වෛද්‍යවේදී සහ ශල්‍යවේදී උපාධිය ( ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින් Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery හෙවත් MBBS හා BMBS  ලෙසද ,  ලතින් බසින් Medicinae Baccalaureus, Baccalaureus Chirurgiae (abbreviated in various ways, viz. MB BChir, BM BCh, MB BCh, MB ChB, BM BS, MB BS, etc.), are the two first professional degrees awarded upon graduation from medical school in වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව and surgery by universities in various countries that follow the tradition of the එක්සත් රාජධානිය. The naming suggests that they are two separate degrees; however, in practice, they are usually treated as one and awarded together.

ඉතිහාසය හා උපත
The degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery are currently awarded in various forms in institutions in ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව, බංග්ලාදේශය, බාර්බඩෝස්, චීනය, ohh ithi hasaye musala yek , ෆීජි, ඝානා, ගයනා, , ඉන්දියාව, ඉරාකය, අයර්ලන්තය, ජැමෙයිකාව, ජෝර්දානය, Kenya, Kuwait, Libya, Malawi, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mexico, Myanmar, Nepal, නවසීලන්තය, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Sierra Leone, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

Historically, Bachelor of Medicine was also the primary medical degree conferred by institutions in the United States and Canada, such as the Pennsylvania, Harvard, Toronto, Maryland, and Columbia. Several early North American medical schools were (for the most part) founded by physicians and surgeons who had trained in England and ස්කොට්ලන්තය. University medical education in England culminated with the Bachelor of Medicine qualification, and in ස්කොට්ලන්තය the Doctor of Medicine, until from the mid-19th century when the public bodies that regulated medical practice at the time required practitioners in Scotland as well as England to hold the dual Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery degrees. Throughout the 1800s, North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the Ancient universities of Scotland and began conferring Doctor of Medicine rather than Bachelor of Medicine, the first institution to make such a switch being King's College (now Columbia University) in New York.

In the countries that award bachelors' degrees in medicine, however, Doctor of Medicine denotes a holder of a higher doctorate and is reserved for medical practitioners who undertake research and submit a thesis in the field of medicine. Nevertheless, those holding Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery are usually referred to by the courtesy title of "Doctor" and use the prefix "Dr".

Despite their styling as two degrees, Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery are usually conferred together. At some institutions, such as Oxford and Cambridge, it was possible in the past to be awarded the two degrees in different years.

In many countries, the degrees are awarded after an undergraduate course lasting five or six years. In some cases, a graduate in another discipline may subsequently enter a special graduate-entry medical course, reduced in duration to account for relevant material covered or learning skills acquired during the first degree. In some cases the old first year courses (for six year degrees) in the basic sciences of physics, chemistry and biology have been abolished, and that standard has to be reached by means of school examinations before entry. However, in most countries a newly-graduated Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery must spend a specified period in internship before they can obtain full qualification as a medical practitioner.

නම්කිරීම

The specific names and abbreviations given to these degrees depend on the particular institution, awarding body or country, and vary widely; this is mostly for reasons of tradition rather than to indicate any particular difference between the relative levels of the degrees, and they are considered equivalent.

If the awarding body titles the degrees in Latin, the degrees are commonly named Medicinae Baccalaureus, Chirugiae Baccalaureus, Medicinae Baccalaureus et Chirurgiae Baccalaureus, or Baccalaureus in Medicina et in Chirurgia, abbreviated as MB ChB, MB BCh or otherwise. If titled in English, they are named Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery, Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, or Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery, usually abbreviated as MB BS, and rarely as BM BS, even though most MB BS-awarding institutions do not use Latin to name their degrees.

Below are described the specific names used, arranged by country.

ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව
MB BS are conferred by most ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු medical schools. The graduate-entry Flinders medical school confers BM BS. The University of Newcastle confers BMed; although no degree in surgery is formally awarded by Newcastle, this degree is equivalent to the MB BS, and students may go on to a career in surgery the same as any other graduates in medicine and surgery.

ඊජිප්තුව
All medical schools in Egypt award MB BCh.

එංගලන්තය
Various abbreviations are used for these degrees in England:
MB ChB are used at the universities of Birmingham, Bristol, Edinburgh, Leeds, Leicester, Liverpool, Keele, Manchester, Sheffield, and Warwick.
MB BS are used at the University of East Anglia, Hull York Medical School, Imperial College London, the University of London (comprising of the UCL Medical School, St. George's Hospital Medical School, King's College London Medical School, and St. Bartholomew's and the London Medical School), and Newcastle University.
BM BCh are used at the University of Oxford.
BM BS are used at the University of Nottingham, Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry, and Brighton Sussex Medical School
BM is awarded at the University of Southampton.  Although no degree in surgery is formally awarded by Southampton, this degree is equivalent to the MB ChB, and students may go on to a career in surgery the same as any other graduates in medicine and surgery.
MB BChir are awarded by the University of Cambridge.

At the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, the preclinical course leads to an additional Bachelor of Arts degree (upgradable after three or four years to Master of Arts), after which most students used to go elsewhere (but usually to one of the London teaching hospitals) to complete clinical training. They could then take the degrees of their new university: they used to have the options of returning to their old university to take the clinical examinations, or taking one of the old non-university qualifying examinations.

The English Triple Conjoint Diploma diplomas: LRCP, LRCS, LMSSA were non-university qualifying examinations in medicine and surgery awarded jointly by the Royal College of Physicians of London, Royal College of Surgeons of England and Society of Apothecaries through the United Examining Board from 1994 until 1999, when the General Medical Council withdrew permission. Prior to 1994, the English Conjoint diploma of LRCP, MRCS was awarded for 110 years, and the LMSSA was a distinct and sometimes less-esteemed qualification. These diplomas slowly became less popular among British medical students, but as recently as 1938 only a half of them qualified with university degrees.The diplomas came to be taken mostly by those who had already qualified in medicine overseas.

ගුයානා
The University of Guyana awards MB BS. Other "offshore" United-States-linked schools in the country award the North American MD, but these are not recognized in Guyana itself.

හොං කොං
The awarding of qualifications in Hong Kong has continued to follow the British tradition despite the handover of the territory's sovereignty from the hands of the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China on 30 June 1997.
The dual degree is awarded as:
 MB BS at University of Hong Kong; and
 MB ChB at Chinese University of Hong Kong.

ඉන්දියාව
Medical colleges in India award MB BS. Licenciate qualifications in medicine and surgery, LMS or LMP, were also formerly awarded after a shorter course, originally at a "medical school" rather than a "medical college".

In addition, the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Bombay formerly awarded a licentiate at LMS level, a membership (MCPS) at MB BS level and a fellowship (FCPS) at MD level and the State Medical Faculty of West Bengal (previously of Bengal) similarly gave licentiates and memberships on an external basis.

ඉරාකය
All medical schools in Iraq award MB ChB.

අයර්ලන්තය
The University of Limerick awards BM BS. The other medical schools in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland—namely Queen's University Belfast, University of Dublin (Trinity College), some constituent institutions of the National University of Ireland (University College Dublin, University College Cork and National University of Ireland, Galway), and the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland—award the degrees of MB BCh BAO. The letters BAO stand for Baccalaureus in Arte Obstetricia (Bachelor of Obstetrics), a degree unique to Ireland which the Irish universities began to award in the 19th century after legislation insisted on a final examination in obstetrics. This third degree, however, is not registerable with the Irish Medical Council nor the British General Medical Council (GMC).

LRCPI LRCSI, or simply LRCP&SI, denotes a holder of the historical non-university qualifying licenciates awarded jointly by the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland and the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland to students of the RCSI's medical school under the Irish Conjoint Scheme. Unlike the corresponding licentiates awarded by the Royal Colleges in Scotland and England (which were external qualifications), these qualifications are still registerable with the Irish Medical Council, but not with the British GMC. Students at RCSI still receive these licenciates but now also receive the degrees MB BCh BAO, due to RCSI's status as a recognised college of the National University of Ireland. The RCSI students also received a Licence in Midwifery (LM) from each college, in the same way that the Irish universities granted BAO degrees, so their qualifications were sometimes expressed as L & LM, RCPI, L & LM, RCSI or more misleadingly as LLM, RCP&SI.

LAH formerly denoted a licentiate of the now-defunct Apothecaries' Hall, Dublin, and is no longer awarded.

කෙන්‍යාව
The national universities with medical faculties in Kenya, namely the University of Nairobi, Kenyatta University and Moi University, award MB ChB.

මලයාසියාව
The University of Malaya and Universiti Teknologi MARA both award MB BS.  Other public universities such as Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Universiti Malaysia Sabah and Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, however, follow the North American model and style their degrees as Doctor of Medicine. However, it is questionable whether such degrees are academically equivalent to the US award, since the latter universities usually require entrants to have a four year bachelor degree before entry into a professional medical degree.

මෙක්සිකෝව
Most medical schools last for 5 or 6 years, which include 1 or 2 years of internship in public and/or private hospitals. After those years of school, every medical student is required to complete one year working in rural places. This year is refered to as "social service." During this year the student may practice වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව although the title can not be awarded until this year has been completed. After the social service year the student recieves the title of "Physician and Surgeon" (or Doctor).

මියන්මාරය
All four medical schools in Myanmar award MB BS.

නේපාලය
All 12 medical schools in Nepal award MB BS.

නවසීලන්තය
The two New Zealand medical schools, Auckland and Otago, style their degrees as MB ChB.

පාකිස්තානය
All medical schools in Pakistan award the MB BS degree after completion of an undergraduate medical education.

ස්කොට්ලන්තය
All medical schools in Scotland (Aberdeen, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Dundee) award MB ChB.

The University of St Andrews's Bute Medical School awarded MB ChB until the early 1970s, but since the incorporation of its clinical medical school into the University of Dundee, St Andrews now only awards a pre-clinical BSc or BSc (Hons), and students go elsewhere to finish their clinical training, usually to the University of Manchester where they are awarded an MB ChB after a further three years' study.

The Scottish Triple Conjoint Diploma of LRCPE, LRCSE, LRCPSG (earlier LRCPE, LRCSE, LRFPSG) is an old non-university qualifying examination in medicine and surgery awarded jointly by the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh and Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow, previously through a Conjoint Board and from 1994 through the United Examining Board.  These qualifications are still registrable with the GMC, but permission to award them was withdrawn by the Privy Council of the UK in 1999.

දකුණු අප්‍රිකාව
The University of Pretoria, University of Cape Town, University of the Free State, University of Stellenbosch, University of KwaZulu-Natal and MEDUNSA all award MB ChB, whereas the University of the Witwatersrand styles its degree as MB BCh.

සිංගප්පූරුව
The Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine at the National University of Singapore confers MB BS. The American Duke University also has a medical programme based in Singapore, but it follows the North-American model of styling its degree Doctor of Medicine.

ශ්‍රී ලංකා
The University of Colombo, ශ්‍රී ජයවර්ධනපුර විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය, පේරාදෙණිය විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය, කැලණිය විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය, රුහුණ විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය, යාපනය විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය, ශ්‍රී ලංකා රජරට විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය, ජෙනරාල් සර් ජෝන් කොතලාවල ආරක්ෂක විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය සහ ශ්‍රී ලංකා නැගෙනහිර විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය යන විශ්වවිද්‍යාල මගින් MBBS උපාධිය පිරිනමයි.

වේල්සය
All medical schools in Wales award MB BCh.

බටහිර ඉන්දීය කොදෙවූ දූපත්
All constituent countries of the University of the West Indies (UWI) confer MB BS, due to the historical affiliation of UWI to the University of London.

වර්ගීකරණය
Medical degrees differ from other undergraduate degrees in that they are professional qualifications which lead holders to enter a particular career upon receipt. This is not the case with most other undergraduate degrees, with the exception of qualifications in pharmacy, dentistry,  veterinary medicine and qualifying law degrees, so whilst the Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery are undergraduate or graduate degrees (depending on the institution), they are perhaps more accurately conceptualised as a so-called first professional degree.

Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery are usually awarded as general/ordinary degrees, not as honours degrees, and as such the graduate is not classified as for honours degrees in other subjects. However, at many institutions (for example the University of Manchester in England and the University of Dundee in Scotland) it is possible for the degrees to be awarded with Honours (i.e. MB ChB (Hons)) or with Commendation, if the board of examiners recognises exceptional performance throughout the degree course. Very few of these are awarded.

More often, it is possible to study one subject for an extra year for an intercalated honours degree.  This is usually a Bachelor of Science (BSc), Bachelor of Medical Science (BMedSci), Bachelor of Medical Biology (BMedBiol) or similar: at Oxford and Cambridge in England and Dublin in Ireland Bachelor of Arts degrees are awarded. At a few universities most medical students obtain an ordinary degree in science as well: when the University of Edinburgh had a six year course, the third year was followed by award of an ordinary BSc(MedSci). In ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව, The University of Melbourne in ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව offers an Arts Degree (BA) to a medical student on the completion of two extra years of undergraduate study, and Monash University offers a Law degree (LLB); if the optional Law degree is undertaken, on completion of their degree the student may choose to do a one-year internship at a hospital and become a doctor, or spend one year doing articles to practise thereafter as a lawyer. At the University of Nottingham in England all medical students on the five year course obtain a Bachelor of Medical Sciences (BMedSci) degree without an extra intercalated year.  The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland along with certain National University of Ireland medical schools offers a BMedSci qualification on completion of a thesis based on 2-3 months of summer research; only students achieving honours in their preclinical courses are eligible to receive the degree. At Imperial College London certain medical students are able to extend their intercalated year to an extra three years, thus temporarily exiting the MBBS course to complete a PhD. Upon completion of the PhD, the student is required to sit the remaining 2 years of the medicine course in order to receive his/her MBBS degeee.

Progression
Medical school graduates are only entitled to use the courtesy title "Doctor" upon registration as a medical practitioner with the relevant regulatory body in their respective country.

Medical graduates are also eligible to sit various postgraduate examinations, including examinations for membership and fellowship of professional institutions (such as Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons), postgraduate Masters degrees (such as a Master of Surgery or Master of Obstetrics) and a postgraduate doctorate in medicine (eg Doctor of Medicine, if earned in the UK or Commonwealth nations), and board certification examinations.

මේවාත් බලන්න
Bachelor's degree
Homologation
Medical school
Medical education
Doctor of Medicine
Master of Surgery

යොමුව

Footnotes

Notations
 (PHY-993) Use of the M. D. Title: The Wisconsin Medical Society: 1) defends the use of the M.D. title by physicians who graduated with an M.B.B.S. and are licensed to practice medicine in Wisconsin. (HOD,0495)

http://www.cmb.ac.lk/academic/medicine/index.htm

පරිවර්තනය වෙමින් පවතින ලිපි

වෛද්‍යවේදී සහ ශල්‍යවේදී උපාධිය


An Inkjet printer is a printer for computers. It uses special ink to print on the paper. Another type of printing technology is the Laser printer. Inkjet printers are preferred for printing photos and graphics due to their high-quality color output, whereas laser printers are preferred for printing text due to their high contrast and speed.

Usually, inkjet printers are used by people who print very little. The ink comes in special ink cartridges, which can be very expensive and uneconomical. Also, the ink in the cartridge may dry up. This means that a new cartridge is needed. Three colors of cartridges, which combine magenta, yellow and cyan inks are used to create color tones. A black cartridge is also used for crisp monochrome  output. Some professional printers have one or more additional colors for better photo quality, such as light cyan, light magenta, blue, red, green, orange, and grey.

Inkjet printers may use either dye or pigment inks. Pigment inks are less likely to fade, whereas dye inks create more-realistic photos and are less likely to clog the printhead.

Many professionals use inkjet printers to print on very large surfaces (up to 5m width). These printers usually do not use cartridges, but have a continuous supply of ink that could last for a long time. Standard-size (A4 or US Letter) printers with a continuous ink supply are also available.
Inkjet printers need special paper. This paper has been treated so that the ink does not smear.
Less expensive inkjet printers, which cost a little more than 100 US dollars, are a bargain for users who want to be able to print pages in color. Inkjet printers can be very cheap but the ink can also be rather expensive. Some professional inkjet printers can print on surfaces other than paper, such as CDs/DVDs or plastic cards.

An inkjet printer can print between 300 and 720 DPI (Dots Per Inch). Some newer printers can print at higher resolutions, although the benefit of resolutions beyond 720 DPI may not be noticed by the human eye.

A common problem with inkjet printers is that if the printhead is clogged, banding (stripes) will appear in the printed image. To fix this, the printhead needs to be cleaned using the software included with the printer. This problem occurs most often when the printer has not been used for a long time. To prevent this from happening on rarely-used printers, a cron job can be scheduled to print a purge sheet (an image containing all colors used by the printer) once per day. A small, barely noticeable (usually only noticeable by magnification) amount of banding will occur even with a perfectly clean printhead due to the way the printer works.

Printers

Inkjet printer


Brigitte Bierlein (; born 25 June 1949) is an Austrian former jurist who served as president of the Constitutional Court before serving as chancellor of Austria from June 2019 until January 2020. An Independent, she was the first woman to hold either office.

Bierlein served as the advocate general of the Procurator's Office – essentially the country's chief public prosecutor – from 1990 to 2002, as well as a member of the executive board of the International Association of Prosecutors from 2001 to 2003. In 2003, Bierlein was made a member and the vice president of the Constitutional Court.

Following the Ibiza affair, President Alexander Van der Bellen named Bierlein Chancellor of Austria, after a parliamentary motion of no confidence dismissed the first government of Sebastian Kurz, the first successful motion of no confidence in Austrian modern history. She was the first woman to assume the role and served until the next government led by Kurz was sworn in following the legislative election which took place on 29 September 2019.

Early life
Brigitte Bierlein was born on 25 June 1949 in Vienna during the Allied occupation of Austria. Her father was a civil servant. Her mother, trained as an artist, was a homemaker. She was educated at the Gymnasium Kundmanngasse, from which she graduated in 1967. Bierlein originally wanted to study either art or architecture and came close to joining the University of Applied Arts. However, she ultimately chose to study law instead, partly on the advice of her mother and partly because she did not want to be a financial burden on her parents any longer than necessary. Bierlein enrolled at the University of Vienna, receiving her doctorate of law in 1971.

Judicial career
Bierlein served for four years as a candidate judge, before she was officially elevated to the judiciary in 1975.
She spent the next two years presiding over trial courts, first the District Court Innere Stadt () and then the District Tribunal Vienna (), a criminal court that has since been dissolved.

In the former position, she mostly dealt with cases at tenancy law, an area that appears to have bored her greatly.

In 1977, Bierlein left the bench to join the Vienna Public Prosecutor's Office (). She was responsible for general and political criminal cases as well as for criminal cases pursuant to media law, a type of proceedings customarily handled by dedicated specialists in Austria. In 1986, Bierlein was promoted to the Vienna Chief Public Prosecutor's Office (). She was now a distinguished civil servant attached to one of the country's five most senior criminal chambers. In 1987, she spent a few months working in the Department of Criminal Law in the Ministry of Justice, then returned to her position in the prosecution service.

In 1990, she was appointed advocate general of the Procurator's Office, the section of the prosecution service attached directly to the Supreme Court.
She was the first woman to serve in this position.

The same year, Bierlein became a member of the board of examiners for judges and prosecutors at the Vienna Higher Regional Court, a position she would hold until 2010.

In 1995, Bierlein was appointed to the executive board of the Association of Austrian Prosecutors. From 2001 to 2003, she served as the association's president. Also from 2001 to 2003, she held a seat on the executive board of the International Association of Prosecutors.

In 2002, the first Schüssel government recommended Bierlein for appointment as vice president of the Constitutional Court.
The move was not uncontroversial at the time. Bierlein had prosecuted crime with great fervor but had not distinguished herself as a legal scholar; she is in fact considered indifferent as a theorist to this day. Opposition politicians such as Josef Cap accused the government of passing over multiple more competent candidates in favor of a partisan hack. Bierlein supporters such as Maria Fekter countered that Bierlein's appointment would be an important step towards gender equality in Austria.

According to the well-known Austrian law professor , Bierlein owed her career at the Constitutional Court to the Austrian politician Jörg Haider and her life partner, the Austrian judge Ernest Maurer, a close friend of Jörg Haider.

Assenting to the cabinet's recommendation, President Thomas Klestil appointed Bierlein on 21 November 2002, the appointment to be effective 1 January 2003.
Once again, Bierlein was the first woman to serve in the role she was being elevated to.
In fact, there had been no women at all on the Constitutional Court until 1995.

Bierlein took over from the president of the court, Gerhart Holzinger, when he retired from the bench effective 31 December 2017.

On the initiative of the Freedom Party, the right-of-center first Kurz government moved to turn her interim position into a permanent one.
President Alexander Van der Bellen confirmed Bierlein as the new president of the Constitutional Court on 23 February 2018.
Bierlein's previous role as vice president passed on to Supreme Court justice Christoph Grabenwarter.
Wolfgang Brandstetter, who had formerly been vice chancellor and minister of justice on a People's Party ticket, was appointed to fill the vacancy of the Court.

Bierlein reached the mandatory retirement age of 70 in 2019.

Politics
Bierlein has no political affiliation. She is seen as solidly right of centre. During her time as a prosecutor, she was noted for her hardline tough-on-crime stance, although her years on the bench have earned her a reputation for civility and for working well with ideological opponents.
Commentators from both sides of the political spectrum note Bierlein's close ties to both People's Party and Freedom Party, as well as the fact that her career owes both its unexpected major breaks to right-of-centre coalition governments.

Bierlein herself acknowledges both her toughness as a prosecutor and her socially conservative bent in general. In response to doubts about her ability to remain above the fray as a Constitutional Court justice, she claims to be as committed to impartiality as any other professional judge and also points out that she has never actually joined any party.

In December 2017 the Austrian Constitutional Court with Bierlein as president ruled to introduce same-sex marriage on 1 January 2019.

After the first Kurz government lost a parliamentary vote of no-confidence on 27 May 2019 following the Ibiza affair, Alexander Van der Bellen, the president of Austria, named Bierlein as Kurz's successor. She became the first female chancellor of Austria and was in office until the next government was formed following the National Council elections on 29 September 2019. Bierlein's appointment was agreed with all political parties in the National Council. She became the second independent to serve as a chancellor after Johannes Schober, who was in office twice between 1921 and 1930, and the first in Austria's post-war history.

Personal life
Bierlein is unmarried and has no children. Her long-time partner was Ernest Maurer, a retired judge, who died in 2021. Bierlein is a supporter of the arts. She owns contemporary paintings, although she does not consider herself a collector. She also attends theatre and opera performances as well as museums. She enjoys skiing and sailing. In June 2020, Bierlein was pulled over on suspicion of driving while intoxicated. She was forced to surrender her driver's licence for four weeks and has since issued an apology.

Honours
 Austrian honours
  Grand Decoration of Honor in Silver with Sash of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
  Grand Decoration of Honor in Gold with Sash of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (16 June 2021)

References

External links

 Brigitte BIERLEIN at the Constitutional Court homepage

1949 births
20th-century Austrian women
21st-century Austrian women
21st-century Chancellors of Austria
21st-century Austrian women politicians
21st-century Austrian politicians
Austrian jurists
Austrian prosecutors
Austrian women judges
Constitutional court women judges
Female heads of government
Living people
Politicians from Vienna
Presidents of the Constitutional Court of Austria
University of Vienna alumni
Vice presidents of the Constitutional Court of Austria

Brigitte Bierlein


Aeolus or Eolus was the king of winds in Greek mythology. Although he varied from story to story, he was sometimes said to have had all the winds in a bag. In the Odyssey, he gave that bag to Odysseus to help him get home. Aeolus was the son of Hellen and a nymph named Orseis. Aeolus' brothers were Dorus, Xuthus and Amphictyon.

Greek gods and goddesses

Aeolus


Hyperion Solutions Corporation was a software company located in Santa Clara, California, which was acquired by Oracle Corporation in 2007.  Many of its products were targeted at the business intelligence (BI) and business performance management markets, and  were developed and sold as Oracle Hyperion products.
Hyperion Solutions was formed from the merger of Hyperion Software (formerly IMRS) and Arbor Software in 1998.

History
 1981 - IMRS founded by Bob Thomson and Marco Arese
 1983 - IMRS launches financial and management consolidation software called "Micro Control"
 1985 - IMRS hires Jim Perakis as CEO; he remains in this position during growth from $1M to almost $300M
 1991 - IMRS becomes a public company and launches a Windows-based successor to 'Micro Control' called 'Hyperion'
 1992 - Arbor Software ships first version of Essbase Online Analytical processing OLAP software
 1995 - Due to the success of the "Hyperion" product IMRS changes name to "Hyperion Software Corporation" and the name of the product is changed to "Hyperion Enterprise." Arbor becomes a publicly held company
 1997 - Arbor acquires Appsource
 1998 - Hyperion Software merges with Arbor and the combined company is renamed Hyperion Solutions
 1999 - Jeffrey Rodek named as Hyperion Chairman and CEO of Hyperion. Hyperion acquires Sapling Corporation (Enterprise Performance Management applications)
 2001 - Godfrey Sullivan is named Hyperion President and COO
 2003 - Hyperion acquires Brio Technology and The Alcar Group
 2004 - Hyperion names Jeffrey Rodek Executive Chairman; Godfrey Sullivan President and CEO
 2005 - Hyperion acquires Razza Solutions (Master data management) and appoints Northdoor as a reseller in the UK and Ireland.
 2006 - Hyperion acquires UpStream (Financial Data Quality Management)
 2006 - Hyperion acquires Beatware (Data visualization for Web and Mobile Devices)
 2007 - Hyperion acquired Decisioneering (Crystal Ball software).
Oracle Corporation announced on March 1, 2007 it had agreed to purchase Hyperion Solutions Corporation for $3.3 billion in cash.
The transaction was completed on April 18, 2007 and Hyperion now operates as a division of Oracle.
Oracle extended support for most Hyperion products (v11.1.2.x) to 2018.
Hyperion BI tools were bundled into Oracle Business Intelligence Suite Enterprise Edition.

Market
Vendors in the business intelligence space are often categorized into:
 The consolidated big four "megavendors", which include Oracle Hyperion as well as SAP BusinessObjects, IBM Cognos, and Microsoft BI.
 The independent "pure-play" vendors, the largest being MicroStrategy, Tableau, QlikView and SAS.

BI market surveys and analyses include:
 Gartner's BI Magic Quadrant - In 2007, Gartner placed Hyperion in its "Leader" quadrant for both Business Intelligence Platforms and Corporate Performance Management.
 Business Application Research Center (BARC)'s The BI Survey and The BI Verdict (formerly The OLAP Report)

Products
Hyperion software products included:
 Essbase
 Hyperion Intelligence and SQR Production Reporting (products acquired in 2003 takeover of Brio Technology)
 Hyperion Enterprise
 Hyperion Planning
 Hyperion Strategic Finance
 Hyperion Financial Data Management
 Hyperion Enterprise Performance Management Architect
 Hyperion Financial Close Management
 Hyperion Account Reconciliation
 Hyperion Disclosure Management
 Hyperion Performance Scorecard
 Hyperion Business Modelling
 Hyperion Financial Management
 Hyperion Master Data Management/Oracle Data Relationship Management
 Hyperion Financial Reporting
 Hyperion Web Analysis
 Hyperion SmartView
 Hyperion EPM Workspace
 Hyperion Profitability and Cost Management
 Hyperion System 9 BI+ (a combination of Interactive Reporting, SQR, Web Analysis, Financial Reporting, EPM Workspace and SmartView)
 Hyperion Financial Data Quality Management (also referred to as FDMEE, for Enterprise Edition)
 Hyperion Tax Provision
 Planning Budgeting Cloud Service
 Enterprise Performance Reporting Cloud Service

References

External links

 The Hyperion Developer Network
 Hyperion Press Kit

Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Software companies established in 1981
Defunct software companies of the United States
Oracle acquisitions
Business software companies
Companies based in Santa Clara, California
2007 mergers and acquisitions

Hyperion Solutions


Meyer este un nume de familie frecvent care se poate referi la:

Oameni

 Meyer, Adolf (1866 – 1950), psihiatru american de origine elvețiană
 Meyer, Adolf (1881 - 1921), arhitect
 Meyer, Adolf de (Photographer) (1868-1949)
 Meyer, Adolf Bernard (1840-1911), German anthropologist and ornithologist
 Meyer, Albert Cardinal (1903–1965), Roman Catholic Archbishop of Chicago
 Meyer, Albert (1870–1953), Swiss politician
 Meyer, Alfred (1891–1945), German Nazi official
 Meyer, Alfred Richard, nom de plume Munkepunke (1882-1956), German writer, see m:de:Munkepunke
 Meyer, Anthony (1920–2004), British soldier, diplomat, and Conservative Party politician
 Meyer, Austin, American software developer
 Meyer, Bertrand (born 1950), French computer scientist, designed the Eiffel programming language
 Bob Meyer (born 1939), American baseball player
 Meyer, Breckin (born 1974), U.S. actor and producer
 Meyer, Carl Friedrich (1803-1886), German physician and psychiatrist, see m:de:Carl Friedrich Meyer
 Meyer, Christopher (born 1944), former British Ambassador to the U.S.
 Meyer, Conrad Ferdinand (1825–1898), Swiss poet and writer
 Meyer, Debbie (born 1952), U.S. Olympic swimmer
 Meyer, Dina (born 1968), U.S. actor
 Meyer, Dirk, U.S. microprocessor designer
 Meyer, Drew, (born 1981) Major League Baseball player for the Texas Rangers, had his Major League debut in 2006
 Meyer, E. Y. (born 1946), Swiss writer, see m:de:E. Y. Meyer
 Meyer, Edgar (born 1960), U.S. double bassist
 Meyer, Eduard (1855-1930), German historian, see m:de:Eduard Meyer
 Meyer, Eric, U.S. web designer and author of books on Cascading Style Sheets
 Meyer, Ernst Hermann (1905-1988), German composer, pianist, and musicologist
 Meyer, Eugene (1875–1959), U.S. public official and newspaper publisher
 Meyer, Florian (born 1968), German football referee, see m:de:Florian Meyer
 Meyer, Frank (1909–1972), U.S. conservative political philosopher
 Meyer, Fred G. (1886-1978), U.S. retailer
 Meyer, Frederick Brotherton (1847-1929), British Baptist preacher
 Meyer, George (born 1956) U.S. TV comedy writer
 Meyer, George von Lengerke (1858–1918), U.S. Secretary of the Navy
 Meyer, Hannes (1889–1954), Swiss architect and director of the Bauhaus
 Meyer, Hans (1858-1929), German explorer and zoologist, made first "official" ascent of Mount Kilimanjaro, see m:de:Hans Meyer (Afrikaforscher)
 Meyer, Hans (born 1942), German football coach, see m:de:Hans Meyer (Fußball)
 Meyer, Heinrich August Wilhelm (1800-1873), German Protestant pastor and theologian
 Meyer, Heinrich Christian (1797-1848), German industrialist, see m:de:Heinrich Christian Meyer
 Meyer, Helga (died 2000), German opera singer
 Meyer, Herrmann Julius (1826-1909), German publisher, see m:de:Herrmann Julius Meyer
 Meyer, Joachim, German fencer, wrote Fundamental Descriptions of the Art of Fencing (1570)
 Meyer, Johan (died 1901), German-born pioneer of the Queensland Gold Coast
 Meyer, John C. (1919–1975), U.S. air force officer
 Meyer, Joseph (1796–1856), German industrialist and publisher
 Meyer, Joyce (born 1943), U.S. Christian Charismatic speaker and writer
 Meyer, Julie (born 1966), U.S.-born British investor, founded First Tuesday and Ariadne Capital
 Meyer, Julius Lothar (1830–1895), German chemist
 Meyer, Karl (born 1937), U.S. pacifist and political activist
 Meyer, Karl Otto (born 1928), Danish-minority politician in Schleswig-Holstein, see m:de:Karl Otto Meyer
 Meyer, Kirstine (1861–1941), Danish physicist
 Meyer, Krzysztof (born 1943), Polish composer, see m:de:Krzysztof Meyer
 Meyer, Kurt, New Zealand representative in the Cook Islands
 Meyer, Kurt (born 1944), Swiss politician
 Meyer, Kurt (1910-1961), German officer in the Waffen-SS
 Meyer, Laurenz (born 1948), German politician
 Meyer, Marshall (1930-1993), U.S. rabbi and human rights activist
 Meyer, Max Wilhelm (1853-1910), German astronomer, natural scientist, and writer, see m:de:Max Wilhelm Meyer
 Meyer, Nicholas (born 1945), U.S. film-maker
 Meyer, Paul (1840–1917), French philologist
 Meyer, Paul-André (1934-2003),French mathematician
 Meyer, Ray (born 1913), U.S. basketball coach
 Meyer, RJO "Boss""- founder of Millfield School
 Meyer, Russ (1922–2004), U.S. film director
 Meyer, Sabine (b. 1959), German clarinetist
 Meyer, Stephen C., U.S. theologian and "Intelligent Design" proponent
 Meyer, Thérèse (born 1948), Swiss politician
 Meyer, Tobias (născut în 1963), liderul departamentului de artă contemporană al casei de licitație Sotheby's
 Meyer, Urban (born 1964), U.S. American football coach
 Meyer, Viktor (1848–1897), German chemist
 Meyer, Yves (born 1939), French mathematician and scientist

Alte utilizări
 Meyer Corporation
 USS Meyer, a Clemson-class destroyer in the United States Navy
 Meyer locomotive

Vezi și
 Von Meyer, Myer, Meyr, Meier, Meir, Mayer, Maier, Mayr, Mair
 Meyers, Myers
 Meyerson, Myerson

 German family name etymology
 List of Jewish surnames
 m:de:Meier
 http://de.wiktionary.org/wiki/Meyer

Nume de familie

Meyer


A master's degree is the certificate that students get after they complete their bachelor's degree and continue to study in a university in some specific field. In other words, a person must first get a bachelor's degree before they can get a master's degree. People with this degree are considered to possess more advanced knowledge of the field that they had studied, as compared to those who only get a bachelor's degree. There has recently been an increase in programs leading to these degrees in the United States. More than twice as many such degrees are now awarded, as compared to the 1970s. In Europe, most countries offer master's degrees in all fields.

Related pages
Graduate school

Academic degrees

Master's degree


Charles J. Lister (1820, in London – 1912, in Owen Sound, Ontario) was a central figure in the Restoration Movement in 19th century Canada.

He immigrated to Bowmanville U.C. in 1821, In the late 1840s he turned down a handsome position with the Bank of Montreal for a life of service in the ministry with the Disciples of Christ. The Disciples can be traced to the evangelical influences of the 19th century brothers James and Robert Haldane, Greville Ewing, and 18th century John Glas and Robert Sandeman, all of Scotland. 'C. J.' was known as the "Ubiquitous Lister" owing to his widespread and lengthy evangelical work in Ontario and Manitoba.

In 1855 Lister accompanied Alexander Campbell, the Irish born cofounder of the American Disciples of Christ on his sole visit to Upper Canada. Campbell himself had been favorably impressed in 1808/09 with Greville Ewing in Glasgow. In the 1860s Lister edited his own journal The Advisor.  A son, John B. Lister continued in missionary work in Oregon and was editor there of the Church and School Reporter.

References

Sources
 Reuben Butchart, The Disciples of Christ in Canada Since 1830, Canadian Headquarters' Publications, Churches of Christ (Disciples), Toronto, 1949. Entry on Charles J. Lister. pp. 141–142.

Ministers of the Restoration Movement
1820 births
1912 deaths
Canadian religious leaders

Charles J. Lister


The human shoulder is made up of three bones: the clavicle (collarbone), the scapula (shoulder blade), and the humerus (upper arm bone) as well as muscles, ligaments and tendons.

The articulations (surfaces) between the bones of the shoulder make up the shoulder joints. The shoulder joint is the part of the body where the humerus attaches to the scapula, the head sitting in the glenoid fossa. The shoulder as a whole is the complete group of structures in the region of the joint.

There are two kinds of cartilage in the joint. The first type is the white cartilage on the ends of the bones (called articular cartilage) which allows the bones to glide and move on each other. When this type of cartilage starts to wear out (a process called arthritis), the joint becomes painful and stiff.

The labrum is a second kind of cartilage in the shoulder which is distinctly different from the articular cartilage. This cartilage is more fibrous or rigid than the cartilage on the ends of the ball and socket. Also, this cartilage is also found only around the socket where it is attached.

The shoulder must be mobile enough for the wide range actions of the arms and hands, but also stable enough to allow for actions such as lifting, pushing and pulling.  The compromise between mobility and stability results in many shoulder problems not faced by other joints such as the hip.

References

Joints

Shoulder


Paris is a town in Ontario, Canada. It is where Grand and Nith Rivers come together. It is  west of Toronto. It has a population of over 10,000 people. These people normally work  in the nearby cities such as Kitchener, Brantford and London.

Paris has a strong agricultural background. There are many farms around the center of the town.  Paris used to have large clothing and furniture factories. Most of the manufacturing sector has disappeared in recent year.

The town has a strong community spirit. There are many business association that try to find ways to make the town successful and make people want to live there. Several new building projects have brought hundreds of families to the community to live in a town with a strong school system, sports activities and jobs.

Other websites
Paris Downtown
Paris Historical Society

Towns in Ontario

Paris, Ontario


Major General John Joseph Murray DSO & Bar, MC (born 26 April 1892 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, died 8 September 1951 in Sydney, New South Wales) was an Australian Army Officer and businessman with a special role in both world wars. During World War I, he was mentioned in despatches  and got got medals while fighting on the Western Front in France. In World War II and he was made commander of the 20th Brigade that helped beat Erwin Rommell's Afrika Korps in Libya.

Early Life
Murray was born on born 26 April 1892 in Sydney, New South Wales. His father was working man from Ireland. His father was also called John Murray and his mother was called Margaret.

When he left the local Catholic school John Murray started training as a salesman for Sydney firm Anthony Hordern & Sons in 1910. He then joined the Australian Citizens Military Forces where he served two years before joining the 33rd Regiment in 1913.

World War I
John Murray was already in the Australian Army when World War I started on 28 July 1914. He was quickly (fast) made a Second Lieutenant on 6 March 1915. When he started being Second Lieutenant, Murray was moved to the Australian Imperial Force, and went by ship to Egypt. After being posted to the 1st Battalion at first, in March, 1916 he was moved to the 53rd Battalion, which was part of the 5th Division, when the Australian Imperial Force was helped by new soldiers from Australia. The 5th Division was soon moved from Egypt to France where they were put into the hard fighting of the Western Front.

By 19 July 1916 Murray's 53rd Battalion were in the first fighting by the Australian Imperial Force on the Western Front. It was the Battle of Fromelles. 5,533 Australian soldiers were killed, wounded or taken prisoner, because the fighting plan went wrong. The Australian War Memorial sayss the fighting was "the worst 24 hours in Australia's entire history"

John Murray became a Major in June 1917 and was soon known for his very good leadership and very brave night raiding (crossing at night into enemy trenches). In September 1918 during the very hard fighting of the Second Battle of the Somme, Murray's good leadership was mentioned again, and after fights near Peronne, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order.

Murray was still fighting on the Western Front when peace started 11 November 1918. Having been awarded the Military Cross and Distinguished Service Order, and also having twice being told of in dispatches he went back home to Australia in May, 1919.

Between the Wars
By 25 August 1919 the all of the men in the Australian Imperial Force had been sent home. Murray was happy to go back to his job at Anthony Hordern & Sons in Sydney, but he did not want to stop being a soldier, and he joined the Australian Citizens Military Forces.

On 4 January 1923 John Murray married Mary Madeline Cannon at St. Mary's Cathedral, Sydney, and soon after became the manager of the delivery department at Anthony Hordern & Sons.

By 1925 Murray became a of Lieutenant-Colonel. From 1934 to 1938 Murray was the Commanding Officer of the Australian Army Service Corps, 1st Division.

World War II
With war coming again, John Murray was given the command of the 9th Infantry brigade, and they got ready to move for war in February, 1940. He was chosen for the Second Australian Imperial Force in April 1940 and was given command of the 20th Brigade which went by ship to the Middle East in October 1940 to begin training in Palestine.

Tobruk
Murrays brigade was made a part of the 9th Division. Even though the troops were not ready to fight, the 9th Division was sent to Libya to help the 6th Division win Tobruk.

On 4 April 1941, the Afrika Korps starting fighting Murray's 20th Brigade. The Australians slowed down Rommell's forces, but there were so many Germans they could not be forced back. Murray and his troops moved into Tobruk itself. For his leadership, John Murray was granted a bar to his Distinguished Service Order (the bar is given instead of a second medal).

Murray's knowledge of Trench warfare and night-raiding was very helpful to the defenders during the Siege of Tobruk. In November 1941, Murray was mentioned in dispatches for the third time in his career for his excellent resistance to Rommell.

Battle for Australia
Murray returned to Australia in January 1942, just as the Japan was fighting south towards New Guinea. Instead of the recruiting job he expected, Murray was put in charge of the Newcastle Covering Force, and immediately promoted him to temporary Major-General.

The Newcastle Covering Force was soon re-named the 10th Division and Murray was sent to Western Australia in August 1942 to lead the 4th Division which was then moved to North Queensland due to fears of Japanese invasion during April and May 1943.In October 1944, he was made General of the Rear Echelon at Mareeba, before commanding the Northern Territory Force from March, 1945 until January, 1946, when he retired.

Post War
John Murray was made Australian trade commissioner to New Zealand from 1946 until 1949 and then the same role for Ceylon in 1949.

General John Murray died on 8 September 1951 at the Military Hospital, Concord, Sydney. He received a funeral with full military honours, and was buried in French's Forest Cemetery. His wife, three sons and two daughters survived him.

References

1892 births
1951 deaths

Australian military people
People from Sydney

John Murray (general)


In organic chemistry, acetyl (ethanoyl), is a functional group, the acyl of acetic acid, with chemical formula -COCH3.

Structure
The acetyl group contains a methyl group bonded to a carbonyl with a lone electron left over. This electron forms a chemical bond to the rest (R) of the molecule.

Use
The acetyl group is part of some organic compounds such as acetylcholine and acetyl-CoA.

Chemical compounds
Functional groups

Acetyl


Mr. and Mrs. North are fictional American amateur detectives. Created by Frances and Richard Lockridge, the couple was featured in a series of 26 Mr. and Mrs. North novels, a Broadway play, a motion picture and several radio and television series.

History
The characters originated in 1930s vignettes written by Richard Lockridge for the New York Sun, and he brought them back for short stories in The New Yorker. These stories were collected in Mr. and Mrs. North (1936). Lockridge increased the readership after he teamed with his wife Frances on a novel, The Norths Meet Murder (1940), launching a series of 26 novels, including Death Takes a Bow, Death on the Aisle and The Dishonest Murderer. Their long-run series continued for over two decades and came to an end in 1963 with the death of Frances Lockridge. The series was unusual in that it was Mrs. North who often solved the cases, while Mr. North was just background much of the time. In his article, "Married Sleuths," Charles L.P. Silet captured the flavor of the novels:
The Mr. and Mrs. North novels contain carefully crafted puzzles and the Lockridges usually play fair with their readers. The series also features Pam and Jerry's warmly humorous domestic environment and the couple's witty exchanges with the duller members of the police force. Although the Norths remain the focus of the series, the books contain a good deal of political and social commentary, a richly detailed look at the changing life in New York City, as well as glimpses of the outlying suburban counties. Also, the North's stable marriage relationship presents a marked contrast—and a welcome one—to the traditions of the lone detective characteristic of much other American mystery fiction. Even though the Mr. and Mrs. North novels now may appear overly deliberate in their pacing, they still prove wonderful reading as mysteries, and the glimpses they provide of our past social history give them a nostalgic and authentic period flavor. Aficionados of classic crime fiction have always appreciated this long-running series, and new readers should be encouraged to discover this witty and charming couple.

Novels

 The Norths Meet Murder (1940)
 Murder Out of Turn (1941)
 A Pinch of Poison (1941)
 Death on an Aisle (1942)
 Hanged for a Sheep (1942)
 Death Takes a Bow (1943)
 Killing the Goose (1944)
 Payoff for the Banker (1945)
 Death of a Tall Man (1946)
 Murder Within Murder (1946)
 Untidy Murder (1948)
 Murder Is Served (1948)
 The Dishonest Murderer (1949)
 Murder in a Hurry (1950)
 Murder Comes First (1951)
 Dead as a Dinosaur (1952)
 Death Has a Small Voice (1953)
 Curtain for a Jester (1953)
 Key to Death (1954)
 Death of an Angel (1955)
 Voyage Into Violence (1956)
 Long Skeleton (1958)
 Murder Is Suggested (1959)
 The Judge Is Reversed (1960)
 Murder Has Its Points (1961)
 Murder by the Book (1963)

Broadway and film
Albert Hackett and Peggy Conklin had the title roles in the Broadway production Mr. and Mrs. North, which ran 163 performances at the Belasco Theatre from January 12, 1941, to May 31, 1941. Alfred De Liagre, Jr. produced and directed the play written by Owen Davis. Supporting actors included Philip Ober and Millard Mitchell. In that version, the North's apartment is located on Greenwich Place, Manhattan, realized in a scenic design by Jo Mielziner.

The Owen Davis play became a 1942 MGM film (Mr. and Mrs. North), starring Gracie Allen and William Post, Jr. with Millard Mitchell repeating his role of Detective Mullins from the Broadway production. Others in the cast were Paul Kelly, Rose Hobart and Keye Luke.

Radio

Mr. and Mrs. North was a radio mystery series that aired on NBC and CBS from 1942 to 1954. Alice Frost and Joseph Curtin had the title roles when the series began in 1942. The characters, publisher Jerry North and his wife Pam, lived in Greenwich Village at 24 St. Anne's Flat. They were not professional detectives but simply an ordinary couple who stumbled across a murder or two every week for 12 years. The radio program eventually reached nearly 20 million listeners.

In 1946, Mr. and Mrs. North received the first Best Radio Drama Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America (in a tie with CBS's The Adventures of Ellery Queen). The program, which was broadcast once in 1941 and continuously from December 1942 through December 1946 on NBC Radio (for Woodbury Soap), and from July 1947 to April 1955 on CBS Radio (for Colgate-Palmolive and, later, Adler sewing machines), featured Carl Eastman (1941), Joseph Curtin (1942–53) and Richard Denning (1953–55) as Jerry North. Pam North was played by Peggy Conklin (1941), Alice Frost (1942–53) and Barbara Britton (1953–55). In his book, Radio Crime Fighters, Jim Cox wrote that the couple:
... who passed themselves off as a publisher and his homemaker-spouse continued to make lighthearted wisecracks as they stepped over bodies in dark alleys and were rendered unconscious by unknown assailants dispensing blows to the head almost every week ... The feminine half of the twosome was at least equal to the husband in solving cases that often baffled law-enforcement officers with years of training and practice—except in reading clues. No explanation was given, of course, as to why a couple of misfits could be so successful in their preoccupation while the professionals thrashed about ineffectually."

Television

In 1946, producer-director Fred Coe brought the Owen Davis play to television (on New York City's WNBT) with John McQuade and Maxine Stewart in the leads and Don Haggerty, Joan Marlowe and Millard Mitchell repeating their Broadway roles.

Joseph Allen and Mary Lou Taylor played Mr. and Mrs. North from July 1949 in NBC Presents (
1 Season of 21 Episodes).

Barbara Britton and Richard Denning starred in the TV adaptation, produced by John W. Loveton, seen on CBS from 1952 to 1953 and on NBC in 1954, sponsored by Revlon cosmetics and Congoleum-Nairn, Inc. Francis De Sales starred in 25 episodes as police Lieutenant Bill Weigand, only his second screen role. Guest stars included Raymond Burr, Hans Conried, Mara Corday, Lawrence Dobkin, I. Stanford Jolley, Carolyn Jones, Katy Jurado, Jimmy Lydon, Dayton Lummis, Julia Meade, William Schallert, and Gloria Talbott. In his early days at WPTZ TV in Philadelphia, Ernie Kovacs and Edie Adams occasionally spoofed the show in sketches titled Mr. & Mrs. South on Kovacs's' morning comedy show Three To Get Ready.

Episodes

References

External links
 Mr. and Mrs. North by Owen Davis: "Character List"
 Internet Archive: Mr. and Mrs. North episodes

1942 radio programme debuts
1946 American television series debuts
1954 radio programme endings
1940s American radio programs
1950s American radio programs
1952 American television series debuts
1954 American television series endings
American detective television series
American radio dramas
Black-and-white American television shows
Book series introduced in 1940
CBS original programming
CBS Radio programs
Detective radio shows
Detective television series
Edgar Award-winning works
North
North
North, Mr. and Mrs.
North
North
Literary duos
North
North
NBC original programming
NBC radio programs
North
Radio duos
Radio programmes based on novels
Television duos

Mr. and Mrs. North


Lusk's Ferry was a place where pioneers crossed the Ohio River from Kentucky into Illinois. Some sources say that Golconda, Illinois was once called "Lusk's Ferry". Others say that the name properly refers to the place across the River, in Livingston County, Kentucky.

Lusk's Ferry was a terminus of the Lusk's Ferry Road, an early overland route connecting the Ohio River with Fort Kaskaskia. In his conquest of Illinois in 1778, George Rogers Clark crossed the Ohio River at Fort Massac. He then marched north a short distance to the Lusk's Ferry Road, and from there to Fort Kaskaskia.

In 1798, Major James Lusk moved the ferry across the River to Illinois. The Major died while building a road into the interior of Illinois. His widow, Sarah, then took over the ferry business. The town on the Illinois side became known as "Sarahville" by 1816. The name was changed to Golconda in 1817.

In 1817, the Western Gazetteer listed two places to cross the Ohio River and make the overland journey to the Territorial Capital at Kaskaskia, Illinois. The shortest overland journey was from Lusk's Ferry.

From 1838 to 1839, thousands of Cherokee were forced to cross the Ohio at Lusk's Ferry on the Trail of Tears.

Lusk Creek joins the Ohio River at Golconda. The creek flows through a deep canyon which is crossed by few roads. It is the site of the Lusk Creek Wilderness Area.

See also
Cave-In-Rock Ferry, from Illinois to Kentucky
Ford's Ferry, from Kentucky to Illinois
Lusk's Ferry Road
List of crossings of the Ohio River

References

External links
Old Trails of Kentucky
Excerpt from Western Gazetteer
Lusk Genealogy
History of Pope County, Illinois
Lusk Creek Wilderness Area

Geography of Pope County, Illinois
Crossings of the Ohio River
Pre-statehood history of Illinois
Water transportation in Illinois

Lusk's Ferry, Illinois


The Halabja massacre (), also known as the Halabja chemical attack, was a massacre of Kurdish people that took place on 16 March 1988, during the Iraqi–Kurdish conflict in the closing days of the Iran–Iraq War in Halabja, Kurdistan, Iraq. The attack was part of the Al-Anfal Campaign in Kurdistan, as well as part of the Iraqi Army's attempt to repel the Iranian Operation Zafar 7. It took place 48 hours after the capture of the town by the Iranian Army. A United Nations (UN) medical investigation concluded that mustard gas was used in the attack, along with unidentified nerve agents.

The incident was the largest chemical weapons attack directed against a civilian-populated area in history, killing between 3,200 and 5,000 people and injuring 7,000 to 10,000 more, most of them civilians. Preliminary results from surveys of the affected region showed an increased rate of cancer and birth defects in the years afterward.

The Halabja attack has officially been defined as a genocidal massacre against the Kurdish people in Iraq under Saddam Hussein by the Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal. The attack was also condemned as a crime against humanity by the Parliament of Canada. Ali Hassan al-Majid, a high-ranking Iraqi official who led the Anfal campaign, was found guilty of ordering the attack and subsequently executed in 2010.

Background

Northern Iraq was an area of general unrest during the early stage of the Iran–Iraq War, with the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) militias joining forces, with Iranian support, in 1982 and 1983, respectively. From 1985, the Iraqi Ba'athist government under Saddam Hussein decided to eradicate pockets of Kurdish insurgents in the north and strike down the peshmerga rebels by all means possible, including large-scale punishment of civilians and the use of chemical weapons. The Halabja event was also part of Iraqi efforts to counter-attack Kurdish and Iranian forces in the final stages of Operation Zafar 7.

Chemical attack
The five-hour attack began in the evening of 16 March 1988, following a series of indiscriminate conventional (rocket and napalm) attacks. Iraqi Mig and Mirage aircraft began dropping chemical bombs on Halabja's residential areas, far from the besieged Iraqi army base on the outskirts of the town. According to regional Kurdish rebel commanders, Iraqi aircraft, coordinated by helicopters, conducted up to 14 bombings in sorties of seven to eight planes each. Eyewitnesses told of clouds of white, black and then yellow smoke billowing upward and rising as a column about  in the air.

It was a beautiful spring day. As the clock approached 11:00 in the morning, I felt a strange sensation; my heart convulsed as if it were telling me that we were on the verge of a major calamity. Within minutes, artillery rounds began to explode in Halabja and planes began dropping bombs on the town. The bombing was concentrated on the northern neighborhoods, so we ran and hid in our basement. At 2 o'clock in the afternoon, as the intensity of the bombing wound down, I carefully sneaked out of the basement to the kitchen and carried food to my family. When the bombing stopped, we began to hear noises that sounded like metal pieces falling on the ground. But I didn't find an explanation.

I saw things that I won't forget for as long as I live. It started with a loud strange noise that sounded like bombs exploding, and a man came running into our house, shouting, 'Gas! Gas!' We hurried into our car and closed its windows. I think the car was rolling over the bodies of innocent people. I saw people lying on the ground, vomiting a green-colored liquid, while others became hysterical and began laughing loudly before falling motionless onto the ground. Later, I smelled an aroma that reminded me of apples and I lost consciousness. When I awoke, there were hundreds of bodies scattered around me. After that I took shelter again in a nearby basement and the area was engulfed by an ugly smell. It was similar to rotting garbage, but then it changed to a sweet smell similar to that of apples. Then I smelled something that was like eggs.

When you hear people shouting the words 'gas' or 'chemicals'—and you hear those shouts spreading among the people—that is when terror begins to take hold, especially among the children and the women. Your loved ones, your friends, you see them walking and then falling like leaves to the ground. It is a situation that cannot be described—birds began falling from their nests; then other animals, then humans. It was total annihilation. Whoever was able to walk out of the town, left on foot. Whoever had a car, left by car. But whoever had too many children to carry on their shoulders, they stayed in the town and succumbed to the gas.

Survivors said the gas at first smelled of sweet apples and reported that people "died in a number of ways, suggesting a combination of toxic chemicals." Citing an interview with a university student who survived the attack, the international NGO, Human Rights Watch, reported that "some [victims] 'just dropped dead'. Others 'died of laughing.' Others took a few minutes to die, first 'burning and blistering' or 'coughing up green vomit'". "Those who were in the thick of the 'death cloud' died in suspended animation" according to Dlawer Ala'Aldeen of Nottingham University, who collected detailed data between 1987-1988, including numbers, places and types of chemical weapon attacks across Iraqi Kurdistan.  Many were injured or perished in the panic that followed the attack, especially those who were blinded by the chemicals.

"Iranian physicians reported that victims of the chemical attacks on Halabja showed characteristic symptoms of cyanide poisoning," while other reports indicated substantial quantities of mustard gas and other chemical weapons were used. Most of the wounded taken to hospitals in the Iranian capital Tehran were suffering from mustard gas exposure. A United Nations (UN) medical investigation concluded that mustard gas was used in the attack, along with unidentified nerve agents; the UN's investigator was "unable to obtain any definitive information about the [reported] use of hydrocyanic gas as an aggressive chemical." It is generally accepted that "a lethal cocktail of mustard gas and the nerve agents Tabun, Sarin and VX" was used, as reported by the BBC. Prior to the Halabja incident there were at least 21 documented smaller-scale chemical attacks against Iraqi Kurds, none of which prompted any serious response from the international community.

Aftermath

Discovery and response
The first images after the attack were taken by Iranian journalists who later spread the pictures in Iranian newspapers. Footage taken by a British ITN camera crew, airlifted by the Iranians, was also shown worldwide via news programmes. Some of those first pictures were taken by Iranian photographer Kaveh Golestan, who described the scene to Guy Dinmore of the Financial Times. He was about  outside Halabja with a military helicopter when the Iraqi MiG-23 fighter-bombers flew in. He said "it was not as big as a nuclear mushroom cloud, but several smaller ones: thick smoke." Golestan was shocked by the scenes on his arrival in the town, though he had seen gas attacks before at the front lines:

It was life frozen. Life had stopped, like watching a film and suddenly it hangs on one frame. It was a new kind of death to me. (…) The aftermath was worse. Victims were still being brought in. Some villagers came to our chopper. They had 15 or 16 beautiful children, begging us to take them to hospital. So all the press sat there and we were each handed a child to carry. As we took off, fluid came out of my little girl's mouth and she died in my arms.
The Iraqi government did not publicly comment on the use of chemical weapons at Halabja until 23 March, and early statements by Iraqi officials on the matter were inconsistent. Although Iraq ultimately denied responsibility for the attack and blamed it on Iran, its initial silence, as well as the fact that Halabja was never a major part of Iraq's wartime propaganda campaign against Iran, raises questions about the sincerity of this deflection. International response at the time was muted. The United States (U.S.) government and its intelligence agencies suggested that Kurdish civilians had not been deliberately targeted, and attempted to place responsibility for the attack on Iran. The U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency and Central Intelligence Agency analyst Stephen C. Pelletiere claimed at the time that Iran was responsible for the gassing, an allegation which Pelletiere repeated in a 2003 op-ed in The New York Times. However, these claims were subsequently discredited. A briefing paper produced by the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about how the British government should respond to the massacre, and whether or not economic sanctions should be imposed, came to the following conclusion: "We believe it better to maintain a dialogue with others if we want to influence their actions. Punitive measures such as unilateral sanctions would not be effective in changing Iraq's behaviour over chemical weapons, and would damage British interests to no avail." According to Tony Benn, the issue was raised in Parliament, but he was told that "Saddam was an ally".

In response to further Iraqi chemical attacks on Kurdish civilians after the August 1988 ceasefire with Iran, U.S. senators Claiborne Pell and Jesse Helms called for comprehensive economic sanctions against Iraq, including an oil embargo and severe limitations on the export of dual-use technology. Although the ensuing legislation passed in the U.S. Senate, it faced strong opposition within the House of Representatives and did not become law. In a rare rebuke, United States Secretary of State George Shultz condemned Iraq's "unjustified and abhorrent" attacks, which Shultz's assistant Charles E. Redman characterized as "unacceptable to the civilized world." Even after these pronouncements, however, the State Department advised against sanctions.

Iraqi government documents dating from 16 March 1988 to several weeks later refer to "a firm escalation of military might and cruelty [in Halabja]," "the bombing by our planes and our artillery on the area of Halabja and Khurmal, [killing] approximately 2,000 enemy forces of the Persians and Iranian agents [the PUK]," the "recent attack on Halabja with special ammunition," and, in one case, explicitly refer to "the Iraqi chemical attack on Halabja." A 20 March 1988 Iraqi memorandum "placed the casualty figures 'as a result of the chemical attack' as 900–1,000 'killed and a large number wounded' near Halabjah and some 2,500 in the city itself. These numbers included 'Khomeini guard, saboteurs, and the rest were civilians.'" An Iraqi pilot explained in 2003 that the attack was motivated, in part, by the Iraqi perception that Kurdish collaboration with invading Iranian soldiers constituted "high treason."

Legal framework of Iraqi chemical warfare
Iraq was a signatory of the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which prohibits "the use in war of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and of all analogous liquids materials or devices". However, legal experts stated that such use was only applicable between signatory states and not against its own nationals, noting the Protocol's sentence "That the High Contracting Parties...agree to be bound as between themselves according to the terms of this declaration." In other words, the Iraqi chemical attacks against Iran was a war crime, but not against its own population.

Such legality was reinforced when the United Nations Security Council condemned Iraq's use of chemical weapons against Iran in Resolutions 612 and 620, while leaving out any reference of the same use against its own nationals. The Council was also at the time preoccupied with trying to get Iraq and Iran to accept Resolution 598 (which called for a ceasefire between the two nations), and restrained by concerns about Iraq's sovereignty in what was regarded as an 'internal affair'.

Destruction and partial restoration of Halabja

Survivors assisted by peshmerga and Iranians hastily buried most of the dead in makeshift mass graves. After Halabja was retaken from Iranian and Kurdish rebel forces, Iraqi troops in NBC suits came to Halabja to study the effectiveness of their weapons and attacks. The town, still littered with unburied dead, was then systematically razed by Iraqi forces using bulldozers and explosives. The Japanese government financed a $70 million project to provide access to safe drinking water in response to this. In the meanwhile, an Iraqi high-ranking authority officially confessed in a meeting with Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, the Secretary-General of the United Nations for the utilization of chemical weapons by Iraq.

Medical and genetic consequences
Ten years later, in 1998, at least 700 people were still being treated for the severe after effects of the attack and 500 of them were judged to be critically ill, even as "the most severe cases may already have died." In surveys by local doctors, a higher percentage of medical disorders, miscarriages (outnumbering live births and 14 times higher than normal), colon cancer (10 times higher than normal), and heart diseases (quadrupled between 1990 and 1996) were found in Halabja compared to Chamchamal. Additionally, "other cancers, respiratory ailments, skin and eye problems, fertility and reproductive disorders are measurably higher in Halabja and other areas caught in chemical attacks." Some of those who survived the attack or were apparently injured only lightly at the time later developed medical problems doctors believe stemmed from the chemicals, and there are concerns that the attack may be having a lasting genetic impact on the Kurdish population, as preliminary surveys showed increased rates of birth defects.

Some reports indicated that "survivors of this particular attack have permanent injuries, including burns, and some exhibit symptoms of neurological damage, although this cannot yet be adequately confirmed."

In addition to human casualties and loss of life, animals, plants, wild life and the entire environment were severely affected and took years to recover

Trials of Saddam and 'Chemical Ali'
Saddam Hussein was not charged by the Iraqi Special Tribunal for crimes against humanity based on the events at Halabja. However, Iraqi prosecutors had "500 documented baskets of crimes during the Hussein regime" and Hussein was condemned to death based on just one case, the 1982 Dujail Massacre. Among several documents revealed during the trial of Saddam Hussein, one was a 1987 memo from Iraq's military intelligence seeking permission from the president's office to use mustard gas and the nerve agents sarin and tabun against Kurds. A second document said in reply that Saddam had ordered military intelligence to study the possibility of a "sudden strike" using such weapons against Iranian and Kurdish forces. An internal memo written by military intelligence confirmed it had received approval from the president's office for a strike using "special ammunition" and emphasized that no strike would be launched without first informing the president. Saddam himself told the court: "In relation to Iran, if any military or civil official claims that Saddam gave orders to use either conventional or special ammunition, which as explained is chemical, I will take responsibility with honor. But I will discuss any act committed against our people and any Iraqi citizen, whether Arab or Kurdish. I don't accept any insult to my principles or to me personally." Kurdish survivors had no doubt Saddam was personally responsible and were disappointed he was being tried only over the killings in Dujail. Saddam was executed by hanging on 30 December 2006.

Saddam's cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid (who commanded Iraqi forces in northern Iraq during that period, which earned him a nickname of 'Chemical Ali') was condemned to death by hanging by an Iraqi court in January 2010, after being found guilty of orchestrating the Halabja massacre. Al-Majid was first sentenced to hang in 2007 for his role in a 1988 military campaign against ethnic Kurds, codenamed Anfal, and in 2008 he also twice received a death sentence for his crimes against the Iraqi Shia Muslims, in particular for his role in crushing the 1991 uprisings in southern Iraq and his involvement in the 1999 killings in the Sadr City district of Baghdad (then called Saddam City). Al-Majid did not express remorse at his trials, stating his actions were in the interests of Iraqi security. He was executed by hanging on 25 January 2010. Among many other captured Iraqi government documents proving Iraqi responsibility for the attack, there is a recording of al-Majid boasting about the Kurds: "I will kill them all with chemical weapons. Who is going to say anything? The international community? Fuck the international community and those who listen to them!"

International sources for technology and chemical precursors

The know-how and material for developing chemical weapons were obtained by Saddam's regime from foreign sources. Most precursors for chemical weapons production came from Singapore (4,515 tons), the Netherlands (4,261 tons), Egypt (2,400 tons), India (2,343 tons), and West Germany (1,027 tons). One Indian company, Exomet Plastics, sent 2,292 tons of precursor chemicals to Iraq. Singapore-based firm Kim Al-Khaleej, affiliated to the United Arab Emirates, supplied more than 4,500 tons of VX, sarin and mustard gas precursors and production equipment to Iraq. Dieter Backfisch, managing director of West German company Karl Kolb GmbH, was quoted by saying in 1989 that "for people in Germany poison gas is something quite terrible, but this does not worry customers abroad."

The 2002 International Crisis Group (ICG) no. 136 "Arming Saddam: The Yugoslav Connection" concludes it was "tacit approval" by many world governments that led to the Iraqi regime being armed with weapons of mass destruction, despite sanctions, because of the ongoing Iranian conflict. Among the dual-use exports provided to Iraq from American companies such as Alcolac International and Phillips was thiodiglycol, a substance which can also be used to manufacture mustard gas, according to leaked portions of Iraq's "full, final and complete" disclosure of the sources for its weapons programs. The dual-use exports from U.S. companies to Iraq was enabled by a Reagan administration policy that removed Iraq from the State Department's list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Alcolac was named as a defendant in the Aziz v. Iraq case presently pending in the United States District Court (Case No. 1:09-cv-00869-MJG). Both companies have since undergone reorganization. Phillips, once a subsidiary of Phillips Petroleum is now part of ConocoPhillips, an American oil and discount fossil fuel company. Alcolac International has since dissolved and reformed as Alcolac Inc.

On 23 December 2005, a Dutch court sentenced Frans van Anraat, a businessman who bought chemicals on the world market and sold them to Saddam's regime, to 15 years in prison. The court ruled that the chemical attack on Halabja constituted genocide, but van Anraat was found guilty only of complicity in war crimes. In March 2008, the government of Iraq announced plans to take legal action against the suppliers of chemicals used in the attack.

In 2013, 20 Iraqi Kurds who were victims of the attack requested a judicial investigation into two unnamed French companies, saying that they were among 20 or more companies that helped Saddam Hussein construct a chemical weapons arsenal. The Kurds sought for an investigating judge to open a case.

Controversies

Allegations of Iranian involvement

The U.S. State Department, in the immediate aftermath of the incident, took the official position that Iran was partly to blame. A preliminary Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) study at the time reported that Iran was responsible for the attack, an assessment which was used subsequently by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for much of the early 1990s. The CIA's senior political analyst for the Iran-Iraq war, Stephen C. Pelletiere, co-authored an unclassified analysis of the war which contained a brief summary of the DIA study's key points. Pelletiere claimed that blue discolorations around the mouths of the victims and in their extremities suggested that a blood agent using cyanide was used in the attack at Halabja, and that only Iran was known to have used blood agents during the war. No proof that Iran had previously used hydrocyanic gas, as asserted by the DIA, was ever presented.

Joost Hiltermann, who was the principal researcher for Human Rights Watch between 1992–1994, conducted a two-year study of the massacre, including a field investigation in northern Iraq. Hiltermann writes: "Analysis of thousands of captured Iraqi secret police documents and declassified U.S. government documents, as well as interviews with scores of Kurdish survivors, senior Iraqi defectors and retired U.S. intelligence officers, show (1) that Iraq carried out the attack on Halabja, and (2) that the United States, fully aware it was Iraq, accused Iran, Iraq's enemy in a fierce war, of being partly responsible for the attack." This research concluded there were numerous other gas attacks, unquestionably perpetrated against the Kurds by the Iraqi armed forces. In 2001, Jean Pascal Zanders of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)'s Chemical and Biological Warfare Project also dismissed the allegations, arguing that "The coloring of the victims is more suggestive of sarin, which was in Iraq's arsenal." Leo Casey, writing in Dissent Magazine in 2003, observed that Pelletiere's analysis was based solely on images and testimony of blue discolorations and ignored all other evidence—including the recollections of hundreds of Kurdish witnesses; academic studies based on medical examinations, soil samples, and autopsies; and captured Iraqi government documents—proving Iraqi culpability.

Hiltermann noted that although cyanosis (the medical term for the blue discolorations in question) is etymologically related to cyanide, the former condition indicates only a blood supply deprived of oxygen, and is in no way sufficient to diagnose cyanide poisoning; in fact, "it could just as easily suggest the use of a nerve agent." Furthermore, "Even the proven presence of cyanide gas at Halabja would not necessarily implicate Iran," for two reasons outlined by Hiltermann. Prior to Halabja, Iranian forces made widespread use of amyl nitrite to counter what they repeatedly alleged was Iraqi cyanide gas. If those Iranian claims are accepted, then "By that logic, Iraq could also be implicated in any Halabja deaths by cyanide." However, cyanide evaporates rapidly and tabun—a major part of Iraq's chemical arsenal at the time—contains cyanide as an essential ingredient, factors that rendered it impossible for the UN to confirm any Iraqi use of cyanide gas during the Iran–Iraq war: "Because of its connection to tabun, if hydrocyanide is found in a given environment, it could be either the residual effect of poorly manufactured tabun or a breakdown element when tabun decomposes."

According to Hiltermann, the literature on the Iran–Iraq war reflects a number of allegations of chemical weapons use by Iran, but these are "marred by a lack of specificity as to time and place, and the failure to provide any sort of evidence." Hiltermann called these allegations "mere assertions" and added that "no persuasive evidence of the claim that Iran was the primary culprit was ever presented." Many sources state that Iran's chemical weapons capability at the time was extremely limited to non-existent, although it is possible that Iran could have captured chemical munitions from Iraqi troops; for example, military analyst Ahmed Hashim recounted that "The Iranians only had tear gas. No cyanide." In fact, far from having a meaningful chemical warfare capability, Iran's effectiveness merely in protecting its own soldiers from chemical attacks is open to question as the low-quality protective equipment that it belatedly received from East Germany and North Korea was intended for use against paint fumes; the unwillingness of many Iranians to shave their beards also limited the efficacy of the masks. A 1987 UN report conducted at the behest of both belligerents discovered weapon fragments that established Iraqi responsibility for chemical attacks on Iranian soldiers and civilians, but could not substantiate Iraq's allegations of Iranian chemical weapons use: "Iraqi forces have been affected by mustard gas and a pulmonary element, possibly phosgene. In the absence of conclusive evidence of the weapons used, it could not be determined how the injuries were caused." Evidence suggests that these Iraqi chemical casualties were likely the result of "blowback," whereas the evidence that Iraq submitted to the UN—such as two Iranian 130 mm shells that UN specialists found had "no internal chemical-resistant coating" and were "normally used for filling with high explosives"—did not withstand scrutiny; UN official Iqbal Riza later acknowledged that Iraq's evidence was "clearly fabricated." However, the report's phrasing—"chemical weapons were again used against Iranian forces by Iraqi forces ... now also Iraqi forces have sustained injuries from chemical warfare"—contributed to an erroneous perception that Iran and Iraq were equally at fault.

Documents uncovered after the 2003 invasion of Iraq show that Iraqi military intelligence was not aware of any large-scale chemical attacks by Iranian forces, although a March 1987 document describes five small-scale chemical attacks perpetrated by the Iranians (four involving mustard gas and one involving phosgene, with the likely source being captured Iraqi munitions), and there are also reports of Iranian use of tear gas and white phosphorus. As recounted by Williamson Murray and Kevin M. Woods: "Despite rumors of Iranian chemical threats and occasional battlefield use (mostly [tear gas] and captured Iraqi chemical rounds), by 1988, the Iraqis were satisfied that there was no near-term threat. An intelligence report [dated 27 June 1988] discussing North Korea's help to the Iranians to develop an indigenous mustard gas capability, however, pointed toward a future where Iraqi troops might need to worry about chemical attacks."

2006 Halabja memorial riot
In March 2003, the Monument of Halabja Martyrs was built in the still largely ruined city. On 16 March 2006, a few thousand angry residents, many of them students in high school or university, rioted at the site in protest of what they perceived as the neglect of the living and capitalizing on the massacre by the Kurdish leadership. The memorial was set on fire, destroying most of its archives; a student protester was shot dead by the police and dozens of people were injured. It was later rebuilt as the Halabja Memorial Monument, also known as Halabja Monument and Peace Museum.

In popular culture
 In 2008, Kayhan Kalhor and Brooklyn Rider released the album Silent City in memory of the Halabja Massacre. As Kalhor writes on the back cover, "The piece commemorates the Kurdish village of Halabja in Iraqi Kurdistan. It is based on an altered A-minor scale and uses Kurdish themes to remember the Kurdish people." In 2011, Kayhan Kalhor, Yo-Yo Ma and The Silk Road Ensemble performed Silent City at Sanders Theater. Silk Road Project released video of the last part of the performance on YouTube.
 Canadian industrial-electronic band Skinny Puppy comments upon the Halabja chemical attacks in their song "VX Gas Attack" on their 1988 album VIVIsectVI.
 In 2001, the movie Jiyan about the Halabja attack was released. This movie was directed by Jano Rosebiani.

See also
 Anti-Kurdish sentiment
 Anti-Shi'ism
 History of the Kurds
 Modern history of Iraq
 Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq
 Iraq chemical attacks against Iran
 Dujail Massacre (1982)
 Chemical attack on Behbahan battalion (1986)
 Anfal campaign (1986–1989)
 Chemical bombing of Sardasht (1987)
 1991 Iraqi uprisings
 2013 Ghouta attacks
 List of events named massacres
 List of massacres in Iraq

References

Literature
 Joost R. Hiltermann, A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja (2007)
 Michael J. Kelly, Ghosts of Halabja: Saddam Hussein & the Kurdish Genocide (2008)
 Samantha Power, A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (2003)
 Lawrence Potter, Gary Sick, Iran, Iraq, and the Legacies of War (2004)

External links

 Halabja gas attack and the Al-Anfal campaign, Human Rights Watch report, 11 March 1991
 The Great Terror, The New Yorker, 25 March 2002
 Iraqi Kurds remember day Saddam gassed them, The Telegraph, 17 March 2003
 Experiencing chemical warfare: Two physicians tell their story of Halabja in Northern Iraq, CMA, 9 September 2004 (archive)
 Eyewitness in Halabja, Wildcat 13, 1989
 Halabja: the politics of memory by Joost R Hiltermann, openDemocracy, 14 March 2008
 Halabja: Lessons of a tragedy, interview with Joost Hiltermann, Kurd Net, 15 March 2008
 Iraqi Kurds mourn Halabja attack victims, AFP, 16 March 2008

20th-century mass murder in Iraq
Halabja
1988 in Iraq
Military operations involving chemical weapons during the Iran–Iraq War
Military operations of the Iran–Iraq War involving the Peshmerga
Persecution of Kurds in Iraq
Saddam Hussein
Halabja Governorate
Massacres of Kurds
March 1988 events in Asia
Massacres in Iraqi Kurdistan
Massacres in 1988
1988 murders by in Iraq
Genocidal massacres

Halabja massacre