Robert Smalls (April 5, 1839 – February 23, 1915) was an American politician, publisher, businessman and maritime pilot.  Born into slavery in Beaufort, South Carolina, he freed himself, his crew and their families during the American Civil War by commandeering a Confederate transport ship, CSS Planter, in Charleston harbor, on May 13, 1862, and sailing it from the Confederate-controlled waters of the harbor to the U.S. blockade that surrounded it. He then piloted the ship to the Union-controlled enclave in Beaufort–Port Royal–Hilton Head area, where it became a Union warship. His example and persuasion helped convince President Abraham Lincoln to accept African-American soldiers into the Union Army.

After the Civil War, Smalls returned to Beaufort and became a politician, winning election as a Republican to the South Carolina Legislature and the United States House of Representatives during the Reconstruction era. He authored state legislation providing for South Carolina to have the first free and compulsory public school system in the United States. He founded the Republican Party of South Carolina. Smalls was the last Republican to represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district until the election of Mick Mulvaney in 2010.

Early life
Robert Smalls was born in 1839 to Lydia Polite, a woman enslaved by Henry McKee. She gave birth to him in a cabin behind McKee's house, at 511 Prince Street in Beaufort, South Carolina. He grew up in the city under the influence of the Lowcountry Gullah culture of his mother. His mother lived as a servant in the house, but she had grown up in the fields. Smalls was favored by McKee over other enslaved people, so his mother worried that he might grow up not understanding the plight of enslaved field workers, and she asked for him to be made to work in the fields and to witness whippings.

When he was 12, at the request of his mother, Smalls's master sent him to Charleston to hire out as a laborer for sixteen dollars a week, of which he was allowed to keep one dollar, the rest of the wage being paid to his master. Smalls first worked in a hotel, then became a street lamplighter. In his teen years, his love of the sea led him to find work on Charleston's docks and wharves. Smalls worked as a longshoreman, rigger and sail maker, and he eventually worked his way up to become a wheelman, more or less a helmsman, though enslaved people were not permitted that title. As a result, he was very knowledgeable about Charleston Harbor.

At age 17, Smalls married Hannah Jones, an enslaved hotel maid, in Charleston on December 24, 1856. She was five years his senior and already had two daughters. Their own first child, Elizabeth Lydia Smalls, was born in February 1858. Three years later, they had a son, Robert Jr., who died at age two. Smalls aimed to pay for their freedom by purchasing them outright, but the price was steep, $800 (). He had managed to save up only $100. It might have taken him decades to reach $800.

Civil War

Escape from slavery
In April 1861, the Civil War began with the Battle of Fort Sumter in nearby Charleston Harbor. In the fall of 1861, Smalls was assigned to steer the CSS Planter, a lightly armed Confederate military transport under the command of Charleston's District Commander Brigadier General Roswell S. Ripley. Planters duties were to survey waterways, lay mines, and deliver dispatches, troops and supplies. Smalls piloted the Planter throughout Charleston harbor and beyond, on area rivers and along the South Carolina, Georgia and Florida coasts. From Charleston harbor, Smalls and the Planters crew could see the line of federal blockade ships in the outer harbor, seven miles away. Smalls appeared content and had the confidence of the Planters crew and owners, but, at some time in April 1862, he began to plan an escape. He discussed the matter with all the other enslaved people in the crew except one, whom he did not trust.

On May 12, 1862, the Planter traveled ten miles southwest of Charleston to stop at Coles Island, a Confederate post on the Stono River that was being dismantled. There, the ship picked up four large guns to transport to a fort in Charleston harbor. Back in Charleston, the crew loaded  of ammunition and  of firewood onto the Planter.

On the evening of May 12, the Planter was docked as usual at the wharf below General Ripley's headquarters. Its three Euro-American officers disembarked to spend the night ashore, leaving Smalls and the crew on board, "as was their custom." (Afterward, the three Confederate officers were court-martialed and two convicted, but the verdicts were later overturned.) Before the officers departed, Smalls asked Captain Relyea if the crew's families could visit, which was occasionally allowed, and he approved on condition that they depart before curfew. When the families arrived, the men revealed the plan to them.

This was the first the women and children had heard of it, although Smalls recently had told [his wife] Hannah. She had known that Smalls longed to escape but hadn't realized that he was formulating a plan and intended to execute it. She was taken aback but quickly regained her composure and told him, "It is a risk, dear, but you and I, and our little ones must be free. I will go, for where you die, I will die.The other women were less steadfast. They cried and screamed when they learned what they had stumbled into, and the men struggled to quiet them.... Later, once the shock had worn off, those women admitted that they were glad for a chance at freedom....

At some point, three crew members pretended to escort the family members back home, but they circled around and hid aboard another steamer docked at the North Atlantic wharf. At about 3:00 a.m. on May 13, Smalls and seven of the eight enslaved crewmen made their previously planned escape to the Union blockade ships. Smalls put on the captain's uniform and wore a straw hat similar to the captain's. He sailed the Planter past what was then called Southern Wharf and stopped at another wharf to pick up his wife and children and the families of other crewmen.

Smalls guided the ship past the five Confederate harbor forts without incident, as he gave the correct steam-whistle signals at checkpoints. The Planter had been commanded by Captain Charles C. J. Relyea, and Smalls copied Relyea's manners and straw hat on deck to fool Confederate onlookers from shore and the forts. The Planter sailed past Fort Sumter at about 4:30 a.m.

As the nearly-free slaves approached Fort Sumter, their apprehension grew. It was the most heavily armed of the Confederate forts and tended to be manned by the most suspicious soldiers. One of the men aboard later said, "When we drew near the fort every man but Robert Smalls felt his knees giving way and the women began crying and praying again." As the Planter approached the fort, several men urged Smalls to give it a wide berth. Smalls refused, saying that such behavior would almost certainly arouse suspicion. He steered the ship along its normal path, slowly, as though he were merely enjoying the early morning air and in no particular hurry. When Fort Sumter flashed the challenge signal, Smalls again gave the correct hand signs. There was a long pause. The fort didn't immediately respond, and Smalls now expected cannon fire to shred the Planter at any moment. Finally, the fort signaled that all was well, and Smalls sailed his ship out of the harbor.

The alarm was only raised after the ship was beyond gun range, for, rather than turn east towards Morris Island, Smalls had headed straight for the Union Navy fleet, replacing the rebel flags with a white bed sheet that had been brought by his wife. The Planter had been seen by the , which was about to fire until a crewman spotted the white flag. In the dark, the sheet was difficult to see, but the sunrise arrived which allowed viewing.

Witness account:

Just as No. 3 port gun was being elevated, someone cried out, "I see something that looks like a white flag"; and true enough there was something flying on the steamer that would have been white by application of soap and water. As she neared us, we looked in vain for the face of a white man. When they discovered that we would not fire on them, there was a rush of contrabands out on her deck, some dancing, some singing, whistling, jumping; and others stood looking towards Fort Sumter, and muttering all sorts of maledictions against it, and "de heart of de Souf," generally. As the steamer came near, and under the stern of the Onward, one of the Colored men stepped forward, and taking off his hat, shouted, "Good morning, sir! I've brought you some of the old United States guns, sir!" That man was Robert Smalls.

The Onwards captain, John Frederick Nickels, boarded the Planter, and Smalls asked for a United States flag to display. He surrendered the Planter and its cargo to the United States Navy. Smalls's escape plan had succeeded.

The Planter and description of Smalls's actions were forwarded by Nickels to his commander, Capt. E.G. Parrott. In addition to its own light guns, Planter carried the four loose artillery pieces from Coles Island and 200 pounds of ammunition. Most valuable, however, were the captain's code book containing the Confederate signals and a map of the mines and torpedoes that had been laid in Charleston's harbor. Smalls's own extensive knowledge of the Charleston region's waterways and military configurations proved highly valuable. Parrott again forwarded the Planter to flag officer Samuel Francis Du Pont at Port Royal, describing Smalls as very intelligent. Smalls gave detailed information about Charleston's defenses to Du Pont, commander of the blockading fleet. Federal officers were surprised to learn from Smalls that contrary to their calculations, only a few thousand troops remained to protect the area, the rest having been sent to Tennessee and Virginia. They also learned that the Coles Island fortifications on Charleston's southern flank were being abandoned and were without protection. This intelligence allowed Union forces to capture Coles Island and its string of batteries without a fight on May 20, a week after Smalls's escape. The Union would hold the Stono inlet as a base for the remaining three years of the war. Du Pont was impressed, and wrote the following to the Navy secretary in Washington: "Robert, the intelligent slave and pilot of the boat, who performed this bold feat so skillfully, informed me of [the capture of the Sumter gun], presuming it would be a matter of interest." He "is superior to any who have come into our lines — intelligent as many of them have been."

Service to the Union

Smalls, having just turned 23, quickly became known in the North as a hero for his daring exploit. Newspapers and magazines reported his actions. The U.S. Congress passed a bill awarding Smalls and his crewmen the prize money for the Planter (valuable not only for its guns but also its low draft in Charleston bay); Southern newspapers demanded harsh discipline for the Confederate officers whose joint shore leave had allowed Smalls and his men to steal the boat.  Smalls's share of the prize money came to . Immediately after the capture, Smalls was invited to travel to New York to help raise money for formerly enslaved people, but DuPont vetoed the proposal and Smalls began to serve the Union Navy, especially with his detailed knowledge of mines laid near Charleston. However, with the encouragement of Major General David Hunter, the Union commander at Port Royal, Smalls went to Washington, D.C., in August 1862 with Rev. Mansfield French, a Methodist minister who had helped found Wilberforce University in Ohio and had been sent by the American Missionary Association to help formerly enslaved people at Port Royal. They wanted to persuade Lincoln and Secretary of War Edwin Stanton to permit African-American men to fight for the Union. Although Lincoln had previously rescinded orders by Hunter and Generals Fremont and Sherman to mobilize African-American troops, Stanton soon signed an order permitting up to 5,000 African Americans to enlist in the Union forces at Port Royal. Those who did were organized as the 1st and 2nd South Carolina Regiments (Colored). Smalls worked as a civilian with the Navy until March 1863, when he was transferred to the Army. By his own account, Smalls was present at 17 major battles and engagements in the Civil War.

After capture, the Planter required some repairs, which were performed locally, and went into Union service near Fort Pulaski. The boat was valued for its shallow draft, compared to other boats in the fleet. Smalls was made pilot of the  under Captain Alexander Rhind. In June of that year, Smalls was piloting the Crusader on Edisto in Wadmalaw Sound when the Planter returned to service, and an infantry regiment engaged in the Battle of Simmon's Bluff at the head of the Edisto River. He continued to pilot the Crusader and the Planter. While enslaved, he had assisted in laying mines (then called "torpedoes") along the coast and river. Now, as a pilot, he helped find and remove them and serviced the blockade between Charleston and Beaufort. He was also present when the Planter was fired upon at several fights at Adam's Run on the Dawho River and at battles at Rockville, at John's Island, and at the Second Battle of Pocotaligo.

He was made pilot of the ironclad , again under Captain Rhind, and took part in the attack on Fort Sumter on April 7, 1863, which was a preamble to the Second Battle of Fort Sumter later that fall. The Keokuk took 96 hits and retired for the night, sinking the next morning. Smalls and much of the crew moved to the Ironside and the fleet returned to Hilton Head.

In June 1863, Hunter was replaced as commander of the Department of the South by Quincy Adams Gillmore. With Gillmore's arrival, Smalls was transferred to the quartermaster's department. Smalls was pilot of the , later recommissioned in the Confederate Navy the Stono in the expedition on Morris Island. When Union troops took the southern end of the Island, Smalls was put in charge of the Light House Inlet as pilot.

On December 1, 1863, Smalls was piloting the Planter under Captain James Nickerson on Folly Island Creek when Confederate batteries at Secessionville opened. Nickerson fled the pilot house for the coal-bunker. Smalls refused to surrender, fearing that the African-American crewmen would not be treated as prisoners of war and instead be summarily killed. Smalls entered the pilothouse and took command of the boat and piloted it to safety. For this, he was reportedly promoted by Gillmore to the rank of captain and made acting captain of the Planter.

In May 1864, he was voted an unofficial delegate to the Republican National Convention in Baltimore. Later that spring, Smalls piloted the Planter to Philadelphia for an overhaul. In Philadelphia, he supported what was known as the Port Royal Experiment, an effort to raise money to support the education and development of formerly enslaved people. At the outset of the Civil War, Smalls could not read or write, but he achieved literacy in Philadelphia. In 1864, Smalls was seated in a streetcar in Philadelphia and was ordered to give his seat to a Euro-American passenger. Rather than ride on the open overflow platform, Smalls left the car. This incident of humiliating a heroic veteran was cited in the debate that resulted in the Pennsylvania legislature's passing a bill to integrate public transportation in Pennsylvania in 1867.

In December 1864, Smalls and the Planter moved to support William T. Sherman's army in Savannah, Georgia at the destination point of his March to the Sea. Smalls returned with the Planter to Charleston harbor in April 1865 for the ceremonial raising of the American flag again at Fort Sumter. Smalls was discharged on June 11, 1865. Other vessels that Smalls piloted during the war included the  and the . He continued to pilot the Planter, serving a humanitarian mission of taking food and supplies to freedmen who had lost their homes and livelihoods during the war. On September 30, the Planter entered the service of the Freedmen's Bureau.

Commission and prize money
Smalls's position in the Union Army and Navy has been disputed, and his reward for the capture of the Planter has been criticized. During his life, articles about Smalls state that, when he was assigned to pilot the Planter, the Navy did not allow him to hold the rank of pilot because he was not a graduate of a naval academy, a requirement at that time. To assure that he received proper pay for a captain, he was commissioned second lieutenant of the 1st South Carolina Volunteers (later re-designated as the 33rd U.S. Colored Infantry) and detailed to act as pilot. Many sources also state that General Gillmore promoted Smalls to captain in December 1863 after he saved the Planter when it was under attack near Secessionville. Later sources state that Smalls did receive a commission either in the Army or the Navy, but that he likely was officially a civilian throughout the war. In 1865, his salary as "commander" of the Planter was given in a newspaper as $1,800 (); he and the Planter were in Charleston harbor with the Union ships in 1865 and transported from shore all of the African Americans who wanted to attend the flag-raising ceremony at Ft. Sumter.

Later in his life, when Smalls sought a Navy pension, he learned that he had not been officially commissioned. He claimed he had received an official commission from Gillmore but had lost it. In 1883, a bill passed committee to put him on the Navy retired list, but in the end it was halted, allegedly due to Smalls being African-American. In 1897, a special act of Congress granted Smalls a pension of $30 per month, equal to the pension for a Navy captain.

In 1883, during discussion of the bill to put Smalls on the Navy retired list, a report stated that the 1862 appraisal of the Planter was "absurdly low" and that a fair valuation would have been over $60,000. However, Smalls received no further payment until 1900. That year, Congress passed a statute paying Smalls $5,000, less the amount paid to him in 1862 ($1,500), for his capture of the steamship. Many still felt that this was less than his due.

After the Civil War
Immediately following the war, Smalls returned to his native Beaufort, where he purchased his former master's house at 511 Prince St., which Union tax authorities had seized in 1863 for refusal to pay taxes. Later, the former owner sued to regain the property, but Smalls retained ownership in the court case. The case became an important precedent in other, similar cases. His mother, Lydia, lived with him for the remainder of her life. He allowed his former enslaver's wife, the elderly Jane McKee, to move into her former home prior to her death. Smalls spent nine months learning to read and write. He purchased a two-story Beaumont building to use as a school for African-American children.

Business ventures

In 1866, Smalls went into business in Beaufort with Richard Howell Gleaves, a businessman from Philadelphia. They opened a store to serve the needs of freedmen. Smalls also hired a teacher to help him study. That April, the Radical Republicans who controlled Congress overrode President Andrew Johnson's vetoes and passed a Civil Rights Act. In 1868, they passed the 14th Amendment, which was ratified by the states to extend full citizenship to all Americans regardless of race.

Smalls invested significantly in the economic development of the Charleston-Beaufort region. In 1870, in anticipation of a Reconstruction-based prosperity, Smalls, with fellow representatives Joseph Rainey, Alonzo Ransier and others, formed the Enterprise Railroad, an 18-mile horse-drawn railway line that carried cargo and passengers between the Charleston wharves and inland depots. Except for one Euro-American director (newspaper editor, legislator and county treasurer Timothy Hurley), the railroad's board of directors was entirely African American. Richard H. Cain was its first president. Author Bernard E. Powers describes it as "the most impressive commercial venture by members of Charleston's black elite." Smalls owned and helped publish a newspaper, the Beaufort Southern Standard, starting in 1872.

Political career
Smalls's wartime fame and his fluency with the Gullah dialect gave him an avenue for political advancement.

Political affiliation
Smalls was a Republican, the political party that dominated the Northern states and passed laws granting protections for African Americans in the aftermath of the Civil War. On August 22, 1912, Smalls wrote to U.S. Senator Knute Nelson: "I never lose sight of the fact that had it not been for the Republican Party, I never would have been an office-holder of any kind—from 1862 to the present." In words that became famous, he described his party as "the party of Lincoln...which unshackled the necks of four million human beings." He wrote this line on September 12, 1912, in a letter expressing his anxiety over the looming presidential election. In that letter, he concluded: "I ask that every colored man in the North who has a vote to cast would cast that vote for the regular Republican Party and thus bury the Democratic Party so deep that there will not be seen even a bubble coming from the spot where the burial took place."

State politics
Smalls was a delegate at the 1868 South Carolina Constitutional Convention, where he worked to make free, compulsory schooling available to all South Carolina children. He served as a delegate at several Republican National Conventions, and he also participated in the South Carolina Republican State conventions.

In 1868, Smalls was elected to the South Carolina House of Representatives. He was very effective, introducing a Homestead Act and a Civil Rights bill, the latter of which he worked to pass. In 1870, Jonathan Jasper Wright was elected judge of the South Carolina Supreme Court and Smalls was elected to fill his unexpired time in the state Senate. He continued in the Senate, winning the 1872 election against W. J. Whipper. In the Senate, he was considered a very good speaker and debater. He served on the Finance Committee and was chairman of the Public Printing Committee.

Smalls was a delegate to the National Republican Convention in 1872 in Philadelphia, which nominated the incumbent President Grant for re-election; in 1876 in Cincinnati, which nominated Hayes; and in 1884 in Chicago, which nominated Blaine—and then continuously to all conventions until 1896. He was elected vice-president of the South Carolina Republican Party at its 1872 state convention.

In 1873, Smalls was appointed lieutenant-colonel of the Third Regiment, South Carolina State Militia. He was later promoted to brigadier-general of the Second Brigade, South Carolina Militia, and to major-general of the Second Division, South Carolina State Militia. He held this position until 1877, when Democrats took control of the state government.

National politics

In 1874, Smalls was elected to the United States House of Representatives, where he served two terms from 1875 to 1879. From 1882 to 1883, he represented South Carolina's 5th congressional district in the House. The state legislature gerrymandered district boundaries, thereby including Beaufort and other heavily African-American coastal areas in South Carolina's 7th congressional district, and providing other nearby districts substantial Euro-American majorities. Smalls was elected from the 7th district and served from 1884 to 1887. He was a member of the 44th, 45th, 47th, 48th and 49th U.S. Congresses.

In 1875, he opposed the transfer of troops out of the American South, fearing the effect of such a move on the safety of African-Americans in the region. During consideration of a bill to reduce and restructure the United States Army, Smalls introduced an amendment that provided that "[h]ereafter in the enlistment of men in the Army...no distinction whatsoever shall be made on account of race or color." However, the amendment was not considered by Congress. He was the last Republican elected from the 5th district until 2010, when Mick Mulvaney took office. He was the second-longest serving African-American member of Congress (behind Joseph Rainey) until the mid-20th century.

After the Compromise of 1877, the U.S. government withdrew its remaining forces from South Carolina and other Southern states. Conservative Southern Bourbon Democrats, had used violence and election fraud to regain control of the state legislature. As part of wide-ranging Democratic Party efforts to reduce African-American political power, Smalls was charged and convicted of taking a bribe five years earlier in connection with the awarding of a printing contract. He was pardoned as part of an agreement by which charges were also dropped against Democrats accused of election fraud.

The scandal took a political toll on Smalls, and he was defeated by Democrat George D. Tillman in 1878, and again, narrowly, in 1880. He successfully contested the 1880 result and regained the seat in 1882. In 1884, he was elected to fill a seat in a different district. He was nominated for Senate but defeated by Wade Hampton in December 1884. During this period in Congress he supported racial-integration legislation, supported a pension for the widow of his former Major General, David Hunter, and advised South Carolina African-American to refrain from migrating to the Northern or Midwestern United States or to Liberia.

In 1890, he was appointed by President Benjamin Harrison as collector of the Port of Beaufort, a position that he held until 1913 except during Democrat Grover Cleveland's second term. Smalls was active into the twentieth century. He was "the leading colored delegate" to the 1895 South Carolina constitutional convention. Together with five other African-American politicians, he strongly opposed the dominant Democratic delegates as they implacably wrote disfranchisement of the state's African-American citizens into the proposed constitution. Seeking to publicize this blatantly discriminatory clause, they wrote an article for the New York World. However, they were outnumbered at the state convention, and the new constitution was adopted. For many decades, this state constitution survived legal challenges, resulting in both the exclusion of African Americans from political participation and the crippling of the Republican Party throughout South Carolina.

In the late 1890s, Smalls began to suffer from diabetes. He turned down an offer of a colonelcy of an African-American U.S. military regiment in the Spanish–American War and an appointment to the position of minister to Liberia.

Local politics
Though Smalls was not officially involved with politics on the local level, he had some influence. In 1913, in one of his final actions as community leader, he played an important role in stopping a lynch mob from killing two black suspects in the murder of a white man. He pressured the mayor, saying that blacks that he had sent throughout the city would burn the town if the mob was not stopped. The mayor and sheriff stopped the mob.

Family
With his first wife Hannah Jones Smalls, whom he married on December 24, 1856, Robert Smalls had three children: Elizabeth Lydia (1858–1959; m. Samuel Jones Bampfield, nine living children); Robert Jr., who was born in 1861, and died at age two; and Sarah Voorhies (1863–1920). Hannah Jones Smalls had two daughters before she met and married Robert Smalls: Charlotte and Clara Jones. Smalls and his family were affiliated with the Baptist Church and attended Berean Baptist Church when living in Washington, D.C. Smalls was a Prince Hall mason as a member of Sons of Beaufort Lodge #36.

Hannah Smalls died on July 28, 1883. On April 9, 1890, Robert Smalls married Annie E. Wigg, a Charleston schoolteacher, who bore him one son, William Robert Smalls (1891–1970). Annie Smalls died on November 5, 1895.

Smalls died of malaria and diabetes on February 23, 1915, at the age of 75. He was buried in his family's plot in the churchyard of the Tabernacle Baptist Church in downtown Beaufort. The monument to Smalls in this churchyard is inscribed with his 1895 statement to the South Carolina legislature: "My race needs no special defense, for the past history of them in this country proves them to be the equal of any people anywhere. All they need is an equal chance in the battle of life."

Honors and legacy
 The state of South Carolina celebrates Robert Smalls Day every May 13.
 Fort Robert Smalls was named in his honor; it was built by free blacks in 1863 on McGuire's Hill on the South Side of Pittsburgh during the Civil War. It survived until the 1940s.
 The Robert Smalls House in Beaufort has been designated a National Historic Landmark.
 A monument and statue are dedicated to his memory where he is interred at Tabernacle Baptist Church in Beaufort.
The Robert Smalls School in Cheraw, South Carolina is named for him.
 The Robert Smalls International Academy (formerly the Robert Smalls Middle School) in Beaufort County, South Carolina is named in his honor.
 During World War II, Camp Robert Smalls was established as a sub-facility of the Great Lakes Naval Training Center to train black sailors (the Navy was segregated at that time).
 The Verdier House museum in Beaufort has an exhibit on Robert Smalls.
 In 2004, the United States named a ship for Robert Smalls, the , a Kuroda-class logistics support vessel operated by the U.S. Army. It was the first Army ship named after an African American.
 Charleston held commemorative ceremonies in 2012 on the 150th anniversary of Robert Smalls's escape on the Planter, with special programs on May 12 and 13.
 Robert Smalls Parkway is a five-mile section of South Carolina Highway 170 that crosses Port Royal Island and leads into Beaufort.
 A statue of Robert Smalls is in the U.S. National Museum of African American History and Culture.
 Waterfront Park in Charleston contains a small pedestal with a plaque explaining Robert Smalls's contributions to the area.
 There is a proposal to create a statue of Robert Smalls to be installed at the South Carolina State House.
 In 2019, Amazon announced that it was developing a biopic with director Charles Burnett.  In 2021, it was announced that Malcolm Mays was rewriting the script.
 A biopic of Robert Smalls is being developed by Legion M, Wolper Corporation and Bill Duke, entitled "Defiant".
 On March 1, 2023, the Navy renamed USS Chancellorsville to  after Smalls, based on a recommendation from The Naming Commission.

See also

List of African-American United States representatives
List of slaves

Notes

References

Further reading
 Billingsley, Andrew. Yearning to Breathe Free: Robert Smalls of South Carolina and His Families (2007)

 Coker, P. C., III. Charleston's Maritime Heritage, 1670–1865: An Illustrated History. Charleston, S.C.: Coker-Craft, 1987. 314 pp.
 Downing, David C. A South Divided: Portraits of Dissent in the Confederacy, Nashville: Cumberland House, 2007.
 Foner, Eric ed., Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction Revised Edition. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996). . Between 1865 and 1876, about 2,000 blacks (including men of color or mixed race) held elective and appointive offices in the South. A few are relatively well known, but most became obscure because official state histories prepared after Reconstruction omitted them; whites dominated state governments and suppressed the black population and its history. Foner profiles more than 1,500 black legislators, state officials, sheriffs, justices of the peace and constables in this volume.
 Gabridge, Patrick, Steering to Freedom (Penmore Press, 2015). .  Novel about Robert Smalls's life.
 Kennedy, Robert F., Jr. Robert Smalls, the Boat Thief (New York: Hyperion, 2008). . A picture book illustrated by Patrick Faricy.
 Rabinowitz, Howard N. Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982)
 Sterling, Dorothy. Captain of the "Planter": The Story of Robert Smalls (Doubleday & Co. Garden City, 1958)
 Thomas, Rhondda R. & Ashton, Susanna, eds (2014). The South Carolina Roots of African American Thought, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. "Robert Smalls (1839–1915)," pp. 65–70.
 Uya, Okon Edet, From Slavery to Public Service: Robert Smalls, 1839–1915 (Oxford University Press. New York, 1971)
 Bruce G. Terrell, Gordon P. Watts, Timothy J. Runyan, The Search for Planter: The Ship That Escaped Charleston and Carried Robert Smalls to Destiny (National Marine Sanctuaries, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Maritime Heritage Program Series No. 1, 2014)

External links

"Robert Smalls: The slave who became a Civil War hero", BBC Reel, February 17, 2022. Short video by Dominika Ożyńska and Adrian Hartrick on Smalls.
Q&A interview with Cate Lineberry on her book Be Free or Die: The Amazing Story of Robert Smalls' Escape from Slavery to Union Hero, August 6, 2017, C-SPAN
Entry from the House of Representatives
In the episode "Robert Smalls" of the podcast Criminal, published on June 19, 2020, Phoebe Judge tells the story of Robert Smalls.

Robert Smalls: Former Slave and Civil War Hero, Hagley Museum and Library
In the episode "The Wheel" of the podcast The Memory Palace, published on February 10, 2016, Nate DiMeo tells the story of Robert Smalls.

The episodes "The Incredible Escape of Robert Smalls" published on February 15, 2016, and "Robert Smalls: From Contraband to Congress" published on February 17, 2016, of the podcast Stuff You Missed in History Class, tell the story of Robert Smalls's life.

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1839 births
1915 deaths
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American slaves
20th-century African-American people
African-American history of South Carolina
African-American history of the United States military
African-American members of the United States House of Representatives
African-American politicians during the Reconstruction Era
African-American state legislators in South Carolina
African Americans in the American Civil War
Editors of South Carolina newspapers
Fugitive American slaves
Gullah
Republican Party members of the South Carolina House of Representatives
People from Beaufort, South Carolina
People of South Carolina in the American Civil War
Recipients of American gubernatorial pardons
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from South Carolina
South Carolina politicians convicted of crimes
Republican Party South Carolina state senators
Union Navy officers
United States Customs Service personnel

Robert Smalls


Leah Rosenfeld (October 25, 1908 – November 12, 2006) was a railroad telegraph operator and station agent whose 1968 lawsuit against the Southern Pacific Railroad and the state of California helped to end job and wage discrimination against women and ensure equal opportunities for women in the railroad industry.

Early life and beginning of railroad career

At age 16 in 1924, Rosenfeld had worked as a clerk and paralegal in a law firm. In October 1944, then 36 years old, she began her career as a railroad telegrapher and station agent with the Southern Pacific Railroad after completing courses in telegraphy and clerical work. The railroads began to hire increasing numbers of women during World War II to replace the men drafted into military service; Rosenfeld took the job to help support her growing family, then consisting of nine children.

Employment as railroad operator – 1944–1955

After her divorce in 1953, she became the sole support of 6 of her 12 children and worked in a number of one-operator stations, mostly in desert areas around the Salton Sea from Mecca, California, to Yuma, Arizona. For a time, the family lived in a refrigerator car that Southern Pacific converted into housing with added screen porches. In 1955, a position opened in Saugus, California, for an agent/telegrapher.  With ten years' seniority, Rosenfeld applied for the position.  The Southern Pacific Railroad denied her promotion from operator to station agent, citing the state of California's "women's protective laws" which barred women from lifting more than 25 pounds or working more than eight hours per day, both of which were required of station agents.  However, railroad workers were covered by the federal Railroad Labor Act, which did not distinguish between male and female workers.

Rosenfeld then protested to her union, the Order of Railroad Telegraphers, noting that she had already performed the duties of a station agent in her previous employment, but earning a lower wage. However, the union did not support her claim.

Suit against the State of California – 1968

The railroad continued to reject her claims for promotion, citing the California state law that barred women from performing the duties of station agents. However, In 1964, the passage of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and its Title VII made it illegal for employers to discriminate against women in hiring practices, and created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to redress employment grievances. When the Southern Pacific Railroad gave the position of agent/telegrapher at Thermal, California, to a man with less seniority in March 1966, she took her case to the EEOC, which advised her to file suit against the State of California.  On August 30, 1968, she filed suit against the State of California, the Southern Pacific Railroad, and her union, then known as the Transportation Communications International Union.  On November 25, 1968, the suit against the Southern Pacific Railroad was settled and the California women's protective laws were declared unconstitutional. A subsequent appeal filed by the railroad in 1971 was also decided in Rosenfeld's favor.

The outcome of the suit was a victory for Rosenfeld, who received her promotion and pay increase, and benefited all women railroad workers. As a result, the railroad industry began hiring women in all positions in 1971 at the same pay rate as men.

Later life and retirement

Rosenfeld was able to receive her promotion and pay adjustment shortly before she retired from the Southern Pacific in 1974. She spent the rest of her life in Mariposa, California, where she was interviewed by railroad historian Shirley Burman and photographed by railroad photographer Richard Steinheimer in 1987. In her retirement, she helped to found the local animal shelter. She died in Mariposa in 2006.

References

Further reading

American women trade unionists
Trade unionists from California
Jewish-American history in California
People from Mariposa, California
1908 births
2006 deaths
21st-century American women

Leah Rosenfeld


Travelcard Zone 5 is the fifth outward zone of the Transport for London zonal system used for calculating co-ordinated inter-modal Travelcard fares within London. In this zonal system, London is split into six approximately concentric zones for the purpose of determining the cost of a Travelcard.  The zones are also used for pricing London Underground and Docklands Light Railway single journeys, but not single journeys undertaken entirely by bus or tram, for which a city-wide flat fare applies. The zones are not usually used for calculating the cost of tickets on National Rail services, but do apply to Travelcards used for such services.

London Underground

Travelcard Zone 5


Cashline is the name of the Automated Teller Machine (ATM) network run by the Royal Bank of Scotland.  Its beginnings date back to 1967 when the Royal Bank installed its first ATM in its offices in the West End of Edinburgh.  Initially the service offered only basic deposit services to a small select number of customers, but by 1977 the familiar cash withdrawal service to current account holders was launched under the Cashline name.

By 1980, the Cashline network had become the busiest ATM network in the world in terms of how frequently each machine is used and how much money is taken out each time.  Cashline ATMs up until the mid-1980s were usually of De La Rue or IBM-Diebold manufacture, before being progressively replaced by NCR machines.  Cashline is a member of the LINK network, and in 1997 took the step of being available to all cardholders, irrespective of the ATM network their own particular bank belonged.

Cashline ATMs are also exclusively found in branches of Tesco supermarkets all over the United Kingdom, operating under the Tesco Personal Finance banner, but with a small "Cashline" below the Tesco lettering.

The word cashline is a generic name in Scotland used to describe a cash machine.

Automated teller machines
Royal Bank of Scotland

Cashline


A baby monitor, also known as a baby alarm, is a radio system used to remotely listen to sounds made by an infant. An audio monitor consists of a transmitter unit, equipped with a microphone, placed near to the child.  It transmits the sounds by radio waves to a receiver unit with a speaker carried by, or near to, the person caring for the infant. Some baby monitors provide two-way communication which allows the parent to speak back to the baby (parent talk-back). Some allow music to be played to the child. A monitor with a video camera and receiver is often called a baby cam.

One of the primary uses of baby monitors is to allow attendants to hear when an infant wakes, while out of immediate hearing distance of the infant. Although commonly used, there is no evidence that these monitors prevent SIDS, and many doctors believe they provide a false sense of security. Infants and young children can often be heard over a baby monitor in crib talk, in which they talk to themselves. This is a normal part of practising their language skills.

History

The first baby monitor was the Zenith Radio Nurse in 1937. This Zenith Radio product was developed by Eugene F. McDonald, and designed by Japanese-American sculptor and product designer Isamu Noguchi.

Video baby monitors (baby cams)
Some baby monitors also use a video camera to show pictures on the receiver, either by plugging the receiver into a television or by including a portable LCD screen. This type of surveillance camera is often called a baby cam.

Some baby cams can work at night with low light levels. Most video baby monitors today have a night vision feature. Infrared LEDs attached on the front of the camera allow a user to see the baby in a dark room. Video baby monitors that have night vision mode will switch to this mode automatically in the dark. Some advanced baby cams now work over Wi-Fi so parents can watch babies through their smartphone or computer.

Baby monitors continue to evolve and now also can utilize features such as night lights and built-in lullabies. These are not available in all monitors. Some include temperature and movement monitoring devices to sit underneath a mattress or close to the baby within a cot.

Movement monitors
A baby movement monitor uses sensor pads placed under the crib mattress to detect movement, if movement stops for more than 20 seconds an alarm will sound.

Wired and wireless
Baby monitors generally use wireless systems, but can also use wires or may operate over existing household wiring such as X10.

Wireless systems use radio frequencies that are designated by governments for unlicensed use. For example, in North America frequencies near 49 MHz, 902 MHz or 2.4 GHz are available. While these frequencies are not assigned to powerful television or radio broadcasting transmitters, interference from other wireless devices such as cordless telephones, wireless toys, computer wireless networks, radar, Smart Power Meters and  microwave ovens is possible.

Digital audio wireless systems using DECT, are resistant to interference and have a range up to 300 m.

Analog audio transmissions can be picked up at a distance from the home by a scanner receiver or other baby monitor receivers, and so present a risk to privacy as long as the transmitter is switched on. Digital transmission such as Frequency-hopping spread spectrum provides a level of protection from casual interception.

Some wireless baby monitors support multiple cameras on one handheld monitor-receiver. These systems are even compatible with a standard wireless security camera.

FM transmitters, paired with a microphone can be an inexpensive solution to a DIY baby monitor, since clock radios can also be used as one.

Smartphone as baby monitors
Smartphone apps allow a user to monitor a camera-equipped device, such as another smartphone or a tablet. Alternatively, Wi-Fi or Bluetooth can link a camera to a dedicated app on a smartphone or tablet.  This means a smart device doesn't need to be left in the baby's room.

Other features
Portable battery-operated receivers can be carried by the parent around the house. The transmitter stays near the infant crib and is usually plugged into a AC socket. Some baby monitor packages include two receivers.

Baby monitors may have a visible signal as well as repeating the sound.  This is often in the form of a set of lights to indicate the noise level, allowing the device to be used when it is inappropriate or impractical for the receiver to play the sound. Other monitors have a vibrating alert on the receiver making it particularly useful for people with hearing difficulties.

Systems with several transmitters can monitor several rooms in the home at once.

Transmitters with movement sensors such as a pressure-sensitive mat placed beneath the child's mattress give additional warning of restless activity by the infant.

Standards
The new voluntary ASTM International F2951 standard has been developed to address incidents associated with strangulations that can result from infant entanglement in the cords of baby monitors. This standard for baby monitors includes requirements for audio, video, and motion sensor monitors. It provides requirements for labeling, instructional material and packaging and is intended to minimize injuries to children resulting from normal use and reasonably foreseeable misuse or abuse of baby monitors.

Privacy
Signals of baby monitors can be received by third parties, presenting privacy issues.

See also
 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
 Nanny cam
 Spy video car
 Title 47 CFR Part 15

References

Babycare
Consumer electronics
Monitor
American inventions
20th-century inventions

Baby monitor


In Welsh Mythology, Hyddwn (from the Welsh hydd, "Stag") appears in the fourth of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi and is one of the three sons of Gwydion and Gilfaethwy. As punishment for the rape of Goewin, Math banished his nephews, turning them into a breeding pair of deer for a year, then pigs, and finally wolves. They had three children over the three years: Hyddwn, Hychddwn, and Bleiddwn. Hyddwn is the offspring of the deer pairing. Math took him and transformed him into a human being, baptising him Hyddwn ("Stag-man").

References
 Ifans,Dafydd & Rhiannon, Y Mabinogion (Gomer 1980)

Welsh mythology

Hyddwn


The Water Walk, Infants Walk, or Addison's Walk (Allée d'Eau ou Allée des Marmousets) is a group of 14 fountains at Versailles. These fountains depict children supporting small basins of water. The Water Walk gently slopes from the Parterre du Nord to the Dragon Fountain and the Neptune Fountain. The Water Walk comprises three paths separated by two great lawns. The fourteen fountains are set in each of the two lawns, seven apiece. Another eight were added to the semicircle near the Walk's end. The Walk was created in 1670. The concept was that of Claude Perrault. The children were sculpted by Buirette, Le Hongre, Lerambert, and Mazeline after drawings by Le Brun.  The children were originally cast in lead and painted realistically in natural colours. They supported baskets of fruit and flowers. These figures were replaced with gilded bronze copies and basins of marble in 1688.

References
 Constans, Claire. 1995. Versailles. Éditions Mahé S.A. p. 86.
 Perouse de Montclos, Jean-Marie. 1991. Versailles. Abbeville Press. pages 158, 339, 399.

Fountains of Versailles

Water Walk


The pan flute or pan pipe (also known as panflute or panpipes) is an old musical instrument that has five or more pipes of gradually increasing length (and, at times, girth). The pan flute has been a folk instrument, and is considered the first mouth organ, ancestor of both the pipe organ and the harmonica.

Types of pan flutes
 Nai (Romania). Note that nai is also the Romanian word for the Middle Eastern reed flute ney.
 Antara (Andes)
 Paixiao (China)
 So (Korea)
 Syrinx
 Zampoña (Andes)
 Kuvytsi, Svyryli, Rebro (Ukraine)

Flutes
Early musical instruments

Pan flute


Benedict Arnold V (Januar 14, 1741-Juin 14, 1801) wis a general durin the American Revolutionary War.  He began the war in the Continental Airmy but later defected tae the British Airmy.  While he wis still a general on the American side, he obtained command o the fort at Wast Point, New York, an plotted unsuccessfully tae surrender it tae the Breetish. Efter the plot wis exposed in September 1780, he entered the Breetish Airmy as a brigadier general.

Born in Connecticut, he wis a merchant operating ships on the Atlantic Ocean when the war broke oot in 1775.  Efter joinin the growin airmy ootside Boston, he distinguished himsel throu acts o cunnin an bravery.  His actions includit the Capture o Fort Ticonderoga in 1775, successfu defensive an delayin tactics despite losin the Battle o Valcour Island on Lake Champlain in 1776, the Battle o Ridgefield, Connecticut (efter which he wis promotit tae major general), operations in relief o the Siege o Fort Stanwix, an key actions durin the pivotal Battles of Saratoga in 1777, in which he suffered leg injuries that endit his combat career for several years.

In spite o his successes, Arnold wis passed ower for promotion bi the Continental Congress while ither officers claimed credit for some o his accomplishments.  Adversaries in military an poleetical circles brocht charges o corruption or ither malfeasance, but he wis acquittit in maist formal inquiries.  Congress investigatit his accoonts, an foond that he awed it money efter he haed spent much o his awn money on the war effort.  Frustratit an bitter, Arnold decidit tae chynge sides in 1779, an opened secret negotiations wi the Breetish.  In Julie 1780, he sought an obtained command o Wast Point in order tae surrender it tae the Breetish.  Arnold's scheme wis exposed when American forces captured Breetish Major John André carryin papers that revealed the plot.  Upon learnin o André's capture, Arnold fled doun the Hudson River tae the Breetish sloop-o-war Vulture, narrowly avoidin capture bi the forces o George Washington, who haed been alertit tae the plot.

Arnold received a commission as a brigadier general in the Breetish Airmy, an annual pension o £360, an a lump sum o ower £6,000. He led Breetish forces on raids in Virginia, an against New Lunnon an Groton, Connecticut, afore the war effectively endit wi the American victory at Yorktown.  In the winter o 1782, Arnold moved tae Lunnon wi his seicont wife, Margaret "Peggy" Shippen Arnold.  He wis well received bi Keeng George III an the Tories but frouned upon bi the Whigs.  In 1787, he entered intae mercantile business wi his sons Richard an Henry in Saunt John, New Brunswick, but returned tae Lunnon tae settle permanently in 1791, whaur he dee'd ten years later.

Because o the wey he changed sides his name quickly became a byword in the Unitit States for traison or betrayal.  His conflictin legacy is recalled in the ambiguous naitur o some o the memorials that hae been placed in his honour.

References

External links

Some details from ushistory.org
Biographical sketch by a contemporary, reflecting American sentiment towards Arnold
Benedict Arnold's Portraits
usahistory site includes details on Arnold's escape
Resort located on Arnold's trail to Quebec City
The original proclamation accusing Benedict Arnold of High Treason  frae the Pennsylvania Archives
Virtual Tour of burial site - Stained glass
1894 NY Times article
Benedict Arnold Letters
Arnold's Treason frae Thrilling Incidents in American History

American Revolution spies
Breetish Airmy generals
Breetish Airmy personnel o the American Revolutionary War
Breetish spies
Connecticut colonial fowk
Continental Airmy generals
Continental Airmy officers frae Connecticut
Duellists
Fowk frae Norwich, Connecticut
American defectors
Daiths frae edema
Buirials in Ingland
1741 births
1801 daiths

Benedict Arnold


Proprietary software (or closed source software) does not let people see or change source code of the computer software. It is the opposite of free software. Proprietary software is usually created by businesses who want to sell their software, but some programs that are free to use are still proprietary because the user is not allowed to change them. With proprietary software, only the people that make the software can see and change the code.

Even if the people who make the program give the source code to other people, the program will be proprietary if they do not allow to do important things like these:
 Change the code;
 Give the code to other people;
 Give the changed code to other people;
 Use the code on a different computer;

Most companies who sell their software for money (and even some who do not charge money for it) make it proprietary source. This makes it harder for people to copy and change the software, or to use the source code to make similar software. It helps prevent a user from pretending to be the author of someone else's work (a way of plagiarism).

Related pages
Freeware, software that is free to use but is not allowed to change.

Software

Proprietary software


Gene Simmons (born August 25, 1949 in Haifa, Israel) is an American musician, who is the bassist and a singer for the hard rock band Kiss.

Early life
Born with the name of Chaim Witz in Haifa, Israel, Gene emigrated at age 8 with his family to Queens, New York. His mother, Flora Klein, was born in Jand, Hungary. His father, Feri Witz, was also born in Hungary. He adopted the stage name of Gene Simmons in the late 1960s. He lives with his longtime partner Shannon Tweed and has two children, Nick and Sophie.

Kiss career
in 1972 Gene Simmons together with guitarist Paul Stanley are the band Kiss, Gene and Paul join the band the musicians Ace Frehley on guitar and Peter Criss on drums and vocals. One of the characteristics of the band were his outlandish makeup and costumes. In 1973 Kiss; Paul Stanley guitar and voice, Gene Simmons bass and voice, Ace Frehley in lead guitar released their first album Kiss", Gene composed the hit "Strutter" with Stanley, and "Deuce" two of the biggest hits of the band. Kiss recorded their second album Hotter Than Hell, released on October 22, 1974. In 1975 the band released the third album Dressed to Kill, with the theme Rock and Roll All Nite, the most successful of the band, written by Simmons and Stanley. Gene with Kiss, recorded with two of the best live albums "Alive!" (1975) and "Alive II" (1977). In 1976 and 1977 he edited two of the best albums of the band "Destroyer" released on March 15, 1976, and "Love Gun" released on June 30, 1977. Gene Simmons as the other members of Kiss released the solo album "Gene Simmons" released for sale in 1978. In 1979 he recorded with Kiss "Dynasty" a disc-themed disco. After the album Unmasked (1980), Peter Criss left the band, Gene and Paul chose Eric Carr replaced Criss, in the drummer. In 1982 he joined the band the guitarist Vinnie Vincent in substitution for Ace Frehley. With the newly formed launch the album "Creatures of the Night", Gene Simmons composed the theme "I Love It Loud" one of the most powerful of Kiss. In 1983 Kiss appears without makeup on the cover of the album Lick It Up, the band had changed their style of Hard Rock for the Heavy Metal style. For 1984 released the album Animalize, another powerful album of Heavy Metal. Mark St. John as lead guitarist, was incorporated in replacing Vinnie Vincent. Mark left the band in 1985 and was replaced by Bruce Kulick, who would maintain the lead guitar until 1997.  In 1989 Gene recorded with Kiss one of their best album Hot in the Shade, with two of the best tracks from the band "Hide Your Heart" and Forever. In 1991 the premature death of Eric Carr forced to Gene and Paul to seek replacements, They chose a young drummer Eric Singer, who had worked with Alice Cooper. With Singer on drums the band released the album "Revenge" released on May 19, 1992, an album that recalled the band's early records. They also recorded the third live album Alive III (1993).
After inviting former members of Kiss Criss and Frehley to record the acoustic album. Gene Simmons and Paul Stanley decided, to Frehley and Criss will incorporate the band. Kiss original training again with face painting, leave and turn around the United States and the world. With the original Kiss recorded "Psycho Circus" (1998) a studio album after 18 years.
Gene Simmons currently continue performing with Stanley at the head of Kiss. The current formation Kiss is Simmons in Bass and vocals, Paul Stanley in guitar and vocals, Tommy Thayer in lead guitar, and Eric Singer in drums.

Other works
Gene Simmons also turned to acting film credits include Runaway (1984), with Tom Selleck and directed by Michael Crichton, Wanted: Dead or Alive (1986), with Rutger Hauer, Red Surf (1990), with George Clooney, Wish You Were Dead (2002), with Christopher Lloyd. And appearances on television series as Miami Vice (1985), The Hitchhiker (1986), Millennium (1998), Third Watch (2004) and more. Simmons and his family starred in the reality show Gene Simmons: Family Jewels (2006-2010).

References

Other websites

1949 births
Living people
Simmons, Gene
Singers from New York City
American rock guitarists
American heavy metal musicians
American heavy metal singers
American Jews
American bloggers

Gene Simmons


Binalong is a small town in New South Wales, Australia. It is 37 km north-west of Yass.

History
The Aboriginal people who lived in the area were part of the Ngunnawal people.  The first Europen to visit the area was Hamilton Hume in 1821. The name of the town is believed to come from either an Aboriginal word meaning 'towards a high place' or from 'Bennelong', the name of a famous Aborigine.

Binalong was outside the legal limits of European settlement in New South Wales. However farmers settled in the area before the law changed to allow settlement in 1839.  From 1847 there was a police camp at Binalong and a court. The old Cobb and Co inn was built at that time as a staging post for Cobb and Co coaches.

The town was officially listed in 1850. It was an important stop on the way for people going to look for gold at Lambing Flat. The school was started in 1861.  Gold also meant that there were bushrangers in the area.  The grave of John Gilbert is near the town in the field where the police kept their horses.  He was a member of Frank Gardiner's gang  and later Ben Hall's gang. He was shot dead by police in 1865.

Railway
The first railway station opened in 1875. The railway arrived in 1876.  The current building was put up when the railway line was moved in 1916. The station and the signal box are now closed.

Banjo Paterson
The family of the poet Banjo Paterson moved to the Binalong area in 1869 when he was five years old.  He went to the primary school in Binalong but later went to boarding school in Sydney. He only came home in the holidays.  Binalong features in a number of his poems, for example, Pardon, the son of Reprieve .  Paterson's father is buried in the local cemetery.

References

Other websites
Banjo Paterson's story of the place where he spent his childhood
Binalong Public School
History of Binalong

Towns in New South Wales

Binalong


"Semper Fidelis" is the official march of the United States Marine Corps. It was written by John Philip Sousa in 1888. The words Semper Fidelis mean "Always Faithful" in Latin.

Sousa became conductor of the United States Marine Corps band in 1880. He had some success with his earliest works like "The Gladiator" (1886), but his first big hit with the public was "Semper Fidelis".

This march is sometimes thought to be the prototype for American marches. Until "Semper Fidelis", American marches had taken European marches as their models. It was "the first musical composition to receive the official recognition of the United States government." "Semper Fidelis" is the only march authorized for a service by Congress. The USMC uses it for the Pass in Review during Change of Command Ceremonies, as well as Public Parades. It was played along the parade route for Bill Clinton's second inauguration. The march has an AaBbCcDd form. Its meter is 6/8. Other marches by Sousa are "The Stars and Stripes Forever" and "The Washington Post".

Notes

References
 Simmons, Edwin H. 1974. The United States Marines: A History. Naval Institute Press.
 Woodstra, Christopher, et. al. 2000. All Music Guide to Classical Music Backbeat Books.

Semper Fidelis
Semper Fidelis
Semper Fidelis
Semper Fidelis

Semper Fidelis


Sir Arthur Aston (1590 – 1649)
was a soldier, most noted for his support for King Charles I in the English Civil War, and in folklore for the gruesome manner of his death in Ireland. He was from a prominent Roman Catholic family originating in Cheshire. He was killed during the Siege of Drogheda during the Cromwellian Conquest of Ireland.

Early career in central Europe

Aston was the son of another Sir Arthur Aston, of Fulham, Middlesex, and the grandson of Sir Thomas Aston of Aston in Bucklow Hundred, Cheshire.

Aston's father was a professional soldier who had served in Russia in the 1610s, and, being a Catholic, had caught the attention and trust of the Polish king Sigismund III.  Arthur Aston senior agreed to raise 2,000 British mercenaries for the Polish crown for the Turkish war of 1621. Though most of these mercenaries bound for Poland were turned back by Protestant Denmark in the Denmark Straits, Captain Arthur Aston Junior successfully landed about 300 British and Irish men of his father's levies in Poland in 1621. These troops later formed a guard for the King of Poland. Arthur Aston Senior died in 1624. Aston advanced to the rank of Major by 1627, and saw considerable service during the Polish-Swedish wars. He was captured by Swedish troops near Danzig in 1627.

After the Truce of Altmark of 1629, Aston left Poland for the service of Sweden and was commissioned by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden to raise an English regiment in 1631. His unit was shipped from Britain in 1632, but fought in the secondary theatres of Germany, never attaining the fame of Scots units such as Mackay's Regiment. Its strength had fallen so much, mostly due to sickness, that by 1634 Aston was recruiting Germans to fill the ranks.

Career in the English Civil War

By 1640, Aston had returned to Britain, and he commanded a regiment for King Charles during the Second Bishops' War. There was uneasiness in many quarters about his religion, and he was forced to resign his command, although he received a knighthood for his services.

In 1642, when the First English Civil War broke out, Charles initially refused to employ him on account of his Catholic faith, but Prince Rupert of the Rhine persuaded him to do so. To counter anti-Catholic propaganda, Edward Hyde claimed that Aston was the only officer in the King's army who was a Papist, "if he were one", although at least six other officers of the rank of Colonel or above were also known to be Catholics. Aston was employed as Colonel General of Dragoons, and served in this capacity during the Edgehill campaign.

When Charles made Oxford his wartime capital, Aston was made commander of an outpost at Reading, where he became unpopular through his authoritarian methods. He was wounded when Reading was besieged (struck on the head by a falling tile), and was captured by the Parliamentarians under the Earl of Essex. He was released by prisoner exchange and became Sergeant-Major General of Horse to Prince Rupert. He fought at the Storming of Bristol and the First Battle of Newbury.

Aston became governor of Oxford in late 1643 and again made himself unpopular, until he lost a leg as a result of a fall from a horse at Horspath in September 1644 and was relieved as governor. He received a large pension from the King, but did not hold any appointments during the rest of the First English Civil War.

In 1648, Aston joined the Earl of Ormonde, who had recently been made Commander-in-Chief of the Irish Confederates and other Royalist forces in Ireland.
(The above is incorrect. Aston was in Ireland, with Ormonde, in January 1647, when he petitioned the House of Lords for a pass to return to England, or to go beyond 'these Dominions'. The Lords refused a pass to return to England, but issued one to go beyond 'these Dominions'. In truth, Aston should not have been in Ireland in 1649.)
Ref: House of Lords Journal January 1647.

He was made governor of the vital port of Drogheda. Drogheda was a Protestant town in The Pale and had previously supported Parliament through two sieges by Irish Confederates.

In 1649, Oliver Cromwell laid siege to Drogheda. The siege ended on 11 September, when Cromwell's forces stormed the town. Cromwell's troops were ordered to show no quarter to any man bearing arms; in Cromwell's words, in the heat of the action, "I forbade them to spare any that were in arms in the town...", and many of the defenders were killed by the victorious Parliamentarian soldiers. Aston and other English Royalists retreated to the defensible Millmount Fort. They eventually agreed to surrender after a parley on the bridge, but were massacred after they laid down their arms. It is widely believed that the Parliamentarian soldiers killed Aston by bashing his brains out with his own wooden leg, which they believed concealed gold coins.

Aston was said to have had a daughter, Elizabeth Thomson alias Aston, and to have been made a Doctor of Physics in 1644.

References
British Civil Wars, Commonwealth & Protectorate: Sir Arthur Aston 1590-1649

Sources
Reilly, Tom (1999). Cromwell, An Honourable Enemy (London: Phoenix Press);

Barrès-Baker, Malcolm (2004). The Siege of Reading: The Failure of the Earl of Essex's 1643 Spring Offensive (Ottawa, EbooksLib);

Notes

Further reading
 Memoir by Gr. Steinman-Steinman, in Gentleman's Magazine n. s. i. 144, 234
 Kippis's Biog. Brit.
 Notes and Queries, viii. 126, 302, 480, 629
 Clarendon's Hist, of the Rebellion
 Coates's Hist, of Reading, 24 seq.
 Addit. MS. 18980 ff. 22, 43
 Wood's Fasti Oxon. ed. Bliss, ii. 77
 Life of Anthony a Wood, ed. Bliss, p. xx
 Dodd's Church History iii. 57
 Calendars of State Papers
 Cromwell's Letters and Speeches (1850), ii. 205
 Faulkner's Fulham, 306.]

1590 births
1649 deaths
English Roman Catholics
Military personnel from Reading, Berkshire
Cavaliers
English army officers
Military personnel from Berkshire
Military personnel of the English Civil War
People of the Irish Confederate Wars
English military personnel killed in action
English amputees

Arthur Aston (army officer)


Jean-Yves Blondeau (born June 1, 1970), also known as Rollerman, is a French designer who is best known for inventing the 32-wheel roller suit.

Biography
Blondeau was born in Aix-les-Bains, Savoy, France to Paul Blondeau and Micheline Blondeau. He has four brothers and a sister.

Buggy rollin
Blondeau is the inventor of the 32-wheel roller suit (also known as the wheel suit or buggy rollin). This suit places a number of rollers (similar to those found on rollerblades) on most of the major joints, the torso, and the back. The wearer can ride downhill in a variety of positions (upright, prone, supine, on all fours, etc.) at speeds of up to 78 mph (126 km/h). He has been featured on television shows in several countries on all continents. The buggy rollin wheel suit can be used on any surface suitable for roller skates.

He built the roller suit as part of his graduation project at the industrial design school École nationale supérieure des arts appliqués et des métiers d'art (also known as the Olivier de Serres) in Paris. The study theme was: "systems that underline the sensations caused by the displacement of the human center of gravity  in relation to support points in order to move into space". The research phase lasted for 6 months, followed by 1 month of synthesis and 2 months for producing the prototype. Then followed a year of secret patent application writing, finally published in June 1995.

Since then, six generations of buggy-rollins have been created. They include variations from the most basic kneepad with rollers to the most sophisticated one called "Super Rollin Bionic Woman" (SURBO). The prototypes have evolved into safer, more comfortable and easier machines that can be adapted to all different morphologies.

Two of his suits can be seen in a short scene partway through the end credits of the 2008 Jim Carrey film Yes Man. Two other suits were featured in a commercial for Mennen filmed in South Africa and intended for distribution in South America in 2010. He also featured in a commercial for Megapass, a broadband telecommunication service in South Korea. In 2011 he took part in Stan Lee's Superhumans TV program. Blondeau trained Jackie Chan to use a roller suit in the 2012 film Chinese Zodiac.

See also
 Inline speed skating
 Road skating

References

External links
 Buggy Rollin Official Website
 Jean-Yves Blondeau at YouTube

1970 births
Living people
French designers
Ripley's Believe It or Not!

Jean-Yves Blondeau


Canna is a small island in the Small Isles in the Inner Hebrides. As of 2017, there are 12 people on the island. Canna is linked to its neighbouring island Sanday by a single road.  Canna has its own native animal, the Canna Fruit Bat.

Inner and Outer Hebrides

Canna


Diller Scofidio + Renfro is an American interdisciplinary design studio that integrates architecture, the visual arts, and the performing arts. Based in New York City, Diller Scofidio + Renfro is led by four partners – Elizabeth Diller, Ricardo Scofidio, Charles Renfro, and Benjamin Gilmartin – who work with a staff of architects, artists, designers, and researchers.

Biography
The studio was founded by Elizabeth Diller and Ricardo Scofidio in 1981; Charles Renfro joined in 1997 and became partner in 2004. Benjamin Gilmartin became a partner in 2015. Elizabeth Diller attended The Cooper Union School of Art and received a Bachelor of Architecture degree from the Cooper Union School of Architecture. She is a Professor of Architecture at Princeton University School of Architecture and a visiting professor at the Bartlett School of Architecture. In 2009, Diller was selected by Time magazine as one of the "100 Most Influential People in the World". Ricardo Scofidio attended The Cooper Union School of Architecture and received a Master of Architecture degree from Columbia University. Scofidio is Professor Emeritus of Architecture at Cooper Union. Charles Renfro attended Rice University and received a Master of Science in Advanced Architectural Design degree from Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation. Renfro has served as visiting professor at Rice University and Columbia University, among others.

From 1999-2004 the MacArthur Foundation honored the firm's work with the 'genius' award, stating that they "have created an alternative form of architectural practice that unites design, performance, and electronic media with cultural and architectural theory and criticism. Their work explores how space functions in our culture and illustrates that architecture, when understood as the physical manifestation of social relationships, is everywhere, not just in buildings."

Work
Diller Scofidio + Renfro's international body of completed architectural work includes the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts Redevelopment in New York (including the redesign of Alice Tully Hall), the renovation and expansion of the Juilliard School, the Hypar Pavilion Lawn and Restaurant, the expansion of the School of American Ballet, renovations to the New York State Theater lobby, the canopy entry to Fashion Week at Lincoln Center, public spaces throughout the campus, Information Landscape, and the President's Bridge.

Selected work
 Blur, a pavilion built of fog on Lake Neuchâtel and commissioned by the Swiss Expo.02, (2002)
 Slither, a housing complex in Gifu, Japan (2003)
 Institute of Contemporary Art, the first new museum to be built in Boston in 100 years (2006)
 Perry and Marty Granoff Center for the Creative Arts for Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island (2011)
 The Shed, a cultural center in Hudson Yards, New York, New York (2019)

Projects in construction or in design include:
 the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) Expansion in New York City;
 The Broad, a major modern art museum in Los Angeles;
 Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive at the University of California, Berkeley;
 Columbia University Medical Center Education Building and Columbia Business School in New York City; the Museum of Image & Sound on Copacabana Beach in Rio de Janeiro;
 Stanford University Art & Art History Building;
  D Tower ("The Corset") at 15 Hudson Yards, residential tower  for Related Companies, part of the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project in New York City

In 2013 Diller Scofidio + Renfro won the international design competition for Zaryadye Park, a new 35-acre public space next to the Kremlin in Moscow, Russia.

Installation and performance projects
Installation and performance projects recently completed include: The Art of Scent 1889-2010, an exhibition of olfactory art at the Museum of Arts and Design; Open House, an installation in Levittown in collaboration with Droog; How Wine Became Modern for SFMOMA; Be Your Self with the Australian Dance Theatre; the Exit (Terre Natale) exhibition for the Fondation Cartier, also presented at the United Nations Conference on Climate Change (COP15) in Copenhagen; Traveling Music for Evento 2009 in Bordeaux; Chain City for the 2008 Venice Biennale 11th International Architecture Exhibition; Arbores Laetae for the 2008 Liverpool Biennial; Does the Punishment Fit the Crime? for the Fondazione Sandretto Re Rebaudengo Turin; and Action Painting for the Beyeler Museum in Basel.

Gallery

Awards
In 1999, the MacArthur Foundation presented Elizabeth Diller and Ricardo Scofidio with Fellowships for their commitment to integrating architecture with issues of contemporary culture. They were recently made fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects and were inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2012, Elizabeth Diller was elected into the American Academy of Arts and Letters and selected as an Aspen Institute Harman-Eisner Artist in Residence. In 2013, she was honored with the Barnard Medal of Distinction.

Other prestigious awards and honors received by Diller Scofidio + Renfro include: the National Design Award from the Smithsonian; the Brunner Prize from the American Academy of Arts and Letters; an Obie for an off-Broadway theater production; the Centennial Medal of Honor from American Academy in Rome; the AIA President's Award; the AIA Medal of Honor; and AIA Design Awards for numerous projects. In 2003, the Whitney Museum of American Art held a retrospective of the studio's work, recognizing the firm's unorthodox practice. In 2009, Elizabeth Diller and Ricardo Scofidio were named among Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People in the World and the partners were featured in a one-hour segment with Charlie Rose. In 2010, Fast Company named Diller Scofidio + Renfro the most innovative design practice in the profession and among the 50 most innovative companies in the world.

Publications
Books by Diller Scofidio + Renfro include Bodybuildings: Architectural Facts and Fictions; Back to the Front: Tourisms of War; Flesh: architectural probes; and Blur: the Making of Nothing. The studio's most recent book, Lincoln Center Inside Out: An Architectural Account, chronicles a decade of work redesigning a New York City icon. Diller Scofidio + Renfro is the subject of Scanning: The Aberrant Architectures of Diller + Scofidio, published by the Whitney Museum and including essays by Aaron Betsky, K. Michael Hays and Laurie Anderson; the monograph Diller + Scofidio (+Renfro): The Ciliary Function by Guido Incerti, Daria Ricchi and Deane Simpson; and Diller Scofidio + Renfro: Architecture After Images  by Edward Dimendberg

Selected projects
Architecture:
 Slow House, unbuilt (1991)
 Brasserie Restaurant, Seagram Building, New York, NY (2000)
 World Trade Center Viewing Platform, New York, NY (2001)
 Blur, Swiss Expo, Lake Neuchâtel (2002)
 Slither, Gifu, Japan (2003)
 Eyebeam Museum of Art and Technology, New York, NY (unbuilt, 2004)
 Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston, MA (2006)
 School of American Ballet, Expansion, New York, NY (2007)
 Alice Tully Hall, Redesign, New York, NY (2009)
 The Juilliard School, Renovation and Expansion, New York, NY (2009)
 New York State Theater, Lobby Renovation, New York, NY (2010)
 Lincoln Center Public Spaces, New York, NY (2010)
 Hypar Pavilion Lawn and Restaurant, New York, NY (2011)
 Perry and Marty Granoff Center for the Creative Arts, Brown University, Providence RI (2011)
 President's Bridge, Lincoln Center, New York, NY (2012)
 Hirshhorn Museum & Sculpture Garden Seasonal Inflatable Pavilion, Washington DC (unbuilt, 2012)
 High Line, New York, NY, Phases 1, 2, 3 (2009, 2011, 2014)
 The Broad, Los Angeles, CA
 Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive, University of California, Berkeley, CA
 Museum of Image & Sound, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in construction)
 Columbia Business School, New York, NY (in design)
 Columbia University Medical Center Education Building, New York, NY (in construction)
 The Shed, Hudson Yards, New York, NY (2019)
15 Hudson Yards, Hudson Yards, New York, NY (2019)
 Museum of Modern Art Expansion, New York, NY (in design)
 McMurtry Building, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA
 Zaryadye Park, Moscow, Russia (2017)
David M. Rubenstein Forum, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
Tianjin Juilliard School, Tianjin, China
 Fontainebleau Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV (in construction, 2023)

Installation and curatorial:
 Traffic, Columbus Circle, New York, NY (1981)
 Memory Theatre, Brooklyn Bridge Anchorage, Brooklyn, NY (1987)
 Para-Site, MoMA, New York, NY (1989)
 Tourisms:suitCase Studies", Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, MN (1991)
 Bad Press, SFMOMA, San Francisco, CA (1993)
 Soft Sell, Times Square, New York, NY (1993)
 Vice / Virtue, Glassmanifest, Leerdam, the Netherlands (1997)
 American Lawn, Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal, Canada (1998)
 Master/Slave, Fondation Cartier, Paris, France (1999)
 Travelogues, John F. Kennedy International Airport, Queens, NY (2001)
 Mural, Whitney Museum, New York, NY (2003)
 Facsimile, Moscone Convention Center, San Francisco CA (2004)
 Does the Punishment Fit the Crime?, Fondazione Sandretto Re Rebaudengo Turin, Italy (2008)
 Action Painting, Beyeler Foundation, Basel, Switzerland (2008)
 Light Sock, commissioned by Swarovski (2009)
 Chain City, Venice Biennale 11th International Architecture Exhibition, Venice, Italy (2008)
 Arbores Laetae, Liverpool Biennial, Liverpool, UK (2008)
 Exit, Fondation Cartier, Paris, France (2009)
 Drill Baby Drill, MAXXI, Rome, Italy (2010)
 Fashion Week, Canopy Entry at Lincoln Center, New York, NY (2010)
 Open House, in collaboration with Droog, Levittown, NY (2011)
 How Wine Became Modern, SFMOMA, San Francisco CA (2011)
 The Art of Scent: 1889-2010, Museum of Arts and Design, New York, NY (2012-2013)

Performance:
 Moving Target, Charleroi, Belgium (1996)
 EJM I and II, Performed Internationally (1998)
 Jet Lag, Multimedia Theater Work, Premiered in New York, NY (1998)
 Who's Your DADA?, MoMA, New York, NY (2006)
 Traveling Music, Evento 2009, Bordeaux, France (2009)
 Be Your Self, in collaboration with Australian Dance Theatre, Adelaide, Australia (2010)

References

Documentaries
 Diller Scofidio + Renfro, Reimagining Lincoln Center and the High Line (dir. Muffie Dunn and Tom Piper, 2012, 54 minutes)

External links

 Gardner, Ralph. "From Designer's Pen to the Plaza at Lincoln Center". The Wall Street Journal. 2 July 2013.
 Øye, Victoria Bugge. "Diller Scofidio + Renfro: Masters of Space, Viewed through the Rear View Mirror". Los Angeles Review of Books. 22 June 2013.
 Kennicott, Philip. "With Hirshhorn Bubble, Smithsonian Could Break D.C. from Stagnation". The Washington Post. 17 May 2013.
 Moore, Rowan. "Liz Diller: 'We thought we would have been fired a long time ago'". The Guardian. 29 December 2012.
 Filler, Martin. "The City's Their Stage". New York Review of Books. 27 September 2012.
 Goldberger, Paul. "New York's High Line: Miracle Above Manhattan". National Geographic. April 2011.
 Davidson, Justin. "The Illusionists". The New Yorker. 14 May 2007.

1981 establishments in New York City
Design companies established in 1981
MacArthur Fellows
Architecture firms based in New York City

Diller Scofidio + Renfro


Changdeokgung is one of the five grand palaces in South Korea. They are Gyeongbokgung, Changdeokgung, Deoksugung, Changgyunggung, and Gyeonghuigung. The five grand palaces were not built at the same time. Changdeokgung was built as the secondary palace next to Gyeongbokgung. The construction began by King Taejong, the Third King of the Joseon Dynasty, in 1405. Taking 7 years to complete, it was finished in the year 1412.

The word Changdeokgung means 'the palace of prospering virtue'. Because of the meaning of the name of the palace, the kings of Joseon Dynasty chose mostly Changdeokgung to live in.

The palace had been the home of 14 kings of Joseon Dynasty until it was totally destroyed by the Japanese army in the year 1592. After the Japanese were driven back by the combined forces of Korea and China, Changdeokgung was rebuilt in 1612. After the reconstruction, the palace had suffered little damage and became the primary royal court of the Joseon Dynasty. This was because Gyeongbokgung was also destroyed by the Japanese but the Joseon Dynasty did not rebuild it for some reason and the Changdeokgung became the biggest palace in Korea.

However, Changdeokgung had suffered some damage for 350 years after the reconstruction. As a result, a large scale restoration took palace from 1990 to 1999. This restoration shows how much the Korean people loved Changdeokgung. Apparently, the UNESCO saw its value as well. Seeing Changdeokgung as a vital global asset, UNESCO listed it as a World Cultural Heritage. The UNESCO said that Changdeokgung 'was outstanding example of Far Eastern palace architecture and garden design'.

Changdeokgung is in a park in Seoul, the capital city of South Korea. There are total of 13 buildings remaining in all and the area is designated as Historical Site No. 122. Tourists from all around the world visit this historic site. Changdeokgung is also an enjoyable park for families to spend their weekends.

Palaces in Asia
Buildings and structures in Seoul
World Heritage Sites in South Korea

Changdeokgung


Herbert Alfred Henry Joseph Thomas Vaughan  (15 April 1832 – 19 June 1903) was an English prelate of the Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of Westminster from 1892 until his death in 1903, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1893. He was the founder in 1866 of St Joseph's Foreign Missionary Society, known best as the Mill Hill Missionaries. He also founded the Catholic Truth Society and St. Bede's College, Manchester. As Archbishop of Westminster, he led the capital campaign and construction of Westminster Cathedral.

In 1871 Vaughan sent a group of Mill Hill priests to the United States to minister to freedmen. In 1893, the American branch of the society spun off, with Vaughan's permission, to form the Society of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart, whose members are known as Josephites.

Early life and education
Herbert Vaughan was born at Gloucester, the eldest son of Lieutenant-Colonel John Francis Vaughan, of an old recusant (Catholic) family, the Vaughans of Courtfield, Herefordshire. His mother, Eliza Rolls from The Hendre, Monmouthshire, was a Catholic convert and intensely religious. All five of the Vaughan daughters became nuns, while six of the eight sons received Holy Orders and became priests. Two were later called as bishops in addition to Herbert: Roger became Archbishop of Sydney, Australia and John became titular bishop of Sebastopolis and auxiliary bishop in Salford, England. A nephew, Francis, became Bishop of Menevia, Wales.

In 1841 Herbert, the eldest, went to study for six years at Stonyhurst College, then to the Jesuit school of Brugelette, Belgium (1846–1848), and then with the Benedictines at Downside Abbey, near Bath, England.

In 1851 Vaughan went to Rome, and studied for two years at the Collegio Romano, where for a time he shared lodgings with the poet, Aubrey Thomas de Vere. He became a friend and disciple of Henry Edward Manning. Manning, a Catholic convert, became the second Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster following the restoration of the Catholic hierarchy in Great Britain in 1850.

Career
Vaughan received Holy Orders at Lucca in 1854. On his return to England, he became Vice-President of St Edmund's College, at that time the chief seminary in the south of England for candidates for the priesthood. Since childhood, Vaughan had been filled with zeal for foreign missions. He convinced Cardinal Wiseman and the bishops to agree to a proposal to build a seminary in England that would train priests to serve on missions throughout the British Empire. With this goal, he made a fund-raising trip to America in 1863, from which he returned with £11,000.

In 1868, Vaughan became proprietor of The Tablet. He wrote James McMaster, owner of the New York Freeman's Journal and Catholic Register, "No one can appreciate more highly than I do the great mission of the Catholic press in these days of steam and universal education."

He succeeded in opening St Joseph's Foreign Missionary College, Mill Hill Park, London, in 1869. That same year, the Tenth Provincial Council of Baltimore passed a decree exhorting all bishops to establish missions and schools in their dioceses for African Americans. Subsequently, the Council Fathers wrote a letter requesting clergy for that purpose to Vaughan, superior general at Mill Hill. In 1871, Vaughan led a group of priests to the US to establish a mission society to minister to freedmen in the South.

In 1872 Vaughan was consecrated as the second Bishop of Salford, succeeding Bishop William Turner. Vaughan relinquished his position as superior at St. Joseph's College, but in 1876 established St Bede's College, conceived as a "commercial school" to prepare the sons of Manchester Catholics for a life in business and the professions. Vaughan chose to live at Hampton Grange, on the St. Bede's College campus, with his own Bishop's residence on Chapel Street in Salford being given over to a Seminary.

In 1879, as the most eminent local Catholic, Vaughan was chosen by the then Home Secretary, R.A. Cross, 1st Viscount Cross, to be one of the trustees of the £1,000 compensation paid to a Whalley Range farm labourer, William Habron, pardoned for the murder of PC Nicholas Cock. In 1892 Vaughan succeeded Manning as Archbishop of Westminster, receiving the cardinal's hat in 1893 as Cardinal-Priest of Santi Andrea e Gregorio al Monte Celio.

Vaughan was a man of different type from his predecessor; he had none of the ultramontane Manning's intellectual finesse or his ardor for social reform. Vaughan did however have a more open attitude to women's enfranchisement, reported as saying, "I believe that the extension of the Parliamentary Franchise to women upon the same conditions as it is held by men would be a just and beneficial measure, tending to raise rather than to lower the course of national legislation." Vaughan was an ecclesiastic of remarkably fine presence and aristocratic leanings, intransigent in theological policy, and in personal character simply devout.

In 1893 the US Mill Hill mission, based in Baltimore, Maryland, reorganised with Vaughan's blessing as an independent institution, known as Society of St. Joseph of the Sacred Heart. Among its founders was the first African-American Catholic priest trained and ordained in the United States, Charles Uncles.

It was due to this theological "purity" that Vaughan assisted in scuttling an opportunity for rapprochement between Rome and the Church of England that was put into motion by a high-church Anglican, Charles Wood, 2nd Viscount Halifax and a French priest, Ferdinand Portal. Through the efforts of Vaughan and Archbishop of Canterbury Edward White Benson, this early form of ecumenism was put down. It culminated with the condemnation of Anglican Orders by Pope Leo XIII in his bull, Apostolicae curae.

It was Vaughan's most cherished ambition to see an adequate Westminster Cathedral. He worked untiringly to secure subscriptions for a capital campaign, with the result that the foundation stone for the cathedral was laid in 1895. When Vaughan died in 1903 at the age of 71, the building was so far complete that a Requiem Mass was said there. His body was interred at the cemetery of St. Joseph's College, the headquarters of the Mill Hill Missionaries in North London but it was moved back to the cathedral and reinterred in the Chapel of St Thomas of Canterbury (the "Vaughan Chantry") in 2005.

Legacy

Founded
 St. Joseph Foreign Missionary College, London, United Kingdom
 St Bede's College
 St. Joseph Society of the Sacred Heart, Baltimore, MD
 Westminster Cathedral

Namesake
In 1914, the Cardinal Vaughan Memorial School was founded in his memory in Holland Park, London.

Published works

See also

 , his brother
 , his brother
 , his brother

References

Sources

 Life of Cardinal Vaughan, JG Snead Cox (2 vols., London: 1910).

Further reading

External links

 Herbert Vaughan papers, 1893–1898 at Pitts Theology Library, Candler School of Theology
 Herbert Vaughan, Catholic Hierarchy website

1832 births
1903 deaths
Clergy from Gloucester
People educated at Stonyhurst College
19th-century British cardinals
Roman Catholic archbishops of Westminster
19th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the United Kingdom
20th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the United Kingdom
20th-century British cardinals
Cardinals created by Pope Leo XIII
African-American Roman Catholicism
Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy alumni
People educated at St Edmund's College, Ware
Burials at Westminster Cathedral
English people of Welsh descent
Roman Catholic bishops of Salford
British Roman Catholic archbishops

Herbert Vaughan


The Parable of the Mustard Seed is one of the parables of Jesus.  It is found in three of the Gospels of the New Testament: Gospel of Matthew (13:31–32), Gospel of Mark (4:30–32), and Gospel of Luke (13:18–19). The differences among the three tellings are minor.

In Matthew and Luke, this parable is followed by the Parable of the Leaven. The Parable of the Leaven also has a theme about the Kingdom of Heaven growing from small beginnings. A version of the parable also occurs in the non-canonical Gospel of Thomas 20.

The parable from Matthew reads: "The Kingdom of Heaven is like a grain of mustard seed, which a man took, and sowed in his field; which indeed is smaller than all seeds. But when it is grown, it is greater than the herbs, and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and lodge in its branches." The parables from Mark and Luke are similar.

References

Mustard Seed

Parable of the Mustard Seed


Ezekiel Silas Sampson (December 6, 1831 – October 7, 1892) was a lawyer, prosecutor, Civil War officer, judge, and two-term Republican Congressman from Iowa's 6th congressional district.

Early life
Born in Huron County, Ohio, Sampson moved to Keokuk County, Iowa, in 1843 where he attended public schools as a child. He later attended Howe's Academy and Knox College, studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1856, commencing practice in Sigourney, Iowa. He was prosecuting attorney of Keokuk County from 1856 to 1858.

Career
At the outbreak of the Civil War, Sampson enlisted in the Union Army as a captain in the 5th Iowa Volunteer Infantry Regiment in 1861 and was later promoted to lieutenant colonel of the same regiment, serving as so until he was mustered out of service in 1864.

After the war, he resumed practicing law in Sigourney. He was a member of the Iowa Senate in 1866 and was judge of the sixth district of Iowa from 1867 to 1875.

In 1874, Sampson was elected a Republican to represent Iowa's 6th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives. Near the end of his service in the 44th United States Congress, he was re-elected in 1876 to a second term, and served in the 45th United States Congress. When running for a third term in 1878, he was defeated in the general election by Greenback Party candidate (and future presidential candidate) James B. Weaver. Sampson served in Congress from March 4, 1875 to March 3, 1879.

Death
Sampson resumed practicing law until his death in Sigourney on October 7, 1892. He is interred at West Cemetery in Sigourney, Iowa.

References

External links
 Retrieved on 2008-02-15

1831 births
1896 deaths
Iowa state court judges
Republican Party Iowa state senators
District attorneys in Iowa
Union Army officers
People from Huron County, Ohio
People from Sigourney, Iowa
People of Iowa in the American Civil War
Knox College (Illinois) alumni
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Iowa
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American judges

Ezekiel S. Sampson


The WWE European Championship is a former championship for World Wrestling Entertainment. It was first established as the 'WWF European Championship'. The first and longest reigning champion, The British Bulldog became the first Champion after winning a tournament that was held over several shows in Germany, culminating in a finals victory over Owen Hart. When Shawn Michaels won the belt, it made him the first Grand Slam Champion in WWE. Michaels was and still is the only wrestler to have held both the WWF Championship and the European title at the same time. The title was on a brief hiatus in 1999 due to then-champion Shane McMahon's wanting to retire an "undefeated champion". The WWE European Championship was retired in a ladder match on July 22, 2002 when Rob Van Dam put his WWE Intercontinental Championship on the line, along with Jeff Hardy's European Championship in a winner-take-all type match. When RVD won the match he merged the two titles together, and continued to hold the Intercontinental Title. RVD's title reign is not listed in the official European title history on WWE's official website, and therefore he is not credited with being a Eurocontinental Champion, but is mentioned in RVD's profile.

World Wrestling Entertainment championships
1997 establishments
2002 disestablishments

WWE European Championship