The Greek Constitution of 1911 was a major step forward in the constitutional history of Greece. Following the rise to power of Eleftherios Venizelos after the Goudi revolt in 1909, Venizelos set about attempting to reform the state. The main outcome of this was a major revision to the Greek Constitution of 1864.

The most noteworthy amendments to the Constitution of 1864 concerning the protection of human rights, were the more effective protection of personal security, equality in tax burdens, of the right to assemble and of the inviolability of the domicile. Furthermore, the Constitution facilitated expropriation to allocate property to landless farmers, while simultaneously judicially protecting property rights.

Other important changes included the institution of an Electoral Court for the settlement of election disputes stemming from the parliamentary elections, the addition of new conflicts for MPs, the re-establishment of the State Council as the highest administrative court (which, however, was constituted and operated only under the Constitution of 1927), the improvement of the protection of judicial independence and the establishment of the non-removability of public employees. Finally, for the first time, the Constitution provided for mandatory and free education for all, and declared Katharevousa (i.e. archaising "purified" Greek) as the "official language of the Nation".

External links
Scanned original of the 1911 Constitution (in Greek)

1911 documents
Constitution of Greece
Politics of Greece
1911 in law
1911 in Greece
History of Greece (1909–1924)
1910s in Greek politics

Greek Constitution of 1911


Broadway Rhythm (1944) is a Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Technicolor musical film. It was produced by Jack Cummings and directed by Roy Del Ruth.

The film was originally announced as Broadway Melody of 1944 to follow MGM's Broadway Melody films of 1929, 1936, 1938, and 1940. It was originally slated to star Eleanor Powell and Gene Kelly, but Louis B. Mayer and MGM loaned Kelly out to Columbia to play opposite Rita Hayworth in Cover Girl (1944). The film instead starred George Murphy, who had appeared in Broadway Melody of 1938 and Broadway Melody of 1940. Mayer then replaced Powell with Ginny Simms.

Other cast members included Charles Winninger, Gloria DeHaven, Lena Horne, Nancy Walker, Eddie "Rochester" Anderson, the Ross Sisters, and Ben Blue, as well as Tommy Dorsey and his orchestra.

Plot
Murphy plays a successful Broadway musical comedy producer named Johnnie Demming.  He needs a star for his new show. He's smitten with the glamorous film star, Helen Hoyt (Simms), and offers the part to her, but she turns him down because she wants to be sure she's in a hit.  Johnnie's father (Winninger), retired from vaudeville, wants to do his own show.  He gets his daughter, Patsy (DeHaven) and also Helen.  Johnnie feels betrayed by his father.

Cast

George Murphy as Jonnie Demming
Ginny Simms as Helen Hoyt
Charles Winninger as Sam Demming
Gloria DeHaven as Patsy Demming
Nancy Walker as Trixie Simpson
Ben Blue as Felix Gross
Lena Horne as Fernway de la Fer
Eddie "Rochester" Anderson as Eddie
Tommy Dorsey and his Orchestra
Hazel Scott as herself
Kenny Bowers as Ray Kent
The Ross Sisters as Maggie, Aggie and Elmira
Dean Murphy as Hired Man
Louis Mason as Farmer
Bunny Waters as Bunnie
Walter B. Long as Doug Kelly
Sara Haden as Miss Wynn

Soundtrack
The film is very loosely based on the Broadway musical Very Warm for May (1939). However, all the songs from the musical except for "All the Things You Are" were left out of the film. Some of the songs from the movie are by the writers of the original musical, Jerome Kern and Oscar Hammerstein II:
 All the Things You Are
 That Lucky Fellow
 In Other Words, Seventeen
 All in Fun

Additional songs
"Somebody Loves Me" by George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin
"Who's Who", "Solid Potato Salad", "Irresistible You", "Milkman Keep Those Bottles Quiet", "I Love Corny Music" by Raye and DePaul
"What Do You Think I Am", "Brazilian Boogie" by Martin and Blane
"Pretty Baby" by Tony Jackson, Egbert Van Alstyne, Gus Kahn
"Amor" by Gabriel Ruiz, Ricardo Lopez Mendez

See also
List of American films of 1944

References

External links

1944 films
1944 musical films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Films directed by Roy Del Ruth
Films scored by Johnny Green
1940s English-language films
Films based on musicals
American musical films
1940s American films

Broadway Rhythm


Joseph ben Solomon Ṭaiṭazaḳ (), also referred to by the acronym MahaRITaTS, was a talmudic authority and kabalist who lived at Salonica in the 15th and 16th centuries. He was a member of the Taitazak family.

With his father and brother Judah ben Solomon Taitazak, he moved in 1492 from Spain, his native land, to Salonica, where he became a rabbi.

Life
He was regarded as one of the most mysterious Kabbalists of the 16th century and one of the leading rabbinical figures in Jerusalem and Damascus. He discussed magic squares, which allude to the highest and most concealed concepts and their use within amulets. Many references can be found in writings of contemporary and leading Kabbalists, such as Rabbi Joseph Tirshom's manuscript (ca. 1550 CE) "Shoshan Yesod Olam" (The Rose, Foundation of the Universe), Rabbi Eljah Baal Shem's Toledot Adam (Generation of Adam) and Rabbi Isaiah Horowitz's (1560-1630 CE) Sh'nei Luchot HaB'rit (Two Tablets of the Covenant) discuss the magic square in relation to the mysteries of creation.

He was a fervent adherent of the Kabbalah, in which he was well versed, and led an ascetic life. Eliyahu de Vidas related that with the exception of Sabbath nights, Joseph for forty years never slept in a bed, but on a box, with his feet on the ground. With such a disposition to asceticism and mysticism, it was but natural that Joseph should become enthralled by the messianic vagaries of Solomon Molcho, whom he supported while preaching at Salonica in 1529. Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan writes, "Rabbi Joseph Taitazak was apparently influenced by Abulafia's school of Kabbalah, and many ideas that he discusses seem to be taken verbatim from Abulafia's writings."

He was also considered one of the greatest Talmudists of his time, with even Joseph Caro invoking his authority. Among Joseph's disciples were Isaac Adarbi, Samuel di Medina, and Shlomo Halevi Alkabetz.

Works
He was the author of the following works:
Ben Porat, a commentary on Ecclesiastes (Venice, 1599)
Leḥem Setarim, on the Book of Daniel and the Five Scrolls (ib. 1608), and on Psalms, Job, and Proverbs (Neubauer, Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS. Nos. 206, 2; 329; 969; 2270, 8; 3521)
A commentary on the Sayings of the Fathers
Responsa, some of which have been included in the writings of his contemporaries and pupils
Notes on casuistical matters
Commentaries on haggadic passages
A treatise on the astrolabe (Neubauer, l.c. Nos. 834, 7, 10; 2080, 3; 2254, 8).
According to Isaac Adarbi (Dibre Ribot, p. 64), Joseph was the author also of novellæ on Alfasi.

References

 Its bibliography:
Gedaliah ibn Yaḥya, Shalshelet ha-Ḳabbalah, ed. Amsterdam, p. 49a;
David Conforte, Ḳore ha-Dorot, p. 35a;
Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i.40;
Giovanni Bernardo De Rossi, Dizionario, p. 314;
Geiger, Zeitschrift, iii.285, No. 21;
Moritz Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1533;
Heinrich Graetz, Gesch. ix.35, 236, 299.

15th-century births
16th-century deaths
16th-century rabbis from the Ottoman Empire
Rabbis from Thessaloniki
Jews expelled from Spain in 1492
Kabbalists
Greek people of Spanish descent
Greek people of Basque descent

Joseph Taitazak


Kupang is the provincial capital of East Nusa Tenggara province in southeast Indonesia.

The city is in West Timor on the island of Timor, and had a population estimated in 2012 at 450,000. It is surrounded by (but is separate from) the regency of Kupang, which had a population estimated in 2009 at 394,173. It is the biggest city and port on the island of Timor.

Kupang's economy is mainly based on its cement industry and the export and import of goods from its busy port. The airport of Kupang El Tari (IATA-Code: KOE), is approximately 8 km from the city center to the east. As capital of East Nusa Tenggara, the transport and administrative links from Kupang with isolated islands are extensive.

History

The location was an important port and trading point during the Portuguese and Dutch colonial eras. There are ruins and remnant signs of the colonial presence in the city.

The city was an important landing and refueling place for early long distance airplane flights between Europe and Australia in the early twentieth century. It was an important location during the conflict in East Timor, for the Indonesian military, as well as the militias. The camps around Kupang were also of significant impact on the city.

In 1962, the University of Nusa Cendana was established, and the city became important both in the field of education and also economically.

In 1967, the city was made the seat of the Diocese of Kupang. In 1989 the diocese was elevated to become the Archdiocese of Kupang.

William Bligh
Kupang was the final destination of William Bligh who was set adrift in an open boat during the Mutiny on the Bounty (1789). The Mutiny on the Bounty took place about 30 nautical miles (56 km) from Tofua. Lt William Bligh navigated the overcrowded 23 foot (7 m) open launch on an epic 41-day voyage first to Tofua and then to the West Timor city of Kupang equipped only with a sextant and a pocket watch— no charts or compass. He recorded the distance as 3,618 nautical miles (6710 km). He passed through the difficult Torres Strait along the way and landed on June 14. The only casualty of his voyage was a crewman named John Norton who was stoned to death by the natives of Tofua, the first island they tried to land on.

William and Mary Bryant
News of the journey of Captain Bligh inspired the escape of a party of convicts from the penal colony at Sydney Cove, Australia. A group of nine convicts and two children, led by William Bryant, stole a small uncovered government boat and escaped from Port Jackson, Australia. Ten weeks later, they arrived at Kupang, having covered , a feat as remarkable as Blighs, given that only three members of the group had any sailing experience.

Sailing
Kupang is the first port of call for yachts in the annual Sail Indonesia rally which starts in Darwin, Australia towards the end of July each year. In 2006 about 100 yachts from around the world took part in the rally. From Kupang yachts head north to Alor and then stop at various ports in Indonesia over a period of about three months ending up in Singapore.

Sister cities
Kupang has a sister city relationship with:
 Darwin, Australia
 Zhuhai, People's Republic of China

References

Cities in Indonesia
East Nusa Tenggara

Kupang


The Magicians is a British talent show, first broadcast throughout January 2011 on BBC One.

The show features magicians performing a number of magic tricks with guest celebrities, to decide which pair will face a forfeit trick at the end of the episode. In the first series, this was decided through audience participation; however, for the second series, a phone vote was introduced. The first series was hosted by Lenny Henry, and featured magicians Luis de Matos, Barry and Stuart and Chris Korn. At the end of series 1, Luis de Matos was deemed series champion.

The second series, which began airing in January 2012, is hosted by Darren McMullen, and replaces magicians de Matos and Korn with Jason Latimer and Pete Firman. While the first series was completely pre-recorded, the second series was broadcast live on Saturday nights, with the exception of the pre-recorded "Street Magic" and "Location Grand Illusion" segments. Thus, The Magicians became the first live magic programme to be broadcast on the BBC in over 30 years. At the end of series 2 Jason Latimer was deemed series champion by the UK viewers.

It was announced on 28 June 2012 that The Magicians had been axed.

Format
Each episode features three magicians, each of whom are paired with a different celebrity. They must then perform a series of tricks to decide which pair will face a forfeit trick at the end of the episode.

In series one, the tricks were as follows:

 Grand Illusion – The pair perform a grand illusion in front of the audience, inspired by the episode's set theme.
 Street Magic – The pair go out on to the streets to perform in front of the general public.
 Celebrity's Choice – The pair perform a trick that the celebrity has always wanted to perform.

In series two, the tricks were as follows:

 Grand Illusion – Same as series one, however, this time it is performed live.
 Street Magic – Same as series one.
 Close Up Magic – The pair perform a simple trick live in amongst the audience, usually involving cards.
 Location Grand Illusion – The pair perform a grand illusion in a similar fashion to their street magic.

The order in which each of the magicians perform, and the order in which each of the tricks is done, changes from show to show. In series one, each episode had a specific theme, however, in series two, there were no themes. The second series also featured guest performances from another magician whilst the phone votes were being counted.

In the first series, after all nine performances, members of the studio audience voted for their favourite magician-celebrity partnership using an audience response system. In the second series, viewers could vote for their favourite acts via telephone. The act with the most votes were declared the winners, and the act with the fewest votes had to then attempt the forfeit trick. In the first series, the forfeit trick was explained to the magician, but not the celebrity. In the second series, the forfeit was explained to all three celebrities and magicians before the show went on air.

Episode list

International adaptations

References

External links

2011 British television series debuts
2012 British television series endings
BBC Television shows
English-language television shows
British television magic series

The Magicians (British TV series)


A person is in shock when blood is not sufficient to bring oxygen to the brain. The shock is progressive and can be deadly if it is not quickly made well.

The normal first aid action is the Trendelenburg position, the person is lying face upward, with his legs lifted. The blood is forced to flow to the brain.

Medical emergencies

Shock (circulatory)


{{Infobox noble
| name = Simon de Montfort
| title = 5th Earl of Leicester
| image = File:Simon4demontfort.gif
| caption = Seal of Simon de Montfort, depicting him riding a horse and blowing a hunting horn with a hound alongside, inscribed with his Latinised name: SIGILL[UM] SIMONIS DE MONTE FORTI ("seal of Simon from the strong mountain")
| CoA =
| more = no
| succession =
| reign =
| reign-type =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| suc-type =
| spouse = Alix de Montmorency
| spouse-type =
| issue = Amaury de MontfortSimon de Montfort, 6th Earl of LeicesterGuy de Montfort, Count of BigorreAmicie de MontfortPetronilla
| issue-link =
| issue-pipe =
| full name =
| native_name =
| styles =
| other_titles =
| noble family = Montfort
| house-type =
| father = Simon de Montfort
| mother = Amicia de Beaumont
| birth_name =
| birth_date = c. 1175
| birth_place =
| christening_date =
| christening_place =
| death_date = 25 June 1218 (aged 42–43)
| death_place = Siege of Toulouse
| burial_date =
| burial_place = Cathedral of Saint-Nazaire, Carcassonne, later moved to Montfort l'Amaury
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}}
Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester ( – 25 June 1218), known as Simon IV (or V) de Montfort and as Simon de Montfort the Elder, was a French nobleman and knight of the early 13th century. He is widely regarded as one of the great military commanders of the Middle Ages. He took part in the Fourth Crusade and was one of the prominent figures of the Albigensian Crusade. Montfort is mostly noted for his campaigns in the latter, notably for his triumph at Muret. He died at the Siege of Toulouse in 1218. He was Seigneur of Montfort from 1188 to his death and Earl of Leicester in England from 1204. He was also Viscount of Albi, Béziers and Carcassonne from 1213, as well as Count of Toulouse from 1215.

Early life
He was the son of Simon de Montfort (d. 1188), lord of Montfort l'Amaury in France near Paris, and Amicia de Beaumont, daughter of Robert de Beaumont, 3rd Earl of Leicester. He succeeded his father as lord of Montfort in 1181; in 1190 he married Alix de Montmorency, the daughter of Bouchard III de Montmorency. She shared his religious zeal and would accompany him on his campaigns.

In 1199, while taking part in a tournament at Ecry-sur-Aisne, he took the cross in the company of Count Thibaud de Champagne and went on the Fourth Crusade. The crusade soon fell under Venetian control, and was diverted to Zara on the Adriatic Sea. Pope Innocent III had specifically warned the Crusaders not to attack fellow Christians; Simon opposed the attack and urged a waiting Zara delegation not to surrender, claiming the Frankish troops would not support the Venetians in this. As a result, the delegation returned to Zara and the city resisted. Since most Frankish lords were in debt to the Venetians, they did support the attack and the city was sacked in 1202. Simon did not participate in this action and was one of its most outspoken critics. He and his associates, including Abbot Guy of Vaux-de-Cernay, left the crusade when the decision was taken to divert once more to Constantinople to place Alexius IV Angelus on the throne. Instead, Simon and his followers travelled to the court of King Emeric of Hungary and thence to Acre.

His mother was the eldest daughter of Robert of Beaumont, 3rd Earl of Leicester. After the death of her brother Robert de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Leicester without children in 1204, she inherited half of his estates and a claim to the Earldom of Leicester. The division of the estates was effected early in 1207, by which the rights to the earldom were assigned to Amicia and Simon. However, King John of England took possession of the lands himself in February 1207, and confiscated its revenues. Later, in 1215, the lands were passed into the hands of Simon's cousin, Ranulph de Meschines, 4th Earl of Chester.

Later life
Simon remained on his estates in France before taking the cross once more, this time against Christian dissidence. He participated in the initial campaign of the Albigensian Crusade in 1209, and after the fall of Carcassonne, was elected leader of the crusade and viscount of the confiscated territories of the Raymond-Roger Trencavel family.

Simon was rewarded with the territory conquered from Raymond VI of Toulouse, which in theory made him the most important landowner in Occitania. He became feared for his ruthlessness. In 1210 he burned 140 Cathars in the village of Minerve who refused to recant – though he spared those who did. In another widely reported incident, prior to the sack of the village of Lastours, he brought prisoners from the nearby village of Bram and had their eyes gouged out and their ears, noses and lips cut off. One prisoner, left with a single good eye, led them into the village as a warning.

Simon's part in the crusade had the full backing of his feudal superior, the King of France, Philip Augustus. However, historian Alistair Horne, in his book Seven Ages of Paris, states that Philip "turned a blind eye to Simon de Montfort's crusade... of which he disapproved, but readily accepted the spoils to his exchequer". Following the latter's success in winning Normandy from John Lackland of England, he was approached by Innocent III to lead the crusade but turned this down. He was heavily committed to defending his gains against John and against the emerging alliance among England, the Empire and Flanders.

However, Philip claimed full rights over the lands of the house of St Gilles; some historians believe his dispatch of de Montfort and other northern barons to be, at the very least, an exploratory campaign to reassert the rights of the French Crown in Le Midi. Philip may well also have wanted to appease the papacy after the long dispute over his marriage, which had led to excommunication. He also sought to counter any adventure by King John of England, who had marriage and fealty ties also with the Toulouse comtal house. Meanwhile, others have assessed Philip's motives to include removing over-mighty subjects from the North, and distracting them in adventure elsewhere, so they could not threaten his increasingly successful restoration of the power of the French crown in the north.

Simon is described as a man of unflinching religious orthodoxy, deeply committed to the Dominican order and the suppression of heresy. Dominic Guzman, later Saint Dominic, spent several years during the war in the Midi at Fanjeau, which was Simon's headquarters, especially in the winter months when the crusading forces were depleted. Simon had other key confederates in this enterprise, which many historians view as a conquest of southern lands by greedy men from the north. Many of them had been involved in the Fourth Crusade. One was Guy Vaux de Cernay, head of a Cistercian abbey not more than twenty miles from Simon's patrimony of Montfort Aumary, who accompanied the crusade in the Languedoc and became bishop of Carcassonne. Meanwhile, Peter de Vaux de Cernay, the nephew of Guy, wrote an account of the crusade. Historians generally consider this to be propaganda to justify the actions of the crusaders; Peter justified their cruelties as doing "the work of God" against morally depraved heretics. He portrayed outrages committed by the lords of the Midi as the opposite.

Simon was an energetic campaigner, rapidly moving his forces to strike at those who had broken their faith with him – and there were many, as some local lords switched sides whenever the moment seemed propitious.  The Midi was a warren of small fortified places, as well as home to some highly fortified cities, such as Toulouse, Carcassonne and Narbonne. Simon showed ruthlessness and daring as well as being particularly brutal with those who betrayed their pledges – as for example, Martin Algai, lord of Biron. In 1213 Simon defeated Peter II of Aragon at the Battle of Muret. This completed the defeat of the Albigensians, but Simon carried on the campaign as a war of conquest. He was appointed lord over all the newly acquired territory as Count of Toulouse and Duke of Narbonne (1215). He spent two years in warfare in many parts of Raymond's former territories; he besieged Beaucaire, which had been taken by Raymond VII of Toulouse, from 6 June 1216 to 24 August 1216.

Raymond spent most of this period in the Crown of Aragon, but corresponded with sympathisers in Toulouse. There were rumours in September 1216 that he was on his way to Toulouse. Abandoning the siege of Beaucaire, Simon partially sacked Toulouse, perhaps intended as punishment of the citizens. Raymond returned in October 1217 to take possession of Toulouse. Simon hastened to besiege the city, meanwhile sending his wife, Alix de Montmorency, with bishop Foulques of Toulouse and others, to the French court to plead for support. After maintaining the siege for nine months, Simon was killed on 25 June 1218 while combating a sally by the besieged. His head was smashed by a stone from a mangonel, operated, according to one source, by the  ("ladies and girls and women") of Toulouse. He was buried in the Cathedral of Saint-Nazaire at Carcassonne. His body was later moved by one of his sons to be reinterred at Montfort l'Amaury. A tombstone in the south transept of the cathedral is inscribed "of Simon de Montfort".

Children
Simon and Alix had:
 Amaury de Montfort married Beatrix of Viennois, died in 1241 returning from the Barons' Crusade
 Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester married Eleanor of England, killed at the Battle of Evesham on 4 August 1265
 Guy de Montfort, Count of Bigorre married Petronille, Countess of Bigorre, on 6 November 1216 and died at the siege of Castelnaudary on 20 July 1220
 Amicie de Montfort, married Gaucher de Joigny, founded the convent at Montargis and died there in 1252
 Petronilla, became abbess of the Cistercian nunnery of St. Antoine's

Inheritance
His French estates passed to his eldest son, Amaury, while his second son, Simon, eventually gained possession of the earldom of Leicester and played a major role in the reign of Henry III of England. He led the barons' rebellion against Henry during the Second Barons' War, and subsequently became the de facto ruler of England.

Note

References

Sources

Sumption, Jonathan. The Albigensian Crusade'', 2000

External links

1170s births
1218 deaths
Lord High Stewards
Simon
Christians of the Fourth Crusade
People of the Albigensian Crusade
Medieval French knights
Military personnel killed in action
Simon
5th Earl of Leicester
Simon
12th-century English people
13th-century English people
13th-century peers of France
Simon


Sargodha is the capital city of Sargodha District in the Punjab province of Pakistan. In old times, it was part of 'Shahpur' area under the British Raj. It was primarily an agricultural market town but now, it has also developed as a garrison town for the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Air Force.

Cities in Punjab (Pakistan)
Sargodha District

Sargodha


Maria Johanna Theodora Martens  (born 8 January 1955 in Doetinchem, Gelderland) is a Dutch politician. She is a member of the Christian Democratic Appeal. From 2011 until 2019 she was a member of the Dutch Senate.

From 1999 to 2009 she was a Member of the European Parliament (MEP). There she was a member of the bureau of the EPP-ED group in the European Parliament and sat on the European Parliament's Committee on Development.

She was also a substitute for the Subcommittee on Security and Defence and a member of the delegation to the ACP-EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly.

Career
 Higher degree in theology (1984)
 NIMA (Netherlands Marketing Institute) A and B diplomas
 Lecturer in Life Philosophy (1984)
 Foreign Affairs Secretary, Netherlands Mission Council (1984–1988)
 Study secretary, VKMO (Association of Catholic Social Organisations) (1988–1999)
 Chairwoman, Nijmegen CDA
 Member of the party council
 Member of the editorial team of CD Verkenningen
 Chairwoman, European Forum of National Committees of the Laity (1996–2000)
 Chairwoman, Netherlands Episcopal Committee for the year 2000 (1996–2000)
 Member of the governing board of the Catholic Theological University, Utrecht (since 1998)
 Commissioner for recreation in the Veluwe area (RGV)
 Member of the executive board of the World Population Fund (WPF)
 Member of the European Parliament (since 1999)

References
  Parlement.com biography

External links
 Official website
 European Parliament biography

1955 births
Living people
People from Doetinchem
Christian Democratic Appeal MEPs
Christian Democratic Appeal politicians
Dutch Roman Catholics
Dutch women in politics
Members of the Senate (Netherlands)
MEPs for the Netherlands 1999–2004
MEPs for the Netherlands 2004–2009
20th-century women MEPs for the Netherlands
21st-century women MEPs for the Netherlands
20th-century Dutch politicians
21st-century Dutch politicians

Maria Martens


Fleay's barred frog (Mixophyes fleayi) is a large species of frog restricted to small pockets of rainforest in northern New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland, Australia.

Distribution
This species has a fragmented distribution in wet forests from Conondale Range in Queensland in the north, to Yabbra Scrub in northern New South Wales to the south. The majority of the population occurs in rainforests above 400m, however it is also known from some lowland rainforest sites. This species has declined from many sites in Queensland since the 1970s. It is currently known from Conondale and Main Range, Springbrook and Lamington Plateaux and Mount Barney in Queensland and Border Ranges, Mount Warning, Nightcap Range and Yabbra and Tooloom Scrub in New South Wales. Historical area of occurrence is about 7000 km². This species has disappeared completely from Bunya Mountains and Mount Tamborine in Queensland.

Description
Fleay's barred frog is a moderately large species of frog, up to 90mm in length. It is light brown with darker blotches and is finely granular on the dorsal surface. There is an irregular darker brown band starting behind the eyes and continuing down the back. A dark stripe on the head starts in front of the nostril and continues through the eye to the tympanum. The arms and legs have 7-8 narrow dark bars. The flanks have scattered dark spots and blotches. The top third of the iris is silvery to pale blue, the bottom two thirds are brown. The upper lip is spotted with brown. The ventral surface is smooth and pale yellow or white. The toes are three-quarters webbed. The frog was named after Australian naturalist David Fleay.

Ecology and behaviour

This species is associated with flowing streams and creeks in rainforest and adjacent wet sclerophyll and Antarctic Beech forest. Males make a "ok-ok-ok-ok-ok" or "arrrrk" call from leaf litter beside streams after rain during spring and summer. Eggs are laid in a dug out nest in gravel and leaf litter in shallow flowing water. Tadpoles are large, reaching 65mm in length. Metamorphosis takes about 200 days and metamorphs measure about 20mm and resemble the adult, except the iris colour is copper-red.

The extent of decline of this species has been difficult to measure due to the lack of historical records of sites and abundance.

Similar species
This species is similar to other frogs in the genus Mixophys, particularly the stuttering frog (Mixophyes balbus) of which it can only be distinguished by the presence of mottling on the flanks. The great barred frog (Mixophyes fasciolatus) and giant barred frog (Mixophyes iteratus) also occur in the same area as this species. Eye colour is best used to distinguish them, as it is different in all 3 species.

Conservation status
It is listed as Endangered under both the IUCN Red List and Queensland's Nature Conservation Act 1992.

References

  Database entry includes a range map and justification for why this species is endangered
Frogs Australia Network-Frog call available here
DEH Species Profile
DEC Species Profile
EPA Species Profile
Anstis, M. 2002. Tadpoles of South-eastern Australia. Reed New Holland: Sydney.
Robinson, M. 2002. A Field Guide to Frogs of Australia. Australian Museum/Reed New Holland: Sydney.
Hero, J-M.; Hines, H. & Meyer, E. 2001. Wet Forest Frogs of South-east Queensland. Griffith University: Queensland.

Mixophyes
Amphibians of Queensland
Amphibians of New South Wales
Endangered fauna of Australia
Nature Conservation Act endangered biota
Amphibians described in 1987
Frogs of Australia

Fleay's barred frog


Saint-Lambert-sur-Dives is a commune in the Orne department in north-west France. In 2007, there were 148 people living there. It is  in size. The highest point in the commune is 148 metres. The river "La Dives" through the commune. The church was built in 12th century, its bell tower was registered as  in historic monument in 1948. This is a romanesque bell tower. The church is closed since 1999. You can see the Castle of Mimbeville of the 17th century.

Communes in Orne

Saint-Lambert-sur-Dive


Rechtsstaat is an idea in continental European thought. It is that in a country, the state's power is limited by the laws. This might either be the laws agreed upon, or natural law.  It is similar to the idea of the rule of law.

Law in Europe

Rechtsstaat


Giacomo Leopardi (Recanati June 29, 1798 – Naples June 14, 1837) was an Italian poet, essayist, philosopher, and philologist. He is considered one of the greatest poets of the 19th century.
Even if he lived in a secluded town in the ultra-conservative Papal States, he came in touch with the main thoughts of the Enlightenment, and, by his own literary evolution, created a remarkable, renowned and pessimist poetic work,the Infinite

Italian poets
Italian philosophers
Deaths from cholera
Infectious disease deaths in Italy
1798 births
1837 deaths

Giacomo Leopardi


The Nahuas () are a group of the indigenous people of Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. They comprise the largest indigenous group in Mexico and second largest in El Salvador. The Mexica (Aztecs) were of Nahua ethnicity, and the Toltecs are often thought to have been as well, though in the pre-Columbian period Nahuas were subdivided into many groups that did not necessarily share a common identity.

Their Nahuan languages, or Nahuatl, consist of many variants, several of which are mutually unintelligible. About 1.5 million Nahuas speak Nahuatl and another million speak only Spanish. Fewer than 1,000 native speakers of Nahuatl remain in El Salvador.

It is suggested that the Nahua peoples originated near Aridoamerica, in regions of the present day Mexican states of Durango and Nayarit or the Bajío region. They split off from the other Uto-Aztecan speaking peoples and migrated into central Mexico around 500 CE. The Nahua then settled in and around the Basin of Mexico and spread out to become the dominant people in central Mexico. However, Nahuatl-speaking populations were present in smaller populations throughout Mesoamerica.

Nomenclature
The name  is derived from the Nahuatl word-root  , which generally means "audible, intelligible, clear" with different derivations including "language" (hence   "to speak clearly" and   both "something that makes an agreeble sound" and "someone who speaks well or speak one's own language"). It was used in contrast with  , "to speak unintelligibly" or "speak a foreign language". Another, related term is   (singular) or   (plural) literally "Nahuatl-speaking people".

The Nahuas are also sometimes referred to as Aztecs. Using this term for the Nahuas has generally fallen out of favor in scholarship, though it is still used for the Aztec Empire. They have also been called   (singular),   (plural) or in Spanish   "Mexicans", after the Mexica, the Nahua tribe which founded the Aztec Empire.

Geography

At the turn of the 16th century, Nahua populations occupied territories ranging across Mesoamerica as far south as Panama. However, their core area was Central Mexico, including the Valley of Mexico, the Toluca Valley, the eastern half of the Balsas River basin, and modern-day Tlaxcala and most of Puebla, although other linguistic and ethnic groups lived in these areas as well. They were also present in large numbers in El Salvador, southeastern Veracruz, and Colima and coastal Michoacan. Classical Nahuatl was a lingua franca in Central Mexico before the Spanish conquest due to Aztec hegemony, and its role was not only preserved but expanded in the initial stage of colonial rule, encouraged by the Spaniards as a literary language and tool to convert diverse Mesoamerican peoples. There are many Nahuatl place names in regions where Nahuas were not the most populous group (including the names of Guatemala and several Mexican states), due to Aztec expansion, Spanish invasions in which Tlaxcaltecs served as the main force, and the usage of Nahuatl as a lingua franca.

The last of the southern Nahua populations today are the Pipil of El Salvador. Nahua populations in Mexico are centered in the middle of the country, with most speakers in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, Guerrero and San Luis Potosí. However, smaller populations are spread throughout the country due to recent population movements within Mexico. Within the last 50 years, Nahua populations have appeared in the United States, particularly in New York City, Los Angeles, and Houston.

History

Pre-conquest period

Archaeological, historical and linguistic evidence suggest that the Nahuas originally came from the deserts of northern Mexico (Aridoamerica) and migrated into central Mexico in several waves. The presence of the Mexicanero people (who speak a Nahuatl variant) in this area until the present day affirms this theory.
Before the Nahuas entered Mesoamerica, they were probably living for a while in northwestern Mexico alongside the Cora and Huichol peoples. The first group of Nahuas to split from the main group were the Pochutec who went on to settle on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca possibly as early as 400 CE. From c. 600 CE the Nahua quickly rose to power in central Mexico and expanded into areas earlier occupied by Oto-Manguean, Totonacan and Huastec peoples. Through their integration in the Mesoamerican cultural area the Nahuas adopted many cultural traits including maize agriculture and urbanism, religious practices including a ritual calendar of 260 days and the practice of human sacrifices and the construction of monumental architecture and the use of logographic writing.

Around 1000 CE the Toltec people, normally assumed to have been of Nahua ethnicity, established dominion over much of central Mexico which they ruled from Tollan Xicocotitlan.

From this period on the Nahua were the dominant ethnic group in the Valley of Mexico and far beyond, and migrations kept coming in from the north. After the fall of the Toltecs a period of large population movements followed and some Nahua groups such as the Pipil and Nicarao arrived as far south as Nicaragua. And in central Mexico different Nahua groups based in their different "Altepetl" city-states fought for political dominance. The Xochimilca, based in Xochimilco ruled an area south of Lake Texcoco; the Tepanecs ruled the area to the west and the Acolhua ruled an area to the east of the valley. One of the last of the Nahua migrations to arrive in the valley settled on an island in the Lake Texcoco and proceeded to subjugate the surrounding tribes. This group were the Mexica who during the next 300 years became the dominant ethnic group of Mesoamerica ruling from Tenochtitlan their island capital. They formed the Aztec Empire after allying with the Tepanecs and Acolhua people of Texcoco, spreading the political and linguistic influence of the Nahuas well into Central America.

Conquest period (1519–1523)

In 1519 an expedition of Spaniards sailing from Cuba under the leadership of Hernán Cortés arrived on the Mexican gulf coast near the Totonac city of Quiyahuiztlan. The Totonacs were one of the peoples that were politically subjugated by the Aztecs and word was immediately sent to the Aztec Emperor (in Nahuatl, Tlatoani) of Tenochtitlan Motecuhzoma II. Going inland the Spaniards encountered and fought with Totonac forces and Nahua forces from the independent Altepetl of Tlaxcallan. The Tlaxcaltecs were a Nahua group who had avoided being subjugated by the Aztecs. After being defeated in battle by the Spaniards, the Tlaxcalans entered into an alliance with Cortes that would be invaluable in the struggle against the Aztecs. The Spanish and Tlaxcaltec forces marched upon several cities that were under Aztec dominion and "liberated" them, before they arrived in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. There they were welcomed as guests by Motecuhzoma II, but after a while they took the ruler prisoner. When the Aztec nobility realized that their ruler had been turned into a Spanish puppet they attacked the Spaniards and chased them out of the city. The Spaniards sought refuge in Tlaxcala where they regrouped and awaited reinforcements. During the next year they cooperated with large Tlaxcaltec armies and undertook a siege campaign resulting in the final fall of Tenochtitlan. After the fall of Tenochtitlan Spanish forces now also allied with the Aztecs to incorporate all the previous Aztec provinces into the realm of New Spain. New Spain was founded as a state under Spanish rule but where Nahua people were recognized as allies of the rulers and as such were granted privileges and a degree of independence that other indigenous peoples of the area did not enjoy. Recently historians such as Stephanie Wood and Matthew Restall have argued that the Nahua did not experience the conquest as something substantially different from the sort of ethnic conflicts that they were used to, and that in fact they may have at first interpreted it as a defeat of one Nahua group by another.

Colonial period 1521–1821
With the arrival of the Spanish in Mesoamerica a new political situation ensued. The period has been extensively studied by historians, with Charles Gibson publishing a classic monograph entitled The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule. Historian James Lockhart built on that work, publishing The Nahuas After the Conquest in 1992. He divides the colonial history of the Nahua into three stages largely based on linguistic evidence in local-level Nahuatl sources, which he posits are an index of the degree of interaction between Spaniards and Nahuas and changes in Nahua culture. An overview of the Nahuas of colonial Central Mexico can be found in the Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas.

Stage one (1519–c. 1550) Conquest and early colonial period

The early period saw the first stages of the establishment of churches by mendicant friars in large and important Indian towns, the assertion of crown control over New Spain by the high court (Audiencia) and then the establishment of the viceroyalty, and the heyday of conqueror power over the indigenous via the encomienda. In the initial stage of the colonial period, contact between Spaniards and the indigenous populations was limited. It consisted mostly in the mendicants who sought to convert the population to Catholicism, and the reorganization of the indigenous tributary system to benefit individual Spaniards. The indigenous system of smaller settlements' paying tribute and rendering labor service to dominant political entities was transformed into the Encomienda system. Indigenous of particular towns paid tribute to a Spanish encomendero who was awarded the labor and tribute of that town. In this early period, the hereditary indigenous ruler or tlatoani and noblemen continued to hold power locally and were key to mobilizing tribute and labor for encomenderos. They also continued to hold titles from the pre-conquest period. Most willing accepted baptism so that records for this period show Nahua elites with Christian given names (indicating baptism) and many holding the Spanish noble title don. A set of censuses in alphabetic Nahuatl for the Cuernavaca region c. 1535 gives us a baseline for the impact of Spanish on Nahuatl, showing few Spanish loanwords taken into Nahuatl.

As the Spaniards sought to extend their political dominance into the most remote corners of Mesoamerica, the Nahua accompanied them as auxiliaries. In the early colonial period, new Nahua settlements were made in northern Mexico and far south into Central America. Nahua forces often formed the bulk of the Spanish military expeditions that conquered other Mesoamerican peoples, such as the Maya, Zapotecs, and Mixtecs.

With the arrival of Christian missionaries, the first priority of the colonial authorities was eradicating indigenous religious practices, something they achieved by a combination of violence and threats of violence, and patient education. Nahua were baptized with Spanish names. The Nahua who did not abandon their religious practices were severely punished or executed. The Nahua, however, often incorporated pre-Christian practices and beliefs into the Christian religion without the authorities' noticing it. Often they kept practicing their own religion in the privacy of their homes, especially in rural areas where Spanish presence was almost completely lacking and the conversion process was slow.

The Nahua quickly took the Latin alphabetic writing as their own. Within 20 years of the arrival of the Spanish, the Nahua were composing texts in their own language. In 1536 the first university of the Americas, the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco was inaugurated. It was established by the Franciscans whose aim was to educate young Nahua noblemen to be Catholic priests who were trilingual: literate in Spanish, Latin and Nahuatl.

Stage two (c. 1550 – c. 1650)

There are a large number of texts by and about Nahuas in this middle period and during this period Nahuatl absorbed a large number of loanwords from Spanish, particularly nouns for particular objects, indicating the closer contact between the European sphere and the indigenous. However, Nahuatl verbs and syntax show no evidence of the impact of Spanish contact. In the mid-sixteenth century, cultural change at the local level can be tracked through the production of Nahuatl alphabetic texts. The production of a wide range of written documents in Nahuatl dates from this period, including legal documents for transactions (bills of sale), minutes of indigenous town council (cabildo) records, petitions to the crown, and others.

Institutionally, indigenous town government shifted from the rule of the tlatoani and noblemen to the establishment of Spanish-style town councils (cabildos), with officers holding standard Spanish titles. A classic study of sixteenth-century Tlaxcala, the main ally of the Spaniards in the conquest of the Mexica, shows that much of the prehispanic structure continued into the colonial period. An important set of cabildo records in Nahuatl for Tlaxcala is extant and shows how local government functioned in for nearly a century.

Regarding religion, by the mid- to late 16th century, even the most zealous mendicants of the first generation doubted the capacity of Nahua men to become Christian priests so that the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco ceased to function to that end and in 1555 Indians were barred from ordination to the priesthood. However, in local communities, stone-built church complexes continued to be built and elaborated, with murals in mixed indigenous-Spanish forms. Confraternities (cofradías) were established to support the celebrations of a particular Christian saint and functioned as burial societies for members. During this period, an expression of personal piety, the Church promoted the making of last wills and testaments, with many testators donating money to their local Church to say Masses for their souls.

For individual Nahua men and women dictating a last will and testament to a local Nahua notary (escribano) became standard. These wills provide considerable information about individuals' residence, kin relations, and property ownership provides a window into social standing, differences between the sexes, and business practices at the local level. showing not only that literacy of some elite men in alphabetic writing in Nahuatl was a normal part of everyday life at the local level and that the notion of making a final will was expected, even for those who had little property. A number of studies in the tradition of what is now called the New Philology extensively use Nahuatl wills as a source.

Stage three (c. 1650 – 1821) Late colonial period to independence
From the mid-seventeenth century to the achievement of independence in 1821, Nahuatl shows considerable impact from the European sphere and a full range of bilingualism. Texts produced at the local level that in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were sometimes a mixture of pictorial and alphabetic forms of expression were now primarily alphabetic. In the late eighteenth century, there is evidence of text being written in "Nahuatlized Spanish", written by Nahuas who were now communicating in their own form of Spanish. Year-by-year accounts of major occurrences, a text known as an annal, no longer reference the prehispanic period. Local level documentation for individual Nahuas continued to be produced, in particular last wills and testaments, but they are much more simplified than those produced in the late sixteenth century.

Nahuas began to produce an entirely new type of text, known as "primordial titles" or simply "titles" (títulos), that assert indigenous communities' rights to particular territory, often by recording local lore in an atemporal fashion. There is no known prehispanic precedent for this textual form and none appears before 1650. Several factors might be at work for the appearance of titles. One might be a resurgence of indigenous population after decades recovering from devastating epidemics when communities might have been less concerned with Spanish encroachment. Another might be the crown's push to regularize defective land titles via a process known as composición. The crown had mandated minimum land holdings for indigenous communities at 600 varas, in property that was known as the fundo legal, and to separate indigenous communities from Spanish lands by more than 1,100 varas. Towns were to have access to water, uplands for gathering firewood, and agricultural land, as well as common lands for pasturage. Despite these mandated legal protections for Indian towns, courts continued to find in favor of Spaniards and the rules about minimum holdings for Indian towns were ignored in practice.

Labor arrangements between Nahuas and Spaniards were largely informal, rather than organized through the mainly defunct encomienda and the poorly functioning repartimiento. Spanish landed estates needed a secure labor force, often a mixture of a small group of permanent laborers and part-time or seasonal laborers drawn from nearby indigenous communities. Individual Indians made arrangements with estate owners rather than labor being mobilized via the community. The indigenous communities continued to function as political entities, but there was greater fragmentation of units as dependent villages (sujetos) of the main settlement (cabecera) sought full, independent status themselves. Indigenous officials were no longer necessarily noblemen.

National period (1821-present)
With the achievement of Mexican independence in 1821, the casta system, which divided the population into racial categories with differential rights, was eliminated and the term "Indian" (indio) was no longer used by government, although it continued to be used in daily speech. The creation of a republic in 1824 meant that Mexicans of all types were citizens rather than vassals of the crown. One important consequence for Nahua people and other Indigenous people was that documentation in the native languages generally ceased to be produced. Indigenous towns did not cease to exist nor did indigenous populations speaking their own language, but the Indigenous people were far more marginalized in the post-independence period than during the colonial era. In the colonial era the crown had a paternalistic stance toward the Indigenous people, in essence according them special rights, a fuero, and giving support to structures in Indigenous towns and giving Indigenous people a level of protection against those who were not Indigenous. This can be seen in the establishment of the General Indian Court where Indigenous towns and individual Indigenous people could sue those making incursions on their land and other abuses. These protections disappeared in the national period. One scholar has characterized the early national period of Nahua people and other Indigenous people "as the beginning of a systematic policy of cultural genocide and the increasing loss of native languages." Lack of official recognition and both economic and cultural pressures meant that most Indigenous peoples in Central Mexico became more Europeanized and many became Spanish speakers.

In 19th-century Mexico, the so-called "Indian Question" exercised politicians and intellectuals, who viewed Indigenous people as backward, unassimilated to the Mexican nation, whose custom of communal rather than individual ownership of land was impediment to economic progress. Non-Indigenous landowners of estates had already encroached on Indigenous ownership in the colonial era, but now liberal ideology sought to end communal protections on ownership with its emphasis on private property. Since land was the basis for Indigenous peoples'ability to maintain a separate identity,and a sense of sovereignty, land tenure became a central issue for liberal reformers. The liberal Reforma enshrined in the Constitution of 1857 mandated the breakup of corporate-owned property, therefore targeting Indigenous communities and the Roman Catholic Church, which also had significant holdings. This measure affected all Indigenous communities, including Nahua communities, holding land. Liberal Benito Juárez, a Zapotec who became president of Mexico, was fully in support of laws to end corporate landholding. The outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in Morelos, which still had a significant Nahua population, was sparked by peasant resistance to the expansion of sugar estates. This was preceded in the nineteenth century by smaller Indigenous revolts against encroachment, particularly during the civil war of the Reforma, foreign intervention, and a weak state following the exit of the French in 1867.

A number of Indigenous men had made a place for themselves in post-independence Mexico, the most prominent being Benito Juárez. But an important nineteenth-century figure of Nahua was Ignacio Manuel Altamirano (1834–93), born in Tixtla, Guerrero who became a well respected liberal intellectual, man of letters, politician, and diplomat. Altamirano was a fierce anticlerical politician, and was known for a period as "the Marat of the Radicals" and an admirer of the French Revolution. Altamirano, along with other liberals, saw universal primary public education as a key way to change Mexico, promoting for upward mobility. Altamirano's chief disciple in this view was Justo Sierra.

Demography

The Mexican government does not categorize its citizens by ethnicity, but only by language. Statistical information recorded about the Nahua deals only with speakers of the Nahuatl language, although unknown numbers of people of Nahua ethnicity have abandoned the language and now speak only Spanish. Other Nahuas, though bilingual in Nahuatl and Spanish, seek to avoid widespread anti-indigenous discrimination by declining to self-identify as Nahua in INEGI's decennial census. Nor does the census count as indigenous children under 5 (estimated to be 11-12% of the indigenous population). An INI-Conepo report indicates the Mexican indigenous population is nearly 250% greater than that reported by INEGI.

Across Mexico, Nahuatl is spoken by an estimated 1.4 million people, including some 190,000 who are monolingual. The state of Guerrero has the highest ratio of monolingual Nahuatl speakers, calculated at 24.8%, based on 2000 census figures. The proportion of monolinguals for most other states is less than 5%.

The largest concentrations of Nahuatl speakers are found in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, and Guerrero. Significant populations are also found in México State, Morelos, and the Mexican Federal District, with smaller communities in Michoacán and Durango. Nahuatl was formerly spoken in the states of Jalisco and Colima, where it became extinct during the 20th century. As a result of internal migrations within the country, all Mexican states today have some isolated pockets and groups of Nahuatl speakers. The modern influx of Mexican workers and families into the United States has resulted in the establishment of a few small Nahuatl-speaking communities, particularly in Texas, New York and California.

64.3% of Nahuatl speakers are literate in Spanish compared with the national average of 97.5% for Spanish literacy. Male Nahuatl speakers have 9.8 years of education on average and women 10.1, compared with the 13.6 and 14.1 years that are the national averages for men and women, respectively.

Culture

Economy

Many Nahua are agriculturists. They practice various forms of cultivation including the use of horses or mules to plow or slash-and-burn. Common crops include corn, wheat, beans, barley, chilli peppers, onions, tomatoes, and squash. Some Nahuas also raise sheep and cattle.

Language
Nahuatl, Pipil

Religion

Dances
Netotiliztli

Notes

References

External links

Mesoamerican people
Indigenous peoples in Mexico
Mesoamerican cultures

Nahuas


Philip Wilson Steer  (28 December 1860 – 18 March 1942) was a British painter of landscapes, seascapes plus portraits and figure studies. He was also an influential art teacher. His sea and landscape paintings made him a leading figure in the Impressionist movement in Britain but in time he turned to a more traditional English style, clearly influenced by both John Constable and J. M. W. Turner, and spent more time painting in the countryside rather than on the coast. As a painting tutor at the Slade School of Art for many years he influenced generations of young artists.

Life and work

Steer was born in Birkenhead, Cheshire, the son of a portrait painter and art teacher, Philip Steer (1810–1871) and his wife, Emma Harrison (1816–1898). When Steer was three years old the family moved to Whitchurch near Monmouth from where, after a period of home schooling, he attended the Hereford Cathedral School. After finding the examinations of the British Civil Service too demanding, he became an artist in 1878. He studied at the Gloucester School of Art and then from 1880 to 1881 at the South Kensington Drawing Schools. He was rejected by the Royal Academy of Art, and so studied in Paris between 1882 and 1884, firstly at the Académie Julian, and then in the École des Beaux Arts under Alexandre Cabanel, where he became a follower of the Impressionist school. In Paris he was greatly influenced by seeing works by Édouard Manet and James McNeill Whistler and the French impressionists.

When he returned to England, Steer established a studio in London and began to develop an impressionist style in which he depicted beach scenes and seascapes in a silvery translucent light. His painting of Poole Harbour, completed in 1890, is an example of the outstanding atmospheric effects he was able to capture. Steer often stayed at the Suffolk coastal town of Walberswick and the works he painted there are remarkable for their freshness and depiction of light and shade. Works such as The Bridge, The Beach at Walberswick (1890) and Girls Running: Walberswick Pier (1894) show Steer at the peak of his abilities. His misty Impressionist style is striking in such paintings as The Beach and Fisher Children. Steer also painted scenes at nearby Southwold.

Between 1883 and 1885 Steer exhibited at the Royal Academy and in 1886 he became a founder of the New English Art Club, with whom he continued to exhibit regularly. With Walter Sickert he became a leading British Impressionist, showing works at the London Impressionist exhibition held at the Goupil Gallery in 1889. Besides the French Impressionists he was influenced by Whistler and, later, such old masters as François Boucher, Thomas Gainsborough, John Constable and J. M. W. Turner. Steer was frequently criticised by conservative British critics for his impressionist works such as Boulogne Sands, so much so that for a period he stopped showing his more adventurous works. In the 1890s as he moved away from French Impressionism, Steer's work received greater appreciation. Portraits, such as Girl Reading A Book from 1895, a portrait of Rose Pettigrew, his model and girlfriend, and Portrait of Mrs Raynes (1922) were well received. In 1887 Steer spent some time at the Etaples art colony. In the early 1890s he began to paint more in watercolours than he had previously. Between 1893 and 1911 he visited several sites associated with the 18th century picturesque tour.

In 1893 Frederick Brown, the newly appointed Slade Professor of Art, appointed Steer as Professor of Painting at the Slade School of Fine Art in London. Steer would teach there, alongside Brown, Henry Tonks and Walter Russell until 1930. This group would continue the Slade tradition of realism in painting and drawing and would influence generations of young artists including Augustus John, William Orpen, Stanley Spencer, Paul Nash and Anna Airy. Based in Chelsea, in the summers he painted in Yorkshire, the Cotswolds and the West Country and on the south and east coasts of Britain.

During World War I Steer was recruited by Lord Beaverbrook, the chairman of the British War Memorials Committee, to paint pictures of the Royal Navy and he spent some time painting naval formations at Dover.

In 1927 Steer began to lose the sight in one eye but he continued to paint, although mostly in watercolours rather than in oils, and his compositions became much looser, at times almost abstract but by 1940 he had stopped painting. In 1931 he was awarded the Order of Merit and died in London, 18 March 1942. His self-portrait is in the collection in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. Steer never married and throughout his life was a hypochondriac but was also benign, modest, amusing and held in great regard by those who knew him.

References

Note
Note: Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition of 1911 incorrectly refers to Philip Wilson Steer as Paul Wilson Steer.

Further reading
 J. Rothenstein, 'Philip Wilson Steer 1860-1942', in J. Rothenstein, Modern English Painters Sickert To Smith (1952), pp. 59–74.

External links

1860 births
1942 deaths
19th-century English painters
20th-century English painters
Academics of the Slade School of Fine Art
British alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
British Impressionist painters
English male painters
Members of the Order of Merit
People educated at Hereford Cathedral School
Artists from Birkenhead
People from Walberswick
20th-century English male artists
19th-century English male artists

Philip Wilson Steer


Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael applied the Daubert standard to expert testimony from non-scientists.

Facts of the case
Patrick Carmichael was driving his minivan on July 6, 1993, when the right rear tire blew out. One of the passengers in the vehicle died, and others were severely injured. Three months later, the Carmichaels sued the manufacturer of the tire, claiming that the tire was defective and the defect caused the accident. The Carmichaels' case rested largely on testimony from a tire failure expert.

The tire failure expert relied on features of tire technology that the manufacturer did not dispute, as well as background facts about the particular tire on the Carmichaels' van. The expert's conclusion that a defect in the tire caused the accident rested on certain observations about the tire that Kumho Tire vigorously disputed. Kumho also disagreed with certain aspects of the tire expert's methodology, and asked the federal district court hearing the case to exclude it under Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence.

The district court took its cue from Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, which had solidified a gatekeeping role for trial judges in admitting expert testimony. Under Daubert, certain factors contribute to the reliability, and hence the admissibility, of expert testimony, one of which is the general validity of the expert's methods. The district court found the tire expert's methods not to be scientifically valid, and hence excluded his testimony. This meant that Kumho Tire would prevail. The Carmichaels appealed to the Eleventh Circuit.

The Eleventh Circuit reversed the district court's ruling in favor of Kumho Tire. It reasoned that Daubert was expressly limited only to scientific expert testimony and did not apply to "skill- or experience-based observation." The tire expert's testimony rested on observation and experience, and so the Eleventh Circuit reasoned the district court should have made a different ruling based on Rule 702 without the Daubert gloss. Kumho Tire asked the Supreme Court to review whether Daubert applied solely to scientific evidence.

United States law

Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael


Ordinary least squares or linear least squares is a method for estimating unknown parameters in statistics. It is a method used in linear regression. The goal of the method is to minimize the difference between the observed responses and the responses predicted by the linear approximation of the data. A smaller difference means that model fits the data better. Ordinary least squares is a special case of a method commonly called least squares.  The resulting estimator can be expressed by a simple formula.

Statistics
Mathematical approximation

Ordinary least squares


Marine Aircraft Group 42 was a United States Marine Corps reserve aviation unit based at Naval Air Station Atlanta, Georgia.  Due to a re-organization within Marine aviation, MAG-42 was deactivated on 21 June 2008.

History
Marine Aircraft Group 42 (MAG-42) was initially activated on January 1, 1943, in San Diego, California, as ''Marine Base Defense Aircraft Group 42', 4th Marine Aircraft Wing. The unit mission was to provide air defense support for west coast Naval and Marine Corps installations and to conduct airborne search and patrol, transportation, air-sea rescue, and shipping escort operations along the Pacific Coast. By 1944, the unit expanded from a small complement of Marines and two T-6 aircraft to 272 officers, 2,135 enlisted, and 102 T-6 aircraft.

During 1943, the Group became responsible for training Marine aviators for World War II combat operations in the Pacific Theater and relocated to Goleta, California in January and then to Santa Barbara, California in March. In November 1944, the unit was re-designated Marine Aircraft Group 42. Following the war, MAG-42 was re-designated Marine Aircraft Support Group 42 and then deactivated on October 31, 1945.

MAG-42 was reactivated on February 1, 1965, during the Vietnam War. The Air Group consisted of Marine Attack Squadron 133 flying the A-4 Skyhawk and Marine Helicopter Transport Squadron 769 flying the H-34 helicopter. In 1971, Marine Helicopter Squadron 769 was redesignated to Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron 769 and transitioned to the CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopter.
MAG-42 was located at NAS Memphis in Millington, Tennessee through the 1980's and early 1990s adjacent to the Naval Air Technical Training Center (NATTC).

Following the collapse of the USSR, the stunning military success in the Persian Gulf War, and subsequent draw down of U.S. Department of Defense forces, the Department of the Navy developed a "Total Force" concept redefining the role of the Reserve Component to meet national emerging global security requirements. MAG-42 was reorganized and relocated to NAS Atlanta on the Dobbins Air Reserve Base om Marietta, Georgia on June 10, 1992, in support of the Marine Corps Total Force Concept, "the integration of active and reserve components into the Total Force, a cohesive team shaped for joint operations to meet national needs and global challenges." The reorganization resulted in a mirror image of Reserve and Active Marine Ground Task Force units and attachment of Marine Attack Helicopter Squadron 773 flying the AH-1J Cobra, Marine Observation Squadron 4 flying the OV-10D aircraft, Marine Light Helicopter Squadron 767 flying the UH-1N helicopter, Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 774 flying the CH-46 helicopter, and Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 142 (VMFA-142) flying the F/A-18A Hornet.

On October 1, 1994, the Marine Light Attack and Marine Attack Squadrons was re-designated Marine Light Attack Squadron 773 (HMLA-773) at Atlanta and HMLA-773 Detachment A at New Orleans, LA. These combat tested units now reflect their counterparts in the Fleet Marine Force and combine the capabilities of the AH-1W Super Cobra Attack helicopter and the UH-1N Utility helicopter. This combat proven organization is now resident in the Reserve Force and underpins the Total Force Concept. In addition, VMFA-142 integrated the Department of the Navy TACAIR concept which integrates USMC and USN tactical jets into the Carrier Air Wing Group.

The total force-in-readiness mission is conducted by MAG-42 as a result of extensive training in many varied locations throughout the nation as well as deployments throughout the world. MAG-42 has participated in counter drug operations in several Eastern Caribbean countries in 1995 and 1996. Both marijuana eradication and drug-transit interdiction have accounted for more than $20 billion worth of illegal substances eradicated in these operations.

See also

 List of United States Marine Corps aircraft groups
 List of United States Marine Corps aircraft squadrons

References

External links
 MAG-42's Official Website

United States Marine Corps aircraft groups
Military units and formations in Georgia (U.S. state)
MAG-42

Marine Aircraft Group 42


Malcolm Hugh Mackerras AO (born 26 August 1939) is an Australian psephologist and commentator and lecturer on Australian and American politics.

Education and works
Malcolm Mackerras was born at Turramurra in Sydney in August 1939. He is a brother of Sir Charles Mackerras, a well-known conductor, and twin brother of Professor Colin Mackerras, a leading China specialist. Another brother, Neil Mackerras, was active in the Democratic Labor Party in its early years. Yet another, Alastair Mackerras, was headmaster (principal) of Sydney Grammar School from 1969 to 1989.

After attending St Aloysius' College, Milson's Point (1947–1951) and Sydney Grammar School (1952-1956) Malcolm was employed by BHP from 1957–1960, during which time he studied at night for the degree of Bachelor of Economics at the University of Sydney (awarded 1962).

Mackerras was a member of the ACT Young Liberals in the late 1960s. His second employer was the Federal Secretariat of the Liberal Party of Australia for which he was a research officer (1960–1967). The organisation moved him to Canberra where he has lived continuously since 1965. He spent several years as a ministerial assistant and three years as an economist with the Chamber of Manufactures (1968–1970), "trying to present the case for protection for Australian manufacturing industry".

In 1974 Mackerras was employed in the Department of Government at Royal Military College, Duntroon by the University of New South Wales. He went on to become an Associate Professor in Political Science, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, at the Australian Defence Force Academy in Canberra in 1999. Mackerras retired from the University of New South Wales in 2004. Mackerras is now an Honorary Fellow at Australian Catholic University, Canberra Campus.

He is especially interested in elections and electoral systems. His several books and many journal articles are largely in those areas. He has written many articles for The Australian and The Canberra Times on these subjects. He likes whenever possible to visit countries during their elections. He visited South Africa in 1999 as an observer for that country's second democratic election (May–June 1999). He likes, in particular, to be in the United States for a presidential election as it greatly improves his American teaching. During his stay in the US in November–December 2000, there was a "snap" election in Canada, which he visited, enabling him to improve his knowledge of Canadian politics.

Mackerras's first published study of Australian politics was The Australian Senate 1965-1967: Who Held Control?. He followed this with The 1968 Federal Redistribution (1969). His first major work was Australian General Elections (1972) in which he pioneered the concept of the two-party majority and the two-party swing, and introduced the "pendulum", a table of federal electorates in order of two-party majority, now commonly known as the Mackerras Pendulum. He followed this with a series of books before each federal election, such as Elections 1975, Elections 1980, The Mackerras 1990 Federal Election Guide and The Malcolm Mackerras 1993 Federal Election Guide.

He is commonly described as a psephologist which means "one who studies elections". However, he insists that his political science interests are much broader than that. Indeed, one of the reasons for his determination on the November–December 2000 North American visit was to study all the legal manoeuvres in connection with the only "cliffhanger" presidential election of the 20th century. He visited the US again in September 2004 to attend the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association in Chicago.

For the years 2002, 2003 and 2004 he has been specialising in Australian state elections. He visited South Australia in February 2002, Victoria in November–December 2002 and New South Wales in March 2003 for elections in those states, which involved writing newspaper articles plus broadcasting. He did the same for Queensland where a state election was held on 7 February 2004. He did the same for Australia's federal election on 9 October 2004.

Publications
His two most recent books are Australian Political Facts: Second Edition (Macmillan, 1997) which he wrote with Ian McAllister and Carolyn Brown Boldiston and, more recently, Constitutional Politics: The Republic Referendum and the Future (University of Queensland Press, 2002), which he edited with John Warhurst of the Australian National University. The two men took opposite sides in the debate over the 1999 Australian republic referendum but have now joined together to record the event.

Election commentary
Mackerras has been a regular commentator on Australian elections in print, on radio and television on most federal and state elections. He has become well known for his predictions of electoral outcomes. He claims a "win" ratio of two in three and adds, "at least I'm not boring. The election analyst who makes predictions is far more interesting than one who doesn't. And if I collect egg on my face, then so be it."

An example of an incorrect prediction was the one he made in The Australian on 1 November 2004: he said that John Kerry would defeat George W. Bush in a landslide in the U.S. presidential election the following day, and specifically predicted that Kerry would carry Florida, Ohio, Nevada and Missouri.

Further reading
 Joan Priest, Gentlemen and Scholars: A Biography of the Mackerras Family, Brisbane: Boolarong Publications, 1986. .

External links
University staff web site and pendulums
Personal Website and Blog

References

1939 births
Living people
Australian journalists
People educated at St Aloysius' College (Sydney)
People educated at Sydney Grammar School
University of Sydney alumni
Australian monarchists
Officers of the Order of Australia
Psephologists
Australian statisticians
Australian twins

Malcolm Mackerras


Events
 February – The court of the Southern Song Dynasty of China and hundreds of thousands of its citizens move from Hangzhou to Fujian and then Guangdong to get away from an invasion by the Mongol Empire.
 March 9 – Augsburg becomes an Imperial Free City. Ravensburg also does in the same year.
 June – King Rudolph I of Germany starts a war with King Otakar II of Bohemia; by November, Otakar II has to give him four important pieces of land. (The diet of Nuremberg already decided this in 1274.)
 Four different men are pope in this year, as Popes Gregory X, Innocent V, and Adrian V all die in a short time.
 King Otakar II of Bohemia lays the foundation stone of the Minorite Church in Vienna.
 Mamluk sultan Baibars takes Al-Maris, which was part of Makuria, and goes through it into Egypt.
 A 23-year drought begins to change the Grand Canyon area. In the end, the agriculture-dependent Anasazi culture has to migrate out of the region.

Births
 October 19 – Prince Hisaaki, Japanese shogun (died 1328)
 Christopher II of Denmark (died 1332)
 Vakhtang III of Georgia (died 1308)
 Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford (died 1322)
 Yesün Temür Khan of the Mongol Empire (died 1328)
 Louis d'Évreux, son of King Philip III of France

Deaths

1276


Ska is a popular music from Jamaica that began in the 1950s. Ska music that was first played at a slower tempo then became reggae in the late 1960s.

Ska music bands include singers, electric guitars, electric bass guitar, piano, organ, saxophone, trumpet, and trombone. In ska, the electric guitar and piano normally play short chords on the off-beat. If you go "one and two and three and four", the off-beat is the "and".

A ska singer does a style of Jamaican singing called "toasting." When a singer is "toasting", they make sounds, repeat words, invent rhymes, and shout into the microphone. The Jamaican "toasting" style of singing and talking was adapted into rap music in the 1980s.

How Ska musicians dress
Musicians who play ska dress in hats and suits. Many ska bands wear clothes with a chessboard pattern of black and white squares. Doc Martens are a common type of shoe. This pattern symbolizes the way that ska music mixes of Black and White musicans and styles of music.There was a British genre of ska-punk influenced by The Specials, Madness and the English Beat, that began to dress in kilts.

1980s Ska Revival
Even though ska was developed in the 1950s, it became popular again in the 1980s in Britain. In the 1980s, ska bands such as The Specials, The Selecter, The Beat, UB40 and Madness played ska music.

1990s Ska mixed with punk rock
In the 1990s, some bands mixed ska music with Punk rock to make ska-punk. This kind of ska music is from England and the United States. Some pop-punk bands from the 1990s mixed pop-punk with ska-punk.

Ska bands and singers

 No Doubt
 The Mighty Mighty Bosstones
 The Specials
 The Selecter (British band)
 The Beat (British band)
 Madness (English band)
 Sublime
 Prince Buster (Jamaican singer)
 Desmond Dekker (Jamaican singer)
 The Bodysnatchers (female British band)
 The Skatalites (Jamaican band)
 Streetlight Manifesto (American band)
 The Toasters (American band)
 The Slackers (New York City band)
 Rusted Root (American band)
 Westbound Train (Boston band)
 Reel Big Fish
 Suburban Legends (American band)
 Catch 22 (American band)
 Less Than Jake
 Lord Creator (Jamaican singer)
 The King Blues (British band)

Related pages
 Scat singing

References

Other websites
 Going to a Ska Show? Here's What to Wear (LA Weekly)

Music genres
British culture
1950s establishments in North America
Jamaican culture

Ska