Texas Christian University (TCU) is a private research university in Fort Worth, Texas. It was established in 1873 by brothers Addison and Randolph Clark as the AddRan Male & Female College. It is affiliated with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).

The campus is located on  about 10 miles (5 km) from downtown Fort Worth. TCU is affiliated with, but not governed by, the Disciples of Christ. The university consists of nine constituent colleges and schools and has a classical liberal arts curriculum. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity".

TCU's mascot is Superfrog, based on the Texas state reptile: the horned frog. For most varsity sports, TCU competes in the Big 12 conference of the NCAA's Division I. As of Fall 2021, the university enrolls around 11,938 students, with 10,222 being undergraduates.

History

Origins in Fort Worth, 1869–1873

The East Texas brothers Addison and Randolph Clark, with the support of their father Joseph A. Clark, first founded Texas Christian University. The Clarks were scholar-preacher/teachers associated with the Restoration Movement. These early leaders of the Restoration Movement were the spiritual ancestors of the modern Disciples of Christ and the Churches of Christ, as well as being major proponents of education.

Following their return from fighting for the Confederacy in the Civil War, brothers Addison and Randolph established a children's preparatory school in Fort Worth. This school, known as the Male & Female Seminary of Fort Worth, operated from 1869 to 1874. Both Clarks nourished a vision for an institution of higher education that would be Christian in character, but non-sectarian in spirit and intellectually open-minded. They purchased five blocks of land in downtown Fort Worth in 1869 for that purpose.

But from 1867 to 1874, the character of Fort Worth changed substantially due to the commercial influence of the Chisholm Trail, the principal route for moving Texas cattle to the Kansas rail heads. A huge influx of cattle, men, and money transformed the sleepy frontier village into a booming, brawling cowtown. The area around the property purchased by the Clarks for their college soon became the town's vice district, an unrelieved stretch of saloons, gambling halls, dance parlors, and bawdy houses catering to the rough tastes of the Chisholm Trail cowboys. Its rough and rowdy reputation had, by 1872, acquired it the nickname of "Hell's Half Acre" (the heart of which is today occupied by the Fort Worth Convention Center and the Fort Worth Water Gardens).

The Clarks feared that this negative environment undermined the fledgling university's mission. They began to look for an alternative site for their college, and they found it at Thorp Spring, a small community and stagecoach stop  in Hood County to the southwest near the frontier of Comanche and Kiowa territory.

Move to Thorp Spring, 1873–1895

In 1873 the Clark brothers moved South to Thorp Spring and founded Add-Ran Male & Female College. TCU recognizes 1873 as its founding year, as it continues to preserve the original college through the AddRan College of Liberal Arts.

Add-Ran College was one of the first coeducational institutions of higher education west of the Mississippi River, and the very first in Texas. This was a progressive step at a time when only 15% of the national college enrollment was female and almost all were enrolled at women's colleges.

At Thorp Spring the fledgling college expanded quickly. The inaugural enrollment in Fall 1873 was 13 students, though this number rose to 123 by the end of the first term.  Shortly thereafter, annual enrollment ranged from 200 to 400. At one time more than 100 counties of Texas were represented in the student body. The Clark brothers also recruited prestigious professors from all over the South to join them at Thorp Spring. The standards of the school and the efficiency of its work came to be recognized throughout the United States, and many graduates were welcomed at universities throughout the country.

In 1889 Add-Ran College formed an official partnership with what would become the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). This relationship with the church was a partnership of heritage and values, though the church never enjoyed any administrative role at TCU. Later that year the Clark brothers handed over all land, buildings, and assets and allowed the growing university to continue as a private institution; their only compensation was a request that their descendants should have free tuition (though this stipulation was never enforced).

In keeping with the transition, in 1889 the school was renamed Add-Ran Christian University, though by this time it had quite outgrown the property.

Move to Waco, roots of rivalry, 1895–1910
The need for a larger population and transportation base prompted the university to relocate to Waco from 1895 to 1910; it purchased the campus of the defunct Waco Female College. The institution was renamed Texas Christian University in 1902, though almost immediately it was dubbed as its acronym TCU. It was during this 15-year sojourn in Waco that TCU in 1896 entered the ranks of intercollegiate football and adopted its school colors of purple and white, as well as its distinctive Horned Frog mascot. This also laid the groundwork for the rivalry between TCU and cross-town school in Waco, Baylor University. "The Revivalry" - as the rivalry is known on both sides - is the most even rivalry in collegiate football at any level, with the series currently led by TCU 55–52–7, and with neither school ever enjoying more than an eight-game win streak; TCU won the eight consecutive games from 1964 to 1971 and Baylor won eight consecutive from 1974 from 1981.

Return to Fort Worth, 1910–present

In 1910 a fire of unknown origin destroyed the university's Main Administration building. A rebuilding project was planned, but before reconstruction could begin, a group of enterprising Fort Worth businessmen offered the university $200,000 in rebuilding money ($5,114,505.00 in 2018 currency) and a  campus as an inducement to return to Fort Worth. This move brought TCU home to the source of its institutional roots and completed its 40-year transition from a frontier college to an urban university.

The TCU campus at its present location in Fort Worth in 1910–11 consisted of four buildings: Clark Hall and Goode Hall, the men's dormitories; Jarvis Hall, the women's dormitory; and the Main Administration building (now Reed Hall).

Two of these four original buildings still remain: Reed Hall (originally the Main Administration building) and Jarvis Hall (originally a women's dormitory, but since renovated as an administrative building). Goode Hall was demolished in 1958 and replaced by the new Clark Hall, originally a men's dormitory. It was renovated in 2008 as a coed residence hall. The original Clark Hall was demolished in 1959 and replaced by Sadler Hall, the current main administration building.

The university received its first and a huge charitable endowment in 1923, from Mary Couts Burnett, the recent widow of Samuel Burk Burnett, a rancher, banker, and oilman. Married in 1892, Mary Couts came to believe that her husband was trying to kill her and she sought a divorce. Instead, Burk Burnett had his wife committed to a mental asylum, where she struggled for more than 10 years to regain her freedom. With the help of her physician, she eventually succeeded and was released in 1922, only to find that her husband had recently died and left her nothing.

She challenged the will and eventually secured half of her late husband's estate ($4 million, worth $80.3 million in 2018 currency). The long years of incarceration had taken a toll on Couts Burnett and people worried about her health. In her 1923 will, she bequeathed her entire estate, including a half-interest in the gigantic 6666 ("Four Sixes") Ranch, to TCU. She died in 1924, and about 100 female students from TCU attended her funeral in honor of her gift. She lived long enough to see construction begin on the TCU building that today bears her name, the Mary Couts Burnett Library.

The Mary Couts Burnett Library was built on the site of the school's first athletic field, Clark Field, a cinder track with a baseball diamond. Clark Field was moved to the west of the Library. Since their first season of play in 1896, the TCU football team had gained increasing attention and success every year and joined the Southwest Conference in 1923. In 1928 the school received a private donation from local newspaper magnate and philanthropist Amon G. Carter, and in 1930 the school opened Amon G. Carter Stadium, where the TCU football team still plays.

Campus

TCU's campus sits on  of developed campus (325 acres total) which is located four miles (6.5 km) from downtown Fort Worth.

The TCU campus is divided into roughly three areas: a residential area, an academic area, and Worth Hills. The two main areas of campus, the residential and academic areas, are separated by University Drive, an oak-lined street that bisects the campus. Residence halls, the Student Union, and the Campus Commons are all located to the West of University Drive, while the library, chapel, and most academic buildings are located to the East of it. All of TCU's surrounding streets are lined by live oaks.

A third area of campus, known as Worth Hills, lies to the west across Stadium Drive and adjacent to the football stadium. Worth Hills is home to all of the university's fraternity and sorority houses, though plans to move all Greek housing to a new location have been underway for several years. As of 2021, three new sophomore, junior, and senior dormitories have been built, which are Hays Hall, Arnold Hall, and Richards Hall.

Roughly half of TCU undergraduate students live on campus. Housing is divided among 16 residence halls and on-campus apartment complexes. Students are required to live in an on-campus residence hall, most of which are co-ed, for at least their freshman and sophomore years.

The neo-classical beaux-arts architecture at TCU incorporates features consistent with much of the Art Deco-influenced architecture of older buildings throughout Fort Worth. Most of the buildings at TCU are constructed with a specially blended golden brick tabbed by brick suppliers as "TCU buff." Nearly all of the buildings feature red-tile roofs, while the oldest buildings on campus, including Jarvis Hall, Sadler Hall, and the Bailey Building, are supported by columns of various styles.

A notable exception to this rule is Robert Carr Chapel, which was the first building on campus to be constructed of bricks other than TCU buff. The chapel is built of a distinctive salmon-colored brick, a deviation that caused alumni to protest when the building opened in 1953.

TCU is home to the Starpoint School, a laboratory school for students in grades 1–6 with learning differences.  Starpoint's goal is to develop advanced educational techniques for helping students with learning disabilities. KinderFrogs School, an early-intervention laboratory pre-school for children with Down syndrome, is housed in the same building as Starpoint. TCU is the only university in the nation with two on-campus laboratory schools in special education. The laboratory schools, both programs of the College of Education, are located near Sherley Hall and Colby Hall.

Since 2006, much of the campus has been under construction, and many buildings have been either renovated or replaced. The old Student Center was demolished in 2008 and replaced with Scharbauer Hall, which opened in 2010 and houses the bulk of AddRan College's offices and classrooms. Construction is also currently underway to renovate the dance building, and a new academic building for Brite Divinity School is being erected behind the Religion Complex. A major renovation of the library and a new residence hall are also planned.

The 717-seat, $10 million Van Cliburn Concert Hall at TCU opened in April 2022 with a month of celebration events, as part of the $53 million TCU Music Center which opened in 2020. It joins the existing TCU concert halls Ed Landreth Hall and PepsiCo Recital Hall. Van Cliburn Concert Hall will be the early round venue for the June 2022 Sixteenth Van Cliburn International Piano Competition, returning the competition to TCU's campus where it was first held in 1962 as the First Van Cliburn International Piano Competition.

Academics

Admissions

Undergraduate

The 2022 annual ranking of U.S. News & World Report categorizes TCU as "more selective". For the Class of 2025 (enrolled fall 2021), TCU received 19,782 applications and accepted 10,606 (53.6%). Of those accepted, 2,560 enrolled, a yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend the university) of 24.1%. TCU's freshman retention rate is 91.3%, with 83% going on to graduate within six years.

TCU also enrolls a high percentage of transfer students. Roughly 20 percent of TCU's annual incoming undergraduate class consists of transfer students.

The enrolled first-year class of 2025 had the following standardized test scores: the middle 50% range (25th–75th percentile) of SAT scores was 1140–1345, while the middle 50% range of ACT scores was 26–31.

The university experienced a record number of applicants in 2011, when over 19,000 students applied (a 5,000-student increase from 2010). The applicant pool also set a record with 60% applicants from out of state, whereas usually 1/3 of applicants were from out-of-state. While heightened national recognition due to TCU's victory in the 2011 Rose Bowl is one contributing factor, the university has experienced a steady growth for some time. In 2000, only 4,500 students applied.

High school seniors who have been accepted must maintain solid academic performance senior year during the spring and not show signs of senioritis; in 2012, the admissions dean sent letters to 100 college-bound seniors asking them to explain poor performance senior year, and threatening to rescind offers of admission without satisfactory letters of explanation for the slump.

Rankings

TCU is classified as a Doctoral University: Higher Research Activity by the Carnegie Foundation. TCU is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. As of 2023, TCU is ranked by U.S. News & World Report as No. 98 among National Universities.

Academic divisions
The university offers 117 undergraduate majors, 62 master's programs, and 25 doctoral programs. Among the university's most popular majors are Business, which accounts for roughly 25% of TCU undergraduates, and Journalism/Strategic Communications, which accounts for roughly 20% of TCU undergraduates. Nursing and Education are also popular majors, and many students choose to major in more than one field.

The Neeley School of Business is among the nation's most respected business schools. The Neeley School was recently ranked as the No. 28 best undergraduate business school in the country by Bloomberg Businessweek. It continues to expand following a $500,000 donation from Alumni Abe Issa for the construction the Abe Issa Field Sales Lab which will be located within the future Neeley Sales and Consumer Insights Center in the Spencer and Marlene Hays Business Commons.

TCU has always been an educational partner to the US military and serves host to reserve officer training corps (ROTC) programs for two different service branches, the US Air Force ROTC's Detachment 845 "Flying Frogs" and the US Army ROTC's "Horned Frog Battalion". Each year, approximately 3% of TCU's graduating seniors go on to serve as commissioned officers in the US armed forces.

During World War II, TCU was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.

AddRan College of Liberal Arts
Bob Schieffer College of Communication
College of Education
College of Fine Arts
College of Science and Engineering
Harris College of Nursing and Health Sciences
M. J. Neeley School of Business
Anne Burnett Marion School of Medicine
School of Interdisciplinary Studies
John V. Roach Honors College

In addition, TCU hosts the Brite Divinity School, a separate institution run by the Disciples of Christ that is housed on TCU's campus and whose students have full access and use of TCU facilities. In 2015, TCU and the University of North Texas Health Science Center announced the creation of an MD-granting medical school jointly administered by the two institutions. The school accepted its first class of 60 students in 2019 with plans for 240 students when fully enrolled.

This university operates the 450-acre southern white rhinoceros preserve, African Rhino Protection Initiative. Doctor Michael Slattery established it in 2014.

Student life

Student body

The student population at TCU in 2020–2021 was 11,379, with 9,704 undergraduates and 1,675 graduate students. Women make up about 58% of the student population, while men make up about 42%. Undergraduates matriculate from all fifty states led by Texas at 54%.
The fields of nursing, education, and advertising-public relations tend to be the majors that attract the most women, while business, political science, and a host of liberal arts majors are more balanced. A few areas of study at TCU, such as engineering and the sciences, are typically disproportionate with men, though even in those areas the percentage of female students tends to be higher than those of other comparable universities.

The student and faculty populations are overwhelmingly non-Hispanic white, but the minority population has seen increased rates over the past few years, especially for Hispanics. The school has also tried to achieve stronger diversity by hosting "Black Senior Weekend", "Hispanic Senior Experience", and offering full scholarships to a select number of exceptional minority high school students in North Texas with economically disadvantaged backgrounds.

Student organizations and events
TCU sponsors over 200 official student organizations including Amnesty International, Habitat for Humanity, Invisible Children and others. Students may also compete in intramural sports including basketball and shuffleboard, or join various other sport-hobby groups, such as the TCU Quidditch League.

Many students involve themselves in various campus ministries, such as Disciples on Campus, a Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) student group. Other groups include Ignite, a nondenominational campus ministry; Catholic Community, a large and active group; TCU Wesley, a Methodist group; the Latter-Day Saint Student Association (LDSSA); and Cru, a nondenominational evangelical student ministry. Most religious groups on campus are Christian-based, although TCU also sponsors Hillel, a Jewish student group, and the Muslim Students Association (MSA). Additionally, each year TCU Housing and Residential Life allows students to apply to live in the Interfaith Living Learning Community (LLC), in which the residents spend the year living alongside neighbors of various religious beliefs.

At the beginning of each fall semester, TCU's student government holds a large concert on the Campus Commons. In 2008, TCU celebrated completion of the Brown-Lupton Union by hosting popular country artist Pat Green. In Fall of 2009, it held a concert by OneRepublic following a football victory over Texas State. Lady Antebellum performed in 2010, and The Fray in 2011. Blake Shelton performed in 2012, Little Big Town in 2013 and Jason Derulo performed in the campus commons in 2014. These fall concerts are free to all students.

Student media
The Bob Schieffer College of Communication circulates a number of student-run publications:
 "Skiff x 360" (Skiff by 360), previously The Daily Skiff, is TCU's weekly newspaper founded in 2013 in association with tcu360. The original daily was published since 1902. The weekly publication is published on Thursdays.
 TCU360.com, founded in July 2011, is the online news platform that hosts original 360 content as well as content from all the other student media platforms.
 Image Magazine is TCU's student magazine, published once a semester and focuses on investigative, in-depth campus issues.
 The Horned Frog is the school yearbook.
 TCU broadcasts its own radio station, KTCU-FM 88.7, "The Choice." KTCU can be heard throughout much of Fort Worth/Dallas, and offers programming which includes music, talk, and live broadcasts Horned Frog football, basketball, and baseball games.

Other student-run media include:
eleven40seven is TCU's student-run, undergraduate journal of the arts. Originally started by the Bryson Literary Society in 2005, the journal now operates independently, run by an undergraduate staff and one faculty advisor. The journal is published biannually.
The Skiffler is an independent satire newspaper begun by TCU students in 2010 which parodies the Daily Skiff. Since it began publishing online The Skiffler has developed a popular following on the TCU campus, though contributors to The Skiffler remain mostly anonymous. Previously, the satirical paper on campus was "The Sniff", that disappeared in the early 2000s.

Greek life
Approximately 50% of undergraduate students are active in TCU's Greek system:
 12 social fraternities which are members of the Interfraternity Council (Beta Theta Pi, Delta Tau Delta, Kappa Sigma, Lambda Chi Alpha, Phi Delta Theta, Phi Gamma Delta, Phi Kappa Sigma, Pi Kappa Phi, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, Sigma Chi, Sigma Nu and Sigma Phi Epsilon)
 12 social sororities which are members of the Panhellenic Council (Alpha Chi Omega, Alpha Delta Pi, Chi Omega, Delta Delta Delta, Delta Gamma, Gamma Phi Beta, Kappa Alpha Theta, Kappa Kappa Gamma, Phi Mu, Pi Beta Phi, Sigma Kappa and Zeta Tau Alpha)

TCU is also home to the following Fraternities/Sororities:

 One Christian fraternity, Beta Upsilon Chi, and one Christian sorority, Sigma Phi Lambda.
 One national, co-ed, service fraternity, Alpha Phi Omega.
 Seven members of the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) (Alpha Kappa Alpha, Delta Sigma Theta, Zeta Phi Beta, Alpha Phi Alpha, Omega Psi Phi, Kappa Alpha Psi, Phi Beta Sigma)
 Six members of the Multi-cultural Greek Council (Lambda Theta Alpha, Lambda Theta Phi, Chi Upsilon Sigma, Sigma Lambda Alpha, Kappa Lambda Delta, Omega Delta Phi)
Dozens of professional and academic organizations, including Phi Beta Kappa and Delta Sigma Pi
Music Fraternities including Mu Phi Epsilon, Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia, Tau Beta Sigma, and Kappa Kappa Psi.

Sustainability
A "Purple Bike" program was instituted to allow students to use purple bicycles free of charge as an alternative to motor vehicles. Scharbauer Hall, which opened for classes in 2010, is a Gold US Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certified facility.

In 2010 TCU faculty and staff held a conference for Service-Learning for Sustainability and Social Justice with keynote speaker Robert Egger, founder of D.C. Central Kitchen. Also, sustainability and social justice are emphasized areas in the curriculum and programs offered by the Department of Sociology and Anthropology located in Scharbauer Hall.

Athletics

TCU competes in NCAA Division I athletics as a member of the Big 12 Conference (Big XII). For most of its history (1923–1996), TCU was a member of the now defunct Southwest Conference (SWC). Prior to joining the Big XII in 2012, TCU spent seven years in the Mountain West Conference (MWC) (2005–2011), where they were the only school to join from a conference other than the Western Athletic Conference (WAC), having come from Conference USA (C-USA), of which they were a member from 2001 to 2005. Before joining C-USA, TCU teams competed in the WAC for five years, from 1996 to 2001, after the SWC dissolved.

TCU's varsity sports have eight men's and ten women's squads. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, football, golf, swimming & diving, track & field, cross country, and tennis. Women's sports include basketball, volleyball, golf, swimming & diving, cross country, track & field, soccer, rifle, equestrian, and tennis.

In recent years the university has made significant upgrades to its athletics facilities, including construction of the $13 million Abe-Martin Academic Enhancement Center, which was completed in August 2008. The university finished reconstruction of the entire Amon G. Carter Football Stadium in September 2012 at cost of approximately $160 million. The Daniel Meyer Coliseum is currently undergoing a $55 million reconstruction and is scheduled to be completed for the 2014–15 basketball season with expanded seating, concessions, office and locker room space, better sight lines, and luxury fan facilities.

Football

The Horned Frogs have won two national championships, one in 1935 and the other in 1938. Additionally, the team has captured eighteen conference championships. Many notable football players have played for TCU, including Sammy Baugh, Davey O'Brien, Jim Swink, Bob Lilly, LaDainian Tomlinson, and Andy Dalton.

The Horned Frogs play their home games in Amon G. Carter Stadium. Gary Patterson has coached the team since December 2000, twice winning the AP Coach of the Year Award (2009, 2014) and leading the Horned Frogs to a 178–74 record (.706), including 11 bowl wins in 17 appearances. Under Patterson, the Horned Frogs have owned the No. 1 ranked defense in the country five times (2000, 2002, 2008, 2009, 2010), the second most top defenses by any team since the NCAA began keeping records in 1937 (Alabama has had seven No. 1 defensive rankings since 1937).

TCU finished the 2010 season as the consensus No. 2 ranked team in the nation after beating the Wisconsin Badgers in the 2011 Rose Bowl and finishing an undefeated 13–0. The Horned Frogs were the first school from a non-automatic qualifying conference to play in the Rose Bowl since the creation of the Bowl Championship Series.  The 2010 team topped the Congrove Computer Rankings, though the school does not claim this national title. The Frogs most recent bowl win was against Michigan in the first round of the College Football Playoff in the Fiesta Bowl on December 31st, 2022.  The Frogs lost to the Georgia Bulldogs in the CFP National Championship 65-7.

Rivalries
The oldest rivalry, which has become nationally famous since TCU joined the Big 12 Conference, is The Revivalry with Baylor University. The Revivalry is unique in that it is a major FBS rivalry between two church affiliated schools. It is also one of the oldest rivalries in the nation, with the series currently led by TCU 54-52-7 since 1899. Since resumption of the annual rivalry in 2010, the series is close, with TCU leading 7–4. Since TCU joined Baylor in the Big 12 in 2012, the Big 12 series record is 6–3 in favor of TCU.

The TCU Horned Frogs also share a historic rivalry with the Southern Methodist University Mustangs, located in Fort Worth's sister (and rival) city, Dallas. In football, teams from TCU and SMU have competed annually in the Battle for the Iron Skillet since 1946 when, during pre-game festivities, an SMU fan was frying Frog Legs as a joke before the game. A TCU fan, seeing this as a desecration of their "Horned Frog", told him that eating the frog legs was going well beyond the rivalry and that they should let the game decide who would get the skillet and the frog legs. SMU won the game, and the skillet and frog legs went to SMU that year. The tradition spilled over into the actual game and the Iron Skillet is now passed to the winner as the rivalry's traveling trophy. TCU leads the all-time series 47–40–7. TCU recently beat SMU 42–34 on September 24, 2022.

Traditionally, TCU's other biggest rivals were also members of the now-defunct Southwest Conference which disbanded in 1996. These rivalries, played only sporadically after 1996 as out of conference games, were renewed when TCU moved to the Big 12 Conference for the 2012 season. After a couple of decades of membership in various other conferences around the U.S. (Western Athletic Conference, Conference USA, the Mountain West Conference and the Big East Conference), TCU now plays regularly with these rivals that, along with Baylor University and Southern Methodist University discussed above, also include The West Texas Championship with Texas Tech University and a long-standing rivalry with The University of Texas at Austin.

TCU has also developed new rivalries. West Virginia University has become a rival largely due to the schools' cohort entry into the Big 12 Conference together in 2012, combined with a toggle of extremely close, dramatic, last-minute wins in their football match ups to date. The rivalry with Boise State University, with which TCU competed on the national stage in the 2000s as the two most prominent "BCS Busters", and which also shared one year together as members of the Mountain West Conference, has also become a major, if periodic, rival. TCU and Boise State competed as the most effective BCS Busters before the demise of the BCS system. In 2011, as members of the Mountain West, TCU won the only in-conference game between the two schools, winning with no time left on a missed Boise State field goal. The rivalry with Boise State will be played only sporadically in the future due to TCU's move to the "Power Conference" Big 12 and Boise State's remaining status as the consensus leader of the "mid-major" programs in the "Group of Five" Conferences.

TCU also maintains a cross-town baseball rivalry with fellow Division I competitor The University of Texas at Arlington.

Notable faculty
Stanley Block, Ph.D., CFA, Emeritus Professor of Finance
Gene A. Smith, Early American historian
Steven E. Woodworth, American Civil War historian

Alumni

TCU has more than 90,000 living alumni.

Notes

References

External links

TCU Athletics website

Protestantism in Texas
Universities and colleges in Fort Worth, Texas
Universities and colleges affiliated with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)
Educational institutions established in 1873
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
1873 establishments in Texas
Private universities and colleges in Texas

Texas Christian University


Artemis Fowl is a series of books about a young criminal mastermind. The books were written by Irish author Eoin Colfer. The series currently has eight main books and two short stories. The first two books are have been made into graphic novels.

Artemis Fowl
Artemis Fowl And The Arctic Incident
Artemis Fowl And The Eternity Code
Artemis Fowl And The Opal Deception
Artemis Fowl And The Lost Colony
Artemis Fowl And The Time Paradox
Artemis Fowl And The Atlantis Complex
Artemis Fowl And The Last Guardian

The two short stories are:
LEPrecon
The Seventh Dwarf
LEPrecon comes before Artemis Fowl, and is about one of the main characters, an elf called Holly Short. It tells how she moves to a unit in the fairy 'police' called LEPrecon (a word-play on leprechaun).
The Seventh Dwarf comes between Artemis Fowl and Artemis Fowl and the Arctic Incident. The Seventh Dwarf is about when two of the characters are trying to steal a tiara. They do not originally know they are both trying. They meet, and end up helping each other.

As the books advance, more attention is given to the moral progressiveness of the main character, Artemis Fowl II. In the first book he is shown as the bad guy, but further on in the series he is shown as a goodie.

Series of books
Fantasy books
Irish literature

Artemis Fowl


Wincenty Aleksander Korwin Gosiewski de armis Ślepowron (c. 1620 – 29 November 1662) – was a Polish nobleman, general, Field-Commander of Lithuania from 1654, Grand Treasurer of Lithuania and Lithuanian Great-Quartermaster since 1652, General of Artillery of Lithuania from 1651, Grand-Master of the Pantry of Lithuania from 1646 (honorary court title).

Biography

Early life and first battles
After his father Aleksander, he became District-Governor of Puńsk and Marków, after his brother Krzysztof he became also District-Governor of Velizh. Speaker of the Parliament in Warsaw from 21 to 24 December 1650. Polish military commander and diplomat.
He came from the noble family Gosiewski entitled to use the coat of arms Ślepowron.  He was Aleksander Gosiewski'son, Palatine-Governor of Smolensk. He married Magdalena Konopacka, Elbląg Castle-Commander's daughter.
He graduated from the Vilnius University and studied in Vienna, Padua and Rome.
After returning home he was appointing by King Władysław IV Vasa  Grand Master of the Pantry of Lithuania, fulfilling this office he signed the document electing John II Casimir Vasa.

He began his military service as commander of the regiment that fought in 1648 running under the leadership of the Lithuanian Great-Commander Janusz Radziwiłł. In July 1649 as Janusz Radziwiłł's deputy commander in chief, he had a major part broken the troops of the Zaporozhian Cossacks in the Battle of Loyew. As  Artillery General in Lithuania in 1651, at the Battle of Chernobyl he broke Cossack troops commanded by colonels Antonov and Adamowicz. He participated as a Commissioner in the peace talks that led to the agreement of Biała Cerkiew.

Political and military career

In 1654 he received the Commander's baton/mace from Polish prince Janusz Radziwiłł, who was appointing the Lithuanian Great-Commander.
During the Swedish invasion, he played an important role politically and militarily. In 1655, he accepted the Kiejdany act of recognition signed between usurper King Charles X Gustav of Sweden and Prince Janusz Radziwiłł, but soon came against this act taking action which aim was to help the Russian side. Despite being under surveillance, he managed to make contact with the Russian diplomat Vasily Likharov. Trapped by Janusz Radziwiłł he was catch in Kiejdany, where, as state prisoner was then transferred to Królewiec/Königsberg.
While he was in captivity Karl Gustav was urged to attack Russia and a written confirmation of that intention was given to Tsar Alexis of Muscovy after his release. In the spring of 1656 he escaped from Prussian slavery to Lithuania where in a short time, at their own expense, he organized several Banners.

Battling against Swedish forces, he reached up near Warsaw, where he was one of the royal commissioners that oversaw the takeover of the capital. He participated in the siege of Tykocin and the Battle of Warsaw (1656) after which the Swedish army again occupied the city. Then, on the King's orders, he moved with its banners into the Duchy of Prussia and Lithuania. On 8 October 1656, at the battle of Prostki, he completely smashed the Brandenburgian and Swedish armies, capturing Prince Bogusław Radziwiłł. The battle has been describe by Henryk Sienkiewicz's novel The Deluge. Another battle fought under his command, on 22 October 1656, was the Battle of Filipów however; it ended with a victory for the forces commanded by Field Marshal Gustaf Otto Stenbock, in the confusion of the battle the Prince Bogusław Radziwiłł managed to escape.
In November 1656 at Wierzbowo he signed a truce with Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, then as royal commissioner in 1657, he led a ceasefire and conclude the Treaty of Bromberg. In 1658 he fought against the Swedes in the areas of Livonia and Samogitia.
In 1658 he participated in the delegation sent by the King to negotiate with Russia. Beaten at the Battle of Werki he was captured and imprisoned during nearly four years. He was released from captivity in Moscow in 1662. As compensation for the harm that he had suffered, he received the former Radziwiłł's estate in Kiejdany.

Obedience to the King and death
He was a supporter of a strong and centralized royal power (limiting Liberum Veto), and supported the concept of a successor of the throne with the current King being still alive (Vivente Rege – a kind of Royal election). At the command of the King wanted to solve the issue of the Fraternal Association, an insurrection created by some long unpaid members of the army claiming the termination of obedience to the King (at the beginning for economic reasons, but later, considering any limitation to Liberum Veto and Vivente Rege proposal as "treason" to Commonwealth constitutional laws). In July 1662, he went to Vilnius for talks with the rebel troops in Lithuania. There he was treacherously captured by Konstanty Kotowski, Deputy Speaker of the Fraternal Association, which is thus intended to prevent any agreement that may in effect resulted in the termination of the insurrection. Wincenty Korwin Gosiewski was shot to death on 29 November 1662 near Ostrynia [=Astryna]. Later, the perpetrators of the murder were sentenced to death.

Marriage and family

Wincenty Korwin Gosiewski's children and Magdalena Konopacki were:

Bogusław Korwin Gosiewski de armis Ślepowron (born in November 1660, d. 23 June 1744) –Bishop of Smolensk on 29 January 1725,  Lithuanian Great (Clergyman) Quartermaster in 1720, Preceptor and Curator of Vilnius Cathedral, Vicar of Onikszty.
Teresa Korwin Gosiewska, properly Princess Teresa Sapieha (died 1708) – married,
Her first husband, Józef Bogusław Słuszka de armis Ostoja (1652 –1701) was Field-Commander of Lithuania, Castle-Commander of Vilnius, Court Marshal of Lithuania, Great-Standard-Bearer of Lithuania, Great-Hunter of Lithuania, District-Governor of Rzeczyca, Lanckorona, Pinsk, Pieniawa and Jeziera.
Her second husband, Jan Kazimierz Sapieha the Younger, de armis Lis, was Great Cup-Bearer of Lithuania, Deputy Master of the Pantry of Lithuania, Court Treasurer of Lithuania, Field Commander of Lithuania, District-Governor of Zmuzka and Brzeg, Palatine-Governor of Vilnius and Great Commander of Lithuania.
She had not offspring of both marriages.

Zofia Korwin Gosiewska – she married Aleksander Przyjemski, de armis Rawa, High Steward of the Crown.

After Wincenty Korwin Gosiewski's death, his widow married Prince Janusz Karol Czartoryski, Chamberlain of Kraków.

References
 Paweł Jasienica: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów. Calamitatis Regnum. Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1986. .

1620s births
1662 deaths
People from Kamyenyets District
People from Brest Litovsk Voivodeship
Wincenty Korwin
Field Hetmans of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Generals of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Marshals of the Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Secular senators of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Diplomats of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish people of the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)
Polish military personnel of the Khmelnytsky Uprising
Grand Treasurers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Wincenty Korwin Gosiewski


Sir Frederick William Mallandaine Ashton  (17 September 190418 August 1988) was a British ballet dancer and choreographer. He also worked as a director and choreographer in opera, film and revue.

Determined to be a dancer despite the opposition of his conventional middle-class family, Ashton was accepted as a pupil by Léonide Massine and then by Marie Rambert. In 1926 Rambert encouraged him to try his hand at choreography, and though he continued to dance professionally, with success, it was as a choreographer that he became famous.

Ashton was chief choreographer to Ninette de Valois, from 1935 until his retirement in 1963, in the company known successively as the Vic-Wells Ballet, the Sadler's Wells Ballet and the Royal Ballet. He succeeded de Valois as director of the company, serving until his own retirement in 1970.

Ashton is widely credited with the creation of a specifically English genre of ballet. Among his best-known works are Façade (1931), Symphonic Variations (1946), Cinderella (1948), La fille mal gardée (1960), Monotones I and II (1965), Enigma Variations (1968) and the feature film ballet The Tales of Beatrix Potter (1970).

Life and career

Early years
Ashton was born in Guayaquil, Ecuador, the fourth of the five children of George Ashton (1864–1924) and his second wife, Georgiana (1869–1939), née Fulcher. George Ashton was manager of the Central and South American Cable Company and vice-consul at the British consulate in Guayaquil.

In 1907, the family moved to Lima, Peru, where Ashton attended a Dominican school. When they returned to Guayaquil in 1914, he attended a school for children of the English colony. One of his formative influences was serving as an altar boy, which inspired in him a love of ritual, as demonstrated in The Wise Virgins. Another, still more potent, influence was being taken to see Anna Pavlova dance in 1917. He was immediately determined that he would become a dancer.

Dancing was not a career acceptable to a conventional English family at that time. Ashton later recalled, "My father was horrified. You can imagine the middle-class attitude. My mother would say, 'He wants to go on the stage.' She could not bring herself to say 'into the ballet.'" Ashton's father sent him to England in 1919 to Dover College, where he was miserable. Homosexual, and with an accent that his classmates laughed at, he did not fit in at a minor public school of the early 1920s.

He was not academically inclined, and his father decided that, upon leaving the school in 1921, Ashton should join a commercial company. He worked for an import–export firm in the City of London, where his ability to speak Spanish and French as well as English was an advantage. In January 1924, George Ashton committed suicide. His widow was left financially dependent on her elder sons, who ran a successful business in Guayaquil. She moved to London to be with Ashton and his younger sister, Edith.

Massine and Rambert

Despite family disapproval (and at first in secret) Ashton pursued his ambition to dance professionally. He auditioned for Léonide Massine; at the unusually late age of twenty he was accepted as a pupil. After Massine left London, Ashton was taken on as a student by Marie Rambert. She encouraged him to try choreographing. His first attempt was in 1926 for a revue staged by Nigel Playfair and Rambert's husband Ashley Dukes. The Observer commented on "an engaging little ballet called A Tragedy of Fashion: or The Scarlet Scissors, which Mr. Eugene Goossens has set most suitably to music. Miss Marie Rambert, as an impudently vivacious mannequin, and Mr. Frederick Ashton as a distracted man modist, lead the dancing. It is as chic a trifle as Mr Playfair's modish establishment leads you to expect." The costumes and scenery were by Sophie Fedorovitch, who continued to work with Ashton for more than twenty years, and became, in his words, "not only my dearest friend but my greatest artistic collaborator and adviser".

Rambert sought to widen her students' horizons, taking them to see London performances by the Diaghilev Ballet. They had a great influence on Ashton—most particularly Bronislava Nijinska's ballet Les biches. In 1930 Ashton created an innovative ballet, Capriol Suite, using Peter Warlock's 1926 suite of the same name. The music was based on 16th-century French music, and Ashton researched the dances of the earlier era, and created a period piece with "basse danse, pavane, tordion, and bransle—smoothly mixing robust masculine leaps with courtly duets." The following year Rambert founded the Ballet Club, forerunner of the Ballet Rambert, with Alicia Markova as prima ballerina and Ashton as the main choreographer and one of the leading dancers.

Ashton's ballets of the early 1930s included La péri (1931), The Lady of Shalott (1931), Façade (1931), Foyer de danse (1932) and Les Masques (1933). He also contributed to West End revues and musicals, including The Cat and the Fiddle (1932) for C. B. Cochran, and Gay Hussar (1933), in which The Manchester Guardian singled out the "spirited and lovely choreography in the classic manner".

Vic-Wells
Ashton's association with Ninette de Valois, founder of the Vic-Wells Ballet, began in 1931, when he created a comic ballet, Regatta for her. It received mixed reviews; The Times thought it successful as "a piece of flippant amusement", but The Manchester Guardian considered that "it completely fails ... definitely a poor show". Nevertheless, Ashton was by now recognised as a choreographer of considerable talent and had gained a national, though not yet international, reputation.

In 1933 Ashton devised another work for de Valois and her company, the ballet-divertissement Les Rendezvous. Robert Greskovic describes the work as a "classically precise yet frothy excursion showcas[ing] big skirted 'ballet girls' and dashing swain partners". The piece was an immediate success, has been revived many times, and at 2013 remains in the Royal Ballet's repertoire eighty years after its creation. In 1935 de Valois appointed Ashton as resident choreographer of her company, where he worked alongside Constant Lambert, the musical director from 1931 until 1947, and a company including Markova, Anton Dolin and Robert Helpmann. The Times describes Ashton's first years with the Vic-Wells as a richly productive period: "His Apparitions in 1936 was by many compared favourably with Massine's Symphonie Fantastique on a similar theme, and that year saw also the touching Nocturne to Delius's Paris. These works have vanished, but the following year's witty A Wedding Bouquet and Les Patineurs are still with us."

In 1936–37, his homosexuality notwithstanding, Ashton had an affair with an American heiress and socialite, Alice von Hofmannsthal. After the affair ended, her love for him continued, though she had two subsequent marriages, both to gay Englishmen.

As the 1930s progressed, Ashton's career began to extend internationally. In 1934 he choreographed Virgil Thomson's opera Four Saints in Three Acts in New York, and in 1939 he created his first ballet for a foreign company: Devil's Holiday (Le Diable s'amuse) for the Ballet Russe de Monte-Carlo. He continued to create dances for other forms of theatre, from revues such as The Town Talks and Home and Beauty, to opera, including Clive Carey's production of Die Fledermaus at Sadler's Wells, and film, notably Escape Me Never, another collaboration with William Walton, following Façade four years earlier.

Sadler's Wells and Covent Garden
Shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War Ashton was offered a position in New York with what was to become the American Ballet Theatre. He declined, and returned to de Valois' company, soon renamed "Sadler's Wells Ballet". He created some works along more sombre lines, including Dante Sonata, which symbolised the unending struggle between the children of darkness and the children of light. In Ballet magazine, Lynette Halewood commented in 2000, "No other work by Ashton is so disturbing and so bleak".

In 1941 Ashton was called up for war service. He was commissioned as an officer in the Royal Air Force, at first analysing aerial photographs and later as an intelligence officer. While in the RAF he was granted occasional spells of leave to carry on his work with the ballet. His collaboration with Walton continued with The Quest (1943). It was created and staged in a hurry, and Walton later said that it was not much of a success from anyone's point of view. It had a theme of knightly chivalry, though Walton observed that Helpmann in the lead looked more like the Dragon than St George. As with the 1940 Ashton-Walton collaboration The Wise Virgins, the music has survived but the ballet has not.

After the end of the war David Webster invited de Valois to move her company from Sadler's Wells to be resident at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden alongside the new opera company he was establishing. Ashton's first ballet for the company in its new home was Symphonic Variations (1946). The historian Montague Haltrecht writes of it, "It is a masterpiece created for the Opera House and for the company's dancers, and almost of itself defines a style of English dancing." Although the Covent Garden stage was much larger than that at Sadler's Wells, Ashton confined himself to six dancers, led by Margot Fonteyn and Michael Somes. The work, which remains in the repertoire as at 2013, was a success from the outset.

Another plotless ballet was Scènes de ballet (1947), which remains a repertoire piece. In 1948, at the urging of de Valois, Ashton created his first major three-act ballet for a British company, his version of Prokofiev's Cinderella. The original cast included Moira Shearer as Cinderella, Somes as the Prince, Alexander Grant as the jester, and Ashton and Helpmann en travesti as Cinderella's stepsisters. Some critics have commented that Ashton was not yet fully in control of a full-length ballet, with intermittent weaknesses in the choreography, but the comedy of the stepsisters was, and has remained, a favourite with audiences. The ballet critic Laura Jacobs called it "slapstick of a celestial order", and recalled that she and her fellow New York critics were "struck speechless by this luminous ballet".

In the late 1940s and early 1950s Ashton worked more frequently for other ballet companies, creating works for the Ballets de Paris (Le Rêve de Léonor, 1949, to Britten's  Bridge Variations) and the New York City Ballet (Illuminations, 1950, to Britten's Les Illuminations, and Picnic at Tintagel, 1952, to Bax's The Garden of Fand). He created dances for films, including The Tales of Hoffmann (1951) and The Story of Three Loves (1953), and directed operas at Glyndebourne (Britten's Albert Herring, 1947) and Covent Garden (Massenet's Manon, 1947, and Gluck's Orpheus, 1953, conducted by Sir John Barbirolli with Kathleen Ferrier in the title role).

Ashton's second full-length ballet for de Valois' company was Sylvia (1952). Ashton's biographer Kathrine Sorley Walker considers that it works "even less well" than Cinderella, but contemporary reviews praised it with little or no reservation. In 2005, reviewing a New York revival, the critic Jennie Schulman called it a "blockbuster", "radiant" with "choreographic abundance to please even the most finicky of gods and the most demanding of balletomanes".

Ashton's third full-length ballet was Romeo and Juliet for the Royal Danish Ballet in 1955. It was a considerable success, but Ashton resisted attempts to present it at Covent Garden, which he thought too large a theatre and stage for his intimate treatment of the story. It was not seen in London until 1985 when it was produced by the London Festival Ballet rather than at Covent Garden.

Royal Ballet
In October 1956 Elizabeth II granted Sadler's Wells Ballet a charter, giving it the title of "the Royal Ballet" with effect from 15 January 1957. This recognised the eminence the company had achieved: internationally it was widely regarded as "the leading company outside Russia".  De Valois remained the director of the company, with Ashton as principal choreographer.

One of Ashton's most celebrated ballets was created for the Royal Ballet in 1960: La fille mal gardée. The first ballet of that title had been presented in France in 1789, and several later versions had been staged in the 19th century, using music by various composers. Ashton did his customary careful research and decided to make use of Ferdinand Hérold's music (1828), arranged, with additions from other versions, by John Lanchbery. Walker says of the work, "He adhered closely to the original scenario, but created deliciously inventive new choreography that was the happiest amalgam of classical ballet and English folk-dance, while Osbert Lancaster's delightful designs were firmly related to French country life." It was an immediate success, and has been regularly staged since, not only by the Royal Ballet, but by companies in ten other European countries and in Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, New Zealand, South Africa and the US.

When de Valois retired in 1963, Ashton succeeded her as director. His time in charge was looked on as something of a golden age. Under him, the corps de ballet was recognised as rivalling and even excelling the best anywhere else in the world. He continued to add to the repertoire with his own new productions, he persuaded his former mentor Bronislava Nijinska to revive her Les biches and Les noces, and he presented Mam'zelle Angot by his other mentor, Massine. He also brought in Antony Tudor, his English contemporary, better known in the US, to stage both new and old works. The ballet critic John Percival considered that despite the numerous glories of the company under Ashton's directorship, he was unsuited to and uninterested in management, and lacked de Valois' gift for strategic planning (though better in both these regards than his successor as director, Kenneth MacMillan). Percival believed that this weakened the company in the long term. Ashton's works for the company while he was director included The Dream (1964) (for Anthony Dowell and Antoinette Sibley), the pas de trois Monotones II (1965), Jazz Calendar (1968) and Enigma Variations (My Friends Pictured Within) (1968).

Webster, due to retire in 1970 as general administrator of the Royal Opera House, decided that his departure should be accompanied by a change to the leadership of the two companies. Georg Solti, musical director of the opera company, was keen to concentrate on his new post as conductor of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, and did not wish to renew his Covent Garden contract when it expired in 1971. Ashton had frequently told colleagues how he looked forward to his own retirement, but nonetheless was hurt by the abruptness with which his departure was arranged and announced by Webster. He stood down in July 1970 after a farewell gala organised by Michael Somes, John Hart and Leslie Edwards.

After his retirement, Ashton made  several short ballets as pièces d'occasion, but his only longer works were the cinema film, The Tales of Beatrix Potter made in 1970 and released in 1971, and A Month in the Country (1976), a one-act piece, lasting about forty minutes, freely adapted from Turgenev's comedy of manners. The piece has been revived regularly, in every decade since the premiere.

Ashton's last years were marred by the death of his partner, Martyn Thomas, in a car crash in 1985 – a blow from which Ashton never fully recovered. He died in his sleep on 19 August 1988, at his country home in Suffolk, and was buried on 24 August at St Mary's Church, Yaxley, Suffolk.

Choreography

Ashton created more than eighty ballets. In his Who's Who entry, he identified his best-known works as:

Full-length ballets
Cinderella (1948)
Sylvia (1952)
Romeo and Juliet (1955) – for Royal Danish Ballet.
Ondine (1958)
La fille mal gardée (1960)

Shorter works

Façade (1931)
Apparitions (1936)
Les Patineurs (1937)
A Wedding Bouquet (1937)
Horoscope (1938)
Symphonic Variations (1946)
Scènes de ballet (1948)
Illuminations (1950)
Daphnis and Chloe (1951)
Birthday Offering (1956)
The Two Pigeons (1961)
Marguerite and Armand (1963)
The Dream (1964)
Sinfonietta (1967)
 Jazz Calendar (1968)
Enigma Variations (1968)
The Walk to the Paradise Garden (1972)
A Month in the Country (1976)
Rhapsody (1980)
Varii Capricci (1983)

Other notable Ashton ballets include:
 (1958)
Monotones I and II (1965)
The Tales of Beatrix Potter (1970 film)
Méditation from Thaïs (1971)
Voices of Spring (1977)

The Fred Step
Ashton included in many of his ballets a signature step, known to dancers as "the Fred step". It is defined by David Vaughan as "". Adrian Grater has enlarged the definition to include the transitional movements; this in Benesh notation is transcribed thus:

It was based on a step used by Anna Pavlova in a gavotte that she frequently performed. Alicia Markova recalled in 1994 that Ashton had first used the step in a short ballet that concluded Nigel Playfair's 1930 production of Marriage à la Mode. It is not seen in Ashton's 1931 Façade, but after that, it became a feature of his choreography. The critic Alastair Macaulay writes:

Ashton himself danced the step as the timorous sister in Cinderella, and later he and Fonteyn danced a gentle version of it together in Salut d'amour, created by Ashton for her sixtieth birthday gala at Covent Garden. The Royal Ballet has a demonstration of the step on its website, explained by the company's ballet mistress, Ursula Hageli and danced by Romany Pajdak.

Legacy
Ashton left the rights to many of his ballets to friends and colleagues, including Fonteyn (Daphnis and Chloe and Ondine), Dowell (The Dream and A Month in the Country), Michael Somes (Cinderella and Symphonic Variations), Alexander Grant (La fille mal gardée and Façade), Antony Dyson (Enigma Variations and Monotones), and Brian Shaw (Les Patineurs and Rendezvous). Rights to most of his other ballets were left to his nephew, Anthony Russell-Roberts, who was Administrative Director of the Royal Ballet from 1983 to 2009.

To perpetuate the legacy of Ashton and his ballets, the Frederick Ashton Foundation was set up in 2011. It is independent of, but works closely with, the Royal Ballet.

Honours
Ashton's state honours were, from Britain, CBE (1950), Knight Bachelor (1962), Companion of Honour (1970) and the Order of Merit (1977). Honours from other countries included the Legion of Honour (France, 1960) and the Order of the Dannebrog (Denmark, 1964). He received the Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Award from the Royal Academy of Dance in 1959. He was awarded the Freedom of the City of London (1981), and received honorary doctorates from the universities of Durham (1962), East Anglia (1967), London (1970), Hull (1971) and Oxford (1976).

Notes, references and sources

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

External links
 Ballet.co Ashton pages
 Parents
 Archive film of Frederick Ashton's Thaïs Pas de Deux performed by Nina Ananiashvili and David Ananeli in 2010 at Jacob's Pillow
 www.ashtonballets.com

1904 births
1988 deaths
Administrators of The Royal Ballet
Ballet choreographers
 Frederick Ashton
British arts administrators
British opera directors
Knights of the Legion of Honour
Choreographers of The Royal Ballet
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Commanders of the Order of the Dannebrog
English male ballet dancers
English choreographers
English directors
English LGBT dancers
British male ballet dancers
Members of the Order of Merit
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
National Dance Award winners
People educated at Dover College
People from Eye, Suffolk
Rambert Dance Company dancers
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II
Royal Air Force officers
20th-century British ballet dancers

Frederick Ashton


A hopping mouse is any of about ten different Australian native mice in the genus Notomys. They are rodents, not marsupials, and their ancestors are thought to have arrived from Asia about 5 million years ago.

All are brown or fawn, fading to pale grey or white underneath, have very long tails and, as the common name implies, well-developed hind legs. Half of the hopping mouse species have become extinct since European colonisation. The primary cause is probably predation from introduced foxes or cats, coupled with competition for food from introduced rabbits and hoofed mammals. A hopping mouse's primary diet is seeds. An Australian hopping mouse can concentrate urine to as high as 10,000 mOsm/L (10-20 times higher than a human). This allows it to survive in the desert without drinking water.

Species
 The spinifex hopping mouse (Notomys alexis) occurs throughout the central and western Australian arid zones, occupying both spinifex-covered sand flats and stabilised sand dunes, and loamy mulga and melaleuca flats.
 The extinct short-tailed hopping mouse (Notomys amplus) was the largest species at around 100 g.
 The northern hopping mouse (Notomys aquilo) is found only in coastal northern Australia, from Arnhem Land to the Cobourg Peninsula.
 The fawn hopping mouse (Notomys cervinus) is found on the sparsely vegetated arid gibber plains and claypans of the Lake Eyre Basin. Small at around 30 to 50 g, and light in colour, it is gregarious and feeds at night on seeds, insects, and green shoots, not needing to drink water. It is classed as near threatened.
 Some small dusky hopping mouse (Notomys fuscus) populations retain a slender hold on existence in the Strzelecki Desert. They feed, mostly on seeds, at night and shelter in deep vertical burrows.
 The long-tailed hopping mouse (Notomys longicaudatus) is an extinct species, which was widespread in the drier regions of southern and central Australia. It dug burrows in stiff, clay soils. It liked raisins, but was not a pest to the stores of settlers. Only a handful of specimens were collected and the last record dates from 1901, although skull fragments were found in an owl pellet in 1977.
The extinct big-eared hopping mouse (Notomys macrotis) lived in the Moore River area of south-western Australia. The last record dates from 19 July 1843.
 Mitchell's hopping mouse (Notomys mitchellii) is the largest extant member of the genus. It occurs throughout much of semi-arid Southern Australia and is currently considered to be unthreatened, although its range has been reduced through habitat disturbance and destruction.
 The Darling Downs hopping mouse (Notomys mordax) is almost certainly extinct and is known only from a single skull collected somewhere on the Darling Downs of south-east Queensland in the 1840s, apparently from a creature similar to Mitchell's hopping-mouse. The introduction of cattle to the Darling Downs has greatly changed the ecology of the region, and seen several other species exterminated or seriously threatened. (See Paradise parrot and Northern hairy-nosed wombat.)
 The great hopping mouse (Notomys robustus Mahoney, Smith and Medlin 2008) is extinct. It is known only from skulls found in owl pellets in the Flinders Ranges. Some pellets also include bones of the introduced house mouse—indicating that it survived into historic times, possibly the second half of the 19th century. From the skull, it appears to have been relatively large (perhaps the size of N. amplus or a little more) and to have escaped collection by early 19th century naturalists by chance. From the location of the deposits it is assumed that it preferred clay rather than sandy soils. It is notable that very few of the clay-living hopping mice have survived European settlement, sand dunes apparently providing a more secure refuge from competitors and predators. Also commonly known as the broad-cheeked hopping-mouse.

See also
 Jerboa - a similar dipodid rodent native to northern Africa and Asia; an example of parallel evolution
 Jumping mouse - a non-desert-dwelling dipodid rodent native to China and North America
 Kangaroo mouse and kangaroo rat - similar heteromyid rodents of North America
 Kultarr - an unrelated marsupial with a similar body plan and coloration; an example of convergence
 Springhare - a similar pedetid rodent native to southern and eastern Africa

References

Footnotes

Bibliography

Taxa named by René Lesson

Hopping mouse


A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant. The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes, the nodes hold leaves, flowers, cones, axillary buds, or other stems etc.

The term "shoots" is often confused with "stems". A "shoot" generally refers to new fresh plant growth including both stems and other structures like leaves or flowers.

The other main structural axis of plants is the root. In most plants, stems are above the soil surface but some plants have underground stems called stolons or rhizomes.

Stems have four main functions which are:
 Support for leaves, flowers and fruits. The stems keep the leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits.
 Transport of fluids between the roots and the upper parts in the xylem and phloem.
 Storage of nutrients.
 The production of new living tissue. Stems have tissue called the meristem which contains dividing cells. This produces new living tissue.

The normal life span of plant cells is one to three years. Much of the longer-lasting tissue in trees consists of cells which are no longer living. Bark and xylem vessels are examples of this.

Specialized terms for stems
Stems are often specialized for storage, asexual reproduction, protection or photosynthesis, including the following:
 Bulb - a short vertical underground stem with fleshy storage leaves attached, e.g. onion, daffodil, tulip. Bulbs often function in reproduction by splitting to form new bulbs or producing small new bulbs termed bulblets. Bulbs are a combination of stem and leaves so may better be considered as leaves because the leaves make up the greater part.
 Tree - a woody stem that is longer than 5 meters with a main trunk.
 Thorns - a reduced stem with a sharp point and rounded shape. e.g. hawthorn.

Stem structure

The most important tissue inside the stem is the vascular tissue. This plays a major part in the transpiration of water and nutrients. There are many hollow tubes, including the xylem vessel and schlerenchyma fibres. The phloem contains living tissue.

Economic importance
There are thousands of species whose stems have economic uses. Stems provide a few major staple crops such as potato and taro. Sugar cane stems are a major source of sugar. Maple sugar is obtained from trunks of maple trees. Vegetables from stems are asparagus, bamboo shoots, cactus pads, kohlrabi, and water chestnut. The spice, cinnamon is bark from a tree trunk.

Cellulose from tree trunks is a food additive in bread, grated Parmesan cheese, and other processed foods. Gum arabic is an important food additive obtained from the trunks of Acacia senegal trees. Chicle, the main ingredient in chewing gum, is obtained from trunks of the chicle tree.

Medicines obtained from stems include quinine from the bark of cinchona trees, camphor distilled from wood of a tree in the same genus that provides cinnamon, and the muscle relaxant curare from the bark of tropical vines.

Wood is a used in thousands of ways, e.g. buildings, furniture, boats, airplanes, wagons, car parts, musical instruments, sports equipment, railroad ties, utility poles, fence posts, pilings, toothpicks, matches, plywood, coffins, shingles, barrel staves, toys, tool handles, picture frames, veneer, charcoal and firewood. Wood pulp is widely used to make paper, cardboard, cellulose sponges, cellophane and some important plastics and textiles, such as cellulose acetate and rayon. Bamboo stems also have hundreds of uses, including paper, buildings, furniture, boats, musical instruments, fishing poles, water pipes, plant stakes, and scaffolding. Trunks of palm trees and tree ferns are often used for building. Reed stems are also important building materials in some areas.

Tannins used for tanning leather are obtained from the wood of certain trees, such as quebracho. Cork is obtained from the bark of the cork oak. Rubber is obtained from the trunks of Hevea brasiliensis. Rattan, used for furniture and baskets, is made from the stems of tropical vining palms. Bast fibers for textiles and rope are obtained from stems include flax, hemp, jute and ramie. The earliest paper was obtained from the stems of papyrus by the ancient Egyptians.

Amber is fossilized sap from tree trunks; it is used for jewelry and may contain ancient animals. Resins from conifer wood are used to produce turpentine and rosin. Tree bark is often used as a mulch and in growing media for container plants.

Some ornamental plants are grown mainly for their attractive stems, e.g.:
 White bark of paper birch
 Twisted branches of corkscrew willow and Harry Lauder's walking stick (Corylus avellana 'Contorta')
 Red, peeling bark of paperbark maple

References
10 Major Differences between Stem and Trunk | Core Differences

Plant anatomy

Plant stem


James Rudolph Garfield (October 17, 1865 – March 24, 1950) was an American lawyer and politician. Garfield was a son of President James A. Garfield and First Lady Lucretia Garfield. He served as Secretary of the Interior during President Theodore Roosevelt's administration.

Early life

Garfield was born in Hiram, Ohio, the third of seven children born to James Abram and Lucretia Rudolph Garfield. For a year prior to his father's presidency, he studied at St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire. On July 2, 1881, at the age of 15, he and his 17-year-old brother, Harry Augustus Garfield, witnessed the shooting of their father by disgruntled office-seeker Charles J. Guiteau at the Baltimore and Potomac railroad station in Washington. The President and his sons were waiting for a train en route to Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, where young James had been recently accepted, when the shooting took place.

College and early career
Following his father's death on September 19, 1881, Garfield studied at Williams College. He received his A.B. degree in 1885, and then attended Columbia Law School.  In 1888, he was admitted to the Ohio bar and established the Cleveland, Ohio-based law firm of Garfield and Garfield, with his brother Harry Augustus Garfield. From 1890 until her death in 1930, he was married to Helen Newell. They had four sons, John, James, Newell, and Rudolph. Their grandson, Newell Garfield, later married Jane Harrison Walker, a granddaughter of President Benjamin Harrison and Harrison's second wife, Mary Dimmick Harrison, as well as the great-grandniece of James G. Blaine.

Political career
From 1896 to 1899, Garfield served in the Ohio State Senate. He was an influential advisor to President Theodore Roosevelt, serving as a Member of the United States Civil Service Commission from 1902 to 1903. From 1903 to 1907, he served as Commissioner of Corporations at the Department of Commerce and Labor, where he conducted investigations of the meat-packing, petroleum, steel, and railroad industries. From 1907 to 1909, he served in Roosevelt's Cabinet as Secretary of the Interior, where he advocated for the conservation of natural resources. He left this post on March 4, 1909, and returned to his law practice in Cleveland. In 1909, he received an honorary LL.D. degree from the University of Pittsburgh.  Garfield was a contender for the Ohio Republican gubernatorial nomination in the 1910 election but withdrew from the convention when it endorsed the Taft Administration; the convention went on to nominate future president Warren G. Harding in the third round of balloting. During the 1912 presidential election, he was a key supporter of Roosevelt's bid for a third term. In the 1914 election, he made an unsuccessful bid for Governor of Ohio on the Progressive Party ticket.

World War I
Former President Theodore Roosevelt selected Garfield as one of eighteen officers including Seth Bullock, Frederick Russell Burnham, John M. Parker, and Henry L. Stimson to raise a volunteer infantry division, Roosevelt's World War I volunteers, for service in France in 1917.  The United States Congress gave Roosevelt the authority to raise up to four divisions similar to the Rough Riders of the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry Regiment and to the British Army 25th (Frontiersmen) Battalion, Royal Fusiliers; however, as Commander-in-chief, President Woodrow Wilson refused to make use of the volunteers and the unit disbanded.

Death
Garfield died in Cleveland, Ohio, on March 24, 1950, at the age of 84, and was the last surviving member of President Theodore Roosevelt's cabinet. He had survived his father by 68½ years. He was interred in Mentor Municipal Cemetery in Mentor, Ohio, beside his wife Helen.

Notes

References
encyclopedia.com article

External links

1865 births
1950 deaths
James Rudolph
United States Secretaries of the Interior
Theodore Roosevelt administration cabinet members
Republican Party Ohio state senators
St. Paul's School (New Hampshire) alumni
Williams College alumni
Columbia Law School alumni
Children of presidents of the United States
People from Hiram, Ohio
Lawyers from Cleveland
Politicians from Cleveland
Ohio Progressives (1912)
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American lawyers
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American lawyers

James Rudolph Garfield


A starburst galaxy is a galaxy with a very high rate of star formation. The rate of star formation is so large that the galaxy will quickly use all of its gas reservoir (from which the stars are made).

So, the starburst nature of a galaxy is a short phase in a galaxy's evolution, just tens of millions of years. Most starburst galaxies are in the midst of a galaxy merger or at least close encounter with another galaxy.

Studying nearby starburst galaxies can help us explore the history of galaxy formation and evolution. Many very distant galaxies seen, for example, in the Hubble Deep Field are known to be starbursts, but they are too far away to be studied in any detail. Looking at nearby examples give us an idea of what was happening in the early universe. The light we see from distant galaxies left them when the universe was much younger (see redshift).

Starburst galaxies seem to be quite rare in our local universe, and are more common further away. This suggests there were more of them billions of years ago. All galaxies were closer together then, and therefore more likely to be influenced by each other's gravity. More frequent encounters produced more starbursts as galactic forms evolved with the expanding universe.

Notable and well-known starburst galaxies
These include:
M82- The prototype of this class of galaxy and is interacting with Messier 81.Also know as the Cigar Galaxy.
Antennae galaxies (NGC 4038/NGC 4039) This is actually 2 galaxies, interacting and merging.
IC 10- The only starburst galaxy in the Local Group and just a mild one.
Centaurus A- The only case of an elliptical starburst galaxy.
Messier 100- A so-called Grand design spiral galaxy in Virgo.
Cartwheel galaxy- A famous ring galaxy.

Starburst galaxy


Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows: An Introduction to Carnism is a 2009 book by American social psychologist Melanie Joy about the belief system and psychology of meat eating, or "carnism". Joy coined the term carnism in 2001 and developed it in her doctoral dissertation in 2003. Carnism is a subset of speciesism, and contrasts with ethical veganism, the moral commitment to abstain from consuming or using meat and other animal products. In 2020, an anniversary edition of the book was published by publisher Red Wheel.

Background
Joy, a social psychologist and author, was concerned about linguistic bias inherent in terms like carnivore, which were inaccurate and failed to account for the "beliefs beneath the behavior".  Carnivores require meat in their diet for survival, but carnists choose to eat meat based on their beliefs. There was no  label, Joy discovered, for the beliefs of people who produce, consume, and promote meat eating.  She created the term carnism (Latin carn, flesh or body) to name and describe this dominant cultural belief system.  "We assume that it is not necessary to assign a term to ourselves when we adhere to the mainstream way of thinking, as though its prevalence makes it an intrinsic part of life rather than a widely held opinion. Meat eating, though culturally dominant, reflects a choice that is not espoused by everybody", Joy writes.

Synopsis
Carnism, according to Joy, is the dominant, yet invisible paradigm in modern culture supporting the choice to consume meat. Carnism is an invisible system of beliefs in both the social, psychological, and physical sense.  For example, in the physical sense, an estimated 10 billion land animals are slaughtered for their meat every year in the United States, yet most of the animals are never seen—they are kept in confined animal feeding operations, invisible to the public and off limits to the media.  Joy maintains that the choice to eat meat is not natural or a given as proponents of meat claim, but influenced by social conditioning.  The majority of people, Joy claims, care deeply about animals and do not want them to suffer.

Joy argues there is a neurological basis for empathy; most people care about nonhuman animals and want to prevent their suffering.  Further, humans value compassion, reciprocity, and justice. However, human behavior does not match these values. To continue to eat animals, Joy argues, people engage in psychic numbing, which alters the perception of our behavior towards animals and uses defense mechanisms to block empathy.

First, carnism denies there is a problem with eating animals; second, it justifies eating meat as normal, natural, and necessary; third, to prevent cognitive dissonance, carnism alters the perception of the animals as living individuals into food objects, abstractions, and categories.  People who hold to these beliefs may also be called carnists.

Through this denial, justification, and perceptual distortion, Joy argues, carnism influences people to violate their core values. Animal advocates and cultural studies scholars have implicated both the government and the media as the two primary channels responsible for legitimizing carnist discourse in the United States.

Critical reception
Writer Megan Kearns agrees with Joy's argument that the system of carnism is at odds with democracy, but takes issue with Joy blaming the system rather than the people who make carnist choices: "[The] way we as a society envision eating and animals is contradictory and insidious.  Yet it seems incongruous to blame the system and simultaneously hold people accountable to awaken their consciences and exercise their free will."  Kearns also notes that not only are there many empathic people who choose to eat meat, but many vegetarians who base their diet on health, not moral reasons.

Helena Pedersen of Malmö University questions whether it is accurate for Joy to treat meat eaters as a homogenous group as there may be many different types of meat eaters all of whom have different reasons for eating meat. Proponents of the abolitionist theory of animal rights, such as Gary L. Francione, do not accept the concept of carnism as they believe it indirectly supports the animal welfare position by neglecting to call for the immediate rejection of all animal use and for not explicitly promoting veganism.

Influence
Journalist Avery Yale Kamila reviewed Joy's book in 2020 and said it has "played a pivotal role" in changing "how humans think about animals." Kamila wrote:In December, Vox put Why We Love Dogs at the top of its list of "19 books from the 2010s we can't stop thinking about." In January, Joy talked with The Washington Post about "Why that vegan meal at the Golden Globes set off so many critics." And this summer one of three winning essays (out of 1,242 submissions) in The New York Times' annual Student Editorial Contest was headlined "Bringing Ethics to Your Plate" and cited the book in its second paragraph.

Editions
The book has also been translated into several languages, including Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Korean, French, Traditional Chinese, Swedish, Danish, Croatian, Spanish, German, Portuguese and Dutch.

A 10th anniversary edition was released in 2020, with a new foreword by Yuval Noah Harari.

See also
 Ethics of eating meat
 List of vegan media

References

Further reading
Fox, Katrina (June 18, 2010). Eating meat isn't natural: it's carnism. ABC News (Australia).
Horse meat not scandalous to Toronto deli owner. The Canadian Press. March 10, 2013.
Knight, Alison (November 29, 2012).  Carnism founder finds Joy in her work . UWO Gazette. p. 4. (print version)
Kranjec, Mankica (April 17, 2012). Zlati prinašalec za kosilo?. Jana
Moller, Valdemar (December 4, 2012). Varje dag ställs vi inför valet om vad vi ska äta. Fria Tidningen.
Samson, Claudette (November 22, 2012). Le véganisme, un refus de l'exploitation des animaux . Le Soleil'.
Schott, Ben (January 11, 2010). Carnism. The New York Times.
Socha, Kim; Sarahjane Blum (2013). Confronting Animal Exploitation: Grassroots Essays on Liberation and Veganism. McFarland. .
Spencer, Stephan (September 13, 2012). Friend or Food? The Ideology of How We Decide. Huffington Post.
Vereecken, Kathleen (December 15, 2012). Dierenliefde gaat niet door de maag. De Standaard.

Bibliography
Pilisuk, Marc, Joy, M. (2001). Humanistic Psychology and Ecology. In Kirk J. Schneider, James F. T. Bugental and J. Fraser Pierson (Ed.), The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Leading Edges in Theory, Research, and Practice (pp. 101–114). Sage Publications. .
Joy, M. (March 2003). Toward a Non-Speciesist Psychoethic. Society & Animals 11(1), 103–104.
Joy, M. (Winter 2005). Humanistic Psychology and Animal Rights: Reconsidering the Boundaries of the Humanistic Ethic. Journal of Humanistic Psychology 45(1), 106–130.
Joy, M. (January 21, 2013). Speaking Truth to Power: Understanding the Dominant, Animal-Eating Narrative for Vegan Empowerment and Social Transformation. One Green Planet.
Joy, M. (February 26, 2013). Why Horsemeat Is Delicious and Disgusting. Huffington Post''.

Author interviews

2010 non-fiction books
Books about animal rights
Books about veganism
Vegetarian-related mass media
Vegetarianism in the United States


The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about  Mya (million years ago) to  Mya, that is, from the end of the Triassic to the beginning of the Cretaceous. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic Era, also known as the Age of Reptiles. The start of the period is marked by the major Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. However, the end of the Jurassic Period did not witness any major extinction event. The start and end of the period are defined by carefully selected locations; the uncertainty in dating arises from trying to date these horizons.

The chronostratigraphic term "Jurassic" is directly linked to the Swiss Jura Mountains. Alexander von Humboldt (*1769, † 1859) recognized the mainly limestone dominated mountain range of the Swiss Jura Mountains as a separate formation that was not at the time included in the established stratigraphic system defined by Abraham Gottlob Werner (* 1749, † 1817) and named it "Jurakalk" in 1795. The name "Jura" is derived from the celtic root "jor" which was Latinised into "juria", meaning forest (i.e. "Jura" is forest mountains).

Itokasi

Ìgbà Jùrásíkì


Michael Jeffrey Jordan (born Februar 17, 1963 in Brooklyn, New York) is a former American basketbaw player. Many fowk believe Jordan is one of the greatest basketball players to ever play in the NBA. He won six championships an six times he wis the MVP o the finals NBA, playin for the Chicago Bulls an head coach Phil Jackson.

Jordan led the Bulls tae a record 72 wins in ane season playin thegither with teammates Dennis Rodman, Scottie Pippen an Toni Kukoc. Jordan won twa Olympic gold medals for basketball. His first gold medal wis in 1984 as a college player an his second wis in 1992 as an NBA player. Nat Hutt dogged on jordan when jordan was in his prime, the score was 101-7

1963 births
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Michael Jordan


Lima Duarte is a municipality in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. It has a population of 16,724 inhabitants (2020) and a total area of  and lies at an elevation of  in the foothills of the Mantiqueira Mountains. It was given city status in 1881.

It is  from the state capital, Belo Horizonte, and is part of the Zona da Mata, a region whose economic and cultural center is Juiz de Fora. It is connected with this city by highway BR-267.

Ibitipoca state park is situated within the municipality about  from the city center.

Average maximum temperature: ;
Average minimum temperature:

Most of the municipality is drained by the Paraíba do Sul River.  The most important river is the Rio do Peixe, a tributary of the Paraibuna.

The name of the city has no connection to the famous Brazilian actor Lima Duarte, but was in homage to Conselheiro José Rodrigues de Lima Duarte, political leader from Barbacena, who in the nineteenth century was Minister of the Navy and a Senator of the Empire.

The city's economy is mainly based on tourism and the dairy industry.

References

External links

City site
Ibitipoca state park

Municipalities in Minas Gerais

Lima Duarte, Minas Gerais


Molecular vibrations are one of three different kinds of motion for molecules that include translational motion (when the whole molecule goes in the same direction) and rotational motion (when the molecule spins like a top)

A vibrational motion for a molecule is when the bonds between atoms within a molecule move. Think of the atoms as round balls that are attached by a spring that can stretch back and forth. An example of this motion is "stretching", the simplest example of a vibration for a molecule and occurs between just two atoms. Some examples of molecules that are like this include hydrogen H2, nitrogen N2 and oxygen O2

Types of vibrations
If the molecule has more than two atoms, then things get more complicated. Suppose just one more atom is added so now there are three atoms like in water H2O where the two hydrogen atoms are both attached to the central oxygen atom. Remember with hydrogen there was one kind of stretching, but in water there are two kinds of stretching and four other kinds of vibration called bending vibrations as shown below.

The atoms in a CH2 group or molecules like water can vibrate in six different ways: symmetric and antisymmetric stretching, scissoring, rocking, wagging and twisting:

symmetric stretching: when the two attached atoms move away and toward the central atom at the same time.

antisymmetric stretching: When the two attached atoms do not move away and toward the central atom at the same time.

scissoring: Just like the name says scissoring is when the two atoms move away and toward each other

rocking: This motion is like a pendulum on a clock going back and forth only here an atom is the pendulum and there are two instead of one.

wagging: If a person holds up their hand in front of them and puts there two fingers in a "V" sign and bend there wrist toward and away from them. Here the tips of the fingers are the attached atoms and the wrist is the central atom.

twisting: This motion is like a person is walking on a treadmill where their waist is the central atom and their feet are the two attached atoms

Molecules with more than three atoms

Molecules with more than three atoms are even more complicated and have even more vibrations which are sometimes called "vibrational modes". Each new vibrational mode is basically a different combination of the six shown above. The more atoms in the molecule the more ways they can be combined. For most molecules with N atoms the number of possible vibrations for that molecule is 3N - 6 while linear molecules, or molecules with there atoms in a straight line, have 3N-5 vibrational modes.

Relation of Energy and Vibration

Newtonian mechanics
Using Newtonian mechanics the vibrations of a molecule can be calculated by treating the bonds like springs. This is useful because like a spring, a bond requires energy to stretch it out and it also takes energy to squeeze it together. The energy needed to stretch or squeeze the bond is dependent on the stiffness of the bond, which is represented by the spring constant k, and the reduced mass, or "center of mass" of the two atoms attached to either end denoted by μ. The formula used to relate the energy needed to cause a vibration in the bond is:

h: is planck's constant

ν: is frequency and represents the rate at which the bond is squished together and pulled apart again. The larger ν the faster this rate becomes.

Ε: is the energy required to push and pull the bond together.

μ: The reduce mass is the two masses of the atoms multiplied together and divided by their addition:

Quantum mechanics

Using quantum mechanics, the formula that describes the spring is exactly the same as the Newtonian mechanics version except only certain energies or energy levels are allowed. Think of the energy levels as steps on a ladder where a person can only go up or down one rung at a time. Just as that person can't stand on the space between rungs so the bond can not have an energy between energy levels. This new formula becomes:

,
where n is a quantum number or "energy level" that can take values of 0, 1, 2 ...
The statement that energy levels can only go up or down one level at a time is known as a selection rule which states that the only allowed transitions between energy levels are:

where \Delta n is the energy transition.

Applications of vibrational motions

When light of a certain frequency hits a molecule that has a vibration whose motion corresponds to the same frequency then the light gets absorbed into the molecule and the energy from the light causes the bonds to move in that specific vibrational motion. By checking for light that gets absorbed, scientists can tell if a certain kind of molecular bond is there and match it against a list of molecules that have that bond.

However, some molecules like helium and argon have only one atom and don't have any bonds. This means that they won't absorb any light in the same way a molecule with more than one atom can.

The specific fields of chemistry that use molecular vibrations in their studies include infrared spectroscopy (IR) and Raman spectroscopy (Raman) with IR being more widely used and having three subfields of its own. These subfields are known as Near IR, Mid IR and Far IR spectroscopy. The following is a general list of these fields and real world applications

Near IR: quantitative determination of species such as proteins, fats, low low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons and water. Further use is obtained in the agricultural products, food, petroleum and chemical industries

Mid IR:The most popular of the IR fields, is used in determining structure of organic and biochemical compounds.

Far IR: this field is less popular though it has found uses in inorganic studies

Raman: Is used for the qualitative and quantitative study of inorganic, organic and biological systems often as a complimentary technique to IR.

References

Physical chemistry

Molecular vibrations


The Cheshire cat is a character from Alice in Wonderland. It is known for its special grin. It is also special because it can make itself invisible, but sometimes the grin can still be seen. The concept of the cheshire cat has been very popular, and it has also been used in other domains of science, to describe certain phenomena. It also was known well by his drawing by Tim Burton

Fictional cats

Cheshire cat


Alban Berg (born Vienna, 9 February 1885; died Vienna 24 December 1935) was an Austrian composer. Alban Berg and Anton Webern were both pupils of Arnold Schoenberg. All three composers in their own way changed the style of musical composition in the early 20th century. They grew up at a time when most composers were still writing Romantic music, but Schoenberg and his pupils started to write atonal music (music which is not in any key) and then twelve-tone music in which all 12 notes in an octave are of the same importance. Although Berg wrote a lot of twelve-tone music he still managed to make it sound quite Romantic at times, more so than Schoenberg or Webern. His most important works are his two operas Wozzeck and Lulu and his Violin Concerto.

Life

Early years
Berg was brought up in the centre of Vienna. His family had plenty of money, but when Berg's father died in 1900 life became much harder for them. He did not do very well at school. He also had a love affair with a kitchenmaid, with whom he had a daughter.

He was interested in music, played the piano and had started to compose, but he had not done well enough in his school exams to get into the music conservatory. He was not interested in business like his father had been. He got an unpaid job. Then, in 1904, he started to study with Schoenberg. This was the first time he had been given proper music lessons. Two years later, his mother inherited some money, and Berg was then able to give up his unpaid job and concentrate on music.

Schoenberg taught him harmony, counterpoint and music theory, all the things one needs to know to compose well. Berg had lessons from him from 1904 until 1911. His first proper pieces include a Piano Sonata and a String quartet. Here he had already found the modern style which suited him. He wrote harmonies which seemed to float. He often wrote pieces with several movements which are all linked by a common theme. He also liked themes which are heard upside down, or palindromes, where the tune sounds the same forwards as backwards. He met a girl called Helene and they married in 1910.

Adulthood

Berg liked to listen to all kinds of music. In this way he was different to Schoenberg or Webern. Berg was interested in French composers such as Debussy, as well as jazz. He liked the modern theatre and the political works of the playwright Bertolt Brecht and the composer Kurt Weill.

Berg was very grateful to Schoenberg for all that he had learned from him, but he still continued to be quite afraid of him. Schoenberg wrote many letters to him asking him to do things for him (e.g. making piano arrangements of his orchestral pieces) and often criticising him. Only in the 1920s, when Berg had become well-known, did Schoenberg start writing to him more like an equal friend.

Berg wrote Five Orchestral Pieces. It is one of the first important works he wrote without Schoenberg's help. The music has some modern chords which must have sounded very shocking to the Viennese audience. On 31 March 1913 Schoenberg conducted a concert in Vienna which included some songs by Berg. People in the audience started to fight and the police had to be called. When Schoenberg wrote to Berg criticising his music, Berg lost all his self-confidence. Slowly he started to get more confidence again. He wrote Three Orchestral Pieces op 6. The music sounds quite like Mahler. There are a lot of musical ideas which grow into one another and make a rich sound.

During World War I Berg spent some time in an army training camp. This experience must have been in his mind when he wrote his opera Wozzeck. This opera became very famous. There were a lot of new ideas in it. It is not about a great hero, but about a simple man who is mistreated by people. The music, too, is very different from opera music up to that time. Although it was so modern it was a great success and made Berg world-famous. It gave him more money which, together with a little teaching, allowed him to spend most of his time composing.

Years of fame

Wozzeck has a little twelve tone music in it, but in his next works the twelve tone system is much more important. He wrote Lyrical Suite for String Quartet and a Kammerkonzert (Chamber Concerto) in which the form is made up by mathematical rules. He liked to hide things in his music e.g. favourite numbers or letters from people's names. These are like secret codes and, in later years, musicians have spent a lot of time trying to work out what Berg was trying to do.

In 1928 Berg started work on his second and last opera: Lulu. He had thought about the opera for many years. He had seen a play called Die Büchse des Pandora (Pandora's Box) in 1905. Wedekind had played the part of Jack the Ripper. People thought the play was obscene, but it still became very popular, especially after 1918 when there was no more censorship in Germany. He worked on the opera until 1934. He then stopped work on it to write his Violin Concerto. When he heard about the sad death from poliomyelitis of a young girl he knew called Manon Gropius, he dedicated the concerto to her memory. He wrote: "To the memory of an angel". Manon's mother, Alma, had been the wife of Gustav Mahler.

Death

Soon after he had finished the Violin Concerto, Berg was stung by an insect. This formed an abscess and he was rushed to hospital but he died. The concerto had not yet been performed. He had not finished Lulu. The third act was only sketched in short score (showing the main notes, but not exactly what each instrument plays). When the opera was first performed, Act III was just acted out in mime while some other music by Berg was played. Berg's widow Helene did not want anyone else to finish the opera, so Act III was never performed until after Helene died in 1976. It was finished by Friedrich Cerha and performed in 1977, although a court action had tried to stop it from being performed.

Most important works
 Kammerkonzert (1925) for piano, violin and 13 wind instruments
 Wozzeck
 Lulu
 Lyric Suite
 Seven Early Songs
 Violin Concerto

1885 births
1935 deaths
20th-century composers
Austrian composers
Writers from Vienna

Alban Berg