In theoretical physics, a branch of physics, the rigidly rotating disk paradox, sometimes called the Ehrenfest paradox, is a paradox concerning a rotating disk. Basically, the paradox says that when a disk (or any circular object in general) is rotated, it will have a smaller circumference than 2πr, because the radius will remain the same, but the circumference is shortened due to the Lorentz contraction. For a more detailed explanation, see below.

Definition(s)

Mathematical definition

If the rotating disk has an angular velocity of ω, and a radius of R, then the circumference of the disk is ω·R. So the circumference will undergo a Lorentz contraction of
. However, the radius, R, will not undergo a Lorentz contraction since it is perpendicular to the direction of motion.

Therefore, the circumference divided by the diameter will end up being a little bit less than .

Alternate explanation
The simpler definition is given by the following. To an observer X riding on the edge of the rotating disk, the effects of high-speed motion are still in place. So, if X were to crawl along the circumference with a ruler and measure the circumference, his ruler will be shortened (due to the Lorentz contraction) and he will have to lay out his ruler more times to measure the circumference. Therefore, he will measure the circumference to be greater than he would measure it to be if the disk were stationary.

If an observer Y were to sit on the radius of the rotating disk, he will measure the radius to be the same as he would measure it to be if the disk were stationary, since the radius is not affected by the Lorentz contraction (the radius is perpendicular to the direction of motion). Therefore, when observers X and Y compare their measurements, they find that

In verbal terms this means The circumference is greater than 2π times the radius. So, the circumference and the radius are not proportional by 2π in this case.

Explanation for the paradox
In differential geometry, there exists a certain type of mathematical plane called a hyperbolic plane. In it, if you draw a normal circle, the radius will remain the same, but the circumference will be greater than 2πr. Physicists began to realize that the accelerated angular motion of the disk caused a curvature in spacetime, therefore distorting the normal flat geometric plane, causing the circumference to be greater than 2πr.

Underlying this explanation is the fact that Euclidean geometry is not the actual geometry of space, but an approximation which works well at the level of human life.

Relation to gravity
Using an ingenious argument concerning the equivalence principle, Albert Einstein showed that the curvature in spacetime caused by the rotated disk could be a logical explanation for gravity. For more information on this topic, see Gravity and the rotating disk.

Physics
Paradoxes

Rigidly rotating disk paradox


A conservation law is a statement used in physics that says that the amount of something does not change in time. That thing could be as simple as mass or charge, or something that has to be calculated, like energy, or angular momentum.

For example, the "law of conservation of mass" is the conservation law that says that the amount of mass is always conserved, even if it is changed into another form. This means that if the mass of the universe could be measured right now, its mass would be known tomorrow because it will not change.

History
For a long time, people thought that these laws were true for the amount of mass and energy in the universe. Later on, Albert Einstein said that they were not completely true. He said that mass could change into energy (or the other way around). If this happened, it would be against the conservation laws because if mass was changed into energy, the total amount of mass goes down, and the total amount of energy goes up.

Einstein said that conservation laws could still be used if all the mass and all the energy were combined. He said that even though the mass changes or the energy changes, the sum when they are added together does not change. So now there is just one conservation law for mass and energy together.

Problems
Of course, mass is measured in kilograms, and energy is measured in joules. They cannot be added together directly, but Einstein found a way to add them together. He created the equation . This equation means is that before adding the amount of mass to the amount of energy, the mass must be multiplied by the speed of light and then by the speed of light again.

Purpose
Some of the things that are thought to be conserved are:
 momentum
 mass and energy added together
 Conservation of energy
 Conservation of mass
 angular momentum
 charge

Conservation laws are helpful for people when they do problems in Physics. This is because if they know that a thing is conserved, it gives them more mathematical information about the thing they are doing the problem about.

Emmy Noether showed that conservation laws can be said to arise from symmetries in the laws of physics. This theorem, called Noether's theorem gives physicists an extremely powerful tool to try and solve complicated problems.

For example:
 Since there is no absolute position, only relative position, we can get that the total momentum of a closed system is conserved.
 Since there is no absolute time, only relative time, we can get that the total energy of a closed system is conserved.
 Since there is no absolute orientation or preferred direction in space, only relative orientation, we can get that the total angular momentum of a closed system is conserved.
 There are more sophisticated symmetries, like local gauge invariance which lead to the conservation of charge.

Types of Conservation laws
Conservation laws can come in two types, global, or local.

Global conservation
A global conservation law just says that the total amount of something in the universe does not change in time.

Local conservation
A local conservation law says a little bit more than that. It says that if the amount of something changed in one place, it is because it moved into or out of that place, and we can measure that movement.

Basic physics ideas

Conservation law


The Richard B. Fisher Center for the Performing Arts at Bard College is a performance hall located in the Hudson Valley hamlet of Annandale-on-Hudson, New York. The center provides audiences with performances and programs in orchestral, chamber, and jazz music, and in theater, dance, and opera. Designed by architect Frank Gehry, the  center houses two theaters, four rehearsal studios for dance, theater, and music, and professional support facilities. The building's heat and air-conditing systems are entirely powered by geothermal sources, enabling the Fisher Center to be fossil fuel free during standard operations. The total cost of the project reached $62 million and took three years to complete, opening in April 2003. The New Yorker calls it "[possibly] the best small concert hall in the United States."

The Sosnoff Theater, an intimate, 900-seat theater with an orchestra, parterre, and two balcony sections, features an orchestra pit for opera and acoustics designed by Yasuhisa Toyota, including an acoustic shell that turns the theater into a concert hall for performances of chamber and symphonic music.

The smaller of the two theaters is the flexible 200-seat LUMA Theater, which houses Bard's Theater and Dance Programs during the academic year.

The Fisher Center is also the home of the Bard Music Festival, hosting companies from around the world during Bard SummerScape, a festival of opera, theater, and dance. The Performing Arts Center is primarily devoted to teaching and college events during the academic year and used as a public performing-arts facility and venue for the college's graduate programs in the arts during the summer months.

See also
 Richard B. Fisher namesake of the hall, chairman emeritus of Morgan Stanley and former chair of Bard's Board of Trustees.
 Leon Botstein President of Bard College
 Gideon Lester Artistic Director
 List of works by Frank Gehry
Walt Disney Concert Hall
The organization of the artist
List of concert halls
Guggenheim Museum Bilbao

References

External links

  Official Site for the Richard B. Fisher Center for the Performing Arts at Bard College
  Review of Fisher Center in "Live Design"

Frank Gehry buildings
Music venues in New York (state)
Theatres in New York (state)
Concert halls in New York (state)
Bard College
Annandale-on-Hudson, New York
Performing arts centers in New York (state)
Tourist attractions in Dutchess County, New York
Buildings and structures completed in 2003
Expressionist architecture
Postmodern architecture in New York (state)
Modernist architecture in New York (state)
Event venues established in 2003
2003 establishments in New York (state)


Derechos are a widespread and damaging group of severe thunderstorms. The word "derecho" means "straight" in Spanish. That is because it is a straight line of thunderstorms. They often have rapid forward speeds. They have a distinct appearance on radars, known as bow echoes. They have very strong winds. Unlike other thunderstorms, derecho storms usually hit suddenly, with strong hurricane force winds, spraying rain, and frequent lightning from all directions. A derecho can create heavy damage in only a short time. These storms usually occur in North America, although they can occur elsewhere around the world. Winds with these storms can exceed 100 mph in certain cases.

Derecho


Dennis Keith Rodman (born May 13, 1961) played basketball in the National Basketball Association (NBA) from 1986 to 2000. He won two championships with the Detroit Pistons and three more with the Chicago Bulls. Even though he was only 6'7" tall, many people think he was the best rebounder in NBA history. He led the NBA in rebounding for a record seven straight seasons.  Only Wilt Chamberlain led the NBA in rebounding for more total seasons in a career.  Rodman has the highest rebound rate since the statistic began in 1970-71.  Although Rodman began his career as a bench player, he holds the highest rebounds per game average since offensive and defensive rebounds began in 1973-74.  When he became a full-time starter, Rodman often got more rebounds than the other team's starting players got combined.  He could predict where missed shots would go and knew how to tip the ball to himself for a rebound.  Rodman watched film of player's shots to become a better rebounder.  Rodman is also known as one of the greatest defensive players of all time, and not just for his defensive rebounds, but his hustle defense.  During his time with the Detroit Pistons, Rodman was considered by many to be the best defensive basketball player in the world (Hakeem Olajuwon was the other main contender for the title), as highlighted by his back-to-back NBA Defensive Player of the Year Awards in 1990 and 1991.

Rodman was famous for dyeing his hair different colors and having many tattoos and body piercings, which he began to have after being traded by the Detroit Pistons. He has been in a few movies and television programs.

His nicknames are Worm (later called The Worm), Dennis the Menace, D-Rod, Rodzilla (which he named himself towards the end of the Bulls championship dynasty), Demolition Man, and El Loco (given to him by Spanish-language announcers, which translates as "The Madman").

Other websites
Dennis Rodman's official website
NBA.com page

References

African-American basketball players
Chicago Bulls players
Dallas Mavericks players
Detroit Pistons players
Los Angeles Lakers players
San Antonio Spurs players
Sportspeople from New Jersey
1961 births
Living people
National Basketball Association players with retired numbers
American basketball players

Dennis Rodman


Ziegfeld Follies is a 1945 American musical comedy film released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, primarily directed by Vincente Minnelli, with segments directed by Lemuel Ayers, Roy Del Ruth, Robert Lewis, and George Sidney, the film's original director before Minnelli took over. Other directors that are claimed to have made uncredited contributions to the film are Merrill Pye, Norman Taurog, and Charles Walters. It stars many MGM leading talents, including Fred Astaire, Lucille Ball, Lucille Bremer, Fanny Brice (the only member of the ensemble who was a star of the original Follies), Judy Garland, Kathryn Grayson, Lena Horne, Gene Kelly, James Melton, Victor Moore, William Powell, Red Skelton, and Esther Williams.

Producer Arthur Freed wanted to create a film along the lines of the Ziegfeld Follies Broadway shows, and so, the film is composed of a sequence of unrelated lavish musical numbers and comedy sketches. Some of them, such as Pay the Two Dollars, originated in George White's Scandals. Filmed in 1944 and 1945, it was released in 1946 to considerable critical and box-office success.

The film was entered into the 1947 Cannes Film Festival.

Plot summary
The movie opens with the camera panning over a Heaven somewhere beyond the sky. The residences of great showmen gone to their eternal reward are shown: Shakespeare, whose home looks like the Globe Theater; P.T.Barnum, whose residence in the afterlife resembles a circus Big Top; and Florenz Ziegfeld, whose home's entrance is reminiscent of the theater where he staged the Ziegfeld Follies on Broadway.

Talking to the audience, Ziegfeld guides the viewers along a wall with three-dimensional paintings or shadow boxes containing dolls that look like the stars he cast in his Follies over the years. The film dissolves into a stop-motion puppet sequence as Ziegfeld provides a voice-over of the opening of one of his shows.

Following this, he steps out onto a balcony, musing how he wishes he could stage just one more Follies, with current and past stars in the cast. A Higher Power causes a cigar-sized crayon and a sheet of parchment to appear, and Ziegfeld begins to write. As he does so, the skits and performance numbers appear on the screen.

Cast
 Fred Astaire as Fred Astaire
 Lucille Ball as Lucille Ball
 Lucille Bremer as Princess
 Fanny Brice as Norma Edelman in "The Sweepstakes Ticket"
Hume Cronyn as Monty Edelman in "The Sweepstakes Ticket"
William Frawley as Mr. Martin in "The Sweepstakes Ticket"
 Judy Garland as The Star
 Kathryn Grayson as Kathryn Grayson
 Lena Horne as Lena Horne
 Gene Kelly as Gentleman
 James Melton as Alfredo
 Victor Moore as Lawyer's Client
 Red Skelton as J. Newton Numbskull
 Esther Williams as Esther Williams
 William Powell as Florenz Ziegfeld Jr.
 Edward Arnold as Lawyer
 Virginia O'Brien as Virginia O'Brien
 Cyd Charisse as Ballerina
 Keenan Wynn as Caller

Key songs/dance routines
Dance director was Robert Alton, Astaire's second-most-frequent choreographic collaborator after Hermes Pan. All of Astaire's numbers were directed by Vincente Minnelli. The movie's opening featured William Powell as Ziegfeld, who does the prologue.

 "Here's to the Girls/"Bring on the Wonderful Men": by Roger Edens and Arthur Freed. Sung by Astaire with a short solo dance by Cyd Charisse, followed by Lucille Ball cracking a whip over eight chorus-girl panthers, and finally Virginia O'Brien spoofs the previous scene by singing "Bring On Those Wonderful Men". Van Johnson, Fred MacMurray and Mischa Auer are cited in the song as men she finds interesting.
 "This Heart of Mine": classic standard by Harry Warren and Arthur Freed and written specially for Astaire who sings it to Bremer and then leads her in an extravagantly romantic dance of seduction and power-play. The choreography integrates rotating floors, concealed treadmills and swirling dance motifs.
 "Love": another standard, this time by Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane, sung by Lena Horne.
 "Limehouse Blues": conceived as a "dramatic pantomime" with Astaire as a proud but poverty-stricken Chinese labourer whose infatuation with the unattainable Bremer leads to tragedy. The story serves as bookends for a dream ballet inspired by Chinese dance motifs in a vast and extravagant setting, as both Astaire and Bremer perform in yellowface.
 "The Great Lady Has an Interview": written by Kay Thompson and Roger Edens originally for Greer Garson (she turned it down). Judy Garland spoofs a movie star who can only be cast in Oscar-winning dramas, but wants to play "sexy" roles (a la Greer Garson, or Katharine Hepburn) giving an interview to dancing reporters about "her next picture": a bio-pic of Madame Cremantante (the "inventor of the safety pin"). Originally to be directed by Garland's friend Charles Walters, Vincente Minnelli ended up directing the sequence (the two were dating at the time), and Walters was reassigned as choreographer.
 "The Babbitt and the Bromide": Astaire and Kelly team up in a comedy song and dance challenge in three sections, to music and lyrics by George and Ira Gershwin. All choreography was by Astaire (third section) and Kelly (sections one and two). This was the only time Astaire and Kelly appeared on screen together in their prime. In spite of efforts by Freed and Minnelli, the two would not partner again on film until That's Entertainment, Part II in 1976.
 "There's Beauty Everywhere": originally filmed as a balletic finale with tenor James Melton singing and Fred Astaire, Cyd Charisse, and Lucille Bremer dancing in a melange of soap bubbles. But when the bubble machine malfunctioned (leaving only a fragment of the number filmed) and the formula flowed into the hallways of the soundstage, the number had to be restaged and the Astaire and Bremer part of this number was cut out altogether." Kathryn Grayson replaced Melton. Segments of the "bubble dance" with Charisse remain in the final film.

Surviving outtake of introduction
An early concept was to have the film introduced by a stop motion animated puppet of Leo the Lion. Although cut before release, this outtake footage survives today.

Reception
The New York Times: "The film's best numbers are a couple of comedy skits, especially one done by Red Skelton. Fanny Brice plays a Bronx hausfrau quite funnily. Judy Garland is also amusing as a movie queen giving an interview. Ziegfeld Follies is entertaining – and that's what it's meant to be!" (Bosley Crowther).

Newsweek: "At least three of the numbers would highlight any review on stage and screen. In A Great Lady has an Interview, Judy Garland, with six leading men, displays an unexpected flair for occupational satire. With Numbers Please Keenan Wynn demonstrates, once again, that he is one of Hollywood's foremost comedians. But the dance act for the archives is The Babbitt and the Bromide Fred Astaire and Gene Kelly trade taps and double-takes to a photo finish."

Box office
According to MGM records, the film earned $3,569,000 in the US and Canada, and $1,775,000 elsewhere - but because of its large cost, it incurred a loss to the studio of $269,000.

Accolades
1947 Cannes Film Festival Best Musical Comedy (Prix de la meilleure comédie musicale) Won

The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
 2006: AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals – Nominated

References

Further reading

 John Mueller: Astaire Dancing – The Musical Films of Fred Astaire, Knopf 1985,

External links

 The Judy Garland Online Discography "Ziegfeld Follies" pages.

1945 films
1945 musical comedy films
American musical comedy films
1940s English-language films
American anthology films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Films directed by Vincente Minnelli
Films directed by Roy Del Ruth
Films directed by George Sidney
Films directed by Charles Walters
Films produced by Arthur Freed
Films scored by Lennie Hayton
Films with screenplays by Irving Brecher
Palme d'Or winners
1940s American films

Ziegfeld Follies (film)


An applet is a computer program that can be run  inside a web browser. Most of the time, applets are written in Java. They are used to display a scrolling menu on a website, for example, the applet is also used to show some applications. In Java, there is a class called "Applet," which is extended when writing applets.

Software

Applet


Street dance is term applied to dances that were invented by the general public in the 1970's and later in (largely African-related) urban cultures. The term itself comes from the fact that the dances were made in urbanised cities. There are no  rules to "street dance" as improvisation and freestyle is emphasized. It is hard to define, but it is basically freely expressing music with one's body.

Street dance genres
There are many different genres of street dance. It is often divided into old school and new school, with 1984 as the dividing year (due to technological effects on the world's cities and youth cultures). In the old school section, there are categories like tap, locking, popping, and break dancing. In new school, there is hip hop, house, and techno. There are lots of famous dance moves such as:

Old school
 Tap dance - Invented by the Irish and African-Americans in the early 19th century, tap is considerably one of the first 'street dances' to take form, whereby the term 'street dance' was used to describe the opposition to the 'folk dance' and 'tribal dance style movements of earlier vernacular dances. There is also swing and traditional Jazz dances that are street dance (as opposed to modern dance).
 Locking - It was first made in 1970 by funk dancers in various clubs, with one of the first dancers being Don Campbell (who supposedly invented the 'lock' that the whole locking dance is now named after). It was very popular in the 1970s and the dance itself is known to be relatively comic and lively. Basic moves include the up lock, down lock, wrist rolls, points, and hand claps. Similarly, the Hustle evolved out of disco, but a lot of Hustle moves come under the Locking category.
 Popping - Originating from the west coast of the United States of America, popping involves sudden freezes of the muscles to maximize the moves. It uses this basic principle, and mixes it with styles such as waving, ticking and the puppet. It is not known what persons specifically invented the dance style, however, there is some history on the robot dance that it is thought to have evolved from.
 Breakdancing - It began in the early 70's, when DJ Kool Herc first used breaking beats. Hip hop music was originally based on applying looped breakbeats over disco music records at a block party. Dancers began to apply new dances to this new form of music style, which, after the breakbeats, became known as 'breakdancing'. The dance has floorwork similar to the British northern soul and the loft dance. Break dancers are called b-boys and b-girls, respectively of their gender. The dance includes two types of steps: power moves and style moves. Power moves include the windmill and headspin, while style moves include the freezes and footwork. Newer forms evolved from breakdancing, such as uprock and toprock, which are danced upright, especially before entering the actual downrock (or floorwork).

 Hip Hop - As one of the most famous street dance genres, there are many theories on how hip hop actually started. Since Hip Hop is a culture beyond dancing that includes art, music, poetry and fashion, it is even harder to define when hip hop dancing actually started. Along with the mindset of street dance, there are no rules to hip hop, and Freestyle Hip Hop is very famous as well. Hip hop when named as a dance genre refers to mainly the commercialised forms of Breakdance, Locking and popping that is popular also in pop and club dance culture. Nowadays, hip hop dance culture involves massively collecting fellow dancers into crews for competitions, which theoretically, helps prevents physical violence between gangs since such people perform dance battles instead of actual fights for territory. The music genres gangsta rap and nu soul (contemporary R&B) often depict the everyday violence in urban and suburban culture, with hip hop aiding (especially youths) by providing a constructive thing to do as a hobby between work/school.
 House - Born in Chicago, it began to become popular in clubs in New York in the beginning of the 80s. It was first influenced by dances like jacking and lofting. Later, steps from various genres like hip hop were mixed into it. Lastly, the style was completed with a hopping feel to the moves, making the dance highly energetic and expressive as house music became more upbeat. Basic steps of house include the sidewalk, happy feet, scribble feet, and skating. One popular form of house dance is 'waacking'. Waacking (or punking) is known to be first danced by mainly just gays, and was officially introduced to the mainstream by Tyrone Proctorm. From the 1980s, it began to mix with other genres, and now it is often mixed in with girl's hip-hop and tecktonik.
 Techno - During the early 80s, industrial and synthpop music started to influence the sound of hip hop and house greatly by the use of European electronic music sounds reflecting the fact the urban world was slowly becoming more and more technologically based. One of the first of the electronic dances was the electric boogaloo (depicted in breakin 2: electric noogaloo), which is highly based on breakdancing being applied to electro rhythms. Techno dance became popular from the appliance of new street dances to electro music, as electro music steadily moved away from its parent 'hip hop culture' to initialise rave and modern nightclub culture. Nowadays Europe has taken on street dance culture in the form of house and techno dance. Although techno refers to most electronic dance genres, it also can refer to the Detroit techno dance styles and music genre which never became that popular. In Australia, dance parties saw the birth of the Melbourne shuffle (based off hip hop, house, tap, Malaysian folk dance, etc.), and Europe has invented its own dances such as hakken, candy walk, jumpstyle, etc. Techno dance in its modern form makes competition redundant and is usually opposed to battling and caters dancing for the feel of the music, instead (alike early locking).

References

Dance types
Hip hop

Street dance


Swami Haridas (1480—1573) was an Indian spiritual poet and classical musician. Credited with a large body of devotional compositions, especially in the Dhrupad style, he is also the founder of the Haridasi school of mysticism, still found today in North India. His work influenced both the classical music and the Bhakti movements of North India, especially those devoted to Krishna's consort Radha. Hit Harivansh Mahaprabhu, Hariram Vyas, Rupa Goswami, Vidyapati, Mahaprabhu Vallabhacharya, Vitthalnath (Gusainji), were his contemporaries.

Swami Haridas is a direct disciple of father of Carnatic Music Purandara Dasa of Karnataka.

He had many pupils, Tansen being one of them and one of Akbar's nine gems.

Biography
Haridas's father was a Saraswat Brahmin from Multan and that his mother's name was Chitra Mata. The family migrated to a village called Rajpur, near Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh. Haridas was born there in 1480 and the village is now called Rajpur gram in his honor. This village holds that he died in 1575. He was disciple of Shri Ashudheer Maharaj, also his father who followed the Nimbarka Sampradaya, he is said to be the Avatar of Shri Lalita Sakhi. He was deeply learned and widely acquainted with the music of his time. Mention is found in his works of stringed instruments such as the kinnari and aghouti and of drums such as the mridang and daff. He mentions the ragas of Kedar, Gauri (raga), Malhar and Basant. Swami Haridas is said to have been the teacher of Tansen, one of the nine gems of Akbar's court, and the renowned dhrupad singer and composer Baiju.

He later shifted his residence to Vrindavan, the playground of the immortal cowherd Krishna and Radha. There he built his ashram (hermitage) in Nidhivan and sang his songs of the love of Radha-Krishna. Following the example of Swami Shribhatta, Haridas continued to praise the Lord until the Lord manifested himself as Sri Banke Bihari. Swami Haridas' spiritual disciples included Vitthal and Krishna Das who fostered his tradition of devotional music. Groups (samaj,  like the sankeertan of Bengal and the bhajana goshti of South India) of devotees came together and sang of the Lord of Vrindavan.

His samadhi (tomb) is in Nidhivan, Vrindavan.

Songs of Swami Haridas
Haridas's compositions may be classed as Vishnupadas. Even his prabandhas that do not refer to Krishna have come to be known as Vishnupadas, perhaps because of the mystic source of his music but also because they are musically constructed in a manner similar to dhrupads. He is also said to have written tirvats, ragamalas and other forms. There are around 128 compositions attributed to him, of which eighteen are philosophical (siddhanta pada) and a hundred and ten devotional (keli mala).

He describes Radha and Krishna's sporting:

Two beams of light are playing -
Unique their dance and music.
Ragas and raginis of heavenly beauty are born,
The two have sunk themselves in the ocean of raga.

Swami Haridas belonged to the tradition of madhura bhakti - Adoration expressed in conjugal imagery.

Haridas's theology embraces not merely the Love of Krishna and Radha but also the witnessing of the Love, a state of mind called rasa. In an ecstatic condition of trance he sings of the play of Krishna among the bowers of Vrindavan. More than Krishna, Radha was the central personality of all his poems.

He says:

Who knows of the quality of things more than Radha?
If anyone has any knowledge at all, it is by her grace.
None knows the beauty of raga, tala and dance as Radha does.

Popular culture
An annual classical music festival, Swami Haridas Sangeet Sammelan is held every year in Mumbai since 1952.

See also
 Music of India
 Hindustani classical music
 Achintya Bheda Abheda
Nidhivan, Vrindavan

References

External links

Bankey Bhihari Temple, Vrindavan
Bankey Bhihari Temple Website
Postage stamp on Swami Haridas

People from Mathura
People from Aligarh
Performers of Hindu music
Indian Hindus
Indian male classical musicians
Bhakti movement
1478 births
1573 deaths
16th-century Indian musicians

Swami Haridas


The Companies Act 2006 (c.46) is a statute o the Unitit Kinrick, for tae regulate companies athin that kintra.

The Act is the maist muckle in the historie o the Wastmeinster Pairlament, and belike the langest in the hale warld, wi 1,300 sections and 16 schedules, and kiverin naur 700 pages.  The Act bydraws the Companies Act 1985. The Act chynges a hantle provisions o company law, Scots and Inglis forbye, and the lave is screived ower mair modren and clair.

Amang the maist wechty provisions o the Act:

 It codifies the common law anent whit directors o a company maun dae.
 It obtempers the Takeover and Transparency Obligations Directives o the European Union.
 It creates a statutory richt for fowk that haud shares tae pursue claims agin skaithful directors for the company's benefit. The richt is foondit on the derivative action in the common law o Ingland and Wales, an a siclike richt is introducit tae Scotland forbye.
 It keeps bairns frae the buird o directors or thay reak 16 year.
 But nae mair will a director hae tae leave the buird whan thay reak 70 year.
 It will be mair eith for a company tae communicate electronically wi the fowk that haud shares.

Fremmit Airtins
Companies Act 2006
Companies Act 2006 PDF
DTI proclamation

Unitit Kinrick Acts o Pairlament 2006
Unitit Kinrick company law
Acts o the Pairlament o the Unitit Kinrick concernin Scotland
2006 in economics

Companies Act 2006


A lumbar puncture (often called spinal tap, by non-doctors) is a medical method to collect a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (fluid from the brain). This can be done to analyse the sample, to find some hints to diseases. It can also be done to lower the pressure of the fluid inside the skull.

Medical procedures

ja:脳脊髄液#脳脊髄液を使った検査

Lumbar puncture


The House of Wettin was a dynasty of German counts, dukes, prince-electors (Kurfürsten) and kings that ruled in what is known today as the German states of Saxony and Thuringia for more than 800 years.  Members of the Wettin family were also kings of Poland, as well as forming the ruling houses of Great Britain, Portugal, Bulgaria, Poland, Saxony, and Belgium.  Today only the British and Belgian lines still rule their countries, but the last Tsar of Bulgaria, Simeon II, was Prime Minister of Bulgaria between 2001 and 2005.  Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is the only ex-king who has ever returned to his country as an elected leader.

Origins: Wettins of Saxony
The oldest known member of the House of Wettin was Thiedericus (died 982). Around 1000, as part of the German conquest of Slavic territory, the family got Wettin Castle and changed their name.  It was usual for noblemen to change their name to the name of their territory. Wettin Castle is located in Wettin, Saxony-Anhalt in the Hosgau on the Saale River.

Branches of the House of Wettin
The House split into two main branches, the Ernestine and the Albertine.  The descendants of Ernest often subdivided their land and ended up with a lot of small duchies, but one (Saxe-Coburg and Gotha) became very important.  Ernest's younger brother was Albert.  His descendants became Electors of Saxony, and in 1806, Kings of Saxony

The House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

Descendants of the Dukes of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha have become:
 kings of Belgium (from 1831) and
 Bulgaria (1908 - 1946)
and also husbands of the queens of
 Portugal (Ferdinand II of Portugal) and
 the United Kingdom (Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria).

The wife of the Emperor of Mexico (Carlota of Mexico) was also a member of the house of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. As such, the British, Portuguese, and for a time, Mexican, thrones became a possession of persons who belonged to the House of Wettin.

During World War I the British Royal Family changed the name as well as their personal surnames  to Windsor by an Order-in-Council of King George V. The Kings of Belgiums now do not use the Saxe-Coburg and Gotha name, but have never officially changed it.

List of branches of the House of Wettin
 Margraves of Meissen
 Dukes of Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia
 Electors of Saxony
 Dukes of Saxe-Coburg
 Dukes of Saxe-Altenburg (first line of Altenburg)
 Dukes of Saxe-Weimar
 Dukes of Saxe-Eisenach
 Dukes of Saxe-Gotha
 Dukes of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg (second line of Altenburg)
 Dukes of Saxe-Meiningen
 Dukes of Saxe-Hildburghausen, then Dukes of Saxe-Altenburg (third line of Altenburg)
 Dukes of Saxe-Coburg (Gotha later added)
 Kings and Queen of the United Kingdom (House of Windsor)
 Princes of Saxe-Coburg-Kohary
 Kings of Portugal (Saxe-Coburg-Braganza, last reigning Royal House of Portugal)
 Kings of Bulgaria (sometimes had been known as "Kohary" and as "Sakskoburggotski")
 Kings of Belgium
 Dukes of "Saxe-Dresden"
 Electors of Saxony
 Kings of Saxony, currently Prinz/ Prinzessin von Sachsen
 Saxe-Zeitz
 Saxe-Merseburg
 Saxe-Weissenfels
 Dukes of Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia, Dukes of Luxembourg
 Saxe-Landsberg
 Saxe-Lauenberg

Related pages
 Rulers of Saxony, a list containing many Wettins
 Wettin, Saxony-Anhalt, the city from which the Wettin dynasty originated

References

Other websites
 The House of Wettin
 Genealogy of the Wettin dynasty from Genealogy.eu
 Genealogical tables of the Saxony families  from An Online Gotha

Holy Roman Empire

House of Wettin


Morton Subotnick (born April 14, 1933) is an American composer of electronic music, best known for his 1967 composition Silver Apples of the Moon, the first electronic work commissioned by a record company, Nonesuch.  He was one of the founding members of California Institute of the Arts, where he taught for many years.

Subotnick has worked extensively with interactive electronics and multi-media, co-founding the San Francisco Tape Music Center with Pauline Oliveros and Ramon Sender, often collaborating with his wife Joan La Barbara. Morton Subotnick is one of the pioneers in the development of electronic music and multi-media performance and an innovator in works involving instruments and other media, including interactive computer music systems. Most of his music calls for a computer part, or live electronic processing; his oeuvre utilizes many of the important technological breakthroughs in the history of the genre.

Early career

Subotnick was born in Los Angeles, California, and graduated from the University of Denver. In the early 1960s, Subotnick taught at Mills College and with Ramon Sender, he co-founded the San Francisco Tape Music Center. During this period he also collaborated with Anna Halprin on two works (the 3 legged stool and Parades and Changes) and acted as music director of the Actors Workshop.

In 1966 Subotnick was instrumental in getting a Rockefeller Grant to join the Tape Center with the Mills Chamber Players (a chamber group at Mills College with performers Nate Rubin (violin); Bonnie Hampton (cello); Naomi Sparrow (piano) and Subotnick on clarinet). The grant required that the Tape Center relocate to a host institution that became Mills College. Subotnick, however, did not stay with the move, but went to New York with the Actor's Workshop to become the first music director of the Lincoln Center Rep Company in the Vivian Beaumont Theater at Lincoln Center. Along with Len Lye, he became an artist in residence at the newly formed Tisch School of the Arts at NYU. The School of the Arts provided him with a studio and a Buchla Synthesizer (now at the Library of Congress). He then helped to develop the Electric Circus and the Electric Ear, and became their artistic director. At the same time he created Silver Apples of the Moon, The Wild Bull, and Touch.

Silver Apples of the Moon
Early electronic music was made using wave generators and tape-manipulated sounds. Subotnick was among the first composers to work with electronic instrument designer Don Buchla. Buchla's modular voltage-controlled synthesizer, which he called the Electric Music Box and which was constructed partly based on suggestions by Subotnick and Sender, was both more flexible and easier to use, and its sequencing ability was integral to Subotnick's music.

In the late 1960s, a time when much United States' academic "avant-gardist" electronic music was highly abstract, (largely concerned with pitch and timbre, where (metric) rhythm might be an afterthought or of no consequence, and simple patterned structures were largely avoided), Subotnick broke with this direction by including sections with metric rhythms – those based on pulses and beats. Both Silver Apples of the Moon and 1968's The Wild Bull (another Nonesuch-commissioned work for tape; they have since been combined on a Wergo CD) have been choreographed by dance companies around the world.

In 1969 Subotnick was invited to be part of a team of artists to move to Los Angeles to plan a new school. Mel Powell as Dean, Subotnick as Associate Dean, and a team of four other pairs of artists carved out a new path of music education and created the now famous California Institute of the Arts. Subotnick remained Associate Dean of the music school for 4 years and then, resigning from that position, became the head of the composition program where, a few years later, he created a new media program that introduced interactive technology and multimedia into the curriculum. In 1978 Subotnick, with Roger Reynolds and Bernard Rands, produced 5 annual internationally acclaimed new music festivals.

Approach to music
Where previous electronic music had used non-traditional structures, Subotnick's electronic compositions are structured more like the classical music for acoustic instruments with which audiences are familiar, but with nontraditional timbres and pitch manipulations no orchestra could produce. He has also written for acoustic instruments, and he has studied with Darius Milhaud and Leon Kirchner at Mills College in Oakland, California.

In addition to music in the electronic medium, Subotnick has written for symphony orchestra, chamber ensembles, theater and multimedia productions. His "staged tone poem" The Double Life of Amphibians, a collaboration with director Lee Breuer and visual artist Irving Petlin, utilizing live interaction between singers, instrumentalists and computer, was premiered at the 1984 Olympics Arts Festival in Los Angeles.

The concert version of Jacob's Room, a mono drama commissioned by Betty Freeman for the Kronos Quartet and singer Joan La Barbara, received its premiere in San Francisco in 1985. Jacob's Room, Subotnick's multimedia opera chamber opera (directed by Herbert Blau with video imagery by Steina and Woody Vasulka, featuring Joan La Barbara), received its premiere in Philadelphia in April 1993 under the auspices of The American Music Theater Festival. The Key To Songs, for chamber orchestra and computer, was premiered at the 1985 Aspen Music Festival. Return, commissioned to celebrate the return of Halley's Comet, premiered with an accompanying sky show in the planetarium of Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles in 1986. Subotnick's recent works—among them Jacob's Room, The Key to Songs, Hunger, In Two Worlds, And the Butterflies Begin to Sing and A Desert Flowers—utilize computerized sound generation, specially designed software Interactor and "intelligent" computer controls which allow the performers to interact with the computer technology.

All My Hummingbirds Have Alibis (1994) was an interactive concert work and a CD-ROM (perhaps the first of its kind), Making Music (1995), Making More Music (1998) were his first works for children, and an interactive 'Media Poem', Intimate Immensity, premiered at the Lincoln Center Festival in NY (1997). The European premiere (1998) was in Karlsruhe, Germany. A string quartet with CDROM, Echoes from the Silent Call of Girona (1998), was premiered in Los Angeles by Southwest Chamber Music.

Subotnick was commissioned to complete a larger version of the opera, Jacobs Room. This premiered in 2010 at the Bregenz Festival in Austria.

Subotnick is developing tools for young children to create music. He has authored a series of six CDROMs for children, mounted a children's website and he is developing a related school program. Subotnick's Pitch Painter for iPad and iPhone (not available on App Store) is a musical finger painting app which presents a new intuitive way for kids to create music.

Subotnick is working with the Library of Congress as they are preparing an archival presentation of his electronic works. He tours extensively throughout the U.S. and Europe as a lecturer and composer/performer. Morton Subotnick is published by Schott Music. Students of his include Ingram Marshall, Mark Coniglio, Carl Stone, Rhys Chatham, Charlemagne Palestine, Ann Millikan, Nicholas Frances Chase, Brian Evans, Julia Stilman-Lasansky, John King, Lois V Vierk, Betty Ann Wong, and Jeremy Zuckerman.

Personal life
Subotnick is married to Joan La Barbara, a singer and composer. Subotnick's older son, Steven Subotnick, is an animator; his younger son, Jacob Subotnick, is a sound designer and his daughter, Tamara Winer, is a psychiatric social worker.

Awards
 Guggenheim Fellowship
 Rockefeller Grants (3)
 Meet the Composer (2)
 American Academy of Arts and Letters Composer Award
 Brandies Award
 Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst Künstlerprogramm (DAAD), Composer in Residence in Berlin
 Lifetime Achievement Award (SEAMUS at Dartmouth)
 ASCAP: John Cage Award
 ACO: Lifetime Achievement
 Honorary Doctorate from the California Institute of the Arts

Selected works
Sonata for viola and piano (1959–60)
Silver Apples of the Moon (National Recording Registry inductee) (1967)
The Wild Bull (1968)
Touch (1969)
Sidewinder (1971)
Four Butterflies (1973)
Until Spring (1975)
A Sky of Cloudless Sulfur (1978)
Axolotl (1981)
A Fluttering of Wings (1981)
An Arsenal of Defense for solo viola and "electronic ghost score" (1982)
Trembling (1983)
The Key to Songs (1985)
Jacob's Room (1986)
and the butterflies begin to sing (1988)
All My Hummingbirds Have Alibis (1991)
Echoes from the Silent Call of Girona (1998)
Gestures (1999–2001)
Then Now and Forever (2008)
The Other Piano (2007)
Jacob's Room Opera (2010)
From Silver Apples of the Moon to A Sky of Cloudless Sulphur (2009 – 2013)
Jacob's Room Monodrama (2013)

References

External links

MortonSubotnick.com
Morton Subotnick's Creating Music
CalArts Faculty: Morton Subotnick
From Moog to Mark II, to MIDI to MAX By Kyle Gann for American Public Media
Interview
Interview with Peter Shea at the University of Minnesota

Listening
Interview with Dublab
Interview with RedBull Music Academy
Mars Millennium Project 2030: Artist: Morton Subotnick
Morton Subotnick interview
Art of the States: Morton Subotnick Echoes from the Silent Call of Girona (1998)
Morton Subotnick Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2005)

1933 births
Living people
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
American electronic musicians
Electroacoustic music composers
Avant-garde keyboardists
Nonesuch Records artists
Tisch School of the Arts faculty
University of Denver alumni
Electronic composers
Mills College faculty
Pupils of Darius Milhaud
Pupils of Robert Erickson
Pupils of Leon Kirchner
21st-century American composers
20th-century American composers
Sub Rosa Records artists

Morton Subotnick


Pablo Sorozábal Mariezcurrena (18 September 1897 – 26 December 1988) was a Spanish composer of zarzuelas, operas, symphonic works, and the popular romanza, "No puede ser".

He was born in San Sebastián, in a working-class family. Trained in San Sebastián, Madrid and Leipzig; then in Berlin, where he preferred Friedrich Koch as composition teacher to Arnold Schönberg, whose theories he disliked. It was in Germany that he made his conducting debut, and the rostrum remained at the centre of his working life. His Leipzig concert works include the choral Suite vasca (1923); Dos apuntes Vascos (1925) and Symphonic Variations on a Basque Theme (1927); of later works the funeral march Gernika for chorus and orchestra (1966) is outstanding. The Siete Lieder, 1929 settings of Heinrich Heine for mezzo-soprano and orchestra, are perhaps the finest works he produced in Germany. Two short but powerful compositions for chorus and orchestra, Maite ('Our Lady', from the 1946 film Jai-Alai) and ¡Ay, tierra vasca! (1956) retain their place in the hearts of his Basque countrymen.

Katiuska (1931) was his stage debut, and the twenty or so zarzuelas which followed combine lyric fire and inimitable orchestration with an unfailing sense of theatre. Best-loved are his classic madrileño comedy La del manojo de rosas (1934) and the "nautical romance" set on the Atlantic Coast La tabernera del puerto of 1936. The latter includes the romanza "No puede ser", made internationally popular when sung in the Three Tenors concerts by Plácido Domingo. His one-act verismo opera Adiós a la bohemia (from a short story by Pío Baroja) also retains its popularity in Spain.

Sorozábal's liberal sympathies left him somewhat isolated after the Spanish Civil War, and many of his later zarzuelas were first seen outside the capital or in less prestigious Madrid theatres. They include the ambitious, allegorical romance Black, el payaso (1942) and the ski-sports musical Don Manolito (1943), both of which starred popular Basque soprano Pepita Embil.

Sorozábal also wrote scores for non-musical films, notably the classic Spanish film Marcelino Pan y Vino (1955).

His tenure as director of the Madrid Symphony Orchestra ended abruptly in 1952 when he was refused permission to conduct Shostakovich's Leningrad Symphony; and though his musical comedy Las de Caín was premiered at the Teatro de la Zarzuela in 1958, the opera Juan José had to wait for its belated (and highly successful) concert premiere until February 2009, after a full production was suspended during rehearsals in Madrid during 1979. With his death in Madrid on 26 December 1988 the last chapter in the creative history of the romantic zarzuela came to an end. Sorozábal's theatrical vitality, musical wit and dramatic force are second to none in the history of zarzuela and rival the best of his German and Italian music theatre contemporaries, such as Kurt Weill.

References

Sources
extract from Christopher Webber's biography on  zarzuela.net  with permission

1897 births
1988 deaths
20th-century classical composers
20th-century conductors (music)
20th-century Spanish composers
20th-century Spanish male musicians
Basque classical composers
Basque opera composers
Male conductors (music)
Male opera composers
People from San Sebastián
Spanish classical composers
Spanish conductors (music)
Spanish male classical composers
Spanish opera composers

Pablo Sorozábal


Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol for Internet Protocol (IP) networks. It uses a link state routing (LSR) algorithm and falls into the group of interior gateway protocols (IGPs), operating within a single autonomous system (AS).

OSPF gathers link state information from available routers and constructs a topology map of the network. The topology is presented as a routing table to the internet layer for routing packets by their destination IP address. OSPF supports Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) networks and is widely used in large enterprise networks. IS-IS, another LSR-based protocol, is more common in large service provider networks.

Originally designed in the 1980s, OSPF version 2 is defined in  RFC 2328 (1998). The updates for IPv6 are specified as OSPF version 3 in RFC 5340 (2008). OSPF supports the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) addressing model.

Concepts
OSPF is an interior gateway protocol (IGP) for routing Internet Protocol (IP) packets within a single routing domain, such as an autonomous system. It gathers link state information from available routers and constructs a topology map of the network. The topology is presented as a routing table to the internet layer which routes packets based solely on their destination IP address.

OSPF detects changes in the topology, such as link failures, and converges on a new loop-free routing structure within seconds. It computes the shortest-path tree for each route using a method based on Dijkstra's algorithm. The OSPF routing policies for constructing a route table are governed by link metrics associated with each routing interface. Cost factors may be the distance of a router (round-trip time), data throughput of a link, or link availability and reliability, expressed as simple unitless numbers. This provides a dynamic process of traffic load balancing between routes of equal cost.

OSPF divides the network into routing areas to simplify administration and optimize traffic and resource utilization. Areas are identified by 32-bit numbers, expressed either simply in decimal, or often in the same octet-based dot-decimal notation used for IPv4 addresses. By convention, area 0 (zero), or 0.0.0.0, represents the core or backbone area of an OSPF network. While the identifications of other areas may be chosen at will, administrators often select the IP address of a main router in an area as the area identifier. Each additional area must have a connection to the OSPF backbone area. Such connections are maintained by an interconnecting router, known as an area border router (ABR). An ABR maintains separate link-state databases for each area it serves and maintains summarized routes for all areas in the network.

OSPF runs over IPv4 and IPv6, but does not use a transport protocol such as UDP or TCP. It encapsulates its data directly in IP packets with protocol number 89. This is in contrast to other routing protocols, such as the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). OSPF implements its own transport error detection and correction functions. OSPF also uses multicast addressing for distributing route information within a broadcast domain. It reserves the multicast addresses 126.96.36.199 (IPv4) and FF02::5 (IPv6) for all SPF/link state routers (AllSPFRouters) and 220.127.116.11 (IPv4) and FF02::6 (IPv6) for all Designated Routers (AllDRouters). For non-broadcast networks, special provisions for configuration facilitate neighbor discovery. OSPF multicast IP packets never traverse IP routers, they never travel more than one hop. The protocol may therefore be considered a link layer protocol, but is often also attributed to the application layer in the TCP/IP model. It has a virtual link feature that can be used to create an adjacency tunnel across multiple hops. OSPF over IPv4 can operate securely between routers, optionally using a variety of authentication methods to allow only trusted routers to participate in routing. OSPFv3 (IPv6) relies on standard IPv6 protocol security (IPsec), and has no internal authentication methods.

For routing IP multicast traffic, OSPF supports the Multicast Open Shortest Path First (MOSPF) protocol. Cisco does not include MOSPF in their OSPF implementations. Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) in conjunction with OSPF or other IGPs, is widely deployed.

OSPF version 3 introduces modifications to the IPv4 implementation of the protocol. Except for virtual links, all neighbor exchanges use IPv6 link-local addressing exclusively. The IPv6 protocol runs per link, rather than based on the subnet. All IP prefix information has been removed from the link-state advertisements and from the hello discovery packet making OSPFv3 essentially protocol-independent.  Despite the expanded IP addressing to 128 bits in IPv6, area and router Identifications are still based on 32-bit numbers.

Router relationships

OSPF supports complex networks with multiple routers, including backup routers, to balance traffic load on multiple links to other subnets. Neighboring routers in the same broadcast domain or at each end of a point-to-point link communicate with each other via the OSPF protocol. Routers form adjacencies when they have detected each other. This detection is initiated when a router identifies itself in a hello protocol packet. Upon acknowledgment, this establishes a two-way state and the most basic relationship. The routers in an Ethernet or Frame Relay network select a designated router (DR) and a backup designated router (BDR) which act as a hub to reduce traffic between routers. OSPF uses both unicast and multicast transmission modes to send "hello" packets and link-state updates.

As a link-state routing protocol, OSPF establishes and maintains neighbor relationships for exchanging routing updates with other routers. The neighbor relationship table is called an adjacency database. Two OSPF routers are neighbors if they are members of the same subnet and share the same area ID, subnet mask, timers and authentication. In essence, OSPF neighborship is a relationship between two routers that allow them to see and understand each other but nothing more. OSPF neighbors do not exchange any routing information the only packets they exchange are hello packets.  OSPF adjacencies are formed between selected neighbors and allow them to exchange routing information. Two routers must first be neighbors and only then, can they become adjacent. Two routers become adjacent if at least one of them is designated router or backup designated router (on multiaccess-type networks), or they are interconnected by a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint network type. For forming a neighbor relationship between, the interfaces used to form the relationship must be in the same OSPF area. While an interface may be configured to belong to multiple areas, this is generally not practiced. When configured in a second area, an interface must be configured as a secondary interface.

Operation modes
The OSPF can have different operation modes on the following setups on an interface or network:
 Point-to-point. Each router advertises itself by periodically multicasting hello packets. No designated router is elected. The interface can be IP unnumbered (without a unique IP address assigned to it).
 Broadcast (default), each router advertises itself by periodically multicasting hello packets.
 Non-broadcast multi-access, with the use of designated routers. May need static configuration. Packets are sent as unicast.
 Point-to-multipoint, where OSPF treats neighbours as a collection of point-to-point links. No designated router is elected. Separate hello packets are sent to each neighbor.
 Point to Multipoint Non Broadcast (P2MP-NB), No designated router is elected. Separate hello packets are sent to each neighbor, Packets are sent as unicast.
 Passive, Only advertised to other neighbours. No adjacency is advertised on network.

Indirect connections

Virtual link over Virtual links, tunneling and shamelinks, are a form of connections that goes over the routing engine, and is not a direct connection to the remote host.

 Virtual links, the packets are sent as unicast. Can only be configured on a non-backbone area (but not stub-area). Endpoints need to be ABR, the virtual links behave as unnumbered point-to-point connections. The cost of an intra-area path between the two routers is added to the link.
 Virtual link over tunneling (like GRE and WireGuard). Since OSPF does not support virtual links for areas other than the backbone, a workaround is to use of tunneling. If the same IP or router ID is used the link creates two equal-cost routes to the destination.
 Sham link A link that connects sites that belong to the same OSPF area and share an OSPF backdoor link via MPLS VPN backbone.

Adjacency state machine
Each OSPF router within a network communicates with other neighboring routers on each connecting interface to establish the states of all adjacencies. Every such communication sequence is a separate conversation identified by the pair of router IDs of the communicating neighbors. RFC 2328 specifies the protocol for initiating these conversations (Hello Protocol) and for establishing full adjacencies (database description packets, link-state request packets). During its course, each router conversation transitions through a maximum of eight conditions defined by a state machine:

Neighbor state changes

Down: The state down represents the initial state of a conversation when no information has been exchanged and retained between routers with the Hello Protocol.
Attempt: The attempt state is similar to the down state, except that a router is in the process of efforts to establish a conversation with another router, but is only used on non-broadcast multiple-access networks (NBMAs).
Init: The init state indicates that a hello packet has been received from a neighbor, but the router has not established a two-way conversation.
Two-way: The two-way state indicates the establishment of a bidirectional conversation between two routers. This state immediately precedes the establishment of adjacency. This is the lowest state of a router that may be considered as a DR.

Database exchange

Exchange start (exstart): The exstart state is the first step of adjacency of two routers.
Exchange: In the exchange state, a router is sending its link-state database information to the adjacent neighbor. At this state, a router can exchange all OSPF routing protocol packets.
Loading: In the loading state, a router requests the most recent link-state advertisements (LSAs) from its neighbor discovered in the previous state.
Full: The full state concludes the conversation when the routers are fully adjacent, and the state appears in all router- and network-LSAs. The link-state databases of the neighbors are fully synchronized.

Broadcast networks
In broadcast multiple-access networks, neighbor adjacency is formed dynamically using multicast hello packets to .

 IP 192.0.2.1 > 18.104.22.168: OSPFv2, hello
 IP 192.0.2.2 > 184.108.40.206: OSPFv2, hello
 IP 192.0.2.1 > 192.0.2.2: OSPFv2, database description
 IP 192.0.2.2 > 192.0.2.1: OSPFv2, database description

Passive network
A network where OSPF adverts the network, but the OSPF will not start neighbour adjacency.

Non-broadcast networks
In a non-broadcast multiple-access (NBMA) network, a neighbor adjacency is formed by sending unicast packets to another router. A non-broadcast network can have more than two routers, but broadcast is not supported.

 IP 192.0.2.1 > 192.0.2.2: OSPFv2, hello
 IP 192.0.2.2 > 192.0.2.1: OSPFv2, hello
 IP 192.0.2.1 > 192.0.2.2: OSPFv2, database description
 IP 192.0.2.2 > 192.0.2.1: OSPFv2, database description

Examples of non-broadcast networks:
 X.25 public data network
 Wireguard
 Serial interface

 Requires all routers to be able to communicate directly, on the same network.
 Designated Router is elected for the network.
 LSA is generated for the network.

OSPF areas
A network is divided into OSPF areas that are logical groupings of hosts and networks. An area includes its connecting router having an interface for each connected network link. Each router maintains a separate link-state database for the area whose information may be summarized towards the rest of the network by the connecting router. Thus, the topology of an area is unknown outside the area. This reduces the routing traffic between parts of an autonomous system.

OSPF can handle thousands of routers with more a concern of reaching capacity of the forwarding information base (FIB) table when the network contains lots of routes and lower-end devices. Modern low-end routers have a full gigabyte of RAM, which allows them to handle many routers in an area 0.  Many resources refer to OSPF guides from over 20 years ago where it was impressive to have 64 MB of RAM.

Areas are uniquely identified with 32-bit numbers. The area identifiers are commonly written in the dot-decimal notation, familiar from IPv4 addressing. However, they are not IP addresses and may duplicate, without conflict, any IPv4 address. The area identifiers for IPv6 implementations (OSPFv3) also use 32-bit identifiers written in the same notation. When dotted formatting is omitted, most implementations expand area 1 to the area identifier 0.0.0.1, but some have been known to expand it as 18.104.22.168.

Several vendors (Cisco, Allied Telesis, Juniper, Alcatel-Lucent, Huawei, Quagga), implement totally stubby and NSSA totally stubby area for stub and not-so-stubby areas. Although not covered by RFC standards, they are considered by many to be standard features in OSPF implementations.

OSPF defines several area types:
 Backbone
 Non-backbone/regular
 Stub
 Totally stubby
 Not-so-stubby
 Totally not-so-stubby
 Transit

Backbone area

The backbone area (also known as area 0 or area 0.0.0.0) forms the core of an OSPF network. All other areas are connected to it, either directly or through other routers. OSPF requires this to prevent routing loops. Inter-area routing happens via routers connected to the backbone area and to their own associated areas. It is the logical and physical structure for the 'OSPF domain' and is attached to all nonzero areas in the OSPF domain. In OSPF the term autonomous system boundary router (ASBR) is historic, in the sense that many OSPF domains can coexist in the same Internet-visible autonomous system, RFC 1996.

All OSPF areas must connect to the backbone area. This connection, however, can be through a virtual link. For example, assume area 0.0.0.1 has a physical connection to area 0.0.0.0. Further assume that area 0.0.0.2 has no direct connection to the backbone, but this area does have a connection to area 0.0.0.1. Area 0.0.0.2 can use a virtual link through the transit area 0.0.0.1 to reach the backbone.  To be a transit area, an area has to have the transit attribute, so it cannot be stubby in any way.

Regular area

A regular area is just a non-backbone (nonzero) area without specific feature, generating and receiving summary and external LSAs. The backbone area is a special type of such area.

Stub area

In hello packets the E-flag is not high, indicating "External routing: not capable"
A stub area is an area that does not receive route advertisements external to the AS and routing from within the area is based entirely on a default route. An ABR deletes type 4 and 5 LSAs from internal routers, sends them a default route of 0.0.0.0 and turns itself into a default gateway. This reduces LSDB and routing table size for internal routers.

Modifications to the basic concept of stub area have been implemented by systems vendors, such as the totally stubby area (TSA) and the not-so-stubby area (NSSA), both an extension in Cisco Systems routing equipment.

Totally stubby area

A totally stubby area is similar to a stub area. However, this area does not allow summary routes in addition to not having external routes, that is, inter-area (IA) routes are not summarized into totally stubby areas.  The only way for traffic to get routed outside the area is a default route which is the only Type-3 LSA advertised into the area.  When there is only one route out of the area, fewer routing decisions have to be made by the route processor, which lowers system resource utilization.

Occasionally, it is said that a TSA can have only one ABR.

Not-so-stubby area

In hello packets the N-flag is set high, indicating "NSSA: supported"
A not-so-stubby area (NSSA) is a type of stub area that can import autonomous system external routes and send them to other areas, but still cannot receive AS-external routes from other areas.

NSSA is an extension of the stub area feature that allows the injection of external routes in a limited fashion into the stub area. A case study simulates an NSSA getting around the stub-area problem of not being able to import external addresses. It visualizes the following activities: the ASBR imports external addresses with a type 7 LSA, the ABR converts a type 7 LSA to type 5 and floods it to other areas, the ABR acts as an "ASBR" for other areas.
The ASBRs do not take type 5 LSAs and then convert to type 7 LSAs for the area.

Totally not-so-stubby area

An addition to the standard functionality of an NSSA, the totally stubby NSSA is an NSSA that takes on the attributes of a TSA, meaning that type 3 and 4 summary routes are not flooded into this type of area.  It is also possible to declare an area both totally stubby and not-so-stubby, which means that the area will receive only the default route from area 0.0.0.0, but can also contain an autonomous system boundary router (ASBR) that accepts external routing information and injects it into the local area, and from the local area into area 0.0.0.0.

Redistribution into an NSSA area creates a special type of LSA known as type 7, which can exist only in an NSSA area. An NSSA ASBR generates this LSA, and an NSSA ABR router translates it into a type 5 LSA, which gets propagated into the OSPF domain.

A newly acquired subsidiary is one example of where it might be suitable for an area to be simultaneously not-so-stubby and totally stubby if the practical place to put an ASBR is on the edge of a totally stubby area. In such a case, the ASBR does send externals into the totally stubby area, and they are available to OSPF speakers within that area. In Cisco's implementation, the external routes can be summarized before injecting them into the totally stubby area. In general, the ASBR should not advertise default into the TSA-NSSA, although this can work with extremely careful design and operation, for the limited special cases in which such an advertisement makes sense.

By declaring the totally stubby area as NSSA, no external routes from the backbone, except the default route, enter the area being discussed. The externals do reach area 0.0.0.0 via the TSA-NSSA, but no routes other than the default route enter the TSA-NSSA. Routers in the TSA-NSSA send all traffic to the ABR, except to routes advertised by the ASBR.

Router types
OSPF defines the following overlapping categories of routers:
Internal router (IR) An internal router has all its interfaces belonging to the same area.
Area border router (ABR) An area border router  is a router that connects one or more areas to the main backbone network.  It is considered a member of all areas it is connected to.  An ABR keeps multiple instances of the link-state database in memory, one for each area to which that router is connected.
Backbone router (BR) A backbone router has an interface to the backbone area. Backbone routers may also be area routers, but do not have to be.
Autonomous system boundary router (ASBR)  An autonomous system boundary router is a router that is connected by using more than one routing protocol and that exchanges routing information with routers autonomous systems.  ASBRs typically also run an exterior routing protocol (e.g., BGP), or use static routes, or both.  An ASBR is used to distribute routes received from other, external ASs throughout its own autonomous system. An ASBR creates External LSAs for external addresses and floods them to all areas via ABR. Routers in other areas use ABRs as next hops to access external addresses. Then ABRs forward packets to the ASBR that announces the external addresses.

The router type is an attribute of an OSPF process. A given physical router may have one or more OSPF processes. For example, a router that is connected to more than one area, and which receives routes from a BGP process connected to another AS, is both an area border router and an autonomous system boundary router.

Each router has an identifier, customarily written in the dotted-decimal format (e.g., 188.8.131.52) of an IP address. This identifier must be established in every OSPF instance. If not explicitly configured, the highest logical IP address will be duplicated as the router identifier. However, since the router identifier is not an IP address, it does not have to be a part of any routable subnet in the network, and often isn't to avoid confusion.

Non-point-to-point network

On networks (same subnet) with networks type of:
 Broadcast
 Non-Broadcast Multi-Access (NBMA)

A system of designated router (DR) and backup designated router (BDR), is used to reducing network traffic by providing a source for routing updates.
This is done using multicast addresses:

 , all routers in the topology will listen on that multicast address.
 , DR and BDR will listen on that multicast address.

The DR and BDR maintains a complete topology table of the network and sends the updates to the other routers via multicast. All routers in a multi-access network segment will form a leader/follower relationship with the DR and BDR. They will form adjacencies with the DR and BDR only. Every time a router sends an update, it sends it to the DR and BDR on the multicast address . The DR will then send the update out to all other routers in the area, to the multicast address . This way all the routers do not have to constantly update each other, and can rather get all their updates from a single source.  The use of multicasting further reduces the network load.  DRs and BDRs are always setup/elected on OSPF broadcast networks.  DR's can also be elected on NBMA (Non-Broadcast Multi-Access) networks such as Frame Relay or ATM.  DRs or BDRs are not elected on point-to-point links (such as a point-to-point WAN connection) because the two routers on either side of the link must become fully adjacent and the bandwidth between them cannot be further optimized. DR and non-DR routers evolve from 2-way to full adjacency relationships by exchanging DD, Request, and Update.

Designated router
A designated router (DR) is the router interface elected among all routers on a particular multiaccess network segment, generally assumed to be broadcast multiaccess. Special techniques, often vendor-dependent, may be needed to support the DR function on non-broadcast multiaccess (NBMA) media.  It is usually wise to configure the individual virtual circuits of an NBMA subnet as individual point-to-point lines; the techniques used are implementation-dependent.

Backup designated router
A backup designated router (BDR) is a router that becomes the designated router if the current designated router has a problem or fails.  The BDR is the OSPF router with the second-highest priority at the time of the last election.

A given router can have some interfaces that are designated (DR) and others that are backup designated (BDR), and others that are non-designated. If no router is a DR or a BDR on a given subnet, the BDR is first elected, and then a second election is held for the DR.

DR Other
A router that has not been selected to be designated router (DR) or backup designated router (BDR). The router forms an adjacency to both the designated router (DR) and the backup designated router (BDR).

For other non (B)DR, the adjacency stops at 2-ways State.

Designated router election
The DR is elected based on the following default criteria:
  If the priority setting on an OSPF router is set to 0, that means it can NEVER become a DR or BDR.
  If no DR exists on the network, routes will wait until Wait Timer runs out.
  When a DR fails and the BDR takes over, there is another election to see who becomes the replacement BDR.
  The router sending the Hello packets with the highest priority wins the election.
  If two or more routers tie with the highest priority setting, the router sending the Hello with the highest RID (Router ID) wins. NOTE: a RID is the highest logical (loopback) IP address configured on a router, if no logical/loopback IP address is set then the router uses the highest IP address configured on its active interfaces (e.g.  would be higher than ).
  Usually the router with the second-highest priority number becomes the BDR.
  The priority values range between 0 – 255, with a higher value increasing its chances of becoming DR or BDR.
  If a higher priority OSPF router comes online after the election has taken place, it will not become DR or BDR until (at least) the DR and BDR fail.
  If the current DR 'goes down' the current BDR becomes the new DR and a new election takes place to find another BDR. If the new DR then 'goes down' and the original DR is now available, still previously chosen BDR will become DR.

Routing update flow

When  has Routing update

  sends LSU to
  sends LSUAck to
  sends LSUAck to

When  has Routing update

   sends LSU to
   sends LSUAck to
   sends LSUAck to

When  has Routing update

   sends LSU to
   sends LSA to
   sends LSUAck to
  Non-source routers,  sends LSUAck to

Protocol messages

Unlike other routing protocols, OSPF does not carry data via a transport protocol, such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Instead, OSPF forms IP datagrams directly, packaging them using protocol number 89 for the IP Protocol field. OSPF defines five different message types, for various types of communication. Multiple packets can be sent per frame.

OSPF uses the following packets 5 type:
 Hello
 Database description
 Link state request
 Link state update
 Link state acknowledgement

Hello Packet

OSPF's Hello messages are used as a form of greeting, to allow a router to discover other adjacent routers on its local links and networks. The messages establish relationships between neighboring devices (called adjacencies) and communicate key parameters about how OSPF is to be used in the autonomous system or area. During normal operation, routers send hello messages to their neighbors at regular intervals (the hello interval); if a router stops receiving hello messages from a neighbor, after a set period (the dead interval) the router will assume the neighbor has gone down.

Database description (DBD)

Database description messages contain descriptions of the topology of the autonomous system or area. They convey the contents of the link-state database (LSDB) for the area from one router to another. Communicating a large LSDB may require several messages to be sent by having the sending device designated as a leader device and sending messages in sequence, with the follower (recipient of the LSDB information) responding with acknowledgments.

Link state packets

Link state request (LSR) Link state request messages are used by one router to request updated information about a portion of the LSDB from another router. The message specifies the link(s) for which the requesting device wants more current information.

Link state update (LSU) Link-state update messages contain updated information about the state of certain links on the LSDB. They are sent in response to a link state request message, and also broadcast or multicast by routers on a regular basis. Their contents are used to update the information in the LSDBs of routers that receive them.

Link state acknowledgment (LSAck) Link-state acknowledgment messages provide reliability to the link-state exchange process, by explicitly acknowledging receipt of a Link State Update message.

OSPF v2 area types and accepted LSAs
Not all area types use all LSA. Below is a matrix of accepted LSAs.

Routing metrics
OSPF uses path cost as its basic routing metric, which was defined by the standard not to equate to any standard value such as speed, so the network designer could pick a metric important to the design. In practice, it is determined by comparing the speed of the interface to a reference-bandwidth for the OSPF process.  The cost is determined by dividing the reference bandwidth by the interface speed (although the cost for any interface can be manually overridden). If a reference bandwidth is set to '10000', then a 10 Gbit/s link will have a cost of 1.  Any speeds less than 1 are rounded up to 1. Here is an example table that shows the routing metric or 'cost calculation' on an interface.
 Type-1 LSA has a size of 16-bit field (65,535 in decimal)
 Type-3 LSA has a size of 24-bit field (16,777,216 in decimal)

OSPF is a layer 3 protocol. If a layer 2 switch is between the two devices running OSPF, one side may negotiate a speed different from the other side. This can create an asymmetric routing on the link (Router 1 to Router 2 could cost '1' and the return path could cost '10'), which may lead to unintended consequences.

Metrics, however, are only directly comparable when of the same type. Four types of metrics are recognized. In decreasing preference (for example, an intra-area route is always preferred to an external route regardless of metric), these types are:
 Intra-area
 Inter-area
 External Type 1, which includes both the external path cost and the sum of internal path costs to the ASBR that advertises the route,
 External Type 2, the value of which is solely that of the external path cost,

OSPF v3
OSPF version 3 introduces modifications to the IPv4 implementation of the protocol.
Despite the expansion of addresses to 128 bits in IPv6, area and router identifications are still 32-bit numbers.

High-level changes
 Except for virtual links, all neighbor  exchanges use IPv6 link-local addressing exclusively. The IPv6 protocol runs per link, rather than based on the subnet.
 All IP prefix information has been removed from the link-state advertisements and from the hello discovery packet, making OSPFv3 essentially protocol-independent.
  Three separate flooding scopes for LSAs:
 Link-local scope: LSA is flooded only on the local link and no further.
 Area scope: LSA is flooded throughout a single OSPF area.
 AS scope:  LSA is flooded throughout the routing domain.
 Use of IPv6 link-local addresses, for neighbor discovery, auto-configuration.
 Authentication has been moved to the IP Authentication Header

Changes introduced in OSPF v3, then backported by vendors to v2
 Explicit support for multiple instances per link

Packet format changes
 OSPF version number changed to 3
 From the LSA header, the options field has been removed.
 In hello packets and database description, the options field is changed from 16 to 24 bits.
 In hello packet, the address information has been removed. The interface ID has been added.
 In router-LSAs, two options bits, the "R-bit" and the "V6-bit", have been added.
 "R-bit": allows for multi-homed hosts to participate in the routing protocol.
 "V6-bit": specializes the R-bit.
 Add "instance ID", which allows multiple OSPF protocol instances on the same logical interface.

LSA format changes
 The LSA type field is changed to 16 bits.
 Add support for handling unknown LSA types
 Three bits are used for encoding flooding scope.
 With IPv6, addresses in LSAs are expressed as prefix and prefix length.
 In router-LSAs and network-LSAs, the address information is removed.
 Router-LSAs and network-LSAs are made network-protocol independent.
 A new LSA type is added, link-LSA, which provides the router's link-local address to all other routers attached to the logical interface, provides a list of IPv6 prefixes to associate with the link, and can send information that reflect the router's capabilities.
 LSA Type-3 summary-LSAs have been renamed "inter-area-prefix-LSAs".
 LSA Type-4 summary LSAs have been renamed "inter-area-router-LSAs".
 Intra-area-prefix-LSA is added, an LSA that carries all IPv6 prefix information.

OSPF over MPLS-VPN

A customer can use OSPF over a MPLS-VPN, where the service provider uses  BGP or RIP as their interior gateway protocol.
When using OSPF over MPLS-VPN, the VPN backbone becomes part of the OSPF backbone area 0. In all areas, isolated copies of the IGP are run.

Advantages:
 The MPLS-VPN is transparent to the customer's OSPF standard routing.
 Customer's equipment only needs to support OSPF.
 Reduce the need for tunnels (Generic Routing Encapsulation, IPsec, wireguard) to use OSPF.

To achieve this, a non-standard OSPF-BGP redistribution is used. All OSPF routes retain the source LSA type and metric.
To prevent loops, an optional DN bit is used in LSAs to indicate that a route has already been sent from the provider edge to the customer's equipment.

OSPF extensions

Traffic engineering
OSPF-TE is an extension to OSPF extending the expressivity to allow for traffic engineering and use on non-IP networks. Using OSPF-TE, more information about the topology can be exchanged using opaque LSA carrying type–length–value elements. These extensions allow OSPF-TE to run completely out of band of the data plane network. This means that it can also be used on non-IP networks, such as optical networks.

OSPF-TE is used in GMPLS networks as a means to describe the topology over which GMPLS paths can be established. GMPLS uses its own path setup and forwarding protocols, once it has the full network map.

In the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP), OSPF-TE is used for recording and flooding RSVP signaled bandwidth reservations for label-switched paths within the link-state database.

Optical routing
 documents work in optical routing for IP based on extensions to OSPF and IS-IS.

Multicast Open Shortest Path First
The Multicast Open Shortest Path First (MOSPF) protocol is an extension to OSPF to support multicast routing. MOSPF allows routers to share information about group memberships.

Notable implementations
 Allied Telesis implements OSPFv2 & OSPFv3 in Allied Ware Plus (AW+)
 Arista Networks implements OSPFv2 and OSPFv3
 BIRD implements both OSPFv2 and OSPFv3
 Cisco IOS and NX-OS
 Cisco Meraki
 D-Link implements OSPFv2 on Unified Services Router.
 Dell's FTOS implements OSPFv2 and OSPFv3
 ExtremeXOS
 FRRouting, the successor of Quagga
 GNU Zebra, a GPL routing suite for Unix-like systems
 Juniper Junos
 NetWare implements OSPF in its Multi Protocol Routing module.
 OpenBSD includes OpenOSPFD, an OSPFv2 implementation.
 Quagga, a fork of GNU Zebra for Unix-like systems
 Windows NT 4.0 Server, Windows 2000 Server and Windows Server 2003 implemented OSPFv2 in the Routing and Remote Access Service, although the functionality was removed in Windows Server 2008.
 XORP, a routing suite implementing RFC2328 (OSPFv2) and RFC2740 (OSPFv3) for both IPv4 and IPv6

Applications
OSPF is a widely deployed routing protocol that can converge a network in a few seconds and guarantee loop-free paths. It has many features that allow the imposition of policies about the propagation of routes that it may be appropriate to keep local, for load sharing, and for selective route importing. IS-IS, in contrast, can be tuned for lower overhead in a stable network, the sort more common in ISP than enterprise networks. There are some historical accidents that made IS-IS the preferred IGP for ISPs, but ISPs today may well choose to use the features of the now-efficient implementations of OSPF, after first considering the pros and cons of IS-IS in service provider environments.

 When the default route to an ISP is injected into OSPF from multiple ASBRs as a Type I external route and the same external cost specified, other routers will go to the ASBR with the least path cost from its location. This can be tuned further by adjusting the external cost. If the default route from different ISPs is injected with different external costs, as a Type II external route, the lower-cost default becomes the primary exit and the higher-cost becomes the backup only.

See also
 Fabric Shortest Path First
 Mesh networking
 Route analytics
 Routing
 Shortest path problem

References

Further reading

External links
 IETF OSPF Working Group
 Cisco OSPF
 Cisco OSPF Areas and Virtual Links
 Summary of OSPF v2

Internet protocols
Internet Standards
Routing protocols
Application layer protocols

Open Shortest Path First


Miarinarivo is a town and commune in Madagascar. It belongs to the district of Ambalavao, which is a part of Haute Matsiatra Region. The population of the commune was estimated to be approximately 10,000 in 2001 commune census.

Only primary schooling is available. The majority 99% of the population of the commune are farmers.  The most important crop is rice, while other important products are cassava, sweet potatoes and tobacco. Services provide employment for 1% of the population.

References

Populated places in Haute Matsiatra

Miarinarivo, Ambalavao


Atlantic hurricane seasons
1810s 1820s 1830s 1840s 1850s The decade of 1830s featured the 1830–1839 Atlantic hurricane seasons. While info for every storm that happened is not available, some parts of the coastline were had enough people to give info of hurricane happenings. Each season was an ongoing event in the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation in the Atlantic basin. Most tropical cyclone formation is between June 1 and November 30.

1830 Atlantic hurricane season
I. A hurricane moved from Trinidad to western Cuba between August 3 and August 9.

Atlantic Coast Hurricane
II. First noted in the Leeward Islands on August 11, a hurricane moved into the Caribbean in the middle of August. It moved west-northwestward, and approached the coast of Florida. It came close to present-day Daytona Beach on August 15, but recurved northeastward before landfall, although land was not spared from effects. It made landfall near Cape Fear on the 16th and went out to sea that night, eventually well to the north of Bermuda just offshore the Canadian Maritimes. The hurricane broke a three-month drought, but caused heavy crop damage in the process.

III. A hurricane tracked north of the Leeward Islands on August 19 through the southwest and western Atlantic by August 26.

IV. A hurricane moved from north of Puerto Rico on September 29 to well northeast of Bermuda on October 1.

V. A tropical storm struck South Carolina on October 6.

1831 Atlantic hurricane season
I. A tropical storm made landfall in northeast Florida on June 10.

II. A hurricane moved from south of Barbados to the Yucatán Peninsula between June 22 and June 28.

Great Barbados Hurricane
III. The Great Barbados Hurricane was an intense Category 4 hurricane that left cataclysmic damage across the Caribbean and Louisiana in 1831. It left 2,500 people dead and $7 million (1831 dollars) in damage.

IV. A strong tropical storm/hurricane struck western Louisiana between August 27 and August 30.

V. A hurricane hit near the mouth of the Rio Grande, causing heavy rain over Texas and Mexico.

1832 Atlantic hurricane season
I. Early in the season, a hurricane moved through the Bahamas around June 5, causing 52 deaths. The gale began June 6 at 8 p.m. at Bermuda from the northeast, with the center passing quite close to the island as the wind shifted to southwest at 10:30 p.m. The storm lasted until 3 a.m. on June 7. Two schooners were damaged during the system. (from Beware the Hurricane)

II. On August 12, this hurricane was noted near Key West. The cyclone moved across the eastern Gulf of Mexico striking northwest Florida, then recurving through the Southeast to move through South Carolina by August 18.

III. On August 21 a tropical storm was witnessed to the west-southwest of the Cape Verde Islands in the eastern tropical Atlantic.

IV. Between August 23 and August 27, a hurricane moved from the central Leeward Islands to the east of Jamaica.

V. On October 14, a tropical storm moved into South Carolina.

1833 Atlantic hurricane season
A hurricane passed offshore of Norfolk in late August, keeping ships at harbor but causing no damage.

1834 Atlantic hurricane season
I. On September 4 a hurricane hit South Carolina, causing 37 deaths. It moved through North Carolina and Virginia, capsizing the ship E. Pluribus Unum. The crew made it safely to shore.

II. A hurricane struck the island of Dominica on September 20, bringing heavy winds and a 12 ft storm surge that devastated the capital of Roseau; 230 people are believed to have been killed by the hurricane's onslaught. Then the hurricane made its second landfall at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic on the 23rd. About 170 sailors died when their ships sank in the Ozama River. On land the hurricane disrupted the funeral service of Padre Ruiz, a Roman Catholic priest. A total of 400 people were killed from the hurricane.

III. Also in September, a hurricane hit south Texas, causing heavy damage.

1835 Atlantic hurricane season

Antigua Hurricane
A hurricane was first detected near Antigua on August 12. It moved over Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, and Cuba, causing at least 3 casualties. It moved across the Florida Straits and the Gulf of Mexico, hitting near the mouth of the Rio Grande on August 18. There, it destroyed small villages, caused strong storm surge, and killed 18 people.

Jay Barnes in "Florida's Hurricane History" pg 56, noted a hurricane, possibly the same, that smashed Cape Florida and Key Biscayne, creating the Norris Cut and knocking over the Ponce de Leon lighthouse.  From there, the storm entered the Gulf of Mexico and took a hard northeast tack, damaging Fort Brooke in Tampa, terrorizing the city, and then ambling northward into Georgia and the Carolinas, making the trip "all the way into New England."

1836 Atlantic hurricane season
A hurricane hit the Cayman Islands during this season.

1837 Atlantic hurricane season
I. On July 26 a storm hit Martinique. It caused 57 deaths.

II. On August 2, a hurricane hit Puerto Rico, causing 141 deaths.

III. A tropical system was observed east of the West Indies on August 13. It moved through the islands, and passed the Bahamas on the 16th. As it was recurving, it hit the North Carolina coast on the 18th. It slowly moved over land, causing 48 hours of strong winds, and moved offshore on the 20th. This is known as the Calypso Hurricane.

Racer's Storm

IV. The 10th known tropical storm in the 1837 season, nicknamed Racer's Storm, was first observed in the Western Caribbean during late September. It moved across the Yucatán Peninsula and the western Gulf of Mexico, where it hit Brownsville, Texas on October 2. It remained over land for 3 days before recurving to the east, hitting near Louisiana and Pensacola before moving out to sea. This hurricane caused 105 deaths.

1838 Atlantic hurricane season
I. On September 7, a hurricane hit near Cape Florida, causing 38 deaths.

II. A late season hurricane hit the east coast of Mexico on November 1, sinking 2 U.S. ships.

1839 Atlantic hurricane season
I. A hurricane hit Charleston, South Carolina on August 28. It passed over North Carolina and Virginia before going out to sea on the 30th.

II. This cyclone is known as Reid's Hurricane. The system moved from east of the West Indies into the southwest Atlantic. Swells were noted as early as September 9 at Bermuda. During late on the September 11 and early on September 12, this hurricane struck Bermuda. The storm tide was measured as 11 feet/3.3 meters. Thousands of trees were downed. The tower on Tower Hill was levelled. Damage done to private property totalled 8000 pounds sterling (1839 pounds). This cyclone later swept western Ireland as an extratropical storm, which they called The Great Wind of 1839. This was one of the first hurricanes to be studied by William Reid in person, in this case as governor of the island the year after his publication of "The Law of Storms". (from Beware the Hurricane)

III. During the middle of September, a hurricane approached the coast of Louisiana. It struck near Lake Charles, then known as Charley's Lake, on September 15.

IV. A late season hurricane hit Galveston, Texas on November 5.

Related pages

 List of Atlantic hurricane seasons

References

Books
 David Longshore. "Padre Ruiz Hurricane." Encyclopedia of Hurricanes, Typhoons and Cyclones. David Longshore. New York: Facts on File, 1998, Pg; 257.
 David Longshore. "Great Caribbean Hurricane of 1831." Encyclopedia of Hurricanes, Typhoons and Cyclones. David Longshore. New York: Facts on File, 1998, Pg; 145.
 Terry Tucker. Beware the Hurricane! The Story of the Gyratory Tropical Storms That Have Struck Bermuda. Bermuda: Hamilton Press, 1966, p. 89-104.

Other websites
 The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492-1996 National Hurricane Center

1830s
Atlantic hurricane season

1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons


Wit is a form of intellectual humour. A wit is someone skilled in making witty remarks. A witty remark is a smart observation, put with humor and said in the perfect moment. Forms of wit include: the quip and the repartee.

Witty remarks may be intentionally cruel, and perhaps more ingenious than funny.

A quip is an observation or saying that has some wit but perhaps descends into sarcasm, or otherwise is short of point; a witticism also suggests the diminutive. Repartee is the wit of the quick answer. (Wilde: "I wish I'd said that." Whistler: "You will, Oscar, you will".)

Language
Humor

es:Ingenio (desambiguación)

Wit


Parasailing is a sport. Parasailers are put into a harness that is attached to a parachute.  They hold on to a rope and are towed at high speeds behind a vehicle (usually a boat, but sometimes a truck on land).  The parachute helps them rise up into the air behind the vehicle. People parasail for the thrill and also to get a good, high view of the scenery around them.

Parasailing is a popular recreational activity that was developed in the 1960s.

Dangers include falling too fast while in the air with injuries upon landing.

Sports

Parasailing


East Kilbride is a large suburban town in the South Lanarkshire council area of Scotland. It is Scotland's first new town, and lies on high ground on the south side of the Cathkin Braes, about  southeast of Glasgow city centre. The Rotten Calder river flows along the east side of the settlement, northwards toward the River Clyde. The town is also known as the Polo Mint city due to its many roundabouts.

Landmarks

Dollan Baths
One of the most significant buildings of an earlier phase of development was Dollan Baths leisure complex (opened 1968) which has Grade A listed status.

Twin towns
  Ballerup, Denmark

Notable people
 William and John Hunter, medical pioneers, were born at Long Calderwood within the present-day area of East Kilbride.
 Lorraine Kelly, television presenter for GMTV was born in the town.
 Iain Harvie, guitarist with Scottish rock band Del Amitri, was an East Kilbride resident. His late father, John Harvie, was the popular headmaster of Claremont High School in East Kilbride in the 1980s and early 1990s.
 Actor John Hannah of Rebus and Four Weddings and a Funeral fame was a resident of East Kilbride, residing in the Murray area. He has recently caused debate in the area after commenting that it had "gone downhill" since he lived there .
 Scottish rock band The Jesus and Mary Chain was formed in the town.
 Muriel Gray, journalist and broadcaster, was born in the town.
 Chancery Stone, author of The DANNY Quadrilogy, was born in East Kilbride and lived in West Mains for the first 18 years of her life.
 Mikey, famous for his antics and passion for food in Calderglen High
 Roddy Frame, frontman of Scottish indie band Aztec Camera, was born in the town.

References

Towns in South Lanarkshire

East Kilbride