ඉතිහාසය
අනෙකුත් රැකියා මෙන්ම ගුරු වෘත්තිය සදහාද නිසි අධ්‍යාපනය හා පුහුණුව ලද පුද්ගලයන් තෝරා ගැනීමට රජය මෙන්ම පෞද්ගලික අධ්‍යාපන ආයතන වගබලා ගනී.ඒ සුදුසුකම් අතර උපාධියක් හිමි ගුරුවරුන් සදහා විශේෂ ස්ථානයක් හිමිවේ.උපාධි පිරිනැමීමද සිදුවන්නේ උසස් අධ්‍යාපන ආයතන මගිනි.ශීෂ්‍යයෙකු විදුහලකට ඇතුලත් කර පසු පිළිවෙලින් නියමිත ශේණීන්ටඅදාල විභාග සමත්වීමෙන් පසු ඉහළම අධ්‍යාපන සුදුසුකම් ලැබූ සිසුන් උපාධි සදහා තෝරාගනු ලැබේ.මෙසේ උපාධි පිරිනැමීම අතීතයේ සිට සිදුවිය.

අතීතයේ පැවති උසස් අධ්‍යාපන ආයතන ලෙස තක්ෂිලා නාලන්දා වික්‍රමශීලා ජගද්දලා වැනි ආයතන දැක්විය හැක.මෙම උසස් අධ්‍යාපන ආයතන තුල ඉතා සාර්ථක ලෙස ඉගෙනීම් කටයුතු සිදුකරඇති බව ඉතිහාසඥයන් පෙන්වා දෙයි.අතීතයේ රජ කුමාරවරුන් තක්ෂිලාව නම් විද්‍යස්ථානයකින් ශිල්ප හැදෑරූ බවත් ඔවුන්ට දක්ෂතා මත විවිධ නම්බු නාම පිරිනැමූ බවත් පන්සිය පනස් ජාතක පොත වැනි මූලාශ්‍රවල දැක්වේ.14 හා 15 වන සියවසයන්හිදී නාලන්නා වික්‍රමශීලා ජගද්දලා වැනි විශ්ව විද්‍යාල ඉන්දියාව තුල පැවති ඉතා ප්‍රකට විශ්ව විද්‍යාලවිය.මෙයිනුත් නාලන්දා විශ්ව විද්‍යාලය ප්‍රමුඛ විය.නාලන්දා විශ්ව විද්‍යාලය සතුව ඉතා විශාල හා උසින් වැඩි ගොඩනැගිලි පිහිටා ඇත.මෙම විශ්ව විද්‍යාල තුල වැඩි වශයෙන් මහායාන බුදු දහම හා වෙනත් බොහෝ විෂයන් අධ්‍යනය කර ඇත.මෙම විශ්ව විද්‍යාල පසුව ඉන්දියාවට පැමිනි මුස්ළිම් ආක්‍රමණිකයන් විසින් ගිනිතබා විනාශ කරනලදී.මෙම විශ්ව විද්‍යාල තුල පැවති වටිනා පුස්ථක මාස හයක් පුරාවට ගිනිගෙන දැවුන බව පැවසේ.

The origins of the doctorate in particular dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the Madh'hab legal schools. To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and at least ten years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses", and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose" which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of faqih (meaning "master of law"), mufti (meaning "professor of legal opinions") and mudarris (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into Latin as magister, professor and doctor) respectively.

In the medieval European universities, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic), and the quadrivium (mathematics, geometry, astronomy and music), together known as the Liberal Arts, and who had successfully passed examinations held by their masters, would be admitted to the degree of bachelor of arts, from the Latin , a term previously usually used of a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a knight. Further study, and in particular successful participation in and then moderating of disputations would earn one the Master of Arts degree, from the Latin magister, teacher, entitling one to teach these subjects. Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law, Medicine or Theology, and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degrees in these subjects. Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the Latin  ("step").

Today the terms "master", "doctor" (from the Latin - meaning literally: "teacher") and "professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university they were equivalent terms, the use of them in the degree name being a matter of custom at a university. (Most universities conferred the Master of Arts but, for instance, the highest degree was variously termed Master of Theology/ Divinity or Doctor of Theology/ Divinity depending on the place).

The earliest doctoral degrees (theology - Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), philosophy - Doctor of philosophy (D.Phil., Ph.D.) and medicine - Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all University study into these three fields. Over time the D.D. has gradually become less common and studies outside theology and medicine have become more common (such studies were then called "philosophy", but are now classified as sciences and humanities - however this usage survives in the degree of Doctor of Philosophy).

The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව.
The University of Paris used the term master for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh.

The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as "masters", but those in theology, medicine, and law were known as "doctor". As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master's degree. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th and 19th Century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for all advanced degrees developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.

The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed their secondary education and admits the student to university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded licence, much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies.

In the past, degrees have also been directly issued by authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Britain, Lambeth Degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury.

In most countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution. Academic dress is like a uniform or insignia identifying the status of the individual wearing them.

නිදර්ශන

Some examples of specific degrees follow each general term. For more information, see the article about the general term.
 Associate's degrees: AA (Associate in Arts), AS (Associate in Science), AAS (Associate in Applied Science), AGS (Associate in General Studies)

 Bachelor's degrees: AB or BA, BFA, LL.B, BSc or ScB or BS or SB, BASc, BPhil, BBus, BSBA, BPE, B.Math, BSW, BVSc, B.Eng, BBA, B.Tech

 Master's degrees: M.P.P., MA, MFA, LL.M, MS or MSc, MCM, M.Div., MPIA, MPS, MAS, MMus, MSSc, MBA, MPA, MHA, M.Ed or EdM, M.Eng, M.J, M.Des, Drs (Netherlands)

 Extended Research Master's degrees: mag.art. (Denmark)

 Licentiate degrees: LDS, JCL, LP

 Specialist degrees: Ed.S., SSP, SClP

 Logistician's degree: CPL

 Engineer's degrees: Ch.E., C.E., E.E., Env.E., I.E., Mech.E., Nucl.E., Sys.E.

Professional Doctoral degrees:DMD or DDM, DDS, BM BS, DPT, ND, D.C.,  OD, DVM, V.M.D, M.Div., M.D., D.O., Au.D., PharmD, J.D.,  D.C., P.Th.D., D.Th.P., D.P.M., DProf (UK), Psy.D.

 Research Doctoral degrees:  J.C.D., Ph.D., EdD, EngD, DTech, DBA, DPA, DHA, Dr.-Ing(Germany), DPS, D.D., D.Min., D.Th. or Th.D., J.S.D. or S.J.D. or LL.D., DPM, DSc or ScD, DSocSci, M.D., DSW

Abbreviations for degrees can place the level either before or after the faculty or discipline, depending on the institution. For example, DSc and ScD both stand for the (higher) doctorate in science. Various other abbreviations also vary between institutions, for instance BS and BSc both stand for 'Bachelor of Science'.

There are various conventions for indicating degrees and diplomas after one's name. In some cultures it is usual to give only the highest degree. In others, it is usual to give the full sequence, in some cases giving abbreviations also for the discipline, the institution, and (where it applies) the level of honours. In another variation, a 'rule of subsumption' often shortens the list and may obscure the chronology evident from a full listing. Thus 'MSc BA' means that the degrees conferred were - in chronological order - BSc, BA, MSc. The subsumption rule reflects the principle that a person of a given high status does not separately belong to the lower status.

For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities, there is a standard list of abbreviations, but in practice many variations are used. Most notable is the use of the Latin abbreviations 'Oxon.' and 'Cantab.' for the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, in spite of these having been superseded by (little used) English 'Oxf.' and 'Camb.' Other Latin abbreviations include St And. for the University of St Andrews, Exon. for the University of Exeter, Dunelm. for Durham University, Ebor. for the University of York and Cantuar. for the University of Kent (formerly the "University of Kent at Canterbury"). Confusion results from the widespread use of 'SA' for the University of South Australia (instead of S.Aust.) because 'SA' was officially assigned to the University of South Africa. For universities of different commonwealth countries sharing the same name, such as York University in Canada and the University of York in the UK, a convention has been adopted where a country abbreviation is included with the letters and university name. In this example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' is commonly used to denote degrees conferred by their respective universities.

The doubling of letters in LL.B., LL.M., LL.D. is because these degrees are in laws, not law. The doubled letter indicates the Latin plural (genitive case) legum as opposed to the singular (genitive case) legis. Abbreviations for the degrees in surgery Ch. B. and Ch. M. are from Latin chiruguriae and often indicate a university system patterned after Scottish models. The combination of M.B. with Ch. B. arose from a need to graduate the students at the time of year allocated to graduation rituals, but the legal inability to confer the M.B. before they had been properly approved by professional regulatory bodies. Thus the Ch. B. was conferred first, and the M.B. was conferred later, after registration, and without ceremony. In recent times the two have come to be conferred together and are widely (mis)understood to constitute a single degree.

Some degrees are awarded jure dignitatis. That is, a person who has demonstrated the appropriate qualities to be given a particular office may be awarded the degree by virtue of the office held. It is another kind of earned—but not strictly academic—degree.

ප්‍රදේශයන් අනුව උපාධි ක්‍රියාපිළිවෙල

උතුරු හා දකුණු ඇමරිකාව

බ්‍රසීලය

Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities normally graduate either with a Bacharel degree (equivalent to an American B.S. or B.A.) or with a professional degree (roughly modeled on the old German Diplom).

Bacharel degrees are awarded in most fields of study in the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, or natural sciences and normally take four years to complete (some degrees, as in Law, require an extra fifth year to be obtained). Professional degrees are awarded in state-regulated professions such as architecture, engineering, psychology, pharmacy, dental medicine, veterinary medicine, or human medicine and are named after the profession itself, i.e. one graduates with a degree of Engenheiro (engineer), Arquiteto (architect), or Médico (physician/surgeon) for example. Professional degrees are generally regarded as being of higher social standing than a Bacharel degree and are considered more academically demanding. A typical course of study leading to a first professional degree in Brazil normally takes five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course which requires six years.

In addition to the standard Bacharel and professional degrees, Brazilian universities also offer the Licenciatura degree, available for students who want to qualify as school teachers. Licenciatura courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities, and natural sciences. Although Licenciatura courses also last 4 years, they are nonetheless considered to be of lower standing than a Bacharelado course. A lower degree of Tecnólogo (Technologist) is also available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years only.

Admission as an undergraduate student in most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as Vestibular. Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the Vestibular. Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within the universities as transferência interna), that is actually quite rare in Brazil. Undergraduate curricula tend to be more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's major.

Individuals who hold either a Bacharel degree, a professional diploma or Licenciatura are eligible for admission into graduate courses leading to advanced master's or doctor's degrees. Criteria for admission into master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil. Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams; others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation, and possibly oral interviews. In most cases however, especially for the doctorate, the candidate is required to submit a research plan and one faculty member must agree to serve as his/her supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program; The exception are the Natural Sciences post-graduate programs, that accepts students with very broad and/or vague research prospects (sometimes the prospect is given in promptu during the interview), preferring to let the students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies.

Master's degrees normally take two years to obtain and are classified into academic master's degrees or professional master's degrees. Requirements for an academic master's degree normally include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically between five and eight) and submitting a research thesis which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one external member who must be from another university or research institute; The emphasis of the thesis must be in its clarity and ease of understanding by future students, not in its originality. Professional master's degrees on the other hand normally involve taking a larger number of classes, and, in the case of engineering programs in particular, often completing a project as an intern in an engineering company and submitting a final project report. The most relevant difference to the international scenario is that, due to restrictive production goals set by government agencies, in most universities a Master degree is not only considered inferior to a Doctor degree but a pre-requisite for the admission in a Doctorate program.

Master's titles in Brazil normally include an explicit reference to the field of study in which they were awarded, e.g. one graduates with a degree of Mestre em Engenharia (Master of Engineering), Mestre em Economia (Master of Economics), and so on. The generic title Mestre em Ciências (Master of Sciences) is used sometimes though, especially in the natural sciences (physics, biology, chemistry, etc.). The word profissional is normally added to the title to distinguish it from an academic master's degree, e.g. Mestre Profissional em Engenharia Aeronáutica (Professional Master in Aeronautical Engineering).

Doctor's degrees on the other hand normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete and are of a higher standing than a master's degree; With very few exceptions (namely, people with outstanding accomplishments in research), a Master degree or equivalent is required for admission in a Doctorate Program. Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That contrasts with master's theses, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute.

Conventions for naming doctoral degrees follow similar rules to those used for master's degree, i.e. an explicit reference to the field of study is normally included in the title itself, e.g. Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering), Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), etc., although a generic title like Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) may be occasionally used.

Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of São Paulo still award the title of Livre-Docente (free docent), which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German Habilitation, by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a Livre-Docência examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors.

කොළොම්බියාව

In Colombia, the system of degrees is a bit similar to the U.S. model. After completing their high school, or "", students (called "") can take one of two options. The first is called a "", which is similar to a Bachelor's Degree requiring from nine to eleven semesters of study according to the program chosen. The other option is called a "Técnico"; this degree only three years of study and prepares the student for technical or mechanical labors, similar to the associate's degree given in the U.S.

After this, students, now called "" or "", can opt for higher degrees.
Formal education after the Bachelor's degree is the Master's degree with the title of "", and Doctorate's degree known as "". The Master's degree has a normal duration of two years.

More commonly students prefer to take an specialization's degree, "", after their bachelor's degree rather than the more formal Master and Doctorate paths. This program is very popular in the country, because it requires only one year to complete and because the student only acquires the technical knowledge, without the bulk of the theoretical subjects.

A similar situation in Colombia, when compared to the U.S. system, is that the students may go directly to the "" without having to take the "Master" or "".

චිලී

In Chile, the system in a nutshell is as follows:
Quite similar to the case described for Colombia, students may opt to be ""(Professionals) or ""(Technicians).
After completion of high school, students may follow professional or technical studies at Universities or Technical schools. Only Universities and the Academies of the Armed Forces can give Academic Degrees. In general, traditional professions require an Academic Degree, but there are many professions that not require the degree because they were conceived as strictly "professional" not academic. The degrees are as follows:

"" it is similar to the Bachelor, but to get it is necessary to complete at least eight semesters of study on the subjects which are part of the Mayor. This degree is enough to continue developing an academic career, however, to get a professional title -which is not academic, but allows you to get a professional practice, you have to continue one or two additional years of study. (For example to be an engineer it is necessary to study four years to get a Licentiate in Engineering Sciences, and two additional years to get a Professional Title and become an engineer. Sometimes it is possible to take additional subjects and get a "" degree besides the professional title.)

"" is the equivalent to the Master degree in English speaking countries.

"" is the equivalent to the Doctorate or Phd. There is no separate classification for Professional Doctorates.

In particular, the engineering profession may be complicated for the foreigner since there is two types of engineers: those who got an Academic Degree such as Civil Engineers or Armed Forced Politechnical Engineers, and those who are "" (Professional Engineers) which are considered technicians more focused to apply the engineering, and completed only four years of study. They are not able, by law, to authorise plans or drawings like engineers with a degree or architects.

එක්සත් රාජධානිය
In the United States, since the late 1800s, the threefold degree system of bachelor, master and doctor has been in place, but follows a slightly different pattern of study from the European equivalents.

In the United States, most standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree (most often Bachelor of Arts, B.A., or Bachelor of Science, B.S.), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often Master of Arts, M.A., or Master of Science, M.S.; either of these programs might be as much as three years in length) and a further one or two years of coursework and research, culminating in comprehensive examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience, and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate (most often doctor of philosophy, Ph.D. or other types such as Ed.D., Psy.D., Th.D.) for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level, or even an additional degree at a level already completed.  Therefore, there is no time-limit on the accumulation of academic degrees.

Some schools—mostly junior colleges and community colleges, but some four-year schools as well—offer an associate's degree for two full years of study, often in pre-professional areas. This may stand alone, or sometimes be used as credit toward completion of the four-year bachelor's degree.

In the United States, there is also another class of degrees called "First Professional degree." These degree programs are designed for professional practice in various fields rather than academic scholarship. Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission (a notable exception being the PharmD program), and so represent at least about five total years of study and as many as seven or eight.

Some fields such as fine art, architecture, or divinity have chosen to name their first professional degree after the bachelor's a "master's degree" (e.g., M.F.A., M.Div.) because most of these degrees require at least the completion of a bachelor's degree while the professional degrees in වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව (the M.D. or D.O.) and law (the J.D.) are doctorates. There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a "doctorate" in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago. It is important to recognize that first-professional degrees in these fields are different from research-oriented degrees and comparisons to the Ph.D. are problematic.

ආසියාව හා ඔසියානාව

ඔස්ට්‍රේලියාව
In some countries, such as Australia, a diploma is a specific academic award in addition to that of Bachelor/Master's/Doctorate. Diplomas are usually signified by a stole rather than an academic hood, the latter being used only for those of graduate status. A person with a diploma is termed a diplomate.

Australia has several different kinds of diplomas: Diplomas, Advanced Diplomas, Graduate Diplomas and Postgraduate Diplomas. The system is not without anomalies, due largely to the different traditions of individual institutions which the Australian Qualifications Framework aims to regularise. A Diploma is usually equivalent to the first year of a Bachelor's degree, although a few have been similar to Bachelor of Arts degrees and permit direct admission to graduate programs.

An Australian Advanced Diploma is usually considered lower than a Bachelor degree, but may qualify its holder for advanced placement in a Bachelor program, direct admission to a Graduate Diploma course or (albeit rarely) direct admission to a Master's program.

Graduate Diplomas are always higher than a Bachelor degree, and usually require one year of full-time study. They are often an additional course taken after a standard Bachelor degree to introduce a specialization in a particular field or a new discipline. For example, Australian school teachers often study for a bachelor's degree in Arts or Science, then in an additional year complete requirements for a Graduate Diploma of Education, which qualifies them as school teachers. Some Graduate Diplomas are simply the first two semesters of a three- or four-semester Master's program. (In the past, the Graduate Diploma of Education was called the Diploma of Education.)

Some universities have issued Postgraduate Diplomas, which are always in the same discipline as the undergraduate degree, and generally no different from a Bachelor with Honours degree, which requires one year after a regular Bachelor degree.

ඉන්දියාව
ඉන්දියාව බොහෝවිට උපාධි ප්‍රධානයේදී මහා බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය සම්ප්‍රධාය අනුගමනය කරයි.

Arts -  Referring to the performing arts and literature the corresponding degree are Bachelor of Arts(BA) and its masters is called Master of Arts(MA).Management degrees are also classified under Arts but is now a days considered a major new stream, Bachelor of Business Administration BBA and Masters Of Business Administration MBA.

Science - Referring to the basic sciences and natural science(Biology, Physics, Chemistry etc) the corresponding degree are Bachelor of Science(BSc) and its masters is called Master of Science(MSc).

Engineering - The engineering degrees in India follow two common patterns. Bachelor of Engineering(BE) and Bachelor of Technology(B.Tech) both representing a bachelors degree in engineering.The main difference being BE is knowledge oriented(Theoretical Work) and B.Tech is skill oriented(Practical Work). Similarly Master of Engineering(ME) and Master of Technology(M.Tech).

යුරෝපය

In Europe, degrees are being harmonized through the Bologna process, which is based on the three-level hierarchy of degrees: Bachelor (Licence in France), Master and Doctor. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system now in use in some countries.

This system is also currently in use in Australia, Belgium, Canada, New Zealand, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, The Netherlands, United Kingdom, Serbia and Croatia.

ඔස්ට්‍රියාව

In Austria, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees:

 the traditional two-cycle system of Magister/Diplom followed by the Doctorate, and
 the three-cycle system of Bachelor, Master and Doctorate as defined by the Bologna process.

With a few exceptions, the two-cycle degree system will be phased out by 2010. Some of the established degree naming has, however, been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master's programmes.

ඩෙන්මාර්කය

ප්‍රංශය
In French universities, the academic degree system was quite complicated: the first degree was the baccalauréat (completed in fact after high school), then the two-year diplôme d'études universitaires générales (DEUG General Academic Studies Degree) or premier cycle (undergraduate education), then the one-year licence, the one-year maîtrise (master's degree), the two forming the second cycle (graduate education), the 1-2 years Diplôme d'Études Approfondies, Special Studies Degree and the three-year doctorate, the two forming the troisième cycle (postgraduate education). With the Bologna process, the system is now much simpler: baccalauréat (A-level degree), licence (= Bachelor), master (a new two-year degree merging maîtrise and DEA), and doctorate. This system is called "LMD" system in France, which means licence-master-doctorat.

ජර්මනිය

Traditionally in Germany, students graduated after four to six years either with a Magister Artium (abbreviated M.A.) degree in Social Sciences,  Humanities, Linguistics and the Arts or with a Diplom degree in Natural Sciences, Economics, Business Administration and Engineering. Those degrees were the first and at the same time highest non-PhD/Doctorate-title in many disciplines before its gradual replacement by other, Anglo-Saxon-inspired degrees. From the level of academic study a Magister or Diplom has to be considered equivalent to a master's degree and marks the end of four to six years of studying with the writing of a final thesis similar to a master's thesis.

A special kind of examination is the Staatsexamen. It is not an academic degree but a government licensing examination that future doctors, teachers, lawyers (solicitors), judges, public prosecutors, patent attorneys, and pharmacists have to pass in order to be eligible to work in their profession. Students usually study at university for 4-6 years before they take the first Staatsexamen. Afterwards teachers and jurists go on to work in their future jobs for two years, before they are able to take the second Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs. The first Staatsexamen is at a level which is equivalent to a M.Sc. or M.A.

Since 1999, the traditional degrees are gradually being replaced by Bachelor's (Bakkalaureus) and Master's (Master) degrees (see Bologna process). The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable, and to introduce degrees to the German system which take less time to complete (German students typically take five years or more to earn a Magister or Diplom). Some universities are still resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. Universities must fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. In the future, the Diplom or Magister degree will no longer be awarded.

Doctorates are issued under a variety of names, depending on the faculty: e.g., Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doktor der medizinischen Wissenschaft (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few. Multiple doctorates and honorary doctorates are often listed and even used in forms of address in German-speaking countries. A Diplom (from a Universität), Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a doctorate. The doctoral promotion (e.g. to Dr.rer. nat., Dr.phil. and others) is equivalent to a Ph.D. degree and is therefore the highest academic degree to earn. The doctorate's degree Dr.med. for medical doctors has to be considered as different: Medical students predominantly write their doctoral theses straight after they have completed studies like other students in other disciplines have to write a Diplom, Magister or Master's thesis.

Sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the Habilitation is an academic qualification in Germany and Austria, that allows further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorate. It is earned by writing a second thesis (the Habilitationsschrift) or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications in an advanced topic. The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil.", as it is abbreviated to represent that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a Privatdozent (e.g. "PD Dr. habil.") (Lecturer) in an academic professorship (now called W2 and W3). Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential, for academic posts in the more traditional fields.

අයර්ලන්තය
In Ireland a National Diploma is below the standard of the honours bachelor degree, whilst the Higher Diploma is taken after the bachelor degree. The new NQAI National Framework of Qualifications, adopted in 2003, replaced the National Dipoma with the Ordinary Bachelors degree. The framework also clarifies that although the Higher Diploma is taken after the bachelor degree the learning outcomes are at the same level as for the Honours Bachelors Degree.

More technically, a diploma is a document attesting that its bearer has satisfied certain study requirements, as opposed to a degree being a status level in the academic community. For this reason, diplomas are 'awarded to' the recipient while degrees are 'conferred upon' the graduand who then becomes a graduate, or the graduand is "admitted to" a degree. Similarly a person 'has' a diploma, but a graduate 'is in' a status. It is also for this reason that study for diplomas can be at undergraduate or advanced level.

ඉතාලිය
In Italy access to university is possible after gaining the high school degree, called diploma di maturità which is obtained at 19 years, after 5 years of study in a particular high school, focused on a certain subject (e.g. liceo classico focus on classical subjects and includes ancient Greek and Latin, liceo scientifico focus on scientific subjects but includes Latin and literature, liceo linguistico for languages, istituto tecnico for technics).

After the diploma one can enter university choosing any faculty (e.g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture): there is no requirement to complete a specific high school in order to access a particular faculty but most of the university program test to select students. Almost all faculties nowadays offers two academic degrees. A first degree (called laurea triennale) is obtained after 3 years of study and a short thesis on one subject. The second degree (called laurea Specialistica/Magistrale - LS/LM) can be obtained proceeding with usually two additional years of study and specializing in a particular branch of the chosen subject (e.g. particle physics, nuclear engineering, etc.). The laurea magistrale is obtained after the discussion of a thesis (which usually involves some academic research or an internship in a private company).

Only few students continue their university career (after passing a public selection) to 3 further years of Dottorato di ricerca (equivalent to a Ph. D) mainly devoted to research (with some compulsory courses), the degree is also obtained after the discussion of a thesis on the results of the research done.

Alternatively, after obtaining the laurea triennale and the laurea magistrale one can attend a so-called Master, (first-level Master after the laurea triennale; second-level Master after the laurea magistrale) offered by universities and private organisations with a variety of subjects, lengths and prices (one year of Master in Italy can cost more than the fees paid for the entire preceding university education), usually including a final internship in a company.

නෙදර්ලන්තය

In the Netherlands, the structure of academic studies was altered significantly in 1982. In this year the "twee fase structuur" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education, Minister Wim Deetman. With this two phase structure an attempt was made to standardise all the different studies and structure them to an identical timetable. Additional effect was that students would be persuaded stringently to produce results within a preset timeframe, or otherwise discontinue their studies.
The two phase structure is still in effect today and is in line with the Bologna process.

In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, he/ she has to complete the appropriate pre-university secondary education "Voorbereidend Wetenschappelijk Onderwijs" (VWO (Gymnasium - Atheneum) - 6 years). There are other routes possible, but only if the end level of the applicant is comparable to the VWO levels access to university education is granted. For some studies specific end levels or disciplines are required, e.g. graduating without physics, biology, and chemistry will make it impossible to follow an academic medicine study.

For some studies in the Netherlands a governmental determined limited access is in place. This is a limitation of the number of applicants to a specific study, thus trying to control the eventual number of graduates. The most renowned studies for their numerus clausus are the medicine and dentistry. Every year a combination of good pre-university secondary education grades, luck, and some additional conditions determine who can start such a numerus clausus study and who can not. A study location and/ or university to graduate from are appointed and are not subject to free choice. In practice, it is only possible on very exclusive grounds (e.g. family history connected to a certain university) and seldom granted. For example, all the members of the Dutch royal family studied at Leiden University due to the historic ties between the Dutch Royal family and this university.

Almost all Dutch universities are government supported universities, with only very few privately owned universities in existence (i.e. one in business, and all others in theology). Leiden University is the oldest, founded in 1575. Before, the Netherlands existed out of loose provinces, i.e. "The Low Countries", which were occupied and ruled by other powers like Spain. The occupying monarchs did not encourage education at, or allowed the foundation of a university locally, and preferred "moulding" educated people at their own institutions. Therefore, marking the victory on the Spanish, "Willem van Oranje" (William of Orange, William the Silent) underlined the founding of the Dutch Republic (nowadays the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg) by granting Leiden rights to found its own, local university.

As mentioned before all university studies in the Netherlands have in principle the same length (four years) and exist out of two phases:

 The "propedeutische fase" (1-2 years): Should the student not be able to finish this phase in the given time frame of 2 years, than he or she has to abandon the study and will not be allowed to continue this or another study. After finishing this phase the student follows another two years' study after which the student has a level equivalent to the Anglo-Saxon BSc (Bachelor of Science), BA (Bachelor of Arts) or LLB (Bachelor of Laws).
 The "doctorale fase" (3-4 years): Completing the first phase successfully gives the student access to the second phase. Here the student is expected to conclude the phase within the given time frame of 3 to 4 years. Again, failure to finish within the time given will lead to discontinuation. This phase is concluded with the "doctoraal examen" (doctoral exam). This is not similar to any type of doctoral exam that would grant the student with any type of PhD title. Successful completion however does grant the student the Dutch degree of "doctorandus", abbreviated as "drs". This Dutch title is more and more replaced by the Anglo Saxon titles MSc (Master of Science), MA (Master of Arts), and LLM (Master of Laws), depending on the area of study. For medical students the "doctorandus" degree is not equivalent to the MD (Medical Doctor) degree in the Anglo Saxon culture, and does not give the medical student to opportunity to treat patients. For this a minimum of two years additional study (specialisation) is required. The correct notation for a Dutch physician who did complete his or her medical studies, but did not pursue a PhD study is "drs" (e.g. drs. Jansen) and not "dr". In medicine like with many other disciplines, nothing is noted additionally to clarify the specific discipline, although there are some exceptions. Thus a doctorandus in law is allowed to carry the title "meester" (master, abbreviated as mr. Jansen) and some studies like for example physics grant the title "ingenieur" (engineer, noted as ir. Jansen).

Not uncommon, the Dutch "drs" abbreviation can cause much confusion in other countries, since it is perceived as a person who has a PhD in multiple disciplines.

Nowadays many Dutch universities offer specific MSc studies, thus integrating into and merging with the international scientific community. In addition, on many Dutch universities lessons ("hoor colleges") or complete "curricula" are conducted in English in stead of Dutch.

After successfully obtaining a "drs." or MSc degree, the student has the opportunity to follow a PhD study to eventually obtain a doctorate. These too are structured ideally according to a pre-set time schedule of 4 to 6 years. During these 4-6 years the PhD student has to be mentored by a professor, or more common, multiple professors.
The PhD study has to be concluded with at least a scientific thesis that has to be defended to "a gathering of his/ her peers", in practice the Board of the Faculty with guest professors from other faculties and/ or universities added. More and more common practice nowadays (and in some disciplines even mandatory) is that during the PhD study the student writes and submits scientific publications to peer-reviewed journals, that eventually need to be accepted for publication. Although the number of publications is often debated and varies considerably, a minimum of four (one per year of PhD study) is quite accepted in the field of the exact sciences, physics, chemistry, technology, and medicine.

After successful conclusion of a PhD study, the student is allowed the title of "doctor", abbreviated as "dr". This is similar for all Dutch PhD graduates. The discipline in which the PhD is obtained is not specifically noted. Hence for example a PhD in law, medicine, or mathematics all put the same abbreviation in front of their name, (e.g. dr. Jansen). As with the "doctorandus" degree, nothing is noted behind the name of the PhD to specify the discipline. Stacking of titles as seen in other countries like for example Germany (Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Musterfrau) is highly uncommon in the Netherlands and not well received.

PhD graduates or "doctor"s can proceed to teach at universities as "Universitair Docent" (UD – assistant professor). With time, experience, and/ or achievement, this can evolve to a position as "Universitair Hoofd Docent" (UHD – associate professor). Officially an UHD still works under the supervision of a "hoog leraar", the head of the department and commonly a professor. The position of "hoog leraar" is the highest possible scientific position at a university, and equal to the US "full" professor.

In the Netherlands, the title of professor (noted as prof. Jansen or professor Jansen) is connected to ones function. In practice, professors are head of a scientific department of a university faculty. However, this is not a given; it is also possible that a department is headed by a "plain" PhD, based on knowledge, achievement, and expertise. Officially it is not possible to use the title professor if not connected to a university. Should a professor decide to leave the university, thus he or she also loses the privilege to use the title of professor. In practice however, different customs are observed. Rule of thumb however is that retired professors often still note the title in front of their name, where as people still active switch to a non-university job must switch from the professor title to the PhD or "dr" abbreviation.

Contrary to some other European countries, in the Netherlands academic titles are rarely used outside of academia and are not listed on official documentation (e.g. passport and drivers licence) as for example in Germany. Dutch academic titles however are legally protected and can only be used by graduates from Dutch institutions of higher education. Illegal use is considered an offence and subject to legal prosecution. Holders of foreign degrees therefore need special permission before being able to use a (Dutch) title. Article 7.23 of the Dutch Higher Education Act provides the Informatie Beheer Groep with the possibility to grant such a permission.

නෝර්වේ
Prior to 2003, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding education programs within the Norwegian higher education system. In 2003, a reform was instituted to replace this older system with an "international system."

For example, many degrees had titles that included the Latin term candidatus/candidata. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. These degrees were all retired in 2003.

The reform of higher education in Norway, Kvalitetsreformen ("The Quality Reform"), was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the Stortinget, in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. It introduced standard periods of study and the titles  master and bachelor (baccalaureus).

The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in technology. The latter corresponds to the former sivilingeniør degree (not to be confused with a degree in civil engineering, which is but one of many degrees linked to the title sivilingeniør, which is still in use for new graduates who can chose to also use the old title). All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree", written philosophiæ doctor (instead of the traditional doctor philosophiæ). The title dr. philos. is a substantially higher degree than the PhD, and is reserved for those who qualify for such a degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program.

පෝලන්තය
In Poland the system is similar to the German one. For instance, Warsaw University confers the following university degrees and titles:

  title (the equivalent of a Bachelor's degree, granted after at least 3 years of study),
  title (the equivalent of engineer's degree, granted after at least 3,5 years of study
  title (the equivalent of a Master's degree, granted after 5 years of study, or 2 years of additional study by holders of a previous degree),
  degree (Doctor's degree, Ph.D.),
  degree (Polish Habilitation degree, requires approval by an external ministerial body),

The  (Professor's) title is officially conferred by the President of Poland.

රුසියාව යුක්රේනය ආදී රටවල්
In රුසියාව, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics they strongly distinguish educational kinds of academic degrees and "real" academic degrees connected with scientific researches.

The educational degrees are awarded after finishing college education. There are several levels of education one must choose between 2nd and 3rd year usually on the 3rd year of study.
 Bachelor degree - usually takes 4 years of college. (minimum level to be recognized as having Higher Education)
 Specialist degree  is awarded after 5 years of college. (4 + 1)
 Magister degree is awarded after 6 years of college.   (4 + 2)
Usually Specialist or Magister degrees incorporates Bachelor degree in them, but only high level degree is stated in final diploma.
Specialist and Bachelor degree require taking final state exams and written work on practical application of studied skills
or research thesis (usually 50-70 pages) and is roughly equivalent to Master's degree.

First level academic degree is called "candidate of ... sciences" (say, candidate of physical-mathematical sciences, or candidate of engineering sciences, candidate of historical sciences, etc). This degree requires extensive research efforts, taking some classes, publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (usually 5 publications suffice), and writing in-depth thesis (80-200 pages). Special scientific council of notable specialists in the field then reviews the thesis, the written opinions of several outside referees, and upon approval recommends the thesis for defense. Upon open defense in front of the same council the members of the council vote (it takes dominant majority - 2/3 - to pass) and then a chair writes a statement on recommending to award the degree "candidate of ... sciences" to the defendant. All paperwork including thesis is then sent to so called Highest Attestation Commission which upon review makes final approval and then issues the diploma of "candidate of science". The "candidate of sciences" degree is roughly equivalent to US Ph.D. degree, although it requires longer research efforts, more publications (actually in US publications are not required for Ph.D. degree), wider exposure, and larger peer pool to pass.

Finally, there is a "doctor of ... sciences" (Doktor nauk) degree in Russia and some former USSR academic environment. This degree is sought after by established scientists who made discovery-level contributions into certain field (formally - who established new direction or new field in science). It requires discovery of new phenomenon, or development of new theory, or essential development of new direction, etc. This usually takes a decade or two of hard work after receiving "candidate of sciences" degree, an extensive list of publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (usually ~50-300+ papers), publishing a few monographs, extensive participation in various panels and peers (journals, conferences, grant/award panels, etc), and establishing a school of "candidates of sciences" under own supervision (so at least a few of your students have received "candidacy" degrees working with you on your discovery or in your new field/direction). It requires writing a deep and advanced thesis (usually 300-800 pages) and defending it in front of special council of prominent scientists in the field (or in adjacent fields if the field/discovery is completely new) in a similar to "candidate of sciences" defense manner. Upon voting all paperwork is again sent to the Highest Attestation Commission which upon approval awards the diploma of "doctor of ... sciences".

There is no equivalent of this "doctor of sciences" degree in US academic system. It is roughly equivalent to Habilitation in Germany, France, Austria, and some other European countries.

ස්පාඥ්ඥය

Before the Bologna Process, the are Diplom (Bachelor Degree for 3 year) and Licenciado (for 5 year) but after it has changed to Grado for all universitaries (Except for Medical and Architecture that  will be directly master "still under discussion" if they can certify min 5 years professional experience ) and Master to the ones who make later the postgrade master courses (60 to 120 ECTS credits in one or two years) and Doctor if you continue studies.

Very Important: must look to make official Master with ETCS credit because some university are making their own Masters without this ETCS credits out of the Bologna Process but this lastones are only like the Diploma http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploma (Sept 08).  Also see differences between diplom and diploma

ස්වීඩනය

ස්විස්ටරලන්තය

Before the Bologna Process, because there are three official languages in Switzerland (German, French and Italian), the Universities' degrees were different, depending on the language. In French-speaking universities, the first academic degree was the Licence: 4 to 5 years of study, equivalent to the Master's degree  in the UK or the USA. The postgraduate degree was the diplôme d'études approfondies DEA or DESS: 1-2 years of study, equivalent to the Master of Advanced Studies degree. In the Swiss-German Universities, the first degree was called Lizentiat, a 4-year degree, and the second was the Diplom nach dem ersten akademischen Grad. In the Italian-speaking University, the first degree was called licenza, a 4-year degree; the second was the post laurea, which took 1-2 years. The Doctoral's degree is the last stage at all the universities; it requires 3-5 years, depending on the field.

යුක්රේනය

This subsection is for an image on the right-hand side. For information see subsection "Russian, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics".

එක්සත් රාජධානිය

එංගලන්තය හා වේල්සය
මහා බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය තුල ප්‍රථම උපාධිය වසර තුනක අධ්‍යන කාලයකට අයත්වේ.කලා උපාධිය ( BA ) ඉංජිනේරු උපාධිය(BEng) සහ විද්‍යා උපාධිය(BSc) මේ ගණයට අයත්ය.

මෙම උපාධිය පංති සාමාර්ථ හතරකට බෙදේ.ඒ මෙසේය:

ප්‍රථම පංති සාමාර්ථය (1st)
දෙවන පංති සාමාර්ථය කොටස් දෙකකට බෙදේ:
දෙවන පංති ඉහළ සාමාර්ථය (2:1)
දෙවන සංති පහළ සාමාර්ථය (2:2)
තුන්වන පංති සාමාර්ථය (3rd)

යම් ශීෂ්‍යයෙකු අදාල කුසලතා දැක්වීමට අපොහාසත් වුවහොත් එහෙත් නැවත නැවත පෙනී සිටිමින් අදාල ලකුණු මට්ටමට ලගාවූවිට ඔහුට හෝ ඇයට ගෞරව උපාධියක් වෙනුවට සාමාන්‍ය සාමාර්තයක් පමණක් හිමිවේ.

The Graduateship (post-nominal GCGI) awarded by the City & Guilds of London Institute is mapped to a British Honours degree

Some students study an integrated Master's, which is still a first degree. This takes four years of study and is usually designated by the subject, such as MEng for engineering, MPhys for physics, MMath for mathematics, and so on. Grades are as above. The 4-year MEng degree in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering in the top UK universities, replacing the older 3-year BEng.

Unlike the case in the United States, due to earlier specialisation in education, Master's Degrees may take only one year of full-time study, and the usual amount of time spent working for a Ph.D. is three years full-time. Therefore, whilst the usual amount of time spent studying from Bachelors level through to doctorate in the United States is nine years, it is in most cases only seven in the United Kingdom, and may be just six, since a Master's degree is not always a precondition for embarking on a PhD.

Recently, there has been a significant rise in the number of courses offering "Postgraduate Diplomas", often in very specific, vocationally-related subjects. Many institutions (eg The Open University) offer these courses over one year, with an additional year or two required for the award of a Master's. The popularity of these courses is in part due to legislative requirements to demonstrate managerial competence in public-sector related functions.

A Foundation degree can be awarded for having completed two years of study in what is usually a vocational discipline. The Foundation degree is comparable to an associate's degree in the United States, and can be awarded by a University, or College of Higher Education.

ස්කොට්ලන්තය

The standard first degree in ස්කොට්ලන්තය is either a Master of Arts which only awarded by the Ancient Universities of Scotland (whereas a Bachelor of Arts is awarded by all other modern institutions), for arts and humanities subjects, or a Bachelor of Science, for natural and social science subjects.  These can either be studied at general or honours levels. A general degree (MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years to complete.  The general degree is not in a specific subject, but involves study across a range of subjects within the relevant faculty. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied, and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc).

This also reflects the broader scope of the final years of Scottish secondary education, where traditionally five Highers are studied, compared to (typically) three English or Welsh A-Levels. The Higher is a one year qualification, as opposed to the two years of A-Levels, which accounts for Scottish honours degrees being a year longer than those in England. Advanced Highers add an optional final year of secondary education, bringing students up to the level of their A-Level counterparts - students with strong A-Levels or Advanced Highers may be offered entry directly into the second year at Scottish universities.

Honours for MA or BSc are classified into three classes:
First class honours
Second class honours, divided into
Division one (2:1)
Division two (2:2)
Third class honours
Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded third-class honours may be awarded a Special Degree

Postgraduate Master's Degrees may be offered in some subjects; however, unlike England and Wales, these are not designated Master of Arts, as this is an undergraduate degree. Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated Master of Letters (MLitt); in natural and social sciences, as Master of Science (MSc). Non-doctoral postgraduate research degrees are usually designated Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or Master of Research (MRes). First doctoral research degrees in arts, science and humanities subjects are usually designated Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).

යොමුව

මේවාත් බලන්

බාහිර සබැදුම්

උපාධි


Jákup Dahl (English and German Jacob Dahl) (5 June 1878 – 5 June 1944) was a Faroese Provost and Bible translator. In 1908 he became known as a linguist with the first Faroese grammar lessons for school students.

Life and work

Dahl was born on 5 June 1878 in Vágur on the island of Suðuroy in the Faroe Islands. He was the son of the merchant Peter Hans Dahl and Elisabeth Súsanna Vilhelm.

Dahl was a classmate of Janus Djurhuus at the high school in Tórshavn, the capital of the Faroes. Djurhuus described Dahl's delivery of the nationalist hymn Nú er tann stundin komin til handa by Jóannes Patursson as his "linguistic baptism". While he was affiliated with Patursson's Party Sjálvstýrisflokkurin (Self-Government Party or Separatist Party), Jacob Dahl became famous during the Faroese language conflict, when he refused, as a teacher in Tórshavn 1909, to continue to teach in Danish. This matter back then was elevated to the Copenhagen ministry of instruction. One of his former students was William Heinesen, who reminisced about the time when Dahl still forced his students to use Danish.

In 1917 Dahl was elected Provost of the Faroes. In 1921 he published his translation of the Book of Psalms. The New Testament was published in 1937. Subsequently, he started the translation of the Old Testament, but was unable to finish it prior to his death in 1944. This task was then taken over by Kristian Osvald Viderø, to enable the Danske Folkekirke Church of Denmark (which immediately authorized Dahl's translations) to finally present a Bible translation in Faroese language in 1961. Besides the Bible translation, Dahl also supplied a transliteration of the Catechism, a Bible story and a compilation of Faroese sermons for Layman Worships in remote villages. In addition Jákup Dahl translated dozens of church songs, including some by Martin Luther into his native language.

A Bible translation by Victor Danielsen already existed in 1948, but he based his on modern European editions, unlike Dahl's translations from the older editions.

Jákup Dahl's son Regin Dahl (1918–2007) is an important Faroese poet and composer.

Works
 1908: Føroysk mállæra til skúlabrúks. Tórshavn. ("Färöi language teachings for the school use")
 1913: Jólasálmar og morgun og kvøldsálmar (collection of Jákup Dahl and Símun av Skarði. Tórshavn: Fram - 30 pp. (Christmas carols and tomorrow and evening songs)
 1928: Glottar. Tórshavn: H.N. Jacobsens Bókahandil - 96 pp.
 1935: Ávegis. Tórshavn: H.N. Jacobsens Bókahandil 156 pp.
 1948: Sólin og sóljan: Self-publishing house Regin Dahl. - 79 pp.
 1948: Meðan hildið verður heilagt. Lestrarbók. Tórshavn: Føroyskt kirkjumál - 485 pp. (devotion book, lecture collection)
 1970: Í jólahalguni. Sólarris. - Tórshavn: Heimamissiónsforlagið - 149 pp.
 Bíblia: Halgabók. Gamla testamenti og Nýggja. (From the original translations of Dahl and Viderø). Copenhagen: Det Danske Bibelselskab, 2000 - 1211 pp.

Literature
 Jákup Reinert Hansen: Mellem kor og skib. Jacob Dahl's færøske more postiller. Århus: Det teologiske Fakultet, Aarhus Universitet, 2003. - 422 pp. (in Danish with short German summary. Dissertations with support of the fund of Queen Margrethe II.)
 Jákup Reinert Hansen: Mellem kor og skib. Tórshavn: Føroya Fróðskaparfelag, 2004. - 477 pp.

See also
 Faroese People's Church

Sources
 German Wikipedia

External links

 Dahl's Bible – Faroese
 Faroe Art Stamps from Faroe Post – English
 Exhibition held in The National Library (2000) – Faroese

Translators of the Bible into Faroese
Faroese language
1878 births
1944 deaths
Translators to Faroese
Faroese Lutherans
Faroese writers
People from Vágur

Jákup Dahl


Mianmaa a wah konchri ina Ieja. Mianmaa is baadad by India an Bangladesh to di wes, Thailand an Laos to ieas and China to inort an norteas. Di konchri's 2014 sensus counted seh di population fi be 51 million peeple. As af 2017, di population is about 54 million.

Ieja

Mianmaa


The storm history of Hurricane Katrina started on August 23, 2005. Hurricane Katrina was a highly destructive Category 5 hurricane which formed as Tropical Depression Twelve near the Bahamas. The next day, the tropical depression strengthened to a tropical storm, and was named Katrina. Katrina continued on to make landfall on the southern part of the U.S. state of Florida as a Category 1 hurricane.

While passing across Florida, Katrina weakened to a tropical storm. However, the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico allowed it to rapidly intensify to the sixth strongest Atlantic hurricane in recorded history. Afterwards, Katrina made landfall as a Category 3 hurricane near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana, and once more near the Mississippi/Louisiana border. Katrina did not stop going northward through the central United States and finally dissipated near the Great Lakes, where it was absorbed by a cold front.

Formation
Tropical Depression Twelve formed over the southeastern Bahamas at 5:00 p.m. EDT (2100 UTC) on August 23, 2005, some of the tropical depression was from the remains of Tropical Depression Ten, which had dissipated from the effects of a nearby upper tropospheric trough. While the normal standards for numbering tropical depressions in the Atlantic shows that the old name/number is kept when a depression dissipates and regenerates, satellite data indicated that a second tropical wave combined with Tropical Depression Ten north of Puerto Rico to form a new, much more advanced system, which was then named as Tropical Depression Twelve. Simultaneously, the trough in the upper troposphere weakened, causing the wind shear in the area to decrease, also allowing the new tropical depression to develop. In a later re-analysis, it was found that the low-level circulation of TD Ten had completely detached and dissipated, with only the remnant mid-level circulation moving on and merging with the second tropical wave mentioned before. As a result, the criteria for keeping the same name and identity were not met.

First landfall
As the atmospheric conditions surrounding Tropical Depression Twelve were good for tropical development, the system began to strengthen, was upgraded to Tropical Storm status and given the name Katrina on the morning of August 24. A burst of convection allowed Katrina to become the fifth hurricane of the 2005 season on August 25, only two hours before it made landfall around 6:30 p.m. EST (2230 UTC) between Hallandale Beach and Aventura, Florida.

Katrina struck the peninsula at a high speed with 80 mph (130 km/h) winds, and had a well-defined eye on Doppler radar, which managed to stay undisturbed throughout its passage over Florida. The storm weakened over land on August 26 to a tropical storm, but regained its strength as a hurricane at 2:00 a.m. EDT (0600 UTC), about one hour after making landfall in Florida. Parts of the Florida Keys experienced tropical storm force winds throughout August 26, with the Dry Tortugas briefly experiencing hurricane-force winds.

Gulf of Mexico
At first, the National Hurricane Center forecasts predicted that Katrina would begin turning northward after landfall, eventually to make its second landfall on the Florida Panhandle about three to four days later. Katrina, however, continued a westerly and west-southwesterly track, which eventually made the forecasts change their predictions, and forecast Katrina to move westward into New Orleans.

Right after the storm entered the Gulf of Mexico, the low wind shear, good upper-level outflow, and the warm sea surface temperatures of the Gulf Loop Current caused Katrina to intensify rapidly. On August 27, the storm was upgraded to Category 3 strength, becoming the third major hurricane of the season. An eyewall replacement cycle inhibited strengthening of its maximum winds for about 18 hours, but nearly doubled the size of the storm as a result. The storm then began a second period of rapid intensification starting at 7:00 p.m. CDT on August 27, and by 12:40 a.m. CDT on August 28, Katrina was upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph (233 km/h). It became a Category 5 storm by 7:00 a.m. CDT, twelve hours after the beginning of the second round of rapid intensification, and reached its peak intensity at 1:00 p.m. CDT with maximum sustained winds of 175 mph (280 km/h), gusts of 215 mph (344 km/h) and a central pressure of 902 mbar (26.64 inHg). The minimum pressure made Katrina, at the time, the fourth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record (Hurricanes Rita and Wilma would later beat Katrina's record that same year). As the hurricane came closer New Orleans, the Weather Forecast Office in Slidell, Louisiana gave out two strongly-worded warnings of the storm's danger.

By the afternoon of August 28, the storm was large enough that some areas of the Gulf Coast were already experiencing tropical storm-force winds. The center of Katrina was about 180 statute miles (290 km) from the mouth of the Mississippi River, but tropical storm-force winds extended 230 mi (370 km) from the center of the storm, and hurricane-force winds extended about 105 miles (170 km) away.

Overnight on August 29, and into the morning of the next day, Katrina quickly weakened (in terms of maximum sustained winds) as it began to enter another eyewall replacement cycle. The inner eyewall disappered before an outer eyewall had fully formed, which was one of the reasons of its rapid weakening. In 18 hours, the hurricane's maximum sustained winds decreased from 170 mph (280 km/h) to 125 mph (205 km/h). However, storm surges remained high at landfall because large waves greater than 30 feet (9.1 m) in height were generated beforehand (with a buoy recording a 55 ft/16.7 m wave at sea), when Katrina was at Categories 4 and 5 on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. The waves then combined with the storm surge of the large Category 3 hurricane.

Second and third landfalls

Katrina made its second landfall at 6:10 a.m. CDT on August 29 as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 125 mph (205 km/h) near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana. Because Katrina had just weakened from Category 4 strength, and also because of the shape of the coastline, Category 4-force winds are believed to have existed on land while the eye was over water. At landfall, hurricane-force winds were recorded 120 miles (190 km) from the center, the storm's central pressure was 920 mbar (27.17 inHg), and its forward speed was 15 mph (10 km/h). As it made its way up the eastern Louisiana coastline, most communities in Plaquemines, St. Bernard Parish, and Slidell in St. Tammany Parish were severely damaged by storm surge and the strong winds of the eyewall, which also swipped over eastern New Orleans, creating $1 billion worth of damage to the city from intense flooding and wind damage.

Original estimates recorded that Katrina had made this landfall as a Category 4 hurricane, with 135 mph (220 km/h) winds; however, as mentioned above, the storm weakened just before landfall to Category 3 intensity. The reasons for this weakening are not completely understood yet; while the eye-wall replacement cycle played a part, slightly increasing shear, dropping sea surface temperatures, dry air on the western semicircle of the storm and interaction with the continental landmass also may have played a role in weakening the cyclone. This follows the trend of previous strong cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico: all cyclones with minimum central pressures of 973 mbar (28.73 inHg) or less have weakened over the 12 hours before making landfall in the Gulf Coast of the United States.

A few hours later, after weakening slightly, Katrina made its third landfall near the Louisiana-Mississippi border with 120 mph (195 km/h) sustained winds and 928 mbar (27.37 inHg) pressure, still at Category 3 intensity. Its minimum pressure at its second landfall was 920 mbar (27.17 inHg), making Katrina the third strongest hurricane on record to make landfall on the United States, behind Hurricane Camille's 909 mbar (26.85 inHg) reading in 1969, and the 1935 Labor Day Hurricane's 892 mbar (26.35 inHg) record.

Because the storm was so large, its highly destructive eye-wall winds and the strong northeastern quadrant of the storm pushed record storm surges onshore, smashing all of the Mississippi Gulf Coast, including towns in Mississippi such as Waveland, Bay St. Louis, Pass Christian, Long Beach, Gulfport, Biloxi, Ocean Springs, Gautier and Pascagoula, and, in Alabama, Bayou La Batre. The surges at its peak were at 28 feet (8.5 m) in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, and at 13 feet (4.0 m) as far away as Mobile, Alabama, which saw its highest storm surge since 1917. Storm surge was particularly high due to the hydrology of the region, the hurricane's extreme size, and the fact that it weakened only shortly before landfall. As Katrina moved inland diagonally over Mississippi, high winds cut a swath of damage that affected almost the entire state.

Dissipation

Katrina stayed at hurricane strength in Mississippi, but it soon weakened. It lost hurricane strength more than 150 miles (240 km) inland, near Meridian, Mississippi. Katrina was then lowered into a tropical depression near Clarksville, Tennessee and broke in half. One half of the storm continued to race northward, affecting the Central United States, and it was last noticeable in the eastern Great Lakes region. On August 31, it was absorbed by a frontal boundary and became a powerful extratropical low, causing 1.97–6.69 inches (50–170 mm) of rain in 12 hours. It also caused gale-force wind gusts from 31 to 61 mph (50 to 98 km/h) in southeastern Quebec and northern New Brunswick. In the region of Saguenay and Côte-Nord, rain caused breakdowns and failure in roads. The Côte-Nord region was isolated from the rest of Quebec for at least 1 week. However, the other half of Katrina broke off in the eastern part of the Appalachians, which caused a major tornado outbreak in the area from central Georgia to central Pennsylvania. The tornadoes were strong, killing two people and creating heavy damage.

At 11:00 p.m. EDT on August 31, the center of the remaining storm that was once Katrina was absorbed by another weather system in southeastern Canada.

Related pages
 Hurricane Katrina
 Hurricane Katrina tornado outbreak
 National Weather Service bulletin for New Orleans region

References

Other websites

 National Hurricane Center's Tropical Cyclone Report on Hurricane Katrina
 National Hurricane Center's archive on Hurricane Katrina
 Hydrometeorological Prediction Center's archive on Hurricane Katrina
 Hurricane Katrina Rainfall Information from HPC

Hurricane Katrina
Storm histories of tropical cyclones

Storm history of Hurricane Katrina


The hog deer or 'Indian hog deer' (Hyelaphus porcinus) is small deer. It is widespread in Asia. It lives in Pakistan, Kashmir, northern India, Nepal, Bangladesh, southwestern Yunnan Province in China, all the way to western Thailand.

The deer gets its name from the way it runs through the forests with its head hung low so that it can duck under obstacles instead of leaping over them like most other deer. It runs with its tail erect, showing the white underside.

Deer
Mammals of Asia
Mammals of Pakistan
Plants and animals of Kashmir

Hog deer


A touchdown is a common way of scoring in American and Canadian football.  A team gets a touchdown by the person with the ball running across the line of the goal, or catching the ball while past the line of the goal.  In American and Canadian football, a touchdown gives the team 6 points. The team also gets a chance to score 1 or 2 more points in what is called an extra point.

Related pages
 Try

American football
Canadian football
Sports words

Touchdown


Gene flow or gene migration is the name for the transfer of alleles or genes from one population to another. The most usual cause is the movement of animals or (with plants) the movement of seeds or fruits.

Various barriers to gene flow can occur. The most usual is a geographical barrier of some kind. The beginnings of speciation often depends on the separation of populations which were once interbreeding (panmictic).

Genetics

Gene flow


A woodcut is a way of printing. An image is cut into a block of wood. The printing part remains level with the surface. The non-printing parts are removed, often with a tool called a  gouge. The areas that are 'white' are cut away with a knife or chisel. Therefore the wood still at the original surface level are black in the final print.
The wood block is cut in the direction of the grain of the wood. In Europe beechwood was most commonly used. In Japan, a special type of cherry wood was used.

The surface is covered with ink. It is rolled over the surface with an ink-covered roller (called a brayer). This leaves ink upon the flat surface, but none in the non-printing areas. Sometimes woodcuts are referred to by a formal word, xylography.

Gallery of Asian woodcuts

Printmaking

Woodcut


Vivien v. WorldCom, Inc., No. 3:02-cv-01329 (N.D. Cal. July. 26, 2002)  established a new legal theory permitting workers to recover for losses in their 401(k) retirement plans caused by investment in their employers' stock.

Facts
The Complaint alleged that the WorldCom Retirement Plan administrators were WorldCom insiders who knew or had reason to know that the price of WorldCom stock was artificially high because public statements concerning the Company's business and prospects were false or misleading to investors. When the facts became public, the stock plummeted, thus resulting in the near total loss of retirement funds.

Problems With Remedies Under the Securities Law
The allegations of fraud and artificial inflation of WorldCom's stock price formed the basis for a lawsuit brought by investors under the securities laws, but that suit offered inadequate chance for recovery for WorldCom employees who invested in company stock in their 401(k) plan. A common perception is that employees actually own stock in their companies when they invest in company stock funds in their retirement plan. Typically, however, the plan itself owns the stock.

The securities laws provide limited help in the case of 401(k) plans because investors can only recover for shares that they purchased during the period when the stock was artificially inflated by fraud; they cannot recover for losses to stocks that they purchased before the fraud began, but held during the period of artificial inflation. Moreover, suits on behalf of a retirement plan need only prove breach of fiduciary duty and are not required to meet the more difficult fraud standard.

The Vivien Suit's ERISA-Based Theory of Recovery
Because of the limitations outlined above, plaintiffs in the Vivien action sued under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA) of 1974, a federal statute established to protect the rights of employee benefit plan participants.

ERISA requires that those who run employee welfare plans – including 401(k) retirement plans – have a duty to provide accurate information about the plans to participants, and to invest the assets of the plans prudently. These are "fiduciary duties" – the highest duties imposed by law.

The Vivien Complaint alleged that the Defendants breached their fiduciary duty of prudence under ERISA by continuing to invest plan assets in WorldCom stock when the stock was artificially inflated by the false and misleading statements of WorldCom's senior management.

The Defendants moved to dismiss the complaint, arguing that it was "actually a securities-fraud action governed by the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act masquerading as an ERISA action." The Court disagreed.

Judgment
Giving the judgment of the Court, Judge William Alsup held that the plaintiff's complaint adequately alleged that the defendants acted in a fiduciary capacity and had breached that duty by their imprudent investment in company stock.

Significance
The Vivien decision provided the legal framework for many similar suits filed by employees of companies such as AOL Time Warner, Reliant Energy, Cardinal Health, Tyco International, Merck, and Dell. As a result of these suits, many major companies have begun to restructure their 401(k) plans, eliminating the requirement to own company stock.

External links
WorldCom Amicus Brief
Connecticut Law Tribune article
Second Amended Complaint
U.S. District Court Southern District of New York Court Order, 11.21.2002

2002 in United States case law
United States District Court for the Northern District of California cases
Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974
Retirement plans in the United States
MCI Communications

Vivien v. WorldCom


Eleanor Mary Hughes ( Waymouth),  (3 April 1882 – 1959) was a New Zealand landscape artist who mostly painted in watercolours. She settled and worked in Britain and became an active member of the Newlyn School of artists and the nearby Lamorna artists colony.

Biography
Hughes was born in Christchurch in New Zealand. She was the daughter of Frederick and Alice Waymouth, and had a sister Alice Waymouth who was also a notable artist. Her family home, a homestead named Karewa in Christchurch, was sold and renamed in 1905 and became the historic property known as Mona Vale. Hughes grew up at Karewa and studied at Canterbury College School of Art.

In 1900 she won a medal from the Canterbury Fine Art Society for a series of drawings of trees. Her parents were originally from the west country of England and she choose to study art in England. She first visited Britain to study with C N Worsley between 1901 and 1903 and also, for a short while, attended the School of Painting and Drawing run by Stanhope Forbes and Elizabeth Forbes in Newlyn. In 1907 Hughes returned to England to study at Frank Spenlove's Yellow Door Studio in London before returning to Newlyn to study at the Forbes School. In Newlyn, she met and, in January 1910 at St Buryan's Church, married a fellow student, the painter Robert Morson Hughes. The couple designed and built their own home, Chyangweal, near St Buryan. The house became a regular social centre for the artists settled in the area. Eleanor Hughes was a skilled pianist and would lead recitals at the house. In Cornwall the couple became lifelong friends with Laura Knight and her husband Harold Knight, both of whom painted them a number of times.

Hughes owned her own studio in the Lamorna valley where she created landscape paintings, often featuring the stone walls, waterfalls and streams of the local area. Hughes also painted in France and the Pyrenees on a regular basis.
From 1911, she exhibited regularly at the Royal Academy and eventually with the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours. In total Hughes had some 37 pictures shown at the Royal Academy. In 1933 she was elected a member of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours. As well as in galleries in Newlyn and St Ives, Hughes also had works shown at the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool and at the Glasgow Institute of the Fine Arts. Hughes sold her studio in 1940 and appears to have produced little after doing so. She died in Lamorna in 1959.

References

1882 births
1959 deaths
20th-century British painters
20th-century New Zealand painters
20th-century New Zealand women artists
Painters from Cornwall
Artists from Christchurch
Newlyn School of Artists
Members of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours
New Zealand women painters

Eleanor Hughes


Francis Maitland Balfour, known as F. M. Balfour, FRS (10 November 1851 – 19 July 1882) was a British biologist. He lost his life while attempting the ascent of Mont Blanc. He was regarded by his colleagues as one of the greatest biologists of his day and Charles Darwin's successor.

Life
The younger brother of politician Arthur Balfour, he was born at Edinburgh in Scotland.  He attended Harrow School, where he tied with Arthur Evans, the future archaeologist of Knossos, for the Natural History Prize. George Griffith, a teacher at Harrow, encouraged and aided him in the pursuit of natural science, a taste for which, especially geology, he had acquired from his mother. Entering Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1870, he was elected a natural science scholar of his college in the following year, and obtained second place in the Natural Science Tripos of December 1873.

Career
A course of lectures on embryology, delivered by Sir Michael Foster in 1871, turned Balfour's attention to animal morphology.  After the tripos, he was selected to occupy one of the two seats allocated to the University of Cambridge at the Naples zoological station. The research work which he began there contributed in an important degree to his election as a Fellow of Trinity in 1874; and also gave him the material for a series of papers (published as a monograph in 1878) on the Elasmobranch fish, which threw new light on the development of several organs in the Vertebrates, in particular of the uro-genital and nervous systems.

His next work was a large treatise, Comparative Embryology, in two volumes; the first, published in 1880, dealing with the Invertebrates, and the second (1881) with the Vertebrates. This book displayed a vigorous scientific imagination, controlled by a logical sense that rigidly distinguished between fact and hypothesis, and it quickly won wide recognition, both as an admirable digest of the numberless observations made with regard to the development of animals during the quarter of a century preceding its publication, and as a work of original research.

Balfour's reputation was now such that other universities became anxious to secure his services, and he was invited to succeed Professor George Rolleston at Oxford and Sir Wyville Thomson at Edinburgh. Although he was only a college lecturer, holding no official post in his university, he declined to leave Cambridge, and in the spring of 1882 the university instituted a special Chair of Animal Morphology for his benefit.

He was a committed Darwinian, though he disagreed with Darwin on the origins of larvae. Darwin assumed that larvae arose from the same stock as adults, but Balfour believed that virtually all larvae are 'secondary', i.e. they "have become introduced into the ontogeny of species, the young of which were originally hatched with all the characters of the adult". In the case of echinoderms, he argued that the bilateral larvae must have been introduced after the establishment of the existing classes, and he challenged Haeckel's view that these larvae are evidence that echinoderms evolved from bilateral ancestors.

In June 1878 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1881 was awarded their Royal Medal "For his numerous and important contributions to animal morphology; and more especially for his investigations respecting the origin of the urogenital organs and the cerebrospinal nerves of the Vertebrata; and for his work on the development of the Elasmobranch fishes."

Death
Balfour never delivered a lecture in his new position. In the first term after his appointment he was prevented from working by an attack of typhoid fever, and went to the Alps for his health. Balfour and the guide Johann Petrus were killed, probably on 19 July 1882, attempting the ascent of the Aiguille Blanche, Mont Blanc, at that time unscaled.

Besides being a brilliant morphologist, Balfour was an accomplished naturalist. Charles Darwin referred to him as the "Scottish Cuvier". Huxley thought he was "the only man who can carry out my work", and that the deaths of Balfour and W. K. Clifford were "the greatest loss to science in our time". He was buried at Whittingehame, East Lothian.

Selected publications

The Elements of Embryology (1874) [with Michael Foster]
A Treatise on Comparative Embryology (Volume 1, Volume 2, 1880-1881)

References

External links

1851 births
1882 deaths
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Francis Maitland Balfour
19th-century British biologists
British evolutionary biologists
British embryologists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Mountaineering deaths
Royal Medal winners
Sport deaths in France

Francis Maitland Balfour


Three Coins in the Fountain is a 1954 American romantic comedy-drama film directed by Jean Negulesco from a screenplay by John Patrick, based on the 1952 novel Coins in the Fountain by John H. Secondari. It stars Clifton Webb, Dorothy McGuire, Jean Peters, Louis Jourdan, and Maggie McNamara, with Rossano Brazzi, Howard St. John, Kathryn Givney, and Cathleen Nesbitt. The film follows three American women working in Rome who dream of finding romance in the Eternal City. It was originally titled We Believe in Love.

The film's main title song "Three Coins in the Fountain", sung by an uncredited Frank Sinatra, went on to become an enduring standard. The film was made in Italy during the "Hollywood on the Tiber" era.

At the 27th Academy Awards in 1955, the film received two Academy Awards—for Best Cinematography and Best Song—and was nominated for Best Picture.

Plot

Young American secretary Maria Williams arrives in Rome and is greeted by Anita Hutchins, the woman whom she is replacing at the United States Distribution Agency. They drive to the Villa Eden, which Anita shares with Miss Frances, the longtime secretary of the American author John Frederick Shadwell, an expatriate living in Rome. On their way into town, the three women stop at the famous Trevi Fountain. Frances and Anita tell Maria that according to legend, if she throws a coin in the fountain and makes a wish to return to Rome, she will. Maria and Frances throw in their coins, but Anita, who is planning to return to the United States to marry, declines.

Anita takes Maria to the agency and introduces her to Giorgio Bianchi, a translator with whom she works. Maria senses that Anita and Giorgio are attracted to each other, though Anita states that the agency forbids its American and Italian employees to fraternize. Later that evening at a party, Maria is attracted by the handsome Prince Dino di Cessi, despite being warned by Frances and Anita about his being a notorious womanizer. His girlfriends become known as "Venice girls" after he takes them to Venice for romantic trysts. Dino charms Maria, telling her to ignore what she's heard about him.

After the party, Anita and Maria walk home and Anita admits that she has no fiancé waiting back in the United States. She's leaving because she believes she has a better chance of finding a husband in America; wealthy Italian men are not interested in mere secretaries, and the men who are interested are too poor. As they walk, Maria is pinched by a man who pesters her until she is rescued by Giorgio, who then asks Anita to go with him the next day to his family's country farm to attend a celebration. Anita reluctantly agrees.

The next morning, Giorgio picks Anita up in his cousin's dilapidated truck. On their way out of town, they are spotted by her boss, Burgoyne. On Giorgio's family farm, Giorgio tells Anita that he hopes to become a lawyer, despite his poverty. Anita then climbs into the truck and is almost killed when it rolls down the hill. After Giorgio rescues her, the breathless couple give in to their attraction and they kiss. Meanwhile, back at the apartment, Dino calls for Maria and asks if she will accompany him to Venice. Desiring to see Venice but not wanting to lose Dino's respect, Maria arranges for Frances to chaperone them — to Dino's disappointment.

At the agency on Monday, Burgoyne questions Maria about Anita's weekend with Giorgio and although she maintains that Anita did nothing wrong, Burgoyne assumes Anita is having an affair with Giorgio. The following day, he fires Giorgio. When Anita learns about this, she blames Maria for betraying her confidence and insists on moving out of their apartment. She visits Giorgio, worried that she might have ruined his chances of becoming a lawyer. Giorgio has no regrets.

Meanwhile, Maria sets out to attract Dino's affections. She learns about the modern art he loves, his favorite food and wine, and pretends to learn the piccolo (his favorite instrument). Maria even lies about her background, telling Dino she is three-quarters Italian. Beguiled by how much he apparently has in common with Maria, Dino introduces her to his mother, the Principessa, who expresses her approval. Later, Dino confides in Maria that she is the only girl whom he has ever completely trusted. Troubled by her deception, Maria confesses her subterfuge, even showing Dino her notebook listing his interests. He angrily takes her home.

Frances meets Anita, who admits that she and Giorgio are in love but will not marry because he is too poor. Frances returns home to comfort the guilt-stricken Maria, who is also determined to leave Rome because Dino has not contacted her since her admission. Frances tells her she is glad she is no longer young and susceptible to romance. The next morning, however, Frances suddenly announces to Shadwell that she is returning to the United States, explaining that she does not want to end up as an old maid in a foreign country. Shadwell, unaware that Frances has been deeply in love with him for fifteen years, offers her a marriage of convenience based on mutual respect. Eager to be with him under any circumstances, Frances accepts.

The next day, Shadwell learns that he is terminally ill and has less than a year to live unless he goes to America for experimental treatment. Shadwell returns to his villa and coldly breaks off his engagement to Frances. After Shadwell leaves, Frances learns from his doctor the truth about Shadwell's condition, and then follows him to a café, where she proceeds to match him drink for drink while bickering about whether he should pursue treatment. Completely drunk, Frances climbs into a nearby fountain and sobs about her life. After Shadwell takes her back to the villa and tucks her in, he goes to see Dino at the di Cessi palace. Shadwell tells Dino he is leaving for the United States where he will marry Frances. He uses reverse psychology to provoke Dino into realizing that he loves Maria.

After Anita and Maria are packed and ready to leave, Frances telephones and asks to meet them at the Trevi Fountain. When they arrive, Maria and Anita are disappointed to see the fountain emptied for cleaning. When they are joined by Frances, however, the water springs up again, and the women are thrilled by its beauty. Dino and Giorgio then arrive, and as the men embrace their girlfriends, Frances is joined by Shadwell, and they happily admire the fountain, which has proved lucky to them all.

Cast
 Clifton Webb as John Frederick Shadwell
 Dorothy McGuire as Miss Frances
 Jean Peters as Anita Hutchins
 Louis Jourdan as Prince Dino di Cessi
 Rossano Brazzi as Giorgio Bianchi
 Maggie McNamara as Maria Williams
 Howard St. John as Burgoyne
 Kathryn Givney as Mrs. Burgoyne
 Cathleen Nesbitt as Principessa

Reception

Critical response
Upon its theatrical release, the film received generally positive reviews, particularly for its color and CinemaScope widescreen cinematography of Italian filming locations. In his review in The New York Times, Bosley Crowther wrote, "Three Coins in the Fountain is quite clearly a film in which the locale comes first. However, the nonsense of its fable tumbles nicely within the picture frame." Crowther underscored the film's visual appeal to the audiences of his time.

Variety noted that the film "has warmth, humor, a rich dose of romance and almost incredible pictorial appeal."

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 60% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9 out of 10.

Awards and nominations

The film was recognized by the American Film Institute in these lists:
 2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – Nominated
 2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:
 "Three Coins in the Fountain" (song) – Nominated

Remakes
Three other films based on the same novel have been released. The first was the 1964 musical The Pleasure Seekers starring Ann-Margret, Carol Lynley and Pamela Tiffin, directed by Jean Negulesco. The second was a 1966 20th Century Fox pilot for an unsold television series, which was directed by Hal Kanter, written by Kanter and Melville Shavelson and starred Cynthia Pepper, Yvonne Craig and Joanna Moore. The television film was finally broadcast in 1970. Sergio Franchi sang the title song. The third was the 1990 television film Coins in the Fountain starring Loni Anderson.

Three Coins in the Fountain also inspired the 2010 film When in Rome, which tells the story of a woman who takes coins from a love fountain in Rome and finds unwanted love.

References

Bibliography

External links

1954 films
1954 comedy-drama films
1954 romantic comedy films
1954 romantic drama films
1950s English-language films
1950s romantic comedy-drama films
20th Century Fox films
American romantic comedy-drama films
CinemaScope films
Films based on American novels
Films directed by Jean Negulesco
Films produced by Sol C. Siegel
Films scored by Victor Young
Films set in Rome
Films shot in Rome
Films that won the Best Original Song Academy Award
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
1950s American films

Three Coins in the Fountain (film)


Brownian motion is the random motion of particles suspended in a medium (a liquid or a gas). The motion is caused by fast-moving atoms or molecules that hit the particles. Brownian Motion was discovered in 1827 by the botanist Robert Brown. In 1827, while looking through a microscope at particles trapped in cavities inside pollen grains in water, he noted that the particles moved through the water; but he was not able to find out what was causing this motion.

Atoms and molecules had long been theorised as the main parts of matter. Albert Einstein published a paper in 1905 that explained in precise detail how the motion that Brown had observed was a result of the pollen being moved by individual water molecules. This was one of his first big contributions to science, and convinced many scientists that atoms and molecules exist.  It was further verified experimentally by Jean Perrin in 1908.  The direction of the force of atomic bombardment is constantly changing, and at different times the particle is hit more on one side than another, leading to the seemingly random nature of the motion.

There are too many molecular impacts making the Brownian pattern, so no scientific model can account for all of them. That is why only probabilistic models of molecular populations can be used to describe it.  Two such models of the statistical mechanics were made by Einstein and Smoluchowski.  Another, pure probabilistic kind of models are stochastic process models.  There exist both simpler and more complicated stochastic processes which in extreme ("taken to the limit") may describe the Brownian Motion (see random walk and Donsker's theorem).

Norbert Wiener also studied Brownian Movement, with greater mathematical precision.

History

The Roman Lucretius's scientific poem "On the Nature of Things" (c. 60 BC) has a description of Brownian motion of dust particles in verses 113–140 from Book II.  He uses this to help people know for sure of the existence of atoms:

"Observe what happens when sunlight is let into a building and small building light on its shadowy places. You will see an amount of tiny particles moving in an amount of ways..."

While Jan Ingenhousz described the strange motion of coal dust particles on the top of alcohol in 1785, the discovery of this is often given to the botanist Robert Brown in 1827. Brown was studying pollen grains of the plant Clarkia pulchella suspended in water under a microscope when he observed minute particles, ejected by the pollen grains, executing a jittery motion. By repeating the experiment with particles of inorganic matter he was able to rule out that the motion was life-related, although its origin was not known yet.

The first person to describe the mathematics behind Brownian motion was Thorvald N. Thiele in a paper on the method of least squares published in 1880. This was followed by Louis Bachelier in 1900 in his PhD thesis "The Theory of Speculation", in which he presented an analysis of the stock and option markets. The Brownian motion model of the stock market is often used, but Benoit Mandelbrot denied its applicability to stock price movements.

Albert Einstein (in one of his 1905 papers) and Marian Smoluchowski (1906) brought the solution of the problem to the attention of physicists, and presented it as a way to indirectly confirm the existence of atoms and molecules. Their equations describing Brownian motion were checked by the experimental work of Jean Baptiste Perrin in 1908.  Perrin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1926 "for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter".

References

1827
Albert Einstein
Basic physics ideas
Physics

Brownian motion