Execution is where state authorities kill someone for having committed an extremely serious crime, usually treason or especially terrible murders. In most countries where the death penalty is still provided for by law, using it is an option available to the sentencing judge: even if the jury or judicial panel recommends the death penalty, the presiding judge still has the option to lock the convicted person in a prison for the rest of their life. A person whose job is to execute others is an executioner.

Beheading

Beheading means cutting the person's head off. It is one of the oldest execution methods and mentioned in the Bible. Beheading used to be the standard method of execution in Scandinavia and Germany. Commoners were usually beheaded with an axe and noblemen with a sword. A special device, like the guillotine, may be used, as in France. Nazi Germany used the guillotine to execute criminal convicts, such as murderers.

Many countries formerly used beheading as an execution for important people, including England. In England, many noblemen and even some kings and queens have been beheaded. There, the prisoner would be led up the scaffold and might be allowed a last speech. Then, he/she would be blindfolded and put his/her neck onto a block. Then, the executioner would lift up his axe and swing it down onto the victim's neck. If the executioner was skilled and the axe was sharp, then the axe would usually cut through the bone and organs of the victim in one stroke. But if the executioner was inexperienced, then it might take several strokes before the head was cut off.

Other ways of execution

Many countries do not allow executions as punishment any more, because it is too violent or immoral. However, many states of the United States and some other countries use it.  In the United States, less violent ways of execution are used than in the past. Here are some ways of executing people:

 Hanging: Using a rope to either break the convict's neck or to choke (or strangle) them.  Widely used around the world until the 20th century. Still today in use in some countries, such as Iraq, Singapore and Japan.
 Firing Squad:  Several people shoot and kill a person.  Armies around the world have long used this method, since guns and bullets are readily available.  Firing squad was the lawful means of execution in Finland until 1944, when death penalty was abolished (stopped by the law).  It was also used in the state of Utah in the 20th century.  In most cases, not all the shooters have real bullets.  After the execution, it is not possible to determine which of the people firing killed the person just executed.
 Gas chamber: killing a person by filling the air in a room with poison gas until the person cannot breathe and dies.  This method was used for executions in some U.S. states, and for mass murder by the Schutzstaffel during the Holocaust.

Lethal injection: Killing a person by placing poisons into their bloodstream. This is the choice of execution in most U.S. states that allow executions.
Electrocution: Killing a person by placing them in an electric chair and giving them a very high electric shock.

Old-fashioned methods
Crucifixion: a person (or their corpse) is fixed to a timber by nails or by impalement. The Romans used crucifixion to punish traitors, rebels and runaway slaves because the Romans considered it the most unpleasant death. Death by this method may take days. Besides ancient Greece, ancient Rome, and the Persian empires, this method was also used in feudal Japan.
Drawing and Quartering: A violent form of execution common in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. It involved taking a person's organs out while they were still alive.
Breaking on the wheel: the executioner breaks all the bones of a person's limbs with a heavy object. The executioner wraps the person's limbs around a wheel from a carriage, and lifts the wheel to the top of a tall pole. Slowly, the person dies.
Crushing, also called pressing: used in the common law legal systems. A defendant who refused to plead ("stood mute") would be subjected to having heavier and heavier stones placed upon their chest until a plea was entered or the person suffocated.
Garroting, a method of strangulation used in Spain for hundreds of years.

Capital punishment

Execution


Pink Floyd – The Wall is a British musical psychological drama movie from 1982. It was inspired by Pink Floyd's album The Wall. It was directed by Alan Parker (for the non-animation) and Gerald Scarfe (for the animation). It was distributed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (for the original version) and Warner Bros. (for the current version).

The movie is about a rock star named "Pink", after the band. He builds a wall to separate everyone from his life. But when Pink is on trial the judge orders the wall to be pulled down. At the Cannes Film Festival in 1982, the movie was shown "out of competition". This means it was shown in the Festival theatre but could not win the main prize.

Pink Floyd
1982 movies
Movies directed by Alan Parker

Pink Floyd – The Wall


Pasteurization (or pasteurisation) is a process of heat processing a liquid or a food to kill pathogenic bacteria to make the food safe to eat and to preserve longer. It involves heating the food to kill most harmful microorganisms. Producers pasteurize dairy and other foods to make them safe to eat. The process is named after Louis Pasteur. He was the first person to learn how to do it successfully. The first pasteurization was done by Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard on 20 April 1862.

Unlike sterilization, pasteurization is not intended to kill all microorganisms in the food. Instead, pasteurization  gets a "log reduction" in the number of microorganisms. It  brings their number down so they are unlikely to cause disease if the product is kept in the refrigerator and consumed before its sell-by date. Commercial sterilization of food is not common, because it tends to destroy the flavour of the food.

Milk pasteurization
Pasteurization is usually done to milk, which was first suggested by Franz von Soxhlet in 1886. There are two popular ways to pasteurize milk. First, high temperature/short time (HTST), and second, ultra-high temperature (UHT). HTST is the most common method. Milk only labeled pasteurized (or past) is usually treated with the HTST method, whereas milk labelled ultra-pasteurized or UHT must be treated with the UHT method. HTST is when the milk is at a temperature of 72 degrees Celsius (or 161.5 degrees Fahrenheit) for at least 15 seconds. UHT is when the milk is at a temperature of 138 °C or 280 °F for at least two seconds.

Pasteurization rules are usually set by national food safety agencies (like the USDA in the United States and the Food Standards Agency in the United Kingdom). These agencies say milk has to be HTST pasteurized to have the "pasteurized" label. There are different rules for different dairy products, depending on the fat content and what they will be used for. For example, the pasteurization rules for cream are different than the rules for fluid milk, and the standards for pasteurizing cheese are designed to keep the phosphatase enzyme fresh, which helps in making the cheese.

HTST pasteurized milk normally has a refrigerated shelf life of two or three weeks, but ultra pasteurized milk can last much longer when refrigerated, sometimes two or three months. When UHT pasteurization is mixed with safe handling and container technology, it can even be stored unrefrigerated for even longer periods of time.

The pasteurization of milk allowed it to be kept and stored in homes. People began to purchase milk in order to drink it more often.

Alternative pasteurization standards and raw milk
In addition to the standard HTST and UHT pasteurization standards, there are other lesser-known pasteurization techniques. The first technique, called "batch pasteurization", involves heating large batches of milk to a lower temperature, typically . The other technique is called higher-heat/shorter time (HHST), and it lies somewhere between HTST and UHT in terms of time and temperature. Pasteurization causes some irreversible and some temporary denaturization of the proteins in milk.

In most legislations, double pasteurization is not allowed. A heat treatment at a lower temperature or for a shorter time is sometimes performed. Possibly, such milk could be called "raw milk" or, confusingly, "unpasteurized milk". It cannot be called "pasteurized", even though a significant number of pathogens are destroyed during the process.

In recent years, there has been some consumer interest in raw milk products, due to perceived health benefits. Advocates of raw milk maintain, correctly, that some components survive in milk that has not been pasteurized. Specifically, raw milk contains immunoglobulins and the enzymes lipase and phosphatase, which are inactivated by heat. Raw milk also contains vitamin B6 of which up to 20% may be lost on heat treatment. It is also claimed to contain beneficial bacteria which aid digestion and boost immunity.

Commercial distribution of packaged raw milk is not allowed in most US states.

Some doctors (and some raw milk advocates) acknowledge that certain people should not drink raw milk, including pregnant or breast-feeding mothers, those undergoing immunosuppression treatment for cancer, organ transplant, or autoimmune diseases; and those who are immunocompromised due to medical conditions such as AIDS.

In fact, some doctors suggest that babies and breast-feeding mothers avoid all but UHT pasteurized dairy products.

In Africa, it is common to boil milk whenever it is harvested. This intense heating greatly changes the flavor of milk, which the people in Africa are accustomed to.

Unpasteurized milk

Milk pasteurization standards have been subject to increasing scrutiny in recent years, due to the discovery of pathogens that are both widespread and heat resistant (able to survive pasteurization in significant numbers). Researchers have developed more sensitive diagnostics, such as real-time PCR and improved culture methods, that have enabled them to identify pathogens in pasteurized milk.

One bacterium in particular, the organism Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), which causes Johne's disease in cattle and is suspected of causing at least some Crohn's disease in humans, has been found to survive pasteurization in retail milk in the U.S., the U.K., Greece, and the Czech Republic. The food safety authorities in the U.K. have decided to re-evaluate pasteurization standards in light of the MAP results and other evidence of harmful, pasteurization-resistant pathogens.

The USDA (which is responsible for setting pasteurization standards in the U.S.) has not re-evaluated their position on pasteurization adequacy. They do not dispute the studies, which are at this point accepted by the scientific community, but maintain that the presence of MAP in retail pasteurized milk must be due to post-pasteurization contamination. However, some researchers within the FDA, which is responsible for food safety in the U.S., have begun pushing for a re-evaluation of these results. There is a small but growing body of criticism directed at these agencies by Crohn's disease sufferers, scientists, and doctors. Some have suggested that the U.S. dairy industry has been successful in suppressing the agencies' response to a potential health crisis, for fear of consumer panic which would lead to a decrease in milk consumption. It is worth noting that while MAP has not been definitely proven to be harmful in humans, all other mycobacteria are pathogenic, and it has been definitively shown to cause disease in cattle and other ruminants.

A newer method called flash pasteurization involves shorter exposure to higher temperatures, and is claimed to be better for preserving color and taste in some products.

The term cold pasteurization is used sometimes for the use of ionizing radiation (see food irradiation) or other means (e.g. chemical) to kill bacteria in food. Food irradiation is also sometimes called "electronic pasteurization".

Products that are commonly pasteurized

 Beer
 Canned food
 Dairy products
 Eggs
 Juices
 Milk
 Syrups
 Vinegar
 Water
 Wines

References
 Rosenau, M.J., The Milk Question, Haughton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1913.

Food preservation

Pasteurization


The Indian Railways Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering (IRIMEE) was founded in 1888 as a technical school and commenced training Mechanical Officers for Indian Railways in 1927. It is the oldest of the five Centralised Training Institutes (CTIs) for training officers for Indian Railways. IRIMEE is located at Jamalpur in the Munger district of Bihar, on the Patna-Bhagalpur rail route. IRIMEE provides theoretical and practical training for a four-year undergraduate degree in mechanical engineering as well as professional courses to officers and supervisors of Indian Railways. There are also courses for non-railway organizations and foreign railways.

Location
Traditionally a center for firearms manufacturing, Jamalpur was selected by the East Indian Railway for one of its earliest workshops and was established on 8 February 1862. Located in the foothills of the Rajmahal range (a part of Chhota Nagpur Plateau), the site was high enough to survive any threat of floods from the Ganges, and the hills secured it against any organized attack from an enemy. The site had a tomb of Baba Jamal Saheb after whom the place was named.

History
Indian Railways Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering (IRIMEE) is the oldest CTI of Indian Railways. It was originally set up in 1888 as a technical school attached to the Railway Locomotive Workshop Jamalpur of the East Indian Railway. In 1905, this technical school started an Apprentice Mechanics Scheme for Anglo-Indians. At the end of a five-year apprenticeship, the Apprentice Mechanics were appointed as Assistant Foremen or Assistant Superintendents on the East India Railway. In 1911, the scheme was extended to include other Indians.

The program gained national prominence in February 1927 when it started training Special Class Railway Apprentice Mechanical and Electrical Engineers. From 1 April 1974, the school was made a Centralised Training Institute (CTI) and renamed the Indian Railways Institute of Mechanical & Electrical Engineering. It was put under the direct control of the Railway Board.

In 1988, the training of Indian Railway Service of Mechanical Engineers (IRSME) Probationers was centralised and put under the control of the Director of the IRIMEE, but with headquarters in Kharagpur, where there was an Officer on Special Duty (OSD) who coordinated the training with the Director. In 1997, the headquarters of the IRSME probationers was shifted to Jamalpur.

IRIMEE is headed by a Director who is supported by a faculty of professors. The senior faculty consists of officers from Indian Railways on temporary assignment. These officers administer IRIMEE without specialized administrators.

Facilities
Built in the first decade of the 20th century, the original two-story building of IRIMEE was destroyed in a major earthquake in 1921, but it was redesigned and reconstructed in 1924. The building encloses several beautiful, landscaped gardens laid out in quadrangles.  There are eight classrooms equipped with computers connected to the internet, laboratories and model rooms for theoretical and practical training, and two computer labs with high-speed internet connectivity. A new CAD/CAM laboratory is being established. There is also a 500-seat auditorium for seminars and workshops, as well as a conference hall.

There are model rooms for Carriage & Wagon, Train Lighting and Air conditioning in coaches, Freight, Air-brake systems, 140 Tonne Crane, ALCO Locomotives and High horsepower Locomotives. It has an excellent Mechatronics Lab, CNC trainer Machines and a Bio-diesel lab.

There are three hostels for supervisory, long-term, and short-term trainees with television and computers connected to the internet. Recreational facilities includes multi-gyms, table tennis, field hockey, squash, basketball, and swimming.

Courses and Activities
IRIMEE offers a highly-competitive four-year undergraduate course leading to a degree in Mechanical Engineering. IRIMEE also conducts short-term courses for IRSME officers and other organizations. These courses includes:

 Four years of theoretical and practical training of Special Class Railway Apprentices (SCRA) leading to a Bachelor's degree in Mechanical Engineering. The coursework is tailored to meet Indian Railways' needs, with strong emphasis on Industrial Engineering and Production Engineering. This is achieved through a Thick Sandwich course composed of
 Alternating classroom (School Session) and practical (Shop Session) training
 Term papers and projects based upon assignments in the Workshop
 Credit courses at other universities and colleges
 Final year project involving design and manufacture
 Professional courses for serving officers and supervisors of the Mechanical Engineering Department
 78 weeks of training for IRSME Probationers, as well as introductory courses for Probationers of other departments
 Special courses for non-Indian Railways organizations and foreign railways

See also
 Indian Railways organisational structure
 Indian Railway Service of Mechanical Engineers (IRSME)
 Jamalpur Gymkhana

References

External links

Universities and colleges in Bihar
Munger district
Training institutes of Indian Railways
1888 establishments in India
British colonial architecture in India
Jamalpur, Bihar


The Woodward & Lothrop Service Warehouse is a historic warehouse located in the NoMa neighborhood of Washington, D.C.  It was designated a District of Columbia Historic Landmark in 1993, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.  The building is visible from the NoMa–Gallaudet U Metro station.

History
The warehouse was designed by Abbot, Merkt & Company, a group of architects noted for their work in designing warehouses, and was constructed between 1937 and 1939.  Built to incorporate areas for service, storage, and delivery, it is one of the few examples of such a mixed-use warehouse still extant in the Washington area.  The structure is considered to be the most ambitious warehouse built in the area before World War II, and is one of the city's largest warehouses.  The property was owned by Woodward & Lothrop until the company foundered in 1995.  It was subsequently taken over by the Bristol Group, a San Francisco-based company, and converted to office space. Tenants include the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services, the United States Department of Homeland Security, and the United States Department of Veterans Affairs.

Architecture

Architecturally, the building is considered notable because it was constructed in the Streamline Moderne style; unusually for a warehouse, its design was not meant to be merely utilitarian.  According to the District's Historic Preservation Office, it was this "highly refined architectural expression unusual for [a] utilitarian structure" that led, in part, to its recognition as a historic structure.

One of the most prominent features of the building is its large pink neon sign, identifying it as a Woodward & Lothrop property, which remains on the building's exterior.  There are no plans to remove the sign, as it is considered an integral part of the building's historic nature.

Along with the Lothrop Mansion, the warehouse is one of two D.C. Historic Landmarks directly associated with now-defunct department store chain Woodward & Lothrop.

See also
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Washington, D.C.
 Hecht Company Warehouse

References

Commercial buildings completed in 1939
Art Deco architecture in Washington, D.C.
General Services Administration
Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.
Office buildings in Washington, D.C.
Warehouses on the National Register of Historic Places
Streamline Moderne architecture in Washington, D.C.
1939 establishments in Washington, D.C.

Woodward & Lothrop Service Warehouse