Ukeketaji (pia: tohara ya mwanamke; kwa Kiingereza: female circumcision, female genital mutilation; kifupi: FGM) ni tendo la kukata sehemu za nje za viungo vya uzazi vya mwanamke.

Neno linalotokana na mzizi keket, ambao unabeba maana ya kuharibu.

Mara nyingi tendo la ukeketaji linaitwa pia "tohara" kwa kulifananisha na upasuaji mdogo wa wanaume, lakini mambo ni tofauti kabisa.

Hapa sehemu za nje za viungo vya uzazi zinakatwa kusudi wasifurahie sana tendo la ndoa, hivyo wawe waaminifu zaidi kwa waume wao.

Ukeketaji umeenea hasa kati ya mataifa na makabila wenye asili ya bonde la Naili na majirani wao.

Kinyume na tohara ya wavulana matabibu wanaona hasara nyingi katika desturi hiyo. Ukeketaji unasababisha wasichana wengi kufa na wengine wengi kupatwa na maumivu makali wakati wa hedhi, wa tendo la ndoa na wa kujifungua.

Kwa sababu hizo serikali nyingi za dunia zimeupiga marufuku.

Pia madhehebu kadhaa yanatoa mafundisho kuwa ni kinyume cha masharti ya dini yao.

Juhudi zimefanikiwa kwa kiasi fulani katika baadhi ya nchi.

Marejeo

 Abdalla, Raqiya Haji Dualeh. Sisters in Affliction: Circumcision and Infibulation of Women in Africa, Zed Books, 1982.
 Abdalla, Raqiya Dualeh. My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows: The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia, in Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf (ed.), Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007.
 Abd el Salam, S. "A Comprehensive Approach for Communication about Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt," in George C. Denniston, Frederick Mansfield Hodges and Marilyn Fayre Milos, Male and Female Circumcision: Medical, Legal, and Ethical Considerations in Pediatric Practice, Springer, 1999.
 Abdulcadira, Jasmine; Margairaz, C.; Boulvain, M; Irion, O. "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting" , Swiss Medical Weekly, Vol 6, Issue 14, January 2011.
 Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa. "Introduction: The Custom in Question," in Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf (ed.), Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007.
 Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa. "Revisiting Feminist Discourses on Inbulation: The Hosken Report," in Bettina Shell-Duncan and Ylva Hernlund (eds.), Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000.
 Allen, Peter Lewis. The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present, University of Chicago Press, 2000.
 Ahmadu, Fuambai. Ain't I a Woman too?': Challenging Myths of Sexual Dysfunction in Circumcised Women," in Ylva Hernlund and Bettina Shell-Duncan (eds.), Transcultural Bodies: Female Genital Cutting in Global Context, Rutgers University Press, 2007.
 Bagnol, Birgitte and Mariano, Esmeralda. "Politics of naming sexual practices," in Sylvia Tamale (ed.), African Sexualities: A Reader, Pambazuka Press, 2011.
 Banks, E. et al. "Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries", The Lancet, 367(9525), 3 June 2006, pp. 1835–1841.
 Barker Benfield, G.J. The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America, Routledge, 1999.
 Beck, Ann. "Some Observations on Jomo Kenyatta in Britain, 1929–1930", Cahiers d'études africaines, 6(22), 1996, pp. 308–329.
 Bennett, Jane. "Subversion and resistance: activist initiatives," in Sylvia Tamale (ed.), African Sexualities: A Reader, Fahamu/Pambazuka, 2011.
 Berga, Rigmor C. and Denisona Eva. "A Tradition in Transition: Factors Perpetuating and Hindering the Continuance of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) Summarized in a Systematic Review", Health Care for Women International, 34(10), 2013.
 Bergrren, Vanja et al. "Being Victims or Beneficiaries? Perspectives on Female Genital Cutting and Reinfibulation in Sudan", African Journal of Reproductive Health, 10(2), August 2006.
 Bergrren, Vanja et al. "An explorative study of Sudanese midwives' motives, perceptions and experiences of re-infibulation after birth", Midwifery, 20(4), December 2004, pp. 299–311.
 Black, Donald Campbell. On the Functional Diseases of the Renal, Urinary and Reproductive Organs, Lindsay & Blakiston, 1872.
 Black, J.A. and Debelle, G.D. "Female genital mutilation in Britain", British Medical Journal, 310, 17 June 1995.
 Black, John. "Female genital mutilation: a contemporary issue, and a Victorian obsession", Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 90, July 1997, pp. 402–405.
 Boddy, Janice. Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men, and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan, University of Wisconsin Press, 1989.
 Boddy, Janice. Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan, Princeton University Press, 2007.
 Boyle, Elizabeth Heger. Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.
 Brown, Isaac Baker. On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy, and Hysteria in Females, Robert Hardwicke, 1866.
 Bryk, Felix. Circumcision in Man and Woman: Its History, Psychology, and Ethnology, The Minerva Group, Inc., 2001.
 Caldwell, John C.; Orubuloye, I.O.; and Caldwell, Pat. "Female Genital Mutilation: Conditions of Decline", Population Research and Policy Review, 19(3), June 2000, pp. 233–254.
 Cappa, Claudi; Wardlaw, Tessa; Shell-Duncan, Bettina. "Changing a harmful social convention: female genital cutting/mutilation", Innocenti Digest, UNICEF 2005.
 Chase, Cheryl. Cultural Practice' or 'Reconstructive Surgery'? US Genital Cutting, the Intersex Movement, and Medical Double Standards," in Stanlie M. James and Claire C. Robertson (eds.), Genital Cutting and Transnational Sisterhood, University of Illinois Press, 2002.
 Cohen, Shaye J. D. Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism, University of California Press, 2005.
 Conroy, Ronán M. "Female genital mutilation: whose problem, whose solution?", British Medical Journal, 333(7559), 15 July 2006.
 Dave, Amish J.; Sethi, Aisha; and Morrone, Aldo. "Female Genital Mutilation: What Every American Dermatologist Needs to Know", Dermatologic Clinics, 29(1), January 2011, pp. 103–109 (review).
 Dettwyler, Katherine A. Dancing Skeletons: Life and Death in West Africa, Waveland Press, 1994.
 Dorkenoo, Efua; Morison, Linda; and Macfarlane, Alison. "A Statistical Study to Estimate the Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" , FORWARD, October 2007.
 Ehrenreich, Nancy and Barr, Mark. "Intersex Surgery, Female Genital Cutting, and the Selective Condemnation of 'Cultural Practices, Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 40(1), 2005, pp. 71–140.
 El Bashir, Hamid. The Sudanese National Committee on the Eradication of Harmful Traditional Practices and the Campaign against Female Genital Mutilation in Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf (ed.), Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007.
 Elchalal, Uriel et al."Ritualistic Female Genital Mutilation: Current Status and Future Outlook", Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 52(10), October 1997, pp. 643–651.
 El Dareer, Asma. Woman, Why Do You Weep?: Circumcision and its Consequences, Zed Books, 1982.
 El Dareer, Asma. "Attitudes of Sudanese People to the Practice of Female Circumcision", International Journal of Epidemiology, 1983, 12(2), pp. 138–144.
El Guindi, Fadwa. "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?" in Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf (ed.), Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007.
 El Hadi, Amal Abd. "Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt" in Meredeth Turshen (ed.), African Women's Health, Africa World Press, 2000.
 Elmusharaf, Susan; Elhadi, Nagla; and Almroth, Lars. "Reliability of self reported form of female genital mutilation and WHO classification: cross sectional study", British Medical Journal, 332(7559), 27 June 2006.
 Essén, Birgitta and Johnsdotter, Sara. "Female Genital Mutilation in the West: Traditional Circumcision versus Genital Cosmetic Surgery", Acta Obstetricia Gynecologica Scandinavica, 83(7), July 2004, pp. 611–613.
 Farage, Samar A. "Female Genital Alteration: A Sociological Perspective," in Miranda A. Farage and Howard I. Maibach (eds.), The Vulva: Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology, CRC Press, 2006.
 Fee, Elizabeth. "Review of The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females by Fran P. Hosken", Signs, 5(4), Summer 1980, pp. 807–809.
 Gallard, Colette. "Female genital mutilation in France", British Medical Journal, 310, 17 June 1995.
 Gallo, Pia Grassivaro; Tita Eleanora; and Viviani, Franco. "At the Roots of Ethnic Female Genital Modification," in George C. Denniston and Pia Grassivaro Gallo (eds.). Bodily Integrity and the Politics of Circumcision, Springer, 2006.
 Gruenbaum, Ellen. The Female Circumcision Controversy, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.
 Hicks, Esther K. Infibulation: Female Mutilation in Islamic Northeastern Africa, Transaction Publishers, 1996.
 Holding, E. Mary. "Women's Institutions and the African Church", International Review of Mission, 31(3), July 1942, pp. 290–300.
 Hosken, Fran. The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females, Women's International Network, 1994, first published 1979.
 Ismail, Edna Adan. "Female genital mutilation survey in Somaliland" , Edna Adan Maternity and Teaching Hospital, 2009.
 Izett, Susan and Toubia, Nahid. "Female Genital Mutilation: An Overview", World Health Organization, 1998.
 James, Stanlie M. "Female Genital Mutilation," in Bonnie G. Smith (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopaedia of Women in World History, Oxford University Press, 2008.
 James, Stanlie M. "Listening to Other(ed) Voices: Reflections around Female Genital Cutting," in Stanlie M. James and Claire C. Robertson (eds.), Genital Cutting and Transnational Sisterhood, University of Illinois Press, 2002.
 J.F.C. "Isaac Baker Brown, F.R.C.S.", Medical Times and Gazette, 8 February 1873.
 Johnsdotter, Sara and Essén, Birgitta. "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" , Reproductive Health Matters, 18(35), 2010, pp. 29–37.
 Kaplan, Adriana et al. "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: The Secret World of Women as Seen by Men", Obstetrics and Gynecology International, 2013: 643780.
 Kelly, Elizabeth, and Hillard, Paula J. Adams. "Female genital mutilation", Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology, 17(5), October 2005, pp. 490–494 (review).
 Kirby, Vicki. "Out of Africa: 'Our Bodies Ourselves'?" in Obioma Nnaemeka (ed.), Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses, Praeger, 2005.
 Knight, Mary. "Curing Cut or Ritual Mutilation?: Some Remarks on the Practice of Female and Male Circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt", Isis, 92(2), June 2001, pp. 317–338.
 Korieh, Chima. Other' Bodies: Western Feminism, Race and Representation in Female Circumcision Discourse," in Obioma Nnaemeka (ed.), Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses, Praeger, 2005.
 Lane, Sandra D. and Rubinstein, Robert A. "Judging the Other: Responding to Traditional Female Genital Surgeries" , Hastings Center Report, 26(3), May–June 1996, pp. 31–40.
 Liao, Lih Mei and Creighton, Sarah M. "Requests for cosmetic genitoplasty: how should healthcare providers respond?", British Medical Journal, 334(7603), 26 May 2007, pp. 1090–1092.
 Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny. "The Sexual Experience and Marital Adjustment of Genitally Circumcised and Infibulated Females in The Sudan", The Journal of Sex Research, 26(3), 1989, pp. 375–392.
 Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny. Prisoners of Ritual: An Odyssey Into Female Genital Circumcision in Africa, Routledge, 1989.
 Mackie, Gerry. "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account", American Sociological Review, 61(6), December 1996, (pp. 999–1017), pp. 99–1000 (also here ).
 Mackie, Gerry. "Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End," in Bettina Shell-Duncan and Ylva Hernlund (eds.), Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000, pp. 253–282 (also here).
 Mackie, Gerry and LeJeune, John. "Social Dynamics of Abandonment of Harmful Practices: A New Look at the Theory", Innocenti Working Paper No. 2008-XXX, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2008.
 Mackie, Gerry and LeJeune, John. "Social Dynamics of Abandonment of Harmful Practices: A New Look at the Theory", Innocenti Working Paper No. 2009-06, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, May 2009.
 Martinelli, M. and Ollé-Goig, J.E. "Female genital mutilation in Djibouti, African Health Sciences, 12(4), December 2012.
 McGregor, Deborah Kuhn. From Midwives to Medicine: The Birth of American Gynecology, Rutgers University Press, 1998.
 Momoh, Comfort. "Female genital mutilation," in Comfort Momoh (ed.), Female Genital Mutilation, Radcliffe Publishing, 2005.
 Momoh, Comfort. "FGM and issues of gender and human rights of women," in Comfort Momoh (ed.), Female Genital Mutilation, Radcliffe Publishing, 2005.
 Morison, Linda et al. "The long-term reproductive health consequences of female genital cutting in rural Gambia: a community-based survey", Tropical Medicine & International Health, 6(8), August 2001, pp. 643–653.
 Mufaka, Kenneth. "Scottish Missionaries and the Circumcision Controversy in Kenya, 1900–1960", International Review of Scottish Studies, 28, 2003.
 Natsoulas, Theodore. "The Politicization of the Ban of Female Circumcision and the Rise of the Independent School Movement in Kenya: The KCA, the Missions and Government, 1929–1932" , Journal of African Studies, 33(2), April 1998, pp. 137–158.
 Neusner, Jacob. Approaches to Ancient Judaism, Volume 4, Scholars Press, 1993.
 Nour N.M., Michaels K.B., and Bryant A.E. "Defibulation to Treat Female Genital Cutting: Effect on Symptoms and Sexual Function", Obstetrics & Gynecology, 108(1), July 2006, pp. 55–60.
 Nour, Nawal M. "Female Genital Cutting: A Persisting Practice", Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1(3), Summer 2008, pp. 135–139.
 Nussbaum, Martha Craven. Sex and Social Justice, Oxford University Press, 1999.
 Obermeyer, Carla. "Female Genital Surgeries: The Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable" , Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 31(1), 1999, pp. 79–106.
 Obermeyer, Carla. "The Health Consequences of Female Circumcision: Science, Advocacy, and Standards of Evidence", Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 17(3), September 2003.
 Obermeyer, Carla. "The Consequences of Female Circumcision for Health and Sexuality: An Update on the Evidence", Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 7(5), September–October 2005.
 Oldfield Hayes, Rose. "Female Genital Mutilation, Fertility Control, Women's Roles, and the Patrilineage in Modern Sudan: A Functional Analysis", American Ethnologist 2(4), November 1975, pp. 617–633.
 Rahman, Anika and Toubia, Nahid. Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide, Zed Books, 2000.
 Rodriguez, Sarah W. "Rethinking the history of female circumcision and clitoridectomy: American medicine and female sexuality in the late nineteenth century", Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 63(3), July 2008, pp. 323–347.
 Ross, Susan Deller. Women's Human Rights: The international and Comparative Law Casebook, Vantage Press, 2008.
 Rymer, Janice and Momoh, Comfort. "Managing the reality of FGM in the UK," in Comfort Momoh (ed.), Female Genital Mutilation, Radcliffe Publishing, 2005.
 Saadawi, Nawal. The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World, Zed Books, 2007.
 Seligman, Charles G. "Aspects of the Hamitic problems in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan",The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1913, 40(3), pp. 593–705.
 Serour G.I. "The issue of reinfibulation", International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 109(2), May 2010, pp. 93–96.
 Sharif, Khadijah F. "Female Genital Mutilation," in Nadine Taub, Beth Anne Wolfson, and Carla M. Palumbo (eds.). The Law of Sex Discrimination, Cengage Learning, 2010.
 Sheehan, Elizabeth. "Victorian Clitoridectomy: Isaac Baker Brown and His Harmless Operative Procedure", Medical Anthropology Newsletter, 12(4), August 1981.
 Shell-Duncan, Bettina and Hernlund, Ylva. "Female 'Circumcision' in Africa: Dimensions of the Practice and Debates" in Bettina Shell-Duncan and Ylva Hernlund (eds.), Female "Circumcision" in Africa, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000.
 Shorter, Edward. From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era, Simon and Schuster, 2008.
 Shweder, Richard. What About Female Genital Mutilation?" And Why Understanding Culture Matters in the First Place," in Richard A. Shweder, Martha Minow and Hazel Rose Markus (eds.), Engaging Cultural Differences: The Multicultural Challenge In Liberal Democracies, Russell Sage Foundation, 2002; also in Daedalus, 129(4) , Fall 2000.
 Shweder, Richard. "When Cultures Collide: Which Rights? Whose Tradition of Values? A Critique of the Global Anti-FGM Campaign," in Christiopher L. Eisgruber and András Sajó (eds.), Global Justice And the Bulwarks of Localism, Martinus Nijhoff, 2005, pp. 181–199 .
 Silverman, Eric K. "Anthropology and Circumcision", Annual Review of Anthropology, 33, 2004.
 Strayer, Robert and Murray, Jocelyn. "The CMS and Female Circumcision," in Robert Strayer. The Making of Missionary Communities in East Africa, Heinemann Educational Books, 1978.
 Tamale, Sylvia. "Researching and theorising sexualities," in Sylvia Tamale (ed.), African Sexualities: A Reader, Fahamu/Pambazuka, 2011.
 Thiam, Awa. "Women's fight for the abolition of sexual mutilation", International Social Science Journal, 50(157), September 1998, pp. 381–386.
 Thomas, Lynn M. Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': The Gender and Generational Politics of the 1956 Ban on Clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya", Gender and History, 8(3), November 1996, pp. 338–363.
 Thomas, Lynn M. Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya" in Bettina Shell-Duncan and Ylva Hernlund (eds.), Female "Circumcision" in Africa, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000.
 Thomas, Lynn M. Politics of the Womb: Women, Reproduction, and the State in Kenya, University of California Press, 2003.
 Toubia, Nahid. "Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue", The New England Journal of Medicine, 331(11), 1994, pp. 712–716.
 Toubia, Nahid and Sharief, Eiman Hussein. "Female genital mutilation: have we made progress?" , International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 82(3), September 2003, pp. 251–261.
 United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change" , July 2013.
 Walley, Christine J. "Searching for 'Voices': Feminism, Anthropology, and the Global Over Female Genital Operations," in Stanlie M. James and Claire C. Robertson (eds.), Genital Cutting and Transnational Sisterhood, University of Illinois Press, 2002.
 Wangila, Mary Nyangweso. Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture and Gender in Kenya, Orbis Books, 2007.
 Werblowsky, R.J. Zwi; Wigoder, R.J. and Geoffrey (eds.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion, Oxford University Press, 1997.
 Yasin, Berivan A. et al. "Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: a cross-sectional study from Erbil city", BMC Public Health, 13, September 2013.
 Yoder, Stanley P. and Khan, Shane. "Numbers of women circumcised in Africa", USAID, March 2008.
 Zabus, Chantal. "Between Rites and Rights: Excision on Trial in African Women's Texts and Human Contexts," in Peter H. Marsden and Geoffrey V. Davis (eds.), Towards a Transcultural Future: Literature and Human Rights in a ' Post'-Colonial World, Rodopi, 2004.
 Zabus, Chantal. "The Excised Body in African Texts and Contexts," in Merete Falck Borch (ed.), Bodies and Voices: The Force-field of Representation and Discourse in Colonial and Postcolonial Studies, Rodopi, 2008.

Marejeo mengine

Hoja

 "Factsheet on FGM", World Health Organization, February 2013.
 British National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children 24-hour national helpline for children at risk of FGM: 0800 028 3550
 FORWARD, London, charity specializing in FGM research (FORWARD's list of hospitals and clinics in the UK offering specialist FGM services ).
 Desert Flower Foundation ("First Desert Flower Center opens in Berlin" , 16 September 2013, first dedicated FGM clinic in Europe).
 "Circumcision, female" , The Kinsey Institute (bibliography 1960s–1980s).
 Westley, David M. "Female circumcision and infibulation in Africa", Electronic Journal of Africana Bibliography, 4, 1999 (bibliography up to 1997).
 The Guardian. FGM archive.
 The Guardian.  "The facts about female genital mutilation – interactive", interactive display showing facts and figures from UNICEF, 22 July 2013.

Vitabu, makala

 Bryk, Felix. Circumcision in Man and Woman: Its History, Psychology, and Ethnology, The Minerva Group, Inc., 2001, first published 1934.
 CNN. Report on FGM in Egypt, February 2009.
 Cullen-Dupont, Kathryn. "Female genital mutilation," Encyclopedia of Women's History in America, Da Capo Press, 1998, p. 85.
 Dorkenoo, Efua. "Combating Female Genital Mutilation: An Agenda for the Next Decade," in Mona Eliasson (ed.). Teaching about Violence Against Women, Feminist Press at CUNY, 1999.
 Dorkenoo, Efua. "Cutting the Rose: Female Genital Mutilation, the Practice and its Prevention, Minority Rights Group, 1994.
 Kouba, Leonard J. and Muasher, Judith. "Female Circumcision in Africa: An Overview", African Studies Review, 28(1), March 1985, pp. 95–110.
 Sanderson, Lillian Passmore. Against the Mutilation of Women: The Struggle to End Unnecessary Suffering, Ithaca Press, 1981.
 Sembène, Ousmane. Moolaadé, 2004, a film about abandoning FGM.
 Sinclair, Stephanie. "Inside a Female-Circumcision Ceremony", The New York Times magazine, April 2006, slideshow of images from Indonesia (article).
 UNICEF. "Towards the abandonment of female genital mutilation in five African countries", October 2010.
 Yoder, P. Stanley; Noureddine, Abderrahim; Arlinda, Zhuzhuni. "Female Genital Cutting in the Demographic and Health Surveys: A Critical and Comparative Analysis", DHS Comparative Reports No. 7, 2004.

Habari za maisha ya watu

 Ali, Ayaan Hirsi. Infidel: My Life, Simon & Schuster, 2007: Ali experiences FGM at the hands of her grandmother.
 Dirie, Waris. Desert Flower, Harper Perennial, 1999: autobiographical novel.
 Dirie, Waris. Desert Dawn,  Little, Brown, 2003: Dirie's work as UN Special Ambassador against FGM.
 Dirie, Waris. Desert Children,  Virago, 2007: FGM in Europe
 Kasinga, Fauziya, and Bashir, Layli Miller. Do They Hear You When You Cry, Delacorte Press, 1998.
 El Saadawi, Nawal. Woman at Point Zero'',  Zed Books, 1975.

Afya
Utamaduni

Ukeketaji


Grand Rabbi Yidele Horowitz (September/03/1897– June 14/1989), popularly known as Reb Yidele, was the Rebbe of Dzikov, who spent his last years in London, England. Although known as a formidable scholar and a man of exceptional character, he shunned the limelight and abhorred any reverence or treatment as a Rebbe.

Early years
Reb Yidele was born in 1905 in Dzików, a shtetl near Tarnobrzeg, Poland. His mother Chava was the daughter of Rabbi Yisrael Hager, Rebbe of Vizhnitz, and his father was Rabbi Alter Yechezkel Eliyahu.

He studied for five years under Rabbi Meir Arik of Tarnów, who greatly admired him. "No one can compare with him in Galicia", he said. Rabbi Horowitz was brought up in the house of his maternal grandfather, and in 1928 he married his cousin Chana Miriam Sima, the daughter of Rabbi Chaim Meir Hager of Vizhnitz. After ten childless years of marriage he divorced her, but they subsequently remarried and once again divorced. She then married Rabbi Yitzchak Yaakov Weiss.

Rabbi Horowitz was given Semicha by Rabbi Meir Arik, Rabbi Chaim Elazar Shapiro of Munkacz, and by his uncle Rabbi Chaim.

Rabbi Horowitz was a great admirer of the Chasam Sofer, whose seven-volume responsa of that name he knew almost by heart, as well as his sermons and Talmudic novellae. He encouraged Rabbi Yosef Naftali Stern of Romania to publish these works, even giving up his dowry for this purpose.

At the age of 30, Rabbi Horowitz was appointed Dayan in Klausenberg. At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, he was in the spa town of Krynica. He returned to the Dzikov ghetto and then to Cracow. He subsequently lived in Arad, Bucharest and Klausenberg, and miraculously survived the Holocaust. Indeed, Rabbi Horowitz's father died in 1943 in Plaszow near Cracow; Rabbi Yidele was his only surviving son.

Post World War II
In 1947, Rabbi Horowitz settled in Mandatory Palestine, first in Tel Aviv where he was befriended by the Chazon Ish, and then in Jerusalem, where he came to be highly respected by Rabbi Yosef Tzvi Dushinsky, the head of the Edah HaChareidis.

Rabbi Horowitz's uncle, Rabbi Eliezer Hager, urged him to become a Rebbe and continue the traditions of Dzikov. The former, however, was adamant in refusing to allow people to treat him as a Rebbe, though he acted for a time as principal of the Kollel Tarbitza in Jerusalem. Indeed, Rabbi Yoel Teitelbaum, the Rebbe of Satmar, lamented this fact by saying: "there are so many Rebbes who do not merit [deserve] to be Rebbes, and yet one who is so worthy to be a Rebbe [Rabbi Horowitz] refuses to act as one".

Rabbi Horowitz's discourses lasted three to four hours, and he would concentrate on just a few pages of the Talmudic Tractate Chullin, studying it at great depth.

London
From 1985, Rabbi Horowitz lived in London at Jessam Avenue, Stamford Hill. He came to London to be treated by Dr. Shlomo Adler of Golders Green. Rabbi Horowitz had come to London in 1983 to be treated by Dr. Adler. Dr. Adler successfully helped him avoid an operation that the Rabbi was told was mandatory in Israel and Rabbi Horowitz was forever grateful. Now that he was ill again he put himself wholly under the doctors care.  He hardly ever spoke, nor did he deliver any discourses, but spent his days in study and prayer. However he regularly officiated as a Sandek (the one who holds the baby) at brit milahs and would put Tefillin on Bar Mitzvah boys.

Rabbi Horowitz was an ascetic who lived a very frugal life. He would eat meat only on Shabbos, and during the week he never ate bread. In honour of Shabbos he himself would wash some of his clothes. In addition, absolutely all the monies forwarded to him by admirers and Chassidim were immediately distributed to orphans and widows. Rabbi Horowitz was greatly concerned for the material well-being of the underprivileged.

Death
Rabbi Horowitz died at the age of 84 in 1989, leaving no will or final instructions. After extensive communication and deliberation between relatives in Israel and the United States, he was, on the advice of Rabbi Chanoch Dov Padwa, interred at Enfield Adas Yisroel Cemetery, and not in Jerusalem or at Vizhnitz, Bnei Brak. The elaborate Ohel erected over his grave is frequently visited by all sections of the Chassidic community.

Works
The Rebbe left many unpublished writings, including glosses on the works of Rabbi Moses Sofer, on Toldos Yaakov Yosef by Rabbi Jacob Joseph of Polonne, on the responsa of Rabbi Sholom Mordechai Schwadron and on the works of Rabbi Chaim Yosef David Azulai. His nephews, of Borough Park and Bnei Brak, took possession of his printed Hebrew books and original manuscripts.

References
זכר צדיק לברכה Zekher Tsaddik liVrakha, 1990
כבתה השלהבת Kavta ha-Shalhavet, 1990

Hasidic rebbes
1905 births
1989 deaths
Hasidic rabbis in Europe

Yidele Horowitz


Typhus is unrelated to both typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever

Typhus is the name for a number of diseases, caused by bacteria called Rickettsiae. These bacteria are parasites that cannot survive outside their host organism. Depending on the species the host organisms are, fleas (on rats), harvest mites (on several rodents and humans), or lice (on humans). It is an epidemic disease.

When the term is commonly used, it usually means endemic typhus, which is spread by lice. The name typhus comes from Greek, where it means smoky or hazy. This was the word used to describe the state of mind the patients are in.

Typhus can be treated with antibiotics.

Diseases caused by bacteria

Typhus


The Battle of Boonsboro took place on July 8, 1863, in Washington County, Maryland, as part of the Retreat from Gettysburg during the Gettysburg Campaign of the American Civil War.

While Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia retreated toward Virginia following its defeat in the Battle of Gettysburg, Confederate cavalry held the South Mountain passes. The cavalry fought a rearguard action against elements of the Union 1st and 3rd Cavalry Divisions and supporting infantry. This action was one of a series of successive cavalry engagements around Boonsboro, Hagerstown, and Williamsport.

Battle
Confederate Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart faced a difficult assignment—locate the Union cavalry and prevent it from severing Gen. Lee's avenue of retreat to Williamsport and the Potomac River. The result was the biggest and most sustained cavalry battle in Maryland during the campaign. The Battle of Boonsboro occurred along the National Road on Wednesday, July 8, 1863.

Stuart, with five cavalry brigades, advanced from the direction of Funkstown and Williamsport. He first encountered Federal resistance at Beaver Creek Bridge,  north of Boonsboro. By 11 a.m., the Confederate cavalry had pushed forward to several mud-soaked fields, where fighting on horseback was nearly impossible, forcing Stuart's troopers and Brig. Gens. H. Judson Kilpatrick's and John Buford's Union cavalry divisions to dismount and slug it out like infantry.

By mid-afternoon, the Union left under Kilpatrick crumbled as the Federals ran low on ammunition under increasing Confederate pressure. Stuart's advanced ended about 7 p.m., however, when Union infantry arrived—the first to engage in battle since Gettysburg. Stuart withdrew north to Funkstown, but he had gained another day for Lee's retreating army. Two days later, he would again delay the Federal pursuit at the Battle of Funkstown.

References
National Park Service battle description

Notes

1863 in the United States
Boonsboro
Boonsboro
Boonsboro
Boonsboro
History of Washington County, Maryland
1863 in Maryland
Boonsboro
July 1863 events

Battle of Boonsboro


The Iran hostage crisis was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the United States. Fifty-two American diplomats and citizens were held hostage for 444 days (November 4, 1979, to January 20, 1981).

It happened after a group of Iranian students supporting the Iranian Revolution took over the US Embassy in Tehran. President Jimmy Carter called the hostages "victims of terrorism and anarchy," adding that "the United States will not yield to blackmail."

The U.S. tried to free the hostages during the crisis, but failed when rescue officials were killed in a helicopter crash.

The hostages were released just as Ronald Reagan was being inaugurated as President.

References

Other websites

1979 in the United States
1980s in the United States
1970s in Iran
Jimmy Carter
1980s in Iran

Iran hostage crisis


Clueless is a 1995 American romantic teen comedy movie set in Beverly Hills, California. It is loosely based on Jane Austen's 1815 book Emma. It was written and directed by Amy Heckerling. It stars Alicia Silverstone, Stacey Dash and Brittany Murphy as 15 year old high school classmates. Clueless was released in the United States in August 1995.

Plot of Clueless revolves around the life of American sixteen-year-old girl Cher Horowitz. She is pretty and attractive, but clueless and selfish. Apart from that she is extremely rich and popular in her high school. Only a few things are important for Cher: fashion, mansion in which she lives with her father and her friend Dionne, who is also rich and self-confident. She has a former stepbrother Josh, with whom she always has quarrels for no reason at all.

Cher's selfishness is totally innocent and safe for surrounding people. For example, she tries to bring together two teachers, who gave her bad marks, - Mr. Hall and Mrs. Gaste. She achieves this aim and benefits. When Cher sees those two fall in love and her marks become better, she understands that she likes to do good things.

Cher decides to make the next good thing on her list helping a new "duckling girl" Tie to transform into a beautiful swan. She also helps her to adapt in a new place and prevent her from communicating with the guy, who smokes weed and does skateboarding. Instead of that, she wants Tie to date with a rich snob Elton, but Cher does not realize that Elton fancies not Tie, but herself.

Suddenly some troubles appear in Cher's life. She does not realize, that boy whom she tries to seduce is actually gay, until Dionne opens her naive eyes. Cher fails driving test and when she comes back home Tai says that she is keen on Josh. In reply Cher says to her, that they do not match and they have a quarrel.

After revaluation of values Cher finds out, that she loves Josh. She tries to be better, kinder and smarter. The final scene shows, that Josh admits he loves Cher too and they kiss.

Soon after release of the movie a Clueless sequel was filmed (it was in form of TV series) and a series of books was produced.

Other websites

1990s buddy movies
1990s coming-of-age movies
1990s high school movies
1995 LGBT movies
1995 romantic comedy movies
1990s teen comedy movies
1990s teen romance movies
American buddy comedy movies
American coming-of-age movies
American high school movies
American LGBT movies
American romantic comedy movies
American teen comedy movies
American teen romance movies
Beverly Hills, California in fiction
Coming-of-age comedy movies
Coming-of-age romance movies
1990s English-language movies
Female buddy movies
LGBT comedy movies
Movies based on books
Movies set in California
Movies directed by Amy Heckerling

Clueless


A bus network is an arrangement in a local area network (LAN) in which each node (workstation or other device) is connected to a main cable or link called the bus.

A bus network is simple and reliable. If one node fails to operate, all the rest can still communicate with each other. For a major disruption to take place, the bus itself must be broken somewhere. Bus networks are easy to expand. Additional nodes can be added anywhere along the bus.

There are several limitations to the bus network topology. The length of the bus is limited by cable loss. A bus network may not work well if the nodes are located at scattered points that do not lie near a common.

Networks

Bus network


Blowback is a system of operation for self-loading firearms that obtains energy from the motion of the cartridge case as it is pushed to the rear by expanding gases created by the ignition of the propellant charge.

Several blowback systems exist within this broad principle of operation, each distinguished by the methods used to control bolt movement. In most actions that use blowback operation, the breech is not locked mechanically at the time of firing: the inertia of the bolt and recoil spring(s), relative to the weight of the bullet, delays opening of the breech until the bullet has left the barrel. A few locked breech designs use a form of blowback (example: primer actuation) to perform the unlocking function.

Other operating principles for self-loading firearms include blow forward, gas operation, recoil operation, revolver, Gatling, and chain. The blowback principle may be considered a simplified form of gas operation, since the cartridge case behaves like a piston driven by the powder gases.

Simple Blowback
Simple blowback operation is where the recoil of the cartridge moves the bolt rearwards to reload the next round. This operation is found in automatic pistols and submachine guns and firearms chambered in lower pressure rounds. The likes of rifle rounds which have higher pressures is usually deemed unsuitable for simple blowback operation. However, there is Delayed Blowback where the chamber is locked until the pressures drop to a safe level to reload.

Delayed Blowback
Delayed blowback is similar to simple blowback but is capable of handling the pressures of rifle rounds. It uses an operation that delays the opening of the bolt when firing.

Lever delayed blowback
Lever delayed blowback is where the bolt has a lever that slows the opening of the bolt but accelerates the bolt carrier, the bolt then also accelerates with the bolt carrier. The AA52 machine gun and the FAMAS use this operation.

Roller delayed blowback
Roller delayed blowback is where the bolt has two rollers that pop out both sides of the bolt to lock the chamber. The Sturmgewehr 45 assault rifle, Heckler & Koch MP5 and Calico submachine gun uses this operation.

Primer actuated blowback
Primer actuated blowback is when the round is fired, the primer moves the firing pin rearwards to unlock the bolt. The Garand Model 1919 and Postnikov APT uses this operation.

References

 Primer actuated M16 bolt

Firearms

Blowback


A climbing route is a trail that a mountain climber uses to go up a mountain.
It is often simply called a climb.

Examples : D1 on The Diamond and The Nose on El Capitan are climbing routes.

The difficulties and lengths of climbing routes (as well as descriptions and photographies) can be found in books called climbing guides. For instance, :en:Fifty Classic Climbs of North America is a climbing guide that describes climbing routes of North America.

Mountains
Rock climbing
Trails

Climbing route


IKEA is a multinational furniture company that was founded by Ingvar Kamprad, from Sweden. The name IKEA is an acronym from the name Ingvar Kamprad, Elmtaryd (the farm where he grew up), and Agunnaryd (his hometown in Småland, southern Sweden).

History

The company was started in 1943 by Ingvar Kamprad (1926-2018) when he was seventeen years old as a mostly mail-order sales business. From the beginning, the company was selling items such as pens, picture frames, clocks, jewellery, nylon stocking, wallets and whatnot. After an order, Kamprad would often deliver it himself. By 1947 it started selling furniture and by 1958 the first IKEA store was opened in Älmhult, Småland. The first stores outside Sweden were opened in Norway (1963) and Denmark (1969). The stores spread to other parts of Europe in the 1970s, with the first store outside Scandinavia opening in Switzerland (1973), followed by West Germany (1974).

References

Other websites
www.IKEA.se

Companies of Sweden
Shops
1943 establishments in Sweden

IKEA


The Battle of Laguna Limpia, was part of the Argentine Civil Wars. It happened in the southwest of the Corrientes Province, Argentina on 4 February 1846, when the army under Entre Ríos Province governor Justo José de Urquiza, defeated and captured the commander of the vadvanced columns of Corrientes' army, Juan Madariaga.

Antecedents
Since 1839 Corrientes province had rebelled against the authority of the central government in Buenos Aires, Juan Manuel de Rosas.

Governor Joaquín Madariaga gave command of his provincial army to general José María Paz, who in 1841 had obtained an impressive victory at the Battle of Caaguazú in Corrientes. Paz organized his forces and when the governor of Entre Rios invaded, he set a trap in the extreme north of the Iberá Wetlands.

Madariaga realized that to get the enemy to the trap, he had to get Urquiza to the other side of the province, leaving all of Corrientes in the enemy's hands, with thesubsequent suffering of the local population, so he decided to fight a guerrilla war instead.

The battle
Urquiza moved swiftly through the territory and reached him at the swamp on 4 February forcing the battle.

The terrain was favorable to Madariaga's forces but he did not take enough advantage of his tactical situation, and the funnel created to single out the enemy became a narrow passage for his own forces in retreat at his loss.

Corrientes had more than 160 dead, and many prisoners, including Madariaga, whose horse stumbled on a fallen tree trunk. Along with the general the enemy captured his mail, which enabled Urquiza to learn that general Paz  was planning to march to the North.

Consequences
Urquiza marched North, looting the ranches along the way, and before confronting Paz, he wandered around the province looting a good portion of it.

Paz's image and prestige was seriously damaged upon the effects of the lost campaign. Urquiza took advantage to propose an accord using Madariaga as a conduit, when he set him free.

After the signature of the Treaty of Alcaraz and its rejection by Rosasthe situation would be resolved the following year at the Battle of Vences, which would signal the end of Corrientes Province's rebellion.

Bibliography

Conflicts in 1846
Battles of the Argentine Civil War
February 1846 events
1846 in Argentina
History of Corrientes Province

Battle of Laguna Limpia


Pausanias (Greek: ) was a Greek traveller and geographer of the 2nd century A.D., who lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. He is famous for his Description of Greece (), a lengthy work that describes ancient Greece from firsthand observations. He is a crucial link between classical literature and modern archaeology.

Biography
Pausanias was probably a native of Lydia; he was certainly familiar with the western coast of Asia Minor, but his travels extended far beyond the limits of Ionia. Before visiting Greece he had been to Antioch, Joppa and Jerusalem, and to the banks of the River Jordan. In Egypt he had seen the Pyramids, while at the temple of Ammon he had been shown the hymn once sent to that shrine by Pindar. In Macedonia he had almost certainly viewed the traditional tomb of Orpheus. Crossing over to Italy, he had seen something of the cities of Campania and of the wonders of Rome. He was one of the first to write of seeing the ruins of Troy, Alexandria Troas, and Mycenae.

Work
Pausanias' Description of Greece takes the form of a tour in Ionia on the coast of Asia Minor and in the Peloponnese and part of northern Greece. He constantly describes ceremonial rites or superstitious customs. He frequently introduces narratives from the domain of history and of legend and folklore, and it is only rarely that he allows the reader to see something of the scenery.

References

Other websites

Description of Greece, tr. W.H.S. Jones and H.A. Ormerod (1918)
Description of Greece, Jones translation at Theoi Project
Bibliography (in French)

Further reading

 Hutton, William 2005, Describing Greece: Landscape and Literature in the Periegesis of Pausanias (Cambridge). .
 Levi, Peter (tr.) 1984a, 1984b, Pausanias: Guide to Greece, 2 vols. (Penguin). Vol. 1 Central Greece ; vol. 2 Southern Greece .
 Pretzler, Maria. "Turning Travel into Text: Pausanias at work", Greece & Rome, Vol. 51, Issue 2 (2004), pp. 199–216.

Greek geographers
Ancient Greeks

Pausanias (geographer)


Wall Street is a street in Lower Manhattan, New York City. It runs southeast from Broadway, through the Financial District to South Street on the East River. It is home to the New York Stock Exchange, the world's largest stock exchange and Federal Hall. Most headquarters of many other American exchanges NYSE, NASDAQ, AMEX, NYMEX, NYBOT are also run from Wall Street.

Landmarks in Manhattan

Wall Street


Windows Aero adalah antaramuka pengguna grafik dan tema utama dalam kebanyakan edisi Windows Vista, sistem pengendalian dikeluarkan oleh Microsoft pada November 2006. Ia akan juga didapati di Windows Server 2008, yang dijangkakan untuk dikeluar pada awal 2008. Namanya adalah akronim untuk Authentic, Energetic, Reflective and Open. Bertujuan menjadi pengantaramukaan pengguna yang amat bersih, paling berkuasa, paling cekap, dan paling menyenangkan daripada tema yang digunakan sebelumnya (Luna), ia memasukan kelutsinaran, ibu jari kuku langsung, ikon langsung, animasi dan halwa mata. Aero juga melingkungi set reka bentuk garis panduan pengantaramukaan pengguna untuk Microsoft Windows.

Sejarah

Seperti Windows XP, ikon asas Aero's yang direkakan oleh The Iconfactory.

Hingga keluaran Windows Vista Beta 1 pada Julai 2005, little or nothing had been shown of Aero in public/leaked builds. Previous user interfaces were Plex, which was featured in Longhorn builds 3683-4029; Slate, which was featured in build 4051 and was available until build 4093; and Jade (build 4074, 4083 and 4093, actually an early preview of Aero). Microsoft started using Aero in public builds in build 5048. The first build with full-featured Aero was build 5219. Build 5270 (released in December 2005) contained an implementation of Aero which was virtually complete, according to sources at Microsoft, though a number of stylistic changes were introduced between then and the operating system's release.

Asasnya, Aero was to have three levels available, one code-named "To Go", which had the Desktop Window Manager (DWM) composition engine (previously known as DCE) disabled. The next was to be AeroExpress, lacking many features of the highest level code-named Aero Glass. However, in December 2005, Microsoft announced that there would only be two levels available, "Windows Vista Aero" and "Windows Vista Basic", with the previous "Express" level integrated into the new "Windows Vista Aero" level. A control panel was added to enable the user to fine tune this functionality, such as being able to turn off the "glass" translucency effect. These levels are provided so that the Aero interface (to some extent) can be used with a relatively low-end graphics card.

Initially, a variation of Aero, codenamed "Aero Diamond", was slated to be the user interface for the Windows Vista Media Center experience. Although there has been no official mention of Diamond for a number of years, it may refer to the expectation that the interface will be written in pure XAML (as was Aero initially) but this has not been confirmed.

Pengantaramukaan pengguna

Untuk kali pertama sejak keluaran Windows 95, Microsoft telah sama sekali menyemakkan garis panduan pengantaramukaan pengguna, disediakan estetik, kawalan sama seperti butang dan butang radio, dialog tugasan, pintar-pintar, dialog sama, panel kawalan, ikon, font, pemberitahuan pengguna, dan nada suara teks digunakan.

Aero Wizards

Wizard 97 has been the prevailing standard for wizard design, visual layout, and functionality used in Windows 98 through to Windows Server 2003, as well as most Microsoft products in that time frame. Aero Wizards are the replacement for Wizard 97, incorporating visual updates to match the aesthetics of the rest of Aero, as well as changing the interaction flow.

More specifically:
 To increase the efficiency of the wizard, The "Welcome" and "Completion" pages in Wizard 97 are no longer used. (A precursor to this change was implied in a number of wizards in products such as SQL Server 2005 where a check-box was added to welcome pages, allowing a user to disable the welcome page in future uses of the wizard).
 Aero Wizards can be resized, whereas the Wizard 97 guidelines defined exact sizes for wizard window and content sizes.
 The purpose of any given Aero Wizard page is more clearly stated at the top.
 A new kind of control called a "Command link" provides a single-click operation to choose from a short list of options.
 The "Back" button has moved to the top-left corner of the wizard window and matches the visual style of the back button in other Vista applications. This is done to give more focus to the commit choices. The "Next" button is only shown on pages where it is necessary.
 The notion of "Commit pages" is introduced, where it is made clear that the next step will be the actual process that the wizard is being used to enact. If no follow-up information needs to be communicated, these are the last pages in a wizard. Typically a commit page has a button at the bottom-right that is labelled with the action to be taken, such as "Create account".
 At the end of a wizard, a "Follow-up page" can be used to direct the user to related tasks that they may be interested in immediately after completing the wizard. For example, a follow-up for a CD burning wizard may present options like "Duplicate this disk" and "Make a disk label".

Pemberitahuan

Notifications allow an application or operating system component with an icon in the system tray to create a pop-up window with some information about an event or problem. These windows, first introduced in Windows 2000 and known colloquially as "balloons", are similar in appearance to the speech balloons that are commonly seen in comics. Balloons were often criticized in prior versions of Windows due to their intrusiveness, especially with regard to how they interacted with full-screen applications such as games. Notifications in Aero aim to be less intrusive by gradually fading in and out, and not appearing at all if a full-screen application or screensaver is being displayed – in these cases, notifications are queued until an appropriate time. Larger icons and multiple font sizes and colors are also introduced with Aero's notification windows.

Font

Segoe UI taip muka is the new default font for Aero with languages that use Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic character sets. The default font size is also increased from 8pt to 9pt to improve readability.  In the Segoe UI typeface, the numeral zero ("0") is narrow, while capital letter "O" is wider, and numeral one ("1") has a top hook, while capital letter "I" has equal crown and base.

Nada suara

The Vista User Experience Guidelines also address the issue of "tone" in the writing of text used with the Aero user interface. Prior design guidelines from Microsoft had not done much to address the issue of how user interface text is phrased, and as such, the way that information and requests are presented to the user had not been consistent between parts of the operating system.

Research done by Microsoft informed them that users were finding Windows difficult to use and understand. Users were dissatisfied or felt insulted because of the phrasing of some messages. In particular, computer terminology and jargon were overused and used inconsistently, creating a barrier to understanding for newer users, and messages were unclear or perceived as patronizing.

The guidelines for Vista and its applications suggest messages that present technically accurate advice concisely, objectively, and positively, and assume an intelligent user motivated to solve a particular problem. Specific advice includes the use of the second person and the active voice (e.g. "Print the photos on your camera") and avoidance of words like "please" and "sorry".

Keperluan

Microsoft has listed the following requirements for what they call a Vista Premium Ready PC. A PC that meets or exceeds these requirements will be able to use the new Aero technologies.
 a 1 GHz 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) Pemproses
 1 GB of system memory
 a DirectX 9 compatible graphics processor with a Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) driver and a minimum of 128 MB of Video RAM
 40 GB hard drive with 15 GB free space
 DVD-ROM Drive
 audio output and Internet access

The minimum requirements for graphics cards from the major vendors include the Radeon 9500 from ATI Technologies, the GeForce FX series from NVIDIA, and even the Intel GMA 950. Though the last driver from NVIDIA to support the GeForce FX series on Vista was 96.85  , Microsoft's WDDM drivers for NVIDIA graphics continue to support the GeForce FX series; NVIDIA's current WDDM drivers support the GeForce 6 and later series.  Though some of XGI Technology's Volari GPUs supported DirectX 9, no Microsoft WDDM drivers shipped with Vista and XGI has exited the graphics card business, so Volari cards apparently will not work with Windows Aero.

Note that though Microsoft has listed 128 MB of Video RAM as a requirement for "Premium Ready" PCs, it does not mean a 128 MB integrated graphics processor is required to run the Aero glass theme. A 64 MB integrated graphics processor, combined with at least 1 GB of system memory, will be able to run Aero at certain resolutions. However, a Vista-specific WDDM driver for any given graphics processor is also required to run the Aero glass theme; these drivers may or may not be available. Users who believe their hardware meets Aero's minimum graphics requirements are encouraged to check their graphics processor manufacturer's website for a Vista-specific driver if they are unable to run the theme.

Persamaan dengan Mac OS X

Di antara lain-lain, penonton semula WinSuperSite Paul Thurrott mengemukakan banyak persamaan di antara Aero dan Aqua; dia mencadangkan bahawa penggunaan lut cahaya dalam pengantaramukaan yang akan membandingkan dengan pengantaramukaan Mac OS X yang sukar untuk mengelakkannya. Penulis ruang Mac sepanjang masa dan pengarang buku John Rizzo menulis dalam rencana eWeek, "Microsoft seems to have taken many cues from Mac OS X with the user interface and features, right down to some of the terminology. Even some of Vista's icons are amazingly similar to those in Tiger."

Rujukan

Lihat juga

 Ciri-ciri baru kepada Windows Vista
 Pemajuan Windows Vista
 Desktop Window Manager

Pautan luar
 Keenggulan Pengguna Windows Vista Aero
 64 MB RAM menyokongkan Aero dengan tidak melebihi jumlah piksel sebanyak 1,310,720 (1280 × 1024) tetapi tidak adalah Premium Ready

Pengantaramukaan pengguna grafikal
Windows Vista
Microsoft Windows

Windows Aero


Sir Michael de Courcy Fraser Holroyd  (born 27 August 1935) is an English biographer.

Early life and education
Holroyd was born in London, the son of Basil de Courcy Fraser Holroyd (a descendant of Sir George Sowley Holroyd, Justice of the King's Bench, whose ancestor was Isaac Holroyd, younger brother of George, the great-great-grandfather of John Baker Holroyd, 1st Earl of Sheffield), and his wife, Ulla (known as "Sue"), daughter of Karl Knutsson-Hall, a Swedish army officer. His parents having separated- their son "left to grow up in a bewilderingly extended family, shunted back and forth among parents and stepparents and grandparents and uncles and aunts"- Holroyd was raised at his father's family home, Norhurst, at Maidenhead, Berkshire. The Holroyds "for a time enjoyed a small fortune", provided by, amongst other things, an Indian tea plantation; this fortune was eventually "done in by mismanagement of resources and foolish investments" including investment in Lalique glassware, his grandfather having been its sole London agent in the 1920s. The Holroyd family had been "for several centuries" Yorkshire "butchers, clergymen, clothiers, farmers, landowners, soldiers, yeoman (sic) of all kinds".

He was educated at Eton College, though he has often claimed Maidenhead Public Library as his alma mater.

Career
In 1964, Holroyd published his first book, a biography of the writer Hugh Kingsmill; his reputation was consolidated in 1967–68 with the publication of his two-volume life of Lytton Strachey (which the playwright Christopher Hampton later used extensively when writing the screenplay for the 1995 film Carrington). Holroyd has also written biographies of Augustus John and, in four volumes, of Bernard Shaw. His book A Book of Secrets: Illegitimate Daughters, Absent Fathers (2010) concerns the Villa Cimbrone on the Gulf of Salerno and the Edwardian literary and society figures who lived there, such as Ernest Beckett, 2nd Baron Grimthorpe.

Lytton Strachey: A Critical Biography (1967, 1968) became Holroyd's definitive work. He published a revised version in 1994 under the revised subtitle The New Biography.

Holroyd was chairman of the Society of Authors, 1973–83, and from 1985 to 1988 was president of the English branch of PEN. He is also President of the Shaw Society. His awards include the 2001 Heywood Hill Literary Prize and the 2005 David Cohen Prize for literature. In 2006, he was awarded the Golden PEN Award by English PEN for "a Lifetime's Distinguished Service to Literature". He was president of the Royal Society of Literature from 2003 to 2008, and was knighted in the 2007 New Year Honours List. Holroyd is a patron of Dignity in Dying.

Personal life
Holroyd is married to the author Margaret Drabble.

Awards
1968—Yorkshire Post Book Award (Book of the Year): Lytton Strachey: A Critical Biography
1988—Irish Life Arts Award
1989—CBE
1995—Prix du Meilleur Livre Etranger (France)
2001—Heywood Hill Literary Prize
2003—Golden PEN Award
2005—David Cohen British Literature Prize
2007—Knighted for services to English Literature
2008—James Tait Black Memorial Prize
2010—Lifetime Services to Biography Award

Bibliography

 Lytton Strachey: A Critical Biography, volume 1: The Unknown Years (1880-1910), Heinemann, 1967
 Lytton Strachey: A Critical Biography, volume 2: The Years of Achievement (1910-1932), Heinemann, 1968
 A Dog's Life, Henry Holt (US only), 1969
 The Best of Hugh Kingsmill: Selections from his Writings (editor), Gollancz, 1970
 Lytton Strachey by Himself: A Self-Portrait (editor), Heinemann, 1971
 Unreceived Opinions, Heinemann, 1973
 Augustus John: A Biography, volume 1: The Years of Innocence, Heinemann, 1974
 The Art of Augustus John (with Malcolm Easton), Secker & Warburg, 1974
 Augustus John: A Biography, volume 2: The Years of Experience, Heinemann, 1975
 The Genius of Shaw: A Symposium (editor), Hodder & Stoughton, 1979
 The Shorter Strachey (editor with Paul Levy), Oxford University Press, 1980
 William Gerhardie: God's Fifth Column: A Biography of the Age: 1890-1940 (editor with Robert Skidelsky), Hodder & Stoughton, 1981
 Essays by Divers Hands, (editor), Boydell Press, 1982
 Peterley Harvest: The Private Diary of David Peterley (introduction), Secker & Warburg, 1985
 Bernard Shaw, volume 1: 1856-1898: The Search for Love, Chatto & Windus, 1988
 Bernard Shaw, volume 2: 1898-1918: The Pursuit of Power, Chatto & Windus, 1989
 Bernard Shaw, volume 3: 1918-1950: The Lure of Fantasy, Chatto & Windus, 1991
 Bernard Shaw, volume 4: 1950-1991: The Last Laugh, Chatto & Windus, 1992
 The Shaw Companion, Chatto & Windus, 1992
 Lytton Strachey: The New Biography, Chatto & Windus, 1994
 Augustus John: The New Biography, Chatto & Windus, 1996
 Bernard Shaw (one-volume revised edition), Chatto & Windus, 1997
 Basil Street Blues, Little, Brown, 1999
 The Whispering Gallery: Leaves from a Diplomat's Diary by Hesketh Pearson, (introduction), Phoenix Press, 2000
 Works on Paper: The Craft of Biography and Autobiography, Little, Brown, 2002
 Swedish Reflections: From Beowulf to Bergman (preface), Arcadia Books, 2003
 Mosaic. Portraits in Fragments, Little, Brown, 2004
 A Strange Eventful History: The Dramatic Lives of Ellen Terry, Henry Irving and their Remarkable Families, Chatto & Windus, 2008
 A Book of Secrets: Illegitimate Daughters, Absent Fathers, Chatto & Windus, 2010
 On Wheels, Chatto & Windus, 2012
 The Good Bohemian: The Letters of Ida John (editor with Rebecca John), Bloomsbury, 2017
 Ancestors in the Attic: My Great-Grandmother's Book of Ferns [&] My Aunt's Book of Silent Actors, Pimpernel Press, 2017
 Facts and Fiction: A Book of Storytelling, Bloomsbury, 2018

Critical studies and reviews of Holroyd's work
  Reviews A book of secrets.

See also
James Strachey
Philippa Pullar

Notes

External links

"Portrait of a portrait painter": an essay by Michael Holroyd about having his portrait painted from TLS, 1 April 2009

1935 births
Living people
English biographers
Writers from London
20th-century British male writers
20th-century British biographers
Bloomsbury Group biographers
People educated at Eton College
People educated at Scaitcliffe School
Knights Bachelor
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients
David Cohen Prize recipients
Fellows of the Royal Historical Society
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
Presidents of the Royal Society of Literature
Presidents of the English Centre of PEN

Michael Holroyd


Spooky the Tuff Little Ghost is a fictional character that appeared in titles published by Harvey Comics. Spooky first appeared in Casper the Friendly Ghost #10 (June 1953). He is Casper's cousin, although their exact relation is never specified. He generally resembles Casper except he has freckles, a derby hat, and a large, black nose.

Overview
Spooky is written with a Brooklyn accent, for example calling his girlfriend and fellow ghost Pearl, "Poil". His iconic derby hat is, therefore, a "doiby". Although he shares traits with The Ghostly Trio as far as loving to scare the living and being somewhat of a tough guy, he is not as cruel to his cousin as the Trio is, though he occasionally makes fun of Casper for being friendly, and Spooky has his moments of goodwill.

Pearl, who fell in love with Spooky when he rescued her from captivity by abusive witches who were enslaving her in her own house in one comic-book issue, is always trying to stop him from scaring, by reprimanding him, keeping an eagle-eye on him, staying with him all day, threatening to break up with him, or dating other ghost-guys. Whenever she does, she always ends up finding fault with her new date and thinking Spooky is better by comparison, so she returns to him. Spooky is always finding ways to keep his scaring secret from Pearl, sometimes by making it appear that someone else did it.

After several appearances in Casper the Friendly Ghost, Spooky moved to several spin-off titles, including Spooky Spooktown (1961–1976), Spooky Haunted House (1972-1975) and Tuff Ghosts Starring Spooky (1962–1972). The original ran until #161 in September 1980.

In other media
Spooky made four theatrical films with Casper, Hide & Shriek (1954), Hooky Spooky (1957), Which Is Witch (1958), and Doing What's Fright (1959).

Spooky is part of the 1963 animated television series The New Casper Cartoon Show, which ran from 1963 to 1969.

In 1996, after the success of the 1995 Casper feature film, a new animated show, The Spooktacular New Adventures of Casper, premiered on Fox Kids, with Spooky as one of the regular characters, voiced by Rob Paulsen. In the 2000 computer-animated film Casper's Haunted Christmas, Spooky's voice was provided by Samuel Vincent.

Spooky made an appearance in "Scare Bud", a fourth season episode of Harvey Girls Forever!, voiced by Jordan Fry.

See also
 List of ghosts

References

External links
 Spooky at The Harveyville Fun Times
 Spooky at Don Markstein's Toonopedia

Harvey Comics titles
1953 comics debuts
Comics characters introduced in 1953
Fictional characters from New York City
Harvey Comics series and characters
Fictional ghosts
Adventure comics
Fantasy comics
Ghost comics
Humor comics
DreamWorks Classics
Casper characters

Spooky the Tuff Little Ghost


Asterby is a hamlet between Goulceby and Scamblesby, west of Louth, in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England.  The civil parish of Asterby had a population of 103 according to the 2001 census, increasing to 159 (including Stenigot) at the 2011 census.

Asterby is listed in the 1086 Domesday Book with 18 households and  of meadow. Three human skeletons and a dagger were dug up in 1821 in a field near the church.

Asterby church, which was dedicated to St Peter, is no longer open to the public, having been sold into private ownership. The churchyard burial ground is open to the public, and is used for local burials. It dates from the 14th century, with alterations around 1900 by W. Mortimer and Son.

References

External links

Villages in Lincolnshire
Civil parishes in Lincolnshire
East Lindsey District

Asterby


In computing, a home directory is a special directory (or location in the File system, Apple calls directories folders). Very often, there is one such home directory per user. Some users, which were created by the system and usually do not log in, do not have such a home directory.

A home directory is used to store personal files of the respective user, including written document and settings for programs.

Different Implementations

Unix and Linux
On Unix and Linux-like operating systems, the directory is usually called like the username. It is usually in the /home hierarchy. A user fred would therefore his home directory in /home/fred.

It can be written as ~.

Microsoft Windows
Since Windows 95 there is a directory called My Documents. It was introduced together with My Computer. It helps the users locate their files. Since Windows 2000 it is in the user's profile directory Documents and Settings\username. So a user fred will find his files in Documents and Settings\fred\My Documents. In Windows Vista the directory has lost the My, and is simply called Documents.  Other directories, which are similar, may exist. They are called My Music, My pictures and My videos. Since Windows 7 files of a user can be found at \Users\(username)\.

Mac OS X
In Mac OS X, the home directory is in /Users.

Software

Home directory


A Continuum is a continuous series where all parts are very similar to their nearest neighbour, but the ends or extremes of it are different from each other.

This describes something that changes gradually (little by little) from one condition, to a different condition, but without any sudden changes or discontinuities.

The difference between a continuum, and something with very different changes that can be measured, is important for all continuum theories.

Continuum may also refer to:

 The space-time continuum
 Continuum (mathematics), the real line, or more generally any space, ordering, or cardinal that shares certain properties of the real line (e.g., "connectedness" or "size")
 Language continuum - a group of dialects, where the dialect of each area is understandable in neighboring areas, and these dialects may gradually 'slide' from one language to another related language, even though speakers of the different languages who live farther apart may have more difficulty understanding one another.
 Continuum concept, Jean Liedloff's articulation of the natural principles upon which attachment parenting was founded
 Continuum Entertainment, a Brazilian game developer
 Continuum Health Partners, a consortium of New York City Hospitals
 Continuum hypothesis, a mathematical hypothesis
 Continuum International Publishing Group, a publishing house
 Continuum mechanics, a branch of physics that deals with continuous matter
 Continuum RPG, the time travel role-playing game C°ntinuum
 Apache Continuum, a continuous integration server for building Java based projects
 Q Continuum, a parallel existence in the fictional Star Trek universe
 Continuum (song), a song by Jaco Pastorius released on his self-titled album, August 1976
 Continuum (album), an album by John Mayer released September 12, 2006
 Continuum (CD), the debut album by music project Continuum released in 2005
 Continuum (computer game), the North American version of the classic computer game, Alpha Waves
 Continuum (game client), a game client for the SubSpace computer game
 Continuum (games convention), a biannual British roleplaying convention dedicated to the worlds of Greg Stafford, Michael Moorcock, H.P.Lovecraft and many others
 Continuum (instrument), a "fretless keyboard"
 Continuum (Ligeti), a composition for harpsichord by György Ligeti
 Continuum (music project), the musical collaboration between Steven Wilson and Dirk Serries
 Stargate: Continuum, a direct-to-DVD movie of the Stargate franchise

Continuum


William Tell was a folk hero from Switzerland. In the story, William Tell is a man who refused to bow down to pole that was set up by an army who had taken over the place where he lived. He was arrested and forced to shoot an apple off his son's head with a crossbow. If he did not, both he and his son would be killed. So he shot the apple off the son's head and did not harm his son. He is considered a legend and his actions helped form Switzerland as a nation.

Adaptions
 Wilhelm Tell (William Tell), a play by Friedrich Schiller
 Guillaume Tell (William Tell), an opera by Gioachino Rossini, based on Schiller's play

Swiss people
Legendary people

William Tell


Biochemistry is the study of chemical reactions in living beings, and of biological molecules in general. It is important to cell biology and physiology. The study of biochemistry involves enzymes, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, sugars, proteins, and lipids. In the body, most of the molecules are polymers built of long chains of smaller molecules. Biochemistry studies the chemical transformations which produce these small building-block molecules, and which produce energy from food. A person who studied biochemistry is called biochemist.

Macromolecules
The biologic polymers can have between tens of thousands to tens of millions of atoms, or more. These polymers are composed of many small molecules, each of which has no more than fifty atoms. These small molecules are made almost exclusively from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. They also contain sulfur, phosphorus, and few other atoms, which are critical to the biological functioning of these polymers.

There are four types of macromolecules.

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are long-chain molecules which are of two kinds: DNA and RNA. Their building blocks are called nucleotides.

DNA is found in every cell. It contains the information needed to make all of the nucleic acids, and all of the proteins. It is found joined up in a double helix. It is the substance of heredity, and holds the information which life passes from generation to generation.

RNA acts to make the information from DNA work inside the cells of the body. To make a particular protein the information in the DNA is transferred to an RNA molecule. Another RNA molecule uses this as a set of instructions for making the protein. The RNA which makes protein is called a ribosome and it acts as a ribozyme vastly increasing the speed with which the individual amino acids connect together to form the protein.

Proteins

Proteins are polymers of amino acids. There are twenty different common types of amino acid.

Broadly speaking, proteins have two kinds of function. The first is structural: they make up many of the key structures in cells and tissues. Muscle, hair, and skin are all mainly made of protein. The second is functional: as enzymes they greatly speed up the chemical reactions in a living cell. All cellular life consists of a thousand, or more, chemical reactions, called metabolism, which transform the molecules eaten into energy, or into other molecules the cell needs to survive. The function of proteins is to speed up these reactions, often by over a million times faster. In addition they cause chemical reactions to occur which would not without the action of the protein.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include sugars and starches.

Sugars are the simplest carbohydrates. The monosaccharides are "single sugars", such as glucose and fructose. The disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined. Table sugar (cane sugar) is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. The polysaccharides are made from many monosaccharids joined. The vast majority of polysaccharides are polymers of glucose, and are of two types: starch and cellulose. Starch is the white stuff of grain, potatoes, apples, and bread, and is a readily available source of energy for the body. Cellulose is the structural material that holds up all plants. Half of the material that makes wood is cellulose.

Carbohydrates have a number of functions in the body, but the most important is to act as a ready source of energy for the cell's metabolism. By breaking the chemical bonds in carbohydrates, energy is released and can be used by the body.

Lipids
Lipids are fats, and waxes. Saturated lipids contain single bonds, and are found in butter and lard. Unsaturated lipids have one or more double bonds, and are often found in oils. The human body stores lipids as an energy source. When the body needs a large amount of energy, lipid molecules are broken down to release that energy.

Related pages
 List of biochemistry topics
 Biophysics
 Organic chemistry

Biochemistry


Lanús () is the caipital o Lanús Partido, Buenos Aires Province in Argentina. It lies juist sooth o the caipital ceety Buenos Aires, in the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan aurie. The ceety haes a population o 212,152 (), an the Partido de Lanús haes a total population o 453,500.

A major industrial centre, it is servit bi fricht an passenger railwey lines. The ceety haes chemical, armaments, textiles, paper, leather an rubber guids, wire, apparel, iles an lubricants industries, as well as tanneries, vegetable an fruit canneries. Several technical schuils are locatit in the ceety, as well as the Eva Perón Medical Center, ane o the lairgest in the Greater Buenos Aires aurie.

The ceety haes a fitbaa club, Club Atlético Lanús currently playin in the Argentine Primera División. Club Atlético Lanús haes a basketbaw team an aw.

Guillermo Gaebeler initiatit the toun's development, designin its first ceety master plan. Gaebeler establisht the toun as Villa General Paz on 20 October 1888, an namit its first streets an plazas efter the numerous battles wan bi General José María Paz in the Argentine Ceevil Wars o the mid-19t century. Lanús wis namit in honour o Anacarsis Lanús, who awned the laund whaur the ceety is the day locatit till his daith in 1888, in 1955.

Notable fowk
Adrian Ricchiuti - fitbaa player, born in Lanús who plays for Calcio Catania
Francisco Álvarez - film actor (1892–1960), livit briefly in Lanús, whaur he dee'd in 1960.
Gustavo Cordera - rock muisicker, born in Lanús.
Gastón Fernández - fitbaa player, born in Lanús.
Ariel González - rock muisicker, sangwriter an arranger born in Lanús.
Marcela Morelo - Latin sangster an componer, born in Lanús.
Diego Maradona - fitbaa player, born in Lanús.
Sergio Olguín - writer, jurnalist an editor, who grew up in Lanús an wrote a novel wi the title Lanús.
Babasónicos - Members o Argentine rock baund Babasónicos wur born in Lanús
Ricardo Montaner - famous Latin muisicker, born in Lanús.
Walter Montillo - fitbaa player o Santos FC, born in Lanús.

Freemit airtins
Photos o Lanus
Comercial Guide o Lanus

Populatit places in Buenos Aires Province

Populatit places established in 1888
1880s establishments in Sooth Americae

Lanús


Larry Holmes (born on November 3, 1949) was an American boxer. He held the World Heavyweight Championship from 1978 to 1985. Holmes fought out of Easton, Pennsylvania. He was nicknamed the "Easton Assassin."

Holmes won the vacant World Boxing Council championship from Ken Norton in 1979. He defended that title, and later the International Boxing Federation title, twenty times. Some notable fighters he beat in defense of his championship were Muhammad Ali, Leon Spinks, Gerry Cooney, and Tim Witherspoon. He lost his championship to Michael Spinks in 1985.

Holmes later fought Mike Tyson and then Evander Holyfield to try and win back the championship. Tyson knocked him out in the fourth round and Holyfield beat him by a twelve-round decision.

Holmes continued to fight until 2002.

Other websites
 Boxing Record

American boxers
Sportspeople from Georgia (U.S. state)
1949 births
Living people

Larry Holmes


Forensic linguistics is a branch of applied linguistics. It uses linguistics to help give evidence in a trial. One aspect of it is to identify a person by analysing the language that person uses. Other questions might be about finding the author of a text (or telling whether two texts were done by the same person).

Branches of linguistics

Forensic linguistics


The Abukuma River (阿武隈川, Abukuma gawa or Abukumagawa) is a river in the Tōhoku region of Japan.  It has a length of 234 kilometers. It is the second longest river in the Tōhoku region of Japan and is the 6th longest river in Japan. It rises from springs in the peaks of the Nasu Mountains. It collects water from tributaries leaving the Ōu Mountains and the Abukuma Highlands (阿武隈高地). Then, it empties out into the Pacific Ocean as a major river. It has a 5,390 km² area watershed. About 1.2 million people live along its basin.

Rivers of Japan

Abukuma River


Data parallelism (also known as loop-level parallelism) is a form of parallel computing for multiple processors using a technique for distributing the data across different parallel processor nodes.  It contrasts to task parallelism as another form of parallelism.

In a multiprocessor system where each one is executing a single set of instructions, data parallelism is achieved when each processor performs the same task on different pieces of distributed data. In some situations, a single execution thread controls operations on all pieces of data.  In others, different threads control the operation, but they execute the same code.

For example, if we are running code on a 2-processor system (CPUs A and B) in a parallel computing environment, and we want to do a task on some data D, it is possible to tell CPU A to do that task on one part of D and CPU B on another part of D simultaneously (at the same time), in order to reduce the runtime of the execution.

Data parallelism is used by many applications especially data processing applications; one of the examples is database applications. Most real programs use a combination of data parallelism and task parallelism.

Computer science

Data parallelism


Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) is also known as Capital to Risk (Weighted) Assets Ratio (CRAR), is the ratio of a bank's capital to its risk.  National regulators track a bank's CAR to ensure that it can absorb a reasonable amount of loss and complies with statutory Capital requirements.

It is a measure of a bank's capital. It is expressed as a percentage of a bank's risk-weighted credit exposures. The enforcement of regulated levels of this ratio is intended to protect depositors and promote stability and efficiency of financial systems around the world.

Two types of capital are measured: tier one capital, which can absorb losses without a bank being required to cease trading, and tier two capital, which can absorb losses in the event of a winding-up and so provides a lesser degree of protection to depositors.

Formula
Capital adequacy ratios (CARs) are a measure of the amount of a bank's core capital expressed as a percentage of its risk-weighted asset.

Capital adequacy ratio is defined as:

TIER 1 CAPITAL = (paid up capital + statutory reserves + disclosed free reserves) - (equity investments in subsidiary + intangible assets + current & brought-forward losses)

TIER 2 CAPITAL = A) Undisclosed Reserves + B) General Loss reserves + C) hybrid debt capital instruments and subordinated debts

where Risk can either be weighted assets () or the respective national regulator's minimum total capital requirement.  If using risk weighted assets,

 ≥ 10%.

The percent threshold varies from bank to bank (10% in this case, a common requirement for regulators conforming to the Basel Accords) and is set by the national banking regulator of different countries.

Two types of capital are measured: tier one capital ( above), which can absorb losses without a bank being required to cease trading, and tier two capital ( above), which can absorb losses in the event of a winding-up and so provides a lesser degree of protection to depositors.

Use
Capital adequacy ratio is the ratio which determines the bank's capacity to meet the time liabilities and other risks such as credit risk, operational risk etc. In the most simple formulation, a bank's capital is the "cushion" for potential losses, and protects the bank's depositors and other lenders. Banking regulators in most countries define and monitor CAR to protect depositors, thereby maintaining confidence in the banking system.

CAR is similar to leverage; in the most basic formulation, it is comparable to the inverse of debt-to-equity leverage formulations (although CAR uses equity over assets instead of debt-to-equity; since assets are by definition equal to debt plus equity, a transformation is required). Unlike traditional leverage, however, CAR recognizes that assets can have different levels of risk.

Risk weighting
Since different types of assets have different risk profiles, CAR primarily adjusts for assets that are less risky by allowing banks to "discount" lower-risk assets. The specifics of CAR calculation vary from country to country, but general approaches tend to be similar for countries that apply the Basel Accords. In the most basic application, government debt is allowed a 0% "risk weighting" - that is, they are subtracted from total assets for purposes of calculating the CAR.

Risk weighting example
Risk weighted assets - Fund Based : Risk weighted assets mean fund based assets such as cash, loans, investments and other assets. Degrees of credit risk expressed as percentage weights have been assigned by the national regulator to each such assets.

Non-funded (Off-Balance sheet) Items : The credit risk exposure attached to off-balance sheet items has to be first calculated by multiplying the face amount of each of the off-balance sheet items by the Credit Conversion Factor. This will then have to be again multiplied by the relevant weightage.

Local regulations establish that cash and government bonds have a 0% risk weighting, and residential mortgage loans have a 50% risk weighting. All other types of assets (loans to customers) have a 100% risk weighting.

Bank "A" has assets totaling 100 units, consisting of:
 Cash: 10 units
 Government bonds: 15 units
 Mortgage loans: 20 units
 Other loans: 50 units
 Other assets: 5 units

Bank "A" has debt of 95 units, all of which are deposits. By definition, equity is equal to assets minus debt, or 5 units.

Bank A's risk-weighted assets are calculated as follows

Even though Bank A would appear to have a debt-to-equity ratio of 95:5, or equity-to-assets of only 5%, its CAR is substantially higher. It is considered less risky because some of its assets are less risky than others.

Types of capital
The Basel rules recognize that different types of equity are more important than others. To recognize this, different adjustments are made:
 Tier I Capital: Actual contributed equity plus retained earnings...
 Tier II Capital: Preferred shares plus 50% of subordinated debt...

Different minimum CARs are applied. For example, the minimum Tier I equity allowed by statute for  risk-weighted assets may be 6%, while the minimum CAR when including Tier II capital may be 8%.

There is usually a maximum of Tier II capital that may be "counted" towards CAR, which varies by jurisdiction.

See also
 Capital requirement
 Tier 1 capital
 Tier 2 capital
 Basel accords

References

External links
 Capital Adequacy Ratio at Investopedia.

Financial economics
Financial ratios
Capital requirement

Capital adequacy ratio


[[File:Juan Gris 001.jpg|thumb|right|250px|'Juan Gris, The Sunblind, 1914, Tate Gallery]]Collage''' is an art term. It is a work of art like a painting but with pieces of paper and fabric ('found objects') stuck on a surface such as a piece of paper, wood or canvas.

Collage is a popular technique in modern art. Types of collage are 'decoupage', photomontage and digital collage. When actual painting is included, or any other medium, the technique is called 'mixed media'. Work in three dimensions may be called 'assemblage'.

Works of art

Collage


The Hasmonean dynasty was a family that led the Hasmoneans led the Maccabean Revolt and transformed Judah from a Seleucid possession that was becoming more Greek-like into an independent, Jewish nation-state. The Hasmoneans expanded Judah through conquest.

History
After the Salome Alexandra's death in 67 B.C., Salome's sons Hyrcanus II, who was backed by Antipater (the father of Herod the Great), and Aristobulus II fought for control of the Judah. The Roman Pompey entered the conflict on Hyrcanus' side. Aristobulus surrendered to the Romans and was sent to Rome, where he was later murdered.

In 40 B.C., the Parthian Empire and Aristobulus' son Antigonus II invaded Judah and captured Hyrcanus. The Romans then proclaimed Antipater's son Herod king of Judea. The Romans defeated the Parthians and captured and killed Antigonus, the last ruler of the Hasmonean dynasty.

Royal dynasties
Ancient Israel and Judah
Kings of ancient Judah
1st-century BC disestablishments

Hasmonean dynasty


Þrúðr, sometimes written as Thrúd, is a daughter of the gods Sif and Thor in Norse mythology. Although her name is mentioned in the Prose Edda, it gives no direct powers or other information about her. Thrúd is also one of the valkyries described in Grímnismál (stanza 36). Thrúd is the goddess of power, of trees, flowers and the grass. Her name means strength in Old Norse.

Norse gods and goddesses

Thrud


Ian Alexander Greig (born 8 December 1955) is a former professional cricketer, who played in two tests for England in 1982. He is the younger brother of former England captain and cricket commentator Tony Greig and the uncle of Durham UCCE player Will Hodson.

Early life and education
Greig was born in Queenstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa. He was educated at George Watson's College, Edinburgh, Queen's College, Queenstown, and Downing College, Cambridge. Although a South African, Greig was allowed to play for England because his father was Scottish.

Whilst at Cambridge, Greig played both rugby union and cricket. He represented Cambridge in the Varsity Match in 1977 and 1978, and won blues for cricket in 1977, 1978 and 1979.

Cricket career
Greig played one-day cricket as an all rounder for Sussex County Cricket Club in 1979 before making his first-class debut for the team in 1980. His career with Sussex lasted until 1985. His most successful season for Sussex was in 1981, when he scored 911 runs (average 30.36), and took 76 wickets at 19.32. In 1982, the English selectors chose him as a replacement for the injured Derek Pringle to face Pakistan in two test matches.

Sussex released Greig, and others, in 1985 as part of cost-cutting measures, and he emigrated to Australia. However, he joined Surrey County Cricket Club, and captained the team between 1987 and 1991. Greig's highest score of 291 came in 1990 in a total of 707 at The Oval; Lancashire replied with 863, Neil Fairbrother top-scoring with 366, the highest-ever score at The Oval.

Later life
Greig's current position is coach of the 1st XI team at the Anglican Church Grammar School in Brisbane, Australia.

References

External links

1955 births
South African people of British descent
White South African people
Living people
England Test cricketers
English cricketers
Cambridge University cricketers
Cambridge University R.U.F.C. players
Border cricketers
Sussex cricketers
Surrey cricketers
Surrey cricket captains
Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers
People educated at George Watson's College
British Universities cricketers
Cricketers from Queenstown, South Africa
Alumni of Queen's College Boys' High School

Ian Greig


is a media franchise created by Hironobu Sakaguchi. It is developed and owned by Square Enix. Final Fantasy is a series of fantasy and science fantasy role-playing video games (RPGs). It also includes movies, anime, printed media, and other products.

The first game was published in 1987. The game was a success. It had sequels. The video game has since branched into other Video game genres. Some of these genres are tactical role-playing, action role-playing, massively multiplayer online role-playing, racing, third-person shooter, fighting, and rhythm.

Most Final Fantasy games are independent stories. They have different settings and main characters. Recurring elements include plot themes, character names, and game mechanics. Plots center on a group of heroes fighting evil and exploring their internal struggles and relationships. Character names are borrowed from history, languages, and mythologies of many cultures.

The series is a commercial and critical success. It is Square Enix's best selling video game franchise. It sold more than  units. It is one of the best-selling video game franchises. It was awarded a star on the Walk of Game in 2006. It has seven Guinness World Records in the Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008. Final Fantasy is known for its innovation, visuals, and music. It includes full motion videos, photo-realistic character models, and orchestra music by Nobuo Uematsu.

Types
There are two main types of Final Fantasy game: the main series, where the games are just numbered with Roman numbers, and several related games and spinoffs. Each of the games in the main series have very little to do with each other, with its own setting, story, and characters. Some exceptions include Final Fantasy X and X-2, the sequel, or Final Fantasy XIII and Final Fantasy XIII-2 and Lightning Returns. But the games are connected through the gameplay, themes, and 'style'. Newer sequels and prequels are Final Fantasy X-2 and the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII games and films.

History
Since 1987, more than seventeen games have been released. The series started on Nintendo Entertainment System, but today most Final Fantasy games are made for the Sony PlayStation or PlayStation 2. Games have also been released for the Nintendo Game Boy and GameCube. Final Fantasy VII is generally regarded as one of the pinnacle achievements of gaming. A must-play for any gamer.

In 2001, Columbia Pictures made a CGI movie called Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within.

Exceptions
While it is not actually a Final Fantasy game, one game called Final Fantasy Adventure was released in America for the Nintendo Game Boy. The game was actually a prequel to the SNES game Secret of Mana, but was released in the United States with the name "Final Fantasy" to boost sales. In 2003 it was remade for the Game Boy Advance with the title Sword of Mana. In Japan, the Mana series is called Seiken Densetsu, which means "Legend of the Sword." There are three games in the series, but only the first two, Secret of Mana and Sword of Mana, have been released in the United States.

Gameplay

In Final Fantasy, players control a group of characters. They go through the game's story by exploring the game world and defeating enemies. Enemies are found randomly. This changed in Final Fantasy XI and Final Fantasy XII. The player gives combat orders. These orders are "Fight", "Magic", and "Item". The orders are given to individual characters through a menu. This menu appears when in battles.

The games have used different battle systems. Before Final Fantasy XI, battles were turn-based. The main characters and bad characters were on different sides of the battlefield. Final Fantasy IV introduced the "Active Time Battle" (ATB) system. It made better the turn-based system with a time-keeping system. This system was designed by Hiroyuki Ito. It gave a feeling of urgency and excitement to the fights. It required the player to act before an enemy attacks. It was used until Final Fantasy X. This game had the "Conditional Turn-Based" (CTB) system. This new system returned to the old turn-based system.

Magic is common in the game. The way characters get magic depends on the game. It is generally divided into classes organized by color: "White magic" focuses on spells that heal teammates; "Black magic" focuses on hurting enemies; "Red magic" is a combination of white and black magic, "Blue magic" copies enemy attacks; and "Green magic" focuses on applying status effects to teammates or enemies.

There are other types of magic like "Time magic". This magic focuses on time, space, and gravity; "Summoning magic" brings legendary creatures to help in battle. This magic has appeared since Final Fantasy III. Summoned creatures are called names like "Espers" or "Eidolons". They are inspired by mythologies from Arabic, Hindu, Norse, and Greek cultures.

Different means of transportation have appeared through the series. The most common is the airship. There are also chocobos for travelling short distances. Others include sea and land vehicles. Following Final Fantasy VII, more modern and futuristic vehicles have appeared.

Released Final Fantasy games
For Nintendo Entertainment System:
Final Fantasy
Final Fantasy II
Final Fantasy III

For Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES):
Final Fantasy IV
Final Fantasy Mystic Quest
Final Fantasy V
Final Fantasy VI

For Sony PlayStation:
Final Fantasy VII (also released for PC)
Final Fantasy Tactics
Final Fantasy VIII (also released for PC)
Final Fantasy IX
Final Fantasy Origins
Final Fantasy Anthology
Final Fantasy Chronicles

For Sony PlayStation 2:
Final Fantasy X (a high definition remake is currently in development for PS Vita)
Final Fantasy X-2
Final Fantasy XI (also released for PC and Xbox 360)
Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII
Final Fantasy XII

For PlayStation 3:
Final Fantasy XIII
Final Fantasy XIV

For Sony PlayStation 4
Final Fantasy XV

For Xbox 360:
Final Fantasy XI
Final Fantasy XIII
Final Fantasy XIII-2
Lightning Returns: Final Fantasy XIII

For Xbox One:
Final Fantasy XV

For Nintendo Gameboy:
Final Fantasy Adventure
Final Fantasy Legends
Final Fantasy Legends 2
Final Fantasy Legends 3

For Nintendo Gameboy Advance
Final Fantasy Tactics Advance
Final Fantasy IV Advance
Final Fantasy V Advance
Final Fantasy VI Advance

For Nintendo GameCube:
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles

For Nintendo Wii:
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: My Life as a King
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: Echoes of Time
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: Crystal Bearers

For Nintendo DS:
Final Fantasy III
Final Fantasy IV
Final Fantasy Tactics A2: Grimoire of the Rift

For PlayStation Portable:
Final Fantasy VII Crisis Core
Final Fantasy I and II remade
Final Fantasy Tactics: The War of the Lions
Final Fantasy Dissidia

For PC:
Final Fantasy XI
Final Fantasy XIV
Final Fantasy XV

Released Final Fantasy movies
Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within
Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children
Last Order: Final Fantasy VII

Future Games
A list of upcoming Final Fantasy games.

Final Fantasy XVI (Playstation 5)

References

Final Fantasy