Arthur Shrewsbury (11 April 1856 – 19 May 1903) was an English cricketer and rugby football administrator. He was widely rated as competing with W. G. Grace for the accolade of best batsman of the 1880s; Grace himself, when asked whom he would most like in his side, replied simply, "Give me Arthur". An opening batsman, Shrewsbury played his cricket for Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club and played 23 Test matches for England, captaining them in 7 games, with a record of won 5, lost 2. He was the last professional to be England captain until Len Hutton was chosen in 1952. He was a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1890. He also organised the first British Isles rugby tour to Australasia in 1888.

An expert on sticky wickets, Shrewsbury topped the first-class batting averages seven times including in 1902, his final season. The following spring, incorrectly believing he had an incurable disease, he shot himself at his sister's home in Gedling, Nottinghamshire.

Early life
Shrewsbury, the seventh child of William Shrewsbury and Mary Ann Wragg, was born in New Lenton, Nottinghamshire. He was educated at the People's College, Nottingham and trained as a draughtsman. His early club cricket was, like William Scotton, with Meadow Imperial and he subsequently played for Nottingham Commercial Club where he came to the notice of the county officials.

On 12 May 1873, having just turned 17, Shrewsbury made his first appearance at Lord's for the Colts of England against the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC). His batting was modelled on that of Richard Daft. The season also saw Meadow Imperial, Shrewsbury's club side, replaced by Meadow Willow CC.

First-class beginnings
Shrewsbury missed most of the 1874 season with rheumatic fever, and did not make his first-class debut until May 1875 for Nottinghamshire against Derbyshire. He ended the season with 313 runs at 17.38, with a top score of 41; in a season of wet weather he finished fourth in the county's batting averages.

The following year Shrewsbury made his maiden first-class century, scoring 118 against Yorkshire, at Trent Bridge sharing in an opening partnership of 183 with Richard Daft. Shrewsbury finished the season with an innings of 65 not out against Surrey in a low scoring match. In May 1877, he made 119 at The Oval for the Players of the North against Gentlemen of the South. He also scored four fifties and finished the season with 778 runs at 19.94.

In 1878 Australia made their first tour to England. Their first match was against Nottinghamshire: Shrewsbury scored 8 in an innings victory for the home team. He scored 724 runs at 21.29 during the season with a top score of 74 not out. The following season was less successful – his average dropped to 15.78 and he was not selected for either of the Gentlemen v Players fixtures. He toured North America in September 1879 with Richard Daft's XI, where the side won all six matches, all of them against odds (opposition teams of more than eleven players). During the 1880 season he scored 403 runs, his highest score, 66 not out, against the touring Australians.

In 1881 Shrewsbury led the strike of Nottinghamshire professional players alongside Alfred Shaw following disagreements with the county secretary, Captain Henry Holden, over an early season fixture with Yorkshire arranged by Shaw and Shrewsbury. The strike meant Shrewsbury played just three first-class matches during the season. The break allowed him, Shaw and James Lillywhite to organise a lucrative eight-month tour of Australia, New Zealand and America the following winter.

World tour
The tour began with games in North America, although Shrewsbury missed the first leg of the tour with bronchitis and sailed directly to Australia via Suez. The five matches in America were financial failures with receipts just covering expenses.

In Australia, the team played two first-class matches before the First Test. In the second of these the tourists beat Victoria despite having followed-on with Shrewsbury scoring 80 not out in the second innings. The First Test was staged at Melbourne over the New Year. Shrewsbury, one of ten debutants, scored 11 and 16 in a drawn match. Seven matches in New Zealand followed before the team returned to Australia for the remaining three Test matches, Shrewsbury scored 7 and 22 in the Second Test at Sydney. His best performance of the tour came in the Third Test, again at Sydney, top scoring in both innings – 82 and 47 – the next highest score by an Englishman was 23. In the final Test he scored 1, final day rain ruining the best chance of English victory during the series which ended 2–0. The matches in Sydney and Melbourne proved popular meaning the three promoters made £700 each.

After the tour Shrewsbury returned to England in better physical shape thanks to the warmer climate of Australia. He and Shaw wrote to the Nottinghamshire committee to apologise for their previous season's actions, and both were welcomed back into the side.

Domestic success
In 1882 Shrewsbury scored his maiden first-class double century, the first double century by a Nottinghamshire cricketer, an innings of 207 at The Oval sharing in a stand of 289 with Billy Barnes, a first-class second wicket record. But this was Shrewsbury's only score above fifty all season. The following season was in complete contrast, as Shrewsbury scored seven fifties and no century, reaching 1,000 runs in a season for the first time.

In 1884 Australia toured England. Shrewsbury warmed up for the First Test with 209 against Sussex at Hove, sharing in a stand of 266 with Billy Gunn, a first-class record for the fifth wicket. In the drawn First Test at Old Trafford Shrewsbury top scored with 43. He managed 27 in the Second Test which England won by an innings. The Third Test was drawn, Australia having scored 551. Declarations were not permitted until after 1889, and Australia batted for 311 overs. Every England player got a bowl, Shrewsbury coming on last after wicket-keeper Alfred Lyttelton. Shrewsbury finished the season just short of 1,000 runs as Nottinghamshire were declared Champion County, having won nine out of their ten matches.

Test success

Lillywhite, Shaw and Shrewsbury arranged another tour of Australia in 1884–85, with Shrewsbury as team captain. In the First Test at Adelaide Shrewsbury opened for the first time in Tests, scoring a duck and 26 not out as England won by 8 wickets. England won by 10 wickets in the Second Test, with Shrewsbury scoring 72 and 0 not out. The next two Tests were lost with Shrewsbury making scores of 18, 24, 40 and 16. In the deciding Fifth Test at Melbourne he played a captain's innings scoring 105 not out after dropping down the order, his maiden Test century. Australian critic Felix described the innings:
His play throughout was a treat to look at, and that neat and effective stroke of his between square-leg and mid-on is worth copying. He made a large number of his 105 in this spot. His defence was splendid, his cutting clean and telling, his timing could not well be excelled.
Shrewsbury finished the Test series with 301 runs at 50.16 and made £150 from the tour, the figure reduced by the boycotting of several matches by the 1884 Australians.

In 1885 Shrewsbury topped the batting averages for the first time scoring 1130 runs at 56.50 with four centuries, including carrying his bat for 224 not out at Lord's. For the third season in a row Nottinghamshire were Champion County. The following season he once again carried his bat, this time against Gloucestershire defying W. G. Grace for 72 overs in scoring 227 not out. Although Shrewsbury's best innings of the season was to come against the touring Australians and the demon, Fred Spofforth.

Shrewsbury warmed up for the Second Test (England won the First Test by 4 wickets) with another hundred against Grace in a Gentlemen v Players fixture. In the Second Test at Lord's Shrewsbury demonstrated his ability on sticky wickets against top bowling: against a side containing Spofforth, the finest bowler of the era, he finished the rain-interrupted first day unbeaten on 91, and carried this to 164 in easier conditions on the second day. The second highest score in the match was 58 by Billy Barnes, and Australia lost by an innings. England completed a whitewash with another innings victory at The Oval. Shrewsbury finished the season with 1404 runs as once again Nottinghamshire retained the title.

Two Australian tours
England toured Australia in 1886–87 with Shrewsbury once again captaining the team. In two low scoring Tests (no team innings totalled as many as 200) Shrewsbury contributed 46 runs as the tourists won the series 2–0. His best innings of the tour came for the Non-Smokers against the Smokers in Melbourne, where he scored 236 in a total of 803, then a first-class record, as was the third wicket partnership of 311 between Shrewsbury and Billy Gunn. The one-sided matches and the bad weather led to poor crowds, and the tour's organisers failed to make a profit. Nevertheless, Shrewsbury was already planning another tour the following year.

1887 proved to be Shrewsbury's best season, with 1653 runs at 78.71. His batting average was the highest so far achieved, narrowly beating W. G. Grace's record of 78.25 in 1871. Shrewsbury made consecutive scores of 119, 152, 81, 130 and 111, and finished the season with his highest first-class score of 267 against Middlesex. During the season Shrewsbury scored his 10,000th first-class run.

In 1887–88 Shrewsbury made his final tour to Australia. It became a financial disaster, as the Melbourne Club were financing their own rival touring team. Shrewsbury's side's first match at Melbourne became farcical: against a Victoria side containing only four first-team players the tourists won by an innings and 456 runs. Shrewsbury scored 232, becoming the first Englishman to score a double century in Australia. The two touring teams combined for a Test Match against Australia at Sydney. Shrewsbury top scored with 44 in a low-scoring match which England won. In the final fixture of their tour Shrewsbury scored another double century to finish with 721 runs at 65.54, 500 more than anyone else. To try to recoup some of his losses Shrewsbury stayed in Australia after the cricket tour, and managed an English rugby football team. For this reason he missed the 1888 English cricket season. The football tour in fact added to the losses, ending in an £800 deficit to add to the £2400 lost on the cricket leg of the tour.

1888 Australian rules football and Rugby tour of Australasia
Shrewsbury organised and played on a little known and unique tour in which a British team played a series of matches in Australian rules football, in Victoria and South Australia and Rugby matches in Australia's northern states and New Zealand.  This tour is noteworthy as it was the only tour in the history of Australian rules football, apart from New Zealand's early participation in the sport's interstate competition, where an international team toured Australia.   It was also of note because on the tour a number of people involved on the British side commented that they liked the Australian game more than Rugby.   Shrewsbury also participated in organising a return tour by an Australian team to Britain, in which the Australian rules side of the tour was cancelled at the last moment.   At the time in England and Scotland there was interest in Australian rules football and games were played, and it has been suggested that had the Australian rule side of tour gone ahead then Australian rules football could possibly have spread around the world like a number of other sports from the British Empire.

Best batsman in England
Shrewsbury scored a century against Sussex in his first match back in England, but this was his highest score of the 1889 season. He finished with 522 runs at 37.28. Shrewsbury was chosen as a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1890, an award that had only been introduced the previous year.

In 1890 he matched his highest score with an innings of 267 against Sussex, and he shared in a partnership of 398 with Billy Gunn which remains the second wicket record for Nottinghamshire, and was a first-class record for any wicket for nine years. Australia toured during the season, but Shrewsbury struggled in the Tests with scores of 4, 13, 4 and 9 as England defended The Ashes in a low scoring series. The highest team innings was 176. Shrewsbury topped the domestic batting averages.

Shrewsbury started the 1891 season with a run of low scores, failing to reach double figures in eight consecutive innings in the County Championship (although he did carry his bat for 81 in a Players v Gentleman fixture during this run). However the second half of the season saw a dramatic improvement which resulted in him topping the batting averages once again. He was offered a place on the tour party to Australia, but decided to stay at home to look after the business as his business partner Alfred Shaw was travelling as manager of the team.

In 1892 Shrewsbury scored his tenth and final double century during a match against Middlesex. He scored four more centuries, including carrying his bat for 151 for the Players against the Gentlemen, and had the highest batting average for the third successive season. Australia's tour of England in 1893 included three Test matches. In the First Test at Lord's Shrewsbury played a similar innings to seven years previously, the great bowler this time was Charles Turner. On a difficult first day wicket Shrewsbury scored 106. Wisden reported:
Shrewsbury's batting was marked by extreme patience, unfailing judgment, and a mastery over the difficulties of the ground, of which probably no other batsman would have been capable. During the innings Shrewsbury became the first cricketer to score 1,000 Test runs. He added 81 in the second innings, but rain meant the result was a draw. He had scores of 66, 12 and 19 not out in the rest of the series as England retained the Ashes. Shrewsbury was the leading run scorer in the series with 284 at 71.00.

After Test career
Shrewsbury missed the 1894 season because of indifferent health but he reappeared in 1895 leading the county averages in a disappointing season for Nottinghamshire. He passed 1,000 runs in 1896 with 2 centuries including carrying his bat for 125 against Gloucestershire.

Shrewsbury passed 20,000 career first-class runs in 1897. His only century of the season came for the Players against the Gentlemen, scoring 125 as captain. Shrewsbury's scores improved in 1898 and 1899 with season tallies of 1,219 and 1,257 runs, leading the county averages in both seasons. In 1899 Shrewsbury and Arthur Jones shared in an opening partnership of 391, which remained a county record until 2000.

In 1900 Shrewsbury's season average dropped to 32.03, his lowest since 1884, but he still topped the county averages. In 1901 Nottinghamshire were dismissed for 13 against Yorkshire, the second lowest total ever made in county cricket, Shrewsbury split his hand while fielding and missed the rout.

In 1902, aged 46, Shrewsbury again topped the first-class batting averages. He notched up four centuries, including two in a match for the first time. His performances during the season earned him further praise in the 1903 Wisden Cricketers' Almanack:
His batting was marked by all its old qualities, and except that he is, perhaps, less at home on a really sticky wicket than he used to be, there is little or no
change to be noticed in his play. He was as patient and watchful as ever, and once or twice when runs had to be made in a hurry he surprised everybody by the freedom and vigour of his hitting.
The Nottinghamshire Committee raised donations of £177 14s (worth about £ at current prices) for Shrewsbury in recognition of his batting performance.

Death
Shrewsbury complained of kidney pains during a match for Lenton United on 27 September, and during the winter he consulted various doctors and specialists who could discover nothing seriously wrong with him. During the spring his health started to improve, but it was unlikely that he would play county cricket in 1903.

On 12 April 1903 Shrewsbury bought a revolver from a local gunsmith. He returned a week later after having difficulty in loading the gun. The clerk found that Shrewsbury had the wrong bullets and supplied the correct ones. Shrewsbury went to his bedroom that evening and shot himself first in the chest and then, when that did not prove fatal, in the head. His girlfriend, Gertrude Scott, found him bleeding from a head wound and by the time a doctor arrived Shrewsbury was dead. At the inquest, held the following day, the coroner decided that Shrewsbury had committed suicide, his mind having been unhinged by the belief that he had an incurable disease. The coroner added that there was, however, no evidence to show Shrewsbury was suffering from a major illness.

Shrewsbury's funeral took place two days after his death at All Hallows Church, Gedling.

Statistical overview

Shrewsbury was the first cricketer to pass 1,000 Test runs when he reached 7 during his innings of 106 at Lord's in 1893. His career total of 1,277 runs was a record until January 1902 when it was overtaken by Joe Darling. Shrewsbury had held the record for over 15 years; only Clem Hill and Wally Hammond have held the record for longer.

Two of Shrewsbury's three Test centuries came at Lord's including his highest Test innings of 164, a score which remained a Test record at the ground until 1924 when it was beaten by Jack Hobbs. In six innings at the ground Shrewsbury scored 395 runs at an average of 65.83.

Shrewsbury set a number of batting records for Nottinghamshire. He scored the county's first double-century in 1882 and scored seven of the county's first eight double-centuries. He was also the first Nottinghamshire cricketer to score a hundred in both innings of a match. His 1887 county record of six centuries in a season wasn't beaten until 1925.

In the seven seasons between 1886 and 1892 Shrewsbury topped the first-class averages five times – and during one of these seasons, 1888, he did not play at all as he was in Australia managing the rugby football team.

Style

Shrewsbury was considered quite a slow scoring batsman, but C. B. Fry described his play thus: "The idea that he is slow is mistaken. True, he is often half an hour without scoring; but somehow he makes up for it and is all but even with his more mobile partner. The fact is he waits for the ball he wants, and then secures a certain fourer. He does not waste time and energy in banging ball after ball into fieldsman's hands."

Edward Sewell, a contemporary of Shrewsbury's, described his play like this: "And so, little by little, this little man playing a quite different kind of cricket to any other Big Noises of his time, perfected his own chosen method; never heeding anything in the shape of advice or an adviser, until he became a king of legend."
The method of play Sewell was referring to is back-play, which allowed Shrewsbury to master the bad wickets which were often found on county grounds. Most batsmen of 1870s and 1880s typically played off the front foot. His Wisden obituary contains similar sentiments: "As a batsman he had a style of back play peculiarly his own, and his judgment of the length of bowling was almost unequalled. It was said of him that he seemed to see the ball closed up to the bat than any other player."

Shrewsbury was not a strong or muscular man and stated that he did not hit the ball, but steered it in the desired direction.

Shrewsbury's technique was criticised by Rait Kerr in his book 'The laws of cricket'. He wrote: "As we have seen the improvement in pitches enabled Arthur Shrewsbury to develop a new gospel of defensive batsmanship which soon made many converts. From about 1885 this technique involved an increasing use of the pads." At the time the lbw law stated that for the batsman to be out, the ball had to pitch between wicket and wicket. In 1888 the MCC considered a change to the law but instead issued a statement saying that defending the wicket with the body was against the spirit of the game.

Shaw and Shrewsbury
During the 1879 tour of North America Shrewsbury along with Alfred Shaw finalised plans to start a business. 'The Midland Cricket, Lawn Tennis, Football and General Athletic Sports Depot' in Carrington Street, Nottingham. Following the profitable tour of 1881/2 they opened a factory under the name 'Gresham Works' situated in Waterway Street and in the spring of 1884 the name of the firm was changed from 'The Midland Cricket, Lawn Tennis, Football and General Athletic Sports Depot' to 'Shaw and Shrewsbury'. Their trademark of a kangaroo and emu with a cricket bat between them was introduced in 1886.

Following the financial losses made during the tour of Australia in 1887/8 the firm downsized from the two buildings into a single building in Queen's Bridge Road.

After Shrewsbury's death his share in the firm was split between his brother, William, and four of his nephews. The firm was closed in 1939 with its assets being bought by Grays of Cambridge.

References

Cited sources

External links

 Lenton Listener Article

1856 births
1903 deaths
1903 suicides
England Test cricket captains
Nottinghamshire cricketers
Players cricketers
North v South cricketers
United North of England Eleven cricketers
Midland Counties cricketers
Wisden Cricketers of the Year
People from Lenton, Nottingham
Cricketers from Nottinghamshire
Suicides by firearm in England
English rugby union administrators
Players of the North cricketers
English cricketers
C. I. Thornton's XI cricketers
Married v Single cricketers
R. Daft's XI cricketers
19th-century British businesspeople
All-England Eleven cricketers
Multiple gunshot suicides
England Test cricketers

Arthur Shrewsbury


Army Burn Hall College (ABHC)  formerly  Burn Hall School  is a school and college in Abbottabad, Pakistan. In 1948, a year after Pakistan gained independence from the British Empire, a few missionary fathers moved to Abbottabad with a handful of students, from Srinagar, Kashmir, where the original school was, and founded a branch here.  Between 1948 and 1977, the school was run by these missionary fathers and supervised by the Board of Education of the Rawalpindi Diocese of the Church of Pakistan. However, in 1977 the fathers were forcibly evicted by the Pakistan Army which took over the institution. They made several changes to the school and its spirit and mode of education, gradually bringing it into line with their own goals and objectives. Since 1990-1991, it is no longer a proper public school along the English model but a military-style graduate college, with separate branches for boys and girls.

Colleges and universities in Pakistan
Abbottabad
1948 establishments in Asia

Army Burn Hall College


Mashiro Kazahana is a main character in the anime My-HiME. Mashiro Blanc de Windbloom is her name in My-Otome.

Mashiro first meets Mai Tokiha when Mai is trying to find Mikoto Minagi, and Mashiro is seen in a rose garden with a maid. When she later meets Mai, Mai finds out that Mashiro is the chairwoman of the Fuuka Academy. She is calm and seems to know more than the people of her age, even though she is just 14. She knows about the Himes, feeling sorry for them as if it was her own fault that the Himes were created.

Mashiro Blanc de Windbloom

Mashiro Blanc de Winbloom is the queen of Windbloom, who is only 15. She is bossy and loud, parallel to Mashiro Kazahana. She gets angry easily, and when people say that she is a fake princess, she is surprized because she wants to be a queen so much. But a rumour says that the real princess was floated away in a casket, and that Mashiro was just a replacement for not finding the real princess. Mashiro does not look like the last rulers of Winbloom as well.

My-Otome

Mashiro Kazahana


The galactic plane is the plane in which most of a disk-shaped galaxy's mass lies.

The directions perpendicular to the galactic plane point to the galactic poles. In actual use, the terms "galactic plane" and "galactic poles" usually refer specifically to the plane and poles of the Milky Way, the galaxy where the Earth is.

Some galaxies are irregular and do not have any well-defined disk. Even in the case of a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way, defining the galactic plane is imprecise since the stars are not perfectly in the plane.

External references
 https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0408107

Celestial mechanics

Galactic plane


In baseball, a win–loss record shows the number of games that a pitcher has won and the number of games he has lost. In each game, one pitcher on the winning team is awarded a win (the "winning pitcher") and one pitcher on the losing team is given a loss (the "losing pitcher"). These pitchers are known as the pitchers of record. The awarding of a win or a loss for a pitcher is known as a decision, and only one pitcher for each team receives a decision in each game. A starting pitcher who does not receive credit for a win or loss is said to have no decision. In certain situations, another pitcher on the winning team who pitched in relief of the winning pitcher can be credited with a save, and holds can be awarded to relief pitchers on both sides, but these are never awarded to the same pitcher who is awarded the win.

Baseball rules

Win–loss record (pitching)


MapGuide Open Source is a web-based map-making platform that enables users to quickly develop and deploy web mapping applications and geospatial web services. The application was introduced as open-source by Autodesk in November 2005, and the code was contributed to the Open Source Geospatial Foundation in March 2006 under the GNU LGPL.

MapGuide features an interactive viewer that includes support for feature selection, property inspection, map tips, and operations such as buffer, select within, and measure. MapGuide includes an XML database for storing and managing content, and supports most common geospatial file formats, databases, and standards. The MapGuide platform can be deployed on Linux or Microsoft Windows, supports Apache and IIS web servers, and offers extensive PHP, .NET, Java, and JavaScript APIs for application development.

History

MapGuide was first introduced as Argus MapGuide in 1995 by Argus Technologies in Calgary, Alberta. In the fall of 1996, Autodesk acquired Argus Technologies and within a few months the first release under the Autodesk brand was introduced, Autodesk MapGuide 2.0. The software progressed through a number of releases leading up to the current Autodesk MapGuide 6.5. To this day MapGuide 6.5 and previous releases are known for ease of deployment, rapid application development, data connectivity, scalability, and overall performance.

Despite its success, the MapGuide 6.5 architecture has some inherent limitations. To this day most MapGuide applications rely upon a client Plug-in, ActiveX Control, or Java applet with much of the application logic written in JavaScript using the APIs offered by the client-side plug-in. All spatial analysis is performed client-side on rendered graphics rather than on the underlying spatial data. And finally the server platform is very Windows-centric.

In spring 2004 a team of developers at Autodesk began work on what is now MapGuide Open Source. Their goals were to retain all of the best aspects of MapGuide 6.5 while also meeting the goals set out above. The project was then submitted to the Open Source Geospatial Foundation in March 2006 under the LGPL license.

See also

Spatial Data File, the native file format for MapGuide

References

External links

Autodesk
Free GIS software
Formerly proprietary software

MapGuide Open Source


{{DISPLAYTITLE:Na+/K+-ATPase}}

Na+/K+-ATPase is an enzyme found in the plasma membrane.  It is sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphatase, also known as the 'Na+/K+ pump', 'sodium-potassium pump', or simply 'sodium pump', for short. It was first discovered by Jens Christian Skou who won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1997.

The enzyme moves Na+ (sodium) ions out of the cell and replaces them with K+ (potassium) ions. This keeps the Na+ ions outside of the cell membrane, and keeps the K+ ions on the inside of the cell membrane. The process works in the opposite direction of diffusion.

For every three sodium ions that get pumped out of the cell, two potassium ions get pumped into the cell. One phosphate group is still bound to the pump.

Sources

Enzymes

Na+/K+-ATPase


Meaning is a term in linguistics and philosophy. It is also a word in everyday life. The basic idea is this: meaning is the information which is sent by speech or messages. What that information is can be inferred by a listener or reader.

Meaning makes sense as part of a conversation between two or more people. The bits of a conversation, like questions and answers, suggestions and explanations, work to help the meaning get across. Requests and instructions are other types of communication which depend on meaning.

Although humans use language to carry meaning, non-verbal communication definitely has meaning. In fact it is far more ancient than human language, and interpreting its meaning is mostly done by the unconscious mind. Messages travel by scent and sight as well as sound. Humans do some of this as well as almost all animals. In humans, facial expressions and the sense of touch are very important. All these things have meaning.

Related pages
Meaning of life
Semantics

Communication
Linguistics
Philosophy

Meaning


Egon Rudi Ernst Krenz (born 19 March 1937 in Kolberg,Nazi Germany) was a former East German  politician of the German Democratic Republic. He served in the East German Army, NVA (Nationale Volkes Armee), where he attained the rank of Unteroffizere (Corporal). He was a high-ranking member of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany. He was the successor to Erich Honecker as leader of East Germany from 18 October 1989 until 3 December 1989, for a few weeks. Later, he was sentenced to six and a half years in prison and released in 2003.

1937 births
Living people
German criminals
German prisoners
Members of the Volkskammer
People from former German territories
Presidents of East Germany

Egon Krenz


A computer file is a means to store information that belongs together. Computer files can be opened (read and written) by computer programs. Usually they are stored on some kind of file system.

There are different kinds of computer files that hold different kinds of data (information):

 Text files
 Audio files (e.g. for songs, voice recordings)
 Video files (e.g. for movies)
 Images (pictures)
 Other binary data

The way the information is organized in a file is called the file format.

Computing

Computer file


"Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington" is the second episode of The Simpsons third season. It first started on the Fox network in the United States on September 26, 1991. In this episode, Lisa enters in an essay contest to write an essay about "America's greatness." When she successfully wins it, she and the family go to Washington, D.C. where the finals are to be held. Lisa is sad after witnessing a "bribery scandal" in the Senate. In her final essay, she disdains and condemns the government system, which leads to the arrest of the "corrupt congressman" who accepted the bribe. While Lisa fails to win the contest, her faith in government is back.

Other websites

1991 television episodes
The Simpsons (season 3) episodes

Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington


The Kirk o Scotland is the naitional kirk in Scotland. It is Presbyterian, an asinder frae the Anglican Kirk o Ingland. It is a stablisht kirk, as it is the offeecial kirk in Scotland, but it is a free kirk forby — that is, it isna a state kirk (unlike the Kirk o Ingland i Ingland), an disna hae tae repone til the Scots or UK govrenments.

Govrenment
The kirk is govrened bi its General Assembly, convened ance a year in Edinburgh. That assembly wales a Moderator that presides ower the meetins o the assembly an acts as the Kirk's "public face" for the ae year. The monarch o the Unitit Kinrick is a member, but no the heid o the Kirk o Scotland — the heid o the Kirk o Scotland is conseedered tae be Jesus Christ.

See an aw
 Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707
 Sermon on the Mound, a controversial address gien bi former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher to the General Assembly o the Kirk.

Members o the Warld Communion o Reformed Kirks
Presbyterian denominations in Europe
Presbyterian denominations in Scotland
Reformed denominations in the Unitit Kinrick
Organisations based in Edinburgh
Presbyterianism in Scotland
Releegious organisations based in Scotland
Unitit Kinrick
Protestantism in the Unitit Kinrick
Organisations established in the 16t century
1560 establishments

The Kirk


Harriet Beecher Stowe (June 14, 1811 – July 1, 1896) was an American abolitionist and writer. Her novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) showed the lives of African-Americans slaves. It was very popular as a novel and a play, and had a great influence in the United States and Britain, helping people who did not like slavery and making many people disagree with slavery.

Biography
Stowe was born Harriet Elisabeth Beecher in Litchfield, Connecticut, on June 14, 1811. Her parents were religious leaders Lyman Beecher (a leader of the Second Great Awakening) and Roxana (Foote) Beecher. Her mother died when Harriet was five years old. She had a sister, Catharine Beecher, who was an educator and author, and three brothers Henry Ward Beecher, Charles Beecher, and Edward Beecher.

Harriet went to the girls' school run by her sister Catharine. She received an education in the classics, including study of languages and mathematics. At 21, she moved to Cincinnati, Ohio to join her father. He had become the president of Lane Theological Seminary. She also joined the literary salon and social club called the Semi-Colon Club.

Harriet married Calvin Ellis Stowe on January 6, 1836. He was a widower and professor at the seminary. They had seven children together, including twin daughters. Calvin Stowe was a critic of slavery. The Stowes supported the Underground Railroad. They briefly sheltered several fugitive slaves in their home.

Uncle Tom's Cabin and the American Civil War

In 1850, the Stowe family moved to a house near the campus of Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine. Calvin Stowe was teaching in the college. On March 9, 1850, Stowe wrote to the  editor of the antislavery journal National Era. She told him that she was planning to write a story about slavery. In June 1851, the first installment of her book, Uncle Tom's Cabin, was published in the National Era. She originally used the subtitle "The Man That Was A Thing". It was changed to "Life Among the Lowly". Installments were published every week from June 5, 1851, to April 1, 1852.

For the newspaper serialization (published in parts) of her novel, Stowe was paid only $400. Uncle Tom's Cabin was published in book form on March 20, 1852, by John P. Jewett with an initial print run of 5,000 copies. Each of its two volumes included three illustrations and a title-page designed by Hammatt Billings. In less than a year, the book sold an unprecedented 300,000 copies. By December 1851, sales began dropping off. A cheap edition was published to stimulate more sales.

Americans were captivated by the book. It provoked more debate about abolition and slavery. Southerns hated the book. Within a year of the book's publication, 300 babies were named "Eva" in Boston alone.

Lincoln and Stowe
After the start of the American Civil War, Stowe went to Washington, D.C. She met President Abraham Lincoln on November 25, 1862. Stowe's daughter Hattie reported, "It was a very droll time that we had at the White House I assure you ... I will only say now that it was all very funny—and we were ready to explode with laughter all the while."

Lincoln greeted Stowe by saying, "So this is the little lady who made this big war."

Harriet's own accounts are vague, including a letter reporting the meeting to her husband: "I had a real funny interview with the President."

Death

Harriet Beecher Stowe died on 1 July 1896 in Hartford, Connecticut. She is buried in the cemetery at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts.

References

Other websites

 Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin: an Electronic Edition of the National Era Version – Edited by textual scholar Wesley Raabe, this is the first edition of the novel to be based on the original text published in the National Era
 Uncle Tom's Cabin and American Culture – A multimedia archive edited by Stephen Railton about the Stowe's novel's place in American history and society
 Harriet Beecher Stowe House & Center – Stowe's adulthood home in Hartford, Connecticut
 Meet Harriet Beecher Stowe, renowned author of Uncle Tom's Cabin  – A live performance showcasing the life and times of this historical woman.
 Harriet Beecher Stowe Society – Scholarly organization dedicated to the study of the life and works of Harriet Beecher Stowe
 Brief biography at Kirjasto (Pegasos)
 The Online Books Page (University of Pennsylvania)

 Harriet Beecher Stowe's brief biography and works
 History's Women: Harriet Beecher Stowe
 Uncle Tom's Cabin , online text with audio. (PDF )
 "Uncle Tom's Cabin: the book that ignited a nation"
Top-rated online version  Black Freighter Productions' free online version of Stowe's "Queer Little Folks" (entire text, professional layout, PDF.)
"How To Live on Christ" a pamphlet by Harriet Beecher Stowe, taken from her Introduction to Chistopher Dean's "Religion As It Should Be or The Remarkable Experience and Triumphant Death of Ann Thane Peck" published in 1847  Hudson Taylor sent a pamphlet using the words of this preface out to all the missionaries of the China Inland Mission in 1869.
Barron's BookNotes for Uncle Tom's Cabin - The Author and Her Times

1811 births
1896 deaths
19th-century American novelists
19th-century writers from Connecticut
American abolitionists
Educators from Hartford, Connecticut
Writers from Hartford, Connecticut

Harriet Beecher Stowe


"St. George and the Dragonet" is a short audio satire recorded August 26, 1953 by Stan Freberg for Capitol Records. It was released September 21, 1953 as a 45 rpm single (Capitol F2596), and reached No. 1 on both the Billboard and Cash Box record charts.

Scripted by Freberg and Daws Butler, the spoof combined the tale of "St. George and the Dragon" with the popular 1950s radio-TV series Dragnet. The recording was a #1 hit, selling over one million copies in the first three weeks. The cast featured Freberg, Butler, June Foray and Hy Averback.  Freberg used a variation of the line "Just the facts, ma'am," which was popularly associated with Dragnet despite never being used in the series. Freberg actually said, "I just want to get the facts, ma'am."

Plot
The narrator in the introduction states that the legend that the listener is going to hear is true and that "only the needle should be changed to protect the record." St. George begins his story: "This is the countryside. My name is St. George. I am a Knight." (This parodies Sgt. Joe Friday's opening narration, "This is the City.") St. George learns that the dragon is wanted for "devouring maidens out of season", and sets out to apprehend it. He encounters a maiden (June Foray in a New York accent) who was "burned" by the dragon and confident in her own testimony, stating that she got it "straight from the dragon's mouth."  He also meets a knave (Daws Butler) who has been accused of "stealing tarts", who gives the description of the dragon. When the Knave asks St. George how he plans to capture the dragon, the knight says he will use a "dragon net". George finds the dragon and charges him with a 502 (Devouring Maidens Out of Season) and as the dragon over-dramatically bellows his defiance to the charge, St. George also charges him with a 412 (Overacting) and takes him into custody. The dragon's fire is "put out", its "maiden-devouring license" is revoked, and it is sentenced to a prison term. The narrator concludes by saying, "Maiden devouring out of season is punishable by a term of not less than 50, or more than 300 years."

Production
Freberg wanted to use the original Dragnet opening theme music by Walter Schumann. Capitol Records insisted he get the permission of Dragnet star and creator, Jack Webb. Being a Freberg fan, Webb liked the idea, approved the use of the theme and allowed Freberg to use the same orchestra from the Dragnet series with Schumann conducting. (According to Freberg, when he approached Webb with the idea for the record, the actor said, "I was wondering when you'd get around to me, Freberg.")

The recording had to be restarted several times because the trombone players were laughing so hard at the jokes that they were unable to play their instruments. Schumann's music was issued on sheet music with a front cover photograph of Freberg (minus his glasses), a humorous close-up with noir lighting as if it were a still from Dragnet.

Reception
"St. George and the Dragonet" was issued through the same channels as the distribution of popular music, and in 1953 it was #1 on both the Billboard and Cash Box record charts. The B-side was another Dragnet spoof, "Little Blue Riding Hood", based on the fairy tale "Little Red Riding Hood", in which Little Red Riding Hood (voiced by June Foray) is accused of trafficking "goodies". The introductory narration claims that "only the color has been changed, to prevent an investigation," a reference to the high-level "red scare" investigations conducted  in that period by the House Un-American Activities Committee. Freberg's in-character narration begins, "This is the woods".

Freberg and Butler later issued a Christmas-themed Dragnet parody, "Christmas Dragnet" (aka "Yulenet"), concerning a character named Grudge who was picked up by the squad for refusing to believe in Santa Claus.  Freberg's in-character narration begins,"This is the season".

"St. George and the Dragonet" was later made available in a 1991 CD set, Dr. Demento 20th Anniversary Collection (Rhino R2 70743, May 21, 1991); a 1998 CD The Very Best Of Stan Freberg (Collectables COL-CD-2733; reissue of 1990 CD The Capitol Collector's Series); and a 1999 CD set Tip of the Freberg: The Stan Freberg Collection 1951-1998 (Rhino R2 75645, August 3, 1999).  In 1957 Freberg reprised the sketch on one episode of his radio series, The Stan Freberg Show.

References

External links

1953 singles
Dragnet (franchise)
Number-one singles in the United States
Parodies of literature
Parodies of radio programs
Comedy sketches
Works by Stan Freberg
Saint George and the Dragon

St. George and the Dragonet


Salmanticenses and Complutenses are the Latin names (after episcopal sees) designating the Spanish Catholic authors of the courses of Scholastic philosophy and theology, and of moral theology published by the lecturers of the philosophical college of the Discalced Carmelites at Alcalá de Henares, and of the theological college at Salamanca.

History
Although primarily intended for the instruction of the younger members of the order, these colleges, being incorporated in the Universities of Alcalá (Complutum in Latin) and Salamanca, opened their lecture rooms also to outsiders. During the Middle Ages the Carmelites, with some notable exceptions, had gone hand in hand with the Dominicans in the matter of Scholastic teaching as against the Franciscan and Augustinian schools; it was therefore natural that in the sixteenth century they should maintain their old allegiance as against the Jesuits. Consequently, they made strict adherence to Thomism their fundamental principle, and carried it out with greater consistency than probably any other commentators of the neo-Scholastic period.

Although the names of the several contributors to the three courses are on record, their works must not be taken as the views or utterances of individual scholars, but as the expression of the official teaching of the order, for no question was finally disposed of without being submitted to the discussion of the whole college, and in case of difference of opinions the matter was decided by vote. By this means such uniformity and consistency were obtained that it could be claimed that there was not a single contradiction in any of these immense works, although nearly a century elapsed between the publication of the first and the appearance of the final instalment.

At the beginning the lecturers contented themselves with writing their quaterniones, many of which are still extant, but at the beginning of the seventeenth century the publication of a complete course was decided upon. The "Logic", written by Diego de Jesus (born at Granada, 1570; died at Toledo, 1621) appeared at Madrid, 1608, and was re-written by Miguel de la SS. Trinidad (b. at Granada, 1588; d. at Alcalá 1661), in which form it was frequently printed in Spain, France and Germany. Nearly all the remaining philosophical treatises were the work of Antonio de la Madre de Dios (b. at Léon, 1588; d. 1640). The whole work was then re-cast by Juan de la Anunciación (b. at Oviedo, 1633; general superior from 1694 to 1700; d. 1701), who also added a supplement. It appeared at Lyon in 1670 in five quarto volumes, under the title "Collegii Complutensis Fr. Discalc. B. M. V. de Monte Carmeli Artium cursus ad breviorem formam collectus et novo ordine atque faciliori stylo dispositus". It superseded all previous editions and various supplements, such as the "Metaphysica in tres lib. distincta" (Paris, 1640) by the French Carmelite Blasius à Conceptione. Antonio de la Madre de Dios laid the foundation of the dogmatic part of the Salmanticenses by publishing, in 1630, two volumes containing the treatises "De Deo uno", "De Trinitate", and "De angelis".

He was succeeded by Domingo de Santa Teresa (b. at Alberca, 1600; d. at Madrid, 1654), who wrote in 1647 "De ultimo fine", "De beatitudine, etc.", and "De peccatis". Juan de la Anunciación, already mentioned, contributed "De gratia", "De justificatione et merito", "De virtutibus theologicis", "De Incarnatione", "De sacramentis in communi" and "De Eucharistia". He left the first volume of "De poenitentia" in manuscript. It was revised and continued by Antonio de S. Juan-Bautista, who, dying at Salamanca in 1699, was unable to carry it through the press. The work was therefore completed by Alonso de los Angeles (d. 1724) and Francisco de Sta Ana (d. at Salamanca, 1707). This last volume, the twelfth, appeared in 1704. The Salmanticenses have ever been held in the highest esteem, particularly at Rome where they are considered a standard work on Thomistic scholasticism. A new edition, in twenty volumes appeared in Paris as late as 1870-83. An abridgment (two large volumes, in folio) for the use of students was published by Pablo de la Concepcion (general from 1724 to 1730; d. at Granada, 1734).

The moral theology of the Salmanticenses was begun in 1665 by Francisco de Jesus-Maria (d. 1677), with treatises on the sacraments in general, baptism, confirmation, the Eucharist and extreme unction. The fourth edition (Madrid, 1709) underwent considerable revision on account of the new Decrees of popes Innocent XI and Alexander VII. It was augmented by a disquisition on the "Bull Cruciata" of José de Jesús-Maria, published by Antonio del SS. Sagramento. Andrés de la Madre de Dios (d. 1674) wrote "De sacramento ordinis et matrimonii" (Salamanca, 1668), "De censuris", "De justitia" and "De statu religioso", with all cognate matters. Sebastian de San Joaquin (d. 1714), the author of two volumes on the Ten Commandments, did not live to see his work through the press. Hence it was completed and published by Alonso de los Angeles, who had also put the last hand to the course of dogmatic theology.

St. Alphonsus Liguori esteemed the moral theology of the Salmanticenses; he nearly always quotes them approvingly and follows their lead, though on rare occasions he finds them somewhat too easy going. Lehmkuhl complains that they are not always accurate in their quotations.

Sources

Carmelite Order
University of Salamanca

Salmanticenses and Complutenses


Electronic dance music, often simplified as EDM, (occasionally referred to as electronica or dance) is a form of electronic music which is meant to be danced to, often in the setting of a nightclub, discothèque or party. Generally, electronic dance music is created by producers and composers, and is then used by DJs, or disc jockeys, in the above settings. Electronic dance music takes many forms and styles. As a genre, it is generally up-tempo music created by electronic software and machines, such as synthesizers, drum machines, keyboards, samplers, sequencers and computers. Occasionally, the term "techno" is used to describe electronic dance music in general, despite being a generalisation as techno is a distinguishable subgenre of EDM.

History and origins
Being quite a generic term, EDM has a variety of 'origins' and derivations. EDM can be said to stem from a fusion between regular dance music and electronic music. One notable example can be Donna Summer's 1977 single "I Feel Love", which combined elements of disco with electronic music. The innovative blend helped trigger several major EDM genres, such as Hi-NRG, Eurodance and techno music. Giorgio Moroder, who co-wrote the song and was also one of its producers, additionally created some of the earliest forms of electronic dance music. Kraftwerk are also credited as influencing electronic music. Whilst a lot of electronic dance music originates from disco, this is not the case for all EDM.

The song which has been credited as bringing EDM into mainstream popular music is Madonna's 1998 single "Ray of Light". Whilst it is attributed as helping bring the genre mainstream, electronic dance music existed and had enjoyed popularity years before the single's release; house music, for instance, had been popular in the United States since the early 1990s (its popularity can also be attributed to another Madonna single, 1990's "Vogue").

Different forms of electronic dance music
There are different types of EDM, each varying in style, beats per minute and sound. This is a list of some of the major electronic dance music genres (each genre may additionally have further subgenres, which have not been looked at in too much detail for this section)

 Italo disco - starting in the late 1970s, Italo disco is a form of EDM which came from disco music; whilst it kept a lot of disco's main characteristics, it made much stronger usage of synthesizers and drum machines in order to have a more futuristic sound.
 Hi-NRG - starting in the late 1970s, Hi-NRG is a form of EDM which bases itself on disco music, with the exception that it is generally faster. It uses staccato beats and octave bass lines.
 Garage house - starting in the late 1970s to early 1980s, garage house based itself on disco music, yet also incorporated synthesizers and drum machines. Garage house additionally had prominent piano riffs, a soulful style, and similarities to gospel music.
 Electro - starting in the early 1980s, electro is a form of EDM which makes strong usage of drum machines, and samples hip hop and funk rhythms.
 Freestyle - starting in the early 1980s, freestyle was a form of EDM with Latin and hip hop influences and up-tempo melodies.
 Post-disco - starting in the early 1980s, post-disco is based on disco music, yet is more experimental and electronic, replacing disco's original orchestras with synthesizers and drum machines.
 Electronic body music (EBM) - starting in the early 1980s, EBM mixes elements of industrial music with EDM.
 House - starting in the early 1980s, house music is generally up-tempo music strongly influenced by disco. It makes usage of strong kick-beats and a big bass line, keeping the 4/4 rhythm which disco had. On the other hand, it is more beat-based and less melodic than disco.
 Techno - starting in the mid-1980s, techno is a form of EDM which is generally up-tempo, repetitive music which keeps a 4/4 rhythm. It is rhythmic music which places a strong emphasis on beats, and is usually instrumental in nature.
 Alternative - starting in the mid-1980s, alternative dance blends elements of EDM with alternative rock music and New Wave.
 Europe - starting in the late 1980s to the early 1990s, Eurodance is a mainly European form of electronic dance music which generally includes the prominent usage of synthesizer, especially with regards to riffs, a strong bass, as well as a generally melodic sound.
 Trance - starting in the early 1990s, trance is a form of EDM which is generally up-tempo and includes repeated melodic phrases created by synthesizers.
 Intelligent dance music (IDM) - starting in the early 1990s, IDM music is a more experimental form of EDM.
 Hardcore techno - starting in the early 1990s, hardcore techno is fast music which makes common usage of distorted, often atonal, beats.
 Happy hardcore - starting in the early 1990s, happy hardcore is generally fast music with euphoric or happy-sounding melodies.
 Trip hop - starting in the early-1990s, trip hop is a slower form of electronic dance music which uses hip hop beats, and generally has an atmospheric, soulful sound.
 Drum and bass - starting in the early 1990s, drum and bass is a form of EDM which has a strong bass and makes usage of breakbeats, and occasionally uses the amen break.
 Bubblegum - starting in the mid-1990s, bubblegum is a fusion between Eurodance and bubblegum pop music, keeping the dance-oriented electronic sound of the former and mixing it with the cheerful and simplistic characteristics of the latter.
 Hardstyle - starting in the late 1990s, hardstyle is a form of EDM which generally includes hard-hitting, strong beats.
 Electroclash - starting in the late 1990s, electroclash is a form of EDM which borrows elements from 1980s synthpop and New Wave, as well as soft rock and indie rock music, and places an emphasis on performance art, fashion and style.
 Dubstep - starting in the late 1990s to early 2000s, dubstep is a form of EDM which includes a strong bass line, a wobble bass, and common bass drops, usually abandoning the traditional 4/4 rhythm of a lot of electronic dance.

References

Electronic dance music


Public houses (better known as pubs) are businesses that serve alcoholic drinks such as beer, cider and ale, and usually also non-alcoholic drinks such as lemonade, cola, tea, and coffee to be consumed within the limits of the public house. They are subject to the licensing laws of the country. They may be closed down if not properly conducted. Many pubs also sell food such as fish and chips and meat pies.

Pubs are found in English-speaking countries such as England, Wales, Ireland, Scotland, Canada, Australia and the United States. In villages and small towns in many parts of England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland, pubs are the centre of community life. Some pubs hire bands or singers to entertain customers. If the pub has rooms where people can sleep at night, it is usually called an inn.

Ownership and staffing
Public houses may be owned and operated in different ways. Breweries may own a number of pubs themselves. Pubs may be run as franchises by large catering companies. However they are owned, a pub will be managed by a "landlord" or "landlady". Employees do different jobs to provide good service. Bartenders (also called "barmen" or "barmaids") serve drinks at the bar. In most pubs, the customer orders the drinks at the bar and waits for them to be prepared, then carries the drinks back to the tables or area of seating. In some types of pubs may sit at the bar or remain standing with their drinks. Some pubs hire servers, called waiters or waitresses, to bring drinks to people who are sitting at tables or in chairs. Some pubs also hire people to take away empty bottles and glasses, though commonly the bartenders will do this as well.

Pubs that serve food have cooks, dishwashers, and servers to prepare, cook, and serve the food. Bands and singers who entertain customers during the evening are not usually employees of the pub. Instead, the pub signs a contract with these entertainers, in which the entertainer promises to come to the pub on a specified day or night, in return for a sum of money.

Comparison with nightclubs
Another type of business that serves alcohol is the nightclub. Like pubs, some nightclubs also serve food and have bands or singers as entertainers. Most people go to nightclubs because they enjoy the music and dancing. However, nightclubs often have a much wider selection of alcoholic drinks than pubs. Most nightclubs sell a number of different brands of spirits, liqueurs, wine, sherry, and aperitifs.

The bartenders (also called "barmen" or "barmaids") at nightclubs often make a much larger variety of mixed drinks, or cocktails, than those who work in pubs.

Notes

Places where alcohol is served
Restaurants

Public house


Bandy is a sport like ice hockey but with a ball instead of a puck and on a larger field. It is played on ice. The rules are much like the rules for association football.

Rules

There are 11 players on each team. The game is 90 minutes long with 45 minutes in each half, like association football (soccer). The size of the bandy field is the same as in association football.

The rules are set by the Federation of International Bandy.

International

There are 32 countries in the Federation of International Bandy.

Bandy World Championship for men has been played recurringly since 1957.

Other websites

 Federation of International Bandy

Bandy


The term delusional disorder refers to an uncommon although serious condition in which patients have non-bizarre delusions. These patients function in normal manners. Their delusions are not caused from drugs or general disorders. Examples of these delusions include being followed, spied on or being poisoned, having certain health problems, such as heart disease or stroke.

Mental illnesses

Delusional disorder


An iceberg is a large piece of ice floating in the sea.  They are generally found in cold water near the North or South Pole. Icebergs are especially common during spring, when ice has begun to melt.

About 90% of an iceberg is below the water line and ten percent above. Icebergs break off from larger structures made of ice, like glaciers or ice shelves. These are formed by snowfall in very cold places where it will not melt in the summer. The snow builds up and compacts into ice. This is gradually pulled downhill by gravity and into the sea. The ice then falls off and makes icebergs. The icebergs can drift in the sea for years before they have melted completely.

History
The first person to give a correct scientific explanation of this phenomenon was Mikhail Lomonosov, around 1750. The density of ice is about 0.92 kg per liter, that of sea water is about 1.025 kg per liter. For this reason, 920 parts of the 1025, or about 90 percent, of the iceberg's volume need to be below the water line. Lomonosov grew up on the shore of the White Sea in the European part of Russia. He studied in Marburg, and is credited with introducing the word iceberg into the Russian language.

Icebergs are very dangerous to ships, and many ships have sunk after crashing into icebergs. The most famous one was RMS Titanic in 1912.

The largest iceberg people know about was called B-15. It broke off from the Antarctic ice shelf in the year 2000, and was as large as the island of Jamaica (over 10,000 km2). It soon started to break up into smaller pieces, some of which still remain in 2008. Icebergs are affected by global warming.

Colors
There is a color called iceberg.

References

Water

Iceberg


The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, otherwise known as the Nazi-Soviet Pact, was signed by Vyacheslav Molotov (Stalin's Soviet foreign minister) and Joachim von Ribbentrop (Hitler's German foreign minister) on 23 August 1939. The agreement promised that neither the Soviet Union nor Nazi Germany would attack each other.

A secret part established spheres of interest in Eastern Europe, and a border between both countries existed after they had invaded and divided Poland.

Only nine days later, on 1 September 1939, the German invasion of Poland began. On 17 September, the Soviet invasion of Poland began.

About 250,000 to 454,700 Polish soldiers and policemen were captured and interned by the Soviet authorities. About 125,000 were imprisoned in camps run by the NKVD, and 43,000 soldiers born in western Poland, which was under German control, were transferred to the Germans. In turn, the Soviets received 13,575 Polish prisoners from the Germans, which showed how close the co-operation was between the Germans and the Soviets.

On 3 September, France and the United Kingdom declared war soon because both had promised to defend Poland if it was attacked. Since neither of them was ready for war, they did nothing to help Poland for some time, but the Second World War clearly had started on that day.

Hitler later broke the pact in June 1941 by invading the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. The war would end by the Soviet victory in 1945.

References

1930s treaties
World War II
Nazi Germany
1930s in the Soviet Union
Treaties of Germany
1930s in Germany

Molotov-Ribbentrop pact


The 68th (Durham) Regiment of Foot (Light Infantry) was an infantry regiment in the British Army. It was created in 1758. It turned into the Durham Light Infantry in 1881.

They fought in the Seven Year's war, The Peninsular War, Crimean War, the New Zealand Wars. They served with distinction in the Peninsular Army under Arthur Wellesley. They were also present during the Indian Mutiny.

Creation
In August 1756, after the British lost Minorca in the Seven Years' War, 15 regiments (including the 23rd Regiment Of Foot) were ordered to form a second battalion. In 1758, the second battalion was separated from the 23rd and named the 68th Regiment Of Foot. It was commanded by Colonel John Lambton (1st Earl of Durham.)

The Seven Years War
In May 175, they were stationed at the Isle of Wight, after the British allies, the Prussians, asked them to come. They were to raid small areas of France and to put off pirates from raiding. They were also to distract the French Imperial Army to help the Prussians who were hard pressed at the time.

The 68th were sent to the French Coast on 7 August in the Bay of Urevillie. The troops left on 16 August. They were sent to Lunaire bay on the 3rd of September. They were defeated by a concentrated French force and were forced to retreat. It is believed the British lost up to 1500 men (killed or captured). Many of the injured died on the journey back to England due to infection on the ships.

When they landed in England, the 68th had to provide 173 men to the 61st Regiment Of Foot. They therefore had few men left and searched the countryside for new recruits. In March 1760, the 68th was forced to send 600 men to the West Indies. That left the 68th with only 58 rankers.

Very little happened until July 1763, when the regiment was shipped to Ireland.

The West Indies
On 2 June 1974, the regiment left Ireland with 250 privates. They and arrived at Antigua on 21 June. Eight years passed until six companies from the 68th were sent to fight rebellious Caribs in St. Vincent.

In March 1773. the regiment went back to Britain. In May 1774, they went to Scotland and Fort George. In December 1775, they returned to Ireland. The regiment spent seven and a half years in Ireland.

In 1779. one of its former officers, James Hackman, was hanged for the murder of Martha Ray.

The 68th left Ireland for Portsmouth in September with 793 men. News of the Peace of Paris caused some in the regiment to rebel.

After guarding prisoners of war, in October the regiment was sent to Jersey and Guernsey. It left and went to Britain in June 1784. It left for Gibraltar in early October 1785.

The 68th's stay in Gibraltar was uneventful. The regiment was sent to the islands of Martinique, Saint Lucia and Grenada, where they fought runaway slaves. They returned to Britain in September.

In late November, the two battalions separately went to the West Indies. They arrived in 1801 between between late January and March, to be put on Martinique, Barbados, The Saints and Dominica. The Treaty of Amiens was signed in 1802. They went back to St Lucia and Martinique to the French. However war broke out again in May 1803. In June, the 68th was sent to retake St. Lucia. In February 1805, having lost 500 dead and 170 injured, the 68th returned to England. The regiment was moved to St. Vincent, and in April to Antigua.

Walcheren
The 68th regiment spent the winter in Ripon. By December 1807, they received recruits and other soldiers that helped to bring the numbers of soldiers to 436. They stayed in Yorkshire. While in Hull, they were told to become a light infantry regiment.

Walcheren was invaded by an army of nearly 40,000 men in 15 brigades. This was an attempt to destroy a French fleet and to turn Napoleon's attention from Austria to them. They landed on 30 July. On 1 August, with the 85th Regiment Of Foot, they pursued their opponents to the walls of Flushing, which fell after the siege on 15 August. The regiment left in December to go to Deal.

In February 1811, while three companies were in civilians houses, some officers and soldiers attacked some townspeople who were insulting them. This resulted in the court-martial, of the officers, and two Lieutenants becoming "prisoners of the civil power". In June 1811, the regiment was sent to Portugal.

The Peninsular War
The 68th landed in Lisbon on 27 June. By 17 July, it joined the 7th Division. For the rest of the year, the regiment marched around Northern Portugal and Spain. As the march progressed, so did the number of sick men. Up to 25 men died every month throughout 1812. Despite regular reinforcements arriving, the regiment never had more than 300 men fit for active duty. In January 1812, the regiment deployed with the 7th Division as a reserve whilst the army captured Cuidad Ridrigo. On 16 March, it was a reserve for the capture of Badajoz. However they were not needed in either case and didn't get into any combat.

Salamanca
On 2 June, the regiment marched with the 7th Division into Spain. They held a position near Salamanca. The regiment was later reinforced with a company of Brunswick Oels. The regiment was then ordered to defend the village of Moresco. They barricaded all entrances to the village and fought off French attacks until nightfall.

Early on 22 July, the 68th and 2nd Cacadores fought with French Voltiguers. They later held the hill until they were relieved by the 95th Regiment in the afternoon. The 68th marched with the 7th Brigade in the battle. It was a defeat for the French. On 12 August, the 68th and 51st were the first regiments to march into Madrid. On 13 August, the 68th, 51st and Chasseurs Britanniques attacked fortified buildings holding up to 200 French troops who surrendered the next day. In September, Wellington's army besieged Burgos whilst the 68th were at Olmos covering the attackers.

The regiment went into winter quarters at Paços de Baixo and Paços de Cima in December. Due to its weakened state with only 235 men fit for duty and 247 sick, it was briefly threatened with being combined with another weak regiment into a Provisional Battalion. However, by April 1813 it had 429 men fit with only 97 sick.

They began the march into Spain in early May.

Vitoria
Wellington arrived in the area of Vitoria on 20 June. The 7th division, with the 3rd formed the left centre column of the attack the next day. They moved south across the River Zadorra. After advancing east, they came under heavy cannon and musket fire:

They took shelter in a ditch 200 yards from the French guns. While the commander of the Column hesitated, Vandeleur's brigade arrived, they both advanced forward. That night they camped.

Pyrenees
In July 1813, the British advanced to Pyrenees. Most of the French army retreated back to France to be organized by Soult. Soult launched 2 assaults on Spain on 25 July. After marching between Pamplona and Mt Achiola the regiment, with the Inglis's brigade, attacked the French on a hill near Urroz. With the help of Chasseurs Britanniques, they pushed the French from the hill. On 2 August, the 7th Division, with the 4th and part of the Light Division, attacked the weak centre of the remains of Soult's Corps. At the end of the month, Soult tried to take back San Sebastian. When they learned of the failure of the main attack, the French retired.

Nivelle
In October, Wellington crossed into France. On 10 November, he attacked the position Soult had been building defences in for 3 months. The 68th and the brigade took a number of forts, at Sare and met some resistance from the French. Col. Inglis wrote 'The 68th made the attack with its usual vivacity...'. As the army went into winter quarters, the regiment had only 197 men.

By the start of the next offensive in February 1814, they had 258 Soldiers.

Orthez
The 7th Division advanced across the Nive and took positions South of the Adour, to turn Soult's attention from Wellington's main effort to them. On 27 February, the division reached Orthez after crossing the River. They attacked Soult's right, behind the 4th Division. The 68th, 82nd and the Chasseurs Britanniques charged the 4th Division, and forced them out.

On 8 March, the 4th and 7th Divisions went north. They entered Bordeaux on 12 March. They stayed there for the rest of the month near the French troops. Napoleon abdicated on 12 April. The Regiment went back to Ireland arriving on the 26th.

Crimean War
While in Malta, in February 1854, the regiment was sent to war.

On 7 August, the Regiment, with fewer than 900 men, went to Bekios bay on Bosporus. They arrived there on 12 August. They were sent to Varna on 1 September. They were sent near Eupatoria in the Crimea on 14 September. Two companies from the 68th were sent to escort Lord Raglan.

At the Battle of Alma, they were in reserve. They only briefly were under cannon fire. In late September, the regiment was sent to the south of Sevastopol. After that they moved south.

On 25 October, the Russians tried to take the port of Balaclava, used by the allies as the port of supply. They arrived late to the battle. When they arrived, the Russians were retiring.

Inkerman
On 5 November, the Russians attacked the allies with 42,000 men. The 68th had only 243 men. They started off being the only British regiment to wear red coats.

After seeing the Russians trying to outflank the Guards on Sandbag Battery, the 20th, part of the 46th and the 68th were sent against them. This made the Russians retreat to a valley below. The 68th followed the Russians too far, and were out of ammunition. On retiring along the valley, they found more Russians on a ridge above their right:

During this, the actions of Pte. John Byrne and Sgt. Daniel Dwyer returned to help the wounded. This led to Pte. John Byrne getting the Victoria Cross. The regiment reorganized, and got sent to 'The Barrier' for the rest of the battle.

The regiment stayed in the trenches for the siege of Sevastopol. The regiment had to fight the Russians from Sevastopol, on 12 January 1855.

By the end of February, the regiment had been rearmed with the new Enfield rifle. Another fight against approximately 2000 men took place on 11 May, with the help of the Rifle Brigade and the 46th Foot. A party of Russians succeeded in spiking a gun, but were driven back. In the Crimean War, there were 2 members of the 68th who were awarded with the Victoria Cross: Pte John Byrne and Captain Thomas de Courcy Hamilton.

The regiment stayed in the trenches. They were in reserve for the assault on the Redan on the 18 June and for the final attack on 8 September. They stayed in Crimea while an agreement was being made. In May 1856, they left for Corfu.

Awards
Two Victoria Crosses were granted. Nine more were applied for but not awarded. 15 D.C.M.s were given, seven awards of the French Legion of Honour, 13 of the Order of the Medjidie, six of the Sardinian Medal of Honour, and seven of the Médaille militaire. Nine officers and the men of the 68th received their Crimea Medal from Queen Victoria on 18 May 1855.

India
The regiment remained in Corfu until September 1857. Then they were shipped back to England. On 5 November, they were given new colours by the Duke of Cambridge. In December, it went to India to help suppress the Indian Mutiny. It arrived on 30 March 1858. On 1 November, the control of India passed from the East India Company to The Crown.

The regiment that had been resting in Burma was finally going to be returned to England in August 1863. However, the governor of New Zealand requested reinforcements to deal with hostilities with the Maoris. The regiment was shipped to New Zealand. They were there from October to November 1863.

New Zealand
Three ships arrived in Auckland in mid-January 1864. Immediately detachments were sent to Tauranga, Rangarir and Maketu.

In April, the Maoris returned and began to occupy Pas in the area, including two on the peninsula of Tauranga Harbour. The 68th who were concentrated in Auckland were sent to Tauranga, with several other detachments. Two redoubts were built, one by the 68th and another by the 43rd Regiment of Foot. The commanding officer, Major-General Cameron, wanted to destroy the Maori Pas as quickly as possible. On the evening of April 28, around 720 men of the 68th crossed the river to the rear of the Maori line. At around 4 in the evening, over 300 men of the 43rd Regiment and the Naval brigade charged the Maoris and routed them by around 5 o'clock. The 68th had set up a protective cordon to capture many of the enemy, but they did not have enough men to stop the Maoris from retreating completely and they escaped.

For six weeks, the 68th remained in the area of Te Papa, to make sure pās was not set up. On 21 June, the patrol of about 600 men from the 68th, 43rd, a local Regiment and the 1st Waikato Militia, led by LT. Colonel Greer from the 68th, found a similar sized patrol in some rifle pits. Greer sent for reinforcement. They came two hours later, then assaulted the rifle pit. Sgt. Murrey was awarded the Victoria Cross.

The 68th stayed in Te Papa until February 1864. Then they were sent to Wanganui. Distrust was growing between the Army and the local militias over the colonists taking more land. They went to Auckland in February 1866. They left New Zealand in March. They reached Portsmouth between mid June and early July.

Victoria Crosses
The 68th had 3 members who were awarded the Victoria Cross, the highest award available in the British Military.

The people who were awarded the VC were:
 Pte. John Byrne
 Sgt. John Murray
 Capt. Thomas de Courcy Hamilton

Battle Honours
 Salamanca
 Vittoria
 Pyrenees
 Nivelle
 Orthes
 Peninsula
 Alma
 Inkerman
 Sevastopol
 New Zealand

Commanders
 General John Lambton 1758-1794
 Major General John Mansell 1794-1794
 Major General Thomas Dundas 1794-1794
 Colonel Alured Clarke 1974-1974
 Major General Charles Stuart 1794-1795
 General Thomas Trigge 1795-1809
 Colonel John Coape Sherbrooke 1809-1813
 Major General Henry Wards 1813-1831
 Colonel John Keane 1831-1838
 Lieutenant General William Johnston 1838-1844
 Major General Edward Gibbs 1844-1844
 Lieutenant General Charles Nicol 1844-1850
 Lieutenant General Douglas Mercer 1850-1854
 Lieutenant General William Lewis Herries 1854-1857
 Lieutenant General Robert Christopher Mansel 1857-1864
 General Lord William Paulet 1864-1881

References

Bibliography

British Army
1750s establishments in Europe
1881 disestablishments
19th-century disestablishments in the United Kingdom
18th-century establishments in Great Britain


Lynn Lavner is an American comedian and musician from Brooklyn, New York. Much of her material is based around the facts that she is Jewish and a lesbian. She is frequently billed as "America's Most Politically Incorrect Entertainer."

Lavner began her career in 1981 when she wrote the music to the lesbian-themed play Ladies! Don't Spit and Holler!. After a showing of the play a fan came up to her and asked if the soundtrack was available on the album. When Lavner told her it wasn't, the fan, who had recently inherited a large amount of money, offered to put up the money so the soundtrack could be adapted into an album. Lavner is also credited with writing the theme music - as well as starring in various segments - to the New York City-based public access program Gay Morning America, which aired from 1983-1985.

Lavner's musical style harkens back to Tin Pan Alley pop. Lavner lists some of her major influences as George Gershwin, Irving Berlin, and Cole Porter. Lavner initially was inspired to begin playing piano by her father, who played to entertain company.

Quotes
 "There are 6 admonishments in the Bible concerning homosexual activity and our enemies are always throwing them up to us usually in a vicious way and very much out of context. What they don't want us to remember is that there are 362 admonishments in the Bible concerning heterosexual activity. I don't mean to imply by this that God doesn't love straight people, only that they seem to require a great deal more supervision." from Butch Fatale

Discography
 Ladies! Don't Spit and Holler!, 1981 (available on vinyl only)
 Something Different, 1983 (available on vinyl and cassette)
 I'd Rather Be Cute, 1986 (available on vinyl and cassette)
 You Are What You Wear, 1988 (available on CD, vinyl, and cassette)
 Butch Fatale, 1992 (available on CD and cassette)

References

External links
 Tribute Page

Jewish American comedians
Jewish American musicians
Lesbian comedians
American lesbian musicians
LGBT Jews
American LGBT singers
Living people
Comedians from Queens, New York
Musicians from Queens, New York
Traditional pop music singers
Year of birth missing (living people)
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians
Jewish American female comedians
20th-century American LGBT people
21st-century American LGBT people
21st-century American Jews
American LGBT comedians

Lynn Lavner


A Farewell to Arms is a 1957 World War I romantic drama movie. It was directed by Charles Vidor. The movie is based on novel of the same name by Ernest Hemmingway. It is a remake of the 1932 movie of the same name. It stars Rock Hudson, Jennifer Jones, Vittorio De Sica, and Elaine Stritch. It was distributed by 20th Century Fox. The movie was nominated for an Academy Award in 1958.

Other websites

1957 war movies
1957 romantic drama movies
American romantic drama movies
World War I movies
Movies based on books
American movie remakes
Movies directed by John Huston
Movies directed by Charles Vidor
20th Century Fox movies
Movies set in  Italy

A Farewell to Arms (1957 movie)


Þórðr Kolbeinsson (Thordr Kolbeinsson) was an 11th-century Icelandic skald, or poet. He was the court poet of Eiríkr Hákonarson and some 17 stanzas of his poetry on the earl are preserved in the kings' sagas. The following example is from Eiríkr's campaign in England with Canute the Great.

Þórðr is one of the two main characters of Bjarnar saga, where many lausavísur are attributed to him. Þórðr's son, Arnórr Þórðarson jarlaskáld, also became a prestigious poet.

References
Þórðr Kolbeinsson All extant poetry
Heimskringla Laing's translation
Knýtlinga saga Extract
Bjarnar saga Hítdælakappa

11th-century Icelandic poets

Þórðr Kolbeinsson


Franco Vittadini (9 April 1884 in Pavia – 30 November 1948 in Pavia) was an Italian composer and conductor. As a composer he is mostly known for his operas and sacred music.

Born in Pavia, he began his musical studies in 1903 at the Milan Conservatory, but left prematurely because of a disagreement with the director, Giuseppe Gallignani. For a short period he was maestro di cappella and organist in Varese, thereafter spending the rest of his life in Pavia where he was the director of the Istituto Musicale from 1924 until his death.

As a stage composer, Vittadini found his greatest success with the opera Anima allegra (1918 - 1919), performed abroad as well as in Italy. His ballet Vecchia Milano (1928) was also very successful. Vittadini considered his opera Caracciolo (1938) to be his finest work, but his opera Fiammetta e l'avaro (1942 - 1951) was more successful at winning audiences.

Vittadini received attention outside the theater for his religious works. He wrote numerous masses and motets in a style very similar to that of Lorenzo Perosi. His oratorio L'agonia del Redentore (1933) is considered to be one of his finer works, and his religious drama Nazareth (1925) forms a bridge between his achievements within sacred compositions and dramatic works.

Operas
Il mare di Tiberiade (1914)
Anima Allegra (1918–19)
Nazareth (1925)
La Sagredo (1930)
Il natale di Gesù (1933)
Caracciolo (1938)
Fiammetta e l'avaro (1942)

Sources
Opera Glass
John C.G. Waterhouse. The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, edited by Stanley Sadie (1992).  and

External links

1884 births
1948 deaths
Musicians from Pavia
Italian classical composers
Italian male classical composers
Italian opera composers
Male opera composers
Italian male conductors (music)
Milan Conservatory alumni
20th-century classical composers
20th-century Italian composers
20th-century Italian conductors (music)
20th-century Italian male musicians

Franco Vittadini


Anna de' Medici (31 December 1569 – 19 February 1584) was the third child of Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Joanna of Austria. She was a member of the famous House of Medici.

Life
Anna was the third child of Grand Duke Francesco and Archduchess Joanna. She had two surviving sisters, Eleanor, Duchess of Mantua, and Marie, Queen of France.

Francesco betrothed Anna in 1578 to Charles, Margrave of Burgau, son of Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria (a brother of her mother). A portrait of Anna was sent to the Archduke. Anna's father even asked permission in 1579 for the marriage from Philip II of Spain, who was one of the most powerful rulers of the time. But the negotiations were called off and the marriage did not go ahead. It is possible that after the failed negotiations, Francesco set up further ones for a marriage for Anna to Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, but these negotiations were also called off, and Charles Emmanuel was soon married to Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain, daughter of King Philip.

Anna soon became sickly and was dying. On 19 February 1584, her sister Eleanor sent a letter to their father on Anna's behalf requesting him to come and visit her before she died. Anna died that same day, aged only fourteen.

Ancestry

References

1569 births
1584 deaths
Anna de' Medici
16th-century Italian nobility
Anna de' Medici
Daughters of monarchs

Anna de' Medici


Nitish Chandra Laharry (1892–1964) was an Indian lawyer, social worker and film producer from Kolkata. He was the first person of Asian origin to be elected as the president of Rotary International and was the producer of the first motion picture of Bengal, Bilat Ferat. It was during his presidency that Rotary International started its Youth wing, Interact Club. The Government of India awarded him the third highest civilian honour of the Padma Bhushan, in 1963, for his contributions to society.

Biography
Nithish Chandra Laharry was born in 1892 in Kolkata, in the undivided Bengal of British India to a school teacher as one of his three sons. His early schooling was in Kolkata, after which he studied at the St. Xavier's College and at the Scottish Church College, from where he obtained his graduate and master's degrees in English literature. Later he also secured a degree in law from the University of Calcutta, winning the J. M. Tagore Medal for Law for academic excellence. During his college days, he was involved in literary activities and was the editor of a literary magazine which had Rabindranath Tagore, the Nobel Prize winner, as one of its contributors. He started his career as a lawyer at the Calcutta High Court and worked for four years, only to abandon the career to turn to film industry. He founded a studio and produced a motion picture about the Bengali diaspora in England, the first motion picture produced in Bengal, Bilat Ferat. An economic depression prompted him to switch to film distribution, and it was during this time he married Bindubala.

Laharry joined the Kolkata chapter of Rotary International in 1926 and became its secretary the same year. His business travels took him to Mumbai in 1935, but he continued his association with Rotary International by becoming a member of the Mumbai chapter, and, on his return to Kolkata in 1939, he rejoined the Kolkata branch and became its president in 1944. The Bengal famine of 1943 had already set in by that time and the organization, under his leadership, set up food canteens and free medical camps for the people affected by the famine. He also served as the vice chairman of the Armed Forces Entertainment during World War II and, after the war, managed disbursement centres for the Government of India. In 1953, he was elected as the second vice president of Rotary International, served as the Rotary Information Counselor during 1955–56, and chaired the Asia Regional Conference, in 1958, at Delhi, which had over 2900 participants from 21 countries, reportedly the largest till then. He was elected as the global president of the organization in 1962, thus becoming the first Asian to hold the position. His contributions were also reported behind the founding of Interact Club, the youth wing of the organization.

The Government of India awarded him the third highest civilian honour of the Padma Bhushan in 1963. He was also a recipient of the National Order of Merit (France) and Order of Merit (Chile) and honorary doctorates from California College of Medicine and Baylor University, Texas. He died on 21 July 1964, survived by his two daughters; his wife had preceded him in death. Rotary Club of Kolkata honoured him by naming their children's library as Nitish Chandra Laharry Children's Library.

Filmography
 1921 : Bilat Ferat

See also
 Rotary International

References

Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in social work
1892 births
1964 deaths
Bengali Hindus
20th-century Bengalis
Indian social workers
20th-century Indian lawyers
Indian lawyers
Film producers from Kolkata
Rotary International leaders
St. Xavier's College, Kolkata alumni
Scottish Church College alumni
University of Calcutta alumni
20th-century Indian educators
Social workers from West Bengal
Scholars from Kolkata
Bengali lawyers
Educators from West Bengal

Nitish Chandra Laharry


Supersense is a six-part nature documentary television series produced by the BBC Natural History Unit, originally broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC1 in 1988. The series producer was John Downer and the narrator Andrew Sachs. It used groundbreaking effects and filming techniques to show how animals perceive the world around them. The same production team went on to make the follow-up series Lifesense in 1991 and Supernatural: Unseen Power of Animals in 1999.

Episodes
 "Sixth Sense": Animals use senses of which humans are unaware. Sensitivity to the earth's electromagnetic fields, or to weather pressure, can be used to aid navigation. Some animals can predict earthquakes. Predators put these senses to lethal use: a shark homes in on the body electricity of its prey, vampire bats detect the infra-red radiation of blood, and a rattlesnake sees a 'heat picture' of its victim.
 "Seeing Sense": A vulture can spot a carcass from a great distance, the four-eyed fish can see above and below water simultaneously, a fly's multi-faceted eye sees a very different world than a human eye, while other insects can see into ultra-violet light. And lions have an area on the retina which actually empathises with their prey.
 "Sound Sense": Human ears have a limited range and are deaf to a low-register elephant conversation or the high-pitched squeaking of mice. Whales use sonar to communicate across hundreds of miles of sea, while spiders listen out for the wingbeats of prey and the kangaroo rat has hearing so sensitive that it can hear the rattlesnake's strike—and avoid it. Birds, meanwhile, use sounds to detect changes in the weather and as an aid to navigation.
 "Super Scents": Smell is invaluable in hunting, protecting a species, mating, and navigation. Petrels use it to find fish in the open sea, springboks emit an 'alarm' odour to warn the herd of a predator, salamanders inject their females with aphrodisiac, and a salmon's epic journey across the ocean to spawn and die is achieved through its sense of smell.
 "Sense of Timing": Courting, egg-laying, hibernation—the cycles of the earth, moon, and sun are the rhythms which govern all life. Every animal's perception of time varies, according to its heart rate. A shrew lives 30 times faster than an elephant, so time appears to pass more slowly. Also shown is the rare 17-year eruption of the US cicada.
 "Making Sense" (23 January 1989): Each animal has a unique view of the world derived from a combination of different senses. The mind creates mental maps for navigational skills, which can also be affected by genetic programming. Other super-senses have resulted from the need to hunt or avoid becoming a meal. The mind decides what skills it needs to survive.

Media
 A region 2 DVD (BBCDVD1989) featuring all six 30-minute episodes was released on 21 August 2006.
 A hardcover book to accompany the series, Supersense: Perception in the Animal World by John Downer, was released by BBC Books in November 1988 ().

See also
 The Most Extreme episode 22, "Super Senses"

External links

 Supersense at Film.com

1980s British documentary television series
1988 British television series debuts
1989 British television series endings
BBC television documentaries
Documentary films about nature

Supersense


Byron Bancroft Johnson (January 5, 1864 – March 28, 1931) was an American executive in professional baseball who served as the founder and first president of the American League (AL).

Johnson developed the AL—a descendant of the minor league Western League—into a "clean" alternative to the National League, which had become notorious for its rough-and-tumble atmosphere. To encourage a more orderly environment, Johnson strongly supported the new league's umpires, which eventually included Hall of Famer Billy Evans.

With the help of league owners and managers such as Charles Comiskey, Charles Somers and Jimmy McAleer, Johnson lured top talent to the AL, which soon rivaled the more established National League. Johnson dominated the AL until the mid-1920s, when a public dispute with baseball commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis culminated in his forced resignation as league president.

The Western League
Born in Norwalk, Ohio, Johnson went on to study law at Marietta College, although he did not take his degree. He subsequently became the sports editor of a newspaper in Cincinnati. During this time, Johnson befriended Charles Comiskey, who was then manager of the Cincinnati Reds. At the urging of Comiskey and Reds owner John T. Brush, Johnson was elected as president of the Western League, a faltering minor league, at a reorganization meeting held in 1894.

Johnson had criticized the National League for its rowdy atmosphere, which was driving away families and women. He set about making baseball more friendly to both. Contrary to the practice of the time, Johnson gave his umpires unqualified support and had little tolerance for players or managers who failed to show them due respect. Johnson also fined and suspended players who used foul language on the field. Soon, the Western League was recognized as not only the strongest minor league, but also as the most effectively managed league in all of baseball.

Formation of the American League

Johnson, however, had a bigger plan—another major league. With the help of Comiskey, who had purchased the Sioux City franchise and moved it to St. Paul in 1894 after leaving the Reds, Johnson initiated an ambitious plan of expansion. He got his chance after the 1899 season, when the National League dropped teams in Baltimore, Cleveland, Louisville and Washington, D.C. Johnson moved the Grand Rapids franchise to Cleveland, where they would eventually become the Indians. He also had Comiskey move his Saint Paul team to Chicago, where they eventually became the White Sox. The latter move was made with the blessing of the NL, which saw Comiskey's team as a way to head off any attempt to revive the American Association. For the 1900 season, the Western League was renamed as the American League, although it remained a minor league.

The 1900 season was an unequivocal success, and Johnson received a 10-year contract extension. In October, he withdrew the AL from the National Agreement (the formal understanding between the NL and the minor leagues). The final step came on January 28, 1901, when he declared the AL would operate as a major league. He then placed teams in Baltimore, Boston, Philadelphia and Washington.

The Buffalo Bisons were to be a member of the new American League and their manager Franklin was told right up to January 29, 1901, that "Buffalo was in the league and not to worry." Johnson then unceremoniously dumped Buffalo and placed the franchise in Boston. It was later revealed that he not only had been negotiating surreptitiously with Boston people for several months, but also that he had money invested in the Boston franchise. Johnson also had a large stake in the Washington franchise, which he kept until 1903.

A baseball power
The NL then made a critical blunder by limiting salaries to $2,400 – a low sum even by 1901 standards. Johnson, Comiskey and the other AL owners responded by raiding NL rosters, promising disgruntled players much higher salaries. Over 100 players "jumped" to the new league. After a two-year war in which the AL trounced the NL in attendance both seasons, the NL sued for peace. Under a new National Agreement, the AL was formally recognized as the second major league. A three-man National Commission was set up, composed of both league presidents and Reds owner Garry Herrmann. Although Herrmann was nominal president of the commission, Johnson soon dominated the body.

Johnson did not tolerate criticism, and made it very difficult for men he didn't like to buy into the league. For instance, when Harry Frazee bought the Boston Red Sox in 1917, Johnson tried almost from the start to drive him out because Frazee had not been hand-picked by Johnson. At one point, Johnson even had ownership interests in the Cleveland and Washington teams.

Downfall
The Frazee dispute planted the seed for Johnson's downfall. Eventually, the league divided into two factions, with the Red Sox, White Sox and New York Yankees on one side (commonly known as "The Insurrectos") and the other five clubs (the Indians, Philadelphia Athletics, St. Louis Browns, Detroit Tigers and Washington Senators, known as the "Loyal Five") on the other. By this time, Comiskey had become a bitter enemy of Johnson; the two men's once warm friendship had strained considerably. Johnson's authority eroded further that year when the Red Sox traded Carl Mays to the Yankees in defiance of a Johnson order to suspend him after Mays had jumped the club. The Yankees went to court and received an injunction to allow Mays to play, as Johnson had demonstrated throughout the proceedings that his investment in the Cleveland Indians hindered his ability to be impartial.

The final nail in Johnson's coffin proved to be the Black Sox Scandal. Johnson paid no attention to Comiskey's claims that his White Sox may have been on the take from gamblers. However, when the scandal broke after the 1920 season, the White Sox, Red Sox and Yankees threatened to pull out of the AL and join a new 12-team National League. The enlarged league would include a new team in Detroit unrelated to the Tigers, who were owned by Johnson loyalist Frank Navin. However, Navin was in no mood for another war and persuaded the other five clubs to agree to appoint a new National Commission of non-baseball men. Federal District Court Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis was appointed as chairman. However, Landis would accept an appointment only as sole Commissioner of Baseball, with unlimited power over the game. The owners were still reeling from the damage to baseball's reputation due to the Black Sox Scandal, and readily agreed to Landis' demands.

Under the circumstances, a clash between the iron-willed Johnson and the iron-willed Landis was inevitable, and it happened prior to the 1924 World Series. Landis banned two New York Giants from the Series for attempting to bribe members of the Philadelphia Phillies late in the season. After Frankie Frisch and two other Giants stars were implicated, only to be cleared by Landis, Johnson demanded that the Series be canceled. He publicly criticized Landis for his handling of the affair, and Landis threatened to resign if the AL owners didn't rein Johnson in. After the Series, the AL owners promised to remove Johnson from office if he stepped out of line again. Johnson remained on good behavior for two years, even getting an extension of his contract to 1935 and a raise to $40,000 (he had previously made $25,000).

However, in 1926, Johnson criticized Landis for granting Ty Cobb and Tris Speaker an amnesty after evidence surfaced that they had fixed a game in 1919. Landis demanded that the AL choose between him and Johnson. The AL owners were prepared to remove Johnson from office at their annual meeting in January 1927. Because Johnson was in ill health at the time, the owners decided to put him on an indefinite sabbatical instead. Johnson tried to return in the spring and acted as if nothing had changed. However, the situation had become untenable, and Johnson was forced to resign at the end of the season. Frank Navin served as acting president of the American League until the owners selected Indians general manager Ernest Barnard as president.

Legacy
Johnson died on March 28, 1931, at age 67, in St. Louis, Missouri, just a few hours after his successor, Ernest Barnard. Johnson was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937 as one of its charter members. The athletic fieldhouse at Marietta College is named in his honor. He was laid to rest at Riverside Cemetery in Spencer, Indiana.

Will Harridge, who succeeded to the AL presidency in 1931, summed up Johnson's legacy: "He was the most brilliant man the game has ever known. He was more responsible for making baseball the national game than anyone in the history of the sport".

The Jayhawk Collegiate League's Liberal Bee Jays are named in Johnson's honor.

References

External links

American League presidents
Baseball developers
National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
People from Norwalk, Ohio
Washington Senators (1901–1960) owners
1864 births
1931 deaths

Ban Johnson