Jeremy Webster "Fred" Frith (born 17 February 1949) is an English multi-instrumentalist, composer, and improviser.

Probably best known for his guitar work, Frith first came to attention as one of the founding members of the English avant-rock group Henry Cow. He was also a member of the groups Art Bears, Massacre, and Skeleton Crew. He has collaborated with a number of prominent musicians, including Robert Wyatt, Derek Bailey, the Residents, Lol Coxhill, John Zorn, Brian Eno, Mike Patton, Lars Hollmer, Bill Laswell, Iva Bittová, Jad Fair, Kramer, the ARTE Quartett, and Bob Ostertag. He has also composed several long works, including Traffic Continues (1996, performed 1998 by Frith and Ensemble Modern) and Freedom in Fragments (1993, performed 1999 by Rova Saxophone Quartet). Frith produces most of his own music, and has also produced many albums by other musicians, including Curlew, the Muffins, Etron Fou Leloublan, and Orthotonics.

He is the subject of Nicolas Humbert and Werner Penzel's 1990 documentary Step Across the Border. Frith also appears in the Canadian documentary Act of God, which is about the metaphysical effects of being struck by lightning. He has contributed to a number of music publications, including New Musical Express and Trouser Press, and has conducted improvising workshops across the world. His career spans over four decades and he appears on over 400 albums, and he still performs actively throughout the world.

Frith was awarded the 2008 Demetrio Stratos Prize for his career achievements in experimental music. The prize was established in 2005 in honour of experimental vocalist Demetrio Stratos, of the Italian group Area, who died in 1979. In 2010 Frith received an honorary doctorate from the University of Huddersfield in West Yorkshire, England, in recognition of his contribution to music. Frith was Professor of Composition in the Music Department at Mills College in Oakland, California, until his retirement in 2018. He is the brother of Simon Frith, a music critic and sociologist, and Chris Frith, a psychologist at University College London.

Musical career
Frith was born in Heathfield in East Sussex, England into a family where music was considered an essential part of life. He was given the nickname "Fred" at school after the motorcycle road racer Freddie Frith. Frith started violin lessons at the age of five and became a member of his school orchestra, but at 13 switched to guitar after watching a group imitating a popular instrumental band at the time, the Shadows. He decided to learn how to play guitar and get into a band. Frith taught himself guitar from a book of guitar chords and soon found himself in a school group called the Chaperones, playing Shadows and Beatles covers. However, when he started hearing blues music from the likes of Snooks Eaglin and Alexis Korner it changed his whole approach to the guitar, and by the time he was 15, the Chaperones had become a blues band. Frith's first public performances were in 1967 in folk clubs in northern England, where he sang and played traditional and blues songs.

Besides the blues, Frith started listening to any music that had guitar in it, including folk, classical, ragtime, and flamenco. He also listened to Indian, Japanese, and Balinese music and was particularly drawn to East European music after a Yugoslav schoolfriend taught him folk tunes from his home. Frith went to Cambridge University in 1967, where his musical horizons were expanded further by the philosophies of John Cage and Frank Zappa's manipulation of rock music. Frith graduated from Christ's College, Cambridge, with a BA (English literature) in 1970 (and by Cambridge custom received a pro forma MA in 1974), but the real significance of Cambridge for him was that the seminal avant-rock group Henry Cow formed there.

Henry Cow

Frith met Tim Hodgkinson, a fellow student, in a blues club at Cambridge University in 1968. "We'd never met before, and he had an alto sax, and I had my violin, and we just improvised this ghastly screaming noise for about half an hour." Something clicked and, recognizing their mutual open-minded approach to music, Frith and Hodgkinson formed a band there and then. They called it Henry Cow and they remained with the band until its demise in 1978. In the early 1970s Fred's grey Morris Minor sported the band's heraldic logo, much to the amusement of boys at the grammar school in York where his father was headmaster.

Frith composed a number of the band's notable pieces, including "Nirvana for Mice" and "Ruins". While guitar was his principal instrument, he also played violin (drawing on his classical training), bass guitar, piano, and xylophone.

In November 1973, Frith (and other members of Henry Cow) participated in a live-in-the-studio performance of Mike Oldfield's Tubular Bells for the BBC. It is available on Oldfield's Elements DVD.

Guitar Solos

After Henry Cow's first album, Frith released Guitar Solos in 1974, his first solo album and a glimpse at what he had been doing with his guitar. The album comprised eight tracks of unaccompanied and improvised music played on prepared guitars. It was recorded in four days, at the Kaleidophon Studios in London's Camden Town, without any overdubbing.

When it was released, Guitar Solos was considered a landmark album because of its innovative and experimental approach to guitar playing. The January 1983 edition of DownBeat magazine remarked that Guitar Solos "... must have stunned listeners of the day. Even today that album stands up as uniquely innovative and undeniably daring." It also attracted the attention of some "famous" musicians, including Brian Eno, resulting in Frith playing guitar on two of Eno's albums, Before and After Science (1977) and Music for Films (1978).

Between October and December 1974, Frith contributed a series of ten articles to the British weekly music newspaper New Musical Express entitled "Great Rock Solos of Our Time". In them he analysed prominent rock guitarists of the day and their contribution to the development of the rock guitar, including Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton and Frank Zappa.

Post-Henry Cow
While recording Henry Cow's last album, differences emerged between the group members over the album's content. Frith and Chris Cutler favoured song-oriented material, while Hodgkinson and Lindsay Cooper wanted purely instrumental compositions. As a compromise, Frith and Cutler agreed, early in 1978, to release the songs already created on their own album, Hopes and Fears, under the name Art Bears (with Dagmar Krause). The instrumental material was recorded by Henry Cow on Western Culture later that year, after which the band split. The Art Bears trio continued purely as a studio group until 1981, releasing two more albums, Winter Songs in 1979 and The World as It Is Today in 1981.

During this time Frith also released Gravity (1980), his second solo album, recorded at Norrgården Nyvla in Uppsala, Sweden with Swedish group Samla Mammas Manna, and at the Catch-a-Buzz studio in Rockville, Maryland with United States band The Muffins. It showed Frith breaking free from the highly structured and orchestrated music of Henry Cow and experimenting with folk and dance music. "Norrgården Nyvla" was also the title of one of the tracks on the album and is considered one of Frith's most recognisable tunes.

New York

Towards the end of 1979, Frith relocated to New York City, where he immediately hooked up with the local avant-garde/downtown music scene. The impact on him was uplifting: "... New York was a profoundly liberating experience for me; for the first time I felt that I could be myself and not try to live up to what I imagined people were thinking about me." Frith met and began recording with a number of musicians and groups, including Henry Kaiser (With Friends Like These, Who Needs Enemies?), Bob Ostertag (Getting a Head, Voice of America), Tom Cora, Eugene Chadbourne, Zeena Parkins, Ikue Mori, the Residents, Material, the Golden Palominos, and Curlew. He spent some 14 years in New York, during which time he joined a few bands, including John Zorn's Naked City (in which Frith played bass) and French Frith Kaiser Thompson (consisting of John French, Frith, Henry Kaiser and Richard Thompson). Frith also started three bands himself, namely Massacre, Skeleton Crew, and Keep the Dog.

Massacre was formed in 1980 with bassist Bill Laswell and drummer Fred Maher. A high energy experimental rock band, they toured the United States and Europe in 1980 and 1981, and released one album, Killing Time (1981), recorded at Martin Bisi's later-to-be historic studio in Brooklyn. Massacre split in 1981 when Maher left, but later reformed again in 1998 when drummer Charles Hayward joined. The new Massacre released three more albums.

Skeleton Crew, a collaboration with Tom Cora from 1982 to 1986, was an experimental group noted for its live improvisations where Frith (guitar, violin, keyboards, drums) and Cora (cello, bass guitar, homemade drums and contraptions) played a number of instruments simultaneously. They performed extensively across Europe, North America and Japan and released Learn to Talk in 1984. Zeena Parkins (electric harp and keyboards) joined in 1984 and the trio released The Country of Blinds in 1986. In October 1983 Skeleton Crew joined Duck and Cover, a commission from the Berlin Jazz Festival, for a performance in West Berlin, followed by another in February 1984 in East Berlin.

Frith formed Keep the Dog in 1989, a sextet and review band for performing selections of his extensive repertoire of compositions from the previous 15 years. The lineup was Frith (guitar, violin, bass guitar), René Lussier (guitar, bass guitar), Jean Derome (winds), Zeena Parkins (piano, synthesizer, harp, accordion), Bob Ostertag (sampling keyboard), and Kevin Norton (drums, percussion). Later Charles Hayward replaced Norton on drums. The group existed until mid-1991, performing live in Europe, North America and the former Soviet Union. A double CD, That House We Lived In, from their final performances in Austria, Germany and Italy in May and June 1991, was released in 2003.

Other projects
During the 1980s, Frith began writing music for dance, film, and theatre, and a number of his solo albums from this time reflect this genre, including The Technology of Tears (And Other Music for Dance and Theatre) (1988), Middle of the Moment (1995), Allies (Music for Dance, Volume 2) (1996), and Rivers and Tides (2003). Exploring new forms of composition, Frith also experimented with chance or accidental compositions, often created by building music around "found sounds" and field recordings, examples of which can be found on Accidental (Music for Dance, Volume 3) (2002) and Prints: Snapshots, Postcards, Messages and Miniatures, 1987–2001 (2002).  He was featured in 'Crossing Bridges', a 1983 music programme based around jazz guitar improvisation, and broadcast by Channel 4

As a composer, Frith began composing works for other musicians and groups in the late 1980s, including the Rova Saxophone Quartet, Ensemble Modern, and Arditti Quartet. In the late 1990s, Frith established his own Fred Frith Guitar Quartet consisting of Frith, René Lussier, Nick Didkovsky, and Mark Stewart. Their guitar music, varying from "tuneful and pretty, to noisy, aggressive and quite challenging", appears on two albums, Ayaya Moses (1997) and Upbeat (1999), both on Lussier's own Ambiances Magnétiques label.

The ex-Henry Cow members have always maintained close contact with each other and Frith still collaborates with many of them, including Chris Cutler and Tim Hodgkinson. Cutler and Frith have been touring Europe, Asia, and the Americas since 1978, and have given dozens of duo performances. Three albums from some of these concerts have been released by Recommended Records. In December 2006, Cutler, Frith, and Hodgkinson performed together at the Stone in New York City, their first concert performance since Henry Cow's demise in 1978.

In 1995 Frith moved to Stuttgart in Germany to live with his wife, German photographer Heike Liss, and their children Finn and Lucia. Between 1994 and 1996, Frith was composer-in-residence at L'Ecole Nationale de Musique in Villeurbanne, France.

Frith relocated to the United States in 1997 to become Composer-in-Residence at Mills College in Oakland, California. In 1999 he was appointed the Luther B. Marchant Professor of Composition in the Music Department at Mills, where he taught composition, contemporary performance and improvisation. He is currently Professor Emeritus of Music at Mills, after having retired in 2018. While Frith had never studied music in college, Frith's credentials of over forty years of continuous practice and self-discovery got him the position. He has, however, maintained that "most of my students are better qualified to teach composition than I am," and that he learns as much from them as they learn from him.

In March 1997 Frith formed the electro-acoustic improvisation and experimental trio Maybe Monday with saxophonist Larry Ochs from Rova Saxophone Quartet and koto player Miya Masaoka. Between 1997 and 2008, they toured the United States, Canada, and Europe, and released three albums. In March 2008, Frith formed Cosa Brava, an experimental rock and improvisation quintet with Zeena Parkins from Skeleton Crew and Keep the Dog, Carla Kihlstedt and Matthias Bossi from Sleepytime Gorilla Museum, and the Norman Conquest. They toured Europe in April 2008, and performed at the 25th Festival International de Musique Actuelle de Victoriaville in Victoriaville, Quebec, Canada, the following month.

In 2013 Frith formed the Fred Frith Trio in Oakland, California, an improvising group with bassist Jason Hoopes and drummer/percussionist Jordan Glenn, both from the Oakland experimental song group Jack O' The Clock. The Trio toured Europe in February 2015, recorded a studio album, Another Day in Fucking Paradise, in January 2016, and toured Europe again in February 2017. The album was well received by music critics. In January 2018 the trio recorded their second album, Closer to the Ground, which was released in September 2018.

Frith has also collaborated with a number of prominent musicians, including Robert Wyatt, Derek Bailey, Lol Coxhill, Lars Hollmer, and the Scottish deaf percussionist Dame Evelyn Glennie.

Step Across the Border

Step Across the Border is a 1990 documentary film on Fred Frith, written and directed by Nicolas Humbert and Werner Penzel, and released in Germany and Switzerland. It was filmed in Japan, Europe, and the United States, and also features musicians René Lussier, Iva Bittová, Tom Cora, Tim Hodgkinson, Bob Ostertag, and John Zorn.

Fred Records

In 2002, Fred Frith created his own record label, Fred Records, an imprint of Recommended Records, to re-release his back catalogue of recordings and previously unreleased material.

Personal life
During the early years of Henry Cow, Frith was married to Liza White, a teacher in Cambridge. They wed in 1970, but divorced in 1974 after Frith's commitment to the band left little private life for the couple. In the early- to mid-1980s, after Henry Cow had split up and Frith had moved to New York City, he was married to Tina Curran, a musician and artist. She played bass guitar on several tracks on Frith's albums at the time, and did the photography and artwork for a number of his albums during that period. In the early 1990s Frith married German photographer and performance artist, Heike Liss. She has done the artwork for many of Frith's albums, and has performed with him on several occasions. They lived in Germany in the mid-1990s, then moved to California where Frith taught at Mills College until his retirement in 2018.

Musical style and instruments

Guitars and playing technique
Fred Frith has used a number of different guitars, including homemade instruments, over the years, depending on the type of music he is playing. For the more structured and refined music he has often used a Gibson ES-345, for example on his solo album, Gravity. For the heavier "rock" sound, as in Massacre, he has used an old 1961 solid body Burns guitar, created by the British craftsman Jim Burns. On his landmark Guitar Solos album, Frith used a modified 1936 Gibson K-11 guitar (q.v. for details).

For Frith's early unstructured music, as with Henry Kaiser on With Friends Like These, and his early table-top guitar solo performances, he used a homemade six- and eight-string double-neck guitar created by a friend, Charles Fletcher. Frith told DownBeat magazine in 1983: "It was the one and only guitar that he ever built ... he constructed it mainly out of old pieces from other guitars that I had, and for the body I think he used an old door." The possibilities offered by homemade instruments prompted Frith to start creating his own guitars, basically slabs of wood on which he mounted a pickup, a bridge, and strings stretched over metal screws. "The basic design of the instrument is supposed to be as rudimentary and flexible as possible," Frith said, "so I can use an electric drill to bore holes into the body of it to achieve certain sounds ... ."

Frith uses a variety of implements to play guitar, from traditional guitar picks to violin bows, drum sticks, egg beaters, paint brushes, lengths of metal chain, and other found objects. Frith remarked: "It's more to do with my interest in found objects and the use of certain kinds of textures which have an effect on the string ... the difference between the touch of stone, the touch of glass, the touch of wood, the touch of paper – those kinds of basic elements that you're using against the surface of the strings which produce different sounds."

In a typical solo improvising concert, Frith would lay a couple of his homemade guitars flat on a table and play them with a collection of found objects (varying from concert to concert). He would drop objects, like ball bearings, dried beans, and rice on the strings while stroking, scraping, and hitting them with whatever was on hand. Later he added a live sampler to his on-stage equipment, which he controlled with pedals. The sampler enabled him to dynamically capture and loop guitar sounds, over which he would capture and loop new sounds, and so on, until he had a bed of repeated patterns on top of which he would then begin his solo performance.

Effects and amplification

Effect pedals
Pro Co RAT distortion
Boss FV-50L volume foot controller
Boss RC20-XL Looper
DigiTech Whammy 4
Line 6 DL4 delay
EBow
Electroharmonix POG
Amplification
Fender Amplifiers

Compositions
Since the late 1980s, Fred Frith has composed a number of longer works. The following is a selection (years indicating time of composition).

The As Usual Dance Towards the Other Flight to What is Not (1989) – for four electric guitars
Helter Skelter (1990) – for two sopranos, contralto, and a large electric ensemble
Stick Figures (1990) – for six guitars and two players
Lelekovice (1991) – (for Iva Bittová) string quartet no. 1
Stone, Brick, Glass, Wood, Wire (1992) – graphic scores for any number of players
Freedom in Fragments (1993) – a suite of 23 pieces for saxophone quartet
The Previous Evening (1993) – a tribute to John Cage for four clarinets, tapes, bass, footsteps, electric guitars, whirled objects, and voice
Elegy for Elias (1993) – for piano, violin, and marimba
Pacifica (1994) – a meditation for 21 musicians with texts by Pablo Neruda
Seven Circles (1995) – for piano
Impur (1996) – for 100 musicians, large building, and mobile audience
Shortened Suite (1996) – for trumpet, oboe, cello, and marimba
Back to Life (1997) – for trumpet, oboe, cello, and marimba
Traffic Continues: Gusto (1998) – for large ensemble with improvising soloists
Landing for Choir (2001) – for Flamenco singer, cello, saxophone, and samples
Allegory (2002) – for string quartet and electric guitar
Fell (2002) – for string quartet and electric guitar
The Happy End Problem (2003) – for flute, bassoon, gu zheng, percussion, violin, and electronics
The Right Angel (2003) – for orchestra and electric guitar
Save As (2005) – for cello and percussion
Snakes and Ladders (2006) – for clarinet, electric guitar, piano, percussion, cello, and double bass
Episodes (2007) – for Baroque orchestra
Water Stories (2007) – for clarinet, piano, percussion, violin, and cello
For Nothing (2008) – for contralto and Baroque string quartet
Fair (2008) – for guitar quartet
Small Time (2009) – for percussion quartet
Rocket Science (2012) – (clarinet/bass clarinet, bassoon, viola, electric guitar, percussion, and piano/keys
What Happens (2015) – percussion quartet and prepared piano
If I Could (2015) – clarinet, viola, electric guitar, piano, vibraphone, and mezzo-soprano
Episodes for Orchestra (for Amanda Miller) (2007/2015) – Baroque orchestra
Calle Calle (2016) – flute, saxophone and electronics
Coulda Woulda Shoulda (2016) – viola solo
Zena (2017) – for clarinet, flute, piano, percussion, violin, viola, and cello
Rags of Time (2018) – for girl's chorus, percussion and keyboards

Discography

Fred Frith appears on over 400 recordings: with bands, in collaboration with other musicians, solo, albums he produced for other bands and musicians, and albums featuring his composed work performed by others.

Documentaries
 1990 Step Across the Border – a documentary on Frith by Nicolas Humbert and Werner Penzel
 1991 Streetwise – by Charles Castella about Frith's work in Marseille with "unemployed rock musicians"
 2000 Le voyage immobile – about Frith's trio with Louis Sclavis and Jean-Pierre Drouet for France 3 national TV
 2004 Touch the Sound – by Thomas Riedelsheimer about Scottish percussionist Evelyn Glennie and her collaboration with Frith
 2007 Attwenger Adventure – on Austrian folk-punk duo Attwenger by Markus Kaiser-Mühlecke, with special appearances by Frith rehearsing and performing live with Attwenger and Wolfgang "I-Wolf" Schlögl at Music Unlimited XX. in Wels, Austria.
 2009 Act of God – by Jennifer Baichwal about the metaphysical effects of being struck by lightning, with music by Frith and others, and a segment showing Frith conducting an experiment to measure the effect of improvisation on brain waves

References

Works cited

External links

FredFrith.com Official homepage.
Fred Frith biography FredFrith.com archive at the Internet Archive Wayback Machine.
Fred Frith biography Calyx: The Canterbury Website.
Fred Frith interview BBC Music archive at the Internet Archive Wayback Machine.
Stage Effects Setup. All About Jazz.
Fred Frith discography – archived 19 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine

Fred Frith interview at allaboutjazz.com
Fred Frith, An Interview with the editors, Sensitive Skin magazine No. 9, published December 2012

1949 births
Living people
20th-century British composers
21st-century composers
English rock guitarists
English male guitarists
English violinists
British male violinists
English rock bass guitarists
Male bass guitarists
Progressive rock bass guitarists
English rock keyboardists
English male composers
British film score composers
British male film score composers
English experimental musicians
Free improvisation
Canterbury scene
Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge
English multi-instrumentalists
People from Heathfield, East Sussex
Curlew (band) members
Henry Cow members
The Golden Palominos members
Tzadik Records artists
Moers Music artists
Mills College faculty
Massacre (experimental band) members
Art Bears members
Skeleton Crew (band) members
21st-century violinists
French Frith Kaiser Thompson members
Naked City (band) members
The Orckestra members
Winter & Winter Records artists
Incus Records artists
Intakt Records artists
RogueArt artists

Fred Frith


Broadway is a -long main street in New York City. It is different from other streets in that it runs diagonally across the street grid of Manhattan, diagonally crossing newer streets. The street also goes through the Bronx. It continues north as U.S. Route 9 to Albany, the capital of New York State.

Times Square, where Broadway meets 7th Avenue and 42nd Street, is a center of entertainment and is famous for its many Broadway theatres and stage plays.

One of the New York City Subway lines, the BMT Broadway Line, runs under the street in Manhattan, south of Times Square. The IRT Broadway - Seventh Avenue Line runs under Broadway, north of Times Square.

Manhattan
Roads in New York City
Theater
The Bronx

Broadway


State Route 65 (SR 65) is a north-south state highway in the U.S. state of California. It is composed of two segments in the Central Valley. The southern segment begins at SR 99, near Bakersfield and terminates at SR 198 near Exeter. It also serves the communities of Oildale, Ducor, Terra Bella, Porterville, Strathmore, and Lindsay. The northern segment begins at Interstate 80 in Roseville and terminates at SR 70 at Olivehurst. It also serves the communities of Rocklin, Lincoln, and Wheatland.

The route, originally known as the Eastside Freeway, was envisioned as a major freeway connecting northern and southern California. Similar to the Westside Freeway (Interstate 5) on the opposite side of the valley, SR 65 would follow the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, traveling almost the entire length of the San Joaquin Valley. However, most of the route was never constructed. Of the estimated , only  were constructed. If built, it would also serve the communities of Ivanhoe, Reedley, Sanger, Waterford, and Oakdale.

Route description
SR 65 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System; the southern segment as well as the northern segment in Roseville and near Yuba City are part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration.

South segment
The southern segment of State Route 65 begins at a partial interchange with State Route 99 north of Bakersfield. From here to Porterville is a mostly  rural two-lane highway through hills and grasslands while passing through the communities of Ducor and Terra Bella. This stretch of roadway is often considered very dangerous given the heavy amount of semi-trucks that drive this corridor. SR 65 expands to a four-lane freeway through Porterville, downgrading into a four-lane expressway upon leaving the city. The highway remains an expressway, passing Strathmore and up to Lindsay. The highway is then reduced to a rural two-lane highway through agricultural areas while passing through Exeter. SR 65's southern segment ends at the junction of State Route 198. This section has been designated the All America City Highway.

North segment
The northern segment of State Route 65 begins at the interchange with Interstate 80 in Roseville as a freeway heading northwest to Blue Oaks Boulevard where the freeway turns north towards Lincoln. It turns northwest briefly onto a bypass of Lincoln at Industrial Avenue/Lincoln Boulevard (the state route's former alignment) where it then turns west as the freeway ends at Nelson Lane. The highway is then downgraded to a four-lane expressway, turning north again, downgraded further to a two-lane highway, until it meets up with its original alignment just north of the community of Sheridan. After passing through Wheatland, it assumes its freeway designation a few miles north of the town, ending at State Route 70 in Olivehurst.

In 2000, Caltrans issued a Project Study Report (PSR) that analyzed six alternative alignments for the proposed Wheatland Bypass.  After extensive public meetings, Caltrans identified Alternative E as the preferred alternative.  Alternative E would start at the northern end of the Lincoln Bypass, and proceed due north, crossing the Bear River on a new bridge to the east of the existing SR 65 alignment.  It would bypass Wheatland to the east, and then turn west and pass along the southern edge of Beale Air Force Base before connecting to south end of the freeway segment at South Beale Road.  If completed, the Wheatland Bypass would enable continuous freeway travel from I-80 to Marysville (via SR 70).  Although Caltrans completed the PSR in 2000 that identified the preferred alignment, the Wheatland Bypass remains unfunded.  State and local officials cannot present a timetable for completing the bypass until $300 million is secured to complete the required environmental studies and construction.

North of its present northern terminus at SR 70 in Olivehurst, the legislative designation of SR 65 continues west/northwest to SR 99 in (or south of) Yuba City.  Caltrans has planned since 1986 to extend SR 65 as a freeway west or northwest from SR 70 to SR 99 via a third bridge across the Feather River south of Yuba City to alleviate traffic on the two existing bridges between Yuba City and Marysville.  Funding issues and environmental concerns have stalled the extension of SR 65 to Yuba City and the third Feather River Bridge.

History

Bakersfield to Roseville
The initial segment was created in 1933 as Legislative Route 129. It was defined from LRN 4 (formerly US 99 and currently SR 99) near Bakersfield to LRN 263 (currently SR 180) in Kings Canyon National Park. The entire route was signed Route 65.

In the 1950s, California was developing plans for a statewide freeway network. Within the San Joaquin Valley, routes were discussed on the west side and along U.S. Route 99 (Golden State Highway). However, officials in Stanislaus County believed that an additional major north-south freeway was needed to serve the east side of the valley. In 1955, they formally proposed the Eastside Freeway, which would be the eastern companion to the Westside Freeway. In 1959, the state defined Legislative Route 249, which would run from the junction of LRN 10 (currently SR 198) and LRN 129 to LRN 17 (currently I-80). This would mark the birth of the Eastside Freeway.

In 1964, California's state highways were renumbered. The portion of LRN 129 between Exeter and SR 180 would be removed and become SR 245. The remainder of LRN 129, all of LRN 249, and U.S. Route 99E (section north of Roseville), would be combined to create SR 65. By 1969, except for Merced County, all eight counties which the route would traverse had it included in their general plans. This created a continuous roadway plan from Bakersfield to Roseville.

The first segment to be constructed as a freeway was in 1964. A short freeway segment (about ) was built at SR 99 in Kern County in conjunction with a portion of the freeway upgrade to the Golden State Freeway (SR 99). However, development of the rest of the corridor was difficult. The California Highway Commission put a greater emphasis on the construction of the Westside Freeway, which would be included in the Interstate Highway System. In addition, efforts were underway for the upgrade of the Golden State Freeway through the center of the valley. As a result, the Eastside Freeway was given a much lower priority.

Most of the construction efforts for the freeway were conducted in Tulare County. In 1970, the segment through the City of Porterville was constructed as a freeway. The two-lane highway between the Tulare County line and SR 198 was converted to a two-lane expressway with land reserved for future interchanges (or interchange footprint). In Sacramento County, land was reserved south of Roseville, and a freeway-to-freeway interchange was constructed at US 50 and Sunrise Boulevard.

By the mid 1970s, California began to abandon some of its freeway projects, which included the Eastside Freeway. The land reserved in Sacramento County was sold and the freeway-to-freeway interchange was converted to a local interchange. The project was considered dead. None of the original LRN 249 segment (between Roseville and Exeter) was constructed.

Roseville to Yuba City
The northern section originally was US 99E, running from Marysville to Roseville, and was converted to SR 65 during the state highway renumbering effort in 1964.  A freeway section (named the Harold T. "Bizz" Johnson Expressway) bypassing downtown Roseville was completed later, with the original downtown Roseville section of SR 65 (former US 99E) released from the state highway system.  In the 1950s, a right-of-way was reserved for a SR 65 freeway running from Roseville through Citrus Heights and Fair Oaks to Rancho Cordova, but plans for this freeway were abandoned in the 1970s and the right-of-way has been relinquished to private owners.  The portion of Sunrise Boulevard south of US 50 was added to the SR 65 routing during the 1970s, but has since been relinquished back to Sacramento County.

In 2008, construction began on a bypass around Lincoln to alleviate traffic congestion in and around the city. The first phase of the bypass is a four-lane freeway from Industrial Avenue/Lincoln Boulevard to Nelson Lane and a two-lane expressway from Nelson Lane to Riosa Road in Sheridan, reconnecting with the original alignment of SR 65 north of town. There is a partial interchange at Industrial Avenue/Lincoln Boulevard, a full interchange at Ferrari Ranch Road and at-grade intersections at Nelson Lane, West Wise Road and Riosa Road. The bypass was completed on October 5, 2012 with a ribbon-cutting ceremony, opening to traffic two days later. A second phase of the Lincoln bypass was completed in June 2014; it expanded to four lanes between Nelson Lane and West Wise Road, with two lanes in each direction.

The interchange at Sunset Boulevard was opened to traffic in March 2010, eliminating the last traffic signal between I-80 and the city of Lincoln. It effectively also upgraded SR 65 from expressway to freeway status from the Sunset Boulevard interchange to just north of the Twelve Bridges Drive interchange (then later to Nelson Lane in 2012 when the Lincoln bypass opened).

Future
With the projected growth of the Central Valley, interest has reemerged in constructing all or part of the unconstructed portion of SR 65. A multi-county committee has been formed to discuss the transportation needs of the Eastern Central Valley, including the construction of SR 65 over twenty years. The committee will look at what route the road will take, what type of road would be built (highway, expressway, or freeway), and what the road would eventually become (also known as the ultimate transportation corridor or UTC).

In order to alleviate traffic congestion between the northern parts of SR 65 and I-80 and downtown Sacramento, the Placer Parkway project, a bypass from SR 65 at the current Whitney Ranch Parkway interchange to SR 99 to the west, has been initiated, but its expected completion date is unknown.

Another study is looking at extending SR 65 north to a future eastern extension of SR 152. Currently, five cities exist in the eastern Central Valley with population between 15,000 and 20,000 (as of the 2000 census) that do not have access to a north/south state highway. This project would create a state highway that would connect these cities together and to SR 99. This connection would be north of Madera, providing a bypass to Visalia and Fresno. It would also provide an alternative route for travelers in Southern California and the South Central Valley, to access mountain vacation spots in areas east of Fresno.

In the southern section, plans are underway to convert all of the two-lane highway portions to a four-lane expressway. In addition, the short segment to Exeter would be moved to allow for a continuous roadway. Originally, the widening project was going to be a joint effort between Kern and Tulare counties, but priority changes in Kern County have delayed its portion to a future date.

In the northern section, a third phase of the Lincoln bypass at a future date will expand the highway to four lanes between West Wise Road and Riosa Road and upgrading the at-grade intersections to interchanges. The project is currently unfunded. In the future, SR 65 eventually will become a continuous four-lane freeway from I-80 in Roseville to Riosa Road in Sheridan.

Major intersections

See also

References

External links

California @ AARoads.com - State Route 65
California Highways: SR 65

065
065
California State Route 065
State Route 065
State Route 065
State Route 065
State Route 065
Transportation in Bakersfield, California
Roseville, California

California State Route 65


Babusar Pass is  above sea level. It connects Gilgit with Kaghan via Chilas. Prior to construction of Karakoram highway, this route was very important, because this was the only route leading to Gilgit and Baltistan from Pakistan.

Presently a road by the name of Mansehra-Naran-Jalkhad-Chilas MNJCroad is being constructed through Babusar Pass that will shorten the distance between Mansehra and Chilas by around . Work on the route is expected to conclude sometime in mid 2011.

Mountain passes of Pakistan

Babusar Pass


The Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005 was a bill introduced as H.R. 3037 in the United States House of Representatives on June 22, 2005. The bill proposes "to amend the Controlled Substances Act to exclude industrial hemp from the definition of marijuana, and for other purposes". Submitted by Ron Paul, Pete Stark, Jim McDermott and Raul Grijalva, the bill was referred to the Committee on Energy and Commerce and the United States House Committee on the Judiciary. On July 1, 2005, Energy and Commerce referred the bill to the Subcommittee on Health.

H.R. 3037 was not passed. In 2009 Ron Paul (R-Texas) and Barney Frank (D-Massachusetts) proposed a similar bill, H.R. 1866, commonly known as the Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009, urging fellow legislators to reconsider the definition of marijuana.

References

Hemp agriculture in the United States
2005 in cannabis

Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005


Cashmere wool is a kind of fiber which is produced from the wool of cashmere goats. Most cashmere wool is produced in China, Mongolia, Iran, and the Asiatic highlands known as Pamir. Large farms can also be found in Australia, New Zealand and Scotland. Cashmere wool is among the most valuable kinds of natural fiber. For this reason, textiles are often mixed with merino wool.

Natural materials

Cashmere wool


A car bomb is a bomb device that is hidden within a vehicle. It is usually driven into places where there will be many people. Terrorists use car bombs more than any other type of organization. The car with the bomb attached to it will explode. This will usually cause fires and small pieces of metal which cause most of the damage.

Car and truck bombings
Improvised explosive devices

Car bomb


Diane Keaton (born Diane Hall; Januar 5, 1946) is an American film actress, director, producer an screenwriter. She began her career on stage an made her screen debut in 1970. Her first major film role wis as Kay Adams-Corleone in The Godfather (1972), but the films that shaped her early career war those wi director an co-starn Woody Allen, beginnin wi Play It Again, Sam in 1972. Her next twa films wi Allen, Sleeper (1973) an Love and Death (1975), established her as a comic actor. Her fowert, Annie Hall (1977), won her the Academy Awaird for Best Actress.

1946 births
Actresses frae Los Angeles
American agnostics
American bloggers
American film directors
American televeesion actresses
American muisic video directors
American fowk o Inglis strynd
American fowk o German strynd
American fowk o Erse strynd
American photographers
American televeesion directors
Best Actress BAFTA Awaird winners
Best Actress Academy Awaird winners
Best Muisical or Comedy Actress Gowden Globe (film) winners
American weemen film directors
Weemen televeesion directors
Feminist airtists
Livin fowk
Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre alumni
20t-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Film directors frae Californie
American film actresses
Female muisic video directors
Film producers frae Californie
American weemen photographers
American weemen screenwriters
American feminist writers
American memoirists
21st-century American writers
21st-century weemen writers
Weemen memoirists
Weemen bloggers
American vyce actresses
American comedians

Diane Keaton


In mathematics and computer science the term Canonical form, or sometimes Normal form refers to the usual representation of a mathematical object. For example, the canonical form of a positive integer in decimal representation is a finite sequence of digits that does not begin with zero.

Mathematics has defined equivalence relations for some objects. These equivalence relations say that certain classes of objects are "equal". These objects then belong to the same equivalence class. In such a case, a canonical form consists in the choice of a specific object in each class. For example, row echelon form and Jordan normal form are canonical forms for matrices.

Mathematics

Canonical form


Hangman is a paper-and-pencil guessing game played by two or more people. One player thinks of a word, phrase, or sentence, and the other players have to try and guess it. They do so by calling letters or numbers that they think are in the word. The word is shown as a row of dashes. If a guessing player gives a letter or number that is in the word, the other player writes the letter or number in the places that they are in the word. If the letter or number is not in the word, the other player draws a part of a hanged man stick figure as a tally mark (a form of numeral used for counting). The game ends when:

The guessing player completes the word, or correctly guesses the whole word.
The other player completes the diagram of the hanged man.

The television game show Wheel of Fortune is based off of Hangman. It uses a roulette-style wheel that players spin for cash and prizes.

Word games

Hangman


In physics, a Bragg plane is a plane in reciprocal space which bisects a reciprocal lattice vector, , at right angles. The Bragg plane is defined as part of the Von Laue condition for diffraction peaks in x-ray diffraction crystallography.

Considering the adjacent diagram, the arriving x-ray plane wave is defined by:

Where  is the incident wave vector given by:

where  is the wavelength of the incident photon. While the Bragg formulation assumes a unique choice of direct lattice planes and specular reflection of the incident X-rays, the Von Laue formula only assumes monochromatic light and that each scattering center acts as a source of secondary wavelets as described by the Huygens principle. Each scattered wave contributes to a new plane wave given by:

The condition for constructive interference in the  direction is that the path difference between the photons is an integer multiple (m) of their wavelength. We know then that for constructive interference we have:

where . Multiplying the above by  we formulate the condition in terms of the wave vectors,  and :

Now consider that a crystal is an array of scattering centres, each at a point in the Bravais lattice. We can set one of the scattering centres as the origin of an array. Since the lattice points are displaced by the Bravais lattice vectors, , scattered waves interfere constructively when the above condition holds simultaneously for all values of  which are Bravais lattice vectors, the condition then becomes:

An equivalent statement (see mathematical description of the reciprocal lattice) is to say that:

By comparing this equation with the definition of a reciprocal lattice vector, we see that constructive interference occurs if  is a vector of the reciprocal lattice. We notice that  and  have the same magnitude, we can restate the Von Laue formulation as requiring that the tip of incident wave vector, , must lie in the plane that is a perpendicular bisector of the reciprocal lattice vector, . This reciprocal space plane is the Bragg plane.

See also
 X-ray crystallography
 Reciprocal lattice
 Bravais lattice
 Powder diffraction
 Kikuchi line
 Brillouin zone

References

Crystallography
Planes (geometry)
Fourier analysis
Lattice points
Diffraction

Bragg plane


An eyespot is a simple organ in biology used to detect light. It may be called an ocellus, or pigment pit. They are quite common in small, simple invertebrates, such as Planaria. They do not have lenses or any means of focussing. Therefore, they can sense light from dark, but do not give the animal a visual scene as our eyes do.

In many simple animals the eyespot senses light with a pigment molecule called an opsin. Then a nerve fibre goes from the eyespot to the simple nervous system. This allows the animal to move in response to (for example) a shadow passing over it.

Eyespots also occur in single-celled protists like Euglena and Chlamydomonas, where it is connected to the flagellum. This allows the information from the light patch to influence the cells's movement.

The first fossils of eyes that have been found to date are from the early Cambrian period (about 540 million years ago). This period saw a burst of apparently rapid evolution, called the "Cambrian explosion". One idea is that the evolution of eyes started an arms race which led to a rapid spate of evolution. Much earlier than this organisms would have used light spots for light sensitivity, but did not have a visual scene for rapid navigation.

References

Vision

Eyespot


The Pennsylvania Railroad Bridge once carried the York Branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad across the Susquehanna River between Columbia and Wrightsville, Pennsylvania and is therefore considered a Columbia-Wrightsville Bridge. It and its predecessors were a vital commercial and passenger linkage between Philadelphia and Baltimore for over 100 years.

Earlier bridges on the site

Several bridges have been built on the site, with the first wooden covered bridge erected in the early 1830s to replace a nearby smaller toll bridge immediately upriver that had been destroyed by ice. Set on 26 stone piers, the new massive oaken structure was the longest covered bridge in the world (over a mile and a quarter in length). It used timber salvaged from the previous bridge and provided a link for the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad to the Northern Central Railway, as well as for carriages, pedestrians and wagons. A towpath on the southern wall enabled teams of horses or mules to pull boats from the Mainline Canal on the Columbia side to the Tidewater and Susquehanna Canal on the Wrightsville side.

This bridge was burned by state militia under Col. Jacob G. Frick and Maj. Granville O. Haller on June 28, 1863, to block elements of the Confederate States Army under Brig. Gen. John Brown Gordon from crossing into Lancaster County shortly before the Battle of Gettysburg. For the rest of the war, cargo and passengers had to be laboriously ferried across the broad Susquehanna River.

The Columbia Bridge Company constructed another wooden bridge on the same stone piers in the years just after the Civil War, restoring the railroad line. The Pennsylvania Railroad purchased this replacement bridge in 1879, but it was destroyed by a severe windstorm in 1896. These bridges were each known as the "Columbia-Wrightsville Bridge."

Pennsylvania Railroad Bridge

The last bridge on the site was built in 1896, just 29 days after the destruction of the previous wooden bridge. A steel truss bridge made of  long prefabricated sections, it carried a single railroad track for the Pennsylvania Railroad, as well as a two-lane roadway. It was designed to be resistant to fire, floods, and ice, elements that had destroyed previous wooden structures. Like the previous bridges, tolls were collected for passage to recover a portion of the half million dollar investment.

As originally envisioned, the new bridge was to have had two decks, the bottom one for trains and the upper for other traffic. The top deck was never added, and freight and passenger trains shared the planked lower deck with carriages, wagons, and [later] with automobiles and trucks crossing the river on the Lincoln Highway.

In 1930, automobile traffic was rerouted to the newly constructed Veterans Memorial Bridge, just downstream. The steel bridge reverted to only being used by the railroad, although usage eventually diminished considerably as commercial truck traffic on the Veterans Memorial Bridge (then part of US 30) increased. The track was removed and the bridge dismantled in 1963. The stone piers are still present in the river. A historical marker now commemorates the history of the bridge.

References

 Mingus, Scott L., Flames Beyond Gettysburg: The Gordon Expedition. Columbus, Ohio: Ironclad Publishing, 2009.

Railroad bridges in Pennsylvania
Bridges over the Susquehanna River
Lincoln Highway
Pennsylvania Railroad bridges
U.S. Route 30
Pennsylvania in the American Civil War
Bridges completed in 1896
Demolished bridges in the United States
Bridges in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
Bridges in York County, Pennsylvania
Former toll bridges in Pennsylvania
Steel bridges in the United States

Pennsylvania Railroad Bridge (Columbia, Pennsylvania)


Creil is the railway station serving the northern French city of Creil. It is an important railway junction, situated on the Paris–Lille railway, the Creil–Jeumont railway and the branch lines to Beauvais and Pontoise.

The station is served by omnibus trains to Paris as well as regional services to and from Amiens, Compiègne and further. As well as Intercités trains, Creil is well served by TER trains, RER D and is part of the TER Hauts-de-France network.

References

External links

Railway stations in France opened in 1846
Railway stations in Oise

Creil station


Doom 2 (or Doom II in roman numerals) is a sequel to the first-person shooter video game Doom. It was created by iD Software, and came out in 1994, just one year after the first game. It was based on the same game engine as Doom, and had 32 levels, two of them secret. Doom 2 got newer enemies and weapons. Enemies new in Doom 2 include the Arch-vile, Mancubus, Arachnotron, Chaingunner, Pain Elemental, Revenant, Hell Knight, and the Final Boss (also called the Icon of Sin). The only new weapon in Doom 2 is the Super Shotgun. It is a double-barrel shotgun that use two shotgun shells every time it is fired, but it does three times as much damage as the normal Shotgun and has a much wider hit box. The game's difficulty is much harder than the first Doom game.

Doom 2 includes an expansion pack known as the Master Levels for Doom II. The expansion pack has 20 WAD files created by various authors under contract with id Software.

Doom 2 also includes another expansion pack called No Rest for the Living, released on the Xbox Live Arcade for the Xbox 360.

1994 video games
DOS games
Video game sequels
Doom video games

Doom 2


The Potrero Generating Station was a natural gas and diesel burning electricity generating station owned by Mirant and located on a  site in Potrero Point, San Francisco, California.  The plant's primary power source was a 206 MW, natural gas burning steam turbine providing baseload power and referred to as "Unit 3".  In addition, three 52 MW peaking power diesel generators provided additional power during times of highest consumption.  Since the closure of the Hunters Point Power Plant in 2006, Potrero was the last remaining fossil fuel power plant within the confines of San Francisco, with capacity to provide approximately 1/3 of the city's peak electrical power needs.

On Dec. 21, 2010, San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom announced that the Potrero plant would cease operations by the end of the year. In a press conference announcing the closure, Newsom stated that "this is a monumental step towards cleaner air, environmental justice and our future of renewable energy and healthier communities." The plant was shut down in January 2011, and since 2012, the property is being considered for redevelopment. City officials approved plans in 2020.

History and capacity
The Potrero power station was located at a site in Potrero Point originally used by San Francisco Gas Light, a provider of gas for cooking and lighting in the late 19th century.  Circa 1890 they constructed a small electrical generator at the site, which was the first power plant for the company that would later become Pacific Gas and Electric. Unit 3 was constructed in 1965, making it one of the oldest power plants still operated in California until its closure.  The peaking units 4, 5, and 6 were constructed in 1976.

Unit 3, the primary power generator, consisted of an eight-story natural gas powered boiler that produced superheated high pressure steam.  San Francisco Bay water was purified and heated to produce high pressure steam.  This steam was run through a turbine that subsequently turned a 206 MW generator made by Westinghouse.  The steam that exited the turbine was then cooled to allow it to condense back into water.  The cooling water used in this process operated on a once-through exchange with San Francisco Bay.  At full power approximately 10 m3/s (226 million gallons per day) of water were pumped from the subsurface of the Bay, passed through screens and filters to remove debris and prevent biological uptake. The cooling water then passed through the condenser to cool steam used to power the steam turbine.  The water was returned to the Bay at about 10 C warmer, usually no warmer than 30 C (86 F).

In addition to the main unit, three 52 MW diesel powered peaking generators could be brought online in four minutes and to peak load in ten minutes notice to meet extra electricity demands as specified by the California Independent System Operator.  They were generally operated for only a few hours at a time, usually during peak power consumption in the afternoon.  In total, they were generally utilized less than 200 hours per year, though they could be online longer if Unit 3 was offline for an extended period (for example due to maintenance).  Fuel for these generators was stored on site and was delivered by tanker truck, though in the past it was delivered directly by ship.  There were three large fuel storage tanks at the Potrero facility.

Closure

For many years an effort had been made by Mirant to expand or upgrade the Potrero Point facility, while many in the local community felt the site should be closed due to health and pollution concerns.  In particular, there was concern that the flow of water through the plant was damaging the local environment in the Bay, though Mirant disputed this. On March 2, 2006, the California Public Utilities Commission announced its rejection of Mirant's expansion plans.  At that time, the plant was tentatively scheduled to be shut down sometime in 2007 so that a more modern replacement of similar size could be built at the site, but subsequently plans were scaled back and called only for the diesel peaking power generators to be upgraded. The proposed upgrade, estimated to cost between $80 million and $100 million, would have converted the peaking generators to run on natural gas. This would have decreased, but not eliminated, pollution and removed the need to store large quantities of diesel fuel on site.

In 2009 the City of San Francisco and Mirant agreed to close down the plant, pending approval from the California Independent System Operator. CAISO ruled a month later that the plant must stay on line at least through 2010, and only after upgrades to the electrical transmission grid going into San Francisco were completed and the city was able to import sufficient power from other parts of the state to meet all of its needs. Meanwhile, the plant continued to generate thermal pollution by the discharge of heated water to San Francisco Bay, and Mirant had given no indication that it would take any steps to further control those discharges.

On December 21, 2010, San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom announced that the Potrero plant would cease operations by the end of the year. Potrero Generating Station was permanently shut down in January 2011. GenOn Energy, Mirant's parent corporation, will solicit bids to sell the property for redevelopment. Developers expect the area to be used for high-density housing or office space after the site undergoes an environmental cleanup.

Current state and development

Associate Capital, a firm that focuses on mixed use, in-fill projects that require a long-term vision and focus, bought the site in September 2017.

The proposed project will be a majority residential, mixed-use and mixed-income neighborhood delivering approximately 2,600 homes; 600,000 square feet of office; 600,000 square feet of Research & Development; 100,000 square feet of retail; and community amenities. Anchored by a 300-foot stack, the project will feature 6.66 acres of parks and open space, a boutique hotel adapted from a former steam power facility, and restaurants, cafes, shops and stores.

The development will be adjacent to Pier 70, a mixed commercial and residential use development by Orton Development, Inc. and Forest City Development.

Gallery

References

External links

 Mirant's description of the Potrero Plant
 The Power Station

Energy infrastructure completed in 1890
Energy infrastructure completed in 1965
Energy infrastructure completed in 1976
Natural gas-fired power stations in California
Oil-fired power stations in California
Buildings and structures in San Francisco
Energy in the San Francisco Bay Area

Potrero Generating Station


The Internal Security Corps (, KBW) was a special-purpose military formation in Poland under communist government, established by the  Council of Ministers on 24 May 1945.

History
The KBW consisted of 10 new cavalry regiments, an infantry division, and two buffer brigades. The corps itself was subordinate to the Ministry of Public Security. By the end of August 1945, its force was made up of 29,053 soldiers and 2,356 officers. The KBW was called forth to protect key public infrastructure such as railways, but mainly to combat and suppress the anti-Communist resistance in Poland, including activities of the "Cursed soldiers" as well as all organizations which continued their armed struggle against the Communist takeover, such as the Freedom and Independence (WiN), the National Armed Forces (NSZ), and the remnants of the Polish Home Army (AK) among others.

Between 1945 and 1954, the KBW fell under the responsibility of Minister Jakub Berman of the Politburo, who was in charge of the Ministry of Public Security. Later, it was part of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Between March 1945 and April 1947 alone, units of the KBW killed over 1,500 "Cursed soldiers", wounded 301, and apprehended 12,200 others.

In 1965, the KBW was renamed the Wojska Obrony Wewnętrznej ("Internal Defense Force"). It was included in the framework of National Defense. Also, in 1962, the Silesian Unit of the Engineering Army (KBW-4) built roads in the Bieszczady region in the extreme south-east of Poland, strategically important but an uninhabited area.

Commanding officers

March 1945 – May 1945: Col. Henryk Toruńczyk
Jun 1945 – September 1946: Gen. Bolesław Kieniewicz
1946–1948: Brigadier General Konrad Świetlik
1948–1951: Brigadier General Juliusz Hibner (born Dawid Szwarc)
1 March 1951 – 12 March 1965: Brigadier General Włodzimierz Muś
12 March 1965 – 1 July 1965: Brigadier General Bronisław Kuriata

See also
 Internal Troops – Soviet model for the Internal Security Corps.
 Ministry of Public Security of Poland
 Operation Vistula (1947)
 Zygmunt Bauman

References

External links

Narodowe Siły Zbrojne
 The Doomed soldiers – Polish Underground Soldiers 1944–1963 – The Untold Story
 Antykomunistyczne Podziemie Zbrojne po 1944 roku
 National Armed Forces Historical Brief

1945 establishments in Poland
Military of Poland
Stalinism in Poland

Internal Security Corps


A pantry is a room where food and other household goods may be stored for a while.

Some food, such as butter, eggs, milk, and such need to be kept cool. Before modern refrigeration was available, there was the pantry. The pantry was a room or large cupboard made to keep cooler than the temperature in the kitchen. Built on the north side of the house close to the kitchen, it had no windows, but had air ventilation. The walls were brick or wood. As the air in the pantry warmed, it rose, escaping through the upper vent.  This in turn drew cooler air in from the lower vent, providing constant circulation of cooler air.

In the summertime, the temperatures in the pantry would be several degrees lower than the ambient temperature in the house. In wintertime, the temperature in the cold pantry would be considerably lower than that in the kitchen.

A pantry was the place to keep foodstocks that did not need to be kept refrigerated. Remember, food was bought regularly in those days, and not stored for long. Breads, butter, cheesecakes, eggs, pastries, and pies were  kept in a cold.  Vegetables could be brought up from the cellar in smaller amounts and stored in the cold pantry until ready to use. The pantry was a place to store fresh berries and fruit, cheese, butter and such.

References

Rooms

Pantry


Leicester ( ) is a town in Livingston County, New York, United States. The population was 2,200 at the 2010 census. The town is named after Leicester Phelps, an early inhabitant.

Leicester is on the western border of Livingston County. The village of Leicester is at the center of the town. Leicester is west of Geneseo.

History
The area was a major stronghold of the Seneca people until the American Revolution, with three major villages: Little Beard's Town, Big Tree, and Squakie Hill. These three settlements were a target of the Sullivan Expedition in 1779, to end raids on American communities.

The town was first settled around 1789. The town was formed in 1802, but the name, originally spelled "Lester" or "Leister", was changed in 1805 to the current form. The town was later reduced in size by the creation of newer towns: Mount Morris (1813) and York (1819).

The Coverdale Cobblestone House was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which , or 0.01%, are water. The Genesee River forms the eastern border of the town, and the west town line is the border of Wyoming County.

The concurrent routes of U.S. 20A and New York State Route 39 form an east-west highway across the town from Pine Tavern to the eastern town line. West of Pine Tavern, US 20A and NY 39 follow separate roadways to the western town line. New York State Route 36 is a north-south highway, intersecting US-20A and NY-39 at Leicester village.

Adjacent towns and areas
(Clockwise)
York
Geneseo
Mount Morris
Castile; Perry; Covington

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,287 people, 849 households, and 640 families residing in the town.  The population density was .  There were 900 housing units at an average density of .  The racial makeup of the town was 97.86% White, 0.87% Black or African American, 0.09% Native American, 0.04% Asian, 0.48% from other races, and 0.66% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.01% of the population.

There were 849 households, out of which 34.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.3% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.5% were non-families. 20.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.04.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 26.3% under the age of 18, 7.4% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 23.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.8 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.0 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $41,230, and the median income for a family was $46,652. Males had a median income of $35,450 versus $26,420 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,655.  About 4.6% of families and 8.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.3% of those under age 18 and 4.4% of those age 65 or over.

Education
Students who reside in the town of Leicester typically attend York Central School. Students living on the borders of Leicester could also attend the schools of bordering towns including Geneseo, Perry and Mt. Morris.

Notable person

 George W. Patterson, US congressman

Communities and locations in the town
Beards Creek – A tributary of the Genesee River, named after native leader "Little Beard".
Big Tree – Former native community and later a reservation partly in the town.
Cuylerville – A hamlet and census-designated place northeast of Leicester village on Routes 20A and NY-39.
Gibonville – A former community in the southwest part of the town.
Leicester – The village of Leicester is centrally located in the town on US-20A at the junction with NY-36.
Letchworth State Park – A state park at the south town line.
Little Beard's Town – A former native community located near present-day Cuylerville.
Pine Tavern Corners or Pine Tavern – A hamlet southwest of Leicester village on Routes 20A and 39.
Squakie Hill – Former native community and (later) a former reservation at the Genesee River west of NY-36.
Teed Corners – A hamlet near the north town line on NY-36.

See also
New York International Raceway Park

References

External links

  Brief history of Leicester, NY
 City-Data.com

New York (state) populated places on the Genesee River
Rochester metropolitan area, New York
Towns in Livingston County, New York
Towns in New York (state)

Leicester, New York


South Waziristan () is the southern part of Waziristan, a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering some 11,585 km² (4,473 mi²). It comprises the area west and southwest of Peshawar between the Tochi River to the north and the Gomal river to the south, forming part of Pakistan's Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA). The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province lies immediately to the east. The region was an independent tribal territory from 1893, remaining outside of British-ruled empire and Afghanistan. Tribal raiding into British-ruled territory was a constant problem for the British, requiring frequent punitive expeditions between 1860 and 1945. The region became part of Pakistan in 1947.

 Birmal Tehsil
 Ladha Tehsil
 Makin (Charlai) Tehsil
 Sararogha Tehsil
 Sarwekai Tehsil
 Tiarza Tehsil
 Toi Khullah Tehsil
 Wana Tehsil

Agencies of Federally Administered Tribal Areas

South Waziristan District


Die Mörder sind unter uns, a German film known in English as Murderers Among Us in the United States or The Murderers Are Among Us in the United Kingdom was one of the first post-World War II German films and the first Trümmerfilm. It was produced in 1945/46 in the Althoff Studios in Babelsberg and the Jofa-Ateliers in Johannisthal. The film was written and directed by Wolfgang Staudte.

Plot
Berlin in 1945 after Germany's defeat in the war. The former military surgeon Dr. Hans Mertens (Ernst Wilhelm Borchert) stumbles down the street, drunk. He suffers from flashbacks of the war and has an aversion to people in pain, which prevents him from practicing medicine. Instead, he spends his days drinking. An artist and Nazi concentration camp survivor, Susanne Wallner (Hildegard Knef), finds him living in her apartment as she returns home.

They reluctantly live together at first, then become friends. Susanne finds a letter to a Mrs. Brückner in the apartment and confronts Mertens about it. Mertens tries to get a job at a hospital, but a screaming woman gives him flashbacks and he is left incapacitated. Meanwhile, Susanne meets with Ferdinand Brückner (Arno Paulsen). When Mertens returns, Susanne informs him that Brückner is alive and well. Mertens visits Brückner, his former captain, and stays for dinner. Brückner is now a successful businessman, producing pots out of old Stahlhelme, the German military steel helmet. After the dinner, Brückner returns to Mertens his gun from the war. Mertens has another flashback and goes home drunk.

Soon after, Mertens decides to kill Brückner. He leads Brückner away under the pretense of going to a bar and takes him along a purportedly shorter route, through the rubble and abandoned buildings of Berlin. When he thinks they are alone, he draws his gun. As he does so, a woman in need of a doctor runs out of one of the ruined buildings. Brückner tells her that Mertens is a doctor, but Mertens is reluctant to help. The woman tells him her only child stopped breathing an hour before, and he goes along with her, while Brückner leaves for the bar alone. Mertens performs a tracheotomy on the girl, then Mertens returns home and proclaims his love for Susanne.

The film skips forward to Christmas Eve. Susanne and Mertens are still living together, and Mertens is now a practicing surgeon. Mertens tells Susanne he has to finish something. He goes to Brückner's factory, where Brückner and his employees are singing Christmas carols. Mertens has a flashback, which reveals that Brückner had ordered the shooting of over a hundred civilians on Christmas Eve of 1942 in a Polish village on the Eastern Front. Mertens tries to kill Brückner again, but Susanne stops him at the last minute. Instead of killing Brückner they denounce him and he is put on trial for war crimes.

Filming
To get permission for the film, Staudte had gone to the British, the French, and the Americans, but they all rejected the proposal, citing its political nature as the reason for refusing to grant the film a license. The Soviets, on the other hand, accepted the script with a change to the film's ending. Originally the film was supposed to be named Der Mann den ich töten werde (The Man I will kill) and Mertens was supposed to succeed in killing Brückner, but the script and the title were changed because the Soviets were afraid that viewers could interpret that as a call for vigilante justice. The title alludes to the initial title of Fritz Lang's 1931 classic M, which was to be called Mörder unter uns (Murderer Among Us).

The Murderers Among Us debuted on 15 October 1946 in the Admiralspalast, which was at the time the home of the Berlin State Opera, in the Soviet sector. The television debut in the German Democratic Republic was on 1 November 1955 and in the Federal Republic on 18 November 1971.

Denazification
In the post-war period, it was a goal of both the American and the Soviet authorities to reeducate the German public. For the Americans, this meant exporting American films to West Germany. For the Soviets, this meant the establishment of DEFA. The Soviets believed film could be used to reeducate the public. With The Murderers Are Among Us, the aim was to urge the public to judge those responsible for the atrocities committed during the war. Angel Wagenstein, a Bulgarian director, said, "For me [Staudte] was the first ambassador, who through his film renewed our faith in a nation capable of self-reflection, of looking into the mirror and acknowledging its own guilt, of making a confession that very few nations would be able to make."

Ernst Wilhelm Borchert was removed from advertisements for the movie because he had been accused and arrested for lying on denazification paperwork, but an article published in the Neue Zeit in 1947 later reported that he'd been exonerated by the Denazification Commission for Artists.

Reception
The picture sold 6,468,921 tickets.

Most of the reviews were positive, although some criticized the fact that the characters appeared in modern and trendy clothes, which did not reflect the reality of the living conditions of Berliners in the immediate post-war period. In this film, Staudte was not only dealing with Germany's past, but also with his own, as he had been involved in the filming of the Nazi propaganda film Jud Süß.

See also
Cinema of Germany

References

The Murderers are among us in progress-film.de, the distributor of the complete DEFA film heritage
Die Mörder sind unter uns, 1946 in filmref.com. Retrieved 2007-01-19.
Murderers Are Among Us, The (Moerder sind unter uns, Die) in German-films.de. Retrieved 2007-01-19.

External links
 Original 1946 posters on Ostfilm.de.
DVD Review on warinfilm.com

Synopsis and production details

1946 films
1946 drama films
German drama films
East German films
Films directed by Wolfgang Staudte
Films set in Berlin
German black-and-white films
Films about war crimes
Films shot at Althoff Studios
Films shot at Johannisthal Studios
1940s German-language films

The Murderers Are Among Us


The Sabine River is a river that starts in Texas, and flows into the Gulf of Mexico in Louisiana. It forms some of the lower part of the border of Louisiana-Texas. The Sabine State Bank is named after the river. The name Sabine comes from the Spanish word for cypress, because of the bald cypresses along the lower part of the Sabine.

Rivers of Texas
Rivers of Louisiana

Sabine River (Texas–Louisiana)


A noun is a kind of word (see part of speech) that is usually the name of something such as a person, place, thing, animal, or idea. In English, nouns can be singular or plural.

Nouns often need a word called an article or determiner (like the or that). These words usually do not go with other kinds of words like verbs or adverbs. (For example, people do not also describe nouns). In English, there are more nouns than any other kind of word.

Every language in the world has nouns, but they are not always used in the same ways. They also can have different properties in different languages. In some other languages, nouns do not change for singular and plural, and sometimes there is no word for the.

Examples of nouns: time, people, way, year, government, day, world, life, work, part, number, house, system, company, end, party, information.

History
The word noun comes from the Latin nomen meaning "name." Words like nouns were described in early days by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini and ancient Greeks like Dionysios Thrax. Also in ancient Tamil like "Peyarchol"

Uses of nouns
In English sentences, nouns can be used as a subject, object, or complement. They often come after prepositions, as the 'object of preposition'.

Nouns can sometimes describe other nouns (such as a soccer ball). When they do this, they are called modifiers or adjuncts.

There are also verb forms that can be used in the same way as nouns (such as 'I like running.')  These are called verbals or verbal nouns, and include participles (which can also be adjectives) and infinitives.

Nouns are classified into common and proper. Pronouns have commonly been considered a different part of speech from nouns, but in the past some grammars have included them as nouns as do many modern linguists.

Proper nouns
Proper nouns (also called proper name) are specific names. Examples of proper nouns are: London, John, God, October, Mozart, Saturday, Coke, Mr. Brown, Atlantic Ocean. Proper nouns are individual things with names, not general nouns.

Proper nouns begin with an upper case (capital) letter in English and many other languages that use the Roman alphabet.  (However, in German, all nouns begin with an upper case letter.) The word "I" is really a pronoun, although it is capitalized in English, like a proper noun.

Some common nouns (see below) can also be used as proper nouns. For example, someone might be named "Tiger Smith" -- even though he is not a tiger or a smith.

Common nouns
Common nouns are general names. Sometimes the same word can be either a common noun or a proper noun, depending on how it is used; for example:
 there can be many gods, but there is only one God.
 there can be many internets (two or more networks connected together), but the largest internet in the world is the Internet.
 It is good for the heart to drink the juice of pineapple.

Countability
In English and many other languages, nouns have 'number'. But some nouns are only singular (such as furniture, physics) and others are only plural (such as clothes, police). Also, some nouns are countable (for example, one piece, two pieces) but others are uncountable (for example, we do not say one furniture, two furnitures).

The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter(s) -(e)s.

 more than one snake = snakes
 more than one ski = skis
 more than one Barrymore = Barrymores

Despite plural forms being written using the letter(s) -(e)s, the pronunciation of the letter(s) will pronounced as /-s/, /-z/, or /-ız/ depending on which type of phoneme, or unique sound, comes before it. These variations of the plural morpheme are called allomorphs.

Some dictionaries list "busses" as an acceptable plural for "bus". Presumably, this is because the plural "buses" looks like it ought to rhyme with the plural of "fuse," which is "fuses." "Buses" is still listed as the preferable plural form. "Busses" is the plural for "buss," a seldom used word for "kiss."

There are several nouns that have irregular plural forms. Plurals formed in this way are sometimes called mutated (or mutating) plurals.
 more than one child = children
 more than one woman = women
 more than one man = men
 more than one person = people
 more than one goose = geese
 more than one mouse = mice
 more than one deer = deer
more than one ox = oxen
more than one tooth = teeth

Many of the above irregular plural forms stem from Old English, which had more complex rules for making plural forms.

And, finally, there are nouns that maintain their Latin or Greek form in the plural.
 more than one nucleus = nuclei
 more than one syllabus = syllabi
 more than one focus = foci
 more than one fungus = fungi
 more than one cactus = cacti (cactuses is acceptable)
 more than one thesis = theses
 more than one crisis = crises
 more than one phenomenon = phenomena
 more than one index = indices (indexes is acceptable)
 more than one appendix = appendices (appendixes is acceptable)
 more than one criterion = criteria
 more than one octopus = octopedes is correct (as the word is ). However, octopuses is acceptable, more used and simpler.

Possessives
Nouns are words for things, and since things can be possessed, nouns can also change to show possession in grammar. In English, we usually add an apostrophe and an s to nouns to make them possessive, or sometimes just an apostrophe when there is already an s at the end, like this:
 This is Sam. This is Sam's cat.
 The woman's hair is long.
 There are three cats. The cats mother is sleeping.

How adjectives become nouns

Most adjectives become nouns by adding the suffix -ness. Example: Take the adjective 'natural', add 'ness' to get 'naturalness', a noun. To see a list of 100 adjectives used in Basic English, click here.

Word order in noun phrases
A noun phrase is a phrase where the head word is a noun. In English, the word order of most noun phrases is that determiners, adjectives, and modifying nouns in respective order must appear before the head word, and relative clauses must appear after the head word.

References

Other websites
Nouns

Parts of speech

Noun


"" is a famous Naples song written in 1898. The lyrics were written by Giovanni Capurro and the music was composed by Eduardo di Capua.

It has been performed and covered by many artists as Enrico Caruso, Beniamino Gigli, Mario Lanza and The Three Tenors. It has also been performed by rock/pop artists such as Dalida, Anna Oxa, Bryan Adams, Me First, SF9, Vitas Al Bano, Elvis Presley ("It's Now or Never"). Luciano Pavarotti won the 1980 Grammy Award for Best Classical Vocal Performance for his rendition of "'O Sole Mio."

Lyrics

1890s songs

’O sole mio


Vapor lock is a problem caused by liquid fuel changing state to gas while still in the fuel delivery system of gasoline-fueled internal combustion engines. This disrupts the operation of the fuel pump, causing loss of feed pressure to the carburetor or fuel injection system, resulting in transient loss of power or complete stalling. Restarting the engine from this state may be difficult.

The fuel can vaporize due to being heated by the engine, by the local climate or due to a lower boiling point at high altitude. In regions where fuels with lower viscosity (and lower boiling threshold) are used during the winter to improve engine startup, continued use of the specialized fuels during the summer can cause vapor lock to occur more readily.

Causes and incidence
Vapor lock was far more common in older gasoline-fuel systems incorporating a low-pressure mechanical fuel pump driven by the engine, located in the engine compartment and feeding a carburetor. Such pumps were typically located higher than the fuel tank, were directly heated by the engine and fed fuel directly to the float bowl inside the carburetor. Fuel was drawn under negative pressure (gauge pressure) from the feed line, increasing the risk of a vapor lock developing between the tank and pump. A vapor lock being drawn into the fuel pump could disrupt the fuel pressure long enough for the float chamber in the carburetor to partially or completely drain, causing fuel starvation in the engine. Even temporary disruption of fuel supply into the float chamber is not ideal; most carburetors are designed to run at a fixed level of fuel in the float bowl and reducing the level will reduce the fuel to air mixture delivered to the engine.

Carburetor units may not effectively deal with fuel vapor being delivered to the float chamber. Most designs incorporate a pressure-balance duct linking the top of the float bowl with either the intake to the carburetor or the outside air. Even if the pump can handle vapor locks effectively, fuel vapor entering the float bowl has to be vented. If this is done via the intake system, the mixture is, in effect, enriched, creating a mixture-control and pollution issue. If it is done by venting to the outside, the result is direct hydrocarbon pollution and an effective loss of fuel efficiency and possibly a fuel-odor problem. For this reason, some fuel-delivery systems allow fuel vapor to be returned to the fuel tank to be condensed back to the liquid phase, or use an active carbon filled canister where fuel vapor is absorbed. This is usually implemented by removing fuel vapor from the fuel line near the engine rather than from the float bowl. Such a system may also divert excess fuel pressure from the pump back to the tank.

Most modern engines are equipped with fuel injection and have an electric submersible fuel pump in the fuel tank. Moving the fuel pump to the interior of the tank helps prevent vapor lock since the entire fuel-delivery system is under positive pressure and the fuel pump runs cooler than it would be if it is located in the engine compartment. This is the primary reason that vapor lock is rare in modern fuel systems. For the same reason, some carbureted engines are retrofitted with an electric fuel pump near the fuel tank.

A vapor lock is more likely to develop when the vehicle is in traffic because the under-hood temperature tends to rise. A vapor lock can also develop when the engine is stopped while hot and the vehicle is parked for a short period. The fuel in the line near the engine does not move and can thus heat up sufficiently to form a vapor lock. The problem is more likely in hot weather or high altitude in either case.

Gravity-feed fuel systems are not immune to vapor lock. Much of the foregoing applies equally to a gravity-feed system. If vapor forms in the fuel line, its lower density reduces the pressure developed by the weight of the fuel. This pressure is what normally moves fuel from the tank to the carburetor, so fuel supply will be disrupted until the vapor is removed, either by the remaining fuel pressure forcing it into the float bowl and out the vent or by allowing the vapor to cool and re-condense.

Vapor lock has been the cause of forced landings in aircraft. That is why aviation fuel is manufactured to far lower vapor pressure than automotive gasoline (petrol).  In addition, aircraft are far more susceptible because of their ability to change altitude and associated ambient pressure rapidly. Liquids boil at lower temperatures when in lower pressure environments.

Motorsports
Vapor lock was a common occurrence in stock car racing, since the cars have traditionally used gasoline and carburetors.  With the introduction of the fuel injection requirement for NASCAR-sanctioned events in 2012, vapor lock has been largely eliminated.

Vapor lock is also less common in other motorsports, such as Formula One and IndyCar racing, due to the use of fuel injection and alcohol fuels (ethanol or methanol), which have a lower vapor pressure than gasoline. However, it is not entirely unlikely to happen, as the double Red Bull Racing retirements at the 2022 Bahrain Grand Prix were caused by vapor lock, presumably due to the unusually high temperatures in the fuel system.

Incidence with other fuels
The higher the volatility of the fuel, the more likely it is that vapor lock will occur. Historically, gasoline was a more volatile distillate than it is now and was more prone to vapor lock. Conversely, diesel fuel is far less volatile than gasoline, so that diesel engines almost never suffer from vapor lock. However, diesel engine fuel systems are far more susceptible to air locks in their fuel lines, because standard diesel fuel injection pumps rely on the fuel being non-compressible. Air locks are caused by air leaking into the fuel delivery line or entering from the tank; common causes include the fuel tank being allowed to run dry, changing a fuel filter, or leaky fuel lines. Air locks are eliminated by turning the engine over for a time using the starter motor, or by bleeding the fuel system.

Modern diesel injection systems have self-bleeding electric pumps which eliminate the air lock problem.

See also
 Flooded engine, a different fuel-related issue with similar symptoms
 Air lock, a restriction in a fluid pipe caused by air

References

Engine problems
Combustion

Vapor lock


Susan Brownmiller (born February 15, 1935) is an American radical feminist, journalist and activist. She is best known for her pioneering work on the politics of rape in Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape (1975). Brownmiller says that rape has been defined by men rather than women until now. Men use rape as a means of continuing male dominance by keeping all women in a state of fear. All men benefit from this. Brownmiller also participated in civil rights activism. She joined CORE during the sit-in movement and volunteered for Freedom Summer in 1964. She first became involved in the Women's Liberation Movement in New York City in 1968. There she joined a consciousness-raising group in the newly formed New York Radical Women organization. Brownmiller went on to co-ordinate a sit-in against Ladies' Home Journal in 1970, began work on Against Our Will after a New York Radical Feminists speak-out on rape in 1971, and co-founded Women Against Pornography in 1979. She continues to write and speak on feminist issues, including a recent memoir and history of Second Wave radical feminism, In Our Time: Memoir of a Revolution  (1999).

As of 2005, she is an Adjunct Professor of Women's & Gender Studies at Pace University in New York City,

References
 Susan Brownmiller.com: An Informal Bio
 In Our Time: Memoir of a Revolution  ()

Other websites
 Susan Brownmiller.com
 Jewish Women and the Feminist Revolution from the Jewish Women's Archive
 1989 audio interview with Susan Brownmiller  by Don Swaim

1935 births
Living people
American activists
American feminists
American journalists
Jewish American writers
Time People of the Year
Writers from New York City

Susan Brownmiller


Trade negotiators generally refer to Article 13 of the World Trade Organization's Agreement on Agriculture as the Peace Clause. Article 13 holds that domestic support measures and export subsidies of a WTO member that are legal under the provisions of the Agreement on Agriculture cannot be challenged by other WTO members on grounds of being illegal under the provisions of another WTO agreement.

The Peace Clause expired on January 1, 2004. It is now possible, therefore, for developing countries and nations favoring free trade in agricultural goods, such as the Cairns Group, to use the WTO dispute settlement mechanism in order to challenge, in particular, U.S. and EU export subsidies on agricultural products.

Another temporary peace clause was made at the WTO Bali conference in December 2013. It stipulated that no country would be legally barred from food security programs for its own people even if the subsidy breached the limits specified in the WTO Agreement on Agriculture.

References

External links
 WTO Peace Clause Backgrounder
 WTO legal texts index

Agricultural treaties
World Trade Organization agreements
1995 in law
2004 disestablishments
Peace

Peace Clause