Element Lad (Jan Arrah) is a character appearing in media published by DC Comics, primarily as a member of the Legion of Super-Heroes in the 30th and 31st centuries. A native of the planet Trom, he has the power to transmute chemical elements.

Publication history
Element Lad first appeared in Adventure Comics #307, and was created by Edmond Hamilton and John Forte.

Fictional character biography

Pre-Zero Hour
Element Lad first appears in Adventure Comics (vol. 1) #307 (1963). In this first story he is briefly known as "Mystery Lad" as the Legionnaires do not initially know his powers. Jan is the last survivor of Trom, as he was in space at the time that the space pirate Roxxas massacred the Trommites for refusing to transmute valuable elements for him.

With the aid of the Legion, Roxxas is brought to justice and Jan joins the Legion, using the codename Element Lad. He is a member of the Legion for many years, serving terms as leader and deputy leader. He is eventually linked romantically to Shvaughn Erin, the Science Police's Legion liaison, who herself first appeared in Superboy and the Legion of Super-Heroes #241 (July 1978).

"Five Years Later"
In November 1989 the Legion continuity jumps ahead five years; during this "Five Year Gap" following the Magic Wars, Earth had fallen under the covert control of the Dominators, and had withdrawn from the United Planets. In a storyline written by Tom and Mary Bierbaum, it is revealed in Legion of Super-Heroes (vol. 4) #31 (July 1992) that Shvaughn had been born as a male named Sean, and had taken a futuristic sex-change drug called ProFem to secure Element Lad's love. With ProFem no longer available in the tough economical times, Shvaughn reverts to Sean; Jan is unfazed, saying "Look, it doesn't matter. Don't you understand ... ? Anything we ever shared physically ... it was in spite of the ProFem, not because of it ... !"

At the same time, the Dominators' highly classified "Batch SW6" escapes captivity. Originally, Batch SW6 appears to be a group of teenage Legionnaire clones, created from samples apparently taken just prior to Ferro Lad's death at the hands of the Sun-Eater. Later, they are revealed to be time-paradox duplicates. After Earth is destroyed in a disaster reminiscent of the destruction of Krypton over a millennium earlier, a few dozen surviving cities and their inhabitants reconstitute their world as New Earth. The SW6 Legionnaires remain, and their version of Element Lad assumes the code name Alchemist.

Post-Zero Hour
After Legion of Super-Heroes (vol. 4) #61 (September 1994), DC Comics rebooted the Legion continuity as part of the Zero Hour company-wide crossover storyline. In post-Zero Hour continuity, Jan is still the last survivor of Trom, however the Trommites had been killed by the heat vision of Daxamite White Triangle terrorists who had decimated Trom from space. After a brief period of the traumatized Jan being brainwashed into becoming the villainous Starfinger, this version of Element Lad serves with the Legion for some time. Jan's previous history with Shvaughn Erin is erased in this continuity.

After an encounter with the sorcerer Mordru, Jan's powers change so that he can transmute himself into elements as well; he is subsequently often seen in metal or crystal forms, exploring the nature of his physical self.

In the Legion Lost limited series (2000–2001) it is shown that the events from "Widening Rifts" had caused Element Lad to become lost in deep space for billions of years, whereby his perspective changes to a point of arguable insanity and he becomes the extremely powerful villain Progenitor. He is eventually killed during this story by Live Wire (Garth Ranzz, the Legionnaire formerly known before Zero Hour as Lightning Lad), who sacrifices his own life in the process, but Garth later reappears in another form. Kid Quantum had taken the few crystals left from the destruction of the Progenitor and had left them on Shanghalla, the heroes' resting place. It turns out that Garth's essence had survived in the crystals; Jan's body had regrown, but housing Garth's consciousness. The reincarnated Garth is able to use both the Element Lad and Lightning Lad powers in his new crystalline body, although his relationship with other Legionnaires (including former love Saturn Girl) is strained due to his outward resemblance to the Progenitor. Before this plot is resolved, the Legion's continuity was rebooted a third time in 2004.

In the Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds miniseries (2008–2009), the post-Zero Hour Legion is brought to the pre-crisis Legion's timeline, to help battle Superboy Prime and the Legion of Super-Villains. During this time, the Pre-Crisis Brainiac 5 uses a specially charged lightning rod to increase the transmutation ability of Element Lad's body, allowing Garth to mutate the body itself into a match for his own.

"Threeboot"
In the Waid/Kitson 'reimagining' Element Lad is the lone survivor of a lost planet. This most recent version has to touch things to transmute them, and anything he transmutes reverts to its original chemical composition in a matter of minutes; both are limitations he never had before (all previous versions of Element Lad have been able to transmute matter permanently and to do so from great distances).

He finds physical fights barbaric and has romantic feelings toward Triplicate Girl.

This Element Lad and the corresponding Legion also appear in Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds. He turns the ground around Superboy-Prime into Kryptonite, causing him great pain. Superboy-Prime retaliates by throwing a Kryptonite rock through Element Lad's body, killing him.

Post-Infinite Crisis
The events of the Infinite Crisis miniseries have apparently restored a close analogue of the pre-Crisis on Infinite Earths Legion to continuity, as seen in "The Lightning Saga" story arc in Justice League of America and Justice Society of America, and in the "Superman and the Legion of Super-Heroes" story arc in Action Comics.  This version of Element Lad is among a group of Legionnaires listed as missing.

Element Lad appears in Adventure Comics (vol. 2) #1, where it is revealed he is one of the Legionnaires stationed in the 21st century. He poses as Mr. Janson, the chemistry teacher at Smallville High School. As revealed in Adventure Comics (vol. 2) #8, Element Lad is part of a secret team sent by the late R. J. Brande to the 21st century to save the future in the Last Stand of New Krypton storyline.

In the "Watchmen" sequel "Doomsday Clock", Element Lad is among the Legion of Super-Heroes members that appear in the present after Doctor Manhattan undid the experiment that erased the Legion of Super-Heroes and the Justice Society of America.

Powers and abilities
Element Lad is able to transmute objects by touch and change one chemical element into any other, for instance, lead to gold or iron to aluminium. He can transmute an element even if it is part of a compound and can change solid objects into gaseous ones. Like all Trommites, Element Lad could sense the elemental composition of any substance, and could change one element into another by creating or breaking electron bonds. He also possesses extensive knowledge of chemistry and how to use his abilities effectively.

Equipment
As a member of the Legion of Super-Heroes, Element Lad is provided a Legion Flight Ring, which allows him to fly and protects him from the vacuum of space and other dangerous environments.

In other media
 Element Lad makes non-speaking cameo appearances in Legion of Super Heroes.
 Element Lad appears in Adventures in the DC Universe #10.
 Element Lad appears in the one-shot comic Batman '66 Meets the Legion of Super-Heroes.

References

External links
 A "Hero History" of Element Lad covering his many incarnations.

Characters created by Edmond Hamilton
Characters created by John Forte
Comics characters introduced in 1963
DC Comics aliens
DC Comics extraterrestrial superheroes
DC Comics LGBT superheroes
DC Comics male superheroes
DC Comics orphans
Fictional bisexual men
Fictional characters with elemental transmutation abilities

Element Lad


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Ìrìnkánkán àwọn Ẹ̀tọ́ Aráàlú ọmọ Áfríkà Amẹ́ríkà (1955–1968) (African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)) le tọ́ka sí àwọn ìrìnkánkán àwùjọ ní  Orílẹ̀-èdè Amẹ́ríkà tó fẹ́ fi òfin de ìwà ẹlẹ́yàmẹ́yà sí àwọn adúláwọ̀ ará Amẹ́ríkà kí ó sì dá ẹ̀tọ́ ìdìbò padà fún wọn. Àyọkà yìí dálé apá ìrìnkánkán tó wáyé láàrin ọdún 1955 àti 1968, àgàgà ní Gúúsù. Ìjádewá ìrìnkánkan Black Power, tó bẹ̀rẹ̀ láti 1966 dé 1975, jẹ́ kí àwọn ìfojúsùn Ìrìnkánkán àwọn Ẹ̀tọ́ Aráàlú ó fẹ̀ si látí ṣàkọ́mọ́ iyì ẹ̀yà,  ìtọ́ ará-ẹni olókòwò àti olóṣèlú, àti òmìnira lọ́wọ́ ìṣẹ̀gà àwọn  aláwọ̀funfun ará Amẹ́ríkà.

Ìrìnkánkán náà jẹ́ dídámọ̀ pẹ̀lú ìwọ́de nínlá ìkọ̀yà aráàlú. Láàrin 1955 àti 1968, ìwọ́de aláìníjàgídíjàgan àti àìgbọràn aráàlú fa rògbòdìyàn láàrin àwọn alákitiyan àti àwọn aláṣe ìjọba. Àwọn ìjọba àpapọ̀, ìpínlẹ̀ àti ìbílẹ̀, àwọn ilé ìṣòwò, àti àwùjọ jẹ́ pípọndandan láti kojú àwọn ìwọ́de wọ̀nyí tí wọ́n tọ́kasí àwọn àìbánidọ́gba tó únkojú àwọn ọmọ Áfríkà Amẹ́ríkà. Àwọn irú ìfarakọ̀ àti/tábí àìgbọràn aráàlú ní bọikọ́tì bíi ti Bọikọ́tì Ọkọ̀-akérò Montgomery (1955–1956) tó yọrí sí rere ní Alabama; "ìjókòódè" bíi ti ìjọ́kòó Greensboro (1960) ni North Carolina; ìwọ́de, bíi ti àwọn ìwọ́de láti Selma lọ sí Montgomery (1965) ni Alabama; àti orísirísi ọ̀pọ̀ akitiyan aláìníjàgídíjàgan.

Àyọrí aṣòfin tó wáyé nígbà Ìrìnkánkán àwọn Ẹ̀tọ́ Aráàlú yí ni ìṣọdòfin Ìṣe Òfin àwọn Ẹ̀tọ́ Aráàlú 1964, tó fòfin de ìṣojúsáájú nítorí "ẹ̀yà, àwọ̀, ẹ̀sìn, tàbí orílẹ̀-èdè" ní ẹnu ìṣẹ́ àti ní ilé ìgboro; Ìṣe Òfin àwọn Ẹ̀tọ́ Ìdìbò 1965, tó ṣèdápadà àti ìdáàbòbò àwọn ẹ̀tọ́ ìdìbò; Ìṣe Òfin Ìkórawọ̀lú àti Ìjẹ́ọmọọrílẹ̀-èdè 1965, tó sí ọ̀nà ìwọlé sí Amẹ́ríkà fún àwọn ará orílè-èdè yíokù lẹ́yín àwọn tí wọ́n wá láti Europe; àti Ìṣe Òfin Ilé Ẹlẹ́tọ̀ọ́ 1968, tó fòfin de ìṣojúsáájú nínú títà tàbí yíyá ilé. Àwọn ọmọ Áfríkà Amẹ́ríkà padà sí ọ̀ṣèlú nú gúúsù, bẹ́ẹ̀sìni ní káàkiri orílẹ̀-èdè àwọn ọ̀dọ́ ní ìwúrí láti ṣàtúnṣe.

Ìbẹ̀rẹ̀
Lẹ́yìn tí àríyànjiyàn ìdìbòyàn 1876 ti fa òpin sí Àtúnkọ́, àwọn Aláwọ̀funfun ní Gúúsù gba agbára olóṣèlú ibẹ̀, lẹ́yìn tí wọ́n ti ṣe ìdẹ̀rùbà àti fa jàgídíjàgan nínú àwọn ìdìbòyàn. Díẹ̀díẹ̀ wọ́n bẹ̀rẹ̀ sí ní gba àwọn ẹ̀tọ́ àwọn ọmọ Áfríkà Amẹ́ríkà kúrò ní ọwọ́ wọn ní àwọn ìpínlẹ̀ Apágúúsù láti 1890 di 1908 èyí sì jẹ́ bẹ́ẹ̀ títí tí òfin àwọn ẹ̀tọ́ aráàlú ọmọorílẹ̀-èdè wáyé ní àrin ọ̀rúndún 1960. Fún ọdún tó pọ̀ ju 60 ọdún lọ, fún àpẹrẹ, àwọn adúláwọ̀ ní Gúúsù kò ní ẹ̀tọ́ láti dìbòyan ẹnìkankan láti ṣojú fún wọn ní Ilé Aṣòfin tàbí nínú ìjọba ìbílẹ̀.

During this period, the white-dominated Democratic Party regained political control over the South. The Republican Party—the "party of Lincoln"—which had been the party that most blacks belonged to, shrank to insignificance as black voter registration was suppressed. By the early 20th century, almost all elected officials in the South were Democrats.

During the same time as African Americans were being disfranchised, white Democrats imposed racial segregation by law. Violence against blacks increased. The system of overt, state-sanctioned racial discrimination and oppression that emerged out of the post-Reconstruction South became known as the "Jim Crow" system. It remained virtually intact into the early 1950s. Thus, the early 20th century is a period often referred to as the "nadir of American race relations". While problems and civil rights violations were most intense in the South, social tensions affected African Americans in other regions as well.

Characteristics of the post-Reconstruction period:

 Racial segregation. By law, public facilities and government services such as education were divided into separate "white" and "colored" domains. Characteristically, those for colored were underfunded and of inferior quality.

 Disfranchisement. When white Democrats regained power, they passed laws that made voter registration more inaccessible to blacks. Black voters were forced off the voting rolls. The number of African American voters dropped dramatically, and they no longer were able to elect representatives. From 1890 to 1908, Southern states of the former Confederacy created constitutions with provisions that disfranchised tens of thousands of African Americans.
 Exploitation. Increased economic oppression of blacks, Latinos, and Asians, denial of economic opportunities, and widespread employment discrimination.

 Violence. Individual, police, organizational, and mass racial violence against blacks (and Latinos in the Southwest and Asians in California).

African Americans and other racial minorities rejected this regime. They resisted it in numerous ways and sought better opportunities through lawsuits, new organizations, political redress, and labor organizing (see the African-American Civil Rights Movement (1896–1954)). The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded in 1909. It fought to end race discrimination through litigation, education, and lobbying efforts. Its crowning achievement was its legal victory in the Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that rejected separate white and colored school systems and by implication overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson.

The situation for blacks outside the South was somewhat better (in most states they could vote and have their children educated, though they still faced discrimination in housing and jobs). From 1910 to 1970, African Americans sought better lives by migrating north and west. A total of nearly seven million blacks left the South in what was known as the Great Migration.

Invigorated by the victory of Brown and frustrated by the lack of immediate practical effect, private citizens increasingly rejected gradualist, legalistic approaches as the primary tool to bring about desegregation. They were faced with "massive resistance" in the South by proponents of racial segregation and voter suppression. In defiance, African Americans adopted a combined strategy of direct action with nonviolent resistance known as civil disobedience, giving rise to the African-American Civil Rights Movement of 1955–1968.

Mass action replacing litigation
The strategy of public education, legislative lobbying, and litigation that had typified the Civil Rights Movement during the first half of the 20th Century broadened after Brown to a strategy that emphasized "direct action"—primarily boycotts, sit-ins, Freedom Rides, marches and similar tactics that relied on mass mobilization, nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience. This mass action approach typified the movement from 1960 to 1968.

Churches, the centers of their communities, local grassroots organizations, fraternal societies, and black-owned businesses, mobilized volunteers to participate in broad-based actions. This was a more direct and potentially more rapid means of creating change than the traditional approach of mounting court challenges.

In 1952, the Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL), led by T. R. M. Howard, a black surgeon, entrepreneur, and planter, organized a successful boycott of gas stations in Mississippi that refused to provide restrooms for blacks.  Through the RCNL, Howard led campaigns to expose brutality by the Mississippi state highway patrol and to encourage blacks to make deposits in the black-owned Tri-State Bank of Nashville which, in turn, gave loans to civil rights activists who were victims of a "credit squeeze" by the White Citizens' Councils.

The Montgomery Improvement Association—created to lead the Montgomery Bus Boycott managed to keep the boycott going for over a year until a federal court order required Montgomery to desegregate its buses. The success in Montgomery made its leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. a nationally known figure. It also inspired other bus boycotts, such as the highly successful Tallahassee, Florida, boycott of 1956–1957.

In 1957 Dr. King and Rev. John Duffy, the leaders of the Montgomery Improvement Association, joined with other church leaders who had led similar boycott efforts, such as Rev. C. K. Steele of Tallahassee and Rev. T. J. Jemison of Baton Rouge; and other activists such as Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth, Ella Baker, A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin and Stanley Levison, to form the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. The SCLC, with its headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia, did not attempt to create a network of chapters as the NAACP did. It offered training and leadership assistance for local efforts to fight segregation. The headquarters organization raised funds, mostly from Northern sources, to support such campaigns. It made non-violence both its central tenet and its primary method of confronting racism.

In 1959, Septima Clarke, Bernice Robinson, and Esau Jenkins, with the help of the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee, began the first Citizenship Schools in South Carolina's Sea Islands. They taught literacy to enable blacks to pass voting tests. The program was an enormous success and tripled the number of black voters on Johns Island. SCLC took over the program and duplicated its results elsewhere.

Àwọn ìṣẹ̀lẹ̀ tó ṣe kókó

Brown v. Board of Education, 1954

Spring 1951 was the year in which great turmoil was felt amongst Black students in reference to Virginia state's educational system. At the time in Prince Edward County, Moton High School was segregated and students had decided to take matters into their own hands to fight against two things: the overpopulated school premises and the unsuitable conditions in their school. This particular behavior coming from Black people in the South was most likely unexpected and inappropriate as White people had expectations for Blacks to act in a subordinate manner. Moreover, some local leaders of the NAACP had tried to persuade the students to back down from their protest against the Jim Crow laws of school segregation. When the students did not accept the NAACP's demands, the NAACP automatically joined them in their battle against school segregation. This became one of the five cases that made up what is known today as Brown v. Board of Education.

On May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its decision regarding the case called Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, in which the plaintiffs charged that the education of black children in separate public schools from their white counterparts was unconstitutional. The opinion of the Court stated that the "segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The impact is greater when it has the sanction of the law; for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the Negro group."

The lawyers from the NAACP had to gather some plausible evidence in order to win the case of Brown vs. Education. Their way of addressing the issue of school segregation was to enumerate several arguments. One of them pertained to having an exposure to interracial contact in a school environment. It was said that it would, in turn, help to prevent children to live with the pressures that society exerts in regards to race. Therefore, having a better chance of living in democracy. In addition, another was in reference to the emphasis of how "'education' comprehends the entire process of developing and training the mental, physical and moral powers and capabilities of human beings". In Goluboff's book, it has been stated that the goals of the NAACP was to bring to the Court's awareness the fact that African American children were the victims of the legalization of school segregation and were not guaranteed a bright future. Without having the opportunity to be exposed to other cultures, it impedes on how Black children will function later on as adults trying to live a normal life.

The Court ruled that both Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which had established the segregationist, "separate but equal" standard in general, and Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education (1899), which had applied that standard to schools, were unconstitutional. The following year, in the case known as Brown v. Board of Education, the Court ordered segregation to be phased out over time, "with all deliberate speed". Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) did not overturn Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). Plessy v. Ferguson was segregation based on transportation. Brown v. Board of Education dealt with segregation in education. Brown v. Board of Education did set in motion the future overturning of 'separate but equal'.

On May 18, 1954 Greensboro became the first city in the South to publicly announce that it would abide by the U.S. Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education ruling which declared racial segregation in the nation's public schools unconstitutional.  'It is unthinkable,' remarked School Board Superintendent Benjamin Smith, 'that we will try to [override] the laws of the United States.' In agreement with Smith's position, the school board voted six to one to support the court's ruling.  This positive reception for Brown, together with the appointment of African American Dr. David Jones to the school board in 1953, convinced numerous white and black citizens that Greensboro was heading in a forward direction and would likely emerge as a leader in school integration.  Integration in Greensboro occurred rather peacefully compared to that of other Southern states such as Alabama, Arkansas, and Virginia where "massive resistance" took hold.

Rosa Parks àti Bọikọ́tì Ọkọ̀-akérò Montgomery, 1955–1956

On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks (the "mother of the Civil Rights Movement") refused to give up her seat on a public bus to make room for a white passenger. She was secretary of the Montgomery NAACP chapter and had recently returned from a meeting at the Highlander Center in Tennessee where nonviolent civil disobedience as a strategy had been discussed. Parks was arrested, tried, and convicted for disorderly conduct and violating a local ordinance. After word of this incident reached the black community, 50 African-American leaders gathered and organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott to demand a more humane bus transportation system. However, after many reforms were rejected, the NAACP, led by E.D. Nixon, pushed for full desegregation of public buses. With the support of most of Montgomery's 50,000 African Americans, the boycott lasted for 381 days until the local ordinance segregating African-Americans and whites on public buses was lifted. Ninety percent of African Americans in Montgomery partook in the boycotts, which reduced bus revenue by 80% until a federal court ordered Montgomery's buses desegregated in November 1956, and the boycott ended.

A young Baptist minister named Martin Luther King, Jr. was president of the Montgomery Improvement Association, the organization that directed the boycott. The protest made King a national figure. His eloquent appeals to Christian brotherhood and American idealism created a positive impression on people both inside and outside the South.

Desegregating Little Rock, 1957

Little Rock, Arkansas, was in a relatively progressive Southern state. A crisis erupted, however, when Governor of Arkansas Orval Faubus called out the National Guard on September 4 to prevent entry to the nine African-American students who had sued for the right to attend an integrated school, Little Rock Central High School. The nine students had been chosen to attend Central High because of their excellent grades. On the first day of school, only one of the nine students showed up because she did not receive the phone call about the danger of going to school. She was harassed by white protesters outside the school, and the police had to take her away in a patrol car to protect her. Afterward, the nine students had to carpool to school and be escorted by military personnel in jeeps.

Faubus was not a proclaimed segregationist. The Arkansas Democratic Party, which then controlled politics in the state, put significant pressure on Faubus after he had indicated he would investigate bringing Arkansas into compliance with the Brown decision. Faubus then took his stand against integration and against the Federal court order that required it.

Faubus' order received the attention of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was determined to enforce the orders of the Federal courts. Critics had charged he was lukewarm, at best, on the goal of desegregation of public schools. Eisenhower federalized the National Guard and ordered them to return to their barracks. Eisenhower then deployed elements of the 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock to protect the students.

The students were able to attend high school. They had to pass through a gauntlet of spitting, jeering whites to arrive at school on their first day, and to put up with harassment from fellow students for the rest of the year. Although federal troops escorted the students between classes, the students were still teased and even attacked by white students when the soldiers were not around. One of the Little Rock Nine, Minnijean Brown, was suspended for spilling a bowl of chili on the head of a white student who was harassing her in the school lunch line. Later, she was expelled for verbally abusing a white female student.

Only one of the Little Rock Nine, Ernest Green, got the chance to graduate; after the 1957–58 school year was over, the Little Rock school system decided to shut public schools completely rather than continue to integrate. Other school systems across the South followed suit.

Sit-ins, 1960
The Civil Rights Movement received an infusion of energy with a student sit-in at a Woolworth's store in Greensboro, North Carolina. On February 1, 1960, four students Ezell A. Blair, Jr. (now known as Jibreel Khazan), David Richmond, Joseph McNeil, and Franklin McCain from North Carolina Agricultural & Technical College, an all-black college, sat down at the segregated lunch counter to protest Woolworth's policy of excluding African Americans. The four students purchased small items in other parts of the store and kept their receipts, then sat down at the lunch counter and asked to be served. After being denied service, they produced their receipts and asked why their money was good everywhere else at the store, but not at the lunch counter.  These protesters were encouraged to dress professionally, to sit quietly, and to occupy every other stool so that potential white sympathizers could join in. The sit-in soon inspired other sit-ins in Richmond, Virginia; Nashville, Tennessee; and Atlanta, Georgia.

As students across the south began to "sit-in" at the lunch counters of a few of their local stores, local authority figures sometimes used brute force to physically escort the demonstrators from the lunch facilities.

The "sit-in" technique was not new—as far back as 1939, African-American attorney Samuel Wilbert Tucker organized a sit-in at the then-segregated Alexandria, Virginia library. In 1960 the technique succeeded in bringing national attention to the movement. The success of the Greensboro sit-in led to a rash of student campaigns throughout the South. Probably the best organized, most highly disciplined, the most immediately effective of these was in Nashville, Tennessee.

On March 9, 1960 an Atlanta University Center group of students released An Appeal for Human Rights  as a full page advertisement in newspapers, including the Atlanta Constitution, Atlanta Journal, and Atlanta Daily World.
This student group, known as the Committee on the Appeal for Human Rights (COAHR), initiated the Atlanta Student Movement  and began to lead in Atlanta  with sit-ins starting on March 15, 1960.

By the end of 1960, the sit-ins had spread to every southern and border state and even to Nevada, Illinois, and Ohio.

Demonstrators focused not only on lunch counters but also on parks, beaches, libraries, theaters, museums, and other public places. Upon being arrested, student demonstrators made "jail-no-bail" pledges, to call attention to their cause and to reverse the cost of protest, thereby saddling their jailers with the financial burden of prison space and food.

In April, 1960 activists who had led these sit-ins held a conference at Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina that led to the formation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). SNCC took these tactics of nonviolent confrontation further, to the freedom rides.

Ẹ tún wo

Nígbogbogbò
 African-American Civil Rights Movement (1896–1954)
 Timeline of the African American Civil Rights Movement
 Civil rights movement veterans
 Executive Order 9981, ending segregated units in the United States military
 Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project
 Photographers of the American civil rights movement
 Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association—inspired by the African-American Civil Rights Movement.
 Protests of 1968
 Read's Drug Store (Baltimore), site of a 1955 desegregation sit-in
 We Shall Overcome, unofficial movement anthem

Àwọn alákitiyan

 Ralph Abernathy
 Victoria Gray Adams
 Ella Baker
 James Baldwin
 Marion Barry
 Daisy Bates
 James Bevel
 Claude Black
 Unita Blackwell
 Julian Bond
 Anne Braden
 Mary Fair Burks
 Stokely Carmichael
 Septima Clark
 Claudette Colvin
 Jonathan Daniels
 Annie Devine
 Doris Derby
 Marian Wright Edelman
 Medgar Evers
 Myrlie Evers-Williams

 James L. Farmer, Jr.
 Karl Fleming
 James Forman
 Frankie Muse Freeman
 Dick Gregory
 Fannie Lou Hamer
 Lorraine Hansberry
 Aaron Henry
 Myles Horton
 T. R. M. Howard
 Winson Hudson
 Jesse Jackson
 Jimmie Lee Jackson
 Esau Jenkins
 Gloria Johnson-Powell
 Clyde Kennard
 Coretta Scott King
 Martin Luther King, Jr.
 Bernard Lafayette
 W. W. Law

 James Lawson
 John Lewis
 Viola Liuzzo
 Joseph Lowery
 Autherine Lucy
 Clara Luper
 Thurgood Marshall
 James Meredith
 Loren Miller
 Jack Minnis
 Anne Moody
 Harry T. Moore
 Robert Parris Moses
 Diane Nash
 Denise Nicholas
 E. D. Nixon
 David Nolan
 James Orange
 Nan Grogan Orrock

 Rosa Parks
 Rutledge Pearson
 George Raymond Jr.
 James Reeb
 Gloria Richardson
 Amelia Boynton Robinson
 Jo Ann Robinson
 Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
 Bayard Rustin
 Cleveland Sellers
 Fred Shuttlesworth
 Modjeska Monteith Simkins
 Rev. Charles Kenzie Steele
 C. T. Vivian
 Wyatt Tee Walker
 Hosea Williams
 Malcolm X
 Andrew Young

Àwọn aalákitiyan ìbátan àti àwọn oníṣọ̀nà

 Maya Angelou
 Joan Baez
 James Baldwin
 Harry Belafonte
 Ralph Bunche
 Guy Carawan
 Robert Carter
 William Sloane Coffin
 Ossie Davis

 Ruby Dee
 James Dombrowski
 W. E. B. Du Bois
 Virginia Durr
 Bob Dylan
 John Hope Franklin
 Jack Greenberg
 Anna Arnold Hedgeman
 Dorothy Height

 Clarence Jordan
 Stetson Kennedy
 Arthur Kinoy
 William Kunstler
 Staughton Lynd
 Constance Baker Motley
 Nichelle Nichols
 Phil Ochs
 Odetta

 Sidney Poitier
 A. Philip Randolph
 Paul Robeson
 Jackie Robinson
 Pete Seeger
 Nina Simone
 Norman Thomas
 Roy Wilkins
 Whitney Young
 Howard Zinn

Itokasi

Àwọn ọmọ Áfríkà Amẹ́ríkà


Machu Picchu is a pre-Columbian 15th-century Inca site in Peru, in South America.

The Incas built the city on a mountain ridge, 2430m above sea level. They lived there between 1200 and 1450 AD. Other people lived there before about 650 AD.

The Incas built houses, fields and temples by cutting the rock on the mountain so it was flat. They built an observatory to look at the stars.

When the Spanish invaded Peru, the Incas left Machu Picchu. Nobody knows for sure why they did that, but some think it was because of diseases from Europe (such as smallpox). The city was left unfinished, most likely due to the Spanish invasion and/or a civil war between the ruling rival Inca brothers named Huascar and Atahualpa. The Spanish never found Machu Picchu or the lost city during their occupation.

Machu Picchu is very difficult to get to because it is so high in the mountains. It has only one way in and a stone wall to protect it. Most people on Earth did not know it was there until a Yale graduate named Hiram Bingham rediscovered it in 1911. He heard rumors of a hidden city which was already known to the native Peruvians, who guided him there. He led a restoration project that was partly funded by the National Geographic Society. Bingham made a deal with the government to take artifacts to the Peabody Museum for study. Peru is still trying to have those artifacts returned to them.

Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide Internet poll.

Today, there is a new road so that tourists can visit. People can also walk along the Inca Trail, or take a train from Cusco.

Other websites

 Information About Machu Picchu
 QuickTime Virtual Tour of Machu Picchu and Peru from destination360.com.
 Machu Picchu on National Geographic
 Machu Picchu on Google Maps.
 Machu Picchu travel guide.
 Machu Picchu. YouTube

Inca civilization
World Heritage Sites in South America
1450s establishments
Establishments in Peru
1572 disestablishments
16th-century disestablishments in South America
Cusco Region

Machu Picchu


John Grinham Kerr (November 15, 1931 – February 2, 2013) was an American actor and lawyer. As an actor. he worked in movies, television and on stage. He won a Tony Award in 1954.

Early life
Kerr was born on November 15, 1931 in New York City, New York. His parents were British actor Geoffrey Kerr and American actress June Walker. He studied at Phillips Exeter Academy and at Harvard University.

Career
Kerr had a major role in the movie version of Rodgers and Hammerstein's South Pacific (1958), playing Lt. Joe Cable, the newly arrived marine about to be sent on a dangerous spy mission.

In The Crowded Sky (1960), Kerr played a pilot who helps the Captain (Dana Andrews) steer a crippled airliner back to earth. Another movie appearance was in Roger Corman's The Pit and the Pendulum (1961). In 1963, Kerr had a continuing role on "Arrest and Trial", playing Assistant DA Barry Pine.

Personal life
Kerr was married to Priscilla Smith from 1952 until they divorced in 1972. Then he was married to Barbara Chu from 1979 until his death in 2013. He had three children with Smith.

Death
Kerr died on February 2, 2013 in Pasadena, California from heart failure, aged 81.

References

Other websites
 Obituary - Variety

1931 births
2013 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
Actors from New York City
Lawyers from New York City
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Tony Award winning actors

John Kerr (actor)


Virtual reality (often just called VR) is the name for computer technology that makes a person feel like they are somewhere else.  It uses software to produce images, sounds, and other sensations to create a different place so that a user feels like he or she is really part of this other place.  That other place can be a real place (to take a tour in another country, for instance) or imaginary (playing a game).

A user uses a headset which consists of a screen to project the content, and speakers to produce sounds. The technology to do this needs special display screens or projectors and other devices.  Often the picture will change when the user moves their head, they may be able to "walk" through this virtual space and to see things in that space from different directions, and maybe move things in that space.  Haptic feedback might also be used to help make it seem more real - haptic feedback uses special gloves that make it feel like you touched something in real life.

Virtual reality is different than augmented reality, which shows the real place that a person is in, but changes or adds to it.  Pokémon Go is an example of augmented reality. Augmented reality headsets are also commercially available such as the Microsoft HoloLens.

Virtual reality


A Brief History of Time (1988) is a book written by the scientist and mathematician Stephen Hawking. The subject of the book is cosmology, the story of the universe.

There are two other versions of this book: The Illustrated A Brief History of Time and A Briefer History of Time. The Illustrated A Brief History of Time has pictures to help explain its ideas. It was also updated because new information was found. A Briefer History of Time is shorter than the first version and was also updated.

This book is very popular and well-known. This book was on the London Sunday Times bestseller list for over 4 years.

Summary

In this book, Hawking talks about many theories in physics. Some of the things that he talks about are the history of physics, gravity, how light moves in the universe, space-time, elementary particles (very small objects that make up things in the universe), black holes, the Big Bang (the theory that the universe started from one point), and time travel (the idea that travel can be done to the past and to the future.)

In the first part of the book, Hawking talks about the history of physics. He talks about the ideas of philosophers such as Aristotle and Ptolemy. Aristotle, unlike many other people of his time, thought that the Earth was round. He also thought that the sun and stars went around the Earth. Ptolemy also thought about how the sun and stars were located in the universe. He made a planetary model that described Aristotle's thinking. Today, it is known that the opposite is true; the earth goes around the sun. The Aristotle/Ptolemy ideas about the position of the stars and sun was disproved in 1609. The person who first thought of the idea about the Earth going around the sun was Nicholas Copernicus. Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler, two other scientists, helped to prove that Copernicus's idea was right. They looked at how the moons of some planets moved in the sky, and they used this to prove Copernicus right. Isaac Newton also wrote a book about gravity, which helped to prove Copernicus's idea right.

Space and Time

Hawking describes the motion of planets moving around the sun and how gravity works between the planets and the sun. He also talks about the ideas of absolute rest and absolute position. These ideas are about the thought that events stay in place over a period of time. This was found not to be true by Newton's laws of gravity. The idea of absolute rest did not work when objects move very fast (at the speed of light, or light speed).

The speed of light was first measured in 1676 by the Danish astronomer Ole Christensen Roemer. The speed of light was found to be very fast, but at a finite speed. However, scientists found a problem when they tried to say that light always travelled at the same speed. The scientists created a new idea, called the ether, which tried to explain light's speed.

Albert Einstein said the idea of the ether was not needed if another idea, the idea of absolute time (or time that is always the same) was dropped. Einstein's idea was also the same as Henry Poincare's idea. Einstein's idea is called the theory of relativity.

Hawking also talks about light. He says that events can be described by light cones. The top of the light cone tells where the light from the event will travel. The bottom tells where the light was in the past. The center of the light cone is the event. Besides light cones, Hawking also talks about how light can bend. When light goes past a big mass, like a star, the light changes direction slightly towards the mass.

After talking about light, Hawking talks about time in Einstein's theory of relativity. One prediction that Einstein's theory makes is that time will go by slower when something is near huge masses. However, when something is farther away from the mass, time will go by faster. Hawking used the idea of two twins living at different places to describe his idea. If one of the twins went to live on a mountain, and another twin went to live near the sea, the twin who went to live on the mountain would be a little bit older than the twin who went to live at the sea.

The Expanding Universe

Hawking talks about the expanding universe. The universe is getting bigger over time. One of the things he uses to explain his idea is the Doppler shift. The Doppler shift happens when something moves toward or away from another object. There are two types of things that happen in Doppler shift - red shifting and blue shifting. Red shifting happens when something is moving away from us. This is caused by the wavelength of the visible light reaching us increasing, and the frequency decreasing, which shifts the visible light towards the red/infra-red end of the electromagnetic spectrum. Red-shift is linked to the belief that the universe is expanding as the wavelength of the light is increasing, almost as if stretched as planets and galaxies move away from us, which shares similarities to that of the Doppler effect, involving sound waves. Blue shifting happens when something is moving toward us, the opposite process of red-shift, in which the wavelength decreases and frequency increases, shifting the light towards the blue end of the spectrum. A scientist named Edwin Hubble found that many stars are red shifted and are moving away from us. Hawking uses the Doppler shift to explain that the universe is getting bigger. The beginning of the universe is thought to have happened through something called the Big Bang. The Big Bang was a very big explosion that created the universe.

The Uncertainty Principle
The uncertainty principle says that the speed and the position of a particle cannot be found at the same time. To find where a particle is, scientists shine light at the particle. If a high frequency light is used, the light can find the position more accurately but the particle's speed will be unknown (because the light will change the speed of the particle). If a lower frequency light is used, the light can find the speed more accurately but the particle's position will be unknown. The uncertainty principle disproved the idea of a theory that was deterministic, or something that would predict everything in the future.

How light behaves is also talked more about in this chapter. Some theories say that light acts like particles even though it really is made of waves; one theory that says this is Planck's quantum hypothesis. A different theory also says that light waves also act like particles; a theory that says this is Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.

Light waves have crests and troughs. The highest point of a wave is the crest, and the lowest part of the wave is a trough. Sometimes more than one of these waves can interfere with each other - the crests and the troughs line up. This is called light interference. When light waves interfere with each other, this can make many colors. An example of this is the colors in soap bubbles.

Elementary Particles and Forces of Nature
Quarks are very small things that make up everything we see (matter). There are six different "flavors" of quarks: the up quark, down quark, strange quark, charmed quark, bottom quark, and top quark. Quarks also have three "colors": red, green, and blue. There are also anti-quarks, which are the opposite of the regular quarks. In total, there are 18 different types of regular quarks, and 18 different types of anti quarks. Quarks are known as the "building blocks of matter" because they are the smallest thing that make up all the matter in the universe.

All elementary particles (for example, the quarks) have something called spin. The spin of a particle shows us what a particle looks like from different directions. For example, a particle of spin 0 looks the same from every direction. A particle of spin 1 looks different in every direction, unless the particle is spun completely around (360 degrees). Hawking's example of a particle of spin 1 is an arrow. A particle of spin two needs to be turned around halfway (or 180 degrees) to look the same. The example given in the book is of a double-headed arrow. There are two groups of particles in the universe: particles with a spin of 1/2, and particles with a spin of 0, 1, or 2. All of these particles follow Pauli's exclusion principle. Pauli's exclusion principle says that particles cannot be in the same place or have the same speed. If Pauli's exclusion principle did not exist, then everything in the universe would look the same, like a roughly uniform and dense "soup".

Particles with a spin of 0, 1, or 2 move force from one particle to another. Some examples of these particles are virtual gravitons and virtual photons. Virtual gravitons have a spin of 2 and they represent the force of gravity. This means that when gravity affects two things, gravitons move to and from the two things. Virtual photons have a spin of 1 and represent electromagnetic forces (or the force that holds atoms together).

Besides the force of gravity and the electromagnetic forces, there are weak and strong nuclear forces. Weak nuclear forces are the forces that cause radioactivity, or when matter emits energy. Weak nuclear force works on particles with a spin of 1/2. Strong nuclear forces are the forces that keep the quarks in a neutron and a proton together, and keeps the protons and neutrons together in an atom. The particle that carries the strong nuclear force is thought to be a gluon. The gluon is a particle with a spin of 1. The gluon holds together quarks to form protons and neutrons. However, the gluon only holds together quarks that are three different colors. This makes the end product have no color. This is called confinement.

Some scientists have tried to make a theory that combines the electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force. This theory is called a grand unified theory (or a GUT). This theory tries to explain these forces in one big unified way or theory.

Black Holes

Black holes are stars that have collapsed into one very small point. This small point is called a singularity.This singularity is a point of space-time which rotates at a high speed.That is the reason that black holes have no  time. Black holes suck things into their center because its gravity is very strong. Some of the things it can suck in are light and stars. Only very large stars, called super-giants, are big enough to become a black hole. The star must be one and a half times the mass of the sun or larger to turn into a black hole. This number is called the Chandrasekhar limit. If the mass of a star is less than the Chandrasekhar limit, it will not turn into a black hole; instead, it will turn into a different, smaller type of star. The boundary of the black hole is called the event horizon. If something is in the event horizon, it will never get out of the black hole.

Black holes can be shaped differently. Some black holes are perfectly spherical - like a ball. Other black holes bulge in the middle. Black holes will be spherical if they do not rotate. Black holes will bulge in the middle if they rotate.

Black holes are difficult to find because they do not let out any light. They can be found when black holes suck in other stars. When black holes suck in other stars, the black hole lets out X-rays, which can be seen by telescopes. Hawking talks about his bet with another scientist, Kip Thorne. Hawking bet that black holes did not exist, because he did not want his work on black holes to be wasted. He lost the bet.

Hawking realized that the event horizon of a black hole could only get bigger, not smaller. The area of the event horizon of a black hole gets bigger whenever something falls into the black hole. He also realized that when two black holes combine, the size of the new event horizon is greater than or equal to the sum of the event horizons of the two other black holes. This means that a black hole's event horizon can never get smaller.

Disorder, also known as entropy, is related to black holes. There is a scientific law that has to do with entropy. This law is called the second law of thermodynamics, and it says that entropy (or disorder) will always increase in an isolated system (for example, the universe). The relation between the amount of entropy in a black hole and the size of the black hole's event horizon was first thought of by a research student (Jacob Bekenstein) and proven by Hawking, whose calculations said that black holes emit radiation. This was strange, because it was already said that nothing can escape from a black hole's event horizon.

This problem was solved when the idea of pairs of "virtual particles" was thought of. One of the pair of particles would fall into the black hole, and the other would escape. This would look like the black hole was emitting particles. This idea seemed strange at first, but many people accepted it after a while.

The Origin and Fate of the Universe
Most scientists believe that the universe started in an explosion called the Big Bang. The model for this is called the "hot big bang model". When the universe starts getting bigger, the things inside of it also begin to get cooler. When the universe was first beginning, it was infinitely hot. The temperature of the universe cooled and the things inside the universe began to clump together.

Hawking also talks about how the universe could have been. For example, if the universe formed and then collapsed quickly, there would not be enough time for life to form. Another example would be a universe that expanded too quickly. If a universe expanded too quickly, it would become almost empty. The idea of many universes is called the many-worlds interpretation.

Inflationary models are also discussed in this chapter, and so is the idea of a theory that unifies quantum mechanics and gravity.

Each particle has many histories. This idea is known as Feynman's theory of sum over histories. A theory that unifies quantum mechanics and gravity should have Feynman's theory in it. To find the chance that a particle will pass through a point, the waves of each particle needs to be added up. These waves happen in imaginary time. Imaginary numbers, when multiplied by themselves, make a negative number. For example, 2i X 2i = -4.

Other editions
 1988 — The first edition is published. This edition had an introduction by Carl Sagan.
 1990 - Similar to the 1996 but with an introduction by Carl Sagan, uncolored pictures, and it was printed in paperback
 1996 — An illustrated, updated and expanded edition is published, called The Illustrated A Brief History of Time. This hardcover edition contains full color illustrations and photographs to help explain the text. It also has topics not in the original book, including a new chapter on wormholes and time travel.
 1998 — The Tenth Anniversary Edition is published. It has the same text as the one published in 1996, but was also released in paperback and has less diagrams.
 2005 — The release of A Briefer History of Time (written with Leonard Mlodinow), which is a shorter version of the original book. It was updated again to include new scientific developments..

Notes

References

1988 books
Science books

A Brief History of Time


Sealy (formerly the Sealy Corporation) is an American brand of mattresses marketed and sold by Tempur Sealy International. It draws its name from the city where the Sealy Corporation originally started, Sealy, Texas, United States.

History
In 1881, cotton gin builder Daniel Haynes lived in Sealy, Texas, located west of Houston. He began making cotton-filled mattresses for his friends and neighbors. In 1889, he patented an invention that compressed cotton for use in his mattresses. Eventually the mattresses became so popular he was able to sell the patents to manufacturers in other markets. The term "Mattress from Sealy" was coined to describe what was produced.

During 1906, after much success as an advertising executive, Earl Edwards purchased the patents and gained manufacturing knowledge from Haynes.  Edwards took the name "Sealy" for his new company and expanded it to a national market.

Due to lack of funding for manufacturing, Sealy expanded using a licensing-expansion  similar to that of Coca-Cola. By 1920, Sealy had 28 licensed plants and was the first mattress company to expand using a licensing program.

During the Great Depression the mattress industry was hit hard. Sealy lost most of its licensees and narrowly escaped bankruptcy itself. The company consolidated with the surviving licensees and created what is now known as Sealy, Incorporated.

Sealy operated as a franchisor out of its Chicago headquarters. Its licensees were, under the terms of their licensing agreement, only supposed to sell in a designated trading area that did not conflict with those of other franchisees. The largest licensee, Cleveland-based Ohio Mattress Company (founded by the Wuliger family and operated by Ernest M. Wuliger), defied these restrictions and sold into markets reserved for other franchisees. The conflict resulted in Ohio Mattress filing an antitrust suit against Sealy in 1971. The issue was decided fifteen years later with a near-total victory for Ohio Mattress. Unable to come up with the $77m award, Sealy Incorporated and all but one of the other franchisees were forced to sell to Ohio Mattress, and the company became the world's largest bedding manufacturer by sales.

Merchant banking firm Gibbons Green Van Amerongen took Sealy private in an April 1989 leveraged buyout, a deal which netted Sealy shareholders US$965m. First Boston made a bridge loan to the buy-out firm just as Drexel Burnham Lambert was running into trouble and the junk bond market was drying up, and was stuck with the loan. The failed deal, known as "burning bed", led to a dramatic slow-down in leveraged buyouts. Gibbons Green dissolved and First Boston was forced into the arms of Credit Suisse.

In 1990, Ohio Mattress assumed the Sealy name that it had acquired when it purchased Sealy Inc. In 1998 Sealy announced that it was moving from Cleveland to the High Point, North Carolina area.

Bain Capital and a team of Sealy's senior executives acquired the company in 1997. In 2004, the company was acquired by Kohlberg Kravis Roberts and a team of Sealy management. The deal was valued at $1.5 billion but included significant debt. The company operated as a privately held corporation until 2005. On June 30 of that year, it announced an initial public offering of common stock. The company said proceeds from the IPO would go to paying down debt, funding global operations and paying private equity firm Kohlberg Kravis Roberts to "terminate our future obligations under our management services agreement."

In September 2012, Tempur-Pedic International (TPX) announced an agreement to purchase Sealy (NYSE:ZZ) for about US$229 million.

Sealy's corporate headquarters are located in Trinity, North Carolina. Although Sealy's website claims that they are the largest manufacturer of mattresses in the world, Tempur-Pedic had greater revenue than Sealy in 2011. Sealy has 25 U.S. plants and a 17.8 per cent share of the country's mattress sales.

Sealy sells the majority of its mattresses under its three main brands: Sealy Posturepedic, Stearns & Foster, and Bassett.

Overseas markets
There are licensees operating in Australia, Argentina, Bahamas, Colombia, Israel, Jamaica, Japan, New Zealand, South Africa, Thailand and the United Kingdom.
In 1995, direct export business began to South Korea.
In 1996, Sealy began manufacturing and selling in Mexico.
In 2001, Sealy began manufacturing and selling in its brand South Africa.
In 2011, Sealy opened its first manufacturing plant in China. The 100,000-square-foot factory outside Shanghai is a joint venture of Sealy China, which is owned and operated by Sealy Inc., and licensee Sealy Australia.

References

 Sealy background information

External links

 Sealy India Official Website

Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Manufacturing companies based in North Carolina
Manufacturing companies established in 1881
Austin County, Texas
Randolph County, North Carolina
Private equity portfolio companies
Bain Capital companies
1881 establishments in Texas
1997 mergers and acquisitions
2004 mergers and acquisitions
2012 mergers and acquisitions
2005 initial public offerings
Mattress retailers of the United States

Sealy Corporation


The Adventures of Tintin () is a Belgian comic strip, created by Hergé (Georges Remi) starting in the late 1920s and into the 1970s. They were originally written and published in French, but have been translated into many languages and are popular around the world.

Plot and characters
The stories center around a young reporter from Belgium named Tintin, who travels the world and has many exciting adventures with his dog, a white wire fox terrier named Snowy (Milou, in French) and later (starting with The Crab with the Golden Claws in 1941) his friend, Captain Haddock, a bearded drunk with a temper. Other popular characters include Professor Cuthbert Calculus (Professeur Tryphon Tournesol) an absent-minded and mostly deaf (but he insists he's hard of hearing) scientist and inventor, and Thomson and Thompson (Dupond et Dupont), two silly detectives.

The Books
The stories are a mixture of many different genres, including adventure, satire, and social commentary and changed over time. The first story, Tintin in the Land of Soviets came out in 1929, and the last fully completed story, Tintin and the Picaros, came out in 1976. Another story, Tintin in Alph-Art, was never officially finished following the death of Hergé in 1983. There have been many unofficial books, but most of those are parodies or not part of the official series. The books in the official series are:
 Tintin in the Land of the Soviets - (1929-1930)
 Tintin in the Congo - (1930-1931)
 Tintin in America - (1931-1932)
 Cigars of the Pharaoh - (1932-1934)
 The Blue Lotus - (1934-1935)
 The Broken Ear - (1935-1937)
 The Black Island - (1937-1938)
 King Ottokar's Sceptre - (1938-1939)
 The Crab with the Golden Claws - (1940-1941)
 The Shooting Star - (1941-1942)
 The Secret of the Unicorn - (1942-1943)
 Red Rackham's Treasure - (1943-1944)
 The Seven Crystal Balls - (1943-1948)
 Prisoners of the Sun - (1946-1949)
 Land of Black Gold - (1948-1950)
 Destination Moon - (1950-1953)
 Explorers on the Moon - (1950-1954)
 The Calculus Affair - (1954-1956)
 The Red Sea Sharks - (1958)
 Tintin in Tibet - (1960)
 The Castafiore Emerald - (1963)
 Flight 714 - (1968)
 Tintin and the Picaros - (1976)
 Tintin and Alph-Art - (finished by someone else in 1986)

Other media

There have also been plays, films, and animated cartoons based on the stories. Steven Spielberg and Peter Jackson have made a movie about Tintin. There are also Tintin Shops in Europe, which sell books, toys, and other items based on the books.

Related pages
Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century

Other websites
 Official site
 Fan site
  Objectif Tintin

Comic books

The Adventures of Tintin


Jenny Tseng maistly kent in Cantonese speakin regions as Yan Nei, is a Macau-born sangster, based in Hong Kong for hintle o her career.  Her faither is Austrian while her mither is Cheenese.

Her pouerful vyce an straichtforward personality hae made her a memorable diva wi a career that spans ower 4 decades. Her repertoire includes baith Cantonese an Mandarin sangs.  Amang her maist popular recordins wur several duets wi Roman Tam, sic as the muisic frae the 1982 TVB TV series The Legend of the Condor Heroes.

She is the widae o kung fu movie starn Alexander Fu, who dee'd in a 1983 caur accident.  She an her late husband haed nae childer durin his lifetime. Thay wur bairnless efter less nor a decade o marriage an she haed suffered fower miscarriages afore the tragedy occurred. Housomeivver in 1987, Tseng gae birth tae a dochter, Melody. Somewha controversially, she haed refused tae name the faither till October 2012, whan she revealed that Fu wis Melody's faither. It wis revealed that Melody haed been conceivit via artificial insemination efter his daith an aw – uisin Fu's banked sperm. Tseng haed gane tae the US an gae birth tae Melody in secret. Tseng haes spoken o her close relationship wi her dochter, occasionally referrin tae her as a 'friend' rather than someone wi whom she haes a mither-dochter relationship.

In addeetion tae singin, Tseng is a successfu entrepreneur an haes actit in several films durin the 1970s an 1980s. She is considered as ane o the maist famous sangsters belangin tae the 1960s 1970s an 1980s in which she is frequently compared tae her fellae rivals sic as Teresa Teng an Fung Fei Fei. Mony o her sangs hae acome classics, seemilar tae those o Teresa Teng.

Currently, Jenny is tourin on her "愛 Show: Farewell World Tour". She haes statit that puttin on a lairge scale concert tour is vera stressful an she howps tae spend mair time enjoyin a simpler lifestyle. The tour kicked aff wi 4 sauld oot concerts at HK Arena, an continued tae Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysie, an maist recently in the USA. It is expectit that upcomin tour stops will be in Macau, Canadae, an possibly back tae the US.

Freemit airtins

1953 births
Livin fowk
Cantopop sangsters
Hong Kong female sangsters
Hong Kong Mandopop sangsters
Macau fowk

Jenny Tseng


Elektra (or Electra) can mean:

 Elektra: several people from Greek mythology, most often the daughter of Agamemnon and Klytaimnestra (Clytemnestra).
On spelling: the Greek alphabet does not have a 'C', so they spelled the name with a 'K'.

Drama
The myth was the subject of at least two Greek tragedies:
Elektra (Sophocles) c. 401 BC: When King Agamemnon returns from the Trojan War with his new concubine, Cassandra, his wife Clytemnestra (who has taken Agamemnon's cousin Aegisthus as a lover) kills them. Clytemnestra believes the murder was justified. Agamemnon had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia before the war, as commanded by the gods. Electra, daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, rescued her young, twin brother Orestes from her mother by sending him to Strophius of Phocis. The play begins years later when Orestes has returned as a grown man with a plot for revenge, as well as to claim the throne.

Elektra (Euripides) c. 415: Years before, near the start of the Trojan War, the Greek general Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigeneia in order to appease the goddess Artemis and allow the Greek army to set sail for Troy. His wife Clytemnestra never forgave him, and when he returned from the war ten years later, she and her lover Aegisthus murdered Agamemnon. There follows the reuniting of the brother, Orestes, and sister, Elektra, and their conspiracy to murder their mother and her lover.

The original creator of this kind of tragedy was Aeschylus with his Oresteia trilogy, 485 BC.

Astronomy
 130 Elektra, an asteroid
 Electra is the star 17 Tauri

Elektra (disambiguation)


Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction or process where a chemical compound reacts with water. This is the type of reaction that is used to break down polymers into many smaller units. In this reaction, water is always added to the chemical compound.

Hydrolysis of metal salts

Hydrolysis of metal salts is more commonly known as hydration.  Many metal ions are strong Lewis acids, and in water they may undergo hydrolysis to form basic salts.  Such salts contain a hydroxyl group that is directly bound to the metal ion in place of a water ligand. The positive charge on metal ions creates an attraction to water, a Lewis base with a non-binding electron pair on the oxygen atom, and alters the water molecule's electron density. This in turn increases the polarity of the O-H bond, which now acts as a proton donor under Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory to release the hydrogen as a H+ ion, increasing the acidity of the solution. For example, aluminium chloride undergoes extensive hydrolysis in water with the solution being very acidic.
[Al(H2O)6]^3+ + H2O <=> [Al(OH)(H2O)5]^2+ + H3O+

This implies that hydrogen chloride is lost in the evaporation of AlCl3 solutions and the residue is a basic salt (in this case an oxychloride) in place of AlCl3. This type of reaction is also seen with other metal chlorides such as ZnCl2, SnCl2, FeCl3 and lanthanide halides such as DyCl3. With some compounds such as TiCl4, the hydrolysis may go to completion and form the pure hydroxide or oxide, in this case TiO2.

References

Chemical reactions

Hydrolysis


Larches are conifers in the genus Larix. They grow on the northern hemisphere. Unlike other conifers, larches lose their leaves during autumn and winter.

Species
There are 10–14 species, for example the European Larch, the North American Larch and the Japanese Larch. Scientists usually divide them into two main groups, New World species (North America) and Old World species (Europe and Asia). Inside this one, there are two more groups, Northern (Central Europe, Siberia, Japan, north of China) and Southern (south of China, Himalaya, Myanmar).

Eurasian

Northern

Larix decidua or Larix europaea European Larch.
Larix sibirica Siberian Larch.
Larix gmelinii Dahurian Larch.
Larix kaempferi or Larix leptolepis Japanese Larch.
Larix principis-rupprechtii Prince Ruppretch's larch.

Southern

Larix potaminii Chinese Larch.
Larix himalaica Langtang Larch.
Larix mastersiana Masters' Larch.
Larix speciosa Yunnan Larch.
Larix griffithii or Larix griffithiana Himalayan Larch.

North American

Larix laricina Tamarack Larch or American Larch.
Larix lyallii Subalpine Larch.
Larix occidentalis Western Larch.

There is also a hybrid, the Dunkeld Larch, which is a mix of the European Larch and the Japanese Larch.

Uses
Larch wood is very valuable because it is resistant and it grows quickly. It is used for boats as well as houses.
Larches are also used in herbal medicine and in bonsai.
The tree appeared in many Monty Python sketches as a joke.

Gallery

Conifers

Larch


Juan Evo Morales Aima (born October 26, 1959) was the President of Bolivia from 2006 through 2019. He is an Aymara Native American, and is politically a leftist. He is the founder and leader of the Movement toward Socialism (or MAS) political party. Movimiento al Socialismo is its Spanish name.

Presidency
On January 22, 2006, he became President of Bolivia. His party has declared that he is the first indigenous person to be president of Bolivia. Not everyone believes this to be true because of his mestizo heritage and similar backgrounds of several past Bolivian presidents. Nonetheless, he is likely the first culturally indigenous president of Bolivia.

Policies
Born in Oruro, Morales was a leader in a union of coca growers. Morales has said he does not like United States policy toward Latin America, criticizing the country's past failures to stand up for democracy, trade agreements which he feels have not helped Bolivia, and especially for the US's anti-drug policies. Coca is a component in cocaine, but is also an important part of Bolivian culture. Morales became well known for this, and he was elected to Congress.

Even though he was forced out of Congress in 2002, he became a very popular person in Bolivia, and won the country's presidential election in 2005. As president, he focused on economic changes that moved the country toward a more socialist economy, instead of a capitalist one. He also worked with other leaders in South America like Rafael Correa and Nestor Kirchner. Morales has been a popular president, and has been reelected in 2009 and 2014. During this time he has criticized both George W. Bush and Barack Obama and has had arguments with the United States.

In 2016, Morales wanted to pass a Constitutional amendment that would allow him to run for another term in 2019. Many people in Bolivia saw this as a power grab, and the amendment lost the election.

2019 political crisis
On 20 October 2019 Morales won 47.1% of the vote in the first round of the 2019 Bolivian general election. The results were immediately challenged and led to widespread protests. On 9 November 2019 the Organization of American States published a preliminary report that there were "clear manipulations". The police joined the protests against Morales and on 10 November the military forced him to resign.

References

1959 births
Living people
Presidents of Bolivia
Democratic socialists
Native American people

Evo Morales


Time-domain spectroscopy is a type of spectroscopy that measures the power of electromagnetic radiation as a function of time.  Normal spectroscopy is frequency-domain spectroscopy.  It measures radiation as a function of frequency or wavelength.  Time-domain spectroscopy usually requires the use of Fourier transforms.

Two monochromatic lights of different frequencies can combine to show interference patterns.  At time t=0, the waves interfere constructively.  This gives a maximum in the added plot.  The waves get more out of phase.  This leads to destructive interference and a minimum in the added plot.  From one peak maximum to the next is a cycle.  So when looking at two monochromatic lights, they can be graphed as two lines in the frequency-domain (this plot shows power, P(ν), as a function of frequency).  The same two lights can be plotted as the sum of their waves in the time-domain (this plot shows power, P(t), as a function of time).
  Absorptions in spectra usually look like broad peaks.  This means that a peak may contain many wavelengths of radiation.  These wavelengths can be plotted in the time domain.  Notice that there are now smaller areas of constructive interference.  This is because the closely spaced wavelengths quickly become more and more out of phase.

Getting time-domain spectra

Spectroscopy done with visible or infrared radiation involves wavelengths of 1012 to 1015 Hz.  Phototransducers (instruments that convert light to information readable by a computer) cannot make measurements that quickly.  What is needed, then, is a way to make these high-frequency signals into low-frequency signals.  For optical spectroscopy (such as infrared spectroscopy) the most common way to do this is by using a Michelson interferometer.

Monochromatic light traveling through a Michelson interferometer is split into two beams by a beam splitter.  These beams travel to mirrors, reflect, and then recombine at the beam splitter.  One of the mirrors can be moved.  If the two mirrors are the same distance apart, they meet at the beam splitter in-phase and show constructive interference.  As the one mirror is moved, the beams become slightly more out of phase.  When the movable mirror has moved a distance equal to ¼ of the light's wavelength, the extra distance it travels is ½ the light's wavelength.  This means that when the two beams combine at the beam splitter, they destructively interfere.  So moving the mirror a total distance of ½ the wavelength of light means the spectra will show one complete cycle.  One could then plot the power of radiation as a function of distance traveled by the movable mirror.  However, by knowing the speed of the movable mirror the power of radiation can be plotted as a function of time.

Most time-domain spectroscopy experiments involve broadband radiation (radiation that consists of a large range of wavelengths).

Applications

Time-domain spectroscopy is used very often in infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and NMR spectroscopy(FT-NMR).  It has several advantages over frequency-domain spectroscopy.  In frequency-domain experiments, each wavelength must be measured one at a time.  This means scans can take several minutes.  A single time-domain experiment takes no longer than a minute.  Usually it only takes seconds.  This means that many scans may be taken for a given sample, and that the scans can be averaged.  So not only is the time-domain experiment faster, but it can also have a better signal to noise ratio.

References

D.A. Skoog, F.J. Holler, S.R. Crouch. 2007.  Principles of Instrumental Analysis. 6th ed, Thompson and Brooks/Cole: Canada.

Spectroscopy

Time-domain spectroscopy


Basseterre , is the capital city of the Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis, also called St Kitts and Nevis, in the West Indies. Basseterre port is at , on the south western coast of Saint Kitts Island.  It is one of the chief commercial depots of the Leeward Islands. The city is in the parish of Saint George Basseterre and the southern part of the parish of Saint Peter Basseterre.  In 2000 about 15,500 people lived in the city.

Basseterre is one of the oldest towns in the Eastern Caribbean.

History

Basseterre was founded in 1627 by the French, under Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc. It was the capital of the French colony of Saint-Christophe.  The colony was the most northern and most southern parts of the island of St. Kitts. The middle part was held by Britain. When Phillipe de Longviliers de Poincy was made the French governor of St. Kitts in 1639, the town turned into a large, successful port, commanding Eastern Caribbean trade and colonisation. De Poincy then quickly made Basseterre capital of the entire French West Indies colony, which included the islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique. It was the capital until his death in 1660. The city was made capital of the entire island of St. Kitts in 1727. This is when the French were pushed off the island and the British took full control.

The city of Basseterre has one of the most tragic histories of any Caribbean capital, destroyed many times by colonial wars, fire, earthquakes, floods, riots and hurricanes. Despite all of this, a large number of well-restored buildings still exist in downtown Basseterre.

Geographical Setting and Climate

Geography
The city of Basseterre is on a  bay on the southwestern shore of St. Kitts, Basseterre Bay. The city is in the large Basseterre Valley, almost completely surrounded by lush green hills and mountains. It is mostly low-lying, which is one explanation for the name which the French gave it, Basseterre . However, the name Basseterre is also due to the fact that the island is on the lee of winds of the island, and is thus a safe anchorage. The name Capesterre, given to the region to the North, was dubbed so as it was facing the wind. Basseterre is surrounded by the Olivees Mountains to the north and the Conaree-Morne peaks to the east. The city is drained by the College River and the Westbourne River, which are locally known as "ghauts" and are dry most of the year. They even form streets in downtown Basseterre. This engineering folly has proven quite disastrous though, as College River has been the scene of many disastrous floods in Basseterre history. Port Zante, in the centre of the bay, is on  of land reclaimed from the sea in 1995.

Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Basseterre features a tropical rainforest climate. Temperatures remain constant throughout the course of the year, 27 °C year-round.  Basseterre has no dry season; all 12 months on average sees more than  of precipitation. On average,  of rain falls on the city annually.

Around town
Basseterre is a very small town which is laid out in a grid pattern. It has four main streets running east-west: Bay Road, Liverpool Row, Central Street and Cayon Street. The main street running north to south is Fort Street/Bank Street, which is home to the bulk of the island's main shops and banks. The city has 2 centres, at The Circus, which is geared towards tourism purposes, and the Independence Square, which contains the cathedral, courthouse and most of the older buildings.

Basseterre is the main commercial and industrial centre of St. Kitts. It is also the country's main port of entry, for both sea and air travel, as well as the road and rail transport hub. It houses the administration buildings for the federal government (those for the island of Nevis are in Charlestown). It also houses the headquarters of the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank, as well as the headquarters for many other regional financial institutions.

Despite its small size, Basseterre played host to Carifesta VII (the Caribbean Festival of Arts) in 2000, outbidding rivals many times its size. The city was able to outbid the United States of America, to host matches for the 2007 World Cricket Cup. The Warner Park Sporting Complex was the site of the allocated first round matches of the tournament. This made St. Kitts and Nevis the smallest country in the world ever to host a World Cup event.

Basseterre and its environs are home to many small, American-owned medical schools such as Windsor University, and also two prestigious medical institutions founded by Robert Ross: the Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine and the International University of Nursing. The city has four secondary schools, two of which are government owned, and two are private schools.

The City

Landmarks/Points of Interest

 Independence Square (formerly Pall Mall Square)
 The Circus
 St. George's Anglican Church
 Basseterre Co-Cathedral of Immaculate Conception
 The Cenotaph
 St. Kitts Heritage Society
 National Museum
 Amina Craft Market
 Public Market
 St. Kitts Sugar Factory Museum (under construction using the grounds of the sugar factory which ceased production in 2005)
 Warner Park Sporting Complex
 Pelican Shopping Mall
 Queen Victoria Statue Roundabout
 Basseterre National Park (under construction)
 Fort Thomas
 Springfield Cemetery and Chapel

Religion
There are a large number of Christian churches in the city for its size. Most are Protestant, due to British colonization, but the cathedral in Basseterre is Roman Catholic. The Anglican, or "Church of England" has the most members, followed by the Methodist. Other Protestant denominations include Moravian, Church of God, Baptist, Seventh-day Adventist, Jehovah's Witness, Rivers of Living Water and Pentecostal. Afro-Christian syncretic sects are also widespread.

Economy

The city of Basseterre is a financial centre in the Eastern Caribbean. It has the headquarters of the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank, as well as the Eastern Caribbean Securities Exchange, which lists securities for companies and corporations in the region. The city is also headquarters for the St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla National Bank, the largest bank in the Eastern Caribbean, in terms of assets.

The city is also a major Eastern Caribbean industrial centre, its main exports being bass, electronics, beverages, clothing, and salt.  The sugar industry closed in 2005. This was due to overwhelming debts and further predicted hardships from major price cuts planned by the EU. There are specified industrial estates which carry out sub-sonic technology, food processing, light engineering, bass (instrument) engineering and rum distilling.

Like many countries in the Eastern Caribbean St Kitts and Nevis uses the East Caribbean dollar ($EC).  The exchange rate is fixed at $EC 1 = $US 2.70

Transport

Basseterre is hub for all major roads on the island of St. Kitts. Driving is done on the left. The speed limit in the city is  everywhere, with special caution to be taken around school zones.

Public Buses
Public Buses have a green license plate starting with the letter "H"
There are 5 main bus routes on St. Kitts:
 Basseterre to Sandy Point travelling West, starting at the Ferry Terminal,
 Basseterre to Capesterre travelling West, starting at the Ferry Terminal,
 Basseterre to St. Peter's travelling North, starting at College Street Ghaut,
 Basseterre to Molyneux travelling East, starting at Baker's Corner and
 Basseterre to Saddler's travelling East, starting at Baker's Corner.

All bus fees are EC$2.50 for a trip  and under, EC$3.00 for a trip 5 to , and EC$3.75 for any longer trip. (EC dollars. 1 US = 2.7 EC)

No public buses travel southwards to the main resort areas in Frigate Bay and the South East Peninsula.

Taxis
Taxis have yellow license plates starting with the letter "T" or "TA". The taxi station in Basseterre is at the Circus. The taxis will take you just about anywhere for a pre-calculated price.

Harbour
The Deep Water Harbour in Basseterre is capable of both hosting and berthing of cruise ships or the handling of cargo. It is to the extreme east of Basseterre Bay.

Port Zante, in the centre of the Bay, is for use of docking cruise ships only. The Port can accommodate the largest cruise ships in the world. It also has a marina facility.

The bay is also home to the busy ferry operation between Basseterre and Charlestown on Nevis Island. There are many trips daily served by as much as 6 ferries. There is also a ferry services between Basseterre and Oranjestad, Statia and St. Maarten also exists, but the trips are irregular.

Airport
The Robert L. Bradshaw International Airport serves the island, and is in the city's most north easterly area. It has direct flights to London, New York City and Miami and seasonal flights to Charlotte, North Carolina, Atlanta, Georgia and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in addition to other major cities in the U.S.A. and Canada during the tourist season.

Railway
St. Kitts'  of narrow (0.762m)-gauge railway centre in Basseterre, and swoop the island in a circular pattern. The railway lines, originally built to transport sugar cane to the central sugar factory in Basseterre, are now used to transport tourists via the "St. Kitts Scenic Railway Train" which currently runs from Sandy Point to Basseterre, travelling East.

Prominent people
Famous people born in Basseterre include:
 Bertil Fox (1951-) professional bodybuilder.
 Kim Collins (1976-)  world famous sprinter.
 Desai Williams (1959-) Olympic bronze medalist, (4*100m relay, 1984, for Canada.)
 Erasmus James (November 4, 1982-) Former NFL player for the Minnesota Vikings.
 Dr. George Astaphan (22 May 1946 - 18 August 2006) Famous physician accused of a doping scandal.
 Kayamba Gumbs (1972-) footballer.
 Joan Armatrading (1950-) singer.

References

Other websites

National capitals in North America
Geography of Saint Kitts and Nevis

Basseterre


Gitchie Manitou is a small (91 acre) nature preserve in Lyon County, in the extreme northwestern corner of Iowa just northwest of Granite, Iowa, or just southeast of Sioux Falls, South Dakota.  This natural prairie preserve is noted for its ancient Native American burial mounds and precambrian Sioux Quartzite outcroppings, which are about 1.6 billion years old.

History
In 1916, the state of Iowa purchased the first  for use as a quarry, but later transferred the area to the Board of Conservation.The area was initially classified as a state park, and later a "preserve." It was formally dedicated as a geological, archaeological, historical, and biological preserve in 1969. The preserve was named for the creator spirit in Anishinaabe Indian tradition, Gichi-Manidoo (literally "Great Spirit" or "Great Force of Nature"). The smooth, pink-colored bedrock is the oldest exposed rock in the state.

1973 Murder Case

The preserve was the scene of a 1973 homicide. Four teenagers were killed and a fifth was raped. Three brothers were convicted of the crime and sentenced to life imprisonment.

References

External links
Iowa Department of Natural Resources

Iowa state preserves
Protected areas of Lyon County, Iowa
Grasslands of Iowa
Protected areas established in 1969

Gitchie Manitou State Preserve


Flexibility training refers to developing a wide range of movement in a joint or series of joints that is attainable in a momentary effort with the help of a partner or a piece of equipment. Human flexibility is not the same in all joints. Thus, some easily perform longitudinal splits but are very hard in transversal ones. Flexibility in some joints can be increased to a certain degree by stretching.

Flexibility training has long been underestimated and perhaps overlooked by health-care professionals. Quality of life is considerably enhanced by improving and maintaining a good range of motion in the joints.

Related pages
 Aerobics
 Calisthenics
 Exercise
 Strength training
 Training
 Weight training

Fitness

Flexibility training


Geoffrey L Bell, who was born in 1939, is an economist, banker, and Executive Secretary of the Washington-based Group of Thirty, a council of private and central bankers.

Born in Grimsby, he was educated at the London School of Economics, before working at Her Majesty's Treasury, and later returning to the LSE to lecture on monetary economics in 1964.

Between 1966 and 1969, he served as economic advisor to the British Embassy in Washington, then joined the Schroders Bank, as assistant to the Chairman, Gordon Richardson, later Bank of England Governor. He was chairman of the bank Guinness Mahon Holdings between 1987 and 1993.

In 1978 he founded the G30 advisory group, after an invitation from representatives of the Rockefeller Foundation, and today remains that group's executive secretary.

In 1982 he formed his own consulting company,  Geoffrey Bell and Company, which advises central banks and governments on financial management issues.  His clients included the Central Bank of Venezuela, for which he was financial adviser for over twenty-five years.

Author
The Euro-Dollar Market and the International Financial System, MacMillan, 1973,

External links
Profile of Geoffrey Bell  at AFP Online

1939 births
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Group of Thirty
Living people
People from Grimsby
Schroders people

Geoffrey Bell


José Díaz Ramos (3 May 1895 – 19 March 1942) was a Spanish trade unionist and communist politician. He was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Spain during the Spanish Civil War.

Trade unionism
Born in Sevilla and a baker by trade since age eleven, at 18 joined La Aurora, the Union of Seville bakers, who soon after joined the anarchist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo. He became known as the leader of a strike in 1917 and in 1920 participated in the general strike called by the leadership of the CNT, which ended in failure. After the start of Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship, Díaz continued his labor activism in clandestinity being arrested in Madrid in 1925. In 1927, already out of jail, he joined the Communist Party of Spain (PCE) with much of the leaders of Seville anarchism. He was able to attract the more radical workers, who were disenchanted with the traditional unions, as well as helping the PCE profit from rivalry between the socialist Unión General de Trabajadores and the anarchist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo.

Leadership in Spain

In 1932 the Spanish Communist Party made a major change in direction when it abandoned the Comintern slogan "Workers' and Peasants' Government" and adopted "Defense of the Republic".
Díaz was among the new leaders of the party who succeeded José Bullejos.
The others were Vicente Uribe, Antonio Mije, Juan Astigarrabía and Jesús Hernández Tomás.
The 4th PCE Congress in Sevilla (March 1932) elected him a member of the Central Committee; in September of the same year, he joined the Politburo, and soon after was appointed general secretary. In this capacity, Díaz was replacing José Bullejos, who had been expelled for opposing the official party line during a "campaign of Bolshevisation" that enforced Stalinism as the official Marxism-Leninism. In 1935, he and Dolores Ibárruri led the PCE delegation to the 7th Comintern Congress, where Georgi Dimitrov introduced the politic of "united front against Fascism", which signaled world communists to seek an alliance with movements previously considered bourgeois.

With PCE participation in the Spanish Popular Front government and the Civil War, Díaz dedicated himself to inner party politics, without occupying official positions in the administration of the Second Spanish Republic. His focus was on contributing to the military victory of the Republican forces over Francisco Franco's troops, and was a noted critic of Juan Domingo Astigarrabia and his Communist Party of Euskadi (the PCE wing in the Basque Country), whom he saw as too sympathetic to Basque nationalism. His sister Carmen Díaz and the mother of his daughter, Teresa Santos, were killed in Seville at the orders of General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano, in the early days of the war.

In the Soviet Union

Diaz's health deteriorated due to stomach cancer, and he left Spain for the Soviet Union in January 1939, being operated on in Leningrad. He remained in Moscow after the Republican defeat and the start of World War II, being active as a cadre in the Comintern Secretariat (an overseer of communists in Spain, South America, and British India). Díaz also wrote an essay containing self-criticism, one prompted by the ideological demands of the Great Purge and Stalin's personality cult, entitled Las enseñanzas de Stalin, guía luminoso para los comunistas españoles ("The Teachings of Stalin, a Luminous Guide for the Spanish Communists"). The articles he wrote in the period were collected as Tres años de lucha ("Three Years of Combat").

When the German forces invaded the Soviet state in June 1941, José Díaz was forced to take refuge in Pushkin. In autumn, he settled in Tbilisi (Georgian SSR) but his ailment and the immense pain caused him to take his own life that spring. The circumstances of his death have been disputed ever since, with many believing that he had actually been murdered on Stalin's orders. Notably, the stance Díaz had taken in 1939, when he asked for the PCE to be given full control over the Republican government, went clearly (albeit perhaps unwittingly) against the Stalinist strategy.

The KGB file concerning him was declassified in the 1990s (after the fall of the Soviet Union): it failed to provide any evidence incriminating Stalin's government. Díaz was replaced as general secretary by Dolores Ibárruri.

José Díaz was initially buried in Tbilisi's Vake Cemetery, where a tomb monument authored by the Georgian sculptor Moris Talakvadze was installed. The statue disappeared in the early 1990s and only a tombstone has survived. In April 2005, José Díaz's remains were reburied in Seville, and the PCE honored his memory with a ceremonial; the city's Ayuntamiento unanimously voted to designate him Hijo predilecto ("Favorite son").

His surname became a popular given name in the USSR.

References

Sources

 Braunthal, Julius. (1967). History of the International, vol. 2, tr. Henry Collins and Kenneth Mitchell. London: Praeger.
 Carr, E.H. (1982). The Twilight of the Comintern, 1930-1935. London: Pantheon Books.
 Chase, William J. (2001). Prof. Hist. Univ. Pittsburg : Enemies within the Gates? The Comintern and the Stalinist Repression, 1934–1939. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. See particularly, 72 translated documents covering the period 1935 – 1941, : https://web.archive.org/web/20120527012654/http://www.yale.edu/annals/Chase/Documents/list_of_documents.htm
 Dallin, Alexander and Firsov, F. I. eds., Dimitrov and Stalin : 1934–1943 : letters from the Soviet archives ;(2000), Yale Univ. Press, New Haven And London, Russian documents translated by Vadim A. Staklo. p. cm. — (Annals of communism) Includes bibliographical references and index.  (alk. paper)
 Degras, Jane T., ed. (1956–1965). The Communist International, 1919–1943: Documents. 3 vols. London: Oxford University Press.
 Geoff Eley, Prof. of History at the Univ. of Michigan, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000, Oxford University Press (2002), paperback, 720 pages, ,
 Kahan, Vilém, ed. (1990). Bibliography of the Communist International (1919–1979). Leiden: E. J. Brill Academic eds. Leyden and New York, 400 pages,
 Kahan Vilém, The Communist International, 1919–1943: the Personnel of its Highest Bodies, 352 pages, London: I B Tauris, (2002),
 McDermott, Kevin, and Agnew, Jeremy. (1997). The Comintern: A History of International Communism from Lenin to Stalin. XXV + 304 pages, 978-0312162771 New York: St. Martin's Press.
 Lazitch, Branko, French speaking Serbian historian and political journalist, (1923–1998), specialist in Soviet History and the International Communist, Biographical Dictionary of the Comintern, (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1973)
 Salas Larrazábal, Ramón, (1916–1993). Historia General De La Guerra De Espana, , Hardcover, Edit. Rialp, (Madrid).

External links
Jose Diaz, On The Lessons of the Spanish People's War, 1940
Dolores Ibárruri, Jose Diaz (1942)
Jose Diaz Archive (in Spanish)
Homage in Seville (in Spanish)
Collected speeches (in Spanish)
Lessons From Our National Revolutionary War Against Fascism, 1936–1969 (PCE (M-L) self-criticism of its Stalinist past) (note the reference to José Díaz as "[an] authentic Marxist-Leninist")

1895 births
1942 suicides
Politicians from Seville
Communist Party of Spain politicians
Members of the Congress of Deputies of the Second Spanish Republic
20th-century Spanish politicians
Spanish Comintern people
Spanish people of the Spanish Civil War (Republican faction)
Exiles of the Spanish Civil War in the Soviet Union
Spanish politicians who committed suicide
Suicides in the Soviet Union
Suicides in Georgia (country)
People granted political asylum in the Soviet Union
1942 deaths
World War II refugees
Exiled Spanish politicians

José Díaz (politician)