Sebastián Edwards (born 16 August 1953, Santiago, Chile) a member of the Edwards family is a Chilean economist, professor, speaker, and consultant. He is currently the Henry Ford II Professor of International Business Economics at the UCLA Anderson School of Management at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). From 1993 until April 1996, he was the Chief Economist for the Latin America and Caribbean Region of the World Bank. He is also a research associate of the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), a member of the advisory board of Transnational Research Corporation and co-chairman of the Inter American Seminar on Economics (IASE).   He is the Past President of the Latin American and Caribbean Economic Association (LACEA), an international professional association of economists with academic interests in Latin America and the Caribbean region.  He was a member of the Scientific Advisory Council of the Kiel Institute of World Economics, Kiel-Germany. He is a member of California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger's Council of Economic Advisors.

From 1981 through 1993, he was an assistant, associate, and full Professor of economics at UCLA. From 2000 to 2004, he was Professor Extraordinario at the IAE, Universidad Austral, Argentina.

Sebastian Edwards was born in Santiago, Chile. He was educated at the Catholic University of Chile, and received an M.A. and Ph.D. in economics from the University of Chicago.  He is married to economist Alejandra Cox Edwards. They have three grown children and 4 grandchildren.

Author and editor
Edwards is the author of more than 200 scientific articles on international economics, macroeconomics, exchange rates, country risk, international investment, and economic development. His articles have appeared in the  American Economic Review, the Journal of Monetary Economics, The Economic Journal, Oxford Economic Papers, the Journal of Development Economics, the Quarterly Journal of Economics, the Journal of Economic Perspectives and other professional journals.

Edwards is an associate editor of the Journal of International Trade and Economic Development, the Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, and Analisis Economico. For almost ten years he was the co-editor of the Journal of Development Economics.

Columnist
His work and views has been frequently quoted in the media, including the New York Times, the Financial Times, the Los Angeles Times, the Wall Street Journal and The Economist.  His op-ed pieces have appeared in the Wall Street Journal, the Financial Times, the Los Angeles Times, the Miami Herald, Newsweek, Time, El País (Madrid), La Vanguardia (Barcelona), La Nación (Argentina), Clarín (Argentina), and La Tercera (Chile). He is also a columnist for Project Syndicate. He is a frequent guest on CNN en Español and other TV and cable news programs.

Novelist
In 2007 he published the novel El Misterio de las Tanias (Alfaguara), a political thriller involving Cuban spies, political kidnappings, and a fabled ransom worth over one billion dollars.  The novel was a bestseller in Chile, where it stayed in the Bestseller list for almost 30 weeks.  El Misterio de las Tanias was released in Argentina in mid 2008 and in the rest of the Spanish speaking world in 2009.

In May 2011 his second novel Un dia perfecto was published by La otra orilla and Editorial Norma. In Un día perfecto two parallel stories develop during one day—June 10, 1962.  On that date Chile's soccer national team unexpectedly defeated the Soviet Union during the World Cup. The first story is a love triangle, while the second one deals with the mysterious disappearance of Lev Yashin, the Soviet famous goalkeeper, known as the "Black Spider". Soon after publication, Un día perfecto joined the list of bestselling novels in Chile. It will be published in the rest of the Spanish speaking world during the second half of 2011.

Other activities
Sebastian Edwards has been a consultant to a number of multilateral institutions, governments and national and international corporations, including the Inter-American Development Bank, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

Professor Edwards has been an expert witness in a number of securities cases that have been litigated in Federal and State courts, and in a number of arbitration cases.

Books

 Conversación interrumpida (2016)
 Toxic Aid: Economic Collapse and Recovery in Tanzania (2014)
 Left Behind: Latin America and the False Promise of Populism (2010)
 The Decline of Latin American Economies (2007)
 Capital Flows and Capital Controls in Emerging Markets (2007)
 The Economics and Political Transition to an Open Market Economy: Colombia (2001). OECD
 Capital Flows and the Emerging Economies (2000). U. of Chicago Press.
 Anatomy of an Emerging-Market Crash: Mexico 1994 (1997). Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
 Labor Markets in Latin America: Combining Social Protection with Market Flexibility (1997). Brookings
 Crisis and Reform in Latin America: From Despair to Hope (1995). Oxford University Press
 Monetarism and Liberalization, The Chilean Experiment (January, 1987), with Alejandra Cox Edwards.
 Exchange Rate Misalignment in Developing Countries (1988)
 Real Exchange Rates, Devaluation and Adjustment: Exchange Rate Policy in Developing Countries (January, 1989)
 Macroeconomics of Populism in Latin America (1989) (coeditor with Rudi Dornbusch).

Sources
UCLA Anderson School of Management, Faculty webpages
Sebastián Edwards, Wikipedia español
Sebastian Edwards' webpage

External links
Sebastian Edwards, UCLA
"El misterio de las Tanias"
NBER Working Papers by Sebastian Edwards
Sebastian Edwards at Project syndicated

1953 births
S
20th-century Chilean economists
Chilean emigrants to the United States
Living people
University of Chicago alumni
UCLA Anderson School of Management faculty
Academics from Santiago
Pontifical Catholic University of Chile alumni
21st-century Chilean economists

Sebastián Edwards


Kinematics is the branch of classical mechanics which describes the motion of points, bodies (objects) and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without looking at the cause of this motion.  The term was translated from French; A.M. Ampère used the term cinématique. He constructed the term form the Greek , kinema (movement, motion), derived from , kinein (to move). The study of kinematics is often referred to as the geometry of motion.

To describe motion, kinematics studies the paths of points, lines and other geometric objects in space, and some of their properties such as velocity and acceleration. Astrophysics uses kinematics to describe the motion of celestial bodies and systems. Mechanical engineering, robotics and biomechanics use it  to describe the motion of systems composed of joined parts  such as an engine, a robotic arm or the skeleton of the human body.

The study of kinematics can be abstracted into purely mathematical functions.  It is possible to represent rotation with elements of the unit circle in the complex plane. Other planar algebras are used to represent the shear mapping of classical motion in absolute time and space and to represent the Lorentz transformations of relativistic space and time.   Mathematicians have developed a science of kinematic geometry, which uses time as a parameter.

Certain  geometric transformations which are called  rigid transformations have been developed to  describe the movement of components of a mechanical system. These transformations simplify the derivation of its equations of motion, and is central to dynamic analysis.

Kinematic analysis is the process of measuring the kinematic quantities used to describe motion.  In engineering, kinematic analysis may be used to find the range of movement for a given mechanism, and, working in reverse, kinematic synthesis designs a mechanism for a desired range of motion.  In addition, kinematics applies algebraic geometry to the study of the mechanical advantage of a mechanical system, or mechanism.

References

Mechanics

Kinematics


Pulmonary hypertension or PH is a condition where there is high blood pressure in the lungs. This condition makes it hard to breathe. Some people with the condition need extra oxygen. This condition can also make a person dizzy and become easily tired. Some people with the condition faint easily. The symptoms get worse when exercising or working hard. Pulmonary hypertension is a serious condition, and it can be fatal. The condition makes it harder for the heart to pump blood. Because the heart has to work harder, it can also become sick. Some people who are very sick may need a lung transplant or a heart-lung transplant to live. Pulmonary hypertensions full name is pulmonary arterial hypertension even though most people call it pah, ph or pha.

Signs and symptoms
People with pulmonary hypertension have difficulty breathing. They also tire easily. Some of them faint easily too. They might have chest pain. Some patients have swelling of the feet and ankles. These symptoms get worse during exercise or hard work.

Because many diseases can make it hard to breathe, a doctor must learn about the patient's background. This helps the doctor to treat the patient, even if the patient has another disease. The doctor also does several tests. Pulmonary hypertension makes the heart sound different. One test is to measure the blood pressure inside the pulmonary artery, the blood vessel that goes from the heart to the lungs.

In order to establish the cause, the physician will generally conduct a thorough medical history. A detailed family history is taken to determine whether the disease might be familial. A history of exposure to cocaine, methamphetamine, alcohol leading to cirrhosis, and smoking leading to emphysema are considered significant. Physical examination is performed to look for typical signs of pulmonary hypertension including a loud P2 (pulmonic valve closure sound), (para)sternal heave, jugular venous distension, pedal edema, ascites, hepatojugular reflux, clubbing etc.

What goes wrong with the body
In pulmonary hypertension, the blood vessels in the lungs become too narrow. The blood pressure in the lungs becomes high. The heart works very hard to pump blood through the narrow blood vessels. Later on, the blood vessels in the lungs become hard and thick. The heart must work harder.

The heart can work so hard that it becomes sick. This is called heart failure. The sick heart cannot pump blood well. Less blood goes to the lungs, so the blood gets less oxygen. This makes it hard to breathe. This gets worse when exercising or working hard.

Causes
The most common cause of pulmonary hypertension is left heart failure. This causes pulmonary venous hypertension. This leads to pulmonary edema, or fluid build-up in the lungs.

Many illnesses can cause pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH).
 Lung diseases that make the blood have less oxygen, such as:
 chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD
 interstitial lung disease
 Pickwickian syndrome
 immune system problems, such as:
 AIDS
 scleroderma
 other autoimmune disorders
 liver problems
 cirrhosis
 portal hypertension
 other causes
 sleep apnea
 taking pills to lose weight, such as Fen-Phen, Aminorex, fenfluramine (Pondimin), and phentermine
 sickle cell disease,
 congenital heart disease
 thyroid diseases,
 taking drugs like cocaine
 possibly Human herpesvirus 8

When a person has pulmonary hypertension without any other cause, this is called idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension or IPAH.

When a family history exists, the disease is termed familial pulmonary arterial hypertension, (FPAH). IPAH and FPAH are now considered to be genetic disorders linked to mutations in the BMPR2 gene, which encodes a receptor for bone morphogenetic proteins, as well as the 5-HT(2B) gene, which codes for a serotonin receptor.

In medicine, pulmonary hypertension (PH) is an increase in blood pressure in the pulmonary artery or lung vasculature, leading to shortness of breath, dizziness, fainting, and other symptoms, all of which are exacerbated by exertion. Depending on the cause, pulmonary hypertension can be a severe disease with a markedly decreased exercise tolerance and right-sided heart failure. It was first identified by Dr Ernst von Romberg in 1891. It can be one of five different types, arterial, venous, hypoxic, thromboembolic, or miscellaneous.

Although the terms primary pulmonary hypertension (meaning of unknown cause) and secondary pulmonary hypertension (meaning due to another medical condition) still persist in materials disseminated to patients and the general public, these terms have largely been abandoned in the medical literature. This change has occurred because the older dichotomous classification did not reflect pathophysiology or outcome. It led to erroneous therapeutic decisions, i.e. treat "primary" pulmonary hypertension only. This in turn led to therapeutic nihilism for many patients labeled "secondary" pulmonary hypertension, and could have contributed to their deaths. The term "primary pulmonary hypertension" has now been replaced with "idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension". The terms "primary" and "secondary" pulmonary hypertension should not be used any longer. Further details are in the Classification section below.

Causes
The most common cause of pulmonary hypertension is left heart failure leading to pulmonary venous hypertension. This may be due to systolic or diastolic malfunction of the left ventricle or due to valvular dysfunction such as mitral regurgitation or mitral stenosis. It usually manifests as pulmonary edema.

Common causes of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) include HIV, scleroderma and other autoimmune disorders, cirrhosis and portal hypertension, sickle cell disease, congenital heart disease, thyroid diseases, and others. Use of weight loss pills such as Fen-Phen, Aminorex, fenfluramine (Pondimin), and phentermine led to the development of PAH in the past.

Pathogenesis
Whatever the initial cause, pulmonary hypertension involves the tightening of blood vessels connected to and within the lungs. This makes it harder for the heart to pump blood through the lungs, much as it is harder to make water flow through a narrow pipe as opposed to a wide one. Over time, the affected blood vessels become both stiffer and thicker, further increasing the blood pressure within the lungs and impairing blood flow. In addition, the increased workload of the heart causes thickening and enlargement of the right ventricle, making the heart less able to pump blood through the lungs, causing right heart failure. As the blood flowing through the lungs decreases, the left side of the heart receives less blood. This blood may also carry less oxygen than normal. Therefore, it becomes harder and harder for the left side of the heart to pump to supply sufficient oxygen to the rest of the body, especially during physical activity.

Diagnosis
Because pulmonary hypertension can be of 5 major types, a series of tests must be performed to distinguish pulmonary arterial hypertension from venous, hypoxic, thomboembolic, or miscellaneous varieties.

A physical examination is performed to look for typical signs of pulmonary hypertension. These include altered heart sounds, such as a widely split S2 or second heart sound, a loud P2 or pulmonic valve closure sound (part of the second heart sound), (para)sternal heave, possible S3 or third heart sound, and pulmonary regurgitation. Other signs include jugular venous distension (enlargement of the jugular veins), peripheral edema (swelling of the ankles and feet), ascites (abdominal swelling due to the accumulation of fluid), hepatojugular reflux, and clubbing.

Further procedures are required to confirm the presence of pulmonary hypertension and exclude other possible diagnoses. These generally include pulmonary function tests, blood tests, electrocardiography (ECG), arterial blood gas measurements, X-rays of the chest (followed by high-resolution CT scanning if interstitial lung disease is suspected), and ventilation-perfusion or V/Q scanning to exclude chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Biopsy of the lung is usually not indicated unless the pulmonary hypertension is thought to be due to an underlying interstitial lung disease. But lung biopsies are fraught with risks of bleeding due to the high intrapulmonary blood pressure. Clinical improvement is often measured by a "six-minute walk test", i.e. the distance a patient can walk in six minutes. Stability and improvement in this measurement correlate with better survival.

Although pulmonary arterial pressure can be estimated on the basis of echocardiography, pressure sampling with a Swan-Ganz catheter provides the most definite measurement. PAOP and PVR can not be measured directly with echocardiography. Therefore, diagnosis of PAH requires a cardiac catheterization. A Swan-Ganz catheter can also measure the cardiac output, which is far more important in measuring disease severity than the pulmonary arterial pressure.

Normal pulmonary arterial pressure in a person living at sea level has a mean value of 12–16 mm Hg (1600–2100 Pa). Definite pulmonary hypertension is present when mean pressures at rest exceed 25 mm Hg (3300 Pa). If mean pulmonary artery pressure rises above 30 mm Hg (4000 Pa) with exercise, that is also considered pulmonary hypertension.

Diagnosis of PAH requires the presence of pulmonary hypertension with two other conditions. Pulmonary artery occlusion pressure (PAOP or PCWP) must be less than 15 mm Hg (2000 Pa) and pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) must be greater than 3 Wood units (240 dyn•s•cm−5 or 2.4 mN•s•cm−5).

Classification

Current classification
In 2003, the 3rd World Symposium on Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension was convened in Venice to modify the classification based on the new understanding of disease mechanisms. The revised system developed by this group provides the current framework for understanding pulmonary hypertension.

The system includes several improvements over the former 1998 Evian Classification system. Risk factor descriptions were updated, and the classification of congenital systemic-to pulmonary shunts was revised. A new classification of genetic factors in PH was recommended, but not implemented because available data were judged to be inadequate.

The Venice 2003 Revised Classification system can be summarized as follows:
 WHO Group I - Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH)
 WHO Group II - Pulmonary hypertension associated with left heart disease
 WHO Group III - Pulmonary hypertension associated with lung diseases and/or hypoxemia
 WHO Group IV - Pulmonary hypertension due to chronic thrombotic and/or embolic disease
 WHO Group V - Miscellaneous

Previous terminology
The terms primary and secondary pulmonary hypertension (PPH and SPH) were formerly used to classify the disease. This led to the assumption that only the primary disease should be treated, and the secondary variety should be ignored in favor of treating only the underlying illness. In fact all forms of pulmonary arterial hypertension are treatable. Unfortunately, this classification system still persists in the minds of many physicians, and probably leads to many patients with being denied treatment. This nihilistic approach to pulmonary arterial hypertension may also contribute to underdiagnosis. It is estimated that there are about 100,000 patients with PAH in the US, but only 15-20,000 have been diagnosed. Many others have been misdiagnosed as COPD, asthma, or congestive heart failure.

The term primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH) has now been replaced with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) in much of the medical literature. However, some physicians continue to use the older classification inappropriately.

Epidemiology
IPAH is a rare disease with an incidence of about 2-3 per million per year and a prevalence of about 15 per million. Women are almost three times as likely to present with IPAH than men.

Other forms of PAH are far more common. In scleroderma the incidence has been estimated to be 6 to 60% of all patients, in rheumatoid arthritis up to 21%, in systemic lupus erythematosus 4 to 14%, in portal hypertension between 2 and 5%, in HIV about 0.5%, and in sickle cell disease ranging from 20 to 40%.

Diet pills such as Fen-Phen produced an annual incidence of 25-50 per million per year.

Treatment
Treatment is determined by whether the PH is arterial, venous, hypoxic, thromboembolic, or miscellaneous. Since pulmonary venous hypertension is synonymous with congestive heart failure, the treatment is to optimize left ventricular function by the use of diuretics, beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, etc., or to repair/replace the mitral valve or aortic valve.

In PAH, lifestyle changes, digoxin, diuretics, oral anticoagulants, and oxygen therapy are considered conventional therapy, but have never been proven to be beneficial in a randomized, prospective manner.

High dose calcium channel blockers are useful in only 5% of IPAH patients who are vasoreactive by Swan-Ganz catheter. Unfortunately, calcium channel blockers have been largely misused, being prescribed to many patients with non-vasoreactive PAH, leading to excess morbidity and mortality.

Vasoactive substances
Three major pathways are involved in abnormal proliferation and contraction of the smooth-muscle cells of the pulmonary artery in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. These pathways correspond to important therapeutic targets in this condition and play a role in determining which of three classes of drugs—endothelin receptor antagonists, phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors, and prostacyclin derivatives—will be used.

Prostacyclin (prostaglandin I2) is commonly considered the most effective treatment for PAH. Epoprostenol (synthetic prostacyclin, marketed as Flolan®) is given via continuous infusion that requires a semi-permanent central venous catheter. This delivery system can cause sepsis and thrombosis. Flolan® is unstable, and therefore has to be kept on ice during administration. Since it has a half-life of 3 to 5 minutes, the infusion has to be continuous (24/7), and interruption can be fatal. Other prostanoids have therefore been developed. Treprostinil (Remodulin®) can be given intravenously or subcutaneously, but the subcutaneous form can be very painful. Iloprost (Ilomedin®) is also used in Europe intravenously and has a longer half life. Iloprost (marketed as Ventavis®) is the only inhaled form of prostacyclin approved for use in the US and Europe. This form of administration has the advantage of selective deposition in the lungs with less systemic side effects.

The dual (ETA and ETB) endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan (marketed as Tracleer®) was approved in 2001. Two selective endothelin receptor antagonists (ETA only) are in the final stages of approval: sitaxsentan and ambrisentan. Sildenafil, a selective inhibitor of cGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5), was approved for the treatment of PAH in 2005. It is marketed for PAH as Revatio®. Tadalafil (currently marketed as Cialis® for erectile dysfunction) is currently is Phase III trials. Vasoactive intestinal peptide by inhalation should enter clinical trials for PAH in 2007. PRX-08066 is a serotonin antagonist currently being developed for hypoxic pulmonary hypertension.

Surgical
Atrial septostomy is a surgical procedure that creates a communication between the right and left atria. It relieves pressure on the right side of the heart, but at the cost of lower oxygen levels in blood (hypoxia). It is best performed in experienced centers. Lung transplantation cures pulmonary arterial hypertension, but leaves the patient with the complications of transplantation, and a survival of about 5 years.

Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy (PTE) is a surgical procedure that is used for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. It is the surgical removal of an organized thrombus (clot) along with the lining of the pulmonary artery; it is a large and very difficult procedure that is currently performed in a few select centers. Case series show remarkable success in most patients.

Treatment for hypoxic and miscellaneous varieties of pulmonary hypertension have not been established. However, studies of several agents are currently enrolling patients. Many physicians will treat these diseases with the same medications as for PAH, until better options become available.

Prognosis
The NIH IPAH registry from the 1980s showed an untreated median survival of 2–3 years from time of diagnosis, with the cause of death usually being right ventricular failure (cor pulmonale). Although this figure is widely quoted, it is probably irrelevant today. Outcomes have changed dramatically over the last two decades. This may be because of newer drug therapy, better overall care, and earlier diagnosis (lead time bias). A recent outcome study of those patients who had started treatment with bosentan (Tracleer®) showed that 86% patients were alive at 3 years. With multiple agents now available, combination therapy is increasingly used. Impact of these agents on survival is not known, since many of them have been developed only recently. It would not be unreasonable to expect median survival to extend past 10 years in the near future.

References

Other websites
 The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy: Pulmonary Hypertension
 PH Central - the internet resource for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
 The Pulmonary Hypertension Association Webpage provided by the Pulmonary Hypertension Association
 Facts About Primary Pulmonary Hypertension from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)
 Webcast: The Changing World of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Therapies - American College of CHEST Physicians
 Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Information for Healthcare professionals
 BMPR2-Related Primary Pulmonary Hypertension on GeneReviews

Cardiovascular system
Breathing problems
Blood pressure

Pulmonary hypertension


Bromide is the reduced form of bromine. It is an ion. It exists when another element, such as sodium, gives away electrons to bromine, turning it into bromide. The aluminium turns into an aluminum ion, and both ions bond to form sodium bromide, a chemical compound. Bromides are normally colorless and nontoxic.

Bromide can also refer to an overused saying or idiom, such as "quick as a mouse" and "big as an elephant". In writing it is recommended to use fresh expressions and not over used ones.

Bromine compounds
Ions

Bromide


The Canadian Forces (CF) (French: Forces canadiennes; FC), is the army, air force, and navy of Canada, commanded by a single structure, unlike the United States.

Under the National Defence Act, "The Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised by Canada and consist of one Service called the Canadian Armed Forces." The Commander in Chief of the Canadian Forces is the Head of State of Canada, Queen Elizabeth II, represented by the Governor General of Canada, Mary May Simon. The Chief of the Defence Staff (or CDS), the senior professional member of the service, is General Thomas J. Lawson. The CDS answers to a politician, the Minister of National Defence, who is currently Anita Anand of the Liberal Party.

Structure
The Canadian Forces is composed of 67,000 personnel (soldiers, sailors, and airmen/airwomen). Every unit accepts male and female soldiers, if they qualify for the position. The CF is divided into seven main branches, which are called commands.

Main Branches
The Environmental branches (called Commands) are mainly administrative structures. They manage the personnel, the equipment and the facilities, but not the operations. There are three commands in the Canadian Forces, because there are no Marines. All the commands work very closely with each other, for example, the Air Force provides helicopters to the Navy and the Army. These commands also each have a reserve element, made of part-time employees.

Land Forces Command (LFCOM)
Land Forces Command (LFCOM) is the first branch of the Canadian Forces. This is the Canadian Army and the largest branch of the CF. It uses tanks and other armoured vehicles, such as the LAV III, as well as artillery, engineering vehicles, and a variety of weapons, such as the Colt Canada C7 rifle.

Maritime Command (MARCOM)
Maritime Command (MARCOM) is the second branch of the Canadian Forces. This is the navy of Canada. It has 33 active warships including submarines, frigates and destroyers.

Air Command (AIRCOM)
Air Command (AIRCOM) is the Air Force and third branch of the Canadian Forces. It operates a variety of helicopters and airplanes to support the army and the navy, and also has CF-18 fighters.

Operational Branches
The Operational commands are responsible for specific types of operations or for conducting exercises or deployments. There are four operational commands.

Special Operations Forces Command (CANSOFCOM)
The CANSOFCOM is responsible for providing special forces and asymmetric warfare capabilities to Canada. It is the smallest command of the Canadian Forces, and is composed of four joint units that do not answer to either the Army, Navy or Air Force. These units are the Joint Task Force 2, the Canadian Special Operations Regiment, the 427th Special Aviation Squadron and the Canadian Joint Incident Response Unit (CBRN).

Expeditionary Force Command (CEFCOM)
This is the command responsible for managing foreign operations and deployments outside of Canada, such as Canada's contribution to the War in Afghanistan.

Canada Command (CANCOM)
Canada Command works with the United States Northern Command to ensure national security and the defence of the North American continent. CANCOM also is responsible for emergency management, such as when the Army is needed to respond to disasters in Canada.

Operational Support Command (CANOSCOM)
This command is responsible for supporting all the other commands with things such as logistics, engineering, health services, and the military police.

Defence Policy
From the second half of the 20th century, the defence policy of Canada is made of these objectives :
 The defence of the country
 The defence of North America, with the United States Military
 Contributing to international security

During the Cold War, a major focus of the Canadian Forces was helping with the defence of Europe against the threat posed by the Soviet Union. Some Canadian soldiers lived in Europe during that time.

Today, the Canadian Forces goals are based on the Canada First Defence Strategy,  introduced by the conservative government of Stephen Harper. The new goals and objectives are being able to do the following :
 Make regular domestic operations, in the Arctic and to support NORAD
 Help with the security of a major national event, such as the 2010 Winter Olympics
 Respond to a major terrorist attack
 Help citizens in case of a natural disaster
 Lead or make a major international mission during a long time
 Send soldiers to respond to an international crisis for a short time

Notes

Military of Canada

Canadian Armed Forces


Georges Gurvitch (; October 20, 1894, Novorossiysk – December 12, 1965, Paris) was a Russian-born French sociologist and jurist. One of the leading sociologists of his times, he was a specialist of the sociology of knowledge. In 1944 he founded the journal Cahiers internationaux de Sociologie. He held a chair in sociology at the Sorbonne in Paris. An outspoken advocate of Algerian decolonization, Gurvitch and his wife were the victim of terrorist attack by the far-right nationalist group, L'O.A.S on June 22, 1962. Their apartment was destroyed by a bomb, and they took refuge for a time at the house of painter Marc Chagall.

Gurvitch is an important figure in the development of sociology of law. Like other legal sociologists, he insisted that law is not merely the rules or decisions produced, interpreted and enforced by agencies of the state, such as legislatures, courts and police. Groups and communities of various kinds, whether formally structured or informally organised, produce regulation for themselves and others, which can properly be considered law from a sociological standpoint. Gurvitch's legal pluralism is, however, far more rigorous and radical than that of most legal sociologists and locates an immense variety of types of law in the various kinds of sociality—or social interaction—that he distinguished in his writings. He saw the need to stress the reality and significance of social law and social rights, in opposition to what he termed individual law. His Bill of Social Rights, drafted at the end of World War II was an attempt to state a blueprint of a legal framework of social law for a postwar world in which the idea of human rights had become newly powerful.

The sociologist and ideologue of the 1979 Iranian revolution Ali Shariati studied under Gurvitch in the 1960s during his studies in France at the University of Sorbonne.

Works
 Essai de Sociologie, (1939)
 Sociology of law, (1942)
 The Bill of Social Rights, (1945)
 La vocation actuelle de la sociologie, (1950)
 Le concept des classes sociales de Marx à nos jours, (1954)
 The Spectrum of Social Time, (1958)
 Dialectique et sociologie, (1962)
 The Social Frameworks of Knowledge, (1972)

Studies of Gurvitch's works
 Banakar, Reza, "Integrating Reciprocal Perspectives: On Georges Gurvitch's Theory of Immediate Jural Experience" in 16 /1 Canadian Journal of Law and Society. 2001. Reprinted in Roger Cotterrell, ed., Law in Social Theory. Aldershot, Ashgate. 2006. Available at SSRN https://ssrn.com/abstract=1777167
 Banakar, Reza, "Georges Gurvitch" in Encyclopedia of Law and Society: American and Global Perspectives. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. 2006.
 Belley, Jean-Guy,  "Georges Gurvitch et les professionnels de la pensée juridique" in 4 Droit et Société 353-70 (1986)
 Bosserman, Phillip, Dialectical Sociology: An Analysis of the Sociology of Georges Gurvitch. Boston: Porter Sargent (1968)
 Carbonnier, Jean, "Gurvitch et les juristes" in 4 Droit et Société 347-51 (1986).
 Choi, Chaanshik, Freedom and Determinism: The Promethean Sociology of Georges Gurvitch (Ph.D. Dissertation at New School for Social Research, New York, N.Y. 1978)
 Hunt, Alan, "The Sociology of Law of Gurvitch and Timasheff: A Critique of Theories of Normative Integration" in Research in Law and Sociology, Vol. 2, pp. 169–204 (1979),
 McDonald, Pauline, "The Legal Sociology of Georges Gurvitch" in 6 British Journal of Law and Society 24-52 (1979).
 Noreau, Pierre and Andre-Jean Arnaud, "The Sociology of Law in France: Trends and Paradigms" in 25  Journal of Law and Society 258-83 (1998).
 Swedberg, Richard. Sociology as Disenchantment: The Evolution of the Work of Georges Gurvitch. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1982.

References

1894 births
1965 deaths
People from Novorossiysk
People from Kuban Oblast
Russian Jews
Mensheviks
White Russian emigrants to Germany
White Russian emigrants to Czechoslovakia
White Russian emigrants to France
French people of Russian-Jewish descent
French sociologists
Russian sociologists
Jewish sociologists
French male writers
Saint Petersburg State University alumni
Academic staff of the University of Paris
Foreign members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Russian scientists

Georges Gurvitch


Ani () is a ruined and uninhabited medieval city-site in Turkey. It is in the province of Kars, beside the border with Armenia. It was once the capital of a medieval Armenian kingdom that covered much of present-day Armenia and eastern Turkey.

At the height of its great times, Ani had a population of 100,000 - 200,000 people and was the rival of Constantinople, Baghdad and Cairo. Long ago renowned for its splendor and magnificence, Ani has been abandoned and largely forgotten for centuries.

History
Armenian chroniclers first mention Ani in the 5th century AD. They describe it as a strong fortress built on a hilltop and a possession of the Armenian Kamsarakan dynasty.

By the early 9th century the former territories of the Kamsarakans in Arsharunik and Shirak (including Ani) had been incorporated into the territories of the Armenian Bagratuni dynasty. Their leader, Ashot Msaker (Ashot the Meateater) (806-827) was given the title of ishkhan (prince) of Armenia by the Caliphate in 804.

Other monuments
There are many other minor monuments at Ani. These include a convent known as the Virgins' chapel; a church used by Chalcedonian Armenians; the remains of a single-arched bridge over the Arpa river; the ruins of numerous oil-presses and several bath houses; the remains of a second mosque with a collapsed minaret; a palace that probably dates from the 13th century; the foundations of several other palaces and smaller residences; the recently excavated remains of several streets lined with shops; etc.

Other websites
 Virtual Ani - has clickable maps, extensive history and photos

History of Armenia
Ruins
Buildings and structures in Armenia
5th-century establishments in Asia
Establishments in Armenia

Ani


Don Carlos is an opera by Giuseppe Verdi, also known as Don Carlo.

Don Carlos or Don Carlo may also refer to:

People
 Carlo Gesualdo (1566–1613), also known as Don Carlo Gesualdo, Italian music composer, murderer
 Don Carlos (basketball), American basketball player
 Carlos, Prince of Asturias (1545–1568)
 Don Carlos (1788–1855), Infante Carlos, Count of Molina
 Don Carlos Hugo (born 1930), Carlos Hugo of Bourbon, Duke of Parma
 Don Carlos (musician) (fl. late 20th century), Jamaican singer
 Don Carlos Smith, brother of Latter Day Saint leader Joseph Smith, Jr.

Other
Don Carlos (play), historical tragedy by Friedrich Schiller
Don Carlos, Bukidnon, Philippine municipality
Don Carlos (Miracle Giants Dome-kun), fictional character from Miracle Giants Dome-kun anime

Don Carlos (disambiguation)


Agnosticism is the philosophical view that it is unknown (or even, unknowable) whether any deities (god or gods) exist or not.

Some people who call themselves "agnostic" say that it is not possible for anyone ever to know if there are any deities or not. Other agnostics, though, say only that they themselves currently do not know if there are any deities.

Thomas Henry Huxley, the English biologist, coined the word "agnostic" in 1869. In 1889 he wrote "Agnosticism... is not a creed, but a method... the fundamental axiom of modern science...  In matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable".

There are several different kinds of agnosticism:
 Absolute agnosticism (also called hard agnosticism, closed agnosticism, strict agnosticism, strong agnosticism) is the belief that it is not possible to know whether a god/gods exists or not.
 Empirical agnosticism (also called soft agnosticism, open agnosticism, weak agnosticism, temporal agnosticism) is the belief that at present there is not enough information to know whether any god/gods exists or not, but that we might find out someday.
 Apathetic agnosticism is the belief that it does not matter whether any god/gods exists or not.

People often have difficulty telling agnosticism and atheism apart. Atheists do not believe in the existence of deities, and some say that they are sure that no deity exists. Some (perhaps most) atheists, though, say that it is up to theists (people who believe in a deity) to give the evidence for a god or to show why someone should believe in a god. They say that there is not enough evidence or a strong enough argument to believe any gods exist. So they reject belief that any exist. While agnostics think we cannot know for sure whether any deities exist, some agnostics do believe at least one deity exists  These people are both agnostic and theistic—they believe at least one deity exists, but do not claim to know that to be true. Some people are both atheist and agnostic—they reject belief in any deities without claiming to know that deities do not exist. Some agnostics cannot decide whether to believe any deities exist or not.

Beliefs related to agnosticism
 Ignosticism is the belief that the idea of god/gods does not have a good enough definition, so saying "god exists" or "god does not exist" does not mean anything.
 Agnostic theism believes in the existence of one or more gods. They accept this is unknown or inherently unknowable.
 Agnostic atheism is the view that a god/gods may or may not exist, but there is no good reason to believe they do.
 Post-theism is the view that religion used to be important, but is not anymore.

All these beliefs point to the lack of evidence.

Related pages
 Atheism
 Religion
 Humanism
 Irreligion
 Skepticism

References

Secularism
Philosophical movements and positions

Agnosticism


Gafolbyrðen in Þéodisclande is one of the most criticized matters in Germany. Germans themselves assume that it should be one of the most complex systems in the world, only surpassed by the Brazilians who call their tax system chaotic (with 10000 laws, 100000 regulations and 2000 provisory laws). Three quarter of the literature on taxation in the world is supposed to refer to the German tax system. Some tax haters maintain that there are 118 laws, 185 forms and 96000 regulations and that there is one particular commentary on taxation that spreads over 2,671 pages. The complexity of the German tax system is a result of constant modifications prompted by corporate pressure groups. Administration cost an annual 3.7 Billion Euros for levying income taxes, which is approximately two and a half per cent of the total amount of income tax yielded every year (150 Bill. Euros).

Since tax regulations are frequently modified and supposed to be hard to understand people rely on tax advisors, as they do in all industrial countries
Gafolbyrðen in Þéodisclande is one of the most criticized matters in Germany. Germans themselves assume that it should be one of the most complex systems in the world, only surpassed by the Brazilians who call their tax system chaotic (with 10000 laws, 100000 regulations and 2000 provisory laws).
Three quarter of the literature on taxation in the world is supposed to refer to the German tax system. Some tax haters maintain that there are 118 laws, 185 forms and 96000 regulations and that there is one particular commentary on taxation that spreads over 2,671 pages. The complexity of the German tax system is a result of constant modifications prompted by corporate pressure groups.
Administration cost an annual 3.7 Billion Euros for levying income taxes, which is approximately two and a half per cent of the total amount of income tax yielded every year (150 Bill. Euros).

Since tax regulations are frequently modified and supposed to be hard to understand people rely on tax advisors, as they do in all industrial countries.

Individual Taxation
Germany's individual tax rates vary with the income, that is the tax rates are progressive as they are in all industrialized countries of the west. On salaries and wages income
taxes are paid as you earn. Income taxes have been reduced recently and the maximum marginal rate is 42 per cent in 2005.
Germany's individual tax rates vary with the income, that is the tax rates are progressive as they are in all industrialized countries of the west. On salaries and wages income taxes are paid as you earn. Income taxes have been reduced recently and the maximum marginal rate is 42 per cent in 2005.

By law employees pay "as they earn" a compulsory fee for their individual social security of approximately 20-21 per cent of what they earn. The same amount is paid by the employer into the bargain, which is a continual contentious political issue in Germany.
By law employees pay "as they earn" a compulsory fee for their individual social security of approximately 20-21 per cent of what they earn. The same amount is paid by the employer into the bargain, which is a continual contentious political issue in Germany.

Categories of the Individual
In Germany, you can either be a resident for tax purposes, or a non-resident for tax purposes. If you have been present in Germany for over 183 days in the last year, you are generally considered to be a resident for tax purposes. The 183 day rule is not the only consideration for tax residence - see your embassy's website or talk to a tax consultant or accountant.

If you are a non-resident for tax purposes (eg. a short term contractor here), you will generally still be liable to pay tax on German sourced income. This rate may vary. Tax relief opportunities and double taxation agreements may alter this.

There are 6 tax classes that you may fall into, each one with varying rates.

Those single or separated, but not falling into either categories 2 or 3.
Single and separated, with a child, entitling them to a child's allowance.
Married, or widowed employees who are within the first year of a spouse's death.
Married employees both of whom receive income.
Married persons who would normally fall into category 4, but whose spouse is in tax class 3.
Employees who receive income from other employment on other, or several different tax cards.
On top of this, you may either be a salaried employee (as most people are) or a Freiberufler (free professional = contractor). For salaried employees, tax and social insurance are withheld by the employer. Contactors must pay the tax department their tax obligations regularly throughout the year.
In Germany, you can either be a resident for tax purposes, or a
non-resident for tax purposes.  If you have been present in Germany
for over 183 days in the last year, you are generally considered to be
a resident for tax purposes.  The 183 day rule is not the only
consideration for tax residence - see your embassy's website or talk
to a tax consultant or accountant.

If you are a non-resident for tax purposes (eg. a short term
contractor here), you will generally still be liable to pay tax on
German sourced income.  This rate may vary.  Tax relief opportunities
and double taxation agreements may alter this.

There are 6 tax classes that you may fall into, each one with varying
rates.

<li> Those single or separated, but not falling into either categories 2 or 3.
<li> Single and separated, with a child, entitling them to a child's allowance.
<li> Married, or widowed employees who are within the first year of a spouse's death.
<li> Married employees both of whom receive income.
<li> Married persons who would normally fall into category 4, but whose spouse is in tax class 3.
<li> Employees who receive income from other employment on other, or several different tax cards.

On top of this, you may either be a salaried employee (as most people
are) or a Freiberufler (free professional = contractor).  For
salaried employees, tax and social insurance are withheld by the
employer.  Contactors must pay the tax department their tax
obligations regularly throughout the year.

Wage Tax, Solidarity Tax, and Church Tax Wages are taxed in 3 separate linear progressive ranges. In 2004, the ranges are as follows for a tax class 1 resident individual:

Tax Free Allowance of €7,664.00
Linear progressive zone from 16% to 24% on taxable income from €7,665.00 up to €12,739.00
Linear progressive zone from 24% to 45% on taxable income from €12,740.00 up to €52,151.00
45% of all taxable income after €52,152.00
Solidarity tax is for the "re-unification of Germany" and is calculated at 5.5% of your wage tax.

Church tax is only relevant if you listed a religion on your tax form. It will be either 8 or 9% of your wage tax. Beware - It's difficult to stop paying church tax once you've begun.

Wages are taxed in 3 separate linear progressive ranges.  In 2004, the
ranges are as follows for a tax class 1 resident individual:

 Tax Free Allowance of €7,664.00
 Linear progressive zone from 16% to 24% on taxable income from €7,665.00 up to €12,739.00
 Linear progressive zone from 24% to 45% on taxable income from €12,740.00 up to €52,151.00
 45% of all taxable income after €52,152.00

Solidarity tax is for the "re-unification of Germany" and is
calculated at 5.5% of your wage tax.

Church tax is only relevant if you listed a religion on your tax form.
It will be either 8 or 9% of your wage tax.  Beware - It's difficult
to stop paying church tax once you've begun.

Social Insurances
Regular employees are liable for the following individual social
insurances: Health insurance, pensions insurance, unemployment
insurance, and health/nursing care insurance.

Health insurance is 6% - 7% of taxable income (before tax, minus
deductions). Pensions insurance is 9.65 per cent, unemployment insurance
is 3.25 per cent, and health/nursing care insurance is 0.85% of taxable income.
In total, this is around 21% of your taxable income.
These payments are partly subject to a tax relief or tax deductions.
Employers have to pay the same amounts that go into the social security
of the individual employee.

German pensions are currently not taxable at retirement age.
If the earnings of an employee are above a certain limit (~€46,800 in 2005)
he or she can take out a private health insurance policy, which can be
considerably cheaper especially when the employee is young and unmarried.
The national health system is a family insurance while private
health insurance policies cover individual risks only.

A free-lance professional, Freiberufler, is not at all lawfully obliged to take out
social insurance policies.

Tax payers are entitled to a ~€2,100.00 reduction in taxable income for
social insurances.

Individual Taxation Example

 You are offered an employee position at €35,000.00 per year.
 You take deductions of €3000.00 for various deductible expenses (including insurance reduction of ~€2,100.00, your contribution being over)
 You pay €7,041.65 in social insurances (34100 * 0.2065)
 You are liable for €6,634.00 wage tax (based on €32,000.00)
 You are liable for €364.87 solidarity tax (5.5% of €6,634.00)
 You aren't liable for church tax.
 You have a nett yearly income of €20959.00 (€1746.58/month, €401.68/week)
 The company pays €7,041.65 in social insurances, matching your contribution.

With appropriate forms, you may be able to contribute to social security
insurance or pension funds in your home country, up to a maximum period of 5
years.

These figures are yet to be confirmed by a professional, but they pretty much agree with the figures from the Yahoo Wage Calculator.

Freiberufler Taxation Example

This will be calculated based on year-end calculations.  Actual calculations
will vary considerably, as you'll probably pay more tax while working and
get a refund from the tax department later.

 You take a 9 month contract at €350 per day (Let's say 190 working days), and then take a 3 month holiday.
 €350 * 190 = €66500.00
 You claim €5300 tax-free (second apartment, car/travel, other business expenses)
 You pay €1200.00 for almost-comprehensive Germany-only yearly private health insurance, and claim it back tax free (under the ~€2100 insurance allowance)
 You pay €18,155.00 in wage tax.
 You pay €999 in solidarity tax.
 You are left with €39646.00 + €5300 in the year.

It might be wise to take up some other insurance, also, such as permanent
disability, life insurance, or pension insurance.  You are allowed around
€2100 in insurance deductions per year, so it's not a great loss to make
the most of it.  With the appropriate forms, you can contribute to social
security funds in your home country.

Depending on your type of work, you may not be classed exactly as a Freiberufler, and you will be subject to Trade Tax (Gewerbesteuer), which is a tax calculated with a region-dependant multiplier on your existing tax obligation. This varies between around 10% and 16% of your existing tax bill, depending on where you are. For example, if you pay 18,155 in wage tax, you will also be taxed €2,904.00 in trade tax if you live in Munich.

These figures are yet to be confirmed by a professional.

Business Taxation

To be completed.

Séo éac

Gafolbyrðen in the United Kingdom
Gafolbyrðen in the United States

 German Embassy London's Living and Working in Germany Section
 Contractor UK - IT Contacting in Germany
 Freiberufler Information (In German)
 Freiberufler Community (In German)
 Yahoo's Comprehensive Wage & Nett-income Calculator (In German)

Gafolbyrðen in Þēodisclande


In Christianity, babies might be baptised when they were young. When that baby grows to an adult, confirmation is used to make sure that the adult agrees with the promise to be a Christian, made when they were baptised. Usually in an Anglican church, people can only take their first Holy Communion if they do the confirmation before.

Sacraments

Confirmation (Christianity)


"If This Goes On—" is a science fiction novella by American writer Robert A. Heinlein, first serialized in 1940 in Astounding Science-Fiction and revised and expanded to novel length for inclusion in the 1953 collection Revolt in 2100. The story shows what might happen to Christianity in the United States with mass communications, applied psychology, and a hysterical populace. The story is part of Heinlein's Future History series.

At the 2016 WorldCon the story won the 1941 Retro-Hugo Award for Best Novella of 1940.

Plot
The story is set in a future theocratic American society, ruled by the latest in a series of fundamentalist Christian "Prophets." The First Prophet was Nehemiah Scudder, a backwoods preacher turned President (elected in 2012), then dictator (no elections were held in 2016 or later).

John Lyle, a junior army officer under the Prophet, is stationed at the Prophet's capital of New Jerusalem. He had been devout, but he finds himself questioning his faith when he falls for one of the Prophet's Virgins, Sister Judith. New to the vocation, Judith faints when she is called upon to submit sexually to the Prophet and is confined to her quarters until she sees the light. John confides in his far more worldly roommate, Zeb Jones, who is not shocked but even assists John. A clandestine meeting with Judith goes awry when they are forced to kill a spy. They are left with no choice but to seek aid from the Cabal, an underground revolutionary movement (Judith's friend, Sister Magdalene, is a member). The two men are inducted into the Cabal while they remain on duty in their army posts. Judith is arrested and tortured as part of the investigation into the death of the spy, and John and Zeb rescue her but leave enough clues that John is soon arrested and tortured himself. He gives little away and is himself rescued by the Cabal. Zeb and Magdalene have evaded arrest thanks to a clandestine distress signal, which John manages to leave for Zeb while he is arrested.

Judith is spirited out of the country before John regains consciousness, and John is given a false identity to make his way to Cabal headquarters. He is detected en route, forced to flee, and arrives safely after several misadventures. He finds that Zeb and Magdalene, who he assumes are a couple, have made their way there before him. All take on significant roles in bringing to fruition the revolutionary plot, John as an aide to the commander, General Huxley.

Working there, John receives a literal "Dear John" letter from Judith that informs him of her impending marriage to a Mexican man she met while she was taking refuge in his country. He learns that Zeb and Magdalene have no marriage plans, as their strong personalities would inevitably clash, and he begins a romance with Magdalene.

The revolutionary plot is mostly successful, and the country other than New Jerusalem is seized. However, the capital must also be conquered to prevent it from serving as a rallying point for loyalists. Even as constitutional discussions go on, the new regime's troops, tempered to provide the greatest possible individual freedom (tats is the origin of the 'Covenant' mentioned in other Heinlein works), prepare to take New Jerusalem. John and Magdalene are married just before the assault.

During the fight, Huxley is wounded, and John must take over temporary command though he is not entitled by rank to do so. He gives the orders that bring victory. He then turns over command to the senior unwounded general and leads a squad invading the Prophet's private quarters. They find that he has been viciously killed by his own Virgins.

Freemasonry
The Cabal uses terminology associated with Freemasonry, and there are hints that the Masons are actually one of the groups involved in the loosely organized revolt against the government. (Heinlein himself was not a Mason, but he had considered joining the Masons as a young man.)

Critical reception
Damon Knight wrote of the novella:

Revolution... has always been a favorite theme in science fiction. It's romantic, it's reliable, and—as a rule—it's as phony as a Martian princess.

Who but Heinlein ever pointed out, as he does here in detail, that a modern revolution is big business? And who but Heinlein would have seen that fraternal organizations, for thirty years the butt of highbrow American humor, would make the perfect nucleus for an American underground against tyranny?

In academia, the story has been analyzed as an early critique (in science fiction) of "religion as a manipulative, hegemonic social tool", and argued to be an example of a feminist critique of religion. It has also been mentioned as one of the first portrayals of fictional religion in sci-fi.

Connections with other works by Heinlein
While set in Heinlein's Future History, the story is self-contained and has little connection with other works in the series. However, it is noted in Methuselah's Children that during the time of this story, the secret of the Howard Families was held close (being a prize that was beyond the power of the Prophet to confiscate) and also that the Cabal assisted in helping the Howards maintain their Masquerade, the concealment of the existence of the Howards. Lazarus Long specifically mentions that he spent the period of the Interregnum mostly on Venus when the Prophets ruled the United States, and space travel was forbidden.

The story also depicts the start of the negotiations that would lead to the Covenant, the somewhat-idealized basis for government depicted in "Coventry", "Misfit", and Methuselah's Children.

Scudder was previously mentioned in passing in the short story "Logic of Empire" and would be again later on in Heinlein's final novel, To Sail Beyond the Sunset. A story about the rise of Scudder, "The Sound of His Wings", is contained in the Future History timeline but was never written by Heinlein, who stated in the afterword to Revolt in 2100: "I will probably never write the story of Nehemiah Scudder, I dislike him too much." Also, a story called "The Stone Pillow", which would have depicted the earlier foredoomed opposition to the Theocracy, never got written; Heinlein noted that there was "too much tragedy in real life."

The 1940 version of "If This Goes On—" was believed to be Heinlein's first novel until the unpublished work For Us, the Living: A Comedy of Customs was discovered in 2003. The earlier unpublished novel also features a Nehemiah Scudder who comes very close to gaining power but is stopped at the last moment by the mobilization of Libertarians.

Ward Carson wrote: "In For Us, the Living, space colonization waits until the end of the Twenty-First Century and Scudder is defeated; in the Future History it happens a century earlier and Scudder takes over the US. Heinlein made no explicit remark on this, but a causal connection could be made: in the Future History the bold individualistic Americans emigrated into space in the end of the Twentieth Century, and were not present in America to stop it from falling into the fanatic's hands."

References

External links

 "If This Goes On—" parts one and two on the Internet Archive

1940 short stories
Dystopian novels
Libertarian science fiction books
Novels first published in serial form
Religion in science fiction
Short stories by Robert A. Heinlein
Social science fiction
Works originally published in Analog Science Fiction and Fact

"If This Goes On—"


Apocatastasis, which can be translated as universal restoration is a concept that can be found in Ancient Greece. The theological idea was that people did not fully agree with their creator, and moved away; this is called Apostasy. At the end of time, everything would be re-united with its creator, according to the idea. Different people have seen the process differently: Some say, that everything, even those that have "fallen", will be reunited; these people speak about apokatastasis panton or restitutio omnium (quae locutus est).

Ancient Greek philosophy used the term, before it was used by Christian scholars. That way, the Pythagoreans, Heraclitus, and the Stoics used the term. Neoplatonism, as well as Friedrich Nietzsche also used the term in this meaning. Most of these philiosophers believed, that this "restoration" was periodic, and not an event that occurred only once.

Clement of Alexandria, Origen and Gregory of Nyssa where the first Christian scholars who used the term: For them, this "restoration" would occur only once, and was not periodic.

Christian theology

Apocatastasis


Paul Bernard Rodgers (born 17 December 1949) is an English singer, songwriter and musician. He was the lead vocalist of numerous rock bands, including Free, Bad Company, the Firm and the Law.  He has also performed as a solo artist, and collaborated with the remaining active members of Queen under the moniker Queen + Paul Rodgers. A poll in Rolling Stone magazine ranked him number 55 on its list of the "100 Greatest Singers of All Time". In 2011 Rodgers received the British Academy's Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music.

Rodgers has been cited as a significant influence on various rock singers. In 1991, John Mellencamp called Rodgers "the best rock singer ever". Freddie Mercury in particular liked Rodgers and his aggressive style.

Early career
Paul Bernard Rodgers was born in Middlesbrough, England. He played bass for a band named The Roadrunners. Colin Bradley originally had the lead vocal slot, but convinced Rodgers to sing and front the band as he was primarily interested in playing rhythm guitar and his oldest brother Joe (who managed the band) supported the idea. Just before leaving Middlesbrough for the London music scene, the band changed its name to The Wildflowers. Other members of this band were Micky Moody (later of Whitesnake) and Bruce Thomas (later of Elvis Costello and The Attractions).

Free

In 1968, Rodgers joined bluesy rockers Free as singer and songwriter. In 1970, they shot up the international radio charts with "All Right Now", which Rodgers wrote with the group's bassist Andy Fraser. It was a number one hit in more than 20 territories and acknowledged by ASCAP in 1990 for having received over a million radio plays in the US.

For a short time, Free were alongside Led Zeppelin as among the highest grossing British acts, though Free's status was not sustained. Free released four albums with a combination of blues, ballads and rock that were Top Five successes in the UK.  When in 2000, the song "All Right Now" achieved the mark of two million radio plays in the UK, an award was given to Rodgers as one of the two writers.

After the first break-up of Free in the spring of 1971, Rodgers briefly formed a three-piece band called Peace. Alongside bassist Stewart McDonald and drummer Mick Underwood, Rodgers played guitar and sang lead vocals. Peace supported Mott the Hoople's UK tour in 1971, but broke up when Free reformed at the start of 1972. Two songs by Peace were eventually included on the fifth disc of the 2000 Free compilation Songs of Yesterday, along with a song that Rodgers recorded with the Maytals. A bootleg has circulated of a 22 December 1971 appearance by Peace, live in studio, on BBC Radio 1's Top Gear program.

1970s: Bad Company

Rodgers formed his next band, Bad Company, with Mick Ralphs, former guitarist of Mott the Hoople. The line-up also included Free drummer Simon Kirke, and Boz Burrell, former vocalist and bassist of King Crimson. Rodgers said he and Ralphs were still trying to come up with a name for the band, "and I just said 'Bad Company', and there was this scuffling noise and he said, 'Shit, I dropped the phone—that's it!

Bad Company was the first act signed to Led Zeppelin's new record label, Swan Song. They toured from 1973 to 1982, and had several hits such as "Feel Like Makin' Love", "Can't Get Enough", "Shooting Star", "Bad Company", and "Run with the Pack". Rodgers played instruments on several tracks: "Bad Company" and "Run With The Pack" featured him on piano; "Rock and Roll Fantasy" on guitar; and on the ballad "Seagull" Rodgers played all of the instruments. Bad Company earned six platinum albums until Rodgers left in 1982, stating that he wanted to spend time with his young family.

It was revealed in April 2011 that after Jim Morrison's death in 1971, the rest of the Doors wanted Rodgers to replace him. Robbie Krieger flew to England to personally offer him the job.  However, Rodgers has said that he was off the grid in a very rural area at the time, and the moment passed.  In late 1973, Rodgers was asked to become the singer of Deep Purple when Ian Gillan had left the band.  He rejected their offer in order to start Bad Company.

1980s: Solo career and the Firm

In October 1983, Rodgers released his first solo LP Cut Loose. He composed all of the music and played all of the instruments. The album reached number 135 on Billboard's Pop Albums chart.

When his friend Jimmy Page started to come around to his house, guitar in hand and Led Zeppelin at an end, the duo's first live pairing was on the US ARMS (Action Research into Multiple Sclerosis) Tour, which had first been mooted by Eric Clapton and, besides Rodgers and Page, would include Jeff Beck, Joe Cocker, Steve Winwood and others. The inspiration behind ARMS had been former Small Faces/Faces member Ronnie Lane's own struggle with M.S. This led to Rodgers and Page's further teaming in the group the Firm, which resulted in two albums and two tours. Critics' reception of the band was sometimes scathing (one review used the term "supersludge") and also mixed.
Even so, the Firm's two albums, The Firm and Mean Business, achieved moderate sales success and produced the radio hits "Radioactive", "Satisfaction Guaranteed", and, in the UK, "All The King's Horses".

During this same period, a series of albums were produced called Willie and the Poor Boys. Rodgers and Page were briefly part of this and recorded "These Arms of Mine", an Otis Redding tune. This recording also became a video promoting the CD.

1990s: The Law and solo career
The Law, Rodgers' 1991 musical venture with former the Who and Faces drummer Kenney Jones, produced Billboard number one AOR chart hit "Laying Down the Law" written by Rodgers, but the album peaked at number 126 on the Billboard 200 chart. A second album can be found on the bootleg market, which is often referred to as The Law II.  It is believed that this collection of songs were leftovers from the first album.

Rodgers acknowledged the influence of Jimi Hendrix by collaborating with Steve Vai, Hendrix's Band of Gypsys (Buddy Miles and Billy Cox) and the London Metropolitan Orchestra and recorded the track "Bold As Love", on the Hendrix tribute album In From The Storm. Then Rodgers teamed with Journey guitarist Neal Schon and drummer Deen Castronovo for his release The Hendrix Set, a live 5-track CD, recorded in 1993 with Rodgers' interpretations of Hendrix songs. A Canadian and US tour followed.

His Grammy-nominated solo CD, Muddy Water Blues: A Tribute to Muddy Waters was released in 1993. Rodgers wrote the title track and was backed by guitarists Brian May, Gary Moore, David Gilmour, Jeff Beck, Steve Miller, Buddy Guy, Richie Sambora, Brian Setzer, Slash, Neal Schon and Trevor Rabin.

For Woodstock's 25th anniversary in 1994, Rodgers pulled together drummer Jason Bonham, bassist Andy Fraser (from Free), guitarists Slash and Schon at the last moment to perform as the Paul Rodgers Rock and Blues Revue.

In 1995 he formed a new band consisting of Jaz Lochrie on bass, Jimmy Copley on drums and Geoff Whitehorn on guitar. The band (The Paul Rodgers Band) toured extensively in Europe, US and in the UK until 1998 and released three albums – Live: The Loreley Tapes, Now and Electric. Now charted internationally in the Top 40. The single "Soul of Love" remained in rotation on more than 86 US radio stations for six months but was not a sales success. His 1997 world tour included Russia, Japan, Canada, US, UK, Germany, France, Romania, Bulgaria, Israel, Brazil, Greece and Argentina.

Rodgers and Bad Company hit Billboard'''s US BDS charts with the number one single "Hey, Hey" in 1999, one of four new tracks off Bad Company's The 'Original' Bad Co. Anthology. The second single release, Rodgers's "Hammer of Love", reached number two. For the first time in 20 years, all the original members of Bad Company toured the US.

2000s: Solo career, Queen and Bad Company reunion
Rodgers focused on his solo career in 2000 and released Electric, his sixth solo CD. In its debut week, the single "Drifters" was US rock radio's number one on the Most Added FMQB Hot Trax list, number two on Most Added R&R Rock and number three on Most Added Album Net Power Cuts.  "Drifters" remained in the top 10 for eight weeks on Billboards Rock charts. That year, he played sold-out concerts in England, Scotland, Australia, United States and Canada. After his appearance on TV's Late Show with David Letterman in New York, he met and jammed with B.B. King. That same year, Rodgers, Jimmie Vaughan, Levon Helm, bluesmen Hubert Sumlin, Johnnie Johnson, James Cotton and others performed a sold out concert in Cleveland as a Muddy Water Blues: A Tribute to Muddy Waters.

In spring 2001, Rodgers returned to Australia, England and Scotland for the second run of sold-out shows. That summer he toured the US with Bad Company.

Rodgers and Bad Company released their first official live CD and DVD, In Concert: Merchants of Cool, in 2002. It included all the hits and a new single, "Joe Fabulous", penned by Rodgers, which hit number one at Classic Rock Radio and Top 20 on mainstream rock radio in the US. In its debut week, the DVD sales sound scanned at number three Canada, and number four in the US. The Joe Fabulous Tour kicked off in the US and sold out in the UK. While in London, Rodgers performed with Jeff Beck at the Royal Festival Hall. Rodgers was invited by long-time fan Tony Blair to perform at the Labour Party Conference. "I had the entire Labour Party singing the chorus of "Wishing Well", a song I wrote and shared with Free, ...'love in a peaceful world'. 'Love in a peaceful world'... over and over and over hoping the words would sink in but we went to war" recalled Rodgers. Twice in 2002, Rodgers performed on Britain's TV show Top of the Pops 2.

In 2003, Rodgers toured as a solo artist for the first time in two years playing 25 US dates. In his solo band were guitarist Howard Leese (formerly of Heart), bassist Lynn Sorensen and drummer Jeff Kathan. Jools Holland invited Rodgers to record "I Told The Truth" for Holland's album Small World Big Band. The CD also featured Eric Clapton, Ronnie Wood, Peter Gabriel, Michael McDonald, Ringo Starr and others. This led to Rodgers performing two sold-out nights at London's Royal Albert Hall with Holland and his 18-piece rhythm and blues orchestra, and several UK TV appearances. He also appeared with Jeff Beck, performing some songs from Beck's back catalogue (along with several other notable musicians, including John Mclaughlin, Roger Waters and the White Stripes) for part of a week-long series of charity concerts put on by Jeff Beck at the Royal Festival Hall in London.

Early in 2004, Rodgers joined Mitch Mitchell and Billy Cox (Hendrix's Cry of Love), Buddy Guy, Joe Satriani, Kid Rock's Kenny Olson, Alice in Chains' Jerry Cantrell, Double Trouble, Indigenous, Kenny Wayne Shepherd and blues legend Hubert Sumlin (Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters) and performed three sold-out shows in Seattle, Portland and San Francisco as "Experience Hendrix". Once again, Rodgers only played 25 concerts in the US and Canada. He performed at Wembley for the fiftieth anniversary celebration for the Fender Stratocaster, along with David Gilmour who played Strat No. 001, Ronnie Wood, Brian May, Joe Walsh and Gary Moore. Rodgers sang and played a custom designed Jaguar Fender Strat. He was invited by The Four Tops to be part of their fiftieth anniversary TV/DVD concert celebration at Motown's Opera House and performed alongside Aretha Franklin, Dennis Edwards & The Temptations Revue, Sam Moore, Mary Wilson, Ashford and Simpson and The Four Tops.

In late 2004, after a successful live television performance, two of the three living members of the British rock group Queen proposed a collaboration with Rodgers, in which he would sing lead vocals on a European tour. Rodgers thus joined Brian May and Roger Taylor (former bassist John Deacon retired in the late 1990s), with the group billed as Queen + Paul Rodgers and they subsequently toured worldwide in 2005 and 2006. The participants clearly stated, including on Brian May's own website, "that Rodgers would be "featured with" Queen as: "Queen + Paul Rodgers", not replacing the late Freddie Mercury". The group subsequently released a live album with songs from Queen, Bad Company and Free, called Return of the Champions, and a DVD of the same name. Both featured live recordings from their Sheffield Hallam FM Arena concert on 9 May 2005. The DVD features "Imagine" from Hyde Park. "For one glorious summer" opined music critic Sean Michaels "we were all Paul Rodgers". Another DVD was released in 2006 from a live performance in Japan, called Super Live in Japan.

Queen + Paul Rodgers also released a single featuring "Reaching Out", "Tie Your Mother Down" and "Fat Bottomed Girls".

The summer of 2006 saw Rodgers again focused on his solo career with a world tour, which commenced in Austin, Texas, US in June, then on to Japan, finishing in Glasgow, Scotland, in October 2006.

On 15 August 2006, Brian May confirmed through his website that "Queen + Paul Rodgers" would begin producing a new studio album beginning in October, to be recorded at Roger Taylor's home.

In April 2007 Rodgers released a live album of his 2006 tour, Live in Glasgow, recorded in Glasgow, Scotland 13 October 2006, with a DVD of the same show released the following month.

On 27–28 December 2007, Rodgers performed with the Trans-Siberian Orchestra during their Winter 2007 Tour in Houston, Texas and Dallas, Texas. Unannounced, he joined the band at the end of their show to sing "Bad Company" and "All Right Now".

Rogers was a judge for the sixth and seventh annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists.

On 27 June 2008, Rodgers and Queen performed at the Concert for Nelson Mandela to celebrate Mandela's 90th birthday.

On 8 August 2008, Rodgers and original members Mick Ralphs and Simon Kirke reunited as Bad Company to perform a one-night only, sold-out performance at the Seminole Hard Rock Live in Hollywood, Florida.  The live performance was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and CD on 9 February 2010 and the tracks included seventeen Bad Company hits.  Rodgers dedicated "Gone, Gone, Gone" to original bassist Boz Burrell, who died in 2006.

On 14 May 2009, Rodgers announced he was ending his five-year-long collaboration with Queen, although did not rule out the possibility of working with them again. On 17 November 2009, it was announced he would join the other surviving members of Bad Company for an eight-date UK tour in April 2010.

2010s: Solo career and more Bad Company
On 5 June 2010 he began small tour of California, US by performing at the Temecula Valley Balloon & Wine Festival. One week later, on 12 June, Rodgers and his band appeared as headliners on the Grandstand Stage at the San Diego County Fair in Del Mar, California, followed by casino shows in Lemoore on 17 June and in Santa Ynez on 18 June.

Rodgers performed a solo UK tour in April 2011 with Joe Elliot's Down 'n' Outz. The concert of 28 April at Birmingham's National Indoor Arena was filmed for a future live DVD release.

In May 2011 Rodgers received an Ivor Novello Award for "Outstanding contribution to British music"

Rodgers announced that he would be taking part in a Paul McCartney tribute album that would also feature contributions by Billy Joel, Garth Brooks, BB King, and KISS. Originally planned for a late 2010 release, the album, entitled The Art of McCartney, was released in late 2014. Rodgers' contribution is a cover of the Wings song "Let Me Roll It", originally from their 1973 album Band on the Run.

In 2014, Rodgers was once again touring with Bad Company.

Rodgers again performed with the Trans-Siberian Orchestra on their New Year's Eve show in Seattle, Washington. Rodgers performed Can't Get Enough and All Right Now.

In 2017 Rodgers embarked on a 'Free Spirit' UK Tour in May 2017 to celebrate the music of Free by performing songs strictly from the Free catalogue. Rodgers said "It was 50 years ago in 1967 when Paul Kossoff and I met and later formed Free". In 2018 a CD/DVD set was released which captured the final show from the 'Free Spirit' tour filmed at the Royal Albert Hall on 28 May 2017.

In the summer of 2018 Rodgers toured with Jeff Beck. In 2023, he released the album Midnight Rose, his first solo album of original material in 24 years. He stated in an interview that he had no plans to tour in support of it.

Personal life
Rodgers became a Canadian citizen on 21 October 2011 and resides in British Columbia.

Relationships and family
Rodgers has a daughter, Natalie from an early relationship who resides in his hometown of Middlesbrough.

Rodgers married Machiko Shimizu in 1971, and has two children from that marriage, Steve and Jasmine. The two children are also musicians and singers who formed a band, Bôa, in the 1990s. Rodgers and Shimizu divorced in 1996.

Partners since 1997, on 28 August 2007 in Canada's Okanagan  Valley, Rodgers married Cynthia Kereluk, a former Miss Canada.

Health
In 2016, Rodgers would suffer the first of two major strokes. He suffered a second major stroke in 2019 which greatly affected his speech and musical abilities. These, along with 11 more minor strokes, required an endarterectomy. He has since made a full recovery.

Discography

Solo

Cut Loose (1983)
Muddy Water Blues: A Tribute to Muddy Waters (1993)
The Hendrix Set (live EP, 1993)
Paul Rodgers and Friends: Live at Montreux (1994, edited 2011)
Live: The Loreley Tapes (live album, 1996)
Now (1997)
Now and Live (2CD compilation, 1997)
Electric (1999)
Extended Versions (live album, 2006) (10 of the 13 Loreley Tapes in different order)
Live in Glasgow (2007)
Live at Hammersmith Apollo 2009 (2010)
The Royal Sessions (2014)
Free Spirit (2018)
Midnight Rose (2023)

with Free

Tons of Sobs (1969)
Free (1969)
Fire and Water (1970)
Highway (1970)
Free Live! (live album, 1971)
Free at Last (1972)
Heartbreaker (1973)
The Free Story (1973)
The Best of Free (1991)

with Bad Company

Bad Company (1974)
Straight Shooter (1975)
Run With the Pack (1976)
Burnin' Sky (1977)
Desolation Angels (1979)
Rough Diamonds (1982)
The 'Original' Bad Co. Anthology (compilation CD, 1999, produced by Paul Rodgers for Bad Company)
In Concert: Merchants of Cool (2002)
Hard Rock Live (2010)
Live at Wembley (2011)
Live in Concert 1977 & 1979 (2016)

with the Firm
The Firm (1985)
Mean Business (1986)
The Firm Live at Hammersmith 1984 (DVD, 1984, limited release video)
Five From the Firm (DVD, 1986)

with the Law
The Law (1991)

with QueenLive albumsReturn of the Champions (CD/LP/DVD, 2005)
Super Live in Japan (DVD, 2006; Japan only)
Live in Ukraine (CD/DVD, 2009)Studio albumsThe Cosmos Rocks (CD, 2008)SinglesRock Therapy / Reaching out (With Brian May+ Single 1996)
Reachin' Out / Tie Your Mother Down (CD single, 2005, Europe only)
Say It's Not True (Download/CD single, 2007)
C-lebrity (Download/CD single, 2008)Other albums'Stone Cold Classics (Last Two tracks only)The A–Z of Queen, Volume 1'' (Two DVD tracks only)

References

External links

  MSS Magazine interview

1949 births
Living people
20th-century English male singers
20th-century English singers
21st-century English male singers
21st-century English singers
Blues rock musicians
British blues (genre) musicians
English blues musicians
English blues singers
English rock singers
English expatriates in Canada
English multi-instrumentalists
English male singer-songwriters
Canadian male singer-songwriters
Canadian multi-instrumentalists
Musicians from British Columbia
Canadian rock singers
Canadian blues singers
21st-century Canadian male singers
21st-century Canadian singers
Free (band) members
Naturalized citizens of Canada
Musicians from Middlesbrough
Bad Company members
The Firm (rock band) members
The Law (English band) members
Queen + Paul Rodgers members
21st-century Canadian singer-songwriters

Paul Rodgers


The Grove cell was an early electric primary cell named after its inventor, Welsh physical scientist William Robert Grove, and consisted of a zinc anode in dilute sulfuric acid and a platinum cathode in concentrated nitric acid, the two separated by a porous ceramic pot.

Cell details
The Grove cell voltage is about 1.9 volts and arises from the following reaction:
 Zn + H2SO4 + 2 HNO3  ZnSO4 + 2 H2O + 2 NO2↑

Use
The Grove cell was the favored power source of the early American telegraph system in the period 1840 – 1860 because it offered a high current output and higher voltage than the earlier Daniell cell (at 1.9 volts and 1.1 volts, respectively).

Disadvantages
By the time of the American Civil War, as telegraph traffic increased, the Grove cell's tendency to discharge poisonous nitrogen dioxide (NO2) fumes proved increasingly hazardous to health, and as telegraphs became more complex, the need for constant voltage became critical. The Grove cell was limited in this respect, because as the cell discharged, voltage reduced. Eventually, Grove cells were replaced in use by Daniell cells.

See also
 List of battery types
 History of the battery
 Bunsen cell, Using cheaper carbon instead of platinum.

Notes

Disposable batteries

Grove cell


Padding is a term used in cryptography. Very often, messages (to be encrypted) start or end in a well-known way (Dear Bob, ..., Yours, Alice). This is a problem, because that knowledge could be used to break (or start to break) encryption. To prevent this, a number of random characters are added at the beginning or the end of the message.

This procedure may also be necessary because many cryptographic methods operate on blocks of code. If a block is not full, additional characters need to be filled in. Filling in random text has proven very useful.

Cryptography

Padding (cryptography)


In geometry, a hypercube is an n-dimensional analogue of a square () and a cube (). It is a closed, compact, convex figure whose 1-skeleton consists of groups of opposite parallel line segments aligned in each of the space's dimensions, perpendicular to each other and of the same length.  A unit hypercube's longest diagonal in n dimension is equal to .

An n-dimensional hypercube is also called an n-cube or an n-dimensional cube.  The term "measure polytope" is also used, notably in the work of H. S. M. Coxeter (originally from Elte, 1912), but it has now been superseded.

The hypercube is the special case of a hyperrectangle (also called an n-orthotope).

A unit hypercube is a hypercube whose side has length one unit.  Often, the hypercube whose corners (or vertices) are the 2n points in Rn with each coordinate equal to 0 or 1 is called "the" unit hypercube.

Construction

A hypercube can be defined by increasing the numbers of dimensions of a shape:

0 – A point is a hypercube of dimension zero.
1 – If one moves this point one unit length, it will sweep out a line segment, which is a unit hypercube of dimension one.
2 – If one moves this line segment its length in a perpendicular direction from itself; it sweeps out a 2-dimensional square.
3 – If one moves the square one unit length in the direction perpendicular to the plane it lies on, it will generate a 3-dimensional cube.
4 – If one moves the cube one unit length into the fourth dimension, it generates a 4-dimensional unit hypercube (a unit tesseract).

This can be generalized to any number of dimensions. This process of sweeping out volumes can be formalized mathematically as a Minkowski sum: the d-dimensional hypercube is the Minkowski sum of d mutually perpendicular unit-length line segments, and is therefore an example of a zonotope.

The 1-skeleton of a hypercube is a hypercube graph.

Related pages
 Simplex - the n-dimensional analogue of the triangle
 Hyperrectangle - the general case of the hypercube, where the base is a rectangle.

Notes

Other websites

 Olshevsky, George, Measure polytope at Glossary for Hyperspace.
 www.4d-screen.de (Rotation of 4D – 7D-Cube)
  Rotating a Hypercube by Enrique Zeleny, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
 Stereoscopic Animated Hypercube

Shapes

Hypercube


Kidney failure (also called renal failure) is a term used to describe when a person's kidneys stop working properly, or fail. Kidney failure can be divided into two categories: chronic renal failure, and acute renal failure.

Chronic renal failure
Chronic renal failure develops slowly, and there are not many noticeable symptoms at first.

Chronic renal failure can be a sign of other diseases, like IgA nephritis, glomerulonephritis, chronic pyelonephritis, and urinary retention.

Chronic renal failure will eventually develop into end-stage renal failure if it is left untreated. End-stage renal failure can only be treated with dialysis or a kidney transplant.

Acute renal failure
Acute renal failure develops in a short time, and symptoms are more noticeable. Symptoms include:
 Urinating less than usual
 Changes in the amount of water in the body
 Electrolyte levels that are not normal
The cause of acute renal failure needs to be found quickly. Dialysis is often needed to prevent permanent damage to the body while the cause is being found.

Acute-on-chronic renal failure
It is possible to have acute renal failure on top of chronic renal failure. This is called "acute-on-chronic renal failure."

References

Organ failure

Kidney failure


Terminator Salvation is a third-person shooter action video game, released on May 19, 2009 to coincide with the release of the film of the same title on the same week. It was developed by The Halcyon Company's gaming subsidiary, Halcyon Games, along with Grin and published by Equity Games and Evolved Games. The game was Grin's last game and was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, mobile , and iOS.

Set in 2016 in Los Angeles, the console and PC versions of the game take place between the events of Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines and Terminator Salvation and follow John Connor (Gideon Emery), and his team, consisting of Angie Salter (Rose McGowan), Barnes (Common) and Blair Williams (Moon Bloodgood). However, Christian Bale refused to lend his voice and likeness to the game. Rose McGowan voiced the game-exclusive character Angie Salter, who is an ex-high school teacher. Common and Moon Bloodgood voiced their characters from the film (Barnes and Blair, respectively). An animated web series, Terminator Salvation: The Machinima Series, takes place before the game, and was released by Machinima on May 18, 2009.

Gameplay
Terminator Salvation is a third-person shooter where the player needs to "constantly move, flank, cover and utilize their squad to progress." The player must battle Skynet enemies from the film of the same name as well as new enemies specifically designed for the game.

The game features a campaign that can be played alone or cooperatively with one other local player via split-screen. The co-op version of the game enables players to play as both John Connor and his teammate Blair Williams.

The game employs a cover and movement system not unlike those featured in Gears of War and Brothers in Arms: Hell's Highway, wherein the player can quickly choose to dodge between different forms of cover, coming out only to fire shots at enemies. Staying in cover is advantageous, as the player only regenerates health when they have not received damage for a certain amount of time (as in the Halo and Call of Duty games). Although players initially are only equipped with an M4 carbine, other weapons such as the RPG-7 and M79 grenade launcher, Remington 870 shotgun, and M249 SAW as well as various types of grenades (Flash and fragmentation) are acquired throughout the game. Enemy A.I. is relatively strong, both keeping track of the player's location realistically (that is, not omniscient but using sight and sound to locate the player) as well as actively pursuing and flanking them when cover is sought by the player.

Plot

Console & Windows version
Years after Judgment Day, John Connor reflects on the old days of preparing for the future battle.  Returning to an evac point with Blair Williams and other soldiers, they battle their way through machines to discover that there are no helicopters waiting for them.  Escaping in trucks instead, the group is attacked by a Hunter-Killer aircraft. After John Connor manages to destroy the H-K, a T-600 appears and kills several members of his team.

The team travels underground, then above again, battling machines. The surviving trio manages to reach the evacuation point, meeting soldiers. Aerostat drones attack, and John, Blair and others go outside to take care of them.
A Resistance team led by soldier David Weston (Sean Cory Cooper) asks for help, but his transmission is lost. The team then tries to make a landing place for a helicopter. The chopper lands and rescues the team, but John and Blair stay behind to rescue David's team.

A rescue team, Epsilon, has a helicopter going down, so the duo goes to its crash-site to check for survivors. They rescue four soldiers, Angie (Rose McGowan), an unknown, Deckard (Joe Camareno) and Dobkin (Nolan North). They fight a legion of machines and then, afterwards, decide to head for an old Resistance outpost. Deckard and the unknown are killed by a T-600, and the team is forced to retreat. They manage to destroy two T-600s. They have no choice but to retreat, but with no way out, the team is forced to destroy the T-600s, though Dobkin is mortally wounded in the fight.

The three continue to go to Skynet while defending themselves. They decide to go to a tower so they can observe Skynet patrols so as to plan a route to rescue David. They encounter T-600s with rubber skin, which the trio destroy. John warns the other two about the T-800, which has real, vat-grown skin. They reach the tower, where they encounter a Hunter-Killer, but John, Blair and Angie manage to destroy it. There are too many machines on a nearby street that they planned to go down, so the three decide to go to Union Station at the subway, following the tracks to Skynet.

They traverse their way to a hidden survivalist camp. The survivalists don't trust them at first (because of the T-600s with rubber skin), but they manage to gain their trust. They say they have not encountered Skynet for a long time. The leader, named Warren Campbell (Ed O' Ross), leads him to Barnes (Common), who will supply them. Machines come, and John, Blair and Barnes fight off the machines while Warren and Angie evacuate the area. Barnes reveals to John that machines actually come every two months. They destroy the machines with detonators, and everybody evacuates by train. John and Blair defend the train by missile launcher. They stop to rescue other people from machines and succeed. They escape, but the train derails, so they go on foot to a truck depot, meeting up with other soldiers. Warren drives a school bus, while John and Blair defend it, eventually saving the bus. They go their separate ways, but Warren says they can visit them anytime. Warren still has doubts of their plan, saying that they can't communicate as long as a Skynet communications tower still stands. Barnes joins the three, saying he's tired of running and wishes to join the Resistance.

Battling numerous machines to infiltrate the Skynet compound, an alarm is accidentally triggered when Connor steals important documents.  While Barnes sets up explosives, John, Blair and Angie old off T-600s and T-7-T's. While the explosives go off, they run into the elevator to escape. However, with the control panel located outside, Angie sacrifices herself so that John and the others can return to the surface. John is racked with guilt, but Blair explains that he had helped Angie fight, and she believed he could help humanity win.

Later, John is fixing what appears to be a vehicle. He calls his base (answered by teammate Linda (Lupe)), saying he needs airpower to rescue David's team. Linda says it is going to be a problem, because of a harvester. "That won't be a problem", John says, because he reprogrammed a Hunter-Killer tank, and programmed it to go straight to Skynet. He does not have control of the guns, though. That quickly changes when Warren's team returns, with the access codes to the guns and Warren apologizes.

They first have to locate and destroy Skynet's anti-aircraft turrets. They destroy four areas of turrets and machines, but the tank takes too much damage. John suggests that they could deactivate them on foot. John, Blair and Barnes are joined by three men to deactivate the turrets and to find David's men. Warren and the others cover John by destroying as many machines as possible.

They traverse Skynet and destroy all machines that they encounter, until they find Weston and his men. Warren's men agree to escort them to the vehicles, while John, Blair, David and Barnes go through the service tunnels to deactivate the turrets.

The four try to make it to the control room. John shuts down the machines for a few minutes, enough time to get them out of Skynet. The four attempt to escape Skynet before they destroy the base. With the four of them safe, they all return to their Resistance camp. Connor narrates, saying that he has gained faith by what he is about to create in the future, instead of the past.

iOS version
The game takes place in the year 2018. John Connor arrives via a helicopter in Los Angeles to assist a squad of resistance fighters. The captain of the squad tells him to reach a bunker. Upon reaching the bunker, he is informed that some of the Resistance fighters got trapped in it and is tasked with rescuing them. After John rescues the fighters, the captain informs him that the bunker is going to explode. John is successfully able to escape from the bunker.

A team of resistance fighters carrying a special transmitter in the city was given a mission to call airstrikes on a Hunter-Killer tank to destroy it and recover its remains for research. However the team got attacked and was scattered. It fell upon John to recover the transmitter and complete the mission. While recovering the transmitter parts, he encounters the H-K tank. He is given the last transmitter part by a member of the team who tells him to find a way around the H-K tank through a nearby house in order to call upon an airstrike on it. John is successful in calling an airstrike on the H-K tank and it is destroyed.

The game then shifts to Marcus Wright who awakens among the ruins of Los Angeles but has no idea where he is. He befriends a young Kyle Reese. They both decide to escape the city and join the Resistance. Marcus goes to the hills where he hopes to find a working car. Marcus is attacked by a Hunter-Killer aircraft in a parking lot although he is able to destroy it. Marcus is able to find a vehicle and along with Kyle tries to escape out of the city in it. While driving, they spot a Harvester near them. They try to avoid being detected by him while driving but it's able to discover them and chases after them. However they are able to take it down and escape the city.

The game then shifts back to John. The intel gathered from the destroyed H-K tank showed the location of Skynet's base and John decides to enter it alone. The way to the base is guarded by a H-K tank which he is able to destroy. He rides to the base using a Moto-Terminator taken down by the Resistance. In the base he encounters a T-700 which he destroys. The base defences catch John by surprise and injure him, but he manages to escape and blow up the complex. The game with John seeing the complex destroy inside the pupil of his eye.

Development
The game was announced on November 15, 2007, when the Halcyon Company also announced the formation of Halcyon Games, the video game arm of the studio. It had been in development for several months at Grin and Halcyon Games, before filming took place. Peter Levin, a former Disney executive, headed up Halcyon Games as acting CEO. The CEO revealed that Halcyon decided to develop the game internally rather than contract another studio to create the game.

Although a multiplayer mode was originally planned it was decidedly dropped to allow the game to be released on schedule. With Halcyon developments' VP Cos Lazouras stating "It is my opinion to do less better, than more but mediocre. We did get local co-op in which is incredibly cool."

Reception

Terminator Salvation received mixed reviews from critics. Acclaim depended on the platform the game was on. GameRankings gave the iOS version a score of 83%, and Metacritic gave the game 48 out of 100 for the Xbox 360 version, 43 out of 100 for the PlayStation 3 version, and 49 out of 100 for the PC version.

GameSpot reviewer Chris Watters rated it a 5 out of 10, citing the repetitive combat, mediocre visuals, short length, and that the lead actor of the film, Christian Bale, did not do the voice acting for the game's John Connor. Hilary Goldstein of IGN gave all console versions except the iOS version a 6.3 out 10 for its passable visuals, good ally A.I., and complete lack of replay value. He also criticized it because Bale's voice was missing. In the video review, IGN did not like Bale not voicing or the short game, but liked the enemy A.I. and the cover system.

References

External links

2009 video games
Sony Pictures video games
Grin (company) games
IOS games
Mobile games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
PlayStation 3 games
Split-screen multiplayer games
Terminator (franchise) video games
Third-person shooters
Interquel video games
Video game prequels
Video games developed in Sweden
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in Los Angeles
Video games set in 2016
Windows games
Xbox 360 games
Gameloft games
Evolved Games games

Terminator Salvation (video game)