Osborne's bull was created as an advertisement for a sherry in 1956. Many people see it as the unofficial image of Spain. The bull is seen in semi-profile. The bulls used today are about 14 metres high, and are made out of about 70 plates of iron. There are many people who think it as a god.

Symbols

Osborne's bull


Henrik Nikolai Krøyer (22 March 1799 – 14 November 1870) was a Danish zoologist.

Born in Copenhagen, he was a brother of the composer Hans Ernst Krøyer. He started studying medicine at the University of Copenhagen in 1817, which he later changed to history and philology. While a student, he was a supporter of the Philhellenic movement, and he participated as a volunteer in the Greek War of Independence along with several fellow students.

Upon his return to Denmark, Krøyer gained an interest in zoology. In 1827, he took the position as assistant teacher in Stavanger, where he met, and later married, Bertha Cecilie Gjesdal. Bertha's sister, Ellen Cecilie Gjesdal, was deemed unfit to bring up her child, so Henrik and Bertha adopted the boy, who took on the name Peder Severin Krøyer, and later became a well-known painter.

Krøyer returned to Copenhagen in 1830 where he was employed as a teacher in natural history at the Military Academy. As the course lacked a textbook, Krøyer wrote and published  (1833).

During his career, he often travelled along the coasts of Denmark where he studied marine life, especially fish and crustaceans, and this resulted in his main work  ("The Fish of Denmark", 3 volumes, 1838–1853). Krøyer also founded the journal Naturhistorisk tidsskrift, for which he served as editor and to which he contributed numerous articles. During his life he visited most of the coasts of Western Europe as well as Newfoundland. But his health eventually deteriorated and in 1869 he had to take his leave of his position of head of the Natural Museum of Copenhagen which he had held since 1847. He gained the title of professor in 1853.

References

Further reading
 Henrik Nikolai Krøyer, Erindringer af Henrik Krøyers Liv 1821–38 (1870).
 Gosch: Danmarks zoologiske Littteratur

1799 births
1870 deaths
Danish zoologists
Danish carcinologists
Philhellenes in the Greek War of Independence
University of Copenhagen alumni
Danish marine biologists

Henrik Nikolai Krøyer


A president is the leader and head of state of a country which is a republic. A president is usually elected directly through a vote by the citizens or indirectly by legislatures (parliaments) who were voted by the citizens and which represents them.

Some presidents are both the head of state and head of government, such as the President of the United States. In other countries, such as the Republic of Ireland, the President has a ceremonial role while the Prime Minister is the leader of the government. In France, the President and Prime Minister both share executive powers.

A president could also be the title of the head of a large business, company or organization.

Electing a President
Many republics have direct elections by citizens to elect a president. But some other republics do not. The President of the United States is elected by the electoral college. Some other republics choose a president this way. In some other republics, the parliament elects a president.

Countries that have a monarch as leader, are called monarchies. Some countries have neither a president  or a monarch as leader, such as the Vatican City which is ruled by a religious leader called a Pope.

Companies also have presidents. They are elected by the people who own part of the company. In some companies, the people who are workers for the company elect (vote for) their company president.

Power of a President
The president of a country is not the same thing as a prime minister. A prime minister is part of a parliament, but a president is not. In some countries, (such as the United States or France), the president has more power and responsibility than anyone else. Such a president is often called the nation's chief executive. As chief executive, the president must take an active role in all phases of government. The republics where the president is both the head of state and head of government (and there is no prime minister) are called a presidential republics.

In other republics (such as India, Israel or the Republic of Ireland), to be president is more of an honor or a symbol, and the position has no real power. The real power in such republics is held by the prime minister, who is the head of government. In this kind of republics, the president is only the head of state, and are called parliamentary republics.

In some republics (such as France or Russia) both the president as the head of state, and the prime minister as the head of government, run the day-to-day affairs of the state, but often the president has more powers than the prime minister. Such republics are called semi-presidential republics.

Most monarchies that have a king or queen as their monarch and head of state, have no president, but very few monarchies, such as the United Arab Emirates has a president who is the head of state, who by custom (but not by law) is always the emir (monarch) of Abu Dhabi, which  is de facto hereditary.

The American President is restricted by the written United States Constitution, which was written to make sure that the American executive never became as powerful as in the British system.  The British Prime Minister is part of both the Legislature and Executive, whereas the American President is the head of the Executive. The American governmental system shows a clear separation of powers unlike the British system.

 All the president's ministerial appointments have to be vetted by Congress (Parliament) and Congress may have an opposition majority.
 The president does not have the ability to introduce and influence legislation in the same way as the British prime minister.
 Congress has much greater control over the budget and foreign policy than the British Parliament.
 There are broad areas of American life, such as education, crime and punishment, over which the president has virtually no influence at all.
 The president even has very limited control over the economy.

So despite having a large nuclear arsenal, the American president can not carry out policy and introduce legislation as freely as the British prime minister.

Related pages
 Head of state
 Monarch

Other websites
 Presidents of the United States

Titles
Government occupations

President


Frederick Richard Pickersgill  (25 September 1820 – 20 December 1900) was an English painter and book illustrator. Born in London into a family of artists, he was admitted to the Royal Academy Schools in 1840. He exhibited regularly at the Royal Academy between 1839 and 1875. Most of these works depicted scenes drawn from literature (including Edmund Spenser and John Milton), religion, and history.

Pickersgill's The Burial of Harold was accepted as a decoration for the Houses of Parliament in 1847 for the sum of £500. He also did some landscapes under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelites.

In 1856 Pickersgill was photographed at The Photography Institute by Robert Howlett, as part of a series of portraits of artists. The picture was among a group exhibited at the Art Treasures Exhibition in Manchester in 1857. In addition, Pickersgill seems to have experimented with photography himself.

Pickersgill was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1847 and a full Royal Academician in June 1857, but retired in 1888. He was keeper of the Royal Academy Schools from 1873 to 1887.

Footnotes

References

External links

Frederick Richard Pickersgill

19th-century English painters
English male painters
English illustrators
Keepers of the Royal Academy
1824 births
1900 deaths
Royal Academicians
Alumni of the Royal Academy Schools
19th-century English male artists

Frederick Richard Pickersgill


GREE (derived from an abbreviation of the "Six degrees of separation" concept) is a Japanese social networking service founded by Yoshikazu Tanaka and operated by GREE, Inc.

GREE focuses primarily on mobile games and over ninety percent of its users access the site via their mobile phones. The company makes money by selling virtual goods to users such as clothes for their in-game avatars.

Social networking features of GREE include the user profile, diary, communities, photo sharing and photo emailing. It serves as a platform for promoting communication and mutual understanding among its members.

While GREE was initially available only to PC users, the service was later extended to feature phone users. GREE for feature phones includes regular social networking functions, social games, flash-based games, blogs, fortune telling, news and so forth. In 2010, GREE, Inc. started GREE for iPhone and Android to meet demand. GREE, Inc. provides a variety of social game applications for feature phones and smartphones, with enhanced communication among users. The source of earnings is mainly composed of advertisement sales and paid services sales.

Etymology
The service name GREE comes from a hypothesis, Six Degrees of Separation postulated by social psychologist Stanley Milgram in 1967. Six degrees of separation is a hypothesis that everyone is at most six steps away from any other person on Earth. If a chain of a friend of a friend statements are made, any two people in the world can be connected in six steps or fewer.
The name symbolizes GREE's hope to create and provide any new possibilities of the Internet.

See also
Ensemble Girls!

References

External links
 Official GREE website

Japanese social networking websites
Mobile social software
Internet properties established in 2004
2004 establishments in Japan

Gree (social network)


A liberal arts college is a college with an emphasis on undergraduate study in the liberal arts and sciences. These colleges try to teach broad general knowledge, different from colleges that focus on job skills. Students in a liberal arts college often major in one subject but take classes in many subjects, including both humanities and sciences. The idea of liberal arts began in Europe, but liberal arts colleges are mostly found in the United States.

In 2019, the top ten liberal arts colleges in the United States, according to U.S. News & World Report, were Amherst College, Bowdoin College, Carleton College, Claremont McKenna College, Davidson College, Middlebury College, Pomona College, Swarthmore College, Wellesley College, and Williams College.

Many liberal arts colleges teach only undergraduate students, but some also offer graduate programs that lead to a master's degree or doctoral degree. The term "liberal arts college" most often describes an independent college, but it may also sometimes describe a college within a larger university. Most liberal arts colleges outside the United States are like this.

References

Colleges and universities in the United States
Colleges and universities by type

Liberal arts college


Lenz's law is a common way to understand how electromagnetic circuits obey Newton's third law and the conservation of energy. Lenz's law is named after Emil Lenz, and it says:
An induced electromotive force (emf) always gives rise to a current whose magnetic field opposes the change in original magnetic flux.

Lenz's law is shown with the negative sign in Faraday's law of induction:

,

which indicates that the induced emf (ℰ) and the change in magnetic flux (∂ΦB) have opposite signs.

The induced emf and the resulting induced current are counterclockwise when B' is directed out from the page and the area of the circuit is decreasing. The flux through this circuit is decreasing in the outward direction. Now the induced current I produces its own magnetic field, and we may use the right-hand grip rule to compute the direction of this field. The result is that the magnetic field due to the induced current is also directed outward within the circuit. It is as though nature, through this induced field, tried to compensate for the reduction in the flux due to the applied field B. This turns out experimentally to be a general rule, so that we may say thatThe direction of the induced emf is always such as to result in opposition to the change producing it.That is Lenz's law.

As another example of the application of Lenz's law, consider a coil of wire to which a battery is suddenly connected. Suppose that the battery starts a current flowing clockwise, as viewed by the observer. This current will give rise to a magnetic field whose lines will thread the coil and circle back outside it. Thus, as the current due to the battery builds up, there is a changing magnetic flux through the coil and this must result in an induced emf in the coil. What is the direction of this induced emf? Lenz's law tells us immediately that it must be counterclockwise, so as to oppose the building up of the current. Similarly, when the current in a circuit is broken, the induced emf seeks to keep the current from dying out, and this accounts for the sparking observed when switches are opened slowly. The induced emf in a circuit whose current is changing is called the back emf, since it always opposes the alteration in the current. It arises from change in the current's own magnetic field, an effect referred to as self-inductance.

Were Lenz's law not true, an increase in current in a coil would result in an emf that aided the applied battery, thus increasing the current further, inducing more emf and further increases in the current, ad infinitum''. This would be an unstable situation and one in which the conservation of energy principle would be disobeyed.
This sort of reasoning may be extended to other situations in which a system in equilibrium is displaced and the principle arrived at is the following.

When a system in equilibrium is disturbed, the equilibrium is displaced in the direction which tends to undo the effects of the disturbance.
This generalization of Lenz's law is called Le Chatelier's principle.

References

Electromagnetism
Laws of physics

Lenz's law


Vincennes is a commune in France. Right next to Paris,  with about 50.000 people. Today, the city is known for the Château de Vincennes, which was there before the city, and which has an important role in the history of France. The city also gave its name to the Bois de Vincennes, the largest park in Paris.

Vincennes


A canyon (or gorge) is a big crack in the ground, or a  very deep valley. Most canyons are made by rivers. A few are made by earthquakes. They can be big, like the Grand Canyon, or small.

Canyons can be formed by erosion by running water which will take rocks and soil away.

References

Canyon


In the military, a flare countermeasure is a very hot, burning object which is shot out from a warplane or helicopter. Warplanes and helicopters shoot out flares if the enemy has fired a heat-seeking missile at them. The flare may trick the missile into hitting into the hot, burning flare. This helps to protect warplanes and helicopters from enemy missiles. If a warplane or helicopter has had a radar-guided missile fired at them, they may shoot out chaff. Chaff is thin strips or fibres of metal which make if hard for the enemy missile to target the plane or helicopter.

Weapons
Military aircraft

Flare (countermeasure)


The 23rd century BC is a century which was from the year 2300 BC to 2201 BC.

Events

2334 BC – 2279 BC: (short chronology) Sargon of Akkad's conquest of Mesopotamia.
 2333 BC: Beginning of the Gojoseon, the first dynasty and government system in Korea.
c. 2300 BC: Bronze Age starts.
c. 2300 BC – 2184 BC: Disk of Enheduanna, from Ur, (modern Muqaiyir, Iraq) is made. It is now in University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
c. 2300 BC – 2200 BC: Head of a man from Nineveh (modern Kuyunjik, Iraq) is made. It is now in Iraq Museum, Baghdad.
c. 2300 BC: Canal Bahr Yusuf (current name) is made when the waterway from the Nile to the natural lake (now Lake Moeris) is widened and deepened to create a canal.
c. 2288 BC – 2224/2194 BC: Pepy II and his mother, Queen Merye-ankhnes, Sixth dynasty of Egypt, is made. It is now at The Brooklyn Museum of Art, New York City.
c. 2285 BC: Enheduanna, high priestess of the moon god Nanna in Ur, was born.
c. 2278 BC: Pharaoh Pepi II starts to rule (other date is 2383 BC).
c. 2254 BC – 2218 BC: Stela of Naram-Sin, probably from Sippar, discovered in Susa (modern Shush, Iran), is made. It is now in Musée du Louvre, Paris.
c. 2250 BC Earliest proof of growing maize in Central America.
c. 2240 BC: Akkad, capital of the Akkadian Empire, becomes the largest city in the world
c. 2220 BC Scord of Brouster farmstead made in Shetland, Scotland
c. 2215 BC:  Comet Hale-Bopp appeared. A Guti army swept down from the Zagros Mountains and defeated the Akkadian army. They took Agade, the capital of Akkad, and destroyed it.
c. 2300 BC: Metals started to be used in Northern Europe.

Significant persons
 Sargon of Akkad, founder of the Akkadian Empire and the earliest empire builder in recorded history
2279 BC—Death of Sargon I

References

23rd century BC


A dry county is a county in the United States whose government does not allow the sale of any kind of alcoholic beverages. Some don't allow off-premises sales, some don't allow on-premises sale, and some don't allow both. Many dry counties exist in the United States. Most of them in the South. Some smaller jurisdictions also exist, such as cities, towns, and townships, which don't allow alcohol to be sold. These are known as dry cities, dry towns, or dry townships. Dry jurisdictions can be contrasted with "wet" (minimal alcohol prohibitions) and "moist" (fewer prohibitions than "dry" but more than "wet").

Local government in the United States

Dry county


A muffin is a small bread- or cake-like baked food. Muffins are similar to cupcakes: they have round bases, rounded tops, and are usually sweet, but there are also savory kinds (like cornbread muffins). A muffin can also mean a different baked food, the smaller, disk-shaped English muffin, although this is not common outside Britain. In Britain, the term can mean either type of muffin. Muffins can also have extra ingredients to its flavour, such as blueberries or chocolate chips. Muffins are usually eaten at breakfast but can be eaten at any other meal. It is usually served with tea.

Cakes
Sweet breads

Muffin


The Grand Budapest Hotel is a 2014 German-American comedy movie directed by Wes Anderson. It is about a caretaker who teams up with one of his employees to prove that he is innocent of murder. Ralph Fiennes plays the caretaker. Tilda Swinton plays Céline. Léa Seydoux plays plays Clotilde. Harvey Keitel plays Ludwig.

This movie has an R rating from the Motion Picture Association of America. The reviews of the movie were very positive.

Movies directed by Wes Anderson
2014 comedy movies
2014 crime movies
2010s criminal comedy movies

American criminal comedy movies
American prison movies
English-language movies
German comedy movies
Golden Globe Award winning movies
Movies set in hotels
Movies set in Europe
Movies set in the 1930s
Movies set in the 1960s
Movies set in the 1980s
Murder in movies
Prison comedy movies
Movies about inheritances
Movies about friendship

The Grand Budapest Hotel


Thomas Young (1507 – 26 June 1568) was a Bishop of St David's and Archbishop of York (1561–1568).

Life
He was the son of John Young and Eleanor his wife, and was born at Hodgeston, Pembrokeshire, in 1507. He became a student at Broadgates Hall, Oxford, and graduated B. A. 14 June 1529, M. A. 19 March 1533, as secular chaplain, B.C.L. 17 February 1538, (disputation for) D.C.L. 13 February 1566, and was admitted in London. He became principal of his hall in 1542, and resigned in 1546. He had already become vicar of Llanfihangel Castell Gwallter, Cardiganshire, in 1541, rector of Hogeston in 1542, and, in the same year, of Nash-with-Upton, Pembrokeshire. In 1542 he became precentor of St David's Cathedral, entering into residence in 1547. Opposing the actions of Robert Ferrar, Bishop of St David's, who had made him his commissary, he, with others of the canons, drew up articles against him. Those were investigated by a commission appointed by Edward VI in 1549. Ferrar, in vindication of himself, accused Young and another canon of despoiling the cathedral of crosses, chalices, censers, and other plate, jewels, and ornaments. John Foxe comments very severely on Young's conduct.

On Queen Mary's accession Young was one of the six who, in convocation in 1553, publicly avowed his adherence to the Reformation and resigned his preferments. He was a Marian exile in Germany. His successor, Morgan Phillips, fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, was collated precentor on 31 May 1554.

On the accession of Elizabeth, Phillips was deprived (1559) and Young was restored. He was shortly afterwards appointed with others on a commission to visit the Welsh cathedrals. On the deprivation of Bishop Henry Morgan, he was elected bishop of St David's on 6 December 1559, confirmed on 18 January 1560, consecrated at Lambeth on 21 January 1560 by Archbishop Matthew Parker and the bishops of London, Ely, and Bedford. Through Lord Robert Dudley, he begged to obtain the restoration of the temporalities of his see, which were given on 23 March. He received licence to hold in commendam the precentorship and other positions, because of the extent of his diocese and its expense. On the deprivation of Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York, Parker recommended Young to the queen as Heath's successor. He was elected archbishop on 27 January 1561, and confirmed on 25 February receiving restitution of the temporalities on 4 March 1561.

In the north Young was immersed in the work of pacifying the country, bringing it to conformity in religion, and acting as the royal representative in political and religious matters. He was an active president of the Council of the North, judging on assize, and reviving the archiepiscopal mint. He was present with Parker at the interviews Elizabeth had in 1561 with De Quadra as to possible reunion through a general council. He was given charge of the young Charles Stuart, son of the Countess of Lennox, and ordered to repress the Catholic tendencies of the family. In his archiepiscopal visitation he claimed the right to visit the diocese of Durham, but was resisted. In 1561 he sat on the commission at Lambeth which drew up the articles. On 26 March 1564 the University of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1564 he visited and reformed the collegiate church at Manchester. In 1566, on account of his age, a suffragan, with the title of bishop of Nottingham, was consecrated to assist him (Richard Barnes, 9 March 1566).

He died at Sheffield on 26 June 1568, and was buried in the east end of the choir of York Minster, where his monument remains.

Family
He married, first, a daughter of George Constantine; secondly, Jane, daughter of Thomas Kynaston of Estwick, Staffordshire, by whom he had a son, Sir George Young (fl. 1612).

References

Attribution

External links
Welsh Biography Online

1507 births
1568 deaths
Archbishops of York
Bishops of St Davids
16th-century English Anglican priests
Alumni of Broadgates Hall, Oxford

Thomas Young (bishop)


Ichadon (Hanja: 異次頓), also known as Geochadon (Hanja: 居次頓), or by his courtesy name, Yeomchok (Hanja: 厭觸), or Yeomdo, (Hanja: 厭都), was a Buddhist monk and the advisor to the Silla king, Beopheung. He was born in 501 AD, Silla, and died in 527 AD.

Miracle
Early in his reign, Beopheung had desired to promulgate Buddhism as the state religion. However, officials in his court opposed him. In the fourteenth year of his reign, Beopheung's "Grand Secretary", Ichadon, devised a strategy to overcome court opposition. Ichadon schemed with the king, convincing him to make a proclamation granting Buddhism official state sanction using the royal seal. Ichadon told the king to deny having made such a proclamation when the opposing officials received it and demanded an explanation.  Instead, Ichadon would confess and accept the punishment of execution, for what would quickly be seen as a forgery.

Ichadon prophesied to the king that at his execution a wonderful miracle would convince the opposing court faction of Buddhism's power. Ichadon's scheme went as planned, and the opposing officials took the bait.  When Ichadon was executed on the 15th day of the 9th month in 527, his prophecy was fulfilled; the earth shook, the sun was darkened, beautiful flowers rained from the sky, his severed head flew to the sacred Geumgang mountains, and milk instead of blood sprayed 100 feet in the air from his beheaded corpse.  The omen was accepted by the opposing court officials as a manifestation of heaven's approval, and Buddhism was made the state religion in 527 CE. Ichadon's body was then taken to the Geumgang mountains and buried there with respect. His martyrdom led to the construction of Heungryun monastery, Silla's first state-sponsored temple.

Historical context
According to the Samguk Yusa, his family name was Bak. His mother's family was descended from the father of Jijeung of Silla.
In Silla before Buddhism was recognized, Shamanism, which regarded Bak Hyeokgeose as a god, was popular. In response, King Beopheung wanted to use Ichadon, a descendant of Hyeokgeose, to establish Buddhism as a state religion and Ichadon accepted the sacrifice.

See also
 Korean Buddhism

References

501 births
527 deaths
6th-century Buddhists
6th-century Buddhist monks
Buddhism in Korea
Korean Buddhists
Korean Buddhist monks
Buddhist monks
Prophecy in Buddhism
Silla Buddhist monks
Buddhist martyrs

Ichadon


The British Rail Class 87 is a type of electric locomotive built from 1973 to 1975 by British Rail Engineering Limited (BREL). 36 of these locomotives were built to work passenger services over the West Coast Main Line (WCML). They were the flagships of British Rail's electric locomotive fleet until the late 1980s, when the Class 90s started to come onstream. The privatisation of British Rail saw all but one of the fleet transferred to Virgin Trains; they continued their duties until the advent of the new Pendolino trains, when they were transferred to other operators or withdrawn. The last Class 87 in UK mainline use was withdrawn from service on 31 December 2007. Most have now been sold for reuse in Bulgaria.

87
BREL locomotives

British Rail Class 87


The Green River is a river in the states of Wyoming and Utah, in the United States. It is the largest tributary of the Colorado River, at about 730 miles (1,175 km) long. Its headwaters are in the west part of Wyoming, in a subrange of the Rocky Mountains known as the Wind River Range. From there, it flows south, then turns east for a short while, then flows south, west, and south into the Reservoir, formed by Fontenelle Dam, and Flaming Gorge Reservoir, which is formed by the Flaming Gorge Dam.

After it exits the dam, it flows east around the Uinta Mountains, and enters the desert-like Colorado Plateau. Here, it flows in a series of deep and spectacular canyons. It meets both of its largest tributaries, the White River and the Yampa River, from the east. In Canyonlands National Monument, it meets the Colorado. Shortly after the two rivers meet, they flow into Lake Powell, formed by Glen Canyon Dam.

Related pages
Green River Formation

Rivers of Utah

Green River


An egg shaker or ganzá is a hand percussion instrument, in the idiophone category, that makes a noise when shaken. Functionally it is similar to a maraca. Typically the outer casing or container is ovoidal or egg-shaped. It is partially full of small, loose objects, such as seeds or beads, which create the percussive sounds as they collide, both with each other and with the inside surface of the container. The egg shaker is a Latin American instrument, cheap to buy and relatively simple to play.

Playing styles
The egg shaker can be played in a number of ways. It can be shaken up and down to create a fast percussion line or from side to side creating a slightly different sound.  It is used alongside other instruments like maracas, but also in samba groups and mariachi bands using instruments such as the drumkit, piano, saxophone, bass guitar, violin, the vihuela, guitarrón, trumpet, occasionally acoustic guitar or electric guitar, and the voice.

Construction
The egg shaker is created with a plastic mould, the main shape created in two halves. One half is filled with metal beads or seeds and then both halves are fitted together. Another sound can be made by holding the shaker in the palm of the hand tightly, then opening it whilst shaking it up and down. This makes a whirling sound not possible with other percussion instruments.

Availability
Egg shakers are available in a number of colours, and are sold in most music shops at a reasonably low price, due to the use of inexpensive materials like plastic and seeds. They are often sold in packets alongside other similar percussion instruments such as maracas, tambourines, finger cymbals etc.

External links
Musical Egg Shakers

Shaken idiophones or rattles

Egg shaker


An urn problem is an idéalized thought experiment in which some objects of réal interest (such as atoms, péople, cars, etc.) are represented as colored balls in an urn or other container.
One pretends to draw (remove) one or more balls from the urn;
the goal is to determine the probability of drawing one color or another,
or some other properties.

Basic urn model

In this basic urn modél in probability theory, the urn contains x white and y black balls; one ball is drawn randomly from the urn and its color observed; it is then placed back in the urn, and the selection process is repéated.

Possible questions that can be answered in this modél are:
 can I infer the proportion of white and black balls from n observations ? With what degree of confidence ?
 knowing x and y, what is the probability of drawing a specific sequence (e.g. one white followed by one black)?
 if I only observe n white balls, how sure can I be that there is no black balls?

Other models

Many other variations exist:
 the urn could have numbéréd balls instéad of colored ones
 balls may not be returned to the urns once drawn.

Conto masalah urn

 Turunan sebaran binomial
 Turunan sebaran hipergeometrik
 Statistik fisika: turunan tanaga sarta sebaran kecepatan

Historical remarks

Urn problems have been a part of the theory of probability since at léast the publication of the Ars conjectandi by Jakob Bernoulli (1713).
Bernoulli's inspiration may have been lotteries, elections, or games of chance which involved drawing balls from a container.
It has been asserted

that

Elections in medieval and renaissance Venice, including that of the doge, often included the choice of electors by lot, using balls of different colors drawn from an urn.

Bernoulli himself, in Ars conjectandi, considered the problem of determining, from a number of pebbles drawn from an urn, the proportions of different colors.
This problem was known as the inverse probability problem, and was a topic of reséarch in the eighteenth century,
attracting the attention of Abraham de Moivre and Thomas Bayes.

See also

 Coin-tossing problems

Probability and statistics

Masalah Urn


Proper motion is the name for the way the stars seem to slowly move relative to each other when seen from Earth.

The movement is caused by the fact that all stars (including the Sun) are moving through space at hundreds of kilometres per second. However, because they are so far away, it takes a long time for us to see that they have moved, and even then it takes a powerful telescope to see the difference. Because of this, for a long time, most people thought that the stars did not move at all. Even the ancient Greeks, who knew a lot about the stars and discovered some of the other ways they move, such as stellar precession, did not discover proper motion (although they probably suspected it).

Proper motion was not proved to exist until 1718 when Edmond Halley noticed the stars Sirius, Arcturus and Aldebaran had moved from the places they were in star charts that Hipparchus had drawn around 130 BC. However, even after more than 1,800 years, they had moved less than half a degree.

Proper motion is useful to astronomers in figuring out how far away a star is from Earth because stars that are close usually have a larger proper motion (meaning they move faster across the sky) than stars that are farther away. For example, Barnard's star has the largest proper motion of any star, moving 10.3 arcseconds per year. This is equal to one quarter of a degree, or half the diameter of the Moon in the sky, in only 87 years. It is the second-closest star to the Earth at 5.98 light years away. Also, eight of the ten stars with the biggest proper motions are less than 15 light years away.

References

Astronomical phenomena

Proper motion


3DMLW (3D Markup Language for Web) is a discontinued open-source project, and a XML-based Markup Language for representing interactive 3D and 2D content on the World Wide Web.

The project has been inactive since 2009; as of 2016, the website, including the documentation, is no longer available.

3DMLW platform
The 3DMLW platform is an open-source software suite aimed at showing dynamic 3D content. It included its own scripting language for software design, and a format support for 3D models.

3DMLW language
3DMLW is an XML standard 1.0 based markup language that allows for data exchange between applications linked with 3DMLW plug-in interface. A schema definition is provided for verifying the notation with 3rd party software such as jEdit or other XML editors capable of checking XSD constraints.

3DMLW renderer
The rendering engine uses industry standard OpenGL. It can be plugged into 3DMLW Plug-in Interface and consists of a scene library and a graphics library, which provides an optimized rendering pipeline for the scene library structures. The scene library can be utilized independently for the manipulation or conversion of meshes without rendering them.

3DMLW plug-in interface
The plug-in interface mediates input events and output from host windows (e.g. web browsers) or an independent output window. It is extendible to allow integration into 3rd party software. Native support has been implemented for common web browsers.

3DMLW server toolset
The toolset provides batch conversion for several filetypes (.obj, .3ds, .xyz, .pts) and texture atlas generation capable of processing multiple models concurrently. It can be employed server-side to provide automatic conversion of 3D models and textures.

3DMLW file format
A 3DMLW file is a simple text file containing instructions confined to 3DMLW language syntax:

<?xml version='1.0' standalone='no'?>
<document>
	<content2d>
		<area width='200' height='100' color='#C0C0C0FF' texture='flower.png' />
	</content2d>
	<content3d id='content' camera='{#cam}'>
		<camera id='cam' class='cam_rotation' y='10' z='40' viewy='10'/>
		<box name='ground' width='100' height='2' depth='100' color='green' class='ground' />
		<box name='dynamic' y='20' width='10' height='10' depth='10' color='blue' />
	</content3d>
</document>

In 3DMLW 2D and 3D content are handled independently from each other, but they are free to overlap. For animating 3D scenes and handling different events a Lua scripting facility is provided. The following script snippet demonstrates colour fading:

<script type='text/x-lua'><![CDATA[
receiver = Reference.get("@receiver");
c = receiver:attributeColor("color");
c:setAlpha(c:getAlpha() + 1);
if c:getAlpha() > 255 then
  c:setAlpha(0);
end
receiver:putAttribute("color", tostring(c));
]]>
</script>

The use of 3D models in .3ds, .obj, .an8, and .blend file formats is supported, but 3DMLW Plug-in interface allows for easy extension to include other formats.

3DMLW files use .3dmlw (e.g. filename.3dmlw) as extension and can be linked together similar to HTML.

Displaying 3DMLW
3DMLW content could be viewed using applications provided by 3D Technologies R&D, including plug-ins for Internet Explorer and NPAPI compatible browsers (Mozilla Firefox, Opera etc.). However, these applications are not available anymore.

Usage of 3DMLW
3DMLW was used for Tallinn's old town 3D application. 3D Technologies R&D also is using some parts of 3DMLW engine in their 3D Wayfinder application.

See also

web3D
COLLADA
U3D
X3D
VRML
3DML
3DXML

References

External links
 (unmaintained)
3D Technologies R&D

3D graphics software
Animation software
Lua (programming language)-scriptable software
Vector graphics markup languages

3DMLW


Dedication can mean: the act of consecrating (making holy) a religious building such as a temple or church.

Dedication can also mean the writing at the beginning of a book or piece of music in which the author or composer says that it was written for a particular person. For example: a composer may write a piece of music for a particular musician and dedicate it to them.  An author may dedicate a book to someone they love or respect.  A book or a piece of music may be dedicated to the person who has paid them to write it.  This may be a rich person such as king.

Related pages
Consecration
Patronage

References

Books
Music
Religious behavior and experience

Dedication


A set is an idea from mathematics. A set has members (also called elements). A set is defined by its members, so any two sets with the same members are the same (e.g., if set  and set  have the same members, then ).

A set cannot have the same member more than once. Membership is the only thing that matters. For example, there is no order or other difference among the members. Anything can be a member of a set, including sets themselves (though if a set is a member of itself, paradoxes such as Russell's paradox can happen).

What to do with sets

Imagine the set is a bag.

Element of
Various things can be put into a bag. Later on, a good question would be if a certain thing is in the bag. Mathematicians call this element of. Something is an element of a set, if that thing can be found in the respective bag. The symbol used for this is :

,

which means that  is in the bag  or  is an element of .

Unlike a bag, a set can contain at most one item of a given type. So for a set of fruits, it would make no difference if there is one orange, or if there are 10 oranges.

Empty set
Like a bag, a set can also be empty. The empty set is like an empty bag: it has nothing in it. The "empty set" is also called the null set and is represented by the symbol .

Universe
If we consider, say, some sets of American cars, e.g. a set of all Fords and a set of all Dodges, we may also wish to consider the whole set of American cars. In this case, the set of all American cars would be called a universe.

In other words, a universe is a collection of all the elements one wishes to consider in a given problem. The universe is usually named .

Comparing sets
Two sets can be compared. This is like looking into two different bags. If they contain the same things, they are equal. No matter, in which order these things are.

For example, if  and , the sets are the same.

Cardinality of a set
When mathematicians talk about a set, they sometimes want to know how big a set is (or what is the cardinality of the set). They do this by counting how many elements are in the set (how many items are in the bag). For finite sets the cardinality is a simple number. The empty set has a cardinality of 0. The set  has a cardinality of 2.

Two sets have the same cardinality if we can pair up their elements—if we can join two elements, one from each set. The set  and the set  have the same cardinality. E.g., we could pair apple with sun, and orange with moon. The order does not matter. It is possible to pair all the elements, and none is left out. But the set  and the set  have different cardinality.
If we try to pair them up, we always leave out one animal.

Infinite cardinality
At times cardinality is not a number. Sometimes a set has infinite cardinality. The set of all integers is a set with infinite cardinality. Some sets with infinite cardinality are bigger (have a bigger cardinality) than others. There are more real numbers than there are natural numbers, for example, which means we cannot pair up the set of integers and the set of real numbers, even if we worked forever.

Countability
If you can count the elements of a set, it is called a countable set. Countable sets include all sets with a finite number of members. Countable sets also include some infinite sets, such as the natural numbers. You can count the natural numbers with . The natural numbers are nicknamed "the counting numbers", since they are what we usually use to count things with.

An uncountable set is an infinite set that is impossible to count. If we try to count the elements, we will always skip some. It does not matter what step we take. The set of real numbers is an uncountable set. There are many other uncountable sets, even such a small interval like .[3]

Subsets

If you look at the set  and the set , you can see that all elements in the first set are also in the second set. We say:  is a subset of
As a formula it looks like this:

In general, when all elements of set  are also elements of set , we call   a subset of :
.
It is usually read " is contained in ."

Example: Every Chevrolet is an American car. So the set of all Chevrolets is contained in the set of all American cars.

Set operations

There are different ways to combine sets.

Intersections
The intersection  of two sets  and  is a set that contains all the elements that are both in set  and in set  at the same time.

Example: When  is the set of all cheap cars, and  is the set of all American cars, then  is the set of all cheap American cars.

Unions

The union  of two sets  and  is a set that contains all the elements that are in set  or in set .
This "or" is the inclusive disjunction, so the union also contains the elements, that are in set  and in set .
By the way, this means, that the intersection is a subset of the union:
.

Example: When  is the set of all cheap cars, and  is the set of all American cars, then  is the set of all cars, without all expensive cars that are not from America.

Complements
Complement can mean two different things:

 The complement of  is the universe  without all the elements of :

The universe  is the set of all things you speak about.
Example: When  is the set of all cars, and  is the set of all cheap cars, then C is the set of all expensive cars.

 The set difference of  and  is the set  without all the elements of :

It is also called the relative complement of  in  .
Example: When  is the set of all cheap cars, and  is the set of all American cars, then  is the set of all expensive American cars.

If you exchange the sets in the set difference, the result is different:In the example with the cars, the difference  is the set of all cheap cars, that are not made in America.

Notation
Most mathematicians use uppercase ITALIC (usually Roman) letters to write about sets (such as , , ). The things that are seen as elements of sets are usually written with lowercase Roman letters.

One way of showing a set is by a list of its members, separated by commas, included in braces.
For example,
  is set which has members 1, 2, and 3.

Another way, called the set-builder notation, is by a statement of what is true of the members of the set, like this:
 {x | x is a natural number & x < 4}.
In spoken English, this reads: "the set of all x such that x is a natural number and x is less than four". The symbol [ipe "|" means "such that" or "so that".

The empty set is written in a special way: ,  or .

When object a is the member of set  it is written as:
 .
In spoken English, this reads: "a is a member of ".

Venn diagrams

To illustrate operations on sets mathematicians use Venn diagrams. Venn diagrams use circles to show individual sets. The universe is depicted with a rectangle. Results of operations are shown as colored areas. In the illustration of the intersection operation the left circle shows set  and the right circle shows set .

Special sets
Some sets are very important to mathematics. They are used very often. One of these is the empty set.
Many of these special sets are written using blackboard bold typeface, and these include:
 , denoting the set of all primes.
 , denoting the set of all natural numbers. That is to say,  = {1, 2, 3, ...}, or sometimes  = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}.
 , denoting the set of all integers (whether positive, negative or zero). So  = {..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...}.
 , denoting the set of all rational numbers (that is, the set of all proper and improper fractions). So, , meaning all fractions  where a and b are in the set of all integers and b is not equal to 0. For example,  and . All integers are in this set since every integer a can be expressed as the fraction .
 , denoting the set of all real numbers. This set includes all rational numbers, together with all irrational numbers (that is, numbers which cannot be rewritten as fractions, such as   and √2).
 , denoting the set of all complex numbers.

Each of these sets of numbers has an infinite number of elements, and .

Paradoxes about sets
The mathematician Bertrand Russell found that there are problems with the informal definition of sets. He stated this in a paradox called Russell's paradox. An easier to understand version, closer to real life, is called the Barber paradox.

The barber paradox
There is a small town somewhere. In that town, there is a barber. All the men in the town do not like beards, so they either shave themselves, or they go to the barber shop to be shaved by the barber.

We can therefore make a statement about the barber himself: The barber shaves all men that do not shave themselves. He only shaves those men (since the others shave themselves and do not need a barber to give them a shave).

This of course raises the question: What does the barber do each morning to look clean-shaven? This is the paradox.

If the barber shaves himself, he cannot be a barber, since a barber does not shave himself.
If he does not shave himself, he falls in the category of those who do not shave themselves, and so, cannot be a barber.

Related pages

 Cantor set
 Group theory
 Open set
 Relation
 Set theory

References

Further reading
The following books explore sets in more detail:

 Halmos, Paul R., Naive Set Theory, Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand (1960)
 Stoll, Robert R., Set Theory and Logic, Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications (1979)
 Allenby, R.B.J.T, Rings, Fields and Groups, Leeds, England: Butterworth Heinemann (1991)

Set


Jonas Edward Salk (October 28, 1914 – June 23, 1995) was an American medical researcher and virologist, best known for his discovery and development of the first successful polio vaccine in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Salk was born on October 28, 1914 in New York City to a Jewish-Irish family. He studied at the City College of New York and at the University of New York. Salk was married to Donna Lindsey from 1939 until they divorced in 1968. He was married to Françoise Gilot from 1970 until his death in 1995.

He had three children with Lindsey. Salk died on June 23, 1995 in his home in La Jolla, California from heart failure, aged 80. He was buried at El Camino Memorial Park in San Diego, California.

References

Other websites

 The American Experience: The Polio Crusade  video, 1 hr. by PBS
 "Legacy of Salk Institute", video, 30 minutes, history of Salk vaccine
 "Polio Vaccine" intro., Britannica, video, 1 minute
 The Time 100 Most Important People of the Century
 Jonas Salk Legacy Foundation
 Jonas Salk Trust

1914 births
1995 deaths
American physicians
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
Deaths from heart failure
Jewish American scientists
New York University alumni
Scientists from New York City
Scientists from Pittsburgh
Vaccinologists
American virologists

Jonas Salk


Masala or Massala or Masalo (,  , , ) is a word used in South Asia mainly in India. When Indian people talk about cooking and they say masala, they mean a mixture of ground spices used in Indian cooking.

There are many different, popular spice mixtures that have been given their own name because they taste really good with one special ingredient. The dish will often use masala in its name. Some popular dishes are:

 Masala Chai: tea flavoured with a special blend of spices
 Chicken tikka masala: pieces of chicken cooked using a special blend of spices; very popular in the United Kingdom & Ireland
 Chana Masala: a chickpea dish flavoured with a special mix of spices
 Maggi masala noodles: a brand of noodles with a packet of dried spices for flavouring; very popular in India

The blend of spices or masala for these dishes is often sold in markets or packed by companies to be sold in shops. Some spice blends, like Garam Masala, are so popular it is often used in many different recipes, not just one.

Also India is one of the only countries to have the highest variety in masalas. Around 70% of the world's spice business and exports are handled by India.

Other websites

Food ingredients

Masala


Wholesale is the sale of large numbers of goods to retailers. The retailer then sells small amounts of the goods to individual users or consumers. A wholesaler often buys goods direct from the factory or the farm. The wholesaler can put together, sort or grade the products. The wholesaler will repack and redistribute the goods in smaller lots. Wholesalers usually have large individual warehouses to do this work. Food wholesalers often are located together at large markets.

Wholesalers used to be closer to where the retail goods were sold than they were to the factories or farms. Since internet sales have increased there are a number of wholesalers setting up near factories in China and Taiwan.

In banking, wholesale banking means services provided to large companies. Retail banking is services provided to small businesses or individuals.

Some examples of wholesale retailers include Costco, Sam's Club, and BJ's Wholesale Club

References

Commerce

Wholesale


Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD FRS PC (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was an English politician. He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom twice, once during World War II, and again in the early 1950s.

Churchill was the only person to have been a member of the British Government during both World Wars, and the last commoner (non-royal) to be granted a state funeral.  He was also a soldier, journalist, and writer.  He won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1953.

Churchill featured in two media polls. He was ranked as the greatest British prime minister of the twentieth century by 20 prominent historians, politicians and commentators. They were asked by BBC Radio 4's The Westminster Hour to rank the 19 prime ministers from Lord Salisbury at the turn of the century through to John Major in the 1990s. In a 2002 BBC 2 television poll, Churchill was ranked as the greatest Briton in history. A million votes were cast, and the voting was heavily influenced by public campaigns from various candidates.

He is the only British Prime Minister to have received the Nobel Prize.

Personal life
Winston Churchill was born on 30 November 1874 at Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire, England, the home of the Dukes of Marlborough. His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a younger son of the 7th Duke, and a leading Tory politician. His mother (née Jenny Jerome) was American.

As a boy, Churchill went to the famous Harrow School. He did not get good results, but said he was good at fighting.

He joined the British Army in 1893. In 1896, he was transferred to Bombay, in what was the Indian Empire (British India). He fought in what is now Pakistan. After this, he fought in a war in Sudan, in 1898 as an officer in the cavalry. In 1899, he went to the Second Boer War in South Africa, to be a newspaper reporter. He was captured by the Boers, but managed to escape.

In 1900, he became a politician in the Conservative Party, and was elected to Parliament. In 1904, he changed parties and joined the Liberal Party, but later returned to the Conservative Party.
He married Clementine Hozier in 1908, and had five children named Diana, Randolph, Sarah, Marigold and Mary.

World War I
In 1910 Churchill became Home Secretary, one of the most important members of the government. In 1911 he was made First Lord of the Admiralty, which put him in charge of the Royal Navy. When World War I broke out, he stayed in that job. He organized an invasion in Gallipoli which went wrong, and because of this, he was made to leave the government. He joined the army and was sent to fight in France, although he was still a Member of Parliament. In 1917 he was made minister in charge of military supplies (Minister of Munitions).

Between the wars
After World War I, in 1919, Churchill was made Secretary of State for War, and Secretary of State for Air (aircraft). In 1920, he ordered the first air bombing in Africa when he bombed the Darwiish State, (also called Daraawiish State).

In 1921 he was in charge of the colonies as Secretary of State. Soon after, in 1922 he lost in an election. In 1924 he became a member of Parliament again, this time not as a member of any party. In 1925 he joined the Conservative Party again. He became Chancellor of the Exchequer (Minister of Finance) in 1924.

After 1929, Churchill disagreed with many things the Conservative party believed in. He was not given any job in the government. Instead he wrote books. One was called Marlborough: his life and times, about his famous ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough; another was A History of the English Speaking Peoples, which was not published until after World War 2.

When Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, Churchill warned that Britain should strengthen its military and oppose Hitler.  However, very few leaders agreed with him.

World War II
At the start of World War II, Churchill was again put in charge of the Navy. In 1940 the war was going badly for Britain. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain resigned on May 10 and Churchill was given the job. Some people thought that Britain could not win the war, and that the British government should make peace with Hitler. Churchill was sure that Britain could win, and promised to continue the fight. He made famous speeches that are still remembered today.

He was friends with the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt. He persuaded Roosevelt to give supplies to Britain, and to help Britain. He had many meetings with Roosevelt and with Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, after they came into the war. They were called the Big Three.

After the war
In 1945, his party lost an election, and he stopped being Prime Minister. However, he became Prime Minister again in 1951, which he was until 1955.

He was knighted in 1953, and became Sir Winston, and also won the Nobel Prize in Literature.

In 1955, he retired from being Prime Minister. In 1964, he retired from Parliament.

In 1963, President John F. Kennedy named him 'Honorary Citizen of the United States' but too ill to attend a White House ceremony, his son and grandson accepted the award.

Sir Winston died of a stroke at the age of 90, in 1965. When he died, his wife Lady Clementine Churchill and other members of the family were at his bedside.

Books
Title (US Title) (Year of publication)
 The Story of the Malakand Field Force (1898)
 The River War (1899): about the reconquest of the Sudan, after the revolution of the self-proclaimed Mahdi, Muhammed Ahmed.
 Savrola (1900; serialised 1899 and published USA 1899): a novel
 London to Ladysmith via Pretoria (1900): the Second Boer War, and the Relief of Ladysmith
 Ian Hamilton's March (1900): Second Boer War continued
 Mr. Brodrick's Army (1903)
 Lord Randolph Churchill (1906): two-volume biography of his father
 For Free Trade (1906)
 My African Journey (1908)
 Liberalism and the Social Problem (1909)
 The People's Rights (1910)
 The World Crisis (1923–1931)
 My Early Life: A Roving Commission (1930): autobiography
 India (1931)
 Thoughts and Adventures (Amid These Storms) (1932)
 Marlborough: His Life and Times (1933–1938): four-volume biography on his greatest predecessor
 Great Contemporaries (1937): short biographies
 Arms and the Covenant or While England Slept: A Survey of World Affairs, 1932–1938 (1938): a call to arms, warning about Hitler, urging rearmament
 Step by Step 1936–1939 (1939)
 Addresses Delivered in the Year 1940 (1940)
 Broadcast Addresses (1941)
 Into Battle (Blood Sweat and Tears) (1941)
 The Unrelenting Struggle (1942)
 The End of the Beginning (1943)
 Onwards to Victory (1944)
 The Dawn of Liberation (1945)
 Victory (1946)
 Secret Sessions Speeches (1946)
 War Speeches 1940–1945 (1946)
 The Second World War (1948–1954): six volumes (12 in paperback)
 The Sinews of Peace (1948)
 Painting as a Pastime (1948)
 Europe Unite (1950)
 In the Balance (1951)
 The War Speeches 1939–1945 (1952)
 Stemming the Tide (1953)
 A History of the English-Speaking Peoples (1956–1958): four volumes
 The Unwritten Alliance (1961)

Essays and short stories
 "Man Overboard!" (1899). First printed in The Harmsworth Magazine, January 1899
 "If Lee had not won the Battle of Gettysburg" (1930). First published in Scribner's Magazine, December 1930.

References

Other websites

 The International Churchill Society -

1874 births
1965 deaths
British military personnel of World War I
British Nobel Prize winners
British people of World War II
Chancellors of the Exchequer
Companions of Honour
Deaths from stroke
English historians
English journalists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Conservative Party (UK) MPs
Members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Members of the British House of Commons for Scottish constituencies
Knights of the Garter
Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK)
Leaders of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
Liberal Party (UK) MPs
Order of Merit
People of the Boer Wars
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Secretaries of State for the Home Department
Secretaries of State of the United Kingdom
Time People of the Year
UK MPs 1900–1906
UK MPs 1906–1910
UK MPs 1910
UK MPs 1910–1918
UK MPs 1918–1922
UK MPs 1924–1929
UK MPs 1929–1931
UK MPs 1931–1935
UK MPs 1935–1945
UK MPs 1945–1950
UK MPs 1950–1951
UK MPs 1951–1955
UK MPs 1955–1959
UK MPs 1959–1964
World War II political leaders
Anti-communists
Writers from Oxfordshire

Winston Churchill


Lamia is a Greek city in the center of Greece. According to the 2001 census, 50,551 people lived there. Lamia is built at the foot of the hill on the top of which there is a castle. During the Middle Ages Lamia was named Zitouni but today is named with its ancient name, Lamia. Around Lamia there is a big plain, so Lamia is an agricultural city. At the side of plain there are many tall mountains. They are named Timphristos, Oiti and Othris.

Cities in Greece

Lamia


The subset sum problem is an important problem of computer science. It can be stated as follows: Given a set of integers, does any subset of them sum to zero?  For example, given the set { -7, -3, -2, 5, 8}, the answer is yes because the subset { -3, -2, 5} sums to zero.  The problem is NP-Complete. It can be reformulated to the 3SAT.
An alternative statement of this problem is, given a set of numbers and an integer x determine whether or not there exist a subset that sums up to x.
Eg. given a set {1, 4, 6, 7} and x = 10 the answer is yes because {4, 6} sums to 10.
Remember that the subsequence need not to be contiguous. For instance if x = 8 in above example the answer is still yes because {1, 7} sums to 8.

Computer science

Subset sum problem


A watchdog timer is a component of an electronic system that makes sure the system is operating properly. These components can either be done as a piece of hardware or as software. Depending on the intended use, they either signal that a system is not working properly, or they make a system work properly again. A watchdog timer may cause a system to reset itself to its initial state.

Clocks
Electronic components
Electronic circuits

Watchdog timer


Odilon Redon (April 22, 1840 – July 6, 1916) was a Symbolist painter and printmaker, born in Bordeaux, Aquitaine, France.

Redon started drawing as a young child, and at the age of 10 he was given a drawing prize at school. At age 15, he began official study in drawing but he later on switched to architecture because his father told him to. His failure to pass the entrance exams at Paris' École des Beaux-Arts ended any plans for a career as an architect, although he would later study there under Jean-Léon Gerôme.

Back home in his home town of Bordeaux, he took up sculpture, and Rodolphe Bresdin instructed him in etching and lithography. However, his artistic career was halted in 1870 when he joined the army to serve in the Franco-Prussian War.

At the end of the war, he moved to Paris, working almost only in charcoal and lithography. It would not be until 1878 that his work gained any recognition with Guardian Spirit of the Waters, and he published his first album of lithographs, called Dans le Rêve, in 1879. Still, Redon remained unknown until the appearance in 1884 of a cult novel by Joris-Karl Huysmans titled, À rebours (Against Nature). The story featured a decadent aristocrat who collected Redon's drawings.

In the 1890s, he began to use pastel and oils, which featured in most of his works for the rest of his life. In 1899, he exhibited with the Nabis at Durand-Ruel's. In 1903 he was given the Legion of Honor. His popularity increased when a catalogue of etchings and lithographs was published by André Mellerio in 1913 and that same year, he was given the largest single representation at the New York Armory Show.

In 2005 the Museum of Modern Art launched an exhibition called "Beyond The Visible", a comprehensive overview of Redon's work showcasing more than 100 paintings, drawings, prints and books from The Ian Woodner Family Collection. The exhibition ran from October 30, 2005 to January 23, 2006.

Selected works

Other websites

 odilonredon.net  - Online biography and pictures of Odilon Redon
 Artcyclopedia - Links to Redon's works
 The Athenaeum  - Extensive list and images of Redon's works
 Museum Syndicate - Odilon Redon Gallery at Museum Syndicate
 Web Museum - Biography and images of Redon's works
 MoMA Exhibition  - "Beyond the Visible - The Art of Odilon Redon" - MoMA exhibition (October 2005 - January 2006)

1840 births
1916 deaths
French painters
French printmakers
People from Bordeaux

Odilon Redon


Orange is a colour. It is the combination o reid an yellae.

Tae the ee o a body, orange is a gey "hot" colour, sae it gies the sensation o heat. Naetheless, orange isna as aggressive as reid. Orange increases oxygen supply tae the harn, produces an invigoratin effect, an stimulates mental activity. As a citrus colour, orange is associate wi healthy fuid an stimulates appetite. Orange is the colour o the hairst. In heraldry, orange is seembolic o strenth an endurement. Orange is the colour o the oranger fruit.

Orange haes gey heich visibility, sae fowk can uise it tae catch attention a highlicht the maist important elements o thair design. Orange is gey effective for promotin fuid products an toys. On road signs, the colour orange means there is construction wirk aheid. It is uised for these signs acause it can eithly be seen e'en at nicht.

Daurk orange can mean deceivery an mislippen. Reid-orange corresponds tae desire, sexual passion, pleasur, domination, aggression, an thirst for action. Gowd evokes the feelin o prestige. The meanin o gowd is illumination, wiceheid, an walth. Gowd aften seembolizes heich quality.

Colours

Orange (colour)


Galeras (Urcunina among the 16th-century indigenous people) is an Andean stratovolcano in the Colombian department of Nariño, near the departmental capital Pasto. Its summit rises  above sea level. It has erupted frequently since the Spanish conquest, with its first historical eruption being recorded on December 7, 1580. A 1993 eruption killed nine people, including six scientists who had descended into the volcano's crater to sample gases and take gravity measurements in an attempt to be able to predict future eruptions. It is currently the most active volcano in Colombia.

Geological history

Galeras has been an active volcano for at least a million years, with andesite as the dominant product. Two major caldera-forming eruptions have occurred, the first about 560,000 years ago in an eruption which expelled about  of material. The second some time between 40,000 and 150,000 years ago, in a smaller but still sizable eruption of  of material. Subsequently, part of the caldera wall has collapsed, possibly due to instabilities caused by hydrothermal activity, and later eruptions have built up a smaller cone inside the now horseshoe-shaped caldera.

In light of its violent eruptive history and proximity to the 450,000 people of Pasto, Galeras was designated a Decade Volcano in 1991, identifying it as a target for detailed study as part of the United Nations' International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction.

Eruptive history

Galeras is considered the most active volcano in Colombia, followed by Nevado del Ruiz. Its earliest activity during the Holocene has been dated at 7050 BC ± 1000 years through radiocarbon dating. Other eruptions similar to this event include those in 3150 BC ± 200 years, 2580 BC ± 500 years, 1160 BC ± 300 years, 490 BC ± 100 years, and in 890 AD ± 200 years. Typically these eruptions consist of a central vent explosion, conducive to an explosive eruption causing pyroclastic flows and/or lahars. Eruptions in more recent times, which have been recorded consist of those in 1535, December 1580, July 1616, 1641, 1670, 1754, November 1796, June 1823, October 1828, 1834, October 1865, July 1889, 1891, December 1923, October 1924, October 1932, February 1936, July 1947, January 1950, 1974, February 1989, January 1990, January 1993, March 2000, June 2002, July 2004, November 2005, October 2007, January 2008, February 2009, March 2009, January 2010, and August 2010. Reported incidents with no official proof occurred in 1836, 1930, 1933, and 1973.

1993 eruption

Galeras became active again in 1988 after 10 years of dormancy.

A Decade Volcano conference in the city of Pasto, in 1993, ended in disaster when several of the scientists present mounted an impromptu expedition on 14 January to the crater of Galeras. An eruption occurred unexpectedly while they were at the summit, resulting in the deaths of six scientists and three tourists.

Elements in the media made the event controversial by suggesting the expedition leader, geologist Stanley Williams, who survived along with four others, had ignored safety procedures. A prediction had been made three days before the eruption based on B-Type activity seen on a seismograph. Seismic B-types had been used successfully to predict eruptions on other volcanoes. However, the prediction was based simply on the one seismographic printout viewed in the light of previous history of Galeras, without any additional scientific measurements showing any serious activity within the volcano.

21st-century activity

Activity at a low level has continued at Galeras, with small explosions occasionally dusting nearby villages and towns with ash. The volcano has continued to be well-studied, and predictions of eruptions at the volcano have improved. One phenomenon, which seems to be a reliable precursor to eruptive activity, is a low-frequency seismic event known as a tornillo event. These have occurred before about four-fifths of the explosions at Galeras, and the number of tornillo events recorded before an eruption is also correlated with the size of the ensuing eruption.

More than 100 minor tremors were felt during a major eruption in April 2002, although no damage or injury was reported. An eruption in November 2005 forced an evacuation of the dangerous area surrounding the volcano, and about 9,400 people from nearby villages (most of them farmers) were ordered to leave. The city of Pasto, about  from the volcano, was blanketed by a layer of ash after the volcanic explosion, forcing the residents to don goggles and face masks.

Numerous minor tremors and ash emissions since March 2006 culminated on 12 July 2006 in three explosive eruptions, producing an ash and gas column reaching an altitude of . Rock falls and pyroclastic flows were reported from towns as distant as Consacá,  west of the main crater. The Colombian government has repeatedly ordered evacuations to temporary shelters, of more than 8500 people residing in the highest risk areas surrounding the volcano, with hopes of eventual assistance toward permanent relocation.

On January 17, 2008, the volcano erupted around 20:06 (local) (01:06 UTC). There were no immediate reports of injuries or serious property damage. Later the experts confirmed partial damage in the national and local TV towers.

Then, on February 14, 2009, the volcano erupted around 19:10 (local) (00:10 UTC). Some 8,000 residents were evacuated, and there were no immediate reports of injuries or serious property damage. As in 2005, the city of Pasto was blanketed by a layer of ash after the volcanic explosion (due to the direction of the wind). The local authorities ordered two water treatment plants near Galeras to shut down.

On March 13, 2009, Galeras erupted twice at around 15:55 and 17:00 (local time). Ash fell on Pasto and some other towns near the volcano, where an evacuation was ordered but reportedly ignored. No injuries or damage were reported.

2010 eruption
The volcano erupted on January 3, 2010, forcing the evacuation of 8,000 people. This was the 10th such eruption of the volcano in the preceding 12 months, and the first of 2010. Colombian authorities also stated that it could remain volatile in the weeks to come.

Galeras erupted again on August 25, 2010 with an ash plume visible in the air. The eruption, which was described as non-explosive, caused authorities to raise an alert for neighbouring towns.

This volcano is monitored by the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project.

See also
 List of volcanoes in Colombia
 List of volcanoes by elevation

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

 GOES imagery of the 03 January 2010 eruption (CIMSS Satellite Blog)
 Galeras volcano website
 Watch Galeras in realtime
 VolcanoWorld information
 BBC on the November 2005 eruption
  Colombia: Galeras volcano situation map

Mountains of Colombia
Stratovolcanoes of Colombia
Active volcanoes
Andean Volcanic Belt
Complex volcanoes
Decade Volcanoes
Holocene stratovolcanoes
Quaternary South America
Subduction volcanoes
Calderas of South America
20th-century volcanic events
Geography of Nariño Department
Pasto, Colombia
Four-thousanders of the Andes
Pleistocene stratovolcanoes

Galeras


The Bolshoi Ballet is a ballet company. It is based at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, Russia. It was founded in 1776. It is one of the oldest ballet companies in the world. It achieved worldwide acclaim in the early 20th century when Moscow became the capital of Soviet Russia. The Bolshoi and the Kirov Ballet are recognised as the foremost ballet companies in Russia.

The origin of the Bolshoi is found in the creation of a dance school for a Moscow orphanage in 1773. In 1776, dancers from the school were employed by Prince Pyotr Urusov and the English theatrical entrepreneur Michael Maddox to form part of their new theatre company. They performed in privately owned venues. Later they acquired the Petrovsky Theatre. The theatre would later be rebuilt as today's Bolshoi Theatre.

The early history of the Bolshoi Ballet is very sketchy. The company staged many famous ballets. It struggled to compete with the Imperial Russian Ballet of St Petersburg. It was not until Alexander Gorsky became Ballet Master in 1900 that the company began to develop its own unique identity. The company was acclaimed for productions of new or restaged ballets including, Don Quixote (1900), Coppélia (1901), Swan Lake (1901), La fille mal gardée (1903), Giselle (1911), Le Corsaire (1912) and La Bayadère (1917).

References

Ballet companies

Bolshoi Ballet


The Residentie Orchestra (Dutch: Residentie Orkest) is an orchestra from The Hague in the Netherlands.  Outside the Netherlands it is often known as  The Hague Philharmonic.  The name "Residentie" ("Residence") shows that it comes from The Hague, which is where the Dutch parliament meets.  The Hague is the "residence of the Queen's parliament", although it is not the capital city of the Netherlands.  The orchestra are internationally famous.

History of the Orchestra
The orchestra started to form in 1903 when a group of musicians who called themselves the "Residentie Orkest" gave a concert in the Gebouw voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen (Building for Arts and Sciences) in the centre of the Hague.  By the end of the following year they had formed to give regular concerts.  Their concert on 20 November 1904 is taken to be the official beginning of the orchestra.

The first conductor of the orchestra was Henri Viotta, who soon made it a very good orchestra.  Famous composers came to conduct their own works with the orchestra.  These included Richard Strauss, Igor Stravinsky, Max Reger and Maurice Ravel.  The orchestra was sometimes conducted by the Dutch composer Peter van Anrooy, as well as their guest conductor George Szell.

The orchestra continued to be internationally known, and some very famous conductors came to conduct the orchestra, including Arturo Toscanini, Bruno Walter, Leonard Bernstein and Hans Knappertsbusch.
.
During the years after World War II, from 1949 to 1973,  Willem van Otterloo was the chief conductor.  They gave regular concerts in the Hague and in Amsterdam and made recordings for Philips Gramophone.  Van Otterloo introduced them to many different styles of music.  As in its earlier days, the orchestra often played modern music conducted by the composers: Bruno Maderna, Mauricio Kagel, John Cage and Pierre Boulez conducted their works.  Recordings were made with other conductors including Gennady Rozhdestvensky and Evgenii Svetlanov who included music by less well-known Russian composers.

Jaap van Zweden, who conducted the orchestra for the first five years of this century, took them on tour to Japan and South America and they made recordings to celebrate 100 years of the orchestra.  Van Zweden is still Honorary Guest Conductor of the orchestra.

Today the orchestra's chief conductor is Neeme Järvi.  Many new things have been started, including some concerts given by the Residentie Scratch Orchestra, in which amateur players can join the professional players of the orchestra to give a concert.

Concert halls
The Residentie Orchestra gave many of their concerts in the Gebouw voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen (more simply known as "K&W Building"), but also the summer concerts in the Kurzaal in Scheveningen, the seaside resort of the Hague, were very famous.  Until 1915 these had been given by the Orchestre Lamoureux.  The Residentie took them over and continued them until 1968.

The orchestra moved out of the K&W Building in 1964.  Shortly afterwards the building was destroyed by fire.  The Residentie Orchestra gave their regular concerts in the Kurzaal until 1968 when they moved to the Congresgebouw (Congress Building) in the west of the Hague.  This was still not a very good concert hall and in 1987 they were able to move to the new Dr. Anton Philipszaal in the centre of the town.  There are plans now to build a completely new arts complex there.

Chief Conductors
 Henri Viotta (1904 - 1917)
 Peter van Anrooy (1917 - 1935)
 Frits Schuurman (1938 - 1949)
 Willem van Otterloo (1949 - 1973)
 Jean Martinon (1975 - 1976)
 Ferdinand Leitner (1976 - 1980)
 Hans Vonk (1980 - 1991)
 Evgeny Svetlanov (1992 - 2000)
 Jaap van Zweden (2000 - 2005)
 Neeme Järvi (2005 - present)

Other websites
Website of the Residentieorchestra

Orchestras
Dutch music
The Hague

Residentie Orchestra


存在與時間(),1927年,係德國哲學家海德格最重要之作。雖然寫得好趕,而且完成唔到渠喺導言勾勒出嘅計劃,呢部書深刻影響二十世紀哲學,尤其係存在主義、詮釋學同埋解構主義。

導言同埋概括

存在 / Sein / Being
《存在同埋時間》第一頁,海德格咁樣描述項計劃: 「切實整理 (Ausarbeitung)「存在」嘅意義 (Sinn) 嘅問題係以下論文嘅目標。」 海德格聲稱,傳統本體論有偏見咁忽略咗呢條問題,以其太廣泛、定義唔到、或明顯而拒絶渠。

反而,海德格提議 別於任何特定存在嘅嘢 咁去理解存在 「『存在』唔係件好似一件存在嘅嘢。」 海德格聲稱:「存在,係樣決定存在嘅嘢之所為存在嘅嘢嘅嘢,而透過渠,存在嘅嘢已被理解。」  海德格想揾出啲條件,透過渠任何特定嘅嘢之所以可以然。

若我地捉到存在,我哋就會理清存在嘅意思同意義,其中「意義」(德文:Sinn,英文:sense)海德格指「藉住渠一樣嘢變成 可以理解做一樣嘢。」   據海德格話,由於呢種存在意義先過 任何存在嘅嘢(beings)所以存在(exist)嘅概念 ,渠係先概念、先命題,所以係先科學嘅。 係乜。 同時,除咗啲存在嘢 (beings) 本身,再無任何去到存在嘅辦法 (access to being) —— 要寫低存在之問 (the question of being) 即係要問「一個」存在 關於渠自己嘅存在。 因為呢種解釋係先過邏輯嘅,而且因為要明白存在只有 通過討論某啲特定嘅存在嘅嘢 一種途徑,研究存在嘅方法必然,海德格話,涉及某種詮釋圈,即係話,涉及解釋。 「現象學描述 嘅方法學意義 係 『解釋』(interpretation) 。」

Dasein
所以,海德格響《存在同埋時間》導言中問嘅問題係:乜嘢係嗰樣存在,可以畀(我地)接觸到 關於存在嘅意思嘅問題?海德格嘅答案係:渠只可能係嗰樣嘢,存在嘅問題對渠係重要嘅,對渠來講存在係有份量嘅。 呢個答案顯示,認為being 係問題嘅嗰樣being 唔係個「乜」,而係個「邊個」。 海德格叫呢樣 being 做「Dasein」(一個普通嘅德文字,意思大概係「(人嘅)存在」或者直譯做「係-嗰度」(英文 being-there)),而 Being and Time 入面用嘅方法就係試探 Dasein 嘅特徵, 嚟探索  being 本身。Dasein 唔係 「人」("man"),但又唔係「人」以外嘅任何嘢 — 就係因呢種分野 (distinction),海德格可以話《存在同埋時間》唔係部「哲學人類學」 (philosophical anthropology)。

海德格嘅 Dasein 嘅解釋,經過解剖 Angst嘅經驗同埋mortality,跟住過  "care"  as such 結構嘅分析。 由嗰度佢提出  "authenticity" 嘅問題,即係話mortal Dasein有無可能 (potentiality or otherwise) 存在「夠」(fully enough) 到佢可能真係明 being。海德格喺全書都好明:冇嘢保證 Dasein「係」有呢種理解能力嘅。

時
最後,一 Dasein 嘅「真實性」(authenticity) 問題離唔開Dasein嘅「歷史性」(historicallity)。 一方面,Dasein 係會死嘅 (mortal),由生「拉」"stretched along" 到死,被氹落呢個世界,即係話,氹入佢嘅咁多「可能性」(possibilities),呢啲可能性 Dasein 要負責做 (?assuming)。 另一方面, Dasein's access to this world and these possibilities is always via a history and a tradition—this is the question of "world historicality," and among its consequences is Heidegger's argument that Dasein's potential for authenticity lies in the possibility of choosing a "hero."

咁,再廣泛啲講, the outcome of the progression of Heidegger's argument is the thought that the being of Dasein is time. Nevertheless, Heidegger concludes his work with a set of enigmatic questions foreshadowing the necessity of a destruction (that is, a transformation) of the history of philosophy in relation to temporality—these were the questions to be taken up in the never completed continuation of his project:

The existential and ontological constitution of the totality of Dasein is grounded in temporality. Accordingly, a primordial mode of temporalizing of ecstatic temporality itself must make the ecstatic project of being in general possible. How is this mode of temporalizing of temporality to be interpreted? Is there a way leading from primordial time to the meaning of being? Does time itself reveal itself as the horizon of being?

海德格同胡塞爾嘅現象學
雖然海德格話自己喺《存在同埋時間》係用現象學嘅方法, 不過佢同胡塞爾現象學嘅關係就好複雜。The fact that Heidegger believes that ontology includes an irreducible hermeneutic (interpretative) aspect, for example, might be thought to run counter to Husserl's claim that phenomenological description is capable of a form of scientific positivity. On the other hand, however, several aspects of the approach and method of Being and Time can be seen more directly in relation to Husserl's work.

The central Husserlian concept of the directedness of all thought—intentionality—for example, while scarcely mentioned in Being and Time, has been identified by some with Heidegger's central notion of "Sorge" (Cura, care or concern). But for Heidegger, theoretical knowledge represents only one kind of intentional behaviour, and he asserts that it is grounded in more fundamental modes of behaviour and forms of practical engagement with the surrounding world. Whereas a theoretical understanding of things grasps them according to "presence," for example, this may conceal that our first experience of a being may be in terms of its being "ready-to-hand." Thus, for instance, when someone reaches for a tool such as a hammer, their understanding of what a hammer is is not determined by a theoretical understanding of its presence, but by the fact that it is something we need at the moment we wish to do hammering. Only a later understanding might come to contemplate a hammer as an object. There is thus a sense in which this kind of argument, although very different from Husserlian phenomenology, nevertheless resembles it, to the extent that what is involved is a kind of suspension of the everyday understanding of what it means to experience beings in the world.

拒笛卡兒
This also necessitated a rejection of the Cartesian, disembodied Cogito: that is, an 'I' as a purely thinking object. 代之,海德格堅持,任何人類行為嘅分析都應由「我哋係喺世界入面」呢一事實開始 (not viewing it in an 'abstract' fashion): therefore the fundamental fact about human existence is our 'being-in-the-world'. Human beings, or Dasein (German" da—there/here; sein—being or its; dasein—existence), Heidegger insisted, are embodied beings who act in the world.  He therefore rejected the 'subject-object' distinction assumed by most philosophers since Descartes and so rejected terms like Consciousness, ego, human being, Man, which are so laden with Cartesian dualism that, for his purposes, they are practically useless.  Instead he uses the German portmanteau, Dasein.

Things are meaningful to us in terms of their use in certain contexts, which are defined by social, that is mainly practical, norms. However, all of these norms are radically contingent.  Their contingency is revealed in the fundamental phenomenon of Angst, in which all norms fall away and beings show up as nothing in particular, in their essential meaninglessness.  (Contrary to some existentialist interpretations of Heidegger, this does not mean that all existence is absurd; rather, it means that existence always has the potential for absurdity.)  The experience of Angst reveals the essential finitude of Dasein.

真作為 Aletheia
The fact that beings can show up, either as meaningful in a context or as meaningless in the experience of Angst, depends on a prior phenomenon: that beings can show up at all.  Heidegger calls the showing up of beings, truth, which he defines as unconcealment rather than correctness or correspondence.  This "truth of beings", their self-revelation, involves a more fundamental kind of truth, the "disclosure of being in which the being of beings is unconcealed.", in Greek, aletheia.

It is this unconcealment of being that defines Dasein for Heidegger: Dasein is that being for whom being is an issue, that is, for whom being shows up as such. This is why Heidegger begins his inquiry into the meaning of being with an inquiry into the essence of Dasein; The unconcealment of being is an essentially temporal and historical phenomenon (hence the "time" in Being and Time); what we call past, present, and future correspond originarily to aspects of this unconcealment and not to three mutually exclusive regions of the homogeneous time that clocks measure (although clock-time is derivative from the originary time of unconcealment, as Heidegger attempts to show in the book's difficult final chapters).

詮釋學
The total understanding of being results from an explication of the implicit knowledge of being that inheres in Dasein.  Philosophy thus becomes a form of interpretation; this is why Heidegger's technique in Being and Time is often referred to as hermeneutical phenomenology.  Being and Time, being incomplete, contains Heidegger's statement of this project and his interpretation of Dasein and its temporal horizon, but does not contain the working out of the meaning of being as such on the basis of this interpretation.  This ambitious task is taken up in a different way in his later works (see below) and had a profound influence on his student Hans-Georg Gadamer.

哲學嘅衰嘢
對海德格,哲學嘅衰嘢唔係 重未有外在於我地嘅世界(存在)嘅證明,而係從未有人去揾呢個證明。 At the same time his own project is hugely ambitious, in that he is interested not in the being of certain things, such as are studied in various (ontical) categories such as, biology, physics, psychology, and history, but in the question of being in general (the ontological question), of why or how there is something rather than nothing.  Being in general is the most difficult because, like a smell that was always in our nose, it is almost always there, it is closest and for the most part there.  Only in a state of anxiety (and not fear, which is fear of something in particular), where the whole world itself is pushed away, can we see something of this and get some authentic sight of it, before we again take up some activity and get lost in it.

At the same time that he tackles these soaring questions, he does so in a most practical way, by looking at how we encounter the world in a concrete and non-theoretical manner, how history and tradition affect us and are created by us, in effect how we live together and how our language and meaning is shaped through history by us.  Though such a project might remind one of Hegel's pragmatism, Heidegger attempts to do this without resorting to any ideas of positing some overall goal of historical progress toward some Absolute, nor does he talk of the sublation (Aufhebung) of contradictions in some higher unity.

Presence嘅哲學
His view inverts the traditional priority of theory over practice.  For him the theoretical view is artificial and comes from just looking at something without any involvement, such an experience is 'levelled off'.   For Heidegger this attitude is given the moniker, "present-at-hand" and it is parasitic upon our more fundamental mode of interaction, called "ready-to-hand".  Parasitic in the sense that in our history we must first have an attitude or mood toward the world before we can adopt a scientific or neutral attitude toward it.  Such a re-evaluation of science allows him to say, for example, that the friend caught sight of across the road is in fact closer than the street upon which one walks, that the voice on a phone is closer than the handpiece, that the glasses pushed back on your head, can be, when not found, considered as remote and far away.

Being-with
In addition to present-at-hand and ready-to-hand there is a third mode for Dasein, being-with, that is essential to Dasein.  For example, a field that we may carefully walk around so as not to damage the crops or compact the soil, is ready-to-hand but shows itself also as belonging to someone and cared for by someone. We do not just add this person, "in thought," to the field we see because the farmer(s) already show themselves with the field through its improvements as the object of their care.  Likewise, we may hear a scream, not as a noise or a sense-datum, but as someone in distress.

There is a dark side, however, to "being-with": referring to the "They", as in "they say it was carried out by terrorists."  Heidegger notes that there is a tendency with assertions in general to simply pass it along without any context, as is the case with news or gossip. Essentially, the idea of the "They" (Das Man) explores the existential notions of what is authentic or inauthentic.

Time, Temporality
用新嘅途徑去考察時間。 海德格話自從亞里士多德,大家都用差唔多同一種途徑去解譯時。 However, time in a primordial, that is a practical, sense, is always the time of something or time for something. We are involved in the world, in projects, and these swallow up time; for example, we open doors without explicitly giving time to it. The present emerges not out of itself but as the time we must act or not act, as a finite being we are always being-towards-death, being itself is an issue for us. Similarly, the past, through tradition, is transmitted to us or rejected by us, but we are thrown into a certain time; one cannot choose to be a genuine Samurai warrior in the twenty first century. The variety of ways time can be thought out, e.g., in Aristotle's simplistic past-present-future, and these others ways of thinking it out are referred to as temporality.

形上學嘅解構
As part of his ontological project, Heidegger undertakes a reinterpretation of previous Western philosophy. He wants to explain why and how theoretical knowledge came to seem like the most fundamental relation to being. This explanation takes the form of a destructuring (Destruktion) of the philosophical tradition, an interpretive strategy that reveals the fundamental experience of being at the base of previous philosophies that had become entrenched and hidden within the theoretical attitude prevalent in the history of philosophy in its metaphysics of presence. Such "destruktion", is to be read not only in its negative sense but also in the positive sense of recovery. In Being and Time he briefly destructures the philosophy of Descartes though the second half of the book which was intended to be a Destruktion was never written; in later works he uses this approach to interpret the philosophies of Aristotle, Kant, Hegel, and Plato, among others. This technique exerted a profound influence on Derrida's deconstructive approach, although there are very important differences between the two methods.

第啲嘢做
Being and Time 係海德格早期最重要嘅成就,但佢喺呢時期重有第啲嘢做咗出來,包括一啲出版嘅演講有: Die Grundprobleme der Phänomenologie(《現象學嘅基本問題》,1927年)、Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik (《康德同形而上學嘅問題》,1929年)、 Was ist Metaphysik?(《形而上學係乜?》,1929年)。

註

參攷
 Martin Heidegger, Sein und Zeit, in Heidegger's Gesamtausgabe, volume 2, ed. F.-W. von Herrmann, 1977, XIV, 586p.
 Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. by John Macquarrie & Edward Robinson (London: SCM Press, 1962).
 Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. by Joan Stambaugh (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996).
 Robert Bernasconi, "'The Double Concept of Philosophy' and the Place of Ethics in Being and Time," Heidegger in Question: The Art of Existing (New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1993).
 Jacques Derrida, "Ousia and Gramme: Note on a Note from Being and Time," Margins of Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).
 Hubert Dreyfus, Being-in-the-World: A Commentary on Heidegger's Being and Time, Division I (Cambridge, Massachusetts, & London: MIT Press, 1990).
 Christopher Fynsk, Heidegger: Thought and Historicity (Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press, 1993, expanded edn.), ch. 1.
 Magda King, A Guide to Heidegger's Being and Time, edited by John Llewelyn (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001).
 Theodore Kisiel, The Genesis of Heidegger's Being and Time (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993).
 William McNeill, The Glance of the Eye: Heidegger, Aristotle, and the Ends of Theory (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999), ch. 3-4.
 Jean-Luc Nancy, "The Decision of Existence," The Birth to Presence (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).

哲學
書

存在與時間


Rodan is a fictional monster who appears in movies from Japan. He first appeared in Rodan, a 1956 kaiju movie from Toho Studios. Since then, he has appeared in several Godzilla movies. He is a very large pterosaur. He can release sonic booms from his body, which destroy anything it hits.

Appearances
 Rodan (1956)
 Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster (1964)
 Invasion of Astro-Monster or Monster Zero (US release) (1965)
 Destroy All Monsters (1968)
 Godzilla vs. Gigan (1972) (stock footage)
 Godzilla vs. Megalon (1973) (stock footage)
 Terror of Mechagodzilla (1975) (stock footage)
 Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II (1993; also as "Fire Rodan")
 Monster Planet Of Godzilla (1994)
 Godzilla Island (1997)
 Godzilla Final Wars (2004)

Monsters
Godzilla
Fictional dinosaurs

Rodan


are the orthographic rules for spelling Japanese in kana. All phonographic systems (of which kana is an example) attempt to account accurately the pronunciation in their spellings. However, pronunciation and accents change over time and phonemic distinctions are often lost. Various systems of kanazukai were introduced to deal with the disparity between the written and spoken versions of Japanese.

Historical systems
The former mainstream kana usage, or the Kyū-Kanazukai (, 'old kana usage'), is based on classical texts, especially man'yōgana. Created by Keichū in the early Edo period, it is also known as the Keichū Kanazukai. It was the mainstream kanazukai until the Gendai Kanazukai was introduced in 1946.

There were other minor systems throughout history that are now defunct:
 Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai (): a modified Man'yōgana where /e, je/ are distinct.
 Teika Kanazukai (): created by Fujiwara no Teika, it distinguishes between /wo, o/, /i, hi, wi/, /e, we, he/, and also (to a lesser degree) /e, je/. /wo, o/ were used to express high and low accent, respectively.
 Gyōa Kanazukai (), also known as Kanamojizukai (): created by  and his grandson , which expanded on the Teika Kanazukai by distinguishing between /ho/, /wa, ha/, /u, hu/, and /mu/. /wo, o/ are still used to distinguish between high and low accent. However, the distinction between /e, je/ is obliterated.

Gendai Kanazukai

Derived from the Kyū-Kanazukai, gendai kanazukai is a revision to more approximate modern pronunciation that is still used currently. As an adaption of the Kyū-Kanazukai, it is still not entirely phonetic, especially in respect to long vowels and particles.

References

See also
 Yotsugana

Japanese writing system
Kana
Archaic Japanese language
Japanese orthography
Spelling reform

Kanazukai


Sodium phosphate is a group of chemical compounds. The phosphate atom can hold three other atoms. They can be three hydrogen (phosphoric acid), two hydrogen and one sodium(sodium dihydrogen phosphate), one hydrogen and two sodium (disodium hydrogen phosphate), or three sodium (trisodium phosphate).

Sodium dihydrogen phosphate
Sodium dihydrogen phosphate, also known as monosodium phosphate, is a chemical compound with the formula NaH2PO4. It is acidic. It is used in some baking powders. It is used as a laxative or a pH buffer (something that keeps a chemical from getting more acidic or basic). It is made by reaction of a little sodium hydroxide with phosphoric acid.

Disodium hydrogen phosphate
Disodium hydrogen phosphate, also known as disodium phosphate is a chemical compound with the formula Na2HPO4. It is about neutral (not acidic or basic). It is used to prevent clumping in foods. It is made by reaction of some sodium hydroxide with phosphorus.

Trisodium phosphate

Trisodium phosphate, also known as sodium phosphate, is a chemical compound with the formula Na3PO4. It is basic. It formerly was used in detergents, but the phosphate fueled algal blooms. It is made by combining sodium hydroxide and phosphoric acid.

Related pages
Phosphite
Sodium phosphite
Hypophosphite

Phosphorus compounds
Sodium compounds

Sodium phosphate