The Great Pyramid of Giza is a huge pyramid built by the Ancient Egyptians. It stand 18.4 km from Cairo, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain mostly intact. When it was built it was 146.5 metres (481 feet) tall. It was the tallest building in the world for over 3,800 years.  Erosion and other causes have shrunk it to 138.8 metres. The pyramid was built for Khufu, an Egyptian pharaoh. It was perhaps built by Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu. It is believed that it took about 20 years to build, and was completed around 10,000 BC.

When it was built, the Great Pyramid was covered by white stones that formed a smooth outer surface. Some of these stones  can still be seen around the base. Most of what can be seen of the pyramid now is its basic core 2,300,000 blocks of limestone and granite. There have been many different theories to explain how the pyramid was built. Most accepted building ideas are based on the idea of moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.  Archaeologists found that the Pyramids of Giza were not built by slaves, but workers who were paid for working. Their graves were found near the pyramid in 1990.

There are three known rooms, or chambers, inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the rock on which the pyramid was built. This chamber was not finished. The other two chambers are higher up inside the pyramid. They are called the Queen's Chamber and the King's Chamber, but these are modern labels as we do not know how the Egyptians were going to use them. The Great Pyramid has two passages, one leading up, and the other down. It is the only Egyptian pyramid to have the two passages.

The Great Pyramid is part of a group of buildings, called the Giza Necropolis. This includes two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu. One is close to the pyramid and one near the Nile. There are three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives. Other buildings include an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, and a raised causeway which joins the two temples. There are other tombs, called mastaba, probably for other important people.

References

Other websites
 Great Pyramid of Giza -Citizendium

Pyramids
Archaeological sites in Egypt
Giza
Buildings and structures in Ancient Egypt
3rd millennium BC buildings and structures

Great Pyramid of Giza


Silver(II) fluoride, also known as argentic fluoride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is AgF2. It has silver in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains fluoride ions.

Properties
It is a white or gray crystalline solid. It is usually black or brown because of impurities. It is a powerful oxidizing agent. It is one of the only silver compounds that is in the +2 oxidation state. Most of the silver compounds are in the +1 oxidation state. It can react with glass. It should be stored in certain fluorinated plastics.

It is extremely reactive. It reacts with xenon. It also reacts with water to make oxygen and hydrofluoric acid. It reacts with acids to make ozone. It reacts with iodide to make iodide. It also reacts with hydrogen peroxide to make oxygen.

It is very expensive. Only a little is made each year.

Preparation
Silver(II) fluoride is made by reacting fluorine with silver(I) oxide. It can also be made by reacting silver(I) fluoride or silver chloride with fluorine.

Uses
Silver(II) fluoride is used to add fluoride to certain chemical compounds. It is not used much because it is very expensive.

Safety
Silver(II) fluoride is very corrosive and toxic. It reacts with water to make toxic hydrofluoric acid. It also corrodes glass.

Related pages
Potassium fluoride

Fluorine compounds
Silver compounds

Silver(II) fluoride


Birds (Aves) are a group of animals with backbones. They evolved from dinosaurs. Technically, birds are dinosaurs.

Birds are warm blooded. Their feathers help prevent loss of body heat.  Modern birds do not have teeth. They have beaked jaws. Birds lay hard-shelled eggs. They have a high metabolic rate and a strong but lightweight skeleton. Their hearts have four chambers.

Birds live all over the world. They range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.70 m (9 ft) ostrich. There are about ten thousand species of birds. More than half of these are passerines, or perching birds.

Birds have wings. The wings develop differently in different species. The only known groups of birds without wings are the extinct moa and the elephant birds. Wings evolved from the forelimbs of birds. They give birds the ability to fly. Over time, many groups of birds evolved with smaller wings. These include ratites, penguins and many island species of birds. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also adapted for flight. Some bird species in aquatic environments have evolved as good swimmers. This is seen in seabirds and some waterbirds.

In general, birds inherit their behaviour almost entirely. The key elements of their lives are inherited. It was a great discovery that birds never learn to fly. It is wrong to say when a chick waves its wings in the nest that "it is learning to fly". What the chick is doing is exercising its muscles. If they are a species that flies, they develop the ability automatically. If they are species that migrates, that behaviour is also inherited. Many species migrate over great distances each year. Other main features of their life may be inherited, though they can, and do, learn. Birds have good memories, An example of this is when they search for food.

Several bird species make and use tools. Some social species pass on some knowledge across generation. This is a form of culture. Birds are social animals. They communicate with visual signals as well as with calls and bird songs. Most of their social behaviours are inherited. Examples of this include flocking, mobbing of predators and cooperative breeding and hunting,

Most bird species are socially monogamous; they usually mate for one breeding season at a time. They may mate for years. It is rare that these birds will mate for life. Other species are polygynous, in these species, one male will mate with many females. Birds species are rarely polyandrous. In these species, one female will mate with many males. Birds produce offspring by laying eggs. The eggs are fertilised by sexual reproduction. The eggs are often laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds take care of their offspring after hatching. Some birds, such as chickens, lay eggs even when not fertilised. Unfertilised eggs do not produce offspring.

Many species of birds are eaten by humans. Domesticated and undomesticated birds are sources of eggs, meat and feathers.  In English, domesticated birds are often called poultry and undomesticated birds are called game birds. Songbirds, parrots and other types of birds are popular as pets. Guano is bird manure. It  is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species of birds have become extinct because of human activity since the 17th century.  Many more species had become extinct before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, Things are being done to protect them. Recreational bird-watching is an important part of the ecotourism industry.

Bird colours

Birds come in many different colours. These colours can be useful to a bird in two ways. Camouflage help to hide birds from predators. Brighter colours can also be useful to birds. They can be used to identify the bird to others of the same species. Male bird are often brightly coloured while the female is camouflaged. The logic is as follows: the female carries the "precious package" of developing eggs. The male has to defend a territory. His colour and song are used to let others know that "this place is occupied".

Bird camouflage

Many birds are brown, green or grey. These colours make a bird harder to be seen: they camouflage the bird. Brown is the most common colour. Brown birds include: sparrows, emus, thrushes, larks, eagles and falcons and the female birds of many species such as: wrens, ducks, blackbirds and peafowls. When a brown bird is in long grass or among tree trunks or rocks, it is camouflaged. Birds that live in long grass often have brown feathers streaked with black which looks like shadows. A bittern is almost invisible in long reeds because its camouflage is helped by its posture (beak and head pointed upwards). Other birds, including starlings and mynas, are quite dark in colour, but are flecked with little spots that look like raindrops on leaves. Bird may also camouflage their nests.

Many birds from hot countries are green or have some green feathers, particularly parrots. Birds that live in green trees often have green backs, even if they have bright-coloured breasts. From the back, the birds are camouflaged. This is very useful when sitting on a nest. The bird's bright-coloured breast is hidden. Budgerigars are bred in different colours such as blue, white and mauve, but in the wild, they are nearly all green and yellow. Even though they fly very well, they normally spend a lot of time on the ground, eating grass seeds. Their yellow and black striped back helps to hide them in the shadows made by long dry grass, while their green breasts are a similar colour to the leaves of gum trees.

Grey birds include most pigeons and doves, cranes, storks and herons. Grey birds are often rock-living birds like pigeons or birds that sit on dead tree trunks looking like a broken branch. Water birds like herons often have a pale grey colour which makes it harder for a fish to notice that the bird is standing, looking down for something to catch. Water birds, no matter what colour they are on top, are often white underneath, so that when a fish looks up, the bird looks like part of the sky.

Black birds include crows, ravens and male blackbirds. Some birds that are dark colours spend quite a lot of time on the ground, hopping around in the shadows under bushes. Among these birds are the male blackbird and the satin bowerbird which is not black but very dark blue. Crows and ravens often perch high on bare trees in the winter, where their black shape against the sky looks like the dark bare branches.

Noticeable colours

Many birds are not camouflaged, but stand out with vivid colours. They are usually male birds whose females are dull and camouflaged. The function of the colours is two-fold. First, the colours help them get mates, and second, the colours identify them to other males of the same species. Many birds are territorial, especially in the nesting season. They give out territory sounds and are easily seen. This lets other males know they will defend their territory. It sends out a "look elsewhere" signal to their competitors.

Some birds are famous for their colour and some are named for it, such as the bluebird, the azure kingfisher, the golden pheasant, the scarlet macaw. The European robin is known popularly as the red robin.

Many other birds are very brightly coloured, in countless combinations. Some of the most colourful birds are quite common, like pheasants, peacocks, domestic fowl and parrots. Colourful small birds include blue tits, the goldfinches, hummingbirds, fairy wrens and bee eaters (which are also called rainbow birds). Some birds, like those of the bird of paradise in Papua New Guinea have such beautiful feathers that they have been hunted for them.

The peafowl is the best example of a display of colour to attract a mate. Also the male domestic fowl and junglefowl have long shiny feathers above his tail and also long neck feathers that may be a different colour to his wings and body. There are only a few species of birds (such as the eclectus parrot) where the female is more colourful than the male.

''Pied birds'' are black and white. Black and white birds include magpies, pied geese, pelicans and Australian magpies (which are not really magpies at all). Pied birds often have brightly coloured beaks and legs of yellow or red. The silver pheasant, with its long white tail striped with fine bars of black, has a brightly coloured face.

Flight
Most birds can fly, and if they do, then the ability is inherited, not learnt. They fly by pushing through the air with their wings. The curved surfaces of the wings cause air currents (wind) which lift the bird. Flapping keeps the air current moving to create lift and also moves the bird forward.

Some birds can glide on air currents without flapping. Many birds use this method when they are about to land. Some birds can also hover in the air. This method is used by birds of prey such as falcons that are looking for something to eat. Seagulls are also good at hovering, particularly if there is a strong breeze. The most expert hovering birds are tiny hummingbirds which can beat their wings both backwards and forwards and can stay quite still in the air while they dip their long beaks into flowers to feed on the sweet nectar.

Types of flight
Different types of birds have different needs. Their wings have evolved to suit their lifestyle. Large birds of prey, such as eagles, spend a lot of time soaring on the wind. They have wings that are large and broad. The main flight feathers are long and wide. They help the eagle to stay on rising air currents without using much energy, while the eagle looks at the ground below, to find the next meal. When the eagle sees some small creature move, it can close its wings and fall from the sky like a missile, opening its great wings again to slow down as it comes to land. The world's largest eagle, the Philippine eagle has a wingspan of about 2 m (6.7 ft) wide.

Birds that live in grassland areas or open forests and feed on fruit, insects and reptiles often spend a lot of time flying short journeys looking for food and water. They have wings that are shaped in a similar way to eagles, but rounder and not as good for soaring. These include many Australian birds like cockatoos.

Birds such as geese that migrate from one country to another fly very long distances. Their wings are big and strong, because the birds are large. They stock up on food for the long flight. Migrating water birds usually form family groups of 1230 birds. They fly very high, making use of long streams of air that blow from north to south in different seasons. They are well organised, often flying in a V pattern. The geese at the back do not have to flap so hard; they are pulled on by the wind of the ones at the front. Every so often, they change the leader so that the front bird, who does most work and sets the pace, can have a rest. Geese and swans are the highest-flying birds, reaching 8,000 metres or more when on migration. Geese often honk loudly while they are flying. It is thought that they do this to support the leader and help the young ones.

Birds that fly very quickly, such as swifts and swallows, have long narrow pointed wings. These birds need great speed because they eat insects, catching most of them while they are flying. These birds also migrate. They often collect in huge flocks of thousands of birds that move together like a whirling cloud.

Birds that live in bushes and branches have triangular wings that help the bird change direction. Many forest birds are expert at getting up speed by flapping and then gliding steadily among the trees, tilting to avoid things as they go.

Birds such as owls that hunt at night have wings with soft rounded feathers so that they do not flap loudly. Birds that are awake at night are called nocturnal birds. Birds that are awake during the day are diurnal.

Wandering albatross might spend several years without coming to land. They can sleep while gliding. Arctic terns nest every one to three years.

Flocks
Flocks of birds can be very highly organised in a way that takes care of all the flock members. Studies of small flocking birds like tree sparrows show that they clearly communicate with each other, as sometimes thousands of birds may fly in close formation and spiral patterns without colliding (or flying into each other).

Two common behaviours in flocking birds are guarding and reconnaissance. When a flock of birds is feeding it is common for one bird to perch on a high place to keep guard over the flock. In the same way, when a flock is asleep, often, one bird will remain awake. It is also common for large flocks to send one or two birds ahead of them when they are flying to a new area. The look-out birds can spy the lie of the land to find food, water and good places to perch. Mixed feeding flocks occur, and can help to spot predators.

Flightless birds
Some birds do not fly. Flightlessness in birds has evolved many times.
These include running birds like ostriches and emus and ocean-living birds, the large penguin family. Birds on islands have usually lost the power of flight. This is to their advantage because birds with the power of flight can be blown off their island during a storm. The same ability which got them to the island may later take them away in a storm.

Ostriches and emus do not need to fly because although they feed and nest on the ground, their great size and their speed is their protection. Some other ground-feeding birds have not been so lucky. Some birds such as the dodo and the kiwi were ground-feeding birds that lived in safety on islands where there was nothing dangerous to eat them. They lost the power of flight. Kiwis are endangered because European settlement to New Zealand brought animals like cats, dogs and rats which kill kiwis and eat their eggs. However, kiwis and also the rare New Zealand ground parrot have survived. In the case of dodos, they were fat and disgusting in taste. All the same, they were killed and eaten by sailors until there was none left. Other flightless birds which have disappeared are the great auk and the moa.

Penguins are a very successful group of birds. They are a clade. They spend half their time on land. Their wings are adapted to life in the sea and have become flippers which let them in swim fast. They catch fish at sea, where they are in danger from seals.

Preening
Preening is how birds keeps their feathers in order. They use their beak to position feathers, interlock feather barbules that have become separated, clean plumage, and keep ectoparasites in check.

Feathers in good shape help the bird's insulation, waterproofing and flight. Their condition is vital to the bid's survival.

Digestion
Modern birds do not have teeth, and many swallow their prey whole. Nevertheless, they must break up food before it is digested. First of all, along their throat (oesophagus) they have a crop. This stores food items before digestion. That way a bird can eat several items, and then fly off to a quiet spot to digest them.

Their stomach comes next, with two very different parts. One part is like a straight hollow rod (the proventriculus) which secretes mild hydrochloric acid and an enzyme to break down protein. The other part of the stomach is the gizzard. This is muscular, and grinds up the contents. In herbivorous birds the gizzard contains some gastroliths (small stones or pieces of grit). Bones of fish will mostly be dissolved by the stomach acid. The partly digested and ground-up food now goes to the intestine, where digestion is completed, and most contents are absorbed. Anything indigestible, for example remains of feathers, is regurgitated via the mouth, not the cloaca.

The system is effective, and carnivorous birds can swallow quite large prey. A blue heron can swallow a fish as large as a carp successfully. Raptors eat by holding the prey down with a foot, and tearing it apart with their beak.

Reproduction

Mating
Although birds are warm-blooded creatures like mammals, they do not give birth to live young. They lay eggs as reptiles do, but the shell of a bird's egg is hard. The baby bird grows inside the egg, and after a few weeks hatches (breaks out of the egg).

Birds in cold climates usually have a breeding season once a year in the spring. Migratory birds can have two springs and two mating seasons in a year.

Ninety-five per cent of bird species are socially monogamous. These birds pair for at least the length of the breeding season. In some cases this arrangement lasts until the death of one of the pair. Monogamy clearly helps if females need males' help to raise a brood successfully. It has other practical advantages: the nest is never left without defence. Birds are generally small, and they have many potential enemies.

Some birds mate for life, like married couples. These birds include pigeons, geese, and cranes. Other birds look for new partners each year. For birds that choose new mates, part of the breeding season is display. The male bird will do all sorts of things to attract females. These include singing, dancing, showing off the feathers and building a beautiful nest. Some male birds have splendid feathers for attracting females. The most famous is the peacock who can spread the feathers above his tail into a huge fan.

Other mating systems do occur in some species. Polygyny, polyandry, polygamy, polygynandry, and promiscuity do happen. Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males. Some species may use more than one system depending on the circumstances.

Nesting
Once the birds have found partners, they find a suitable place to lay eggs. The idea of what is a suitable place differs between species, but most build bird nests. The bird is driven by a hormone (estradiol E2) to prepare a place for the eggs to hatch. Birds' nests may be up a tree, in a cliff or on the ground according to species. When filled with eggs they are almost always guarded by one of the pair. In fact it is virtually impossible for the eggs to survive if one of the parents dies.

Robins will make a beautiful little round nest of woven grass and carefully line it with feathers, bits of fluff and other soft things. Swallows like to nest near other swallows. They make nests from little blobs of clay, often on a beam near the roof of a building where it is well sheltered. Many birds like a hollow tree to nest in. Eagle's nests are often just piles of dead wood on the top of the tallest tree or mountain. Scrub turkeys scratch together a huge pile of leaves that may be 10 metres across. Guillemots lay their eggs on rock shelves with no nest at all. Their eggs are shaped so that they roll around in circles and do not fall off cliffs. A cuckoo does not make its own nest. It lays its egg in the nest of another bird and leaves it for them to care for. The cuckoo eggs are camouflaged to look like the host's eggs.

When the nest has been prepared, the birds mate so that the eggs are fertilised and the chicks will start growing. Unlike mammals, birds (and reptiles) only have one opening as the exit hole for body fluids, and for reproduction. The opening is called the cloaca. A female bird, called a hen, has two ovaries, of which the left one usually produces eggs.

Most male birds have no sex organs that can be seen. But inside the male are two testes which produce sperm which is stored in the cloaca. Birds mate by rubbing their cloacas together, although with some birds, particularly large water birds, the male has a sort of a penis inside the cloaca.

Hatching
Once the hen has mated, she produces fertile eggs which have chicks growing inside them. She lays the eggs in the nest. There might be just one egg or a number of them, called a clutch. Emus might lay as many as fifteen huge dark green eggs in a clutch. After the eggs are laid, they are incubated, or kept warm so the chicks form inside. Most birds stay together for the whole nesting season, and one advantage is that the work is shared. Many birds take turns sitting on the eggs, so that each adult can feed.

This is not always the case. With emus, the male does all the sitting and all the baby-minding. With emperor penguins it is also the male that cares for the egg. There is only one egg, which he keeps on his feet and under his feathers, standing in a big group of males without feeding until the chick is hatched. While the eggs are hatching, the females are at sea, catching fish, so that they can feed the chicks when they return.

Some birds put the eggs inside or on top of the mound of leaves and twigs. The mound acts like a compost heap. The decomposition of the rotting leaves causes the temperature to rise. This is heat released by the chemical action of bacterial and fungal respiration. It is the same reaction as that which keeps mammals and birds at a high temperature. The parents leave the mound. When the chicks hatch, they are able to feed themselves.

Many small birds take 2–4 weeks to hatch eggs. Albatrosses take 80 days. During this time the female loses a lot of her body weight.

The quickest hatching time is for the cuckoo. Some types of cuckoos take only 10 days. This means that when they hatch in the nest of their ''foster parents'', the eggs that the parents have laid are not yet ready. Newborn cuckoos are naked, blind and ugly, but they are strong. They get under any eggs that are in the nest and throw them out before they hatch. That means that the cuckoo has the whole care of both parents. Baby cuckoos grow fast and often get bigger than the parents who feed them.

When baby birds hatch, in most types of birds, they are fed by both parents, and sometimes by older aunts as well. Their mouths are open all the time and are often very brightly coloured, which acts as a releaser, a trigger which stimulates the parent to feed them. For birds that eat grain and fruit, the parents eat and partly digest the food for the babies. It is then vomited carefully into the baby's mouth.

Families
Many birds, particularly those that mate for life, are very sociable and keep together in a family group which might be anything from 4 or 6 adult birds and their young to a very large flock.

As chicks grow they change the fluffy down that covers them as babies for real feathers. At this stage they are called fledglings. Other family members may help care for fledgling chicks, feeding them and protecting them from attack while parents are feeding. When the fledglings have their new feathers, they come out of the nest to learn to fly. In some types of birds, like pigeons, the parents watch over this and as the young ones get stronger, will give them flying lessons, teaching them how to glide, how to fly in spirals and how to land like an expert.

Communication
Most birds are social animals, at least part of the time. They communicate to each other using sounds and displays.

Almost all birds make sounds to communicate. The types of noises that vary greatly. Some birds can sing, and  they are called songbirds or passerines. Examples are robins, larks, canaries, thrushes, nightingales. Corvids are passerines, but they do not sing. Birds that are not songbirds include: pigeons, seagulls, eagles, owls and ducks. Parrots are not songbirds, even though they can be taught to sing human songs.

Songbirds
All birds make noises (''bird vocalisation''), but not all sing. Songbirds are passerines, many of which have beautiful melodic songs. Songs have different functions. Danger cries are different from territorial songs and mating calls are a third type. Fledgling may also have different calls from adults. Recognition calls for partners are quite common.

As to where the song comes from, there are three kinds of species:
Those where the song is mainly inherited, and the bird always sings the same song in the same situations. The capacity is inherited, and only details are learnt from its neighbours.
Those where the song is partly inherited, but the bird tunes it in by copying others. In this case the slight differences between the calls of different birds may be used by partners for identification.
Those where the song is entirely learnt, and the bird often copies sounds from its environment. Only the capacity to sing is inherited. Some birds can mimic a sound almost perfectly.

Most singing birds that are kept as pets, like canaries, have several tunes and some variations.

The same species of bird may sing different songs in different regions. A good example of this is the currawong. This is an Australia bird which is like a black and white crow. In the autumn, families get together in large flocks and do a lot of singing. Currawongs from some areas sing much more complex songs than others. Generally, currawongs from the Blue Mountains are the finest singers. The song of the currawong can be sung as a solo, but is often performed as a choir. One bird will take the lead and sing "Warble-warble-warble-warble!" All the other birds will join in and sing "Wooooooo!". When all the birds know the song, the choir will sing the "Warble" part and the soloist will sing the "Woo!". The song changes a bit from year to year and from place to place.

Lorenz's studies
The Austrian naturalist Konrad Lorenz studied the way in which birds communicate, or talk to each other. He found that each type of bird had a number of sounds which they made automatically, when ever they felt a certain way. Every sound had an action that went with it. So, if the bird was frightened, it acted frightened and made a frightened sound. This told the other birds around it that something frightening was happening.

If a flock of birds were flying over a field, they would be calling "Fly! Fly!" But a hungry bird, seeing something good to eat down below might start calling "Food! Food!" If other birds were also hungry, they would make the same call until more birds were calling "Food! Food!" than "Fly! Fly!". At this point, the mind of the flock would be changed. Some of the birds would start to yell "Fly downwards! Fly downwards!" as they sank from the sky, until the whole flock was all noisily calling the same thing.

These communication sounds are often short hard sounds like: chirps, squeaks, squawks and twitters. Sometimes the calls are longer and more musical. They include the "Rookety-coo" sound of a pigeon and the "Cockadoodledoo!" of a rooster. The bird cannot change these sounds. They always make them in the same way. The bird is locked into making each sound every time a particular idea comes into its head. The connection between how they feel and how they call is innate: they are born with it. Some calls in some species are learnt. Then, it is the tendency to learn which is inherited.

The Jackdaw of Altenberg
Konrad Lorenz noticed that when birds sing, they often use a lot of their regular calls as part of the song. Lorenz had a flock of jackdaws which were scattered during World War II. One day, an old bird returned. For many months she sat on the chimney singing her song, but in the song she kept making the call which Lorenz knew meant "Come home! Come home!" One day, to the great surprise of Lorenz, a male bird flew from a passing flock and joined her on the chimney. Lorenz was sure that it was her long-lost "husband" who had found his way home at last.

Evolution and taxonomy

Palaeontologists have found some exceptional places (lagerstätten) where fossils of early birds are found. The preservation is so good that on the best examples impressions of their feathers can be seen, and sometimes even the remains of meals they have eaten. From these remains we know that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs (theropods) in the Jurassic period. They radiated into a huge variety in the Lower Cretaceous. At the same time, their direct competitors, the pterosaurs, dwindled in numbers and variety, and became extinct at the end of the Mesozoic.

Birds are classified by taxonomists as 'Aves' (Avialae). Birds are the only living descendants of dinosaurs (strictly speaking, they are dinosaurs). Birds and Crocodilia are the only living members of the once-dominant Archosaur reptiles.

Definition
The class Aves is was defined (1990) as all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica. But Archaeopteryx is almost certainly not the ancestor of modern birds. The transition to flight happened a number of times. The researchers offered four definitions. Birds can be:
All archosaurs closer to birds than crocodiles (Avemetatarsalia).
Advanced archosaurs with feathers (Avofilopluma).
Those feathered dinosaurs that fly (or Avialae)
Aves can mean the last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants (a "crown group", in this sense synonymous with Neornithes).

The first bird-like creatures
Archaeopteryx, from the Upper Jurassic some 150–145 million years ago (mya), was for a long time the earliest known bird which could fly. It is famous, because it was one of the first important fossils found after Charles Darwin published his ideas about evolution in the 19th century. By modern standards, Archaeopteryx could not fly very well. Other early fossil birds are, for example, Confuciusornis, Anchiornis huxlei and other Paraves.

Many fossils of early birds and small dinosaurs have been discovered in the Liaoning Province of Northeast China. These include Anchiornis huxlei, from about 160 mya. The fossils show that most small theropod dinosaurs had feathers. These deposits have preserved them so well that the impressions of their feathers can be clearly seen. This leads us to think that feathers evolved first as heat insulation and only later for flight. The origin of birds lies in these small feathered dinosaurs.

Palaeontologists now agree that birds are included in Maniraptora group of dinosaurs. This explains why we say that birds are living dinosaurs.

Evolution of modern birds
Birds are the closest living relatives of the Crocodilia. This is because they are the two main survivors of a once huge group called the Archosaurs.

Modern birds are not descended from Archaeopteryx specifically. According to DNA evidence, modern birds (Neornithes) evolved in the long Cretaceous period. More recent estimates showed that modern birds originated early in the Upper Cretaceous.

Primitive bird-like dinosaurs are in the broader group Avialae. They have been found back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago. Many of these early "stem-birds", such as Anchiornis, were not yet capable of fully powered flight. Many had primitive characteristics like teeth in their jaws and long bony tails.p274

The Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event 66 million years ago killed off all the non-avian dinosaur lines. Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world. Diversification occurred around the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event.

A leading authority says "Most living birds have fossil representatives in the Cenozoic"... "Key problems remain in understanding bird phylogeny... we seem to understand as little about the relationships among living birds as among Cretaceous birds". A useful source for modern birds is Clements J. 2007. The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World. Cornel University Press (6th ed).

 Origin of birds
 Paraves
 Asteriornis

Birds and people

Some birds are eaten as food. Most usually it is the chicken and its eggs, but people often also eat geese, pheasants, turkeys and ducks. Other birds are sometimes eaten are: emus, ostriches, pigeons, grouse, quails, doves, woodcocks and even songbirds. Some species have died out because they have been hunted for food, for example the dodo and the passenger pigeon.

Many species have learned how to get food from people. The number of birds of these species has grown because of it. Seagulls and crows find food from garbage dumps. The feral pigeon (Columba livia), sparrows (Passer domesticus and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) live in large numbers in towns and cities all over the world.

Sometimes people also use working birds. For example, homing pigeons carry messages. Nowadays people sometimes race them for sport. People also use falcons for hunting, and cormorants for fishing. In the past, people in mines often used a canary to see if there were bad gas methane in the air.

People often have colorful birds such as parrots and mynahs as pets. These intelligent birds are popular because they can copy human talking. Because of this, some people trap birds and take them to other countries to sell. This is not usually allowed these days. Most pet birds are specially bred and are sold in pet shops.

People can catch some bird diseases, for example: psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, Newcastle's disease, mycobacteriosis, influenza, giardiasis and cryptosporiadiosis. In 2005, there was an epidemic of bird influenza spreading through some parts of the world, often called avian flu.

Some people have birdboxes in their gardens to give birds a place to nest and bird tables where birds can get food and water in very cold or very dry weather. This lets people see some small birds close up which are normally hidden away in bushes and trees.

Bird orders
The following is a listing of all bird orders:
 Infraclass Palaeognathae
 Superorder Struthionimorphae
 Struthioniformes
 Superorder Notopalaeognathae
 Rheiformes
 Tinamiformes
 Casuariiformes
 Apterygiformes
 Infraclass Neognathae
 Superorder Galloanserae
 Galliformes
 Anseriformes
 Superorder Neoaves
 Phoenicopteriformes
 Podicipediformes
 Columbiformes
 Mesitornithiformes
 Pteroclidiformes
 Apodiformes
 Caprimulgiformes
 Cuculiformes
 Otidiformes
 Musophagiformes
 Opisthocomiformes
 Gruiformes
 Charadriiformes
 Gaviiformes
 Procellariiformes
 Sphenisciformes
 Ciconiiformes
 Suliformes
 Pelecaniformes
 Eurypygiformes
 Phaethontiformes
 Cathartiformes
 Accipitriformes
 Strigiformes
 Coliiformes
 Leptosomiformes
 Trogoniformes
 Bucerotiformes
 Coraciiformes
 Piciformes
 Cariamiformes
 Falconiformes
 Psittaciformes
 Passeriformes

Bird population decreasing
A report produced by BirdLife International every five years measures the population of birds worldwide. One in every eight types of birds is now "in decline".

Related pages
 Origin of birds
 Bird migration

References

Other websites

 Avibase - The World Bird Database
 Bird Hybrids Database - Search by bird name, use Sibley classification
 International Ornithological Committee

Basic English 850 words

Dinosaurs
Feathered dinosaurs

Bird


Tincture of iodine is a disinfectant. It has iodine and potassium iodide dissolved in ethanol and water. Normally, iodine does not dissolve in water. But when potassium iodide
is added, the iodine can dissolve. Also, ethanol helps iodine dissolve. Tincture of iodine has about equal amounts of iodide and iodine. It is not suitable for consumption. There are two types of tincture of iodine:

USP Tincture of Iodine: for every 100 mL, it has 1.8 to 2.2 grams of iodine, 2.1 to 2.6 grams of sodium iodide, and 50mL ethanol. The rest is water.

USP Strong Iodine Tincture: for every 100 mL, it has 6.8 to 7.5 grams of iodine, 4.7 to 5.5 grams of potassium iodide, and 50 mL ethanol. The rest is water.

It can be used as a skin disinfectant and as a water disinfectant. It is used to disinfect minor cuts, burn and scratches. Because it has iodine in it, it is toxic in large amounts. Lugol's iodine is an alcohol-free version. It is commonly used in experiments in middle school science labs. It is an alcoholic solution of iodine.

Chemicals

Tincture of iodine


John Ross (1842–1915), (his Chinese name: ) was a Scottish Protestant missionary to Northeast China who established Dongguan Church in Shenyang.  He is also known for translating the first Korean Bible and being the first to introduce spacing to Korean punctuation.

Life

John Ross was born at Rarichie in Easter Ross where Gaelic was his native language.  He received his education at Fearn School, Glasgow University and Theological Hall, Edinburgh. In 1872 he was sent by the Scottish United Presbyterian Mission () to Northeast China, known at that time as Manchuria. John Ross, called in , went first to Yingkou, then moved to Mukden (the present-day Shenyang) and established a church there in 1889.  This church was called Dongguan Church (East Gate Church) because it was built just outside East Gate, as Christian churches were not allowed within the city wall.  It was rebuilt after the Boxer Rebellion, and is now still used as a Protestant church. He also started a mission in Fushun.

While in China, John Ross met traders from Korea one day, and decided to make a Korean translation of the New Testament, which was completed in 1887 and brought to Korea. This was the first Korean version In 1892 he was visited from Korea by James Scarth Gale.

Ross returned to Scotland in 1910, but continued to help the Scotland-China Society. He died in Edinburgh and is buried there mid-way along the east side of the main north-south path in Newington Cemetery. There is a plaque commemorating John Ross on the sea front at Balintore in Easter Ross.

Family

He was married to Isabella Strapp McFadyen (d.1930) who travelled with him in China.

Recognition

In 1877, John Gilbert Baker named Iris rossii in his honour. Ray Desmond (Editor).

Works
Corean primer: being lessons in Corean on all ordinary subjects, transliterated on the principles of the "Mandarin primer", by the same author (1877)
The Manchus, or The reigning dynasty of China: their rise and progress (1891)
 History of Corea, Ancient and Modern; with Description of Manners and Customs, Language and Geography (1891)

See also

 Christianity in China
 Christianity in Korea
 Korean Bible
 Scottish United Presbyterian Mission
 Seo Sang-ryun

References

External links
 Father of the Korean Church
 Ross and Bible women in the early Protestant mission of northern Korea and Eastern China

Scottish Presbyterian missionaries
Presbyterian missionaries in China
Presbyterian missionaries in Korea
1842 births
1915 deaths
Translators of the Bible into Korean
19th-century translators
British expatriates in China
British expatriates in Korea
Missionary linguists
Linguists of Korean

John Ross (missionary)


Fats conseest o a wide group o compoonds that are generally soluble in organic solvents an generally insoluble in watter. Chemically, fats are triglycerides: triesters o glycerol an ony o several fatty acids. Fats mey be aither solit or liquid at ruim temperatur, dependin on thair structur an componeetion. Altho the wirds "iles", "fats", an "lipids" are aw uised tae refer tae fats, in reality, fat is a subset o lipid. "Iles" is uisually uised tae refer tae fats that are liquids at normal ruim temperatur, while "fats" is uisually uised tae refer tae fats that are solits at normal ruim temperatur. "Lipids" is uised tae refer tae baith liquid an solit fats, alang wi ither relatit substances, uisually in a medical or biochemical context. The wird "ile" is an aa uised for ony substance that daes nae mix wi watter an haes a greasy feel, sic as petroleum (or crude ile), heatin ile, an essential iles, regairdless o its chemical structur.

Fats furm a category o lipid, distinguished frae ither lipids bi thair chemical structur an pheesical properties. This category o molecules is important for mony furms o life, servin baith structural an metabolic functions.  Thay are an important pairt o the diet o maist heterotrophs (includin humans). Fats or lipids are broken doun in the body bi enzymes cried lipases produced in the pancreas.

Examples o edible ainimal fats are laird, fish ile, butter/ghee an whaul blubber. Thay are obtained frae fats in the milk an meat, as well as frae unner the skin, o an ainimal. Examples o edible plant fats include peanut, soya bean, sunflouer, sesame, coconut an olive iles, an cocoa butter. Vegetable shortenin, uised mainly for bakin, an margarine, uised in bakin an as a spread, can be derived frae the abuin iles bi hydrogenation.

Thir ensaumples o fats can be categorized intae saturatit fats an unsaturatit fats. Unsaturatit fats can be further dividit intae cis fats, which are the maist common in naitur, an trans fats, which are rare in naitur but present in pairtially hydrogenatit vegetable iles.

References

Nutreetion
Macromolecules

Fat


Jameson Zvidzai Timba is the former Minister of State in the office of the Prime Minister of the Republic of Zimbabwe (2010 to 2013), the former Deputy Minister of Media, Information and Publicity  (2009-2010). He was the Member of House of Assembly for Mount Pleasant (MDC-T) (2008 to 2013). He was the Chief Political Advisor to the Prime Minister at the time and he assisted in discharging the constitutional mandate of overseeing the formulation of policy by cabinet and supervised its implementation by the entirety of government. Prior to this he had successfully pushed for the operationalization of an independent Media Commission and the opening up of the print media environment which was dominated by the state, leading to the registration of two independent daily newspapers to complement independent weekly newspapers. From 2004 to 2008, he was the chairman of the board of trustees of Arundel School and, from 2005, he was the chairman of the Association of Trust Schools (a grouping of all private schools in Zimbabwe).  During this period he successfully defended the right of independent schools to exist and operate without state interference by mounting ten lawsuits against the then Minister of Education without a single loss. He holds a Bachelor of Science in political science and a Master of Business Administration (MBA) from the University of Zimbabwe. In 2012, he was featured in an American documentary film on democracy A Whisper to a Roar by Ben Moses.

References

Members of the National Assembly of Zimbabwe
Alumni of Bernard Mizeki College
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai politicians
21st-century Zimbabwean politicians
Government ministers of Zimbabwe

Jameson Timba


The Face of Battle is a 1976 non-fiction book on military history by the English military historian John Keegan. It deals first with the structure of historical writing about battles, the strengths and weaknesses of the "battle piece," and then with the structure of warfare in three time periods—medieval Europe, the Napoleonic Era, and World War I—by analyzing three battles: Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme, all of which involved English soldiers and occurred in approximately the same geographical area.

When published, the work was groundbreaking. It does not examine the battles only from the point of view of the generals nor does it simply accumulate quotes from ordinary soldiers. Instead, it focuses on the practical mechanics of battle and critically examines popular myths about warfare.  For instance, Keegan disputes the effectiveness of cavalry charges in the Middle Ages.  At Agincourt, the lightly-armoured archers dug stakes into the ground to impede horses, while heavy infantry who stood their ground had little to fear from cavalry.  Focusing on the mechanics of battle, Keegan discusses troop spacing, the effectiveness of weapons and formations, and other measures of tactical importance.  He also examines the experience of the individual soldier of the time.

The book was originally published in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape and in the United States by the Viking Press.  A new edition was published by Viking in 1988 titled, The Illustrated Face of Battle, with additional maps, diagrams, paintings, and photographs. The Folio Society issued an edition in 2009.

Notes

Sources
 Keegan, John. The Face of Battle  London: Jonathan Cape, 1976.

 Books about military history
 Books by John Keegan
Works about battles and military operations
1976 non-fiction books
Jonathan Cape books
Viking Press books

The Face of Battle


William Clark Styron Jr. (June 11, 1925 – November 1, 2006) was an American novelist and essayist who won major literary awards for his work.

Significant work
Styron was best known for his novels, including:
 Lie Down in Darkness (1951), his acclaimed first work, published when he was 26;
 The Confessions of Nat Turner (1967), narrated by Nat Turner, the leader of an 1831 Virginia slave revolt;
 Sophie's Choice (1979), a story "told through the eyes of a young aspiring writer from the South, about a Polish Catholic survivor of Auschwitz and her brilliant but psychotic Jewish lover in postwar Brooklyn".

In 1985, he had his first serious bout with depression. Once he recovered from his illness, Styron was able to write the memoir Darkness Visible (1990), the work for which he became best known during the last two decades of his life.

Early years
Styron was born in the Hilton Village historic district of Newport News, Virginia, the son of Pauline Margaret (Abraham) and William Clark Styron. He grew up in the South and was steeped in its history. His birthplace was less than a hundred miles from the site of Nat Turner's slave rebellion, later the source for Styron's most famous and controversial novel.

Styron's Northern mother and liberal Southern father gave him a broad perspective on race relations. Styron's childhood was a difficult one. His father, a shipyard engineer, had clinical depression, which Styron himself would later experience. His mother died from breast cancer in 1939 when Styron was still a boy, following her decade-long battle with the disease.

Styron attended public school in Warwick County, first at Hilton School and then at Morrison High School (now known as Warwick High School) for two years, until his father sent him to Christchurch School, an Episcopal college-preparatory school in the Tidewater region of Virginia. Styron once said, "But of all the schools I attended...only Christchurch ever commanded something more than mere respect—which is to say, my true and abiding affection."

Upon graduation, Styron enrolled in Davidson College and joined Phi Delta Theta. By the age of eighteen he was reading the writers who would have a lasting influence on his vocation as a novelist and writer, especially Thomas Wolfe. Styron transferred to Duke University in 1943 as a part of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps V-12 program aimed at fast-tracking officer candidates by enrolling them simultaneously in basic training and bachelor's degree programs. There he published his first fiction, a short story heavily influenced by William Faulkner, in an anthology of student work . Styron published several short stories in the university literary magazine, The Archive, between 1944 and 1946. Though Styron was made a lieutenant in the U.S. Marine Corps, the Japanese surrendered before his ship left San Francisco. After the war, he returned to full-time studies at Duke and completed his Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) in English in 1947.

Career
After graduation, Styron took an editing position with McGraw-Hill in New York City. Styron later recalled the misery of this work in an autobiographical passage of  Sophie's Choice. After provoking his employers into firing him, he set about writing his first novel in earnest. Three years later, he published the novel, Lie Down in Darkness (1951), the story of a dysfunctional Virginia family.  The novel received overwhelming critical acclaim.  For this novel, Styron received the Rome Prize, awarded by the American Academy in Rome and the American Academy of Arts and Letters.

Military service
His recall into the military due to the Korean War prevented him from immediately accepting the Rome Prize. Styron joined the Marine Corps, but was discharged in 1952 for eye problems. However, he was to transform his experience at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina into his short novel, The Long March, published serially the following year. This was adapted for the Playhouse 90 episode "The Long March" in 1958.

Travels in Europe
Styron spent an extended period in Europe. In Paris, he became friends with writers Romain Gary, George Plimpton, Peter Matthiessen, James Baldwin, James Jones and Irwin Shaw, among others. In 1953, the group founded the magazine Paris Review, which became a celebrated literary journal.

The year 1953 was eventful for Styron in another way. Finally able to take advantage of his Rome Prize, he traveled to Italy, where he became friends with Truman Capote. At the American Academy, he renewed an acquaintance with a young Baltimore poet, Rose Burgunder, to whom he had been introduced the previous fall at Johns Hopkins University. They were married in Rome in the spring of 1953.

Some of Styron's experiences during this period inspired his third published book Set This House on Fire (1960), a novel about intellectual American expatriates on the Amalfi coast of Italy. The novel received mixed reviews in the United States, although its publisher considered it successful in terms of sales. In Europe its translation into French achieved best-seller status, far outselling the American edition.

Nat Turner controversy
Styron's next two novels, published between 1967 and 1979, sparked much controversy. Feeling wounded by his first truly harsh reviews   for Set This House on Fire, Styron spent the years after its publication researching and writing his next novel, the fictitious memoirs of the historical Nathaniel "Nat" Turner, a slave who led a slave rebellion in 1831.

During the 1960s, Styron became an eyewitness to another time of rebellion in the United States, living and writing at the heart of that turbulent decade, a time highlighted by the counterculture revolution with its political struggle, civil unrest, and racial tension. The public response to this social upheaval was furious and intense: battle lines were being drawn. In 1968, Styron signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, a vow refusing to pay taxes as a protest against the Vietnam War.

In this atmosphere of dissent, many had criticized Styron's friend James Baldwin for his novel Another Country, published in 1962. Among the criticisms was outrage over a black author choosing a white woman as the protagonist in a story that tells of her involvement with a black man. Baldwin was Styron's house guest for several months following the critical storm generated by Another Country. During that time, he read early drafts of Styron's new novel, and predicted that Styron's book would face even harsher scrutiny than Another Country. "Bill's going to catch it from both sides," he told an interviewer immediately following the 1967 publication of The Confessions of Nat Turner.

Baldwin's prediction was correct, and despite public defenses of Styron by leading artists of the time, including Baldwin and Ralph Ellison, numerous other black critics reviled Styron's portrayal of Turner as racist stereotyping. The historian and critic John Henrik Clarke edited and contributed to a polemical anthology, William Styron's Nat Turner: Ten Black Writers Respond, published in 1968 by Beacon Press. Particularly controversial was a passage in which Turner fantasizes about raping a white woman. Several critics pointed to this as a dangerous perpetuation of a traditional Southern justification for lynching. Styron also writes of a situation where Turner and another slave boy have a homosexual encounter while alone in the woods.  Despite the controversy, the novel was a runaway critical and financial success, and won both the 1968 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and the William Dean Howells Medal in 1970.

Sophie's Choice
Styron's next novel, Sophie's Choice (1979),
also generated significant controversy, in part due to Styron's decision to portray a non-Jewish victim of Nazism and in part due to its explicit sexuality and profanity. It was banned in South Africa, censored in the Soviet Union, and banned in Poland for "its unflinching portrait of Polish anti-Semitism." It has also been banned in some high schools in the United States.

The novel tells the story of Sophie (a Polish Roman Catholic who survived Auschwitz), Nathan (her brilliant Jewish lover who had  paranoid schizophrenia), and Stingo (a Southern transplant in post-World War II-Brooklyn who was in love with Sophie). It won the 1980 National Book Award
and was a nationwide bestseller.  A 1982 film version was nominated for five Academy Awards, with Meryl Streep winning the Academy Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of Sophie. Kevin Kline and Peter MacNicol played Nathan and Stingo, respectively.

Darkness Visible
Styron's readership expanded with the publication of Darkness Visible in 1990. This memoir, which began as a magazine article, chronicles the author's descent into depression and his near-fatal night of "despair beyond despair". It is a first-hand account of a major depressive episode and challenged the modern taboo on acknowledging such issues. The memoir's goals included increasing knowledge and decreasing stigmatization of major depressive disorders and suicide. It explored the phenomenology of the disease among those with depression, their loved ones, and the general public as well. Earlier, in December 1989, Styron had written an op-ed for The New York Times responding to the disappointment and mystification among scholars about the apparent suicide of Primo Levi, the remarkable Italian writer who survived the Nazi death camps, but apparently had depression in his final years. Reportedly, it was the public's unsympathetic response to Levi's death that impelled Styron to take a more active role as an advocate for educating the public about the nature of depression, about which he was a dilettante,  and the role it allegedly played in mental health and suicide. Styron noted in an article for Vanity Fair that "the pain of severe depression is quite unimaginable to those who have not suffered it, and it kills in many instances because its anguish can no longer be borne. The prevention of many suicides will continue to be hindered until there is a general awareness of the nature of this pain. Through the healing process of time—and through medical intervention or hospitalization in many cases—most people survive depression, which may be its only blessing; but to the tragic legion who are compelled to destroy themselves there should be no more reproof attached than to the victims of terminal cancer."

Later work and acclaim

Styron was awarded the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates.

Styron was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca in 1985.

His short story "Shadrach" was filmed in 1998, under the same title. It was co-directed by his daughter Susanna Styron.

Other works published during his lifetime include the play In the Clap Shack (1973), and a collection of his nonfiction, This Quiet Dust (1982).

French President François Mitterrand invited Styron to his first Presidential inauguration, and later made him a Commander of the Legion of Honor. In 1993, Styron was awarded the National Medal of Arts.

In 2002 an opera by Nicholas Maw based on Sophie's Choice premièred at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, London. Maw wrote the libretto and composed the music. He had approached Styron about writing the libretto, but Styron declined. Later the opera received a new production by stage director Markus Bothe at the Deutsche Oper Berlin and the Volksoper Wien, and had its North American premiere at the Washington National Opera in October 2006.

A collection of Styron's papers and records is housed at the Rubenstein Library, Duke University.

In 1996 William Styron received the 1st Fitzgerald Award on the centenary of F. Scott Fitzgerald's birth. The F. Scott Fitzgerald Award for Achievement in American Literature award is given annually in Rockville Maryland, the city where Fitzgerald, his wife, and his daughter are buried, as part of the F. Scott Fitzgerald Literary Festival. In 1988 he was awarded the Edward MacDowell Medal.

He was a Charter member of the Fellowship of Southern Writers.

Port Warwick street names
The Port Warwick neighborhood of Newport News, Virginia, was named after the fictional city in Styron's Lie Down in Darkness. The neighborhood describes itself as a "mixed-use new urbanism development." The most prominent feature of Port Warwick is William Styron Square along with its two main boulevards, Loftis Boulevard and Nat Turner Boulevard, named after characters in Styron's novels. Styron himself was appointed to design a naming system for Port Warwick, deciding to "honor great American writers", resulting in Philip Roth Street, Thomas Wolfe Street, Flannery O'Connor Street, Herman Melville Avenue and others.

Death
Styron died from pneumonia on November 1, 2006, at age 81, on Martha's Vineyard. He is buried at West Chop Cemetery in Vineyard Haven, Dukes County, Massachusetts.

Personal life
While doing a fellowship at the American Academy in Rome, Styron renewed a passing acquaintance with young Baltimore poet Rose Burgunder. They married in Rome in the spring of 1953. Together, they had four children: daughter Susanna Styron is a film director; daughter Paola is an internationally acclaimed modern dancer; daughter Alexandra is a writer, known for the 2001 novel All The Finest Girls and 2011 memoir Reading My Father: A Memoir; son Thomas is a professor of clinical psychology at Yale University.

Bibliography
Note – the following is a list of the first American editions of Styron's books

Lie Down in Darkness. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1951.
The Long March. New York: Random House, 1956.
Set This House on Fire. New York: Random House, 1960
The Confessions of Nat Turner. New York: Random House, 1967.
In the Clap Shack. New York: Random House, 1973.
Sophie's Choice. New York: Random House, 1979.
Shadrach. Los Angeles: Sylvester & Orphanos, 1979.
This Quiet Dust and Other Writings. New York: Random House, 1982. Expanded edition, New York: Vintage, 1993.
Darkness Visible: A Memoir of Madness. New York: Random House, 1990.
A Tidewater Morning: Three Tales from Youth. New York: Random House, 1993
Inheritance of Night: Early Drafts of Lie Down in Darkness. Preface by William Styron. Ed. James L. W. West III. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1993.
Havanas in Camelot: Personal Essays. New York: Random House, 2008.
The Suicide Run: Fives Tales of the Marine Corps. New York: Random House, 2009.
Selected Letters of William Styron. Edited by Rose Styron, with R. Blakeslee Gilpin. New York: Random House, 2012.
My Generation: Collected Nonfiction. Edited by James L.W. I West III. New York: Random House, 2015.

Notes

References

External links and further reading

James Campbell, "Tidewater traumas", The Guardian Unlimited website

Kenneth S. Greenberg, ed. Nat Turner: A Slave Rebellion in History and Memory, New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. xix + 289 pp.,  (cloth);  (paper).
James L. W. West III [editor], Conversations with William Styron, Jackson, MS: University of Mississippi Press, 1985. .
James L. W. West III, William Styron: A Life, New York: Random House, 1998.
Charlie Rose with William Styron, A discussion about mental illness, 50-minute interview
William Styron interview with William Waterway Marks on "The Vineyard Voice"/1989/covers a range of topics.
"An Appreciation of William Styron", Charlie Rose, – 55-minute-long video
A Conversation with William Styron  on-line reprint of interview published in Humanities, 18,3 (1997),
William Styron interview on Martha's Vineyard, William Styron interview by author and TV host William Waterway Marks with rare photo of Styron sitting at desk in his island writing studio.
 Michael Lackey, "The Theology of Nazi Anti-Semitism in William Styron's Sophie's Choice," Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory, 22,4 (2011), 277–300.
 KCRW Bookworm Interview
 A memoir of life with Styron by his writer daughter, Alexandra Styron.
Stuart Wright Collection: William Styron Papers (#1169-011), East Carolina Manuscript Collection, J. Y. Joyner Library, East Carolina University
 William Styron: An Author's Life and Career, a comprehensive website maintained by James L. W. West III, Styron's biographer.

1925 births
2006 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
American tax resisters
Deaths from pneumonia in Massachusetts
Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences alumni
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Military personnel from Virginia
National Book Award winners
Novelists from Virginia
People from Newport News, Virginia
People from Tisbury, Massachusetts
People with mood disorders
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction winners
United States Marine Corps officers
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Korean War
United States National Medal of Arts recipients

William Styron


100 Days with Mr. Arrogant (aka My Love Ssagaji) is a 2004 South Korean romantic comedy film.

History
The film originates from a genre called internet fiction (인터넷 소설) (movies such as My Sassy Girl (엽기적인그녀), Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti Do (도레미파솔라시도), A Millionaire's First Love (백만장자의 첫사랑), Romance of Their Own (늑대의 유혹), and He Was Cool (그놈은 멋있었다) were also derived from internet fiction. This popular internet fiction was later released in the form of a four-part book series that was later turned into a movie. Although there are many scenes that were taken out and also added in place, it was a big hit around that time to create movies that derived from internet fiction stories and writers. The original Korean title can be literally translated as My Love, the Asshole, or, more roughly, as My Love, the No-manners.

Plot
After being dumped by her boyfriend just before their 100-day anniversary, Ha-Yeong (Ha Ji-won) meets a college guy named Hyung-Jun (Kim Jaewon) when she kicks a can that accidentally hits him in the face and causes him to scratch his Lexus. He demands she pay him $3000 on the spot. She escapes from him, accidentally leaving her wallet behind.

Hyung-Jun stalks her, demanding money to pay for his car. Since she is a poor high school student Hyung-Jun writes up an "Enslavement Agreement" for Ha-Yeong in order to pay for the damage to his car. Ha-Yeong is thrown into a nightmarish slave life for 100 days, running his errands, i.e.: cleaning his house, carrying his shopping, and cleaning his car.

By accident she finds out that the damage to Hyung-Jun's car costs only $10. She then takes her revenge by damaging his car and his reputation. But Hyung-Jun takes revenge by becoming her new tutor. This brings them close to each other and they realize they love each another. Hyung-Jun frees Ha-Yeong from "slavery" as the 100 days are over and later even kisses her standing in-front of her house's main gate. Ha-Yeong's mother sees this and threatens Hyung-Jun to stay away from her daughter's life, then brings a new tutor to teach Ha-Yeong. Ha-Yeong tells Hyung-Jun that she wants to marry him but he says that he only toyed with her. Hyung-Jun leaves his apartment which makes Ha-Yeong more vulnerable. She studies hard so she can get into Hyung-Jun's college.

After the exams, when she finds out she was not selected to enter the same college as Hyung-Jun, her tutor takes her to a place where she finds Hyung-Jun telling her that she was selected into his college but he wanted to give her a surprise. After a long time we see Ha-Yeong driving while talking to Hyung-Jun about all the chores that he did not do. A high school kid is shown who kicks a can that accidentally hits her in the face and causes her to scratch her Lexus. She tells him that there is only one way to get out of paying for damages, hinting at working for them and do the chores she was just talking to Hyung-Jun about.

Cast
 Kim Jaewon ...  Ahn Hyung-jun
 Ha Ji-won ...  Kang Ha-yeong
 Kim Tae-hyun ...  Yeong-eun
  ...  Hyeon-ju
 Kim Chang-wan ...  Ha-yeong's Father

 Kim Ji-yu
 Kim Min-kyeong
 Lee Eung-kyung ...  Ha-yeong's Mother
 Kim Yong-gun ...  Hyung-jun's father
 Kim Ji-hoon ...  Homeless

References

External links
 100 Days with Mr. Arrogant at LoveHKfilm.com

2004 films
2004 romantic comedy films
South Korean romantic comedy films
Cinema Service films
2000s Korean-language films
Films directed by Shin Jai-ho
2000s South Korean films

100 Days with Mr. Arrogant


The Mariner program was a program of spacecraft launched by NASA between 1963 and 1973. The spacecraft studied the planets Mars, Venus and Mercury. There were 10 spacecraft in the Mariner programme, named Mariners 1-10. Seven were successful but three were lost. The program included spacecraft doing things that spacecraft had never done before. These things included the first planetary fly-by, the first pictures from another planet, the first planetary orbiter, and the first gravity assist maneuver. Other spacecraft in the Mariner program were planned but they were changed into other spacecraft with different names. For example, Mariner 11 and Mariner 12 were planned but changed into Voyager 1 and Voyager 2.

Mariner program


Misery is a song by American band Maroon 5. It was released on June 22, 2010 by A&M/Octone Records via the iTunes Store. The song was released in advance of the band's mid-2010 tour, and is the first single from their third studio album, Hands All Over, which was released on September 21, 2010.
Genre pop rock

2010 songs
Maroon 5 songs

Misery (Maroon 5 song)


Sabina Magliocco (born December 30, 1959), is a professor of anthropology and religion at the University of British Columbia and formerly at California State University, Northridge (CSUN). She is an author of non-fiction books and journal articles about folklore, religion, religious festivals, foodways, witchcraft and Neo-Paganism in Europe and the United States.

A recipient of fellowships from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, National Endowment for the Humanities, Fulbright Program and Hewlett Foundation, Magliocco is an honorary fellow of the American Folklore Society. From 2004 to 2009, she served as editor of Western Folklore, the quarterly journal of the Western States Folklore Society. At CSUN, she was faculty advisor for the CSUN Cat People, an organization dedicated to humane population control and maintenance of feral cats on the university's campus.

Early life
Magliocco was born December 30, 1959, in Topeka, Kansas, the daughter of Italian immigrants. Her father first arrived in the United States in 1953 on a Fulbright Fellowship specializing in psychiatry and neurology. Her mother joined him after they were married in 1958. From 1960 to 1976, her family spent summers living in Italy, specifically Rome, San Felice Circeo, Lazio and Castiglione della Pescaia, Tuscany. Her family moved from Topeka to Cincinnati in 1966, where Magliocco graduated from Walnut Hills High School (Cincinnati, Ohio) in 1977.

She graduated magna cum laude from Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1980 with a BA in anthropology. At Indiana University's Folklore Institute, Bloomington, Indiana, she received her MA (1983) and PhD (1988) in folklore, with a minor in anthropology.

Career
After working on post-doctoral research in Italy with a Fulbright fellowship in 1989, Magliocco began her career teaching classes in Folklore and Anthropology. From 1990 to 1994, she taught at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Her other teaching positions have included UCLA (1994), UC Santa Barbara (1995), UC Berkeley (1995–1997), and her current position at California State University, Northridge, where she taught from 1997 to 2017. She became the chair of the Department of Anthropology at Northridge in 2007. In 2017 she joined the Anthropology Department at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, where she is Professor of Sociocultural Anthropology. Her teaching and research focuses on ritual, festival and religion; folklore and expressive culture (narrative and belief, vernacular healing, material culture); magic and witchcraft; modern Pagan religions; narrative; ethnic/regional/national identity issues; gender; cultural studies and critical theory; animal studies; and ethnographic methodology and writing.

Fieldwork and research interests
Magliocco did fieldwork in northwestern Sardinia (Italy) during the 1980s, studying the effect of socio-economic transformation on the traditional festivals of a pastoral highland community. The Two Madonnas and Le due Marie di Bessude were the result of this research. Magliocco's studies of contemporary Neopagans in the San Francisco Bay Area provided the subject material for Witching Culture and Neo-Pagan Sacred Art and Altars. In Cornwall, England, her fieldwork on the Padstow May Day celebration was used to produce Oss Tales. Magliocco is currently working on a project based on traditional healing practices in Italy.

She has written several journal articles that have had significant impact on modern scholarship about witchcraft and the American revival of Italian-American Stregheria. Magliocco is an initiate of Gardnerian Wicca.

From 2012 to 2014, Magliocco made appearances on 17 episodes of the History Channel series, Ancient Aliens, as a commentator speaking about folkloric concepts related to the theme of each episode. She also appeared as a commentator on three episodes of the Scary Tales television series in 2011.

Bibliography

Books
 Witching Culture: Folklore and Neo-Paganism in America (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004)
 Neo-Pagan Sacred Art and Altars: Making Things Whole (University of Mississippi Press, 2001)
 Le due Marie di Bessude: festa e transformazione sociale in Sardegna (Ozieeri, Italy: Edizioni Il Torchietto, 1995)
 The Two Madonnas: the Politics of Festival in a Sardinian Community (1993; 2nd Edition, Waveland Press, 2005)

Film
 Oss Tales & Oss Oss Wee Oss Redux: Beltane in Berkeley (with John Melville Bishop; Media-Generation, 2007)

Significant articles
 "Aradia in Sardinia: the Archeology of a Folk Character," in D. Green and D. Evans, ed., Ten Years of Triumph of the Moon: Essays in Honor of Ronald Hutton, 40–60. Bristol, UK: Hidden Publishing, 2009.
 "Italian American Stregheria and Wicca: Ethnic Ambivalence in American Neopaganism," in Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives, ed. by Michael Strmiska (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 55–86.

References

External links
Cherry Hill Seminar bio page
Notes on Amazon.com
California State University, Northridge, faculty page
CSUN (California State University, Northridge) Cat People
University of British Columbia profile page

1959 births
Cultural anthropologists
American anthropologists
American folklorists
American women folklorists
Anthropologists of religion
Living people
Pagan studies scholars
20th-century American writers
21st-century American writers
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
American people of Italian descent
Writers from Topeka, Kansas
American women anthropologists
Brown University alumni
Indiana University Bloomington alumni

Sabina Magliocco