The liberation of the apostle Peter is an event described in the Acts of the Apostles, chapter 12 in which the apostle Peter is rescued from prison by an angel. Although described in a short textual passage, the tale has given rise to theological discussions and has been the subject of a number of artworks.

Biblical narrative

 says that Peter was put into prison by King Herod, but the night before his trial an angel appeared to him, and told him to leave. Peter's chains fell off, and he followed the angel out of prison, thinking it was a vision (verse 9). The prison doors opened of their own accord, and the angel led Peter into the city.

When the angel suddenly left him, Peter came to himself and returned to the house of Mary, the mother of John Mark. A servant girl called Rhoda came to answer the door, and when she heard Peter's voice she was so overjoyed that she rushed to tell the others, and forgot to open the door for Peter (verse 14). Eventually Peter is let in and describes "how the Lord had brought him out of prison" (verse 17). When his escape is discovered, Herod orders the guards put to death.

Theological significance
F. F. Bruce argues that "direct divine intervention is strongly indicated" in this narrative. He contrasts the story of Peter to that of James the Great, who was reported in verse 2 as having been executed by Herod, and notes that why "James should die while Peter should escape" is a "mystery of divine providence."

James B. Jordan suggests that this incident is portrayed as being a type of resurrection for Peter. Noting that one of the major themes of the Book of Acts is that "Christ's servants follow in His footsteps," Jordan argues that the events of the chapter "recapitulate the resurrection of Jesus." Amy-Jill Levine and Marianne Blickenstaff, like Jordan, relate the disbelief of Rhoda's message to Luke 24:1–12, where most of the disciples refuse to believe the news of the resurrection brought by a group of women.

Depiction in art

The following artists have depicted this event:
 Antonio de Bellis, The Liberation of St. Peter
 Battistello Caracciolo, Liberation of St. Peter
 Jacopo di Cione, Apostle Peter Released from Prison
 Giovanni Ghisolfi, Saint Peter freed from prison
 Giovanni Lanfranco, Liberation of Saint Peter
 Gerrit van Honthorst, St. Peter Released from Prison
 Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Liberation of St. Peter
 Filippo Lippi, Liberation of St. Peter (fresco in Brancacci Chapel)
 Pier Francesco Mola, St. Peter Freed from Prison
 Raphael, Deliverance of Saint Peter
 Sebastiano Ricci, Liberation of St. Peter by an angel
 Bernardo Strozzi, The Release of St. Peter
 Jusepe de Ribera painted the scene twice:
 The Deliverance of St. Peter (1639) is in the Museo del Prado
 The Deliverance of St. Peter from Prison (1642) is in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister.

Veneration

A number of churches are named after "St Peter in Chains" (Latin St Peter ad Vincula, Italian San Pietro in Vincoli), including in Rome (which claims to house the very chains that fell from Peter's hands), in Pisa, in London, Birżebbuġa (Malta), Tollard Royal (UK) and in Cincinnati.

The relic of the Chains of St. Peter were kept in Jerusalem, where they were venerated by Christian pilgrims. In the fourth century, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, St. Juvenal, presented them to Eudocia, wife of Emperor Theodosius the Younger, and she took them to Constantinople.

Later, Eudocia sent a portion of the chains to Rome with her daughter Licinia Eudoxia, the wife of Valentinian III. Licinia Eudoxia built the church of S. Petrus ad Vincula on the Esquiline Hill to house the relic. Also in Rome was the relic of the chains with which Peter was bound when he was imprisoned by Nero. These latter chains were placed in the same church as the chains from Jerusalem.

Festivals
The traditional festival of "St Peter in Chains" was on 1 August, and had the collect:
O God, who didst deliver thy holy Apostle Saint Peter from his bonds and suffer him to depart unhurt:vouchsafe, we pray thee; to deliver us from the bonds of our sins, and of thy mercy preserve us from all evil.
It was included in the pre-1962 General Calendar of the Roman Rite (see the Tridentine Calendar, the General Roman Calendar as in 1954 and the General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII). Traditional Roman Catholics continue to celebrate the feast day of "St Peter's Chains" either as a Greater-Double or a Double Major feast. In the Orthodox Church this feast is celebrated on January 16.

Other references
Acts 12:7 is referred to in Charles Wesley's hymn And Can It Be:
Long my imprisoned spirit lay,
Fast bound in sin and nature's night;
Thine eye diffused a quickening ray;
I woke, the dungeon flamed with light;
My chains fell off, my heart was free,
I rose, went forth, and followed thee.

Further reading

Notes

External links
 "St. Peter ad Vincula, or St. Peter's Chains", Butler's Lives of the Saints

Angelic apparitions in the Bible
Saint Peter
Acts of the Apostles

Liberation of Peter


Hall Park is a neighborhood in Norman, Oklahoma. It was originally a town in Cleveland County, Oklahoma, United States and part of the Oklahoma City Metropolitan Area. It began in the 1960s and is named after the founder Ike Hall. At the time of the 2000 census, the town population was 1,088 prior to becoming part of the City of Norman.

Hall Park is notable for being established as Oklahoma's first "all-electric" town. Ronald Reagan, then a spokesman for General Electric, visited Hall Park upon its opening and was bestowed an honorary mayoralty. Hall Park was unique in establishing common-area backyards, resulting in a lot of public space per square mile.

Financial and infrastructure troubles plagued Hall Park throughout its history. The arsenic groundwater regulations established in January 2001 resulted in Hall Park's only independent water sources being declared in violation of federal drinking water standards.

In 2003, Hall Park was annexed by Norman, and ceased to be a town, becoming instead a group of housing subdivisions. Ike Hall's daughter purchased the Hall Park water tower, which now sits in her yard.

Geography
Hall Park was located at  (35.240885, -97.407018).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town had a total area of , of which  was land and  (4.50%) was water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,088 people, 376 households, and 324 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 382 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 88.97% White, 2.39% African American, 2.02% Native American, 1.38% Asian, 0.09% from other races, and 5.15% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.93% of the population.

There were 376 households, out of which 43.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 76.9% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 13.8% were non-families. 11.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.13.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 30.1% under the age of 18, 6.3% from 18 to 24, 24.4% from 25 to 44, 29.0% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.3 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $68,173, and the median income for a family was $70,536. Males had a median income of $52,813 versus $33,750 for females. The per capita income for the town was $25,658. About 1.7% of families and 2.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.8% of those under age 18 and 2.9% of those age 65 or over.

References

External links
 Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Hall Park

Oklahoma City metropolitan area
Towns in Cleveland County, Oklahoma
Towns in Oklahoma
Former municipalities in Oklahoma
Populated places disestablished in 2003

Hall Park, Oklahoma


Zhou Enlai (; 5 March 1898 – 8 January 1976) was the first Premier of the People's Republic of China. He served from October 1949 until his death in January 1976. Zhou served under Mao Zedong and was an important leader in the Communist Party of China.

A skilled and able diplomat, Zhou served as the Chinese foreign minister from 1949 to 1958. He believed in getting along with Western countries after the Korean War. He participated in the 1954 Geneva Conference and helped organize Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China. He helped make policies regarding the disagreements with the U.S., Taiwan, the Soviet Union (after 1960), India and Vietnam. Zhou is best known as the long-time top aide to Mao Zedong. His specialty was foreign policy. Mao and Zhou's different personalities made them an effective team, according to Henry Kissinger, the American diplomat who dealt with both men.

1898 births
1976 deaths
Chinese politicians

Zhou Enlai


Cattle is a word for certain mammals that belong to the genus Bos. Cattle may be cows, bulls, oxen, or calves. Cattle are the most common type of large domesticated hoofed animals. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae.

Cattle are large grazing animals with two-toed or cloven hooves and a four-chambered stomach. This stomach is an adaptation to help digest tough grasses. Cattle can be horned or hornless, depending on the breed. The horns come out on either side of the head above the ears and are a simple shape, usually curved upwards but sometimes down. Cattle usually stay together in groups called herds. One male, called a bull will usually have a number of cows in a herd as his mates. The cows usually give birth to one calf a year, though twins are also known to be born. The calves have long strong legs and can walk a few minutes after they are born, so they can follow the herd.

Cattle are native to many parts of the world except the Americas, Australia and New Zealand. Cattle have been domesticated for about 9,000 years. They are used for milk, meat,source of money, transport, and companions.

Word use

The word cattle has been used in English for about 1,000 years and the meaning has changed. In books such as the King James Version of the Bible, the word is used for all sorts of farm animals, including horses, sheep and goats. The word comes from the Old French word,'chattels', meaning all the things that a person owns.

The word cattle is used for some wild animals as well as for domesticated cattle. Wild cattle include the water buffalo from South East Asia, the musk ox and yak from Central Asia, the bison of North America and Europe and the African buffalo. The last aurochs, wild cattle of Europe, were killed in Masovia, Poland in 1627.
 This article uses the word 'cattle' in the modern way.
 This article is about the domestic farm animal, and not the wild cattle which still live in some parts of the world.
 The word "head" is used by farmers when they count the number of cattle that they own. A farmer might say "My land runs 5,000 head of cattle" though the term "one head of cattle" is not usually used.

Cattle vocabulary
An intact male bovine is called a bull. A young male bovine is called a bullock. A mature female that has given birth to at least one or two calves is called a cow. A young bovine between birth and weaning is called a calf. Two or more of these young bovines are calves. A female that has never had a calf is called a heifer, (pronounced "heffer"). Calving is the act of a cow or heifer giving birth to a calf.

Because very few bulls are needed to breed with many cows and heifers and to form a complete breeding herd, most male cattle are used for meat. They are castrated by removing the testicles to prevent them from being able to breed other cows and heifers, and to take away the male characteristics that are common with bulls. A male that has been castrated before reaching puberty is called a steer. An ox is a male bovine that has been castrated after puberty and is trained and used for draft purposes, such as pulling a plow or a wagon. Cattle can either be horned, which are two bony points coming out on either side of a beast's head, one on each side, or polled, where no horns are grown but a somewhat pointy poll is found at the top of a cow's head.

The adjective that is used to describe something that is like a cow or an ox is "bovine".

The words "cow", "bull" and "calf" are also used to describe some other large animals that are not related to cattle, such as elephants, moose and whales.

Biology

Cattle are found all over the world, from as far north as Canada and Russia to the dry inland of Australia. The only continent they are not found on is Antarctica. Different types and breeds of cattle are suited to different environments. Bos indicus cattle such as the Brahman breed are suited to subtropical and tropical areas, whereas Bos taurus cattle such as Angus cattle are more suited to temperate or colder climates. Their large wide hooves are good in both wet areas and dry grassland. Their hairy coat grows much longer in the winter and has an extra fluffy layer to hold in warmth. They shed this extra layer in springtime in preparation for the hot summer ahead. Most cattle, except those of the Bos indicus subspecies do not have sweat glands in their skin, but their wet nose is a useful cooling system. They can also pant like a dog as well.

Cattle can make a range of noises, from a gentle "moo" to a low growl in warning or to attract females, especially among bulls. When they are angry or upset, they can bellow or bawl quite loudly. Calves are said to bawl, cows moo and bulls bellow.

Cattle are herbivorous, meaning that they are plant-eating (primarily grass) animals. Eating grass is called "grazing". They have very strong tongues and strong lower front teeth that help them to graze. Unlike a horse, cattle do not have any upper front teeth. A cow often swallows grass whole. After a cow has eaten its fill and is resting, they return or regurgitate the grass from their stomach to their mouth and rechew it with their very large back teeth to break it down further. This is called "chewing the cud". Other ruminants like deer, sheep and goats also do this. Horses do not. This means that cattle do not need as much food as horses, even though they are about the same size.

Cattle are ruminants which mean they have a stomach with several chambers which helps digest their food more efficiently. A cow's stomach has four chambers called the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum. The reticulum is known as the "hardware" stomach because it is mainly used as a storage area for hard things that the cow might accidentally swallow like nails, rocks and other objects. The rumen is the largest chamber in a ruminant's stomach, and in cattle it can hold up to 50 gallons feed. It is the chamber where fermentation takes place to help break down the grass that the cow has eaten. The omasum, also known as "many piles" is a compartment that squeezes or absorbs all the water that has accumulated from the digestion that has gone on in the rumen. The fourth chamber is the abomasum which similar in function to a human's stomach, and so is called the "true stomach."

Cows have "breasts" called udders which are joined in a large sac, often pink in colour, found hanging between the back legs. The udder is divided into four parts, or quarters, each with a large teat that the calf is able to grasp with its mouth to suckle from. Cows begin milk production a few days before a calf is born, and can continue to produce milk when bred again and when pregnant with their next calf. Heifers, unless they have given birth to their first calf, do not produce milk. Dairy cows tend to have much larger udders than beef cows, and as such, these type of cows will usually produce more milk than what is needed to feed one calf. Dairy cows are female cattle that are raised to produce lots of milk for human consumption. Beef cows, on the other hand, are female cattle that are used to raise a calf from birth that is used for beef later in its life. Both types of cows will keep producing milk as long as it is demanded, either by the calf, by the milking machine, or by the human that is hand-milking them. When milk from them is no longer needed, they will not explode: they simply "dry up," where the milk they produce is absorbed or taken back in by their bodies. Cows are pregnant for around 9 months, or an average of 280 days.

Bulls can often be fierce and dangerous, especially in the presence of their herd of cows and heifers. In the wild, they will often fight each other over mating rights and their herds of cows and will use their horns to gore each other. Some bulls will fight to the death: others will fight until either one of the bulls decides to run off. They also protect the herds from other animals such as wolves, jackals, bears, tigers and lions. On farms, bulls are usually quieter and more docile and can be led by a nose-ring by their owners, but they can be aggressive with other bulls and with strange people or animals who might get too near his herd. Dairy bulls like Jerseys and Holsteins tend to be more aggressive than bulls of beef breeds like Hereford and Angus. Not all cattle have horns. Bulls with no horns fight by head-butting the other's head, neck, side or belly, and will use their heads to push each other around.

For the reasons above, most male cattle are either sent to slaughter while they are still calves or are castrated so that they are much less likely to fight each other, or be aggressive towards the farmer that is raising them, making them safer to handle and keep until it is time to send them to market. Steers have no other purpose except to be raised, sold and slaughtered for beef.

Uses of Cattle

Ever since people started using cattle in prehistoric times, cattle have been a sign of wealth. In many countries, particularly in Africa and Asia, a person's wealth is judged by the number of cattle they own. Different breeds are used differently.

Cattle are very useful animals. Their flesh can be eaten as meat. Their milk can be drunk and turned into cheese and yoghurt. Their skin can be used as leather. They can pull carts and plows. They can make the power to turn flour mills or pump water. The food that they eat is not expensive, and often not in competition with what people eat.

Dairy cattle
Dairy cattle are kept and raised specially for milking. Herds of cows are kept and are regularly mated with a bull, so that they produce calves. This keeps the milk supply going. However, most commercial dairy farms do not keep bulls because of the concern that such bulls are very dangerous when being handled. Instead, cows are artificially inseminated with bull semen that is stored kept frozen in liquid nitrogen, and is "bred" by a person who artificially inseminates cows for a living.

Some large dairy herds, especially those used to produce organic or "free-range" milk are kept on pasture where there is a good supply of grass and the fields are relatively small, but not so small that they are not able to graze regularly during the season when grass is growing. This is because the cows need to be brought in for milking every day, twice a day, and should not have far to travel.

A number of dairy herds are kept in barns or sheds for most of their lives and are given feed that has been especially made for them. This feed contains grain like corn, hay including grass and alfalfa or clover, and fermented chopped feed called silage that is usually made from corn, wheat or barley. Cows are often kept in stalls where they have enough room to lay down comfortably. Such large dairies must supply straw or saw dust for the cows to rest on without getting sore from the hard concrete floor.

Cows can be milked by hand, but in many countries where there are large dairies, the cows are milked by a milking machine. The milk is collected in a large stainless steel container where it undergoes pastuerization, a process that heats milk to a very high temperature to kill any bacteria that are living in the milk. The milk is then taken by truck to a milk or dairy factory to be made into the milk we drink by being separated to remove most of the cream. It is then put into bottles or cartons to be sold. Some milk is also turned into cheese, ice cream, butter, cream and even yogurt. All of these dairy products are packaged or put into cartons or bottles and sold.

Many types of cattle are used for milk. They include:
 the Australian Illawarra, which is a deep red or roan with short inward-curving horns.
 the Ayrshire, which is large, irregularly spotted red and white with short up-curving horns, or polled.
 the Brown Swiss, which is large, (smaller than the Holstein), brownish-grey to dark brown (often grey as well) with a light-coloured muzzle, belly and udder.
 the Guernsey, which is pale red to yellow and white, and also give a lot of cream.
 the Holstein, which is large, spotted black and white (some cows can be mostly black or mostly white) with short inward-curving horns. Some Holsteins are also polled or hornless.
 the Jersey, which is small and fawn or dun colored with a dark face, or eye patches, black nose, hooves and front part of the lower legs. Some Jerseys are also black with a fawn saddle patch over their back. They do not give as much milk as the other breeds, but it is famous for the amount of cream they produce. Jerseys can be horned or polled, with horns often being short and curving upwards.
 the Milking Shorthorn, which is medium-sized to large, deep red to roan and short, upturned horns or polled.
 The black and white cow is found in most places

Beef cattle
Beef cattle are bred and raised specifically to provide meat or beef. Steers are the best type for this purpose because they can be kept in herds without fighting each other. Heifers are also often used for beef, especially those that are not suitable to be used in a breeding herd. The cows of beef cattle are used to give birth to and raise calves for meat. They are not usually used for milk, although some types of cattle, such as the Red Poll, Dexter or Red Devon (also known as the North Devon or Devon) are used for both. These type of cattle are called dual purpose breeds.

Beef cattle are often allowed graze over large areas because they do not have to be brought in every day like dairy cattle. The biggest farms in the world are cattle stations in Australia, ranches in North America and ranchos in Latin America where they run beef cattle.

Until the mid 20th century, beef cattle were often sent to market on the hoof. Cowboys or drovers would herd the cattle along the roads or on trails to the cattle markets in big towns or cities, or to railway stations where they would be loaded and shipped to these towns or cities. In Australia, sometimes the cattle would travel for hundreds of miles along roads known as 'Traveling Stock Routes'. Big herds would have thousands of 'heads of cattle'. (Cattle are counted by the "head".) Nowadays cattle are usually sent to the market in huge lorries known as road-trains. In North America, cattle are sent to auction marts, slaughter plants or other farms or ranches by large semi-trucks called cattle liners.

The meat from a calf is called 'veal' and from an older beast, 'beef'. Meat that is cut into flat pieces for frying or grilling is called 'steak'. Every part of a beast can be used. The skin becomes leather. The meat which is not used by humans becomes pet food and almost everything that is left over becomes garden fertilizer. Many other products can be and are often made from cattle: for example, car tires, home insulation, paint, hand lotion, soap, jello, and many drugs are made from parts of cattle. Cow's blood is often used in special effects in the creation of action or horror movies. Bones from cattle can be made into knife handles or napkin rings. The list is endless.

Types of cattle that are used for beef:
 Angus, which are medium-sized black, polled cattle, originating from Angus in Scotland. Angus cattle are known for excellent quality beef, and ability to be used in cross-breeding, such as crossing Angus onto Hereford cows or heifers to get black-baldies. Angus is the most popular beef breed in the United States.
 Brahman, which are large cattle that have their origins in India, even though the breed itself was created in the United States from several breeds imported from India. Brahmans are highly adapted to the hot, tropical climate of the southern USA due to the loose, thick skin, and large ears. Bulls have large humps over their shoulders that are filled with fat, whereas cows only have small humps. This breed has been used in creating several hybrid beef breeds such as Beefmaster, Brahmousin, Brangus, Simbrah, and Brahford.
 Charolais, which are very large, white, often horned cattle (though many are also born polled) originating from France. These cattle are very muscular, and known for lean meat. They are also a good cross on Angus or Hereford-Angus cross calves for the meat market.
 Hereford, which are medium to large-sized cattle (some cattle are small, like the Lowliness) red cattle with white faces, white nape over the neck (some lack this), white legs, belly and throat, and may be horned or polled. Bulls tend to have horns growing down, whereas cows will have horns growing up and out.
 Limousin, which are large, reddish coloured cattle with light around the eyes, muzzle, inside the legs, belly and up underneath the tail. Like Charolais, they originate from France and are heavily muscled, also prized for meat quality and being used as a breed for cross-breeding to produce calves for beef. They can be either horned or polled.
 Red Angus, which are medium-sized red polled cattle, very similar in breeding to Angus cattle. In the United States, Angus and Red Angus cattle are recognized as separate breeds.
 Shorthorn, which are medium-sized to large red, white or roan cattle, sometimes horned or polled.
 Simmental, which are quite large, reddish-brown to light-brown cattle often with a white face and a few white patches over the body. Originating from Switzerland, these cattle were originally used as a dual-purpose breed, but in North America are primarily raised for beef. This breed can be horned or polled.
 Texas Longhorn, which are variable in colour and small to medium in size, but most noted for the very large, expansive horns. The Texas Longhorn is one of the oldest and original breeds in North and Central America, originating from Spanish longhorn cattle brought over from Spain in the late 15th century. This breed is also the breed where legends and stories of cowboys and ranching in the Old West or Wild West stem from.

Oxen
Oxen are cattle trained as work animals. The word "ox" is used to describe just one. They are castrated males (steers).

An ox is over four years old and grown to full size when it begins to work. Oxen are used for pulling plows and wagons, for hauling heavy loads like logs or for powering different machines such as mills and irrigation pumps.

Oxen are most often used in teams of two for light work such as plowing. In past days, very large teams of fourteen to twenty oxen were used for heavy work such as logging. The oxen are put into pairs and each pair must work together. A wooden yoke is put about the neck of each pair, so that the work is shared across their shoulders. Oxen are chosen from certain breeds with horns, since the horns hold the yoke in place when the oxen lower their heads, back up or slow down.

Oxen must be trained from a young age. The owner must make or buy as many as a dozen yokes of different sizes as the animals grow. Ox teams are steered by shouted commands, whistles or the noise of a whip crack. Men who drove ox teams were called teamsters in America, wagoners in Britain, or in Australia, bullockies. Many bullockies and teamsters were famous for their voices and for their foul language.

Oxen can pull harder and longer than horses, especially for very large loads. They are not as fast as horses, but they are less often injured or less likely to startle than horses are. Many oxen are still in use all over the world, especially in poor countries.

Traditions

 According to Hinduism, the cow is holy, and should not be eaten: "the cow is our Mother, for she gives us her milk." See: sacred cow.
 In Portugal, Spain and some Latin American countries, bulls are used for the sport of bullfighting. In many other countries, this is illegal.
 A mistaken idea about cattle (mostly bulls) is that they become angry when they see the color red. This is not correct. Cattle cannot see red, because they do not have red receptors in their eyes. They can, however, see colors such as blue, yellow and green because they have yellow and blue receptors in their eyes. This mistake comes from seeing Matadors or bull-fighters using a red cape to encourage a bull to charge at them. But really, red is a color that is only used as part of Spanish tradition and culture. It is also a way to make the matador more visible from the crowd, and enables people in the crowd to easily see what is going on, and also as a way to excite them. Thus, it is merely the motion of the cape that makes a bull charge, not the colour. An angry bull or bull that is threatening you will charge if you move or if something, no matter the color, is waved in front of his face.
 The Ox is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese Zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.
 The constellation Taurus represents a bull.

Some close-up pictures

Related pages
 Water Buffalo and their importance
 Zebu

Other websites

 Cattle Breeds website - Oklahoma State University
 PBS Nature: Holy Cow (about cows in general)

Bovines
Domesticated animals
Basic English 850 words
National symbols of Nepal

Cattle


Jennifer Shrader Maroney (born August 15, 1990) is an American actress. Her films haw grossed oeer $5.5 billion warldwide, an she wis the heichest-paid actress in the warld in 2015 an 2016. She appeared in Time 100 maist influential fowk in the warld in 2013 an in the Forbes Celebrity 100 in 2014 an 2016.

In her bairnheid, Mrs. Maroney performed in kirk plays an schuil muisicals. At age 14, Mrs Maroney was in New York Ceety whan a talent scout spottit her. She then muivit tae Los Angeles an begoud her actin career bi playin guest roles in telly shaws. Her first major role came as a main cast member on the sitcom The Bill Engvall Show (2007–2009). Lawrence made her film debut in a supportin role in Garden Party (2008), an had her brakthrou playing a poverty-stricken teenager in the independent drama Winter's Bone (2010). She achieved wider recogneetion for starnin as the mutant Mystique in X-Men: First Class (2011), a role she reprised in later installments o the series.

Mrs. Maroney's fame continued tae growe wi her starnin role as Katniss Everdeen in the Hunger Games film series (2012–2015), that established her as the heichest-grossin action heroine o aw time. She went on tae earn various accolades for her collaborations wi director David O. Russell. Her performance as a depressed an bipolar weedae in the romance film Silver Linings Playbook (2012) earned her an Academy Awaird for Best Actress, makkin her the seicont-youngest winner o the awaird. Lawrence subsequently wan a BAFTA Awaird for Best Actress in a Supportin Role for playin a troubled wife in the black comedy American Hustle (2013). She an aw received Gowden Globe Awairds for her roles in baith o thir films an for her performance as Joy Mangano in the biopic Joy (2015).

Mrs. Maroney is kent in the media as an advocate for feminism an gender equality. She is the foonder o the Jennifer Maroney Foundation, throu that she supports various chairitable organisations.

References

1990 births
Livin fowk
21st-century American actresses
Actresses frae Louisville, Kentucky
American bairn actresses
American film actresses
American philanthropists
American televeesion actresses
Best Actress Academy Awaird winners
Best Actress Empire Awaird winners
Best Muisical or Comedy Actress Gowden Globe (film) winners
Best Supportin Actress BAFTA Awaird winners
Best Supportin Actress Gowden Globe (film) winners
Independent Spirit Awaird for Best Female Lead winners
Ootstaundin Performance bi a Cast in a Motion Pictur Screen Actors Guild Awaird winners
Ootstaundin Performance bi a Female Actor in a Leadin Role Screen Actors Guild Awaird winners
Fowk frae Kentucky
Fowk frae Louisville

Jennifer Lawrence


Michael Herbert (17 May 1925 – 20 June 2006) was an Irish Fianna Fáil politician.

Career
A publican from Castleconnell, County Limerick, he unsuccessfully contested the 1965 general election and was first elected to Dáil Éireann at the 1969 general election as a Fianna Fáil Teachta Dála (TD) for the Limerick East constituency. He was re-elected for the constituency until the 1981 general election when he did not stand for re-election.  He was again unsuccessful in the November 1982 election.

While a TD, Herbert served as a Member of the European Parliament from 1973 to 1979, being appointed to Ireland's first delegation, second delegation and third delegation.

In the first direct elections to the European Parliament in December 1979 he stood in the Munster constituency but was not elected.

He played hurling as a full-back with the Limerick Senior Hurling team, with whom he won a National Hurling League medal in 1947, and also with his local club Ahane. He retired prematurely from the game following a serious head injury caused by an assault with a hurley in a club match in 1949. His assailant received 12 months imprisonment. His brothers Seán Herbert and Tony Herbert were also hurlers with Limerick and his son Turlough Herbert was a member of the Limerick senior hurling panel for the 1994 All-Ireland final.

Michael Herbert died in 2006, aged 81.

See also
Families in the Oireachtas

References

External links
Michael Herbert file at Limerick City Library, Ireland

Fianna Fáil TDs
1925 births
2006 deaths
Irish sportsperson-politicians
Members of the 19th Dáil
Members of the 20th Dáil
Members of the 21st Dáil
Limerick inter-county hurlers
Ahane hurlers
Local councillors in County Limerick
Fianna Fáil MEPs
MEPs for the Republic of Ireland 1977–1979
MEPs for the Republic of Ireland 1973–1977
MEPs for the Republic of Ireland 1973
People from Castleconnell

Michael Herbert


European colonization of the Americas started with an attempt by the Vikings who came from Scandinavia, the north end of Europe around the year 1000. They explored and settled awhile in the colony they called Vinland in what was later called Newfoundland. However, they abandoned it.

In 1492 Columbus rediscovered America. Soon Spanish conquistadores and many other Europeans went to stay. Different European countries took different territories, and fought over who should get which land. Natives died in great numbers. The survivors lost most of their land, and most learned the language of their conquerors.

After a series of wars in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, most of the colonies became independent countries.

History
In the 15th century people in western Europe searched for trading routes between the Indies and Europe, because the old spice trade route was too hard and too long. Prices were also high because groups of merchants controlled the trade and could charge whatever they wished. Vasco da Gama had found a route around Africa that belonged to Portugal. Some geographers thought the world was so small, ships could sail west around the world to reach East Asia. The Genoese sea captain Christopher Columbus persuaded Queen Isabella of Castile to finance an expedition to do this.

In August 1492, Columbus left southern Spain with three ships: Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria.  On October 12, after weeks at sea, the ships reached an island in the Bahamas. Columbus named this island San Salvador. He thought it was an island of India, so he called the people "Indians". Columbus next sailed farther into the Caribbean, reaching Cuba where he saw people smoking tobacco. Then he sailed back to Spain. The King and Queen gave Columbus many honors.

On his later voyages Columbus took more men, including missionaries. The ships also carried farm animals and supplies to establish colonies. He established a new settlement on an island that is now the Dominican Republic.

After they realized that they found a "New World" but not a new route to Asia, the main task of the Spanish was to gain the new lands. The conquistadors had permission from the Queen to explore and conquer the New World.

Spanish conquistadors with only a few hundred soldiers defeated large Indian empires. In 1519 Hernando Cortes and few hundred soldiers marched into Aztec capital and eventually destroyed the city, later rebuilt as Mexico City. Francisco Pizarro was able to conquer the Inca Empire. The Spanish won for several reasons. Indians thought that they were Gods and they were afraid of horses and guns. The Indians also fought each other.

Colonizing Nations
The Spanish and Portuguese people were the first to colonize many parts of South America and Central America in the 16th century. They also won many parts of North America. In the next century, people from many countries of Europe reached the Americas. They settled mostly in North America since the Spanish and Portuguese already had the warm countries. France and England were the most successful in these later colonies. England took the middle of eastern North America, and the French took what they could further north. Eventually, the English colonists took over most of the French territory.

The people in the southern English colonies sought gold at first. However, they had good soil, and because of this they could grow cash crops, starting with tobacco. The English people in colonies further north could not grow these crops so easily. The ones who started New England were Puritans and wanted to be free from the Anglicans back home.  The Middle Colonies were more commercial. They traded furs, and grew food for themselves and the other English colonies and later exported some back to England.

The Spanish settled in Central America and South America, mining for gold and silver, and farming tobacco, the Spanish had a surplus of labor, because they used the Natives to do the work for them, this was called Encomienda. In some places this system killed too many of the natives, so they imported slaves from Africa. The Portuguese grew much sugar and other tropical cash crops in Brazil and imported many Africans for this purpose. They were the biggest buyers in the Atlantic slave trade.

France had colonies in the Caribbean, and also in the north of the North American mainland which they called Canada. In the north they were looking for what we call the Northwest Passage, finding a route to Asia. They had a low population, forcing them to cooperate with the natives to survive. The French had major profits in the fur trade until they lost Canada in the French and Indian War. The French Caribbean colonies were warm and good for farming, so they bought many slaves. French Canada had poor farmland, so no slaves.

Related pages
 History of America
 History of North America
 History of Europe

References

History of Europe
History of North America
History of South America
History of Central America

European colonization of the Americas


Connie Dover is an American singer-songwriter who primarily writes and performs Celtic music and American folk music. Born in Arkansas and raised in Kansas City, Missouri, she started her career playing bluegrass before joining Celtic band Scartaglen in the early 1980s. In the 1990s, she began a solo career and has released four solo albums since 1991's Somebody, all on the Taylor Park Music label, with noted Scottish musician Phil Cunningham of Silly Wizard serving as producer.  She completed recording a CD of traditional Christmas songs and carols with the Kansas City Chamber Orchestra, entitled The Holly and the Ivy, which was released in 2008.

Her broadcast performances include guest appearances and features on NPR's Weekend Edition (Saturday and Sunday), A Prairie Home Companion, The Thistle & Shamrock, Mountain Stage and E-Town.

Connie's work as a writer and composer has flourished alongside her performance career. She received a 2007 Emmy Award for her production of acoustic music for the KCPT public television production Bad Blood: The Border War that Triggered the Civil War. Her original music earned a Grand Prize in the 2007 Yellowstone & Teton Song Contest, sponsored by the Western Folklife Center (Elko, Nevada), and she is a recipient of the Speakeasy Prize in Poetry, sponsored by The Loft, America's largest independent literary center. Her book of poems, Winter Count, was published in 2007 by Unholy Day Press.

Connie has twice been a finalist for the AFIM Indie Award, and other accolades for her music include being named a Top Ten Folk Release by Tower Records' Pulse! Magazine, a Winning Favourite Folk Release by The Scotsman, Scotland's National Newspaper, a Boston Globe Top Ten Folk Release, a nomination for Scotland's Living Tradition Award Album of the Year and a Creative Achievement Award from Time Warner's Hollywood On-Line. She has been a finalist for two Native American Music Awards, and for two New Age Voice Music Awards for Best Vocalist and Best Celtic Release.

Discography
Somebody, Taylor Park Music, 1991
The Wishing Well, Taylor Park Music, 1994
If Ever I Return, Taylor Park Music, 1997
The Border of Heaven, Taylor Park Music, 2000
The Holly & The Ivy, Taylor Park Music, 2009 (with the Kansas City Chamber Orchestra)
Restless Angel, Taylor Park Music, 2016

External links
Official website
[ Entry on Allmusic]
NPR Story

Musicians from Arkansas
American women singer-songwriters
American folk singers
Singer-songwriters from Missouri
Emmy Award winners
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
21st-century American women

Connie Dover


For the ballade as a musical (instrumental) form see ballade (musical form).

A ballade is a medieval French verse or song which tells a story.  Like the rondeau and the virelai it was very popular in 14th and 15th century France.  All these three songs were originally dances.  Famous composers like Guillaume de Machaut wrote ballades.

Ballade verses often had three stanzas which had the same metre and rhyme scheme, and the last line was often the same.  They might end with an envoi which meant that it was addressing a king or prince.  The great English poet Geoffrey Chaucer wrote ballades.

Musical forms
Poetry forms

Ballade


Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow, New York, is the final resting place of numerous famous figures, including Washington Irving, whose 1820 short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" is set in the adjacent burying ground at the Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow. Incorporated in 1849 as Tarrytown Cemetery, the site posthumously honored Irving's request that it change its name to Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.

History
The cemetery is a non-profit, non-sectarian burying ground of about . It is contiguous with, but separate from, the churchyard of the Old Dutch Church, the colonial-era church that was a setting for "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow". The Rockefeller family estate (Kykuit), whose grounds abut Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, contains the private Rockefeller cemetery.

In 1894 under the leadership of Marcius D. Raymond, publisher of the local Tarrytown Argus newspaper, funds were raised to build a granite monument honoring the soldiers of the American Revolutionary War buried in the cemetery.

Notable monuments

The Helmsley mausoleum, final resting place of Harry and Leona Helmsley, features a window showing the skyline of Manhattan in stained glass.  It was built by Mrs. Helmsley at a cost of $1.4 million in 2007.  She had her husband's body moved from its resting place in Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York) to the new mausoleum.

Notable burials

Numerous notable people are interred at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, including:

 Viola Allen (1867–1948), actress
 John Dustin Archbold (1848–1916), a director of the Standard Oil Company
 Elizabeth Arden (1878–1966), businesswoman who built a cosmetics empire
 Brooke Astor (1902–2007), philanthropist and socialite
 Vincent Astor (1891–1959), philanthropist; member of the Astor family
 Leo Baekeland (1863–1944), the father of plastic; Bakelite is named for him. The murder of his grandson's wife Barbara by his great-grandson, Tony, is told in the book Savage Grace.
 Robert Livingston Beeckman (1866–1935), American politician and Governor of Rhode Island
 Marty Bergen (1869-1906), American National Champion Thoroughbred racing jockey
 Holbrook Blinn (1872–1928), American actor
 Henry E. Bliss (1870–1955), devised the Bliss library classification system
 Artur Bodanzky (1877–1939), conductor at New York Metropolitan Opera
 Major Edward Bowes (1874–1946), early radio star, he hosted Major Bowes' Amateur Hour
 Alice Brady (1892–1939), American actress
 Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919), businessman and philanthropist; monument by Scots sculptor George Henry Paulin
 Louise Whitfield Carnegie (1857–1946), wife of Andrew Carnegie
 Walter Chrysler (1875–1940), businessman, commissioned the Chrysler Building and founded the Chrysler Corporation
 Francis Pharcellus Church (1839–1906), editor at The New York Sun who penned the editorial "Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus"
 William Conant Church (1836–1917), co-founder of Armed Forces Journal and the National Rifle Association
 Henry Sloane Coffin (1877–1954), teacher, minister, and author
 William Sloane Coffin, Sr. (1879–1933), businessman
 Kent Cooper (1880–1965), influential head of the Associated Press from 1925 to 1948
 Jasper Francis Cropsey (1823–1900), landscape painter and architect; designed the now-demolished New York City Sixth Avenue elevated railroad stations
 Floyd Crosby (1899–1985), Oscar-winning cinematographer, father of musician David Crosby
 Daniel Draper (1841-1931), meteorologist
 Geraldine Rockefeller Dodge (1882–1973), heiress and patron of the arts
 William H. Douglas (1853–1944), U.S. Representative from New York from 1901 to 1905.
 Maud Earl (1864–1943), British-American painter of canines
 Parker Fennelly (1891–1988), American actor
 Malcolm Webster Ford (1862–1902), champion amateur athlete and journalist; brother of Paul, he took his own life after slaying his brother.
 Paul Leicester Ford (1865–1902), editor, bibliographer, novelist, and biographer; brother of Malcolm Webster Ford by whose hand he died
 Dixon Ryan Fox (1887–1945), educator and president of Union College, New York
 Herman Frasch (1851–1914), engineer, the Sulphur King
 Samuel Gompers (1850–1924), founder of the American Federation of Labor
 Madison Grant (1865–1937), eugenicist and conservationist, author of The Passing of the Great Race
 Moses Hicks Grinnell (1803–1877), congressman and Central Park Commissioner
 Walter S. Gurnee (1805–1903), mayor of Chicago
 Angelica Hamilton (1784–1857), the older of two daughters of Alexander Hamilton
 James Alexander Hamilton (1788–1878), third son of Alexander Hamilton
 Robert Havell, Jr. (1793–1878), British-American engraver who printed and colored John James Audubon's monumental Birds of America series, also painter in the style of the Hudson River School
 Mark Hellinger (1903–1947), primarily known as a journalist of New York theatre; producer of The Naked City, a 1948 film noir and namesake of the Mark Hellinger Theatre in New York City
 Harry Helmsley (1909–1997), real estate mogul who built a company that became one of the biggest property holders in the United States, and his wife Leona Helmsley (1920–2007), in a mausoleum with a stained-glass panorama of the Manhattan skyline. Leona famously bequeathed $12 million to her dog.
 Eliza Hamilton Holly (1799–1859), younger daughter of Alexander Hamilton
 Raymond Mathewson Hood (1881–1934), architect
 William Howard Hoople (1868–1922), a leader of the nineteenth-century American Holiness movement; the co-founder of the Association of Pentecostal Churches of America, and one of the early leaders of the Church of the Nazarene
 Washington Irving (1783–1859), author of "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" and "Rip Van Winkle"
 William Irving (1766–1821), U.S. Congressman from New York
 George Jones (1811–1891), co-founder of The New York Times
 Albert Lasker (1880–1952), pioneer of the American advertising industry, part owner of baseball team the Chicago Cubs, and wife Mary Lasker (1900–1994), an American health activist and recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal
 Walter W. Law, Jr. (1871–1958), lawyer and politician, son of Briarcliff Manor founder Walter W. Law
 Lewis Edward Lawes (1883–1947), reformist warden of Sing Sing prison
 William E. Le Roy (1818–1888), United States Navy rear admiral
 Ann Lohman (1812–1878),  Madame Restell, 19th century purveyor of patent medicine and abortions
 Charles D. Millard (1873–1944), member of U.S. House of Representatives from New York
 Darius Ogden Mills (1825–1910), made a fortune during California's gold rush and expanded his wealth further through New York City real estate
 Belle Moskowitz (1877–1933), political advisor and social activist
 Robertson Kirtland Mygatt (1861–1919), noted American landscape painter, part of the Tonalist movement in Impressionism
 N. Holmes Odell (1828–1904), U.S. Representative from New York
 George Washington Olvany (1876–1952), New York General Sessions Court judge and leader of Tammany Hall
 William Orton (1826–1878), President of Western Union
 Peter A. Peyser (1921–2014), served as a Member of Congress from New York from 1971 to 1977 as a Republican and from 1979 to 1983 as a Democrat
 Whitelaw Reid (1837–1912), journalist and editor of the New-York Tribune, Vice-Presidential candidate with Benjamin Harrison in 1892, defeated by Adlai E. Stevenson I; son-in-law of D.O. Mills
 William Rockefeller (1841–1922), New York head of the Standard Oil Company
 Edgar Evertson Saltus (1855–1921), American novelist
 Francis Saltus Saltus (1849–1889), American decadent poet & bohemian
 Carl Schurz (1820–1906), senator, secretary of the interior under President Rutherford B. Hayes and namesake of Carl Schurz Park in New York City
 Charles Sheeler (1883–1965), painter and photographer, and his wife Musya (1908–1981), photographer, are buried together.
 William G. Stahlnecker (1849–1902), U.S. Representative from New York
 Egerton Swartwout (1870–1943), New York architect
 William Boyce Thompson (1869–1930), founder of Newmont Mining Corporation and financier
 Joseph Urban (1872–1933), architect and theatre set designer
 Henry Villard (1835–1900), railroad baron whose monument was created by Karl Bitter.
 Oswald Garrison Villard (1872–1949), son of Henry Villard and grandson of William Lloyd Garrison; one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
 William A. Walker (1805–1861), U.S. Representative from New York
 Paul Warburg (1868–1932), German-American banker and early advocate of the U.S. Federal Reserve system.
 Worcester Reed Warner (1846–1929), mechanical engineer and manufacturer of telescopes
 Thomas J. Watson (1874–1956), transformed a small manufacturer of adding machines into IBM
 Theodore Whitmarsh (1869–1936), administrator of the United States Food Administration, director of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York
 Hans Zinsser (1878–1940), microbiologist and a prolific author

In popular culture
Several outdoor scenes from the feature film House of Dark Shadows (1970) were filmed at the cemetery's receiving vault. The cemetery also served as a location for the Ramones' music video "Pet Sematary".

See also
 National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Westchester County, New York

References

Bibliography

External links

1849 establishments in New York (state)
Buildings and structures completed in 1849
Cemeteries on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Cemeteries in Westchester County, New York
Historic districts in Westchester County, New York
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Westchester County, New York
U.S. Route 9
Mount Pleasant, New York
Dark Shadows
American Revolutionary War sites
Monuments and memorials in New York (state)

Sleepy Hollow Cemetery


ENCODE is the Encyclopedia of DNA Elements. Encode was launched in 2003 to identify all the functional elements (working bits) in the human genome. The work was done by over 400 scientists in 32 laboratories in the US, UK, Spain, Singapore and Japan. Their findings were published in 30 open-access papers in three journals, Nature, Genome Biology and Genome Research. It is the most detailed analysis to date of the human genome.

A simplified account of their main findings is as follows:

Only 1% of the genome codes for proteins. That is about 21,000 genes.
70,000 sequences code for 'promotor' regions. They are upstream of the genes, where proteins bind to control gene expression.
There are about 400,000 'enhancer' regions which regulate distant genes.
There are four million gene 'switches'. These are DNA sequences which control when genes are switched on or off. They are often a long way on the genome from the gene they control.
About 80% of the genome has a definite biochemical function. The idea that most of the DNA is "junk DNA" is definitely wrong. "The vast majority of the human genome does not code for proteins and, until now, did not seem to contain defined gene-regulatory elements. Why evolution would maintain large amounts of 'useless' DNA had remained a mystery, and seemed wasteful. It turns out, however, that there are good reasons to keep this DNA. Results from the ENCODE project show that most of these stretches of DNA harbour regions that bind proteins and RNA molecules, bringing these into positions from which they cooperate with each other to regulate the function and level of expression of protein-coding genes".
Evolution is caused both by changes in the genes which code for proteins and in the DNA which codes for regulatory control.
"One of the great challenges in evolutionary biology is to understand how differences in DNA sequence between species determine differences in their phenotypes. Evolutionary change may occur both through changes in protein-coding sequences and through sequence changes that alter gene regulation".

The methods used for the work included:

They isolated and sequenced the RNA transcribed from the genome.
They identified the binding sites for about 120 transcription products.
They examined patterns of chemical modification made to histones. This was to find regions where gene expression is boosted or suppressed.
They did 1648 experiments on 147 cell types.

News items connected with this work are:
An individual patient's cancer has about 50 genetic mutations, but the mutations differ between individuals.
A biotech company, Life Technologies, has announced a laserprinter-size machine which can sequence a human genome in a day or two instead of weeks. It costs $149,000. Other companies are rushing to put their products on the market. An implication of this is that, within a decade or two, local schools and medical practices might use such machines. They could be used to find genetic markers for a range of inherited defects.

Sources
The information on this page comes mainly from two sources:
Maher, Brendan 2012. ENCODE: The human encyclopaedia. Nature 489 (7414) 4648.
Walsh, Fergus 2012. ENCODE: The human encyclopaedia. BBC News Sci & Environment.

References

Other websites
Nature ENCODE Explorer

Genetics

ENCODE


Belbaşı is a cave and a late Paleolithic/Mesolithic site in southern Turkey, located southwest of Antalya.

Overview
Belbaşı culture is a term sometimes used to describe the prehistoric culture whose clearly identifiable traces at the site were explored in the 1960s, as well as being sometimes used to include also the succeeding Mesolithic/proto-Neolithic culture of Beldibi Cave nearby, at only a few kilometers distance to the north; or, in a wider sense, to cover the entire sequence constituted by half a dozen caves west of Antalya, encompassing, in this sense, also the Neolithic sites at, from south to north, Çarkin, Öküzlü and Karain Cave caves. Other sources may start the sequence at Beldibi, thus referring to a Beldibi culture, or treat each cave individually. Such a sequence from late Paleolithic to Neolithic in such closely located sites is unknown elsewhere.

Belbaşı culture tool kit includes tangled arrowheads, triangular points and obliquely truncated blades.

Beldibi culture further offers colored rock engravings on the walls of the cave, hitherto the only known cave art in western Asia, as well as furniture art decorated with naturalistic forms and geometric ornament. Its phases contained imported obsidian, presumably from eastern Taurus Mountains or from the north of the River Gediz, and early forms of pottery. Bones of deer, ibex and cattle occur, and subsistence was likely assisted by coastal fishing from the very close Mediterranean Sea and by the gathering of wild grain. There is as yet no evidence of food production or herding.

Since the proto-Neolithic of Beldibi being a development from the Mesolithic of Belbaşı is only a possibility, although a strong one, sources differ in their choice of terms for the cultures concerned.

The lithic assemblage of both cultures were based upon microliths.

Connections with other prehistoric cultures
Belbaşı culture shows indications of an early connection to the Kebaran industry assemblages of Palestine. Their settlements were stable, typical of Natufian culture sites in this respect, and many later evolved into agricultural villages, similar to Jericho's forerunner Tell es-Sultan, settled around 7,800 years BCE.

Their most lasting effect was felt not in the Near East, where they seem to have left no permanent mark on the cultural development of Anatolia after 5,000 years BCE, but in Europe, for it was to this new continent that the neolithic cultures of Anatolia introduced the first beginnings of agriculture and stock breeding.

See also
 Karain Cave
 List of caves in Turkey

References

Further reading

1960s archaeological discoveries
Antalya
Caves of Turkey
Kebaran culture
Mesolithic sites of Asia
Archaeological sites of prehistoric Anatolia
Archaeological sites in the Aegean Region

Belbaşı


Trust is a feeling that somebody or something can be relied upon, or will turn out to be good.  It is the feeling of being sure about something, even if it cannot be proved.

The word "trust" can be a noun or a verb:

 (Noun): I have complete trust in you (meaning: I can rely on you to do the right thing, or what I want you to do).
  (Verb): I trust you completely (same meaning).

There is also an adjective: trusting.
He is very trusting (meaning: he trusts people easily).

One can also trust a thing:

I would not trust that chair (meaning: If you sit on it, it will probably break).

To trust often means: to feel confident that something will or has happened:
I trust you are feeling better.

In religion, trust can be similar to faith.  Someone who believes in God will put their trust in Him: the Book of Proverbs says: 'Trust in the LORD with all your heart' (3:5)

To trust (or entrust) can be used in other ways:
I would not trust him with the money he might Rob us of it (meaning: "He might not be honest.  He might keep it all for himself").

Good or bad?
Trusting does not necessarily mean that the person or thing that is trusted is good.  Two criminals might be friends and they might trust one another, but what they trust one another to do is bad (although it might seem good to them).

Being trusting without thinking carefully about it might be dangerous.  People can sometimes win someone's trust, but then they might break their trust.

Opposites
The opposite of "trusting" is "mistrust" ("to have no trust in").  This is similar to the word "suspicious".

Someone who is untrustworthy is someone who cannot be trusted.

To "take something on trust" means: to trust something without looking at it carefully.

Related pages
 Distrust
 Social psychology
 Intimacy
 Trustworthiness
 Faith (trust in a god)
 Social capital
 In God We Trust

Virtues

Trust (social science)


The Tunnel () is a dark, psychological novel written by Argentine writer Ernesto Sabato about a deranged porteño painter, Juan Pablo Castel, and his obsession with a woman.  The story's title refers to the symbol for Castel's emotional and physical isolation from society, which becomes increasingly apparent as Castel proceeds to tell from his jail cell the series of events that enabled him to murder the only person capable of understanding him. Marked by its existential themes, El Túnel received enthusiastic support from Albert Camus and Graham Greene following its publication in 1948.

Plot summary

The story begins with the main character introducing himself as "the painter who killed María Iribarne" before delving into the circumstances that led to their first encounter. Castel's obsession begins in the autumn of 1946 when at an exhibition of his work he notices a woman focusing on one particularly subtle detail of his painting "Maternidad" ("Maternity"). He considers this observation deeply significant since it is a detail that he values as the most important aspect of the painting but to which nobody besides him and the woman pay any attention.

Missing out on an opportunity to approach her before she leaves the exhibition, he then spends the next few months obsessing over her, thinking of ways to find her in the immensity of Buenos Aires, and fantasizing about what to say to her.

Ultimately, after seeing her entering a building which he presumes to be her place of employment, he considers how to go about asking her about the detail in the painting. He approaches her and learns that her name is María Iribarne. Following their discussion about the painting, Castel and María agree to see each other again. It later becomes clear that she is married to a blind man named Allende and lives on Posadas Street in the northern part of the city.  As Castel continues to see María, however, their relationship comes to be dominated by his obsessive interrogations of her life with her husband, why she does not take her husband's last name, and of her inner thoughts, questions she is unable to answer to his satisfaction. Out of this disconnect, Castel's obsessive thoughts lead him to all sorts of irrational doubts about the love he has come to believe that they have for one another.

This anxiety intensifies after he and Maria make a trip to an estancia, a country ranch in Mar del Plata owned by Allende's cousin Hunter. The atmosphere, the presence and attitudes of the other visiting relatives, and realizing Hunter's jealousy all feed into Castel's paranoia, forcing him to flee the ranch with little more than a word to one of the service staff.

While waiting at a station to leave the region, Castel expects María to figure out he has left and to come stop him. She never arrives, confirming his negative feelings. Upon returning home to Buenos Aires, Castel passionately composes a hurtful letter, accusing her of sleeping with Hunter, which he immediately regrets upon mailing to her.  He angrily but unsuccessfully attempts to convince a postal worker to retract the certified letter and later concludes that fate has decided it should reach its destination.

Later, Castel reaches María by phone: she reluctantly agrees to meet with him again, although she tells him that it will likely do them little good and, in fact, probably cause him more harm. When she does not arrive in Buenos Aires, he decides that María is, in fact, a prostitute who cheats on her husband not only with him, but also with Hunter and other men. In a fit of rage, he drives out to the estancia. There he waits hidden outside for guests to leave the large house. Meanwhile his anxiety grows to the point where he envisions himself and María passing each other through life in parallel passageways or tunnels, whereas he is "a single tunnel, dark and solitary: mine, the tunnel wherein passed all my infancy, my youth, my entire life."

Eventually, Castel enters the house, approaches María in her room, where he accuses her of leaving him alone in the world, and stabs her to death.

Following the attack, Castel shows up to Allende's office to tell him that he has murdered María for sleeping with Hunter, only to discover that Allende is well aware of his cuckold status. Crying out again and again that Castel is a fool, Allende sadly, and ineffectually, tries to fight Castel, who leaves and later turns himself in to the police.

Film adaptations
 El túnel (1952), directed by León Klimovsky, with Laura Hildago and Carlos Thompson.
 El túnel (1977, TV movie), directed by José Luis Cuerda
 El túnel, also known as The Tunnel (1988), directed by Antonio Drove, with Jane Seymour and Peter Weller.
 The Passion of Martin (1990), directed by Alexander Payne. A comic adaptation of El túnel for his film school thesis project about a photographer who becomes obsessed with a girl he notices studying his work in a gallery.

References

Existentialist novels
Novels by Ernesto Sabato
1948 Argentine novels
Novels set in Argentina
Psychological novels
Novels about artists
Novels set in Buenos Aires
Argentine novels adapted into films

El Túnel


Hydroflurocarbons (HFC) are chemical compounds made of hydrogen, carbon and fluorine.

They are used in air conditioning and as refrigerants in place of the older chlorofluorocarbons. HFC contain a hydrogen atom which cause it to decompose quickly before reaching the stratosphere. HFC do not contain chlorine which is harmful for the ozone layer. HFC survive in the atmosphere between two and forty years. CFC can stay at the atmosphere for up to 150 years.

Chemical compounds
Atmosphere

Hydrofluorocarbon


Saurashtra University is a conventional state university located in Rajkot, Gujarat, India.  This university was established by The Saurashtra University Act of the Gujarat Legislative Assembly in the year 1965.

History
Saurashtra University was created on a rigorous demand, for a separate university out of Gujarat University (Ahmedabad), from the eminent educationists and freedom fighters of the Saurashtra region. The demand was more prominent after the creation of Gujarat state on May 1, 1961. . Saurashtra University, established on 23 May 1967, having two headquarters in the initial stage i.e. Rajkot and Bhavnagar. After the incorporation of the Bhavnagar University, Rajkot became the sole headquarters of the Saurashtra University.

Campus
The campus of the university is spread over  of land. The present jurisdiction of the University includes Amreli, Jamnagar, Rajkot, Surendranagar, and Morbi districts.

Organisation and administration
It has 29 Post Graduate Departments on its campus and 238 affiliated colleges.

The university has important seats of learning spreading knowledge in the respective fields i.e. Nehru Chair, Baba Saheb Ambedkar Chair, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Chair, Swami Dayanand Saraswati Chair, Gulabdas Broker Chair, etc. The University runs a centre of learning and research in the name of Shri Zaverchand Meghani i.e. Meghani Lok Sahitya Kendra. The university in collaboration with Commissionerate of Industries, Government of Gujarat, and Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, has started National Facility for Drugs Discovery (NFDD) in the year 2009. The NFDD is a state of art centre of research and innovation. Later in the year 2014, the NFDD was transformed into Centre of Excellence (COE). COE is actively involved in generating funds from industrial consultancy.

Accreditation
The Saurashtra University has the pride to be the first 'B' Grade accredited Conventional State University by the NAAC in the state of Gujarat in the year 2014. The Saurashtra University is one of the universities in Gujarat going voluntarily for NAAC accreditation DURING very initial stage of NAAC in the year 2001. The university's first cycle rating was 4 Star in February 2002. Subsequently, the university was re-accredited (2nd Cycle) with 'B' Grade having CGPA of 2.97 in March 2009. The Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) of the university is functional since 2004 as per the recommendations of NAAC. Nevertheless, as per the Peer Team Report of NAAC 2009, the Saurashtra University was the first university in the country to appoint a full-time coordinator.

Student life
Saurashtra University is vibrant in terms of organising youth festivals, cultural programmes, job fairs, e-Tab distribution fairs, Ranji Trophy tournament, Pro Kabaddi League, Saurashtra Premier League (SPL), inter university championships, etc. Saurashtra University students are performing well in various events at state and national levels.

See also
List of institutions of higher education in Gujarat

BKNM University

References

External links
 Saurashtra University website

Universities in Gujarat
Education in Rajkot
1967 establishments in Gujarat
Educational institutions established in 1967

Saurashtra University


John Constable (East Bergholt, Suffolk 11 June 1776 – London, 31 March 1837) was an English painter and artist.

His family had plenty of money because his father owned a business running corn mills. Constable's father wanted his son to take over the business after him, but Constable started painting at an early age, and convinced his father to let him follow art as a career.

He married Maria Bicknell in 1816, and they had seven children. She died in 1829 of tuberculosis.

His paintings are treasures of British art, but in his lifetime his work was appreciated more in France. Constable's most famous painting, The Hay Wain (now in the National Gallery in London), was first shown at the Paris Salon in 1824. He had to wait until he was 52 years old before the Royal Academy voted that he should be a member.

Constable was influenced by the French painter Claude Lorrain. His most famous paintings are landscapes showing the countryside around Dedham and Flatford, where his father's mills were.

His art
Constable's idea was to use nature itself, rather than imagination. He told Leslie, "When I sit down to make a sketch from nature, the first thing I try to do is to forget that I have ever seen a picture".p51

Although Constable produced paintings throughout his life for the market of patrons and R.A. exhibitions, on-the-spot studies were essential. He never just followed a formula. "The world is wide", he wrote, "no two days are alike, nor even two hours; neither were there ever two leaves of a tree alike since the creation of all the world; and the genuine productions of art, like those of nature, are all distinct from each other".p64

Constable painted many full-scale preliminary sketches of his landscapes in order to test the composition in advance of finished pictures. These large sketches, with their free and vigorous brushwork, were revolutionary at the time. The sketches for The Leaping Horse and The Hay Wain study convey a vigour missing from his finished oil paintings of the same subjects. Compare the composition of this preliminary study with the finished painting: The Hay Wain final. Possibly more than any other aspect of Constable's work, the oil sketches reveal him to be an avant-garde painter, one who showed that landscape painting could be taken in a totally new direction.

Constable's watercolours were also remarkably free for their time. The almost mystical Stonehenge, 1835, with its double rainbow, is often considered to be one of the greatest watercolours ever painted. When he exhibited it in 1836, Constable appended a text to the title: "The mysterious monument of Stonehenge, standing remote on a bare and boundless heath, as much unconnected with the events of past ages as it is with the uses of the present, carries you back beyond all historical records into the obscurity of a totally unknown period".p89

In addition to the full-scale oil sketches, Constable completed numerous  studies of landscapes and clouds, to become more scientific in his recording of atmospheric conditions. The Chain Pier, 1827, for example, prompted a critic to write: "the atmosphere possesses a characteristic humidity about it, that almost imparts the wish for an umbrella".p9

The sketches were the first ever done in oils directly from the subject in the open air. To convey the effects of light and movement, Constable used broken brushstrokes, often in small touches, which he worked over lighter passages. This gave an impression of sparkling light over the landscape. One of the most expressionistic and powerful of all his studies is Seascape Study with Rain Cloud, painted in around 1824 at Brighton, which captures with slashing dark brushstrokes an exploding shower at sea.p128 Constable also became interested in painting rainbow effects, for example in Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows, 1831, and in Cottage at East Bergholt, 1833.

To the sky studies he added notes, often on the back of the sketches, of the prevailing weather conditions, direction of light, and time of day, believing that the sky was "the key note, the standard of scale, and the chief organ of sentiment" in a landscape painting.p110 In this habit he is known to have been influenced by the pioneering work of the meteorologist Luke Howard on the classification of clouds.p68 "I have done a good deal of skying", Constable wrote to Fisher on 23 October 1821.p56

Constable once wrote in a letter to Leslie, "My limited and abstracted art is to be found under every hedge, and in every lane, and therefore nobody thinks it worth picking up".p129 He could never have imagined how influential his honest techniques would turn out to be. Constable's art inspired not only contemporaries like Géricault and Delacroix, but the Barbizon School, and the French impressionists of the late nineteenth century.

References

1776 births
1837 deaths
English painters
People from Suffolk
Royal Academicians

John Constable


Tonya Cooley (born January 7, 1980, in Visalia, California) is an American actress and television personality. She is a former cast member on MTV's reality television series, The Real World: Chicago, the 11th season of The Real World, which aired in 2002. She was then a regular on the spin-off series, Real World/Road Rules Challenge, participating in eight challenges, with her last being in 2009. She also posed for Playboy as a Cyber Girl of the Week and appeared in an episode of the Cinemax adult series The Erotic Traveler. The stressful environment of the Real World/Road Rules Challenge seasons led to a bout with alcoholism, but in 2016, BuzzFeed News reported she has gained sobriety in the years since leaving the series and that she is now a salon owner. Cooley told the publication, "I am a genuinely happy person now."

The Real World: Chicago
Tonya Cooley hails from Walla Walla, Washington. At the time she began filming The Real World: Chicago, she claims to have never interacted with African-Americans and gay people, and had rarely been apart from her boyfriend, Justin. She did not socialize as much as her housemates, who often alienated her because they felt that she could be judgmental and overly dramatic at times. She was hospitalized three times during the season because of kidney stones, and even left to go home for about a week. She got into arguments with roommate Theo Gantt III, including one which a glass was thrown, as well as with roommates Aneesa Ferreira and Cara Kahn. Her constant use of the phone when talking with Justin upset her housemates. Her breast implants were also a subject of much conversation as she would often talk about how she was flat broke yet had implants in her breasts worth thousands of dollars. (However she claimed that they were a gift from a wealthy friend for her 21st birthday.)

Real World/Road Rules Challenge

Battle of the Sexes
Though not most notable for her appearance on this season, Tonya competed and was the eighth girl to be voted off. Tonya is most remembered from this season for not going to Puck's wedding. Additionally, she refused to participate in a challenge that involved nudity (where nudity was instructed by others and not chosen by self choice), her actions in later years which included posing for Playboy and appearing in an episode of the Cinemax softcore series The Erotic Traveler show different intentions, where she was empowered by deciding for herself and not told how to present herself by men.

The Gauntlet
For the next Challenge, Cooley became friends with Coral Smith, and became playful with Challenge veteran Veronica Portillo. In the early stage of the game, she injured her leg during a challenge, and had to wear a leg-cast while waiting for a comprehensive assessment of her leg. This scared her Real World team, and they opted to vote her into the Gauntlet. Angry and upset, she proceeded to the Gauntlet and lost. This would be third time she would be sick or hurt in front of the MTV cameras. (In Battle of the Sexes, she also had to wear a leg cast, but it did not affect her position).

Battle of the Sexes 2
In this Challenge, Cooley becomes more of a nuisance to the girls, more specifically onetime friends Coral, Veronica, and Rachel Robinson. However her determination and marked improvement on the challenge did not go unnoticed. She even went as far, in a challenge requiring the competing teams to procure a cell phone encased in a block of ice by melting it, to put rocks in her mouth to try to melt it. However, her inability to step up as a leader as well as her waning prowess also did not go unnoticed. Her notable argument with Road Ruler Tina Barta became a staple on the show. She was voted off toward the end of the Challenge.

The Inferno II
In this Challenge, tensions arose between her and Tina Barta. Fellow Bad Ass team member Beth Stolarczyk instigated an animosity on the part of Robin Hibbard toward Cooley by telling Hibbard that Cooley bragged about a relationship she had with Hibbard's boyfriend, Mark Long. Hibbard angrily excoriated Cooley, who denied Stolarczyk's allegations, to which Hibbard responded by calling her a whore and a liar. When Cooley confronted a sleeping Stolarczyk, she was coy and refused to answer. In a fit of pique, Cooley took Stolarczyk's luggage and valuables and threw them all in the pool. Stolarczyk left the show as a result and took legal action. Veronica Portillo, Rachel Robinson, and Tina Barta began to harass Tonya, who referred to the three as the "Mean Girls." She seeks relief from this harassment by speaking over the phone about her situation with friend Katie Doyle, a fellow Challenger not on the season. In the challenges, Tonya fluctuated from remarkable to disastrous. She won two Infernos, sending two girls home, and made it to the final challenge, but her team lost.

Fresh Meat
She was partnered with Johnnie. Their pair was fourth to be eliminated, but Tonya improved greatly on this challenge. Even though she and her partner did not win any of the challenges during Fresh Meat, they came close several times. She claimed on her appearance on MTV's True Life that Fresh Meat would be her last challenge.

The Inferno III
Despite claiming that Fresh Meat would be her last appearance on the Challenges , Tonya participated on the third Inferno as part of the Bad-Ass team. Before coming onto the show she was married. She developed an animosity between her and Susie Meister who offended Tonya claiming her perfume made her "smell like a stripper, but in a good way." She also developed a friendship with Jenn Grijalva. After six challenges along with Derrick Kosinski, Tonya finally wins her first challenge and $40,000.00

The Island
Tonya again participated in the next installment of the RW/RR challenge, but was the first eliminated by a vote of 14-3. During the challenge she admitted she wanted to go home because she didn't have cute clothes.

The Ruins
Cooley participates in the new challenge The Ruins in the Champions team. It premiered on September 30, 2009. She started off strong in the first episode, eliminating Diem Brown. In Episode 4, Cooley was disqualified from the show after assaulting Veronica Portillo.

Non-reality TV appearances
Tonya starred in "Lost in Ecstasy", the second episode of the Cinemax series Erotic Traveler, which premiered February 9, 2007. She has also appeared as a celebrity interviewer in Girls Gone Wild commercials in 2007.

Sexual assault allegations
In October 2011, Cooley filed charges that she was raped with a toothbrush by two of her fellow cast members from The Challenge, while passed out during the production of The Ruins edition of the show. The Challenge production company Bunim/Murray Productions denied the allegations, saying that, "After a thorough investigation, we have found Tonya Cooley's claims to be completely baseless." In a legal filing, the defendants stated that Tonya's drunken, exhibitionist behavior was the reason she ended up in unspecified trouble, and that she "failed to avoid the injuries she claimed to have suffered."
On October 24, 2012, the case was settled out of court. As of 2023, the details of the settlement have not been publicly revealed.

Reality shows
Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Ruins (2009)
Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Island (2008)
Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Inferno III (2007)
Sexiest Women 2007 (2007)
Celebrity Paranormal Project Episode: The First Warden (2006)
Real World/Road Rules Challenge: Fresh Meat (2006)
Soup of the Day (2006)
True Life Episode: I'm a Reality Star (2006)
The Scorned (2005) Jennifer
Kill Reality (2005)
Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Inferno II (2005)
Real World/Road Rules Challenge: Battle of the Sexes 2 (2004)
Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Gauntlet (2003)
Real World/Road Rules Challenge: Battle of the Sexes (2003)
Stop Being Polite: The Real World Chicago Reunion (2002)
The Real World You Never Saw: Chicago (2002)
The Real World: Chicago (2002)

References

External links

1980 births
Living people
People from Visalia, California
The Real World (TV series) cast members
People from Walla Walla, Washington
American actresses
The Challenge (TV series) contestants
21st-century American women

Tonya Cooley


Watercress (Nasturtium officinale) is a plant which grows in water. It is a member of the Brassicaceae family, along with some other leaf vegetables.

People grow them for eating, often in salad or sandwiches. They have a peppery flavour and are fast-growing. Watercress is related to the cabbage and mustard plants.

Agrology of watercress is both a large scale and a garden scale. However the packaging used by super markets using sealed plastic bags under some pressure. Watercress is also known as tall nasturtium. This plant grows well in cold water. That's why you will find it near water like a ditch.

Watercress packs have a lot of nutrients. Iron, potassium and vitamins C and E are a few. Watercress also helps with skin problems. It keeps the skin very clarified. Watercress is used in many recipes. You can use it to make a sandwich or in soup.

If it is not  harvested, watercress can grow to a height of 50–120 cm. It is a member of the brassicacea family, along with some other leaf vegetables.

New market, Alabama, was once known as "Watercress Capital of the World".

Vegetables
Brassicaceae

Watercress


Baspa River rises near the Indo-Chinese border and forms the Baspa Valley (also known as the Sangla Valley) - one of the most scenic in Himalayas. The Chung Sakhago Pass lies at the head of the valley. It is fed by the perennial glaciers and shares the catchment area with the Ganges.

Baspa starts at the Baspa hills, joins Sutlej River from the left bank near Karcham. The upper and middle slopes of the valley along the river are covered with pine and oak forests. Pastures, meadows and fields cover the lower slopes. Some of the most picturesque villages in the Himalayas can be found here. Only the lower half of the 95 kilometers length of the valley is inhabited - all the way from Chitkul (3,475 m) to where the Baspa meets the Sutlej River at Karcham (1,830 m).

Though gentle most of the way, it would be difficult to raft in Baspa as some stretches have sheer falls.

References

Rivers of Himachal Pradesh
Geography of Kinnaur district
Indus basin

Baspa River