proper use.  The way it is supposed to work is that incompetent professors do not get tenure in the first place.  The rebuttal is 'but they do, therefore tenure is a bad idea.'  But that is like arguing that because you ran a red light and caused a train wreck, driving is a bad idea."

Arguments against
Some have argued that modern tenure systems diminish academic freedom, forcing those seeking tenured positions to profess conformance to the level of mediocrity as those awarding the tenured professorships. For example, according to physicist Lee Smolin, "...it is practically career suicide for a young theoretical physicist not to join the field of string theory."

Economist Steven Levitt, who recommends the elimination of tenure (for economics professors) in order to incentivize higher performance among professors, also points out that a pay increase may be required to compensate faculty members for the lost job security.

Some U.S. states have considered legislation to remove tenure at public universities.

A further criticism of tenure is that it rewards complacency. Once professors are awarded tenure, they may begin putting reduced effort into their job, knowing that their removal is difficult or expensive to the institution.  Another criticism is that it may cause the institution to tolerate incompetent professors if they are tenured.  Gilbert Lycan, a history professor at Stetson University, writing in respect of a fellow professor he deemed unacceptable, stated that "the dean ... would not tolerate ineffective teaching by a non-tenured teacher who was making no effort to improve," thereby tacitly admitting, or at least leaving open the fair inference, that ineffective teaching is tolerated if the professor is tenured.

See also
 Academic tenure in North America
 Faculty (academic staff)
 Habilitation
 List of academic ranks
 Academic ranks (Australia and New Zealand)

References

Further reading

Academic terminology
Labor relations

Academic tenure


Maximilian III Joseph, "the much beloved" (28 March 1727 – 30 December 1777), was a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire and Duke of Bavaria from 1745 to 1777. He was the last of the Bavarian branch of the house of Wittelsbach and because of his death, the war of Bavarian Succession broke out.

Biography

[[File:1 koventionsthaler Maximilian III - 1755.png|thumb|Silver coin: 1 koventionsthaler of Bavaria, Maximilian III Joseph, 1755']]

Born in Munich, Maximilian was the eldest son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VII and his wife, Maria Amalia of Austria, daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I. Upon his father's death in January 1745, he inherited a country in the process of being invaded by Austrian armies (see War of the Austrian Succession). The 18-year-old Maximilian Joseph wavered between the Peace-party, led by his mother Maria Amalia and Army Commander Friedrich Heinrich von Seckendorff and the War-party, led by Foreign Minister General Ignaz Count of Törring and the French envoy Chavigny. After the decisive defeat in the Battle of Pfaffenhofen on 15 April Maximilian Joseph quickly abandoned his father's imperial pretenses and made peace with Maria Theresa in the Treaty of Füssen, in which he agreed to support her husband, Grand Duke Francis Stephen of Tuscany, in the upcoming imperial election.

In 1747, Maximilian married his first cousin, Maria Anna Sophia of Saxony, but the marriage remained childless. During the Seven Years' War Bavarian forces then fought on the Habsburg side. Maximilian Joseph's sister Maria Josepha of Bavaria was married in 1765 to Maria Theresa's son Emperor Joseph II. But long-term weakening of Prussia was not in the Bavarian interest, as that country offered the only counterweight to the Habsburg monarchy. Maximilian Joseph tried, as far as possible, to keep Bavaria out of the wars. Apart from militia troops, he sent only a small force of 4,000 men to join the Austrian army. In 1758/1759 (only a year and half into the war), he withdrew Bavarian auxiliary troops from Austrian service. Together with the Wittelsbach Elector Charles Theodore of the Palatinate he enforced the neutrality of the Empire during the conflict.

Maximilian Joseph was a progressive and enlightened ruler who did much to improve the development of his country. He encouraged agriculture, industry, and exploitation of the mineral wealth of the country, and abolished the Jesuit censorship of the press. In 1747 the Nymphenburg Porcelain Factory was established, while the Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis was written in 1756. In 1759, he founded Munich's first academic institution, the Bavarian Academy of Sciences. During the severe famine in 1770 Maximilian sold some of the crown jewels to pay for grain imports to relieve hunger. In that year, he also issued an edict against the extravagant pomposity of the Church which contributed to the end of the era of Bavarian rococo. He also forbade the Oberammergau Passion Play. In 1771 the elector regulated general school attendance. In December 1777 Maximilian Joseph rode in his carriage through Munich; on the ride, as he passed one of the tower clocks, the mechanism broke, and the clock struck 77 times. Commenting to the passengers, Max Joseph decided this was an omen, and that his years had run out.  Within days, he was stricken with a strange disease. None of his 15 doctors could diagnose it, but by Christmas, it had become clear that it was a particularly virulent strain of smallpox, called "purple small pox" at the time.

By the last day of the month he was dead without leaving an heir. Maximilian III Joseph is buried in the crypt of the Theatinerkirche in Munich.

Succession
As the last of the junior branch of the Wittelsbach dynasty which derived from Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor and had ruled Bavaria since early 14th century, Maximilian's death led to a succession dispute and the brief War of the Bavarian Succession. He was succeeded by his (in the male line) 12th cousin, once removed, the Elector Palatine Charles Theodore from the senior branch of the dynasty.

Maximilian's widow Maria Anna Sophia of Saxony and Maximilian's sister Duchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria as well as Maria Anna of Palatinate-Sulzbach, the widow of the former Bavarian crown prince Duke Clement Francis of Bavaria negotiated with Max's reluctant heir and intervened together with Frederick II. of Prussia and the new elector's supposed successor, Charles II August, Duke of Zweibrücken, to secure Bavaria's independence from Austria. The Prussian king had to threaten both the emperor and Bavaria itself with war. Austria had already invaded portions of the duchy immediately after the Elector's death and the new elector had less than any interest in his new realm. Instead, Charles Theodore, much to public annoyance, repeatedly tried to change it for Further Austria or the Austrian Netherlands, even better, for proximity to his Palatinian homelands.

Cultural legacy

Maximilian III Joseph ordered in 1751 François de Cuvilliés to construct the splendid rococo Cuvilliés Theatre and in 1755 the Stone Hall of  Nymphenburg Palace. He also ordered the decoration of some rooms of the New Schleissheim Palace in rococo style.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was received by Maximilian III Joseph, who was like his sister Maria Antonia Walpurgis of Bavaria skilled in music and composed, but due to a need for strict frugality no post could be offered. In 1775 La finta giardiniera'', an Italian opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, received its first performance at the Salvatortheater in Munich.

In 1770 Maximilian III Joseph established the precursor of the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich.

Ancestors

References

1727 births
1777 deaths
Nobility from Munich
People from the Electorate of Bavaria
House of Wittelsbach
18th-century prince-electors of Bavaria
German Roman Catholics
Imperial vicars
18th-century German composers
18th-century male musicians
Sons of emperors
Children of Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor
Sons of kings
Age of Enlightenment
German military personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
People of the War of the Bavarian Succession
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Deaths from smallpox
Burials at the Theatine Church, Munich

Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria


Foreign direct investment is the participation of one country's resources in another country's business. Many times people and technology are transferred between the two countries. Most foreign direct investment happens between the most developed countries; Western Europe, the US, and Japan. A foreign direct investor (someone who makes a foreign direct investment) can be a government body, a company, or an individual. China has much foreign direct investment in it from other countries. India was the second most. The United States is also a leader in foreign direct investment.

Trade

Foreign direct investment


A bailiff  is a governor, a legal officer for the government. There are many different kinds of bailiffs, and they have different jobs. The word comes from the Latin word, baiulivus.

Medieval bailiffs

Great Britain
The word was first used in England for the king's officers, such as sheriffs and mayors. It was also  the title for the chief officer of a hundred. The sheriff looked after an area called his bailiwick. Bailiff is kept as a title by the chief magistrates of various towns and the keepers of royal castles, such as the High Bailiff of Westminster, and the Bailiff of Dover Castle. In a medieval manor, a bailiff was in charge of the farming.

Law occupations

Bailiff


InSpectres is a humorous paranormal investigation-themed role-playing game created by Jared Sorensen and independently published by Memento Mori Theatricks.The game's story line follows the player's work in a supernatural investigation and elimination company.

History
InSpectres is a humorous role-playing game by Jared Sorensen about ghost-busting.

Jay Little listed InSpectres as one of several narrative driven games that influenced his work as designer of the third edition of Warhammer Fantasy Roleplay (2009).

System

InSpectres is written as a solution to the problems in classic whodunit role-playing games. In any kind of investigative adventure, the players follows a series of clues provided by the game master, which eventually enables the players to find out what happened and "who done it".  Managing the injection of clues into such a game can be quite difficult; if the clues come too fast or are too easy, the players will get bored or simply sit back and enjoy the game master unrolling the plot for them.  If the clues are too hard to find, the players will become frustrated and spend their energy following dead ends.  InSpectres deals with this problem by allowing the players to invent their own clues. The game mechanics regulate the flow of clues to give the players time to develop their ideas and come up with an interesting story.

InSpectres uses an adversarial system, in which the player describes what happens if the dice roll is successful and the game master decides if the dice roll is bad. However, like most role playing games, the game has a method of conflict resolution using dice. If the player succeeds, they earn a "franchise die," and when enough are collected, the current case is solved. Players can, at any time, use "confessionals," in the style of reality television, to add traits to other players' characters or steer events their way.

Setting
The player characters have just started a franchise in the supernatural investigation and elimination company, InSpectres. They investigate paranormal phenomena, hunt ghosts and kill vampires, depending on their company's niche.

Supplements
Three pdf supplements (termed 'micro-supplements') have been released which present alternative settings for the InSpectres game.  All three micro supplements are available for free download.

InSpeckers
With this supplement, you'll be able to run In-Speckers: a series of
adventures where grade-schoolers across the country fight the forces of darkness in
their homes, schools and neighborhoods.

UnSpeakable
An InSpectres micro-supplement of horror, madness, and mystery.  This micro-supplement is written to accommodate weird tales of horror,
madness and woe in the vein of H.P. Lovecraft. The basic play structure is that of InSpectres except flavored with a 1920s setting.
Rather than agents working out of a company, the characters are people who have
been called together to investigate the unknown.

InSpace
This supplement lets you explore the mysteries of space and play games in the style of 2001: A Space Odyssey, Solaris, Contact, Ringworld, or Forbidden Planet.

Other media
InSpectres inspired a feature-length film from Reactor 88 Studios. The official release date was September 6, 2013, with the film premiering at an initial theatrical release by Muvico in Rosemont, Illinois and in December at CineFamily in Los Angeles.

Notes

External links
 InSpectres homepage
 InSpectres movie site
 IMDB page
 InSpeckers Supplement
  UnSpeakable Supplement
 InSpace Supplement
Indie role-playing games
Comedy role-playing games
Horror role-playing games
Role-playing games introduced in 2002

InSpectres