General Sir John Murray, 8th Baronet,  (c. 1768 – 15 October 1827) was a British Army officer who led a brigade under Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, in the Peninsular War. Later in the war, he commanded an independent force that operated on the east coast of Spain.

Early career

Murray served as Quartermaster General in India from 1801 to 1805. There, "his alternations of torpor and feverish activity had greatly embarrassed the young Arthur Wellesley with whom he was supposed to be cooperating." He married Anne Elizabeth Cholmley Phipps on 25 August 1807.

Peninsula
During the Second Battle of Porto in 1809, Major General Murray commanded the 7th Brigade, the largest brigade in Wellington's army. This 2,900-strong unit included the 1st, 2nd, 5th and 7th King's German Legion (KGL) Infantry battalions, plus elements of the 1st and 2nd KGL Light Infantry. After giving Murray two additional cavalry squadrons, Wellington entrusted him with the task of crossing the Douro River and cutting off the escape route of Marshal Nicolas Soult's French corps. Accordingly, Murray crossed the Douro at a ferry  east of Porto and moved north. However, he failed to seriously contest the French retreat to the northeast. Instead, he skirmished ineffectually with the enemy. Michael Glover, historian of the Peninsular War, calls Murray "a stupid and irresolute officer."

He soon left Portugal because he feared he would have to serve under William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford, who was a marshal of the Portuguese Army. Beresford was junior to Murray in British rank, but as a marshal would outrank him in the field. He became 8th Baronet of Dunerne in 1811.

On 31July 1812, an 8,000-man Anglo-Sicilian force under Thomas Maitland landed at Alicante on the Mediterranean coast of Spain. It then went through a succession of commanders until February 1813, when Murray, now a lieutenant-general, took command. By this time, the force was 10,000 men strong. Of these, 3,000 were Sicilians and Italians, while the rest were British and KGL troops. Two Spanish divisions, 8,000 men, also came under his orders.

With his 18,200-man army, Murray defeated Marshal Louis Suchet at the Battle of Castalla on 13April 1813. Though Suchet's 13,200 were considerably outnumbered and the battle was largely won by the steadiness of the British and Spanish infantry, Castalla was undoubtedly Murray's finest hour. But he did not pursue the beaten French, continuing his withdrawal to the coast.

Fiasco at Tarragona

Soon after, Wellington ordered Murray to move by sea to capture the port of Tarragona. By this manoeuvre, Wellington intended to distract Suchet from his summer offensive (this ended in victory in the Battle of Vitoria). Rear-Admiral Benjamin Hallowell Carew put Murray's 16,000 men ashore six miles south of Tarragona on 2 June. Joined by Spanish Major-General Francisco Copons with 7,000 men, the Allies quickly invested the 1,600-man Franco-Italian garrison of Brigadier-General Bertoletti. Thus began the Siege of Tarragona's comedy of errors. Bertoletti quickly pulled most of his men into the inner defences, leaving token garrisons in two outworks. Rather than storm these, Murray chose to reduce them by siege. By 7 June, his siege guns had reduced one of the two forts to rubble.

Meanwhile, Major-General Charles Decaen sent Major-General Maurice Mathieu with 6,000 men south from Barcelona to interfere with the siege. At the same time, Suchet marched 8,000 men north from Valencia toward Tarragona. Soon, a Spanish move against Valencia caused the southern column to be recalled. Mathieu bumped into Copons's pickets, found that he was facing a combined force of 23,000 men and quickly backpedalled.

By this time, Murray had been driven into a state of panic by rumours of the two French relief columns. He cancelled a planned 11 June attack on the small outwork and ordered his supplies to be taken aboard ship. Later, he decided to withdraw his entire force. Issuing a stream of orders that confused everyone and enraged Hallowell, Murray finally got his entire force aboard ship after spiking and abandoning the eighteen heavy siege cannon. Copons was advised to flee to the mountains.

Once safely aboard, Murray determined to land at a different place on 15 June. Soon, confusion again reigned. In despair, Hallowell wrote, "the debarkation and the re-embarkation continually going on was enough to confound any operation in the world." Mathieu finally marched into Tarragona on 16 June. The appearance of these fresh troops caused Murray to give up his plans again, and his thwarted expedition returned to Alicante. He was relieved of command on 18 June.

Later career

After the war ended in 1814, Murray was court-martialled for his conduct before Tarragona. The court acquitted him of all charges except one: he was found guilty of abandoning his guns without due cause and admonished by the court. Acting as though he was cleared of all charges, Murray petitioned to become a member of the Order of the Bath, but was denied.

He was Member of Parliament (MP) for Weymouth and Melcombe Regis from 1811 to 1818.

Murray died on 15 October 1827.

Footnotes

References
 Glover, Michael. The Peninsular War 1807-1814. London: Penguin, 2001.
 Oman, Charles. Wellington's Army, 1809-1814. London: Greenhill, (1913) 1993.
 Smith, Digby. The Napoleonic Wars Data Book. London: Greenhill, 1998.
 http://www.thepeerage.com/p8617.htm#i86168

1768 births
1827 deaths
British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
British Army generals
British Army personnel who were court-martialled
56th Regiment of Foot officers
Baronets in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
UK MPs 1807–1812
UK MPs 1812–1818

Sir John Murray, 8th Baronet


SteadyShot is the trademarked name of the integrated image stabilisation technologies used in Sony video camcorders, DSLR cameras, mirrorless cameras and on Sony Xperia smartphones and tablets. Different versions of these technologies are known as Super SteadyShot (SSS) in Sony's Cyber-shot product line, in addition to SteadyShot INSIDE (SSI) and Optical SteadyShot (OSS) in the Sony α family.

Design
When a camera is operated hand-held, the operator's shaky hands cause instabilities in the captured image stream. SteadyShot technology works inside the body of the camera. It uses motion sensors to detect the user's movements. SteadyShot then compensates for some of these movements, in some versions by moving the optics (OSS) and in some versions by moving the image sensor (also called IBIS: In Body Image Stabilisation) in an opposite direction to the movement.

This approach is contrasted to digital image stabilization in which the physical image is allowed to "track" the scene on the CCD by software to produce a stable image. The digital technique requires the pixel count to be increased to allow the image to move on the sensor while keeping reference points within the boundaries of the capture chip.

Balanced Optical SteadyShot
Instead of moving only the sensor or only one of the lenses, Balanced Optical SteadyShot (BOSS) moves the whole lens block to compensate for camera shake. Sony claims this is 13 times more effective than previous versions of SteadyShot. This feature is unique to Sony camcorders and action cams. It was introduced in the beginning of 2012.

SteadyShot is entirely internal to the camcorder unlike external stabilisation systems such as the Steadicam.

See also

 Image stabilization

References

Film and video technology
Image stabilization
Sony cameras

SteadyShot


A ballerina is a name given to a female ballet dancer. Only very good female ballet dancers are called ballerinas. A ballerina is a principal dancer in a classical ballet company. The highest ranking female dancer in a company was usually called the prima ballerina.

Today the term 'ballerina' has gone rather out of fashion. Now they are simply called 'Principal dancers'. Dancers in a company are ranked by the company, and paid accordingly. They have to prove themselves in lesser parts before they can get promoted.

Example of the ranks in a modern dance company:

Corps de ballet (these do not dance named individual parts)
Coryphées (minor soloists)
Principal character artists (dance roles with significant acting)
Second soloists (dancers who take named solo roles)
First soloists (one rank up from the previous)
Principal dancers (if female, same as 'ballerinas'; they dance leading roles)
Principal guest artist (a well-known and sometimes famous dancer, usually from abroad)

References

Ballet
Entertainment occupations

Ballerina


Bishop's Stortford is a town in Hertfordshire in south-east England, with about 35,000 people living there.

History
People have lived in the area for hundreds of thousands of years but it became a permanent town by the time of the Saxons.

The Domesday Book says there were 120 people living there in the 1100s.  The Normans built a small castle there but it was unused and broken by the time of the Tudors.

The town grew as an important centre for transport.  After 1769, ships were able to use the river.  It was a stagecoach stop for travel on the road between London and Cambridge. In 1842 the town got a railway station.

In 1901 there were 7,000 people living there, and by 1951 it was 13,000.

The town is popular for travellers to London because of the M11 motorway (an important road) and good train services to London.  Stansted Airport has also caused development.

Towns in Hertfordshire

Bishop's Stortford


Ralph Myerz and the Jack Herren Band is a Norwegian electronica/hip-hop group/producer.

Career

The band was formed in 1997. They released a 7" and a 12" on Telle Records.

In 2002, they were signed by the U.S. label Emperor Norton Records and released A Special EP, followed by the full-length A Special Album was released May 20, 2003, and received a positive review in CMJ. CMJ did a promotion with the band as well, and commented on their influences: "influenced by old-school porn soundtracks and Russ Meyer flicks--what could be better?"

The third album, Sharp Knives & Loaded Guns came out on EMI in 2007, and was followed by European tours. In 2008, the song "The Teacher" was included on the Grand Theft Auto IV in-game radio soundtrack; it is a remix of the hit song "Forelska i Lærer'n" by the Norwegian rock band The Kids. They released a new single, "The Queen of the Night", in October 2008. In late 2008, percussionist Thomas Lønnheim departed the band. Soon after this album and especially this tour, Ralph Myerz decided to focus more on production and studio work.

On January 18, 2014, Ralph Myerz won Best Electronic/Dance Album at the 2013 Spellemannprisen Awards, often noted as the Norwegian Grammy Awards, for his album "Supersonic Pulse", the album featured Snoop Dogg, George Clinton, Roxanne Shante, Nipsey Hussle, Da YoungFellaz, David Banner, J. Wells, Annie, Diana Ross and the Supremes and more.

Discography

Studio albums
A Special Album (2003)
Your New Best Friends (2005)
Sharp Knives & Loaded Guns (2006)
Ralphorama! (Appetite 4 Selfdestruction) (2008)
Outrun (Muzik4lateniteridez) (2011)
Supersonic Pulse (2013)

Extended plays
A Special EP (2002)
Your New Best Remix EP (2005)
Sky Is The Limit EP (2006)
My Darling EP (2007)
Grey Goose (feat. Talib Kweli & Strong Arm Steady) - EP (2009)
Take A Look At The World (feat. Annie) [Remixes] (2013)
Stay Kosmik - (Ralph Myerz & The Kosmik Diamondz) (2014)
Recognise - (Ralph Myerz Presents: REC) (2015)

Remixes
 Felix da Housecat featuring Miss Kittin - ("Madame Hollywood") (2002)

References

External links

Emperor Norton's page on the artist, archived on the Wayback Machine
Artist page on MySpace

Norwegian musical groups

Ralph Myerz and the Jack Herren Band


White Noise: The Light, also marketed as White Noise 2, is a 2007 supernatural horror thriller film directed by Patrick Lussier and starring Nathan Fillion and Katee Sackhoff. Written by Matt Venne, it is a stand-alone sequel to the 2005 film White Noise, directed by Geoffrey Sax.

The film received a theatrical release internationally on January 5, 2007, but was released direct-to-video in the United States on January 8, 2008. The film received generally positive reviews, but was not commercially successful, and failed to recoup its $10 million budget.

Plot
After witnessing the murder of his wife and young son at the hands of Henry Caine (Craig Fairbrass), who then turned the gun on himself, Abe Dale (Nathan Fillion) is so distressed that he attempts to take his own life. A near-death experience follows that leaves Abe with the ability to identify those who are about to die.  He acts on these premonitions to save three people from death, among them a nurse met during his recovery, Sherry Clarke (Katee Sackhoff).

Abe soon learns that Henry, before murdering Abe's wife and son, actually saved their lives.  Abe concludes that Henry also had the ability to see death.  Wanting to learn more about Henry, Abe visits his house only to learn that Henry survived his suicide.  Investigating further, Abe discovers the phenomenon of "Tria Mera", The Third Day, when Christ was resurrected.  Also on the third day the devil takes possession of the mortals who cheated death. Abe concludes that three days after he saved their lives, those he saved will be possessed and compelled to take the lives of others. Accepting this responsibility, Abe comes to terms with the horrible fact that he must consider killing those he had saved to prevent further tragedy.

Abe tries unsuccessfully to prevent the second man he saved from killing others, but arrives just a minute too late. Abe is able however to take the gun from the man before he kills himself. Abe tries to explain the situation to Sherry but she is at first non-receptive and he must follow her to the cafe where his wife and son were murdered. While driving he sees his own aura in the rear view mirror, predicting his own death. This time, Sherry listens but, just as Abe brings up the gun, police who are already in the cafe shoot him dead. Abe spends his last minutes trying to convince Sherry she must kill herself before her own possession is complete. However, as she reaches for the gun the police pick it up and she becomes hysterical, and is put into an ambulance.

As the ambulance leaves, Sherry struggles against the demons inside her. Back at the cafe, Abe's life force leaves his body as a lightning streak in pursuit of Sherry's ambulance vaulting from one utility post to the next. He reaches the ambulance and appears to Sherry as a spectre of himself. He is able to comfort her before the demons possess her. She acknowledges him and expires peacefully after he places his hand over her heart. Up ahead, the speeding ambulance is unaware of an accident blocking its path. An 18-wheel fuel tanker is disabled and a commuter bus is stopped. Abe, still manifested as a ghostly spirit, appears on the street directly in front of the ambulance, causing the driver to swerve, avoid the accident at the last minute and miss the tanker, thus saving the people on the bus. Abe's mission completed, he finally sees a bright white light in front of him with his family waiting in the distance and is able to move on. Back at Blackmount County Asylum, Henry is tormented and driven further insane by the restless spirits of all the victims who died at the hands of people he saved.

Cast
 Nathan Fillion as Abe Dale
 Katee Sackhoff as Sherry Clarke
 Craig Fairbrass as Henry Caine
 Adrian Holmes as Marty Bloom
 Kendall Cross as Rebecca Dale
 Teryl Rothery as Julia Caine
 William MacDonald as Dr. Karras
 David Milchard as Kurt Green
 Tegan Moss as Liz
 Chris Shields	as Father Nathan
 David Orth as Dr. Serling

Production
Budgeted at approximately $10 million, the film is rated PG-13 for intense sequences of violence and terror, some disturbing images, thematic material and some language.

Release
The film was released to 915 movie theaters internationally and was released direct-to-video in the United States on January 8, 2008.

Home Media
The film's first Blu-ray release occurred in Canada on November 18, 2008, in a double feature with the first film. It has since gone out of print. The film debuted on Blu-ray for the first time in the United States on February 11, 2020, in a double feature release with Rosewood Lane (2011). The disc was released by Mill Creek Entertainment.

Soundtrack
In the film, Abe witnesses a children's prayer concert that includes "The Spirit of Radio" by Rush, as arranged by Terry Frewer, a Vancouver-based composer, and performed by the Vancouver Bach Children's Chorus. Soloists for this performance include Madeline Busby and Olivia Curth.

Box office
White Noise: The Light grossed US$8.52 million internationally as of January 27, 2008.

Reception
The film received better reviews than its predecessor. , the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 75% approval rating with an average rating of 5.14 out of 10, based on eight reviews.

References

External links

2007 films
American supernatural horror films
Canadian supernatural horror films
English-language Canadian films
2007 horror films
Films directed by Patrick Lussier
Films scored by Normand Corbeil
Films shot in Vancouver
American ghost films
Rogue (company) films
American supernatural thriller films
Gold Circle Films films
Brightlight Pictures films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
2000s Canadian films

White Noise: The Light


Yolande Louise of Savoy (1487–1499) was Duchess of Savoy as the wife of Philibert II, Duke of Savoy.

Biography
She was daughter of Duke Charles I of Savoy, the Warrior, and Blanche of Montferrat, as well as granddaughter of Philibert's late uncle, Duke Amedeo IX of Savoy. She was the heir-general of her brother, father, grandfather, and also grandmother Yolande of France, the eldest surviving daughter of King Charles VII of France. Her birth-right, after the death of her brother, was the succession of the kingdoms of Cyprus and Jerusalem, although Philibert's father took those titles.

In 1496, her brother Duke Charles II of Savoy died childless, being the male heir of the line of Savoy, and her uncle became sovereign. The same year, she was married to Philibert, her cousin and the new heir to the throne. The marriage produced no heirs.

Next year, Philibert's father died and he succeeded as Duke of Savoy. The couple then advanced their claims and took the titles Queen and King of Cyprus, Jerusalem and Armenia.

In 1499, the 12-year-old died, childless. Her heir was her first cousin, Princess Charlotte of Naples, later Countess of Laval. Philibert continued to use the titles of Cyprus etc., despite the death of his first wife.

In fiction
She is the subject of a novel by Maud Stricane: L'oubliée de Hautecombe (2005)

References

Sources

1487 births
1499 deaths
Duchesses of Savoy
Burials at Hautecombe Abbey

Yolande Louise of Savoy


Louis Legendre (22 May 1752 – 13 December 1797) was a French politician of the Revolution period.

Early activities
Born at Versailles, he was keeping a butcher's shop in Saint Germain, Paris, by 1789. He was an ardent supporter of the ideas of the Revolution and a leader of the Storming of the Bastille; a close friend of Georges Danton, Legendre was a member of the Jacobin Club, and one of the founders of the club of the Cordeliers. In spite of his diction problems and lack of education, he became a noted orator.

He was present in the crowd that demanded the removal of King Louis XVI on Champ de Mars in July 1791 (and during the subsequent massacre ordered by Jean Sylvain Bailly). Louis Legendre also took part in the 10 August attack on the Tuileries Palace (1792).

It was alleged that the day before the execution, on 20 January, he made a motion in the tribune of the Jacobins that the body of the ex-king be divided into 84 pieces so that one could send one to each of the 84 departments of the Republic.

Convention and Terror
Deputy for the Seine département to the National Convention, he joined the non-affiliated group led by Jean-Paul Marat, and voted for the execution of Louis XVI. He was sent on missions to Lyon (in February 1793, before the town revolted) and to the Seine-Inférieure (from August to October 1793). Upon his return from Lyon, he was singled out as a moderate by the Jacobins, but became an adversary of the Girondists after clashes with Count Lanjuinais - as a member of the Committee of General Security during the Reign of Terror, he contributed to the downfall of the group; he was excluded by the Cordeliers after Jacques Hébert accused him of favoring Maximilien Robespierre.

With Louis Louchet and Jean-François Delacroix, he was again on mission to Rouen, and was accused by Hébert of supporting the Royalists. Legendre also supported Danton in early March 1794, but ultimately sided with Robespierre after the latter threatened him with the guillotine.

Reaction and Directory
From that moment until July, he remained inactive. On 27 July, the start of the Thermidorian Reaction, Legendre, after having signed his name on the list of speakers, would have asked Jacques-Alexis Thuriot de la Rosière (one of the putsch leaders): "Strike my name off. I shall see how this turns out". As Robespierre's fall seemed inevitable, Legendre sided with the Reaction, and led troops against putsches of Jacobins and Charles Pichegru (1795).

He was elected president of the convention, and helped bring about the impeachment of Jean-Baptiste Carrier, the perpetrator of mass executions by drowning (noyades) of royalist sympathizers. He was subsequently elected a member of the Council of Ancients. During the French Directory, Legendre was elected to the Council of Five Hundred, but was already suffering from dementia.

Mistaken identity

For two centuries, until the recent discovery of the error in 2005, books, paintings and articles have incorrectly printed a side-view portrait of Louis Legendre as that of the French mathematician Adrien-Marie Legendre (1752–1833). The error arose from the fact that the sketch was labelled simply "Legendre". The error was only corrected when an 1820 book containing the sketches of seventy-three famous French mathematicians was discovered in 2008.

References

Additional sources
 In turn, it cites as reference:
François Victor Alphonse Aulard,  (2nd ed., Paris, 1906, 2 vols.), and "" in the Histoire politique de la Révolution française (vol. xl., 1901).

1752 births
1797 deaths
Deputies to the French National Convention
Politicians from Paris
Regicides of Louis XVI

Louis Legendre


The Benediktenwand (formerly the Kirchstein) is a  mountain ridge in the Bavarian Prealps between the rivers Loisach and Isar and the Jachenau in the south and Benediktbeuern Abbey, from which it derives its name, in the north.  Immediately below the North Face of the Benediktenwand is the Tutzinger Hut (1,327 m).

During the Würm glaciation, the summit of the Benediktenwand towered about 600 metres above the ice stream of the Walchensee and Isar Glaciers (branches of the Inn Valley Glacier).

Peaks

The following peaks belong to the Benediktenwand Group, from west to east: Rabenkopf (1,555.5 m), Glaswand (1,496 m), Benediktenwand (1,800 m), Hennenkopf (1,614 m), Probstenwand (1589 m), Achselköpfe (1,600–1,710 m), Latschenkopf (1,712 m), Hinterer Kirchstein (1,667 m), Vorderer Kirchstein (1670 m) and Schrödelstein (1,548 m). To the east the Brauneck (1,555 m) borders on the mountain group. The normal climb to the Benediktenwand runs from Benediktbeuern via the Tutzinger Hut to the top. Climbs also run from the Jachenau via the Glaswandscharte or via the Bichler Alm and the Altweibersteig and from Isarwinkel. Other routes run through the Längental valley vai the Probstalm (1,376 m; Alpine Club hut not open to the public) as well as up the cable car to the Brauneck and then to the Benediktenwand.

Climbing routes
Numerous climbing routes run up the North Face, which is visible from a long way off, to the summit of the Benediktenwand. They range from grades II to VIII. Several climbing routes also ascend the South Face.

Alpine ibex
Since September 1959, Alpine ibex, members of the goat family, have lived on the northern and southern flanks of the Benediktenwand. At that time a big, non-native ibex was seen for the first time by mountain walkers in and reported to the forestry office at Jachenau. Following the introduction of 2 billy goats and two nanny goats from Switzerland in June 1967, a colony of more than 100 animals (1998) was established within 30 years, so that in recent times more and more have had to be made available for hunting. In order to keep sickness and malnourishment at bay, the ibex colony is kept at around 80 animals. The ibex family is one of the four populations of Alpine ibex in Germany. It forms groups and, as a result of the numbers of tourists, show little fear of man. The animals spend the summer mostly on the shaded northern side of the Benediktenwand; winter tends to be spent more on the less snow-bound southern side.

In summer 2004 a bronze tablet was inaugurated on the southern side of the Benediktenwand on the large rocks at the start of the "Old Wive's Climb" (Altweibersteiges) above the Bichler Alm. The tablet briefly outlines the history of the ibex colony and mentions their sponsors and supporters, Alfons Goppel, August Moralt, Franz Burda, Matthias Müller from Jachenau and Josef Schmidt from Benediktbeuern. The design of the tablet comes from Josef Oswald, known as ErbhoferSepp, of Jachenau.

Legends
According to a folk story recorded by Johann Nepomuk Sepp, the Benediktenwand rests "on four golden columns, and conceals countless treasures within it." According to the legend, a boy from Wackersberg lost his way and discovered a bubbling golden spring. A similar story is told about the Probstenwand in the local dialect: "Back in the mists of time golden icicles were seen hanging in a crevice in the Probstenwand, and the people came from Munich; they came across glittering stones on the ground."

Gallery

References

External links

 Detailed descriptions of the various routes
 Overview of the climbing routes on the North Face

Mountains of Bavaria
Bavarian Prealps
Mountains of the Alps
One-thousanders of Germany
Bad Tölz-Wolfratshausen

Benediktenwand


The Great Observatories program is four large, powerful space-based telescopes.  They are a series of satellites placed by NASA.  Each Space observatory has been important to astronomy.

 The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) looks at visible light and near-ultraviolet.  It was launched in 1990. In 1997 ability to look at the near-infrared range was added.  In 2009 there was a mission to service Hubble.

 The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO) looks at gamma rays.  It also looks at some hard x-rays as well. It was launched in 1991.  It was deorbited in 2000.

 The Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO) looks at soft x-rays. It was launched in 1999.

 The Spitzer Space Telescope (SST) looks at the infrared spectrum. It was launched in 2003.
Telescopes

Astronomical observatories

Great Observatories program


Goliath () was a Philistine warrior in the Old Testament. He was the champion of the warriors of town of Gath. The name refers to Greek name Alyattes.

Goliath was unusually large. His height was said to be "six cubits and a span"  - some 290 cm - and he fought as armoured charioteer. The Bible describes how he challenged the Israelite warriors for single-handed duel, but nobody dared to fight with him.

David, who was fourteen years old at this time, finally answered to challenge. He was skilled on use of sling, and he found out a way how he could win him. He accurately slung a stone on Goliath's forehead, just below his helmet. The stone knocked Goliath out. He fell to the ground. David then ran to unconscious Goliath, pulled his sword off the scabbard, and cut his head off. Seeing a fourteen-year-old boy killing their champion, the Philistine army demoralized.

The Dead Sea Scrolls say Goliath's height was a more credible "four cubits and a span", in modern measurements 202 cm. At the era when man's average height was some 160 cm, he would still have looked like a giant.

Old Testament people

Goliath


A convention is a meeting of individuals who meet at an arranged place and time to discuss or engage in some common interest.  The most common conventions are based upon industry, profession, and fandom.  Trade conventions are usually about an industry or industry segment. They often include keynote speakers, vendor displays, and other information and activities of interest to the event organizers and those who attend the convention.  Professional conventions focus on issues of concern to the profession. Fan conventions usually feature displays, shows, and sales based on pop culture and guest celebrities. Science fiction conventions are similar to both professional conventions and fan conventions. Conventions also exist for various hobbies, such as gaming or model railroads.

References

Human communication

Convention (meeting)


The Battle of Antrim was fought on 7 June 1798, in County Antrim, Ireland during the Irish Rebellion of 1798 between British troops and Irish insurgents led by Henry Joy McCracken. The British won the battle, beating off a rebel attack on Antrim town following the arrival of reinforcements but the county governor, John O'Neill, 1st Viscount O'Neill, was fatally wounded.

Background
The outbreak of the United Irish rebellion in Leinster on 23 May had prompted calls from Ulster United Irishmen to take to the field in support of their southern comrades. However, the organisation in Ulster had been severely damaged in a brutal disarmament campaign the previous year, and the new leadership were less radical and were not willing take to the field without French assistance, which was expected daily.

After waiting for two weeks while the rebellion raged in the south, the grassroots United Irish membership in Antrim decided to hold a number of meetings independent of their leaders. The outcome was the election of Henry Joy McCracken as their adjutant general and the decision to rise immediately. McCracken, together with James Hope, quickly formulated a plan to attack and seize all government outposts in County Antrim and then for the main attack to fall on Antrim town. Then using artillery seized at Antrim, the rebels were to march on Belfast in conjunction with the United Irish rebels in County Down.

McCracken had high hopes that many members of the militia would desert and join him, as disaffection was believed to be widespread, evidenced by the execution of four of the Monaghan militia for treason in Belfast in May.

Rebellion in Antrim
On 6 June, McCracken and James Hope issued a proclamation calling for the United army of Ulster to rise. The initial plan met with success, as the towns of Larne (1st town in Ulster to fall at 3am on the 7th under the leadership of James O Rourke), Ballymena, Portaferry and Randalstown (captured by James Dickey) were taken and the bridge at Toome damaged to prevent the government rushing reinforcements into Antrim from west of the Bann. The rebels then assembled at Donegore Hill in preparation for the march and attack on Antrim town, where an emergency meeting of the county's magistrates called by the county governor, Lord O'Neill, was due to take place.

Although almost 10,000 rebels assembled at Donegore, many displayed reluctance for the coming fight and stayed on the hill in reserve or deserted later so that probably fewer than 4,000 actually took part in the attack. The United Irishmen in Ulster were mostly Presbyterian, but were joined with Catholic Defenders and the tension between the two groups on the march may have caused some desertions. These difficulties led to a loss of momentum, and the attack was delayed. McCracken was forced to make adjustments to his plan of attack, which had envisaged a simultaneous overwhelming assault on the town from four separate points.

Garrison at Antrim
The town was garrisoned by a small force of about 200 yeomen, cavalry under Lt-Col William Lumley and armed volunteers but they also had four artillery pieces and the delay in the rebel attack had allowed them to send requests for assistance to Belfast and Lisburn from where reinforcements were already on the way. The garrison formed themselves at the base of the demesne wall of Antrim Castle, with artillery to the front and cavalry to the rear with their flanks anchored by the Market House and Presbyterian Meeting House. A part of the Scottish Quarter in the town was also burned by the garrison as it was perceived to be a stronghold of rebel sympathisers.

Attack begins
The attack finally began shortly before 3pm when the rebels began a cautious march through the town. As rebel front ranks arrived to face the garrison's defensive line, artillery opened fire on the rebels, causing them to pull back out of range. Large clouds of dust and smoke were thrown up which, together with the fires from the Scottish Quarter, obscured the garrison's view of events.

The rebel withdrawal was mistaken for a full retreat and the cavalry moved out to pursue and rout the supposed fleeing rebels. The cavalry effectively ran into a gauntlet of rebels who were protected by a long churchyard wall and stationed in houses along the main street, suffering heavy losses to the gunfire and pikes of the rebels.

After routing the cavalry, the rebels attacked the remainder of the garrison, which then began to pull back to the safety of the castle wall; this was mistaken by a newly arrived rebel column as an attack on them, causing them to flee in panic. In the confusion, the county commander, Lord O'Neill, trapped with his magistrates, was fatally wounded by John Clements who avoided trial by joining the army. A rebel attempt to seize the artillery was only narrowly beaten off by troops stationed behind the demesne wall.

At this critical juncture, British reinforcements from Belfast arrived outside the town and, assuming it to be held by the rebels, began to shell it with their artillery. This prompted more desertions and the rebel army began to disintegrate, but their withdrawal was protected by a small band under James Hope which fought a successful rearguard action from the church grounds along the main street, which allowed the bulk of the rebels to withdraw safely.

Aftermath
When the military entered the town, they began a spree of looting, burning and murder, of which the most enthusiastic perpetrators were reported to be the Monaghan militiamen, who were anxious to prove their loyalty and expunge the shame of the recent executions of their comrades for sedition. The town of Templepatrick was burned to the ground and Old Stone Castle was raised to the ground. McCracken, Hope and their remaining supporters withdrew northwards, establishing camps of ever dwindling size along the route of their retreat until news of the defeat at Ballynahinch caused their final dispersion. McCracken was arrested by yeomen on 7 July and was hanged in Belfast on 17 July, having refused an offer of clemency in return for informing on his comrades.

Commemoration of the centenary of the battle, marked by a nationalist parade in Belfast on 6 June 1898, provoked loyalist riots.

References

Antrim
Antrim
Antrim, County Antrim
18th century in County Antrim

Battle of Antrim


Critical density is the value at which the Universe is at balance, and expansion is stopped.  This value is estimated as (1~3)×10^-26 kg/m³ and it's calculated when you take the matter-energy density of the universe and divide it by the matter-energy density of the universe that is required to achieve that balance.

This is related to the cosmic density parameter in many ways; this term describes the ratio of the actual density value of the Universe to the critical density value.  If the ratio is one, then the Universe is at balance, and the Universe is flat and will expand forever. If the ratio is greater than one, then the actual density of the Universe is greater than the critical density, and thus the Universe will eventually become closed and will ultimately end up collapsing in on it self.  If the ratio is less than one, then the actual density is less than the critical density, and the Universe is open and expands forever in every direction.

Relativity
Cosmology

Critical density


King River is a river in the north east of Victoria, Australia. It flows into the Ovens River and which then joins the Murray River at Echuca. The King River is used for kayaking with many level two and three rapids.  In 2008 it was the site for the Victorian and Australian Downriver Championships. The King Valley is a beautiful, cool climate wine grape growing area.

King Valley History
The King Valley has been described as a little part of Italy, set in the hills of north east Victoria, south of Wangaratta. This area has a history which includes bushrangers, the Chinese and Italians. The Chinese came from the gold fields in the mid 1800s and worked as farmers growing vegetables and tobacco. The were also Chinese merchants, selling their goods as they moved around the valley in horse pulled wagons. Roads in the valley today carry the names of the more important families like Mahlooks, Honey and Fosangs.

The Italians came to the area in the 1940s and 50's and like the Chinese grew tobacco. They soon saw that it was a good place to grow wine grapes. The valley has become famous for its different wines, such as sangiovese, nebbiolo and barbera. The vineyards have Italian names like Pizzini, Dal Zotto, Corsini, Sartori, Ciccone and Politini. The King Valley has some of the highest altitude vineyards in Australia.

Whitfield and Moyhu are the major towns in the King Valley along the road from Wangaratta or Mansfield.

Rivers of Victoria (Australia)

King River (Victoria)


The DAF 66 is a sma motor vehicle that wis produced bi the Dutch company DAF in the 1970s. It wis an evolution o the DAF 55 it replaced an like its predecessor uised a 46 bhp (34 kW) Renault Cléon ingine. The front assembly wis redesigned for the 66, as wur the rear axle an variomatic. Whauras the 55 haed a coil sprung Swing axle, the 66 haed a leaf sprung De Dion tube axle, which greatly improved handlin. The variomatic nou featured shorter drive belts an a differential.
The 66 wis available as a 2-door saloon, a 2-door coupé, an a 3-door estate frae its introduction in 1972. The 66 an aa haed a sportin "Marathon" version, which featured a 52 hp (39 kW) version o the 1.1 ingine. Frae 1973 the 1300 Marathon wis available as well, wi a 1.3 ingine an 57 hp (43 kW). Follaein the acquisition o DAF's caur operations bi Volvo Cars the model carried on as the Volvo 66.

An open version o the 66 wis an aa produced for the Dutch airmed forces, the DAF 66YA. This wis based on the 1108 cc model, but wi upratit suspension an a new body.

The DAF 66, in common wi ither DAF caurs, featured a continuously variable transmission seestem, the DAF Variomatic.

A white saloon version o the DAF 66 features in the opening credit sequence o series 2 o the Breetish made ITV detective series Van der Valk which wis filmed on location in Amsterdam. Van der Valk is seen as a passenger in this sequence an the caur is subsequently seen in a number o episodes.

External links

 DAF 55/DAF 66 Family Tree
 The DAF museum, Eindhoven (site in Dutch) — complete with "DAFeteria" for refreshments
 Classic DAF
 DAF/Volvo 66
 DAF section of "RitzSite"
 Technical details from Motorbase

DAF 66
66
Station wagons
Sedans
Coupes
1970s automobiles
Vehicles wi CVT transmission

DAF 66


Philip Kindred Dick (December 16, 1928 – March 2, 1982) was an American writer. He is mostly known for his works of science fiction. In addition to his published novels, Dick wrote "approximately 121 short stories. He wrote most of them for science fiction magazines." At least eight of his stories have been adapted into movies.

Overview

Philip K. Dick developed what would later be called cyberpunk. Many of his works are about themes from sociology. Often, politics also play an important role. Very often there are Authoritarian Governments, and very powerful companies in his books. In his later books, Dick writes about drug use. He writes about characters that have paranoia or schizophrenia. In novels such as A Scanner Darkly or VALIS he uses his own experiences.

He was awarded the Hugo Award for his novel, The Man in the High Castle, in 1963. "I want to write about people I love, and put them into a fictional world spun out of my own mind, not the world we actually have, because the world we actually have does not meet my standards," Dick wrote of these stories. "In my writing I even question the universe; I wonder out loud if it is real, and I wonder out loud if all of us are real." Dick spent most of his career as a writer. He did not have much money.

Dick died of a stroke. In 2007, he became the first science fiction writer to be included in The Library of America series (#173).

Work

The Man in the High Castle
The Man in the High Castle (1962) takes place in an different universe. There the United States is ruled by the Axis powers, who have won the Second World War. Many people consider it to be one of the important novels about a different view on history. It is the only Dick novel to win a Hugo Award. Philipkdickfans.com recommends this novel, along with Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? and Ubik as an introductory novel to readers new to the writing of Philip K. Dick.

The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch
The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch (1965) uses  many concepts from  science fiction. It has several layers of reality and unreality. It is also one of Dick's first works to explore religious themes.

The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch takes place in the twenty-first century. Under the supervision of the United Nations authority, mankind has colonized the solar system's every habitable planet and moon. Life is physically daunting and psychologically monotonous for most colonists, so the UN must draft people to go to the colonies. Most entertain themselves using Perky Pat dolls and accessories manufactured by Earth-based P.P. Layouts. The company also secretly creates Can-D, an illegal but widely available hallucinogenic drug allowing the user to "translate" into Perky Pat (if the drug user is a woman) or Pat's boyfriend, Walt (if the drug user is a man). This recreational use of Can-D allows colonists to experience a few minutes of an idealized life on Earth by participating in a collective hallucination.

Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?

Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? is the story of a bounty hunter policing the local android population. It occurs on a dying, poisoned Earth. All  "successful" humans have left, the only remaining inhabitants of the planet are people with no prospects off-world. Androids, also known as andys, all have a preset "death" date. However, a few andys seek to escape this fate and supplant the humans on Earth.

Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1968) is well known as the literary source of the influential 1982 movie Blade Runner. It is about the question "What is real, what is fake? Are the human-looking and human-acting androids fake or real humans? Should we treat them as machines or as people? What important factor defines humanity as distinctly alive, versus those merely alive only in their outward appearance?

Ubik

Ubik (1969) uses big networks of psychics and a suspended state after death in creating a state of eroding reality. In 2005, Time Magazine listed it among the All-TIME 100 Greatest Novels.

Flow My Tears, The Policeman Said

Flow My Tears, The Policeman Said (1974) is about Jason Taverner, a television star living in a dystopic near-future police state. After being attacked by an angry ex-girlfriend, Taverner awakens in a dingy hotel room. He still has his money in his wallet, but his identification cards are missing. This is no minor inconvenience, as security checkpoints manned by pols and Nats - the police and National Guard - are set up throughout the city to stop and arrest anyone without valid ID.

Jason at first thinks that he was robbed, but soon discovers that his entire identity has been erased. There is no record of him in any official database, and even his closest associates do not recognize or remember him. For the first time in many years, Jason has no fame or reputation to rely on. He has only his charisma to help him when he tries to find out what happened to his past and avoid the attention of the pols.

Flow My Tears, The Policeman Said was Dick's first published novel after years of silence. In these years, his critical reputation had grown, and this novel was awarded the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel.  It is the only Philip K. Dick novel nominated both for a Hugo and for a Nebula Award.

In an essay written two years before dying, Dick described how he learned from his Episcopalian priest that an important scene in the novel was very similar to a scene in the Acts of the Apostles. Richard Linklater talks about this novel in his movie Waking Life, which begins with a scene reminiscent of another Dick novel, Time out of Joint.

A Scanner Darkly

A Scanner Darkly (1977) is a bleak mixture of science fiction and police procedural novels. In its story, an undercover narcotics police detective begins to lose touch with reality. This is because he becomes a victim of the drug he should have fought against. This drug is called SubstanceD. It permanently changes the mind of the people who take it. Substance D is instantly addictive. It starts with a pleasant euphoria. This feeling is quickly replaced with increasing confusion, hallucinations and eventually total psychosis. It was adapted to movie by Richard Linklater.

VALIS

VALIS, (1980) is perhaps Dick's most postmodern and autobiographical novel. It looks at his own unexplained experiences. Some people also see it as his most academic work. It was made into an opera by Tod Machover. VALIS was voted Philip K. Dick's best novel at the website philipkdickfans.com.

His later works, especially the VALIS trilogy, were heavily autobiographical.The word VALIS is the acronym for Vast Active Living Intelligence System; it is the title of a novel. The theme can be found in at least three more novels.

Contemporary philosophy
Dick has had a big impact on modern philosophy. The things he wrote about postmodernity have been noted by many philosophers. Among them were Jean Baudrillard, Fredric Jameson and Slavoj Žižek. Žižek is especially fond of using Dick's short stories to articulate the ideas of Jacques Lacan. For Baudrillard, Dick is the ultimate articulation of hyperreality:

"It is hyperreal. It is a universe of simulation, which is something altogether different. And this is so not because Dick speaks specifically of simulacra. SF has always done so, but it has always played upon the double, on artificial replication or imaginary duplication, whereas here the double has disappeared. There is no more double; one is always already in the other world, an other world which is not another, without mirrors or projection or utopias as means for reflection. The simulation is impassable, unsurpassable, checkmated, without exteriority. We can no longer move "through the mirror" to the other side, as we could during the golden age of transcendence."

References

Other websites

 Official website
 Philip K Dick, A Critical Appreciation, Reviews from The Open Critic
 VALBS - An online secondary bibliography on Dick and his works
 Review of PKD's Selected Stories
 "The Religious Experience of Philip K. Dick"  by R. Crumb, Weirdo #17, Summer 1986.
 The Second Coming of Philip K. Dick by Frank Rose, an article from Wired about movies based on the Dick's novels
 How To Build A Universe That Doesn't Fall Apart Two Days Later  (Essay by PKD on his "discovery" that we are living in the Roman Empire)
 Philip K. Dick: A Visionary Among the Charlatans, Stanislaw Lem's essay about the state of American science fiction circa 1975 with an extended appreciation of Dick

American novelists
Deaths from stroke
Hugo Award winning writers
Writers from Chicago
1928 births
1982 deaths

Philip K. Dick


(For the different sport of the same name played with two, three or four players, see.)

Handball (also known as team handball, field handball or Olympic handball) is a team sport similar to football (soccer). Two teams of 7 players each (six players and a goalkeeper) pass and bounce a ball using the hands, trying to throw it into the goal of the other team. Games are an hour of playing time, divided into 30-minute halves, with 15 minutes break at halftime. The size of the court is a little bigger than a basketball court, 40 meters by 20 meters, which is the same court as indoor soccer. It has a six-meter line which no one but the goalie is allowed to have possession of the ball and touching the ground. If this happens, a foul is called and the player committing the foul gets ejected, (sitting out of the game for two minutes, five minutes, or the rest of the game). There are seven players total on a handball team, six players and a goalie. Most historians agree that handball predates soccer, (football) but that is not for certain

References

"Team handball." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2012

Handball


Greetsiel is a small port on the bight of Leybucht in western East Frisia, Germany that was first documented in letters from the year 1388. Since 1972, Greetsiel has been part of the municipality of Krummhörn, which has its administrative seat in Pewsum. The nearest railway station is at Emden, about  away, and the two towns are linked by a bus service.

Although originally just a small but picturesque fishing village, Greetsiel has become a major tourist attraction. In December 2006, it had 1,534 inhabitants, but the number of people living in the village significantly increases during the summer months and over the Christmas holidays.

Geography
Greetsiel is situated on the Leybucht, a small bay on the East Frisian coast. Over time, large parts of the bay were reclaimed behind dykes, so that Greetsiel is the only port in the bay today.

In the 1990s, the Leybuchthörn was completed. This structure extends as a spit out into the Wadden Sea. Within the Leybuchthörn is a reservoir and the approach channel from the North Sea into Greetsiel Harbour (Greetsieler Hafen). Between the port and the open sea is a lock. Since the completion of the structure, Greetsiel Harbour has been accessible from the sea, irrespective of the tide.

The distance to the nearest towns of Emden and Norden is  to the north and south respectively.

History
Greetsiel is first mentioned in the records in letters dating to the year 1388 (Ocko I tom Brok). At that time, Hamburg's ships lay at anchor in the port of Greetsiel and had to pay tariffs.

The place was founded by the Domain of Appingen under the chiefs of Cirksena. While Appingen increasingly lost its importance, Greetsiel became the seat of the chief. In 1462 Count Edzard the Great was born at the Cirksenaburg; under his rule East Frisia extended from the River Weser as far as Groningen. In 1547 Ubbo Emmius was born here. On old Dutch maps the town is marked as Grietjezijl.

In creating the municipality of Krummhörn in 1972, a debate erupted over whether the administrative headquarters should be Pewsum or Greetsiel. Because Greetsiel was a more isolated location, Pewsum was preferred.

Culture and points of interest

Buildings
Of all the East Frisian Siel villages (a Siel is a sluice in a dyke), Greetsiel has the best preserved old fishermen's cottages. In its picturesque fishing harbour there are still 28 shrimp cutters (Krabbenkutter). Other notable buildings are:
Greetsiel Church, an Evangelical Reformed church. The rectangular, brick, aisleless church (Saalkirche) was built between 1380 and 1410 as the private church of the chief, Haro Edzardsna, in two stages. In 1401, long before its final completion, it was to be consecrated to Saint Mary. The building is crowned by a small flèche (Dachreiter) decorated with a clock. This is adorned by a 1730 weather vane in the shape of a ship. The actual clock tower stands off to one side. The simple interior, which at one time had a flat ceiling, has been covered by a slightly vaulted wooden ceiling since 1852. The organ was completely renovated in 1963, but its case is from 1738; the pulpit, however, had already been made in 1669.
Steinhaus, the former seat of the Cirksena family. The brick building at the end of the high street (Hohe Straße) was built about 1600 on the foundations of a previous building erected around 1390. In the interior the original hall has been restored in the course of renovation work.
Houses. Among the most famous photographic motifs in Greetsiel is the row of houses on Sielstraße flanking the harbour. The houses at No. 11 and No. 15, with their bell-shaped gables based on Dutch designs, are particularly striking. While the former is dated 1741, No. 15 was built in 1792. The Poppingas Old Bakery (Poppingas Alte Bäckerei), No. 21, from the 19th  century is also found on Sielstraße and is used now as a museum, cafe and gallery; its interior has been preserved unchanged. Near the church is the so-called High House (Hohes Haus) at 1, Hohe Straße, a two-storey, sideways-on, brick building, which once served as the seat of the treasurer or Rentmeister. According to the anchor plate on the gable it dates to "1696", but is thought to have already been in decline by the middle of the 16th century. Today the building, whose street façade is covered with an ashlar facing, houses a hotel. The Amtmannshaus on Neuer Deich is probably from the same period, but was extensively renovated during the 19th century. In the latest renovation the exterior appearance of the house and its associated Gulf barn was changed significantly by the addition of modern dormers. In Mühlenstraße is Haus von Halem, built in 1794 and one of the most important residential examples of neoclassical architecture in East Frisia. The two-storey brick building with a hip roof is divided by a huge pilasters. The portal has a richly carved fanlights in the late rococo style.

Windmills

The twin windmills () of Greetsiel-West date from 1856 (green) and Greetsiel-Ost from 1706 (red, renovated in 1921 with parts of Aurich's Wallmühle mill of 1750). They are smock mills ().

Other places of interest
Other places of interest include the scoop wheel, the old Siel (1798), the new Siel (1887) and the Pilsum Lighthouse.  Greetsiel also hosts the largest ship in a bottle museum in Germany and Europe, with about 800 examples.  Of all the places in the municipality of Krummhörn, Greetsiel has the highest influx of tourists.

Regular events
An annual painting and art exhibition, known as Greetsiel Week (Greetsieler Woche), is of national prominence. It has been running for more than 30 years and exhibits a range of works including: art, ceramics, goldsmiths' products and sculptures. Every two years, the Imke Folkerts Prize for Fine Arts, worth 10,000 euros, is awarded at the event. Qualifying entries include works in the fields of art, graphics, photography and sculpture. There are also regular exhibitions in Greetsiel's twin windmills. Every year in mid-summer is the boat parade in which the majority of Greetsiel's cutters take part. The crews take guests on a roughly four-hour boat trip. The port also hosts a supporting programme of events with music and shrimp-shelling competitions.

Transport

Greetsiel is linked by state roads to Norden and Emden and from there the A 31.

At one time the Emden-Pewsum-Greetsiel light railway linked Pewsum and Greetsiel with Emden. The operation of the  gauge railway began in 1899 between Emden and Pewsum and, in 1906, the line was extended to Greetsiel. Kleinbahnstraße in Greetsiel recalls that period, along which there are still several railway buildings that are now used for other purposes. The narrow-gauge railway was closed in 1963; since when passenger services have been taken over by buses. Today, Greetsiel is connected by bus with the former county town of Norden as well as Emden.

Greetsiel can also be reached by smaller boats from the direction of Emden. The Alte Greetsieler Sieltief and the Neue Greetsieler Sieltief connect the port with the East Frisian inland waterways network.

Images

Notable people
 Ubbo Emmius (1547–1625), first rector magnificus of the University of Groningen

References

External links

 Internet page for Greetsiel

Former municipalities in Lower Saxony
Towns and villages in East Frisia
Krummhörn

Greetsiel


In physics, a physical object (or body) is a collection of masses, which you look at as one object only. It applies to both living and non-living things.

A human's and animal's physical body is made up of organs and tissues. It is a part of a total living being, and might  include its behaviour and way of thinking.

The point of the term is to include those systems which are separate in one sense. but connected in another sense. A galaxy has many different parts, but can be treated as a whole for some purposes. Likewise, a group of galaxies can be treated as one gravitationally. The Solar System is another example.

In general language it is usual for "object" to mean a physical boundary {border}, but a "system" to mean a group of connected objects.

Mechanics
Objects
Systems

Physical object


Albert George Ogilvie (10 March 1890 – 10 June 1939) was an Australian politician and Premier of Tasmania from 22 June 1934 until his death on 10 June 1939.

Ogilvie was the elder son of James Ogilvie. He was educated at St Patrick's College, Ballarat, Victoria, St Virgils College Hobart, and the University of Tasmania, where he graduated LL.B. in 1914. He was admitted to the bar in the same year. In 1919 he was elected to the House of Assembly for Division of Franklin, and retained the seat at each succeeding election.

In August 1921 Ogilvie successfully defended George William King, who had been accused of the murder of Chrissie Venn. In October 1923 he joined the Lyons cabinet as attorney-general and minister for education, to which was added mines and forestry in March 1924. In this year he was made a King's Counsel (KC) and was then the youngest to hold that position in Australia. In 1927 he resigned from the Lyons government and sat as a private member, but was elected leader of the opposition when Lyons went into federal politics in 1929.

He became premier without portfolio of a Labor ministry on 21 June 1934, but although he had no special department he studied all legislation closely and worked early and late at his office. He was much interested in the health of the community and advocated hospital extensions, stressed the necessity for home defence training, and realising the difficulties of the smaller states, fought hard for Tasmania at loan council meetings.

Under his premiership, school fees were abolished, health care was improved and hospitals modernised, unemployment relief as increased, hydroelectric and papermaking development was accelerated, and housing loans were provided for the needy at minimal terms. Ogilvie also worked for the establishment of the newsprint industry in Tasmania, and instituted a superannuation fund for state officials. He twice visited England during his premiership, and was present at the silver jubilee celebrations of George V in 1935, and the coronation of George VI.

He gave great attention to financial problems, and though his financial theories did not meet with general acceptance, on the whole his administration established a feeling of confidence. In June 1939 he spent a week-end at Warburton, some miles from Melbourne, being on his way to a loan council meeting at Canberra.  He took ill while playing golf and died a few hours later on 10 June. He married Dorothy Hines who survived him with a daughter. The attorney-general in his cabinet, E. J. Ogilvie, was a brother.

Legacy
The former New Town Commercial High School was renamed Ogilvie High School, in honour of the former premier, in 1940.

Family
A brother Eric James Ogilvie, served as a member of parliament at the same time Albert was premier of Tasmania.  Madeleine Ogilvie, granddaughter of Eric and great-niece of Albert, was elected to the House of Assembly for the seat of Division of Denison in 2014.

References

Sources
 Ross McMullin, The Light on the Hill: The Australian Labor Party 1891-1991

1890 births
1939 deaths
Australian Labor Party members of the Parliament of Tasmania
Premiers of Tasmania
Leaders of the Opposition in Tasmania
Members of the Tasmanian House of Assembly
Australian King's Counsel
20th-century Australian politicians
People educated at St Patrick's College, Ballarat
Politicians from Hobart

Albert Ogilvie


One method is by the three-sector hypothesis:
 Primary sector extracts natural materials and provides raw materials for secondary industry.
 s.

 Sd transmission of

Introduction

 India is the fastest growing large economy in the world, with an enormous population, favorable demographics and high catch-up potential due to low initial GDP per head.
 As per the World Bank data, in 2017, India became the sixth largest economy with a GDP of US$2.59 trillion, relegating France to the seventh position.
 India is likely to surpass the United Kingdom in the world's largest economy rankings in 2019, according to a report by global consultancy firm PwC.
 According to World Economic Outlook report of IMF, India's economy is expected to grow by 7.5 per cent in the 2019-20 fiscal year, keeping an upward trajectory as the rest of the world slumps.
 According to report "India's economy is poised to pick up in 2019, benefiting from lower oil prices and a slower pace of monetary tightening than previously expected, as inflation pressures ease," the report said.
 As per Central Statistics Office (CSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI), the growth in GDP during 2018-19 is estimated at 7.2 percent as compared to the growth rate of 6.7 percent in 2017-18.

Economic Sectors

 Economic activities result in the production of goods and services while sectors are the group of economic activities classified on the basis of some criteria.
 The Indian economy can be classified into various sectors on the basis of ownership, working conditions and the nature of the activities.
 All economic activity was in the primary sector during early civilisation. After the surplus production of food, people's need for other products increased which led to the development of the secondary sector.
 The growth of secondary sector spread its influence during the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century.
 A support system was needed to facilitate the industrial activity. Certain sectors like transport and finance played an important role in supporting the industrial activity.

Primary Sector

 In Primary sector of economy, activities are undertaken by directly using natural resources. Agriculture, Mining, Fishing, Forestry, Dairy etc. are some examples of this sector.
 It is called so because it forms the base for all other products. Since most of the natural products we get are from agriculture, dairy, forestry, fishing, it is also called Agriculture and allied sector.
 People engaged in primary activities are called red-collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their work.

Secondary Sector

 It includes the industries where finished products are made from natural materials produced in the primary sector. Industrial production, cotton fabric, sugar cane production etc. activities comes under this sector.
 Hence its the part of a country's economy that manufactures goods, rather than producing raw materials
 Since this sector is associated with different kinds of industries, it is also called industrial sector.
 People engaged in secondary activities are called blue collar workers.
 Examples of manufacturing sector:
 Small workshops producing pots, artisan production.
 Mills producing textiles,
 Factories producing steel, chemicals, plastic, car.
 Food production such as brewing plants, and food processing.
 Oil refinery.

Core Industries

Eight Core Industries are Electricity, steel, refinery products, crude oil, coal, cement, natural gas and fertilizers. The Index of Eight Core Industries is a monthly production index, which is also considered as a lead indicator of the monthly industrial performance. The Index of Eight Core Industries is compiled based on the monthly production information received from the Source Agencies.

Tertiary Sector/Service Sector

 This sector's activities help in the development of the primary and secondary sectors. By itself, economic activities in tertiary sector do not produce a goods but they are an aid or a support for the production.
 Goods transported by trucks or trains, banking, insurance, finance etc. come under the sector. It provides the value addition to a product same as secondary sector.
 This sector jobs are called white collar jobs.

Pink Collar Worker

 Pink-collar worker is one who is employed in a job that is traditionally considered to be women's work. The term pink-collar worker was used to distinguish female-orientated jobs from the blue-collar worker, a worker in manual labor, and the white-collar worker, a professional or educated worker in office positions.
 A pink collar worker need not require as much professional training as white-collar professions. They do not get equal pay or prestige.
 A pink collar worker is usually a woman. Men rarely work in pink collar jobs. Some examples of pink collar occupations are baby sitter, florist, day care worker, nurses etc.
 Lately, the pink collar worker is educated or trained. Pink collar workers are educated through training seminars or classes and they have to continue to strive for advancement in their careers.
 Today, women have more opportunities in traditionally male white-collar jobs and men work in traditionally female pink-collar jobs.

Sunrise Industry

 Sunrise industry is a term used for a sector that is just in its infancy but shows promise of a rapid boom.
 The industry is typically characterized by high growth rates, high degree of innovation and generally has plenty of public awareness about the sector and investors get attracted to its long-term growth prospects.
 On the other hand, Sunrise industry rapid emergence may threaten a competing industry sector that is already in decline. Because of its dim long-term prospects, such an industry is referred to as a sunset industry.
 Existing Indian sectors that can be termed as Sunrise sectors and likely to hold us in good stead in the future in terms of employment generation and business growth are:
 Information Technology
 Telecom Sector
 Healthcare
 Infrastructure Sector
 Retail Sector
 Food Processing Industries
 Fisheries

Why did India shift from primary sector to services sector and not secondary sector?

 The natural economic movement of a country goes from agrarian economy to an industrial economy to a service economy but India has leapfrogged from an agrarian economy to a service economy.
 One remarkable feature of India's recent growth is diversification into services, with the services sector dominating GDP.
 India's success in software and IT-enables serviced (ITeS) exports, has made it a significant services exporter with its share in world services exports rising from 0.6 per cent in 1990 to 3.3 per cent in 2013.
 Well educated and immense human resources, Fluency in English and availability of cheap labour are other reasons for rapid growth of service sector in the country. On the other hand, low growth in Secondary sector can be attributed to:
 The license Raj
 Restrictions on foreign investment
 Lack of measures to promote private industry
 Power Deficit
 Stringent Labour laws
 Lack of skilled labour
 Delays in Land Acquisition and environmental clearances
 Import of cheap manufactured goods etc.
 Though India ranks low in terms of per capita income, its share of services in GDP is approaching the global average. Interestingly, however, the contribution of services to employment was significantly lower than the world average.
 The manufacturing sector tends to be labour-intensive, hence renewed emphasis on the manufacturing through programmes like 'Make in India' will serve to correct this anomaly and raise employment in proportion with growth in GDP.

Quaternary Activities

 These are specialized tertiary activities in the 'Knowledge Sector' which demands a separate classification.
 The quaternary sector is the intellectual aspect of the economy. It is the process which enables entrepreneurs to innovate and improve the quality of services offered in the economy.
 Personnel working in office buildings, elementary schools and university classrooms, hospitals and doctors' offices, theatres, accounting and brokerage firms all belong to this category of services.
 Like other tertiary functions, quaternary activities can also be outsourced.

Quinary Activities

 The quinary sector is the part of the economy where the top-level decisions are made. This includes the government which passes legislation. It also comprises the top decision-makers in industry, commerce and also the education sector.
 These are services that focus on the creation, re-arrangement and interpretation of new and existing ideas; data interpretation and the use and evaluation of new technologies.
 Profession under this category often referred as 'gold collar' professions, they represent another subdivision of the tertiary sector representing special and highly paid skills of senior business executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and legal consultants, etc.

Organised Sector

 In this sector, employment terms are fixed and regular, and the employees get assured work and social security.
 It can also be defined as a sector, which is registered with the government and a number of acts apply to the enterprises. Schools and hospitals are covered under the organised sector.
 Workers in the organised sector enjoy security of employment. They are expected to work only a fixed number of hours. If they work more, they have to be paid overtime by the employer.

Unorganised Sector

 An unorganised worker is a home-based worker or a self-employed worker or a wage worker in the unorganized sector and includes a worker in the organized sector who is not covered by any of the Acts pertaining to welfare Schemes as mentioned in Schedule-II of Unorganized Workers Social Security Act, 2008.
 In this sector wage-paid labour is largely non-unionised due to casual and seasonal nature of employment and scattered location of enterprises.
 The sector is marked by low incomes, unstable and irregular employment, and lack of protection either from legislation or trade unions.
 The unorganised sector uses mainly labour-intensive and indigenous technology. The workers in unorganised sector, are so scattered that the implementation of the Legislation is very inadequate and ineffective. There are hardly any unions in this sector to act as watch-dogs.
 But the contributions made by the unorganised sector to the national income, is very substantial as compared to that of the organised sector. It adds more than 60% to the national income while the contribution of the organised sector is almost half of that depending on the industry.

The Public Sector

 In the sector, government owns most of the assets and it is the part of the economy concerned with providing various governmental services.
 The purpose of the public sector is not just to earn profits. Governments raise money through taxes and other ways to meet expenses on the services rendered by it.

Classification of Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs)

 CPSEs are classified into 3 categories- Maharatna, Navratna and Miniratna. Presently, there are 7 Maharatna, 16 Navratna and 71 Miniratna CPSEs.
 Maharatna Scheme was introduced for Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs), with effect from 19th May, 2010, in order to empower mega CPSEs to expand their operations and emerge as global giants.
 Presently there are seven 'Maharatna' CPSEs, viz. (i) Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, (ii) Coal India Limited, (iii) GAIL (India) Limited, (iv) Indian Oil Corporation Limited, (v) NTPC Limited, (vi) Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Limited and (vii)Steel Authority of India Limited.
 CPSEs fulfilling the following criteria are eligible to be considered for grant of Maharatna status:
 Having Navratna status.
 Listed on Indian stock exchange with minimum prescribed public shareholding under SEBI regulations.
 Average annual turnover of more than Rs. 25,000 crore, during the last 3 years.
 Average annual net worth of more than Rs. 15,000 crore, during the last 3 years.
 Average annual net profit after tax of more than Rs. 5,000 crore, during the last 3 years.
 Should have significant global presence/international operations.
 Criteria for grant of Navratna status
 The Miniratna Category – I and Schedule 'A' CPSEs, which have obtained 'excellent' or 'very good' rating under the Memorandum of Understanding system in three of the last five years, and have composite score of 60 or above in the six selected performance parameters, namely,
 net profit to net worth,
 manpower cost to total cost of production/services,
 profit before depreciation, interest and taxes to capital employed,
 profit before interest and taxes to turnover,
 earning per share and
 inter-sectoral performance.
 'Miniratna' Scheme: In October 1997, the Government had also decided to grant enhanced autonomy and delegation of financial powers to some other profit making companies subject to certain eligibility conditions and guidelines to make them efficient and competitive. These companies called 'Miniratnas', are in two Category-II. The eligibility conditions and criteria are:
 Category –I CPSEs should have made profit in the last three years continuously, the pre-tax profit should have been Rs. 30 crore or more in at least one of the three years and should have a positive net worth.
 Category-II CPSEs should have made profit for the last three years continuously and should have a positive net worth.
 These CPSEs shall be eligible for the enhanced delegated powers provided they have not defaulted in the repayment of loans/interest payment on any loans due to the Government.

The Private Sector

 In the private sector, ownership of assets and delivery of services is in the hands of private individuals or companies.
 It is sometimes referred as the citizen sector, which is run by private individuals or groups, usually as a means of enterprise for profit, and is not controlled but regulate by the State.
 Activities in the private sector are guided by the motive to earn profits. To get such services we have to pay money to these individuals and companies.

PPP (Public Private Partnership)

 PPP is an arrangement between government and private sector for the provision of public assets and/or public services.
 In this type of partnership investments being undertaken by the private sector entity, for a specified period of time.
 As PPP involves full retention of responsibility by the government for providing the services it doesn't amount to privatization.
 There is a well defined allocation of risk between the private sector and the public entity.
 Private entity is chosen on the basis of open competitive bidding and receives performance linked payments.
 PPP route can be alternative in developing countries where governments faced various constraints on borrowing money for important projects.
 It can also give required expertise in planning or executing large projects.

Sector-wise Contribution of GDP in India

 Services sector is the largest sector of India. Gross Value Added (GVA) at current prices for Services sector is estimated at 92.26 lakh crore INR in 2018-19. Services sector accounts for 54.40% of total India's GVA of 169.61 lakh crore Indian rupees.
 With GVA of Rs. 50.43 lakh crore, Industry sector contributes 29.73%. While Agriculture and allied sector shares 15.87%.
 It is worth mentioning that agriculture sector has maximum share by working force at near 53% while services and secondary sectors shares are near 29% and 18% respectively.

Economics

Economic sector


The Hireling Shepherd (1851) is a painting by the Pre-Raphaelite artist William Holman Hunt. It represents a shepherd neglecting his flock in favour of an attractive country girl to whom he shows a death's-head hawkmoth. The meaning of the image has been much debated.

Composition
Hunt painted the picture when he was living and working in close collaboration with John Everett Millais, who was painting Ophelia at the same time near the Hogsmill River near Ewell, Surrey. Both paintings depict English rural scenes, the innocence of which is disturbed by subtle but profoundly threatening violations of natural harmony. In Hunt's painting, the shepherd ignores his flock of sheep, who wander over a ditch into a wheat field. This violation of boundaries is paralleled by the shepherd's physical intrusions into the personal space of the young woman, who responds in an ambiguous way that might be interpreted as complicity or as a knowing scepticism. As he shows her the moth, he places his arm round her shoulder.

Hunt used a local country girl Emma Watkins as a model. She was known as "the Coptic" by the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood because of her exotic features. Watkins travelled to London to model for Hunt to complete the picture, but returned home after she failed to establish herself independently as a model. The model for the male figure is not known, but was probably a professional.

When it was first displayed in the Royal Academy, it was accompanied by a quotation from King Lear:

Sleepest or wakest thou, jolly shepherd?
Thy sheep be in the corn;
And for one blast of thy minikin mouth,
Thy sheep shall take no harm.

Interpretations
After it was exhibited, Hunt's enemies condemned the painting for its vulgarity, objecting to its portrayal of red-faced and sexually uninhibited country people. The Illustrated London News objected to the "fiery red skin" and "wiry hair" of Hunt's peasants (22 May 1852, p. 407). The Athenaeum was particularly offended by these "rustics of the coarsest breed...flushed and rubicund" from too much cider. It insisted that "romp and rubicundity of this pair contrast with the pallor and pathos of Mr Millais's picture [Ophelia]." (22 May 1852, pp. 581–583)

His supporters insisted that the painting was an unvarnished image of social fact. Hunt himself, however, hinted that he had a hidden meaning in mind, a claim he elaborated upon in a letter when the painting was acquired by Manchester Art Gallery. Hunt asserted that he intended the couple to symbolise the pointless theological debates which occupied Christian churchmen while their "flock" went astray due to a lack of proper moral guidance.  This would make the title a Biblical allusion; in the story of the Good Shepherd (in the King James Version), the Good Shepherd is explicitly contrasted with a hireling shepherd, who has no care for the sheep [John 10:11–15].

Literary significance
In 1859 Robert Barnabas Brough published a short story entitled "Calmuck" in Charles Dickens' magazine Household Words. It was a thinly disguised account of Hunt's experience painting the picture and of his relations with his model Emma Watkins. Some of Hunt's relatives were shocked by the apparent implication that Watkins had come to London to be with Hunt. Hunt wrote an outraged letter to Dickens, who claimed to be unaware that the story was based on real events.

Brian Aldiss used the painting as a leitmotif in his 1968 novel Report on Probability A.

See also
 100 Great Paintings, 1980 BBC series

References

Paintings by William Holman Hunt
1851 paintings
Sheep in art
Collection of Manchester Art Gallery
Insects in art

The Hireling Shepherd


San Sebastián is a city in the Basque Country, Spain.

San Sebastián or San Sebastian may also refer to:

Places

Spain
 San Sebastián (Morcín), a parish in Morcín, Asturias
 San Sebastián de Garabandal, a village in the municipality of Rionansa, Cantabria
 San Sebastián de La Gomera, a town in the Canary Islands
 San Sebastián de los Ballesteros, a municipality in the province of Córdoba, Andalusia
 San Sebastián de los Reyes, a city in the Community of Madrid

Guatemala
 San Sebastián, Retalhuleu
 San Sebastián Coatán
 San Sebastián Huehuetenango

Mexico
 San Sebastián del Oeste, a town and municipality in Jalisco, Mexico
 San Sebastián, Etzatlán, a locality in Etzatlán municipality, Jalisco, Mexico
 San Sebastián Tlacotepec, Puebla
 San Sebastian, Sinaloa, a place in Sinaloa, Mexico

Oaxaca
 San Sebastián Abasolo
 San Sebastián Coatlán
 San Sebastián Ixcapa
 San Sebastián Nicananduta
 San Sebastián Río Hondo
 San Sebastián Tecomaxtlahuaca
 San Sebastián Teitipac
 San Sebastián Tutla

United States
 San Sebastian River, a tidal channel which flows into Matanzas Bay in Florida, US
 Sebastian, Florida, a city in Indian River County, Florida, US
 San Sebastián, Puerto Rico, a municipality in Puerto Rico

Philippines
 San Sebastian, Samar, a municipality
 San Sebastian, a district of Tarlac City

Colombia
 San Sebastián de Urabá, an abandoned settlement
 San Sebastián, Cauca, Department of Cauca
 San Sebastián de Buenavista, Department of Magdalena, Colombia

Elsewhere

 San Sebastián, Aragua, a city in Venezuela
 San Sebastián, Tierra del Fuego, a settlement in Tierra del Fuego, Argentina
 San Sebastián Airport (Chile)
 San Sebastián Bay, Argentina
 San Sebastián, Comayagua, a municipality in Honduras
 San Sebastian, Lempira, a municipality in Honduras
 San Sebastián, San Vicente, a municipality in El Salvador
 San Sebastián, Quito, an electoral parish of Quito, Ecuador
 San Sebastián District, Cusco, in Cusco Province, Peru
 San Sebastián (district), a district of San José canton in Costa Rica

Music
 San Sebastian (band), a rock band from Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

 "San Sebastian (Revisited)", a song by Sonata Arctica from their 2001 album Silence
 "San Sebastian", a song by Alien Ant Farm from their 2006 album Up in the Attic

Other uses
 Saint Sebastian, an early Christian saint and martyr
 San Sebastián, Toledo, one of the oldest churches of Toledo, Spain
 San Sebastian Church (Manila), a Neo-Gothic church in Manila, Philippines
 Clásica de San Sebastián, a bicycle race
 San Sebastian College – Recoletos, an institution for higher learning in Manila, Philippines
 Siege of San Sebastián, a siege during the Peninsular War in  1813
 San Sebastián, a ship commanded by Francisco de Cortés Hojea on a 1557 expedition to explore Patagonia

See also
 2015 San Sebastián del Oeste ambush, where 15 policemen were killed
 USS St. Sebastian (SP-470), a United States Navy patrol vessel 1917–1919
 Saint-Sébastien (disambiguation)

San Sebastian (disambiguation)


Danilov Monastery (also Svyato-Danilov Monastery or Holy Danilov Monastery; ) is a walled monastery on the right bank of the Moskva River in Moscow. Since 1983, it has functioned as the headquarters of the Russian Orthodox church and the official residence of the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'.

History

Danilov Monastery is claimed to have been founded in the late 13th century by Alexander Nevsky's son Daniel. Shortly before his death in 1303, Daniel is supposed to have taken monastic vows and been buried there. The Russian Orthodox church venerates him as a saint. Daniel's successors had this monastery relocated to the Kremlin. All that remained at the original location was a graveyard.

In 1560, Ivan the Terrible visited the village of Danilovskoye and noticed the neglected graveyard. Upon learning about the old monastery, he invited monks to settle there again. In 1591, when the armies of a Crimean khan Kaza Giray approached Moscow, the grounds were fortified and used as a mobile camp.

In 1606, the rebels led by Ivan Bolotnikov and Istoma Pashkov collided with the army of Vasili IV not far from the monastery. In 1607, an impostor by the name of Ileyka Muromets, who had pretended to be tsarevich Peter (son of Feodor I of Russia), was executed next to Danilov Monastery. Being in the center of many military events during the Time of Troubles, the monastery was severely damaged in 1610. In the early 17th century, it was surrounded by a brick wall with seven towers.

In 1710, there were 30 monks in Danilov Monastery. In 1764, there were only twelve of them on staff. By  1900, however, the number rose to seventeen. Among the monks who lived in Danilov Monastery during its history was the renowned Greek scholar Nikephoros Theotokis, who retired to this monastery in 1792 from his bishop's position in South Russia, and lived here until his death in 1800.

In 1805, an almshouse for elderly women was established at the monastery; later it was turned into an almshouse for elderly clergymen and their widows.

In 1812, the monastery was ransacked by the French army. The monasterial sacristy and treasury, however, had been transported to Vologda and Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra shortly before the French occupied Moscow.

First documented information on Danilov Monastery's landownership can be traced back to 1785, when it owned 18 desyatinas of land. By the end of the 19th century, the monastery had already possessed 178 desyatinas and a few buildings in Moscow.

In the second half of the 19th century, Danilov Monastery's cemetery was a final resting place for many writers, artists and scientists, such as Nikolai Gogol, Nikolai Yazykov, Vasili Perov, Nikolai Rubinstein, Vladimir Solovyov and many others. The remains of most of them, however, were transported in Soviet years to the Novodevichy Cemetery. By 1917, Danilov Monastery had 19 monks and four novices and owned 164 desyatinas of land.

After the October Revolution, the monastery housed archimandrites who had been deprived of their pulpits. In 1929, the Soviets issued a special decree on closing the monastery and organizing a detention facility on its premises under the auspices of NKVD (приёмник-распределитель НКВД, or priyomnik-raspredelitel' NKVD). The last monastery closed in Moscow became the first one to be returned in 1983 to the Moscow Patriarchy and became a spiritual and administrative centre of the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1988, the monastery was restored. A residence was built for the Patriarch and Synod, as well as a funeral chapel and a chapel in commemoration of the 1000 years of Russia's baptism.

Buildings
Apart from the 17th-century defensive towers and walls, the surviving buildings include the katholikon (main church), the Neoclassical cathedral of the Holy Trinity (1833-1838), the Baroque gate church and belltower of St Simeon Stylites (1681, 1732), a group of 19th-century dwellings for monks and the father superior, and the extensive modern residence of the Holy Synod and the Patriarch (1988). Right next door is the large parish church of the Renovation of the Temple in Jerusalem, built in 1832–1837 to Neoclassical designs by Fyodor Shestakov.

The oldest building is the katholikon dedicated to the Holy Fathers of the First seven ecumenical councils (a dedication not found anywhere else in the Christian world). The lower temple was built during the reign of Tsar Alexis as a church dedicated to the feast of the Intercession. Two Baroque upper churches were completed in 1730 and 1752, respectively. The katholikon is the only building in Moscow to feature two distinct churches above another church on the ground floor.

Bells

When the monastery was closed in 1929 and 1930, its bell set was saved from Communist melting through the purchase by American industrialist Charles R. Crane.   The largest of the bells, Bolshoi (or The Big One - called The Mother Earth Bell at Harvard), weighs 13 tons and has a 700-pound clapper.  The smallest weighs just 22 pounds.  Crane donated the bells to Harvard University and they were installed in the main tower of Harvard's Lowell House and at the Harvard Business School's Baker Library. Beginning in the 1980s, with openness under Gorbachev, there were calls to return the bells, and after numerous meetings over the years, the bells were returned to the Russian Orthodox Church in the fall of 2008.  Russian industrialist Viktor Vekselberg, famous for buying up a number of Faberge Eggs, agreed to pay for the repatriation of the 18 bells and for the cost of casting replacements of them in Russia to be hung at Harvard.  The first of the bells, known as the Everyday (or Weekday) Bell, weighing 2.2 tons, arrived at the Danilov Monastery on September 12, 2007; the remaining seventeen were returned on September 12, 2008.

References

External links

Official site of the Danilov Monastery

Monasteries in Moscow
Russian Orthodox monasteries in Russia
Christian monasteries established in the 13th century
Episcopal palaces
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Moscow

Danilov Monastery


Methane hydrate, also called methane ice or methane clathrate,  consists of methane, which is enclosed in frozen water. The water molecules completely surround the methane. Methane hydrate is a common constituent of the shallow marine (ocean) geosphere. In 1971, it was first discovered in Black Sea.

Definition and Characteristics

Methane hydrate consists of methane gas trapped inside cage-like crystal structures made up of water molecules. These "cages"  have a size of atoms and molecules, far too small to see with the naked eye. Under normal temperature and pressure, one litre of methane hydrate is equal to 168 litres of methane gas.

Origin of methane hydrate

Methane hydrate is thought to be formed by dead organic matter trapped between the earth's layers, and then broken down by microorganisms and the earth's heat. The process is similar to the one that produces methane when organic waste is dumped at a garbage pit and covered with earth, except that it occurs deep below the earth's surface. The organisms which produce methane by a process of fermentation are the methaneogen Archea.

Natural resources

Areas where natural methane hydrate is thought to exist are generally areas under the ocean where continental plates meet. In depths between 500 to 1000 meter, where pressure is high and temperature low enough.

Possible mining methods

Thermal recovery method
 In this method, a well is drilled to the methane hydrate-bearing layer, and methane hydrate is dissociated by heating using a fluid (hot water or steam) heated at the surface in a boiler or similar device and circulated down through the well. This causes methane hydrate to decompose and generates methane gas. The methane gas mixes with the hot water and returns to the surface, where the gas and hot water are separated.

Depressurization method
 As with geological formation, methane hydrate bearing layers are subject to be pressurized by the combined overburden weight of seawater and the formation pressure. In drilling for formations subjected to such pressures, it is customary to use a drilling mud with a specific gravity higher than this pressure. Conversely, the depressurization method lowering the pressure inside the well and encouraging the methane hydrate to dissociate. (Methane hydrate dissociates into methane gas and water when depressurized.)

Inhibitor injection method
 In this method, inhibitor such as methanol is injected from surface down to methane hydrate-bearing layers. This method enables methane hydrate dissociation without changing the pressure or temperature of the methane hydrate-bearing layer.

Importance and danger of methane hydrate

Importance of methane hydrate
 Many suggest that deposits are located all over the world, which will have twice as much energy than we ever had with oil, gas and coal together. This could be the energy alternative we are looking for as a transitional solution; until such a time as the use of fossil fuels and nuclear energy is no longer necessary.

Danger of methane hydrate
 Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas. The sudden release of large amounts of natural gas from methane hydrate deposits has been hypothesized as a cause of past and possible future climate changes.

References
 http://geology.usgs.gov/connections/mms/joint_projects/methane.htm
 http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/gashydrates/mallik2002/index_e.php
 http://www.mh21japan.gr.jp/english/index.html

Chemical compounds
Greenhouse gases

Methane hydrate