Jim Hodges (born October 16, 1957) is a New York-based installation artist. He is known for his mixed-media sculptures and collages that involve delicate artificial flowers, mirrors, chains as spiderwebs, and cut-up jeans.

Early life and education
Jim Hodges was born in Spokane, Washington and received his Bachelor of Fine Arts degree from Fort Wright College in 1980. He received his Master of Fine Arts degree from Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, New York, in 1986.
That year he met art collector Elaine Dannheisser who let him use a studio in the basement of her foundation on Duane Street in exchange for working as a part-time art handler. During this time he abandoned his original medium of painting and started exploring materiality; this became his first major artistic crisis because he had realized that his concepts weren't connecting with his paintings.

After living in Dannheisser's basement for approximately four years, his creativity suffered. Only dedicating three days a week to making art, he eventually became poor, unstable, and lived in his studio illegally until Dannheisser kicked him out. However, after he became sober, his career picked up with a piece called Flesh Suspense (1989–1990).

Style and works
Since the late 1980s, Hodges created a broad range of work exploring themes of fragility, temporality, love, and death.  His works frequently employed different materials and techniques, from ready-made objects to more traditional media, such as metal chains, artificial flowers, gold leaf, and mirrored elements. Hodges' conceptual practice, which addressed overlooked and obvious touchstones of life, reflected human experience and mortality.

Hodges challenged the acceptance of traditionally feminine materials and craft by expanding the possibilities of these materials in his own works. As seen in "With the Wind" (1997) and "You" (1997), he consistently incorporated embroidery to magnify notions of domesticity, a mother's presence, and early notions of femininity.

Originally influenced by the woods of his hometown of Spokane, nature plays a reoccurring role throughout his works. In the years following his graduation from Pratt Institute, Hodges struggled to develop a theme within his works that would express his role as an artist. His use of color disappeared during this period, when he abandoned painting and gradually developed a process of creation through destruction. Color was reincorporated when he began using fabric flowers. Hodges did not intend this as an appropriation of nature but its antithesis: fake flowers. Abstractions of nature permeate Hodges' oeuvre and are further demonstrated through his interest in camouflage as a way to represent the landscape through an abstract medium. This is evident in his 2016 mirror-and-glass work I dreamed a world and called it love, an immersive installation at Gladstone Gallery which was meant to call to mind an abstraction of Claude Monet's room-encompassing paintings at the Musée de l'Orangerie, Paris.

During the late 1990s, artists responded to the AIDS epidemic with forms of expression ranging from the written word to abstract artistic statements reflected in anger or elegy. This movement led to iconic artwork influenced by advocacy group AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT UP). Hodges' work emerged through the direct influence of his personal experience, and through his notions of love and acceptance towards the self and those in other circumstances.

A Little Extra Something
In A Little Extra Something (1990–1991) Hodges covered the surface of a sheet of paper with theatrical make-up, where the paper resembled skin and the makeup showed delight in its application. This piece, according to Hodges, alluded to his own homosexuality.

Saliva-transfer drawings
In 1992 Hodges incorporated himself into the material of his pieces through the use of his saliva. He drew ink doodles of spider webs, clovers, chains, lines, spirals, and a matrix of dots, then blurred them with his saliva by pressing the wet images against another paper and created different printed impressions. Hodges said that by using his saliva with his materials, it revealed a "sensuous act", where his hand would draw the images and his mouth would transmit it. This expressed Hodges' empowerment, and was intended to disrupt the preconception of bodily fluids as something horrifying.

Don't Be Afraid
In 2004 Hodges was invited by Susan Stoops, a curator at the Worcester Art Museum, to create a mural on the museum rotunda. During this time, the U.S. government was raising concerns of public safety with a series of alerts. Responding to this and the destruction of the World Trade Center, Hodges offered the message "don't be afraid" for comfort and support to the citizens of America. He wrote a letter of invitation to all the UN delegates, incorporating their handwritten versions of this phrase to create a global chorus that conveyed a message of inclusion, strength, and optimism. Hodges had received more than one hundred translations in over seventy languages; the only country which refused to participate was the United States.

Untitled (2010)
In 2010, Hodges was invited to speak about his friend and colleague Felix Gonzalez-Torres at Artpace in San Antonio, Texas. Instead of a lecture, Hodges collaborated with Carlos Marques da Cruz and Encke King in a 60-minute film called Untitled (2010). The film quilted fragments from various social media outlets such as the 1980s AIDS/HIV activism of ACT UP, TV shows such as The Golden Girls, Dynasty, and The Wizard of Oz, and images of the burning oil fields of Iraq and the death camps of World War II. Hodges described this work as a fragment of a continuum which could be added or reworked endlessly. Hodges attempted to mirror the content that shaped the life of Gonzalez-Torres before he lost his battle with AIDS in 1996.

Exhibitions and permanent installations
Hodges had been the subject of numerous solo exhibitions in the United States and Europe and his work had been included in various group exhibitions, including the 2004 Whitney Biennial. Hodges is currently a senior critic in the Sculpture Department at the Yale University School of Art.

Jim Hodges: Give More Than You Take was a mid-career retrospective of Hodges' work organized by the Walker Art Center and the Dallas Museum of Art. This exhibition opened at the Dallas Museum on October 6, 2013, and visited the Walker in Minneapolis, the Institute of Contemporary Art in Boston, and the Hammer Museum in Los Angeles, closing on January 17, 2015. The retrospective was accompanied by a large-format appraisal of Hodges' work, edited by Jeffrey Grove and Olga Viso.

Hodges' piece Don't Be Afraid was installed at the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D.C. in 2005. A recent large-scale sculpture, look and see (a nine-ton stainless steel abstraction of camouflage) was purchased by the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York on October 30, 2006.

Solo Exhibitions

2022: "Impossible Flower," Baldwin Gallery, Aspen

2022: "Location Proximity," Gladstone Gallery, New York

2020: "LOVE POWER," Massimo De Carlo, Hong Kong, PRC

2019: "Unearthed," Grace Cathedral, San Francisco, California

2019: "Jim Hodges," Pizzuti Collection of CMA, Columbus Museum of Art, Columbus, Ohio

2018: "Jim Hodges: silence stillness," Anthony Meier Fine Arts, San Francisco, California

2017: "turning pages in the book of love / voltando pagine nel libro dell'amore", Massimo de Carlo Gallery, Milan, Italy

2017: "Tracing the contour of our days," Baldwin Gallery, Aspen, Colorado

2016: "With Liberty and Justice for All," rooftop installation, The Contemporary Austin, Texas

2016: "I dreamed a world and called it Love.," Gladstone Gallery, New York

2016: "Jim Hodges," Stephen Friedman Gallery, London, United Kingdom

2015: "Jim Hodges," Gladstone Gallery, Brussels

2014: "Jim Hodges: Give More Than You Take," Hammer Museum, Los Angeles, California [traveled from: Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, Texas (2013); Walker Art Center, Minneapolis (2014); Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston (2014)]

2014: "Jim Hodges," Anthony Meier Fine Arts, San Francisco, California

2014: "With Liberty and Justice For All (A Work in Progress)," Aspen Art Museum, Colorado

2012: "Jim Hodges: Drawings," Baldwin Gallery, Aspen, Colorado

2011: "Jim Hodges," Gladstone Gallery, New York

2010: "Jim Hodges: New Work," Dieu Donné, New York

2010: "Jim Hodges," Gladstone Gallery, Brussels

2009: "Jim Hodges: you will see these things," Aspen Art Museum, Aspen, Colorado

2009: "Jim Hodges: Love Etc.," Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris [traveled to: Fondazione Bevilacqua La Masa, Venice (2010); Camden Arts Centre, London (2010)]

2008: "Jim Hodges," CRG Gallery, New York

2008: "Jim Hodges," Stephen Friedman Gallery, London, United Kingdom

2008: "Jim Hodges," Anthony Meier Fine Art, San Francisco, California

2005: "Jim Hodges: this line to you," Centro Galego de Arte Contemporanea, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

2005: "Look and See," Creative Time Commission at the Ritz Carlton Plaza Battery Park, New York

2005: "Directions - Jim Hodges," Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C.

2005: "Jim Hodges," Museum of Contemporary Art, Cleveland, Ohio

2004: Jim Hodges: "Don't be Afraid," Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, Massachusetts

2003: "Jim Hodges," Tang Teaching Museum and Art Gallery at Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York [traveled to: Weatherspoon Art Museum, Greensboro, North Carolina; Museum of Contemporary Art, Cleveland, Ohio; Austin Museum of Art, Austin, Texas (2004)]

2003: "Jim Hodges," Stephen Friedman Gallery, London, United Kingdom

2003: "Returning," Art Pace, San Antonio, Texas

2003: "colorsound," Addison Gallery of American Art, Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts

2002: "Jim Hodges: Constellation of an Ordinary Day," Jundt Art Museum, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington

2002: "Jim Hodges: Subway Music Box," Day-Ellis Gallery, Northwest Museum of Arts & Culture, Spokane, Washington

2002: "this and this," CRG Gallery, New York

2002: "like this," Dieu Donné Papermill, New York

2001: "Jim Hodges," Camargo Vilaça, São Paulo, Brazil

2001: "Jim Hodges: 3 Drawings," CRG Gallery, New York

2000: "Capp Street Project: Subway Music Box," Tecoah Bruce Gallery of the Oliver Art Center, California College of Arts and Crafts, Oakland, California

2000: "Jim Hodges," Anthony Meier Fine Arts, San Francisco, California

1999: "Jim Hodges," Miami Art Museum, Miami, Florida

1999: "Jim Hodges: Cool Blue," Marc Foxx Gallery, Los Angeles, California

1999: "every way," Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, Illinois [traveled to: Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston, Massachusetts]

1998: "Jim Hodges: Recent Work," CRG Gallery, New York

1998: "Jim Hodges: Welcome," Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art, Kansas City, Missouri

1997: "Jim Hodges," Galerie Ghislaine Hussenot, Paris, France

1997: "Jim Hodges: no betweens and more" SITE Santa Fe, Santa Fe, New Mexico

1996: "yes," Marc Foxx, Santa Monica, California

1996: "States," Fabric Workshop & Museum, Philadelphia

1995: "Jim Hodges," CRG Art, Inc., New York

1995: "Jim Hodges," Bard Center for Curatorial Studies and Hessel Museum of Art, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York

1994: "Everything For You," Interim Art, London

1994: "A Diary Of Flowers," CRG Art, Inc., New York

1994: "New AIDS Drug," Het Apollohuis, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

1993: "Our Perfect World," Grey Art Gallery, New York

1991: "White Room," White Columns, New York

1989: "Historia Abscondita," Gonzaga University Gallery, Spokane, Washington

1986: "Master of Fine Arts Thesis Exhibition," Pratt Institute, New York

Gallery

Notes

External links
 Jim Hodges at Stephen Friedman Gallery, London
 Jim Hodges at Gladstone Gallery, New York
 Jim Hodges at Gladstone Gallery
 Jim Hodges at Anthony Meier Fine Arts, San Francisco
 http://art.yale.edu/JimHodges
 http://www.dma.org/art/exhibitions/JimHodges
 https://web.archive.org/web/20140702170953/http://www.icaboston.org/exhibitions/exhibit/jim-hodges/
 http://www.walkerart.org/magazine/2014/jim-hodges-olga-viso
 http://www.wbur.org/artery/2014/06/11/jim-hodges

1957 births
Living people
20th-century American painters
American installation artists
American male painters
Painters from New York City
Heritage University alumni
Pratt Institute alumni
American contemporary painters
20th-century American male artists
American embroiderers
American gay artists

Jim Hodges (artist)


Giovanni da Verrazzano (1485 – 1528) was a Florentine explorer of North America. He is known for being the first European since the Norse colonization of the Americas around 1000 to explore the east coast of North America between South and North Carolina and Newfoundland, including New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay in 1524. The Verrazano-Narrows Bridge is named for him.

He was chosen in 1524 by the King of France to search for a "Northwest Passage" to Asia through North America.
He left in the January of 1524, and reached Cape Fear in North Carolina on March 1, 1524.
He then proceeded north to explore the coastline, and believed that he had seen the Pacific Ocean (he explored North Carolina coast on the other side of a narrow piece of land). He actually discovered the Pamlico Sound, which is part of the Atlantic Ocean.
Verrazzano's mistake meant that incorrect maps were printed in Europe.
These maps showed North America as split into two parts, connected by a narrow strip of land. This error took over a century to correct.

Verrazzano discovered New York Harbor, Block Island and Narragansett bay while exploring the Atlantic coast of North America.
However, he missed some important discoveries because he often anchored far off-shore.
He sailed further north to Maine and Newfoundland, and then returned to France with his discoveries.
He made two more trips to the Americas after that.

There are conflicting reports on how he died. One version says he was killed and eaten by natives on Guadalupe Island. Another says he was executed for piracy in Spain.
New York Harbor's Verrazano Narrows Bridge commemorates this journey and his discoveries.

References

1485 births
1528 deaths
Italian explorers

Giovanni da Verrazzano


Orlando Gibbons (born: Oxford, baptised 25 December 1583; died Canterbury, 5 June 1625) was an English composer and organist.  He was one of the most important composers of his day.  He is famous for his church music and organ music.  He lived in the late Tudor and early Jacobean periods.

Gibbons was born in Oxford where his father was a city wait.  The family moved to Cambridge and his brother Edward, who was 15 years older than Orlando, became Master of the Choristers at King's College.   Between 1596 and 1598 Orlando sang in the choir of King's College, Cambridge where his brother was master.  He entered the university in 1598 and got the degree of Bachelor of Music in 1606. He married and had seven children.

James I made him a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, where he was organist from at least 1615 until his death. In 1625 he became senior organist at the Chapel Royal, with Thomas Tomkins as junior organist. He was also keyboard player (mainly harpsichord) in the privy chamber of the court of Prince Charles (later King Charles I), and organist at Westminster Abbey.  He died an early death in Canterbury of apoplexy, and a monument to him was built in Canterbury Cathedral.

Gibbons wrote a lot of keyboard works, around thirty fantasias for viols, some madrigals (the best-known being The Silver Swan), and many popular anthems.  He was very good at writing counterpoint as well as lovely melodies.  His famous verse anthem This is the record of John is often sung by choirs at Advent. It has a lovely solo for a  countertenor who takes it in turns with the full chorus.  Gibbons wrote two settings of the Evensong service: a long one with several verses, and the Short service. His full anthems include O Lord in thy wrath, and the Palm Sunday setting of O clap your hands together for 8 voices.

References

1583 births
1625 deaths
Baroque composers
English composers
English organists
People from Oxford
Renaissance composers

Orlando Gibbons


The Army of the Ohio was the name of two Union armies in the American Civil War. The first army became the Army of the Cumberland and the second army was created in 1863.

History

1st Army of the Ohio
General Orders No. 97 appointed Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell to command the Department of the Ohio. All the forces of the department were then organized into the Army of the Ohio, with Buell in command. Early in 1862, the army  fought its first battle at Mill Springs, although only the 1st Division, commanded by Brig. Gen. George H. Thomas, was engaged. The whole army marched to reinforce Grant's Army of the Tennessee at the Battle of Shiloh.

Buell was replaced as commander of the Department of the Ohio by Brig. Gen. Horatio G. Wright in August 1862, but because of Wright's junior rank, Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck ordered Thomas to replace Wright in command. However, Thomas foresaw a major battle and felt it unwise to change an army commander on the eve of battle. Thus Buell remained in command of the Army and Thomas was made his second-in-command.

The battle Thomas foresaw occurred on October 8, 1862, west of Perryville, Kentucky.  Confederate General Braxton Bragg had marched into Kentucky to recruit soldiers and take the state from the Union.  The full force of Buell's command was gathering when Bragg attacked.  Known as the Battle of Perryville, or the Battle of Chaplin Hills, casualties were very high on both sides.

Union casualties totaled 4,276 (894 killed, 2,911 wounded, 471 captured or missing). Confederate casualties were 3,401 (532 killed, 2,641 wounded, 228 captured or missing). [1]  Although Union losses were higher, Bragg withdrew from Kentucky when the fighting was over, and therefore Perryville is considered a strategic victory for the Union.

Buell was subsequently relieved of all field command.  Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans was appointed to command the Army of Ohio. He was also appointed to the command of the Department of the Cumberland and subsequently renamed his forces the Army of the Cumberland.

2nd Army of the Ohio

On 25 March 1863, Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside assumed command of the Department of the Ohio headquartered in Cincinnati, Ohio. On March 19, 1863, two divisions of the IX Corps under Maj. Gen. John G. Parke had been ordered from Virginia to Burnside's department.  On April 27, 1863, the War Department ordered all troops in Kentucky not belonging to IX Corps to be organized into the XXIII Corps under the commanded of Maj. Gen. George L. Hartsuff. By May 1863 Burnside had consolidated the forces of Kentucky into the IX Corps and XXIII Corps which he styled the Army of the Ohio. Thus, Burnside became one of the few officers to directly command two completely different armies (he had earlier commanded the Army of the Potomac). The IX Corps was soon transferred to Mississippi in June to participate in the siege of Vicksburg but was returned to the Army of the Ohio in August.

Meanwhile, the new Army of the Ohio' XXIII Corps repelled Morgan's Ohio raid, although the entire army rarely functioned as one complete unit during this campaign. Reunited with the IX Corps and the addition of a cavalry division, Burnside moved to Knoxville, Tennessee. There he defeated the Confederates at the Battle of Fort Sanders in the Knoxville Campaign. After the battle, he asked to be relieved of command due to illness. Maj. Gen. John G. Foster replaced Burnside as commander of the Army and Department of the Ohio on December 9.

Foster's time in command of the Army was short. On February 9, 1864, Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield assumed command of the Department of the Ohio, and then the Army of the Ohio and the XXIII Corps in April. During this time the XXIII Corps and the Army of the Ohio were synonymous. Schofield led the Army during the Atlanta Campaign and pursued Confederate Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood into Tennessee after the fall of Atlanta. At the Battle of Franklin, Schofield inflicted a severe defeat on Hood's army before joining with Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas and the Army of the Cumberland for the Battle of Nashville. On February 9, 1865, Schofield was transferred to command the Department of North Carolina. When Schofield departed to assume departmental command, Maj. Gen. Jacob D. Cox temporarily assumed command of the Army.

The XXIII Corps was ordered to North Carolina and only Cox's division was present for the Battle of Wilmington. It was not until March 1865 that the rest of the XXIII Corps landed at New Bern, North Carolina. Upon the arrival of the XXIII Corps in its entirety, Schofield joined that corps with the X Corps under Maj. Gen. Alfred H. Terry to form the Army of the Ohio. The Army was designated the Center Wing of Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman's army and participated in the final stages of the Carolinas Campaign. With the close of the war, the troops were mustered out of military service. A number of post-war reunions were held by various elements of the old Army of the Ohio.

Commanders
 Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell (November 15, 1861 – October 24, 1862) also department commander until March 11
 Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans (October 24–30, 1862) became the Army of the Cumberland
 Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside (March 25 – December 9, 1863) also department commander
 Maj. Gen. John G. Foster (December 9, 1863 – February 9, 1864) also department commander
 Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield (February 9 – September 14, 1864) also department commander
 Maj. Gen. Jacob D. Cox (September 14 – October 22, 1864)
 Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield (October 22, 1864 – February 2, 1865)
 Maj. Gen. Jacob D. Cox (February 2–9, 1865)
 Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield (February 9 – March 31, 1865) also commander of the Department of North Carolina

Major battles and campaigns
 Battle of Shiloh (Buell)
 Battle of Perryville (Buell)
 Morgan's Raid (Burnside)
 Knoxville Campaign (Burnside), (Foster)
 Atlanta Campaign (Schofield)
 Battle of Franklin (Schofield)
 Battle of Nashville (Schofield)
 Carolinas Campaign (Schofield)

Orders of Battle
 Shiloh Union order of battle
 Perryville Union order of battle
 Knoxville Union order of battle
 Atlanta Campaign Union order of battle
 Franklin Union order of battle
 Nashville Union order of battle
 Wilmington Union order of battle
Notes

1. Livermore, Thomas L., Numbers and Losses in the American Civil War 1861–1865, New York, 1901, p. 95, cited in McDonough, James Lee, War in Kentucky, University of Tennessee Press, 1994, pp 289–290. . Noe, Kenneth W. Perryville: This Grand Havoc of Battle. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2001. .

References

 Army of the Ohio

External links

 Army Organization during the Civil War

Ohio, Army of the
Tennessee in the American Civil War
Kentucky in the American Civil War
Georgia (U.S. state) in the American Civil War
South Carolina in the American Civil War
North Carolina in the American Civil War
1861 establishments in the United States
Military units and formations established in 1861
Military units and formations disestablished in 1865

Army of the Ohio


Aristotle Socrates Onassis (20 January 1906 – 15 March 1975) was a prominent Greek shipping magnate and founder of Olympic Airways.

Life and career

Onassis was born in Smyrna (now Izmir), Ottoman Empire, into a prosperous Greek family. He received a good education and became fluent in several languages. In 1922, when Turkey took possession of Smyrna, the Onassis family lost most of their fortune and had to flee to Greece. The following year, Onassis left for Argentina where he quickly established himself as a prominent businessman.

He later began to invest in shipping and eventually acquired a large fleet of freighters which made him one of the richest men in the world. In 1957, he founded Olympic Airways. He converted one of his ships into a luxury yacht called Christina, which he used to  entertain famous people (artists, politicians, royalty, etc.).

He married Athina Livanos (1926-1974) in 1946, with whom he had two children; Alexander (1948-1973) and Christina (1950-1988). In the late 1950s, he met diva Maria Callas and began a liaison with her that led to his divorce. In 1968, he startled the world by marrying Jacqueline Kennedy, the widow of slain President John F. Kennedy.

He died at American Hospital of Paris in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France, from complications of myasthenia gravis and pneumonia, aged 69.

1906 births
1975 deaths
Greek businesspeople

Aristotle Onassis


Muirsheen Durkin ist ein traditionelles irisches Volkslied, das die Auswanderung zum Thema hat. "Pratie" ist ein anderes Wort für "potatoe" – Kartoffel, was auf die damalige Landwirtschaft anspielt.

Liedtext

In the days I went a courting, I was never tired of sporting
To the alehouse and the playhouse and many's the house besides,
So I told me brother Seamus I'd go off and go right famous
And before I'd return again I'd roam the whole world wide.

Chorus
So goodbye, Muirsheen Durkin, I'm sick and tired of working,
No more I'll dig the praties, no longer I'll be poor.
For as sure as me name is Carney
I'll be off to California, where instead of digging praties
I'll be digging lumps of gold.

I've courted girls in Blarney, in Kanturk, and in Killarney
In Passage, and in Queenstown--that is, the Cobh of Cork.
But goodbye to all this pleasure, for I'm going to take me leisure
And the next time that you hear from me
Will be a letter from New York.

Goodbye to all the boys at home, I'm sailing far across the foam
To try to make me fortune in far America,
For there's silver there aplenty for the poor man and the gentry
And when I do come back again I never more will stray.

Aufnahmen
 Four to the Bar
 The Pogues
 The Vandon Arms
 The Irish Rovers
 The Dubliners
 Paddy Goes to Holyhead
 Auld Corn Brigade

Volkslied
Volksmusik (Irland)

Muirsheen Durkin


The Upper Peninsula (UP), also known as Upper Michigan, is the northern of the two major peninsulas that make up the U.S. state of Michigan. The peninsula is north by Lake Superior, on the east by the St. Marys River, on the southeast by Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, and on the southwest by Wisconsin.

The Upper Peninsula has 29% of the land area of Michigan but just 3% of its total population. Residents are frequently called Yoopers.

The peninsula's largest cities are Marquette, Sault Ste. Marie, Escanaba, Menominee, Houghton, and Iron Mountain.

Maple syrup is a highly prized local delicacy.

References

Geography of Michigan
Peninsulas of the United States

Upper Peninsula of Michigan


Daniel Schenkel (also known as: Georg Daniel Schenkel and Georg Daniel Schenkel von  Waldkirch) (21 December 181318 May 1885) was a Swiss Protestant theologian.

Biography
Schenkel was born at Dägerlen in the canton of Zürich. After studying at Basel and Göttingen, he was successively pastor at Schaffhausen (1841), professor of theology at Basel (1849); and at Heidelberg professor of theology (1851), director of the seminary and university preacher. At first inclined to conservatism, he afterwards became an exponent of the mediating theology (), and ultimately a liberal theologian and advanced critic.

Associating himself with the "German Protestant Union" (), he defended the community's claim to autonomy, the cause of universal suffrage in the church and the rights of the laity. From 1852 to 1859 he edited the Allgemeine Kirchenzeitung, and from 1861 to 1872 the Allgemeine Kirchliche Zeitschrift, which he had founded in 1859. In 1867, with a view to popularizing the researches and results of the Liberal school, he undertook the editorship of a Bibel-Lexicon (5 vols, 1869–1875), a work which was so much in advance of its time that it is still useful.

In his Das Wesen des Protestantismus aus den Quellen des Reformationszeitalters beleuchtet (3 vols. 1846–1851, 2nd ed. 1862), he declares that Protestantism is a principle which is always living and active, and not something which was realized once and for all in the past. He contends that the task of his age was to struggle against the Catholic principle which had infected Protestant theology and the church.

In his Christliche Dogmatik (2 vols, 1858–1859) he argues that the record of revelation is human and was historically conditioned: it can never be absolutely perfect; and that inspiration, though originating directly with God, is continued through human instrumentality. His Charakterbild Jesu (1864, 4th ed. 1873; Engl. trans. from 3rd ed., 1869), which appeared almost simultaneously with David Friedrich Strauss' Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet (Tübingen, 1835–1836), met with fierce opposition.

The work is considered too subjective and fanciful, the great fault of the author being that he lacks the impartiality of objective historical insight. Yet, as Pfleiderer says, the work "is full of a passionate enthusiasm for the character of Jesus." The author rejects all the miracles except those of healing, and these he explains psychologically. His main purpose was to modernize and reinterpret Christianity; he says in the preface to the third edition of the book: "I have written it solely in the service of evangelical truth, to win to the truth those especially who have been most unhappily alienated from the church and its interests, in a great measure through the fault of a reactionary party, blinded by hierarchical aims."

Schenkel died in Heidelberg.

Writings
He also wrote:
Friedrich Schleiermacher: ein Lebens- und Charakterbild (1868)
Christentum und Kirche (2 vols., 1867–1872)
Die Grundlehren des Christentums aus dem Bewusstsein des Glaubens dargestellt (1877)
Das Christusbild der Apostel and der nachapostolischen Zeit (1879)

References

1813 births
1885 deaths
Swiss Protestant theologians
Swiss Protestant ministers

Daniel Schenkel


Pat McIntosh is a Scottish writer of historical mystery fiction and fantasy.

Life and career
McIntosh was born and raised in Lanarkshire, Scotland. Having begun to write at age seven, she credits the author who inspired her to write as "probably Angus MacVicar!" She lived and worked in Glasgow for many years before moving to the west coast of Scotland. Prior to making her mark as an author, she worked as "a librarian, a receptionist for an alternative therapy centre, taught geology and palaeontology, [and] tutored for the Open University." Her first success as a writer came with a string of fantasy short stories published in the series of The Year's Best Fantasy Stories anthologies in the late 1970s, but she is best known as the author of the Gilbert and Alys Cunningham series of historical mysteries set in medieval Scotland, beginning with The Harper's Quine in 2004. The books have been published by Constable & Robinson in the United Kingdom and Carroll & Graf in the United States.

Bibliography

Gilbert and Alys Cunningham mysteries
The Harper's Quine (2004)
The Nicholas Feast (2005)
The Merchant's Mark (2006)
St. Mungo's Robin (2006)
The Rough Collier (2008)
The Stolen Voice (2009)
A Pig of Cold Poison (2010)
The Counterfeit Madam (2011)
The Fourth Crow (2012)
The King's Corrodian (2013)
The Lanimer Bride (2016)

Short stories
"Falcon's Mate" (1974)
"Cry Wolf" (1975)
"Ring of Black Stone" (1976)
"The Cloak of Dreams" (1978)
"Child of Air" (1979)

References

External links

Scottish mystery writers
Scottish fantasy writers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Scottish women writers
British short story writers
Women mystery writers
Women science fiction and fantasy writers

Pat McIntosh


Havlíčkův Brod is a district town in the center of the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands on the Sázava river. Its population is about 24,000 people.

History
Settlement in Brod has been documented as far back as the 12th century. There was an easy passage across the Sázava river (brod means "ford" in English). In the 13th century, silver was found near the town. After that Smil of Lichtenburg invited German miners to settle the area. The town which was first called Brod and later Smilův Brod (Ford of Smil), was renamed to Německý Brod (German Ford). At the beginning of the 14th century, the stone city walls were built, but later during the Hussite Wars in 1422 the city was burned down by Jan Žižka. The town was resettled in 1429 by Czech people. In 1637 Německý Brod was promoted to royal city. After The Second World War, the city was renamed to Havlíčkův Brod (Ford of Havlíček), after Karel Havlíček Borovský, famous writer and journalist.

Interesting places
The Old Town Hall in the square is Renaissance style. There is a skeleton under its clock. According to a story this skeleton was the traitor Hnát.

Havlíček´s house is built in the New-Gothic style. It is connected with life of Karel Havlíček Borovský. In this house, Havlíček was arrested and taken to exile. Today Havlíček´s Museum is there.

The Church at the corner of the square in Baroque style. It is famous for one of the oldest bells in Bohemia.

On the square is Plague column and fountain with statue of Triton too.

Today the city has a medical hospital, mental hospital, brewery, sport area with hockey arena, gym and swimming pool.

Cities in the Czech Republic

Havlíčkův Brod


Infante Francisco de Paula of Spain (10 March 1794 – 13 August 1865) was an Infante of Spain and the youngest son of Charles IV of Spain and Maria Luisa of Parma. He was a brother of Ferdinand VII, as well as the uncle and father-in-law of Isabella II.

His education at the Spanish court was derailed by the Napoleonic intervention in Spain. The departure of the fourteen-year-old Infante to exile in May 1808 provoked a popular uprising that was violently suppressed by French troops. For the next ten years, Infante Francisco de Paula lived in exile with his parents, first in Marseille and later in Rome.

Infante Francisco de Paula returned to Spain in 1818, being called by his eldest brother, King Ferdinand VII, who showered him with honors and privileges. Interested in artistic pursuits, Francisco was an amateur singer and painter. In 1819, he married his niece, Princess Luisa Carlotta of Naples and Sicily, the eldest daughter of his older sister Maria Isabella. The couple had eleven children and were very active in political affairs. Luisa Carlotta was instrumental in securing the succession for Ferdinand VII's daughter, Queen Isabella II.

During the regency of Isabella II, Francisco was excluded from the government by his sister-in-law, Queen Maria Christina. Siding with the liberals, Francisco de Paula and his wife became active in the opposition and were forced to move to France in 1838. They returned to Spain under the government of Maria Christina's successor as regent, General Espartero. As they also conspired against Espartero, they were sent back into exile.

The proclamation of Queen Isabella II's majority allowed them to return. The Infante and his wife centered their hopes on marrying their eldest son, Infante Francisco de Asis, to Queen Isabella II. Luisa Carlotta died in 1844, but, under pressure from French diplomacy, Queen Isabella II married Francisco de Asis in October 1846. As father-in-law to his niece the Queen, Infante Francisco de Paula occupied a prominent position at court during Isabella II's reign. However, as he tried to intervene in politics, he was briefly exiled once again in 1849. In 1852, with the Queen's approval, he contracted a morganatic marriage. He died twelve years later.

Early life

Born on 10 March 1794 at the Royal Palace of Aranjuez, Infante  Francisco de Paula was the fourteenth child of King Carlos IV of Spain (1748–1819) and his wife Maria Luisa of Parma (1751–1819), a granddaughter of  King Louis XV of France. He received the names Francisco de Paula Antonio Maria.
His parents had married twenty-nine years earlier and Francisco de Paula was the couple's last child.  As the youngest in a large family, he was his mother's favorite. His father, King Carlos IV, had a passion for hunting and collecting clocks, but little interest in political affairs. He  took a passive role in the direction of his own kingdom, leaving the  government to his wife and to his prime minister, Manuel Godoy.  Queen Maria Luisa thoroughly dominated the king. Lacking the  political acumen necessary to hold power on her own, Maria Luisa deposited her trust and the rule of government on Godoy, whom she raised to prominence. Court rumors attributed the paternity of  Francisco de Paula and his sister Maria Isabel, not to the king, but to Godoy. However, recent biographers and historians have found these claims to be both unproven and unlikely.

As a child, Francisco de Paula had blond hair, brown eyes and a tender expression. In the spring 1800, at the age of six, he was painted with his family by Francisco Goya in the portrait  Charles IV of Spain and His Family.

Francisco de Paula's education was different from the one provided to his two eldest brothers Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias and Infante Don Carlos. The plan of studies assigned to him was inspired by the pedagogical theories of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. Trying to implement this system of education throughout Spain, Godoy convinced the royal couple to apply it to their youngest son. Although his parents intended Francisco de Paula to pursue a career in the Spanish Navy, the Infante's education was abruptly interrupted by the Napoleonic intervention in Spain.

With the pretext of solving the differences between Charles IV and his eldest son, Ferdinand VII, who took over the government after the Mutiny of Aranjuez, Napoleon invited father and son to a meeting in Bayonne, France, pressing them both to renounce the Spanish crown and give it to him. After achieving his objective, Napoleon gave Spain to his brother Joseph Bonaparte and ordered the remaining members of the Spanish royal family out of the country.

While his parents and eldest brothers were at the conference in Bayonne with Napoleon, Francisco de Paula, then fourteen years old, was left behind at the Royal Palace of Madrid with his sister, the deposed Queen of Etruria, and her children. On 2 May 1808, at the departure of the Infante, the last remaining male member of royal family on Spanish soil,  a crowd gathered in front of the Royal Palace in an attempt to prevent his removal. The appearance of Francisco de Paula, pale and overcome by emotion, touched the crowd. Poorly armed, the population confronted the French troops. The spontaneous popular uprising against the French invaders spread throughout Madrid, but the French General Murat brutally crushed the rebellion.

Exile

For the next six years all the members of the Spanish royal family lived in exile. Ferdinand VII, his brother Infante Don Carlos and their uncle, old Infante Don Antonio, were confined under close surveillance at the Château de Valençay. Francisco de Paula, still a teenager, was the only child allowed to accompany his parents in exile in France.

King Carlos IV, the Queen and Infante Francisco de Paula, always followed by Godoy, were installed at the Château de Compiègne to the north-east of Paris. Looking for a warmer climate, they moved to Marseille in October 1808. They spent the next four years there, under increasingly strained circumstances. The Infante's sister, the former Queen of Etruria, was imprisoned in a convent in Rome by Napoleon. In order to be closer to her – and with fond memories of their early years in Naples and Parma – Francisco de Paula's parents moved with him to Rome in July 1812. They settled at Palazzo Borghese. During the Hundred Days, following Napoleon's escape from Elba, Murat, who had been King of Naples since 1808, marched on Rome in the Emperor's name. The family fled to Verona. After Napoleon's final defeat, the Spanish royal party returned to Rome, moving to Palazzo Barberini.

While in exile, Francisco de Paula's education was neglected. Godoy, who shared the same household with the deposed royal family, gave him some classes. In Rome, Francisco de Paula's parents tried to lead him to a career in the Church. He received minor orders, wore religious garments daily and the Pope offered to make him cardinal. However Francisco de Paula had no real inclination for clerical life. With no sibling near his age, Francisco's constant companion was Godoy's daughter, Carlota de Godoy Borbon, Duchess of Sueca. In 1814 Francisco de Paula was twenty years old and Carlota was fourteen. As they were fond of each other, Queen Maria Luisa wished them to marry. Francisco de Paula was reluctant. Unhappy with Godoy's overwhelming presence and the corruption around him, the Infante wrote to his brother the king, asking him to be permitted to renounce his religious orders, and be allowed to follow a career in the Spanish army instead. Ferdinand VII, restored to the Spanish throne after Napoleon's fall, called his brother back to Spain in order to frustrate the prospect of a wedding with Godoy's daughter. By August 1816, both Carlos IV and Queen Maria Luisa allowed their youngest son to leave as his behaviour in Rome had created concern.

The Infante left Rome on 22 November 1816. While in Lyon on his way to Spain, he became entangled in a scandal that derailed the trip. It was discovered that he had taken as lover the mistress of one of his servants, who took financial advantage of the situation. The Infante asked for forgiveness. Ferdinand VII pardoned his brother but delayed his return to Madrid, ordering him to travel around the European courts. For the next seventeen months the Infante visited Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Berlin, Weimar, Leipzig,  Dresden, Prague, and Vienna. There were plans to marry him to a Princess of Saxony. In December 1817, Carlos IV proposed to marry Francisco to one of the twin daughters of the King of Bavaria. Neither of these two projects came to fruition. The Infante wanted to marry his niece, Princess Maria Luisa Carlota of Parma, then fourteen years old. However, the princess's mother, Maria Luisa (the former Queen of Etruria), opposed the union, considering her twenty-two-year-old brother too reckless for her young daughter. In March 1818, Ferdinand VII, pressed by his wife Isabel of Braganza, finally ordered his brother to return to Spain.

Honours and privileges

Infante Francisco de Paula returned to Spain in April 1818. Ferdinand VII did not allow his brother a position of command in the Spanish Army as Francisco had wished, but otherwise showered him with honors and privileges. The Infante was made a Knight of the orders of  Santiago, Calatrava, Alcantara and Montesa, as well as being given the control and income of some of the large properties these orders held in Spain. He also became a senior knight of the orders of St John of Jerusalem which brought similar benefits. He received the French order of Saint Spirit and was made an honorary member of the Royal Academy of Arts.

As Infante Francisco settled in the Royal Palace, his father, Carlos IV, shortly before his death,  negotiated Francisco's marriage to Princess Luisa Carlotta of Bourbon Two Sicillies. This was with the consent of Ferdinand VII. Luisa Carlotta was the eldest daughter of Francis I of the Two Sicilies and Maria Isabel of Spain, Infante Francisco's sister. This was a union between uncle and niece. The couple married by proxy on 15 April 1819. On 14 May, Luisa Carlotta arrived in Barcelona.  The ceremonial wedding took place on 9 June 1819 at the Royal Palace of Madrid. Francisco de Paula was twenty-five years old; Luisa Carlotta was only fifteen. She was lively, witty, strong willed, hot tempered and ambitious. Luisa Carlotta quickly dominated her husband, won the King's heart, and began to produce children who were granted the rank and status of Infantes of Spain. Between 1820 and 1834 the couple had eleven children. The family lived in a wing of the royal palace of Madrid and also spent periods of time at the palaces of la Granja, Aranjuez and Sevilla.

The position of Francisco de Paula and his wife at court was, however, a modest one. The Infante was only fifth in the line of succession—after his brother Don Carlos and Don Carlos's three sons. Hoping to have descendants, Ferdinand VII, who had no children from his first two wives, married for a third time four months after Francisco's wedding. During the 1820s Spain was a country in constant political turmoil, facing economic hardships. The economy had been devastated in the war of independence from France and by the loss of the Spanish colonies in the continental Americas. A revolution in 1820 imposed on Ferdinand VII the liberal constitution of 1812. This period lasted for three years. In 1823, with the approval of Britain, France, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, a French army invaded Spain and reinstated the King's absolute power. Constant political tensions between liberals and conservatives, who had the upper hand, continued. In this political struggle, Francisco de Paula, grateful, loyal and subservient to his brother the king, supported Ferdinand VII's conservative policies. However, as the infante's political views were moderate, the ultra-royalist party at court viewed him as a liberal.

With a placid personality, Infante Francisco de Paula was more interested in art than in politics. The Infante, who in his childhood had received drawing lessons from the court painter and miniaturist Antonio Carnicero, was himself an amateur painter. Some of his works, including an oil painting of Saint Jerome, have survived. The Infante's main passion was music. Until he was forced to leave Spain for exile in 1808, he received music lessons from Pedro Anselmo Marchal and violin lessons from Francesco Vaccari. The Infante was a skillful singer with a good bass singing voice. His rooms at the Royal Palace were a gathering place for musicians and singers and he used to sing with them. The Infante also sang during musical evenings at the royal palace in the company of professional singers. From his youth until the end of his life, Francisco de Paula gathered an extensive sheet music collection that included almost 700 scores. This collection, acquired by the Biblioteca Nacional de España, has been preserved to this day. When Ferdinand VII created the Madrid Royal Conservatory in 1830, the infante was made an honorary member.

Political struggles

King Ferdinand VII remained childless during the 1820s. His third wife, Maria Josepha Amalia of Saxony was barren.  It was expected that his second brother, Infante Carlos, would succeed him. Religious and conservative, Don Carlos was married to the Portuguese Infanta Maria Francisca of Braganza. The couple had three sons. Infante Francisco de Paula supported his brothers's absolutist political views even if his own were more moderate liberal, but his energetic wife constantly dragged him into endless political struggles. Luisa Carlotta, although constantly pregnant, was meddlesome with a keen interest in government affairs.  As she had a grudge against Maria Francisca and Maria Francisca's sister, Maria Teresa, Princess of Beira (widow of Francisco de Paula's cousin, Infante Pedro Carlos), Luisa Carlotta was determined to avoid Don Carlos becoming King after Ferdinand VII's death.  The opportunity came with the death of Queen Maria Josepha in May 1829. On good terms with her brother in law Ferdinand VII, Luisa Carlotta convinced the king to marry her sister Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies. Their wedding took place in December that same year. The eldest of Ferdinand VII and Maria Christina's two daughters, Isabella, became heir to the crown thanks in great part to Luisa Carlotta's intervention. Don Carlos and his family opposed the change of the succession and they had to leave the country. Ferdinand VII died shortly after, on 29 September 1833.

At the ascension to the Spanish throne of the three-year-old Isabella II of Spain, under the regency of Queen Maria Christina, Infante Francisco de Paula was disappointed at not being included in the new government. Three months after Ferdinand VII's death, Maria Christina secretly contracted a morganatic marriage with a sergeant from the royal guard. Luisa Carlotta quarreled with her sister over this marriage. Within months, Don Francsico and his wife began to conspire against the regent with the support of the liberals. Spain plunged into turmoil as Don Carlos and his ultra-royalist followers attempted to seize power by force, unleashing a civil war (1833 -1839).  Maria Christina held on to power with the help of the moderates.  She mistrusted her ambitious sister and when in 1837 Don Francisco claimed a place in the senate, Maria Christina refused to approve his appointment. This not only thwarted the Infante's appointment, but cemented the enmity between Luisa Carlotta and her sister, the Queen regent. Their relationship never recovered. For the next five years Francisco de Paula and his wife intrigued against Maria Christina, undermining her power. These political intrigues were such as that Maria Christina ordered Infante Francisco and his family to move abroad.

Exiles and returns

In the spring 1838 Infante Francisco de Paula, his wife and their children settled in exile in France accompanied by the Infante's personal secretary the Count of Parcent. They found a prominent position at the court of Louis Philippe King of the French, whose wife  Queen Maria Amelia, was an aunt of Infanta Luisa Carlotta. The Duchess of Dino who met Don Francisco de Paula and his family at the French court, described them as follows: " The Infanta is very fair, with a face which, though washed out, is none the less stern, with a rough manner of speaking. I felt very ill at ease with her, although she was very courteous. Her husband is red-haired and ugly, and the whole tribe of little infantes, boys and girls, are utterly detestable". Meanwhile, in Spain, General Espartero, credited for the victory over the Carlists in 1839, took the post of prime minister. He soon became virtually a dictator, and forced Queen Maria Cristina to resign the regency, sending her to exile in France in October 1840. Maria Cristina's fall from power opened the door for Infante Francisco de Paula return to Spain.

Once back in Spain, Francisco de Paula and Luisa Carlotta initially settled in Burgos as Espartero banned them from approaching the capital. Eventually, the regent relented and allowed them to live in Madrid, but not in the Royal Palace. The couple hoped to exert influence over the Queen and foster their plan of marrying Isabella II and her sister, Infanta Luisa Fernanda to their sons Infantes Don Francisco de Asis and Don Enrique. When they tried to pressure Espartero in sanctioning the double marriages, he banished them to Zaragoza in August 1842.

Arriving in Zaragoza in October 1842, the Infante and his wife were at the center of the opposition of Espartero's government. In November, the Infante's supporters tried to provoke a coup d'état overthrowing the regency in favor of Don Francisco de Paula. When the plan was discovered, Espartero expelled the infante and his wife from Spain once again. However his new exile was short lived. In July 1843, a military upraising combined with a conspiracy of the moderates overthrew the regency. The rebels declared Queen Isabella of age, and Espartero went into exile in England.

Infante Francisco returned to Madrid with his family. From then on they lived at their own residence, the Palace of San Juan, built in 1815 by Ferdinand VII, near the park of El Retiro. They also had a house in close proximity to the Royal Palace at No 40 La Luna street. On 29 January 1844, Luisa Carlotta died suddenly of measles, aged 39. Widowed, Francisco de Paula continued living at the palace of San Juan. He wished to remarry and made a proposal to his sister-in-law and niece Princess Maria Carolina of the Two Sicilies, but the project did not come to fruition. He renewed his efforts in his plan to marry his nieces to his two sons, but was not successful. However, under pressure of French diplomacy, Maria Cristina, who personally disliked his nephew Francisco de Asis, agreed to sanction the marriage of her daughter Queen Isabella to her cousin. Antoine, Duke of Montpensier, the youngest son of King Louis Philippe of France, was chosen as Infanta Luisa Fernanda's husband. The rejected Infante Don Enrique was involved in a conspiracy and had to go into exile.

Last years

As his son, Francisco de Asis, became king consort on 10 October 1846, Francisco de Paula's profile at court rose. He was well liked by Isabella II and one of his daughters, Infanta Josepha, became the Queen's best friend. However, the marriage between his son and his niece was an unhappy one. In 1849, Infante Francisco de Paula tried to intervene in an effort to reconcile the spouses. He sided with the Queen, but because at the same time he suggested her to form a cabinet with members of the progressive party, the moderate government expelled him from Spain. In 1850, he was allowed to return.

Back in Spain, Infante Francisco de Paula was involved in a scandal. He was found playing sexual games with two women while blindfolded. The women were sent away by the police. Eventually, at age fifty-eight, Francisco de Paula  contracted a morganatic marriage on 19 December 1852 in Madrid. Little is known about his second wife, Teresa de Arredondo y Ramirez de Arellano, except that she was from Murcia and a good dancer. Her age is unknown, but she was much younger than her husband. She was not short of economical means as she brought into her marriage a considerable dowry. The couple had a son, Ricardo María de Arredondo, born a week after the wedding, on 26 December 1852. The child was not permitted to carry the Bourbon last name, instead he was given the title of Duke of San Ricardo by Isabella II in 1864.

His second marriage lasted twelve years and was a happy one. In letters and documents, Infante Francisco de Paula praised his wife's devotion to him. They lived a discreet life at the palace of San Juan. Don Francisco de Paula appeared frequently in court events, but always without his wife. Doña Teresa died, still young, on 29 December 1863. Their eleven-year-old son, Ricardo María, was put under the care of his maternal grandmother. In his will, Infante Francisco de Paula tried to protect his youngest son's inheritance and placed him under the custody of Queen Isabella II. Less than a year after his second widowhood, Infante Francisco de Paula died of colon cancer on 13 August 1865. He had wished to be buried at the church of San Francisco, but he was buried at the Escorial as was due a person of his rank.

Marriages and children
Francisco de Paula married twice. His first wife was his niece Princess Luisa Carlotta of Naples and Sicily, daughter of Francis I of the Two Sicilies and Maria Isabel of Spain. They married on 12 June 1819 in Madrid and had eleven children.
 Francisco de Asis de Borbón, Infante of Spain, Duke of Cádiz (6 May 1820 – 15 November 1821)
 Isabel de Borbón, Infanta of Spain (1821–1897); married, morganatically, Count Ignaz Gurowski
 Francisco de Asis de Borbón, Duke of Cádiz, king-consort of Spain (13 May 1822 – 16 April 1902). Husband of Queen Isabella II
 Enrique de Borbón, Duke of Seville (17 April 1823–1870); married, morganatically, Elena de Castellvi y Shelly-Fernandez de Cordova
 Luisa de Borbón, Infanta of Spain (11 June 1824 – 27 December 1900); married morganatically José María Osorio de Moscoso, Duke of Sessa
 Duarte Felipe de Borbón, Infante of Spain (4 April 1826 – 22 October 1830)
 Josefina de Borbón, Infanta of Spain (1827–1910); married, morganatically, José Güell y Rente
 Teresa de Borbón, Infanta of Spain (1828–1829)
 Fernando de Borbón, Infante of Spain (15 April 1832 – 17 July 1854)
 Maria Cristina de Borbón, Infanta of Spain (1833–1902); married Infante Sebastian of Portugal and Spain
 Amelia de Borbón, Infanta of Spain (12 October 1834 – 27 August 1905); married Prince Adalbert of Bavaria

Infante Francisco de Paula contracted a morganatic marriage on 19 December 1852 with Teresa de Arredondo y Ramirez de Arellano. They had one son.
 Ricardo María de Arredondo (1852–1872), Duke of San Ricardo. Died young, unmarried.

Honours
 : Knight of the Order of the Holy Spirit (18 April 1816)
 : Grand Cross of the Order of St. Stephen (1818)

Heraldry

Ancestry

Notes

References
Balansó, Juan. Los diamantes de la Corona. Barcelona: Plaza & Janés, 1999.
Lozano Matinez, Isabel and Soto de Lanuza, Jose Maria. La colección de música del infante don Francisco de Paula de Borbón.  Biblioteca Nacional de España, 2012.
Mateos Sainz de Medrano, Ricardo. Los desconocidos infantes de España. Thassalia, 1996.
Mateos Sainz de Medrano, Ricardo. The Sweet Young Infante. Royalty Digest, Vol 5, N 7. January 1996.
Moral Roncal, Antonio Manuel. El Infante don Francisco de Paula de Borbón: masonería y liberalismo a la sombra del trono.. Investigaciones históricas. Época moderna y contemporánea, 20 (2000), pp. 149–168.  ISSN 0210-9425
Rubio, Maria José. Reinas de España. La Esfera de los Libros, Madrid, 2009.
Smerdou Altolaguirre, Luis. Carlos IV en el exilio . Eunsa. Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, S.A., 2000.

1794 births
1865 deaths
People from Aranjuez
Spanish infantes
Burials in the Pantheon of Infantes at El Escorial
House of Bourbon (Spain)
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Sons of kings

Infante Francisco de Paula of Spain


The rings of Saturn are the planetary rings around the planet Saturn, which can be seen with a small telescope. They consist of many small particles, ranging in size from microscopic to the size of a bus (or bigger) that form clumps that move around Saturn. The particles in the rings are made almost entirely of water ice, with just a small amount of dust and other chemicals.  There are some gaps in the rings.  The moon Pan causes the gap called the "Encke gap" in Saturn's A ring. The Cassini Division, discovered by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, is a gap between the A ring and the B ring. It is a product of orbital resonance.

References

Saturn

Rings of Saturn


On the Earth, a circle of latitude is an imaginary east-west circle that connects all locations with a given latitude. A location's position along a circle of latitude is given by its longitude. Circles of latitude are often called parallels because they are parallel to each other. It is measured in absolute location.

The five major circles of latitude are, from north to south:
 The Arctic Circle (66.5°N)
 The Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N)
 The Equator (0°)
 The Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S)
 The Antarctic Circle (66.5°S)

Lines of latitude

Circle of latitude


In computer programming, event-driven programming also known as event-based programming is a programming method in which the flow of the program is determined by sensor outputs or user actions (such as mouse clicks, key presses) or by messages from other programs or threads running on the computer.

Event-driven programs can be written using any of the computer programming languages, although the task is easier in languages that provide high-level of abstractions to support it. Some integrated development environments provide all assisting methods that automate most tasks required for events handling.

Software

Event-driven programming


The Saskatchewan River is one of the great rivers of North America. It is part of the Hudson Bay watershed. It flows in Canada east from the Rockies to Lake Winnipeg, and eventually empties into the Hudson Bay.

On its journey from the Rockies, the river goes across three provinces, and covers 1,205 miles (1,939 kilometres) from its furthest point. Starting in Alberta, the river goes right through Saskatchewan and ends up in Manitoba.

The river's tributaries in Manitoba and Saskatchewan are also large and important rivers. They include:
North Saskatchewan River
Battle River
South Saskatchewan River
Red Deer River
Bow River
Oldman River

References

Rivers of Canada

Saskatchewan River


Blood and soil is a concept first developed in the 19th century. It looks at a person's blood, to see where they come from, and who their ancestors were. It also looks at the soil a person is working on, to make a claim that they should indeed work and occupy that land. In the nineteenth century, the idea was linked to racism and to nationalism.
One of the first to use Blut und Boden, or blood and soil was Oswald Spengler in his book Der Untergang des Abendlandes. In the book, Spengler talks about the struggle of blood and soil about the inner form of a relocated species of animal and man. Walther Darré took the phrase and established the link. In his book "Neuadel aus Blut und Boden" (New nobility from blood and soil) he tries to show the relation between economic and agrarian policies, as well as racial ones.

Another idea of the blood and soil ideology comes from Lamarckism: The ethnic characteristics of a population are linked to the geographical regions it inhabits; only in this region will it be able to fully live up to its potential.

There is also a literary genre called blood and soil. In it, it shows an agrarian society living up to this ideals. People writing in this style were Gerhard Schumann and Herbert Böhme. The ideas are also sometimes shown in artworks. Artists included Adolf Ziegler, Arthur Kampf, Arno Breker and Josef Thorak. Very often, such artworks were seen as degenerate art when the Nazi party came to power. Artists had to flee, many died in exile.

Today, the phrase is associated with Nazi ideology. White supremacist gathers at the 2017 Charlottesville riots were heard chanting "blood and soil", presumably to align themselves with Nazism.

References

Political philosophy
Nazism

Blood and soil


St Ives Bridge is a 15th-century bridge crossing the River Great Ouse in St Ives, Cambridgeshire, England. It is noted for being one of only four bridges in England to incorporate a chapel (the others being at Rotherham, Wakefield, and Bradford-on-Avon).

History
Prior to the first bridge here there was a ford across the Ouse, probably dating back several thousand years. The river was at that time wider and shallower until locks were added to make it navigable.

The St Ives settlement was developed by the monks of Ramsey Abbey who built the town's first bridge, a wooden structure, in 1107. In 1414 it was decided to replace this bridge with a stone arch bridge, which was completed in 1425, adding the bridge chapel dedicated to St Leger in 1426.

Such chapels were relatively common in medieval times and served as toll-houses, as well as to allow travellers to pray or to give thanks for a safe journey. They also hosted church services.

During the English Civil War the bridge was partially blown up by the troops of Oliver Cromwell to prevent King Charles I's troops approaching London from the Royalist base in Lincolnshire. The two arches on the southern side were demolished and a drawbridge installed in 1645 as a defensive measure by Cromwell's forces, who held the town. The drawbridge remained in use until 1716. When the bridge was partially rebuilt that year, the shape of the new arches was different from the surviving ones, leaving the bridge with two rounded arches on its South side and two Gothic arches on the North.

At some point, the bridge chapel fell into disuse and was for a time  used as a bawdy house during the eighteenth century. St Ives was an official last stop of all the many drovers with their livestock, who descended upon St Ives  for accommodation, refreshments and other relief, during what was a tiring journey to Smithfield market within London. At one time there were dozens of doss houses, inns and other bawdy houses, in and around St Ives town centre.

The chapel was restored in 1930, having previously served as a toll house, inn and as a private residence. It had  been designed as a chapel, though, and dedicated by the monks to Saint Leger. By 1736 it was being used as accommodation, and in that year two extra floors were added. During the 1850s and 1860s it was turned into a notorious public house named "Little Hell", then a doctor's surgery. By 1930 the structure was found to be weakened so the extra stories were removed and the chapel restored. As a result, the roof is modern. An unusual feature is the crypt, about two metres above the river's water level. The bridge and the chapel are now Grade I listed and a Scheduled Ancient Monument. The chapel is still used for public worship on an occasional basis.

The bridge served as the primary southern entrance to the town and the only road bridge across the river until Harrison Way by-pass was added down-river to the east in 1980.

Preservation
The bridge is one of nine Scheduled Ancient Monument Grade 1 in Cambridgeshire. All maintenance must be carried out in a sympathetic manner to preserve its aesthetic and functional aspects. Since 1980 the foundations have been strengthened and the structure reinforced. In 1998 the bridge was resurfaced, special precautions being taken to prevent water ingress into the structure. In 2002, external lighting of the arches and chapel was fitted, along with internal lighting of the chapel and lights fitted into the pedestrian refuges at each pier. English Heritage control all work on the bridge, although it is not one of the properties in Cambridgeshire that they own.

Recent events

1976

A gravel lorry breached the parapet. St Ives sub-aqua club recovered the stones from the river-bed. George Hunter from Huntington was one of the local tradesman assigned to restore the chapel after this event. All tradesmen who worked on the project have details engraved on the stones that rebuilt the bridge chapel.

1947

During the big flood this year an amphibious tank breached the parapet.

1941
A Home Guard Bren gun carrier breached the parapet.

See also
 Old Bridge, Huntingdon, 6 miles up-stream.
 Chantry Chapel of St Mary the Virgin, Wakefield
 Rotherham Bridge
 St Mary's Bridge Chapel (Derby)

Notes

External links

 Photographs exploring the Chapel, and showing the previous extra floors.
 Night picture of the bridge and Chapel, newly floodlighted in 2002/3.
 Panoramic view from the bridge
 Information provided by British Waterways
 Bridge maintenance policy

Bridges across the River Great Ouse
Bridges in Cambridgeshire
Buildings and structures completed in 1107
Bridges completed in 1425
Deck arch bridges
Grade I listed bridges
Grade I listed buildings in Cambridgeshire
Scheduled monuments in Cambridgeshire
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St Ives Bridge


The middlegame is the part of a game of chess after the opening.

The middlegame begins when most of the pieces have been developed. It is where most games are won and lost. Many games will end in resignation even before an endgame takes place.

The simplest way to learn the middlegame is to select an opening and learn it well (see examples in English opening and French defence).

Elements of structure
A middlegame position has a structure, caused by the opening. These are some things to look for when looking at a middlegame position:

• Material: changes in the balance of material are critical. To lose a piece for nothing is enough to lose a game. If the players are evenly matched, then a rough material balance of pieces is normal. Material balance is often quite static: it doesn't change for many moves. On the other hand, material may be sacrificed, usually for a direct attack on the opposing king.

• Development: the opening may have left one player with a lead in development. That player has the initiative, and may attack before the opponent can get his pieces out. It is a temporary asset: if a lead in development is not used effectively, it will disappear.

• The centre: in the centre pieces have their greatest effect, and some (such as the knight) attack more squares in the centre than at the sides. The player who controls the centre will almost always have the advantage.

• Mobility: a position is mobile if the pieces can get where they need to. Almost all middle game positions have some limitations to mobility. Look for open files for the rooks, and open diagonals for the bishops. Outposts are what knights need, places where they can't easily be dislodged.

• King safety: where is the king? Ideally, a king should be castled, and kept behind a screen of pawns. Many other things may happen in practice. If a king is weak, it may be put under direct attack. If the kings castle on opposite wings, and queens are on the board, both players may try to assault the enemy king.

• Pawns provide the skeleton of a position. They move slowly, and may become blocked for many moves. Everything takes place round the pawns. Different openings produce different pawn structures. In this way openings influence the whole game. Notice these things when they occur:
• isolated pawns: they have weak squares in front of them. A weak square is one which cannot be attacked by a pawn.
• doubled pawns, that is two pawns on the same file (that is, on the same vertical line): another weakness.
• pawns side by side: flexible, mobile, a positive feature.
• chains of pawns: notice the base is weaker than the apex.
• passed pawns, which cannot be stopped by any other pawn. They have the potential to burst through and disrupt the opponent's position.
• blocked pawn chains: pieces are forced to go one side or the other.

What the player does is note the features on the board, and formulate a plan which takes the features into account. Then the player works out a sequence of moves. Of course, in practice, the opponent is interfering with the plan at every step!

Middlegame types

Central struggles

Isolated Queen's pawn

The Tarrasch variation of the French defence gives us: 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nd2 c5 (3...Nf6 is popular) 4.exd5 exd5 5.Nf3 Nc6 6.Bb5 Bd6 7.dxc5 Bxc5 8.0-0 Ne7 9.Nb3 Bd6 10.Re1 0-0 11.Bg5 Bg4 and so on. Now the opening is over, and all the pieces are developed. This line is quiet, and mostly about the centre.

The isolated black QP is what gives the middlegame its character. The pawn itself is both a weakness and a potential source of strength. It controls the very important square e4, but leaves the equally important d4 much weaker. The position is fairly equal, but the database shows that White has an advantage of about 7%.

Rapid development

In the English opening this line became popular: 1.c4 Nf6 2.Nc3 e6 3.e4 c5 4.e5 Ng8 5.Nf3 Nc6 6.d4 (this is the critical move: White tries to take advantage of his development at the expense of a pawn) 6...cxd4 7.Nxd4 Nxe5 8.Ndb5 a6 9.Nd6+ Bxd6 10.Qxd6 f6 11.Be3 Ne7 12. Bb6 (looks like it wins the Q) Nf5 and now both 11.Qc5 and 11.Bxd8 give White an advantage of only 2.4%.

The variation involved a number of middlegame themes: rapid development, material sacrifice, exploiting weak squares. In total, it is a frantic struggle for the centre.

Rapid development is the benefit of the old-style gambits. An opening such as 1.e4 e5 2.d4 exd4 3.c3 dxc3 4.Bc4 (known as the Danish Gambit) is virtually never played nowadays, but White does get good value for his pawn(s). Some trainers recommend young players try this out to learn how to get the best out of rapid development.

Central pawn chains
Many middlegames are played around blocked or semi-blocked pawn chains. The pawn chains are decisive in deciding the players' plans. These plans often involve a K-side v Q-side struggle, with each player attacking his opponent's pawn base.

French defence structures

1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.e5 c5 5.a3 Bxc3+ 6.bxc3 Ne7 7.Qg4 Qc7 (7...0-0 is possible) 8.Qxg7 Rg8 9.Qxh7 cxd4 10.Ne2 and so on. The play in lines like this is strongly asymmetric: White owns the kingside, and Black owns the queenside.

This example, from the Winawer variation, is an extreme case. Each side plays a maximum of moves attacking the opponent's weak side, and as few moves as possible defending his own weak side. This is a general principle for these unbalanced K-side v Q-side positions.

King's Indian structures

Here is an example from the borderline between opening and middlegame. In the diagram to the left, White will operate mainly on the Q-side, and Black on the K-side. The reason for this is that the black d6 pawn and the white e4 pawn are the bases of their pawn chains. It was Nimzovich who pointed out that such pawns are usually the most vulnerable to attack.

White, to play, may wish to cope with Black playing 10...Nf4. He can do this by playing 10.g3, or by playing 10.Re1 so that if 10...Nf4 11.Bf1 will preserve the bishop (in this position an important defensive piece). Or maybe White will plough ahead with 10.c5, the key move on the Q-side.

ChessBase shows that the number of tournament games with these choices were:
10.Re1 2198
10.g3  419
10.c5  416

The data base also shows that the overall results were significantly better for 10.Re1. What the player does is note the features on the board, and formulate a plan which takes the features into account. Then the player works out a sequence of moves. Of course, in practice, the opponent is interfering with the plan at every step!

Safety of the king

Safety of the king is probably the most common theme in the later middlegame. This example is a classic. Two pawns up, White could win the endgame by exchanging queens. However, he thought he saw something better.
1.Rc7
This is a skewer, because if the black queen moves aside, then Rxg7+ gives mate.
1... Rc5!!
This brilliant reply puts its finger on White's weak point: the back rank.

if 2.Rxd7, then 2... Rc1#
if 2.dxc5 then 2... Qd1#
if 2.Rxc5, then 2...Qxb7!, winning

Value of the pieces
Traditionally the value of the Pieces has been as follows:
Pawn = 1 Pawn
Knight = 3 Pawns
Bishop = 3 Pawns
Rook = 5 Pawns
Queen = 9 or 10 Pawns

Kasparov's version:
Pawn = 1 Pawn
Knight = 3 Pawns
Bishop not in pair = 3 Pawns
Bishop as part of Pair = 3.25 Pawns
Rook = 5 Pawns
Queen = 9 Pawns

References

Chess

Middlegame


The Rich Are Always with Us is a 1932 American pre-Code romantic comedy-drama film directed by Alfred E. Green and starring Ruth Chatterton, George Brent, and Bette Davis. The screenplay by Austin Parker is based on the novel of the same name by Ethel Pettit.

Plot
New York City socialite Caroline Grannard and her wealthy stockbroker husband Greg seemingly have a happy marriage until she learns about his affair with Allison Adair. When she confronts him, he confesses he wants a divorce.

While en route to an assignment in Romania, novelist and war correspondent Julian Tierney, long in love with Caroline, meets her in Paris after her divorce is finalized and asks her to marry him. Although she insists she no longer has feelings for her ex-husband, she asks Julian for time to consider his proposal, and he departs without her.

Caroline returns to the United States and discovers Greg and Alison are expecting a baby. Malbro, who has been trying to entice Julian into a romantic relationship without much success, advises Caroline he is planning to travel to China and India in hopes of forgetting her. Caroline tells Julian she loves him as well and they spend the night together. When Allison learns about their tryst, she tries to create a scandal, implying that Caroline isn't what she seems. Allison's machinations are stopped by Malbro and Greg. On their way home, the couple become involved in a heated discussion in the car and are involved in a crash in which Allison is killed and Greg is injured severely.

When Caroline visits Greg in the hospital, he begs, "Don't leave me." His doctor tells her the hope of a reconciliation will help Greg recover faster. She tells him, "I won't leave you, Greg." When Caroline sees Julian, she tells him that she cannot leave with him because she must take care of Greg.  However, she arranges for a judge, hospitalized in a nearby room, to marry her and Julian before he departs for the Far East, and she promises to join him there once Greg has recuperated fully.

Cast (in credits order)

Ruth Chatterton as Caroline Grannard
George Brent as Julian Tierney
Bette Davis as Malbro
John Miljan as Greg Grannard
Adrienne Dore as Allison Adair
John Wray as Clark Davis
Robert Warwick as The Doctor
Walter Walker as Dante
Berton Churchill as Judge Bradshaw
Sam McDaniel as Max, Julian's Butler

Production

Bette Davis, cast in the supporting role of Malbro, filmed The Rich Are Always with Us simultaneously with So Big!, which was released first. Rich marked the first time she was photographed by Ernest Haller. He became her favorite cinematographer - she referred to him as "the genius" and "my miracle man" - and he worked with her on thirteen additional projects.

Davis was a longtime fan of leading lady Ruth Chatterton and looked forward to co-starring with her. "The film bubbled with wit and sophistication", she later recalled, "and I was thrilled to be appearing with Miss Chatterton." On the first day of shooting, Chatterton "swept on [the set] like Juno," said Davis. "I was properly dazzled. Her entrance could have won an Academy nomination." Chatterton made Davis so nervous she "literally could not get a word out of my mouth" and finally told her, "I'm so damned scared of you I'm speechless!" Her spontaneous outburst helped relax both of them. "She was most helpful in her scenes with me after that. I never forgot this experience and in later years, when young actors were terrified of me, I would always try to help them get over it." Davis also was happy to be working with Brent, but her efforts to involve him at that time in a romantic relationship were as unsuccessful as her character's were; Brent and Chatterton married shortly after the film was completed.

Critical reception
Mordaunt Hall of The New York Times called the film "a zealous attempt at high comedy, which unfortunately savors more of Hollywood than it does of fashionable New York society, with which it is supposed to be concerned." He added, "It results, however, in being mildly diverting, owing to Miss Chatterton's charming performance and the competent acting of others. What little it possesses in the way of a story might have been better told in one-fifth its length." He continued, "Miss Chatteron, according to all reports, now has the choice of her stories, and it is therefore surprising that she should have picked this one. Certainly, it has the virtue of being restrained in most of its scenes, but the dialogue, far from being smart, verges on the bromidic." He concluded, "Miss Chatterton gives a graceful and easy portrayal. George Brent does capitally [and] Bette Davis . . . also serves this film well."

References

External links

1932 films
1930s romantic comedy-drama films
American romantic comedy-drama films
American black-and-white films
1930s English-language films
Films based on American novels
Films directed by Alfred E. Green
Films set in New York City
First National Pictures films
1930s French-language films
Films produced by Darryl F. Zanuck
Films produced by Samuel Bischoff
1932 comedy films
1932 drama films
1932 multilingual films
American multilingual films
1930s American films

The Rich Are Always with Us


Dame Edith Mary Evans DBE (8 February 188814 October 1976) was a British actress. She was famous for playing haughty aristocratic ladies. Evans was born in London to Edward Evans, a civil servant, and his wife, Caroline Ellen Foster. She was educated at St Michael's Church of England School, Pimlico.

She first appeared on stage as Viola in Twelfth Night in October 1910. Her stage career lasted 60 years during which time she played over 150 different roles in classic theater works such as those of William Shakespeare and Oscar Wilde. She also appeared in works by her contemporaries, George Bernard Shaw and Noël Coward.

Evans began her movie career in 1915. In 1952, she played Lady Bracknell in the movie The Importance of Being Earnest.  She continued to make some movie appearances, usually in supporting roles. Her movies included The Nun's Story (1959), Tom Jones (1963) and Scrooge (1970).  She won a BAFTA award and a Golden Globe award. Evans made her American television debut in 1961.

She had a heart attack in the 1970s, but continued to appear in television programs in the U.S. and the U.K. until shortly before her death. In 1925, Evans married George (Guy) Booth. They had no children. When her husband died in 1935, Evans never remarried.

References

British stage actors
British movie actors
1888 births
1976 deaths

Edith Evans


{{Infobox monarch
| name            =Setthathirathເສດຖາທິຣາຊ
| title           =King of Lan Xang  King of Lan Na
| image           =Setthathirat.JPG
| caption         =Statue of King SetthathirathPha That Luang, Vientiane
| succession      =
| reign           =1548-1571
| predecessor     =Photisarath I
| successor       =Sen Soulintha
| coronation      =1550
| succession1      =
| predecessor1     =Chiraprapha
| successor1       =Mekuti
| reign1           =1546-1551
| coronation1      =1546
| spouse          =
Ton Thip of Lan NaTon Kham of Lan NaThepkasattri of AyutthayaKaew Pra Kham, daughter of Sen Soulintha
| issue           =
Prince Nokaeo KoumanePrincess Khau PhengOther Princesses
| dynasty         =Khun Lo
| father          =Photisarath I
| mother          =Yotkhamthip of Lan Na
| religion        =Therevada Buddhism
| birth_name      =Setthavangso
| birth_date      =24 January 1534
| birth_place     =Muang Sua, Lan Xang
| death_date      =1571
| death_place     =Attapeu, Lan Xang
| date of burial  =
| place of burial =
| regnal name     = Samdach Brhat-Anya Chao Udaya Budhara Bhuwana Brhat Jaya Jettha Maharajadhiraja Bhuwanadya Adhipati Sri Sadhana Ganayudha|}}
Setthathirath (; 24 January 1534 – 1571) or Xaysettha (; , , ) is considered one of the great leaders in Lao history. Throughout the 1560s until his death, he successfully defended his kingdom of Lan Xang against military campaigns of Burmese conqueror Bayinnaung, who had already subdued Xieng Mai (Chiang Mai) in 1558 and Ayutthaya in 1564. Setthathirath was a prolific builder and erected many Buddhist monuments including Wat Xieng Thong in Luang Prabang, Haw Phra Kaew, Wat Ong Teu Mahawihan and the Pha That Luang in Vientiane.

King of Lanna
Setthathirath also known as Chaiyachettha or Chaiyaset or Jayajestha, Son of the King Photisarath of Lan Xang, he was crowned King of Lanna after the death of his grandfather, Ketklao the previous King of Lanna, who died without a male heir to the throne and gave his daughter Princess Yotkhamtip in marriage to his father King Photisarath of Lan Xang.

When King Ketklao died, there was no other descendant available  to succeed him. High-ranking officials and Buddhist monks therefore agreed unanimously to assign the Lanna throne to Prince Setthathirath in 1546. His name was lengthened to Chao Chaiyasetthathirath.

In 1548 King Setthathirath (as King of Lanna) had taken Chiang Saen as his capital. Chiang Mai still had powerful factions at court, and the threats from Burma and Ayutthaya were growing.

King of Lan Xang
After the death of King Photisararath, the nobles of Lan Xang were divided, a group supported Prince Tha Heua, another group of nobles led by Phya Vieng, Saen Marong and Kwan Darmpa supported Prince Lanchang who was born from an Ayutthayan princess. Prince Tha Heua and Prince Lanchang began to split the Kingdom up between them, when Prince Settathathirath was still in Chiang Mai. Hearing of the news of his half brothers, King Settathathirath quickly returned to Lan Xang leaving the affairs of Chiang Mai under Queen Chiraprapha's leadership, taking with him the Phra Kaew (Emerald Buddha), the Saekkam and the Phra Phuttha Sihing images. He also claimed that taking the statue would allow his relatives the opportunity to venerate the image and make merit. The Nobles of Lanna felt that Setthathirath had stayed away too long, and sought another descendant of Mangrai dynasty to take the throne in 1551. They chose a distant relative of Setthathirath, the Shan Prince known as Mekuti.

Settathathirath subdued Prince Tarua in Louang Phrabang, and sent his general Phya Sisatthamatailoke to go fight Prince Lanchang in the town of Kengsah, Prince Lanchang was defeated and fled to Thakhek, where the local Lord had him arrested and sent to Phya Sisatthama. The nobles that supported Prince Lanchang were executed, but Prince Setthatathirath pardoned Prince Lanchang and appointed him as governor of Seanmuang. Phya Sisatthama was thus made Lord of Viangchan, and given the title Phya Chantaburi, who built Wat Chan and Pia Wat that can be still found in Viangchan today.

In 1553 King Setthathirath sent an army to retake Lanna from Mekuti but was defeated. Again in 1555 King Setthathirath sent an army to retake Lanna at the command of Sen Soulintha, and managed to take Chiang Saen. For his success, Sen Soulintha was given the title Luxai (Victorious) and offered one of his daughters to King Setthathirath. In 1556 Burma, under King Bayinnaung invaded Lanna. King Mekuti of Lanna surrendered Chiang Mai without a fight, but was reinstated as a Burmese vassal under military occupation.

In 1560, King Setthathirath formally moved the capital of Lan Xang from Luang Prabang to Viangchan, which would remain the capital over the next two hundred and fifty years. The formal movement of the capital followed an expansive building program which included strengthening city defenses, the construction of a massive formal palace and the Haw Phra Kaew to house the Emerald Buddha, and major renovations to That Luang in Viangchan. In Luang Prabang, Wat Xieng Thong was constructed perhaps in compensation for the loss of status as the former capital of Lan Xang, and in Nakhon Phanom major renovations were made to That Phanom.

The Burmese invasions

In 1563, a treaty was signed between Lan Xang and Ayutthaya, which was sealed by the betrothal of Princess Thepkasattri (whose mother was Queen Suriyothai of Ayutthaya). However, King King Maha Chakkraphat instead tried to exchange Princess Kaeo Fa, which was immediately rejected. In the midst of the disagreement, the Burmese invaded northern Ayutthaya with the assistance of Maha Thammaracha the royal viceroy and governor of Phitsanulok. It was only then in 1564 that King Chakkraphat sent Princess Thepkasattri to Lan Xang along with a massive dowry in an attempt to buy back the broken alliance.

While the procession was en route, Maha Thammaracha ambushed the princess and sent her to his overlords in Burma; she committed suicide shortly thereafter or en route. Facing the threat of a superior Burmese force, King Chakkraphat had lost a potential alliance with Lan Xang, the northern territories of Ayutthaya and his daughter. To prevent further incursions, King Chakkraphat became a vassal of Burma and had to deliver both himself and his son Prince Ramesuan as hostages to King Bayinnaung leaving another son   Prince Mahinthrathirat as a vassal in Ayutthaya.

The Burmese then turned north to depose King Mekuti of Lanna, who had failed to support the Burmese invasion of Ayutthaya in 1563.Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 266–268 When Chiang Mai fell to the Burmese, a number of refugees fled to Viangchan and stripped of supplies. When the Burmese took Viangchan they were forced into the countryside for supplies, where King Setthathirath had organized guerrilla attacks and small raids to harass the Burmese troops. Facing disease, malnutrition and demoralizing guerrilla warfare, King Bayinnaung was forced to retreat in 1565 leaving Lan Xang the only remaining independent Tai kingdom.

 Covert plans

In 1567, King Mahinthrathirat approached King Setthathirath with covert plans for Ayutthaya to rebel against Burma by launching a counterattack against Mahathammarachathirat in Phitsanulok. The plan would involve an overland invasion from Lan Xang with assistance from the royal navy in Ayutthaya passing up the Nan River. Mahathammarachathirat was in Burma at the time, and Maha Chakkraphat had been allowed to return to Ayutthaya as Burma was facing small rebellions in the Shan areas.

The plan was discovered and reinforcements were sent to Phitsanulok. Realizing Phitsanulok was too fortified, Setthathirath withdrew his attack, but set up a devastating counter ambush on his retreat to Vientiane in which five pursuing Burmese generals were killed. Seizing on the weakness, King Chakkraphat ordered a second attack on Phitsanulok in which he successfully took the city, but could only briefly hold it having suffered repeated heavy losses.

King Bayinnaung sent a massive invasion in 1568 in response to the uprising. In early 1569, the city of Ayutthaya was directly under threat and Vientiane sent reinforcements. The Burmese had planned on the reinforcements however and Setthathirath fell into a trap. After a two-day struggle the Lan Xang forces prevailed at the Pa Sak Valley near Phetchabun, at which point one of the commanding generals from Nakhon Phanom broke south toward Ayutthaya. The Burmese rallied and were able to destroy the divided forces, and Setthathirath had to retreat toward Viangchan.

The Burmese then focused their attack on Ayutthaya and took the city. King Setthathirath upon reaching Vientiane ordered an immediate evacuation. The Burmese took several weeks to regroup and rest having taken Ayutthaya, which allowed Setthathirath to rally his forces and plan for prolonged guerrilla warfare. The Burmese arrived in Viangchan and were able to take the lightly defended city. Just as in 1565, Setthathirath began a guerrilla campaign from his base near the Nam Ngum River, northeast of Vientiane. In 1570 Bayinnaung retreated, Setthathirath counterattacked and more than 30,000 were taken prisoner, along with 100 elephants, and 2,300 pieces of ivory from the retreating Burmese.

In 1571, the Ayutthaya Kingdom and Lan Na were Burmese vassals. Having twice defended Lan Xang from Burmese invasions, King Setthathirath moved south to conduct a campaign against the Khmer Empire. Defeating the Khmer would have greatly strengthened Lan Xang, giving it vital sea access, trade opportunities, and most importantly, European firearms which had been growing use since the early 1500s. The Khmer Chronicles record that armies from Lan Xang invaded in 1571 and 1572, during the second invasion King Barom Reacha I was slain in an elephant duel. The Khmer must have rallied and Lan Xang retreated.

Death and aftermath
In 1571, a conspiracy between Lord Phya Nakhon and the former abbot of Wat Maximavat, who held personal grudges against Setthathirath, led to the king's murder in the southern frontier of the country. He was 37 years of age.

Because Setthathirath left only a toddler as his heir, prince Noi Hno Muang Keo Koumane, the child's maternal grandfather, a military commander of common birth named Sen Soulintha, declared himself king. This began a period of turbulence, with different kings ruling unsteadily for short periods, which saw the country finally conquered by King Bayinnaung in 1574, and the toddler son of Setthathirath taken to Burma. with a fratricide by a crown prince; with a rebellion led by someone claiming to be Setthathirath-resurrected; and with a nine-year period in which the country had no king. (The Burmese would rule Laos for eighteen years.) Quarrels and conflicts among the feudal nobility and their followings led to disruptions and unrest within the population.

With the country in chaos, Prince Noi Hno Muang Keo Koumane was always recognised as the rightful king by the people of Laos who campaigned for his return for many years. They finally succeeded when they sent a delegation to Burma after the prince had come of age in 1590. Released from captivity in Burma by King Nanda Bayin, he returned to Vientiane where he was crowned in 1591. He declared independence from the Burmese in 1593, but suffered several attacks from them throughout his reign.

There was little peace in Laos until King Sourigna Vongsa ascended the throne in 1637 (possibly in 1638).

Family
Father: Photisarath - King of Lan Xang (r. 1520–1548)
Mother: Queen Yudhi Karma Devi (Yot Kam Tip), Nang Nhot-Kham - (m. 1533) daughter of Brhat Muang Ket Klao Setharaja, King of Lanna
Consorts and their Respective Issue:
 Princess Dharmadevi (Ton Tip) - (m. 1546) daughter of his maternal grandfather, Brhat Muang Ket Klao Setharaja, King of Lanna

 Princess Dharmakami (Ton Kam) - (m. 1546) daughter of his maternal grandfather, Brhat Muang Ket Klao Setharaja, King of Lanna.

 Princess Devisra Kshatriyi (Tepsakatri) - (m. 1563), younger daughter of Maha Chakkraphat King of Ayudhya (r. 1548-1564; 1568-1569) by Queen Suriyothai
 Princess keo fa daughter of Maha Chakkraphat and Concubine.
 Princess Kiao Prakham, a daughter of Phragna Sen Soulinthara Lusai - King of Lan Xang (r. 1546-1551)
 Prince Nu Muang Kaeva Kumara (Phragna Nakorn-Noi No Muang Keo Koumane) - King of Lan Xang  (r. 1571–1572(?); 1591-1598)
 a three lady from Indapatha-negara   a daughter of Chan Reachea
 by unknown women Princess Khau Pheng - (married in 1560 with Prince Kham Khon (Kham Done) Prince of Xieng Xouang (d. 1567), younger son of Prince Su Bun Lan Thai, Prince of S'ieng Wong S'ieng Wang

See also
 List of monarchs of Laos

Notes

References

 Lorrillard, Michel (1999) "La Succession de Setthathirat : réappréciation d'une période de l'histoire du Lan Xang," Aseanie 4 December 1999, pp. 44–64.
 Phothisane, Souneth. (1996). The Nidan Khun Borom: Annotated Translation and Analysis,
 Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Queensland. [This is a translation of a Lan Chang chronicle]
 Wyatt, David K. and Aroonrut Wichienkeeo (1995). The Chiangmai Chronicle. Chiangmai:
 Silkworm Books, pp. 118–127 [This source records the history of Setthathirath as a ruler of both Lan Chang and Chiang Mai]
 Wyatt, David K., Thailand: A Short History'', New Haven (Yale University Press), 2003. [Concise description of his reign]

Kings of Lan Xang
Laotian military leaders
1534 births
1571 deaths
16th-century Laotian people
16th-century military personnel
16th-century monarchs in Asia
Laotian Theravada Buddhists
Monarchs of Laos
16th-century murdered monarchs
1540s in Asia
1560s in Asia
1570s in Asia
Murder in 1571

Setthathirath


A princely state (also called a native state or Indian state) was a state within the former British Indian Empire where a native Indian sovereign came under subordinate alliance with  the British via a treaty. Such treaties allowed for what was termed British Paramountcy as opposed to sovereignty over the native states. The peoples of these native states were officially not considered subjects of the British Indian Empire but rather as subjects of their native monarch. For the purposes of travel the term used on the passports of subjects of Native sovereigns was "British protected person". As according to treaty with the empire the native ruler had surrendered the subject of foreign affairs, such states could not have direct relations with other states without British approval.

From time to time, however, often for the purposes of its own security, the British Indian Empire
would interfere in the internal affairs of even the first class states in violation of the treaties made with them. Such interference was met by both public and formal protests buy native rulers and their subjects and was considered as an "encroachment on a native states sovereignty" by the empire.

The rulers of these states held various titles: e.g. raja (a Hindu ruling prince); maharaja (a greater Hindu ruling prince); nawab (a Muslim ruling prince such as the Nawab of Awadh); nizam, the title of the Nizam of Hyderabad. About 118 of the 565 princely states existing in 1947 were considered first class sovereign states and had state governments of their own and only five were large states (Hyderabad (Princely state), Mysore, Kashmir and Jammu, and Baroda). Of these three became part of the dominion of India while the status of Jammu and Kashmir was disputed.

Princely state


Varaztirots II Bagratuni (; c. 590 – 645) was an Armenian nakharar from the Bagratuni family, the son of Smbat IV Bagratuni. He was marzpan of Armenia c. 628, fled to the Byzantine Empire soon thereafter and was exiled for several years to Africa for his participation in a plot against Heraclius. On his return c. 645/6, he was named curopalates and presiding prince of Armenia, but died before being formally invested.

Life
Varaztirots was the eldest son of Smbat IV Bagratuni. Along with his brother Garikhpet, he grew up in the Sassanid Persian court of Khosrow II (). Following the defeat of the rebellion of Vistahm, in which his father was instrumental, Varaztirots was named a royal cupbearer. At that point, or after Smbat's victory over the Hephthalites in 608, he also received the honorific name Javitean Khosrow ("Eternal Khosrow").

In 628, Khosrow II was overthrown after a conspiracy in which several aristocratic houses, including Varaztirots, took part. As a reward, the new Persian shah, Kavad II, appointed Varaztirots as marzpan of Armenia, with the rank of aspet. He soon quarrelled with the Persian governor of neighbouring Atropatene, however, and fled with his family to the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, who, following the end of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, resided with his court in northern Mesopotamia. According to the Armenian chronicler Sebeos, Heraclius welcomed him with great honours, gave him valuable gifts and "exalted him above all the patricians of his kingdom". In 635 or 637, however, Varaztirots became involved in a conspiracy by several Armenian magnates to overthrow and murder Heraclius and replace him with his son, John Athalarichos. The conspiracy was uncovered, and Varaztirots was exiled to Africa; the treatment he received was more merciful than that of his co-conspirators as he had opposed the murder of the emperor.

On his death-bed in 641, Heraclius pardoned Varaztrots and made his successor, Constantine III, swear that he would recall him and his family from exile and restore their honours. In the event, Varaztirots was recalled only in 645/6, by Constans II at the urging of Theodore Rshtuni. Varaztirots quickly fled from Constantinople to Armenia, but after assurances of loyalty, Constans then appointed him governor of Armenia with the high rank of curopalates. Before he could be formally invested, however, he fell ill and died. He was buried next to his father at Dariwnk, in Kogovit.

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Bagratuni dynasty
7th-century monarchs in Asia
Year of birth uncertain
590s births
640s deaths
Sasanian governors of Armenia
Byzantine prisoners and detainees
7th-century Armenian people
Kouropalatai
Armenian people from the Sasanian Empire

Varaztirots II Bagratuni