Alvin Charles Copeland (February 2, 1944 – March 23, 2008) was an American entrepreneur who founded the Popeyes fast food chain. He was also a successful restaurateur who created many successful upscale restaurants.

Personal life
Born in New Orleans, Louisiana, Copeland had a humble beginning with his family living at one point in the St. Thomas public housing project. Copeland's father left the family shortly after Alvin ("Al"), the youngest of three sons, was born. Copeland did not complete high school, having left at 16, and worked at Schwegmann Brothers Giant Supermarkets store in Gentilly as a soda jerk and then for Tastee Donut, a doughnut chain partially owned by his brother, Gil. At 18, Copeland sold his car to purchase one doughnut location from his brother. This experience exposed him to the restaurant business and franchising.

While Copeland never completed high school, he used his wealth to benefit education programs, including establishing the Alvin C. Copeland Endowed Chair of Franchising at Louisiana State University, providing funding for the Delgado Community College chef apprentice program, and supporting the National Food Service Institute.

He had nine children – five sons and four daughters – by four wives. His eldest son, Al Copeland Jr., became the CEO of Al Copeland Investments, of which he is also the chairman, in 2003.

Copeland became a New Orleans icon due to his flamboyant lifestyle, including his eponymous power boat racing teams, extravagant weddings, and his annual Christmas light show at his mansion located in an upscale neighborhood in Metairie. Copeland was both admired and disliked by many in New Orleans for his brash style. Upon Copeland's death, New Orleans newspaper columnist Chris Rose, who was often critical of Copeland, noted, "I'm a big fan of over-the-top. A big fan of celebration. A big fan of lust for life. A big fan of Big Fun. Copeland epitomized these things. He was one more guy who put his life on display for all to see, another example of talking too much, living too large and laughing too loud – those New Orleans attributes that sometimes make folks elsewhere a little leery of this place."

Popeyes Chicken & Biscuits
In 1972, Al Copeland founded the Popeyes Chicken & Biscuits fast food chain in the New Orleans suburb of Arabi in St. Bernard Parish. Copeland began franchising his restaurant in 1976, opening the first franchise restaurant in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Approximately 500 outlets were added over the next 10 years, followed by 200 more during a period of slower expansion.

In March 1989, Popeyes, then the third-largest chicken chain, purchased Church's Chicken, the second largest. The parent company, Al Copeland Enterprises, operated both chains separately. Combined, the company had over 2,000 locations. Criticism of the merger included the resulting presence of competing locations. Efforts were made to close under-performing stores and sell franchises; however, operational improvements could not overcome financial burdens resulting from the merger.

The Church's purchase was heavily financed with the security being the assets of Popeyes and the acquired company. In 1990, Al Copeland Enterprises had $391 million in debts. The debt reached more than $400 million by April 1991 when Copeland filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection for the company. Creditors had petitioned for involuntary bankruptcy and efforts to have the petition dismissed had failed. In October 1992, the bankruptcy court approved a plan submitted by a group of Copeland's creditors that created America's Favorite Chicken Company, Inc. (aka AFC). AFC served as the new parent company for Popeyes and Church's.

Although Copeland lost Popeyes in the bankruptcy, he retained the rights to some Popeyes recipes and products. He manufactured the spices through his Diversified Foods & Seasonings plants located in Metairie, Madisonville, New Orleans, Mobile, San Antonio, and Nebraska City. The Diversified Foods & Seasonings contract with Popeyes extends through 2025.

Other businesses and investments
Copeland owned several restaurant chains, including Copeland's, Copeland's Cheesecake Bistro, Amor deBrazil, and Copeland's Social City, as well as the Improv comedy clubs located in California and Pittsburgh, and three hotels.

Annual Christmas display
Copeland became a local celebrity in New Orleans through his annual Christmas light display. Many national media organizations have ranked the display, most notably the Today show, which ranked it in the top three. In the display's heyday, the Jefferson Parish Sheriff's Office provided traffic control, and cars would back-up into surrounding subdivisions. While Copeland's display was the main attraction, surrounding homes also contributed to the atmosphere, and foot-traffic between displays and neighborhood parties was significant. Not all neighbors were pleased with the annual festivities, and in 1983 he was sued by his neighbors to remove the display. In 1991, a judge permitted Copeland to display a scaled-down version of the display. Copeland's display not only had elaborate lights, but he also would usually park his luxurious and exotic cars in front of his driveway. He provided free popcorn, candy, and children's toys during his final years. In 2008, the display was markedly toned down after he died. The annual display at his residence near Lake Pontchartrain will now stop and be moved to a park. New Orleans newspaper columnist Chris Rose, on informing his children of Copeland's death stated, "I realized it was like telling a kid that Santa Claus was dead."

Public controversies
In 1993, Copeland made an unsuccessful bid for a Louisiana gambling license. The successful bidder, Robert Guidry, later testified that he (Guidry) had bribed then governor Edwin Edwards to secure the license. Eight years later, Guidry and Copeland encountered each other at an upscale restaurant in New Orleans, Morton's The Steakhouse. A melee ensued, involving Copeland, Guidry, and Guidry's sons. Witnesses said that Copeland's then wife (who was six months pregnant) was knocked to the ground. Both she and Copeland, who were celebrating their first wedding anniversary, were hospitalized. The Guidry group spent the night in jail.

Copeland had a very public feud with horror novelist Anne Rice in 1997 regarding Copeland's opening of a restaurant on St. Charles Avenue in New Orleans. Rice placed a full page ad in the February 7 New Orleans Times-Picayune newspaper, calling the restaurant "hideous", "a monstrosity", and "nothing short of an abomination".

Copeland's third marriage ended with significant controversy. The third divorce's original presiding judge, Ronald Bodenheimer, pleaded guilty to promising a custody deal favorable to Copeland in return for a possible seafood contract and other benefits. Copeland contributed to the Bodenheimer campaign, and, according to Bodenheimer testimony, had personally contacted Bodenheimer regarding the custody matter. Bodenheimer stated that he had been summoned to a home owned by a Copeland business and stated that Copeland told him, "We supported you because you were the kind of guy who would do the right thing. And the right thing is to keep me and Alex together." At the time of his testimony, Bodenheimer was the subject of a significant federal probe. Two Copeland associates, as well as Bodenheimer, went to jail for participating in the conspiracy. Other than the Bodenheimer testimony, Copeland was never personally accused of participating.

Illness, death, and legacy
In December 2007, Copeland began treatment for a malignant tumor of the salivary glands, caused by Merkel cell carcinoma, a rare form of cancer. Copeland had sought experimental treatments in Germany but died in Munich on Easter Sunday, March 23, 2008, aged 64. He was buried in Metairie Cemetery.

In 2008 the Al Copeland Foundation was established under his name. It provides cancer services primarily at Louisiana State University (LSU) and established the Al Copeland/Cancer Crusaders Endowed chair in Endocrine Cancer at LSU in 2011.

References

External links

Church's Chicken website
Al Copeland Investments' website
Copeland of New Orleans' website
Cheesecake Bistro's website
Amor De Brazil's website
Copeland's Social City website
Popeyes Chicken and Biscuits official website
Al Copeland Foundation

1944 births
2008 deaths
American restaurateurs
American food company founders
Fast-food chain founders
American motorboat racers
Deaths from cancer in Germany
Deaths from Merkel-cell carcinoma
Businesspeople from New Orleans
Burials at Metairie Cemetery
People from Arabi, Louisiana
20th-century American businesspeople

Al Copeland


The Treaty of Anagni was an accord between the Pope Boniface VIII, James II of Aragon, Philip IV of France, Charles II of Naples, and James II of Majorca. It was signed on 20 June 1295 at Anagni, in central Italy. The chief purpose was to confirm the Treaty of Tarascon of 1291, which ended the Aragonese Crusade. It also dealt with finding a diplomatic solution to the conquest of Sicily by Peter III of Aragón in 1285.

Neither Frederick II of Sicily, James of Aragon's brother, nor the Sicilian people accepted the treaty and instead pursued a war against the Angevin forces of Charles of Naples. Charles was, as per the respective clause of the treaty, assisted by the fleet of James of Aragón. This war did not end until the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302.

Main clauses
marriage of James of Aragon with Blanche, daughter of Charles
return of Sicily to the papacy, which granted it to Charles
military aid from James of Aragón to Charles for the reconquest of Sicily (see above)
lifting of the excommunication of James of Aragon
renunciation of Charles of Valois of the Aragonese crown
restitution of the Balearic Islands to James of Majorca
arbitration of the pope over the Aran Valley
restitution to Charles of James of Aragon's conquests in Italy
exchange of prisoners and hostages, including the release (on 7 June) of Louis, Robert, and Raymond Berengar, sons of Charles, by James of Aragón

Secret clauses
Two secret clauses were later added:
cession of Corsica and Sardinia to James of Aragon
military aid from Aragon to France against Edward I of England

13th century in the Kingdom of Sicily
Military history of Catalonia
Medieval Catalonia
Anagni
1295 in Europe
1290s in France
13th century in the Kingdom of Naples
Anagni
Anagni
Anagni
Treaties of the Kingdom of Majorca
13th century in the Papal States
13th century in Aragon

Treaty of Anagni


Octavio Augie Ojeda (born December 20, 1974) is an American former professional baseball infielder. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Chicago Cubs, Minnesota Twins, and Arizona Diamondbacks.

Amateur career
A native of Los Angeles, California, Ojeda attended Cypress College and the University of Tennessee. In 1994, he played collegiate summer baseball with the Brewster Whitecaps of the Cape Cod Baseball League.

Professional career

Baltimore Orioles
Ojeda was drafted in the 13th round of the 1996 MLB Draft by the Baltimore Orioles, but he did not play for the Orioles organization until 1997 due to his participation in the 1996 Summer Olympics. He shot through the Orioles system in 1997, playing for the Single-A Frederick Keys, Double-A Bowie Baysox and Triple-A Rochester Red Wings. In total, he had a .344 batting average and also showed good plate discipline with 57 walks compared to only 39 strikeouts. In 1998, Ojeda played mostly for Double-A Bowie and his batting average slumped to .264, though he again showed good plate discipline, with 39 walks and 31 strikeouts. In 1999, he played 134 games for Bowie and 1 game for Rochester. He batted .267 and had a career-high 10 home runs and 60 RBIs. On December 14, 1999, he was traded to the Chicago Cubs for Richard Negrette.

Chicago Cubs
Ojeda batted .280 in 113 games for Triple-A Iowa Cubs in 2000. He spent most of June in the majors, making his major league debut on June 4 and was also called up after rosters expanded in September, overall in the majors, Ojeda batted .221. He spent all of the 2001 season in the majors, where he only batted .201 in 144 at bats. He began 2002 in the majors, but was sent down in June after only batting .186. He again found success in Triple-A, batting .299 and again walking more than he struck out. In 2003, Ojeda batted .251 in Triple-A and spent August and September with Chicago. On November 24, 2003, he was claimed off waivers by the Minnesota Twins.

Minnesota Twins
The Twins released Ojeda on December 21, but re-signed him two days later. He spent the next two seasons with the Twins organization. In Triple-A in 2004, he batted just .245, but hit .339 in the majors from August to the end of the season. 2005 was the first time in five seasons he did not appear in the majors; he struggled in Triple-A with a .224 batting average. He became a free agent after the season.

Chicago Cubs
On January 3, 2006, Ojeda signed with the Cubs again. He was the starting shortstop for Iowa, but he hit just .248. He made his first pitching appearance in 2006, pitching 1 inning, giving up 1 hit and 1 walk, but not allowing a run. He was granted free agency at the end of the season.

Arizona Diamondbacks
On February 5, 2007, he signed with the Arizona Diamondbacks and was a non-roster invitee for Spring Training, but started the season with Triple-A Tucson for his first season in Arizona's organization. Ojeda hit .323 with Tucson to earn a major league call up in June, where he spent the rest of the season. He batted .274 in the majors and also pitched 1 inning. On August 14, D-Backs starter Byung-hyun Kim got only 1 out with 17 pitches, and gave up 4 runs. With the bullpen weary, Ojeda had to make an emergency appearance on the mound. He pitched a perfect 8th inning becoming only the 3rd D-Backs position player to ever pitch in a game. Ojeda batted .286 in 21 postseason at-bats for the D-Backs in the NLDS and NLCS, as the Rockies beat them in the NLCS. He started 2008 on the major league squad as a utility infielder.

Return to the Cubs
On January 27, 2011, Ojeda signed with the Cubs once again this time as a non-roster invitee to Spring Training. He played 18 games for the Iowa Cubs, but after hitting just .200, he was released on July 9.

Personal life
He currently resides in Phoenix, Arizona

References

External links

Living people
1974 births
Major League Baseball infielders
American baseball players of Mexican descent
Frederick Keys players
Bowie Baysox players
Rochester Red Wings players
Gulf Coast Orioles players
Iowa Cubs players
Chicago Cubs players
Minnesota Twins players
Tucson Sidewinders players
Arizona Diamondbacks players
Baseball players from Los Angeles
Cypress Chargers baseball players
Tennessee Volunteers baseball players
Brewster Whitecaps players
Baseball players at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in baseball
2009 World Baseball Classic players
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics

Augie Ojeda


Pettit Memorial Chapel or simply, Pettit Chapel, is one of the few chapels designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright. The Pettit Chapel is located in the Belvidere Cemetery in Belvidere, Illinois, United States, which is in Boone County. It was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on December 1, 1978. The chapel is an early example of Frank Lloyd Wright's famed Prairie style. It is one of only two structures  meant for a cemetery setting that Wright ever created.

History
Emma Pettit commissioned Frank Lloyd Wright to design the Pettit Chapel as a memorial to her deceased husband, Dr. William H. Pettit. The building was built in 1907 for US$3,000 and stands next to the grave of Mr. Pettit in Belvidere Cemetery. Doctor William H. Pettit was a beloved physician and humanitarian who had the largest private medical practice in northern Iowa. His sudden passing in 1899 was mourned across the state of Iowa and newspaper accounts from the time indicate that perhaps only the governor of Iowa was more well-liked. After Pettit's death his wife, Emma, deliberated over a suitable memorial to her late husband. She chose a site in Belvidere, Illinois, William Pettit's hometown, and selected a chapel as the memorial. Emma Pettit was led to Frank Lloyd Wright by her brother, William A. Glasner, whose 1905 home in Glencoe, Illinois was designed by Wright.

Pettit Chapel has undergone two periods of restoration during its history. In 1977, the Belvidere Junior Women's Club raised $60,000 to save the chapel, which had deteriorated. The restoration work was matched to Wright's original work through his drawings of the chapel. On June 8, 1981 (Wright's birthday) the chapel was rededicated. From June until November 2003 the chapel underwent its second period of restoration and repair. $40,000 worth of repairs included a new roof, new floorboards for the porch, new steps and painting. The repairs were paid for through a state of Illinois tourism grant and money from a trust fund set up through the cemetery.

Architecture

Original design drawings by Wright show that the front facade of the chapel was to be decorated with a modest fountain and pool, which, along with a small plaque was meant to mark the chapel as a memorial. The sanctuary area of the chapel was labeled as a "recess with memorial" in the original drawings as well. These elements integrated to characterize the chapel as a memorial to Dr. Pettit. The T-shaped building is about 57 ft (17.37 m) by 42 ft (12.8 m), with the cross section being the shorter of the two. The building sits well within the cemetery grounds and is accessible in a car only by cemetery roadways. Its cemetery location is unique among Frank Lloyd Wright buildings as this is the only example of its type.

The interior of the T shape's "stem" is adorned with a fireplace at the T's crossing point. The cross of the T is an open-air, covered porch. The porch not only incorporates the open terrace common to other Wright designed buildings of the era but also has an explicit functionality. Wright meant for the porch to be used by those attending funerals while they waited for cars. The placement of the columns on the porch, pulled back from the open corners is found on other Wright buildings such as the Coonley House and the Martin House. The column placement and Wright's drawings may have influenced European architects after 1910 such as Le Corbusier. The balloon framed building's basement contains restrooms, storage and a furnace room.

The design of the building is such that depending upon how it is viewed it can alternate between symmetrical and asymmetrical. Those angles from which it appears symmetrical express a solemn formality. The low-pitched hipped roof presents the skyline as quiet and unbroken, a feature typical of some of Wright's important early Prairie buildings such as the Heurtley House, and the Winslow House. It embodies the very essence of Frank Lloyd Wright's Prairie style buildings: the roof and its overhanging eaves, the abstract geometric art glass windows, the raised functional floor and the "plastic expression" of the stucco exterior and its contrasting wood trim.

Significance

Pettit Memorial Chapel was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on December 1, 1978. Its nomination form for that listing stated its significance for inclusion as architecture. As the only example of Frank Lloyd Wright's work intended for a cemetery setting it is the only one of his works which can be directly compared with some of Louis Sullivan's acclaimed early modern work meant for a cemetery setting. The Getty Tomb, designed while Wright was a draftsman in Sullivan's office, and the Ryerson and Wainwright Tombs were all designed by Sullivan for a cemetery setting. The Getty Tomb was Sullivan's earliest move toward modern architecture while the Ryerson and Wainwright Tombs brought him further acclaim. Each of the buildings expresses the architect's concept of pure design, Wright's makes the building serve a purpose, while Sullivan's relates directly to the large scale of his commercial works.

The chapel is considered one of the earliest example of Wright's prairie period and was used for funerals until the 1920s when the rise of funeral parlors overtook funerals in churches and chapels. The cemetery itself opened in 1847 and contains 13,000 known graves.

See also
 Unity Chapel
 List of Frank Lloyd Wright works

References

Wright, Frank Lloyd. Drawings and Plans of Frank Lloyd Wright: The Early Period (1893–1909), Dover Publications, New York: 1983, (). Originally published as Ausgehrführte Bauten und Entwürfe, E. Wasmuth, Berlin: 1910.
 Storrer, William Allin. The Frank Lloyd Wright Companion. University Of Chicago Press, 2006,  (S.116)

Notes

Churches completed in 1907
20th-century churches in the United States
Belvidere, Illinois
Cemetery art
Chapels in the United States
Frank Lloyd Wright buildings
Monuments and memorials in Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in Boone County, Illinois
Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
Buildings and structures in Boone County, Illinois

Pettit Memorial Chapel


A European Union Memmer State is ane o the twinty-sieven kintras that's jyned the European Union (EU) syne it wis stairtit in 1958 as the European Economic Community (EEC). Frae an oreeginal memmership o anely sax kintras, thare's been sax mair enlairgements, the maist muckle bein on the 1st o Mey 2004, whan ten memmer states jynt.

Efter the addeetion o Romanie an Bulgarie in 2007, the EU nou haes 27 memmers. Talks is unnerwey wi a nummer o ither kintras wi regairds tae jynin in the futur an aw. The process o enlairgement is aft cried European integration. Afore bein alloued tae jyne the European Union, a state maun saitisfee the mony condeetions kent as the Copenhagen criteria: this means that a caundidate memmer state maun hae a secular, democratic govrenment, alang wi the freedoms an bodies, an respect the rule o law. Unner the terms o the Treaty on European Union, enlairgement o the Union is condeetional on the greement o ilka memmer state as weel as bi the European Pairliament.

Bulgarie an Romanie maks the siecont pairt o the EU's fift enlairgement, an jynt the EU on the  1st o januar 2007. This date wis componed at the Thessaloniki Summit in 2003, homologate at Brussels on the 18t o Juin 2004, an bi the kintra reports o October 2004 an the feenal report deleevert on the 26t o September 2006. Bulgarie an Romanie signed thair Treaty o Accession on the 25t o Aprile 2005 at a ceremony hauden at Neumünster Abbey in Luxembourg.

Europe

fi:Euroopan unioni#Jäsenvaltiot

European Union Memmer State


For the institution founded in London in 1719 for putting on performances of operas see George Frideric Handel.

The Royal Academy of Music is a conservatory in London where young people can study music. It was founded in 1822. Many musicians who became famous studied music at the Royal Academy of Music.

The Royal Academy of Music was officially founded (started) in 1822 and was opened the next year. King George IV was the patron of the conservatory. At first it had 21 students.

In 1830 it received its Royal Charter, but for many years it had financial problems and it was not until 1868, when the British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone arranged for it to have a regular grant, that it began to do well. During the 19th century the academy was in Hanover Square, but in 1912 it moved to Marylebone Road near Regent's Park.

Since 1912 many changes and extensions have been made to the building. Many concerts are given in the Duke's Hall and operas are performed in the Sir Jack Lyons Theatre. Many of the professors (teachers) at the academy come from other countries. The academy works together with King's College, London where many of the students take a 4-year performance course. In 1997 they won some lottery money which helped them to get a new building for their collection of musical instruments. It has a large library which includes all the books and music which used to belong to the conductors Sir Henry Wood and Otto Klemperer.

Today the students come from over 50 countries. Students from abroad can attend a special "English for Musicians" course. There are over 600 students at the academy. The students have many opportunities to perform, both in the academy and in concerts in other places. Over 90% of the students find a career in music after they leave the academy.

The principal of the Royal Academy of Music is Jonathan Freeman-Attwood.

Some famous people who studied at the Royal Academy of Music
 John Barbirolli (conductor)
 Arnold Bax (composer)
 Richard Rodney Bennett (composer)
 Harrison Birtwistle (composer)
 Dennis Brain (French horn|horn player)
 William Crotch (first Principal of the Royal Academy of Music)
 Sir Clifford Curzon (pianist)
 John Dankworth (jazz composer)
 Lesley Garrett (soprano)
 Evelyn Glennie (percussionist)
 Myra Hess (pianist)
 Elton John (rock musician) Junior Academy
 Freddy Kempf (pianist)
 Philip Langridge (tenor)
 Felicity Lott (soprano)
 Moura Lympany (pianist)
 Joanna MacGregor (pianist)
 Michael Nyman (composer)
 Sir Simon Rattle (conductor)
 Arthur Sullivan (composer)
 Eva Turner (soprano)
 Christopher Warren-Green (conductor)
 Sir Henry Wood (conductor)

Royal Academy of Music

Royal Academy of Music


Independent components analysis (ICA) is a mathematical method for separating a signal into its most probable additive subcomponent supposing the statistical independence of the source signals. This assumption is correct in most cases so the blind ICA separation of a mixed signal gives very good results. It is also used for signals that are not supposed to be generated by a mixing for analysis purposes.

The statistical method revéal hidden factors (independent components), presuming their non-gaussianity.

It uses principal components analysis as a first step.
Apply whitening of the data, and then apply an iterative algorithm (such as an adaptive filter).

The ICA séarches for orthogonal components that are mutually statistically independent to describe the input data matrix (composed by the féatures vectors). This can allow the reconstruction of source signals from several corrupted mixtures theréof.

The method is important to blind signal separation, EEG analysis and FMRI analysis.

This concept can be extended to analyse non physical signals, for instance ICA has been aplied to discover discussions topics on a bag of news list archives.

Pakait jeung
 PCA (principal component analysis)
 varimax rotation
 projecting pursuit
 Image processing
 Signal processing

Independent components analysis


The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) was a program of coordinated, evolving projects sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF) from 1985 to 1995 to promote advanced research and education networking in the United States. The program created several nationwide backbone computer networks in support of these initiatives. Initially created to link researchers to the NSF-funded supercomputing centers, through further public funding and private industry partnerships it developed into a major part of the Internet backbone.

The National Science Foundation permitted only government agencies and universities to use the network until 1989 when the first commercial Internet service provider emerged. By 1991, the NSF removed access restrictions and the commercial ISP business grew rapidly.

History
Following the deployment of the Computer Science Network (CSNET), a network that provided Internet services to academic computer science departments, in 1981, the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) aimed to create an academic research network facilitating access by researchers to the supercomputing centers funded by NSF in the United States.

In 1985, NSF began funding the creation of five new supercomputing centers:
 John von Neumann Center at Princeton University
 Cornell Theory Center at Cornell University
 Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center (PSC), a joint effort of Carnegie Mellon University, the University of Pittsburgh, and Westinghouse
 National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
 San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC) on the campus of the University of California, San Diego (UCSD)

Also in 1985, under the leadership of Dennis Jennings, the NSF established the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET). NSFNET was to be a general-purpose research network, a hub to connect the five supercomputing centers along with the NSF-funded National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) to each other and to the regional research and education networks that would in turn connect campus networks. Using this three tier network architecture NSFNET would provide access between the supercomputer centers and other sites over the backbone network at no cost to the centers or to the regional networks using the open TCP/IP protocols initially deployed successfully on the ARPANET.

56kbit/s backbone

The NSFNET initiated operations in 1986 using TCP/IP. Its six backbone sites were interconnected with leased 56-kbit/s links, built by a group including the University of Illinois National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA), Cornell University Theory Center, University of Delaware, and Merit Network. PDP-11/73 minicomputers with routing and management software, called Fuzzballs, served as the network routers since they already implemented the TCP/IP standard.

This original 56kbit/s backbone was overseen by the supercomputer centers themselves with the lead taken by Ed Krol at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. PDP-11/73 Fuzzball routers were configured and run by Hans-Werner Braun at the Merit Network and statistics were collected by Cornell University.

Support for NSFNET end-users was provided by the NSF Network Service Center (NNSC), located at BBN Technologies and included publishing the softbound "Internet Manager's Phonebook" which listed the contact information for every issued domain name and IP address in 1990. Incidentally, Ed Krol also authored the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Internet to help users of the NSFNET understand its capabilities. The Hitchhiker's Guide became one of the first help manuals for the Internet.

As regional networks grew the 56kbit/s NSFNET backbone experienced rapid increases in network traffic and became seriously congested. In June 1987 NSF issued a new solicitation to upgrade and expand NSFNET.

1.5Mbit/s (T-1) backbone
As a result of a November 1987 NSF award to the Merit Network, a networking consortium by public universities in Michigan, the original 56kbit/s network was expanded to include 13 nodes interconnected at 1.5Mbit/s (T-1) by July 1988. Additional links were added to form a multi-path network, and a node located in Atlanta was added. Each of the backbone nodes was a router called the Nodal Switching System (NSS). The NSSes were a collection of multiple (typically nine) IBM RT PC systems connected by a Token Ring local area network. The RT PCs ran AOS, IBM's version of Berkeley UNIX, and was dedicated to a particular packet processing task.

Under its cooperative agreement with NSF the Merit Network was the lead organization in a partnership that included IBM, MCI, and the State of Michigan. Merit provided overall project coordination, network design and engineering, a Network Operations Center (NOC), and information services to assist the regional networks. IBM provided equipment, software development, installation, maintenance and operations support. MCI provided the T-1 data circuits at reduced rates. The state of Michigan provided funding for facilities and personnel. Eric M. Aupperle, Merit's President, was the NSFNET Project Director, and Hans-Werner Braun was Co-Principal Investigator.

From 1987 to 1994, Merit organized a series of "Regional-Techs" meetings, where technical staff from the regional networks met to discuss operational issues of common concern with each other and the Merit engineering staff.

During this period, but separate from its support for the NSFNET backbone, NSF funded:
 the NSF Connections Program that helped colleges and universities obtain or upgrade connections to regional networks;
 regional networks to obtain or upgrade equipment and data communications circuits;
 the NNSC, and successor Network Information Services Manager (aka InterNIC) information help desks;
 the International Connections Manager (ICM), a task performed by Sprint, that encouraged connections between the NSFNET backbone and international research and education networks; and
 various ad hoc grants to organizations such as the Federation of American Research Networks (FARNET).

The NSFNET became the principal Internet backbone starting in the Summer of 1986, when MIDnet, the first NSFNET regional backbone network became operational.  By 1988, in addition to the five NSF supercomputer centers, NSFNET included connectivity to the regional networks BARRNet, JVNCNet, Merit/MichNet, MIDnet, NCAR, NorthWestNet, NYSERNet, SESQUINET, SURAnet, and Westnet, which in turn connected about 170 additional networks to the NSFNET. Three new nodes were added as part of the upgrade to T-3: NEARNET in Cambridge, Massachusetts; Argone National Laboratory outside of Chicago; and SURAnet in Atlanta, Georgia. NSFNET connected to other federal government networks including the NASA Science Internet, the Energy Science Network (ESnet), and others.

Connections were also established to research and education networks in other countries starting in 1988 with Canada, France, NORDUnet (serving Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden), the Netherlands, and many other countries in subsequent years.

Two Federal Internet Exchanges (FIXes) were established in June 1989 under the auspices of the Federal Engineering Planning Group (FEPG). FIX East, at the University of Maryland in College Park and FIX West, at the NASA Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California. The existence of NSFNET and the FIXes allowed the ARPANET to be phased out in mid-1990.

Starting in August 1990 the NSFNET backbone supported the OSI Connectionless Network Protocol (CLNP) in addition to TCP/IP. However, CLNP usage remained low when compared to TCP/IP.

Traffic on the network continued its rapid growth, doubling every seven months. Projections indicated that the T-1 backbone would become overloaded sometime in 1990.

A critical routing technology, Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), originated during this period of Internet history. BGP allowed routers on the NSFNET backbone to differentiate routes originally learned via multiple paths.  Prior to BGP, interconnection between IP network was inherently hierarchical, and careful planning was needed to avoid routing loops.  BGP turned the Internet into a meshed topology, moving away from the centric architecture which the ARPANET emphasized.

45Mbit/s (T-3) backbone

During 1991, an upgraded backbone built with 45Mbit/s (T-3) transmission circuits was deployed to interconnect 16 nodes. The routers on the upgraded backbone were IBM RS/6000 servers running AIX UNIX. Core nodes were located at MCI facilities with end nodes at the connected regional networks and supercomputing centers. Completed in November 1991, the transition from T-1 to T-3 did not go as smoothly as the previous transition from 56kbit/s DDS to 1.5 mbit/s T-1, as it took longer than planned. As a result, there was at times serious congestion on the overloaded T-1 backbone. Following the transition to T-3, portions of the T-1 backbone were left in place to act as a backup for the new T-3 backbone.

In anticipation of the T-3 upgrade and the approaching end of the 5-year NSFNET cooperative agreement, in September 1990 Merit, IBM, and MCI formed Advanced Network and Services (ANS), a new non-profit corporation with a more broadly based Board of Directors than the Michigan-based Merit Network. Under its cooperative agreement with NSF, Merit remained ultimately responsible for the operation of NSFNET, but subcontracted much of the engineering and operations work to ANS. Both IBM and MCI made substantial new financial and other commitments to help support the new venture. Allan Weis left IBM to become ANS's first President and Managing Director. Douglas Van Houweling, former Chair of the Merit Network Board and Vice Provost for Information Technology at the University of Michigan, was Chairman of the ANS Board of Directors.

The new T-3 backbone was named ANSNet and provided the physical infrastructure used by Merit to deliver the NSFNET Backbone Service.

Regional networks

In addition to the five NSF supercomputer centers (which operated regional networks, e.g., SDSCnet and NCSAnet), NSFNET provided connectivity to eleven regional networks and through these networks to many smaller regional and campus networks. The NSFNET regional networks were:
BARRNet, the Bay Area Regional Research Network in Palo Alto, California;
CERFnet, California Education and Research Federation Network in San Diego, California, serving California and Nevada;
CICNet, the Committee on Institutional Cooperation Network via the Merit Network in Ann Arbor, Michigan and later as part of the T-3 upgrade via Argonne National Laboratory outside of Chicago, serving the Big Ten Universities and the University of Chicago in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin;
JVNCNet, the John von Neumann National Supercomputer Center Network in Princeton, New Jersey, connected the universities that made up the Consortium for Scientific Computing as well as a few New Jersey Universities. There were 1.5Mbit/s (T-1) links to Princeton University, Rutgers University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University, Brown University, University of Pennsylvania, University of Pittsburgh, Yale University, The Institute for Advanced Study, Pennsylvania State University, Rochester Institute of Technology, New York University, The University of Colorado and The University of Arizona.
Merit/MichNet in Ann Arbor, Michigan serving Michigan, formed in 1966, still in operation as of 2013;
MIDnet in Lincoln, Nebraska the first NSFNET regional backbone to become operational in the Summer of 1986, serving Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and South Dakota, later acquired by Global Internet, which was acquired by Verio, Inc.;
NEARNET, the New England Academic and Research Network in Cambridge, Massachusetts, added as part of the upgrade to T-3, serving Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont, established in late 1988, operated by BBN under contract to MIT, BBN assumed responsibility for NEARNET on 1 July 1993;
NorthWestNet in Seattle, Washington, serving Alaska, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, and Washington, founded in 1987;
NYSERNet, New York State Education and Research Network in Ithaca, New York;
SESQUINET, the Sesquicentennial Network in Houston, Texas, founded during the 150th anniversary of the State of Texas;
SURAnet, the Southeastern Universities Research Association network in College Park, Maryland and later as part of the T-3 upgrade in Atlanta, Georgia serving Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia, sold to BBN in 1994; and
Westnet in Salt Lake City, Utah and Boulder, Colorado, serving Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming.

Commercial traffic
The NSF's appropriations act authorized NSF to "foster and support the development and use of computer and other scientific and engineering methods and technologies, primarily for research and education in the sciences and engineering." This allowed NSF to support NSFNET and related networking initiatives, but only to the extent that that support was "primarily for research and education in the sciences and engineering." And this in turn was taken to mean that use of NSFNET for commercial purposes was not allowed.

Acceptable use policy
To ensure that NSF support was used appropriately, NSF developed the NSFNET Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) that outlined in broad terms the uses of NSFNET that were and were not allowed. The AUP was revised several times to make it clearer and to allow the broadest possible use of NSFNET, consistent with Congress' wishes as expressed in the appropriations act.

A notable feature of the AUP is that it cites acceptable uses of the network that are not directly related to who or what type of organization is making that use. Use from for-profit organizations is acceptable when it is in support of open research and education. And some uses such as fundraising, advertising, public relations activities, extensive personal or private use, for-profit consulting, and all illegal activities are never acceptable, even when that use is by a non-profit college, university, K-12 school, or library. And while these AUP provisions seem quite reasonable, in specific cases they often proved difficult to interpret and enforce. NSF did not monitor the content of traffic that was sent over NSFNET or actively police the use of the network. And it did not require Merit or the regional networks to do so. NSF, Merit, and the regional networks did investigate possible cases of inappropriate use, when such use was brought to their attention.

An example may help to illustrate the problem. Is it acceptable for a parent to exchange e-mail with a child enrolled at a college or university, if that exchange uses the NSFNET backbone? It would be acceptable, if the subject of the e-mail was the student's instruction or a research project. Even if the subject was not instruction or research, the e-mail still might be acceptable as private or personal business as long as the use was not extensive.

The prohibition on commercial use of the NSFNET backbone meant that some organizations could not connect to the Internet via regional networks that were connected to the NSFNET backbone, while to be fully connected other organizations (or regional networks on their behalf), including some non-profit research and educational institutions, would need to obtain two connections, one to an NSFNET attached regional network and one to a non-NSFNET attached network provider. In either case the situation was confusing and inefficient. It prevented economies of scale, increased costs, or both. And this slowed the growth of the Internet and its adoption by new classes of users, something no one was happy about.

In 1988, Vint Cerf, then at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI), proposed to the  Federal Networking Council (FNC) and to MCI to interconnect the commercial MCI Mail system to NSFNET. MCI provided funding and FNC provided permission and in the summer of 1989, this linkage was made. In effect, the FNC permitted experimental use of the NSFNET backbone to carry commercial email traffic into and out of the NSFNET. Other email providers such as Telenet's Telemail, Tymnet's OnTyme and CompuServe also obtained permission to establish experimental gateways for the same purpose at about the same time. The interesting side effect of these links to NSFNET was that the users of the heretofore disconnected commercial email services were able to exchange email with one another via the Internet. Coincidentally, three commercial Internet service providers emerged in the same general time period: AlterNet (built by UUNET), PSINet and CERFnet.

Commercial ISPs, ANS CO+RE, and the CIX
During the period when NSFNET was being established, Internet service providers that allowed commercial traffic began to emerge, such as Alternet, PSINet, CERFNet, and others.  The commercial networks in many cases were interconnected to the NSFNET and routed traffic over the NSFNET nominally accordingly to the NSFNET acceptable use policy Additionally, these early commercial networks often directly interconnected with each other as well as, on a limited basis, with some of the regional Internet networks.

In 1991, the Commercial Internet eXchange (CIX, pronounced "kicks") was created by PSINet, UUNET and CERFnet to provide a location at which multiple networks could exchange traffic free from traffic-based settlements and restrictions imposed by an acceptable use policy.

In 1991, a new ISP, ANS CO+RE (commercial plus research), raised concerns and unique questions regarding commercial and non-commercial interoperability policies. ANS CO+RE was the for-profit subsidiary of the non-profit Advanced Network and Services (ANS) that had been created earlier by the NSFNET partners, Merit, IBM, and MCI. ANS CO+RE was created specifically to allow commercial traffic on ANSNet without jeopardizing its parent's non-profit status or violating any tax laws. The NSFNET Backbone Service and ANS CO+RE both used and shared the common ANSNet infrastructure. NSF agreed to allow ANS CO+RE to carry commercial traffic subject to several conditions:
 that the NSFNET Backbone Service was not diminished;
 that ANS CO+RE recovered at least the average cost of the commercial traffic traversing the network; and
 that any excess revenues recovered above the cost of carrying the commercial traffic would be placed into an infrastructure pool to be distributed by an allocation committee broadly representative of the networking community to enhance and extend national and regional networking infrastructure and support.

For a time ANS CO+RE refused to connect to the CIX and the CIX refused to purchase a connection to ANS CO+RE. In May 1992 Mitch Kapor and Al Weis forged an agreement where ANS would connect to the CIX as a "trial" with the ability to disconnect at a moment's notice and without the need to join the CIX as a member. This compromise resolved things for a time, but later the CIX started to block access from regional networks that had not paid the $10,000 fee to become members of the CIX.

Meanwhile, Congress passed its Scientific and Advanced-Technology Act of 1992  that formally permitted NSF to connect to commercial networks in support of research and education.

An unfortunate state of affairs
The creation of ANS CO+RE and its initial refusal to connect to the CIX was one of the factors that lead to the controversy described later in this article. Other issues had to do with:
 differences in the cultures of the non-profit research and education community and the for-profit community with ANS trying to be a member of both camps and not being fully accepted by either;
 differences of opinion about the best approach to take to open the Internet to commercial use and to maintain and encourage a fully interconnected Internet; and
 differences of opinion about the correct type and level of involvement in Internet networking initiatives by the public and the private sectors.

For a time this state of affairs kept the networking community as a whole from fully implementing the vision for the Internet as a worldwide network of fully interconnected TCP/IP networks allowing any connected site to communicate with any other connected site. These issues would not be fully resolved until a new network architecture was developed and the NSFNET Backbone Service was turned off in 1995.

Privatization and a new network architecture
The NSFNET Backbone Service was primarily used by academic and educational entities, and was a transitional network bridging the era of the ARPANET and CSNET into the modern Internet of today.  With its success, the "federally-funded backbone" model gave way to a vision of commercially operated networks operating together to which the users purchased access.

On April 30, 1995, the NSFNET Backbone Service had been successfully transitioned to a new architecture and the NSFNET fiber optic backbone was decommissioned. At this point the NSFNET regional backbone networks were still central to the infrastructure of the expanding Internet, and there were still other NSFNET programs, but there was no longer a central NSFNET optical networking service.

After the transition, network traffic was carried on the NSFNET fiber optic regional backbone networks and any of several commercial backbone networks, internetMCI, PSINet, SprintLink, ANSNet, and others. Traffic between networks was exchanged at four Network Access Points or NAPs. Competitively established, and initially funded by NSF, the NAPs were located in New York (actually New Jersey), Washington, D.C., Chicago, and San Jose and run by Sprint, MFS Datanet, Ameritech, and Pacific Bell. The NAPs were the forerunners of modern Internet exchange points.

The NSFNET regional backbone networks could connect to any of their newer peer commercial backbone networks or directly to the NAPs, but in either case they would need to pay for their own connection infrastructure. NSF provided some funding for the NAPs and interim funding to help the regional networks make the transition, but did not fund the new commercial backbone networks directly.

To help ensure the stability of the Internet during and immediately after the transition from NSFNET, NSF conducted a solicitation to select a Routing Arbiter (RA) and ultimately made a joint award to the Merit Network and USC's Information Science Institute to act as the RA.

To continue its promotion of advanced networking technology the NSF conducted a solicitation to create a very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) which, like NSFNET before it, would focus on providing service to the research and education community. MCI won this award and created a 155Mbit/s (OC3c) and later a 622Mbit/s (OC12c) and 2.5Gbit/s (OC48c) ATM network to carry TCP/IP traffic primarily between the supercomputing centers and their users. NSF support was available to organizations that could demonstrate a need for very high speed networking capabilities and wished to connect to the vBNS or to the Abilene Network, the high speed network operated by the University Corporation for Advanced Internet Development (UCAID, aka Internet2).

At the February 1994 regional techs meeting in San Diego, the group revised its charter to include a broader base of network service providers, and subsequently adopted North American Network Operators' Group (NANOG) as its new name. Elise Gerich and Mark Knopper were the founders of NANOG and its first coordinators, followed by Bill Norton, Craig Labovitz, and Susan Harris.

Controversy
For much of the period from 1987 to 1995, following the opening up of the Internet through NSFNET and in particular after the creation of the for-profit ANS CO+RE in May 1991, some Internet stakeholders were concerned over the effects of privatization and the manner in which ANS, IBM, and MCI received a perceived competitive advantage in leveraging federal research money to gain ground in fields in which other companies allegedly were more competitive. The Cook Report on the Internet, which still exists, evolved as one of its largest critics.  Other writers, such as Chetly Zarko, a University of Michigan alumnus and freelance investigative writer, offered their own critiques.

On March 12, 1992 the Subcommittee on Science of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, held a hearing to review the management of NSFNET. Witnesses at the hearing were asked to focus on the agreement(s) that NSF put in place for the operation of the NSFNET backbone, the foundation's plan for recompetition of those agreements, and to help the subcommittee explore whether the NSF's policies provided a level playing field for network service providers, ensured that the network was responsive to user needs, and provided for effective network management. The subcommittee heard from seven witnesses, asked them a number of questions, and received written statements from all seven as well as from three others. At the end of the hearing, speaking to the two witnesses from NSF, Dr. Nico Habermann, Assistant NSF Director for the Computer and Information Science and Engineering Directorate (CISE), and Dr. Stephen Wolff, Director of NSF's Division of Networking & Communications Research & Infrastructure (DNCRI),  Representative Boucher, Chairman of the subcommittee, said:

… I think you should be very proud of what you have accomplished. Even those who have some constructive criticism of the way that the network is presently managed acknowledge at the outset that you have done a terrific job in accomplishing the goal of this NSFNET, and its user-ship is enormously up, its cost to the users has come down, and you certainly have our congratulations for that excellent success.

Subsequently, the subcommittee drafted legislation, becoming law on October 23, 1992, which authorized the National Science Foundation

… to foster and support access by the research and education communities to computer networks which may be used substantially for purposes in addition to research and education in the sciences and engineering, if the additional uses will tend to increase the overall capabilities of the networks to support such research and education activities (that is to say, commercial traffic).

This legislation allowed, but did not require, NSF to repeal or modify its existing NSFNET Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) which restricted network use to activities in support of research and education.

The hearing also led to a request from Rep. Boucher asking the NSF Inspector General to conduct a review of NSF's administration of NSFNET. The NSF Office of the Inspector General released its report on March 23, 1993. The report concluded by:
 stating that "[i]n general we were favorably impressed with the NSFNET program and staff";
 finding no serious problems with the administration, management, and use of the NSFNET Backbone Service;
 complimenting the NSFNET partners, saying that "the exchange of views among NSF, the NSFNET provider (Merit/ANS), and the users of NSFNET [via a bulletin board system], is truly remarkable in a program of the federal government"; and
 making 17 "recommendations to correct certain deficiencies and strengthen the upcoming re-solicitation."

See also
History of the Internet

References

External links

The Internet - the Launch of NSFNET, National Science Foundation
NSFNET: A Partnership for High-Speed Networking, Final Report 1987-1995, Karen D. Frazer, Merit Network, Inc., 1995
NSF and the Birth of the Internet, National Science Foundation, December 2007
NSFNET notes, summary, photos, reflections, and a video, from Hans-Werner Braun, Co-Principal Investigator for the NSFNET Project at Merit Network, and later, Research Scientist at the University of California, San Diego, and Adjunct Professor at San Diego State University
"Fool Us Once Shame on You—Fool Us Twice Shame on Us: What We Can Learn from the Privatizations of the Internet Backbone Network and the Domain Name System", Jay P. Kesan and Rajiv C. Shah, Washington University Law Review, Volume 79, Issue 1 (2001)
"The Rise of the Internet", one of IBM's 100 Icons of Progress, by Stephen  Grillo, February 11, 2011, highlights IBM's contribution to NSFNET as part of its celebration of IBM's centennial year
Merit Network: A history
NSFNET Link Letter Archive, April 1988 (Vol. 1 No. 1)  to July 1994 (Vol. 7 No. 1), text only, a web and FTP site provided by the Finnish IT center for science
Full copies of  volumes 4-7, 1991-1994 are also available from the Hathi Trust Digital Library
Reflection on NSFNet

History of the Internet
Internet architecture
National research and education networks
National Science Foundation

National Science Foundation Network


An antenna or aerial is a metal device made to send or receive radio waves. Many electronic devices like radio, television, radar, wireless LAN, cell phone, and GPS need antennas to do their job. Antennas work both in air and outer space.

The word 'antenna' is from Guglielmo Marconi's test with wireless equipment in 1895. For the test, he used a 2.5 meter long pole antenna with a tent pole called ' l'antenna centrale ' in Italian. So his antenna was simply called ' l'antenna '.  After that, the word 'antenna' became popular among people and had the meaning it has today. The plural of antenna is either antennas or antennae (U.S. and Canada tends to use antennas more than other places).

Types of antennas
Each one is made to work for a specific frequency range. The antenna's length or size usually depends on the wavelength (1/frequency) it uses.

Different kinds of antenna have different purposes. For example, the isotropic radiator is an imaginary antenna that sends signals equally in all directions. The dipole antenna is simply two wires with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other end standing free in space. It sends or receives signals in all directions except where the wires are pointing. Some antennas are more directional. Horn is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short. Satellite television and radio telescopes mostly use dish antennas.

References

Radio antennas

Antenna


A test is a way of checking something to see if it is true, or false, or if it is edible or not. If something can be tested, or finishes the tests correctly, it is testable. The Concise Oxford English Dictionary defines a test as: "a procedure intended to establish the quality, performance, or reliability of something".

A test is different from an experiment: Before a test is done, there is an expected result. The test is performed, to show this result. In an experiment, the outcome is open. Very often, tests are performed as part of an experiment.

Products
Products are usually tested for quality, so customers will get good products.

In software engineering, a test is used to see if the software system can do what it should. Software is tested before it is released. Alpha testing is where software developers check the software for bugs. Software can also be checked for quality and usability. Beta testing is done by groups of users.

Tests of cars and other vehicles include a crash test. The car is put under severe conditions to see what will make it fail, or deliberately crashed to measure the damage. Other machines can also be crash tested. Crash test dummies can be used instead of humans. They are placed in the car seat to see if a human in the crash would have been injured or killed.

People

People are tested to see what they have learned. This is often called an assessment or examination. In learning, a test item is a question, or set of questions.

Many people think tests are valuable. They believe tests:
 are a quick and fair way of judging a test taker's performance
 enable predictions about test takers to be made
 allow selection
 improve performance by highlighting areas that need work.

However, academic tests are not perfect measures. Tests could only partly measure a student's memory and maybe their understanding. The test would only be about a small part of the subject, and only at that moment in time.

People, animals and plants can also be tested for illnesses. For example, a blood test can be used to check for disease.

Science
In science, tests can done to check for a presence of a substance, or to check the quality of something.

References

Other websites
Tests and Experiments: Similarities and Differences

Basic English 850 words

Test


John Nash (18 January 1752 – 13 May 1835) was an English architect responsible for much of the layout of Regency London. He was the most important architect of the period 1800 to 1835

Life
Nash was born in Lambeth. He studied architecture as an apprentice to Sir Robert Taylor for nine years.

From 1810, Nash would take very few private commissions. He was a dedicated Whig and was a friend of Charles James Fox, who was Foreign Secretary in 1806. Perhaps through Fox, Nash came to the attention of the Prince Regent (later King George IV). For the rest of his career he would largely work for the Prince. His first major commissions in 1811 from the Prince was Regent Street and the development of an area then known as Marylebone Park.

With the Regent's backing Nash created a master plan for the area, put into action from 1818 onwards, which stretched from St James's northwards and included Regent Street, Regent's Park and its neighbouring streets, terraces and crescents of elegant town houses and villas. Nash did not complete all the detailed designs himself; in some instances, completion was left in the hands of other architects. Nash was employed by the Prince to develop his Ocean Pavilion Palace in Brighton, originally designed by Henry Holland. By 1822 Nash had finished his work on the Ocean Pavilion, which was now transformed into the Royal Pavilion.

His works
Examples of his work include:

London
Buckingham Palace: the state rooms and western front
Regent Street
Regent's Park
Park Square
Park Crescent
Regent's Canal
Carlton House Terrace, London
St James Park
Marble Arch
Haymarket Theatre
Clarence House
Cumberland Terrace
Trafalgar Square (first version)
The Royal Mews

England & Wales
Cardigan Gaol
The Brighton Royal Pavilion
Luscombe Castle
Sandridge Park
Guildhall, Newport, Isle of Wight
Castle House, later extended to form Old College Aberystwyth University
Hereford Gaol
Whitson Court, near Newport
Sandridge Park
Caerhays Castle, Cornwall
Ravensworth Castle
John Pattisons house. Newport iow

Ireland
Ballindoon House
Killymoon Castle, near Cookstown, County Tyrone
Shanbally Castle, near Clogheen, South Tipperary
Rockingham House, Boyle, County Roscommon
Lough Cutra Castle, County Galway

References

English architects
1752 births
1835 deaths

John Nash (architect)


British Rail Class D2/10 was a locomotive type commissioned by British Rail. It was a diesel-hydraulic shunting locomotive in the pre-TOPS period built by the North British Locomotive Company (NBL). The NBL/MAN engines were built by the North British Locomotive Company in Scotland under licence from the German company MAN.

D2/10
NBL locomotives
B locomotives

British Rail Class D2/10


The 2015 TaxSlayer Bowl was an American college football bowl game played on January 2, 2015, at EverBank Field in Jacksonville, Florida.  The 70th edition of the Gator Bowl featured the Iowa Hawkeyes from the Big Ten Conference and the Tennessee Volunteers of the Southeastern Conference. The game was one of the 2014–15 NCAA football bowl games that concluded the 2014 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The game began at 3:20 p.m. EST and was nationally televised by ESPN. It was sponsored by tax preparation software company TaxSlayer.com, and for sponsorship reasons was officially known as the TaxSlayer Bowl.

Teams
This was the third overall meeting between these two teams, with the series tied 1–1. The previous time these two teams met was in 1987. The only other bowl game these two played against each other was the 1982 Peach Bowl, which Iowa won 28–22.

The Volunteers took the momentum early, scoring on their first four possessions and leading 28–0 before Iowa managed to reach 70 yards.  Sophomore quarterback and game MVP Joshua Dobbs ran for two touchdowns and threw for another as the Vols posted their first winning season since going 7–6 in 2009, and earned its first postseason victory since the Phillip Fulmer era, the last being the 2008 Outback Bowl over the Wisconsin Badgers.

Game summary

Scoring summary

Source:

Statistics

References

TaxSlayer Bowl
Gator Bowl
Iowa Hawkeyes football bowl games
Tennessee Volunteers football bowl games
January 2015 sports events in the United States
TaxSlayer Bowl
21st century in Jacksonville, Florida

2015 TaxSlayer Bowl


Schenley High School, located in the North Oakland neighborhood at the edge of the Hill District in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is a historic building opened in 1916 that was a part of the Pittsburgh Public Schools. The Schenley High School building was closed in June 2008 in a 5–4 vote by the school district due to issues with asbestos. Its staff and students were relocated the following year. The Schenley name was retired and its last class graduated in 2011. On February 28, 2013 the Pittsburgh School Board approved the sale of Schenley High School to the PMC Property Group of Philadelphia in a 5–4 vote.

The Schenley building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP Reference #86002706). and the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation Register. It is also a contributing property in the Schenley Farms Historic District.

History
Schenley High School was named for Pittsburgh philanthropist Mary Schenley, on whose land the school was built. It was designed by Edward Stotz as a triangle with rounded corners and constructed of Indiana limestone, the best of its kind. Schenley was the first high school in the United States to cost more than one million dollars to build. When Schenley opened in 1916, there were 1800 students and 70 teachers. Through public donation a Skinner Pipe Organ was donated to the school, the organ remained in the auditorium until the closing of the school. The school published "The Triangle," a monthly student newspaper founded in 1919 and named for the building's original shape. The school's highest enrollment was 3012 in March 1940. Schenley sports teams won many city and state championships, including several state basketball titles in the 1970s. In 1983, the school was rededicated as the Schenley High School Teacher Center, an innovative program in which all of the district's teachers would cycle through Schenley to update methods. The program would be deemed successful enough to warrant a visit from then United States Secretary of Education William Bennet. In 1987, a new wing was added to the building.

Relocation and Closure
In June 2008, due to severe maintenance problems, school district Superintendent Mark Roosevelt proposed to close Schenley High School to avoid an extremely high renovation bill. This led to public opposition by students and historical organizations that felt the building was worth saving. After months of debate the school board voted 5-4 to close the school following the 2007-2008 school year. The staff and students were moved to the Reizenstein Middle School building, which had been closed a few years earlier. Freshmen, sophomores and juniors who were enrolled in Schenley at the time of its closure were allowed to graduate as Schenley students. Schenley's final class graduated on June 12, 2011. For future classes, Schenley was renamed to Obama Academy, and the Reizenstein building became a shared space for the two Schools from 2009-2011.  Obama Academy, which found a permanent home in the former Peabody high school building beginning in the 2012-2013 school year, preserved much of Schenley's teaching staff throughout the transition, as well as the IB academic curriculum and award-winning musical theater program.  Protests to save the original Schenley High building ultimately failed on February 27, 2013 when the  Pittsburgh Public Schools board voted to 5-4 to sell the building to a developer who would convert the former school into luxury apartments.

Me and Earl and the Dying Girl
The Summer of 2014 saw the Schenley High School building play a starring role in the film Me and Earl and the Dying Girl. The film, based on the 2013 book written by Schenley graduate Jesse Andrews, tells the tale of a Schenley senior who is dealing with coming of age while facing the possibility of losing a sick classmate. For the movie scenes were filmed throughout Schenley High School, including the auditorium and cafeteria. The school colors in the film, however, were changed from red and black to blue and gold. The film premiered at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival, where it broke records. Distributor Fox Searchlight purchased the rights to the film for an estimated 12 million dollars.

https://essaysonline.org/

Notable alumni

William Albertson American Communist politician framed by the FBI
Jesse Andrews – novelist and screenwriter known for Me and Earl and the Dying Girl
Derrick Bell – Harvard Law School's first African American professor
George Benson – Jazz/R&B musician and recording artist
DeJuan Blair – Washington Wizards NBA player
Larry Brown – Washington Redskins player
Ray Brown – jazz musician
Billy Cox – bassist who played with Jimi Hendrix
Frank Curto – chief horticulturist, Pittsburgh Dept. of Parks and Recreation
Darnell Dinkins – NFL player
Ken Durrett – NBA player
Walt Harper – jazz musician
Philip Hershkovitz - mammalogist
Art Hyatt – NBL pro basketball player
 DeAndre Kane - basketball player in the Israeli Premier League and EuroLeague
D. J. Kennedy – NBA player
Maurice Lucas – NBA player for 1977 champion Portland Trail Blazers
Robert Mosley – opera singer
Bill Nunn – actor
Bob Prince – Pittsburgh Pirates play-by-play announcer
Bruno Sammartino – Professional wrestler
Raymond Saunders – Painter, Professor Emeritus
Clifford Shull – Nobel laureate
Ted Stepien – Cleveland Cavaliers owner from 1980–83
Benjamin Tatar – actor
Stanley Turrentine – jazz musician
Andy Warhol – iconic artist

References

External links

Schenley High School website
Pittsburgh Public Schools
Historic, asbestos-plagued Schenley deserves reprieve and makeover from Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 22, 2006

School buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
Educational institutions established in 1916
International Baccalaureate schools in Pennsylvania
High schools in Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh History & Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmarks
Defunct schools in Pennsylvania
1916 establishments in Pennsylvania
National Register of Historic Places in Pittsburgh
Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in Pennsylvania

Schenley High School


Yantai is a city in Shandong, China. It is on the coast facing the Huang Hai. The average annual temperature is 12°C. The annual rainfall is 20 mm.

The city used to be called "Chefoo" because an island close to the city was named "Chefoo". The name of the city means "Smokey Tower" (yan - smoke, tai - tower). The city is named "Yantai" because in 1398 the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty, built watch towers nearby to tell everyone if Japanese pirates were coming.

 the city of Yantai and the area around it had 6,516,900 people living in it. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was 343.4 billionRMB while the GDP divided by the population was 49,012RMB.

Cities in China

Yantai


XSLT, which stands for Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations is a programming language. XSLT is based on XML. It is part of XSL, and is used for transforming XML documents, most of the time. The language is Turing complete. This means that anything that can be computed by a Turing machine can also be done in XSLT.

Uses for XSLT include:
Presentation-oriented publishing (POP): A transformation is done for presentation purposes. Examples of such transformations include the generation of XHTML, SVG and Docbook.
Message-oriented Middleware (MOM): A transformation is done to make communication between two different systems possible. This allows to exchange data between both systems.

Programming languages

XSLT


The Interahamwe (pronounced Een-tair-ah-hahm-way, with the 't' pronounced as an 'h') was the main mob army that started the Rwandan Genocide in 1994. In this mass murder, about one million Hutu and Tutsi people were killed.

Methods
The Interahamwe usually used machetes ('mupanga') to do the killing, but guns, grenades and primitive tools like nail-studded clubs and hoes were also used.

Beginning
About a half an hour after the President of Rwanda, Juvénal Habyarimana, was killed on the night of April 6, 1994, Interahamwe roadblocks were put up all over the city of Kigali, the capital of Rwanda. The violence that followed would last about 100 days. This resulted in at least 500,000 deaths, but some say even up to 800,000-1,000,000 deaths.

1994 in Africa
Rebel militia groups in Africa
Rwandan genocide

Interahamwe


William Richmond Dowd (28 February 1922 – 25 November 2008) was an American harpsichord maker and one of the most important pioneers of the historical harpsichord movement.

Life and career
Born in Newark, New Jersey, he studied English literature at Harvard, graduating with AB in 1948. He and his friend Frank Hubbard built a clavichord when they were both graduate students; this led to their both deciding to abandon their intended careers as teachers of English and instead to become harpsichord builders, basing their methods on historical principles. They separated for their apprenticeship; Dowd worked at the Detroit workshop of John Challis, who himself had learned from Arnold Dolmetsch. At this time, Challis was the leading harpsichord builder in the United States.

In autumn 1949 Dowd and Hubbard jointly founded a workshop in Boston, Massachusetts. In 1955, Hubbard had left on research trips around Europe, studying original instruments, while Dowd continued the new builds and restoration of antique instruments. He worked out a standard design based on the harpsichords of Pascal Taskin, which was to become much used by professional performers.

Their joint business came to an end in 1958, and Dowd established a workshop in Cambridge, Massachusetts along historical lines, producing around twenty instruments a year until 1988. From 1971 to 1985, there was a workshop in Paris under his name producing a similar number of instruments, which he ran with Reinhard von Nagel. His favoured models were two-manual harpsichords based on the French instruments of Blanchet and Taskin, including Ruckers harpsichords adapted by the grand ravalement process.

Dowd's instruments have long provided the benchmark for reliability in terms of tuning and general stability, cleanliness of construction, and for the influence that they have had on succeeding generations of builders. He was the first builder to seriously consider the eighteenth-century German instruments of Michael Mietke (in contrast to his colleague Hubbard). His instruments were used in performance and recording by such artists as Gustav Leonhardt, Isolde Ahlgrimm, Ralph Kirkpatrick, Igor Kipnis, Bob van Asperen, and many others.

He died in Reston, Virginia, in November 2008.

Published works
A Classification System for Ruckers and Couchet Double Harpsichords; in the Journal of the American Musical Instrument Society (1978)
The Surviving Instruments of the Blanchet Workshop; in The Historical Harpsichord: a Monograph Series in Honor of Frank Hubbard, ed. Howard Schott (Stuyvesant, NY, 1984)
Haney, H: Portrait of a Builder, The Harpsichord, (1971–2) (about William Dowd)

Notes and references
Howard Schott: 'Dowd, William (Richmond)', Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 2007-05-18), http://www.grovemusic.com/

See also
List of historical harpsichord makers

External links
  Elaine Comparone plays Scarlatti on her 2-manual harpsichord built by William Dowd in 1968.
A William Dowd harpsichord of 1966 - once owned by Ralph Kirkpatrick; restored by Carey Beebe

Harpsichord makers
American musical instrument makers
Harvard College alumni
1922 births
2008 deaths
Musicians from Newark, New Jersey
20th-century American musicians

William Dowd


The Gettysburg Museum and Visitor Center is a Gettysburg National Military Park facility, with a museum about the American Civil War, the 1884 Gettysburg Cyclorama, and the tour center for licensed Battlefield Guides and for buses to see the Gettysburg Battlefield and Eisenhower National Historic Site.

The museum displays artifacts, including cannon, firearms, and uniforms, and includes an exhibit gallery and theater. Additional facilities are a "computer resource room", a bookstore with gifts, and a restaurant.

History
One of the first Gettysburg museums displayed the J Albertus Danner collection of artifacts in 1881. In 1894 the Gettysburg Cyclorama was displayed in a tent at The Angle Groundbreaking for a building on Cemetery Hill occurred in 1912.

The 1888–1964 Round Top Museum and the 1921–2008 Gettysburg National Museum were both acquired by the National Park Service after the 1963 battle anniversary. During the post-WWII increase of tourism, Mission 66 improvements for the NPS 50th anniversary included the construction of the modernist Cyclorama Building at Gettysburg, designed by Richard Neutra, as the first NPS visitor center for the battlefield. It opened in 1962. Plans in 1973 for a projected tourist increase included an Oak Ridge visitor center and an Eisenhower Parkway on the west. Neither was built nor was an Appalachian Trail spur to the battlefield considered in 1982.

The Gettysburg National Museum became the visitor center in 1974. There were technology and sewer improvements in 1995. The building was demolished in 2008 after the new Gettysburg Museum and Visitor Center was completed. The new building now displays the restored Gettysburg Cyclorama. The landmark 1962 Cyclorama Building by Neutra was demolished in February 2013.

Images

References

For references regarding the background of tourist services, use the hyperlinks to the sub-pages (e.g., Gettysburg Battlefield) to see specific citations.

External links
 Gettysburg National Military Park Museum & Visitor Center (Gettysburg Foundation)

American Civil War museums in Pennsylvania
Gettysburg National Military Park
History museums in Pennsylvania
Museums in Adams County, Pennsylvania
National Park Service visitor centers
Museums established in 2008
2008 establishments in Pennsylvania

Gettysburg Museum and Visitor Center


Admiral Robert Joseph Natter is a retired United States Navy admiral who served as Commander, U.S. Atlantic Fleet/Fleet Forces Command from 2000 to 2003.

Military career
Natter was born April 9, 1945, at his home in Trussville, Alabama. He enlisted in the United States Naval Reserve at the age of 17 as a Seaman Recruit. After one year of enlisted service he was appointed to the United States Naval Academy, and graduated in 1967, receiving a commission as an Ensign.

Natter's service at sea included department head tours in a Coastal Minesweeper and Frigate, and Executive Officer tours in two Amphibious Tank Landing Ships and a Spruance Destroyer . He was Officer-in-Charge of a Naval Special Warfare detachment in Vietnam and commanded the ,  and the United States Seventh Fleet.

Shore assignments included Company Officer and later Flag Secretary to the Superintendent at the United States Naval Academy; Executive Assistant to the Director of Naval Warfare in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (OPNAV); staff member for the House Armed Services Committee of the 100th Congress of the United States; Executive Assistant to the Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet; Executive Assistant to the Vice Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, during Operation Desert Storm; Assistant Chief of Naval Personnel for officer and enlisted personnel assignments; Chief on the Navy's Legislative Affairs organization; Director for Space, Information Warfare, Command and Control (OPNAV N6); and the Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Plans, Policy and Operations (OPNAV N3/N5).

Natter was a distinguished graduate of the U.S. Naval War College and has master's degrees in both Business Management and International Relations. In May 2000, he was awarded the Naval War College Distinguished Graduate Leadership Award.

Awards and honors

Other honors include in 1998 the Order of the Rising Sun from the Emperor of Japan, the 1998 Order of National Security Merit from the Republic of Korea, the 2003 Ellis Island Medal of Honor, the 2003 Ted Williams Military Achievement Award, and the 2004 Naval Order of the United States Distinguished Sea Service Award.

He retired from the Navy in 2003.

Post military
Natter joined the board of directors of United Defense Industries in 2004. He is also President of R.J. Natter & Associates, LLC, a consulting firm; serves on the McDonald's Corporation Advisory Board; and is a Non-Executive Director of Novonix Limited which develops, manufactures and sells the worlds most accurate high precision battery cell testing equipment and graphite materials for the lithium ion battery (LIB) industry; served as Chairman of the United States Naval Academy's Distinguished Graduate Selection Committee; and in May, 2012 became Chairman, Naval Academy Alumni Association's national Board of Trustees. He was one of the Naval Academy's 2019 Distinguished Graduate selections.

References

External links

1945 births
Living people
People from Trussville, Alabama
United States Navy admirals
United States Naval Academy alumni
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
United States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal

Robert J. Natter


Wulfram of Sens or Wulfram of Fontenelle (also Vuilfran, Wulfrann, Wolfran; ;  or Vulphran; c. 640 – 20 March 703) was the Archbishop of Sens. His life was recorded eleven years after he died by the monk Jonas of Fontenelle. However, there seems to be little consensus about the precise dates of most events whether during his life or post mortem.

Wulfram is depicted in art as baptising a young king or the son of King Radbod. Sometimes the young king is near him and sometimes Wulfram is shown arriving by ship with monks to baptise the king. There are two churches dedicated to him in England, at Grantham, Lincolnshire, and Ovingdean, Sussex, and two in France, one at Abbeville, in the département of Somme, the other in Butot, in the département of the Seine Maritime. As a patron saint, he protects against the dangers of the sea.

Early life

Wulfram was born in the diocese of Meaux, at Mauraliacus, an insecurely identified place near Fontainebleau, probably Milly-la-Forêt, Essonne. He was the son of a certain Fulbert, a knight attached to the court of Dagobert I, king of the Franks. King Dagobert's kingdom was divided on his death, and it was close to the court of his partial successor, Clovis II, king of Neustria and Burgundy that Wulfram is likely to have been born a little after Dagobert had died in 639.

Wulfram was educated at Clovis' court and showed a gift for academic learning. He took holy orders and seems to have intended a quiet life but was called to the court of Theodoric III (Thierry III) of Neustria. This seems to have propelled him into greater prominence since, in 692, he was elected Archbishop of Sens. There are various versions of the date for this, the earliest being in 682. However, by 693 he was in the post as he attended an assembly of bishops at Valenciennes.

In 695, he resigned the archbishopric in favor of Amatus of Nusco, who, it seems, he thought would be better at that sort of work, and retired to the Benedictine abbey called "Fontenelle". There are several places called Fontenelle, but this was probably at St-Wandrille, near Caudebec-en-Caux on the lower Seine, in the Diocese of Rouen. However, Johannes Madey places it at Fontenelle in the extreme north of the département of Aisne.

The mission in Friesland

It is said } that when Boniface withdrew from his missionary work in Friesland, in order to visit Rome for the second time, Wulfram stood in for him in Friesland. However, Boniface was a younger contemporary, his first and abortive mission in Frisia began in 716 or so, probably after Wulfram had died.

Whatever the order of these events, in Frisia, Wulfram converted the son of King Radbod and was allowed to preach. The custom was that people, including children, were sacrificed to the local gods having been selected by a form of lottery. Wulfram, having remonstrated with Radbod on the subject, was told that the king was unable to change the custom but Wulfram was invited to save them if he could. Wulfram then waded into the sea to save two children who had been tied to posts and left to drown as the tide rose.

According to the story, the turning point came with the rescue of a man, Ovon, who had been chosen by lot to be sacrificed by hanging. Wulfram begged King Radbod to stop the killing, but the people were outraged at the sacrilege proposed. In the end, they agreed that Wulfram's God could have a chance to save Ovon's life, and if he did, Wulfram and the God could have him. Ovon was hanged, and left for a couple of hours, while Wulfram prayed. When the Frisians decided to leave Ovon for dead, the rope broke, Ovon fell and was still alive. Ovon became Wulfram's slave, his follower, a monk, and then a priest at Fontenelle Abbey. The faith of the missionaries (and their power to work miracles) frightened and awed the people, who were baptized and turned away from paganism.

Even Radbod seemed ready for conversion, but just before his baptism, he asked where his ancestors were. Wulfram told him that idolaters went to Hell. Rather than be apart from his ancestors, he chose to stay as he was.

Wulfram's death and after
He retired to Fontenelle, where he died in 703. His year of death is sometimes given as 720, but his interred body is said to have been moved in 704. Regardless of the exact year, Saint Wulfram's feast day is kept on 20 March. He was buried in St. Paul's chapel in the abbey, but in 704, he was re-buried in the main church. The body was again moved in 1058, this time to the collegiate church of Our Lady in Abbeville, which was then re-dedicated in Wulfram's name. The translation of his body to Abbeville is commemorated on 15 October.

At about this time or later, perhaps when his body was again moved, this time to Rouen, his arm was taken as a relic to Croyland Abbey, Lincolnshire. The interest in him there may have arisen from Ingulph, the abbot being a former monk of Fontenelle. Also, everyone concerned was a Benedictine. Ingulph, who died in 1109, was secretary to William I, who made him Abbot of Crowland in 1086.

A hagiographical account of his miracles was produced at the Abbey of Saint Wandrille before 1066. Among the miracles are two pertaining to childbirth and children. In one, Wulfram is credited with the miraculous delivery of a stillborn baby, the mother having commenced labor on 20 January (the feast day of Saint Sebastian). A week after Easter, prayers to Wulfram caused her belly to split open so the dead child could be delivered, after which the wound healed as if it had never been, leaving only a "token of the cut". In the other, Wulfram is credited with the safe passage of an accidentally swallowed clothespin, which left the body of a two-year-old boy after three days without having injured it: "Is it not miraculous how through all the twists of the boy's intestines, as if through fine small round tubes, the copper sharp object, now going up high, now going down low, could travel without getting stuck anywhere or causing wounds, and so at last through Nature's lower parts find a way out all in one piece?"

After the building at Crowland was damaged by fire, there was no longer a suitable place for keeping the relic, so it went to Grantham for safe-keeping. For two or three hundred years, it was kept in the crypt chapel below the Lady Chapel, where the pilgrims helped to wear the hollow, now to be seen in stone step before the altar. Later, towards 1350, the arm went to the specially added chapel above the north porch. At some stage in the long process of the English Reformation, this relic was lost.

See also
 Frisian-Frankish wars

Notes

References
 Knapp, M.G. St.Wulfram's Parish Church, Grantham (1999)
 Muskett, P. St. Wulfram's Grantham Plan A leaflet guide to St. Wulfram's church building in Grantham. (c.1980)
 Pointer, M. The Glory of Grantham (1978)
 Thorne, J.O. Chambers Biographical Dictionary (1969) SBN 550-16001-9
 Volkmann, J-C. Bien Connaître Les Généalogies des Rois de France (1997)

External links
 Catholic Forum/ Saints
 Catholic Encyclopedia: "St. Wulfram"

 In Dutch: Het Museum van der Vaderlandse Geschiedenis. On the evangelization of Friesland.

640s births
703 deaths
7th-century Frankish bishops
Archbishops of Sens
8th-century Frankish saints
8th-century Frankish bishops
Year of birth uncertain
Abbey of Saint Wandrille

Wulfram of Sens


The Federation of the Democratic and Socialist Left (Fédération de la gauche démocrate et socialiste or FGDS) was a conglomerate of French left-wing non-Communist forces. It was founded to support François Mitterrand's candidature at the 1965 presidential election and to counterbalance the Communist preponderance over the French left.

Members
It was composed of:
the SFIO Socialist party led by Guy Mollet
the Radical Party headed by René Billères
the Convention of Republican Institutions (CIR) of François Mitterrand
the Union of Socialist Groups and Clubs (UGCS) of Jean Poperen
the Union of Clubs for the Renewal of the Left of Alain Savary

History
Before the beginning of the 1965 presidential campaign, the non-Communist left was divided. The Socialist Gaston Defferre proposed the creation of a "Great Federation" gathering the center-left and the center-right parties in order to resist to the Gaullist domination over the country and to the leading role of the French Communist Party (PCF) over the opposition. He wanted to be its candidate for the presidency. However, this project failed in due to the objections of the Socialist and Christian-Democrat leaders.

François Mitterrand then proposed to be candidate with a strategy of union between the left-wing forces, including the PCF. This one accepted to support his candidature. Nevertheless, in order to talk on an equal footing with the Communists, he advocated the constitution of a federation of the left-wing non-Communist forces. This strategy was confirmed by the relatively good electoral result of Mitterrand, who succeeded to prevent a re-election of De Gaulle in the first round, and obtained 45% of the votes against him in the second round. Furthermore, the PCF/FGDS electoral agreements permitted to shrink the Gaullist parliamentary majority after the 1967 legislative election. But the FGDS was divided about question of the relations with the PCF which demanded the elaboration of a common platform.

During the May 68 events, François Mitterrand announced his candidature for an anticipated presidential election. He thought Charles de Gaulle would resign after the crisis. Finally, de Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly and his followers won the June 1968 legislative election. Held as responsible for the failure, Mitterrand resigned in November 1968 and the FGDS dissolved itself. Mitterrand then undertook to conquer the Socialist Party (PS) which succeeded to the SFIO in 1969.

Election results

Presidential

National Assembly

References

Defunct political party alliances in France
French Section of the Workers' International
Political parties of the French Fifth Republic
Socialist parties in France
François Mitterrand
Political parties established in 1965
Political parties disestablished in 1968
1965 establishments in France
1968 disestablishments in France


Lucy A. Snyder (born 1971) is an American science fiction, fantasy, humor, horror, and nonfiction writer.

Biography
Born in South Carolina, Snyder grew up in San Angelo, Texas, after her father was briefly assigned to Goodfellow Air Force Base. She graduated from Angelo State University and then moved to Bloomington, Indiana, for graduate studies in environmental science and journalism at Indiana University.  She is a graduate of the 1995 Clarion Workshop; authors Nalo Hopkinson and Kelly Link were among her classmates.

She lives in Columbus, Ohio, with her husband and occasional coauthor Gary A. Braunbeck.

Writings
Over 80 of her short stories have appeared in various magazines, anthologies, and collections, including Apex Magazine, Nightmare Magazine, Pseudopod, Escape Pod and Short Trips: Destination Prague. One of her online humor stories, "Installing Linux on a Dead Badger", became the basis for a short humor collection of the same name published in 2007. Her 2012 horror story "Magdala Amygdala" won the Bram Stoker Award for Superior Achievement in Short Fiction and was selected to appear in The Best Horror of the Year Volume Five (edited by Ellen Datlow).

Her poetry has appeared in Lady Churchill's Rosebud Wristlet, GUD Magazine and Weird Tales. In March 2010, Snyder was awarded a Bram Stoker Award for Superior Achievement in Poetry for her collection Chimeric Machines.

Snyder served as an editor for HMS Beagle, an online bioscience publication produced by Elsevier, and briefly served as a contributing editor for Strange Horizons. Since January 2010, she has mentored students in Seton Hill University's MFA program in Writing Popular Fiction.

Bibliography

Novels
 Spellbent (Del Rey Books, 2009, nominated for a Bram Stoker Award for Best First Novel)
 Shotgun Sorceress (Del Rey Books, 2010)
 Switchblade Goddess (Del Rey Books, 2011)
 Devils' Field (Alliteration Ink, 2015)
 Sister, Maiden, Monster (Tor Nightfire, 2023)

Serials
 A Glimpse of Darkness (Del Rey Books, 2010, co-written with Lara Adrian, Harry Connolly, Kelly Meding, and Stacia Kane)

Collections
 Blood Magic (2001)
 Sparks and Shadows (2007)
 Installing Linux on a Dead Badger (2007)
 Chimeric Machines (2009, Bram Stoker Award winner)
 Orchid Carousals (2013)
 Soft Apocalypses (2014, Bram Stoker Award winner)
 While the Black Stars Burn (2015)
 Garden of Eldritch Delights (2018)

Nonfiction books
 Shooting Yourself in the Head For Fun and Profit: A Writer's Survival Guide (2014, Bram Stoker Award winner)

References

Sources
 Burgess, Liz: "Technomancy and the Zombie Apocalypse", Sequential Tart, July 9, 2007.

External links

 Livejournal
 Installing Linux on a Dead Badger: User's Notes

 Interview at GUD Magazine
 Interview at Nightmare Magazine

1971 births
Living people
21st-century American novelists
American fantasy writers
American horror writers
American science fiction writers
American women short story writers
American women novelists
Dark fantasy writers
Indiana University alumni
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
Women horror writers
21st-century American women writers
21st-century American short story writers

Lucy A. Snyder