George Wombwell, (24 December 1777 at Dudnorend, near Saffron Walden – 16 November 1850 at Northallerton), was a famous menagerie exhibitor in Regency and early Victorian Britain. He founded Wombwell's Travelling Menagerie.

Life and work

George Wombwell was born in Wendon Lofts, Essex in 1777. Around 1800 he moved to London and in 1804 became a shoemaker in Soho. However, when a ship from South America brought two boas to London docks, he bought them for £75 and began to exhibit them in taverns. He soon made a good profit.

Wombwell began to buy exotic animals from ships that came from Africa, Australia and South America, and collected a whole menagerie and put them on display. In 1810 he founded the Wombwell's Travelling Menagerie and began to tour the fairs of Britain. By 1839 it totalled fifteen wagons, and was accompanied by a brass band.

His travelling menagerie included elephants, giraffes, a gorilla, a hyena, kangaroo, leopards, 6 lions, llamas, monkeys, ocelots, onagers, ostriches, panthers, a rhino ("the real unicorn of scripture"), 3 tigers, wildcats and zebras. However, because many of the animals were from hotter climes, many of them died in the British climate. Sometimes Wombwell could profitably sell the body to a taxidermist or a medical school; other times he chose to exhibit the dead animal as a curiosity.

Wombwell bred and raised many animals himself, including the first lion to be bred in captivity in Britain; he named it William in honour of William Wallace. In 1825 Warwick, Wombwell, in collaboration with Sam Wedgbury and dog dealer Ben White's assistant Bill George, arranged a Lion-baiting between his docile lion Nero and six bulldogs. Nero refused to fight but when Wombwell released William, he mauled the dogs and the fight was soon stopped.

Over the years, Wombwell expanded three menageries that traveled around the country. Wombwell was a regular exhibitor at the annual Knott Mill Fair in Manchester, a venue he sometimes shared with Pablo Fanque's circus. He was invited to the royal court on five occasions to exhibit his animals, three times before Queen Victoria. In 1847 the Queen Victoria noted the bravery of the "British Lion Queen", the nickname of Ellen Chapman who appeared with lions, leopards and tigers. Chapman married Wombwell's business rival George Sanger in 1850.

On one occasion Prince Albert summoned him to look at his dogs who kept dying and Wombwell quickly noticed that their water was poisoning them. When the prince asked what he could do in return for this favour, Wombwell said, "What can you give a man who has everything?" However, Wombwell requested some oak timber from the recently salvaged Royal George. From this he had a coffin fashioned for himself, which he then proceeded to exhibit for a special fee.

Wombwell frequented Bartholomew Fair in London and even developed a rivalry with another exhibitor, Atkins. Once when he arrived at the fair, his elephant died and Atkins put up a sign "The Only Live Elephant in the Fair". Wombwell simply put up a scroll with the words "The Only Dead Elephant in the Fair" and explained that seeing a dead elephant was an even a rarer thing than a live one. The public, realising that they could see a living elephant at any time, flocked to see and poke the dead one. Throughout the fair Atkins' menagerie was largely deserted, much to his disgust.

George Wombwell died in 1850 and was buried in his Royal George coffin in Highgate Cemetery, under a statue of his lion Nero.

The book George Wombwell (1777 - 1850): Volume One recalls the lion and dog fight in Warwick with well researched evidence, but questions whether it ever actually took place. George Wombwell (1777 - 1850): Volume Two covers Wombwell's life as the most famous showman, from his arrival in London around 1800 to his death in 1850.

In fiction
In the Sherlock Holmes short story The Adventure of the Veiled Lodger the lion tamer, Ronder, is described thus: "Ronder, of course, was a household word. He was the rival of Wombwell".

See also
 Lion-baiting
 Joseph Nicholds

References

External links
George Wombwell at the zoology museum
Transcript of George Wombwell speaking at the inquest into his nephew's death at his Menagerie
Website for researching Wombwell and Menageries

1777 births
1850 deaths
British zoologists
Lion tamers
Shoemakers
People from Saffron Walden
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
Zoo directors

George Wombwell


Greater Grand Crossing is one of the 77 community areas of Chicago, Illinois. It is located on the city's South Side.

The name "Grand Crossing" comes from an 1853 right-of-way feud between the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway and the Illinois Central Railroad that led to a frog war and a crash that killed 18 people. This led Mayor Roswell B. Mason to illegally construct railroad tracks across another railroad company's tracks.

During the 1950s, the Black population of the neighborhood rose from 6% to 86%. Today, the neighborhood is 97% Black.

The Red Line of the CTA travels to Greater Grand Crossing.

References

Community areas of Chicago

Greater Grand Crossing, Chicago


The Concrete Blonde is the third novel by American crime author Michael Connelly, featuring the Los Angeles detective Hieronymus "Harry" Bosch. It was published in 1994.

Background
Connelly said that he obtained the seed idea for The Concrete Blonde by reading a book detailing actual cases, written for forensic professionals.

Plot summary
Detective Harry Bosch is pursuing "The Dollmaker", a serial killer who uses makeup to paint his victims.
He gets a tip from a prostitute that a recent customer of hers, Norman Church, had a large amount of women's makeup in his bathroom.

Bosch goes to Church's garage, identifies himself as police, breaks in the door.  Church is naked and shaved. Bosch tells him to not move, but Church starts to pull something from under his pillow, and Bosch shoots him.
Church had been reaching not for a gun, but his toupee.
Bosch is investigated by internal affairs and cleared in the shooting; but, since he did not follow police procedure, he is transferred from the elite Robbery-Homicide Division (RHD) back to the Hollywood table.
The makeup is found to match those of nine of the Dollmaker's victims.

Four years later, Bosch is sued by Church's widow. Her attorney portrays Bosch as a cowboy and a vigilante, seeking revenge for the unsolved murder of his mother when he was a child.

During the trial, the police receive a note, purportedly from the Dollmaker, which leads to the discovery of a new victim killed by someone using the same modus operandi.  Although this victim was encased in concrete, unlike the original eleven victims, all other aspects of the killing are the same, including the signature cross painted on a toenail. Also, this "concrete blonde" victim, along with two other of the original victims, fit a different pattern: that of large-breasted blondes in the local adult entertainment industry who also advertised as high-class prostitutes in the local sex rags.  Bosch and his task force suspect that "the Follower" is Detective Mora from Ad-Vice.  Mora has ties to the adult video industry, had insider knowledge of the Dollmaker case, and was not at work during the killings not attributed to Norman Church.  The task force put Mora under surveillance, and Bosch breaks into Mora's house looking for evidence that he is the Follower.  Instead, Bosch finds that Mora has been making pornographic movies with underage children.  Mora returns to his house, finds Bosch, and threatens to kill him.  The rest of the task force arrives; they search Mora's house and determine that he is not the Follower.

Mora does have information on who he believes is the Follower and makes a deal: he provides the name of Professor Locke, agrees to quit the police force, and all of his crimes will be ignored.  Mora got information that Locke had been seen on the set of adult movies where the slain women were cast members.

When Bosch returns to his office he finds another note from the Follower, saying that he will be taking "his blonde".  Bosch assumes that he means Bosch's girlfriend Sylvia. When she does not answer her phone, Bosch sends the police to her house.  He arrives to an empty house, when a real estate agent shows up to show it.  Bosch finds Sylvia at his house and takes her to a hotel to protect her.  Sylvia tells Bosch that they must have some time apart for her to decide if she can live with him and his dangerous job.

The next day Bosch returns to court as the jury is to restart their deliberations. Honey Chandler, the widow's attorney, does not appear.  Bosch sends the police to her house, as she is also a blonde.  The jury reaches a verdict for the plaintiff and awards compensatory damages of one dollar and punitive damages of one dollar to Church's widow.  When Bosch finally arrives at Chandler's house she has been dead 48 hours, killed in the same manner as the other Dollmaker victims, except that she also has burn and bite marks all over her body.

Locke, who had been missing for several days, shows up at the crime scene.  Bosch and Edgar interrogate him but discover that he has a solid alibi, and dismiss him as a suspect.  Bosch follows Bremmer from the crime scene to his house.  He asks Bremmer if he can come in for a drink to discuss his court case.  When Bremmer returns with two beers Bosch confronts him as being the Follower. Bremmer fights Bosch and gets control of his gun. Bosch, playing on Bremmer's pride, gets him to confess.

Bosch had found a note that the Follower had mailed to Chandler, which mentioned an article in the Los Angeles Times.  Bosch had noticed that it had been mailed before that article was published, which led him to suspect Bremmer.  Bremmer had tortured Chandler to find out where she had hidden the note and envelope.

Bremmer attempts to shoot Bosch, but the gun is empty; Bosch grabs the magazine he had hidden in his sock, hits Bremmer with it, and arrests him.  Bosch had hidden a recording device in the room while Bremmer was getting the beer.

The next day Bosch forces the district attorney's office to charge Bremmer with first degree murder, as the filing attorney is not satisfied with the amount of evidence.  The police then obtain a warrant to obtain blood and hair samples, and teeth molds of Bremmer. His teeth molds match his bite marks on Chandler's body, and his hair samples match pubic hair found on two of the original Dollmaker victims.

A woman who owns a storage locker company recognizes Bremmer as having rented a locker under a false name, and the police find video tapes of Bremmer's killings.  Bremmer makes a deal for life without parole in exchange for leading police to the bodies of his other victims.

Harry takes two weeks off from work to make some home improvements.  Eventually Sylvia returns, and they re-unite and head off for a weekend together.

Characters in The Concrete Blonde
Harry Bosch - Detective in the Los Angeles Police Department
Honey "Money" Chandler - Lawyer for the plaintiff
Rodney Belk - Assistant city attorney for the City of Hollywood
Lieutenant Harvey "Ninety-eight" Pounds - Bosch's supervisor
Joel Bremmer - Writer for the Los Angeles Times; he wrote a book about the Dollmaker after Church's death
Jerry Edgar - Bosch's partner
Dr. John Locke - USC psychologist who helped the police on the Dollmaker case
Hans Rollenberger - Assistant Lieutenant in charge of the Follower task force
Alva Keyes - US District Court Judge, in charge of the trial
Sylvia Moore - Bosch's girlfriend, a high school English teacher
Irvin Irving - Assistant Chief of the LAPD

Style
The Concrete Blonde is written in the police procedural form of crime fiction. In this style the detective interacts with a wide range of individuals who assist in the investigation.

Reception
Author Janet Evanovich said The Concrete Blonde was "a classic in Connelly's Harry Bosch detective series--and one of my favorites". The Weekly Standard said that Connelly "proved himself a master of courtroom give-and-take in The Concrete Blonde". The Library Journal review in 1994 said "slick plot twists, fast action and fine suspense mark this excellent thriller and courtroom drama".

References

Harry Bosch series
1994 American novels
Novels about serial killers
Novels set in Los Angeles
Little, Brown and Company books

The Concrete Blonde


The Epistle of Jude is the sixty-fifth book in the Christian Bible, and the twenty-sixth in the New Testament. It is one of the shortest books in the Bible, at only 25 verses long.

Who wrote it

The writer calls himself Jude.  This may not be the same person as Jude the Apostle. This Jude calls himself a brother of James, who was a leader in the church at Jerusalem.  Both Jude and James were probably half brothers of Jesus. They did not believe that he was the Christ, until after the Resurrection. (John chapter 7, verse 5)  The book may have been written between 60 and 80 A.D. and was sent to many places.  This is called a "General" epistle.

The content of the letter

The writer of this book seems to have a good knowledge of the Old Testament books and also of some of the other books that were known as Jewish writings, but which are not in the bible.

He warns of "people who change the message about the grace of God in order to excuse their immoral ways" (verse 4).  He says this is not the faith "once delivered to the saints". He warns that we have stories in the bible of people who turned from trusting God to evil.  He lists the fallen angels, those saved from slavery in Eqypt and the people of Sodom and Gomorrah.  He also mentions individuals such as Cain who killed his brother, Balaam, and Korah.

He tells everyone to keep their faith, keep praying, love others, and wait for the second coming of Jesus.  The letter closes with a blessing that is sometimes used to end church meetings.  "Now to the one who is able to keep you from falling, and to cause you to stand, rejoicing, without blemish before his glorious presence, to the only God our Savior through Jesus Christ our Lord, be glory, majesty, power, and authority, before all time, and now, and for all eternity. Amen." ( Verses 24 and 25)

Other websites
Jude (NIV)
Jude (KJV)

New Testament books
General Epistles

Epistle of Jude


Saltburn Pier is a pier located in Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Redcar and Cleveland and the ceremonial county of North Yorkshire, England. It is the last pier remaining in Yorkshire.

Background
The Stockton and Darlington Railway arrived in Saltburn from Redcar on 17 August 1861, prompting a growth in day trippers and holiday travellers.

The engineer for the railway line was John Anderson, who saw the investment opportunities in the new town, buying land from the Saltburn Improvement Company. He bought plots in Milton and Amber Streets, as well as Brittania Terrace/Marine Drive - both now Marine Parade - where he designed and erected the Alexandra Hotel. Appointed resident engineer of the SIC in 1867, he designed the town's sewerage system.

Construction

In October 1867, Anderson formed the Saltburn Pier Company, to undertake construction of a suitable pier. Contracted as designer and chief design engineer, Anderson followed the new pier format developed by Eugenius Birch in his ground breaking design for Margate Pier, by specifying iron screw-piles to support a metal frame and wooden deck.

Deliveries of iron work from the Ormesby Foundry began in December 1867, with the first pile drive started by Mrs Thomas Vaughan of Gunnergate Hall on 30 December. But construction was delayed by the fact that the Board of Trade did not grant an order for the construction until 6 April 1868, while the foreshore land was not transferred to the company until 3 July 1868.

The  pier opened in May 1869, with a steamer landing stage at the head of the pier and two circular kiosks at the entrance. The first steamers left the pier on 14 May 1870, with service to Middlesbrough. In the first six months of operation, there were 50,000 toll-paying visitors.

But access to the pier was difficult from the town via the steep cliff, so Anderson was contracted to build the Cliff Hoist. Constructed of wood, it allowed 20 people to be placed in a wooden cage and then lowered by rope to beach level. It opened on 1 July 1870, some 14 months after the opening of the pier, it was approached from the town by a narrow walkway. The passengers then descended , after water had been added to or taken away from a counterbalance tank.

Operation

Steamer excursions added to the companies revenue, with new seasonal trips to Hartlepool and Scarborough. This financial success enabled the Pier Company to announce profitable dividends for its shareholders, and by October 1873 it was announced that all the shares had been disposed of.

However, on the night of 21/22 October 1875, a gale struck the pier, removing  of the structure at the seaward end, including the pier head, landing stage and part of the pier deck. In the middle of an iron trade slump, it was decided not to replace the missing section or reconstruct a landing stage, leaving a redeveloped pier of . Reopened in 1877, the debts of the company led to it being sold in 1880 at auction at the Alexandra Hotel for £800.

Middlesbrough Estate

Sold initially to the Saltburn Improvement Company, in August 1883 the SIC was bought by the owners of the Middlesbrough Estate.

The new owners had the Cliff Hoist inspected by independent engineers, who condemned it due to numerous rotten timbers, so it was demolished in late 1883. They commissioned Sir Richard Tangye's company, who had built the two earlier vertically inclined water powered funicular railways in Scarborough, to build a replacement. Tangye had appointed George Croydon Marks head of the lift department, in which role he was in charge of the design and installation at Saltburn. Marks designed and constructed the Saltburn Cliff Lift, a funicular with a height of  and a track length of , creating a 71% incline. Opened on Saturday 28 June 1884, it remains today the world's oldest water-balanced cliff railway.

The opening of the Cliff Lift allowed the pier company to undertake a development of facilities. As had originally been intended, a saloon was built at the pier head, while gas lighting was provided along the entire length. In 1884, the pier head was widened and windshields, a bandstand, a refreshment rooms added, and the entrance kiosks replaced to match the style of those used on the new Cliff Lift. In July 1887 the gas lighting was replaced by electricity.

After suffering slight storm damage in 1900, the pier was struck by the china clay vessel  (formerly the Russian registered ), in May 1924. The collision left a  gap in the promenade, leaving the bandstand inaccessible. The gap was replaced from March 1929, with a new theatre also built on the landside, completed in 1930 enabling the full length of the pier to open.

Post World War Two

Purchased by the council in 1938, the pier like others was sectioned during World War II, by having part of the deck removed by the Royal Engineers to guard against Nazi invasion. But due to its poor post war condition, repairs were not granted planning permission until 1949, and due to a shortage of steel not completed until April 1952. Officially reopened for the first time since the war on 31 May 1952, over 25,000 visitors walked the pier during the first month.

In 1953, gales resulted in £23,000 worth of repairs, which took a further five years to complete. But after completion, in 1958 two piles were lost, costing a further £6,000. In 1961 another twenty piles were twisted in storms, but repairs kept the structure open enabling 90,000 people to visit during the 1960s.

After severe storms in 1971 and 1973, piles were lost at the seaward end leaving the pier in a dangerous state. Further damage in 1974 culminated on 29 October, when the pier head was lost and the deck damaged, leaving a length of .

In 1975 the council submitted an application to the Department of the Environment to have the pier demolished. A "Save the Pier" campaign led to a public enquiry, which concluded that only the final thirteen piers could be removed. This left a  length of refurbished pier, which reopened on 29 June 1978. In 1979, the council undertook a complete refurbishment of both the pier and the Cliff Lift to reflect the Victorian/Edwardian character, by: ordering new aluminium cars for the Cliff Lift, reinstating to the design stained-glass windows; new distinct white-red cladding to all the structures; a pier head cafe.

Post 2000

In 2000, the council was successful in gaining a £1.2 million National Lottery Heritage Grant, enabling the cast iron trestles that support the pier to be conserved, and the steel deck beams replaced with traditional hardwood timber to reflect the pier's original appearance. Reopened as a Grade II* listed building on 13 July 2001, by MP Chris Smith, the restored structure won a top placing in the Queen's Golden Jubilee Heritage awards. In October 2005, the pier was greatly enhanced by the installation of under deck lighting which illuminates at night, and in 2009, the National Piers Society awarded it pier of the year. The pier celebrated its 150th Anniversary on 11 May 2019 when a new lighting system was switched on.

References

External links

 Saltburn Pier history at Saltburn - Local Community Website
 Saltburn Pier history at GazetteLive

Video footage

Sunrise at Saltburn Pier, North Yorkshire - Yorkshire Coast
Saltburn Pier Waves

Piers in Yorkshire
Grade II* listed buildings in North Yorkshire
Transport infrastructure completed in 1869
Buildings and structures in Redcar and Cleveland
1869 establishments in England
Saltburn-by-the-Sea
Grade II* listed piers

Saltburn Pier


Ceres commonly refers tae:
 Ceres (dwarf planet), smawest o the five identifee'd dwarf planets, oreeginally classifee'd as a planet, an later as the lairgest asteroid
Ceres (meethologie), the Roman goddess o agricultur

Ceres mey refer tae:

Places

Unitit States
 Ceres, Californie
 Ceres Flat, Californie
 Ceres, Georgie
 Ceres, Iowa
 Ceres, New York
 Ceres, Oklahoma
 Ceres, Virginie
 Ceres, Washington
 Ceres, Wast Virginie
 Ceres Township, McKean Coonty, Pennsylvanie

Ither kintras
 Ceres, Santa Fe, Argentinae
 Ceres, Victoria, Australie
 Ceres, Goiás, Brazil
 Ceres, Piemont, Italy
 Ceres, Fife, Scotland
 Ceres, Wastren Cape, Sooth Africae
 Ceres Nunataks, Antarcticae
 Ceres Microregion, in north-central Goiás state, Brazil

Businesses
 Ceres Brewery, a brewery in Aarhus, Denmark
 Ceres Hellenic Shipping Enterprises, a Greek shippin company
 Ceres (organization), a coalition o investors an environmentalists (umwhile the Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies)
 Centre for Research on Energy Security (CeRES), an Indie research center on geopolitics an energy
 Ceres Fruit Juices, the Sooth African juice company
 Ceres Liner, a bus company in the Philippines
 Ceres Power, a UK company developin smaw-scale fuel cell CHP seestems
 Ceres, Inc., a US energy crop seeds developer

Ither uisses
 Ceres (wirkstation), a computer wirkstation built at ETH Zürich
 Ceres series (disambiguation), several series o postage stamps representin the goddess Ceres
 HMS Ceres, three ships o the Breetish Ryal Navy
 Ceres, a West Cornwall Railway steam locomotive
 Toyota Corolla Ceres a compact, 4-door hardtop sauld in Japan
 Céres, a French Minerve cless submarine
  CERES (satellite), a French spy satellite program
 Ceres (2005), an orchestral wirk bi Mark-Anthony Turnage
 CAC Ceres, a crop-duster aircraft manufactured in Australie
 Ceres Connection, a cooperative program atween MIT's Lincoln Laboratory an the Society for Science and the Public dedicatit for promotin science eddication
 Ceres Futebol Clube, a Brazilian fitbaa team frae the ceety o Rio de Janeiro
 Ceres F.C., a Philippine fitbaa team
 Ceres Koekedouw Dam, dam on the Koekedouw River, near Ceres, Wastren Cape, Sooth Africae
 Ceres School, a historic schuil biggin locatit at Ceres in Allegany Coonty, New York.
 Ceres Storm, a 2000 science feection novel bi American author David Herter

Ceres


Mariano Artigas (1938–2006) was a Spanish physicist, philosopher, and theologian. He wrote The Mind of the Universe: Understanding Science and Religion and fifteen other books on science and religion.

He was a member of the European Association for the Study of Science and Theology and the Académie Internationale de Philosophie des Sciences. He was Consultor of the Pontifical Council for the Dialogue with Non-believers.

In 2002, jointly with other professors, he created the Science, Reason and Faith Research Group (CRYF), based in the University of Navarra, where he taught. The aim of the group is to promote the interdisciplinary study of issues where science, philosophy and theology intertwine.

He held Ph.D.s in physics, philosophy, and theology.

He was ordained a priest on 9 August 1964, and incardinated to the Opus Dei prelature. He was the Dean of the Ecclesiastical Faculty of Philosophy for the University of Navarre from 1988 to 1998.

Works

Professor Artigas published more than 150 articles based on the relationship of science, philosophy, and theology.

His book The Mind of the Universe, Understanding Science and Religion received good reviews, among which is that of Contemporary Physics: Artigas "has raised the level of the contemporary debate on the relations between science and religion and provided a sure guide to their complexities. He seems to have read almost every book on the subject, and gives judicious and sympathetic accounts even of views he does not share. As a scientist himself, he does full justice to the value of science and to the subtleties of the scientific method."

His other well-known works in English are:

 Oracles of Science: Celebrity Scientists versus God and Religion – with  Karl Giberson (December 28, 2006)
 Galileo Observed: Science and the Politics of Belief – with William R. Shea (October 6, 2006)
 Knowing Things for Sure: Science and Truth – with Alan McCone (July 28, 2006)
 Negotiating Darwin: The Vatican Confronts Evolution, 1877–1902 (Medicine, Science, and Religion in Historical Context) – with Thomas F. Glick and Rafael A. Martínez (August 17, 2006)

External links
Mariano Artigas at the University of Navarre
Mariano Artigas at Templeton Foundation Press
Mariano Artigas and Science, Reason and Faith (CRYF) Research Group

Philosophers of science
Opus Dei members
21st-century Spanish philosophers
University of Navarra
1938 births
2006 deaths
Writers about religion and science
Academic staff of the University of Navarra
20th-century Spanish Roman Catholic priests
Catholic clergy scientists
21st-century Spanish Roman Catholic priests

Mariano Artigas


A loanword is a word that is adopted by a language that comes from another language. Since people who speak different languages often need to talk to each other, it is actually very common for languages to "borrow" words from other languages.

Examples of this can be seen in the English language because it has many loanwords. When the Normans took over England during the Norman Conquest in 1066, they made French the official language of England. Since then, many French words later became English words. For example, the English words beef, pork, poultry, and mutton are loanwords based on the Norman French names of the animals cow, swine, chicken, and sheep in that same order. In English, the loanwords mean the meat of those animals specifically. Since later the British Empire took over many different countries and people, they also borrowed many words from the languages of the people they took over. An example of this is the word "jungle", which is a Hindi word that has been adopted into English.

Languages often use loanwords because cultures learn about new ideas and inventions from people of the languages they borrow from.  For example, in English the names of meats and wines often come from French, musical terms often come from Italian, and philosophical terms often come from German.  Although native English speakers are now familiar with Chinese ideas and inventions, they are often called by their Japanese names in English because these were introduced to Americans through Japan. China, on the other hand, was closed off from the world when its ideas and inventions spread throughout the world because its communist government stopped communication with most outside countries, including America.

The names of food are some of the most common loanwords across languages because people may not have any idea of what the food is like when they are first introduced to a certain culture. For example, Italian food usually has Italian names like spaghetti and pasta, Japanese food has Japanese names like sushi and tempura, and Mexican food has Spanish names like tacos and carnitas.

Related pages
Calque
Gairaigo

Words

Loanword


Munich Airport (IATAcode MUC) is an airport 28 km north east of the city Munich, Germany. It is mainly used by Lufthansa and the Star-Alliance, which Lufthansa is in. In 2008, 34.53 million passengers used the airport. After Frankfurt am Main Munich is the second most important airport in Germany. It is the 8th largest in Europe.

History
Munich Airport was opened in 1992. Before that the airport was in Riem. Building was started in 1980.

Because Frankfurt am Main was so busy, Lufthansa began to use Munich for international flights. The Airport was named after Franz-Josef Strauss, a politician who was very interested in aeroplanes. People in Munich usually just call it München Flughafen or der Flughafen.

In 2003 the second airport terminal was opened, for people travelling on Lufthansa and Star-Alliance only.

A third runway is planned, because there is much traffic on Munich Airport, but people who live near the airport do not want it.

Geography

You can use the Munich S-Bahn lines S1 and S8 to go to the city. They both cost €8,80 and take about forty minutes. Taxis to Munich cost €50 and can get stuck because of traffic congestion.

The cities near the airport are Erding and Freising. They can be reached by Bus (~3-4 €) or Taxi (~€18).

The Munich Airport center (MAC) is between the two terminals but it is not so far. It has many shops and restaurants.

There is a Hilton Hotel near the airport and a second hotel is planned.

Terminals
Munich Airport has two terminals. Terminal 2 is newer and larger.

Terminal 1
Terminal 1 is used by the non-Star Alliance airlines. The halls or areas are numbered A-F. It was opened on 17th May 1992 20 million passengers can use it every year. At the moment the terminal is being renovated, giving more room for shops and other things. The first halls have already been finished.

68 Airlines use Terminal One.

Variable Halls
 Air Transat (Calgary, Halifax, Toronto, Vancouver)
 Hapagfly (Antalya, Brindisi, Cairo, Catania, Dalaman, Djerba, Faro, Fuerteventura, Funchal, Hanover, Hurghada, Jerez de la Frontera, Lanzarote, Las Palmas, Luxor, Málaga, Marsa Alam, Menorca, Monastir, Palma de Mallorca, Patras, Rhodes, Santa Cruz de la Palma, Sharm el Sheikh, Tel Aviv, Tenerife)
 HLX.com (Cagliari, Dubrovnik, Leipzig [starts October 30, 2006], Naples, Olbia, Palermo, Rijeka, Venice)

Hall A
 dba (Athens [ends October 28, 2006], Berlin-Tegel, Bremen, Cologne/Bonn, Dresden, Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Hanover, Moscow-Domodedovo, Münster/Osnabrück, Nice, Paris-Orly, Rome-Fiumcino [ends November 5, 2006], Thessaloniki [ends October 28, 2006])
 Hola Airlines
 Nordic Regional (Palma de Mallorca)

Hall B
 British Airways (Bristol, Glasgow, London-Heathrow)
 Delta Air Lines (Atlanta)
 Royal Air Maroc (Casablanca) [ends November 23, 2006]
 Tunisair (Djerba, Monastir, Tunis)

Hall C
 Aeroflot (Moscow-Sheremetyevo)
 African Safari Airways (Mombasa)
 airBaltic (Riga, Vilnius)
 Air Via (Bourgas, Varna)
 Atlasjet (Antalya, Istanbul-Atatürk)
 Atlas Blue (Agadir)
 Blue Wings
 Corendon Airlines (Antalya)
 Czech Airlines (Prague)
 Bulgarian Air Charter (Bourgas, Varna)
 EgyptAir (Cairo, Hurghada)
 Emirates (Dubai)
 Etihad Airways (Abu Dhabi)
 Eurocypria Airlines (Larnaca, Paphos)
 Inter Airlines (Antalya, Bodrum)
 Onur Air (Antalya)
 Polet Airlines (Voronezh)
 Pegasus Airlines (Antalya, Bodrum)
 Royal Jordanian (Amman)
 S7 Airlines (Moscow-Domodedovo)
 Sky Airline (Antalya)
 SunExpress (Antalya, Bodrum, Izmir)
 Syrian Arab Airlines (Aleppo, Damascus)
 TACV (Sal)
 Tajikistan Airlines (Istanbul-Atatürk, Dushanbe)
 Tarom (Bucharest-Otopeni, Cluj, Sibiu)
 Turkish Airlines (Ankara, Istanbul-Atatürk, Izmir)
 Ural Airlines (Ekaterinburg)
 UT Air (Tyumen)

Hall D
 Aer Lingus (Dublin)
 Air France (Lyon, Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport)
 Alitalia
 Alitalia Express (Milan-Malpensa, Rome-Fiumicino)
 Blu-express (Rom-Fiumicino)
 easyJet (Edinburgh, London-Stansted)
 easyJet operated by easyJet Switzerland (Basel/Mulhouse)

 Finnair (Helsinki)
 FlyNordic (Stockholm-Arlanda)
 Iberia Airlines (Madrid)
 InterSky (Elba)
 KLM Royal Dutch Airlines (Amsterdam)
 KLM Cityhopper (Amsterdam)
 Norwegian Air Shuttle (Oslo)
 Brussels Airlines (Brussels)

Hall E
Arrivals only

Hall F
Hall F is a secure terminal used by Israeli airlines only.
 Arkia (Tel Aviv)
 El Al (Tel Aviv)
 Israir (Tel Aviv)
 Sun D'Or (Tel Aviv)

Terminal 2

Terminal 2 is used by all Star Alliance flights. It was opened on 29th June 2003 and nearly 20-25 million passengers can use it every year. Many passengers like the terminal because connections are easy and fast. The time needed for a connection inside the terminal is only 25 minutes, the airport and Lufthansa say.

26 Airlines use Terminal 2.
 Aegean Airlines (Athens, Thessaloniki)
 Adria Airways (Ljubljana)
 Air Canada (Toronto)
 Air China (Beijing)
 Austrian Airlines (Vienna)
 Carpatair (Timişoara)
 Cimber Air (Billund)
 Cirrus Airlines (Brno, Erfurt, Kiel [ends October 27, 2006], London-City)
 Condor (Agadir, Antalya, Bangkok, Barcelona, Bourgas, Cancun, Cayo Coco, Dalaman, Faro, Fuerteventura, Fuchal, Hurghada, Ibiza, Jerez de la Frontera, La Romana, Lanzarote, Larnaca, Las Palmas, Madrid, Mahe Island, Málaga, Male, Marsa Alam, Mauritius, Naples, Paphos, Palma de Mallorca, Phuket, Punta Cana, Sanat Cruz de la Palma, Sharm el Sheikh, Taba, Tenerife, Varadero, Venice)
 Croatia Airlines (Zagreb)
 Germanwings (Berlin-Schönefeld, Cologne/Bonn, Hamburg)
 LOT Polish Airlines (Gdansk, Warsaw)
 operated by Eurolot (Katowice [starts October 29, 2006], Poznan, Wroclaw)
 Lufthansa (Ankara, Athens, Barcelona, Beijing, Berlin-Tegel, Boston, Bremen, Brussels, Bucharest-Otopeni, Budapest, Catania, Charlotte, Chicago-O'Hare, Cologne/Bonn, Delhi, Dubai, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Hanover, Helsinki, Hong Kong, Istanbul-Atatürk, Izmir, Kiev-Boryspil, Lisbon, London-Heathrow, Los Angeles, Madrid, Montréal [seasonal], Moscow-Sheremetyevo, Münster/Osnabrück, Naples, New York-JFK, Nice, Oslo, Palma de Mallorca, Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Rome-Fiumicino, St. Petersburg, San Francisco, São Paulo-Guarulhos, Shanghai-Pudong, Sofia, Stockholm-Arlanda, Tbilisi, Tokyo-Narita, Vienna, Washington-Dulles, Yerevan, Zürich)

 Lufthansa CityLine (Amsterdam, Basel, Birmingham, Bologna, Bordeaux, Bratislava, Bremen, Bucharest-Otopeni, Budapest, Cologne/Bonn, Copenhagen, Donetsk, Dortmund, Düsseldorf, Florence, Gdansk, Geneva, Gothenburg, Hanover, Kraków, Leipzig/Halle, Manchester, Marseille, Milan-Malpensa, Münster/Osnabrück, Naples, Nice, Oslo, Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Porto, Sarajevo, Sofia, Stockholm-Arlanda, Timişoara, Toulouse, Vienna, Warsaw, Westerland-Sylt, Zagreb, Zürich)
 Lufthansa Regional operated by Air Dolomiti (Ancona, Basel/Mulhouse, Berne, Bologna, Cagliari, Milan-Bergamo [ends October 27, 2006], Milan-Malpensa, Naples, Pisa, Prague, Rome-Fiumicino, Trieste, Turin, Venice)
 Lufthansa Regional operated by Augsburg Airways (Dortmund, Florence, Graz, Olbia, Paderborn, Poznan, Prague, Stuttgart, Wroclaw, Zagreb)
 Lufthansa Regional operated by Contact Air (Leipzig/Halle)
 Lufthansa Regional operated by Eurowings (Belgrade, Budapest, Münster/Osnabrück, Naples, Nice)
 Privatair (Newark)
 Luxair (Luxembourg, Saarbrücken)
 Qatar Airways (Doha)
 Scandinavian Airlines System (Copenhagen)
 Swiss International Airlines (Zürich)
 TAP Portugal (Lisbon)
 Thai Airways International (Bangkok)
 United Airlines (Chicago-O'Hare, Washington-Dulles)

Central area
The central area is a shopping-mall that is in between the two terminals; the older part which belongs to terminal 1 is an indoor area. The newer part which was built as the same time as the 2nd terminal is a big outside area.

Cargo Area
The airport also has a cargo area. It is used by:
 Cathay Pacific Cargo
 Emirates Cargo
 Qatar Airways Cargo

Airports in Germany
Buildings and structures in Munich

Munich Airport


The Rats of Tobruk was the name given to the soldiers who held the Libyan port of Tobruk against the Afrika Corps, during the Siege of Tobruk in World War II.

The siege started on 10 April 1941. It was relieved at the end of November.

Australian troops of the Australian 9th Division and the 18th Brigade of the Australian 7th Division under Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead made up more than half of the Allied presence in Tobruk. There were more than 14,000 men. The rest of the garrison was made up of 12,000 British (the 3rd Armoured Brigade, 4 artillery regiments) and Indian (the 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry) troops.

During the three moonless periods between August and October, the Australian troops and Indian cavalry left by sea and were replaced by British 70th Infantry Division and the Polish Independent Carpathian Brigade with the Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion under command.

British military personnel of World War II
1941
20th century in Africa

The Rats of Tobruk


The Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) is an American federal law. This law allows extended criminal penalties and civil actions for criminal networks. RICO means that the leaders of any group can be tried for crimes if they forced others do the crimes or help with the crimes.

The RICO act covers these crimes:

Embezzlement
Bankruptcy fraud or other fraud
Obstruction of justice
Copyright infringing
Bribery

RICO started in 1970. Many different groups have been threatened with lawsuits or sued under this law.
Examples include:
 Hell's Angels Motorcycle Club
 Los Angeles Police Department
 Michael Milken
 Some Catholic dioceses

References

1970 establishments in the United States
United States federal legislation


Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera (Sevilla, Spain, 1528 – Santiago del Estero, 17 August 1574) was a Spanish conquistador, early colonial governor over much of what today is northwestern Argentina, and founder of the city of Córdoba.

Life and times
Cabrera was born in Seville, Spain, in 1528. He and an older brother, Pedro, migrated to the Viceroyalty of Perú in 1538, and following his enlistment in the Spanish Army, Jerónimo was eventually made a sergeant and stationed in the colonial nerve center of Cuzco, in 1549. He led numerous military campaigns in subsequent years, notably among them the suppression of revolts in Ica and Nazca, and following a post in the capital, Lima, he was appointed in 1571 corregidor of Potosí.

Towards the end of 1571, Cabrera was designated adelantado for the purpose of exploring uncharted territories south of Potosí. The commission was followed by his appointment as governor of Tucumán Province, which then covered most of what later became the Argentine Northwest. Stationing his office in Santiago del Estero, he organized an expedition of 100 soldiers and 40 supply wagons during 1572, and parted towards the south with the intention of creating a strategic foothold. An initial settlement, Quisquisacate, failed within days of its 24 June 1573 establishment, and on 6 July the expedition chose a location on the banks of the Suquía River, around 250 mi (400 km) south of Santiago de Estero. Given the privilege of naming the settlement, Cabrera named it Córdoba de la Nueva Andalucía, in honor of his wife's birthplace.

Cabrera enjoyed relatively good relations with the area's native inhabitants, the Comechingones, and proved an able administrator of the new settlement, which within a year counted with the basic legal and administrative institutions of a stable village. He departed towards the east on his own initiative in 1574 and quickly reached the shores of the Paraná River, over 200 mi (320 km) away, establishing the Fort of San Luis (near what today is Santa Fe, Argentina). Founding the Viceroyalty of Perú's first viable beach-head towards the Atlantic Ocean (via the highly-navigable Paraná), the feat met with the rivalry of Captain Juan de Garay, who had been sent down the river from Asunción with orders from the Viceroy to do the same.

The ensuing dispute was judged by an official arbiter, Gonzalo de Abreu, who found Cabrera guilty of insubordination to the Viceroy (an infraction punishable by death). Spared being garroted on account of his being born to Spanish nobility, Cabrera was taken to Lima, where he was executed by decapitation on 17 August 1574.

References

1528 births
1574 deaths
16th-century Spanish people
Spanish conquistadors
Andalusian conquistadors
Spanish colonial governors and administrators
People from Seville
Executed Spanish people
People executed by Spain by decapitation
Spanish people executed abroad
Governors of the Río de la Plata

Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera


David W. Allen (October 22, 1944 – August 16, 1999) was an American film and television stop motion model (puppet) animator.

Allen provided special effects on such productions as The Howling, Twilight Zone: The Movie, Young Sherlock Holmes (for which he earned an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects nomination), Willow and Honey, I Shrunk the Kids. He also had a long association with producer Charles Band, working on such films as Dolls, Puppet Master, Bride of Re-Animator, Subspecies and Demonic Toys.

Career

Some of Allen's earliest animation work can be seen in the 1970 16mm student film Equinox, which was expanded from a short film to a feature-length film by Jack H. Harris and re-titled The Beast for VHS video release in the 1980s.

Although he had been working for years in animation, mostly doing commercials like the Pillsbury Doughboy, Allen made a splash on movie viewers when he animated the "Nesuahyrrah" monster who appears at the climax of the semi-porn low-brow parody comedy Flesh Gordon produced by Howard Ziehm in 1974.  The film also featured an animation sequence from long-time Allen friend Jim Danforth.

Allen's contributed model animation to a Volkswagen commercial made in 1972 in which King Kong spots a giant version of the car from his Empire State Building perch in New York.  Climbing down from the building, Kong puts his human "date" into the passenger seat, gets in the car, and drives down Fifth Avenue out of sight.  The spot aired only once on network TV and, in spite of favorable public response, was pulled because VW executives decided that they did not like the image of an ape driving their car.

Allen joined with Jim Danforth, a long-time friend, to provide model animation for the low-budget horror film The Crater Lake Monster (1977). He also animated the aliens in the low-budget science fiction film Laserblast (1978).

With Danforth, Ray Harryhausen, various other model animators, visual effects artists, film producers and directors, Allen helped organize an event in March 1983 at Mann's Chinese Theater commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the release of King Kong, loaning his VW Kong model for display at the Roosevelt Hotel across the street from the theater.

Allen was also hired to animate the little flying saucers for the hit feature-length theatrical film Batteries Not Included (1987), a story that was originally intended to be an episode of Spielberg's Amazing Stories TV series. Allen and his crew animated the hallucinations and creatures in Barry Levinson's 1985 film Young Sherlock Holmes, earning an Academy Award Nomination in 1985.

His production company, David Allen Productions, did visual effects and model animation for the bizarre monster movie Freaked in 1992.

Up until his death from cancer in 1999, Allen had been intermittently working on the stop motion effects for the film The Primevals, his own production.  This project dates from early in his career, in the late 1960s, when he pitched an epic fantasy to Hammer Film executives.  He developed the idea over the years, and in 1978 he began production with producer Charles Band.  The film was the subject of a cover story in Cinefantastique Magazine that year, but despite the interest, the production was shut down, then briefly revived twice more, then shut down again.  An Allen protégé, Chris Endicott, has done some further animation work on the film and Band is planning to release a completed version of the film.

David Allen and his production company associates continued to nurture a long-term association with Charles Band, producing animation and other effects for a series of Band produced and/or directed fantasy films released either theatrically and direct to video markets by Paramount Pictures during the 1980s and 90s.  Some of the films in this series are the Puppet Master films, the Prehysteria series, the Demonic Toys films, and various impressive one-shot productions such as the skeletons of dinosaurs that come to life and do battle in the film Doctor Mordrid.

Allen's production company, now helmed by Chris Endicott, continues to do effects work on various films.

Personal life

In 1995, Allen was married to Donita Woodruff, whom he met in 1990. Woodruff learned that Allen had previously dated a woman named Valerie Taylor intermittently starting in 1985, which led to a dispute between Woodruff and Taylor. Woodruff suspected that Taylor had a criminal past, and found enough evidence to persuade the police to arrest her in 1996 for a 1979 murder in South Carolina. Taylor pleaded self-defense and served two years. Allen and Woodruff were divorced in 1998.

Visual effects

 2023 The Primevals (Writer, Director, Special Effects) (Special project from Charles Band, completed posthumously)
1996 The Legend of Galgameth (visual effects supervisor)
1996 Special Effects: Anything Can Happen (documentary short) (stop motion animator: King Kong sequence)
 1996 The Arrival (visual effects – uncredited)
 1996 Oblivion 2: Backlash (visual effects director – as David Allen)
 1994 Puppet Master 5 (video) (puppet effects supervisor – as David Allen)
 1994 Shrunken Heads (visual effects coordinator – as David Allen)
 1994 Oblivion (special visual effects)
 1994 Bloodlust: Subspecies III (video) (stop motion supervisor)
 1993 Puppet Master 4 (video) (puppet effects supervisor – as David Allen)
 1993 Dollman vs. Demonic Toys (video) (special effects animation)
 1993 Freaked (stop motion animation)
 1993 Prehysteria! (special effects)
 1993 Robot Wars (visual effects supervisor)
 1992 Doctor Mordrid (special effects animation, visual effects – as David Allen)
 1992 Demonic Toys (video) (stop motion animation)
 1991 Puppet Master III: Toulon's Revenge (video) (stop motion animator: David Allen Productions, visual effects producer: David Allen Productions)
 1991 Subspecies (visual effects director)
 1991 Oscar (animated main title, visual effects – as David Allen)
 1991 Puppet Master II (video) (visual effects supervisor: David Allen Productions)
 1990 Robot Jox (visual effects – as David Allen)
 1990 Bride of Re-Animator (special effects – as David Allen, special effects supervisor: David Allen Productions, special makeup effects: David Allen Productions, stop motion animation and miniatures: David Allen Productions)
 1989 Puppet Master (video) (puppet animator, visual effects supervisor)
 1989 Enemies, a Love Story (special effects)
 1989 Honey, I Shrunk the Kids (stop motion animator/stop motion ant crew, stop motion animator: ant sequence – as David Allen)
 1989 Ghostbusters II (character performer: ILM – as David Allen)
 1988 Ghoulies II (stop motion sequences)
 1988 Willow (chief puppeteer – as David Allen)
 1988 Pulse Pounders (visual effects supervisor)
 1987 *batteries not included (chief puppeteer: uncredited; ILM visual effects: credited as rod puppet and stop motion supervisor)
 1987 Dolls (special visual effects)
 1986 Eliminators (special optical effects)
 1985 Young Sherlock Holmes (chief puppeteer – as David Allen, pastry sequence motion supervisor: ILM – as David Allen)
 1985 The Stuff (special visual effects – as David Allen)
 1984 Ragewar (visual effects designer – as David Allen)
 1983 Twilight Zone: The Movie (visual effects – segment 4 / as David Allan)
 1983 The Hunger (stop motion animator: monkey sequence – as David Allen)
 1982 Q (special visual effects – as David Allen)
 1982 White Dog (prosthetics)
 1981 Caveman (visual effects supervisor – as David Allen)
 1981 The Howling (stop motion animation – as David Allen)
 1980 The Day Time Ended (dimensional animation – as David Allen, technical advisor – as David Allen)
 1980 Witches' Brew (creator: "Lucifer" demon – as David Allen)
 1978 Laserblast (animation effects)
 1977 The Crater Lake Monster (stop motion supervisor)
 1974 Flesh Gordon (stop motion)
 1970 When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth (stop motion effects)
 1970 Equinox (special photographic effects, stop motion effects)

References

External links

Aboyd.com
"Interview with David Allen, King Kong Builder and Animator", PBS Nova.
Chronology of Animation: 1999

1944 births
1999 deaths
Animators from California
Special effects people
Stop motion animators
Deaths from cancer in California

David W. Allen


Rodion Markovits (; or Markovitz, born Markovits Jakab ; 1888 – August 27, 1948) was an Austro-Hungarian-born writer, journalist and lawyer, one of the early modernist contributors to Magyar literary culture in Transylvania and Banat regions. He achieved international fame with the extended reportage Szibériai garnizon ("Siberian Garrison", 1927–8), which chronicles his own exotic experiences in World War I and the Russian Civil War. Locally, he is also known for his lifelong contribution to the political and cultural press of Transylvania. A Romanian national after 1920, Markovits divided himself between the Hungarian Romanian and Jewish communities, and was marginally affiliated with both the Ma art group and the Erdélyi Helikon writers.

Rodion Markovitz was seen by his contemporaries as an eccentric, and some of his colleagues believed him a minor and incidental writer. He was also noted for his leftist inclinations, cemented during his personal encounter with Bolshevism but toned down during the final decades of his life. Although he continued to publish short stories until the 1940s, and wrote the sequel novel Aranyvonat ("Gold Train"), his work never again matched the success of Szibériai garnizon. His final home was the Banat city of Timișoara, where he worked for the Romanian and Hungarian press, and eventually became a grassroots activist of the Hungarian People's Union.

Biography

Early life and World War I
Culturally and ethnically, Markovits was of Hungarian-Jewish extraction, and socially belonged to the lower classes. His background may have been Jewish assimilationist, and he regarded himself as ethnically Hungarian, but his interest in maintaining links with secular Jewish culture put distance between him and the more committed assimilationists. Historian Attila Gidó nevertheless includes Markovits among the most prominent Jews who helped promote, from within, the Hungarian urban culture of Transylvania.

The writer's home village was Kisgérce (today Gherţa Mică, Romania), in the ethnographic region of Avasság (Țara Oașului). He spent part of his childhood in Szatmárnémeti (today Satu Mare, Romania), the local urban center, where he attended Catholic school and then the Kölcsey Calvinist College. Young Markovits went on to study Law at the Faculty of Law of the Budapest (Eötvös Loránd) University, but mainly focused on his budding career as writer and cultural journalist, publishing with left-leaning or satirical periodicals such as Fidibusz, Népszava, Független, Ifjú Erők, Korbács, Szatmár és Vidéke and Márton Lovászy's Magyarország. Upon graduation, he also worked as a lawyer.

Romanian literary historian Cornel Ungureanu refers to World War I as Markovits' "first great journalistic adventure". Markovits was mobilized into the Austro-Hungarian Army a few months into the conflict. In early 1915, he was sent with the 12th Royal Hungarian Army infantry regiment to the Eastern Front, and was captured by the Russian military during summer 1916. His account places this event at the peak of Russia's Brusilov Offensive. Also according to Markovits, the column of Hungarian captives (including much of the 12th) was ordered to the transit camp of Darnytsia (Kiev), then his contingent was carried by train to Kineshma and by boat to Makaryevo. Their rest was interrupted by news that they were to be moved into Siberia, and eventually they were relocated to the banks of the Usuri River, on Russia's nominal border with the Republic of China.

Revolutionary politics
Markovits spent the next seven years of his life in Siberia and the Russian Far East—first as a prisoner of war, then as a drifter. He was notably held in Krasnaya Rechka prison camp, where he founded a newspaper for Hungarian captives, Szibériai Újság. Here, the Austro-Hungarian captives were reached by news of the February Revolution, and began organizing themselves into political or national factions even before the October Revolution sparked chaos in their captors' ranks. Nominally free, the prisoners were left to fend for themselves: after the Russian Civil War began, they purchased a train and, with it, made as far west as Samara, passing by Bolshevik units and Czechoslovak Legions, and being then pushed back into Siberia by the war tide; some Hungarians left the convoy to join the Bolsheviks' Red Guards.

Markovits was held in an isolated and improvised camp near Krasnoyarsk, where life conditions became brutal and the rank structure collapsed entirely. From this location, the entire group of Austro-Hungarians witnessed first hand the mutiny of Russian soldiers from the 30th Regiment, its repression by the White Army, followed by the mass murder of all disarmed rebels and the selective killing of Hungarians who supposedly helped them. According to Markovits, the camp population took its revenge by firing on the retreating Whites of Aleksandr Kolchak, capturing some 8,000 men—an action which had the unwanted effect of bringing typhus into the camp.

Markovits survived the outbreak and joined the newly created Red Army, where he became political commissar at a brigade level. According to his own fictionalized account, he volunteered to help with the coal transports organized by the Red squadrons, and was rewarded with repatriation (through the Baltic states, East Prussia and then Poland).

By the time Markovits returned to Transylvania, the entire region had been united with Romania. He decided to settle in Satu Mare, where he opened a law practice and continued work for the local Hungarian press—as editor of Szamos daily and correspondent for Cluj's Keleti Újság. He made his return to literature with short stories, grouped as Ismét találkoztam Balthazárral ("Once More, I Ran into Balthazar") and published in 1925.

The former prisoner had remained a committed follower of Leninism, as described by Ungureanu: "Taking his place on the left's barricades, living intensely the utopian illusions of communism, Markovits was to illustrate, in the early 1920s (like Malraux, Wells, Shaw, Panait Istrati, Gide etc.), the frenzy of enrollment." In the early to mid-1920s, Rodion Markovits came into contact with the socialist art magazine Ma, published in Vienna by Lajos Kassák and other leftist writers who opposed the regimes of Regency Hungary. Also left-leaning, the Romanian monthly Contimporanul paid homage to Ma as the regional ally of its own avant-garde program: "The reddish air of revolution has braided together the youth of Ma artists and the ideology of a revolution that might have realized their ideal. And the world awaited for the new Christ. But once the White reaction took over, Ma exiled itself to Vienna [...] A new period, a new foundation, a new language emerge with the adoption of collective Constructivism." Between the Constructivist cells of Ma and Contimporanul, and ensuring that the Hungarian and Romanian avant-gardes remained in contact, there was a cosmopolitan group of Transylvanian leftists: Markovits, Aurel Buteanu, Károly Endre, Robert Reiter and Julius Podlipny.

Literary prominence
Szibériai garnizon was originally serialized by Keleti Újság during 1927. The next year, it was reissued as two volumes. These caught the eye of fellow writer Lajos Hatvany, who undertook their translation into German, for Vossischen Zeitung and later for Ullstein-Verlag. The 1929 English version by George Halasz was published in the United States by Horace Liveright, and the first print was exhausted over a few months. A French translation was published by Éditions Payot in 1930.

The books were translated into some 12 other languages before 1933, reaching as far as Asia and South America and making Markovits an international celebrity of the interwar period. According to cultural historian Ivan Sanders, Markovits was, "for a time, the best-known Transylvanian writer in the world." As commentators have since noted, Szibériai garnizon also announced to the world that Hungarian literature in Transylvania was coming of age, even though its subject and content were largely dissonant with the aims of Transylvania's existing literary clubs.

In the larger context of Hungarian literature as divided by the interwar borders, Markovits has drawn parallels with the war-themed literature of Géza Gyóni, Aladár Kuncz, Máté Zalka and Lajos Zilahy. According to Ungureanu, solid links exist between Markovits and an entire category of Austro-Hungarian intellectuals who turned into revolutionaries. Ungureanu concludes: "Settled in the 'once upon a time' provinces of the Empire or wandering the world in search of a 'juster' cause, [these authors] give name to a finality — a shipwreck."

Following the international confirmation, Markovits attracted interest among Transylvanian and Romanian writers of all cultures. The Bucharest daily Dimineaţa featured the serialized Romanian-language version shortly after its German edition saw print. Meanwhile, the Transylvanian Hungarian editors of Erdélyi Helikon review asked Markovits to join their literary club and, in 1929, he visited them at Marosvécs-Brâncoveneşti. Helikon contributor Ernő Ligeti left a memoir of the meeting, in which Markovits comes off as the uncommunicative eccentric. The puzzled and (according to Sanders) envious Ligeti noted that Markovits did not live up to the respect of his "penniless" fans, did not show any interest in Helikons educational agenda, and only "opened his mouth" to impart "droll anecdotes".

In Timișoara
After February 1931, Rodion Markovits moved to the Banat's cultural center, Timișoara, having been granted an editor's position at Temesvári Hírlap (the Hungarian and liberal daily of László Pogány). This relocation, Ungureanu notes, was the end of his communist engagements, and his reinvention as "a reasonable newspaperman". Markovits' writing was later featured in the Romanian-language magazine Vrerea, put out by the left-wing poet Ion Stoia-Udrea. Their common agenda, also shared by Timișoaran intellectuals Virgil Birou, Zoltán Franyó, Andrei A. Lillin and József Méliusz, defined itself around notions of multiculturalism and class conflict. In a 1935 interview, he declared his "spontaneous, sincere and complete affiliation" to the proposals for greater cooperation between Hungarian and Romanian authors.

These years saw the publication of Markovits' two new books: the novels Aranyvonat and Sánta farsang ("Limp Carnival"), and the short prose collection Reb Ancsli és más avasi zsidókról szóló széphistóriák ("Stories About Reb Anschl and Other Jews from the Mountains"). According to Ivan Sanders, "Markovits's subsequent novels were not nearly as successful as Siberian Garrison." Ligeti, who recalled that Markovits fared badly in his journalistic career, mentions that Reb Ancsli... required its author to peddle his way back to the publishers' attention.

Markovits survived World War II from his new home in the Banat, while Regency Hungary incorporated his Northern Transylvanian place of birth. By 1944, Romania had control over both regions, and a transition to communism was first envisaged. At the time, Markovits became a volunteer activist of the Hungarian People's Union, a regional and ethnic partner of the Romanian Communist Party. He resumed his journalistic activity, writing for various Magyar papers in Romania and the Republic of Hungary (Képes Újság, Szabad Szó, Utunk, Világ), gave public readings of his newer works, and lectured at the Béla Bartók Summer University. For a while, Markovits was also president of the Association of Banat Hungarian Writers.

Rodion Markovits died unexpectedly, in his sleep, on August 27, 1948, and was buried at the Timișoara Jewish Cemetery.

Literary work
Ismét találkoztam Balthazárral was in fact Markovits' earliest account of his Siberian trek. Writing in 1930 for the Transylvanian periodical Societatea de Mâine, literary critic Ion Chinezu argued that the volume was merely negligent: "The mannerism of these Siberian memoirs, written with coffee house negligence, was not a good recommendation." By contrast, Szibériai garnizon survives as Markovits' one great book. Chinezu even ranks it better than the period's other war novels (All Quiet on the Western Front), since, beyond "fashion and psychosis", it "has remarkable qualities". An editorial review in the US Field Artillery Branch Coast Artillery Journal also noted: "Siberian Garrison, by sheer force of merit, has become the literary sensation of Europe".

Overall, reviewers agree that the volume is hard to classify in the grid of established genres. Although often read as a novel (a "documentary novel", Sanders suggests), Szibériai garnizon carries the subtitle of "collective reportage". It is a second-person narrative focused on a Budapest lawyer, very likely Markovits' alter ego, who interprets things around him through the grid of objectivity, common sense and boredom. Coast Artillery Journal described Markovits' "unforgettable" creation as "in a class of its own": equal parts novel, diary, historical account and "war book".

Szibériai garnizon, Chinezu notes, lacks all the formal qualities of a novel and veers into "clicking monotony", but, "for all its longueurs, is lively and propels itself into the reader's awareness." Similarly, La Quinzaine Critique columnist André Pierre reported: "The work is located outside the frame of literature, and constitutes a seething document of life, rich in hallucinatory visions." Reviewer Al. Simion writes that the book has as its fortes the "concreteness of images", a "gentle or not so gentle" irony, and, overall, "a limpidness reminding one about the clarity of deepest wells"; the book's universe, he argues, is "flat perhaps, but transparent". Coast Artillery Journal found the narrative to be "distinctly Slavic", "introspective, analytical, sometimes morbid, with a fatalistic acceptance of the inevitable".

To the background of historical events, Szibériai garnizon explores existential themes. According to Chinezu, the text is important for showing the alienation of a prisoner, the man's transformation into "anonymous digit", and the apathetic crowd into which he submerges. Characters fall into two main categories: those who conveniently forget their countries of birth for the duration of their ordeal, and those who miss them so much that they risk escaping and making the perilous journey across Asia. The one sustained effort against apathy is mounted by a militaristic and loyalist group of prisoners, who establish a Siberian branch of Turul Society. Markovits retells the dramatic failure of their honor system, and the ridiculousness of their cultural endeavors, with subdued irony (over what Chinezu calls his "many acid pages"). Al. Simion also notes that, in their Siberian exile, the prisoners come to understand the fragility of their own Empire.

Beyond commentary on the "burlesque bankruptcy of militarism", the reportage is a humorous critique of capitalism. Chinezu reads this in Markovits' depiction of officers, including aged ones, who quickly retrain and build themselves lucrative careers as shoemakers or shopkeepers. The Romanian critic concludes: "the eternal opposition of exploiters and exploited takes its form here, in the heart of Asia." The spark of revolution achieves the destruction of social convention, but also replaces monotony with the presentment of doom. "At one with the events," Simion writes, "the individual or collective dramas and tragedies unfold in accelerated rhythms, in an often demented cavalcade. The extraordinary, the apocalyptic are metamorphosed into diurnal experience." According to Pierre, Markovits' literary effort is on par with the published diaries of another Siberian captive, Edwin Erich Dwinger. Dwinger and the Hungarian author depict "the same destitution, the same sexual perversions, a disruption of ideas and convictions after the Russian Revolution, the camp's transformation into a workers' phalanstère."

With Reb Ancsli és más avasi zsidókról szóló széphistóriák, Markovits alienated his Hungarian Romanian public, a fact noted by Ivan Sanders. "This curious collection", Sanders writes, "is indeed much closer in spirit and style to popular Yiddish literature than to Transylvanian Hungarian writing, and [Ernő] Ligeti notes this, too, with a mixture of amusement and disdain."

Legacy
In Communist Romania, Rodion Markovits' overall work was considered for translation and republication during the mid-1960s—a project of the state-run ESPLA Publishing House, with assistance from his former Timișoaran colleagues Zoltán Franyó and József Méliusz. Markovits continued to be respected by the national communist authorities, even as the diplomatic contacts with Hungary began to worsen. Around 1968, the Romanian regime promoted Markovits, Jenő Dsida, Sándor Makkai, Aladár Kuncz and some others as the canonical authors of Hungarian-Romanian literature, but, Hungarian observers wrote, it remained silent about the more unpalatable political stances these authors took. In a 1981 review of Hungarian Romanian literature, published by the Romanian Communist Party's Era Socialistă, Kuncz and Markovits were introduced as authors of "anti-militarist novels [...] unmasking the cruelty of World War I".

A Romanian edition of Szibériai garnizon was eventually re-translated by Dan Culcer, and published with Bucharest's Editura Kriterion. After being researched and collected by writer János Szekernyés, Markovits' articles were grouped in the 1978 volume Páholyból ("From the Booth").

Markovits' work continued to be revered even after the Romanian Revolution of 1989 toppled communism. Editura Dacia republished Garnizoana din Siberia, and his work was included in a commemorative anthology of writers from Satu Mare County. The writer's home in Gherţa Mică is preserved as the Rodion Markovits Memorial House.<ref> Casă memorială. Gherţa Mică"], at the Satu Mare County site; retrieved November 11, 2011</ref>

Notes

References
 Markovits Rodion, Garnizoana din Siberia (translated by Dan Culcer, with a preface by Al. Simion), Editura Kriterion, Bucharest, 1975; online reprint at the Erdélyi Magyar Adatbank
 Andreea Andreescu, Lucian Nastasă, Andrea Varga (eds.), Minorităţi etnoculturale. Mărturii documentare. Maghiarii din România (1956–1968) (Documente 145–151), Resource Center for Ethno-cultural Diversity, Cluj-Napoca, 2003.
Adriana Babeţi, Cornel Ungureanu (eds.), Europa Centrală. Memorie, paradis, apocalipsă, Polirom, Iaşi, 1998.
Paul Cernat, Avangarda românească şi complexul periferiei: primul val, Cartea Românească, Bucharest, 2007.
 André Pierre, "Revue des livres et des revues. Littérature hongroise", in La Quinzaine Critique'', Nr. 41/1931, p. 335-336 (digitized by the Bibliothèque nationale de France [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ Gallica digital library)

Writers from Austria-Hungary
Journalists from Austria-Hungary
Hungarian journalists
Hungarian male novelists
Jewish Hungarian-language writers
Romanian opinion journalists
Romanian memoirists
Romanian male novelists
20th-century Romanian novelists
Romanian male short story writers
Romanian short story writers
Jewish novelists
Austro-Hungarian Jews
Romanian people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
People from Satu Mare County
Eötvös Loránd University alumni
20th-century Hungarian lawyers
Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I
World War I prisoners of war held by Russia
People of the Russian Civil War
Hungarian communists
Romanian communists
Communist writers
1888 births
1948 deaths
20th-century Hungarian novelists
20th-century Hungarian male writers
20th-century journalists
20th-century memoirists

Rodion Markovits


Soho is an area of the City of Westminster and the West End of London. It is long established as an entertainment district. For much of the 20th century Soho had sex shops, prostitutes, jazz clubs, bars, night clubs, theatres and the movie industry.

Since the early 1980s, the area has changed greatly: it has moved upmarket. It now is a fashionable district of expensive restaurants and media offices, with only a few sex industry venues. Some music venues survive, such as Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club. The area includes Carnaby Street, the centre of the 'Swinging London' fashion scene of the 1960s, and Wardour Street, a centre of the movie and entertainment industry.

Geography

Soho was never an administrative unit with formal boundaries. It is an area of about a square mile, bounded by Oxford Street to the north, Regent Street to the west, Leicester Square to the south and Charing Cross Road to the east. Apart from Oxford Street, all of these roads are 19th-century metropolitan improvements.

The area to the west is known as Mayfair, to the north Fitzrovia, to the east St Giles and Covent Garden, and to the south St James's.  According to the Soho Society, Chinatown, the area between Leicester Square to the south and Shaftesbury Avenue to the north, is part of Soho, although some consider it a separate area.

Broad Street pump

A significant event in the history of epidemiology and public health was Dr. John Snow's study of an 1854 outbreak of cholera in Soho. He identified the cause of the outbreak as water from the public water pump located at the junction of Broad Street (now Broadwick Street) and Cambridge Street (now Lexington Street), close to the rear wall of what is today the John Snow public house.

John Snow mapped the addresses of the sick, and noted that they were mostly people whose nearest access to water was the Broad Street pump.  He persuaded the authorities to remove the handle of the pump, thus preventing any more of the infected water from being collected.  The spring below the pump was later found to have been contaminated with sewage.  This is an early example of epidemiology, public health medicine and the application of science–the germ theory of disease.

Science writer Steven Johnson describes the 2006 appearance of places related to the Broad Street Pump cholera outbreak:

A replica of the pump, with a memorial plaque and without a handle (to signify John Snow's action to halt the outbreak) was erected near the location of the original pump.

Theatre and movie industry
Soho is near the heart of London's theatre area, and is a centre of the independent movie and video industry as well as the television and movie 'post-production' industry. It is home to Soho Theatre, built in 2000 for new plays and stand-up comedy. The British Board of Film Classification, formerly known as the British Board of Film Censors, can be found in Soho Square.

Soho is criss-crossed by a rooftop telecommunication network, and below ground level with fibre optics making up Sohonet, which connects the Soho media and post-production community to British movie studios such as Pinewood Studios and Shepperton Studios, and to other major production centres (such as Rome, New York City, Los Angeles, Sydney and Wellington, New Zealand.

There are also plans by Westminster Council to deploy high-bandwidth Wi-Fi networks in Soho as part of a programme to further encourage the development of the area as a centre for media and technology industries.

References

External sites
 The Soho Society

City of Westminster
Red light districts

Soho


The  is a 32-bit video game console made by Sega.  It was released in Japan on November 22 1994, in the United States on May 11 1995, and in Europe on July 8 1995.  Games were released on CD-ROMs. It is followed by the Dreamcast. The Saturn was the first Sega video game console which can display 3D graphics.  Accessories were available for the Sega Saturn, including a gun controller which was used to play Virtua Cop, and an analog controller.

The console was called Saturn because it was Sega's sixth games console, and Saturn is the sixth planet of the solar system.

Throughout the consoles lifespan it sold 17.4 million hardware units from November 1994 to March 2001 with 8.8 million sold in Japan and 4.1 million sold in the United States respectively. The Sega Saturn is considered a commercial flop, but has a very strong retro who has not given up on the Saturn.

Japanese models
The Sega Saturn was quite popular in Japan, because of the commercial with Segata Sanshiro, a man who devoted his life to the Sega Saturn. The Japanese Sega Saturn was black, and it was later changed to gray.

European/North American models
In North America, the Saturn was not nearly as popular as it was in Japan. When it was first released, there were only a few games available, because the console's strange technology made it difficult to program for. That caused the PlayStation to be more popular in Europe. Another problem was that Sega released the Saturn sooner than they intended to, but did not tell shops about the new release date, meaning that many of them did not sell the Saturn at all out of anger. Sega had also made other consoles to try and be the first to use new technology, such as the Sega CD (an early console with games that came on CDs) and the Sega 32X (with better graphics than Sega's previous consoles), leaving some gamers without enough money to buy all three systems or angry at Sega for abandoning the 32X when the Saturn was released.

Notes

Saturn

Sega Saturn


The so-called Vatican Mythographers () are the anonymous authors of three Latin mythographical texts found together in a single medieval manuscript, Vatican Reg. lat. 1401.  The name is that used by Angelo Mai when he published the first edition of the works in 1831.  The text of the First Vatican Mythographer is found only in the Vatican manuscript; the second and third texts are found separately in other manuscripts, leading scholars to refer to a Second Vatican Mythographer and a Third Vatican Mythographer.

Content
Taken together, the works of the Vatican Mythographers provided a source-book of Greek and Roman myths and their iconography throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The texts, which were being copied in manuscripts as late as the 15th century,  were parsed allegorically to provide Christianized moral and theological implications, "until in time the pagan divinities blossomed into full-fledged vices and virtues". Their testimonia, sources, and parallel passages constitute central documents in the transmission of classical culture to the medieval world, which is a major theme in the history of ideas in the West—though the texts have also been described as "highly deceptive sources which should be used with much caution".

Mai made many slips in rapidly transcribing the manuscript under difficult conditions, and he was in the habit of substituting euphemisms where the original was too sexually explicit to transcribe and publish, even in Latin. A revised, indexed edition of 1834, corrected by Georg Heinrich Bode without access to the Vatican manuscript, is the version that replaced Mai's first edition and has been drawn on in popular 20th-century anthologies of Greek mythology, such as those by Edith Hamilton, Robert Graves, and Karl Kerenyi.

The work of the First Vatican Mythographer is essentially a pared-down "fact-book" of mythology, stripped of nuance, not unlike the Fabulae of Hyginus, who, however, had provided no Roman stories and so could not suffice. No classical authors are quoted directly, but the author seems to have used the commentary on Virgil by Servius and the scholiasts on Statius as sources. A modern edition of the text was published in 1995 by Nevio Zorzetti. On the basis of the latest source cited in it and the date of the first source to cite it, Zorzetti dates the composition of the work between the last quarter of the 9th century and the third quarter of the 11th century.

Ten manuscripts are known for the second text, and more than forty for the third. The work of the Second Vatican Mythographer, which draws on that of the first, though it is considerably longer, perhaps dates to the 11th century. A modern edition of it was produced by Péter Kulcsár in 1987. The work of the Third Vatican Mythographer, which differs from the others by containing "extensive allegorical interpretations", has often been attributed either to a certain Alberic of London, who is named in a number of the manuscripts, or to Alexander Neckam.

Notes

References
Burnett, Charles S. F. "A Note on the Origins of the Third Vatican Mythographer", Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 44 (1981), pp. 160–166.
Elliott, Kathleen O., and J. P. Elder. "A Critical Edition of the Vatican Mythographers", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 78 (1947), pp. 189–207. (Summarizes results of research for an edition that never materialized.)
Kulcsár, Péter. Mythographi Vaticani I et II. Corpus Christianorum Series Latina 91c. Turnhout: Brepols, 1987.
Pepin, Ronald E. The Vatican Mythographers.  New York: Fordham University Press, 2008.  (English translation of all three texts.)
Zorzetti, Nevio, and Jacques Berlioz. Le Premier mythographe du Vatican. Collection des universités de France, Série latine. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1995.  (Includes a French translation [by Berlioz] and extensive annotations.)

Mythographers
Medieval Latin-language writers
Manuscripts of the Vatican Library
Works of unknown authorship
References on Greek mythology

Vatican Mythographers


Cheeks (also called the buccal cavity) are the area of the face under the eyes and between the nose and the ears.

It is fleshy in humans and mammals, the skin being held up by the chin and the jaws, and making the wall of the human mouth, touching the cheekbone below the eye.

In animals, markings on the cheek area (i.e. stripes/spots), often are features between species or individuals.

Face

Cheek


Virus classification is the way viruses are put into groups by scientists.
There are many different kinds of viruses. Scientists classify viruses to make it easier to learn about them. Classification also helps scientists to remember viruses and the diseases they cause. The International Committee of Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) is in charge of virus classification.

Sometimes different viruses have things in common. This is used in classification. For example, if they are made from DNA and protein, or RNA and protein. Other things that are taken into account are the size and shape of the viruses and the diseases they cause.

Similar viruses are first put into "families". Each family has a name. This family name always ends with "-viridae. For example, rotaviruses are in the Reoviridae family and herpes viruses are in the Herpesviridae family.

Viruses in any one family that are almost the same are then put in a smaller group called a "genus".

Another way of classifying viruses is called the Baltimore Classification. This is different from the ICTV one. Some scientists prefer the Baltimore Classification because it is based on how viruses grow in cells.

References

Viruses

Virus classification


Pathology is the study and medical diagnosis of disease, especially after death. A person who does this work is called a pathologist. Techniques include dissection, microscopic examination of tissues and chemical analysis of fluids. A pathologist may perform an autopsy, to discover the cause of death.

Pathology is a science that concerns with finding the cause (etiology) or presence of a disease by careful examination of a tissue or sample of any component of the body by scrutinizing it.

Pathologists often work with biochemists in hospital laboratories.

Pathology

Pathology


SS Nomadic is a steamship of the White Star Line, launched on 25 April 1911 in Belfast. She was built as a tender to the liners RMS Olympic and RMS Titanic, and is the last remaining boat built for the White Star Line still afloat.

History
The keel of Nomadic was laid down in the Harland and Wolff shipyards, Belfast in 1910 (yard number 422). She was launched on 25 April 1911 and delivered to the White Star Line on the 27 May. The ship was 67 meters (220 ft) long and 11.3 meters (37 ft) wide, with a gross tonnage of 1,273 tons. She had two three-bladed screws, propelling her to a maximum speed of 12 knots.

With her sister ship SS Traffic, Nomadic was used as a tender for Titanic and Olympic at Cherbourg in France. This meant she would ferry the passengers from Cherbourg to Titanic Olympic as they were too big to fit into the port at Cherbourg.
Nomadic was fitted with a luxurious interior and was used for the first and second class passengers, whilst Traffic served the third class travellers.

During World War I Nomadic saw service in carrying American troops at Brest (France).

In 1927, she was sold to Compagnie Cherbourghoise de Transbordement and then sold again to the Société Cherbourghoise de Remorquage et de Sauvetage in 1934. Then under the name Ingenieur Minard, she again served as troop ship in World War II.

After the war she continued tendering Cunard White Star (White Star Lines and Cunard merged in 1934) ships until November 1968. She then served RMS Queen Elizabeth for the last time.

In 1974, Nomadic was bought by a private individual and converted into a restaurant on the Seine in Paris, where she remained docked and semi-abandoned after the closure of the restaurant, until she was moved to the port of Le Havre in 2003.

Preservation of Nomadic
A public appeal for donations to return Nomadic to the Harland and Wolff shipyard for restoration was organised by Belfast Industrial Heritage (BIH), a non-profit organisation in Northern Ireland in collaboration with enthusiasts through the SaveNomadic.com Appeal.

On 26 January 2006, SS Nomadic was purchased at auction in Paris by the Department for Social Development, part of the Northern Ireland Office. She cost £171,320 (the reserve price being £165,000).

SS Nomadic left Le Havre to return to Belfast on 12 July, and arrived back close to where she was built on 18 July 2006. The vessel was welcomed back by the Social Development Minister David Hanson MP and the Deputy Lord Mayor of the City of Belfast, Councillor Ruth Patterson and a number of well wishers. The Nomadic arrived "piggy backed" on a marine transportation barge, which had been contracted from Anchor Marine Transportation Limited.

A study by Belfast City Council has estimated the cost of restoring Nomadic at £7 million. Belfast Harbour Commissioners have agreed to provide a temporary berth for the ship, and a charitable trust to co-ordinate fundraising for the restoration has been set up.
Now that the vessel is on the United Kingdom's National Register of Historic Vessels, the project should qualify for a National Lottery grant application, which should greatly enhance existing funds of £60,000 from a public appeal and £100,000 from Belfast City Council.

The Nomadic Appeal Public Website has now founded the Nomadic Preservation Society.

Location
On her return to Belfast, SS Nomadic was moored at Queen's Quay just outside the Odyssey Arena in Belfast and opened with a temporary exhibition. In late 2008 the ship was closed to the public and moved to Barnett's Dock for internal maintenance.  It is expected she will soon enter Hamilton Graving Dock for drydocking and complete restoration.

In January 2009, the company Frazer-Nash has been appointed to manage the Conservation Management Plan.  The level of restoration will then be decided.

It is planned that the restoration of SS Nomadic will be completed in time for the 100th anniversary of the sinking of Titanic in 2012.

References

Further reading
 Vanhoutte, Fabrice and Melia, Philippe (2004). Le S/S Nomadic: Petit frère du Titanic. Cherbourg: Editions Isoète.

Other websites

 Nomadic Preservation Society
 Nomadic Charitable Trust
 SS Nomadic Forum, Run by The Nomadic Preservation Society
 SS Nomadic History
  SS Nomadic and her sister ship, SS Traffic
 Maritime Matters - Nomadic
 National Register of Historic Vessels
 BBC News - "Titanic link ship set for Belfast"
 Anchor Marine Transportation Limited
 Pictures of the Nomadic
 Department for Social Development
 Nomadic in 2000 - photo from 2000 with brief description
  Nomadic Home at Atlantic Liners
 French Titanic Society - Association Française du Titanic
 - The French book by P. Melia & F. Vanhoutte

Ships of the White Star Line

SS Nomadic


Rice wine is a word some people use to talk about alcoholic drinks. However, it is not a true wine, despite the name. True wine is made by fermenting grapes, and perhaps other fruit. In rice wine, the starch in the rice is first changed into sugar. This sugar is then fermented. This process is more like the fermentation as it is done in beer.

The rice wines made in this manner have more alcohol in them than normal wines (18–25% alcohol compared to 10–14% for normal wines). Beers on the other hand usually have 4–8% alcohol in them.

Many people use the term rice wine to refer to sake (which is just one variant of many different kinds of rice wines).

Wine

Rice wine


Li (, lǐ, or , shìlǐ), also known as the Chinese mile, is a traditional Chinese unit of distance. The li has varied considerably over time but was usually about one third of an English mile and now has a standardized length of a half-kilometer (). This is then divided into 1,500 chi or "Chinese feet".

The character 里 combines the characters for "field" (田, tián) and "earth" (土, tǔ), since it was considered to be about the length of a single village. As late as the 1940s, a "li" did not represent a fixed measure but could be longer or shorter depending on the effort required to cover the distance.

There is also another li (Traditional: 釐, Simplified: 厘, lí) that indicates a unit of length  of a chi, but it is used much less commonly. This li is used in the People's Republic of China as the equivalent of the centi- prefix in metric units, thus limi (厘米, límǐ) for centimeter. The tonal difference makes it distinguishable to speakers of Chinese, but unless specifically noted otherwise, any reference to li will always refer to the longer traditional unit and not to either the shorter unit or the kilometer. This traditional unit, in terms of historical usage and distance proportion, can be considered the East Asian counterpart to the Western league unit. However, English league commonly means "3 miles". Based upon the etymology of English mile from Latin mīlle ("1,000") abbreviating mīlle passūs ("1,000 paces"), Victor Mair coined the neologism "tricent" ("300 [paces], about a third of a mile") to translate li as a unit of distance.

Changing values

Like most traditional Chinese measurements, the li was reputed to have been established by the Yellow Emperor at the founding of Chinese civilization around 2600 BC and standardized by Yu the Great of the Xia Dynasty six hundred years later. Although the value varied from state to state during the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States periods, historians give a general value to the li of 405 meters prior to the Qin Dynasty imposition of its standard in the 3rd century BC.

The basic Chinese traditional unit of distance was the chi. As its value changed over time, so did the lis. In addition, the number of chi per li was sometimes altered. To add further complexity, under the Qin Dynasty, the li was set at 360 "paces" (, bù) but the number of chi per bu was subsequently changed from 6 to 5, shortening the li by . Thus, the Qin li of about 576 meters became (with other changes) the Han li, which was standardized at 415.8 meters.

The basic units of measurement remained stable over the Qin and Han periods. A bronze imperial standard measure, dated AD 9, had been preserved at the Imperial Palace in Beijing and came to light in 1924. This has allowed very accurate conversions to modern measurements, which has provided a new and extremely useful additional tool in the identification of place names and routes. These measurements have been confirmed in many ways including the discovery of a number of rulers found at archaeological sites, and careful measurements of distances between known points. The Han li was calculated by Dubs to be 415.8 metres and all indications are that this is a precise and reliable determination.

Under the Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907), the li was approximately 323 meters.

In the late Manchu or Qing Dynasty, the number of chi was increased from 1,500 per li to 1,800. This had a value of 2115 feet or 644.6 meters. In addition, the Qing added a longer unit called the tu, which was equal to 150 li (96.7 km).

These changes were undone by the Republic of China of Chiang Kai-shek, who adopted the metric system in 1928. The Republic of China (now also known as Taiwan) continues not to use the li at all but only the kilometer (Mandarin: , gōnglǐ, lit. "common li").

Under Mao Zedong, the People's Republic of China reinstituted the traditional units as a measure of anti-imperialism and cultural pride before officially adopting the metric system in 1984. A place was made within this for the traditional units, which were restandardized to metric values. A modern li is thus set at exactly half a kilometer (500 meters). However, unlike the jin which is still frequently preferred in daily use over the kilogram, the li is almost never used. Nonetheless, its appearance in many phrases and sayings means that "kilometer" must always be specified by saying gōnglǐ in full.

Cultural use

As one might expect for the equivalent of "mile", li appears in many Chinese sayings, locations, and proverbs as an indicator of great distances or the exotic:

 One Chinese name for the Great Wall is the "Ten-Thousand-Li Long Wall" (). As in Greek, the number "ten thousand" is used figuratively in Chinese to mean any "immeasurable" value and this title has never provided a literal distance of 10,000 li (). The actual length of the modern Great Wall is around 42,000 li (), over 4 times the name's proverbially "immeasurable" length.
 The Chinese proverb appearing in chapter 64 of the Tao Te Ching and commonly rendered as "A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step" in fact refers to a thousand li: 千里之行,始於足下 (Qiānlǐzhīxíng, shǐyúzúxià).
 The greatest horses of Chinese history  including Red Hare and Hualiu (驊騮)  are all referred to as "thousand-li horses" (, qiānlǐmǎ), since they could supposedly travel a thousand li () in a single day.
 Li is sometimes used in location names, for example: Wulipu (Chinese: 五里铺镇), Hubei; Ankang Wulipu Airport (Chinese: 安康五里铺机场), Shaanxi. Sanlitun () is an area in Beijing.

Ri in Japan and Korea

The present day Korean ri (리, 里) and Japanese ri (里) are units of measurements that can be traced back to the Chinese li (里).

Although the Chinese unit was unofficially used in Japan since the Zhou Dynasty, the countries officially adopted the measurement used by the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD). The ri of an earlier era in Japan was thus true to Chinese length, corresponding to six chō ( 500–600 m), but later evolved to denote the distance that a person carrying a load would aim to cover on mountain roads in one hour. Thus, there had been various ri of 36, 40, and 48 chō. In the Edo period, the Tokugawa shogunate defined 1 ri as 36 chō, allowing other variants, and the Japanese government adopted this last definition in 1891. The Japanese ri was, at that time, fixed to the metric system,  ≈ 3.93 kilometres or about 2.44 miles. Therefore, one must be careful about the correspondence between chō and ri. See Kujūkuri Beach (99-ri beach) for a case.

In South Korea, the ri currently in use is a unit taken from the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) li. It has a value of approximately 392.72 meters, or one tenth of the ri. The Aegukga, the national anthem of South Korea, and the Aegukka, the national anthem of North Korea, both mention 3,000 ri, which roughly corresponds to 1,200 km, the approximate longitudinal span of the Korean peninsula.

In North Korea the Chollima Movement, a campaign aimed at improving labour productivity along the lines of the earlier Soviet Stakhanovite movement, gets its name from the word "chollima" which refers to a thousand-ri horse (chŏn + ri + ma in North Korean Romanization).

See also
 Chinese units of measurement
 League (unit) for a general discussion of league-style units
 Japanese units of measurement
 Korean units of measurement
 Qianlima for more on  "thousand-li horse" including North Korean Chollima

References

Citations

Sources

 Homer H. Dubs (1938): The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. One. Translator and editor: Homer H. Dubs. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc.
 Homer H. Dubs (1955): The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Three. Translator and editor: Homer H. Dubs. Ithaca, New York. Spoken Languages Services, Inc.
 Hulsewé, A. F. P. (1961). "Han measures". A. F. P. Hulsewé, T'oung pao Archives, Vol. XLIX, Livre 3, pp. 206–207.
 Needham, Joseph. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.

History of science and technology in China
Units of length

Li (unit)


The Georgian National Academy of Sciences (GNAS) () is a main learned society of the Georgia. It was named Georgian SSR Academy of Sciences until November 1990. The Academy coordinates scientific research in Georgia and develops relationship with the academies and scientific centers of foreign countries.

History
GNAS was established in February 1941, in Tbilisi. The founder Academicians of the Academy were Giorgi Akhvlediani (linguistics), Ivane Beritashvili (physiology), Arnold Chikobava (Ibero-Caucasian languages), Giorgi Chubinashvili (arts), Simon Janashia (history), Alexander Janelidze (geology), Korneli Kekelidze (philology), Niko Ketskhoveli (botany), Tarasi Kvaratskhelia (subtropical cultures), Niko Muskhelishvili (mathematics, mechanics; first President of the Academy), Ilia Vekua (mathematics; second President of the Academy), Akaki Shanidze (linguistics), Alexander Tvalchrelidze (mineralogy), Dimitri Uznadze (psychology), Kiriak Zavriev (constructive mechanics) and Philip Zaitsev (zoology).

Other notable members of the Academy include Ekvtime Takaishvili (history), Sergi Jikia (turkology), Shalva Nutsubidze (philosophy), Giorgi Tsereteli (oriental studies), Simon Kaukhchishvili (classical philology), Rene Schmerling (art history), Konstantine Gamsakhurdia (literature), Giorgi Melikishvili (history), Nikoloz Berdzenishvili (history), Revaz Dogonadze (physics), Malkhaz Abdushelishvili (anthropology), Guram Mchedlidze (paleobiology), and Levan Chilashvili (archaeology).

Current members
Today, among the members of the Academy are well-known scientists Tamaz Gamkrelidze (linguistics), David Muskhelishvili (history), Revaz Gamkrelidze (mathematics), Simon Khechinashvili (med.), George Nakhutsrishvili (botany), Vladimer Papava (economics), David Lordkipanidze (palaeoanthropology), etc.

Presidents of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences: Niko Muskhelishvili (1941–1972), Ilia Vekua (1972–1977), Evgeni Kharadze (1977–1986), Albert Tavkhelidze (1986–2005), Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze (2005–2013), Giorgi Kvesitadze (2013-2023), and Roin Metreveli (2023- ).

Georgian scientific schools of mathematics, physics, psychology, philosophy, physiology, botany, oriental studies, linguistics, history, archaeology, ethnography and paleobiology have won world recognition.

GNAS is a National Scientific Associate of the International Council for Science (ICSU, France).

Among other science academies of Georgia are: the Abkhazian Regional Academy of Sciences (founded in 1995, in Tbilisi), the Georgian Academy of Agrarian Sciences (founded in 1991, in Tbilisi), and the Georgian Academy of Bio-Medical Sciences. By the GNAS is recognized also the Georgian National Section of Euroscience (ESGNS).

References

External links

Georgian Electronic Scientific Journal (GESJ)
Association of Modern Scientific Investigation (AMSI)
Georgian National Section of Euroscience (ESGNS)

1941 establishments in Georgia (country)
National academies of sciences
National academies of arts and humanities
Education in Georgia (country)
Science and technology in Georgia (country)
Science and technology in the Soviet Union
Scientific organizations established in 1941
Members of the International Council for Science
Members of the International Science Council

Georgian National Academy of Sciences