The St. Matthew Passion () is a musical composition written by Johann Sebastian Bach. The words tell the story of Jesus's death on the cross as told in chapters 26 and 27 of the Book of St Matthew in the Bible. The work is for a choir, solo voices and orchestra. Both the choir and the orchestra are divided into two sections: Chorus 1 and Chorus 2, Orchestra 1 and Orchestra 2.

The words are from the Bible and by the poet Picander. There were other composers who also wrote works called St Matthew Passion, the most famous being Heinrich Schütz. However, Bach's St Matthew Passion  is thought by many musicians to be the greatest choral work ever written. Two other very great choral works by Bach are his St John Passion  and Mass in B minor .

History
The tradition of singing the story of Jesus' passion during Holy Week (the week before Easter) goes back many hundreds of years to a time when a priest would sing the story instead of speaking it. Later a tradition developed of letting it be sung by a choir. During the Baroque period the Passion oratorio developed. Bach's St. Matthew Passion, written in 1727, is the most famous work in this tradition. It was probably first performed on Good Friday (11 April) 1727 in the Thomaskirche in Leipzig, where Bach was Kapellmeister. He made some changes to it by 1736 and performed it again on 30 March 1736. After that it was almost completely forgotten until long after Bach's death. Even Bach's music in general was forgotten by most people. In 1829 the composer Felix Mendelssohn discovered the music of the St Matthew Passion  and decided to perform a short version of it in Berlin. It immediately became extremely popular with the public and from then on Bach has always remained recognized as one of the greatest of all composers.

The music
The words of Bach's St Matthew Passion  are partly taken straight from the Bible (Matthew Chapters 26-27) and partly made up by the poet Picander. The words from the Bible are used to tell the basic story. They are sung to recitative (music in speech rhythm) by a tenor soloist who is known as the evangelist (Matthew was an "evangelist" because he preached the message of Jesus). The words spoken by Jesus are sung by a baritone or bass soloist. The evangelist is accompanied by the continuo (an organ and a cello, double bass or bassoon). Jesus is accompanied by the strings.

Between the sections of recitatives there are arias, each of which is sung by one of the four soloists: a soprano, an alto, a tenor and a bass. The arias often have an introductory movement called "arioso" which in musical style is something between a recitative and an aria. The arias are accompanied by the orchestra, often with one instrument playing an important solo. The words of the arioso and arias comment on what is happening in the story and describe what is going on in the people's minds.

The choir, divided into two sections ("double choir"), sing some movements in which they represent the crowd of people in the story. Some of these movements, such as the opening one, are quite long, others are very short indeed. In some of these movements there is a vocal soloist, and the choir are commenting on what the soloist is singing about. In addition to the main choir there is a small choir which sings a chorale tune on top of the music during the first movement (this is called a "ripieno"). Sometimes a boys' choir is used for this.

There are also several chorales which are sung by the whole choir. These are like hymn tunes. It is likely that in Bach's time the congregation would have joined in singing these, as they were chorales which were often sung at church services.

During some of the choral movements there are very small sections for a solo voice. These represent one person from the crowd. These may be sung by soloists from the choir. So, as well as Jesus, there are small parts for Judas, Peter, two high priests, Pontius Pilate, Pilate's wife, two witnesses and two ancillae (maids). These small parts can be sung by different soloists, but in some performances one soloist (possibly one who is also singing the arias) may take several of these parts.

In the tradition of these musical Passions the Resurrection is not mentioned at all. The story ends with the chorus shedding tears after Jesus has been put to death.

The instruments in the orchestra are string instruments (violins, violas, cellos and double basses), organs (one for each choir), two flutes, two oboes and bassoon. Orchestra I plays with Choir I and Orchestra II plays with Choir II. There are some extra instruments as well: two recorders, three different kinds of oboe and a viola da gamba.

Bach's St Matthew Passion takes nearly 3 ½ hours if it is performed without any cuts. It is divided into two parts. There is usually a long interval between each part so that musicians and audience can have a meal before coming back refreshed for the second part.

The St Matthew Passion  and the St John Passion  are both very great works. They are different in character. The St John Passion is very dramatic, enjoying the drama of the story. The St Matthew Passion  is more gentle and thoughtful, although it also has some dramatic moments.

Other websites
 The St. Matthew Passion in Flash

Passions and oratorios by Johann Sebastian Bach
Choral compositions

St Matthew Passion


Events New South Wales was established in 2007  by the (then) Premier of New South Wales, Morris Iemma to "market Sydney and NSW as a leading global events destination".  It was tasked with attracting and supporting the types of events that could bring significant economic and community benefits to both Sydney and Regional NSW.  Events New South Wales is owned and funded by the New South Wales Government, setting itself a budget of $85 million over three years to attract events to the state.

The Board of Events New South Wales  includes John O'Neill (Managing Director and CEO, Australian Rugby Union), Professor Gavin Brown (Inaugural Director, Royal Institute of Australia), John Coates (President, Australian Olympic Committee), Richard Colless (Chairman, Sydney Swans), Johanna Griggs (Television and Sports Host), Peter Ivany (Ivany Investment Group), Geoff Parmenter (Chief Executive Officer, Events New South Wales), David Richmond (Coordinator General, NSW Department of Premier and Cabinet), Belinda Seper (Chief Executive Officer, Belinda International), Charlotte Vidor (Director, Toga Hospitality), and Kim Williams (Chief Executive Officer, Foxtel).

In October 2008, Events New South Wales announced the first recurring Master Events Calendar for Sydney and NSW, and the formation of three new festivals for Sydney: Vivacity (New Year celebrations, January), Vivid Sydney (Music, Lighting & Creative Industries Festival, May–June) and Crave (Lifestyle, Food & Culture, October).

In July 2011 Events NSW, along with other government organisations, formed Destination NSW.

References

External links
 Events New South Wales – Official Site

Culture of New South Wales
Government agencies of New South Wales

Events New South Wales


Corliss Lamont (March 28, 1902 – April 26, 1995) was an American socialist and humanist philosopher and advocate of various left-wing and civil liberties causes. As a part of his political activities, he was the Chairman of National Council of American-Soviet Friendship, starting from the early 1940s.

Career

Early years

Lamont was born in Englewood, New Jersey, on March 28, 1902. He was the son of Florence Haskell (Corliss) and Thomas W. Lamont, a partner and later chairman at J.P. Morgan & Co. Lamont graduated as valedictorian of Phillips Exeter Academy in 1920, and magna cum laude from Harvard University in 1924. The principles that animated his life were first evidenced at Harvard, where he attacked university clubs as snobbery. In 1924, he did graduate work at New College University of Oxford, where he roomed with Julian Huxley. The next year Lamont began graduate studies at Columbia University, where he studied under John Dewey. In 1928, he became a philosophy instructor there. He received his Ph.D. in philosophy in 1932 from Columbia. Lamont taught at Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, and the New School for Social Research.

1930s

Lamont became a radical in the 1930s, moved by the Great Depression. He wrote a book about the Soviet Union and praised what he saw there: "The people are better dressed, food is good and plentiful, everyone seems confident, happy and full of spirit". He became critical of the Soviets over time, but always thought their achievement in transforming a feudal society remarkable, even as he attacked its treatment of political dissent and lack of civil liberties. Lamont's political views were Marxist and socialist for much of his life.

Lamont was a onetime chairman of the Friends of the Soviet Union.

Lamont began his 30 years as a director of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) in 1932. In 1934, he was arrested while on a picket line in Jersey City, New Jersey, part of a long battle between labor and civil rights activists and Frank Hague, the city's mayor. Lamont later wrote that he "learned more about the American legal system in one day ... than in one year at Harvard Law School".

In 1936, Lamont helped found and subsidized the magazine Marxist Quarterly. When the Dewey Commission reported in 1937 that the Moscow trials of Leon Trotsky and others were fraudulent, Lamont, along with other left-wing intellectuals, refused to accept the commission's findings. Under the influence of the Popular Front, Lamont and 150 other left-wing writers endorsed Josef Stalin's actions as necessary for "the preservation of progressive democracy". Their letter warned that Dewey's work was itself politically motivated and charged Dewey with supporting reactionary views and "Red-baiting". Lamont wrote an introduction to the anti-Polish pamphlet Behind the Polish-Soviet Break by Alter Brody.

1940s

Lamont was a key founder of the National Council of American-Soviet Friendship (NCASF) (originally National Council on Soviet Relations or NCSR). Other founders included Professor Ralph Barton Perry of Harvard University and Edwin Seymour Smith. He served as its first chairman from 1943 to 1947.

Lamont remained sympathetic to the Soviet Union well after World War II and the establishment of satellite Communist governments in Central and Eastern Europe. He authored a pamphlet entitled The Myth of Soviet Aggression in which he wrote:  In 1944 Lamont wrote a preface to a book by Alter Brody that popularized the Soviet falsification of the Katyn massacre in the West.

1950s

Lamont ran for the U.S. Senate from New York, in 1952 on the American Labor ticket. He received 104,702 votes and lost to Republican Irving M. Ives.

When called to testify in front of Senator Joseph McCarthy's Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations in 1953, he denied ever having been a Communist, but refused to discuss his beliefs or those of others, citing not the Fifth Amendment but the First Amendment's guarantee of free speech. The committee cited Lamont for contempt of Congress by a vote of 71 to 3 in August 1954. Some senators questioned McCarthy's authority and wanted a federal court to rule on it. In November, Lamont donated $50,000 to create a $1,000,000 Bill of Rights Fund to support civil rights advocates, citing anti-Communist legislation, travel restrictions, and blacklisting in the entertainment industry. The same month, he challenged the subcommittee's authority in court.

The same year, he wrote Why I Am Not a Communist. Despite his allegiance to Marxism, he never joined the Communist Party USA, and supported the Korean War.

In April 1955, Lamont withdrew from his role as a philosophy lecturer at Columbia University pending the outcome of these legal proceedings, and the university said it was Lamont's decision, made "without prior suggestion by any officer of the university". Judge Edward Weinfeld of the U.S. District Court found the indictment against Lamont was faulty, but the government, rather than seek a new indictment, appealed that ruling. A unanimous panel of the Court of Appeals agreed in 1955 and in 1956 the government chose not to appeal to the Supreme Court.

As a director of the ACLU, Lamont had resisted attempts to purge the organization of Communists and, in 1954, he resigned his position because he felt the ACLU had not supported him in the face of McCarthy's charges. The complete record of the legal proceedings in Lamont's case against the McCarthy subcommittee was published in 1957.

In 1951 and 1957, Lamont was denied a passport by the State Department, which considered his application incomplete because he refused to answer a question about membership in the Communist Party. He sued the State Department in June 1957 seeking a hearing on its action. He obtained his passport in June 1958 following a Supreme Court decision in another case, Kent v. Dulles, and left the U.S. for a world tour in March 1959.

He ran again for the U.S. Senate from New York in 1958 on the Independent-Socialist ticket. He received more than 49,000 votes out of more than 5,500,000 cast, losing to Republican Kenneth B. Keating.

In 1959, Lamont became an enthusiastic supporter of Fidel Castro and his revolutionary government in Cuba.

1960s

In 1964, Lamont sued the Postmaster General for reading and, at times, refusing to deliver his mail under the anti-propaganda mail law of 1962, passed over the objections of the Department of Justice and the Post Office, that allowed the Postmaster General to destroy "communist political propaganda" sent from outside the United States unless the addressee says he wants to receive such mail. The statute did not apply to sealed correspondence, but was aimed at published materials. He lost a 2–1 decision in U.S. District Court, after the Post Office delivered one such item of mail, and appealed to the Supreme Court, arguing that the single delivery was a subterfuge designed to moot his lawsuit while continuing to interrupt his mail service. On May 24, 1965, the Supreme Court held unanimously in Lamont v. Postmaster General that the law was unconstitutional.

It was the first time the Supreme Court invalidated a statute as a violation of the First Amendment's guarantee of freedom of speech. Lamont's attorney was Leonard B. Boudin, who worked on many civil liberties cases. He won a similar lawsuit against the Central Intelligence Agency in federal court the same year.

In the mid-1960s, Lamont became chairman of the National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee, a position he held until his death.

Later life

In 1971, after a congressman called him an "identified member of the Communist Party, U.S.A.", Lamont issued a statement that "although it is no disgrace to belong to the Communist party, I have never even dreamed of joining it." The same year, he financed Dorothy Day's visit to the Soviet Union and several other countries in Eastern Europe.

In 1979, Lamont founded Half-Moon Foundation, Inc. Half-Moon Foundation was a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization and was incorporated in the state of New York. The Foundation was formed "to promote enduring international peace, support for the United Nations, the conservation of our country's natural environment, and to safeguard and extend civil liberties as guaranteed under the Constitution and the Bill of Rights."

Lamont was president emeritus of the American Humanist Association and in 1977 was named Humanist of the Year. In 1981, he received the Gandhi Peace Award.

In 1998, Lamont received a posthumous Distinguished Humanist Service Award from the International Humanist and Ethical Union and he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto.

Personal life and death

In 1928, Lamont married Margaret Hayes Irish. They divorced in the early 1960s. In 1962, he married Helen Boyden Lamb; she died of cancer in 1975. In 1986, Lamont married Beth Keehner; she survived his death. He died at home in Ossining, New York, on April 26, 1995.

Legacy

Following the deaths of his parents, Lamont became a philanthropist. He funded the collection and preservation of manuscripts of American philosophers, particularly George Santayana, as well as Rockwell Kent and John Masefield.

He became a substantial donor to both Harvard and Columbia, endowing the latter's "Corliss Lamont Professor of Civil Liberties."

He was the great-uncle of Ned Lamont, the governor of Connecticut.

Writings

Lamont was a prolific author. He wrote, co-wrote, edited, or co-edited more than two dozen books and dozens of pamphlets, and wrote thousands of letters to newspapers, magazines, and journals on significant social issues during his lifelong campaign for peace and civil rights.

In 1935, he published The Illusion of Immortality (originally published in 1932 as Issues of Immortality: A Study in Implications), which was a revised version of his doctoral dissertation. Lamont argued that people can live satisfactory lives without belief in life after death and that human life may be recognized to be more precious if it is realized that it only comes once to each man.

His most famous work is The Philosophy of Humanism (originally published in 1949 as Humanism as a Philosophy), now in its eighth edition. He also published intimate portraits of John Dewey, John Masefield, and George Santayana.

Books authored or co-authored by Corliss Lamont

A Humanist Funeral Service  (revised by Beth K. Lamont and J. Sierra Oliva and republished in a Fourth Revised Edition in 2011 as A Humanist Funeral Service and Celebration )
A Humanist Wedding Service  Third Revised Edition 1981 (Previous editions: 1972, 1970) 29 pages
A Lifetime of Dissent (Buffalo, Prometheus Books, 1988, 414 pages) Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 88-15100
Freedom Is As Freedom Does: Civil Liberties in America (1956), foreword by Bertrand Russell, reprint Fourth ed. 1990, Continuum Publishing Company, ; Third Printing, 1981
Freedom of Choice Affirmed Third Revised Edition 1990 (Previous editions: 1969, 1967) Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 67-27793 (Third Revised Edition)  (Third Revised Edition)
Lover's Credo: Poems of Love (1972), 1983 edition: , 1994: William L. Bauhan, , Online version in HTML format
Remembering John Masefield Revised Edition 1991 (Previous edition: 1971) Introduction by Judith Masefield, Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 91-4429
Russia Day by Day: A Travel Diary (Co-authored with Margaret Lamont) (New York, Covici Friede, 1933)
Soviet Civilization (New York, Philosophical Library, 1952; second edition 1955), Dedicated to Albert Rhys Williams
Illusion of Immortality, introduction by John Dewey, (1935), 5th edition 1990, Continuum Publishing Company,  (originally published in 1932 as Issues of Immortality: A Study in Implications)
The Independent Mind: Essays of a Humanist Philosopher (New York, Horizon Press, 1951, 187 pages)
The Peoples of the Soviet Union (New York, Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1946)
The Philosophy of Humanism, (1949), 1965 edition: Ungar Pub Co , 7th rev. edition 1990: Continuum Publishing Company, , 8th rev. edition (with gender neutral references by editors Beverley Earles and Beth K. Lamont) 1997 Humanist Press , Online version in Adobe Acrobat PDF format (originally published in 1949 as Humanism as a Philosophy)
Voice in the Wilderness: Collected Essays of Fifty Years (Buffalo, Prometheus Books, 1974, 327 pages) Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 74-75351
Yes to Life: Memoirs of Corliss Lamont (1981), Horizon Press: , rev. edition 1991:  Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 91-4430
You Might Like Socialism: A Way of Life for Modern Man, (1939), (published with a re-introduction by Beth K. Lamont as Lefties Are In Their Right Minds on May 18, 2009 by Half-Moon Foundation, Inc.  Online PDF version

Books edited or co-edited by Corliss Lamont

Albert Rhys Williams, September 28, 1883 - February 27, 1962: In Memoriam (1962, New York, Horizon Press)
Collected Poems of John Reed (Edited and with a Foreword by Corliss Lamont) (Westport, Conn., Lawrence Hill & Company, 1985)
"Dear Corliss": Letters from Eminent Persons (Buffalo, Prometheus Books, 1990, 202 pages)
Dialogue on George Santayana (Edited by Corliss Lamont with the assistance of Mary Redmer) (New York, Horizon Press, 1959)
Dialogue on John Dewey (Edited by Corliss Lamont with the assistance of Mary Redmer) (New York, Horizon Press, 1959)
Helen Lamb Lamont: A Memorial Tribute (New York, Horizon Press, 1976)
Letters of John Masefield to Florence Lamont (Edited by Corliss Lamont and Lansing Lamont) (New York, Columbia University Press, 1979, ; New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 1980, )
Man Answers Death: An Anthology of Poetry With an Introduction by Louis Untermeyer (New York, Philosophical Library, 1952)
Studies on India and Vietnam (Written by Helen B. Lamb and Edited by Corliss Lamont) (New York, Monthly Review Press, 1976, )
The Thomas Lamonts in America with Recollections and Poems by John Masefield (originally published in 1962 as The Thomas Lamont Family) (Cranbury, New Jersey, A. S. Barns and Co., Inc. and London, England, Thomas Yoseloff Ltd, 1971, )
The Trial of Elizabeth Gurley Flynn by the American Civil Liberties Union (Edited and with an Introduction by Corliss Lamont) (New York, Horizon Press, 1968) (Modern Reader/Monthly Review Press, 1969)

Basic Pamphlets series

Aside from books, over the course of more than a half-century, Corliss Lamont authored, co-authored, or edited approximately three dozen pamphlets on a variety of subjects. Prominent among these was the Basic Pamphlets series, privately published by Dr. Lamont and sold directly by him through mail order via a local post office box in New York. There were 29 numbered titles in the Basic Pamphlets series, listed below by pamphlet number.
 Are We Being Talked Into War? (1952)
 The Civil Liberties Crisis (1952)
 The Humanist Tradition (1952, 16 pages - Second Printing, 1955)
 Effects of American Foreign Policy (1952, 40 pages)
 Back to the Bill of Rights
 The Myth of Soviet Aggression (Second, revised edition, December 1953, 16 pages)
 Challenge to McCarthy (February 1954, 32 pages)
 The Congressional Inquisition (May 1954, 36 pages)
 The Assault on Academic Freedom (1955)
 The Right to Travel (December 1957, 44 pages)
 To End Nuclear Bomb Tests [Co-authored by Margaret I. Lamont] (1958, 44 pages)
 A Peace Program for the U.S.A. (1959, 24 pages - Second printing, March 1959)
 My Trip Around The World (1960, 48 pages)
 The Crime Against Cuba [Mary Redmer, Editor] (June 1961, 40 pages)
 My First Sixty Years (1962, 52 pages - Second printing, February 1963)
 The Enduring Impact of George Santayana (1964)
 The Tragedy of Vietnam: Where Do We Go from Here? [Authored by Helen Boyden Lamont née Helen B. Lamb] (1964, 50 pages)
 Vietnam: Corliss Lamont vs. Ambassador Lodge (1967, 32 pages)
 How To Be Happy — Though Married (1973, 24 pages)
 The Meaning of Vietnam and Cambodia [Co-authored by Helen Lamb Lamont] (1975)
 Trip to Communist China — An Informal Report (1976, 28 pages)
 Adventures In Civil Liberties (1977, 28 pages)
 Immortality: Myth Or Reality? (1978, 36 pages)
 Resolute Radical At 83 - later published as Steadfast Activist at 84 (1985, 40 pages)
 The Right to Know: The Civil Liberties Campaign Against Secrecy in Government [Corliss Lamont, Editor] (December 1986, 40 pages)
 Jesus As A Free Speech Victim: Trial by Terror 2000 Years Ago [Authored by Clifford J. Durr, Introduction by Corliss Lamont, published on behalf of the National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee (NECLC)] (Fourth Edition, 1987, 24 pages)
 The Assurance Of Free Choice (September 1987, 40 pages)
 Panama—Operation Injustice [Compiled and Written by Corliss Lamont and Beth Lamont] (1990, 16 pages)
 Persian Gulf Crisis—UN Peace Negotiations; No To War! [Written and Edited by Corliss Lamont and Beth Lamont] (1990, 24 pages)

Other pamphlets

In addition to the Basic Pamphlets series, Corliss Lamont also wrote a number of other pamphlets, a partial list of which appears below.
On Understanding Soviet Russia (New York, Friends of the Soviet Union, 1934, 32 pages) Online PDF version
Socialist Planning in Soviet Russia (New York, Friends of the Soviet Union, 1935, 40 pages)
Soviet Russia and Religion (New York, International Pamphlets, 1936, 24 pages)
Soviet Russia versus Nazi Germany: A study in contrasts (New York, The American Council on Soviet Relations, First Edition August 1941 - Second Edition March 1942, 52 pages)
Soviet Russia and the Post-War World (New York, National Council of American-Soviet Friendship, First Edition May 1943 - Second Edition May 1944, 36 pages)
Soviet Aggression: Myth or Reality? (New York, self-published, June 1951, 16 pages)
Why I am not a Communist (New York, self-published, January 1952, 20 pages)

Sound recordings

 Author Corliss Lamont Sings For His Family & Friends, a Medley of Favorite Hit Songs from American Musicals includes 36 musical selections (Smithsonian Folkways, 1977, Stock Number FW03567)

Video
 "Corliss Lamont and Pete Seeger" (1992, run time 00:10:05) by Jonathan Heap (a grandchild of Lamont) (MP4)

See also
American philosophy
Humanist Manifesto
Religious humanism
Frederick Vanderbilt Field
List of American philosophers
 National Council of American-Soviet Friendship
 American Civil Liberties Union
 National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee

Footnotes

External links
Corliss Lamont Website sponsored by Half-Moon Foundation, Inc., an organization created to promote educational and informational activities consistent with the vision of founder Corliss Lamont, now run by his widow, Beth Keehner Lamont
 Humanist Society of Metropolitan New York (HSMNY), the Corliss Lamont Chapter of the American Humanist Association (AHA)
photo collection

Papers, 1929-1932. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University
Lamont-Corliss Family Papers, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College.

1902 births
1995 deaths
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20th-century American essayists
20th-century American historians
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American memoirists
20th-century American philanthropists
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20th-century educational theorists
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c
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Corliss Lamont


Oral history is history that is told rather than written down. It is given through talking rather than reading a book. It is usually passed from generation to generation in order to explain events that have occurred.

Though today oral history is not as popular as written history, it is still used in many places as a way of transferring knowledge about the past.

Oral history


Committee on National Security Systems Instruction No. 4009, National Information Assurance Glossary, published by the United States federal government, is an unclassified glossary of Information security terms intended to provide a common vocabulary for discussing Information Assurance concepts.

The glossary was previously published as the National Information Systems Security Glossary (NSTISSI No. 4009) by the National Security Telecommunications and Information Systems Security Committee (NSTISSC).   Under Executive Order (E.O.) 13231 of October 16, 2001, Critical Infrastructure Protection in the Information Age, the President George W. Bush redesignated the National Security Telecommunications and Information Systems Security Committee (NSTISSC) as the Committee on National Security Systems (CNSS).

The most recent version was revised April 26, 2010.

See also
 Encryption

References

External links
 National Information Assurance (IA) Review
 National Information Assurance Glossary Terms

Cryptography publications
Glossaries
Publications of the United States government
Reference works in the public domain

National Information Assurance Glossary


An agent is a person who acts on behalf of another person, or a representative of an agency.

an FBI agent is an official representative of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
 literary agent, a person who represents a writer
 sports agent, a professional who represents an athlete
 talent agent, a person who finds jobs for actors, models, and other people in various entertainment businesses.
 travel agent, a person who helps plan a trip and buys airline tickets and makes hotel reservations.

Agent can also mean:

 a secret agent, a spy (espionage)
 a free agent, a sports player who is out of contract
 a realtor (US), or real estate agent (Brit.)

In science:

 Agent Orange, a herbicide
 biological agent, an infectious disease that can be used in biological warfare

In fiction:

 Agents, characters in The Matrix
 Secret Agent, a 1936 film

Agent


Debris in a general sense means man-made garbage. Debris is the scattered remains of something that is discarded or destroyed. There are many types of debris, depending on the context. When natural disasters happen, debris is the remains of destroyed buildings and land. In the context of geology, debris is the remains of geological activity such as landslides, volcanic eruptions, avalanches, and so on.

The average American produces garbage, also called trash, at the rate of four pounds per day per person, which translates to 600,000 tons per day, or about 220 million tons per year. This is almost twice the rate of trash generation per person as most other major countries. Trash levels can be reduced primarily by recycling, re-use, and reduced consumption.

Other websites

Miller, 1989, Potential Hazards from Future Volcanic Eruptions in California: USGS Bulletin 1847

Waste

Debris


in Nachikatsuura, Wakayama Prefecture, Japan, is one of the best-known waterfalls in Japan. With a drop of 133 meters (and 13 meters wide), it is the country's tallest water fall with single uninterrupted drop; however, the tallest waterfalls with multiple drops in Japan are Hannoki Falls, at 497 m (seasonal), and Shōmyō Falls, at 350m (year round).

There are two rocks at the top of the falls that are the guardian kami of the falls and the Shinto shrine. There was also a Buddhist temple here that was destroyed during the Meiji Restoration (late 19th century). Many shugenja and star-crossed lovers have leaped from the top of the waterfall in the belief that they will be reborn into Kannon's paradise. Early each morning the Shinto priest make offerings to the waterfall in a ritual. In 1918, a Sutra mound was excavated at the base of the waterfall and found to contain many important archaeological artifacts, including statues, mirrors, altar fittings and Sutra cylinders. These are now displayed in the Ryuhoden ("Treasure Hall"), located next to the Sanjūdō Pagoda (the 3-story pagoda). These Sutra mounds were created by priests in times of war to hide their treasures but also many items were buried in this way as a result of the belief that the end of the world was coming at the start of the 10th century.

Believed to house a kami called Hiryū Gongen worshiped at Kumano Nachi Taisha, it is part of the "Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range" UNESCO World Heritage Site.

See also

Tourism in Japan

References

External links
 Japan Guide
 Tanabe City Kumano Tourism Bureau
 Nachi-Katsuura Town Tourism Association

Waterfalls of Japan
Places of Scenic Beauty
Landforms of Wakayama Prefecture
Tourist attractions in Wakayama Prefecture
Kumano Sanzan

Nachi Falls


CrossOver is the collective name for four commercial programs developed by CodeWeavers that allow using Windows programs on Mac OS X and Linux.
The programs include "CrossOver Linux", "CrossOver Mac", "CrossOver Games" and "CrossOver Games Linux". They are modified versions of the free and open source Wine compatibility layer.

Software

CrossOver


RollerCoaster Tycoon (or RCT) is a series of computer games where the user can make their own theme park. Each game in the series allows players to construct their own theme parks in an objective-based level. Players can also build their own roller coasters.

The first game was made by three people: designer and programmer Chris Sawyer, artist Simon Foster and composer Alistar Brimble. It was published by Hasbro Interactive.

The game was very popular. It was released for the PC.

Games in the series

These are the games which have been released:

RollerCoaster Tycoon

This is the original game, for the PC. It was released in 1999 There is a long list of scenarios (levels) which the user can complete. Users can also download famous theme parks from the internet. A large number of rides and shops are included with the game.

Added Attractions Pack

Also named 'Corkscrew Follies'. It was released in 1999 This game includes many more levels and some more rides and shops are added. The original game MUST be installed to be able to play this one.

Loopy Landscapes

This addon also includes the Added Attractions Pack. It was released in 2000 for the PC. It includes three famous theme parks: Blackpool Pleasure Beach, Alton Towers and Heide Park. It adds many more levels and rides to the game.

RollerCoaster Tycoon 2

The 2002 sequel to RCT was made because of the success of the first game. It had the same interface but it added a few new features:
 RollerCoaster Designer
 Building Designer
 Scenario Maker
The game also added support for buildings to be made using walls to make ride entrances. It included famous Six Flags theme parks and their rides.

Expansion Packs

There are two expansion packs released for RCT2. These are:

 Wacky Worlds (2003)
 Time Twister (2003)

RollerCoaster Tycoon 3

RCT3 is the first game in the series to use full 3D graphics. It was released in 2004. Players can ride their rides and rollercoasters for the first time. Night and day is a new feature. Firework displays can now be made to custom music.

RCT3 now has a sandbox mode. This is where the user can build a park with all items available and unlimited money. It is a good way to build parks in practise for the 'Career Mode'. There are many Scenarios packaged with the game. Each one can be completed on three difficulty levels. More are added with the expansion packs. This game adds the ability to make your own Peep groups to wander around your park.

Soaked!

This is the first expansion pack to be released for RCT3. It was released in 2005. The User can build water parks with different types of waterslides. He or she can also build swimming pools. A few water-themes attractions have been added as well as new shops. The number of scenarios available is doubled with this expansion pack. It also adds some new music to the game. This Expansion Pack came with the Hershey's Stormrunner and the Rollersoaker. Both based on coasters based on real coaster designs at Hershey Park somewhere in the U.S.A.

The Fireworks mode has been upgraded to a Laser and Water display feature as well. The user can now make longer shows to their music.

Wild!
This expansion pack was released in 2005. The users can now add animals to their park. A new set of animal-themed rides have been added, like the 'Insect House' and 'Elephant Ride'. The game has new music and new scenery. Also some new shops have been added. There are a lot of scenarios added as well as some jungle themed music. This expansion pack came with the Extended Coaster which is basically a dream coaster. It has the most inversion parts and also the ability to make beyond vertical drops like on SAW the ride at Thorpe Park.

1999 video games
2002 video games
2004 video games
Simulator video games

RollerCoaster Tycoon


The Visitors is an opera in three acts and a prologue composed by Carlos Chávez to an English-language libretto by the American poet Chester Kallman. The work was Chávez's only opera. Its first version, with the title Panfilo and Lauretta, premiered in New York City in 1957. The final version with the title The Visitors was premiered in Guanajuato City, Mexico, in 1999, twenty years after the composer's death. The story is set in 14th century Tuscany during the time of the Black Death. The libretto (like those for Pagliacci and Ariadne auf Naxos) uses the device of a play within a play to reflect and intensify the relationships between the protagonists, who in this case are loosely based on characters in The Decameron.

Performance history
The Visitors was originally commissioned in 1953 by Lincoln Kirstein, with the intention of premiering it in 1954 in New York City. Chávez began working on the score with the provisional title of The Tuscan Players in the spring of 1953 and continued working on it until 1956. The opera finally premiered with the title Panfilo and Lauretta on 9 May 1957 in the Brander Matthews Theatre at Columbia University, conducted by Howard Shanet. It was then presented on three occasions in Mexico, conducted by the composer: in October 1959 (in English) in the Palacio de Bellas Artes in Mexico City; in 1963, again at the Palacio de Bellas Artes, but in a Spanish translation by Noel Lindsay and Eduardo Hernández Moncada with the title El amor propiciado (Love Propitiated); and in 1968 with the title of Los Visitantes (The Visitors) as part of the cultural programme for the XIX Olympic Games.

In the succeeding thirty years the opera went unperformed apart from excerpts conducted by Chávez at the Cabrillo Music Festival in Aptos, California, in 1973. However, he continued to revise the score up until his death in 1978. In 1997, his daughter entrusted the manuscript and her father's revisions to the composer and musicologist Max Lifchitz, who within two years had prepared the definitive version of the score. The world premiere of this version took place in October 1999 (the centenary of Chávez's birth) during the Festival Internacional Cervantino in the Teatro Juárez, Guanajuato City. Conducted by José Areán with stage direction by Sergio Vela, the opera was performed with its original English libretto and its final title, The Visitors.

Scoring
The opera is scored for 5 solo voices (soprano, mezzo-soprano, tenor, baritone and bass; an SATB chorus; and an orchestra consisting of 2 flutes, piccolo, 2 oboes, cor anglais, 2 clarinets, bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, contrabassoon, 4 French horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba, harp, timpani, percussion, and strings.

Roles

Synopsis
Time: 14th century
Place: Tuscany

Act 1
Lauretta, Elissa, Panfilo and Dioneo have sought refuge from the Black Plague in a villa near Florence. To pass the time they devise and perform plays. The first to be performed is devised by Panfilo and tells the story of Cupid and Psyche with Panfilo playing Cupid and Lauretta playing Psyche. The play is interrupted when a loud knocking is heard on the door to the villa.

Act 2
After a discussion about the wisdom of letting a stranger in, they open the door to a monk who suggests that they put on a Biblical play. At first they make fun of him, but then devise a play based on the story of Mary Magdalene, with a prologue about the story of Adam and Eve. At the end of the play, the Monk opens the door to a crowd of strangers demanding to be let in. The monk then falls dead of the plague. Lauretta realizes they have been betrayed by him and urges Panfilo to drive the strangers out with his sword. As Lauretta, Elissa, Panfilo and Dioneo blame themselves for what has happened, the chorus of strangers sing of the end of the world.

Act 3
Two months have passed. The courtyard of the villa is filled with the sick and dying strangers. A physician is looking after them. Dioneo who has been sleeping on a table wakes up and tells the physician of a nightmare he has had and asks him about Lauretta's condition. The physician tells him that despite being infected with the plague, she will survive. He attributes her recovery to the power of love. Lauretta appears and asks about Panfilo who had left the villa. Panfilo returns unexpectedly, tells of the horrors he has seen in the city, and berates his companions for living in their isolated villa without knowledge of the death and suffering outside. Elissa and Dioneo explain to him that Lauretta has been ill but is recovering. Lauretta interrupts them to say she wants to stop acting and confesses to Panfilo that the vision of suffering and death has made her realize her love for him. Elissa becomes furious that Panfilo would accept the love of woman who had just been playing a role, when she had always loved him. Dioneo urges her to forgive Lauretta and Panfilo and to seek a life outside the villa. Elissa realizing that Dioneo is burning with fever and about to die, forgives the lovers. The physician asks them to put on a play for the other patients. It is Dioneo's dying wish that they resume the story of Cupid and Psyche that was interrupted in the first act. The play (and the opera) ends with Venus forgiving Cupid and Psyche and Cupid offering Psyche fruit from the tree of eternal life. The curtain comes down with the lovers' song of triumph.

Recording
Carlos Chávez: The Visitors – Lourdes Ambriz (Lauretta), Encarnación Vázquez (Elissa), Randolph Locke (Panfilo), Jesús Suaste (Dioneo), Marc Embree (The Monk); Orquesta y Coro del Teatro de Bellas Artes; José Areán (conductor). Label: BMG Entertainment México RV3 743217834722.

References

Sources
 , "Esto hizo, así escribió: The Visitors, ópera del compositor Carlos Chávez", Proceso, 1 October 2000 (in Spanish). Accessed via subscription 14 January 2009.
Craton, John Carlos Chávez discography
Parker, Robert L., Carlos Chavez: Mexico's Modern-Day Orpheus, Twayne Publishers, 1983.
Sadie, Stanley (ed.) The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Macmillan, 1992.
Vela, Sergio, "The Visitors: ópera de Carlos Chávez, paradigma de la modernidad mexicana", Perspectiva interdisciplinaria de música, vol. I, no. 1, September 2006, pp. 66–72 (in Spanish)

Further reading
Parker, Robert L., Carlos Chávez: A Guide to Research, Routledge, 1998.

English-language operas
Operas
1957 operas
Operas by Carlos Chávez
Operas set in Italy
Operas set in the 14th century
Operas based on works by Giovanni Boccaccio

The Visitors (opera)


Fucgī Beorg (富士山 Fujisan) is micel beorg on Iapane.

Þes dūn is on Honscū þǣm īegland, and is Iapanes hēasta beorg forþǣm þe stent his topp æt 12,389 fōtum.

Fucgi is fȳrbeorg and giet mōt he abyrstan sƿā sƿā dyde he in 1707.

Hit stent is 60 mīle Tōkyō be sūðƿesten, and of þǣre ceastre mōt man sēon þisne beorg.

Hit ƿæs geƿeorðed folde ierfe on 22 Sēremōnþe 2013.

Iapan Beorgas

Fucgi Beorg


Ángel Zárraga (y) Argüelles (August 16, 1886 in Victoria de Durango – September 22, 1946) was a Mexican painter. He was a founding member of the cultural organization El Ateneo de la Juventud. His work was part of the art competitions at the 1928 Summer Olympics and the 1932 Summer Olympics.

Biography

Zárraga was born the son of the physician Dr. Fernando Zárraga and his wife Guadalupe Argüelles in the Barrio de Analco of Durango. While attending the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria in Mexico City, he made his first contacts with the prevailing artistic and intellectual scene, and later studied at the Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes (ENBA). His family made possible for him a study trip to Europe in 1904, where he visited and exhibited in Spain, France and Italy. He also visited courses at the Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium.

In 1906 he exhibited some of his pictures in the Museo del Prado, and in 1907 in an exhibition of the ENBA. He participated in the 1909 Biennale di Venezia and exhibited in the Salon at the Piazzale Donatello, Florence. In 1911 he moved to France for good, and he only returned to Mexico once at the outbreak of World War II for a short time.

From 1914 Zárraga painted in a Cubist style and after 1921 his work was influenced by Cézanne and Giotto. For example, his 1922 painting Girl with Cherry Tart exhibits Cubist tendencies. He also painted murals at the Château de Vert-Cœur and in the Cité Internationale Universitaire de Paris, and decorated the Mexican embassy in Paris. He also exhibited at the Salon d'Automne, as well as in New York City. As a result of the collapse of the international art market he lost his sponsors and became depressed. During World War II he returned to his home country in 1941, where he painted murals at the Club de Banqueros and in Monterrey Cathedral. He died of pneumonia. A museum of contemporary art in Durango is named after him.

References

External links

20th-century Mexican painters
Mexican male painters
Mexican muralists
Artists from Durango
People from Durango City
1886 births
1946 deaths
Olympic competitors in art competitions
20th-century Mexican male artists

Ángel Zárraga


Metlakatla, British Columbia (Tsimshian: Maxłaxaała) is a small community that is one of the seven Tsimshian village communities in British Columbia, Canada.  It is situated at Metlakatla Pass near Prince Rupert, British Columbia.  It is the one Tsimshian village in Canada that is not associated with one particular tribe or set of tribes out of the Tsimshian nation's 14 constituent tribes.

History

The name derives from Tsimshian Maaxłakxaała meaning "saltwater pass."  Traditionally, this site has been the collective winter village of the "Nine Tribes" of the lower Skeena River, which since 1834 have been mostly based at Lax Kw'alaams, B.C.  In 1862, the Anglican lay minister William Duncan established at Metlakatla a utopian Christian community, made up of about 350 Tsimshian from Lax Kw'alaams (a.k.a. Port Simpson) but with members of other Tsimshian tribes as well.

Almost immediately thereafter, the 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic tore through Lax Kw'alaams and the North Coast in general. Duncan was able to quarantine Metlakatla by refusing to allow natives to be admitted who showed any signs of smallpox. His efforts resulted in Metlakatla being mostly spared from the disease, which had very high death rates in other places—over half of all indigenous peoples from Puget Sound to the Alexander Archipelago died; over 70% among the Haida people and Heiltsuk, about 67% among the Southern Tsimshian. Duncan used the epidemic to proselytize, saying that the disease had been sent by God as a punishment for the sins of the Tsimshian, and that those who repented and "came to Jesus" and were baptized would be spared.

After the epidemic some of Duncan's followers, including his key convert, Paul Legaic, the most powerful Tsimshian chief, continued to divide their time between Lax Kw'alaams and Metlakatla and continued to divide their allegiances between Christianity and the traditional culture. Other missionaries who served in Metlakatla have included Robert Tomlinson (briefly), as well as William Henry Collison, author of the North Coast missionary memoir In the Wake of the War Canoe.

By 1879 the population had grown to about 1,100.

Duncan's own style, in the image of which the new community was shaped, was a dissident, evangelical form of low-church Anglicanism that omitted the sacrament of communion.  This, and his independent temperament, led to Duncan's expulsion from the Church of England's Church Missionary Society in 1881 and the creation of his own nondenominational "Independent Native Church."  Eventually, in 1887, he took with him 800-some Metlakatla Tsimshians in an epic canoe journey to found the new community of "New" Metlakatla, Alaska.

After Duncan's departure, the 100 or so remaining residents of "Old Metlakatla," as it was now sometimes known, were left in the hands of William Ridley, Duncan's nemesis and the Anglican bishop of the newly formed Diocese of Caledonia.

In July 1901 a fire destroyed St. Paul's Church at Metlakatla, demolishing what was said to have been the largest church north of San Francisco and west of Chicago, built by Duncan in 1874.  Some sources indicate that the fire was started by a band of Alaska Tsimshians under Duncan's orders, including Peter Simpson, later the prominent Alaska Native rights activist.  This tragic fire led to Ridley's departure for England in 1905.

A second St. Paul's Church was built in 1903 and was burned 11 years later.

In 1972, Metlakatla Pass was designated a National Historic Site of Canada.

Since those days, Metlakatla, B.C., has remained among the smallest of the Tsimshian communities.  In 1983 its population was 117, and quite dependent on the nearby city of Prince Rupert.  It is still predominantly Anglican.

In November 2016, a study published in Nature Communications linked the genome of 25 Indigenous people who inhabited modern-day Prince Rupert, British Columbia 1000 to 6000 years ago with their descendants in the Metlakatla First Nation. The study validated the oral history of the Metlakatla, which had maintained their presence in the region for thousands of years.

William Duncan's Rules at Metlakatla

 To give up their Ahlied or Indian devilry
 To cease calling in conjurers when sick
 To cease gambling
 To cease giving away their property for display (i.e. the potlatch)
 To cease painting their faces
 To cease drinking intoxicating liquor
 To rest on the Sabbath
 To attend religious instruction
 To send their children to school
 To be cleanly
 To be industrious
 To be peaceful
 To be liberal and honest in trade
 To build neat houses
 To pay the village tax

Prominent Metlakatlans

 Benjamin A. Haldane, photographer
 Paul Legaic, hereditary chief
 Rev. Edward Marsden, missionary
 Odille Morison, linguist and artifact collector
 Peter Simpson, Native rights activist

References

Bibliography

 Arctander, John W. (1909) The Apostle of Alaska: The Story of William Duncan of Metlakahtla.  New York: Fleming H. Revell Co.
 Bowman, Phyllis (1983) Metlakahtla -- The Holy City!  Chilliwack, B.C.: Sunrise Printing.
 Inglis, Gordon B., et al. (1990) "Tsimshians of British Columbia since 1900."  In Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 7: Northwest Coast, pp. 285–293.  Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
 Johnson, Gertrude Mather (1994) "The Life of Peter Simpson."  In Haa Kusteeyí, Our Culture: Tlingit Life Stories, ed. by Nora Marks Dauenhauer and Richard Dauenhauer, pp. 665–676.  Seattle: University of Washington Press.
 Murray, Peter (1985) The Devil and Mr. Duncan.  Victoria, B.C.: Sono Nis Press.
 Neylan, Susan (2001) The Heavens Are Changing: Nineteenth-Century Protestant Missions and Tsimshian Christianity.  Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.
 Tomlinson, George, and Judith Young (1993) Challenge the Wilderness: A Family Saga of Robert and Alice Tomlinson, Pioneer Medical Missionaries.  Seattle: Northwest Wilderness Books.
 Usher, Jean (1974) William Duncan of Metlakatla: A Victorian Missionary in British Columbia.  (National Museums of Canada Publications in History, no. 5.)  Ottawa: National Museum of Man.
 Wellcome, Henry S. (1887) The Story of Metlakahtla.  London: Saxon.

Unincorporated settlements in British Columbia
Populated places in the North Coast Regional District
Tsimshian
Metlakatla
North Coast of British Columbia

Metlakatla, British Columbia


Hai (Finnish, lit. Shark) or Requin (French, lit. Shark) is a one-design, sloop-rigged keelboat designed in Finland. It was designed in 1930 by Finnish sailboat designer Gunnar Stenbäck as a cheap racing and cruising yacht suitable for mass production. It remains a popular small yacht in Finland and France.

History

In the 1920s, one-design yacht classes were relatively scarce and dominating form of yacht racing were various construction classes, which' boats were designed and built one at the time, and thus were quite expensive. Many Nordic top sailors and designers expressed concern about the future of the sport, and Stenbäck argued strongly that only in one-design class the costs could be kept suitably low. As a result, Hai design specified inexpensive materials (Northern pine and oak, iron ballast instead of lead) and relatively small sail area so that winches were not required. Keel was long and shallow, to ensure safety on rocky Baltic waters.

Stenbäck presented his design in 1930; the first boat was built and presented to the public next year and the design soon proved popular and many yards began constructing the class. The HSS yachtclub in Helsinki was instrumental in giving impetus to the class before World War II. Boats were also exported; around 100 boats to France, some thirty to USA and also to Germany, Sweden and Baltic countries. However, class rules requirement of Finnish made sails slowed down growth abroad and although this was later relaxed, no international class association was ever set up. After World War II, Hai faced stiff competition from Nordic Folkboat and Dragon (which was accepted as Olympic class) and it never achieved same international status. However, it was the biggest keelboat class in Finland until the 1960s, when it was supplanted by Hans Groop's H-boat, also a class initiated by HSS. Despite this, it remains an active competition class and construction of new boats has continued to the day, although in dwindling numbers. In total, around 290 boats have been registered in Finland. The Finnish Hai is somewhat unusual in that it has remained very similar to its original form, with wooden hulls and spars - GRP boats are not allowed.

French Requin

In France the boat (known as Requin) gained large following and to date, nearly 500 boats have been registered. Owing to lack of authoritative international class association, Requin evolved independently from Finnish class. Plastic is nowadays allowed as hull material, as is aluminium for spars. Sail area is also significantly larger:  for mainsail and  for jib. Genoa is also allowed in Requin.

Hai 2000

A modernized Finnish GRP variant of Hai; hull based on Requin, aluminium spar. Mainsail , jib , spinnaker . Some wooden Hai boats have also been rigged for Hai 2000 class.

International competition

Though as noted, Hai has never been a major international competition class, some regattas between boats from different countries have been organized, especially in the 1930s when boat was gaining popularity around Baltic, but also in recent years, featuring boats from Finland, Germany and France.

See also
Särklass A
Särklass C

References

External links
 Requin class association
 History of Hai (in English)
 Jakobstads Båtvarv, builder of wooden Hai-boats

Keelboats
Vehicles introduced in 1930
1930s sailboat type designs
Sailboat type designs by Finnish designers
Sailboat types built in Finland

Hai (keelboat)


The judiciary, that is, the judges and Courts of Germany are independent. They are not controlled by the Federal Government or the State Governments. There are laws which say what sort of cases the courts can hear and pass judgment on, and what type of punishment a court can give. But no law or minister can say that a person is guilty. Only the courts can do this.

Protection
Courts give protection to ordinary people from bad governments, they are also protected from bad governments themselves.

Protection of people by the courts
Germany has had free courts for longer than it has been a democracy, although under the Nazis many judges ignored the law and did what the Nazi Party wanted. This is why they were tried at the Nuremberg Judges Trial

Germany is a Rechtsstaat. That means it is a government based on law. All citizens are guaranteed to be equal, and government decisions can be challenged in court.

No law or minister can say that a person, or group of people is guilty.

Protection of courts from the government
Federal law sets out the structure of the judiciary. Running courts is up to the Länder. The Länder (States of Germany) are run the lower levels of the court system; only the highest courts are paid for by the federal government.

This federal-Land split means that the Federation (that is, the Federal Government) can make sure laws are enforced equally throughout the country, because it says what courts must be set up. The Länder administer the courts, and this stops the federal government from being able to order the courts to do things, or to appoint the judges. This helps keep the courts independent.

Legal system
Germany has a system of Roman law. This is different from the United States and England which use the common law.

In a common law system courts rely on precedents (what was decided in similar cases earlier) . In Germany, courts look to a comprehensive system of legal codes. The codes set out legal principles or basic ideas, and have to decide each case by comparing the facts of the case to those principles, not to what another judges decided earlier.

Training judges
Because the legal codes are very important and complicated, judges must be very well trained.

Judges are not chosen from practicing lawyers, as in the UK and USA. Instead being a judge is a separate career

At the end of their legal education at university, all law students must pass a state examination before they can continue on to an apprenticeship that provides them with broad training in the legal profession over two years. They then must pass a second state examination that qualifies them to practice law. After the second exam a person must choose either to be a lawyer or to be a judge.

Those who choose to be a judge start working at courts immediately. However they are on probation (a temporary training period) for up to four years before being appointed as judges for lifetime.

The Court System
Germany has three types of courts.
 Ordinary courts
These courts deal with criminal and most civil cases.
 Specialized courts
These courts hear cases related to
administrative,
labor,
social security
tax and patent law.
 Constitutional courts
These courts do judicial review and interpret the constitution.

Ordinary Courts
The are four levels of ordinary courts:

 At the lowest level are the local courts (Amtsgerichte; sing., Amtsgericht), which hear cases involving minor criminal offenses or small civil suits. These courts also carry out routine legal functions, such as keeping the company register. Most cases in the local courts are decided by a single judge. However, in criminal cases in which the sentence is expected to exceed two years, the professional judge is assisted by two part-time judges with equal rights as the professional judge (Schöffengericht). There are 687 'Amtsgerichte'.
 Above the local courts are the regional courts (Landgerichte; sing., Landgericht). These courts have two sections. One for major civil cases and the other for criminal cases. The regional courts have three judges for complicated cases, but most cases are heard by one judge. Regional courts are courts of appeal for decisions from the local courts (for cases originating in local courts, this is the level of final appeal) and are the first courts most major civil and criminal cases would be heard in.  There are 116 Landgerichte.
 At the next level are Land appeals courts (Oberlandesgerichte; sing., Oberlandesgericht). These look at points of law raised in appeals from the lower courts. Oberlandesgerichte are the first court that cases of treason and anticonstitutional activity come to. There are 24 Oberlandesgerichte, as the larger states have two or more.
 The top level is the Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof) in Karlsruhe. It is the final court of appeals for all cases from the regional and appellate courts. No cases come straight to the Bundesgerichtshof.

Specialized Courts
Specialized courts deal with administrative, labor, social, fiscal, and patent law.
 Administrative courts let people get compensation from the government for any harm caused by mistakes actions by officials. For instance, many lawsuits have been brought in administrative courts by citizens against the government concerning the location and safety standards of nuclear power plants.
 Labor courts hear disputes over collective bargaining agreements and working conditions.
 Social courts decide about arguments over social insurance, which includes unemployment compensation, workers' compensation, and social security payments.
 Finance, or fiscal, courts hear only tax-related cases and exist on two levels.

The is a Federal Patents Court in Munich adjudicates disputes relating to industrial property rights. Patents are a federal issue, so now state courts have been set up.

Constitutional Courts
Each Land has a state constitutional court. These courts are administratively and financially independent from any other government body. For instance, a Land constitutional court can write its own budget and hire or fire employees.

These courts hear cases where the constitution and the rights it gives are in question.

For example, a criminal case might be appealed from the Bundesgerichtshof if a persons human rights are involved.

The Federal Constitutional Court, the Bundesverfassungsgericht, can check that the way other courts look at the law to make sure they do not forget these basic rights. Sometimes the Federal Constitutional Court has overturned the decisions of other federal courts.

The Bundesverfassungsgericht protects people's rights under the constitution in another way. It is the only court that can ban a political party, if it is acting or says it will act against the constitution.

Courts of Germany


The Council for Advancement and Support of Education (CASE) is a nonprofit association of educational institutions. It serves professionals in the field of educational advancement. This field encompasses alumni relations, communications, marketing and development (fundraising) for educational institutions such as universities and independent or private schools.

CASE, headquartered in Washington, D.C., in the United States, was founded in 1974 as the result of a merger between the American Alumni Council and the American College Public Relations Association. It is one of the largest international associations of education institutions, serving nearly 3,400 universities, colleges, schools, and related organizations in 61 countries.

Its North American member institutions are divided into eight geographic districts that provide support to members through regional programs. To better serve its international membership, CASE opened a European office in London in 1994 and an Asia-Pacific office in Singapore in 2007.

Activities

CASE offers a variety of products and services such as conferences, webinars (the Online Speaker Series), books and training materials, and publishes CURRENTS magazine. It also maintains professional standards and a code of ethics for the profession.

CASE also engages in government relations, monitoring legislation and advocating the views and needs of its members.

Major awards and events

CASE administers the annual U.S. Professors of the Year (with The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching) and the Circle of Excellence awards. It also holds the Summit for Advancement Leaders, an annual conference for senior-level advancement professionals. Each CASE District holds an annual conference.

References

Further reading
Chronicle of Higher Education, "College Fund-Raising Group to Open Shop in Asia-Pacific Region," Money & Management, Volume 53, Issue 26, Page A27; http://chronicle.com/weekly/v53/i26/26a02702.htm, (March 2, 2007)
Chronicle of Higher Education, "Early Revelations of Great Teachers," The Faculty, Volume 52, Issue 15, Page A11, http://chronicle.com/weekly/v52/i15/15a01102.htm, (December 2, 2005)
Chronicle of Higher Education, "Award-Winning Teaching," The Faculty, Volume 53, Issue 15, Page A10, http://chronicle.com/weekly/v53/i15/15a01001.htm, (December 1, 2006)
Chronicle of Higher Education, "Donations Increase for 3rd Year in a Row," Money & Management, Volume 53, Issue 26, Page A1, http://chronicle.com/weekly/v53/i26/26a00101.htm, (March 2, 2007)
Chronicle of Higher Education, "The Almighty Visit," Chronicle Careers, Volume 52, Issue 34, Page C3, http://chronicle.com/weekly/v52/i34/34c00301.htm, (April 28, 2006)
Chronicle of Higher Education, "A Hypocritical Oath," Chronicle Careers, Volume 51, Issue 33, Page C2, http://chronicle.com/weekly/v51/i33/33c00201.htm, (April 22, 2005)
Chronicle of Higher Education, "Meeting Offers Tips on Alumni Loyalty," Money & Management, Volume 51, Issue 47, Page A30, http://chronicle.com/weekly/v51/i47/47a03003.htm, (July 29, 2005)
Chronicle of Higher Education, "Counting Gifts: New Rules Irk Fund Raisers," Money & Management, Volume 51, Issue 27, Page A27, http://chronicle.com/weekly/v51/i27/27a02701.htm, (March 11, 2005)
Chronicle of Higher Education, "Fund Raisers Become Harder to Find and Tougher to Keep," Money & Management, Volume 52, Issue 10, Page A34, http://chronicle.com/weekly/v52/i10/10a03401.htm, (October 28, 2005)
Earth Times, "Tri-C Professor Named Top Community College Educator in the U.S." http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/news_press_release,23476.shtml (November 16, 2006)
Reed College News Center, "Reed College Scholar of Chinese Religions Named Professor of the Year," http://web.reed.edu/news_center/press_releases/2006-2007/111606Prof_of_Year.html (November 16, 2006)
Rome News-Tribune, "Shorter Professor Honored by Carnegie Foundation," https://web.archive.org/web/20070926213156/http://news.mywebpal.com/partners/680/public/news763478.html (November 16, 2006)

External links
 CASE Web site
 CASE Summit for Advancement Leaders
 CASE/Carnegie U.S. Professors of the Year

Non-profit organizations based in Washington, D.C.
Educational organizations based in the United States


Sir Richard Graves MacDonnell  (; 3 September 1814 – 5 February 1881) was an Anglo-Irish lawyer, judge and colonial governor. His posts as governor included Governor of the British Settlements in West Africa, Governor of Saint Vincent, Governor of South Australia, Governor of Nova Scotia and Governor of Hong Kong. Several places around the world are named for him, including MacDonnell Road in Hong Kong and the MacDonnell Ranges and Sir Richard Peninsula in Australia.

Early life
Richard Graves MacDonnell was born in Dublin, 8 September 1814, the second son of Richard MacDonnell, the Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and Jane Graves (1793–1882), second daughter of Richard Graves, Dean of Ardagh. He was a nephew of Robert James Graves and the brother of Major-General Arthur Robert MacDonnell. His first cousins included Lady Valentine Blake of Menlough, Sir William Collis Meredith, Edmund Allen Meredith, John Dawson Mayne and Francis Brinkley. MacDonnell entered Trinity College Dublin in 1830, was elected a scholar in 1833, and graduated B.A. (1835), M.A., (1836), LL.B., (1845), and LL.D.., (1862)

Governor in Gambia and the West Indies
MacDonnell was called to the Irish bar in 1838, and to the English bar, at Lincoln's Inn, 25 January 1841. On 20 July 1843, he was appointed to the new post of Chief Justice of the Gambia. After four years there, amidst long breaks for his health travelling through the United States and Canada, he intended to hand in his resignation to Henry Grey, 3rd Earl Grey and resume practice at the English bar. But, on 1 October 1847, Grey persuaded him otherwise and appointed him Governor of the British settlements in Gambia, a post he held for a further four years.

While in Gambia, MacDonnell (a cousin of the explorers Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton and Admiral Richard Charles Mayne) spent much of his time indulging his passion for exploration, and organising punitive campaigns against unruly native tribes. His expeditions opened up the interior of Africa from the Gambia River to the Senegal River. The military expeditions which he accompanied against native tribes who had long oppressed the traders of the river were a success and extended the limits of British commerce in the region. On one visit to a native king an ambush was laid for him, and he narrowly avoided being assassinated. In return, the British government sent four hundred men to inflict a summary chastisement, with MacDonnell acting as Captain of one of the volunteer companies.

In 1852, (when he was also gazetted Companion of the Order of the Bath) he was nominated as Lieutenant Governor of St. Lucia, but without taking up the post he was sent, 10 January 1853, to become administrator and Captain General of the island of St. Vincent. He was Lieutenant General of St Vincent from 1853 to 1854.

Governor of South Australia
Described as a 'dominant personality' and having gained a reputation for forthrightness and intolerance, MacDonnell was appointed the sixth Governor of South Australia, arriving 9 June 1855, and taking over from Boyle Travers Finniss who had been acting since the departure of Sir Henry Young. Shortly before leaving for Australia, in 1856 he was made Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George by Queen Victoria at Buckingham Palace.

Soon after his arrival in Australia, MacDonnell was involved in heated debate over the composition of the legislature; MacDonnell favoured a single chamber while the majority of colonists preferred a two-house system, which brought him the support of the conservatives, but united the liberals and radicals against him. Eventually a two-house system prevailed, although the Upper House had a property franchise. Difficulties between MacDonnell and his officials led to several changes of government. He extended railway and telegraph communications within the colony and opened up valuable copper mines on the Yorke Peninsula, while increasing the progress in agricultural and pastoral pursuits.

MacDonnell showed little concern for the Australian working class, claiming that charity fostered sloth and pauperism. He was particularly impressed with the settlers from Germany, and he predicted that the colony had a great future for producing wine. In his seven-year term the acreage under wheat doubled in South Australia and he argued that farmers with capital would succeed as long as their methods did not rob the soil.

MacDonnell's passion for exploration greatly aided in opening up the interior of Australia, in particular the Murray River, and he developed many of the natural resources of the colony. He travelled widely in the colony and in 1859 led a small party to investigate country around the northern lakes and claypans, riding  in three months. He maintained that Charles Sturt and Edward John Eyre were overrated as explorers as they seemed "generally to have a knack of getting into the most dismal places and finding barrenness from Dan to Beersheba". He instead urged the colonists to support the efforts of John McDouall Stuart to cross the continent.

MacDonnell was regarded in Australia as both 'powerful and hospitable'. He was an enthusiastic member of local rifle and archery clubs and keenly interested in the volunteer defence movement. He also identified himself with most of the literary, artistic and philanthropic organizations. He saw himself as a leader and innovator, and though genial, at times his bustling energy dismayed Adelaide society. As a patron of South Australian culture he encouraged students who could not travel abroad to continue their post-primary schooling, and with his customary dash personally examined candidates and donated prizes, but his plan collapsed after he left the colony. He left South Australia, 4 March 1862, for a holiday in Ireland before taking up his next post.

Governor of Nova Scotia
On the recommendation of his predecessor, George Phipps, 2nd Marquess of Normanby, MacDonnell was appointed Governor of Nova Scotia from 28 May 1864, until October 1865, taking up residence at Government House (Nova Scotia). His arrival coincided with the Confederation of Canada which he made no secret of being in opposition to, and he refused to become a tool of either the British Colonial Secretary or the Governor General of Canada, telling Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald, "You shall not make a mayor of me, I can tell you!" Confederation went ahead, making MacDonnell's tenure in Nova Scotia a short one. He was succeeded by one of Nova Scotia's most distinguished sons, General Sir William Fenwick Williams, 1st Baronet, of Kars.

Governor of Hong Kong
On 19 October 1865, MacDonnell was appointed as the sixth Governor of Hong Kong, a position in which he served until 1872. During his tenure, MacDonnell developed Victoria Peak, which would eventually become the premier residential quarters in Hong Kong, accessible only to rich European merchants. MacDonnell also ordered the construction of a hospital which catered to the needs of the local Chinese population. In addition, he legalised gambling in Hong Kong which led to social problems and was later made illegal once again. In 1871 he was gazetted K.C.M.G.

Finally, MacDonnell's administration was marred by a huge budget deficit, which resulted in the government asking the HSBC for a financial aid package. The administration was also damaged by the actions of the Canton Customs agency, who patrolled the waters off Hong Kong and boarded ships to search for smuggled goods. This was called by Hong Kong's British merchant community a blockade, and affected Hong Kong's economy for the next 20 years.

Marriage and retirement

In 1847, MacDonnell married Blanche Ann, daughter of Francis Skurray of Beckington, Somerset, who lived at Stanhope Place, Hyde Park and Percy Cross Lodge, Fulham, before retiring to 5 Brunswick Square, Brighton. Sir Richard and Lady MacDonnell lived near Hyde Park in London and after his retirement in 1872 they spent much time in Italy and France, dying at Hyères, 5 February 1881.

They are buried in Kensal Green Cemetery, on the southern side. They died without children.

Publications with his involvement
 The Church of the Future, an address by the Rev. Thomas Binney in 1859
 Christian Union, as discussed by the Bishop of Adelaide
 Sir R. C. MacDonnell, &c.,, 1859
 A lecture on 'Australia,' Dublin, 1864

Places named after him or his wife
Named after Richard MacDonnell:
 The MacDonnell Ranges in the south of the Northern Territory of Australia.
 Port MacDonnell is the most eastern port in South Australia
 MacDonnell Creek in the northern Flinders Ranges
 Lake MacDonnell in the far west of South Australia
 Sir Richard Peninsula between Murray Mouth and Goolwa in South Australia
 MacDonnell Road in Mid-Levels on Hong Kong Island, and the MacDonnell Road stop of the Peak Tram
 MacDonnell Street in Yarralumla, Australian Capital Territory
 MacDonnell Peninsula on the east end of Kangaroo Island
Named after Blanche MacDonnell:
 Blanchetown on the Murray River in South Australia
 The inner harbour of Streaky Bay is known as Blancheport
 Blanchewater Station and waterhole on MacDonnell Creek

See also
 History of Hong Kong

Notes

References

External links
 Hercules Henry Graves MacDonnell

1814 births
1881 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
19th-century Anglo-Irish people
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
Chief justices of the Gambia
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Gambia Colony and Protectorate judges
Governors of British Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Governors of the Colony of Nova Scotia
Governors of the Colony of South Australia
Governors of the Gambia
Governors of Hong Kong
Governors of South Australia
Irish Anglicans
Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
19th-century British politicians
People from Dalkey
Politicians from Dublin (city)
British colonial governors and administrators in Oceania

Richard Graves MacDonnell


{{Speciesbox
|name = Golden ragwort
|image = Golden_Ragwort_Senecio_aureus_Flowers_2616px.jpg
| status = G5
| status_system = TNC
|taxon = Packera aurea
|authority = (L.) A. & D. Löve
|synonyms = Senecio aureus  L.
Senecio gracilis Pursh<ref name="ITIS">{{ITIS |id=518139 |taxon=Packera aurea'(L.) A.& D. Löve |accessdate=2008-04-01}}</ref>
}}Packera aurea (formerly Senecio aureus), commonly known as golden ragwort or simply ragwort, is a perennial flower in the family Asteraceae.

It is also known as golden groundsel, squaw weed, life root, golden Senecio, uncum, uncum root, waw weed, false valerian, cough weed, female regulator, cocash weed, ragweed, staggerwort, and St. James wort.

It is native to eastern North America, from Labrador to Minnesota and from North Carolina to Arkansas (with additional populations in the panhandle of Florida).

Constituents
Active compounds include:
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) florosenine, otosenine, and floridanine.
Eremophilane sesquiterpenes, such as trans-9-oxofuranoeremophilane, 8x-ethoxy-l0x-H-eremophilane, and caccalol.

Medicinal uses

In contemporary times, P. aurea'' is not much used due to its saturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids which can cause liver veno-occlusive disease upon metabolism.  If used, a PA-free extract would be required for safe use for more than a two-week course.

Life root, as it was called by the Eclectics, was used as a uterine tonic. It is an ingredient in Lydia Pinkham's compound.

The plant was an important treatment among the Native Americans and among the Eclectic medicine physicians for reproductive conditions.
Scudder wrote:
The Senecio exerts a specific influence upon the reproductive organs of the female, and to a less extent upon the male. It relieves irritation and strengthens functional activity. Hence it has acquired the reputation of a "uterine tonic." It may be prescribed in all cases in which there is an atonic condition of ovaries or uterus, with derangement of function. It makes little difference whether it is amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea or menorrhagia, or whether it takes the form of increased mucous or purulent secretion, or displacement. The remedy acts slowly, and sufficient time must be given.

In the male we prescribe it in cases of fullness and weight in the perineum, dragging sensations in the testicle, and difficult or tardy urination. In both male and female we sometimes use it with advantage in painful micturition with tenesmus.

Relationship with the cinnabar moth
The cinnabar moth feeds mostly on ragworts and has been introduced as a control measure in places where common ragwort, Jacobaea vulgaris, has become a problem weed.

References

External links
 USDA Plants Profile for Packera aurea (golden ragwort)
 Flora of Pennsylvania

aureus
Flora of Eastern Canada
Flora of the Northeastern United States
Flora of the Southeastern United States
Flora of the Great Lakes region (North America)
Flora of the United States
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Packera aurea


A tachometer (revolution-counter, tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine. The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly common.

The word comes from Greek  ( "speed") and  ( "measure"). Essentially the words tachometer and speedometer have identical meaning: a device that measures speed. It is by arbitrary convention that in the automotive world one is used for engine revolutions and the other for vehicle speed. In formal engineering nomenclature, more precise terms are used to distinguish the two.

History
The first tachometer was described by Bryan Donkin in a paper to the Royal Society of Arts in 1810 for which he was awarded the Gold medal of the society. This consisted of a bowl of mercury constructed in such a way that centrifugal force caused the level in a central tube to fall when it rotated and brought down the level in a narrower tube above filled with coloured spirit. The bowl was connected to the machinery to be measured by pulleys.

The first mechanical tachometers were based on measuring the centrifugal force, similar to the operation of a centrifugal governor. The inventor is assumed to be the German engineer Dietrich Uhlhorn; he used it for measuring the speed of machines in 1817. Since 1840, it has been used to measure the speed of locomotives.

In automobiles, trucks, tractors and aircraft

Tachometers or revolution counters on cars, aircraft, and other vehicles show the rate of rotation of the engine's crankshaft, and typically have markings indicating a safe range of rotation speeds. This can assist the driver in selecting appropriate throttle and gear settings for the driving conditions. Prolonged use at high speeds may cause inadequate lubrication, overheating (exceeding capability of the cooling system), exceeding speed capability of sub-parts of the engine (for example spring retracted valves) thus causing excessive wear or permanent damage or failure of engines. On analogue tachometers, speeds above maximum safe operating speed are typically indicated by an area of the gauge marked in red, giving rise to the expression of "redlining" an engine — revving the engine up to the maximum safe limit. Most modern cars typically have a revolution limiter which electronically limits engine speed to prevent damage. Diesel engines with traditional mechanical injector systems have an integral governor which prevents over-speeding the engine, so the tachometers in vehicles and machinery fitted with such engines sometimes lack a redline.

In vehicles such as tractors and trucks, the tachometer often has other markings, usually a green arc showing the speed range in which the engine produces maximum torque, which is of prime interest to operators of such vehicles. Tractors fitted with a power take-off (PTO) system have tachometers showing the engine speed needed to rotate the PTO at the standardized speed required by most PTO-driven implements. In many countries, tractors are required to have a speedometer for use on a road. To save fitting a second dial, the vehicle's tachometer is often marked with a second scale in units of speed. This scale is only accurate in a certain gear, but since many tractors only have one gear that is practical for use on-road, this is sufficient. Tractors with multiple 'road gears' often have tachometers with more than one speed scale.  Aircraft tachometers have a green arc showing the engine's designed cruising speed range.

In older vehicles, the tachometer is driven by the RMS voltage waves from the low tension (LT contact breaker) side of the ignition coil, while on others (and nearly all diesel engines, which have no ignition system) engine speed is determined by the frequency from the alternator tachometer output.  This is from a special connection called an "AC tap" which is a connection to one of the stator's coil output, before the rectifier. Tachometers driven by a rotating cable from a drive unit fitted to the engine (usually on the camshaft) exist - usually on simple diesel-engined machinery with basic or no electrical systems. On recent EMS found on modern vehicles, the signal for the tachometer is usually generated from an ECU which derives the information from  either the crankshaft or camshaft speed sensor.

Traffic engineering
Tachometers are used to estimate traffic speed and volume (flow). A vehicle is equipped with the sensor and conducts "tach runs" which record the traffic data. These data are a substitute or complement to loop detector data. To get statistically significant results requires a high number of runs, and bias is introduced by the time of day, day of week, and the season. However, because of the expense, spacing (a lower density of loop detectors diminishes data accuracy), and relatively low reliability of loop detectors (often 30% or more are out of service at any given time), tach runs remain a common practice.

In trains and light rail vehicles

Speed sensing devices, termed variously "wheel impulse generators" (WIG), pulse generators, speed probes, or tachometers are used extensively in rail vehicles. Common types include opto-isolator slotted disk sensors and Hall effect sensors.

Hall effect sensors typically use a rotating target attached to a wheel, gearbox or motor. This target may contain magnets, or it may be a toothed wheel.  The teeth on the wheel vary the flux density of a magnet inside the sensor head. The probe is mounted with its head a precise distance from the target wheel and detects the teeth or magnets passing its face. One problem with this system is that the necessary air gap between the target wheel and the sensor allows ferrous dust from the vehicle's underframe to build up on the probe or target, inhibiting its function.

Opto-isolator sensors are completely encased to prevent ingress from the outside environment.  The only exposed parts are a sealed plug connector and a drive fork, which is attached to a slotted disk internally through a bearing and seal.  The slotted disk is typically sandwiched between two circuit boards containing a photo-diode, photo-transistor, amplifier, and filtering circuits which produce a square wave pulse train output customized to the customers voltage and pulses per revolution requirements.  These types of sensors typically provide 2 to 8 independent channels of output that can be sampled by other systems in the vehicle such as automatic train control systems and propulsion/braking controllers.

The sensors mounted around the circumference of the disk provide quadrature encoded outputs and thus allow the vehicle's computer to determine the direction of rotation of the wheel. This is a legal requirement in Switzerland to prevent rollback when starting from standstill. Strictly, such devices are not tachometers since they do not provide a direct reading of the rotational speed of the disk. The speed has to be derived externally by counting the number of pulses in a time period. It is difficult to prove conclusively that the vehicle is stationary, other than by waiting a certain time to ensure that no further pulses occur. This is one reason why there is often a time delay between the train stopping, as perceived by a passenger, and the doors being released. Slotted-disk devices are typical sensors used in odometer systems for rail vehicles, such as are required for train protection systems — notably the European Train Control System.

As well as speed sensing, these probes are often used to calculate distance travelled by multiplying wheel rotations by wheel circumference.

They can be used to automatically calibrate wheel diameter by comparing the number of rotations of each axle against a master wheel that has been measured manually. Since all wheels travel the same distance, the diameter of each wheel is proportional to its number of rotations compared to the master wheel. This calibration must be done while coasting at a fixed speed to eliminate the possibility of wheel slip/slide introducing errors into the calculation. Automatic calibration of this type is used to generate more accurate traction and braking signals, and to improve wheel slip detection.

A weakness of systems that rely on wheel rotation for tachometry and odometry is that the train wheels and the rails are very smooth and the friction between them is low, leading to high error rates if the wheels slip or slide. To compensate for this, secondary odometry inputs employ Doppler radar units beneath the train to measure speed independently.

In analogue audio recording

In analogue audio recording, a tachometer is a device that measures the speed of audiotape as it passes across the head.  On most audio tape recorders the tachometer (or simply "tach") is a relatively large spindle near the ERP head stack, isolated from the feed and take-up spindles by tension idlers.

On many recorders the tachometer spindle is connected by an axle to a rotating magnet that induces a changing magnetic field upon a Hall effect transistor.  Other systems connect the spindle to a stroboscope, which alternates light and dark upon a photodiode.

The tape recorder's drive electronics use signals from the tachometer to ensure that the tape is played at the proper speed.  The signal is compared to a reference signal (either a quartz crystal or alternating current from the mains).  The comparison of the two frequencies drives the speed of the tape transport.  When the tach signal and the reference signal match, the tape transport is said to be "at speed."  (To this day on film sets, the director calls "Roll sound!" and the sound man replies "Sound speed!"  This is a vestige of the days when recording devices required several seconds to reach a regulated speed.)

Having perfectly regulated tape speed is important because the human ear is very sensitive to changes in pitch, particularly sudden ones, and without a self-regulating system to control the speed of tape across the head, the pitch could drift several percent.  This effect is called a wow-and-flutter, and a modern, tachometer-regulated cassette deck has a wow-and-flutter of 0.07%.

Tachometers are acceptable for high-fidelity sound playback, but not for recording in synchronization with a movie camera.  For such purposes, special recorders that record pilottone must be used.

Tachometer signals can be used to synchronize several tape machines together, but only if in addition to the tach signal, a directional signal is transmitted, to tell slave machines in which direction the master is moving.

See also
List of auto parts
List of vehicle instruments
Redline
Tachograph

References

Avionics
Aircraft instruments
Automotive technologies
Vehicle parts
Speed sensors
Measuring instruments

Tachometer


The Battle of Northampton was fought on 10 July 1460 near the River Nene, Northamptonshire. It was a major battle of the Wars of the Roses. The opposing forces were an army led by nobles loyal to King Henry VI of the House of Lancaster, his Queen Margaret of Anjou and their seven-year-old son Edward, Prince of Wales, on one side, and the army of Edward, Earl of March, and Warwick the Kingmaker on the other. The battle was the first in which artillery was used in England.

Background
After the disintegration of the Yorkist army at Ludford Bridge in 1459, many of the Yorkist commanders went into self-imposed exile. The Duke of York and his second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland, retired to the relative safety of Dublin, Ireland. His principal supporters the Earl of Warwick and his father the Earl of Salisbury, and York's son Edward, Earl of March, reached Calais on 2 November 1459, where Warwick found his uncle Lord Fauconberg. In England, the Lancastrians were quick to exploit the Yorkist flight. The Earl of Wiltshire was appointed Lieutenant of Ireland and the Duke of Somerset became Captain of Calais. Neither however succeeded in occupying their new posts as the Irish refused to dislodge York and the gates of Calais remained firmly closed to their new 'Captain'.

The Lancastrians gave Somerset an army to storm Calais, but first they had to cross the Channel, so the construction of a fleet was started at Sandwich in Kent. In January and May 1460, Warwick made raids on Sandwich and stole the ships. In June, the Lancastrian invasion was pre-empted by an attack on Sandwich, which had been reinforced with several hundred Lancastrian troops commanded by Osbert Mundford. The Yorkist force under Lord Fauconberg, Sir John Wenlock and John Dynham seized the port, capturing troops and armaments. Mundford was captured, taken to Rysbank tower and executed. Warwick left his uncle, Lord Fauconberg, in Sandwich with a small force of Yorkists to act as a bridgehead for his planned invasion of England.

Battle

On 26 June, Warwick, Salisbury and Edward landed at Sandwich with 2,000 men-at-arms. King Henry VI and his Queen, Margaret of Anjou, were at Coventry with their small army. Warwick entered London on 2 July with an army of supporters numbering approximately 10,000.

The king's forces took up a defensive position at Northampton, in the grounds of Delapré Abbey. They had constructed an artillery fortification in what is now a mixture of public park and golf course. The position was surrounded by natural watercourses, tributaries of the River Nene, backed by a palisade and gun positions. The defending army was around 5,000 strong, consisting mainly of men-at-arms. The Lancastrians also had some field artillery.

While approaching, Warwick sent a delegate to negotiate with the king on his behalf. The Lancastrian commander, the Duke of Buckingham, replied "The Earl of Warwick shall not come to the King's presence and if he comes he shall die." During Warwick's advance to Northampton he was twice more denied access to the king's person. Once in position, he sent a message to the king saying that "at ii howres after none he wolde speke with hym, or elles dye in the feeld".

At two o'clock the Yorkists advanced. The men were in column, but the hard rain blowing in their faces somewhat hindered them. As they closed with the Lancastrians, Warwick was met by a fierce hail of arrows, but the rain had rendered the Lancastrian collection of cannon quite useless.

When Warwick reached the Lancastrian left flank, commanded by Lord Grey of Ruthin, treachery ensued. Grey had his men lay down their weapons and simply allow the Yorkists to have easy access into the camp beyond. This treachery was the result of a secret message from Lord Grey to March saying that he would change sides if the Yorkists would back him in a property dispute with Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter (his maternal cousin). Certainly Warwick had ordered his men not to lay violent hands on ordinary soldiers—especially those wearing the black ragged staff of Lord Grey's men. There may also have been inducements and promises of high office by Warwick. Grey became Treasurer of England in 1463. After this, the battle lasted a mere thirty minutes. The defenders were unable to manoeuvre inside the fortifications, and fled the field as their line was rolled up by attacking Yorkists.

The Duke of Buckingham, the Earl of Shrewsbury, Lord Egremont and Lord Beaumont all died trying to save Henry from the Yorkists closing on his tent. Three hundred other Lancastrians were slain in the battle. King Henry VI was captured by an archer, Henry Mountfort.

Aftermath
Henry was found in his tent by Warwick, March and Fauconberg. Showing him proper respect they escorted him to Delapré Abbey, then Northampton, and finally London, where the tower garrison surrendered soon after.

References

Bibliography

External links

1460 in England
Conflicts in 1460
Battles of the Wars of the Roses
Northampton (1460)
History of Northampton
Registered historic battlefields in England
Henry VI of England

Battle of Northampton (1460)


The Soothren Basque Kintra (Basque:Hegoalde or Hego Euskal Herria) is a term maist commonly uised in Basque tae refer tae the Basque territories that lie athin Spain as a whole.

It does no exist as a poleetical unit but conceptually includes the three provinces o the Autonomous Basque Commonty - Biscay, Álava (plus the Condado de Treviño enclave) an Gipuzkoa - an Navarre.

The term "Spaingie Basque Kintra" can sometimes be encoontert tae refer tae this concept but is ambiguous as it mey or mey no include Navarre, whauras the Basque-derivit term "Soothren Basque Kintra" invariably includes Navarre an the Treviño enclave.

Basque
Dividit regions

Soothren Basque Kintra


Shear modulus is a measure of the amount of force that will shear or twist an object. It is normally the letter G. It is the measure of the force needed to shear an object that is attached to a solid object. It can also measure the amount of force needed to twist an object.

Physics

Shear modulus


Owensboro is a city in the U.S. state of Kentucky.

It is the county seat of Daviess County.  In 2010, there were 57,265 people living in Owensboro.   The city was named after Colonel Abraham Owen.

On August 14, 1936, downtown Owensboro was the site of the last public hanging in the United States. Rainey Bethea was hanged for the rape and murder of 70-year-old Lischa Edwards.

The end of the Second World War brought civil engineering projects, which helped turn Owensboro from a sleepy industrial town into a modern, expanding community by the turn of the 1960s.

Texas Gas Transmission Corporation was created in 1948 with the merger of Memphis Natural Gas Company and Kentucky Natural Gas Corporation and made its headquarters in Owensboro.

Economy
The institutions with the most employees (people working for them) in the city are Owensboro Medical Health System Hospital (3,300 people), U.S. Bank Home Mortgage (1,261 people), Owensboro Public Schools (778 people),  	Specialty Foods Group (470 people),  Walmart (541 people), and Unilever (515 people).

Geography

Owensboro is located at 37°45′28″N 87°7′6″W on the Ohio River.

Cities in Kentucky
County seats in Kentucky

Owensboro, Kentucky