The nonprofit National Ski Patrol (NSP) is the largest winter education organization in the world. The NSP provides education, outreach, and credentialing related to outdoor recreation and safety.  It is currently composed of more than 31,000 members who serve in over 650 patrols.  NSP members, both volunteer and paid, ensure the safety of outdoor recreation enthusiasts in ski areas throughout the United States of America and certain military areas of Europe.  For its dedication to the promotion of public safety in skiing and other winter sports, the group was granted a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code in 1980.

History
The National Ski Patrol was founded in 1938 in Stowe, Vermont, when the president of the National Ski Association, Roger Langley convinced the founder and leader of the Mt. Mansfield Ski Patrol, Charles Minot Dole, to form a national ski patrol.  Dole was convinced of the need for a national ski rescue organization due to both the loss of a friend due to injuries suffered in a ski related accident the year prior and an on slope accident in which he himself was seriously injured.  With Roger Langley's assistance, Charles Minot Dole organized and formed the National Ski Patrol Committee of the National Ski Association.  The resulting organization became the National Ski Patrol.  Upon his retirement in 1950 as president, Dole had built the NSP into an organization of 300 ski patrols and 4,000 members.  Since its founding, the National Ski Patrol has worked closely with other countries in outdoor emergency care education, and has assisted in establishing ski patrol organizations in Canada, Korea, New Zealand, Israel, Turkey, Argentina and Chile, as well as the Victorian Rescue Service in Australia.  In addition to its own ski safety programs, works closely with the United States Ski Team, Professional Ski Instructors of America, US Forest Service, National Park Service, and other organizations and agencies in the promotion of skiing and ski safety.

Activities During World War II
Beginning in February 1940, Charles Minot Dole began writing to officials in the United States Army and the War Department about the need for specialized mountain troops. Dole had been inspired by Finnish efforts during the Winter War, and believed the United States should train specialized soldiers to fight in winter and alpine conditions. Due to the lobbying efforts by Charles Minot Dole, in November 1941 the National Ski Patrol was appointed by the United States Army to recruit and vet soldiers for the 87th Mountain Infantry Regiment. The National Ski Patrol continued in this capacity until February 1944, by which time it had recruited around 8,000 soldiers for the 87th Regiment and eventually the 10th Mountain Division. The National Ski Patrol also assisted in training for the new troops.

Membership
Membership within the NSP falls under five individual categories: patrollers, medical associates, alumni members, associate members, and mountain hosts.  Patrollers are those members who are actively involved in providing emergency care to injured guests and are members of a local patrol affiliated with the NSP.  Medical associates are physicians who volunteer their time to assist with medical training of patrollers.  Patrollers who are no longer actively involved in providing emergency care to injured guests are able to maintain their affiliation with the NSP as alumni members.  Associate members are personnel who are interested in courses offered by the NSP but are not members of a ski patrol.  The mountain host category of membership is reserved for individuals who participate in on mountain customer service, are expected to be able to render first aid, but not part of an organization's ski patrol.

Educational Programs
Pursuant to its mission of promoting outdoor recreation safety, the NSP has developed a number of educational programs designed to increase safety awareness and injury prevention.

Outdoor Emergency Care (OEC)

Transportation
The transportation education program is designed to teach members of the NSP safe techniques for the transportation of sick or injured guests from the wilderness to safety.  Specific skills taught through the NSP system include safe toboggan handling, ski enhancement, and snowboard enhancement.

Avalanche Program
The NSP began instructing ski patrollers and other search and rescue personnel in avalanche safety in 1957, making it the oldest and most experienced provider of avalanche education.  In addition to courses designed for the ski patroller and the search and rescue personnel, the NSP offers avalanche education to the general public.  NSP avalanche education courses are based on curriculum developed in conjunction with the American Avalanche Association.

Mountain Travel and Rescue
Developed to improve safety of non-patroller outdoor enthusiasts, the mountain travel and rescue program emphasizes skills necessary to survive in the wilderness  These skills include nutrition, wilderness physiology, weather patterns, survival skills, group dynamics, navigation, and basic search and rescue skills.  This program is designed to ensure that those who venture into the wilderness have the necessary skills to do so safely.

Ski Patrollers

Patrollers are those members of the NSP who, as part of a ski patrol organization, provide assistance to ill or injured guests at a mountain area.  To recognize and develop a continued commitment to patroller education and excellence, the NSP classifies patrollers based on completion of NSP approved courses.  The classification schema is as follows:
Candidate refers to a member who has just joined but not passed the Outdoor Emergency Care (OEC) course.
Patroller refers to any member of a patrol organization who has completed the Outdoor Emergency Care (OEC) course.  Unlike other classifications, ski or snowboarding skills are not necessary.  While patrollers may provide first aid and assistance to ill or injured guests, they are not authorized to transport guests in rescue toboggans.
Alpine Patroller and Nordic Patroller: are classifications used for patrollers who have passed OEC and have completed transportation education and are authorized to transport ill or injured guests in rescue toboggans.  Alpine patroller refers to those patrollers who are authorized to transport patients in rescue toboggans while using alpine skiing (downhill) equipment.  Nordic patroller refers to those patrollers who are authorized to transport patients in rescue toboggans while using nordic skiing (cross country) equipment.
Senior Patroller refers to those patrollers who have completed additional training in emergency management in addition to that taught through OEC.  A senior patroller may or may not be authorized to transport ill or injured guests in rescue toboggans.  Those that have previously completed transportation education (alpine and nordic patrollers) maintain this ability, whereas those that have not (patrollers) may not transport guests.
Senior Alpine Patroller and Senior Nordic Patroller are alpine patrollers and nordic patrollers who have completed additional training in emergency management (that taught to senior patrollers) and who have completed additional transportation education and can demonstrate skills not required of the alpine or nordic patroller.
Certified Patroller and Master Nordic Patroller refer to the highest level of certification offered by the NSP for alpine and nordic patrollers respectively.  In addition to emergency management and transportation skills, certified patrollers and master nordic patrollers must demonstrate excellence in all areas of patrol operations including avalanche safety and resort management.
Young Adult Patroller is a program which provides a learning environment where young adults can develop skills and knowledge to become a Patroller. Young Adult Patrollers (YAP) are NSP members (ages 15 through high school graduation) who complete all of the required training and responsibilities of adult members of their patrol, we well as special training and events geared towards the YAPs within the region.

See also

Association of Professional Patrollers

References

External links
 National Ski Patrol (NSP)
 NSP: Pacific Northwest Division
 NSP: Far West Division
 NSP: Intermountain Division
 NSP: Northern Division
 NSP: Rocky Mountain Division
 NSP: Central Division
 NSP: Southern Division
 NSP: Eastern Division
 NSP: European Division
The Records of the National Ski Patrol Eastern Division at Dartmouth College Library

Sports governing bodies in the United States
Skiing organizations
Skiing in the United States
Patriotic and national organizations chartered by the United States Congress
First aid organizations
Skiing in Colorado
Sports organizations established in 1938
1938 establishments in the United States

National Ski Patrol


George Lawson Sheldon (May 31, 1870 – April 4, 1960) was an American politician and 14th governor of Nebraska with service from 1907 until 1909. He was the first native of his state to become its governor.  He was a Republican from the progressive wing of that party, which was identified nationally with Theodore Roosevelt of New York.

Early life

Born in Nehawka in Cass County in southeastern Nebraska, Sheldon received a bachelor's degree in 1892 from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. As a cadet at Nebraska he commanded Company A of the university's Military Department headed by Lieutenant John J. Pershing. He led Company A to win the Maiden Prize of $1,500 at the National Competitive Drills in Omaha on June 13, 1892. Sheldon was also a founding member of the Varsity Rifles, which became Pershing Rifles. He then attended Harvard University for one year, receiving a second bachelor's degree cum laude in 1893. He married Rose Higgins in 1895, and they had four children.

Career
During the Spanish–American War, Sheldon served as a captain in the 3rd Nebraska Volunteer Infantry, commanded by Colonel William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska, who had just lost to William McKinley of Ohio in the race for president two years before. En route to Cuba, the regiment traveled through Mississippi, and Sheldon liked what he saw there.

After the war, Sheldon returned to Nebraska. In 1902, he purchased a plantation of 1,700 acres near Greenville, Mississippi. That same year, at the age of 32, he successfully ran for state senate in Nebraska, and was re-elected in 1904.

The railroads had been central to the creation of Nebraska territory through the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, but public perception among white Nebraskans had changed. When the Union Pacific and Burlington railroads were "opening up" the land to settlement (and the dispossession of the Native American inhabitants), towns were eager to court the railroads. However, anger at apparent railroad domination of Nebraska politics had been growing for decades.

On June 16, 1906, Sheldon and fellow progressive Norris Brown, who was then attorney general, announced that they were seeking the Republican nominations for governor and U.S. Senator, respectively. Sheldon was on record as favoring regulation of the railroads, having said, "You can trust the representatives of the people to deal fairly with the railroads, but you cannot trust the railroads to deal fairly with the people."

Sheldon defeated the Democratic nominee, Ashton C. Shallenberger, who was viewed as "being under railroad influence," 97,858 (53.5 percent) to 84,885 (46.5 percent). Sheldon became the first Nebraska governor born in the state and one of its youngest ever.

With huge majorities in both chambers of the legislature (Nebraska's legislature would not become unicameral for another twenty years), Sheldon moved quickly to redeem his campaign promises. Accordingly, the 1907 legislative session has been characterized by historians James C. Olson and Ronald C. Naugle as creating "more important and more permanent changes in the political structure of the state than those of any other." These included prohibitions on the free train passes that railroads had previously distributed generously to influence politicians, a restriction on train passenger fares to no more than two cents, and the establishment of a state railway commission. That year Sheldon also signed a child labor law, an anti-discrimination law, a law forbidding brewers from owning any part of a saloon, and legislation creating a state board of pardons and a bureau charged with investigating agricultural pests and plant diseases.

The 1907 legislature also enacted a statewide direct primary law, but that would continue to be a hot political issue for many years and be frequently revised.

Sheldon ran into two political hurdles to his re-election. First, bank deposits had seemed especially at risk during the financial panic of 1907, when many banks failed. However, although Sheldon personally favored a state law guaranteeing bank deposits similar to the one in Oklahoma territory, the Republican convention overwhelmingly voted it down. Second, he fought hard for an option for individual counties to prohibit liquor, losing many "wet" votes that he might otherwise have picked up.

Ashton Shallenberger secured the Democratic nomination, and campaigned hard for a state bank guarantee law. He skillfully allowed "dries" think he was for prohibition and "wets" to think he was against it. Shallenberger decisively beat Sheldon, 132,960 to 125,976, and the Democrats gained majority control of both houses of the legislature.

Mississippi
After his defeat, Sheldon moved to his plantation in Mississippi, and became active in state politics there.

He was elected to the Mississippi House of Representatives. While Sheldon was publicly a staunch Republican, he was elected in the 1918 Democratic primary. He registered as a Republican while in the Mississippi House of Representatives. He retired after a single term due to financial conditions on his plantation. In 1927, he organized the moribund state Republican Party. After the election, Herbert Hoover appointed Sheldon the Mississippi state head of the Internal Revenue Service. He ran unsuccessfully for governor in 1947, having polled only 2.5 percent of the ballots cast.

Death
Sheldon died in Greenville, Mississippi, on April 4, 1960. He is interred at Greenville Cemetery.

References

External links
  papers at the Nebraska State Historical Society. Retrieved on November 16, 2009.
 National Governors Association

|-

1870 births
1960 deaths
Republican Party governors of Nebraska
People from Cass County, Nebraska
People from Greenville, Mississippi
Farmers from Mississippi
Republican Party Nebraska state senators
Republican Party members of the Mississippi House of Representatives
Military personnel from Nebraska
Harvard University alumni
Pershing Riflemen
Burials in Mississippi
University of Nebraska–Lincoln alumni

George L. Sheldon


The coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch; Karuk: achvuun) is a species of anadromous fish in the salmon family and one of the five Pacific salmon species. Coho salmon are also known as silver salmon or "silvers". The scientific species name is based on the Russian common name kizhuch (кижуч).

Description

During their ocean phase, coho salmon have silver sides and dark-blue backs. During their spawning phase, their jaws and teeth become hooked. After entering fresh water, they develop bright-red sides, bluish-green heads and backs, dark bellies and dark spots on their backs. Sexually maturing fish develop a light-pink or rose shading along the belly, and the males may show a slight arching of the back. Mature adults have a pronounced red skin color with darker backs and average  and , occasionally reaching up to . They also develop a large kype (hooked beak) during spawning. Mature females may be darker than males, with both showing a pronounced hook on the nose.

Reproduction

The eggs hatch in the late winter or early spring after six to seven weeks in the redd. Once hatched, they remain mostly immobile in the redd during the alevin life stage, which lasts for 6–7 weeks. Alevin no longer have the protective egg shell, or chorion, and rely on their yolk sacs for nourishment during growth. The alevin life stage is very sensitive to aquatic and sedimental contaminants. When the yolk sac is completely resorbed, the alevin leaves the redd. Young coho spend one to two years in their freshwater natal streams, often spending the first winter in off-channel sloughs, before transforming to the smolt stage. Smolts are generally  and as their parr marks fade and the adult's characteristic silver scales start to dominate. Smolts migrate to the ocean from late March through July. Some fish leave fresh water in the spring, spend summer in brackish estuarine ponds, and then return to fresh water in the fall. Coho salmon live in salt water for one to three years before returning to spawn. Some precocious males, known as "jacks", return as two-year-old spawners. Spawning males develop kypes, which are strongly hooked snouts and large teeth.

Range
The traditional range of the coho salmon runs along both sides of the North Pacific Ocean, from Hokkaidō, Japan and eastern Russia, around the Bering Sea to mainland Alaska, and south to Monterey Bay, California. Coho salmon have also been introduced in all the Great Lakes, as well as many landlocked reservoirs throughout the United States. A number of specimens, (more than 20), were caught in waters surrounding Denmark and Norway in 2017. Their source is currently unknown, but the salmon species is farmed at several locations in Europe, making it probable that the animal has slipped the net at such a farm.

Human uses

Fisheries
The total North Pacific harvest of coho salmon in 2010 exceeded 6.3 million fish, of which 4.5 million were taken in the United States and 1.7 million in Russia. This corresponds to some 21,000 tonnes in all. Coho salmon are the backbone of the Alaskan troll fishery; however, the majority are caught by the net fishery (gillnet and seine). Coho salmon average 3.5% by fish and 5.9% by weight of the annual Alaska salmon harvest. The total North Pacific yields of the pink salmon, chum salmon and sockeye salmon are some 10–20 fold larger by weight.

Clackamas river coho do not bite

Game fish
In North America, coho salmon is a game fish in fresh and salt water from July to December, especially with light fishing tackle. It is one of the most popular sport fish in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and Canada. Its popularity is due in part to the reckless abandon which it frequently displays chasing bait and lure while in salt water, and the large number of coastal streams it ascends during its spawning runs. Its habit of schooling in relatively shallow water, and often near beaches, makes it accessible to anglers on the banks, as well as in boats.

It is also pursued by fly fishermen in salt water.

Nutritional value
Ocean-caught coho is regarded as excellent table fare. It has a moderate to high amount of fat, which is considered to be essential when judging taste. Only spring chinook and sockeye salmon have higher levels of fat in their meat. When smoking coho it is best to use a cold-smoking rather than hot-smoking process, due to their lower fat content compared to sockeye and chinook.

Cultural tradition
Historically coho, along with other species, has been a staple in the diet of several indigenous peoples, who would also use it to trade with other tribes farther inland. The coho salmon is also a symbol of several tribes, representing life and sustenance.

Ecology
In their freshwater stages, coho feed on plankton and aquatic invertebrates in the benthos and water column, such as Chironomids, midge larvae, and terrestrial insects that fall into the water. Upon entering the marine environment, they switch to a diet of plankton and fish, with fish making up most of their diets after a certain size. Adult coho feed on a vast variety of prey items that depend on the region they reside in during their second year at sea. Spawning habitats are small streams with stable gravel substrates.

Salmonid species on the west coast of the United States have experienced dramatic declines in abundance during the past several decades as a result of human-induced and natural factors.

Conservation

The U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) has identified seven populations, called Evolutionary Significant Units (ESUs), of coho salmon in Washington, Oregon and California. Four of these ESUs are listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). These are the Lower Columbia River (threatened), Oregon Coast (threatened), Southern Oregon and Northern California Coasts (threatened), and Central California Coast (endangered). The long-term trend for the listed populations is still downward, though there was one recent good year with an increasing trend in 2001.

The Puget Sound/Strait of Georgia ESU in Washington is an NMFS "Species of Concern". Species of Concern are those species for which insufficient information prevents resolving the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's concerns regarding status and threats and whether to list the species under the ESA.

On May 6, 1997, NMFS, on behalf of the Secretary of Commerce, listed as threatened the Southern Oregon/Northern California Coast coho salmon ESU. The coho salmon population in the Southern Oregon/Northern California region has declined from an estimated 150,000–400,000 naturally spawning fish in the 1940s to fewer than 10,000 naturally producing adults today. These reductions are due to natural and man-made changes, including short-term atmospheric trends (such as El Niño, which causes extremes in annual rainfall on the northern California coast), predation by the California sea lion and Pacific harbor seal, and commercial timber harvesting.

More than 680,000 coho salmon returned to Oregon in 2009, double that of 2007. The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife required volunteers to herd fish into hatchery pens. Some creeks were reported to have so many fish, "you could literally walk across on the backs of coho," claimed a Portland television station. Lower temperatures in 2008 North Pacific waters brought in fatter plankton, which, along with greater outflows of Columbia River water, fed the resurgent populations. The 2009 run was so large, food banks were able to freeze  for later use.

See also
 Pre-spawn mortality in coho salmon
 Inbreeding in fish

Footnotes

References

Technical reports
Use of three microhabitats by juvenile coho salmon in Jordan Creek during the winter, 2004-2005 / by Ryan J. Briscoe. Hosted by the Alaska State Publications Program.

External links

coho salmon
Salmon
Cold water fish
Fish of the Pacific Ocean
Fish of the United States
Freshwater fish of Japan
Western North American coastal fauna
Commercial fish
Sport fish
coho salmon
Taxa named by Johann Julius Walbaum

Coho salmon


The Bertrand Road suspension bridge crosses the Waitara River, linking Huirangi, near Lepperton and Tikorangi in north Taranaki, New Zealand. The original bridge was built in 1897, and rebuilt in 1927 (using an adapted form of the original design).

The original idea for the bridge was proposed by a Waitara councillor, Levi Sarten, as crossing the river to Tikorangi was proving treacherous, and road access to the area was poor. The bridge was subsequently built across the river in 1897, with a length of 210 feet, a width of 9 feet and at a cost of £695.

In the 1920s, the bridge was damaged by flooding, and was dismantled to build another crossing, using wood and steelwork from its predecessor. The second crossing opened in 1927, using a modified version of the original design, which made the bridge stronger and more wind resistant.

Over time, the bridge started to age, with height and weight restrictions imposed to extend its life. The bridge was eventually declared unsafe, and was closed to vehicular traffic in 1985. This resulted in a 16 kilometre detour. However, the bridge was still open for foot traffic and recreational use. Many attempts to reopen the bridge were unsuccessful, and the bridge became completely closed to all users in 2004.

A trust was set up to reopen the bridge, with a community fundraising scheme.  This included a "buy a plank" initiative, where a donation saw the donor's name engraved on the bridge. Further funding was received from the TSB Community Trust, and the New Zealand Lottery Environment and Heritage Committee.

Using as much of the old bridge design as possible, and after raising $630,000, the bridge was reopened to all traffic in June 2006. The bridge now has a central span of 61 metres and a maximum weight restriction of 4 tonnes.

References

External links
Puke Ariki - Taranaki Stories
IPENZ Heritage Newsletter
Cycling Advocates' New Zealand

Suspension bridges in New Zealand
Bridges completed in 1897
New Plymouth District
Bridges in Taranaki
1920s architecture in New Zealand

Bertrand Road suspension bridge


Emily Tennessee Donelson (June 1, 1807 – December 19, 1836) was the niece of President of the United States Andrew Jackson.  She acted as an unofficial First Lady of the United States from 1829 to 1836.

Emily Tennessee Donelson was born in Donelson, Tennessee. Her father's name was John Donelson. He was the brother of Rachel Donelson Jackson. Rachel Donelson Jackson later on married Andrew Jackson, the President. She studied at Nashville Female Academy in Nashville, Tennessee. She was a bright student and she got a very good education. At the age of seventeen, she married Andrew Jackson Donelson, called in short as A. J. Donelson.

With her husband, she came to the White House in 1829. At that time, she was just 21 years old. Her husband A. J. Donelson served as a secretary to the President Jackson. Her first months at the White House marked the mourning for the death of Rachel Donelson Jackson. The period of mourning ended when Emily gave a party at the White House on 1 January 1830.

She continued to act as the First Lady for few years.  She left the White House for some time. But, she returned again on the 5th September 1831. On 26 November 1834 Sarah Yorke Jackson, the President's daughter in law arrived at the White House. She also started to act as the First lady. It was the only time in the history of USA that two women acted at the same time as the First Lady.

In 1836, Emily's health became very weak. She was suffering from tuberculosis. In June 1836 she left the White House to recover and rest Tulip Grove, her plantation. She could not recover and died on the 19 December 1836.

1807 births
1836 deaths
First Ladies of the United States
Andrew Jackson

Emily Donelson


Training Day is a 2001 American crime drama thriller movie. It stars Denzel Washington and Ethan Hawke. Washington won an Academy Award for his leading role as psychopathic LAPD detective Alonzo Harris. It was distributed by Warner Bros.. It was also remade as a tv series in 2017 starring Bill Paxton.

Other websites

2001 drama movies
2000s crime drama movies
2001 crime thriller movies
2000s drama thriller movies
Academy Award winning movies
American crime drama movies
American crime thriller movies
American drama thriller movies
American gangster movies
Movies about police officers
Antisocial personality disorder in fiction
2000s English-language movies
Film noir
Movies set in Los Angeles
Movies directed by Antoine Fuqua
Movies adapted into television series

Training Day


This Other Eden is a satirical novel written by Ben Elton. As with Elton's other early novels, This Other Eden is a satire advocating greater environmentalism.

Plot introduction
The novel is set in the reasonably near future. Earth is being devastated by mankind's continued exploitation, and it seems obvious that the environment will collapse sometime in the near future. Rather than adopt a more eco-friendly approach to life, most people have instead invested in a "claustrosphere", a dome-shaped habitat in which all water, food and air is endlessly recycled in a completely closed environment. A person can therefore survive indefinitely within a claustrosphere no matter what ecological horrors may happen outside.

Plot summary

The bulk of the book focuses on a British writer, Nathan, who is attempting to sell an idea for a claustrosphere commercial to Plastic Tolstoy, owner and chief marketer of the company which builds them. The commercial represents a change in emphasis for the advertising campaign; up to now claustropheres have been sold as a kind of fall-back insurance, just in case the environment collapses. However, now that virtually everybody owns at least a basic model, sales are falling and the company is having to try and sell upgrade and improvement packages instead. The new advertising, therefore, attempts to convince people for the first time that the environment truly is doomed and they are inevitably going to have to live in their claustrospheres.

Tolstoy accepts Nathan's idea and assigns him to work with Max, a shallow and pretentious young actor. During a subsequent meeting with Tolstoy, Nathan makes a joking suggestion that it would be ironic if his company actually covertly sponsored the eco-terrorism movement led by Jurgen Thor, which despises the claustrosphere company since it represents, in their eyes, an abrogation of mankind's responsibility to care for the environment. Nathan is subsequently murdered as he plays a virtual reality game with Max. Max sets out to investigate the murder, falling in with Rosalie Connolly, an eco-terrorist working for Thor's organization.

Max ultimately discovers that Thor and Tolstoy are in fact partners. The eco-terrorists raids, whilst highly successful, never present more than a minor problem to the vast claustrosphere company, but do grab headlines and bring awareness of the looming eco-disaster into the public mind - prompting them to buy more claustrospheres. Tolstoy confesses that he has even geared his advertising campaign to work in perfect sync with the terrorists, with new commercials ready to roll out instantly after each attack.

After a confrontation between Max, Rosalie and Jurgen in which Jurgen is killed, Tolstoy decides to evade justice by leaking news indicating that the ecology is finally collapsing. The news is suddenly full of stories of environmental catastrophe, and people are told that they need to lock themselves in their claustrospheres for several decades. The "rat run", as it is termed, removes the large bulk of humanity from the world, effectively ending the current civilization. Ironically, one of the by-products of the vanishing of global society is that all industry ceases, ending further pollution of the environment. Freed of this burden, Earth begins to gradually recover from the damage inflicted to it.

1993 British novels
Dystopian novels
Satirical novels
Environmental fiction books
Novels by Ben Elton
Novels about writers
Simon & Schuster books

This Other Eden (Elton novel)


The Peace of Caltabellotta, signed on 31 August 1302, was the last of a series of treaties, including those of Tarascon and Anagni, designed to end the War of the Sicilian Vespers between the Houses of Anjou and Barcelona for ascendancy in the Mediterranean and especially Sicily and the Mezzogiorno.

The peace divided the old Kingdom of Sicily into an island portion and a peninsular portion. The island, called the Kingdom of Trinacria, went to Frederick III, who had been ruling it; the Mezzogiorno, called the Kingdom of Sicily contemporaneously, but called the Kingdom of Naples by modern scholarship, went to Charles II, who had been ruling it. Thus, the peace was formal recognition of an uneasy status quo.

The treaty also stipulated that Trinacria would pass to the Angevins on Frederick's death, but until then, Charles paid a tribute of 100,000 ounces of gold in exchange to Frederick. Immediately, in exchange, Frederick handed over all his possessions in Calabria and elsewhere on the mainland and released Charles' son Philip, Prince of Taranto, from his prison in Cefalù. As well, the marriage of Charles' daughter Eleanor to Frederick was arranged.

The consequences of this treaty meant that Roger de Flor and his Almogavars of the Catalan Company had to seek pay elsewhere. They took up service with the Byzantine emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus. One Bernat de Rocafort, an Almogàvar, did not want to return to Charles his two castles in Calabria until he was compensated with pay. He was captured and left to eventually die in an oubliette of Robert the Wise, Charles' successor, in 1309.

References

Sources

14th century in the Kingdom of Sicily
14th century in the Kingdom of Naples
1302 in Europe
Caltabellotta
Peace treaties of Italy
War of the Sicilian Vespers

Peace of Caltabellotta


Caribert of Laon, son of Martin of Laon, was the grandfather of Charlemagne. He was the father of Charles's mother, Bertrada of Laon. In 721, he signed, with his mother Bertrada of Prüm, the foundation act of the Abbey of Prüm. The same year, also with his mother, he made a donation to the Abbey of Echternach. In 744, his daughter Bertrada of Laon (by Bertrada of Cologne) married Pepin the Short, mayor of the palace of Neustria and Burgundy and later king of the Franks. He died before 762.

French nobility
7th-century births
760s deaths
Laon

Caribert of Laon


"Pon de Replay" is the debut single recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna, from her debut studio album Music of the Sun (2005). It was written and produced by Vada Nobles, Alisha "M'Jestie" Brooks, Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers. Her debut single, the song was released on May 24, 2005 as the lead single from the album. It is a dancehall, reggae and R&B song that means "play it again" in one of Barbadoss official langauges.

Info
The song peaked at number 2 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, becoming her first Top 5 single; it also peaked at number 1 in New Zealand, number 2 in the UK and at number 6 and number 7 in Australia and Canada, respectively. The beat for "Pon de Replay" was also used in Natasja Saad's hit "Mon de Reggae". Pon de Replay was also a major dance hit topping both the Hot Dance Music/Club Play and the Dance Radio Airplay chart for 2 weeks. It also performed well on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks charts peaking at #24; most of its chart points had been received from airplay from pop stations and from its digital downloads. In an unusual situation, the track reached #6 on the Hot Rap Tracks, an unlikely supporter of the song. On the non-Billboard chart, ARC Top 40, the track also hit #1. Pop girl group Girl Authority covered the song in 2006 for their debut album. The song was the 21st best sell of 2005 with 3,970,000 units sold.

The hit single, "Pon de Replay" was first made public in the mainstream media on March 17, 2005 by publicist, Jonathan Hay through co-producer Vada Nobles on MTV News.

Track listing
 CD single (European version)
 "Pon de Replay" (Radio edit) (Brooks, Alisha/Rogers, Evan/Sturken, Carl/Nobles, Vada) — 3:34
 "Pon de Replay" (Remix featuring Elephant Man) (Brooks, Alisha/Rogers, Evan/Sturken, Carl/Nobles, Vada) — 3:37

 CD maxi-single (European version)
 "Pon de Replay" (Brooks, Alisha/Rogers, Evan/Sturken, Carl/Nobles, Vada) — 3:36
 "Pon de Replay" (Cotto's Replay Dub) (Brooks, Alisha/Rogers, Evan/Sturken, Carl/Nobles, Vada) — 6:48
 "Pon de Replay" (Instrumental) (Brooks, Alisha/Rogers, Evan/Sturken, Carl/Nobles, Vada) — 4:05
 Extras:
"Pon de Replay" (Video) — 3:37

Music Video
In the music video, directed by Little X, Rihanna and her friends arrive at the club where everybody is bored and not dancing because of the low music. Rihanna steps up and sings the song, causing the DJ to turn the music up and everybody to start dancing. The music video also features Rihanna doing some belly dancing moves. The music video was also popular receiving much play from MTV and BET. It peaked at #2 on MTV's Total Request Live spending 37 days on the countdown; it was not able to retire due to the early introduction of the music video for her second single, "If It's Lovin' That You Want". The video reached #4 on BET's 106 & Park and remained on the countdown for over 20 days.

Covers & Parodies

"Weird Al" Yankovic covered part of the song in his polka medley Polkarama! from the album Straight Outta Lynwood.

References

2005 songs
Rihanna songs
Debut singles
Reggae songs
Dancehall songs
R&B songs

Pon de Replay


The River Alt is a river in the county of Merseyside in England just north of Liverpool. The river begins near Huyton and flows about 28 km northeast to empty into the Irish Sea at the town of Hightown. Other towns along the river include Kirkby, Maghull and Formby. There are 75 km of tributary feeding the river. About 250,000 people live in the area around the river. The northern part of the river forms the boundary between the counties of Merseyside and Lancashire.

Rivers of England
Merseyside

River Alt


Tar is a sticky black liquid made of thick oil. It is a natural substance, oozing out of the ground in places like the La Brea tar pits. Usually it is made by heating coal inside a chemical apparatus.

Most tar is produced from coal as a byproduct of coke production, but it can also be produced from petroleum, peat or wood. The "destructive distillation" of a ton of coal can produce 700 kg of coke, 100 litres of liquor ammonia, 50 litres of coal tar and 400 m3 of coal gas.

It used to be one of the products of gasworks. Tar made from coal or petroleum is considered toxic. It causes cancer because of its high benzene content. In low concentrations, however, tar is used as a medicine on the skin.

Tar kilns are dry distillation ovens, used in Scandinavia for producing tar from wood. They were built close to the forest, from limestone or from more primitive holes in the ground. The bottom is sloped into an outlet hole, to allow the tar to come out. The wood is split to dimensions of a finger and stacked densely, and finally covered tight with dirt and moss to stop air entering. On top of this, a fire is stacked and lit. After a few hours, the tar starts to pour out, and continues to do so for a few days.

Uses
Tar is used in treatment of the skin disease psoriasis, where coal tar is the most effective. Tar is a general disinfectant. Petroleum tar was also used in ancient Egyptian mummification circa 1000 BC.

Tar was a vital component of the first sealed, or "tarmac", roads. The streets of Baghdad were the first to be paved with tar from the 8th century AD. It was also used as seal for roofing shingles and to seal the hulls of ships and boats. For millennia wood tar was used to waterproof sails and boats, but today sails made from inherently waterproof synthetic substances have negated the need for tar. Wood tar is still used to seal traditional wooden boats and the roofs of historical shingle-roofed churches, as well painting exterior walls of log buildings.

Mixing tar with linseed oil varnish produces tar paint. Tar paint can be used to protect wood from weather. Tar paint can also be toned with various pigments, producing translucent colours and preserving the wood texture.

Related pages
Asphalt

References

Details history and uses of "Rangoon Tar"
Hydrocarbons
Natural materials

Tar


François Robert Velter (; 9 February 1909 – 27 April 1991), known by his pen-name Rob-Vel (), was a French cartoonist. He is best known for creating the character Spirou in 1938.

Biography

Like Spirou, Velter began his career as a lift attendant at age 16, in the London Ritz Charlton.  He later learned the trade as an assistant to American cartoonist Martin Branner on the Winnie Winkle strip from 1934 to 1936.

In 1938, Velter created the title character for the launch of a new magazine by Belgian publisher Éditions Dupuis, Le Journal de Spirou. Signed with the pen-name Rob-Vel, the story was titled Groom au Moustic–hôtel (Bellboy at the Hotel Mosquito, named after another of Dupuis magazines). Later the same year, he created Spirou's inseparable companion, the squirrel Spip, for the story L'héritage.

When Velter was drafted and wounded in 1940, his wife Davine (Blanche Dumoulin) took over the strip for a while.

After the war, Velter published a number of strips, including Le Père Pictou, Les Tribulations du Chien Petto, Bibor et Tribar and the newspaper comic M. Subito, but he was never able to reach the broad popularity of Spirou again.

References

 Rob-Vel publications in Le Journal de Spirou BDoubliées

External links

Rob-Vel biography on Lambiek Comiclopedia
Rob-Vel biography on non-official Spirou site

1909 births
1991 deaths
Writers from Paris
French comic strip cartoonists
French comics artists
French comics writers
Spirou et Fantasio
French male writers
20th-century French male writers

Robert Velter


Morgan Quitno Press is a research and publishing company founded in 1989 and based in Lawrence, Kansas. The company compiled annual reference books of US state and city statistics. Its primary volumes included State Rankings, Health Care State Rankings, Education State Rankings, Crime State Rankings, City Crime Rankings, and State Trends. In 2007, Morgan Quitno Press was acquired by CQ Press, a division of Congressional Quarterly Inc. CQ Press later was acquired by Sage Publications which incorporated the Morgan Quitno statistics into its Sage Stats database.

Products
State Rankings – comprehensive livability of each State. Annual Most Livable State Award is given to No. 1 State in this ranking.
Health Care State Ranking – limited to and more detailed in health care. No. 1 State is awarded annual Healthiest State Award each year.
Crime State Rankings – limited to and more detailed in crime. Best State is awarded annual Safest State Award while worst State is tabbed as Most Dangerous State.
Education State Rankings – limited to and more detailed in K-12 education. Best State is awarded annual Smartest State Award.
City Crime Rankings – city and metro area version of Crime State Rankings mentioned above. Safest City, Safest Metro, Most Dangerous City, and Most Dangerous Metro are ranked based on the data on this rankings.
State Trends – shows trend of each State data. Most Improved State decided based on the data.  Last edition was in 2007.

America's safest (most dangerous) cities

Evaluated cities and metro areas
Cities assessed – population of 75,000+
Metro areas assessed – all, as defined by US Census Bureau (no minimum population)

Assessed crimes
murder
rape
robbery
assault
burglary
automobile theft

Methodology
Calculate crime rate (number of cases per pop. 100,000) of each 6 crimes based on previous year's FBI data.
Compare these rates with U.S. average
Calculate Crime Index based on Morgan Quitno's equation.
Rank cities and metros by their Crime Index.

Criticism
The FBI recommends against use of its crime statistics for directly comparing cities as Morgan Quitno does in its "Most Dangerous Cities" rankings.  This is due to the many factors that influence crime, such as population density and the degree of urbanization, modes of transportation of highway system, economic conditions, and citizens' attitudes toward crime.

Cities of Illinois are not included in this ranking, due to a disparity in the way Illinois State police and the FBI report rape cases.  Other cities may be excluded because of lack of some data.

In October 2007 the American Society of Criminology, the U.S. Conference of Mayors, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation asked the publisher to reconsider promotion of the book – specifically, "their inaccurate and inflammatory press release labeling cities as 'safest' and 'most dangerous'" – because the rankings are "baseless and damaging."  In November 2007 the executive board of the American Society of Criminology (ASC) approved a resolution opposing the development of city crime rankings from FBI Uniform Crime Reports (UCRs).  The resolution states,
These rankings represent an irresponsible misuse of the data and do groundless harm to many communities [and] work against a key goal of our society, which is a better understanding of crime-related issues by both scientists and the public.

The U.S. Conference of Mayors criticized the "Most Dangerous Cities" list, saying the annual city-by-city crime rankings are "distorted and damaging to cities' reputations."   In addition, it noted specific flaws in the methodology, for instance, its weighting of murder as the same as auto theft.

In addition, the Conference criticized Quitno's "Most Dangerous Cities" ranking because it did not adjust rankings of cities with wide-area city limits, such as Houston and Jacksonville, compared to cities with smaller city territory, such as St. Louis and Atlanta.  Houston's apparent city crime statistics, for instance, are diluted because of lower crime in affluent areas within its broad city limits, whereas almost all the low-crime, affluent areas of the St. Louis metropolitan area are outside its much smaller city limits.  The city area constitutes only 12.5% of its metro area.  If data from adjacent suburbs were included in assessing crime in St. Louis city, its ranking would fall far down the dangerous cities list, with no actual change in number of individual crimes or personal safety.  Metro area, rather than city, rankings include all suburbs for all MSAs, and therefore could be considered more valid.

See also
 United States cities by crime rate

References

External links
 Official Website
 The U.S. Conference of Mayors Challenges City Crime Rankings

Book publishing companies of the United States
Companies based in Kansas

Morgan Quitno Press


Munio of Zamora, O.P.,  (1237 – 19 February 1300) was a Spanish Dominican friar who became the seventh Master General of the Dominican Order in 1285, and later a bishop.

Life

Spain
No details of Munio's early life are recorded, but he is assumed to have been born in Zamora. What is known of him comes from diverse sources, of varying value, and giving contradictory judgments. It would appear that he had a reputation of being an excellent administrator, when he was appointed as Prior Provincial of his native country in 1281. He was also known as being an ascetic man, practicing perpetual abstinence, though he also came to be known for his leniency towards those under his authority.

One notable difference he had from his predecessors was that he did not have the academic background which they did, never having studied at the great universities of Italy or France, and thus not having a Master's degree. Administration was his sole talent.

Master General
Munio, in his office as Prior Provincial, took part in the General Chapter of the Order, held in Bologna in 1285. When he was nominated as Master of the Order at that gathering, the French contingent of the Chapter objected to him based on his alleged lack of studies appropriate to the office. Nevertheless, the Chapter elected him.

The state of the Order as a whole at the time of Munio's election required a man of his gifts. The rapid growth of the Order had often been accomplished with minimal training of its new members. Discipline had become a major concern of Munio's predecessors, who issued frequent appeals to the friars and nuns of the Order to maintain the spirit of the Rule. Men were joining who claimed to have already the gift of preaching, and demanded to do so without any restrictions on the part of the Order.

In his first letter to the Order at large after his election, Munio issues a serious call to the friars and nuns to keep a spirit of poverty more strenuously, as well as an adherence to solitude and silence. He concludes:

The Third Order
Shortly after his election as Master, Munio promulgated the Rule of the Brothers and Sisters of Penance of the Blessed Dominic (Regula Fratrum et Sororum Ordinis de Paenitentiae Beati Dominici), which provided a rule of life (lasting into the 21st century) for the "penitent" laymen and women who had been leading lives inspired by the friars, long called the Third Order of St. Dominic. In the opening passages, the Rule lays down these prerequisites: "They must be filled with the utmost jealous, burning zeal, after their own fashion, for the truth of Catholic faith".

The Master of the Order thus offered an opportunity to lay people and secular clergy, who had been independent until then, to adopt a rule of life and to be placed under the jurisdiction of the Dominican Order, by making a promise of obedience to the Master General of the Order. The laity were here being given an ecclesiastical mission and were being placed at the service of the preaching of truth "in accordance with their own life".

With this formal incorporation into the structure of the Dominican Order, the groups of Dominican penitents began to grow and flourish. With their legitimization through their Rule, they were able to withstand the accusations of the Franciscans, who might have felt some competition with their own Third Order.

This was a major development in the life of the Order, and was taken upon his initiative. Thus Munio played a significant role in the history of the Dominican Order. There were consequences, however. Upon the ascension to the Throne of St. Peter, the Franciscan friar, Pope Nicholas IV, took Munio's legislation as a reason to edit the Dominican Rule in its entirety.

Resignation
After Nicholas' election, rumors and stories about Munio's past started to circulate in Rome. Among them were the charges that he had been elected thanks, in large part, to the manipulations and bribery of his patron, King Sancho IV of Castile.

It was further alleged that Munio was also in the background when Sancho had authorized a payment of 30,000 maravedís to Cardinal Ordoño in 1285, just one month after Munio had been elevated to Master General. This was to cover the fact that Munio, dissolute and violent, made an earlier appearance in an affair involving a monastery of Dominican nuns in the small provincial city of his hometown of Zamora, which had occasioned a canonical visitation by the Bishop of Zamora in 1279. The community of Dominican nuns was split into factions, and the Dominican friars were behaving like characters from the Decameron. The resulting depositions survive, to form the basis of a highly readable history by Peter Linehan (1997) that lays open more than just the social history of Dominican friars and nuns in 13th-century Castile. Following Munio, his friends and his enemies, from Zamora to the papal court over a twenty-year period, Linehan shows how events in a Castilian monastery could influence high politics in the medieval Church.

Despite the shaky foundations of the rumors, in 1289 Pope Nicholas chose to believe them, and made a personal appeal to Munio that he resign his office. Munio did not act on this request. Then came the General Chapter of 1290, in which Munio was re-elected, despite the allegations. The capitulars in attendance declared that Munio's reputation for abstinence was so well-founded that the only infractions were of such a nature that it would have involved morsels "without which life was not worth living". Seeing this support, the pope offered Munio the position of Archbishop of Compostella, if he were to resign. Munio's response was that he would remove himself from office, if that was the Holy Father's will. Pope Nicholas demurred from taking such a responsibility.

The pope's indecision did not last long, however, for, the following year (1291), Pope Nicholas, with the support of the Archbishop of Genoa, Jacobus de Voragine (the author of the Golden Legend), ordered that Munio be removed from his office. Nicholas did so in a papal bull dated April 12, 1291, which he sent to the General Chapter for that year, which was being held in Palencia, Spain. The dismissal was not carried out, as King Sancho attacked the convoy of the papal messengers and seized the bull. Nevertheless, in 1292 the pope dramatically demanded that his command to the Order be implemented.

Bishopric and death
Munio's career was rehabilitated in 1294, when he was appointed Bishop of Palencia, thanks to the interventions
of his protector, King Sancho. He had been in Palencia only two years, when, tired and disillusioned, he resigned his office and retired to the international motherhouse of the Order, the Monastery of Santa Sabina in Rome. It was there that he died on 19 February 1300. His body was entombed in the ancient Basilica of Santa Sabina.

Notes and references

External links
Mary Laven's detailed review of Peter Linehan, The Ladies of Zamora 1997
Peter Linehan article in History Today March 1997.
The Dominican Story: brief laudatory biography

1237 births
1300 deaths
Spanish Dominicans
Dominican bishops
13th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Castile
Bishops of Palencia
Burials at Santa Sabina
Masters of the Order of Preachers

Munio of Zamora


Audio crossover is an electric circuit that separates low and high audio frequencies in a signal. It is needed because very small loudspeakers (tweeters) would break if fed by low frequencies. Likewise, bigger speakers (subwoofers) are not able to play higher frequencies purely.

Audio crossovers are divided to passive or active crossovers. Typical components used with passive crossovers are capacitors inductors and resistors.  If passive crossover uses resistors to adjust loudness, those generate heat. Instead, active devices typically use resistors and capacitors with other audioelectronic components and those typically don't consume so much electric power. Also, active crossovers are easily built to be adjustable. Still, that doesn't mean that using passive crossover means low quality.

Other websites

Sound
Electronic circuits

Audio crossover


nyaéta tempat reureuh salila periode Edo di Jepang, ilaharna aya di salah sahiji Lima Rute Edo atawa dina sub-rutena. Biasa disebut ogé shukueki (宿駅). Tempat reureuh ieu nyaéta tempat keur nu indit-inditan bisa reureuh salila di jalan ngurilingan Jepang. Dimimitian dina périodeu Nara jeung Heian di Jepang, saterusna dijieun dumasar kana kawijakan pamaréntah.

Sajarah
Tempat reureuh ieu, mimiti diayakeun ku Tokugawa Ieyasu teu lila sanggeus Perang Sekigahara. Tempat reureuh mimiti dijieun sapanjang Tōkaidō (dituluykeun di rute Nakasendō sarta rute séjénna). Dina taun 1601, lima puluh tilu stasion Tōkaidō munggaran diwangun, sumebar ti Shinagawa-juku di Edo nepi ka Ōtsu-juku di Propinsi Omi. Teu sakabéh stasion dijieun dina waktu nu sarua, saperti stasion panungtung dijieun dina taun 1624.

Penginapan di tempat reureuh dipaké dipaké ku saha waé nu reureuh di éta tempat, lamun teu cukup, dipaké ogé di kota sabudureunna. Tempat reureuh toiyaba, honjin jeung sub-honjin bisa dipaké keur umum. It was hard to receive a profit as the proprietor of these places, but the shogun provided help in the form of various permits, rice collection and simple money lending, making it possible for the establishments to stay open. The hatago, retail stores, téa houses, etc., which were designed for general travelers, were able to build a profit. Ai no shuku were intermediate post stations; though they were unofficial resting spots, they had many of the same facilities.

Generally spéaking, as the Meiji period arrived and brought along the spréad of railroad, the number of travelers visiting these post stations gréatly declined, as did the prosperity of the post stations.

Fasilitas tempat reureuh
 Toiyaba: General offices that helped manage the post town.
 Honjin: Rest aréas and lodgings built for use by samurai and court nobles. Honjin were not businesses; instéad, large residences in the post towns were often designated as lodging for government officials.
 Sub-honjin: These facilities were also for use by samurai and court nobles, but general travelers could also stay here if there were vacancies.
 Hatago: Facilities that offered accommodations to general travelers and also served food.
 Kichinyado: Facilities that offered accommodations to general travelers, but did not serve food.
 Chaya: Rest aréas that sold téa, food and alcohol to travelers.
 Shops: General shops built to sell wares to travelers.
 Kōsatsu: Signboards on which the Shōgun's proclamations were posted.

Tempat reureuh nu diwangun deui jeung dijadikeun cagar budaya

Nationally-designated Architectural Preservation Sites
Aizu Nishi Kaidō's Ōuchi-juku (Shimogō, Minamiaizu District, Fukushima Prefecture)
Hokkoku Kaidō's Unno-juku (Tōmi, Nagano Prefecture)
Nakasendō's Narai-juku (Shiojiri, Nagano Prefecture)
Nakasendō's Tsumago-juku (Nagiso, Nagano Prefecture)
Tōkaidō's Seki-juku (Kameyama, Mie Prefecture)
Saba Kaidō's Kumagawa-shuku (Wakasa, Mikatakaminaka District, Fukui Prefecture)
Inaba Kaidō's Hirafuku-shuku (Sayō, Sayō District, Hyōgo Prefecture)
Inaba Kaidō's Ōhara-shuku (Mimasaka, Okayama Prefecture)
Inaba Kaidō's Chizu-shuku (Chizu, Tottori, Yazu District, Tottori Prefecture)
Tōkaidō's Ishibe-juku (Konan, Shiga Prefecture)

Tempo oge
Edo Five Routes
Ai no shuku
Castle town

Rujukan

Angkutan jalan raya di Jepang
Période Edo

Shukuba


The First Coast is a region of the U.S. state of Florida. It is in the northern part of the state. The First Coast includes five counties around Jacksonville: Duval, Clay, Nassau and St. Johns. Its name comes from a marketing campaign in the 1980s. It is also called Florida's First Coast.

Geography of Florida

First Coast


A Formula One car is a racing car used in Formula One races. They have one seat, which is open to the air. They have aerodynamic wings on their front and rear, and the engine is positioned behind the driver. The regulations governing the cars are unique to the Formula One championship. The regulations say that cars must be built by the racing teams themselves, though the design and manufacture can be done by others.

Technology
F1 Cars have technology to make them faster, more drag resistant and safer. Some of this technology is described below.

ERS

ERS stand for Energy Recovery Systems. There are two basic types of ERS systems - mechanical and electrical and both recover energy without using fuel and damaging the environment. The rule to use KERS was introduced by the FIA in 2009. It works by storing energy in a flywheel or battery (like the one on the right) that would be lost when braking, and allow that energy to be re-used when accelerating. ERS was introduced in 2014 to activate wherever a driver chose permanently throughout a race weekend

Traction Control

This is used a lot in corners because it controls the wheel spin when under and over steering. They mean simply to which end of the car runs out of grip first as the tyres only have limited amount of grip. In an under steer, the front axle and wheels runs out of grip first and in Over steer the rear end runs out first. When this happens it is like a handbrake skid. Traction Control is the device that tries to keep the car stable by adjusting the wheel movement in these turns.

DRS

DRS stands for Drag Reduction System. It is an addition to the rear wing of the car introduced in 2011 Formula 1 season aimed at reducing aerodynamic drag in order to promote overtaking. It is used when a driver is close to somebody in front of him. He will be able to open the rear wing so the car becomes more streamline and aerodynamic so he can overtake his opponent. The device is then disabled as soon as he overtakes his opponent.

Materials
Formula One teams do much research into materials. Below are list of materials used in the F1 world, what they are, what they do, where they're placed and why F1 teams choose them over everything else.

Carbon fibre
Carbon fibre is a very strong and light material that contains carbon fibres. It may sometimes contain other fibres such as Kevlar, aluminium and glass. Although it has a very big price tag, its strength to weight ratio and the good rigidity of it make it a very valuable piece of material. However as is it gets cheaper it is being used in much smaller products like sports equipment, bodies for instruments and also household objects.

Carbon fibre is most commonly used in the bodywork of an F1 car and also the air box, the wings, the engine cover, steering wheel and in the suspension. It is sometimes reinforced with titanium or steel.

It is used over every other kind of material because it's lightweight, very strong, very stiff and can easily be moulded into any shape.

Kevlar
Kevlar is another fibre like carbon. Some of its properties are very similar. Kevlar is a very strong and lightweight material. If you have an equal amount of steel and Kevlar, Kevlar would be 5 times stronger than the steel. When it is woven, it is suitable to be underwater. Kevlar is also used by the army as it is a very sturdy material and it is used to make a range of items like helmets.

Kevlar is used in pretty much the same areas as carbon fibre is used. For example it is used in the bodywork, the wings, the suspension and more.

Kevlar is an extremely firm material. As F1 cars go at high speed it adds extra protection to drivers and stops massive damage being done to the cars.

Aluminium
Aluminium is an element. It is very light and hard. It is often used for ships so that ship doesn't get corroded and it is very stable due to its oxide coating. Aluminium is used in the bodywork and almost every single part of an F1 car. Aluminium is used because it is extremely light and very strong.

Magnesium
Magnesium is another chemical element and is very light and strong. Its main use is to combine with aluminium to make alloys which are extremely light and strong, such as magnalium. It is used mainly in the wheels and some small parts in the engines.

Hydrodynamic gold foil
hydrodynamic gold foil is a type of foil which is gold coloured and stops heat from escaping. It is used between the engine and fuel tank. It is used in that certain position so it can stop heat transfer from the engine to the fuel tank.

References

Formula One

Formula One car


"E Ola Ke Alii Ke Akua" ('God Save the King') was one of the four national anthems of the Hawaiian Kingdom. It was composed in 1860 by then 25-year-old Prince William Charles Lunalilo, who later became King Lunalilo. Prior to 1860, Hawai'i lacked its own national anthem and had used the British royal anthem "God Save the King". A contest was sponsored in 1860 by Kamehameha IV, who wanted a song with Hawaiian lyrics set to the tune of the British anthem. The winning entry was written by Lunalilo and was reputed to have been written in 20 minutes. Lunalilo was awarded 10 dollars which he later donated to the Queen's Hospital. His composition became Hawaii's first national anthem. It remained Hawaii's national anthem for 6 years until 1866, when it was replaced by Queen Liliʻuokalani's composition "He Mele Lāhui Hawaiʻi".

"E Ola Ke Aliʻi Ke Akua"

References

Symbols of Hawaii
Historical national anthems
Songs in Hawaiian
Royal anthems
Oceanian anthems
1860 establishments in Hawaii
God Save the King

E Ola Ke Aliʻi Ke Akua


The Australian Antarctic Territory (AAT) is the part of Antarctica claimed by Australia and is the largest part of Antarctica claimed by any nation. The area is about 6.119.818 km². Only the staff of research stations live in the territory.

History
Victoria Land was first claimed for Britain on 9 January 1841 and Britain claimed Enderby Land in 1930. In 1933, a British imperial order transferred territory south of 60° S and between meridians 160 E and 45 E to Australia. On 13 February 1954  , Mawson Station was set up. It was the first Australian station on the continent proper.

Australia's claim to sovereignty over the Australian Antarctic Territory is recognised by the United Kingdom, New Zealand, France and Norway  . As Australia is part of the Antarctic Treaty System, which accommodates differences of opinions over the status of Antarctic territorial claims which pre-dated the 1959 Antarctic Treaty - effectively placing claims in abeyance - Australia only exercises its sovereignty in ways that in its view are consistent with good relations under the Antarctic Treaty.

Postage stamps

Australia issues postage stamps for the Australian Antarctic Territory. The first issues came in 1957, and sporadically thereafter, settling into a pattern of an annual issue by the 1990s. All have been Antarctic-themed, and all are valid for postage in Australia, so in practice they are just Australian stamps with a different inscription.

Telephone connections
Assigned the country calling code +672, four Antarctic bases operated by Australia can be reached by direct calling from anywhere in the world. The area codes are 10-6 for Davis, 11-7 for Mawson, 12-8 for Casey and 13-9 for Macquarie Island, in each case followed by three additional digits.

Other websites

 Australian Antarctic Division
 PDF-Map of the AAT
 Australian Antarctic Gazetteer
 Russian stations

Commonwealth dependent states
States and territories of Australia
Antarctic territorial claims
Postage stamps

Australian Antarctic Territory


The Charleston is a dance, which became popular in the 1920s. It is named after the city of Charleston, South Carolina. A song called The Charleston, composed in 1923 made it popular. This song was part of the Broadway musical Running Wild. In Europe, Josephine Baker made the Charleston popular, starting in 1925. Charleston is associated with Flappers who danced it in Speakeasy bars, to mock themselves about the prohibition of alcohol, which was in force in the US, in the 1920s. For this reason, dancing Charleston was seen as provocative.

Dance types

Charleston (dance)


On 5 Juin, 2004, Ronald Reagan, the 40th Preses o the Unitit States, died efter haein suffered frae Alzheimer's disease for awmaist 10 years. A seiven-day state funeral for Reagan wis held shortly efter his daith.

His casket wis displayed at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, Californie, then flewn tae Washington, D.C. on Juin 9 for a service, public viewing and tributes at the U.S. Capitol.

The state funeral wis executed bi the Military District of Washington (MDW) and wis the first syne the funeral of Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973. Richard Nixon, who lead ower Johnson's funeral, declined tae hae a state funeral in 1994.

His funeral wis held on 11 Juin, 2004. He wis buried at the Reagan Presidential Library.

References

2004
Ronald Reagan
State funerals

Daith and state funeral o Ronald Reagan


Paranasal sinuses are parts of the nasal cavity. They are usually counted to be part of the respiratory system. They are mucous membranes, which are mostly inside bones. These bones are then filled with air, which makes the skull look bigger, without adding much extra weight. Prenasal cavities can be found in mammals, most birds, dinosaurs, and crocodilians.

Since sinuses are in virtually all land vertebrates, they must have a function. They are covered with a mucosa, epidermal cells which are moist and make mucus. This moistens and warms the air on its way into the lungs. The mucus also picks up particles which come in with the air. A variety of possible functions have been proposed:

 Decreasing the relative weight of the front of the skull, and especially the bones of the face.
 Increasing resonance of the voice.
 Providing a buffer against face damage.
 Insulating sensitive structures like dental roots and eyes from rapid temperature fluctuations in the nasal cavity.
 Humidifying and heating of inhaled air because of slow air turnover in this region.
 Regulation of intranasal and serum gas pressures.
 Immunological defence.

References

Head (body part)

Paranasal sinuses


Beatles for Sale is The Beatles' fourth album.  It was released in late 1964. Many of its songs went into an American release, Beatles '65, from Capitol Records, while the rest went into Beatles VI, a compilation album.

John Lennon and Paul McCartney, who wrote most of the band's songs, had filled their earlier album, A Hard Day's Night, with original songs. The band began recording their next album only a week after finishing A Hard Day's Night, and they had little time to compose new music. The band filled the album with cover versions, of songs they had performed live in Hamburg, Germany and the Cavern in Liverpool, their hometown, before the Beatles were famous. Press agent Derek Taylor explained in the album's liner notes that all the recordings on Beatles for Sale were how the band played the music onstage.

The original songs on the album were praised, for showing Lennon and McCartney had grown and improved as writers. "I'm A Loser" was compared to Bob Dylan's work. "I'll Follow The Sun" was an early song, that was given a rewrite. "What You're Doing" imitated the musical style of The Byrds, who were just becoming popular.

Several live versions of the album's songs have since appeared, that the Beatles played in Germany, and for BBC Radio.

Album songs
"No Reply" +
"I'm a Loser" +
"Baby's in Black" +
"Rock and Roll Music" (Chuck Berry) +
"I'll Follow the Sun" +
"Mr. Moonlight" (Roy Lee Johnson) +
"Kansas City" (Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller)/"Hey, Hey, Hey, Hey" (Richard Penniman) ++
"Eight Days a Week" ++
"Words of Love" (Buddy Holly) ++
"Honey Don't" (Carl Perkins) +
"Every Little Thing" ++
"I Don't Want to Spoil the Party" ++
"What You're Doing" ++
"Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby" (Carl Perkins) +

All songs by Lennon/McCartney, unless credited differently

+ Also appeared on Beatles '65 in the United States
++ Also appeared on Beatles VI

The Beatles albums
1964 albums
Rock and roll albums
Folk albums

Beatles for Sale


Corriechatachan (Gaelic for "Corrie of the wild cats") is a farmstead (now ruined), lying at the foot of Beinn na Caillich, near Broadford, on the Isle of Skye. Until the 19th century, it was a tack farmed by a cadet branch of the Clan Mackinnon. Notable visitors included Thomas Pennant, in the course of the travels that resulted in the publication of A Tour of Scotland in 1769, and Samuel Johnson and James Boswell, on their tour of the Highlands.

Johnson and Boswell
On their first visit, Johnson said: "From Armidel (Armadale) we came at night to Coriatachan, a house very pleasantly situated between two brooks, with one of the highest hills of the island behind it.  It is the residence of Mr. Mackinnon, by whom we were treated with very liberal hospitality, among a more numerous and elegant company than it could have been supposed easy to collect."

Boswell recorded that; "Dr Johnson was much pleased with his entertainment here. There were many good books in the house: Hector Boethius in Latin; Cave's Lives of the Fathers; Baker's Chronicle; Jeremy Collier's Church History; Dr Johnson's small Dictionary; Craufurd's Officers of State, and several more…"

On their second visit, Boswell recorded, "This evening one of our married ladies, a lively pretty little woman, good-humouredly sat down upon Dr Johnson's knee, and, being encouraged by some of the company, put her hands round his neck, and kissed him. 'Do it again,' said he, 'and let us see who will tire first.' He kept her on his knee some time, while he and she drank tea. He was now like a BUCK indeed. All the company were much entertained to find him so easy and pleasant. To me it was highly comick, to see the grave philosopher--the Rambler--toying with a Highland beauty! But what could he do? He must have been surly, and weak too, had he not behaved as he did. He would have been laughed at, and not more respected, though less loved."

Legacy

The Mackinnons occupied the house until about the year 1790 at which time they relocated to Corry Lodge in Broadford. The remains are now used as a sheep fank.

References
Thomas Pennant, A Tour in Scotland in 1769 (1771)
Samuel Johnson, A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland (1775)
James Boswell, The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides (1785)

History of the Scottish Highlands
Buildings and structures in the Isle of Skye
Clan Mackinnon

Corriechatachan


The viola d'amore is a string instrument which was popular in the 17th and 18th century. It is a kind of viola. The name is Italian and means "viola of love". It can have 6 or 7 strings. It is held under the chin and bowed like a violin. Sometimes it is used today to play music from the 17th and 18th centuries. Occasionally some modern composers have also written music for it.

Structure and sound
The viola d'amore is about the same size as a modern viola. However, the shape is more like the shape of a viol. Like viols, it has a flat back, a wide rib (the sides), sloping shoulders and a carved head at the top of the peg box. It does not have any frets (markings on the fingerboard) like a viol or a guitar. The sound-holes are often in the shape of a flaming sword.

The viola d'amore usually has six or seven playing strings which are played with the bow, just as with a violin. In addition, it has the same number of sympathetic strings. These are strings which vibrate when the other strings are played, making the sound richer and sweeter.

The notes it can play

The viola d'amore was often tuned to whatever notes were best for the piece it was to going to play. This is a kind of scordatura (changing the way the strings are tuned). Towards the end of the 18th century the usual tuning became: A, d, a, d', f#', a', d'' (see music example. Notice the example uses the "viola clef")

Use

The viola d'amore became very popular during the 17th century. However, after a time it became less popular because the instruments of the viol family were not used much while the instruments of the violin family took over. The viola d'amore was too quiet and sweet to play with the modern violin family. However, in the 20th century some composers have written for the instrument again, e.g. Paul Hindemith.

The viola d'amore can regularly be heard today in groups who play Baroque music on period instruments. It can be heard, for example in Bach's St John Passion.

References
 Grove Music Online (subscription)

String instruments
Early musical instruments

Viola d'amore


George Berkeley (12 March 1685 – 14 January 1753), or Bishop Berkeley, was an Irish bishop and philosopher.

Berkeley was one of the three 'British Empiricists', philosophers around the late 1600s and 1700s who believed in 'empiricism', the philosophy that everything we learn comes through our senses. The other British Empiricists included the Englishman John Locke and Scotsman David Hume.

Philosophy
His philosophy was called "immaterialism", or "subjective idealism". His idealism said that all our ideas came through sensations, but our senses didn't tell us anything about the world.

He said that Locke's belief in matter was wrong. He said that even though we can see, hear, taste, touch and smell, there was no way of knowing that our senses were reacting to matter, because to find out how accurate our senses were, we would need to study the very thing we use to study. Instead, he said that our experiences are caused by God, a being that is also a mind, like us, and powerful enough to create all our ideas and senses.

Life
Berkeley was born at his family home, Dysart Castle, near Thomastown, County Kilkenny, Ireland. He was educated at Kilkenny College and attended Trinity College, Dublin, completing a Master's degree in 1707.

Bibliography
Philosophical Commentaries (1707–08, notebooks)
An Essay towards a New Theory of Vision (1709)
A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, Part I (1710)
Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous (1713)
De Motu (Berkeley's essay)|De Motu (1721)
Alciphron: or the Minute Philosopher (1732)
The Theory of Vision or Visual Language … Vindicated and Explained (1733)
The Analyst (1734)
The Querist (1735–37)
Siris (1744)

Notes

Other websites

A list of the published works by and about Berkeley as well as online links
A bibliography on George Berkeley
More easily readable versions of Principles of Human Knowledge, Three Dialogues, and Alciphron
An extensive compendium of online resources, including a gallery of Berkeley's images

1685 births
1753 deaths
Irish philosophers

George Berkeley


A brig is a sailing ship with two square-rigged masts. During the Age of Sail, brigs were seen as fast and maneuverable. They were used as both naval warships and merchant vessels. Even after the sailing age ended they were used as training ships. The brig was one of the smaller two-masted sailing ships. They popular in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Brigs fell out of use with the arrival of the steam ship because they required a relatively large crew for their small size. They were also difficult to sail into the wind.  They are not to be confused with a brigantine, which has different rigging (a brigantine has a gaff-rigged mainsail, while a brig has a square mainsail with an additional gaff-rigged spanker behind the mainsail). A brig is different from a three-masted ship because it only has two masts.

Rigging
In sailing, a full-rigged brig is a vessel with two square rigged masts (called the fore and main). The main mast of a brig is the aft (rear) one. To improve maneuverability, the mainmast carries a small (gaff rigged) fore-and-aft sail.

Brig sails are named after the masts to which they are attached. Those attached to the main mast are called the mainsail; above that the main topsail and above that the main topgallant sail. Occasionally a very small sail, called the royal, is above that. Behind the mainsail there is a small fore-and-aft sail called the spanker or boom mainsail (it is similar to the main sail of a schooner). On the foremast is a similar sail, called the trysail. Attached to the respective yards of square-rigged ships are smaller spars. These can be extended, which lengthens the yard. This allows it to receive an additional sailing wing on each side. These are called studding sails. They are used with fair and light wind only. The wings are named after the sails to which they are fastened. For example, the main studding sails, main top studding sails, and the main top gallant studding sails, etc.

The brig's foremast is smaller than the main mast. The fore mast holds a foresail, fore topsail, fore top gallant sail, and fore royal. Between the fore mast and the bowsprit are the fore staysail, jib, and flying jib. All the yards are manipulated by a complicated arrangement of cordage named the running rigging. This is opposed to the standing rigging which is fixed, and keeps mast and other objects rigid. Traditionally the running rigging was easily recognized. This was because, for flexibility, it was not coated with tar and therefore of a lighter color. The standing rigging was tarred for protection from weather and therefore darker or even black in color.

Hull
A brig is "generally built on a larger scale than a schooner. It could approach the size of a full-sized, three-masted ship." Brigs varried in length between 75 and 165 ft (23–50 m) with tonnages up to 480. Historically, most brigs were made of wood. However some later brigs were built with hulls and masts of steel or iron. Brigs with pine hulls were built in the 19th century. They was designed to last for about twenty years although many lasted longer.

Historic usage
Brigs were used as small warships carrying about 10 to 18 cannons. Due to their speed and maneuverability they were popular among pirates (though they were rare among American and Caribbean pirates). Their use stretches back before the 17th century. However one of the most famous periods for the brig was during the 19th century when they were involved in famous naval battles such as the Battle of Lake Erie. In the early 19th century the brig was a standard cargo ship. It was seen as "fast and well sailing", but required a large crew to handle its rigging. While brigs could not sail into the wind as easily as fore-and-aft–rigged vessels such as schooners a skilled brig captain could "manoeuvre it with ease and elegance; a brig could for instance turn around almost on the spot". A brig's square-rig also had the advantage over a fore-and-aft–rigged vessel when travelling in the open ocean. When fore-and aft rigged vessels sailed downwind for extended distances and where "the danger of a sudden jibe was the large schooner-captain's nightmare". This trait later led to the evolution of the barquentine. The need for large crews in relation to their smaller size led to the decline of the production of brigs. They were replaced in commercial traffic by gaff sail schooners (which needed smaller crews) and steam boats (which did not have the windward performance problems of square rigged ships).

The Telos, built in Bangor, Maine in 1883, was reportedly the last brig to join the American merchant marine. It was "considered to be the finest vessel of her class ever constructed in Maine".  She was wrecked on Aves Island, off Bonaire in the Caribbean, in 1900.

References

Sailing ships

Brig


The United States is a federal constitutional republic, in which the President of the United States (the head of state and head of government), Congress, and judiciary share powers reserved to the national government, and the federal government shares sovereignty with the state governments.

The Constitution of the United States provides for a separation of powers among three branches. The executive branch is mostly about the President and is independent of the legislature. Legislative power is in the two chambers of Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives.

The judicial branch (or judiciary), made of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts, focuses on the judicial power (or judiciary). The judiciary's main focus is to interpret the meaning of the United States Constitution and federal laws and rules. This includes solving problems between the executive and legislative branches.

Political parties

Two political parties, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party have been the main participants in American politics since the American Civil War. There are also smaller parties like the Libertarian Party, the Green Party, and the Constitution Party.  The Whig Party, the Federalist Party, and the Democratic-Republican Party were important many years ago.

Political differences
There are major differences between the political system of the United States and that of most other developed democracies. These include greater power in the upper house of the legislature, a wider scope of power held by the Supreme Court, the separation of powers between the legislature and the executive, and the dominance of only two main parties. Third parties have less political influence in the United States than in other developed country democracies.

The federal object created by the U.S. Constitution is the main feature of the American governmental system. However, most people are also subject to a state government, and all are subject to various units of local government. The latter include counties, municipalities, and special districts.

The federal government was created by the states, which as colonies were established separately and governed themselves independently of the others. Units of local government were created by the colonies to carry out various state functions. As the country expanded, it admitted new states modeled on the existing ones.

State leaders
The USA is a federal union of fifty states. They have governors and legislatures to govern and make their laws. Each state also has two senators who represent their state in the United States Senate. There are also representatives who represent their local district in the United States House of Representatives.

President of the United States

The President of the United States is the head of state of the United States. They are elected by the American citizens every four years in democratic elections. They also appoint people who will work in different departments that focuses on special areas for the country.

References

Other websites

 Official Democratic Party Web Site
 Official Republican Party Web Site
 Official Green Party Web Site
 Official Libertarian Party Web Site
 Official Constitution Party Web Site

Politics of the United States


Oldham is a town in the North West of England. It is to the north-east of Manchester. It is part of Greater Manchester. Oldham was part of Lancashire until 1 April 1974.

There were riots in Oldham in May 2001. It is the centre of the Borough of Oldham.

Oldham Council achieved dubious notoriety in 2009 when in ran up a bill of £8 million carrying out a failed prosecution of kitchen tycoon Vance Miller. The Judge threw out the case and lambasted the council for the frivolity of the prosecution.

The town has an association football team, called Oldham Athletic. It also has a cricket club, called Oldham Cricket Club.

The composer, William Walton was born in Oldham.

The first test tube baby, Louise Joy Brown, was born in Oldham General Hospital on 25 July 1978.

Schools
 The Blue Coat School
 Crompton House
 Hulme Grammar School
 Saddleworth School

Other websites
 Oldham Council

Oldham