Katarina Leigh Waters (born 10 November 1980) is a German-born English American professional wrestler and actress. She is best known for her time with Impact Wrestling under the ring names Katarina or Winter and for her time in WWE under the ring name Katie Lea Burchill. She spent many years on the independent circuit, particularly in the Frontier Wrestling Alliance, where she used the ring name Nikita.

After signing with WWE, she competed in their former developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling, where she became a two time Women's Champion, before being called up to the main roster. After being released from the WWE in April 2010, Waters joined TNA in August 2010, adopting the new ring name Winter. During her first year in the company, she managed to win both of the promotion's women's championships, first teaming with Angelina Love to win the Knockouts Tag Team Championship in December 2010 and then winning the Knockouts Championship two times in June and August 2011.

Professional wrestling career

Early career (2000–2002)
At a young age, Waters read an article about the main event of WrestleMania VI and believed the Ultimate Warrior's mysterious origins to be true. When she came to England at 18, she was under the impression that wrestling companies only existed in America until she saw a local show advertised in London. However, the show's style was catered more towards British wrestling than sports entertainment and Waters once again retired thoughts of becoming involved in wrestling until she saw Alex Shane and Dominator on The Jerry Springer Show with their more outrageous gimmicks and became interested again, seeking out National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) UK Hammerlock and being trained by Jon Ryan. Originally, Waters used the name Kat but after Stacy Carter began using this name in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), she changed her name to Nikita after the television program La Femme Nikita. After being trained Waters made her debut in February 2000 on ITV Meridian's TransAtlantic Wrestling Challenge, a tournament between British and American wrestlers of the NWA where she won the Women's Championship.

Frontier Wrestling Alliance

Feud with The Family (2002–2003)
After starting her wrestling career, Waters sought the Frontier Wrestling Alliance (FWA) and began training with Alex Shane, who inspired her on The Jerry Springer Show. With Shane she began hosting a talk radio programme on Talksport which helped FWA gain national notoriety among the wrestling community. Because of her association with the show she was placed on the card for their February 2002 event, Revival, where she lost to Lexie Fyfe. However, the match was badly reviewed backstage and Waters began training twice a week to improve herself. To keep exposure while improving her in-ring skills, she began to frequently tag team with fellow newcomer Hade Vansen in mixed tag team matches, including a match against British female veteran Sweet Saraya, until August when she impressed with a singles match against Paul Travell. This led to a feud where Travell dominated until the end of 2002 but in the first FWA event of 2003 Nikita picked up her first singles victory in the company over Travell and went on a singles winning streak for a month until she lost in her third bout against Andy Simmons.

While Nikita had become successful as a solo wrestler, however, her rivalry with Travell had escalated when he became part of The Family, a group of villainous wrestlers who became FWA Tag Team Champions. The feud escalated after Nikita and Shane failed to win the Tag Team Championship a number of times and led to one of Waters' most famous moments in wrestling when, at the Frontiers of Honour co-held with American promotion Ring of Honor (ROH) in May Alex Shane, Ulf Herman, and Nikita took on The Family (Travell, Brandon Thomas, and Scott Parker) in a hardcore six-man tag team match. Though The Family won, Nikita gained notoriety when she jumped from the top tier in the arena onto the ground, landing on The Family and their feud ended. Waters spoke about this moment in Alternative Wrestling Magazine saying "So the crowd saw what I was about to do and started reacting and cheering before I had even done any-thing, and just that moment standing up there in the light and hearing that was, well, let's just say I wanted to stay up there forever". It was later announced to be the tenth most memorable moment of the FWA's first decade in their YouTube Top 20 Countdown.

Sporadic appearances (2003–2006)
With her rivalry against The Family over, Nikita began a new storyline where an anonymous bounty had been put on her head. As she took on all comers trying to claim the bounty, Nikita went undefeated in the rest of 2003 and 2004. By June 2004 she had faced and defeated most of the company's major wrestlers which led to the return of the World Association of Wrestling's veteran Sweet Saraya who revealed the bounty had been placed on Nikita by the jealous ring announcer, Jane Childs. Saraya claimed the bounty with a non-sanctioned assault on Nikita, delivering a tombstone piledriver at the Carpe Diem event putting Nikita out of action for months and off the FWA roster for over a year. She returned in October 2005 in a losing effort against Simply Luscious. She was victorious on the next show in a six-man tag team match, with her and Luscious on opposing teams. Though Nikita would not wrestle after this point, she realigned herself with former tag team partner Hade Vansen and at New Frontiers 2006 helped him win the FWA British Heavyweight Championship in a five-way event featuring Joe Legend, Alex Shane, Jody Fleisch, and Jonny Storm. She remained at Vansen's side until June's FWA Vs All Star Wrestling event year when she announced her retirement from the company as she had been scouted for World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and sent to Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) for training.

International circuit (2005–2006)
In 2005, she flew to France to take part in the Fighting Spirit Federation's subordinate promotion Queens of Chaos. In an exhibition match she aligned herself with German wrestler Sick (Dejan Stegar) in a losing tag team effort to Kid Kash and Trinity. However, in the Queen of the Rumble match with the World Queen of Chaos Championship on the line she entered second and became the winner, besting competition from England, Ireland, America, and Japan. She defended the title all over France and in Switzerland until almost exactly a year later when, after defending the belt against Skye in a two out of three falls match, she announced she had exclusively signed with WWE and had to relinquish the title undefeated. During her time on the Continent she made a guest appearance in German Stampede Wrestling (GSW), losing to Wesna with Nora Greenwald as referee International Impact III. She returned to GSW for Night In Motion VII: A Few Good Men in July 2006 to take on the promotion's other premiere female wrestler and namesake, Blue Nikita. The Greek Nikita won the match and since then Waters has used the name Katie Lea instead.

Just before she lost her Nikita name to Blue Nikita, Waters took part in the video tapings for Shimmer Women Athletes in May 2006. Playing a fan favourite in Volume 5, she defeated Lacey but then for Volume 6 became a villain by using underhanded tactics and was pinned by Daizee Haze.

World Wrestling Entertainment

Ohio Valley Wrestling years (2006-2008)
After relocating to the United States, Waters began using the ring name Katie Lea, having lost a match to Greek wrestler and namesake Blue Nikita. She made her debut with a dark match victory over Melody on 23 August. A week later she teamed with ODB to make her television debut, losing to Beth Phoenix and Serena. At the time ODB, seeing herself as the best wrestler in OVW, created the OVW Women's Championship for herself and defended it in a battle royal, in which Lea unsuccessfully participated. On 13 September she had another chance in a four-way match but Serena won the belt, besting Lea, Phoenix, and ODB. Her next title opportunity, on 11 October, ended in disqualification when an angry Serena, who had lost the belt to Phoenix, interrupted her three-way match also including ODB. Lea consoled herself by winning a Halloween costume contest.

The day after Halloween saw the OVW Women's Championship contested in a gauntlet match, which Lea won by last pinning Serena, earning her first Women's Championship. She held the title for 212 days, giving her the longest single and combined reigns until Melody went over that mark in June 2009. Phoenix did not take her loss well as it was not in a straight singles match and tried to earn a rematch but lost to Lea in a mixed tag team match the following week, with El Aero Fuego and Charles Evans as their respective partners. Lea tried to defend her belt against Serena but the match ended in disqualification when a jealous Phoenix attacked Serena for having a chance before her and so on 22 November the three were put in a no-disqualification non-title match which Serena won. Having already defended her belt against Serena, though, Lea continued to defend against newcomers, such as ODB and Jennifer Fit. She also began to host an in-ring talk segment entitled "Kat's Kradle.

After this match, on 6 December, Phoenix made her way to the ring and announced herself as still being champion with her own belt. Troubleshooter, or authority figure, Danny Basham announced that as ODB had created the belt for herself neither belt was official but promised to settle the matter. At 13 December OVW television tapings he announced that the dispute would be settled in OVW's first ladies ladder match and the winner would be officially recognised as Women's Champion. In the last television episode of 2006, Lea climbed to the top of the ladder to retrieve both belts and become the undisputed OVW Women's Champion as the year closed. Their feud closed on the first episode of 2007 when Basham went to present the OVW Women's Championship, giving it official recognition in the company, only for Phoenix to snatch it from him. However, this proved to be a show of sportsmanship as Phoenix presented the belt to Lea herself in recognition of their competitive ladder match.

She then began a feud with Cherry Pie after two successful title defences against her resulted in an assault from Pie's stablemates The Untouchables (Deuce and Domino) until Jon Bolen and Ryan Reeves saved her. Days later at a non-televised event, Lea and Bolen defeated Cherry and Domino in a mixed tag match. However, the televised rematch was a three-on-two handicap with all three Untouchables defeating Lea and Bolen. At the end of January all the women in OVW competed in a two out of three tug of war which Lea was on the winning side. This led to the Miss OVW competition which saw the women compete in a variety of competitions and matches with ODB gaining the crown on 21 March. After this ODB picked up a non-title victory on 11 April and win by disqualification the following week and with a battle royal victory earned herself contention for the title. On 1 June, ODB brought Lea's reign as champion to an end in singles action at OVW Six Flags. After a series of mixed tag team contests between the two, ODB retained her title in a three-way match also featuring Victoria Crawford on 21 July. She pinned Phoenix in August for another shot at the belt but came up short at the end of the month.

Milena Roucka then won the belt from ODB in a six-way dark match, in which Lea participated. After defeating Roucka twice in non-title matches In late October, Roucka attacked Lea in a game of duck, duck, goose and subsequently defeated Lea in a Kiss My Foot match in December to retain the title. In 2008, Lea began receiving presents from a secret admirer including a telegram, flowers, and an outfit. By late February, Paul Burchill revealed himself to be her admirer and helped her win the Women's Championship for the second time. She lost the title a week later to Josie in a dark match because WWE had severed ties with OVW and called her up to their programming.

Debut and championship pursuits (2008–2009)

Waters made her television debut on 11 February's Raw (airing on tape delay from the previous week) as the on-screen sister of fellow FWA alumnus Paul Burchill, becoming Katie Lea Burchill. The two originally displayed early signs of a gimmick based around incest with Paul using the catchphrase "whatever Katie wants, Katie gets", but owing to the WWE changing its television rating to PG (Parental Guidance) later that year, the incest indications stopped. At WrestleMania XXIV, Lea was one of the lumberjills in the Playboy BunnyMania Match, in which Beth Phoenix and Melina defeated Maria and Ashley.

After appearing alongside Burchill on WWE Heat, Lea made her in-ring television debut on 28 April episode of Raw defeating Super Crazy in an intergender Handicap Match along with Burchill.

On 19 May, on Raw, she had a confrontation with the Women's Champion, Mickie James where she insinuated James had used her relationship with John Cena to sleep her way to success. Two weeks later, Lea teamed up with Beth Phoenix in a winning effort defeating James and Melina, in which she pinned James. On 16 June episode of Raw, Lea and Burchill defeated James and Mr. Kennedy in a mixed tag team match, where Lea pinned James a second time, thus earning a title shot At the Night of Champions pay-per-view, Lea challenged Mickie James for the WWE Women's Championship but was unsuccessful in capturing the title. On 14 July episode of Raw, Lea once again challenged James for the Women's Championship, but was unsuccessful. After she and her brother beat James and Kofi Kingston, she received another chance at James' title in August but failed to win.

She closed out the year by appearing tag team matches, regularly teaming with Jillian Hall. On the last Raw of the year, she made her final appearance in a battle royal to determine the next challenger for the Women's Championship, which was ultimately won by Melina.

Brand switches and departure (2009–2010)
Two days later, on 30 December, it was revealed that Lea and Burchill had been moved to the ECW brand, but failed to make an impression with Burchill losing to continue DJ Gabriel's winning streak. Going into 2009, Lea made a better impact in her ECW on Sci Fi debut with a win against Gabriel's partner Alicia Fox. However, the Burchills lost a tag team match against Gabriel and Fox the following week.

On 5 April 2009, she competed in the 25-Diva Battle Royal at WrestleMania XXV, but the match was won by Santina Marella. Lea wrestled again in July 2009 against the newly drafted Bella Twins. First facing Nikki, Katie took the advantage but Nikki swapped places with her twin sister, fooling both Katie and the referee, causing Katie to lose. Two weeks later on WWE Superstars, the twins made the same switch in reverse order after the referee could not differentiate between the two and Lea lost again.

From August towards the end of 2009, Paul became embroiled in a rivalry with backstage interviewer Gregory Helms, over whether he was also in-ring performer The Hurricane. They agreed to settle the matter in a match on 17 November episode of ECW, which saw Hurricane's mask put up against Burchill's career on the ECW brand. Despite many attempts, Paul could not secure the pin and subsequently lost the match, resulting in both he and Katie Lea leaving ECW. The following week on ECW, Katie Lea and Paul, now sporting masks and calling themselves The Beautiful Nightmare and The Ripper, respectively, appeared in a backstage segment with General Manager Tiffany and asked for a contract, which Tiffany said they would receive if The Ripper could defeat The Hurricane the next week on ECW. However, The Ripper was unmasked by Hurricane and subsequently defeated in their match, resulting in Katie and Burchill remaining off ECW.

On 11 January 2010, Lea moved back to the Raw brand without her brother Paul Burchill, by competing in a first round tournament match for the vacant Divas Championship but lost to Eve Torres. At the Royal Rumble pay-per-view, Katie Lea teamed up with Maryse, Natalya, Hall, and Alicia Fox in a losing effort to the team of Kim, Kelly Kelly, Eve Torres, and The Bella Twins. On 26 February, Paul was formally released by WWE leaving Katie to appear on her own, but she was released from her WWE contract two months later, on 22 April, ending her five-year tenure with the company.

Total Nonstop Action Wrestling

Knockouts Tag Team Champion (2010–2011)

After her release from WWE, Waters briefly returned to the independent circuit, wrestling under the ring name Kat La Noir. On 23 August 2010 Waters wrestled in a tryout dark match for  TNA at the tapings of their Impact television show, losing to Madison Rayne; it was reported on 15 October that TNA had signed her to a contract. Waters debuted on 21 October episode of Impact!, using the name Winter, admiring Angelina Love during a backstage segment in a somewhat supernatural appearance. After weeks of appearing only in front of Love, Winter was seen for the first time by other Knockouts on 25 November episode of Impact! when she saved Love during a large backstage brawl. On 9 December at the tapings of 23 December episode of Impact! Winter replaced an injured Velvet Sky and teamed with Love in a tournament final, where they defeated Madison Rayne and Tara to win the TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship. On the edition of 13 January of Impact!, Angelina and Winter successfully defend their championship against Madison Rayne and Tara after Winter knocked out Tara with a dragon sleeper. On the edition of 27 January of Impact!, Winter brawled with Velvet Sky, who claimed she was trying to break up The Beautiful People. On the edition of 3 March of Impact!, Cookie and Robbie E aligned themselves with former Jersey Shore cast member Angelina Pivarnick, with whom they bonded through their mutual dislike of Jenni "JWoww" Farley, whom Pivarnick proceeded to challenge to a match (whom was replaced by Winter). The following week, Winter, Angelina Love and Velvet Sky defeated Cookie, Angelina Pivarnick and Sarita in a six knockout tag team match. Winter and Love lost the Knockouts Tag Team Championship to Mexican America (Sarita and Rosita) on 13 March at Victory Road, after an interference by Velvet Sky backfired. On the following episode of Impact!, Winter and Angelina Love teamed up with Matt Morgan where they defeated Mexican America (Rosita, Sarita, Hernandez) in a six-person street fight, After the match, the "fan", who had interfered in Morgan's match at Victory Road, once again entered the ring and attacked Morgan.

Knockouts Champion and departure (2011–2012)

On the edition of 24 March of Impact!, Winter, seemingly having control over Love's actions, prevented her from saving Sky from a beatdown at the hands of Sarita and Rosita, turning her heel in the process. On the edition of 7 April of Impact!, Love, still under Winter's spell, turned on Sky during a Knockouts Tag Team Championship match against Sarita and Rosita and left her to be pinned by the champions. On the edition of 23 June of Impact Wrestling, Winter defeated TNA Women's Knockout Champion Mickie James in a non-title Street Fight, following outside interference from Love, earning her a shot at James' Knockouts Championship. On 7 August at Hardcore Justice, Winter defeated James, with help from Love, to win the Knockouts Championship for the first time. With the win, she became the first British Knockouts Champion and became the sixth Knockout (after Angelina Love, Awesome Kong, Madison Rayne, Taylor Wilde and Tara) to have held both the Knockouts Championship and Knockouts Tag Team Championship. On 25 August at the tapings of the edition of 1 September of Impact Wrestling, Winter lost the Knockouts Championship back to Mickie James, ending her reign at just 18 days. On 11 September at No Surrender, Winter regained the title from James. On 16 October at Bound for Glory, Winter lost the title to Velvet Sky in a four-way match, which also included Madison Rayne and Mickie James and was refereed by Karen Jarrett. On 12 January 2012 episode of Impact Wrestling, Winter lost to ODB. After saving ODB from Love and Winter, Eric Young was challenged by Love to a match. Young won the match via disqualification, after Love kicked him in the groin. This led to a tag team match, on 26 January episode of Impact Wrestling, with Love and Winter losing to ODB and Eric Young. Winter and Love appeared together for the first time in five months, on 14 June, at an Impact house show in Belton, Texas, when they teamed up with Rosita and Sarita in a losing effort against Mickie James, Tara, and Velvet Sky in the main event four-on-three handicap match after Sky pinned Rosita for the win. Waters left TNA shortly afterward.

Independent circuit (2011–2018)
On 25 February 2011 Waters made her debut at World Independent Ladies Division in a in ring segment with Tab Jackson and Aiden Riley. On 4 August 2011, Waters defeated Tab Jackson in a no holds barred match to win the vacant WILD World Championship. On 10 December 2011 Winter defeated Terra, this match was later named 2011 match of the year. On 2 February 2012 she became the longest reigning champion with her reign surpassing the previous record of Lucky O'Shea's 182 days.

On 14 May 2011 at the FWE Meltdown pay-per-view, Waters made her debut for Family Wrestling Entertainment (FWE), defeating Rosita. At the FWE Empire City Showdown pay-per-view, on 20 September 2011, Winter defeated Rosita with Christy Hemme as the special guest referee. At the FWE Fallout pay-per-view, on 15 November 2011, Winter defeated Rosita with Christy Hemme as the special guest referee. At the FWE Haastility pay-per-view, on 15 December 2011, Winter defeated Jackie Haas. Then, at FWE No Limits, Winter defeated Brooke Tessmacher in the first round, before losing to Maria Kanellis, after the interference from TnT (Tara and Brooke Tessmacher), in a tournament to determinate the first ever FWE Women's Champion. Month later, on 24 March, Waters defeated Maria and fellow TNA Knockout Rosita in a three-way match to win the FWE Women's Championship for the first time. On 28 April, Waters defeated Melina with Lita as the special guest referee to retain the FWE Women's Championship. Later Maria challenged Winter to a rematch and Winter accepted  On 28 July 2012 episode of FWE Wrestling, Winter dropped the FWE Women's Championship back to Maria Kanellis, making Maria a two-time champion. On 4 October 2012 at the Back 2 Brooklyn pay-per-view, Waters, under the name Katarina Leigh, teamed up with Maria in losing effort to The Beautiful People (Angelina Love and Velvet Sky) in a tag team match. After the match ended, Waters was attacked by the evil Ivelisse Velez, who was making her FWE debut.

Winter made her debut for House of Hardcore, on 6 October 2012 at the promotion's first show, where she lost to Jazz in a singles match. Under the name Katarina Leigh, she participated in Pro Wrestling Syndicate's Bombshells Championship tournament making the final where she was eliminated last by Missy Sampson in a four-way elimination match.

In October 2016, Leigh wrestled for What Culture Pro Wrestling in the UK, unsuccessfully challenging for the WCPW Women's Championship.

Return to Impact Wrestling (2018–2019)
Leigh made her return to Impact Wrestling under a new name, Katarina, on 10 May episode as Grado's new girlfriend. At Impact Wrestling One Night Only: Zero Fear which aired on 15 June 2018, Katarina unsuccessfully challenged Su Yung for the Impact Knockouts Championship. Katarina turned heel on 6 September episode of Impact!, when she dumped and insulted Grado and announced that she was in love with Grado's best friend, Joe Hendry, only for Hendry to turn Katarina down after she kissed him.

Women of Wrestling (2017–2019)
Waters made her debut for Women of Wrestling (WOW) during their taping in October 2018, under the name The Temptress, as she aligned herself with The Dagger. On WOW's seventh episode that aired on AXS TV on March 1, 2019, The Temptress defeated Fire. The Temptress, along with The Dagger, have feuded with Fire and Keta Rush. The Temptress, along with the Dagger, competed in the WOW World Tag Team Championship tournament at the second season on AXS TV, however, were eliminated on the first round by losing to Adrenaline and Fire

Acting career

Waters has acted in several films. She has had roles in such films as Amanda & The Guardian, 24 Hours in Vegas, and playing a special forces operative in the zombie apocalypse thriller, Redcon-1. She also had a recurring role on Emergency: L.A. as a police officer named Dana Lewis.

Since 2011, she has also served as a horror host of Katarina's Nightmare Theater, a line of DVD editions for vintage cult horror films released by Scorpion Releasing.

Waters appeared in the 2021 horror film, The Amityville Moon, as the evil Sister Francis.

Personal life
Waters was born and raised in West Germany (which later became Germany after reunification) before relocating to England to attend university. Waters graduated with a Bachelor of Arts with honours in film and drama. She is fluent in both English and German. As well as wrestling, Waters had a small career in film, directing the British independent film Welcome To Hell and acting in Utopian Pictures' Tough Justice as Tara Hunt  and as "Stripper #1" in TVyouno.com film 24 Hours in Las Vegas, Zoe in Go Green, Valerie in Bad Pixel and as the Serpent Queen in the 2012 film Amanda and the Guardian, which was never released. Waters also appears, along with Shelly Martinez, in the music video for "Miss Outta Control" by Electrolightz. Her biggest influence in the wrestling world is Kevin Nash.

As well as in film, Waters has made some small television appearances. She appeared on the pilot showcase programme Comedy Lab in 2002. Her role saw her performing wrestling moves during "Karma Chameleon", as sung by the then relatively unknown Russell Brand. In 2003, she appeared on an episode of Fort Boyard under her ringname Nikita. As she was appearing in the Frontier Wrestling Alliance at the time, her teammates included Doug Williams, Paul Burchill and World Association of Wrestling's Sweet Saraya. Waters favorite's are wrestlers Jonny Storm, Darren Burridge, Alex Shane, television shows La Femme Nikita and Smallville, Waters also cited that "I am totally obsessed with Lex Luthor".  Waters has studied film and drama for three years.

On October 11, 2019, Waters came out as pansexual. On July 7, 2022, Waters announced that she became an American citizen.

Championships and accomplishments

 British Empire Wrestling
 British Empire Woman's Championship (1 time)
 British Independent Circuit
 British Women's Championship (3 times, current)
 Family Wrestling Entertainment
 FWE Women's Championship (1 time)
 Hoodslam
 GLAM Championship (1 time, current)
 GLAM Championship Tournament (2020)
 Maverick Pro Wrestling
 MPW Women's Championship (2 times, current)
 Ohio Valley Wrestling
 OVW Women's Championship (2 times)
 Pro Wrestling Illustrated
 Ranked No. 18 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2012
 Queens of Chaos
 World Queens of Chaos Championship (1 time)
 Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
 TNA Knockouts Championship (2 times)
 TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Angelina Love
 TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship Tournament (2010) – with Angelina Love
 Trans-Atlantic Wrestling
 TWC Women's Championship (1 time)
 World Independent Ladies Division Wrestling
 WILD World Championship (1 time)
 WILD Warrior of the Year (2011)
 WILD Match of the Year (2011) vs. Terra Calaway

References

External links

Impact Wrestling profile

1980 births
21st-century English actresses
21st-century American actresses
21st-century female professional wrestlers
English female professional wrestlers
American female professional wrestlers
English emigrants to the United States
LGBT professional wrestlers
English LGBT sportspeople
German LGBT sportspeople
American LGBT sportspeople
Living people
Pansexual women
People from Lüneburg
Professional wrestling managers and valets
German emigrants
Immigrants to the United Kingdom
Immigrants to the United States
German female professional wrestlers
Naturalized citizens of the United States
American people of German descent
American people of English descent
TNA/Impact Knockouts World Champions
TNA/Impact Knockouts World Tag Team Champions
OVW Women's Champions

Katarina Waters


A cockpit is the open space, normally near the front of an aircraft, where a pilot controls the aircraft. A different name for the cockpit is the flight deck, flight deck can also refer to the flight deck on an aircraft carrier. Current cockpits have walls on all sides, this may not be the same for some small aircraft, and cockpits on aircraft with passengers have the cockpit separated from the passenger area of the aircraft. Motorboats also have cockpits.

Cockpit as a term for the pilot's space in an aircraft first appeared in 1914. From about 1935 cockpit also came to be used informally to refer to the driver's seat of a car, especially a high performance one, and this is official terminology in Formula One. The term is most likely related to the sailing term for the coxswain's station in a Royal Navy ship, and later the location of the ship's rudder controls.

Aircraft

Cockpit


The British Rail Class 12 is a diesel locomotive built mainly for shunting duties.

This was the second batch of standard Southern Railway shunters based on the English Electric 6KT 35 hp (260kW) diesel engine.  These locomotives (BR numbers 15201-15203) were built by the SR in 1937 and were later classified D3/12.

The Class 12 locomotives were built at the BR Ashford Works over the period 1949–1952. They were numbered 15211–15236 and became Class 12. No locomotives survived long enough to acquire Class 12 TOPS numbers though.

12

British Rail Class 12


In physics, Compton scattering, or the Compton effect, is the name used for what happens to the energy (or frequency or wavelength) of an X-ray or gamma ray photon when it interacts with matter; the wavelength increases (or energy/frequency decreases) as it scatters off electrons. This scattering is one of the main things that happen when gamma rays meet matter. The Compton effect was studied by Arthur Holly Compton  in 1923.

References

Wave physics

Compton scattering


Beef cattle are cattle raised for meat production (as distinguished from dairy cattle). The meat of cattle is known as beef. While the principal use of beef cattle is meat production, other uses include leather, and products used in shampoo and cosmetics. The plural beeves, when referring to such meat-animals (of either sex), is well known in the American cattle industry, but is often restricted to steers.

Cattle

Beef cattle


Sautéing is a method of cooking food. It uses a small amount of fat in a shallow pan. The heat must be quite high. Ingredients are often cut into pieces or sliced thinly. It makes things cook faster.
Food that is sautéed is browned, but it keeps the same texture, moisture and flavor. If meat, or fish is sautéed, the sauté is sometimes finished by using the pan's remains to make a sauce.

Sautéing is different from pan-frying. People sometimes confuse the two. In pan-frying larger pieces of food (for example, chops or steaks) are cooked quickly. Sautéing is also different from searing. Searing only browns the surface of the food. Olive oil or clarified butter are commonly used for sautéing. Most others fats will work too. Regular butter will produce more flavor. However it burns at a lower temperature and more quickly than other fats. This is because of the milk solids in it. Therefore clarified butter is better for sautéing.

Cooking methods

Sautéing


The Smart Roadster (W452) was a two-door, two-seater sports car (S-segment in Europe) first introduced in 2002 by Smart GmbH. Sales of the Roadster and Roadster Coupé were mostly successful, and the production ended in November 2005 after 43,000 Roadsters were made. The last one built now resides in the Mercedes-Benz Museum.

It is defined by a consortium between Switzerland (Swatch), Germany (Mercedes-Benz) and France, whose vehicle remains "Made in France" because it is built entirely at its Hambach factory in Moselle.

History
The two-seat, 2.5 m (98 in)-long Smart City-Coupe (later named Smart Fortwo) was launched at the 1998 Paris Motor Show. This was the beginning of a new car brand and one of the more radical vehicle concepts to hit the European market since the bubble cars of the 1950s. It was also the beginning of a difficult period for Smart cars. The City Coupe had stability problems that were only discovered prior to the launch. This forced a package of alterations to be made that were both expensive and compromised the car's handling, ride, and gear shift. Public concerns over the car's stability, combined with Smart's elitist marketing and the sheer radicality of the car's design, proved damaging to initial sales. Production projections were slashed from 200,000 per year to 80,000 which was almost disastrous for a new brand with just one product.

Within the company, the evangelical buzz surrounding the launch of the radical City-Coupe quickly evaporated. With new management, new marketing initiatives, and continuing revisions to the car's engineering to answer public concerns, future vehicle plans, including the development of a four-seat model, had not been far advanced.

Design and development

Under design director Jens Manske in autumn 1998, Smart's 14-person design and engineering team began to sketch possible future Smart cars. They soon realised that the powertrain of the City-Coupe was ideal for a small sports car, with a compact turbo engine driving the rear wheels via a 6-speed automated manual gearbox.

Following Smart's 'reduce to the max' philosophy and general innovative approach, a concept for a super compact, practical, and pure sports car was generated. Two quarter-scale exterior and two quarter-scale interior models were made in February 1999 with Volker Leutz's exterior and Christoph Machinek's interior proposals selected for development into full-size development models. The design of the car had progressed considerably by the time Michael Mauer officially arrived from Mercedes-Benz's Japan design centre to take over Menske's position in May 1999. Mauer worked closely with the design team to quickly develop the roadster, with the intention now of producing a show car for the upcoming 1999 IAA Motor Show in Frankfurt.

By June the full-size models of the roadster were handed over to Stola in Italy for production of the show car model, which was produced in about three months for the car's debut at the Frankfurt show. The Roadster concept was well received at Frankfurt and helped to convince management that the car should be developed for production. At the same time, a decision was made to develop Mauer's idea for a coupe version as a concept car for the Paris motor show a year later. As the development of the coupe concept began, so the roadster show car was developed over the following year with both exterior and interior designs completed by November 2000. However, colour and trim design continued until a year later.

By early 2000, the Smart City-Coupe had finally started to gain sales momentum, with its Cabrio version making a significant addition to total Smart sales. In March Mauer left Smart for Saab, succeeded by Hartmut Sinkwitz in May. As the third design director of Smart during the Roadster's development, Sinkwitz had to bring the concept to production in a very short time. This task may have been made somewhat easier by the Roadster having been designed from the start to use existing powertrain and other City-Coupe components. Given some of the advanced design features, it is a credit to the design team that so much of the concept car made it to production.

Concept car
The 'Roadster Coupe' as shown at the 2000 Paris Motor Show was already on its way to production form. It shared the design of the Roadster from the doors forward but had a glass Targa roof and rear structure resembling a small shooting-brake in the same way as the BMW Z3 coupe and the Saab 9X concept car developed under Mauer at Saab a few years later.

Production versions of both the Roadster and Roadster Coupe debuted together at the 2002 Paris Motor Show and were available to buy within a few months. Both cars were unique in the market, being significantly smaller than the Toyota MR2, MG TF, Fiat Barchetta and Mazda MX-5, but offering similar performance and practicality to the base versions of these cars while being significantly more fuel-efficient, albeit at a similar price point.

Production

The Smart Roadster and Roadster Coupé were introduced in 2002, based on a stretched platform of the Fortwo with a full-length of 3427 mm. The two variants are meant to be reminiscent of the British roadster of yore, such as the Triumph Spitfire or the MG B. Both the Roadster and Roadster Coupé are available with a removable Targa roof or an electrical softtop. The Roadster is powered by 45 or 60 kW (61 or 82 PS) versions of the turbocharged 698cc 3-cylinder Suprex engine in the rear, which is engineered by Mercedes-Benz. The Roadster Coupé has only the more powerful  engine. A steering wheel with Formula 1-style paddle-shifters, to control the single-clutch automated manual transmission, is optional. Weighing as little as , the Roadster is intended to provide the emotion of driving a sports car at an affordable cost.

Both the Roadster and Roadster Coupé are available in Brabus-tuned versions with power increased to . The Brabus versions have a different twin sports exhaust, lower suspension, polished six-spoke aluminum alloy Monoblock VI 17" wheels (205/40 ZR17 at the front and 225/35 ZR17 at the rear), front spoiler, side skirts and radiator grille. Exclusive Brabus (Xclusive) interior includes a leather-trimmed dashboard, alloy-effect accent parts, instrument graphics, leather/aluminium gearshift with Brabus labelled starter button, aluminium handbrake handle (which fouls the central armrest), aluminium pedals and Brabus labeled floor mats. The Monoblock wheels are known to be very soft and as a result, are very easy to buckle. The lacquer on these wheels is also very poor, and corrosion can occur very early in the life of the wheel.

Despite a projected break-even of only 8,000 to 10,000 units per year, first-year sales almost doubled this estimate.  British motoring television show and magazine Top Gear praised the Roadster, awarding it Fun Car Of The Year for 2005.

43,091 Roadsters were built and put on the shop fronts, with chassis numbers ranging from 00,001 to around 43,400.

Brabus V6 Bi-Turbo prototypes

In 2003, German tuning house Brabus created a prototype version of the Roadster Coupé with two merged 3-cylinder engines to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Solituderennen. This V6 bi-turbo powerplant had a maximum power of  for a weight of only , giving it the same power-to-weight ratio as a Porsche 911 Carrera 4S. Smart claimed the car could accelerate to  in under five seconds.

Since the twin-turbo V6 engine occupies almost twice as much space as their 3-cylinder engines, the fuel tank had to be relocated to the nose of the car, where a luggage compartment used to be. It comes in the form of a Formula 1-type foam-rubber fuel bladder. The bigger engine also forced a change from separate coil springs and dampers to concentric units to support the de Dion rear suspension.

Ten cars were built and presented at the Castle Solitude. They are not available for sale and are not even allowed to be driven on public roads in Germany. Some of Mercedes' race drivers, like Markus Winkelhock, drove guests around the event's race track.

Special editions

In March 2006 Smart unveiled the final variant of the Roadster at the Geneva Motor Show: a limited collector's edition.

It was based on the top model Brabus Xclusive with  and came with a satin brown-metallic paint job. The interior had brown leather and higher quality materials were used extensively. It had the new Run line aluminium wheels and Brabus exhaust, front spoiler, and side fenders. Of 50 planned cars, only 30 were made.

A limited-edition Roadster Coupe Racing edition (RCR) was released in 2005 in the UK. Only 50 in the world were made and featured all the Brabus trimmings plus special black Alcantara and leather seats with red diamond pattern stitching. The seats were not heated as they are in the main Brabus model. The black Alcantara and red stitching are also featured on the dash and door panels. Interior door handles and clock surrounds were finished in red to match the exterior paintwork. Each comes with a numbered plaque on the glovebox - stating the build number - RCR UK #/50. These cars were finished in Ferrari Red with matching light surrounds and bumper sections, the Tridion safety cell being all silver. They were made to look like the V6 bi-turbo and came with a free optional SB2 power upgrade kit for the engine, which raised the standard  to . The reason they were not fitted with the  engine is that the cars came off the production line in 2004 as normal  engine roadsters before being given the Brabus makeover. The SB2 upgrade was optional to allow customers the option for lower insurance and road tax/ emissions. So some RCRs did not have the SB2 upgrade carried out when new. There were 50 right-hand drive cars (RCR 90) built especially for the UK with the SB2 kit and . Additionally, BRABUS built 7 left-handed cars (RCR 90) for the rest of Europe and only 12 cars of the RCR 101 were altogether built left-handed by BRABUS with the real BRABUS 101 HP engine. One prototype and 11 numbered cars.

Bluewave:  It seems customers could not wait for the Brabus model to come along, so Smart released this version in the UK. Effectively, it has all the parts of the later released Brabus model but without the Brabus engine and without the Brabus suspension. Smart later upset those who purchased the Bluewave by releasing the Brabus for the same price with those extra items. Some Bluewave owners were given the choice of having their car purchased back or a free SB2 upgrade.

An additional, UK and Sweden-only 'Finale Edition' was unveiled in April 2006. This model came in a variety of colour combinations, including an exclusive speed silver and black Tridion with 17-inch Runline alloys and 'flow silver' interior components. It also featured a leather door and cockpit trim and central armrest.

Project Kimber

In 2006, David James initiated Project Kimber, an attempt to restart production of the Smart Roadster in the United Kingdom. Initially, intended to be rebadged as an MG model, after an unsuccessful bid for the MG marque, the revised Roadster was later referred to as the AC Ace. However, as of 2013, the project appears to be dormant.

Knight and Day
In the 2010 movie Knight and Day, the Smart Roadster appears in the final chase scene. These vehicles were retrofitted with an engine from a Suzuki GSX-R motorcycle to improve power and throttle response, which was accomplished with a kit made by a British company. Three of the cars were bike-powered, and three more had conventionally tuned 698cc 3 cylinder engines featuring ECU remap, cold air intake/filter, performance exhaust, stiffer engine mounts, improved brakes, and lowered suspension by a Smart specialist in Hampshire, England.

Gallery

References

External links

 smart (official UK community site)
 Smart (official site)
 TheRoadster.net (smart Roadster owners enthusiast website)

Roadster
Rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars introduced in 2003
Microcars
Roadsters
Brabus vehicles

Smart Roadster


You Can't Do That on Television (YCDTOTV) is a Canadian children's television program that aired on Nickelodeon in the USA. It was created by Roger Price and produced from 1979 until 1990. It mostly featured child actors in a sketch comedy format, acting out short scenes based on a theme that served as the topic for the episode. Connecting scenes based on the theme would often serve to create a story arc that lasted the length of the episode. became known for its iconic green slime that was originally used in this show. The series is known also because future pop recording artist Alanis Morissette was in it as a cast member at some time.

In 2002, and again in 2004, YCDTOTV cast members reunited alongside fans of the show at SlimeCon, a fan-produced convention in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. YCDTOTV was a children's comedy show. Some people see it as a nostalgic cult classic. During the 2004 event, a Top Secret reunion special had its premiere.

References

1979 television series debuts
1990 television series endings
1970s comedy television series
1980s Nickelodeon shows
1980s Canadian television series
1980s comedy television series
1990s comedy television series
Canadian children's television series
Television sketch shows
1979 establishments in Canada
1990s Canadian television series endings
English-language television programs

You Can't Do That on Television


A resident spy in the world of espionage is an agent operating within a foreign country for extended periods of time. A base of operations within a foreign country with which a resident spy may liaise is known as a "station" in English and a  (, 'residency') in Russian. What the U.S. would call a "station chief", the head spy, is known as a  () in Russian.

Types of resident spies
In the former Soviet Union and Russian nomenclature, there were two types of resident spies:  (, legal resident spy) and  (, illegal resident spy). In U.S. parlance, the same distinction is between "official cover" and "non-official cover".

A legal resident spy operates in a foreign country under official cover (such as from their country's embassy). They are an official member of the consular staff, such as a commercial, cultural, or military attaché. They have diplomatic immunity from prosecution and cannot be arrested by the host country if suspected of espionage. The host country can expel such a person, requiring them to return to their home country as persona non grata.

An illegal resident spy operates under non-official cover. They cannot claim immunity from prosecution when arrested. They may operate under a false name and have documents purportedly establishing them as a national of the country, or from a different country than the one for which they are spying. Examples of two famous Soviet "illegals" are Rudolf Abel, who operated in the United States; and Gordon Lonsdale, who was born in Russia, claimed to be Canadian, and operated in Britain. Other famous Soviet and Russian "illegals" include Richard Sorge, Walter Krivitsky, Vasily Zarubin, Alexander Ulanovsky, and Anna Chapman, who was also known as a sleeper agent.

Comparison of illegal and legal resident spies
The advantages and disadvantages of legal resident spies are generally the reverse of those for illegal resident spies. A legal resident spy has the advantage of diplomatic status, but the disadvantage of being a known foreigner to the host country and one of just a few official diplomatic staff. Their intelligence status may be easy for counterintelligence agencies to discern or suspect. On the other hand, an illegal resident spy has the advantage of being unknown as a foreigner to the host country, and one among millions of the country's ordinary citizens. The disadvantage is the lack of diplomatic immunity to fall back upon in case of arrest.

A legal resident spy has opportunities to meet high-level personnel of the host country as part of "official" business, and an illegal resident spy does not. However, conversely, illegal resident spies have easier access to a wide range of potential sources who would be put off by having to approach and deal with an openly foreign official.

Also, an illegal resident spy can stay in the host country if diplomatic relations break down. Legal resident spies are forced to leave with the diplomatic mission. A legal resident spy is easier to pay, for the salary can be openly incorporated into the diplomatic payroll. Making arrangements to pay illegal resident spies can be difficult, sometimes involving ruses that are more expensive and complex to administer than paying a diplomatic official would be. Espionage agencies may arrange to pay a host country organization or corporation to allow the illegal resident spy to pose as a member of its staff and be nominally paid by that organization/corporation.

A legal resident spy has full and aboveboard access to embassy facilities for secure communications, meetings, and other services. An illegal resident spy has little to no access to such facilities, and communications arrangements are thus more difficult and time-consuming. An illegal resident spy will usually have a falsified biography. A legal resident spy may be at risk by having an official biography that documents their diplomatic career and provides useful clues to counterintelligence services about their intelligence activities and connections.

See also
 Sleeper agent
 Illegals Program

References

Cross-reference

Sources used

Further reading

Spies by role

Resident spy


AOS/VS II is a discontinued operating system for the Data General 32-bit MV/Eclipse computers.

Overview
The AOS/VS II operating system was released in 1988 and was originally to be simply rev 8.00 of the AOS/VS operating system. However, it introduced a new file system which was not compatible with the original AOS and AOS/VS file system and also contained new features like Access control list (ACL) groups. Since some customers did not want to upgrade to the new file system, or invest in new hardware, Data General agreed to continue bug-fix support of an "immortal" revision of AOS/VS, which became known colloquially as AOS/VS "Classic", while new development would proceed as AOS/VS II, with revision numbers rolled back to 1.00.

Both VS-Classic (rev 7.7x) and VS-II (rev. 3.2x) were updated to survive the Year 2000 problem, although by this time both were obsolescent.

Among the other new features that were part of AOS/VS II were a full TCP/IP stack, NFS support, expanded kernel address space using ring-1 and a logical disk-level user data cache.  /VS (classic) had a file system metadata cache, but no user data cache.

See also
Data General RDOS

Proprietary operating systems
Data General

AOS/VS II


The Duck family is a fictional family of cartoon ducks. They are related to Disney character Donald Duck.

Ancestors
In the comic story "The Family Tree Spree" (1962), Donald discovers that he has only two notable ancestors. One is Columbust Duck, who tried to prove the Flat Earth model. The other is Deadeye Duck, a stagecoach robber. If Columbust lived at the same time as Christopher Columbus, he would be Donald's oldest known relative on his father's side. On his mother's side, Donald's earliest known relative lived in the second millennium BC.

Pintail Duck was a 16th-century Duck relative. He was the first early ancestor to appear in person.

Asa Duck was the great-great-great uncle of Grandma Duck.

First generation

Humperdink Duck is the earliest known modern Duck family member. He is the husband of Elvira Coot, known as "Grandma Duck". He is Donald's grandfather.

Elvira "Grandma" Duck (née Coot) is Donald's grandmother. She is the Duck family matriarch. In most stories, she is called "Grandma Duck".

Second generation

Quackmore Duck (born 1875) is the father of Donald Duck. His parents are Humperdink and Elvira "Grandma" Duck.

Hortense Duck (née McDuck; born 1876) is the wife of Quackmore Duck and Donald's mother. She was born in Scotland and is the youngest sister of Scrooge McDuck.

Daphne Gander (née Duck) is Donald's aunt. She is the mother of Gladstone Gander.

Eider Duck is Donald's uncle.

Lulubelle Duck (née Loon) is the wife of Eider Duck. She is the mother of Abner and Fethry Duck.

Upsy Duck is Donald's uncle from the 1965 story "Mastering The Matterhorn", illustrated by Tony Strobl.

Sheriff Dan Duck (aka Cousin Dan) is an old cousin of Donald. He is the sheriff of a Western town called Bent Spur Gulch.

Third generation

Donald Duck (born 1920) is the most well-known member of the family. He is the son of Quackmore and Hortense Duck. His girlfriend is Daisy Duck.

Della Duck is the mother of Huey, Dewey, and Louie.

Fethry Duck was Donald's cousin.

Whitewater Duck was only in the story "Log Jockey", published in Walt Disney's Comics and Stories #267 on December, 1962. According to that story, he is a distant cousin of Donald, and works as a lumberjack in the woods.

Dudly D. Duck is a cousin of Donald. He appears in the comic story "Why All the Crabby Ducks?".

Nancy Duck is a female cousin of Donald.

Fourth generation

Huebert "Huey", Deuteronomy "Dewey", and Louis "Louie" Duck are Donald's three nephews. They are the identical triplet sons of Della Duck and an unnamed father.

Dugan Duck is Fethry Duck's nephew.

Coot kin
The Coot family (usually called the Coot Kin in stories) are the relatives of Grandma Duck. They and the Clan McDuck make up the third major branch of Donald's family tree. The name "Coot" was used by several comic authors including Carl Barks. Don Rosa was the first to show their relationship to Donald. The members of the family are shown as white Pekin ducks like Donald, although real-life coots are typically black.

Cornelius Coot (1790–1880) founded Duckburg.

Clinton Coot (1830-1910) was first mentioned in Uncle Scrooge Adventures #27 in the story "Guardians of the Lost Library", first published in July 1994. There he was introduced as the son of Cornelius Coot and the founder of The Junior Woodchucks.

Gertrude Coot (née Gadwall) is the wife of Clinton Coot. She is the mother of Casey and Elvira Coot ("Grandma Duck").

Casey Coot (1860-c. 1960) first appeared in "Last Sled to Dawson", first published in June, 1988. He is an unsuccessful gold prospector. He was a friend of Scrooge McDuck during his years in the Klondike.

Gretchen Coot (née Grebe) is  the wife of Casey Coot. She is the mother of Cuthbert and Fanny Coot.

Fanny Coot is the mother of Donald's cousin Gus Goose.

Cuthbert Coot was introduced in the story "Webfooted Wrangler," first published in April 1945. He is a distant cousin of Donald Duck. He is a rancher.

Kildare Coot  was introduced by artist Romano Scarpa. He is a very eccentric fourth cousin of Donald Duck.

Goose family

Luke Goose (sometimes called Luke the Goose) is the father of Donald's cousin Gus Goose.

Gus Goose is Donald Duck's second cousin. He is the great-nephew of Grandma Duck. Gus eats a lot. His first appearance was in the 1939 animated short Donald's Cousin Gus.

Gander family

Goostave Gander is Gladstone Gander's father. In some early stories he is married to Matilda McDuck, Scrooge's sister. Carl Barks later had him married to Daphne Duck instead.

Gladstone Gander is Donald's cousin. He is the son of Goosetave and Daphne Gander.

Shamrock Gander is Gladstone's nephew.

Clyde is another nephew of Gladstone's.

Characters surnamed "Duck" of uncertain relationship
This section contains a list of characters with the surname "Duck" who may or may not be related to Donald. As Don Rosa explained, "Duck" is an understandably common name in Duckburg (just as "Smith" or "Jones" are common in the real-life United States) and does not necessarily identify a blood relation of Donald.

0.0. Duck and Mata Harrier are a secret-agent duo.

April, May, and June Duck are the triplet nieces of Daisy Duck.

Belle Duck is a plus-sized, tall and elegant duck lady.

Daisy Duck is Donald's girlfriend. Huey, Dewey, and Louie sometimes call her "Aunt Daisy". It is unclear if she is their real aunt.

Darkwing Duck is the protagonist of a TV series named after him. He is most likely not related to Donald because "Darkwing Duck" is the character's superhero identity. His name in private life is Drake Mallard.

Dexter Duck, like Gladstone Gander, conpetes with Donald Duck to get Daisy Duck's attention.

Dickie Duck () was introduced as Goldie O'Gilt's granddaughter. But in the story "Paperetta e la leggenda del luna park" by Romano Scarpa she calls Huey, Dewey and Louie cuginetti (small/young cousins) and then cugini (cousins). This might mean that she and Donald's nephews share the same surname in English language because of a kinship.

Dimwitty Duck originally appears as an assistant of Donald Duck.

Hustler Duck is an obscure character that works as a marketing man.

Moby Duck appears to be a relative of Donald's. Their relationship is never specifically described. His name is a spoof of Moby-Dick.

The identity of Huey, Dewey, and Louie's father is something of a mystery. The character does not appear in any stories.

References

Other websites
 Don Rosa's Duck family tree
 Al Hubbard

Disney characters

Duck family (Disney)


Madras Presidency was an administrative subdivision (presidency) of British India. At its greatest extent, the presidency included most of southern India, including the whole of the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and parts of Odisha, Kerala, Karnataka, Telangana, and the union territory of Lakshadweep. The city of Madras was the winter capital of the Presidency and Ootacamund or Ooty, the summer capital. The island of Ceylon was a part of Madras Presidency from 1793 to 1798 when it was created a Crown colony.

In the early decades of the 20th century, many significant contributors to the Indian independence movement came from Madras. After India got its independence Madras Prescidency became Madras State and later renamed as Tamil Nadu during C.N.Annadurai's reign as the chief minister.

In 1822, the Madras Presidency underwent its first census, which returned a population of 13,476,923.The last census of British India held in 1941 counted a population of 49,341,810 for the Madras Presidency.According to the 1871 census, there were 14,715,000 people who spoke Tamil, 11,610,000 people who spoke Telugu, 2,324,000 people who spoke Malayalam, 1,699,000 spoke Canarese or Kannada, 640,000 people spoke Oriya and 29,400 people spoke Tulu.

References

Madras Presidency

Madras Presidency


In photography, a telephoto lens is a lens. There are two different uses of the word. The less specific use is to mean a lens that has a longer focal length than a normal lens. Their angle of view is smaller than that of a normal lens. With telephoto lenses things look closer than they really are.

The other meaning of telephoto lens applies to lenses that are constructed in a special way so they can be shorter than their focal length.

For 35 mm film, 50 mm is a normal focal length. Typical telephoto lenses are 85 mm (28°50') and 100 mm (24°). They are used for portraits mostly. Other telephoto lenses that are used often are 135 mm (18°), 180 mm  and 200 mm. Many are zoom lenses.

Longer focal lengths (300 to 1200 mm) are used in sports and nature photography.

Different focal lengths
Effect of different focal lengths on photographs taken from the same place:

The above photos were taken using a 35 mm camera, using lenses of the given focal lengths.

Camera lenses

Telephoto lens


The Seven Bridges of Königsberg is a historically famous problem in mathematics. Leonhard Euler solved the problem in 1735. This led to the beginning of graph theory. This then led to the development of topology.

The city of Königsberg in Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia) was set on both sides of the Pregel River. It included two large islands which were connected to each other and the mainland by seven bridges.

The problem was to find a way to walk through the city by crossing each bridge once and only once. The islands could not be reached by any route other than the bridges. Every bridge must have been crossed completely every time. The walk need not start and end at the same spot. Euler proved that the problem has no solution.

Euler's analysis
First, Euler pointed out that the choice of route inside each land mass does not matter. The only important property of a route is the order in which the bridges are crossed. So, he changed the problem to abstract terms. This laid the foundations of graph theory. He removed all features except the list of land masses and the bridges connecting them. In the language of graph theory, he replaced each land mass with an abstract "vertex" or node. Then he replaced each bridge with an abstract connection, an "edge". An edge (road) recorded which two vertices (land masses) were connected. In this way, he formed a graph.

 →
 →

The graph drawn is an abstract picture of the problem. So, the edges can be joined in any way. Only whether two points are connected or not are important. Changing the picture of the graph does not change the graph itself.

Next, Euler observed that (except at the endpoints of the walk), whenever one enters a vertex by a bridge, one leaves the vertex by a bridge. In any walk of the graph, the number of times one enters a vertex equals the number of times one leaves it. If every bridge has been crossed exactly once, it follows that, for each land mass (except for the ones chosen for the start and finish), the number of bridges touching that land mass must be even. This is because if there are n bridges, it is crossed exactly 2n times. However, all four of the land masses in the original problem are touched by an odd number of bridges (one is touched by 5 bridges, and each of the other three are touched by 3). There are at most two masses which can be the endpoints of a walk. So the proposition of a walk crossing each bridge once leads to a contradiction.

In modern language, Euler shows that whether a walk through a graph crossing each edge once is possible or not depends on the degrees of the nodes. The degree of a node is the number of edges touching it. Euler shows that a necessary condition for the walk is that the graph be connected and have exactly zero or two nodes of odd degree. This result stated by Euler was later proved by Carl Hierholzer. Such a walk is now called an Eulerian path or Euler walk. If there are nodes of odd degree, then any Eulerian path will start at one of them and end at the other. Since the graph representing the historical Königsberg has four nodes of odd degree, it cannot have an Eulerian path.

Euler's work was presented to the St. Petersburg Academy on August 26, 1735. It was published as Solutio problematis ad geometriam situs pertinentis (The solution of a problem relating to the geometry of position) in the journal Commentarii academiae scientiarum Petropolitanae in 1741. It is available in English in The World of Mathematics.

Importance in the history of mathematics
In the history of mathematics, Euler's solution of the Königsberg bridge problem is considered to be the first theorem of graph theory. Graph Theory is a subject now generally regarded as a branch of combinatorics.

Present state of the bridges
Two of the seven original bridges were destroyed during the bombing of Königsberg in World War II. Two others were later demolished. They were replaced by a modern highway. The three other bridges remain, although only two of them are from Euler's time (one was rebuilt in 1935). Thus, as of 2000, there were five bridges in Kaliningrad.

In terms of graph theory, two of the nodes now have degree 2, and the other two have degree 3. Therefore, an Eulerian path is now possible, but since it must begin on one island and end on the other, it is impractical for tourists.

Related pages
 Icosian game
 Hamiltonian path
 Water, gas, and electricity
 Travelling salesman problem

References

Other websites
Kaliningrad and the Konigsberg Bridge Problem  at Convergence
 Euler's original publication (in Latin)
 The Bridges of Königsberg
 How the bridges of Königsberg help to understand the brain
 Euler's Königsberg's Bridges Problem  at Math Dept. Contra Costa College
 Pregel – A Google graphing tool named after this problem
 The count of Königsberg

Graph theory
Puzzles
Bridges in Europe
1735
Kaliningrad

Seven Bridges of Königsberg


Inkwenkwezi is a massive ball of plasma (very hot gas) held together by gravity. It radiates energy because of the nuclear reactions inside it

It radiates heat and light, and every other part of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as radio waves, micro-waves, X-rays, gamma-rays and ultra-violet radiation. The proportions vary according to the mass and age of the star.

The energy of stars comes from nuclear fusion. This is a process that turns a light Ikhemikali into another heavier element. Stars are mostly made of hydrogen and helium. They turn the hydrogen into helium by fusion. When a star is near the end of its life, it begins to change the helium into other heavier chemical elements, like I-carbon and I-oxygen. Fusion produces a lot of energy. The energy makes the star very hot. The energy produced by stars radiates away from them. The energy leaves as electromagnetic radiation.

Birth of a star

A star begins as a collapsing cloud of material made mostly of hydrogen, with helium and tiny amounts of heavier elements. Once the stellar core is dense enough, some of the hydrogen is changed into helium through nuclear fusion. The energy moves away from the core by a combination of radiation and convection. The star's radiation stops it from collapsing further under its own gravity. Once the hydrogen fuel at the core has been used up, those stars with at least 0.4 times the mass of the Sun expand to become a red giant.

Imithombo

Masiguqule

Inkwenkwezi


Phosphorous acid is a chemical compound. It is an acid. Its chemical formula is H3PO3. It contains hydrogen and phosphite ions.

Properties

It is a white solid. It absorbs water. It is a strong reducing agent. It can be deprotonated twice. When it is heated, it turns into phosphoric acid and phosphine. It is toxic. Salts of phosphorous acid is called phosphites. It reacts with mercury(II) chloride to make mercury(I) chloride. If it still is kept, it reacts with mercury(I) chloride to make mercury.

Preparation
It is made by reacting phosphorus(III) oxide with water. It is also prepared by reaction of phosphorus trichloride with water, which produces hydrochloric acid too.

Uses
It is used as a reducing agent. It is also used to kill certain bacteria that grow on plants.

Related pages
Hypophosphorous acid
Phosphorus

Phosphorus compounds

Phosphorous acid


An indirect tax is a tax that is paid as part of a product. Many countries tax gasoline or cigarettes, but they do so indirectly. Because of the tax, the product will be more expensive. In turn, the shops will then pay the tax for the number of packets of cigarettes they sold, or for the amount of gasoline. This is opposed to a direct tax, which is directly paid by the consumer.

Related pages
 Tax
 Direct tax
 Sales tax
 Value Added Tax

Taxation

Indirect tax


James Robertson (born 11 August 1928), a British-born political and economic thinker and activist, became an independent writer and speaker in 1974 after an early career as a British civil servant.

He studied Greats at Balliol College, Oxford, from 1946 to 1950, where he played cricket and rugby union, and ran cross-country for the university.

After serving on British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan's staff during his "Wind of Change" tour of Africa in 1960, Robertson spent three years in the Cabinet Office. Following that he became director of the Inter-Bank Research Organisation for the big British banks.

In the mid-1980s Robertson was a prominent co-founder with his wife, Alison Pritchard, of The Other Economic Summit (TOES) and the New Economics Foundation (NEF). He is a member of FEASTA and a patron of SANE (South Africa New Economics Foundation), which was set up following his visit there in 1996.

In October 2003, at the XXIX annual conference of the Pio Manzu Research Centre, Rimini, Italy (closely associated with the UN), he was awarded a gold medal for his "remarkable contribution to the promotion of a new economics grounded in social and spiritual values" over the past 25 years.

Robertson joined the advisory board of International Simultaneous Policy Organization which seeks to end the usual deadlock in tackling global issues through an international simultaneous policy.

Robertson's latest book is the Future Money: Breakdown or Breakthrough? (Green Books, 2012).

He and his wife live in Oxfordshire.

His father was Sir James Wilson Robertson.

Recurring themes of his work
Basic Income
Citizen's income
Ecological consciousness
Economic justice
Feminism
Globalisation
Land value tax
Local self-reliance
Monetary reform, system of money and finance
Economics of local recovery
Patterns of change
Sane alternative
Social investment
Social justice
Voluntary simplicity

Books
 Future Money: Breakdown or Breakthrough? (2012),
 Monetary Reform - Making it Happen (2004),
 Creating New Money: A Monetary Reform for the Information Age (co-written with Joseph Huber) (New Economics Foundation, 2000),
 The New Economics of Sustainable Development: A Briefing for Policy Makers (written for the European Commissions Cellule de Prospective (Forward Studies Unit) in 1997) (London: Kogan Page, 1999),
 Transforming Economic Life: A Millennial Challenge (Schumacher Briefing No 1, Green Books, 1998),
 Beyond the Dependency Culture: People, Power and Responsibility (Adamantine/Praeger, 1998)
 Sharing Our Common Heritage: Resource Taxes and Green Dividends (1998)
 Future Wealth: A New Economics for the 21st Century (1989),
 Future Work: Jobs, Employment and Leisure after the Industrial Age (1985)
 The Sane Alternative: a choice of futures (1980),
 Power, Money and Sex: Towards a New Social Balance (1976),
 Profit or People? The New Social Role of Money (1974),
 Reform of British Central Government (1971),

See also
 Full-reserve banking

References

External links
 Working for a Sane Alternative - Robertson's web site, with biography, and downloadable texts of many of the books listed above
 Future Money book - publisher's web page for Robertson's latest book Future Money

1928 births
Living people
Civil servants in the Cabinet Office
British economists
British non-fiction writers
Monetary reformers
People from Oxfordshire
Sustainability advocates
Recipients of the Medal of the Presidency of the Italian Republic
English rugby union players
Oxford University RFC players
Place of birth missing (living people)
British male writers
Male non-fiction writers

James Robertson (activist)


WIN.INI is a basic INI file that was used in versions of the Microsoft Windows operating environment up to Windows 3.11 to store basic settings at boot time. By default, all font, communications drivers, wallpaper, screen saver, and language settings were stored in WIN.INI by Windows 3.x. Many of these settings were honored in Windows 9x, although the files had begun to be phased out in favor of the Windows registry. Windows XP still acknowledged some entries in the WIN.INI file to provide backwards compatibility with older 16-bit applications. However, when a fresh install of XP is performed, the WIN.INI file created is initially blank, and in Windows Vista and Windows 7 the WIN.INI file was removed entirely.

Prior to Windows 3.0, it was not uncommon for applications to store their configuration settings inside WIN.INI (via ). With the release of Windows 3.0 in 1990, Microsoft introduced the concept of "private" INI files (i.e. ), and some new application programming interface calls so that applications could store their settings in their own files.
Today Microsoft recommends using other methods for storing settings.

Editing
Microsoft bundles two specialized editors for core configuration files (such as WIN.INI, SYSTEM.INI, CONFIG.SYS, and AUTOEXEC.BAT) with its operating systems. Sysedit is an MDI text editor that opens all of those files simultaneously, available in all versions of Windows since Windows 3.x (until Windows 7). MSConfig, included with Windows 98 and above except Windows 2000, is a simpler application that allows a user to enable and disable drivers and applications from being loaded at startup by the aforementioned files and the Run, RunEx, and RunOnce registry keys.
WIN.INI and SYSTEM.INI are included in modern versions of Windows for 16-bit application support. 16-bit applications may display an error if these 2 files do not exist in C:\Windows.

See also
Make Compatible

References

Windows files
Configuration files

WIN.INI


Tridentine Mass is the formula of the Roman Rite Catholic Mass that was commonly used before 1969. The Roman Missal contained the Church's guidelines on the Tridentine Mass for the first time in 1570. The missal was changed several times, and the last change to it was made in 1962. The celebration is done almost exclusively in the Latin language. Today, it is permitted as an alternative to the current form of the Mass that was introduced by the Second Vatican Council. There is also a translation into Church Slavonic which uses that language instead of Latin. The Slavonic form is in use mainly in the Balkans.

Roman Catholicism

Tridentine Mass


Georgi Valentinovich Plekhanov ( ; ;  – 30 May 1918) was a Russian revolutionary, philosopher and Marxist theoretician. He was a founder of the social-democratic movement in Russia and was one of the first Russians to identify himself as "Marxist". Facing political persecution, Plekhanov emigrated to Switzerland in 1880, where he continued in his political activity attempting to overthrow the Tsarist regime in Russia. Plekhanov is known as the "father of Russian Marxism".

Born to a Tatar noble family of serf-owning landlords and minor government officials, Plekhanov grew up to reject his social class. As a student he became a Marxist. Although he supported the Bolshevik faction at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1903, Plekhanov soon rejected the idea of democratic centralism, and became one of Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky's principal antagonists in the 1905 Saint Petersburg Soviet.

During World War I, Plekhanov rallied to the cause of the Entente powers against Germany and he returned home to Russia following the 1917 February Revolution. Plekhanov was an opponent of the Bolshevik state which came to power in the autumn of 1917. He died the following year of tuberculosis in Finland. Despite his vigorous and outspoken opposition to Lenin's political party in 1917, Plekhanov was held in high esteem by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union following his death as a founding father of Russian Marxism and a philosophical thinker.

Early years

Georgi Valentinovich Plekhanov was born 29 November 1856 (old style) in the Russian village of Gudalovka in the Tambov Governorate, one of twelve siblings. Georgi's father, Valentin Plekhanov, from a Tatar noble family, was a member of the hereditary nobility. Valentin was a member of the lower stratum of the Russian nobility, the possessor of about 270 acres of land and approximately 50 serfs. Georgi's mother, Maria Feodorovna, was a distant relative of the famous literary critic Vissarion Belinsky and was married to Valentin in 1855, following the death of his first wife. Georgi was the first-born of the couple's five children.

Georgi's formal education began in 1866, when the 10-year-old was entered into the Voronezh Military Academy. He remained a student at the Military Academy, where he was well taught by his teachers and well liked by his classmates, until 1873. His mother later attributed her son's life as a revolutionary to liberal ideas to which he was exposed in the course of his education at the school.

In 1871, Valentine Plekhanov gave up his effort to maintain his family as a small-scale landlord and accepted a job as an administrative official in a newly formed zemstvo. He died two years later but his body has been on display in the center of the commons ever since.

After the death of his father, Plekhanov resigned from the Military Academy and enrolled at the St. Petersburg Metallurgical Institute. There in 1875 he was introduced to a young revolutionary intellectual named Pavel Axelrod, who later recalled that Plekhanov instantly made a favorable impression upon him:

"He spoke well in a business-like fashion, simply and yet in a literary way. One perceived in him a love for knowledge, a habit of reading, thinking, working. He dreamed at the time of going abroad to complete his training in chemistry. This plan didn't please me... This is a luxury! I said to the young man. If you take so long to complete your studies in chemistry, when will you begin to work for the revolution?"

Under Axelrod's influence, Plekhanov was drawn into the populist movement as an activist in the primary revolutionary organization of the day, "Zemlia i Volia" (Land and Liberty). Plekhanov never graduated.

Political activity

Plekhanov was one of the organizers of the first political demonstrations in Russia. On 6 December 1876, Plekhanov delivered a fiery speech during a demonstration in front of the Kazan Cathedral in Saint Petersburg in which he indicted the Tsarist autocracy and defended the ideas of Chernyshevsky. Thereafter, Plekhanov was forced by the fear of retribution to lead an underground life. He was arrested twice for his political activities, in 1877 and again in 1878, but released both times after only a short time in jail.

Although originally a populist, after emigrating to Western Europe he established connections with the Social-Democratic movement of Western Europe and began to study the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. When the question of terrorism became a matter of heated debate in the populist movement in 1879, Plekhanov cast his lot decisively with the opponents of political assassination. In the words of historian Leopold Haimson, Plekhanov "denounced terrorism as a rash and impetuous movement, which would drain the energy of the revolutionists and provoke a government repression so severe as to make any agitation among the masses impossible." Plekhanov was so certain of the correctness of his views that he determined to leave the revolutionary movement altogether rather than to compromise on the matter.

Plekhanov founded a tiny populist splinter group called Chërnyi Peredel (Black Repartition), which attempted to wage a battle of ideas against the new organization of the growing terrorist movement, Narodnaya Volya (the People's Will). Plekhanov was manifestly unsuccessful in this effort.

In 1879 he married Rozaliia Bograd-Plekhanova, a medical student who had been active in the Populist movement. She accompanied him in 1880 when he left Russia for Switzerland on what was originally intended as a brief stay. It would be 37 years before he was able to return again to his native land.

During the next three years, Plekhanov read extensively on political economy, gradually coming to question his faith in the revolutionary potential of the traditional village commune. During these years from 1882 through 1883, Plekhanov became a convinced Marxist and in the late 1880s he established personal contact with Friedrich Engels.

Plekhanov also became a committed centralist in this period, coming to believe in the efficacy of political struggle. He decided that the struggle for a socialist future first required the development of capitalism in agrarian Russia.

In September 1883 Plekhanov joined with his old friend Pavel Axelrod, Lev Deutsch, Vasily Ignatov, and Vera Zasulich in establishing the first Russian-language Marxist political organization, the Gruppa Osvobozhdenie Truda or the "Emancipation of Labor Group." Also in the fall of 1883, Plekhanov authored the social program of the Emancipation of Labor Group. Based in Geneva, the Emancipation of Labor Group attempted to popularize the economic and historical ideas of Karl Marx, in which they met with some success, attracting such eminent intellectuals as Peter Struve, Vladimir Ulianov (Lenin), Iulii Martov, and Alexander Potresov to the organization.

In 1900, Plekhanov, Pavel Axelrod, Zasulich, Lenin, Potresov, and Martov joined forces to establish a Marxist newspaper, Iskra (The Spark). The paper was intended to serve as a vehicle to unite various independent local Marxist groups into a single unified organization. From this effort emerged the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP), an umbrella group which soon split into hostile Bolshevik and Menshevik political organizations.

In 1903, at the Second Congress of the RSDLP, Plekhanov initially sided with Lenin, ironic given his later politics.

Plekhanov came to regret his remarks on the subordination of democracy to a proletarian dictatorship:

During the Russian Revolution of 1905, Plekhanov was unrelenting in his criticism of Lenin and the Bolsheviks, charging that they failed to understand the historically determined limits of revolution and to base their tactics upon actual conditions. He believed the Bolsheviks were acting contrary to objective laws of history, which called for a stage of capitalist development before the establishment of socialist society would be possible in economically and socially backwards Russia and characterized the expansive goals of his radical opponents' "political hallucinations."

Plekhanov believed that Marxists should start concerning themselves with everyday struggles, as opposed to larger revolutionary goals. In order for this to occur, the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party organizations had to be run democratically.

Literary activity
It was during this period that Plekhanov began to write and publish the first of his important political works, including the pamphlet Socialism and Political Struggle (1883) and the full-length book Our Differences (1885). These works first expressed the Marxist position for a Russian audience and delineated the points of departure of the Marxists from the Populist movement. Lenin called the former, the "first profession de foi [profession of faith] of Russian socialism." Plekhanov famously noted, "... without revolutionary theory there is no revolutionary movement in the true sense of the word." In the latter book, Plekhanov emphasized that capitalism had begun to establish itself in Russia, primarily in the textile industry but also in agriculture, and that a working class was beginning to emerge in peasant Russia. It was this expanding working class that would ultimately and inevitably bring about socialist change in Russia, Plekhanov argued.

In January 1895, Plekhanov published his most famous work, The Development of the Monist View of History. The book passed the censors of the Russian government and was legally published in Russia. Plekhanov wrote the book under the pseudonym Beltov and admitted to the use of the "purposely clumsy" name for the book in order to deceive the Russian censors. Plekhanov's book became a very popular defense of the materialistic conception of history. Indeed, Lenin would later comment that Plekhanov's book "helped educate a whole generation of Russian Marxists." Friedrich Engels commented in a 30 January 1895 letter to Vera Zasulich that Plekhanov's book had been published at a most opportune time. Tsar Nicholas II had just released a statement on 29 January (or 17 January under the old Russian calendar) that announced that it was fruitless for the Zemstvos, locally elected district councils, to agitate for any more democratic reforms in the Russian government. Nicholas II had decided to return Russia to the absolute Tsarist autocracy of his father, Alexander III. The elected Zemstvos, which formed a local government in the European sectors of the Russian Empire, had been initiated by Nicholas' grandfather, Tsar Alexander II in 1864. Under Nicholas II's re-initiation of absolute autocracy, the Zemstvos would become superfluous and basically be abolished. Engels expected this announcement would cause an upsurge in popular protest in Russia and Engels thought the timely publication of Plekhanov's book would augment that popular protest.

Later on 8 February 1895, Engels wrote directly to Plekhanov congratulating him on the "great success" of getting the book "published inside the country". A German Edition of the Plekhanov's book was published in Stuttgart in 1896.

Throughout the 1890s, Plekhanov was involved in three tasks in revolutionary literature. First, he sought to reveal the inner link between pre-Marxist French materialism and the materialism of Marx. His "Essays on the History of Materialism (1892–1893)" dealt with the French materialists—Paul Holbach and Claude Adrien Helvétius. Plekhanov defended both Helvètius and Holbach from attacks by Friedrich Albert Lange, Jules–Auguste Soury and the other neo-Kantian idealist philosophers. In this series of writings, Plekhanov was careful to place special emphasis on the revolutionary nature of the Marxists' philosophy. Plekhanov not only found materialism to be the motor force in history, but went on to outline a particular type of materialism—the "economic determinism model of materialism as the specific element that moved history."

Secondly, Plekhanov outlined a history of materialism and its struggle against bourgeois ideologists. Bourgeois philosophers of the "great man theory of history" came under attack from Plekhanov from the economic determinist point of view in his 1898 book entitled "On the Individual's Role in History." Thirdly, Plekhanov defended revolutionary Marxism against the revisionist critics—Eduard Bernstein, Pyotr Struve, etc.

Despite their sharp differences, Plekhanov was recognized, even in his own lifetime, as having made a great contribution to Marxist philosophy and literature by V.I. Lenin. "The services he rendered in the past," Lenin wrote of Plekhanov, "were immense. During the twenty years between 1883 and 1903 he wrote a large number of splendid essays, especially those against the opportunists, Machists, and Narodniks." Even after the October Revolution Lenin insisted on republishing Plekhanov's philosophical works and including these works as compulsory texts for prospective communists.

It seems that Plekhanov, although a revolutionary figure, had not taken the view that art must serve political ends. He himself criticized Chernyshevsky for his view of art, that art must be propagandist; he, rather, declared that only art which serves history, not transient pleasure, is valuable.

War years

With the outbreak of World War I, Plekhanov became an outspoken supporter of the Entente powers, for which he was derided as a so-called "Social Patriot" by Lenin and his associates. Plekhanov was convinced that German imperialism was at fault for the war and he was convinced that German victory in the conflict would be an unmitigated disaster for the European working class.

Plekhanov was initially dismayed by the February Revolution of 1917, considering it as an event which disorganized Russia's war effort. He soon came to terms with the event, however, conceiving of it as a long-anticipated bourgeois-democratic revolution which would ultimately bolster flagging popular support for the war effort and he returned home to Russia.

Plekhanov was extremely hostile to the Bolshevik Party headed by Lenin and was the top leader of the tiny Yedinstvo group, which published a newspaper by the same name. He criticized Lenin's revolutionary April Theses as "ravings" and called Lenin himself an "alchemist of revolution" for his seeming willingness to leap over the stage of capitalist development in agrarian Russia in advocating socialist revolution. Plekhanov lent support to the idea that Lenin was a "German agent" and urged the Russian Provisional Government of Alexander Kerensky to take severe repressive measures against the Bolshevik organization to halt its political machinations.

Marriage

In 1879, Plekhanov married Rozalia Bograd, who accompanied him into exile in Switzerland in 1880. They had four daughters, two of whom died in childhood. Rozalia was born in 1856 in the Jewish colony of Dobroe in Kherson Oblast (present day Ukraine but at that time part of the Russian Empire). She trained as a doctor in Saint Petersburg (medical courses for women were first opened in 1873) and joined the ranks of the Populists or Narodniks, spending the summer of 1877 in the village of Shirokoe in Samara Oblast where she sought (without very much success) to raise the political consciousness of the local peasantry. She went to the front during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) where she recorded witnessing medical personnel treated badly, the sick cared for inadequately and military authorities engaged in theft and corruption. Her experiences there served to reinforce her radicalism. Rozalia, who had not been permitted to graduate in Russia, retrained in Switzerland and supported her family during its time in Geneva by working as a doctor. They lived variously in Geneva, Paris and for a time on the Italian Riviera on the advice of Plekhanov's doctors. She accompanied her husband back to Petrograd following the February Revolution and was with him when he died of tuberculosis in Finland in 1918. She returned to Paris where she died in 1949.

Death and legacy

Plekhanov left Russia again after the October Revolution due to his hostility to the Bolsheviks. He died of tuberculosis in Terijoki, Finland (now a suburb of St. Petersburg, called Zelenogorsk) on 30 May 1918. He was 61. At his funeral, Nicolas Slonimsky was requested to play the piano, and chose a funeral march by Beethoven. Plekhanov was buried in the Volkovo Cemetery in St. Petersburg near the graves of Vissarion Belinsky and Nikolay Dobrolyubov.

It was evident that Plekhanov and Lenin disagreed in terms of commitment to political action, as well as direct guidance to the working class. Despite these disagreements Lenin considered Plekhanov an outstanding philosopher and wrote as late as 1921 that "It is impossible to become an intelligent and genuine communist without studying, precisely studying, all that Plekhanov has written on philosophy, for what he has written is the best that can be found in the whole international literature on Marxism." The Soviet Communists also cherished his memory and gave his name to the Soviet Academy of Economics and the G. V. Plekhanov St. Petersburg State Mining Institute.

During his life Plekhanov wrote extensively on historical materialism, on the history of materialist philosophy, on the role of the masses and of the individual in history. Plekhanov always insisted that Marxism was a materialist doctrine rather than an idealist one, and that Russia would have to pass through a capitalist stage of development before becoming socialist. He also wrote on the relationship between the base and superstructure, on the role of ideologies, and on the role of art in human society. He is remembered as an important and pioneering Marxist thinker on such matters.

Works

 Socialism and the Political Struggle (1883) Plekhanov: Socialism and Political Struggle (1883)
 Our differences (1885) G.V. Plekhanov: Our Differences (1885)
 G. I. Uspensky (1888)
 A New Champion of Autocracy (1889)
 S. Karonin (1890)
 The Bourgeois Revolution (1890–1891)
 The Materialist Conception of History (1891)
 For The Sixtieth Anniversary of Hegel's Death (1891)
 Anarchism & Socialism (1895)
 The Development of the Monist View of History (1895)
 Essays on the History of Materialism (1896)
 N. I. Naumov (1897)
 A. L. Volynsky: Russian Critics. Literary Essays (1897)
 N. G. Chernyshevsky's Aesthetic Theory (1897)
 Belinski and Rational Reality (1897)
 On the Question of the Individual's Role in History (1898)
 N. A. Nekrasov (1903) In Russian.
 Scientific Socialism and Religion (1904)
 On Two Fronts: Collection of Political Articles (1905) In Russian.
 French Drama and French Painting of the Eighteenth Century from the Sociological Viewpoint (1905)
 The Proletarian Movement and Bourgeois Art (1905)
 Henrik Ibsen (1906)
 Us and Them (1907) In Russian.
 On the Psychology of the Workers' Movement (1907)
 Fundamental Problems of Marxism (1908)
 The Ideology of Our Present-Day Philistine (1908)
  Tolstoy and Nature (1908)
 On the So-Called Religious Seekings in Russia (1909)
 N. G. Chernyshevsky (1909)
 Karl Marx and Lev Tolstoy (1911)
 A. I. Herzen and Serfdom (1911)
 Dobrolyubov and Ostrovsky (1911)
 Art and Social Life (1912–1913)
 Year of the Motherland: Complete Collected Articles and Speeches, 1917–1918, In Two Volumes. Volume 1; Volume 2 (1921) In Russian.

Footnotes

Further reading

 Samuel H. Baron, Plekhanov: The Father of Russian Marxism. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1963.
 Plekhanov in Russian History and Soviet Historiography. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995.
 Georgi Plekhanov: Selected Philosophical Works in Five Volumes. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1974.

External links
Progress Publishers put out a five-volume Selected Philosophical Works of Georgi Plekhanov in English between 1974 and 1981:
 Volume I
 Volume II
 Volume III
 Volume IV
 Volume V

 Georgi Plekhanov Internet Archive, Marxists Internet Archive, marxists.org/
 Georgi Plekhanov Biography, Spartacus UK, spartacus-educational.com/
 Georgii Plexhanov Collected Works in 24 Volumes , Plekhanov Fond, plekhanovfound.ru/ In Russian.
 Tomb of Plekhanov
 The Plekhanov House in The National Library of Russia
 Archive of Georgij Valentinovič Plechanov Papers at the International Institute of Social History

1856 births
1918 deaths
People from Gryazinsky District
People from Lipetsky Uyezd
People from the Russian Empire of Tatar descent
Narodniks
Russian Social Democratic Labour Party members
Mensheviks
Marxist theorists

Philosophers from the Russian Empire
Political writers from the Russian Empire
Marxists from the Russian Empire
Revolutionaries from the Russian Empire
Spinoza scholars
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Tuberculosis deaths in Finland

Georgi Plekhanov


In 1715 lots of people who didn't like king George I of Great Britain rebelled in Scotland. These people were the Jacobites and they wanted James Francis Edward Stuart to be king instead of George I. Their luck was going well at first when they managed to take control of most of Scotland but the British Army came in and they lost.

Deaths
 September 1 – Louis XIV of France dies and his great-grandson, Louis XV of France becomes king even though he is just five years old.

1715


A biography is the story of a person's life. The word comes from the Greek words bios (which means life) and graphein (which means write). When the biography is written by the person it is about, it is called an autobiography.

A written biography is a part of literature. Biographies can also be made as movies (often called biopics) or told as stories.

The oldest written biographies that historians have were written to record rulers' lives. Some were written in Assyria, ancient Babylonia, ancient Egypt and ancient Mesopotamia. Biographies were an early form of history. Another early form of biography was called hagiography, meaning writing about holy people.

In ancient China, a biography was one of the basic forms of a history book. In India, biographies of Buddha and his reincarnated lives were written. In ancient Greece, people wrote biographies of people that were not rulers too. Xenophon wrote a biography of Socrates and gave this book the name Memorabilia (Memories). During the Roman Empire, Plutarch wrote Parallel Lives about ancient Greek and Roman politicians, and Suetonius wrote biographies of the Roman emperors. The Gospels were also biographies of Jesus Christ.

In West Africa, griots tell histories which often include biographies.

Many written biographies today are released by publishers as products for sale.

Related pages
 Autobiography
 Curriculum vitae

References

Literary terms
Non-fiction

Biography


Abbey Road Studios, usually called just "Abbey Road", are the recording studios in EMI's headquarters in St. John's Wood, London, England.

Abbey Road had three different studios for most of its history. Other space was turned into a fourth studio later. Studio One is large, and used to be a ballroom. Symphony orchestras and very large bands and groups are recorded there. Studio Two is smaller, and works best for small combos or groups of musicians. Studio Three is much smaller, and is meant for soloists and duos. Studio Four is mostly for post-production, where changes are made to earlier recordings.

Recording studios

Abbey Road Studios


In the compact disc system, cross-interleaved Reed–Solomon code (CIRC) provides error detection and error correction. CIRC adds to every three data bytes one redundant parity byte.

Overview
Reed–Solomon codes are specifically useful in combating mixtures of random and burst errors. CIRC corrects error bursts up to 3,500 bits in sequence (2.4 mm in length as seen on CD surface) and compensates for error bursts up to 12,000 bits (8.5 mm) that may be caused by minor scratches.

Characteristics
 High random error correctability
 Long burst error correctability
 In case the burst correction capability is exceeded, interpolation may provide concealment by approximation
 Simple decoder strategy possible with reasonably-sized external random access memory
 Very high efficiency
 Room for future introduction of four audio channels without major changes in the format (as of 2023, this has not been implemented).

Interleave
Errors found in compact discs (CDs) are a combination of random and burst errors. In order to alleviate the strain on the error control code, some form of interleaving is required. The CD system employs two concatenated Reed–Solomon codes, which are interleaved cross-wise. Judicious positioning of the stereo channels as well as the audio samples on even or odd-number instants within the interleaving scheme, provide the error concealment ability, and the multitude of interleave structures used on the CD makes it possible to correct and detect errors with a relatively low amount of redundancy.

See also
Multiplexing
Parity (mathematics)
Parity (telecommunication)
Checksum

References

Error detection and correction
Compact disc

Cross-interleaved Reed–Solomon coding