Malcolm X (; 19 Mey 1925 21 Februar 1965), born Malcolm Little an an' a' kent as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz (), wis an African-American Muslim meenister, public speaker, an human richts activist. Tae his admirers, he wis a courageous advocate for the richts o African Americans, a man who indictit white Americae in the hairshest terms for its creemes against black Americans. His detractors accuised him o preachin racism, black supremacy, antisemitism, an violence. He haes been cried ane o the greatest an maist influential African Americans in history, an in 1998, Time named The Autobiography of Malcolm X ane o the ten maist influential nonfiction beuks o the 20t century.

Malcolm X wis born in Omaha, Nebraska. The events o his childhuid, includin his faither's lessons concernin black pride an sel-reliance, an his awn experiences concernin race played a significant role in Malcolm X's adult life. Bi the time he wis thirteen, his faither haed dee'd an his mither haed been committit tae a mental hospital. Efter livin in a series o foster hames, Malcolm X became involved in a nummer o creeminal activities in Boston an New York. In 1946, Malcolm X wis sentenced tae aicht tae ten years in preeson.

While in preeson, Malcolm X became a member o the Nation of Islam, an efter his parole in 1952 he became ane o the Nation's leaders an chief spokesmen. For nearly a dozen years he wis the public face o the controversial group. Tension atween Malcolm X an Elijah Muhammad, heid o the Nation of Islam, led tae Malcolm X's quittin the organisation in Mairch 1964. He then became a Sunni Muslim an made a pilgrimage tae Mecca, efter which he disavoued racism. He subsequently traveled extensively throughoot Africae an the Middle East an foondit Muslim Mosque, Inc., a releegious organisation, an the secular Pan-Africanist Organization o Afro-American Unity. Less nor a year efter he left the Naition o Islam, Malcolm X wis assassinatit bi three members o the group while givin a speech in New York.

1925 births
1965 daiths
20t-century African-American activists
20t-century American writers
African-American umwhile Christians
African-American life in Omaha, Nebraska
African-American Muslims
African-American non-feection writers
African-American releegious leaders
African-Americans' ceevil richts activists
American burglars
American dissidents
American memoirists
American fowk o Grenadian strynd
American fowk o Scots strynd
American Sunni Muslims
Assassinatit American ceevil richts activists
Assassinatit releegious leaders
Black supremacists
Buirials at Ferncliff Seemetry
COINTELPRO targets
Converts tae Islam frae Protestantism
Daiths bi fireairm in New York
Daiths onstage
Umwhile Naition o Islam members
Murthert African-American fowk
Muslim activists
Muslim writers
Pan-Africanists
Fowk frae Boston
Fowk frae Lansing, Michigan
Fowk frae North Omaha, Nebraska
Fowk frae Omaha, Nebraska
Fowk frae Queens, New York
Fowk murthert in New York
Racism in the Unitit States
Revolutionary martyrs

Malcolm X


Tropical Storm Debby was a severe storm in some areas of the Caribbean region in September 1994. The highest winds of Debby were 70 mph. The storm did between $100 million to $130 million overall in damage. Nine people died because of this storm. Puerto Rico, Montserrat and the Dominican Republic were affected especially bad. Despite the severity, the name Debby was not retired the following spring.

1994 Atlantic hurricane season
Atlantic tropical storms
1994 in North America
1990s in the Dominican Republic
20th century in Puerto Rico
Montserrat

Tropical Storm Debby (1994)


Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland, KG, PC (23 April 167519 April 1722), known as Lord Spencer from 1688 to 1702, was an English statesman and nobleman from the Spencer family. He served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (1714–1717), Lord Privy Seal (1715–1716), Lord President of the Council (1718–1719) and First Lord of the Treasury (1718–1721).

He is an ancestor of both Winston Churchill and Diana, Princess of Wales, and through her, the current heir to the Monarchy of the United Kingdom, William, Prince of Wales.

Early life
He was the second son of Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland and Anne Digby, daughter of George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol. On the death of his elder brother Robert in Paris in September 1688, he became heir to the peerage. Called by John Evelyn "a youth of extraordinary hopes," he completed his education at Utrecht, and in 1695 entered the House of Commons as member for Tiverton. In the same year, he married Arabella, daughter of Henry Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Newcastle; she died in 1698 and in 1700, he married Anne Churchill, daughter of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough and Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough. This was an important alliance for Sunderland and for his descendants; through it, he was introduced to political life and later the dukedom of Marlborough came to the Spencers.

In 1698 he plunged his family into scandal when his brother-in-law Donogh MacCarthy, 4th Earl of Clancarty, who had been imprisoned in the Tower of London for his support for James II and later escaped, was reconciled with his long-estranged wife, Charles' sister Elizabeth, and at long last consummated the marriage. Charles, alerted by his father's servants, had Clancarty arrested while he was actually in bed with Elizabeth. The result was a public uproar which gravely embarrassed their parents. William III treated the matter as a trifle, wondering why everyone he met teased him about "that little spark Clancarty", and gave the couple permission to settle in Altona, Hamburg. Elizabeth, who died in Hamburg in 1704, never saw her parents or brother again. His father's biographer comments that the affair did not show Charles in a good light either as a man or a brother.

Career
Having succeeded to the peerage in 1702, Sunderland was one of the commissioners for the union between England and Scotland, and in 1705, he was sent to Vienna as envoy extraordinary. Although he was tinged with republican ideas and had made himself obnoxious to Queen Anne by opposing the grant to her husband, Prince George, through the influence of Marlborough he was foisted into the ministry as Secretary of State for the Southern Department, taking office in December 1706.

From 1708 to 1710, he was one of the five Whigs collectively called the Junto, who dominated the government, but he had many enemies, the Queen still disliked him, and in June 1710, he was dismissed. Anne offered him a pension of £3000 a year, but this he refused, saying "if he could not have the honour to serve his country he would not plunder it." When Marlborough protested about the dismissal, the Queen inquired sarcastically whether "the Peace of Europe must depend on it?" She added that Sunderland was universally unpopular, which was indeed the case.

Sunderland continued to take part in public life, and was active in communicating with the court of Hanover about the steps to be taken in view of the approaching death of the queen. He made the acquaintance of George I in 1706, but when the elector became king, Sunderland only secured the comparatively unimportant position of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. In August 1715, he joined the cabinet as Lord Privy Seal. After a visit to George I in Hanover, he secured, in April 1717, the position of Secretary of State for the Northern Department. This he retained until March 1718, when he became First Lord of the Treasury, holding also the post of Lord President of the Council. He was now effectively the prime minister. Sunderland was especially interested in the proposed Peerage Bill, a measure designed to limit the number of members of the House of Lords, but this was defeated owing partly to the opposition of Sir Robert Walpole.

In 1719, he succeeded Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset in the court position as Groom of the Stool to King George I, which he held until his death in 1722. He was also made a knight of the Order of the Garter in 1719. He was also a main subscriber in the Royal Academy of Music, a corporation that produced baroque opera on stage.

The bursting of the South Sea Bubble led to his political ruin. He had taken some part in launching the scheme of 1720, therefore public opinion was roused against him and it was only through the efforts of Walpole that he was acquitted by the House of Commons, when the matter was investigated. In April 1721, he resigned his offices, but he retained his influence with George I until his own death on 19 April 1722.

Sunderland inherited his father's passion for intrigue, while his manners were repelling, but he stands high among his associates for disinterestedness and had an alert and discerning mind. From his early years, he had a great love of books, and he spent his leisure and his wealth in forming the library at Althorp, which in 1703 was described as "the finest in Europe." In 1749, part of it was removed to Blenheim Palace.

In 1722 Sunderland was implicated in what became known as the Atterbury Plot, to restore the House of Stuart, and his death was one of the factors which brought the Plot to light.

The town of Sunderland, Massachusetts, was named in his honour in November 1718, just after he became Lord President of the Council.

Marriages and children
His first wife was Lady Arabella Cavendish (19 August 16734 June 1698), daughter of Henry Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Newcastle. They had one daughter:
Lady Frances Spencer (27 July 1742), married Henry Howard, 4th Earl of Carlisle.

His second wife was Lady Anne Churchill (27 February 168315 April 1716). She died in April 1716, after a career of considerable influence on the political life of her time. They had six children:
Hon. Robert Spencer (2 December 170012 September 1701).
Robert Spencer, 4th Earl of Sunderland (24 October 170127 November 1729).
Lady Anne Spencer (170219 February 1769), married William Bateman, 1st Viscount Bateman.
Charles Spencer, 5th Earl of Sunderland (22 November 170620 October 1758), succeeded his aunt, Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough, as 3rd Duke of Marlborough.
Hon. John Spencer (13 May 170819 June 1746), father of John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer.
Lady Diana Spencer (171027 September 1735), married John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford.

In 1717, he married an Irish lady of fortune, Judith Tichborne (17 May 1749), daughter of Sir Benjamin Tichborne of Beaulieu (younger brother of Sir Henry Tichborne, 1st Baron Ferrard, Irish cr. 1715) and Elizabeth Gibbs. They had three children who died in infancy:
Unnamed child (born and died 1718).
Lady Margaret Spencer (born and died 1719) - her coffin was removed from St James' Church London where she had been first been buried and interred at the family vault in Great Brington Church on the same day as her father's burial that of 1st May 1722
Hon. William Spencer (172017 April 1722) - interred in the family vault in Great Brinton Church on the same day as his father that of 1st May 1722

After his death, she married Sir Robert Sutton (1671 – 13 August 1746).

See also
 Kingdom of Great Britain

Notes

Ancestry

References

|-

1675 births
1722 deaths
British Secretaries of State
Knights of the Garter
Lord Presidents of the Council
Lords Privy Seal
Earls of Sunderland
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
Utrecht University alumni
Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland
Fellows of the Royal Society
English MPs 1695–1698
English MPs 1698–1700
English MPs 1701
English MPs 1701–1702
Grooms of the Stool
Lords Lieutenant of Ireland
Leaders of the House of Lords
Court of George I of Great Britain

Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland


Martha Washington is a fictional character created by Frank Miller and Dave Gibbons, first appearing in the four-issue comic book series Give Me Liberty, published in 1990 by Dark Horse Comics.

Fictional character biography
Born on March 11, 1995, and died on March 11, 2095, Martha Washington grew up in the Cabrini–Green housing project in Chicago (called "The Green") with her mother and two brothers in abject poverty brought on by the economic policies of the President Erwin Rexall. She is an average student, but one who displays a gift for computer programming and hacking.

Her teacher, Donald, encourages her to be a better student and, because he lives outside the Green, brings her contraband items. One night, Martha shows up at Donald's classroom and finds that he's been murdered by the Ice Man, a large thug who works for a local gangster called the Pope. Before dying, Donald managed to stab the Ice Man in the wrist. This distraction allowed Martha to seize his weapon, a longshoreman's hook, and plunge it into his shoulder.  The Ice Man chases her through the school to a locker room, but before he can kill her, he dies of blood loss. Martha is later remanded to a psychiatric hospital.

In the institution, she discovers that experiments are being secretly performed on children to genetically alter their minds, effectively turning them into human computers. Their heads are covered with wires plugged into their brains. Martha believes one of them resembles the Raggedy Ann doll she played with as a child. This institution is closed due to national budget cuts, and Martha is left homeless. She later joins the PAX Peace Force, where her heroic tale begins. She fights in many battles during the second American Civil War.

During the second American Civil War, her mother and brother die when Chicago is destroyed by a nuclear weapon.

Appearances

Give Me Liberty

Martha Washington's first appearance, it features her joining the PAX Peace Force — a reinvented U.S. Army — and engaging in various heroic efforts, such as saving the rain forests of South America from crazed cattle ranchers. She eventually has to thwart the megalomanical plans of Colonel Moretti before he brings the country to the brink of destruction.

Martha Washington Goes to War

A five-issue series published in 1994, and closely based on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged, Martha Washington Goes to War has Martha fighting for the PAX army to reunite the fractured United States. The war effort is undermined by frequent technology failures, the disappearances of America's brightest minds, and a general malaise among the people.  Washington is crippled in an attack. She's secretly visited by Wasserstein, her old boyfriend, who heals her with unknown technology. Washington is later brought onboard PAX's orbiting satellite Harmony.  Wasserstein returns and seems to kill Coogan, Harmony's chief engineer. Washington pursues Wasserstein's flying craft into the radioactive wasteland in Oklahoma. She penetrates the field at the core of the wasteland, and finds a paradise. Wasserstein, Raggyann, and the missing scientists have hidden themselves here to develop technologies and strategies to improve the world. They knew PAX and the current government weren't interested in truly improving people's lives, so they created this sanctuary to wait until they were strong enough to overthrow the corrupt government and implement true change.

Meanwhile, the Surgeon General, living through robot doubles, has taken control of Harmony.  He finds the sanctuary by tracking Washington's wrist computer and fires a devastating ray. As she sees the destruction she indirectly caused, Washington realizes it was this weapon that destroyed Oklahoma and not a nuclear device. Washington joins the scientists' cause as they attack and bring down Harmony.  The Surgeon General's robots are destroyed. Other revolutionaries infiltrate military bases, free political prisoners, and seize control of the US government. Two years later, Washington continues to work with the revolutionaries to create a better world.

Happy Birthday, Martha Washington
A one-shot issue published in 1995, this is a collection of short stories about Martha and some of the many battles she has fought. The first story has Martha landing in Manhattan to take out Dictator Beluga. The building she lands in is shelled by PAX (her own side) and she is forced to head to Mercy Hospital with a wounded soldier of the Manhattan military. After the man she saved is patched up, they sit down to share a cigarette. He reveals to her that Dictator Beluga is dead, assassinated by his own inner circle and possibly even by his own wife. However, PAX does not believe Martha's report and the shelling continues.

Martha Washington Stranded in Space
A one-shot issue published in 1995, Martha Washington Stranded in Space guest-stars The Big Guy. Martha investigates a space anomaly which temporarily sends her to Big Guy's reality. The back-up story is "Attack of the Flesh Eating Monsters", originally published in black and white in Dark Horse Presents #100-4. Martha fights off an attack by monsters conforming to 1950s pulp-SF stereotypes; she discovers that this is merely a psychological study conducted by the world-controlling AI, named Venus.

Martha Washington Saves the World
A three-issue series published in 1997, Martha Washington Saves the World depicts the arrival of an actual alien spaceship. Martha uses its superior technology to defeat the megalomaniacal artificial intelligence named Venus, which - though it had proved critical in defeating the old corrupt American regime - has been undermining humanity and sapping people's will. Martha and a handful of friends then leave Earth entirely, off to explore the origin of the aliens.

Martha Washington Dies
This 2007 one-shot takes place on Martha Washington's 100th birthday on March 11, 2095, in a warzone. Unlike the earlier stories narrated by Martha, it is narrated by a young female soldier who looks like Martha Washington before joining Pax in the first issue of Give Me Liberty. The only difference is a scar on her face (it is possible she is related to Martha as her great granddaughter). She reveals that Martha married Wasserstein and has three sons, of whom she survived, and also that it is her final day of her final year of her life. Surrounded by Soldiers apparently under siege from unknown foes, who are described as "barbarians who won an awful victory",  Martha gives a brief speech of inspiration and as she dies, she gave her final words to the soldiers for courage "Give me liberty" before turning her body into a blast full of fireworks. The final page of the series ends with the Martha lookalike now leading the soldiers to battle, who are now encouraged by Martha's final words.

Collected editions
Dark Horse released a hardcover collection of all the stories, remastered with added extras, in October 2009. It was initially announced as The Life and Times of Martha Washington in the Twenty First Century, and then The Martha Washington Omnibus, before finally settling on the original name.

The details of the various collections:

The Life and Times of Martha Washington in the Twenty-First Century (Dark Horse Comics, hardcover, 600 pages, July 2009, ) collects:
Give Me Liberty (4-issue mini-series, June–September 1990, tpb, Dell, )
Martha Washington Goes to War (5-issue mini-series, 1994, tpb, )
 "Happy Birthday, Martha Washington" (one-shot, 1995)
 "Martha Washington Stranded in Space" (one-shot, 1995)
Martha Washington Saves the World (3-issue mini-series, 1997, tpb, )
Martha Washington Dies (one-shot, 2007)

A numbered, limited edition version of the collection includes "tip-in pencil art" signed by both creators ).

Notes

References
Martha Washington at the Big Comic Book DataBase

External links

Black people in comics
Characters created by Frank Miller (comics)
Comics by Dave Gibbons
Comics by Frank Miller (comics)
Comics characters introduced in 1990
Dark Horse Comics titles
Female soldier and warrior characters in comics
Fictional African-American people

Martha Washington (comics)


Sarthe is a department found in the west of France in the Pays de la Loire region. Its prefecture is Le Mans and its population is about 543,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Sarthe

Sarthe


Cementation is what makes rocks solid. It is the process where grains of sediment get stuck together. It is a chemical process, and the cement is a precipitate which crystallises in the spaces between the matrix of grains. Silica (SiO2) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) are the most common types of cement.

Ions carried in groundwater precipitate to form new crystalline material in sediment pores: this is how "sediment" becomes "rock".  The new pore-filling minerals form "bridges" between original sediment grains, thereby binding them together. So sand becomes "sandstone", and gravel becomes "conglomerate".

Cementation occurs mainly below the water table. Large volumes of pore water must pass through sediment pores for new mineral cements to crystallize and so millions of years are generally required to complete the cementation process.

Sedimentation does not always occur. Many quarries used for sand and gravel have them as loose particles and stones, just as if they came from a present-day beach. In England, most of these quarries are from beds laid down in the Jurassic, 150+ million years ago. By chance, the conditions for cementation never occurred there.

References

Sedimentology

Cementation


The Krasnogorsk-3 (Красногорск-3) is a spring-wound 16mm mirror-reflex movie camera designed and manufactured in the USSR by KMZ. A total of 105,435 Krasnogorsk-3 cameras were produced between 1971 and 1993.

It was one of the most popular 16mm movie cameras in Eastern Europe, where it made a prominent appearance in Krzysztof Kieślowski's 1979 film Camera Buff, and continues to enjoy considerable popularity in the West. Director Spike Lee shot parts of his film Get on the Bus with a Krasnogorsk-3.

Technical information
The Krasnogorsk-3 uses standard  load of 16mm film (single or double-perforation). There is no provision for an external magazine. There are two different lens mounts used on the Krasnogorsk-3: the M42×1 lens mount, and a Russian bayonet mount. The stock lens is the f/1.9 17–69 mm zoom lens Meteor-5-1, considered by many to be a quality optic. The M42 screw-mount allows for the use of widely available lenses from 35 mm still cameras such as Asahi Pentax Takumar lenses. Cameras which have been modified from the original standard 16mm (double-perforartion) to accept Super 16 (single-perforation) film may experience vignetting at the widest zoom setting with stock Meteor lenses.

The camera has a single pulldown claw and no registration pin. At 24 frame/s, the Krasnogorsk-3 will run for about 25 seconds on a full wind. Film speed is adjustable from 8 frame/s to 48 frame/s; however, many cameras are capable of functioning at higher frame rates (upwards of 60 fps) if the adjusting dial is turned beyond the 48 fps indicating mark. A single-frame release at the back of the Krasnogorsk-3 allows for animation and other single-frame applications.

The PX640 battery required to power the internal light meter is no longer sold due to its mercury content. Using an alkaline replacement will not give accurate results due to the differing voltage and discharge slope of alkaline cells. However, a zinc–air battery will function properly with an appropriate adapter.

See also

 Krasnogorsk-2
 Bolex
 Filmo

References

External links
 Krasnogorsk-3 Manual and technical information
 Krasnogorsk images with modifications
 Krasnogorsk-3 test shots and specifications
   Soviet cameras produced from 1960-1993
  Krasnogorsk-2 original User Manual
  Krasnogorsk-3 original User Manual
  Krasnogorsk-4 original User Manual
  About "K"-line 16 mm movie cameras (Soviet space program)

Movie cameras
Soviet cameras

Krasnogorsk-3


Dalam sejarah matematik, "Matematik pada zaman pertengahan Islam" merujuk kepada matematik yang dikembangkan oleh ahli matematik dari budaya Islam dari bermulanya Islam sehingga abad ke-17, kebanyakannya termasuk ahli matematik Arab dan Parsi, dan juga umat Muslim yang lain dan bukan-Muslim yang sebahagian dari kebudayaan Islam. Ahli matematik Islam juga dikenali sebagai ahli matematik Arab oleh kerana berasaskan teks matematik Islam ditulis dalam Bahasa Arab. Ahli matematik Islam adalah aspek utama pada sejarah lebih besar sains Islam, dan juga sebahagian penting bagi sejarah matematik.

Sains and matematik Islam berkembang di bawah pemerintahan Khalifah Islam (juga dikenali sebagai Empayar Arab atau Empayar Islam ditubuhkan di merata-rata Timur Tengah, Asia Tengah, Afrika Utara, Sicily, Semenanjung Iberia, dan sesetengah bahagian Perancis dan Pakistan (dikenali sebagai India pada waktu itu) pada abad ke-8. Walaupun kebanyakan teks Islam pada matematik dituliskan dalam Bahasa Arab, ia tidak semua ditulis oleh orang Arab, semenjak - seperti taraf Bahasa Yunani di dunia Hellenistik — Bahasa Arab digunakan sebagai Bahasa sarjana bukan Arab di merata-rata dunia Islam pada zaman itu. Banyak ahli matematik Islam adalah orang Parsi.

Kajian terkini melukiskan sebuah gambaran baru tentang simtem hutang yang kita harus berterima kasih kepada matematik Islam. Sudah tentu banyak idea yang dahulu dianggapkan sebagai konsep baru yang bijak oleh kerana ahli matematik Eropah pada abad ke-16, ke-17, dan ke-18 sekarang telah diketahui pada perkembangannya oleh ahli matematik Arab/Islam sekitar empat abad yang lebih awal. Dengan hormatnya, pelajaran ahli matematik hari ini lebih serupa dengan gaya matematik Islam daripada matematik Hellenistik.

Sejarah

Pengaruh

Matematik Yunani dan matematik India memainkan peranan penting dalam kemajuan matematik Islam terawal, terutamanya karya-karya seperti karya geometri klasik Euclid, karya trigonometri Aryabhata dan karya arimetik Brahmagupta, dan sarjana menganggap karya-karya itu menyumbang pada era inovasi saintifik Islam yang berlanjutan hingga kurun ke-14. Banyak teks-teks Yunani kuno hanya bertahan dalam bentuk terjemahan ke bahasa Arab yang dilakukan ilmuan Islam. Kemungkinan sumbangan paling penting dalam bidang matematik dari India ialah sistem angka India-Arab yang berasaskan tempat perpuluhan, yang juga dikenali sebagai angka Hindu. Sejarawan Parsi al-Biruni (sekitar 1050M) dalam buku beliau Tahqiq ma li al-Hind menyatakan bahawa Khalifah al-Ma'mun menerima kedatangan duta dari India dan membawa bersama sebuah buku yang diterjemahkan ke bahasa Arab sebagai Sindhind. Berkemungkinan Sindhind tidak lain tidak bukan Brahmasphuta-siddhanta tulisan Brahmagupta.

Ahli matematik Islam termasyhur

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

Seorang tokoh penting dalam matematik Islam ialah  (780M-850M), juga dikenali sebagai al-Khwarizmi, ahli matematik dan ahli falak berketurunan Parsi yang bekerja untuk Khalifah di Baghdad. Beliau menulis beberapa buah buku penting dan hari ini dikenali kerana memperkenalkan sistem angka desimal (perpuluhan) yang kita gunakan sekarang. Sistem tersebut dibangunkan di India pada kurun ke-6M, namun sistem ini hanya diketahui orang Eropah pada kurun ke-13, melalui terjemahan Latin karya al-Khwarizmi.
Karya-karya matematik Eropah pada Zaman Pertengahan menggunakan frasa "dixit Algorismi" ("begitulah kata al-Khwarizmi") ketika menggunakan sistem angka desimal; dari sini perkataan "algorithm" terbit. Juga perkataan "algebra" terbit daripada salah satu karya beliau, Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabalah, yang membicarakan persamaan matematik, polinomial, pecahan dsb. - khususnya karya tersebut menerangkan cara mengetahui kuantiti majhul dalam persamaan dengan melakukan imbangan yang memelihara persamaan.
Walaupun terdapat dakwaan bahawa beliau beragama Majusi, sukar untuk menafikan kedudukan beliau sebagai seorang Muslim berdasarkan nama beliau sempena nama Nabi Muhammad.
Apa pun, karya beliau akan selalu kekal dalam arus perdana sejarah intelek Islam. Al-Khwarizmi sering dianggap sebagai bapa algebra dan algorithm disebabkan karya-karya penting beliau dalam bidang-bidang tersebut.

Barangkali salah satu kemajuan signifikan yang dikeluarkan oleh matematik Islam bermula dengan karya al-Khwarizmi, terutamanya permulaan algebra. Penting untuk difahami betapa signifikannya idea baru ini. Ia beralih secara revolusi dari konsep orang Yunani mengenai matematik yang pada dasarnya adalah geometri.

Algebra ialah teori penyatuan yang menganggap nombor nisbah, nombor bukan nisbah, magnitud geometri, dsb. sebagai "objek algebra".
Ia memberi matematik satu landasan pembangunan baru sepenuhnya yang lebih luas dalam konsep yang wujud sebelum ini, dan menyediakan kenderaan bagi pembangunan akan datang.
Another important aspect of the introduction of algebraic ideas was that it allowed mathematics to be applied to itself in a way which had not happened before.

Al-Khwarizmi's successors undertook a systematic application of arithmetic to algebra, algebra to arithmetic, both to trigonometry, algebra to the Euclidean theory of numbers, algebra to geometry, and geometry to algebra. This was how the creation of polynomial algebra, combinatorial analysis, numerical analysis, the numerical solution of equations, the new elementary theory of numbers, and the geometric construction of equations arose.

Though Al-Khwarizmi's approach to mathematics was mostly algebraic, he did contribute to the study of practical geometry.

Al-Mahani
Persian mathematician al-Mahani (b. 820) conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra.

'Abd al-Hamid ibn Turk
'Abd al-Hamid ibn Turk contributed to the study of quadratic equations.

Thabit ibn Qurra
Arab mathematician and geometer Thabit ibn Qurra (b. 836) made many contributions to mathematics, particularly geometry. In his work on number theory, he discovered an important theorem which allowed pairs of amicable numbers to be found, that is two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the other. Amicable numbers later played a large role in Islamic mathematics.

Astronomy, time-keeping and geography provided other motivations for geometrical and trigonometrical research. Thabit ibn Qurra studied curves required in the construction of sundials. Thabit ibn Qurra also undertook both theoretical and observational work in astronomy.

Abu Kamil
Egyptian mathematician Abu Kamil ibn Aslam (850) forms an important link in the development of algebra between al-Khwarizmi and al-Karaji. He had begun to understand what we would write in symbols as . He also studied algebra using irrational numbers.

Al-Batanni
Arab mathematician and astronomer Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Battani (868-929) made accurate astronomical observations which allowed him to improve on Ptolemy's data for the Sun and the Moon. He also produced a number of trigonometrical relationships:

He also solved the equation sin x = a cos x discovering the formula:

and used al-Marwazi's idea of tangents ("shadows") to develop equations for calculating tangents and cotangents, compiling tables of them.

Sinan ibn Thabit
Arab scientist Sinan ibn Thabit ibn Qurra (c. 880-943) was the son of Thabit ibn Qurra and the father of Ibrahim ibn Sinan. He wrote the mathematical treatise On the elements of geometry, a commentary on Archimedes' On triangles, and several other astronomical and political treatises. He studied medicine, the science of Euclid, the Almagest, astronomy, the theories of meteorological phenomena, logic and metaphysics.

Ibrahim ibn Sinan
Although Islamic mathematicians are most famed for their work on algebra, number theory and numeral systems, they also made considerable contributions to geometry, trigonometry and mathematical astronomy. Ibrahim ibn Sinan ibn Thabit ibn Qurra (b. 908), son of Sinan ibn Thabit and grandson of Thabit ibn Qurra, introduced a method of integration more general than that of Archimedes, and was a leading figure in a revival and continuation of Greek higher geometry in the Islamic world. He studied optics and investigated the optical properties of mirrors made from conic sections.

Ibrahim ibn Sinan, like his grandfather, also studied curves required in the construction of sundials, for the purposes of astronomy, time-keeping and geography, which provided motivations for geometrical and trigonometrical research.

Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi
The Indian methods of arithmetic with the Indo-Arabic numerals were originally used with a dust board similar to a blackboard. Arab mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi (b. 920) showed how to modify the Indian methods of arithmetic for pen and paper use.

Abul Wáfa
Persian mathematician Abu'l-Wáfa (940-998) invented the tangent function. The Indo-Arabic system of calculating allowed the extraction of roots by Abu'l-Wáfa.

Abu'l-Wáfa applied spherical geometry to astronomy and also used formulas involving sine and tangent.

Abu Bakr al-Karaji
Algebra was further developed by Persian mathematician Abu Bakr al-Karaji (953-1029) in his treatise al-Fakhri, where he extends the methodology to incorporate integral powers and integral roots of unknown quantities.

Al-Karaji is seen by many as the first person to completely free algebra from geometrical operations and to replace them with the arithmetical type of operations which are at the core of algebra today. He was first to define the monomials  and  and to give rules for products of any two of these. He started a school of algebra which flourished for several hundreds of years.

The discovery of the binomial theorem for integer exponents by al-Karaji was a major factor in the development of numerical analysis based on the decimal system.

Ibn Al-Haitham
Ibn Al-Haitham (b. 965), also known as Alhazen, in his work on number theory, seems to have been the first to attempt to classify all even perfect numbers (numbers equal to the sum of their proper divisors) as those of the form  where  is prime.

Al-Haytham is also the first person that we know to state Wilson's theorem, namely that if  is prime then  is divisible by . It is unclear whether he knew how to prove this result. It is called Wilson's theorem because of a comment made by Edward Waring in 1770 that John Wilson had noticed the result. There is no evidence that John Wilson knew how to prove it and most certainly Waring did not. Joseph Louis Lagrange gave the first proof in 1771 and it should be noticed that it is more than 750 years after al-Haytham before number theory surpasses this achievement of Islamic mathematics.

Al-Haytham also studied optics and investigated the optical properties of mirrors made from conic sections.

Abu Nasr Mansur
Abu Nasr Mansur ibn Ali ibn Iraq (970-1036) applied spherical geometry to astronomy and also used formulas involving sine and tangent. He is well known for discovering the sine law.

Abu Sahl al-Kuhi
Persian mathematician Abu Sahl Waijan ibn Rustam al-Quhi (10th century), also known as Abu Sahl al-Kuhi or just Kuhi, was a leading figure in a revival and continuation of Greek higher geometry in the Islamic world. He studied optics and investigated the optical properties of mirrors made from conic sections. He also did some important work on the centers of gravity.

Al-Biruni
Persian mathematician al-Biruni (b. 973) used the sine formula in both astronomy and in the calculation of longitudes and latitudes of many cities. Both astronomy and geography motivated al-Biruni's extensive studies of projecting a hemisphere onto the plane.

Al-Baghdadi
Arab mathematician al-Baghdadi (b. 980) looked at a slight variant of Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem of amicable numbers. There were three different types of arithmetic used around this period and, by the end of the 10th century, authors such as al-Baghdadi were writing texts comparing the three numeral systems: Finger-reckoning arithmetic (a system derived from counting on the fingers with the numerals written entirely in words), the sexagesimal numeral system (developed by the Babylonians), and the Indo-Arabic numerals. This third system of calculating allowed most of the advances in numerical methods. Al-Baghdadi also contributed to improvements in the Indo-Arabic decimal system.

Omar Khayyam
The Persian poet Omar Khayyam (b. 1048) was also a mathematician, and wrote Discussions of the Difficulties in Euclid, a book about flaws in Euclid's Elements. He gave a geometric solution to cubic equations, one of the most original discoveries in Islamic mathematics. He was also very influential in calendar reform. He also wrote influential work on Euclid's parallel postulate.

Omar Khayyam gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections. Khayyam also wrote that he hoped to give a full description of the algebraic solution of cubic equations in a later work:

"If the opportunity arises and I can succeed, I shall give all these fourteen forms with all their branches and cases, and how to distinguish whatever is possible or impossible so that a paper, containing elements which are greatly useful in this art will be prepared."

The Indo-Arabic system of calculating also allowed the extraction of roots by Omar Khayyam. Omar Khayyam also combined the use of trigonometry and approximation theory to provide methods of solving algebraic equations by geometrical means.

Al-Samawal
Moroccan mathematician Al-Samawal (b. 1130) was an important member of al-Karaji's school of algebra. Al-Samawal was the first to give the new topic of algebra a precise description when he wrote that it was concerned "with operating on unknowns using all the arithmetical tools, in the same way as the arithmetician operates on the known."

Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
Persian mathematician Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi (b. 1135), although almost exactly the same age as al-Samawal, did not follow the general development that came through al-Karaji's school of algebra but rather followed Khayyam's application of algebra to geometry. He wrote a treatise on cubic equations, which represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry.

Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
Spherical trigonometry was largely developed by Muslims, and systematized (along with plane trigonometry) by Persian Shi'a mathematician Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274). He also wrote influential work on Euclid's parallel postulate.

Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, like many other Muslim mathematicians, based his theoretical astronomy on Ptolemy's work, but al-Tusi made the most significant development in the Ptolemaic planetary system until the development of the Nicolaus Copernicus. One of these developments is the Tusi-couple, which was later used in the Copernican model.

Ibn Al-Banna
Moroccan mathematician ibn al-Banna (b. 1256) used symbols in algebra, though symbols were used by other Islamic mathematicians at least a century before this.

Al-Farisi
Persian mathematician Al-Farisi (b. 1260) gave a new proof of Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem of amicable numbers, introducing important new ideas concerning factorisation and combinatorial methods. He also gave the pair of amicable numbers 17,296 and 18,416 which have been attributed to Leonhard Euler, but we know that these were known earlier than al-Farisi, perhaps even by Thabit ibn Qurra himself. Apart from number theory, his other major contribution to mathematics was on light.

Ghiyath al-Kashi
Persian mathematician Ghiyath al-Kashi (1380-1429) contributed to the development of decimal fractions not only for approximating algebraic numbers, but also for real numbers such as π, which he computed to 16 decimal place of accuracy. His contribution to decimal fractions is so major that for many years he was considered as their inventor. Kashi also developed an algorithm for calculating nth roots, which was a special case of the methods given many centuries later by Ruffini and Horner.

Al-Kashi also produced tables of trigonometric functions as part of his studies of astronomy. His sine tables were correct to 4 sexagesimal digits, which corresponds to approximately 8 decimal places of accuracy. The construction of astronomical instruments such as the astrolabe, invented by Mohammad al-Fazari, was also a speciality of Muslim mathematicians.

Ulugh Beg
Timurid mathematician Ulugh Beg (1393 or 1394 – 1449), also ruler of the Timurid Empire, produced tables of trigonometric functions as part of his studies of astronomy. His sine and tangent tables were correct to 8 decimal places of accuracy.

Al-Qalasadi
Moorish mathematician Abu'l Hasan ibn Ali al Qalasadi (b. 1412) used symbols in algebra, though symbols were used by other Islamic mathematicians much earlier.

In the time of the Ottoman Empire (from 15th century onwards) the development of Islamic mathematics became stagnant. This parallels the stagnation of mathematics when the Romans conquerored the Hellenistic world.

Muhammad Baqir Yazdi
In the 17th century, Muhammad Baqir Yazdi gave the pair of amicable numbers 9,363,584 and 9,437,056 many years before Euler's contribution to amicable numbers.

Terjemahan
Many Arabic texts on Islamic mathematics were translated into Latin and had an important role in the evolution of later European mathematics. A list of translations, from Greek and Sanskrit to Arabic, and from Arabic to Latin, is given below.

Bahasa Yunani ke Bahasa Arab
The following mathematical Greek texts on Hellenistic mathematics were translated into Arabic, and subsequently into Latin:
Euclid's Data, Optics, Phaenomena and On Divisions.
Euclid's Elements by al-Hajjaj (c. 8th century)
Revision of Euclid's Elements by Thabit ibn Qurra.
Apollonius' Conics by Thabit ibn Qurra.
Ptolemy's Almagest by Thabit ibn Qurra.
Archimedes' Sphere and Cylinder and Measurement of the Circle by Thabit ibn Qurra.
Archimedes' On triangles by Sinan ibn Thabit.
Diophantus' Arithmetica by Abu'l-Wáfa.
Menelaus of Alexandria' Sphaerica.
Theodosius of Bithynia's Spherics.
Diocles' treatise on mirrors.
Pappus of Alexandria' work on mechanics.

Sanskrit to Arabic
The following mathematical Sanskrit texts on Indian mathematics were translated into Arabic, and subsequently into Latin:
The Sindhind by Ibrahim al-Fazari, Muhammad al-Fazari and Yaqub ibn Tāriq (c. 8th century).
Surya Siddhanta by al-Fazari.
Brahmagupta's Brahma Sphuta Siddhanta by al-Fazari.
Brahmagupta's Khandakhayaka.
Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya.
Aryabhata's Arya Siddhanta.
Varahamihira's Pancha Siddhanta.
Bhaskara I's Lagu Bhaskariya.
Bhaskara II's Lilavati (to Persian rather than Arabic).

Lihat pula
 Ahli sains Muslim

Pautan luar
 J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson. Arabic mathematics : forgotten brilliance?.
 History of Trigonometry
 http://www.math.uu.nl/people/hogend/Islamath.html
 http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/introduction/woi_knowledge.html#28

Matematik
Sejarah matematik
Sains
Sains Islam
Zaman Kegemilangan Islam

Matematik pada zaman pertengahan Islam


Garrett Epps (born 1950 in Richmond, Virginia) is an American legal scholar, novelist, and journalist. He was professor of law at the University of Baltimore until his retirement in June 2020; previously he was the Orlando J. and Marian H. Hollis Professor of Law at the University of Oregon.

Biography
Epps attended St. Christopher's School and Harvard College, where he was president of The Harvard Crimson. He later received an M.A. degree in Creative Writing from Hollins University, and a J.D. degree from Duke University, where he was first in his class. After graduation from Harvard, he was a cofounder of The Richmond Mercury, a short-lived alternative weekly whose alumni include Pulitzer Prize-winning journalists Frank Rich and Glenn Frankel. He also worked as an editor or reporter for The Richmond Afro-American, The Virginia Churchman, The Free-Lance Star, and The Washington Post. From 1983 until 1988, he was a columnist for Independent Weekly (then a bi-weekly). Immediately before moving to the University of Oregon, he spent a year clerking for Judge John D. Butzner of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit.

Epps has written two novels, including The Shad Treatment, which won the Lillian Smith Book Award, as well as the nonfiction books To An Unknown God: Religious Freedom on Trial, which was published in 2001 and was a finalist for the American Bar Association's Silver Gavel Award, and Democracy Reborn: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Fight for Civil Rights in Post-Civil War America, which was published in 2006. Democracy Reborn won the 2007 Oregon Book Award for non-fiction, and was a finalist for the ABA Silver Gavel Award. He has also written numerous articles and editorials in newspapers including the New York Times, The Washington Post, and The Atlantic. In his article "The Founders' Great Mistake", he urged America to amend its Constitution to more closely resemble a parliamentary system.

Books
The Shad Treatment (1977)
The Floating Island: A Tale of Washington (1985)
To An Unknown God: Religious Freedom on Trial (2001)
Democracy Reborn: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Fight for Civil Rights in Post-Civil War America (2006)
Peyote vs the State: Religious Freedom on Trial (2009)
Wrong and Dangerous: Ten Right-Wing Myths About Our Constitution (2012)
American Epic: Reading the U.S. Constitution (2013)

References

1950 births
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American legal scholars
American legal writers
American male novelists
Duke University School of Law alumni
Harvard College alumni
Hollins University alumni
Living people
Lawyers from Richmond, Virginia
The Harvard Crimson people
University of Baltimore faculty
University of Oregon faculty
Writers from Richmond, Virginia
Journalists from Virginia
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Virginia
Novelists from Maryland
Novelists from Oregon
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers

Garrett Epps


Klaus Tschütscher (born 8 July 1967) is a Liechtensteiner politician who served as the twelfth Prime Minister of Liechtenstein from 2009 to 2013.

His Ministries were General Government Affairs, Finance, Family Affairs and Gender equality. Tschütscher belongs to the Patriotic Union-party.

Background and politics
At first Klaus Tschütscher was in primary and secondary school at Liechtenstein's capital, Vaduz. Afterwards he studied law at the University of St. Gallen from 1987 to 1993 and completed his Doctor of law degree (Dr. iur.) in 1996. Meanwhile, he worked at the university as a research associate for two years (until 1995). After that he became head of the administrative department for legal services and economy at the Liechtenstein fiscal authority. Two months later he additionally became deputy director of the fiscal authority. From 1998 to 2005 Tschütscher taught avocationally as a part-time lecturer at the University of Liechtenstein. 2002 to 2005 he graduated once again in a Master of Law-postgraduate study on International Business Law at the University of Zurich.

In the 2005 parliament elections the leading Progressive Citizens' Party lost the absolute majority and was therefore forced to build a coalition government with the Patriotic Union. Tschütscher became Deputy Prime Minister in the Government of Otmar Hasler. In this position his Ministries were Justice, Economic Affairs and Sports. In 2009 the elections led to a victory of the Patriotic Union. As Otmar Hasler afterwards handed in his resignation, Klaus Tschütscher became Head of Government as Prime Minister of Liechtenstein on 25 March 2009. Tschütscher did not stand for reelection in the 2013 Liechtenstein parliamentary election and was replaced as Prime Minister by Adrian Hasler.

Personal life
Klaus Tschütscher is married to Arzu Tschütscher-Alanyurt, a Turkish Austrian, and father of two children and lives in Ruggell.

Honours
  : Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria (2011)

References

External links

1967 births
Heads of government of Liechtenstein
Deputy Prime Ministers of Liechtenstein
Living people
Patriotic Union (Liechtenstein) politicians
University of St. Gallen alumni
Liechtenstein lawyers

Klaus Tschütscher


The Atlantic Cable Quartz Lode is a gold mine in Deer Lodge County, Montana.  The mine is located in the southwestern area of Montana, between Drummond and Anaconda along the Pintler Scenic Route on Montana Highway 1, east of Georgetown Lake.

The gold mine was named on June 15, 1867, with the name commemorating the completion of the laying of the second transatlantic cable.  The mine's founders were Alexander Aiken, John B. Pearson and Jonas Stough. They were camped on Flint Creek and their horses had drifted off.  In tracking them to this location, the men were led to the discovery of the mine.  Machinery for the first mill was imported from Swansea, Wales, and moved by wagon team from Corinne, Utah, the nearest railroad terminal.

In the 19th century, mining was irregular.  The town which grew up around the mine, Cable, Montana, boomed and busted four distinct times: 1867–1869, 1873–1878, 1883–1891 and 1902–1940.  The Atlantic Cable Quartz Lode mine was operated with varying success until about 1880, when extremely rich ore was located.  A 500-foot piece of ground produced $6,500,000 in gold. W. A. Clark paid $19,000 for one chunk of ore taken from this mine in 1889 and claimed it was the largest gold nugget ever found.

In 1902, two brothers cleaned up the mine and obtained $18,000 from the first cleanup.  By 1906, three shifts a day were running in the mill.  By 1940, the mine was inactive and has remained that way.

See also
Gold mining in the United States
Gold prospecting
Gold rush

References

 Bancroft, H.H. History of Washington, Idaho and Montana: 1845–1889, San Francisco : The History Company, 1890.
 Morris, P.F.  Anaconda Montana: Copper Smelting Boom Town on the Western Frontier, Anaconda, MT : Swann Pub., 1997.

Buildings and structures in Deer Lodge County, Montana
Pre-statehood history of Montana
Mines in Montana
Gold mines in the United States
1867 establishments in Montana Territory

Atlantic Cable Quartz Lode


Fileteado () is a type of artistic drawing and lettering, with stylised lines and flowered, climbing plants, typically used in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
It is used to adorn all kinds of beloved objects: signs, taxis, lorries and even the old colectivos, Buenos Aires's buses.

Filetes (the lines in fileteado style) are usually full of colored ornaments and symmetries completed with poetic phrases, sayings and aphorisms, both humorous or roguish, emotional or philosophical. They have been part of the culture of the Porteños (inhabitants of Buenos Aires) since the beginnings of the 20th century.

The filetes were born as simple ornaments, becoming an emblematic form of art for the city.
Many of its initiators were European immigrants, who brought from Europe some elements of what later fileteado, which became the distinct Argentinian art form known today when mixed with local traditional art styles.
Fileteado was recognized as a unique art after 1970, when it was exhibited for the first time.

History
Fileteado began in the gray carts pulled by horses, that transported fruits, milk, groceries and bread at the end of the 19th century.

The painter who decorated the carts was called Fileteador, because he performed the job with long-threaded paintbrushes also called "Brushes for making filetes". This is a word derived from Latin "Filum" which means "Thread", referring to the art in a fine line that serves as ornament.

Since it was something that was executed after a cart was done, but before the payment was received, it was a task that had to be performed quickly.

At that time, many specialist painters flourished such as Ernesto Magiori and Pepe Aguado or artists such as Miguel Venturo, son of Salvador Venturo. This last one had been a captain of the Merchant Navy of Italy who established in Buenos Aires, where he dedicated to Fileteado, incorporating a lot of motifs from his home country. Miguel studied painting and enhanced his father's technique, being considered by many the painter who shaped the Filete. The introduction of birds, flowers, diamonds and dragons in the motifs is attributed to him, as well as the design of letters in the doors of trucks. Since there was a tax imposed on very big letters, Miguel made smaller ones but surrounded by very colorful and complex designs to draw attention, design that stood for a long time.

Main formal features
In the book Filete porteño, by Alfredo Genovese, the anthropologist Norberto Cirio describes the main formal features from fileteado as:
A high degree of stylization
The preponderance of lively colours
The use of shading and highlighting to create the illusion of depth
The preferred use of a Gothic font style or highly detailed letters
The almost obsessive recurrence of symmetry
The framing of each composition when it is finished
The efficient use of available space
The symbolic conceptualization of many of the images represented (the horseshoe as a symbol of good luck, the dragon as a symbol of strength).

Gallery

For a modern example of its use, see the cover of the 2005 album Haughty Melodic by Mike Doughty.

References

External links

 Jorge Luis Borges's "Inscriptions On Carriages" (English translation)

Culture in Buenos Aires
Argentine culture
Uruguayan culture
Folk art
Decorative arts
Decorated vehicles

Fileteado


A tornado warning is an alert that means that a tornado or funnel cloud has been spotted around the area, and that people should take cover. When tornadoes have been spotted, the tornado sirens make sound in that place, letting people know that they have been seen.

Tornado warnings are higher than the warning of a Tornado watch, but there is an even higher level, which is a tornado emergency.

Tornadoes

Tornado warning


Space Invaders is a video game made by the Taito Corporation. Space Invaders is one of the most famous early video games. The game is about defending the Earth from Space Invaders (aliens) by shooting them down before they can land. There have been seven versions of Space Invaders made by the Taito Corporation. Space Invaders was designed by the Taito Corporations man in charge of the game making department, Toshihiro Nishikado. Nishikado was inspired to make the game after watching Star Wars and War of the Worlds. At first Space Invaders was a coin-operated machine but has been made available for almost every games console and home computer. Before making Space Invaders, Nishikado worked on games called Soccer and Interceptor. He says the hardest part of making a video game is designing the computer inside it. Taito describes Space Invaders as "an international phenomenon".

Space Invaders versions

Space Invaders, 1978
Space Invaders Part 2, 1979
The Return of the Space Invaders, 1985
Space Invaders '91, 1991
Space Invaders DX, 1995
Space Invaders '95, 1995
Space Invaders 3D

References

Taito Legends, 2005
Taito Legends 2, 2006

Arcade games

Space Invaders


Student Body Right is a simple running play in American football known as a sweep right, in which the tailback runs toward the right end of his offensive line at the snap of the ball and receives a pitch from his quarterback before reaching the line of scrimmage, while his fullback,  offensive tackle, and end move from the left side pull to the same side in order to serve as lead blockers for the ball carrier. The inverse play is known as Student Body Left.

Origins
The origins of the play date to the tenure of John McKay as head coach of the University of Southern California Trojans during the mid-1960s.  The popular explanation for the nickname is that in quarters during which USC was headed toward the end zone which contained student seating, the tailback would appear to be running toward the student section at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, where USC played its  home games, before cutting upfield. According to others the nickname emerged because when all the blockers were in place to protect the ball carrier it would appear, from the point of view of a defender, that the entire USC student body was leading the play.

The play was very similar to the Packers sweep utilized by the Green Bay Packers of the 1960s under coach Vince Lombardi.

Later years
In the later years of the 20th century and early 21st, sweep plays such as Student Body Right became less common in professional and upper-level college football. This is generally believed to be the result of greatly increased speed and athletic ability of linebackers and defensive ends on typical teams, as compared to earlier eras.

References

American football plays

Student Body Right


Alice in Verse: The Lost Rhymes of Wonderland (2010) is a reimagining of Lewis Carroll's 1865 novel Alice's Adventures in Wonderland  written by British-American author J.T. Holden. It tells the story of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (with a "Slight Detour Through the Looking-Glass") in 19 rhyming poems, each written in the same style as Lewis Carroll's original verse. The book includes 36 illustrations by American artist Andrew Johnson.

Synopsis
What distinguishes this variation on Lewis Carroll's classic from others is that the story is told entirely in rhyming verse. It begins the same as Carroll's original, with a languid Alice perking up "When first she spies the clock of clocks/Within the rabbit's paw". After following the time-obsessed creature Down the Rabbit-Hole Again, she discovers The Bottle & the Biscuit Box in the "hall of many doors," and after drinking and shrinking and eating and growing (and shrinking again), she is "swept away upon a pool of tears." The first real departure from the original text comes in the 3rd verse, where, after being instructed by the Caterpillar in proper Wonderland speech (The Caterpillar's Lesson on Rhetoric & Rhyme), she is given the chance to impress the imperious insect with her oratory skills in The Mariner's Tale, a dark poem more akin to How Doth the Little Crocodile than the You Are Old, Father William poem she quoted for the Caterpillar in Carroll's original book. The Caterpillar gives his earnest (if somewhat slanted) critique of her recital in the 5th verse (The Subjective Review) before taking flight on mechanical wings (as depicted in the accompanying illustration). The 5th verse finds Alice in familiar company once again with The Cook, the Pig, the Cat & His Duchess, as the Cheshire Cat tells her the tale of the conflict between the Duchess and the Cook, revealing that the pig-babies raised by the Duchess are bred as food for the Queen's banquets.

The most pivotal departure from Carroll's original text comes in the 7th verse, "The Tea Party Resumes", where it is first hinted at (by a sleep-talking Dormouse) that the Knave of Hearts may not in fact be responsible for the theft of the Queen's tarts. Through rapid wordplay and cunning juxtaposition, both the Mad Hatter and March Hare attempt to muddy the facts and confuse Alice — though, the astute reader will glean much from the Dormouse's revelation on the matter of the Queen's missing tarts. The 8th verse, offers a brief respite from the main action with A Slight Detour Through the Looking-Glass, which serves not only as a catchall recap of Carroll's follow up book but also as an introduction to the subsequent three verses: Dee & Dum (the 9th verse) and The Battle (the 11th verse) which function as a wraparound for the 10th verse, The Walrus & the Carpenter Head Back (the epic sequel to Carroll's masterpiece The Walrus and the Carpenter), in which the tables are turned on the title characters "who once dined on the shore".

The 12th verse, In the Garden of Hearts, returns Alice to Wonderland, "where the trial (of the Knave of Hearts) is about to begin!" In the 13th verse (The Trial Begins) the King of Hearts presides over the court just as he did in Chapters 11 & 12 of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, with the Queen at his side, and the White Rabbit in the role of the court reporter, reading the now famous single stanza verse the Queen of Hearts (a second stanza has been added that only further accentuates the absurdity of the charge against the accused). The major departure from Carroll's original here is that instead of appearing as jittery witnesses, the Mad Hatter and March Hare are cast as Counsel for the Defense and Prosecutor, respectively. After the charge is read, the Hare addresses the court with an opening statement that more or less vindicates the accused, before turning his accusing eye upon the court itself for failing to serve tea with the evidence (the tarts). The King concurs and calls for a brief recess, during which the bulk of the evidence is consumed by all present. The trial resumes in the 14th verse with The Hatter's Defence, in which the Hatter presents an alternately flattering and damning portrait of the accused. In the 15th verse (The Hare's Rebuttal & the Hatter's Rebuke) the jury is making ready to deliberate when the Hare suddenly chimes in again with a counter argument that is more damning to himself and opposing counsel than it is to the accused, and only after a decisive rebuke from the Hatter does the Hare retract his "erroneous rebuttal", at which point the King allows there is "time for yet one final pleading." In the 16th verse The Knave of Hearts Repents with a haunting poetic plea directed specifically at the Queen of Hearts, who offers her own poetic response in the 17th verse The Queen's Sentence. The 18th Verse, The Royal Flush, pandemonium breaks out, much the same as it did in Carroll's original, with Alice challenging the court, while the Hatter and Hare try to trap the Dormouse who has run amok, and the jury takes flight. As the Queen demands "Off with his  whiskers! Off with his head!", a voice calls to Alice from just outside her dream. Alice wakes suddenly in the 19th and final verse (Waking), with the events of the previous 18 verses recurring to her in reverse order, like memory folding back over itself, until the final line of the final stanza  affirms the sentiment that the rhyming poem is both valid and "well worth defending."

References

Reviews
http://www.thechildrensbookreview.com/weblog/2010/04/alice-in-wonderland-j-t-holden-and-andrew-johnson%E2%80%94a-book-in-verse.html#more-5995
http://www.forewordreviews.com/reviews/alice-in-verse-the-lost-rhymes-of-wonderland/
http://www.midwestbookreview.com/sbw/mar_10.htm#Poetry

External links
Publisher

2010 fantasy novels
English poems
Books based on Alice in Wonderland
Unofficial adaptations


San Cristóbal is the Spanish name of Saint Christopher. It is a common geographical name. It could refer to any of the following:

Argentina
 San Cristóbal, Santa Fe
 San Cristóbal, Buenos Aires, a neighborhood or barrio
Bolivia
 San Cristóbal - Lipez (Bolivia), a silver, zinc and lead mine
Colombia
 San Cristóbal (Bogotá)
Cuba
San Cristóbal, Cuba, in the province of Pinar del Río
Havana, founded as Villa de San Cristóbal de la Habana
Dominican Republic
San Cristóbal Province
San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic
Ecuador
San Cristóbal Island, an island in the Galápagos
Guatemala
Ciudad San Cristóbal, an important town in the city of Mixco
San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán
San Cristóbal Cucho
San Cristóbal Totonicapán
San Cristóbal Verapaz
Mexico
San Cristóbal de las Casas, a city in Chiapas
San Cristóbal Ecatepec, in the State of Mexico
San Cristóbal Amatlán
San Cristóbal Amoltepec
San Cristóbal Lachirioag
San Cristóbal Suchixtlahuaca
Nicaragua
San Cristóbal volcano
Panama
San Cristóbal, Panama, a fishing village on Cristóbal Island
Paraguay
 San Cristóbal District, Paraguay
Peru
 San Cristóbal District, Luya, a district in the Amazonas Region of Peru
 Solomon Islands
 Makira, also known as San Cristóbal, an island in the Solomons.
Spain
 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, a suburban area of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (province)
Venezuela
 San Cristóbal, Táchira

San Cristóbal


The Super Game Boy is a special video game cartridge released for the Super NES in 1994. It allows players to play Game Boy and some Game Boy Color games on a television screen. When played on the Super Game Boy, games are colored. There are 32 colors available. Players can switch colors with the L and R buttons. Some games, such as Donkey Kong, have features exclusive to the Super Game Boy. New features include better sound effects and multi-player. Some games also have a custom border when played on the Super Game Boy. In 1998, a new model, the Super Game Boy 2, was released in Japan. It has more borders and link cable support.

Game Boy
Nintendo hardware

Super Game Boy


A cul-de-sac (literally "bottom of bag") is a word that came from the French language and means a small street without a way through at the far end. It is also used in Catalan and Occitan, its meaning being equivalent to a dead end, close, or no through road (United Kingdom, Australian and Canadian English). While culs-de-sac were built in history for other reasons, its modern use is to calm down the traffic.

Real estate
Roads
Urban design

Cul-de-sac


The Chapel of King's College London is a Grade I listed 19th century chapel located in the Strand Campus of King's College, London, England. Originally designed by Sir Robert Smirke in 1831, the Renaissance Revival chapel seen today was redesigned by the prominent Victorian Gothic architect Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1864.

History

The original college chapel was designed by Sir Robert Smirke and was completed in 1831 as part of the College building (later known as the King's building). Given the foundation of the university in the tradition of the Church of England, the chapel was intended to be an integral part of the campus. This is reflected in its central location within the King's Building on the first floor above the Great Hall, accessible via a grand double staircase from the foyer. Although no pictures have survived, the original chapel was described as a low and broad room "fitted to the ecclesiological notions of George IV's reign." However, by the mid-nineteenth century its style had fallen out of fashion and in 1859 a proposal by the college chaplain E. H. Plumptre that the original chapel should be reconstructed was approved by the college council, who agreed that its "meagreness and poverty" made it unworthy of King's.

The college approached Sir George Gilbert Scott to make proposals. In his proposal of 22 December 1859, he suggested that, "There can be no doubt that, in a classic building, the best mode of giving ecclesiastical character is the adoption of the form and, in some degree, the character of an ancient basilica." His proposals for a chapel modelled on the lines of a classical basilica were accepted and the reconstruction was completed in 1864 at a cost of just over £7,000.

19th and 20th century
Scott had to overcome several structural difficulties since the chapel was situated above the Great Hall in the 19th century. He used a lightweight construction system for the arcade and upper nave walls.

In the 20th century, there were many developments that changed the design of the chapel. The original pitched roof designed by Scott was covered with canvas decorated in bays with large star motifs, but these were lost when the ceiling was substituted in the 1930s. The low level windows, which were embellished with stained glass, were damaged during the Second World War. The architect Stephen Dykes Bower was asked to produce proposals for the chapel in 1948 following war damage. Under his direction, the windows were glazed with tinted cathedral glass instead of stained glass. The arcade columns, original designs on the aisle and apse walls were repainted.

21st century
It was desired by the chaplaincy team of the college to have a chapel that is "sensitive to the tradition and relevant to the
contemporary culture". The chapel was planned to be restored and refurbished from 1996 but was not restored until 2001.

Apse

The semi-dome of the apse is a copy of one of Salviati's mosaics, depicting Christ in Majesty surrounded by angels. Either side of the arch are elaborately decorated vertical panels which include figures bearing scrolls inscribed with the motto of King's College,  (With Holiness and Wisdom), and other Christian inscriptions. The spandrels of the arches on each side of the nave feature the painted heads Doctors of the Church, and four 16th- and 17th-century Anglican Divines. These appear to have been an afterthought, as they do not feature in the original Gilbert Scott drawings.

Deans

Organists

The following is a list of organists of the chapel:

 1835: Henry Bevington
 1854: William Henry Monk (director of the choir from 1849)
 1889: John Edward Wernham (joined the college staff in 1886)
 1916: vacancy (organ played by students under the supervision of the Department of Theology)
 1937: Robert Linton Shields (officially appointed lecturer in music, as were all subsequent organists until 1980)
 1941: vacant
 1945: Harold Last
 1953: Ernest H. Warrell
 1992: David Trendell
 2014: Gareth Wilson
 2015: Joseph Fort

Chaplaincy

References

Bibliography

External links

Official website
King's College London

1831 establishments in England
King's College London
Grade I listed churches in London
Chapels in London
Churches completed in 1831
University and college chapels in the United Kingdom
Strand, London

Chapel of King's College London


American Fitba is a phessical team sport whaur the aim is tae advance a baw intae the conterin teams endzone. Thare is twa weys tae muive the baw, aither bi cairyin it (cried a rinnin pley), or bi thrawin the baw tae a teammate (cried a passin pley). Ye can score pynts in varyis different weys, includin carryin the baw intae the conterin teams endzone, or fangin a pass in the conterin teams enzone (baith cried a touchdoun, an is wirth 6 pynts), kickin the baw throu the conterin teams dale (wirth 3 pynts), or tacklin a conterin pleyer wi the baw in thair endzone (cried a sauftie, wirth 2 pynts). The team wi the maist pynts whan time rins oot wins.

The sport is weel likit in North Americae, but is becomin mair popular in Europe an Japan an aw. The sport developit fae Rugby in Americae in the late 19t century.

Rules

Pitch an Pleyers

The pitch is a hunder yards lang, wi twa ten yard lang endzones at ilk end. At the hinder end o ilk endzone is a dale (like a Rugby dale). Ilk team haes 11 pleyers on the pitch at ony ane time.

Thare is mony different poseetions pleyers can pley in American fitbaa. On the offence side the main anes is the offensive line, the quarterback, the rinning backs, the wide receivers an the ticht ends. The offesive line dits the defence tae stap thaim tacklin the quarterback. The quarterback is conseedered the maist important poseetion. He gits the baw an decides whither tae thraw it, gie it tae a rinning back tae rin wi, or rin wi it hissel. He caws the pleys an aw. The rinning backs speicialise in rinnin wi the baw, but whiles fangs passes or dits the defence an aw. Thare is for ordinar ane haufback, wha is belike tae rin wi the baw, an a fouback, wha is likely tae dit the defence. The wide receivers fang passes frae the quarterback, an than try tae rin as faur as possible afore bein tackled. The ticht ends line up wi the offensive line, thay can aither fang passes or dit the defence.

On the defence side thare is the defensive line, the linebackers, an the defensive backs. The defensive line try tae git bi the offensive line an tackle aither the quarter back or the rinning back. In the defensive line thare is twa poseetions, aither a tackle, wha is in the mids o the line, or the defensive end, wha is on the end. Ahint the defensive line is the linebackers. Thay aither try tae tackle the quarterback or rinning back, like the defensive line, or try tae stap wide receivers fangin passes. Ahint thaim is the defensive backs, they try tae stap wide receivers fangin passes.

Thare is Speicial Teams an aw. Whan a team wants tae kick the baw throu the dale or whan thare is a chynge o aucht o the baw, thare is for ordinar a kick frae the team wi the baw. The pleyers that kick the baw are cried aither kickers or punters dependin on whither thay are kickin it tae the ither team or kickin it throu the dale. Whan thay are kickin it throu the dale aff the grund thay are a kicker, whan thay kick it oot o thair gairdies tae the ither team (thay are puntin it), thay are punters.

Muivin the baw

Whan a team haes the baw, thay git fower shotties (cried douns) at muivin the baw ten yards. Ilk team muist muive the baw ten yards in the fower downs or the ither team gits the baw frae whare the baw wis. A doun is ower whan the sowel wha haes the baw is tackled, or gin a pass isna fangit an the baw hits the grund (cried a no throu pass). Gin a pleyer is tackled, the neist doun stairts frae whaur thay war tackled. Gin it wis a no throu pass, the neist down stairts frae the same airt as the hindermaist doun. Forby, gin a pleyer gaes oot o the boond o the pitch wi the baw, the neist doun stairts frae whaur thay gaed oot o boonds. Afore ilk doun, ilk team chuises a pley, whilk is a pre-decidit set o actoins an muivements ilk pleyer follaes on that doun (whiles douns are cried pleys an aw). Tae muive the baw forrit, ye can aither rin wi it (whiles cried rushin an aw), or thraw it tae a teammate, houaniver ye can anely thraw the baw forrit yinst ilk doun an frae ahint the line o scrimmage (but ye can thraw the baw backarts or sideweys as mony times as ye like an frae onyweys). Gin a team muives the baw ten yards, thay git a new set o fower douns again tae try an muive the baw ten mair yards.

Chynge thim oot

Gin a team disna git a new first doun efter fower douns, the ither team gits the baw whaur it wis at the end o the fowert doun. Houaniver for ordinar whan the team wi the baw is on the fowert doun, they chuise tae punt the baw tae the ither team. Thay dae this whan thay dinnae want tae gie up the baw whaur thay are so thay kick it to the ither team an try an tackle thaim faurer daun the pitch. The team that received the punt will stairt frae whaur they war tackled. Gin a pleyer on the offence side draps the baw (cried a fumble) the defence can rekiver the baw an than thay hiv aucht o the baw. The defence can fang hte offences passes an aw.

Scorin

Thare is three wiys tae score pynts. Gin an offensive pleyer has the baw in the defences endzone, thay score a touchdoun. This is wirth 6 pynts in efter this the team gits a chance tae score aither 1 or 2 mair pynts. Thay can aither try tae kick it throu the pooles for 1 pynt, or try tae score anither pynt for 2 pynts (tho this is verra rare). A team can try tae kick the baw throu the dale at ony pynt tae score 3 pynts. Or a team can score a sauftie, whaur a offensive pleyer is tackled in thair endzone, this is wirth 2 pynts an the offence muist than punt the baw tae the defence.

1869 introductions

Baw gemmes
Fitbaw codes
Sports oreeginatin in the Unitit States

American fitba


A maritime flag is a flag designated for use on ships, boats, and other watercraft. Naval flags are considered important at sea and the rules and regulations for the flying of flags are strictly enforced. The flag flown is related to the country of registration: so much so that the word "flag" is often used symbolically as a metonym for "country of registration".

Types of flag

Ensigns

The ensign is the national identification of a ship and hoisted up in a national flag world-wide. They are required to be worn when entering and leaving harbour, when sailing through foreign waters, and when the ship is signalled to do so by a warship.

Ensigns are part of seafaring traditions of private and naval forces and have their origins in the era of sailing vessels. Flag dipping is done with the ensign. Ships usually wear their ensigns between the morning colours ceremony and sunset when moored or at anchor. Warships at all times when underway, and when engaged in battle, they wear the "battle ensign" or multiple ensigns.

Tradition dictated that if a ship lowered its ensign it was deemed to have surrendered. Masts were targets of gunfire, and the second and subsequent ensigns were worn in order to keep the ensign flying even after a mast hit.

Jacks

Jacks are flown on the bow and placed upon a jackstaff, and used when the vessel is in a port or dressed on special occasions, and not while being underway. The origin of the jack was on warships only. However, it became an additional flag for certain other vessels and is sometimes identical with the ensign on merchant ships, depending on the ships origin.

Jacks in the Royal Navy must be run up when the first line is ashore when coming alongside.

Distinctive marks

On 16 January 1899, commissioned ships of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey were authorized to wear their own flag to distinguish them from ships of the United States Navy, with which they shared a common ensign. Although they continued to wear the same ensign as U.S. Navy ships, ships of the Survey flew the Coast and Geodetic Survey flag as a "distinctive mark" until the newly created National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) took over control of the Surveys ships in 1970. Since then, commissioned ships of the NOAA fleet, which also wear the same national ensign as U.S. Navy ships, have worn the flag of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as a distinctive mark.

Similarly, all ships of the United States Lighthouse Service wore the U.S. Lighthouse Service flag until the service merged into the United States Coast Guard on 1 July 1939, and ships of the United States Bureau of Fisheries wore the Bureau of Fisheries flag until the bureau was merged into the United States Fish and Wildlife Service on 30 June 1940. the Fish and Wildlife service subsequently has flown its flag as a distinctive mark on its ships.

Rank flags

The rank flag or distinguishing flag is the flag worn by a superior officer on their flagship or headquarters (hence the term flagship). The origins of this are from the era before radiotelegraphy and radiotelephony, when orders were given by flag signals. The flag denotes the ship which must be watched for signals designating orders. Such flags are also worn when leaders of the government (presidents, prime ministers or defense secretaries) are aboard Navy ships, showing the ship to hold the headquarters of highest level of authority for the Armed Forces. Today, with the progress in communications, this flag indicates the obligation of the other Naval vessels to pay the relevant honours (Manning the rails, firing cannon salute, attention, etc.) according to nautical etiquette. In a group of naval ships all commanded by superior officers, only the commander of the group or the officer of the highest rank can wear his flag.

In the Royal Navy, admirals fly rectangular rank flags: an Admiral of the Fleet flies a Union Flag, while an admiral flies the St George's Cross. The flags of vice-admirals and rear-admirals have one and two additional red balls respectively. Commodores fly a Broad Pennant which is a short swallow-tailed pennant based on the St George's Cross, with a red ball at the canton (upper quarter next to the staff).
In the United States Navy and the navies of some other countries, admirals fly rectangular flags with stars according to rank. Line officer flags are blue with white stars, while staff officer flags are white with blue stars.
In the United States Coast Guard, the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps, admirals fly rectangular flags with stars according to rank.
In the Hellenic Navy (Greek Navy) Admirals fly blue square flags bearing a white cross (similar to the Hellenic Navy Jack) with four six-point stars (one in each of the squares formed by the cross); Vice-Admirals fly the same flag but with three stars; Rear Admirals two stars; and Commodores one star. Captains, when commanding a flotilla or squadron, fly a burgee (square swallow-tailed flag) with the colours of Hellenic Navy Jack. When a rank flag is flown the commissioning pennant is displaced downward.

Pennants

The pennant, historically called a pennon, is a long narrow flag, conveying different meanings depending on its design and use. Examples:

 A commissioning pennant, or masthead, which a warship flies from its masthead and indicates the commission of the captain of the ship (and thus of the ship itself). In the Royal Navy, the commissioning pennant is a small St George's Cross with a long tapering plain white fly. In the United States Navy, it is red above white, with seven white stars in the blue hoist. In the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration fleet, it has 13 (on the largest ships) or seven (on other vessels) red triangles on a white background at the hoist with a long tapering blue fly. The commissioning pennant may be displaced by various rank flags, namely the flags or pennants of admirals or commodores, and the personal flags of heads of state and members of royal families. In former centuries, masthead pennants were of a length similar to that of the ships that wore them, but nowadays very long pennants tend only to be seen when a ship is paying off.
 A church pennant, as used by the Royal Navy, Royal Netherlands Navy and Commonwealth Navies, is a broad pennant flown on ships and at establishments (bases) during religious services, and has the George Cross and Dutch flag incorporated; chosen after the English Dutch Wars where both sides stopped for Church on a Sunday. A similar church pennant is flown by U.S. Navy ships during services.
A senior officer present afloat pennant using the NATO signal flag for "starboard" is green on the hoist and fly with a white field between.
A gin pennant means that the wardroom is inviting officers from ships in company to drinks. The origins of the gin pennant are uncertain, but it seems to have been used since the 1940s and probably earlier. Originally it was a small green triangular pennant measuring approximately , defaced with a white wine glass; nowadays the gin pennant is the "starboard" manoeuvering signal pennant defaced with a wine or cocktail glass. Its colour, size and position when hoisted were all significant as the aim was for the pennant to be as inconspicuous as possible, thereby having fewer ships sight it and subsequently accept the invitation for drinks. The gin pennant is still in regular use by Commonwealth navies, such as the Royal Australian Navy (RAN). Within the RAN it is common practice, whilst in port, for junior officers of one ship to attempt to raise the gin pennant on the halyard of another ship, thereby forcing that ship to put on free drinks for the officers of the ship that managed to raise the pennant. If, however the junior officers are caught raising the pennant, then it is their ship that must put on free drinks within their Wardroom. Usually this practice is restricted to Commonwealth navies.
 Broad pennant

House flag

Merchant ships often fly a flag identifying which company owns the vessel. This was formerly flown from the mainmast but is now usually flown from the jackstaff.

Private signal

Private signals are custom designed flags used to symbolize and identify the owner of a boat.

Yacht club burgee

Members belonging to a yacht club or sailing organization may fly their club's unique burgee both while underway and at anchor (however, not while racing). Sailing vessels may fly the burgee from the main masthead or from a lanyard under the starboard spreader on the mast. Power boats fly the burgee off a short staff on the bow.

Unit citations
Warships of various navies may be awarded a unit citation, for which a burgee (tapering flag with swallow-tail fly) is flown when in port.
Ships of the United States Navy:
Presidential Unit Citation - yellow with blue stripe on top and red stripe at the bottom.
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation - green with four yellow stripes divided by two blue and one red stripes at the centre.
Navy Unit Commendation - symmetrical colouring from the centre: green, red, yellow, blue.
Ships of the Royal Australian Navy may have:
Unit Citation for Gallantry - burgee with narrow white band surrounding green field surmounted by a silver star.
Meritorious Unit Citation - design as above with yellow field.

Signal flags

There is a system of International maritime signal flags for each letter of the alphabet, and pennants for the numerals. Each flag (except the R flag) has an additional meaning when flown individually, and they take other meanings in certain combinations.

Courtesy flag
A courtesy flag (or courtesy ensign) is flown by a visiting ship in foreign waters as a token of respect. It is often a small (that is, smaller than the ship's own national ensign) national maritime flag of the host country, although there are countries (such as Malta) where the national, rather than the maritime flag is correct.  The flag is customarily worn at the foremasthead of multi-masted vessels, the dockside yardarm or crosstree of the mast of single-masted vessels, while the house flag would be outboard.  It may be flown from the jackstaff of vessels without masts.

Flag etiquette

The position of honour on a ship is the quarterdeck at the stern of the ship, and thus ensigns are traditionally flown either from an ensign staff at the ship's stern, or from a gaff rigged over the stern.

The rule that the highest flown flag takes precedence does not apply on board a ship: a flag flown at the stern is always in a superior position to a flag flown elsewhere on the ship, even if the latter is higher up.

The priority of hoisting locations depends on the rig of the vessel. With sloops, ketches and schooners the starboard yardarm or spreader of the highest or main mast is the second most honoured position (that is, after the ensign at the stern). Next after the starboard spreader is the port spreader. House flags (those defining the owner) are usually flown from the mainmast truck. When a club burgee is flown, it will normally be hoisted to the truck of the most forward mast. On a sloop, then, not having a foremast, the house flag could be moved to the port spreader if the starboard spreader was in use, and a burgee was being flown. On a ketch, the house flag would be moved to the mizzen.

When in port, the ensign should always be flown from the staff at the stern. This is traditional, because in former times the gaff was then lowered along with the mizzen sail. The only ensign ever flown from the starboard spreader or yardarm is that of a nation being visited. This is known as a courtesy hoisting or a courtesy flag.

At sea, it used to be that the ensign was flown from the mizzen gaff. When Bermudian sails came into general use, some skippers started to fly the ensign from two-thirds the way up the main-sail leech. Many consider this an affectation with the past. Others have taken to flying the ensign from a backstay. These are not good locations because the flag does not fly out well when hoisted raked forward.

The Canadian Heritage web page states:

Another recent custom has been to fly a burgee and/or a cruising or power squadron flag from the starboard spreader. This custom has arisen because many sailboats today place a racing flag or wind indicator at the masthead.

Motor boats without masts should always fly the ensign from an ensign staff at the stern. Conventionally, courtesy flags are flown from the jackstaff at the bow. This seems to some landsmen as being a reversal of priorities. However, a boat is steered by the stern and this gives it pride of place.

Nautical etiquette requires that merchant vessels dip their ensigns in salute to passing warships, which acknowledge the salute by dipping their ensigns in return. Contrary to popular belief the United States Navy does dip the Stars and Stripes in acknowledgement of salutes rendered to it. Merchant vessels traditionally fly the ensign of the nation in whose territorial waters they are sailing at the starboard yard-arm. This is known as a courtesy flag, as for yachts.

The flying of the ensigns of two countries, one above the other, on the same staff is a sign that the vessel concerned has been captured or has surrendered during wartime. The ensign flying in the inferior, or lower, position is that of the country the ship has been captured from; conversely, the ensign flying in the superior, or upper position, is that of the country that has captured the ship.

Dressing overall

As a sign of celebration, ships in harbour may be dressed overall.

See also

 Flag
 Flag state
 Flag of convenience
 Glossary of vexillology
 Vexillology
 Civil ensign
 Ensign
 British ensign
 Jolly Roger
 Ship registration
 Jack of the United States
 International maritime signal flags
 Lists of naval flags

References

External links

 Flag Advisor - Flag etiquette and recommendations
 TheCrusingLife.com's Flag etiquette
 Seagate Yacht Club's exchanged burgee collection
 Crystal Lake Yacht Club's Burgree collection
 Nautical Flags Alphabet

Ensigns
Water transport
Types of flags
Flag

Maritime flag


Harthacanute (Canute the Hardy, sometimes Hardicanute, Hardecanute; Danish: Hardeknud) (1018 – 8 June 1042) was King of Denmark from 1035 to 1042 and England from 1040 to 1042. He was the only son of Canute the Great and Emma of Normandy.

He followed his father as King of Denmark in 1035, becoming Canute III. Fighting with Magnus I of Norway stopped him from sailing to England to take up his throne. His older, illegitimate half-brother, Harold Harefoot, became regent of England.

Harold took the English crown for himself in 1037. After Harthacanute had settled the situation in Scandinavia he prepared an invasion of England to take over his kingdom. Harold died, and Harthacanute was able to take back his throne peacefully.

Harthacanute was a harsh and unpopular ruler. To pay for his ships, he greatly increased the rate of taxation. In 1041, the people of Worcester killed two of Harthacanute's men who had been collecting the tax. Harthacanute burned the city. The story of Lady Godiva riding naked through the streets of Coventry to persuade the local earl to lower taxes, may come from the reign of Harthacanute. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says of him: "He never accomplished anything kingly for as long as he ruled".

In 1041, Harthacanute asked his half-brother Edward the Confessor (his mother Emma's son by Ethelred the Unready) back from exile in Normandy to become a member of his household, and probably made Edward his heir. Harthacanute was unmarried and had no children. On 8 June 1042, he died at Lambeth— he "died as he stood at his drink, and he suddenly fell to the earth". He was buried at Winchester Cathedral, Hampshire. Edward became the new king.

References

1018 births
1042 deaths
Canute III
People buried in Winchester Cathedral
11th century in England

Harthacanute


The future is something that has not happened yet. Once that something has happened, it is called the past. If it is happening now, it is called the present. And the study of social advancement in the future is called futurology.

Movies, television shows and books that tell made-up stories about the future are often called science fiction, but there is also science fiction which takes place in the past, and fiction that takes place in the future but is not science fiction.

Basic English 850 words

Future


The University of California (UC) is a public university system in the state of California. The University of California is a part of the state's three-tier public higher education system, which also includes the California State University system and the California Community Colleges system.

The University of California has a combined student body of more than 220,000 students and over 170,000 faculty and staff. Its first campus, UC Berkeley, was founded in 1868, while its tenth and newest campus, University of California, Merced, opened for classes in fall 2005.

The University of California's campuses boast large numbers of distinguished faculty in almost every field and is widely regarded as one of the top public university systems in the world. Eight of its undergraduate campuses are ranked among the top 100, six among the top 50, and two among the top 25 U.S. universities by the U.S. News and World Report. Six of its campuses are members of the Association of American Universities, a group of over 60 top U.S. and Canadian research universities. The current president of the University of California is Janet Napolitano.

Campuses
 University of California, Berkeley
 University of California, Davis
 University of California, Irvine
 University of California, Los Angeles
 University of California, Merced
 University of California, Riverside
 University of California, San Diego
 University of California, San Francisco
 University of California, Santa Barbara
 University of California, Santa Cruz
 The University of California, Hastings College of the Law is affiliated with UC, but governed separately from the rest of the UC system.

Other websites

Official website of the University of California

Notes

University of California


Eugène Ionesco (26 November 1909 – 28 March 1994) was a Romanian playwright. He wrote in French. He was born in Slatina, Romania. He was one of the most important people in French avant-garde theatre. His best-known play is La Cantatrice Chauve (The Bald Soprano). It has often been acted on stage and has been on TV.

On April 30, 1973, Ionesco received the Jerusalem Prize, In 1974 he was given an honorary doctorate degree by the University of Warwick in Coventry, England. A year later he received a second honorary doctorate from the University of Tel Aviv. He died at age 84 on 28 March 1994. He is buried in the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris.

Many books have been written about Ionesco.

References

1909 births
1994 deaths
Romanian writers
Playwrights

Eugène Ionesco