Willie Malley is a umwhile Erse borne Scots fitbaa player an manager. He wis pairt of the oreiginal Celtic team in 1888 alang wi his brither Tam Malley. In 1893 he wis appointit as Celtic's first manager a poseition wheilk he held tae 1940 makkin him Celtic's langest servin manager. In his time as Celtic manager he wan 19 League titles, 13 Scottish Cups, 18 Glesgae Cups, 23 Glesgae Merchants Charity's Cups an three ane aff trophies Glesgae International Exhibeition Cup in 1902, Ferencvaros Vase in 1914 an the Empire Exhibeition Cup in 1938. Amang the 18 League he lead Celtic tae 6 League titles in a row, a recort that remainit in tact til Celtic thairsels broke it in 1972.

1868 births
1958 daiths
Association fitbaw weeng haufs
Celtic F.C. players
Celtic F.C. managers
Erse association fitbawers (afore 1923)
Erse fowk o Scots strynd
Manchester City F.C. players
Scots fitbaw managers
Scotland internaitional fitbawers
Sportsfowk frae Glesga
Sportsfowk frae Newry
Scottish Football Hall of Fame inductees
Scottish Football League players
Scottish Football League representative players
Scottish Football League managers
Scots fowk o Erse strynd

Willie Maley


The Blob is a 1958 American science fiction horror movie. It was directed by Irvin Yeaworth. It was produced by Jack H. Harris.  Paramount Pictures released the movie. The movie is about a giant jellylike blob that terrorizes a small town. The Blob marked Steve McQueen's movie debut. The movie's theme song, "Beware of the Blob", was written by Burt Bacharach and Mack David. It was remade in 1988.

Cast
 Steve McQueen as Steve Andrews
 Aneta Corsaut as Jane Martin
 Hugh Graham as Mr. Andrews, Steve's father
 Elbert Smith as Henry Martin, Jane's father
 Earl Rowe as Lt. Dave
 John Benson as Sgt. Jim Bert
 Olin Howland as Old Man

Story
Teenagers Steve and Jane are loitering in a Lover's Lane. They see an object in the night sky crash-land nearby. They investigate. It is The Blob, a jelly-like thing from Outer Space that consumes flesh.  It kills an old man, a doctor, and a nurse. It doubles in size after each feeding. Steve and Jane report their findings to the police. They are dismissed as crazy teenagers. In the meantime, The Blob has consumed many others.

Steve and Jane are cornered by The Blob in the grocery store. They seek refuge in the walk-in refrigerator. The Blob tries to ooze in under the door. It retreats. Steve and Jane escape. They set off the town's fire and air-raid alarms. The Blob enters the movie theatre. The customers run away screaming.  The Blob oozes out of the theater. Jane's little brother runs into a diner. Jane and Steve follow him. They become trapped in the diner along with the owner and a waitress.

The Blob – now a huge mass – engulfs the diner. It begins to ooze in through the windows. The occupants go to the cellar. The police try to kill The Blob by dropping a power line onto it. This attempt fails. It only serves to set the diner ablaze. Inside, the diner's owner uses a CO2 fire extinguisher to try to put out the fire. This causes The Blob to recoil. The Blob cannot stand cold. The town's teenagers gather all the fire extinguishers they can find.  They use them to freeze The Blob. The United States Air Force sends in a jet to carry The Blob to the North Pole. It will remain frozen forever.

1950s horror movies
1958 science fiction movies
American science fiction horror movies
American monster movies
1950s English-language movies
American independent movies

The Blob


Belgium is considered a mostly safe country compared to its neighbouring countries. Brussels had the fourth highest number of recorded crimes of European capitals (behind Stockholm, Amsterdam, and Berlin). Brussels had a rate of 10 murders or violent deaths per 100,000 citizens. Belgium's second largest city, Antwerp, has crime rates about 20% below those of Brussels. Liège and Charleroi, industrial cities with high unemployment rates, saw higher crime rates than the less industrialized cities of Ghent and Bruges. The rural areas are generally very safe.

History
Marc Dutroux did many serious crimes and is likely Belgium's worst criminal. He is in prison.

In November 2005, Brussels was very minorly affected by the spread of the French riots. There has been a steep increase in violent armed robberies carried out by minors. Cybercrime is also growing.

In 2011, a man killed six people, then himself, in Liege.

Gangs in Belgium
In the 1990s and early 2000s, attacks were made on vans used to move.  They often killed the security agents in charge. The country had several large-scale crime scandals, such as those of the Brabant Wallon killers, the Scarface gang and the Belgian Mafia. More recently, some scandals have been about corruption and misuse of public resources. In addition, petty crimes such as street thefts, purse snatchings, and pickpocketing are in the main city centers. There are not very many of these crimes. Car theft used to happen often.  There have been less in the last decade.

Belgian Mafia
The known groups in the mafia in Belgium are:
Belgian mafia
Nijvel gang
Haemers gang
Bonnot Gang
Scarface gang

References

Belgium
Belgium
Belgium

Crime in Belgium


The Mannlicher M1894 was an early blow-forward semi-automatic pistol.

General features

The earliest Ferdinand Mannlicher pistol, manufactured by Fabrique D'Armes de Neuhausen, Switzerland, was designed to be self-loading and to use a special rimmed cartridge in 6.5 mm caliber. The design represented an entirely new utilization of mechanical principles in automatic action called "blow-forward action". In the standard type of automatic action for low-powered cartridges, the recoil (or blow-back) is utilized to drive back a movable breech face or block, but Mannlicher utilized the principle of a rigid standing breech with the barrel blowing forward to extract, eject, and prepare for reloading.

A special barrel housing which carries the sight covers the entire length of the barrel (6.49 in/165 mm) when the arm is closed. A heavy recoil spring is mounted concentrically around the barrel within this housing and is compressed between a shoulder at the forward end of the casing and a shoulder at the rear of the barrel.

An unusual element in this design is a three-armed "barrel-holding lever". It is pivoted above the trigger as shown in the drawing from page 188, Mannlicher Rifles and Pistols, Smith, 1947. Its bottom arm engages with the trigger. The forward arm holds the barrel forward for loading. The rear arm serves as a hammer catch.

Firing mechanism
To load this weapon the hammer is cocked. As the hammer rotates on its axis pin, it acts upon the trigger, and the sear snaps into the cocking notch, holding the hammer. The hammer axis pin also supports the center arm of the barrel holding lever, which arm emerges and is raised high enough by its spring to press into a slot under the barrel. The rising thumbpiece on top of the barrel over the breech is then pushed forward. The barrel moves forward until its muzzle emerges from the barrel housing, compressing the recoil spring. The barrel holding lever is snapped into the locking notch in the underside of the barrel, thereby holding it in forward position for charging.

The stripper clip (capacity five rounds) is inserted in the clip guide of the receiver and the cartridges are pressed into the magazine. The cartridges are stripped off the clip and pressed into the magazine-well in the body of the pistol, compressing the spiral magazine-spring. A lip at the top prevents the cartridges from emerging.

The preferred direction for holding this pistol requires that the index finger be positioned around the frame above the trigger guard, with the middle finger through the trigger guard and pressed against the trigger.

As the trigger is pulled, the sear is released of engagement to allow the mainspring to drive the hammer forward slightly, but the rear arm on the barrel holding lever catches in a notch in the hammer to hold the hammer in firing position. The lowering of the forward arm of the barrel holding lever frees the barrel, allowing the compressed recoil spring to drive the barrel back, stripping the top cartridge from the magazine, chambering the round, and pressing the cartridge head against the standing breech. The M1894 is a double action firearm; the hammer can either be cocked manually for each shot, with the trigger performing the single action of releasing the sear, or it can be fired double-action, in which the trigger pull both cocks the hammer and releases the sear, at the expense of a heavier trigger pull.

As the propellant combusts and expands, the standing breech (a rigid, immovable object) acts to prohibit rearward movement of the cartridge and causes the expanding forces to move against the bullet (a somewhat more movable object), propelling the bullet toward the muzzle. The friction of forward motion of the bullet projectile against the inside of the barrel causes the bullet to act as a quasi-plug in the barrel. The barrel (a very movable object) is pushed forward by the motion and direction of the expanding gases against the friction of the traveling projectile, until the bullet exits the muzzle, after which forward motion of the barrel is due to inertia. Forward motion of the barrel is arrested by the progressively increasing tension of the recoil spring. The recoil of this pistol is somewhat higher than that of a conventional semi-automatic handgun, as there are no rearward moving parts to absorb recoil energy and spread the forces out over a longer period of time. It is no worse, however, than a revolver of equivalent power.

The extractor is mounted on the left side of the barrel extension. As the barrel moves forward the extractor draws the empty case from the face of the standing breech to eject it. The barrel holding lever arm moves up by action of the trigger, and catches the barrel in forward position. The magazine spring, pushing against the follower, forces the cartridges up to present the next cartridge for loading. As the trigger is released and moves forward it acts on the bottom arm of the barrel holding lever causing it to pivot and its forward upper arm to release the barrel. The barrel is then driven back by the recoil spring to load the next cartridge.

Models
The 1894 was originally classed as a "half automatic or semi-automatic pistol". The overall length of the 6.5 mm model displayed in the photo illustrations on this page is 8.46 in (215 mm), dry weight is 30 oz (850 g).

There were several modifications of this pistol during its production until 1897. In some, the barrel catch does not operate during firing movement, so that the pistol closes to become fully self-loading. In no models, however, does the automatic action extend to cocking the self-loading pistol. In all variations the hammer must be cocked by thumb to fire or must be cocked and dropped in double action mechanical fashion by a pull on the trigger.

Experimental versions of this arm were also manufactured with a single action movement in which it was necessary to cock the hammer by thumb for each shot. Other types also used experimental forms of grip safeties. Late versions of these pistols were made to shoot a special 7.8 mm rimless cartridge with a straight sided case.

Historical references
The pistols were tested by the US Army at the Springfield Armory in June 1900. They did not recommend the use of the pistol, primarily because of the poor function during the test. Cartridges frequently jammed or misfired, and the barrel burst after the 281st round.
While this pistol is very simple in construction the operation of loading is very tedious and slow, and would be almost impossible for a man to load it while on horseback. The muscular exerts practically the same as for an ordinary double-action revolver, while the rate of fire is much slower.

The design similarly failed Austrian and Swiss military trials. Total production was approximately 150 by Steyr chambered for the 7.6 mm Mannlicher cartridge, and less than half as many by SIG in 7.5 mm caliber for Swiss military trials.

See also

 Hino Komuro M1908 Pistol
 Infantry Weapons of WWI
 Roth-Steyr M1907
 Steyr Mannlicher M1901

Notes

References
‡ Photographs of 1894 Mannlicher 6.5 mm serial #47 manufactured by FAB.D'ARMES of Neuhausen, Switzerland

Steyr semi-automatic pistols
Blow forward firearms
Semi-automatic pistols of Austria
World War I Austro-Hungarian infantry weapons
19th-century semi-automatic pistols
Firearms by Ferdinand Mannlicher

Mannlicher M1894


Alessandro Manzoni (Milan 7 March 1785 – Milan 22 May 1873) was an Italian writer and poet. His most famous book is The Betrothed, a novel that is a symbol of the Risorgimento, both for its patriotic message and because it was a fundamental milestone in the development of the modern Italian language.

Partial Bibliography
 Inni sacri (Sacred Hymnes, 1815)
 Osservazioni sulla morale cattolica (Observations about catholic moral, 1819)
 Il conte di Carmagnola (1819)
 Il cinque maggio (The fifth of May, 1821)
 Adelchi (1822)
 I promessi sposi (The Betrothed, 1827)
 La colonna infame (Infamous column, 1842)

Italian writers
Italian poets
Italian playwrights
Italian Roman Catholics
1785 births
1873 deaths

Alessandro Manzoni


Shooting is when a rifle, shotgun or other weapons which fire a projectile, such as bows or crossbows, are fired. Even the firing of artillery, rockets and missiles can be called shooting. A person who is very good at shooting is a marksman. Shooting can take place in a shooting range or in the field in hunting, in shooting sports or in combat. Shooting is also an Olympic sport.

Uses
Shooting is used for hunting birds such as grouse or pheasant, rabbits etc. Sometimes "shooting" just means "hunting".

Violence
Shooting is also used in warfare, self-defense, crime, and law enforcement. When someone shoots random innocent people it is sometimes caused by misanthropy (hate for humans).

Competitive shooting
In several countries, rifle clubs have been made since the 19th century. Soon, international shooting events were started, including shooting at the Summer Olympics (from 1896) and World Championships (from 1897). The International Shooting Sport Federation is in charge of Olympic and non-Olympic rifle, pistol and shotgun competitions. However, there are also many national and international shooting sports which other organisations are in charge of.

Shooting supplies
In most countries, people who want to shoot firearms need a license. Firearms can usually only be bought from registered shops.

Related pages
Gun

Other websites

Summer Olympic sports
War

Shooting


Raval is the God of the large Imperial Group known as The Imperial Zongian Empire, which hails from the internet game Second Life.

Legends of Raval

The Origin of Raval (In Zongian Lore) is that he was a one of the members of the rogue Linden group which is lost to SL history, named the Race Maker's a group which set out to build their own races on the game within the very pre-release of Second Life, all 10 Race Makers filled with National Socialist, Communist and Imperial ideas for how a society should be ran, Raval being the only Race Maker to proclaim himself a God, the rest proclaiming themselves the political rulers of their society, Instead Raval decided to make his first Zongian the Emperor of his society, which was the Legendary Emperor - Altmoss Torok.

Real Life Raval

The real life Raval's true identity is unknown, claiming to be immortal due to a incident he claims: "I was there with Howard Carter, when we uncovered King Tut, the others became cursed, I became blessed, by the grace of Ra sun God of the Egyptian peoples" the rest of his claim is fuzzy and hard to understand, all "Zongian-blooded" people believe his claim many who don't believe, the claim have been said to have gone missing, many scholars believe this to be the work of the Zongian High Council in real life. Tray Quandry, one of the Virtual planet's greatest Commanders once stated "Raval is my master, he is something I would not cross unless I wanted to die a coward".

Video game characters
Online games

Raval


Initiation is a ceremony at the entrance or acceptance into a group or society. It can also be a formal admission to adulthood in a community. Rites of passage such as Christian baptism or confirmation, or Jewish bar or bat mitzvah, or graduation from school, are initiations. Acceptance into a fraternal organization like the freemasons or religious order like the Benedictines is also an initiation. A person taking the initiation ceremony is called an initiate.

Etymology
The English word comes from the Latin, initium: "entrance" or "beginning. The related English verb, initiate, means to begin or start a particular action.

Tribal initiations
Tribes often have initiations. In many African tribes, initiation means circumcision of males and sometimes circumcision/genital mutilation of females.  Initiation is thought to be necessary for the individual to be regarded as a full member of the tribe. Otherwise, the individual may not be allowed to take part in ceremonies or even in social ritual such as marriage. A man will not be allowed to marry or have any special relationship with a woman who didn't go to an initiation, because she is not considered as a woman.

Initiation may be thought of as an event which may help teens prepare themselves to be good husbands and wives. Because of modernization initiation is not taken so seriously as before, but there are still certain areas which still perform initiations.

In some African tribes, boys have initiation rites for 3–4 months and girls for 1–2 months.

Australian Aboriginal tribes usually had long periods of time to help prepare adolescent boys, teaching them the Law before they were ready to attend large elaborate ceremonies at the time of initiation when they were finally recognized as men in their society. Most tribes had circumcision and scarification as part of the male initiation rituals, while many Central Australian tribes also practiced subincision.

Notes

Literature

Mircea Eliade, Rites and Symbols of Initiation, first edition, New York, NY Harper and Row, 1958.
Ceremonies

Initiation


原子鐘係指以原子嘅激發狀態發出電磁波作為計時原理嘅鐘,係一種非常之精密嘅鐘。

參考

出面網頁
 National Research Council Canada, FAQ: "What is a 'cesium atomic clock'?"
 National Research Council Canada, archived content: Optical frequency standard based on a single trapped ion
 United States Naval Observatory Time Service Department
 PTB Braunschweig, Germany - with link in English language
 National Physical Laboratory (UK) time website
 NIST Internet Time Service (ITS): Set Your Computer Clock Via the Internet
 NIST press release about chip-scaled atomic clock
 NIST website
 Web pages on atomic clocks by The Science Museum (London)
 Optical Atomic Clock BBC, 2005
 Optical lattice clock; Journal of the Physical Society of Japan
 The atomic fountain
 National Research Council of Canada, archived content: Optical Frequency Comb – The Measurement of Optical Frequencies

鐘

原子鐘


Maria Francisca of Savoy (Marie Françoise Élisabeth; 21 June 1646 – 27 December 1683) was a Princess of Savoy and the Queen consort of Portugal twice as the wife of Afonso VI and his brother Peter II.

Biography

The younger daughter of Charles Amadeus, Duke of Nemours, and Élisabeth de Bourbon she was the younger sister of Marie Jeanne, Duchess of Savoy who married Victor Amadeus II in 1666. She was baptised with the names Marie Françoise Élisabeth, but was known as "Marie Françoise".

Born a princess of Savoy, her immediate family had resided in France since the previous century. Styled Mademoiselle d'Aumale she was engaged to Afonso VI of Portugal by order of Louis XIV who wanted an alliance with Portugal against Spain. As such, the young queen left Paris on 29 May 1666, with the Marquis of Sande and his entourage, heading to La Rochelle. On 27 June there was a proxy ceremony where Afonso VI was represented by Sande. She bought a dowry of 1.8 Million pounds as part of an agreement which was signed on 24 February 1666. She arrived had her marriage in person on 2 August 1666. Her husband was pleased at his attractive wife. Her husband was paralysed on his left side and mentally unstable. The marriage was never consummated, and she divorced him.

On 28 March 1668, she married Afonso's brother, Infante Pedro, Duke of Beja, who was appointed prince regent the same year. The king was exiled for seven years and died in 1683. Maria Francisca again becaf Portugal for the second time when Peter succeeded his brother as Peter II in 1683. She died in December the same year and was buried at the "Convent of the Francesinhas", but was moved to the "Monastery of São Vicente de Fora" in 1912. Pedro II remarried Maria Sofia of Neuburg by whom he had several children.

Children

Infanta Isabel Luísa of Portugal (6 January 1669 - 21 October 1690) died unmarried and was known as the Princess of Beira as heiress presumptive to the Portuguese throne.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

21 June 1646 – 2 August 1666 Her Highness Mademoiselle d'Aumale
2 August 1666 – 21 December 1668 Her Majesty the Queen of Portugal and the Algarves
21 December 1668 – 2 April 1668 Dona Maria Francisca de Bragança
2 April 1668 – 12 September 1683 Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Beja
12 September 1683 – 27 December 1683 Her Majesty the Queen of Portugal and the Algarves

1646 births
1683 deaths
House of Braganza
Kings and Queens consort of Portugal
Princes and Princesses of Savoy

Maria Francisca of Savoy


Sarah Coburn (born August 4, 1977) is an American operatic soprano who was born in Petersburg, Virginia and is the daughter of former United States Senator from Oklahoma, Tom Coburn.
She graduated from Oklahoma State University and then received a Master of Music degree from Oklahoma City University, studying under Larry Wade Keller.

Coburn has an international career, singing in opera houses throughout the world.

Professional career
In the field of opera, she first achieved recognition in 2001 as a National Grand Finalist in the  Metropolitan Opera National Council Auditions.

Noted in Opera News magazine as a coloratura singer with a "silvery, resonant soprano" voice,
Coburn has performed leading roles at the Metropolitan Opera in New York; the Vienna State Opera; and other major companies.

In 2007 she succeeded Elizabeth Futral in the role of Princess Yue-Yang in the world premiere production of Tan Dun's The First Emperor at the Metropolitan.
That same year she performed the role of Kitty in the world premiere of David Carlson's Anna Karenina at the Florida Grand Opera.

Her repertoire has included the leading roles of: Lucia in both Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and its French version, Lucie de Lammermoor at Glimmerglass Opera and Cincinnati Opera; Amina in Bellini's La sonnambula in Vienna;  Gilda in Verdi's Rigoletto at the Opéra de Montréal, Welsh National Opera, and Los Angeles Opera; the title role in Delibes' Lakmé at Tulsa Opera; Asteria in Handel's Tamerlano and Rosina in Rossini's Il barbiere di Siviglia, both with Los Angeles Opera.

In March 2014 she sang at the Washington National Opera as Adina in L'elisir d'amore by Gaetano Donizetti and, as part of the summer 2014 Tivoli Festival in Copenhagen, she sang the role of Elvira in I Puritani.

References

External links

Fletcher Artist Management website

1977 births
Living people
American operatic sopranos
Singers from Oklahoma
Oklahoma State University alumni
Oklahoma City University alumni
People from Petersburg, Virginia
Singers from Virginia
21st-century American women opera singers
Winners of the Metropolitan Opera National Council Auditions
Classical musicians from Virginia

Sarah Coburn


William Hundley (born 1976) is an American artist born in St. Paul, Minnesota, who lives and works in Austin, Texas.

In 2006 he began an ongoing series of photographs that he titled "Entoptic Phenomena" in which he photographs people jumping underneath fabrics and other various materials.  The instant of the jump can be thought of as super ephemeral sculpture, lasting only a few seconds before reverting to their base components.  The resulting photographs appear to have been made by computer manipulation, but Hundley stresses that "they are just photographs" and that there were absolutely no computer applications used in creating the images.  He goes on to say that having "acrobatic models" is the key to the success of the imagery.  A few of his "Entoptic Phenomena" photographs were featured in the 2007 Texas Biennial in which he was awarded the Juror's Choice Award.

In 2008 he started a new series of photographs "w/ cheeseburgers" that went on to become wildly popular or "viral" on the internet, primarily due to the photograph "Chihuahua on Cheeseburgers".

Another series of photographs, entitled "Little Naked Person Storage," consists of photographs of naked people hiding in various places around the average American household.

In an article on Sight Unseen, Hundley is quoted as saying, "My work started with the influence of Erwin Wurm and Maurizio Cattelan, these absurdists.  I love the practical-joke nature of it; if I can make humor and beautiful aesthetics come together, that's the biggest powerhouse I can imagine."

His photography has been featured in numerous publications and countless blogs and websites.  In 2007 Hundley was nominated for Best Artist in the Austin Critics Table Awards.

Though not initially mentioned in the credits, a few of his ideas were re-created in the music video "Heaven Can Wait" by Charlotte Gainsbourg featuring Beck.  Eventually the director, Keith Schofield, contacted Hundley to apologize for not crediting his work as "inspiration" for portions of the video.

Although most widely known for his photography, Hundley's work also includes sculptures and installation and has been exhibited across the US and in Berlin.  Recent works have focused on assembled collages and a series of tribal inspired masks with the idea of gathering objects from contemporary culture and using them in a "tribal" way.

He recently contributed to the TEDx event in Austin, TX in February 2011.

In 2011, a Hundley photograph is to be published in Adbusters magazine and he will also have an exhibition at Show & Tell Gallery in Toronto, Canada.

References

External links
 Official Website
 Beale, Scott (2007-10-10) "Jumping Fabric Photography by William Hundley" Laughing Squid
 Bec, Alex (2011-01-26) "William Hundley: Becomes" It's Nice That
 Curcio, Seth (2007-04-15) "William Hundley" Daily Serving
 Fei (2009-10-27) "William Hundley" Beautiful/Decay
 Hudson, Will (2009-12-03) "William Hundley" It's Nice That
 Khemsurov, Monica (2010-11-19) "8 Things: William Hundley, Artist" Sight Unseen
 VVORK "William Hundley"

1976 births
Living people
American photographers

William Hundley


Cobalt (chemical symbol Co) is a chemical element. It has an atomic number of 27 and an atomic mass of about 59. It is a metal.

Properties

Cobalt is a transition metal. It is shiny and conducts electricity. It is magnetic. It is a hard metal. It is moderately reactive. Iron is more reactive and copper is less reactive. It dissolves slowly in acids. This reaction makes hydrogen and a salt of cobalt. Cobalt is normally in its +2 oxidation state as an ion. Some chemical compounds contain cobalt ions in its +4 oxidation state. Cobalt(II) chloride is one of the most common cobalt compounds. Many cobalt compounds are blue or pink. One of them is black.

Chemical compounds
Cobalt comes in two oxidation states, +2 and +3. Most soluble cobalt compounds are red. They can also be green, blue, brown, and black.

Cobalt(II) compounds
Cobalt(II) chloride, red solid, most common cobalt compound
Cobalt(II) fluoride, used in dentistry, red solid
Cobalt(II) hydroxide, red or green-blue solid
Cobalt(II) oxide, black solid
Cobalt(II) sulfate, reddish solid, used in pigments

Mixed oxidation state
Cobalt(II,III) oxide, black solid, oxidizing agent

Cobalt(III) compounds
Cobalt(III) fluoride, brown solid, strong oxidizing agent
Cobalt(III) oxide, black solid

Occurrence and preparation
Cobalt is too reactive to occur as a pure element in the earth. It is found in certain minerals. It is found with copper and nickel deposits. Normally the three metals are bonded to arsenic and sulfur. The majority of cobalt mining is in central Africa.

It is found as a byproduct (left over substance) when copper and nickel are produced. It is made by reaction with the sludge from copper and nickel processing.

Uses

Cobalt is used in some types of steel. It hardens the steel.  It is also used to make very strong tough alloys.  These alloys are known as superalloys.  Some cobalt compounds are used in the lithium-ion battery.  Cobalt compounds were used as an artificial food coloring until 1971.  It was discovered that it has harmful effects.  It is used to make glass blue.  It is also used as a catalyst, and in some medicines, and for ink, pigments, dyes, and varnishes.

The human body needs small amounts of cobalt for certain vitamins. Cobalt compounds are used to stop cyanide from poisoning the body.

Safety
People need cobalt compounds in small amounts, but cobalt is toxic in large quantities. Sometimes cobalt compounds were added to beer, and people that drank it were poisoned. It can cause skin irritation when touched.

References

Transition metals

Cobalt


Sophia Charlotte of Hanover (30 October 1668 – 1 February 1705) was the first Queen consort in Prussia as wife of King Frederick I. She was the only daughter of Elector Ernest Augustus of Hanover and his wife Sophia of the Palatinate. Her eldest brother, George Louis, succeeded to the British throne in 1714 as King George I.

Early life
Sophia Charlotte was born in Iburg Castle in the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück, where her father held the title of a Protestant prince-bishop. In 1672 her family moved to the new episcopal residence in Osnabrück and finally in 1679 to Hanover, when Ernest Augustus succeeded his brother Duke John Frederick of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Principality of Calenberg.

During her childhood, Sophia Charlotte visited the Kingdom of France with her mother in hopes of marrying Louis, Grand Dauphin, heir to the French throne. He later married Duchess Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria instead, but Sophia Charlotte was also proposed as a possible bride for Louis's father, King Louis XIV, after his wife died in 1683. Nothing came of this plan either. A marriage was therefore arranged to Frederick of Hohenzollern, son of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, and heir of both the Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia.

Electress and queen
By marrying Frederick on 8 October 1684, she became Electress of Brandenburg in 1688, and after the elevation of Brandenburg-Prussia to a kingdom in 1701, she became the first Queen in Prussia. Her only child to reach maturity became King Frederick William I of Prussia. Her husband was so much in love with her that while he had an official mistress, Catharina Rickert, at his palacein imitation of Louis XIVhe never made use of her services; however, his love for Sophia Charlotte was not reciprocated.

Initially, Sophia Charlotte interfered in political affairs, pushing the downfall of the Prussian prime minister Eberhard von Danckelman in 1697, but soon retired to private life. In 1695, she had received the estates of Lietzow manor west of Berlin from her husband in exchange for further away Caputh. Here she had a Baroque summer residence erected by the architects Johann Arnold Nering and Martin Grünberg, in order to live independently from her husband and have her own court. Frederick was only allowed there by invitation, as on 11 July 1699, when she hosted a birthday party for him. From 1700, she regularly lived there in the summer months. Then called Lietzenburg, it was renamed Charlottenburg Palace after her death.

Sophia Charlotte is mainly remembered for her friendship and correspondence with her mother's good friend and tutor Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, whose avowed disciple she became. In addition to German, she spoke French, Italian and English fluently. Following the example set by her mother, she surrounded herself with philosophers and theologians like Isaac de Beausobre, Daniel Ernst Jablonski and John Toland and inspired the foundation of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. She was interested in music, sang and played the harpsichord, had an Italian opera theater constructed, and employed the musicians Attilio Ariosti and Giovanni Bononcini. The composer Arcangelo Corelli dedicated his Op. 5 sonatas for solo violin (Rome, 1700) to her. By some reports she disliked her husband's elaborate ceremonies so much that during their coronation she took pinches of snuff to provide herself with "some pleasant distraction".

Sophia Charlotte was such a formidable personage that when Tsar Peter the Great first met her and her mother on his Grand Embassy in 1697, he was so overwhelmed and intimidated that he could not speak. Both women put him at ease, and he reciprocated with his natural humour and trunks full of brocade and furs.

While on a visit to her mother in Hanover, Sophia Charlotte died of pneumonia on , when she was 36 years of age.

Legacy
Charlottenburg, today a district of Berlin, the Charlottensee lake in Bad Iburg, as well as the Sophie-Charlotte-Gymnasium in Berlin are named after her.

Issue
 Frederick August of Brandenburg (6 October 1685 – 31 January 1686) died in infancy.
 Frederick William I of Prussia (14 August 1688 – 31 May 1740) married Sophia Dorothea of Hanover and had issue.

Ancestors

References

Further reading
 MacDonald Ross, George, 1990, "Leibniz's Exposition of His System to Queen Sophie Charlotte and Other Ladies." In Leibniz in Berlin, ed. H. Poser and A. Heinekamp, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1990, 61–69.
 MacDonald Ross, George, 1999, "Leibniz und Sophie-Charlotte" in Herz, S., Vogtherr, C.M., Windt, F., eds., Sophie Charlotte und ihr Schloß. München: Prestel: 95–105.
 Stiftung Preußische Schlösser und Gärten in Berlin-Brandenburg (Hrsg.in): Sophie Charlotte und ihr Schloss, München, London, New York 1999,
 Clemens Götze: Das "musische Preußen" Sophie Charlottes. Kunst und Politik am Hof der ersten Königin in Preußen. Grin 2008.
 Karin Feuerstein-Prasser: Die preußischen Königinnen. Piper 2005.
 Renate Feyl: "Aussicht auf bleibende Helle. Die Königin und der Philosoph." Kipenheuer & Witsch 2006.
 Otto Krauske: Sophie Charlotte. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. Band 34, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1892, S. 676–684.

|-

|-

|-

1668 births
1705 deaths
People from Osnabrück (district)
Deaths from pneumonia in Germany
Consorts of Brandenburg
Queens consort of Prussia
House of Hanover
House of Hohenzollern
Burials at Berlin Cathedral
Electresses of Brandenburg
Duchesses of Prussia
Electoral Princesses of Brandenburg
Duchesses of Brunswick-Lüneburg
Daughters of monarchs

Sophia Charlotte of Hanover


Jean-François Duclerc (Guadeloupe, 1??? – Rio de Janeiro, 18 March 1711) was a French privateer, and appointed Knight of the Order of Saint-Louis.

Background
He was born in Guadeloupe as son of Jean Duclerc. He started a career in the French Navy, first as captain of a fireship and then in command of a frigate. On 10 May 1710 he sailed from La Rochelle as commander of a small fleet to attack Rio de Janeiro. He had only six ships and 1,200 men at his disposal. At the end of August 1710 they reached Rio and tried to conquer the city. The raid was a disaster. The Portuguese were notified of their arrival, and had no difficulties in crushing the small force. 400 French were killed and 700 captured, including Duclerc. Despite the failure, Duclerc was appointed Knight of the Order of Saint-Louis. On 18 March 1711, Duclerc was assassinated in prison in mysterious circumstances by a group of masked men. In September 1711, a much larger French force under Duguay-Trouin did succeed in conquering Rio de Janeiro and freeing the surviving prisoners from Duclerc's raid.

See also
List of unsolved murders

Sources
 French attacks on Brasil (Portuguese)
 Biographic data (French)

1600s births
1710 deaths
French Navy officers
French privateers
French sailors
Knights of the Order of Saint Louis
Male murder victims
People murdered in Rio de Janeiro
Unsolved murders in Brazil

Jean-François Duclerc


A Christmas Carol is a novella by the British writer Charles Dickens. It was first published on 19 December 1843 by Chapman & Hall in London. The illustrations were drawn by John Leech. The first edition was a beautiful and expensive book. It was sold out by Christmas Eve, but Dickens never made the money he expected on the tale due to the book's high production costs.

The novella was written at a time when the British were longing for the traditional merry Olde English Christmas. Christmas customs of the past were being revived. New Christmas customs such as the Christmas tree and the greeting card were making their first appearances. Old carols were being sung. The novella has been credited with restoring the festive spirit of Christmas after a period of Puritan sobriety and solemnity.

The story is about a Christmas-hating miser named Ebenezer Scrooge. On Christmas Eve, he is visited by four ghosts who transform him into a kind and generous man. The story has a strong moral messages about greed and poverty. It is usually read at Christmas time and has been adapted to theatre, movies, radio, and television many times.

Plot

Ebenezer Scrooge is a Christmas-hating old miser and businessman. One Christmas Eve, Scrooge declines an invitation to his nephew's house for Christmas dinner, telling his nephew that Christmas is "Humbug".  He then refuses to give a donation to two men who are collecting for charity.

Later that evening, he is visited by the ghost of his dead business partner Jacob Marley, a man whose greed and selfishness have doomed him to eternal hellfire. He tells Scrooge that he must change his ways or that hellfire will be his fate. Marley warns him that during the night he will be visited by three more ghosts. These will show him where he went wrong in his life, and how to be a better person in the future.

The first ghost is the Ghost of Christmas Past. This ghost shows him his unhappy childhood and how he did not get married. The second ghost is the Ghost of Christmas Present. This ghost shows him things which are happening now, such as how his clerk, Bob Cratchit, is having a nice Christmas despite not having much money. He also shows him Bob's youngest son, called Tiny Tim, who is crippled.

Later, the ghost shows him how his nephew is having a good Christmas, and how Scrooge is missing out. The third ghost is the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come. This ghost shows Scrooge what Christmas will be like in the future if he does not change. First, people are shown celebrating a man's death and robbing his house. The ghost also shows him that Tiny Tim has died. Scrooge is then shown his own grave, and realizes that the celebrations were for his death.

On Christmas morning, Scrooge wakes up and realizes that he has to change. He decides to celebrate Christmas, and help Tiny Tim get well. He sends the Cratchit family a prize turkey for their holiday dinner. Through the ghosts' help, Scrooge becomes a better man.

Legacy
The book made popular the phrase "Merry Christmas" as well as the name "Scrooge" and the ejaculation "Bah! Humbug". The book spurred charitable giving in the years following its first publication. Its lasting legacy is returning to Christmas the merriment and festivity the day lost after a period of Puritan sobriety.

Other websites

1840s books
Books by Charles Dickens
British novellas

A Christmas Carol


The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher is a children's book, written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter. It was published by Frederick Warne & Co. in July 1906. Jeremy's origin lies in a letter she wrote to a child in 1893. She revised it in 1906, and moved its setting from the River Tay to the English Lake District. The tale reflects her love for the Lake District and her admiration for children's illustrator Randolph Caldecott.

Jeremy Fisher is a frog that lives in a "slippy-sloppy" house at the edge of a pond. During one rainy day, he collects worms for fishing and sets off across the pond on his lily-pad boat. He plans to invite his friends for dinner if he catches more than five minnows. He encounters all sorts of setbacks to his goal, and escapes a large trout who tries to swallow him. He swims for shore, decides he will not go fishing again, and hops home.

Potter's tale pays homage to the leisurely summers her father and his companions passed sport fishing at rented country estates in Scotland. Following the tale's publication, a child fan wrote to Potter suggesting Jeremy find a wife. Potter responded with a series of miniature letters on the theme as if from Jeremy and his pals. Following Potter's death in 1943, licences were issued to various firms to produce the Potter characters. Jeremy and his friends were released as porcelain figurines, plush toys, and other merchandise.

Plot

Jeremy Fisher is a frog that lives in a damp little house amongst the buttercups at the edge of a pond. His larder and back passage are "slippy-sloppy" with water, but he likes getting his feet wet; no one ever scolds and he never catches cold. One day, Jeremy finds it raining and decides to go fishing. Should he catch more than five minnows, he would invite his friends to dinner. He puts on a mackintosh and shiny galoshes, takes his rod and basket, and sets off with "enormous hops" to the place where he keeps his lily-pad boat. He poles to a place he knows is good for minnows.

Once there, the frog sits cross-legged on his lily-pad and arranges his tackle. He has "the dearest little red float". His rod is a stalk of grass and his line a horsehair. An hour passes without a nibble. He takes a break and lunches on a butterfly sandwich. A water beetle tweaks his toe, causing him to withdraw his legs, and rats rustling about in the rushes force him to seek a safer location. He drops his line into the water and immediately has a bite. It is not a minnow but little Jack Sharp, a stickleback. Jeremy pricks his fingers on Jack's spines and Jack escapes. A shoal of little fishes come to the surface to laugh at Jeremy.

Jeremy sucks his sore fingers. A large trout rises from the water and seizes him with a snap (Mr. Jeremy screams, "OW-OW-OW!!!"). The trout dives to the bottom, but finds the mackintosh disgusting and spits Jeremy out, swallowing only his galoshes. Jeremy bounces "up to the surface of the water, like a cork and the bubbles out of a soda water bottle", and swims to the pond's edge. He scrambles up the bank and hops home through the meadow, having lost his fishing equipment but quite sure he will never go fishing again.

In the last few pages, Jeremy has put sticking plaster on his fingers and welcomes his friends, Sir Isaac Newton, a newt; and Alderman Ptolemy Tortoise, a tortoise that eats salad. Isaac wears a black and gold waistcoat and Ptolemy brings a salad in a string bag. Jeremy has prepared roasted grasshopper with ladybird sauce. The narrator describes the dish as a "frog treat", but thinks "it must have been nasty!"

Background

In addition to the pet frogs of Potter's youth, influences on Jeremy include Potter's sport fishing father Rupert William Potter and illustrator Randolph Caldecott. Margaret Lane, author of The Magic Years of Beatrix Potter, notes, "Mr. Potter was fond of taking his friends fishing and Beatrix ... from an early age had been familiar with [the] hazards and excitements of angling and dry-fly fishing ... as a girl [she] had often enough had to endure her father and his friends relating their fishing adventures, and the picture of Mr Jeremy Fisher retailing his mishap to Sir Isaac Newton is so rich in observation, both of amphibians and elderly gentlemen, that one is ever afterwards prone to confuse them in memory". Mr. Potter not only fished for sport but collected the works of Randolph Caldecott. In Jeremy Fisher, Potter tried to copy Caldecott but felt she had failed. "I did try to copy Caldecott," she stated, "but ... I did not achieve much resemblance." Biographer Linda Lear writes Potter declared, "I have the greatest admiration for his work – a jealous appreciation; for I think that others, whose names are commonly bracketed with his, are not on the same plane at all as artist-illustrators".

Potter biographer Linda Lear and author of Beatrix Potter: A Life in Nature writes: [Potter] wanted to do a frog story for some time, because it was amusing and offered the opportunity for the naturalist illustrations she delighted in ... The story of a fisherman down on his luck reminded Beatrix of the 'fish stories' her father's friends had told in Scotland, as well as her brother's travails with rod and reel. She also recreated the gentlemen's club atmosphere absorbed from her father's reports of evenings spent at the Reform and the Athenaeum ... The text and illustrations for this story are some of the most balanced and compatible of all her writing. Nature is described and illustrated truthfully: beautifully tranquil as well as unpredictably aggressive ....Its carefully coloured botanical backgrounds of water plants, a frog with anatomically correct turned-out feet, a trout that any self-respecting fisherman would enjoy snagging, and a rather frighteningly rendered water-beetle who tweaks Jeremy's dainty toes, all made it a delight to look at as well as to read.

Production

The origin of The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher lies in a story letter Potter wrote to a child in September 1893 while summering on the River Tay. The following year, she created nine sketches called "A Frog he would a-fishing go" and sold them to publisher Ernest Nister. They were released with verses by Clifton Bingham in 1896.

Energized by the success of The Tale of Peter Rabbit in 1902, Potter considered expanding the frog tale and bought back her drawings and the publisher's printer's blocks. She wrote her editor Norman Warne, "I should like to do Mr. Jeremy Fisher ... I think I can make something of him". The tale was set aside while Potter and Warne developed other projects, but in 1905 he approved the frog tale. As Potter biographer Daphne Kutzner writes of Potter's illustrations for Jeremy: "When she finally did the illustrations for the book, she changed the original background from the River Tay in Scotland to Eswaithe Water in the Lakes. The illustrations are indeed lovely, showing Potter's skill both as a naturalist and a fantasist".

In August 1905, Norman Warne died, and his brother Harold became Potter's editor. She wrote to him indicating Norman had approved the frog project: "We had thought of doing ... "Mr. Jeremy Fisher" to carry on the series of little [books]. I know some people don't like frogs! but I think I had convinced Norman that I could make it a really pretty book with a good many flowers & water plants for backgrounds". Warne decided to put Jeremy Fisher into print.

In July 1906, 20,000 copies of The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher were released in paper boards at a shilling and in decorated cloth at one shilling six pence in a small format. Another 5,000 copies were published in September 1906 and another 5,000 in September 1907. The book was dedicated to Stephanie Hyde Parker, the daughter of Potter's cousin Ethel, Lady Hyde Parker: "For Stephanie from Cousin B". Jeremy sold as profitably as other Potter productions.

Themes and style

M. Daphne Kutzer, Professor of English at State University of New York at Plattsburgh and author of Beatrix Potter: Writing in Code, observes that the social positions of Jeremy and his friends are established through the clothing they wear.  Although Potter sharply critiqued the upper class elsewhere, Kutzer observes that in Jeremy Fisher her tone is more moderate. She suggests that Potter's relocation to Sawrey and Hill Top Farm may have produced in her a willingness "to accept the silliness of the aspiring middle class as well as the eccentricities of the upper classes".

Ruth K. MacDonald, Professor of English at New Mexico State University and author of Beatrix Potter points out that although Potter regarded the lives of her father and his friends as comical and even beneath notice, yet she clearly respected and valued their outdoor pursuits from the bemused treatment she accorded them in Jeremy Fisher. She valued nature untouched by humans even more, MacDonald notes, as evidenced by the careful observation in the illustrations. Jeremy Fisher was written without the many revisions typical of Potter's other productions, and the pictures appear effortless in their execution. MacDonald writes, "Her ability to show human society without also implying its damaging effects on flora and fauna further underscores the book's felicitous composition and success".

Literary scholar Humphrey Carpenter writes in Secret Gardens: The Golden Age of Children's Literature the basis for Potter's writing style can be found in the Authorized King James Version of the Bible. Jeremy Fisher reflects the characteristic cadence and "employs a psalm-like caesura in the middle of [a] sentence".

Carpenter sees in Potter's work thematic shifts from the early work onward. In the first stage of her work, he sees in stories such as The Tale of Peter Rabbit a type of Jack-the-Giant-Killer theme, in which a small creature confronts a large creature that he believes culminates in The Tale of Jeremy Fisher. Potter places Jeremy Fisher in a dangerous world, according to Carpenter. The fishing experience is frightening: the bank-side creatures worry him, the stickleback threatens him directly, and the trout tries to swallow him. But Potter makes the point that all creatures are prey, ending the story with Jeremy Fisher himself eating a grasshopper smothered in lady-bird sauce.

Miniature letters

About 1907 Potter created miniature letters delivered to child fans in either a miniature mail bag or a miniature mail box.  "Some of the letters were very funny," Potter wrote, "The defect was that inquiries and answers were all mixed up."

Four Jeremy letters were written at about 1910 to Drew Fayle who thought Jeremy should marry. In one letter, Sir Isaac promises Master Fayle a piece of wedding cake should Jeremy marry and, in another letter, Ptolemy writes that Jeremy's parties "would be much more agreeable if there were a lady to preside at the table." Jeremy writes in the third letter: "When I bought my sprigged waistcoat & my maroon tail-coat I had hopes ... but I am alone ... if there were a 'Mrs. Jeremy Fisher' she might object to snails. It is some satisfaction to be able to have as much water & mud in the house as a person likes."

Mrs. Tiggy-winkle, a hedgehog washerwoman in another Potter tale, writes Master Fayle in the fourth letter:Dear Master Drew,
If you please Sir I am a widow; & I think it very wrong that there is not any Mrs. Fisher, but I would not marry Mr. Jeremy not for worlds, the way he does live in that house all slippy-sloppy; not any lady would stand it, & not a bit of good starching his cravats.

Merchandise

The characters from Jeremy Fisher have appeared as porcelain figurines, plush toys, and other merchandise. In 1950, Beswick Pottery issued a porcelain figurine of Jeremy and figurines of Isaac and Ptolemy in the 1970s. Other figurines of Jeremy have been produced over the years as well as a Jeremy mug. Jeremy was one of the first eight plush toys released by Eden Toys, Inc. of New York in 1973. The following year, he was released as a  "Giant" intended for store displays, and during the Beanie Baby era as a beanbag. Isaac Newton was on store shelves for two years.

Jeremy Fisher was one of the first ten character music boxes released by Schmid & Co. in 1977. Ptolemy and Isaac boxes were released in the 1980s. Ceramic Christmas ornaments of Jeremy have been released by Schmid. Other merchandise includes a variety of Crummles enamelled boxes, an ANRI wood carving and ANRI Toriart figurines and ornaments, and Huntley & Palmer biscuit tins.

Reprints and translations

As of 2010, all 23 of Potter's small format books remain in print, and are available as complete sets in presentation boxes, and as a 400-page omnibus edition. The English language editions of the tales still bore the Frederick Warne imprint in 2010 though the company was bought by Penguin Books in 1983. Penguin remade the printing plates in 1985, and all 23 volumes were released in 1987 as The Original and Authorized Edition.

Although sold to Penguin Books in 1984 as a subsidiary company, Frederick Warne continues to publish Potter's books. A 2002 Publishers Weekly article, written for the centennial of the publication of The Tale of Peter Rabbit, reported that Potter was considered one of the top most popular classic writers, that anniversary editions of her work were published in 1993 and 2002, and the artwork has been "re-scanned to make the illustrations look fresher and brighter".

The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher was published in French in 1940 as Jérémie Pêche-à-la-Ligne, and in Dutch as Jeremais de Hengelaar in 1946. The tale was republished in Dutch in 1970 as Het Verhaal van Jeremais Hengelaar and was published in the Initial Teaching Alphabet in 1965. In 1984, the tale was again translated into French by M.A. James as L'histoire de Monsieur Jérémie Peche-a-la-Ligne. In 1986 MacDonald wrote that Potter's books had become a "traditional part of childhood in most only English-speaking countries and in many of the countries into whose languages Potter's books have been translated".

References

Works cited

External links

 The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher at Internet Archive

 Victoria and Albert Museum: Beatrix Potter
 Randolph Caldecott's  A Frog He Would A-Wooing Go

1906 children's books
British picture books
Mr. Jeremy Fisher, The Tale of
Children's books adapted into films
Children's books adapted into television shows
English-language books
Cultural depictions of Isaac Newton
Children's books about frogs
Children's books about turtles
Works about fishing
Children's books set in forests
Mr. Jeremy Fisher, The Tale of
Frederick Warne & Co books

The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher


The Trimphone is a model of telephone designed in the late-1960s in the UK. It was positioned as a more fashionable alternative to the standard telephones available from the Post Office Telephones, the nationalised predecessor to British Telecom. The name is an acronym standing for Tone Ring Illuminator Model, referring to the then innovative electronic ringer ("warbling", as opposed to the traditional bell) and the illuminated dial. The luminous dial or betalight contained the mildly radioactive element tritium, which later caused some concern about safety. In June 1991 the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority at Harwell was fined £3,000 by Wantage Magistrates Court for accumulating radioactive waste, having collected several thousand Trimphone luminous dials in a skip.

Although a later model featured buttons that did not light up instead of the original dial, it continued to be known as the Trimphone. Consumers were divided as to its aesthetic merits, and some models required rewiring in order to connect to the public phone network in the UK.

The innovative design by Martyn Rowlands for Standard Telephones and Cables (STC), won a Design Centre award in 1966. It originated from an initial idea in 1959 for a luxury telephone to add to the Post Office's range. Towards the end of 1963 it chose this design although it considered others including a submission from GEC. In 1964 the GPO placed a contract for 10,000 units.

The Trimphone started life in 1964 as the Telephone No. 712, which was usually supplied as a 712L with an alphabetical as well as numerical dial. The Trimphone was the first in the GPO range to use a tone caller which warbled at around 2350 Hz modulated by ringing current. The volume of the ringer gradually built up over the first few cycles. There is a volume control in the base of the telephone with 'loud', 'medium' and 'soft' settings (a silent setting was achieved by slackening off a screw on the tone ringer board inside the phone).

Production of the new telephone commenced in 1965 by STC, and an initial quantity of 1000 was offered to customers on a selective trial basis in the London North West Telephone Area in the same year. It became available throughout the country in 1968, at extra rental cost, with a choice of three two-tone colour schemes: grey-white, grey-green and two-tone blue. The first example of the Trimphone was presented in May 1965 by the Postmaster General, Tony Benn, to a newlywed couple in Hampstead in a ceremony marking the ten millionth telephone to be installed in Britain. By 1980 there were 1.6 million Trimphones in use out of a total telephone population at that time of 27 million.

There was also some concern about the luminescent dial that glowed green in the dark. This effect came from a small glass tube of tritium gas, which gave off beta radiation, which in turn energized light-producing phosphors and made the dial fluoresce. Although the radioactivity was equivalent only to that given off by a wristwatch it was felt wise to withdraw this facility as public concern over radioactivity grew.

Another problem with the dial version of the Trimphone was its light weight; 0.8 kg compared with 1.4 kg for the 700-type and 2.6 kg for the 300-type telephone. This led to the complaint that on slippery surfaces the telephone turned and slid whilst dialling. The fix for this was to wet the feet and the phone stuck to the table.

After a number of different modifications, the definitive version of the Trimphone, the 2/722 was introduced in 1971. These were supplied with an all figure dial, although earlier variants of the 722 with lettered dials do exist.

The first keypad version of the Trimphone appeared in 1977 – somewhat delayed by the problem of packaging the signalling electronics into the small volume of the Trimphone. The problem was alleviated by marginally increasing the height of the case compared to the dial version. The first design of keypad Trimphone to achieve large-scale production was the SC version (Tele 766); this design incorporates relays, but does not require batteries. Subsequent designs eased the packaging problems further by eliminating the relays and introducing transistor pulsing. An MF4 (Touch-tone) design had to await the development of an integrated circuit to replace the bulky coils and capacitors otherwise needed. This was introduced in 1979 (Tele 786).

The next incarnation of the Trimphone was the Deltaphone, a deluxe version of the Trimphone with a case bound in leather.

By 1980 Trimphones had been around for some 15 years and needed revamping for the new era of competition.

The final incarnation (or rather reincarnation) was a collection of alternative colour range Trimphones called the Phoenix phone or 'Snowdon Collection'.  BT, as the GPO had become, fitted these with the new plug-socket connection and they were available, not to rent, but for outright purchase.

Various rotary dial 722 Trimphones:

Images of various push button 766 Trimphones:

See also
 Ericofon – A Swedish telephone that was similarly fashionable in its day.
 Grillo – Another innovative telephone, from Italy.  Its design anticipated the cellular "filp-phone".
 Trimline – The Trimline telephone from the United States incorporated a dial into the handset, but still had a separate cradle containing the ringer.
 GPO Telephones – UK telephone monopoly (until 1982).

References

External links
UK Telephones 1960–80
UK Telephones Post 1980
Telephone File

Telephony equipment
British inventions
1964 introductions
Industrial design

Trimphone


Macaranga triloba is a species of plant in the family Euphorbiaceae. It is native to the tropical forests of southeastern Asia. It is a pioneer species, colonising recently cleared or burnt areas of the forest.

Description
A small, spreading tree, M. triloba grows to a height of about . The trunk is a light greyish-brown with smooth bark, and the twigs and shoots are largely devoid of hairs. The leaves are tri-lobed and peltate, with toothed margins. Each leaf has two erect, leathery stipules that are ovate, slightly recurved and do not encircle the stem. The inflorescence is a panicle with minute reddish-brown flowers. The fruits are rounded, sticky and yellow when ripe, the carpels developing long, horn-like processes. The fruits are about  long and  wide.

Distribution and habitat
Macaranga triloba occurs in Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Sumatra, Java and the Philippines. It grows in a range of habitats including the edges of swamp forests and dry dipterocarp forests, at altitudes up to about .

Ecology
Along with other members of its genus, M. triloba is a pioneer species. In 1982 and 1983, fires devastated the Bukit Soeharto Education Forest, in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. By 1988, the canopy was dominated by a number of tall dipterocarps up to  tall which had survived the blaze, and elsewhere by shorter Macaranga species including Macaranga triloba which had sprung up since the fires and formed a canopy at about . In a section of forest regenerating after slash-and-burn forest clearances, Macaranga species predominated after fifteen years, but by thirty years were being replaced by Shorea parvifolia and Pentace laxiflora.

This plant has a mutualistic relationship with predatory ants of the Crematogaster genus. The tree has hollow twigs in which the ants make their nest and provides the ants with food bodies located on the leaf stipules; the ants feed on these and defend the tree against herbivorous insects. Many fewer food bodies are produced by trees that have no ants inhabiting them than are produced by those where ants are present.

Gallery

References

triloba
Flora of Indo-China
Flora of Malesia
Plants described in 1866

Macaranga triloba


Microsoft Personal Web Server (PWS) is a scaled-down web server software for Windows operating systems. It has fewer features than Microsoft's Internet Information Services (IIS) and its functions have been superseded by IIS and Visual Studio. Microsoft officially supports PWS on Windows 95-98, Windows 98 SE, and Windows NT 4.0. Prior to the release of Windows 2000, PWS was available as a free download as well as included on the Windows distribution CDs. PWS 4 was the last version and it can be found on the Windows 98 CD and the Windows NT 4.0 Option Pack.

Personal Web Server was originally created by Vermeer Technologies, the same company which created Microsoft FrontPage, before they were acquired by Microsoft. It was installed by FrontPage versions 1.1 to 98 as well.

NT Workstation 4.0 shipped with Peer Web Services, which was based on IIS 2.0 and 3.0. With IIS 4.0, this was renamed Personal Web Server to be consistent with the name used in 95/98.

Since Windows 2000, PWS was renamed the same IIS name used in server versions of Windows as a standard Windows component. Windows ME and Windows XP Home Edition support neither PWS nor IIS, although PWS can be installed on Windows ME. In other editions of Windows XP, IIS is included as standard.

Before Microsoft Visual Studio 2005, PWS was useful in developing web applications on the localhost before deploying to a production web server. The IDE of Visual Studio 2005 (and later versions) now contains a built-in lightweight web server for such development purposes.

FTP, SMTP, HTTP and the usual web languages such as PHP and Perl are supported by PWS. It also supports basic CGI (Common Gateway Interface) conventions and a subset of Classic ASP. Using these technologies, web applications running on PWS are capable of performing and interpreting database queries and results.

Microsoft also produced a version of Personal Web Server for the Macintosh based on code acquired in its acquisition of ResNova Software in November 1996.

References

Home servers
Web server software
Personal Web Server

Microsoft Personal Web Server


Iodic acid is a chemical compound. It is also an acid. Its chemical formula is HIO3. It contains hydrogen and iodate ions. The iodine is in its +5 oxidation state.

Properties
Iodic acid is a white solid that can dissolve in water to make an acidic solution. Chloric acid and bromic acid only exist in solution and break down when crystallized. Iodic acid is a strong oxidizing agent. It can be converted to iodine pentoxide when it is heated gently. If it is heated strongly, it decomposes into iodine, oxygen, and other iodine oxides.

It can form several things when it is reduced. If there is a lot of reducing agent, it is reduced to iodide. If there is a lot of iodic acid, it is reduced to iodine. If there is a lot of chloride, then it is reduced to iodine trichloride, a yellow liquid.

Preparation
It can be made by electrolysis of an acidic iodide solution.

Uses
Iodic acid is used to make other iodates by reacting bases with iodic acid. It is also used as a strong acid.

Related pages
Periodic acid

Iodine compounds
Acids

Iodic acid


Laws of Form is a book by George Spencer-Brown published in 1969.  It is about logic, mathematics, and philosophy.  The mathematical systems that Spencer-Brown presented in the book are known by the names "calculus of indications", "distinction calculus", and often just "LOF".

Laws of Form grew out of the author's work in electronic engineering.  The book has been published in several editions and translations and has never gone out of print. A short book, its mathematical part is only 55 pages long.

Spencer-Brown's philosophy was influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, R.D. Laing, Charles Sanders Peirce, Bertrand Russell, and Alfred North Whitehead.

Reception

Laws of Form was listed in the Whole Earth Catalog in 1969 and quickly became a cult classic.  The calculus of indications and the primary algebra may be regarded as a way to think about a fundamental activity of the mind, namely, the ability to distinguish or to draw distinctions.  The book argues that this ability is the foundation of human cognition and consciousness.  According to Spencer-Brown, the primary arithemetic and primary algebra reveal new connections among logic, mathematics, the philosophy of language, and the philosophy of mind.

Mathematical ideas

Let 0 and 1 be the two basic primitive values of Boolean algebra. Let AB denote a binary operation of Boolean algebra. Let (X) stand for the Boolean complement of X. Then the calculus of indications is simply Boolean arithmetic reduced to the two equations 11=1 and (1)=0. These are the only "axioms" in LoF.

The primary algebra is mainly a simpler notation for Boolean algebra, except for one thing. In Boolean algebra, () is not defined. () is "empty" complementation (the complementation of "nothing"). On the other hand, in the primary algebra () is defined, and stands for one of 0 or 1. (()) stands for the other primitive value, and is the same thing as the blank page.

Let A and B be any two expressions of the primary algebra. The primary algebra is made up of equations of the form A=B, and these equations are treated in the same way as the equations of the number algebra taught in all schools. Standard methods of logic seldom use equations. LoF argues that doing elementary logic with the primary algebra is easier. In particular, if A is a tautology in logic, then one of A=() or A=(()) holds in the primary algebra.

Laws of Form proves the following fact about the primary algebra:

 Cannot prove both A=B and A/=B. Hence the primary algebra is free of contradiction (is consistent);

 Can always prove whichever of  A=B and A/=B happens to be true. (The primary algebra is complete.)
Hence the primary algebra is a well-behaved piece of mathematics. It can be useful even if the philosophy and cognitive science of LoF are wrong or uninteresting.

Reference
 Spencer-Brown, George, 1997 (1969). Laws of Form. E. P. Dutton.

Other websites
Laws of Form Web Site
Spencer-Brown Form : MathWorld
Logical Graph  : PlanetMath
Logical Graph : Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms
Louis H. Kauffman, Box Algebra, Boundary Mathematics, Logic, and Laws of Form

Mathematics books
1969 books

Laws of Form


An Abstraction keeps only the most important information about something in order to make it easier to reuse.

Abstraction concerns the ways by which higher, less real concepts are derived from the usage and classification of literal ("real" or "concrete") data or other information.

Abstractions may be formed by reducing the information content of a concept or a phenomenon as viewed, often to keep only the information which is needed for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball will keep only the information on general ball attributes and behavior, leaving out the traits of that particular ball. Compare with word: generalizing. The opposite of the adjective "abstract" is commonly the word "concrete".

Origins
The first symbols of abstract thinking in humans can be traced to fossil objects dating between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago in Africa.

Thought process
In philosophical terminology, abstraction is the thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects.

Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, where formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient.

For example, many different things can be the color red. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces (as in picture 1, to the right). The property of redness and the relation sitting-on are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram graph 1 identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their six labels), whereas the picture 1 shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph.

Graph 1 details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For example, the arrow between the agent and CAT:Elsie depicts an example of an is-a relationship, as does the arrow between the location and the MAT. The arrows between the gerund SITTING and the nouns agent and location express the diagram's basic relationship; "agent is SITTING on location"; Elsie is an instance of CAT.

Although the description sitting-on (graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat (picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter's illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in Gödel, Escher, Bach (1979):
(1) a publication
(2) a newspaper
(3) The San Francisco Chronicle
(4) the May 18 edition of the Chronicle
(5) my copy of the May 18 edition of the Chronicle
(6) my copy of the May 18 edition of the Chronicle as it was when I first picked it up (as contrasted with my copy as it was a few days later: in my fireplace, burning)

An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about some thing, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle.

Referents
Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents; for example, "happiness" (when used as an abstraction) can refer to as many things as there are people and events or states of being which make them happy. Likewise, "architecture" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.

Instantiation
Things that do not exist at any particular place and time are often considered abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then said to be multiply instantiated, in the sense of picture 1, picture 2, etc., shown above.

It is not sufficient, however, to define abstract ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define abstraction as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts "cat" and "telephone" abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are abstractions, they are not abstract in the sense of the objects in graph 1 above.

We might look at other graphs, in a progression from cat to mammal to animal, and see that animal is more abstract than mammal; but on the other hand mammal is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to marsupial or monotreme.

Physicality
A physical object (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered concrete (not abstract) if it is a particular individual that occupies a particular place and time.

Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences, like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like God, the number three, and goodness are real, abstract, or both.

An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use predicates as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g. good). Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the graph 1 above, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Different levels of abstraction might be denoted by a progression of arrows joining boxes or ellipses in multiple rows, where the arrows point from one row to another, in a series of other graphs, say graph 2, etc.

Abstraction used in philosophy
Abstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept-formation of recognizing some set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical tool for discussion of abstraction is thought space.

Ontological status
The way in which physical objects, like rocks and trees, have being differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have being. For example, the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in picture 1 exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in graph 1 exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.

Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to tropes (instances of properties) as abstract particulars. E.g., the particular redness of a particular apple is an abstract particular. Akin to qualia and sumbebekos.

In linguistics
If an abstract concept, such as "society" or "technology" is treated as if it were a concrete object, that is a fallacy (an error). In linguistics, it may happen that abstract concepts are used as if they were nouns that signify concrete objects:
1805: Horatio Nelson (Battle of Trafalgar) – "<u/l>England</u/l> expects that every man will do his duty"

This is called metonymy. It can blur the distinction between abstract and concrete things.

Compression

An abstraction can be seen as a process of mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of abstract data based on similarities in the constituent data, for example many different physical cats map to the abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects and the process of associating these objects with an abstraction (which is itself an object).
For example, picture 1 above illustrates the concrete relationship "Cat sits on Mat".
Chains of abstractions can therefore be constructed moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to basic abstractions such as color or shape to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat to semantic abstractions such as the "idea" of a CAT to classes of objects such as "mammals" and even categories such as "object" as opposed to "action".
For example, graph 1 above expresses the abstraction "agent sits on location".

This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive exclusion of detail.

The neurology of abstraction
A recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has greater engagement for abstract concepts when the perceptual system is more engaged for processing of concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts cause greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus, compared to concrete concepts when concrete concepts cause greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus.

Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres, of the brain, differ in their handling of abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during tool usage.

Abstraction in art
Typically, abstraction is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world—it can, however, refer to an object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory. Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freed from objective context, and a reduction of form to basic geometric designs.

In music, the term abstraction can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized the exploration of internal numeric relationships.

Abstraction in psychology
Carl Jung's definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four mutually exclusive, opposing complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these opposing functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of abstraction is concretism. Abstraction is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types.
There is an abstract thinking, just as there is abstract feeling, sensation and intuition. Abstract thinking singles out the rational, logical qualities ... Abstract feeling does the same with ... its feeling-values. ... I put abstract feelings on the same level as abstract thoughts. ... Abstract sensation would be aesthetic as opposed to sensuous sensation and abstract intuition would be symbolic as opposed to fantastic intuition. (Jung, [1921] (1971):par. 678).

Abstraction in computer science
Computer scientists use abstraction to understand and solve problems, such as organizing data to be stored in a database.

Abstraction in mathematics
Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical concept, removing any dependence on real-world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena.

The advantages of abstraction in mathematics are:
 it reveals deep connections between different areas of mathematics
 known results in one area can suggest conjectures in a related area
 techniques and methods from one area can be applied to prove results in a related area

The main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and require a degree of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated.

Related pages
 Abstract algebra
 Abstract art
 Formal language
 Ontology
 Platonic realism

Notes

Other websites

 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gottlob Frege
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Abstract Objects
 Discussion at The Well concerning Abstraction hierarchy

Thought
Problem solving
Creativity

Abstraction


Reality telly is a genre o televeesion programmin that documents supposedly unscriptit real-life situations, an aften featurs a itherwise unkent cast o indwallers who are teepically no profeesional actors, awtho in some shaws celebrities mey pairticipate. It differs frae documentar televeesion in that the focus tends tae be on drama, personal conflict, an enterteenment rather than eddicatin viewers. Reality TV programs forbye aften bring pairteecipants intae situations an environs that they wad itherwise niver be a pairt o. The genre haes various staundart tropes, includin "confessionals" uised bi cast members tae express their thochts, which aften double as the shaws' narration. Reality TV shaws aften hae a host wha asks questions o the pairteecipants an comments on the proceedins. In competeetion-based reality shows, a notable subset, thare are ither common elements such as ane pairticipant bein eliminatit per episode, a panel o judges, an the concept o "immunity frae elimination."

Televeesion genres
1990s fads an trends
2000s fads an trends
2010s fads an trends

Reality telly


The Pontifical Academy of Sciences dates back four centuries to its creation as the Accademia dei Lincei in 1603. Pope Pius IX changed the name to the Pontifical Academy of the New Lincei in 1847 to signify its new status as an official institution of the Pontifical State. Nearly a century later, it was reorganized as the Pontifical Academy of Science on October 28, 1936, by Pope Pius XI in a Motu proprio In multis solaciis (Latin "Among the many consolations").

Mission
Although it reports directly to the Pontiff, the academy has considerable freedom in conducting its mission: the study of Science and the possible consequences for the human condition. Christian belief is not a prerequisite for membership to the academy, because first and foremost, it is a legitimate Scientific body that follows the Scientific Method. As of 2003 more than two dozen Nobel Prize winners (including Professor Ahmed Zewail, Chemistry 1999) and several Field Medal winners were counted as members. Plenary sessions are interdisciplinary events held every other year to review new developments and discus progress made towards their mission. Common working groups include astronomy and cosmology, cognition and brain science, and genetics.

Reorganization
 In multis solaciis, issued 28 October 1936 by Pope Pius XI, on the topic of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences.

References

Other websites
 Libreria Editrice Vaticana (1936): In multis solaciis
 The Pontifical Academy of Sciences official website

Christian colleges and universities
1603 establishments

Pontifical Academy of Sciences


The Game Boys are a group of handheld video game consoles made by Nintendo that ran from 1989 to 2009.

Game Boy

The first Game Boy was released in 1989. It had a small screen, a D-pad, Start and Select keys, and an A and B button. To play games, there were small objects called cartridges that you put into the Game Boy to play the game in the cartridge. The game that made it popular, and the system's launch title, was Tetris. The Game Boy had a link cable and a link port which let it connect with other Game Boys to play games in multiplayer mode.

Game Boy Pocket
After the Game Boy, Nintendo released the Game Boy Pocket, which was a smaller Game Boy more convenient to carry around. It had a better, sharper screen and it only needed two AAA batteries instead of four AA. The link port was smaller than the Game Boy's, so the Game Boy and Game Boy Pocket could not connect with the original connector cable; a newer model cable with double-sided ends was needed to do this.

Game Boy Light
The Game Boy Light was only released in Japan and had a front-light (the blue light used on old watches) so people could see better. It is very rare - only about 12,000 of them were manufactured. Because it is rare, it sells for more money than other Game Boys.

Game Boy Color

The Game Boy Color was the first Game Boy in color. It was also able to play Game Boy cartridges, which helped it sell better. This also helped other Game Boy models after the Game Boy Color. It is sometimes called the GBC.

Game Boy Advance

The Game Boy Advance is a handheld that had better color and smaller cartridges. It could play more advanced games than the previous Game Boys. It is sometimes called the GBA. It came out in March 2001.

Game Boy Advance SP

The Game Boy Advance SP was an improved version of the original GBA. It has a clamshell design, which means you can fold it to make it smaller when you're not using it. It has a front-lit screen (better than the one on the Game Boy Light), which the Game Boy Advance did not have. It can play Game Boy and Game Boy Color games, along with the new cartridges introduced with the GBA. A newer model, labeled the AGS-101, was released which had an even better backlight and very good contrast; some people say it is the best way to play Game Boy, Game Boy Color and Game Boy Advance games.

Game Boy Micro

The Game Boy Micro is a smaller variation of the GBA. It has a smaller link port than the Game Boy Advance. Its backlight and contrast are as good as the 101 model of the Game Boy Advance SP. Unlike its predecessors, it cannot play GB or GBC games.

Succesors
The Nintendo DS line is the successor to the Game Boy line. It consists of the Nintendo DS and the Nintendo 3DS.

Nintendo DS

When Nintendo released the Nintendo DS handheld in 2004, they said it was a "third pillar" (the other two pillars were the Game Boy and the home console). It has two screens, one of which is a touch screen. DS games use cards in Slot 1. Slot 2 can accept Game Boy Advance games. A newer model, called the DS Lite, released in 2006, also plays GBA games. But like the GBA Micro, neither of them can play original Game Boy or Game Boy Color games. The DSi and DSi XL, released in 2008 and 2009, replaced the GBA slot with an SD Card. This makes it impossible to play GBA games. Some DS games also included extra features contained in "option paks", which were just like GBA games. So these features could not be used on those DS games if they were played on the DSi or DSi XL.

Nintendo 3DS

Like the DSi and DSi XL, the 3DS line lacks a GBA slot. However, GB and GBC games can be downloaded through the Virtual Console. Those who bought a 3DS prior to the 2011 price drop were lucky to download ten GBA games, along with ten NES games, through the Ambassador Program. While the NES games became available to the public, the GBA games remain exclusive to the Ambassadors.

Game Boy line


Magnetic storage is a way of storing data that uses magnets to store binary data. It uses patterns of positive and negative magnetisation to store data using read/write heads, which can view and change the magnetisation. A few examples include hard disk drives, floppy disks, and magnetic stripes.

Computer hardware
Magnetism

Magnetic storage