Roots Hall is a football stadium located in Southend-on-Sea, Essex, England. The stadium is the home ground of the Vanarama National League team Southend United. With a capacity of 12,392, Roots Hall is the largest football stadium in Essex. During the early 21st century, there was lengthy discussion of a new 22,000 seat stadium at Fossetts Farm, but a change of ownership in 2023 seemingly ended prospects of that development.

History

Pre-Roots Hall (1900s–1940s)
The site now occupied by Roots Hall is where Southend United had originally played their home games on their formation in 1906. Upon the outbreak of the First World War the area was designated for storage and Southend were forced out. After the war the club elected to move to a new ground at the Kursaal and Roots Hall first became a quarry for sand then a tipping site.

Relocation to Roots Hall (1950s)
By the early 1950s Southend had moved to Southend Stadium off Sutton Road. The club did not own the ground and the dog track which encircled the pitch made it unsuitable for use as a football stadium. In 1952 the wasteland at the old Roots Hall site was purchased to build a new stadium for the club. Work on the ground could not begin immediately owing to the large quantities of rubbish which had been dumped on the site in the club's absence, which took nearly a year to clear. The stadium was built by Sid Broomfield and a small band of individuals at a cost of £73,997, supported by a small grant from the FA and funds raised by the Supporters Club. Following construction, the ground was donated to the club by the fans.

On 20 August 1955 Roots Hall hosted its first match, against Norwich City. The ground was declared open by the Secretary of the Football Association, Sir Stanley Rous. The ground remained the newest in the Football League until the opening of Scunthorpe United's Glanford Park in 1988.

Roots Hall's construction had not been completed when the ground was opened, with some stands only running for a short distance along the touchline and others waiting to be concreted over. In addition to these problems, the pitch's drainage was unsuitable and by the end of the 1955–56 season it had to be completely relaid.

Ground development (1960s)
With the pitch issue dealt with, Southend could concentrate on the matter at hand: completing the ground. The west bank roof, originally set back from the pitch, was extended forwards to the touchline creating a double-barrel effect, while work also commenced on finishing the terracing. The job was finally finished in 1964, after all 72 steps of the giant south bank had been concreted. The east stand was extended in both directions so it ran the full length of the touchline in 1966, and around the same time the club installed floodlighting. Finally the ground was finished, and had its finest day in 1979, when a ground record 31,033 fans packed the Hall to watch Liverpool in action in the FA Cup.

Recent work (1980s–present)
By the mid-1980s, however, the club were struggling financially. In an effort to keep the club afloat, most of the south bank was sold off in 1988, and eventually the remainder was replaced in 1994 by a small two tiered all-seater stand, designed by then club chairman Vic Jobson. All this came after the west and east stands saw work in 1992, when the west bank was turned into an all-seated stand and the paddocks in the east had seating attached. The final stage of development at the Hall came in 1995, when the west stand roof was extended at either end to meet the south and north stands, with seating being installed in the north-west corner of the ground.

Development since has been mainly concentrated on the ground's facilities, in recent years the club opened a new ticket office and club shop, replaced the old style turnstiles with modern electronic ones and extended executive accommodation at the rear of the east stand. A new digital scoreboard was also added to the north stand roof in November 2012.

Proposed relocation to Fossetts Farm
In the 1990s Southend United started planning to leave Roots Hall for a proposed new ground at Fossetts Farm. In January 2007, the club received planning permission from both Southend and Rochford councils for the stadium, retail outlets, a hotel and new training facilities but this was subject to rubber-stamping from the Secretary of State. The Department for Communities and Local Government gave broad approval to the plans in March 2008 and planning permission was granted later the same month for the HOK-designed new stadium. Roots Hall has been sold to Sainsbury's, which has received planning permission to build a new supermarket on the site. Building work on Fossetts Farm was due to start in 2014, however due to issues with the supermarket development, as Sainsbury's had yet to complete the purchase of the former Prospects College site, which was required for access to the new store, work failed to commence. In April 2017 new plans were submitted for the work which no longer involved Sainsbury's. However, it took a further four years before firm plans emerged. Plans were approved in October 2021; the 22,000-capacity stadium would incorporate a 107-bed hotel and high-rise residential blocks of 182 homes on two corners, but in September 2022, the hotel plans were dropped in favour of 42 additional homes, and a revised planning application also outlined plans to lower the stadium capacity to 16,226 seats. Scaled-back plans for the ground were eventually submitted to the council in late March 2023. However, following agreement on the club's sale to the Justin Rees consortium on 3 October 2023, reports suggested the club would remain at Roots Hall, with the 500 homes once planned for the site now transferred to Fossetts Farm.

Structure

Fairfield BMW East Stand
The east stand is the main stand at Roots Hall, running along one side of the pitch. Originally designed as a section of seating with paddocks of terracing below, it was converted to an all seater stand in the 1990s. The stand also contains executive boxes and, in the back, the club offices. The dugouts are cut into the stand, covered by the main roof. The stand was originally much smaller and evidence of its extension along the touchline can be seen in the density of moss on the roof. According to the club website this stand contains 2,878 seats, but recently a small block of seats on the far right side was removed to house training goals.

Hi-Tec South Stand

Originally a 72-step terrace, financial troubles in the mid-1990s saw the old terrace reduced dramatically before being replaced by a significantly smaller two-tier stand. The bottom tier forms part of the family enclosure, alongside part of the west stand. According to the club website this stand contains 2,029 seats.

Gilbert & Rose West
The west was also formerly a terrace, though it was converted into a stand by bolting seats (purchased second hand from Manchester City F.C.) onto the existing structure, reducing the total capacity to 3,337. Originally the terrace only ran the length of the touch-line but when the ground was improved in the 1990s the north-west corner was filled-in. This section is sometimes used for away supporters, depending on demand. The roof has a unique double-barrelled construction; originally the stand's cover was set back from the pitch, and when the club constructed cover for the front section of the old terrace they built another identical span. A small section of the west stand has been designated as the family stand, and Block W (at the north end of the stand) houses "The Blue Voice" singing section which provides game atmosphere. In August 2022, the club announced that the stand would be sponsored by estate agents Gilbert & Rose, becoming the Gilbert & Rose West stand, drawing attention online as it included the name of serial killer Rose West. The club announced later the same day that the stand would be renamed again. It is now known as the "Gilbert & Rose Stand".

Solopress.com North Stand
The north stand, also known as the north bank, is another converted terrace. The roof has a semi-circular 'barrel' shape, similar to the west stand's original roof, with a scoreboard in the centre. Part of the north stand is designated for up to 1,200 away supporters, but if necessary the whole stand can be allocated to bring the allocation up to around 2,000 which has been achieved at large matches such as those against Manchester United F.C. and Chelsea F.C. During 2010–2013, whenever there were small away crowds, Blues fans were allowed into the north stand.

References

Football venues in Essex
Southend United F.C.
Buildings and structures in Southend-on-Sea
Defunct rugby league venues in England
Sports venues completed in 1955
Football venues in England
English Football League venues
1955 establishments in England

Roots Hall


The Children's Hour – poemat wydany w 1860, jego autorem jest Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Poemat ukazał się po raz pierwszy we wrześniowym wydaniu gazety The Atlantic Monthly. Utwór mówi o idealnej rodzinie poety i jego córkach: Alice, Edith i Anne Allegra.

Wraz z poematem emitowany była grafika autorstwa Thomasa Buchanana Reada przedstawiająca córki Longfellowa.

Tekst poematu (oryg. - jęz. ang.)
Between the dark and the daylight,
When the night is beginning to lower,
Comes a pause in the day's occupations,
That is known as the Children's Hour.

I hear in the chamber above me
The patter of little feet,
The sound of a door that is opened,
And voices soft and sweet.

From my study I see in the lamplight,
Descending the broad hall stair,
Grave Alice, and laughing Allegra,
And Edith with golden hair.

A whisper, and then a silence:
Yet I know by their merry eyes
They are plotting and planning together
To take me by surprise.

A sudden rush from the stairway,
A sudden raid from the hall!
By three doors left unguarded
They enter my castle wall!

They climb up into my turret
O'er the arms and back of my chair;
If I try to escape, they surround me;
They seem to be everywhere.

They almost devour me with kisses,
Their arms about me entwine,
Till I think of the Bishop of Bingen
In his Mouse-Tower on the Rhine!

Do you think, o blue-eyed banditti,
Because you have scaled the wall,
Such an old mustache as I am
Is not a match for you all!

I have you fast in my fortress,
And will not let you depart,
But put you down into the dungeon
In the round-tower of my heart.

And there will I keep you forever,
Yes, forever and a day,
Till the walls shall crumble to ruin,
And moulder in dust away!

Przypisy

Amerykańskie utwory poetyckie
Utwory literackie z 1860

The Children’s Hour


Reserve Officers' Training Corps is a type of military officer commissioning program, mostly in the United States. It is designed as a subject that students can choose to take at college. It focuses on leadership development, problem solving, strategic planning, and professional ethics. After joining the Reserve Officers' Training Corps, the person involved must be involved in the military for a period of time.

The U.S. Armed Forces and a number of other national militaries have ROTC programs. The Philippines established its program in 1912, with the creation of the first unit at the University of Santo Tomas during American colonial rule. ROTC in South Korea started in 1963; while China created its own program in 1997.

Military of the United States

Reserve Officers' Training Corps


The Garuda Pancasila is the coat o airms o Indonesie. The main pairt o the coat o airms is the Garuda wi a shield on its chest an a scroll gripped bi its leg. The shield's five emblems represent Pancasila, the five principles o Indonesie's naitional philosophy. Garuda Pancasila wis designed bi Sultan Hamid II frae Pontianak, an wis adoptit as naitional coat o airms on 11 Februar 1950.

History

Garuda, the vehicle (vahana) of Vishnu appears in mony temples of auncient Indonesia. Temples sic as Prambanan, Penataran, Belahan, an Sukuh depict the images (bas-relief or statue) of Garuda. In Prambanan temple complex thare is a single temple locatit in front of Vishnu temple, dedicated tae Garuda. Houiver thare is no statue of Garuda inside the chamber the day. In the Shiva temple, an aa in Prambanan complex, thare is a relief telling an episode of Ramayana aboot Garuda Jatayu tried tae rescue Sita frae Ravana's haund. The deified statue of Keeng Airlangga depicted as Vishnu mounting Garuda frae Belahan, probably the maist famous statue of Garuda frae auncient Java. Nou the statue is ane o the important collection of Trowulan Museum.

Garuda appear in mony tradeetions an stories, especially in Java an Bali. In mony stories Garuda symbolizes the virtue of knowledge, power, bravery, loyalty, an discipline. As the vehicle of Vishnu, Garuda an aa bears the attributes of Vishnu, which seembolise preservation of cosmic order. Balinese tradeetion venerated Garuda as "the lord of all creatures that can fly", an "the majestic king of birds". In Bali, Garuda tradeetionally portrayed as a divine creature wi heid, beak, wings, an claw of an eagle, while haes the body o a human. Uisually portrayed in intricate cairvin wi golden an vivid colors, as the vehicle of Vishnu or in battle scene against Naga (draigon) serpents. The important an noble poseetion of Garuda in Indonesian tradeetion syne auncient times haes venerated Garuda as the naitional seembol of Indonesia, the embodiment of Indonesian ideology, Pancasila. Garuda an aa chosen as the name of Indonesian naitional airlines, Garuda Indonesia. Next tae Indonesia, Thailand an aa uses the Garuda as its naitional seembol.

Indonesie
Naitional seembols o Indonesie

Naitional emblem o Indonesie


Robert Kee  (5 October 1919 – 11 January 2013) was a British broadcaster, journalist, historian and writer, known for his historical works on World War II and Ireland.

Life and career

Kee was educated at Stowe School, Buckingham, and read history at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he was a pupil, then a friend, of the historian A.J.P. Taylor.

During World War II he served in the Royal Air Force as a bomber pilot. Flying the Handley Page Hampden he was shot down by flak while on a night mine-laying mission off the coast of German-occupied Holland. He was captured and spent three years in a German POW camp. This gave him material for his first book, A Crowd Is Not Company. It was first published as a novel in 1947, but was later revealed to be an autobiography. It recounts his experiences as a prisoner of war and his various escapes from the Nazi camp. The Times describes it as "arguably the best POW book ever written."

His career in journalism began immediately after the Second World War. He worked for the Picture Post, then became a special correspondent for The Sunday Times and, later, The Observer. He was also literary editor of The Spectator. In 1948, Kee co-founded publishing house MacGibbon & Kee with James MacGibbon. In 1949 Kee was a witness at the marriage of his friend George Orwell to Sonia Brownell.

In 1958 he moved into television. He appeared for many years on both the BBC and ITV as a reporter, interviewer and presenter. He presented many current affairs programmes, including Panorama, ITN's First Report and  Channel 4's Seven Days. MacGibbon & Kee was bought by Granada in 1968. He was awarded the BAFTA Richard Dimbleby Award in 1976.

Kee wrote and presented the documentary series  Ireland – A Television History in 1980. The work was shown both in the United Kingdom and the United States and won the Christopher Ewart-Biggs Memorial Prize. Following the series' transmission on RTÉ, the Irish national broadcaster, Kee won a Jacob's Award for his script and presentation.

He was involved in the launch of TV-am in 1983 as one of the "Famous Five", along with David Frost, Anna Ford, Michael Parkinson and Angela Rippon. He was also among those who successfully campaigned for the release of the Guildford Four, the Maguire Seven and the Birmingham Six.

Works

A Crowd Is Not Company (1947) POW memoirs, issued as a novel first, reissued 1982
The Impossible Shore (1949) novel
Beyond Defeat by Hans Werner Richter (1950) translator
The Five Seasons by Karl Eska (1954) translator
A Sign Of The Times (1955) novel
Vorkuta A Dramatic First Report on the Slave City in the Soviet Arctic by Joseph Scholmer (1955) translator
Zero Eight Fifteen. The Strange Mutiny of Gunner Asch by Hans Hellmut Kirst (1955) translator
The Sanity Inspectors by Friedrich Deich (1956) translator
Before the Great Snow by Hans Pump (1959) translator
Broadstrop In Season (1959) novel
The Betrayed by Michael Horbach (1959) translator
Refugee World (1961)
Officer Factory by Hans Hellmut Kirst (1962) translator
Forward, Gunner Asch! by Hans Hellmut Kirst (1964) translator
The Revolt of Gunner Asch by Hans Hellmut Kirst (1964) translator
The Return of Gunner Asch by Hans Hellmut Kirst (1967) translator
The Most Distressful Country (1972) The Green Flag vol.1
The Bold Fenian Men (1972) The Green Flag vol.2
Ourselves Alone (1972) The Green Flag vol.3
Ireland: A History (1980)
1939: The Year We Left Behind (1984) as 1939: In the Shadow of the War (US)
We'll Meet Again – Photographs of Daily Life in Britain During World War Two (1984) with Joanna Smith
1945: The World We Fought For (1985)
A Journalist's Odyssey (1985) with Patrick O'Donovan and Hermione O'Donovan
Trial & Error: the Maguires, the Guildford pub bombings and British justice (1986)
Munich: The Eleventh Hour (1988)
The Picture Post Album: A 50th Anniversary Collection (1989)
The Laurel and the Ivy: The Story of Charles Stewart Parnell and Irish Nationalism (1993)
The Green Flag: A History of Irish Nationalism (2000) one-volume edition
Another Kind of Cinderella (1997) stories, with Angela Huth

References

External links

Page at Spartacus

1919 births
2013 deaths
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
British male journalists
British World War II pilots
British World War II bomber pilots
British World War II prisoners of war
British writers
Christopher Ewart-Biggs Memorial Prize recipients
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
ITN newsreaders and journalists
Jacob's Award winners
Panorama (British TV programme)
People educated at Stowe School
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany
Historians of Ireland

Robert Kee


ពាក្យថា សំណើ () មានការប្រើប្រាស់ទូលំទូលាយនៅក្នុង ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបច្ចុប្បន្ន ។ វាត្រូវបានប្រើដើម្បីសំដៅទៅលើផ្នែកខ្លះឬផ្នែកទាំង
ៗឥអស់ដូចខាងក្រោម៖ the primary bearers នៃតម្លៃពិត វត្ថុនៃជំនឿ and other "អាកប្បកិរិយាតាមសំណើ" (ឧ. អ្វីដែលគេជឿ ឬ សង្ស័យ ៘) ការយោងនៃ that-clauses និងអត្ថន័យនៃប្រយោគប្រកាស ។ សំណើគឺជាវត្ថុដែលអាចចែករំលែកបាននៃអាកប្បកិរិយានិងអ្នកនាំមុខនៃសេចក្តីពិតនិងភាពក្លែងក្លាយ ។ សេចក្តីសន្និដ្ឋាននេះច្រានចោលបេក្ខជនមួយចំនួនសម្រាប់សំណើ រួមទាំនិមិត្តសញ្ញាគំនិត និងនិមិត្តសញ្ញានិយាយ ដែលមិនអាចចែករំលែកបាន និងព្រឹត្តិការណ៍ជាក់ស្តែងឬការពិត ដែលមិនអាចមិនពិតបាន ។

ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រនៃការប្រើប្រាស់

ដោយអារីសស្ដូថូល
Aristotelian logic identifies a proposition as a sentence which affirms or denies a predicate of a subject.  An Aristotelian proposition may take the form "All men are mortal" or "Socrates is a man."  In the first example the subject is "All men" and the predicate "are mortal."  In the second example the subject is "Socrates" and the predicate is "is a man."

By the logical positivists
Often propositions are related to closed sentences to distinguish them from what is expressed by an open sentence. In this sense, propositions are "statements" that are truth-bearers. This conception of a proposition was supported by the philosophical school of logical positivism.

Some philosophers argue that some (or all) kinds of speech or actions besides the declarative ones also have propositional content. For example, yes–no questions present propositions, being inquiries into the truth value of them. On the other hand, some signs can be declarative assertions of propositions without forming a sentence nor even being linguistic, e.g. traffic signs convey definite meaning which is either true or false.

Propositions are also spoken of as the content of beliefs and similar intentional attitudes such as desires, preferences, and hopes. For example,  "I desire that I have a new car," or "I wonder whether it will snow" (or, whether it is the case that "it will snow"). Desire, belief, and so on, are thus called propositional attitudes when they take this sort of content.

ដោយរ័សុល
ប៊ឺតរ៉ង់ រ័សុល បានប្រារព្ធឡើងថាសំណើត្រូវបានរៀបចំរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធជាមួយវត្ថុនិងលក្ខណៈដែលជាធាតុផ្សំ ។  វ៊ីតហ្គេនស្តែង (Wittgenstein) បានប្រារព្ធឡើងថាសំណើមួយគឺជាសំណុំនៃពិភពលោក ឬសេចក្តីថ្លែងការណ៍ដែលអាចធ្វើទៅបានដែលវាពិត ។   ភាពខុសគ្នាដ៏សំខាន់មួយរវាងទស្សនៈទាំងនេះគឺថានៅលើកំណត់ត្រារបស់រ័សុលលីន សំណើពីរដែលពិតនៅក្នុងសេចក្តីថ្លែងការណ៍ដូចគ្នាទាំងអស់នៅតែអាចមានភាពខុសគ្នា ។  ឧទាហរណ៍ ៖ សំនុំដែលថាពីរបូកពីរស្មើបួនខុសគ្នាពីនៅលើកំណត់ត្រារបស់រ័សុលលីនដែលថាបីបូកបីស្មើប្រាំមួយ ។ If propositions are sets of possible worlds, however, then all mathematical truths (and all other necessary truths) are the same set (the set of all possible worlds).

Relation to the mind
In relation to the mind, propositions are discussed primarily as they fit into propositional attitudes.  Propositional attitudes are simply attitudes characteristic of folk psychology (belief, desire, etc.) that one can take toward a proposition (e.g. 'it is raining,' 'snow is white,' etc.).  In English, propositions usually follow folk psychological attitudes by a "that clause" (e.g. "Jane believes that it is raining").  In philosophy of mind and psychology, mental states are often taken to primarily consist in propositional attitudes.  The propositions are usually said to be the "mental content" of the attitude.  For example, if Jane has a mental state of believing that it is raining, her mental content is the proposition 'it is raining.'  Furthermore, since such mental states are about something (namely propositions), they are said to be intentional mental states.  Philosophical debates surrounding propositions as they relate to propositional attitudes have also recently centered on whether they are internal or external to the agent or whether they are mind-dependent or mind-independent entities (see the entry on internalism and externalism in philosophy of mind).

Treatment in logic
As noted above, in Aristotelian logic a proposition is a particular kind of sentence, one which affirms or denies a predicate of a subject. Aristotelian propositions take forms like "All men are mortal" and "Socrates is a man."

Propositions show up in modern formal logic as objects of a formal language. A formal language begins with different types of symbols. These types can include variables, operators, function symbols, predicate (or relation) symbols, quantifiers, and propositional constants. (Grouping symbols are often added for convenience in using the language but do not play a logical role.) Symbols are concatenated together according to recursive rules in order to construct strings to which truth-values will be assigned. The rules specify how the operators, function and predicate symbols, and quantifiers are to be concatenated with other strings. A proposition is then a string with a specific form. The form that a proposition takes depends on the type of logic.

The type of logic called propositional, sentential, or statement logic includes only operators and propositional constants as symbols in its language. The propositions in this language are propositional constants, which are considered atomic propositions, and composite propositions, which are composed by recursively applying operators to propositions. Application here is simply a short way of saying that the corresponding concatenation rule has been applied.

The types of logics called predicate, quantificational, or n-order logic include variables, operators, predicate and function symbols, and quantifiers as symbols in their languages. The propositions in these logics are more complex. First, terms must be defined. A term is (i) a variable or (ii) a function symbol applied to the number of terms required by the function symbol's arity. For example, if + is a binary function symbol and x, y, and z are variables, then x+(y+z) is a term, which might be written with the symbols in various orders. A proposition is (i) a predicate symbol applied to the number of terms required by its arity, (ii) an operator applied to the number of propositions required by its arity, or (iii) a quantifier applied to a proposition. For example, if = is a binary predicate symbol and ∀ is a quantifier, then ∀x,y,z [(x = y) → (x+z = y+z)] is a proposition. This more complex structure of propositions allows these logics to make finer distinctions between inferences, i.e., to have greater expressive power.

In this context, propositions are also called sentences, statements, statement forms, formulas, and well-formed formulas, though these terms are usually not synonymous within a single text. This definition treats propositions as syntactic objects, as opposed to semantic or mental objects. That is, propositions in this sense are meaningless, formal, abstract objects. They are assigned meaning and truth-values by mappings called interpretations and valuations, respectively.

Objections to propositions
Attempts to provide a workable definition of proposition include
 Two meaningful declarative sentences express the same proposition if and only if they mean the same thing.
thus defining proposition in terms of synonymity. For example, "Snow is white" (in English) and "Schnee ist weiß" (in German) are different sentences, but they say the same thing, so they express the same proposition.

Two meaningful declarative sentence-tokens express the same proposition if and only if they mean the same thing.
Unfortunately, the above definitions have the result that two sentences/sentence-tokens which have the same meaning and thus express the same proposition could have different truth-values, e.g. "I am Spartacus" said by Spartacus and said by John Smith; and e.g. "It is Wednesday" said on a Wednesday and on a Thursday.

A number of philosophers and linguists claim that all definitions of a proposition are too vague to be useful. For them, it is just a misleading concept that should be removed from philosophy and semantics. W.V. Quine maintained that the indeterminacy of translation prevented any meaningful discussion of propositions, and that they should be discarded in favor of sentences. Strawson advocated the use of the term "statement".

See also

Main contention

References

External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy articles on:
Propositions, by Matthew McGrath
Singular Propositions, by Greg Fitch
Structured Propositions, by Jeffrey C. King

សំណើ


Delara Darabi (; September 29, 1986 - May 1, 2009) was a Iranian girl, who was sentenced to death at age of 17. She was convicted of murder, despite her highly probably innocence and was executed by hanging.

Case

Her case has raised controversy for number a reasons:
 Iranian Government had signed the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Convention on the Rights of the Child, and, according to this, no person under age of 18 could be sentenced to death; however, despite this, Iran had executed number of minors;
 Her guilty verdict is disputable:
 She had initially claimed responsibility for having murdered her father's cousin, Mahin Darabi, in order to protect her boyfriend Amir Hussein (age 19), because he told her that, because she was under the age of 18, she could not have received the death sentence. What he said was wrong.  Amir Hussein recevied 10 years in prison for being Delara's "accomplice" in Mahin's murder, while Delara was sentenced to death.
 Delara was left-handed, and there is abundant evidence that the murderer was right-handed.

Delara's sentence was upheld by Iran's Supreme Court. The only person who could commute the sentence is Iranian Head of Judiciary, Ayatollah Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi.

In January 2007, Delara attempted to commit suicide.

Darabi was kept in Rasht Prison. According to her family and attorney, she was severely beaten by prison guards and fellow prisoners and left with a broken arm. Conditions in prison were extremely poor, leading Delara to repeatedly file requests to be transferred to another prison with better sanitary and overall conditions.  Her requests were not answered.

Darabi was also a talented painter, poet and pianist. Her paintings were exhibited in Tehran and, recently, in Amsterdam.

She was executed May 1, 2009.

Campaigns to save Darabi

There was a petition online to save Darabi. A similar petition was started by Miss Canada 2003 Nazanin Afshin-Jam for another Iranian minor, Nazanin Fatehi, who was also sentenced to death. After worldwide attention and over 350,000 signatures Nazanin Fatehi was finally found innocent and freed. Amnesty International has also made many public statements and a letter campaign about Darabi.

Personal background

She was born in city of Rasht (Province of Gilan), where she was a high-school student before her arrest. She had three sisters: Elaheh (21-year old), Ghazale (19) and Sheida (8). Elaheh and Ghazale are college students.

Her sisters were also born in Rasht.

Other websites
 Amnesty International April 2007 Urgent Action call about Delara Darabi
 Stop Child Executions Campaign page about Delara
 SaveDelara campaign
 Delara Darabi paintings presentation

1986 births
2009 deaths
Human rights
Iranian people
Murderers
People executed by hanging
Gilan Province

Delara Darabi


The French postal code format is F- (or FR-) 99999. The first two digits give the département number. In Paris, Lyon and Marseille, the last two digits of the postal code shows the arrondissement. These codes are also used by French overseas departments and territories, except for French Southern and Antarctic Territories and Clipperton Island. Monaco is also part of the French postal code system. The country code MC- is used for Monegasque addresses.

France
France

Postal codes in France


Noah (meaning rest or comfort) is a man in the Abrahamic religions. He was the son of Lamech, and the father of sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. Noah and his ark are in the Book of Genesis, which also describes Noah as the 'first man to plant a vineyard' (chapter 9). Several other parts of the Bible mention him, as does the Quran.

The Ark

As described in the Book of Genesis, Noah and his family kept believing in God in a time when most people were not, like his son Canaan and his wife Naamah. Knowing this was true, God told Noah he was going to flood the world, so he could drown out evil. He told Noah to build a boat called an ark. Noah was to put himself, his family (except his son and his wife because they refused to come aboard the ark), and two (a male and a female) of every kind of animal on it. People laughed at Noah, but they were killed by the flood with his son and his wife. Noah and family stayed on the ark until they reached land. To find land Noah sent out a dove, which returned with an olive branch. After the flood, God made a rainbow as a promise to say that he would never destroy the Earth by flood again. When they were able to walk on dry land, the animals were released and they were able to repopulate the earth.

References

Old Testament people

Noah


Immigration means people moving from their native regions into another country to live. People who immigrate are called immigrants. Some are illegal immigrants. Some immigrants are refugees and some ask for political asylum.

If someone wants to immigrate to the United States, that person has to apply to become a legal citizen. If the person is accepted, they will receive a green card. A green card is a piece of evidence stating that the person is trying to legally stay within the country's borders. The person must keep the green card for at least five years in order to become a citizen of the United States of America. (USA-GOV pg. 1)

Immigrant and emigrant both describe human migration. The same people are emigrants when they leave their own country or region, and immigrants when they arrive somewhere else.

The phrases "many people emigrated from Europe in the 19th century to America" and "many people immigrated to America from Europe in the 19th century" have the same meaning.

Reasons for immigration
As with other changes, people go to another place for several reasons:
   Pull: people immigrate seeking a better life. For example, in the new country, work is easier to find, quality of life is better, etc.
   Push: people leave a place where life has become bad. For example, there may be no work, a war, violence, high criminality rates or other problems.
   Personal reasons: people go to join their family, or marry and live with their partner.
Religious reasons: people may choose to migrate because of religious problems. Other people may not agree with their beliefs or morals and it could leave them feeling persecuted. (Christina Nunez, 2014, par. 3)
Resource reasons: The place the person is leaving in may be environmentally discomforting. There could be a lack of food and water sources. It could potentially be too cold/hot and the person may not have the correct resources to make them comfortable, such as a house, certain types of clothing, or stores to receive the items they need. (Christina Nunez, 2014, par. 4)

Difficulty of immigration
Immigration has always been difficult. When people immigrate, they leave behind their friends, families, and culture. They also have to sell what they have, like a house, farm, or anything else too big to bring. Immigrating is also difficult because of the strict Immigration laws and qualifications within each country. It is hard to become a legal citizen of a country. It takes time (about 5 years in the US) and a lot of patience to become legally apart of a country. (USA-GOV pg. 1)

Learning different languages in order to feel comfortable in a country is also extremely difficult for some people They might not have the opportunity to go a to school and learn certain things. Not knowing or beginning to learn the language of a country the person immigrates to can be very uncomfortable at first. This is because communication is needed within our everyday lives, such as at work, in grocery stores, restaurants, and just everyday life. (Global Citizen, 2014, par. 3)

Travelling can also be very expensive. Many immigrants have to use all their money to pay fees or plane tickets.

Once immigrants arrive in the new countries, they can face many difficulties. They may have to get a job, find a house, and learn a new language. Immigrants can also be victims of racism.

Related pages
 Migrant worker
 Human migration
 Political asylum
 Cultural assimilation
 Deportation
 Diaspora
 Exile
 Refugee
 Vienna Declaration

Immigration


is a Japanese term for both an ancient division of the country and the main road running through the region.

History
San'indō was one of the main circuits of the Gokishichidō system.  It was first established during the Asuka period. Over centuries, the government functions of the Gokishichido became less important. However, the traditional eight regions, including San'indō, remained cultural markers.

Geography
San'indō is the northern part of southern Honshū.  The region is on the Sea of Japan.  It is a geographic region which has eight ancient provinces, including
 Hōki
 Inaba
 Iwami
 Izumo
 Oki
 Tajima
 Tamba
 Tango

The lands of three prefectures is in the region of San'indō: Kyoto, Hyōgo and Tottori.

Today, Route 9, the San'in Expressway, and the San'in Main Line of the West Japan Railway Company follow the approximate route of the San'indō.

Related pages
 Chūgoku region
 Comparison of regions of Japan

References

Chūgoku region

San'indō


The flag of Romania is a vertical tricolour of blue, yellow, and red. The colours stand for the three historical provinces of Romania. The current design was made official in 1994, but the flag has been used since 1989. The first design of the flag was in 1834, but the three colours date from the sixth century. It is very similar to the Flag of Chad, except that this flag is very slightly lighter in color.

Romania

Flag of Romania


In music, consonance and dissonance are words which are used to describe certain musical intervals or chords.  The adjectives are consonant and dissonant.

A consonant interval or chord is one which sounds stable and pleasant.  It could, for example, be the end of a piece of music.  For example: C and E sound well together, or the chord C, E and G (a C major chord).

A dissonant interval or chord is one which sounds unstable.  It may even sound harsh by itself.  The notes seem to clash.  It cannot be the end of the piece of music (if the music is a normal, traditional tonal piece).  It sounds as if it wants to move on to a consonant interval (this is called "resolving" onto a consonant chord).  The notes C and Fsharp together make a dissonant interval.  The chord C - Dsharp - Fsharp is a dissonant interval: it is full of tension, and it sounds as if it wants to "resolve" onto C - E - G.

Scientifically a consonant interval is one in which the two notes vibrate at frequencies which have a simple mathematical relationship, e.g. in two notes which are an octave apart the higher note vibrates exactly twice as fast.  If they are a fifth apart the top note vibrates 1 1/2 times as fast as the lower note.  The more complicated mathematically the interval, the more dissonant it will sound.

Music theory

Consonance and dissonance


The Eddington limit, or Eddington luminosity was first worked out by Arthur Eddington. It is a natural limit to the normal luminosity of stars. The state of balance is a hydrostatic equilibrium. When a star exceeds the Eddington limit, it loses mass with a very intense radiation-driven stellar wind from its outer layers.

Eddington's models treated a star as a sphere of gas held up against gravity by internal thermal pressure. Eddington showed that radiation pressure was necessary to prevent collapse of the sphere.

Most massive stars have luminosities far below the Eddington luminosity, so their winds are mostly driven by the less intense line absorption. The Eddington limit explains the observed luminosity of accreting black holes such as quasars.

Super-Eddington luminosities
Eddington limit explains the very high mass loss rates seen in the outbursts of η Carinae in 1840–1860. The regular stellar winds can only stand for a mass loss rate of about 10−4–10−3 solar masses per year. Mass loss rates of up to 0.5 solar masses per year are needed to understand the η Carinae outbursts. This can be done with the help of the super-Eddington broad spectrum radiation driven winds.

Gamma-ray bursts, novae and supernovae are examples of systems exceeding their Eddington luminosity by a large factor for very short times, resulting in short and highly intensive mass loss rates. Some X-ray binaries and active galaxies are able to maintain luminosities close to the Eddington limit for very long times. For accretion powered sources such as accreting neutron stars or cataclysmic variables (accreting white dwarfs), the limit may act to reduce or cut off the accretion flow. Super-Eddington accretion onto stellar-mass black holes is one possible model for ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs).

For accreting black holes, all the energy released by accretion does not have to appear as outgoing luminosity, since energy can be lost through the event horizon, down the hole. Effectively, such sources may not conserve energy.

References

Astrophysics

Eddington limit


Mathematical notation is a system in mathematics that uses symbols to represent objects and ideas. In mathematics and other exact sciences like physics or computer science, problems often need to be presented in some way. In such representations, different symbols have different meanings:
There are numbers, like 1 and 2, or variables that stand for such numbers (like x and y)
There are functions that act on numbers and variables. Such function take a predetermined number of elements, and do something with them. An example is +, which adds two numbers
There are concepts of advanced mathematics such as limits and derivatives

Some mathematical notations use diagrams, or small drawings to show the underlying concepts. One example is the Penrose graphical notation which is used to show tensors. Another examples are Coxeter–Dynkin diagram which are used for certain problems of geometry.

There are different ways to write down an equation like  two and three
Infix notation: The functions and the symbols they act on, are mixed, this gives  2 + 3
Prefix notation: First there is the function, and then the values it operates on. This gives + 2 3. Computer languages influenced by lambda calculus, like LISP use this notation. Sometimes this is called polish notation
Postfix notation: First there are the numbers, and then the function. 2 3 +. Postscript uses this. It is also generally known as reverse polish notation

Related software
 KaTeX - JavaScript library that shows mathematical notation on any web browser
 LaTeX - Free software to output mathematical notations on a PDF

he:סימון מתמטי

Mathematical notation


Sir George Grove (born Clapham in South London, 13 August 1820; died Sydenham on 28 May 1900) was an English engineer and musician.

He wrote books about classical composers and is particularly famous for his big musical dictionary Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. This dictionary continued to be updated and published after his death. It has now gone through seven editions. The latest edition is available online.

Life

George Grove was born in Clapham in South London. His father sold fish. His mother was into musicals. He learned to be an engineer and was sent out to Jamaica to help to build a lighthouse.

He worked on the building of the Britannia tubular bridge over the Menai Strait.  He married the daughter of a clergyman. He became secretary of the Society of Arts and he wrote many articles for a Dictionary of the Bible.  He spent seven years doing this.  It gave him the idea of doing something similar for music.

Grove went to many concerts. He bought sheet music and studied it. He wrote programme notes for concerts, writing about the music that was being played.  He wrote about a lot of music by Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn and Schumann.

Career
He wrote detailed essays about the symphonies of Beethoven and was a good friend of Clara Schumann.  He travelled with the composer Arthur Sullivan to Vienna where he met many great musicians including Brahms and discovered some music by Schubert that had been forgotten.   He spent several years writing his Dictionary of Music which was published in four volumes.

Grove worked very hard to get enough money to found the Royal College of Music which was opened in 1883 by the Prince of Wales.  Grove got many great musicians to come and teach there, including the world-famous singer Jenny Lind who was already retired, and Hubert Parry, Charles Villiers Stanford and others.

The prime minister William Gladstone gave him a knighthood for what he had done for music.  The new students included many who were to become famous.

These include Hamish MacCunn and Charles Wood.  He became very fond of the student Edith Oldham and had an emotional attachment to her for the rest of his life.  His wife was not interested in his work.  He called his students his "children" and persuaded them to have a broad education.

He wanted them to read a lot.  He was director of the RCM for eleven years, retiring in 1894, just after the RCM moved into a new building which is situated on the south side of the Royal Albert Hall.  The RCM is still there today.

George Grove was a very influential man for English music.  Although he was not trained as a musician he became extremely knowledgeable and was an excellent musicologist. The RCM setup a George Grove Memorial Scholarship in his memory.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980;

Musicologists
1820 births
1900 deaths

George Grove


Sometimes called the CSA; for other uses see CSA.
Czech Airlines was started as Czechoslovak State Airlines on 6 October 1923. This was when the Czech Republic and the Slovakia were one country.

The company started flying domestically (only inside Czechoslovakia) in 1924. In 1930 they made their first international flight.

CSA stopped flying between 1938 and 1945 when the country was occupied by Germany.

When Czechoslovakia split into two countries, all of the Czechoslovak State Airlines stayed in the Czech Republic and became Czech Airlines. That is why Czech Airline's logo still says CSA : Czech Airlines

Gallery

Airlines of Europe
1923 establishments in Europe
Companies of the Czech Republic

Czech Airlines


Hermon of Jerusalem, also Ermon, was the bishop of the Church of Jerusalem from 300 to 312.

While nothing is known of his life, Church tradition records his efforts of sending a series of missionary bishops to areas around the northeastern areas of the Black Sea.

With the establishment of a see at Cherson, Patr. Hermon sent a series of bishops, who became known as the hieromartyrs of Cherson, to the Black Sea region from the Danube to the Dniepr Rivers including Crimea. The first bishops were Ephraim and Basil. They were followed by Eugene, Agathodorus, Capiton and Elpidius, and finally Aetherius. All but Aetherius were martyred, who died in a ship wreck.

References

4th-century bishops of Jerusalem
Year of birth unknown

Ermon of Jerusalem


Lockdown was a yearly pay-per-view made by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA). The event is usually produced in April. The first Lockdown event took place on April 24, 2005 at the TNA Impact! Zone in Orlando, Florida. The final Lockdown took place on February 23, 2016 at the Wembley Arena in London, England.

The event features a Six Sides of Steel cage when the ring still had 6 sides. They switched to a normal, 4-sided steel cage in 2010. They also have gimmick matches such as the Lethal Lockdown (which is a variant of the WarGames match that was popularized in World Championship Wrestling), the Xscape match which is a multi-competitor elimination cage match where the last two remaining competitors must climb over or use the door to escape the cage, and the Queen of the Cage match which featured TNA Knockouts.

Dates and venues

Other websites
TNA website

Impact Wrestling

TNA Lockdown


Hue is one of the main properties of a color.

It is defined as "the degree to which a stimulus is similar to, or different from, stimuli that are red, green, blue, and yellow" (the unique hues).

The other main aspects of color appearance are colorfulness, chroma, saturation, lightness, and brightness.

Usually, colors with the same hue are distinguished with adjectives referring to their lightness and/or chroma, such as with "light blue", "pastel blue", "vivid blue".

Color

Hue


Googie is the term given to a type of architecture and art in the United States in the 20th century.  It is also called Doo Wop, Atomic age, or populuxe.   It was very futuristic, echoing themes of the 1950s as a whole.  Some of Googie architecture was based on what spaceships look like.  It started in California soon after World War II and spread to the rest of the United States in the 1950s.  Many of the buildings built in the Googie style were coffee shops, bowling alleys and motels.

Here are a few famous Googie buildings:

 The Space Needle
 Los Angeles International Airport
 The first Tomorrowland at Disneyland
 The first McDonald's
 Many of the early casinos in Las Vegas

Architectural styles

Googie


Pedipalps are the two appendages on the front of a spider's head. Other arachnids, and chelicerates that are not arachnids also have pedipalps. Some spiders seem to have ten legs and not eight, because these pedipalps look like an extra pair of legs. The pedipalps are used rather like arms.  Spiders often use them to hold insects (for example crickets) for them to eat.

Male spiders also use pedipalps for mating.  The male spiders make some silk, put sperm onto the silk, and then put their pedipalps into the sperm.  The pedipalps then hold the sperm, and the spider can use it to mate with a female by putting them inside her epigynum.

Diversity of pedipalps
The pedipalps of all chelicerates vary: Ricinulei, Thelyphonida, Amblypygi, some Opiliones, Schizomida, scorpions and pseudoscorpions all have theirs as pincers, with the Amblypygi's being their entire pedipalps shaped like mantids. The Palpigradi's pedipalps have some of the strangest roles of arachnids as they use theirs for locomotion. The pedipalps of Solifugae act as antennae.

Other websites
 Close-up view of pedipalps on a large spider

Animal anatomy
Arachnids

Pedipalp


A barometer is an instrument used to measure air pressure. The barometer measures air pressure in various kinds of units including hectopascals (hPa) and millibars.

There are various types of barometers such as the water barometer, aneroid barometer, and the mercury barometer. The mercury barometer, the earliest barometer, was created by an Italian mathematician named Evangelista Torricelli in 1643.

They are used for measuring altitude, or height above the ground, such as the height of a mountain, and they were often used to measure altitude aboard a hot air balloon.  Barometers are also used in modern aviation as altimeters.  Miners sometimes use them to determine the depth of a mine.  The most used purpose of the barometer is measuring air pressure.  This helps meteorologists in predicting weather.

A barograph is a device which records barometric readings on paper.

Weather
Weather instruments
Measuring tools

Barometer


V838 Monocerotis is a red giant star in the Monoceros constellation. It is famous for undergoing a sudden growth in size in the year 2002. When it happened, the star became 1,570 times bigger than the Sun. However, it shrunk in size - bringing its size to only 380 times bigger than the Sun. It is 20,000 times brighter than the Sun.

Sources

Red giants
Variable stars

V838 Monocerotis


The Korean Broadcasting System(KBS; Hangul: 한국방송공사; Hanja: 韓國放送公社; Hanguk Bangsong Gongsa) is one of the biggest South Korean television networks. It was established in 1927. KBS headquarters are in the Yeouido district of Seoul.

The purposes of KBS can be divided into 3 parts.
Making good broadcasting culture
Creating national culture
Globalization of Korean culture

History
KBS started the country's first radio broadcasting service in 1927 as Kyeongseong Broadcasting Corporation (JODK). After liberation, it changed the name to Seoul Central Broadcasting Station in 1947. It launched Korea's first television broadcasting service in 1961.

A system of public broadcasting was established in 1973.  For reinforcement of public management, 1TV and Radio1 have not run a commercial since October 1994. First broadcasting HD programs in 2001, KBS completely changed to digital broadcasting in 2012. There are 18 regional stations and 11 overseas branches. There are eight subsidiary companies such as KBSN, KBS Business and KBS Media, which manage KBS content.

KBS is run by public funds from the South Korean government.

Channels

TV
 KBS 1TV - Airs current affairs, sports, documentary, news, culture and environment. Since 2012, this channel never goes off the air during the day.
 KBS 2TV - Airs drama, entertainment and programs for children. Comparing to 2TV, it has less regional self-programs.
 KBS WORLD - Airs KBS's famous programs in real time to other countries in the world with a international satellite.

Radio
 KBS Radio 1 - News, current affairs, drama, documentary and culture. It also provides disaster broadcasting as the public broadcasting.
 KBS Radio 2 - Family entertainment.
 KBS Radio 3 - The station of social welfare for a neglected class of people and the disabled.
 KBS 1FM - Classical music and folk music. It also provide Korean traditional music.
 KBS 2FM - Popular music.
 KBS Hanminjok Radio - The station for the harmony and exchange between North Korea and South Korea.
 KBS World Radio - International broadcasting station. It introduces diverse aspects of Korea to enhance the global network.

Korean media
Companies of South Korea
1927 establishments in Asia
20th-century establishments in South Korea

Korean Broadcasting System


The National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR) is a branch of the U.S. National Institutes of Health. The institute aims to improve the oral, dental, and craniofacial health through research and the distribution of important health information to the American people.

History
In 1931, the United States Public Health Service established a Dental Hygiene Unit at the National Institutes of Health. Designated as the first dental research worker, Dr. H. Trendley Dean studied the communities affected by the oral disease known as mottled enamel. Following the implementation of a water fluoridation trial in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the National Institute of Dental Research (NIDR), was established by President Harry S. Truman on June 24, 1948. The first grants and fellowships that supported dental research were awarded the following year.

In an effort to expand the NIDR, plans to finance the construction of a building for the institute were approved by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1958. The National Institute of Dental Research also established the Laboratory of Biochemistry to further the research regarding the structure and functions of various proteins. In continuing with this expansion, a grant to develop several dental research facilities at various universities was approved in 1967. This program hoped to establish research and training environments, as well as promote interdisciplinary approaches to combating oral diseases.

In addition to the Laboratory of Biochemistry, other laboratories were established in the years 1974 and 1975. These newly established laboratories focused on the field of oral medicine as well as the fields of microbiology and immunology. Another effort to expand research was implemented a decade later. The Dentist Scientist Award Program aimed to provide dentists with opportunities and incentive to pursue independent research regarding oral health.

In 1986, the most extensive survey on the dental health of American adults was completed by the NIDR. This study was the first to examine oral health diseases on a large and detailed scale.
Following this survey, in 1993, the National Oral Health Information Clearinghouse was established. The purpose of this database is to provide resources for health professionals, patients, and the general public regarding oral health. In continuing with its mission to distribute important health information, the NIDR launched its official website in 1996.

Following its 50th anniversary, the NIDR changed its name to the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR).

In 2001, the NIDCR released its revamped plan to eliminate oral health disparities across the United States. The institute followed up with this plan by establishing five new Centers for Research to Reduce Oral Health Disparities.

A decade later, Martha J. Somerman was appointed as the eighth director of the NIDCR. Through nurturing fundamental research and the development of researchers, the NIDCR aims to promote health, to prevent diseases and conditions, and to develop new diagnostics and therapeutics.

In 2020, Rena D'Souza was selected as the NIDCR's ninth director, replacing Martha Somerman, who had served from 2011 to 2020. D'Souza's tenure as Director began in October 2020 and Jennifer Webster-Cyriaque became the deputy director later that year.

Directors

Notes and references

External links
 National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research
 Dental, Oral, and Craniofacial Data Resource Center
 NIDCR Official Twitter

Dental and Craniofacial Research
Dental organizations based in the United States
Research institutes established in 1931
Government agencies established in 1931
1931 establishments in the United States
Medical research institutes in Maryland


"My Son, the Physicist" is a science fiction short story by American writer Isaac Asimov.  It was commissioned by Hoffman Electronics Corporation and appeared in February 1962 in Scientific American. It later appeared in Asimov's collection Nightfall and Other Stories (1969).

Plot summary
Gerard Cremona, a communications engineer with an American space agency, is trying to maintain communication that has been established with an expedition that has apparently reached Pluto after four years in space.  The difficulty lies in the significant delays for the radio signal to travel back and forth, making timely and meaningful interaction impossible.

His proud mother, who happens to visit his office whilst he is wrestling with the problem, ultimately advises him to keep talking and get the expedition crew to keep talking as well. That way, although it normally takes twelve hours for radio waves to cover the distance, it is possible to have effectively continuous conversation.

Mrs. Cremona declares that all women know that the secret to spreading news is to "Just Keep Talking".   Thus, by constantly transmitting data and instructions from both ends, and interjecting questions or responses as needed, no time need be wasted.

Although it plays no part in the story, the fictional supercomputer Multivac is mentioned inter alia.

External links

 "My Son, the Physicist" on the Internet Archive

Multivac short stories by Isaac Asimov
1962 short stories
Scientific American articles
Science fiction short stories
Short stories by Isaac Asimov

My Son, the Physicist


The black flowerpiercer (Diglossa humeralis) is a species of bird in the family Thraupidae of the order Passeriformes. The family Thraupidae is known for tanagers and other very similar species of birds, but it is still facing classification issues. The black flowerpiercer is found in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela.

Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist mountains, subtropical or tropical high-altitude shrubland, and heavily degraded former forest.

Description
Adult black flowerpiercers are 13–14 cm in length. They are uniformly black (slightly glossy black with subtle blue gloss in males). They have brown eyes and a black bill with a grey base. Females are a duller black with no blue gloss and their wings and tail are brownish. Juvenile birds are also duller.

Subspecies
D.h. aterrima (Ecuador, south Colombia)- same description as above
D.h. humeralis (East Andes in north & south Colombia, southwest Venezuela)- Male dull black with blueish shoulder and small greyish rump; Females are very dark brown with the grey rump less clear.
D.h.nocticolor (Santa Marta in Colombia, Perija in Venezuela)- All black with only slight gloss and dark grey rump, female slightly duller than male

Voice

A rapid series of squeaky trills and twitters even faster than the glossy flowerpiercer (Diglossa lafresnayii). The black flowerpiercer sounds almost like the cinereous conebill (Conirostrum cinereum).

Distribution and Habitat
Found in Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela. Subtropical zone to Paramo, at 2,175 - 4,000m, but mostly in 2,700 - 3,400m at edges of dense wet forest. Also found in scattered vegetation, shrubby clearings, eucalyptus plantations, parks, and gardens. It is also now seen in India (Bangalore).

Behavior
Drinks nectar and consumes small invertebrates. Black flowerpiercers move quickly and are more active in lower parts of the forest. They are mainly solitary or found in pairs.

Gallery

References

Restall, Robin, Clemencia Rodner, and Miguel Lentino. Birds of Northern South America. Vol. 1. US: Yale University Press, 2006. 654. 2 vols. Print.

black flowerpiercer
Birds of the Colombian Andes
Birds of the Ecuadorian Andes
black flowerpiercer
black flowerpiercer
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Black flowerpiercer


Wanda Does It was a television show on Comedy Central that displayed "a day in the life" of the world of comedian Wanda Sykes. The show was canceled in early January, 2005 though the last episode aired November 16, 2004. Six episodes were made.

Cast
 Wanda Sykes as herself
 Tim Bagley as Tim Brewer
 Sue Murphy as herself

Episodes

Season 1
 "Wanda Does Repo"—After her friend, Jen, buys her car and her check bounces, Wanda decides to become a repo woman to get her car back and teach Jen a lesson.
 "Wanda Does Vegas"—After Wanda's show is canceled at a Las Vegas casino, Wanda learns how to become a professional gambler and get the money she was going to get from them.
 "Wanda Does the Sky"—After taking a horrible flight, Wanda decides that if anyone else can be a pilot, she can too and flies an airplane.
 "Wanda Does the Night"—When an audience member heckles Wanda during one of her shows, Wanda decides to follow her to her job to heckle her back, but discovers that the woman who heckled her is actually a prostitute
 "Wanda Does the WNBA"—Wanda decides to prove that she's got game by becoming the coach of the WNBA team the Los Angeles Sparks. Tim is also having a dispute with someone who wants to cast Wanda in a cartoon. Guest stars include Molly Bryant as a coach, Tom Virtue as a referee, and Hans Raith as a bouncer
 "Wanda Does Photos"—After Wanda sees a bad headshot of herself that her publishing company wants to use for her book, she decides to go behind the camera to take her own photo.

References

External links

2000s American sitcoms
2004 American television series debuts
2004 American television series endings
Comedy Central original programming

Wanda Does It


Naval warfare is combat in and on the seas, oceans, or any other major bodies of water. It is usually a part of a nation's overall war effort. Men have fought battles on the sea for over 3,000 years. Traditionally naval warfare has been fleet against another fleet. Modern naval warfare has changed to include Amphibious landings, transportation of men and equipment over water and naval support of land operations. Submarines, aircraft carriers, and specialized warfare have all changed naval warfare.

References

Navies

Naval warfare


Iceland (; ) is an island country in the North Atlantic, between Greenland and Norway, formerly a possession of Denmark.  It is culturally considered to be part of Europe.  Iceland is 301 kilometers east of Greenland and 1001 kilometers west of Norway.  There are about 329,100 people who live in Iceland. Iceland has an area of 103,000 km².

History
The first people who lived on Iceland are thought to have been Irish monks. They came to Iceland around the year 800.

Iceland became a Christian nation in the year 1000 CE, when Christianity became the religion by law. In Icelandic, this event is known as the kristnitaka literally, "the taking of Christianity".

In the 9th century, Norsemen went to live in Iceland. The first Norseman who lived in Iceland was Flóki Vilgerðarson. He was also the one who gave Iceland its name. Ingólfur Arnarsons was the first permanent settler on the island. This chieftain from Norway went to live in South West Iceland and founded the city of Reykjavík.

In 930, the Icelandic rulers wrote a constitution. They created the Althing, a kind of parliament in a place called Þingvellir. Therefore, Iceland is the oldest existing republic.

In 985, Erik the Red was sent away from the island because he had killed someone. He sailed to the west and discovered Greenland. Eric's son Leif Ericson discovered America in the year 1000. He called it Vinland. The voyages of Eric, Leif and others were written down in the sagas (long stories).

In 1262, Iceland became part of Norway. This lasted for 400 years. In 1662, it became part of Denmark. In the 19th century, many Icelandic's wanted to be independent from Denmark. In 1918, Iceland got many powers of its own, but the king of Denmark was still king of Iceland.

When Germany took over Denmark on April 9 1940, the Althing decided that Icelandic's  should rule the country themselves, but they did not declare independence yet. British and later American soldiers occupied Iceland to prevent it from being attacked by the Germans. In 1944, Iceland finally became fully independent.

After World War II, Iceland became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), but not of the European Union. Between 1958 and 1976, there were three debates between Iceland and the United Kingdom about the rights to catch codfish. They were called the Cod Wars.

In 1980, Vigdís Finnbogadóttir was elected president of Iceland. She was the first woman ever to be elected president of a country.

In 2016, Guðni Th. Jóhannesson become president of Iceland.

Politics

Iceland has a multi-party system. Since the 2013 election, the center-right Independence Party and Progressive Party are the biggest political parties in Iceland. Other powerful parties in Iceland include the center-left Social Democratic Alliance and Left-Green Movement. See also: List of political parties in Iceland.

Iceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic. Iceland has a president (Guðni Th. Jóhannesson) and a prime minister (Katrín Jakobsdóttir). The parliament, Althing, has 63 members and each member can only be in there for four years. The president is elected by Icelanders, and is in government for four years. The president can be elected an unlimited amount of times.

Iceland has no standing army. The United States Air Force had a base near Reykjanesbær, but they left in 2006. Since 2008, NATO nations have occasionally had their air force patrol Iceland. This was requested by the Icelandic government.

Divisions

Iceland is divided into 8 regions, 6 constituencies and 74 municipalities (since 2013). The regions are mainly used for statistics. The constituencies are used for selecting politicians who will represent them in parliament. Lastly, the municipalities give services to the people that live there. These services include education, waste management, public transportation, and so on.

Before 2003, the constituencies were the same as regions, but this was changed because it meant that a vote in Reykjavik meant less than one in a rural area. Even though this was addressed, the problem still exists.

Economy

Fishing and fish processing is the main economic activity in Iceland. Despite effort to diversify, particularly into the travel industry, seafood exports continue to account for nearly three-quarters of merchandise exports and approximately half of all foreign exchange earnings.

Geothermal Energy produces the vast majority of Electrical Power consumed on Iceland, due chiefly to the island's position atop the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and exhibits plentiful hot water reservoirs and geysers. This has the effect of drastically reducing the price of electricity in Iceland, and has attracted several energy-intensive industries.

Aluminum Smelting (The reduction of Aluminum ores to Aluminum metal) is the largest energy-intensive manufacturing sector in Iceland, and the country produced over 800,000 Metric Tonnes per Year in 2013, making it the 10th largest producer of Aluminum metal worldwide.

Geography

Iceland sits on a rift between two tectonic plates. No surprise then that Iceland is very geologically active.

There are large amounts of rain and snow caused by the warm waters of the gulf stream current which flows toward it. Many interesting and unusual geographic features which make it different from any other island.

Some of these features are Iceland's numerous mountains, volcanoes, hot springs, rivers, small lakes, waterfalls, glaciers, and geysers. The word geyser is, in fact, derived from Geysir, the name of a particularly famous geyser on the southern side of the island. Glaciers cover about 11% of the island and the largest, Vatnajökull, is up to 1 km thick and, by far, the largest glacier in Europe.

Iceland, though a European country, sits partly in North America since it straddles the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American tectonic plates. The ridge runs right through the populated Reykjavik and Thingvellir historic areas. The tectonic activity of these plates separating is the source of the abundant geothermal energy in the region.

Towns and cities

Reykjavík is the capital city of Iceland. Reykjavík is also the most important port in Iceland.  Other important towns in Iceland are Akureyri, Kópavogur, Hafnarfjörður, Keflavík, Seyðisfjörður and Vestmannaeyjar.

People
If you see a group of Icelanders together, one thing will immediately strike you. They all look rather similar. This impression is even stronger if you see an age-group of children together. And, they are indeed genetically more similar than any other group in any other European country. The reason is that they had a small founding population, and a very modest rate of immigration after that.

This is a problem which their government is well aware of. Why should it be a problem? Because it increases the risk that a viral infection could sweep through the whole population. So they have a very good health service which is entirely funded by the government. It is a world without Down's syndrome. Why? Because all pregnant women are tested, and any foetus with a serious genetic defect is aborted.

The people in Iceland are mostly of Scandinavian origin.  The language they speak is Icelandic. The language has not changed much in 1,000 years, so Icelanders are still able to read the sagas about the Vikings without many problems. Most people in Iceland are Christian. Most of them are Lutheran.

Icelandic people are considered to be the happiest people on Earth. Iceland has the highest birth rate in Europe, highest divorce rate and the highest percentage of women working outside their home.

Names
There are no real surnames on Iceland. Children get the first name of their father (sometimes mother) with -s+son if it's a boy, and -s+dóttir if it's a girl.
For example, a man named Jón Stefánsson has a son named Fjalar. Fjalar's last name will not be Stefánsson like his father's, it will become Fjalar Jónsson.
The same goes for women. Jón Stefánsson's daughter Kata would not have the last name Stefánsson, she would have the name Jónsdóttir.
In most countries people use to call other people by their surname, but in Iceland people call other people by their first name. So when people talk about Halldór Ásgrímsson they do not call him Ásgrímsson, but Halldór.

Notes

References

Other websites

European Union candidate states
Nordic countries
1944 establishments in Europe

Iceland


Arthur Edward "Chip" Engelland III (born May 9, 1961) is an American basketball coach and former professional player. He is currently an assistant coach for the Oklahoma City Thunder of the National Basketball Association (NBA).

Career

A native of Los Angeles, Engelland, who also served as a ball boy for coach John Wooden's NCAA champions UCLA Bruins in 1975, began his basketball career at Pacific Palisades High School, leading Los Angeles in scoring as a senior in 1979. Subsequently, he lettered four seasons at Duke University, scoring more than 1,000 points for coach Mike Krzyzewski's Blue Devils and being named the team's captain in his senior year.

After graduating from Duke in 1983, Engelland went on to play professionally for nine years. First in the Philippines, he became a naturalized Filipino citizen where he spent two seasons and was a member of the Philippine national basketball team under the sponsorship of Northern Cement Corporation that captured the 1985 Jones Cup Championship, then back in North America, playing for the Topeka Sizzlers of the Continental Basketball Association (CBA) and the Calgary 88's of the World Basketball League (WBL). He was known by Filipino fans as "the Machine Gun" for his superb shooting skills.

In 1993, Engelland started his coaching career, introducing his basketball camps Chip Shots with the aim of helping players of all ages improve their shooting skills; two years later he founded the In-Net Corporation, strengthening his reputation as a clinician and advisor. He got his first job in the National Basketball Association (NBA) in the 1999–2000 season, serving as a shooting consultant for the Detroit Pistons. Three years later, he signed with the Denver Nuggets as the director of player development, holding the position for two seasons. Engelland served as an assistant coach for the San Antonio Spurs starting from the 2005–06 season, and won two championships with the Spurs in 2007 and 2014. In 2022, Engelland signed as an assistant coach for the Oklahoma City Thunder, where he works today.

Personal life
Engelland is married to Jessica Grunow of Troy, Michigan. They have two sons, Press and Path.

References

External links
 Chip Engelland Info Page at NBA.com
 Chip Engelland College Stats at Dukeupdate.com

1961 births
Living people
American expatriate basketball people in Canada
American expatriate basketball people in the Philippines
American men's basketball coaches
American men's basketball players
Basketball coaches from California
Basketball players from California
Columbus Horizon players
Duke Blue Devils men's basketball players
Omaha Racers players
Philippines men's national basketball team players
Filipino men's basketball players
Naturalized citizens of the Philippines
San Antonio Spurs assistant coaches
San Jose Jammers players
Topeka Sizzlers players
Naturalised basketball players

Chip Engelland


Alan Feinberg (born in New York City) is an American classical pianist. He has premiered over 300 works by such composers as John Adams, Milton Babbitt, John Harbison, Charles Ives,  Steve Reich, and Charles Wuorinen, as well as the premiere of Mel Powell's Pulitzer Prize winning Duplicates. He is an experienced performer of both classical and contemporary music and is well known for recitals that pair old and new music.

Musical career
Feinberg toured several times with The Cleveland Orchestra and Christoph von Dohnanyi, first performing Shulamit Ran's Concert Piece (including an appearance in Carnegie Hall). He also performed the Brahms Second Piano Concerto on tour with The Cleveland Orchestra and participated in a collaboration with The Cleveland Orchestra which featured the world premiere of the recently discovered Emerson Concerto by composer Charles Ives (performed also in London, Paris, and Amsterdam), and subsequently recorded the work.

He was featured on opening night of the San Francisco Symphony's Maverick Festival, at the New Horizons Festival of the New York Philharmonic, the 10th Anniversary Celebration of the American Composers Orchestra, the 92nd Street Y's Berio Sequenza Marathon, the first performance of John Adams' Nixon in China for the Guggenheim's Works in Progress Series, and Carnegie Hall's Birthday celebration of the music of George Gershwin with Dick Hyman.

Feinberg has performed as a soloist with the Chicago Symphony, The Cleveland Orchestra, the New York Philharmonic, the London Philharmonia, the Montreal Symphony, the Los Angeles Philharmonic, the BBC Scottish, the American Symphony Orchestra, the St. Louis Symphony, the Baltimore Symphony, the New World Symphony, and many others.

Feinberg has recorded four solo CDs for London/Decca that survey American music: The American Romantic, The American Virtuoso, The American Innovator, and Fascinatin' Rhythm—American Syncopation. He has received Grammy Nominations for recordings of the Babbitt "Piano Concerto" (New World Records), Morton Feldman's "Palais di Mari", and Charles Wuorinen's "Capriccio", "Bagatelle", and "Third Sonata". He has additionally recorded piano concertos by Mel Powell, Andrew Imbrie, Kamran Ince, Paul Bowles, Amy Beach, Charles Ives, Leo Ornstein, Samuel Adler, Don Gilles, and Robert Helps, as well as a Decca CD of vocal works of Charles Ives with soprano Susan Narucki and a recording of Morton Feldman's "Piano and Orchestra with Michael Tilson Thomas and the New World Symphony. He received his fourth Grammy nomination for "Best Instrumentalist with Orchestra" for his recording of the Amy Beach "Piano Concerto" with the Nashville Symphony (Naxos). Other recordings can be found on New World Records, CRI, Harmonia Mundi, Bridge, New Albion and Naxos.

He has received five Grammy nominations throughout his career.

Recent recital programs have highlighted his interest in bridging the old and the new; these include a program of Bach and Ustvolskaya, "Reconsidering Haydn" (works of Haydn, Schubert, Weir and Kagel), "Basically Bull", a program featuring works of John Bull, William Byrd, Orlando Gibbons, Thomas Morley, and Charles Wuorinen.
In recent years Mr. Feinberg has taken on work as a programmer and presenter. He has been the Artistic Advisor for the "Chautauqua Days" Festival in Castine, Maine and Music Director of the Monadnock Music Festival. He has acted as a programming consultant for the Lincoln Center Chamber Music Society's American festival.  He has put together programs of American music with himself and other American performers for the White Nights Festival in St. Petersburg and for a series of four concerts in Moscow.

Feinberg has also performed many times abroad. He has appeared as a concerto soloist at The Proms in England, with the Cleveland Orchestra in Paris, with the Amsterdam Radio Orchestra in Holland, with the Montreal Symphony, and with the various BBC orchestras. He has given recitals at Wigmore Hall in London, appeared at festivals in Edinburgh, Bath, Huddersfield, Geneva, Budapest, Berlin, Brescia, Bergamo, and Tokyo. He was also the first pianist to have been invited by the Union of Soviet Composers to represent American contemporary music, an invitation which resulted in performances in both Moscow and Leningrad.

Feinberg also has considerable experience as a teacher, and has taught at SUNY Buffalo, The Juilliard School, Eastman School of Music, Oberlin Conservatory, Carnegie Mellon, Duke, and Princeton Universities.

Early life
Feinberg received his Bachelor of Music in 1972 and his Master of Music in 1973 from The Juilliard School  in New York City with the piano professor Mieczyslaw Munz. He began D.M.A. studies and worked with Robert Helps at the Manhattan School of Music.

Personal life
Mr. Feinberg lives in New York City with his wife and has two children.

Awards and Recognitions
Beach Piano Concerto (Naxos 2003) Nomination for Grammy Award for Best Instrumentalist with Orchestra.

Wuorinen/Feldman (Koch International 1997) Nomination for Grammy Award for Best Instrumentalist.

The American Innovator (London/Argo 1995) Nomination for Grammy Award as Best Instrumentalist.

The American Innovator (London/Argo 1995) Most Creative Programming Award CD Magazine.

The American Romantic (London/Argo 1992) Nomination for Grammy Award for Best Instrumentalist.

Milton Babbitt Piano Concerto (New World Records 1987) Nomination for Grammy Award, Best Contemporary Music Record by Opus Magazine, Best Records of the Year in London Times, Picks of the Year, The Village Voice.

Mel Powell Duplicates for Two Pianos and Orchestra--Pulitzer Prize Winner

The Waltz Project (Nonesuch Records) Critics Choice, High Fidelity 1984

National Endowment for the Arts, Solo Recitalist Grant

Prize Winner, First Rockefeller American Music Competition Certificate Winner, Geneva International Competition

Discography
The American Romantic --- Argo/ Decca

The American Virtuoso --- Argo/ Decca

The American Innovator --- Argo/ Decca

Fascinating Rhythm: American Syncopation --- Argo/ Decca

Wuorinen piano works --- Col Legno

Babbitt piano works --- CRI

Wuorinen/ Feldman --- Koch

The Waltz Project ---Nonesuch

Charles Dodge, Any Resemblance is Coincidental ---New Albion

Beach Piano Concerto with Nashville Symphony --- Naxos

Ives: Emerson Concerto with National Symphony Orchestra of Ireland --- Naxos

Adams and Reich with I Solisti --- EMI

Babbitt: Piano Concerto with American Composers Orchestra--- New World Records

Adler Piano Concerto #2 --- Troy Records

Feldman: Piano and Orchestra with New World Symphony ---Argo/Decca

Robert Helps: Concerto #2 with Albany Symphony --- Albany Records

Don Gilles Piano Concerto with Albany Symphony --- Albany Records

Mel Powell Duplicates with the LA Philharmnic --- Harmonia Mundi

Andrew Imbrie Concerto #3 --- Bridge Records

Kamran Ince Remembering Lycia with the Albany Symphony ---Argo/Decca

Paul Bowles Concerto for 2 Pianos with Eos --- Catalyst

Ligeti Horn Trio --- Bridge

Wuorinen Trios --- Koch

Babbitt Sextets and The Joy of More Sextets --- New World Records

Music of Claudio Spies --- CRI

Music of Stephen Dembski --- CRI

Music of William Bland --- Bridge

Ornstein Violin Sonata --- New World Records

Ernst Bacon Violin Sonata --- CRI

Jonathan Dawe, Horn Trio --- Furious Artisans

Extraordinary Vistas-words and music of the MacDowell Colony with Susan Narucki --- Americus Records

Wuorinen Fenton Songs II --- Naxos

Footnotes

External links
Alan Feinberg page
Alan Feinberg interview from Paris Transatlantic magazine, 1999

American classical pianists
American male classical pianists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Juilliard School alumni
Manhattan School of Music alumni
Living people
Avant-garde pianists
21st-century classical pianists
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American pianists
University at Buffalo faculty
Albany Records artists

Alan Feinberg


Vladimir Ashkenazy (born  6 July 1937) is a Russian pianist and conductor. He became world famous as a pianist.  During the last two decades he has become equally famous as a conductor, as well as performing and recording as a pianist.

Early life
Ashkenazy was born in Gorky, Russia.  His father was an Ashkenazi Jew, his mother was Russian.  Although his father was a pianist he never had lessons from him.  He began playing the piano when he was six.  He soon showed enormous talent and two years later went to the Central Music School in Gorki.  He graduated from the Moscow Conservatory.  He won second prize in the International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw in 1955 and the first prize in the Queen Elisabeth Music Competition in Brussels in 1956. He shared the first prize in the 1962 International Tchaikovsky Competition with British pianist John Ogdon.

Pianistic career
Vladimir Ashkenazy has had an extremely successful career as a pianist.  He became famous for his playing of Romantic music and music by Russian composers.  He recorded a very large amount of music including the 24 Preludes and Fugues of Dmitri Shostakovich, Alexander Scriabin's piano sonatas, Rachmaninoff's, Frédéric Chopin's and Robert Schumann's complete piano works, Beethoven's piano sonatas, and the piano concertos of Mozart (conducting from the keyboard with the Philharmonia Orchestra).  He recorded concertos with many of the world's most famous orchestras.  He still records and performs all over the world, often playing piano concertos and conducting from the piano keyboard.

On 17 January 2020, Ashkenazy's management agency said that he was retiring.

Conducting career

In the late 1980s he started to become known as a conductor.  He was principal conductor of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra from 1987 to 1994, and of the Czech Philharmonic from 1998 to 2003. He became conductor (musical director) of the NHK Symphony Orchestra in 2004.  He toured with them in 2005, taking them to Vienna for their first concert in the famous concert hall called the Musikverein.  In 2006 he took them to Seoul and then to the United States where they played in many cities including San Francisco, Los Angeles (Walt Disney Concert Hall), Boston and New York City (Carnegie Hall). He also played with the Sydney Symphony Orchestra in Stresa (Italy) in 2010.

Ashkenazy is now also conductor laureate of the Philharmonia, conductor laureate of the Icelandic Symphony Orchestra, and music director of the European Union Youth Orchestra.  He is often invited as a guest conductor to work with other famous orchestras.

Ashkenazy has been awarded many honours and prizes for his performances and recordings.  He lives with his Icelandic wife in Switzerland.

References

Other websites

1937 births
Living people
Russian pianists
Russian conductors

Vladimir Ashkenazy


For the series as whole, see Civilization (series)

Civilization IV is a strategy computer game released in 2005. It is build by the company Firaxis Games. It is a turn based game where the player builds an empire from the ancient era, into the modern era. In this time, the player is tasked with researching technology, managing a military, declaring war, engaging in diplomacy, spreading religions, managing governmental systems and building wonders of the world. There is an option as playing as one of 18 historical civilizations, each with at least on historical leader. Different nations and leaders have different advantages, disadvantages, and special military units to construct. It has two expansions. The first was Warlords and the second was Beyond the Sword. It was released in 7 languages: Chinese, French, German, Spanish, English, Japanese and Italian.

References
 Civilization 4 Review

Civilization series
2005 video games

Civilization IV


A Hamiltonian path is a path in a graph which contains each vertex of the graph exactly once. A Hamiltonian cycle is a Hamiltonian path, which is also a cycle. Knowing whether such a path exists in a graph, as well as finding it is a fundamental problem of graph theory. It is much more difficult than finding an Eulerian path, which contains each edge exactly once. The problem of finding a Hamiltonian path is NP-complete. There are two classes of graphs: directed and undirected graphs. In directed graphs, an edge can only be travelled in one direction, in undirected graphs it can be travelled in both directions. The Travelling Salesman Problem is an instance of this problem. Its task is to find the shortest Hamiltonian cycle, usually in a directed graph, with weight (or distances) attached to the edges.

Hamiltonian paths  and cycles and cycle paths are named after William Rowan Hamilton who invented the Icosian game. This game is also known as Hamilton's puzzle. It involves finding a Hamiltonian cycle in the edge graph of the dodecahedron.  Hamilton solved this problem using the Icosian Calculus, an algebraic structure based on roots of unity with many similarities to the quaternions (also invented by Hamilton).  This solution does not generalize to arbitrary graphs. However, despite being named after Hamilton, Hamiltonian cycles in polyhedra had also been studied a year earlier by Thomas Kirkman.

References

Computer science
Graph theory

Hamiltonian path


Romsdal is a traditional district in the Norwegian county Møre og Romsdal, located between Nordmøre and Sunnmøre. The district of Romsdal comprises Aukra, Fræna, Midsund, Molde, Nesset, Rauma, Sandøy, and Vestnes. It is named after the valley of Romsdalen, which covers part of Rauma.

The largest town is Molde, which is also the seat of Møre og Romsdal County Municipality. Åndalsnes is a town located near the mouth of the river Rauma in the municipality of Rauma. The Rauma Line comes from Dombås and terminates at Åndalsnes.

Naming
The Old Norse form of the name was Raumsdalr. The first element is the genitive case of a name *Raumr, probably the old (uncompounded) name of Romsdal Fjord, again derived from the name of the river Rauma, i.e. "The Dale of Rauma". The name Rauma is itself a mystery, but a tantalizing clue may be found in the works of the Gothic historian Jordanes. He mentions a tribe called "Raumii", which might be the origin of both the landscape Romerike (o.no raumariki) and the river Rauma.

The Norwegian comedy group KLM (named after the surnames of the three comedians Trond Kirkvaag, Knut Lystad and Lars Mjøen), in their feuilleton series Brødrene Dal (The Brothers Dale – as in 'valley'), named their three protagonists after the valleys Gausdal, Romsdal and Brumunddal.

Geography
The valley of Romsdalen, through which the Rauma river passes to the Romsdalfjord. It is surrounded by the Romsdalsalpene mountain range. The 1,550 meter tall Romsdalhorn has been compared to the Matterhorn. Trolltindane peaks stands opposite across the Rauma.  The North Face of Trollryggen peak (1,740 m), Trollveggen (Troll Wall), is the tallest vertical cliff in Europe. Norway's most famous hair-pin road is Trollstigen, or "Troll's Trail", which leads to the south out of Åndalsnes to the Geirangerfjord.

The Rauma river originates in Lesjaskogsvatnet, a lake with outlets at both ends, in the adjacent mountain municipality of Lesja. A dam was constructed by the Lesja Iron Works in the 1660s to improve transportation obstructed the Rauma and caused the water to flow both west to the Rauma and eastward into the river Lågen.

History

Legendary history
According to legend, Romsdal is an eponym after Raum the Old, son of the equally eponymous Nór who appears in Hversu Noregr byggðist as the legendary founder of Norway. Jøtunbjørn the Old was the son of Raum the Old and Bergdis, a giant's daughter. He inherited Raumsdal (modern: Romsdal) from his father, and was himself the father of King Raum, who was the father of Hrossbjörn, who was the father of Orm Broken-shell, who was the father of Knatti, who had two sons: Thórolf and Ketill Raum (in one version, Thórolf and Ketill Raum are sons of Orm). According to legend, among Thórolf's descendants came some of the first settlers of Iceland.

The Laxdæla saga says that Raumsdal was the home of Ketill Flatnose, a descendant of Ketill Raum. In the 850s, Ketil was a prominent chieftain. He conquered the Hebrides and the Isle of Man. Some sources refer to him as "King of the Sudreys" (Hebrides), but there is little evidence that he himself claimed that title.  Harald Fairhair appointed him the ruler of these islands, but he failed to pay tribute to the Norwegian king and was outlawed. He and his family left Norway and fled westwards across the sea, to Scotland, then Ireland, where he married off his daughter, Aud the Deep-Minded, to Olaf the White, king of Dublin.  Aud went eventually to Iceland where she began that country's shift to Christianity.

9th century
Before Harald Fairhair, Romsdal was a petty kingdom. Ragnvald Eysteinsson  (Ragnvald Mørejarl) was jarl of Møre, which was roughly equivalent to today's Møre og Romsdal. He died at the Orkney Islands. He was son of King Eystein "Glumra (the Noisy)" Ivarsson of Oppland, and a contemporary of Harald Fairhair who he supported in the unification process and from whom he received his fiefdom. He is likely to have resided on or nearby the important township of Veøya, Romsdal's Viking Era hub for commerce and communication. The legend says Ragnvald was the one to cut the hair of Harald Fairhair after he became king over all of Norway.

Ragnvald Eysteinsson was the father of several sons. With Ragnhild Rolfsdatter, he had the sons: Tore (Thorir Ragnvaldsson) who inherited the earldom after his father's death and Hrolf Ganger (Hrólfr Ragnvaldsson). Although historians are quite divided its accuracy in this regard, the Orkneyinga saga claims Hrolf Ganger is identical to Rollo of Normandy ancestor of William I of England. Turf-Einar (Einarr Ragnvaldsson), a son by a concubine, was an ancestor of the Norse Earls of Orkney.

12th century
In 1122, while staying as a guest at the village of Hustad in Romsdal, King Eystein I was taken ill and died. His body was taken in impressive funeral procession to burial at Nidaros.

At Veøy, an island in the middle of the Romsdalfjord,  there had been in time immemorial a religious site. At the close of the 12th century, Veøy gamle kirke, a church dedicated to St. Peter, was constructed over an ancient site of pagan worship.

17th century
During the 1600s, Romsdal market (Romsdalsmarkedet) was opened as a trading center at Devold on the Rauma river upstream from Åndalsnes. The market was moved from Devold to Veblungsnes in 1820. This was an important outlet for the ironworks at Lesja, providing an outlet for their products as well as a source of supplies. Molde later inherited the role as the principal market town for the region.

A Scottish mercenary force landed in Romsdal at Isfjorden on its way to Sweden. The incursion was stopped at the Battle of Kringen.

In the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde, the Trondheim region of Norway was ceded to Sweden, down to the north bank of the Romsdalfjord. The Romsdal farmers defied the Swedish taxes and military conscription, and the Swedish governor was forced to send a full company of soldiers, and 50 cavalry besides, to collect taxes. Following the attack on Copenhagen and the city's successful defence, and the reconquest by Norwegian forces of Trondheim, the Treaty of Copenhagen in 1660 restored that province to Norway. The few months of experience with Swedish taxation and conscription left such a bitter taste that it strengthened Norwegian unity and patriotism, making resistance to Swedish invasions of Norway stronger over the next 80 years.

20th century
After the World War II German Military invasion of Norway in April 1940, British troops landed in Åndalsnes as a part of a pincer movement to retake the key mid-Norwegian city of Trondheim.

See also
Nordmøre
Sunnmøre

References

Related Reading
Welle-Strand, Erling   (1996)  Adventure Roads in Norway   (Nortrabooks)
Stagg, Frank Noel  (1954)  West Norway and its Fjords  (George Allen & Unwin, Ltd.)
Stagg, Frank Noel    (1953) The Heart of Norway (George Allen & Unwin, Ltd.)

Districts of Møre og Romsdal
Petty kingdoms of Norway

Romsdal