Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a heat engine or a power station to make both electricity and useful heat at the same time.

Conventional power plants emit the heat created as a byproduct of electricity generation into the environment through cooling towers, as flue gas, or by other means. Combined heat and power captures the byproduct heat for domestic or industrial heating purposes, either very close to the plant, or - especially in Scandinavia and eastern Europe - for distribution through pipes to heat local housing.

Byproduct heat at moderate temperatures (100 to 180°C) can also be used in absorption chillers for cooling. A plant producing electricity, heat and cold is sometimes called regeneration or more generally: polygene ration plant.

Cogeneration is a thermodynamically efficient use of fuel. In separate production of electricity some energy is lost as waste heat, but in cogeneration this energy performs useful work (see energy).

Overview

Thermal power plants (including those that use fissile elements or burn coal, petroleum, or natural gas), and heat engines in general, do not convert all of their available energy into electricity.  In most heat engines, a bit more than half is wasted as excess heat (see: Second law of thermodynamics). By capturing the excess heat, CHP uses heat that would be wasted in a conventional power plant, potentially reaching an efficiency of up to 70%, compared with at most 40% for the conventional plants. This means that less fuel needs to be consumed to produce the same amount of useful energy.  Also, less pollution is produced for a given economic benefit.

An exact match between the heat and electricity needs rarely exists. A CHP plant can either meet the need for heat (heat driven operation) or be run as a power plant with some use of its waste heat.

CHP is most efficient when the heat can be used on site or very close to it.  Overall efficiency is reduced when the heat must be transported over longer distances.  This requires heavily insulated pipes, which are expensive and inefficient; whereas electricity can be transmitted along a comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss.

A car motor becomes a CHP plant in winter, when the reject heat is useful for warming the interior of the vehicle. This example scores the point that deployment of CHP depends on heat uses in the neighbourhood of the heat engine.

Cogeneration plants are commonly found in district heating systems of big towns, hospitals, prisons, oil refineries, paper mills, wastewater treatment plants, thermal enhanced oil recovery wells and industrial plants with large heating needs.

Other websites
 Energy Policy Act of 2005 - sec. 1817 "Study of Cogeneration"
 www.mccree.com  - Air Products and Chemicals Cogeneration Plant (Orlando, Florida)
 www.co-generationsystems.com - Industrial Co-generation Equipment Provider
Sequoien - Non-profit CHP
  CHP in Finland:
 High cogeneration performance by innovative steam turbine for biomass-fired CHP plant in Iisalmi, Finland  (URL accessed on 30 March 2006)
 UK micro CHP schemes:
 www.defra.gov.uk, CHP
 BBC News: Power from the people
 Powergen WhisperGen
 M.I.T. algae reactor
 Stirling/ Oven
 Associations:
 U.S. Combined Heat and Power Association
 CHP Association
 COGEN Europe The European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration
 The World Alliance for Decentralized Energy

Electricity

Cogeneration


Crystallization is the way that atoms link up in a regular structure. The structure is held together by chemical bonds or connected groups.  Crystallization can be from a melt or from a solution, and can be natural or artificial.  Rarely, crystal can form directly from a gas. Faster crystallization makes smaller size crystals as in basalt, and slower can make bigger crystals, as in granite.

Crystallization occurs in two major steps. The first is nucleation. This is the appearance of a crystalline phase from a super-cooled liquid or a supersaturated solvent. The second step is crystal growth, where more atoms link up with the crystal structure. This means the (crystal) particles get bigger; this leads to a crystal state. Loose particles form layers at the crystal's surface and lodge themselves into open pores, cracks, etc.

Artificial crystallization is a technique to get solid crystals from a homogeneous solution. For crystallization to occur the solution should be supersaturated. Put simply, the solution should contain more solute molecules than it would under ordinary conditions. This can be achieved by various methods—solvent evaporation, cooling, and chemical reaction.

To make things clear we can use a simple example. We take a bowl of water to which we add sugar crystals. We keep adding sugar to it until we reach a stage when no more crystals can be dissolved. This solution is now a saturated one. It is interesting to note that we can dissolve more crystals to this particular saturated solution by heating it. Solubility of solutes increases with increase in temperature, but there are exceptional cases. This increase in temperature causes more sugar crystals to dissolve (so forming a supersaturated solution). When the temperature of the solution cools down, the solubility goes down, i.e. not as much sugar can be dissolved, so the extra sugar crystallizes out. This process is one of the simplest  supersaturation techniques.

'Drowning' is the addition of a non-solvent in the solution that decreases the solubility of the solid. Alternatively, chemical reactions can also be used to decrease the solubility of the solid in the solvent, thus working towards supersaturation.

Crystallization can be divided into stages  primary nucleation is the first. It is the growth of a new crystal. In turn this causes secondary nucleation – the final stage if removal of the crystals is not an issue. Secondary nucleation needs existing crystals to continue crystal growth. In our sugar example, we had got such nuclei when the 'excess' sugar had just about crystallized out. Secondary nucleation is the main stage in crystallization for this is what causes the 'mass production' of crystals. Crystals start to form when the liquid starts to cool and harden.

Chemical processes
Physical chemistry

Crystallization


Siegmund Nissel (January 3, 1922 – May 21, 2008) was aBritish violinist who played second violin in the famous Amadeus Quartet.

Siegmund (Sigi) Nissel was born in Munich to a Jewish family from Vienna. He began playing the violin at the age of 6. His mother died when he was 9. He was taken by his father to Vienna, where his teachers included Max Weissgärber. Soon the political situation became dangerous for Jews in Austria and so, in 1938, the young Nissel was sent from Vienna to Great Britain.

When World War II started Nissel was interned on the Isle of Man.  There he met the violinist Peter Schidlof and later  Norbert Brainin.  They played a lot of music together.  Then they were set free because they were talented musicians.  They studied with the famous violin teacher Max Rostal.  There they met the British cellist, Martin Lovett whose wife was a pupil of Rostal.  The four men played string quartets together, with Peter Schidlof now playing viola.  At first they called themselves the Brainin Quartet, but then Nissel had the idea of the name Amadeus Quartet (Amadeus being one of Mozart's names).

The Amadeus Quartet (which their friends often called the Wolf Gang), gave its first concert in the Wigmore Hall, London in 1948. The hall was full and hundreds of people were turned away.  After this concert they were invited to perform all over the world.  They became the most famous string quartet group of their time.  They made about 200 recordings.  They were especially known for playing quartets by the great classical composers Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert and Brahms, but they also played works by 20th-century composers such as Bartók and Benjamin Britten (who wrote his third quartet for them).

Nissel was the one who organized all the business side for the group.

When Schidlof died from a heart attack in 1987, the Amadeus Quartet no longer existed. Nissel became a well-known teacher of young quartets at the Royal Academy of Music.

Although he had an operation for a brain tumour in 1960 and also a heart bypass he lived to the age of 86.  He was a family man who had a wife, son, daughter and three grandchildren.  He had many honours including an OBE (1970), and honorary doctorates from York University and the Royal Academy of Music

Further reading
Muriel Nissel, Married to the Amadeus: Life with a String Quartet, [], Giles de la Mare Publishers Limited, 1998 (a memoir of her "marriage" to the Amadeus by Nissel's wife)

References
Siegmund Nissel - Obituary: The Independent, 26 May 2008

1922 births
2008 deaths
Academics of the Royal Academy of Music
British violinists
German Jews
Jewish British musicians
Musicians from Munich
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Refugees from Nazism

Siegmund Nissel


Eleanor of Castile (1241 – 28 November 1290) was the queen of Edward I of England.  She was also Countess of Ponthieu from 1279 until her death in 1290.

Edward and Eleanor married at the monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos on 1 November 1254.  Several of her relatives came to England soon after her marriage. Edward's father Henry III of England spent much money on her relatives.  This made the people not like her, even though she could not stop it.

In the 1260s, the Second Barons' War started between Henry III and his barons.  This divided the kingdom.  Eleanor supported her husband Edward.  Edward was captured at Lewes and imprisoned. Eleanor was honourably kept at Westminster Palace.

In 1270 Edward and Eleanor left to join his uncle Louis IX of France on the Eighth Crusade. Louis died at Carthage.  They spent the winter in Sicily.  Then the couple went on to Acre in Palestine.

They left Palestine in September 1272. In Sicily that December they learned of Henry III's death.  Edward and Eleanor returned to England and were crowned together on 19 August 1274.

The many children of Queen Eleanor and King Edward I

A stillborn daughter (unnamed) in May 1255 in Bordeaux, France.
Katherine, (before  17 June 1264 – 5 September 1264) and buried at Westminster Abbey. Lived for less than a year.
Joan: a daughter born January 1265, buried at Westminster Abbey before 7 September 1265. Lived for less than a year.
John, (13 July 1266 – 3 August 1271) born at Wallingford, died in the custody of his granduncle, Richard, Earl of Cornwall and buried at Westminster Abbey. Lived for 5 years.
Henry of England, born before 6 May 1268 and died on the 16th of October 1274. Lived for 6 years.
Eleanor, (18 June 1269 – 29 August 1298). Buried on the 12th of October, 1298. She was betrothed to Alfonso III of Aragon, who died in 1291 before the marriage could take place, and in 1293 she married Count Henry III of Bar, by whom she had one son and two daughters. Lived for 29 years.
Daughter, (28 May 1271 Palestine – 5 September 1271). Some sources call her Juliana, but there is no evidence for her name. Lived for less than 1 years.
Joan of Acre (April 1272 –  7 April 1307). She married (1) in 1290 Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford, who died in 1295, and (2) in 1297 Ralph de Monthermer, 1st Baron Monthermer. She had four children by each marriage. Lived for 35 years.
Alphonso, Earl of Chester, born 24 November 1273, died 19 August 1284, buried in Westminster Abbey. He is sometimes given the title "Earl of Chester" by modern popular writers, but there is no evidence that that title, or any other, was ever his. Lived for 11 years.
Margaret Plantagenet, (15 March 1275 – after 1333). In 1290 she married John II of Brabant, who died in 1318.  They had one son. Lived for 58 years.
Berengaria, (1 May 1276 – before 27 June 1278), buried in Westminster Abbey. Lived for 2 years
Daughter, died shortly after birth at Westminster,  on or about 3 January 1278.  There is no evidence for her name. Lived for less than a year
Mary of Woodstock, (11 March 1279 – 29 May 1332), a Benedictine nun in Amesbury, Wiltshire (England), where she was probably buried. Lived for 53 years.
A son, born in 1280 or 1281 who died very shortly after birth.  There is no evidence for his name. Lived for less than a year.
Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, (7 August 1282 – 5 May 1316). She married (1) in 1297 John I, Count of Holland, (2) in 1302 Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford & 3rd Earl of Essex. Lived for 34 years.
Edward II of England, also known as Edward of Caernarvon, (25 April 1284 – 21 September 1327). In 1308 he married Isabella of France. Lived for 43 years.

Eleanor of Castile was born to the Castilian King, Ferdinand III and his wife, Queen Joan of Ponthieu in the early 1240s. When her father died, her step brother, Alfonso X, ascended to the throne where he and King Henry III arranged her marriage. In Spain, at age 10-12 she was married to King Henry's son, Edward, who was only 15 at the time in 1254. She went with her husband, Lord Edward of England, who was leading an important crusade in 1270. As a gift to celebrate their wedding, her step brother gave Edward the region of Gascony. Edward also gained the lands of Montreuil and Ponthieu through Eleanor. When Eleanor first moved to England, King Henry III "Ordered that her apartments be furnished "in Castilian fashion" to make her feel more comfortable."   In 1264 she was moved to France for her safety when war broke out and did not return until about a year later. In 1270 she went on the 8th crusade with Edward to the Holy Land and returned in August 19, 1274 to be crowned. Since Eleanor was foreign, many of her subjects did not like her. On November 28, 1290, Eleanor died of a fever, leaving Edward to write, "I loved her dearly during her lifetime . . . . I shall not cease to love her now that she is dead."

References

http://www.sigurd.meldal.org/genealogy/getperson.php?personID=I04286&tree=sigurdmeldal
http://ancienthistory.abc-clio.com
http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/bic1/home
Edward II of England
http://www.worldbookonline.com

People buried in Westminster Abbey
Kings and Queens consort of England
1241 births
1290 deaths

Eleanor of Castile


Husvik is a former whaling station on the north-central coast of South Georgia Island. It was one of three such stations in Stromness Bay, the other two being Stromness and Leith Harbour. Husvik initially began as a floating, offshore factory site in 1907. In 1910, a land station was constructed and remained operational until 1930; business resumed again between 1945 and 1960.  Husvik Harbour was also the site of the third introduction of reindeer to South Georgia in 1925.

The three whaling stations, Husvik, Stromness, and Leith, were linked by a rough track along the beach. During the whaling era, whalers from Stromness and Husvik would use it to get to Leith Harbour to use the cinema. The track can still be used, but in some places is rendered impassable by aggressively territorial fur seals during their breeding season (November and December).

The freezer plant was dismantled and moved to Grytviken in 1960, and whaling operations at Husvik permanently ceased. Afterwards, scientists from the British Antarctic Survey used the whaling managers' villa as a temporary shelter when doing work in the area until the mid-1990s. More recent inhabitants include the BSES expedition of December 2003, who used it as a base camp for a number of scientific and exploratory projects.

As with Leith, Stromness, and Prince Olav Harbour, the whaling station has been declared by the South Georgia Government as being too dangerous to visit, due to the danger from collapsing buildings and asbestos. Visitors must stay  from the buildings and structures. Access to the Managers' Villa was prohibited in 2011 when the boundary of the 200m Prohibited Area was formalised in legislation.

The jetty is within the  'danger area' so is not usable, and is in a very dilapidated state. A colony of blue-eyed shags nests on its end each year.

In the southern summer of 2005/6, the South Georgia Heritage Trust hired a team of Norwegian craftsmen to restore some of the buildings at Husvik. In March 2006, the Manager's Villa, a building known as the "Radio Shack", and a small generator shed were successfully repaired and restored. Admiralty Peak is close to the station.

South of Husvik is a whaler's cemetery where 34 men were buried between 1924 and 1959.

See also
 Alert Channel
 Alert Cove
 Brain Island – an island at the north side of Husvik Harbor.

External links
South Georgia Heritage Trust; Photos at Husvik

Whaling stations of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

Husvik


Elba () is third largest island of Italy, after Sardinia and Sicily. The land area of the island is about . The coastline is about 147 km. The highest mountain is Monte Capanne at 1018 metres (3340 feet). Elba and the other islands (Gorgona, Capraia, Pianosa, Montecristo, Giglio and Giannutri) of the Tuscan Archipelago are protected in the National Park of the Tuscan Archipelago. The French island of Corsica lies about 50 km to the west. Recently, the island has become famous for its wine.

The island is divided into eight communes: Portoferraio, Campo nell'Elba, Capoliveri, Marciana, Marciana Marina, Porto Azzurro, Rio Marina and Rio nell'Elba. The island has a population of about 30 000 people.

History
The island was well known in to the last century for the iron resources. Mines were created by the Etruscans first and (after 480 BC) the Romans. After the end of the Roman Empire, the island knew barbarians and Saracens. In the early 11th century it became a part of the Republic of Pisa. In 1398, was sold to the Visconti family of Milan. After a few years, the island was acquired by the Appiani, Lords of Piombino, who kept it for two centuries. In 1546 part of the island was controlled by Cosimo I de' Medici. He fortified Portoferraio and renamed it "Cosmopoli". In 1577, the rest of the island was returned to the Appiani. In 1603 Philip II of Spain captured Porto Azzurro and built two fortresses there.

In 1802 the island became a part of France. Following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, French emperor Napoleon I was exiled to Elba after his forced abdication in 1814 and arrived at Portoferraio on May 3, 1814 to begin his exile there. He was allowed to keep a personal guard of six hundred men. Napoleon stayed on Elba for 300 days before he escaped and returned to France on February 26 for the Hundred Days. Thanks to Napoleon Elba is well known around the world. In the Congress of Vienna the island was given to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. In 1860 it became part of the new unified Kingdom of Italy.

French troops landed on Elba on June 17 1944, freeing the island from the Germans in World War II.

Airport
There is an airport on the island, the "Airport Marina di Campo", that can connect the island with the big cities of: Friedrichshafen, Munich and Zürich.

Other websites
 Elba Geology  a site about Elba's Geology.
 War story about the WWII battle
 Elba Island All information for your holiday on Elba Island

Islands of Italy
Wine regions
Province of Livorno

Elba


A machine gun is a weapon that can fire one bullet after another as long as the trigger is pulled and there are bullets ready to fire. This is called automatic fire. A more general name for this type of weapon is an automatic weapon. Machine guns fire bullets delivered from a long chain of cartridges called an ammunition ('ammo') belt, or use spring-loaded boxes called magazines. Machine guns are usually divided into heavy-duty machine guns, light machine guns, and sub-machine guns.

Heavy machine guns (HMG) are placed on the ground, supported on a tripod, or on a vehicle. The vehicle would have a support for the gun with a rotating base or turret. Heavy machine guns often need two men to operate it, one to assist with loading ammunition, and one to aim and fire. It always takes two or more men to carry one. Famous examples include the M2 Browning machine gun, the MG42, the M1919 Browning, the M134 minigun, the Type 92 heavy machine gun, and the Maxim gun.

Light machine guns (LMG) are usually carried and fired by one man. Despite the name, an LMG is almost always rested on a bipod or a tripod while firing since the gun is normally too heavy to fire while standing, although some LMGs such as the Bren LMG and the BAR are light enough to be fired without a bipod or tripod when a sling is worn around the user. Famous examples include the Bren, the BAR, the SAW M249, the M240, the RPD, the RPK, the PK, and the M-60.

Submachine guns (SMG) are lighter weapons which fire less powerful bullets (usually pistol bullets). They are much easier to conceal and carry than the heavier versions. Submachine guns have handles (stocks), and are carried by individual soldiers or police officers. Famous examples include the Uzi, the Heckler & Koch MP5, the Thompson (a.k.a. Tommy gun), the MAC-10, the PPSh, and the MP-40.

Assault rifles have automatic capabilities but they are not called machine guns. They are used mainly in semi-automatic fire, and also normally fire lighter bullets than machine guns.

Many heavy machine guns, such as the Browning M2 .50 caliber machine gun, are exact enough to hit distant targets. During the Vietnam War, Carlos Hathcock shot at 7382 ft (2250 m) using a .50 caliber heavy machine gun with a telescopic sight.

References

Other websites
 Machine gun -Citizendium

Machine gun


Valery Abisalovich Gergiev (; born Moscow, 2 May 1953) is a Russian conductor and opera company director of Ossetian birth. He is general director and artistic director of the Mariinsky Theatre since 1988, and was principal conductor of the London Symphony Orchestra and principal guest conductor of the Metropolitan Opera, New York until 2022. Valery Gergiev is the artistic director of the White Nights Festival in Saint Petersburg.

Life

Early years

Gergiev was born in Moscow but was brought up in North Ossetia in the Caucasus. He was not a child prodigy, but he began to play the piano at secondary school, before going on to study at the St. Petersburg Conservatory in Leningrad from 1972 to 1977. His main conducting teacher was Ilya Musin who was one of the greatest conductors and teachers of conducting in Russian musical history.

Career

In 1978, he became assistant conductor at the Kirov Opera, now the Mariinsky Opera. His first conducting appearance was with Sergei Prokofiev's War and Peace. He was chief conductor of the Armenian Philharmonic Orchestra from 1981 until 1985 - the year he made his first appearance in the United Kingdom, together with pianist Evgeny Kissin, and violinists Maxim Vengerov and Vadim Repin, at The Lichfield Festival.

In 1991 Gergiev conducted the Bavarian State Opera in a performance of Modest Mussorgsky's Boris Godunov in Munich. In the same year he made his American début, performing War and Peace with the San Francisco Opera. Since then he has conducted operas and concerts all over the world. Gergiev performs at many music festivals, including the White Nights festival in Saint Petersburg.

He became the chief conductor and artistic director of the Mariinsky in 1988, and overall director of the company, appointed by the Russian government, in 1996.

From 1995 to 2008 he was conductor of the Rotterdam Philharmonic Orchestra. In 1997, Gergiev became principal guest conductor of the Metropolitan Opera in New York City.

In 2003, he conducted at the Mariinsky Theatre the first complete cycle of Wagner's The Ring of the Nibelung to be performed in Russia for over 90 years. He also conducted this production in Cardiff in 2006 at the Wales Millennium Centre, and in Costa Mesa, California in October 2006 at the Orange County Performing Arts Center. This production was presented at the Lincoln Center in New York City in July 2007 where it was an enormous success.

In 2005 he became conductor of the London Symphony Orchestra.

Gergiev is well known for conducting without a baton, but a toothpick.

Political activities

Gergiev has worked hard in England to bring music to a wide audience including children. He has often supported peace in the Caucasus during times of conflict between Georgia and South Ossetia. After the 2004 Beslan school massacre, Gergiev made an appeal on television for calm and against any revenge. He conducted concerts in tribute to the victims of the massacre.

In August 2008 Gergiev conducted the Orchestra of the Mariinsky Theatre in a concert given in the ruined headquarters of the South Ossetia separatist government. There had been a short war between Georgia and Russia because South Ossetia, which had been part of Georgia, wanted to be independent. The Georgian government tried to force them not to break away, but the Russian government did not want Georgia to do this. The concert, which was broadcast live on Russian television, was in support of the Russian action. Some people in the West did not agree that Gergiev should have supported Russia in this way.

Family life

In 1999, Gergiev married the musician Natalya Debisova and they have three children.

1953 births
Living people
Russian conductors

Valery Gergiev


Robert Davidson (1778- 6 April 1855) was a Scottish poet and labourer, whose writings give a rare glimpse into the life of the rural labouring poor at the beginning of the 19th century.

He was born at Lempitlaw in the historic County of Roxburgh (the modern Scottish Borders), later moving to the village of Morebattle. Despite the harsh existence of agricultural labour and having to support a family, Davidson managed to publish three collections of poems during his lifetime. His third collection, Leaves from a Peasant's Cottage Drawer, was published in Edinburgh in 1848 by James Hogg, the son of the 'Ettrick Shepherd' author.

In June 2008 a memorial plaque was unveiled in Morebattle churchyard where Davidson is buried, and Leaves from a Peasant's Cottage Drawer was republished, 160 years after its first edition.

References

External links
Robert Davidson Committee website
The Morebattle Poet

1778 births
1855 deaths
Writers from the Scottish Borders
Scottish poets

Robert Davidson (poet)


物理中,Faddeev-Popov 鬼 ()係量子化規範場論時因自洽需要而附加嘅場。

概覽
Faddeev-Popov ghosts嘅需要,源自響用路徑積分定義(:en:path integral formulation)量子場論時,啲路徑積分唔應重覆咁數有規範變換(:en:gauge symmetry) lung 住嘅場型(? :en:field configuation),因為渠地對應住同一物理態。所以路徑積分嘅測度加咗一個因子,令到我哋唔可以用以前嘅做法(好似用費曼圖)來直接由作用去攞一啲結果。但通常嘅做法亦有可能,喺改過條作用之後,行得通。 所以我地成日要加多幾個場先,呢啲場就叫"鬼場"喇. 呢個過程就叫Faddeev-Popov 方法 (睇埋BRST 量子化)。啲鬼場係種計算工具,唔代表真正外界既粒子:佢地"只係"可以喺費曼圖中出現,作為虛粒子(virtual particles).

The exact form or formulation of ghosts is dependent on the particular gauge chosen.  The Feynman-'t Hooft gauge is usually the simplest gauge, and is assumed for the rest of this article.

Faddeev-Popov 鬼違反自旋-統計定理。例如,楊振寧-米爾斯理論中,(such as quantum chromodynamics) the ghosts are complex scalar fields (spin 0), but they anticommute (like fermions). In general, anticommuting ghosts are associated with bosonic symmetries, while commuting ghosts are associated with fermionic symmetries.  Every gauge field has an associated ghost, and where the gauge field acquires a mass via the Higgs mechanism, the associated ghost field acquires the same mass (in the Feynman-'t Hooft gauge only, not true for other gauges).

In Feynman diagrams the ghosts appear as closed loops, attached to the rest of the diagram via a gauge particle at each vertex.  Their contribution to the S-matrix is exactly cancelled by a contribution from a similar loop of gauge particles with only 3-vertex couplings or gauge attachments to the rest of the diagram.  (The loop of gauge particles makes other contributions that survive the ghost cancellation.)  The opposite sign of the contribution of the ghost and gauge loops is due to them having opposite fermionic/bosonic natures.  (Closed fermion loops have an extra -1 associated with them; bosonic loops don't.)

The Lagrangian for the ghost fields  in Yang-Mills theories (where  is an index in the adjoint representation of the gauge group) is given by

The first term is a kinetic term like for regular complex scalar fields, and the second term describes the interaction with the gauge fields. Note that in abelian gauge theories (such as quantum electrodynamics) the ghosts do not have any effect since  and, consequently, the ghost particles do not interact with the gauge fields.

有時 Faddeev-Popov 鬼叫做「好鬼」("good ghosts")。 The "bad ghosts" represent another, more general meaning of the word "ghost" in theoretical physics: states of negative norm - or fields with the wrong sign of the kinetic term, such as Pauli-Villars ghosts - whose existence allows the probabilities to be negative.

量子場論
規範場論
量子色動力學

Faddeev-Popov 鬼


Joseph Ward Simmons (born November 14, 1964), better known by the stage name Run,  Rev. Run or DJ Run, is an American rapper, producer, DJ and television personality. Simmons is one of the founding members of the influential hip hop group Run-DMC. He is also a practicing minister, known as Reverend Run.

He found new popularity in 2005 with his family's MTV reality show Run's House.

Early life
Simmons was born November 14, 1964, in Hollis, Queens, New York. He is the younger brother of artist Danny Simmons and Russell Simmons, the co-founder of Def Jam records.

Career
Before Run–D.M.C., Simmons was the lead vocalist in the hip-hop group named "The Force". He founded Run-D.M.C. as a lead vocalist along with friend Darryl "D.M.C." McDaniels and the late DJ Jason "Jam-Master Jay" Mizell.

Run began using the stage name of "Rev. Run" after he was ordained as a Pentecostal minister by E. Bernard Jordan, Simmons's spiritual mentor. Jordan also named him "Protege of the Year Award" in 2004.  The same day, symbolic of his "Prosperity Ministry", there was a "Rolls-Royce parade outside the Plaza Hotel in New York City, "featuring Jordan's Phantom Rolls-Royce.  The new $325,000 Phantom had been a gift from Reverend Run as a "thank you" for Jordan's mentoring support.

His first work as Rev. Run was a feature in the single "Song 4 Lovers" by UK pop band Liberty X in September 2005. The music video for that song was directed by Bill Schacht for Aestheticom and reached broadcast airplay chart positions of No. 2 Box UK and No. 4 MTV UK with heavy rotation on 5 other music channels in the UK. "Song 4 Lovers" also reached No. 5 on the Official Charts Company's UK Top 40 Singles Chart, becoming the band's seventh top ten hit.

It was followed by his first solo album, Distortion. The first single from the album, "Mind on the Road", is featured in the EA Sports's Madden NFL 06 video game. "Mind on the Road" uses samples from the song "I Love Rock 'n' Roll", in the tradition of Run–D.M.C.'s 1980s hits which use samples like Aerosmith's hit "Walk This Way".

In 2002, he appeared on a special "Rap Stars" edition of The Weakest Link, and was the third one voted off.

Rev Run appeared on the MTV series Run's House, a reality show revolving around his everyday life with his family, from 2005 to 2009.

In 2007, he appeared with his son Diggy Simmons on My Super Sweet 16 while attending a 16th birthday party for Diddy's son, Quincy. Diddy is also the producer of Run's House.

In 2008, Simmons and his wife Justine teamed up with Kool-Aid and a non-profit organization called KaBOOM! to help build playgrounds in underserved communities. With Kool-Aid, they are helping to build twenty four playgrounds over the course of 2008 and hope to raise awareness for the need for safe play spaces.

On August 5, 2008, Gotham Press published Simmons' book, Take Back Your Family: A Challenge to America's Parents, co-authored by his wife, Justine Simmons, and Chris Morrow.

On September 8, 2007, Rev Run was honored as a BMI Icon at the annual BMI Urban Awards.

The weekend of September 17 and 18 of 2011, Rev Run made a special guest appearance at Bay Area Fellowship with Pastor Bil Cornelius in Corpus Christi, Texas Bay Area Fellowship Church.

In October 2011, Rev Run was a special guest of Fellowship Church based out of Grapevine, Texas.

Simmons has also created three other cable series, two premiered in 2014; Rev Run's Renovation which runs on both the DIY Network and HGTV, and Rev Run's Sunday Suppers for Cooking Channel, the other Rev Runs Around the World premiered on the Travel Channel in 2016.

Personal life
Simmons married Valerie Vaughn in 1983. They have three children: Vanessa Simmons, Angela Simmons, and Joseph "JoJo" Ward Simmons, Jr.

He married Justine Jones on June 25, 1994. With her, he had three more children: Daniel "Diggy" Simmons III, Russell "Russy" Simmons II, and Victoria Anne Simmons.  Victoria was four pounds, five ounces when she was delivered via caesarean section. She died shortly after being born on September 26, 2006, due to omphalocele, a birth defect that caused her organs to grow outside her body. The Simmons' allowed MTV camera crews of Run's House to document baby Victoria's death, telling People that "God, in my mind, gave us something to go through in front of America, so we documented it on-camera – not so much to show you sadness, but to show you how we, as ministers, would handle this tragedy. [The kids] found out on-camera. Diggy was waiting to see, 'How's Mommy?' And the first words we said were, 'The baby didn't make it.'" Soon they adopted a baby girl, Miley Justine Simmons.

The Simmons family lives in Saddle River, New Jersey in a six-bedroom colonial-style home that was listed for sale in 2007 for $5.5 million.

In 2017, Simmons said he was adopting vegetarianism because God advised him to.

Discography

Solo

With Run-D.M.C.

References

External links

 Official Run's House Website
 Story of the Death of Run's Daughter

1964 births
Living people
African-American Christian clergy
American Christian clergy
African-American male rappers
American male rappers
African-American record producers
American hip hop record producers
American motivational writers
American Pentecostal pastors
American spiritual writers
American hip hop DJs
Participants in American reality television series
People from Hollis, Queens
People from Saddle River, New Jersey
Rappers from New York City
Run-DMC members
20th-century American rappers
21st-century American rappers
Record producers from New York (state)
Christians from New York (state)

Joseph Simmons


Public-key cryptography, also called asymmetric cryptography, is a  communication where people send messages that can only be read by those who have the key.

In public key cryptography, each user has a pair of cryptographic keys:
 a public key
 a private key
The private key is kept secret, while the public key may be widely distributed and used by other users.

Incoming messages are encrypted with the recipient's public key and can only be decrypted with their corresponding private key. The keys are related mathematically, but the user's private key cannot be easily got from the widely used public key.  The most usual problem with this method arises when private key is accidentally leaked.

The two main branches of public key cryptography are:
 Public key encryption: a message encrypted with a recipient's public key cannot be decrypted except by the recipient private key. This is used to ensure secrecy.
 Digital signatures: a message signed with a sender's private key can be verified by anyone who has the sender's public key. So if the sender signed the message no one can alter it. This is used to get authenticity.

They are often used together on the same message.

Related pages
 Symmetric-key algorithm
 RSA algorithm

Cryptography

Public-key cryptography


Alan Alejandro Maldonado Tamez (born September 24, 1984) better known by his stage name Dharius (previously MC Dharius) and also as DHA and El Tirano, is an MC and ex Mexican-member of the group of rap Cartel de Santa.

Musical career
It was not more than a year since the creation of "La Real Academia de La Rima" for Dharius to be invited (like Babo) to be part of "La Artillería Pesada", a group founded by Fermín IV, leader singer of Control Machete, the maximum rap exponent at that time. Dharius and Babo join Artilleria Pesada and record an album in which great international rappers like El Meswy (One of the best rappers in Spain) took part but in spite of all the production, the record never came out light due to reasons still unknown. In 2002, Dharius is invited by Babo as a supporter in the tour of the first album of Cartel de Santa. Dharius accepts and begins to travel throughout Mexico with this group. In 2003, Cartel de Santa is invited to participate with a song in the tribute to the great Mexican singer-songwriter José Alfredo Jiménez titled "XXX", the group accepts and Babo invites Dharius to collaborate with them in the reissue of the song "Ella". This would be the second recording of Dharius with Cartel de Santa (He had already collaborated with them in the song Super MC's, included in the first self-titled album of the group) and would also be the song with which, a few months later, the group would win his first gold record for its high sales.

Albums

Cartel de Santa

 Cartel de Santa (2002)
 Vol.II (2004)
 Volumen Prohibido (2006)
 Vol.IV (2008)
 Sincopa (2010)
 Me Atizo Macizo tour 2012 en vivo desde el D.F.

Solo

 Directo Hasta Arriba (2014)
 Mala Fama, Buena Vidha (2018)

References

Mexican rappers
1984 births

Dharius


Micropaleontology (also sometimes spelled as micropalaeontology) is the branch of paleontology that studies microfossils. Microfossils are fossils generally not larger than four millimeters, and commonly smaller than one millimeter. A microscope is used to study them. Every kingdom of organisms is represented in the microfossil record. Microfossils can provide important information about the ecology in the past.

People who study micropaleontology are called micropaleontologists. Taxonomy and statistics are important parts of micropaleontology.

Microfossils are most common in sediment that forms beneath water, particularly ocean water or lake water. Very old microfossils may be found in rock. Special techniques are used to separate microfossils from rock. For example, the shells of diatoms and some other organisms are made of silica; other materials in the rock can sometimes be removed with acid, leaving just the silica shells.

Micropaleontology can be divided into four areas of study. The different areas of study  use different techniques to separate the microfossils. This is because the microfossils are made of different minerals:
 Silicon dioxide, for example in the shells of diatoms,
 Chalk, for example in the shells of coccoliths and foraminifera,
 Phosphate, for example in bones of vertebrates,
 Organic compounds, for example in pollen and spores.

The area of study for pollen and spores, including fossils, is called palynology.

Fossils
Subfields of paleontology

Micropaleontology


Pieve Ligure is an Italian town in the region of Liguria in the province of Genoa in Italy. The population in Pieve Ligure is 2,458.

Pieve has a sea and hill environment. There are no beaches on the coast, but only rocks which people swim and free divew forom. The wildlife there is very varied from young catfish to octopus. The highest place of the town is S. Croce (516 m). The economy is based on agriculture and tourism.

Towns in Italy
Settlements in Genoa

Pieve Ligure


The A156 is an  long road that runs from the A57 near Saxilby and heads north to Gainsborough. The road runs entirely within Lincolnshire right next to the border with Nottinghamshire. It is a single carriageway for its entire length apart from one small stretch at Torksey Lock where the A1133 joins from Newark-on-Trent.

Route
The road starts just west of Saxilby where it branches off from the A57 from Lincoln. It heads northwest through the village of Fenton. The A1133 from Newark-on-Trent merges with the road slightly further on where it makes a sharp turn and heads north alongside the River Trent and the border with Nottinghamshire. Further on at Marton the A1500 joins from the east. The A156 continues on to Lea where the B1241 joins from Saxilby then the road heads into Gainsborough where it terminates just south of the centre at the A631. The A159 continues north from here through the town centre and north to Scunthorpe.

References

Roads in England
Roads in Lincolnshire

A156 road


In fitbaw, a defender is a ootfield player their main role is tae pit the opposition frae attackin.

Thare fower kins o defender: centre-back, souper, fou-back an wing-back. The centre-back an fou-back positions is essential in maist modren furmations. The sweeper an wing-back roles is mair specialised for certain formations.

Association fitbaw poseetions
Association fitbaw terminology

Defender (association fitbaw)


Teleology is a philosophical idea that things have goals or causes. It is the "view that developments are due to the purpose or design which is served by them".

An example would be Aristotle's view of nature, later adopted by the Catholic Church.  The word "teleological" comes from the Ancient Greek telos, which means "end" or "purpose". A simpler example would be a tool such as the clock, which is designed by people to tell the time.

Whether or not an entity (person or god) is needed to cause teleology to happen is one of the most important questions. All cultures we know of have creation stories in their religions. However, much of science operates on the principle that the natural world is self-organising. This applies particularly  to astronomy and biology, which were once explained as the action of a deity, and are now seen as natural and automatically self-organising. Cybernetics is the basic science of self-organising systems.

The general issue of whether the original sense of teleology applies to the natural world is still a matter of controversy between religion and science.

Related pages
Argument from design
Metaphilosophy
Metaphysics

References

Philosophy
Nature

Teleology


Howard John Stredder Pearce, CVO (born 13 April 1949, in Twickenham) is an English diplomat who served as the Governor of the Falkland Islands and Civil Commissioner of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (SGSSI) until July 2006. He assumed both positions on 3 December 2002. Before his appointment, Pearce was High Commissioner to Malta from 1999 to 2002. He joined the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) in 1972.

Pearce attended the City of London School. He married Caroline Thomée, a Dutch architect and photographer in October 2004. He is the first Governor to marry in the Falkland Islands; on the day of the wedding, local schoolchildren were given the day off. A bell was also rung at a church in Grytviken on South Georgia.

At the end of July 2006, Pearce left the Falklands and was succeeded as Falkland Islands Governor and Commissioner for SGSSI by Alan Huckle, previously governor of Anguilla, another British overseas territory in the Caribbean. Upon leaving the Falklands, he semi-retired and moved to Dundee, Scotland.

External links and sources
 SARTMA: Breezy Wedding for Falklands Governor
 South Georgia Newsletter, October 2004
First Governor to wed in the Falkland Islands
FCO: Change of Governor of the Falkland Islands and Commissioner for South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
The World Factbook – Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)

1949 births
Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order
Commissioners for South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Governors of the Falkland Islands
Living people
People educated at the City of London School
High Commissioners of the United Kingdom to Malta

Howard Pearce


Patna is the capital city of the Indian state of Bihar. About 1.7 million people live in Patna (census 2001). It is a very old city and has a history of at least 2,500 years. It was famous for its educational institutes, which during those days, attracted scholars from all over the world. Gautama Buddha who started Buddhism had also visited this city. Despite being a Hindu majority city Patna also has many Muslims and many Masjids. People in Patna speak Hindi, Bhojpuri, Maithli and Urdu. When founded Patna's old name was Pataliputra, and later into Pataliputra which was the capital of Magadha Empire, before changing in to the current Patna.

Capital cities in India
Cities in Bihar

Patna


Johns (styled as johns) is a 1996 American drama film written and directed by Scott Silver and starring David Arquette and Lukas Haas, who portray hustlers who work Santa Monica Boulevard.

Plot
It's Christmas Eve and John (David Arquette) is asleep in a Los Angeles park. He awakens as someone is stealing his shoes, in which he keeps his money. He chases the thief but can't catch him. John is angered not only because those are his "lucky" sneakers but because he's trying to accumulate enough money for an overnight stay in a fancy hotel to celebrate his birthday, which is also Christmas. Each time John puts any money together, via prostitution or stealing from clients, it's taken from him either by robbery or in payback for a drug deal where he burned the dealer.

Meanwhile, Donner (Lukas Haas), a fellow hustler who's new to the streets and has fallen for John, tries to convince John to go with him to Branson, Missouri. Donner has a relative who runs a theme park there who can get them jobs. John is initially resistant to the idea but, after some particularly bad experiences, agrees to go.

John and Donner have enough money for two bus tickets to Branson but John takes one last "date" to earn money for expenses. After their sexual encounter at a motel, however, John's "date" is remorseful for having gone through with the act. He insists to John that he's not gay. John smiles and says he isn't either.  But his "date" believes that John is making a mockery of him and turns violent, beating John to death mercilessly.

Donner goes in search of John and finds him at the motel. Donner drags John's lifeless body from the bathroom to the bed and tearfully confesses that he's the one who stole John's sneakers and money in a desperate attempt to persuade John to leave town with him.

Cast
 David Arquette as John
 Lukas Haas as Donner
 Wilson Cruz as Mikey
 Keith David as Homeless John
 Christopher Gartin as Eli
 Elliott Gould as Manny Gold
 Terrence Dashon Howard as Jimmy, The Warlock
 Nicky Katt as "Mix"
 Richard Kind as Paul Truman
 John C. McGinley as Danny Cohen
 Richard Timothy Jones as Mr. Popper
 Alanna Ubach as Nikki
 Arliss Howard as John Cardoza
 Nina Siemaszko as Tiffany, The Prostitute
 Craig Bierko as Christmas Radio Preacher

Awards and nominations
 San Sebastián International Film Festival Best New Director - Scott Silver (1996)

DVD release
Johns was released on Region 1 DVD on February 29, 2000.

References

External links

1996 films
1996 LGBT-related films
1996 drama films
American LGBT-related films
Films about male prostitution in the United States
Films produced by Beau Flynn
1996 directorial debut films
1997 drama films
1997 films
Films with screenplays by Scott Silver
1990s English-language films
1990s American films
Crimes against sex workers in fiction

Johns (film)


Vernon Ethelbert Grant (February 14, 1935 – July 23, 2006) was a cartoonist who did graphic novels, and is also known for his digest-sized comic book series, The Love Rangers. Usually referred to as Vern Grant, he is often credited as the person who first introduced the visual approach and concepts of Japanese manga into English-language cartooning.

Biography
As a child, Grant began earning money by drawing cartoons for birthday cards. After graduating from Rindge Technical High School in Cambridge, Massachusetts, he studied for one year in Boston at the Vesper George School of Art and then joined the Army in 1958 at the age of 23. While serving in the Army over a decade, he was an infantry officer, eventually being discharged with Captain's rank after two Vietnam tours.

Training in Europe as a supply sergeant, he studied Japanese and French. He received airborne assault and parachute training at Officer Candidate School in Fort Benning, Georgia. In June 1966, he was awarded the Army Commendation Medal for meritorious service in Japan as a deputy information officer and command information officer. In Vietnam, on February 4, 1967, he took command in Saigon of the First Signal Brigade's 400-man security force, providing security for 23 Vietnam communication sites, a duty requiring frequent helicopter flights.

In Tokyo, where Grant was a regular cartoonist for Stars and Stripes, he developed a strong fascination with Japanese comics. He also wrote and drew for Japan's English-language newspapers, including the Mainichi Daily News. His interest in comics was revived in the late 1960s, as he recalled:

In 1972, Grant met Betsy Reese, who was also a student at Sophia University. The following year, the couple moved to Cambridge, and they married April 28, 1978. A great-granddaughter of the pioneer Wisconsin landscape photographer H. H. Bennett, Betsy Reese Grant is the author of The Bennett Story: The Life and Work of Henry Hamilton Bennett, published by the H.H. Bennett Studio Foundation, Inc. in 1991.

Graphic novels and The Love Rangers

During the years he lived in Japan, Grant wrote and drew several graphic novels, including the two-volume military satire, Point-Man Palmer and A Monster is Loose in Tokyo (Tuttle, 1972) about the life of a foreigner in Japan.

When he returned to Cambridge, he drew his line of 15 Computer Cartoons postcards, sold in the gift shop of Boston's Computer Museum. He also created The Love Rangers, his science-fiction comic book series about a racially mixed space crew traveling the universe. Between 1977 and 1988, Grant published seven issues of The Love Rangers in a 36-page, 5½"x8½" format. Betsy Grant detailed the premise and plotline of The Love Rangers:

The series follows the lives and adventures of a number of officers, robots and members of a squad of genetically engineered Love Rangers that live on the spaceship called "Home". It is an immense structure, housing 35,000 individuals on its seven levels. While some of the action in the stories takes place on board, many of the episodes in his comic books take place on planets they visit ... The crew is racially mixed, and the ship is commanded by a male and female Shipmaster who shares equally in all responsibilities. One of the dominant characters is Princess Tomi, who single-handedly leads her Mice People in their battle against the Owls for survival. There are robots and devices in the ship that Vernon created, a few of which were not developed for the U.S. military until some ten to 15 years later after Vernon had already incorporated them into this series. According to Vernon, "Their mission and that of their great spaceship is to effect peaceful changes in critical situations through the use of Love." The fuel that powers the ship is feelings of discord and hate that emanate from different parts of the universe.  At times the Love Rangers have to use weapons to control the warring inhabitants of the different planets they visit, but they attempt to first use their "love gas" to change the path of history. In the first book, the love gas helps change the consciousness of Count Ratalus from having a killing drive to flooding his mind with an understanding of history as well as nature's instinctive patterns. When this happens, a "well of human compassion overrides his coded savagery." He stops himself from killing Prince Tug, and they go off to work together peacefully for the betterment of the mice people and toward peaceful co-existence with their enemies, the Owls.

Marathon man
As a marathon runner, Grant was a familiar figure in the annual Boston Marathon. He completed a total of 33 marathons, and his wife ran with him in races for years. Interviewed by Pulp, he recalled, "When we came back to America, we did a lot of running. In fact, we were running something in the neighborhood of over 3,500 miles a year for over 25 years. When I'm out running, a lot of the ideas pop into my head, and when I get a chance to sit down, I put them on paper." It was during one of his daily runs that he suffered a heart attack on July 7, 2006, injuring his head when he fell. He went into a coma and died two weeks later on July 23.

Exhibitions and collections
Grant's work is included in Michigan State University's Comic Art Collection.

In March 2007, Betsy Grant curated a month-long exhibition of his artwork for the Cambridge Public Library's Central Square branch. When she was invited back to stage another show on April 1, 2008 at the Cambridge Library, she made The Love Rangers the central focus of the exhibition. On Cambridge Community Television, Vernon Grant was the subject of Lynette Laveau Saxe's Callalloo Express on April 14, 2008, with Saxe presenting both artwork and an extended interview with Betsy Grant.

Bibliography

 Computer Cartoons postcards (15)
 Stand-by One!, 1969, collection of single-panel Vietnam cartoons in 13,000 print run.  Reissued in 2015 by Little Creek Press.
 A Monster Is Loose in Tokyo! Tokyo, Japan and Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1972.
 Point-Man Palmer and His Girlfriend "Invisible Peppermint", 1969.
 Point-Man Palmer and His Girlfriend "Invisible Peppermint": Vietnam to Tokyo R&R, 1970.
 Mainichi Daily News. 1972.
 The Love Rangers 1, 1977.
 The Love Rangers 2, 1979.
 The Love Rangers 3, 1981.
 The Love Rangers 4, 1982.
 The Love Rangers 5, 1984.
 The Love Rangers 6, 1986.
 The Love Rangers 7, 1988.
 Ranger Readout, newsletter, 1987.
 The Comics Journal #94, "Samurai Superstrips", 1984.

See also
 List of cartoonists
 List of illustrators
 List of science fiction visual artists

References

Sources
 Grant, Vernon. "Samurai Superstrips", pages 91–94. The Comics Journal 94, October 1984. Originally published as three-issues series in Mainichi Daily News, 1972.
 Noreascon Four Artist List: Vernon Grant, August 11, 2004.
 Who's Who of American Comic Books: 1928-1999: Vern Grant

External links

 Lisa Hirschfield: The Love Rangers
 Cantabrigia: "Cartoons and more cartoons"
 Pete Coogan's The Comics Journal Index
 Wisconsin Dells Events: "Vernon Grant" (July 26-29, 2006)
 Kevin Cullen: "Love conquers all, even allegiances to sports teams"

1935 births
2006 deaths
20th-century American journalists
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American novelists
African-American comics creators
African-American novelists
Alternative cartoonists
American cartoonists
American comics artists
American comics creators
American comics writers
American graphic novelists
American male journalists
American male novelists
American satirists
American science fiction writers
Artists from Cambridge, Massachusetts
Cambridge Rindge and Latin School alumni
Culture of Boston
Novelists from Massachusetts
Writers from Cambridge, Massachusetts
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American people

Vernon Grant


A t-test is a statistical hypothesis test. People use it when they want to compare a mean (average) of a measurement from one group A to some theoretical, expected value. People also use it when they want to compare the mean (average) of a measurement of two groups A and B. They want to decide if the mean in group A is different to the theoretical value or to the mean in group B.

Example
For example, pretend there are two groups of people. One group exercises a lot and the other doesn't. Do the people who exercise tend to live longer than those who don't? Then the property of interest is the average life time. Is the average life time of people who exercise different to the average life time of people who don't? A t-test can help answer this question.

When this is used
The t-test is used when the property's variance in the groups is unknown. When people want to do the t-test they have to calculate the variance from the sample (the collection of data). This calculated variance is almost always different to the true variance in the group. The t-test was created to care about this difference.

Statistical tests
Tests

Student's t-test


Sunderland is in North East England. It was a county borough, and is now part of the City of Sunderland in Tyne and Wear. It sits at the mouth of the River Wear.

Sunderland started as three small villages:
 Monkwearmouth was created in 674 when Saint Benedict Biscop started a monastery. Monkwearmouth is on the north side of the river.
 Bishopwearmouth was founded in 930. It is on the south side of the river.
 Sunderland, at the mouth of the river was a small fishing village. It was given a charter in 1179. The charter gave the people of the small town some rights which people outside the town did not have.

Sunderland grew as a port, mostly selling coal and salt. In the 1300s people began to build ships along the river bank. By 1835, the port of Sunderland was so important that its name was used when the three old villages became the a borough. Sunderland became a city in 1992.

A person born in Sunderland is sometimes called a Mackem.

History

Early history
In 674, Benedict Biscop built the Wearmouth (St. Peter's) monastery. He was given the land by King Ecgfrith of Northumbria. Biscop's monastery was the first monastery built of stone in Northumbria. Biscop brought glass makers from France. This was the start of glass making in Britain.

In 686, the community was taken over by Ceolfrid, and Wearmouth monastery and its other site in Jarrow became very important places of learning in Anglo-Saxon England. The library had about 300 books; all of them were hand written and painted.

The Codex Amiatinus, was written and painted at the monastery and was probably worked on by Bede who was born at Wearmouth in 673.
Bede wrote the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (The Ecclesiastical History of the English People) in 731. This is why he is often called The father of English history.
In the late eighth century, the Vikings began to raid the coast, and by the middle of the ninth century, the monastery had been abandoned.

In 930, King Athelstan of England gave the land on the south bank of the river to the Bishop of Durham. This is why the area is still called Bishopwearmouth.

By 1100, the Bishopwearmouth parish included a small fishing village at the mouth of the river (modern day East End) known as 'Soender-land', or Asunder-land which became Sunderland. This settlement was granted a charter in 1179 by Hugh Pudsey, then the Bishop of Durham.

By 1346, ships were being built at Wearmouth. The merchant Thomas Menville started building ships so he could transport the things he wanted to sell.

In 1589, salt making started in Sunderland. Large vats, called ''panns'', of seawater were put on coal fires. When the water boiled, the salt was left behind. This is known as salt panning. Today, the road leading to where the pans were is still called Pann's Bank. It is on the river bank near the city centre. As more coal was needed to heat the salt pans, coal mining started in the area. Only poor quality coal was used in salt panning; the best coal was sold and shipped out of the town. This is why the port began to grow. This put Sunderland in competition for the first time with its coal-trading neighbour Newcastle.

17th and 18th centuries
Before the English Civil War in 1642, King Charles I said Newcastle could be the only town in the east of England which could send coal by ship. This had a big impact on Sunderland, which was selling more and more coal. This created resentment towards Newcastle and towards the idea of having a king. When the civil war began, the mainly Protestant Sunderland sided with Parliament against the mostly Catholic Newcastle. This was good for Sunderland's business, because Parliament blockaded (blocked) the Tyne. This stopped the Newcastle coal trade and allowed the Sunderland coal trade to grow. When an army from Scotland came to fight the King, its base was set up in Sunderland.

The River Wear was not very deep, so the coal had to be loaded onto big boats called keels and taken downriver to the coal ships which were called colliers.

In 1719, Sunderland and Bishopwearmouth were too big for the only parish church, which was in Bishopwearmouth. A new parish of Sunderland was created and Holy Trinity, Sunderland parish church was built. The three original settlements of Wearmouth (Bishopwearmouth, Monkwearmouth and Sunderland) had started to join up. This was because of the success of the port of Sunderland as well as the salt panning and the shipbuilding along the banks of the Wear. Around this time, Sunderland was also known as 'Sunderland-near-the-Sea'.

19th century

Cholera
Local government was divided between the three churches (Holy Trinity, Sunderland, St. Michael's, Bishopwearmouth, and St. Peter's Church, Monkwearmouth). When cholera broke out in 1831, the "select vestrymen", as the church councillors were called, did not know what to do about the epidemic. Many were frightened to say that a disease has started because it might stop their businesses from making money. They printed notices which said there was no disease in the town, and saying that the doctors who said that there was disease did not know what they were talking about.

Sunderland was a big trading port at the time. It was the first British town to be affected by 'Indian cholera' epidemic. The first victim, William Sproat, died on 23 October 1831. Sunderland was put under quarantine, so that people could not leave the town. The port was blockaded, so that ships could not spread the disease to other ports. But in December of that year, cholera was in Gateshead and it spread across the country, killing about 32,000 people.

Jack Crawford was one of the first to die in the epidemic. There are two statues honouring Jack, one in Mowbray Park near the Civic Centre, and the other next to Holy Trinity Church.

Sunderland got its first Member of Parliament after the Reform Act of 1832, and the Borough of Sunderland was created in 1836, although impatient citizens elected Andrew White to be Mayor in December 1835.

Robert Rawlinson was sent to Sunderland in February 1850 by the General Board of Health. His report showed the problems because there was no sewage system or drains.

Bridges

The river at Sunderland is in a narrow valley, and the town grew up on plateaus high above the river. This meant it never had the problem of allowing people to cross the river without stopping high masted vessels. Rowland Burdon MP pushed for the Wearmouth Bridge, which was built in 1796. It was the second iron bridge ever built. Only the famous Iron Bridge itself is older, but Wearmouth bridge was over twice as long and only three-quarters the weight of the Iron Bridge. Wearmouth Bridge was the biggest single span bridge in the world. Farther up the river, another bridge, the Queen Alexandra Bridge, was built in 1910, linking the areas of Pallion and Southwick. It was designed for trains to run across, too, but the railway section was never completed.

Victoria Hall Disaster
The Victoria Hall was a large concert hall on Toward Road facing Mowbray Park. On 16 June 1883, 183 children died. During a variety show, children rushed down the stairs for treats. At the bottom of the staircase, the door only opened inward and was bolted so that only one child at a time could get through. The children pushed down the stairs to the door. Those at the front were trapped, and were crushed by the weight of the crowd behind them.

The Victoria Hall disaster is still the worst of its kind in Britain. A memorial statue, which is a crying mother holding a dead child, is now back in Mowbray Park with a protective canopy. The newspaper reports of the tragedy were so shocking that an inquiry was set up. This committee said that public buildings should have outward opening emergency exits. This led to the invention of 'push bar' emergency doors. This law still remains in full force to this day. The Victoria Hall was used until 1941 when it was destroyed by a German bomb.

20th century to present
As the traditional industries have declined, electronics, chemicals, and paper making have replaced them. Some of these new industries, are in Washington, which has more space to allow purpose built factories. The Nissan car plant and the nearby North East Aircraft Museum are on the site of the old Sunderland Airport.

Since 1990, industries along the banks of the Wear have changed a lot. Housing, shopping parks and business centres have been built where the shipbuilding yards were. The National Glass Centre is also there, next to the University of Sunderland's new "St Peter's Campus". On the south side of the river, the old Vaux Brewery site has been cleared so that new houses, shops and offices can be built close to the city centre.

Sunderland was the one of the most heavily bombed areas in England during World War II. As a result, much of the town centre was rebuilt in a boring concrete style. But some fine old buildings remain. These include Holy Trinity, built in 1719 for an independent Sunderland, St. Michaels's Church, built as Bishopwearmouth Parish Church and now known as Sunderland Minster and St. Peter's Church, Monkwearmouth, part of which dates from 674 AD, and was the original monastery.
St. Andrew's Roker, so-called "Cathedral of the Arts and Crafts Movement", contains work by William Morris, Ernest Gimson and Eric Gill.

Civic history

Sunderland was made a municipal borough of County Durham in 1835. Under the Local Government Act 1888, it was given further status as a county borough with independence from county council control. In 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, the county borough was abolished and its area combined with that of other districts to form the Metropolitan Borough of Sunderland in Tyne and Wear. See City of Sunderland.

Motto
Sunderland has the motto of Nil Desperandum Auspice Deo. This means Never Despair, Trust In God

Geography
Much of the city is on a low range of hills running parallel to the coast. On average, it is around 80 metres above sea level. Sunderland is divided by the River Wear which passes through the middle of the city in a deep valley, part of which is known as the Hylton gorge. The only two road bridges connecting the north and south halves of the City are the Queen Alexandra Bridge at Pallion and the Wearmouth Bridge just to the north of the City centre. A third bridge carries the A19 trunk road over the Wear to the West of the City.

Most of the suburbs of Sunderland are west of the city centre with 70% of its population living on the south side of the river and 30% on the north side. The city extends to the seafront at Hendon and Ryhope (on the south) and Seaburn (on the north).

The area is part of the Anglican Diocese of Durham. It has been in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Hexham and Newcastle since the Catholic bishops returned in 1850.

Alphabetical street naming of suburbs
Some Sunderland suburbs have most streets beginning with the same letter:
 A: Farringdon
 B: Town End Farm
 C: Hylton Castle
 D: Seaburn (some parts)
 E: Carley Hill
 F: Ford Estate
 G: Grindon
 H: Hylton Lane
 K: Downhill
 M: Moorside
 P: Pennywell and Plains Farm
 R: Red House
 S: Springwell
 T: Thorney Close
 W: Witherwack

Climate
Sunderland has cool winters and warm summers. Being on the coast, Sunderland is a little warmer in the winter than the national average, but a little cooler in summer. Average rainfall is below the UK national average due to an east coast location.

As with most UK east-coast towns, Sunderland sometimes gets sea fog known locally as Fret. This is most common in the summer months (April - September). These frets can be very dense, are often very localised, and can appear and disappear in a matter of minutes.

Demographics

Sunderland is the largest city, by population and area, between Leeds and Edinburgh.

The City of Sunderland is the 22nd largest borough in England and the largest in the North East. However, as well as including the Sunderland it also includes a number of surrounding towns and villages, such as Washington, Houghton-le-Spring and Hetton-le-Hole.

Ethnicity
98.1% of the population are white, with 1% Asian and 0.4% mixed-race.

In 2001, the most ethnically mixed ward of the city was the (now abolished) Thornholme area - just to the south of the city centre Thornholme included the suburbs of Ashbrooke and Eden Vale. Here, 89.4% are white, 7.8% are Asian and 1.3% are mixed-race.

The least ethnically diverse wards are in the north of the city. The area of Castletown is made up of 99.3% white, 0.4% Asian and 0.2% mixed-race.

Religion
According to census statistics, 81.5% of Sunderland residents class themselves as Christian, 9.6% have no religion, 0.7% are Muslim and 7.6% did not wish to give their religion.

Only 114 people of Jewish faith live in Sunderland. There was no Jewish community before 1750, but then a number of Jewish businessmen from across the UK and Europe settled in Sunderland. A Rabbi from Holland was working in the city in 1790. The Jewish community has been shrinking since the mid 20th century. Many Sunderland Jews left for bigger Jewish communities in Britain or to Israel. The Jewish primary school, the Menorah School, closed in July 1983. The synagogue on Ryhope Road (opened in 1928) closed at the end of March 2006.

Culture and attractions

Literature and art
Lewis Carroll often visited to the area. He wrote most of "Jabberwocky" at Whitburn as well as "The Walrus and the Carpenter". Some parts of the area are believed to be the inspiration for his Alice in Wonderland stories, such as Hylton Castle and Backhouse Park. There is a statue to Carroll in Whitburn library. Lewis Carroll was also a visitor to the Rectory of Holy Trinity Church, Southwick, beforeSouthwick became a part of Sunderland. Carroll's connection with Sunderland, and the area's history, is documented in Bryan Talbot's 2007 graphic novel Alice in Sunderland.

More recently, Sunderland-born Terry Deary, writer of the series of Horrible Histories books, has become famous, and many others such as thriller writer Sheila Quigley, are following his lead.

The Manchester painter, L S Lowry, was another frequent visitor, staying in the Seaburn Hotel in Sunderland. Many of his paintings of seascapes and shipbuilding are based on Wearside scenes.

The Northern Gallery for Contemporary Art on Fawcett Street and Sunderland Museum and Winter Gardens have exhibitions and installations from new and established artists alike. Sunderland Museum has a big collection of LS Lowry. The National Glass Centre on Liberty Way also exhibits a number of glass sculptures.

Music
Sunderland has produced a number of musicians that have gone on to reach international fame, most notably Dave Stewart of the Eurythmics. Kenickie, which featured Lauren Laverne on vocals, also achieved a top ten album and wide critical acclaim in the mid-to-late-1990s.
In recent years, the underground music scene and the Sunderland Music Project have helped the likes of The Futureheads and Field Music gain national recognition. In 2004, music magazine NME put Sunderland came 8th in a list of the "coolest" music places in the UK.

Other famous Mackem musicians include punk rockers The Toy Dolls, who broke the top five of the charts with "Nellie the Elephant" in December 1984; the lead singer of dance outfit Olive, Ruth Ann Boyle, who now works with Enigma; A Tribe of Toffs made number 21 with their cult hit "John Kettley is a weatherman" in December 1988; Alex Kapranos of the band Franz Ferdinand also grew up in Sunderland and South Shields.

On the 7 and 8 May 2005, Sunderland hosted the BBC Radio 1 Big Weekend concert - the UK's largest free music festival. The event was held at Herrington Country Park, in the shadow of Penshaw Monument and was attended by 30,000 visitors.

Sunderland does not have a big music venue such as the MetroRadio Arena or the Carling Academy in Newcastle. The Empire Theatre sometimes plays host to music acts, and has attracted Deacon Blue and Journey South to the city in recent years. McFly played there in April 2007. In the past it has also welcomed major bands such as The Beatles and The Kinks.

Independent, a city centre nightclub/music venue, satisfies underground music lovers, having previously played host to Keane, Franz Ferdinand, Kasabian, Kaiser Chiefs, Maxïmo Park and Snow Patrol when they were largely unknown. More recently, Doves and Tim Burgess have performed DJ sets on club nights, and in summer 2007 the club hosted gigs from established bands such as The Zutons and The Maccabees. The Manor Quay, the students' union on the campus of the University of Sunderland has also hosted the Arctic Monkeys, Maxïmo Park, 911, the Levellers and Girls Aloud in the past three years.

Clint Boon sometimes deejays in indie venue Ku Club, and the Bluetones did a set there in 2006.

"CoSMOS", the City of Sunderland Millennium Orchestral Society'' was set up in 2000 to mark the millennium.

Theatre

The Sunderland Empire Theatre, opened in 1907, is the largest theatre in the North East. It reopened in December 2004, following a big redevelopment, making the stage bigger. Now it can stage West End shows such as Miss Saigon, Starlight Express and My Fair Lady. The Empire is the only theatre between Leeds and Glasgow big enough to put on such shows.

The Birmingham Royal Ballet have a season at the Sunderland Empire every year, and it is thought of as the company's north-east home.

The Royalty Theatre is the home to the (amateur) Royalty Theatre group who also put on a number of low-budget productions throughout the year. Well-known movie producer David Parfitt belonged to this company before achieving worldwide fame.

Events
Each year on the last weekend in July, the city hosts the Sunderland International Airshow. It takes place along the sea front at Roker and Seaburn, and is attended by over 1.2 million people annually. It is the largest free airshow in Europe.

Sunderland also hosts the free International Festival of Kites, Music and Dance, which attracts kite-makers from around the world to Northumbria Playing Fields, Washington.

Every year, the city hosts a large Remembrance Day memorial, believed to be the largest in the UK outside of London.

HMS Ocean, a Helicopter Landing Ship is Sunderland's adopted Royal Navy ship. The crew of HMS Ocean regularly visit the city.

At Christmas, Sunderland has a German market in the city centre selling German-made wooden goods, and German food. It also hosts a large ice rink in Mowbray Park, which is part of the wider, regional North East Winter Festival.

Attractions
Traditional attractions for visitors to Sunderland include Penshaw Monument, the Souter Lighthouse (the first electrically powered lighthouse in the world), the 15th century Hylton Castle, the Wildfowl park in Washington, and the beaches of Roker and Seaburn.

The National Glass Centre opened in 1998, reflecting Sunderland's distinguished history of glass-making. The centre has never been as successful as hoped.

Sunderland Museum and Winter Gardens, on Borough Road, was the first publicly funded museum in the country outside London. It was opened by Ulysses S. Grant shortly after he stopped being US President. The museum has a big collection of the locally produced Sunderland Lustreware pottery. The new City Library Arts Centre, on Fawcett Street, also houses the Northern Gallery for Contemporary Art.

The City of Sunderland has been commended several times on its commitment to preserving its natural environment. Sunderland has won awards from the Britain in Bloom group in 1993, 1997 and 2000.

Economy and industry
 See: List of companies in Sunderland

Sunderland is one of the most deprived cities in the North of England. 11 of the 25 wards featuring in the list of the 2000 most deprived wards in England. The most deprived areas are Southwick to the north of the river and Thorney Close to the south - both with chronic levels of unemployment, although the city is performing better than the North East as a whole.

Traditional industry
Once called the "Greatest Shipbuilding Town in the World", ships were built on the Wear from at least 1346 onwards. The Port of Sunderland was expanded in the 1850s when the Hudsons Dock were built for the River Wear Commissioners. Robert Stephenson helped the engineers.
Competition from overseas caused a downturn in demand for Sunderland built ships toward the end of the twentieth century. The last shipyard in Sunderland closed in 1988.

Sunderland, part of the Durham coalfield, has a coal-mining heritage that dates back centuries. At the peak in 1923, 170,000 miners were employed in County Durham alone, as labourers from all over Britain, including many from Scotland and Ireland, entered the region. As demand for coal fell after World War II, mines began to close across the region, causing mass unemployment. The last coal mine closed in 1994. The site of the last coal mine, Wearmouth Colliery, is now the Stadium of Light, and a miner's Stephenson lamp monument stands outside of the ground to honour the heritage of the site.

Glass has been made in Sunderland for around 1,500 years. But overseas competition has forced the closure of all of Sunderland's glass-making factories. Corning Glass Works was one of the last. It was in Sunderland for 120 years, until 31 March 2007

Vaux Breweries was established in the town centre in the 1880s and for 110 years was a major employer. The brewery was finally closed in July 1999. Vaux in Sunderland and Wards Brewing Company in Sheffield had been part of the Vaux Group, when both breweries closed the group started to concentrate on its hotels which were in The Swallow Group. In the autumn of 2000 even this was taken over by Whitbread PLC.

Rejuvenation

Sunderland's economy began to get better after the 1980s.

The giant Nissan factory moved in, and new service industries arrived. Doxford International Business Park, in the south west of the city, has attracted a host of national and international companies.

The former shipyard areas along the River Wear have also been transformed. Instead of the old industry new developments have been built, including:
 St. Peter's Campus of the University of Sunderland;
 North Haven, executive housing and marina at the old North Dock at Roker;
 the National Glass Centre, by St. Peter's Church;
 the Stadium of Light the 49,000-capacity home of Sunderland A.F.C.;
 Hylton Riverside Retail Park, a large shopping outlet centre at Castletown.
 Echo 24 luxury apartments near the city centre.

Sunderland Corporation's massive post-war housing estate developments, such as Farringdon, Pennywell, Grindon, Hylton Red House, Hylton Castle, Thorney Close and Town End Farm, together with earlier developments, have all passed into the ownership of Gentoo (once called Sunderland Housing Group), a private company and a "Registered Social Landlord". Since the transfer in 2000 there have been a lot of improvements to the quality of social housing in the city.

The central business district of Sunderland has also been redeveloped and improved. In 2000, The Bridges shopping centre was extended to attract national chain stores. In November 2004, after several years with no cinema, a Cineworld multiplex opened in the new River Quarter, an entertainment complex towards the east of the City Centre. The Cinema was taken over by the Empire Multiplex Cinema Company in mid 2006. The previous ABC Cinema, situated on the corner of Park Lane and Holmeside, had been derelict for a number of years until it reopened late in 2005 as The Point, with three bars and the Union nightclub.

The arrival of Roy Keane as Sunderland AFC's new manager in August 2006 has had a massive impact in Sunderland's once limited tourism industry. Keane has proved a big pull for the city in terms of attracting tourists to Sunderland, with the Tourism Office reporting a dramatic rise in the number of football fans coming to the city "mentioning his name" as early as October 2006, just six weeks after Keane's appointment as manager. Airline Ryanair, moreover, recorded a 10% increase in passenger numbers travelling to Newcastle Airport on Fridays before a Sunderland home game, some 600 more than on other Fridays. The Tourism Office believes Keane's attachment to the city is causing a knock-on effect on local restaurants, bars and attractions in that more tourists are "making a weekend of it" after watching the football.

Transport

Rail
Sunderland station was rebuilt in November 1965 for football teams and officials from countries who were playing at Roker Park when England hosted the 1966 World Cup. It is served by Northern Rail services between Newcastle and Middlesbrough, and Grand Central services to York and London

Metro
In 2002, the Tyne and Wear Metro system was extended to Sunderland. The local Metro ends at South Hylton after calling at Sunderland Rail Station and Park Lane Bus Station. Metro trains are quite frequent and travel between Newcastle International Airport and Newcastle upon Tyne in the north and South Hylton at the southern end of the line. However, the Metro extension has not been viewed as a huge success with frequency of services cut due to a lack of demand.

Bus
A multimillion-pound transport interchange at Park Lane was opened on 2 May 1999 by the then Brookside actor Michael Starke. With 750,000 passengers per year it is the busiest bus and coach station in Britain after Victoria Station in Central London, and has won several design awards. A new Metro station was built underneath the bus concourse to provide a direct interchange as part of the extension to South Hylton in 2002.

Cycle
There are a number of cycle routes that run through and around Sunderland. The National Cycle Network National Route 1 runs from Ryhope in the south, through the centre of the city, and then along the coast towards South Shields. Britain's most popular long distance cycle route - The 'C2C' Sea to Sea Cycle Route - traditionally starts (or ends) when the cyclist dips their wheel in the sea on Roker beach. The 'W2W' 'Wear-to-Walney' route, and the 'Two-Rivers' (Tyne and Wear) route also end in Sunderland.

Famous residents
Developer of the electric lightbulb Joseph Swan, agony aunt Denise Robertson, rockers 'The Futureheads' and Alex Kapranos of 'Franz Ferdinand', Civil liberty campaigner Chris Mullin MP, radio DJ and singer Lauren Laverne, football manager Bob Paisley, actor James Bolam, movie producer David Parfitt, lead singer of 'Olive' Ruth-Ann Boyle, author Lewis Carroll, artist LS Lowry, journalist Kate Adie, and the Venerable Bede are a few of the many famous people born in or associated with Sunderland.

Related pages
 City of Sunderland

References

Port cities and towns of the North Sea
Port cities and towns of England
Settlements in Tyne and Wear

Sunderland


Sasha Morgenthaler (1893–1975) was a Swiss artist and dollmaker, best known for the "Sasha doll" produced in Germany and the United Kingdom beginning in the late 1960s. Popular with collectors, Sasha dolls are characterized by their individualism, their realistic expressions, their unique color, and the extreme attention to detail in the manufacture of the dolls as well as their clothes. It is said by Juliette Peers that: "Sasha dolls are renowned for possessing a solid intellectuality." Morgenthaler created face sculpts for her dolls with subtle expressions, not artificially exaggerated smiles: her concern was that children surviving the horrors of WWII would not relate to such happy dolls in times of terror. It was said of Morgenthaler herself, as a child, that "When she was sad, she did not like her dolls uncompromising smiles. Once she grabbed a nail file and scraped off her doll's false grin..." In her own words, "No grotesque caricature can awaken a child's true feelings. A piece of wood, barely carved, is far superior to a conventional doll with an exaggerated smile."

Background
Sasha Morgenthaler was an artist working most often in sculpture and paint; her early life was enriched by visits to the von Sinner family home from great artists such as Paul Klee, who supervised her artistic education and introduced Morgenthaler to members of the Der Blaue Reiter such as Wassily Kandinsky. Paul Klee orchestrated Morgenthaler's entry to the School of Fine Arts at Geneva. Morgenthaler married fellow artist Ernst Morgenthaler.

Morgenthaler decided in the 1960s to mass-produce dolls at reasonable prices after years of making dolls herself for the studio, on commission, and for private individuals. Two companies were licensed to produce the dolls: Götz in Germany and Frido (later Trendon) in the UK. Production in Germany ran from 1965 to 1969 and from 1995 to 2001, while the UK production ran from 1966 to 1986.

Dolls were produced in different styles, wearing different clothes, and with subtle variations (mostly in painting) that individualize and particularize each. Asymmetrical and made of hard vinyl with elastic stringing enabling them to take poses, Sasha dolls are characterized by a serious, open expression that seems to make them more adaptable to imaginative play than if they were forever smiling.

Morgenthaler's original idea was for the dolls to represent an image of universal childhood, so from the beginning of mass-production, the vinyl was coffee-coloured so that they would not appear to belong to any one ethnic group. In the early 1970s, black dolls were introduced, first in an extremely dark complexion, then in a lighter complexion in the latter part of the decade. Around 1980, the "skin" tone of most of the "Caucasian" dolls was lightened.

Dolls come in girl, boy, baby, and (beginning in the last production cycle) toddler versions. Girl and boy dolls are 16 inches or so tall, while babies and toddlers are 11–12 inches. Babies have curved arms and legs and do not stand. When first introduced, baby dolls were sexed with stylised genitals, but the practice was discontinued. Dolls have rooted hair in brown, blonde, red, or black, though some "limited edition" dolls had wigs. Clothes sets were available, though some clothes came only with the purchase of a doll and were not available separately.

The generic name for the dolls is "Sasha" after their creator. Some dolls have their own names, however. During the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, "Caucasian" boy dolls were known as "Gregor", black girl dolls were known as "Cora", and black boy dolls were known as "Caleb". When production resumed in 1995, many of the dolls were given individual names by the manufacturer, but all are still identified by the collective name of "Sasha".

Now that production has ceased, the dolls are becoming more and more collectible. The rarest ones can fetch high prices on auction sites such as eBay and from individual dealers. Various generations of Morgenthaler's Sasha dolls are available for viewing at the Puppenmuseum Sasha Morgenthaler in Switzerland. Here visitors may also view related archival holdings and other works of art by Morgenthaler.

References

Further reading
 Doggart, A., Doggart, J., & Friedland, S. (2018). The Friedlands Business and Family, London: John Doggart.

External links
 Susanna Lewis's comprehensive Sasha doll page
http://sashamorgenthaler.org/?lang=en

1893 births
1975 deaths
20th-century Swiss women artists
Dollmakers
Swiss artists
Doll brands

Sasha Morgenthaler


The Vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis, 'vampire squid from hell') is a small, deep-sea cephalopod. It can be found throughout the temperate and tropical oceans of the world.

It has special filaments it can retract; because of this, it has been placed in its own order: Vampyromorphida (formerly Vampyromorpha). It is similar to both squid and octopus. It is the only surviving member of its order. It was first described and mistakenly identified as an octopus in 1903.

Physical description

The vampire squid can grow to about 30 cm (1 foot) in total length. It is no threat to humans. Its 15 cm (6 inch) gelatinous body varies in color between velvety jet-black and pale reddish, depending on location and lighting conditions. A webbing of skin connects its eight arms, each lined with rows of fleshy spines or cirri. The inside of this "cloak" is black. Only the distal half (farthest from the body) of the arms have suckers. Its limpid, globular eyes—which appear red or blue, also depending on lighting—are proportionately the largest in the animal kingdom at 2.5 cm (1 inch) in diameter.

Mature adults have a pair of ear-like fins. These fins stand out from the lateral sides of the mantle. They serve as the adult's primary means of propulsion (moving around): Vampire Squid are said to "fly" through the water by way of flapping their fins. Their powerful beak-like jaws are as white as ivory. Within the webbing are two pouches. These pouches hide the tactile velar filaments. The filaments are analogous to a true squid's tentacles, extending well past the arms, however, they are a different arm pair than the squid's tentacles. Instead, the filaments are the same pair that were lost by the ancestral octopuses.

The Vampire Squid is covered entirely in light-producing organs called photophores. The animal has great control over the organs. It is capable of producing disorienting flashes of light for fractions of a second to several minutes in duration. The intensity and size of the photophores can also be varied. Appearing as small white discs, the photophores are larger and more complex at the tips of the arms and at the base of the two fins. They are absent from the underside of the caped arms. Two larger white areas on top of the head were initially believed to be photophores too, but have turned out to be photoreceptors.

The chromatophores (pigment organs) common to most cephalopods are poorly developed in Vampire Squid. While this means the animal is not capable of changing its skin colour in the dramatic fashion of shallow-dwelling cephalopods, such trickery is not needed at the pitch black depths in which it lives.

Habitat and adaptations
The Vampire Squid is an extreme example of a deep-sea cephalopod. People think it lives at aphotic (lightless) depths from 600 to 900 metres (2,000-3,000 feet) or more. Within this region of the world's oceans is a discrete habitat known as the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ). Within the OMZ oxygen saturation is too low to support aerobic metabolism in most higher organisms. Nonetheless, the Vampire Squid is able to live normally in the OMZ at oxygen saturations as low as 3%; something no other cephalopod—and few other animals—can do.

In order to cope with life in this habitat, vampire squid have developed several radical adaptations. Of all deep-sea cephalopods, their metabolic rate is the lowest. Their blue blood hemocyanin binds and transports oxygen most efficiently, aided by gills with especially large surface area. The animals have weak musculature but maintain agility and buoyancy with little effort thanks to sophisticated statocysts (balancing organs akin to a human's inner ear) and ammonium-rich gelatinous tissues closely matching the density of the surrounding seawater.

At the shallower end of the Vampire Squid's vertical range, the view from below is like the sky at twilight: The highly sensitive eyes of deepwater dwellers are able to distinguish the silhouettes of other animals moving overhead. To combat this, the vampire squid generates its own bluish light (bioluminescence) in a strategy called counterillumination: The light diffuses the animal's silhouette, effectively "cloaking" its presence from the watchful eyes below. Its own large eyes detect even the faintest of gleams. A pair of photoreceptors are located on top of its head, perhaps alerting the animal to movements above.

Like other deep-sea cephalopods, Vampire Squid have no ink sacs. If threatened, instead of ink, a sticky cloud of bioluminescent mucus containing innumerable orbs of blue light is ejected from the arm tips. This luminous barrage, which may last nearly 10 minutes, is presumably meant to daze would-be predators and allow the Vampire Squid to disappear into the blackness without the need to swim far. The display is made only if the animal is very agitated.

Development
Their development goes through three forms: the very young animals have a single pair of fins, an intermediate form has two pairs, and the mature form again has one. As the animals grow and their surface area to volume ratio drops, the fins are resized and repositioned in order to maximize gait efficiency. Whereas the young propel themselves primarily by jet propulsion, mature adults find flapping their fins to be the most efficient means. This unique ontogeny caused confusion in the past, with the varying forms identified as several species in distinct families (Young 2002).

The Vampire Squid likely reproduces slowly by way of a small number of large eggs. Growth is slow as food is not abundant at depths where the animals live. The vastness of their habitat and its sparse population make procreative encounters a fortuitous event. The female may store a male's hydraulically implanted spermatophore (a sort of tapered, cylindrical satchel of sperm) for long periods before she is ready to fertilize her eggs. Once she does, she may need to brood over them for up to 400 days before they hatch. The female will not eat towards this culmination and dies shortly thereafter.

Hatchlings are about 8 mm in length and are well-developed miniatures of the adults, with some differences. Their arms lack webbing, their eyes are smaller and their velar filaments are not fully formed. The hatchlings are transparent and survive on a generous internal yolk for an unknown period before they begin to actively feed. The smaller animals frequent much deeper waters, perhaps feeding on marine snow (falling organic detritus).

Behavior
What behavioral data known has been gleaned from ephemeral encounters with ROVs; animals are often damaged during capture and survive for no more than about two months in aquaria. An artificial environment makes reliable observation of non-defensive behavior difficult.

With their long velar filaments deployed, Vampire Squid have been observed drifting along in the deep, black ocean currents. If the filaments contact an entity, or if vibrations impinge upon them, the animals investigate with rapid acrobatic movements. They are capable of swimming at speeds equivalent to two body lengths per second, with an acceleration time of five seconds. However, their weak muscles limit stamina considerably.

Unlike their relatives living in more hospitable depths, deep-sea cephalopods cannot afford to spend energy in protracted flight. Given their low metabolic rate and the low density of prey at such depths, Vampire Squid must use innovative predator avoidance tactics in order to save energy. Their aforementioned bioluminescent "fireworks" are combined with the writhing of glowing arms, erratic movements and escape trajectories. These features make it difficult for a predator to home in.

In a threat response called "pumpkin" or "pineapple posture", the Vampire Squid inverts its caped arms back over the body, presenting an ostensibly larger form covered in fearsome-looking though harmless spines (called cirri). The underside of the cape is heavily pigmented, masking most of the body's photophores. The glowing arm tips are clustered together far above the animal's head, diverting attack away from critical areas. If a predator were to bite off an arm tip, the Vampire Squid can regenerate it.

Copepods, prawns and cnidarians have all been reported as prey of Vampire Squid. Little else is known regarding their feeding habits. Considering their environment,they are unlikely to be picky about food. Vampire Squid have been found among the stomach contents of large deepwater fish, deep diving whales and pinnipeds such as sea lions.

Relationships
The Vampyromorphida are characterized by the possession of photophores, a peculiar type of uncalcified endoskeleton called "gladius", 8 webbed arms and the 2 velar filaments. Until fairly recently known only from the modern species and some fossil remains tentatively allocated to this group, a batch of kirbys from the Middle Jurassic c.165-164 million years ago (mya) specimens found at La Voulte-sur-Rhône demonstrated that clearly vampyromorphid cephalopods were in existence for far longer than has been hitherto believed. These were described as Vampyronassa rhodanica.

The supposed vampyromorphids from Solnhofen limestone (156-146 mya), Plesioteuthis prisca, Leptoteuthis gigas, and Trachyteutis hastiformis, are large species, and show features not found in vampyromorphids. They are similar to the true squids, Teuthida (Fischer & Riou 2002).

References
 Bolstad, Kat (2003): Deep-Sea Cephalopods: An Introduction and Overview. Version of 5/6/03, retrieved 2006-DEC-06.
 Ellis, Richard (1996): Introducing Vampyroteuthis infernalis. IN: The Deep Atlantic: Life, Death, and Exploration in the Abyss. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. . Online version retrieved 2006-DEC-06.
 Fischer, Jean-Claude & Riou, Bernard (2002): Vampyronassa rhodanica nov. gen. nov sp., vampyromorphe (Cephalopoda, Coleoidea) du Callovien inférieur de la Voulte-sur-Rhône (Ardèche, France). Annales de Paléontologie 88(1) 1−17. [French with English abstract]  (HTML abstract)
 Robison, Bruce H.; Reisenbichler, Kim R.; Hunt, James C. & Haddock, Steven H. D. (2003): Light Production by the Arm Tips of the Deep-Sea Cephalopod Vampyroteuthis infernalis. Biological Bulletin 205(2): 102-109. PDF fulltext
 Seibel, Brad (2001): Vampyroteuthis infernalis. Retrieved 2006-DEC-06.
 Young, Richard E. (2002): Taxa Associated with the Family Vampyroteuthidae . Version of June 2002, retrieved 2006-DEC-06.

Other websites

Images
 Image with velar filament in view, detailed caption
 The vampire squid's photophores and photoreceptors
 Diagram and images of a Vampyroteuthis hatchling
 Photomicrograph of arm tip fluorescence

Cephalopods

Vampire squid