The Green Monster is a popular nickname for the  left field wall at Fenway Park, home to the Boston Red Sox of Major League Baseball. The wall is  from home plate and is a popular target for right-handed hitters.

Overview

The wall was part of the original ballpark construction of 1912, along Fenway's north side facing Lansdowne Street.  It is made of wood and was covered in tin and concrete in 1934.  It was then covered with hard plastic in 1976. A manual scoreboard is set into the wall, which has been there, in one form or another, at least as far back as 1914 (see photo at right). Despite the name, the Green Monster was not painted green until 1947; before that, it was covered with advertisements. The Monster designation is relatively new. For most of its history it was simply called "The Wall".

The Green Monster is the highest among the walls in current Major League Baseball fields; it is the second highest among all professional baseball fields (including minor leagues), as in 2007 it was surpassed by the left field wall of WellSpan Park in York, Pennsylvania, which is approximately  taller.

Ballparks occupied by professional baseball teams have often featured high fences to hide the field from external viewers, particularly behind open areas of the outfield where bleacher seating is low-lying or non-existent. The wall might also reduce the number of "cheap" home runs due to the barrier's relatively tall height above the playing surface. Fenway's wall serves both purposes. Past ballparks of Fenway's era or even later which featured high fences in-play included Baker Bowl, Washington Park, Ebbets Field, League Park, Griffith Stadium, Shibe Park, and more recently, Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Fenway is the last of the exceptionally high-walled major league ballparks. Relatively high walls in modern ballparks have been constructed for their novelty rather than by necessity, as Fenway's wall had been.

The Green Monster is famous for preventing home runs on many line drives that would clear the walls of other ballparks. A side effect of this is to increase the prevalence of doubles, since this is the most common result when the ball is hit off the wall (often referred to as a "wallball double"). Some left fielders, predominantly those with vast Fenway experience, have become adept at fielding caroms off the wall to throw runners out at second base or hold the batter to a single. Compared with other current major league parks, the wall's placement creates a comparatively shallow left field; the wall falls approximately  from the plate along the left-field foul line. With this short distance, many deep fly balls that could be caught by the fielder in a deeper park rebound off the wall for base hits. And while the wall turns many would-be line-drive homers into doubles it also allows some high yet shallow fly balls to clear the field of play for a home run.

During 2001 and 2002, the Green Monster's height record was temporarily beaten by the center field wall at Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati, Ohio.  During the construction of Great American Ball Park, located right next to Riverfront Stadium, a large section of seats was removed from the center field area to make room and a  black wall was erected as a temporary batter's eye. The entire wall was in play. This new wall was often called "The Black Monster". When Riverfront Stadium was demolished in 2002, the Green Monster reclaimed the record. In honor of the famed wall, the Red Sox mascot is a furry green monster named Wally the Green Monster, joined in 2016 by his younger sister Tessie.

Features

Duffy's Cliff

From 1912 to 1933, a  mound formed an incline in front of the Green Monster, extending from the left-field foul pole to the center field flag pole. This earthwork formed a "terrace", a common feature of ballparks of the day (where a dirt-surfaced warning track would normally be today), whose purpose was to make up the difference in grade between street level and field level, as with Cincinnati's Crosley Field. It also served to double as a seating area to handle overflow crowds, another common practice of that era.

As a result of the terrace, when overflow crowds were not seated atop it, a left fielder in Fenway Park had to play the territory running uphill. Boston's first star left fielder, Duffy Lewis, mastered the skill so well that the area became known as "Duffy's Cliff". In contrast, rotund outfielder Bob Fothergill, known by the indelicate nicknames of "Fats" or "Fatty", reportedly once chased a ball up the terrace, slipped and fell, and rolled downhill.

In 1934, Red Sox owner Tom Yawkey arranged to flatten the ground in left field so that Duffy's Cliff no longer existed, and it became part of the lore of Fenway Park.

Scoreboard
Long after the much-higher location manual scoreboard from c.1914 existed (as seen in the 1914 photo), the placement of the modern "ground-level" manual scoreboard occurred in 1934. It forms the lower half of the Green Monster and is still updated by hand from behind the wall throughout the game. The American League scores are also updated from behind the wall.  The National League scores need to be updated from the front of the wall between innings.  There is also a board which shows the current American League East standings.  There are 127 slots in the wall and a team of three score keepers move around ,  plates to represent the score. Yellow numbers are used to represent in-inning scores and white numbers are used to represent final inning tallies. The numbers of the current pitchers weigh  and measure .

Carlton Fisk's "body English" when he hit his game-winning home run in Game 6 of the 1975 World Series, "waving" the ball fair, was captured on a TV camera stationed in the scoreboard.

Morse Code
The Morse Code that appears from top to bottom in the white lines of the American League scoreboard are the initials of former owners Thomas A. Yawkey and Jean R. Yawkey.

Right field
Fenway's left-field distortion is offset by the odd shape and generous size of right field, which is  (although its actual distance has been disputed over the years) along the foul line (almost the same as in left), but  at its deepest.  The bullpen was added along the right field wall in 1940 to shorten the distance for left-handed slugger Ted Williams' home runs to clear the fence.  For years afterward, the bullpens were known as "Williamsburg".

Green Monster seating

In 1936, the Red Sox installed a  net above the Monster in order to protect the storefronts on adjoining Lansdowne Street from home run balls. The net remained until the 2002–03 offseason, when the team's new ownership constructed a new seating section atop the wall to accommodate 274 fans. Wildly popular, these "Monster seats" were part of a larger expansion plan for Fenway Park seating. The Red Sox later added a smaller seating section in 2005, dubbed the "Nation's Nest," located between the main seating section and the center field scoreboard.

The ladder
Comprising yet another quirk, a ladder is attached to the Green Monster, extending from near the upper-left portion of the scoreboard,  above ground, to the top of the wall. Previously, members of the grounds crew would use the ladder to retrieve home run balls from the netting hung above the wall. After the net was removed for the addition of the Monster seats, the ladder ceased to have any real function, yet it remains in place as a historic relic.

The placement of the ladder is noteworthy given the fact that it is in fair territory; it is the only such ladder in the major leagues. On many occasions, a batted ball has struck the ladder during game play, at least twice leading to an inside-the-park home run.  During a 1950s game, Red Sox outfielders Ted Williams and Jimmy Piersall both tracked a fly ball in left center, but the ball struck the ladder and caromed into center field, giving batter Jim Lemon enough time to round the bases.  Later, in 1963, the slow-footed Dick Stuart hit a high fly that ricocheted first off the ladder, and then the head of outfielder Vic Davalillo, before rolling far enough away to allow Stuart to score.

One common myth perpetuated is that if a ball strikes the ladder and then bounces over the wall or out of play, the batter will be awarded a ground-rule triple. There is no such rule in the ground rules at Fenway, nor in any major league ballpark, however, it is not impossible to occur. For a ground-rule triple to happen, both managers as well as umpire crew have to agree upon special ground rules prior to the game, in order to address rare or unforeseen circumstances that are not already accounted for in the rulebook. For example, in the 1903 World Series, while playing at Exposition Park III in Pittsburgh, a ground-rule triple was awarded to batters who hit a ball into overflow spectator areas, which were situated on the field of play in the outfield grass; it happened 17 times during that series.

Advertisements
After the wall was painted green in 1947, advertisements did not appear on the wall until 1999, when the All-Star Game at Fenway was being promoted. Various ads have appeared above the scoreboard since then, such as the Jimmy Fund, W.B. Mason, and Granite City Electric. The Coke Bottles on the left light tower were a target for power-hitters when they were placed in 1997. These 3D advertisements were taken down before the 2008 season, when an LED sign was built above the new left-field upper deck seats. As a lead up to his 500th career home run, Manny Ramirez's home run count was tallied on the bottom of the light tower. Ads beside the manual scoreboard were added when the scoreboard was expanded. Above the manual scoreboard, where a Jimmy Fund advertisement had remained for many years, the logo for Foxwoods Resort Casino is now a prominent aspect of Fenway Park. Outside of Fenway in Kenmore Square, but able to be seen in the view above the left-field wall, is the Boston Citgo sign.

Similar and related places
 The Red Sox current spring training home, JetBlue Park at Fenway South in Fort Myers, Florida, features a replica of the Green Monster.  JetBlue's Green Monster even has Fenway Park's 1934-vintage, manually operated scoreboard installed in it.
 Fluor Field at the West End, home of the Greenville Drive of the High-Single A Carolina League, has a "Greenville Monster" as well; much as jetBlue Park in Florida does, Fluor Field's dimensions replicate exactly those of Fenway Park. The Drive is the High-A affiliate of the Red Sox, having been elevated from Single-A in the 2021 reorganization of Minor League Baseball.
 Hadlock Field, home of the Portland Sea Dogs, the AA affiliates of the Boston Red Sox. This stadium boasts a replica of the Green Monster, nicknamed the "Maine Monster".
 Griffith Stadium in Washington, D.C., the longtime home of the Washington Senators, had its own version of the Green Monster---in right field.
 Hawkins Field, home of the Vanderbilt University Commodores baseball program features their own, , version of the Green Monster with a scoreboard on top.
 The former (demolished 2014) Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome was the previous home of the University of Minnesota Golden Gophers baseball program and the Minnesota Twins. A  advertising-covered tarp hung over the fold-away football seating in right field and was derisively referred to as the "Hefty Bag" or "Baggie" for its black garbage bag-like appearance. As hitting the exposed folded seats above it was considered a home run and the tarp provided a trampoline-like bounce to assure a double, it was an attractive target for left-handed power hitters.
 Minute Maid Park, home of the Houston Astros, has a wall inspired by the Green Monster in left field, atop which is mounted a train reminiscent of the operating days of the adjacent Union Station.  The wall is  deeper and  higher than the Green Monster, but in front of it is a section of stands called the Crawford Boxes, which are only  high and are  deeper.
 Pro Player Stadium, the former home of the Florida Marlins, featured a smaller 'Teal Monster' in left field from the team's original 1992 season until 2009, when the display was replaced by ad hoardings for the remaining 2010 and 2011 seasons before their move to Marlins Park. The board started out as manual but eventually was converted to a digital eggcrate display with remote control.
 WellSpan Park, home of the York Revolution, has "The Arch Nemesis" that is 6 inches (152 mm) taller than the Green Monster.
 RE/MAX Field, home of the Edmonton Riverhawks, has a  green monster  from home plate.
 Fukuoka Dome, home of the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks, has a  "Green Monster" in the outfield.
 The Kingdome in Seattle, Washington had a high right field wall that was dubbed "The Walla-Walla" after Walla Walla, Washington.
 Durham Bulls Athletic Park, home of the Durham Bulls, AAA affiliate of the Tampa Bay Rays, has a  wall in left field named the "Blue Monster".
 Ogren Park at Allegiance Field, home of the Missoula PaddleHeads of the Pioneer League, has a  in right field, located  from home plate as measured along the foul line. The park has a similar wall that is  from home plate, but not as tall.
 PNC Park, home of the Pittsburgh Pirates, has a  right field wall, paying homage to the Pirates' Hall of Fame right fielder Roberto Clemente, who wore #21.
 McCormick Field, home of the Asheville Tourists, has a  right field wall.
 Page Stadium, the field for the Loyola Marymount University baseball team, also boasts a replica of the Green Monster in left field.
 John F. Fitzgerald Expressway, a part of Interstate 93 through downtown Boston, now underground as a result of the construction project known as the "Big Dig", was for many years an elevated expressway, held up with green girders, and was derided as "Boston's other Green Monster".
 Oracle Park, home of the San Francisco Giants, has a  right field wall in honor of Willie Mays; the height in feet matches his retired uniform number.
 Progressive Field, home of the Cleveland Guardians, has a  left field wall, nicknamed the "little green monster".
 Bush Field, home of the Class AA New Haven Ravens from 1994 to 2003, and now only used by Yale University's team, features a  green metal wall in center field, which not only features a manual scoreboard, but also displays balls, strikes and outs with colored lights, just like Fenway's Green Monster.

See also

References

External links

Boston Red Sox
Fenway Sports Group
Fenway–Kenmore
Buildings and structures in Boston
Culture of Boston

Green Monster


Objectivity is both a central and elusive concept in philosophy. While there is no universally accepted articulation of objectivity, a proposition is generally considered to be objectively true when its truth conditions are "mind-independent"—that is, not the result of any judgments made by a conscious entity. Objective truths are those which are discovered rather than created.

वस्तुनिष्ठता ही तत्त्वज्ञानातील  मध्यवर्ती पण स्पष्ट करण्यास अवघड  संकल्पना आहे.त्यांची निर्मिती व्यक्तिंकडून भावनाप्रधान जाणीवेच्या  निर्णयप्रक्रीयेतून होऊ शकत नाही; सहसा सत्य परिस्थिती मनाच्या निरपेक्ष आणि निष्पक्ष असते तेव्हा ती वस्तिनिष्ठ सत्य समजली जाते.अर्थात वस्तुनिष्ठतेची सार्वत्रिक स्विकार्ह अशी एक व्याख्या करता येत नाही.     वस्तुनिष्ठ सत्ये आढळतात ते निर्माण करता येत नाहीत

वस्तुनिष्ठता आणि Objectivity and subjectivity
In philosophy, an objective fact means a truth that remains true everywhere, independently of human thought or feelings. For instance, it is true always and everywhere that 'in base 10, 2 plus 2 equals 4'. A subjective fact is one that is only true under certain conditions, at certain times, in certain places, or for certain people.

The scientific virtues वैज्ञानिक तत्त्वे
Among the truth-conducive tools of thought used by objective thinkers are the scientific virtues. When formulating a hypothesis to explain a particular fact, the explainer makes sure that his or her hypothesis is the simplest one on offer (Principle of Parsimony), that it is adequate to all known evidence, that it can predict as diverse an array of phenomena as possible, and that it is fruitfully "risky," according to Popperians, but more generally, that it can be verified by new or as yet unperformed experiments or observations.

The scientific virtue known as simplicity or parsimony has also come to be known as "Ockham's Razor" because of its frequent use by the fourteenth century philosopher William of Ockham, whose primary statement of the principle in his nominalist epistemology is that in accounting for the facts nothing should be assumed as necessary unless it is established through evidentiary experience or reasoning, or is required by the articles of faith.

Objectivism वस्तुनिष्ठता

"Objectivism" is a term that describes a branch of philosophy that originated in the early nineteenth century. Gottlob Frege was the first to apply it, when he expounded an epistemological and metaphysical theory contrary to that of Immanuel Kant. Kant's rationalism attempted to reconcile the failures he perceived in realism, empiricism, and idealism and to establish a critical method of approach in the distinction between epistemology and metaphysics.

Objectivism, in this context, is an alternate name for philosophical realism, the view that there is a reality or ontological realm of objects and facts that exists independent of the mind. Stronger versions of this claim might hold that there is only one correct description of this reality. If it is true that reality is mind-independent, it is thus inclusive of objects that are unknown and not the subject of intentionality. Objectivity in referring requires a definition of truth. According to metaphysical objectivists, an object may truthfully be said to have this or that attribute, as in the statement "This object exists," whereas the statement "This object is true" or "false" is meaningless. Thus, only propositions have truth values. Essentially, the terms "objectivity" and "objectivism" are not synonymous, with objectivism being an ontological theory that incorporates a commitment to the objectivity of objects.

Plato's realism was a form of metaphysical objectivism, holding that the Ideas exist objectively and independently. Berkeley's empiricist idealism, on the other hand, could be called a subjectivism: he held that things only exist to the extent that they are perceived. Both theories claim methods of objectivity. Plato's definition of objectivity can be found in his epistemology, which takes as a model mathematics, and his metaphysics, where knowledge of the ontological status of objects and ideas is resistant to change. Plato considered knowledge of geometry as a condition of philosophical knowledge, both being concerned with universal truths. Plato's opposition between objective knowledge and doxa (opinions) would become the basis for later philosophies intent on resolving the problem of reality, knowledge and human existence. Personal opinions belong to the changing sphere of the sensible, opposed to a fixed and eternal incorporeal realm which is mutually intelligible. Where Plato distinguishes between what and how we know things (epistemology) and their ontological status as things (metaphysics), subjectivism such as Berkeley's and a mind dependence of knowledge and reality fails to make the distinction between what one knows and what is to be known, or in the least explains the distinction superficially. In Platonic terms, a criticism of subjectivism is that it is difficult to distinguish between knowledge, doxa, and subjective knowledge (true belief), distinctions which Plato makes.

The importance of perception in evaluating and understanding objective reality is debated. Realists argue that perception is key in directly observing objective reality, while instrumentalists hold that perception is not necessarily useful in directly observing objective reality, but is useful in interpreting and predicting reality. The concepts that encompasses these ideas are important in the philosophy of science.

नैतिकतेतील वस्तुनिष्ठता Objectivity in ethics

Ethical subjectivism

The term, "ethical subjectivism," covers two distinct theories in ethics. According to cognitive versions of ethical subjectivism, the truth of moral statements depends upon people's values, attitudes, feelings, or beliefs. Some forms of cognitivist ethical subjectivism can be counted as forms of realism, others are forms of anti-realism. David Hume is a foundational figure for cognitive ethical subjectivism. On a standard interpretation of his theory, a trait of character counts as a moral virtue when it evokes a sentiment of approbation in a sympathetic, informed, and rational human observer. Similarly, Roderick Firth's ideal observer theory held that right acts are those that an impartial, rational observer would approve of. William James, another ethical subjectivist, held that an end is good (to or for a person) just in case it is desired by that person (see also ethical egoism). According to non-cognitive versions of ethical subjectivism, such as emotivism, prescriptivism, and expressivism, ethical statements cannot be true or false, at all: rather, they are expressions of personal feelings or commands. For example, on A. J. Ayer's emotivism, the statement, "Murder is wrong" is equivalent in meaning to the emotive ejaculation, "Murder, Boo!"

नैतिक वस्तुनिष्ठता Ethical objectivism

According to the ethical objectivist, the truth or falsity of typical moral judgments does not depend upon the beliefs or feelings of any person or group of persons. This view holds that moral propositions are analogous to propositions about chemistry, biology, or history: they describe (or fail to describe) a mind-independent reality. When they describe it accurately, they are true --- no matter what anyone believes, hopes, wishes, or feels. When they fail to describe this mind-independent moral reality, they are false --- no matter what anyone believes, hopes, wishes, or feels. There are many versions of ethical objectivism, including various religious views of morality, Platonistic intuitionism, Kantianism, utilitarianism, and certain forms of ethical egoism and contractualism. Note that Platonists define ethical objectivism in an even more narrow way, so that it requires the existence of intrinsic value. Consequently, they reject the idea that contractualists or egoists could be ethical objectivists.

हेसुद्धा पहा

 Epistemology
 Subject-object problem
 वस्तुनिष्ठता (पत्रकारिता)
 Objectivity (science)
 Philosophical realism

Further वाचन
 Bachelard, Gaston. La formation de l'esprit scientifique : contribution à une psychanalyse de la connaissance. Paris: Vrin, 2004 ISBN 2-7116-1150-7 .
 Castillejo, David. The Formation of Modern Objectivity. Madrid: Ediciones de Arte y Bibliofilia, 1982.
 Kuhn, Thomas S.. The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996, 3° ed.  ISBN 0-226-45808-3
 Megill, Allan. Rethinking Objectivity. London: Duke UP, 1994.
 Nagel, Ernest. The Structure of Science. New York: Brace and World, 1961.
 Nagel, Thomas. The View from Nowhere. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1986
 Nozick, Robert. Invariances: the structure of the objective world. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2001.
 Popper, Karl. R.. Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach. Oxford University Press, 1972, trade paperback, 395 pages, ISBN 0-19-875024-2 , hardcover is out of print. See libraries.
 Rescher, Nicholas. Objectivity: the obligations of impersonal reason. Notre Dame: Notre Dame Press, 1977.
 Rorty, Richard. Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991
 Rousset, Bernard. La théorie kantienne de l'objectivité, Paris: Vrin, 1967.
 Schaeffler, Israel. Science and Subjectivity. Hackett, 1982. Voices of Wisdom; a multicutural philosophy reader. kessler

बाह्य दुवे

 Subjectivity and Objectivity — by Pete Mandik

लेखात प्रयूक्त संज्ञा

शब्दाचा विशेष संदर्भ/अर्थ छटा

इंग्रजी मराठी  संज्ञा

मराठी विकिपीडिया प्रकल्पाकरता व्युहात्मक अत्यावश्यक आणि म्हणून न वगळावयाची पाने

वस्तुनिष्ठता (तत्त्वज्ञान)


Jakob Friedrich Fries (; 23 August 1773 – 10 August 1843) was a German post-Kantian philosopher and mathematician.

Biography
Fries studied theology at the academy of the Moravian Brethren at Niesky and philosophy at the Universities of Leipzig and Jena. After travelling, in 1806 he became professor of philosophy and elementary mathematics at the University of Heidelberg.

Though the progress of his psychological thought compelled him to abandon the positive theology of the Moravians, he retained an appreciation of its spiritual or symbolic significance. His philosophical position with regard to his contemporaries had already been made clear in his critical work Reinhold, Fichte und Schelling (1803), and in the more systematic treatises System der Philosophie als evidente Wissenschaft (1804) and Wissen, Glaube und Ahnung (1805).

Fries' most important treatise, the Neue oder anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft (2nd ed., 1828–1831), was an attempt to give a new foundation of psychological analysis to the critical philosophy of Immanuel Kant. In 1811 he published his System der Logik (ed. 1819 and 1837), and in 1814 Julius und Evagoras, a philosophical romance. He was also anti-semitic, writing public polemics against Jews, and in 1816 wrote Ueber die Gefährdung des Wohlstandes und des Charakters der Deutschen durch die Juden (On the Danger Posed by the Jews to German Well-Being and Character), advocating among other things a distinct sign on the dress of Jews to distinguish them from the general population, and encouraging their emigration from German lands. He blamed the Jews for the ascendant role of money in society and called for Judaism to be "extirpated root and branch" from German society.

In 1816 he was invited to Jena to fill the chair of theoretical philosophy (including mathematics, physics, and philosophy proper), and entered upon a crusade against the prevailing Romanticism. In politics he was a strong Liberal and Unionist, and he did much to inspire the organization of the Burschenschaft. He also published a pamphlet calling for the exclusion of the Jews from public life in Germany. In 1816 he had published his views in a brochure, Von deutschem Bund und deutscher Staatsverfassung, dedicated to "the youth of Germany", and his influence gave a powerful impetus to the agitation which led in 1819 to the issue of the Carlsbad Decrees by the representatives of the German governments.

Karl Sand, the murderer of August von Kotzebue, was one of Fries's pupils; and a letter of his, found on another student, warning Sand against participation in secret societies, was twisted by the suspicious authorities into evidence of Fries' conspiracy. He was condemned by the Mainz Commission; the Grand Duke of Weimar was compelled to deprive him of his professorship; and he was forbidden to lecture on philosophy. The grand duke, however, continued to pay him his stipend, and in 1824 he was recalled to Jena as professor of mathematics and physics, receiving permission also to lecture on philosophy in his own rooms to a select number of students. Finally, in 1838, the unrestricted right of lecturing was restored to him.

Fries was involved in a dispute with the contemporary German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel. In the preface to his Philosophy of Right, Hegel criticised Fries' participation in student events and his role in the Burschenschaft. In Hegel's view, Fries was dependent upon "immediate perception and contingent imagination"; his views were emotional rather than rational. Hegel argued that Fries' methodology was not sufficiently scientific and that, therefore, his conclusions were illogical. Fries responded by accusing Hegel of defending the existing order and his own privileged position within it. He argued that "Hegel's metaphysical mushroom has grown not in the gardens of science but on the dunghill of servility." For Fries, Hegel's theories merely added up to a defence of the establishment and, specifically, the Prussian authorities.

Works
The most important of the many works written during his Jena professorship are:
 Neue oder anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft (The New or Anthropological Critique of Reason, 1807)
 Ueber die Gefährdung des Wohlstandes und Charakters der Deutschen durch die Juden (On the Danger Posed by the Jews to German Well-Being and Character, 1816)
 Handbuch der praktischen Philosophie (Handbook of Practical Philosophy, 1817–1832)
 Handbuch der psychischen Anthropologie (Handbook of Psychical Anthropology, 1820–1821)
 Die mathematische Naturphilosophie (The Mathematical Philosophy of Nature, 1822)
 System der Metaphysik (System of Metaphysics, 1824)

See also
 Neo-Kantianism

Notes

Further reading
 Peter Sperber, "Empiricism and Rationalism: The Failure of Kant's Synthesis and its Consequences for German philosophy around 1800", Kant Yearbook, 7(1), 2015.

External links

1773 births
1843 deaths
People from Barby, Germany
18th-century German philosophers
Leipzig University alumni
University of Jena alumni
Academic staff of the University of Jena
Academic staff of Heidelberg University
German male writers
19th-century German mathematicians
19th-century German philosophers

Jakob Friedrich Fries


Matched is a 2010 dystopian novel by Ally Condie. The book was followed by two sequels, 'Crossed' and Reached.

Matched tells the story of seventeen year old Cassia Reyes. She lives in a world where at age seventeen, everyone is matched with who they will marry. You marry at age 21 and have children at age 24. And you die at age 80. However, despite being matched, Cassia finds that she loves someone else.

Books by Ally Condie
2010 books

Matched (book)


The Académie de Poésie et de Musique (), later renamed the Académie du Palais, was the first Academy in France. It was founded in 1570 under the auspices of Charles IX of France by the poet Jean-Antoine de Baïf and the musician Joachim Thibault de Courville.

Overview

The purpose of the Académie was to revive Classical Greek and Roman poetry and music. It met regularly at Baïf's house in Paris, and had two classes of members — "musicians", or poets, singers and instrumentalists; and "auditors", or subscribers who helped support the academy financially. Baïf's intention was to revitalise and transform French poetry by applying the ancient metres (vers mesurés à l'antique) to it, and combining it with simple music following ancient metres (musique mesurée à l'antique).

Although the ostensible purpose of the Académie was musico-poetic, Baïf's goals were much more ambitious – he hoped that through a structuring of French poetry, he might bring about a more structured social order and morality. This goal followed from Neo-Platonic ideals, where music and morality are closely linked. To this end, discussions were not limited to music and poetry, but also included discussions of Natural philosophy, mathematics, and other subjects. Baïf was influenced at least in part by the Accademia Platonica of Marsilio Ficino in Florence. Other influences on the creation of the Académie were the teacher and poet Jean Daurat, Pierre de Ronsard, and other members of La Pléiade, a literary group.

Despite Baïf's goals of spreading his philosophy, the Académie kept the art of measured poetry and music a secret.

In order to help further his goals, Baïf enlisted the help of French musicians, the most influential of whom was Claude Le Jeune. Le Jeune's experiments influenced musical setting of French poetry, including the use of irregular metres in the air de cour, for several generations, despite the influence of the academy itself being much shorter in duration. Other musicians involved included Eustache du Caurroy and Jacques Mauduit.

When Charles IX died, the Académie became far less active. It had a renaissance for a short time under Henry III of France when it met in the Louvre under the name Académie du Palais. At this time Guy du Faur de Pibrac took over, and the focus of the group shifted to oratory and debate.

References
Notes

Sources
 Brown, Howard Mayer; Iain Fenlon (2001). "Academy 4. French academies.", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed March 18, 2007), grovemusic.com  (subscription access).
 Dobbins, Frank (2001). "Jean-Antoine de Baïf", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed March 18, 2007), grovemusic.com  (subscription access).
 Fremy, Édouard (1887). L'Académie des derniers Valois : Académie de poésie et de musique, 1570-1576, Académie du palais, 1576-1585, d'après des documents nouveaux et inédits. Paris: Ernest Leroux.
 Yates, Frances (1947; 1988). The French Academies of the Sixteenth Centuries. London: Warburg Institute (1947). . London and New York: Routledge (1988). .

External links
  Larousse

French poetry
1570 establishments in France
Renaissance music
Academies of arts

Académie de Poésie et de Musique


The Woodman Institute Museum is located at 182 Central Avenue in Dover, New Hampshire, United States.  It is a museum dedicated to history, science and the arts. It was created in 1915 with a bequest of $100,000 from philanthropist Annie Woodman to encourage her city's education in those three fields. The institute opened on July 26, 1916. Under the name of "Woodman Institute", the museum was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

Collection

The museum's campus now includes three brick houses of Federal style architecture, one of which is the former home of noted abolitionist Senator John P. Hale. Inside are exhibits of local history and natural history, in addition to art and antiques. One famous item is the saddle in which President Abraham Lincoln rode to review troops shortly before his assassination. A collection of artifacts showcases the nation's past, with a special emphasis on Dover's history.

Visitors can see the sword a Japanese delegate to the 1905 Portsmouth Peace Conference (Treaty of Portsmouth) gave to a waiter at the Hotel Wentworth, examples of Dover's textile output, relics from every war in which the United States has fought, an old 13 star American flag, a 10-foot stuffed polar bear from the Arctic, an old piano with genuine ivory keys, and a collection of stuffed birds, fish and mammals.

On the museum's grounds is the 1675 William Damm Garrison, one of the oldest intact garrison houses in the state, as well as the oldest house in Dover and one of the oldest houses in New Hampshire. It survived the Cochecho Massacre, and was later moved to this location for preservation under a permanent shelter. Also within the shelter, visitors may see a brass Napoleon cannon used in the American Civil War, one of only ten left in existence.

See also
List of the oldest buildings in New Hampshire
National Register of Historic Places listings in Strafford County, New Hampshire

References

External links
 Woodman Institute Museum
 Woodman Institute Museum — Quilter's Muse Virtual Museum

Federal architecture in New Hampshire
Historic house museums in New Hampshire
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in New Hampshire
Art museums and galleries in New Hampshire
Museums in Strafford County, New Hampshire
History museums in New Hampshire
Buildings and structures in Dover, New Hampshire
Natural history museums in New Hampshire
Houses in Strafford County, New Hampshire
Museums established in 1916
1916 establishments in New Hampshire
National Register of Historic Places in Strafford County, New Hampshire

Woodman Institute Museum


The Duchy of Savoy was a monarchy in northern Italy and southwest France. It was ruled by the Savoy family. They took their name from the territory. From 1416 to 1562, the capital of the state was Chambéry. From 1562 to 1713 after which the capital was Turin. The heir to the throne was usually given the title of Prince of Piedmont.

The main residence of the family was the Royal Palace of Turin.

It was originally a county but raised to a Duchy in 1416. It greatly increased in size due to the Kingdom of Sardinia being added to the Savoy family possessions. Parts of the Duchy of Milan had also been added before. The small duchy was a neighbour to the Duchy of Parma as well as the larger wealthier Grand Duchy of Tuscany both of which would later form close relationships with each other often through marriages between princes and princesses.

In 1860, under the terms of the Treaty of Turin, the Duchy of Savoy was annexed by France. The last Duke of Savoy, Victor Emmanuel II, became King of Italy and the country was united into modern Italy.

Regents
 Christine of France regent for her sons Francis Hyacinth and later Charles Emmanuel II.
 Marie Jeanne of Savoy regent during the minority of her son the future Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia from 1675 to 1680.
 Victor Amadeus, Prince of Piedmont, Regent of the duchy in his fathers place in 1713.

1860 disestablishments
Dukes and Duchesses of Savoy
Former monarchies in Italy
House of Savoy
1416 establishments
Establishments in France
Establishments in Italy
15th-century establishments in Europe
19th-century disestablishments in Europe
Disestablishments in France
1860s disestablishments in Italy

Duchy of Savoy


Information retrieval is a field of Computer science that looks at how non-trivial data can be obtained from a collection of information resources. Commonly, either a full-text search is done, or the metadata which describes the resources is searched. Depending on the content, there may also be other indices. Information retrieval is about finding existing information; it is different from knowledge discovery in databases which is about finding new relationships between different datasets, which were unknown.

Techniques from information retrieval are commonly used in internet search engines, but also when looking for information on a subject in a library, or when searching complex content such as images in a database. This kind of content is usually described using metadata.

Problem description
When looking for information, the following  problems are commonly encountered:
 The database contains an insufficient amount of information about the content of the documents it contains. A search may yield an incorrect answer, or no answer at all.
 The search is done with terms and keywords that are vague, so that the results returned do not exactly match the needs of the request.
A system for information retrieval will attach a score to each document returned. This score reflects how well the document matches the query of the user. The documents with the best scores are shown to the user, who has the possibility to refine the query.

Different models
There are different kinds of models that are used in information retrieval

First dimension: the mathematical model
 Set-theoretic models represent documents as a set of words or features.
 Algebraic models use vectors, matrices and tuples.
 Probabilistic models treat the process of document retrieval as a  probabilistic inference. Similarities are computed as probabilities  that a document is relevant for a given query. Probabilistic theorems  like the Bayes' theorem are often used in these models.
 Feature-based retrieval models view documents as vectors of values of feature functions (or just features) and seek the best way to combine these features into a single relevance score, typically by learning to rank methods. Feature functions are arbitrary functions of document and  query, and as such can easily incorporate almost any other retrieval  model as just a yet another feature.

Second dimension: the properties of the model
 Models without term-interdependencies treat different terms/words as independent. This fact is usually represented in vector space models by the orthogonality assumption of term vectors or in probabilistic models by an independency assumption for term variables.
 Models with immanent term interdependencies allow a representation of interdependencies between terms. However the degree of the interdependency between two terms is defined by the model itself. It is usually directly or indirectly derived (e.g. by dimensional reduction) from the co-occurrence of those terms in the whole set of documents.
 Models with transcendent term interdependencies allow a representation of interdependencies between terms, but they do not allege how the interdependency between two terms is defined. They rely an external source for the degree of interdependency between two terms. (For example a human or sophisticated algorithms.)

In addition, each model has parameters, which influence its performance. Some of the models make a number of assumption about the data; they were developed for a very special purpose. Using such a model for a different purpose may not yield good results.

Computer science

Information retrieval


C-rock is short for Chinese rock music. C-rock ( or ; literally "Chinese shaking and rolling music") can be performed in any dialect of Chinese language. Some people consider C-rock a subgenre of C-pop.

History
The history of C-rock before the 1980s is very unclear though it is believed to have existed in the 1970s or even the 1960s.

XBF
The first clear sign of Chinese rock was the 西北风 Xi Bei Feng (literally Northwest Wind). Xi Bei Feng is style of folk-influenced punk music, originating from the northwestern area of China, such as the Shanxi and Gansu provinces. The new style was triggered by two new songs, 信天游 Xin Tian You and 一无所有. As time passed, Xi Bei Feng became stronger, more fast-tempo and aggressive. In contrast to the mellow C-pop style, XBF songs were sung loudly and forcefully.

Many XBF songs challenged political views, reflected unhappiness among Chinese youth and individuality and self-empowerment. Both music and lyrics articulated a sense of pride in the power of the northwest's peasantry. Songs such as "妹妹你大胆的往前走" came to represent an earthy, primordial masculine image of China, as opposed to the soft, sweet, polished urban gang tai style.

Prison rock
囚歌, also known as Prison songs or Prison rock, became popular in the late 1980s. Prison rock was more folk-like than the XBF style. Prison rock was led  & created by 迟志强 Chi Zhi Qiang, who wrote lyrics about his time in jail and set them to folk melodies from northeast China. In contrast to Northwest Wind songs, prison songs were slow and "weepy", and were characterised by the rude and vulgar language and lyrics showing pessimism, despair, anticonformity and cynicism.

Chinese rock and roll
The birthplace of Chinese rock was Beijing. Rock and roll was not common until the late 1980s. Some rebellious trends from punk XBF were revived. In 1989 and 1990, rock and roll came into mainstream music as a combination of the Northwest Wind and prison song fads.

After the protests in Tiananmen Square rock and roll became part of general urban youth culture in China. Its popularity growth celebrated on 17 and 18 February 1990 when Beijing's largest rock concert was held in the Capital Gymnasium. The concert featured six rock bands.

Chinese rock and roll's peak popularity was between 1990 and 1993. Many rock bands were established and rock music was performed regularly. Rock and roll was not approved of by the Chinese government because many performers had anti-conformist behaviour. The government made sure that rock and roll was not to be broadcast on CCTV, so the main venues remained to be informal, underground rock parties. Some fans and performers had characteristics such as long hair for males, jeans, silver metal ornaments, black leather coats and hippie-style behaviour.

Decline
By 1994, rock and roll slowly began to decline. One of the reasons is because of the censorship by the Communist Party of China, such as the banning of rock from television and restrictions on performances. The main reason, however, is the general lack of interest in anti-conformist and anti-Government thoughts and behaviour. In the mid 1990s, people became more interested in C-pop and newer stars at the time such as Andy Lau and the Four Heavenly Kings of Cantonese pop.

Current

Rebirth
From 2000 to 2004, rock in China grew in popularity again, influenced by Japanese rock trends, including pop-rock, Visual kei and Gothic Lolitta and some American rock music styles such as light rock, soft rock, piano rock, post-grunge and alternative rock.

Another important step in the development of Chinese rock music is the Beijing Midi School of Music in Beijing. Established 1993 by Zhang Fan, it was the first school in China offering classes specialising in jazz and rock music. Started as a festival in 1999, the Midi Modern Music Festival became the largest rock music festival in China. Both the school and the festival supported the underground scene in China and allowed foreign bands in 2006 to perform at the festival and throughout the country, including Alev, Monokino, YMA and The Wombats.

In addition to the Midi school, the goth rock magazine Painkiller Magazine brought bands such as Edguy, Lacrimosa and Hatesphere to fame in China.

Artists
Alan Kuo
Candy Lo
CLIMAX
Ella Koon
Mayday

Related pages
C-pop

References

C-rock


Crissiumal is a municipality in the state Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. It has a population of 14,726 people (2007 – IBGE). It has a river border with Argentina along the Uruguay River.

In sports, Crissiumal is known as "The land of goalkeepers". This is because it was the home of several goalkeepers. The most known of them is Taffarel, who played in the Brazilian Soccer Team in the 1994 FIFA World Cup, in Italy.

The economy of Crissiumal is based on small rural properties. Crissiumal is one of the greatest Brazilian milk producers. It has a daily production of about 70,000 liters of milk.

Cities in Rio Grande do Sul

Crissiumal


MiG Alley was a place during the Korean War that had a lot of North Korean MiG-15 Fagots in the area. It was over north west North Korea, near China. F-86 Sabres mainly fought the MiGs. Some of the pilots were Russian fighter pilots from World War II and were very well trained. They were called "honchos" (Japanese for "big shot"). The top kills were scored by Soviet aces, so it was said that the Soviets won.

Related pages
Mikoyan

Korean War
United States Air Force
Military aviation

MiG Alley


The Well-Tempered Clavier (also known as WTC, BWV 846–893) is the title of two collections of musical works for solo keyboard instruments by the Baroque composer Johann Sebastian Bach. The first collection was written in 1722 and the second was written in 1742, but they were not published until 1801, fifty years after Bach died. Although the music was written for the harpsichord, which was popular at the time, today it is usually played and heard on a piano.

Both collections have 24 short preludes and 24 fugues to go along with it. All of them contrast with each other: some of them are easy to learn, while others are hard to follow (because there are many different melodies going on at the same time, which is called counterpoint). What is special about them is that each prelude and fugue is written in a different major or minor key. They appear in the book so that they go up by semitones. That is, the first prelude and fugue is in C major, the second is in C minor, the third in C-sharp major (or D-flat major), the fourth in C-sharp minor, and so on, until the last two preludes and fugues are in B major and B minor, in that order.

Other composers would later write music that is also in all 24 major and minor keys. The best known of these are the Preludes by Frédéric Chopin, but this would also later be done by Charles-Valentin Alkan, Sergei Rachmaninoff, and Dmitri Shostakovich, to name a few.

Some of the music that appears in The Well-Tempered Clavier has become famous. For example, the French Romantic composer Charles Gounod wrote a setting of Ave Maria that is based on the melody of the first Prelude in C Major in the WTC.

Other websites
 Well-Tempered Clavier preludes and fugues , fugues  on piano, organ, and harpsichord (Flash interactive)

Compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach

The Well-Tempered Clavier


A Burgh is an autonomous corporate entity, for ordinar a toun, an haes been in uiss in Scotland syne the 12t century. Recogneetion o burgh status houaniver haes little mair nor ceremonial vailie.

The heid o a burgh is cried a Provost. Maist ryal burghs hauds the teetle for ceremonial purposes, wi the merkit exception o the Scots ceeties.

Burghs haed richts tae representation in the Pairlament o Scotland. Unner the Acts o Union 1707 mony becam pairliamentary burghs, representit in the Pairliament o Great Breetain.

Unner the Reform Act o 1832, 32 year efter the mellin o the Pairliament o Great Breetain intae the Pairliament o the Unitit Kinrick, the burgh boonds for pariliamentary elections wisna necessar their boonds for ither purposes.

Whan Scots coonty councils wis shaped unner the Local Government (Scotland) Act o 1889 burghs wis awreadies important in the local government o Scotland. Coonty cooncils an burgh cooncils wis baith abolished unner the Local Government (Scotland) Act o 1973, that shaped a new seestem o regions an destricts an island cooncil areas.

Kynds o Burgh
There's a wheen kynds o burgh:
 Ryal burgh
 Burgh o regality
 Burgh o barony
 Pairliamentary burgh
 Polis burgh

Etymology
As uised in this airticle, the wird burgh refers tae corporate entities that's legality is peculiar tae Scotland. (Scots law wis pertectit an uphauden as distinct fae the laws of Ingland under the Acts of Union o 1707.

The wird haes cognates, or near cognates, in ither Germanic leids. For example, burg in German, an borg in baith Dens an Swadish; the equeevalent wird can be fund in Frisie, Dutch, Norse, an Icelandic.

The wird burgh comes fae the Auld Inglis wird burh (wi dialect variants includin broch). The Anglo-Saxon wird wis oreeginally uised for a fortifee'd toun an wis sib wi the verb beorgan (cf. Dutch an German bergen), meanin "tae haud, sauf, mak siccar". In German, Burg means castle, tho sae mony touns growed up aboot castles that it near haund cam tae mean ceety, an is incorporate intae mony placenames, sic as Hamburgh an Strasburgh).

See an aw
Scots Burghs

Scotland

Burgh


Frank White (born September 4, 1950 in Greenville, Mississippi) is a retired American baseball player and is a former coach of the Kansas City Royals. He was a second baseman. He now is part of the television broadcast team for the Royals.

White won the World Series with the Kansas City Royals in 1985.

His number (#20) is retired by the Royals. He is one of only two Royals players to have his number retired by the team (the other is George Brett).

Awards
 Selected for the All-Star game x5 in 1978, 1979, 1981, 1982 and 1986
 8× Gold Glove Award winner  in 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1986 and 1987
 Silver Slugger Award winner in 1986
 ALCS MVP in 1980

References

1950 births
Living people
American baseball players
Sportspeople from Mississippi
Kansas City Royals players

Frank White (baseball)


Schnapps is a type of distilled alcoholic drink. The word schnapps comes from the German word schnaps.

German schnapps
Traditional German schnapps are usually clear alcoholic drinks which are distilled from fermented cereals, roots, and fruits. Traditional German schnapps has no sugar or other flavoring added. It is similar in look and flavor to vodka with light fruit flavors. The alcohol content is usually around 40%.

American schnapps
The other type of schnapps is American. This type of schnapps is a liqueur that has sugar and flavorings such as peach, mint, or butterscotch. The alcohol content of American schnapps is usually only about 20%, which is lower than German-style schnapps.

Alcoholic spirits

Schnapps


Chiropractic is a form of alternative medicine. A chiropractor is a person who went to school to learn chiropractic. Chiropractors may diagnose and treat many conditions relating to muscles, joints, and nerves of the body. They may give what is called an "adjustment" to the body. An adjustment is a fast short push to an area of the patient's spine or other joints to help their condition. Chiropractors do not use drugs to treat patients. They use natural treatments such as nutrition, exercise, physical therapy, adjustments, and massage in order to help their patients.

Chiropractic has changed since it was created over 100 years ago because chiropractors learn new facts and do new research. Chiropractors have many different ways to treat their patients. They all use drug free treatments. Chiropractic is best known for helping people with spine pain, but chiropractors can also help other problems. There has been a debate as to whether or not chiropractic is classified as Pseudoscience.

Alternative medicine

Chiropractic


Psalm 151 is a short psalm that is controversial because it is in some versions of the Bible but not others.  In particular, it is in several very old Greek translations of the Bible but is not in the Hebrew Bible.  There has been a lot of debate over whether or not the psalm should be considered part of the Bible.

Psalm 151 and the Dead Sea Scrolls
The psalm has been known about for a long time and the Greek version was used for study for hundreds of years.  When the Dead Sea Scrolls (which are in Hebrew) were found and translated, part of Psalm 151 was in them.  This surprised the researchers very much, but not as much as what they would find later on.

After studying the scrolls, they noticed that the Greek translator had actually made a mistake.  Two different pieces of two different psalms were treated like they were one big psalm when they were not.  There is a big change in the Greek version after the fifth line (where the second psalm fragment would begin) and is a lot more like a story than most of the other psalms, which are more like poems.

Content
The Greek version of the psalm says that it was written by King David after his battle with Goliath.  It talks about how, even though David was the least of all his brothers, God chose him to be king.  It then talks about how David cut off Goliath's head with Goliath's own sword after killing him with his slingshot.

Status today
The Eastern Orthodox Church accepts Psalm 151 as part of the Bible, but Roman Catholics, most Protestants, and most Jews do not. However, it can be found in some Catholic Bibles and in certain other Bible translations like the New Revised Standard Version.

Old Testament

Psalm 151


Flash memory is a memory storage device for computers and electronics. It is most often used in devices like digital cameras, USB flash drives, and video games. It was developed in the 1980s from the earlier and similar EEPROM.

Flash memory is different from RAM because RAM is volatile (not permanent). When power is turned off, RAM loses all its data. Flash can keep its data intact with no power at all. A hard drive is also permanent (non-volatile) storage, but it is bulky and fragile. Flash memory is one kind of Non-volatile random-access memory. It is slower than RAM but faster than hard drives. It is often used in small electronics because of its small size and lack of moving parts.

The main weakness of flash memory is that it is more expensive than hard drives for the same amount of storage.  Another weakness is the number of times that data can be written to it. Data can be read from flash as many times as desired, but after a certain number of "write" operations, "write cycles", it will stop working. Most flash devices are designed for about 100,000 - 1,000,000 write cycles.

EEPROM has the same limitation that flash does: ones made in the 20th century could only survive about 100,000 write cycles, later increased to about a million. It is more expensive than flash, so it is rarely used for storage greater than 128kB. The main difference between EEPROM and flash memory is that most EEPROM devices can erase any byte of memory at any time. Flash memory can only erase an entire chunk, or "sector", of memory at a time. Both EEPROM and flash are subject to the limitation that only bytes in an 'erased' state can be written, which means that if the user wants to change only one byte of flash, the entire sector must be erased and re-written. This means that flash memory can wear out faster than EEPROM.  Some flash memory can store hundreds of gigabytes, or even terabytes.  Many are in the form of a pen drive.

Flash memory is used in USB Drives, solid-state drives, computer RAM (occasionally), hybrid drives (small SSD + hard drive), graphics cards, and memory cards.

Related pages
 USB flash drive

Computer memory

Flash memory


Sadness is an emotion. It is the opposite of happiness. People feel sad when something bad has happened, for example, if their mother or father has died.

In capital letters, SAD, or S.A.D. is short for "Seasonal affective disorder". SAD is a sickness that some people have in the winter. They feel depressed as the nights become longer and there is less daylight.

When people are very sad, and for a long time, the person could have a serious mental illness called depression or Bipolar disorder.

Notes
It is normally thought of as the opposite of happiness, but you can feel both happy and sad at the same time.

Related pages
 Happiness
 Depression (mental illness)

Basic English 850 words
Emotions

Sadness


Francesco Guicciardini (March 6, 1483 – May 22, 1540) was an Italian historian and statesman. He is considered one of the major political writers of the Italian Renaissance and the Father of Modern History. He was a friend and critic of Niccolò Machiavelli.

Biography

His family was illustrious and noble; after the usual education of a boy in grammar and elementary classical studies, his father, Piero, sent him to the universities of Ferrara and Padua, where he stayed until the year 1505. In 1512, he went to the court of the King of Aragon, Ferdinand the Catholic as ambassador.

In 1515 he became working for the Pope Leo X, who made him governor of Reggio Emilia in 1516 and of Modena in 1517.

Works

 Storie fiorentine (1508–1510)
 Diario di Spagna (1512)
 Discorso di Logrogno ("Discourse of Logrogno"; 1512)
 Relazione di Spagna (1514)
 Consolatoria (1527)
 Oratio accusatoria (1527)
 Oratio defensoria (1527)
 Del reggimento di Firenze or Dialogo e discorsi del reggimento di Firenze ("Dialogue on Florentine Government" or "Dialogue on the Government of Florence"; 1527)
 Considerazioni intorno ai "Discorsi" del Machiavelli sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio ("Observations on Machiavelli's Discourses"; 1528, or possibly 1530)
 Ricordi or Ricordi politici (as the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica refers to it) or Ricordi civili e politici (the name given by Giuseppe Canestrini when he first published (1512-1530)
 Le cose fiorentine (second "History of Florence"; 1528–1531)
 Storia d'Italia ("History of Italy"; 1537–1540)

1483 births
1540 deaths
Writers from Florence
Politicians from Florence

Francesco Guicciardini


The Space Coast is a region in the U.S. state of Florida around the Kennedy Space Center. The region includes the cities  Titusville, Cocoa, Rockledge, Cape Canaveral, Merritt Island, Cocoa Beach, Melbourne and Palm Bay. The most of the area lies within Brevard County.

Geography of Florida

Space Coast


Lohengrin is an opera in three acts by Richard Wagner.  Wagner wrote both the words and the music.  It is based on an old German legend.

Origins of the story
Lohengrin is a story written by an unknown German author.  It is related to other stories that belong to the Knight of the Swan tradition.

Wagner's opera is like a fairy tale.  It immediately became very popular.  The young King Ludwig II of Bavaria built a fairy-tale castle in the south of Germany and called it "Neuschwanstein," meaning: "New Swan Stone".  The King was very fond of Wagner's music and gave him a lot of money to help him with his next operas, especially for the cycle known as the Ring of the Nibelung.

It was first performed in Weimar, Germany on 28 August 1850 with Franz Liszt conducting. Liszt chose to conduct it on that particular day because 28 August was the birthday of  Johann Wolfgang von Goethe who had lived in Weimar.

Wagner did not hear the first performance.  In May 1849 he had run away from Germany because he had been involved in a revolution.  He fled to Switzerland.  He did not hear his opera Lohengrin until 15 May 1861 when he saw a performance in Vienna.

Roles

The story
Place: The story takes place in  Antwerp (in today's Belgium), on the river Scheldt.
Time: 10th century

Act 1

The opera starts with a prelude played by the orchestra.  It describes an angel coming down from the sky with the Holy Grail.

King Henry the Fowler has arrived in Brabant.  He is sitting by the banks of the river Scheldt.  Around him are Counts and nobles of the Saxon army.  Opposite them are Counts and nobles of Brabant.  King Henry explains that he had been fighting Hungarians who came to invade his country.  They had agreed not to fight for nine years, but these nine years were now coming to an end and his men would have to fight again.  The King wants the Brabantines to help them.  He asks one of their bravest knights, Friedrich von Telramund, to explain why the Brabantines are arguing amongst themselves.

Count Telramund explains that the Duke of Brabant had recently died.  As he lay dying, he had asked Telramund to look after his daughter Elsa and his son Gottfried.  One day the two children had gone into the forest and Elsa had returned alone.  The Duke tried to find out what had happened to Gottfried.  The Duke's wife Ortrud persuades the Duke to accuse Elsa of murdering her brother.  The duke then makes himself the king of Brabant.

Elsa knows that she is innocent and asks God to be her judge.  She needs a knight to fight for her.  Telramund agrees to fight him.

The second time that the Herald calls the unknown knight, a miracle happens. A boat, pulled by a swan, appears.  A knight in shining armour stands in the boat.  He gets out of the boat, tells the swan that it can go, and then he greets the king.  He asks Elsa if he can be her knight.  Elsa kneels in front of him and asks for his help.  He says that he will serve her, but he asks one thing: that she should never ask him what his name is or where he comes from.  Elsa agrees.  Everyone, except for Ortrud, prays and the fight starts.  The unknown knight wins, but then he spares Telramund's life.  The unknown knight now takes Elsa's hand and asks her to marry him.

Act 2
The action takes place in the courtyard outside the cathedral.  It is night.  Telramund and Ortrud have been told to go away.  Ortrud is a heathen witch, the daughter of Radbod, the Duke of Frisia.  She tries to make Telramund brave again.  She is going to persuade Elsa to ask the unknown knight what is name is.

When Elsa comes onto the balcony in the morning she sees Ortrud and feels sorry for her. An announcement is made that the king has decided to give the unnamed knight the title of Duke of Brabant. He says he does not want the title, and prefers to be known just as "Guardian of Brabant."

The King, the Knight, Elsa and her attendants are about to go into the church.  Ortrud, beautifully dressed, appears and says that the knight is a magician.  Telramund appears and says that the result of the fight he had did not count, because the knight has not told his name.  The knight still refuses to tell his name.

Act 3

The bedroom of the young couple. Elsa and her new husband enter to the well-known music called the Bridal Chorus.  The couple say they love one another.  However, Elsa still remembers how Ortrud was pressing her to ask the Knight his name.  She asks him who he is.  Telramund and four of his friends rush into the room to attack the knight, but Telramund is killed instead.  The Knight is very sad and tells Elsa they will now go to the King and he will tell him who he is.

The scene changes to the banks of the river, as in Act I.  The army is ready for war.  Telramund's dead body is carried in.  The Knight explains why he killed Telramund.  He tells the story of the Holy Grail and says that he is Lohengrin, Knight of the Holy Grail and son of King Parsifal.  He says that he now has to return to his home.  He had only stayed so long so that he could prove that Elsa was innocent.

Sadly he says goodbye to his young wife.  The swan comes again.  Lohengrin prays that Elsa may get her lost brother back.  The swan dives into the river and appears again in the form of Gottfried, Elsa's brother.  He had been turned into a swan by the evil magic of Ortrud.

A dove comes down from heaven, and takes the place of the swan at the head of the boat. It takes Lohengrin to the castle of the Holy Grail. Elsa is so upset that she dies.

References
"Wagner Nights" by Ernest Newman (1949)

Operas by Richard Wagner
1850s operas

Lohengrin (opera)


Acamapichtli  ( , meaning "Handful of reeds") was the first Tlatoani, or king, of the Aztecs (or Mexica) of Tenochtitlan, and founder of the Aztec imperial dynasty. Chronicles differ as to the dates of his reign: according to the Codex Chimalpahin, he reigned from 1367 to 1387; according to the Codex Aubin, he reigned from 1376 to 1395; and according to the Codex Chimalpopoca, he reigned from 1350 to 1403.

Biography

Family and early life
Acamapichtli was not a native of Tenochtitlan. Blood relationships between rulers were an important aspect of politics in 14th century Mexico, and as relative newcomers, the Mexicans were at a disadvantage. On the death of Tenoch, the elders of the Mexica calpultin decided to elect a tlatoani who could secure the fledgling city's position through ties to powerful groups in the region. They sent a delegation to the leaders of Culhuacan. Although the Culhua had only recently ejected the Mexica from Tizaapan, some intermarriage had taken place between the two peoples during their period of association. Acamapichtli was the product of one such union. His father, Opochtli Iztahuatzin, was a Mexican leader, while his mother Atotoztli I was the daughter of the King Coxcoxtli and sister of King Huehue Acamapichtli. He also had ties to the Acolhua of Coatlinchan. In addition to these concrete ties, the Culhua nobility claimed direct descent from the Toltecs, making their bloodline particularly prestigious.

The Spanish colonial historians Diego Durán, Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl, and Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc each mention Acamapichtli's maternal uncle, who occupied the throne of Culhuacan in 1324.

Reign

Acamapichtli began his rule as cihuacóatl (governor). At the time of his designation he was 20 years old, living in Texcoco with his mother. After his acceptance of the throne, he was brought to Tenochtitlan and made his entry into the city with great pomp. He married Ilancueitl, daughter of the then ruler of Culhuacán, Acolmiztli.

To integrate these ties with the city of Tenochtitlan, Acamapichtli took a wife from each Tenochtitlan calpulli (in addition to his first wife Ilancuetl).

In the same year, Tenochtitlan's sister city of Tlatelolco also installed an outsider as tlatoani — Cuacuapitzahuac, son of Tezozómoc, tlatoani of the Tepanec city of Azcapotzalco, the other major power in the region.

Despite Acamapichtli's Culhua ancestry, his city rapidly fell into the Tepanec orbit and became a tributary of Azcapotzalco. During his reign Mexica forces fought for Azcapotzalco against various city states, notably Chalco, and were eventually allowed to wage war on their own. Expeditions were sent against Cuauhnahuac (modern Cuernavaca) and Xochimilco.

Tribute was due to the Tecpanec rulers every full moon, a tribute said to be oppressive and capricious. In spite of the hostility of Azcapotzalco, Tenochtitlan progressed. The island on which the city was situated (and the only territory subject to its rule) was enlarged to the east with the addition of dirt and rock. The Mexica were careful, however, to maintain a proper distance from the mainland, for defensive purposes in the event of war.

Built in the middle of Lake Texcoco, Tenochtitlan suffered from limited farmland. Acamapichtli built up the city's agricultural base by expanding the chinampa system ("floating" gardens) around the island, and by capturing lakeshore chinampas from other cities, particularly Xochimilco. He also made improvements to the city's architecture — the earliest excavated level of the Great Pyramid, Temple II, dates to his reign.

During his reign, the city was divided into four neighborhoods or calpullis: Moyotlán in the southwest; Zoquipan in the southeast; Cuecopan in the northwest; and Atzacualco in the northeast. Houses of cane and reeds were replaced with houses of stone. A great temple, or teocalli, was also constructed. It is said that during his reign, the first Aztec laws were made.

In 1382, Acamapichtli was named tlatoani. He was crowned with even more pomp than before, at the altar of Huitzilopochtli. He ascended the steps accompanied by the highest-ranking warriors. He was anointed with oil and water by the chief priest, who placed on his head the crown or xiuhuitzolli. This same ceremony was repeated in all the subsequent Aztec coronations, with the difference that, from 1427, the new tlatoani was accompanied by the rulers of Texcoco and Tlacopan, the other two towns of the Aztec Triple Alliance.

Acamapichtli was an astute politician who strengthened his position more by alliances with his neighbors than by wars (of which there were only two or three during his reign). He avoided difficulties with the more powerful rulers, in the case of Tezozómoc, by paying the demanded tribute. Tezozómoc asked for a chinampa cultivated with beautiful flowers, and the Aztecs formed one, raised the flowers, and floated the chinampa to him over the lake.

Heirs and succession
Acamapichtli's first wife bore him no children, so he took another wife, Tezcatlan Miyahuatzin. She was the mother of Huitzilíhuitl, who succeeded to the throne after the death of his father. Another son of Acamapichtli, Itzcóatl, also became tlatoani in 1427. He was the son of a beautiful slave Acamapichtli had bought in the market of Azcapotzalco. She was of noble birth, but had been captured and enslaved. Although tlatoani was not strictly a hereditary title, candidates were clearly restricted to a small class of princes, and all later Aztec rulers descended from Acamapichtli.

Before his death, Acamapichtili called together the chiefs of the four neighborhoods into which he had divided the city, and asked them to elect his successor. Before the death of Acamapichtili, they chose his eldest son Huitzilíhuitl. Acamapichtili approved the election, and then died. After the death of his father, Huitzilíhuitl consolidated his power by ordering a new election, with more electors, including important warriors and priests.

Personal life
Among his wives were Ilancueitl, Tezcatlan Miyahuatzin, Huitzilxotzin, and Xiuhcuetzin.

See also

List of Tenochtitlan rulers

References

Bibliography

  "Acamapichtili", Enciclopedia de México, v. 1. Mexico City: 1987.
  García Puron, Manuel, México y sus gobernantes,, v. 1. Mexico City: Joaquín Porrua, 1984.
  Orozco Linares, Fernando, Gobernantes de México. Mexico City: Panorama Editorial, 1985, .
  Tezozómoc, Fernando Alvarado, Crónica mexicana. 1891.
  Tezozómoc, Fernando Alvarado, Crónica mexicayotl. 1949.

External links

 Acamapichtli Entry in The Visual History Project

Aztec nobility
Tenochca tlatoque
Year of birth unknown
1395 deaths
14th-century monarchs in North America
14th-century indigenous people of the Americas
14th century in the Aztec civilization

Acamapichtli


The hornbills (Bucerotidae) are a family of bird found in tropical and subtropical Africa, Asia and Melanesia. They have a long, down-curved bill which is often brightly colored and sometimes has a box-like thing on the upper mandible. Many states of India like Kerala are fond of the hornbills. It is also the state bird of Kerala.

The female hornbill lays her eggs in a hole in a tree. Then, helped by her mate, she seals herself in, covering the entrance with droppings and mud. Only a small slit is left, through which the male gives her food. This keeps the nest safe from snakes until the chicks are grown enough to leave the nest, and learn how to fly.

Related pages
Uchek Langmeidong

References

Bucerotiformes

Hornbill


In sociolinguistics, a register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or particular communicative situation. For example, when speaking officially or in a public setting, an English speaker may be more likely to follow prescriptive norms for formal usage than in a casual setting, for example, by pronouncing words ending in -ing with a velar nasal instead of an alveolar nasal (e.g., walking rather than walkin'), choosing words that are considered more "formal" (such as father vs. dad or child vs. kid), and refraining from using words considered nonstandard, such as ain't and y'all.

As with other types of language variation, there tends to be a spectrum of registers rather than a discrete set of obviously distinct varieties—numerous registers can be identified, with no clear boundaries between them. Discourse categorization is a complex problem, and even according to the general definition of register given above (language variation defined by use rather than user), there are cases where other kinds of language variation, such as regional or age dialect, overlap. Due to this complexity, scholarly consensus has not been reached for the definitions of terms such as register, field, or tenor; different scholars' definitions of these terms often contradict each other.

Additional terms such as diatype, genre, text types, style, acrolect, mesolect, basilect, sociolect, and ethnolect, among many others, may be used to cover the same or similar ground. Some prefer to restrict the domain of the term register to a specific vocabulary (which one might commonly call slang, jargon, argot, or cant), while others argue against the use of the term altogether. Crystal and Davy, for instance, have critiqued the way the term has been used "in an almost indiscriminate manner." These various approaches to the concept of register fall within the scope of disciplines such as sociolinguistics (as noted above), stylistics, pragmatics, and systemic functional grammar.

History and use
The term register was first used by the linguist T. B. W. Reid in 1956, and brought into general currency in the 1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to distinguish among variations in language according to the user (defined by variables such as social background, geography, sex and age), and variations according to use, "in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and choices between them at different times." The focus is on the way language is used in particular situations, such as legalese or motherese, the language of a biology research lab, of a news report, or of the bedroom.

M. A. K. Halliday and R. Hasan interpret register as "the linguistic features which are typically associated with a configuration of situational features—with particular values of the field, mode and tenor." Field for them is "the total event, in which the text is functioning, together with the purposive activity of the speaker or writer; includes subject-matter as one of the elements." Mode is "the function of the text in the event, including both the channel taken by language – spoken or written, extempore or prepared – and its genre, rhetorical mode, as narrative, didactic, persuasive, 'phatic communion', etc." The tenor refers to "the type of role interaction, the set of relevant social relations, permanent and temporary, among the participants involved". These three values – field, mode and tenor – are thus the determining factors for the linguistic features of the text. "The register is the set of meanings, the configuration of semantic patterns, that are typically drawn upon under the specified conditions, along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these meanings." Register, in the view of M. A. K. Halliday and R. Hasan, is one of the two defining concepts of text. "A text is a passage of discourse which is coherent in these two regards: it is coherent with respect to the context of situation, and therefore consistent in register; and it is coherent with respect to itself, and therefore cohesive."

Register as formality scale
One of the most analyzed areas where the use of language is determined by the situation is the formality scale. The term register is often, in language teaching especially, shorthand for formal/informal style, although this is an aging definition. Linguistics textbooks may use the term tenor instead, but increasingly prefer the term style—"we characterise styles as varieties of language viewed from the point of view of formality"—while defining registers more narrowly as specialist language use related to a particular activity, such as academic jargon. There is very little agreement as to how the spectrum of formality should be divided.

In one prominent model, Martin Joos describes five styles in spoken English:
 Frozen: Also referred to as static register. Printed unchanging language, such as biblical quotations; often contains archaisms. Examples are the Pledge of Allegiance of the United States of America and other "static" vocalizations. The wording is exactly the same every time it is spoken.
 Formal: One-way participation; no interruption; technical vocabulary or exact definitions are important; includes presentations or introductions between strangers.
 Consultative: Two-way participation; background information is provided – prior knowledge is not assumed. "Back-channel behavior" such as "uh huh", "I see", etc. is common. Interruptions are allowed. For example teacher/student, doctor/patient, or expert/apprentice.
 Casual: In-group friends and acquaintances; no background information provided; ellipsis and slang common; interruptions common. This is common among friends in a social setting.
 Intimate: Non-public; intonation more important than wording or grammar; private vocabulary. Also includes non-verbal messages. This is most common among family members and close friends.

ISO standard
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has defined the international standard ISO 12620, Management of terminology resources – Data category specifications. This is a registry for registering linguistic terms used in various fields of translation, computational linguistics and natural language processing and defining mappings both between different terms and the same terms used in different systems. The registers identified are:

 bench-level register
 dialect register
 facetious register
 formal register
 in-house register
 ironic register
 neutral register
 slang register
 taboo register
 technical register
 vulgar register

Diatype
The term diatype is sometimes used to describe language variation which is determined by its social purpose. In this formulation, language variation can be divided into two categories: dialect, for variation according to user, and diatype for variation according to use (e.g. the specialised language of an academic journal). This definition of diatype is very similar to those of register. The distinction between dialect and diatype is not always clear; in some cases a language variety may be understood as both a dialect and a diatype. Diatype is usually analysed in terms of field, the subject matter or setting; tenor, the participants and their relationships; and mode, the channel of communication, such as spoken, written or signed.

See also
 Child-directed speech
 Code-switching
 Colloquialism
 Diglossia
 Elderspeak
 Etiquette
 Honorifics (linguistics) - politeness markers
 Honorific speech in Japanese
 Korean speech levels
 Literary language
 Prestige (sociolinguistics)
 Tone (literature)
 Vernacular

Notes

References

External links
 L. Kip Wheeler's Spectrum of Formality and Informality

Systemic functional linguistics
Discourse analysis
Grammar
Language varieties and styles
Diglossia
Linguistics terminology

Register (sociolinguistics)


Kintarō (金太郎, Kintarō? sometimes means "Golden Boy") is a folk (story) hero from Japanese folklore. A child born really strong. He was raised by a girl ogre in a mountain called Mount Ashigara. He became friendly with the animals and imaginary things of the mountain. Later, after catching the terror of the region around Mount Ooe, Shutendouji, he became a great follower of Minamoto no Yorimitsu under the new name Sakata no Kintoki (坂田公時, Sakata no Kintoki?).

Japanese folklore

Kintarō


Daniel Francis Hawkins (born 12 December 1976) is an English guitarist, best known as a guitarist and backing singer of the rock band the Darkness. The band, founded and fronted by his older brother Justin Hawkins, achieved notable mainstream success between 2002 and 2006. He also formerly played lead guitar for Stone Gods.

Musical style and influences
He is influenced by hard rock and glam metal bands, including Led Zeppelin, Aerosmith, Def Leppard, Whitesnake, AC/DC, Queen, Mötley Crüe and Thin Lizzy.

Biography
After moving to Lowestoft, Hawkins attended Kirkley High School and achieved good grades in his GCSEs before leaving his hometown behind for the bright lights and cosmopolitan lifestyle of Camden, London. From a young age, he aspired to be a musician, beginning on drums, moving on to bass and finally mastering the guitar. Back in his early days in his professional career, he worked as a session guitarist for various artists including Natalie Imbruglia. Previous bands include Vital Signs and Empire before The Darkness consisting of Justin Hawkins, Ed Graham, Frankie Poullain and later, Richie Edwards, became a mainstream success. With The Darkness he has won Brits, MTV and Kerrang awards and the prestigious Ivor Novello Award for songwriting in 2004. The Darkness split in 2006.

In 2006, after The Darkness disbanded, Dan regrouped with bandmates Edwards and Graham to begin the band that would, after the recruitment of bassist Toby Macfarlaine, become Stone Gods. He played lead guitar in the band and saw their debut album Silver Spoons & Broken Bones, which was well received by critics. Stone Gods went on hiatus in 2011, preceding the reunion of The Darkness.

Hawkins was involved with the production process during the recording of The Darkness's albums, learning the skills alongside famed producer, Roy Thomas Baker. He co-produced B-sides for One Way Ticket to Hell... and Back. His first credited project was Stone Gods' album Silver Spoons & Broken Bones with the record producer, Nick Brine. Hawkins also built and owns a luxury, commercial residential recording studio 'Leeders Farm' in Wymondham, Norfolk where The Darkness albums were recorded, which is run by Brine and his partner Katy Dann. Bands such as The Dandies, Arctic Monkeys, Seasick Steve, The Rifles, Teenage fanclub, Wild Beasts, and more recently ex Thunder guitarist Luke Morley's new band The Union have all recorded there.

Hawkins is credited with composing the theme tune to the CBeebies television show, Grace's Amazing Machines.

Equipment

Hawkins' guitar of choice is the Gibson Les Paul and his main instrument, both live and in the studio, is his well used 2000 Honeyburst Standard (nicknamed "Dune" after the David Lynch film) which he played extensively in The Darkness and in Stone Gods. Over the years he has owned and played several Les Paul Standards and currently tours with 6-8 of them including a second 2000 Honeyburst (nicknamed 'Terry'), a Wine Red 1997 Standard (known as UB40 which is used for the songs 'Givin' Up' and 'Friday Night'), a late 1970s Sunburst B-stock formerly owned by the guitarist from the band Sputnik), a 2003 Goldtop (belonging to his guitar tech, but borrowed for tours), a late 1990s Standard re-finished in white, and a 2013 Honeyburst Flametop.

During 2003-2006 he used a Gretsch Elliot Easton solid body for the song "Black Shuck" but this was sold to fund the recording of the second Stone Gods album. Another guitar that has not been seen during this reunion is a 2000 Standard in black (nicknamed 'Black Shuck') that was previously also used live. He also owns a Gibson Les Paul Custom Black Beauty which was originally handbuilt for Jimmy Page, but Page decided it was too heavy and rejected the instrument; Page is one of Hawkins's biggest influences. It is fitted with a Fishman Powerblend pickup and is used for the song "Love Is Only a Feeling".  It is also known that when Dan was waiting for the arrival of a different humbucker to put into the instrument his then-guitar tech said that he had a Kent Armstrong prototype humbucker that was taken out of one of Angus Young's Gibson SG's.  He fitted Angus's old humbucker to the guitar and liked the sound so much that he left it in.

Among a variety of amplifiers, his primary choices are Marshalls, particularly the 1959 SLP and Handwired Re-Issue models (as is exemplified in videos of The Darkness live at The Astoria, London in 2003). For his 'dirtier' sounds in Stone Gods, he played a Marshall JCM 800 Re-Issue head through Marshall 1960AX/BX cabinets, combined with a Diezel Herbert head. He has also been seen using both a Vox AC30 combo and a Wizard Modern Classic head to complement his several Marshall stacks. Effects wise, a vintage Ibanez TS-808 Tube Screamer pedal is his mainstay for overdrive, but photos of his 2012/2013 touring rig show additional pedals from Electro-Harmonix, MXR, Strymon and Devi Ever among others.

A large amount of Hawkins' distinct tone comes from his use of heavy gauge strings. He uses Ernie Ball Beefy Slinkys (typically; 11, 15, 22p, 30w, 42w, 54w) and Jim Dunlop Maxi Grip 0.73mm picks.

References

1976 births
Living people
People from Chertsey
People from Lowestoft
English rock guitarists
Lead guitarists
Rhythm guitarists
The Darkness (band) members
People educated at East Point Academy
21st-century British guitarists

Dan Hawkins (musician)


Composite particles are subatomic particles that are made of more than one quark. Simple particles like protons are actually composites of multiple quarks. Protons are known as baryons, which means that they are made of exactly three quarks. Baryons are in a family called Hadrons, which simply means that they are made of quarks. The only other subcategory of Hadrons is Mesons, which are made of one quark and one antiquark.

Since they are made of quarks, composite particles are not so much hard balls, but rather like clouds that contain these quarks. Depending on the energy contained by the quarks, the quarks of a proton vibrate, and this gives a proton a size larger than the actual size of the three quarks combined.

For more information see: subatomic particles, elementary particles, and the composite particles on the 'List of particles' wiki pages.

Subatomic particles

en:List of particles#Composite particles

Composite particle


Black comedy (also known as dark comedy or dark humor) is getting humor (something funny or comical) from something serious. It is known for its use of very sensitive subjects, such as war, tragedy, disease,  death and suffering of the innocent. Black comedy is also a form of satire that uses irony and mocking. It may cause a wide variety of emotional reactions.

The term black humor (from the French humour noir) was coined by the surrealist André Breton in 1935.

Some famous examples of black comedy include South Park, Waiting for Godot, Happy Tree Friends, Charles Addams' cartoons, Catch-22, Dr. Strangelove, Harold and Maude, and plays by Joe Orton, the novel film and early TV episodes of M*A*S*H, Itchy and Scratchy from The Simpsons, cartoons by John Callahan, Lasagna Cat, It's Such a Beautiful Day, SuperMarioLogan, SMG4, Moral Orel, Don't Hug Me I'm Scared, etc.

References

Black comedy