Siegfried Jerusalem (born 17 April 1940) is a German operatic tenor. Closely identified with the heldentenor roles of Richard Wagner, he has performed Siegfried, Siegmund, Lohengrin, Parsifal, and Tristan to wide acclaim. Since the 1990s, he has focused on lieder, particularly those by Strauss, Mahler and Schumann.

Beginnings
Jerusalem was born at Oberhausen, and studied piano, violin and bassoon at the Folkwangschule in Essen. He began his career as bassoonist, being engaged in Hof in 1961 and for the next ten years in Reutlingen: from 1971 until 1977, he was attached to the Radio Symphony Orchestra of the South-German Radio in Stuttgart. In 1971, he also began taking voice lessons with Hertha Kalcher of Stuttgart. In 1975, when due to perform in the orchestra of a television production of Der Zigeunerbaron, he stood in for the tenor Franco Bonisolli at the last minute.

Operatic singer
Thenceforth Jerusalem made singing his career. His first major role was Lohengrin in 1976, a role in which he soon appeared at Darmstadt, Aachen, Hamburg, and at the , and later in Munich and the New York Metropolitan Opera. He followed this with Max in Der Freischütz at Stuttgart. His Bayreuth career opened in 1977, where by 1981 he had performed Froh (Das Rheingold), the Young Sailor (Tristan und Isolde) and then Lohengrin, Parsifal and Walter von Stolzing (Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg).

His Parsifal was also heard in Vienna at that time, and his Siegmund (Die Walküre) (with Jessye Norman, Theo Adam and Yvonne Minton) in Dresden (1981). In addition to stage appearances he gave various concert performances which, like the Dresden Walküre or the Rome Lohengrin were broadcast internationally. From 1978, he became a regular member of the Deutsche Oper Berlin, and had permanent contract with the companies in Stuttgart, Zürich, Munich, and Vienna as well as making international guest appearances.

His Bayreuth career continued with Siegfried in 1988 (Siegfried) and 1989 (Götterdämmerung). In 1990, he appeared at the Metropolitan Opera with James Levine, singing both Siegfrieds, as well as the difficult role of Loge. The production was televised, and is available on DVD. In 1992, his Bayreuth-Siegfried was made as a DVD again. On this performance, Jerusalem was singing with Graham Clark, Anne Evans and John Tomlinson, and 1993 he debuted as Tristan at the Bayreuth Festival, and took the role to most of the major houses in Europe.

Awards
On 9 October 1997, he was presented with the German Federal Cross of Merit. His last performance at Bayreuth was in 1999 as Tristan. He currently teaches at the College of Music in Nuremberg.

Recordings
Jerusalem performs in a series of audio and video recordings of Wagner operas conducted by James Levine at the Met, Daniel Barenboim and Pierre Boulez at Bayreuth, and others made in the 1980s and 1990s.

Jerusalem has also made an attempt at some crossover music in two albums The Glory of Love (1996) and Avalon (2002).

References

External links
Interview with Jerusalem on his 61st birthday
The best of Siegfried Jerusalem

1940 births
Living people
Heldentenors
German operatic tenors
Folkwang University of the Arts alumni
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Grammy Award winners
Deutsche Grammophon artists
Österreichischer Kammersänger
20th-century German male opera singers

Siegfried Jerusalem


Table Rock was a large shelf of rock that jutted out from the Canadian shore of Niagara Falls, Ontario, just north of the present day observation and commercial complex.  Revealed in the mid-18th century as the Horseshoe Falls receded, Table Rock was the first major vantage point for tourists of the early and mid-19th century.

In 1818, the first part of the rock collapsed, followed by minor rockfalls in 1828 and 1829.  The most notable rockfall occurred in July 1850, when roughly one-third of the point collapsed into the Niagara Gorge.  A driver was washing his carriage on the point when the rock structure gave way.  The man escaped, but the carriage was destroyed.

Further rockfalls occurred in 1853, 1876 and 1897.  For safety purposes (with the Ontario Powerhouse directly in the gorge below), the remaining rock was blasted in 1935.

Table Rock is a popular stop for tourists. During the winter months, the site's proximity to the mists from Niagara Falls causes the shelf and surrounding areas to be covered by a thin sheath of ice, which has been captured by many photographers.

The Table Rock Welcome Centre is located on Niagara Parkway and is linked to the higher Fallsview Tourist Area by the Falls Incline Railway.

References

 Table Rock Point
 The Horseshoe Falls

External links

 Images of Table Rock Niagara Falls Public Library (Ont.)
Art works of Table Rock Niagara Falls Public Library (Ont.)

Buildings and structures in Niagara Falls, Ontario
Geography of Niagara Falls, Ontario

Table Rock, Niagara Falls


Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans (13 September 1676 – 23 December 1744) was a niece of Louis XIV and wife of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine. She was later regent of Lorraine. As a widow she was created Princess of Commercy. Among her children was Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, father of Marie Antoinette.  She also had much input in the construction of the Château de Lunéville. She also introduced the future architect "Germain Boffrand" to the royal courts in 1711.

Family

Élisabeth Charlotte was born at the Château de Saint-Cloud the daughter of Philippe, Duke of Orléans and of his second wife, Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. Her father was the only sibling of King Louis XIV of France.

She was entitled to have the style of Her Royal Highness. At birth, she was given the honorary style Mademoiselle de Chartres. After the marriage of her two older half-sisters, Marie Louise and Anne Marie born of the first marriage of their father to Henrietta of England, she was known as Madame Royale, according to her status as the highest-ranking unmarried princess in France.

Marriage

There were plans for her to marry Joseph Clemens of Bavaria (Élisabeth Charlotte herself refused), William III of England, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I, Joseph was suggested by Pope Innocent XII himself, as well as her widowed first cousin Louis, Grand Dauphin. Another was Louis Auguste de Bourbon, Duke of Maine, eldest son of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan.

Élisabeth Charlotte was finally married on 13 October 1698 at the Palace of Fontainebleau to Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, son of Charles V, Duke of Lorraine, and of the Archduchess Eleonora of Austria. The marriage was the result of the Treaty of Ryswick, one of its conditions being that the Duchy of Lorraine, which had been for many years in the possession of France, be restored to Leopold, a son of Charles V, Duke of Lorraine. Thus, Élisabeth Charlotte was but an instrument to cement the peace treaty. The House of Lorraine received a dowry of 900,000 Livres.

To everyone surprise, what had been expected to be an unhappy union turned out to be a marriage of love and happiness. With the birth of her children, Élisabeth Charlotte showed great maternal instinct and a naturally caring character. The marriage produced thirteen children, of which five survived into adulthood. Three of them died within a week in May 1711 due to a smallpox outbreak at the Château de Lunéville, the country seat of the Duke's of Lorraine.

Regent of Lorraine

Her husband died in 1729, leaving his wife Regent of Lorraine for their son, Francis Stephen of Lorraine. After being educated in Vienna, Francis Stephen returned to Lorraine in 1737, ending his mother's tenure as regent.

Élisabeth Charlotte tried to engage her youngest child Anne Charlotte to King Louis XV; this project failed due to the intrigues of Duke of Bourbon; Élisabeth Charlotte then tried to arrange the marriage of Anne Charlotte to her first cousin Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans, who had been recently widowed; Louis d'Orléans refused.

Later years

Unable to prevent her son from giving up the duchy of Lorraine to Stanisław Leszczyński when he married the Habsburg heiress, Maria Theresa of Austria, Élisabeth Charlotte moved into the Château d'Haroué in nearby Commercy, which was turned into a sovereign principality for her to enjoy during her dowager years.

Élisabeth Charlotte died of a stroke, on 23 December 1744, one week after her daughter-in-law and grandchild, at the age of sixty-eight. She was the last of her siblings to die and had outlived ten of her thirteen children. Nine months after her death, her son Francis Stephen became Holy Roman Emperor.

She was buried in the funerary chapel of the Dukes of Lorraine in the Saint-François-des-Cordeliers church in Nancy.

Issue

 Léopold, Hereditary Prince of Lorraine (26 August 1699 – 2 April 1700) died in infancy.
Princess Élisabeth Charlotte of Lorraine (21 October 1700 – 4 May 1711) died of smallpox.
 Princess Louise Christine of Lorraine (13 November 1701 – 18 November 1701) died in infancy.
Princess  Marie Gabrièle Charlotte of Lorraine (30 December 1702 – 11 May 1711) died of smallpox.
Louis, Hereditary Prince of Lorraine (28 January 1704 – 10 May 1711) died of smallpox.
Princess Joséphine Gabrièle of Lorraine (16 February 1705 – 25 March 1708) died in infancy.
Princess Gabrièle Louise of Lorraine (4 March 1706 – 13 June 1710) died in infancy.
Léopold Clément, Hereditary Prince of Lorraine (25 April 1707 – 4 June 1723) died unmarried.
Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (8 December 1708 – 18 August 1765) married Maria Theresa of Austria and had issue.
Eléonore of Lorraine (4 June 1710 – 28 July 1710) died in infancy.
Princess Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine (15 October 1711 – 3 July 1741) married King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia and had issue.
Prince Charles Alexandre of Lorraine (12 December 1712 – 4 July 1780) married Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria and had issue.
Princess Anne Charlotte of Lorraine (17 May 1714 - 7 November 1773) died unmarried.
Stillborn daughter (28 November 1718).

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

13 September 1676 – 10 April 1684 Her Royal Highness Mademoiselle de Chartres [ Granddaughter of France ]
10 April 1684 – 13 October 1698 Her Royal Highness Mademoiselle
13 October 1698 – 27 March 1729 Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Lorraine
27 March 1729 – 14 March 1737 Her Royal Highness The Dowager Duchess of Lorraine
14 March 1737 – 23 December 1744 Her Royal Highness The Dowager Duchess of Lorraine, Princess of Commercy

Namesakes

 Élisabeth Charlotte de Beauvau (1705–1754) daughter of the Prince of Craon who was close to the ruling family of Lorraine.
 Élisabeth Charlotte of Lorraine (1700 –1711) her second child who died young.

Other websites

1676 births
1744 deaths
People from Saint-Cloud
House of Lorraine
House of Orléans
Regents
Deaths from stroke

Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans


Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton (15 February 1874 – 5 January 1922) was a polar explorer.

Shackleton led three British expeditions to the Antarctic. He was one of the principal figures of the "Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration".  The Shackletons were originally from Yorkshire, but Shackleton was born in County Kildare, Ireland. Shackleton and his Anglo-Irish family moved to Sydenham in suburban London when he was ten.

His first experience of the polar regions was as third officer on Captain Robert Falcon Scott's Discovery Expedition, 1901–04, from which he was sent home early on health grounds. Determined to do better, he returned to Antarctica in 1907 as leader of the Nimrod Expedition.  In January 1909, he and three companions made a southern march. They went to the farthest South latitude anyone had reached, at 88° 23' S, 97 geographical miles (112 statute miles, 180 km) from the South Pole. This was by far the closest to the pole in exploration history up to that time. For this achievement, Shackleton was knighted by Edward VII on his return home.

Antarctica
Shackleton first went to the Antarctic on Captain Robert Scott's 1901-1904 expedition but he was sent home as he was ill. In 1907, he went back to the Antarctic and in January 1909 was part of a group who walked further south than anyone had ever been before, travelling to within 190 kilometres of the South Pole.
In 1912 the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen became the leader of the first group to reach the South Pole. Shackleton decided on a new target, he wanted to walk across Antarctica from one side to the other crossing the South Pole in the middle.

Disaster struck when his ship, Endurance, was trapped in the ice. They spent 281 days on board waiting for the ice to break again, but the boat was slowly crushed to pieces. Shackleton and his men dragged their lifeboats over many miles of snow and ice to reach sea. They set sail in the lifeboats and eventually reached Elephant Island. In April 1916, Shackleton and four others sailed hundreds of miles to South Georgia to get help at the whaling station there. This was a journey of 1300 kilometres and took 16 days. Unfortunately the boat he was in landed on the wrong side of the island and they had to climb over the mountainous middle section to reach the whaling station. A rescue party saved everyone from Elephant Island in August 1916.

In 1921, Shackleton returned to the Antarctic, intending to carry out a programme of scientific activities. Before the expedition could begin this work, Shackleton died of a heart attack on 5 January 1922 while his ship, Quest, was moored in South Georgia. At his wife's request, he was buried there.

References

Explorers of Antarctica
British explorers
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
1872 births
1922 deaths
Knights Bachelor

Ernest Shackleton


Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga (born Joseph-Desiré Mobutu; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997) () was the President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The country was known as Zaire for much of his rule.

Mobutu is commonly known as Mobutu or Mobutu Sese Seko. While in office, he formed an authoritarian regime, amassed vast personal gain, and attempted to purge the country of all colonial cultural influence. He was an anti-communist.

During the Congo Crisis, Mobutu led a coup against the nationalist government of Patrice Lumumba. He wanted to take control of the government of Congo-Léopoldville. He soon became the army chief of staff. In 1965 he led a second coup to be Prime Minister. Then in 1967 he established a presidential form of government headed by himself. As part of his program of "national authenticity," Mobutu changed the Congo's name to Zaïre in 1971. He changed his own name to Mobutu Sese Seko in 1972. Mobutu established a one-party state and a cult of personality.

During his reign, Mobutu built a highly centralized state. He amassed a large personal fortune through economic exploitation and corruption. Because of this some people called his rule "kleptocracy." The nation suffered from uncontrolled inflation, a large debt, and massive currency devaluations. By 1991 economic deterioration and unrest led him to agree to share power with opposition leaders. He used the army to stop this change. In May 1997 rebel forces, led by Laurent Kabila, removed him from the country.

Mobutu Sese Seko is notorious for the corruption, nepotism, and embezzlement of billions of dollars that took place during his reign. He also had extravagances such as Concorde-flown shopping trips to Paris. Mobutu presided over the country for some four decades, despite many reports of abuses and human-rights violations. As such, many have described him as the "archetypal African dictator".

Mobutu died in 1997 of prostate cancer in Morocco.

References

1930 births
1997 deaths
African military people
Anti-communists
Generals
Presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Roman Catholics

Mobutu Sese Seko


Kullyspell House (also spelled Kullyspel House) was a fur trading post established in 1809 on Lake Pend Oreille in what is now North Idaho. It was built by Finan McDonald under the direction of David Thompson of the North West Company.

The post was located on the northeast shore of the lake on the Hope Peninsula, near the mouth of the Clark Fork river, just southeast of present-day Hope, Idaho.

On the 11th of September 1809 we made a scaffold to secure the provisions and goods, helved our Tools Ready to commence building; our first care was a strong Log building for the Goods and Furrs, and fur trading with the Natives. ... On the 23rd we had finished the Store House. To make the roof as tight as possible, which was covered with small Logs, we cut long grass and work (ed) it up with mud, and filled up the intervals of the small logs which answered tolerable well for Rain, but the Snow in melting found many a passage; in this manner we also builded our dwelling House; and roofed it, the floors were of split Logs, with the round side downwards ... our Chimneys were made of stone and mud rudely worked for about six feet in height and eighteen inches thick ... the fireplace is raised a little, and three to four feet in width.

Soon after establishing Kullyspell House Thompson set up two other trading posts in the region, Saleesh House and Spokane House. Being off the main line of travel between these posts, Kullyspell House was abandoned in 1811.

One source states that the two stone chimneys "remained standing for 87 years until they were toppled by a windstorm."

The city of Kalispell, in nearby Montana, now bears a respelling of the name. Kullyspel was David Thompson's spelling of the name the local indigenous people called themselves. Today they are known as the Pend d'Oreilles tribe.

References

Further reading
 David Thompson Columbia River History
 Fur trader David Thompson explores the Pend Oreille River in September and October 1809.
David Thompson's narrative, 1784-1812 (Kootenay River, McGillivray River, 1808, p.280)(Kullyspell House 1809, p.296).

Buildings and structures in Bonner County, Idaho
Commercial buildings in Idaho
Fur trade
Trading posts in the United States
Pre-statehood history of Idaho
Pre-statehood history of Montana
History of the Pacific Northwest
North West Company
Oregon Country
Commercial buildings completed in 1809
1809 establishments in the United States
1811 disestablishments in the United States

Kullyspell House


Ba'athism is an Arab naitionalist ideology that promotes the development an creation o an Arab naition through the leadership o a vanguard pairty ower a progressive revolutionary state. The ideology is offeecially based on the theories o Zaki al-Arsuzi, Michel Aflaq an Salah al-Din al-Bitar. A Ba'athist society seeks enlichtenment, renaissance an rebirth o Arab cultur, values an society. It supports the creation o single-pairty states, an rejects poleetical pluralism in an unspecifeed length o time – the Ba'ath party theoretically uises an unspecified amoont o time tae develop an enlichtened Arabic society. The twa Ba'athist states which hae been in existence (Iraq an Sirie), through a policy o authoritarianism, forbid opposition an creeticism o their ideology. Through the policy o democratic centralism, the Ba'ath pairty is the supreme poleetical institution o a Ba'athist state.

Ba'athism is based on principles o Arab nationalism, pan-Arabism, Arab socialism, as well as social progress. It is a secular ideology. A Ba'athist state supports socialist economics to a varying degree. It supports public awnership ower pairts o the economy but opposes the confiscation o private property. Socialism in Ba'athist ideology does no mean state socialism or economic equality, but modrenisation; the anerlie wey tae develop an Arab society which is truly free an unitit is bi creatin a socialist society first.

References

Arab naitionalism
Arab socialism
Poleetical ideologies

Ba'athism


The history of Walmart, an American discount department store chain, began in 1950 when businessman Sam Walton purchased a store from Luther E. Harrison in Bentonville, Arkansas, and opened Walton's 5 & 10. The Walmart chain proper was founded in 1962 with a single store in Rogers, expanding outside Arkansas by 1968 and throughout the rest of the Southern United States by the 1980s, ultimately operating a store in every state of the United States, plus its first stores in Canada, by 1995. The expansion was largely fueled by new store construction, although the chains Mohr-Value and Kuhn's Big K were also acquired. The company introduced its warehouse club chain Sam's Club in 1983 and its first Supercenter stores in 1998.

1960s and 1970s

At some point, Sam Walton made the decision to achieve higher sales volumes by keeping sales prices lower than his competitors by reducing his profit margin. Inspired by the successes of other discount department store chains, Walton opened the second store in Harrison, Arkansas, that year. Responsible for the purchase and maintenance of signage, Walton's assistant, Bob Bogle, came up with the name "Wal-Mart" for the new chain. By 1967, the company grew to 24 stores across the state of Arkansas, and had reached $12.6 million in sales, and by 1968, the company opened its first stores outside of Arkansas in Sikeston, Missouri, and Claremore, Oklahoma.

The company's first stock split occurred in May 1972 at a market price of $47 (~$ in ). By this time, Walmart was operating in five states: Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri and Oklahoma, and expanded into Tennessee in 1973, and Kentucky and Mississippi in 1974. As the company expanded into Texas in 1975, there were 125 stores with 7,500 associates, and total sales of $340.3 million (~$ in ).

By 1977, Walmart expanded into Illinois and made its first corporate acquisition, assuming ownership and operation of the Mohr-Value stores, which operated in Missouri and Illinois. This was followed by the acquisition of the Hutcheson Shoe Company in 1978. In the same year Walmart also branched out into several new markets, launching its pharmacy, auto service center, and jewelry divisions.

1980s and 1990s

In 1981, Walmart expanded into the southeastern US market, opening stores in Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina, and acquiring 92 Kuhn's Big K stores. They expanded into Florida and Nebraska in 1982.

In April 1983, the company opened its first Sam's Club store, a membership-based discount warehouse club, in Midwest City, Oklahoma. They also expanded into Indiana, Iowa, New Mexico, and North Carolina and implemented "people greeters" in all of their stores. The first stores opened in Virginia in 1984.

In 1985, with 882 stores with sales of $8.4 billion and 104,000 associates, the company expanded into Wisconsin and Colorado, and the first stores opened in Minnesota in 1986.

By the company's 25th anniversary in 1987, there were offices to track inventory, sales, and send instant communication to their stores. Continuing their technological upgrades, they had equipped 90% of their stores with barcode readers by 1988, to further assist in keeping track of their large inventory.

In February 1988, company founder Sam Walton stepped down as chief executive officer, and David Glass was named to succeed him. Walton remained on as Chairman of the Corporate Board of Directors, and the company also restructured their senior management positions, elevating a cadre of executives to positions of greater responsibility.

Also in 1988, the first Wal-Mart Supercenter was opened in Washington, Missouri. The supercenter concept features everything contained in an average Walmart discount store, in addition to a tire and oil change shop, optical center, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, and numerous alcove shops such as banks, cellular telephone stores, hair and nail salons, video rental stores, and fast food outlets.

By 1988, Wal-Mart was the most profitable retailer in the United States, though it did not outsell K-Mart and Sears in terms of value of items purchased until late 1990 or early 1991.

By 1988, Walmart was operating in 27 states, having expanded into Arizona, Michigan, Ohio, West Virginia, New Jersey, and Wyoming. By 1990, they expanded into California (which marked Walmart officially becoming a fully nationwide retailer), Nevada, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, and Utah. The Walmart Visitor's Center also opened this year on the site of Sam Walton's original store.

The 1990s saw an era of furious growth on an unprecedented scale and the incorporation of several new ideas and technology into the business.

In 1990, US sales had quadrupled to $32 billion over the previous five years  and Walmart acquired The McLane Company, a food service distributor, which was later sold to Berkshire Hathaway in 2003.

In 1991, the company expanded into Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New York. Walmart expanded worldwide this year, with the opening of their first store outside the United States in Mexico City. They also acquired Western Merchandisers, Inc. of Amarillo, Texas. 1991 also saw the launch of the Sam's American Choice brand of products "Made in America" initiative, to stimulate American suppliers to produce more products and lower the price.

On March 17, 1992 US President George H. W. Bush presented Sam Walton with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Walton died on April 5, 1992. His eldest son, S. Robson Walton, succeeded him as Chairman of the corporate board of directors, on April 7, 1992. This year, Walmart had a presence in 45 states which by this time expanded into Idaho, Montana, and Oregon, as well as Puerto Rico.

In 1993, the Walmart International Division was formed with Bobby Martin as its president. The company also expanded into Alaska, Hawaii, Rhode Island and Washington. Their stores also achieved the billion-dollar sales mark in one week in December 1993.

In 1994, the National Advertising Review Board challenged the Walmart slogan, "Always the low price. Always," contending that it implied that Walmart's prices were always the lowest and could mislead some shoppers. In response, Walmart adopted a new slogan, "Always low prices. Always."

Also in 1994, the Code Adam program was instituted in Walmart stores. That same year, Walmart acquired 91 PACE Membership Warehouse clubs from Kmart and 122 Woolco stores in Canada in 1994. In addition, it opened 3 value clubs in Hong Kong, and had 96 stores in Mexico.

By 1995, Walmart had 1,995 discount stores, 239 Supercenters, 433 SAM'S CLUBS and 276 international stores with sales at $93.6 billion (~$ in ) (including US sales of $78 billion) and 675,000 associates. Walmart expanded into its final state (Vermont), and also expanded into South America, with three new units in Argentina and five in Brazil.

The company entered the Chinese market in 1996 through a joint-venture agreement. In 1996, a Walmart location in Dickson City, Pennsylvania closed after the building was damaged by a boulder (The location was replaced by a larger one in another part of Dickson City the following year.) The site was purchased by the neighboring Wegmans and demolished in 2016. In 1997, Walmart replaced Woolworth on the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The company had its first $100 billion sales year, with sales totaling $118.1 billion. Also this year, they acquired 21 Wertkauf stores in Germany, and introduced their OneSource nutrition centers.

In 1998, Walmart introduced the Neighborhood Market concept at three stores in Arkansas. Neighborhood Market stores are predominantly  grocery stores, and are intended to attract customers with easier parking, less crowded aisles, and quicker checkout compared to an average grocery store. Internationally Walmart enters South Korea by acquiring 4 stores operated by Korea Makro.

Also in 1998, Walmart launched its Wal-Mart Television Network, a vast, in-store advertising network showing commercials for products sold in the stores, concert clips and music videos for a recording artist's media, trailers for upcoming movie releases, and news.

The Asda chain in the United Kingdom became a subsidiary in 1999, and is the second largest chain in the UK after Tesco.

21st century

In 2000, Lee Scott was named president and CEO and US sales had doubled to $156 billion since 1995. That same year, Walmart was ranked fifth by Fortune magazine on its Global Most Admired All-Stars list and in 2003 and 2004, it was named as the most admired company in America.

In 2002, Walmart entered the Japanese market by acquiring a minor stake in Seiyu Group, who would become a wholly owned subsidiary of Walmart by 2008.

In 2005, Walmart had $312.4 billion (~$ in ) in sales, more than 6,200 facilities around the world, including 3,800 stores in the United States and 3,800 international units, and more than 1.6 million associates employed worldwide. Their US presence had grown so rapidly that there were only small pockets of the country that remained further than 60 miles away from the nearest Walmart.  Approximately 138 million customers visited Walmart stores each week all over the world. Their corporate philanthropy efforts also assisted the US hurricane relief efforts with $18 million in cash donations. Through a purchase of stock in Central American Retail Holding Company (CARHCO), Walmart also entered the countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.

On May 22, 2006, Walmart announced the sale of its 16 stores in South Korea to Shinsegae Co, which rebranded the stores to E-Mart. Then on July 26, 2006 Walmart announced a complete pull-out from the German market; all existing 85 stores were sold to the Metro Group, which rebranded most of them to Real (hypermarket).

On September 12, 2007, for the first time in 13 years, Walmart introduced new advertising with the slogan, "Save Money Live Better," instead of  "Always Low Prices, Always." It commissioned Global Insight for the ads and the report  stated that as of 2006, the retailer saves American families $2,500 (~$ in ) yearly (up 7.3% from $2,329, 2004). The new research found that the reduction in price levels due to Walmart resulted to savings for consumers of $287 billion in 2006, equivalent to $957 per person and $2,500 per household.

On June 30, 2008, Walmart unveiled the company's new logo, which stylized the name as "Walmart". A spark, a symbol chosen to represent Walmart associates, replaces the star. In early 2009, Walmart entered Chile by acquiring Distribucion y Servicio D&S SA. In May 2009 Walmart entered into a 50/50 partnership with Bharti to gain access to the Indian market.
Also in 2008, a Walmart that was built atop a landfill in Garfield Heights, OH closed due to toxic fumes.

On February 22, 2010, the company confirmed it was acquiring the video streaming company Vudu, Inc. for an estimated $100 million (~$ in ).

In June 2011, Walmart acquired 51% of Massmart Holdings. This acquisition gives the company access to the African countries of: South Africa, Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.

The Massmart acquisition received final governmental approval in early 2012. The single store Mauritius was closed in January 2012.

In June 2014, Walmart employees went on strike in several major cities in the United States.

In light of recent events, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, in the last eighteen months, as of July 2021; Walmart has displaced all cashiers at smaller stores and neighborhood locations. Such locations, only have Scan-and-Go self-checkout stations. Walmart Supercenter locations also will see replacement of cashiers by 2025, as mainly 25% of cashiers work in most locations, while other 75% cashier stalls are closed all day.

New ventures
In late 2005, Walmart designed two experimental stores, one in McKinney, Texas and the other in Aurora, Colorado, which featured wind turbines, photovoltaic solar panels, biofuel-capable boilers, water-cooled refrigerators, and xeriscape gardens.

In March 2006, Walmart sought to appeal to a more affluent demographic, with the opening of a new supercenter in Plano, Texas, at the corner of Park Blvd. and the Dallas North Tollway which was intended to compete against stores that some viewed as more upscale and appealing. The new store features wooden floors, wider aisles, a sushi bar, a coffee/sandwich shop (with free Wi-Fi Internet access), a Subway, and higher-end items such as microbrew beer, expensive wines, and high-end electronics. The exterior sports the less-common hunter green background behind the Walmart letters instead of the trademark blue.

In response to the popularity of organic food supermarkets, such as Whole Foods and Wild Oats, Walmart announced plans in May 2006, to increase the amount of organic food available in its stores. They announced that both conventionally grown and organic versions of certain products would be available, and the price of organic versions would not be more than 10% over the price of conventionally grown products. Since Walmart is one of the nation's largest grocery retailers, there was some concern expressed that their push to lower prices would not be sustainable for inexpensive organic food.

Legal trouble
Over the last decade or so Walmart has become involved in numerous lawsuits for a variety of reasons.  The majority of the suits are class action lawsuits in which employees are suing for unpaid wages.  They have also run into numerous discrimination cases in which employees are suing for being profiled out of money or out of jobs.  For example, there were two separate cases, one in 2004 and one in 2005, in which black employees were suing two different Walmarts for denying them jobs based on race. These became so popular that the Reverend Jesse Jackson intervened and spoke during both of the proceedings.  There are also many lawsuits in which women are suing Wal-Mart for discriminating against them.  In one article written in 2004 USA today mentioned 32 different lawsuits that involved women suing Walmart. But still Walmart has prevailed. All of this has not had any effects on Walmart financially however, according to Fortune 500, Walmart still had $351 billion (~$ in ) in revenue ($11 billion in profit) in 2007, a new high for the corporation.

On December 3, 2008, the family of Walmart service worker Jdimytai Damour, who was killed by a stampede of shoppers frantically entering a Walmart store in Valley Stream, New York, on Black Friday (November 28), filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the corporation; Damour's family alleged Walmart of encouraging a mass number of customers to come to the store simultaneously. In addition, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration cited Walmart for "...inadequate crowd management following the Nov. 28, 2008, death of an employee at its Valley Stream, New York, store. The worker died of asphyxiation after being knocked to the ground and trampled by a crowd of about 2,000 shoppers who surged into the store for its annual 'Blitz Friday' pre-holiday sales event."
  The company went on to spend an estimated $2 million in legal fees fighting OSHA's $7,000 fine, because it apparently wished to prevent OSHA from establishing a precedent that would enable OSHA to influence Walmart's crowd control measures in the future.

Countries of operation
, Walmart stores operate in Botswana, Canada, Chile, China, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Ghana, Guatemala, Honduras, India, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mexico, Mozambique, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, the United States (including Puerto Rico) and Zambia.

See also
 Criticism of Walmart
 List of Walmart brands
 List of assets owned by Walmart

References

External links

 – About Walmart's ownership of Seiyu Group

Walmart
Walmart

History of Walmart


The Biraja Temple, or Birija Kshetra  (Odia:ବିରଜା ମନ୍ଦିର, Birajā Kṣetra), is a historic Hindu temple located in Jajpur (about  north of Bhubaneswar), Odisha, India. The present temple was built during the 13th century. The principal idol is Devi Durga, who is worshipped as Viraja (Girija), and the temple gave Jajpur the nicknames "Viraja Kshetra" and "Biraja Peetha". The Durga idol has two hands (dwibhuja), spearing the chest of Mahishasura with one hand and pulling his tail with the other. One of her feet is on a lion, and the other is on Mahishasura's chest. Mahishasura is depicted as a water buffalo. The idol's crown features Ganesha, a crescent moon and a lingam. The temple covers a large area, and has several shrines to Shiva and other deities. According to the Skanda Purana it cleanses pilgrims, and it is called the Viraja or the Biraja kshetra. Jajpur is believed to have about one crore of Shiva lingams.

In Tantra

The Brahmayamala Tantra has a hymn, "Aadya Stotra", dedicated to Shakti. In the hymn, Vimala is the goddess of Puri and Viraja (Girija) is the goddess worshipped in the Utkala Kingdom, which became Odisha.

According to the Tantra Chudamani, Sati's navel fell in the Utkala Kingdom, also known as "Viraja kshetra". Adi Shankara, in his Ashtadasha Shakti Peetha Stuti describes the goddess as Girija. In Tantra literature, the Oddiyana Peetha (Devnagari:ओड़्याण पीठ) is located in eastern India near the Vaitarani River (an Oddiyana is an ornament worn by a woman around her navel).

Sree Bagalamukhi Deity
There is a separate shrine for Sree Bagalamukhi Devi, which is right of Maa Biraja. One can find very few temples for this Roopa of Dasamahavidya

Nabhi Gaya
Pitapuram holds the Pada Gaya, the Sira Gaya is found in Bihar, the Nabhi Gaya is found here in the form of a well. Pitru Pooja (Pinda Daan, Tarpan, Tithi) are performed here. The temple itself arranges the priests and the pooja items.

Rituals and festivals
The primary ritual in the temple is Sharadiya Durga Puja, which begins on the night of Krishna Paksha Ashtami. This falls before Mahalaya, and ends on Ashwin Shukla Paksha Navami. The puja, known as Shodasha Dinatatmika Puja, lasts for 16 days. The ratha (chariot festival) is known as Simhadhwaja, and its flag bears a lion. During the lunar transition from Shukla Ashtami to Shukla Navami an animal sacrifice, Bali Daanam, is performed.  Navratri is celebrated as Aparajita Puja.

Other festivals include Nakshatra, Shravana, Prathamastami, Pana Sankranti, Raja Parva and Navanna. Devi is worshipped daily in accordance with Tantra and Agama traditions as Mahishasuramardini by the Brahmins of Jajpur.

Transportation
The nearest railway station is Cuttack and Jajpur Keonjhar Road. From there regular buses can be availed to Jajpur town. Mostly private buses run regularly in Orissa. Autos connect Cuttack railway station to Barabati bus stand, which is hardly 3 km away. The bus from Cuttack to Jajapur town takes 2 to  hours. From Jajpur road to Jajpur town travelling time by road will be more than one hour. Also buses are available from Bhubaneswar. Buses which have express written on the buses are quicker than local buses.

Accommodation
A couple of lodges are next to the temple and another is being constructed.

See also
Yajna Varaha Temple
Oddiyana

References
More About Temples Jajpur
Trilochaneswar Temple of Jajpur
Biraja Temple Official Website
Pictures of Biraja Temple
Report on Biraja Temple
51 Shakti peetha, Viraja among shakti peetha

External links
Yoga Guru's visit to Oddiyana Viraja Temple and Nabhi Gaya Photos
Oddyane Girija Devi
Maa Biraja Website Developer & Adviser
Maa Biraja Devi Shakti Peeth Darshan Full Video

Hindu temples in Jajpur district
Shakti Peethas

Biraja Temple


A field-programmable gate array (often shortened to FPGA) is an electronic component used to build reconfigurable digital circuits. That means that an FPGA is different from a logic gate, because a logic gate has a fixed function. In contrast an FPGA has an undefined function at the time of manufacture. Before the FPGA can be used in a circuit it must be programmed, that is, reconfigured.

FPGAs are integrated circuits in the category of programmable logic devices or PLDs. FPGAs are the highest performance, most flexible and also the most expensive of the PLD types. A drawback of FPGAs compared to other PLDs is that they do not remember their design when the power is removed. An FPGA therefore needs a separate configuration memory chip that holds the FPGA design. When the power is given back to the FPGA a fixed part of the FPGA reads the configuration from the configuration memory chip. After the FPGA is configured it will be able to do the function it was given by the design.

An FPGA is different from a microprocessor or microcontroller. An FPGA in its basic form is not able to run software. Only when the FPGA is given a configuration that contains a processor-architecture it has the ability to run software.

FPGA manufacturers provide engineering software for Windows and sometimes also Linux, to develop designs for FPGAs. The design is commonly written in human readable computer files called a hardware description language (HDL). The most popular hardware description languages are VHDL and Verilog. Hardware description languages are strongly comparable to programming languages. But the intention of HDLs is to design digital logic circuits while programming languages design software.

The FPGA engineering software has to translate the abstract HDL code into the logic elements available in the selected FPGA. That is called logic synthesis. Then a process of place and route is done to position the logic elements in the FPGA. The result is a bitfile that can be programmed into the FPGA or the configuration memory. This is usually done with a USB programmer connected to the JTAG port of the FPGA.

Because the FPGA is an integrated circuit, an FPGA manufacturer can decide to add other commonly used integrated circuit components. These fixed parts are called cores. These are for example Ethernet controllers or even a complete processor-architecture. For different market segments such as defense, medical, communications and robotics the FPGA manufacturer tries to add the most valuable set of these additional cores.

Internal structure
FPGAs are generally built upon programmable logic elements and programmable interconnects. One building block of logic elements is a programmable lookup table (LUT). A LUT can be programmed to output any value given input values. In this way, a LUT can be programmed to be any type of logic with the same number of inputs and outputs. For example, a 2-input, 1-output LUT can be programmed to emulate the logic of a 2-input AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR, etc. The output of this LUT can be either saved using a register or connected to the input of other LUTs. Using a programmable mux, the FPGA can be programmed to choose the registered or non-registered output. This combination of a LUT, a register, and a mux is the general structure of a logic element.

To connect these logic elements together, pass transistors are used. The transistor can be programmed to either connect a signal or not, thereby giving the FPGA the ability to very specifically connect logic elements together. For example, if the output of one logic elements will feed the input of another, the pass transistor can be programmed to connect these two wires together and match the specified logic. Between the logic elements and the pass transistors, a compiler can take a hardware description from an HDL, create the logic for the logic elements, and connect them together using the pass transistors.

Electronic circuits

Field-programmable gate array


Ratified on April 8, 1913, the Seventeenth Amendment (Amendment XVII) to the United States Constitution
changed the method by which United States Senators were elected. For the first 125 years Article 1, section 3 of the Constitution required US Senators to be elected by the state legislatures. A number of problems in the United States Senate created the need to change how Senators were elected from indirect to direct elections by the people of the United States.

Text

Background
When the Constitution was adopted in 1788, Senators were to be elected by the state legislatures. This remained in effect for 125 years. By the late 19th century it became clear there were many problems with this procedure. In addition to long vacancies that lasted for months and even years, political machines had gained control over state legislatures. This corrupted the process and the Senate was seen as a "millionaire's club" who served private interests instead of the people. Beginning in the 1890s, the House of Representatives passed several resolutions for a constitutional amendment which proposed Senators be elected by direct election. The Senate refused to even take a vote on these proposals.

At this point, many states changed their strategy. Article Five of the United States Constitution offers two methods for amending the Constitution. In addition to the common method of a two-thirds vote by both houses of Congress, was another method. It stated that if two-thirds of the state legislatures apply for one, Congress must call a constitutional convention. The method had not been used before. When it appeared two-thirds of the states wanted the change, Congress acted.

Joint resolution 39 was passed by the House of Representatives in 1911 proposing a constitutional amendment to directly elect US Senators. The Senate accepted the resolution but since it included a change, it went back to the House. The amended Joint resolution was sent to the states for ratification a year later. The required three-quarters of the states ratified the amendment and the Seventeenth Amendment became official on April 8, 1913.

Clauses

Clause 1
The people of the United States are to elect two Senators from each state, for six years. Each Senator will have one vote in the Senate. There are 100 Senators and 100 votes. "The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures" means that anyone who can vote in a state election in their state, may also vote for a Senator. In the archaic language of the Constitution this was written in such a way to allow for states having different qualifications for persons eligible to vote for their Senator.

Clause 2
The vacancies clause. Previously, when vacancies occurred, several state legislatures were not able to agree on who would fill the position. Before the Seventeenth Amendment, vacancies could last for months and even years in some cases. Under the Seventeenth Amendment, if a Senator dies or has to leave office, his state governor may appoint a temporary Senator until a special election can be held.

Clause 3
This is a simple addition to prevent the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment from interrupting the election or term of any Senator chosen before the amendment was passed. The United States Senate elections, 1914 were the first nationwide popular elections for Senators.

Notes

References

Other websites
 A Century Later: The Adoption of the 17th Amendment on Direct Election of Senators
 Thanks To The 17Th Amendment, Every Vote Will Count In Undecided Senate Races

17
Elections in the United States
1910s in the United States

Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution


Andy's Gang is a children's television program broadcast on NBC from August 20, 1955, to December 31, 1960, hosted by the actor Andy Devine. It was the successor to the radio and television program Smilin' Ed McConnell and His Buster Brown Gang (later shortened to Smilin' Ed's Gang). Devine took over the television program when McConnell died suddenly of a heart attack in 1954. Devine inherited a number of characters from the earlier show and the sponsor, Buster Brown shoes.

Cast

The cast of the program included:

Andy Devine
Nino Marcel as Gunga Ram
June Foray as the voice of Midnight the Cat and Old Grandie the Witch
Billy Gilbert as the teacher
Lou Krugman as the Maharajah
Jerry Maren as Buster Brown
Alan Reed as the poet
Vito Scotti as Pasta Fazooli and Rama
Bud Tollefson as the voice of Tige, the dog

Smilin' Ed McConnell
Smilin' Ed McConnell and his Buster Brown Gang was one of the first children's TV shows filmed in Hollywood. In the original shows, McConnell started the program by greeting the audience—"Hiya, kids"—after which the audience sang a song for the sponsor, Buster Brown shoes: "I got shoes, you got shoes, everybody's got to have shoes, but there's only one kind of shoe for me—good old Buster Brown shoes!" Then Ed said, "Thank you buddies and sweethearts. Good old Buster Brown shoes are on the air out here in Hollywood for another good old Saturday hullabaloo." Produced on a small budget, the show was a success, bringing to life the Buster Brown advertising characters that had existed for decades and helping to sell millions of shoes. The show was initially filmed in front of a live audience, but as McConnell's health deteriorated, prefilmed children's reaction shots were intercut with the studio performance.

Music and stories from "Smilin' Ed's Storybook" were regular features. The show also featured "Gunga, the East India Boy," a serial set in India. Led by the Maharajah, Gunga Ram and his pal Rama set out on adventures around the village of Bakore in filmed segments.

A popular segment was the visit from the green puppet Froggy the Gremlin, who would appear in a puff of smoke ("Hiya, kids! Hiya, hiya, hiya!") when McConnell yelled the catchphrase "Plunk your magic twanger, Froggy!" The same phrase was later used by Andy Devine. Froggy was always interrupting the story and causing trouble.

McConnell died of a heart attack in 1954. Andy Devine took over the show in 1955.

Andy Devine
After McConnell's death, the show was hosted by the rough-voiced, gentle giant Andy Devine, who had earlier appeared as Jingles on The Adventures of Wild Bill Hickok with Guy Madison. Studio reaction shots were again intercut, and Devine did his segments without a live audience. This also allowed some limited special effects, such as when Froggy appeared or disappeared.

The show began with Devine sitting in a big easy chair, reading from a book, Andy's Stories, which were illustrated by film clips. Regular characters were Midnight the Cat, Squeeky the Mouse (portrayed by a hamster), and Grandie the Talking Piano.  Midnight, a big black cat, would sometimes operate an organ grinder.  Midnight would also sometimes say "Nice" in a falsetto meow when asked what she thought about something.

In filmed segments, Gunga Ram was an Indian boy played by Nino Marcel. Gunga (Ghanga Rama during Smilin' Ed's tenure) and his friend Rama (Vito Scotti) helped out the Maharajah.

The comic actor Billy Gilbert regularly appeared on the show and was often interrupted by Froggy or told to do what Froggy wanted. The enraged Gilbert would then chase Froggy until he disappeared. One surviving clip shows Vito Scotti trying to explain singing while Froggy keeps interrupting or making fun of him; eventually, Scotti tries to grab Froggy, but the gremlin suddenly disappears.

Devine closed with, "Yes, sir, we're pals, and pals stick together. And now, gang, don't forget church or Sunday school."

Legacy
Some of the original filmed programs hosted by Devine have survived, including a few segments filmed in color near the end of the show's run in 1960. VHS and DVD home videos of the programs have been issued. Clips of the telecasts are available on several websites. The entire inventory, over a ton of filmed programs and presumably the broadcast rights, are the property of Hubbard Broadcasting, of St. Paul, Minnesota.

Buckner & Garcia paid tribute to Smilin' Ed McConnell and Froggy the Gremlin in a 1982 novelty song, "Froggy's Lament," about the Konami arcade game Frogger, from their album Pac-Man Fever, with its lyrics "Hiya kids" and "Plunk your magic twanger, Froggy!"

Several clips from the show, including a sequence in which a cat and mouse perform the song Jesus Loves Me, was featured in the film The Movie Orgy.

References

External links
Fifties Web: Andy's Gang
TV Party: Andy's Gang

1955 American television series debuts
1960 American television series endings
1950s American children's television series
1960s American children's television series
NBC original programming
American television shows featuring puppetry

Andy's Gang


Louis Rudolph Franz Schlegelberger (23 October 1876 in Königsberg – 14 December 1970 in Flensburg) was a German politician and judge. In the time of the Third Reich, he was a minister of justice. He was an accused of the Judges' Trial in Nuremberg.

1876 births
1970 deaths
German academics
German judges
German prisoners
German war criminals
Government ministers of Nazi Germany
Holocaust perpetrators
People from former German territories
People from Kaliningrad
Politicians of the Nazi Party
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Weimar Republic politicians

Franz Schlegelberger


Mimmo Paladino (born in Paduli on 18 December 1948) is an Italian sculptor, painter and printmaker. He is a leading name in the Transvanguardia artistic movement and one of the many European artists to revive Expressionism in the 1980s.

Biography
Paladino was born on 18 December 1948 in Paduli, Campania, but grew up and trained in Benevento, Italy. From 1964 until 1968, he attended Liceo Artistico di Benevento.

He made his debut in 1968 with a solo exhibition at the Galleria Carolina in Portici in Naples. Here he was presented by Achille Bonito Oliva, who was also present for the monographic show at Enzo Cannaviello's Studio Oggetto in Caserta the following year. However, we need to go back to 1964 to find the first major date in his artistic education. This was when, still a schoolboy, he visited the 32nd Venice Biennale and, in particular, the U.S. Pavilion, where he discovered the American Pop artists. In the early 1970s, his approach shifted towards conceptual art and photography, but by the mid-decade his painting had acquired considerable importance and appeared in a manifesto work, Silently, I Am Retiring to Paint a Picture, which was shown in a room in which also the walls were painted. The aim was clearly a return to painting, as the principal place of narration. This was not to recapture the aspirations of the fifties and sixties, which in Italy reflected a painting tradition linked to pre-war artistic research, but rather to make a break with the influences that repudiated painting in the strictest sense, on which he intervened with a series of circular linguistic and semiotic interactions.

In the late seventies, Paladino moved to Milan, where he later taught artistic disciplines at the Liceo school, while also working on his art. In 1977 came his first collaboration with Lucio Amelio, the historic gallery owner in Naples, and two years later he put on his first exhibition with another key gallerist, Emilio Mazzoli of Modena, for whom he made his first book-object – En-De-Re – in 1980. This was indeed another crucial year, for it was when he put on his first solo exhibition in New York (where he had just taken up temporary residence), in two different galleries – those of Maria Goodman and Annina Nosei. International interest in his work and in that of other young Italians was growing, and in 1980 a traveling exhibition took works by Sandro Chia, Francesco Clemente, Sandro Cucchi, Nicola De Maria and Paladino, together with two other artists, Luigi Ontani and Ernesto Tatafiore, to three of the most important museums in Europe. It was also the year of the 39th Venice Biennale, where Harald Szeemann and Achille Bonito Oliva curated the Aperto section, choosing some of the artists who were to make their mark on the art scene for many years to come. It was here that Transavanguardia became more firmly established, with its theoretical structure being published the following year. The arrival of the young Italian painters was seen by many as a breath of fresh air and a key exhibition like Zeitgeist, in Berlin, certainly indicated their progress, with German-speaking countries as the first to promote their work. Paladino's career, like those of his colleagues, has included considerable collaboration with artists, intellectuals and musicians, and yet, more than others, Paladino has always managed to appear with a form of creativity that is inquisitive and open, but always personal. He goes beyond the purely pictorial and, ever since 1983, he has strayed into sculpture (his first work, Closed Garden, is now at Castello di Rivoli) and engraving. However, his basic conception is always pictorial, even when three-dimensional, as in the case of It Will Have No Title, with the use of geometrical elements applied to the environment, the first result of which came in 1995. Painting, sculpture and engraving were the three media that most inspired his style throughout the following years and one might well assume that this is the ''eminence" that Danto refers to, since it was clear that – like few other artists of the twentieth century – Paladino always revealed a different ambition in each discipline. In 1988 the critic Giovanni Carandente entrusted him with the main gallery in the Italian Pavilion at the 43rd Venice Biennale. Here Paladino showed an installation in which the management of space – created in part by a pictorial approach to sculpture – was of great impact. This type of approach returned in the early nineties in the Hortus Conclusus in Benevento, a garden in which architecture, the environment and objects all combined to form the work. These creations, which had a mysterious, "alchemical" air about them, emerged like apparitions, as constant epiphanies. This is an aspect that I find constantly in the work of this artist, who in 1994 was the first Italian to exhibit in the Forbidden City in Beijing. Here the views formed a complementary backdrop to the works on show, and this became a constant feature of all his urban projects. The Mountain of Salt dates from 1990. Originally created in Gibellina, it "appeared" in the Piazza del Plebiscito in Naples in 1995 and later, in 2011, in the Piazza del Duomo in Milan, when the city dedicated a major retrospective to him on the piano nobile of the Palazzo Reale. The nineties was a time of great experimentation and it is no coincidence that the Mountain became its symbol. The new millennium, as well as bringing a large number of exhibitions in which he was the protagonist or a guest, also brought the use of video. In 2006 Paladino made his short feature film Quijote, devoted to the work by Cervantes. Presented at the Venice Film Festival, the movie captures the essence of the art of the masterpiece in a highly imaginative series of evocations, sounds and inventions. Great literature is an underlying thread that, over the years, has led him to illustrate the icons of world culture, such as Tristes Tropiques, Ulysses, the Homeric poems, Pinocchio and, of course, Don Quixote. Paladino was back behind the camera in 2013 to film Labyrinthus for the fourth centenary of the death of the madrigal composer Gesualdo da Venosa. Here too, his collaboration with the world of music goes back a long way, with numerous mises en scène for opera houses, the creation of opera posters for Maestro Riccardo Muti and requests for music for his installations, as was the case in 1999 with Brian Eno for Sleepers, in London and then, in 2008, for the Ara Pacis in Rome.

In 2013 he was commissioned to make a monumental installation for the Piazza Santa Croce in Florence, where he used blocks of marble and bronze sculptures for a large temporary project (263 x 164 ft), creating a sort of enormous cross in which the public could move freely. Even though it is becoming difficult to list all his exhibitions and publications, what is important is the care with which Paladino achieves his artistic mission in the allotted space, as can be seen in his latest creation for the 55th Venice Biennale in 2015. Whether it is a painting, a piazza, the pages of a book, or the galleries of a museum, it is his all-embracing vision that makes each element a crucial component of a complex project. A project that always attempts to seize the opportunities rather than the limitations of the world. In 2016 He creates a large-scale exhibition for Frederik Meijer Gardens & Sculpture Park in Grand Rapids (MI), USA and a retrospective show at Galleria Stein, Milano (F. Arensi in J. Antonucci, Mimmo Paladino, Frederik Mejier Gardens & Sculpture Park, 2016)

Paladino was made an honorary member of the Royal Academy of Arts, London on 26 May 1999.

His work is in many public museum collections including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Tate, Museum of Modern Art, among others.

Personal life
Mimmo Paladino is married to Imma, and has one daughter and three grandchildren. He now lives in Rome and Milan, and Paduli but still has a studio in the little town near Benevento.

Time line
1948	Born 18 December in Paduli, near Benevento, east of Naples

1964	Visits the Venice Biennale where the work of Robert Rauschenberg in the American Pavilion makes a strong impression, revealing to him the 'reality of art'

1968	Completes his studies at the Liceo artistico di Benevento and within a year has participated in a group show in Naples. His early work uses photo-based imagery as well as showing an awareness of conceptual art: '…what I was really looking for was images. The frozen art, made with such a cold medium as the camera, certainly didn't come naturally, and above all, I couldn't have kept on making art along such a one-way track that excluded new possibilities'

Solo exhibition at the Galleria Carolina, Portici

1969	Solo exhibition at Enzo Cannaviello's Studio Oggetto, Caserta

1973	Begins combining images in mixed media, building up a complex iconography that takes account of 'a terrible mixture of messages from cultures, strangely opposed and divergent, though mixed together'

1977	Paints a seminal work that marks a shift towards painting at odds with current avant-garde practice:  'I have always thought of my work as something which is on a borderline with risk. Even my first painting with an image came out in a moment when something of this kind was totally outside the idea of painting; and the title, not by chance, was Silence, I am retiring to paint a picture'

Shows a large mural in tempera with Galleria Lucio Amelio in Naples

The same year he moves to Milan

1978	First visit to New York

1980	Invited by the Neapolitan critic Achille Bonito Oliva to show in the Aperto section of the Venice Biennale, together with Sandro Chia, Francesco Clemente, Enzo Cucchi, and Nicola De Maria.

Publication of the book-object EN DE RE in collaboration with Bonito Oliva (Emilio Mazzoli, Modena)

Begins experimenting with etching, aquatint, lino-cuts and xylography

1981	Participates in A New Spirit in Painting at the Royal Academy of Arts, London, a major exhibition that is shown the following year at the Martin-Gropius-Bau, Berlin, under the title Zeitgeist

A major solo exhibition of drawings from the previous five years is organised by the Kunstmuseum, Basel. It travels to the Kestner-Gesellschaft, Hannover, the Mannheimer Kunstverein, Mannheim, and the Groninger Museum, Groningen, and launches Paladino as an international artistWorks on the first of four projects with the New York printmakers Harlan & Weaver

1982	Participates in the Sydney Biennale and in Documenta 7, Kassel

Realises his first sculpture in bronze, Giardino chiuso

Makes the first of numerous visits to Brazil where his father is living

1984	Builds a house and studio in Paduli, near Benevento. From now on, divides his time between Paduli and his apartment in Milan

Shows five recent works at the Newport Harbor Museum as part of Il Modo Italiano, a survey of recent Italian art organized by the Los Angeles Institute of Contemporary Art and held in several venues

1985	First retrospective exhibition is held at the Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus, Munich.

Realises the Pietre, the first of several series of standing figures in white stone

1988	The Italian pavilion at the Venice Biennale devotes a large central space to a massive sculptural work consisting of enigmatic graphic symbols attached to the walls and a group of bronze figures

1989	Designs a Swatch watch which is produced in an edition of 100. 'The idea was not to decorate a watch, but to design time. My Swatch is like a humorous vanitas, a poetic symbol of passing time that was industrially manufactured'

1990	Commissioned by the theatre director Elio De Capitani to create a set for an open-air performance of the opera La sposa di Messina, based on Friedrich Schiller's tragic drama, and staged at Gibellina in Sicily as part of the Orestiadi festival. Paladino devises a sculpture-environment to be seen by moonlight. It consists of a Zen garden made of raked gravel dominated by a  mountain of salt from which emerge the charred forms of 30 wooden horses

1991	A major exhibition opens in Prague at the Belvedere, the royal castle that has been restored for the occasion; shows a cycle of seven new canvases inspired by the history of Prague, nine bronze torsos and works on paper. A sculpture of a fallen horse exhibited in a nearby piazza is removed after objections by a local bishop.

Completes a new cycle of twelve paintings on wood, Il respiro della bellezza. 'I've always painted as though the canvas itself were a living organism, to create a living, curious, palpitating thing. When I was applying a brushstroke to one of these works, I realised that this gesture was like breathing, like the panting of a man'

1992	Opening of Hortus Conclusus, a permanent sculpture installation for the Chiostro di San Domenico at Benevento: 'I liked the idea of a Hortus conclusus as a place for looking at and contemplating the work of art …outside the constraints of the art gallery'

The Galleria Civica d'Arte Contemporanea in Trento holds a major exhibition of prints produced between 1970 and 1992

1993	Responds to the assassinations of two judges by the Sicilian Mafia, which also caused the deaths of many others, by painting seven large pictures 'like a chorus, a requiem, which I then covered up with a coat of limestone wash (the same material used to bury the dead)'

Major solo exhibition at Forte Belvedere, Florence

1994	Invited to exhibit in Beijing, the first contemporary Italian artist to be shown there.

Works in Bologna

Publishes Ulysses, 16 June 1904, 21 unnumbered etchings based on James Joyce's novel

1995	Participates in Reparations, an exhibition of contemporary art held in the Sala delle Reali Poste in the west wing of the Uffizi to mark its restoration after that part of the building had been almost completely destroyed in a car-bomb blast in May 1993

1995–1996	Major solo exhibition in Naples, which is shown in three venues: the Scuderie di Palazzo Reale, the Piazza del Plebiscito and the Villa Pignatelli. Paladino's reconstruction of the Montagna di sale erected in the Piazza del Plebiscito is seen as a provocation and is vandalised early in the New Year

1998	Publishes Film, a collection of 32 drawings (Squadro edizioni grafiche, Bologna)

1999	A major exhibition at the South London Gallery includes Testimoni, a recently completed group of 20 standing figures in white Vicenza stone, and Zenith, a series of mixed-media works on aluminium.

Creates, as part of South London Gallery Projects, an installation I Dormienti in the brick-vaulted undercroft of the Roundhouse at Chalk Farm which is accompanied by a score written by Brian Eno.

An exhibition of new prints opens at the Alan Cristea Gallery.

Made an honorary member of the Royal Academy of Arts, London

2000	His design for the set of Oedipus Rex at the Teatro Argentina, Rome, directed by Mario Martone, wins the UBU prize for stage design

2001	Illustrates Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, published in two volumes by Casa editrice Le Lettere, Florence

Publication of catalogue raisonné of graphic works 1974–2001, ed. Enzo Di Martino (Art of this Century, New York/Paris)

2002–2003	Major retrospective held at the Centro per l'Arte Contemporanea Luigi Pecci, Prato

Represented together with Sandro Chia, Francesco Clemente, Enzo Cucchi and Nicola de Maria in Transavanguardia 1979-1985 at Castello Di Rivoli, Museo d'Arte Contemporanea, Turin

2003	Zenith installed in the square of the European Parliament headquarters

2004	Works made in close collaboration with Sol Lewitt are displayed at the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte in Rome

As part of the project Terrae Motus, has a solo show at the Reggia di Caserta

2004–2005	Touring Pinocchio exhibition is held at the modern art museums of six Japanese cities and at the eighteenth-century Scola dei Battioro in Venice

2005	Mimmo Paladino in Scena opens at the Loggetta Lombardesca in Ravenna.

Statue Zenith exhibited at EXPO 2005 in Aichi, Japan

An exhibition dedicated to the theme of Don Quixote by Cervantes opens in December at the Museo di Capodimonte, Naple

2006	Porta con Figura exhibited at the New Art Centre Sculpture Park and Gallery at Roche Court, Salisbury

Commissioned to re-design the Piazza dei Guidi at the new home of the Museo Leonardiano in Vinci

2009	Paladino: Sculpture 1980-2008, written by Enzo Di Martino and Friedhelm Mennekes published by Skira

2011	Montagna del Sale ('Mountain of Salt') installed in the Piazza del Duomo in Milan, as part of the celebrations to mark the anniversary of the unification of Italy. The installation has a diameter of 30 meters and a height of 20 meters

Shortlisted for The Royal Academy of Arts, London Wollaston Award

2013	Exhibition in summer during the international Ravello Festival

2015	Again at the Venice Biennale with a great installation

2016	An important retrospective at the Galleria Christian Stein, Milan.

2016	 Mimmo Paladino: Present into Past sculpture exhibition at Frederik Meijer Gardens and Sculpture Park, Grand Rapids, USA

Paladino currently lives and works in Milan, Rome, Paduli.

1�	A. Danto, "Mimmo Paladino. Transavanguardia to Meridionalism",	in F. Arensi, Paladino Palazzo Reale, exhibition catalogue, 2011, Giunti Editore, p. 35.

See also
 The Sound of Night (1986), a sculpture in Houston, Texas

References

Bibliography
 Flavio Arensi, "Paladino at Palazzo Reale", with essays by Arthur Danto and Germano Celant, Firenze, Giunti, 2011
 Enzo Di Martino and Klaus Albrecht Schröder, Mimmo Paladino, Graphic Work 1974-2001, New York, Rizzoli International Publications, 2002.
 Giancarlo Politi, Paladino: Lo Specchio, Milan, Politi Editore, 1992.
 Margaret Failoni, Mimmo Paladino, Kyoto, Japan, Kyoto Shoin, 1990.
 Giovanni Testori, Mimmo Paladino, Brussels, Artiscope, 1989.

External links
 Mimmo Paladino in ArtCycloprdia
 Mimmo Paladino on Artnet

1948 births
Living people
People from the Province of Benevento
Artists from Campania
20th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
21st-century Italian painters
20th-century Italian sculptors
20th-century Italian male artists
Italian male sculptors
21st-century Italian sculptors
Italian contemporary artists
Italian printmakers
Members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
20th-century printmakers
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy
Transavanguardia
21st-century Italian male artists
Neo-expressionist artists

Mimmo Paladino


Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester  (3 September 1724 – 10 November 1808), known between 1776 and 1786 as Sir Guy Carleton, was a British Army officer, peer and colonial administrator. He twice served as Governor of the Province of Quebec, from 1768 to 1778, concurrently serving as Governor General of British North America in that time, and again from 1785 to 1795. The title Baron Dorchester was created on 21 August 1786.

He commanded British troops in the American Revolutionary War, first leading the defence of Quebec during the 1775 rebel invasion, and the 1776 counteroffensive that drove the rebels from the province. In 1782 and 1783, he led as the commander-in-chief of all British forces in North America. In this capacity he was notable for carrying out the Crown's promise of freedom to slaves who joined the British, and he oversaw the evacuation of British forces, Loyalists and more than 3,000 freedmen from New York City in 1783 to transport them to a British colony. Toward this end, Carleton assigned Samuel Birch to create the Book of Negroes.

The military and political career of his younger brother, Thomas Carleton, was interwoven with his own, and Thomas served under him in the Canadas.

Early career
Guy Carleton was born into an Ulster Protestant military family that had lived in Ulster in the north of the Kingdom of Ireland since the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century, and was one of three brothers (the others being Thomas Carleton and William Carleton) who served in the British military. He was born and raised in Strabane in the west of County Tyrone, just across the River Foyle from Lifford in County Donegal. Guy also had a sister, Connolly Crawford. When he was fourteen his father, Christopher Carleton, died, and his mother, Catherine Carleton, then married Reverend Thomas Skelton, who took responsibility for his education.

In 1742, at the age of seventeen, Carleton was commissioned as an ensign into the 25th Regiment of Foot, in which in 1745 he was promoted lieutenant. During this period he became a friend of James Wolfe; he may have served with Wolfe at the Battle of Culloden during the Jacobite rising of 1745. Two of his brothers, William and Thomas, also joined the British Army.

In 1740 the War of the Austrian Succession broke out in Europe. Despite British troops having been engaged on the European continent since 1742, it was not until 1747 that Carleton and his regiment were despatched to Flanders. They fought the French, but were unable to prevent the Fall of Bergen-op-Zoom, a major Dutch fortress, and the war was brought to a halt by an armistice. In 1748 the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed and Carleton returned to Britain. He was frustrated to still only be a lieutenant, and believed his opportunities of advancement would be limited with the end of the war.

In 1751 he joined the 1st Foot Guards and in 1752 was promoted to captain. His career received a major boost when he was chosen, at the suggestion of Wolfe, to act as a guide to The 3rd Duke of Richmond during a tour of the battlefields of the recent war. Richmond would become an influential patron to Carleton.

Seven Years' War

Germany

In 1757, Guy Carleton was made a lieutenant colonel and served as part of the Army of Observation made up of German troops designed to protect Hanover from French invasion. The army was forced to retreat following the Battle of Hastenbeck and eventually concluded the Convention of Klosterzeven, taking them out of the war. After the convention was signed, Carleton returned to Britain. In 1758 he was made the lieutenant colonel of the newly formed 72nd Regiment of Foot. James Wolfe selected Carleton as his aide in the 1758 attack on Louisburg. King George II declined to make this appointment, possibly because of negative comments he made about the soldiers of Hanover during his service on the Continent.

For some time he was unable to gain active position, until he was sent back to Germany to serve as an aide-de-camp to Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick.

Canada

In December 1758 Wolfe, now a major general, was given command of the upcoming campaign against the city of Quebec, and selected Carleton as his quarter-master general. King George refused to make this appointment also until Lord Ligonier talked to the king about the matter and the king changed his mind. When Lieutenant-Colonel Carleton arrived in Halifax he assumed command of six hundred grenadiers. He was with the British forces when they arrived at Quebec in June 1759. Carleton was responsible for the provisioning of the army and also acting as an engineer supervising the placement of cannon. Carleton received a head wound during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and he returned to England after the battle in October 1759.

France and Havana

On 29 March 1761, as the lieutenant colonel of the 72nd Regiment of Foot he took part in the attack on Belle Île, an island off the coast of the northern part of the Bay of Biscay,  off the coast of France. Carleton led an attack on the French, but was seriously wounded and prevented from taking any further part in the fighting. After four weeks of fighting, the British gained complete control of the island.

He was made colonel in 1762 and took part in the British expedition against Cuba, which also included Richard Montgomery, who went on to oppose him in 1775. On 22 July, he was wounded leading an attack on a Spanish outpost.

In 1764 he transferred to the 93rd Regiment of Foot.

Governor of Quebec

On 7 April 1766, Carleton was named acting Lieutenant Governor and Administrator of Quebec with James Murray officially in charge. He arrived in Quebec on 22 September 1766. As Carleton had no experience in public affairs and came from a politically insignificant family, his appointment is unusual and was possibly a surprise to him. One connection may have been due to the Duke of Richmond, who in 1766 been made Secretary of State for the North American colonies. Fourteen years earlier, Carleton had tutored the Duke. The Duke was the colonel of the 72nd Regiment of Foot, while Carleton was its lieutenant colonel. He appointed Carleton as commander-in-chief of all troops stationed in Quebec.

The government consisted of a Governor, a council, and an assembly.  The governor could veto any action of the council, but London had also given Carleton instructions that all of his actions required the approval of the council. Most officials of the province at this time did not receive a salary and received their income through fees they charged for their services. Carleton tried to replace this system with one in which the officials received a regular salary, but this position was never supported in London.  When Carleton renounced his own fees, Murray was furious.

After Murray resigned his position, Carleton was appointed Captain General and Governor-in-Chief on 12 April 1768. Carleton took the oath of office on 1 November 1768. On 9 August 1770 he sailed for England for what he thought was a few months' consultation on issues related to the integration of Quebec into the British system. During his absence, Hector Theophilus de Cramahé, the lieutenant governor, ran the provincial government, with the aid of the first chief justice, William Hey, and the Attorney-General, Francis Maseres. The British merchants of Quebec, many of whom had become disaffected to the colonial administration under Murray, were, at least initially, of good will. The merchants would later be agent for e.g. the Quebec Act 1774 (14 Geo. 3. c. 83) and finally the partition of the two Canadas in the Constitutional Act 1791 (31 Geo. 3. c. 31).

Marriage and family
On 22 May 1772, at the age of nearly 48, Carleton married Lady Maria Howard, daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd Earl of Effingham.

They had nine sons and two daughters. His elder brothers having predeceased him, and himself dying two years before his father, third son Lieutenant-Colonel Christopher Carleton was father of Arthur, 2nd Baron Dorchester; Christopher's younger brother, the sixth son, Lieutenant-Colonel George Carleton, was father of Guy, the 3rd Baron.

The title was extinct at the 3rd Baron's death in 1897, but it was revived when his daughter, Henrietta, was created Baroness Dorchester; the title was extinct again at the death of her son, Dudley, 2nd Baron, in 1963.

Later career

Carleton was promoted to major general on 25 May 1772. While he was in London, the Parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774, based upon his recommendations. It determined how the province was to be administered and was part of a continuing effort to respect some French traditions while ensuring rights of citizens as understood by the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Carleton and Maria returned to Quebec on 18 September 1774, where he began implementing the provisions of the act. While the clergy and the seigneurs (petty gentry) were happy with provisions favorable to them, British merchants and migrants from the Thirteen Colonies objected to a number of the provisions, which they thought were pro-Catholic. They argued that only English-speaking Protestants should be able to vote or hold public office. Many of the habitants were unhappy with the provisions reinstating the tithe in support of the Catholic Church, as well as seigneurial obligations, such as the corvée (a labor requirement).

In late 1774, the First Continental Congress sent letters to Montreal denouncing the Quebec Act for promoting Catholicism by allowing Catholics to hold civil service positions and reinstating the tithe. John Brown, an agent for the Boston Committee of Correspondence, arrived in Montreal in early 1775 as part of an effort to persuade citizens to send delegates to the Second Continental Congress, scheduled to meet in May 1775.  Carleton, while aware of this activity, did nothing to prevent it, beyond discouraging publication of the Congressional letter in the province's only newspaper.

American War of Independence

Defence of Canada

Carleton received notice of the start of the rebellion in May 1775, soon followed by the news of the rebel capture of Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown Point, and the raid on Fort Saint-Jean. As he had previously sent two of his regiments to Boston, he had only about 800 regular soldiers left in Quebec. His attempts to raise a militia met with limited success at first, as neither the ethnic French nor the English residents were willing to join. Area Natives were willing to fight on the British side, and the Crown wanted them to do so, but Carleton turned their offer down because he feared the Natives attacking non-combatants. For the same reason, he limited Guy Johnson and his Iroquois allies, who had come to Quebec from New York, to operating only in Quebec.

During the summer of 1775, Carleton directed the preparation of provincial defences, which were focused on Fort Saint-Jean. In September, the Continental Army began its invasion and besieged the fort. When it fell in November, Carleton was forced to flee from Montreal to Quebec City, escaping capture by disguising himself as a commoner.

In December 1775 he directed the city's defences in the Battle of Quebec and the ensuing siege, which was broken by the arrival of British troops in May 1776 under command of John Burgoyne, who was appointed second-in-command. Carleton's younger brother Thomas was part of the relief effort.

Guy Carleton launched a counteroffensive against the rebels, which included repelling an attempted attack on Trois-Rivières. In June 1776, he was appointed a Knight Companion of the Bath. He was promoted to the rank of a general for America only on 26 March 1776.

The next month Carleton commanded British naval forces on the Richelieu River, culminating in the Battle of Valcour Island on Lake Champlain in October 1776 against a rebel fleet led by General Benedict Arnold.  The British, with a significantly superior fleet, won a decisive victory, destroying or capturing most of the rebel fleet, but the delay prevented Carleton from continuing on to capture Fort Ticonderoga that year. His brother Thomas and nephew Christopher both served on his staff during the campaign. The morning following the battle, a small island in Lake Champlain was named Carleton's Prize, perhaps to Carleton's embarrassment at the time.

He was promoted to lieutenant general on 6 September 1777. In 1777, command of the major northern expedition to divide the rebel colonies was given to General Burgoyne. Upset that he had not been given its command, Carleton asked to be recalled. He was replaced as governor and military commander of Quebec in 1778 by Frederick Haldimand, and returned to England. In 1780 he was appointed by Prime Minister Lord North to a commission investigating public finances. This post he held until 1782, when General Sir Henry Clinton was recalled in the aftermath of the 1781 surrender at Yorktown. Carleton was appointed to replace Clinton as Commander-in-Chief, America, in May 1782. His headquarters in New York City were located at Number One Broadway.

Evacuation of New York

In August 1783, Carleton was informed that Great Britain would grant the United States its independence. With his exit from New York imminent, Carleton asked to be relieved of his command. With this news, Loyalists began an exodus from the Thirteen Colonies and Carleton did his best to have them resettled outside the United States.

In May he had met with George Washington, among others, to arrange for the implementation of those parts of the Treaty of Paris relating to the evacuation of New York City, then commanded by Carleton and still occupied by the British Army, many Loyalists and former slaves.  Carleton had refused to deliver over the human property to the Americans at the time of the British evacuation.  Instead, he proposed a registry so that "the owners might eventually be paid for the slaves who were entitled to their freedom by British Proclamation and promises."

Sir Guy noted that nothing could be changed in any Articles that were inconsistent with prior policies or National Honour. He added that the only mode was to pay for the Negroes, in which case justice was done to all, the former slaves and the owners. Carleton said that it would be a breach of faith not to honour the British policy of liberty to the Negro and declared that if removing them proved to be an infraction of the treaty, then compensation would have to be paid by the British government. To provide for such a contingency, he had a register kept of all Negroes who left, called the Book of Negroes, entering their names, ages, occupations, and names of their former masters. The Americans agreed to this, but as far as can be determined, the Crown never paid compensation. The British transported about 3,000 freedmen and other Loyalists to Nova Scotia for resettlement. As the colony struggled, some of the freedmen later chose in the early 1790s to go to Freetown, Sierra Leone, where the British set up a new colony, which included the Black Poor from London.

Washington disagreed with Sir Guy's actions and wrote: "…the measure is totally different from the letter and spirit of the Treaty but waiving the specialty of the point, leaving this decision to our respective Sovereigns I find it my duty to signify my readiness in conjunction with you to enter into agreements, or take any measures which may be deemed expedient to prevent the future carrying away any Negroes or other property of the American people."

On 28 November the evacuation was finished, and on 5 December Carleton departed from Staten Island to return to England. John Campbell of Strachur succeeded him as Commander-in-Chief, North America, although the post was then much reduced in scope.

Post-war years and death
Upon his return to England, Carleton recommended the creation of a position of Governor General of all the provinces in British North America. Instead he was appointed "Governor-in-chief", with simultaneous appointments as governor of Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and St. John's Island (present-day Prince Edward Island). He arrived in Quebec on 23 October 1786. His position as Governor-in-chief was mostly ignored. He found quickly that his authority in any of the provinces other than Quebec was effective only while he was present in person.

He was raised to the Peerage of Great Britain in August 1786 as The 1st Baron Dorchester, Baron of Dorchester in the County of Oxford.

The Constitutional Act of 1791 split the large territory of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada, corresponding roughly to areas settled by ethnic British and ethnic French, respectively. Sir Alured Clarke was named as the lieutenant governor of Lower Canada and John Graves Simcoe the lieutenant governor of Upper Canada. In August 1791 Carleton left for Britain and on 7 February 1792 took his seat in the House of Lords. He left for Canada again on 18 August 1793 to resume his duties there. His replacement, Robert Prescott, arrived in May 1796. On 9 July 1796 Carleton sailed from Canada to Britain, never to return.

In retirement Lord Dorchester, as he was now, lived mostly at Greywell Hill, adjoining Nately Scures, in Hampshire. After about 1805 he moved to Stubbings House at Burchett's Green, near Maidenhead, in Berkshire. On 10 November 1808, he died suddenly at Stubbings. He was buried in the parish church of St Swithun's, Nately Scures.

Honours and legacy

He was honoured by numerous places and educational institutions named for him:
 , a Canadian Forces Naval Reserve Division in Ottawa
 Carleton University in Ottawa
 Dorchester Avenue in Ottawa
 The Carleton, Halifax, Nova Scotia
 Carleton, Nova Scotia
 Carleton Village, Nova Scotia
 Dorchester Road in Niagara Falls, Canada
 Dorchester Boulevard, a major thoroughfare in Montreal since renamed René Lévesque Boulevard
 Dorchester Square in downtown Montreal
 Dorchester Island and the parish and town of Dorchester, all of New Brunswick
 Carleton Street, in:
 Carlton Street in Downtown Toronto is indirectly named for Carleton via Ann Wood for her brother Guy Carleton Wood of Cornwall, Ontario
 Saint John, New Brunswick
 Yarmouth, Nova Scotia
 Fredericton, New Brunswick
 St. Andrews, New Brunswick
 Moosomin, Saskatchewan
 Rue Dorchester, a thoroughfare in Quebec City.
 Old Carleton County Court House, Upper Woodstock, New Brunswick
 Carleton Place, a town in Eastern Ontario
 Carleton County, New Brunswick
 Carleton County, Ontario, that became the Region of Ottawa-Carleton, and then the City of Ottawa with amalgamation in 2001.
 Carleton-sur-Mer, Quebec, a town on the North Shore of Baie de Chaleurs.
 Guysborough County, Nova Scotia (Guys' borough)
 Guy's Restaurant, in his birthplace of Strabane, is also named after Carleton. The restaurant was formerly known as the Carleton Club.
 Lord Dorchester High School in Dorchester, Ontario
 Sir Guy Carleton Secondary School in Ottawa
 Sir Guy Carleton Elementary School in Vancouver, British Columbia.

 Carleton is mentioned in a Fort Saint-Jean plaque erected in 1926 by Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada at the Royal Military College Saint-Jean. "Constructed in 1743 by M. de Léry under orders from Governor la Galissonnière. This post was for all the military expeditions towards Lake Champlain. On 31 August 1760, Commandant de Roquemaure had it blown up in accordance with orders from the Governor de Vaudreuil in order to prevent its falling into the hands of the English. Rebuilt by Governor Carleton, in 1773. During the same year, under the command of Major Charles Preston of the 26th Regiment, it withstood a 45-day siege by the American troops commanded by General Montgomery."
 Carleton Island, part of the Thousand Islands, is near the Royal Military College of Canada. The Governor of Upper Canada, John Graves Simcoe, named Wolfe island in General James Wolfe's honour in 1792. The surrounding islands bear the names of Wolfe's generals: Howe, Carleton, Amherst and Gage (now Simcoe). The island was ceded to the Americans in 1794 as part of Jay's Treaty.
 Via Rail Canada has a Manor sleeping car named after Sir Guy Carleton in his honour and there is a plaque inside the railcar explaining his exploits.
 The first railroad in Canada, the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad had its first locomotive (a 0-2-0) named "Dorchester".
 Carleton Point, a short-lived Loyalist settlement on Great Abaco Island, Bahamas, was named for him
 The Dorchester Review magazine (est. 2011 at Ottawa) is named in his honour.
 Before the 1790s, Niagara Falls, Ontario was once called Mount Dorchester in honour of Carleton.

See also
 List of governors general of Canada
 List of lieutenant governors of Quebec
 Commander-in-Chief, North America
 History of Quebec
 History of North America
 Constitutional history of Canada

References

Bibliography
 Billias, George Athan, Editor, George Washington's Opponents, William Marrow and Company, Inc., New York, 1969, 103–135.

 Nelson, Paul David. General Sir Guy Carleton, Lord Dorchester: Soldier-Statesman of Early British Canada. Associated University Presses, 2000.
 Reynolds, Paul R., Guy Carleton, A Biography, 1980,
 Wrong, George M. Canada and the American Revolution. New York, 1968.

External links

 St Swithun's Church, Nately Scures, England Plaque memorial for Guy Carleton, Gobernador de Quebec y Thomas Carleton Gobernador de New Brunswick
 Archives of Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester (Sir Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester fonds, R7136) are held at Library and Archives Canada

1724 births
1808 deaths
18th-century Anglo-Irish people
British Army generals
British military personnel of the French and Indian War
British Army personnel of the American Revolutionary War
Governors of British North America
Lieutenant Governors of the Province of Quebec (1763–1791)
Governors of the Province of Quebec (1763–1791)
Barons in the Peerage of Great Britain
Peers of Great Britain created by George III
Knights Companion of the Order of the Bath
People from Strabane
People from Hart District
People from Maidenhead
King's Own Scottish Borderers officers
78th Highlanders officers
Grenadier Guards officers
British Army personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Military personnel from County Tyrone

Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester


Mission of Gravity is a science fiction novel by American writer Hal Clement. The novel was serialized in Astounding Science Fiction magazine in April–July 1953. Its first hardcover book publication was in 1954, and it was first published as a paperback book in 1958.  Along with the novel, many editions (and most recent editions) of the book also include "Whirligig World", an essay by Clement on creating the planet Mesklin that was first published in the June 1953 Astounding.

Clement published three sequels to Mission of Gravity: a 1970 novel called Star Light, a 1973 short story called "Lecture Demonstration", and a 2000 short story, "Under".  Mission of Gravity was nominated for a "Retro-Hugo" Award for the year 1954.

Setting
The story is set on a very rapidly rotating highly oblate planet named Mesklin; its "day" is just under 18 minutes long, and its surface gravity varies between 700 g at the poles and 3 g at its equator. The story is told from the points of view of one of the local intelligent life forms and a human explorer.  The locals are centipede-like, in order to withstand the enormous gravity, and terrified of even small heights, because in 700 g, even a tiny fall is fatal. (See Mesklin for a more comprehensive description of the planet's characteristics.)

Plot summary
The native protagonist, Barlennan, captain of the sailing raft Bree, is on a trading expedition to the equator. Prior to the story's opening, a human scientific probe has become stranded at one of the planet's poles, where the gravity is too strong to effect a rescue. A member of the scientific team, Charles Lackland, is dispatched to the equator where he has met Barlennan by chance. Even machine aided, Lackland is barely able to function in the 3 g environment, one Barlennan considers incredibly light and a tiny fraction of what his culture is used to.

Lackland teaches the Bree crew English and arranges a deal with Barlennan; in exchange for the humans providing warnings of the violent weather which often plagues trips to the pole, Barlennan will retrieve the probe and return it to the equator where it can be picked up. Communication is achieved through an audio-visual radio built to function in a high-gravity environment, which is treated as magical by other intelligences encountered on the planet.

Along the way to the pole, the ship encounters and overcomes a variety of obstacles, some of which the humans help with using their superior scientific knowledge, and some of which rely on the cunning of Barlennan and his crew. They are captured by various lifeforms similar to themselves, but who live in the lower-gravity areas and have developed projectile weapons and gliders. Gradually, with human help, they gain an understanding of these and manage to escape.

Barlennan has been dissatisfied with the humans' efforts to seemingly avoid explanation of anything scientific, and almost withholds the probe when they finally reach it; but the humans convince them that a scientific background is needed to understand the advanced equipment in the probe, and a deal is reached whereby the humans will educate the Mesklinites.

The novel provides an exposition on how the weather, geology and atmosphere of the seas and the pole are affected by the local conditions, and sees the Mesklinites overcoming their fear of gravity as they learn to view it scientifically, eventually harnessing aerodynamics to make the Bree fly at the poles.

Reception
Mission was the runner-up for the 1955 International Fantasy Award for fiction. Boucher and McComas found Mission "compact and unified, with a good deal of adventurous excitement" and characterized it as "a splendid specimen of science fiction in the grandest of grand manners."

Wayne Barlowe illustrated the Mesklinites in his Barlowe's Guide to Extraterrestrials.

Reputation
The story is "noteworthy not only as an impressive piece of planet-building, but as the first SF novel built on actual observational data involving another possible solar system",:170 making it an early and often-praised example of macrocosmic worldbuilding hard science fiction. Although Clement has stated that his original calculations concerning the polar gravity of Mesklin were inaccurate — he later estimated the polar gravity should have been approximately 250 g instead of 700 — the exploration of what existence might be like in such extreme conditions is detailed, convincing, and persuasive. The novel is frequently invoked in discussions of the sense of wonder, the sensation of dawning comprehension and understanding of a larger context for a given experience, that many readers of science fiction point to as the reason why they pursue the genre.

The personalities of Clement's alien characters have been criticized as being "too human" or not "alien enough", as failing to be, in the words of John W. Campbell "something that thinks as well as a man, but not like a man".

References

External links

1953 American novels
1953 science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in Analog Science Fiction and Fact
Doubleday (publisher) books
Hard science fiction
Space exploration novels

Mission of Gravity