Contiki is a small, open source free operating system.  It was developed to be used in 8-bit computers and embedded systems.  It has a Graphical User Interface and the full installation needs about 30 kilobytes of RAM.

The name Contiki comes from Thor Heyerdahl's famous Kon-Tiki raft.

The basic kernel and most of the core functions were developed by Adam Dunkels at the Networked Embedded Systems group at the Swedish Institute of Computer Science.

Features

A full installation of Contiki includes the following features:
 Multitasking kernel
 Optional per-application pre-emptive multithreading
 Protothreads
 TCP/IP networking
 Windowing system and GUI
 Networked remote display using Virtual Network Computing
 A web browser (claimed to be the world's smallest)
 Personal web server
 Simple telnet client
 Screensaver

More applications planned include:
 an email program
 an Internet Relay Chat client

Ports

The Contiki operating system has been or is being ported to the following systems:
 Computers:
 Apple II family*
 Atari 8-bit*
 Atari ST
 Atari Portfolio
 Casio Pocketview
 Commodore PET*
 Commodore VIC 20*
 Commodore 64*
 Commodore 128*
 GP32
 PC-6001
 Sharp Wizard
 x86-based Unix-like systems, on top of GTK+ as well as directly using the X Window System
* cc65 based development
 Video game consoles:
 PC Engine
 Sega Dreamcast
 Sony PlayStation
 Handheld game consoles:
 Nintendo Game Boy
 Nintendo Game Boy Advance
 Microcontrollers:
 Atmel AVR
 TI MSP430

Related pages

References

BSD

Contiki


A dementor is a man-size creature in the Harry Potter books. They are black and hooded. They only lift up their hood for performing the kiss in which they suck out the soul. There is one way to make them go away. It's the Patronus Charm. It's very advanced magic. You perform it by saying Expecto Patronum!  and remembering a very happy memory, a very powerful memory. Harry Potter first saw them in the third book The prisoner of Azkaban.

Harry Potter characters

Dementor


Théodore Géricault (September 26, 1791 – January 26, 1824) was an important French painter, known for The Raft of the Medusa and other paintings. He was one of the people who started the Romantic movement.

Born in Rouen, France, Géricault was schooled in English sporting art by Carle Vernet and in classical figure composition by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin, who saw that he had talent.

His first big work, The Charging Chasseur, shown at the Paris Salon in 1812, showed the influence of the style of Rubens and an interest in contemporary topics.

1791 births
1824 deaths
French painters
People from Rouen
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery

Théodore Géricault


Bara-lacha-la (also known as Bara-lacha Pass, el. 5045 m./16,400 ft.) is a high mountain pass connecting Lahaul District in Himachal Pradesh to Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir state.
A narrow pass in greater Himalayan ranges of HP, located at a height of 1200 ft. This pass is not available for transportation during winter due to snow cover

Mountain passes of Pakistan
Mountain passes of India

Bara-lacha-la Pass


René González (August 5, 1918 – May 9, 1982) was a Cuban professional baseball player. A native of  Cienfuegos, Cuba, González was a first baseman/outfielder who batted and threw right-handed.

González was a consistent hitter who spent most of his career in Mexican baseball (1947–1949, 1951–1956), where he won three consecutive batting titles (1952–54) including the Triple Crown in 1952. An eight-time .300 hitter, he collected 1144 hits in 3459 at-bats for a .331 batting average during nine seasons.

In 1950, González played for the New York Cubans in the Negro leagues.

After that he played for the Patriotas de Venezuela club of the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League during the 1951–1952 season. He finished with a .357 batting average and led the league in home runs (10), RBI (56), hits (74), doubles (18) and slugging % (.739). Later, he played as a
reinforcement for the Navegantes del Magallanes in the 1951 Caribbean Series, where he led the Venezuelan offensive with a .333 average and two home runs, while his 11 RBI topped the tournament.

González also played in Cuba and Nicaragua up until 1958, his last season. Following his baseball retirement he returned to his Cuba homeland, where he died aged 63.

In 1993 he was inducted into the Mexican Professional Baseball Hall of Fame.

Sources
Antero Núñez, José. Series del Caribe. Jefferson, Caracas, Venezuela: Impresos Urbina, C.A., 1987.
Gutiérrez, Daniel. Enciclopedia del Béisbol en Venezuela. Caracas, Venezuela: Editorial La Brújula, C.A., 1997.
MLBlogs.com – René González fue un Gigante en el Caribe (Spanish Biography)

External links

1918 births
1982 deaths
Alijadores de Tampico players
Cuban expatriate baseball players in Mexico
Diablos Rojos del México players
Mexican Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
New York Cubans players
Patriotas de Venezuela players
Sportspeople from Cienfuegos
Rojos del Águila de Veracruz players
Tomateros de Culiacán players
Tuneros de San Luis Potosí players
Cuban expatriate baseball players in Nicaragua
Cuban expatriates in the United States

René González (baseball player)


Juan Álvarez (3 September 1878 – 8 April 1954) was a judge and historian born in Gualeguaychú, .

Biography

Álvarez was born at a time of massive immigration in Argentina. His father, Serafín Álvarez, was an exiled Republican Spaniard; within the family, discussions about society, politics and religion were common.  He studied at the Faculty of Law in Buenos Aires, where the ruling class of the time was raised. His doctoral thesis was evaluated by Bartolomé Mitre.

Since 1902, he worked at the Tribunals of Rosario, as a secretary, attorney, prosecutor and judge. He lived most of his life in this dynamic and rapidly growing city of the province of Santa Fe, and made friends within the professional and business elite, as well as firm links with other Argentine intellectuals. He was of a liberal mindset, opposed to nationalism and the tendency to worship tradition.

His first books argued that the roots of a nationality should not be sought in the old times, but in the future. This topic was especially relevant due to the wave of nationalistic pride sweeping Argentina near the centennial of its liberation from Spain (the May Revolution of 1810). In his Essay on the history of Santa Fe he went as far as claiming that Argentine history is nonexistent before 1853 (year of the framing of Constitution).

In 1913, Álvarez founded a public library in Rosario. This library, which is the largest in the city, carries at present the name of Biblioteca Argentina Dr. Juan Álvarez.

In 1914, Álvarez wrote about the civil wars of Argentina from an economic point of view, and explicitly looking to prevent similar wars in the future. World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917 affected his liberal mindset, which led him to write a criticism of liberalism and its limitations. Similar crises came after the Sáenz Peña Law of secret and compulsory suffrage and the conservative revolution of 1930. Álvarez turned towards conservatism, unsure about the new developments in the relationship between citizens, institutions and the state.

In 1943, he wrote Historia de Rosario (1689–1939) ("History of Rosario"), which, like other works that deal with the interaction of geography, economy and politics, is considered a seminal work, which introduces the concept of the city as a subject matter, starting from its local identity, without a forced reference to national matters.  His thesis about the asymmetric relationships between his adopted home town, Rosario, and the capital city of Santa Fe, opposes the dynamism of the former (devoid of a colonial past or an aristocratic class) and the bureaucratic tradition of the latter. This idea is still considered valid and continues to re-emerge in popular and intellectual discourse today.

Álvarez was the Attorney General of the Nation between 1935 and 1946. He died in Rosario in 1954.

Sources

 News and comments at the online edition of La Capital newspaper of Rosario, 4 April 2004:

References

1878 births
1954 deaths
20th-century Argentine judges
Argentine prosecutors
Attorneys General of Argentina
20th-century Argentine historians
Argentine male writers
Culture in Rosario, Santa Fe
People from Entre Ríos Province
Male non-fiction writers

Juan Álvarez (historian)


Differential cryptanalysis is a general form of cryptanalysis applicable to block ciphers, but also can be applied to stream ciphers and cryptographic hash functions. It is the study of how differences in the input can affect the resultant differences at the output. In the case of a block cipher, it refers to a set of techniques and methods for tracing differences through the network of transformations, discovering where the cipher demonstrates non-random behaviour, and extend such properties to recover the secret key.

Differential cryptanalysis attacks are usually chosen plaintext attacks, meaning that the attacker must be able to obtain encrypted ciphertexts for some set of plaintexts of his choosing.

Related pages
 Linear cryptanalysis

Cryptography

Differential cryptanalysis


Languages:

This page contains a list of the official Wikipedias under the auspices of the Wikimedia Foundation for various languages. Test Wikipedias are listed at the Wikimedia Incubator Wiki project.

All 276 Wikipedias are ordered by article count. The table lists each language name in English (linked to the English Wikipedia entry for the language) and the "local" name, in the language itself (linked to the article in that language's wiki). It also lists for each wiki the language code used in its URL and in interwiki links to it (linked to the local Main Page), as well as statistics on articles, edits, administrators, users, active users, and images (most linked to an appropriate local special page).

Note: Just adding a link below does not suddenly spring a wiki into existence. For information on starting a Wikipedia in a new language, please see Meta:Language proposal policy. (Currently, Wikipedia's volunteer developers are overworked and understaffed. Your patience is appreciated.)
If a wiki becomes active and is not listed here, please post a notice on this article's talk page, including a link to all the relevant Wikipedia pages, and help promote the effort by announcing it on the Wikipedia-L mailing list, and at Wikimedia News.

The information in the main article count table, below, is regularly completely overwritten by editors (using automatically gathered data from Special:Statistics of each wiki), so edits to individual entries won't last long, and are therefore usually unnecessary. If something is wrong with an entry other than simply having slightly out of date statistics, post about it on the talk page.

See also:
Wiki Stats , the source of the information below — other data formats are available.
List of Wikipedias by edits per article
List of Wikipedias by sample of articles
List of Wikipedias by language group and List of Wikipedias by language family
List of Wikipedias by speakers per article
Wikipedia Milestones and List of largest wikis

Notes
The "Total" column refers to the number of pages in all namespaces, including both Articles (the official article count of each wiki) and Non-Articles (User pages, Images, talk pages, "project" pages, categories, and templates).
The "Depth" column (Edits/Articles × Non-Articles/Articles × Stub-ratio) is a rough indicator of a Wikipedia's quality, showing how frequently its articles are updated. It does not refer to academic quality, which cannot be computed, but to Wikipedian quality, i.e. the depth of collaborativeness—a descriptor that is highly relevant for a Wikipedia. Depths above 300 for Wikipedias below 100 000 articles have been automatically dismissed as irrelevant.

All Wikipedias ordered by number of articles
The languages listed below are Wikipedias which have been created (ordered by number of articles and within each number alphabetically from A to Z). These tables can also be kept up to date by ordinary users. If you feel that an update is needed, simply cut and paste the wiki syntax from this page  (which is updated by script fairly regularly) into this page, overwriting the existing tables.

 See Table here.

Deprecated, moved and other
Redirect:
, showing up in Special:SiteMatrix as existing Wikimedia language code but without any wiki, redirects to .

Deprecated:
Alsatian wiki: als – extended when having 19 persistent articles; now for Alemannic dialects in general, no change in address. als is the code for ; gsw is considered.
Akan – ak – statistics – all articles – deprecated: Akan is now considered a family of languages. There is a Wikipedia; if you'd like to write articles in another Akan language you can request a new Wikipedia.

Read-only (existing users can still log in; their user preferences are still effective but cannot be changed):
The Kanuri Wikipedia has been closed, following a community vote. The reason was the absence of both content and community.
The Choctaw Wikipedia has been closed following a community vote. The existing minimal content will possibly be moved to the incubator Wiki.
 The Moldovan Wikipedia. See Proposals for closing projects/Closure of Moldovan Wikipedia.
The Hiri Motu Wikipedia was closed on 2007-07-09.
The Kwanyama Wikipedia was closed on 2007-07-10.
The Muscogee Wikipedia was closed on 2007-07-10.
The Yi Wikipedia was closed on 2007-07-29.
The Afar Wikipedia was closed on 2008-05-13.
The Marshallese Wikipedia was closed on 2008-05-14.
The Ndonga Wikipedia was closed on 2010-02-24.

Emptied and locked (this is different from "non-existing" in that it is in Special:SiteMatrix; also xx.wikipedia.org gives a non-existing "Main Page" as opposed to a browser message that the URL is wrong; furthermore the interlanguage prefix is still operational):
The Herero Wikipedia was closed on 2007-07-24, but the original user pages still exist.

Moved and deleted:
 The Toki Pona language edition of the Wikipedia is no longer hosted by Wikimedia and is now hosted by Wikia as Wikipesija.
 The Klingon language edition of the Wikipedia is no longer hosted by Wikimedia and is now hosted by as Klingon Wiki. There is more on the history of the Klingon Wikipedia.
 It is now widely agreed upon, that the creation of the Siberian language Wikipedia 2006 was based on a hoax. It was deleted 2007 after contents had been moved to the sib.volgota.com.
 The September 11 Wiki was hosted by Wikipedia from 2001 to 2008 despite having a different scope and point of view from all other Wikipedias.  It was made read-only in 2006 and later closed. The content was moved to the site sep11memories.org, which has since been taken offline.

Never been an official Wikipedia:
Lingua Franca Nova Wiki . The Wiki of this language has been noted on this page for some months. It now has 1,158 articles. A request for an official Wikipedia was rejected.
Bon Wen.
Korean Hanja Wiki. The wiki of this writing system was rejected on new language request of Wikimedia. Now it has 263 articles.
Wikimedia Advisory Board Wiki, is listed in the list of dumps as advisorywiki, but as it is not a Wikipedia edition, it is actually located at advisory.wikimedia.org not advisory.wikipedia.org.

Languages without ISO 639 language code or duplicated or using incorrect code
Simple English (using invented code simple)
Banyumasan (using invented code map-bms)
Belarusian (Taraškievica) (using private code be-x-old instead of official be-tarask )
Aromanian (using invented code roa-rup)
Samogitian (using invented code bat-smg instead of the official new sgs)
Zamboanga Chavacano (using invented code cbk-zam)
Tarantino (using invented code roa-tara)
Ripuarian (currently using ksh of Kölsch , actually a subset of Ripuarian)
Dutch Low Saxon (using correct code nds-NL, but duplicated with Plattdüütsch, using nds )
Norman (using unrelated nrm  instead of superset roa)
Võro (still using old invented code fiu-vro instead of official new vro)
Cantonese (still using an old invented code zh-yue instead of the official new yue)
Minnan (still using old invented code zh-min-nan instead of the official new nan)
Classical Chinese (still using old invented code zh-classical instead of the official new lzh)

See Language code for more information

Test Wikipedias
Please visit the new Wikimedia Incubator Wiki project.
Languages without an ISO code can go to the Incubator Plus, the place where rejected tests from the Wikimedia Incubator go to.
Deprecated pages that will be moved: special:Prefixindex/Test-WP and special:Prefixindex/Test-wp: don't edit them!

See also

Additional resources and statistics
See Template:Active Wikipedias for a simple enumeration of all the Wikipedias ordered by local language name. For a list ordered by the language names in English, see Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination.
See Special:SiteMatrix for an automatically maintained table, with one row for each language, ordered by language code; the local names are also given, but not the English names.
List of Wikipedias/sortable - sortable, also by language family
List of Wikipedias by language family
List of Wikipedias by sample of articles
List of Wikipedias by edits per article
List of Wikipedias/logaritmic chart
List of Wikipedias by articles per population
List of Wikipedias by speakers per article, a more up to date, but shorter, inverse version.
Wikipedia Milestones
Wikipedia Statistics (as of 03-31-10)
THEwikiStics - lists most accessed pages for each project (since 02-08)
Wikipedia article traffic stats - counts hits (views) for individual articles (since 12-07)
Interlanguage link (software feature)
Administrators of various Wikipedias - with the numbers of users
Names.php – The list gives, and is ordered by, the language codes built into the Mediawiki software, and includes the local language name and the language name in English.
The name "Wikipedia" in different languages including logos
Meta:Templates for translating language names
GeoNames
List of largest wikis

Additional projects
Wikimedia projects - with a link to each "Village Pump" etc.
Complete lists of Wikimedia projects: separate lists | table

See also
Multilingual Wikipedia

વિકિપીડિયા

de:ISO 639#ISO 639-3

વિકિપીડિયાની યાદી


Civil rights are rights that all people in a country have. The civil rights of a country apply to all the citizens within its borders. These rights are given by the laws of the country. Civil rights are sometimes thought to be the same as natural rights.

In many countries civil rights include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, and freedom of assembly. Civil rights also include the right to own property and the right to get fair and equal treatment from the government, from other citizens, and from private groups. They may prevent against discrimination based on race, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity and disability.

Civil rights are protected by law and custom.  The constitutions of many democracies have a "Bill of Rights" that describes the people's liberties and rights. A well-known example is the United States Bill of Rights.

A court of law decides if a person's civil rights have been violated.  The courts also decide the limits of civil rights, so that people do not use their freedoms to take away the rights of other people.

Related pages
 Civil and political rights
 Constitutional economics
 Economic, social and cultural rights
 Political economy
 Human rights
 Natural rights
 Rule of law
 Second-class citizen
 Women's rights
 Minority rights
 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

Civil rights


Johann Ludwig Uhland (26 April 1787 – 13 November 1862) was a German poet, philologist and literary historian.

Biography

He was born in Tübingen, Württemberg, and studied jurisprudence at the university there, but also took an interest in medieval literature, especially old German and French poetry. Having graduated as a doctor of laws in 1810, he went to Paris for eight months to continue his studies of poetry; and from 1812 to 1814 he worked as a lawyer in Stuttgart, in the bureau of the minister of justice.

Poetry
He began his career as a poet in 1807 and 1808 by contributing ballads and lyrics to Seckendorff's Musenalmanach; and in 1812 and 1813 he wrote poems for Kerner's Poetischer Almanach and Deutscher Dichterwald. In 1815 he collected his poems in a volume entitled Vaterländische Gedichte, which almost immediately secured a wide circle of readers. To almost every new edition he added some fresh poems. His two dramatic works Ernst, Herzog von Schwaben (1818) and Ludwig der Baier (1819) are unimportant in comparison with his Gedichte.

As a lyric poet, Uhland must be classed with the writers of the romantic school. Like them, he found that subjects in the Middle Ages appealed most strongly to his imagination. Yet his style has a precision, suppleness and grace which distinguish his most characteristic writings from those of the romantics. Uhland wrote poems in defense of freedom, and in the states assembly of Württemberg he played a distinguished part as one of the most vigorous and consistent of the liberal members.

Politics
In 1815, Württemberg was to be granted a new constitution, replacing the old constitution of the Estates of Württemberg (Landstände) which had been abolished in 1806. Uhland became a prominent proponent of the old rights of the estates during the controversy of the following years, which ended in a compromise in 1819 under William I of Württemberg. Uhland went on to serve in the newly created parliament (Landtag) from 1819 until 1826.

In 1829 he was made honorary professor of German literature at the University of Tübingen, but he resigned in 1833, when the post was found to be incompatible with his political views. In 1848 he became a member of the Frankfurt Parliament that convened in the course of the 1848 revolution.

Philology and literary history
As a Germanic and Romance philologist, Uhland must be counted among the founders of that science. Besides the treatise Ueber das altfranzösische Epos (1812) and an essay Zur Geschichte der Freischiessen (1828), there are to be especially mentioned Walther von der Vogelweide, ein altdeutscher Dichter (1822); Der Mythus von Thôr (1836), the result of the most painstaking original investigation; and the masterly collection Alte hoch- und niederdeutsche Volkslieder (1844–45; 3d ed. 1892). His poetical works were repeatedly published as Gedichte und Dramen, while his scientific work is embodied in Schriften zur Geschichte der Dichtung und Sage, edited by Holland, Keller, and Pfeiffer (1865–72).

He died on 13 November 1862 in Tübingen.

Translations
Longfellow translated some of his pieces into English. Alexander Platt translated his Poems (Leipzig, 1848), W. W. Skeat his Songs and Ballads (London, 1864), and W. C. Sandars his Poems (1869).

Legacy
 One of his best-known poems is "Ich hatt' einen Kameraden", which is an integral part of military funerals.
 A town located south of Austin, Texas, is named in his honor.
 German composer Wilhelmine Schwertzell (1787-1863) used Uland's text in her songs "Abschied" and "Einkehr."
 Lieder composer Pauline Volkstein 1849-1925) also set Uhland's text to music.

References

External links

1787 births
1862 deaths
People from Tübingen
19th-century German poets
Members of the Frankfurt Parliament
People from the Duchy of Württemberg
University of Tübingen alumni
Members of the Württembergian Chamber of Deputies
German philologists
German literary historians
Germanic studies scholars
Writers on Germanic paganism
19th-century philologists
19th-century German historians
German male poets
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers

Ludwig Uhland


Echis is a genus of venomous vipers found in dry regions of Africa, Middle East, Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka. The name "Echis" is a Greek word which means "viper". Echis is also known as the "Saw-scaled Vipers", or the "Carpet Vipers". They are responsible for most of the snakebites and deaths in the world. There is currently eight species found.

Description
The Saw-scaled Vipers are a small group of snakes, with adults growing up to the length of 90 cm (36 in). Its head is short, wide and pear-shaped, its snout is short and round, and it has large eyes.

Where it lives
The Saw-scaled Viper is found in dry regions (like deserts) in Africa, the Middle East, Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka.

Diet
Not much is known about what the Saw-scaled Vipers eat, but some say they eats beetles, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, other snakes, small mammals and birds.

Reproduction
Most species of the Saw-scaled Viper, like the ones found in Africa, are oviparous meaning they lay eggs, while other species, like the ones found in India, are viviparous meaning they give live birth.

Species
 Indian Saw-scaled Viper, E. carinatus
 Palestine Saw-scaled Viper, E. coloratus
 Hughes' Saw-scaled Viper, E. hughesi
 Jogers' Saw-scaled Viper, E. jogeri
 White-bellied Carpet Viper, E. leucogaster
 Cherlin's Saw-scaled Viper, E. megalocephalus
 African Saw-scaled Viper, E. ocellatus
 Egyptian Saw-scaled Viper, E. pyramidum

Vipers

Echis


Susanoo (Japanese: 須佐之男命, Susanoo-no-Mikoto; also romanized as Susano'o, Susa-no-O, and Susanowo) is the kami of the sea and storms in Shinto.

Susano'o is the brother of Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun, and of Tsukuyomi, the god of the moon. All three were created from Izanagi, when he washed his face to clean the dirtiness of Yomi, the underworld. Amaterasu was born when Izanagi washed out his left eye, Tsukuyomi was born from the washing of the right eye, and Susano'o from the washing of the nose.

The tales tell of great  between Susano'o and his sister. When he was to leave Heaven forever because Izanagi ordered him to, he went to say goodbye to his sister. Amaterasu, suspicious, proposed him a challenge: each of them was to turn an object of the other's into people. Amaterasu created three women from Susano'o's sword while he created five men from her necklace. Amaterasu said the men were hers because they were born of her necklace. Susano'o destroyed her rice fields, threw a dead pony into her loom, and killed one of her assistants in anger. For this, Amaterasu, sad, angry and scared, went to hide inside Ama-no-Iwato, the "heavenly rock cave", so the Sun was hidden and the world became dark for a long time.

Amaterasu later was made to come out of the cave, but Susano'o was punished by being banished from Heaven. He came down to the province of Izumo, where he met an old couple. Seven of their eight daughters had been eaten by the eight-headed serpent Yamata-no-Orochi and it was about to come for the eighth, Kushi-inada-hime. After the couple promised their daughter's hand in marriage to Susano'o, he agreed to kill Orochi. With the help of eight bowls of sake (one for each head), Susano'o cut the head off the monster when it was sleeping.

From one of Orochi's tails, Susano'o took out a sword, which he called Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi ("Heaven's Cloud-Gathering Sword"), later known as the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi. The sword was given to Amaterasu as a  gift and was later given to her descendant Ninigi (the great-grandfather of Emperor Jimmu), with the Yata-no-Kagami (a mirror) and magatama (sacred jewels) as proof of his divine right to rule on Earth (the three Imperial Regalia of Japan).

Izumo
Amaterasu's shrine is at Ise Shrine, and Susano'o's is in Izumo, where he came down to Earth when banished from heaven. Izumo is home to the oldest shrines in Japan.

In popular culture
In a Meitei language play named Yamata Amasung Keibu Keioiba (), the role of Susanoo was played by Romario Thoudam Paona. The play interweaves the stories of two legendary creatures, Yamata-no-Orochi of Japanese mythology and Keibu Keioiba of Meitei mythology (Manipuri mythology).

References

Gods and goddesses of Japan
Gods and goddesses of water
Shinto
Kunitsukami
Gion faith

Susanoo


Stolobny Island is an island on Lake Seliger in the Tver Oblast of Russia, about  north of the town of Ostashkov.

Nilov Monastery
The island is the home of Nilov Monastery, which was founded by Saint Nilus in 1594, and previously welcomed up to 40,000 pilgrims each year.  Most of the buildings of the monastery were built in the 18th and 19th Centuries in a neoclassical style. Today the monastery complex remains one of the most impressive ensembles of Neoclassical architecture in Eastern Europe. Some of its churches date back to the 17th century. A graceful embankment was completed by 1812, and a large cathedral was built in 1821-25. The construction of the causeway to the island was completed in 1812. The Nilov Monastery was one of the largest and wealthiest monasteries in the Russian Empire.

Origin of name

Regarding the name of the island - "Stolobny" - there are two versions. At first, it got its name because of its shape, like a pole, and the second, is that there was an ancient pagan temple that included a sacrificial post. In 1515 the Rev. Nil (Neil in English) Krypetsky worked as a lumberjack. He lived alone, ate grass and acorns, all the time spent in prayer. According to legend, one day robbers went to Rev. Nil, and decided to kill him. However, he prayed silently, went out to them with an icon of the Blessed Virgin. The robbers, dreaming that the Rev. was defended by many armed men, fell at his feet, repented and begged forgiveness.

Gradually the fame of the hermit spread through the local villages. People began coming to him, asking prayers and teachings. In 1528, tired of all the attention, he moved to a new location - the island of Stolobny at Lake Seliger, near Ostashkov. The first year he lived in a dugout, then built a hut and a chapel for prayers. According to legend, the devil repeatedly sent different calamities against the hermit - fires, even robbers tried to throw his cell in the lake. However, Rev. Nil was adamant, overcoming all attacks by prayer and faith.

Rev. Nil lived on the island a total of 27 years before his death, and he bequeathed to build a monastery on this site, which was later made. Nil died in 1555 and was buried on Stolobny. In 1594, with the permission of the Patriarch Job, a monastic cloister opened on the island. Thus began the history of monastery Nilo - Stolobensky. The founder of the monastery was a monk Herman.

History

In 1919, after the October Revolution, the monastery was confiscated. It was closed in 1927 by the Soviet government and subsequently used for various purposes. From 1927 to 1939 there was a work camp for underage criminals.

In the period 1939 to 1941, during the first years of World War II, the monastery was a prisoner of war camp of the Russian secret service NKVD, which held approximately 7,000 Polish prisoners of war who had been taken captive by the Soviet Union following the Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939. Almost all of the prisoners were subsequently executed in April 1940 in Kalinin (now Tver) and then buried in mass graves in Mednoye, an act which became known as the Katyn Massacre. Amongst those killed were Polish officers, lawyers, policemen, teachers, doctors, and other members of the intelligentsia.

From 1941 to 1945 there was a hospital in the building complex, and again from 1945 to 1960, a camp for minors and orphans. From 1960 to 1971 the monastery was used as a retirement home, and from 1971 to 1990 a hostel for tourists.

Current status

After 1990, the complex was given back to the Russian Orthodox Church, and in 1995 it opened again as a functioning monastery, which it still is today.

 The monastery has a few farmsteads, including in Torzhok;
 The monastery also has its own apiary (also known as a bee yard), and in the church shop you can buy consecrated honey;
 The monastery produces its own candles, milk and has a carpentry shop, a barn and stables;
 For visiting pilgrims a special hotel is available;
 The restoration of the façades of the monastery started in 2009.

Gallery

External links

 Monastery website
 Stolobny Island website
 More photos
 St. Nilus Stolobensky Monastery: Resurrecting a great spiritual landmark in Russia Beyond

Lake islands of Europe
Lake islands of Russia
Landforms of Tver Oblast
Christian monasteries established in the 16th century
Russian Orthodox monasteries in Russia
Ostashkovsky Uyezd
Prisons in the Soviet Union
Political repression in the Soviet Union
Defunct prisons in Russia

Stolobny Island


Park Güell ( ; ) is a privatized park system composed of gardens and architectural elements located on Carmel Hill, in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. Carmel Hill belongs to the mountain range of Collserola – the Parc del Carmel is located on the northern face. Park Güell is located in La Salut, a neighborhood in the Gràcia district of Barcelona. With urbanization in mind, Eusebi Güell assigned the design of the park to Antoni Gaudí, a renowned architect and the face of Catalan modernism.

The park was built from 1900 to 1914 and was officially opened as a public park in 1926. In 1984, UNESCO declared the park a World Heritage Site under "Works of Antoni Gaudí".

Description

Park Güell is the reflection of Gaudí's artistic plenitude, which belongs to his naturalist phase (first decade of the 20th century). During this period, the architect perfected his style through organic shapes'inspiration. He put into practice a series of new structural solutions rooted in the analysis of geometry. To that, the Catalan artist adds creative liberty and an imaginative, ornamental creation. Starting from a sort of baroquism, his works acquire a structural richness of forms and volumes, free of the rational rigidity or any sort of classic premises. In the design of Park Güell, Gaudí unleashed all his architectonic genius and put to practice much of his innovative structural solutions that would become the symbol of his organic style, and that would culminate in the creation of the Basilica and Expiatory Church of the Holy Family (Catalan: Sagrada Família).

Güell and Gaudí conceived this park, situated within a natural park. They imagined an organized grouping of high-quality homes, decked out with all the latest technological advancements to ensure maximum comfort, finished off with an artistic touch. They also envisioned a community strongly influenced by symbolism, since, in the common elements of the park, they were trying to synthesize many of the political and religious ideals shared by both the patron and the architect: therefore there are noticeable concepts originating from political Catalanism –  especially in the entrance stairway where the Catalan countries are represented – and from Catholicism – the Monumento al Calvario, originally designed to be a chapel. The mythological elements are so important: apparently Güell and Gaudí's conception of the park was also inspired by the Temple of Apollo of Delphi.

On the other hand, many experts have tried to link the park to various symbols because of the complex iconography that Gaudí applied to the urban project. Such references go from political vindication to religious exaltation, passing through mythology, history and philosophy. Specifically, many studies claim to see references to Freemasonry, despite the deep religious beliefs of both Gaudí and Count Güell. These references have not been proven in the historiography of the modern architect. The multiplicity of symbols found in Park Güell is, as previously mentioned, associated with political and religious signs, with a touch of mystery according to the preferences of that time for enigmas and puzzles.

Origins as a housing development

The park was originally part of a commercially unsuccessful housing site, the idea of Count Eusebi Güell, after whom the park was named. It was inspired by the English garden city movement; the original English name Park (in Catalan the name is "Parc Güell"; in Spanish, "Parque Güell"). The site was a rocky hill with little vegetation and few trees, called Muntanya Pelada (Bare Mountain). It already included a large country house called Larrard House or Muntaner de Dalt House and was next to a neighbourhood of upper-class houses called La Salut (The Health). The intention was to exploit the fresh air (well away from smoky factories) and beautiful views from the site, with sixty triangular lots being provided for luxury houses. Count Eusebi Güell added to the prestige of the development by moving in 1906 to live in Larrard House. Ultimately, only two houses were built, neither designed by Gaudí. One was intended to be a show house, but on being completed in 1904 was put up for sale, and as no buyers came forward, Gaudí, at Güell's suggestion, bought it with his savings and moved in with his family and his father in 1906. This house, where Gaudí lived from 1906 to 1926 (his death), was built by Francesc Berenguer in 1904. It contains original works by Gaudí and several of his collaborators. It has been the Gaudí House Museum (Casa Museu Gaudí) since 1963. In 1969, it was declared a historical artistic monument of national interest.

Municipal garden

It has since been converted into a municipal garden. It can be reached by underground railway (although the stations are at a distance from the Park and at a much lower level below the hill), by city buses, or by commercial tourist buses. Since October 2013 there is an entrance fee to visit the Monumental Zone (main entrance, terrace, viaducts, and the parts containing mosaics), so the entrance to the Park is no longer free. Limited tickets are available that often sell out in advance. Gaudí's house, "la Torre Rosa," – containing furniture that he designed – can be only visited for another entrance fee. There is a reduced rate for those wishing to see both Gaudí's house and the Sagrada Família Church.

Park Güell is designed and composed to bring the peace and calm that one would expect from a park. The buildings flanking the entrance, though very original and remarkable with fantastically shaped roofs with unusual pinnacles, fit in well with the use of the park as pleasure gardens and seem relatively inconspicuous in the landscape when one considers the flamboyance of other buildings designed by Gaudí. These two buildings make up the Porter's Lodge pavilion. One of these buildings contains a small room with a telephone booth.  The other, while once being the porter's house, is now a permanent exhibition of the Barcelona City History Museum (Museu d'Història de Barcelona, or MUHBA). MUHBA focused on the building itself, the park and the city.

The focal point of the park is the main terrace, surrounded by a long bench in the form of a sea serpent. The curves of the serpent bench form a number of enclaves, creating a more social atmosphere. Gaudí incorporated many motifs of Catalan nationalism, and elements from religious mysticism and ancient poetry, into the Park. Much of the design of the benches was the work not of Gaudí but of his often overlooked collaborator Josep Maria Jujol.

Roadways around the park to service the intended houses were designed by Gaudí as structures jutting out from the steep hillside or running on viaducts, with separate footpaths in arcades formed under these structures. This minimized the intrusion of the roads, and Gaudí designed them using local stone in a way that integrates them closely into the landscape. His structures echo natural forms, with columns like tree trunks supporting branching vaulting under the roadway, and the curves of vaulting and alignment of sloping columns designed in a similar way to his Church of Colònia Güell so that the inverted catenary arch shapes form perfect compression structures.

At the park's high-point, there is a stone hill composed of steps leading up to a platform which holds three large crosses. The official name of this is "El Turó de les Tres Creus," however many tourists choose to call it Calvary. Two of the crosses point north–south and east–west, the third, and tallest cross, points skyward. This lookout offers the most complete view of Barcelona and the bay. It is possible to view the main city in panorama, with the Sagrada Família (another one of Antoni Guadí's famous creations), the Agbar Tower, and the Montjuïc area visible at a distance.

The park supports a wide variety of wildlife, notably several of the non-native species of parrot found in the Barcelona area. Other birds can be seen from the park, with records including short-toed eagle. The park also supports a population of hummingbird hawk moths.

Gallery of images

See also
 List of Modernisme buildings in Barcelona
 Urban planning of Barcelona

References

External links

 Park Guell website

Antoni Gaudí buildings
Buildings and structures completed in 1914
Buildings and structures in Barcelona
Culture in Barcelona
Modernisme architecture in Barcelona
Mosaics
Gràcia
Guell
Visionary environments
Azulejos in buildings in Catalonia
Tourist attractions in Barcelona
World Heritage Sites in Catalonia

Park Güell


D-sharp minor is a minor scale based on D .  For the harmonic minor, the C is raised to C.  Its key signature has six sharps.

E-flat minor is its enharmonic equivalent.  Its relative major is F-sharp major, and its parallel major is D-sharp major. This is usually replaced by E-flat major, because D-sharp major's two double sharps make it impractical to use.

Since D-sharp minor and its enharmonic equivalent both have key signatures of six accidentals, neither one is clearly used instead of the other. For example, using the melodic minor version of D-sharp minor on the harp is very difficult. The B-pedal can be set to the sharp position, but there is no double-sharp position to set the C-pedal at. In Book I of The Well-Tempered Clavier, Bach chose to write the eighth prelude in E-flat minor but the accompanying fugue in D-sharp minor. (In Book II, Bach wrote both the eighth Prelude and Fugue in D-sharp minor.)

Music written in this key is considered very difficult to read, which means that little music was written mainly in this key in the Classical era. E-flat minor is easier for many brass instruments and woodwinds.

The most famous work in this key is Scriabin's famous Etude Op. 8, No. 12. Russian composer Lyapunov must also have liked the key because he wrote the second etude of his Op. 11 set in the key, and also fifteen years later his Variations on a Russian Theme, Op. 49.  His early Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 4 was also in the enharmonic key of E-flat minor.

In a few scores, 6-sharp key signatures in the bass clef are written with the sharp for the A on the top line. This is not done often, because it is different from the treble clef.

This key is not used often in orchestral music, but is used more in keyboard music. When arranging this piano music for orchestra, some people recommend transposing the music to D minor or E minor. If D-sharp minor must be used,  B-flat wind instruments should have their parts written in F minor, rather than E-sharp minor.

Scales and keys

Musical keys
Minor scales

D-sharp minor


A dipper well is a perpetual-flow sink often used in coffeehouses and ice cream shops to rinse utensils.  Ice cream scoops and other food-preparation utensils can be placed under the continuous stream in order to remove allergens and protect against bacterial growth.  Most dipper wells have a single spigot and can be adjusted for both hot and cold water use.  As largely a commercial appliance, dipper well valves are typically kept at full flow during all serving hours.  Dipper wells have also been used as key components in pharmacological experimentation.

Criticism
The dipper well has been criticized in the United States as wasteful since on average it pumps   of water an hour and is normally left running continuously.  Because its potential for water waste is counteracted by a potential for increased sanitation, most health regulations do not prohibit or mandate dipper wells.  It was estimated in 1988 that a dipper well running 12 hours a day in a single business could use up to  of water yearly.  It was found that some establishments, however, left dipper wells running even while the business was closed.

Starbucks Corporation, for example, was targeted in 2008 for wasting over  of water daily through use of dipper wells.  The company's health and safety regulations prohibited the immediate shut-off of Starbucks dipper wells in order to prevent the breeding of pathogens, but meanwhile continued work towards environmentally friendly washing alternatives.

References

Plumbing
Kitchenware

Dipper well


Redhill MRT Station (EW18) is an above-ground Mass Rapid Transit station on the East West Line located in Bukit Merah, Singapore. This is the last above-ground station eastbound until Kallang station. Eastward of the station towards Tiong Bahru Estate, the tracks lose elevation until they level out when sufficiently underground. This is because of the space limitations as there is no such elevation of tracks in the Central Business District. This station is near to Enable Village for people with special needs.

Redhill is the only MRT station in which the two platforms are not parallel to each other.

References

Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations

Redhill MRT station


The Georgia Regional Transportation Authority (GRTA,  "Greta") is a government agency in the U.S. state of Georgia.  It was set up under former governor of Georgia Roy Barnes, in order to address mobility, air quality and land use and how they relate to the transportation needs of metro Atlanta, including both roads and public transit. It came about in large part because the numerous cities and counties in the region could not effectively (or would not at all) work with each other to achieve a comprehensive solution to the area's traffic woes, and increasing summertime smog problems.

GRTA's jurisdiction encompasses 13 Georgia counties in Metro Atlanta: Cherokee, Clayton, Coweta, Cobb, DeKalb, Douglas, Fayette, Forsyth, Fulton, Gwinnett, Henry, Paulding, and Rockdale.

Xpress Regional Commuter Coach Service

GRTA, in partnership with 12 metropolitan Atlanta counties, operates Xpress, metropolitan Atlanta's first truly regional commuter transit bus system. As of February 25, 2013 33 Xpress routes are in operation. Unless noted, service is provided by a private operator under contract to GRTA Xpress. Service hours are from roughly 5:30 a.m. to 9:30 p.m. weekdays with most service being rush hours only.

See also
 Metro Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority

References

External links
GRTA website
Xpress website
MARTA website
CCT website
GCT website
CATS website

Transit agencies in Georgia (U.S. state)
Transportation Regional


The César Award for Best Poster is a former category of the César Awards, France's national film award. The nominations were selected by members of the Académie des Arts et Techniques du Cinema.

The award was first made in 1986, but was discontinued after only five years due to the difficulty the organisers found in crediting a single individual or team with the design of the poster, which was often a collaborative work by several teams. Moreover, many film posters were not French, being imported, particularly from America.

The five winners of the Best Poster award were:

1986: Harem, poster design by Michel Landi
1987: 37°2 le matin (released in English as Betty Blue), by Christian Blondel
1988: Tandem, by Stéphane Bielikoff
1989: La Petite Voleuse (released in English as The Little Thief), by Annie Miller, Luc Roux and Stéphane Bielikoff
1990: Cinema Paradiso, by Jouineau Bourduge

References

External links
 Académie des César

Retired César Awards

César Award for Best Poster


A Chief Executive Officer (CEO), or Chief Executive, is the highest ranking corporate officer, administrator, corporate administrator, executive, or executive officer, in charge of total management of a corporation, company, organization or agency.

In some places the chief executive officer is also the chairman of the board. Another person takes the presidency or may become chief operating officer (COO).  Underneath that there may be an Executive Vice President (U.S.) or executive director (UK). In publicly held corporations, the CEO and chairman positions can be separated but there are implications in corporate governance by doing so.

In some European Union countries, there are two separate boards, one executive board for the day-to-day business and one supervisory board for control purposes (elected by the shareholders). In these countries, the chief executive officer runs the executive board and the chairman runs the supervisory board and these two roles will always be held by different people. This ensures a distinction between management by the executive board and governance by the supervisory board. This allows for clear lines of authority. The aim is to prevent a conflict of interest and too much power being concentrated in the hands of one person. This is like  the structure of governments, which tend to separate the political cabinet from the management civil service.

In rare circumstances an Executive Chairperson can be appointed but this is either illegal in many jurisdictions or frowned upon by Regulators.

In the United Kingdom many Charities and Government Agencies are headed by a Chief Executive who is answerable to a Board of Trustees or Board of Directors. In the UK, the Chairman (of the Board) in public companies is more senior than the Chief Executive. Most public companies now split the role of chairman and Chief Executive.

Reporting structure
Typically, a CEO has a cadre of subordinate executives, each of which has specific functional responsibilities. These direct reporting relationships most often include: Chief Financial Officer, Chief Operating Officer, Chief Marketing Officer, and Chief Information Officer. Although not an Executive, the Director of Human Resources plays a vital role within any corporation.

However, depending on the industry in which the company operates and/or the organizational structure, various other functional areas may be highlighted through the CEO's direct span of control. Some of these less common titles include: Chief (Business) Development Officer, Chief Knowledge Officer/Chief Learning Officer, Chief Strategy Officer, Chief Risk Officer, and Chief Credit Officer.

According to Don Schmincke, to be a strong executive, "one cannot act in business differently from how he acts in family life or society". Meaning being a successful executive requires a man's conduct to be "correct in all points", his actions must follow his words at all times.

Pay
Chief executives of companies on the American  S&P 500 index were paid a median of $14.1 million in 2022.  FTSE 100 chief executives were paid a median £3.91 million. This was 118 times that of the median worker in the United Kingdom. In 2021 the difference was 108 times. In 2020 it was 79 times.

References

Business occupations

Chief executive officer


The Texas flag is known as the "Lone Star Flag". This flag was introduced to the Republic of Texas on December 28, 1838, by Senator William H. Wharton. It became its national flag on January 24, 1839.

When Texas became the 28th state of the United States of America on December 29, 1845, its national flag became the state flag. Each color means a special symbol on the flag: blue stands for loyalty, white for purity, and red for bravery.

Texas

Texas

Flag of Texas


A toddler is a very young child who is learning how to use their hands, stand and walk, and also how to communicate with others.

Most children are toilet trained while they are toddlers.
Even when toddlers can walk, they are often transported in a stroller, buggy, or pushchair when the walk is a long distance or when they're tired. Toddlerhood typically begins after age one and is over by the time the child is 4, but this can differ depending on the child.

Other websites
 Toddler Weight/Height Calculator

Childhood

Toddler


Poaching is the illegal hunting, killing or capturing of animals. People poach because animal products, such as hide, ivory, horn, teeth and bone, are sold to dealers who make clothes, jewelry and other materials from them. The poaching causes various effects, its most direct impact is extinction, either globally or within a given locality.

Poachers catch Indian tigers with steel traps. This is against the law. After trapping a tiger, they kill it and sell the body parts for money. Like the rhino, the tiger is a very endangered species. If the killing does not end, they both face extinction (all of that type of animal dies). Extinction means that someday there may be no Indian tigers or rhinos left on earth.

Conservation
Types of crime

Poaching


A code talker was a person employed by the military during wartime to use a little-known language as a means of secret communication. The term is most often used for United States service members during the World Wars who used their knowledge of Native American languages as a basis to transmit coded messages. In particular, there were approximately 400 to 500 Native Americans in the United States Marine Corps whose primary job was to transmit secret tactical messages. Code talkers transmitted messages over military telephone or radio communications nets using formally or informally developed codes built upon their Indigenous languages. The code talkers improved the speed of encryption and decryption of communications in front line operations during World War II and are credited with a number of decisive victories. Their code was never broken.

There were two code types used during World War II. Type one codes were formally developed based on the languages of the Comanche, Hopi, Meskwaki, and Navajo peoples. They used words from their languages for each letter of the English alphabet. Messages could be encoded and decoded by using a simple substitution cipher where the ciphertext was the Native language word. Type two code was informal and directly translated from English into the Indigenous language. If there was no corresponding word in the Indigenous language for the military word, code talkers used short, descriptive phrases. For example, the Navajo did not have a word for submarine, so they translated it as iron fish.

The term Code Talker was originally coined by the United States Marine Corps and used to identify individuals who completed the special training required to qualify as Code Talkers with their service records indicating "642 – Code Talker" as a duty assignment. Today, the term Code Talker is still strongly associated with the bilingual Navajo speakers trained in the Navajo Code during World War II by the US Marine Corps to serve in all six divisions of the Corps and the Marine Raiders of the Pacific theater. However, the use of Native American communicators pre-dates WWII. Early pioneers of Native American-based communications used by the US Military include the Cherokee, Choctaw and Lakota peoples during World War I. Today the term Code Talker includes military personnel from all Native American communities who have contributed their language skills in service to the United States.

Other Native American communicators—now referred to as code talkers—were deployed by the United States Army during World War II, including Lakota, Meskwaki, Mohawk, Comanche, Tlingit, Hopi, Cree, and Crow soldiers; they served in the Pacific, North African, and European theaters.

Languages

Assiniboine
Native speakers of the Assiniboine language served as code talkers during World War II to encrypt communications. One of these code talkers was Gilbert Horn Sr., who grew up in the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation of Montana and became a tribal judge and politician.

Basque
In November 1952, Euzko Deya magazine reported that in May of that year, upon meeting a large number of US Marines of Basque ancestry in a San Francisco camp, Captain Frank D. Carranza had thought of using the Basque language for codes. His superiors were concerned about risk, as there were known settlements of Basque people in the Pacific region, including: 35 Basque Jesuits in Hiroshima, led by Pedro Arrupe; a colony of Basque jai alai players in China and the Philippines; and Basque supporters of Falange in Asia. Consequently, the US Basque code talkers were not deployed in these theaters, instead being used initially in tests and in transmitting logistics information for Hawaii and Australia.

According to Euzko Deya, on August 1, 1942, Lieutenants Nemesio Aguirre, Fernández Bakaicoa, and Juanana received a Basque-coded message from San Diego for Admiral Chester Nimitz. The message warned Nimitz of Operation Apple to remove the Japanese from the Solomon Islands. They also translated the start date, August 7, for the attack on Guadalcanal. As the war extended over the Pacific, there was a shortage of Basque speakers, and the US military came to prefer the parallel program based on the use of Navajo speakers.

In 2017, Pedro Oiarzabal and Guillermo Tabernilla published a paper refuting Euzko Deyas article. According to Oiarzabal and Tabernilla, they could not find Carranza, Aguirre, Fernández Bakaicoa, or Juanana in the National Archives and Records Administration or US Army archives. They did find a small number of US Marines with Basque surnames, but none of them worked in transmissions. They suggest that Carranza's story was an Office of Strategic Services operation to raise sympathy for US intelligence among Basque nationalists.

Cherokee
The first known use of code talkers in the US military was during World War I. Cherokee soldiers of the US 30th Infantry Division fluent in the Cherokee language were assigned to transmit messages while under fire during the Second Battle of the Somme.  According to the Division Signal Officer, this took place in September 1918 when their unit was under British command.

Choctaw

During World War I, company commander Captain Lawrence of the US Army overheard Solomon Louis and Mitchell Bobb having a conversation in Choctaw. Upon further investigation, he found that eight Choctaw men served in the battalion. The Choctaw men in the Army's 36th Infantry Division were trained to use their language in code and helped the American Expeditionary Forces in several battles of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. On October 26, 1918, the code talkers were pressed into service and the "tide of battle turned within 24 hours ... and within 72 hours the Allies were on full attack."

Comanche

German authorities knew about the use of code talkers during World War I. Germans sent a team of thirty anthropologists to the United States to learn Native American languages before the outbreak of World War II. However, the task proved too difficult because of the large array of Indigenous languages and dialects. Nonetheless, after learning of the Nazi effort, the US Army opted not to implement a large-scale code talker program in the European theater.

Initially, 17 code talkers were enlisted but three were unable to make the trip across the Atlantic when the unit was finally deployed. A total of 14 code talkers using the Comanche language took part in the Invasion of Normandy and served in the 4th Infantry Division in Europe. Comanche soldiers of the 4th Signal Company compiled a vocabulary of 250 code terms using words and phrases in their own language. Using a substitution method similar to that of the Navajo, the code talkers used descriptive words from the Comanche language for things that did not have translations. For example, the Comanche language code term for tank was turtle, bomber was pregnant bird, machine gun was sewing machine, and Adolf Hitler was crazy white man.

Two Comanche code talkers were assigned to each regiment, and the remainder were assigned to the 4th Infantry Division headquarters. Shortly after landing on Utah Beach on June 6, 1944, the Comanche began transmitting messages. Some were wounded but none killed.

In 1989, the French government awarded the Comanche code talkers the Chevalier of the National Order of Merit. On November 30, 1999, the United States Department of Defense presented Charles Chibitty with the Knowlton Award, in recognition of his outstanding intelligence work.

Cree
In World War II, the Canadian Armed Forces employed First Nations soldiers who spoke the Cree language as code talkers. Owing to oaths of secrecy and official classification through 1963, the role of Cree code talkers were less well-known than their US counterparts and went unacknowledged by the Canadian government. A 2016 documentary, Cree Code Talkers, tells the story of one such Métis individual, Charles "Checker" Tomkins. Tomkins died in 2003, but was interviewed shortly before his death by the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian. While he identified some other Cree code talkers, "Tomkins may have been the last of his comrades to know anything of this secret operation."

Hungarian
In 2022 during the Russo-Ukrainian War, the Hungarian language is reported to be used by the Ukrainian army to relay operational military information and orders to circumvent being understood by the invading Russian army without the need to encrypt and decipher the messages.
Ukraine has a sizeable Hungarian population of over 150,000 people, who live mainly in the Kárpátalja (in Hungarian) or Zakarpatska Oblast (in Ukrainian) division of the Ukraine, adjacent to Hungary. As Ukrainian nationals, men of enlistment age are also subject to military service, hence the Ukrainian army has a Hungarian-speaking capability. It's one of the most spoken and official languages of this region in present-day Ukraine. The Hungarian language is a non-Indo-European language unlike the Slavic Ukrainian or Russian, but a Ugric language. For this reason it is distinct and incomprehensible for Russian speakers.

Meskwaki
A group of 27 Meskwaki enlisted in the US Army together in January 1941; they comprised 16 percent of Iowa's Meskwaki population. During World War II, the US Army trained eight Meskwaki men to use their native Fox language as code talkers. They were assigned to North Africa. The eight were posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 2013; the government gave the awards to representatives of the Meskwaki community.

Mohawk
Mohawk language code talkers were used during World War II by the United States Army in the Pacific theater. Levi Oakes, a Mohawk code talker born in Canada, was deployed to protect messages being sent by Allied Forces using Kanien'kéha, a Mohawk sub-set language. Oakes died in May 2019; he was the last of the Mohawk code talkers.

Muscogee (Seminole and Creek)
The Muscogee language was used as type two code (informal) during World War II by enlisted Seminole and Creek people in the US Army. Tony Palmer, Leslie Richard, Edmund Harjo, and Thomas MacIntosh from the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and Muscogee (Creek) Nation were recognized under the Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008. The last survivor of these code talkers, Edmond Harjo of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, died on March 31, 2014, at the age of 96. His biography was recounted at the Congressional Gold Medal ceremony honoring Harjo and other code talkers at the US Capitol on November 20, 2013.

Navajo

Philip Johnston, a civil engineer for the city of Los Angeles, proposed the use of the Navajo language to the United States Marine Corps at the beginning of World War II. Johnston, a World War I veteran, was raised on the Navajo reservation as the son of missionaries to the Navajo. He was able to converse in what is called "Trader's Navajo" - a pidgin language. He was among a few non-Navajo who had enough exposure to it to understand some of its nuances. Many Navajo men enlisted shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor and eagerly contributed to the war effort.

Because Navajo has a complex grammar, it is not mutually intelligible with even its closest relatives within the Na-Dene family to provide meaningful information. At the time, it was still an unwritten language, and Johnston believed Navajo could satisfy the military requirement for an undecipherable code. Its complex syntax and phonology, not to mention its numerous dialects, made it unintelligible to anyone without extensive exposure and training. One estimate indicates that at the outbreak of World War II, fewer than 30 non-Navajo could understand the language.

In early 1942, Johnston met with the commanding general of the Amphibious Corps, Major General Clayton B. Vogel, and his staff. Johnston staged simulated combat conditions which demonstrated that Navajo men could transmit and decode a three-line message in 20 seconds, compared to the 30 minutes it took the machines of the time. The idea of using Navajo speakers as code talkers was accepted; Vogel recommended that the Marines recruit 200 Navajo. However, that recommendation was cut to one-platoon to use as a pilot project to develop and test the feasibility of a code. On May 4, 1942, twenty-nine Navajo men were sworn-into service at an old US Army Fort that had been converted into a BIA Boarding School: Fort Wingate. They were organized as platoon 382. The first 29 Navajo recruits attended boot camp in May 1942. This first group created the Navajo code at Camp Pendleton.

The First Twenty-Nine and the creation of the code
One of the key differences between the Navajo Code Talkers and the Army Code Talkers is that the Navajo Code Talkers employed a coded version of their language. Other Navajos who were not trained in the Navajo Code could not decipher the messages being sent.

Platoon 382 was the Marine Corps' first "all-Indian, all-Navajo" Platoon. The members of this platoon would become known as The First Twenty-Nine. Most were recruited from near the Fort Wingate, NM area. The youngest was William Dean Yazzie (aka Dean Wilson) who was only 15 when he was recruited. The oldest was Carl N. Gorman—who with his son, R.C. Gorman, would go on to become an artist of great acclaim and who would design the Code Talkers' logo—at age 35.

The Navajo code was formally developed and modeled on the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet that uses agreed-upon English words to represent letters. Since it was determined that phonetically spelling out all military terms letter by letter into words while in combat would be too time-consuming, some terms, concepts, tactics, and instruments of modern warfare were given uniquely formal descriptive nomenclatures in Navajo. For example, the word for shark referred to a destroyer, while silver oak leaf indicated the rank of lieutenant colonel.

Deployment and evolution of the code and post-war code talkers
A codebook was developed to teach the many relevant words and concepts to new initiates. The text was for classroom purposes only and was never to be taken into the field. The code talkers memorized all these variations and practiced their rapid use under stressful conditions during training. Navajo speakers who had not been trained in the code work would have no idea what the code talkers' messages meant; they would hear only truncated and disjointed strings of individual, unrelated nouns and verbs.

The Navajo code talkers were commended for the skill, speed, and accuracy they demonstrated throughout the war. At the Battle of Iwo Jima, Major Howard Connor, 5th Marine Division signal officer, had six Navajo code talkers working around the clock during the first two days of the battle. These six sent and received over 800 messages, all without error. Connor later said, "Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima."

After incidents where Navajo code talkers were mistaken for ethnic Japanese and were captured by other American soldiers, several were assigned a personal bodyguard whose principal duty was to protect them from their own side. According to Bill Toledo, one of the second group after the original 29, they had a secret secondary duty: if their charge was at risk of being captured, they were to shoot him to protect the code. Fortunately, none was ever called upon to do so.

To ensure a consistent use of code terminologies throughout the Pacific theater, representative code talkers of each of the US Marine divisions met in Hawaii to discuss shortcomings in the code, incorporate new terms into the system, and update their codebooks. These representatives, in turn, trained other code talkers who could not attend the meeting. As the war progressed, additional code words were added and incorporated program-wide. In other instances, informal shortcut code words were devised for a particular campaign and not disseminated beyond the area of operation. Examples of code words include the Navajo word for buzzard, , which was used for bomber, while the code word used for submarine, , meant iron fish in Navajo. The last of the original 29 Navajo code talkers who developed the code, Chester Nez, died on June 4, 2014.

Four of the last nine Navajo code talkers used in the military died in 2019: Alfred K. Newman died on January 13, 2019, at the age of 94. On May 10, 2019, Fleming Begaye Sr. died at the age of 97. New Mexico State Senator John Pinto, elected in 1977, died in office on May 24, 2019. William Tully Brown died in June 2019 aged 96. Joe Vandever Sr. died at 96 on January 31, 2020. Samuel Sandoval died on 29 July 2022, at the age of 98. Only three remaining members are still living as of 2022, John Kinsel Sr., Thomas H. Begay, and Peter MacDonald.

Some Code Talkers such as Chester Nez and William Dean Yazzie (aka Dean Wilson) continued to serve in the Marine Corps through the Korean War. Rumors of the deployment of the Navajo Code into the Korean War and after have never been proven. The Code remained classified until 1968. The Navajo code is the only spoken military code never to have been deciphered.

Nubian
In the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, Egypt employed Nubian-speaking Nubian people as code talkers.

Tlingit
During World War II, American soldiers used their native Tlingit as a code against Japanese forces. Their actions remained unknown, even after the declassification of code talkers and the publication of the Navajo code talkers. The memory of five deceased Tlingit code talkers was honored by the Alaska legislature in March 2019.

Welsh
A system employing the Welsh language was used by British forces during World War II, but not to any great extent. In 1942, the Royal Air Force developed a plan to use Welsh for secret communications, but it was never implemented. Welsh was used more recently in the Yugoslav Wars for non-vital messages.

Wenzhounese
China used Wenzhounese-speaking people as code talkers during the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War.

Post-war recognition
The Navajo code talkers received no recognition until 1968 when their operation was declassified. In 1982, the code talkers were given a Certificate of Recognition by US President Ronald Reagan, who also named August 14, 1982 as Navajo Code Talkers Day.

On December 21, 2000, President Bill Clinton signed Public Law 106–554, 114 Statute 2763, which awarded the Congressional Gold Medal to the original 29 World War II Navajo code talkers and Silver Medals to each person who qualified as a Navajo code talker (approximately 300). In July 2001, President George W. Bush honored the code talkers by presenting the medals to four surviving original code talkers (the fifth living original code talker was unable to attend) at a ceremony held in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, DC. Gold medals were presented to the families of the deceased 24 original code talkers.

Journalist Patty Talahongva directed and produced a documentary, The Power of Words: Native Languages as Weapons of War, for the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian in 2006, bringing to light the story of Hopi code talkers. In 2011, Arizona established April 23, as an annual recognition day for the Hopi code talkers. The Texas Medal of Valor was awarded posthumously to 18 Choctaw code talkers for their World War II service on September 17, 2007, by the Adjutant General of the State of Texas.

The Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008 (Public Law 110–420) was signed into law by President George W. Bush on November 15, 2008. The act recognized every Native American code talker who served in the United States military during WWI or WWII (with the exception of the already-awarded Navajo) with a Congressional Gold Medal. The act was designed to be distinct for each tribe, with silver duplicates awarded to the individual code talkers or their next-of-kin. As of 2013, 33 tribes have been identified and been honored at a ceremony at Emancipation Hall at the US Capitol Visitor Center. One surviving code talker was present, Edmond Harjo.

On November 27, 2017, three Navajo code talkers, joined by the President of the Navajo Nation, Russell Begaye, appeared with President Donald Trump in the Oval Office in an official White House ceremony. They were there to "pay tribute to the contributions of the young Native Americans recruited by the United States military to create top-secret coded messages used to communicate during World War II battles." The executive director of the National Congress of American Indians, Jacqueline Pata, noted that Native Americans have "a very high level of participation in the military and veterans' service." A statement by a Navajo Nation Council Delegate and comments by Pata and Begaye, among others, objected to Trump's remarks during the event, including his use "once again ... [of] the word Pocahontas in a negative way towards a political adversary Elizabeth Warren who claims 'Native American heritage'." The National Congress of American Indians objected to Trump's use of the name Pocahontas, a historical Native American figure, as a derogatory term.

See also
 Native Americans and World War II
 United States Army Indian Scouts
 Windtalkers, a 2002 American war film on Navajo radio operators in World War II

References

Further reading
 Aaseng, Nathan. Navajo Code Talkers: America's Secret Weapon in World War II. New York: Walker & Company, 1992.
 Connole, Joseph. "A Nation Whose Language You Will Not Understand: The Comanche Code Talkers of WWII". Whispering Wind Magazine, March, 2012, Vol. 40, No. 5, Issue #279. pp. 21–26
 Durrett, Deanne. Unsung Heroes of World War II: The Story of the Navajo Code Talkers. Library of American Indian History, Facts on File, Inc., 1998.
 Gawne, Jonathan. Spearheading D-Day. Paris: Histoire et Collections, 1999.
 Holm, Tom. Code Talkers and Warriors: Native Americans and World War II. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2007.
 Kahn, David. The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing. 1967.
 McClain, Salley. Navajo Weapon: The Navajo Code Talkers. Tucson, Arizona: Rio Nuevo Publishers, 2001.
 Meadows, William C. The Comanche Code Talkers of World War II. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002.
 Singh, Simon, The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography. 2000.

External links

 United States. Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008
 National Museum of the American Indian exhibition on Code Talkers, entitled Native Words/Native Wisdom
 Northern Arizona University Cline Library Special Collections Code Talkers exhibition
 Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Code Talkers
 Official website of the Navajo Code talkers

Congressional Gold Medal recipients
History of cryptography
Military history of Native Americans
Native American United States military personnel
Pacific theatre of World War II
United States Marine Corps in World War II
World War II espionage

Code talker