विंध्य प्रदेशाच्या दक्षिणेकडे असलेल्या प्रदेशास दक्षिण भारत  Southern India (Peninsular India) म्हणतात. यात  भारतातील तेलंगण, आंध्र प्रदेश, कर्नाटक, केरळ व तामिळनाडू ही राज्ये आणि  लक्षद्वीप व पॉंडिचेरी हे केंद्रशासित प्रदेश येतात. पारंपरिक मान्यतेनुसार गुजरातसह संपूर्ण महाराष्ट्र प्रांत हा दक्षिण भारताचा भाग म्हणून गणला जातो. विशेषतः उत्तरी भारतातील लोक महाराष्ट्राला दक्षिण भारतातच गणतात. मराठी ब्राह्मणही दाक्षिणात्य ब्राह्मण म्हणूनच ओळखले जातात. दक्षिण भारताने भारताचा १९.३१ टक्के भूभाग व्यापलेला आहे. दक्षिण भारताच्या पश्चिमेला अरबी समुद्र, दक्षिणेला हिंदी महासागर तर पूर्वेला बंगालचा उपसागर आहे. दक्षिण भारताचे दोन उभे भाग पडले आहेत. एक पश्चिम घाटाचा भाग व दुसरा पूर्व घाटाचा भाग. गोदावरी नदी, कावेरी नदी, तुंगभद्रा नदी व कृष्णा नदी ह्या या भागातील प्रमुख नद्या आहेत.

Inhabitants of Southern India are referred to as South Indians. A majority of South Indians speak one of the Dravidian languages:  Telugu, Tulu, तमिळ, Kannada and Malayalam. During its history, a number of dynastic kingdoms ruled over parts of South India whose invasions across southern and southeastern Asia impacted the history and cultures of modern nation-states such as श्रीलंका, Singapore, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia. The region was colonised by Britain and gradually incorporated into the British Empire.

After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after Indian independence, the economies of South Indian states have registered higher than national average growth over the past three decades.  While South Indian states have improved in some socio-economic metrices, economic disparity, illiteracy and poverty continue to affect the region much like the rest of the country.  Agriculture is the single largest contributor to the regional net domestic product, while Information technology is a rapidly growing industry. Literary and architectural styles, evolved over two thousand years, differ from other parts of the country. Politics in South India is dominated by smaller regional political parties rather than by national political parties.

South India ranks the highest in terms of social and economic development in areas such as fertility rate and infrastructure; the fertility rate of South India is 1.9, the lowest of all regions in India.

शब्दस्रोत
Apart from the English language terms Southern India and Peninsular India, southern India has been known by several other historic names. Adi Shankara coined the name Dravida in the 8th century as he called himself Dravida Shishu, meaning a child from Southern India (see etymology of Dravida). The term Deccan, an Anglicized form of the word "Dakhhan" which is a derived from the word daknug kcyovigcigcyoogciyocyouvjyfuvycicig itcogogcixih8td7rsgkufzustbdtifoycutcyctdjvjvguufchvomcn shina meaning south, refers only to the area covered by the Deccan Plateau, a volcanic plateau that covers most of peninsular India excluding the coastal areas. The Carnatic is an English term derived from "Karnād" or "Karunād", meaning high  country. The terms Karnād and Carnatic have long overgrown particular association with the plateau and refer to all of South India, including the coasts, the western of which is named the Carnatic coast. The name Karnātaka is derived from the same root.

दक्षिणभारताचा इतिहास

Carbon dating on ash mounds associated with neolithic cultures in Southern India date back to 8000 BCE. Artefacts such as ground stone axes, and minor copper objects have been found in the region. Towards the beginning of 1000 BCE, iron technology spread through the region; however, there does not appear to be a fully developed Bronze Age preceding the Iron Age in South India. South India was a crossroads of the ancient world, linking the Mediterranean and the Far East. The southern coastline from Karwar to Kodungallur was the most important trading shore in the Indian subcontinent resulting in intermingling between locals and traders. The South Indian coast of Malabar and the Tamil people of the Sangam age traded with the Graeco-Roman world. They were in contact with the Phoenicians, Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, Jews, and Chinese.

There were several significant rulers and dynasties in southern Indian history. Dynasties such as the Satavahanas of Amaravati, Kadambas of Banavasi, Western Ganga Dynasty, Chalukya dynasty of Badami, Western Chalukyas, Eastern Chalukya, Cheras, Cholas, Hoysalas, Kakatiya dynasty, Pallavas, Pandyas, and Rashtrakutas of Manyaketha have ruled over South India. The late medieval period saw the rise of Muslim power in South India. The defeat of the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal by Tughlaq forces of the Delhi Sultanate in 1323 CE heralded a new chapter in South Indian history. The struggle of the period was between the Bahmani Sultanate based in Gulbarga (and later, Bidar) and the Vijayanagara Empire with its capital in Vijayanagara in modern Hampi.

With the fall of Vijayanagara and the break-up of the Bahmani sultanate, the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda and Hyderabad became the dominant power in the region. Qutb Shahi dominance of the region continued until the middle of the seventeenth century, when the Mughals under Aurangzeb made determined inroads into the Deccan. Following Aurangzeb's death, Mughal power weakened, and South Indian rulers gained autonomy from Delhi. The Wodeyar kingdom of Mysore, the Asaf Jahis of Hyderabad, and Marathas all gained power.

In the middle of the eighteenth century, the French and the British initiated a protracted struggle for military control of South India. Shifting alliances between the two European powers and the local powers marked the period with mercenary armies being employed by all sides causing general anarchy in South India. As the British consolidated power over much of India in the late 1850s, they allowed the French to retain their possessions over Pondicherry.  The four Anglo-Mysore wars and the three Anglo-Maratha Wars saw Mysore, Pune and Hyderabad allying themselves with the British or the French. South India during the British colonial rule was divided into the Madras Presidency and Hyderabad, Mysore, Thiruvithamcoore (also known as Travancore), Kochi (also known as Cochin or Perumpadapu Swaroopam), Vizianagaram and a number of other minor princely states. British Residents were stationed in the capitals of the important states to supervise and report on the activities of the rulers.

The States Reorganisation Act (1956) created new states (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, केरळ) and reorganised modern-day Tamil Nadu along linguistic lines. Additionally, the enclaves of French India, which were ceded to India in the 1950s, were constituted into the union territory of Pondicherry.

भूगोल

South India is a peninsula in the shape of a vast inverted triangle, bounded on the west by the Arabian Sea, on the east by the Bay of Bengal and on the north by the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The Narmada flows westwards in the depression between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The Satpura ranges define the northern spur of the Deccan plateau. The Western Ghats, along the western coast, mark another boundary of the plateau. The narrow strip of verdant land between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is the Konkan region. The Western Ghats continue south, forming the Malenadu (Canara) region along the Karnataka coast, and terminate at the Nilgiri mountains, an inward (easterly) extension of the Western Ghats. The Nilgiris run in a crescent approximately along the borders of तमिळ नाडु with northern केरळ and Karnataka, encompassing the Palakkad and Wayanad hills, and the Satyamangalam ranges, and extending on to the relatively low-lying hills of the Eastern Ghats, on the western portion of the तमिळ नाडु - Andhra Pradesh border.  The Tirupati and Annamalai hills form part of this range. The low lying coral islands of Lakshadweep are off the south-western coast of India. श्रीलंका lies off the south-eastern coast, separated from India by the Palk Strait and the chain of low sandbars and islands known as Rama's Bridge. The Andaman and Nicobar islands lie far off the eastern coast of India, near the Tenasserim coast of Burma. The southernmost tip of mainland India is at Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) on the Indian Ocean.

The Deccan plateau is the vast elevated region bound by the C-shape defined by all these mountain ranges.  No major elevations border the plateau to the east, and it slopes gently from the Western Ghats to the eastern coast.  The plateau is watered by the east flowing Godavari and Krishna rivers.  The other major rivers of the Deccan plateau are the Pennar and the Tungabhadra, a major tributary of the Krishna. The three major river deltas of South India, the Kaveri, the Godavari and the Krishna, are located along the Bay of Bengal. These areas constitute the rice bowls of South India.

The region has a very tropical climate with the monsoons playing a major part.  The South - West Monsoon accounts for most of the rainfall in the region and much of it falls from about June to October.  The south-west monsoon starts from केरळ during June and moves up towards the northern parts of India. तमिळ नाडु and southeast Andhra Pradesh receive rains from the North - East Monsoon from about November to February.
Much of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka has a distinct dry season from about October - May when there is not much rainfall. This region also experiences cooler nights from October to March while the days are pleasantly warm. In the northern parts of the region temperatures can fall below 10 degrees Celsius on occasions at night during this time. Days are very hot from March to June when temps can go over 40 degrees. The southern coastal region has an average minimum temperature of 20 degrees and maximum of 35 degrees.

पशू आणि वन्यजीवन

There is a wide diversity of plants and animals in South India, resulting from its varied climates and geography. Deciduous forests are found along the Western Ghats while tropical dry forests and scrub lands Deccan thorn scrub forests are common in the interior Deccan plateau. The southern Western Ghats have high altitude rain forests called the South Western Ghats montane rain forests. The Malabar Coast moist forests are found on the coastal plains. The Western Ghats itself is a biodiversity hotspot.

Some of India's famous protected areas are found in South India. These include Project Tiger reserves Periyar National Park, Kalakad - Mundanthurai and Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve. Important ecological regions of South India are the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, located at the conjunction of the borders of Karnataka, केरळ and Tamil Nadu in the Nilgiri Hills including Mudumalai National Park, Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole National Park Silent Valley National Park, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary and Nugu Wildlife Sanctuary and the Anamalai Hills including the Eravikulam National Park, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and the adjacentThe Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park of the Western Ghats. Important bird sanctuaries including Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary, Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary, Neelapattu Sanctuary and Pulicat Sanctuary are home to numerous migratory and local birds.  Other protected ecological sites include the backwaters like the Pulicut Lake in Andhra Pradesh, Pitchavarum in Tamil Nadu and the famed backwaters of केरळ formed by the Vembanad Lake, the Ashtamudi Lake and the Kayamkulam Lake.

Banana, Musaparadisiaca and Moringa oleifera are found extensively in Lakshadweep while coconut plantations provide economic support to the islands.  Lashadweep has been declared a bird sanctuary by the Wildlife Institute of India. Crabs, chiefly hermit crabs, parrot fish and butterfly fish are also found on the islands.

उप विभाग

सध्या दक्षिण भारतात प्रामुख्याने चार राज्यांचा समावेश केला जातो ती म्हणजे आंध्र प्रदेश, कर्नाटक, केरळ आणि तमिळनाडू तसेच पुदुच्चेरी व  लक्षद्वीप ह्या केंद्रशासीत प्रदेशांचा देखील समावेश केला जातो. Together with Pondicherry, each South Indian state has an elected state government, while the Lakshadweep islands are centrally administered by the President of India.  The modern states of South India were created as a result of the States Reorganisation Act (1956), which established states and union territories based on linguistic boundaries.  As a result of this act:

 आंध्रप्रदेश was formed with the transfer of all districts from Hyderabad State and some taluks from Raichur, Bidar, and Gulbarga to Andhra State,
 केरळ was created with the transfer of Malayalam-dominated territories from Madras State, Kasaragod taluk and Malabar district to unapportioned districts of Travancore-Cochin State,
 म्हैसूर राज्य was formed with the transfer of Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwad and Canara districts from Bombay State, Kollegal taluk of Coimbatore from Madras State, unapportioned taluks of Raichur, Bidar and Gulbarga from Hyderabad State and all territories of Coorg to the erstwhile Kingdom of Mysore,
 मद्रास राज्य was reorganised with the transfer to some talkus from Travancore-Cochin to form the districts of Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli,
 पॉंडिचेरी was formed out of the territories that were under the control of France,
 लक्षद्वीप was formed out of the archipelago under the Malabar district of Madras State.

१९६८ साली मद्रास राज्याचे नामकरण तमिळनाडू असे करण्यात आले तर १९७३ साली म्हैसूर राज्याचे नामकरण कर्नाटक असे करण्यात आले.

Each subregion is further divided into districts; the region of South India has over 100 districts. Each state is headed by a Governor, who is a direct appointee of the President of India, while the Chief Minister is the elected head of the state government and represents the states ruling party or coalition (the role of the Governor is largely ceremonial).

भौगोलिक विस्तार

The estimated population of South India is 233 million. The largest linguistic groups in South India include the Telugus, Tamils, Kannadigas, Malayalis, Tuluvas, Kodavas and Konkanis. About 83% of South Indians follow Hinduism. Islam has the second-highest number of followers in the region, with 11%, while 5% follow Christianity.

The average literacy rate of South India is approximately 73%, considerably higher than the Indian national average of 60%. केरळ leads the nation with a literacy rate of 91%. The sex ratio in South India is fairly equable at 997; केरळ is the only state in India with a favourable sex ratio. The population density of the region is approximately 463. Scheduled Castes and Tribes form 18% of the population of the region. Agriculture is the major employer in the region — 47.5% of the population is involved in agrarian activities. About 60% of the population lives in permanent housing structures. 47.8% of South India has access to tap water. Wells and springs are other major forms of water supply.

The languages of South India are the Dravidian represented by Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu,  besides Gondi and other minor dialects, and the Austro-Asiatic by the Munda languages. South India's predominant language family is Dravidian, a family of approximately seventy-three languages spoken in South Asia.  The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 divided states in India along linguistic lines and led to the creation of separate states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, केरळ and तमिळ नाडु in areas where Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil respectively were dominant.

In the 2001 Census, Telugu had the third largest base of native speakers in India (74 million), after Hindi and Bengali and was awarded the status of classical language in 2008  . Tamil was accorded the status of classical language by the Government of India in 2002 and had about 60 million native speakers. Kannada has 38 million and was awarded the status of classical language in 2008 , while Malayalam had 33 million native speakers.  Each of these languages is listed as an official language of India, per the Official Languages Act (1963).

उर्दू भाषा is spoken by over half of the 25 million Muslims in southern India. South Indian Muslims in some regions of  Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka speak a dialect of Urdu called Dakhni, while some in the Dakshina Kannada region of Karnataka and regions in केरळ speak Beary bashe. Both Dakhni and Beary bashe are influenced by other South Indian languages. Tulu, a Dravidian language prevalent in coastal केरळ and Karnataka, is spoken by about 1.5 million people in the region, while Konkani, an Indo-Aryan language, is spoken by over half a million people in the region. English is also widely spoken in urban areas of South India.

अर्थव्यवस्था

India's economy after independence in 1947 conformed to a socialist framework, with strict governmental control over private sector participation, foreign trade and foreign direct investment (FDI). Through 1960-1990, South Indian economies experienced mixed economic growth.  In the 1960s, Karnataka and केरळ achieved above average economic growth, while Andhra Pradesh's economy declined during this period.  Similarly, केरळ experienced economic decline in the 1970s while the economies of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu consistently exceeded national average growth rates after 1970. Karnataka experienced the highest positive differential in economic growth after the liberalisation of the Indian economy in 1991, while Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka were noted by some to be more reform-oriented in terms of economic policy when compared to other Indian states.

Over 48% of South India's population is engaged in agriculture, which is largely dependent on seasonal monsoons Some of the main crops cultivated in South India include paddy, sorghum, pearl millet, pulses, sugarcane, cotton, chilli, and ragi. Areca, coffee, tea, vanilla, rubber, pepper, tapioca, and cardamom are cultivated on the hills, while coconut grows in abundance in coastal areas. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of rice in India, while Karnataka produces 70% of India's coffee. Frequent droughts in northern Karnataka, Rayalaseema and Telangana have left farmers debt-ridden, forcing them to sell their livestock and sometimes even to commit suicide. The region also suffers from water scarcity, especially during summer. Since the liberalisation of the Indian economy, South India has seen a decrease in revenue from agriculture and agriculture related services .

Traditionally, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka have been home to large, public sector industries (referred to as Public Sector Undertakings, or PSUs), with both states posting above average growth rates in this sector following economic liberalisation. Chennai,  The Detroit of South Asia accounts for about 35% of India's overall automotive components while the registered headquarters of 42% of all Central PSUs in South India are located in Karnataka. Additionally, the growth of information technology (IT) hubs in the region have spurred economic growth and attracted foreign investments and job seekers from other parts of the country. Hyderabad and Bangalore the IT hubs of India are home to software giants. In fiscal 2006-2007, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka attracted the third and fourth highest total FDI approvals in India, respectively, totalling to over   Software exports from South India grossed over  in fiscal 2005-06.

Though केरळ lags behind many of the Indian states in terms of industrialisation,it has got enormous intellectual capital which enables a lions share of keralities to be employed overseas and hence in terms of quality of life per capita income and standard of living it ranks first in the country.

राजकारण

[[चित्र:Cpmernakulam (40).jpg|thumb|A Left Democratic Front rally in केरळ
Politics in South India is dominated by a mix of regional parties and larger national political parties like the Congress (INC), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). With the exclusion of Karnataka, each state has at least two parties dominating politics in that state.

Pre-independence politics in the Madras Presidency was dominated by the Justice Party and the INC. Periyar Ramasami who started the Dravidian movement was elected leader of the Justice Party in 1938 and in 1944 renamed it to Dravidar Kazhagam, with its initial aim being the secession of Dravida Nadu from the rest of India on independence. Following independence, Periyar strongly believed that the party should not participate in elections in the newly created India, something his closest followers disagreed with. In 1948, C. N. Annadurai, a follower of Periyar and a Joint Secretary of Dravidar Kazhagam parted ways with Periyar to form the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam political party. INC's political influence over Tamil Nadu gave way to the rise of the DMK which formed its first government in 1968 and again in 1978. The following year, a split in the DMK resulted in the formation of the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), lead by M. G. Ramachandran. Together, the AIADMK and the DMK currently command a 60% share in Tamil Nadu state elections.

The main facets of state politics in Tamil Nadu included language — the distinction between Tamil and non-Tamil speakers was an important tool used by the DMK in the 1960s and caste — such as the Self-respect Movement. The imposition of Hindi on non-Hindi speaking areas of India has often been a contentious issue in Tamil Nadu. In January-February 1965, large scale anti-Hindi agitations, a cause championed by the DMK, occurred in Tamil Nadu.

In 1982, the establishment of the Telugu Desam Party in Andhra Pradesh by former Telugu actor Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao (NTR) broke the dominance of the INC in Andhra Pradesh politics. NTR successfully challenged the INC's supremacy in the state and his party was voted into power a total of four times. In 1996, a year after winning the state assembly election by a landslide, a dispute between NTR, his wife Lakshmi Parvati and his immediate family resulted in a split in the TDP. Concerned over undue influence over NTR and his policies, the bulk of the party favoured the family under the leadership of NTR's son-in-law, N Chandrababu Naidu, who later became Chief Minister of the state. Naidu was regarded as a visionary who promoted the growth of information technology in the state. On August 26, 2008 Chiranjeevi, the leading actor of the Telugu film industry launched a new party at Tirupathi, called Prajarajyam. He said he would be constesting for the elections scheduled in the next year.

The Janata Dal has been far more successful in Karnataka than it has been in national politics. National political parties such as the BJP and INC have experienced more comparative success in Karnataka than they have in other states of South India. Karnataka's political environment is dominated by two rival caste groups — the Vokkaligas and the Lingayats. Ramakrishna Hegde played an integral part in the ascent of the Janata Dal into the national foray in the late 1980s. However, it was his political rival H. D. Deve Gowda, then the Chief Minister of Karnataka, who later went on to become the Prime Minister of India.

केरळ hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (UDF, led by the Indian National Congress) and the Left Democratic Front (LDF, led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist)). केरळ numbers among India's most left-wing states. An interesting phenomenon of केरळ politics is the alternate election of Congress and the Communists to power.

संस्कृती आणि रुढीपरंपरा

thumb|right|Tirumala Venkateswara Temple, A famous temple located in Tirupati, Andra Pradesh.
According to some experts, the weltanschauung of South Indians is essentially the celebration of the eternal universe through the celebration of the beauty of the body, and motherhood, which is exemplified through their dance, clothing, and sculptures. South Indian women traditionally wear the Saree while the men wear a type of sarong, which could be either a white pancha or a colourful lungi with typical batik patterns.

Rice is the staple diet, while fish is an integral component of coastal South Indian meals. Coconut is an important ingredient in केरळ whereas Andhra Pradesh cuisine is characterized by pickles and spicy curries. Hyderabadi cuisine a legacy of the past, is popular for its Biryani. Dosa, Idli, Uttapam are popular throughout the region. There are large coffee estates in southern Karnataka and parts of केरळ and Tamil Nadu.

The traditional music of South India is known as Carnatic music, which includes rhythmic and structured music by composers like Purandara Dasa, Kanaka Dasa, Tyagaraja, Annamacharya, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Shyama Shastri,Kshetrayya, Subbaraya Shastri, Mysore Vasudevachar and Swathi Thirunal. The contemporary singer Dr. K. J. Yesudas is a cultural ambassador of Carnatic music.Thiruvarur Bakthavathsalam is a cultural ambassador of carnatic instrumentals. The motion picture industry has emerged as an important platform in South India, over the years portraying the cultural changes, trends, aspirations and developments experienced by its people. Some movie classics like Nammukku paarkkaan munthiri thoppukal (1986) by Padmarajan, Adi Shankara (1984) by director G V Iyer, and Perumthachan (1990) by Ajayan have gained worldwide acclaim. South India is home to several distinct dance forms — the Koodiyattam, Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi, Kathakali, Yakshagana, Theyyam, Ottamthullal, Oppana, केरळ Natanam and Mohiniaattam.

South India has an independent literary tradition going back over 2500 years. The first known literature of South India are the poetic Sangams, which were written in Tamil between 2500 to 2100 years ago. The 850 CE Kannada classic Kavirajamarga written by King Amoghavarsha I makes references to Kannada literature of King Durvinita in the early sixth century CE. Tamil Buddhist commentators of the tenth century CE Nemrinatham make references to Kannada literature of the fourth century CE. Distinct Malayalam and Telugu literary traditions developed in the following centuries.

South India has two distinct styles of rock architecture, the pure dravida style of Tamil Nadu and the Vesara style (also called Karnata dravida style) present in Karnataka. The inspirational temple sculptures of Hampi, Badami, Bhattiprolu,Simhachalam, Sri Kalahasti, Pattadakal, Aihole, Belur, Halebidu, Lakkundi, Shravanabelagola, Mahabalipuram, Tanjore, Madurai and the mural paintings of Travancore and Lepakshi temples, also stand as a testament to South Indian culture. The paintings of Raja Ravi Varma are considered classic renditions of many a scenes of South Indian life and mythology.Murudeshwara, a town in Uttar Kannada district is known for the world's tallest Shiva statue.

The main spiritual traditions of South India include both Shaivite and Vaishnavite branches of Hinduism, although Buddhist and Jain philosophies had been influential several centuries earlier. Shravanabelagola in Karnataka is a popular pilgrimage center for Jains. Ayyavazhi is spread significantly across the southernmost parts of South India. Its followers are more densely populated in South तमिळ नाडु and केरळ. There is a large Muslim community in South India, particularly in the Malabar coast, which can trace its roots to the ancient maritime trade between केरळ and Omanis and other Arabs. Christianity has flourished in coastal South India from the times of St. Thomas the Apostle who came to केरळ in 52 and established the Syrian Christian tradition today called as Saint Thomas Christians or Nasranis. केरळ is also home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world who are supposed to have arrived in the Malabar coast during the time of King Solomon. The oldest surviving Jewish synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations is the Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, केरळ.

हे सुद्धा पहा
 भारत
 मद्रास प्रांत
 उत्तर भारत
 उत्तर-पूर्व भारत
 पश्विम भारत
 पूर्व भारत
 मध्य भारत

संदर्भ आणि पुस्तकसूची
खाली दिलेल्या जोडणीवर टिचकी मारा
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_India#References_and_bibliography

संदर्भ

भारताचा भूगोल

दक्षिण भारत


Allah-Rakha Rahman is an Indian composer, singer, songwriter, music composer and philanthropist. A. R. Rahman's works are famous for combining Indian classical music with electronic music, world music and traditional orchestral arrangements.

Birth and early life
Rahman was born in Madras, India. His father, R. K. Shekhar, was a movie composer for Tamil and Malayalam movies. Rahman assisted his father in the studio, playing the keyboard.

Rahman began his early musical training under Master Dhanraj, and at age 11 began playing in the orchestra of Malayalam composer (and close friend of his father) M. K. Arjunan. He soon began working with other composers, such as M. S. Viswanathan, Ilaiyaraaja, Ramesh Naidu and Raj-Koti. He had assisted Zakir Hussain, Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan and L. Shankar on world tours. He also obtained a scholarship from London Trinity College of Music.

Studying in Madras, Rahman completed his studies with a diploma in Western classical music from the school. His mother was a practicing Hindu. He converted to Islam with other members of his family in 1989 at age 23, changing his name from R. S. Dileep Kumar to Allah Rakha Rahman (A. R. Rahman).

Debut movie and thereafter
In 1992, he was approached by director Mani Ratnam to compose the score and soundtrack for his Tamil movie, Roja.Rahman received the Rajat Kamal (Silver Lotus) award for best music director at the National Film Awards for Roja. The movie's music was critically and commercially successful in its original and dubbed versions, led by the innovative theme "Chinna Chinna Aasai".A. R. Rahman won the National Film Award for Best Music Direction, the first time ever by a debutant. Rahman also earned Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Music Director and Filmfare Best Music Director Award (Tamil) for his work.

Apart from successful soundtracks, he has also received notability for his background music and is considered one of the finest background music composers in India. Almost every Music compositions of A.R.Rahman were famous throughout Tamil cinema and other language movies.

Awards
 Rahman was the six-time National Film Award winner and recipient of six Tamil Nadu State Film Awards. He got fifteen Filmfare Awards and sixteen Filmfare Awards South for his music.
 Rahman has received a Kalaimamani from the Government of Tamil Nadu for excellence in the field of music. He also received musical-achievement awards from the governments of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh and a Padma Shri from the Government of India.
 In 2006, he received an award from Stanford University for his contributions to global music. The following year, Rahman entered the Limca Book of Records as "Indian of the Year for Contribution to Popular Music". He received the 2008 Lifetime Achievement Award from the Rotary Club of Madras.
 In 2009, for his Slumdog Millionaire music, Rahman won the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award, the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score, the BAFTA Award for Best Film Music and two Academy Awards (Best Original Score and Best Original Song, the latter shared with Gulzar) at the 81st Academy Awards.
 He has received honorary doctorates from Middlesex University, Aligarh Muslim University, Anna University in Chennai and Miami University in Ohio. The composer has won two Grammy Awards: Best Compilation Soundtrack Album and Best Song Written for Visual Media. Rahman received the Padma Bhushan, India's third-highest civilian honour, in 2010.

References

Tamil singers
Tamil musicians
Living people
Bollywood playback singers

A. R. Rahman


John Mead Howells,  (; August 14, 1868 – September 22, 1959), was an American architect.

Early life and education
Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the son of author William Dean Howells, he earned an undergraduate degree from Harvard University in 1891 and completed further architectural studies there in 1894 before studying at the École des Beaux-Arts, in Paris, where he earned a diploma in 1897.

Career
Howells moved to New York City and founded the architectural firm Howells & Stokes with Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, who had also studied at the École. The partnership designed such works as St. Paul's Chapel at Columbia University and Stormfield, an Italianate villa commissioned by Samuel Clemens, a longtime friend of his father.

Ending the partnership in 1913, Howells would focus his practice on office buildings in the Art Deco style, some of which he completed with Raymond Hood, whom he had met during his time at the École, and whom he had invited to become a partner when he was selected to enter the Chicago Tribune building competition in 1922. These projects include the prize-winning design of the Tribune Tower in Chicago and the American Radiator Building and Daily News Building in New York City. Howells also designed the Beekman Tower in New York and the plan for the University of Brussels in Belgium in 1922 at the request of U.S. Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. Howells's institutional works include the Engineering Quadrangle at Pratt Institute, built in phases from 1909 to 1928; Memorial Hall at Pratt Institute in 1927; and Willoughby Hall at Pratt Institute in 1957.

Howells served as president of the Society of Beaux-Arts Architects and the Society of Architects Diplômes. He was elected to the National Institute of Arts and Letters, named a Chevalier by the French Legion of Honor and an officer of the Order of the Crown (Belgium), and served on the U.S. Commission of Fine Arts from 1933 to 1937. Howells wrote several books on architectural history. In 1944 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician.

Gallery

References

External links

Howells at NYC Architecture
 Howells & Stokes architectural records and drawings, 1900-1940. Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University.

1868 births
19th-century American architects
Harvard Graduate School of Design alumni
1959 deaths
American alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
Fellows of the American Institute of Architects
20th-century American architects
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters

John Mead Howells


The Fault in Our Stars is a 2014 American romantic drama movie. This movie is set in Indianapolis, Indiana and Amsterdam, Netherlands. It is based on the novel of the same name by John Green. Shailene Woodley plays Hazel Lancaster. Laura Dern plays Mrs. Lancaster.  The movie was released on June 6, 2014. The film made over US$303 million. Critics mostly gave the film positive reviews.

Plot
This movie is about a teenage girl named Hazel. She has terminal cancer. She falls in love with a teenage boy named Augustus she meets at a support group. Hazel finds out that he likes her, too, and invites her over to watch a movie. The next day, Gus calls her, asking if she can come over. His friend, Isaac, is having a nervous breakdown after his girlfriend breaks up with him. Hazel realizes that Gus has read her favorite book to get to know her better, and in exchange, Hazel reads his. The movie courses over multiple meetups, when one day Augustus finds out Hazel's favorite reclusive author's email.

Other websites

2010s coming-of-age movies
2014 romantic drama movies
2010s teen drama movies
2010s teen romance movies
American coming-of-age movies
American romantic drama movies
American teen drama movies
American teen romance movies
Movies set in Amsterdam
Cancer in movies
Coming-of-age drama movies
Coming-of-age romance movies
2010s English-language movies
Indiana in fiction
Indianapolis
Movies about couples
Movies about death
Movies about vacationing
Movies about virginity
Movies based on books
Movies set in the Netherlands

The Fault in Our Stars (movie)


Cowra is a city in the central west of New South Wales, Australia. It is in Cowra Shire.  It is 310m above sea-level and about 300 km west of Sydney. Cowra is on the banks of the Lachlan River.

The first name for Cowra was Coura Rocks. This may have been the name of one of the first cattle farms. This name is probably the name of the river ford (crossing) where people could cross the Lachlan River.

The name Cowra comes from a local aboriginal word meaning "eagle on the rocks".

It should not be confused with another New South Wales town named Corowa.

History

The first people to live in the area were the Wiradjuri people. The first European explorer, George Wilson Evans, came into the Lachlan Valley in 1815. He named the area the Oxley Plains after his boss, the Surveyor-General, John Oxley. In 1817 he said the area was "unfit for white settlement". An army camp was set up soon after at Soldiers Flat near present-day Billimari. Arthur Ranken and James Sloan, from Bathurst, were amongst the first European settlers on the Lachlan. They moved to the area in 1831.

The township of Coura Rocks began in 1840. By 1847 the township was called Cowra. The village was officially listed in 1849.

In the 1850s many people looking for gold went through on their way to the gold fields at Lambing Flat (Young) and Grenfell. The first school was started in 1857. The first bridge over the Lachlan River was built in 1870. Gold was found at Mount McDonald in the 1880s. The railway, from Sydney, reached Cowra in 1886. Local government started in 1888. The first telephone were connected in 1901. The town water supply was started in 1909, the gas in 1912, and town supplied electricity was connected in 1924.

Cowra is home to the Australian copy of the United Nation's World Peace Bell. These are normally kept in a nation's capital city. It was given to Cowra because of its special role in international understanding, world peace and as a centre of world friendship.

The Cowra breakout

During World War II Cowra was the site of a prisoner of war (POW) camp. Most of the prisoners were captured Japanese and Italian soldiers, sailors and airmen. On August 5, 1944  about 545 (some sources say over 1000) Japanese POWs attempted a mass escape from the camp. This is perhaps the largest prison escape in the world. At the same time, other Japanese prisoners killed themselves, or were killed by their countrymen, inside the camp.

The POWs tried to capture machine gun posts, armed only with home made weapons. The Prime Minister John Curtin said this was a "suicidal disregard of life", and had no chance of success.

During the escape 231 Japanese and 4 Australian guards were killed, and 108 prisoners were wounded. The dead Japanese were buried in Cowra in a specially made Japanese War Cemetery. This is the only such cemetery in Australia. It also has some of the dead from the WWII air raids on Darwin.

An Avenue of Honour also remembers those who died in World War I.

Japanese Garden
The Japanese War Cemetery was looked by members of the Cowra RSL and given to Japan in 1963. In 1971 the Cowra Tourism Development decided to celebrate this link with Japan. They planned a Japanese garden for the town. The Japanese Government agreed to help as a sign of thanks for the respectful treatment of their war dead. The garden also received money from the Australian Government and private groups.

The garden was designed by Ken Nakajima (1914 - 2000). He was a world famous designer of Japanese gardens. The first part was opened in 1979, with a second part opened in 1986.

The gardens were built in the style of the Edo period. They are a kaiyū-shiki or strolling garden. They are designed to show all of the landscape types of Japan. At five hectares, the Cowra Japanese Garden is the largest Japanese garden in the Southern Hemisphere. An annual Sakura Matsuri (cherry blossom festival) is held in the gardens during late September and/or early October each year. The garden also has other events during the year.

References

Other websites

 Cowra Shire Council
 Fact sheet on 1944 Cowra outbreak , National Archives of Australia
 Cowra Wine Region
 YouTube Video Featuring Cowra

Towns in New South Wales

Cowra


Thierry Maulnier (born Jacques Talagrand; 1 October 1909, Alès – 9 January 1988, Marnes-la-Coquette) was a French journalist, essayist, dramatist, and literary critic. He was married to theatre director Marcelle Tassencourt.

Early years
A graduate of the École Normale Supérieure in the same class as Roger Vailland, Robert Brasillach, and Maurice Bardèche. While still a student, Maulnier became active in the integralist Action Française, and published in Charles Maurras' newspaper (L'Action française). He made a career in journalism and took part in the movement of the Non-conformists of the 1930s, inspired by the personalist generation of young intellectuals who shared some of the ideals of the Action Française, holding right-wing beliefs as an answer to a "crisis of civilization" and materialism. He also campaigned against democracy and capitalism, advocating a union of the right and left to overthrow the two. Thierry Maulnier associated with youth periodicals such as Réaction, La Revue du Siècle, and La Revue française; he also wrote his first volume, La crise est dans l'homme ("Crisis Is in Man").

In 1934, he authored, with Jean-Pierre Maxence, the manifesto Demain la France ("Tomorrow, France"). Maxence and Maulnier also founded the weekly L'Insurgé in 1936 lasting only a few months, the magazine circulated nationalist tenets, reviewed in Maulnier's 1938 essay Au-delà du nationalisme ("Beyond Nationalism"). At the same time, he joined Jean de Fabrègues in the creation of a more analytical paper, Combat, one which would be published until France's defeat in World War II.

World War II and after
A regular contributor to L'Action française since 1938, Maulnier continued to publish after Nazi Germany's occupation of France (from 1940); he also started writing for Le Figaro. He ceased writing for the paper after the start of Operation Torch in 1942, and remained a journalist for Le Figaro from 1945 until his death.

With the beginning of the Fourth Republic, Maulnier no longer engaged in politics. He wrote plays (La Course des rois - 1947; Le Profanateur - 1950, La Ville au fond de la mer - 1953, Le Soir du conquérant - 1970) and essays (Violence et conscience - 1945, La Face de méduse du communisme - 1952, L'Europe a fait le monde - 1966, Le Sens des mots - 1976, Les Vaches sacrées - 1977), but also commented on social themes (with Maulnier as a staunch Pro-European).

In 1964, he was elected to the Académie française in place of the deceased Henry Bordeaux. In 1986 he was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca.

Works

 La crise est dans l'homme (1932)
 Nietzsche (1933)
 Racine (1934)
 Miracle de la Monarchie (1935)
 Mythes socialistes (1938)
 Au-delà du nationalisme (1938)
 Introduction à la poésie française (1939)
 La France, la guerre et la paix (1942, Lyon)
 Violence et conscience (1945)
 Langages (1946)
 Jeanne et ses juges (1952)
 Le Sexe et le néant, directed by Marcelle Tassencourt, Théâtre de l'Athénée (1960)
 Cette Grèce où nous sommes nés (1964)
 La Défaite d'hannibal, followed by La ville au fond de la mer, Gallimard (1968)
 Dialogue inattendu, with Jean Elleinstein, Flammarion (1979)

Theatre
 1944: Antigone by Robert Garnier, Théâtre Charles de Rochefort, Théâtre du Vieux-Colombier

References

1909 births
1988 deaths
People from Alès
20th-century French dramatists and playwrights
French literary critics
French monarchists
French political writers
Writers from Occitania (administrative region)
People affiliated with Action Française
French anti-communists
École Normale Supérieure alumni
Members of the Académie Française
20th-century French essayists
20th-century French journalists
Le Figaro people
Non-conformists of the 1930s

Thierry Maulnier


LHTEC (Light Helicopter Turbine Engine Company) is a joint venture between Rolls-Royce and Honeywell. The company was originally a partnership between the Allison Engine Company and AlliedSignal Aerospace.
In 1995 Rolls-Royce acquired Allison, and AlliedSignal merged with Honeywell in 1999, and adopted its name.

The partnership was formed to develop the T800 turboshaft engine for the United States Army's RAH-66 Comanche armed reconnaissance helicopter. Despite the cancellation of this 650+ aircraft project, the company has been able to sell the T800, and its civil CTS800 model, for other applications, namely the AgustaWestland Super Lynx and AW159 Wildcat.

Products
 LHTEC T800/CTS800 turboshaft and CTP800 turboprop

References

External links
 Honeywell CTS800 page
 Rolls-Royce CTS800 page

Aircraft engine manufacturers of the United States
Turboshaft engine manufacturers

LHTEC


Selenium hexafluoride, also known as selenium(VI) fluoride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is SeF6. It contains selenium in its +6 oxidation state. It also contains fluoride ions.

Properties
Selenium hexafluoride is a colorless gas. It is much more reactive and toxic than sulfur hexafluoride. It has a bad odor.

Preparation
Selenium hexafluoride is made by heating selenium and fluorine together.

Uses
This chemical compound has no uses.

Related pages
Selenium tetrafluoride
Selenium tetrachloride

Selenium compounds
Fluorine compounds

Selenium hexafluoride


Speaker is the title of the person in charge of some legislatures, usually the lower house.

House of Commons of the United Kingdom
The speaker is elected by other members of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, and is usually a member of the government party, but leaves his or her party because the speaker must be neutral (not like one side more than another).  The speaker does not vote. If the speaker wants to stand in for re-election the other parties do not oppose him to show he is neutral.  As of January 2020, the speaker is Lindsay Hoyle, a member of the Labour Party.

Dail Éireann in Ireland
The speaker (Ceann Comhairle) of the Dáil Éireann is  neutral, but the constitution (Bunreacht) of Ireland says he does not need to stand for re-election, he is given the first seat in his constituency. The current speaker (November 2017) is Sean Treacy.

United States House of Representatives

The speaker is the leader of the largest party. He or she is not neutral, but votes for his or hers party's policies.  The speaker also helps to get his or her party's ideas made law.  The term of the speaker of the House is two years in office.

Government occupations

Speaker (politics)


Mazdaznan is a neo-Zoroastrian religion which held that the Earth should be restored to a garden where humanity can cooperate and converse with God. Founded at the end of the 19th century by Otoman Zar-Adusht Ha'nish, born Otto Hanisch, the religion was a revival of 6th century Mazdakism. Adherents maintained vegetarian diets and practiced breathing exercises. Concerned with the nature of thought, emotion and behavior, Mazdaznan taught that the practical aspects of personal health could be achieved through conscious breathing, "Gah-Llama". The word Mazdaznan is said to derive from the Persian "Mazda" and "Znan", and is supposed to mean "master thought".

Teachings

Although the movement originally consisted of public lectures and group exercise, popular demand made a book called The Power of Breath available. This book propelled Mazdaznan into being promoted as a dietary (vegetarian) movement with breathing, bowel and glandular exercises for physical, spiritual and mental development.

Its lack of lasting popularity can be attributed to the fact that besides emphasizing the importance of the individual decision, it proclaims personal responsibility for one's own fortune. Its success as a word of mouth movement that spawned similar groups can be attributed to its "tried and true" traditions of how different physical postures and ways of breathing produce predictable and controllable mental states.

Its relationship to Judeo-Christian and other religions can be deduced from its emphasis upon three historical characters: Ainyahita, Zarathustra and Jehoshua. Ainyahita, daughter of the divinely created couple (may be related to Anahita), lived 9000 years ago and is supposed to be the origin of the white Aryan race, which includes the Jews and therefore Jesus of Nazareth. The traditional God character of most religions has its Mazdaznan  component in "Gah-Llama" which is referred to as "intelligence," and "In the air you breathe." The Power of Breath discusses Gah-Llama in breathing exercises, where the main goal is self-control and mastery of your body through, effectively, "breathing intelligently" and breathing "intelligence" or "Gah-Llama". It is in all respects a non-theistic tradition, in that all words for the unknown are recognized as linguistic and semantic peculiarities, with no rules except for suggestions for health, which are accompanied with a note that you know what's best for yourself.

Movement
The first centers were established in Chicago in 1890 and New York in 1902. Since 1917, Hanisch settled mainly in  Los Angeles, California. Several scholars brought his teachings to other countries.

In Europe, Mazdaznan was spread by the former Californian farmers David and Frieda Ammann beginning in about 1907. David Ammann was expelled from Leipzig, Germany in 1914 due to the publication of the book Inner Studies. The main centre for Mazdaznan in Europe was the Lebensschule at Herrliberg near Zurich. One of the most famous European followers of the movement was the abstract painter Johannes Itten, who taught at the Bauhaus, who insisted on shaven heads, crimson robes and colonic irrigation.

In the 1930s, Gloria Gasque, a wealthy follower of the movement, went to Bombay intending to restore the "true" message of Zoroaster to the Parsis. Though met with hostility, she remained there for a number of years before she returned to the United States.

The Nazis proscribed Mazdaznan from 1935, a ban that remained in Germany until 1946. Today the movement has several thousand German followers.

In 1980 Mazdaznan's headquarters moved to Encinitas, California, and in 2001 the last manager of the headquarters disappeared and the organized movement ceased to exist in the US, though it is possible that there are still isolated followers or practitioners in the US.

In 2007, the movement was revived in Canada by Peter deBoer.

Literature
Hanish, Otoman Zar-Adusht: Inner Studies: A Course of Twelve Lessons, 1902
Hanish, Otoman Zar-Adusht: Ainyahita in Pearls (articles 1907–1909)
Hanish, Otoman Zar-Adusht: Mazdaznan Dietetics and Cookery Book, 1913
Hanish, Otoman Zar-Adusht: Mazdaznan Health and Breath Culture, 1914
Hanish, Otoman Zar-Adusht: Jehoshua the Nazir, (describes mystical eastern sources on Jesus of Nazareth).
Hanish, Otoman Zar-Adusht: Ever Creative Thought, 1931

Notes

New religious movements
Religions that require vegetarianism
Neo-Zoroastrianism

Mazdaznan


The Nøstvet culture (c. 6200 BC – 3200 BC) and the Lihult culture are two very similar Mesolithic cultures in Scandinavian prehistory derived from the earlier Fosna-Hensbacka cultures. They are so varied and vaguely defined that they are rather a tradition than an archaeological culture.

The Nøstvet culture appeared around the Oslofjord and along the Norwegian coast up to Trøndelag, whereas the Lihult culture is found in western coastal Sweden. Sometimes the Sandarna culture appears as the name of an intermediary form between the Swedish Hensbacka and Lihult cultures. This name comes from a settlement near Gothenburg (approximately 7000 BC–5000 BC).

The Nøstvet people lived on open settlements. They used honed axes and microliths of various rocks, such as quartz, quartzite and flint. They lived primarily of hunting various animals such as seafowl and marine mammals, in addition to fishing and gathering. The size of the settlements grows over time, which reflects an increase in population and a more sedentary lifestyle.

In southern Scandinavia, its neighbours were first the Kongemose culture (roughly 6000 BC–5200 BC) and later on the Ertebølle culture (about 5200 BC–4000 BC).

About 4000 BC, the Nøstvet and Lihult cultures are succeeded by the Funnelbeaker culture and disappear from the archaeological record.

Genetics

References
Nationalencyklopedin

Mesolithic cultures of Europe
Archaeological cultures of Europe
Archaeological cultures in Norway
Archaeological cultures in Sweden
Archaeology of Northern Europe
Nordic Stone Age

Nøstvet and Lihult cultures


This article is about the bird Phoenix. For other things that the word "Phoenix" means, go to Phoenix (disambiguation).The phoenix is the sacred bird of myth, mentioned in Persian, Greek, Egyptian, and Chinese mythology. But once every thousand years, he spreads his wings and sings over a large mass of firewood, and when he is overjoyed by his song, he kindles a fire in his beak, and when it burns in the fire, an egg emerges from it, which immediately catches fire and burns. Another phoenix is born from its ashes. Phoenix is considered a symbol of immortality and longevity in most cultures. But some cultures have attributed other characteristics to him. The story goes that the bird lives for several hundred years before it dies by setting itself on fire. However, it then starts a new life from the ashes of the fire.

In European culture

In English culture, the Phoenix is a mythical bird, very beautiful and unique in its kind, which, according to legend, lives in the western desert for 500 or 600 years, burns itself on a pile of debris, and from the resulting ashes, he himself once again. He emerges with a youthful freshness and begins and passes another round of life. Phoenix in European culture is often an allegory of immortality and eternal life. Phoenix originally entered European culture from ancient Iran. During the eight centuries BC, the Phoenix bird is mentioned in nine references, eight of which have come down to us through quotations from later authors, and only one case by Herodotus, a Greek historian from 484 to 424 BC, is preserved in full. remained. Another Greek, Claudius Aelianus, also known as Aelian, wrote about Phoenix 200 AD: "Phoenix keeps the arithmetic of 500 years correct without the help of arithmetic or finger counting, because he learns everything from nature, which is the whole intellect. Although it seems necessary to know about Phoenix, among the Egyptians - perhaps only a handful of priests - no one knows when 500 years will pass, but at least we need to know where Egypt is and Heliopolis where Phoenix is. "Where is it and what kind of coffin does this bird put its father in and where does it bury it?" According to the English text, this historian calls Phoenix's father a father, but calls Phoenix the neutral form (it). Subsequent authors have often used the feminine form for Phoenix, but since this bird is a unique myth and its offspring did not derive from mating, the discussion of its sex did not seem to be very important. A Roman historian named Publius Ovidius Naso, better known as Ovid, is the first Roman to write about Phoenix in Latin. "How many creatures walk on earth today, but in the beginning they were different. There is only one being that will remain forever as it was from the beginning, that is, it will remain unchanged for many years, and finally, after extinction, it will be born again in its original form. This is a bird that the Assyrians, or in some sources probably the Syrians or the Phoenicians, call the phoenix. This bird does not eat ordinary seeds and grass, but eats fruit extracts and rare spices. When he is 500 years old, he builds a nest on a tall palm tree and with his fork makes a bed for himself from the finest materials, from tree bark to cinnamon and other spices and gums, and then he dies and his soul travels far away with fragrant smoke and steam, and the story It goes on to say that a small phoenix then rises from the chest of his lifeless body to live, as they say, another 500 years, and at that time, after his old age, he found the necessary courage to raise his throne and nests where his father is buried. A tall palm tree sets in motion and begins its journey to the city of the sun, where the Phoenix Nest Temple shines brightly in the Temple of the Sun. " From all that has been said about the phoenix in European culture, two general accounts of the phoenix can be given: First, Phoenix arises from his father's lifeless body and takes his father's body to the city of Heliopolis and burns it on the altar of the Temple of the Sun; And another narration is that the phoenix burns in a pile of fragrant wood and debris, flutters its wings and ignites a flame, burns itself in the fire, and from its ashes another phoenix is born. So, in a nutshell, this myth can be said in European culture: "The phoenix burns in the fire and is born again from its ashes." In this regard, it is common in English to say, "Every fire may contain a phoenix.

In Modern Egypt

During the first century AD, Phoenix was mentioned 21 times by ten authors. From all these sources it appears that the myth of Phoenix originated in ancient Egyptian civilization and was later spoken of in Greek, Roman and Christian civilizations, respectively. Among the Egyptians, the myth of Phoenix was originally the myth of the sun rising again at dawn after each night, and the name of the city of Heliopolis in Herodotus must have been related to this. The Egyptians consider the phoenix a sacred bird, which is very rare. According to the people of Heliopolis, the phoenix appears in Egypt once every 500 years after the death of the previous phoenix. There are only a few pictures of this bird, and as can be seen from its shape and size in these pictures, the wings and jump are red and yellow are golden, and its general size is like an eagle. A strange story is told about the work of this bird, and that is that this bird brings its father's body, which is covered with a kind of fragrant plant gum, all the way from the Arab land to the Temple of the Sun and buries it there. It is said that in order to bring a corpse, first it makes a gum large enough to carry it, then it empties it and puts the corpse in it and closes its mouth with fresh gum, and then the bullet, which is correct. It has regained its original weight, is brought to Egypt, and while the entire surface of the bullet is covered with gum, it is placed inside the Temple of the Sun, as mentioned.
In

In Persian mythology

Persian mythology, the phoenix means swan, a counterpart to the Indo-European and Chinese word phoenix, and appears to be the result of an arrangement of a pheasant, a Chinese chicken, and a mixture with other mythical birds. In Persian narrations, like in Indo-European narrations, this hen is a rare and lonely hen that is not a mate and as a result, she will not give birth. Phoenix lives a thousand years, and when his life comes to an end, he produces a large pile of firewood, and when he sits on that pile, he sings so much that he rejoices in his song, and by breaking his wings and with the help of his beak, he kindles a fire, and burns in the door. Fire produces a testicle (egg) from him and thus another phoenix is born. In this narrative, Phoenix is the swan counterpart in European literature who ends his life by singing. Basically, in Persian literature, as in Indo-European literature, burning in one's suffering and rising from one's ashes and being born again have their way into the myth of Phoenix.
In Chinese mythological culture, the phoenix is known as Feng Huang or the red bird, which is a genus of fire and is a symbol of summer and the south, which causes drought. For this reason, Phoenix contains the negative and material element of the world, namely yin, and is considered the symbol of the queen. In front of the phoenix is the dragon, which is always considered to be the representative of Khaqan in Chinese mythology. According to Chinese tradition, the phoenix flies less to the surface of the earth, and when it does, all the birds gather around it. According to Koyaji about Phoenix, he does not sit on the ground, but whenever he sits on the ground, he dances on one foot. Some have suggested that the Chinese phoenix is the counterpart of Shang Shang or the rainbird in the Confucian version, while the Shang Shang or rainbird is the bird that symbolizes the yin, but the phoenix is commonly considered the symbol of the yang. Phoenix in Chinese mythology is a symbol of joy and happiness and a sign of heavenly satisfaction. In these myths, the dragon is the spirit of the rain and the symbol of Khaqan, and the phoenix is the symbol of the queen and the south and the helper of the farmers.

In Chinese mythology

In Chinese mythology, the red bird or phoenix was a symbol of the south and was worshipped. Phoenix later replaced the pheasant. In the surviving maps, this bird had a curved beak, a long, sharp claw in the shape of a bird of prey, and was considered a help to farmers on the arid farms of the south. There is another phoenix in Chinese mythology called Qi Sang or Phoenix of the Mountains. This phoenix is the phoenix that provided the map of rivers to Yu in the time of the Athenian dynasty.

THE feng, or phoenix, is the legendary king of all avian species according to Chinese myth.

"A Hundred Birds Paying Homage to the Phoenix" is one of the most popular themes in traditional Chinese painting. This is also the name of a traditional Chinese music piece featuring complicated suona playing skills.

According to Chinese legend, the phoenix was originally an inconspicuous bird with a plain appearance. Unlike most birds that busied themselves with playing around, he collected fruit and seeds in his den from dawn to dust. Unable to understand his behavior, other birds mocked him for being greedy.

Later, an unexpected draught left many birds without anything to eat. The phoenix opened his den, and shared his food with the other birds, saving their lives.

When the rain finally returned, bringing life back to the forest, the birds wanted to show their gratitude to the phoenix. Each bird pulled out one of their most beautiful feathers, and together they made the feathers into a dazzling garment. They presented the garment to the phoenix, and crowned him as their king.

Hence, each year, all birds will fly to the phoenix on one particular day, and pay their respects to the king. This image has inspired countless artists.

Though the phoenix is often called fenghuang today, the words feng and huang originally referred to a pair of colorful birds. Feng is a male bird and huang is female. However, just as the Chinese dragon was used as a symbol for the emperor in the royal court, the phoenix, with its beautiful appearance, was selected to symbolize the empress. The empress's crown at formal events was usually called the "phoenix crown," while her dress was called the "phoenix dress." Both crowns and dresses were decorated with many phoenix images.

Thus, the phoenix and dragon became "golden partners," and they often appear together in phrases with positive connotations. "Prosperity brought by the dragon and the phoenix" (long feng cheng xiang) is widely used as an expression of luck. "The talent of the dragon and the presence of the phoenix" (long zhang feng zi) is an expression used to describe the elegance of a person. "The dragon flies and phoenix rises" (long fei feng qi) refers to when an emperor or a saint appears. "Dragon's heart and phoenix's liver" (long xin feng gan) refer to a precious and rare dishes. "Climb the dragon and attach to the phoenix" (pan long fu feng) means to flatter the powerful for one's own benefit.

And phoenix's powers are also to some extent complimentary to the dragon's. While the Chinese dragon can summon wind and call for rain, the phoenix is capable of manipulating fire.

However, the phoenix in Chinese myth did not have the ability of rising from the ashes until contemporary litterateur Guo Moruo used the concept of the Western phoenix in his poetry.

Phoenix in LiteraturePhoenix Short Story by Sylvia Town Sand Warner''''' Edited In the book Phoenix by Sylvia Townsend, Warner Phoenix depicts a mythical creature as a reality and symbolizes the identity and existence of a nation, which is a toy of the lusts and desires of profiteers. In this short and influential story. The Phoenix is a beautiful, ancient Eastern bird that lives in a region in the Middle East near Saudi Arabia when it is captured by a British capitalist named "Mr. Paldero" and imprisoned in a cage to make money from displaying it in a zoo. He pockets well, but after a while, when he sees that the phoenix in the cage and captivity is not attractive to the people and does not attract the attention of the people, he decides to make a humble and ridiculous creature out of this magnificent bird in order to be interesting to the people. Reach. He constantly torments this bird, but finally, after enduring a lot of hardship and oppression, Phoenix rises like a nation under oppression and tyranny, burns all those who caused his suffering in his fire, and is born again free. . In part of the story we read:  "The other birds were taken to his cage. Inherently fierce and warlike birds. They beheaded Phoenix and harassed him; But Phoenix was so sociable and kind that other birds gave up on him after a day or two of hostility. Mr. Paldero then used stray cats. They could no longer leave the field with good manners. But Phoenix flew quickly over their heads and fluttered his golden wings in their faces, frightening them. The phoenix was transferred to a small cage with a sprinkler on the roof. The sprinkler was turned on every night, and Phoenix coughed. Mr. Paldero had another idea in mind. Every day he stood in front of the phoenix cage, mocking and ridiculing it, and abusing it. When spring came, Mr. Paldero was thinking of starting a public campaign about the declining phoenix. "Phoenix, which has long been popular, is declining," he said. Then, a few days later, Mr. Paldero put the stinking phoenix reaction in the cage to put the stinking straw bundles and some rusty barbed wire in the cage to see if he was still inclined to nest. One day Phoenix began to wander in the straw and grass. Mr. Paldero signed a contract for the filming rights. Finally the promised day arrived. It had been a few weeks since people became more and more interested in Phoenix, and the right to enter had reached five shillings. All around the fence was a roaring crowd. Lights and cameras were aimed at the cage, and a speaker through the loudspeaker seldom reminded the audience of what was happening. "Phoenix is the aristocrat of the bird world," the speaker said. "Only the rarest and most precious specimens of Oriental wood, impregnated with perfume, can seduce Phoenix to establish its legendary love nest." At this moment, clean bundles of fragrant sticks and wood chips were thrown into the cage. The speaker continued from the speaker: "Phoenix, like Cleopatra, is capricious, and like a magnificent charm, like the native music of intoxicated gypsies. "All the splendor of the ancient East, its eternal magic, and its skillful tyranny." A woman in the crowd shouted, "Look, she wants to set herself on fire." Trembling fell on the phoenix horns. He turned his head from side to side. He came down and walked back and forth from his seat. He moved the chips and sticks with fatigue and exhaustion. The cameras started working and light shone on Phoenix from all sides. "Ladies and gentlemen," said Mr. Paldero, running to the speaker. This is an exciting moment that the world is waiting for with its soul trapped in its chest. The legend of centuries ago is unfolding before our eyes today. The phoenix sat on a pile of wood that burned like a fire, as if asleep. "If that was the whole story, write down the educational film," said the film's director. At that moment, Phoenix and his nest suddenly ignited. The sparks rose up and spread to all sides. "In a minute or two, everything turned to ashes, and several thousand people, including Mr. Paldero, died in the fire."

In Persian  Literature

In ancient Persian poetry, only Attar Neyshabouri mentions Phoenix in his poems. He also considered the phoenix as other mortal beings and emphasized the pervasiveness of the phenomenon of death. In the logic of Attar al-Tair, the phoenix is the heart of the bird of your heart, which is its refuge in India. He is a bird that has about a hundred holes in his beak and he is not a pair; According to the narration, the phoenix sits in the heights and when the wind blows on his beak, a pleasant melody appears and other birds gather around him with this song and become intoxicated and hunted by him. In his poems, Attar Neyshabouri mentions the phoenix as a bird that has 360 holes on its tip and a pleasant melody comes out of each hole. He knows the origin of the phoenix in India.

References

John. Russell. Heinels (2006), Understanding Persian Mythology

Anthony Christie, Chinese Mythology

Phoenix. Encyclopædia Britannica, n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2012. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/457189/phoenix>.

Legendary creatures
Phoenicia

National symbols of the Gambia

Phoenix (mythology)


The Scottish Green Party (also known as the Scottish Greens) is a political party in Scotland that has close relations to the Green Party of England and Wales. The party's policies usually promote green politics, nuclear disarmament, anti-nuclear power, proportional representation, and the creation of an independent Scotland free from the United Kingdom but within the European Union. If Scotland becomes an independent country the party wants the country to be a republic, and no longer be part of the monarchy of the United Kingdom. It also wants an independent Scotland to have its own currency.

In the Scottish Parliament the party is an opposition party with 7 out of 129 seats. It does not have any seats in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The co-leaders of the party are Patrick Harvie (MSP) and Lorna Slater (MSP).

Other websites
Official website

Political parties in Scotland
Green political parties

Scottish Greens


The 12-book Micropædia is one of the three parts of the 15th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, and the other two being the one-book Propædia and the 17-book Macropædia. The name comes from the word "micro" and "encyclopaedia". Micro means small and so, the Micropaedia is a small encyclopedia. The Micropaedia has articles that are very short, the articles are found in small strips. It is the opposite of the Macropaedia, which has articles that are very long.

The Micropædia was introduced in 1974 with 10 books having 102,214 short articles, all of them are less than 750 words. In the 15th edition, many articles were put together, with about only 65,000 articles in 12 volumes. In general, the 750-word limit is still used and most articles are only 1-2 paragraphs; however, a few longer articles can be found in the 2007 Micropædia, such as the Internet ones, which takes up a full page.

With some exceptions, the 65,000 articles of the Micropædia have no bibliographies and no named contributors. It is supposed to be for fast-checking to find out the main things about the topic, and as a guide to the 700 longer articles of the Macropædia. People use it to know just a little, but the Macropaedia is used to know in detail.

Encyclopædia Britannica

he:המהדורה החמש-עשרה של האנציקלופדיה בריטניקה

Micropædia


The Tombs of the Kings ( , ) is a large necropolis lying about two kilometres north of Paphos harbour in Cyprus. In 1980, it was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with Paphos and Kouklia.

The underground tombs, many of which date back to the 4th century BC, are carved out of solid rock, and are thought to have been the burial sites of Paphitic aristocrats and high officials up to the third century AD (the name comes from the magnificence of the tombs; no kings were in fact buried here). Some of the tombs feature Doric columns and frescoed walls. Archaeological excavations are still being carried out at the site. The tombs are cut into the native rock, and at times imitated the houses of the living.

The tombs have been known and casually explored for centuries. The oldest modern account was written by Richard Pockocke, in 1783. Almost a century later, in 1870 the first archaeological excavations were conducted by Luigi Palma di Cesnola, the Italian-born American consul to Cyprus. In 1915 the first excavations under scientific supervision took place, led by Menelaos Markides, who was the curator of the Cyprus Museum. Systematic excavations took place in the late 1970s and the 1980s under the direction of Dr Sophocles Hadjisavvas, former Director of Antiquities of the Republic of Cyprus.

Dr Hadjisavvas is preparing the finds for publication with assistance from the Australian archaeological mission to Paphos.

Part of the importance of the tombs lies in the Paphian habit of including Rhodian amphorae among the offerings in a burial. Through the manufacturing stamps placed on the handles of these amphorae, it is possible to give them a date and, through them, the other material from the same burial.

Thus, it is hoped to develop a more secure chronology for archaeological material in the Eastern Mediterranean of the Hellenistic and early Roman periods.

It is reported that much of the information related to the tombs was lost over time. Several factors contributed to that: It is believed that many of the tombs were rich in expensive grave goods, despite the fact that very few of such goods were to found by the official archaeological missions, and thus it is believed that grave robbers of the past were responsible. Also, the tombs' proximity  to the sea side hindered the preservation of the buried bodies. Despite those obstacles, the historical significance of the Tombs is well established among experts and locals.

Gallery

References

External links

Archaeological sites in Cyprus
World Heritage Sites in Cyprus
Tombs in Cyprus
Cemeteries in Cyprus

Tombs of the Kings (Paphos)


Kirloskar Institute of Management (KIM) was set up in 1991 by the Kirloskar Group in Harihar to put its illustrious leader Mr.Shantanurao Laxmanrao Kirloskar's thoughts to practice.

A pioneer of the Indian industry, Mr S.L.Kirloskar was a visionary who possessed the drive and determination to accomplish his vision.

The emergence and subsequent success of the Kirloskar Group of Companies in the engineering industry in India marked the realization of one of his visions. KIM dedicated itself to the task of Management Development in the Kirloskar Group and other companies by understanding the need to promote managerial and organizational excellence.

In 1998, KIM ventured into training bright, young minds in high-quality management education to meet the managerial leadership needs of the country. This was offered as a two-year fully residential Post Graduate Diploma in Management (PGDM) in Harihar. Encouraged by the success of its alumni in the industry, KIM opened its second campus in Pune in 2010. Both campuses are approved by the All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.

External links

Business schools in Maharashtra
Business schools in Karnataka

KIAMS


The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act,  2000 (PEPUDA or the Equality Act, Act No. 4 of 2000) is a comprehensive South African anti-discrimination law. It prohibits unfair discrimination by the government and by private organisations and individuals and forbids hate speech and harassment. The act specifically lists race, gender, sex, pregnancy, family responsibility or status, marital status, ethnic or social origin, HIV/AIDS status, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language and birth as "prohibited grounds" for discrimination, but also contains criteria that courts may apply to determine which other characteristics are prohibited grounds. Employment discrimination is excluded from the ambit of the act because it is addressed by the Employment Equity Act, 1998. The act establishes the divisions of the High Court and designated Magistrates' Courts as "Equality Courts" to hear complaints of discrimination, hate speech and harassment.

Background
Section Nine of the Constitution of South Africa contains a guarantee of equality and a prohibition of public and private discrimination. It obliges the national government to enact legislation to prohibit discrimination, and a transitional clause required this legislation to be enacted by 4 February 2000, three years after the constitution came into force. The Equality Act was assented to by the President on 2 February 2000; it was enacted alongside two other laws similarly required by the constitution: the Promotion of Access to Information Act (PAIA), dealing with freedom of information, and the Promotion of Administrative Justice Act (PAJA), dealing with justice in administrative law.

References

External links
 Department of Justice and Constitutional Development: Equality Courts
 Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act, 2000, as amended
 Regulations Relating to the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination, 2003
 South African Human Rights Commission

Anti-discrimination law in South Africa
South African legislation
2000 in South African law
LGBT law in South Africa
2000 in LGBT history


The Karamanids ( or ), also known as the Emirate of Karaman and Beylik of Karaman (), was one of the Anatolian beyliks, centered in South-Central Anatolia around the present-day Karaman Province. From the mid 14th century until its fall in 1487, the Karamanid dynasty was one of the most powerful beyliks in Anatolia.

History

The Karamanids traced their ancestry from Hodja Sad al-Din and his son Nure Sufi Bey, who emigrated from Arran (roughly encompassing modern-day Azerbaijan) to Sivas because of the Mongol invasion in 1230.

The Karamanids were members of the Salur tribe of Oghuz Turks. According to Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu and others, they were members of the Afshar tribe, which participated in the revolt led by Baba Ishak and afterwards moved to the western Taurus Mountains, near the town of Larende, where they came to serve the Seljuks. Nure Sofi worked there as a woodcutter. His son, Kerîmeddin Karaman Bey, gained a tenuous control over the mountainous parts of Cilicia in the middle of the 13th century. A persistent but spurious legend, however, claims that the Seljuq Sultan of Rum, Kayqubad I, instead established a Karamanid dynasty in these lands.

Karaman Bey expanded his territories by capturing castles in Ermenek, Mut, Ereğli, Gülnar, and Silifke. The year of the conquests is reported as 1225, during the reign of Ala al-Din Kaykubadh I (1220–1237), which seems excessively early. Karaman Bey's conquests were mainly at the expense of the Kingdom of Lesser Armenia (and perhaps at the expense of Rukn al-Din Kilij Arslan IV, 1248–1265); in any case it is certain that he fought against the Kingdom of Lesser Armenia (and probably even died in this fight) to such extent that King Hethum I (1226–1269) had to place himself voluntarily under the sovereignty of the great Khan, in order to protect his kingdom from Mamluks and Seljuks (1244).

The rivalry between Kilij Arslan IV and Izz al-Din Kaykaus II allowed the tribes in the border areas to live virtually independently. Karaman Bey helped Kaykus, but Arslan had the support of both the Mongols and Pervâne Sulayman Muin al-Din (who had the real power in the sultanate).

The Mongolian governor and general Baiju was dismissed from office in 1256 because he had failed to conquer new territories, but he continued to serve as a general and appeared, the same year, fighting the Sultan of Rum, who had not paid the tax, and he managed to defeat the sultan a second time. Rukn al-Din Kilidj Arslan IV got rid of almost all hostile begs and amirs except Karaman Bey, to whom he gave the town of Larende (now Karaman, in honor of the dynasty) and Ermenek (c. 1260) in order to win him to his side. In the meantime, Bunsuz, brother of Karaman Bey, was chosen as a Candar, or bodyguard, for Kilij Arslan IV. Their power rose as a result of the unification of Turkish clans that lived in the mountainous regions of Cilicia with the new Turkish population transferred there by Kayqubad.

Good relations between the Seljuqs and the Karamanids did not last. In 1261, on the pretext of supporting Kaykaus II, who had fled to Constantinople as a result of the intrigues of the chancellor Mu'in al-Din Suleyman, the Pervane, Karaman Bey and his two brothers, Zeynül-Hac and Bunsuz, marched toward Konya, the Seljuq capital, with 20,000 men. A combined Seljuq and Mongol army, led by the Pervane, defeated the Karamanid army and captured Karaman Bey's two brothers.

After Karaman Bey died in 1262, his older son, Mehmet I of Karaman, became the head of the house. He immediately negotiated alliances with other Turkmen clans to raise an army against the Seljuqs and Ilkhanids. During the 1276 revolt of Hatıroğlu Şemseddin Bey against Mongol domination in Anatolia, Karamanids also defeated several Mongol-Seljuq armies. In the Battle of Göksu in 1277 in particular, the central power of the Seljuq was dealt a severe blow. Taking advantage of the general confusion, Mehmed Bey captured Konya on 12 May and placed on the throne a pretender called Jimri, who claimed to be the son of Kaykaus. In the end, however, Mehmed was defeated by Seljuq and Mongol forces and executed with some of his brothers in 1278.

Despite these blows, the Karamanids continued to increase their power and influence, largely aided by the Mamluks of Egypt, especially during the reign of Baybars. Karamanids captured Konya on two more occasions in the beginning of the 14th century, but were driven out the first time by emir Chupan, the Ilkhanid governor of Anatolia, and the second time by Chupan's son and successor Timurtash. An expansion of Karamanoğlu power occurred after the fall of the Ilkhanids in the 1330's. A second expansion coincided with Karamanoğlu Alâeddin Ali Bey's marriage to Nefise Hatun, the daughter of the Ottoman sultan Murat I, the first important contact between the two dynasties.

As Ottoman power expanded into the Balkans, Aleaddin Ali Bey captured the city of Beyşehir, which had been an Ottoman city. However, it did not take much time for the Ottomans to react and march on Konya, the Karamanoğlu capital city. A treaty between the two kingdoms was formed, and peace existed until the reign of Bayezid I.

Timur gave control of the Karamanid lands to Mehmet Bey, the oldest son of Aleaddin Ali Bey. After Bayezid I died in 1403, the Ottoman Empire went into a political crisis as the Ottoman family fell prey to internecine strife. It was an opportunity not only for Karamanids but also for all of the Anatolian beyliks. Mehmet Bey assembled an army to march on Bursa. He captured the city and damaged it; this would not be the last Karamanid invasion of Ottoman lands. However, Mehmet Bey was captured by Bayezid Pasha and sent to prison. He apologized for what he had done and was forgiven by the Ottoman ruler.

Ramazanoğlu Ali Bey captured Tarsus while Mehmet Bey was in prison. Mustafa Bey, son of Mehmet Bey, retook the city during a conflict between the Emirs of Sham and Egypt. After that, the Egyptian sultan Sayf ad-Din Inal sent an army to retake Tarsus from the Karamanids. The Egyptian Mamluks damaged Konya after defeating the Karamanids, and Mehmet Bey retreated from Konya. Ramazanoğlu Ali Bey pursued and captured him; according to an agreement between the two leaders, Mehmet Bey was exiled to Egypt for the rest of his life.

During the Crusade of Varna against the Ottomans in 1443–44, Karamanid İbrahim Bey marched on Ankara and Kütahya, destroying both cities. In the meantime, the Ottoman sultan Murad II was returning from Rumelia with a victory against the Hungarian Crusaders. Like all other Islamic emirates in Anatolia, the Karamanids were accused of treason. Hence, İbrahim Bey accepted all Ottoman terms. The Karamanid state was eventually terminated by the Ottomans in 1487, as the power of their Mameluke allies was declining. Some were resettled in various parts of Anatolia. Large groups were accommodated in northern Iran on the territory of present-day Azerbaijan. The main part was brought to the newly conquered territories in north-eastern Bulgaria – the Ludogorie region, another group – to what is now northern Greece and southern Bulgaria— present-day Kardzhali region and Macedonia. Ottomans founded Karaman Eyalet from former territories of Karamanids.

Flag

According to Abraham Cresques' Catalan Atlas (compiled in 1375), the flag of Karamanoğlu consisted of a blue six-edged star. In the medieval times, this star was a popular Islamic symbol (especially among the Hanafi Madhhab) known as the Seal of Solomon due to the belief that King Solomon was a prophet, and a variation of the symbol was used by several of the Anatolian beyliks (such as the Beylik of Candar). As such, the seal was also used by Ottomans in their mosque decorations, coins and even in the personal flags of individual Pasha (e.g. that of Hayreddin Barbarossa). It adorned the tombs of several early Islamic figures in Medina until the destruction of al-Baqi cemetery. Al-Buni and Ibn Arabi consider the seal to represent the Greatest Name, and its use remains common in contemporary Muslim esoteric circles.

Power of the Karamanid state in Anatolia
According to Mesâlik-ül-Ebsâr, written by Şehâbeddin Ömer, the Karamanid army had 25,000 riders and 25,000 saracens. They could also rely on some Turkmen tribes and their warriors.

Their economic activities depended mostly on control of strategic commercial areas such as Konya, Karaman and the ports of Lamos, Silifke, Anamur, and Manavgat.

Karamanid architecture

66 mosques, 8 hammams, 2 caravanserais and 3 medreses built by the Karamanids survived to the present day. Notable examples of Karamanid architecture include:
 Hasbey Medrese (1241)
 Şerafettin Mosque (13th century)
 İnce Minare (Dar-ül Hadis) Medrese (1258–1279)
 Hatuniye Medrese (Karaman)
 Mevlana Mosque and Tomb in Konya
 Mader-i Mevlana (Aktekke) mosque in Karaman
 Ibrahim Bey Mosque (Imaret) in Karaman

List of rulers
 Nûreddin Sûfi Bey (Capital City: Ereğli) (1250–1256)
 Kerîmeddin Karaman Bey (Capital City: Ermenek) (1256?-1261)
 Şemseddin I. Mehmed Bey (1261–1277), notable for making Turkish the official language
 Güneri Bey (1277–1300)
 Bedreddin Mahmut Bey (1300–1308)
 Yahşı Han Bey (1308–1312) (Capital City: Konya)
 Bedreddin I. İbrahim Bey (1312–1333, 1348–1349)
 Alâeddin Halil Mirza Bey (1333–1348)
 Fahreddin Ahmed Bey (1349–1350)
 Şemseddin Bey (1350–1351)
 Hacı Sûfi Burhâneddin Musa Bey (Capital City: Mut) (1351–1356)
 Seyfeddin Süleyman Bey (1357–1361)
 Damad I. Alâeddin Ali Bey (1361–1398)
 Sultanzâde II. Mehmed Bey (1398–1399, 1402–1420, 1421–1423)
 Damad Bengi Ali Bey (1423–1424)
 Damad II. İbrahim Bey (1424–1464)
 Sultanzâde İshak Bey (1464)
 Sultanzâde Pîr Ahmed Bey (1464–1469)
 Kasım Bey (1469–1483)
 Turgutoğlu Mahmud Bey (1483–1487)

Family tree

See also
 Karamanlides
 Karaman
 Karaman Province
 Anatolian Turkish Beyliks
 List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
 Caramania

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

Anatolian beyliks
1487 disestablishments
States and territories established in 1250
States and territories established in 1277
History of Adana Province
History of Aksaray Province
History of Antalya Province
History of Karaman Province
History of Kayseri Province
History of Kırşehir Province
History of Konya Province
History of Mersin Province
History of Nevşehir Province
History of Niğde Province
History of Osmaniye Province
History of Konya
Former empires in Asia

Karamanids


Fred Vargas is the pseudonym of Frédérique Audoin-Rouzeau (born 7 June 1957), a French historian, archaeologist and novelist.

As a historian and archeologist, she is known for her work on the Black Death. Her crime fiction policiers (police procedurals) have won three International Dagger Awards from the Crime Writers Association, for three successive novels: in 2006, 2008 and 2009.  She is the first author to achieve such an honour. In each case, her translator into English was Siân Reynolds, who was also recognized by the international award.

Career as archaeologist
Audoin-Rouzeau worked at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), which she joined in 1988. She later joined the Institut Pasteur, as a eukaryotic archaeologist. She has undertaken a project on the epidemiology of the Black Death and bubonic plague, the result of which was a work considered definitive in the research area: Les chemins de la peste (Routes of the Plague) (2003).

Career as novelist
Vargas writes mostly police thrillers (policiers), although she simply refers to them as "puzzles". She found writing was a way to combine her interests and relax from her job as an academic.  Her novels are set in Paris and feature the adventures of Chief Inspector Adamsberg and his team. Her interest in the Middle Ages is manifest in many of her novels, especially through the person of Marc Vandoosler, a young specialist in the period.

Seeking Whom He May Devour was shortlisted by the British Crime Writers' Association for the Gold Dagger award for best crime novel of the year in 2005. In 2006 her next novel, The Three Evangelists, won the inaugural Duncan Lawrie International Dagger. She also won the award in 2008 with Wash This Blood Clean From My Hand. She was the first author to be shortlisted for three successive novels. In 2009 Vargas was again awarded the International Dagger, becoming the first author to receive it for three successive novels, in tandem with the translator, in each case Siân Reynolds.

In 2018 Vargas won the Princess of Asturias Prize for letters.

Defense of Cesare Battisti
Vargas took part in the defence of Cesare Battisti, an Italian former left-wing urban guerrilla turned writer sought by Italian and French justice since 2004, who was found guilty in absentia of involvement in four assassinations committed in the 1970s, during the "Years of Lead".

Principal characters
Three Evangelists series
 Marc Vandoosler, known as "Saint Mark":  Historian specialising in medieval life
 Lucien Devernois, known as "Saint Luke": Historian specialising in World War I (inspired by Vargas's brother Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau)
 Matthias Delamarre, known as "Saint Matthew": Historian specialising in prehistory
(These three characters, christened "the Evangelists," live in the same house, The Dosshouse together with "Old Man Vandoosler")
 Armand Vandoosler: former police Commissaire, Marc's godfather, epicurean and oddball
 Ludwig Kehlweiler: former policeman with a national network of informants and a toad Bufo
Adamsberg series
 Commissaire Jean-Baptiste Adamsberg: peripatetic police chief, with Zen research methods
 Adrien Danglard: methodical police inspector, Adamsberg's deputy. Divorced, father of five children and conspicuous white wine consumer
 Camille Forestier: a musician/plumber who has a turbulent relationship with Adamsberg.

Bibliography

The Three Evangelists
1995 – Debout les morts; English translation: The Three Evangelists, 2006, (Prix Mystère de la critique; CWA International Dagger)
1996 – Un peu plus loin sur la droite; English title: Dog Will Have His Day, 2014
1997 – Sans feu ni lieu; English title: The Accordionist, 2017
Commissaire Adamsberg
1991 – L'homme aux cercles bleus; English translation: The Chalk Circle Man, 2009, (CWA International Dagger)
1999 – L'Homme à l'envers; English title: Seeking Whom He May Devour, 2004, (Prix Mystère de la critique)
2000 – Les quatre fleuves. Graphic novel (with Edmond Baudoin); not published in English
2001 – Pars vite et reviens tard; English title: Have Mercy on Us All, 2003, (Prix des libraires) (Adapted as a film in 2007)
2002 – Coule la Seine. Three novellas; not published in English
2004 – Sous les vents de Neptune; English title: Wash This Blood Clean from My Hand, 2007 (CWA International Dagger)
2006 – Dans les bois éternels; English title: This Night's Foul Work, 2008
2008 – Un lieu incertain; English title: An Uncertain Place, 2011
2011 – L'armée furieuse; English title: The Ghost Riders of Ordebec, 2013 (CWA International Dagger)
2015 – Temps glaciaires; English title: A Climate of Fear, 2016
2017 – Quand sort la recluse; English title: This Poison Will Remain, 2019
2023 – Sur la dalle
Other novels
1986 – Les Jeux de l'amour et de la mort (Prix du festival de Cognac)
1994 – Ceux qui vont mourir te saluent
Essays and other works
2001 – Petit Traité de toutes vérités sur l'existence
2003 – Critique de l'anxiété pure
2004 – La Vérité sur Cesare Battisti
2019 – L'Humanité en péril
2022 – L'Humanité en péril-2

References

External links

 Interview with Vargas, The Guardian, 2004

1957 births
Living people
Writers from Paris
French crime fiction writers
20th-century French novelists
21st-century French novelists
French twins
Women mystery writers
Prix des libraires winners
20th-century French women writers
21st-century French women writers
French archaeologists
French women archaeologists

Fred Vargas