Reindeer in South Georgia are an example of an animal which has been introduced outside its native range.  The reindeer, a species of deer adapted to arctic and subarctic climates, was introduced to the subantarctic island of South Georgia by Norwegian whalers in the early 20th century.

Initially, the reindeer were intended to provide recreational hunting as well as fresh meat for the numerous people working in the whaling industry on the island at the time.  As the whaling industry came to an end in the 1960s, and in the absence of a permanently resident human population, the reindeer population, in two geographically separated wild herds, increased to the point where their presence was causing environmental damage.  This led to a decision to eradicate them, a program carried out between 2013 and 2015.

History

Introduction
In the early 20th century South Georgia became the world's largest whaling centre, with shore bases established at Grytviken (operating 1904–64), Leith Harbour (1909–65), Ocean Harbour (1909–20), Husvik (1910–60), Stromness (1912–61) and Prince Olav Harbour (1917–34). The opportunity to hunt and harvest fresh meat benefited those engaged in the whaling industry.

The first introduction was made by the brothers C.A. and L.E. Larsen in November 1911.  Three males and seven females from Hemsedal in southern Norway were released at Ocean Harbour (then the site of an active whaling station) on the Barff Peninsula, on the northern coast of South Georgia.  These formed the basis of what came to be called the Barff herd which, by 1958, had increased to 3000 animals.  A 1976 population estimate of 1900 head indicated subsequent decrease, though with some range expansion to Royal Bay.

A second introduction was made in 1912 by the Christian Salvesen Company.  Two male and three female reindeer were left at Leith Harbour in Stromness Bay, also on the north coast of the island.  By 1918 they had increased to 20 animals, but the entire herd was killed by an avalanche that year.

The third introduction took place in 1925; three males and four females were released at Husvik Harbour in Stromness Bay.  These became the nucleus of what became known as the Busen herd, the numbers of which increased slowly to 40 in 1953 before climbing rapidly to about 800 head by the early 1990s.  The source of the animals was the same as that of the Barff herd.

Expansion
The Barff herd was relatively isolated from human access and increased rapidly in size before it outgrew its resources and declined in numbers.  The Busen herd, however, was much more accessible to the human population of South Georgia; its size was kept relatively low by regular hunting until whale processing declined and came to an end.

Since the whaling industry ended in the 1960s, and those employed by it departed, South Georgia has been largely depopulated except for a small military presence, visiting scientists and occasional tourists from cruise ships or private yachts.  Little hunting or any other human control of the reindeer has occurred.  By 2010 the two herds, separated by glaciers terminating in the ocean and isolated from other ice and snow free areas, comprised some 2600 animals occupying 318 km2, one third of the total vegetated area, and thus potential grazing habitat, of the island.

An accurate count during the eradication of 2013-15 showed that earlier estimates of numbers were very low - nearly 7,000 were killed.

Translocation
In 1971 the Royal Navy ship HMS Endurance collected eight deer from Corral Bay on the Barff peninsula with the intention of taking them to Navarino Island in Tierra del Fuego, Chile. All survived except one that died on Christmas Day in Port Stanley.  The remainder were delivered to Chile on New Year's Eve.

In order to preserve the genetic resources of the South Georgia herds, and in order to help diversify agriculture in the Falkland Islands, 59 South Georgian reindeer calves (26 males and 33 females) were translocated from the Busen herd to the Falklands in 2001 by the Falkland Island Government in order to establish a commercial herd there.  Their first offspring were produced in 2003.

Falkland Island resident Jerome Poncet collected some young deer during two expeditions in 2002 and 2003, using his yacht Golden Fleece, which had a shelter built on the stern deck. He successfully introduced 31 young deer to Beaver Island in the Falkland Islands, where they still flourish.

Eradication

Because of the environmental damage caused by the reindeer, and the danger that glacial retreat would allow them to extend their range to other areas of the island, their permanent eradication was proposed, with the announcement of intention made on 19 February 2011.

In January and February 2013, the Busen herd, in the Stromness Bay Area between Fortuna Bay and Jason Point, 2,090 reindeer were eradicated by a combination of herding, followed by slaughter and meat recovery, and shooting where herding was impractical. In this way, 7,500 kg of meat products was recovered. In addition, 1,555 reindeer of the Barff herd were shot.

In January 2014 a further 3,140 animals were shot in the Barff peninsula area between Barff Point and Royal Bay. No meat could be recovered to a saleable standard, though some was butchered for local consumption.

Over the following few years small groups of up to 15 animals were found and shot by government marksmen, with the last two being found on Jason point in late 2017, during the rodent eradication project's final, monitoring, phase.

Biology
Rutting peaked between the 20th and 30 March, with calves being born in November.  Males became sexually mature at 4–8 months old and females could first conceive at 16–17 months.  The mean generation length was 4.2 years, with males having an average 7-8 year, and females an 11-12 year, lifespan, with annual mortality of 30-40%.  The main limiting factor in the population was the availability of winter forage, as well as starvation; a significant cause of mortality was falls from cliffs while trying to access ungrazed areas.

Environmental impact
The population density of the reindeer in South Georgia was generally much higher than in their native range.  In the Svalbard archipelago in the Arctic, reindeer density is about 5/km2, while 7/km2 is considered a safe stocking rate for winter range.  In South Georgia, although densities vary, values ranging from 40/km2 to 85/km2 were recorded.

The areas occupied by reindeer on South Georgia were the most vegetated and biologically diverse on the island.  The impact of the animals was severe, resulting in overgrazing of the native Tussac Grass and Greater Burnet, soil erosion, loss of plant community biodiversity and the spread of invasive weeds, such as the introduced grass Poa annua which is better able to sustain grazing than the native flora.

Other southern introductions
Few introductions of reindeer to places in the southern hemisphere have been carried out.  An attempted introduction in the late 1940s to southern Argentina failed when the animals were subsequently killed.  An attempt to translocate animals from South Georgia to Isla Navarino, Chile, failed when seven of the eight animals being transported died on the sea voyage.  Apart from South Georgia, the only other successful introduction was in 1954 to the subantarctic Kerguelen Islands, a French territory in the southern Indian Ocean, with ten reindeer from Swedish Lapland, which had increased by the 1970s to a population of about 2,000.

References

Notes

Sources

Fauna of South Georgia
Reindeer
Invasive mammal species
History of South Georgia

Reindeer in South Georgia


Stephen John Costello (born September 29, 1981 in Philadelphia) is an American operatic tenor and a recipient of the 2009 Richard Tucker Award.  Costello has performed in noted opera houses around the world including Covent Garden, Metropolitan Opera, and Lyric Opera of Chicago.  In 2010, Costello originated the role of Greenhorn (Ishmael) in the world premiere of Jake Heggie's Moby-Dick at the Dallas Opera.

Education and vocal training

A native of Philadelphia, Costello is a 2007 graduate of that city's Academy of Vocal Arts, where he performed the Duke in Rigoletto, Rodolfo in La bohème, Nemorino in L'elisir d'amore, Ferrando in Così fan tutte, Fritz in L'amico Fritz, Roberto in Le villi, and Des Grieux in Massenet's Manon.  He studied with voice teacher Bill Schuman.

Professional operatic career

While still in school, Costello made his professional debut as Rodolfo in La bohème with the Fort Worth Opera in March 2006, and his European debut with Opéra National de Bordeaux as Nemorino in L'elisir d'amore in September 2006.  Also in 2006, he made  debuts with the Dallas Opera as Leicester in Maria Stuarda and with Opera Orchestra of New York as the Fisherman in Guillaume Tell (his Carnegie Hall debut).

Costello made his debut at the Metropolitan Opera on the opening night of its 2007-2008 season, as Arturo in Lucia di Lammermoor He portrayed Cassio in Verdi's Otello at the Salzburg Festival in 2008.   He made his debut at Covent Garden in 2009 as Carlo in Linda di Chamounix.  That same season, he debuted at Lyric Opera of Chicago as Camille in The Merry Widow and at the Tchaikovsky Concert Hall in Moscow as Roméo in Roméo et Juliette, the role of his subsequent San Diego Opera debut.  Other notable roles include Christian in Cyrano with Opera Company of Philadelphia, the title role of Roberto Devereux at The Dallas Opera and Rinuccio in Gianni Schicchi at the Spoleto Festival conducted by James Conlon.

On April 30, 2010, Costello originated the role of Greenhorn (Ishmael) in the world premiere of Jake Heggie's Moby-Dick at The Dallas Opera (with Ben Heppner as Captain Ahab). In 2010, he also appeared as Rodolfo in La bohème at Deutsche Oper Berlin and Cincinnati Opera, and at the Salzburg Festival in Roméo et Juliette.  In November 2010, he portrayed Percy in Anna Bolena, and thereby portrayed the 3 lead tenor characters in each of Donizetti's Tudor Operas within a 4-season span at the Dallas Opera. His debut at the Santa Fe Opera was as Roméo in Roméo et Juliette in July 2016.

Honors

In addition to the 2009 Richard Tucker Award, Costello received a 2007 Career Grant from the Richard Tucker Music Foundation, as well as a 2006 Sara Tucker Study Grant.  He won First Prize in the 2006 George London Foundation For Singers Competition, First Prize and Audience Prize in the Giargiari Bel Canto Competition at the Academy of Vocal Arts, and First Prize in the Licia Albanese Puccini Foundation Competition.

References

Sources
Cappelletto, Sandro, "Quel padrino di Puccini", La Stampa, July 4, 2009
De Butts, Lucy, "Review: Linda di Chamounix, Royal Opera House", The Independent, September 15, 2009
Midgette, Anne, "Moby-Dick premieres in Dallas", Washington Post, May 3, 2010
Philadelphia Inquirer, "Philadelphia native tenor wins Richard Tucker Award", April 17, 2009, p. B8
Oshinsky, Matthew "Rising tenor returns to Ocean Grove, where his career began", The Star-Ledger, July 17, 2009
Taylor, Kate, "Tenors in Training: The Next Generation", New York Sun, August 18, 2008

External links
 Stephen Costello - official website
 McHugh, Dominic, Interview: Tenor Stephen Costello on his Royal Opera debut in Linda di Chamounix, MusicalCriticism.com, September 4, 2009

Living people
Singers from Philadelphia
1982 births
American operatic tenors
Academy of Vocal Arts alumni
Richard Tucker Award winners
21st-century American opera singers
Classical musicians from Pennsylvania
21st-century American male singers
21st-century American singers

Stephen Costello


The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is the short title of an important book by the 18th century English historian Edward Gibbon. The book traces the Roman Empire—and Western civilization as a whole—from the late first century AD to the fall of the Eastern or Byzantine Empire.

Published in six volumes, from volume I in 1776 to volumes IV, V, VI in 1788–89. The work covers the history of the Roman Empire, Europe, and the Catholic Church from 98 to 1590 AD, and discusses the decline of the Roman Empire in the East and its fall in the West. Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources, its methodology became a model for later historians. This led to Gibbon being called the first "modern historian of ancient Rome".

Thesis
Gibbon gave an explanation for why the Roman Empire fell.

According to Gibbon, the Roman Empire succumbed to barbarian invasions because its citizens gradually lost their "civic virtue". They had become weak, using  barbarian mercenaries to defend their Empire, who then became so numerous that they were able to take over the Empire.

Romans, he believed, became unwilling to live the tougher, "manly" military lifestyle. In addition, Gibbon argued that Christianity created a belief that a better life existed after death. This fostered an indifference to the present among Roman citizens, and sapped their desire to sacrifice for the Empire. He also believed its pacifism tended to hamper the traditional Roman martial spirit. Finally, like other Enlightenment thinkers, Gibbon held in contempt the Middle Ages as a priest-ridden, superstitious, "dark age".  It was not until his own age of reason and rational thought, so it was believed, that human history could resume its progress.

Gibbon sees the Praetorian Guard as the main catalyst of the empire's initial decay and eventual collapse, a seed planted by Augustus at the start of the empire. He cites repeated examples of the Praetorian Guard abusing their power with calamitous results, including numerous instances of imperial assassination and incessant demands for increased pay.

Views on Christianity
In Volume I, especially Chapters XV and XVI, Gibbon challenged Church history. He estimated far smaller numbers of Christian martyrs than had been previously thought. The Church's version of its early history had rarely been questioned before. For Gibbon, however, the Church writings were secondary sources. He shunned them in favour of primary sources from the period he was writing about. This is one reason why Gibbon is referred to as the "first modern historian".

Gibbon's main theory was that Christianity as a prime factor in the Empire's decline and fall.
"The introduction, or at least the abuse, of Christianity, had some influence on the decline and fall of the Roman empire. The clergy successfully preached the doctrines of patience and pusillanimity; the active virtues of society were discouraged; and the last remains of military spirit were buried in the cloister".

And, more generally:
"The various modes of worship which prevailed in the Roman world were all considered by the people as equally true; by the philosophers as equally false; and by the magistrate as equally useful". (volume 1, chapter 1)

Later historians have mostly not agreed with Gibbon. Today, historians tend to analyze economic and military factors in the decline of Rome.

Editions
Gibbon continued to revise and change his work even after publication. The complexities of the problem are addressed in Womersley's introduction and appendices to his complete edition.

 In-print complete editions
 Hugh Trevor-Roper (ed) 6 volumes (New York: Everyman's Library, 1993–1994). ISBN 0-679-42308-7 (vols. 1–3); ISBN 0-679-43593-X (vols. 4–6)
 David Womersley (ed) 3 volumes. hardback-(London: Allen Lane, 1994); paperback-(New York: Penguin Books, 2005;1994). Includes the original index, and the Vindication (1779) which Gibbon wrote in response to attacks on his caustic portrayal of Christianity. The 2005 print includes minor revisions and a new chronology. ISBN 0-7139-9124-0 (3360 p.); ISBN 0-14-043393-7 (v.1, 1232 p.); ISBN 0-14-043394-5 (v.2, 1024 p.); ISBN 0-14-043395-3 (v.3, 1360 p.)
 In-print abridgements
 David Womersley (ed) 1 volume (New York: Penguin Books, 2000). Includes all footnotes and eleven of the original seventy-one chapters. ISBN 0-14-043764-9, 848 p.
 Hans-Friedrich Mueller (ed) one volume abridgment (New York: Random House, 2003). Includes excerpts from all seventy-one chapters. It eliminates footnotes, geographic surveys, details of battle formations, long narratives of military campaigns, ethnographies and genealogies, but keeps the narrative from start to finish. ISBN 0-375-75811-9, (trade paper, 1312 p.); ISBN 0-345-47884-3 (mass market paper, 1536 p.)

References

History books
Roman Empire
1770s books
1780s books


A biochemist is a person who studies biochemistry. This is the study of the chemicals in living things. It can include blood, proteins, and enzymes.

Famous biochemists include:
 Paul Karrer who won the 1937 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Henrik Dam and Edward Doisy who won the 1943 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering Vitamin K.
 Frederick Sanger who is won of only four people to win two Nobel Prizes, both in Chemistry.
 Roger D. Kornberg who won the 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discoveries about DNA.
 Isaac Asimov - science fiction writer

Science occupations

es:Bioquimico

Biochemist


Petting is a village near Traunstein, in Bavaria. It is next to the Waginger See, Lake Waging. The village was built on what was once an island, during the last Ice Age. The island was known as safe, and secure, and was inhabited even at that time. According to the records, the place name means place where there is water, at times. There used to be a church in the village, around 800 AD. Unfortunately, this church was destroyed by the Hungarians around the year 900. There had been a castle in what was then the churchyard; the owners of the castle can be traced back to the 6th century. It is believed that Petting had already existed during the time of the Romans, with the same name.

The part of the village called Ringham can be traced to 788 AD, when it's mentioned by a chronicle of the bishop of Salzburg. In 1970, about 1,700 people lived in Petting; in 2000 they were about 2,200.

References

Other websites

Villages in Bavaria

Petting, Germany


Gera is a city in the east of Germany, in the state of Thuringia.

It has about 100,000 inhabitants.

History
In the beginning, "Gera" was not the name of a village or city, but of a region or district. This district was mentioned in a document for the first time in the year 995. Four years later, in 999, the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III gave this district to his sister Adelheid, who was an abbess in Quedlinburg.

In the center of this area, the "provincia Gera", a town with the same name was established. Another document, which is from the year 1237, said for the first time that there was a town called Gera. In this town, the abbesses of Quedlinburg had some officials which were called the Vögte of Gera. These officials were the ancestors of the counts and princes of Reuß, which reigned in Gera for many years, until the year 1918.

In the early modern period, Gera was famous for making textiles. There were some fires in which a lot of the town was destroyed, for example in 1686 and in 1780. In 1806, Napoleon was in Gera before the Battle of Jena.

In the 19th century, Gera became an important city of industry. Before that, Gera was a quite small town, but in the year 1900, it had already about 45,000 inhabitants.

In 1920, Thuringia was founded as a state of the Weimar Republic. Gera was the biggest city of the state, because Erfurt was not yet a part of Thuringia. At the end of World War II, some parts of Gera were destroyed by bombs, for example the Osterstein Castle.

After World War II, Gera was in the Soviet Occupation Zone and then in the German Democratic Republic (GDR). From 1952 to 1990, it was the capital of the Gera District (Bezirk Gera) of the GDR.

Since the German Reunification in 1990, Gera belongs to the Free State of Thuringia in the Federal Republic of Germany.

Population
Since 1959, Gera has had more than 100,000 inhabitants. The highest number of inhabitants of Gera was 134,834 in the year 1988. Since the German Reunification, the number of inhabitants becomes smaller and smaller. Now there are fewer people who live in Gera than in Jena, so Gera is only the third-biggest city in Thuringia. On 31 December 2008, there were only 100,643 people living in Gera.

Sights
 The Market Square with the City Hall (Rathaus) from 1575, the Simson Fountain (Simsonbrunnen) from 1686 and the City Pharmacy (Stadtapotheke) from about 1600
 The Geraer Höhler (cellars under the houses in the city center, in which the owners kept their beer in the 18th century)
 The Theatre from 1902
 The Orangerie from 1748, which is now the art gallery of Gera
 St. Salvator's Church (Salvatorkirche) from 1717 (Baroque)
 St. John's Church (Johanniskirche) from 1884 (Gothic Revival architecture
 St. Mary's Church (Marienkirche) in the quarter of Untermhaus with the Otto Dix Birthhouse
 The Hofwiesenpark, a new park where the Bundesgartenschau 2007 was held

Twin towns
Gera has got twelve twin towns. Eleven of them are in Europe.

People
These famous people were born in Gera:
 Otto Dix (1891–1969), painter
 Georg Buschner (1925–2007), head coach of the East Germany national football team
 Max Frankel (born 1930), executive editor of the New York Times and Pulitzer Prize winner
 Marlies Göhr (born 1958), athlete
 Olaf Ludwig (born 1960), cyclist
 Wolfgang Tiefensee (born 1955), politician
 Heike Drechsler (born 1964), athlete

References

Other websites

Urban Districts of Thuringia

Gera


A ringfort, ring fort or ring fortress is a fortified settlement. Ring forts were made to protect villages, mostly in the Middle Ages. In Ireland where many such forts can be found, they are also known as ráth, caiseal, cathair and dún in the early Irish sources.

A ráth (anglicised rath), was made of earth, caiseal (northwestern Ireland, anglicised cashel) and cathair (southwestern Ireland) were built of stone. A dun is a more prestigious site, the seat of some kind of ruler, the term is applied to promontory forts as well.

Buildings and structures in the Middle Ages
Fortification

Ringfort


喺幾何上,平面上一族曲線嘅包絡係咁樣一條曲線:喺佢上面每一點處,都有呢族曲線中嘅一條同佢相切。Classically, 包絡上嘅一個點可以認為係兩條「鄰近」曲線嘅交點,即係鄰近曲線嘅交點嘅極限。呢個諗法可以推廣到空間中曲面嘅包絡,同埋更高嘅維數。

一族曲線嘅包絡
設族入面嘅每條曲線Ct由ft(x, y)=0確定,其中t係參數。記 F(t, x, y)=ft(x, y)並且假設F可微。

於是曲線族Ct嘅包絡 is defined as the set of points for which

for some value of t,
where  is the partial derivative of F with respect to t.

Note that if t and u, t≠u are two values of the parameter then the intersection of the curves Ct and Cu is given by

or equivalently

Letting u→t gives the definition above.

An important special case is when F(t, x, y) is a polynomial in t. This includes, by clearing denominators, the case where F(t, x, y) is a rational function in t. In this case, the definition amounts to t being a double root of F(t, x, y), so the equation of the envelope can be found by setting the discriminant of F to 0.

For example, let Ct be the line whose x and y intercepts are t and 1−t, this is shown in the animation above. The equation of Ct is

or, clearing fractions,

The equation of the envelope is then

Often when F is not a rational function of the parameter it may be reduced to this case by an appropriate substitution. For example if the family is given by Cθ with an equation of the form u(x, y)cosθ+v(x, y)sinθ=w(x, y), then putting t=eiθ, cosθ=(t+1/t)/2, sinθ=(t-1/t)/2i changes the equation of the curve to

or

The equation of the envelope is then given by setting the discriminant to 0:

or

其他定義
 包絡E1係鄰近曲線Ct交點嘅極限。
 包絡E2係一條同所有Ct相切嘅曲線。
 包絡E3係由Ct所填充嘅區域嘅邊界。

於是乎,, 同埋,其中係由呢篇文開頭嘅定義所確定嘅曲線組成嘅集合。

例

例1

These four definitions of the discriminant, E1,E2, and E3, can lead to different sets. Consider for instance the curve  parametrised by  where . The one-parameter family of curves will be given by the tangent lines to γ.

First we calculate the discriminant . The generating function is

Calculating the partial derivative . It follows that either  or . First assume that . Substituting into F:
and so, assuming that t ≠ 0, it follows that  if and only if . Next, assuming that  and substituting into F gives .  So, assuming , it follows that  if and only if . Thus the discriminant is the original curve and its tangent line at γ(0):

Next we calculate E1. One curve is given by  and a nearby curve is given by  where ε is some very small number. The intersection point comes from looking at the limit of  as ε tends to zero. Notice that  if and only if

If  then L has only a single factor of ε. Assuming that  then the intersection is given by

Since  it follows that . The y value is calculated by knowing that this point must lie on a tangent line to the original curve γ: that . Substituting and solving gives y = t3. When , L is divisible by ε2. Assuming that  then the intersection is given by

It follows that , and knowing that  gives . It follows that

Next we calculate E2. The curve itself is the curve that is tangent to all of its own tangent lines. It follows that

Finally we calculate E3.  Every point in the plane has at least one tangent line to γ passing through it, and so region filled by the tangent lines is the whole plane. The boundary E3 is therefore the empty set. Indeed, consider a point in the plane, say (x0,y0). This point lies on a tangent line if and only if there exists a t such that

This is a cubic in t and as such has at least one real solution. It follows that at least one tangent line to γ must pass through any given point in the plane. If  and  then each point (x,y) has exactly one tangent line to γ passing through it. The same is true if  . If  and  then each point (x,y) has exactly three distinct tangent lines to γ passing through it. The same is true if  and . If  and  then each point (x,y) has exactly two tangent lines to γ passing through it (this corresponds to the cubic having one ordinary root and one repeated root). The same is true if  and . If  and , i.e., , then this point has a single tangent line to γ passing through it (this corresponds to the cubic having one real root of multiplicity 3). It follows that

例2
In string art it is common to cross-connect two lines of equally spaced pins. What curve is formed?

For simplicity, set the pins on the x- and y-axes; a non-orthogonal layout is a rotation and scaling away. A general straight-line thread connects the two points (0, k−t) and (t, 0), where k is an arbitrary scaling constant, and the family of lines is generated by varying the parameter t. From simple geometry, the equation of this straight line is y = −(k − t)x/t + k − t. Rearranging and casting in the form F(x,y,t) = 0 gives:

{|cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0 width=100%
|-
|
| style="text-align:right"|(1)
|}

Now differentiate F(x,y,t) with respect to t and set the result equal to zero, to get

{|cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0 width=100%
|-
|
| style="text-align:right"|(2)
|}

These two equations jointly define the equation of the envelope. From (2) we have t = (−y + x + k)/2. Substituting this value of t into (1) and simplifying gives an equation for the envelope in terms of x and y only:

This is the familiar implicit conic section form, in this case a parabola. Parabolae remain parabolae under rotation and scaling; thus the string art forms a parabolic arc ("arc" since only a portion of the full parabola is produced). In this case an anticlockwise rotation through 45° gives the orthogonal parabolic equation y = x2/(k√2) + k/(2√2). Note that the final step of eliminating t may not always be possible to do analytically, depending on the form of F(x,y,t).

例3

Let I ⊂ R be an open interval and let γ : I → R2 be a smooth plane curve parametrised by arc length. Consider the one-parameter family of normal lines to γ(I). A line is normal to γ at γ(t) if it passes through γ(t) and is perpendicular to the tangent vector to γ at γ(t). Let T denote the unit tangent vector to γ and let N denote the unit normal vector. Using a dot to denote the dot product, the generating family for the one-parameter family of normal lines is given by  where

Clearly (x − γ)·T = 0 if and only if x − γ is perpendicular to T, or equivalently, if and only if x − γ is parallel to N, or equivalently, if and only if x = γ + λN for some λ ∈ R. It follows that

is exactly the normal line to γ at γ(t0). To find the discriminant of F we need to compute its partial derivative with respect to t:

where κ is the plane curve curvature of γ. It has been seen that F = 0 if and only if x - γ = λN for some λ ∈ R. Assuming that F = 0 gives

Assuming that κ ≠ 0 it follows that λ = 1/κ and so

This is exactly the evolute of the curve γ.

例4
The following example generalizes the preceding one, and shows that in some cases the envelope of a family of curves may be seen as the topologic boundary of a union of sets, whose boundaries are the curves of the envelope. For  and  consider the (open) right triangle in a Cartesian plane with vertices ,  and

Fix an exponent , and consider the union of all the triangles  subjected to the constraint , that is the open set

To write a Cartesian representation for , start with any ,  satisfying  and any . The Hölder inequality in  with respect to the conjugated exponents  and  gives:
,
with equality if and only if .
In terms of a union of sets the latter inequality reads: the point  belongs to the set , that is, it belongs to some  with , if and only if it satisfies

Moreover, the boundary in  of the set  is the envelope of the corresponding family of line segments

(that is, the hypotenuses of the triangles), and has Cartesian equation

Notice that, in particular, the value  gives the arc of parabola of the example 1, and the value  (meaning that all hypotenuses are unit length segments) gives the astroid.

Envelope of a family of surfaces
A one-parameter family of surfaces in three-dimensional Euclidean space is given by a set of equations

depending on a real parameter a. For example the tangent planes to a surface along a curve in the surface form such a family.

Two surfaces corresponding to different values a and a'  intersect in a common curve defined by

In the limit as a'  approaches a, this curve tends to a curve contained in the surface at a

This curve is called the characteristic of the family at a. As a varies the locus of these characteristic curves defines a surface called the envelope of the family of surfaces.

概括

The idea of an envelope of a family of smooth submanifolds follows naturally. In general, if we have a family of submanifolds with codimension c then we need to have at least a c-parameter family of such submanifolds. For example: a one-parameter family of curves in three-space (c = 2) does not, generically, have an envelope.

應用

常微分方程
Envelopes are connected to the study of ordinary differential equations (ODEs), and in particular singular solutions of ODEs. Consider, for example, the one-parameter family of tangent lines to the parabola y = x2. These are given by the generating family . The zero level set  gives the equation of the tangent line to the parabola at the point (t0,t02). The equation  can always be solved for y as a function of x and so, consider

Differentiating and eliminating t gives the ODE

Not surprisingly y = 2tx − t2 are all solutions to this ODE. However, the envelope of this one-parameter family of lines, which is the parabola y = x2, is also a solution to this ODE. Another famous example is Clairaut's equation.

偏微分方程
Envelopes can be used to construct more complicated solutions of first order partial differential equations (PDEs) from simpler ones.  Let F(x,u,Du) = 0 be a first order PDE, where x is a variable with values in an open set Ω ⊂ Rn, u is an unknown real-valued function, Du is the gradient of u, and F is a continuously differentiable function that is regular in Du.  Suppose that u(x;a) is an m-parameter family of solutions:  that is, for each fixed a ∈ A ⊂ Rm, u(x;a) is a solution of the differential equation.  A new solution of the differential equation can be constructed by first solving (if possible)

for a = φ(x) as a function of x.  The envelope of the family of functions {u(·,a)}a∈A is defined by

and also solves the differential equation (provided that it exists as a continuously differentiable function).

Geometrically, the graph of v(x) is everywhere tangent to the graph of some member of the family u(x;a). Since the differential equation is first order, it only puts a condition on the tangent plane to the graph, so that any function everywhere tangent to a solution must also be a solution. The same idea underlies the solution of a first order equation as an integral of the Monge cone.  The Monge cone is a cone field in the Rn+1 of the (x,u) variables cut out by the envelope of the tangent spaces to the first order PDE at each point. A solution of the PDE is then an envelope of the cone field.

In Riemannian geometry, if a smooth family of geodesics through a point P in a Riemannian manifold has an envelope, then P has a conjugate point where any geodesic of the family intersects the envelope. The same is true more generally in the calculus of variations: if a family of extremals to a functional through a given point P has an envelope, then a point where an extremal intersects the envelope is a conjugate point to P.

焦散曲線

In geometrical optics, a caustic is the envelope of a family of light rays. In this picture there is an arc of a circle. The light rays (shown in blue) are coming from a source at infinity, and so arrive parallel. When they hit the circular arc the light rays are scattered in different directions according to the law of reflection. When a light ray hits the arc at a point the light will be reflected as though it had been reflected by the arc's tangent line at that point. The reflected light rays give a one-parameter family of lines in the plane. The envelope of these lines is the reflective caustic. A reflective caustic will generically consist of smooth points and ordinary cusp points.

From the point of view of the calculus of variations, Fermat's principle (in its modern form) implies that light rays are the extremals for the length functional

among smooth curves γ on [a,b] with fixed endpoints γ(a) and γ(b).  The caustic determined by a given point P (in the image the point is at infinity) is the set of conjugate points to P.

惠更斯原理
Light may pass through anisotropic inhomogeneous media at different rates depending on the direction and starting position of a light ray.  The boundary of the set of points to which light can travel from a given point q after a time t is known as the wave front after time t, denoted here by Φq(t).  It consists of precisely the points that can be reached from q in time t by travelling at the speed of light.  Huygens's principle asserts that the wave front set  is the envelope of the family of wave fronts  for q ∈ Φq0(t). More generally, the point q0 could be replaced by any curve, surface or closed set in space.

睇埋
 Ruled surface

參考

出面網頁
"Enveloppe d'une Famille de Courbes Planes" at Encyclopédie des Formes Mathématiques Remarquables

微分幾何
解析幾何

包絡


The British Rail Class 46 is a class of diesel locomotive.  They were built from 1961–1963 at British Railways' Derby Works and were initially numbered D138-D193. With the arrival of TOPS computer system they were renumbered to Class 46.  Fifty-six locomotives were built.  The first was withdrawn in 1977 and all of them were withdrawn by 1984.

The Class 46 design was structurally the same as the earlier Class 45 build, and had the same Sulzer engine. It differed in the fitment of a Brush generator and traction motors, in place of the Crompton Parkinson equipment fitted to the Class 45.

46

British Rail Class 46


In Christianity, worship has been thought as by most Christians to be the central act of Christian identity throughout history.  Many Christian theologians have called humanity homo adorans, which means "worshipping man," and so the worship of God is at the very centre of what it means to be human.

History

Overview
Throughout most centuries of Church history, Christian worship has been primarily liturgical, symbolised by prayers and hymns, whose texts were closely related to, the Scripture. Set times for prayer during the day were made (based mostly on Jewish models), and a festal cycle throughout the Church year pointed out the celebration of feasts and holy days relating to the events in the life of Jesus, the lives of the saints, and features of the Church's view of God.

A large amount of importance was placed on the forms of worship, as they were seen in terms of the Latin phrase lex orandi, lex credendi ("the rule of prayer is the rule of belief") — that is, the details of someone's worship show, teach, and govern the principle beliefs of the community.  To change the patterns and content of worship were to change the faith itself.  So even though there was always a certain amount of variety in the early Church's liturgical worship, there was also a great deal of unity.  Each time a heresy appeared in the Church, it normally came by a shift in worship for the heretical group. Orthodoxy in faith also meant orthodoxy in worship, and vice versa.

Early Church Fathers
The very early development of Christian worship is lost in history, but Christian worship is, normally, fixed in the worship of Judaism.  The Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles present the very early Christians as visiting both the Temple and synagogues, as well as worshipping in private homes, frequently to "break bread," a term which signifies both the sharing of a meal and, when used in that context, celebrating the Eucharist.  Acts 2:42 shows the very early Church of Jerusalem as "continuing in the Apostles' teaching and fellowship [or communion], the breaking of bread, and the prayers."

Contemporary worship
In general, worship for the Eastern churches and for the Catholic and Anglican churches in the West is centered in regular celebration of the Lord's Supper, celebrated by a priest with more or less participation from the whole body of believers that are there. This tradition, variously known as the Mass, Divine Liturgy, Eucharist or Communion, continues in the Anglican church and among some Protestants. A worship service in these traditions is centered on the sharing of bread (or bread and wine) although it also includes prayer, the reading of Scripture, and usually singing and some form of teaching or sermon.

In many Protestant traditions, however, Communion is celebrated rarely or not at all, and corporate worship is centered on a formal sermon, which may resemble a lecture. Worship in such a context also generally is described by spoken prayer, Scripture, and music, mainly hymns.

In virtually all Christian traditions, this regular public worship is accompanied by other forms of worship, such as prayer and study, small group prayer (often linked with Bible study), and formal ceremonies on special occasions, including weddings, funerals and events of Church or state.

Types of Christian worship

Sacraments/Holy Mysteries common to all
Baptism
Eucharist (Communion/Lord's Supper)

Eastern Christianity
Paraklesis
Moleben
Akathist

Catholicism
Evensong
Mass

Prayer

 Lord's Prayer
 Hail Mary

Psalms

 Psalms

Profession of Faith

 Apostles' Creed
 Nicene Creed

Music

 Hymn

Chant

 Gregorian chant

Classical & Baroque

 Johann Sebastian Bach
 Mass (music)

Modern

 Gospel music
 Olivier Messiaen
 Christian music

Holidays and seasons

The most popular religious holidays in the Christian calendar are Christmas, which is after the Advent season, and Easter, which is after Lent and Holy Week. While Christmas is very popular, especially in Western countries, Easter is liturgically by far the most important celebration.

Christian theology

Christian worship


John Kirk Train Varnedoe (January 18, 1946 – August 14, 2003) was an American art historian, the chief curator of painting and sculpture at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) from 1988 to 2001, Professor of the History of Art at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, and Professor of Fine Arts at the New York University Institute of Fine Arts.

Biography
Varnedoe was born and raised in Savannah, Georgia, and attended Savannah Country Day School.  He studied at St. Andrew's School and Williams College, where he was a member of the Kappa Alpha Society. At Williams he began studying studio art, but soon switched to art history under the influence of Professor Lane Faison, and received his A.B. in 1967. He also played college football and, after graduating, returned to work as a coaching assistant and to lead art history discussion sections for a year.

In 1972 Varnedoe earned a Ph.D. at Stanford under Rodin scholar Albert Elsen, with whom he collaborated on an exhibition and catalog, The Drawings of Rodin (1971), about the profusion of drawings falsely attributed to Rodin. He married the artist Elyn Zimmerman, taught art history at Stanford for a year, then taught at Columbia University and at New York University Institute of Fine Arts. In 1987 he published a book about the French painter Gustave Caillebotte, which helped to initiate a revival of scholarly and public interest in that little-known Impressionist. A 1982 exhibition Varnedoe curated, "Northern Light: Realism and Symbolism in Scandinavian Painting, 1880-1910" introduced American audiences to yet more unfamiliar artists.

In 1984, the same year that he was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship, he co-curated with William Rubin, the principal curator and future director of the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), an important and controversial exhibition at MoMA, "Primitivism in Twentieth-Century Art."  That relationship with Rubin led to his appointment at MoMA four years later to the position of chief Ccurator of painting and sculpture, a position he held for thirteen years before leaving for Princeton. It was a precarious moment in which to take charge of the most highly regarded collection of modern art in the world; contemporary artists bitterly complained that MoMA had lost touch with the current art scene and those opposed to many of the new developments in the current art scene feared that MoMA would alter its historical allegiance to high Modernism from Matisse to Rothko. "Varnedoe inherits his mantle in difficult times," one commentator observed.

Varnedoe curated or co-curated a number of major exhibitions at MoMA during his tenure, some which were considered highly controversial. A list of the exhibitions he brought to MoMA also indicates the breadth of his interests: "Vienna: 1900" in 1986, "High And Low: Modern Art and Popular Culture" (co-curated with the writer Adam Gopnik) in 1990, retrospectives of the art of Cy Twombly (1995), Jasper Johns (1997), and Jackson Pollock (1999), and "Van Gogh's Postman: The Portraits of Joseph Roulin (2001).  He was highly regarded as a public speaker and lectured frequently; among his most notable lecture series were the Slade Lectures at Oxford and the Mellon Lectures at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.

Varnedoe was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993. In 2001, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.

Varnedoe left MoMA in 2001.  His departure came, according to his wife and to Adam Gopnik, after a period of difficult relations with the museum's new director, Glenn Lowry.  He then became a scholar-in-residence at Princeton's Institute for Advanced Studies until his death two years later.

Kirk Varnedoe died of cancer in 2003 at the age of fifty-seven. Adam Gopnik, one of his graduate school protégés in the mid-1980s, wrote a tribute in The New Yorker in 2004, which was subsequently republished in Reader's Digest.

Publications
Primitivism in Twentieth-Century Art (1984)
Vienna 1900 (1986)
Gustave Caillebotte (1987)
Northern Light: Nordic Painting at the Turn of the Century (1988)
High and Low: Modern Art and Popular Culture (1990)
 A Fine Disregard (1990)
Cy Twombly (1994)
Jasper Johns (1996)
Jackson Pollock (1998)
Pictures of Nothing (2006)

High and Low, written with co-curator Adam Gopnik, was the catalogue that accompanied the MoMA exhibition of that same name.  That exhibition was an examination of the overlap between "high culture" (i.e., painting, art works created for display in galleries and museums) and popular culture (i.e., caricature, graffiti, advertising, comic books) that gave rise to the Cubism of Picasso, Kurt Schwitters' collages, Miró's surrealism, the Pop Art of Ed Ruscha and Claes Oldenburg, Jasper Johns' paint brushes and coffee cans, Robert Rauschenberg's Rebus, and late Philip Guston.  The exhibition was faulted by some critics for the small number of contemporary works it displayed in proportion to the large number of works by better-known artists whose relation to pop culture had been previously studied.  The value of the catalogue, then, was in its thoughtful essays which also discussed, and illustrated, the work of more recent artists whose roots were in pop culture: e.g., Jean-Michel Basquiat, Ashley Bickerton, Roger Brown, Peter Halley, Jenny Holzer, Jeff Koons, Sherrie Levine, Elizabeth Murray, David Salle, Peter Saul, Kenny Scharf, Cindy Sherman, among others.

Varnedoe's last book, Pictures of Nothing, was published posthumously and was based on notes from his A.W. Mellon lectures in the Fine Arts, which he delivered at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. a few months before his death.  His topic was abstract art after Jackson Pollock.  His title was taken from a William Hazlitt essay about J. M. W. Turner.  In making an impassioned case for post-1950s abstraction, Varnedoe was, in part, offering a response to a much earlier Mellon lecturer, E.H. Gombrich, who in Art and Illusion had extolled the history of representation since the Renaissance and characterized abstract art as a romantic but essentially primitivizing and limiting enterprise.  Varnedoe's view, not surprisingly, was quite the opposite.  Moreover, he knew that abstraction from Kandinsky to Rothko had achieved an Old master-like acceptance among a broad audience but that large numbers of educated art lovers still harbored doubts about art from Ellsworth Kelly, Robert Morris, and Cy Twombly to Donald Judd, Robert Ryman, and Sol LeWitt, and his lectures made an argument for the depth, variety, and meaningfulness of art after Abstract Expressionism.  "What is abstract art good for?  Why should we spend our time looking at 'pictures of nothing'?" Varnedoe accepted those as the fundamental questions that had to be addressed. He also acknowledged the gulf between those who revered the School of New York and those who embraced the un-painterly successors to Mark Rothko and Morris Louis, those artists who seemed to represent a repudiation of Abstract Expressionism.  His lectures asked: "What have we gained in return for giving up the painterly beauty and sophistication of the art that Minimalism killed off?"  Ultimately, he argued that Minimalism represented a profound gain, that it could be taken "both as a legitimate reflection of the way we think individually and as a valuable aspect of a liberal society." He disputed the view that Minimalism was reductive, narrow, or mute: "Minimalism revives and renovates what it seems to kill...it is a radically new kind of art, not a sophisticated variation on traditional modernism."

References

Obituaries

Michael Malone, "Kirk Varnedoe: A Hooligan and a Gentleman"

External links
 Kirk Varnedoe papers, 1890-2006 (bulk 1970-2003). The Getty Research Institute , Los Angeles, Accession No. 2003.M.46. Papers of critic and curator Kirk Varnedoe include student papers and lecture notes, research files for exhibitions and publications, typescripts and audio tapes of lectures, and a small amount of material related to his position at the Museum of Modern Art in New York.
 Oral History Program. The Museum of Modern Art Archives, New York. Includes a digitized transcript of an interview with Kirk Varnedoe in 2001.

1946 births
2003 deaths
American art historians
 American art curators
People associated with the Museum of Modern Art (New York City)
Institute for Advanced Study faculty
Williams College alumni
MacArthur Fellows
Columbia University faculty
New York University faculty
20th-century American historians
American male non-fiction writers
Slade Professors of Fine Art (University of Oxford)
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
20th-century American male writers
Members of the American Philosophical Society
St. Andrew's School (Delaware) alumni

Kirk Varnedoe


The Naitional Crest o Brunei is featurt prominently on the Banner o Brunei.  It wis adoptit in 1932.  Thare are five main components te the naitional crest accordin tae the Govrenment's Offeecial wabsteid.  Thay are the banner, the ryal umberellae, the weeng, the haunds, an the crescent.  On the crescent is writin in Arabic script that contain the naitional motto o: "Aaways in service wi God's guidance".  Belaw this is a banner wi the name o the naition in Arabic script as "Brunei Darussalam" or Brunei, land o peace.

The wings seembolise pertection o juistice an peace.  Belaw these is the crescent that is the seembol o Islam, the naitional releegion o Brunei.  The hands seembolise the govrenment's duty tae pertect the fowk.

Freemit airtins

Naitional seembols o Brunei
Brunei

Crest o Brunei


Hardcore punk is an unnergrund muisic genre that originatit in the late 1970s, follaein the mainstream success o punk rock. Hardcore is generally faster, thicker, an hivier than earlier punk rock.

Hardcore haes spawned the straight edge muivement an its associated submovements, hardline an youth crew. Hardcore wis hivily involved wi the rise o the independent record labels in the 1980s, an wi the do it yourself (DIY) ethos in unnergrund muisic scenes. It haes influenced several muisic genres whilk hae experienced mainstream success, lik: metalcore, grunge, thrash metal, emo an post-hardcore.

Hardcore sproutit unnergrund scenes athort the Unitit States in the early 1980s — particularly in Washington, D.C., California, New York/New Jersey, an Boston — as weel as in the Unitit Kinrick.

While traditional hardcore haes never experienced mainstream commercial success, some o its early pioneers haes garnered appreciation ower time. Black Flag's album Damaged wis includit in Rolling Stone magazine's 2003 leet o the 500 greatest albums o aw time, an the Dead Kennedys haes seen ane o their albums reak gowd status ower a period o 25 year. Mair recently, baunds lik Hatebreed, Gallows an Rise Against haes achieved commercial success on major record labels.

Awthough the miusic startit in Inglis-speakin wastren kintras, lairge hardcore scenes proliferate thir days in Brazil, Japan, Eastren Europe, The Middle East, an Malaysia.

Punk genres
Sociological genres o muisic

Hardcore punk


Tuupovaara was a municipality in the North Karelia region of Finland. It was merged with Joensuu on January 1 2005. Before 1913 the place was known as Kovero.

In 2004 there were 2,217 people living in Tuupovaara.

Villages
Eimisjärvi, Hartiovaara, Heinäaho, Herajärvi, Hoilola, Kinnasniemi, Kokinvaara, Konnunniemi, Kortevaara, Kovero, Luutalahti, Mannervaara, Pirttijärvi, Revonsonkaja, Saarivaara, Sonkajanranta, Tuupovaara, Öllölä

Former municipalities of Finland

Tuupovaara


John Faed, R.S.A. (31 August 1819 – 22 October 1902) was a Scottish painter.

Life
John was the eldest son of the six children of James Faed, tenant of Barlay Mill, Galloway, and Mary Faed, née McGeoch. Two other sons, Thomas, and James, also became artists, as did his sister Susan.

John began painting miniatures of local people when only nine years old.

Until the age of 11, John attended Girthon Parish School. The Castle Douglas Weekly Visitor for 19 August 1831 recorded that at the examination of Girthon school "the company present were shown a beautiful and correct book of maps, executed by John Faed, as a specimen of his many and varied drawings, which often ere now have elicited the admiration of all who have seen them".

He moved to Edinburgh in 1840 and in 1841 had his first exhibited work at the Royal Scottish Academy. In 1848 he is listed as a miniature painter living at 6 SW Circus Place in Stockbridge, Edinburgh.

Faed primarily painted religious, literary, and historical scenes. He exhibited at the Royal Scottish Academy and the Royal Academy almost continually. When he was President of the Kirkcudbrightshire Fine Art Association in 1899, his portrait of Sir Isaac Newton (painted when Faed was 36) was shown in the Dalbeattie Loan and Industrial Exhibition which took place in July and August that year. Faed also had a following in the United States. His Portrait of George Washington Taking the Salute at Trenton was the basis for a portrait bust engraving by William Holl the Younger used to illustrate an article on Washington in the Magazine of American History in 1880. His highly successful painting Shakespeare and his Friends at the Mermaid Tavern was sold to an American in 1851.

His paintings, popular in Victorian Britain, can today be found in private and public collections, including the National Gallery of Scotland.

In 1859 he helped Joseph Noel Paton raise the 1st Edinburgh (City) Artillery Volunteer Corps from among artists in the city and served as its lieutenant. He was an active member of the community where he finally made his home, Gatehouse of Fleet. He helped to conceive and develop a number of community projects such as the Gatehouse of Fleet Clock Tower and Gatehouse of Fleet Town Hall, which was opened in August 1885 by his brother Thomas Faed, by then a celebrated Academician.

He exhibited at the RSA until 1895.

Faed became seriously ill in the summer of 1902. He went to stay with his sister Susan Faed near Gatehouse of Fleet and died there on 22 October at the age of 83. He was buried beside his wife, Jane McDonald (d.1897), near Gatehouse in the Girthon parish churchyard. Susan was buried with him in 1909.

The known titles of his works amount to 278 items. Of these, 241 were hung in the Royal Scottish Academy, twenty of which were exhibited in the Royal Academy, and nineteen were exhibited in the Royal Academy only. The list is thought to be incomplete.

Gallery

Notes

References
 Steel, David I. A., John Faed RSA: The Gatehouse Years,  traces his life and the life of his family.

External links

 John Faed at artcyclopedia.com
 John Faed at artistsfootsteps.co.uk

1819 births
1902 deaths
19th-century Scottish painters
Scottish male painters
Royal Scottish Academicians
19th-century Scottish male artists

John Faed


Sir Edward Bairstow (born Huddersfield, 22 August 1874; died York 1 May 1946) was an English composer and organist.  He was an important influence in 20th century Anglican church music.

Bairstow learned the organ at Balliol College, Oxford, and while articled under Frederick Bridge of Westminster Abbey he was taught by Walter Alcock. He studied organ and theory at the University of Durham.  His first jobs were at the parish churches of Wigan and then Leeds. In 1913 he became organist of York Minster (the cathedral in York).  He kept this job until his death.  He was knighted in 1932.

Compositions
Most of Bairstow's compositions are for church services. He wrote 29 anthems. It includes the famous Blessed city, heavenly Salem  It has a very dramatic organ accompaniment.  It is about the heavenly city where the souls of people who have died will go.  Two other popular anthems  I sat down under his shadow and Let all mortal flesh keep silence, both of which are for unaccompanied choir. He also composed service settings, psalm chants, hymn tunes, and a cantata, The Prodigal Son, for choir and chamber orchestra.

References
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980;

1874 births
1946 deaths
English composers
English organists
Musicians from Yorkshire
People from Huddersfield
Alumni of the University of Durham

Edward Bairstow


Janez Evangelist Krek (27 November 1865 – 8 October 1917) was a Slovene Christian Socialist politician, priest, journalist, and author.

Life and career
He was born and baptized Johann Krek in a peasant family in the village of Sveti Gregor (now in the Municipality of Ribnica in Lower Carniola), in what was then the Austrian Empire. His father died when he was a child. After finishing the state gymnasium in Ljubljana in 1884, he entered the Roman Catholic seminary. He was consecrated priest in 1888, and sent to the theological faculty in Vienna by Bishop Jakob Missia. There, he became acquainted with the new Austrian Christian Social movement of the charismatic politician Karl Lueger. Krek graduated in 1892, and was appointed vicar in the Ljubljana Cathedral. From 1895, he taught philosophy at the Catholic seminary.

He soon became involved in politics within the conservative Slovene People's Party. In 1897, he was elected representative to the Austrian Parliament. In 1900, he decided not to run for a second turn. In 1901, he was elected representative in the Provincial Diet of Carniola.

Already in his early Viennese years, Krek had published critical articles against liberalism. Influenced by the ultra-conservative thought of the Roman Catholic bishop of Krk Anton Mahnič, and by the encyclic Rerum novarum, he attacked the liberal economic system as being anti-social and anti-democratic. Between 1898 and 1907, Krek organized several peasant and worker's co-operatives, and transformed the Slovene People's Party from a conservative clerical party into a mass political movement propagating social emancipation on the basis of Catholic political ideology. As the result such mobilization, the People's Party won by landslide the first elections by general suffrage in Austria in 1907, gaining 20 of the 24 Slovene seats in the Austrian Parliament. Krek was among those elected.

In the parliament, Krek proved to be a powerful orator. He proposed several measures for social welfare, but was frequently blocked by the conservative leadership of his own party, led by the powerful Ivan Šušteršič. In 1909, Krek founded the Yugoslav Labor Association (Jugoslovanska strokovna zveza), which would become and remain the biggest trade union in the Slovene Lands until its dissolution in 1941.

Already in the late 1890s, Krek convinced the Slovene People's Party to seek a close alliance with Ante Starčević's Croatian Party of Rights. Krek's aim was to establish a unified state of South Slavs within Austria-Hungary on the basis of the tradition of . Krek was a convinced supporter of the idea of the unity of South Slav peoples, and many later commentators, including the historian Lojze Ude and Communist politician Boris Kidrič, reproached him with "Slavic romanticism" and "Yugoslav nationalism".

In 1917, Krek became the proposer and leader of the so-called May Declaration (), which proposed the creation of a state of South Slavs under Habsburg rule. The declaration developed in a mass movement in the Slovene Lands, and Krek traveled extensively to Dalmatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to popularize the movement there, too. He died of exhaustion when returning from one of his travels. His ideals were realized only after his death and the collapse of Austria-Hungary, first with the creation of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and then the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

He was buried in Žale Cemetery in Ljubljana.

References

Political profile
Personal profile

External links

1865 births
1917 deaths
People from the Municipality of Ribnica
19th-century Slovenian Roman Catholic priests
Slovene People's Party (historical) politicians
Members of the Austrian House of Deputies (1897–1900)
Members of the Austrian House of Deputies (1907–1911)
Members of the Austrian House of Deputies (1911–1918)
Members of the Diet of the Duchy of Carniola
Slovenian Christian socialists
Slovenian theologians
Carniolan theologians
Carniolan journalists
20th-century Slovenian philosophers
Catholic socialists
Christian socialist theologians
19th-century Carniolan writers
University of Vienna alumni
Burials at Žale
20th-century Slovenian Roman Catholic priests
19th-century Slovenian philosophers

Janez Evangelist Krek


Abcott is a hamlet in south Shropshire, England.

It lies on the west side of the River Clun and its flood plain, just opposite from the village of Clungunford, which is the parish the hamlet is part of.  The B4367 road crosses the Clun (at Clungunford Bridge) and passes the hamlet, on its way between Clungunford and Bucknell.  A lane connects the B4367 at Abcott and Twitchen.

The famous Rocke Cottage tea rooms is situated on the B road at Abcott (formerly the Bird on the Rock tea rooms, and historically the Rocke Arms public house).  Abcott Manor is a Grade II* ("two star") Listed building.

Abcott was a medieval township, despite its proximity to the parish's main village and parish church (St Cuthbert's) just on the other side of the Clun.

The 740 bus service calls at Abcott, outside the tea rooms, with three buses a day to Ludlow and Knighton. Nearby is Hopton Heath, which has a railway station on the Heart of Wales Line, which passes by the hamlet.

See also
 Listed buildings in Clungunford

References

External links

Hamlets in Shropshire

Abcott


The 2004 presidential campaign of Dick Gephardt, former House Minority Leader and member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Missouri, began on January 5, 2003 with the filing of papers with the Federal Election Commission that established an exploratory committee. He formally announced his entry into the race for the Democratic nomination on February 19, 2003 in St. Louis, Missouri. The day after the Iowa caucuses, Gephardt dropped out of the race on January 20, 2004.

Background
Richard Gephardt did not run for re-election as House Minority Leader after the Democrats lost seats in the 2002 midterm Congressional elections. He announced his second run for president on January 5, 2003. His successor as Minority Leader, Nancy Pelosi, endorsed his bid for president. Gephardt was seen by many as too old fashioned and unelectable, with his fundraising efforts behind that of former Vermont Governor Howard Dean and Senators John Kerry, John Edwards, and tied with Joe Lieberman. Furthermore, Gephardt's support of the Iraq War resolution hurt him among liberal activists. Gephardt promoted a form of universal health care, and was supported by a dozen labor unions, but did not have enough support to receive the endorsement of the AFL–CIO.

Decline
Although Gephardt was ahead in the Iowa caucus throughout early 2003, Vermont Governor Howard Dean pulled ahead in the polls by August, his campaign fueled by anti-war activists. The Gephardt campaign was embarrassed by an early August St Louis Post-Dispatch article that revealed that 11 of 33 "Gephardt team leaders" listed on his Iowa campaign's web site were actually supporting other candidates or neutral. The race between Gephardt and Dean became negative. In the final days of the campaign, both Dean and Gephardt faded and finished third and fourth, respectively.

Endorsements

Aftermath
Although he dropped out of the presidential race, Gephardt was mentioned as a possible running mate for John Kerry. On March 7, 2004, New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson, seen as a strong possibility for the position himself, endorsed Gephardt for the Vice Presidency. "I think he's the best candidate," Richardson said of Gephardt in an interview with the Associated Press. "There's a good regional balance with Kerry and Gephardt."

Nevertheless, Kerry announced that he had chosen John Edwards as his running mate on July 6, 2004. (On that same day, the New York Post published an incorrect headline stating that Gephardt had become Kerry's running mate.) Shortly after this false story broke, the headline was compared to the 1948 "Dewey defeats Truman" front page of the Chicago Tribune, which incorrectly reported the presidential election results of that year.  In 2007, it was revealed in the book No Excuses: Concessions of a Serial Campaigner by Bob Shrum, who served as Kerry's campaign adviser in the 2004 United States presidential election, that Kerry wanted to choose Gephardt as his nominee for vice president, but was convinced by Shrum and others to choose Edwards.

References

Gephardt

Dick Gephardt 2004 presidential campaign


Martin (Maarten) van den Hove (Latinized as Martinus Hortensius (Ortensius)) (1605 – 7 August 1639) was a Dutch astronomer and mathematician.  His adopted Latin name is a translation of the Dutch hof ("garden"), in Latin horta.

Early life

Born in Delft, he studied at Leiden University under Snellius and Isaac Beeckman from 1625 to 1627.  He received further instruction from Snellius from 1628 to 1630 at Leiden and at Ghent.

Van den Hove and Philippe van Lansberge

In 1628, he began studying under Philippe van Lansberge, who was introduced to him by Beeckman.  Van den Hove became an enthusiastic supporter of Landsberge, who was by now quite aged, and helped Landsberge complete his project to "restore astronomy" (i.e. create new systematic observations to replace old, insufficient data).  Landsberge thanked Van den Hove publicly, considered himself lucky that "by divine providence, in my old age, pressed by sickness, such a strong helper came to my aid, as formerly the learned Rheticus to the great Copernicus."

In 1632, at Copenhagen (Hafnia in Latin) and later reprinted at London in 1696, Petrus Bartholin published Apologia pro observationibus, et hypothesibus...Tycho Brahe...Contra...Martini Hortensii Delfensis criminationes et calumnies, quas in praefationem commentationum praeceptoris sui Philippi Lansbergii Middelburgensis, de motu terrae diurno et annuo etc. cosarcinnavit ("Defense of the Astronomical Observations and Theses of Tycho Brahe against the accusations and false claims of Martinus Hortensius of Delft, which appear in his preface of the commentary by his teacher Philip van Landsberge, who wrote on the daily and annual motion of the earth").  Van den Hove had attacked many of Tycho Brahe's claims in his preface to his Latin translation of a work by Landsbergen.  This was the Commentationes in motum terrae diurnum, & annuum (Middelburg, 1630).  The first Latin edition of Landsberge's illustrated treatise, the Commentationes taught the probability of earth's motion according to the Copernican theory.  Van den Hove regarded Landsberge, not Tycho Brahe, as the one who was restoring astronomy.  "Only Landsberge held all ancient observations in esteem," Van den Hove wrote, "whereas Tycho, Longomontanus, and Kepler tended to neglect them."

Career as lecturer

At the encouragement of Gerard Vossius and Caspar Barlaeus, Van den Hove began lecturing on the mathematical sciences at the Amsterdam Atheneum (Athenaeum Illustre) in 1634.  The Athenaeum Illustre, which had its seat in the fourteenth century Agnietenkapel, is commonly regarded as the predecessor of the University of Amsterdam.  Upon assuming his new duties, Van den Hove delivered an inaugural speech, later published as De dignitate et utilitate Matheseos ("On the dignity and utility of the mathematical sciences").

Van den Hove also lectured on optics at Amsterdam (1635), and on navigation (1637).  In 1638, Van den Hove was made a member of the commission negotiating with Galileo on the determination of longitude by the method of Jupiter's moons.

Work and legacy

Van den Hove developed a method for measuring the diameters of planets based on the measured visual angle that his telescope revealed. His was probably the first independent set of measurements of the apparent sizes of the planets and fixed stars since the work of Hipparchus in his On Sizes and Distances some seventeen centuries earlier. Van den Hove corresponded with René Descartes, Marin Mersenne, Pierre Gassendi, Christiaan Huygens, and Galileo Galilei. He was made full professor "in the Copernican theory" in 1635 and then nominated professor at Leiden University in 1639, but he died there shortly afterwards.

The crater Hortensius on the Moon is named after him.

Works
 The Galileo Project: Martinus Hortensius
 Rienk Vermij, The Calvinist Copernicans
 Abstract Volker Remmert
 Volker R. Remmert, What Do You Need a Mathematician For? Martinus Hortensius's "Speech on the Dignity and Utility of the Mathematical Sciences" (Amsterdam 1634), in: The Mathematical Intelligencer 26:4 (2004), 40-47
 Annette Imhausen/Volker R. Remmert: The Oration on the Dignity and the Usefulness of the Mathematical Sciences of Martinus Hortensius (Amsterdam, 1634): Text, Translation and Commentary, in: History of Universities 21 (2006), 71-150

References

1605 births
1639 deaths
17th-century Dutch astronomers
17th-century Dutch mathematicians
Dutch members of the Dutch Reformed Church
Leiden University alumni
Academic staff of Leiden University
People from Delft

Martin van den Hove


天顶镜(英语:Star diagonals)是在望远镜中使用的有角度的镜子或棱镜,允许从垂直于物镜光轴的方向观察。 当望远镜指向或靠近天顶(即直接在头顶方向)时,它允许人观察得更方便和舒适。 此外,天顶镜生成的图像上下不颠倒,但左右颠倒。

天顶镜的种类
天顶镜有1.25英寸和2英寸两种直径。2英寸的天顶镜能用于更大的长焦距低倍率2英寸桶式目镜,以获得更大的视野。天顶镜的价格范围从低至30美元到数百美元不等。

反射式天顶镜

These diagonals (often called Star diagonals) use a mirror set at a 45° angle inside the diagonal to turn the  telescope's image at a 90° angle to the rear cell. Mirror diagonals produce an image in the eyepiece that is correctly oriented vertically, but is reversed left-to-right horizontally. This causes image reversal, the view in the eyepiece is flipped left-right. The major advantage to mirror diagonals is that they cost less to produce to a high degree of optical accuracy compared to a prism and that they do not introduce any color errors to the image. The major disadvantage of mirror diagonals is that unless the reflective coating is properly applied they can scatter light rendering lower image contrast compared to a 90-degree prism. Also they deteriorate with age as the reflective surface oxidizes. The newer Dielectric mirrors have largely solved the deterioration problem, and if properly made the Dielectric mirrors scatter less light compared to conventional mirrors. With short focal length instruments a mirror diagonal is preferred over a prism.

棱镜式天顶镜

A prism diagonal uses either a simple 90-degree angle prism, pentaprism or an Amici roof prism rather than a mirror to bend the light path.

On longer focal ratio telescopes a well-made 90-degree prism diagonal is the optimum choice to deliver the highest image contrast short of using the telescope without a diagonal entirely.  However prisms seem to be falling out of favor probably due to marketing forces which have been favoring short focal length instruments which tend to function better with a mirror diagonal. In some special cases however, the color dispersion effects of a prism diagonal can be used to advantage to improve the performance of undercorrected refractor objectives (regardless of focal length) by shifting the spherical and color correction of the objective closer to the design optimum. The natural color dispersion properties (overcorrection) of the prism works to lessen or nullify  the undercorrection of the objective lens.

On the other hand, a well-made conventional 90-degree prism star diagonal can transmit as much or more light as a mirror, and do so with higher image contrast since there is no possibility of light scattering from a reflective metallic surface as in a mirror diagonal. Also a prism will never degrade over time as a mirror will since there is no reflective metal coating to degrade from oxidation. However prism diagonals may introduce chromatic aberration when used with short focal-length scopes although this is not a problem with the popular Schmidt-Cassegrain and Maksutov Cassegrain telescopes, which have long focal lengths.

Pentaprism
A pentaprism provides the same inverted image orientation as viewing without a diagonal would. A simple 90-degree angle prism provides the same "flipped" or mirror reversed image as a mirror diagonal. Pentaprism diagonals are extremely difficult to find.

Amici prism

An Amici prism is a type of roof prism which splits the image in two parts and thus allows an upright image without left-right mirroring. This means that what is seen in the eyepiece is the same as what is seen when looking at the sky, or a star chart or lunar map.

The disadvantage of typical "correct image" Amici roof prism diagonals is that because the light path bounces around through a piece of glass, the total amount of light transmitted is less and the multiple reflections required can introduce optical aberrations. At higher magnifications (> 100x) brighter objects have a bright line through the object viewed. Therefore, most Amici roof prisms are more appropriate for low power viewing or for use in spotting scopes for terrestrial rather than astronomical use. But with low-power usage with a rich field, the field can easily be compared with star charts as it is no mirror image.

They are available in two types: with 90º angle, just like an ordinary star diagonal and with a 45º angle. Such prisms are often used in spotting scopes for terrestrial viewing, mostly with 45º angle. Such telescopes rarely use magnifications over 60x.

参考文献

光學元件

天顶镜


Christopher Naldo Ricketts (also "Topher" Ricketts; March 21, 1955–October 5, 2010) was a well-known Filipino martial arts innovator, teacher, actor and author. He was also one of the chief founders and head instructors of Bakbakan International and the eldest brother of the action star Ronnie Ricketts.

History and experience
Christopher Ricketts was a well-known martial artist in the Philippines, Australia, and the United States. "Topher", as he was called by his peers, was an experienced tournament (both full-contact and point system) and street fighter. He was known for his strict emphasis on using basics and frequent contact sparring. Topher had trained champions, many of whom have become part of Philippine teams in Asian and international competitions. Apart from being Chief Instructor for Bakbakan, Topher had assisted his brother Ronnie Ricketts, a Philippine action star, in choreographing action scenes in many movies. He also acted in a few of them as supporting roles. Numerous Bakbakan members have played cameo roles in Ronnie's movies, lending credibility to the action sequences as well as drawing crowds to the theater's use of the authentic fight scenes.

Personal life
Christopher "Topher" Ricketts was born and raised in Manila, Philippines. He married Ma. Elizabeth Mercado and had three sons Bruce Edward, Brandon Max and Christopher Joseph. "Topher" and his family relocated and moved to San Diego, California around 2005.

Notoriety
Along with Rey Galang, Christopher "Topher" Ricketts was a founder and a major contributor behind the Bakbakan organization. He gained exposure in 1986 from a project called "Masters of Arnis", which also featured Rey Galang, Antonio Diego and Edgar Sulite. They toured Sydney and Melbourne, Australia giving seminars on the Filipino Martial Arts, particularly those taught as the Bakbakan curriculum. This international exposure for Bakbakan triggered several articles in mainstream martial arts magazines. Since then, he had collaborated with Antonio Diego on a book about the art of one of his primary teachers, Antonio "Tatang" Ilustrisimo.

Death
He succumbed to cancer in San Diego, California on October 5, 2010, at the age of 55.

Filmography

Film

Publications
The Secrets of Kalis Ilustrisimo by Christopher Ricketts and Antonio Diego

Notes

References
Filipino Fighting Arts: Theory and Practice by Mark V. Wiley, .
Filipino Martial Culture by Mark V. Wiley, .

External links
"Kali Ilustrisimo USA Website"
"Bakbakan International Website"

1955 births
2010 deaths
Bicolano people
Deaths from cancer in California
Filipino eskrimadors
Filipino male film actors
Filipino people of American descent
Male actors from Manila
Sportspeople from Manila

Christopher Ricketts


Hertford Castle Weir is a weir located in Hertford near to Hertford Castle and next to Hertford Theatre.

Its function is to connect the upper River Lea to the canalised section that runs through Hertfordshire, Essex and London, to the River Thames. The section of the river above Castle Weir is not deep enough to support barges or narrow boats, but is navigable by row boats, canoes and kayaks.

The weir marks the start of the River Lee Navigation. It is overlooked by a function room at the Hertford Theatre (previously called Castle Hall).

Access
Just off Mill Bridge (B158 road) in the centre of Hertford town, beside the Castle Hall.

A small bridge runs from Mill Bridge over the secondary drop to a car park. A step upstream from this bridge allows access to the top of the weir.

Angling
Angling in the weir pool is possible, but tricky due to pontoon access at the weir pool. Anglers often stand on the stepped weir drops, but this is discouraged due to the damage that is sustained to the weir itself.

Weir setup
Castle Weir has 3 sections:

 A vertical 70 cm drop onto a second 30 cm concrete block, situated in a stilling pool. The stilling pool overflows into a tunnel which leads under the road. The 70 cm drop has two electric gates which move vertically in high flows.
 5 padlocked sluice gates. Rarely used, as these are manually controlled by British Waterways.
 Stepped drop for high flows.

Whitewater use
Kayakers and canoeists regularly use the weir for practicing whitewater skills and playboating.

 Main drop - Can be run straight or sideways.
 Main drop sluice - Creates a jet which can tail squirts can be performed on. At high flows it makes the weir harder to paddle in, and can cause pinning in the stopper, river right.
 Stilling pool drop - Side-surfing is possible at most flows. Cartwheeling is possible when the pool level raises. Normally about 70 cm deep.
 Side sluice - A wave and stopper forms here, depending on weir pool levels and amount of water coming through the sluice. This water has been constricted by kayakers using concrete blocks to form different features. It can vary from 30–50 cm high wave which can be carved in front-surf, to a shallow retentive pour-over, which is side-surf able.
 Stepped drop - Can be run when river is in spate, very likely to do damage to the weir or your boat when the water flowing over it is less than 3 cm in depth. A small wave and stopper forms at the bottom which can be played on, however, it is very shallow.

See also
 Weirs on the River Lea
 River Lea
 River Lee Navigation

Weirs on the River Lea
Weirs in Hertfordshire
Buildings and structures in Hertford

Hertford Castle Weir


HMS Durban was a  light cruiser of the Royal Navy. She was launched from the yards of Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company on 29 May 1919 and commissioned on 1 November 1921.

Early career
Durban was initially assigned to the China Station as part of the 5th Light Cruiser Squadron in January 1922, and in 1928 she was transferred to the America and West Indies Station based at the Royal Naval Dockyard at Bermuda, with Prince George, Duke of Kent, the fourth son of King George V and Queen Mary, serving aboard as a watch-keeping Lieutenant. In 1930 Durban returned to Britain, and in 1931 she joined the South Atlantic Division. By December 1933, she was relieved by the heavy cruiser  and again returned to home waters. In March 1934, Durban left for Gibraltar to join the Mediterranean Fleet. She spent two years on this station, returning to Britain in September 1936 to be placed into reserve.

Wartime service
On the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, Durban was recommissioned and assigned to the 9th Cruiser Squadron under the Commander-in-Chief, South Atlantic. In March 1940 she was operating in the Indian Ocean and was then transferred to the Eastern Fleet based at Singapore. Here she became a unit of the British Malaysian Force with her two sister ships,  and . The unit kept watch on German merchant ships in the Dutch East Indies harbours, with Durbans patrol area being off Padang. On 10 November 1940 the Norwegian tanker Ole Jacob reported being attacked by the German raider  between Ceylon, and the north end of Sumatra. A force was hastily assembled, comprising Durban, the cruiser  and the Australian cruiser  and armed merchant cruiser  to hunt for Atlantis. The task force was however unable to locate the raider.

In 1941 Durban, with her sister , was escorting convoys between Singapore and the Sunda Strait. In February, she escorted the ocean liner , then carrying Second Australian Imperial Force troops for Malaya, into Singapore, arriving on 18 February. In November, she escorted the troopship Zealandia into Singapore, after relieving the Australian cruiser  which had escorted Zealandia from Fremantle, Western Australia.

In February 1942 Durban moved with the rest of the Eastern Fleet to Java, after the Japanese started their attack on Singapore. Durban was damaged by bombing before she could leave, but on 12 February she and the anti-submarine vessel  escorted the merchant ships  and  out of Singapore, repelling successive Japanese air attacks for four hours. The next day the convoy, carrying thousands of evacuees from Singapore, reached Tandjong Priok, the port for Batavia. Durban, with Admiral Thomas C. Hart as a passenger, departed 16 February escorting  carrying refugees to Colombo. There Durban underwent temporary repairs. She then travelled to New York, arriving in April, where full repairs were completed. Durban then returned to Britain, where further modifications were made in Portsmouth between June and August. She then escorted convoys from Britain to South Africa.

On 8 December 1942 the ship grounded in the entrance to Mombasa harbour. After refloating she was drydocked in Bombay. In February 1943 Durban was again in New York for repairs, and by June had returned to South Africa, docking at Simonstown, before rejoining the Eastern Fleet. In November, she once again returned to Britain to be paid off into the reserve. She was then one of the ships selected to be scuttled to form a breakwater for the Mulberry harbours that would be used to support the Battle of Normandy.

Subsequently, on 9 June 1944 Durban was scuttled to form part of the Gooseberry 5 breakwater for protecting the artificial harbour off Ouistreham in the Seine Bay. The wreck currently lies in  of water.

Notes

References

External links

 Ships of the Danae class

Danae-class cruisers of the Royal Navy
Ships built on the River Clyde
Ships built in Plymouth, Devon
1919 ships
World War II naval ships of the United Kingdom
World War II shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean
World War II cruisers of the United Kingdom
Scuttled vessels of the United Kingdom
Maritime incidents in June 1944
Ships sunk as breakwaters

HMS Durban


Iphigenia in Tauris (, Iphigeneia en Taurois) is a drama by the playwright Euripides, written between 414 BC and 412 BC. It has much in common with another of Euripides's plays, Helen, as well as the lost play Andromeda, and is often described as a romance, a melodrama, a tragi-comedy or an escape play.

Although the play is generally known in English as Iphigenia in Tauris, this is, strictly speaking, the Latin title of the play (corresponding to the Greek Ἰφιγένεια ἐν Ταύροις), the meaning of which is Iphigenia among the Taurians. There is no such place as "Tauris" in Euripides' play, although Goethe, in his play Iphigenie auf Tauris ironically utilising this translation error, posits such a place. The name refers to the Crimean Peninsula (ancient Taurikḗ).

Background

Years before the time period covered by the play, the young princess Iphigenia narrowly avoided death by sacrifice at the hands of her father, Agamemnon. (See plot of Iphigenia at Aulis.) At the last moment the goddess Artemis, to whom the sacrifice was to be made, intervened and replaced Iphigenia on the altar with a deer, saving the girl and sweeping her off to the land of the Taurians. She has since been made a priestess at the temple of Artemis in Taurica, a position in which she has the gruesome task of ritually sacrificing foreigners who land on King Thoas's shores.

Iphigenia hates her forced religious servitude and is desperate to contact her family in Greece. She wants to inform them that, thanks to the miraculous swap performed by Artemis, she is still alive and wants to return to her homeland, leaving the role of high priestess to someone else. Furthermore, she has had a prophetic dream about her younger brother Orestes and believes that he is dead.

Meanwhile, Orestes has killed his mother Clytemnestra to avenge his father Agamemnon with assistance from his friend Pylades. He becomes haunted by the Erinyes for committing the crime and goes through periodic fits of madness. He is told by Apollo to go to Athens to be brought to trial (as portrayed in Eumenides by Aeschylus). Although the trial ends in his favour, the Erinyes continue to haunt him. Apollo sends him to steal a sacred statue of Artemis to bring back to Athens so that he may be set free.

Plot
The scene represents the front of the temple of Artemis in the land of the Taurians (modern Crimea in Ukraine). The altar is in the center.

The play begins with Iphigenia reflecting on her brother's death. She recounts her "sacrifice" at the hands of Agamemnon, and how she was saved by Artemis and made priestess in this temple. She has had a dream in which the structure of her family's house crashed down in ruins, leaving only a single column which she then washed clean as if preparing it for ritual sacrifice. She interprets this dream to mean that Orestes is dead.

Orestes and Pylades enter, having just arrived in this land. Orestes was sent by Apollo to retrieve the image of Artemis from the temple, and Pylades has accompanied him. Orestes explains that he has avenged Agamemnon's death by killing Clytaemnestra and Aegisthus. The two decide to hide and make a plan to retrieve the idol without being captured. They know that the Taurians sacrifice Hellene blood in their temple of Artemis. Orestes and Pylades exit. Iphigenia enters and discusses her sad life with the chorus, composed of captive Greek maidens, attendants of Iphigenia. She believes that her father's bloodline has ended with the death of Orestes.

A herdsman enters and explains to Iphigenia that he has captured two Hellenes and that Iphigenia should make ready the lustral water and the rites of consecration. The herdsman heard one called Pylades by the other, but did not hear the name of the other. Iphigenia tells the herdsmen to bring the strangers to the temple, and says that she will prepare to sacrifice them. The herdsman leaves to fetch the strangers. Iphigenia explains that she was tricked into going to Aulis, through the treachery of Odysseus. She was told that she was being married to Achilles, but upon arriving in Aulis, she discovered that she was going to be sacrificed by Agamemnon. Now, she presides over the sacrifices of any Hellene trespassers in the land of the Taurians, to avenge the crimes against her.

Orestes and Pylades enter in bonds. Iphigenia demands that the prisoners' bonds be loosened, because they are hallowed. The attendants to Iphigenia leave to prepare for the sacrifice. Iphigenia asks Orestes his origins, but Orestes refuses to tell Iphigenia his name. Iphigenia finds out which of the two is Pylades and that they are from Argos. Iphigenia asks Orestes many questions, especially of Greeks who fought in Troy. She asks if Helen has returned home to the house of Menelaus, and of the fates of Calchas, Odysseus, Achilles, and Agamemnon. Orestes informs Iphigenia that Agamemnon is dead, but that his son lives. Upon hearing this, Iphigenia decides that she wants one of the strangers to return a letter to Argos, and that she will only sacrifice one of them. Orestes demands that he be sacrificed, and that Pylades be sent home with the letter, because Orestes brought Pylades on this trip, and it would not be right for Pylades to die while Orestes lives.

Pylades promises to deliver the letter unless his boat is shipwrecked and the letter is lost. Iphigenia then recites the letter to Pylades so that, if it is lost, he can still relay the message. She recites:

She that was sacrificed in Aulis send this message, Iphigenia, still alive, though dead to those at Argos. Fetch me back to Argos, my brother, before I die. Rescue me from this barbarian land, free me from this slaughterous priesthood, in which it is my office to kill strangers. Else I shall become a curse upon your house, Orestes. Goddess Artemis saved me and substituted a deer, which my father sacrificed believing he was thrusting the sharp blade into me. Then she brought me to stay in this land.

During this recitation, Orestes asks Pylades what he should do, having realized that he was standing in front of his sister.

Orestes reveals his identity to Iphigenia, who demands proof. First, Orestes recounts how Iphigenia embroidered the scene of the quarrel between Atreus and Thyestes on a fine web. Orestes also spoke of Pelops' ancient spear, which he brandished in his hands when he killed Oenomaus and won Hippodamia, the maid of Pisa, which was hidden away in Iphigenia's maiden chamber. This is evidence enough for Iphigenia, who embraces Orestes. Orestes explains that he has come to this land by the bidding of Phoebus's oracle, and that if he is successful, he might finally be free of the haunting Erinyes.

Orestes, Pylades, and Iphigenia plan an escape whereby Iphigenia will claim that the strangers need to be cleansed in order to be sacrificed and will take them to the bay where their ship is anchored. Additionally, Iphigenia will bring the statue that Orestes was sent to retrieve. Orestes and Pylades exit into the temple. Thoas, king of the Taurians, enters and asks whether or not the first rites have been performed over the strangers. Iphigenia has just retrieved the statue from the temple and explains that when the strangers were brought in front of the statue, the statue turned and closed its eyes. Iphigenia interprets it thus to Thoas: The strangers arrived with the blood of kin on their hands and they must be cleansed. Also, the statue must be cleansed. Iphigenia explains that she would like to clean the strangers and the statue in the sea, to make for a purer sacrifice. Thoas agrees that this must be done, and suspects nothing. Iphigenia tells Thoas that he must remain at the temple and cleanse the hall with torches, and that she may take a long time. All three exit the stage.

A messenger enters, shouting that the strangers have escaped. Thoas enters from the temple, asking what all the noise is about. The messenger explains Iphigenia's lies and that the strangers fought some of the natives, then escaped on their Hellene ship with the priestess and the statue. Thoas calls upon the citizens of his land to run along the shore and catch the ship. Athena enters and explains to Thoas that he shouldn't be angry. She addresses Iphigenia, telling her to be priestess at the sacred terraces of Brauron, and she tells Orestes that she is saving him again. Thoas heeds Athena's words, because whoever hears the words of the gods and heeds them not is out of his mind.

Date

The exact date of Iphigenia in Tauris is unknown.  Metrical analysis by Zielinski indicated a date between 414 and 413 BCE, but later analysis by Martin Cropp and Gordon Fick using more sophisticated statistical techniques indicated a wider range of 416 to 412 BCE.  The plot of Iphigenia in Tauris is similar to that of Euripides' Helen and Andromeda, both of which are known to have been first performed in 412.  This has often been taken as a reason to reject 412 as the date for Iphigenia in Tauris, since that would mean three similar plays would have been performed in the same trilogy.  However, Matthew Wright believes the plot and other stylistic similarities between the three plays indicates that they most likely were produced as part of the same trilogy in 412.  Among Wright's reasons are the fact that although the plots are similar they are not identical, and that this type of escape plot may have been particularly relevant in 412 at the first Dionysia after Athens' failed Sicilian Expedition.  Also, other than this play and the two plays known to date to 412, we do not know of any such escape plays by Euripides; if he produced two that year, why not three, which might make a particularly strong impression if the escape theme was one Euripides wished to emphasize that year.  Finally, Aristophanes overtly parodied Helen and Andromeda in his comedy Thesmophoriazusae, produced in 411, and Wright sees a more subtle parody of Iphigenia in Tauris in the final escape plan attempted in Thesmophoriazusae as well.

Translations
 Robert Potter, 1781 – verse: full text
 Edward P. Coleridge, 1891 – prose
 Gilbert Murray, 1910 – verse: full text
 Arthur S. Way, 1912 – verse
 Augustus T. Murray, 1931 – prose
 Robert Potter, 1938 – prose: full text
 Witter Bynner, 1956 – verse
 Moses Hadas and John McLean, 1960
 Richmond Lattimore, 1973
 Philip Vellacott, 1974 – prose and verse
 David Kovacs, 1999 – prose
 J. Davie, 2002
 James Morwood, 2002
 George Theodoridis, 2009 – prose: full text
 Anne Carson, 2014
 Brian Vinero, 2014: verse

Later works inspired by the play

Painting
Wall painting at House of the Citharist, Pompeii (pre-79 AD.)

Sculpture
Roman relief carving around stone column discovered in Fittleworth, West Sussex (1st century AD.)

Plays
 Charition mime (2nd century) is possibly a parody of Iphigenia in Tauris. Like Iphigenia, Charition is kept captive at a temple in a distant land (India). Her brother and a clown arrive in India, and rescue her by tricking the local king.
Guimond de la Touche, Iphigénie en Tauride (1757)
Goethe, Iphigenie auf Tauris (1787)
Jeff Ho (Ho Ka Kei) (Canadian Playwright), "Iphigenia and the Furies (On Taurian Land)." (Produced 2019, Published 2022)

Operas
André Campra and Henri Desmarets, Iphigénie en Tauride (1704)
George Frideric Handel, Oreste (1734)
José de Nebra, Para obsequio a la deydad, nunca es culto la crueldad. Iphigenia en Tracia (1747)
Tommaso Traetta, Ifigenia in Tauride (1763)
Gluck, Iphigénie en Tauride (1779), the most famous operatic version of the story
Niccolò Piccinni, Iphigénie en Tauride (1781)

References

External links

Plays by Euripides
Trojan War literature
Plays set in ancient Greece
Plays set in Russia
Plays adapted into operas
Works set in Crimea
Iphigenia
Plays based on classical mythology

Iphigenia in Tauris


Limited government is a form of government with roles and powers given, and limited by law, usually in a written constitution. A limited government has only the powers that the people give it.

Related to this idea is "small government" – a system that put most of its power in smaller groups, such as private businesses and its own citizens. On the other hand, "big government" involves a great amount of intervention by the state.

In Great Britain, the idea of limited government is part of the political tradition. It was started by the Magna Carta, which limited the power of King John. The execution of Charles I and the Glorious Revolution of 1688 reinforced this. Even monarchs had to accept limits to their power, and parliamentary democracy became more important.

In the United States, the idea of limited government is written into the United States Constitution.

Forms of government

Limited government


An animator is an artist who makes drawings for movies. The animator makes many drawings which are called "frames". These are played very quickly, one after another, to create animation. It makes it look as if the pictures are moving.

Animators can work in many areas including movies, television, video games, and the internet. There are many ways of making animations. Animators usually work with other people to form a team. These may be other animators, but can also include layout artists (who design the backgrounds, lighting, and camera angles), storyboard artists (who draw panels of the action from the script), background artists (who paint the "scenery"), voice actors who speak the words, and musicians who make the music.

Related pages
 Animation
 Computer animation
 Computer graphics
 Sweat box

Other websites
 Animation Toolworks Glossary: Who Does What In Animation
 How An Animated Cartoon Is Made

Entertainment occupations

Animator