Hardy Oil and Gas plc is a leading British-based oil and gas exploration and production business. It is headquartered in Aberdeen and is a former constituent of the FTSE 250 Index.

History
The business has its origins in a company established by Trafalgar House as Hardy Oil and Gas to exploit North Sea oil reserves in the 1970s.

The business in its present form was founded by S. Karra and Y. Sharma in 1997 as Jehan Energy Ltd to exploit oil and gas opportunities in India.

In 1999 British-Borneo Exploration merged with Hardy Oil and Gas. Charles Reimer became president. Due to the merger changes were made to the executive board - Alan Gaynor was CEO; Peter Hill became technical director and Steve Holliday was international director. Mark Adams, Will Roach, Mike Adams and Mike King were named VPs.

In 1999 Jehan Energy Ltd acquired the Indian interests of the original Hardy Oil and Gas and changed its own name in 2001 to Hardy Oil and Gas plc. (The non-Indian interests were acquired by Eni.)

In 2005 the Company was first listed on the Alternative Investment Market of the London Stock Exchange; it has since moved to the main market.

In 2007 the Company announced a successful well test on the Oza field in Nigeria.

The Company was reclassified as a constituent of the FTSE SmallCap Index on 22 December 2008, thereby dropping out of the FTSE 250 Index and FTSE 350 Index.

Operations
The business is organised into two geographic areas:
 India
 Nigeria

References

External links
 Official site

Oil and gas companies of the United Kingdom
Companies based in Aberdeen
British companies established in 1997
Energy companies established in 1997
Non-renewable resource companies established in 1997
1997 establishments in England

Hardy Oil and Gas


Yahiya Emerick is a former president of the Islamic Foundation of North America, vice-principal at an Islamic school, and a Muslim author. He has written several published articles and works of fiction.

Life
Emerick was born into an American Protestant Christian family, and converted to Islam in 1989 while a freshman at Michigan State University. He later obtained a graduate degree in history.

Emerick has served as a Muslim lecturer, educator, prayer leader, and author. He founded Amirah Publishing in 1992, in order to further his goal of publishing American-oriented literature on Islam. Emerick's Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding Islam has been distributed worldwide by Alpha Books. From 1998 until 2008 his books were all published by Noorart Inc.

Books
 Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding Islam
 Critical Lives: Muhammad
 Learning About Islam
 Complete Idiot's Guide to Rumi Meditations
 The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an in Today's English
 My First Book About Islam
 What Islam is All About
 The Seafaring Beggar and Other Stories
 How to Tell Others About Islam
 Ahmad Deen and the Curse of the Aztec Warrior
 Ahmad Deen and the Jinn at Shaolin
 Layla Deen and the Case of the Ramadan Rogue
 The Holy Qur'an for School Children
 Muslim Youth Speak
 Color and Learn Salah
 In the Path of the Holy Prophet
 Test Masters for What Islam is All About
 Test Masters for Learning About Islam
 My First Book about Eman
 Full Circle: Story and Coloring Book
 Isabella: a Girl of Muslim Spain
 Layla Deen and the Popularity Contest

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American religious writers
American male short story writers
American Muslims
American former Protestants
Converts to Islam from Protestantism
Michigan State University alumni
Islamic fiction writers
Translators of the Quran into English
Male essayists
20th-century American short story writers
20th-century American essayists
20th-century American translators
21st-century American short story writers
21st-century American translators
21st-century American essayists
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
American male non-fiction writers

Yahiya Emerick


Deus Nemausus is often said to have been the Celtic patron god of Nemausus (Nîmes). The god does not seem to have been worshipped outside this locality. The city certainly derives its name from Nemausus, which was perhaps the sacred wood in which the Celtic tribe of the Volcae Arecomici (who of their own accord surrendered to the Romans in 121 BC) held their assemblies. Or perhaps it was the local Celtic spirit guardian of the spring that originally provided all water for the settlement, as many modern sources suggest. Or perhaps Stephanus of Byzantium was correct in stating in his geographical dictionary that Nemausos, the city of Gaul, took its name from the Heracleid (or son of Heracles) Nemausios.

An important healing-spring sanctuary existed in the town; it was established in some form at least as early as the early Iron Age but was expanded after the Romans colonised the region in the late 2nd century BC, when there was active Roman encouragement of the cult. Another set of local spirits worshiped at Nemausus (Nîmes) were the Nemausicae or Matres Nemausicae, who were fertility and healing goddesses belonging to the spring sanctuary.

References

 Green, Miranda (1997) Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend.  London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.

Gaulish gods
Roman gods
Tutelary deities
Nîmes

Nemausus


The Alcubierre drive or Alcubierre warp drive is an idea for a faster-than-light travel engine. The Mexican theoretical physicist Miguel Alcubierre created this idea using Albert Einstein's field equations in general relativity. The main principle of this idea is by creating an energy-density field lower than that of a vacuum (that is, negative mass) to make the space in front of the ship contract and the space behind the ship expand. In theory, this would create a bubble in space-time around the craft, allowing it to stay still while the space around it moves. This would effectively avoid breaking Einstein's rule that no object in our universe may go as fast or faster than the speed of light, while still allowing an object to go to another very distant part of space much faster than light.

Spaceflight
Propulsion

Alcubierre drive


A patrician was a member of the upper class in the two social classes in Ancient Rome. They were rich and powerful. The other class was the plebeian class.

References
Kurt Raaflaub, ed. Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders (Blackwell Publishing, 2005)
Gary Forsythe, 2005, A Critical History of Early Rome. University of California Press.
Kenny Zeng, 2007, A History Of Ancient and Early Rome

Other websites
www.bartleby.com/65/pa/patricia.html
https://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/patricians.html

Patrician


There was a period in the 17th century, where Dutch trade, science and art were among the most advanced in Europe. The period is known as the Dutch Golden Age. In general, this period started in the second half of the Eighty Years' War. After the war, there was the Dutch Republic which was the most propsperous nation in Europe. The historical period of the time was called Baroque. Many of the paintings of this period show the scenes more pretty than they really were. This is called 'idealisation'. The Dutch paintings of the time often lack this feature. Artists of the movement include Peter Paul Rubens, Johannes Vermeer, Bartholomeus van der Helst, and Jacob van Loo.

There were relatively few paintings with religious themes during this period. The reason for this was that most Dutch were Calvinist. Calvinism forbade religious painting in churches. Even though such subjects were acceptable in private homes, they were not very popular. The other traditional classes of history and portrait painting were present, but the period is more notable for a huge variety of other genres, sub-divided into numerous specialized categories, such as scenes of peasant life, landscapes, townscapes, landscapes with animals, maritime paintings, flower paintings and still lifes of various types. The development of many of these types of painting was decisively influenced by 17th-century Dutch artists.

There was a theory in painting, that some types of painting were  more prestigious than others. This theory is known as hierarchy of genres. Because history painting was at the top of the list, many painters wanted to produce historical paintings. The problem with this was that historical paintings were the most difficult to sell. To be able to live from their painting, many painters were forced to produce portraits or genre scenes, which sold much more easily. The hierarchy was as follows:
history painting, including allegories and popular religious subjects.
Portrait painting, including the tronie
genre painting or scenes of everyday life
landscape, including seascapes, battlescenes, cityscapes, and ruins.
still life

The Dutch concentrated heavily on the "lower" categories, but by no means rejected the concept of the hierarchy. Most paintings were relatively small – the only common type of really large paintings were group portraits. Painting directly onto walls hardly existed; when a wall-space in a public building needed decorating fitted framed canvas was normally used. For the extra precision possible on a hard surface many painters continued to use wooden panels, some time after the rest of Western Europe had abandoned them; some used copper plates, usually recycling plates from printmaking. In turn the number of surviving Golden Age paintings was reduced by them being overpainted with new works by artists throughout the 18th and 19th century – poor ones were usually cheaper than a new canvas, stretcher and frame. There was very little Dutch sculpture during the period; it is mostly found in tomb monuments and attached to public buildings, and small sculptures for houses are a noticeable gap, their place taken by silverware and ceramics. Painted delftware tiles were very cheap and common, if rarely of really high quality, but silver, especially in the auricular style, led Europe. With this exception, the best artistic efforts were concentrated on painting and printmaking.

Gallery

Dutch Golden Age painting


"Beanball" is a colloquialism used in baseball, for a ball thrown at an opposing player with the intention of striking them such as to cause harm, often connoting a throw at the player's head (or "bean" in old-fashioned slang). A pitcher who throws beanballs often is known as a "headhunter". The term may be applied to any sport in which a player on one team regularly attempts to throw a ball toward the general vicinity of a player of the opposite team, but is typically expected not to hit that player with the ball. In cricket, the equivalent term is "beamer". Some people use the term "beaner", though that usage is discouraged due to its use as an ethnic slur in the United States.

Baseball

In baseball, a beanball is a pitch, similar to a brushback pitch but actually intended to hit the batter as it is thrown at the head. It is rarely used as a strategic weapon, and is usually an act of anger and frustration; however, batters facing known headhunters are given a reason to fear a beanball and may alter their approach to hitting in the interests of self-protection, perhaps giving some strategic advantage to the pitcher. Some pitchers have been known to throw beanballs in response to giving up home runs. Teams with heated rivalries often find several beanballs exchanged in a season.

Beanballs can sometimes lead to fights, charging the mound, and bench-clearing brawls. Because of the hazards of the pitch and the possibility of fights, umpires will now often warn teams, after beanballs or fights have occurred, that any pitcher who throws at a batter will be ejected from the game with a mandatory one day suspension for the pitcher's manager. Throwing at batters can sometimes lead to suspension for a number of games as well. Managers may also be ejected if, in the umpire's judgment, they encouraged their pitcher to throw a beanball.

Several players' careers have been impaired or derailed after being struck with a beanball.  Hall of Famer Mickey Cochrane was knocked unconscious and later hospitalized for 7 days in 1937, and never played another game. In 1941, Dodgers outfielder Pete Reiser was hospitalized for a month, one of numerous injuries which shortened his career. Lou Boudreau played only sporadically after being beaned in 1951, and retired the following season. Tony Conigliaro missed over a year after being hit in the eye, and his vision later deteriorated to the point where he was forced to retire. Dickie Thon returned from a gruesome beaning in 1984, but never matched his earlier success. On September 28, 1995, Kirby Puckett, the superstar outfielder of the Minnesota Twins, was struck in the cheek by a Dennis Martínez fastball, breaking his jaw and loosening two teeth. It would be his last game; during spring training the following year he developed glaucoma, which ended his career. In 2005, the Cubs' Adam Greenberg was hit in the head with the first pitch that he faced in his major league career. Ron Santo, who thought he had lost an eye when his cheekbone was broken by a pitch in 1966, rushed back to the lineup. He described his attitude: "It was like, 'Here, hit me again.' I didn't have any fear. I just went on. When you get older, maybe fear does set in. Nobody will admit that, but it does happen." Don Zimmer, who was nearly killed by a beanball in 1953 and had four metal buttons surgically implanted in his skull, recounted, "It's not a case of being tougher than anybody else... You never know how you're going to react until you come back and play again."

Only one player has died after being hit in the head. Cleveland Indians shortstop Ray Chapman was hit by a pitch thrown by submarine pitcher and noted headhunter Carl Mays on August 16,  at the Polo Grounds in New York. He died 12 hours later and is noted as the only player to have been killed by a pitch. The following spring, Chapman's teammates experimented with leather helmets similar to those being used by football players; that year's Spalding Guide declared, "There is nothing 'sissy' about it." Catcher Roger Bresnahan is cited as one of the first players to construct and wear a helmet, in 1907.

Starting in , Major League Baseball required that all batters either wear batting helmets or protective plastic liners underneath their caps. Full helmets were made mandatory in , and wearing a model with an earflap has been required since . Minor leaguers (as well as most college, high school, and youth leagues) must wear helmets with a flap covering each ear.

Further reading

References

External links

Baseball pitches
Baseball terminology
Violence in sports
Banned sports tactics
Major League Baseball controversies

Beanball


Edward Claude Cassidy (May 4, 1923 – December 6, 2012) was an American jazz and rock drummer who was one of the founders of the rock group Spirit in 1967.

Biography
Ed Cassidy was born in Harvey, Illinois, a south suburb of Chicago on May 4, 1923. His family moved to Bakersfield, California in 1931. Cassidy began his career as a professional musician in 1937. He served in the U.S. Navy during World War II, and after his discharge held many jobs before becoming a full-time musician again. At one time in the late 1940s, Cassidy played 282 consecutive one-nighters in 17 states. He worked in show bands, Dixieland, and country and western bands, and on film soundtracks, as well as having a brief stint with the San Francisco Opera.

In 1950, Cassidy enrolled at college to get a musical teaching credential. However, after a year, he decided to move to Southern California to meet more jazz musicians and perhaps form a group of his own. During this period, Cassidy performed together with many leading jazz musicians including Art Pepper, Cannonball Adderley, Roland Kirk, Lee Konitz and Gerry Mulligan.

With Taj Mahal and Ry Cooder, Cassidy formed the Rising Sons in 1964.  After that, he formed the Red Roosters in 1965, with his fourteen year-old stepson Randy California, Jay Ferguson and Mark Andes. Adding John Locke, they became Spirit in 1967. Cassidy sported a shaved head, which was unusual at that time, and he always wore black. He used a single bass drum, and two large parade bass drums as floor toms. Because California stepped out of the group for a period of time in 1972, following the death of Jimi Hendrix, Cassidy was the only member who played with all various line-ups of Spirit on almost 20 albums over almost 30 years. Spirit finally disbanded following California's death in 1997. Cassidy later performed with Merrell Fankhauser in the Fankhauser Cassidy Band.

From the mid-1970s, Cassidy also worked as an actor, including live improvisation. He wrote, studied history, and continued to correspond with fans from his residence in Southern California until his death. He died of cancer in San Jose at the age of 89 on 6 December 2012. He is survived by his wife, Beverly; a daughter, Carol Ann Griffith; a son Christian Padriack Cassidy; and several stepchildren and grandchildren.

References

External links
Unofficial Ed Cassidy site

1923 births
2012 deaths
American rock drummers
People from Harvey, Illinois
Spirit (band) members
Deaths from cancer in California

Ed Cassidy


A Parsifal bell (, ) is a stringed musical instrument designed as a substitute for the church bells that are called for in the score of Richard Wagner's opera Parsifal.

The instrument was designed by Felix Mottl, a conductor of Wagner's works, and constructed by Schweisgut of Karlsruhe, Germany.

Construction
It is constructed on the principle of the grand piano. A massive frame is shaped like a snooker table. The instrument has five notes; each note has six strings (three are tuned to the fundamental pitch, and three an octave higher). The strings are struck by large hammers, covered with cotton-wool, which the performer sets in motion by a strong elastic blow from their fist, similar to the motion of playing a carillon.

The hammers are attached to arms  long, which are screwed to a strong wooden span bridge placed horizontally above the strings at about two-fifths of the length from the front. On the point of the arm is the name of the note, and behind this the felt ledge struck by the fist. Two belly bridges and two wrest-plank bridges, one set for each octave, determine the vibrating length of the strings, and the belly bridge, as in other stringed instruments, is the medium through which the vibrations of the strings are communicated to the soundboard. The arrangement of pegs and wrest-pins is much the same as on the piano.

Need
Difficulties arise whenever a composer writes a piece for orchestra in which he calls for reproducing the effect of church bells. Well-known examples include 1812 Overture, The Golden Legend, Cavalleria Rusticana, Pagliacci, Rienzi, and Parsifal. The most serious difficulty of all arose in Parsifal, where the bells are called for in an extremely solemn scene with deep religious significance. If real church bells were used for the notes Wagner wrote, they would overpower the orchestra and ruin the solemn atmosphere on the stage.

Earlier Wagnerian church bell substitutes
Various substitutes for bells were tried in vain, but no other instrument gave a tone similar to that of church bells. This is because a bell sound consists of rich harmonics composing the clang, plus two distinct simultaneous notes, first the tap tone, which gives the pitch, and the hum tone or lower accompanying note. The dignity and beauty of the bell tone depend on the interval separating the hum from the tap tone.

A stringed instrument, similar to the Parsifal bell but having only four notes, was used at Bayreuth for the first performance of Parsifal in 1882, where it was combined with tam-tams or gongs in an attempt to replicate the sound of a church bell. The instrument was built by the Bayreuth-based pianoforte manufacturer Steingraeber & Söhne. After many trials the following combination was adopted as the best makeshift:
 the stringed instrument with four keys;
 four tam-tams or gongs tuned to the pitch of the four notes composing the chime;
 a tuba, which plays the notes staccato in quavers to help make them more distinct;
 a fifth tam-tam, on which a roll is executed with a drumstick.

Modern church bell substitutes
In most orchestral music, tubular bells are used when a bell sound is called for. In another special case, a special peal of hemispherical bells was constructed for use in performances of Sir Arthur Sullivan's cantata, The Golden Legend. Struck with mallets, they produced both tap and hum tone. But Parsifal presented a particular problem because the lowest of the Golden Legend bells was a minor tenth higher than the lowest note required for Parsifal, and the aggregate weight of the four bells was thousands of pounds.

Modern productions of Parsifal typically use a synthesized, or electronically recorded, church bell sound.

Notes

References

External links
Parsifal bell article at the Parsifal Home Page

Opera terminology
String instruments
Bells (percussion)
European percussion instruments
German musical instruments
Parsifal
19th-century percussion instruments

Parsifal bell


thumb|280px|right|Global mean surface temperature anomaly 1850 to 2020

Ho'a Addunyaa (global warming) kan jedhamu itti darama adeemuu avreejiii tempireechara qilleensa lafatti dhi'aatee argamuu fi bishaan kan waggaa kudhanan kan duraa keessatti adeemsifamee fi kan itti fufa adeemuudha.

Avreejii tempireechariin qilleensa addunyaa lafatti dhi'aatee argamu waggaa dhibba bara 2005 dura jirutti hanga 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) guddate turee. Waldaan Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) kan jedhamu akka waliigalanit "guddachuun avreg temprechera jiddu cencherii 20ffat ademsifame kan ka'ee sababa bayyina gazii greenhousii anthropogenic kan greenhouse effect kessan dhufuun". Ademsifami dhalotaan ta'u kan akka Jijjirama Aduu (Solar Variation) Volcano wajiin walit qabatee bara Industrii-duraa hanga 1950ffat ho'a qillensaf sababa yoo ta'uu, bara 1950 hanga amma immo qabana'u qillensaf sababa ta'a jedhame yadatama.

Waliigalteen guddan kun These basic conclusions have been endorsed by at least 30 scientific societies and academies of science, including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries. While individual scientists have voiced disagreement with some findings of the IPCC,the overwhelming majority of scientists working on climate change agree with the IPCC's main conclusions.
Climate model projections summarized by the IPCC indicate that average global surface temperature will likely rise a further   during the 21st century. The range of values results from the use of differing scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions as well as models with differing climate sensitivity. Although most studies focus on the period up to 2100, warming and sea level rise are expected to continue for more than a thousand years even if greenhouse gas levels are stabilized. The delay in reaching equilibrium is a result of the large heat capacity of the oceans.

Increasing global temperature will cause sea level to rise, and is expected to increase the intensity of extreme weather events and to change the amount and pattern of precipitation. Other effects of global warming include changes in agricultural yields, trade routes, glacier retreat, species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors.

Remaining scientific uncertainties include the amount of warming expected in the future, and how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe.  Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but there is ongoing political and public debate worldwide regarding what, if any, action should be taken to reduce or reverse future warming or to adapt to its expected consequences.

Ho'a Adunya


Pyŏngyang (평양 직할시 in hangul, 平壤直轄市 in hanja) is the capital and biggest city in North Korea. The government does not want people from outside the country to know anything about North Korea, so Pyongyang is one of the few places in North Korea that people from other countries can travel to.

Entry
Pyongyang is a closed city meaning that North Koreans can't just go there. They must apply for a permit or be high up in the military. It is the most advanced city in the country which allows tourists to go there. Pyongyang does not really show what North Korea is really like, because the government uses it to pretend to tourists that the country is not poor. The city is kept very clean and littering is strictly not allowed. The city is home to the DPRK's only fast food restaurant which only the most privileged North Koreans go to (a meal would be worth around a weeks wages for the average person there). Many shops there have plastic food on display in the windows to make tourists think that there is lots of food in the country when in fact, food is scarce.

Attractions
The city has lots of nice attractions like the statues of Kim Il-Sung and Kim Jong-Il at Mansudae hill. The Juche tower is one of the most recognisable landmarks in the country, towering over the Taedong River across from Kim Il-Sung square. It also has the world's deepest subway system. Pyongyang has many large parks and wide avenues as well as the largest sports stadium in the world, the Rungrado May Day Stadium. The city is also the location of the embalmed bodies of the two leaders, Il-Sung and Jong-Il in the Kumsusan Palace of the sun.

Pyongyang is home to the 105-story hotel, Ryugyong Hotel. The construction started in 1987 and the exterior was completed twenty-four years later in 2011. It was originally intended as a propaganda device to make North Korea look wealthy when a South Korean recently built the world's then-tallest building. The hotel to this day remains empty and unopened.

The population of Pyongyang is 3,255,388.

Pyongyang


A loan is a type of debt. The borrower agrees to repay the lender the sum of money loaned, at a particular time. It is often paid part by part over time, in order to clear the debt.

Acting as a provider of loans is one of the main tasks for financial institutions. For other institutions, issuing of debt contracts such as bonds is a main source of funding. Bank loans and credit are one way to increase the money supply.

Important components of a loan
A loan can be broadly described by the following terms.

Deposit or Down-payment
The deposit or down-payment is an amount of money that the borrower is required to pay, as the first contribution towards clearing the debt, so that the loan deal can be finalized. The deposit is usually higher than the monthly contribution towards the loan. Some loans require a deposit while some do not. The deposit is usually a fraction, typically a percentage, of the total amount that is loaned out.

Installments
An Installment is money that is a monthly payment towards the loan. It may not be necessarily paid monthly but it has to be paid from time to time over throughout the loan deal. Installments are paid according to a loan rate.

Interest
Interest is a charge on top of the value of the loan, that acts as a cost of the loan. Interest is paid according to a rate called an interest rate. The interest rate varies from loan to loan and from lender to lender.

Loan payment
The most typical loan payment type is the fully amortizing payment in which each monthly rate has the same value over time.

The fixed monthly payment P for a loan of L for n months and a monthly interest rate c is:

Types of loan
Loans can be broadly classified as either secured or unsecured loans.

Secured and unsecured loans
Secured loans are loans for which the borrower is required to guarantee repayment, by pledging with property, for instance a car, a house etc. This property is called security or collateral. Because of the pledging, secured loans are given in larger amounts and have lower interest rates. However, there is a risk of losing the property used as security, in the event that the loan is not paid off.

An example of a secured loan is a mortgage.

Unsecured loans are loans that are given without pledges of repayment. This means that the borrower is not required to provide security to get the loan.
Because of the high risk involved, unsecured loans are given out in smaller amounts and have higher interest rates. The lenders raise the interest rates in an effort to recover their money as quickly as possible. Most personal loans are unsecured loans.

Personal loans
A personal loan is a 'small expense' loan that is mostly used by people to
finance their day to day emergencies. They come in smaller amounts and
therefore, just like most unsecured loans, they are easily approved.

Home loans
Home loans are loans that are taken for the purpose of buying a house.
Home loans are secured loans. The house acts as a collateral or security
to the loan.

Payday loans
Payday loans  are signature loans or cash advances that requires no security. This means that it is possible to get a payday loan even with a bad credit status or no credit at all. Payday loans are given on the basis of employment and income.

However, payday loans have a high interest rate especially when the paying schedule is not followed. The high interest rates are a cost of convenience. Interest could run as high as 2000%, for this reason, it is not a good idea to take a payday loan if you don't expect to earn enough to repay it.

Auto loans
Auto loans are loans given out by financial institutions or car dealerships, for the purpose of buying an automobile. Due to the nature of automobiles to lose value with time, Auto loans usually have high interest rates. The shorter the time an auto loan is paid, the lower the overall cost of the loan will be.

Mortgage
Mortgage is a loan that is used specifically to purchase a house. Usually, a mortgage is given to you by a mortgage company or any financial institution, after evaluation of your potential to pay back the loan in full. A mortgage is a secured loan, therefore, providing collateral is necessary. Mortgage can be further classified into long-term and short-term mortgages, depending on the length of time required for the mortgage to be paid. Short-term mortgages usually have a term of 15 years while long–term mortgages have a 30-year term.

Credit card loans
When you get a credit card, you have taken a loan. This is a credit card loan, and just like any other loan, it comes with interest and fees. Credit card loans are given out by credit companies and most banks today. The interest rates on credit card loans are higher than that on most personal loans, often around 15%.

References

Other websites
 Federal Direct Consolidation Loans Information Center of the U.S. Government
 William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan Program
 UK Information about extending your borrowing
 Debt Settlement Advice from Consumer Reports magazine

Finance
Money

Loan


Summer Stock is a Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer musical movie. It was made in 1950.  The movie was directed by Charles Walters and stars Judy Garland, Gene Kelly, Eddie Bracken, Gloria DeHaven, Marjorie Main and Phil Silvers. Nicholas Castle Sr. was the choreographer.

Judy Garland struggled with many personal problems during filming, and Summer Stock was her last MGM movie. It was also her last pairing with Gene Kelly onscreen.  MGM terminated Garland's contract - by mutual agreement - in September 1950.

Plot
Jane Falbury (Garland) is a farm owner. Her actress sister Abigail (DeHaven) arrives at the farm with her theater troupe.  They need a practice stage, and Jane and her housekeeper Esme (Main) reluctantly agree to let them use their barn. The actors and actresses, including the director Joe Ross (Kelly), repay her hospitality by doing chores around the farm.  Although Joe is engaged to Abigail, he begins to fall in love with Jane after Abigail leaves him in an angry fit. Jane is engaged to Orville (Bracken), but falls in love with Joe. The movie ends with a spectacular show in the barn itself, with the new leading lady, Jane.

Soundtrack
All songs were written by Harry Warren (music) and Mack Gordon (lyrics) except where noted. Orchestration chores were divided between Conrad Salinger and Skip Martin.

 Overture
 "If You Feel Like Singing, Sing" – Judy Garland
 "(Howdy Neighbor) Happy Harvest" – Gene Kelly, Garland, Phil Silvers and company stock members
 "Dig-Dig-Dig Dig For Your Dinner" – Kelly
 "Mem'ry Island" – Gloria DeHaven and Hans Conried (dubbed by Pete Roberts)
 "Portland Fancy" – (traditional New England contra dance tune) stock company members, Kelly and Garland
 "You, Wonderful You" (Jack Brooks and Saul Chaplin, lyrics and Warren, music) – Kelly and Garland
 "Friendly Star" – Garland
 Newspaper Dance ("You, Wonderful You")  – Kelly
 "All for You" (Chaplin) –  Kelly and Garland
 "You, Wonderful You" (Reprise) – Kelly and Garland
 "Heavenly Music" (Chaplin) – Kelly, Silvers and dogs
 "Get Happy" (Harold Arlen (music) and Ted Koehler (lyrics)) – Garland and chorus
 "(Howdy Neighbor) Happy Harvest" (finale) – Kelly, Garland, Silvers and company stock members

Behind the scenes
Shooting this movie was sometimes a struggle for Garland. She was coping with many pressures in her personal life, including a heavy reliance on prescription medication.

Audiences noticed that in the last number "Get Happy" she appears thinner than in the rest of the movie. Before shooting the number, she had taken two months off and lost between 15-20 pounds.  Garland finished the movie, and embarked on a long promised vacation from the studio. Soon, however, she was called back to star with Fred Astaire in the upcoming movie Royal Wedding. Once again, Garland struggled to perform at her absolute best in the face of exhaustion and overwork.  She was fired from the movie, and her contract with MGM was terminated through mutual agreement. Even though Summer Stock took six months to film, it was a box-office success.

Highlights
The film's most famous scene is the final song-and-dance number "Get Happy" performed by Judy Garland in a tuxedo jacket, black fedora, and black nylons to an arrangement by Skip Martin.  This sequence was choreographed by Charles Walters and filmed two months after the rest of the movie, after Garland sought the help of a hypnotist in Santa Barbara and lost 20 pounds. With the sedative-hypnotic paraldahyde reportedly on her breath, which the number's male dancers described as sickeningly sweet, Garland performed the number perfectly in just a couple of takes, and the rest is history. According to New York Times critic Bosley Crowther: " 'Get Happy' finds Miss Garland looking and performing her best."

In another notable sequence, Kelly performs a solo dance in a darkened barn, using a newspaper and a creaky board as partners and props; the musical accompaniment reprises "You Wonderful You". The dance "turned out to be one of the breakthrough numbers" of his career.

Notes

References
 Frank, Gerold. Judy (1999), Da Capo Press,
 Green, Stanley and Schmidt, Elaine. Hollywood musicals year by year (1999), Hal Leonard Corporation,
 Wayne, Jane Ellen.  The Golden Girls of MGM, (2003), Carroll & Graf Publishers,

Other websites

  The Judy Garland Online Discography, "Summer Stock"

American musical movies
1950 movies
MGM movies

Summer Stock


សូវ គឺជាការប្រើប្រាស់នៃការលើកដាក់សំឡេងក្នុងភាសាមួយដើម្បីប្តូរន័យពាក្យឬវេយ្យករណ៍។   គ្រប់ភាសាមាត់ប្រើប្រាស់ការលើកដាក់សំឡេងដើម្បីបង្ហាញព័ត៌មានខាងអារម្មណ៍និងភាសាសាស្ត្រ ហើយបង្ហាញការសង្កត់ភាពផ្ទុយគ្នា និងលក្ខណៈដទៃក៏ហៅថា តានា ប៉ុន្តែមិនមែនគ្រប់ភាសា ប្រើតានានេះប្តូរនៃពាក្យឬការផ្លាស់ប្ដូររបស់ ដូចជាព្យញ្ជនៈនិងស្រៈទេ។ មូលសទ្ទបែបនេះក៏ហៅថា មូលតានា (ជាភាសាបារាំង៖ tonèmes [tɔ'nɛm]) នៅដែល មូលតានា មួយខុសពីមូលសទ្ទដូចគ្នាតាមសទ្ទានុក្រម និយាយអញ្ចឹង មានសម្លេងខុសពីមូលតានាដទៃ គ្រាន់តែដោយការលើកដាក់សំឡេងនៃស្រៈ។ ភាសាសូរសំឡេង មានច្រើននៅទ្វីបអាហ្វ្រិក ទ្វីបអាស៊ីខាងកើត ហើយប្រទេសម៉ិចស៊ិកនិងអាមេរិកកណ្តាល  ប៉ុន្តែមិនសូវមាននៅតំបន់ដទៃ ក្នុងទ្វីបអាស៊ីនិងទ្វីបអឺរ៉ុប។ យ៉ាងធំ ភាសា ៧០ ភាគរយ អាចជាភាសាសូវសំឡេង។

In many tonal African languages, such as most Bantu languages, tones are distinguished by their pitch level relative to each other, known as a register tone system.  In multisyllable words, a single tone may be carried by the entire word, rather than a different tone on each syllable. Often grammatical information, such as past versus present, "I" versus "you", or positive versus negative, is conveyed solely by tone.

In the most widely-spoken tonal language, Mandarin Chinese, tones are distinguished by their distinctive shape, known as contour, with each tone having a different internal pattern of rising and falling pitch. Words are often monosyllabic, and many words are differentiated solely by tone; in a multisyllabic word each syllable often carries its own tone. Unlike in Bantu systems, tone plays little role in modern Chinese grammar, though the tones descend from features in Old Chinese that did have morphological significance (e.g. changing a verb to a noun or vice-versa).

Contour systems are typical of languages of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, including Tai–Kadai, Vietic and Sino-Tibetan languages, while the Afroasiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Khoi-San and Niger-Congo languages of Africa are dominated by register systems.  Some languages combine both systems, such as Cantonese, which produces three varieties of contour tone at three different pitch levels, or the Omotic (Afroasiatic) language Bench, which employs five level tones and one or two rising tones across levels.

Many languages use tone in a more limited way. Somali, for example, may only have one high tone per word. In Japanese, fewer than half of the words have drop in pitch; words contrast according to which syllable this drop follows. Such minimal systems are sometimes called pitch accent, since they are reminiscent of stress accent languages which typically allow one principal stressed syllable per word. However, there is debate over the definition of pitch accent, and whether a coherent definition is even possible.

Tonal languages
Most languages of sub-Saharan Africa are members of the Niger-Congo family which is predominately tonal, notably excepting Swahili (in the Southeast), most languages spoken in the Senegambia (among them Wolof, Serer and Cangin languages), Koyra Chiini and Fulani. The Afroasiatic languages of Northeastern sub-Saharan Africa include both tonal (Chadic, Omotic, and to some extent Cushitic) and nontonal (Semitic, Berber, and Egyptian) branches.

There are numerous tonal languages in East Asia and South East Asia.  Most Sino-Tibetan languages including all the Chinese languages (though some such as Shanghainese are only marginally tonal), Lhasa Tibetan and Burmese are tonal, as are Austroasiatic languages such as, Vietnamese, Tai-Kadai languages including Thai, and Lao, and Austronesian languages Cemuhi. However, some members of these families are also nontonal including Amdo Tibetan, Khmer and Malay.  Other languages represented in the region, such as Mongolian, Uyghur and Japanese belong to language families that do not contain any tonality as defined here.

A few languages outside these major groups have tonality, including Lahnda, Punjabi and Ancient Greek, which are Indo-European languages.  Although the Austronesian language family has some tonal members, no tonal languages have been discovered in Australia.

A large number of North, South and Central American languages are tonal, including many of the Athabaskan languages of Alaska and the American Southwest (including Navajo), and the Oto-Manguean languages of Mexico. Among the Mayan languages, which are mostly non-tonal, Yucatec (with the largest number of speakers), Uspantek, and one dialect of Tzotzil have developed tone systems.  However, although tone systems have been recorded for many American languages, little theoretical work has been completed for the characterization of their tone systems.  In different cases, Central American tone languages have been found to possess tone systems similar to both Asian and African tone languages.

Languages that are tonal include:
Some of the Sino-Tibetan languages. Most forms of Chinese, some Tibetan languages, including the standard languages of Lhasa and Bhutan and Burmese.
In the Austro-Asiatic family, Vietnamese and other members of the Vietic family are strongly tonal. Other branches of this family, such as Mon, Khmer, and the Munda languages, are entirely non-tonal.
The entire Tai-Kadai family, spoken mainly in China, Vietnam, Thailand, and Laos, and including Thai and Lao is tonal.
The entire Hmong–Mien family is tonal.
Many Afroasiatic languages in the Chadic, Cushitic and Omotic families have register tone systems, including Hausa. Omotic languages are an exception in this family in having both contour and register tones; most have only two to three register tones, like Somali.
The vast majority of Niger–Congo languages, such as Ewe, Igbo, Lingala, Maninka, Yoruba, and the Zulu, have register tone systems. The Kru languages have contour tones. Notable non-tonal Niger–Congo languages are Swahili, Fula, and Wolof.
Most Nilo-Saharan languages including Dinka and Luo have register tone systems.
All Khoisan languages in southern Africa have contour tone systems; some languages like Sandawe have mixed tone systems like that of Cantonese.
Slightly more than half of the Athabaskan languages, such as Navajo, have register tone systems (languages in California, Oregon and a few in Alaska excluded). The Athabaskan tone languages fall into two "mirror image" groups. That is, a word which has a high tone in one language will have a cognate with a low tone in another, and vice versa.
Iroquoian languages like Mohawk have register tone.
All Oto-Manguean languages are tonal. Most have register tone, though some have contour tones as well.  In some cases, as with Mixtec, tone system variations between dialects are sufficiently great to cause mutual unintelligibility.
Many Papuan languages of New Guinea like Siane possess register tone systems.
Some Indo-European languages as well as others possess what is termed pitch accent, where changes in pitch (as opposed to amplitude) mark the stressed syllable in an utterance; these are not always considered to be cases of tone language.
Some European-based creole languages, such as Saramaccan and Papiamentu, have tone from their African substratum languages.

In some cases it is difficult to determine whether a language is tonal. For example, the Ket language has been described as having up to eight tones by some investigators, as having four tones by others, but by some as having no tone at all. In cases such as these, the classification of a language as tonal may depend on the researcher's interpretation of what tone is. For instance, the Burmese language has phonetic tone, but each of its three tones is accompanied by a distinctive phonation (creaky, murmured or plain vowels). It could be argued either that the tone is incidental to the phonation, in which case Burmese would not be phonemically tonal, or that the phonation is incidental to the tone, in which case it would be considered tonal. Something similar appears to be the case with Ket.

The 19th-century constructed language Solresol, attempts to convey information using only tone.

Mechanics
Most languages use pitch as intonation to convey prosody and pragmatics, but this does not make them tonal languages. In tonal languages, each syllable has an inherent pitch contour, and thus minimal pairs (or larger minimal sets) exist between syllables with the same segmental features but different tones.

Here is a minimal tone set from Mandarin Chinese, which has five tones, here transcribed by diacritics over the vowels:

 A high level tone: /á/ (pinyin ⟨ā⟩)
 A tone starting with mid pitch and rising to a high pitch: /ǎ/ (pinyin ⟨á⟩)
 A low tone with a slight fall (if there is no following syllable, it may start with a dip then rise to a high pitch): /à/ (pinyin ⟨ǎ⟩)
 A short, sharply falling tone, starting high and falling to the bottom of the speaker's vocal range: /â/ (pinyin ⟨à⟩)
 A very short, neutral tone, sometimes indicated by a dot (·) in Pinyin, has no specific contour; its pitch depends on the tones of the preceding and following syllables. Mandarin speakers refer to this tone as the "light tone" (), also called the "fifth tone", "zeroth tone", or "neutral tone". This tone occurs only on unstressed syllables. Its occurrence on single syllable words is marginal, only with a small number of grammatical particles. There is a strong tendency in modern Mandarin for the second syllable of disyllabic words to be pronounced with a light tone.

These tones combine with a syllable such as "ma" to produce different words. A minimal set based on "ma" are, in pinyin transcription,
mā(媽/妈) "mum/mom"
má(麻/麻) "hemp"
mǎ(馬/马) "horse"
mà(罵/骂) "scold"
ma(嗎/吗) (an interrogative particle)

These may be combined into the rather contrived sentence,

/
Pinyin: māma mà mǎ de má ma?
IPA /má ma mâ ma᷉ tɤ mǎ ma/
English: "Is mom scolding the horse's hemp?"

A well-known tongue-twister in the Thai language is:

IPA:
"Does new silk burn?"

Vietnamese has its version:

IPA: /bʌ̌j naj bʌj bʌ̂j bʌ᷉j bʌ̌ˀj bʌ̂ˀj/
"All along you've set up the seven traps incorrectly!"

Tone is most frequently manifested on vowels, but in most tonal languages where voiced syllabic consonants occur they will bear tone as well. This is especially common with syllabic nasals, for example in many Bantu and Kru languages, but also occurs in Serbo-Croatian.

Tones can interact in complex ways through a process known as tone sandhi.

Register tones and contour tones
ប្រព័ន្ធសម្លេងធ្លាក់ចូលទៅក្នុងលំនាំធំទូលាយពីរ យោងទៅតាមថាតើមានសម្លេងវណ្ឌវង្កដែរឬទេ។

Most Chinese languages use contour tone systems, where the distinguishing feature of the tones are their shifts in pitch (that is, the pitch is a contour), such as rising, falling, dipping, or level. Most Bantu languages, on the other hand, have non-contour tone (or register tone) systems where the distinguishing feature is the relative difference between the pitches, such as high, mid, or low, rather than their shapes. In such systems there is a default tone, usually low in a two-tone system or mid in a three-tone system, that is more common and less salient than other tones. There are also languages that combine relative-pitch and contour tones, such as many Kru languages, where nouns are distinguished by contour tones and verbs by pitch. Others, such as Yoruba, have phonetic contours, but these can easily be analysed as sequences of single-pitch tones, with for example sequences of high–low  becoming falling , and sequences of low–high  becoming rising .

Falling tones tend to fall further than rising tones rise; high–low tones are common, whereas low–high tones are quite rare. A language with contour tones will also generally have as many or more falling tones than rising tones. However, exceptions are not unheard of; Mpi, for example, has three level and three rising tones, but no falling tones.

Lexical tones more complex than dipping (falling–rising) or peaking (rising–falling) are quite rare, perhaps nonexistent, though prosody may produce such effects. However, the Old Xiang dialect of Qiyang is reported to have two "double contour" lexical tones, high and low fall–rise–fall, or perhaps high falling – low falling and low falling – high falling:  and  (4232 and 2142).

Register phonation
In a number of East Asian languages, tonal differences are closely intertwined with phonation differences. In Vietnamese, for example, the ngã and sắc tones are both high-rising but the former is distinguished by having a glottal stop in the middle. Similarly, the nặng and huyền tones are both low-falling, but the nặng tone is shorter and pronounced with creaky voice at the end, while the huyền tone is longer and often has breathy voice. In some languages, such as Burmese, pitch and phonation are so closely intertwined that the two are combined in a single phonological system, where neither can be considered without the other. Confusingly, such systems are termed register, which is unrelated to "register tone" as described above.

Tone terracing and tone sandhi

Tone terracing

Tones are realized as pitch only in a relative sense. 'High tone' and 'low tone' are only meaningful relative to the speaker's vocal range and in comparing one syllable to the next, rather than as a contrast of absolute pitch such as one finds in music. As a result, when one combines tone with sentence prosody, the absolute pitch of a high tone at the end of a prosodic unit may be lower than that of a low tone at the beginning of the unit, because of the universal tendency (in both tonal and non-tonal languages) for pitch to decrease with time in a process called downdrift.

Tones may affect each other just as consonants and vowels do. In many register-tone languages, low tones may cause a downstep in following high or mid tones; the effect is such that even while the low tones remain at the lower end of the speaker's vocal range (which is itself descending due to downdrift), the high tones drop incrementally like steps in a stairway or terraced rice fields, until finally the tones merge and the system has to be reset. This effect is called tone terracing.

Sometimes a tone may remain as the sole realization of a grammatical particle after the original consonant and vowel disappear, so it can only be heard by its effect on other tones. It may cause downstep, or it may combine with other tones to form contours. These are called floating tones.

Tone sandhi

In many contour-tone languages, one tone may affect the shape of an adjacent tone. The affected tone may become something new, a tone that only occurs in such situations, or it may be changed into a different existing tone. This is called tone sandhi. In Mandarin Chinese, for example, a dipping tone between two other tones is reduced to a simple low tone, which otherwise does not occur in Mandarin, whereas if two dipping tones occur in a row, the first becomes a rising tone, indistinguishable from other rising tones in the language. For example, the words 很  'very' and 好  'good' produce the phrase 很好  'very good'.

Word tones and syllable tones
Another difference between tonal languages is whether the tones apply independently to each syllable or to the word as a whole. In Cantonese, Thai, and to some extent the Kru languages, each syllable may have a tone, whereas in Shanghainese, the Scandinavian languages, and many Bantu languages, the contour of each tone operates at the word level. That is, a trisyllabic word in a three-tone syllable-tone language has many more tonal possibilities (3 × 3 × 3 = 27) than a monosyllabic word (3), but there is no such difference in a word-tone language. For example, Shanghainese has two contrastive tones no matter how many syllables are in a word. Many languages described as having pitch accent are word-tone languages.

Tone sandhi is an intermediate situation, as tones are carried by individual syllables, but affect each other so that they are not independent of each other. For example, a number of Mandarin suffixes and grammatical particles have what is called (when describing Mandarin) a "neutral" tone, which has no independent existence. If a syllable with a neutral tone is added to a syllable with a full tone, the pitch contour of the resulting word is entirely determined by that other syllable:

After high level and high rising tones, the neutral syllable has an independent pitch that looks like a mid-register tonethe default tone in most register-tone languages. However, after a falling tone it takes on a low pitch; the contour tone remains on the first syllable, but the pitch of the second syllable matches where the contour leaves off. And after a low-dipping tone, the contour spreads to the second syllable: the contour remains the same () whether the word has one syllable or two. In other words, the tone is now the property of the word, not the syllable. Shanghainese has taken this pattern to its extreme, as the pitches of all syllables are determined by the tone before them, so that only the tone of the initial syllable of a word is distinctive.

Tonal polarity
Languages with simple tone systems or pitch accent may have one or two syllables specified for tone, with the rest of the word taking a default tone. Such languages differ in which tone is marked and which is the default. In Navajo, for example, syllables have a low tone by default, while marked syllables have high tone. In the related language Sekani, however, the default is high tone, and marked syllables have low tone. There are parallels with stress: English stressed syllables have a higher pitch than unstressed syllables, whereas in Russian, stressed syllables have a lower pitch.

Uses of tone
In East Asia, tone is typically lexical. This is characteristic of heavily tonal languages such as Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, and Hmong. That is, tone is used to distinguish words which would otherwise be homonyms, rather than in the grammar, though some Yue Chinese dialects have minimal grammatical use of tone. (In Old Chinese, tones may have grammatical functions.) However, in many African languages, especially in the Niger–Congo family, tone is crucial to the grammar, with relatively little lexical use. In the Kru languages, a combination of these patterns is found: nouns tend to have complex tone systems reminiscent of East Asia, but are not much affected by grammatical inflections, whereas verbs tend to have simple tone systems of the type more typical of Africa, which are inflected to indicate tense and mood, person, and polarity, so that tone may be the only distinguishing feature between 'you went' and 'I won't go'. In colloquial Yoruba, especially when spoken quickly, vowels may assimilate to each other, and consonants elide, so that much of the lexical and grammatical information is carried by tone. In languages of West Africa such as Yoruba, people may even communicate with so-called "talking drums", which are modulated to imitate the tones of the language, or by whistling the tones of speech.

Tone as a linguistic feature may be less binary than it is typically conceived to be; the first image at right shows the distribution of all languages possessing more than two tones ('complex' tone), regardless of whether they are register or contour (or mixed) systems.

Note that tonal languages are not distributed evenly across the same range as non-tonal languages.  Instead, the majority of tone languages belong to the Niger-Congo, Sino-Tibetan and Austroasiatic groups, which are then composed by a large majority of tone languages and dominate a single region. Only in limited locations—South Africa, New Guinea, Mexico, Brazil and a few others do tone languages seem to occur as individual members or small clusters within a non-tone dominated area.  In some locations, like Central America, this may represent no more than an incidental effect of which languages were included when examining distribution; for groups like Khoi-San in Southern Africa and Papuan languages, whole families of languages possess tonality, but simply have relatively few members, while for some North American tone languages multiple independent origins are suspected.

If generally considering only complex-tone vs. no-tone it might be concluded that tone is almost always an ancient feature within a language family that is highly conserved among members.  However, when considered in addition to 'simple' tone systems that include only two tones, tone as a whole appears to be more labile, appearing several times within Indo-European, several times in American languages, and several times in Papuan families.  This may indicate that rather than a trait unique to some language families, tone is a latent feature of most language families that may more easily arise and disappear as languages change over time.

Phonetic notation

There are three main approaches to notating tones in phonetic descriptions of a language.
The easiest from a typological perspective is a numbering system, with the pitch levels assigned numerals, and each tone transcribed as a numeral or sequence of numerals. Such systems tend to be idiosyncratic, for example with high tone being assigned the numeral 1, 3, or 5, and so have not been adopted for the International Phonetic Alphabet.
Also simple for simple tone systems is a series of diacritics, such as ⟨ó⟩ for high tone and ⟨ò⟩ for low tone. This has been adopted by the IPA, but is not easy to adapt to complex contour tone systems (see under Chinese below for one work-around). The five IPA diacritics for level tones are . These may be combined to form contour tones, , though font support is sparse. Sometimes a non-IPA vertical diacritic for a second, higher, mid tone is seen, , so that in a language with four (or six) level tones, they may be transcribed .
The most flexible system is that of tone letters, which are iconic schematics of the pitch trace of the tone in question. They are most commonly used for complex contour systems, as in Liberia and southern China.

អាហ្រ្វិក
In African linguistics (as well as in many African orthographies), usually a set of accent marks is used to mark tone. The most common phonetic set (which is also included in the International Phonetic Alphabet) is found below:

Several variations are found. In many three-tone languages, it is common to mark High and Low tone as indicated above, but to omit marking of the Mid tone, e.g., má (High), ma (Mid), mà (Low). Similarly, in some two-tone languages, only one tone is marked explicitly.

With more complex tonal systems, such as in the Kru and Omotic languages, it is usual to indicate tone with numbers, with 1 for HIGH and 4 or 5 for LOW in Kru, but 1 for LOW and 5 for HIGH in Omotic. Contour tones are then indicated 14, 21, etc.

អាស៊ី
In the Chinese tradition, numerals are assigned to various tones (see Tone number). For instance, Standard Mandarin, the official language of China has four lexically contrastive tones, and the numerals 1, 2, 3, and 4 are assigned to four tones. Syllables can sometimes be toneless and are described as having a neutral tone, typically indicated by omitting tone markings. Chinese dialects are traditionally described in terms of four tonal categories ping 'level', shang 'rising', qu 'exiting', ru 'entering', based on the traditional analysis of Middle Chinese (see Four tones); note that these are not at all the same as the four tones of modern standard Mandarin. Depending on the dialect, each of these categories may then be divided into two tones, typically called yin and yang. Syllables carrying the ru tones are closed by voiceless stops in all Chinese dialects, so that ru is not a tonal category in the sense used by Western linguistics, but rather a category of syllable structures. Chinese phonologists perceived these checked syllables as having concomitant short tones, justifying them as a tonal category. During the period of Middle Chinese, when the tonal categories were established, the shang and qu tones also had characteristic final obstruents with concomitant tonic differences, whereas syllables bearing the ping tone ended in a simple sonorant. An alternate to using the Chinese category names is to assign to each category a numeral ranging from 1–8, or sometimes higher for some Southern Chinese languages with additional tone splits. It should be noted that syllables belonging to the same tone category differ drastically in actual phonetic tone across the Chinese languages even amongst sub-dialects of the same language/dialect group. For example, the yin ping tone is a high level tone in Beijing Mandarin, but a low level tone in Tianjin Mandarin.

More iconic systems use tone numbers, or an equivalent set of graphic pictograms known as 'Chao tone letters'. These divide the pitch into five levels, with the lowest being assigned the value 1, and the highest the value 5. (This is the opposite of equivalent systems in Africa and the Americas.) The variation in pitch of a tone contour is notated as a string of two or three numbers. For instance, the four Mandarin tones are transcribed as follows (note that the tone letters will not display properly unless you have a compatible font installed):

A mid-level tone would be indicated by /33/, a low level tone /11/, etc. The doubling of the number is commonly used with level tones to distinguish them from tone numbers; tone 3 in Mandarin, for example, is not mid /3/. However, this is not necessary with tone letters, so /33/ = simple .

IPA diacritic notation is also sometimes seen for Chinese. One reason it is not more widespread is that only two contour tones, rising  and falling , are widely supported by IPA fonts, while several Chinese languages have more than one rising or falling tone. One common work-around is to retain standard IPA  and  for high-rising (/35/) and high-falling (/53/) tones, and to use the subscript diacritics  and  for low-rising (/13/) and low-falling (/31/) tones.

The Thai language has five tones: high, mid, low, rising and falling. The Thai written script is an alphasyllabary which specifies the tone unambiguously. Tone is indicated by an interaction of the initial consonant of a syllable, the vowel, the final consonant (if present), and sometimes a tone mark. A particular tone mark may denote different tones depending on the initial consonant.

Vietnamese uses the Latin alphabet, and the 6 tones are marked by diacritics above or below a certain vowel of each syllable. In many words that end in diphthongs, however, exactly which vowel is marked depends on the writer's style. Notation for Vietnamese tones are as follows:

The Latin-based Hmong and Iu Mien alphabets use full letters for tones. In Hmong, one of the eight tones (the  tone) is left unwritten, while the other seven are indicated by the letters b, m, d, j, v, s, g at the end of the syllable. Since Hmong has no phonemic syllable-final consonants, there is no ambiguity. This system enables Hmong speakers to type their language with an ordinary Latin-letter keyboard without having to resort to diacritics. In the Iu Mien, the letters v, c, h, x, z indicate tones but, unlike Hmong, it also has final consonants written before the tone.

អាមេរិកខាងជើង
Several North American languages have tone, one of which is Cherokee, an Iroquoian language. Oklahoma Cherokee has six tones (1 low, 2 medium, 3 high, 4 very high, 5 rising and 6 falling).

In Mesoamericanist linguistics, /1/ stands for high tone and /5/ stands for low tone, except in Oto-Manguean languages, where /1/ may be low tone and /3/ high tone. It is also common to see acute accents for high tone and grave accents for low tone and combinations of these for contour tones. Several popular orthographies use ⟨j⟩ or ⟨h⟩ after a vowel to indicate low tone
Southern Athabascan languages that include the Navajo and Apache languages are tonal, and are analyzed as having 2 tones, high and low. One variety of Hopi has developed tone, as has the Cheyenne language.

The Mesoamerican language stock called Oto-Manguean is famously tonal and is the largest language family in Mesoamerica, containing languages including Zapotec, Mixtec, and Otomí, some of which have as many as five register tones (Trique, Usila Chinantec) and others only two (Matlatzinca and Chichimeca Jonaz). Other languages in Mesoamerica that have tones are Huichol, Yukatek Maya, the Tzotzil of San Bartolo, Uspanteko, and one variety of Huave.

អាមេរិចខាងត្បូង

A number of languages of South America are tonal. For example, various analyses of the Pirahã language describe either two or three tones. The Ticuna language isolate is exceptional for having five register tones (the only other languages in America to have such a system are Trique and Usila, mentioned above).

អឺរ៉ុប
Both Swedish and Norwegian have simple word tone systems, often called pitch accent, that only appears in words of two or more syllables. Each word has a mandatory tone, which varies by dialect. Words whose pronunciation differs only in tone are frequently morphologically unrelated, and may be spelled differently, as in the Norwegian 'cider' ("sweet cider") and 'sider' ("pages"). The two word tones are called toneme 1 and toneme 2 in Norway and acute accent and grave accent in Sweden.

In Limburgish tones can also occur in words of one syllable: dáág (one day), dààg (several days).

Practical orthographies
In practical alphabetic orthographies, a number of approaches are used. Diacritics are common, as in pinyin, though these tend to be omitted. Thai uses a combination of redundant consonants and diacritics. Tone letters may also be used, for example in Hmong RPA and several minority languages in China. Or tone may simply be ignored. This is possible even for highly tonal languages: for example, the Chinese navy has successfully used toneless pinyin in government telegraph communications for decades, and likewise Chinese reporters abroad may file their stories in toneless pinyin. Dungan, a variety of Mandarin spoken in Central Asia, has, since 1927, been written in orthographies that do not indicate tone. Ndjuka, where tone is less important, ignores tone except for a negative marker. However, the reverse is also true: in the Congo, there have been complaints from readers that newspapers written in orthographies without tone marking are insufficiently legible.

Number of tones
Languages may distinguish up to five levels of pitch, though the Chori language of Nigeria is described as distinguishing six surface tone registers. Since tone contours may involve up to two shifts in pitch, there are theoretically 5 x 5 x 5 = 125 distinct tones for a language with five registers. However, the most that are actually used in a language is a tenth of that number.

Several Kam–Sui languages of southern China have nine contrastive tones, including contour tones. For example, the Kam language has 9 tones: 3 more-or-less fixed tones (high, mid and low); 4 unidirectional tones (high and low rising, high and low falling); and 2 bidirectional tones (dipping and peaking). This assumes that checked syllables are not counted as having additional tones, as they traditionally are in China: For example, in the traditional reckoning, the Kam language has 15 tones, but 6 occur only in syllables closed with /p/, /t/ or /k/ while the other 9 occur in syllables not ending in one of these sounds. Preliminary work on the Wobe language of Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire, and the Chatino languages of southern Mexico suggests that some dialects may distinguish as many as fourteen tones, but many linguists have expressed doubts, believing that many of these will turn out to be sequences of tones or prosodic effects.

Origin

André-Georges Haudricourt established that Vietnamese tone originated in earlier consonantal contrasts, and suggested similar mechanisms for Chinese. It is now widely held that Old Chinese did not have phonemically contrastive tone. The historical origin of tone is called tonogenesis, a term coined by James Matisoff. Tone is frequently an areal rather than a genealogical feature. That is, a language may acquire tones through bilingualism if influential neighboring languages are tonal, or if speakers of a tonal language shift to the language in question, and bring their tones with them. In other cases, tone may arise spontaneously, and surprisingly quickly: the dialect of Cherokee in Oklahoma has tone, but the dialect in North Carolina does not, although they were only separated in 1838.

Very often, tone arises as an effect of the loss or merger of consonants. (Such trace effects of disappeared tones or other sounds have been nicknamed Cheshirisation, after the lingering smile of the disappearing Cheshire Cat in Alice in Wonderland.) In a non-tonal language, voiced consonants commonly cause following vowels to be pronounced at a lower pitch than other consonants do. This is usually a minor phonetic detail of voicing. However, if consonant voicing is subsequently lost, that incidental pitch difference may be left over to carry the distinction that the voicing had carried, and thus becomes meaningful (phonemic). This is seen historically in Panjabi: the Panjabi murmured (voiced aspirate) consonants have disappeared, and left tone in their wake. If the murmured consonant was at the beginning of a word, it left behind a low tone; if at the end, a high tone. If there was no such consonant, the pitch was unaffected; however, the unaffected words are limited in pitch so as not to interfere with the low and high tones, and so has become a tone of its own: mid tone. The historical connection is so regular that Panjabi is still written as if it had murmured consonants, and tone is not marked: the written consonants tell the reader which tone to use.

Similarly, final fricatives or other consonants may phonetically affect the pitch of preceding vowels, and if they then weaken to /h/ and finally disappear completely, the difference in pitch, now a true difference in tone, carries on in their stead. This was the case with the Chinese languages: Two of the three tones of Middle Chinese, the "rising" and "departing" tones, arose as the Old Chinese final consonants  and  disappeared, while syllables that ended with neither of these consonants were interpreted as carrying the third tone, "even". Most dialects descending from Middle Chinese were further affected by a tone split, where each tone divided in two depending on whether the initial consonant was voiced: Vowels following a voiced consonant (depressor consonant) acquired a lower tone as the voicing lost its distinctiveness.

The same changes affected many other languages in the same area, and at around the same time (AD 1000–1500). The tone split, for example, also occurred in Thai, Vietnamese, and the Lhasa dialect of Tibetan.

In general, voiced initial consonants lead to low tones, while vowels after aspirated consonants acquire a high tone. When final consonants are lost, a glottal stop tends to leave a preceding vowel with a high or rising tone (although glottalized vowels tend to be low tone, so if the glottal stop causes vowel glottalization, that will tend to leave behind a low vowel), whereas a final fricative tends to leave a preceding vowel with a low or falling tone. Vowel phonation also frequently develops into tone, as can be seen in the case of Burmese.

Tone arose in the Athabascan languages at least twice, in a patchwork of two systems. In some languages, such as Navajo, syllables with glottalized consonants (including glottal stops) in the syllable coda developed low tones, whereas in others, such as Slavey, they developed high tones, so that the two tonal systems are almost mirror images of each other. Syllables without glottalized codas developed the opposite tone—for example, high tone in Navajo and low tone in Slavey, due to contrast with the tone triggered by the glottalization. Other Athabascan languages, namely those in western Alaska (such as Koyukon) and the Pacific coast (such as Hupa), did not develop tone. Thus, the Proto-Athabascan word for "water"  is toneless  in Hupa, high-tone  in Navajo, and low-tone tù in Slavey; while Proto-Athabascan  "knee" is toneless  in Hupa, low-tone  in Navajo, and high-tone  in Slavey. Kingston (2005) provides a phonetic explanation for the opposite development of tone based on the two different ways of producing glottalized consonants with either (a) tense voice on the preceding vowel, which tends to produce a high F0, or (b) creaky voice, which tends to produce a low F0. Languages with "stiff" glottalized consonants and tense voice developed high tone on the preceding vowel and those with "slack" glottalized consonants with creaky voice developed low tone.

The Bantu languages also have "mirror" tone systems, where the languages in the northwest corner of the Bantu area have the opposite tones of other Bantu languages.

Three Algonquian languages developed tone independently of each other and of neighboring languages: Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kickapoo. In Cheyenne, tone arose via vowel contraction; the long vowels of Proto-Algonquian contracted into high-pitched vowels in Cheyenne, while the short vowels became low-pitched. In Kickapoo, a vowel with a following [h] acquired a low tone, and this tone later extended to all vowels followed by a fricative.

In Mohawk, a glottal stop can disappear in a combination of morphemes, leaving behind a long falling tone. Note that this has the reverse effect of the postulated rising tone in Mandarin derived from a lost final glottal stop.

See also
 Meeussen's rule
 Tone name
 Tone number
 Tone pattern
 Musical language
 Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den

References

Bibliography
 Bao, Zhiming. (1999). The structure of tone. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511880-4.
Chen, Matthew Y. 2000. Tone Sandhi: patterns across Chinese dialects. Cambridge, England: CUP ISBN 0-521-65272-3
Clements, George N.; Goldsmith, John (eds.) (1984) Autosegmental Studies in Bantu Tone. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyer.
 Fromkin, Victoria A. (ed.). (1978). Tone: A linguistic survey. New York: Academic Press.
 Halle, Morris; & Stevens, Kenneth. (1971). A note on laryngeal features. Quarterly progress report 101. MIT.
 Haudricourt, André-Georges. (1954). "De l'origine des tons en vietnamien". Journal Asiatique, 242: 69–82.
 Haudricourt, André-Georges. (1961). "Bipartition et tripartition des systèmes de tons dans quelques langues d'Extrême-Orient". Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris, 56: 163–180.

 Hyman, Larry. 2007. There is no pitch-accent prototype. Paper presented at the 2007 LSA Meeting. Anaheim, CA.
 Hyman, Larry. 2007. How (not) to do phonological typology: the case of pitch-accent. Berkeley, UC Berkeley. UC Berkeley Phonology Lab Annual Report: 654–685. Available online.
 Kingston, John. (2005). The phonetics of Athabaskan tonogenesis. In S. Hargus & K. Rice (Eds.), Athabaskan prosody (pp. 137–184). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.
 Maddieson, Ian. (1978). Universals of tone. In J. H. Greenberg (Ed.), Universals of human language: Phonology (Vol. 2). Stanford: Stanford University Press.
 Michaud, Alexis. (2008). Tones and intonation: some current challenges. Proc. of 8th Int. Seminar on Speech Production (ISSP'08), Strasbourg, pp. 13–18. (Keynote lecture.) Available online.
 Odden, David. (1995). Tone: African languages. In J. Goldsmith (Ed.), Handbook of phonological theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
 Pike, Kenneth L. (1948). Tone languages: A technique for determining the number and type of pitch contrasts in a language, with studies in tonemic substitution and fusion. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. (Reprinted 1972, ISBN 0-472-08734-7).

 Yip, Moira. (2002). Tone. Cambridge textbooks in linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77314-8 (hbk), ISBN 0-521-77445-4 (pbk).

External links

 World map of tone languages The World Atlas of Language Structures Online

សូរ (ភាសាសាស្ត្រ)


The UK Music Hall of Fame was an awards ceremony to honour musicians, of any nationality, for their lifetime contributions to music in the United Kingdom. The hall of fame started in 2004 with the induction of five founder members and five more members selected by a public televote, two from each of the last five decades. In subsequent years, a panel of more than 60 journalists and music industry executives decided the people and groups to be inducted. The ceremony was last held in 2006, and has since been cancelled.

2004 inductees
There were five founding members, one from each decade from the 1950s to 1990s:
Elvis Presley
The Beatles
Bob Marley
Madonna
U2

In addition, the public were asked to select one further act from each decade, from five lists of ten nominees. The five members chosen by the public in October 2004 were:
Cliff Richard and The Shadows
The Rolling Stones
Queen
Michael Jackson
Robbie Williams

The full list of nominees were:

1950s - Billie Holiday, Buddy Holly, Chuck Berry, Cliff Richard and The Shadows, Ella Fitzgerald, Frank Sinatra, Johnny Cash, Little Richard, Louis Armstrong, Miles Davis
1960s - The Beach Boys, Aretha Franklin, Bob Dylan, Diana Ross and The Supremes, Rolling Stones, James Brown, Jimi Hendrix, The Kinks, Simon and Garfunkel, The Velvet Underground
1970s - Pink Floyd, ABBA, Bee Gees, The Clash, David Bowie, Elton John, Led Zeppelin, Queen, Sex Pistols, Stevie Wonder
1980s - Bruce Springsteen, Beastie Boys, George Michael, Guns N' Roses, Joy Division, Michael Jackson, Prince, Public Enemy, R.E.M., The Smiths
1990s - Blur, Dr. Dre, Missy Elliott, Nirvana, Oasis, The Prodigy, Radiohead, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Robbie Williams, Spice Girls

Chris Blackwell, the founder of Island Records, was awarded honorary membership.

2005 inductees
The 2005 inductees were selected by a panel of 60 people from the music industry:
Pink Floyd (inducted by Pete Townshend of The Who)
Eurythmics (inducted by Bob Geldof, performed)
Aretha Franklin
Jimi Hendrix (inducted by Mitch Mitchell, and Slash of Velvet Revolver)
Bob Dylan (inducted by Woody Harrelson)
Joy Division/New Order (inducted by actor John Simm, performed "Regret" and "Love Will Tear Us Apart")
The Who (inducted by Ray Davies of The Kinks)
The Kinks (inducted by footballer Geoff Hurst)
Black Sabbath (inducted by Brian May of Queen, performed)
Ozzy Osbourne solo (inducted by Angus Young of AC/DC)

The late DJ John Peel was also made an honorary member (inducted by Damon Albarn of Blur).

The programme was televised in the UK. It was later shown on VH1 in the United States, without the Joy Division/New Order segments. The full version was subsequently shown on VH1 Classic.

2006 inductees
The 2006 inductees were:
James Brown (inducted by Jazzie B, performed "I Got You (I Feel Good)")
Led Zeppelin (inducted by Roger Taylor of Queen, Wolfmother performed "Communication Breakdown" as tribute)
Rod Stewart (inducted by James Morrison who performed "The First Cut Is the Deepest" / "Do Ya Think I'm Sexy")
Brian Wilson (inducted by David Gilmour of Pink Floyd, performed "God Only Knows" and "Good Vibrations")
Bon Jovi (inducted by David A. Stewart and Kara DioGuardi, performed "Livin' on a Prayer", "Wanted Dead or Alive" and "It's My Life")
Prince (inducted by Beyoncé)
Dusty Springfield (inducted by Joss Stone who performed "Son of a Preacher Man")

George Martin received an honorary membership (inducted by the then British Chancellor of the Exchequer and future Prime Minister Gordon Brown).  He then went on to conduct a special arrangement of The Beatles songs "Golden Slumbers" / "Carry That Weight" / "The End"; with the help of Johnny Borrell, Corinne Bailey Rae, José González, Roger Taylor and the London Community Gospel Choir. The band were also joined by Dean Tidey.

Also present at the ceremony were Patti LaBelle (performed "You Don't Have to Say You Love Me"), Nona Hendryx, Tony Iommi (Black Sabbath), Wolfmother, Jimmy Page (Led Zeppelin), Mark Hudson, Lemar, Trevor Nelson, Trevor Francis, Giles Martin, Dermot O'Leary (host), and Paul Gambaccini.

Prince, during his induction, invited everyone over to see him live in Las Vegas but gave an apology that he could not perform live at the venue.  Rod Stewart appeared live by satellite from Los Angeles in a Celtic shirt and accidentally dropped his award, before advising James Morrison to 'give up the fags'.

The event has particular significance as it turned out to be James Brown's final televised recording, as he died on 25 December 2006.

The 2006 Induction Ceremony took place on 14 November 2006 at Alexandra Palace, and it was broadcast on Channel 4 in the UK on 16 November, repeated on 18 November. It was shown on VH1 in the USA on 25 November.

Cancellation
There were no inductees in 2007. It was announced in September 2008 that Channel 4 had axed the ceremony, partly due to lack of funding, and also because a two-year gap since the last show was "too long".

References

Halls of fame in the United Kingdom
Music halls of fame
British music awards
Channel 4 original programming
Awards established in 2004
Awards disestablished in 2007
2004 establishments in the United Kingdom

UK Music Hall of Fame


The  High Road to Taos is a scenic, winding road through the Sangre de Cristo Mountains between Santa Fe and Taos. (The "Low Road" runs through the valleys along the Rio Grande). It winds through high desert, mountains, forests, small farms, and tiny Spanish land grant villages and Pueblo Indian villages. Scattered along the way are the galleries and studios of traditional artisans and artists drawn by the natural beauty. It has been recognized by the state of New Mexico as an official scenic byway.

Description

Nambé
The High Road to Taos Scenic Byway begins north of Santa Fe in Pojoaque, New Mexico, at the intersection of U.S. 285/84 and State Road 503. It continues along State Road 503 to Nambé Pueblo. Founded in the 14th century, Nambé means "People of the Round Earth" in Tewa, their native language.

The pueblo plaza is a registered National Historic Landmark. The church on State Road 503 is not original; ill-considered efforts to restore the grand original church caused it to collapse. The pueblo encompasses  of land with waterfalls, lakes, and mountainous areas. Until about 1830, Nambe was known for a pottery style called Nambe Polychrome. Today, pottery is making a comeback, especially black-on-black and red-on-white. Weaving is also reemerging.

Chimayó
The road continues through the rolling hills and wind-carved hoodoos of the badlands. At , the High Road turns left onto State Road 98 (Juan Medina Road), which continues across the open, rolling high desert until it dips down to the green, farming valley of Chimayó. Visitors often stop at the historic Santuario de Chimayó.

Built between 1811–16, this tiny church is visited by pilgrims from all over the United States and old Mexico, especially on Good Friday of Easter week, when crowds swell to the thousands. A little farther on is the Rancho de Chimayó Restaurant, housed in a historic adobe building. Chimayó also has many traditional weaving studios owned by descendants of the original Spanish settlers.

Córdova
Where State Road 98 dead-ends, the road turns right onto State Road 76 and begins the climb into the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and the little villages of the High Road. First is Córdova, a collection of narrow streets above a river valley, accessible via a road on the right. Córdova is known for its traditional woodcarvers, such as George López, who carve santos (saints) in the "Córdova Style": unpainted but elaborately carved and featuring the distinctive grain and shape of the wood. A very short drive takes you into the village and back to State Road 76.

Truchas
The road continues to climb to the top of a high mesa and the village of Truchas, meaning 'trout', a scattering of adobe houses backed by the snow-capped Truchas Peaks. (The High Road and State Road 76 turn left, but much of the village is straight ahead on State Road 75.) This Hispanic farming community once furnished the set for the movie version of the John Nichols novel The Milagro Beanfield War. Truchas was established by a royal land grant in 1754 to create a buffer against nomadic Apache and Comanche bands who often raided both Spanish villages and Native American pueblos.

Hence, it was built as a walled compound around a plaza. Its settlers hand-dug miles of acequias (irrigation ditches) to bring water from the trout-filled river that gave the town its name. Although today's residents still work their farms, many commute to jobs in Santa Fe or Los Alamos. A few still make their living as traditional craftspeople alongside the many European-American artists and galleries that have been drawn to Truchas's mountain views.

Ojo Sarco
The High Road continues along State Road 76 through the Carson National Forest to a series of very small villages. First is Ojo Sarco, believed to be named for a spring in a nearby cañada (glen). The name was sometimes spelled Ojo Zarco; ojo is now translated as "eye" in Spanish, but also used to mean "spring" and zarco means "light blue", hence "blue spring".

Las Trampas

Next is Las Trampas, founded in 1751 by a royal land grant, "Santo Tomás Apostol del Río de las Trampas" ("Saint Thomas, Apostle of the River of Traps").

Despite the heavy toll taken by a smallpox epidemic and raids by Plains Indians, the village of Las Trampas survived and the settlers managed to build the stately San José de Gracia Church, completed in 1776. It is a National Historic Landmark, and the village is a National Historic District. The building across from the church with the little bell tower was the school.

El Valle and Ojito
State Road 76 continues through the Carson National Forest. Smaller roads lead off to El Valle or 'the valley' and Ojito 'little spring', both settled by colonists from Las Trampas. Both are accessed by scenic drives through the forest.

Chamisal
The next village on SR 76 is Chamisal. It, too, was settled by Spanish villagers moving out from Las Trampas; all of these villages lie within the Las Trampas land grant. Chamisal is probably named for the "chamisa" shrub (Chrysothamnus, or rabbitbrush) which turns golden in late summer. Chamisal Creek flows northwest to join the Peñasco River. There is a small, old church in the village (follow the sign to the old plaza).

Picurís
When SR 76 ends at a stop sign, the High Road turns right onto State Road 75. However, turn left to visit Picurís Pueblo. Spanish explorer Don Juan de Oñate called these people "pikuria"—those who paint.

Before the Spanish came, Picurís was one of the largest and most powerful of the pueblos, located at the confluence of two rivers and on a major pass that leads through the mountains to the Great Plains in the east. This strategic location made it a key site for trade with the Apaches, but once the Comanches arrived and the Spanish brought horses, the pueblo became vulnerable to attack.

The fierce Picurís continued to fight the Spanish even after the Reconquest, and lost many members of the tribe as a result. Like Taos Pueblo, Picurís is a Tiwa pueblo. Picurís today, while small, has a thriving buffalo herd and runs a hotel in Santa Fe. It is known for its gold-hued micaceous pottery (featuring flecks of shiny mica). When the 200-year-old San Lorenzo de Picurís church collapsed in 1989 due to water damage, pueblo members rebuilt it by hand. San Lorenzo Feast Day is August 10. (Tribal members request that visitors get permission before taking photos anywhere on the pueblo.)

Peñasco
The High Road continues on State Road 75 into Peñasco. The villages of Llano San Juan, Llano Largo, and Santa Barbara in the Peñasco area were first settled by Spanish colonists in 1796, the same year as Taos. Today the town of Peñasco serves residents in the many villages and rural areas surrounding it, as well as the residents of Picurís Pueblo.

Llano San Juan and Llano de la Yegua
Leaving Peñasco, the High Road and State Road 75 make a wide curve to the left. Going straight onto State Road 73 offers a side trip into Llano San Juan and Llano de la Yegua. A  is a "broad, treeless plain," while  means mare. These are lush, green valleys flanked by steep mesas. The small hamlet of Llano San Juan is served by the San Juan Nepomuceno Catholic Church.

Vadito
The High Road continues along State Road 75 through the tiny village of Vadito, which means "little ford." Beyond Vadito, the road passes through the valley of Placita.

Sipapu
At the "stone wall" intersection, the High Road turns left onto State Road 518 to Ranchos de Taos. However, just a few miles east on SR 518 is Sipapu Ski Resort and Recreation Area. The drive to Sipapu through the Carson National Forest is very scenic, and there are numerous trails and fishing spots on the Rio Pueblo.

Talpa
The High Road turns northwest along SR 518 and passes through more valleys and vistas of the Carson National Forest. Eventually it reaches Talpa, the last High Road village. Talpa is an ancient site; pit houses and pueblos were built here from 1100 to 1300. It was settled by Spanish colonists in the early 18th century, about the same time as Taos. Talpa, which means "knob", may refer to a formation in one of Talpa's little canyons.

Ranchos de Taos

Although the High Road officially ends where SR 518 meets SR 68 in Ranchos de Taos, symbolically it ends at the famous San Francisco de Asis Mission Church a few blocks south. This is probably one of the most painted and photographed churches in the nation—especially the buttresses in the back, famously painted by Georgia O'Keeffe and photographed by Paul Strand and Ansel Adams. Completion of its construction took from 1772 to 1815.

Location
Beginning:
End:

See also
 Scenic byways in the United States

References

External links
Highroadnewmexico.com: High Road to Taos visitor and art guide
Newmexico.org: High Road to Taos Scenic Byway
Video on the High Road to Taos Scenic Byway, produced by the New Mexico Tourism Department
Moon Travel Guides article
Article from Sunset magazine

Roads in New Mexico
Transportation in Santa Fe County, New Mexico
Transportation in Taos County, New Mexico
Sangre de Cristo Mountains
Taos, New Mexico
Art in New Mexico
Landmarks in New Mexico
New Mexico culture
New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties
Regions of New Mexico
Tourist attractions in Santa Fe County, New Mexico
Tourist attractions in Taos County, New Mexico
New Mexico Scenic and Historic Byways

High Road to Taos


Where Angels Fear to Tread (1905) is a novel by E. M. Forster. The title comes from a line in Alexander Pope's An Essay on Criticism: "For fools rush in where angels fear to tread".

The BBC adapted the novel for television in 1966 as a Play of the Month. In 1991 it was made into a film by Charles Sturridge, starring Rupert Graves, Giovanni Guidelli, Helen Mirren, Helena Bonham Carter, and Judy Davis. A ten-part radio adaptation of the novel was broadcast on BBC Radio 4. An opera based on the novel by Mark Weiser was premiered at the Peabody Institute of Music in 1999, and received its professional premiere at Opera San Jose in 2015.

Plot summary

On a journey to Tuscany with her young friend and travelling companion Caroline Abbott, widowed Lilia Herriton falls in love with Gino, a handsome Italian man much younger than herself, and decides to stay. Furious, her dead husband's family send Lilia's brother-in-law Philip to Italy to prevent a misalliance, but he arrives too late. Lilia has already married Gino and becomes pregnant again. She gives birth to a son, but dies in childbirth. Caroline decides to go to Tuscany again to save the child from what she perceives will be a difficult life. Not to be outdone, the Herritons send Philip again to Italy, this time accompanied by his sister Harriet, to save the family's reputation. In the public eye, they make it known that it is both their right and their duty to travel to Italy to obtain custody of the infant so that he can be raised as an Englishman. Secretly, though, they have no regard for the child, only public appearances.

Philip and Harriet meet Caroline in Monteriano. Both Philip and Caroline eventually fall under the charm of Italy, which causes them to waver in their original purpose. They further learn that Gino is fiercely devoted to Lilia's infant son. As they admit defeat in their mission however, Harriet kidnaps the baby, but the baby is accidentally killed when the carriage he is in overturns. Gino, hearing the news, attacks Phillip, but the two are reconciled after Caroline's mediation. Gino's physical outburst toward Philip in response to the news makes Philip realise what it is like to truly be alive. The guilt felt by Harriet causes her to lose her mind. Finally, as Philip and Caroline return to England, he realises that he is in love with Caroline but that he can never be with her, because she admits, dramatically, to being in love with Gino.

Writing
With a working title of "The Rescue", Forster began the novel in late 1904, completing ten chapters in one month. He modelled the character of Philip Herriton on Professor Edward J Dent. "He knew this, and took an interest in his own progress", said Forster. The author proposed to call the book "Monteriano" but the publishers didn't like it. It was Dent who contributed the final title.

Critical reception
The reviewer for UK daily newspaper The Manchester Guardian (forerunner of The Guardian) wrote in August 1905: "Where Angels Fear to Tread is not at all the kind of book that its title suggests. It is not mawkish or sentimental or commonplace. The motive of the story […] is familiar and ordinary enough, but the setting and treatment of this motive are almost startlingly original". The review noted "a persistent vein of cynicism which is apt to repel, but the cynicism is not deep-seated. […] [I]t takes the form of a sordid comedy culminating, unexpectedly and with a real dramatic force, in a grotesque tragedy." It concluded by saying, "We wonder whether EM Forster could be a little more charitable without losing in force and originality. An experiment might be worth trying."

Lionel Trilling wrote, "Forster's first novel appeared in 1905. The author was 26, not a remarkable age at which to have written a first novel unless the novel be, as Forster's was, a whole and mature work dominated by a fresh and commanding intelligence".

References

 Forster, E. M., Where Angels Fear to Tread, ed. by Oliver Stallybrass (London, 1975).
 Winkgens, Meinhard, 'Die Funktionalisierung des Italienbildes in den Romanen "Where Angels Fear to Tread" von E. M. Forster und "The Lost Girl" von D. H. Lawrence', Arcadia, 21 (1986), 41–61..

External links

 Plot Summary and Links
 Critical essay on Where Angels Fear to Tread @ the Yale Modernism Lab

1905 British novels
Alfred A. Knopf books
Novels by E. M. Forster
Novels set in Tuscany
William Blackwood books
British novels adapted into films
Novels adapted into operas

Where Angels Fear to Tread


The Pontiac Executive wis an automobile model produced bi the Pontiac Motor Division o General Motors frae 1967 tae 1970.

The Executive name replaced Pontiac's lang runnin mid-range Star Chief, beginnin for 1966 when aw Pontiacs in this range wur named Star Chief Executive for this ane year ae, afore the series became simply the Executive for 1967.

Executives featured mair deluxe trim, mair staundart amenities an a langer wheelbase an oweraw length than the lawer-priced Catalina models, but wur no quite as luxurious as the top-line Bonneville, whose wheelbase an ither dimensions the Executive shared.

Mechanically, the Executive wis virtually identical tae the Catalina, sharin similar staundart an optional V8 ingines startin wi the base 400 CID V8 wi twa-barrel carburetor ratit at 265 hp, an endin wi a 390 hp 428 CID HO V8 through 1969 an a lairger 455 CID V8 ratit at 370 hp in 1970. The standard transmission each year wis a three-speed manual wi column shift, wi a floor-mountit fower-speed wi Hurst shifter optional in 1967 and 1968. Housomeivver, 98 percent o Executives wur equipt wi the three-speed Turbo Hydra-Matic automatic durin the model's fower year run.

Executives wur available as a fower-door pillared sedan, twa-door hardtop coupe, fower-door hardtop sedan, an Safari station wagons in twa an three-seat versions. The Executive Safari wagons differed frae the Catalina an Bonneville Safari wagons bi featurin simulated wood panelin. Nae Executive convertibles wur affered.

Total ootput o the Executive wis:
1967: 35,491 units
1968: 32,597 units
1969: 25,845 units
1970: 21,936 units

Through its fower years, the Executive wis the lowest-volume full-size Pontiac.  Efter 1970, baith the Executive an the Ventura trim option on the Catalina wur dropped, replaced for 1971 bi the new Catalina Brougham an the Bonneville, which wis moved doun a notch in the model hierarchy wi the introduction o the new Grand Ville.

Executive
Rear wheel drive vehicles
Full-size vehicles
Coupes
Sedans
Station wagons
1960s automobiles
1970s automobiles
Motor vehicles manufactured in the Unitit States

Pontiac Executive


A sales quote is an estimated amount that a person selling something gives to a customer. It is given to show them how much it would cost to have the work done. Many services do not have fixed prices for work. The cost can change depending on the tools, materials and how much work is needed to be done for each customer. The person calculates an estimated amount, and gives this to the customer, so that they can have an idea how much it will cost.

Sales quote is for example a quote given to the customer by auto insurance broker based on details like income, work position, criminal record and others.

The sales quote is figured from the information given by the potential customer, about the work they would like to have done.

References

Commerce

Sales quote