A vineyard designated wine is a wine produced from the product of a single vineyard with that vineyard's name appearing on the wine label.

Throughout the history of winemaking and viticulture, the differences in quality between one plot of land and another have been observed with the boundaries of these vineyard generally well demarcated. In Burgundy, the vineyards of the area are classified with the highest quality vineyards receiving the ranking of Grand cru. The names of these vineyards, such as Montrachet, will often appear on the wine label of Burgundy wines in bolder, more prominent print than even the name of the producer.

In the United States, the appearance of vineyards name on wine labels is a relatively recent phenomenon with one of the first vineyard designated premium wines in California being the 1966 vintage Heitz Martha's Vineyard Cabernet Sauvignon. Later examples include the 1975 Robert Young Vineyard Chardonnay from the Sonoma wine estate of Chateau St. Jean. On the East Coast, Unionville Vineyards produces single vineyard wines, primarily Chardonnay.  Under US wine laws, if the name of vineyard appears on the label at least 95% of the grapes used to make the wine must come from that vineyard.

References

External links
T. Caputo "Vineyard-Designated Wines Showcase Growers" Wine Review Online, August 5, 2008
A. Goldfarb "Trademarked Vineyards: A hedge against the devaluation of "Vineyard Designates" Appellation America, May 17, 2007

Viticulture
Wine terminology

Vineyard designated wine


Fellowship of the Royal Society (FRS, ForMemRS and HonFRS) is an award granted by the judges of the Royal Society of London to individuals who have made a 'substantial contribution to the improvement of natural knowledge, including mathematics, engineering science, and medical science.

Isaac Newton was one of the earliest fellows of the Royal Society, elected in 1672

Fellowship of the Society, the oldest known scientific academy in continuous existence, is a significant honor. It has been awarded to many eminent scientists throughout history, including Isaac Newton (1672), Charles Darwin (1839), Michael Faraday (1824), Ernest Rutherford (1903), Srinivasa Ramanujan (1918), Albert Einstein (1921), Winston Churchill (1941), Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1944), Dorothy Hodgkin (1947), Alan Turing (1951) and Francis Crick (1959). More recently, fellowship has been awarded to Stephen Hawking (1974), Tim Hunt (1991), Elizabeth Blackburn (1992), Tim Berners-Lee (2001), Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (2003), Atta-ur Rahman (2006), Andre Geim (2007), James Dyson (2015), Ajay Kumar Sood (2015), Subhash Khot (2017), Elon Musk (2018), and around 8,000 others in total, including over 280 Nobel Laureates since 1900. As of October 2018, there are approximately 1689 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members, of which over 60 are Nobel Laureates.

Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as "the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar" with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year.

1663
Science awards
Royal Society
British awards

Fellows of the Royal Society


The W74 warhead, also known as XM517, was an American nuclear artillery shell that was cancelled before production.

Responding to a 1969 United States Army request for a replacement for the W48 155 mm artillery shell, the Los Alamos National Laboratory started development of the W74.  However, by mid 1973 the program was discontinued without producing a weapon for general production.  The primary reasons for the cancellation of the W74 were the obsolete technology used and high cost.  The weapon only employed fission, had no improvements in accuracy, and had no capability to be further developed as an "enhanced radiation" (neutron) device; the result was a weapon that did not provide new capabilities, all with a per shell cost of $425,000 (1973).

W75
The W75 was the 8 inch (203mm) equivalent of the W74. It was viewed by many as being an obsolete system, expensive to deploy and not worth pursuing. Development was started in 1973 at the Livermore Lab and terminated two years later.

References

* Hansen, Chuck, "Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945" (CD-ROM & download available). PDF-2.67 Mb. 2,600 pages, Sunnyvale, California, Chucklea Publications, 1995, 2007.  (2nd Ed.)

Nuclear warheads of the United States
Linear implosion nuclear weapons
Obsolete technologies

W74 (nuclear warhead)


Sir Currimbhoy Ebrahim (or  Currimbhoy Ebrahim), 3rd Baronet, JP (born 1903- died 1952), was a prominent businessman, philanthropist and political leader from Bombay, British India.

He succeeded his father Sir Mohamedbhoy Ebrahim as Baronet, and as managing director of many family-owned firms. He also became director or chairman of many charitable trusts in the Bombay area and in 1936, started the Muslim Peace and Relief Committee. In the same year, he became a member of the All India Muslim League and an active political leader of this party.

1903 births
1952 deaths
Indian businesspeople
Politicians from Mumbai
Leaders of All India Muslim League
Baronets

Currimbhoy Ebrahim


SHA-1 is a mathematical algorithm to hash a certain string. It creates a one-way change from the source string to the result. It is commonly used for security and data loss, but there may be other cases. Computer programs exist to crack SHA-1 hashes by hashing random strings and storing the result. An example SHA-1 hash is "664add438097fbd4307f814de8e62a10f8905588" (the string "Wikipedia" hashed using SHA-1).

Algorithms

SHA-1


Nestorianism is a movement within Christianity. The idea behind the doctrine was that there were two different persons of Jesus. One of them was the man Jesus, the other was the aspect of son of God, or Logos. Perhaps the most prominent supporter of the idea was Nestorius, archbishop of Constantinople. Nestorius lived from about 380 to about 450 AD. The Council of Ephesus condemned this view in 431. This led to a split of the church, into the Assyrian Church of the East and the Byzantine Church.

For this reason, the Assyrian Church of the East is sometimes called Nestorian. The church holds the view that Christ has two essences (qnome) that are united in one person (parsopa).

The only two churches that teach Nestorianism today are the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Church of the East & Abroad.

Ancient Christianity

Nestorianism


Landsbanki (literally "national bank"), also commonly known as Landsbankinn (literally "the national bank") which is now the name of the current rebuilt bank (here called "New Landsbanki"), was one of the largest Icelandic commercial banks that failed as part of the 2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis when its subsidiary sparked the Icesave dispute.  On October 7, 2008, the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority took control of Landsbanki and created a new bank for all the domestic operations called Nyi Landsbanki (new Landsbanki) so that the domestic bank could continue to operate, the new bank continued to operate under the Landsbanki name in Iceland.

Prior to its failure the bank was one of the largest Icelandic banks with assets of ISK 3,058 billion in December 2007 and a market capitalisation of ISK 383 billion.  It been in operation since 1885 and had been instrumental in the economic development of business and industry in Iceland.  From 1927 to 1961 the bank had acted as the central bank, until it was replaced by the Central Bank of Iceland, although this interest was primarily directed towards note issuance rather than monetary policy.  The bank had been state owned and was privatized in stages between 1998 and 2003.

Landsbanki had positioned itself as Iceland's primary provider of general and specialised financial services to individuals, corporate entities and institutions. The bank had the country's most extensive branch network with 40 branches and sub-branches.  At the end of 2006, Landsbanki provided close to 40% of corporate lending in Iceland, and for around 60% of companies listed on the OMX Iceland Stock Exchange, Landsbanki was their principal bank or one of two banks with whom they did business. The leading provider of M&A, derivatives, equity and fixed income services.

It started to expanded overseas in 2000 through a number of acquisitions and organic growth, the expansion would lead to the creation of its Icesave subsidiary in 2006 which would ultimately seal its fate.

References

Landsbanki


Gerðr (or Gerda) is a jötunn and goddess in Norse mythology. She is the daughter of the jötunn (giant) Gymir and Aurboda; the sister of Beli; the wife of Frey, whose servant Skirnir, wooed and won her for his master. Gerðr spurned apples and gold but finally gave in at the terrible threat of eternal cold and loneliness, thus personifying winter giving in at last to the warm sunshine of spring. The nine nights of waiting between her consent to become Frey's bride and the actual union is symbolic of the long nine months of hard winter in northern countries before spring arrives. In some mythologies the radiance of Gerda personifies the aurora borealis (northern lights).

Norse gods and goddesses

Gerðr


A discrete cosine transform is a math process that can be used to make things like MP3s, and JPEGs smaller. It does this by breaking the sound or picture into different frequencies.

One way to calculate a discrete cosine transform is to use the Fourier transformation.
"Discrete" means that it works on discrete-time signals (sampled data).

Sounds

For sounds, frequencies are the same as simple tones. You can make any sound by playing several tones at the same time. The discrete cosine transform is a way to find out which tones to play in order to make a given sound. The only difference between the tones is their pitch.

Human ears are good at hearing low pitches, but bad at hearing high pitches. If you use the DCT to break a sound into tones, you do not need to be as careful when playing the higher tones because people cannot hear them as well. MP3 encoders (programs which make MP3s) use this fact to make the sound smaller.

Pictures

With pictures, frequencies are like stripes and checker patterns. Just like with sound, you can make any picture out of different frequencies. Also like sound, people's eyes are not as good at seeing high frequencies (hard edges and fine grain) as low frequencies (solid colors and smooth shades). JPEG encoders use this fact almost exactly the same way as MP3 encoders do.

Digital signal processing
Harmonic analysis

Discrete cosine transform


Ferruccio Busoni (1 April 1866 - 27 July 1924) was an Italian composer, pianist, teacher and conductor.

His life
Ferruccio Busoni was born in Empoli in Tuscany in Italy.  His parents were both musicians.  His father played the clarinet and his mother played the piano.  They were often touring when Ferruccio was young.  He spent most of his childhood in Trieste.

Busoni was a child prodigy. He first played the piano in public at the age of seven. Two years later he played some of his own compositions in Vienna.  The composer Franz Liszt heard him.  He also met Liszt, Johannes Brahms and Anton Rubinstein.

For a short time he studied in Graz, then in Leipzig. He taught in several places including Helsinki, where he met Jean Sibelius as well as a young lady was to be his wife. In 1890 he won the Anton Rubinstein Competition with his Concert Piece for Piano and Orchestra.  He taught in Moscow in 1890, and in the United States from 1891 to 1894 where he also toured as a virtuoso pianist.

In 1894 he went to Berlin where he stayed.  He performed as a pianist and conductor and taught many gifted pianists.
He wrote a book called Sketch of a New Aesthetic of Music.  He did not agree with the strict rules that were used by most teachers for teaching composition.  He thought that music was "born to be free".  His thinking influenced his composition pupils who included Percy Grainger, Kurt Weill and Edgard Varèse.

During World War I, Busoni lived first in Bologna, where he was director of the conservatory, and later in Zürich. He refused to perform in any countries that were involved in the war. He returned to Berlin in 1920 where he gave master classes in composition.

Busoni died in Berlin from a kidney disease.

Music

Busoni's music is based on the Romantic style, but it also starts to sound quite modern.  He uses a lot of complicated counterpoint. Sometimes it is quite atonal.  A lot of it is based on music of the past.  He made many transcriptions, including piano transcriptions of several works by Johann Sebastian Bach.

Busoni was a virtuoso pianist, and his works for piano are difficult to perform. His Piano Concerto is extremely hard to play as well as being extremely long (about 70 minutes).  The British pianist John Ogdon, who played it, called it "the longest and grandest piano concerto of all".

Some of his best known works include his suite for orchestra Turandot which he made into an opera, and his opera Doktor Faust which he had not finished when he died.  It was finished by his student Philipp Jarnach, but in the 1980s Anthony Beaumont made a better version of it.

Recordings
Busoni made a number of piano rolls, and a small number of these have been re-recorded onto CD. People who knew him disagree about whether these piano roll recordings show his playing at his best.

1866 births
1924 deaths
20th-century Italian composers
Deaths from kidney disease
Disease-related deaths in Berlin
Italian conductors
Musicians from Tuscany
Italian pianists
Romantic composers

Ferruccio Busoni


Emperor Takakura (20 September 1161 – 30 January 1181) was the 80th Emperor of Japan. He was the emperor before Emperor Antoku. Towards the end of his reign, he summoned a champion. A ruling clan, the Taira clan, showed their power by announcing their one year old son as Emperor. He was then renamed Emperor Antoku. He was not the only emperor at the time for Emperor Takakura was still Emperor. However he was given all the same privileges and power. He was there in case Emperor Takakura died, then there would straight away be another emperor in his place.

Emperors of Japan
1161 births
1181 deaths

Emperor Takakura


The voltaic pile was the first ever battery. It was invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist.

How the voltaic pile is made

The picture to the right shows a voltaic pile: it's a pile, or "stack" of discs, made from 3 different materials. Some of the discs are made from copper, some from zinc. Other metals can be used; but it's important that there are two different kinds of metal. There are also discs made from leather, fabric, or cardboard: these are the green discs in the picture. They must  be soaked, or "made wet", with something acidic.

Note how the discs follow a pattern: first a disc made from one of the metals, then a cardboard or leather disc, then a disc made from the other kind of metal. Then the same kinds of discs, in the same order, again and again. In the picture, you can see how one "set" of zinc disc, cardboard disc and copper disc has been "pushed" a little to the right. Such a "set" is called a cell: the voltaic pile in the picture has 6 cells. The two different metal discs in a cell will each have a voltage across it; about 1.1 volts. Stacking cells in a pile adds to the voltage of the cells, and from the discs at the top and bottom of the voltaic pile in the picture, there is a voltage of 6 × 1.1 volts = 6.6 volts.

How the voltaic pile works
The acid in the leather, fabric, or cardboard discs will try to dissolve some of the metal in the zinc discs. To be dissolved, a zinc atom must give away 2 of its electrons. The zinc atom then becomes an ion: Ions can "go where they want to" in the liquid acid. They go through the leather/cardboard disc, and meet the copper disc. The zinc ions are "missing" the two electrons they left behind, so when they get to the copper disc, they each "steal" two electrons to replace the missing ones. When they "steal" electrons, the zinc ions turn back from ions to "normal" zinc atoms. Saltwater can also be used in the cardboard, fabric, or leather, in a voltaic pile using copper and zinc plates.

The result is that the zinc disc ends up with a lot of electrons "left behind" by the zinc ions, and the copper disc ends up "missing" a lot of electrons "stolen" by the zinc ions. To use the electricity that comes from the pile, we must connect something that uses electricity to the two discs at the top and bottom of the pile. Doing so gives the electrons left behind in the zinc disc a "chance" to go to the copper disc. At the copper disc, the electrons "replace" those that were "stolen" from the copper by the zinc.

How Volta got the idea

Luigi Galvani was an Italian, working with anatomy. About 1786 he had seen something interesting: he had dissected (cut apart) a frog, and when he touched one of its legs with two tools made from different metals, it moved even though the frog had been killed before the dissection.

Galvani himself thought this had something to do with the leg, and not with the metal tools he used. Volta saw that the tools must be made from two different metals for the leg to move. Volta also found that he could make a little electricity just by making two different metals touch each other. He thought that the two different metals gave something he called contact tension, and the electricity came from that contact tension. Galvani and Volta talked a lot about this, but they never agreed.

Volta tried to make use of it all. He made experiments with (and tried out) rods of different kinds of metals, in wine carafes (a kind of bottle). This way, he found that the best metals to use, are silver and zinc. He could also make it better by using flat discs instead of rods of metal. This is because the discs have more surface area than the rod; this gives more "room" for the zinc ions to leave one disc and get in touch with the other.

Originally, Volta put an extra disc of each metal at the top and bottom of the stack. These were later proved to be unnecessary.

What happened after the invention
Before the voltaic pile was invented, people could make only static electricity. With the voltaic pile, they could make electricity that keeps flowing for some time. Along with this, it was an invention that could be easily made. With this kind of electricity, scientists could do a lot of "new" things. For instance, when new kinds of metal were discovered, the electricity from a voltaic pile could "sort" chemicals. This way, small but very pure bits of these "new" metals could be made.

Batteries

Voltaic pile


The Balclutha Road Bridge, which spans the Clutha River in Balclutha, South Otago, New Zealand, is one of the best-known road bridges in New Zealand's South Island. The bridge is often simply known as "The Clutha Bridge", despite the fact that there are numerous bridges across the country's second longest river.

Built between 1933 and 1935, this bowstring bridge was designed by W. L. Newnham to be earthquake and flood resistant, thereby safeguarding it against the two most common natural disasters to occur in southern New Zealand.

The bridge is built from reinforced concrete, with six parabolic curved spans, each of 36.6 metres in length, and a total bridge length of 244.1 metres. A carriageway of 6.7 metres width is flanked on either side by a footpath of 1.4 metres; its total width is 11.8 metres. The bridge carries the South Island's principal highway, State Highway 1 on its route between Dunedin and Invercargill.

The bridge is the third road bridge to stand at or close to this spot. The first, constructed in 1868, was destroyed in massive floods ten years later when a bridge situated upstream at Beaumont was swept downriver and collided with it. A second bridge was constructed in 1881, but was unsuitable for the needs of motorised transport and was eventually replaced by the current structure.

On 13 December 1990 the Balclutha Road Bridge was classified as a Category I Historic Place by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust.

Another bridge, the Balclutha Rail Bridge, stands several hundred metres downstream.

References

Bridges completed in 1935
Bridges over the Clutha River / Mata-Au
Concrete bridges in New Zealand
Southern Scenic Route
Tied arch bridges
Heritage New Zealand Category 1 historic places in Otago
Balclutha, New Zealand
State Highway 1 (New Zealand)
1930s architecture in New Zealand

Balclutha Road Bridge


Yanliang District (, pinyin:Yánliáng Qū) is a district of Xi'an, Shaanxi, China. Its name is shortened from "Luyan Liangshan" (闾阎良善, meaning "good for living place"). It is in northeast of Xi'an, and  from the center of Xi'an. Weinan Municipality is to the east and north. Xianyang Municipality is to the west. Lintong District is to the south. It is famous for making airplanes. It is far from center of Xi'an, but its economy is good. The district covers . As of November 2010, 278,604 people lived there.

Shaanxi
Districts of China

Yanliang District


Tyranni is a suborder of passerine birds. They are also known as the suboscines. There are about 1,000 species in this suborder. Most of them live in South America.

These birds are different to the passeri (songbirds) because they have a different syrinx. This is part of the bird's voice box which makes bird song. Scientists have also done studies on DNA and fossils to show that the tyranni suborder is different to the passeri suborder.

Taxonomy
The tyranni suborder can be split into three infraorders: Acanthisittides, Eurylaimides, and Tyrannide.

The first group, the Acanthisittidae, are also known as the New Zealand "wrens". At the moment, scientists are unsure whether they should belong to the tyranni or not. Some scientists think they are too different and they should be in their own suborder.

The Eurylaimides contains two superfamilies: the Eurylaimoidea and the Pittoidea. The Euryaimoidea contains three families. They are also known as the Old World suboscines. Most of them live in tropical places around the Indian Ocean. One species, the Broad-billed Sapayoa, lives in the Americas. The three families are:
 Superfamily: Eurylaimoidea
 Eurylaimidae: broadbills
 Philepittidae: asities
 Sapayoidae: Broad-billed Sapayoa
 Superfamily: Pittoidea
 Pittidae: pittas

The Tyrannides contain all sub-oscine birds from the Americas, except the Broad-billed Sapayoa:
 Furnariidae: ovenbirds and woodcreepers
 Thamnophilidae: antbirds
 Formicariidae: antpittas and antthrushes
 Rhinocryptidae: tapaculos
 Conopophagidae: gnateaters and gnatpittas
 Tyrannidae: tyrant-flycatchers
 Tityridae: tityras and allies
 Cotingidae: cotingas
 Pipridae: manakins

Footnotes

Tyranni


Edward Paul Abbey (January 29, 1927 – March 14, 1989) was an American nature writer. He is known for books including Desert Solitaire, Black Sun, The Journey Home, The Fool's Progress, and Hayduke Lives.

Early life and education
He was born in the state of Pennsylvania in the United States in 1927. He grew up in Pennsylvania, in a small town in the mountains near the city of Pittsburgh. He later moved to the American Southwest and wrote several books. He spent most of his adult life in the states of New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. Most of his books are about the Southwest.

During World War II, he was in high school. He took a trip hitchhiking to see the American West. During his trip through Arizona and New Mexico, he fell in love with the Southwest. He enlisted near the end of World War II and was stationed in Italy as a military policeman. When he came back to the United States, he moved to New Mexico and got a college degree. Then he started writing books.

Writing works
Abbey's first book was titled Jonathan Troy. It did not sell well and Abbey did not like it very much, and it was taken out of print. His second book was The Brave Cowboy. This book sold better and made him known as a writer of western fiction. It was also made into a movie called Lonely are the Brave. Fire on the Mountain was his third book. The Brave Cowboy and Fire on the Mountain are about cowboys who loved the old American West and did not like it becoming modernized.

He moved to New Jersey for a short time but did not like it, and moved back to the Southwest. He took a job as a park ranger in Utah. He wrote about his job as a park ranger in his fourth book, Desert Solitaire. Desert Solitaire became a bestseller and made him a popular nature writer. He also took other jobs in the Southwest. He worked as a fire lookout at the Grand Canyon in Arizona, and as a park ranger in other National Parks.

After Desert Solitaire became a bestseller, he wrote several books of nature essays. Some of these include The Journey Home, Abbey's Road, Down the River, Beyond the Wall, and One Life At a Time, Please. He also kept writing novels. His next novel was Black Sun, which is about a fire lookout at the Grand Canyon falling in love but then seeing his girlfriend disappear. His next novel after that was The Monkey Wrench Gang. This was his most controversial novel because it was about four people using sabotage to stop development in the Southwest. He also wrote a science fiction novel called Good News.

His last two novels were The Fool's Progress and Hayduke Lives. The Fool's Progress is a long novel that is based on Edward Abbey's own life. Hayduke Lives is a sequel to The Monkey Wrench Gang.

Abbey died in 1989 and was buried in the desert in Arizona.

Other websites

 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Edward Abbey
 Pennsylvania state historical marker for Abbey at Home

1927 births
1989 deaths
Writers from Pennsylvania
Green thinkers
American anarchists
American environmentalists
American novelists
American philosophers
American political writers
Yale University alumni

Edward Abbey


The Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece () was a provisional regime that existed in eastern Central Greece during the Greek War of Independence.

Background
During the first stages of the Greek Revolution against the Ottoman Empire, there existed no overall authority over the rebels. Each region separately elected its own assemblies and tried to put together an administration to coordinate the struggle. One of the first such entities was established in eastern continental Greece ("Roumeli").

History
The uprising began in March, and established itself with the capture of the provincial capital, Salona (modern Amfissa), on 27 March 1821. The Ottoman garrison held out in the citadel until April 10, when the Greeks took it. At the same time, the Greeks suffered a defeat at the Battle of Alamana against the army of Omer Vryonis, which resulted in the death of Athanasios Diakos. But the Ottoman advance was stopped at the inn of Gravia, under the leadership of Odysseas Androutsos, who was subsequently named commander-in-chief of Eastern Greece. Vryonis turned towards Boeotia and sacked Livadia, awaiting reinforcements before proceeding towards the Morea. These forces, 8,000 men under Beyran Pasha, were however met and defeated at the Battle of Vassilika, on August 26. This defeat forced Vryonis too to withdraw, securing both Eastern Greece and the Morea.

The Administration of Eastern Greece

Vryonis' defeat paved the way for the political organization of the freed territories. In 15–20 November 1821, a council was held in Salona, where the main local notables and military chiefs participated. Under the direction of Theodoros Negris, they set down a proto-constitution for the region, the "Legal Order of Eastern Continental Greece" (Νομική Διάταξις της Ανατολικής Χέρσου Ελλάδος), and established a governing council, the Areopagus, composed of 71 notables from eastern Continental Greece as well as the regions of Thessaly and Macedonia, where the Greek uprisings would soon be suppressed.

Officially, the Areopagus was superseded by the central Provisional Administration, established in January 1822 after the First National Assembly, but the council continued its existence and exercised considerable authority, albeit in the name of the national government. However, the relationship was often tense, especially as Greece soon entered a phase of virtual civil war.

Members
 Ioannis Filonos from Livadeia
 Vassilakis Kalkos from Livadeia
 Rigas Kontorigas from Salona
 Panagiotis Kondilis from Lidoriki
 Neofytos Talantiou from Atalanti
 Georgios Ainian from Patratziki
 Konstantinos Sakelion from Agrafa
 Ioannis Skandalidis from Macedonia
 Anthimos Gazis from Thessaly
 Drosos Mansolas from Thessaly
 Theodoros Negris, President of the Areopagus, from Zitouni
 Panousis Sabontzis from Thebes
 Ioannis Eirinaios from Athens
 Konstantinos Chatziioannou from Chalkida

1825 disestablishments
Political institutions of the Greek War of Independence
States and territories established in 1821
Historical legislatures in Greece
1821 establishments in Greece
Central Greece in the Greek War of Independence

Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece


Buildings and structures

Buildings

 c. 1500 – Chateau de Blois largely rebuilt.
 1500 – St. Anne's Church, Vilnius is completed.
 1501
 Expansion of Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh.
 Chichester Cross is built in Chichester, England.
 Construction of the Jerónimos Monastery at Belém (Lisbon) in Portugal begins; it will take 100 years to complete.
 Construction of spire of St James' Church, Louth, Lincolnshire, England begins; it will take until c.1515 to complete.
 1501/2 – Construction of the Ducal Palace of Vila Viçosa in the Duchy of Braganza (Portugal) begins.
 1502
 Tempietto, San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, designed by Donato Bramante, is built.
 Construction of St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk, begun in 1379 by Heinrich Ungeradin, is completed with the installation of vaulting by Heinrich Haetzl.
 Vladislav Hall in Prague Castle, designed by Benedikt Rejt, is completed.
 Expansion of Great Malvern Priory in England is completed.
 1503 – All Saints' Church, Wittenberg (Schlosskirche) is consecrated.
 1504 – Matsumoto Castle in Japan built.

 1505 – Archangel Cathedral in Moscow begun.
 1505–1508 – Fondaco dei Tedeschi on the Grand Canal (Venice) rebuilt by Fra Giovanni Giocondo.
 1506 – Construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome to the design of Bramante begins.
 1507
 Seville Cathedral consecrated.
 Construction of the church of Santa Maria di Loreto, Rome, to the design of Antonio da Sangallo the Younger begins.
 Rebuilding of Wawel Castle in Kraków begins.
 1508
 Church of San Rocco, Venice, designed by Bartolomeo Bon, begun in 1489, is completed.
 Church of Santa Maria della Consolazione (Todi) is begun.
 1509
 Palazzo Loredan on the Grand Canal (Venice), begun by Mauro Codussi in 1481, is completed.
 Fugger Chapel of St. Anne's Church, Augsburg, Swabia, is begun.

Events
 1503: November 1 – Pope Julius II becomes Pope; he will be patron to Bramante, Raphael, and Michelangelo.

Births
 1507: October 1 – Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, Italian Mannerist architect (died 1573)
 1508: November 30 – Andrea Palladio, Italian architect (died 1580)

Deaths
 c. 1501 – Francesco di Giorgio Martini, Sienese painter, sculptor, architect and military engineer (born 1439)
 1503: June 24 – Reginald Bray, English Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and architect (born 1440)
 c. 1506/07 – Conrad Pflüger, Swabian architect (born c. 1450)

References

Architecture

1500s in architecture


Gordon J. "Pete" McCann (1908 – January 18, 2000) was a Canadian Thoroughbred horse trainer. He was born in East York, now part of the city of Toronto. Known to his family as Gordon, in racing circles he was nicknamed Pete.

Pete McCann began his career as a jockey. He raced at  Oriental Park Racetrack in Havana, Cuba where he was a leading jockey in 1926. He rode with success in Toronto then in 1940 took out his trainer's license and won his first King's Plate that same year with Willie the Kid.

McCann was hired by E. P. Taylor as head trainer at Windfields Farm in 1950 where he would spend the next twenty-one years. During his training career, McCann conditioned seven Canadian Hall of Fame horses and six horses that won Canadian Horse of the Year honours including Canadian Triple Crown winners New Providence in 1959 and Canebora in 1963. He also trained six winners of Canada's most prestigious race, the Queen's Plate and overall won seventeen races that now comprise the Canadian Classics. He also is tied for having trained the most winners with three in the Canadian International Stakes.

In 1971, McCann retired from training after Taylor divided the stable into Canadian and United States divisions under separate head trainers.  Quickly bored, he returned to racing with a small stable of his own.

McCann was inducted into the Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame in 1979. He died of pneumonia at age 91.

References
 Gordon J. McCann at the Canadian Horse Racing and Hall of Fame
 January 20, 2000 Thoroughbred Times.com article titled Top trainer McCann dead
 Windfields Farm online

Canadian horse trainers
Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Sportspeople from Toronto
People from East York, Toronto
1908 births
2000 deaths

Gordon J. McCann


Disability is a condition that a person has which limits them in some way. These conditions may be congenital (present at birth), cognitive (to do with the brain), developmental (appears as the person develops), physical (for example, caused by an accident or infection), sensory, or a combination of factors.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines disability as:

"long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder [a person's] full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others".

Invisible disabilities, or hidden disabilities are disabilities that are not immediately obvious. Some examples of invisible disabilities are intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, mental disorders, asthma, epilepsy, allergies, migraines, arthritis, and chronic fatigue syndrome.

People with a disability or disabilities may need to use special equipment that can help them. This can include using a wheelchair, a cane or walking stick, hearing aids, a teletypewriter (TTY) and using specially designed software and hardware for the personal computer.

People who use a wheelchair cannot walk up or down stairs in a building. They need to use ramps and elevators (lifts)  going into and moving around in a building. Wide doorways and accessible toilets also make it easier for people with physical disabilities to use.

Prejudice towards people with disabilities is common. This is sometimes called 'ableism'. People with such a prejudice are called an ablecentrists.

Some categories of disability
 Physical disabilities limit the way the body works.
 Visual impairment is when the eyesight of a person is affected. (e.g. blind)
 Hearing impairment is when a person cannot hear normally. (e,g. deaf)
 Intellectual disability is when a person's brain is limited and cannot function at the same level as another person of their age.
 A developmental disability can limit how a person processes information and thinks.

Related pages
Accessibility
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
Neurodiversity

Other websites

Guardian disability page

References

Disability


Henry Southard (October 7, 1747 – May 22, 1842) was a United States Representative from the state of New Jersey.

Southard was born in Hempstead, Long Island, New York. He moved with his parents to Basking Ridge, New Jersey in 1755, where he attended the common schools and worked on a farm.  Later, Southard served as a private and later as wagon master during the American Revolution. After the war, he engaged in agriculture, before serving as a Justice of the Peace from 1787 to 1792.  Later, he served as a member of the New Jersey General Assembly, from 1797 to 1799 and again in 1811. He was elected as a Democratic-Republican to the 7th United States Congress and to the four succeeding Congresses, where he served from March 4, 1801 to March 3, 1811.  During the 11th Congress, Southard was Chairman of the Committee on Revisal and Unfinished Business.  He was later elected to the 14th, 15th, and 16th Congresses, serving from March 4, 1815 to March 3, 1821. After leaving Congress for good, Southard returned to farming. He died in Basking Ridge in Somerset County, New Jersey, and was interred in Basking Ridge Cemetery.

Henry Southard was the father of Isaac Southard and Samuel Lewis Southard.

External links

1747 births
1842 deaths
Members of the New Jersey General Assembly
Democratic-Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from New Jersey
Politicians from Somerset County, New Jersey

Henry Southard


Concerned Women for America is a conservative Christian activist group in the United States. It is against abortion, sex education, contraception, feminism, pornography, stem cell research, and LGBT rights. CWA was founded by Beverly LaHaye, the wife of Christian minister Timothy LaHaye around 1979 as a response to activities from the National Organization for Women and a 1978 Barbara Walters interview with the feminist Betty Friedan. The president and CEO is Penny Young Nance.

Christian organizations based in the United States
Political organizations based in the United States
1979 establishments in the United States

Concerned Women for America


NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) spectroscopy is a type of spectroscopy that allows chemists to see the structure of a molecule. Certain atoms' nuclei have certain magnetic properties when placed in a strong magnetic field. Atoms like carbon, hydrogen, and fluorine can be detected in this way.

How an NMR works
A chemical sample is prepared by placing a tiny amount of the sample in an NMR tube. It is dissolved in a special solvent like heavy water (see deuterium) or chloroform-d, then the tube is placed into the NMR machine. The machine is a large magnet, like an MRI. Some atoms in the sample will become excited when it is in the magnet, and when the sample is removed, the atoms will go back to a lower energy state. A computer connected to the NMR can detect this change in excitement and it will cause different peaks and bumps to appear on the NMR diagram. A chemist can print this diagram and study the various peaks.

Most NMR machines can only detect excitement from one type of atom. For example, an 1H NMR can only "see" hydrogen atoms. A 13C NMR can only see activity from carbon atoms.

NMR Diagram
An NMR diagram displays an x-axis with units of parts per million, or "shift." Peaks that occur farther to the left in the diagram (these peaks are said to be shifted downfield) represent hydrogen atoms that are closer to electronegative atoms like oxygen or nitrogen, or connected to an aromatic (benzene) ring. Hydrogen atoms that are adjacent to other hydrogen atoms can split peaks as well. If there are n hydrogen atoms "next door" to a single one, that single one's peak will be split into n+1 peaks. For example, if a hydrogen atom is adjacent to three others, that hydrogen atom will be split into 4 smaller peaks, called a quartet. Hydrogen atoms that are part of O-H or N-H bonds won't be split, but they will appear on the diagram as a rounded lump, called a broad peak. By looking at all these factors in a diagram, a chemist can figure out what compounds are in their sample, and they can determine if the compound they have made is pure.

Physical chemistry
Spectroscopy

NMR spectroscopy


Interior design tries to make interior spaces better to live and work in. It uses principles of design and organization of interior spaces, color and furnishings.

Goals and planning
The goal of interior design is to create an environment for living that is functional, efficient and aesthetically pleasing for the occupants. Before starting any old house renovation or construction of a new building, ensure proper planning for that. Plan and select a budget for renovation first. Then depending on your budget, choose some designs. After selecting some designs, discuss with an expert. These steps are crucial for you and the expert as well. When the interior designer will know your planned budget for renovation, they will also prepare the steps as per your budget and requirement.

History
Interior design is universal among people of all breeds and plants, even aliens can be interior designers. All known human settlements have shown this. Ancient Egypt is one example. Painting interior walls have existed for at least 5,000 years, with examples found as far north as the Ness of Brodgar, as have standardized interiors, as seen in the associated Skara Brae settlement.

Interior designers
Interior designers are people skilled at using the elements of design and organizing interior spaces in functional and aesthetic ways. They may offer advice on the layout of spaces, building and technical issues such as lighting, sound, and temperature control.

They must have professional knowledge of issues affecting the physical comfort, safety and convenience of an interior's occupants. Also they must be familiar with local building codes, government regulations and have drawing and presentation skills.

Important concepts in interior design include color selection, color palettes and how they affect the perception of space and mood, spatial organization, knowledge of fabrics, finishes, design styles and trends.

In order for interior designers to do a perfect job, they must follow the steps in the design process:
First, designers usually interview the client and ascertain their design preferences, needs and budget. Then they may do work on feasibility (prospect) studies, space planning and layout, design idea, selection of finishes, furniture, art, accessories, project management and bidding.
Next, the schematic (planning) phase, designers work on the following activities: drawings and sketches (quick drawings) of proposed floor plans, perspectives, elevations and details. The drawings most often made by interior designers are floor plans, architectural details, lighting and ceiling plans, and furniture layout.  Interior designers discuss all their plans with the client.
Once the plans are approved, the designers can move ahead with a schedule of work and schedule of finishes, ordering furnishings and contacting and/or hiring contractors and subcontractors. Interior designers help oversee the work that is done and placement of the furnishings.
Designers are expected to keep the client updated about the work done, any changes, budget and time considerations.
Once the job is complete, the interior designers must get final approval and then receive payment. Photos may be taken for a portfolio and testimonials and/or references requested.

Types
There are specific types of interior design and specializations. Some types of interior design are residential design, commercial design, hospitality design, healthcare design, universal design, exhibition design, and spatial branding.

Residential design
The designer offers advice and tries to determine what their clients' needs are in their home life, their personality and style preferences, an interview process usually called the client brief. They may do a lifestyle questionnaire and room condition checklist.

Residential designers seek to make their clients' home more aesthetic, efficient and comfortable. They discuss any and all proposed changes with the client, show them decorating or remodeling plans, samples and examples of the proposed alterations for approval.

Commercial design
Commercial interior designers design public spaces such as office buildings, community centers, museums, hotels, stores, warehouses, and libraries. In commercial design the designer has to create an environment that includes function and aesthetics. A commercial interior designer's work includes selecting paint colors, choosing artwork, accounting for acoustics and lighting, picking appropriate furniture, and placing all these together in the manner most appropriate to the venue. Recently commercial interior designers have worked with indoor plants and agro-inventions such as the Grofie Greenwall, which allows firms to bring a tropical forest, vegetable or herb garden right into the office, in order to reconnect office workers with nature.

Hospitality design
Hospitality designers design the places which have any relationship between guest and host such as hotels. This includes the reception and entertainment of guests, visitors or strangers, resorts, membership clubs, conventions, attractions, special events, and other services for travelers and tourists.

Healthcare design
Healthcare design is related to hospitals and how to make a good space to make the patient and staff very comfortable. Healthcare designers compare the evidence-based design with evidence-based medicine; that knowledge can help ensures that future healthcare facilities are built to improve clinical outcomes. In addition, a deeper understanding of the relationship between the built environment and quality of care will help ensure that healthcare facilities are designed to meet the diverse needs of patients, families, and staff.

Universal design
Universal design is the design for all people around the world and to creating environments and products those are usable by all people to the greatest extent possible.

Exhibition design

There are many different types of exhibit, ranging from museum exhibitions to retail and trades show spaces, to themed attractions, zoos, and visitor centers. All types of exhibits aim to communicate a message through engaging their audiences in meaningful and compelling interactions. Use a wide range of technologies and techniques to develop experiences that will resonate with diverse audiences–enabling these targeted audiences to access the messages, stories, and objects of an exhibit.

Space management
Apart from designing an empty apartment or home, an interior designer is also responsible for space management that not only lets any individual walk properly but also gives them a functional home.

Famous interior designers
Early interior designers
Jean-Henri Jansen (1854–1928)
Elsie de Wolfe (1865–1950)
Ogden Codman (1863–1951)
Frances Elkins (1888–1953)
Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959)
Fritz August Breuhaus (1883–1960)
Stephan Bouldin (1880–1967)
Emilio Terry (1890–1969)
Dorothy Draper (1889–1969)

Modern interior designers
Jean Royere
Jed Johnson
Verner Panton
Terence Conran
Kelly Hoppen
Mauro Lipparini
Ron Arad

References

Sources
Larsen. T,  Mar 28, 2010, A Career in Commercial Interior Design: the job description of a commercial interior designer.
 McCullough.C. Evidence-Based Design for Healthcare Facilties.  2010. Sigma Theta International.
 Ergonomics and universal design in interior architecture education Olgunturk, N; Demirkan, H (2009)

Architecture
Arts

Interior design


Namakkal District is an administrative district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. The district was divided from Salem district with Namakkal town as Headquarters on  25-07-1996 and started to function independently from 01-01-1997. The district has seven taluks (subdivisions): Tiruchengode, Namakkal, Rasipuram, Velur, Sendamangalam, Komarapalayam, and Kolli Hills. It has two Revenue Divisions: Namakkal and Tiruchengode. As of 2011, Namakkal district had a population of 1,726,601 with a sex-ratio of 986 females for every 1,000 males.

Reference

Namakkal district


(, lit. 'chicken broth') is a common Latin American soup that consists of chicken and vegetables.

What makes this soup different from many other versions of chicken soup is that alike the Brazilian ,  uses whole chicken pieces instead of chopped or shredded chicken. Other differences are that the vegetables are usually of a heartier cut. Potato halves, not cubes, are used, and whole leaves of cabbage are added.

A typical recipe for  will include the following: first garlic boiled in water, adding chicken pieces (drumsticks, breasts, thighs), sliced carrots, sliced celery, potato halves, garbanzo beans, corn on the cob, diced tomato, sliced onion, minced cilantro, and cabbage.

While it is common to eat  plain, most add lemon juice or hot sauce. Some recipes call for cubed avocado added just before eating.  can also be served with hot corn tortillas. In Mexico it is also common to add steamed or Mexican rice in the same bowl while serving, especially at fondas. In other Latin American countries, it is called  and not , which means literally soup instead of broth.

Many Latin American countries, particularly Mexico, use this home-cooked meal during illness as a means to the healing of cold viruses, and after a woman gives birth, though in other cultures the recipe for this is significantly lighter than the traditional Mexican dish.

See also
 Canja de galinha
 List of soups

References

Chicken soups

Caldo de pollo


Edward Killoran Brown (August 15, 1905 – April 24, 1951), who wrote as E. K. Brown, was a Canadian professor and literary critic. He "influenced Canadian literature primarily through his award-winning book On Canadian Poetry (1943)," which  "established the standards of excellence and many of the subsequent directions of Canadian criticism." Northrop Frye called him "the first critic to bring Canadian literature into its proper context".

Life
E.K. Brown was born in Toronto, the son of Winifred Killoran and Edward David Brown, a businessman. He graduated from the University of Toronto in 1926, winning the Governor-General's Medal for Modern Languages and a scholarship to the Sorbonne.

Brown taught at the University of Toronto from 1929 through 1941, except for two years chairing the University of Manitoba's English Department.  He was an associate editor of the Canadian Forum from 1930 to 1933, and published over 50 articles in that journal.

Between 1932 and 1941 Brown was an editor of the University of Toronto Quarterly. In 1936 he began the column "Letters in Canada", an annual survey in the Quarterly of the year's crop of Canadian poetry. He left the University of Toronto in 1941 to take a position at Cornell University, but he continued to write "Letters in Canada" each year until 1950, at which time the column was taken over by Northrop Frye. Brown later used two of his "Letters in Canada" essays – "The Contemporary Situation in Canadian Literature" (1938) and "The Development of Canadian Poetry 1880-1940" (1941) – in his 1943 book, On Canadian Poetry.

In 1941 Brown edited a special all-Canadian issue of prestigious  Chicago magazine Poetry.

From 1941 to 1944 Brown chaired Cornell University's English Department, except for six months on staff as a speechwriter to Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King.

In 1943 Brown and Duncan Campbell Scott edited Archibald Lampman's posthumous volume, At the Long Sault and Other Poems. Brown would also edit Scott's posthumous Selected Poems in 1951.

In 1945 Brown moved to the University of Chicago to chair its English Department. From 1947 to 1951 he wrote a column, "Causeries," for the Winnipeg Free Press in which he published almost 50 essays on literary topics. He died in 1951 of cancer.

Writing

On Canadian Poetry
Brown is best remembered for his 1943 book, On Canadian Poetry. Of that book, the Canadian Encyclopedia says that "Brown was the first modern Canadian critic to establish a context for the study of 19th- and 20th-century Canadian poetry by identifying Canada's major poets (Archibald Lampman, D.C. Scott and E. J. Pratt), tracing their influences and closely defining the strengths of their verse."

Prior to the appearance of On Canadian Poetry, Sir Charles G.D. Roberts was widely considered Canada's top poet (and certainly its top Confederation Poet), followed by his cousin, Bliss Carman. Not long before the volume came out, Brown had written to Duncan Campbell Scott that "our literary history must be rewritten and some old landmarks removed." In the book he removed several forthwith. Roberts received a mere four pages, and was praised mainly as a "breaker of trails". Carman received even less space; Brown saluted "the beauty of his music," but added that his poetry "as a whole is cloying." Of the other Confederation Poets, William Wilfred Campbell was cursorily dismissed as a "minor figure," while F.G. Scott and Pauline Johnson were not mentioned at all. In contrast, Brown devoted an entire chapter each to Lampman and D.C. Scott, building his own 'landmarks.'

Brown's revisionist ranking of the Confederation Poets – Lampman and Campbell Scott on top, Roberts and Carman underneath, and Wilfred Campbell, Johnson, and F.G. Scott not even counted – "would become widely accepted and go unchallenged for several decades.

Recognition
Brown received a Governor General's Award for non-fiction in 1943 for On Canadian Poetry.

The Royal Society of Canada awarded E.K. Brown its Lorne Pierce Medal posthumously.

Publications

Non-fiction
 E.M. Forster and the contemplative novel. Toronto, 1934.
 Edith Wharton, étude critique. Paris: E. Droz, 1935.
 Studies in the Text of Matthew Arnold's Prose Works. Paris: P. André, 1935.
 Swinburne: a centennial estimate. Toronto: 1937.
 On Canadian Poetry. Toronto: Ryerson, 1943.
 Matthew Arnold: A Study in Conflict. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1948.
 Rhythm in the Novel. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1950. Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1978.
 Willa Cather: A Critical Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1953.
 Responses and Evaluations: Essays on Canada. David Staines ed. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart (New Canadian Library), 1977.
 The Poet and the Critic: A Literary Correspondence Between D.C. Scott and E.K. Brown. Robert L. McCougall ed. McGill-Queen's U P, 1983.

Translated
 Louis Cazamian, Carlyle. New York: Macmillan, 1932.
 Balzac, "Père Goriot". Père Goriot and Eugénie Grandet. New York: Modern Library, 1946.

Edited
 Matthew Arnold, Representative Essays. Toronto: Macmillan, 1936.
 Victorian Poetry.. Toronto: Nelson, 1942.
 Archibald Lampman, At the Long Sault and Other New Poems, Duncan Campbell Scott and E.K. Brown ed.. (Toronto: Ryerson, 1943).
 Matthew Arnold, Four Essays on Life and Letters. Harlan Davidson, 1947.
 Charles Dickens David Copperfield. 1950.
 Duncan Campbell Scott, Selected Poems, E.K. Brown. ed. Toronto: Ryerson, 1951.

Except where noted, bibliographical information courtesy Open Library.

References

External links

 E.K. Brown in The Canadian Encyclopedia''
 Edward Killoran Brown archival papers held at the University of Toronto Archives and Record Management Services

1905 births
1951 deaths
20th-century Canadian male writers
20th-century non-fiction writers
Canadian expatriates in the United States
Canadian literary critics
Canadian non-fiction writers
Governor General's Award-winning non-fiction writers
Literary theorists
People from Old Toronto
University of Toronto alumni
Writers from Toronto

E. K. Brown


Murus Dacicus (Latin for Dacian Wall) is a construction method for defensive walls and fortifications developed in ancient Dacia sometime before the Roman conquest. It is a mix between traditional construction methods particular to Dacian builders and methods imported from Greek and Roman architecture and masonry, and – although somewhat similar construction techniques were used before, during and long after the period – it has peculiarities that make it unique.

Design
Murus Dacicus consisted of two outer walls made out of stone blocks carved in the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped; apparently no mortar was used, thus making them examples of ashlar masonry – but typically done with regular sized, bigger-than-average blocks, due to technological requirements. After each layer of the outer walls was completed, the gap between them would be filled with gravel and rocks cemented together with clay and compacted (cf. also rammed earth technique). The structure was strengthened and consolidated at the level of each layer by horizontal, singed/scorched wood tie beams connected to the outer walls by means of a dovetail joint at the upper surface of the stone block (hence the need for big stone blocks of the same size). Due to its higher flexibility, this structure had a distinct advantage over the 'classical', solid dry stone wall (as seen, e. g., in the cyclopean and ashlar walls in Mycenae): a higher capability of shock absorption and dissipation of kinetic energy from an incoming projectile thrown by a siege weapon. However, archaeological and historical evidence suggests that the wall might have been topped by a wooden palisade instead of stone battlements, which had the obvious disadvantage of being vulnerable to fire.

A properly built Dacian Wall would be both labor-intensive and time-consuming. A typical wall for the late period, hastily built in the years between the two Dacian Wars (when Dacia had to rebuild, repair, enlarge or reinforce the defenses of many of its key fortresses), would be about 3–4 meters thick and 10 m tall, an outstanding achievement in the given conditions.

The Dacian Fortresses of the Orăştie Mountains, UNESCO World Heritage Sites are examples of citadels built using this method. Also the Dacian walls are depicted on the Trajan's column in Rome.

See also
 Davae
 Hill fort
 Murus gallicus
 Oppidum
 Pfostenschlitzmauer

References

Further reading

 Murus Dacicus in 3D at RomaniaDeVis.ro, 3D reconstruction (v.1)
 A page with examples of Neolithic to Dacian houses, and at the end, an example of the Dacian wall
 Dacian wall (murus dacicus), 3D reconstruction (v.2), stone ramparts
 Dacian wall (murus dacicus), 3D reconstruction (v.3), wooden ramparts

External links

Military history of Dacia
Dacian towns
Fortification lines
Iron Age Europe
Dacian fortresses

Murus Dacicus


Nagif Alashraf oglu Hamzayev () has been a Deputy in the National Assembly of Azerbaijan since 2015 and since 2020. He is an Azerbaijani politician and Chairman of the New Azerbaijan Party (NAP) Ganja city organization.

Biography
Nagif Hamzayev was born on May 24, 1983, in Narimanli, Vardenis, Armenian SSR. In 2000, he graduated from the secondary school number 2 named after Ahmad Javad in the city of Ganja.

In 2000, he entered the Baku State University History department. Since his university years, he was an active student in social activities. He is a co-founder of the association World Union of Azerbaijani Youth. Hamzayev participated in many international conferences and scientific events representing Azerbaijan.

Hamzayev continued his education at Baku State University (2004–2006) where he received his Master's Degree in History in 2006. From May to September 2009 he worked as a specialist in the Department of Information and Communication Technologies at Ganja State University.

From February 2009, he was a specialist in the Department of International Relations at the Azerbaijan State Agricultural University. From 2010 to 2011, he was a director at the Centre of Information and Communication Technologies at the Azerbaijan State Agricultural University.

In 2012, he entered the PhD program in History of the Faculty of Social Sciences Institute at Firat University in Turkey.

Political career
From 2013 to 2014, he was the Deputy Head of the Executive Power of Kapaz District of Ganja city. On August 1, 2013, he was elected Chairman in the 8th conference of the New Azerbaijan Party Ganja city organization.

On March 19, 2015, he was elected First Deputy Head of the Executive Power of Ganja city. On October 1, 2015, he was elected a Deputy of Milli Mejlis of the Republic of Azerbaijan.

On February 9, 2020, he was elected Deputy of the Milli Majlis of the Republic of Azerbaijan for the VI convocation. Currently, Hamzayev is the chairman of the New Azerbaijan Party (NAP) Ganja city organization.

He is a member of the Milli Mejlis Committee on Human Rights and Committee on Natural Resources, Energy and Ecology. Also, he is a representative for the inter-parliamentary friendship groups Azerbaijan–Israel, Azerbaijan–China, Azerbaijan–Georgia, Azerbaijan–Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan–Czech, Azerbaijan–India, Azerbaijan–Korea, Azerbaijan–Turkey, Azerbaijan–Ukraine, Azerbaijan–Hungary, Azerbaijan–Sweden, Azerbaijan–Portugal, and Azerbaijan–Slovenia.

From May 2018, he has been a member of the Azerbaijan delegation to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe.

Nagif Hamzayev is fluent in Azerbijani, English, Russian, and Turkish.

Personal life
Nagif Hamzayev is married and has two children.

See also
 2020 Azerbaijani parliamentary election

References

1983 births
New Azerbaijan Party politicians
Baku State University alumni
Living people
Recipients of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic 100th anniversary medal

Nagif Hamzayev


Chronicon Scotorum, also known as Chronicum Scotorum, is a medieval Irish chronicle.

Overview
According to Nollaig Ó Muraíle, it is "a collection of annals belonging to the 'Clonmacnoise group', covering the period from prehistoric times to 1150 but with some gaps, closely related to the 'Annals of Tigernach'. It survives in a paper copy made by Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh c.1640 from an exemplar no longer extant."

MacFhirbhisigh's copy was held by his friend (and possible pupil) Ruaidhrí Ó Flaithbheartaigh in the late 17th century, but was in France for a time in the 1760s before its purchase by Trinity College Dublin in 1776. Edited and published by William M. Hennessy in 1866, it is accorded to be one of the more valuable Irish annals by virtue of its computational data which were frequently distorted in other such compilations.

Gilla Críst Ua Máel Eóin has been associated with the text as its compiler, but if so, it was continued at some point after his death. His actual role in relation to the Chronicon is uncertain.

Editions
Mac Niocaill, Gearóid (ed. and tr.). Chronicon Scotorum. Edition and translation available from CELT].
Hennessy, William M. (ed. and tr.). Chronicum Scotorum. A Chronicle of Irish Affairs, from the earliest times to A.D. 1135, with a supplement containing the events from 1141 to 1150. Roll Series 46. London, 1866. Reprinted: Wiesbaden, 1964. PDF available from the Internet Archive.

References

Sources

The Encyclopaedia of Ireland, ed. Brian Lalor, Dublin, 2003.

Further reading
Evans, N. (2010) 'The Present and the Past in Medieval Irish Chronicles', Woodbridge & Rochester, Boydell & Brewer.
Grabowski, Kathryn and David N. Dumville (1984) Chronicles and annals of medieval Ireland and Wales: the Clonmacnoise group of texts. Woodbridge.
Mac Niocaill, Gearóid, (1975) The medieval Irish annals. Dublin. 18-23 and 27–8.
Mc Carthy, Daniel P. (1998) "The chronology of the Irish annals." Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy C 98: 203–55. Available from the Royal Irish Academy.
Mc Carthy, Daniel P. Irish chronicles and their chronology. Website.
Ó Muraíle, Nollaig, (1998) The celebrated antiquary Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh (c. 1600-71). His lineage life and learning. Maynooth. 97-107 and 308–9.

Irish chronicles
12th-century history books
Medieval texts in Irish
Irish-language manuscripts
Irish books

Chronicon Scotorum


French Island is a large island in Western Port, Victoria, Australia. It is 61 km southeast of Melbourne. In 1997 about 70 per cent of the island was made the French Island National Park. It has also been listed as part of the National Estate. In 2002, the waters on the north coast were made into the French Island Marine National Park.

Even though it is close to Melbourne, French Island is relatively isolated and undeveloped. There is no water or electricity supply, or medical services on the island. There is one small shop and post office on Tankerton Road about 3 km from Tankerton Jetty. There is a number of places to stay, including camping, bed and breakfasts, guest houses, and the McLeod Eco Farm which was once a prison.

History

An Australian aboriginal clan, Bunarong Tribe lived and hunted on French Island.  The first Europeans to discover the island were the French in April 1802. A group from the ship, La Naturaliste, explored the area naming it Île de Françoise, (French Island).
In 1847 the first settlers, William and John Gardner, started farming on the island. In the 1880's, koalas were released on to the island. In the 1890's the government set up several small villages. Farmers began to grow chicory, and about 30 chicory kilns were built.

On July 17, 1916 the McLeod Prison Farm opened and continued until 1975. In 1967, the State Electricity Commission (SEC)wanted to build the first nuclear power plant in Australia on French Island

Tankerton Post Office opened on 3 September 1890 and closed in 1994. It reopened in 2001 under the name French Island. A Fairhaven office was also open from 1911 until 1957.

Nuclear power plant site
In 1967, the SEC told the Lands Department to keep 400 acres of French Island for future construction of a nuclear power plant. The plant, to be built in the 1970's, would generate 350-500MW of electricity. More nuclear power plants would be built in Australia once there was a successful, fully operational plant in Victoria. The SEC also planned to build more brown coal power stations as well.

Due to the low cost of brown coal in Victoria and pressure from the anti-nuclear movement, the SEC decided not to build a nuclear plant and instead continued to build brown coal plants. These included the Hazelwood Power Station, which was completed in 1971. Nuclear plants were not built in New South Wales, as access to black coal allowed for bigger generators. The declaration of various areas of many Australian states as nuclear free zones was a key factor in the selection of coal plants over nuclear plants.

Access
There is easy access to the island by train and ferry. People can take a train from Melbourne to Frankston. From Frankston there is a diesel locomotive service to Stony Point. It is a short walk along the jetty to catch the passenger ferry to Tankerton jetty on French Island. It is also possible to catch a passenger ferry from Cowes on Phillip Island.

Geography
Important features are Mount Wellington which is 96m in height and the Pinnacles at 66m.

People
In 2006 there were 89 people living on French Island. In 2009,there were five students at the primary school.

Natural Environment
Habitats range from coastal mangroves, swamps, heath, grasslands and blue gum forests. Most koalas on the mainland of Australia suffer from the chlamydia disease. French Island provides the world's most dense and disease free group of koalas. They are often moved to repopulate diseased areas on the mainland. Shelter is provided for more than 100 species of bush orchids, and 260 species of birds. Significant species on the island  include: King Quail, the critically endangered Orange-bellied Parrot, Fairy Tern, White-bellied Sea Eagle, Swamp Skink, Long-nosed Potoroo.
The island is one of only two places in Victoria where there are no  foxes. Because of this, the island has kept a variety of native species which have been devastated by the fox in other areas. However rabbits, feral cats, feral goats, feral pigs, Indian Mynahs and starlings pose a threat to the island's biodiversity.

Transport
As the only cars used on the island are by residents, the network of more than 40 km of gravel roads and tracks are quiet and ideal for cycling. The island is generally flat or mildly undulating with the highest point being Mt Wellington (96 m). Bicycles can be hired from the General Store, Macleod Eco Farm and Bayview. There are many walking tracks. Other activities include bushwalking, bird watching, horse riding, cycling, and as a base for deep sea fishing.

Two local tour companies, French Island Tours and French Island Eco Tours, can provide bus tours of the island.

Camping
There is one free camping site in the National Park at Fairhaven, 4 km up the coast road from Tankerton Jetty, where the ferry arrives from Stony Point. The camp site is set among trees near the beach, with one public toilet and a water tank. Other camping is available at "private sites" at Bayview and McLeod Eco Farm by arrangement.

References

Other websites
 French Island Community Association
 French Island Ferry Service
 National Park page at Parks Victoria
 French Island Eco Tours

Islands of Australia
Geography of Victoria, Australia

French Island (Victoria)


The Japanese Occupation of Singapore is a time from 1942-1945 (during World War II) where the Japanese occupied Singapore. Japan attacked because Singapore was an important naval base for controlling other areas. The occupation started after the army of Japan defeated garrison troops from Australia, British Malaya, Britain, and India. This was at the Battle of Singapore. The British decided to surrender to the Japanese on 15 February 1942 at the Ford Motor Factory.

The city was renamed to Syonan-to (pronounced as Sho-nan-to), meaning Light of the South, during the rule. It was officially returned to the British after the peace treaty ending World War II was signed.

The Japanese did not treat the people very well during their occupation.  There was a large amount of inflation because the Japanese printed paper money for Singapore to use, which did not have any identification numbers.  Also called 'banana notes' as they had a picture of a banana tree on them, the paper notes could have been printed by people who had a modern-day printer and sufficient paper.

Timeline
In 1941, due to the weak defenses, the Japanese attacked Singapore. They landed on Singaporean soil on the 9th of February 1942 and took control of the colony on 15 February 1942, soon renaming it Syonan-to (pronounced as Sio-nan-to or Sho-nan-to), meaning Light of the South Island, during the rule.  Many people suffered during this time till the Japanese surrendered and the British returned to Singapore in September 1945.

The Black Market
During the Japanese Occupation, the trade was disrupted, resulting in scarcity of food and other kinds of goods, causing the price to drastically increase in a process known as inflation. Even if one were to try to buy a jar of jam from a shop, the shopkeeper would say that he had none. However, if one was prepared to pay a very high price for it, the shopkeeper would know just where to get it: the black market.

References

1942
1943
1944 in Asia
1945 in Asia
1940s in Japan
20th century in Singapore
Wars involving Japan

Japanese occupation of Singapore


Saraswati is one of the Hindu goddesses. The Vedas also mention her name. She is the goddess of speech, learning and knowledge. The legend states that she created the Sanskrit language and invented the vina, a musical instrument similar to a lute. The legend also says that she is the wife of Brahma, one of the gods of the Hindus.

Birth

Mata Saraswati was born from the Samudra Manthan that arranged between the Devatas and the Asuras. She was born from the sea and was married to Lord Brahma thereafter. In another legend, Brahma created her by his imagination. However, she turned out to be so beautiful that he could not takes his eyes off her. Since he had five heads - four in the four cardinal directions - and one on top, his head kept turning in whichever direction Saraswati went.

Saraswati is mentioned in the Vedas, the Brahmans, the Aranyaks, the Upanishads and the Mahabharat. She is dressed in white, carries a book and a lotus. Her favorite instrument is a lute and she rides a swan. Generally, an image or a statue of Saraswati shows her with four arms. Two arms hold the vina. In other arms she holds a book and a lotus flower.

References

Other websites

Hindu gods and goddesses

Saraswati


A compiler is a computer program that translates computer code written in one programming language into another programming language. The first language is called the source language, and the code is called source code. The second language is called the target and can usually be understood by computers. In that case, the instructions become machine code.

If a compiler can convert the same instruction text into machine code for different computers (like smartphones or video game machines), it is a 'cross-compiler'. If the compiler can make instruction text that is easier for people to read, it is a 'de-compiler'. People who write these instructions are called programmers. Some even made programs that can translate the instructions that describe how a compiler should work, into a compiler. That kind of program is called a compiler-compiler.

A compiler usually has three steps. It reads the text and makes notes about how the instructions go together. If the instructions don't make sense, it will try to tell the programmer. Then it will use what it knows about the target language to make the instructions fit better. It then writes down the instructions in the target language. If the source instructions are on different pages, it may have to compile several before it can write everything down.

Compiling the language

A compiler has six parts :

The first piece, a lexical analyzer, reads a page of instruction text and splits it into words and sentences. It also marks the type for each word. For example, a word may be number, a variable, a verb, a math sign, or an adjective. The output of a lexical analyzer is a list of tokens.

int x = 5 + y;

(type, int) (unknown word, x) (math sign, =) (number, 5) (math sign, +) (word already seen, y)

A parser reads in the output of the lexical analyzer, and verifies the syntax of the language. If the input program is syntactically incorrect or has a type error, it generates errors and warnings. This is called semantic analysis. For example, the parser might complain about the example above, if it had not already seen y with its type adjective. The parser uses all the information to make a structure typically called an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST).

`( sentence
  ( write value to unknown
    `( unknown
      `( type, int ),
      `( name, x ) ,
      `( value
        (add
    	  `( number, 5 ),
          `( seen
            `( type, int ),
              `( name, y ),
              `( value, 0 )
) ) ) ) ) )

The next piece, an optimizer rearranges the tree structure so the target language is optimized. 'Optimized' includes using fewer instructions to perform the same work. This could be important if the final program needs to check a lot of data. (Like seeing how many people, in the whole country, are fifty years old and buy medicine.) An 'optimized' result might also mean breaking long instructions into smaller ones. Unused and unaccessible code will be removed at this step.

A programmer usually tries to write instructions in small, related groups. That way, they can keep track of fewer changes in the program. But, that means the code may go on several pages. When a compiler sees that the target program uses several pages to explain the whole recipe, it may use a linker. The linker will put instructions that say where to find the code that's next. Finally, the compiler writes down the instructions in the target language.

# instruction, spot, spot, target
ADD 0, 5, spot_1
LOAD location_y, , spot_2
ADD spot_1, spot_2, spot_3
SAVE spot_3, , location_x

Programmers who write compiler code try to make it as perfect as possible. If the programmer writes incorrect code, the compiler informs of them an error, but if the compiler code itself contains errors, it may be hard to tell where exactly the problem lies.

Variants
At the end of each compilation step the partial finished product could be stored and then only processed later on. A language like Java uses this successfully, where they lack the final translation step to instructions the processor understands. They only do the final translation step once the Java program is running on a computer. This is either called "interpreting" or "JIT"ting, depending on the technique used.

Example
For example, the source code might contain an equation, such as "x = 5*10 ". The lexical analyzer would separate each number and symbol (such as "*" or "+") into separate tokens. The parser would note the pattern of tokens, as being an equation. The intermediate-code generator would write a form of coding which defines a storage variable named "x" and assigns the numerical product of 5*10 plus 6 and 1. The optimizer would simplify the calculation, of 5*10+6+1, as being just 57. Hence, the target machine-code generator would set a variable named "x" and put the value 57 into that storage place in the computer's memory, using the instructions of whichever computer chip is being used.

Other websites
 Compiler -Citizendium

Software
Computer programming

Compiler


David II (5 March 1324 – 22 February 1371) King of Scots, son of King Robert the Bruce by his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh (d. 1327), was born at Dunfermline Palace, Fife.

He was married on 17 July 1328, aged only four, to Joan of the Tower (d. 1362), daughter of Edward II of England and Isabella of France. Joan was only seven years old.

At the age of five, David became King of Scotland after the death of his father on 7 June 1329. He was crowned at Scone in November 1331.

Edward Balliol, with support from Edward III of England fought against David, so that he could become king. He defeated David at the Battle of Dupplin on 12 August 1332. Balliol was crowned king, and in July 1333, the nine year old David and his queen were sent to France for their safety. In June 1341 he came back and began to rule. In 1346 he invaded England, but was defeated and taken prisoner at the Battle of Neville's Cross on 17 October 1346, and remained in England for eleven years, living mainly in London and at Odiham in Hampshire. In October 1357 he was allowed to go back to Scotland for a payment of 100,000 marks. The money was never paid completely.
In 1371 David died in Edinburgh Castle.

References

 Andrew of Wyntoun, The orygynale cronykil of Scotland, edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872–1879)
 John of Fordun, Chronica gentis Scotorum, edited by W. F. Skene (Edinburgh, 1871–1872)
 J. H. Burton, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1905)
 Andrew Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1900)

Further reading
 Michael Brown, The Wars of Scotland, 1214–1371. The New Edinburgh History of Scotland, volume 4. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004.
 Ranald Nicholson, Scotland. The Later Middle Ages. Edinburgh: Mercat Press, 1975.
 Michael Penman, David II, 1329–71: The Bruce Dynasty in Scotland. East Linton: Tuckwell Press, 2003.

1324 births
1371 deaths
Kings and Queens of Scotland
14th century in Scotland

David II of Scotland


A boy is a young male human, either a child or teenager.  Little boys still have the body of a child.  It is not until they reach puberty (adolescence) that their bodies start to mature and they become a man.
The word "boy" was used a long time ago in Anglo-Saxon English. The opposite of a boy is a girl.

Culture
The way boys are brought up will vary a lot between different cultures.   Boys are supposed to be tougher than girls.  It is their job to do work that is physically hard, including fighting in the army when they are grown up.  However, people's attitudes are changing and nowadays many girls like to do the same things as boys. In Western cultures boys traditionally wear trousers (pants) while girls wear dresses or skirts.    However, many girls also wear trousers these days, like boys, especially when dressed informally.  Boys often have shorter hair than girls, although this can vary a lot according to quickly changing fashions.

Traditionally boys like rough games (such as soccer or rugby) and enjoy playing with mechanical things such as toy cars and trains.  People today have long discussions about whether this is because they are born like that, or because that is the way society expects them to behave.

The traditional color for a boy is blue.  For girls, it is pink.  When a baby is born in a hospital it usually gets a blue or pink tag on its wrist or ankle, according to whether it is a boy or a girl.

Names
Some names are boys' names, others are girls' names. There are some names that can be for boys and girls (although they may be spelled differently, e.g. "Lesley" for a boy and "Leslie" for a girl).

In some countries such as Britain an "old boy" means a grown-up who used to be a pupil at a particular school (e.g. "He is an old boy of Cransbury High School").   The expression can also be used in a very informal, friendly way, e.g. "Nice to see you, old boy!".

Related pages

Man
Boyfriend

Basic English 850 words
Childhood

Boy


Ronald Joseph Morel "Ronnie" Turcotte,  (born July 22, 1941) is a retired Canadian thoroughbred race horse jockey best known as the rider of Secretariat, winner of the U.S. Triple Crown in 1973.

Career
Turcotte began his career in Toronto as a hot walker for E. P. Taylor's Windfields Farm in 1960, but he was soon wearing the silks and winning races. As an apprentice jockey he rode Windfields' Northern Dancer to his first victory. He gained prominence with his victory aboard Tom Rolfe in the 1965 Preakness Stakes.

Turcotte soon started working with Canadian trainer Lucien Laurin at the racetrack in Laurel, Maryland.

In 1972 he rode Riva Ridge to victory in the Kentucky Derby and the Belmont Stakes.

Turcotte became internationally famous in 1973 when he rode Secretariat to win the first Triple Crown in 25 years, with records for each race, and the phenomenal finish of Secretariat 31 lengths ahead of the field in the Belmont. A photograph of Secretariat winning the race, with Turcotte looking over his shoulder at the pack, far behind, became famous.  Turcotte was North America's leading stakes-winning jockey in 1972 and 1973. He became the first jockey to win back-to-back Kentucky Derbies since Jimmy Winkfield in 1902 and was the first jockey to ever have won five of six consecutive Triple Crown races (matched in 2015 by Victor Espinoza).

He was voted the prestigious George Woolf Memorial Jockey Award that honors a rider whose career and personal conduct exemplifies the very best example of participants in the sport of thoroughbred racing. He is the first person from Thoroughbred racing ever to be appointed a member of the Order of Canada.

Turcotte's career ended July 13, 1978. He fell from his horse, Flag of Leyte Gulf, during the 8th race at Belmont Park. He suffered injuries that resulted in his being a paraplegic.

He was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 1979. He was voted into the New Brunswick Sports Hall of Fame and in 1980 was inducted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame.

In 1984 he became the first ever recipient of the Avelino Gomez Memorial Award given annually to the jockey who is Canadian-born, Canadian-raised, or a regular in the country, who has made significant contributions to the sport.

In 2015, a statue of Secretariat and Turcotte crossing the finish line at the Belmont Stakes was unveiled in Turcotte's hometown of Grand Falls, New Brunswick.

Personal life
Born in Drummond, New Brunswick, Turcotte was one of 12 children. He left school at age 14 to work with his father as a lumberjack, then at age 18, headed to Toronto looking for construction work.

Turcotte now lives in his home town of Grand Falls, New Brunswick, Canada, with his wife Gaëtane and their four daughters. He is an advocate for those with disabilities and helps to raise funds for disability programs.

A well-known survivor of an on-track accident, Turcotte makes appearances at racetracks to raise funds and awareness of the assistance that the Permanently Disabled Jockeys Fund (PDJF) provides to fellow injured riders.

Turcotte was hospitalized on March 9, 2015, following a single-vehicle accident in New Brunswick. The van he was driving flipped after hitting a snowbank. Turcotte and a friend were both injured in the accident. Turcotte sustained fractures to both legs, while his friend suffered minor injuries.

Media
In the 2010 Disney movie Secretariat, Ron Turcotte's role as Secretariat's jockey is played by Otto Thorwarth, a real life jockey himself.

Directed by Phil Comeau, a National Film Board of Canada documentary feature film on Ron Turcotte's life and career, Secretariat's Jockey, Ron Turcotte, had its world premiere in Louisville, Kentucky, in May 2013.

Notes

References
 Heller, Bill. The Will to Win: Ron Turcotte's Ride to Glory (1992) Fifth House Publishers
 Ron Turcotte profile at Penny Chenery's Secretariat.com
 Ron Turcotte at the Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame
 Ron Turcotte at the United States ' National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame

External links

 Secretariat's Jockey - Ron Turcotte at the National Film Board of Canada

1941 births
Living people
Canadian jockeys
Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Avelino Gomez Memorial Award winners
American jockeys
Eclipse Award winners
United States Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Members of the Order of Canada
Members of the Order of New Brunswick
Acadian people
Sportspeople from New Brunswick
New Brunswick Sports Hall of Fame inductees
People from Victoria County, New Brunswick
People with paraplegia
Canadian emigrants to the United States

Ron Turcotte


This article contains information about the series of books written by C.S. Lewis. For information about the film series, see The Chronicles of Narnia movie series.
The Chronicles of Narnia is a series of seven fantasy books, written by British author C. S. Lewis. They have been published since 1954 and have sold over 100 million copies in 41 languages. The books were written by Lewis between 1949 and 1954, they were also illustrated by Pauline Baynes. In 2005, 2008 and 2010, the first three books were made into movies.

The seven books

The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe
Completed by the end of March 1949 and published by Geoffrey Bles in London on 16 October 1950, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe tells the story of four ordinary children: Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy Pevensie, who have been evacuated to the English countryside from London in 1940 following the outbreak of World War II. They discover a wardrobe in Professor Digory Kirke's house that leads to the magical land of Narnia. The Pevensie children help Aslan, a talking lion, save Narnia from the evil White Witch, who has reigned over the land of Narnia for a century of perpetual winter. The children become kings and queens of this new-found land and establish the Golden Age of Narnia, leaving a legacy to be rediscovered in later books.

Prince Caspian
This book is set 1300 years after The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Narnia is ruled by the Telmarines, a very mean people. The Pevensie children are called to Narnia by Susan's horn, which is blown by Prince Caspian. There is a big war between the Telmarines and Narnians. At the end of the book, Peter and Susan are told that they will not be able to come back to Narnia. The book was published in 1951.

The Voyage of the Dawn Treader
In the third book, Lucy and Edmund return to Narnia with their cousin, Eustace. They travel on a ship with Caspian, now King of Narnia. They are looking for seven lords who were sent away from Narnia by Caspian's uncle, Miraz. This book was published in 1952.

The Silver Chair
Eustace returns to Narnia with Jill, a friend from school. He finds Caspian very old. Aslan tells Jill to find Rillian, Caspian's son, who has been missing for many years. A Marsh-Wiggle named Puddleglum travels with them. This book was published in 1953.

The Horse and His Boy
This book is set during the rule of the Pevensies. Shasta, is a young boy living in the country of Calormen. He decides to run away when he finds out he is not the son of Arsheesh.  He heads north to Narnia with a talking horse, Bree, a Calormene noblewoman, Aravis, and her talking horse, Hwin. It was published in 1954.

The Magician's Nephew
This book is set before any of the others. It tells about a boy, Digory, and his friend, Polly. They travel to Narnia through the experiments of Digory's uncle, Andrew. It describes the creation (beginning) of Narnia and the first King and Queen. It also shows the beginning of Jadis, who is called the White Witch in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. The book was published in 1954.

The Last Battle
Completed in the spring of 1953 and published in 1956, The Last Battle tells about the end of the world of Narnia. Jill and Eustace return to save Narnia from Shift, an ape, who tricks Puzzle, a donkey, into pretending to be the lion, Aslan. The Pevensie children (without Susan, who has decided that Narnia was just part of a game they played as children), along with their parents and friends, die in a train crash and lived in Narnia forever with Aslan.

Adaptations

The Chronicles of Narnia have been made into several movies, TV films, video games, and stage plays.

The Chronicles of Narnia movie series

The first was The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, which was released in 2005, made a worldwide total of $744,783,957. The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian, released on May 16 2008, is the second of seven movies to be released by Disney Pictures. Disney also had plans to create the third book in the series, The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, which was released in 2010.

The New Yorker reported in July 2023 that Barbie (2023) director Greta Gerwig had been hired by Netflix to write and direct two film adaptations of the books.

Video games
 2005 - The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (Released for Xbox, PlayStation 2, Microsoft Windows, Nintendo DS, GameCube, Game Boy Advance)
 2008 - The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian (Released for PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii, Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, Nintendo DS)
 2010 - The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (Released for Mobile, iPhone, iPod Touch)

References

Other websites

British fantasy books
1950s books

The Chronicles of Narnia


The  is a view of Japanese scholars regarding technological development in Southeast Asia which sees Japan as a leading power. It was developed in the 1930s, but gained wider popularity in the 1960s, after its author, Kaname Akamatsu, published his ideas in the Journal of Developing Economies.

Akamatsu's third flying geese paradigm

Akamatsu's third flying geese paradigm (FGP) is a model for the international division of labor in East Asia based on dynamic comparative advantage. The paradigm postulated that Asian nations will catch up with the West as a part of a regional hierarchy where the production of commoditized goods would continuously move from the more advanced countries to the less advanced ones. The underdeveloped nations in the region could be considered to be "aligned successively behind the advanced industrial nations in the order of their different stages of growth in a wild-geese-flying pattern." The lead goose in this pattern is Japan itself, the second-tier of nations consists of the newly industrializing economies (South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong). After these two groups come the main ASEAN countries: Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Finally, the least developed major nations in the region: China, Vietnam, the Philippines, etc. make up the rearguard in the formation.

The main driver in the model is the "leader's imperative for internal restructuring" due to increasing labor costs. As the comparative advantages (on a global scale) of the "lead goose" causes it to shift further and further away from labor-intensive production to more capital-intensive activities it sheds its low-productivity production to nations further down in the hierarchy in a pattern that then reproduces itself between the countries in the lower tiers. The impulse for development always comes from the top tier causing many to label the FGP a top-down model. The FGP has proved to be a useful tool when describing the regional production patterns in East Asia as industries such as the textile industry has left not only Japan – the most advanced East Asian nation – but also, at a later point, South Korea, and Taiwan etc. These second-tier nations have now firmly established themselves in for instance the automotive industry and advanced production of consumer electronics and the like.

The vehicle for technology transfer is where Akamatsu's framework is least developed. He does however suggest that the demonstration effect of international trade plays an important part as well as the "animal spirit of the entrepreneurs" in developing countries. More recently, modified versions of the FGP – such as the one presented in Ozawa (1995) – stress the importance of transnational firms in this area.

Regarding the internal order of nations within the model, Akamatsu did not consider the relative positions to be permanently fixed but could rather be seen as inherently unstable. This idea is most likely connected to the memories of the Japanese development in the early 20th century when it catapulted itself from a technological backwater to a mature industrial powerhouse. Other scholars, however, have emphasized the stability and harmony of the clustered growth envisaged in the FGP implying it would be difficult for a nation to shift from one tier to another.

The relevance of Akamatsu's paradigm

As has been shown recently, Akamatsu's theory emphasizes the differentiation of the world economy, which leads to the rapid diffusion of new techniques to rising industrial nations, which starts with the import of new commodities by these nations. In time, techniques and capital goods are imported as well, and homogenous industries are being established. The uniformization of both industry and agriculture gave rise to the fierce and conflictive competition between Europe, the United States and Japan in the last quarter of the 19th Century. When innovation occurs in some industries in an advanced nation, investment is concentrated there, causing a rise in the trade cycle. Innovation leads to an increase in exports, and the nation's prosperity creates and increases the import of raw materials and foodstuffs. Akamatsu sees a counter-movement in other parts of the world, centered on the rising production of gold, which, according to him, leads to an increase in effective demand and further stimulates exports of the innovating nation. In that way, world production and trade expand, prices increase and a worldwide rise in the long-term trade cycle results.

However, innovations spread from the innovating nations to other nations, leading to the development of industries in those countries, with the result of a conflictive relationship with the industries of the innovating nation. Exports of the innovating nation become stagnant, and on the world level, there is a tendency towards overproduction, prices turn downwards, and the rates of growth of production and trade fall. The first, rising A-phase of the Kondratiev cycle will be according to Akamatsu a period of differentiation in the world economic structure, while the "falling period" or B-phase of the Kondratiev cycle will, Akamatsu argues, coincide with a process of uniformization in world economic structure.

For Akamatsu, the characteristic structure of the Center-Periphery relationship is characterized by the fact that the underdeveloped nation will export primary products and will import industrial goods for consumption. Later on, an underdeveloped nation will attempt to produce goods that were hitherto imported, first in the field of consumer goods, and later on in the area of capital goods. As the fourth stage of the process, the underdeveloped nation will attempt to export capital goods. There will be a tendency of "advanced" differentiation in the world economy, however, because the capital goods industries in advanced nations will still advance further, giving rise to "extreme differences of comparative costs". The wild-geese flying pattern will include three sub-patterns: the first is the sequence of imports – domestic production – exports. The second will be the sequence from consumer goods to capital goods and from crude and simple articles to complex and refined articles. The third will be the alignment from the advanced nations to backward nations according to their stages of growth.

However, there is a darker and more somber nature of these cycles as well – the condition of discrepancy will be met, Akamatsu argues, by means of imports, leading to discrepancies in the balance of payments, and the pressure to increase exports of primary products to improve the balance. Discrepancies will also lead to a shift of production away from domestic industries in the underdeveloped country towards the export sector; leading, in the end, also to problems of excessive supply capacities in the underdeveloped country etc.

At the end of the day, Akamatsu believes in a Hegelian dialectic between the three basic discrepancies, characterizing the process of development: the discrepancy of development, the cyclical discrepancy between the rich and the poor countries, and the structural discrepancy.

Criticisms
The ongoing and deepening financial stagnation of Japan has cast doubts on the applicability of the Japanese model of economic development. In an article entitled The "Hidden" Side of the "Flying-Geese" Model of Catch-Up Growth: Japan's Dirigiste Institutional Setup and a Deepening Financial Morass, author Terutomo Ozawa argues that Japan's initial economic success was underpinned by financial institutions that led to its current economic malaise.

See also
Japanese economic miracle
Lost Decades

References

Bibliography

Foreign relations of Japan
International development
International trade theory

Flying geese paradigm


Fine Wind, Clear Morning (also known as South Wind, Clear Sky and Red Fuji) is a woodblock print made by Hokusai.

The art work was printed somewhere between 1830 and 1832 which was during the Edo period. It is the second print in the series, Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji. It shows that in early autumn when the wind is southerly and when the sky is clear, the rising sun can turn Mount Fuji red.

References

Other websites
Fine Wind, Clear Morning on the Indianapolis Museum of Art website
Fine Wind, Clear Morning  on the British Museum website

1830s works

Fine Wind, Clear Morning