The Sudbury Aqueduct is an aqueduct in Massachusetts.  It runs for  from Farm Pond at Waverly Street in Framingham to Chestnut Hill Reservoir in Boston's Chestnut Hill neighborhood. A later built extension main runs from the Farm Pond gatehouse to the gatehouse at the Stearns Reservoir (Framingham Reservoir #1) where additional mains connect to the Brackett and Foss Reservoirs (Framingham #2 and #3.) Going east from Framingham, it runs through Sherborn before entering Natick. From Natick it runs east through Wellesley and Needham to the Charles River, which it crosses on the Echo Bridge into Newton. It ends at the Chestnut Hill Reservoir on the Newton side of the Newton-Boston line.  The Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA) operates the aqueduct.

Construction
The Sudbury Aqueduct was constructed between 1875 and 1878, and was in use for almost 100 years.  It was designed to carry water from the watershed of the Sudbury River to Boston and its surrounding communities.  Reservoirs in Framingham and Southborough were constructed to impound this water at the time of the aqueduct's development, and additional reservoirs in Ashland and Hopkinton were constructed in the 1880s in an attempt to meet increased demand.  Finally in the 1890s the Sudbury Reservoir was created in 1898, significantly increasing the amount of water available for distribution. For most of the Sudbury Aqueduct's history after the Sudbury Reservoir was built the water was primarily sourced from the Foss Reservoir which the Sudbury Reservoir feeds with Reservoirs #1 and #2 serving as reserve supply due to the Sudbury Reservoir's superior water quality over the Reservoir #2 system.

The aqueduct consists primarily of a horseshoe-shaped brick lining that is  in diameter and  high.  The bricks are set in concrete atop a foundation of concrete and stone rubble.  The aqueduct is covered by an arch built of brick.  The aqueduct was initially designed to carry 80 million gallons of water per day, limited by the Rosemary Brook Siphon. An additional barrel was later added to the Rosemary Brook Siphon increasing the design capacity to 110 mgd. The main conduit from Farm Pond to Chestnut Hill Reservoir is inclined one foot per mile.  At a number of places on the aqueduct small buildings were built to house control equipment of various sorts.  These include a gate house at Farm Pond (abandoned after a channel was constructed feeding the aqueduct from Framingham Reservoirs #1-3 due to poor water quality at Farm Pond), a metering house in southeastern Framingham, and control houses over weirs where the aqueduct crosses over other bodies of water.  These control points allow water from the aqueduct to be diverted into the watersheds it crosses.  There are also control houses on either end of the Rosemary Brook siphon in Wellesley, where the water is sent through cast iron pipes to traverse an extended low spot on the route.  This stretch of the aqueduct illustrates a number of the techniques used in its construction: parts of the aqueduct here are raised on an embankment, while others are in a cut, due to significant changes in local topography.  Portions of the aqueduct in Natick and Newton were created by tunneling, the longest being a  tunnel in Newton.  In addition to the Echo Bridge, the aqueduct also passes over the "Waban Arches" bridge.  Located in Wellesley near the Elm Bank Reservation, this nine-arch bridge carries the aqueduct across a valley containing Waban Brook near its mouth at the Charles River.  The aqueduct formally ends at a terminal house just above the Chestnut Hill Reservoir in Newton.

Relegation to backup service
In the 20th century the aqueduct's functions were first augmented and then replaced by the Weston Aqueduct, the Hultman Aqueduct, and the MetroWest Water Supply Tunnel.  The aqueduct was taken out of regular service in 1978, and now forms part of the MWRA's emergency backup systems. Along with the Weston Aqueduct it is one of two emergency backup transmission aqueducts to carry water from the Sudbury and Foss reservoirs, MWRA's backup sources. If brought online water would enter the Sudbury aqueduct at its gatehouse at the Stearns Reservoir (Framingham #1) from two 48 inch pipes from the Foss Reservoir (Framingham #3) which is in turn fed by an open channel from the Sudbury Reservoir. The water would then pass through the aqueduct and enter Chestnut Hill Reservoir where it could then be taken into the water system. The aqueduct formerly could also be fed directly by the Stearns and Brackett reservoirs (Framingham #1 and #2) and Farm Pond as well as indirectly by Whitehall Pond, Ashland Reservoir, and Hopkinton Reservoir which discharge into the Bracket Reservoir; for water quality reasons generally only the Foss Reservoir was regularly used for most of the aqueduct's history and is the only one of the reservoirs that is still maintained as an emergency water source.

It was put into emergency use on May 1, 2010, when a  wide supply pipe (only seven years old) broke in Weston.  Clean water was directed through alternate pipelines to bypass the break, but to provide all the water needed, the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority supplemented the water supply by tapping the Chestnut Hill Reservoir; water from the Sudbury Reservoir and Foss Reservoir was sent through the Sudbury Aqueduct to Chestnut Hill to keep that supply going.  The Chestnut Hill water was untreated, so about 2 million residents in about 30 communities in the Boston area were under orders for about three days to disinfect tap water by boiling. Later testing showed that the water was in the end of good quality and safe to drink.

On January 18, 1990, the route, buildings and structures associated with the aqueduct were added to the National Register of Historic Places as the Sudbury Aqueduct Linear District.  Much of the aqueduct's route is open to the public as an unimproved walking trail.

References

External links
 Images of the Sudbury Aqueduct
 Newton Conservators
 Massachusetts Water Resources Authority

National Register of Historic Places in Newton, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Historic districts in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
Historic districts in Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Bodies of water of Middlesex County, Massachusetts
Bodies of water of Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Aqueducts in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
Transportation buildings and structures in Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Aqueducts in Massachusetts
Buildings and structures in Framingham, Massachusetts
Sherborn, Massachusetts
Natick, Massachusetts
Wellesley, Massachusetts
Buildings and structures in Needham, Massachusetts
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
Aqueducts on the National Register of Historic Places
Transportation buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
Crossings of the Charles River
1878 establishments in Massachusetts

Sudbury Aqueduct


The Vargas tragedy was a natural disaster that occurred in Vargas State, Venezuela on 15 December 1999 (over the course of 10 days), when torrential rains caused flash floods and debris flows that killed tens of thousands of people, destroyed thousands of homes, and led to the complete collapse of the state's infrastructure. According to relief workers, the neighborhood of Los Corales was buried under  of mud and a high percentage of homes were simply swept into the ocean. Entire towns including Cerro Grande and Carmen de Uria completely disappeared. As much as 10% of the population of Vargas died during the event.

Background

The coastal area of Vargas State has long been subject to mudslides and flooding. Deposits preserved on the alluvial fan deltas here show that geologically similar catastrophes have occurred with regularity since prehistoric times. Since the 17th century, at least two large-magnitude debris flow, landslide, or flood events, on average, have occurred each century within the modern boundaries of Vargas. Recorded events occurred in February 1798, August 1912, January 1914, November 1938, May 1944, November 1944, August 1948, and February 1951. In the February 1798 event, flash floods and debris flows severely damaged 219 homes. Spanish soldiers barricaded an upstream-facing entrance to a fort with cannons in order to prevent debris from filling it.

Prior to the 1999 disaster, the most recent major flood had occurred in 1951, but that event did not cause as much damage. Based on aerial photos and records of measurements, geologists were able to directly compare the 1951 event to the 1999 event. The 1951 event involved less rainfall than the 1999 event, fewer landslides were triggered, and less fresh debris was observed on the fans. The unusually strong storm in December 1999 dumped  of rain over just a few days, triggering widespread soil instability and flow of debris. Adding to the devastation, Vargas State had experienced high population growth and development since the 1951 disaster, thus increasing the toll of casualties.

Population density

The alluvial fans built as sediments from floods and debris flows exit their channels and meet the oceans provide the only extensive flat surfaces along the mountainous coastline of north-central Venezuela. As such, many of them have been extensively developed and urbanized. This high population density increases the risk to life and property from flash flood and debris flow events.

As of 1999, several hundred thousand people lived in this narrow coastal strip in Vargas State. Many of these people lived atop alluvial fans formed by debris flows sourced out of the  peaks to their south.

Rainfall

December 1999 was unusually wet along the north-central Venezuelan coast. The first, and less powerful, storm that month occurred 2–3 December and dropped  of rain on the coast.

Two weeks later, in a 52-hour span during 14, 15 and 16 December 1999,  of rain (approximately one year's average total rainfall for the region) was measured on the north-central coast of Venezuela at Simón Bolívar International Airport in Maiquetia, Venezuela. These heavy rains included  of accumulation in just one hour, between 6 and 7 AM on the 16th; precipitation on both the 15th and 16th exceeded the 1,000-year probability rainfall event. Even so, the coast received much less rain than some regions upstream.

This sudden and intense storm was especially unusual because it occurred in December, while the typical rainy season in coastal Venezuela lasts from May to October. These out-of-season rains formed when a cold front interacted with a moist southwesterly flow in the Pacific Ocean. This interaction produced moderate to heavy rainfall starting in the first week of December and culminating in the 14–16 December event that caused the deadly floods and debris flows.

The heaviest rains were centered around the mid-upper part of the San Julián basin, which feeds water and sediment onto the Caraballeda fan. Heavy rains persisted within  of the coast, and subsided on the Caracas side of the Cerro El Ávila. Rainfall rates also decreased westward toward Maiquetía.

Geology

Bedrock

The bedrock in the region surrounding Caracas is mainly metamorphic. From the coast and extending approximately  inland, deeply foliated schist of the Mesozoic Tacagua Formation is exposed. Soils forming on them are fine-grained (clayey), thin (), and often colluvial. Although the A horizon of the soil is often less than  thick, the bedrock is often weathered down to greater than . Further inland, gneisses of the Paleozoic San Julián Formation and Precambrian Peña de Mora Formation extend to the crest of the Sierra de Avila. These units have thin soils over less-weathered bedrock; this is believed to be because of rapid erosion due to the steep slopes in this area.

Because foliation planes are planes of weakness, these fabrics within the rocks strongly influence landslide and debris flow hazards. Where the foliation planes are dipping towards a free surface, failure is likely to occur along these planes.

Alluvial fan sedimentology and past floods

The alluvial fans that spread out into the sea from valley mouths were built by previous flood and debris flow events. The modern channel systems of these alluvial fan deltas are incised into previously deposited debris flow and flood material. Scientists at the US Geological Survey measured these old deposits. They found that they are thicker than the December 1999 ones and contain larger boulders. This means that previous debris flows were even larger than those in December 1999 and reached higher velocities.

On the Caraballeda fan, the extent of the 1951 event paled in comparison to the 1999 event. Much of the deposits that constitute the Caraballeda fan are of a thickness similar to those produced in the 1999 event and contain boulders of a size similar to those observed in 1999.

The USGS geologists found paleosols with organic material above and below a  thick layer of debris flow deposits. The bottom paleosol was radiocarbon dated to 4267 ±38 years Before Present (BP), and the top one was dated to 3720±50 years BP. This means that, at least in this area, the bed aggraded  in 550 years, for an average rate of about  per year (though the aggradation occurs only during short-lived events). The scientists were not able to tell whether the deposits were from a single debris flow or multiple events.

Surficial geology and geomorphology

Alluvial fan deltas in this region have shallow slopes. They are poorly channelized because sediment is being added to them from upstream (infilling the channels) at a rate equal to or greater than the rate at which it can be removed.

Hillslopes are steepened past the angle of repose for noncohesive materials. This oversteepening is more than could be provided for by the frictional resistance of the sandy soils. Internal soil cohesion, negative pore pressure ("soil suction"), soil structure, and/or tree root reinforcement may be responsible for this.

Neotectonics

Terraces containing previous debris flow deposits are now perched  above the modern stream channels. Erosion from the 1999 flood exposed bedrock benches  to  above the present channel. These abandoned high surfaces suggest recent and continuing tectonic uplift of the Venezuelan coast and corresponding river channel incision. In spite of the fact that most onshore faults active in this region during the Quaternary are mapped as right-lateral strike-slip, it is possible that there is a vertical component of offset in offshore faults.

Event

Heavy rains fell in December 1999 along the north-central coast of Venezuela, culminating in a period of extreme intensity from 14 to 16 December. Starting around 8 PM local time (AST) on 15 December, runoff entered channels and rushed towards the sea, picking up and depositing sediments on its way. Generally after this first wave of flooding, from the coast to just past the crest of the Sierra de Avila, these rains triggered thousands of shallow landslides that stripped soil and rock off of the landscape and sent them slipping down the mountainside. Additional water liquefied these landslides into debris flows, which are granular flows in which water mixes with high concentrations of rock and mud. The first eyewitness accounts of debris flows were from 8:30 PM on the 15th, and the final debris flows were reported between 8 and 9 AM on 16 December. Many catchments released multiple debris flows, some of which carried large boulders and tree trunks onto the alluvial fan deltas. Starting between 7 and 9 AM on the 16th and continuing until late that afternoon, a new wave of floods occurred. These floodwaters were less concentrated in sediment and were therefore able to entrain new material and incise new channels into the flood and debris flow deposits from the previous days.

The debris flows moved rapidly, and many of them were highly destructive. Based on the maximum sizes of boulders measured in the flood deposits and the amount by which the flow on the outside of a bend was higher than that on the inside, geologists estimate the flow velocities to range from . These rapid, bouldery flows resulted in much of the observed destruction.

In addition to these debris flows, flash floods carrying extremely high sediment loads were very dangerous. Together the flash floods and debris flows destroyed hundreds of houses, bridges, and other structures. They incised new channels to depths of several meters into every alluvial fan delta on the Vargas state coastline, and they blanketed these fans with sediment.

Caraballeda fan

Of the many communities that were affected by the disaster, the Caraballeda fan was one of the most hard-hit. The intensity of the disaster here is a combination of two factors. First, the Caraballeda fan was heavily urbanized, with many high-rise buildings and multistory houses. Second, it lies at the mouth of the Quebrada San Julián (Saint Julian Ravine), and this watershed produced very large boulders and a massive inundated area. Approximately 1/3 of the Caraballeda fan was inundated by debris flows, and the entire fan is built of past debris flow deposits.

The floods and debris flows of 1999 did not follow the eastern channel on Caraballeda. This channel, formed during the 1952
floods, had been lined with concrete and designed to safely transport the flows into the sea. Instead, the debris flows overwhelmed the channel and the flows overtopped the banks wherever the channel changed direction. Once free of the culvert, the channel rapidly avulsed across the fan and spread debris throughout the community. These overbank flows demolished 2-story houses and destroyed the first two stories of apartment buildings. Farther down the fan, the debris flows routed themselves down streets. As the flows progressed, they left thinner and thinner deposits, though they often still exceeded 1 meter (3 feet) in thickness. After several avulsions, the channel roughly followed the pre-1951 flood path.

USGS geologists estimate the deposit volume to be at least 1.8 million cubic meters (from comparing topographic scans) or 1.9 million cubic meters (from field measurements). This is among the largest rainfall-induced debris flow deposits in recorded history, though volcanic-induced debris flows can be ten times as large. Subaqueous deposition extended the shoreline an additional 40–60 meters into the sea. The deposit thicknesses range from 4–5 meters (maximum of 5.3 meters) near the center of the fan to around 0.5 meters near the pre-flood shoreline. Maximum boulder sizes decreased towards the shoreline due to the decreasing slope of the fan.

Damage

The disaster caused estimated damages between $1.79 and $3.5 billion US dollars. The death toll was considered to be between 10,000 and 30,000—the exact number of casualties is difficult to determine as there is no reliable census data from the region at that time, especially about shanty towns and small communities that were completely wiped out. Moreover, only some 1,000 bodies were recovered, with the rest swept to sea by the mud or buried in the landslides. More than 8,000 homes and 700 apartment buildings were destroyed in Vargas, displacing up to 75,000 people. The mudslides significantly altered more than  of the coastline in Vargas. Over 70% of the total population of Vargas State was affected by the disaster. Public services, like water, electricity, phone lines, and land transportation (roads and bridges) completely disappeared in some places. There were no supplies of food and water for months, so most of the population had to be evacuated. Looting and sacking occurred everywhere, forcing the military to implement martial law for more than a year.

Response

The disaster was of such magnitude that the president of the Red Cross initially presumed more than 50,000 dead. The first priority was to evacuate survivors; more than 100,000 people were ultimately evacuated. After the disaster, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez advocated for other Venezuelans to open up their homes, and "adopt a family". The former First Lady of Venezuela arranged the temporary sheltering of children that were feared orphaned in La Casona, the Presidential residence in Caracas. Others offered help, including Major League Baseball shortstop Omar Vizquel, a native Venezuelan, who helped raise over $500,000 in relief funds. After the initial emergency response, focus shifted to analyzing the causes of the disaster, and working to create a sustainable infrastructure for dealing with future torrential rains. A disaster relief team from the United States headed up by New Mexico state Senator Joseph Carraro arrived with a medical team and supplies to assess the damage and help those who were displaced. Contact was made with Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico to determine any radioactive activity included in the debris field. Water purification and sleeping units were provided.

The disaster clean-up soon became politicized. Chávez initially accepted assistance from anyone who offered, with the United States sending helicopters and dozens of soldiers that arrived two days after the disaster. When defense minister Raúl Salazar accepted the United States offer of further aid that included 450 Marines and naval engineers aboard the USS Tortuga, which was setting sail to Venezuela, Chávez told Salazar to decline the offer since "[i]t was a matter of sovereignty". Salazar became angry and assumed that Chávez's opinion was influenced by talks with Fidel Castro; though he complied with Chávez's order.

Despite initial dispersals of emergency funds, receiving tens of millions of dollars from international organizations and the announcement of reconstruction plans, little came of the process and Chávez grew distracted with political squabbles, abandoning attention on the tragedy with recovery ultimately halting. Survivors eventually left their refugee areas and returned to their homes in an attempt to rebuild. By 2006, the state was back to its pre-disaster population level, and projects were slowly being carried out to rebuild damaged infrastructure. Over a decade after the tragedy, thousands remained homeless and the value of real estate in zones untouched by the floods declined by as much as 70%, due to the destruction of infrastructure.

, a Rottweiller, was officially recognized for his role in rescuing people during the tragedy. A mudslide forced Orion and his owner Mauricio Pérez to leave their home and go to a safer place. They came across a young girl trapped by turbulent water. Orion guided the girl to shore by swimming at her side, then jumped back in to pull a second girl out of the water. He then helped eight children climb to high places. He spent Wednesday night and part of Thursday morning saving 37 people from drowning, ranging from a girl of 8 years old to an elderly man of 80 years old. He was awarded the Medal "Honor The Value" and a certificate for the role he played. He also received plaques and medals from private institutions and governments, international tributes and recognition by the Grand Lodge of Masonry in Venezuela. On 1 December 2008, Orion died of intestinal gastroenteritis.

Three films were made about the tragedy by Venezuelan filmmakers, all released in 2011; this is said to show the lasting impact of the tragedy that people were still sharing these narratives, especially in a nation with a poor cinema industry.

See also

Armero tragedy – a similarly catastrophic debris flow event caused by a volcanic eruption in Colombia in 1985

References

Bibliography
Geologic sources

 Antonio Luis Cárdenas Colménter. Análisis del Fenómeno Ocurrido en el Litoral Venezolano en diciembre de 1999.

External links

Wikimedia commons: Vargas in January 2000
Wikimedia commons: Vargas in December 2000

Landslides in South America
Natural disasters in Venezuela
Mudslide
20th-century floods in South America
1999 floods
1999 disasters in Venezuela
Vargas tragedy
December 1999 events in South America

Vargas tragedy


George Worsley Adamson, RE, MCSD (7 February 1913 – 5 March 2005) was a book illustrator, writer, and cartoonist, who held American and British dual citizenship from 1931.

Early life
Adamson was born in the Bronx, New York City. His parents  were George William Adamson, a master car builder for the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, and Mary Lydia (Lily, née Howard).  His father, born in Glasgow, Scotland, and his mother, born in Wigan, Lancashire, had moved to New York City from Bombay in 1910.

Following the death of his mother in February 1921, George Adamson sailed to England with his father, his Aunt Florence, and his two sisters, Marie and Dorothy, on the Cunard liner RMS Caronia, landing at Liverpool on July 10. His father sailed back to New York in October 1921, where he died the following year.

George Adamson was educated at the Wigan Mining and Technical College and the Liverpool City School of Art, where he studied etching and engraving under Geoffrey Wedgwood RE.

He exhibited at the Royal Academy (in 1937, 1939, 1940 and 1948) and contributed to Punch from 1939 to 1988.

World War II

During World War II,  Adamson served with the RAF Coastal Command as a navigator in Catalina flying boats on the Western Approaches and trained on B-24 Liberators in the Bahamas.  After he illustrated a feature on transatlantic flights for the Illustrated London News, he was appointed an official war artist for the Coastal Command.  Some of Adamson's drawings are now in the Imperial War Museum and the RAF Museum.

Career
Between 1946 and 1953 Adamson taught engraving and illustration at Exeter School of Art, Exeter, Devon.

In 1954 he worked briefly in London with the designer John Morgan for the newly formed design group Byrne and Woudhuysen Limited (later Woudhuysen & Company Ltd), before setting himself up as a full-time illustrator and cartoonist.

Illustrator
The first book for which he did the drawings and dust-wrapper was Marjorie Vasey's The Day is Over (Epworth Press, 1954).

From the mid-1960s he illustrated Norman Hunter's Professor Branestawm books, providing a suitably zany continuity with W. Heath Robinson's illustrations from the 1930s. Also in the 1960s, Adamson painted the jackets for Alan Garner's first two novels for children: The Weirdstone of Brisingamen (1960) and The Moon of Gomrath (1963). In the same decade Adamson did the drawings for the first book of poems Ted Hughes wrote for children: Meet My Folks! (1961); this was followed by the drawings he did for Ted Hughes's first book of children's stories, How the Whale Became (1963), and those for the first edition of  The Iron Man (1968).

In 1970, Adamson illustrated the book based on Richard Carpenter's television series Catweazle; this was followed in 1971 by the drawings he did for the book based on the second series, Catweazle and the Magic Zodiac. In the 1980s, he illustrated the first five of the Richard Ingrams and John Wells Dear Bill books for Private Eye.

Besides work for books, Adamson undertook commissions to illustrate articles in periodicals, among them the Listener and Nursing Times. For the latter he drew more than two hundred illustrations between 1963 and 1983.

Cartoonist
Adamson published his first cartoon in Punch  in September 1939 and his last in the Spectator in September 1994. Over the intervening fifty-five years his cartoons appeared not just in Punch but in the Tatler and Bystander,  Time & Tide, the Peterborough column in the Daily Telegraph, Private Eye and other magazines.

Engraver and etcher
At Liverpool City School of Art, Adamson developed what became a lifelong fascination with fine printing, especially dry-point, soft-ground etching and aquatint. In the early years after World War II he undertook several etchings for his own delight while teaching at Exeter School of Art.

Between his portrait of his two-year-old son Peter One Morning (completed in 1950) and Killerton from the North (1979), however, there was a gap of many years during which he pursued his career as illustrator and cartoonist. He went back to printmaking with great enthusiasm in the late 1970s, exhibiting his works both new and old at the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers. Among his later prints are portraits of John Ogdon (1979) and Patricia Beer (1982).

Work in public collections
George Adamson's work is held in several public collections, including the following:

 Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (etching on loan from the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers)
 British Museum, London
 House of Humor and Satire, Gabrovo, Bulgaria
 Imperial War Museum, London
 New York Public Library, New York
 Oxford Brookes University Library, Oxford (drawing in André Deutsch Collection)
 Royal Air Force Museum, Hendon
 Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter
 Ulster Museum, Belfast
 Victoria and Albert Museum, London
 Wigan Heritage Service, Wigan

Selected works

Books written and illustrated
A Finding Alphabet (Faber & Faber, 1965)
Finding 1 to 10 (Faber & Faber, 1967)
Rome Done Lightly (Chatto & Windus, 1972)

Books illustrated
This includes work as interior and cover illustrator.
 Marjorie Vasey The Day is Over (Epworth Press, 1954)
 Donald Herbert Barber Family Affairs (Epworth Press, 1954)
 Bertita Leonarz de Harding Magic Fire: The Story of Wagner's Life and Music (Harrap, 1954)
 Barbara Ireson (ed.) Nursery Nonsense (Faber & Faber, 1956)
 Hans Habe [János Békessy], transl.from the German by Ewald Osers Off Limits: a novel of occupied Germany (Harrap, 1956)
 James Baggaley Shadow of the Eagle (Harrap, 1956)
 Ronald Ridout Word Perfect (Ginn, 1957–1960)
 Gladys Staines (ed.) Twelve Little Plays (Ginn, 1957)
 Charles Kingsley (ed. M. W. & G. Thomas) Westward Ho! (Ginn, 1957)
 Vera Caspary The Husband (W.H. Allen, 1957)
 James Baggaley The Spare Men (Harrap, 1958)
 Barbara Ireson (ed.) The Faber Book of Nursery Verse (Faber & Faber, 1958)
 "Mr George Adamson am y darluniau" Second Stages in Welsh, summer term 1959 (BBC Broadcasts to Schools, 1959)
 W. H. Wood Crown of Gold (Thomas Nelson, 1959)
 W. H. Wood Perils of Pacifico (Brockhampton Press, 1959)
 Frank Yerby The Serpent and the Staff (Heinemann, 1959)
 Compton Mackenzie Hunting the Fairies (Penguin, 1959)
 Compton Mackenzie Monarch of the Glen (Penguin, 1959)
 Compton Mackenzie The Rival Monster (Penguin, 1959)
 Compton Mackenzie Water on the Brain (Penguin, 1959)
 Compton Mackenzie Thin Ice (Penguin, 1959)
 A. Elliott Cannon Silver City (Wheaton, 1959)
 A. Elliott Cannon A Question of Identity (Wheaton, 1959)
 Druce Raven Let's Go Camping! (Nelson, 1959)
 William Appleby Singing Together (BBC Schools, 1960)
 Willis Hall The Royal Astrologer: adventures of Father Mole-Cricket of the Malayan legends (Heinemann, 1959)
 W. H. Wood Perils of Pacifico (Franklin Watts, New York, 1960)
 Alan Garner The Weirdstone of Brisingamen (Collins, 1960)
 John Sibly You'll Walk to Mandalay (Jonathan Cape, 1960)
 Austin Stevens On the Market (Jonathan Cape, 1960)
 Austin Lee Miss Hogg and the Covent Garden Murders (Jonathan Cape, 1960)
 David Scott Daniell The Golden Pomegranate (University of London Press, 1960)
 Kenneth Lillington Conjuror's Alibi (Thomas Nelson, 1960)
 Barbara Ireson (ed.) Barnes Book of Nursery Verse (A.S. Barnes, 1960)
 Andrew Sinclair The Breaking of Bumbo (Penguin, 1961)
 Jacynth Hope-Simpson The Bishop of Kenelminster (Putnam, 1961)
 Austin Stevens The Moon Turns Green (Jonathan Cape, 1961)
 Roy Herbert Rufus Tractor (Brockhampton Press, 1961)
 Roy Herbert Rufus Tractor (Bobbs Merrill,  1961)
Ted Hughes Meet My Folks! (Faber & Faber, 1961)
 G. P. W. Earle Foundations of English (Ginn, 1961)
 Jacynth Hope-Simpson The Bishop's Picture (Putnam, 1962)
 Irene Byers Silka the Seal (Brockhampton Press, 1962)
 Piet Niemand Jan Domm: a romp (Geoffrey Bles, 1962)
 Clarence Jonk Yami and his Unicycle (Faber & Faber, 1962)
 Barbara Ireson (ed.) Verse that is fun (Faber & Faber, 1962)
 Willis Hall The Royal Astrologer: adventures of Father Mole-Cricket of the Malayan legends (Coward, McCann, 1962)
 Elsie Hall Grassam, C.C. Falconer et al. Old Lob Readers (Ginn, 1962–5)
 L. H. Evers Danny's Wonderful Uncle (Thomas Nelson, 1963)
Alan Garner The Moon of Gomrath (Collins, 1963)
 Alan Garner The Weirdstone of Brisingamen (Puffin, 1963)
 Ted Hughes How the Whale Became (Faber & Faber, 1963)
 Kenneth Methold Vital English (University of London Press, 1963)
 Roy Herbert Rufus rolls on (Brockhampton Press, 1964)
 C. P. Watson (ed.) Fabulae Aesopi: a Latin reader for beginners (Faber & Faber, 1965)
 Margaret Lovett Sir Halmanac and the Crimson Star (Faber & Faber, 1965)
 Boswell Taylor The Running Dog (University of London Press, 1965)
 Margery Fisher (ed.) Open the Door: an anthology of stories (University of London Press, 1965)
 Alan Garner The Moon of Gomrath (Puffin, 1965?)
 Hughes (poems) and Gordon Crosse (music) Meet my Folks! A theme and relations. For speaker, children's chorus, children's percussion band, and adult percussion and instrumental players (Opus 10) (Oxford University Press, 1965)
 George Adamson Widdecombe Fair (Faber & Faber, 1966)
 T. H. White The Sword in the Stone (Collins, 1966)
 Norman Hunter Professor Branestawm's Treasure Hunt (Bodley Head, 1966)
 Norman Hunter Professor Branestawm's Treasure Hunt (Puffin, 1966)
 Ted Hughes The Iron Man: A story in five nights (Faber & Faber, 1968)
 Alison Farthing The Queen's Flowerpot (Oliver & Boyd, 1968)
 Mary Cockett Tufty (Macmillan, 1968). In the Nippers series.
 Geraldine Kaye Bonfire Night (Macmillan, 1968). In the Nippers series.
 Pandora Pollen Henry and Henrietta (Chatto, Boyd and Oliver, 1969)
 George Barker Runes and Rhymes, Tunes and Chimes (Faber & Faber, 1969)
 Kaye Webb & Joan Aitken The Friday Miracle & Other Stories (Puffin 1969, contrib.)
 M. C. V. Jeffreys World To-day: You and Other People (Ginn, 1969)
 Charles Geoffrey Stuttard World To-day: Problems at Work (Ginn, 1969)
 Norman Hunter The Peculiar Triumph of Professor Branestawm (Bodley Head, 1970)
 J. L. Carr The Red Windcheater (Macmillan, 1970). In the Nippers series.
 Richard Carpenter Catweazle (Methuen, cloth; Puffin, paperback, 1970)
 George Barker To Aylsham Fair (Faber & Faber, 1970)
 Norman Hunter Professor Branestawm's Treasure Hunt (Bodley Head, 1970)
 Margaret Stuart Barry Boffy and the Teacher-eater (Harrap, 1971)
 Richard Parker Me and My Boots (Macmillan, 1971). In the Nippers series.
 Ted Hughes The Iron Man: A story in five nights (Faber & Faber, paperback, 1971)
 Richard Carpenter Catweazle and the Magic Zodiac (Methuen, cloth; Puffin, paperback, 1971)
 Elwyn Thomas Ashton World To-day: People and Leisure (Ginn, 1971)
 Ted Hughes How the Whale Became (Puffin, 1971)
 Norman Hunter Professor Branestawm up the Pole (Bodley Head, 1972)
 Norman Hunter The Peculiar Triumph of Professor Branestawm (Puffin 1972)
 Trevor Griffiths Tip's Lot (Macmillan, 1972). In the Nippers series.
 Geoffrey Jackson The Oven-Bird and Some Others (Faber & Faber, 1972)
 Mary Cockett An Armful of Sparrows (Macmillan, 1973). In the Nippers series.
 Norman Hunter Professor Branestawm's Dictionary (Puffin, 1973)
 Peter Dickinson Emma Tupper's Diary (Puffin, 1973)
 William Mayne A Game of Dark (Puffin, 1973/4)
 Boswell Taylor The Door that Would Not Open (University of London Press, 1974)
 Margaret Stuart Barry Boffy and the Mumford Ghosts (Harrap, 1974)
 Roger Lancelyn-Green (ed.) Strange Adventures in Time (J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd & E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1974)
 Norman Hunter A Box of Branestawms Puffin gift box (illus. George Adamson) containing  The Incredible Adventures of Professor Bransestawm (illus. W. Heath Robinson); Professor Branestawm's Treasure Hunt (illus. George Adamson); Peculiar Triumph of Professor Branestawm (illus. George Adamson); Professor Branestawm's Dictionary (cover by George Adamson) 1975
 Norman Hunter Professor Branestawm up the Pole (Puffin, 1975)
 Kaye Webb & Treld Bicknell (eds.) Puffin's Pleasure (Puffin hard covers featuring "The Hiders of King's House": short story with colour illustrations, pp. 23–26 1976)
 Norman Hunter Professor Branestawm's Great Revolution (Puffin, 1977)
 L. H. Evers Danny's Wonderful Uncle (Thomas Nelson, Melbourne, 1977?)
 Ted Hughes Meet My Folks! (Puffin, incl. 4 new illustrations for 4 new poems, 1977)
 Frank Waters The Day the Village Blushed (Harrap, 1977)
 Richard Ingrams and John Wells  Dear Bill: The collected letters of Denis Thatcher (Private Eye/Andre Deutsch, 1980)
 Stewart Love Great Marco Scandal (Harrap, 1980)
 Benjamin Winterborn Changing Scenes (Oxford University Press, 1980)
 Norman Hunter The Best of Branestawm (Bodley Head, 8 illustrations along with drawings by W. Heath Robinson, Jill McDonald and Derek Cousins, 1980)
 Richard Ingrams and John Wells The Other Half: Further letters of Denis Thatcher (Private Eye/André Deutsch, 1981)
 Richard Ingrams and John Wells One for the Road (Private Eye/André Deutsch, 1982)
 Richard Ingrams and John Wells My Round (Private Eye/André Deutsch, 1983)
 P. G. Wodehouse, selected with an introduction by Christopher Falkus Short Stories (The Folio Society, 1983)
 Barbara Ireson (ed.) Faber Book of Nursery Verse (Faber & Faber, illustrations inside only; cover design by Pentagram with illustration by Dan Fern, 1983)
 Richard Ingrams and John Wells Bottoms Up! (Private Eye/André Deutsch, 1984)
 Ted Hughes Meet My Folks! (Faber & Faber, incl. 4 Puffin edition illustrations and 1 new one for new poem, 1987)
 Ted Hughes How the Whale Became (Faber & Faber, new cover, 1989)
 Mark Bryant (ed.) Airborne Free: Red Devils and Other Rare Breeds (Leo Cooper, cartoon contribution, 1990)
 Ted Hughes Meet My Folks! (Faber & Faber, paperback edition, new cover, Pentagram, 1993)
 Ted Hughes How the Whale Became (Faber & Faber, new cover, 1993)
 Norman Hunter The Peculiar Triumph of Professor Branestawm (Random House, new paperback edition, 2003)
 Ted Hughes The Dreamfighter and Other Creation Tales (Faber & Faber, incl. a reprinting, with Adamson's drawings, of the stories in How the Whale Became, 2003)
 Ted Hughes Meet My Folks! (Faber & Faber, cover by Catherine Rayner, drawings by George Adamson, 2011)
 Ted Hughes How the Whale Became (Faber & Faber, cover by Catherine Rayner, drawings by George Adamson, 2011)

Record sleeves and CD covers
 Gordon Crosse (music); Ted Hughes (poems) Meet My Folks!  A theme and relations. For speaker, children's chorus, children's percussion band, and adult percussion and instrumental players (Opus 10) (EMI, 1965)
 William Alwyn: Fantasy - Waltzes, 12 Preludes John Ogdon, piano (Chandos, record and CD, 1985)

Selected exhibitions
 Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, 1933, 1935, 1936, 1937
 Atkinson Gallery, Southport, 1934
 Liverpool Etchers' & Engravers' Exhibition, 1938
 Royal Academy, 1937, 1939, 1940, 1948
 Kenn Group Exhibition, Exeter School of Art, September 1947
 Royal Albert Memorial Museum and Art Gallery: "Exhibition of Drawings, Paintings, Sculpture and Craft: Work by members of the Exeter School of Art Staff", 27 June to 29 July 1950
 SIAD Exhibition Illustration Group, 1957
 Arts Council: "Book Illustration", 1958
 American Institute of Graphic Arts: "British Illustration", 1959
 "Covering Punch", 1960, toured Britain, 1961
 University of Exeter, Devonshire House, drawings, 1962
 Wilhelm Busch Museum [Deutsches Museum für Karikatur und Zeichenkunst Wilhelm Busch], Hanover: Punch drawings, 1963, toured Germany 1964
 Drawings from BBC Publications, 1963
 East Kent Folkestone Arts Centre: "Cartoonists of the British School", 1968
 Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter: Adamson Exhibition", a one-man show, 1968
 Galerie Génot, Paris: "L'Humour Actuel franco-britannique. 200 dessins" [Franco-British Humour Today: 200 drawings], 20 November 1974 to 10 December 1974, but extended
 Ilkley Literature Festival: An exhibition in honour of Ted Hughes, devised and presented by Keith Sagar to mark the poet's involvement in the Ilkley Literature Festival, May 27–31, 1975 (Church House, Church Street, Ilkley)
 The London Gallery, N. La Cienega, Los Angeles: "Famous British Cartoonists", 19 May to 15 June 1975
 Market Print Gallery, Exeter: "George Adamson Cartoons Christmas Show", 1976?
 The University of Liverpool, Senate House, Abercromby Square: "Contemporary British Artists: an exhibition of work donated to the Rural Preservation Association", 1977
 Market Print Gallery, Exeter: "Etchings", 30 September to 31 October 1978
 SouthEast Art Centres, "Fantasy Books and Illustrations", 1979
 Ilkley Literature Festival: "Lord Gnome Show", 1979
 The Library, Victoria & Albert Museum: "Illustrations to Ted Hughes Poems", 1979. Exhibition organized by Mark Haworth-Booth, Assistant Keeper of Photographs, Department of Prints, Drawings and Photographs
 City Art Gallery, Mosley Street, Manchester: "The Art of Ted Hughes: An exhibition to mark the poet's fiftieth birthday, devised and presented by Keith Sagar", 12 August to 7 September 1980
 The Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, 17 January to 12 February 1981
 The Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, 8 to 28 June 1981
 The Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, 20 March to 10 April 1982 (Centenary Exhibition)
 Hamilton Gallery, London: "Eye Art at Hamilton's, drawings from the Denis Thatcher letters books", 1982
 Maison du Champ de Mars, Rennes: "Exposition des artistes d'Exeter", 1982: etchings exhibited: Filming The Onedin Line, Peacocks, St Andrews Cathedral, Caerphilly Castle
 The Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, 30 October to 26 November 1982
 The Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, 26 October to 27 November 1983
 The Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, 18 September to 11 October 1987
 The Royal Festival Hall, London: "Punch 150th Anniversary Exhibition", 11 October to 17 November 1991
 National Portrait Gallery: "Eyetimes: 35 years of Private Eye", 1996
 British Library: "The Page is Printed: a Ted Hughes exhibition," 7 November 2003 to 24 February 2004
 McLean Museum, Greenock, Inverclyde's War: an exhibition to mark the 60th anniversary of the end of hostilities, August 2005: reproduction of several of Adamson's wartime drawings of RAF Greenock
 Cartoon Museum, London: "Private Eye at 45": an exhibition to mark the 45th anniversary of the founding of Private Eye, 26 October 2006 to 4 February 2007: featuring two of Adamson's drawings illustrating "Auberon Waugh's Diary" and an unpublished drawing to mark Private Eye'''s 21st birthday in 1983
 Victoria and Albert Museum, London: "Private Eye: The First 50 Years", 18 October 2011 to 8 January 2012: featuring Adamson's cover drawing for One for the Road Victoria and Albert Museum, London: "George W. Adamson: A Twentieth-Century Illustrator", 3 April to 30 September 2012
 British Library (Folio Society Gallery), London: "Picture This: Children's Illustrated Classics", 4 October 2013 to 26 January 2014: featuring Adamson's cover design for The Iron Man by Ted Hughes

Awards and honours
Adamson was the winner of the P.G. Wodehouse Centenary Illustration Award in Punch in 1981 and was subsequently commissioned to illustrate an anthology of P.G. Wodehouse short stories for the Folio Society published in 1983.

George Adamson was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers in 1987.

References

Bibliography
 Adamson, George (contributor) (1984), 'Eleven Printmakers: Approaches, Opinions, Experiences', The Journal of the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers & Engravers, no. 6, 1984, pp. 18–19
 Connolly, Joseph, Eighty Years of Book Cover Design, Faber & Faber, London, 2009
 Desmet, Anne, and Anthony Dyson, Printmakers: The Directory, A & C Black, London, 2006, p. 3
 Faber & Faber,100 Faber Postcards'', Faber & Faber, 2015
 Walasek, Helen (ed.), foreword by Quentin Blake, The Best of Punch Cartoons in Colour, Prion, 2012

External links

George Adamson illustrated Penguin Book covers - at  Penguin First Editions reference site of early first edition Penguin Books
British Cartoon Archive

1913 births
2005 deaths
Writers from the Bronx
American emigrants to the United Kingdom
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
People from Wigan
Alumni of Liverpool College of Art
American editorial cartoonists
English cartoonists
British editorial cartoonists
British children's book illustrators
English printmakers
Punch (magazine) cartoonists
Private Eye contributors
World War II artists
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II

George Worsley Adamson


The Ilgachuz Range is a name given to an extinct shield volcano in British Columbia, Canada. It is not a mountain range in the normal sense, because it was formed as a single volcano that has been eroded for the past 5 million years. It lies on the Chilcotin Plateau, located some  north-northwest of Vancouver and 30 km north of Anahim Lake. The highest peak of the range is Far Mountain.  The range supports a unique grassland ecosystem. This type of grassland has not been seen anywhere else in central and southern British Columbia. The climate is cool and dry; typical of higher elevations of the Interior Plateau.

The  long West Road River rises in the Ilgachuz Range and flows east to its confluence with the Fraser River between Prince George and Quesnel. It drains an area of approximately 12,000 km2 and loses over 900 m elevation before joining the Fraser.

Geology and history

Origins

The Ilgachuz Range began erupting 6.1 million years ago and has grown steadily since then. Like all of the Anahim volcanoes, the Ilgachuz Range has its origins in the Anahim hotspot—a plume of magma rising from the Earth's mantle in central British Columbia. The hotspot remains in a fixed position, while the North American Plate drifts over it at a rate of 2 to 3.3 centimetres per year. The upwelling of the hot magma creates volcanoes, and each individual volcano erupts for a few million years before the movement of the plate carries it away from the rising magma. However, where hotspots occur under continental crust, basaltic magma is trapped in the less dense continental crust, which is heated and melts to form rhyolites. Due to their high content of crystals and gasses, rhyolites initiate violent eruptions, though their water content is low and they have a relatively low temperature (around 800-900 °C when erupted, whereas basalt can have a temperature of over 1200 °C).

The hotspot has existed for at least 13 million years, and the Anahim Volcanic Belt stretches almost  away from the hotspot. More recently, the hotspot has formed the Itcha Range and Nazko Cone, a cinder cone east of the Ilgachuz Range and the youngest Anahim volcano. The Ilgachuz Range is the largest of these, although the Rainbow Range is the largest of all volcanoes in the Anahim Volcanic Belt.

First Nations
The first recorded ascent of the Ilgachuz Range was by the South Carrier and Chilcotin tribes. They have lived in the area for hundreds of years, travelling when necessary to hunt and trap animals such as beaver, caribou, moose, and to gather plants and roots. Fishing camps were also established in the area.

The Ilgachuz Range is, or was, an important source of obsidian for the South Carrier and Chilcotin tribes. Obsidian was greatly desired because very sharp arrowheads and cutting knives could be made from it. Like all glass and some other types of naturally occurring rocks, obsidian breaks with a characteristic conchoidal fracture, creating razorlike edges. It was also used for jewelry. Anahim obsidian was traded extensively throughout the BC Interior and up and down the Coast from Bella Coola. Red ochre used in paint and decoration was also obtained from this area.

Structure
The Ilgachuz Range is the second largest shield volcano in the Anahim Volcanic Belt which includes other immediately nearby ranges, the Rainbow Range and Itcha Range. It stands at  above sea level - slightly shorter than its neighbor, Rainbow Range. It has a diameter of . The Ilgachuz Range was created by two chemically separate magmatic periods; an early complex series of trachyte and rhyolite eruptions, and late extrusion of a sequence of basaltic lava flows. Evacuation of the volcano's magma chamber resulted in the failure of one or more centrally located calderas. It is divided into Precaldera, Dome Forming, Intra Caldera and Shield Forming assemblages.

The Precaldera Assemblage is best exposed on the east side of Pipe Organ Mountain where it contains a bedded pile over 300 m thick of weakly consolidated, moderately to extremely different, pyroclastics, flows and deposits of uncertain origin. Colours range from mottled green to grey, yellow, ochre, red and white. A green tuffbreccia composed of pumice fragments, feldspar crystals and minor debris is recognizable in several areas.

The Dome Forming Assemblages include most of the rhyolite domes, related flows and the Ilgachuz Comendite. The northerly domes are subcircular talus mounds of plate sized pieces of light to dark grey, slightly porphyritic, flowbanded rhyolite with minor obsidian. Massive to banded chalcedony blobs and veinlets are related with these domes. The southern domes are somewhat different in nature, comprising intrusive and extrusive phases of cream colored porphyries. The Sax Dome contains an upper portion of cream coloured, aphanitic to fine quartz porphyry felsite with abnormal green glass filled fractures, and a lower unit of microsyenite with red and green glassy zenocrysts.

The Intra Caldera Assemblage is best exposed on the north edge of the caldera. The lower unit, indicative of caldera formation, is an epiclastic boulder-landslide deposit, roughly bedded and dipping into the caldera. Similar material, grading up into finer debris flows and possibly lahars, has been uncertainly known in the gap between Phacelia Peak and Calliope Mountain suggesting this area is the southern edge of the caldera. Alternatively, largely unsorted breccia and debris deposits exist on the ridge north of Saxifraga Peak, possibly indicating the main, or a subsidiary, caldera edge.

The Shield Forming Assemblage contains a series of basalt and minor comendite eruptions, and is best exposed on Far Mountain and Mount Scot. The basalts issued from fissure vents primarily located peripheral to the calderas. Brick red cinder deposits are considered to be a late phase of this assemblage.

Provincial Park
Surrounding and including the range is Itcha Ilgachuz Provincial Park, a 112,000-hectare park of unique landscape in the West Chilcotin Uplands while the Rainbow Range lies partly in the Tweedsmuir South Provincial Park. The park includes volcanic landforms, alpine environments, and forest sites scattered with wetlands.

Itcha Ilgachuz Provincial Park is extremely remote and unroaded; the closest communities are Anahim Lake, Alexis Creek, Nimpo Lake, Redstone, and Nazko. The closest major centre is Quesnel, located approximately 200 km east of the park.

Subsidiary peaks

Peaks within the Ilgachuz Range include:

 Calliope Mountain
Camlick Mountain
Campanula Peak
Cindercone Peak
Crepis Peak
Far Mountain
Go-around Mountain
Hump Mountain
Mizzen Mountain
Mount Scot
Phacelia Peak
Pipe Organ Mountain
Saxifraga Mountain
Tundra Mountain

See also
Anahim hotspot
Anahim Volcanic Belt
Festuca Pass
Itcha Ilgachuz Provincial Park
Itcha Range
List of volcanoes in Canada
Rainbow Range
Tweedsmuir South Provincial Park
Volcanology of Canada
Volcanology of Western Canada

References

External links
 Skiing the Pacific Ring of Fire and Beyond: Ilgachuz Range

Landforms of the Chilcotin
Hotspot volcanoes
Inactive volcanoes
Miocene shield volcanoes
Pliocene shield volcanoes
Polygenetic shield volcanoes
Range 3 Coast Land District
Shield volcanoes of Canada
Calderas of British Columbia
Tsilhqot'in
Mountain ranges of the Interior Plateau
Central volcanoes

Ilgachuz Range


Stop motion is a way of animation which makes it look like still objects are moving. Clay animation is a good example of how stop motion is used.

Stop-motion requires any camera that can make single frames (or photos). It works by shooting a single frame, moving the object a little bit, and capturing a frame again. Cartoons use a similar way; one of the main differences is that stop motion uses real objects instead of drawn.

Tim Burton, Will Vinton and the Aardman studio have used this method in their productions.

Related pages
 Clay

Animation

Stop-motion


May (Fung-Yee) Pang (born October 24, 1950) is an American former music executive. She was a personal assistant to former Beatle John Lennon and his wife Yoko Ono. She later became Lennon's companion and lover, when he separated from Ono in the mid-1970s. Pang was born in New York, New York to Chinese parents.

Pang was a secretary at ABKCO, a management company started by Allen Klein, in New York City. ABKCO's clients included three of the Beatles: Lennon, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. When Lennon and wife Ono needed an assistant, Pang was sent to England to work for them. She dated musician Peter Ham of Badfinger, and helped Lennon and Ono move to the United States, late in 1971.

During 1973, Lennon and Ono began to have problems in their marriage. Ono trusted Pang, and suggested her as a companion for Lennon, knowing he wanted to see other women. Lennon surprised Ono by taking Pang with him to Los Angeles, where he planned to record an album with Phil Spector. Lennon and Pang lived together for over a year, while he worked on new music, and tried to decide whether to divorce Ono or reconcile with her.

Lennon and Ono decided to reconcile early in 1975, and became the parents of Sean Lennon. Even though Pang had been involved with the marketing of several of Lennon's records, and also records by Harry Nilsson and Ringo Starr, she had a hard time finding a new job. She later found out the reason was because many companies were afraid Lennon would not want to do business with them, if he knew she worked there.

Pang finally found a job with Island Records, and later worked for RKO. She married record producer Tony Visconti, and they started a family. After Lennon's death in 1980, Pang wrote a memoir, titled Loving John. She also appeared on many talk shows, to discuss her relationship with Lennon.

People from New York City
The Beatles
1950 births
Living people

May Pang


The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone.

Definition

In biogeography, the Neotropic or Neotropical realm is one of the eight terrestrial realms. This realm includes South America, Central America, the Caribbean islands, and southern North America.  In Mexico, the Yucatán Peninsula and southern lowlands, and most of the east and west coastlines, including the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula are Neotropical.  In the United States southern Florida and coastal Central Florida are considered Neotropical.

The realm also includes temperate southern South America. In contrast, the Neotropical Floristic Kingdom excludes southernmost South America, which instead is placed in the Antarctic kingdom.

The Neotropic is delimited by similarities in fauna or flora. Its fauna and flora are distinct from the Nearctic realm (which includes most of North America) because of the long separation of the two continents. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama joined the two continents two to three million years ago, precipitating the Great American Interchange, an important biogeographical event.

The Neotropic includes more tropical rainforest (tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests) than any other realm, extending from southern Mexico through Central America and northern South America to southern Brazil, including the vast Amazon rainforest. These rainforest ecoregions are one of the most important reserves of biodiversity on Earth. These rainforests are also home to a diverse array of indigenous peoples, who to varying degrees persist in their autonomous and traditional cultures and subsistence within this environment. The number of these peoples who are as yet relatively untouched by external influences continues to decline significantly, however, along with the near-exponential expansion of urbanization, roads, pastoralism and forest industries which encroach on their customary lands and environment. Nevertheless, amidst these declining circumstances this vast "reservoir" of human diversity continues to survive, albeit much depleted. In South America alone, some 350–400 indigenous languages and dialects are still living (down from an estimated 1,500 at the time of first European contact), in about 37 distinct language families and a further number of unclassified and isolate languages. Many of these languages and their cultures are also endangered. Accordingly, conservation in the Neotropical realm is a hot political concern, and raises many arguments about development versus indigenous versus ecological rights and access to or ownership of natural resources.

Major ecological regions
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) subdivides the realm into bioregions, defined as "geographic clusters of ecoregions that may span several habitat types, but have strong biogeographic affinities, particularly at taxonomic levels higher than the species level (genus, family)."

Laurel forest and other cloud forest are subtropical and mild temperate forest, found in areas with high humidity and relatively stable and mild temperatures. Tropical rainforest, tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests are highlight in Southern North America, Amazonia, Caribbean, Central America, Northern Andes and Central Andes.

Amazonia
The Amazonia bioregion is mostly covered by tropical moist broadleaf forest, including the vast Amazon rainforest, which stretches from the Andes mountains to the Atlantic Ocean, and the lowland forests of the Guianas. The bioregion also includes tropical savanna and tropical dry forest ecoregions.

Caribbean

Central America

Central Andes

The Central Andes lie between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Penas and thus encompass southern Ecuador, Chile, Peru, western Bolivia, and northwest and western Argentina.

Eastern South America
Eastern South America includes the Caatinga xeric shrublands of northeastern Brazil, the broad Cerrado grasslands and savannas of the Brazilian Plateau, and the Pantanal and Chaco grasslands. The diverse Atlantic forests of eastern Brazil are separated from the forests of Amazonia by the Caatinga and Cerrado, and are home to a distinct flora and fauna.

Northern Andes

North of the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador and Colombia, a series of accreted oceanic terranes (discrete allochthonous fragments) have developed that constitute the Baudo, or Coastal, Mountains and the Cordillera Occidental.

Orinoco
The Orinoco is a region of humid forested broadleaf forest and wetland primarily comprising the drainage basin for the Orinoco River and other adjacent lowland forested areas. This region includes most of Venezuela and parts of Colombia, as well as Trinidad and Tobago.

Southern South America
The temperate forest ecoregions of southwestern South America, including the temperate rain forests of the Valdivian temperate rain forests and Magellanic subpolar forests ecoregions, and the Juan Fernández Islands and Desventuradas Islands, are a refuge for the ancient Antarctic flora, which includes trees like the southern beech (Nothofagus), podocarps, the alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides), and Araucaria pines like the monkey-puzzle tree (Araucaria araucana). These rainforests are endangered by extensive logging and their replacement by fast-growing non-native pines and eucalyptus.

History

South America was originally part of the supercontinent of Gondwana, which included Africa, Australia, India, New Zealand, and Antarctica, and the Neotropic shares many plant and animal lineages with these other continents, including marsupial mammals and the Antarctic flora.

After the final breakup of the Gondwana about 110 million years ago, South America was separated from Africa and drifted north and west. 66 million years ago, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event altered local flora and fauna. Much later, about two to three million years ago, South America was joined with North America by the formation of the Isthmus of Panama, which allowed a biotic exchange between the two continents, the Great American Interchange. South American species like the ancestors of the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) and the armadillo moved into North America, and North Americans like the ancestors of South America's camelids, including the llama (Lama glama), moved south. The long-term effect of the exchange was the extinction of many South American species, mostly by outcompetition by northern species.

Endemic animals and plants

Animals
The Neotropical realm has 31 endemic bird families, which is over twice the number of any other realm. They include tanagers, rheas, tinamous, curassows, antbirds, ovenbirds, toucans, and seriemas. Bird families originally unique to the Neotropics include hummingbirds (family Trochilidae) and wrens (family Troglodytidae).

Mammal groups originally unique to the Neotropics include:
 Order Xenarthra: anteaters, sloths, and armadillos
 New World monkeys
 Solenodontidae, the solenodons
 Caviomorpha rodents, including capybaras, guinea pigs, hutias, and chinchillas
 American opossums (order Didelphimorphia) and shrew opossums (order Paucituberculata)

The Neotropical realm has 63 endemic fish families and subfamilies, which is more than any other realm. Neotropical fishes include more than 5,700 species, and represent at least 66 distinct lineages in continental freshwaters (Albert and Reis, 2011). The well-known red-bellied piranha is endemic to the Neotropic realm, occupying a larger geographic area than any other piranha species. Some fish groups originally unique to the Neotropics include:
 Order Gymnotiformes: Neotropical electric fishes
 Family Characidae: tetras and allies
 Family Loricariidae: armoured catfishes
 Subfamily Cichlinae: Neotropical cichlids
 Subfamily Poeciliinae: guppies and relatives

Examples of other animal groups that are entirely or mainly restricted to the Neotropical region include:
 Caimans
 New World coral snakes
 Poison dart frogs
 Dactyloidae ("anoles")
 Rock iguanas (Cyclura)
 Preponini and Anaeini butterflies (including Agrias)
 Brassolini and Morphini butterflies (including Caligo and Morpho)
 Callicorini butterflies
 Heliconiini butterflies
 Ithomiini butterflies
 Riodininae butterflies
 Eumaeini butterflies
 Firetips or firetail skipper butterflies
 Euglossini bees
 Augochlorini bees
 Pseudostigmatidae ("giant damselflies")
 Mantoididae (short-bodied mantises)
 Canopidae, Megarididae, and Phloeidae (pentatomoid bugs)
 Aetalionidae and Melizoderidae (treehoppers)
 Gonyleptidae (harvestmen)

Plants
Plant families endemic and partly subendemic to the realm are, according to Takhtajan (1978), Hymenophyllopsidaceae, Marcgraviaceae, Caryocaraceae, Pellicieraceae, Quiinaceae, Peridiscaceae, Bixaceae, Cochlospermaceae, Tovariaceae, Lissocarpaceae (Lissocarpa), Brunelliaceae, Dulongiaceae, Columelliaceae, Julianiaceae, Picrodendraceae, Goupiaceae, Desfontainiaceae, Plocospermataceae, Tropaeolaceae, Dialypetalanthaceae (Dialypetalanthus), Nolanaceae (Nolana), Calyceraceae, Heliconiaceae, Cannaceae, Thurniaceae and Cyclanthaceae.

Plant families that originated in the Neotropic include Bromeliaceae, Cannaceae and Heliconiaceae.

Plant species with economic importance originally unique to the Neotropic include:

 Potato (Solanum tuberosum)
 Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)
 Cacao tree (Theobroma cacao), source of cocoa and chocolate
 Maize (Zea mays)
 Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis)
 Guava (Psidium guajava)
 Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus)
 Cotton (Gossypium barbadense)
 Cassava (Manihot esculenta)
 Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)
 Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus)
 Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)

Neotropical terrestrial ecoregions

Citations

General and cited bibliography
 Albert, J. S., and R. E. Reis (2011).  Historical Biogeography of Neotropical Freshwater Fishes. University of California Press, Berkeley. 424 pp. .
 Bequaert, Joseph C. "An Introductory Study of Polistes in the United States and Canada with Descriptions of Some New North and South American Forms (Hymenoptera; Vespidæ)". Journal of the New York Entomological Society 48.1 (1940): 1-31.
 Cox, C. B.; P. D. Moore (1985). Biogeography: An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach (Fourth Edition). Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
 Dinerstein, E., Olson, D. Graham, D. J. et al. (1995). A Conservation Assessment of the Terrestrial Ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. World Bank, Washington, D.C.
 Olson, D. M., B. Chernoff, G. Burgess, I. Davidson, P. Canevari, E. Dinerstein, G. Castro, V. Morisset, R. Abell, and E. Toledo. 1997. Freshwater biodiversity of Latin America and the Caribbean: a conservation assessment. Draft report. World Wildlife Fund-U.S., Wetlands International, Biodiversity Support Program, and United States Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C.
 Reis, R. E., S. O. Kullander, and C. J. Ferraris Jr. 2003. Check List of the Freshwater Fishes of South and Central America. Edipucrs, Porto Alegre. 729 pp.
 Udvardy, M. D. F. (1975). A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. IUCN Occasional Paper no. 18. Morges, Switzerland: IUCN.
 van der Sleen, Peter, and James S. Albert, eds. Field Guide to the Fishes of the Amazon, Orinoco, and Guianas. Princeton University Press, 2017.

External links

 List of terrestrial ecoregions
 Eco-Index, a bilingual searchable reference of conservation and research projects in the Neotropics; a service of the Rainforest Alliance
 NeoTropic
 Acosta, Guillermo et al., 2018. "Climate change and peopling of the Neotropics during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition". Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana. .

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Biogeographic realms
Biogeography
Natural history of Central America
Natural history of North America
Natural history of South America
Natural history of the Caribbean
Phytogeography

Neotropical realm


Rubbernecker is a reality television show that is hosted by Richard Alexander, currently broadcasting  on Nuts TV, the Freeview/cable/satellite channel in the UK, operated by Turner Broadcasting.

It features a variety of genres of reality clips, such as extreme sports accidents, world record attempts, bizarre TV commercials, CCTV footage featuring employees caught on camera in the office, user generated content, and news-style reports of unusual events and people from around the world. With a somewhat left field and playful approach to its subjects or featured articles, it has two distinct versions : pre-Watershed (television) and an Uncut version for post-Watershed (television).

External links
 Nuts TV website

British reality television series
2008 British television series debuts

Rubbernecker (TV series)


The first law of thermodynamics is that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can change only from one form to another. The law forms the basis of the principle of conservation of energy. This means that anything that uses energy is changing the energy from one kind of energy to another. For example, exercising changes energy from food into kinetic (motion) energy.  Another example:  In the Sun (or any star), nuclear fusion changes mass into heat and light (electromagnetic radiation), which travels to Earth and is used by plants to create food (chemical energy) via photosynthesis, which can be eaten by animals allowing them to move (kinetic energy).  Energy only ever changes its form; it is neither created nor destroyed. This is why perpetual motion machines do not exist and could never exist; it would break a fundamental law of physics.

People can use the changes to do work that is useful. Examples of forms of energy in classical mechanics include heat, light, kinetic (movement) or potential energy. However, in modern physics it is considered that there are only two types of energy - mass and kinetic energy, although this may not be helpful to those not familiar with more complex physics.

The law means that the total energy of the universe (or any Closed system) is a constant. However, energy can be transferred from one part of the universe to another.

The most common wording of the first law of thermodynamics used by scientists is:

History
James Prescott Joule was the first person who found out by experiments that heat and work are convertible.

The first explicit statement of the first law of thermodynamics was given by Rudolf Clausius in 1850: "There is a state function E, called 'energy', whose differential equals the work exchanged with the surroundings during an adiabatic process."

Thermodynamics and Engineering
In thermodynamics and engineering, it is natural to think of the system as a heat engine which does work on the surroundings, and to state that the total energy added by heating is equal to the sum of the increase in internal energy plus the work done by the system. Hence  is the amount of energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on its surroundings. During the portion of the thermodynamic cycle where the engine is doing work,  is positive, but there will always be a portion of the cycle where  is negative, e.g., when the working gas is being compressed. When  represents the work done by the system, the first law is written:

People disagree whether energy is a positive or a negative number. So that  is the flow of heat out of the system, and  is the work into the system:

Because of this ambiguity, it is very important in any discussion involving the first law to explicitly establish the sign convention in use.

dU = the change in internal energy

Q = heat

W = work

Related pages
 Second law of thermodynamics

References

 Goldstein, Martin, and Inge F., 1993. The Refrigerator and the Universe. Harvard Univ. Press. A gentle introduction.

Thermodynamics
Laws of physics

First law of thermodynamics


Holography is a way of making three-dimensional (3-D) picture made with a laser. It allows the holographer to make a more exact image than with photography. The holograph seems to move and change slightly to look as if it were three-dimensional.  Holography uses the wave aspect of light.

How a hologram is made

Holograms are made with light flashed onto a plate or screen, almost like how photos are made. To make a hologram instead of a photograph, some of the light, called a "reference beam," has to go directly to the screen. The light has to be a laser because lasers are more accurate and have a wavelength that does not change the way the wavelengths of light from other sources does, like light from lightbulbs. To stop other light from ruining the hologram, holograms are usually taken in the dark. Because even the tiniest vibration can stop the hologram from forming properly, the tables upon which that the holographer places the equipment may be built with shocks or inflated chambers to stop vibrations from the floor.

Holograms vs. photographs

Holograms can be compared to photos. Holography records both the intensity of light, like photography, but also records the difference in the phase of light. Holography records all of information from the light that the object reflects.

 A hologram records (writes down) the light that comes from many places, so a person looking at it can see it from many angles.
 A photo can be made with normal light, like light from the sun or a lightbulb, but holograms can only be made with lasers.
 A hologram needs a second laser (the reference beam) to go onto the plate or screen where the hologram is being made.
 When a photo is cut in half, each piece shows half of the photo. When a hologram is cut in half, the entire holograph is shown in each piece. This is because each piece of a photo shows only that part of the photo, but each point on a hologram shows light from all over.
 Close up, holographs look like a random bunch of bumps.

Functionality
Holography uses a reference wave (which goes onto the plate) and an exposure wave (object wave, which comes from the object). The reference wave can save the phase information as patterns of light and dark on a film. The object wave and reference wave must have the same wavelength in order to save the phase information and they usually come from the same laser.

History

The most famous person in the history of holography is the physician Dennis Gabor, the inventor of the hologram.
In 1947, he was trying to improve microscopes, and he figured out how to display three-dimensional objects.

 Important dates
 1920: Mieczysław Wolfke proposes principle of wave field reconstruction by diffraction on diffraction patterns
 1947: Dennis Gábor develops the principle of holography
 1960: Theodor Maiman invents the laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
 1963: Emmeth Leith and Juris Upatnieks improve the recording technique
 1964: Production of the first hologram by Leith and Upatnieks ("Train and Bird").
 1965: Juri Nikolajewitsch Denisjuk invents white-light-holography
 1967: The first hologram of a person
 1968: Stephen A. Benton invents the rainbow-transmission holography
 1971: Award of the Nobel Prize of physics goes to Dennis Gábor for the invention of holography

Physical details

Recording

Holograms need laser beams. A dispersing lens makes the beam bigger and then it goes through a special mirror. Only a piece of this laser beam can go through the mirror. Then this beam becomes the reference wave, and it is recorded on the film. The other piece of the laser beam is reflected off of the mirror. This piece becomes the exposure wave at the object. The object reflects this wave on the film.

Reconstruction

Making a hologram is very similar to making a photograph, and it needs chemicals.
To look at a hologram the film must be lit up with the reference wave. These waves are reflected on the film (hologram) and create a virtual picture of the recorded object, even if that picture can only be seen from a specific angle.

Applications

Measurement

Industries use holograms to measure things. In the car industry, cars are measured using holography so engineers can see bulges and vibration characteristics. Phase-shift holography is one kind of holography used to make cars.

The first step in making a hologram is to examine the ground level state of the object, then overload the object through heat or mechanical pressure. Covering the original hologram and the modified hologram can produce interference fringes. By measuring the interference fringes, engineers learn how big the deformation or other problem is. Engineers can measure tiny terminal expansions or vibrations in mechanical systems. This needs two reference waves.

Data storage

There are holographic storage machines for analog pictures and digital data. Digital information will be affiliated by a two-dimensional bit-pattern.

Light

Holography


An angel investor (also known as a business angel, informal investor, angel funder, private investor, or seed investor) is an individual who provides capital to a business or businesses, including startups, usually in exchange for convertible debt or ownership equity. Angel investors often provide support to startups at a very early stage (when the risk of their failure is relatively high), once or in a consecutive manner, and when most investors are not prepared to back them. In a survey of 150 founders conducted by Wilbur Labs, about 70% of entrepreneurs will face potential business failure, and nearly 66% will face this potential failure within 25 months of launching their company. A small but increasing number of angel investors invest online through equity crowdfunding or organize themselves into angel groups or angel networks to share investment capital and provide advice to their portfolio companies. The number of angel investors has greatly increased since the mid-20th century.

Etymology and origin
The application of the term "angel" originates in Broadway theater, where it was used to describe wealthy individuals who provided money for theatrical productions that would otherwise have had to shut down. This term, however, was not used in the context of investing in companies until 1978, when William Wetzel, a then-professor at the University of New Hampshire and founder of its Center for Venture Research, completed a pioneering study on how entrepreneurs raised seed capital in the US. He began using the term "angel" to describe the investors who supported them. A similar term, "patron", is commonly used in arts.

Angel investors are often retired entrepreneurs or executives who may be interested in angel investing for reasons that go beyond pure monetary return. These reasons include: wanting to keep abreast of current developments in a particular business arena, mentoring another generation of entrepreneurs, and making use of their experience and networks on a less than full-time basis. Because innovations tend to be produced by outsiders and founders in startups, rather than existing organizations, angel investors provide (in addition to funds) feedback, advice, and contacts. Because there are no public exchanges listing their securities, private companies meet angel investors in several ways, including referrals from the investors' trusted sources and other business contacts, at investor conferences and symposia, and at face-to-face meetings organized by groups of angels where companies pitch directly to investors.

According to the Center for Venture Research, there were 363,460 active angel investors in the US in 2021. In the late 1980s, angels started to coalesce into informal groups with the goal of sharing deal flow and due diligence work and pooling their funds to make larger investments. Angel groups are generally local organizations made up of 10 to 150 accredited investors interested in early-stage investing. In 1996, there were about 10 angel groups in the US; by 2006, there were over 200.

Source and extent of funding
Angels typically invest their own funds (unlike venture capitalists, who manage the pooled money of others in a professionally managed fund). Although typically reflecting the investment judgment of an individual, the entity providing the funding may be a trust, business, limited liability company, investment fund, or other vehicle.  A Harvard report by William R. Kerr, Josh Lerner, and Antoinette Schoar provides evidence that angel-funded startups are more likely to succeed than companies reliant on other forms of initial financing. The paper found "that angel funding is positively correlated with higher survival, additional fundraising outside the angel group, and faster growth measured through growth in website traffic".

Angel capital fills the gap in seed funding between "friends and family" and more robust start-up financing through formal venture capital. Although it is usually difficult to raise more than a few hundred thousand dollars from friends and family, most traditional venture capital funds are usually not able to make or evaluate small investments under US$1–2 million. On an annual basis, the combined value of all angel investments in the US almost reaches the combined value of all US venture capital funds, while angel investors invest in more than 60 times as many companies as venture capital firms (US$20.1 billion vs. $23.26 billion in the US in 2010, into 61,900 companies vs. 1,012 companies).

There is no "set amount" for angel investors - investments can range from a few thousand to a few million dollars. In a large shift from 2009, healthcare/medical accounted for the largest share of angel investments in 2010, with 30% of total angel investments (vs. 17% in 2009), followed by software (16% vs. 19% in 2007), biotech (15% vs. 8% in 2009), industrial/energy (8% vs. 17% in 2009), retail (5% vs. 8% in 2009) and IT services (5%).  While more readily available than venture financing, angel investment is still extremely difficult to raise. However, some new models are developing that are trying to make this easier.

Much like other forms of private equity, angel investment decision-making has been shown to suffer from cognitive biases such as the illusion of control and overconfidence.

Investment profile
Angel investments bear extremely high risks and are usually subject to dilution from future investment rounds. As such, they require a very high return on investment. Additionally, angel investors often mitigate the risk of an angel investment by allocating less than 10% of their portfolio to these types of investments. Because a large percentage of angel investments are lost completely when early-stage companies fail, professional angel investors seek investments that have the potential to return at least ten or more times their original investment within 5 years through a defined exit strategy, such as plans for an initial public offering or an acquisition. After taking into account the need to cover failed investments and the multi-year holding time for even the successful ones, however, the actual effective internal rate of return for a typical successful portfolio of angel investments is typically as 'low' as 20–30%. While the investor's need for high rates of return on any given investment can make angel financing an expensive source of funds, cheaper sources of capital, such as bank financing, are usually not available for most early-stage ventures.

Founding angels
In recent years, a new trend has emerged in the business world known as 'founding angels'. These are angel investors who get involved with a startup even before it is officially established. Unlike a traditional business angel, because founding angels invest so early they are typically seen as 'founders' and typically have much greater involvement in the early stages of the business.

Founding angels most often co-found startups with scientists, developers, or engineers in the technology space who bring in the technology upon which the start-up is based. After they are founded, they are actively engaged in the management of startups, typically in a non-executive position, supporting the day-to-day running of the business. They less often have a predefined exit strategy, and more often hold onto equity long into the company's development.

Geographical differences

Canada
Canada is reportedly home to the most sophisticated and advanced network of angel investors in the world. Incorporated in 2002, the National Angel Capital Organization (NACO) pioneered the angel investing movement and supported the formation of regional angel networks in Canada. According to both NACO and the Business Development Bank of Canada, there are 20,000–50,000 active angel investors in Canada. Over 4,000 are members of 45 angel groups that are NACO members.

China
Before 2000, it was difficult for startups in China to find local angel investors. Entrepreneurs, such as Jack Ma of Alibaba Group and many others, needed to raise funds from Softbank, Goldman Sachs, Fidelity, and other institutions. However, by 2015, several Chinese Angel groups had been in operation.

Russia
In 2012, the International Business Angels Assembly took place in the Russian Federation. This was an exclusive event devoted to private investing into innovative projects in Eastern Europe.

United Kingdom
A study by NESTA in 2009 estimated there were between 4,000 and 6,000 angel investors in the UK with an average investment size of £42,000 per investment. Furthermore, each angel investor on average acquired 8 percent of the venture in the deal, with 10 percent of investments accounting for more than 20 percent of the venture.

In terms of returns, 35 percent of investments produced returns of between one and five times the initial investment, while 9 percent produced returns of multiples of ten times or more. The mean return, however, was 2.2 times the investment in 3.6 years and an approximate internal rate of return of 22 percent gross.

The UK Business Angel market grew in 2009 through 2010 and, despite recessionary concerns, continues to show signs of growth. In 2013, this dynamic kept going on in the UK as angel investors were named by two-thirds of technology entrepreneurs as a means of funding. By 2015, angel investments had increased throughout the UK, with angels making an average number of five investments, compared to 2.5 in 2009. The same report also found an increase in angel investors making impact investments, with 25% of angels saying they had made an impact investment in 2014.

United States
Geographically, Silicon Valley dominates United States angel investing, receiving 39% of the $7.5 billion invested in US-based companies throughout Q2 2011, 3–4 times as much as the total amount invested within New England. Total angel investments in the United States in 2021 were $29.1 billion, an increase of 15.2 percent over 2020, with 69,060 companies receiving funding.  In the United States, angels are generally accredited investors in order to comply with current SEC regulations, although the JOBS Act of 2012 loosened those requirements starting in January 2013. Reaching nearly $23 billion in 2012 in the US, angel investors are not only responsible for funding over 67,000 start-up ventures annually, but their capital also contributed to job growth by helping to finance 274,800 new jobs in 2012. In 2013, 41% of tech sector executives named angel investors as a means of funding.

Saudi Arabia
Saudi Vision 2030 was launched in 2016, and since then, the entrepreneurship ecosystem is being built from scratch. The number of angel investor groups reached 8 in 2022.

India
The Indian Government introduced Atal Incubation centers and Technology Incubation and Development of Entrepreneurs, a program to solely support ICT startups in building emerging technologies including AI, IoT, and blockchain.

See also

 Comparison of business angel networks
 Crowdfunding
 Deep tech
 Entrepreneurship
 Pre-money valuation
 Private equity
 Revenue-based financing
 Seed money
 Super angel
 Venture capital financing
 Venture funding
 Vulture fund

References

External links

Venture capitalists
Main

Angel investor


In mathematics, equality is a relationship between two quantities or, more generally two mathematical expressions, asserting that the quantities have the same value, or that the expressions represent the same mathematical object. The equality between  and  is written , and pronounced " equals ". The symbol "" is called an "equals sign". Two objects that are not equal are said to be distinct.

For example:
  means that  and  denote the same object.
 The identity  means that if  is any number, then the two expressions have the same value. This may also be interpreted as saying that the two sides of the equals sign represent the same function.
  if and only if  This assertion, which uses set-builder notation, means that if the elements satisfying the property  are the same as the elements satisfying  then the two uses of the set-builder notation define the same set. This property is often expressed as "two sets that have the same elements are equal." It is one of the usual axioms of set theory, called axiom of extensionality.

Etymology
The etymology of the word is from the Latin aequālis ("equal", "like", "comparable", "similar") from aequus ("equal", "level", "fair", "just").

Basic properties

These last three properties make equality an equivalence relation. They were originally included among the Peano axioms for natural numbers. Although the symmetric and transitive properties are often seen as fundamental, they can be deduced from substitution and reflexive properties.

Equality as predicate
When A and B are not fully specified or depend on some variables, equality is a proposition, which may be true for some values and false for other values. Equality is a binary relation (i.e., a two-argument predicate) which may produce a truth value (false or true) from its arguments. In computer programming, its computation from the two expressions is known as comparison.

Identities

When A and B may be viewed as functions of some variables, then A = B means that A and B define the same function. Such an equality of functions is sometimes called an identity. An example is  Sometimes, but not always, an identity is written with a triple bar:

Equations
An equation is a problem of finding values of some variables, called , for which the specified equality is true. The term "equation" may also refer to an equality relation that is satisfied only for the values of the variables that one is interested in. For example,  is the  of the unit circle.

There is no standard notation that distinguishes an equation from an identity, or other use of the equality relation: one has to guess an appropriate interpretation from the semantics of expressions and the context. An identity is  to be true for all values of variables in a given domain. An "equation" may sometimes mean an identity, but more often than not, it  a subset of the variable space to be the subset where the equation is true.

Approximate equality
There are some logic systems that do not have any notion of equality. This reflects the undecidability of the equality of two real numbers, defined by formulas involving the integers, the basic arithmetic operations, the logarithm and the exponential function. In other words, there cannot exist any algorithm for deciding such an equality.

The binary relation "is approximately equal" (denoted by the symbol ) between real numbers or other things, even if more precisely defined, is not transitive (since many small differences can add up to something big). However, equality almost everywhere is transitive.

A questionable equality under test may be denoted using the ≟ symbol.

Relation with equivalence, congruence, and isomorphism

Viewed as a relation, equality is the archetype of the more general concept of an equivalence relation on a set: those binary relations that are reflexive, symmetric and transitive. The identity relation is an equivalence relation. Conversely, let R be an equivalence relation, and let us denote by xR the equivalence class of x, consisting of all elements z such that x R z. Then the relation x R y is equivalent with the equality xR = yR. It follows that equality is the finest equivalence relation on any set S in the sense that it is the relation that has the smallest equivalence classes (every class is reduced to a single element).

In some contexts, equality is sharply distinguished from equivalence or isomorphism. For example, one may distinguish fractions from rational numbers, the latter being equivalence classes of fractions: the fractions  and  are distinct as fractions (as different strings of symbols) but they "represent" the same rational number (the same point on a number line). This distinction gives rise to the notion of a quotient set.

Similarly, the sets
 and

are not equal sets — the first consists of letters, while the second consists of numbers — but they are both sets of three elements and thus isomorphic, meaning that there is a bijection between them. For example

However, there are other choices of isomorphism, such as

and these sets cannot be identified without making such a choice — any statement that identifies them "depends on choice of identification". This distinction, between equality and isomorphism, is of fundamental importance in category theory and is one motivation for the development of category theory.

In some cases, one may consider as equal two mathematical objects that are only equivalent for the properties and structure being considered. The word congruence (and the associated symbol ) is frequently used for this kind of equality, and is defined as the quotient set of the isomorphism classes between the objects. In geometry for instance, two geometric shapes are said to be equal or congruent when one may be moved to coincide with the other, and the equality/congruence relation is the isomorphism classes of isometries between shapes. Similarly to isomorphisms of sets, the difference between isomorphisms and equality/congruence between such mathematical objects with properties and structure was one motivation for the development of category theory, as well as for homotopy type theory and univalent foundations.

Logical definitions

Leibniz characterized the notion of equality as follows:
 Given any x and y, x = y if and only if, given any predicate P, P(x) if and only if P(y).

Equality in set theory

Equality of sets is axiomatized in set theory in two different ways, depending on whether the axioms are based on a first-order language with or without equality.

Set equality based on first-order logic with equality
In first-order logic with equality, the axiom of extensionality states that two sets which contain the same elements are the same set.

 Logic axiom:
 Logic axiom:
 Set theory axiom:

Incorporating half of the work into the first-order logic may be regarded as a mere matter of convenience, as noted by Lévy.
 "The reason why we take up first-order predicate calculus with equality is a matter of convenience; by this we save the labor of defining equality and proving all its properties; this burden is now assumed by the logic."

Set equality based on first-order logic without equality
In first-order logic without equality, two sets are defined to be equal if they contain the same elements. Then the axiom of extensionality states that two equal sets are contained in the same sets.

 Set theory definition:
 Set theory axiom:

See also
Extensionality
Homotopy type theory
Inequality
List of mathematical symbols
Logical equality
Proportionality (mathematics)

Notes

References

External links

Mathematical logic
Binary relations
Elementary arithmetic
Equivalence (mathematics)

Equality (mathematics)


Transduction how a virus moves DNA from one bacterium to another.

Joshua Lederberg and his graduate student Norton Zinder showed in 1952 that bacteriophages could transfer genetic information between bacteria in Salmonella. This explained how bacteria of different species could gain resistance to the same antibiotic very quickly.

Transduction also refers to the process whereby foreign DNA is introduced into another cell via a viral vector. This is a common tool used by molecular biologists to introduce a foreign gene into a host cell's genome.

When bacteriophages infect a bacterial cell, they usually reproduce by using the replicational, transcriptional, and translation machinery of the host bacterial cell to make many complete viral particles, including the viral DNA or RNA and the protein coat. Errors in this process can result in the virus carrying over DNA from one bacterium to another.

References

Horizontal gene transfer
Prokaryotes

Transduction (genetics)


In the Battle of Castalla (21 July 1812) a small Spanish army commanded by Joseph O'Donnell advanced to attack an Imperial French division under the leadership of Jean Isidore Harispe. O'Donnell's battle plan was poorly conceived and the outnumbered French smashed his center column before his right and left wings could intervene. The engagement occurred during the Peninsular War, part of the Napoleonic Wars. The battle was fought near Castalla,  north-west of Alicante, Spain.

Background
In the successful Siege of Valencia and subsidiary operations, Marshal Louis Gabriel Suchet's French army conquered much of the province of Valencia. To the south, the Spanish Army of Murcia regrouped in an attempt to halt further French advances. On 16 January 1812, the Spanish defeated an attempt by General of Division Louis-Pierre Montbrun and 5,500 French soldiers to seize their base at Alicante. An Anglo-Sicilian expedition under General Thomas Maitland was due to arrive at Alicante and General Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Wellington asked Captain General Joseph O'Donnell to conduct a holding operation.

Battle
Ignoring Wellington's advice, O'Donnell formed his 11,000-strong army into three attack columns designed to envelop one of General of Division Jean Isidore Harispe's brigades. Abandoning the town of Castalla, Colonel Jacques-Antoine-Adrien Delort drew up his soldiers on a nearby ridge. As O'Donnell's three center brigades probed the position, the French 24th Dragoon regiment unexpectedly arrived on the battlefield and delivered a series of crushing blows. The French cavalry and infantry killed or wounded 1,000 Spanish soldiers and rounded up 2,135 prisoners. The Spanish right and left columns made such wide circuits of the battlefield that the fighting was over before they could influence the result. When Maitland landed he found the Army of Murcia in no shape to conduct operations for several months. The day after Castalla, Wellington won a decisive victory over the French at Salamanca and threatened to break Napoleon's grip on Spain.

Notes

References

External links

Battles of the Peninsular War
Battles of the Napoleonic Wars
Battles involving Spain
Battles involving France
Battles in the Valencian Community
Conflicts in 1812
July 1812 events
1812 in Spain

Battle of Castalla (1812)


Reed is a common name for tall, grass-like plants of wet places. They occur in reed beds. They are all members of the order Poales.

Reeds are many polyphyletic species, which have all adapted to this wet habitat by convergent evolution. It is a "form" name, not a technical botanical term.

Phragmites australis, the common reed, is used in many areas for thatching rooves (roofs). When thatched rooves were common, rivers were harvested for reeds every year. The reeds were stored in barns, and purchased by roofers for thatching.  In the United Kingdom, common reed used for this purpose is known as "Norfolk reed" or "water reed". However, "wheat reed" and "Devon reed" are not reeds but long-stemmed wheat straw.

In Britain, thatching began to be less used in the early 19th century. It was replaced by slates from quarries in Wales. Later still, slate tiles were replaced by the cheaper mass-manufactured plastic tiles.

Types of reeds
Reeds come from many plants, all of which grow in or near to water. The many species come from these four families:
Poaceae: the grasses
Cyperaceae: the sedges
Typhaceae
Restionaceae

Poales

Reed (plant)