Amaia Montero Saldías (; born 26 August 1976) is a Spanish singer and songwriter mainly known as the former vocalist of the Spanish pop-band La Oreja de Van Gogh between 1996 and 2007.

Amaia has sung in a variety of languages, including Basque, Spanish, Catalan, Italian, French and English. She also wrote some of the most successful singles of the band on their original versions, including "Mariposa" (2000) and "Puedes Contar Conmigo" (2003) among many others. Including her work with the band, Montero has sold over 10 million albums worldwide.

Background
Amaia Montero is the daughter of José Montero and Pilar Saldías, and has an older sister, named Idoia. She attended UPV/EHU studying Chemistry, where she met the rest of the members of La Oreja de Van Gogh. When the band became famous, she switched studies to Psychology at the UNED. She later stopped studying.

She has a vocal instructor, and even though she cannot attend classes regularly due to lack of time, the benefit to her voice is evident. Montero had nodules in her throat in 1998 when the album Dile al sol  was recorded but the nodules were removed after the first tour.

Music career

1996-2007: La Oreja de Van Gogh
"La Oreja de Van Gogh" was formed in 1996, after guitarist Pablo Benegas, bassist Álvaro Fuentes, keyboardist Xabi San Martín, and drummer Haritz Garde met at a local university. They used to record covers of songs from local bands, like Soziedad Alkoholika and international rock bands, such as U2, Janis Joplin, Tool, Pearl Jam and Nirvana, usually with San Martín providing lead vocals. Amaia Montero joined the band subsequently, following an invitation by Benegas. The two met at a dinner party after he heard Montero singing Sinéad O'Connor's "Nothing Compares 2 U".
After experimenting with band names, such as "Los Sin Nombre" they decided on La Oreja de Van Gogh which means Van Gogh's ear.

In 1998, the band was signed by Sony BMG after they won a Rock music competition in San Sebastián.
Amaia then completed work on the band's first album Dile al sol, which sold about 800,000 copies in Spain, making it the 20th best-selling album in Spanish history.

La Oreja de Van Gogh's second studio album, released on 11 September 2000, received the name of El viaje de Copperpot (Copperpot's Journey). This album was highly successful, selling more than 1,200,000 copies in Spain, becoming the 8th best-selling album of all time there, being certified Diamond. It sold 750,000 copies in Mexico going 3× Platinum  (under Mexican certification before 2001, 750,000 was 3× Platinum, but today it would be double Diamond), and more than 2,000,000 worldwide.

In 2001 they won an award for Best Spanish Act at the MTV Europe Music Awards held in Germany.

In 2003, they released their third album Lo que te conté mientras te hacías la dormida. It was their first album to sell impressively in the Americas, with over 100,000 copies sold in the States alone, and more than 2,500,000 copies worldwide. Eight singles from the album charted in Spain, four of them reaching number one. It became the 45th best-selling album of all time in Spain, while the band continued to break into the Latin American markets, including the States. It remains as the best-selling album of the 21st Century in Chile.

They won several awards in the wake of the album, including an award for Best Group or Duet at the MTV Video Music Awards Latinoamérica 2004, and an Ondas Award for Best Album. The album also received a Grammy Award nomination, for Best Latin Album. With this release the band took the live act to France, where they played at the mythical Olympia in Paris, after their sold-out show in La Cigale, and the group continued to win fans in France, Italy, Germany and Switzerland. Also tours in the U.S. where they performed in New York, Los Angeles, Miami, Boston, Chicago, Puerto Rico, Phoenix and Texas after their album "Lo Que te Conté Mientras Te Hacías La Dormida" went Platinum in that country.
More concerts in Mexico and South America followed in 2005 including a sold-out concert at Luna Park in Argentina, and two shows with crowds of over 30,000 each concert in Chile, where they received all possible audience acceptance awards when they performed at the 2005 Viña del Mar International Song Festival, taming the usually demanding crowd (traditionally called "El Monstruo", or "The Monster", because of their enthusiasm) and from there they travelled to Japan to play a sold-out show in Tokyo on 25 July 2005.

In 2006, Amaia Montero and La Oreja de Van Gogh, released their fourth and last work together called: Guapa. This album was highly successful too, becoming the 47th best-selling album of all time in Spain, being certified 7× platinum there; it went 2× platinum in Mexico, platinum in Argentina and Chile, and Gold in Colombia and the United States. Sony Music issued a special edition of this album for the Italian market as well. In 2006, the band won a Latin Grammy Award for Best Pop Album By a Duo or Group, a second nomination at the MTV Europe Music Awards for Best Spanish Act, 3 nominations at the MTV Video Music Awards Latinoamérica 2006 for Artist of the Year,  Best Group or Duet and Best Pop Artist. And in 2007 they received all audience acceptance awards at Viña del Mar International Song Festival 07. The Guapa Tour went through Latin America, USA and parts of Europe, with more than 50 shows in Spain.

In 2007, La Oreja de Van Gogh with Amaia as lead singer, became the 16th best-selling music artists of all time in Spain.

2007-present: solo career
Amaia announced her departure from the group on 19 November 2007, to launch a solo career. La Oreja de Van Gogh remains active and has now released four studio albums with new lead singer Leire Martínez.

Amaia Montero

Montero recorded her first solo album in the Italian cities of Genoa and Milan, and mixed the songs at Henson Recording Studios in Los Angeles.
This new record came after the 11 years filled with hits with La Oreja de Van Gogh.
It was released on 18 November 2008 in Spain and went to number one there, selling 40,000 copies in its first week. The album had sold one million copies overall.

The self-titled album contains eleven songs composed by Montero. She dedicates a song to her former bandmates (Tulipán) and to her father (lupe) who was diagnosed with cancer in 2006.
"Quiero Ser" was the first single released from the album, which peaked at number one in Spain, in its first week.
In January 2009, "Quiero Ser" became the longest charting number one single in Spanish airplay history with 13 consecutive weeks in the number one spot.

The same month, Montero started making it the international promotion of her debut solo album. After three weeks of promotion she had to stop the tour, and cited personal reasons. A few days later Diariovasco.com confirmed the death of Amaia's father.

Amaia Montero performed for the first time in her solo tour with Kudai & 84 in the Peruvian city Cusco. Movistar promoted her tour 2009 that continues in Peru, Ecuador, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Spain.

2
Amaia Montero's second solo album 2 was released on 8 November 2011 with the lead single being Caminando.

In 2012, she recorded a cover of "Moon River" in Catalan entitled "Riu de lluna", for the CD of TV3's telethon La Marató.

Discography

With La Oreja de Van Gogh

 1998: Dile al sol
 2000: El viaje de Copperpot
 2003: Lo que te conté mientras te hacías la dormida
 2006: Guapa

As a solo singer

 2008: Amaia Montero
 2011: 2
 2014: Si Dios quiere, yo también
 2018: Nacidos para creer

Other projects
Montero has appeared with other singers on projects including:

Álex Ubago - "Sin miedo a nada, Los abrazos rotos"
El Canto del Loco - "Puede ser"
José Luis Perales - "Porque te vas"
Rocío Durcal - "Me gustas mucho"
Alejandro Fernández - "Me dediqué a perderte"
Eros Ramazzotti - "Está pasando noviembre"
Presuntos Implicados - "Samurai"
Miguel Bosé - "Sevilla"
Tiziano Ferro - "El Regalo Más Grande"
Franco De Vita - "Si Tú No Estás"

References

External links

Amaia's official website
Amaia's Official Fan Club

1976 births
Basque musicians
Basque-language singers
Living people
People from Irun
Spanish rock singers
Spanish women singer-songwriters
Spanish singer-songwriters
Latin Grammy Award winners
University of the Basque Country alumni
Sony Music Spain artists
Spanish women pop singers
Latin music songwriters
Rock en Español musicians
21st-century Spanish singers
21st-century Spanish women singers

Amaia Montero


Aeschylus (525 BC – 456 BC) was an Ancient Greek poet and writer. He wrote about 70–90 plays. Only six of his tragedies have survived complete. Aeschylus was the earliest of the three greatest Greek writers of tragedians. The two others were Sophocles and Euripides.

Aristotle said that Aeschylus added more characters into his plays. His characters spoke to each other and not just to the chorus. This made it easier to create drama between the characters.

One of his plays, The Persians, was about the Persian invasion of Greece. Aeschylus had fought in this war. People studying Greek history use his play as an important source of information. The war was so important to the Greeks and to Aeschylus, that the writing on his grave only talks about his part in the Greek victory at the Battle of Marathon. There is nothing about the plays he wrote.

Early life
Aeschylus was born about the year 525 BC in a small town called Eleusis, which is about  27 kilometers northwest of Athens. The date is based on counting back forty years from his first victory in the Great Dionysia. His family was rich, and his father, Euphorion, was a member of the Eupatridae, the ancient nobility of Attica. Pausanias wrote that Aeschylus  worked in a vineyard until the god Dionysus visited him in his sleep. The god ordered him to write the first tragedies. His first play was performed in 499 BC, when he was only 26 years old.

The Persian wars
In 490 BC the Persian army, led by Darius, landed in Greece and tried to take it over. Aeschylus, and his brother Cynegeirus, joined the army from Athens and fought against the Persians at the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians were able to defeat the much bigger Persian army. This battle, which stopped Darius, was celebrated across the city-states of Greece. Cynegeirus died in the battle. In 480 BC, Xerxes I of Persia tried to capture Greece. Aeschylus fought against them at the Battle of Salamis and at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. His oldest surviving play The Persians, performed in 472 BC, is set during the Battle of Salamis. This play won first prize at the Dionysia.

The Eleusinian Mysteries
Aeschylus was one of many Greeks who joined the Eleusinian Mysteries. This was the religious cult of Demeter, and based in his home town of Eleusis. Members of the group learned mystical and secret knowledge. Members were sworn under the penalty of death not to say anything about the Mysteries to anyone. Aristotle wrote that some people thought that Aeschylus had shown some of the cult's secrets on stage. Other writers said that an angry mob tried to kill Aeschylus on the spot, but he ran away. Later, Aeschylus said he did not know that he had shown any of the secrets. He was saved from death only because of his brave service in the Persian Wars.

Later life
Aeschylus made two trips to Sicily in the 470s BC. He was invited by Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse, a big Greek city on the east side of the island. On one of these trips he wrote The Women of Aetna, in honor of the city founded by Hieron. He also restaged his Persians. By 473 BC, Aeschylus was the yearly favorite in the Dionysia, winning first prize in nearly every competition. In 458 BC, he returned to Sicily for the last time, visiting the city of Gela where he died in 456 or 455 BC. It is said that he was killed by a tortoise which fell out of the sky after it was dropped by an eagle. This story is probably only a legend. Aeschylus' work was so respected by the Athenians that after his death, his were the only tragedies allowed to be restaged in future competitions. His sons Euphorion and Euæon, and his nephew Philocles, all wrote plays as well.

The plays

Greek drama began with festivals for the gods, mainly Dionysus, the god of wine. During Aeschylus' lifetime, dramatic competitions became part of the city's Dionysia in the spring. The festival began with an opening procession, then a competition of boys singing dithyrambs, and finally two dramatic competitions. The first competition was for three playwrights each presenting three tragic plays, followed by a shorter comedy. A second competition of five comedic playwrights followed, and winners of both competitions were chosen by a group of judges.

Aeschylus took part in many of these competitions in his lifetime. Only six tragedies have survived intact: The Persians, Seven against Thebes, The Suppliants, and the trilogy known as The Oresteia, consisting of the three tragedies Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers and The Eumenides. There is also the play Prometheus Bound, but this was probably written by someone else. All of the surviving plays won first prize at the City Dionysia. One book, the Alexandrian Life of Aeschylus, said that he won the first prize at the City Dionysia 13 times. Sophocles' won 18 times out of his 120 plays, and Euripides only had five wins out of about 90 plays.

The Persians (Persai) (472 BC)
Seven Against Thebes (Hepta epi Thebas) (467 BC)
The Suppliants (Hiketides) (463 BC?)
Oresteia a series of three plays (458 BC)
Agamemnon
The Libation Bearers (Choephoroi)
The Eumenides

Influence on Greek drama and culture

When Aeschylus first began writing, the theatre was new. Some playwrights like Thespis had made the cast bigger to include an actor who was able to talk with the chorus instead of just the chorus. Aeschylus added a second actor, called the deuteragonist allowing for more drama; and the chorus became less important. He is said to have been the first to use skenographia, or scene-decoration, though Aristotle said the first person was Sophocles. Aeschylus also added more details to the costumes, and had his actors wear platform boots, called cothurni, to help the audience see them better. When they walked on stage in the first performance of the Eumenides, the chorus of Furies were so frightening in looks that they made young children faint, old men urinate, and pregnant women go into labor.

His plays were written in the strict style of Greek drama. They were in verse and no violence could be performed on stage. The plays had to be set away from normal life in Athens, either by telling stories about the gods or by being set, like The Persians, in a far-away place. Aeschylus' work has a strong moral and religious emphasis. The Oresteia plays were about man's position in the universe in relation to the gods, the laws of the gods, and punishment from the gods.

Fifty years after Aeschylus' death, the comic playwright Aristophanes praised him in The Frogs. Aeschylus is a character in the play and says that his Seven against Thebes "made everyone watching it to love being warlike" (line 1022); with his Persians, he says he "taught the Athenians to desire always to defeat their enemies" (line 1026–7).  He says that his plays helped the Athenians to be brave and virtuous (line 1039ff).

Relevant pages
Theatre of Ancient Greece

Notes

References

 .
.
 .
 .
 —(2002). Greek Drama and Dramatists. London: Routledge Press.
 Æschylus. Aeschylus I: Oresteia. Transl. Richmond Lattimore. 8th ed, Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1960. 1-31.

Ancient Greek writers
525 BC births
456 BC deaths

Aeschylus


Loritello was an Italo-Norman county along the Adriatic north of the Gargano, now called Rotello, in the Molise region. It was carved out of the eastern seaboard of the Principality of Benevento following the Battle of Civitate in 1053 by members of the Hauteville family. The last Count of Loritello died in 1184 and the title was never revived.

Geoffrey of Hauteville, a younger brother of Humphrey, Count of Apulia, began the conquest of what would become Loritello when he attacked the Lombard county of Larino and captured the castle of Morrone in Samnium Guillamatum. In 1061, Geoffrey's son Robert received the title primo comiti de Loritello: first count of Loritello. Robert continued expanding his county by conquering the county of Teate (modern Chieti), with which he invested his brother Drogo, and attacking Ortona, which was to become the chief objective of the count's later career. Robert was at odds with the church, whose Papal States neighboured Loritello. In 1080, Robert counted men, both Lombard and Norman, as far as the river Pescara as his vassals and Pope Gregory VII, concluding a truce with Robert's overlord, Robert Guiscard, recognised Loritello as Robert's and requested that papal lands be treated with respect.

In the early twelfth century, Loritello was extended across the Fortore to include Bovino and Dragonara. Robert's successors, Robert II and William, allied themselves with the Church and the Empire and opposed their own overlords, for which reasons Loritello was confiscated. It remained a part of the royal demesne of the Kingdom of Sicily until William the Bad granted it to Robert of Bassunvilla in 1154.

Under Robert III, Loritello enjoined near complete autonomy from royal officials and the counts retained the right to administer justice (justiciaria). The power of the county peaked during the regency of William the Good, but afterwards declined, and when Robert III died in 1184, the county was not regranted.

Counts of Loritello

Sources
Matthew, Donald. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily (Cambridge Medieval Textbooks), 1992.
History of the Norman World.

Italian city-states
Norman conquest of southern Italy
States and territories established in 1053

Loritello


Rudolf Hermann Lotze (; ; 21 May 1817 – 1 July 1881) was a German philosopher and logician. He also had a medical degree and was well versed in biology. He argued that if the physical world is governed by mechanical laws and relations, then developments in the universe could be explained as the functioning of a world mind. His medical studies were pioneering works in scientific psychology.

Biography
Lotze was born in Bautzen,  Saxony, Germany, the son of a physician.  He was educated at the grammar school of Zittau; he had an enduring love of the classical authors, publishing a translation of Sophocles' Antigone into Latin verse in his middle life.

He attended the University of Leipzig as a student of philosophy and natural sciences, but entered officially as a student of medicine when he was seventeen. Lotze's early studies were mostly governed by two distinct interests: the first was scientific, based upon mathematical and physical studies under the guidance of E. H. Weber, Alfred Wilhelm Volkmann, and Gustav Fechner. The other was his aesthetic and artistic interest, which was developed under the care of the speculative theist Christian Hermann Weisse. Weisse also influenced his later anti-psychologistic approach to the historiography of philosophy. He was attracted both by science and by the German idealism of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.

Lotze's first work was his dissertation De futurae biologiae principibus philosophicis, with which he gained in July 1838 the degree of doctor of medicine. In 1840 he gained the degree of doctor of philosophy with his dissertation De summis continuorum. He laid the foundation of his philosophical system in his Metaphysik (Leipzig, 1841) and his Logik (1843), short books published while still a junior lecturer at Leipzig University, whence he moved to Göttingen, succeeding Johann Friedrich Herbart in the chair of philosophy.

His two early books remained unnoticed by the reading public. He first became known to a larger circle through a series of works which aimed at establishing the study of both the physical and mental phenomena of the human organism. He applied the same general principles which had been adopted in the investigation of inorganic phenomena. These later works considered the human organism in its normal and diseased states. They included his Allgemeine Pathologie und Therapie als mechanische Naturwissenschaften (1842, 2nd ed., 1848), the articles "Lebenskraft" (1843) and "Seele und Seelenleben" (1846) in Rudolf Wagner's Handwörterbuch der Physiologie, his Allgemeine Physiologie des Körperlichen Lebens (1851), and his Medizinische Psychologie oder Physiologie der Seele (1852).

When Lotze published these works, medical science was still under the influence of Schelling's philosophy of nature. The mechanical laws, to which external things were subject, were conceived as being valid only in the inorganic world. Mechanism was the unalterable connexion of every phenomenon a with other phenomena b, c, d, either as following or preceding it; mechanism was the inexorable form into which the events of this world are cast, and by which they are connected. The object of those writings was to establish the all-pervading rule of mechanism. But the mechanical view of nature is not identical with the materialistic. In the last of the above-mentioned works the question is discussed at great length how we have to consider mind, and the relation between mind and body; the answer is we have to consider mind as an immaterial principle, its action, however, on the body and vice versa as purely mechanical, indicated by the fixed laws of a psycho-physical mechanism.

These doctrines of Lotze, though pronounced with the distinct and reiterated reservation that they did not contain a solution of the philosophical question regarding the nature of mechanism, were nevertheless by many considered to be the last word of the philosopher, a decisive rejection of the reveries of Schelling and the idealistic theories of Hegel. Published as they were during the years when the modern school of German materialism was at its height, these works of Lotze were enrolled in the opposing camp of empirical philosophy.

The misinterpretations which he had suffered induced Lotze to publish a small polemical pamphlet (Streitschriften, 1857), in which he corrected two mistakes. His opposition to Hegel's formalism had induced some to associate him with the materialistic school, others to count him among the followers of Herbart. Lotze denied that he belonged to the school of Herbart. However, he admitted that the monadology of Leibniz could be considered the forerunner of Herbart's teachings and also of his own views.

Philosophical work

Lotze worked in a post-revolutionary time of transition between the idealistic and rationalist legacies of Leibniz, Kant and Hegel and the new materialism and scientific interpretation of reality.

He believed that everywhere in the wide realm of observation we find three distinct regions: the region of facts, the region of laws and the region of standards of value. These three regions are separate only in our thoughts, not in reality. Full understanding comes through conviction that the world of facts is the field in which those higher standards of moral and aesthetic value are being realized through the medium of laws. Such a union is, for him, only intelligible through the idea of a personal Deity, who in the creation and preservation of a world has voluntarily chosen certain forms and laws, through the natural operation of which the ends of His work are gained.

Lotze proposed a view called teleological idealism, whose central principle is the principle of teleomechanism, the idea that, in logic, metaphysics and science, mechanism is compatible with teleology.

Lotze's lectures ranged over a wide field: he delivered annually lectures on psychology and on logic (the latter including a survey of the entirety of philosophical research, Encyclopädie der Philosophie), then at longer intervals lectures on metaphysics, philosophy of nature, philosophy of art, philosophy of religion, rarely on history of philosophy and ethics. In these lectures he expounded his peculiar views in a stricter form, and during the last decade of his life he embodied the substance of those courses in his System der Philosophie, of which only two volumes have appeared (vol. I Logik, 1st ed., 1874, 2nd ed., 1880; vol. II Metaphysik, 1879). The third and concluding volume, which was to treat in a more condensed form the principal problems of practical philosophy, of philosophy of art and religion, was not completed before his death.

A problem of a purely formal character for him was to try to bring unity and harmony into the scattered thoughts of our general culture. He wanted especially to investigate those conceptions which form the initial assumptions and conditions of the several sciences, and to fix the limits of their applicability.

The investigations will then naturally divide themselves into three parts, the first of which deals with

those to our mind inevitable forms, or laws, in which we are obliged to think about things, if we think at all (metaphysics), the second being devoted to
the great region of facts, trying to apply the results of metaphysics to these, specially the two great regions of external and mental phenomena (cosmology and psychology), the third dealing with
those standards of value from which we pronounce our aesthetic or ethical approval or disapproval.

His goal was to form some general idea how laws, facts and standards of value may be combined in one comprehensive view.

The world of many things surrounds us; our notions, by which we manage correctly or incorrectly to describe it, are also ready made. What remains to be done is, not to explain how such a world manages to be what it is, nor how we came to form these notions, but to eliminate those abstract notions which are inconsistent and jarring, or to remodel and define them so that they may constitute a consistent and harmonious view.

The course of things and their connexion is only thinkable by the assumption of a plurality of existences, the reality of which (as distinguished from our knowledge of them) can be conceived only as a multitude of relations. This quality of standing in relation to other things is that which gives to a thing its reality. And the nature of this reality again can neither be consistently represented as a fixed and hard substance nor as an unalterable something, but only as a fixed order of recurrence of continually changing events or impressions. The things themselves which exist and their changing phases must stand in some internal connexion; they themselves must be active or passive, capable of doing or suffering.

Why not interpret at once and render intelligible the common conception originating in natural science, viz. that of a system of laws which governs the many things? But, in attempting to make this conception quite clear and thinkable, we are forced to represent the connexion of things as a universal substance, the essence of which we conceive as a system of laws which underlies everything and in its own self connects everything, but is imperceptible, and known to us merely through the impressions it produces on us, which we call things.  Practical life as well as those of science are equally served if we deprive the material things outside of us of an independence, and assign to them merely a connected existence through the universal substance by the action of which alone they can appear to us. He traced material things through our scientific discovery of them, back to the culture which gave them reality through this science, and ultimately back to the values which established this culture. This method is known as "regressive analysis."

Lotze's historical position is of much interest. Though he disclaims being a follower of Herbart, his formal definition of philosophy and his conception of the object of metaphysics are similar to those of Herbart, who defines philosophy as an attempt to remodel the notions given by experience. In this endeavor he forms with Herbart an opposition to the philosophies of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel which aimed at objective and absolute knowledge, and also to the criticism of Kant, which aimed at determining the validity of all human knowledge.

What, however, with the idealists was an object of thought alone, the absolute, for Lotze cannot be defined in rigorous philosophical language; the aspirations of the human heart, the contents of our feelings and desires, the aims of art and the tenets of religious faith must be grasped in order to fill the empty idea of the absolute with meaning. These manifestations of the divine spirit again cannot be traced and understood by reducing (as Hegel did) the growth of the human mind in the individual, in society and in history to the monotonous rhythm of a speculative schematism. The essence and worth which is in them reveals itself only to the student of detail, for reality is larger and wider than philosophy. The problem, "how the one can be many", is only solved for us in the numberless examples in life and experience which surround us, for which we must retain a lifelong interest and which constitute the true field of all useful human work.

This conviction of the emptiness of terms and abstract notions, and of the fullness of individual life, led Lotze to combine in his writings the two courses into which German philosophical thought had been moving since the death of its great founder, Leibniz. We may define these courses by the terms esoteric and exoteric. The former was the academic quest to systematize everything and reduce all our knowledge to an intelligible principle. This attempt missed the deeper meaning of Leibniz's philosophy. The latter was the unsystematized philosophy of general culture which we find in the work of the great writers of the classical period, Lessing, Winckelmann, Goethe, Schiller and Herder. All of these expressed in some degree their indebtedness to Leibniz. Lotze can be said to have brought philosophy out of the lecture-room into the market-place of life. By understanding and combining the strengths of each approach, he became the true successor of Leibniz.

The age in which Lotze lived and wrote in Germany did not appreciate the position he took up. Frequently misunderstood, yet rarely criticized, he was nevertheless greatly admired, listened to by devoted hearers and read by an increasing circle. But this circle never attained to the unity of a philosophical school.

Works

Works in Latin and German
 De futurae biologiae principiis philosophicis (1838). Reprinted in Kleine Schriften, 1885. Vol. 1, pp. 1–25
 De summis continuorum (1840).
 Gedichte (1840).
 Metaphysik (1841). Google (Oxford)
 Allgemeine Pathologie und Therapie als mechanische Naturwissenschaften (1842). 2nd ed., 1848. Google (Harvard)
 Logik (1843). Google (NYPL) 2nd ed., 1880.
 Ueber den Begriff der Schönheit (1845). Reprint, 1847. Google (Oxford)
 Allgemeine Physiologie des körperlichen Lebens (1851). Google (Harvard)
 Medicinische Psychologie oder Physiologie der Seele (1852). Google (Oxford) Google (UMich)
 Mikrokosmus: Ideen zur Naturgeschichte und Geschichte der Menschheit (1856–64). 2nd ed., 1868–72. 4th ed., 1884–88.
Volume 1, 1856. Google (Oxford) Google (UMich)
Volume 2, 1858. Google (Oxford) Google (UMich) Google (NYPL)
Volume 3, 1864. Google (Oxford) Google (NYPL)
 Streitschriften (1857). Google (Harvard)
 Geschichte der Aesthetik in Deutschland (1868). Google (Oxford)
 System der Philosophie.
Part 1. Logik: Drei Bücher (1874). Google (Oxford) Google (UMich) Google (UWisc). 2nd ed., 1880.
Part 2. Metaphysik: Drei Bücher (1879). 2nd ed., 1884.
 Geschichte der deutschen Philosophie seit Kant (1882). 2nd ed., 1894. Google (UWisc)
 Grundzüge der Psychologie (1881). Google (Harvard) 2nd ed., 1882. Google (Oxford)
 Grundzüge der Naturphilosophie (1882). Google (Oxford)
 Grundzüge der praktischen Philosophie (1882). 2nd ed., 1884. Google (UCal)
 Grundzüge der Religionsphilosophie (1883). 2nd ed., 1884. Google (Oxford)
 Grundzüge der Logik und Encyclopädie der Philosophie (1883). 2nd ed., 1885. Google (UCal)
 Grundzüge der Metaphysik (1883). Google (Oxford)
 Grundzüge der Aesthetik (1884).
 Kleine Schriften (1885–91).
Volume 1, 1885. Google (Oxford) Google (Stanford) Google (UWisc)
Volume 2, 1886. Google (Harvard)
Volume 3, 1891. Google (UWisc)

Translations in English
Lotze's Outlines of Philosophy
Part 1. Outlines of Metaphysic (1884). IA (UCal) IA (UVictoria) 1886. Google (UMich)
Part 2. Outlines of the Philosophy of Religion (1885). Google (UWisc)
Reprint, 1886. IA (OISE) 1895. IA (St. Michael's) 1901. Google (UWisc)
Part 3. Outlines of Practical Philosophy (1885). Google (UCal)
Part 4. Outlines of Psychology (1886). Google (UMich) IA (UToronto)
Part 5. Outlines of Aesthetics (1886). Google (UMich) IA (UToronto)
Part 6. Outlines of Logic (1887). Google (UMich) IA (UToronto) 1892. Google (Harvard)

Lotze's System of Philosophy
Part 1. Logic: In Three Books (1884). Google (Oxford) IA (State Central) IA (UToronto).
2nd ed., 1888. Volume 1. IA (St. Basil's) IA (UIllinois) IA (Osmania) Google (Stanford)
2nd ed., 1888. Volume 2. IA (St. Basil's) IA (UIllinois).
Part 2. Metaphysic: In Three Books (1884). Google (Oxford) IA (State Central) IA (UToronto)
2nd ed., 1887. Volume 1. IA (Osmania) Google (Harvard)
2nd ed., 1887. Volume 2. IA (Osmania)

Other works
Microcosmus: An Essay Concerning Man and His Relation to the World (1885).
Volume 1. IA (Union) 2nd ed., 1887. IA (UCal) IA (KCPL) 3rd ed., 1888. Google (Harvard) IA (St. Michael's)
Volume 2. IA (Union) 2nd ed., 1887. IA (UCal) 3rd ed., 1888.Google (Harvard) IA (St. Michael's)

See also
Teleology in biology

Notes

References
William R. Woodward, Hermann Lotze: An Intellectual Biography, Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Michele Vagnetti, Hermann Lotze on the mind-body problem and the 19th century philosophy and psychology: with special attention to William James, Dissertation: Universität Paderborn, 2020.

External links

 Rudolf Hermann Lotze (1817–1881) entry by Nikolay Milkov in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

1817 births
1881 deaths
People from Bautzen
People from the Kingdom of Saxony
19th-century German philosophers
German logicians
German idealists
Leipzig University alumni
Academic staff of the University of Göttingen
Deaths from pneumonia in Germany
19th-century German writers
19th-century German male writers
Philosophers of logic

Hermann Lotze


Nasal hair  are small hair-like cells in the nose. Most of them can be found near the nostrils. The purpose of these hairs is to act as a filter, keeping dust and dirt out of the nasal passages. They also draw liquid mucus up from the epithelium by capillary action. In that way, they help to maintain humidity in the air passages and stop them from drying out. The hairs trap moisture as air is breathed out. The evaporation of trapped moisture on the hairs increases the humidity of air as it is breathed in. Note that nasal hair is different from the cilia found in the nose, which are part of the olfactory system.

Some cultures consider nose hair coming out from the nostrils to be ugly. The increased growth of nasal cilia with age (particularly for men) is often a source of anxiety and embarrassment. A number of devices have been sold to trim the nose hair, including small rotary clippers and attachments for electric shavers. However, given the role of nasal cilia, many doctors recommend trimming them lightly, if at all. There is evidence that the movement in the ciliar slows down with age. This may be the reason that old people have more respiratory infections.

Hair
Nose

Nasal hair


Hybrid Theory EP is an EP by the American nu metal/alternative rock band Linkin Park that was recorded and released in 1999. At this time, Linkin Park were called Hybrid Theory, making this EP a self-titled EP named after the band.

It was Linkin Park's first record. Before it, in 1997, the band only made a demo tape called Xero. The band changed its name later in 1999, after Chester Bennington replaced Mark Wakefield as the lead singer.

About the EP

Only one thousand were made, and the EP was sent to different record labels, including Warner Bros. Records. The rest of the copies of the EP were sent to the first members of Linkin Park's fan club.

On November 19, 2001, Linkin Park Underground, Linkin Park's fan club, was made. The first fan club package that was sent to members had a new edition of Hybrid Theory EP, with a note from the band. The first 500 copies of the CD were signed by all 6 members of the band.

The only ways to get the EP are to buy it from eBay, or win a contest in the Linkin Park Underground when the EP is awarded as a contest prize. But the prizes awarded by the LPU are the original EP.

Track listing

Band line-up
Chester Bennington – vocalist, occasionally guitar
Mike Shinoda – Vocals, MC, keyboardist, rhythm guitarist, samples
Brad Delson – guitar
Kyle Christener - Bass
Rob Bourdon – drummer
Joe "Mr. Hahn" Hahn – turntablist, samples

Personnel
Produced by Mike Shinoda.
The rest of the tracks – Written by Mike Shinoda, Joe Hahn, Brad Delson, Chester Bennington and Rob Bourdon. Produced and mixed by Mike Shinoda
"Part of Me" – Written by Mike Shinoda, Joe Hahn, Brad Delson, Chester Bennington and Rob Bourdon. Produced and mixed by Mudrock and Mike Shinoda

1998 albums
2001 albums
Linkin Park albums

Hybrid Theory EP


Braunstone is a town and civil parish in the district of Blaby in Leicestershire, England. At the 2011 census the population of the town was 16,850.

Braunstone is mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, giving a population of "two sokemen and four villeins". The village remained a small settlement (population 238 in 1921) until 1925 when the Leicester Corporation compulsorily purchased the bulk of the Winstanley Braunstone Hall estate.

It is just outside the city boundary of Leicester, and the part of the old civil parish now inside the city boundary is also called Braunstone. This part of the parish, which contains a large council estate was detached in 1935 from the Blaby district and Braunstone Parish to become part of the county borough of Leicester, hence the present split. The use of the name Braunstone Town is more recent, and is an attempt by Braunstone Town Council to distinguish their village from the council estate of the same name.

Braunstone Town is adjacent to the M1 motorway (junction 21) and is adjoined by the Meridian Business and Leisure Parks, and the Fosse Shopping Park and Grove Triangle retail outlets.

Although the parish has no railway station of its own, Leicester station is close. Leicester PlusBus is an available scheme where train and bus tickets can be bought together at a discount.

History

The name 'Braunstone' means 'the farm/settlement of Brant'.

The earliest dated human find recorded is a Bronze Age axe (about 1000 BC) found in 1893.

Next came the building of the Roman road from Leicester, through the site of the Narborough Road South to the High Cross near Sharnford. It is also evident that the Vikings of the early or later period had settlements in or near Braunstone, hence the nearby names of Viking origin – Lubbesthorpe, Countesthorpe, Enderby, Elmesthorpe, Cosby, Kilby, Kirby etc. Throughout the above period Braunstone was covered with forest as were most county areas surrounding – in what was known as Leicester Forest. However, like most forests these were composed of a series of large woods containing small early settlements or hamlets inter-connected by rough trackways – from which most of our public field paths owe their origin.

Braunstone is mentioned in the Domesday Book (1086 AD) where it is referred to as BRANTESTONE or BRANSTUN

"Braunstone – six plough lands, all but for oxgangs, in Braunstone which is the reign of The Confessor had been valued at twenty shillings, were worth sixty shillings at the general survey and were then held by the son of Robert Burdet. The land was equal to four ploughs, one was in Demesne, and four Bondmen; and two socmen and five villains, with one border, had two ploughs. There was a wood five furlongs long and three broad, and there were  of meadow.

Two socmen abiding in Braunstone had five oxgangs of land in Lubbesthorpe; and jointly with ten villains and six borders in that lordship had two ploughs and five ploughing oxen.

The above lands were held by Robert Burdet under Hugh de Grandmesnil, one of William I's most powerful barons.

(A ploughland or carucate = about 80 to  of land.
Socmen = Scandinavian Villan = Peasant or serf.)

A copy of the Domesday Book is displayed at Braunstone Civic Centre.

The first Lord of the Manor was de Grandmesnil. At this time the village consisted of 8 households and was worth about 60 shillings.

The Harcourt or Horecut family held the over-riding interest in the estate from the 13th to the 16th Century. A survey taken in 1299 showed a growth to 24 households in the village.

The fourteenth century saw several outbreaks of the Black Death in the area. Its effect on Braunstone is not recorded, but nearby Glenfield was seriously affected. At this time the Leicester Forest extended into Braunstone as far as Bendbow Spinney.

Several portions of Braunstone were sold off in the late 16th Century.  of arable land were sold to the Manners family in 1579 and a further  went to the Bennett family ten years later.  of land were converted to pasture in 1596 by the Hastings family who owned the estate at that time.

Woodlands were gradually converted to pastures, mainly for sheep – being then the more profitable husbandry. Leicester Forest was fully enclosed in 1628. Villagers of Braunstone were compensated for the loss of Forestry Rights.

The 18th Century was a period of prosperity for Braunstone. The largest estate of the time was owned by Abraham Compton and comprised 68 ewes, 25 lambs, 14 cows, 6 heifers, 4 calves and 6 pigs.

In 1750 James Winstanley III tried to sink a pit on the manor. His attempts were thwarted when his bore hole was filled with stones by intruders, thought to be from local mining districts.

In the 1820s Braunstone was known as a place to go fox-hunting. Charles Loraine Smith painted a set of parodies known as the "Smoking Hunt" which pokes fun at the fashionable sport of hunting here.

Braunstone remained a village with various tenanted farmsteads until, in 1925, the Leicester Corporation compulsorily purchased the bulk of the Winstanley Braunstone Hall estate for £116,500.

Braunstone's population rose from 238 in 1921 to 6,997 in 1931.

In 1935 the part of Braunstone on the city side of Braunstone Lane became the North Braunstone Ward of the City of Leicester, and the parish of Braunstone in compensation had part of Lubbesthorpe added to its boundary. It mostly consists of council housing built between 1925 and 1940.

During World War Two Braunstone Park was put to agricultural use. Wheat, barley, and potatoes were grown, and sheep allowed to graze. What is now the Memorial Gardens was used as a military camp, occupied first by the British Army and later by the American 82nd Airborne Division troops. After the war, due to the severe housing shortage, people were allowed to occupy the camp until they found homes of their own.

By the 1990s, however, Braunstone was perhaps the most troubled part of Leicester, with crime rates and unemployment among the highest in the city. In April 1994, The Independent newspaper reported that unemployment on the estate was above 25% and was blighted by youth gangs engaging in anti-social behaviour.

The area is also known for housing the head office of British Shoe Corporation on Sunningdale Road, LE3 1UR, from 1965 to 1999. A plaque is placed on the corner of Sunningdale Road that shows the site's history and connection with British Shoe Corporation (BSC as it was known) and the founder of BSC Charles Clore.

Braunstone Town Council
The Braunstone Town Council is the parish council level local council of the parish of Braunstone Town. The Town Council was established in 1977 when the former parish council resolved to change its status to that of a town council.

The Town Council has 21 elected members (i.e. councillors) who are elected for terms of office of four years.

Braunstone Hall

Braunstone Hall is a Grade II listed building in the centre of Braunstone Park. It was built in 1776 for the Winstanley family, lords of the manor and the main land owners in the village of Braunstone. In many ways the Hall resembles town houses like 17 Friar Lane. It is built in similar materials and has similar Classical proportions and decoration. But, while the Friar Lane houses were lived in by wealthy merchants and professional people or were used as town houses by landed families, Braunstone Hall was the centre of a country estate passed on through the Winstanley family from generation to generation. As country houses go, Braunstone Hall is fairly unassuming. It was not designed by one of the many fashionable country house architects of the day but by local builder and Leicester politician, William Oldham. He used red brick and Swithland slate, common local materials. The central doorway and windows are emphasised just as they are at 17 Friar Lane. Here they are set in an arched recess reaching up to the top of the facade. The Hall has a slightly less elaborate frontage to the Park at the back and, inside, Classical columns in the entrance hall and an elegant staircase. Building has always been a dangerous occupation and the building records show that a stonemason and a labourer were killed in the construction of Braunstone Hall.

Around the Hall, the Winstanleys had a Park laid out with a lake and gardens. As a wealthy family they had horses and carriages which were kept in the stable block next to the house. These buildings did not share the refinement of the house and were more like farm buildings, but they were still carefully designed, with fine brickwork arches and decoration at the eaves. The walled garden, restored and beautifully planted by the city council, once contained fruit trees, serving the household both as a source of food and as a place to stroll. There are also reminders of the Winstanleys in the village. They commissioned one of the most famous of Victorian Architects, William Butterfield, to design cottages for estate workers at Cressida Place and in Main Street. Both groups of cottages were built in 1859. Butterfield modelled the houses on traditional buildings and used local materials but their design has a deliberate, thought-out quality which suggests that it was the work of an architect.

The parsonage, built in 1864, and the village school of 1867, were paid for by the Winstanleys. In 1902 parts of the estate adjacent to Narborough Road were offered for sale as building plots. Braunstone was greatly changed in the 1930s when the Winstanley estate was bought by the Leicester Corporation, partly as land for new housing. Initially held by the Parks Department with the Hall being used as a junior school with over 600 places from 1932, the Hall and two acres of surrounding land were purchased by the Leicester Education Committee in 1939 for £3,500, allowing the construction of an assembly hall and further alterations to the building.

The Hall was used as a school until 1996, after which it fell into disrepair. In 2013 plans were unveiled for the restoration of the building and its conversion into a hotel, restaurant, wedding venue and conference centre. Now renamed Winstanley House, the hall operates as a hotel and wedding venue.

St Peter's Church

The first record of a church is 1168: the earliest parts of the existing church date from the twelfth or thirteenth century. It is built of limestone and consists of a short square tower, nave and chancel. It was re-roofed in 1867 and had some minor refurbishment in the 20th century. In 1937 Braunstone became a parish in its own right, and St Peter's became the parish church with its own vicar.

Arms

References

External links

Braunstone Town Council
Leicestershire Villages Website
St Peter's Church
Mosaic Church

Braunstone, Leicester
Civil parishes in Leicestershire
Towns in Leicestershire
Blaby

Braunstone Town


Zoltán Ribli (born September 6, 1951 in Mohács) is a Hungarian chess grandmaster and International Arbiter (1995). He was twice a World Championship Candidate and three times Hungarian Champion.

A career in chess
As a youngster, he was twice the European Junior Champion, in 1968/69 (shared) and 1970/71. In domestic competition, he has been three times the national champion of Hungary, sharing the honours in 1973 and 1977, while winning outright in 1974.

His International Master and Grandmaster titles were awarded in 1970 and 1973, respectively.

At the peak of his career, Ribli was twice a candidate for the World Championship, in 1984 and 1986. At London in 1984, he participated in the high-profile match between USSR and the Rest of the World, defeating his Soviet counterpart, Rafael Vaganian by a narrow margin.

In 1983, Ribli defeated Torre (+3-1=6) in Quarter Final Candidate Match, but lost to Smyslov (+1-3=7) in Semi-Final. Smyslov played against Garry Kasparov in the final in which Smyslov lost.

He became a fearsome competitor on the international tournament circuit of the 1970s and 1980s, chalking up victories at Kecskemét 1972 (with Suetin), Budapest 1975 (with Polugaevsky), Mexico 1980, Baden-Baden 1981 (with Miles), Portorož/Ljubljana 1985 (Vidmar Memorial, with Miles and Portisch), Dortmund 1986, Reggio Emilia 1987, and Wijk aan Zee 1989 (with Anand, Sax and Nikolić). Runner-up results include Amsterdam 1978 (behind Timman), Bled/Portorož 1979 (with Larsen, behind Timman), Wijk aan Zee 1983 (behind Andersson), Bugojno 1984 (behind Timman) and Tilburg 1984 (with Beliavsky, Hübner and Tukmakov, behind Miles).

Whilst not so active in tournament play during the 1990s and 2000s, he nevertheless maintained a competitive rating (his July 2006 Elo rating was 2589) and has shown that he can still win grandmaster events, such as the Hotel Opatija tournament in Kastav, Croatia in 2002.

An almost ever-present member of the Hungarian Olympiad team between 1970 and 1994, he was playing second board when Hungary won the team gold medal in 1978. He also won team silver medals in 1970, 1972 and 1980.

As a writer on the topic of chess, his analysis and tournament reports have been published in magazine articles around the world. Additionally, he co-authored two books with Gabor Kallai: Winning with the Queen's Indian (Batsford, 1987) and Winning with the English (Batsford, 1993). Ribli has also been coaching Austrian national teams.

Zoltán Ribli is married to Woman International Master Mária Grosch.

Notes

References

Olimpbase - Olympiads and other Team event information

External links

1951 births
Living people
Chess grandmasters
Chess Olympiad competitors
Hungarian chess players
Hungarian chess writers
Chess arbiters
People from Mohács

Zoltán Ribli


This is a list of colleges and universities who play hockey in Atlantic Hockey:
United States Air Force Academy ("Air Force")
American International College
United States Military Academy ("Army")
Bentley University
Canisius College
University of Connecticut (sometimes called "UConn")
College of the Holy Cross
Mercyhurst College
Niagara University
Robert Morris University
Rochester Institute of Technology (often "RIT")
Sacred Heart University

UConn will leave the conference in July 2014 to join Hockey East. Its women's hockey  team is already a member of that conference.

References

Atlantic Hockey


Uccle () or Ukkel () is aone o the nineteen municipalities locatit in the Brussels-Caipital Region, Belgium.
Uccle is kent for its well-tae-dae auries, its green spots an its heich rental rates.

History

Accordin tae legend, Uccle's kirk o St. Peter wis dedicatit bi Pape Leo III in the year 803, wi Charlemagne an Gerbald, Bishop o Liège, attendin the ceremony.  Durin the follaein centuries, several noble families biggit thair manor an teuk residency here. The first mention o the name Woluesdal, nou evolved intae Wolvendael, dates frae 1209. In 1467, Isabella of Portugal, wife of Philip the Guid, Duke o Burgundy foondit a Franciscan convent on Uccle's territory. Later, Uccle became the judiciary caipital o the aurie includin Brussels. Throughoot the early stages o its history, housomeivver, the veelage o Uccle aaways haed a predominantly rural character an lived maistly frae the products o forestry an agricultur.

At the end o the 18t century, a few years efter the French Revolution, Uccle merged wi neighbourin territories tae acome a commune, wi its awn mayor an municipal assembly. It haed tae wait till 1828, housomeivver, for the Dutch authorities tae allou the construction o the first toun haw. This wis a time o economic prosperity an growthe, stimulatit bi the proximity tae the twa main roads linkin Brussels tae the industrial sooth. A newer an lairger toun haw wis biggit atween 1872 an 1882. Banker an philanthropist Georges Brugmann contributit a lot tae the urbanisation o the ceety juist afore the turn o the century. In the early 20t century Michel van Gelder introduced a new breed o chicken, the d'Uccle, named efter the toun. Despite the acceleratit rate o construction that teuk place in the early 20t century, Uccle succeedit in keepin several o its green auries intact, which nou attract mony o the Brussels aurie's wealthier indwallers.

Lying ayont Forest an Ixelles an skirtin the Forêt de Soignes, Uccle is Brussel's lairgest an maist sootherly commune. Lairge, 19t-century detached hooses wi generous gardens mak this green an calm suburb a favourite wi well aff expatriates, wi the airt deco aurie aroond the Ryal Observatory an the fringes o the Forêt de Soignes the twa maist desirable addresses.

Main sichts

Uccle is mainly a residential aurie, but coonts a lot o pairks an forestit auries, sic as the Pairk o Wolvendael an the Verrewinkel Woods. The municipality is situatit tae the immediate wast o the famous Bois de la Cambre () an aw.
St. Job Square an the aurie near St. Peter's Kirk an the toun haw are twa aulder pairts o toun, nou filled wi a happy mix of stores an pubs.
Uccle is the steid o the Belgian naitional weather station, the Royal Meteorological Institute: ony information on Belgian weather, unless region specific, is describit bi the statistics recordit in Uccle. Richt next door is the Ryal Observatory o Belgium.
Uccle Cemetery, kent as Dieweg Cemetery an aw, wis creatit follaein a cholera epidemics that afflictit Brussels in 1866. Its mixtur o trees an auld stanes exudes a unique romantic atmosphere.
The Bloemenwerf, a turn-o-the-century (1900) Art Nouveau villa biggit bi airchitect Henry Van de Velde.
 Nemo 33 is the deepest indoor soummin puil in the warld.

Notable residents

Jean Améry, born Hans Maier, author an essayist (1912-1978)
Sandrine Blancke, actress (b. 1978)
Roger De Coster, motocross racer (b. 1944)
Maurits Cornelis Escher, Dutch graphic airtist (1898-1972)
Jean-Michel Folon, airtist, illustrator, painter, an sculptor (1934-2005)
Martin Gray Warschau ghetto an Holocaust survivor, writer. (b. 1922)
Pierre Harmel, lawyer, politeecian, an diplomat (1911-2010)
Hergé, comics writer an airtist, creautor o The Adventures of Tintin (1907-1983)
Vincent Kompany, fitbaa defender (b. 1986)
Joachim Lafosse, film director (b. 1975)
Prince Wenzeslaus o Liechtenstein an Prince Rudolf o Liechtenstein, (b. 1974 an 1975, resp.)
Princess Mathilde, Duchess o Brabant (b. 1973)
Marianne Merchez, astronaut (b. 1960)
Axel Merckx, professional road bicycle racer (b. 1972)
Philippe Moureaux, politeecian, senator, an professor of economic history (b. 1939)
Alizée Poulicek, Miss Universe Belgium 2008 (b. 1987)
Joseph Raphael, painter (1869-1950)
Axelle Red, born Fabienne Demal, sangster (b. 1968)
Sybille de Selys Longchamps, baroness an aristocrat (b. 1941)
Olivier Strebelle, sculptor (b. 1927)
Toots Thielemans, jazz muisicker (b. 1922)
Jacques Tits, mathemateecian (b. 1930)
Jaco van Dormael, Film Director: "Mr. Nobody," "The Eighth Day" (b. 1957)
Henry van de Velde, painter, architect, an interior designer (1863-1957)
Lara Fabian, sangster (b. 1970)

Twin ceeties
 Neuilly-sur-Seine, Fraunce

References

Freemit airtins

 Offeecial wabsteid

Municipalities o the Brussels-Caipital Region

Uccle


Whitechapel is a district in the East End of London, in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets.

It is 3.4 miles (5.5 km) east of Charing Cross and roughly bounded by Petticoat Lane and Mansell Street to the west, Fashion Street to the north, Cambridge Heath Road and Sidney Street to the east and The Highway to the south.

Because the area is close to the London Docklands and east of the city, it has been a popular place for immigrants and the working class. The area was the centre of the London Jewish community in the 19th and early 20th century. It is where the infamous Whitechapel Murders by Jack the Ripper took place in 1888. In the latter half of the 20th century, Tower Hamlets (including Whitechapel) became the largest settlement for the British Bangladeshi community, particularly on and around Whitechapel Road and Brick Lane.

References

Areas of London
London Borough of Tower Hamlets

Whitechapel


Gordon Matthew Thomas Sumner  (born 2 October 1951) better known as Sting, is an English singer and musician. He first became famous as a member of the band, The Police.

As a solo musician and a member of the Police, Sting has received 17 Grammy Awards: he won Song of the Year for "Every Breath You Take", three Brit Awards, including Best British Male Artist in 1994 and Outstanding Contribution in 2002, a Golden Globe, an Emmy and four nominations for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. In 2019, he received a BMI Award for "Every Breath You Take" becoming the most played song in radio history. In 2002, Sting received the Ivor Novello Award for Lifetime Achievement from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors and was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Police in 2003. In 2000, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for recording. In 2003, Sting received a CBE from Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace for services to music. He was made a Kennedy Center Honoree at the White House in 2014, and was awarded the Polar Music Prize in 2017.

With the Police, Sting became one of the world's best-selling music artists. Solo and with the Police combined, he has sold over 100 million records. In 2006, Paste ranked him 62nd of the 100 best living songwriters. He was 63rd of VH1's 100 greatest artists of rock, and 80th of Q magazine's 100 greatest musical stars of the 20th century. He has collaborated with other musicians on songs such as "Money for Nothing" with Dire Straits, "Rise & Fall" with Craig David, "All for Love" with Bryan Adams and Rod Stewart, "You Will Be My Ain True Love" with Alison Krauss, and introduced the North African music genre raï to Western audiences through the hit song "Desert Rose" with Cheb Mami. In 2018, he released the album 44/876, a collaboration with Jamaican musician Shaggy, which won the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album in 2019.

Studio albums
 The Dream of the Blue Turtles (1985)
 Bring On the Night  (1986)
 ...Nothing Like the Sun  (1987)
 The Soul Cages  (1991)
 Ten Summoner's Tales  (1993)
 Mercury Falling  (1996)
 Brand New Day  (1999)
 Sacred Love  (2003)
 Songs from the Labyrinth  (2006)
 If on a Winter's Night...  (2009)
 Symphonicities  (2010)
 The Last Ship  (2013)
 57th & 9th  (2016)
 Sting & Shaggy: 44/876  (2018)
 My Songs  (2019)
The Bridge (2021)

1951 births
Living people
English guitarists
English movie actors
English rock musicians
English singer-songwriters
English television actors
Singers from Newcastle upon Tyne
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
The Police
New wave singers

Sting


Breed is a squad based, science-fiction video game developed by Brat Designs and published by cdv Software Entertainment. The game was released in the U.S. and Europe in March and April 2004.

Plot

In the year 2600 much of the Earth's population have left their home world and formed colonies on the worlds of the Besalius binary star system. All seemed peaceful in these fledgling colonies but as the last shuttle arrived in 2602 they were attacked by a terrifying alien race that would be nicknamed "The Breed". These attacks seemed to be random with little or no thought or logic, but they were devastating nevertheless. Under such an assault the colonies had no choice but to send out a distress call to Earth.

In 2603 Earth's collective military, known as the United Space Corps, mobilized a formidable fleet of attack cruisers in answer to the growing Breed threat, putting their very best and brightest at the helm. These ships now made a year-long trip to the Besalius System – hoping that they would not arrive too late.

Every cruiser was equipped with the latest technology and weapons, as well as being fully stocked with a complement of ground assault vehicles and fighter craft. Within their vast hulls, each cruiser also housed an array of genetic gestation pods, capable of growing a constant supply of ground forces – known as grunts (Genetically Revived Universal Tactical Sentient). Fiercely loyal, bred for combat and totally expendable, the Grunts were the hardened backbone of the USC military.

After their year-long journey the fleet arrived at Besalius in 2604 and swiftly engaged the Breed presence across the system. The battle was long and hard, as the Breed did not give up the system without a fight; their lack of intelligence was more than compensated by their ferocious nature in battle. This conflict with the Breed would come to be known as the Colony War.

The humans resources were drastically drained during this rigorous fight and the USC forces are stretched to breaking point. In 2624 the USC forces claimed victory in Besalius, but it was not without cost – the colonies had been devastated and the fleet badly damaged to a point that only the USC Darwin was capable of making the journey back to Earth. Captained by Saul Richter (A legend now with over two hundred victories against the Breed under his belt) war weary and battle scarred, the ship and remaining crew began their return journey.

In 2625 that the victorious veterans of Besalius finally returned home expecting a heroes' welcome. Instead, the crew of the Darwin found their world on fire, that in their 20-year absence, the Breed had conquered Earth. The Colony War on Besalius was nothing more than a diversionary tactic – a plan to pull the bulk of Earth's defense forces away, leaving it ripe for invasion. The human population had been enslaved or devastated, the survivors had been enslaved by the Breed in forced labor camps.

But humankind was not quite ready to go into the darkness just yet. The USC Darwin quickly moved into orbit around the Earth and remained there under the cover of a cloaking device. Captain Richter began to order "surgical strikes" upon key enemy targets. The Breed were still recovering from their war on Earth and had not yet regrouped their infrastructure. As such, they could not organize a solid defense against such subterfuge. Eventually the crew of the Darwin managed to link up with the human resistance under the command of one Carla Alvarez, their charismatic leader. Between the hidden USC Darwin and Carla's fighters the desperate soldiers only hoped that they could turn the tide, and one day win back Earth for the human race.

Gameplay

Breed is a squad-based first-person shooter. The gameplay could be compared to Halo but is closer to the Rainbow Six game series, or Star Wars Republic Commando.

Squads can be commanded into various formations or ordered to regroup, ceasefire and various other commands. Squad members can share ammunition and heal one another. They can also fix vehicles or be left on top of a mountain (for example) to provide cover for other members. Breed's squad-based gameplay is along the lines of Battlefield 2: Modern Combat, allowing players to choose which squad member to play as and switch between squad members in the middle of combat. In this respect, players can choose to tackle many of the missions in several different ways.

The player shoots his way through numerous enemies and completes mission objectives given to them by the commander. Levels consist of wide-open areas, obstacles such as roads, bridges and cliffs as well as extended flight sequences using the vehicles. Although mission waypoints are marked it's often up to the player to realize strategies that don't include an obvious line of sight approach.

The player's view is usually from that of a first-person perspective, but can also be switched to a third person view. There is a heads-up display which shows the player's ammunition count, armor, and equipped weapon, as well as a compass and squad commands. The player can carry two weapons at a time and there is a wide selection of weapons at one's disposal, everything from energy weapons like plasma cannons to your standard assault rifle and a few exotic alien weapons. There are also a range of vehicles such as an APC, jeep, and a space fighter which can be used at certain points in the game. Players can freely move around in some vehicles when they are in motion or load other vehicles into them. Friendly gun emplacements can be used, such as the guns on the drop ship. Enemy gun emplacements can also be captured and used to your advantage. The single player AI can be left to control emplacements to give you covering fire. In a few instances players can pilot an aircraft from outer space, head through the Earth's atmosphere, then continue their journey down to the planet's surface. Breed's 'gameplay kernel' allows various aspects of a mission to be played out simultaneously in space or on the planet itself.

Online play includes several maps to choose from. There are Team, Melee and standard Deathmatch modes. Many maps include vehicles. In all, 16 players can play on any given map, but there is no bot AI included.

Characters

Breed's characters are mostly anonymous but are introduced at the beginning of the first mission as "Sniper", "Grunt", and "Heavy Gunner".

Sergeant Westwood gives you orders, but it's never revealed from who they come exactly (may be assumed to be Captain Richter). At one point, in the cycling demo at the beginning of the game, Sergeant Gunny Westwood is heard to remark "War...what is it good for..?" and his dialogue includes other humorous references revealing the satirical slant to elements of the game. Although these elements are not included in the gameplay itself, which is more serious. Other characters who appear are a soldier in a wheel chair (Captain Soul Richter) who the Sergeant gives a satirical speech to in the title sequence, and characters like resistance fighters.

The player can control three different squad members, the grunt, sniper, and a heavy gunner, although this changes in later missions to include a missile specialist. Each squad member is equipped with different weapons and can be controlled at any given time throughout a mission. The grunt, the character with whom the player begins the game, is usually armed with a standard assault rifle and shotgun but can also pick up other weapons. The sniper carries a sniper rifle and assault rifle, though this is sometimes replaced by a silenced sub-machinegun. The heavy gunner is armed with a large four-barreled minigun for suppressive fire. One can also be an engineer or a medic.

Controversy

Although information seems to be scant, a dispute seems to have erupted between the developers, Brat Designs, and the original distributors, CDV. The developers claimed that an inferior version of the game was released by CDV. CDV claim they were supplied with a faulty release and had to bring in extra coders.

Reception

Breed received mixed reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Many reviewers claim Breed was stunted by long loading screens, bad writing, lag, severe bugs, and a repetitive gameplay loop. Breed is often compared as a worse Halo, however, it is praised for its wide variety of vehicle options.

References

External links

2004 video games
Alien invasions in video games
Cancelled Xbox games
First-person shooters
Science fiction video games
Tactical shooter video games
Video games about extraterrestrial life
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games scored by Nathan McCree
Windows games
Windows-only games
Zoo Corporation games
CDV Software Entertainment games

Breed (video game)


The torpedo, is an explosive projectile weapon that moves by itself (using a propeller), launched above or below the water surface, that goes underwater toward a target, and made to explode when it hits a target or is near to it. Torpedoes may be launched from submarines, surface ships, helicopters, aircraft, land etc. Robert Whitehead invented the torpedo in 1866.

Other websites
 Swedish Bofors 'Torpedo 2000' promo video
 Modern Torpedoes And Countermeasures
 US Navy torpedo data cut and pasted from a Navy Fact File
 Early History of the Torpedo Torpedo History
 US Naval Undersea Museum Torpedo Display
 US Naval Undersea Museum Torpedo Collection

Weapons

Torpedo


The Protestant Evangelical Church in Germany (German: Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland, abbreviated EKD) is a group of 20 regional churches. They are made up of two Reformed (Calvinist), 9 Lutheran and 9 United (Lutheran-Reformed) churches.

The Moravian Church and the Federation of Evangelical Reformed Congregations are associate members.

The Evangelical Church in Germany is not a church like the Church of England or the Roman Catholic Church. This is because it is not one big church which share the same system of beliefs, instead it is a collection of churches which allow its members to share in church services and worship.

Other websites
 Evangelical Church in Germany (Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland)

Calvinism
Lutheranism
Protestantism in Germany

Evangelical Church in Germany


The Passionate Pilgrim er skrevet av blant andre William Shakespeare, og inneholder disse sonettene:

 When my love swears that she is made of truth
 Two loves I have of comfort and despair
 Did not the heavenly rhetoric of thine eye
 Sweet Cytherea, sitting by a brook
 If love make me forsworn, how shall I swear to love?
 Scarce had the sun dried up the dewy morn
 Fair is my love, but not so fair as fickle
 If music and sweet poetry agree
 Fair was the morn when the fair queen of love
 Sweet rose, fair flower, untimely pluck'd, soon vaded
 Venus, with young Adonis sitting by her
 Crabbed age and youth cannot live together
 Beauty is but a vain and doubtful good
 Good night, good rest. Ah! neither be my share

Eksterne lenker

Lyrikk
William Shakespeare

The Passionate Pilgrim


Potassium hydroxide is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is KOH. It contains potassium and hydroxide ions.

Properties
It is a white powder. It dissolves easily in water to make a basic solution. It is corrosive to skin. It reacts with acids to give potassium salts. It is less common than sodium hydroxide. About 700,000 tons are made each year. It is hygroscopic, meaning that it absorbs water from the air and forms a solution. It is very hard to get the water out again. It releases heat when it is dissolved in water, similar to sodium hydroxide. It gradually reacts with carbon dioxide in the air to form potassium carbonate. It melts easily. It feels greasy when it gets on the skin because it makes soap from the fat in your skin. It is made when potassium reacts with water.

Preparation
It is made by electrolysis of a potassium chloride solution. It can also be made by reacting calcium hydroxide with potassium carbonate. The calcium carbonate precipitates and is filtered, leaving potassium hydroxide.

Uses
It is used to make soap. It is also used in organic chemistry. It can be used to make fertilizers and other potassium compounds. It is used to make diesel from plants. It is used in alkaline cells and nicads as an electrolyte. It can be used to identify mushrooms.

Related pages
Sodium
Sodium carbonate
Bicarbonate

Potassium compounds

Potassium hydroxide


Albania Veneta (English: Venetian Albania) was the name for the possessions of the Republic of Venice in southern Dalmatia from 1420 to 1797.

Historical area

It originally covered the coastal area of what is now northern Albania and the coast of Montenegro, but the Albanian and southern Montenegrin parts were lost to the Ottomans in 1571.

Name

The word "Veneta" in Albania Veneta was used to differentiate the area from the Ottoman Albania (called Albania Ottomana in those centuries), an area stretching from Kosovo to southern Albania.

Geography

These Venetian possessions stretched from the southern borders of the "Republic of Ragusa" (modern-day Dubrovnik) to Durazzo (Durrës) in coastal Albania. The Venetian territories never reached more than 20 km from the Adriatic Sea. After 1573 the southern limit was moved to the village of Confin (Kufin) near Budua (Budva), because of the Ottoman conquests of Antivari (Bar), and Dulcigno (Ulcinj) in the Balkans.

The Dominions of Venice were centered around the "Bocche di Cattaro" (Bay of Kotor) and included the small cities of Cattaro (Kotor), Risano (Risan), Perasto (Perast), Teodo (Tivat), Castelnuovo (Herceg Novi), Budua (Budva) and Spizza (Sutomore).

History

Venice started to take control of the small southern Dalmatian villages around the 10th century, assimilating quickly the neolatin "Dalmatian language" of the coastal areas into the Venetian language. But only in the 14th century was the Republic of Venice able to create a territorial continuity around the Bay of Kotor.  These Venetian dominions around Cattaro (Kotor) lasted from 1420 to 1797 and were called Albania Veneta, a historical province of the Republic of Venice.

When the Turks started to conquer the Balkans in 15th century, many Christian Slavs took refuge inside Venetian Dalmatia and so even the Albania Veneta started to have a huge Serb and Albanian population. By the end of 17th century the Romance speaking population of the historical Albania Veneta was already a minority, according to Oscar Randi in his book ''Dalmazia etnica, incontri e fusioni.

After the Napoleonic armies conquered and put an end to the Republic of Venice in 1797, the area of the Albania veneta changed control many times:
in 1805 was annexed to the Napoleonic "Kingdom of Italy", then in 1809 was part of French "Illyrian Provinces" and finally in 1815 was put under Habsburg control in the Dalmatia of the Austrian Empire.

Under the Habsburg domination, Albania Veneta was part of "Austrian Dalmatia" and in 1878 (at the "Congress of Berlin") another 40 km² around Sutomore were added to this territory.

The borders of the former Venetian province of Albania Veneta changed again in 1918, when was created the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, but were reinstated from 1941 to 1943 during World War II, when Mussolini annexed the territories around Cattaro to the Kingdom of Italy. The area was part of the Italian "Governatorato di Dalmazia" and was called Provincia di Cattaro.

After World War II any political entity related to the historical presence of Venice in southern Dalmatia ceased to exist and the area was definitely incorporated into Yugoslavia.
The old Albania Veneta is currently a coastal region of the newly independent Montenegro.

History of the Venetian speaking population of Albania Veneta

According to the Dalmatian historian Luigi Paulucci (in his book "Le Bocche di Cattaro nel 1810") the population of the Albania Veneta, during the centuries of the Republic of Venice, was mainly Venetian speaking (approximately 66%) in the urban areas (Cattaro, Perasto, Budua, ecc..) around the "Bocche di Cattaro" (Bay of Kotor).

But in the inland areas more than half of the population was Serbo-Croatian speaking, after the first years of the eighteenth century. Paulucci wrote even that near the border with Albania there were big communities of Albanian speaking people: Dulcigno (Ulcinj) was half Albanian, one quarter Venetian and one quarter Slavic-speaking.

During the French rule of the area of Cattaro the schools were in Italian, when the former Albania Veneta was part of the Napoleonic "Kingdom of Italy".

The Slovenian Marko Trogrli in his essay "The French school system in French Dalmatia" wrote that "Vincenzo Dandolo, the French governor of Dalmatia as well as Bartolomeo Benincasa, an official from the local (Dalmatian) Education Department, published in May 1807 a plan for the province's public education (Il piano generale della pubblica istruzione in Dalmazia), which had to be consistent with the education system throughout the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy....Instruction was to be in Italian".

During the nineteenth century, according to the historian Scaglioni Marzio, the wars of independence of Italy from the Austro-Hungarian empire created a situation of harassment against the Italian (or Venetian speaking) communities in the Austrian southern Dalmatia.

The result was that in 1880 there were in Cattaro, according to the Austrian census, only 930 ethnic Italians (or only 32% of a total population of 2910 people).

Furthermore, in the Austrian census of 1910, the Italians were reduced to only 13.6% in that city, according to Diego De Castro in his book Dalmazia, popolazione e composizione etnica. Cenno storico sul rapporto etnico tra Italiani e Slavi nella Dalmazia.

There are currently 500 Italian speakers in Montenegro, mainly in the area of Cattaro (Kotor) and Perasto (Perast), who constitute the "Comunitá Nazionale Italiana del Montenegro".

The "disappearance" of the Italian speaking populations in Dalmatia was nearly complete after World War II. The linguist Matteo Bartoli calculated that the Italians were 33% of the Dalmatian population during the Napoleonic wars, while currently there are only 300 Italians in Croatian Dalmatia and 500 Italians in coastal Montenegro.
.

Notes

Bibliography

Bartoli, Matteo. Le parlate italiane della Venezia Giulia e della Dalmazia. Tipografia italo-orientale. Grottaferrata 1919.
Cecchetti, Bartolomeo. Intorno agli stabilimenti politici della repubblica veneta nell'Albania. In: Atti del Regio Istituto veneto di scienze, lettere ed arti. Bd. 3, Seria 4, S. 978-998. 1874.
De Brodmann, Giuseppe. Memorie politico-economiche della citta e territorio di Trieste, della penisola d'Istria, della Dalmazia fu Veneta, di Ragusi e dell'Albania, ora congiunti all'Austriaco Impero. Venezia 1821.
Gelcich, Giuseppe. Memorie storiche sulle bocche di Cattaro. Zara 1880.
 Martin, John Jeffries. Venice Reconsidered. The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State, 1297–1797. Johns Hopkins UP. New York, 2002.
 Norwich, John Julius. A History of Venice. Vintage Books. New York, 1989.
 Paulucci, Luigi. Le Bocche di Cattaro nel 1810 Edizioni Italo Svevo.Trieste, 2005.
 Randi, Oscar. Dalmazia etnica, incontri e fusioni. Tipografie venete. Venezia 1990.
Schmitt, Oliver. Das venezianische Albanien (1392 - 1479). (=Südosteuropäische Arbeiten. 110). München 2001.
 Sumrada, Janez. Napoleon na Jadranu / Napoleon dans l'Adriatique. Zalozba Annales. Koper, 2006.
 Tagliavini, Carlo. Le origini delle lingue neolatine. Patron Ed. Bologna 1982.

History of Italy
Venice

Albania veneta


The City of Wakefield is in West Yorkshire, England. As well as Wakefield there are five other medium-sized towns - Normanton, Pontefract, Featherstone, Castleford and Knottingley - and some smaller towns in the City area. Most people who live in those towns will tell other people that they live in those towns, instead of telling them that they live in Wakefield. The City of Wakefield has a population of about 320,000 people.

There is a mulberry tree in the exercise yard of the Wakefield Prison. It is believed that the prisoners made up the song "Here we go round the mulberry bush" as they walked around and around the tree.

References

City of Wakefield


Greek is an Indo-European language, the sole surviving descendant of the Hellenic sub-family. Although it split off from other Indo-European languages before 2000 BC, it is first attested in the Bronze Age as Mycenaean Greek. During the Archaic and Classical eras, Greek speakers wrote numerous texts in a variety of dialects known collectively as Ancient Greek. In the Hellenistic era, these dialects underwent dialect levelling to form Koine Greek which was used as a lingua franca throughout the eastern Roman Empire, and later grew into Medieval Greek. For much of the period of Modern Greek, the language existed in a situation of diglossia, where speakers would switch between informal varieties known as Dimotiki and a formal one known as Katharevousa. Present-day Modern Standard Greek is largely an outgrowth of Dimotiki, with some features retained from Katharevousa.

Proto-Greek

The Proto-Greek language was the most recent common ancestor of all Greek dialects. Proto-Greek split off from its nearest Indo-European relatives some time before 2000 BC, though it is unknown whether the characteristic Greek sound-changes occurred within the Greek peninsula or if Proto-Greek speakers themselves migrated into Greece.

Mycenaean Greek

The first known script for writing Greek was the Linear B syllabary, used for the archaic Mycenaean dialect. Linear B was not deciphered until 1953. After the fall of the Mycenaean civilization during the Bronze Age collapse, there was a period of about five hundred years when writing was either not used or nothing has survived to the present day. Since early classical times, Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet.

Ancient Greek dialects

In the archaic and classical periods, there were three main dialects of the Greek language: Aeolic, Ionic, and Doric, corresponding to the three main tribes of the Greeks, the Aeolians (chiefly living in the islands of the Aegean and the west coast of Asia Minor north of Smyrna), the Ionians (mostly settled in the west coast of Asia Minor, including Smyrna and the area to the south of it), and the Dorians (primarily the Greeks of the coast of the Pelopennesus, for example, of Sparta, Crete and the southernmost parts of the west coast of Asia Minor). Homer's Iliad and Odyssey were written in a kind of literary Ionic with some loan words from the other dialects. Ionic, therefore, became the primary literary language of ancient Greece until the ascendancy of Athens in the late 5th century. Doric was standard for Greek lyric poetry, such as Pindar and the choral odes of the Greek tragedians.

Attic Greek
Attic Greek, a subdialect of Ionic, was for centuries the language of Athens. Most surviving classical Greek literature appears in Attic Greek, including the extant texts of Plato and Aristotle, which were passed down in written form from classical times.

Koine Greek

For centuries, the Greek language had existed in multiple dialects. As Greek culture under Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) and his successors spread from Asia Minor to Egypt and the border regions of India the Attic dialect became the basis of the Koiné (Κοινή; "common"). The language was also learned by the inhabitants of the regions that Alexander conquered, turning Greek into a world language.
The Greek language continued to thrive after Alexander, during the Hellenistic period (323 BC to 31 BC). During this period the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, appeared.

For many centuries Greek was the lingua franca of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. It was during Roman times that the Greek New Testament appeared, and Koiné Greek is also called "New Testament Greek" after its most famous work of literature.

Medieval Greek

Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, is the stage of the Greek language between the beginning of the Middle Ages around 600 and the Ottoman conquest of the city of Constantinople in 1453. The latter date marked the end of the Middle Ages in Southeast Europe. From 620 onwards, Greek was the only language of administration and government in the Byzantine Empire, due to the reforms of Heraclius. This stage of language is thus described as Byzantine Greek. The study of the Medieval Greek language and literature is a branch of Byzantine Studies, or Byzantinology, the study of the history and culture of the Byzantine Empire.

The beginning of Medieval Greek is occasionally dated back to as early as the 4th century, either to 330, when the political centre of the monarchy was moved to Constantinople, or to 395, the division of the Empire. However, this approach is rather arbitrary as it is more an assumption of political as opposed to cultural and linguistic developments. It is only after the Eastern Roman-Byzantine culture was subjected to such massive change in the 7th century that a turning point in language development can be assumed. Medieval Greek is the link between the ancient and modern forms of the language because on the one hand, its literature is still strongly influenced by Ancient Greek, while on the other hand, many linguistic features of Modern Greek were already taking shape in the spoken language.

Modern Greek

The beginning of the "modern" period of the language is often symbolically assigned to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, even though that date marks no clear linguistic boundary and many characteristic modern features of the language had already been present centuries earlier, from the 4th to the 15th century. During most of the period, the language existed in a situation of diglossia, with regional spoken dialects existing side by side with learned, archaic written forms.

After the establishment of Greece as an independent state in 1829, the Katharévusa (Καθαρεύουσα) form – Greek for "purified language" – was sanctioned as the official language of the state and the only acceptable form of Greek in Greece. The whole attempt led to a linguistic war, along with the creation of literary factions: the Dhimotikistés (Δημοτικιστές), who supported the common (Demotic) dialect, and the Lóyii (Λόγιοι), or Katharevusyáni (Καθαρευουσιάνοι), who supported the "purified dialect". Up to that point, use of Dhimotikí in state affairs was generally frowned upon. Use of the Demotic dialect in state speech and paperwork was forbidden.

The fall of the Junta of 1974 and the end of the era of Metapolítefsi 1974–1976 brought the acceptance of the Demotic dialect as both the de facto and de jure forms of the language for use by the Greek government, though the Katharevousa movement has left marks in the language.

Today, standard modern Greek, based on Demotic, is the official language of both Greece and Cyprus. Greek is spoken today by approximately 12–15 million people, mainly in Greece and Cyprus, but also by minority and immigrant communities in many other countries.

See also
History of the Latin language

Notes

References
 Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers (Longman Linguistics Library). Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1997.

External links
A Brief History of the Greek Language (archived)

pl:Język grecki

History of Greek


Jean Paul Getty (December 15, 1892 – June 6, 1976) was an American industrialist. He founded the Getty Oil Company. In 1957 Fortune magazine named him the richest living American, and the 1966 Guinness Book of Records named him as the world's richest private citizen, worth an estimated $1,200 million.  At his death, he was worth more than $2 billion. A book published in 1996 ranked him as the 67th richest American who ever lived. (The book ranked his wealth as a percentage of the United States gross national product.) Despite his wealth, Getty was known for being a miser.

Getty enjoyed collecting art and antiquities. His collection formed the basis of the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, California, and over $661 million of his estate was left to the museum after his death.  He established the J. Paul Getty Trust in 1953.  The trust is the world's wealthiest art institution. It operates the J. Paul Getty Museum, the Getty Foundation, the Getty Research Institute, and the Getty Conservation Institute.

Biography

His father George Getty owned a petroleum business in Minneapolis, Minnesota. J. Paul was one of the first people in the world with a fortune estimated at over one billion U.S. dollars.

He enrolled at the University of Southern California, then at University of California, Berkeley before graduating in 1914 from Magdalen College, Oxford with degrees in economics and political science. He spent his summers between studies working on his father's oil fields in Oklahoma. Running his own oil company in Tulsa, he made his first million by 1916. However, in 1917, he announced that he was retiring to become a Los Angeles-based playboy. Although he eventually returned to business, Getty had lost his father's respect. Just before George Franklin Getty died in 1930, he believed that Jean Paul would destroy the family company, and told him so.

After taking a few years off from the money-making grind to enjoy spending his earnings on women, Getty returned to Oklahoma in 1919. During the 1920s he added about $3 million to his already sizable estate. His succession of marriages and divorces (three during the 1920s, five throughout his life) so distressed his father, however, that J. Paul inherited a mere $500,000 of the $10 million the senior Getty left at his death in 1930.

Getty carefully invested his resources during the Great Depression. Getty acquired Pacific Western Oil Corporation. He began the acquisition (completed in 1953) of the Mission Corporation, which included Tidewater Oil and Skelly Oil. In 1967 the billionaire merged these holdings into Getty Oil.

Beginning in 1949, Getty paid Ibn Saud $9.5 million in cash and $1 million a year for a 60-year concession to a tract of barren land near the border of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. No oil had ever been discovered there. After spending $30 million over four years, oil was discovered there. From 1953 onward, Getty's gamble produced  a year, which contributed greatly to the fortune which made him one of the richest people in the world.

Getty learned to speak Arabic which helped his unparalleled expansion into the Middle East. Getty owned the controlling interest in nearly 200 businesses, including Getty Oil. Associates identified his overall wealth at between $2 billion and $4 billion. It did not come easily, perhaps inspiring Getty's widely quoted remark—"The meek shall inherit the earth, but not the mineral rights."

He moved to England in the 1950s and loved English culture (Anglophile). He lived and worked at his 16th-century Tudor estate, Sutton Place near Guildford; the traditional country house became the centre of Getty Oil and his associated companies and he used the estate to entertain his British and Arabian friends (including the British Rothschild family and numerous rulers of Middle Eastern countries). Getty lived the rest of his life in the British Isles, dying of heart failure at the age of 83 on June 6, 1976.

Marriages, divorces, and children
Getty was married and divorced five times.  He had five sons with four of his wives:
 Jeanette Demont (married 1923 – divorced 1926); one son George Franklin Getty II (1924–1973)
 Allene Ashby (1926–1928?, that is, bigamous 1926-1927 and its exact resolution is unknown)
 Adolphine Helmle (1928–1932); one son Jean Ronald Getty (born 1929)
 Ann Rork (1932–1936); two sons Eugene Paul Getty, later John Paul Getty Jr. (1932–2003), and Gordon Peter Getty (born 1933)
 Louise Dudley Lynch (1939–1958); one son Timothy Ware Getty (1946–1958)

He was quoted as saying "A lasting relationship with a woman is only possible if you are a business failure".

Success as an autobiographical author
Getty wrote a very successful book entitled How to Be Rich.

Coin-box telephone
Getty famously had a pay phone installed at Sutton Place, helping to seal his reputation as a miser. In his autobiography, he described his reasons:

Now, for months after Sutton Place was purchased, great numbers of people came in and out of the house.  Some were visiting businessmen.  Others were artisans or workmen engaged in renovation and refurbishing.  Still others were tradesmen making deliveries of merchandise.  Suddenly, the Sutton Place telephone bills began to soar. The reason was obvious.  Each of the regular telephones in the house has direct access to outside lines and thus to long-distance and even overseas operators. All sorts of people were making the best of a rare opportunity.  They were picking up Sutton Place phones and placing calls to girlfriends in Geneva or Georgia and to aunts, uncles and third cousins twice-removed in Caracas and Cape Town.  The costs of their friendly chats were, of course, charged to the Sutton Place bill.

Getty placed dial-locks on all the regular telephones, limiting their use to authorised staff, and the coin-box telephone was installed for others.  When speaking in a televised interview with Alan Whicker, Getty said that he thought guests would want to use a payphone .

Grandson's kidnapping
On July 10, 1973 in Rome, 16 year old John Paul Getty III was kidnapped and a ransom of $17 million was demanded over the phone for his safe return. However, "the family suspected a ploy by the rebellious teenager to extract money from his miserly grandfather." John Paul Getty II asked his father for the money, but was refused.

In November 1973 an envelope containing a lock of hair and a human ear was delivered to a daily newspaper. The second demand had been delayed three weeks by an Italian postal strike. The demand threatened that Paul would be further mutilated unless $3.2 million was paid: "This is Paul's ear. If we don't get some money within 10 days, then the other ear will arrive. In other words, he will arrive in little bits."

When the kidnappers finally reduced their demands to $3 million Getty senior agreed to pay  no more than $2.2 million - the maximum that would be tax deductible.  He loaned his son the remaining $800,000 at 4% interest. Paul III was found alive in southern Italy shortly after the ransom was paid. After his release Paul III called his grandfather to thank him for paying the ransom but Getty refused to come to the phone.  Nine people were later arrested for the kidnapping, but only two were convicted. Paul III was permanently affected by the trauma and became a drug addict. After a stroke brought on by a cocktail of drugs and alcohol in 1981, Paul III was rendered speechless, nearly blind and partially paralyzed for the rest of his life. He died thirty years later on February 5, 2011 at the age of 54.

Getty defended his initial refusal to pay the ransom on two points. First, he argued that to submit to the kidnappers' demands would immediately place his other fourteen grandchildren at the risk of copy-cat kidnappers. He added:

The second reason for my refusal was much broader-based. I contend that acceding to the demands of criminals and terrorists merely guarantees the continuing increase and spread of lawlessness, violence and such outrages as terror-bombings, "skyjackings" and the slaughter of hostages that plague our present-day world. (Getty, 1976, pg.139).

The 2017 movie All the Money in the World is based on these events. Christopher Plummer plays J. Paul Getty. In 2018, a television series based on the events, Trust, premiered with Donald Sutherland playing Getty.

Published works
 Getty, J. Paul. The history of the bigger oil business of George F.S. F. and J. Paul Getty from 1903 to 1939. Los Angeles?, 1941.
 Getty, J. Paul. Europe in the eighteenth century. [Santa Monica, Calif.]: privately printed, 1949.
 Le Vane, Ethel, and J. Paul Getty. Collector's choice: the chronicle of an artistic odyssey through Europe. London: W.H. Allen, 1955.
 Getty, J. Paul. My life and fortunes. New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1963.
 Getty, J. Paul. The joys of collecting. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1965.
 Getty, J. Paul. How to be rich. Chicago: Playboy Press, 1965.
 Getty, J. Paul. The golden age. New York: Trident Press, 1968.
 Getty, J. Paul. How to be a successful executive. Chicago: Playboy Press, 1971.
 Getty, J. Paul. As I see it: the autobiography of J. Paul Getty. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall, 1976.

References

Further reading
 Hewins, Ralph. The richest American: J. Paul Getty. New York: Dutton, 1960.
 Lund, Robina. The Getty I knew. Kansas City: Sheed Andrews and McMeel, 1977. .
 Miller, Russell. The house of Getty. New York: Henry Holt, 1985. .
 de Chair, Somerset Struben. Getty on Getty: a man in a billion. London: Cassell, 1989. .
 Pearson, John. Painfully rich: J. Paul Getty and his heirs. London: Macmillan, 1995. .

Other websites
J. Paul Getty Diaries, 1938-1946, 1948-1976. The Getty Research Institute. Los Angeles, California.
Guide to the J. Paul Getty Family Collected Papers, 1880s-1989. The Getty Research Institute. Los Angeles, California. Collection primarily contains letters, photographs, financial records, legal documents, and publications created or collected by J. Paul Getty and his parents, George F. Getty I and Sarah C. Getty.
J. Paul Getty and Ashby sisters papers, 1926-1992. The Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California. Personal correspondence and telegrams, clippings, a book, and photographs, 1926-1992 and undated, related to J. Paul Getty, Allene Ashby (Getty's second wife), and Belene Ashby.
J. Paul Getty Trust
J. Paul Getty Museum
Insecula biography
Wiki-Genealogy
Getty's How To Be Rich: A commentary by Tom Butler-Bowdon

 Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Getty, J. Paul
 Ranch House Records, 1921, 1945-1960s, 1980s, 1999-2007, undated The Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California. These records are organized in four series: Series I. Historic American Buildings Survey documentation, 1999, 2001; Series II. Renovation and administration records, 1954-1982; Series III. Architectural drawings, 1921, 1945-1951, 1975-1976 and undated; Series IV. Photographs and miscellaneous file, circa 1950s-1960s, 1980s, 1999-2007.
 Collected papers for biography of J. Paul Getty, circa 1890s-1973, 1984, undated (bulk 1957-1973) The Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California. The collection comprises material created or collected by Ralph Hewins in the course of researching and writing the biography The Richest American: J. Paul Getty (1960).

American autobiographers

Writers from Minneapolis
Businesspeople from Minneapolis
Writers from Oklahoma
Businesspeople from Oklahoma
American billionaires
Deaths from heart failure
1892 births
1976 deaths

J. Paul Getty