A stick-built home is a wooden house constructed entirely or largely on-site; that is, built on the site which it is intended to occupy upon its completion rather than in a factory or similar facility. This term is used to contrast such a dwelling with mobile homes and modular homes that are assembled in a factory and transported to the site entirely or mostly complete and hence are not "stick-built".

Stick-built homes are also those homes which are built using a more traditional method of construction rather than a modular type. The "sticks" mentioned usually refer specifically to the superstructure of the walls and roof.

Most stick-built homes have many of the same things in common. They are usually built with lumber, though it is possible to use metal poles for the construction as well. This is more expensive, more time-consuming and generally harder for the homeowner to deal with once constructed. These homes also have many of the common features associated with most homes, such as shingles and drywall.

See also

House types

Stick-built construction


Located in Norwood, Ohio, the Norwood Assembly Plant built General Motors cars between the years of 1923 and 1987.  When it first opened, the plant employed 600 workers and was capable of producing 200 cars per day.  At its peak in the early 1970s it employed nearly 9,000. Norwood is a suburb of Cincinnati.

The first car rolled off the assembly line on August 13, 1923, a Chevrolet Superior.  Among the cars built at Norwood were the Chevrolet Bel Air, Biscayne, Impala, Nova, Caprice, Camaro, Pontiac Firebird, and the Buick Apollo.  The plant grew to cover an area of approximately  and had  of space under roof.

The facility had a number of labor disputes, including a 174-day-long strike in 1972, at the time the longest strike in GM history.  As a result of the strike, 1,100 partially completed cars were scrapped or otherwise disposed of because it was not economically feasible to update them to the more stringent 1973 vehicle standards.  After the strike GM opted to move Nova production away from Norwood to protect the model from future labor problems.

Closing
While newer GM plants had a one-story design, the Norwood plant had a less efficient three-story design.  Additionally, the plant could not expand outward as it was surrounded by an interstate highway to the north, railroad lines to the east and west, a business district on a US Highway to the west, and a residential neighborhood to the south.

Citing its obsolescence, expense, and high worker absentee rate, GM announced on November 6, 1986, that the Norwood Assembly Plant would be closed along with ten other GM facilities.  The plant produced its last vehicle on August 26, 1987, a Chevrolet Camaro.  That date came to be known in Norwood as Black Wednesday.  At the time of its closing the plant employed approximately 4,200 workers. Most of the plant was demolished in 1989.  The main factory building sat vacant for nearly 10 years. The City of Norwood, having relied on the carmaker for nearly 35 percent of its taxbase, faced economic catastrophe and possible bankruptcy. The City wished to re-develop the site due to its unique and attractive location - at the juncture of Ohio State Route 562 (Norwood Lateral Expressway), US Route 22 (Montgomery Road/Ohio State Route 3) and Ohio State Route 561 (Smith Road). Easily accessible from all directions, Norwood saw an opportunity to revitalize itself. Norwood approached GM about demolishing the plant. Initially the carmaker refused.

As its finances grew critical, Norwood threatened General Motors with a lawsuit. Apparently, Norwood had not been collecting taxes on earnings paid to workers on sick-leave or injury-leave since the factory opened in 1923. Only regular payroll taxes were collected. Norwood calculated uncollected taxes as being in the millions of dollars. The carmaker and City settled their dispute, with the site being demolished at the carmaker's expense. The property was turned over to the City for development in exchange for the City dropping its demand for back-taxes. The development of the GM Assembly site helped jump-start Norwood's economy.
A series of "flex" businesses were constructed. Where once had stood a single blue-collar car factory, the property was transformed into a mixed-use combination of business - office, light industrial and retail, providing a more diverse source of income to the City.

As of spring 2007 the only remnants of former GM buildings were two parking garages. Those were absorbed into a new office complex along Smith Road (State Rte. 561), with additions of an adult gym/workout center, day-care center, restaurants, banking center and several medium and small businesses. One small street, formerly leading into the GM plant from Montgomery Road (US Route 22), was closed and developed into a mixed use complex named after a major tenant Matrixx Marketing and later Convergys Corporation complex. It has been home to those businesses as well as a bank, satellite television provider and medical consulting/MRI/diagnostic laboratory.

There was also a railcar holding lot and loading area off Tennessee Ave. where the present day Harley-Davidson dealership is located. The rail spur itself is directly behind and up on the hill behind the Harley-Davidson dealership along the old B&O line. As of 2012 the loading area is still there complete with the loading ramps. However this area is becoming quickly overgrown with trees and bushes and it is difficult to tell it's even there anymore. Many of the rails still exist as well as the light poles. The driveway up the hill from the holding lot was removed when the Harley dealer was built.

As of Fall, 2007, the third and last piece of usable land from the GM plant at the corner of Montgomery Road (U.S. Route 22) and Smith Road (State Route 561) was developed with plans for a medical arts building.

The successful development of those former GM Assembly properties spurred interest by other developers to choose Norwood for commercial development. One mile away, two open-air shopping malls were built at the former R. K. LeBlond Machine Tool Company, located where Interstate 71 and Ohio State Rte 561 (Edwards Road) converge. Those properties were named Rookwood Pavilion and Rookwood Commons and have been very successful as well.

Economic impact
The plant constituted 35% of the City of Norwood's tax base, approximately $2 million annually.  As a result, many city services were reduced and eliminated, and property tax rates raised.  The plant employed 430 Norwood residents at the time of its closing, with the remaining employees mostly living in and around the Cincinnati area.  The City of Norwood quickly moved to rehabilitate the site, and by 1991 the Central Parke office project housed in excess of 1,000 workers using nearly  of office space.

In 2007 there is approximately  of office and retail space in the area once occupied by the factory.

Models
Some of the models produced at the plant included:
1915-1922 Chevrolet Series 490
1923-1926 Chevrolet Superior (introduction of GM "A" platform)
1927 Chevrolet Series AA Capitol
1928 Chevrolet Series AB National
1929 Chevrolet Series AC International
1930 Chevrolet Series AD Universal
1931 Chevrolet Series AE Independence
1932 Chevrolet Series BA Confederate
1933 Chevrolet Eagle
1933-1942 Chevrolet Master
1941-1952 Chevrolet Deluxe
1953-1957 Chevrolet 150/Chevrolet 210/Chevrolet Fleetline/Chevrolet Townsman
1967-1987 Chevrolet Camaro/Pontiac Firebird

References

 Cincinnati Enqirer (January 29, 2006). Norwood's fight for survival; Ford's plan to close its Batavia plant recalls the plight of local GM autoworkers in 1987.

General Motors factories
Former motor vehicle assembly plants
Motor vehicle assembly plants in Ohio
Norwood, Ohio
Buildings and structures in Hamilton County, Ohio
1923 establishments in Ohio

Norwood Assembly


Charles Margrave Taylor  (born November 5, 1931) is a Canadian philosopher from Montreal, Quebec, and professor emeritus at McGill University best known for his contributions to political philosophy, the philosophy of social science, the history of philosophy, and intellectual history. His work has earned him the Kyoto Prize, the Templeton Prize, the Berggruen Prize for Philosophy, and the John W. Kluge Prize.

In 2007, Taylor served with Gérard Bouchard on the Bouchard–Taylor Commission on reasonable accommodation with regard to cultural differences in the province of Quebec. He has also made contributions to moral philosophy, epistemology, hermeneutics, aesthetics, the philosophy of mind, the philosophy of language, and the philosophy of action.

Biography
Charles Margrave Taylor was born in Montreal, Quebec, on November 5, 1931, to a Roman Catholic Francophone mother and a Protestant Anglophone father by whom he was raised bilingually. His father, Walter Margrave Taylor, was a steel magnate originally from Toronto while his mother, Simone Marguerite Beaubien, was a dressmaker. His sister was Gretta Chambers. He attended Selwyn House School from 1939 to 1946, followed by Trinity College School from 1946 to 1949, and began his undergraduate education at McGill University where he received a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in history in 1952. He continued his studies at the University of Oxford, first as a Rhodes Scholar at Balliol College, receiving a BA degree with first-class honours in philosophy, politics and economics in 1955, and then as a postgraduate student, receiving a Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1961 under the supervision of Sir Isaiah Berlin. As an undergraduate student, he started one of the first campaigns to ban thermonuclear weapons in the United Kingdom in 1956, serving as the first president of the Oxford Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.

He succeeded John Plamenatz as Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory at the University of Oxford and became a fellow of All Souls College.

For many years, both before and after Oxford, he was Professor of Political Science and Philosophy at McGill University in Montreal, where he is now professor emeritus. Taylor was also a Board of Trustees Professor of Law and Philosophy at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, for several years after his retirement from McGill.

Taylor was elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1986. In 1991, Taylor was appointed to the Conseil de la langue française in the province of Quebec, at which point he critiqued Quebec's commercial sign laws. In 1995, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. In 2000, he was made a Grand Officer of the National Order of Quebec. In 2003, he was awarded the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council's Gold Medal for Achievement in Research, which had been the council's highest honour. He was awarded the 2007 Templeton Prize for progress towards research or discoveries about spiritual realities, which included a cash award of US$1.5 million.

In 2007 he and Gérard Bouchard were appointed to head a one-year commission of inquiry into what would constitute reasonable accommodation for minority cultures in his home province of Quebec.

In June 2008, he was awarded the Kyoto Prize in the arts and philosophy category. The Kyoto Prize is sometimes referred to as the Japanese Nobel. In 2015, he was awarded the John W. Kluge Prize for Achievement in the Study of Humanity, a prize he shared with philosopher Jürgen Habermas. In 2016, he was awarded the inaugural $1-million Berggruen Prize for being "a thinker whose ideas are of broad significance for shaping human self-understanding and the advancement of humanity".

Views
Despite his extensive and diverse philosophical oeuvre, Taylor famously calls himself a "monomaniac," concerned with only one fundamental aspiration: to develop a convincing philosophical anthropology.

In order to understand Taylor's views, it is helpful to understand his philosophical background, especially his writings on Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Taylor rejects naturalism and formalist epistemology. He is part of an influential intellectual tradition of Canadian idealism that includes John Watson, George Paxton Young, C. B. Macpherson, and George Grant.

In his essay "To Follow a Rule," Taylor explores why people can fail to follow rules, and what kind of knowledge it is that allows a person to successfully follow a rule, such as the arrow on a sign. The intellectualist tradition presupposes that to follow directions, we must know a set of propositions and premises about how to follow directions.

Taylor argues that Wittgenstein's solution is that all interpretation of rules draws upon a tacit background. This background is not more rules or premises, but what Wittgenstein calls "forms of life." More specifically, Wittgenstein says in the Philosophical Investigations that "Obeying a rule is a practice." Taylor situates the interpretation of rules within the practices that are incorporated into our bodies in the form of habits, dispositions and tendencies.

Following Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Michael Polanyi, and Wittgenstein, Taylor argues that it is mistaken to presuppose that our understanding of the world is primarily mediated by representations. It is only against an unarticulated background that representations can make sense to us. On occasion we do follow rules by explicitly representing them to ourselves, but Taylor reminds us that rules do not contain the principles of their own application: application requires that we draw on an unarticulated understanding or "sense of things" — the background.

Taylor's critique of naturalism
Taylor defines naturalism as a family of various, often quite diverse theories that all hold "the ambition to model the study of man on the natural sciences." Philosophically, naturalism was largely popularized and defended by the unity of science movement that was advanced by logical positivist philosophy. In many ways, Taylor's early philosophy springs from a critical reaction against the logical positivism and naturalism that was ascendant in Oxford while he was a student.

Initially, much of Taylor's philosophical work consisted of careful conceptual critiques of various naturalist research programs. This began with his 1964 dissertation The Explanation of Behaviour, which was a detailed and systematic criticism of the behaviourist psychology of B. F. Skinner that was highly influential at mid-century.

From there, Taylor also spread his critique to other disciplines. The essay "Interpretation and the Sciences of Man" was published in 1972 as a critique of the political science of the behavioural revolution advanced by giants of the field like David Easton, Robert Dahl, Gabriel Almond, and Sydney Verba. In an essay entitled "The Significance of Significance: The Case for Cognitive Psychology", Taylor criticized the naturalism he saw distorting the major research program that had replaced B. F. Skinner's behaviourism.

But Taylor also detected naturalism in fields where it was not immediately apparent. For example, in 1978's "Language and Human Nature" he found naturalist distortions in various modern "designative" theories of language, while in Sources of the Self (1989) he found both naturalist error and the deep moral, motivational sources for this outlook in various individualist and utilitarian conceptions of selfhood.

Taylor and hermeneutics

Concurrent to Taylor's critique of naturalism was his development of an alternative. Indeed, Taylor's mature philosophy begins when as a doctoral student at Oxford he turned away, disappointed, from analytic philosophy in search of other philosophical resources which he found in French and German modern hermeneutics and phenomenology.

The hermeneutic tradition develops a view of human understanding and cognition as centred on the decipherment of meanings (as opposed to, say, foundational theories of brute verification or an apodictic rationalism). Taylor's own philosophical outlook can broadly and fairly be characterized as hermeneutic and has been called engaged hermeneutics. This is clear in his championing of the works of major figures within the hermeneutic tradition such as Wilhelm Dilthey, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, and Gadamer. It is also evident in his own original contributions to hermeneutic and interpretive theory.

Communitarian critique of liberalism
Taylor (as well as Alasdair MacIntyre, Michael Walzer, and Michael Sandel) is associated with a communitarian critique of liberal theory's understanding of the "self". Communitarians emphasize the importance of social institutions in the development of individual meaning and identity.

In his 1991 Massey Lecture The Malaise of Modernity, Taylor argued that political theorists—from John Locke and Thomas Hobbes to John Rawls and Ronald Dworkin—have neglected the way in which individuals arise within the context supplied by societies. A more realistic understanding of the "self" recognizes the social background against which life choices gain importance and meaning.

Philosophy and sociology of religion

Taylor's later work has turned to the philosophy of religion, as evident in several pieces, including the lecture "A Catholic Modernity" and the short monograph "Varieties of Religion Today: William James Revisited".

Taylor's most significant contribution in this field to date is his book A Secular Age which argues against the secularization thesis of Max Weber, Steve Bruce, and others. In rough form, the secularization thesis holds that as modernity (a bundle of phenomena including science, technology, and rational forms of authority) progresses, religion gradually diminishes in influence. Taylor begins from the fact that the modern world has not seen the disappearance of religion but rather its diversification and in many places its growth.  He then develops a complex alternative notion of what secularization actually means given that the secularization thesis has not been borne out. In the process, Taylor also greatly deepens his account of moral, political, and spiritual modernity that he had begun in Sources of the Self.

Politics
Taylor was a candidate for the social democratic New Democratic Party (NDP) in Mount Royal on three occasions in the 1960s, beginning with the 1962 federal election when he came in third behind Liberal Alan MacNaughton. He improved his standing in 1963, coming in second. Most famously, he also lost in the 1965 election to newcomer and future prime minister, Pierre Trudeau. This campaign garnered national attention. Taylor's fourth and final attempt to enter the House of Commons of Canada was in the 1968 federal election, when he came in second as an NDP candidate in the riding of Dollard. In 1994 he coedited a paper on human rights with Vitit Muntarbhorn in Thailand. In 2008, he endorsed the NDP candidate in Westmount—Ville-Marie, Anne Lagacé Dowson. He was also a professor to Canadian politician and former leader of the New Democratic Party Jack Layton.

Taylor served as a vice president of the federal NDP (beginning ) and was president of its Quebec section.

In 2010, Taylor said multiculturalism was a work in progress that faced challenges. He identified tackling Islamophobia in Canada as the next challenge.

In his 2020 book Reconstructing Democracy he, together with Patrizia Nanz and Madeleine Beaubien Taylor, uses local examples to describe how democracies in transformation might be revitalized by involving citizenship.

Interlocutors

Himani Bannerji: "Charles Taylor's Politics of Recognition: A Critique" (2000)
Richard Rorty
Bernard Williams
Alasdair MacIntyre: critique of liberalism
Will Kymlicka
Martha Nussbaum
Kwame Appiah
Hubert Dreyfus: co-author
Quentin Skinner
Talal Asad
Marcel Gauchet
Arjun Appadurai: on the imaginary
Paul Berman
William E. Connolly
Robert Bellah: on Taylor's A Secular Age
John Milbank
Stuart Hall
Catherine Pickstock
James Tully: on Taylor on "Deep Diversity"
Jürgen Habermas: shared Kluge prize

Published works

Books

 Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition". Edited by Gutmann, Amy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 1992.
  [Reconciling the Solitudes: Writings on Canadian Federalism and Nationalism] (in French). Edited by Laforest, Guy. Sainte-Foy, Quebec: Les Presses de l'Université Laval. 1992.
 English translation: Reconciling the Solitudes: Essays on Canadian Federalism and Nationalism. Edited by Laforest, Guy. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. 1993.
 Road to Democracy: Human Rights and Human Development in Thailand. With Muntarbhorn, Vitit. Montreal: International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development. 1994.

  (in Swedish). Edited by Grimen, Harald. Gothenburg, Sweden: Daidalos. 1995.

  (in French). Translated by de Lara, Philippe. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. 1997.
 A Catholic Modernity? Edited by Heft, James L. New York: Oxford University Press. 1999.
  [Invoking Civil Society] (in Serbo-Croatian). Edited by Savic, Obrad.

  (in French). With Maclure, Jocelyn. Montreal: Boréal. 2010.
 English translation: Secularism and Freedom of Conscience. With Maclure, Jocelyn. Translated by Todd, Jane Marie. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 2011.

 Church and People: Disjunctions in a Secular Age. Edited with Casanova, José; McLean, George F. Washington: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy. 2012.
  / Republican Democracy. Edited by Cristi, Renato; Tranjan, J. Ricardo. Santiago: LOM Ediciones. 2012.
 Boundaries of Toleration. Edited with Stepan, Alfred C. New York: Columbia University Press. 2014.
  (in Italian). Edited and translated by Costa, Paolo. Bologna, Italy: EDB. 2014.
  (in Italian). Edited and translated by Costa, Paolo. Parma, Italy: Diabasis. 2014.

 English translation:
 Retrieving Realism. With Dreyfus, Hubert. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 2015.

 Reconstructing Democracy. How Citizens Are Building from the Ground Up. With Nanz, Patrizia; Beaubien Taylor, Madeleine. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 2020

Selected book chapters

See also
 List of Canadian philosophers
 List of people from Montreal

Notes

References

Footnotes

Works cited

Further reading

 Braak, Andre van der.  Reimagining Zen in a Secular age: Charles Taylor and Zen Buddhism in the West (Brill Rodopi,  2020) online review

External links

 A comprehensive bibliography that includes all of Taylor's works as well as secondary literature on Taylor's philosophy, interviews, media, and resources.
 A wide-ranging interview with Charles Taylor, including Taylor's thoughts about his own intellectual development.
 An Interview with Charles Taylor Part 1, Part 2 and Part 3
 The Immanent Frame a blog with posts by Taylor, Robert Bellah, and others concerning Taylor's book A Secular Age
 Text of Taylor's essay "Overcoming Epistemology"''
 Links to secondary sources, reviews of Taylor's works, reading notes
 Lecture notes to Charles Taylor's talk on Religion and Violence (with a link to the audio) Nov 2004
 Lecture notes to Charles Taylor's talk on 'An End to Mediational Epistemology', Nov 2004
 Study guide to Philosophical Arguments and Philosophical Papers 2
 Templeton Prize announcement
 Short essay by Dene Baker, philosophers.co.uk
 Taylor's famous essay The Politics of Recognition
 Charles Taylor on McGill Yearbook when he graduated in 1952

Online videos of Charles Taylor
Berggruen Prize Winner Charles Taylor on the Big Questions; series of videos produced by the Berggruen Institute
 Can Human Action Be Explained?; Charles Taylor gives a lecture at Columbia University
 ; Charles Taylor gives a lecture on a future politics self-consciously based on differing views and foundations in Milan
 ; Charles Taylor at awarding of Templeton Prize
  «La religion dans la Cité des modernes : un divorce sans issue?» (14/10/2006); Charles Taylor and Pierre Manent, Musée des Beaux-Arts de Montréal,  «Les grandes conférences Argument».

1931 births
20th-century Canadian philosophers
21st-century Canadian philosophers
Action theorists
Analytic philosophers
Anglophone Quebec people
Canadian Roman Catholics
Canadian people of English descent
Canadian political philosophers
Canadian Rhodes Scholars
Catholic philosophers
Chichele Professors of Social and Political Theory
Communitarianism
Companions of the Order of Canada
Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the British Academy
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
Francophone Quebec people
Grand Officers of the National Order of Quebec
Heidegger scholars
Kyoto laureates in Arts and Philosophy
Living people
McGill University alumni
New Democratic Party candidates for the Canadian House of Commons
Northwestern University faculty
Ontologists
People from Montreal
Philosophers of social science
Quebec candidates for Member of Parliament
Quebecers of French descent
Scholars of nationalism
Templeton Prize laureates
Trinity College School alumni
Canadian Christians
Ratzinger Prize laureates
Selwyn House School alumni
Recipients of the Prix Léon-Gérin

Charles Taylor (philosopher)


Arch Rivals is an American basketball arcade game from Midway Games. The game was released by Midway in 1989. It was billed by Midway as "A Basket Brawl". It has two-on-two full court basketball games in which players are allowed to punch other players and steal the ball from them.

Arch Rivals allows players to select from a variety of fictional teams. But arcade operators can change the team names to reflect real ones. Home versions of the game were put out for the Sega Genesis, Sega Game Gear and Nintendo Entertainment System.

The game was considered a precursor to the popular arcade basketball game NBA Jam.

Basketball games generally follow standard rules: a full basketball game has four quarters with four minutes each. Both teams have two players each. A player can call for his teammate to pass him the ball or shoot it.

The difference between Arch Rivals and other basketball game titles is the ability to punch an opponent without any penalty and steal the ball away. The referee will only call shot clock violations.

Also in Arch Rivals are hazards, such as candy wrappers and soda cans thrown onto the floor. If a ball handler steps on these, he falls on the floor. He then allows his opponent to steal the ball from him.

Players
There are eight players, each with a unique talent.  They are:

Blade: A crowd pleaser
Hammer: Rebound king
Lewis: Top shooter
Mohawk: Tough & mean
Moose: A real champ
Reggie: All-American
Tyrone: Defensive giant
Vinnie: A great player

Presentation
If a basket is scored (for two or three points), several random scenes may be played. One is the coach yelling at his own players. Another has players from the other team being disgusted. Two scenes have cheerleaders saying: "Yay team!" or "Go team go!"

References

Sports video games
1989 video games
Game Gear games
Sega Genesis games
Nintendo Entertainment System games

Arch Rivals


Heinrich Koenen (12 May 1910 – February 1945) was a German engineer, anti-fascist resistance fighter and agent of the Soviet military intelligence service GRU, known as a "scout".

Life
Heinrich Koenen was born in the Konigsberg district of Berlin, the son of Communist Reichstag deputy Wilhelm Koenen. He was selected as political head of the Young Communist League of Germany. He studied engineering at the Technical University of Berlin, but for political reasons was expelled in 1933 before his final examination. He emigrated via Denmark and Sweden to the Soviet Union, where he worked as an engineer in a Moscow tractor factory and in 1940, became a Soviet citizen.

After Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, he volunteered for military service and was trained for use in Germany as a paratrooper and radio operator. He was given the task of restoring the broken links between the Moscow headquarters of the Comintern and the GRU and the Berlin group of the Red Orchestra. On 23 October 1942, Koenen parachuted behind German lines at Osterode in East Prussia and made his way to Berlin to his contact, Ilse Stöbe. On 29 October 1942, he was arrested by a Gestapo official waiting at Stöbe's apartment.

Koenen was executed without trial at Sachsenhausen concentration camp in February 1945. His name is inscribed on a memorial in the Gedenkstätte der Sozialisten Socialist Memorial in Lichtenberg, Berlin.

Bibliography
 Luise Kraushaar et al.: Deutsche Widerstandskämpfer 1933–1945: Biografien und Briefe, Volume 1, Dietz-Verlag, Berlin 1970, p. 513 ff
 Hans-Joachim Fieber et al.: Widerstand in Berlin gegen das NS-Regime 1933 bis 1945: ein biographisches Lexikon, Volume 4 Trafo-Verlag, Berlin 2002, , p. 115
 Helmut Roewer, Stefan Schäfer, Matthias Uhl: Lexikon der Geheimdienste im 20 Jahrhundert. Herbig, Munich 2003, , p. 242 ff
 Ulrich Sahm : Ilse Stöbe Die Rote Kapelle im Widerstand gegen den Nationalsozialismus. Schriften der Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, Berlin Hans Coppi, Jürgen Danyel, John Tuchel (eds), Berlin 1994, , pp. 262–276
 Leopold Trepper : Die Wahrheit: Autobiographie des 'grand Chef' der roten Kapelle, Ahriman-Verlag Freiburg 1995,
 Heinrich-Wilhelm Wörmann: Widerstand in Charlottenburg; Band 5 der Schriftenreihe der Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, Berlin 1991 (2nd verb. and expanded edition Berlin 1998) p. 133

References

External links
 Gedenkstätte der Sozialisten

1910 births
1945 deaths
People from Berlin executed in Nazi concentration camps
Executed communists in the German Resistance
Executed Red Orchestra members
Refugees from Nazi Germany in the Soviet Union
Soviet military personnel killed in World War II
People who died in Sachsenhausen concentration camp
Spies who died in Nazi concentration camps
Extrajudicial killings in World War II

Heinrich Koenen


Juan García de Basurto (c.1480–1548) was a Spanish composer and cantor of the Cathedral of Tarazona.

He was active at the time the Flemish Chapel included Pierre de Manchicourt and Philippe Rogier.

Garcia de Basurto first appears as a singer heard during the Holy Week festivities April 1517. His major work is the compiled Requiem mass Missa in agendis mortuorum (1525) which includes parts of Ockeghem's and Brumel's requiems. In 2010 the Spanish group La Capilla Peñaflorida with the Accademia Bizantina of Ottavio Dantone made a video of the agendis mortuorum for NB musika.

References

1480s births
1547 deaths
Spanish composers
Spanish male composers

Juan García de Basurto


The Copenhagen interpretation is an interpretation of quantum mechanics in physics. It was developed by Werner Heisenberg, Niels Bohr, and Albert Einstein in Copenhagen in 1927. It is based on an idea called Born's law of the wave function by the Nobel Prize laureate Max Born. It is one of the first usable models of quantum mechanics.

Quantum mechanics

Copenhagen interpretation


Asbestos is a set of six silicate minerals which occur naturally. White asbestos makes up 95% of the asbestos found in buildings. It occurs in all parts of the world. It is fibrous, heat resistant and non flammable. These properties made it very attractive as a component in building materials and other products such as insulation and automobile brake pads. People have used asbestos throughout history. Ancient Egyptian people used asbestos. Asbestos is extremely dangerous for human health, as it can cause lung diseases such as asbestosis, emphysema and mesothelioma if the fibres get loose in the air. It can also harm animals such as livestock or pets.

Asbestos was linked to lung cancer in the early 1970s, and was replaced by other materials in most applications by 1980.

Types of asbestos
There are six types of asbestos:

Chrysotile (white asbestos)
Crocidolite (blue asbestos)
Amosite (brown asbestos)
Anthophyllite asbestos
Tremolite asbestos
Actinolite asbestos

Substitutes
 Fiberglass - This is the most popular substitute. Fiberglass is physically similar to asbestos and its safety is also being questioned. Fiberglass has been called "man-made asbestos".
 Carbon fiber - Lighter weight than fiberglass or asbestos, but not heat resistant
 Wood fiber mixed with cement (in non-heat applications)
 Various polymer and plastic fibers
 Asbestos rope can be replaced with synthetic or fiberglass rope.
 Vermiculite insulation is a common substitute, although vermiculite itself can be contaminated with asbestos
 Basalt fiber is a mineral fiber with properties similar to asbestos. It is suitable for high-heat applications.
 Mineral wool is a common substitute that is popular in Europe
 Silica aerogel is the best insulator available. It is non-fibrous and is not believed to cause cancer if inhaled into the lungs.

Lawsuits
Many companies that use or used to use asbestos have been sued by current or former employees who got sick with mesothelioma or asbestosis. Many lawyers specialize in asbestos-related lawsuits.

References

Other websites
Cancer Resource Center
Asbestos Institute

Asbestos


Tawi is a river that flows through the city of Jammu, Kashmir.

Tawi river is a major left bank tributary of Chenab River. The river originates from the lapse of Kali Kundi glacier and adjoining area south-west of Bhadarwah in Doda District. Tawi river catchment is delinated by latitude 320 35' -330 5' N and longitude 740 35' - 750 45' E. The catchment area of the river up to Indo-Pak cease-fire border (Jammu) is 2168 km², and falls within the districts of Jammu, Udhampur and a small part of Doda. Elevation in the catchment varies between 400–4000 m and total length of the river is about 141 km. The river in general flows through steep hills on either side excepting the lower reach for about 35 km. width of the river at Jammu is about 300 m at the bridge site.

Rivers of India

Tawi River


The Vienna Secession (also known as the Union of Austrian Artists, or Vereinigung Bildender Künstler Österreichs) was formed in 1897 by a group of Austrian artists who left the Association of Austrian Artists, housed in the Vienna Künstlerhaus due to its  conservatism. This movement included painters, sculptors, and architects. The first president of the Secession was Gustav Klimt, and Rudolf von Alt was made honorary president.

It was founded on  3 April 1897 by artists Gustav Klimt, Koloman Moser, Josef Hoffmann, Joseph Maria Olbrich, Max Kurzweil, and others. Although the architect  Otto Wagner is one of the most important members, he was not a founding member. The first exhibition was held in 1898. In 1898, the group's exhibition house was built near Karlsplatz. It was designed by Joseph Maria Olbrich, the exhibition building soon became known simply as "the Secession" (die Sezession). Their work was also published in a magazin called "Ver sacrum".

1903 Josef Hoffmann and Koloman Moser founded the Wiener Werkstätten, a union of artists who wanted to reform  the applied arts (arts and crafts). 1905 Klimt and other artists left the group due to different opinions about art.

 Other Secession artists:
 Julius Exter
 Richard Gerstl
Max Fabiani
Oskar Kokoschka
 Jože Plečnik
 Carl Moll
 Koloman Moser
 Egon Schiele
 Malva Schalek
 Othmar Schimkowitz
Joseph Maria Olbrich

Other websites
Homepage Secession

Art movements
Vienna
1897
19th century in Austria
1890s in Europe
Austrian artists

Vienna Secession


Torrold DeShaun "Rod" Smart (born January 9, 1977) is a former professional American football running back. He played college football for Western Kentucky. He was originally signed by the San Diego Chargers of the National Football League (NFL) as an undrafted free agent after the 2000 NFL Draft.

Smart first played a professional football season with the Las Vegas Outlaws of the original XFL, where he was known by the nickname "He Hate Me". He then joined the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League (CFL) before signing with the Philadelphia Eagles, all within the same year (2001). He then spent four seasons (2002–2005) with the Carolina Panthers, including winning the NFC Championship in 2003. He also spent time with the Oakland Raiders in 2006, as well as Team Tennessee of the never-launched All American Football League.

College career
Smart was born in Lakeland, Florida, one of several children. His parents were known to give Rod and his siblings unusual nicknames, including "Bone Bone" and "Fat Girl." He attended Lakeland High School, where he played both running back and cornerback for the football team, and also ran for the track team.

Smart attended Western Kentucky University, where he played for the Hilltoppers football team.  He ended his career at Western Kentucky ranked tenth all-time in school history with 2,305 rushing yards on 356 carries with 21 touchdowns. He also recorded 115 receiving yards, 279 kickoff return yards, and 14 yards on punt returns. He started all 11 games as a senior in 1999 and was a first-team All-Gateway Conference selection. In his senior season, he led the team with 1,249 yards rushing and 10 touchdowns on 188 carries, for a 6.4 yard average, while his all purpose yards and rushing yards ranked fifth and sixth respectively in school history for a single season. He graduated with a degree in kinesiology.

Track and field
Smart was also a member of the track team at Western Kentucky, where he specialized in the 60 meters and 100 meters.

Personal bests

Professional career

San Diego Chargers
Smart signed with the San Diego Chargers as an undrafted rookie free agent in 2000. He finished training camp with the team, but was released by the Chargers prior to the start of the 2000 NFL season.

Las Vegas Outlaws
In the Spring of 2001, Smart joined the Las Vegas Outlaws of the XFL and adopted the nickname of "He Hate Me" which he wore on the back of his uniform. He finished the season ranked second in the league in rushing with 555 yards. He also finished third in average rushing yards (3.8 yards per carry), and scored three touchdowns over the course of the one and only XFL season. He led the Outlaws in rushing, and was second on the team in receiving with 27 catches for 245 yards.

Of the over 300 players to don an XFL uniform during its lone 2001 season, league executives noted that while most saw the league solely as a way to further their own careers in hopes of returning to the NFL, Smart fully embraced the league's approach to football and sports entertainment. In the documentary This Was the XFL, Smart stated that had the league survived for a second season, he was certain to have returned and had no intention of trying out for an NFL or CFL position before the XFL collapsed.

"He Hate Me"
"He Hate Me" is the phrase Smart chose to place on the back of his Las Vegas Outlaws football jersey. Though most sports organizations allow only a surname or first initial and surname to be placed on the back of a jersey, XFL rules permitted players' jerseys to be stitched with whatever words they wanted. The Outlaws happened to be playing in the league's first nationally televised game (the one that would, ultimately, be the most widely watched game, as the league's viewership plummeted after that point), and the league's choice of camera angles more akin to video games meant that Smart's jersey was prominently featured on the telecasts. The jersey was the XFL's best seller.

Smart explained the origin of the grammatically non-standard phrase in a January 30, 2004 article with the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel as, "Basically, my opponent is going to hate me. After I win, he's gonna hate me. It is what it is. It's a saying I was saying when I'd feel something wasn't going my way. For example, (when) I was on the squad in Vegas and coach was putting other guys in, (if) I felt I'm better than them, you know, hey, 'he hate me.' See what I'm saying? Give me a chance. That's all I ask. It came from the heart. Within. The way I felt. I feel as if everyone hates me, from my mom to my dad and even my brothers and sisters everyone "Hates Me". My buddy Greg Kates always used to use it, so I took it from him."

Smart stated that he originally planned to use a different nickname on the back of his jersey every week of the season but abandoned that plan when "He Hate Me" became a national sensation. He and his agent also credit the nickname with getting NFL scouts to notice him after the XFL collapsed.

When Smart and the Outlaws played divisional rival the Los Angeles Xtreme, two Xtreme players put "I Hate He" and "I Hate He Too" on the back of their jerseys to express their disdain for Smart. In a later game between those two teams, those two players changed their nicknames to "Still Hate He" and "Still Hate He Too". The curious maxim also caught the eye of American audiences (as well as Smart's future Carolina Panthers teammate Jake Delhomme, who named one of his thoroughbreds, "She Hate Me"). The title of Spike Lee's 2004 film She Hate Me was also inspired by Smart's nickname.

Edmonton Eskimos
After the end of the XFL season Smart signed with the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League (CFL). He played one pre-season game for Edmonton before being released in August 2001.

Philadelphia Eagles
The Philadelphia Eagles of the NFL signed Smart to their practice roster on October 2, 2001. He was promoted to the active roster on November 19, 2001, appeared in six regular season games, mainly on special teams, and rushed for six yards on two carries. The Eagles waived Smart at the end of their 2001 season.

Carolina Panthers
In September, 2002, Smart was claimed off waivers by the Carolina Panthers. He played in all 16 regular season games, and led the Panthers with 24 special teams tackles. He produced at least one special teams tackle in 14 games en route to recording the second-highest number of special team tackles in a season in team history.

In 2003, Smart played in all 16 Panthers' games for the second consecutive season. For the first time in a Panthers' uniform, he was utilized as a kick returner, in addition to his special teams coverage duties. He averaged 23.1 yards on 41 kickoff returns for 947 yards, including a 100-yard touchdown against the New Orleans Saints on October 5, 2003. He finished the Panthers' 2003 season ranked second with 14 special teams tackles and recorded his first career blocked punt. He also rushed for 49 yards on 20 carries and caught three passes for 11 yards on offense. He contributed to a Panthers' special teams coverage unit that ranked fifth in the NFL in opponents' kickoff return average. In Super Bowl XXXVIII, Smart returned four punts for 74 yards.

Smart's 2004 season was cut short due to injuries. He played in the first three games of the season for the Panthers, but was inactive for the next four before being placed on injured reserve with an injured left knee on November 3, 2004. Despite his limited action in 2004, he averaged 21.1 yards on eight kickoff returns for 169 yards, with the longest return being 33 yards. He also rushed four yards on three carries, and caught one pass for five yards, on offense.

In 2005, Smart returned to the Panthers healthy, played in 12 games, and led the Panthers with 29 kickoff returns for 615 yards (for a 21.2 yard average). He also recorded nine tackles and one fumble recovery for the Panthers' kick coverage unit. After four seasons, Smart was released by the Panthers on March 1, 2006.

Oakland Raiders
On May 4, 2006, Smart signed with the Oakland Raiders as a free agent. Being injured for part of the 2006 pre-season, he failed to make the final, 53-man Raiders roster on September 2, 2006.

All American Football League
Smart was selected by Team Tennessee during the inaugural draft of the All American Football League on January 26, 2008. However, when the league was postponed for its inaugural season, all players were released from their contracts, leaving him a free agent.

Post football
After being released by the Oakland Raiders, Smart became a personal trainer, before appearing in Don't Blame The Lettuce. He currently lives in Charlotte, North Carolina and purportedly works as a high school guidance counselor. He also owns his own business, SmartSize.

Personal life
Smart is a fan of 1970s funk and soul music bands such as Earth, Wind and Fire, Heatwave, and Parliament. He was the "" but managed to keep his grades well above average with all A's and some B's at Lakeland Senior High School.  His nickname growing up and in high school was "The Rocket" after Raghib Ismail of Notre Dame, because of his speed, running a 4.25 second 40-yard dash. Smart's younger brother is Chris Rainey, former Lakeland High School standout running back and former National Football League player. Smart's first cousin is former Philadelphia Eagles receiver Freddie Mitchell.

On June 18, 2019, Lancaster County, South Carolina, sheriff's deputies declared Smart "missing and endangered" after his family reported that his whereabouts had been unknown since June 12. He was reported by the sheriff's office as having been found safe later the same day he was reported missing.

References

Further reading

External links

Players of American football from Lakeland, Florida
American football running backs
American football return specialists
Western Kentucky Hilltoppers football players
Edmonton Elks players
Philadelphia Eagles players
Carolina Panthers players
Las Vegas Outlaws (XFL) players
1977 births
Living people
Lakeland High School (Lakeland, Florida) alumni

Rod Smart


The Kupferhof Bauschenberg was a brass producing factory built in the 17th century in the German city of Stolberg. It had a great influence on the brass industry which made Stolberg world leader in brass production for more than a century.

Due to the excellent conditions for the production of the alloy brass there could hardly be a better place to choose than Stolberg. Located near the small river Vichtbach the water wheels could easily be powerded. Calamine was delivered by the oar mines from nearby Breinigerberg and wood for firing the furnaces had been available in adequate quantities in the forests of the Eifel. This must be the reason why Gottfried Schardinel, one of the richest persons at that time in the region of Stolberg built the Kupferhof Bauschenberg.

Later the three factories Kupferhof Bauschenberg, Dollartshammer as well as Straßburger Hof fusionated to create the company Prym.

Literature
 Karl Schleicher: Geschichte der Stolberger Messingindustrie. (=Beiträge zur Stolberger Geschichte und Heimatkunde, Heft 6, 1956, hsg. von der Stadtbücherei Stolberg (Rhld.)) {de}

Companies of Germany
17th-century establishments in Germany

Kupferhof Bauschenberg


The Ernestine duchies, are sometimes called the Saxon duchies, were a changing number of small states in the present German state of Thuringia, governed by dukes of the Ernestine line of the house of Wettin. The Albertine duchies of Weissenfels, Merseburg and Zeitz were are also sometimes called "Saxon duchies" and border several Ernestine ones.

Overview
The old Duchy of Saxon began to split up in the 15th Century, because law said that all sons should inherit.   All of the sons of a Saxon duke had the title of Duke, sometimes brothers ruled the territory together, and sometimes they divided it up between them. Some of the Ernestine duchies stayed independent until 1918.  The nearby royal houses of Reuss and Schwarzburg also divided up their territory, so Thuringia was a tangle of little states, exclaves and enclaves from the late 15th Century until the early 20th Century.

Background
Albert, grandson of  Albert "the Bear" inherited the Duchy of Saxony from his father.   Albert's sons divided Saxony into the duchies of Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg.  When duke of Saxe-Wittenberg died without an heir in 1422, the Emperor Sigismund gave the duchy to Frederick IV of the House of Wettin.  Frederick was already Margrave of Meißen and Landgrave of Thuringia, and then became Frederick I, Elector of Saxony.  Frederick was followed as Elector by his son Frederick II, and when Frederick II died in 1464 his sons Ernest and Albert took over.  Because he was the older, Ernest became Elector of Saxony, but the brothers shared ruling the lands until 1485.  Then Ernest took northern Meißen, southern Thuringia, and Wittenberg, with Albert receiving northern Thuringia and southern Meißen

The Ernestine line
Elector Ernest died in 1486, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick III, the Wise.

It was Frederick the Wise who set up the University of Wittenberg in 1502.  This was because the only university in Saxony was in Leipzig, was in the part of Saxony controlled by the descendants of his uncle, Albert.  The University of Wittenberg was were Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses. Frederick protected Luther, and did not send him to Rome for trial. Frederick allowed Lutheran reforms in his country.

Frederick the Wise  had three grandsons to share the territory.  John Frederick II set up his capitals in Eisenach and Coburg, the middle brother John William staying in Weimar (Saxe-Weimar), and the youngest, John Frederick III  took Gotha (Saxe-Gotha).

John Frederick III of Gotha died unmarried and heirless in 1565 and John William of Weimar tried to claim Saxe-Gotha, but the sons of the imprisoned John Frederick II entered their own claim.

In 1572 the claimants agreed to the Division of Erfurt.  This treaty said John William of Saxe-Weimar would also take the districts of  Altenburg, Gotha and Meiningen.

When John William died a year later.
his older son, Frederick William I received Altenburg, Gotha and Meiningen with using the title of Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, and founding the first Saxe-Altenburg line,
 younger son John II. John Casimir took Saxe-Weimar

The older son of John Frederick II, and John Ernest (d 1638 heirless), the younger son of John Frederick II, received together the territory of Saxe-Coburg-Eisenach. In 1596 the brothers agreed to split the duchy into Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Eisenach.

Johann II, Duke of Saxe-Weimar (or John II), died young but left eight surviving sons who ruled together,  Three died, (including Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, the youngest, the famed general) and a will ordering them to rule jointly. Only three survived by 1639, when the lands of the Coburg-Eisenach dukes were divided between the Altenburgs and the Weimarsthe remaining brothers finally divided their lands which were twice the size of what they inherited.

William kept Weimar, Albert  became Duke of Eisenach and Ernest "the Pious" became known as Duke of Gotha.

Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (1601-75) had married Elisabeth Sophie, the only child of John Philip, Duke of Altenburg(1597-1638). Elisabeth Sophie's cousin Frederick William III, Duke of Altenburg, died unmarried 1672.  He was the last male descendant of the first Saxe-Altenburg line.

There was a big argument about who should get the Altenburg land.  In the end most went to Ernest and Elisabeth Sophie's sons.  One quarter  the original Altenburglands went to the Saxe-Weimar branch.

These two lines: Weimar and Gotha(-Altenburg) form the basis of future Ernestine lines, and both have surviving male lineage up to today.

After the division of the first Altenburg lands line, the senior Ernestine branch (the Saxe-Weimar family ), line held just under half of the Ernestine lands, and the junior, Gotha-Altenburg, line held more than half. Gotha-Altenburg line divided more each generation.  The Weimar line did not subdivide their land and by 1741 all of the land was controlled by the one branch of the Weimar family.  In 1815 they became Grand Dukes.

Duke Ernest of Gotha and Duchess Elisabeth Sophie's numerous sons divided the inheritance into seven parts: Gotha-Altenburg, Coburg, Meiningen, Römhild, Eisenberg, Hildburghausen and Saalfeld.   The new dukes of Coburg, Römhild and Eisenberg had no children, so their lands were quickly absorbed by the four remaining lines.

Eventually, primogeniture (that is, only the eldest son inherits) became the rule for inheritance in the Ernestine Duchies.

In 1825 the Ernestine duchies were
Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (approximately three eights of all the Ernestine lands), and the ("Elisabeth-Sophie-line") duchies of
Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg,
Saxe-Meiningen,
Saxe-Hildburghausen and
Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.

In 1825 Ernest the Pious' senior line, the Gotha-Altenburg, went extinct and the land was redistributed for the last time.

Altenburg went to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen, but he gave Hildburghausen to the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen.  The duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld gave up Saalfeld in return for Gotha.. All of the Ernestine Duchies ended with the abolition of the monarchy and princely states in Germany shortly after the end of World War I.

Five rulers of the Ernestine duchies
Saxe-Weimar
Saxe-Eisenach
Saxe-Coburg
Saxe-Gotha
Saxe-Altenburg

had a vote in the Holy Roman Empire's Reichstag. In 1792 the Duke of Saxe-Weimar was also the Duke of Saxe-Eisenach, and the Duke of Saxe-Altenburg was also the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, so both had two votes; and the Duke of Saxe-Coburg had one vote.

The other Ernestine duchies were never members of the Imperial Circle, and were subordinate to the five duchies that did belong to the Imperial Circle (for example, the principalities of Meiningen and Hildburghausen were such; that was one reason why Duke of Hildburghausen exchanged his patrimony to that of Altenburg). Ultimately, in the German Confederation, all these became equally sovereign.

Ernestine duchies

 Saxe-Altenburg (1603 to 1672; 1826 to 1918)
 Saxe-Coburg (1596 to 1633; 1681 to 1699)
 Saxe-Coburg-Eisenach (1572 to 1596)
 Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1735 to 1826)
 Saxe-Eisenberg (1680 to 1707)
 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1826 to 1918)
 Saxe-Eisenach (1596 to 1638; 1640 to 1644; 1672 to 1806)
 Saxe-Gotha (1640 to 1680)
 Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (1681 to 1826)
 Saxe-Hildburghausen (1680 to 1826)
 Saxe-Jena (1672 to 1690)
 Saxe-Marksuhl (1662 to 1672)
 Saxe-Meiningen (1681 to 1918)
 Saxe-Römhild (1680 to 1710)
 Saxe-Saalfeld (1680 to 1735)
 Saxe-Weimar (1572 to 1806)
 Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (1806 to 1918)

References

John B. Freed. 1988. Saxony, in Strayer, Joseph R., Ed. in Chief. Dictionary of the Middle Ages, Vol. 10. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.
Ernestine Saxony, 1485-1547 - accessed December 13 2005
Wettin Dynasty. (2005). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 12, 2005, from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service
House Laws of Anhalt - retrieved December 13 2005
Chart showing succession of Ernestine duchies - originally retrieved December 13 2005, found using Wayback machine November 27 2006
 The Ernestine Line's Saxon Duchies

Thuringia

Ernestine duchies


The Bourbons of Parma are a royal family who ruled the Duchy of Parma from 1748 till 1860 when Italy was created. The family was founded by the Infante Philip of Spain, third son of Philip V of Spain and Elisabetta Farnese. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of the Austrian Succession, and gave the land to Philip.

Philip married Louise Élisabeth of France and the present pretending duke of Parma (Carlos/Carlo of Parma) is a direct descendant. The duchy was taken by the House of Savoy when the state of Italy was created.

Dukes and Duchesses of Parma

House of Bourbon-Parma


John Vandling Lesher (July 27, 1866 – May 3, 1932) was a Democratic member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.

Biography
Lesher was born on a farm in Blue Hill, Pennsylvania.  He attended the rural schools in his native county and the State Normal School at Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania.  He taught school for several years in Union and Snyder Counties.  He graduated from Bucknell University in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, in 1897.  He enlisted in Company K of the Pennsylvania National Guard in 1898, and when it was transferred to the Twelfth Regiment he served as a first lieutenant.  He was promoted to quartermaster with rank of captain, serving until 1902.  He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1900 and commenced practice in Sunbury, Pennsylvania.  He served as the assistant district attorney of Northumberland County, Pennsylvania.  He was also engaged in banking and real estate development.

Lesher was elected as a Democrat to the sixty-third and to the three succeeding congresses.  He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1920.  He resumed the practice of law in Sunbury, Pennsylvania, and died in Danville, Pennsylvania.  Interment in Riverview Cemetery in Northumberland, Pennsylvania.

Sources

The Political Graveyard

1866 births
1932 deaths
People from Union County, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania lawyers
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania alumni
Quartermasters

John Vandling Lesher


Symphony No. 1 in B flat major, Op. 38 ("Spring")  is the first of Robert Schumann's four symphonies. It was written early 1841. Schumann sketched the symphony in four days from 23 January to 26 January. He completed the orchestration by 20 February. The premiere took place under the direction of Felix Mendelssohn on 31 March 1841 in Leipzig. The symphony was well received. Schumann was largely known for his piano works and for songs at the time. His wife Clara Schumann encouraged him to write symphonic music. Schumann said he was inspired by his Liebesfrühling (spring of love) in the symphony's composition.

The work has four movements: Andante un poco maestoso – Allegro molto vivace (B flat major); Larghetto (E flat major; Scherzo: Molto vivace – Trio I: Molto piu vivace – Trio II (G minor); and Allegro animato e grazioso (B flat major). The orchestration is for 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, timpani, triangle and strings. Schumann expanded the use of the timpani in this piece.  He made some revisions in the work until the definitive edition was published in 1853.

References

Compositions by Robert Schumann
Schumann No 1

Symphony No. 1 (Schumann)


The Jew of Malta is a play by Christopher Marlowe. Marlowe's source is unknown. It is possibly a forgotten story, or he may have studied Jewish life first-hand in London. The exact date the play was written is uncertain. It is certain though that it was written no earlier than December 1588. It was first printed in 1633.

The play is unbalanced; the first two acts show a masterful hand while the last three do not. The character of Barabas, the Jew, is a portrait of depth in the first two acts, but he descends to nothing more than a typical stage villain in the last three.  One critic believes the play was ordered on short notice by the players, and Marlowe had only enough time to sketch the character of Barrabas.

References

Plays by Christopher Marlowe
1580s plays

The Jew of Malta


Surf rock is a kind of rock music. It started in the USA in the 1950s. As the name suggests surf rock had a strong relationship to the sport of surfing.
The Beach Boys are an example of a band that play surf rock.  Much of the surf-rock that exists is instrumental and guitar-based. This instrumental music tends to include up-front echoey guitars, usually those made by Fender.  The most famous surf-rock guitarist, Dick Dale is well known for the track Misirlou.

Rock music
Surfing

Surf rock


A port is a location on a coast or shore conteenin ane or mair herbours whaur ships can dock an transfer fowk or cargo tae or frae laund.  Port locations are selectit tae optimise access tae laund an navigable watter, for commercial demand, an for shelter frae wind an waves. Ports wi deeper watter are rarer, but can haundle lairger, mair economical ships.  Syne ports throuoot history haundelt ivery kynd o traffec, support an storage facilities vary widely, mey extend for miles, an dominate the local economy. Some ports hae a important militar role.

Nautical terms

Port


Lady Jane Grey, born on October 12, 1537, also known as "The Nine Days Queen," was an English noblewoman who briefly served as queen of England from July 10 to July 19, 1553. Her reign was unsuccessful, and she was subsequently executed by decapitation the following year on February 12, 1554, at the age of 17, charged with high treason.

Jane was born in London, or at her family home of Bradgate Park, Leicestershire, England.  She was great-granddaughter of Henry VII by his younger daughter Mary, and a first-cousin-once-removed of Edward VI.

In May 1553, Jane married Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of Edward's chief minister, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. When the 15-year-old King lay dying in June 1553, he nominated Jane as successor to the Crown in his will, thus subverting the claims of his half-sisters Mary and Elizabeth.

During her short reign, Jane lived in the Tower of London. She became a prisoner there, as the Privy Council decided to change sides and proclaim Mary as queen, on 19 July 1553. Wyatt's rebellion in January and February 1554 against Queen Mary's plans of a Spanish match was the direct cause of Jane's and her husband's execution.

Family
She was the daughter of Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk, and Lady Frances Brandon (16 July 1517 – 20 November 1559), the daughter of Henry VIII's sister, Mary. She was born on 12 October 1537 and she was probably named after Jane Seymour (c. 1508 or 1509 – 24 October 1537). Jane had two younger sisters, Catherine (b. 1540) and Mary (b. 1545).

Early life
Jane's parents were very strict even by the standards of the day. If she made mistakes in her studies or had any other normal troubles, her mother would slap her or beat her. She found she loved her nurse, but otherwise lived a sad childhood.

She told a visiting scholar Roger Ascham:
"For when I am in the presence of either Father or Mother, whether I speak, keep silence, sit, stand or go, eat, drink, be merry or sad, be sewing, playing, dancing, or doing anything else, I must do it as it were in such weight, measure and number, even so perfectly as God made the world; or else I am so sharply taunted, so cruelly threatened, yes presently sometimes with pinches, nips and bobs and other ways ... that I think myself in hell".

When Jane was nine, she was sent to the royal court to learn etiquette and manners with Henry VIII's sixth wife and eventual widow, Catherine Parr. Jane liked Catherine a great deal and found love with her, which she had not got from her parents. It was clear that Catherine was very fond of Jane in return.

Jane also found friendship with her cousin and future king Edward VI. They often studied together.

Jane was well educated as a child and learned to read in Latin, Greek, French and Italian, as well as English. Later in her life, she also learned Hebrew.

Parents' political ambitions
Jane's parents, especially her mother,  wanted to gain more political influence. For that reason, they wanted to marry her to someone important. Jane had two sisters, Catherine, born in 1540, and Mary, born in 1545. After her sisters were born, her parents tried to marry Jane to her cousin Edward VI. They went to Catherine Parr's new husband, Thomas Seymour, to try to prepare this royal marriage. It is likely that King Edward loved Jane. However, he decided to arrange a marriage with a foreign princess instead.

In 1548, Jane was sent to Chelsea to be with Catherine Parr and Thomas Seymour. Catherine Parr became pregnant that same year and the family moved to Sudeley Castle in June, taking Jane with them. Tragedy struck when Catherine Parr died while having the baby in August of that year and Jane served as chief mourner in her funeral.

Jane was dealt another blow in 1549 when Thomas Seymour was arrested on charges of treason. She was sent back to her angered parents. They knew that their hopes of her marriage to the king were ruined; they punished her cruelly for this, even though it was not her fault.

Youth
In 1551 Jane's mother's two half-brothers died of the "sweating sickness", a contagious disease that caused a series of epidemics, 1485 to 1551.  Since Frances's father was dead, she became Duchess of Suffolk. Jane's father became Duke of Suffolk.  In the same year John Dudley was made the Duke of Northumberland and the chief councillor to Edward VI.

John Dudley's plot
In April 1552 Edward became sick with the measles and caught tuberculosis as well.  By next year, Edward was so ill that he was weak and spitting up blood or something that was greenish-yellow. It was clear that he was going to die soon.

Dudley knew that if either of Edward's half-sisters, Mary or Elizabeth, became queen, he would not be powerful anymore.  Dudley plotted with Jane's equally ambitious parents and planned that Jane became his ward, and also that she marry his son, Guildford Dudley.  Jane's mother decided to give up her claim to be queen for Jane. This did not mean that Frances was any less greedy, however. This meant that Jane would become Frances and Dudley's puppet and do what they wanted. Now Jane would be the next in line to the throne if the rights of the princesses Mary and Elizabeth were ignored.

Marriage
When Jane's mother and father told her that Jane was going to get married, Jane refused. She said that Guildford was ugly, stupid, and rude. She also hated John Dudley. When Jane refused, Frances and Henry swore at Jane and slapped her. This did not work, so Frances gave Jane a brutal whipping. Finally, Jane agreed.
The wedding between Jane and Guildford happened on 25 May 1553. This became a triple marriage because Jane's sister, Katherine, was married at this time to Lord Herbert, and Guildford's sister, Katherine, was also married to Lord Hastings.

Accession
On 6 July 1553, King Edward VI died. Dudley's plan to make Jane queen was starting to take place. Edward's death was kept secret for a few days until Jane could be proclaimed queen.

Jane was told by her parents and John Dudley that she was queen. She became sick with fright and fainted. She did not want to take the crown.
"The crown is not my right. It pleaseth me not. The Lady Mary is the rightful heir," Jane said. Her parents swore at her and John Dudley told her that she "doth wrong to herself and her house". Under pressure, Jane finally relented. Lady Jane said she never forgave herself for doing this.

Meanwhile, news was spreading that Jane had been proclaimed the new queen. Although the people liked Jane, they loved Mary and Elizabeth more. They also did not like John Dudley. In East Anglia, Mary was gaining support and planning to march into London. Dudley tried to enforce a counter-attack but to no avail. On 19 July Mary became queen. Jane was queen for nine days.

Imprisonment
Jane returned all the crown jewels and clothes. She was then brought into the Tower of London. There, she was kept in a cell for the next few months. However, she was allowed to walk in the garden. She wrote many letters and read many books while at the Tower of London. She wrote a letter to Queen Mary saying that she never wanted the crown.
Queen Mary believed Jane and refused to execute her cousin. Many people pressured Mary, but she was stubborn. She still ordered that a trial be held for traditional purposes. Jane was found guilty but the Queen pardoned her.

However, the next year, 1554, a group of rebels under Thomas Wyatt, including Jane's father Henry Grey, led a rebellion against Queen Mary because she was planning to marry prince Phillip II of Spain. It was quickly put down. Although Jane had nothing to do with it and Mary did not want to kill her cousin, her advisors told her that Phillip would only come if Jane was killed. So, with a heavy heart (sadly), Queen Mary signed the death warrant. Jane was going to be beheaded.

Effects
When Jane was told that her head was going to be cut off, she was very scared. Nonetheless, she was happy that her "sad and woeful days" of life were finally coming to an end.

Meanwhile, Mary still did not want to kill her cousin. So, she sent a Catholic priest Dr. Feckenham to try to convert Jane to Catholicism. That way, Jane would not be a threat. Jane was a firm Protestant, and refused to become a Catholic. Jane's execution was postponed from 9 February to 12 February, to try and make her a Catholic. The night before the execution, Jane wrote many letters to her family and prepared her neck for the block. The next morning, her hair was tied back, and she watched Guildford go very unwillingly to the block. Then it was her turn.

Execution

On 12 February 1554, at the Tower of London, Jane was sent to the scaffold.  She calmly climbed the scaffold and said a speech. She said the Psalm 51, a prayer for divine mercy, in "the most devout manner". She then knelt by the block and tied a piece of cloth around her eyes.

When the executioner told her to put her head on the block, she reached out but could not find the block since she was very scared. She cried for help until someone grabbed her hands and helped her find the block. Jane then put her neck above the block and slowly lowered it onto the block, pressed her neck against the wood and fit her chin in the hold. Then she brought her arms around her. Before she was executed, she cried out "Lord, into thy hands, I commend my spirit!"

Some say her last words were the name of her much loved husband, Lord Guildford.

Beheading

The crowd watched as the executioner raised the axe high in the air. Jane was shivering badly but her neck stayed perfectly still. Then, the executioner quickly swung the axe down perfectly at the middle of Jane's neck, which was severed in a single stroke. Jane's severed head fell to the straw in front of the block while huge amounts of blood splattered across the scaffold. The executioner then grabbed Jane's head by her red hair and lifted it up to show the crowd. He shouted "So perish all the Queen's enemies! Behold the head of a traitor!"

But some sources suggest the fact that it took three shots to remove Lady Jane's head.

Burial

After the crowd left, the blood was removed, and Jane's body was brought to the church St. Peter ad Vincula. Since the church had just become Catholic and Jane was a Protestant, they had to get permission from Queen Mary to bury her. It was four hours until her maids were allowed to prepare her body for burial. Jane's body was buried between former Queens Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. It is unknown what happened to her severed head.

References

Further reading

 Ives, Eric (2009). Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery. Malden MA; Oxford UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
 Loades, David (1996), John Dudley Duke of Northumberland. 1504–1553, Oxford: Clarendon Press,
 Cook, Faith (2005). The Nine Day Queen of England. Evangelical Press.

1537 births
1554 deaths
English Anglicans
Executed English people
House of Tudor
People executed by decapitation
Royalty from London
16th century in England

Lady Jane Grey


Sir Michael Moissey Postan FBA (24 September 189912 December 1981) was a British historian. He was known informally as Munia Postan.

Biography
Postan was born to a Jewish family in Bendery, in the Bessarabia Governorate of the Russian Empire, and studied at the St Vladimir University in Kyiv, leaving Russia in 1919 after the October Revolution and settling in the UK. He held positions at University College London and at the London School of Economics, before being appointed Professor of Economic History at the University of Cambridge, from 1937. He was known as an economic historian of medieval Europe. Eric Hobsbawm notes he was one of the best lecturers at Cambridge, adding, "Though passionately anti-communist, Postan was the only man in Cambridge who knew Marx, Weber, Sombart and the rest of the great central and East Europeans, and took their work sufficiently seriously to expound and criticize it."

Marriages

He married historian Eileen Power in 1937. After she died in 1940, he married Lady Cynthia Rosalie Keppel, daughter of the 9th Earl of Albemarle, with whom he had two sons. He died in Cambridge.

Works
 Studies in English Trade in the 15th Century (1933) with Eileen Power
 The Historical Method in Social Science An Inaugural Lecture (1939)
 British War Production (1952, HMSO). (Part of the History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Civil Series)
 Carte Nativorum: A Peterborough Abbey Cartulary of the Fourteenth Century (1960) with C. N. L. Brooke
 Design and Development of Weapons : Studies in Government and Industrial Organisation (1964) with D. Hay and J. D. Scott. HMSO (Part of the History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Civil Series)
Cambridge Economic History of Europe from the Decline of the Roman Empire
I: The Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages 2nd edition 1966, editor excerpt and text search
II: Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages (1952) edited with Edward Miller and Cynthia Postan
III: Economic Organization and Policies in the Middle Ages (1963) edited with E. E. Rich and Edward Miller
IV: The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, Volume IV: The Economy of Expanding Europe in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, edited with E. E. Rich and Edward Miller
V:  The Cambridge Economic History of Europe. Volume V: The Economic Organization of Early Modern Europe  (1977) edited by E. E. Rich and C. H. Wilson
VI: The Industrial Revolutions and After (1966) edited with H. J. Habbakuk
VII: The Industrial Economies: Capital, Labour and Enterprise (1978) edited with Peter Mathias, Part 2 extending to the United States, Japan and Russia
VIII: The Industrial Economies: The Development of Economic and Social Policies (1989) edited by Peter Mathias and Sidney Pollard

 An Economic History of Western Europe 1945 - 1964 (1967)
 Fact and Relevance: Essays on Historical Method (1971)
 The Medieval Economy and Society: Economic History of Britain, 1100-1500 (1972) Pelican Economic History of Britain #1
 Essays on Medieval Agriculture and General Problems of the Medieval Economy (1973)
 Medieval Trade and Finance (1973)

References

Further reading
Edward Miller, "Postan, Sir  Michael Moïssey  (1899–1981)" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 3 Dec 2012

1899 births
1981 deaths
People from Bender, Moldova
People from Bendersky Uyezd
Moldovan Jews
White Russian emigrants to the United Kingdom
British people of Moldovan-Jewish descent
20th-century British people
20th-century British historians
Economic historians
Academics of University College London
Academics of the London School of Economics
Fellows of the British Academy
Knights Bachelor
Jewish refugees
Russian refugees

Michael Postan


A bomb is an explosive object that makes and lets out its energy very quickly. This detonation makes a big shock wave. Bombs have been used for centuries. Some bombs also throw out dangerous metal fragments, and some are firebombs.

Most bombs do not contain more energy than ordinary fuel, except in the case of a nuclear weapon. However, they release their energy more quickly, thus are more powerful.

A bomb is usually some kind of container filled with explosive material that is designed to destroy things.  The word bomb comes from the Greek word βόμβος (bombas), an onomatopoeic term with almost the same meaning as "boom" in English.

Air forces send bombers to destroy enemy targets. Terrorists use bombs in suicide attacks. Explosive materials used in mining work the same way, but are usually not called bombs.

Related pages
 Explosion protection
 Nuclear weapon

Explosives

Bomb


The Norm is an American comic strip by Michael Jantze. It ran in newspapers, syndicated by King Features Syndicate, from August 1996 until September 12, 2004, when Jantze removed the strip from syndication to develop it as an online comic strip and television series. "The Norm 4.0" rebooted in January 2015 and appears every Monday at GoComics. A book collection of the earlier color Sunday work is in print in English and other books and magazines are available in English, Swedish and Spanish by resellers on the internet.

Characters and story
Norm: The title character is Norman, who, with very few exceptions, is always referred to as "Norm". The title The Norm implies that he is a typical everyman. In one strip he states that "Actually my full name is 'Theodore Norman', but I use the first 3 and 4 letters because 3 plus 4 is seven and that's my lucky number."  It was later revealed that his full name is actually Theodore Norman Miller.  Norm is a graphic designer who is "twenty-something" and single, taking a casual approach to life. While he is not very socially adept, most people find him likable. His relaxed attitude and impulsiveness are the main source of interpersonal conflict within the strip. He has a fascination for new technology and gadgets and may be addicted to caffeine. He is also a Star Wars fan with a complete collection of action figures. Norm often breaks through the fourth wall and speaks directly to the reader.

Boy Norm: A younger version of Norm that Norm reverts to at times when he is acting immature or feels like he is being treated as a child. Boy Norm particularly loves video games and lives on a diet of breakfast cereal. Boy Norm also acts as a sort of conscience for Norm, appearing to him and talking to him as another character. The advice he gives usually leads Norm toward making impulsive decisions. Boy Norm is not malicious or unkind; he is just a kid, Norm's inner child, who Norm lets out to play all too often.

Reine Stark: Norm's best friend who he has known since college. She is a highly successful businesswoman; whose over-focused driven tendencies counterpoint Norm's relaxed attitude. Though they have known each other a long time they were happy to just be friends; however, everyone who knew them thought they would make a good couple. Later, to please her parents Reine lied and said that she and Norm were engaged. This led to a convoluted trip to Hawaii with Reine's parents, in which Norm and Reine realized their true feelings for each other. Soon after they began dating and eventually marry.

Ford: Norm's closest male friend, who is slightly older and slightly wiser than Norm; he is African-American and occasionally acts as his voice of reason; though more often than not he encourages and goes along with Norm's whimsical tendencies. At work he is a technical writer who works in the cubicle next to Norm's and is often seen Gophering or peering over the partition like Kilroy. In an extended story arc, Ford becomes engaged to his girlfriend Jan, and then while in the process of making their wedding plans they abruptly decide to move to another state. Left without his best buddy Norm tries to fill the gap with his usual social ineptitude.

Jan: Ford's girlfriend (later wife) is a therapist who does not like Norm, but is good friends with Reine. Though Ford is fully committed to their relationship, he resorts to creative ways to evade her so he can hang out with Norm; such as offering to help with their wedding plans, which invariably gets him thrown out of the house.

Mom and Dad: Norm's parents, who are usually depicted as voices out of the cartoon frame. In some strips they are drawn as childish stick-figure sketches, reflecting the fact that Norm still sees them through a child's eyes. While Norm frequently talks about wanting to be "friends" with his parent on an equal adult level, he invariably ends up being treated as a kid, often reverting to "Boy Norm" in the process. In later strips, they are drawn as normal characters, but always with their faces obscured.

Reine's Parents: Reine's Mother and Father, unlike Norm's parents they actually appear in the strip and interact with other characters normally. They are a happy older couple who are quite fond of their daughter, and are quite approving of Norm as well in no small part because they are under the false understanding that Norm and Reine are dating. They have at least one other child, a son who has not appeared in the strip.

The Co-workers: Most of Norm's co-workers have no given names and are known only by their job titles, such as the President (also referred to as the CEO), the HR Director, the System Technicians (there are two), the Copier Repairman, etc.

The Boss: (No name given) An African-American woman who is Norm's manager at work. A low-level cog in the company's management who is constantly loading Norm down with work, meetings and deadlines that invariably make him work all sorts of overtime hours. While she would be totally lost without Norm; she would be the last person to admit it.

Wonk: Norm's older and balding co-worker. A plain vanilla type of guy who is constantly annoyed by Norm. The feeling is mutual.

Maria Elena: A friend of Reine who Norm had shown some interest in while unaware that she was already engaged.

The Neighbours Also referred to as "The Married Friends" is A young married couple with a baby who lives next door to Norm, usually appearing as a counterpoint to Norm's bachelor lifestyle. Their names are not mentioned. They also have a Sheltie named Chuck that Norm occasionally takes for walks.

Chuck The Shetland Sheepdog owned by Norm's neighbours. Norm likes to take Chuck for walks in the park as (according to his theory) it is a good way to meet single women. As a "Chick Magnet" Chuck is quite effective, but not always in a way that Norm appreciates.

Boomer: Norm's next door neighbour, and Wonk's twin brother. He is constantly borrowing things from Norm (usually without asking) and often appears in his yard in his bathrobe. Boomer is always outgoingly friendly but somewhat repulsive and Norm tries to avoid him whenever possible. Since Boomer moved into neighbourhood the housing values have dropped considerably.

The XGF's The Ex-Girlfriends, a collective term for all the women who Norm has dated in the past and broken up with. Usually the breakups are due to his own foibles. These ladies frequently come back to haunt him, sometimes even as a group. They include Marta, Greta, Rita (the "Über-ex-GF") and also Maria Elena who Norm never dated but was once interested in. Reine was also technically a member long before she and Norm began dating, since he had thought about it but never asked her since he did not want to lose her as a friend.

Bronte: A woman who saves Norm's life when he almost drowns on a hiking trip and later becomes his girlfriend. This relationship is complicated by the fact that they live in different states, and they can only spend limited amounts of time together. However, Norm actually sees this as an advantage. They break up while waiting in line at the theatre to see a Star Wars movie when she confuses Star Wars with Star Trek.

Chris: Chris is a Star Wars fan who first met Norm in line to see a star wars movie, and eventually filled in Norm's best friend role after Ford's departure. Chris was wearing a Wookie costume at the time and unfortunately for Chris, the zipper on the outfit got stuck so he was trapped wearing it for a long time afterward. Norm got used to seeing his friend in the costume that he did not recognize Chris when he finally got out of it. Later Chris became one of Norm's co-workers when he was hired as an accountant.

References

External links
 The Norm web site
 The Norm Single Years on GoComics.com

American comic strips
Gag-a-day comics
1996 comics debuts
2004 comics endings

The Norm (comic strip)


Herbert Aaron Hauptman (February 14, 1917 – October 23, 2011) was an American mathematician and Nobel laureate. He pioneered and developed a mathematical method that has changed the whole field of chemistry and opened a new era in research in determination of molecular structures of crystallized materials. Today, Hauptman's direct methods, which he continued to improve and refine, are routinely used to solve complicated structures. It was the application of this mathematical method to a wide variety of chemical structures that led the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to name Hauptman and Jerome Karle recipients of the 1985 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Life
He was born in to a Jewish family in New York City, the oldest child of Leah (Rosenfeld) and Israel Hauptman. He was married to Edith Citrynell since November 10, 1940, with two daughters, Barbara (1947) and Carol (1950).

He was interested in science and mathematics from an early age which he pursued at Townsend Harris High School, graduated from the City College of New York (1937) and obtained an M.A. degree in mathematics from Columbia University in 1939.

After the war he started a collaboration with Jerome Karle at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C., and at the same time enrolled in the Ph.D. program at the University of Maryland, College Park. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Maryland in 1955 in physics, which is part of the University of Maryland College of Computer, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences. This combination of mathematics and physical chemistry expertise enabled them to tackle head-on the phase problem of X-ray crystallography. His work on this problem was criticized because, at the time, the problem was believed unsolvable.
By 1955 he had received his Ph.D. in mathematics, and they had laid the foundations of the direct methods in X-ray crystallography. Their 1953 monograph, "Solution of the Phase Problem I. The Centrosymmetric Crystal", contained the main ideas, the most important of which was the introduction of probabilistic methods through a development of the Sayre equation.

In 1970 he joined the crystallographic group of the Medical Foundation of Buffalo of which he was research director in 1972. During the early years of this period he formulated the neighborhood principle and extension concept. These theories were further developed during the following decades.

In 2003, as an atheist and secular humanist, he was one of 22 Nobel laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto.

Works
Hauptman has authored over 170 publications, including journal articles, research papers, chapters and books. In 1970, Hauptman joined the crystallographic group of the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute (formerly the Medical Foundation of Buffalo) of which he became research director in 1972. Until his death, he served as president of the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute as well as research professor in the department of biophysical sciences and adjunct professor in the department of computer science at the University at Buffalo. Prior to coming to Buffalo, he worked as a mathematician and supervisor in various departments at the Naval Research Laboratory from 1947. He received his B.S. from City College of New York, M.S. from Columbia University and Ph.D. from the University of Maryland, College Park.

Awards and titles

Belden Prize in Mathematics, City College of New York, 1936
Scientific Research Society of America, Pure Science Award, Naval Research Laboratory, 1959
President, Philosophical Society of Washington, 1969–1970
President of the Association of Independent Research Institutes, 1979–1980
Patterson Award in 1984 given by the American Crystallographic Association
Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1985 (jointly with Jerome Karle)
Honorary degrees from the University of Maryland, College Park in 1985
Honorary degree from CCNY in 1986
Citizen of the Year Award, Buffalo Evening News, 1986
Norton Medal, SUNY, 1986
Schoellkopf Award, American Chemical Society (Western New York Chapter) 1986
Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 1986
Cooke Award, SUNY, 1987
Establishment of the Eccles-Hauptman Student Award, SUNY in 1987
Election to the National Academy of Sciences in 1988
Humanist Laureate Award from the International Humanist and Ethical Union in 1988
Honorary degree from the University of Parma, Italy in 1989
Honorary degree from the D'Youville College, Buffalo, New York in 1989
Honorary degree from Bar-Ilan University, Israel in 1990
Honorary degree from Columbia University in 1990
Honorary degree from Technical University of Lodz, Poland in 1992
Honorary degree from Queen's University, Kingston, Canada in 1993
Honorary degree from  SUNY at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York in 2009

See also

 List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References

External links

Dr Hauptman's CV
Pergament: A PBS portrait of Buffalo's Nobel winner Herbert Hauptman
Board of Science Advisors, The Buffalo International Film Festival, Buffalo, NY, United States

1917 births
2011 deaths
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
American Nobel laureates
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
American people of German-Jewish descent
Jewish American scientists
Jewish chemists
Jewish American atheists
Jewish Nobel laureates
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
American physical chemists
University of Maryland, College Park alumni
City College of New York alumni
Townsend Harris High School alumni
Secular humanists
Mathematicians from New York (state)

Herbert A. Hauptman


Asplenium trichomanes, the maidenhair spleenwort (not to be confused with the similar-looking maidenhair fern), is a small fern in the spleenwort genus Asplenium. It is a widespread and common species, occurring almost worldwide in a variety of rocky habitats. It is a variable fern with several subspecies.

The specific epithet trichomanes refers to a Greek word for fern.

Description
Asplenium trichomanes grows  10 to 30 cm tall forming tufts arising from a short, scaly rhizome. The scales are dark.  The evergreen fronds are long and narrow, gradually tapering towards the tip. They are simply divided into small, yellow-green to dark-green, roundish pinnae. The stipe and rachis of the frond are dark all along their length. The fronds can reach 40 cm in length but are more commonly 8–20 cm. The indusia are linear to oval, straight, and attached to the upper-side of the fertile vein. There are (2) 4 to 8 sori per pinna and each are 1 to 3.5 mm long. Diploid (2n) chromosome count is 72.

Distribution and habitat
It is widespread in temperate and subarctic areas and also occurs in mountainous regions in the tropics. Its range includes most of Europe and much of Asia south to Turkey, Iran and the Himalayas with a population in Yemen. It occurs in northern, southern and parts of eastern Africa and also in eastern Indonesia, south-east Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and Hawaii. It is found in North America and Central America and Cuba, and the northern and western regions of South America such as Chile. Even though its range is wide spread, it is often rare, and populations are widely spread out from each other based on the available of suitable habitat.

It grows in rocky habitats such as cliffs, scree slopes, walls and mine waste, the type of rock used as a substrate depending on the subspecies. It grows from sea-level up to 3000 metres in North America while in the British Isles it reaches 870 metres.

In the US state of Minnesota A. trichomanes is listed as a threatened species. It occurs on ledges and in crevices on moist, east-facing cliffs and occasionally on talus with similar conditions. The Minnesota populations are Asplenium trichomanes subsp. trichomanes.

Cultivation
Asplenium trichomanes is valued in cultivation for its hardiness (down to ), its evergreen foliage and its ability to colonise crevices in stone walls. It prefers a fully or partially shaded aspect. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Taxonomy
Linnaeus was the first to describe maidenhair spleenwort with the binomial Asplenium trichomanes in his Species Plantarum of 1753.

Asplenium trichomanes has diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid cytotypes, which it has been argued should be recognised as distinct species. A triploid cytotype (a sterile hybrid between the diploid and tetraploid cytotype) is also known. Within these cytotypes several subspecies are recognised, including

Asplenium trichomanes subsp. trichomanes prefers acidic rocks such as sandstone, basalt and granite. In Europe and North America it is most often found in mountainous areas and is commonest in the north. It is a delicate plant with a slender stipe and rachis and relatively few pinnae. Diploid.
Asplenium trichomanes subsp. quadrivalens prefers calcareous rocks such as limestone and dolomite and often grows on the mortar in walls. It is commoner than A. t. subsp. trichomanes in much of Europe but is less widespread in North America, although it is present in southern North America where ssp. trichomanes is absent. Compared to the nominate subspecies it is stouter and has more pinnae which are more square in shape and have less of a stalk. The fronds tend to grow close to the rock while those of A. t. subsp. trichomanes tend to arch away. Tetraploid.
Asplenium trichomanes subsp. pachyrachis (syn. Asplenium csikii) is mainly found on limestone rocks and walls. It is small and delicate, grows close to the rock and has a rigid, fragile stipe and rachis. Tetraploid.
Asplenium trichomanes subsp. coriaceifolium (syn. Asplenium azomanes): Majorca, Spain, Morocco. Tetraploid.
Asplenium trichomanes subsp. hastatum. Tetraploid.
Asplenium trichomanes subsp. inexpectans. Diploid.
Asplenium trichomanes subsp. maderense. Madeira, Azores. Hexaploid. Hexaploids also occur in Australia and New Zealand.
Asplenium trichomanes nothosubsp. staufferi. Tetraploid (pachyrachis × quadrivalens).
Asplenium trichomanes nothosubsp. barraraense. Tetraploid (coraceifolium × quadrivalens).
Asplenium trichomanes nothosubsp. lovisianum. Tetraploid (hastatum × quadrivalens).
Asplenium trichomanes nothosubsp. moravicum. Tetraploid (hastatum × pachyrachis).
Asplenium trichomanes nothosubsp. melzeranum. Triploid (hastatum × inexpectans).
Asplenium trichomanes nothosubsp. melzeri. Triploid (quadrivalens × inexpectans).
Asplenium trichomanes nothosubsp. tadei-reichsteinii. Triploid (pachyrachis × inexpectans).
Asplenium trichomanes nothosubsp. lusaticum. Triploid (trichomanes × quadrivalens).
Asplenium trichomanes nothosubsp. malacitense. Triploid (coraceifolium × inexpectans).

References

Flora of North America. Asplenium trichomanes. Accessed 13 August 2008.
Hutchinson, G. (1996) Welsh Ferns, National Museums and Galleries of Wales.
Page C. N. (1982) The Ferns of Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press.
Preston, C. D. & Pearman, D. A. (2002) New Atlas of the British and Irish Flora, Oxford University Press.
Stace, Clive A. (1997) New Flora of the British Isles, Cambridge University Press.
Tutin, T. G. et al. (1964) Flora Europaea, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.

External links

BSBI Maps: Distribution in Britain and Ireland
Plants for a Future database
Flora of Pennsylvania

trichomanes
Ferns of the Americas
Ferns of Asia
Ferns of Europe
Ferns of Australasia
Ferns of the United States
Alpine flora
Tropical flora
Flora of Central America
Flora of Southern America
Flora of Australasia
Flora of Asia
Flora of Australia
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Asplenium trichomanes


A caucus is a meeting of supporters or members of a political party or movement. Caucuses are slightly different in different countries.

In the United States, in some states, such as Iowa, political parties have a caucus to choose presidential nominees for their parties.

Voting systems

Caucus


Bedidy is a town and commune () in Madagascar. It belongs to the district of Amparafaravola, which is a part of Alaotra-Mangoro Region. The population of the commune was estimated to be approximately 10,000 in 2001 commune census.

Only primary schooling is available. The majority 99% of the population of the commune are farmers.  The most important crop is rice, while other important products are maize and cassava.  Services provide employment for 1% of the population.

References and notes

Populated places in Alaotra-Mangoro

Bedidy


An Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) is an area of countryside considered to have significant landscape value in England, Wales or Northern Ireland. Natural England designates them on behalf of the United Kingdom government. Natural Resources Wales designates them on behalf of the Welsh Government. The Northern Ireland Environment Agency designates them on behalf of the Northern Ireland Executive.

The chief purpose of the AONB designation is to conserve and enhance the natural beauty of the landscape, with two secondary aims: meeting the need for quiet enjoyment of the countryside and having regard for the interests of those who live and work there. To achieve these aims, AONBs rely on planning controls and practical countryside management.

As they have the same landscape quality, AONBs may be compared to the national parks of England and Wales. AONBs are created under the same legislation as the national parks, the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. Unlike AONBs, national parks have their own authorities, have special legal powers to prevent unsympathetic development, and are well known to many inhabitants of England, Wales and Northern Ireland.

There are 35 AONBs in England, four in Wales, one (Wye Valley) that is in both England and Wales and nine in Northern Ireland. The first AONB was awarded in 1956 to the Gower Peninsula, south Wales. The most recently confirmed is the Tamar Valley AONB in 1994. The smallest AONB is the Isles of Scilly (1976), , and the largest AONB is the Cotswolds (1966), . The AONBs of England and Wales together cover around 18% of the countryside in the two countries.

Other websites
 National Association for AONBs
 Interactive map of AONBs

Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty


Heathrow Express is a train service in London that provides an airport rail link service between Paddington station and Heathrow Airport. It is operated by the Heathrow Express Operating Company, owned by the same company which owns Heathrow Airport itself, and the first train ran on 23 June 1998.

The Heathrow Express service runs every 15 minutes throughout the day and evening, seven days a week. It runs non-stop between Paddington and the airport. (The Heathrow Connect used the same route but made some stops in between.) At the airport, trains from Paddington stop at two stations, both of which are located underground: Heathrow Central (for terminals 2 and 3) and Heathrow Terminal 5. There is also a shuttle train that goes between Heathrow Central and a station at Terminal 4, which is also underground. The 12 trains used on services between Paddington and Heathrow are Class 387, while the shuttle service to Terminal 4 used one Class 360.

Heathrow Express is not part of National Rail, and is not run as a franchise, even though it shares track with National Rail trains for much of its journey and ends its trip at a London mainline station.

1998 establishments in England
Airport rail links in London

Heathrow Express