The Brno chair (model number MR50) is a modernist cantilever chair designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Lilly Reich in 1929-1930 for the bedroom of the Tugendhat House in Brno, Czech Republic.  The design was based on similar chairs created by Mies van der Rohe also working with Lilly Reich, such as the MR20 chair with wicker seat from 1927; all building on earlier designs of Mart Stam.

The Brno chair has become a modern furniture classic. It has very clean lines, consisting of a steel frame in a single piece, bent into a C-shape from the middle of the back, round past the front edge of seat (to create arms), and back under the seat to create a cantilever, with taut seat and back upholstered in leather.  There are two versions of the chair, one in tubular steel and the other in flat steel.  The metal was originally polished stainless steel; some modern examples are chrome plated.

The Brno chair was selected by Dan Cruickshank as one of his 80 man-made "treasures" in the 2005 BBC series, Around the World in 80 Treasures.

See also
Barcelona chair
Tugendhat chair

External links
Brno chair at the Metropolitan Museum of Modern Art

1930 in art
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe furniture
Chairs
Chair
Individual models of furniture

Brno chair


Monmouthshire is a county in Wales in the west of Great Britain. From the end of the Middle Ages until the year 1974 Monmouthshire was a part of England for some things and a part of Wales for other things. Then in 1972 Parliament decided that it was going to be in Wales from 1974 onwards.

The chief town in the area is Newport. Other important towns are Cwmbran, where the county council meets, Monmouth, the county town and Abergavenny.

Monmouthshire


The 1994 Vancouver Stanley Cup Riot was a riot that took place on June 14, 1994 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. It was the first riot in Vancouver since the tour opener for The Rolling Stones which lead to a clash between police officers and 2,000 Stones fans outside the Pacific Coliseum in 1972.

The riot took place after the New York Rangers defeated the Vancouver Canucks in Game 7 of the 1994 Stanley Cup Finals. The riot started on Robson and Thurlow Street after a man fell off of a streetlight into the crowd. When police, who were on bikes, were trying to escort paramedics into the crowd, some members of the crowd tried to take the bikes from the police. Police warned the crowd to clear out and retreated.

After a while, riot police gathered in the crowd and fired tear gas. This caused the crowd to scatter in different directions. Lots of stores had their windows broken, including 50 windows smashed at a Eaton's store.

The tear gas that was fired drifted into the open windows of residents living on the West End. St. Paul's Hospital responded by putting guards at the emergency room entrance to prevent tear gas victims from entering there. They claimed that there was nothing that could be done for them. After a while, bowls filled with water were put outside by security guards for the people that were suffering from tear gas. The total damage to the downtown core was estimated at $1.1 million CAD.

References

1994 in ice hockey
1990s riots
1994 in Canada
Crime in Canada
Vancouver Canucks

1994 Vancouver Stanley Cup riot


The Monmouthshire Show is the largest one-day agricultural show in Wales, taking place annually in Monmouth on the first Saturday in July.

Origin

The origin of the show dates back to the 1790s when Monmouth's agricultural society organised ploughing matches. However it was not until 1857 that it was proposed that a cattle show should be created. On 30 May 1857, the eighth Duke of Beaufort gave ten pounds and John Rolls placed twenty pounds into a fund to start the Monmouth Cattle Show. The show was first staged in the October of the same year. Rolls was President of the show for his lifetime and he was succeeded by his son John Allan Rolls in 1870.

Venues

In 1876 the show was held in the town's newly established cattle market in Chippenham Fields. The show was then held annually (firstly in October, but then eventually moved to August – taking up its now traditional date of the last Thursday in August) up until the First World War. The show was restarted in 1919 when it was renamed the Monmouthshire County Show. The show was not held during the period of the Second World War, but from 1946 until 2006 it was held each year on the grounds of Vauxhall Fields. Nor was it held in 1956 or 2001 due to outbreaks of foot and mouth disease, nor 2020 on grounds of COVID-19 pandemic.

2007 marked the 150th anniversary of the Monmouthshire Show Society. That same year the show moved to a new site on the Redbrook Road in Monmouth.

Date
When the show started it was originally held in October but it was brought forward to September to improve the likelihood of good weather. The date has now moved to the third Sunday in August (as of 2023).

References

Agricultural shows in Wales
Annual fairs
Tourist attractions in Monmouthshire
Fairs in Wales
August events
Monmouth, Wales
Festivals established in 1857
1857 establishments in Wales
Summer events in Wales

Monmouthshire Show


Silk is a natural fibre made by the silk worm cocoon. Silk fibres are very strong and are often used to make cloth.

The cloth from silk can be made into  rugs, bedding, or can be used to write or paint on. In the past, silk was used to make parachutes. The practice of growing silkworms for silk production is called sericulture.

Most spiders make a natural fibre of their own that is also called silk.

History
The Chinese invented silk cloth in 3000 B.C. and traded it across the world through the Silk Road because it was very valuable and costly. They were the only ones producing it and selling it to the world until 522 CE.

Chemical properties
Silk that is made by the silk worm is made up of two main proteins, sericin and fibroin.

Fibroin is the structural center of the silk and gives it its strength. It is made up of amino acids, which make the fibers strong and hard to break. The tensile strength is there because of hydrogen bonds. When silk is stretched, there is a strong force on these many bonds, so they do not break.

Serecin is the sticky material which surrounds the fibroin and gives it protection from the outside. Silk is resistant to most mineral acids, except for sulfuric acid, which dissolves it. Perspiration gives the silk a yellowish colour.

Related pages

 Silk Road

Basic English 850 words
Fibers
Cloth

Silk


Gakuweebwa Charles Muwanga !! Okwesatuza namba kuba kugamba nti namba n x n x n == n eya kyesatuza (n cubed) .The resulting shape (enkula) is called kyesatuza. Why?

Kyesatuza etymologically comes from the Luganda numeral "satu" (three). It means multiplying a number by itself three times. If the number 2 is multiplied by itself three times the resulting product (ekitondeko) is called kyesatuza. Watch this:  2 x 2x 2 = 8.

Eight is therefore a cube number which is ennamba ya kyesatuza in Luganda.  The mathematical shape (enkula ey'ekibalo) formed looks like the cube above, which is kyesatuza.

Ekibalangulo

Kyesatuza (Cube)


Khwajeh Shams al-Din Muhammad Hafez-e Shirazi (also spelled Hafiz) (born between 1310 and 1337, believed to have died at age 69) () or Hafez is a Persian poet. Hafez was born in Shiraz, Iran. Hafez learnt the Quran by heart at an early age. His poems are collected in Divan e Hafez. William Jones translated his work into English in 1771.

Life

Despite his profound effect on Persian life and culture and his enduring popularity and influence, few details of his life are known, and particularly about his early life there is a great deal of more or less mythical anecdote. Some of the early tazkeras (biographical sketches) mentioning Hafez are generally considered unreliable. One early document discussing Hafez' life is the preface of his Divān, which was written by an unknown contemporary of Hafez whose name may have been Moḥammad Golandām. The generally accepted modern edition of Hafez's Divān is known as Qazvini-Ḡani, edited by Moḥammad Qazvini and Qāsem Ḡani.

Legends of Hafez

Many semi-miraculous mythical tales were woven around Hāfez after his death. Four of them are:
 It is said that, by listening to his father's recitations, Hāfez had accomplished the task of learning the Qur'an by heart, at an early age (that is in fact the meaning of the word Hafez). At the same time Hāfez is said to have known by heart, the works of Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi, Saadi, Farid ud-Din and Nezami.

 According to one tradition, before meeting Hajji Zayn al-Attar, Hāfez had been working in a local bakery. Hāfez delivered bread to a rich quarter of the town where he saw Shakh-e Nabat, allegedly a woman of great beauty, to whom some of his poems are addressed. In the knowledge that his love for her would not be requited and ravished by her beauty, he allegedly had his first mystic vigil in his desire to realize this union, whereupon, overcome by a being of a surpassing beauty (who identifies himself as an angel), he begins his mystic path of realization, in pursuit of spiritual union with the divine. The obvious Western parallel is that of Dante and Beatrice.

 At age 60 he is said to have begun a chelleh-nashini, a 40-day-and-night vigil by sitting in a circle which he had drawn for himself. On the 40th day, he once again met with Zayn al-Attar on what is known to be their fortieth anniversary and was offered a cup of wine. It was there where he is said to have attained "Cosmic Consciousness". Hāfez hints at this episode in one of his verses where he advises the reader to attain "clarity of wine" by letting it "sit for 40 days".

 In one famous tale, the famed conqueror Tamerlane angrily summoned Hāfez to him to give him an explanation for one of his verses

References

14th-century births
14th-century deaths
Persian poets

Hafez


In light, black is lack of all color. It is a shade.  In painting, however, the black pigment is the combination of all colors. In heraldry, black is called "sable". It is the opposite of white.

Origin of black
The word "black" comes from Old English blæc ("black, dark", also, "ink"), from Proto-Germanic *blakkaz ("burned"), and from Proto-Indo-European *bhleg-. Black is the darkest color/tone on a scale.

Black in science
In science, an object that is black absorbs the light that hits it. Because these objects do not reflect any light, the human eye can't see any color coming from that object. The brain then sees these objects as black.

A way to create black objects is to mix pigments. A pigment works by reflecting only the color of the pigment. For example, a blue pigment absorbs all colors except blue. By mixing pigments in the right quantities, black can be made.

In sunlight, black objects become quickly warm because they absorb much light.

Meaning of black

Black is associated with power, elegance, formality, safety, birth, male, evil and mystery. Black is a dark color, the darkest color there is. Black, along with gray and white, is a neutral color. This means that it is not a hot color or a cool color.

Black is a color seen with fear and the unknown (black holes). It can have a bad meaning (blackbird, black bunny) or a good meaning ('in the black', 'black is beautiful'). Black can stand for strength and power. It can be a formal, elegant, and high-class color (black tie, black Mercedes, black man). Black clothing is dark in emo and goth subculture.

Related pages

 List of colors
 Blackbody radiation
 Black people

Basic English 850 words

Black


George Metzger (born 1939) is an American cartoonist and animator. He was an underground comics artist during the mid-1960s and early 1970s in California, eventually relocating to Canada, where he worked in animation.

Biography
Born in rural Illinois, Metzger moved with his family to northern California when he was six years old. As a youth, he collected comic strips and read such authors as H. P. Lovecraft, Robert E. Howard, and Herbert Asbury. He studied the work of such book illustrators as Fritz Eichenberg, and Lynd Ward. His later work was influenced by his interest in Maxfield Parrish, Hannes Bok, EC Comics, and various science fiction illustrators.

After graduating from high school in 1957, he attended a two-year junior college, worked in forestry for two years and then returned to college. In the early 1960s, he contributed to fanzines and an underground newspaper, followed by a period in the National Guard.

Later, he lived in Santa Cruz, California and moved to San Jose, California, where he resided for many years near the San Jose State University campus. In the mid-to-late 1960s, he worked at Santa Clara's Hambley Studios, where he was a production serigraph printer for fine art print production of such artists as Corita Kent.

Metzger contributed to such publications as Gothic Blimp Works and Bill Spicer's Graphic Story Magazine. He eliminated dialogue balloons in "Mal-Ig" (Gothic Blimp Works #7); reprinted in Graphic Story Magazine, "Mal-Ig" was a strong influence on Paul Chadwick's The World Below.

Obsessively drawing every night, Metzger could be found at his drawing board while friends gathered and talked around him. In the early days of the original Star Trek, Metzger and several friends would gather every Wednesday evening to watch. Always a guest at the hippest parties in the Bay Area, he often carried a flask of brandy in his back pocket for all to share. He was friendly with the underground artists of the day, plus many Bay Area bluegrass and country musicians, as well as the Grateful Dead.

His best known creation is Moondog, a science-fantasy series notable for its sophisticated art and elaborate imaginative framework. Published by the Print Mint, it ran from 1969 until 1973. It has no connection with the character Moondog in the comic strip Monty.

His story "Routine" was published in Graphic Story Magazine #16. The cover of Metzger's comic book Truckin (Print Mint, 1972) includes a self-portrait in the truck's mirror. In 1978, Kitchen Sink Press published Metzger's Mu, the Land that Never Was. That same year he was a guest at the San Diego Comic Con.

Metzger later worked for several animation studios in Vancouver, including Marv Newland's International Rocketship Limited.

In 2016, Fantagraphics Books re-issued Metzger's graphic novel, Beyond Time and Again.

Awards
Metzger was the Artist Guest of Honor at Vancouver's Vcon 8 in 1980, invited back as the Artist GoH Emeritus in 2010.

References

External links
 Inkstuds interview with George Metzger, part one
 Inkstuds interview with George Metzger, part two
 Lambiek Comiclopedia page

1939 births
American comics artists
American comics writers
American animators
Canadian animators
Canadian comics artists
Canadian comics writers
Living people
Artists from San Jose, California
Artists from Vancouver
Underground artists
Underground cartoonists
Writers from San Jose, California
Writers from Vancouver
Canadian graphic novelists

George Metzger


John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes, CB (5 June 1883 – 21 April 1946) was a British economist. His ideas, called Keynesian economics, had a big impact on modern economic and political theory. His ideas also had a big impact on many governments' tax and economic policies. He said governments should use tax and banking measures to stop the effects of economic recessions, depressions and booms. He is one of the fathers of modern theoretical macroeconomics.

Biography

Personal and marital life
John Maynard Keynes was born at 7 Melville Road, Cambridge, England. His father was John Neville Keynes, an economics lecturer at Cambridge University. His mother was Florence Ada Brown, a successful author and a social reformer. His younger brother, Geoffrey Keynes (1887–1982) was a surgeon and bibliophile (book lover). His younger sister Margaret (1890–1974) married the Nobel Prize-winning physiologist Archibald Hill.

Keynes first went to King's College, Cambridge, in 1902. At first he studied mathematics. Later he studied economics under A.C. Pigou and Alfred Marshall. People think Professor Marshall prompted Keynes to change his studies from mathematics and classics to economics. Keynes received his B.A. in 1905 and his M.A. in 1908.

When Keynes was young, he had romantic and sexual relationships with men. One of his great loves was the artist Duncan Grant, whom he met in 1908. Keynes was also involved with the writer Lytton Strachey. Keynes appeared to turn away from homosexual relationships around the time of the first World War. In 1918, he met Lydia Lopokova, a well-known Russian ballerina. Keynes and Lopokova married in 1925.

Keynes was a successful investor and he built up a big fortune. He nearly lost all of his money after the Stock Market Crash of 1929. Later he re-built his fortune.

He enjoyed collecting books: for example, he collected and protected many of Isaac Newton's papers.

Bertrand Russell said Keynes was the most intelligent person he had ever known. Lord Russell said: "Every time I argued with Keynes, I felt that I took my life in my hands, and I seldom emerged without feeling something of a fool".

Career
Keynes accepted a lectureship at Cambridge in economics funded personally by Alfred Marshall. Soon he was appointed to the Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance, where he was able to put economic theory into practice.

During World War I he worked for the Adviser to the Chancellor of the Exchequer and to the Treasury on Financial and Economic Questions.

Keynes also attended the Conference on the Versailles Treaty to end World War I. He wrote The Economic Consequences of the Peace in 1919, and A Revision of the Treaty in 1922. In his books he said that the reparations which Germany was being made to pay would ruin the German economy and would lead to further fighting in Europe. These predictions were shown to be true when the German economy suffered in the hyperinflation of 1923. Reparations were only completed in 2010.

Keynes's magnum opus (Latin for "Great Work", meaning his most famous book) was the General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. The General Theory was published in 1936. The ideas in that book were very different from classical economics.

Historians agree that Keynes influenced U.S. president Roosevelt's New Deal, but disagree as to what extent. Spending more than the government earned in taxes (called deficit spending) was used in the New Deal from 1938. But the idea had been agreed to by President Herbert Hoover. Few senior economists in the U.S. agreed with Keynes in the 1930s. With time, however, his ideas became more widely accepted.

In 1942, Keynes was raised to the House of Lords. He became Baron Keynes of Tilton in the County of Sussex. When he sat in the House of Lords he was a Liberal member.

During World War II, Keynes wrote a book titled How to Pay for the War. He said the war effort should be paid for by higher taxes. He did not like deficit spending because he wanted to avoid inflation.

Death
Keynes died of a heart attack at his holiday home in Tilton, East Sussex. His heart problems were made worse by the strain of working on post-war international financial problems. He died soon after he arranged a guarantee of an Anglo-American loan to Great Britain. Keynes' father, John Neville Keynes (1852–1949) outlived his son by three years. Keynes's brother Sir Geoffrey Keynes (1887–1982) was a distinguished surgeon, scholar and bibliophile. His nephews include Richard Keynes (born 1919) a physiologist; and Quentin Keynes (1921–2003) an adventurer and bibliophile. Keynes did not have children.

Bibliography
 1915 The Economics of War in Germany
 1919 The Economic Consequences of the Peace
 Essays in Persuasion
 A Treatise On Probability
 Tract on Monetary Reform
 The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money

Influences on Keynes' works
These people influenced Keynes:
 Knut Wicksell
 Arthur C. Pigou
 Alfred Marshall
 Adam Smith
 David Ricardo
 Dennis Robertson
 Karl Marx
 Thomas Malthus
 Michal Kalecki

Related pages

 Keynesian economics or Keynesianism
 Michał Kalecki
 Simon Kuznets
 Paul Samuelson
 John Hicks
 John Kenneth Galbraith
 G.L.S. Shackle
 Silvio Gesell

References

General sources
 The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes: How the Second Industrial Revolution Passed Great Britain By, Bernard C. Beaudreau, iUniverse, 2006,
 Essays on John Maynard Keynes, Milo Keynes (Editor), Cambridge University Press, 1975,
 The Life of John Maynard Keynes, R. F. Harrod, London, Macmillan, 1951,
 "Keynes, John Maynard," Don Patinkin, The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, 1987, pp. 19–41. Macmillan  (US Edition: )
 John Maynard Keynes: Hopes Betrayed 1883–1920, Robert Skidelsky, Papermac, 1992,  (US Edition: )
 John Maynard Keynes: The Economist as Saviour 1920–1937, Robert Skidelsky, Papermac, 1994,  (US Edition: )
 The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy, Daniel Yergin with Joseph Stanislaw, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998,
 John Maynard Keynes: Fighting for Britain 1937–1946 (published in the United States as Fighting for Freedom), Robert Skidelsky, Papermac, 2001,  (US Edition: )
 Lytton Strachey, Michael Holroyd, 1995,

Other websites
 Bio, bibliography, and links

 The Keynesian Revolution
 Bio at Time 100 - the most important people of the century
 John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace  (1919)
 John Maynard Keynes, The end of laissez-faire  (1926)
 John Maynard Keynes, An Open Letter to President Roosevelt (1933)
 John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936)
 Eton College Keynes (Economics) Society
 Short bio with birth location
 Escoffier, Jeffrey. "Keynes, John Maynard." In Glbtq: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture. glbtq, Inc.: Chicago, 2004.
 Essays on John Maynard Keynes and Robert Lekachman   by Reuben L. Norman Jr., Ph.D. ( 1998-2007 )
 Smith, Marx, Kondratieff and Keynes: Their Intellectual Life Spans, the Convergence of their Theories based upon the Long Wave Hypothesis and the Internet  by Reuben L. Norman Jr., Ph.D. ( June 6, 1998 )
 Keynes's Career and Biographical Timeline

1883 births
1946 deaths
Academics of the University of Cambridge
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Bisexual people
British economists
Deaths from myocardial infarction
English LGBT people
English scientists
LGBT academics
LGBT scientists
Liberal Party (UK) people
Members of the House of Lords
People from Cambridge
Zionists

John Maynard Keynes


Squealer is a porker on Manor Farm  in the book Animal Farm. Squealer is a very fat little piglet, with round cheeks, twinkling eyes, nimble movements, coupled together with a shrill voice. While arguing a difficult point, he skips from side to side and whisks his tail around in a persuasive manner, allowing him to lie with ease. The pig is seen as the propagandist in the book and his ability to use language well makes his speeches believable by the other less intelligent animals. squealer is also uses rhetorical language to manipulate animals.

Squealer is based on the Russia media of Stalin's time, and all the advertisement of Stalin.

Animal Farm characters
Fictional pigs

Squealer (Animal Farm)


David Halliday (March 3, 1916 – April 2, 2010) was an American physicist known for his physics textbooks, Physics and Fundamentals of Physics, which he wrote with Robert Resnick. Both textbooks have been in continuous use since 1960 and are available in more than 47 languages.

Halliday attended the University of Pittsburgh both as an undergraduate student and a graduate student, receiving his Ph.D. in physics in 1941. During World War II, he worked at the MIT Radiation Lab developing radar techniques. In 1946 he returned to Pittsburgh as an assistant professor and spent the rest of his career there. In 1950, he wrote Introductory Nuclear Physics, which became a classic text and was translated into four languages. In 1951 Halliday became the Department Chair, a position he held until 1962.

His Physics has been used widely and is considered by many to have revolutionized physics education. Now in its tenth edition in a two-volume set revised by Jearl Walker, and under the title Fundamentals of Physics, it is still highly regarded. It is noted for its clear standardized diagrams, very thorough but highly readable pedagogy, outlook into modern physics, and challenging, thought provoking problems. In 2002 the American Physical Society named the work the most outstanding introductory physics text of the 20th century.

Halliday died at the age of 94 on April 2, 2010. He was living in Maple Falls, Washington. His doctoral students include John Wheatley.

References

 University of Pittsburgh biography

American physicists
American textbook writers
American male non-fiction writers
University of Pittsburgh alumni
University of Pittsburgh faculty
1916 births
2010 deaths
Manhattan Project people

David Halliday (physicist)


Setturday is the day o the week atween Friday an Sunday. Its name is the anerly yin amang the names o days thit comes fae the Roman god Saturn, while the ither sax names is derived fae Saxon gods.

Bi tradeetion comin fae the auncient Jews, Setturday is the hindmaist day o the week. That convention remeens the universal standard in the United States, bit in modren Europe mony fowks nou think o Setturday as the saxt (forelast) day o the week, an Sunday the last. The modren European convention haes been makkit formal bi ISO 8601. On the ither haund, in mony Islamic kintras, Setturdays is the first day o the week, wi Fridays as holidays.

In auncient Jewish tradeetion Setturday is the saabath. Mony leids disnae hiv separate words for "Setturday" an "saabath". Eastren Orthodox kirks distinguish atween the saabath (Setturday) an the Lord's day (Sunday). Roman Catholics pits gey wee emphasis on that distinction at mony amang them follae – at least in colloquial leid – the Protestant practice o namin Sunday the saabath. Quakers tradeetionally caw Setturday the "Sevent Day" eschewing the "heathen" origin o the name.

In Scandinavie kintras, Setturday is caad Lördag or Laurdag etc., the name camin fae the auld wird laugr, meanin bath, sicweys Lördag equates tae bath-day.

The modren Maori name for it, Rahoroi, means "washing-day".

In popular rhyme, "Setturday's bairn wirks hard for a livin".

In mony kintras whaur Sundays are holidays, Setturday is pairt o the weekend, an is tradeetionally a day o restin. Mony parties are haud on Setturdays, acause it foregangs Sunday, anither day o rest. It is common for clubs, bars an restaurants til open later on Setturday nicht nor on ither nichts.

Setturday is the uisual day for elections in Australie an the ae day in New Zealand at elections can be held on.

External link
 Whaur Setturday Got Its Name

Days

References

Seturday


Executive may mean:

 Executive (government), a branch of government or local authority
 Executive order, an edict issued by a member of the executive branch of a government
 Executive system (or executive functions),  the brain processes involved in high-order cognition
 Executive car, a size of car
 Architecture of Windows NT#Executive, an internal part of modern Microsoft Windows
 Manager, also known as a corporate executive; a manager in a corporation
 Chief executive officer (CEO) or chief executive is the highest-ranking corporate officer
 Executive format, a special paper size in the United States and Canada
 The Executive, a fictional belt-less raincoat in the American sitcom Seinfeld
 Executive (Lebanese magazine), a Lebanese newsmagazine
 Studio executive, an employee of a movie studio

Executive


Jame Gumb (known by the nickname "Buffalo Bill") is a fictional character and the main antagonist of Thomas Harris's 1988 novel The Silence of the Lambs and its 1991 film adaptation, in which he is played by Ted Levine. In the film and the novel, he is a serial killer who murders overweight women and skins them so he can make a "woman suit" for himself. In the television series Clarice, he is portrayed by Simon Northwood.

Overview

Background
Gumb was born in California in 1948 or 1949. It is stated that "The 'Jame' on his birth certificate apparently was a clerical error that no one bothered to correct." Gumb's mother, an aspiring actress, went into an alcoholic decline after her career failed to materialize, and Los Angeles County placed Gumb in a foster home when he was two. The novel goes on to tell of Gumb living in foster homes until the age of 10, when he is adopted by his grandparents, who become his first victims when he impulsively kills them at age 12. He is institutionalized in Tulare Vocational Rehabilitation, a psychiatric hospital, where he learns to be a tailor. Later, Gumb has a relationship with Benjamin Raspail. After Raspail leaves him, he kills Raspail's new lover, Klaus, and flays him.

The screenplay omits Gumb's backstory, but does imply that he had a traumatic childhood. In the film, Hannibal Lecter summarizes Gumb's life thus: "Our Billy wasn't born a criminal, Clarice. He was made one through years of systematic abuse."

Both the novel and film depict Gumb as hating his own identity, though multiple characters state that Gumb is not transsexual. In the novel, multiple examples of how Gumb does not fit the psychological profile of a real transsexual are given. Gumb wants to become a woman—or at least believes he does—but repeatedly fails to qualify for gender reassignment surgery. He kills women so he can skin them and create a "woman suit" for himself, completing his "transformation". He thinks of his victims as things rather than people, often calling them "it"—hence one of his most famous lines from the film, "It rubs the lotion on its skin or else it gets the hose again." The only living thing he feels real affection for is his dog, a toy poodle named "Precious".

Modus operandi
Gumb's modus operandi (MO) is to approach a woman while pretending to be injured, ask for help, then knock her out in a surprise attack and kidnap her. He takes her to his house and leaves her in a well in his basement, where he starves her until her skin is loose enough to easily remove. In the first two cases, he leads the victims upstairs, slips nooses around their necks and pushes them from the stairs, strangling them. He then skins parts of their body (a different section on each victim), and then dumps each body into a different river, destroying any trace of evidence.

This MO caused the homicide squad to nickname him Buffalo Bill (Buffalo Bill's Wild West show typically claimed that Buffalo Bill Cody had scalped a Cheyenne warrior). One officer quipped it was because he "skins his humps." He also inserts a Death's-head Moth into the victim's throat because he is fascinated by the insect's metamorphosis, a process that he wants to undergo by becoming a woman. In the case of Gumb's first victim, Fredrica Bimmel, he weighs down her body, so she ends up being the third victim found. In the case of the fourth victim, he shoots rather than strangles her.

At the start of the novel, Gumb has already murdered five women. Behavioral Science Unit Chief Jack Crawford assigns gifted trainee Clarice Starling to question incarcerated serial killer Hannibal Lecter about the case. (Lecter had met Gumb while treating Raspail.) When Gumb kidnaps Catherine Martin, the daughter of U.S. Senator Ruth Martin, Lecter offers to give Starling a psychological profile of the killer in return for a transfer to a federal institution; this profile is mostly made up of cryptic clues designed to help Starling figure it out for herself. Starling eventually deduces from Lecter's riddles that Gumb knew his first victim, Frederica Bimmel, and goes to Bimmel's hometown of Belvedere, Ohio to gather information. By this time, Crawford has already found out the killer's true identity and gone with a SWAT team to his house to arrest him, but they find that it is only a business address. Meanwhile, Starling goes to the home of Bimmel's employer, Mrs. Lippman, only to find Gumb — calling himself "Jack Gordon" — living there. (Gumb had murdered Mrs. Lippman earlier.)

When Starling sees a moth flutter by, she realizes she has found the killer and orders him to surrender. Gumb flees into the basement and stalks her with a revolver and night vision goggles. Just as he is about to shoot Starling, she hears him behind her, turns around and opens fire, killing him. In the novel, he addresses his final words to her, asking her, "How does it feel to be so beautiful?" before choking to death on his own blood.

Influences
Harris based various elements of Gumb's MO on six real-life serial killers:

 Jerry Brudos, who strangled his victims, dressed up in their clothing and kept their shoes.
 Ed Gein, who fashioned trophies and keepsakes from the bones and skin of corpses he dug up at cemeteries, as well as from two women that he murdered. He also made a female "skin suit" and skin masks.
 Ted Bundy, who pretended to be injured (using an arm-brace or crutches) as a ploy to ask his victims for help. When they helped him, he incapacitated and killed them.
 Gary M. Heidnik, who kidnapped, raped and tortured six women while holding them prisoner in a pit, where two died.
 Edmund Kemper, who, like Gumb, killed his grandparents as a teenager "just to see what it felt like".
 Gary Ridgway, the Green River Killer (still unidentified at the time of the novel's writing), who, like Gumb, dumped women's bodies in rivers and inserted foreign objects into their corpses.

Analysis
Marjorie Garber, author of Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing and Cultural Anxiety, asserts that despite the book and the film indicating that Buffalo Bill merely believes himself to be transsexual, they still imply negative connotations about transsexual identity. Garber says, "Harris's book manifests its cultural anxiety through a kind of baroque bravado of plot," and calls the book "a fable of gender dysphoria gone spectacularly awry".

Barbara Creed, writing in Screening the Male: Exploring Masculinities in the Hollywood Cinema, says that Buffalo Bill wants to become a woman "presumably because he sees femininity as a more desirable state, possibly a superior one". For Buffalo Bill, the woman is "[a] totem animal". Not only does he want to wear women's skin, he wants to become a woman; he dresses in women's clothes and tucks his penis behind his legs to appear female. Creed writes, "To experience a rebirth as woman, Buffalo Bill must wear the skin of woman not just to experience a physical transformation but also to acquire the power of transformation associated with woman's ability to give birth." Buffalo Bill wears the skin of his totem animal to assume its power.

Jack Halberstam, author of Skin Shows: Gothic Horror and the Technology of Monsters, writes, "The cause for Buffalo Bill's extreme violence against women lies not in his gender confusion or his sexual orientation but in his humanist presumption that his sex and his gender and his orientation must all match up to a mythic norm of white heterosexual masculinity." Halberstam says Buffalo Bill symbolizes a lack of ease with one's skin. He writes that the character is also a combination of Victor Frankenstein and his monster in how he is the creator gathering body parts and experimenting with his own body. Halberstam writes, "He does not understand gender as inherent, innate; he reads it only as a surface effect, a representation, an external attribute engineered into identity." Buffalo Bill challenges "the interiority of gender" by taking skin and remaking it into a costume.

Portrayal of transsexuality
The film adaptation of Silence of the Lambs was criticized by some LGBT journalists for its portrayal of Gumb.

References

Hannibal Lecter characters
Characters in American novels of the 20th century
Fictional characters based on real people
Literary characters introduced in 1988
Fictional characters from California
Fictional characters with psychiatric disorders
Fictional cross-dressers
Fictional kidnappers
Fictional LGBT characters in film
Fictional serial killers
Fictional torturers
Male horror film villains
Male literary villains
Male characters in literature
LGBT villains
LGBT themes in horror fiction
Fictional LGBT characters in literature
LGBT-related controversies in film
Fictional criminals in films
Fictional bisexual men

Buffalo Bill (character)


Events
 Valencia is captured by the Almoravids.
 Henry I of England orders the tomb of Edward the Confessor opened; the body is found undecayed.
 Henry I of England takes possession of Arundel Castle.
 The Hohenbaden castle is built in Baden-Baden, Germany.
 Boleslav III becomes king of Poland.
 coronation of Coloman of Hungary in the town of Biograd, adding the Croatian duchies of Slavonia and Dalmatia to the crown of Hungary.
 Crusaders capture Caesarea Palaestina.
 Crusaders defeat an Egyptian invasion of the Kingdom of Jerusalem near Ascalon.
 Dagobert of Pisa is briefly deposed as Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem (and restored later in the year).
 Raymond IV of Toulouse begins to besiege Tripoli, and takes the nominal title of count of Tripoli.
 Raymond IV of Toulouse is imprisoned by Tancred, regent of the Principality of Antioch.

1102


Ernest I, called "Ernest the Pious" (25 December 1601 – 26 March 1675) was a duke of Saxe-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg. The duchies were later merged into Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.

He was the ninth but sixth surviving son of Johann II, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, and Dorothea Maria of Anhalt. His mother was a granddaughter of Christoph, Duke of Württemberg, and great-granddaughter of Ulrich, Duke of Württemberg.

Life
Left an orphan early in life (his father died in 1605 and his mother in 1617), he was brought up in a strict manner, and was gifted and precocious but not physically strong. He soon showed traits of the piety of the time. As ruler, by his character and governmental ability as well as by personal attention to matters of state, he introduced a golden age for his subjects after the ravages of the Thirty Years' War. By wise economy, which did not exclude fitting generosity or display on proper occasions, he freed his land from debt, left at his death a considerable sum in the treasury, and reduced taxation. Public security and an incorruptible and efficient judiciary received much of his attention, and his regulations served as models for other states.

He did not rise far enough above his time to do away with torture, though he restricted it, and in the century of trials for witchcraft he yielded to the common delusion, though he was not otherwise inclined to superstition and was a foe of alchemy. He prohibited dueling and imposed the death penalty for a mortal result.

In 1640, according to the partition treaty with his brothers, Ernst received Gotha.

His laws were not conceived in the spirit of modern ideas about individual liberty; they forbade secret betrothals, tried to regulate dress, and extended even to the stable, kitchen, and cellar. Nevertheless, his regulations promoted agriculture, commerce, learning, and art. His palace of Friedenstein in Gotha was rebuilt, and its collections owe their origin to Ernest; the library became one of the largest in Germany. Churches were built and by his Schulmethodus of 1642 Ernest became the father of the present grammar-school. It was a popular saying that his peasants were better instructed than the townsmen and nobles elsewhere, and at his death, it was said, that no one in his land was unable to read and write. He made the gymnasium in Gotha a model school which attracted pupils not only from all German lands, but from Sweden, Russia, Poland, and Hungary. In like manner he fostered the University of Jena, increasing its funds and regulating its studies, with too much emphasis on the religious side. The same fault is attached to his efforts in church affairs, which won him the nickname of "Praying Ernest"; but an excuse is found in the fearful demoralization caused by the war. The Bible was his own everyday book and he strove unceasingly to make his people religious after a strict Lutheran pattern. Religious instruction, consisting in catechetical exercises without Bible history, was kept up even to advanced years and not unnaturally the rigid compulsion in some cases defeated its purpose. Ernest's system has maintained itself surprisingly; it still exists legally though somewhat modified or disregarded.

His efforts for Protestantism were not confined to his own land. He interceded with the emperor for his Austrian co-religionists, and wanted to establish them in Gotha. He became a benefactor to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Germans in Moscow and entered into friendly relations with the tsar. He even sent an embassy to introduce Lutheranism into Abyssinia, but this failed to accomplish its purpose. His rule of his family is a miniature of his government of his land; the strictest discipline prevailed at court. Its life was simple and industrious, regulated on all sides by religious exercises. Rules were added to rules. No detail was overlooked which could promote the spiritual and physical development of his children, and their religious education was carried to excess. Nevertheless, his children all turned out well and Ernest died with the name of "father and savior of his people." Oliver Cromwell counted him among the most sagacious of princes; in him was embodied "the idea of the Protestant patriarchal prince and of a Christian governor of State and Church truly caring for both."

Family and children
In Altenburg on 24 October 1636, Ernst married his cousin Elisabeth Sophie of Saxe-Altenburg. As a result of this marriage Saxe-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg were unified, when the last duke of the line (Elisabeth's cousin) died childless in 1672. Ernst and Elisabeth Sophie had eighteen children:
 Johann Ernest (b. Weimar, 18 September 1638 – d. Weimar, 27 November 1638).
 Elisabeth Dorothea  (b. Coburg, 8 January 1640 – d. Butzbach, 24 August 1709), married on 5 December 1666 to Louis VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt.
 Johann Ernest (b. Gotha, 16 May 1641 – d. of smallpox, Gotha, 31 December 1657).
 Christian (b. and d. Gotha, 23 February 1642).
 Sophie (b. Gotha, 21 February 1643 – d. of smallpox, Gotha, 14 December 1657).
 Johanna (b. Gotha, 14 February 1645 – d. [of smallpox?] Gotha, 7 December 1657).
 Frederick I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (b. Gotha, 15 July 1646 – d. Friedrichswerth, 2 August 1691).
 Albert, Duke of Saxe-Coburg (b. Gotha, 24 May 1648 – d. Coburg, 6 August 1699).
 Bernhard I, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen (b. Gotha, 10 September 1649 – d. Meiningen, 27 April 1706).
 Henry, Duke of Saxe-Römhild (b. Gotha, 19 November 1650 – d. Römhild, 13 May 1710).
 Christian, Duke of Saxe-Eisenberg (b. Gotha, 6 January 1653 – d. Eisenberg, 28 April 1707).
 Dorothea Maria (b. Gotha, 12 February 1654 – d. Gotha, 17 June 1682).
 Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen (b. Gotha, 12 June 1655 – d. Hildburghausen, 17 October 1715).
 Johann Philip (b. Gotha, 1 March 1657 – d. Gotha, 19 May 1657).
 Johann Ernest IV, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (b. Gotha, 22 August 1658 – d. Saalfeld, 17 February 1729).
 Johanna Elisabeth (b. Gotha, 2 September 1660 – d. Gotha, 18 December 1660).
 Johann Philip (b. Gotha, 16 November 1661 – d. Gotha, 13 March 1662).
 Sophie Elisabeth (b. Gotha, 19 May 1663 – d. Gotha, 23 May 1663).

Their eldest son Frederick was the first to inherit this title. His granddaughter from this son, Anna Sophie of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, was a direct matrilineal ancestor of Nicholas II of Russia. His younger son Johann Ernest was father of Franz Josias, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.

Descendants
See List of members of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

Legacy
He is portrayed positively as a figure in the fictional 1632 series, also known as the 1632-verse or Ring of Fire series, an alternate history book series, created, primarily co-written, and coordinated by historian Eric Flint.

 Ernestine duchies
 Ernestian Bibles, called

Ancestry

References

  Article in the ADB

1601 births
1675 deaths
People from Saxe-Altenburg
People from Saxe-Gotha
House of Wettin
Dukes of Saxe-Gotha
17th-century Lutherans
People from Altenburg
Dukes of Saxe-Altenburg

Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha


The Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (a.k.a. HPC) is one of nine Service Centers that are part of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), which is part of the National Weather Service, which in turn is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the U.S. government.

The HPC serves as a center of excellence in Quantitative Precipitation Forecasting, Medium Range Forecasting (three to seven days) and the interpretation of numerical weather prediction models.

The HPC issues storm summaries on storm systems bringing significant rainfall and snowfall to portions of the United States. Advisories are also issued for tropical cyclones which have moved inland and are no longer the responsibility of the National Hurricane Center. The HPC also acts as the backup office to the National Hurricane Center in the event of a complete communications failure.

The HPC was created in October 1995, when the former National Meteorological Center was reorganised into the NCEP. It is based at the World Weather Building in Camp Springs, Maryland, along with a few of the other National Centers such as the Climate Prediction Center (CPC), the Ocean Prediction Center (OPC), and the Environmental Modeling Center (EMC).

Other websites
 Official website

Meteorology

Hydrometeorological Prediction Center


Typically, a green manure crop is grown for a specific period, and then plowed under and incorporated into the soil. Green manures usually perform several functions, that include soil improvement and soil protection:

 Leguminous green manures such as clover contain nitrogen-fixing symbiotic bacteria in root nodules that fix atmospheric nitrogen in a form that plants can use.
 Green manures increase the percentage of organic matter (biomass) in the soil, thereby improving water retention, aeration, and other soil characteristics.
The root systems of some varieties of green manure grow deep in the soil and bring up nutrient resources unavailable to shallower-rooted crops.
 Common cover crop functions of weed suppression and prevention of soil erosion and compaction are often also taken into account when selecting and using green manures.
Some green manure crops, when allowed to flower, provide forage for pollinating insects.

Historically, the practice of green manuring can be traced back to the fallow cycle of crop rotation, which was used to allow soils to recover.

Green manure crops
Winter cover crops such as oats or rye have long been used as green manures.
Mustard
Clover
Fenugreek
Lupin
Sunn hemp
Winter tares
Winter field beans
Ferns of the genus Azolla have been used as a green manure in southeast Asia.
Velvet Bean (Mucuna pruriens) Common in the southern US during the early part of the 20th century, before being replaced by soybeans. Popular today in most tropical countries, especially in Central America where it is the main green manure used in Slash/Mulch farming practices.

Green manures in organic farming
Organic farming relies on soil health and cycling of nutrients through the soil using natural processes, such as the addition of animal manures. If animal manures are not available, in a stockless rotation, green manures perform a vital function of fertilization.

Related pages
Fertilizer

Other websites
Overview of cover crops and green manures
Using green manure to grow rice

Fertilizers

Green manure


Circus is the 6th album by Britney Spears. It consists of electropop and dance pop. This hit record was released on November 28, 2008. The album debuted on Billboard 200 near the top; it sold half a million copies during its 1st week and received positive review from critics. The album's lead single was "Womanizer". Other singles released were the title track, "If U Seek Amy", and "Radar."

2008 albums
Britney Spears albums

Circus (album)


Cockles are a group of (mostly) small, edible, saltwater clams. They are marine bivalve molluscs in the family Cardiidae.

They are very common on sandy sheltered beaches throughout the world. The distinctive rounded shells of cockles are symmetrical, and are heart-shaped when viewed from the end. In most genera there are numerous radial ribs (ridges on the shell). The genus Laevicardium, the egg cockles, have very smooth shells.

The mantle has three openings (inhalant, exhalant, and pedal) for siphoning water and for the foot to stick out. Cockles are capable of 'jumping' by bending and straightening the foot. Cockles burrow using the foot, and feed by filtering plankton from the surrounding water. Some species reach maturity quickly.

Confusingly, the common name "cockle" is also given (by seafood sellers) to a number of other small edible bivalves which have a somewhat similar shape, however these bivalves are in other families such as the Veneridae (Venus clams) and the Arcidae (ark clams). Cockles in the family Cardiidae are sometimes known as "true cockles" in order to distinguish them from these other species.

References

Bivalves

Cockle


Roger Albertsen (15 March 1957 – 2 March 2003) was a Norwegian football midfielder.

Club career
At the age of 17 he travelled abroad, playing professionally for Dutch team FC Den Haag. He later played for Feyenoord Rotterdam, KFC Winterslag and Olympiakos, before he returned to Norway in 1985, making his debut in the Norwegian Premier League for Rosenborg.

Netherlands
Albertsen began his career with local lower-division sides Tyssedal and Odda. He was regarded as a promising talent, and represented Norway several times at youth level. Nonetheless, it came as something of a shock when he left the country at age 17 to try his luck in the Netherlands, joining his compatriot Harald Berg's old club Den Haag. Albertsen made his debut for the club in 1975, and soon became a regular in the Den Haag lineup, earning praise for his tireless running and no–nonsense physical play. His performance in the Eredivisie at Den Haag didn't go unnoticed back home and he made his debut for Norway in 1976.

In the summer of 1979, Albertsen was transferred to Feyenoord, where he became a valuable player in the side that finished fourth in the league and won the cup. However, at the end of the season, after just one year in Rotterdam, he returned to Den Haag.

Winterslag
He played one more season for Den Haag, and then he was on the move again – this time to Belgian side Winterslag (now known as Racing Genk following a 1988 merger). Albertsen quickly became a fan favorite at the Belgian club, and his performances earned him a recall to the national team for the World Cup qualifier against England – the game that would provide Albertsen's finest moment in a Norway shirt.

Olympiacos
Midway through the 1982/83 season, Albertsen was signed by Greek giants Olympiacos, where he won a league championship medal. He spent three years at the club, doing the dirty work in midfield, before his old friend Arne Dokken persuaded him to return home and play for Rosenborg

Rosenborg
So, in the summer of 1985, after a decade abroad, Albertsen played his first-ever top division game in the Norwegian league. He was a member of the Rosenborg side that won the title in dramatic fashion in 1985, and played two more years at the Trondheim club before retiring because of injury at the end of the 1987 season.

International career
He was capped 25 times for Norway, having debuted in 1976. Many remember him from the famous match against England in 1981, where he was awarded the 1–1 goal, despite that television replays have later shown that Albertsen did in fact not touch the ball, and Tom Lund's cross went straight into the net.

He made his international debut in a World Cup qualifier against Switzerland in 1976. He is credited with scoring the equaliser in Norway's win over England in 1981. Bryan Robson gave the visitors the lead after 15 minutes. In the 35th minute, Albertsen went after a cross from Tom Lund and the ball went into the net. Albertsen was credited with the goal, but television replays seem to indicate that Albertsen did not make contact with the ball before it crossed the line. Hallvar Thoresen scored Norway's second goal four minutes before half-time and Norway went on to win the game 2–1.

Albertsen now got an extended run in the national side, and scored two more goals in a pair of summer friendlies. This time there was no doubt about Albertsen being the scorer. He was also a member of the team that defeated Yugoslavia 3–1 in a Euro 84 qualifier. Shortly after that match, he was on the move again.

Roger Albertsen was a hard-working and hard-tackling midfielder who never truly established himself as a first-choice in the Norway lineup, but he was a dependable player who did a fine job whenever he got the chance. He wasn't a finesse player, but his work-rate and determination made him a fan favorite at every club he played.

Retirement and death
After retiring from the game, Albertsen worked in the computer business, and also held coaching jobs for lower-division sides Orkanger, Sokna and Kongsberg. In late 2002, he was diagnosed with cancer, and he died from the disease in March 2003.

Honours

Club
Feyenoord
KNVB Cup: 1979–80

Olympiacos F.C.
Super League Greece: 1982–83

Rosenborg BK
Norwegian Premier League Championship: 1985

Individual
Norwegian Football Association Gold Watch

References

External links

 Career bio, Bergens Tidende

1957 births
2003 deaths
Men's association football midfielders
Norwegian men's footballers
Norwegian football managers
Norway men's international footballers
ADO Den Haag players
Feyenoord players
K.F.C. Winterslag players
Olympiacos F.C. players
Rosenborg BK players
Eliteserien players
Belgian Pro League players
Eredivisie players
People from Odda
Deaths from cancer in Norway
Norwegian expatriate men's footballers
Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands
Expatriate men's footballers in the Netherlands
Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in Belgium
Expatriate men's footballers in Belgium
Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in Greece
Expatriate men's footballers in Greece
Orkanger IF managers
Kongsberg IF managers
Footballers from Vestland

Roger Albertsen


Kenny Rankin (February 10, 1940 – June 7, 2009) was an American pop and jazz singer and songwriter. He was originally from the Washington Heights neighborhood of New York City, New York.

Biography
Rankin was raised in New York and was introduced to music by his mother, who sang at home and for friends. The area of Washington Heights, Manhattan was becoming heavily Latino during his youth, and exposure to street music may have played a part. He began recording at age 17 in 1957, eventually working as a songwriter contracted to Columbia Records. Rankin's earliest composition, "My Carousel" was written for Carmen McRae, followed by "A Happy Guy" for teen idol Rick Nelson. He had already developed a serious amphetamine problem by that time.

He taught himself classical guitar, at age 24, inspired by the playing of Don Costa, who had started on that instrument before becoming one of the most important arrangers in popular music. He played rhythm guitar on some tracks on Bob Dylan's album Bringing It All Back Home (1965). Rankin developed a considerable following during the 1970s with a steady flow of albums, three of which broke into the Top 100 of the Billboard Album Chart. His liking for jazz was evident from an early age, but the times were such that in order to survive his career had to take a more pop-oriented course, and he cited singer-songwriter Laura Nyro consistently as a major influence.

Rankin appeared on The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson more than twenty times.  Carson was so impressed by him that he wrote the liner notes to Rankin's 1967 debut album Mind Dusters, which featured the single "Peaceful." Rankin's friend Helen Reddy would reach #2 Adult Contemporary and #12 Pop in 1973 with a cover of it, released as her follow-up single to "I Am Woman". Georgie Fame also had a hit with this song in 1969, his only songwriting credit to hit the British charts reaching number sixteen and spending 9 weeks on the chart.

Rankin's original song "In the Name of Love" frequently featured wordless improvisational singing and showed his range and command of articulating lyrics at a blistering waltz tempo, but performed more slowly it had a distinctly Brazilian flavor. Similar to later singer Mandy Patinkin, Rankin's speaking voice was a rich baritone, but his tessitura was an octave higher, with an occasional start at near his speaking timbre, as in "What Matters Most." The timbre of his singing voice most frequently resembled that of a clarinet. His remarkably quick mastery of the guitar allowed him to appear, along with Randy Newman and Joni Mitchell, as one of the few self-sufficient solo acts conveying original material with harmonic richness beyond that of folk and early rock music.

He was extremely private in his early televised interviews, once stating that personal information distracted from musical performance, and thus even his date of birth was considered anecdotal information. Later, he became more open and stated in interviews that in the 1960s and 1970s he had suffered from serious addictions which affected his career, and he credited his family, and a period of spiritual study while undergoing rehabilitation sessions, for helping him to overcome his drug and alcohol problems by the early 1980s. Some recorded songs on the Little David record label (a subsidiary of Atlantic Records) featured his wife Yvonne and his daughters singing background, as the Rankin Family Band. His album Family featured cover art of Rankin holding his two young daughters. The Rankins also had a son.

Occasionally criticised for poor choice of material, considering his talents, by the 1990s, he was able to angle his repertoire to accommodate his own musical preferences and to please a new audience while still keeping faith with the faithful. Rankin's warm singing style and his soft, nylon-stringed guitar sound might suggest an artist more attuned to the supper-club circuit than the jazz arena, but his work contains many touches that appeal to the jazz audience, especially as he introduced more "standards" from the 1930s and 1940s into his performances. Reviews in the periodical Down Beat and later print media increasingly reinforced his jazz credentials.

Rankin's song "Haven't We Met" was performed by Mel Tormé and Carmen McRae, while Stan Getz said of him that he was "a horn with a heartbeat". Rankin's accompanists have from time to time included pianists Alan Broadbent, Mike Wofford and trombonist Bill Watrous, and on such occasions the mood slips easily into a jazz groove. But Don Costa's full orchestral arrangements were used to back his voice to critical acclaim, following a trend in the wake of Harry Nilsson with Gordon Jenkins and Linda Ronstadt with Nelson Riddle, to emulate the lush soundscape that some say reached its apogee with Frank Sinatra's Capitol recordings. Rankin was also deeply interested in Brazilian music and his Here In My Heart, on which he used jazz guests including Michael Brecker and Ernie Watts, was recorded mostly in Rio de Janeiro. More contemporary songs were given an airing following his move to Verve Records, including the Beatles' "I've Just Seen A Face" and Leon Russell's "A Song For You."

Rankin's own unique gift for reworking classic songs such as The Beatles' "Blackbird," which he recorded for his Silver Morning album, so impressed Paul McCartney that he asked Rankin to perform his interpretation of the song when McCartney and John Lennon were inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.

Rankin was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer in May 2009.  He died in Los Angeles, California - where he had resided for many years - from the disease on June 7, 2009. He was 69 years old.

Discography

Studio albums
Mind-Dusters (1967)
Family (1970)
Like a Seed (1972)
Inside (1975)
Silver Morning (1975)
The Kenny Rankin Album (1976)
After the Roses (1980)
Hiding in Myself (1990)
Because of You (1991)
Professional Dreamer (1994)
Here in My Heart (1997)
A Christmas Album (1999)
A Song for You (2002)

Compilations
Peaceful: The Best of Kenny Rankin (1996)

References

Yanow, Scott, The Jazz Singers: The Ultimate Guide, Backbeat Books, 2008.

Kort, Michael, Soul Picnic: The Music and Passion of Laura Nyro, Thomas Dunne Books / St. Martin's Press, 2002.

Other websites
Official Website

AP Obituary in the Los Angeles Times
LA Times Obituary

1940 births
2009 deaths
American jazz musicians
Singer-songwriters from New York (state)
Deaths from lung cancer
Singers from New York City

Kenny Rankin


Atli Heimir Sveinsson (21 September 1938 – 20 April 2019) was an Icelandic composer.

Atli Heimir was born in Reykjavík, Iceland and started piano lessons at the age of 10. He studied piano with Rögnvaldur Sigurjónsson at the Reykjavík College of Music and took his diploma in 1957. He went on to study at the State Academy in Cologne, Germany, from 1959, studying composition with Günter Raphael and Rudolf Petzold, instrumentation with Bernd Alois Zimmermann, conducting with Wolfgang von der Nahmer and piano with Hermann Pillney and Hans Otto Schmidt. He also took private lessons with Gottfried Michael Koenig. He took his diploma in composition and theory in 1963, a year in which he also attended summer courses in Darmstadt, making the acquaintance of Olivier Messiaen, Pierre Boulez, György Ligeti and Bruno Maderna. In 1964 he studied with Karlheinz Stockhausen, Henri Pousseur, Christoph Caskel and Frederic Rzewski. In 1965 he went to the Netherlands and studied electronic music with Gottfried Michael Koenig in Bilthoven.

He was president of the Icelandic Composers Association from 1972 to 1983. In 1976 he received the Nordic Council Music Prize for his Flute Concerto. Since 1992 Atli Heimir Sveinsson has received an honorary salary from the Icelandic Parliament. Atli Heimir was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music in 1993. His Symphony Number Two premiered in Reykjavík on 1 June 2006.

Atli Heimir Sveinsson was married to Sif Sigurðardóttir, who died in 2018, and had two sons. On 21 April 2019, Iceland's national public broadcasting service RÚV reported Atli Heimir's death.
He was buried in Flatey, Breiðafjörður

Selected works
Atli Heimir has a varied list of works to his credit including operas, ballet and major orchestral works which are widely performed, including:

 nine solo concertos
 numerous orchestral, chamber and solo works
 an orchestral song cycle to Steinn Steinarr's poem Time and Water
 operas The Silk Drum, Vikivaki TV opera, Moonlight Island and Hertervig
 six symphonies
 Cathexis for viola and piano (1977–1978)
 Dúó Rapp for viola and double bass (2004)
 Könnun (Exploration) for viola and orchestra (1971)
 Minning II (Manuela in Memoriam) for bass flute, viola and harp (2006)
 Þrjú sönglög (3 Songs) for low voice, viola and piano (2000)
 Sonata for viola solo (2002)
 Sonata for viola and piano (2011)
 Springsongs I-IV and Minning (Manuela in Memoriam) for flute, viola and harp (2006)

A complete list of works is available at the composer's website.

References

External links
Atli Heimir Sveinsson's English Website (archive from 22 November 2014 available here).
Iceland Music Information Centre

1938 births
2019 deaths
Male classical composers
Atli Heimir Sveinsson
Atli Heimir Sveinsson
Male opera composers
Atli Heimir Sveinsson
Atli Heimir Sveinsson
Pupils of Karlheinz Stockhausen
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
Atli Heimir Sveinsson
20th-century male musicians
21st-century male musicians

Atli Heimir Sveinsson


The Glyderau (a Welsh plural form, also known in English as the Glyders) are a mountain group in Snowdonia, North Wales. The name derives from the highest peaks in the range, Glyder Fawr and Glyder Fach. According to Sir Ifor Williams, the word "Glyder" derives from the Welsh word "Cludair", meaning a heap of stones.

The Glyderau stretch from Mynydd Llandegai to Capel Curig, and include five of Wales' fourteen or fifteen summits over 3000 feet; these include Tryfan, considered one of the finest mountains in Wales and one of the few mountains on the British mainland requiring scrambling to reach the summit. The eastern half of the range in particular, including Glyder Fawr, Glyder Fach and Tryfan, is very popular with walkers and climbers.

Dinorwig Power Station, a hydroelectric pump-storage system, is located in a man-made cavern within Elidir Fawr. The slopes of the Glyderau also include the lake Llyn Idwal, and a number of classic climbing areas such as Rhiwiau Caws.

Geography
The Glyderau were formed in the Ordovician period about 500 million years ago as the result of two land masses moving together and causing the Snowdonia massif to rise up. Since then, erosion and the advance and retreat of glaciers during the Ice Ages has worn down the mountains to their present proportions. The underlying rock is a mixture of sedimentary and volcanic material. The last ice sheet retreated about 10,000 years ago and Cwm Idwal is a good example of a cirque formed by the ice. The main glacier flowed down the adjoining Nant Ffrancon Valley, a route now followed by the A5 road, and Cwm Idwal housed a side glacier. The ice scarred the surrounding cliffs, hollowed out the bed of Llyn Idwal and dumped rocks and other material that formed moraines at its foot. Massive boulders and shattered rocks crashed down from above to form the boulder fields and screes.

The land was originally covered with native forest mostly consisting of birch and oak. This was cleared over the millennia by the Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age farmers that settled here and now there is little tree cover. Groups of feral goats can still be found on the Glyderau, probably the remnants of the herds that were farmed here a thousand years ago. The large number of sheep that now graze the common land were introduced in the 18th century with the rise of the woollen industry.

Access
The Glyderau present a much more rocky appearance than the smooth rounded humps of the Carneddau just to the north. The ridge between the summits of Glyder Fawr and Glyder Fach is covered with coarse grasses and heathers and strewn with boulders and slabs of rocks. The ascent to the summit of Tryfan requires scrambling rather than just walking. Tryfan, Glyder Fach and the cliffs around Cwm Idwal offer rock climbing with routes ranging from those suitable for beginners to those requiring great technical expertise. The mountains can be approached from Llyn Ogwen to the north, where there is a car park, or from Nant Peris in the Llanberis Pass where there is a park and ride service. Buses run hourly from Bangor to Llanberis and there is a less frequent service from Bethesda to Llyn Ogwen.

Cwm Idwal

The north-facing amphitheatre-shaped valley of Cwm Idwal with its dark cliffs has a unique flora, and some plants here are the most southerly remnants in Britain of the Arctic/Alpine flora. The Snowdon lily (Lloydia serotina) is found here, high on mountain ledges, the only place in Britain where it is found. Other Alpine species include the purple saxifrage (Saxifraga oppositifolia), tufted saxifrage (Saxifraga cespitosa), Alpine meadow rue (Thalictrum alpinum) and mountain sorrel (Oxyria digyna). Because of the scientific interest of this valley, sheep have been excluded from it to allow the native plants to flourish and it has been made into a national nature reserve. The lake itself is shallow and fringed with rushes, reeds and bottle sedge (Carex rostrata). Plants growing in the water or on the damp ground nearby include awlwort, pillwort, waterwort and spring quillwort (Isoetes echinospora). Other plants growing on damp shady ledges include the Welsh poppy (Meconopsis cambrica), the wood-rush (Lazula sylvatica), water avens (Geum rivale), wood anemone (Anemone nemorosa) and goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea). Animals that live here include badgers, foxes and polecats as well as buzzards (Buteo buteo), peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), choughs (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), skylarks (Alauda arvensis), black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) and red grouse (Lagopus lagopus).

In the cliffs above Llyn Idwal is a dark cleft in the rock known as Twll Du from which plumes of mist sometimes emanate. These were believed to be caused by ancient druids creating lightning bolts to keep the invading Romans at bay. Llyn Idwal itself was said to be named after a drowned boy, either the son of 8th century Prince Cadwalader, murdered by a rival, or the son of 12th century Prince Owain Gwynedd and killed by his uncle. The traveler Thomas Pennant, writing in the 1780s, stated that the local shepherds were in awe of the lake believing it to be "the haunt of Demons, and that no bird dare fly over its damned waters".

Dinorwig Power Station

Deep inside the mountain of Elidir Fawr there is a power station and many miles of tunnels. Dinorwig Power Station, a pumped storage hydroelectric facility, was originally built to provide back up facilities and water storage to smooth out the peaks and troughs in demand associated with the inflexible output of nuclear power stations. When demand is low, water is pumped up the mountain and stored in Marchlyn Mawr reservoir, previously a slate quarry. The water is released to flow through turbines during times of high demand for electricity. The power is conveyed through underground cables to join the grid so as to have little visual impact on the Snowdonia National Park skyline.

Management
The National Trust took over the management of the Glyderau and the Carneddau in 1951 in lieu of death duties on the Penrhyn Estate. The total area is about 7,000 hectares, half of which is common land with registered grazing rights for 45,000 sheep and 741 ponies. There are eight tenanted farms on the estate and the National Trust is responsible for the maintenance of footpaths and drystone walls, some of which date back many hundreds of years. The two mountain ranges form part of the Snowdonia National Park.

Mountains in the Glyderau

This is a list of the main summits in the range, in order from west to east.

 Elidir Fawr (924 m)
 Carnedd y Filiast (821 m)
 Mynydd Perfedd (813 m)
 Foel Goch (831 m)
 Y Garn (947 m)
 Glyder Fawr (1,001 m)
 Glyder Fach (994 m)
 Tryfan (918 m)
 Y Foel Goch (805 m)
 Gallt yr Ogof (763 m)
 Cefn y Capel (c.460 m )

References

External links
 Walks in the Glyderau

Capel Curig
Llanberis
Llanddeiniolen
Llandygai
Mountains and hills of Conwy County Borough
Mountains and hills of Gwynedd
Mountains and hills of Snowdonia

Glyderau


The Constitutio Criminalis Carolina (sometimes shortened to Carolina) is recognised as the first body of German criminal law (Strafgesetzbuch). It was also known as the Halsgerichtsordnung (Procedure for the judgment of capital crimes) of Charles V.

Its basis was the Halsgerichtsordnung of Bamberg (also known as the Bambergensis) drawn up by Johann Freiherr von Schwarzenberg in 1507, which in turn went back to the humanistic school of Roman law.

The Carolina was agreed in 1530 at the Diet of Augsburg under Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and ratified two years later at the Diet in Regensburg (1532) (which was judicially a Hoftag, an informal meeting), at which point it became law. It predominantly covered civil law alongside criminal law. Under the terms of the Constitutio Criminalis Carolina, actions such as murder, manslaughter, robbery, arson, homosexual relations, and witchcraft were henceforth defined as severe crimes. In particular, the Carolina specified that those found guilty of causing harm through witchcraft should be executed with fire, laying the foundation for the mass witch trials between 1580 and 1680. It was also the basis for the use of obtaining confessions by torture.

The aim of the Constitutio Criminalis Carolina was to unify the legal system of the Holy Roman Empire, and thereby put an end to the penal jurisdiction which had until then varied haphazardly between the Empire's states. The Carolina succeeded in this despite a severability clause under which the Carolina only had subsidiary importance to the particular laws of the Imperial Estates. This severability clause was necessary to secure the assent of the Imperial Estates, which wanted to hold on to their own legal and legislative powers. Nevertheless, the severability clause did not detract from the Carolina's unification of the legal system and its reformatory effect on criminal law was indisputable.

Further historical importance of the Constitutio Criminalis Carolina arises from the fact that this was the first adoption of the canonical Italian legal institute of the inquisition. Earlier criminal law  only dealt with accusations of the victim of the crime without making inquiries of its own. The inquisition gave the court the chance to examine a case on its own accord and to find a judgement basing only on facts without being restricted by the interests of the parties.

References

 Carnell, Elisabeth: Crimen Excepta: Torture, Jesuits and Witches in Early Seventeenth Century Germany
 Geus, Elmar: Mörder, Diebe, Räuber: historische Betrachtung des deutschen Strafrechts von der Carolina bis zum Reichsstrafgfesetzbuch. Berlin: Scrîpvaz-Verlag Krauskopf 2002
 Latein-pagina.de: Die Constitutio Criminalis Carolina
 Malblank, Julius Friedrich: Geschichte der peinlichen Gerichtsordnung von Kaiser Karl V., Nuremberg, Grattenauer, 1782 (Reprint: Goldbach, Keip 1998, )
 Schroeder, Friedrich-Christian: Die peinliche Gerichtsordnung Kaiser Karls V. und des Heiligen Römischen Reichs von 1532 = (Carolina)., Stuttgart: Reclam, 2000,

External links
 This article is based on a translation of the corresponding German-language Wikipedia article.
  Further reading from DNB and GBV

German criminal law
Criminal codes
Law of the Holy Roman Empire
1530 in law
1530 in the Holy Roman Empire
Witch trials in Germany

Constitutio Criminalis Carolina


Dwight L. Smith (born August 13, 1978) is an American former college and professional football player who was a safety in the National Football League (NFL) for eight seasons.  He played college football for the University of Akron, and earned consensus All-American honors.  The Tampa Bay Buccaneers picked him in the third round of the 2001 NFL Draft, and he also played professionally for the New Orleans Saints, Minnesota Vikings and Detroit Lions of the NFL.  Smith earned a Super Bowl ring with the Buccaneers in Super Bowl XXXVII.

Early years
Smith was born in Detroit, Michigan.  He attended Central High School in Detroit, and played high school football for the Central Trailblazers.

College career
He attended the University of Akron, where he played for the Akron Zips football team from 1997 to 2000.  As a senior in 2000, he had 10 interceptions and was recognized as a consensus first-team All-American at defensive back along with being a finalist for the Thorpe Award.

Professional career

Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Smith began his career with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers from 2001 to 2004.  Smith's career highlight came in the Bucs' 48–21 victory over the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XXXVII, in which Smith intercepted two passes from quarterback Rich Gannon, returning both for touchdowns.  He was the first player ever to score 2 touchdowns on interception returns in Super Bowl history.

New Orleans Saints
Before the 2005 season he signed with the New Orleans Saints and played for them for a season. He was released in July 2006, after failed attempts to trade him.

Minnesota Vikings
Smith signed a three-year deal with the Vikings in July 2006. On February 20, 2008, the Vikings released him.

Detroit Lions
On February 27, 2008, he signed with the Detroit Lions. He received $5 million over 2 years. The deal reunited Smith with Lions' head coach Rod Marinelli and defensive coordinator Joe Barry, both of whom were assistants on the Tampa Bay staff when the veteran safety spent the first four seasons of his NFL career as a standout Bucs' defender.

Smith was released by the Lions on February 9, 2009.

References

External links
 Detroit Lions bio

1978 births
Living people
Akron Zips football players
All-American college football players
American football safeties
Detroit Lions players
Minnesota Vikings players
New Orleans Saints players
Players of American football from Detroit
Tampa Bay Buccaneers players

Dwight Smith (American football)


The mental status examination, MSE, is an important step in a "clinical assessment" of an individual. The purpose of the MSE is to get an over-all description of the patient's mental state. This, with information about the person, lets the clinician make a  diagnosis. Then a plan is chosen for the person's treatment.

The examination is a way of describing a patient's current state of mind. Some parts of the MSE are done by observing, asking questions and noting; some parts are done using psychological tests. It works by looking at attitude, behavior, mood and "affect" (feeling), speech, thinking, perception, cognition, insight and judgment.

The MSE is different from the mini-mental state examination (MMSE), which is a brief test for dementia.

References

Psychiatry
Psychometrics

Mental state examination


Natural law is the idea that there are forms of law that exist by themselves in nature, regardless of whether people exist or recognise them or not. Unlike other forms of law (called positive laws) that have been agreed on by society, such laws would be given to all, and would not be possible to go against. Such rights are called natural. In modern times, human rights are often seen as coming from natural law, but the idea goes back to Ancient Greece.

Natural law is often founded on the following:
God, who created natural law with creating the world
Logos, an idea from philosophy; this is interpreted to be divine law
Part of natural law inside human beings (called Self-knowledge, sometimes conscience)
Certain laws that can be deduced from the natural sciences
Nature itself
Reason

Important philosophers who developed natural law include Aristotle, Plato, Seneca the Younger, Thomas Aquinas, and Immanuel Kant. People who criticized this approach include Jeremy Bentham and Hans Kelsen.

Related pages
Constitution
Jurisprudence
Rechtsstaat

Types of law
Philosophy

Natural law


William Thomas Maas (born March 2, 1962) is a former American football defensive tackle who played for the Kansas City Chiefs (1984–1992), and the Green Bay Packers (1993).  Maas was selected to the Pro Bowl in 1986 and 1987. In 1984 Maas was named the NFL Rookie of the Year by the Associated Press. He worked as a commentator for Fox Sports from 1996 to 2007. From 1998 to 2001, he served as studio anchor and game analyst for NFL games.

Early years and high school
Bill's early years were spent in suburban Pennsylvania where he grew up alongside his sister Lizanne (Annie), his brother Murray Xavier, and his adopted Vietnamese brother, Ngo.

Bill Maas played football at Marple Newtown High School but his athletic skills were overlooked, in part because of his team's lack of success on the field.  During his senior year, the Tigers finished with a 1–9 record. The only school that expressed interest in him was the University of Pittsburgh, a college football powerhouse.

College career

Maas spearheaded Pitt's defensive fronts of the early 1980s with his play at tackle. In 1980, he was part of an elite Pitt team that included future NFL stars Tim Lewis, Jimbo Covert, Chris Doleman, Dan Marino, Russ Grimm, Mark May, Hugh Green, and Rickey Jackson.

He established himself early when as a freshman he blocked a punt and recorded a sack in Pitt's 1980 Gator Bowl victory over South Carolina. Maas then became a starter for his remaining three years with the Panthers, earning All-America honors in 1982. Maas played in the East–West Shrine Game.

NFL career

Maas was the Chiefs' first-round draft pick in 1984, the fifth player taken overall.  He lived up to his first-round status, being named the NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year despite missing two games. After a career-high seven sacks in 1985, Maas matched that total the next season and was awarded his first Pro Bowl nod. He went back again to the Pro Bowl in the strike-shortened 1987 season after getting six sacks and scoring a touchdown off  a fumble recovery. Maas got off to a fast start in 1988, getting four sacks and a safety in his first seven games. He then was injured in the eighth game and missed the rest of the season. The 1989 season was the first year in his career he did not have a sack, as it was shortened to 10 games because of injury. Maas did score the last touchdown of his career off  a fumble. Kansas City moved him to defensive end in 1990. He had 5.5 sacks and a safety that season. After an injury-filled 1992 season, he joined the Green Bay Packers. He spent most of the year backing up John Jurkovic at nose tackle.

His 40 career sacks is tied with Mike Bell as the eighth most in Kansas City Chiefs history, as of 2020, and is the most by either a defensive tackle or nose tackle.  Bill Maas is the first nose tackle in Chiefs history to make the Pro Bowl. He was the first Chief ever to win a Rookie of the Year Award. During his career, Maas won acclaim for his relentless pass rushing ability and was selected twice for the Pro Bowl, as well as being named NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year.

After retiring from pro football, he spent 12 years broadcasting NFL games for Fox Sports.

Legal problems
On July 6, 2007, Maas was arrested for drug and weapons possession after a traffic stop in East Peoria, Illinois. He was released from jail two days later.

The USA Today reported August 7, 2007:
Maas, 45, and a passenger in his Hummer, Sarah J. Murphy, 27, were arrested late Friday by Illinois State Police. During the stop on Illinois Route 116, police indicated that Maas seemed nervous, which prompted police to request a search of the vehicle, to which Maas consented.

The search turned up a .22-caliber revolver, five grams of suspected marijuana, six grams of suspected cocaine and 28 pills of Ecstasy, according to police. Both Maas and Murphy were charged with possession of a controlled substance and possession of marijuana. Maas was also booked on a charge of unlawful use of a weapon.

On September 5, 2007, Maas was questioned and released following an incident at Kansas City International Airport in which authorities reportedly found a loaded 9mm Glock in a bag brought by the former football player to the airport before attempting to board a plane.  The gun was confiscated at a screening station and Maas was taken to the airport police station for questioning, at which point he claimed to have picked up the wrong bag before coming to the airport.

References

External links
www.pittsburghpanthers.com/sports/m-footbl/spec-rel/050509aab.html

1962 births
Living people
American football defensive tackles
Kansas City Chiefs players
Green Bay Packers players
American Conference Pro Bowl players
National Football League Defensive Rookie of the Year Award winners
Pittsburgh Panthers football players
National Football League announcers
NFL Europe broadcasters
College football announcers
People from Newtown Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Players of American football from Delaware County, Pennsylvania

Bill Maas


Roto, f. rota, (literally "breuken") is a term uused tae refer tae Chilean fowk an in pairticular tae the common Chilean. In Chile frae the stairt o the 20t century it wis appleed wi a negative classist connotation tae poor ceety-daellers. It is uised contemptuously in ither Spainyie-speakin kintras an aw, especially Peru an Bolivie, tae refer tae Chileans. Itherwise, despite its defects, the roto is considered a figur o naitional identity an pride in Chile an aw.

The historical oreegin o the uise o the term coud be, as hintle in Chile as in Peru an Bolivie, in the war focht bi Chile against the Peru-Bolivie Confederation. Chilean troops defeatit the confederation at the Battle o Yungay on 20 Januar 1839. As maist o the sodgers o the victorious Chilean airmy wur poor recruits, the defeatit troops cried them rotos. In Chile tributes wur paid tae the victors o Yungay an, in a gestur o recogneetion, 20 Januar wis declared the Día del Roto Chileno (in Spainyie; Day o the Chilean Roto).

Historical uisage
The term roto haes been uised in Peru syne the times o the Spainyie conquest, whan Diego de Almagro's disappointit troops returned tae Cuzco (efter a failed gowd-seekin expedition in Chile) wi their torn clothes, due tae the extensive an laborious passage on fuit throu the Atacama desert. This term became mair uised efter the Chilean campaigns against the Peru-Bolivie Confederation in 1839 an the War o the Paceefic (1879–84) acause it wis the first time that lairge nummers o Chileans entered Peruvian territory.

The figur o the Chilean Roto is commemoratit bi vera diverse organisations an actors such as the Chilean Airmy, ultra-naitionalist activists, the Communist Pairty an local organisations o ordinar citizens. The Airmy haes a pairticular appreciation tae the figur which wis regardit as the main hero – a collective an anonymous hero- o some o the maist crucial battles in the war against Peru an Bolivie.
In this context, the wabpage o the Chilean Airmy states:

The patriotism, bravery an heroism wis embodiet in the Chilean roto, who represents the ordinar man that left aw tae fecht for its "kintra". This wis the ane who focht in Yungay an characterise hissel bi his fierceness an determination.

See an aw
Descamisado

References

Chilean cultur

Roto