Constantin Daniel Rosenthal (b. Pest, Austrian Empire: Rosenthal Konstantin, 1820 – July 23, 1851) was a Romanian painter and sculptor of Austrian-Jewish birth and a 1848 revolutionary, best known for his portraits and his choice of Romanian Romantic nationalist subjects.

Biography

Early career
Born into a Jewish merchant family in Pest (part of the Austrian Empire at the time), he left the city at the age of seventeen in order to attend the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts, where he studied archaeological drawing (graduating in 1839) and made his first Romanian acquaintance, the painter Ioan D. Negulici.

Rosenthal arrived in Bucharest, the capital of Wallachia, around 1842, where he was probably commissioned to paint the first in a long series of boyar's portraits. He was introduced to the liberal-radical circles by Negulici, becoming very close to C. A. Rosetti.

Dissatisfied with his oil painting technique, he left for France in late 1844, he attended art courses in Paris, and began attending meetings of Wallachian and Moldavian students who expressed nationalist and radical ideals. He was accompanied by Rosetti, who praised Rosenthal's work ethic:
"There are many Romanians here [but] none of them have to bear the cold Rosenthal has to [in his lodging]. Strange how the noble aim enpowers... there truly are plenty elloquent proofs that the man shall become great!".

This is the most likely date of his multiple portrait, kept only in its lithograph rendition, showing Rosetti embracing Rosenthal himself and a third, unknown person - Rosenthal painted himself wearing a phrygian cap.

Wallachian revolution

In 1846, the profit from his works afforded him a trip to England; upon his return to Paris, he was informed of his family's financial destitution, and left for Budapest in early 1847, only to leave in summer for Mehadia, and then, in August, for Bucharest. Rosenthal again joined the radical circles, this time as a member of the secret society  Frăţia, which was by then masking itself as a literary society presided by Iancu Văcărescu, and was commissioned by Vasile Alecsandri to paint a portrait of the deceased Elena Negri after a daguerrotype. He also painted the portrait of Anica Manu, the wife of Aga Iancu Manu.

Upon the outbreak of the revolution, Rosenthal was spared the first wave of repression ordered by Prince Gheorghe Bibescu - given the fact that he carried an Austrian passport. On June 18, 1848, soon after the Provisional Government took hold, Rosenthal applied for Wallachian  citizenship (in theory, Romanian - as the new administrative body indicated its goal in the union of the two Danubian Principalities); the document giving him the right of naturalization justified it as "taking in view his talent and the active part he played in the revolution". In his correspondence with Rosetti, he later testified: "I never would have thought that I could be as Wallachian as I am now".

The Government assigned him the designing of a triumphal arch in Bucharest, one meant to mark the success of the revolution, and, probably, of a Statue of Liberty (the latter project only survives in a watercolour by Theodor Aman, Dezrobirea Ţiganilor - "The Freeing of the Gypsies").

Exile

In late September, after Ottoman troops intervened against the revolution, most radicals were arrested and transported on board small vessels on the Danube, to exile in various locations. Rosenthal made public his request to join them, but was answered that Austrian protection still applied to him, and, although he requested to be viewed as a Wallachian, was denied permission to board. Subsequently, he and Rosetti's wife Maria followed the ships on shore from Giurgiu to Sviniţa, where they convinced the Austrian mayor to disarm the Ottoman guards, and allow the prisoners to go free.

He returned to Pest-Buda, which was still witnessing the Hungarian revolution at the time, left for Paris in May 1850, and subsequently joined Romanian exiles in carrying out propaganda work. His most celebrated paintings, two national personifications — România revoluţionară ("Revolutionary Romania", which was also a portrait of Maria Rosetti) and România rupându-şi cătuşele pe Câmpia Libertăţii ("Romania Breaking off Her Chains on the Field of Liberty") —, date from this period.

Persecution and killing
Soon without money, Rosenthal left for Switzerland, and lived for a while in late 1850 in the town of Porrentruy, before leaving for Fribourg, then Chur, in the first days of 1851. In Graz until July, where he began receiving some attention from critics, he decided to return to Wallachia in an attempt to rekindle the radical movement.

His plan was divulged by spies of the Second French Republic (already under the authority of Prince-President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte), who read Rosenthal's correspondence in Paris; the Austrians arrested the painter during his presence in Pest-Buda, citing his "imprudent political statements". Pressured to reveal his connections and refusing to comply, Rosenthal was tortured to death; his body was never returned to his family.

In 1878, Maria Rosetti wrote a piece for Mama şi Copilul magazine, in which she praised her deceased friend:
"[Rosenthal was] one of the best and the most loyal people that God created after His image. He died for Romania, for its liberties; he died for his Romanian friends. [...] This friend, this son, this martyr of Romania is an Israelite. His name was Daniel Rosenthal."

Gallery

Notes

References

Academia Republicii  Romîne, Institutul de Istoria Artei, Scurtă istorie a artelor plastice în R.P.R., II, Secolul XIX, Editura Academiei Republicii  Romîne, Bucharest, 1958, p. 61-68
Neagu Djuvara, Între Orient şi Occident. Ţările române la începutul epocii moderne, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1995, p. 359-360
Ion Frunzetti, Pictorul revoluţionar C.Rosenthal, Ed. de Stat pentru Literatură şi Artă, Bucharest, 1955

Romanian romantic painters
Romanian revolutionaries
Austrian Jews
19th-century Austrian painters
Austrian male painters
Hungarian Jews
Hungarian romantic painters
Romanian people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
Jewish painters
Artists from Budapest
People of the Revolutions of 1848
Romanian Jews
Romanian torture victims
Romanian people who died in prison custody
1820 births
1851 deaths
19th-century Austrian male artists

Constantin Daniel Rosenthal


Edith Weston is a veelage an ceevil parish in the coonty o Rutland in the East Midlands o Ingland. It is on the sooth-eastren shore o Rutland Water an is hame o the main sailin club wi a fishin lodge.

The veelage is named efter queen Edith o Wessex (1029–1075), the wife o Edward the Confessor an sister o Harold Godwinson. The kirk is St Mary the Virgin. The veelage pub is the Wheatsheaf on King Edward's Way.

St George's Barracks is locatit tae the sooth an east o the veelage; this wis previously RAF North Luffenham. This haes hoosed the 1st Battalion o the Keengs Awn Ryal Border Regiment but in August 2007 16t Regiment Ryal Artillery, equipped wi the Rapier FSC, muivit here frae Woolwich in sootheast Lunnon.

Freemit airtins

 RutNet

References

Veelages in Rutland

Edith Weston


Radio waves make up part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are packets of energy with differing wavelengths, similar to visible light waves, X-rays or gamma rays, except much longer.

A radio wave, like other electromagnetic waves, is similar to an ocean surface wave or any other type of wave.  Both types of wave have a hill and valley shape, repeating over and over.  A wavelength is measured as the distance from the top of one crest to the top of its neighboring crest. While the wavelength of visible light is very very small, less than one micrometer and much less than the thickness of a human hair, radio waves can have a wavelength from a couple centimeters to several meters. They also have a radio frequency.

The smallest radio waves are called microwaves.  Shortwaves are not quite so small.  There are also medium and long waves. Antennas designed to send and receive radio waves are usually similar in size to the wavelength they are to use. Many radio antennas (like those on cars) are made long because they receive signals of FM radio (a few meters, several feet) or AM radio (hundreds of meters, about a thousand feet).

Uses
Manmade radio waves have been used since the 19th century for communication.  Radar was developed in the 20th century, using radio waves to 'see' distant objects by bouncing waves off an object and seeing how long it takes for the waves to return.  Radios also use these waves to send and receive information.

Radio waves from other planets were first discovered in the 1930s by Karl Guthe Jansky, working for Bell Laboratories.  Bell was detecting noise (electronics) on radio channels, and had Jansky try to find the source of this static, or interference. After identifying noise that came from lightning, he spent much time looking into the remainder. Surprisingly, some of the interference was coming from space! This discovery eventually led astronomers to look at radio waves along with light waves to find things in the sky. These radio astronomers use giant Radio telescopes, shaped like satellite dishes, to gather and study the waves.

Radio waves are used for many things today.  Broadcasting and communications satellites and mobile phones and many computers communicate by radio waves.

Wave physics
Radio technology
Electromagnetic radiation

Radio wave


The World Dance Council Ltd (WDC), previously known as the International Council of Ballroom Dancing (ICBD) until 1996, was established at a meeting organised by P.J.S Richardson on September 22, 1950 in Edinburgh.

Initially consisting of nine European countries and three others, today the WDC has become the leading authority on competitive ballroom and Latin dance. It has members in many countries throughout the world. Each country is allowed one member. As of 2006, there are 59 members.

Its governing body, the Presidium, consists of a President and five vice-presidents. Professional World Championship ballroom dance is organised by the Dancesport Committee; Amateur championships are organised by the Amateur League, and social dancing by the and the Social Dance Committee.

References

Dance

World Dance Council


FNMTV Premiers is a television program shown on MTV. The program is hosted by Pete Wentz of rock band Fall Out Boy. FNMTV is shown every Friday night. It shows all new never-before seen music videos and live performances. The program has had several famous guests including Lil Wayne, Jonas Brothers, Miley Cyrus, Rihanna, Maroon 5, and Katy Perry.

Other name results for FNMTV
Other possible name results for the title are FN'MTV, Friday Night MTV, Feedback New MTV, Feedback New Music Television, FN (standing for f***ing MTV) MTV, F'in MTV, or FN'MTV "Friday Night".

Music television series
MTV

FNMTV


A bicentennial is the two hundredth year of something. In the United States, bicentennial is commonly is used to refer to the year 1976. This is because 1976 is two hundred years after the country was started in 1776. In Australia it commonly means one of two bicentennials. The first, in 1970, was the two hundredth anniversary of James Cook finding Australia. The second, in 1988 was the two hundredth anniversary of the first white settlement on the continent.

Time

Bicentennial


To Kill a Mockingbird is an American novel written by Harper Lee. It was published in 1960. The book was a great success. It won the Pulitzer Prize. The book was adapted and made into a 1962 movie starring Gregory Peck. The movie won three Academy Awards.

Lee based the story and characters on her family and neighbors, and something that happened near her hometown in 1936. This was when she was 10 years old.

To Kill a Mockingbird is a Southern Gothic novel and a bildungsroman (a story where the main character develops and grows). Its main themes are white/black racism and innocence. Lee also writes about bravery, compassion, and gender roles in the American Deep South. The book has been taught in many schools in English-speaking countries with lessons about being patient and fair.

It is set during the Great Depression (world depression) of the 1930s. It was first published in 1960 and made into a movie in 1962. It tells the story of a young girl, Jean Louise Finch (known as "Scout") and her brother Jeremy Atticus Finch (known as "Jem"). They live in the Southern United States with their father Atticus Finch, who is a lawyer. In the story, Atticus defends a black man, Tom Robinson, who has been accused of raping a white woman.

Background and publication
Harper Lee was born in 1926 and grew up in the Southern town of Monroeville, Alabama. There, she became close friends with Truman Capote, who became a famous writer later. She went to Huntingdon College in Montgomery (1944–45), and then studied law at the University of Alabama (1945–49). When she went to college, she wrote for literary magazines, like Huntress and Rammer Jammer. At both colleges, she wrote short stories and other works about racial unfairness, which was not usually written about in colleges at the time. In 1950, Lee moved to New York City, where she worked as a clerk for British Overseas Airways Corporation. While she was there, she began writing essays and short stories about people in Monroeville. In 1957, Lee showed her writing to a literary agent whom Capote had told her about. An editor at J.B. Lippincott suggested to her that she should stop working at the airline and focus on writing instead. Her friends gave her money to help her continue writing for a year.

Lee spent two and a half years writing To Kill a Mockingbird. The National Endowment for the Arts describes how Lee once became so unhappy that she threw her manuscript out the window into the snow. Her agent made her take her writing back again. The book was printed on July 11, 1960. It was first titled Atticus, but Lee changed its name because the story was more than simply about one character. The editors at Lippincott told Lee that she would probably sell only several thousand copies. In 1964, Lee said, "I never expected any sort of success with 'Mockingbird.' ... I was hoping for a quick and merciful death at the hands of the reviewers but, at the same time, I sort of hoped someone would like it enough to give me encouragement. Public encouragement. I hoped for a little, as I said, but I got rather a whole lot, and in some ways this was just about as frightening as the quick, merciful death I'd expected." Instead of a "quick and merciful death", Reader's Digest Condensed Books chose part of the book to be printed again. This immediately made many more people read it. After it was first published, the book never stopped being printed.

Plot
To Kill a Mockingbird was written by Alabama author Harper Lee in 1960. The story comes from the perspective of 8-year-old girl Scout Finch, she has an older brother, Jem, who is 4 years her elder. They live with their father, Atticus, who is a lawyer and they are looked after by Calpurnia, their black maid during the day. The story takes place in a sleepy little town called Maycomb, in Alabama, it takes place during the Great Depression (1933-1935). At the beginning of the story Scout and Jem are introduced to Dill, he comes to live with his aunt every summer. The kids are intrigued by a person they call Boo Radley (real name, Arthur Radley), the rumor around the town is that Boo only goes outside of his house at night and hunts squirrels with his bare hands. Dill thinks of a plan to lure him out and dares Jem to pound on the front door, Jem refuses but Dill calls him a coward, Jem has not backed out of a dare since he was born so he ends up doing it. After pounding on the door they all run back to their own house, but for a split second Scout swears she saw a flicker of light in the house, as if they were being watched. Now the kids have grown obsessed with the house, they wonder what Boo looks like and why he doesn't come out. One night they try to break in from the back door to get a glimpse of Boo, however his brother Nathan Radley hears the commotion and fires a shot from his shotgun. the bullets don't hit but the kids learn their lesson.

When school starts Scout and Jem are ridiculed by the other kids  their father is protecting a black man, when they ask about it, Atticus tells them that is his client and his name is called Tom Robinson, a black man falsely accused of the rape of a young white woman. Scout and Jem don't understand why their father is defending a black man since it makes the entire town despise them. Around this time their Aunt Alexandra moves in to help take care of the kids, she doesn't approve of Atticus defending a black man. Every Christmas, the Finch family has a gathering at Finch's Landing, their great-grandfather's early home. There Atticus teaches Scout how to shoot a bb gun, but tells her to remember she can shoot all the bluejays she wants if she can hit them, but it's a sin to kill a mockingbird. As the date of the trial comes closer, the kids get a better understanding of the situation and why their father would deliberately choose to take this case if it meant the hardships he would have to ensure. There neighbour Miss Maudie tells them that though Atticus is old, he is still the strongest person in the town, and will take on the burden that no one in town will take.

On the day of the trial, Scout, Jem and Dill sneak into the amphitheater where they are having the hearing even though Atticus told them to stay home. They watch the trial on the porch with the colored people, they see Atticus but he doesn't see them. Atticus begins the trial politely and addresses the jury, Judge Taylor and the prosecutor in a well mannered way. Mayella Ewell and her father Bob Ewell are rash when Atticus shows more evidence and justification that Tom didn't do anything, rather it was Bob Ewell who hit his daughter when he found the pair together. Atticus creates an image of the Ewells for the jury, a family with no mother, an alcoholic father and 7 kids living in a small dilapidated house lacking many essentials. The Ewell's don't have any defense rather than he said she said, but the jury still finds Tom guilty. Atticus leaves promptly after the trial and takes the kids with him, he is bitter but he does see light in the dark situation. He tells the kids that he's angry about what the verdict was, however the jury deliberated for a couple hours before reaching a decision. Normally when a black man was accused by a white man, the verdict would be guilty, no questions asked, in a matter of seconds. Atticus says today was a small step forward, the children are upset about the extreme racism that they witnessed especially Jem, who pukes at the thought of the situation. Jem asks his neighbour Miss Maudie how a world like this "could exist" and how they could treat a person like that. She tells him that it might seem at times the entire town is racist and evil, but there are always good people even when it seems everything is dark. She also reminds Jem that Judge Taylor chose Atticus for this case, because he also hopes to see some change in this town. Jem nods, and before he goes to sleep he tells Scout that he's beginning to understand why Boo Radley doesn't leave his house.

Things in Maycomb are relatively back to normal after the trial, however Bob Ewell isn't satisfied and tells Atticus he's going to get back at him if it takes his life, Atticus pays very little attention to this and tells the kids Bob was just angry that he made a fool of him in the court. At school Scout and Jem aren't ridiculed anymore, since all the parents tell their children that Scout and Jem are already going through enough having a father who is crazy enough to defend a black man. Every October the town has a Halloween festival, and this year the elementary school is having a performance so Scout has to go. Jem takes her and when they walk there, they are scared by Cecil Jacobs, one of their classmates. Scout goes to the performance but forgets her lines and as they walk back home, Jem tells Scout to hush, but he hears someone following them. Scout thinks it's just Cecil trying to scare them again, but Jem doesn't think so. They keep on walking and reach the Radley place when someone jumps on Jem, Scout screams and hears a snap, the person tries to attack her but is stopped by another person, Scout thinks it was Jem but it was actually Boo Radley who heard the scream outside his house, he takes Scout and Jem back to their house, and Atticus calls Dr.Reynolds and the sheriff, Heck Tate. Heck goes back to the Radley place and finds Bob Ewell dead from a knife to the chest. Scout tells the sheriff that when they were walking back someone jumped them, and attacked Jem and she heard a snap and screamed, the snap was the sound of Jem's arm breaking. She than recalls Jem defending her from the attacker not knowing that Jem could not function and passed out right after the snap, and that it was Boo Radley who saved her. The sheriff tells Atticus that Bob Ewell fell on his knife, but Atticus is stubborn and still believes Jem killed him. The sheriff and Atticus are both stubborn and the sheriff tells him to think again, it could not have been Jem, he has already passed out, he points to the corner of the room, and Scout sees for the first time, Boo Radley. His face was pale from not seeing the sun in years, and he was standing awkwardly not knowing what to say or do. Atticus is still not convinced, and he says "Boo would be a hero for saving his kids, but the sheriff tells him, Boo has not left his house in 15 years, all the attention would do an introvert like him no good." Scout tells Atticus that giving Boo the attention would be like killing a mockingbird, Atticus understands what she says and goes with the sheriff's story. Boo whispers to Scout if she can take him home, because he's afraid of the dark and she agrees. She realises that Boo is still much like a child, she wonders about the times where she, Jem, and Dill tried to make Boo come out, and what he thought of watching them. When she gets back home, she asks Atticus if there are good people in the world, and Atticus tells her that most people are.

Sequel

Related pages
 The Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time

References

Bibliography
 Johnson, Claudia. To Kill a Mockingbird: Threatening Boundaries. Twayne Publishers: 1994.
 Johnson, Claudia. Understanding To Kill a Mockingbird: A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources, and Historic Documents. Greenwood Press: 1994.
 Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. HarperCollins: 1960 (Perennial Classics edition: 2002).
 Mancini, Candice, (ed.) (2008). Racism in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, The Gale Group.
 Murphy, Mary M. (ed.) Scout, Atticus, and Boo: A Celebration of Fifty Years of To Kill a Mockingbird, HarperCollins Publishers: 2010.
 Noble, Don (ed.). Critical Insights: To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, Salem Press: 2010.
 Petry, Alice. "Introduction" in On Harper Lee: Essays and Reflections. University of Tennessee Press: 1994.
 Shields, Charles. Mockingbird: A Portrait of Harper Lee. Henry Holt and Co.: 2006.

1960 books
20th-century American novels

To Kill a Mockingbird


Kosher  is the name that Jews give to the laws about the kind of food that they may eat. Their holy books specify certain kinds of food that are all right to eat, and that other kinds should not be eaten.

The Kosher laws say that products classified as meat must not be eaten in the same meal with dairy products. Fish, fruit, and vegetables are considered neutral, called pareve (pronounced "PAR-veh"), and may be eaten with either meat or dairy meals. Jews who "keep kosher" have separate utensils for meat and dairy foods, and wait a number of hours after eating one type of food before eating the other type.

The meat of some animals may not be eaten at all. Animals whose meat may be eaten must be killed in a special, careful way by a religiously trained slaughterer. Meat that is not fit to eat is called treif (pronounced TRAYf).

Basic rules of Kashrut

Types of meat and drink
 Land animals that chew their cud and have a completely split (cloven) hoof may be eaten . This includes livestock like cattle and sheep, but not pigs (which do not chew their cud) or camels (which do not have completely split hooves).
 Animals that eat meat (carnivores and omnivores) may not be eaten. This also means that birds of prey may not be eaten.
 Specific birds (from a list) may not be eaten. This includes ostrich for example.
 Fish must have fins and scales. Fish without scales (like eels), invertebrates like lobster and shrimp, and shellfish (like mussels) are forbidden.
 No amphibians or reptiles may be eaten. Examples of these are frogs.
 Most insects may not be eaten, with some exceptions like locusts.
 Wine must be specially made by Jews in order to be Kosher.

Preparing food
 The animals need to be killed in a special way. The kosher slaughterer has religious training for this work.
 An animal that dies by natural means, or is killed by another animal or a hunter, may not be eaten.
 Meat from a sick animal  may not be eaten.
 No blood may be eaten. All blood needs to be drained from the meat (by soaking and salting it). In eggs, not even eggs with just a spot of blood can be eaten.
 Foods made in a factory: manufacturers sometimes label products that have got certification by adding graphical symbols to the label. These symbols are known as hechsherim.
 A kosher kitchen has separate sets of dishes: one for meat foods, another for dairy foods.
 Food may not be cooked during the Sabbath, which in Judaism is called Shabbat.

Related pages
 Halal, similar rules in Islam

Food and drink
Jewish law

Kosher


Donatien Alphonse François, Comte de Sade, (2 June 1740 – 2 December 1814), better known as the Marquis de Sade) was a French nobleman, writer and philosopher who was born in Paris. The de Sade family were French nobility, who came from Provence. Different members of the house held positions in the Church, and the French state at different times.

Once Donatien had grown up, he had troubles with the authorities several times. He was bisexual. He spent many years in prison and at a mental asylum.

The main points he was accused of were:
Whipping a prostitute.
Drugging prostitutes and later forcing them to have group sex, and also engage in sodomy.

On one of his escapades, he "accidentally" raped a close relative of his, who was a nun. This caused his family to drop him, and to hand him over to the authorities.

For this, he was sentenced to death (while being absent). He later escaped the death penalty by moving to Italy.  The death penalty against him was later changed to a prison sentence.

In prison, he started to read about philosophy. He also started to write down his ideas. He tried to hide his writing, and also wrote in a very small print, so that the consumption of paper would not be noticed.

In later years, he was moved to an asylum (for the mentally ill), and gave his wife the possibility of a divorce.

After the French Revolution, he got out of the asylum, but in 1803 was declared mentally ill (and again was sent to the asylum). He died in the asylum in Val-de-Marne in 1814 at the age of 74.

The term 'sadism' was named after him. It refers to the habit of getting pleasure from giving pain.

References

1740 births
1814 deaths
Bisexual people
French criminals
French LGBT writers
French novelists
French prisoners
LGBT criminals
Sex offenders
Writers from Paris

Marquis de Sade


Gergina Dvoretzka (Bulgarian: Гергина Дворецка) is a Bulgarian journalist and poet.

Life
Born in Sofia, Dvoretzka finished the French Language School in Sofia, and graduated in Bulgarian Philology from Sofia University. Dvoretzka was a journalist at the Bulgarian National Radio.  As early as 1990, Dvoretzka started the first radioshow in Bulgaria dedicated to European integration. This show, called European Projects, was broadcast weekly on the airwaves of the Hristo Botev programme. Since 2014 Dvoretzka is the President of the "Europe and the World" Foundation.

Dvoretzka has published four books of poetry. At the end of 2009 she wrote a book of prose in Bulgarian and Polish, Славянско Танго/Slowianskie tango, which was published by Paper Tiger. In 2012 she published another novel, Otkrivaneto na Dagoberta ("The Discovery of Dagoberta"). Her new book of poems, Balada za Ptitsata Feniks ("Ballad of the Phoenix Bird") was published in 2014.

In February 2007, Dvoretzka received the French Ordre des Palmes académiques.

References

External links
article about her in the Sofia Echo
 newspaper review of Dvoretzka's latest poetry book (in Bulgarian)
  fan site (in Bulgarian)

21st-century Bulgarian poets
Journalists from Sofia
Living people
Recipients of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques
Bulgarian women poets
Bulgarian women journalists
21st-century Bulgarian women writers
Year of birth missing (living people)

Gergina Dvoretzka


A sideshow is an amusement or entertainment usually associated with circus and carnival midways. Such a show displays curiosities of all sorts such as bearded ladies, midgets, giants, snake charmers, two-headed babies saved in formaldehyde, six-legged calves, and more.

Related pages
 Freaks, a 1930s movie about sideshow performers

References

Circuses

Sideshow


The Books of Kings are a set of books in the Old Testament. Both Judaism and Christianity see it as a part of the Bible. The Books of Kings describes the history of Israel's kings from the end of the rule of David until the time of the Babylonian exile (so it writes about a time of about 450 years). After a long description of Solomon's rule, 1 and 2 Kings writes of how the kingdom of Israel was divided and then shows how the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah developed.

Title

1 and 2 Kings, like 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and 2 Books of Chronicles are actually one book. It was simply called "Kings." However, it was divided into two books by the translators of the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Old Testament), and so it was written as 1 and 2 Kings by the Latin translation and many other versions.

The division between 1 and 2 Kings was made after the death of Ahab in the northern kingdom (22:37) and Jehoshaphat in the southern kingdom (22:50).

Author and sources

It is not known for sure who is the author (writer) of 1,2 Kings. Jewish tradition says that Jeremiah wrote 1 and 2 Kings, but people do not usually think so today. Whoever the author was, he knew the book of Deuteronomy, like many of Israel's prophets. He also used lots of sources, like "the books of the annals of Solomon" (11:41, NIV), "the book of the annals of the kings of Israel" (14:19 NIV), and "the book of the annals of the kings of Judah" (14:29 NIV)". Probably other sources were used, like those inside Chronicles).

Chronology

1 and 2 Kings give lots of chronological information. The length of time each king rules is given, and often other information is given, such as the age of the ruler at the time of becoming king and whether they were a good ruler.

By putting in Biblical data with those given from Assyrian chronological records, the year 853 B.C. is probable as the year of Ahab's death, and the year 841 as the year Jehu began to reign. So, it can be known that the division of the kingdom happened in 930 B.C., and that Samaria was defeated by the Assyrians in 722 BC, and that Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians in 586 BC.

The information about the connection between the reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah have some problems, which have, for a long time, been wondered about. Recently, though, most of these problems have been solved by recognizing things like possibilities of reigns that overlap, sons ruling with their fathers, differences in the time of the year in which the rule of a king officially began, and differences in the way a king's first year was seen.

Themes

Kings and Covenants

1 and 2 Kings do not exactly say its purpose or theme, but it is most probable that the author wanted to write his material as a sequel, the next book after the books of Samuel: a history about the kings by covenant.

The writer was not trying to show a social, or political, or economical history of Israel's kings like most histories today. He writes about Omri, who was a very powerful king and an important political person, in only six verses (16:23-28), simply saying that he "did evil in the eyes of the Lord" (16:25, NIV). Also, Jeroboam the second, who was king over northern Israel when it was most powerful, is written about very shortly (2 Kings 14:23-29).

He also writes nothing about the first years of Josiah king of Judah, but says a long description of how they begin again to keep the covenant in his 18th year as king (2 Kings 22:3-23:28).

The kings who are most written about in the books of Kings are the kings who either kept the covenant well, broke it very badly, or had an important encounter with one of God's prophets. Ahab son of Omri and Manasseh broke the covenant so that it was dangerous to Israel, so the author wrote a lot about them both; Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:1-20:21) and Josiah (2 Kings 22:1 - 23:29) are written a lot about because they tried to remind the people of their covenant promises. They are the only two kings who the writer is really happy with for their loyalty to the Lord.

Another important part of 1 and 2 Kings is that the writer shows the relationship between prophecy and how it comes true in history. At least 11 prophecies are written to be true. The writer also shows the importance of the prophets as messengers from God to tell the kings and people of Israel to come back to God. Usually, nobody listened to their warnings (for example, Ahijah, Shemaiah, Micaiah, Jonah, Isaiah, Huldah), but the writer writes very much about the prophets Elijah and Elisha. A well known story is that of Elijah on Mount Carmel, when he calls upon God and a miracle occurs, thereby showing that the God of Israel to be the one true God. Shortly before the miracle another tribe had called upon their false gods, which leads to no miracle occurring.

Notes and references

Old Testament books
Books of the Hebrew Bible
7th-century BC books
6th-century BC books

Books of Kings


Tamas (lit. Darkness) is a 1988 period television film written and directed by Govind Nihalani. It is based on the Hindi novel of the same name by Bhisham Sahni (1974), which won the author the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1975. Set in the backdrop of riot-stricken Pakistan at the time of the partition of India in 1947, the film deals with the plight of emigrant Sikh and Hindu families to India as a consequence of the partition. It was first shown on India's national broadcaster Doordarshan as a mini-series and later as a one-off four-hour-long feature film. At the 35th National Film Awards, it won three awards including the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration. In August 2013, it was shown on History TV18 as a series.

Plot
Nathu, a Chamar, is finishing his work in his shop when the thekedar (Pankaj Kapur) walks in and asks him to kill a pig for the Veterinary doctor who needs it for medical purposes. Nathu declines saying he has never killed a pig before and doesn't have the necessary skill for it, offering instead to tan the hide if required provided the people from the piggery kill it. Thekedar insists and gives Nathu 5 rupees and leaves the shop saying by morning the jamadar will come to take the carcass.

Early next morning Bakshiji (A.K. Hangal) and a few members of the political party go to a Muslim mohalla to clean drains as propaganda, singing patriotic songs. They're received at the mohalla warmly and are joined in by the residents in cleaning the drains. Later they are confronted by an old Muslim and asked to leave for their own good. Soon stones fly at the party members from neighboring houses and they flee the scene. Party members then discover that someone has thrown a pig carcass at the steps of a mosque.

Fearing unrest in the community, Bakshiji and Hayat Baksh (Manohar Singh), the spokesman of the Muslim League, visit the Deputy Commissioner Richard (Barry John) at his house and urge him to take preemptive measures to bring the situation under control. Richard declines the suggestions of Bakshiji and Hayat Baksh to deploy police or impose a curfew and instead tells the party members to urge their respective communities to maintain peace and order.

Nathu having seen the pig carcass at the mosque and having witnessed slight unrest in the town, wonders whether it was the same pig he had killed last night. While returning home in the evening he sees the thekedar in the street. Nathu tries to approach him but the thekedar rushes off hurriedly. Now sure that it was the same pig, Nathu feels terribly guilty and goes home and confesses it all to his pregnant wife Kammo (Deepa Sahi). Outside at a distance they see burning houses and Nathu blames himself for the erupting communal violence.

Sensing danger, Nathu decides to leave the city with his wife and mother. They start off on foot, Nathu carrying his old crippled mother on his back. During the travel Nathu's mother dies and has to be burned in the forest without proper funeral rites which further devastates the conscience-stricken Nathu who in his naivety holds himself responsible for the holocaust.

In a nearby village Harnam Singh (Bhisham Sahni) and his wife Banto (Dina Pathak) are the only Sikh family. They too are planning to go to their daughter Jasbir's (Uttara Baokar) house in a Sikh village. They travel on foot all night and the next morning reach a village and knock a door seeking shelter. The house belongs to a Muslim, Ehsan Ali (Iftekhar), who has been a friend of Harnam Singh since long. Harnam Singh and Banto hide at the house during the day, but at night are discovered by Ehsan's son and are asked to leave immediately. On their way the next morning they meet Nathu and his wife in the forest and they all go together to a gurudwara where Jasbir and several other Sikhs have taken shelter.

At the gurudwara Teja Singh (Amrish Puri), the leader of the Sikh council, informs the Sikhs that Muslims are continually collecting arms and sikhs should do the same. Later that night a junior granthi comes to the gurudwara and informs Teja Singh that the Muslims know that the Sikhs are out numbered and not sufficiently armed, so they're demanding 2 lakh rupees for truce. Teja Singh and the Sikh council deem the amount too much and send the granthi and Nathu to negotiate with the Muslims. Teja Singh and the council members watch from the terrace of the gurudwara as Nathu and the granthi are approached by the Muslim mob, surrounded and attacked. Sikhs enraged by this take up arms and go out to fight shouting Sikh slogans. Back at the gurudwara Jasbir leads the Sikh women to a collective suicide by jumping into a well, some with their children in their arms.

Richard is later shown addressing prominent figures of the city where he informs the gathering about the relief measures taken by the government and proposes the leaders to form an Aman Committee to send out a message of peace. Bakshiji and Hayat Baksh are made vice presidents of Aman Committee. At the conclusion of the meeting the thekedar is seen shouting communal harmony slogans.

Harnam Singh, Banto, and Kammo are at the refugee camp. Harnam Singh requests a government employee to help find Nathu who hasn't been seen since he went with the junior granthi for negotiating with the Muslims. The employee suggests they inquire at the hospital tent where he might've been admitted had he been found in the city. Kammo looks through the dead bodies lying in a row on the ground and identifying Nathu's dead body among them, she collapses, crying. She goes into labor immediately and is taken into the hospital tent by nurses. Harnam Singh and Banto sitting outside the tent hear the newborn's cries from inside the tent mixed with slogans of "Allahu Akbar" and "Har Har Mahadev" coming from a distance.

Cast

Production

Development
The film was based on the namesake Hindi novel by Bhisham Sahni, who himself was an immigrant from Pakistan. The novel was published in 1974 and won the Sahitya Akademi Award the following year. While working as a second-unit director in Richard Attenborough's biographical film Gandhi, Nihalani came across the book while visiting a book store in Delhi. He was drawn towards it by the title "Tamas" (lit. Darkness). After going through a few pages, he came to know that it was about the partition. Being a refugee himself who had come to India after the partition, he claimed that he desperately wanted to make a film based on the event. Though he had read books that focus on the event like Jhootha Sach, which he felt was "huge" and "intimidating", it was not until he read Tamas he had the courage to make a film based on the event. Sahni who had seen Nihalani's Aakrosh was confident that the latter could make a film based on his novel.

Casting and filming
Bhisham Sahni  gave an introduction to the film in addition to being cast in a pivotal role opposite Dina Pathak. Subsequently, Nihalani hand-picked Amrish Puri, A. K. Hangal, Om Puri, Pankaj Kapur stating that almost all of these were young at the time of partition and had known very well about the event. Deepa Sahi, Surekha Sikri and Barry John were signed up for other important roles. Om Puri who was cast in the lead role, was asked to lose weight and grow a beard for his character. There was a scene in the film where he had to kill a pig.

Nihalani originally wanted to shoot the film in Punjab, Pakistan, but owing to terrorist attacks the film was shot in Mumbai. Nihalani stated that he had a tough time to find the producers until he met Lalit Bijlani of Blaze Films, who immediately agreed upon to produce the film despite Nihalani warning him of the controversies that the story had.

Release
The film was aired as a six-part television series through Doordarshan and became extremely popular from its very first episode. Upon release, the film stirred a lot of controversies as it was set in the backdrop of religious violence. The Hyderabad office of Doordarshan was attacked. Nihalani received threats from unknown people and was placed under police protection for a period of eight weeks. On 21 January 1988, the Bombay High Court issued a stay to prevent further screening of the series after hearing a petition from the city-based businessman Javed Siddiqui who in his plea stated that the serial "would poison the minds of the people". Two days later, however, the court overruled the stay in favour of the series stating that it treated the "fundamentalists" in both communities equally. The court further added "The message is loud and clear [...] directed as it is against the sickness of communalism, the extremists stand exposed when realisation dawns on both communities who ultimately unite as brothers." The series was later released in theatres as a one-off four-hour-long feature film. In August 2013, the film was re-telecast as an eight-part series by History TV18 as a part of the Independence Day celebrations.

Awards

References

External links

1988 television films
1988 films
1980s Indian television miniseries
Films based on Indian novels
1980s political films
Films set in the partition of India
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress National Film Award-winning performance
1980s Hindi-language films
Films about religious violence in India
Films directed by Govind Nihalani
Best Film on National Integration National Film Award winners
DD National original programming
Doordarshan television films

Tamas (film)


A fallacy is an incorrect argument in logic and rhetoric. It gives a result which is not valid or lacks soundness. In mathematics, a fallacy can occur when the reasoning violates the condition of its applicability. Fallacies are either formal fallacies or informal fallacies.

Formal fallacies
A formal fallacy is an error in logic. This shows in the argument's form. All formal fallacies are types of non sequiturs (the conclusion does not follow from the premises).

 Appeal to probability – A statement that takes something for granted because it would probably be the case (or might be the case).
 Argument from fallacy – A statement assuming that if an argument for some conclusion is fallacious, then the conclusion itself is false.
 Affirming the consequent – If A, then B; B, therefore A.
 Denying the antecedent – If A, then B; not A, therefore not B.
 Existential fallacy – An example would be: "Everyone in the room is smart". It does not imply that there is a smart person in the room, because it does not state that there is a person in the room.
Undistributed middle

All students carry backpacks.
My grandfather carries a backpack.
Therefore, my grandfather is a student.

All students carry backpacks.
My grandfather carries a backpack.
Everyone who carries a backpack is a student.
Therefore, my grandfather is a student.
Even if the conclusion of an argument is correct, it is not supported by the logic given.

Informal fallacies

Informal fallacies are arguments that are fallacious for reasons other than structural flaws. They usually need examination of the argument's content. Some examples of informal fallacies include:
 Argument from ignorance (appeal to ignorance, argumentum ad ignorantiam) – assuming that a claim is true because it has not been or cannot be proven false, or vice versa.
 Argumentum ad hominem – evading of the actual topic by directing the attack at one's opponent.
 Begging the question (petitio principii) – providing what is essentially the conclusion of the argument as a premise.
 Equivocation – misleadingly using of a term with more than one meaning (by glossing over which meaning is intended at a particular time).
 False dilemma (false dichotomy, fallacy of bifurcation, black-or-white fallacy) – holding two alternative statements as the only possible options, when in reality there are more.
 Fallacy of many questions – someone asks a question that presupposes something that has not been proven or accepted by all the people involved, such as "Have you stopped beating your wife?"
 Inflation of conflict – The experts of a field of knowledge disagree on a certain point, so the scholars must know nothing, and therefore the legitimacy of their entire field is put to question.
 Ignoratio elenchi (irrelevant conclusion, missing the point) – an argument that may in itself be valid, but does not address the issue in question.
 Mind projection fallacy – when one considers the way one sees the world as the way the world really is.
 Moralistic fallacy – inferring factual conclusions from purely evaluative premises in violation of fact–value distinction. For instance, inferring is from ought is an instance of moralistic fallacy. Moralistic fallacy is the inverse of naturalistic fallacy defined below.
 Moving the goalposts (raising the bar) – argument in which evidence presented in response to a specific claim is dismissed and some other (often greater) evidence is demanded.
 Onus probandi – from Latin "onus probandi incumbit ei qui dicit, non ei qui negat" the burden of proof is on the person who makes the claim, not on the person who denies (or questions the claim). It is a particular case of the "argumentum ad ignorantiam" fallacy, here the burden is shifted on the person defending against the assertion.
 Post hoc ergo propter hoc Latin for "after this, therefore because of this" (faulty cause/effect, coincidental correlation, correlation without causation) – X happened, then Y happened; therefore X caused Y. The Loch Ness Monster has been seen in this loch. Something tipped our boat over; it's obviously the Loch Ness Monster.
 Psychologist's fallacy – an observer presupposes the objectivity of his own perspective when analyzing a behavioral event.
 Red herring – a speaker attempts to distract an audience by deviating from the topic at hand by introducing a separate argument the speaker believes is easier to speak to.
 Reification (hypostatization) – a fallacy of ambiguity, when an abstraction (abstract belief or hypothetical construct) is treated as if it were a concrete, real event or physical entity. In other words, it is the error of treating as a "real thing" something that is not a real thing, but merely an idea.
 Retrospective determinism – the argument that because some event has occurred, its occurrence must have been inevitable beforehand.
 Shotgun argumentation – the arguer offers such a large number of arguments for their position that the opponent can't possibly respond to all of them.
 Special pleading – where a proponent of a position attempts to cite something as an exemption to a generally accepted rule or principle without justifying the exemption.
Sunk cost fallacy – where what we have invested leads us to invest more.
 Wrong direction – cause and effect are reversed. The cause is said to be the effect and vice versa.

Faulty generalizations
Faulty generalizations are made when one reaches a conclusion from weak premises. Unlike fallacies of relevance, in fallacies of defective induction, the premises are related to the conclusions—yet only weakly buttress the conclusions. A faulty generalization is thus produced.
 Accident – an exception to a generalization is ignored.
 Cherry picking (suppressed evidence, incomplete evidence) – act of pointing at individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position, while ignoring a significant portion of related cases or data that may contradict that position.
 False analogy – apples and oranges: an argument by analogy in which the analogy is poorly suited.
 Hasty generalization (fallacy of insufficient statistics, fallacy of insufficient sample, fallacy of the lonely fact, leaping to a conclusion, hasty induction, secundum quid, converse accident) – basing a broad conclusion on a small sample.
 Inductive fallacy – A more general name to some fallacies, such as hasty generalization. It happens when a conclusion is made of premises that lightly support it.
 Overwhelming exception – an accurate generalization that comes with qualifications that eliminate so many cases that what remains is much less impressive than the initial statement might have led one to assume.
 Thought-terminating cliché – a commonly used phrase, sometimes passing as folk wisdom, used to quell cognitive dissonance, conceal lack of thought-entertainment, move onto other topics etc. but in any case, end the debate with a cliche—not a point.
 Slippery slope  relates to action: if we do this / if we do not do this, then... [various things will happen]

Red herring fallacies

A red herring fallacy is an error in logic where a proposition is, or is intended to be, misleading in order to make irrelevant or false inferences. In the general case any logical inference based on fake arguments, intended to replace the lack of real arguments or to replace implicitly the subject of the discussion.

Red herring – argument given in response to another argument, which is irrelevant and draws attention away from the subject of argument.
 Ad hominem – attacking the arguer instead of the argument.
 Argumentum ad populum (appeal to widespread belief, bandwagon argument, appeal to the majority, appeal to the people) – where a proposition is claimed to be true or good solely because many people believe it to be so.
 Appeal to equality – where an assertion is deemed true or false based on an assumed pretense of equality.
 Association fallacy (guilt by association) – arguing that because two things share a property they are the same.
 Appeal to authority (argumentum ab auctoritate) – where an assertion is deemed true because of the position or authority of the person asserting it.
 Appeal to accomplishment – where an assertion is deemed true or false based on the accomplishments of the proposer.
 Appeal to consequences (argumentum ad consequentiam) – the conclusion is supported by a premise that asserts positive or negative consequences from some course of action in an attempt to distract from the initial discussion.
 Appeal to emotion – where an argument is made due to the manipulation of emotions, rather than the use of valid reasoning. * Appeal to motive – where a premise is dismissed by calling into question the motives of its proposer.
 Appeal to novelty (argumentum novitatis/antiquitatis) – where a proposal is claimed to be superior or better solely because it is new or modern.
 Appeal to poverty (argumentum ad Lazarum) – supporting a conclusion because the arguer is poor (or refuting because the arguer is wealthy). (Opposite of appeal to wealth.)
 Appeal to tradition (argumentum ad antiquitam) – a conclusion supported solely because it has long been held to be true.
 Appeal to nature – wherein judgment is based solely on whether the subject of judgment is 'natural' or 'unnatural'.
 Appeal to wealth (argumentum ad crumenam) – supporting a conclusion because the arguer is wealthy (or refuting because the arguer is poor). (Sometimes taken together with the appeal to poverty as a general appeal to the arguer's financial situation.)
 Argument from silence (argumentum ex silentio) – a conclusion based on silence or lack of contrary evidence.
 Genetic fallacy – where a conclusion is suggested based solely on something or someone's origin rather than its current meaning or context.
 Naturalistic fallacy (is–ought fallacy, naturalistic fallacy) – claims about what ought to be on the basis of statements about what is.
 Reductio ad Hitlerum (playing the Nazi card) – comparing an opponent or their argument to Hitler or Nazism in an attempt to associate a position with one that is universally reviled. (See also – Godwin's law)
 Straw man – an argument based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position.
 Tu quoque ("you too", appeal to hypocrisy, I'm rubber and you're glue) – the argument states that a certain position is false or wrong and/or should be disregarded because its proponent fails to act consistently in accordance with that position.
 Two wrongs make a right – occurs when it is assumed that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out.

Related pages
Pot calling the kettle black

References

Sources
Damer, T. Edward 2009. Attacking faulty reasoning: a practical guide to fallacy-free arguments. 6th ed, Wadsworth.
Flew, Antony 1984. A dictionary of philosophy. 2nd ed, Macmillan.
Walton, Douglas 2008. Informal logic: a pragmatic approach. 2nd ed, Cambridge University Press.

Further reading

Other websites
Logically Fallacious
Fallacy Detective

Fallacy


Biopace is a tradename for a type of ovoid bicycle chain ring manufactured by Shimano from 1983 to 1993 The design was intended to help overcome the "dead zone" where the crank arms are vertical and riders have little mechanical advantage.

Biopace chainrings have a reduced chainring diameter coinciding with the cranks being horizontal. This is supposed to smooth the pedaling action, allowing the rider's feet to carry more momentum through the power stroke, and having it smoothly removed at the bottom of the stroke rather than encouraging riders to push bigger gears and risk knee damage due to higher knee joint loadings.

This is different from the design of other oval style chainrings, which have the smaller effective chainring diameter coincide with the cranks being at the top dead center (TDC) and bottom dead center (BDC), thus making the crank easier for the rider to turn through bottom dead center for constant chain tension. By having the chainring at its peak effective diameter with the cranks level, where the rider has maximum leverage over the crank during the power stroke, these designs are supposed to make better use of the rider's power output.

Some cyclists find the benefits of Biopace worthwhile, including well-respected bike mechanic Sheldon Brown. Some riders may also value a Biopace crankset for its historical accuracy on a vintage bike, for its novelty value, or even retro-cachet.

See also
 Crankset
 Osymetric

References

Bicycle drivetrains

Biopace


Not Going Out is a British television sitcom set in London Docklands. It began on 6 October 2006 and is shown on BBC One. It stars Lee Mack as Lee, who is from Chorley, Lancashire. Megan Dodds plays his Californian landlady Kate in series 1. Sally Bretton plays Lucy, who is brought in at the beginning of series 2 to become Lee's new landlady when Kate moves back to California. Tim Vine plays Timothy - who is Lee's best friend, Kate's ex-boyfriend and Lucy's brother. Tim is written out when he moves to Germany. Lee marries Lucy, they have three children and move to the suburbs.

Other websites

2006 British television series debuts
2000s British sitcoms
2000s romance television series
2010s British sitcoms
2010s romance television series
2020s sitcoms

BBC television sitcoms
English-language television programs
Romantic comedy television series
Television series about dysfunctional families
Television series about friendship
Television series about marriage
Television series about siblings
Television series about suburbia
Television series set in London

Not Going Out


Ghost rockets (, also called Scandinavian ghost rockets) were rocket- or missile-shaped unidentified flying objects sighted in 1946, mostly in Sweden and nearby countries like Finland.

The first reports of ghost rockets were made on February 26, 1946, by Finnish observers. About 2,000 sightings were logged between May and December 1946, with peaks on 9 and 11 August 1946. Two hundred sightings were verified with radar returns, and authorities recovered physical fragments which were attributed to ghost rockets.

Investigations concluded that many ghost rocket sightings were probably caused by meteors. For example, the peaks of the sightings, on 9 and 11 August 1946, also fall within the peak of the annual Perseid meteor shower. However, most ghost rocket sightings did not occur during meteor shower activity, and furthermore displayed characteristics inconsistent with meteors, such as reported maneuverability.

Debate continues as to the origins of the unidentified ghost rockets. In 1946, however, it was thought likely that they originated from the former German rocket facility at Peenemünde, and were long-range tests by the Soviets of captured German V-1 or V-2 missiles, or perhaps another early form of cruise missile because of the ways they were sometimes seen to maneuver. This prompted the Swedish Army to issue a directive stating that newspapers were not to report the exact location of ghost rocket sightings, or any information regarding the direction or speed of the object. This information, they reasoned, was vital for evaluation purposes to the nation or nations assumed to be performing the tests.

Descriptions and early investigations
The early Soviet origins theory was rejected by Swedish, British, and U.S. military investigators because no recognizable rocket fragments were ever found, and according to some sightings, the objects displayed some combination of leaving no exhaust trail, moving too slowly, flying horizontally, traveling and maneuvering in formation, and appearing to be silent.

The sightings most often consisted of fast-flying rocket- or missile-shaped objects, with or without wings, visible for mere seconds. Instances of slower moving, cigar-shaped objects are also known. A hissing or rumbling sound was sometimes reported.

Crashes were not uncommon, almost always in lakes. Reports were made of objects crashing into a lake, sometimes then propelling themselves across the surface before sinking. The Swedish military performed several dives in the affected lakes shortly after the crashes, but found nothing other than occasional craters in the lake bottom or torn off aquatic plants.

The best known of these crashes occurred on July 19, 1946, into Lake , Sweden. Witnesses reported a gray, rocket-shaped object with wings crashing in the lake. One witness interviewed heard a thunderclap, possibly the object exploding. However, a 3-week military search reported nothing.

Immediately after the investigation, the Swedish Air Force officer who led the search, Karl-Gösta Bartoll submitted a report in which he stated that the bottom of the lake had been disturbed but nothing was recovered and that "there are many indications that the Kölmjärv object disintegrated itself...the object was probably manufactured in a lightweight material, possibly a kind of magnesium alloy that would disintegrate easily, and not give indications on our instruments".
When Bartoll was later interviewed in 1984 by Swedish researcher Clas Svahn, he again said their investigation suggested the object largely disintegrated in flight and insisted that "what people saw were real, physical objects".

On October 10, 1946, the Swedish Defense Staff publicly stated, "Most observations are vague and must be treated very skeptically. In some cases, however, clear, unambiguous observations have been made that cannot be explained as natural phenomena, Swedish aircraft, or imagination on the part of the observer. Echo, radar, and other equipment registered readings but gave no clue as to the nature of the objects". It was also stated that fragments alleged to have come from the missiles were nothing more than ordinary coke or slag.

On December 3, 1946, a memo was drafted for the Swedish Ghost Rocket committee stating "nearly one hundred impacts have been reported and thirty pieces of debris have been received and examined by Swedish National Defence Research Institute (FOA)". The debris was later said to be meteorite fragments. Of the nearly 1,000 reports that had been received by the Swedish Defense Staff to November 29, 225 were considered observations of "real physical objects" and every one had been seen in broad daylight.

U.S. involvement
In early August 1946, Swedish Lt. Lennart Neckman of the Defense Staff's Air Defense Division saw something that was "without a doubt ... a rocket projectile". On August 14, 1946, the New York Times reported that Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson was "very much interested" in the ghost rocket reports, as was U.S. Army Air Forces intelligence as indicated nonpublicly by later documents (Clark, 246). Then on August 20, the Times reported that two U.S. experts on aerial warfare, aviation legend General Jimmy Doolittle and General David Sarnoff, president of RCA, arrived in Stockholm, ostensibly on private business and independently of each other. The official explanation was that Doolittle, who was now vice-president of the Shell Oil Company, was inspecting Shell branch offices in Europe, while Sarnoff, a former member of General Dwight D. Eisenhower's London staff, was studying the market for radio equipment. However, the Times story indicated that the Chief of the Swedish Defense Staff made no secret that he "was extremely interested in asking the two generals' advice and, if possible, would place all available reports before them". (Carpenter chronology) Doolittle and Sarnoff were briefed that on several occasions the ghost rockets had been tracked on radar. Sarnoff was quoted by the N.Y. Times on September 30 saying that he was "convinced that the 'ghost bombs' are no myth but real missiles".

On August 22, 1946, the director of the Central Intelligence Group (CIG), Lt. Gen. Hoyt Vandenberg, wrote a Top Secret memo to President Truman, perhaps based in part on information from Doolittle and Sarnoff. Vandenberg stated that the "weight of evidence pointed to Peenemünde as origin of the missiles, that US MA [military attaché] in Moscow had been told by 'key Swedish Air Officer' that radar course-plotting had led to conclusion that Peenemünde was the launch site. CIG speculates that the missiles are extended-range developments of V-1 being aimed for the Gulf of Bothnia for test purposes and do not overfly Swedish territory specifically for intimidation; self-destruct by small demolition charge or burning".

Nevertheless, there are no reports of rocket launches at Peenemünde or the Greifswalder Oie after February 21, 1945 (See also: List of V-2 test launches).

Swedish military opinion

Although the official opinion of the Swedish and U.S. military remains unclear, a Top Secret USAFE (United States Air Force Europe) document from 4 November 1948 indicates that at least some investigators believed the ghost rockets and later "flying saucers" had extraterrestrial origins. Declassified only in 1997, the document states:

"For some time we have been concerned by the recurring reports on flying saucers. They periodically continue to c[r]op up; during the last week, one was observed hovering over Neubiberg Air Base for about thirty minutes. They have been reported by so many sources and from such a variety of places that we are convinced that they cannot be disregarded and must be explained on some basis which is perhaps slightly beyond the scope of our present intelligence thinking.

"When officers of this Directorate recently visited the Swedish Air Intelligence Service, this question was put to the Swedes. Their answer was that some reliable and fully technically qualified people have reached the conclusion that 'these phenomena are obviously the result of a high technical skill which cannot be credited to any presently known culture on earth'. They are therefore assuming that these objects originate from some previously unknown or unidentified technology, possibly outside the earth".

The document also mentioned a search for an object crashing in a Swedish lake conducted by a Swedish naval salvage team, with the discovery of a previously unknown crater on the lake floor believed caused by the object (possibly referencing the Lake Kölmjärv search for a ghost rocket discussed above, though the date is unclear). The document ends with the statement that "we are inclined not to discredit entirely this somewhat spectacular theory [extraterrestrial origins], meantime keeping an open mind on the subject".

Greek government investigation
The "ghost rocket" reports were not confined to Scandinavian countries. Similar objects were also reported early the following month by British Army units in Greece, especially around Thessaloniki. In an interview on September 5, 1946, the Greek Prime Minister, Konstantinos Tsaldaris, likewise reported a number of projectiles had been seen over Macedonia and Thessaloniki on September 1. In mid-September, they were also seen in Portugal, and then in Belgium and northern Italy.

The Greek government conducted their own investigation, with their leading scientist, physicist Paul Santorini, in charge. Santorini had been a developer of the proximity fuze on the first A-bomb and held patents on guidance systems for Nike missiles and radar systems. Santorini was supplied by the Greek Army with a team of engineers to investigate what again were believed to be Soviet missiles flying over Greece.

In a 1967 lecture to the Greek Astronomical Society, broadcast on Athens Radio, Santorinis first publicly revealed what had been found in his 1947 investigation. "We soon established that they were not missiles. But, before we could do any more, the Army, after conferring with foreign officials (presumably U.S. Defense Dept.), ordered the investigation stopped. Foreign scientists [from Washington] flew to Greece for secret talks with me". Later Santorinis told UFO researchers such as Raymond Fowler that secrecy was invoked because officials were afraid to admit of a superior technology against which we have "no possibility of defense".

See also
List of reported UFO sightings
Foo fighter
Operation Backfire (WWII)

References

 Jerome Clark, The UFO Book: Encyclopedia of the Extraterrestrial, 1998, Visible Ink Press,
 Timothy Good, Above Top Secret, 1988, William Morrow & Co.,
 Timothy Good, Need to Know: UFOs, the Military, and Intelligence, 2007, Pegasus Books,
 Donald Keyhoe, Aliens From Space, 1973, Doubleday & Co.,
 Jenny Randles, UFO Retrievals: The Recovery of Alien Spacecraft, 1995, Blandford Press,
 Reuben Stone, Alien Worlds, 1993, Longmeadow Press,  (Contains photo of search for ghost rocket seen crashing in Lake Kölmjärv)

External links

The Ghost Rockets of 1946 - Saturday Night Uforia
Extensive Ghost Rocket chronology by Joel Carpenter on Project 1947 website, many documents and photos.
See Ghost Rockets World Tour by Charles Stankievech for a project that maps the history of ballistics by staging rocket launches at historic sites including Peneemünde, Helsinki, Berlin, Russia, California, Alaska and others.
The Greek Ghost Rockets of 1946 The sightings in Greece and Santorinis' involvement.

UFO sightings
1946 in Sweden
Unidentified flying objects
Experimental rockets
Cold War weapons of the Soviet Union
History of modern Greece
1946 in Finland

Ghost rockets


James Wilfrid Ryan (October 16, 1858 – February 26, 1907) was an American lawyer and one-term Democratic member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.

Life and career
James W. Ryan was born in Norwegian Township, Pennsylvania.  He moved to Mahanoy City, Pennsylvania, with his parents, where he attended the public schools.  He graduated from the high school of Frackville, Pennsylvania.

After this he was a school teacher for a short time.  He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1884 and commenced practice in Pottsville, Pennsylvania.

He was elected district attorney in 1892 and served until January 1896.

Ryan was elected as a Democrat to the Fifty-sixth Congress.

After his time in Congress, he resumed the practice of law and died in Mahanoy City in 1907.  He was buried in the Holy Rosary Cemetery in Frackville.

Sources

The Political Graveyard

External links

1858 births
1907 deaths
Politicians from Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania lawyers
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
19th-century American politicians

James Wilfrid Ryan


L'Année épigraphique (The Epigraphic Year, standard abbreviation AE) is a French publication on epigraphy (i.e the study of inscriptions or epigraphs as writing). It was set up by René Cagnat, as holder of the chair of 'Epigraphy and Roman antiquities' at the Collège de France and Jean-Guillaume Feignon, as assistant epigraphist, in 1888.  It was linked to the Revue archéologique until the issue dated 1964, when it became an autonomous publication of the Presses universitaires de France (PUF) benefiting from a grant from the Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS), a part was edited under its aegis. It systematically collects all the inscriptions discovered each year from all around the world concerning Ancient Rome, mainly in Latin or ancient Greek, and sorted by period.

Leadership and editorship
1888–1935: 	René Cagnat, at first alone, then with Jean-Guillaume Feignon and Maurice Besnier until 1932, finally with Alfred Merlin.
1936–1964:	Alfred Merlin, with Jean Gagé in some years.
1965:       	Jean Gagé and Marcel Le Glay.
1966–1973:	Jean Gagé, Marcel Le Glay, Hans-Georg Pflaum and Pierre Wuilleumier.
1974–1978:	André Chastagnol, Jean Gagé, Marcel Le Glay and H.-G. Pflaum.
1979–1980:	André Chastagnol, Jean Gagé, Marcel Le Glay.
1981–1986:	André Chastagnol, Marcel Le Glay, Patrick Le Roux.
1987–1990:	André Chastagnol, André Laronde, Marcel Le Glay, Patrick Le Roux.
1991–present: 	Led by Mireille Corbier, Patrick Le Roux and Sylvie Dardaine.

External links

 Official site

Latin epigraphy
Archaeological corpora

L'Année épigraphique


Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai
The NHK Symphony Orchestra is a Japanese orchestra based in Tokyo, Japan.  In Japanese it is written: NHK交響楽団, pronounced: Enueichikei Kōkyō Gakudan.  When the orchestra was started in 1926 it was called New Symphony Orchestra.  It was the first large professional orchestra in Japan.  Later, it changed its name to Japan Symphony Orchestra.  In 1951 it started to get money from the Japanese radio station NHK (Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai), so it changed its name again to the name it has now. It is thought of as the best orchestra in Japan.  They have played in many parts of the world, including at the BBC Proms in London.

Vladimir Ashkenazy is the orchestra's main conductor (music director) and Charles Dutoit is music director emeritus. Wolfgang Sawallisch is honorary conductor laureate.

Permanent Conductors, Music Directors and Principal Guest Conductors
Josef König (April 1927–April 1929)
Hidemaro Konoye (January 1926–February 1935)
Nicolai Schifferblatt (July 1929–July 1936)
Joseph Rosenstock (August 1936–September 1946 full-time conductor; March 1956–March 1957 Principal Conductor)
Hisatada Otaka (April 1942–February 1951 full-time conductor)
Kazuo Yamada (April 1942–July 1951 full-time conductor)
Shin'ichi Takata (April 1944–May 1951 full-time conductor)
Kurt Wöss (September 1951–August 1954 Principal Conductor)
Niklaus Aeschbacher (August 1954–March 1956 Principal Conductor)
Wilhelm Loibner (March 1957–February 1959 Principal Conductor)
Wilhelm Schuchter (February 1959–March 1962 Principal Conductor)
Alexander Rumpf (August 1964–July 1965 Principal Conductor)
Hiroyuki Iwaki (February 1969–June 2006 Permanent Conductor)
Yuzo Toyama (February 1979– Permanent Conductor)
Tadashi Mori (February 1979–May 1987 Permanent Conductor)
Hiroshi Wakasugi (April 1995–July 2009 Permanent Conductor)
Charles Dutoit (September 1996–August 1998 Principal Conductor; September 1998–August 2003 Music Director)
Vladimir Ashkenazy (September 2004–August 2007 Music Director)
André Previn, KBE (September 2009– Principal Guest Conductor)
Tadaaki Otaka, CBE (January 2010– Permanent Conductor)

Honorary Conductors
Vladimir Ashkenazy (September 2007– Conductor Laureate)
Charles Dutoit (September 2003– Music Director Emeritus)
Herbert Blomstedt (January 1986–)
Horst Stein (March 1975–)
Otmar Suitner (January 1973–)
Wolfgang Sawallisch (January 1967–October 1994; November 1994– Honorary Conductor Laureate)
Lovro von Matačić (January 1967–January 1985)
Joseph Keilberth (January 1967–July 1968)
Joseph Rosenstock (August 1951–October 1985)

Other websites
Official Web site

Orchestras

NHK Symphony Orchestra


Michael William "Mike" Krzyzewski (, born February, 13, 1947) is an American college basketball coach.  He is sometimes referred to as Coach K.  He was born in Chicago and went to school at the United States Military Academy, where he played guard.  He served in the Army as a basketball coach, and was later the coach of the U.S. Military Academy's basketball team.  In 1980, Krzyzewski became the head coach at Duke University, where he has been for 31 years.  His teams have been to the NCAA Tournament 27 times, been to the Final Four 11 times, and won 4 national championships.  Krzyzewski has also been the coach of the United States national basketball team since 2006.  He was elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2001.

1947 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Chicago
Sportspeople from North Carolina
College basketball coaches
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees

Mike Krzyzewski


The Flame Nebula, designated as NGC 2024 and Sh2-277, is an emission nebula in the constellation Orion. It is about 900 to 1,500 light-years away.

The bright star Alnitak (ζ Ori), the easternmost star in the Belt of Orion, shines energetic ultraviolet light into the Flame and this knocks electrons away from the great clouds of hydrogen gas that reside there. Much of the glow results when the electrons and ionized hydrogen recombine. Additional dark gas and dust lies in front of the bright part of the nebula and this is what causes the dark network that appears in the center of the glowing gas. The Flame Nebula is part of the Orion molecular cloud complex, a star-forming region that includes the famous Horsehead Nebula.

At the center of the Flame Nebula is a cluster of newly formed stars, 86% of which have circumstellar disks. X-ray observations by the Chandra X-ray Observatory show several hundred young stars, out of an estimated population of 800 stars. X-ray and infrared images indicate that the youngest stars are concentrated near the center of the cluster.

Gallery

References

External links

Orion molecular cloud complex
NGC objects
Orion (constellation)
Emission nebulae
Sharpless objects
Gould Belt
Star-forming regions

Flame Nebula


A bucket is a container with a wide open top and a handle that is mainly used for carrying liquids.  In some cases, solids may also be carried in a bucket (like sand which is hard to carry in your hands).

Some buckets are used for work, and some more for leisure, as seen here  . A bucket used for work is often made of a strong material such as iron or steel and is used to carry things like coal or soil. A bucket used for leisure, e.g. for making sandcastles, is normally made of plastic.

In rare cases, a bucket may be worn as a piece of clothing, people may wear a bucket on their heads for humorous reasons. Buckethead is a famous example of this.

Basic English 850 words
Containers

Bucket


Nenzingen is a city in the district Konstanz in Baden-Württemberg.

Nowerdays Nenzigen has got an population of 3.126 inhabitants (December 2005)

History
On 21 April 839 Nenzingen was mentioned for the first time as Nancingas in a document of the monastery Reichenau.

The place belonged to the county of Nellenburg and came to Austria when the last counts of Nellenburgdied in 1423.

Towns in Baden-Württemberg
Konstanz (district)

Nenzingen


The X Window System is a set of protocols and programs. It is also known as X11, or simply X. It can manage windows, and other components of a graphical user interface (GUI) on a bitmap display. This way of doing graphics is most common in Unix-like operating systems.

X provides the basic components to build GUI environments: drawing and moving windows on the screen and interacting with a mouse or a keyboard. X does not say what the user interface should look likedifferent client programs handle this. Different X11-based environments have radically different designs. X is not a part of the operating system; instead, it is built as an additional program on top of the operating system.

Unlike display protocols from before, X was specifically designed to be used over network connections rather than on a display near the computer. X has network transparency: the machine where an application program (the client application) runs need not be the user's local machine (the display server).

X was developed at MIT in 1984. The current protocol version, X11, appeared in September 1987. The X.Org Foundation leads the X project, with the current reference implementation, version 11 release 7.7 (6 June 2012), available as free software under the MIT License and similar permissive licenses.

References

Software

X Window System


In the philosophy of language, the distinction between concept and object is attributable to the German philosopher Gottlob Frege in 1892 (in his paper "Concept and Object"; German: "Ueber Begriff und Gegenstand").

Overview
According to Frege, any sentence that expresses a singular thought consists of an expression (a proper name or a general term plus the definite article) that signifies an object together with a predicate (the copula "is", plus a general term accompanied by the indefinite article or an adjective) that signifies a concept.  Thus "Socrates is a philosopher" consists of "Socrates", which signifies the object Socrates, and "is a philosopher", which signifies the concept of being a philosopher.

This was a considerable departure from the traditional term logic, in which every proposition (i.e. sentence) consisted of two general terms joined by the copula "is".

The distinction was of fundamental importance to the development of logic and mathematics.  Frege's distinction helped to clarify the notions of a set, of the membership relation between element and set, and of empty and infinite sets.  However, Frege's conception of a class (in his terminology an extension of a concept) differs from the current iterative conception of a set.

Frege's distinction leads to the famous difficulty or "awkwardness of language" that some expressions which purport to signify a concept — Frege's example is "the concept horse" — are grammatically expressions that by his criterion signify an object.  Thus "the concept horse is not a concept, whereas the city of Berlin is a city".

Anthony Kenny sought to justify the distinction, other philosophers such as Hartley Slater and Crispin Wright have argued that the distinguished category of entity cannot be associated with predication in the way that individual objects are associated with the use of singular terms.

References
 Buckner, E. D. review of Sainsbury, R. M., Departing from Frege: Essays in the philosophy of language, Routledge, 2002, .
 Michael Dummett. Frege: Philosophy of Language, chap. 7, pp. 211–219.
 Diamond, Cora. "What does a Concept-Script Do?", sec.II.
 Frege, G. "On Concept and Object", originally published as "Ueber Begriff und Gegenstand" in Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16, 1892, pp. 192-205, translated in Geach & Black 1952 pp. 42–55.
Furth, Montgomery. "Two Types of Denotation", in Studies in Logical Theory, ed. by N. Rescher (Oxford: Blackwell, 1968).
 Geach, P., Reference and Generality, Ithaca NY 1962.
 Geach, P. & Black M., Translations from the Philosophical writings of Gottlob Frege, Oxford 1952
 Parsons, Terence.  "Why Frege should not have said `the Concept Horse is not A Concept'," History of Philosophy Quarterly 3 (1986) 449–65.
 Proops, Ian. "What is Frege's 'concept horse problem,'?" in Potter and Sullivan "Wittgenstein's Tractatus: History and Interpretation" 2013 (Oxford University Press).
 Resnik, Michael David. "Frege's Theory of Incomplete Entities," especially sections 5–7.
 Russell, B. Principles of Mathematics, § 21, and §§ 475–496.
 Slater, B. H.   "Concept And Object In Frege", 2000 (Minerva).
 Wright, C. "Why Frege does not deserve his grain of salt: a Note on the Paradox of "The Concept Horse" and the Ascription of Bedeutungen to Predicates", Grazer Philosophische Studien 5 (1998).

Philosophy of language
Philosophy of mind

Concept and object


LVRC Holdings v. Brekka 581 F.3d 1127, 1135 (9th Cir. 2009) is a Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals Decision that deals with the scope of the concept of "authorization" in the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.  The major finding of this case is that even if an employee accesses a computer for an improper purpose, such as one that violates the duty of loyalty to their employer, the employee remains authorized to access the computer until the employer revokes the employee's access. The findings of this case were upheld by another Ninth Circuit decision in United States v. Nosal, 676 F.3d 854 (9th Cir.2012) (en banc) and are the current law in this circuit.

This case is noteworthy because the court differentiated itself from the Seventh's Circuit interpretation of "authorization" by assessing whether the employer made the computer system available to the employee during the employee's access, instead of examining the subjective intent the employee had when accessing the system. Since this decision limited the scope of when an employee could access a computer "without authorization" than the Seventh Circuit did in a similar case, this case defined a circuit split of authority on the scope of the term "authorization." This issue could be settled by the Supreme Court in the future. Van Buren v. United States is a pending United States Supreme Court case dealing with the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and its definition of "exceeds authorized access" in relation to one intentionally accessing a computer system they have authorization to access.

Factual background
LVRC Holdings, LLC (LVRC) operated an addiction treatment center in Nevada. In April 2003, LVRC hired Christopher Brekka. Part of his duties included interacting with LVRC's email provider (Load, Inc.) and conducting Internet marketing programs. When Brekka was hired, he owned and operated EBSN and EBSF, two consulting businesses that provided referrals of potential patients to rehabilitation facilities. LVRC's owner was aware of Brekka's businesses.

During his time at LVRC, Brekka commuted between his home state, Florida, and Nevada, where LVRC and his first business were located. His second business is based in Florida. Brekka was assigned a computer at LVRC headquarters. Because of this frequent commute between Florida and Nevada, he emailed documents he obtained or created for his work at LVRC to his own personal computer. LVRC and Brekka had no written employment agreement. LVRC had no internal policy which would prohibit the transfer of LVRC documents to personal computers.

In June 2003, he emailed the administrative password for the LVRC's email system to his personal account. In August 2003, Brekka and LVRC began discussions regarding the possibilities of Brekka investing in an ownership interest in LVRC. At the end of the month, Brekka emailed to his wife and himself a number of documents including a financial statement for the company, LVRC's marketing budget, and admission reports for patients. On September 4, 2003, he emailed a master admission report containing the names of all the past and current patients at LVRC.

The negotiation regarding Brekka's investment in LVRC broke down mid-September 2003. He stopped working for LVRC and left his LVRC computer at the company as is, without deleting any emails.

In November 2004, LVRC noticed that someone was accessing its website using Brekka's login. LVRC then sued Brekka in federal court, alleging that he violated the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) when he emailed LVRC's documents to himself.

Court proceedings

District court
In its complaint, LVRC claimed that Brekka violated the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA), which punishes intentional access, without authorization, to a computer to obtain information, violating 18 U.S.C. §§ 1030(a)(2) and (a)(4). To prevail, LVRC had to show that Brekka acted without authorization or exceed its authorization. The federal district court held that Brekka had authorization when he accessed LVRC's computer to transfer documents, and that there was no evidence that Brekka agreed to keep LVRC documents confidential or to return or destroy them. Finally, the district court concluded that LVRC was unable to provide evidence that Brekka logged into the LVRC website after Brekka's contract was terminated.

The Nevada district court granted summary judgment in favor of Brekka; LVRC contested both rulings in its appeal.

Court of appeals
LVRC argued that Brekka lost authorization to access the computer when he transferred documents to his personal computer to further his own interests rather than the company's. However, The Ninth Circuit found that this interpretation of "authorization" under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act would not give defendants sufficient "notice as to which acts are criminal."  "If the employer has not rescinded the defendant's right to use the computer, the defendant would have no reason to know that making personal use of the company computer in breach of a state law fiduciary duty to an employer would constitute a criminal violation of the CFAA. It would be improper to interpret a criminal statute in such an unexpected manner."

The Court differentiated itself from the Seventh Circuit in International Airport Centers, L.L.C. v. Citrin. In Citrin, the Court used agency principles to find that the employee violated his duty of loyalty to his employer when he set out to start a competing firm and accessed the company computer to further that interest, erasing data on his employer's computer.  The Seventh Circuit found that Citrin's "breach of the duty of loyalty to his employer terminated the employee's agency relationship and with it his authority to access the laptop, because the only basis of his authority had been that relationship." See Brekka citing Citrin.  However, The Ninth Circuit applied the rule of lenity to the term "authorization" and found that the Seventh's Circuit interpretation could criminalize a large swath of the population by looking to the subjective intent of the employee or the subsequent use of the information accessed.  Instead, the Brekka Court held that "a person uses a computer 'without authorization' under §§ 1030(a)(2) and (4) when the person has not received permission to use the computer for any purpose (such as when a hacker accesses someone's computer without any permission), or when the employer has rescinded permission to access the computer and the defendant uses the computer anyway." Since Brekka, courts in the Ninth Circuit have generally foreclosed an employer's Computer Fraud and Abuse Act claim against former employees, unless the employees' access was conducted post-termination.

Consequences
The Ninth Circuit's interpretation of "authorization" is significantly narrower than the Seventh Circuit's. Given the split between the two high courts, it is likely that the Supreme Court will eventually address the issue.

While the most significant consequence of Brekka was narrowing the scope of "without authorization" to exclude breaches of loyalty, the Brekka court opened a murky area of liability in the post-employment context. The court held that "a person uses a computer 'without authorization' ... when the employer has rescinded permission to access the computer and the defendant uses the computer anyway."  This has led several courts to find that anyone can access a computer without authorization after employment, even if the employer has not technologically revoked the employee's access credentials.

See also
 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
 United States v. Lori Drew
 United States v. Nosal
 International Airport Centers, L.L.C. v. Citrin

References

External links
 LVRC's website

2009 in United States case law
United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit cases
United States Internet case law

LVRC Holdings LLC v. Brekka


Flores is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands, an island arc. Its area is about . It goes east from the island of Java. There are about 1.5 million people in Flores. The largest town is Maumere.

Flores is east of Sumbawa and Komodo. It is west of Lembata and the Alor Archipelago. To the southeast is Timor. To the south is the Sumba strait. The Flores Sea is to the north.

On December 12 1992, an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale occurred. It killed 2,000 people in the town of Maumere.

References

Islands of Indonesia
Lesser Sunda Islands
East Nusa Tenggara

Flores


Creation may refer to:

In religion and philosophy:

Creation myth, or origin belief, stories of how the world or a culture began

Creation (theology), the belief that one or more deities brought the universe into being; also a name for everything that was created
Creatio ex nihilo (English: Creation from nothing), the belief that a deity created the universe from nothing at all, rather than some pre-existing matter or energy
 Creation according to Genesis, the creation account in the book of Genesis for Judaism and Christianity
Creationism, a belief, not just in God creating the universe, but also in certain events afterward, including the creation of animals and mankind
 Creation science

In science:
Matter creation, the appearance of elementary particles, in physical processes such as pair production; the process opposite of annihilation
Creation operator, an operator that increases the number of particles in a given state by one;  an abstract representation of matter creation
Invention, the act of creating a new process or device

In the arts:

The Creation of Adam, a fresco from circa 1511 on the Sistine Chapel ceiling painted by Michelangelo Buonarroti
The Creation (Haydn), a 1798 oratorio by Joseph Haydn
Creation (1931 movie), an unfinished movie by RKO studios that featured stop-motion animation
The Creation (band), a British band known for their one hit "Painter Man" in 1967
Creation a 1981 novel by Gore Vidal
Creation Records, a record label created in 1983 by Alan McGee, also known for their spin-off Rev-ola Records
Creation (band), a teen musical group, first album 2005
Creation (album), a 2005 album from Leslie Satcher

In media:

Creation magazine, a magazine promoting creation science published by Creation Ministries International–Australia (formerly Answers in Genesis–Australia)
Creation Books, a British publishing company
Creation Entertainment, an American company that runs numerous science fiction and fantasy conventions
 The Creation: An Appeal To Save Life on Earth, a 2006 book in advocacy of conservation, by biologist Edward O. Wilson

Related pages
 Creator

Creation


A bus is a large wheeled vehicle meant to carry many passengers along with the bus driver. It is larger than a car or van. The name is a shortened version of omnibus, which means "for everyone" in Latin. Unlike trams or rapid transit trains. Buses used to be called omnibuses, but people now simply call them "buses".

Buses are an important part of public transport in places all over the world. Many people who do not have cars, especially the third world countries, use buses to get around. Buses make it easy for them to get to where they want to go.

Buses can have many types of bus. For example : The double decker bus.

A place where people wait for a local bus is called a bus stop.   A building where people wait for a long-distance bus or where many buses meet is called a bus station.

There are many types of bus around the world. An example is a motorhome, which is a bus-like vehicle equipped for living. Typically, a motorhome will include a lounge area, dining area, small bathroom, a galley, kitchen and a corridor.

Types of buses

Other websites

Bus


Joseph Weigl (28 March 1766 – 3 February 1846) was an Austrian composer and conductor, born in Eisenstadt, Hungary, Austrian Empire.

The son of Joseph Franz Weigl (1740–1820), the principal cellist in the orchestra of the Esterházy family, he studied music under Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and  Antonio Salieri. He became Kapellmeister at the court theatre in Vienna in 1792, and from 1827 to 1838, was vice-Kapellmeister of the court.

Weigl composed a number of operas, both Italian and German and in various genres, although most of his late works are pieces of sacred music. His best known work was the opera Die Schweizerfamilie (1809).  He also set Emanuel Schikaneder's libretto Vestas Feuer (1805), after  his close friend Ludwig van Beethoven had composed a single scene and then abandoned it.

He died in Vienna.

Operas
(first performed in Vienna, unless otherwise noted)
 Die unnütze Vorsicht oder Die betrogene Arglist, puppet opera in one act, (1783)
 Il pazzo per forza, opera in two acts (1788)
 La caffettiera bizzarra, komische Oper in three acts (1790)
 Der Strazzensammler oder Ein gutes Herz ziert jeden Stand, komische Oper in one act (1792)
 La principessa d'Amalfi, komische Oper in two acts (1794)
 Das Petermännchen, play with songs in eight scenes (1794)
 Giulietta e Pierotto, dramma giocoso in two acts (1794)
 I solitari, opera seria in three acts (1797)
 L'amor marinaro ossia Il corsaro, dramma giocoso in two acts (1797)
 Das Dorf im Gebirge, play with songs in two acts (1798)
 L'accademia del maestro Cisolfaut, opera in two acts (1798)
 L'uniforme, heroisch-komische Oper in three acts (Schönbrunn 1800), also as Die Uniform (1805)
 Vestas Feuer, heroische Oper in two acts (1805)
 Il principe invisibile, opera in five acts (Laxenburg 1806)
 Kaiser Hadrian, grosse Oper in three acts (1807)
 Adrian von Ostade, opera in one act (1807)
 Cleopatra, opera in two acts (Milan 1807)
 Il rivale di se stesso, opera in two acts (Milan 1808)
 Das Waisenhaus, Singspiel in two acts (1808)
 Die Schweizer Familie, lyrische Oper in three acts (1809)
 Der Einsiedler auf den Alpen, opera in one act (1810)
 Die Verwandlungen, operetta in one act (1810)
 Franziska von Foix, heroisch-komische Oper in three acts (1812)
 Der Bergsturz, Singspiel in three acts (1813)
 Die Jugend Peter des Großen, opera in three acts (1814)
 L'imboscata, opera in two acts (Milan 1815)
 Margaritta d'Anjou ossia L'orfana d'Inghilterra, melodramma eroicomico in two acts (1819)
 Die Nachtigall und der Rabe, opera in one act (1818)
 Daniel in der Löwengrube oder Baals Sturz, heroische Oper in three acts (1820)
 König Waldemar oder Die dänischen Fischer, Singspiel in one act (1821)
 Edmund und Caroline, opera in one act (1821)
 Die eiserne Pforte, grosse Oper in two acts (1823)

Further reading
 Warrack, John and West, Ewan (1992), The Oxford Dictionary of Opera, 782 pages, .

External links

 "Weigl, Joseph" on Operone.de
 L'amor marinaro
 Der Bergsturz

1766 births
1846 deaths
People from Eisenstadt
18th-century classical composers
18th-century Austrian male musicians
19th-century classical composers
Austrian opera composers
Male opera composers
Austrian classical composers
Hungarian composers
Hungarian male composers
18th-century Austrian people
19th-century Austrian people
18th-century Hungarian people
19th-century Hungarian people
Hungarian-German people
Hungarian expatriates in Austria
Pupils of Antonio Salieri
Pupils of Johann Georg Albrechtsberger
Austrian male classical composers
19th-century male musicians

Joseph Weigl