Susan Polgar (born 19 April 1969 as Polgár Zsuzsanna and often known as Zsuzsa Polgár) is a Hungarian-American chess player.

At 15, she was the top-ranked woman player in the world. She was the Women's World Chess Champion from 1996 to 1999. In October 2005 Polgar had a FIDE rating of 2577, making her the second-ranked woman in the world at the time, after her sister Judit Polgár. She has been inactive and has not played in official competition since 2004.

Polgar is head of the Susan Polgar Institute for Chess Excellence at Texas Tech University, and a chess writer and promoter. She had been on the Executive of the United States Chess Federation, but was stripped of her membership after a complicated internal struggle.

Susan was born and brought up in Budapest, Hungary, and now lives in Lubbock, Texas. She recently moved from Forest Hills, Queens in New York City, where she ran the Polgar Chess Center and the Susan Polgar Foundation, which gives chess training to children, especially girls.

Chess career

Polgar and her two younger sisters, Judit and Sofia, were part of an educational experiment carried out by their father László Polgár. He and his wife Klara educated their three daughters at home, with chess as the specialist subject.

In January 1991, Polgar became the third woman to earn the Grandmaster title. Much is made, by her supporters, of the fact that Polgar had got the three GM norms and a rating over 2500. Nona Gaprindashvili was awarded the Grandmaster title in 1978 mainly as a result of winning Lone Pine International 1977, but she did not quite make the usual 24 games required at that time. Maia Chiburdanidze was awarded the GM title in 1984 for winning at New Delhi (1984), and for beating Nona Gaprindashvili and two others in matches for the Women's World Chess Championship. However, before Polgar reached the title, Chiburdanidze had more than achieved the traditional GM qualifications by her performances at Banja Luka and Bilbao.

Polgar had tended to avoid women-only tournaments, but she abandoned this when she entered the 1993 cycle for the Women's World Championship. She became the Women's World Champion at her second attempt in 1996. Two years later, her title defense against Xie Jun of China was scheduled to take place in November, 1998. However, Polgar requested a postponement because she was pregnant and also FIDE had been unable to find a satisfactory sponsor. Ultimately, in 1999, a match was arranged, but under conditions to which Polgar objected – firstly because she had recently had a child, and had not had sufficient time to recuperate, and secondly because the match was to be held entirely in China, the home country of her challenger. She also wanted a significantly larger prize fund.

When Polgar refused to play under these conditions, FIDE declared that she had forfeited the title, and instead organized a match between Xie Jun and Alisa Galliamova for the Women's World Chess Championship, which was won by Xie Jun. Polgar sued in the Court of Arbitration for Sport in Lausanne, Switzerland for monetary damages and the restoration of her title. In March 2001, the case was settled, with Polgar withdrawing her claims and FIDE agreeing to pay Polgar's attorney's fees in the amount of $25,000. Since Xie Jun had already been crowned Women's World Champion, FIDE could not restore the title to Polgar. Polgar has not participated in subsequent Women's World Championship cycles.

Paid substantial appearance fees by the Hungarian Chess Federation,p106 the family did play together in two female-only events. The Hungarians (nicknamed 'Polgaria') won the Women's Chess Olympiads, with a team packed with Polgárs, in 1988 and 1990.p106; 156 Zsuzsa, Judit, Sofia (the least strong sister) and Ildiko Madl were the team which pushed the Soviet Union into second place for the first time.

American career
The United States Chess Federation named Polgar "Grandmaster of the Year" in 2003, the first time a woman has won that honor. In that same year (2003), Polgar also became the first woman to win the US Open Blitz Championship, against a field which included seven grandmasters. She won that title again in 2005 and in 2006.

She helped train and played the top board for the United States women's team at the 2004 Chess Olympiad held in October in Majorca, Spain. Overall, the team won the silver medal, and Polgar won an individual gold medal. This was not her first Olympiad: she has a total of ten Olympiad Medals (five Gold, four Silver, and one Bronze). She has played 56 games in the Olympiads, never losing a single game.

Personal life
In 1994, Polgar married computer consultant Jacob Shutzman, and moved to New York. They had two sons, Tom  and Leeam, but later divorced. In December 2006, she married her longtime business manager and friend, Paul Truong.

Author
Polgar has written several books:
Queen of the Kings game (as Zsuzsa Polgar; with Jacob Shutzman) (1997)
Teach yourself chess in 24 Hours (2003)
A world champion's guide to chess (with Paul Truong) (2005)
Breaking through (2005)
Chess tactics for champions (2006)

Polgar is also a chess journalist, with columns in Chess Life, Chess Life for Kids, ChessCafe, Chess Horizons, Georgia Chess, Chessville, Empire Chess, School Mates, and Europe Echecs.

References

Other websites

Susan Polgar Institute for Chess Excellence (SPICE)
Polgar's blogs for her Chess Center, Chess, Girls and Chess for Peace

1969 births
Living people
American chess players
Hungarian chess players
Hungarian Jews
Jewish American sportspeople
Sportspeople from Budapest
Chess grandmasters

Susan Polgar


Specific gravity, in the context of clinical pathology, is a urinalysis parameter commonly used in the evaluation of kidney function and can aid in the diagnosis of various renal diseases.

Background

One of the main roles of the kidneys in humans and other mammals is to aid in the clearance of various water-soluble molecules, including toxins, toxicants, and metabolic waste.  The body excretes some of these waste molecules via urination, and the role of the kidney is to concentrate the urine, such that waste molecules can be excreted with minimal loss of water and nutrients. The concentration of the excreted molecules determines the urine's specific gravity. In adult humans, normal specific gravity values range from 1.010 to 1.030.

Specific gravity and disease
Adults generally have a specific gravity in the range of 1.010 to 1.030. Increases in specific gravity (hypersthenuria, i.e. increased concentration of solutes in the urine) may be associated with dehydration, diarrhea, emesis, excessive sweating, urinary tract/bladder infection,  glucosuria, renal artery stenosis, hepatorenal syndrome, decreased blood flow to the kidney (especially as a result of heart failure), and an excess of antidiuretic hormone caused by the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion. A specific gravity greater than 1.035 is consistent with frank dehydration.  In neonates, normal urine specific gravity is 1.003.  Hypovolemic patients usually have a specific gravity >1.015.

Decreased specific gravity (hyposthenuria, i.e. decreased concentration of solutes in urine) may be associated with renal failure, pyelonephritis, diabetes insipidus, acute tubular necrosis, interstitial nephritis, and excessive fluid intake (e.g., psychogenic polydipsia).

Osmolality is normally used for more detailed analysis, but USG remains popular for its convenience.

References

Urine tests
Laboratory techniques

Urine specific gravity


Villa Badoer is a villa in Fratta Polesine in the Veneto region of northern Italy. It was designed in 1556 by Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio for the Venetian noble Francesco Badoer, and built between 1557 and 1563 on the site of a medieval castle, which guarded a bridge across a navigable canal. This was the first time Palladio used his fully developed temple pediment in the façade of a villa.

Villa Badoer has been part since 1996 of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto".

The building is open to the public and one of the wings houses the Museo archeologico nazionale di Fratta Polesine, opened in 2009.

History

In 1554, on the southern border of the Venetian Republic's territories, in the flat and foggy country of Polesine, Palladio designed a villa for the Venetian noble Francesco Badoer, intended to become the epicentre of the vast agricultural estate of almost five hundred fields that he had inherited six years previously.

Constructed and inhabited in 1556, the villa therefore functioned for the management of the fields and was simultaneously a visible sign of the "feudal" presence, so to speak, of Badoer in the territory: it is not coincidental that the building rises on the site of an ancient medieval castle. Palladio succeeded in uniting within one effective synthesis these dual meanings, joining the majestic manor house to the two barchesse (farm wings) bent into semicircles, which screen the stables and other agricultural annexes.

The project by Palladio

There are no surviving drawings by Palladio relating to Villa Badoer, nor any building accounts, except those published by the architect in his I quattro libri dell'architettura (1570).

Probably as a result of exploiting the substructures of the medieval castle, the manor house of the villa rises on a high basement, and recalls precedents like the Villa Medici at Poggio a Caiano by Giuliano da Sangallo, and the not far distant Villa dei Vescovi at Luvigliano by Giovanni Maria Falconetto. Building on the old foundations saved money, and gave a slightly raised setting to the building. This manoeuvre rendered necessary a scenographic staircase of several flights leading to the front door of the villa, the main descending to the courtyard and the two lateral ones connecting with the gable-ends of the barchesse. Thus, the ensemble recalls the structures of an antique, terraced temple complex.

The elegant curvilinear barchesse are the only ones that were realised by Palladio from the many projected (for example, those for the Villa Mocenigo on the Brenta, the Villa Thiene at Cicogna or the Villa Trissino at Meledo) and their shape – as Palladio writes – recalls arms opening to receive the visitor; the relevant antique source was very probably the exedrae of the Temple of Augustus in Rome. These originally housed agricultural activities, for this was a working villa, like Villa Emo and most of the villas by Palladio. Unusual among Palladio's completed works, the wings here do not touch the villa, and they are set slightly in front of it. Vasari thought that they were beautiful, and even fantastic.

On the barchesse Palladio used the Tuscan order, appropriate to their utilitarian function and for the opportunity they afforded of realising very broad intercolumniations, which would not impede carriage access. Instead, the villa's loggia displays an elegant Ionic order, to emphasise its residential, manorial status. The visual focus of the entire complex was centred precisely on the dominant axis of the great triangular pediment supported by Ionic columns, which bears the family arms, such that the villa's flanks and rear are unarticulated and present a simply utilitarian aspect. This was the first time Palladio used his fully developed temple pediment in the façade of a villa.

Moreover, the distributive structure of the manorial house reveals Palladio's usual organisation into a vertical axis, with service rooms occupying the basement storey, the patron's habitation on the piano nobile, and a granary in the attic.

The plan and elevation of Villa Badoer presented in Palladio's woodcuts in the Quattro Libri of 1570 is somewhat different from what was built there. A rear elevation and portico shown in the book were never built, but whether interrupted and not resumed, or curtailed in the course of construction are not known. Puppi suggested "that the omission of the ceremonial features from the back façade had been decided by the patron, who must have thought them unnecessary in confrontation with the empty expanse of open countryside, and with the short extent of his property... on that side."

Interiors and decoration

The piano nobile retains its original fresco decoration. All the rooms are covered by flat ceilings and on the walls a certain "Giallo Fiorentino" designed complex combinations of allegorical figures, whose significance remains partially obscure. Palladio referred to these frescoes as being "grottesche di bellissima inventione" by a certain Giallo Fiorentino, whose real identity has remained uncertain. Milanesi's identification as Jacopo Giallo, a Florentine illuminator to whom some manuscript work has been assigned, was eliminated by Lionello Puppi's archival discovery that Jacopo Giallo was dead by 1545, thirteen years before the villa was built; Puppi offered instead a certain fresco painter "Giallo Fiorentino", an assistant to Giuseppe Salviati for exterior frescoes at Palazzo Loredan at San Stefano. More recently, Pier Francesco di Jacopo Foschi has been suggested.

Architectural critics such as Witold Rybczynski think that the interior is relatively small and unimpressive, compared to the grandiose exterior.

Conservation

The building passed to the public in the 1960s (initially to the Ville Venete Institute, then to the Province of Rovigo) and was completely restored.

In 1996, UNESCO designated Villa Badoer as part of the World Heritage Site "City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto".

The building is open to the public. Since 21 February 2009 the northern barchesse of the Villa houses the Museo archeologico nazionale di Fratta Polesine (National archaeological museum of Fratta Polesine).

See also

Palladian Villas of the Veneto
Palladian architecture

References

  Villa Badoer in the CISA (Centro internazionale di studi di architettura A. Palladio) website (source for the palladian project)
 Boucher, Bruce. Andrea Palladio:  The Architect in his Time.  New York:  Abbeville Press, 1998.
Puppi, Lionello, Catherine Enggass, tr. The Villa Badoer at Fratta Polesine (Corpus Palladianum 7) 1972:67f, 85-88. The standard reference
 Rybczynski, Witold The Perfect House:  A Journey with the Renaissance Master Andrea Palladio.  Scribner, New York 2002.

Houses completed in 1563
Renaissance architecture in Veneto
Badoer
Andrea Palladio buildings
Museums in Veneto
Palladian villas of Veneto

Villa Badoer


Belovo () is the name o several inhabitit localities in Roushie.

Urban localities
Belovo, Kemerovo Oblast, a toun in Kemerovo Oblast

Landwart localities
Belovo, Rebrikhinsky Destrict, Altai Krai, a selo in Belovsky Selsoviet o Rebrikhinsky Destrict o Altai Krai
Belovo, Ust-Pristansky Destrict, Altai Krai, a selo in Belovsky Selsoviet oe Ust-Pristansky Destrict of Altai Krai
Belovo, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a selo in Belovsky Selsoviet o Uysky Destrict o Chelyabinsk Oblast
Belovo, Kaliningrad Oblast, a dounset in Slavinsky Landwart Okrug o Gvardeysky Destrict o Kaliningrad Oblast
Belovo, Chukhlomsky Destrict, Kostroma Oblast, a veelage in Chukhlomskoye Dounset o Chukhlomsky Destrict o Kostroma Oblast
Belovo, Nerekhtsky Destrict, Kostroma Oblast, a veelage in Volzhskoye Dounset o Nerekhtsky Destrict o Kostroma Oblast
Belovo, Kurgan Oblast, a veelage in Verkhnesuyersky Selsoviet o Vargashinsky Destrict o Kurgan Oblast
Belovo, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, a veelage in Kotelnitsky Selsoviet o Chkalovsky Destrict o Nizhny Novgorod Oblast
Belovo, Barabinsky Destrict, Novosibirsk Oblast, a veelage in Barabinsky Destrict, Novosibirsk Oblast
Belovo, Iskitimsky Destrict, Novosibirsk Oblast, a selo in Iskitimsky Destrict, Novosibirsk Oblast
Belovo, Vologda Oblast, a veelage in Vokhtogsky Selsoviet o Gryazovetsky Destrict o Vologda Oblast

Belovo, Roushie


The College of Fine Arts (CFA) at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania oversees the Schools of Architecture, Art, Design, Drama, and Music along with its associated centers, studios, and galleries.

The College of Fine Arts has its roots in 1900, when the institution was first founded as Carnegie Technical Schools.  The School of Fine and Applied Arts was one of the original four schools within Carnegie Technical Schools and later became the College of Fine Arts.  Officially founded in 1905 as the first comprehensive arts learning institution in the United States, CFA has educated outstanding artists, architects, designers, theater artists and musicians who have made important contributions to culture in the United States and the world for almost a century.

The College of Fine Arts concentrates on the education of professionals in the arts in the broader context of Carnegie Mellon University.  Beyond their education in their chosen field, through required and elective course work, students are involved with other disciplines within CFA and within the other colleges of the University. Further, the college's location in the Oakland District of Pittsburgh with its unique density of cultural resources (The Carnegie Museum of Art, The Carnegie Museum of Natural History, The Carnegie Library, the University of Pittsburgh, Hillman Library, the Frick Fine Arts Building, and Phipps Botanical Conservatory,) places CFA at the center of a premier cultural environment.

CFA also benefits from the presence of its Miller Institute for Contemporary Art (Miller ICA).

In addition, CFA actively promotes integrative and interdisciplinary practices throughout the Carnegie Mellon University campus, and currently offers the BXA Intercollege Degree Programs with Dietrich College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mellon College of Science, and School of Computer Science. The undergraduate degrees are the Bachelor of Humanities and Arts (BHA), Bachelor of Science and Arts (BSA), and Bachelor of Computer Science and Arts (BCSA) respectively, and students are to be admitted to the two corresponding schools at CMU to be enrolled, where they will develop and experiment with their corresponding disciplines in the forms of major capstone projects.

CFA alumni have shaped the television, stage and film worlds; have created work collected in international museums; have composed for and are performing and conducting in major symphony orchestras, choruses and opera companies; have built notable buildings, designed building systems and architectural imaging systems; created significant innovations in graphic and industrial design; and are professors and deans in major arts institutions.  These graduates have actively developed the innovations, inventions, techniques and information structures in their professional fields.  They have also written, published and lectured extensively.

The educational and artistic life of the college is interwoven with a dense calendar of theatre performances, concert, exhibitions, film and media presentations and lectures by visiting artists, practitioners and scholars.

Notable alumni include Gabriel Macht, Christian Borle, Jonathan Borofsky, Philip Pearlstein, Steven Bochco, James Cromwell, Holly Hunter, Rob Marshall, Ricky Ian Gordon, Stephen Schwartz, Billy Porter (actor), Zachary Quinto, Ryan McGinness, Judith Light, Patrick Wilson, Ted Danson, Keith Lockhart, Matt Bomer, Josh Groban, Josh Gad, Leslie Odom, Jr. and Blair Underwood.

See also
Carnegie Mellon School of Design
Carnegie Mellon School of Drama
Carnegie Mellon School of Architecture
Carnegie Mellon School of Music
Carnegie Mellon School of Art

References

External links

Schools and departments of Carnegie Mellon
Art schools in Pennsylvania
Universities and colleges established in 1900
Pittsburgh History & Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmarks
1900 establishments in Pennsylvania

Carnegie Mellon College of Fine Arts


Ludwig Philipp Albert Schweitzer, MD, OM, (14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was a French-German theologian, musician, philosopher and physician. He was born in Kaysersberg (Alsace), at the time a part of the German Empire.

He wrote books about music and religion. He started a famous hospital in Lambarene, Africa. He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize.

Earlier life
Albert Schweitzer was born in Kaysersberg (Alsace), on 14 January 1875. He lived in the village of Gunsbach, where his father was a local pastor. His father taught him how to play music. In 1893, Schweitzer passed his Baccalaureat.

After this, Schweitzer went to Paris to learn philosophy and music, before returning to his birthplace to study theology. He spent nine years studying medicine and surgery. He would dedicate his life to helping people and curing diseases.

Music
Schweitzer was a famous organist and was extremely interested in the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. He developed a simple style of performance, which he thought to be closer to what Bach had meant. In 1908, he completed the final version of his book "Johann Sebastian Bach". In the book, he argued for the new style, which has had great influence on the way Bach's music is now treated.

When Schweitzer was in Lambarene, his main recreation was to play Bach's music. He also gave musical performances to raise money for medical supplies in Gabon.

Recordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CD. Between 1934 and 1935, he had a trial recording for HMV on the organ of the old Queen's Hall in London. In mid-December 1935, he began to record for Columbia Records on the organ of All-Hallows-by-the-Tower, Barking, London.

Theology and Philosophy
Schweitzer became well known for his books on Jesus and Christianity. He was not so much interested in the historical study of Jesus, as in the Christian idea of the end of the world, which can be found in the Bible and the teachings of Jesus. Schweitzer also served as a minister for Saint Nicholas Church in Strassburg.

In the philosophy of Albert Schweitzer, the most important idea is the respect for life. In his book "The Philosophy of Civilization", he wrote that "true philosophy" begins with the idea that:
Albert Schweitzer's ethical principles meant that he tried to have a personal and spiritual relationship with the universe. It also meant that he was vegetarian.

Schweitzer in Africa
Albert Schweitzer spent most of his life in Lambaréné, Africa. In 1904, he was inspired to help sick people in the world, so he studied medicine. After his medical studies in 1913, he went to Lambaréné with his wife to establish a hospital that would serve thousands of Africans.

During World War I, the French made Schweitzer and his wife, both Germans, leave Africa. In 1924, he returned to Lambaréné and managed to rebuild the destroyed hospital, where he served as a physician .

Later life
From 1939-1948, he stayed in Lambarene since he could not go to Europe during the war. Three years later he resumed his medical practices. But he was no longer just a medical doctor and whenever possible he went to Europe to lecture at universities. Slowly his ideas become known, not only in Europe but worldwide.

In 1952 Dr Albert Schweitzer was awarded The Nobel Prize for peace. He gave a famous speech "The Problem of Peace". He died on 4 September 1965 at his hospital in Lambarene.

1875 births
1965 deaths
19th-century German philosophers
20th-century German philosophers
French Christians
French Nobel Prize winners
French organists
French philosophers
French scientists
French theologians
German academics
German doctors
German Lutheran pastors
German Nobel Prize winners
German organists
German theologians
Humanitarians
Order of Merit
People from Haut-Rhin

Albert Schweitzer


Neoclassicism in music was popular in the twentieth-century. Mostly between the two World Wars. This kind of music is when composers try to come back to beautiful ways with the broadly defined way of "classicism", namely order, balance, clarity, economy, and emotions. Neoclassicism had two distinct national lines of development. They were French and German. Neoclassicsim was a beautiful trend rather than a movement. Many composers normally do not think of themselves as "neoclassicists." But some really do have some elements of the style.

References

Music genres

Neoclassicism music


A light beam or beam of light is a small projection of light energy coming from a source into a beam. Sunlight is a natural example of a light beam when it crosses through various objects (clouds, foliage, windows, etc.). To produce fake light, a lamp and a parabolic reflector is used in many lighting devices such as spotlights, car headlights. Light from certain types of lasers has the smallest possible beam width, so it produces the most parallel light beams possible.

Optics

Light beam


The Bazaruto Archipelago National Park (BANP) is a protected area in the Inhambane Province of Mozambique on the Bazaruto Archipelago.
The park was proclaimed on 25 May 1971. It is off the coast of the Vilanculos and Inhassoro districts, covering a large expanse of ocean and six islands.

Location
The Bazaruto National Park was inaugurated in 1971, an archipelago of six islands off the Mozambican coast between Vilankulo and Inhassoro. The park was created to protect dugong and marine turtles, and their habitats. The islands' flora and fauna, coral reefs and marine birds were also included. The largest island is Bazaruto Island and the others are Benguerra, Margaruque, Santa Carolina (Paradise Island), Banque and Pansy Shell Island.

Ecology
The islands have a lush tropical climate and include huge dunes, forest and savannah, inland lakes and wetlands.  They host several endemic terrestrial gastropods and lizards, as well as important aggregations of Palaearctic migrant water birds. The archipelago is attractive to tourists who are interested in diving or snorkeling. The rich variety of marine life includes humpback whales, marine turtles, spinner, humpback and bottlenose dolphins, marlins and barracudas. BANP gives protection to the largest and only remaining viable population of dugongs in the Western Indian Ocean. The coral reefs are varied and said to be the least disturbed in this part of the Indian Ocean.

People

The archipelago has about 3,500 residents in seven communities. They are mostly very poor and rely on harvesting natural resources to survive. 70% of households rely on small-scale fishing to survive, while others harvest sand oysters and other marine resources, grow crops and raise livestock.
Resources may not be sufficient to maintain the population, leading to decreased catches of fish, reduced harvests and increasing poverty and food insecurity.

Conservation and Tourism
The BANP is a popular tourist destination. As of 2011, the park had five hotels promoting high-value, low-impact programs. The hotels make an important contribution to the local economy through employment and tax revenues. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) has a program to help the local communities to become more sophisticated in realizing a share of revenues in return for protecting valuable ecological resources.

In December 2017, management of the park passed to African Parks.

References

African Parks (organisation)
Geography of Inhambane Province
National parks of Mozambique
Protected areas established in 1971
Tourist attractions in Inhambane Province
Southern Zanzibar–Inhambane coastal forest mosaic

Bazaruto Archipelago National Park


A public-private partnership is a contract between the public sector, or government, and a private company. The purpose for such public-private partnerships is to provide public services, like education and transportation. This is without changing the private business into a government-operated service. One way of doing this is to allow the government to pay the business for providing free services to the public. The business provides the services for free and then charges the government for compensation, in which the government agrees. Supporters of public-private partnerships argue that it reduces inefficiency and provides the free market with greater flexibility.

References

Economics

Public-private partnership


Anadyrsk was an important Russian ostrog (fortified settlement) in far northeastern Siberia from 1649 to 1764.  It was on the Anadyr River, near the head of small-boat navigation, about 300 miles upstream, 12 miles northeast of the present Markovo.

In 1649 Semyon Dezhnyov built a zimov'ye (winter quarters) here after being wrecked on the Pacific coast the previous year. In 1650 Mikhail Stadukhin and Semyon Motora arrived overland from the Kolyma River. In 1659 Kurbat Ivanov took over, built a proper stockade and made major improvements in administration. About 1697, Anadyrsk was the launching place for Vladimir Atlasov's conquest of Kamchatka.  The local Chukchis and Koryaks were warlike, and the post was attacked a number of times. George Kennan reported that its garrison through much of its service was 600 men and a battery of artillery. Its importance declined with the opening of the sea route through Okhotsk to Kamchatka in 1718.  Subsequently, its importance was limited to interactions with the Chukchis. Concluding that attempts to collect tribute from the Chukchis were not a paying proposition, the Russian government of Catherine II ordered Anadyrsk abandoned in 1764.

In 1866, when it was visited by Kennan (at that time only the second non-Russian or non-native in living memory to do so), Anadyrsk consisted of four villages: Markovo (the central one), Pokorukov, Psolkin and Krepost. There were about 200 inhabitants and a priest. Krepost ('fort') was the site of the Anadyrsk fort, on a bank about 30 feet above the level of the river, and at that time consisted of a dozen log cabins, with no trace of the old fortifications visible. Markovo was about 15 versts (16 km) upriver, and Pokorukov a further 20 versts. Kennan described it as the Ultima Thule of Russian civilization.

See also

Chukchi people

References

 Bush, Richard J. (1871) Reindeer, Dogs and Snowshoes: A Journal of Siberian Travel and Explorations Republished Kessinger Publishing, 2005 , .
 Fisher, Raymond H. (ed) (1981) The Voyage of Semen Dezhnev in 1648: Bering's precursor, with selected documents.  Hakluyt Society, London.
 Forsyth, James (1994) A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990.  Cambridge University Press, 1994 .
 reprint 1986  ; reprint 2007 .
 Lincoln, W. Bruce (2008) The Conquest of a Continent: Siberia and the Russians Cornell University Press. , .

History of Siberia
Fur trade
Defunct towns in Russia
Former populated places in Russia
Populated places established in 1649
Cultural heritage monuments in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug

Anadyrsk


God's eye view is a name for a point of view where the speaker or writer assumes he or she has knowledge only God would have. It appears several ways:

In religion, when an institution claims to speak for a divine being.

In writing, when a writer leaves the point of view of the main actor to start writing about things they could not know if the story were in real life.

In science, when a scientist ignores the way a subject-object problem affects statistics or an observer effect affects experiment.

In medicine when a doctor makes a claim that The Gaze they use on a patient, actually sees the problem, rather than making a guess at a problem.

In ethics when a statement is made about who or what is right, without an honest attempt to make the process of deciding this consider all points of view.

A special case of the last is in a wiki with a GodKing.  Often this person can get others to believe what they say about what is right, without making any special effort to be fair to other views.

Many people think René Descartes took a God's eye view when he said cogito ergo sum.  George Berkeley argued that optics from Isaac Newton and Johannes Kepler also had this problem.

Social sciences

God's eye view


The Kellogg–Briand Pact (also called the General Treaty for the Renunciation of War or the World Peace Act) was an agreement on peace signed on August 27, 1928, by several countries. Some of these countries were the United States, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, and Germany. It was named after its authors, Frank B. Kellogg and Aristide Briand.
The pact said that war was wrong and should be banned, but said nothing about what to do with a country that went to war anyway. The pact was the result of a determined American effort to avoid involvement in the European alliance system. The Kellogg-Briand Pact was registered with the League of Nations on Tuesday 4 September , 1928.

War
1920s treaties
League of Nations

Kellogg–Briand Pact


A necktie (or a tie) is an article of clothing worn by men. A tie is part of an ensemble (or outfit) of clothing called the "suit and tie." This outfit is worn in Western countries by men in professional jobs such as business, law, and politics.

A necktie is usually made of silk or polyester, and it usually has a color or pattern on it. Men tie a knot in neckties and wear them with dress shirts in order to make them look more formal.

Bow ties
The bow tie is a type of necktie. It is a ribbon of fabric tied around the collar in a symmetrical manner such that the two opposite ends form loops.

Ready-tied bow ties are available, in which the distinctive bow is sewn and a band goes around the neck and clips to secure. Some "clip-ons" dispense with the band altogether, instead clipping to the collar.

Accessories

Necktie


The central nervous system (CNS) is the largest part of the nervous system. It is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.

Together with the peripheral nervous system, it has an important role in the control of behaviour. The CNS is protected by bone in the dorsal cavity: the brain in the cranial subcavity, and the spinal cord in the spinal cavity.

See also: Vertebrate brain

Parts of the vertebrate CNS

Other websites

 Sylvius: 400+ structure neuroanatomical visual glossary; used by over half of U.S. medical schools
 High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases
 Human Brains: A Learning Tool .
 Explaining the human nervous system .
 Nervous System - Back Pain - Anatomy (info on nerve pairs) .
 Textbook in Medical Physiology And Pathophysiology, many links
 Brain and Cranial Nerves, Anatomy and Physiology Lecture, Northland Community College
 Latest Research on the Brain and Central Nervous System From ScienceDaily

Nervous system

Central nervous system


Vere Gordon Childe (Usually known as Gordon Childe) (Sydney, New South Wales, 14 April 1892 – Mount Victoria, New South Wales, 19 October 1957) was an Australian archaeologist. He was best known for his excavation of the unique Neolithic site of Skara Brae in Orkney. He is also credited with coining the terms 'Neolithic Revolution' and 'Urban Revolution'. He attempted to place his discoveries inside a theory of prehistoric development on a wider European and world scale.

References

 Neil Faulkner 2007. Gordon Childe and Marxist Archaeology. International Socialism 116.

1892 births
1957 deaths
Archaeologists
Australian social scientists
People from Sydney

Vere Gordon Childe


Helene Glykatzi-Ahrweiler FBA (; ; born 29 August 1926) is a Greek-French academic Byzantinologist. She is also a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador for Greece. In the 2008 show Great Greeks, she was named amongst the 100 greatest Greeks of all time.

Biography
She was born in Athens in 1926, to a family of refugees from Asia Minor. She graduated from high school in Athens, and studied "History and Archaeology" in the School of Philosophy in the University of Athens. After working in the Center for Asia Minor Studies, she moved to Paris in 1953 to continue her studies in the École pratique des hautes études where she obtained her doctorates in History and Classics. In 1955, she started working as a researcher in the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), and on 7 November 1958, she married the French Army officer Jacques Ahrweiler. In 1960, she completed her PhD in History from the University of Sorbonne. In 1964, she became the director of CNRS, and two years later, in 1966, she completed her second PhD in Philology. She has been a professor at the Sorbonne, Faculty of Arts in Paris, since 1967.

Helene Glykatzi-Ahrweiler by becoming Deputy Principal between 1970-1973 and Principal of the University of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne between 1976 and 1981, she did not only became the first woman to hold this post in the 700-year history of Sorbonne but, most importantly, became the first woman in the world to hold the post of a Principal in a world-renowned University. In 1982, French President François Mitterrand named her as Rector of the Academy of Paris and Chancellor of the Universities of Paris, a post she held until 1989. From February 1989 to August 1991, she was president of the Centre Georges Pompidou. She is also the Principal at the University of Europe in Paris, President of the Ethics Committee of the National Centre of Scientific Research in France, President of the European Cultural Centre of Delphi in Greece and Honorary President of the International Committee of Byzantine Studies. French president Jacques Chirac offered her the Medal of the Battalion Commander of the Legion of Honor (one of the highest awards of the French Republic), thus honoring her scientific work and directorship in various French universities as well as at the Cultural Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris. Throughout her academic career, she also became an Honorary Doctor of various universities in the world, including the ones of London, Belgrade, New York, Nouveau Brunswick, Lima, American University of Paris, Harvard and Haifa. She is also a member of various Academies in Europe as shown in the next section. In 2007, she received the title of Honorary Doctor of the Media Studies Department of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.

In 2008 she was named amongst the 100 greatest Greeks of all time.

Honours
She is a corresponding member of the British Academy, the Academy of Athens, the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, and an associated member of the Royal Academy of Belgium. She holds a number of honorary doctorates, and has received numerous decorations from the French government:
 Commander of the Légion d'honneur
 Commander of the Ordre national du Mérite
 Commander of the Ordre des Palmes académiques
 Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres

Some of the titles she has received include: Brigadier of the Legion of Honor in Greece, Golden Cross of the Legion and Brigade of Honor, Golden Cross of the National Brigade of Values, Brigadier of Arts and Education, Golden Cross of the Brigade of the Academic Phoenix, Citizen Medal (France), Highest Brigadier (Mexico), Brigadier of the Brigade of Eagle (Iceland), Brigadier of the National Brigade (Luxemburg), Higher Brigadier of the Brigade of Values (Austria), Brigadier of the Royal Brigade Dannerog (Denmark), Brigadier of Science, Education and Art (Portugal), Brigadier of the Brigade of Values (Italy), honorary medal of the Polish Science Academy and Member of the Order of the International Olympic Committee.

Publications
 Byzance et la mer, 1966
 Études sur les structures administratives et sociales de Byzance, 1971
 L'Idéologie politique de l'empire byzantin, 1975
 Byzance : les pays et les territoires, 1976
 The Making of Europe, 1999
 Les Européens, 2000
 Le Roman d'Athènes, 2004

References

External Links

Sources
 Short Biography at Strabon.org

1926 births
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques
Fellows of the British Academy
Greek Byzantinists
Greek emigrants to France
Living people
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens alumni
Writers from Athens
Recipients of the Olympic Order
UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors
Academic staff of the University of Paris
Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin
East German women
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
Scholars of Byzantine history
Women Byzantinists
Women medievalists
Corresponding Members of the Academy of Athens (modern)
Research directors of the French National Centre for Scientific Research

Helene Ahrweiler


The term white flight represents large-scale migrations of White people from large cities around Europe and the United States starting in the mid 20th century. Those large cities were primarily in Midwestern States and Northeastern States: Whites relocated out of those regions and into Southeastern and Southwestern States like Arizona and Texas. Midwestern cities like Chicago, Detroit or St. Louis, however, lost population of many Whites since the mid 20th century.

Migration
History of the United States

White flight


Severus Snape is a character from J.K. Rowling's fictional book series Harry Potter. Snape is the Potions master at Hogwarts in the series. He is also known to be a Death Eater but after Voldemort started hunting James Potter and Lily J. Potter, the woman Snape had loved since he was a child, he asked Albus Dumbledore to find a safe place for the Potters to hide because he knew Voldemort wanted to kill their son, Harry Potter. As Dumbledore was not able to save the Potters, Snape's sorrow was extremely deep, he gained Dumbledore's trust. Snape was loyal to Dumbledore after this event. Snape killed Dumbledore in the sixth book on Dumbledore's request. Voldemort believed Snape killed him because Voldemort had planned Snape to do that. Snape had let it slip in the third book that Remus Lupin was a werewolf.

Snape didn't kill himself after Lily's death only because of the promise that he made to Dumbledore about protecting Harry and the cause Lily had died for. Just before Snape's death in the seventh book Snape asks Harry to do a last thing for him, he asked Harry to take his tears and put them in the Pensieve to discover Snape's real story.

The last thing Snape's eyes ever saw were Lily's green eyes. Later, Harry Potter and Ginny Weasley named their youngest son after Albus Dumbledore and Severus Snape. Harry confesses to his son Albus Severus that Severus Snape was the bravest man at Slytherin house he ever knew even though while still at school, Snape had been the teacher that Harry had hated the most because of Snape's bad behaviour towards Harry. Snape was so mean to Harry because of Harry's father, James Potter, that had bullied Snape while they were at Hogwarts. Snape was more than a cruel, heartless Death Eater but rather a brave and tragic victim to the perils of love in the reign of a power obsessed and heartless dictator.

In all of the Harry Potter movies, Snape is played by Alan Rickman.

Fictional characters introduced in 1997
Harry Potter characters

Severus Snape


Dietrich Tiedemann (3 April 1748, Bremervörde – 24 May 1803, Marburg) was a German philosopher and historian of philosophy born in Bremervörde. He was father to physiologist Friedrich Tiedemann (1781–1861).

Biography
He studied theology and philosophy at the University of Göttingen,  and later was a professor at Collegium Carolinum in Kassel (from 1776) and at the University of Marburg (from 1786).

Teidemann's belief system was based on the metaphysics of Leibniz and the epistemology of Locke. He was author of the six-volume Geist der spekulativen Philosophie von Thales bis Berkeley ("The Spirit of Speculative Philosophy from Thales to Berkeley").

Tiedemann had strong disagreements in regard to the philosophic beliefs of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), of which he critiqued in two publications; "On the Nature of Metaphysics: An Examination of Professor Kant's Principles-Against the Aesthetic" and "Continuation of the Examination of Professor Kant's Thoughts About the Nature of Metaphysics-Against the Analytic". Kant dismissed Tiedemann's arguments, which he reasoned were caused by a lack of understanding.

Tiedemann was a pioneer of empirical psychology, and an early practitioner in regard to scientific study of child development. He kept a journal of his son's sensory, motor, language, and cognitive behavior during the first thirty months of his life. Through empirical observation, he claimed that children possessed a "pre-linguistic knowledge".

Selected publications
 Versuch einer Erklärung des Ursprunges der Sprache (1772) – "Essay Explaining the Origin of Language"
 System der stoischen Philosophie, three volumes (1776) – "System of Stoic Philosophy"
 Über die Natur der Metaphysick, zur Prüfung von Herrn Prof. Kants Grundsätzen (1785)
 Geist der spekulativen Philosophie von Thales bis Berkeley (1791–97) – "The Spirit of Speculative Philosophy from Thales to Berkeley"
 Theätet; oder, Über das menschliche Wissen; ein Beitrag zur Vernunft-Kritik (1794) – "Theaetetus; About Human Knowledge, a Contribution to the Critique of Reason"

Notes

References
 Manchester.edu, Professors at Kassel (Collegium Carolinum)

1748 births
1803 deaths
People from Bremervörde
German philosophers
Academic staff of the University of Marburg
German male writers

Dietrich Tiedemann


The Taunus is a mountain range in Hesse, Germany. It is bounded by the river valleys of Rhine, Main and Lahn. On the opposite side of the Rhine, the mountains are continued by the Hunsrück. The mountains themselves span the districts of Hochtaunuskreis, Main-Taunus, Rheingau-Taunus, and Rhein-Lahn.

Not to be confused with the more famous and high Feldberg in Black Forest, the highest peak is the Großer Feldberg (878 m above sea level). It is followed by the Kleiner Feldberg and the Altkönig (798 m) with the remains of a late Iron Age hill fort (La-Tène A, ca. 400 BC) near the summit.

The Roman Limes was built across the Taunus. The Saalburg, a restored Roman castellum, now houses a museum. After the fall of the Limes (in 259/260 AD), the Alamanni settled here.

Highest mountains
 Großer Feldberg (878 m), Hochtaunuskreis (district)
 Kleiner Feldberg (825 m), Hochtaunuskreis
 Altkönig (798 m), Hochtaunuskreis

Geography of Hesse
Mountain ranges of Germany

Taunus


Paste is a monthly music and entertainment magazine.  It is published in the United States.

In 2005, Paste was listed at #21 on The Chicago Tribune's list of "50 Best Magazines". Paste appeared on that newspaper's list again in 2007. Paste was also named "Magazine of the Year" by the PLUG Independent Music Awards in 2006, 2007 and 2008. In 2008, Paste was nominated for a National Magazine Award in the category of General .

Music magazines

Paste (magazine)


Michael Dibdin (21 March 1947 – 30 March 2007) was a British crime writer. Dibdin was born in Wolverhampton. His father was a physicist. From the age of seven, Dibdin lived in Lisburn, Northern Ireland, where he attended the Friends' School. He graduated with a degree in English from Sussex University, and then went to study for a Master's degree at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada. His first novel was based on the character Sherlock Holmes. He lived for four years in Italy, teaching at the university in Perugia. Dibdin is best known for his Aurelio Zen mysteries, set in Italy. The first of these, Ratking, won the 'Gold Dagger' award of 1988. This series of detective novels provide a penetrating insight into the less visible aspects of Italian society over the last 20 years. The earlier books have a lightness of touch that gradually becomes much darker. The character of Zen himself is anti-heroic, which adds much to the books' irony and black humour. A final Zen book, End Games, was published after Dibdin died, in July 2007. He also wrote other detective works set in America and in England.

Writers from Northern Ireland
1947 births
2007 deaths
Crime writers

Michael Dibdin


The British Rail Class 109 is a class of 2-car diesel multiple units built in 1957 by Wickham & Co.  Five two-car units were built featuring an unusual body design.

109
The units soon became non-standard and two were sold back to the manufacturer who exported them to Trinidad and Tobago.  Another unit was converted into departmental service, and survived in BR ownership until the early 1980s.

British Rail Class 109


Léo Delibes (born St. Germain-du-Val, France, 21 February 1836; died St. Germain-du-Val 16 January 1891) was a French composer of Romantic music. He is particularly famous for his ballets, especially Coppélia, and operettas and operas, of which Lakmé is the most famous.

Biography
Delibes's father worked for the post office. His mother was musical and played the piano. Her father, the composer's grandfather, had been a baritone in the Opéra-Comique and she had a brother who was an organist and professor at the Paris Conservatoire.

When Delibes's father died in 1847 his family moved to Paris so that the young Léo, who was 11, could continue having a good musical education. At first he found it difficult living in a large city as he was used to the countryside. He was a student of the well-known composer and teacher Adolphe Adam. At first he did well in his music lessons and won prizes, but after a few years he no longer won any prizes. He never tried to win the Prix de Rome which is what all French students of composition normally want to do. As a young boy he sang in choirs. Later he became a church organist and an accompanist at the Théâtre-Lyrique.

Soon Delibes started to composer operettas. He wrote 14 operettas in 14 years. He was commissioned to write some music to celebrate the emperor's return from Algiers. The piece he wrote was called Alger. It was a huge success. The emperor gave him a gold medal, personally fastening a pin with diamonds to his lapel. In 1864 he became chorus master at the Opéra where he coached the chorus to sing many famous operas. Two years later he started to write ballets. These became very successful and three years later he stopped writing operettas.

In 1870 his ballet Coppélia was produced. By 1884 it had been performed 100 times. Together with La Sylphide and Giselle it was one of the most popular of all ballets. The story is about a man who makes a mechanical doll. Another popular ballet he wrote was Sylvia. His most successful opera was Lakmé which was first performed at the Opéra-Comique in 1883. It gives great opportunity for the main soprano, especially in the song called the Bell Song. Musicians usually think Lakmé is his greatest work.

Delibes died in 1891, and was buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre, Paris.

Reputation
Delibes started to compose at a time when ballet had become less popular in France than it had been earlier. Around the time of the Revolution there had been lots of performances of ballet, but during the 19th century there was less interest with the exception of La Sylphide and Giselle. Delibes was to change that. He had a great gift for writing easy melodies. At one time he thought he ought to compose like Wagner, using richer harmonies and leitmotifs, but fortunately he chose not to, following instead the style to which he was so well suited. Coppélia is in the repertoire of all major ballet companies, and several of its tunes are familiar to people even if they do not know where they come from.

The Flower duet from Lakmé became particularly well known in recent years through an advert for British Airways.

1836 births
1891 deaths
Romantic composers
19th-century French composers
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris

Léo Delibes


Kathleen Lynch is a politeecian in the Republic o Ireland, an a member o the Irish pairlament in Dublin, representin the Labour Pairty.  She represents the North Central Cork consteetuency in Dáil Éireann.

1953 births
Livin fowk
Democratic Left (Ireland) politeecians
Female Teachtaí Dála
Labour Pairty (Ireland) politeecians
Members o the 27t Dáil
Members o the 29t Dáil
Members o the 30t Dáil
Members o the 31st Dáil
Politeecians frae Coonty Cork
Teachtaí Dála
Wirkers' Pairty o Ireland politeecians
Meenisters o State o the 31st Dáil

Kathleen Lynch


Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae. It includes horses, asses, and zebras. Equus is the only living (extant) genus of horses, and there are seven living species. They are the one-toed horses, and are adapted for living in various types of grasslands.

The term equine refers to any member of this genus. Equus has many extinct species known only from fossils. The genus most likely originated in North America and spread quickly to the Old World. Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes (erect in most subspecies) and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers with simpler digestive systems than ruminants. They can live on low-quality vegetation.

Feral equine populations are widespread, but wild equines are found only in Africa and Asia. Wild populations may have a harem system. In this case one adult male or stallion, several females or mares and their young or foals. Otherwise they live in  a territory where males control territories with resources that attract females. In both systems, females take care of the foals, though males may play a role as well. Equines communicate with each other visually and vocally. Human activities have threatened wild equine populations and out of the seven living species, only the plains zebra is still widespread and abundant.

The one-toed horses of the grasslands developed from smaller three-toed horses which lived more in forests and wooded savannahs. Before the coming of humans, horses were much more varied and widespread, though the number of species is not known.

Living horses
There are seven species of living horses in the wild. They are:
E. africanus—African wild ass
E. ferus—wild horse
E. grevyi—Grévy's zebra
E. hemionus—onager
E. kiang—kiang
E. quagga—plains zebra
E. zebra—mountain zebra

This is not counting the many types of horse which mankind has modified by breeding. Equus ferus has been the species used by man as the basis of the various breeds of horse.

References

Equids

Equus (genus)


In atmospheric sciences (meteorology, climatology and related fields), the pressure gradient (typically of air, more generally of any fluid) is a physical quantity that describes in which direction and at what rate the pressure changes the most rapidly around a particular location. The pressure gradient is a dimensional quantity expressed in units of pressure per unit length. The SI unit is pascal per metre (Pa/m).

Other websites
 IPCC Third Assessment Report

Atmosphere

Pressure gradient


Stephen Ranulph Kingdon Glanville,  (26 April 1900 – 26 April 1956) was an English historian and egyptologist. He was Edwards Professor of Egyptology at University College London from 1935 to 1946. He was then Sir Herbert Thompson Professor of Egyptology at the University of Cambridge from 1946 until his death in 1956, and additionally Provost of King's College, Cambridge from 1954.

Biography
S R K Glanville was born in Westminster, London, the eldest son of Stephen James Glanville and Nannie Elizabeth (née Kingdon). He was first cousin to Frank Kingdon-Ward the explorer and botanist and also related to William Kingdon Clifford the mathematician. He was educated at Marlborough and at Lincoln College, Oxford, where he read Modern History. He gained his BA in 1922 and his MA in 1926.

He worked for the Egyptian Government Service in 1922 before joining the Egypt Exploration Society expedition to el-Amarna in 1923. Glanville studied Egyptology under Francis Llewellyn Griffith and was appointed Assistant in the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities at the British Museum in 1924. Glanville excavated again at el-Amarna in 1925, and at Armant in 1928. In 1925 he married Ethel Mary Chubb.

He was Laycock Student of Egyptology at Worcester College, Oxford, between 1929-1935 and Reader in Egyptology from 1933 to 1935. Sir Flinders Petrie having retired, Glanville was appointed Edwards Professor of Egyptian Archaeology and Philology at University College London in 1935, holding the chair until 1946.

The first volume of his catalogue of demotic papyri in the British museum was published in 1939 and the last volume only a fortnight before his death. Though primarily a demotist, he was also a first class archaeologist with a rare feeling for antiquities.

Royal Institution Christmas Lectures for children in 1929-30 theme "How things were done in ancient Egypt". Elaborated into a book, Daily life in ancient Egypt.

1933 - 1935 he was a reader in Egyptology in the University of London. In 1935 elected Edwards Professor of Egyptology at University College, and a fellow of the British Academy in 1946.

During the Second World War, Glanville served with the Royal Air Force (Air Staff). He reached the rank of Wing Commander, and was awarded the M.B.E. and Czechoslovak, Dutch, and Yugoslav orders.

Returning to academic life, Glanville was a fellow, 1946–54. In 1954, he "became the first Oxford man to become provost of King's College, Cambridge, a position to which he was unanimously elected in 1954.".  Moreover, he was Sir Herbert Thompson Professor of Egyptology at the University of Cambridge from 1946 until his death in Cambridge on his 56th birthday, 26 April 1956.

He was Honorary Secretary, 1928–31 and 1933–6, and Chairman of Committee, 1951–6, of the Egypt Exploration Society.

The Herbert Thompson chair of Egyptology was created in 1946 particularly to cover Demotic and Coptic studies for which SRKG had established an unequalled reputation. He was therefore the obvious choice for the first holder.

He was editor of The Legacy of Egypt, one of the Clarendon "Legacy" series, and besides his "Growth and Nature of Egyptology" which was published in 1947, wrote a large number of essays and papers.

He died in Cambridge, England, on his 56th birthday, and is buried in Grantchester Parish Churchyard.

Relationship with the Mallowans
Glanville was a close friend of the archaeologist Max Mallowan and his wife Agatha Christie. He was in service with Mallowan during WWII. Glanville was the source and inspiration for at least two of Christie's works, the historic mystery Death Comes as the End, and a play, Akhnaton. Both of these works are set in ancient Egypt, and Christie herself acknowledged in her autobiography that neither of these works would have been possible without Glanville.

Publications
This is by no means a complete list.

1930 Daily Life in Ancient Egypt
1933 The Egyptians, A&C Black
1939 Catalogue of the demotic papyri in the British Museum. Vol 1.
1942 The Legacy of Egypt, Oxford, Clarendon Press, Legacy series
1947 Growth and nature of Egyptology
1956 Catalogue of the demotic papyri in the British Museum. Vol 2.

Publication date unknown: Glanville S.R.K. and Faulkner, R. O., Catalogue of Egyptian Antiquities in The British Museum II: Wooden Model Boats. Trustees of The British Museum, London 1972.

References

Sources
Obituary in the Daily Telegraph. 28.04.1956 Prof. S.R.K. Glanville. Antiquities of Egypt
Also see below external links.

External links
University of Cambridge entry for SRKG.
https://web.archive.org/web/20040827181635/http://www.britac.ac.uk/fellowship/archive.asp?fellowsID=1667

1900 births
1956 deaths
People from Westminster
English Egyptologists
Alumni of Lincoln College, Oxford
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Royal Air Force officers
Employees of the British Museum
Academics of University College London
Provosts of King's College, Cambridge
Professors of the University of Cambridge

Stephen Glanville


The Easter Bunny (or Easter Hare) is a character depicted as an anthropomorphic rabbit. In old stories, the creature brings baskets filled with colored eggs, candy and toys to the homes of children on the night before Easter. The Easter Bunny will either put the baskets in a certain place or hide them somewhere in the house for the children to find when they wake up in the morning.

The Easter Bunny is similar to Christmas's Santa Claus, as they both bring gifts to good children on the night before the holidays they are related to.

Easter traditions

Easter Bunny


North Weald railway station is on the Epping Ongar Railway, a heritage railway, located in North Weald, Essex.

The station was opened in 1865 by the Great Eastern Railway, on its extension from Loughton to Ongar. It was latterly a Central line station on the London Underground between Epping and Blake Hall stations. The section beyond Epping to  closed in 1994.

History
North Weald station was opened by the Great Eastern Railway (GER) on 24 April 1865, serving principally as a goods yard, taking agricultural produce from the nearby farms into London. During World War II it was frequently used by airmen travelling to and from the nearby North Weald Airfield. Steam locomotives operated by British Rail for the London Underground ran a shuttle service from Epping to Ongar (stopping at North Weald) from 1949 to 1957, when the track was electrified and taken over by the Central line.

While the Epping to Ongar branch was normally operated as an isolated section of the Central line, for two days every year trains were run from London to terminate at North Weald: these trains served the North Weald Airshow on the Saturday and Sunday of its opening at the aerodrome almost adjacent to the station. The normal Epping to Ongar shuttle dovetailed with this service passing the terminating train on the adjacent line during its southbound journey.

The line from Epping to Ongar is a single-track railway apart from at North Weald, which functioned as the only available passing loop for trains travelling in opposite directions. In 1888, however, the eastern end of the loop was severed and it was used only as a siding. The loop was restored in 1949 after transfer to London Transport, and a second (westbound) platform was built at this time, and both platforms were used from 1949 until 1976, the westbound track being lifted in 1978. Until this time, access to the two platforms was controlled from the original Eastern Counties Railway signal box still sited on the southbound platform to this day. Until this occurred, North Weald was the last section of the Underground network to be signalled using mechanical semaphore signals. Although disused, the illuminated track diagram in the signal box continued to show the progress of trains until its closure.

Closure
The Epping to Ongar branch was not heavily used and became increasingly unprofitable. The service was further undermined when the Greater London Council removed the running subsidy for the line because it was not within the boundary of Greater London, and no comparable subsidy was forthcoming from the local government agencies in Essex, which meant that fare levels were much higher than on the rest of the Underground network. Initially, the Sunday service was dropped, and then the Saturday service. Subsequently, the service was restricted to a peak-only service of seven trains in each direction per day (three in the morning and four in the evening). London Transport (later London Underground Ltd) had made repeated representations to the government to close the line, but each was refused as there was no alternative mode of transport between Epping and Ongar.

A final request was made in 1994 with a proviso that the line was to be sold to a private organisation which would continue to run the services. With the promise of continued services, the government finally agreed to London Underground closing the line. The line, including North Weald station, was closed on 30 September 1994. Because of the intention to continue services, the line was left largely intact, although the two conductor rails were lifted. However, the promised service did not immediately materialise, and it was not until 2004 that a volunteer force restored a partial service as a heritage railway. Because London Underground would not provide platform space at Epping, North Weald is currently the westernmost terminus of the line. A shuttle does run further west as far as Coopersale, but there are no station facilities there.  It is intended to run to a separate station facility near Epping station in the future.

Current ownership

North Weald station, as with the rest of the 6.5-mile branch reaching to the outskirts of Epping station, is undergoing significant improvement and infrastructure works in connection with its use as a heritage railway. These works are designed with the long-term future of the branch and to enable the use of locomotive-hauled trains (hauled by steam and diesel locomotives).

The station itself has been extensively restored, with all the rooms being restored to their original uses, restoring the station to British Rail colours.
The original GER signalbox dating from 1888 is being restored, complete with its original lever frame, as part of the works to signal the passing loop which has been reinstated through the station. The westbound platform has been restored, with a new accessible ramp installed, and an original GER latticework footbridge (formerly from Woodford) is in the process of being installed to replace the British Rail concrete structure.

The branch once again runs locomotive-hauled trains between Ongar and North Weald, with a diesel shuttle towards Coopersale and connecting heritage buses to Epping.

Connections

Local bus routes 62, 380, 381, 396, 501 (Sundays only), SB06 and Vintage Route 339 serve the station (and North Weald village).

Trivia
The station was used as a filming location for a scene in the Heartstopper Netflix show.

See also
List of former and unopened London Underground stations

References

External links

Epping Ongar Railway's Official Website
London's Abandoned Tube Stations - North Weald

Disused London Underground stations
Heritage railway stations in Essex
Transport in Epping Forest District
Former Great Eastern Railway stations
Former single platform tube stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1865
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1994
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 2004
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 2007
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 2012
Epping Ongar Railway
North Weald Bassett

North Weald railway station


The Second Battle of Kiev was a part of a much wider Soviet offensive in Ukraine known as the Battle of the Dnieper involving three strategic operations by the Soviet Red Army and one operational counterattack by the Wehrmacht, which took place between 3 November and 22 December 1943.

Following the Battle of Kursk, the Red Army launched the Belgorod-Kharkov Offensive Operation, pushing Erich von Manstein's Army Group South back towards the Dnieper River. Stavka, the Soviet high command, ordered the Central Front and the Voronezh Front to force crossings of the Dnieper. When this was unsuccessful in October, the effort was handed over to the 1st Ukrainian Front, with some support from the 2nd Ukrainian Front. The 1st Ukrainian Front, commanded by Nikolai Vatutin, was able to secure bridgeheads north and south of Kiev.

Strategy
The structure of the strategic operations from the Soviet planning point of view was:
Kiev Strategic Offensive Operation (October) (1–24 October 1943) by the Central and Voronezh Fronts
Chernobyl-Radomysl Offensive Operation (1–4 October 1943)
Chernobyl-Gornostaipol Defensive Operation (3–8 October 1943)
Lyutezh Offensive Operation (11–24 October 1943)
Bukrin Offensive Operation (12–15 October 1943)
Bukrin Offensive Operation (21–24 October 1943)
Kiev Strategic Offensive Operation (November) (3–13 November 1943)
Rauss' November 1943 counterattack
Kiev Strategic Defensive Operation (1943) (13 November 1943 – 22 December 1943)

Soviet preparations

In October 1943, several of Vatutin's armies were having serious trouble trying to break out of the rugged terrain of the Bukrin bend, the southern bridgehead. The 24th Panzer Corps of Walther Nehring, in an effective defensive position, had the opposing Soviet forces squeezed in. As a result, Vatutin decided to concentrate his strength at the northern bridgehead at Lyutezh.

The 3rd Guards Tank Army, commanded by Pavel Rybalko, moved northwards toward the Lyutezh bridgehead under cover of darkness and diversionary attacks out of the Bukrin bend. The Soviet preparations were considerable, including the installation of 26 bridges and 87 ferries. Many of the Soviet bridges were built underwater, making them difficult to detect. Feint attacks and the construction of fake bridges may have fooled the Germans for a short while. Fire support was provided by 7,000 guns and mortars and 700 combat aircraft. The 27th and 40th Armies launched the Soviet diversionary attack at Bukrin on 1 November, two days ahead of schedule, but advanced only 1.5 kilometers before being driven back.

Soviet historians claimed complete success for the Red Army deception measures but the Germans correctly identified the Soviet assault sector and sent armored reinforcements to the area. The 4th Panzer Army war diary referred to the main Soviet push north of Kiev on 3 November as "the offensive we have been expecting". The Germans were uncertain whether the anticipated Soviet assault had far-reaching objectives from the outset or was merely for the capture of an initial bridgehead to be exploited later.

Initial stage
Early on the morning of 3 November 1943, the 4th Panzer Army was subjected to a massive Soviet bombardment. The Soviet 38th and 60th Armies attacked in the first wave but failed to break through the positions of the German VII Army Corps. On 4 November, the 3rd Guards Armored Army and I Guard Cavalry Corps were added to the assault, compelling VII Army Corps to retreat and evacuate Kiev. The Soviets captured Kiev on 6 November. The second phase of the Soviet offensive now began, with the 1st Ukrainian Front's objective consisting of the capture of the towns of Zhitomir, Korosten, Berdichev and Fastov and the cutting of the rail link to Army Group Center; the ultimate objective being the encirclement of Army Group South. By 7 November, the Soviet spearheads had already reached the important railway node at Fastov 50 kilometers south-west of Kiev.

The plan went well at first for Vatutin; Manstein, however, became worried. As Rybalko's tanks moved through the streets of Kiev on 6 November, Manstein pleaded with Adolf Hitler to release the 48th and 40th Panzer Corps in order to have sufficient forces to retake Kiev. The 48th Panzer Corps was committed to Manstein. Hitler refused to divert the 40th Panzer Corps, and replaced Hoth with Erhard Raus, who was ordered to blunt the Soviet attack and secure the Army Group South's northern flank and communications with Army Group Centre. A number of sources give 6 November as the date for the fall of Kiev. The 1st Czechoslovak Independent Brigade seems to have started the assault earlier, at 12.30 on 5 November, reaching the Dniepr at 02:00 on the 6th, after sweeping through the western suburbs of the city and were the first unit in the city center, with Kiev finally being captured at 06:50 on the 6th.

Raus counterattacks
Raus had some difficulty with his units suffering heavy casualties in the initial stages of Vatutin's offensive. The 4th Panzer Army was reinforced, especially with artillery and rockets. The German divisions were bolstered on 7 November by the arrival of the newly formed 25th Panzer Division commanded by General der Panzertruppen Georg Jauer. Its drive on Fastov was halted by the 7th Guards Tank Corps. The half-formed 25th Panzer Division had only emergency individual training, lacked entire equipment categories and was committed against the protests of Heinz Guderian, the Inspector of Panzer Troops. It became the first committed Panzer Division that failed to achieve at least initial offensive success on the Eastern Front. The failed German offensive stopped however the advance of the Soviet 3rd Guards Armored Army.

The rest of the Soviet forces continued their attacks. Rybalko was soon just  from Berdichev. Zhitomir was taken by the 38th Army on 12 November but the Soviet advance came to a halt as the I Guards Cavalry Corps troopers looted the German 4th Army's alcohol stocks. The 60th Army took Korosten on 17 November and the 40th Army was moving south from Kiev. The only respite for the Germans came when the 27th Army exhausted itself and went over to the defensive in the Bukrin bend. In 10 days the Soviets had advanced 150 kilometers and opened up a 100 kilometer-wide gap between Army Group Center and Army Group South.

The 4th Panzer Army was in deep trouble. However, the situation changed with the arrival of Hermann Balck's XLVIII Panzer Corps, comprising the SS Division Leibstandarte, 1st Panzer Division and 7th Panzer Division. Balck drove his forces north to Brusyliv and then west to retake Zhitomir. Rybalko sent the 7th Guards Tank Corps to counter the German assault.  A huge tank battle ensued, which continued until the latter part of November, when the autumn mud halted all operations.

With the recapture of Zhitomir and Korosten, the 4th Panzer had gained some breathing room. With Vatutin halted, Stavka released substantial reserves to his First Ukrainian Front to regain momentum.

Final stage
By 5 December, the mud had frozen. 48th Panzer Corps conducted a wide sweeping attack north of Zhitomir. Catching the Red Army by surprise, the German forces sought to encircle the Soviet 60th Army and the 13th Corps. Reinforced with the 2nd Parachute Division, the Germans drove eastward, putting the Soviets on the defensive. With Fastov also being threatened, the 60th Army withdrew from Korosten.

Vatutin was forced to ask Stavka for more reserves, and was allocated the 1st Tank Army and the 18th Army. These new units, along with additional Corps from other sectors, were hastily rushed westward. Thus, the Red Army stopped the German advance, went back on the offensive, and retook Brusilov. Both sides were exhausted by late December and the battle for Kiev was over.

Aftermath

Although the Soviets had failed to break the rail link with Army Group Center or envelop Army Group South, they had broken the Dnieper line, taken Kiev, the third biggest city in the Soviet Union, and inflicted significant casualties on the 4th Panzer Army. The Germans, for their part, had bloodied several sizable Soviet formations and kept the vital rail link open, but failed in its attempt to encircle and destroy the Soviet spearheads. A few days after XLVIII Panzer Corps was pulled out to rest and refit, the Soviets launched Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive on Christmas Eve. The renamed Voronezh Front Offensive pushed the Germans back to the 1939 Polish border by 3 January 1944.

See also
 National Museum "Battle for Kyiv 1943"

References

Sources

External links
 Museum "Battle for Kyiv 1943" website

Conflicts in 1943
1943 in Ukraine
1943 in the Soviet Union
Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War
Battles of World War II involving Germany
Battles involving the Soviet Union
Battles and operations of World War II involving Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia–Soviet Union relations
Military history of Kyiv
1940s in Kyiv
November 1943 events
December 1943 events

Battle of Kiev (1943)


Joey Renard Gathright (born April 27, 1981) is a former Major League Baseball outfielder for the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Kansas City Royals, Chicago Cubs and Boston Red Sox. He was born in Hattiesburg, Mississippi.

Early life
Gathright attended Bonnabel High School in Kenner, Louisiana, where he played baseball and football as a junior and boxed. He was drafted by the Tampa Bay Devil Rays in the 32nd round of the 2001 Major League Baseball Draft, and signed in August after playing that summer in a Louisiana Sugar Cane League in Sorrento, Louisiana.

Major league career

Tampa Bay Devil Rays (2004–06)
He made his major league debut with the Devil Rays on June 25, 2004.

Gathright was arguably one of the fastest players in major league baseball when he made his major league debut, and led all major league outfielders in range factor (3.06) in 2006. He does not hit for power (with only one home run in his MLB career). From 2006 to 2009, he had the lowest slugging average of players with at least 1000 plate appearances at .298. He has a .263 lifetime batting average going into the 2009 season.

Gathright was clocked at 6.1 seconds in the 60-yard dash. While in high school, he jumped over his coach's car. That jumping ability proved useful on the field, as in a 2008 spring training game Gathright jumped over Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Hiroki Kuroda, who was trying to tag him out en route to first base.

In 2005, he hit .276 in 76 games, and drew 10 walks.

Kansas City Royals (2006–08)
On June 20, 2006, he was traded to the Kansas City Royals, along with infielder Fernando Cortez, for left-handed pitcher J. P. Howell.  In the 2006 season, he batted .238 with a .321 on-base percentage, and a .292 slugging percentage. He hit his first, and to date only, home run on September 16, 2006, against Joel Piñeiro of the Seattle Mariners.

In 2007, Gathright broke up Bobby Jenks's major league record-tying streak of 41 consecutive batters retired. Gathright, who would have been the record 42nd batter, was able to get a hit.

While playing center field, his range factor per nine innings was below average in 2007, 2008, and 2009. In 2008 Gathright saw his range factor fall to 2.53, below all but one center field starter in the league. He also hit .254 with a .311 on-base percentage, and only a .272 slugging percentage—below that of all starting outfielders in the major leagues.

Gathright, while with the Royals, had a tendency to attempt to bunt for base hits in order to use his superior speed to reach base.  However, he proved to be an inconsistent bunter, and thus his on-base percentage and batting average suffered.

Chicago Cubs (2009)
On December 16, 2008, three days after being non-tendered by the Royals, Gathright signed a one-year deal with the Chicago Cubs. and made his debut April 6 against the Houston Astros. In 20 games for the Cubs, he hit .214.

Baltimore Orioles (2009)
On May 8, 2009, after clearing waivers and being sent outright to the minors, the Cubs traded Gathright to the Baltimore Orioles for Ryan Freel. The Orioles sent him to the AAA Norfolk Tides, where he hit .329 in 80 games.

Boston Red Sox (2009)
On August 29, 2009, the Boston Red Sox acquired Gathright in exchange for either a player to be named later or cash considerations. He appeared in 17 regular season games, primarily as a pinch runner. He was on the post-season roster, where he made one appearance without an at-bat.

2010: Toronto, Baltimore, Long Island
On December 13, 2009, the Toronto Blue Jays signed Gathright to a minor league contract. However, he was released on March 28 before the start of the season.

On March 30, 2010, he signed a minor league contract to return to the Orioles. He was released on July 22, 2010, after 61 games with Norfolk, where he hit only .185

On August 6, 2010, Gathright signed with the Long Island Ducks of the independent Atlantic League.  He ended the season hitting .269 with 3 home runs and 19 RBI.

2011: Shreveport-Bossier, Yuma, Boston
On April 13, 2011, Gathright signed with the Shreveport-Bossier Captains of the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball. He was released on June 7, 2011, after hitting .190 in 21 games.

He then signed, on June 10, 2011, with the Yuma Scorpions of the North American League, where he hit .347 in 61 games.

His performance got him another chance in the Majors and on August 31, 2011, he returned to the Red Sox. He appeared in 7 late season games with the Red Sox, as either a defensive replacement or pinch runner.

2012
He was signed by the Tigres de Quintana Roo of the Mexican League but later signed with the Bridgeport Bluefish of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball.

On May 24, the Cincinnati Reds purchased Gathright's contract from the Bridgeport club. He reported to the Louisville Bats, Cincinnati's AAA minor league affiliate. He was released on July 14 after hitting .299 in 40 games.

2013
On July 2, 2013, Joey Gathright signed with the Kansas City T-Bones in the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball.

References

External links

1981 births
Living people
Major League Baseball outfielders
Tampa Bay Devil Rays players
Kansas City Royals players
Chicago Cubs players
Boston Red Sox players
Baseball players from Mississippi
Charleston RiverDogs players
Bakersfield Blaze players
Orlando Rays players
Montgomery Biscuits players
Durham Bulls players
Omaha Royals players
Norfolk Tides players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
Long Island Ducks players
Shreveport-Bossier Captains players
Yuma Scorpions players
Bridgeport Bluefish players
Louisville Bats players
Kansas City T-Bones players
People from Columbia, Mississippi

Joey Gathright


A frying pan, frypan, or skillet is a cooking pan used for frying, searing, and browning foods. It is usually about 20 to 30 cm (8 to 12 inches) across. It is flat and has flared sides and no lid.  It is almost always made of metal, such as iron or aluminum.

Cookware and bakeware

Frying pan


A plug-in hybrid car is similar to a conventional hybrid vehicle—both use a gasoline engine as well as an electric motor. A plug-in hybrid differs primarily in that it can be plugged in to charge the batteries, while a conventional hybrid relies solely on energy generated from braking, coasting or from the gasoline engine.

However, a plug-in hybrid uses larger battery packs that can be recharged by connecting to common household electricity. Plug-in hybrids can be driven for long distances—from a few miles to as much as 40 miles—without using any gasoline. Plug-in hybrid cars are also known as plug-in hybrid electric vehicles or PHEVs. Plug-in hybrid cars that use a gas engine exclusively for recharging batteries—rather than directly powering the wheels—are also called Extended-Range Electric Vehicles or E-REVs.

Fueling a car with electricity is about 5 times cheaper than fueling it with gasoline. That is equivalent to buying gasoline at less than $1 per gallon. It also reduces greenhouse pollution and helps reduce crude oil imports. Also plug-in hybrids produced substantially lower greenhouse gas emissions than either conventional gasoline cars or unplugged hybrids. The reduction in emissions results from electric operation being much more efficient than gasoline operation.

Criticisms
Criticisms of the hybrid include the additional cost, weight, and size of a larger battery pack. But The extra weight of the batteries will be offset somewhat by the reduced weight of the gas engine.

It is obvious for most people that internal combustion engine cars cannot represent the future anymore because of the oil reserves that are estimated to be finished in forty or fifty years. Obviously, Plug-in vehicles cannot be considered a short term option because we lack the needed infrastructure and capable batteries for increasing the autonomy that is currently limited. The general opinion was that, at least for the next seven or eight years, Plug-ins are not going to become the standard in hybrid vehicles and that regular HEVs will have the biggest proportion on the market.

Green vehicles

Plug-in hybrid


Charles Darwin Research Station (CDRS) (, ECCD)  is a biological research station in Puerto Ayora, Santa Cruz Island, Galápagos, Ecuador.  The station is operated by the Charles Darwin Foundation which was founded in 1959 under the auspices of UNESCO and the World Conservation Union.  The research station serves as the headquarters for the Foundation, and is used to conduct scientific research and promote environmental education. It is located on the shore of Academy Bay in the village of Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz Island in the Galapagos Islands, with satellite offices on Isabela and San Cristóbal islands.

Field station

The Charles Darwin Research Station (CDRS) (, ECCD) is a biological research station operated by the Charles Darwin Foundation. It is located on the shore of Academy Bay in the village of Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz Island in the Galapagos Islands, with satellite offices on Isabela and San Cristóbal islands. In Puerto Ayora, Santa Cruz Island, Ecuadorian and foreign scientists work on research and projects for conservation of the Galápagos terrestrial and marine ecosystems. The Research Station, established in 1959 and dedicated in 1964, has a natural history interpretation center and also carries out educational projects in support of conservation of the Galápagos Islands, and in support of external researchers visiting the islands to conduct field work.

Objectives and work
The objectives of the CDRS is to conduct scientific research and environmental education for conservation. The Station has a team of over a hundred scientists, educators, volunteers, research students, and support staff from all over the world.

Scientific research and monitoring projects are conducted at the CDRS in conjunction and cooperation with its chief partner, the Galápagos National Park Directorate (GNPD), which functions as the principal government authority in charge of conservation and natural resource issues in the Galapagos.

The work of the CDRS has as its main objectives:

 To promote, facilitate, design, and implement the scientific investigation necessary for the understanding of biological principles, better understanding of ecosystems, and adequate management of the islands' natural resources.
 To advise the Ecuadorian authorities on the subject of conservation and management of natural resources in the Galapagos Islands.
 To collaborate with Ecuadorian institutions on the implementation of programs involved in scientific investigation and education on the islands.
 To contribute to the development of scientific and technical personnel from Ecuador who are specialized in natural sciences and natural resource management.
 To contribute and collaborate on educational programs related to the conservation of the islands.
 To compile the results of the scientific investigations and the other activities of the organization and to disseminate this information regionally, nationally, and internationally.

In 2002, the Station was awarded the International Cosmos Prize.

Gallery

See also
 Charles Darwin
 Gerard Corley Smith
 Jean Dorst

References

External links

 Charles Darwin Foundation website

1959 establishments in Ecuador
Biological stations
Galápagos Islands
Seabird colonies
Evolutionary biology
Buildings and structures in Galápagos Province
Environmental organisations based in Ecuador
Conservation and environmental foundations

Charles Darwin Research Station


St Albans Cathedral (formerly St Albans Abbey)  is an Anglican church in St Albans, Hertfordshire. At , its nave is the longest of any cathedral in England. Much of its architecture dates from Norman times. It became a cathedral in 1877. Local residents often call it "the Abbey", though the cathedral is only the church of the old Benedictine abbey.

The church is legally a cathedral. However, it differs in certain ways from most of the other cathedrals in England. It is also used as a parish church, of which the Dean is rector. He has the same powers, responsibilities, and duties as the rector of any other parish.

History

Britain's first Christian martyr
Alban was a pagan living in the Roman city of Verulamium. Verulamium is where St Albans is now, in Hertfordshire, England, about  north of London along Watling Street.

Before Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, local Christians were being persecuted by the Romans. Alban sheltered their priest, Amphibalus, in his home and was converted to the Christian faith by him. When the soldiers came to Alban's house looking for the priest, Alban exchanged cloaks with the priest and let himself be arrested in his stead. Alban was taken before the magistrate, where he avowed his new Christian faith and was condemned for it. He was beheaded, according to legend, on the spot where the cathedral named for him now stands.

The date of Alban's execution is a matter of some debate, and is generally given as circa 250–scholars suggest dates of 209, 254 or 304. The Tomb of St Amphibalus is also in the Cathedral.

Norman abbey
Much of the current layout and proportions of the structure date from the first Norman abbot, Paul of Caen (1077–1093). The 14th Abbot, he was appointed by the new Archbishop of Canterbury, Lanfranc.

The cruciform (cross shaped) abbey was the largest built in England at that time. The Norman Robert the Mason gave attention to laying a solid foundation. There is a wall of layered bricks, flints and mortar below. This puts the foundations down to twelve feet to hit bedrock. Below the crossing tower special large stones were used.

The tower was a particular triumph–it is the only 11th century great crossing tower still standing in England. Robert began with special thick supporting walls and four massive brick piers. The four-level tower tapers at each stage with clasping buttresses on the three lower levels and circular buttresses on the fourth stage. The entire structure weighs 5,000 tons and is 144 feet high. The tower was probably topped with a Norman pyramidal roof; the current roof is flat. The original ringing chamber had five bells, but none of them has survived.

The monastic abbey was completed in 1089 but not consecrated until Holy Innocent's Day, 28 December 1115, by the Archbishop of Rouen. King Henry I attended as did many bishops and nobles.

A nunnery (Sopwell Priory) was founded nearby in 1140.

In the current structure the original Norman arches survive under the central tower and on the north side of the nave. The arches in the rest of the building are Gothic, following mediaeval rebuilding and extensions, and Victorian era restoration.

The abbey was extended in the 1190s by Abbot John de Cella (also known as John of Wallingford) (1195–1214). The Norman west front was rebuilt by Hugh de Goldclif. It was very costly but its rapid weathering and later alterations have removed all but fragments.

The St Albans Psalter (circa 1130–45) is the best known of a number of important Romanesque illuminated manuscripts produced in the Abbey scriptorium. Later, Matthew Paris, a monk at St Albans from 1217 until his death in 1259, was important as a chronicler and an artist. Eighteen of his manuscripts survive and are a rich source of contemporary information for historians.

Nicholas Breakspear was born near St Albans and went to school there. He applied to be admitted to the abbey as a novice, but was turned down. He eventually managed to be accepted into an abbey in France. In 1154 he was elected Pope Adrian IV, the only English Pope there has ever been. The head of the abbey was confirmed as the premier abbot in England, also in 1154.

References

Anglican cathedrals in England
St Albans
Buildings and structures in Hertfordshire
11th-century buildings and structures

St Albans Cathedral


Vreta Abbey (), in operation from the beginning of the 12th century to 1582, was the first nunnery in Sweden, initially Benedictine and later Cistercian, and one of the oldest in Scandinavia. It was located in the present-day municipality of Linköping in Östergötland.

History
The exact year of the foundation is not known. The abbey was founded by King Inge the Elder of Sweden and Queen Helena on the orders of Pope Paschal II, which gives a date range for the foundation: Paschal became pope in 1099; the date of Inge's death is disputed, but probably occurred around 1105 or a little later. In the following decade King Inge the Younger and Queen Ulvhild made large donations to it.

The original buildings burned down in the early 13th century, but were rebuilt, and a new church was dedicated in the presence of Magnus III and Hedwig of Holstein in 1289.

Vreta Abbey was a house of Benedictine nuns until 1162, when it was turned into a Cistercian nunnery. The first Cistercian abbess was Ingegerd, sister of Charles VII. A second sister, Helena, widow of Canute V of Denmark, entered Vreta as a nun after her husband's death in 1157, and other members of the Swedish and Danish royal families were also here. In the 13th century, the Swedish princess Helena Sverkersdotter were among its abbesses.

It was a prestigious establishment, and the church is the burial place of the kings Inge the Elder, Philip, Inge the Younger and Magnus II, and the princes Ragnvald (son of Inge the Elder) and Sune, plus according to an older source the latter's young nephews, Alf and Boleslaw Johansson. It served as a school for daughters of Sweden's ruling families and nobility. Vreta Abbey has entered folklore as the scene during the 13th century of a number of prominent abductions of girls for marriages disapproved of by their families.

Vreta was the mother house of Askeby Abbey near Linköping, Riseberga Abbey in Närke and Solberga Abbey in Gotland.

Dissolution
As a result of the Reformation the abbey was forbidden to accept any new novices, but was otherwise treated very leniently.  It continued in use as a school for daughters of the nobility and a retirement place for old noblewomen, and in 1529, the king allowed the last abbess, Sigrid Botholfsdotter (d. 1538), to buy it, and its activities continued undisturbed.   Vreta Abby received the nuns from the former Askeby Abbey and Skänninge Abbey when they were closed in 1529 and 1544 respectively.   In 1536, Gustav I gave the abbey and its assets to his Catholic mother-in-law Ebba Eriksdotter Vasa; she spent her last years here and died in 1549. There were still nuns here in 1562, and the last two of whom, Brita Gisledotter and Kirstin Månsdotter, died in 1582.

Vreta Abbey's remaining church now belongs to the Church of Sweden.

Site and buildings
The church continued in use as a Lutheran parish church and still stands today, distinguished by its possession of a medieval hagioscope. The remaining buildings were mostly allowed to fall into ruin.

Between 1916 and 1926 the ruins were excavated, and large portions to the north of the church, which was itself restored between 1914 and 1917, remain visible. The finds, including an unusual wooden waterpipe, are on display in the adjoining museum.

Apart from the church, the only monastic building completely preserved is the barn, although some walls were reconstructed in the 20th century. The stones from the former refectory were used to build the tower of Linköping Cathedral.

Abbesses
The abbesses are only partially known.

 Princess Ingegerd Sverkersdotter of Sweden (1164-1204)
 Cecilia (mentioned in 1216–1222)
 Katarina (mentioned in 1248)
 Katarina Svantepolksdotter, died 1329, (mentioned in 1289–1323; referred to as the 7th abbess)
 Ingrid Svantepolksdotter, sister of the above (mentioned in 1323–1344)
 Kristina Karlsdotter (1344-1350)
 Ingrid (mentioned in 1366)
 Cecilia (mentioned in 1381)
 Margareta "Märeta" (1393-1399)
 Elin Bruddadotter (mentioned in 1413–1417)
 Ingegerd (mentioned in 1444–1446)
 Elin Nilsdotter (mentioned in 1465)
 Ramborg (mentioned in 1474)
 Kristina (mentioned in 1486)
 Sigrid Botholfsdotter (1513-1538)

Gallery

Notes

References
Riksantikvarieämbetet: Vreta kloster 2006
Cistercienserkloster längs Eriksgatan i Östergötland
Eskilstunakistan och Stenkilska gravkoret i Vreta
Vreta kloster och kyrka (Bengans historiesidor)
Se er om i Vreta kloster! (images)
Föreningen Klosterliv i Vreta
 Runeberg.org
Sixten Dahlquist: Ett kyrkligt och kulturellt centrum, Vreta klosters hembygdsförening, 1956,
Erik Lundberg: Vreta kloster - Svenska fornminnesplatser nr 6, Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm, 1964
Gustaf-Adolf Andræ: Klosterbrev från Vreta - Verklighet och fantasi (1975), Noteria tryckeri, Klockrike, 1999,
Gustaf-Adolf Andræ: Det hände i klostret - År och människor vid klostret i Vreta, Noteria förlag, Klockrike, 1981, 1998,
Dick Harrison: Jarlens sekel, Ordfronts förlag, Stockholm 2002,
Föreningen klosterliv i Vreta: Klosterliv i Vreta - Förhistoria, andligt liv, daglig strävan, klostrets byggnader, nunnor och annat folk, LTAB, Linköping, 2003 (2:a uppl.),
Markus Lindberg: Vreta -  kloster, kyrka och gravplats from: kulten – makten - människan, Meddelanden från Östergötlands länsmuseum 2004,
Signum svenska kulturhistoria:Renässansen (2005)

Cistercian nunneries in Sweden
12th-century establishments in Sweden
1100s establishments in Europe
Benedictine nunneries in Sweden
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
1582 disestablishments in Sweden
16th-century disestablishments in Sweden
Medieval Sweden
Monasteries dissolved under the Swedish Reformation
Burial sites of Swedish royal houses
Burial sites of the House of Estridsen
Burial sites of the House of Stenkil

Vreta Abbey


Jean (de) Mairet (10 May 160431 January 1686) was a classical french dramatist who wrote both tragedies and comedies.

Life
He was born at Besançon, and went to Paris to study at the Collège des Grassins about 1625. In that year he produced his first piece Chryséide et Arimand. In 1634 he produced his masterpiece, Sophonisbe, which marks, in its observance of the rules, the first to be staged of the classical French tragedies. He also introduced to French drama the three classical unities of time, action and place, after a misreading of Aristotle's Poetics.

Mairet was one of the bitterest assailants of Corneille in the controversy over the violation of the classical unities in Le Cid. He produced several pamphlets against Corneille, who responded more than once, most famously with his Advertissement au Besançonnois Mairet (1637). The personal intervention of Cardinal Richelieu was eventually required to calm the furore in the theatres.  It was perhaps his jealousy of the successful Corneille, together with the deaths of his aristocratic patrons, first the duc de Montmorency (1632) and then François de Faudoas, comte de Belin, that made Mairet give up writing for the stage.

He was appointed in 1648 official representative of his home country, the county of Burgundy, which allowed him to stay in Paris, but in 1653 he was banished by Cardinal Mazarin. He was subsequently allowed to return, but in 1668 he retired to Besançon, and subsequently rarely left.

Other plays
 La Sylvie, a pastoral tragi-comedy (1626)
 La Silvanire, ou la Morte-vive, with an elaborate preface on the observance of the unities (1631)
 Les Galanteries du duc d'Ossonne, comedy (1632)
 La Virginie, tragi-comedy (1633)
 Le Marc-Antoine, ou la Cléopâtre, tragedy (1635)
 L'illustre corsaire, tragi-comedy (1636)
 Le Grand et dernier Solyman, tragedy (1637)
 L'Illustre corsaire, tragi-comedy (1640)
 Le Roland furieux, tragi-comedy (1641)
 L'Athénaïs, tragi-comedy (1642)
 La Sidonie, tragi-comedy (1643)

Bibliography

References

External links

1604 births
1686 deaths
17th-century French dramatists and playwrights
Writers from Besançon
17th-century French male writers

Jean Mairet