A fairy tale (alternative names include fairytale, fairy story, magic tale, or wonder tale) is a short story that belongs to the folklore genre. Such stories typically feature magic, enchantments, and mythical or fanciful beings. In most cultures, there is no clear line separating myth from folk or fairy tale; all these together form the literature of preliterate societies. Fairy tales may be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends (which generally involve belief in the veracity of the events described) and explicit moral tales, including beast fables. Prevalent elements include dwarfs, dragons, elves, fairies, giants, gnomes, goblins, griffins, mermaids, talking animals, trolls, unicorns, monsters, witches, wizards, magic, and enchantments.

In less technical contexts, the term is also used to describe something blessed with unusual happiness, as in "fairy-tale ending" (a happy ending) or "fairy-tale romance". Colloquially, the term "fairy tale" or "fairy story" can also mean any far-fetched story or tall tale; it is used especially of any story that not only is not true, but could not possibly be true. Legends are perceived as real within their culture; fairy tales may merge into legends, where the narrative is perceived both by teller and hearers as being grounded in historical truth. However, unlike legends and epics, fairy tales usually do not contain more than superficial references to religion and to actual places, people, and events; they take place "once upon a time" rather than in actual times.

Fairy tales occur both in oral and in literary form; the name "fairy tale" ("conte de fées" in French) was first ascribed to them by Madame d'Aulnoy in the late 17th century. Many of today's fairy tales have evolved from centuries-old stories that have appeared, with variations, in multiple cultures around the world.

The history of the fairy tale is particularly difficult to trace because only the literary forms can survive. Still, according to researchers at universities in Durham and Lisbon, such stories may date back thousands of years, some to the Bronze Age. Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still written today.

The Jatakas are probably the oldest collection of such tales in literature, and the greater part of the rest are demonstrably more than a thousand years old. It is certain that much (perhaps one-fifth) of the popular literature of modern Europe is derived from those portions of this large bulk which came west with the Crusades through the medium of Arabs and Jews.

Folklorists have classified fairy tales in various ways. The Aarne-Thompson-Uther classification system and the morphological analysis of Vladimir Propp are among the most notable. Other folklorists have interpreted the tales' significance, but no school has been definitively established for the meaning of the tales.

Terminology

Some folklorists prefer to use the German term Märchen or "wonder tale" to refer to the genre rather than fairy tale, a practice given weight by the definition of Thompson in his 1977 [1946] edition of The Folktale:
 "...a tale of some length involving a succession of motifs or episodes. It moves in an unreal world without definite locality or definite creatures and is filled with the marvellous. In this never-never land, humble heroes kill adversaries, succeed to kingdoms and marry princesses."

The characters and motifs of fairy tales are simple and archetypal: princesses and goose-girls; youngest sons and gallant princes; ogres, giants, dragons, and trolls; wicked stepmothers and false heroes; fairy godmothers and other magical helpers, often talking horses, or foxes, or birds; glass mountains; and prohibitions and breaking of prohibitions.

Definition

Although the fairy tale is a distinct genre within the larger category of folktale, the definition that marks a work as a fairy tale is a source of considerable dispute. The term itself comes from the translation of Madame D'Aulnoy's Conte de fées, first used in her collection in 1697. Common parlance conflates fairy tales with beast fables and other folktales, and scholars differ on the degree to which the presence of fairies and/or similarly mythical beings (e.g., elves, goblins, trolls, giants, huge monsters, or mermaids) should be taken as a differentiator. Vladimir Propp, in his Morphology of the Folktale, criticized the common distinction between "fairy tales" and "animal tales" on the grounds that many tales contained both fantastic elements and animals. Nevertheless, to select works for his analysis, Propp used all Russian folktales classified as a folklore, Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index 300–749, – in a cataloguing system that made such a distinction – to gain a clear set of tales. His own analysis identified fairy tales by their plot elements, but that in itself has been criticized, as the analysis does not lend itself easily to tales that do not involve a quest, and furthermore, the same plot elements are found in non-fairy tale works.

As Stith Thompson points out, talking animals and the presence of magic seem to be more common to the fairy tale than fairies themselves. However, the mere presence of animals that talk does not make a tale a fairy tale, especially when the animal is clearly a mask on a human face, as in fables.

In his essay "On Fairy-Stories", J. R. R. Tolkien agreed with the exclusion of "fairies" from the definition, defining fairy tales as stories about the adventures of men in Faërie, the land of fairies, fairytale princes and princesses, dwarves, elves, and not only other magical species but many other marvels. However, the same essay excludes tales that are often considered fairy tales, citing as an example The Monkey's Heart, which Andrew Lang included in The Lilac Fairy Book.

Steven Swann Jones identified the presence of magic as the feature by which fairy tales can be distinguished from other sorts of folktales. Davidson and Chaudri identify "transformation" as the key feature of the genre. From a psychological point of view, Jean Chiriac argued for the necessity of the fantastic in these narratives.

In terms of aesthetic values, Italo Calvino cited the fairy tale as a prime example of "quickness" in literature, because of the economy and concision of the tales.

History of the genre

Originally, stories that would contemporarily be considered fairy tales were not marked out as a separate genre. The German term "Märchen" stems from the old German word "Mär", which means news or tale. The word "Märchen" is the diminutive of the word "Mär", therefore it means a "little story". Together with the common beginning "once upon a time", this tells us that a fairy tale or a märchen was originally a little story from a long time ago when the world was still magic. (Indeed, one less regular German opening is "In the old times when wishing was still effective".)

The French writers and adaptors of the conte de fées genre often included fairies in their stories; the genre name became "fairy tale" in English translation and "gradually eclipsed the more general term folk tale that covered a wide variety of oral tales". Jack Zipes also attributes this shift to changing sociopolitical conditions in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that led to the trivialization of these stories by the upper classes.

Roots of the genre come from different oral stories passed down in European cultures. The genre was first marked out by writers of the Renaissance, such as Giovanni Francesco Straparola and Giambattista Basile, and stabilized through the works of later collectors such as Charles Perrault and the Brothers Grimm. In this evolution, the name was coined when the précieuses took up writing literary stories; Madame d'Aulnoy invented the term Conte de fée, or fairy tale, in the late 17th century.

Before the definition of the genre of fantasy, many works that would now be classified as fantasy were termed "fairy tales", including Tolkien's The Hobbit, George Orwell's Animal Farm, and L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Indeed, Tolkien's "On Fairy-Stories" includes discussions of world-building and is considered a vital part of fantasy criticism. Although fantasy, particularly the subgenre of fairytale fantasy, draws heavily on fairy tale motifs, the genres are now regarded as distinct.

Folk and literary

The fairy tale, told orally, is a sub-class of the folktale. Many writers have written in the form of the fairy tale. These are the literary fairy tales, or Kunstmärchen. The oldest forms, from Panchatantra to the Pentamerone, show considerable reworking from the oral form. The Grimm brothers were among the first to try to preserve the features of oral tales. Yet the stories printed under the Grimm name have been considerably reworked to fit the written form.

Literary fairy tales and oral fairy tales freely exchanged plots, motifs, and elements with one another and with the tales of foreign lands. The literary fairy tale came into fashion during the 17th century, developed by aristocratic women as a parlour game. This, in turn, helped to maintain the oral tradition. According to Jack Zipes, "The subject matter of the conversations consisted of literature, mores, taste, and etiquette, whereby the speakers all endeavoured to portray ideal situations in the most effective oratorical style that would gradually have a major effect on literary forms." Many 18th-century folklorists attempted to recover the "pure" folktale, uncontaminated by literary versions. Yet while oral fairy tales likely existed for thousands of years before the literary forms, there is no pure folktale, and each literary fairy tale draws on folk traditions, if only in parody. This makes it impossible to trace forms of transmission of a fairy tale. Oral story-tellers have been known to read literary fairy tales to increase their own stock of stories and treatments.

History

The oral tradition of the fairy tale came long before the written page. Tales were told or enacted dramatically, rather than written down, and handed down from generation to generation. Because of this, the history of their development is necessarily obscure and blurred. Fairy tales appear, now and again, in written literature throughout literate cultures, as in The Golden Ass, which includes Cupid and Psyche (Roman, 100–200 AD), or the Panchatantra (India 3rd century BC), but it is unknown to what extent these reflect the actual folk tales even of their own time. The stylistic evidence indicates that these, and many later collections, reworked folk tales into literary forms. What they do show is that the fairy tale has ancient roots, older than the Arabian Nights collection of magical tales (compiled circa 1500 AD), such as Vikram and the Vampire, and Bel and the Dragon. Besides such collections and individual tales, in China Taoist philosophers such as Liezi and Zhuangzi recounted fairy tales in their philosophical works. In the broader definition of the genre, the first famous Western fairy tales are those of Aesop (6th century BC) in ancient Greece.

Scholarship points out that Medieval literature contains early versions or predecessors of later known tales and motifs, such as the grateful dead, The Bird Lover or the quest for the lost wife. Recognizable folktales have also been reworked as the plot of folk literature and oral epics.

Jack Zipes writes in When Dreams Came True, "There are fairy tale elements in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene, and in many of William Shakespeare plays." King Lear can be considered a literary variant of fairy tales such as Water and Salt and Cap O' Rushes. The tale itself resurfaced in Western literature in the 16th and 17th centuries, with The Facetious Nights of Straparola by Giovanni Francesco Straparola (Italy, 1550 and 1553), which contains many fairy tales in its inset tales, and the Neapolitan tales of Giambattista Basile (Naples, 1634–36), which are all fairy tales. Carlo Gozzi made use of many fairy tale motifs among his Commedia dell'Arte scenarios, including among them one based on The Love For Three Oranges (1761). Simultaneously, Pu Songling, in China, included many fairy tales in his collection, Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio (published posthumously, 1766), which has been described by Yuken Fujita of Keio University as having "a reputation as the most outstanding short story collection." The fairy tale itself became popular among the précieuses of upper-class France (1690–1710), and among the tales told in that time were the ones of La Fontaine and the Contes of Charles Perrault (1697), who fixed the forms of Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella. Although Straparola's, Basile's and Perrault's collections contain the oldest known forms of various fairy tales, on the stylistic evidence, all the writers rewrote the tales for literary effect.

The Salon Era

In the mid-17th century, a vogue for magical tales emerged among the intellectuals who frequented the salons of Paris. These salons were regular gatherings hosted by prominent aristocratic women, where women and men could gather together to discuss the issues of the day.

In the 1630s, aristocratic women began to gather in their own living rooms, salons, to discuss the topics of their choice: arts and letters, politics, and social matters of immediate concern to the women of their class: marriage, love, financial and physical independence, and access to education. This was a time when women were barred from receiving a formal education. Some of the most gifted women writers of the period came out of these early salons (such as Madeleine de Scudéry and Madame de Lafayette), which encouraged women's independence and pushed against the gender barriers that defined their lives. The salonnières argued particularly for love and intellectual compatibility between the sexes, opposing the system of arranged marriages.

Sometime in the middle of the 17th century, a passion for the conversational parlour game based on the plots of old folk tales swept through the salons. Each salonnière was called upon to retell an old tale or rework an old theme, spinning clever new stories that not only showcased verbal agility and imagination but also slyly commented on the conditions of aristocratic life. Great emphasis was placed on a mode of delivery that seemed natural and spontaneous. The decorative language of the fairy tales served an important function: disguising the rebellious subtext of the stories and sliding them past the court censors. Critiques of court life (and even of the king) were embedded in extravagant tales and in dark, sharply dystopian ones. Not surprisingly, the tales by women often featured young (but clever) aristocratic girls whose lives were controlled by the arbitrary whims of fathers, kings, and elderly wicked fairies, as well as tales in which groups of wise fairies (i.e., intelligent, independent women) stepped in and put all to rights.

The salon tales as they were originally written and published have been preserved in a monumental work called Le Cabinet des Fées, an enormous collection of stories from the 17th and 18th centuries.

Later works

The first collectors to attempt to preserve not only the plot and characters of the tale, but also the style in which they were told, was the Brothers Grimm, collecting German fairy tales; ironically, this meant although their first edition (1812 & 1815) remains a treasure for folklorists, they rewrote the tales in later editions to make them more acceptable, which ensured their sales and the later popularity of their work.

Such literary forms did not merely draw from the folktale, but also influenced folktales in turn. The Brothers Grimm rejected several tales for their collection, though told orally to them by Germans, because the tales derived from Perrault, and they concluded they were thereby French and not German tales; an oral version of Bluebeard was thus rejected, and the tale of Little Briar Rose, clearly related to Perrault's The Sleeping Beauty, was included only because Jacob Grimm convinced his brother that the figure of Brynhildr, from much earlier Norse mythology, proved that the sleeping princess was authentically Germanic folklore.

This consideration of whether to keep Sleeping Beauty reflected a belief common among folklorists of the 19th century: that the folk tradition preserved fairy tales in forms from pre-history except when "contaminated" by such literary forms, leading people to tell inauthentic tales. The rural, illiterate, and uneducated peasants, if suitably isolated, were the folk and would tell pure folk tales. Sometimes they regarded fairy tales as a form of fossil, the remnants of a once-perfect tale. However, further research has concluded that fairy tales never had a fixed form, and regardless of literary influence, the tellers constantly altered them for their own purposes.

The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe, in a spirit of romantic nationalism, that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev (first published in 1866), the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe (first published in 1845), the Romanian Petre Ispirescu (first published in 1874), the English Joseph Jacobs (first published in 1890), and Jeremiah Curtin, an American who collected Irish tales (first published in 1890). Ethnographers collected fairy tales throughout the world, finding similar tales in Africa, the Americas, and Australia; Andrew Lang was able to draw on not only the written tales of Europe and Asia, but those collected by ethnographers, to fill his "coloured" fairy books series. They also encouraged other collectors of fairy tales, as when Yei Theodora Ozaki created a collection, Japanese Fairy Tales (1908), after encouragement from Lang. Simultaneously, writers such as Hans Christian Andersen and George MacDonald continued the tradition of literary fairy tales. Andersen's work sometimes drew on old folktales, but more often deployed fairytale motifs and plots in new tales. MacDonald incorporated fairytale motifs both in new literary fairy tales, such as The Light Princess, and in works of the genre that would become fantasy, as in The Princess and the Goblin or Lilith.

Cross-cultural transmission

Two theories of origins have attempted to explain the common elements in fairy tales found spread over continents. One is that a single point of origin generated any given tale, which then spread over the centuries; the other is that such fairy tales stem from common human experience and therefore can appear separately in many different origins.

Fairy tales with very similar plots, characters, and motifs are found spread across many different cultures. Many researchers hold this to be caused by the spread of such tales, as people repeat tales they have heard in foreign lands, although the oral nature makes it impossible to trace the route except by inference. Folklorists have attempted to determine the origin by internal evidence, which can not always be clear; Joseph Jacobs, comparing the Scottish tale The Ridere of Riddles with the version collected by the Brothers Grimm, The Riddle, noted that in The Ridere of Riddles one hero ends up polygamously married, which might point to an ancient custom, but in The Riddle, the simpler riddle might argue greater antiquity.

Folklorists of the "Finnish" (or historical-geographical) school attempted to place fairy tales to their origin, with inconclusive results. Sometimes influence, especially within a limited area and time, is clearer, as when considering the influence of Perrault's tales on those collected by the Brothers Grimm. Little Briar-Rose appears to stem from Perrault's The Sleeping Beauty, as the Grimms' tale appears to be the only independent German variant. Similarly, the close agreement between the opening of the Grimms' version of Little Red Riding Hood and Perrault's tale points to an influence, although the Grimms' version adds a different ending (perhaps derived from The Wolf and the Seven Young Kids).

Fairy tales tend to take on the color of their location, through the choice of motifs, the style in which they are told, and the depiction of character and local color.

The Brothers Grimm believed that European fairy tales derived from the cultural history shared by all Indo-European peoples and were therefore ancient, far older than written records. This view is supported by research by the anthropologist Jamie Tehrani and the folklorist Sara Graca Da Silva using phylogenetic analysis, a technique developed by evolutionary biologists to trace the relatedness of living and fossil species. Among the tales analysed were Jack and the Beanstalk, traced to the time of splitting of Eastern and Western Indo-European, over 5000 years ago. Both Beauty and the Beast and Rumpelstiltskin appear to have been created some 4000 years ago. The story of The Smith and the Devil (Deal with the Devil) appears to date from the Bronze Age, some 6000 years ago. Various other studies converge to suggest that some fairy tales, for example the swan maiden, could go back to the Upper Palaeolithic.

Association with children

Originally, adults were the audience of a fairy tale just as often as children. Literary fairy tales appeared in works intended for adults, but in the 19th and 20th centuries the fairy tale became associated with children's literature.

The précieuses, including Madame d'Aulnoy, intended their works for adults, but regarded their source as the tales that servants, or other women of lower class, would tell to children. Indeed, a novel of that time, depicting a countess's suitor offering to tell such a tale, has the countess exclaim that she loves fairy tales as if she were still a child. Among the late précieuses, Jeanne-Marie Le Prince de Beaumont redacted a version of Beauty and the Beast for children, and it is her tale that is best known today. The Brothers Grimm titled their collection Children's and Household Tales and rewrote their tales after complaints that they were not suitable for children.

In the modern era, fairy tales were altered so that they could be read to children. The Brothers Grimm concentrated mostly on sexual references; Rapunzel, in the first edition, revealed the prince's visits by asking why her clothing had grown tight, thus letting the witch deduce that she was pregnant, but in subsequent editions carelessly revealed that it was easier to pull up the prince than the witch. On the other hand, in many respects, violenceparticularly when punishing villainswas increased. Other, later, revisions cut out violence; J.R.R.Tolkien noted that The Juniper Tree often had its cannibalistic stew cut out in a version intended for children. The moralizing strain in the Victorian era altered the classical tales to teach lessons, as when George Cruikshank rewrote Cinderella in 1854 to contain temperance themes. His acquaintance Charles Dickens protested, "In an utilitarian age, of all other times, it is a matter of grave importance that fairy tales should be respected."

Psychoanalysts such as Bruno Bettelheim, who regarded the cruelty of older fairy tales as indicative of psychological conflicts, strongly criticized this expurgation, because it weakened their usefulness to both children and adults as ways of symbolically resolving issues. Fairy tales do teach children how to deal with difficult times. To quote Rebecca Walters (2017, p. 56) "Fairytales and folktales are part of the cultural conserve that can be used to address children's fears …. and give them some role training in an approach that honors the children's window of tolerance". These fairy tales teach children how to deal with certain social situations and helps them to find their place in society. Fairy tales teach children other important lessons too. For example, Tsitsani et al. carried out a study on children to determine the benefits of fairy tales. Parents of the children who took part in the study found that fairy tales, especially the color in them, triggered their child's imagination as they read them.Jungian Analyst and fairy tale scholar Marie Louise Von Franz interprets fairy tales based on Jung's view of fairy tales as a spontaneous and naive product of soul, which can only express what soul is. That means, she looks at fairy tales as images of different phases of experiencing the reality of the soul. They are the "purest and simplest expression of collective unconscious psychic processes" and "they represent the archetypes in their simplest, barest and most concise form" because they are less overlaid with conscious material than myths and legends. "In this pure form, the archetypal images afford us the best clues to the understanding of the processes going on in the collective psyche". "The fairy tale itself is its own best explanation; that is, its meaning is contained in the totality of its motifs connected by the thread of the story. [...] Every fairy tale is a relatively closed system compounding one essential psychological meaning which is expressed in a series of symbolical pictures and events and is discoverable in these". "I have come to the conclusion that all fairy tales endeavour to describe one and the same psychic fact, but a fact so complex and far-reaching and so difficult for us to realize in all its different aspects that hundreds of tales and thousands of repetitions with a musician's variation are needed until this unknown fact is delivered into consciousness; and even then the theme is not exhausted. This unknown fact is what Jung calls the Self, which is the psychic reality of the collective unconscious. [...] Every archetype is in its essence only one aspect of the collective unconscious as well as always representing also the whole collective unconscious.

Other famous people commented on the importance of fairy tales, especially for children. For example, G. K. Chesterton argued that "Fairy tales, then, are not responsible for producing in children fear, or any of the shapes of fear; fairy tales do not give the child the idea of the evil or the ugly; that is in the child already, because it is in the world already. Fairy tales do not give the child his first idea of bogey. What fairy tales give the child is his first clear idea of the possible defeat of bogey. The baby has known the dragon intimately ever since he had an imagination. What the fairy tale provides for him is a St. George to kill the dragon." Albert Einstein once showed how important he believed fairy tales were for children's intelligence in the quote "If you want your children to be intelligent, read them fairytales. If you want them to be more intelligent, read them more fairytales."

The adaptation of fairy tales for children continues. Walt Disney's influential Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was largely (although certainly not solely) intended for the children's market. The anime Magical Princess Minky Momo draws on the fairy tale Momotarō. Jack Zipes has spent many years working to make the older traditional stories accessible to modern readers and their children.

Motherhood

Many fairy tales feature an absentee mother, as an example Beauty and the Beast, The Little Mermaid, Little Red Riding Hood and Donkeyskin, where the mother is deceased or absent and unable to help the heroines. Mothers are depicted as absent or wicked in the most popular contemporary versions of tales like Rapunzel, Snow White, Cinderella and Hansel and Gretel, however,
some lesser known tales or variants such as those found in volumes edited by Angela Carter and Jane Yolen depict mothers in a more positive light.

Carter's protagonist in The Bloody Chamber is an impoverished piano student married to a Marquis who was much older than herself to "banish the spectre of poverty". The story is a variant on Bluebeard, a tale about a wealthy man who murders numerous young women. Carter's protagonist, who is unnamed, describes her mother as "eagle-featured" and "indomitable". Her mother is depicted as a woman who is prepared for violence, instead of hiding from it or sacrificing herself to it. The protagonist recalls how her mother kept an "antique service revolver" and once "shot a man-eating tiger with her own hand."

Contemporary tales

Literary

In contemporary literature, many authors have used the form of fairy tales for various reasons, such as examining the human condition from the simple framework a fairytale provides. Some authors seek to recreate a sense of the fantastic in a contemporary discourse. Some writers use fairy tale forms for modern issues; this can include using the psychological dramas implicit in the story, as when Robin McKinley retold Donkeyskin as the novel Deerskin, with emphasis on the abusive treatment the father of the tale dealt to his daughter. Sometimes, especially in children's literature, fairy tales are retold with a twist simply for comic effect, such as The Stinky Cheese Man by Jon Scieszka and The ASBO Fairy Tales by Chris Pilbeam. A common comic motif is a world where all the fairy tales take place, and the characters are aware of their role in the story, such as in the film series Shrek.

Other authors may have specific motives, such as multicultural or feminist reevaluations of predominantly Eurocentric masculine-dominated fairy tales, implying critique of older narratives. The figure of the damsel in distress has been particularly attacked by many feminist critics. Examples of narrative reversal rejecting this figure include The Paperbag Princess by Robert Munsch, a picture book aimed at children in which a princess rescues a prince, Angela Carter's The Bloody Chamber, which retells a number of fairy tales from a female point of view and Simon Hood's contemporary interpretation of various popular classics.

There are also many contemporary erotic retellings of fairy tales, which explicitly draw upon the original spirit of the tales, and are specifically for adults. Modern retellings focus on exploring the tale through use of the erotic, explicit sexuality, dark and/or comic themes, female empowerment, fetish and BDSM, multicultural, and heterosexual characters. Cleis Press has released several fairy tale-themed erotic anthologies, including Fairy Tale Lust, Lustfully Ever After, and A Princess Bound.

It may be hard to lay down the rule between fairy tales and fantasies that use fairy tale motifs, or even whole plots, but the distinction is commonly made, even within the works of a single author: George MacDonald's Lilith and Phantastes are regarded as fantasies, while his "The Light Princess", "The Golden Key", and "The Wise Woman" are commonly called fairy tales. The most notable distinction is that fairytale fantasies, like other fantasies, make use of novelistic writing conventions of prose, characterization, or setting.

Film

Fairy tales have been enacted dramatically; records exist of this in commedia dell'arte, and later in pantomime. Unlike oral and literacy form, fairy tales in film is considered one of the most effective way to convey the story to the audience. The advent of cinema has meant that such stories could be presented in a more plausible manner, with the use of special effects and animation. The Walt Disney Company has had a significant impact on the evolution of the fairy tale film. Some of the earliest short silent films from the Disney studio were based on fairy tales, and some fairy tales were adapted into shorts in the musical comedy series "Silly Symphony", such as Three Little Pigs. Walt Disney's first feature-length film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937, was a ground-breaking film for fairy tales and, indeed, fantasy in general. With the cost of over 400 percent of the budget and more than 300 artists, assistants and animators, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs  was arguably one of the highest work force demanded film at that time. The studio even hired Don Graham to open animation training programs for more than 700 staffs. As for the motion capture and personality expression, the studio used a dancer, Marjorie Celeste, from the beginning to the end for the best results. Disney and his creative successors have returned to traditional and literary fairy tales numerous times with films such as Cinderella (1950), Sleeping Beauty (1959), The Little Mermaid (1989) and Beauty and the Beast (1991). Disney's influence helped establish the fairy tale genre as a genre for children, and has been accused by some of bowdlerizing the gritty naturalism – and sometimes unhappy endings – of many folk fairy tales. However, others note that the softening of fairy tales occurred long before Disney, some of which was even done by the Grimm brothers themselves.

Many filmed fairy tales have been made primarily for children, from Disney's later works to Aleksandr Rou's retelling of Vasilissa the Beautiful, the first Soviet film to use Russian folk tales in a big-budget feature. Others have used the conventions of fairy tales to create new stories with sentiments more relevant to contemporary life, as in Labyrinth, My Neighbor Totoro, Happily N'Ever After, and the films of Michel Ocelot.

Other works have retold familiar fairy tales in a darker, more horrific or psychological variant aimed primarily at adults. Notable examples are Jean Cocteau's Beauty and the Beast and The Company of Wolves, based on Angela Carter's retelling of Little Red Riding Hood. Likewise, Princess Mononoke, Pan's Labyrinth, Suspiria, and Spike create new stories in this genre from fairy tale and folklore motifs.

In comics and animated TV series, The Sandman, Revolutionary Girl Utena, Princess Tutu, Fables and MÄR all make use of standard fairy tale elements to various extents but are more accurately categorised as fairytale fantasy due to the definite locations and characters which a longer narrative requires.

A more modern cinematic fairy tale would be Luchino Visconti's Le Notti Bianche, starring Marcello Mastroianni before he became a superstar. It involves many of the romantic conventions of fairy tales, yet it takes place in post-World War II Italy, and it ends realistically.

In recent years, Disney has been dominating the fairy tale film industry by remaking their animated fairy tale films into live action. Examples include Maleficent (2014), Cinderella (2015), Beauty and the Beast (2017) and so on.

Motifs

Any comparison of fairy tales quickly discovers that many fairy tales have features in common with each other. Two of the most influential classifications are those of Antti Aarne, as revised by Stith Thompson into the Aarne-Thompson classification system, and Vladimir Propp's Morphology of the Folk Tale.

Aarne-Thompson

This system groups fairy and folk tales according to their overall plot. Common, identifying features are picked out to decide which tales are grouped together. Much therefore depends on what features are regarded as decisive.

For instance, tales like Cinderella – in which a persecuted heroine, with the help of the fairy godmother or similar magical helper, attends an event (or three) in which she wins the love of a prince and is identified as his true brideare classified as type 510, the persecuted heroine. Some such tales are The Wonderful Birch; Aschenputtel; Katie Woodencloak; The Story of Tam and Cam; Ye Xian; Cap O' Rushes; Catskin; Fair, Brown and Trembling; Finette Cendron; Allerleirauh.

Further analysis of the tales shows that in Cinderella, The Wonderful Birch, The Story of Tam and Cam, Ye Xian, and Aschenputtel, the heroine is persecuted by her stepmother and refused permission to go to the ball or other event, and in Fair, Brown and Trembling and Finette Cendron by her sisters and other female figures, and these are grouped as 510A; while in Cap O' Rushes, Catskin, and Allerleirauh, the heroine is driven from home by her father's persecutions, and must take work in a kitchen elsewhere, and these are grouped as 510B. But in Katie Woodencloak, she is driven from home by her stepmother's persecutions and must take service in a kitchen elsewhere, and in Tattercoats, she is refused permission to go to the ball by her grandfather. Given these features common with both types of 510, Katie Woodencloak is classified as 510A because the villain is the stepmother, and Tattercoats as 510B because the grandfather fills the father's role.

This system has its weaknesses in the difficulty of having no way to classify subportions of a tale as motifs. Rapunzel is type 310 (The Maiden in the Tower), but it opens with a child being demanded in return for stolen food, as does Puddocky; but Puddocky is not a Maiden in the Tower tale, while The Canary Prince, which opens with a jealous stepmother, is.

It also lends itself to emphasis on the common elements, to the extent that the folklorist describes The Black Bull of Norroway as the same story as Beauty and the Beast. This can be useful as a shorthand but can also erase the coloring and details of a story.

Morphology

Vladimir Propp specifically studied a collection of Russian fairy tales, but his analysis has been found useful for the tales of other countries. Having criticized Aarne-Thompson type analysis for ignoring what motifs did in stories, and because the motifs used were not clearly distinct, he analyzed the tales for the function each character and action fulfilled and concluded that a tale was composed of thirty-one elements ('functions') and seven characters or 'spheres of action' ('the princess and her father' are a single sphere). While the elements were not all required for all tales, when they appeared they did so in an invariant order – except that each individual element might be negated twice, so that it would appear three times, as when, in Brother and Sister, the brother resists drinking from enchanted streams twice, so that it is the third that enchants him. Propp's 31 functions also fall within six 'stages' (preparation, complication, transference, struggle, return, recognition), and a stage can also be repeated, which can affect the perceived order of elements.

One such element is the donor who gives the hero magical assistance, often after testing him. In The Golden Bird, the talking fox tests the hero by warning him against entering an inn and, after he succeeds, helps him find the object of his quest; in The Boy Who Drew Cats, the priest advised the hero to stay in small places at night, which protects him from an evil spirit; in Cinderella, the fairy godmother gives Cinderella the dresses she needs to attend the ball, as their mothers' spirits do in Bawang Putih Bawang Merah and The Wonderful Birch; in The Fox Sister, a Buddhist monk gives the brothers magical bottles to protect against the fox spirit. The roles can be more complicated. In The Red Ettin, the role is split into the motherwho offers the hero the whole of a journey cake with her curse or half with her blessingand when he takes the half, a fairy who gives him advice; in Mr Simigdáli, the sun, the moon, and the stars all give the heroine a magical gift. Characters who are not always the donor can act like the donor. In Kallo and the Goblins, the villain goblins also give the heroine gifts, because they are tricked; in Schippeitaro, the evil cats betray their secret to the hero, giving him the means to defeat them. Other fairy tales, such as The Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was, do not feature the donor.

Analogies have been drawn between this and the analysis of myths into the hero's journey.

Interpretations

Many fairy tales have been interpreted for their (purported) significance. One mythological interpretation saw many fairy tales, including Hansel and Gretel, Sleeping Beauty, and The Frog King, as solar myths; this mode of interpretation subsequently became rather less popular. Freudian, Jungian, and other psychological analyses have also explicated many tales, but no mode of interpretation has established itself definitively.

Specific analyses have often been criticized for lending great importance to motifs that are not, in fact, integral to the tale; this has often stemmed from treating one instance of a fairy tale as the definitive text, where the tale has been told and retold in many variations. In variants of Bluebeard, the wife's curiosity is betrayed by a blood-stained key, by an egg's breaking, or by the singing of a rose she wore, without affecting the tale, but interpretations of specific variants have claimed that the precise object is integral to the tale.

Other folklorists have interpreted tales as historical documents. Many German folklorists, believing the tales to have preserved details from ancient times, have used the Grimms' tales to explain ancient customs.

One approach sees the topography of European Märchen as echoing the period immediately following the last Ice Age.
Other folklorists have explained the figure of the wicked stepmother in a historical/sociological context: many women did die in childbirth, their husbands remarried, and the new stepmothers competed with the children of the first marriage for resources.

In a 2012 lecture, Jack Zipes reads fairy tales as examples of what he calls "childism". He suggests that there are terrible aspects to the tales, which (among other things) have conditioned children to accept mistreatment and even abuse.

Fairy tales in music
Fairy tales have inspired music, namely opera, such as the French Opéra féerie and the German Märchenoper. French examples include Gretry's Zémire et Azor, and Auber's Le cheval de bronze, German operas are Mozart's Die Zauberflöte, Humperdinck's Hänsel und Gretel, Siegfried Wagner's An allem ist Hütchen schuld!, which is based on many fairy tales, and Carl Orff's Die Kluge.

Ballet, too, is fertile ground for bringing fairy tales to life.  Igor Stravinsky's first ballet, The Firebird uses elements from various classic Russian tales in that work.

Even contemporary fairy tales have been written for the purpose of inspiration in the music world. "Raven Girl" by Audrey Niffenegger was written to inspire a new dance for the Royal Ballet in London.  The song "Singring and the Glass Guitar" by the American band Utopia, recorded for their album "Ra", is called "An Electrified Fairytale". Composed by the four members of the band, Roger Powell, Kasim Sulton, Willie Wilcox and Todd Rundgren, it tells the story of the theft of the Glass Guitar by Evil Forces, which has to be recovered by the four heroes.

Compilations

Authors and works:

From many countries
 García Carcedo, Pilar (2020): Entre brujas y dragones. Travesía comparativa por los cuentos tradicionales del mundo. Madrid: ed. Verbum.Estudio comparativo y antología de cuentos tradicionales del mundo
 Andrew Lang's Color Fairy Books (1890–1913)
 Wolfram Eberhard (1909–1989)
 Howard Pyle's The Wonder Clock
 Ruth Manning-Sanders (Wales, 1886–1988)
 World Tales (United Kingdom, 1979) by Idries Shah
 Richard Dorson (1916–1981)
 The Annotated Classic Fairy Tales (United States, 2002) by Maria Tatar

Italy
 Pentamerone (Italy, 1634–1636) by Giambattista Basile
 Giovanni Francesco Straparola (Italy, 16th century)
 Giuseppe Pitrè, Italian collector of folktales from his native Sicily (Italy, 1841–1916)
 Laura Gonzenbach, Swiss collector of Sicilian folk tales (Switzerland, 1842–1878)
 Domenico Comparetti, Italian scholar (Italy, 1835–1927)
 Thomas Frederick Crane, American lawyer (United States, 1844–1927)
 Luigi Capuana, Italian author of literary fiabe
 Italian Folktales (Italy, 1956) by Italo Calvino

France
 Charles Perrault (France, 1628–1703)
 Eustache Le Noble, French writer of literary fairy tales (France, 1646–1711)
 Madame d'Aulnoy (France, 1650–1705)
 Emmanuel Cosquin, French collector of Lorraine fairy tales and one of the earliest tale comparativists (France, 1841–1919)
 Paul Sébillot, collector of folktales from Brittany, France (France, 1843–1918)
 François-Marie Luzel, French collector of Brittany folktales (France, 1821–1895)
 Charles Deulin, French author and folklorist (France, 1827–1877)
 Édouard René de Laboulaye, French jurist, poet and publisher of folk tales and literary fairy tales
 Henri Pourrat, French collector of Auvergne folklore (1887–1959)
 Achille Millien, collector of Nivernais folklore (France, 1838–1927)
 Paul Delarue, establisher of the French folktale catalogue (France, 1889–1956)

Germany
 Grimms' Fairy Tales (Germany, 1812–1857)
 Johann Karl August Musäus, German writer of Volksmärchen der Deutschen (5 volumes; 1782–1786)
 Wilhelm Hauff, German author and novelist
 Heinrich Pröhle, collector of Germanic language folktales
 Franz Xaver von Schönwerth (Germany, 1810–1886)
 Adalbert Kuhn, German philologist and folklorist (Germany, 1812–1881)
  (1909–2008), 20th century collector of fairy tales

Belgium
 Charles Polydore de Mont (Pol de Mont) (Belgium, 1857–1931)

United Kingdom and Ireland
 Joseph Jacobs's two books of Celtic Fairytales and two books of English Folktales (1854–1916)
 Alan Garner's Book of British Fairy Tales (United Kingdom, 1984) by Alan Garner
 Old English fairy tales by Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould (1895)
 Popular Tales of the West Highlands (Scotland, 1862) by John Francis Campbell
 Jeremiah Curtin, collector of Irish folktales and translator of Slavic fairy tales (Ireland, 1835–1906)
 Patrick Kennedy, Irish educator and folklorist (Ireland, ca. 1801–1873)
 Séamus Ó Duilearga, Irish folklorist (Ireland, 1899–1980)
 Kevin Danaher, Irish folklorist (Ireland, 1913-2002) Folktales from the Irish Countryside
 W. B. Yeats, Irish poet and publisher of Irish folktales
 Peter and the Piskies: Cornish Folk and Fairy Tales (United Kingdom, 1958), by Ruth Manning-Sanders

Scandinavia
 Hans Christian Andersen, Danish author of literary fairy tales (Denmark, 1805–1875)
 Helena Nyblom, Swedish author of literary fairy tales (Sweden, 1843–1926)
 Norwegian Folktales (Norway, 1845–1870) by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe
 Svenska folksagor och äfventyr (Sweden, 1844–1849) by Gunnar Olof Hyltén-Cavallius
 August Bondeson, collector of Swedish folktales (1854–1906)
 Jyske Folkeminder by Evald Tang Kristensen (Denmark, 1843–1929)
 Svend Grundtvig, Danish folktale collector (Denmark, 1824–1883)
 Benjamin Thorpe, English scholar of Anglo-Saxon literature and translator of Nordic and Scandinavian folktales (1782–1870)
 Jón Árnason, collector of Icelandic folklore
 Adeline Rittershaus, German philologist and translator of Icelandic folktales

Estonia, Finland and Baltic Region
 Suomen kansan satuja ja tarinoita (Finland, 1852–1866) by Eero Salmelainen
 August Leskien, German linguist and collector of Baltic folklore (1840–1916)
 William Forsell Kirby, English translator of Finnish folklore and folktales (1844–1912)
 Jonas Basanavičius, collector of Lithuanian folklore (1851–1927)
 Mečislovas Davainis-Silvestraitis, collector of Lithuanian folklore (1849–1919)
 , Latvian ethnographer (1869–1938)

Russia

 Narodnye russkie skazki (Russia, 1855–1863) by Alexander Afanasyev

Czechia and Slovakia
 Božena Němcová, writer and collector of Czech fairy tales (1820–1862)
 , editor and translator of Czech fairy tales
 , writer and publisher of Czech fairy tales
 , publisher of Silesian fairy tales (Slezské pohádky) (1975–1977)
 Karel Jaromír Erben, poet, folklorist and publisher of Czech folktales (1811–1870)
 August Horislav Škultéty, Slovak writer (1819–1895)
 Pavol Dobšinský, collector of Slovak folktales (1828–1885)
 Albert Wratislaw, collector of Slavic folktales

Poland
 Oskar Kolberg, Polish ethnographer who compiled several Polish folk and fairy tales (Poland, 1814–1890)
 Zygmunt Gloger, Polish historian and ethnographer (1845-1910)

Romania

 Legende sau basmele românilor (Romania, 1874) by Petre Ispirescu
 Queen Elisabeth of Wied's Romanian fairy tales, penned under nom de plume Carmen Sylva
 Arthur (1814-1875) and Albert Schott (1809-1847), German folklorists and collectors of Romanian fairy tales
 I. C. Fundescu (1836–1904)
 Ion Creangă, Moldavian/Romanian writer, raconteur and schoolteacher (1837-1889)
 Ioan Slavici, Romanian writer and journalist (1848-1925)
 G. Dem. Teodorescu, Wallachian/Romanian folklorist (1849–1900)
 Ion Pop-Reteganul, Romanian folklorist (1853–1905)
 Lazăr Șăineanu, Romanian folklorist (1859–1934)
 Dumitru Stăncescu, Romanian folklorist (1866–1899)

Balkan Area and Eastern Europe
 Louis Léger, French translator of Slavic fairy tales (France, 1843–1923)
 Johann Georg von Hahn, Austrian diplomat and collector of Albanian and Greek folklore (1811–1869)
 Auguste Dozon, French scholar and diplomat who studied Albanian folklore (1822–1890)
 Robert Elsie, Canadian-born German Albanologist (Canada, 1950–2017)
 Donat Kurti, Albanian franciscan friar, educator, scholar and folklorist (1903–1983)
 Anton Çetta, Albanian folklorist, academic and university professor from Yugoslavia (1920–1995)
 Lucy Garnett, British traveller and folklorist on Turkey and Balkanic folklore (1849–1934)
 Francis Hindes Groome, English scholar of Romani populations (England, 1851–1902)
 Vuk Karadžić, Serbian philologist (Serbia, 1787–1864)
 Elodie Lawton, British writer and translator of Serbian folktales (1825–1908)
 Friedrich Salomon Krauss, collector of South Slavic folklore
  (1848–1904), collector of Slovenian folktales

Hungary
 Elek Benedek, Hungarian journalist and collector of Hungarian folktales
 János Erdélyi, poet, critic, author, philosopher who collected Hungarian folktales
 Gyula Pap, ethographer who contributed to the collection Folk-tales of the Magyars
 The Hungarian Fairy Book, by Nándor Pogány (1913).
 Old Hungarian Fairy Tales (1895), by Countess Emma Orczy and Montague Barstow.

Spain and Portugal
 Fernán Caballero (Cecilia Böhl de Faber) (Spain, 1796–1877)
 Francisco Maspons y Labrós (Spain, 1840–1901)
 Antoni Maria Alcover i Sureda, priest, writer and collector of folktales in Catalan from Mallorca (Majorca, 1862–1932)
 , Spanish folklorist (1949–2004)
 Teófilo Braga, collector of Portuguese folktales (Portugal, 1843–1924)
 Zófimo Consiglieri Pedroso, Portuguese folklorist (Portugal, 1851–1910)
 Wentworth Webster, collector of Basque folklore
 Elsie Spicer Eells, researcher on Iberian folklore (Portuguese and Brazilian)

Armenia
 Karekin Servantsians (Garegin Sruandzteants'; Bishop Sirwantzdiants), ethnologue and clergyman; publisher of Hamov-Hotov (1884)
 Hovhannes Tumanyan, Armenian poet and writer who reworked folkloric material into literary fairy tales (1869-1923)

Middle East
 Antoine Galland, French translator of the Arabian Nights (France, 1646–1715)
 Gaston Maspero, French translator of Egyptian and Middle Eastern folktales (France, 1846–1916)
 Hasan M. El-Shamy, establisher of a catalogue classification of Arab and Middle Eastern folktales
 Amina Shah, British anthologiser of Sufi stories and folk tales (1918–2014)
 Raphael Patai, scholar of Jewish folklore (1910–1996)
 Howard Schwartz, collector and publisher of Jewish folktales (1945–)
 , Israeli folklorist
 , Israeli folklorist (1920–2013)

Turkey
 Pertev Naili Boratav, Turkish folklorist (1907–1998)
 Kaloghlan (Turkey, 1923) by Ziya Gökalp

Indian Subcontinent
 Panchatantra (India, 3rd century BC)
 Kathasaritsagara, compilation of Indian folklore made by Somadeva in the 11th century CE
 Lal Behari Dey, reverend and recorder of Bengali folktales (India, 1824–1892)
 James Hinton Knowles, missionary and collector of Kashmiri folklore
 Maive Stokes, Indian-born British author (1866–1961)
 Joseph Jacobs's book of Indian Fairy Tales (1854–1916)
 Natesa Sastri's collection of Tamil folklore (India) and translation of Madanakamaraja Katha
 Village Folk-Tales of Ceylon, three volumes by H. Parker (1910)
 Pandit Ram Gharib Chaube and British orientalist William Crooke
 Verrier Elwin, ethographer and collector of Indian folk tales (1902–1964)
 A. K. Ramanujan, poet and scholar of Indian literature (1929–1993)
 Santal Folk Tales, three volumes by Paul Olaf Bodding (1925–29)
 Shobhanasundari Mukhopadhyay (1877-1937), Indian author and collector of folktales

America
 Marius Barbeau, Canadian folklorist (Canada, 1883–1969)
 Geneviève Massignon, scholar and publisher of French Acadian folklore (1921–1966)
 Carmen Roy (fr), Canadian folklorist (1919–2006)
 Joel Chandler Harris's Uncle Remus series of books
 Tales from the Cloud Walking Country, by Marie Campbell
 Ruth Ann Musick, scholar of West Virginian folklore (1897–1974)
 Vance Randolph, folklorist who studied the folklore of the Ozarks (1892–1980)
 Cuentos populares mexicanos (Mexico, 2014) by Fabio Morábito
 Rafael Rivero Oramas, collector of Venezuelan tales. Author of El mundo de Tío Conejo, collection of Tío Tigre and Tío Conejo tales.
 Américo Paredes, author specialized in folklore from Mexico and the Mexican-American border (1915–1999)
 Elsie Clews Parsons, American anthropologist and collector of folktales from Central American countries (New York City, 1875–1941)
 John Alden Mason, American linguist and collector of Porto Rican folklore (1885–1967)
 Aurelio Macedonio Espinosa Sr., scholar of Spanish folklore (1880–1958)

Brazil
 Sílvio Romero, Brazilian lawyer and folktale collector (Brazil, 1851–1914)
 Luís da Câmara Cascudo, Brazilian anthropologist and ethnologist (Brazil, 1898–1986)
 Lindolfo Gomes (pt), Brazilian folklorist (1875–1953)
 Marco Haurélio, contemporary writer and folklorist, author of Contos e Fábulas do Brasil and Contos Folclóricos Brasileiros.

Africa
 Hans Stumme, scholar and collector of North African folklore (1864–1936)

Asia
 Kunio Yanagita (Japan, 1875–1962)
 Seki Keigo, Japanese folklorist
 Lafcadio Hearn
 Yei Theodora Ozaki, translator of Japanese folk tales (1870–1932)
 Dean Fansler, professor and scholar of Filipino folklore

Miscellaneous
 Mixed Up Fairy Tales
 Fairy Tales (United States, 1965) by E. E. Cummings
 Fairy Tales, Now First Collected: To Which are Prefixed Two Dissertations: 1. On Pygmies. 2. On Fairies (England, 1831) by Joseph Ritson

See also

 Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index (a classification system)
 Fairytale fantasy
 List of fairy tales
 List of Disney animated films based on fairy tales
 Nursery rhyme
 Cuento (Spanish-language fairy tale)
 Russian fairy tale
 Fairy tale parody
 Fairytale Forest

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

  In .

Further reading

 Heidi Anne Heiner, "The Quest for the Earliest Fairy Tales: Searching for the Earliest Versions of European Fairy Tales with Commentary on English Translations"
 Heidi Anne Heiner, "Fairy Tale Timeline"
 Vito Carrassi, "Il fairy tale nella tradizione narrativa irlandese: Un itinerario storico e culturale", Adda, Bari 2008; English edition, "The Irish Fairy Tale: A Narrative Tradition from the Middle Ages to Yeats and Stephens", John Cabot University Press/University of Delaware Press, Roma-Lanham 2012.
 Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson: The Types of the Folktale: A Classification and Bibliography (Helsinki, 1961)
 Tatar, Maria. The Annotated Classic Fairy Tales. W.W. Norton & Company, 2002.
 Benedek Katalin. "Mese és fordítás idegen nyelvről magyarra és magyarról idegenre ". In: Aranyhíd. Tanulmányok Keszeg Vilmos tiszteletére. BBTE Magyar Néprajz és Antropológia Intézet; Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület; Kriza János Néprajzi Társaság. 2017. pp. 1001–1013. . (In Hungarian) [for collections of Hungarian folktales].

On origin and migration of folktales:

 Nouyrigat, Vicent. "Contes de fées: leur origine révélée par la génétique". Excelsior publications (2017) in La Science et la Vie (Paris), édition 1194 (03/2017), pp. 74–80.

External links

 Once Upon a Time – How Fairy Tales Shape Our Lives, by Jonathan Young, PhD
 Once Upon A Time: Historical and Illustrated Fairy Tales. Special Collections, University of Colorado Boulder

Folklore
Narrative techniques
Fantasy genres
Traditional stories

Fairy tale


Machaira was a rare mythic sword used in the Basileus cult.  Basileus cult is the cult of the king, because in ancient Rome the word basileus was translated as "king". To get a Basileus title a person should  kill a lion with a special  weapon. So this weapon was called - Machaira.

Machaira had a very curved blade, which reminded a sickle. The  shape of a machaira is often compared to a lion claw. The cutting edge was on the inside part of the blade. The legends say that it has a length from about . The blade was secured in a wooden cage (sheath).  This sword was kept by ancient priests called sacerdotes. They used to decorate the sheath with golden ornaments. The sword was kept in special places and used in important rituals.

The meaning of machaira sword was ideological. A king who was at the same time a sacerdotus and owned a machaira, made rituals before the battle. Its power showed to the army the right path and saved from enemies' traps. It was supposed that the sword kept the troubles away. It was very important that the machaira  to be used only by a  sacerdotus, otherwise it was only a beautiful but powerless weapon.

The well known king Macedonian Alexander Hephaistion was a sacerdotus. He belonged to the lion cult and used machaira for rituals. Later in 324 B.C. happened the official burial of the machaira sword and Alexander the Great left his sacerdotal powers. The cult of  machaira sword and the cult of Basileus were restarted in 301 B.C.

Other websites
More on the mythical machaira

Swords

Machaira


Yangguan, or Yangguan Pass (), is a mountain pass that was fortified by Emperor Wu of the Western Han dynasty around 120 BC and used as an outpost in the colonial dominions adjacent to ancient China. It is located approximately  southwest of Dunhuang, in the Gansu territory  to the west of the Shaanxi province in the far  Northwest China, which was in ancient times the westernmost administrative center of China. It was established as a frontier defense post, as well as a developed place in China's remote western frontier; Emperor Wu encouraged Chinese to settle there. Today Yangguan is located in Nanhu Village, along the Hexi Corridor.

Yangguan was one of China's two most important western passes, the other being Yumenguan. In Chinese, yang means "sun" or "sunny", but it can also be used to mean "south" (the sunny side of a hill being the southern side). Yangguan was therefore so-named because it lies to the south of the Yumenguan Pass. It was an important landmark on the Silk Road.  The fortress at Yangguan however had fallen into ruin by around AD 900.

Cultural references

Yangguan is associated with sad parting in Chinese literature as it was the last stop for Chinese travellers leaving China to the Western Regions.  In a famous poem, "Seeing Yuan'er off on a Mission to Anxi", the Tang dynasty poet Wang Wei wrote:
{|
! style="width:16em;"|
! style="width:45em;"|
|-
|
送元二使安西

渭城朝雨浥輕塵,
客舍青青柳色新;
勸君更盡一杯酒,
西出陽關無故人。
| Seeing Yuan'er off on a Mission to Anxi
The morning rain of Weicheng dampens the light dust,
The guest house is green with the colour of fresh willows.
Let's finish another cup of wine, my dear sir,
Out west past the Yangguan, old friends there'll be none.
|}
Wang Wei's poem inspired one of China's best-known musical pieces, the "Three Variations of Yangguan" (Yangguan Sandie, ) which existed as early as the Tang dynasty. The song became a classic farewell song sung down the centuries, and additional lines were added by others to the song as refrains. The poem is repeated either in part or in whole three times, and each time with some variations.  The earliest surviving music score dates back to the Ming dynasty.  A current popular version is based on a late Qing dynasty tune; originally it was played on guqin and first published in Introduction to Learning Qin (琴學入門, Qinxue Rumen) in 1864, but it may be traced back to a version from the Ming dynasty.  This version is also played on guanzi as well as other instruments, and has also been adapted for a vocal performance.

References

External links

 Yangguan Sandie

Mountain passes of China
Great Wall of China
Landforms of Gansu
Sites along the Silk Road

Yang Pass


The Palestine Papers is a collection of confidential documents about the Israeli–Palestinian peace process leaked to Al Jazeera, which published them between 23 and 26 January 2011. Nearly 1,700 documents from the office of the main PLO negotiator, Saeb Erekat, and his team have been published, dating from 1999 to 2010.

Both Al Jazeera and The Guardian stated that they have authenticated the documents, and a media adviser to Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert also affirmed their authenticity. Leaders of the Palestinian Authority have complained about the way the documents were presented by Al Jazeera.

Background
The Palestine Papers include documents about the negotiations between the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the government of Israel that took place intermittently between 1999 and 2010. The negotiations in 1993 that led to the Oslo Accords were the first direct negotiations between the parties. The following "peace process" focused on the formation of the Palestinian Authority (PA) and the territory it would govern. The PA, however, represents only the local people in the Palestinian Territories, not the Palestinians in the diaspora.

In 2011, when the Papers were published, the negotiations were in a deadlock after the refusal in September 2010 of the Benjamin Netanyahu government to extend the freeze of settlements building over ten months. Ziyad Clot, as of 2011 the only identified source, felt frustrated about the fact that the great majority of the Palestinian people, the refugees, being one of the "remaining issues" in the "peace process", were not properly represented.

Sources of the Papers
The documents were obtained by Al Jazeera and shared in advance of publication with The Guardian in an effort to ensure the wider availability of their content. The Guardian has authenticated the bulk of the Papers independently, but has not sought or been given access to the sources of the documents. Al Jazeera, which published the Papers on their website, has redacted minimal parts of the papers to protect their sources' identities.

NSU
Most of the documents are from the Palestinian negotiation support unit (NSU). The NSU was the PLO's main technical and legal advice organ in the peace negotiations, set up in 1999 and headed by Saeb Erekat. Gershon Baskin, codirector of Israel/Palestinian Center for Research, said, "I'm 100 percent sure that it's a former disgruntled employed" member of the Negotiations Support Unit headed by Palestinian chief negotiator Saeb Erekat. Israel's Channel 10 news show also named the source of the leak as a former member of the NSU.

Clayton Swisher
On 27 January 2011, following Al Jazeera's broadcast of the Palestine Papers, Saeb Erekat appeared on Al Jazeera Arabic, condemning the publication. He accused Al Jazeera journalist Clayton Swisher, who delivered the disclosure of the Palestine Papers, of being a CIA agent and of working for the NSU. He also said that former British intelligence officer Alastair Crooke was involved. In Ma'an News Agency, Erekat later admitted Clayton Swisher neither worked for the Palestinians nor the US intelligence agency.

A few weeks after the publication of the Palestine Papers, on 11 February 2011, Erekat resigned as Chief PLO Negotiator, citing the release of the papers and due to an internal Palestinian investigation that suggested the Palestine Papers leak had come from a source inside Erekat's office. As of February 2017, however, he was still holding the function of Chief Palestinian Negotiator.

In his book The Palestine Papers: The End of the Road?, Swisher confirmed account, as he wrote, "In the fall of 2010, I traveled the world meeting with US, Israeli, and Palestinian Authority officials who had no idea that I held in my possession the secret records of their negotiations". A complaint filed by Erekat and the PLO against Al Jazeera and Clayton Swisher on grounds of unfairness was wholly dismissed in a 19-page ruling released in October 2011.

Ziyad Clot
In a 14 May 2011 op-ed article in the Guardian, Ziyad Clot, a French lawyer of Palestinian descent and a former adviser for the NSU involved in 2008 Annapolis negotiations exposed himself as one of the sources of the leaks. In the Guardian article, Clot said that the so-called peace process was "an inequitable and destructive political process which had been based on the assumption that the Palestinians could in effect negotiate their rights and achieve self-determination while enduring the hardship of the Israeli occupation". He also said that "the "peace negotiations" were a deceptive farce whereby biased terms were unilaterally imposed by Israel and systematically endorsed by the US and EU". Clot emphasized that "these negotiations excluded for the most part the great majority of the Palestinian people: the seven million Palestinian refugees". He felt "that the PLO, given its structure, was not in a position to represent all Palestinian rights and interests". Clot resigned from the NSU after he witnessed the killing of more than 1,400 Palestinians in Gaza during the Gaza War. After he resigned, he believed he had a duty to inform the public. In the Guardian article, he also stated: "In full conscience, and acting independently, I later agreed to share some information with al-Jazeera specifically with regard to the fate of Palestinian refugee rights in the 2008 talks. Other sources did the same, although I am unaware of their identity."

The documents

Character of the documents
The Palestine Papers include many minutes of bilateral meetings between Israel and the Palestinians and with the US as well as minutes of joint trilateral meetings. They also include other documents, such as memos, emails, letters, strategy papers, a matrix of positions and even maps of possible land swaps and power point presentations

There were published 1,684 total documents, including:
 275 sets of meeting minutes;
 690 internal emails;
 153 reports and studies;
 134 sets of talking points and prep notes for meetings;
 64 draft agreements;
 54 maps, charts and graphs;
 and 51 "non-papers".

Akiva Eldar, writing in Haaretz, said that the documents are more important than those released by Wikileaks because they deal with current issues regarding permanent borders in the West Bank and East Jerusalem.

Settlements
At a meeting in November 2007, Tzipi Livni told Ahmed Qurei that "I understand the sentiments of the Palestinians when they see the settlements being built. The meaning from the Palestinian perspective is that Israel takes more land, that the Palestinian state will be impossible, the Israel policy is to take more and more land day after day and that at the end of the day we'll say that it is impossible, we already have the land and cannot create the state".

According to the documents, in a meeting with Livni in Jerusalem, Qurei proposed that Israel annex all settlements along the border except for the large cities and towns of Giv'at Ze'ev, Ma'ale Adumim, Ariel, and Efrat. Livni rejected Qurei's demands that Israel cede these settlements. Qurei suggested to Livni that these settlements be placed under Palestinian sovereignty, but Livni told him "you know this is not realistic". Condoleezza Rice similarly told Qurei that "I don't think that any Israeli leader is going to cede Ma'ale Adumim", to which Qurei replied "or any Palestinian". Rice then told him "Then you won't have a state!"

Napkin map
"Napkin map" is a colloquial name for a Palestinian sketch made by Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas on a napkin, of a map with land swap proposals shown to him by then Prime Minister Ehud Olmert during peace negotiations in mid-2008. According to Al Jazeera, Abbas was not allowed to keep the official map, so he sketched it by hand. During the first of several meetings, the Palestinian Authority proposed a land swap, offering Israel the opportunity to annex all of the Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem in return for land concessions by Israel. Olmert, however, offered no concessions in return but an even more aggressive land swap.

In Prime Minister Olmert's own proposal, Israel would annex 6.3%  of the West Bank. The land in Olmert's map included the four settlements of Gush Etzion (with Efrat), Ma'ale Adumim, Giv'at Ze'ev, and Ariel, in addition to all settlements in East Jerusalem (Har Homa). In exchange for those concessions by the Palestinian Authority, Olmert offered 5.8%  of Israeli land as part of the swap. The land offered consisted of lightly populated farmland, which would be divided between the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. When Mahmoud Abbas asked to keep a copy of the map for further consideration, Ehud Olmert refused. Mahmoud Abbas sketched Ehud Olmert's map by hand on a napkin to have a copy for further consideration. This map was then later referred to as the Napkin map.

The third and final meeting occurred on 16 September 2008. It was during this time that Ehud Olmert was nearing the end of his political career. At the time, Olmert was under police investigation for alleged corruption that had occurred while he was Mayor of Jerusalem, and as a result of the accusations was not planning on running again. During the final meeting, Mahmoud Abbas was prepared by the Negotiation Support Unit (NSU) to clarify many questions regarding Ehud Olmert's peace plan in which Abbas was quoted as asking questions such as "How do you see it addressing our interests, especially as Ariel, Maale Adumim, Givat Zeev, Har Homa and Efrat clearly prejudice contiguity, water aquifers, and the viability of Palestine?" as well as others about the value of the land that they would receive in such a swap in terms of value and size.

The Negotiation Support Unit (NSU) also insisted that Prime Minister Olmert provide them with a copy of the map, which was again denied. In the end, however, Mahmoud Abbas asked for a few days to consider the offer. A day after this meeting, Olmert resigned and Tzipi Livni stepped in as Acting Prime Minister, with Benjamin Netanyahu being elected shortly afterward. Palestinian negotiators said Abbas had forgotten another appointment and postponed the next meeting. Netanyahu thought Olmert had made too many concessions and refused to continue from where the last round of negotiations had left off, preferring to restart the negotiations from the beginning.

Jerusalem
According to one of the documents, the Palestinian Authority was prepared to concede most Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem, as well as the Armenian Quarter, with the exception of Har Homa. The Temple Mount would be temporarily administrated by a joint body consisting of the Palestinian Authority, Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and the United States until a permanent solution was reached.

At the meeting in Jerusalem in November 2007, Tzipi Livni became visibly angry when asked about the demographic composition of the future Israeli state. She was quoted as saying, "Israel the state of the Jewish people—and I would like to emphasize the meaning of 'its people' is the Jewish people—with Jerusalem the united and undivided capital of Israel and of the Jewish people for 3,007 years". The Palestinians team then protested her position on Jerusalem. She responded by saying "Now I have to say, before we continue, in order to continue we have to put out Jerusalem from your statement and from our place. We have enough differences, without putting another one out there".

Security
The minutes of the trilateral meeting on 26 August 2008 reveal that Israel not only demands a "demilitarized" Palestinian state, but also wants to keep control over borders, Jordan Valley and airspace, after withdrawal of the Israeli forces from the West Bank, for reasons of security.
Tzipi Livni: "In the Jordan Valley – what will be between Palestine and Jordan. EWS. [Early Warning Stations] ... the I is that we will have something on the crossings, borders, etc ... The idea is to withdraw, but to keep a presence, not close to the situation today, on the EWS, on passages ..."

Refugees
Yankie Galenty, a media adviser for Ehud Olmert, affirmed the complete authenticity of the documents in an interview. In regards to refugees, he stated that "Olmert, from day one, did not deceive Abu Mazen and told him that Israel will not allow the return of refugees and not one refugee will return to the land of Israel."

Other officials in the Israeli government asked for a limited right of return numbering between five and ten thousand, out of a total of five million refugees, who would be carefully picked by Israel and allowed to stay under "humanitarian conditions".

US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice proposed settling Palestinians refugees in Argentina and Chile as an alternative to letting them return to former homes in Israel and the occupied territories during a meeting.

In her memoirs, Condoleezza Rice wrote that Olmert initially proposed that Israel accept 5,000 Palestinians refugees. Abbas rejected the offer, saying, "I can't tell four million Palestinians that only 5,000 of them can go home". According to the second night of the Al-Jazeera broadcast, Israelis and Palestinians eventually agreed that Israel would accept 10,000 refugees.

Reactions

Palestinian Authority
Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas said the leaked documents deliberately confuse Israeli and Palestinian positions, and that he had kept the Arab League updated on all details of the negotiations with Israel. Chief Palestinian negotiator Saeb Erekat said the leaks were "a pack of lies", containing mistakes and inaccuracies and that his words were taken out of context and he had been misquoted. Erekat said that the "Palestinian Authority would never give up any of our rights. If we did indeed offer Israel the Jewish and Armenian Quarters of Jerusalem, and the biggest Yerushalayim as they claim, then why did Israel not sign a final status agreement? Is it not strange that we would offer all these concessions which Israel demands, yet there is still no peace deal?"

Yasser Abed Rabbo, giving the PA's first official response, accused Al Jazeera and the Government of Qatar of attacking the Palestinian Authority, having a hostile attitude towards the PA since the days of former president Yasser Arafat. Abed Rabbo was quoted saying that the Al-Jazeera leaks are "a distortion of the truth". Abed Rabbo accused the Emir of Qatar, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani, of giving Al Jazeera the "green light" to start the campaign, and called on the Emir to "extend the climate of transparency in his own state and reveal his true relations with Israel and Iran".

Mahmoud al-Zahar, a senior Hamas official in Gaza, stated that the Palestinian Authority officials should be ashamed of themselves.

Ahmed Qurei, former Prime Minister of the Palestinian Authority and chief Palestinian negotiator in the 2008 talks, said that "many parts of the documents were fabricated, as part of the incitement against the Palestinian Authority and the Palestinian leadership".

Nasser Gawi, a lead organizer for demonstrations in the Jerusalem neighborhood of Sheikh Jarrah, where he had been recently evicted by Israeli settlers from his home, was quoted as saying "Erekat must have become more Zionist than Zionist. He has no mandate to give up Sheikh Jarrah or an inch of Palestine."

Israel
Israeli Foreign Minister Avigdor Lieberman said that "even the most left-wing government of Olmert and Livni did not manage to reach a peace agreement, despite the many concessions." He also promoted his plan for peace, which would allocate 45% to 50% of the West Bank for the creation of a Palestinian state.

Livni said that "the [peace] process did not fail and was not exhausted. It did not end, but was not allowed to ripen until an agreement was reached because of elections in Israel and this government's choice not to continue the negotiations."

See also
 United States diplomatic cables leak, also known as Cablegate
 Iraq War documents leak, also known as the Iraqi War Logs
 Afghan War documents leak

References

External links
 Search the Palestine Papers on Al Jazeera's English Transparency Unit
 The Palestine Papers by Al Jazeera English
 The Palestine Papers by The Guardian
 The Palestine Papers by The Real News
 The Palestine Papers by the Jewish Virtual Library
 Rashid Khalidi: Leaked "Palestine Papers" Underscore Weakness of Palestinian Authority – video report by Democracy Now!
 Palestinian negotiators say leaked papers real by Abbas Al Lawati of Gulf News

2011 in the Palestinian territories
2011 in Israel
Israeli–Palestinian peace process
Classified documents
The Guardian
Al Jazeera
Diplomatic correspondence
News leaks

Palestine Papers


A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator invented by Ernest Lawrence from the University of California, Berkeley in 1930. It accelerates charged particles by whirling them in a circle. The first cyclotrons were the size of a hand. Some modern circular accelerators use a circle as wide as a city.

Cyclotrons use perpendicular magnetic field to bend electrons and particles through into a semicircular path by an applied electric field. The applied electric field accelerates electrons between the "D" electrodes(also called "dees") of the magnetic field region.

The accelerating electric field reverses just at the time the electrons finish their half circle, so that it accelerates them across the gap. With a higher speed, they move in a larger semicircle. After repeating this process several times, they come out the exit port at a high speed.

Cyclotron Frequency

A moving charge in a cyclotron will move in a circular path under the influence of a constant magnetic field. If the time to complete one orbit is calculated:

.

It is found that the period is independent of the radius. Therefore if a square wave is applied at angular frequency qB/m, the charge will spiral outward, increasing in speed.

When a square wave of angular frequency ω=qB/m is applied between the two sides of the magnetic poles, the charge will be boosted again at just the right time to accelerate it across the gap. Thus the constant cyclotron frequency can continue to accelerate the charge (so long as it is not relativistic).

References

Nuclear physics

Cyclotron


Kirti Sri Rajasinha (Sinhala: කීර්ති ශ්‍රී රාජසිංහ, Tamil: கீர்த்தி ஸ்ரீ ராஜசிங்கம்; 11 August 1747 – 2 January 1782) was the second Nayaka king of Kandy.  He was a prince from the Madurai Nayak Dynasty and the brother-in-law of Sri Vijaya Raja Singha. He succeeded his brother-in-law to the throne in 1751.

The king is credited for the revival of Buddhism and literature in Sri Lanka. Under the guidance and influence of Weliwita Sri Saranankara Thero,  with Dutch assistance, king Kirti Sri Raja Singha successfully invited Bhikkus from Siam (Thailand) to revive the higher ordination of Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka.

He also built the existing inner temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic and  Raja Maha Vihara (Gangarama) in Kandy. During his reign the Mahavamsa chronicle was continued from the time of Parakramabahu IV of Dambadeniya. He also rebuilt the Munneswaram temple close to Chilaw.

Attack on Dutch Forts
In 1761 King Kirti Sri Rajasinha attacked the Dutch garrisons and forts at Matara, Katuwana, Tangalle, Marakade and Urubokke, completely destroying them, and killing Dutch while some surrendered and ended up as prisoners.

In order to revenge the humiliation, the new Dutch governor Van Eck had immediate plans to attack Kandy, but the weakness in fortification and garrison forbade the Dutch. Later they did attack in 1764 and in 1765. Hence, in the early part of 1763 the Dutch were only consolidating their positions and gradually expelling Kandyans from the territories taken over from Dutch. Throughout 1763 the King continually sought peace and sent his envoys to discuss terms. The Governor wished the King to cede the three four and seven Korales and Puttlam and hand over the entire coastline of island to the Dutch. The king was not agreeable to any demand that diminished his sovereignty and was deliberately delaying a settlement hoping for help from the English in Madras after his discussion and negotiations with John Pybus 1762.
.

Meeting with the British
The King in mid-1762 sought help from the Governor of Fort St George Madras for assistance. The British eager to obtain the monopoly of trading in cinnamon, pepper, betel nut (puwak) from the Kandyan Kings also wanted to expel the Dutch from the coasts. A reason to call on the British for assistance by the Kandyan King in 1762 was that after the treaty of Paris, the Dutch poured troops into Sri Lanka. They were bent on capturing Kandy from six directions (1764). Anticipating such a scenario the King sent an envoy to the English Governor of Madras to assist him in expelling the Dutch. This envoy, a junior Kandyan Official in the military made a clandestine trip to Madras Fort, and the English responded by sending their councilor Mr Pybus.

John Pybus, a writer of the British East India Company, sailed to Kandy with a backup of five ships and about 200 armed men. A British vessel brought Pybus to Trincomalee on 5 May 1762. The Dutch knew of the arrival of Pybus through their spies and they were kept informed of his movements. Pybus took an exhausting covert trip to meet the King on 24 May 1762. After several talks without any conclusive decisions Pybus left after a month. The King gave him a ring, sword, a gold chain with breast jewels and left the country crossing the river at Puttalam pass while the Dissawa who accompanied Pybus presented the ships commander Samuel Cornish a gold chain and a ring in the name of King "Keerthi Sri Rajasinha ".

John Pybus in his notes described the King as a man of tolerable stature, reddish in complexion and very brisk in his movements. Pybus was amazed as to how the Kandyans had managed to fight a war with Dutch and had captured Matara Dutch Fort. He wrote that "They had put every European to the sword except two officers who are now prisoners of the country."

The Dutch attacked Kandy once again in 1765 and in this occasion, both parties suffered severe casualties. The king went to Hanguranketha and hid there for safety. Battles continued for months and the king wanted peace with the Dutch due to the widening of internal issues of the Kingdom of Kandy. Taking advantage of this opportunity the Dutch forwarded a treaty biased towards the themselves. The king, having no other option signed the treaty in 1766. The Kingdom of Kandy lost its access to the ocean by this treaty.

Marriage
He married the daughter of one Nadukattu Sami Nayakkar in 1749. He further married three more Nayakkar queens from Madurai, but had no children. He also married two daughters of Vijaya Manna Naicker who was the grandson of Vijaya Raghava Nayak. He had six daughters and two sons by his favorite Sinhala lady (Yakada Doli), daughter of the late Dissava (Headman) of Bintenna, granddaughter of the blind and aged Mampitiya Dissave. Both his sons survived the king and his daughters married Nayakkar relatives of the king. Mampitiya's sons claim for the throne was overlooked and the choice fell on the king's brother who was living in court.

The king died on January 2, 1782, of the injuries caused two months before by a fall from his horse after a reign of 35 years which the people saw as a great religious revival, and had a sentimental attachment to the King.

Statues

There are very many life-size portraits of King Kirti Sri Raja Singha in all  the temples he renovated and built. But the most famous are the four life sized wooden statues of the king today, two of them can be seen at Dambulla temple and at Malwatta temple in Kandy.

See also
 Mahavamsa
 List of monarchs of Sri Lanka
 History of Sri Lanka

Sources
 Kings and Rulers of Sri Lanka

References

External links
 Galagoda Adikaram - Chief Minister of King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe

1782 deaths
Deaths by horse-riding accident
Monarchs of Kandy
1734 births
Rajasinha
Rajasinha
K
Buddhist revivalists

Kirti Sri Rajasinha of Kandy


Cecil Roland Paul (1935–1992) was a minister, educator, community leader, and academic. He died at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston after suffering a brain hemorrhage. He was the second president of the Eastern Nazarene College to die in office. The Cecil R. Paul Center for Business, part of the Adams Executive Center on the Old Colony Campus of Eastern Nazarene, is named in his honor.

Early life and education
A Canadian by birth, Paul was born in rural Alberta, in a log cabin with no running water. He would later attend Canadian Nazarene College in Red Deer, Alberta and pursue graduate study at Nazarene Theological Seminary in Kansas City, Missouri before earning a doctoral degree in psychology and pastoral counseling from Boston University.

Career and ministry
An ordained minister in the Church of the Nazarene, Paul joined the faculty of the Eastern Nazarene College in 1963, and has been credited with developing the school's psychology program. He also founded the college's division of adult and graduate studies in 1981, increasing total enrollment by nearly 50 percent. He then served from 1989 to 1992 as president of the college. Paul also founded the Beechwood Community Life Center, also in Wollaston, Massachusetts, and was a co-founder of the Senior Olympics.

Notes and references

1935 births
1992 deaths
Presidents of Eastern Nazarene College
People from Quincy, Massachusetts
Ambrose University College alumni
Church of the Nazarene ministers
People from Alberta
Nazarene Theological Seminary alumni
Boston University School of Theology alumni
Canadian members of the Church of the Nazarene
American Nazarene ministers

Cecil R. Paul


Mikołaj Abramowicz or Abrahamowicz (; 1590s – 1651) was a Polish–Lithuanian soldier who was one of the leading military and diplomatic figures of his period.

Life
A szlachcic of Jastrzębiec coat of arms, Mikołaj Abramowicz was the son of Smolensk voivode Jan Abramowicz. His birth documents have not survived, but it is recorded that he served as the senior cannon officer (artillery leader) during the 1621–22 war with Sweden. In subsequent conflicts with Sweden, he fought in the failed 1625 campaign, capturing the bridge crossing at Daugava, and particularly distinguished himself as a regimental commander during the 1626–29 war, in the Battle of Vistula.

As one of the last Protestant leaders in the predominantly Catholic region, he granted his Lutsk mansion to the Lithuanian Calvinist synod for use as an evangelical school.

Returning to military service, Abramowicz served in the 1633–34 Smolensk War and, holding the rank of colonel, was one of the negotiators in the June 1634 Treaty of Polyanovka, which ended the conflict. In 1638 King Władysław IV Vasa nominated him as Cześnik Wielki Litewski (Great Grand Duke's Cup-Bearer of Lithuania). He rose to the office of castellan of Mścisław in 1639, General (top commander) of the artillery of Lithuania in 1640, Voivode of Mścisław in 1643, and voivode of Trakai in 1647.

In view of Abramowicz's prominent activity in the Lithuanian Calvinist synod at a time of increased Counter-Reformation in the Commonwealth, his ability to retain high offices, was taken as sign of King Władysław's faith in his leadership. The confidence proved particularly well-founded during the 1645 event known as the Trubchevsk incident (), as Lithuanian nobles rose in opposition to the king's treaty with Russia, which signed away the fortified border town of Trubchevsk. The king sent Abramowicz at the head of a company of King's Guards to restore order and oversee the territorial transfer. In the aftermath, the Lithuanian Tribunal lodged a high complaint against Abramowicz for illegal expropriation of property and sentenced him to loss of honor, banishment and a high compensatory damage. The sentences were never carried out due to the intervention of the king, who rewarded Abramowicz's loyalty with advancement to the Trakai Voivodeship.

In the final three years of his life, Abramowicz served as a diplomat in the 1648 negotiations with Sweden, and in the Senate talks of 1649. In his final public function, he signed the Senate resolution known as the Evangelical Salvation, providing certain rights to Calvinists. He died in Vilnius in his early to mid-fifties.

Further reading
  Tyla, Antanas (2001). "Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas", Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia), vol. 1:A–Ar, p. 40
  Polski Słownik Biograficzny | tom = 1 Polska Akademia Umiejętności - 1935, pages 13–15

Secular senators of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
17th-century Lithuanian nobility
17th-century Polish nobility
Generals of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Lithuanian Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Polish people of the Smolensk War
1590s births
Year of birth uncertain
1651 deaths

Voivodes of Trakai

Mikołaj Abramowicz


A page can be different things:

 Usually, a page is a physical sheet of paper in a book, magazine, newspaper etc. When a page is not in a book (etc.) it is a sheet or piece of paper.
 When we talk about computers, a page is also a common abbreviation in net jargon for "webpage".  Here the page is not paper, it is a piece of information which we can see on a computer monitor at one time.  We can print it to make a real page.  But the information may not fit all on one page, and we can not change it when it is printed - we can change a web page.  So a webpage is not always the same even as a printed copy of that page.  This is a conceptual metaphor.  It can be confusing.  Someone who uses it is also likely to use other jargon.
 A page is also a boy or a young man who helps carry things and does small jobs for someone. Another word for this is a pageboy.
 To page someone is to contact that person on their pager: this is a small electronic machine which makes a sound or gives someone a message. This is usually to call someone for a certain reason, for example: to call them down somewhere, or to ask them for something.

Page


Pansori is defined as a Korean traditional narrative song that one sorikkun(Korean: 소리꾼), a singer, weaves a story with chang(song), aniri(descriptive speech), and nurumsae(motion). The name of the song is also known as gapga, bonsaga, changga in Chinese, but it has been called pansori in Korean. The term pansori first appeared in 'Mae-il Shin bo' (the name of the newspaper in 1910s in Korea) in 1913. Pansori is a performing art which one sorikkun, and one gosu (a drummer playing a barrel drum called buk (Korean: 북)) sing a song of a long story to the audience. 'Pan' in pansori means 'a place where many people gather', and 'sori' means 'sound'. Pansori represents voluntariness and impromptu which are the characteristics of Korean traditional music. For example, before Heung-rok Song period it had been orally narrated without any exact scripts by extemporarily inserting songs handed down orally and witty remarks into the stories taught by a master.

Characteristics
Pansori is a professional art which requires sorikkun to have a high level of singing skill. Also, it is a performing art because one singer takes roles of various characters in a story. Music, literature, and play are the key elements that coexist in pansori. It was established as an independent performing art by associating with many adjacent genres of Korean traditional music such as Minyo, Mooga(songs that shamans sing in a performance of exorcism), Sijo, Japga(a folk music sung by common people during the latter part of Joseon dynasty), and Gasa. It is also the only genre that started with popular arts and led to ethnic arts in Korea.

Ba-tang sori and Toe-mak sori
There is an opinion that in the traditional society Pansori indicated Ba-tang sori (Korea:바탕소리, a song that includes the whole story) and if a singer sang certain parts of a story, usually famous parts, it was called just 'sori'. Today if a singer sing a full story, it is called Ba-tang sori whereas, if a singer sing just some parts of the story, the sori is called Toe-mak (Korean:토막)sori or Ma-di (Korean: 마디)sori. Toe-mak sori was mainly sung by sorikkun in the 20th century. However, after Dong-Jin Park, a famous male sorikkun, sang the full story of Heungbuga for five hours in 1968, many sorikkun tried to sing Ba-tang sori which requires sorikkun more efforts to sing.

Related pages
 Pungmul

References
www.pansoree.com

Korean music
1913 establishments in Asia
20th-century establishments in South Korea

Pansori


Baldev Singh (6 April 19042 February 1998) was an Indian neurologist. He was best known for collaborative works with neurologists Jacob Chandy, Balasubramaniam Ramamurthi and S. T. Narasimhan and together they have been credited to be pioneers in development of epilepsy surgery in India. They also helped in establishing the Neurological Society of India in 1951 at Madras (now Chennai). After training in the United States of America, he returned to India and established himself at Delhi. He was presented with the Padma Bhushan in 1972 for his contributions in the field of medicine.

Works
Singh was born on 6 April 1904 in a well-to-do family.  In school, he won various scholarships and further went to join the King Edward Medical College, Lahore in 1922 and graduated in 1927. He developed interest in neuroanatomy and later went to National Hospital at Queen Square in Central London. At the National Hospital, Singh was associated with various notable neurologists like Russell Brain, 1st Baron Brain and MacDonald Critchley. Singh returned to India in 1931 and set up his medical practice in a village near Amritsar. With study of Alpha wave, also called Berger's rhythm in memory of Hans Berger, Singh undertook a training in electronics. In the 1940s, he developed an apparatus to record the electrical activity of the brains of laboratory animals. In 1950, he moved to Chicago and studied epilepsy patients of neurologist Percival Bailey taking their EEGs.

The first department of neurology in India was established in 1949 by Jacob Chandy at the Christian Medical College of Vellore in the Madras State (now Tamil Nadu). Singh was unable to find suitable job at Amritsar or Delhi and he hence joined Chandy in 1950. Singh's work with Bailey helped him organize a surgery program at Vellore for epilepsy. On 25 August 1952, Chandy performed the first surgery in India on a 19-year-old boy suffering with infantile right hemiplegia. Singh supervised the EEG records of the patient during the surgery.

In 1950, Balasubramaniam Ramamurthi started the neurological department at the Madras General Hospital where S. T. Narasimhan was also associated. Ramamurthi performed his first surgery in epilepsy in 1954 and Narasimhan helped with EEG recording. Singh, Chandy, Ramamurthi and Narasimhan have been credited for pioneering the epilepsy surgery in India. They also established the Neurological Society of India in 1951. Until then, all the disciples of neurology were not associated together as the field was still in an emerging state post independence of India in 1947.

Singh headed the newly inaugurated neurological department at the Tirath Ram Shah Hospital, New Delhi in 1954. He also taught at the Lady Hardinge Medical College and Willingdon Hospital (now called Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital) in Delhi. In 1964, as Singh was beyond his retirement age, he was invited for three years to help in establishing the Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery at  the All India Institute of Medical Sciences Delhi (AIIMS). He was also an Emeritus Professor at the Department of Physiology at AIIMS. In 1972, the Government of India presented him with the Padma Bhushan award, the third-highest civilian award, for his work in the field of medicine. He died on 2 February 1998 and was popularly called "grandfather neuron".

References

1904 births
1998 deaths
Indian neurologists
King Edward Medical University alumni
Medical doctors from Punjab, India
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in medicine
20th-century Indian medical doctors

Baldev Singh (neurologist)


The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (RRHOF), sometimes simply referred to as the Rock Hall, is a museum in Cleveland, Ohio, United States, which has information on the history of some of the best-known and most influential artists, producers, and other people who have in some major way influenced the music industry, mostly in the area of rock and roll and rock music.

First artists
The first group of musicians, added on January 23, 1986, were Chuck Berry, James Brown, Ray Charles, Sam Cooke, Fats Domino, the Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis, Little Richard, and Elvis Presley.

Other websites
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame - official site
Future Rock Hall – lists eligible artists
Images and architectural information
How do you get into the Rock Hall of Fame?
2007 Induction Concert and Ceremony Video Archived on Spinner.com

Rock music
Museums in the United States
Cleveland
Buildings and structures in Ohio

Rock and Roll Hall of Fame


Sir Richard Grenville (1542 – 1591) was an English sailor, sea captain and explorer. He took part in the early English attempts to settle the New World. He was in the fight against the Spanish Armada. He died in 1591 at the Battle of Flores, fighting against overwhelming odds, and refusing to surrender his ship, the Revenge, to the far more numerous Spanish.

Sir Richard Grenville was a British naval commander.
He was born of an old Cornish family in about 1541.
His grandfather, Sir Richard, was a marshal of Calais during the time of Henry VIII.
Richard Grenville's father commanded and lost his life in the "Mary Rose" in 1545.
At an early age Richard Grenville served in Hungary under the emperor Maximilian against the Turks.

1542 births
1591 deaths
English explorers
English sailors

Richard Grenville


A sprachbund is a group of languages spoken in the same area. They become similar because the speakers live close to each other. They constantly communicate with each other. Because similarities in the languages develop, they  sometimes seem to be in the same language family.

For example, in India, where there are hundreds or thousands of languages and dialects spoken, the languages often adopt similar grammar structures, vocabulary, and sounds. Indians often communicate with people who have a different first language from themselves.

In East Asia, since China introduced writing to nearby countries, especially Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. This area is called the sinosphere, or the Chinese sphere of influence. Not only did speakers of East Asian languages learn to by write using Chinese characters, but they also borrowed many loanwords from Chinese as well.

Linguists used to believe that languages like Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Turkish, and Finnish were part of the Altaic language family. This was because of similar features like SVO (subject-verb-object) word order and agglutinating grammar. However, most linguists no longer believe that the Altaic language family ever existed. The languages became more similar over time, whereas most related languages become more different over time. It is possible that these languages are part of a sprachbund.

Languages

Sprachbund