In basic mathematics, a linear function is a function whose graph is a straight line in 2-dimensions (2D, see images).  An example is: y=2x–1. In higher mathematics, a linear function often refers to a linear mapping.

Basic Properties
Formally, a linear function is a function f(x):R→R such that the graph of f is a line. This means the domain or input of f is a real number R and the range or output of f is also a real number R. Usually we write y(x) or just y in place of f(x). So the formal statement means:
 we input or substitute a real number x into the linear function
 the linear function outputs or gives a real number y and
 all of these points (x,y) make a line.

There are three main forms for writing linear functions: slope-intercept, standard and parametric.

Slope-intercept form
The slope-intercept (also called point-slope or explicit) form of a linear function is    or   . This form has 2 variables x and у and 2 constants m and b.
 The letters m and b are constants. Before working with a linear function, we replace m and b with actual real numbers.
 The letters x and y are variables.
In slope-intercept form, the letter m stands for the slope and b stands for the y-intercept.
The variable x is called the independent variable or argument. Any real number x can  be input or substituted into a linear function. The function will then output the corresponding value for y.
 The variable y is called the dependent variable. It is the output value after substituting an input value for x.

 Horizontal lines are included. The line is horizontal if and only if m=0. Then we have just y=b. Since b is a real number, this is a constant function. So a constant function is also a linear function.
 Vertical lines are never included because a vertical line is not a function. A vertical line does not pass the vertical line test. (A vertical line is defined by the equation: x=b where b is a real number.)
 Slanted lines are included. The line is slanted if and only if m≠0.

 The slope-intercept form is unique. A different value of m or a different value of b gives a different line.
 A linear function is a  polynomial function of first or zero degree in one variable х .
 The constant term is b. If we substitute x=0 into the function, we get y=b. So the number b is the y-intercept and the line crosses the у-axis at the point (0,b).
 If m≠0, the number –b/m is the x-intercept or root or zero and (–b/m,0) is the point where the line crosses the х-axis. Here the value of the function is zero.
 The coefficient m of x is called the slope or gradient of the line. For each line, the number m is a constant and so the slope is constant for the whole line. The slope determines both the direction and steepness of the line. Direction and steepness are called the rate of change. So the rate of change is m and it is constant for each line.
 The sign of m determines the direction. If m>0 then the linear function is increasing; if m<0 then the function is decreasing.
 The absolute value of m determines the steepness. If |m|<1 then the slope is gentle; if |m|>1 then the slope is steep.
 If the slope of a line is m and (х,у) is any point on the line, we must also have the point (х+1, y+m) on the line.

Example: y=–2x+4. The slope is m= –2 and the y-intercept is b=4 or the point (0,4). Substituting y=0 and solving for x, we get 0=–2x+4 or x=2. So x=2 is the root of this linear function and the point (2,0) is the x-intercept.  Since the slope is m = –2, the line is decreasing. Since |–2|=2>1, the decrease is relatively steep. For each change in х of 1 (to the right), the value of у changes -2 (goes down).

 The graph of a line is determined by two points. To graph a linear function, we can substitute two different values for x into the function and solve for the corresponding y-values. We graph these two points. Using a straightedge, we draw the line through these two points extending it past both points.

Example: y=–2x+4. Substituting x=0 we get y=4 (this is the y-intercept) and thus the point (0,4). Substituting x=1, we get y=2 and thus the point (1,2). Plot these points and draw the line. (Notice that the 2nd point is 1 to the right and 2 down from the 1st point. As we said in the above example, this happens because the slope is m= –2)

 A linear function that is not a constant function is a bijection. It will output each real number (surjection) for exactly one input value (injection).

Example: y= –x+2. Suppose y= –1. We substitute y= –1 and get: –1= –'x+2 or x=3. This is the only solution. We can do this for any y-value.

Standard form
   .
 The standard form has 2 variables x and у and 3 constants A, B, and C that are replaced by actual real numbers before working. This form is often used in geometry and in systems of linear equations.
Example: The linear function 3x–2y=1 is in standard form. The constants are A=3, B=–2 and C=1.
 This form is sometimes written as: . So instead of writing 3x-2y=1, we write the equivalent equation 3x-2y-1=0.
 The constants A, B, and C are not uniquely determined. If we multiply them by a factor k, the value of these constants change, but the line is still the same.

Example: The lines 3x–2y=1  and 6x–4y=2 are coincident (same line). Here the factor is: k=2. We multiplied the first equation by 2 to get the second equation. The unique slope-intercept form of this line is: y=1.5x–0.5 (solve either equation for y).

Vector-Parametric form
Parametric form:     or

Vector form:   or   .
 The parametric or vector or vector-parametric form has 1 parameter t, 2 variables x and у, and 4 constants a1, a2, x1, and y1. The coefficients a1, a2, x1, and y1 are not uniquely determined. The line passes through the points А=(x1,y1) and B=(x1+a1,y1+a2) so that taking taking any other points or even just reversing the order ot the points will result in different constants for the same line.
 The parameter t is not visible on the graph.
 Engineers usually use the letter t for the parameter. Mathematicians often use the Greek letter λ.

Example: X=(–1,1)+t(2,3), t∈R is a line in vector form. Here: a1=2, a2=3, x1=–1 and x2=1. The line goes through the points (x1,y1)=(–1,1) and (x1+a1,y1+a2)=(1,4). The corresponding parametric form of this line is: x(t)= –1+2t, y(t)=1+3t.  The unique slope-intercept form of this line is: y(x)=1.5x+2.5   (solve the first equation for t and substitute this result into the second equation).
 The vector-parametric form of a line extends naturally to lines in 3-dimensional and higher spaces. The other forms do not.
Example: X=(–1,1,2)+t(2,3,–1), t∈R is a line in 3-dimensional space. The line goes through the points (–1,1,2) and (1,4,1).

Derivative of a linear function
In the context where it is defined, the derivative of a function is a measure of the rate of change of function values with respect to change in input values. A linear function has a constant rate of change. This rate of change is the slope m. So m is the derivative. This is often written:

Example: y= –2x+4. Here m= –2 and so y′= –2.

Linear function vs. Linear equation
Often, the terms linear equation and linear function are confused. Both are polynomials. However, the word linear in linear equation means that all terms with variables are first degree. (The word linear in linear function means the graph is a line.) A linear equation can have 1, 2, 3, or more variables. So a linear equation is a linear function only if it has exactly 2 variables. (A linear equation in one variable is a point on the number line and a linear equation in 3 variables is a plane in 3-dimensional space.)

Notation
Many countries and disciplines use different letters and ordering for the different forms.

In many countries, a linear functions is often written as  where a is the slope and b is the y-intercept.

In business and economics, a linear function is often written as  where a is the y-intercept and b'' is the slope.

Related pages
 Line
 Polynomial
 Constant function
 Quadratic equation
 Linear equation

References

Other websites
   (interactive)
   (interactive)
   (examples from economics)

Functions and mappings
Algebra

Linear function


In probability theory and statistics, the median of a data set , sometimes written as , is a number describing the data set. This number has the property that it divides a set of observed values in two equal halves, so that half of the values are below it and half are above.

If there are a finite number of elements, the median is easy to find. The values need to be arranged in a list, from the lowest to highest. If there is an odd number of values, the median is the one at position . For example, if there are 13 values, they can be arranged into two groups of 6, with the median in between, at position 7. With an even number of values, as there is no single number which divides all of the numbers to two halves, the median is defined as the mean of the two central elements. With 14 observations, this would be the mean of the elements at positions 7 and 8, which is their sum divided by 2.

Alternatively, the median of an even-sized list is sometimes defined as either of the two middle elements; the choice being either (a) always the smallest one, (b) always the largest one, or (c) randomly choose between the two. This alternative definition has two important advantages: it guarantees that the median is always a list element (for example. a list of integers will never have a fractional median), and it guarantees that the median exists for any ordinal-valued data. On the other hand, when one of the choices (a) or (b) is taken, the median of a sample will be biased, which is an unwanted property of a statistical estimator. Definition (c) does not have that disadvantage, but it is more difficult to do. It also has the disadvantage that the same list of values does not have a well-defined, deterministic median.

Median and mean
Median and mean are different in several ways. Mean is a better measure in many cases, because many of the statistical tests can use mean and standard deviation of two observations to compare them, while the same comparison cannot be performed using the medians.

Median is more useful when the variance of the values is not important, and we only need a central measure of the values. If the maximum value of a set of numbers changes while the other numbers of this set are kept the same, the mean of this set of numbers changes, but the median does not.

Another advantage of median is that it can be calculated sooner when we are studying survival data. For example, a researcher can calculate the median survival of patients with a kidney transplant, when half the patients participated in his study die. Calculating the mean survival requires continuing the study, and following all the patients until their death.

Example
Suppose one wants to know how many jelly beans most people in the room have, and that there are five people in the room:

Person 1 (7 jelly beans), Person 2 (8 jelly beans), Person 3 (9 jelly beans), Person 4 (10 jelly beans), Person 5 (11 jelly beans)
To calculate the mean, one would add the total number of jelly beans (45) and divide by the number of people (5): the mean is 9 jelly beans per person.
To calculate the median, one would line up amounts of jelly beans (7, 8, 9, 10, 11), and choose the middle number: the median is also 9 jelly beans.

The results change a lot for numbers with larger ranges. Suppose that one has the following group of five people:
Person 1 (8 jelly beans), Person 2 (8 jelly beans), Person 3 (9 jelly beans), Person 4 (10 jelly beans), Person 5 (50 jelly beans)
To calculate the mean, one would add the total number of jelly beans (85) and divide by the number of people (5): the mean is now 17 jelly beans per person.
To calculate the median, one would line up amounts of jelly beans (8, 8, 9, 10, 50), and choose the middle number: the median is still 9 jelly beans.
In this second case, the mean gives a poor understanding of how many jelly beans most people have (10 or less), while the median gives a better idea of the number of jelly beans most people have. To divide up the number of jelly beans equally, however, one would use the mean. The median is basically the middle number.

Related pages

 Average
 Mode (statistics)

References

Statistics

Median


A nostril (or naris, pl. nares) is one of the two channels of the nose, from the point where they bifurcate to the external opening.

In birds and mammals, they contain branched bones or cartilages called turbinates, whose function is to warm air on inhalation and remove moisture on exhalation. Fish do not breathe through their noses, but they do have two small holes used for smelling which may be called nostrils.

In humans, the nasal cycle means that during the course of a day, the nostrils will switch over approximately every four hours or so, meaning that only one nostril is used at any one time.

References

Nose

Nostril


South Tarawa (in Gilbertese and English: Teinainano Urban Council or abr. TUC) is the capital city of the country Kiribati. It is on an island called Tarawa Atoll. The meaning of Teinainano is "down of the mast", referring to the sail-shape of the atoll.

The South Tarawa population center is made up of all the small islands between Bairiki (on the west) to Temaiku on the east. All of separated islands are joined by causeways, forming one long island on the reef along the southern side of the Tarawa Lagoon. There is also a new causeway—the Japanese Causeway—that links South Tarawa to Betio. South Tarawa is at 1°19' North, 172°58' East (1.31667, 172.9667).

There is a Kiribati Teacher College and one University of the South Pacific center on South Tarawa. Bairiki is sometimes considered the capital of Kiribati because at one time both the Parliament, the Presidency and main administrative offices were located there. The Parliament meets on Ambo island; Government department are spread among South Tarawa, Betio and Christmas Island.

The Roman Catholic diocese and the Kiribati Protestant Church are on South Tarawa. Bairiki (executive), Ambo (legislative), Betio (judicial) are the main places of the capital.

National capitals in Oceania
Settlements in Kiribati

South Tarawa


A test pilot is a person who drives an aircraft (such as an airplane or spacecraft) in ways that allow the aircraft to be tried out. The methods a test pilot uses to try out an aircraft are called "flight test techniques" (FTTs). The pilot uses the FTTs to find out if the aircraft works well or not.

Test pilots may work for the military or for a company. Flying military aircraft in order to test them is the most difficult and dangerous kind of flying other than flying in war.

In the 1950s, one test pilot died in an accident every week or so, but many fewer die today. This is because aircraft technology has been improved and because more testing is done on the ground rather than in the air. Also, unmanned aerial vehicles are now often used for testing. Still, the job of test pilot is more dangerous than other jobs for pilots.

A test pilot must be able to:
Understand a test plan;
Follow a test plan while flying a plane;
Record the results of each test;
Sense how the aircraft is behaving oddly, if it is doing so;
Solve problems quickly if anything goes wrong with the aircraft during a test;
Solve many different problems at once.
Communicate flight test results to engineers and other pilots.

Test pilots must know about aerospace engineering in order to know how and why planes are tested. They must be more skilled than most other pilots.

History
Test flying became important during World War I, at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) in the United Kingdom. During the 1920s, more test flying was done by the RAE in the United Kingdom, and by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in the United States. In the 1950s, NACA changed into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Test flying became more scientific during these years.

The world's oldest school for test pilots is the Empire Test Pilots' School at MoD Boscombe Down in the United Kingdom. In America, the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School is at Edwards Air Force Base in California. The United States Naval Test Pilot School is at Naval Air Station Patuxent River in Maryland. The school for test pilots in France is the École du personnel navigant d'essais et de réception (EPNER) in Istres, France. The only test pilot school for civilian (non-military) pilots in the United States is the National Test Pilot School in Mojave, California.

Famous test pilots
Some famous test pilots include:
Howard Hughes, American businessman and movie producer. Hughes test flew aircraft which were built by his company, Hughes Aircraft, and bought by his airline, TWA.
Chuck Yeager, World War II fighter ace. On October 14, 1947, Yeager became the first person to fly faster than the speed of sound.
Neil Armstrong, X-15 pilot and NASA astronaut. Armstrong was the first person to walk on the moon.
Charles Bolden, the current Administrator of NASA and a former NASA astronaut.

Other websites

The Society of Experimental Test Pilots
Society of Flight Test Engineers
Empire Test Pilots School , United Kingdom
National Test Pilot School, Mojave, California
U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School , Edwards AFB, California
U.S. Naval Test Pilot School , NAS Patuxent River, Maryland
EPNER

Occupations in aviation

Test pilot


Marco Minghetti (November 18, 1818 - December 10, 1886) was an Italian economist and statesman.

Biography
Minghetti was born at Bologna into a family of rich landowners. In March 1848 Pope Pius IX offered to him the post of minister in the first constitutional government of the Papal States. However, on 29 April 1848, after the speech with which Pius IX announced the withdrawal of the papal army from the front of the first italian war of independence, Minghetti resigned.

Member of the "Historical Right", he was Minister of the Interior in the governments led by Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour and Bettino Ricasoli. He was also Minister of the Treasury in the government led by Luigi Carlo Farini. He was twice Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Italy: from 24 March 1863 to 28 September 1864 and from 10 July 1873 to 25 March 1876.

In 1864 Minghetti signed the "Convention of September" with France: with this document, Italy renounced in Rome and moved the capital from Turin to Florence. There were many protests against this agreement and consequently Minghetti was forced to resign. During his second experience as President, Minghetti raised taxes to achieve a balanced budget. He was able to accomplish this, but there were protests against his tax policy and was forced to resign for the second time.

Minghetti was the last president of the "Historic Right": after him began the period of the "Historical Left", that remained in power until Francesco Crispi.

He died in Rome.

Note

1818 births
1886 deaths
Italian economists
People from Bologna
Prime Ministers of Italy

Marco Minghetti


A trio is a group of three things, or a group of three persons who are doing something together.

In music

Trio (music), three people performing music together
Piano trio (piano, violin, cello)
String trio (violin, viola, cello)
Trio (jazz) (piano, double bass, drums)
Power trio (electric guitar, bass guitar, drum kit)
The middle section of a piece which is usually a minuet and trio or scherzo and trio
The third section of a march (music)
Trio (band), a German pop band who wrote "Da da da"
The Trio, one incarnation of Trey Anastasio (band)
Trio (album), a 1987 recording by Dolly Parton, Emmylou Harris and Linda Ronstadt. The group is also sometimes referred to as Trio.
Trio 2 (album), a 1998 recording by Dolly Parton, Emmylou Harris and Linda Ronstadt
The Trio, a live 1961 album featuring a jazz trio led by the Canadian jazz pianist Oscar Peterson

In other entertainment:
Trio (TV network), a former American cable and satellite television channel owned by NBC Universal
Trio (novel), a 1943 novel by Dorothy Baker
Trio (1950 film), a movie directed by Ken Annakin
Trio (TV series), a South Korean television drama produced by the MBC in 2002
Trio (Stargate Atlantis), an episode of the television series Stargate Atlantis

Other uses:
Trio, a speaker phone, personal handset and voice recorder made by Ipevo
Trio AB, a Swedish telecommunications company
Trio, South Carolina
The European trade name of Japanese concern Kenwood Electronics
An Australian company producing durable DVD Players
A United Kingdom chocolate bar of the 1980s
The S3 Trio 3D Graphics Accelerator.
The Trio or Tiriyó people of South America, or the Tiriyó language
TRIO, a US government outreach program for disadvantaged students
An abstract family of languages with particular closure properties

Related pages
3 (number)
Triplet (disambiguation)
Triad (disambiguation)
Triumvirate
List of fictional trios

Trio


A whip is a person in a political party whose job is to make sure the party's members vote with the party. This happens in a legislature. Whips are a party's "enforcers", who talk to each member of the party to make sure that they vote according to the official party policy.

A whip must also make sure that the elected representatives of their party are in attendance when important votes are taken. The usage comes from the hunting term "whipping in", which means to stop hounds from wandering away from the pack.

Government occupations

Whip (politics)


The Witenagemot or Witan was an institution in Anglo-Saxon England, from about the 7th to the 11th century. The name is Old English and means council of the wise men. Originally, Witan was the plural of wita (the wise man); but it was used as a singular. The council was similar to the Germanic assembly called Thing.

The purpose of the Witenagemot was to give an opinion about the administration and the organisation of the kingdom. They talked about how law should develop. They elected or confirmed the king. The Witenagemot also had the power to depose a king. This happened when they deposed Sigeberht of Wessex in 755. They also deposed Æthelwald Moll of Northumbria in 765.
Witans were held at least once a year; usually more often. In many respects they were similar to modern-day Parliament. Unlike Parliament, the locations where they were held changed; neither the Witans nor the king had a permanent place to stay.

When the Normans invaded England in 1066, they replaced the Witenagemot with another institution. This institution was still known as Witan or Witenagemot until the 12th century.

History of England
English law

Witenagemot


Hunza River () is the main river in Hunza, in the Northern Areas of Pakistan. It is formed by the confluence (joining) of the Khunjerab River, Gujerab River, Misgar River, Chapursan River and Shimshal River. These rivers are fed by glaciers.

After flowing to south to Nagar it turns to west. From Chalit it again takes a turn to the south. Flowing through Nomal Valley, it reaches Gilgit city and empties out into Gilgit River. It joins the Gilgit River with the Naltar River. Later it flows into the Indus River.

Tributaries
The Hispar River forms from the melt water of the Hispar Glacier - a 49 kilometer-long glacier in the Northern Areas of Pakistan's Karakoram Mountains. The Hispar Glacier and river both flow northwest, passing through Hispar, Hopar and Nagar (Nagir) villages until the confluence with the Hunza River in the Hunza Valley. Road conditions are spectacular at best, treacherous at worst.
The Khunjerab River begins in the snow clad mountains and glaciers in the north and south of Khunjerab pass. The river flows to the west then turns southward. It ends when it flows into the Hunza River.
The Chapursan River begins in the area of the Chilanji pass and the slopes of Kampiri Diwar peak. It flows to the east and joins Khunjerab River near Khuda Abad.
The Gujerab River starts from small glaciers and snow-topped mountains of the Gujerab range, and flows to the west and later joins Khunjerab River.
The Misgar River begins in the slopes of the mountains between Mintaka and the Kilik pass on the northern boundary of Gilgit. It flows to the south east and ends when it empties into the Khunjerab River.
The Shimshal River begins in the Shimshal pass from Virjirab and other glaciers. This is in the north eastern region of the Gilgit Agency. It flows to the west and after reaching Passu it joins the Khunjerab River. Later the Khunjerab River joins the Hunza River.

Related pages
List of rivers of Pakistan

Rivers of Pakistan
Tributaries of the Indus River

Hunza River


George Benjamin (born 31 January, 1960, London, England) is a British composer.

Benjamin started playing piano when he was seven years old and soon started writing his first pieces of music.  In 1976 he went to study at the Paris Conservatoire where Olivier Messiaen taught him musical composition and Yvonne Loriod taught him the piano.  He then studied composition with Alexander Goehr at King's College, Cambridge.

He was still only 20 when one of his compositions was played at the BBC Proms. Since then his works have been played by many famous orchestras.  He has worked regularly at the Tanglewood Festival. He has conducted famous orchestras like the London Sinfonietta, Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra and the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra.

George Benjamin lives in London where he is Professor of Composition at King's College, London.  He has been given many honors including the Chevalier dans l'ordre des Arts et Lettres in 1996.

Other websites
George Benjamin official website

1960 births
Living people
20th-century English composers
21st-century British composers

George Benjamin


Bernadette J. Brooten is an American religious scholar and Kraft-Hiatt Professor of Christian Studies at Brandeis University.

Biography
Brooten graduated from University of Portland with a B.A., and Harvard University with a Ph.D. in 1982.
She studied theology at the University of Tübingen and at Hebrew University.
She taught at the Claremont Graduate School, the University of Tübingen, Harvard Divinity School, and the University of Oslo with a 1998 Fulbright Fellowship.
She served on the Advisory Committee for the Women's Studies in Religion Program at Harvard Divinity School from 1997 to 2008.

Brooten is the founder and director of the Feminist Sexual Ethics Project at Brandeis.  The project aims to create Jewish, Christian, and Muslim sexual ethics rooted in freedom, mutuality, meaningful consent, responsibility, and female (as well as male) pleasure, untainted by slave-holding values.  These religions' sacred texts and traditions have all tolerated slavery, which has frequently involved the sexual exploitation of women and girls.  Brooten heads a team of scholars, activists, artists, and policy analysts who are disentangling the nexus of slavery, religion, women, and sexuality.  They aim to help religious and other people complete the abolition of slavery and move beyond harmful racial and sexual stereotypes.

Her work is located primarily within the New Testament, post-biblical Judaism, early literature and history, women and religion, and feminist sexual ethics (with a particular focus on law and sexuality).  Her books have won numerous awards and she has been recognized for her service to the field of Biblical Literature.

She is currently writing a book on early Christian women who were enslaved or who owned enslaved laborers.

Awards
 1998 MacArthur Fellows Program
 National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship

Selected works
"The modern face of slavery", The Boston Globe, November 19, 2006
 Beyond Slavery: Overcoming Its Religious and Sexual Legacies, Palgrave-MacMillan, 2010,
 Women Leaders in The Ancient Synagogue: Inscriptional Evidence and Background Issues, Scholars Press, 1982,
 Love Between Women: Early Christian Responses to Female Homoeroticism, University of Chicago Press, 1996,
"Female Homoeroticism", Immaculate & powerful: the female in sacred image and social reality, Editors Clarissa W. Atkinson, Constance H. Buchanan, Margaret Ruth Miles, Beacon Press, 1985,
 "Acts of the Apostles", Women priests: a Catholic commentary on the Vatican declaration, Editors Leonard J. Swidler, Arlene Swidler, Paulist Press, 1977,
Frauen in der Männerkirche, Editors Bernadette Brooten, Norbert Greinacher, Kaiser, 1982,

References

External links
"Hot Potato: An Interview with Bernadette J. Brooten", International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies, Springer Netherlands, ISSN 1566-1768, Volume 3, Number 4, October, 1998

Living people
Brandeis University faculty
University of Portland alumni
Harvard University alumni
Claremont McKenna College faculty
Academic staff of the University of Tübingen
MacArthur Fellows
Academic staff of the University of Oslo
German women academics
21st-century American historians
American women historians
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century American women
Historians from California

Bernadette Brooten


Samuel Wesley (born Bristol, 24 February 1766; died London, 11 October 1837) was an English organist and composer

Samuel Wesley was the son of Methodist hymn-writer Charles Wesley, the grandson of  the poet Samuel Wesley and the nephew of John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist church.  His illegitimate son Samuel Sebastian Wesley was the greatest English composer of church music of the 19th century.

Samuel played the violin as well as the organ, and worked as a conductor as well as a music lecturer.  He lived at a time when most English composers were writing sentimental music which was not very important.  Wesley was one of the best composers of his time.

1766 births
1837 deaths
English composers
Classical era composers

Samuel Wesley


Five Mile Point Light, also known as Five Mile Point Lighthouse or Old New Haven Harbor Lighthouse, is a U.S. lighthouse in Long Island Sound on the coast of New Haven, Connecticut.  Located at the entrance to New Haven Harbor, the beacon's name derives from its proximity to Downtown New Haven, about five miles (8 km) away.  The original lighthouse consisted of a  octagonal wooden tower built in 1805 by Abisha Woodward. In 1847, a new  octagonal tower was constructed by Marcus Bassett with East Haven brownstone. This new beacon was illuminated by 12 lamps with reflectors which were positioned  above sea level. Also constructed at this time was a two-and-one-half story brick house which supplanted the previous, deteriorating keeper's dwelling.  A fourth-order Fresnel lens replaced the lamps in 1855 and a fog bell was added in the 1860s. The Five Mile Point Light was deactivated in 1877 when the nearby Southwest Ledge Light was completed.  Currently, the lighthouse is contained within Lighthouse Point Park and, along with the keeper's house, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1990.

History
During the American Revolutionary War in July 1779, a battle took place on the site of the future lighthouse when British troops anchored offshore and staged an invasion of New Haven.  Patriot forces launched a defense of the beachfront as the attackers landed their boats.  Ensign and Adjutant Watkins of the King's American regiment was the first of the British soldiers killed in the skirmish, shot while attempting to disembark on the shoreline.  He was buried close to where the lighthouse at Five Mile Point would eventually be erected a few decades later.  Although the British went on to burn the nearby house of Amos Morris and several other residences in the area, they suffered heavy losses and ultimately abandoned their advance on New Haven.

Original tower
In 1804, the United States Congress passed a statute requiring the secretary of the treasury to build a lighthouse at Five Mile Point if land could be obtained for a reasonable price. That same year, Amos Morris, Jr., son of the man whose home was the first to be razed during the 1779 British invasion, sold a suitable one-acre plot of his father's coastal estate to the federal government for $100. On March 16, 1805, an appropriation for $2500 was issued for the construction of the lighthouse. Late that year, a  octagonal wooden tower was built by Abisha Woodward on the southwest edge of the harbor and to mark the path around the Southwest Ledge. The fixed white light was made by eight oil lamps with  parabolic reflectors, but it was criticized for being too dim. The lighthouse also had a keeper's quarters constructed in 1805. The first keeper of the light was Amos Morris Jr., for a period of just three weeks. An 1832 report noted that the light was  above the water and that its visibility had been improved with the removal of some trees. In 1838,  Lieutenant George M. Bache reported that the wooden tower and keeper's house was in a poor state. Congress would appropriate $10,000 to construct a new stone lighthouse on March 3, 1847.

Current tower

Constructed in 1847, the new  octagonal tower was constructed by Marcus Bassett with East Haven brownstone from Jabez Potter's quarry. The interior of the lighthouse was lined with New Haven brick and a 74-step granite stairway leads to the cast-iron lantern. The light was powered by 12 lamps with reflectors and was located  above sea level. Also constructed was a new two-and-one-half story brick house to replace the one in a "very bad state of repair". The light would be replaced with a fourth-order Fresnel lens in 1855. In the 1860s, a fog bell was also added.

The lighthouse was extinguished in 1877 when the offshore Southwest Ledge Light replaced it for navigation. The keeper, Elizur Thompson, went to be the Southwest Ledge Light's keeper for five years before returning to live in the Five Mile Point Light keeper's quarters and fly storm signal flags for the United States Weather Bureau. In 1896, the lighthouse was transferred to the United States Department of War and was improved by a leasee named Albert Widmann. In 1922, the property was split up, with the land given to the state of Connecticut and the buildings to the city of New Haven. Two years later, New Haven purchased the land from the state for $11,180. The tower was renovated in 1986. The $86,000 restoration included repairing cracked mortar, steam cleaning the interior and exterior and removing "guano [that had] accumulated over the decades".

Importance
Roth and Clouette note that the "Five Mile Point Lighthouse is significant because it embodies the distinctive characteristics of American lighthouse construction during the first half of the 19th century ... [it] is also significant in the maritime history of New Haven." The keeper's dwelling currently is a private residence for New Haven Recreation Department personnel and has been modified with the addition of a porch. The lighthouse and the keeper's residence were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1990.

List of keepers

See also

 List of lighthouses in the United States
 List of lighthouses in Connecticut
 National Register of Historic Places listings in New Haven, Connecticut

References

External links

 Five Mile Point Lighthouse
 Lighthouse Point Park

Lighthouses completed in 1805
Towers completed in 1805
Lighthouses completed in 1812
Lighthouses completed in 1847
Long Island Sound
Buildings and structures in New Haven, Connecticut
Tourist attractions in New Haven, Connecticut
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut
Lighthouses in New Haven County, Connecticut
National Register of Historic Places in New Haven, Connecticut
1805 establishments in Connecticut

Five Mile Point Light


Cluny is a city in eastern France. It lies in the region of Burgundy. The city grew around the Abbey of Cluny in the 10th century. The town of Mâcon is about 30 km to the southeast. Lyon is about 60 km to the south. Today, about 4,400 people live in the city. The Cluniac Reforms started here.

Communes in Saône-et-Loire

Cluny


The Dauphin was the heir apparent to the throne of France from 1350–1791, and from 1824–1830.

History
Guy VIII, Count of Vienne, had a dolphin on his coat of arms and had been nicknamed le Dauphin (French for dolphin). The title of Dauphin of Viennois descended in his family until 1349, when Humbert II sold his signeurie, called the Dauphiné, to King Philippe VI on condition that the heir of France assumed the title of le Dauphin and govern this territory. The Dauphin retained the title only. The estates belonged to the crown. On the death of the Dauphin, his eldest son inherits the title. If there is no son, his oldest brother succeeds him. If the king does not have a son the title does not go to anyone. It is never given to a brother of the king. The wife of the Dauphin was known as the Dauphine. The first French Dauphin was Charles V. The title is roughly equivalent to the English title Prince of Wales. The Dauphin was entitled to the use of the style of Royal Highness but this was only ever used in written form.

The title of Dauphin of Auvergne was used by the Count of Clermont.

Dauphins of France, 1349-1830

 Charles V of France 1349–1364
 Charles, eldest son and heir of Charles V; future Charles VI 1368-1380
 Charles 1389
 Charles 1392–1401
 Louis, 1401–1415
 John, 1415–1417
 Charles VII of France  1417–1422
 Louis XI of France 1423–1461
 Charles VIII of France 1470–1483
 Charles Orland 1492–1495
 Charles 1496
 François 1497–1498
 François 1518–1536
 Henry II of France 1536–1547
 Francis II of France 1547–1559
 Louis XIII of France 1601–1610
 Louis XIV of France 1638–1643
 Louis, Grand Dauphin 1661–1711
 Louis, Petit Dauphin 1711-1712
 Louis 1712
 Louis XV of France 1712–1715
 Louis 1729–1765
 Louis XVI of France 1765–1774
 Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France 1781–1789
 Louis XVII of France 1789–1791 (in 1791 his title was changed to "Prince Royal")
 Louis XIX of France 1824–1830

Related pages
Prince of Wales
Titles of European royal heirs

References

Ranks in the old Kingdom of France
Titles in the old Kingdom of France

Dauphin of France


A hangwa is a Korean traditional cookie. Hangwa includes Yumilgwa Yugwa, Dasik Dasik and Yeot Gangjeong. Hangwa is also called Jogwa since it is made of diverse grains and looks like fruits.

Origin
Hangwa was very popular among people over the Shilla and Goryeo because the yield of grains had went up a lot and people tried not to eat meat for religious reasons. The religion at that time was Buddhism. Since then, Hangwa has become necessary in wedding ceremonies, memorial sacrifice days, and social dinners.

Types of Hangwa
The basic materials of Hangwa are mostly natural and based on the materials Hangwa is primarily divided into seven kinds and the recipes are slightly different.

Characteristics
Hangwa does not go bad easily because it is very good at preservation. This comes from the fermentation of grains and use of honey. Also, Hangwa is very nutritious. Ancestors thought that food was natural medicine and the idea was reflected on the nutrition of Hangwa too. Also, Hangwa shows Korean traditional virtue and emotions. It represents the warmth of neighbors. In ancient times, when people had ceremonies or social meetings, they made their guest go back with some food, which was mostly Tteok and Hangwa. In other words, Hangwa talks about the kindness and the affection between people in Korea.

References
한과의 디저트 상품화를 위한 브랜드아이덴티티 디자인 개발 연구
International Strategy of Rice Cake and Korean Traditional Cookie

Other websites

 What is Hangwa
 The origin of Hangwa

Korean food

Hangwa


Thomas Stevens (24 December 1854– 24 January 1935) was the first person to circle the globe by bicycle. He rode a large-wheeled Ordinary, also known as a penny-farthing, from April 1884 to December 1886. He later searched for Henry Morton Stanley in Africa, investigated the claims of Indian ascetics and became manager of the Garrick Theatre in London.

Origins

Stevens, known as Tom, was born in Castle Street, Berkhamsted, the son of William and Ann Stevens. His father was a labourer. Thomas had an older sister, Bridget, and younger, Jane. He went to Bourne Charity School, then became an apprentice grocer. His father emigrated to Missouri in 1868 but returned when his wife became ill and before the rest of the family could also go to America. Tom went with a half-brother but without his parents and sisters in 1871 and the rest of the family followed two years later. They moved to Denver and then to San Francisco, where he learned to ride a bicycle.

Adventure Cyclist described him as  "a man of medium height, wearing an oversized
blue flannel shirt over blue overalls, which were tucked into a pair of leggings at the knee [and] tanned
' as a nut.'A mustache protruded from his face." It said: "A two-year stint in a Wyoming railroad mill ended when he was run out of town after it became known that he was importing British labourers in exchange for part of their salaries. He later found work in a Colorado mine where he came up with the idea of riding a bicycle across the country."

Around the World

America
In 1884 he acquired a black-enameled Columbia 50-inch 'Standard' penny-farthing with nickel-plated wheels, built by the Pope Manufacturing Company of Chicago.  He packed his handlebar bag with socks, a spare shirt, a raincoat that doubled as tent and bedroll, and a pocket revolver (described as a "bull-dog revolver", perhaps a British Bull Dog revolver) and left San Francisco at 8 o'clock on 22 April 1884.  From Sacramento, Stevens travelled through the Sierra Nevada Mountains to Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming.  En route, he was greeted by members of local bicycle clubs, most prominently the president of a chapter of the League of American Wheelmen in Laramie, Wyoming.  He had never seen North America east of the Mississippi. He reached Boston after 3,700 miles on wagon trails, railways, canal towpaths and public roads, to complete the first transcontinental bicycle ride on 4 August 1884.

Harper's reported: "More than one-third of the route followed by Mr. Stevens had to be walked. Eighty-three and a half days of actual travel and twenty days' stoppage for wet weather, etc., made one hundred and three and a half days occupied in reaching Boston, the distance by wagon-road being about 3,700 miles. He followed the old California trail most of the way across the plains and mountains, astonishing the Indians, and meeting with many strange adventures."

Thomas Wentworth Higginson, who heard Stevens speak at the Massachusetts Bicycle Club, said: "He seemed like Jules Verne, telling his own wonderful performances, or like a contemporary Sinbad the Sailor. We found that modern mechanical invention, instead of disenchanting the universe, had really afforded the means of exploring its marvels the more surely. Instead of going round the world with a rifle, for the purpose of killing something – or with a bundle of tracts, in order to convert somebody – this bold youth simply went round the globe to see the people who were on it; and since he always had something to show them as interesting as anything that they could show him, he made his way among all nations."

Europe
Stevens passed the winter in New York and contributed sketches of his transcontinental trip to Outing, a cycling magazine. It made him a special correspondent and sent him on the steamer City of Chicago to Liverpool. He landed there 10 days later, on 9 April 1885. He left his bicycle in the underground storerooms of the London and North Western Railway and went by train to London to arrange his crossing of Europe and to investigate conditions in Asia. He was helped by an interpreter at the Chinese embassy who discouraged him from riding across Upper Burma and China.

He returned to Liverpool on 30 April 1885 and on 4 May made a formal start to his ride at Edge Hill church, where several hundred people watched him leave. He wrote:

A small sea of hats is enthusiastically waved aloft; a ripple of applause escaped from 500 English throats as I mount my glistening bicycle; and with the assistance of a few policemen, 25 Liverpool cyclers who have assembled to accompany me out extricate themselves from the crowd, mount, and fall into line two abreast; and merrily we wheel down Edge-lane and out of Liverpool."

It began raining within minutes.

He rode, wearing a white military helmet through England, passing through Berkhamsted, where he had been born. He recorded that roads in England were better than in America. He took the ferry from Newhaven to Dieppe to cross to France and continued through Germany; Austria; Hungary, where he picked up a temporary cycling companion with whom he shared no language; Slavonia; Serbia; Bulgaria; Rumelia; and Turkey.

In Constantinople he rested among people who had heard of America, refitted with spare spokes, tires and other parts and a better pistol (a .38 calibre Smith & Wesson), waited for reports of banditry to subside, and then pedalled off through Anatolia, Armenia, Kurdistan, Iraq and Iran, where he waited out the winter in Teheran as a guest of the Shah.

Afghanistan
Having been refused permission to travel through Siberia, he set off on 10 March 1886 through Afghanistan although its borders were closed to foreigners and its guards had a fierce reputation. Upon entering the country, Stevens was arrested. As guards took him to his place of detainment, he entertained them with a demonstration of his bicycle, pedalling far ahead of them until an officer caught up on horse and had him wait for the on-foot soldiers to catch up.

He was kept in a villa where he was fed well and gifted new boots, soap and biscuits imported from England. A fine horse was kept in the garden aside his quarters that he might enjoy looking at.

Finally ejected from Afghanistan, Stevens was accompanied back to Persia. Again, he was allowed to speed ahead of his captors so long as he stopped and waited for them occasionally. Eventually, however, the soldiers grew nervous and disassembled his bicycle, strapping the pieces to a packhorse, which later laid upon the larger wheel, breaking many spokes, the most severe damage the penny-farthing experienced upon the trip. Afghan gunsmiths drilled new holes and stretched new spokes. Some spokes remained subpar, though sufficient to complete the thousands of miles yet ahead.

Asia

He took a Russian steamer across the Caspian to Baku, a rail to Batoum, and a steamer to Constantinople and India.  In the Red Sea his knowledge of mules was useful to the British Army.  He cycled across India, noting that the weather was always hot and the Grand Trunk Road was excellent wheeling and free from bandits.  Much of his description of life in India, however, suffers from being based on the opinions of experts rather than his own observations.  Another steamer brought him from Calcutta to Hong Kong and southern China.  He pedalled to eastern China, encountering great difficulty in asking directions in a language he couldn't pronounce.  A Chinese official gave him refuge from rioters who were angry over a war with the French.  From the coast he took a steamer to Japan, where he delighted in the calm of that country. The bicycle part of his journey around the world ends 17 December 1886, at Yokohama. His itinerary accounts "DISTANCE ACTUALLY WHEELED, ABOUT 13,500 MILES". Stevens returned by steamer to San Francisco, in January 1887.

Stevens' travels through Japan were reported in the Jijishinpou newspaper.
Along the way, Stevens sent a series of letters to Harper's Magazine detailing his experiences and later collected those experiences into a two-volume book of 1,000 pages, Around the World on a Bicycle, which is available in a single-volume paperback and publicly available at digital library projects. The price of an original has been estimated at between US$300 and US$400

The Pope Company preserved Stevens's bicycle until World War II, when it was donated to a scrap drive to support the war effort.

The search for Stanley
The New York World asked Thomas in 1888 to join its search in East Africa for the explorer Henry Morton Stanley. Stanley had travelled up the Congo but a year and a half had passed without news. Stevens called it "a grand opportunity; the one chance, mayhap, of a lifetime, to spring into fame on the stage of African exploit. How would I Found Stanley look in the libraries with I Found Livingstone?"

Stevens left New York by ship on 5 January 1889. His instructions, he said, were:

Go to Zanzibar. Investigate the state of affairs there. Let us know the truth about the troubles between the Germans and the Arabs. See what is to be seen of the slave trade. Find out all you can about Stanley and Emin Pasha, and, if necessary or advisable, organise an expedition and penetrate the interior for reliable news of the Emin Pasha Relief expedition. Spare no expense in carrying out the main object of the enterprise, but at the same time don't throw money away recklessly.

Stevens led a six-month expedition, writing for the newspaper of climbing Mount Kilimanjaro and hunting big game. He found Stanley's camp in a race with the rival New York Herald and wrote his memoir, Scouting for Stanley in East Africa It concluded:

By the end of February 1890, I was again in New York. I had been gone fourteen months. I had not 'found Stanley,' as Stanley had found Livingstone in 1871; the circumstances were altogether different. I had, however, gratified a pardonable journalistic ambition in being the first correspondent to reach him and to give him news of the world, after his long period of African darkness. That I had done this under most trying conditions, Mr. Stanley fully appreciated; and warmly reciprocated by showing me every courtesy in his power, on the march to the coast, in Zanzibar, and in Egypt.

Stevens then reported from Russia, sailed the rivers of Europe, and investigated miracles claimed by Indian ascetics. His conclusions that "the stories of travelers, from Marco Polo to the latest witness of Indian miracles...are quite true" were greeted with scepticism and his career faltered. A planned tour of London with his Indian photographs fell through.

Return to England
Stevens returned to England around 1895 and married Frances Barnes (née Nation), widowed mother of the actresses Irene and Violet Vanbrugh. He became manager of the Garrick Theatre in London. He died in London of cancer of the bladder and was buried at St Marylebone Cemetery in East Finchley, London.

His publications also include:
 Around The World on a Bicycle, London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington, 1887.
 Wild Pea-Fowls in British India, St Nicholas Magazine September 1888
 Some Asiatic Dogs, St Nicholas Magazine February 1890
African River and Lake Systems, Scribner's Magazine, September 1890
 Through Russia on a Mustang, Cassell Publishing Company, New York, 1891
Bicycling, Lippincott's Magazine (V49) May, 1892
Across Europe with a Petroleum Launch (From the German Ocean to the Black Sea), Outing Magazine April 1892-September 1892
Babes of the Empire, London : William Heinemann, 1902.

See also
 Frank Lenz (cyclist)

References

 Genini, Ronald. "California's Circumcyclist Extraordinaire," 'The Californians, 5, No. 3 (May/June 1987), 22–27. Cited in Journal of Sport History, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Spring, 1988).

External links

 "Thomas Stevens – 1884" – The Wheelmen
 "Around the World on a Bicycle. From San Francisco to Teheran" – Via Incognita
 "ROUND THE WORLD ON A BICYCLE" – Harper's brief, 30 August 1884
 Maps and Pictures – Bike China Adventures]
 Discussion on NPR's Weekend Edition Saturday

1854 births
1935 deaths
19th-century British journalists
19th-century English memoirists
20th-century English non-fiction writers
Deaths from cancer in England
Deaths from bladder cancer
People from Berkhamsted
Male touring cyclists
Cycling journalists
Cycling writers
English emigrants to the United States
English miners
English male cyclists
Burials at East Finchley Cemetery
Ultra-distance cyclists

Thomas Stevens (cyclist)


T. S. Soundaram Ramachandran  (18 August 1904 – 21 October 1984) was an Indian physician, social reformer and politician was the daughter of T. V. Sundaram Iyengar, the founder of T V Sundaram Iyengar and Sons Limited, popularly known as TVS Group of companies, one of India's largest industrial conglomerates. She was married young barely at the age of 14 in 1918, her husband Dr. Soundararajan, encouraged her to study. But when he died when she was in her teens, it was her parents who urged her to continue with her studies. It was at Lady Hardinge Medical College in Delhi that she did her medicine degree.

Freedom struggle and remarriage
During her college days in Delhi, she became friends with Sushila Nayyar and through her she met Gandhiji. She was immediately drawn to the freedom struggle, but she did not give up her studies. She was 32 years old in 1936 when she was graduated as a doctor.
She then involved herself wholeheartedly into the freedom struggle and through Gandhiji met a G.Ramachandran, a keralite, who was active in the Harijan movement. They fell in love and decided to get married, but her parents were vehemently opposed to the alliance. Gandhi advised them not to keep in touch with each other for a year. After that separation, when they still felt the same way about each other, Gandhiji gave them his blessings and they got married on 7 November 1940. T.S.Soundaram and her husband were soon in the thick of the Quit India Movement, but as freedom neared Gandhi thought she would serve India better by not getting involved in politics. He made her the representative in South India of the Kasturba Gandhi National Memorial Trust and entrusted her with setting up an institution in a rural area that would improve the lot of the poorest of the poor. So was born the idea of Gandhigram, where villagers were taught skills and provided support to revive village industries and the economy of the rural community. Dr.T.S.Soundaram threw herself wholeheartedly into this project that focused on healthcare, education, economic development and social welfare in the rural communities in the surrounding area.

Social work
In 1947, Soundaram started the Kasturba Hospital as a two-bed clinic in a house in Chinnalapatti, a small town on the Madurai Dindigul highway. Under the visionary leadership of Dr Soundaram, the hospital made several inroads into rural health and family welfare which is now a 220-bed hospital.  Along with her husband, Dr. G. Ramachandran, she notably founded the Gandhigram Rural Institute in 1947 as a memorial to Kasturba Gandhi, the deceased wife of Mahatma Gandhi, with a fund of national donations. This was set up as a rural institution, in a remote place in Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu to serve the most deprived of people.

The Gandhigram Rural Institute became a deemed university in 1976.

Political life
Soundaram was elected Member of the Legislative Assembly (India) twice from then Madras State, first in 1952 from Athoor (State Assembly Constituency) and in 1957 from Vedasandur (State Assembly Constituency) representing Indian National Congress, then an MP in 1962 representing Dindigul (Lok Sabha constituency). With her move again to Delhi, she was appointed the Union Deputy Minister for Education. It was during her tenure as Deputy Minister that she introduced compulsory and free primary education throughout India. She also helped start the National Service Scheme (NSS), that still has a strong rural service element to it. In the year 1962 she was awarded Padma Bhushan for her contribution towards social work. Soundaram lost the 1967 general election from Dindigul (Lok Sabha constituency) to N. Anbuchezhian a young student leader of DMK with a margin of more than one lakh votes, subsequently she went back to social work and retired from politics.

Commemoration
 A commemorative stamp was issued on 2 October 2005.

References

Further reading
 Dr. Sushila Nayar, Women Pioneer — In India's Renaissance, National Book Trust, 2002

External links
 Simple and selfless, centenary article in The Hindu, 18 February 2005
  Bio details on Gandhigram website

1904 births
1984 deaths
20th-century Indian medical doctors
India MPs 1962–1967
Lok Sabha members from Tamil Nadu
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in social work
Medical doctors from Tamil Nadu
People from Tirunelveli district
People from Dindigul district
Indian women medical doctors
Women scientists from Tamil Nadu
20th-century Indian politicians
20th-century Indian women politicians
20th-century Indian women scientists
Social workers from Tamil Nadu
Women educators from Tamil Nadu
Educators from Tamil Nadu
20th-century Indian women medical doctors
TVS Group
Women members of the Lok Sabha
Women members of the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly
Madras MLAs 1952–1957
Madras MLAs 1957–1962
20th-century Indian educators
20th-century Indian women educators
TVS family

T. S. Soundaram


The Short Line Bridge is a truss bridge that spans the Mississippi River in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. It was originally built in the 1880s and upgraded a few years later by Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad and was designed by American Bridge Company.

The bridge is entirely within Minneapolis but the railroad line crosses into St. Paul less than a half mile to the east.  The name "Short Line" comes from the Milwaukee Road's construction of a shorter, more direct connection between St. Paul and Minneapolis.  Previously the connection was made via a line that headed southwest along the Mississippi River, north at Mendota and northwest via Fort Snelling to downtown Minneapolis.  The "Short Line" was part of a number of construction projects in the 1880s that also included a roundhouse and yard near the present-day junction of Lake Street and Hiawatha Avenue, as well as a line to the west just north of Lake Street (today's Midtown Greenway).

As railroad traffic became less important in the Twin Cities in the latter part of the 20th century, the Milwaukee Road gradually abandoned several of its lines in the area.  It still found use for the Short Line Bridge route, however, as did Milwaukee Road successors Soo Line Railroad and Canadian Pacific.  The bridge was also used by the Twin Cities and Western Railroad. Through trains continued to cross the bridge until the former Milwaukee Road was severed at Lake Street as part of the reconstruction of Hiawatha Avenue (Minnesota State Highway 55). The bridge is still used today by the Minnesota Commercial Railway to service grain elevators along Hiawatha Avenue.  There has been some discussion about using the bridge as a connection for the Midtown Greenway across the Mississippi River, but Canadian Pacific has not been receptive to the idea.

In July 2006 there was a severe fire on the bridge which caused $200,000 in damage, closing down rail traffic until it could be repaired.  Originally the cause was thought to have been small fireworks, but later appeared to be arson, by dousing the bridge in gasoline.  The bridge in the specific spot could only hold at maximum 50 pounds of weight.  To prevent people from hurting themselves, local authorities patrolled each side of the bridge from 6:00 pm – 6:00 am in the days following the event. Now a fence blocking access to the bridge states that any trespassers will be fined and/or serve jail time.  There was a smaller fire at an unknown date prior to this incident.  The bridge was repaired within a few weeks in order to continue to serve a few customers of the west side of the river that had no other rail access aside from this line.  Special ties were brought in from across the country to repair the damaged area.

See also
List of crossings of the Upper Mississippi River

References

Further reading

External links

Bridges completed in 1902
Bridges in Minneapolis
Bridges over the Mississippi River
Canadian Pacific Railway bridges in the United States
Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad
Mississippi Gorge
Railroad bridges in Minnesota
Steel bridges in the United States
Truss bridges in the United States
Shared-use paths in Minneapolis
Baltimore truss bridges

Short Line Bridge


The Somnath temple is an important pilgrimage and tourist spot in Gujarat, India. It is located in Prabhas Patan near Veraval in Saurashtra on the western coast of Gujrat and is believed to be the first among the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva.  It was reconstructed in the Chalukya style of Hindu temple architecture and was completed in May 1951. The reconstruction was started under the orders of the Indian Home Minister, Vallabhbhai Patel and completed after his death.

Temples in India
Hindu temples
Buildings and structures completed in the 20th century

Somnath temple


The Main (pronounced in German like the English word mine) is a river in Germany, 524 km in length, and one of the bigger tributaries of the Rhine river. Its average discharge at Frankfurt East Harbour is 190 cubic metres/second. It flows through the Bundesländer (states) of Bavaria, Hesse and 25 Kilometers along the border of Bavaria with Baden-Württemberg. The biggest city on the Main is Frankfurt, others are Bayreuth, Bamberg, Würzburg, Hanau and Offenbach. The mid Main valley is characterised by many vineyards. It is part of the region of Franken. Boats on the Main can use the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal to go to Eastern Europe.

The name of the river has nothing to do with the English word main, which means most important, or the French word main, which means hand. The river was named Mogin by the ancient celts after their god Mogon. Later, the Romans called the river Moenus in their language. In the Middle Ages, this name became Meyn and later Main.

Geography of Baden-Württemberg
Geography of Bavaria
Geography of Hesse
Rivers of Germany

Main


Henryk Jordan (23 July 1842 in Przemyśl – 16 May 1907 in Kraków) was a Polish philanthropist, physician and pioneer of physical education. A professor of obstetrics from 1895 at Kraków's Jagiellonian University, Jordan became best known for organizing children's playgrounds, called "Jordan's parks" after him.

Life
Henryk Jordan was born into an impoverished noble family from the village of Zakliczyn, which over time moved to other places in Polish Galicia (for example Przemyśl). His father, Bonifacy Jordan, gave private lessons. His mother, Salomea Wędrychowska, was a homemaker.

Jordan received his high-school education in Tarnopol and Tarnów.  In 1861, however, he took part in pro-Polish demonstrations for which he was threatened with expulsion from school. In 1862 he moved to Trieste and a year later passed his high-school examinations, in Italian, with honors.

Jordan began his university studies in Vienna, and from 1863 continued them at Kraków's Jagiellonian University. He passed his science examinations in 1867 but did not receive his master's degree due to pneumonia. He went to Berlin and from there to New York City. While there, Jordan for the first time encountered the "Swedish school of gymnastics" for girls and young women, which became an area of interest for him.

While in the United States, Jordan began his medical practice and also opened a school for midwives. After returning to Europe, he continued to work first in England, then in Germany. Back in Kraków, Jordan took on a number of leadership positions. From 1895 to 1901 he was a Member of Parliament representing the city at the Polish Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria. In addition, Jordan presided over the Kraków Gynecological Society, as well as the Society of Medical Doctors, and the Association of Polish Teachers of Higher Education (a precursor to the Polish Teachers' Union). Thanks to his efforts, physical education classes were introduced as compulsory into all Polish schools.

Henryk Jordan's biggest achievement was to set up a public playground in 1889, with exercise fixtures modeled after playgrounds in the USA, the first in Kraków and perhaps the first in Europe. The Jordan's Garden built on the grounds of Kraków's Błonia included a swimming pool, 12 playing and soccer fields, as well as numerous running and exercise tracks. Facilities were added for indoor activities in 1906, in case of bad weather. The park was equipped with locker rooms and showers. On top of that, a free meal service was established for the children.

Legacy
Jordan believed that: "Being serious and working all the time is humanly impossible. A tired body requires rest, as does an overburdened spirit striving for joy."

"Jordan's gardens" took off like wildfire. They were opened in Warsaw, Płock, Kalisz and Lublin. In 1928 a Society for Jordan's Gardens was established to oversee the construction of recreational facilities in interwar Poland.

References
 Henryk Jordan's Park at www.grodzka.net.pl
 Henryk Jordan's activity as a member of the Galitzian Parliament
 Henryk Jordan (1842-1907), a dedicated Krakow physician
 Henryk Jordan, the founding father (in Polish)
 Jordan's Garden by Jacek Slezak

See also
 History of Poland (1795–1918)
 Science in Poland
 Culture of Kraków

Polish obstetricians and gynaecologists
Burials at Rakowicki Cemetery
University of Vienna alumni
1842 births
Jagiellonian University alumni
1907 deaths
Members of the Polish Gymnastic Society "Sokół"

Henryk Jordan


Michael Greenberg (28 November 1914 – 19 April 1992) was a scholar of Chinese economics and history. He was alleged in the first wave of McCarthyism to have provided a Soviet spy with information during the 1940s, but was never charged with espionage.

Greenberg was born Michael Menahem Greenberg in Manchester, Lancashire, England, son of a Polish-born father and a mother from Iași, Romania, both of whom had arrived in the UK as children in the 1890s. He attended Manchester Grammar School and won a scholarship to study history at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated with first-class honours.

Greenberg arrived in the United States in 1939 to attend the graduate school of Harvard University under a Joseph Hodges Choate Memorial Fellowship from Trinity College.  He studied at Harvard from October 1939 to January 1941.  Greenberg also became managing editor of the Institute of Pacific Relations (IPR) publication, Pacific Affairs in 1941.  In August 1941, Edward Clark Carter, general secretary to the Pacific Council of the IPR, wrote Lauchlin Currie asking if letters to Owen Lattimore in China could be transmitted so that "they are not read by others before reaching him." Currie promptly replied on a White House letterhead that "I will be glad to get the letters you mentioned to Lattimore uncensored." Currie's assistant in the White House was Greenberg.

In 1942 Greenberg became a China specialist at the Board of Economic Warfare and an assistant to the agency's head, Lauchlin Currie. Greenberg later worked as a foreign affairs economist in the Administrative Division, Enemy Branch, of the Foreign Economic Administration.  Elizabeth Bentley, who had never met Greenberg (see Silvermaster file 2C page 18) stated that for a brief period Greenberg supplied information concerning principally China.  Unspecified information was alleged to have been passed through Mary Price.

Civil Service Commission security officials wanted Greenberg dismissed upon learning of an alleged involvement with the Communist Party (see Silvermaster file 2C page 18). Louis Budenz and an academic Karl Wittfogel who met Greenberg in Cambridge and stated that he "must have" been a Communist because of his associates.  Upon appeal, the Civil Service Commission was over-ruled. Greenberg became a U.S. citizen in 1944 and transferred to the Department of State in 1945, resigning in 1946.  Greenberg left the United States permanently in 1947 after being interviewed by the FBI so was never called before a Congressional Committee.

Greenberg's FBI file is highly redacted. A wiretap in 1945 revealed Greenbergs's co-workers discussing "the charges against him", and remarking that Greenberg would have been better off if he had worked, but that he had never turned out a piece of work in the three years he had been employed by the government. His FBI file concluded: "Investigations conducted thus far has failed to disclose any pertinent information to this case at this time" Silvermaster file 2C page 50.

Upon return to England, Greenberg went back to Cambridge and completed work on his Ph.D. thesis, which was eventually published as a book British Trade and the Opening of China () (1947, Cambridge University Press, reissued in 1970, republished in the US in 1979, and again in 2000 as part of an eight volume set China Trade: British Commerce and the Opening of China, 1635–1842). This book, based on the then recently released archives of the Jardine Matheson Company, a major player in the development of Hong Kong, describes the forceful exploitation of China by British colonial power in establishing and maintaining the colony of Hong Kong (see also Opium War).

Blocked from academic promotion, most likely due to his left-leaning politics, he went on to work in a number of jobs in journalism, public relations, advertising and film criticism in England, Switzerland and France. He lost his U.S. citizenship due to absence from the US and was denied a passport by the British Home Office, even as late as the 1970s. His British passport was never restored to him, and the accusations continued to hound him throughout the 1950s.

In 1958, he was recruited as economic advisor to the Central Bank of Ceylon, returning to the UK in 1960. Shortly thereafter, he became, as Michael Green, assistant editor and then chief editor of The Banker, a monthly professional journal published by the Financial Times of London. He later became chief economist at the London stockbroking company De Zoete & Bevan. He commented that in the City of London most people shared the Marxist analysis of capitalism that he had learned in Cambridge in the 1930s, but that they were, by contrast, quite content with the implicit inequalities.

His obituary appeared in The Times and The Independent. He is survived by his wife and three sons.

References

Sources

FBI Silvermaster File
FBI Silvermaster file
 Michael Greenberg interview, 7 June 1947, FBI Silvermaster file, serial 2583.
Washington Times-Herald, April 15, 1951, p. 5.
Elizabeth Bentley's Testimony in Institute of Pacific Relations, Hearings, Part 2, Exhibit No. 111, 112, pp. 433–434.
Elizabeth Bentley deposition 30 November 1945, FBI file 65-14603.
Earl Latham, The Communist Controversy in Washington: From the New Deal to McCarthy, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, (1966), 306–307.
John Costello, Mask of Treachery, New York: Morrow, (1988), 380–381, 480–481.
John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), pgs. 111, 113, 114, 161, 374, 408, 409, 415, 421.
Boughton, James M. and Sandilands, Roger J.  "Politics and the Attack on FDR's Economists: From Grand Alliance to the Cold War", Intelligence and National Security, Spring 2002
Michael Greenberg FBI FOIA

1914 births
1992 deaths
People educated at Manchester Grammar School
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
British emigrants to the United States

Michael Greenberg (economist)


Impossible Mission II is a video game developed by Novotrade and published by Epyx in 1988. It was released for the Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, Enterprise 128, Nintendo Entertainment System, DOS, Atari ST, Apple II with at least 128K, Apple IIGS, and Amiga.

Impossible Mission II is a direct sequel to Epyx's 1984 game Impossible Mission. The game follows directly from the same plot, with Elvin Atombender seeking revenge and the player having to stop him. The overall game structure and basic gameplay is mostly similar, but there are a few differences and new features.

Gameplay
The game takes place in Elvin's fortress, which consists of nine towers. Each of the eight outer towers has a specific theme, such as computers, automobiles, furniture and so on. Each tower consists of several rooms connected by two vertical corridors with elevators and two horizontal corridors leading to other towers. The corridors leading between different towers are locked, and they can only be unlocked by figuring out a numerical puzzle.

Each tower contains the numbers zero through nine in three different colors. The computer interface allows the player to try various number combinations to see if they are correct.

The elevator to the central tower is unlocked by finding a password, which is encoded in a piece of music. Each of the eight outer towers has a musical piece locked inside a safe. The final password consists of six distinct musical pieces. Two of the pieces in the towers are duplicates. The player must rewind the tape so that the next musical piece records over the duplicate, erasing it.

The main addition over the previous game is the addition of new types of enemy robots and devices for the player to use. Whereas the original game only included security bots and a special flying ball robot, Impossible Mission II has the following types of robots:
 Security bot, like in the previous game.
 Shovel bot, tries to push the player character over the edge of a platform.
 Suicide bot, like a shovel bot, but also jumps off the edge itself.
 Mine bot, lays deadly land mines on the floor.
 Pest bot, is harmless to the touch, but rides around on the lifts, foiling the player's designs.
 Squat bot, springs up from the floor, sending the player character onto a higher floor or crushing him against the ceiling.
The "ball" type robot is no longer present.

As well as snoozes that temporarily freeze the robots and lift resets, the player can now collect bombs and mines that can be used to blow up holes in the floor or to open safes. Bombs explode after a specific time, whereas mines explode if the player or an enemy robot touches them.

Development
Unlike most computer game sequels of the time, Impossible Mission II did not use any code from the original game. The graphics were remade from scratch using a bitmap animation tool called Film Director. The lead platform was the Atari ST, with work on the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum ports being started once the Atari ST version was nearly complete. All the rooms in Impossible Mission II were redesigned for the ZX Spectrum version.

According to Novotrade programmer László Szenttornyai, who coded the Spectrum version, the NES version of the game "almost wasn't released because of the strict situation between Epyx and Nintendo."

Reception

The game received mixed reviews from critics. Common criticisms were the game's overt similarity to and lack of improvement from the original Impossible Mission and the extremely limited sound. However, the challenging puzzles, impressive player character animations, and the tension of playing against the clock were all praised by multiple critics. It was voted best platform game ("Geschicklichkeitsspiel") of 1988 by German magazine PowerPlay.

Legacy
In 2004, Impossible Mission was one of the games included on the C64 Direct-to-TV. Both Impossible Mission and its sequel were also included in the C64 Mini.

Impossible Mission and Impossible Mission II were followed by Impossible Mission 2025, an Amiga exclusive. Impossible Mission 2025 abandoned the corridor layout of different rooms and instead includes one big room. The player also has the choice of three different characters: the normal secret agent, a female gymnast, and an android.

References

External links

 Images of Impossible Mission II manual

1988 video games
Platform games
Amiga games
Appaloosa Interactive games
Apple II games
Apple IIGS games
Commodore 64 games
DOS games
ZX Spectrum games
Amstrad CPC games
Atari ST games
Unauthorized video games
U.S. Gold games
Video games developed in Hungary
Video game sequels
Epyx games
Virtual Console games
Spy video games
Single-player video games

Impossible Mission II


Babels is an international network of volunteer interpreters and translators that was born out of the European Social Forum (ESF) process and whose main objective is to cover the interpreting needs of the various Social Forums. It is a horizontal, non-hierarchical network, with no permanent structures of any kind.

Babels originated in the process of preparation for the 2002 ESF, a left-wing conference of the anti-globalization movement held in Florence. A small network of 'communication activists' associated with ATTAC France proposed that the conference use only volunteers to interpret the various languages of the speakers for the audience. There was some debate about the quality of volunteer translators but the cost of professionals helped sway the argument. A last-minute call went out for volunteers to which 600 people responded and which finally resulted in around 350 volunteer interpreters and translators for the Forum. The group had no official space to work from and little funds so had to squat a medieval tower.

After the first ESF the organisers of the translation formed Babels groups in France and Italy and groups also sprang up in Germany, the UK, and Spain. These groups went on to participate in counter G8 conferences in Evian and Annemasse.

For the second ESF in Paris organisers gave Babels £200,000 funding, offices facilities and a longer preparation period. Over 1000 Babelistas (Babels translation volunteers) took part in the translation.

The Babels organisation went on to provide translation for the ESF's global partner the World Social Forum (WSF) in Mumbai and the first Social Forum of the Americas in Ecuador and the third ESF in London.

Babels describes itself as "not a provider of linguistic services" but rather "a political actor" and will not work on any project unless it has been involved in contributing to the definition of the project with its ideas and demands.

External links
Official website
Article on Translation and Interpreting volunteer networks "Social Commitment in Translation and Interpreting", by De Manuel, López and Brander (2004) published in Puentes 4 Hacia Nuevas Investigaciones en la Mediación Intercultural (article on other volunteer translation and Interpreting Networks, translated into English)

Translation organizations
Advocacy groups

Babels


The Diocese of Westminster was a short-lived diocese of the Church of England, extant from 1540 to 1550. Westminster Abbey served as its cathedral.

History
The diocese was one of six founded by Henry VIII in 1539–40, with the churches of dissolved abbeys serving as their cathedrals.  The others were Bristol, Chester, Gloucester, Oxford and Peterborough.

It was created from part of the Diocese of London, and comprised Westminster (which was raised to the dignity of a city), and the county of Middlesex, with the exception of Fulham. Fulham was excluded as it was the site of Fulham Palace, residence of the Bishop of London.

Henry established the new diocese by letters patent of 17 December 1540, which reconstituted the former monastery of St Peter, Westminster (today generally known simply as "Westminster Abbey") as a cathedral, with a bishop, dean and twelve canons. Thomas Thirlby was appointed as the bishop and William Benson or Boston, who had been abbot of Westminster before the Dissolution, became dean; the Middlesex archdeaconry moved into the jurisdiction of the new diocese and bishop.

In 1550 the diocese of Westminster was reunited with that of London. Thirlby surrendered the diocese on 30 March and was made Bishop of Norwich, while Nicholas Ridley became Bishop of London and Westminster. In 1552 an act of parliament of confirmed the status of Westminster as a "cathedral church and episcopal see to the bishop of London". Westminster Abbey finally lost its cathedral status in 1556, during the reign of Queen Mary, when the chapter was abolished and the monastery restored.

A Catholic Diocese of Westminster was formed in 1850.

Bishops
The ordinary of the diocese throughout its existence was the Bishop of Westminster; the only incumbent was Thomas Thirlby, whose sole seat was at Westminster Abbey. When the diocese was merged back into London diocese, the Bishop of London Ridley was called "Bishop of London and Westminster."

References

Westminster, Bishop of
1540 establishments in England
Religious organizations established in the 1540s
Dioceses established in the 16th century
1550 disestablishments in England
Westminster
Religion in the City of Westminster
Christianity in London
16th century in London
London religion-related lists

Diocese of Westminster (Church of England)


Iago ab Idwal was a King of Gwynedd (r. 950  979) and possibly Powys.

Iago was the son of the earlier King Idwal the Bald but, upon Idwal's death in combat in 942, his uncle Hywel the Good invaded Gwynedd and seized the throne. On Hywel's death in 950, Iago and his brother Idwal (called "Ieuaf") were able to drive out their cousins at the Battle of Carno and reclaim the kingdom. Fighting continued, with the brothers raiding as far south as Dyfed in 952 and their cousins raiding as far north as the Conwy Valley in 954. The southern princes were finally defeated at the Battle of Llanrwst and chased back to Ceredigion.

Having won, the brothers then began to quarrel among themselves. Iago took Ieuaf prisoner in 969 and ruled another decade, with a brief hiatus in 974, before Ieuaf's son Hywel usurped him in 979. There appears to be no surviving record of Iago's fate.

Children
Custennin ab Iago

References

979 deaths
Monarchs of Gwynedd
Monarchs of Powys
House of Aberffraw
10th-century Welsh monarchs
Year of birth unknown
Welsh princes

Iago ab Idwal


The year 1981 was proclaimed the International Year of Disabled Persons (IYDP) by the United Nations. It called for a plan of action with an emphasis on equalization of opportunities, rehabilitation and prevention of disabilities. The slogan of IYDP was "a wheelchair in every home", defined as the right of persons with disabilities to take part fully in the life and development of their societies, enjoy living conditions equal to those of other citizens, and have an equal share in improved conditions resulting from socio-economic development.

A major outcome of the International Year of Disabled Persons was the formulation of the World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Persons adopted by the UN General Assembly in December 1982. This also is recognized by the Preamble (f) of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

The International Decade of Disabled Persons ran from 1983 to 1993. It was closed by a speech in the General Assembly by Dr. Robert R. Davila, then an Assistant Secretary in the U.S. Department of Education who declared that "before the year is up, we expect the number of disabled persons to double".

December 3 each year, since 1992, is identified by the United Nations as the International Day of Persons with Disabilities.

British new wave singer-songwriter Ian Dury, himself a disabled person, released a song titled "Spasticus Autisticus" in 1981, which he intended as a scathing critique of the International Year, which he viewed as "patronising" and  "crashingly insensitive".

See also
 International observance

References

External links
 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, IYDP
 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Programme of Action concerning Disabled Persons (overview)

1981 in the United Nations
Disabled Persons, International Year of
Disability observances

International Year of Disabled Persons


Scordatura in music is a technique in which players of string instruments tune their strings to different notes from a normal tuning. The word "scordatura" is an Italian word which means "mistuning". It was used for lutes, guitars, viols and instruments of the violin family.

Using a scordatura tuning made the instrument sound different. For example: a string tuned to a slightly higher note will sound louder and brighter because it is tighter. Care has to be taken not to tune it too high otherwise it will break. Scordatura also made it possible to play unusual chords or combinations of notes in string-crossing (when the bow moves quickly from one string to another).

When a composer writes for an instrument using scordatura tuning he shows at the beginning of the music what notes the strings must be tuned to. The music is then written, not as it sounds, but so that the player can read it as if the instrument were being played normally, e.g. if a G string is tuned up to G# and the composer wants a G# he simply writes a G, but it will sound G#.

Scordatura in the Baroque period
Scordatura tuning was mainly popular in the Baroque period from 1600-1750. Composers such as Heinrich Biber often used it. He composed a group of sonatas for violin and accompaniment called the "Rosary Sonatas". In each sonata the violin is tuned in a different way. In Sonata XI (called Resurrection) he even asks the violinist to make the two middle strings cross over between the bridge and the tailpiece so that the violin is tuned to two Gs and two Ds.

Scordatura in the Classical Period

In the classical period a famous example of scordatura is Mozart's, "Sinfonia Concertante" for Violin, Viola and Orchestra in which he asks the viola to tune all four strings a semitone higher than usual. This makes it sound louder and brighter so that it matches the brightness of the violin, especially as the violin is playing with normal tuning in the key of E flat, which sounds a soft key (because the key of Eflat hardly uses any "open" strings).

Later examples

In the late 19th century and 20th century there are examples of composers using scordatura. In his Fourth Symphony Mahler asks the violin soloist (the leader of the orchestra) to play on a violin tuned to Gsharp-D-A-Eflat. The music is describing a poor beggar playing a violin. The violin soloist needs a second instrument for this, so that he can swap quickly back to a normal violin.

Saint-Saëns asks the solo violin in Danse Macabre to tune the E string to Eflat to make it sound like the devil.

Zoltán Kodály wrote a sonata in B minor for solo cello, for which the cellist has to tune down the two lower strings to F# and B instead of G and C. This helps to make a very dark, rich sound when playing B minor chords.

Musical performance techniques

Scordatura


Samuel Brookner Gould (1910–1997) was an American educator prominent for promoting access to education through non-traditional means such as educational television, college teacher-mentor systems, and universities without walls.  Positions he held include: the presidency of the Educational Broadcasting System (1962–64); the Chancellorship of the State University of New York (1964–70); and the chairman of the Carnegie Commission on Non-Traditional Study (1971–74).

Early life
Samuel Gould was born in Shelton, Connecticut, on October 11, 1910.  He attended Bates College in Maine, graduating in 1930.  He then attended Oxford University briefly in 1931 but left due to financial difficulties.  He next worked for New England Telephone and Telegraph until accepting a teaching position in English at William Hall High School in West Hartford, Connecticut (1932–38). From 1938 to 1947, Gould headed the department of speech at Brookline High School in Massachusetts while working on his Ph.D. at Harvard University.  He had previously completed his M.A. at New York University.

Career
He served in the Navy as a Lt. Commander, PTD, during World War II.  After the war, he helped establish Boston University's Communications Department and served as an assistant to the president from 1951 to 1953.  In 1954, Gould became president of Antioch College in Ohio, a position he held until he was appointed Chancellor of the University of California, Santa Barbara in 1959.  UCSB expanded its academic program under his leadership.  In July 1962, Gould became president of the Educational Broadcasting System in New York with the flagship station, WNDT-TV, channel 13.

In 1964, Gould was appointed President of the State University of New York.  During his administration, SUNY underwent its greatest physical and academic expansion and consolidation.  Gould's vision for SUNY went beyond a desire to establish a traditional university system.  He included in the university system new technologies such as television and non-traditional study opportunities such as those provided by the Empire State College teacher-mentor system. In 1967, his title was changed to Chancellor of the State University of New York. Under his tenure, the concept of granting academic credit for non-academic experience was initiated.

In 1970, Gould retired from SUNY, became Chancellor Emeritus and served briefly as a director at McKinsey and Company.  From 1971 to 1974, he served as the chairman of the Carnegie Commission on Non-Traditional Study which attempted to modify and set new goals for education.  During the 1970s Gould worked periodically with the Venezuelan Ministry of Education in developing that nation's university system.  He accompanied Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, a close personal friend, on his 1977 tour of Latin America.  From 1976 to 1977, he served as interim chancellor for higher education for the State of Connecticut.  He has also served as a trustee of the Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association and on the Commission for Post-Secondary Educational Planning in Florida.

Death and legacy
Gould died on July 11, 1997.

References

New York Times obituary from July 16, 1997

1910 births
1997 deaths
Antioch College
Bates College alumni
Boston University faculty
Harvard University alumni
New York University alumni
People from Shelton, Connecticut
Presidents of Antioch College
Chancellors of the State University of New York
Chancellors of the University of California, Santa Barbara
Alumni of the University of Oxford
United States Navy personnel of World War II
United States Navy officers
20th-century American academics

Samuel B. Gould


The paramilitary forces of Pakistan consist of various organizations constitutionally charged to safeguard Pakistan's national interests. They protect from threats that could come from other countries, like from India over the border dispute of Kashmir. They also protect citizens from threats that could come from inside the country. These threats started in 1971. They are currently made up from more than 300,000 workers.

Some divisions of the force are now incorporated under other organisations. For example, the Northern Light Infantry was a paramilitary force until 1999, when it became part of the Pakistan Army.

Law enforcement agencies by country
Organizations based in Pakistan

Paramilitary forces of Pakistan


A spiral is a special curve in mathematics. This curve starts at a point, and then goes around the point, but gets farther and farther away from it. This is different from a circle (which is always at the same distance) or an ellipse. A spiral is an "open" curve, unlike circles and ellipses which are closed curves.

Two-dimensional spirals
A two-dimensional spiral may be described most easily using polar coordinates. There the radius r is a continuous monotonic function of angle θ (theta).  The circle would be regarded as a degenerate case. With the circle, the function would not be  strictly monotonic, but constant.

Some of the more important sorts of two-dimensional spirals include:

 The Archimedean spiral: r = a + bθ
 The Euler spiral, Cornu spiral or clothoid
 Fermat's spiral: r = θ1/2
 The hyperbolic spiral: r = a/θ
 The lituus: r = θ-1/2
 The logarithmic spiral: r = abθ; approximations of this are found in nature
 The Fibonacci spiral and golden spiral: special cases of the logarithmic spiral
 The Spiral of Theodorus: an approximation of the Archimedean spiral composed of contiguous right triangles

Three-dimensional spirals
For simple 3-d spirals, a third variable, h (height), is also a continuous, monotonic function of θ. For example, a conic helix may be defined as a spiral on a conic surface, with the distance to the apex an exponential function of θ.

The helix and vortex can be viewed as a kind of three-dimensional spiral.

For a helix with thickness, see spring (math).

In nature

The study of spirals in nature have a long history, Christopher Wren found out that many shells form a logarithmic spiral. Jan Swammerdam observed the common mathematical characteristics of a wide range of shells from Helix to Spirula and Henry Nottidge Moseley described the mathematics of univalve shells. D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson's On Growth and Form gives extensive treatment to these spirals. He describes how shells are formed by rotating a closed curve around a fixed axis, the shape of the curve remains fixed but its size grows in a geometric progression. In some shell such as Nautilus and ammonites the generating curve revolves in a plane pirpendicular to the axis and the shell will form a planer discoid shape. In others it follows a skew path forming a helico-spiral pattern.

Thompson also studied spirals occurring in horns, teeth, claws and plants.

Spirals in plants and animals are frequently described as whorls.

A model for the pattern of florets in the head of a sunflower was proposed by H Vogel. This has the form

where  is the index number of the floret and  is a constant scaling factor, and is a form of Fermat's spiral. The angle 137.5° is related to the golden ratio and gives a close packing of florets.

The spiral also represents infinity. Starting at a single point, and revolving outwardly until the end of the universe. Because of this, some civilizations believe that the Spiral is a pathway to the afterlife.

As a symbol

The spiral plays an important role in symbolism. It appears in megalithic art, notably in the Newgrange tomb or in many Galician petroglyphs such as the one in Mogor. See also triple spiral.

Scholars are still talking about the subject, but many of them now believe that the simple spiral in Chinese art may be a symbol of the sun.  Roof tiles from the Tang Dynasty with this symbol have been found west of the ancient city of Chang'an (modern-day Xian).

The spiral is the most ancient symbol found on every civilized continent.  Because it appears at burial sites across the globe, the spiral most likely represented the "life-death-rebirth" cycle.  Similarly, the spiral symbolized the sun, as ancient people thought the sun was born each morning, died each night, and was reborn the next morning.

Spirals are also a symbol of hypnosis. This most likely comes from the cliché of people and cartoon characters being hypnotized by staring into a spinning spiral (One example being Kaa in Disney's The Jungle Book). They are also used as a symbol of dizziness, where the eyes of a cartoon character, especially in anime and manga, will turn into spirals to show they are dizzy or dazed. The spiral symbolizes the double helix structure of DNA, representing biological evolution, and the spiral structure of a galaxy.

References

Mathematics

Spiral


Marin Alsop (born Manhattan, New York, October 16, 1956) is an American conductor.

Alsop went to Yale University and then got a master's degree from the Juilliard School in violin playing. She won the Koussevitzky Conducting Prize at the Tanglewood Music Center in 1989, where she studied with famous conductors such as Leonard Bernstein.

Alsop has conducted many of the world's most famous orchestras. Since 2002 she has been the conductor of the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra, and in 2007 she will become the conductor of the Baltimore Symphony. This will make her the first woman conductor of an important American orchestra.

Alsop has won many prizes and made lots of recordings. She has conducted and recorded many pieces by American composers, including the complete orchestral works of Samuel Barber.

Other websites
 www.marinalsop.com – her official website

1956 births
Living people
American conductors
Yale University alumni

Marin Alsop


The G20 developing nations (and, occasionally, the G21, G23 or G20+) is a bloc of developing nations established on 20 August 2003. Distinct and separate from the G20 major economies, the group emerged at the 5th Ministerial WTO conference, held in  Cancún, Mexico, from 10 September to 14 September 2003. The group accounted for 60% of the world's population, 70% of its farmers and 26% of world's agricultural exports.

History
Its origins date back to June 2003, when foreign ministers from Brazil, India and South Africa signed a declaration known as the Brasilia Declaration, on June 6, 2003. in which they stated that "major trading partners are still moved by protectionist concerns in their countries' less competitive sectors [...] and emphasized how important it is that the results of the current round of trade negotiations provide especially for the reversal of protectionist policies and trade-distorting practices [...] Furthermore, Brazil, India and South Africa decided to articulate their initiatives of trade liberalization".

Nonetheless, the "official" appearance of the group occurred as a response to a text released on 13 August 2003 by the European Communities (EC) and the United States with a common proposal on agriculture for the Cancún Ministerial. On 20 August 2003 a document signed by twenty countries and re-issued as a Cancún Ministerial document on 4 September proposed an alternative framework to that of the EC and the US on agriculture for the Cancún Meeting. This document marked the establishment of the group. The original group of signatories of the 20 August 2003 document went through many changes, being known as such different names as the G-21 or the G-22. The title G-20 was finally chosen, in honor of the date of the group's establishment.

Since its creation, the group had a fluctuating membership. Previous members include: Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Turkey. In December 2017, the group had 23 members.

See also
 G20
 BRICS

References

External links
G20 press release on 19th of March, 2005 (includes the group's logo).
G20, the developing country coalition in Focus on Trade 98, April 2004.
The G - 20: Aims and Perspectives of a New Trade Alliance at dissertation.com (Universal Publishers).

Intergovernmental organizations
2003 in economics
Countries by international organization
Investment
International development
Organizations established in 2003

G20 developing nations