WIS (channel 10) is a television station in Columbia, South Carolina, United States, affiliated with NBC and The CW. The station is owned by Gray Television, and maintains studios on Bull and Gervais Streets (US 1/US 378) in downtown Columbia and a transmitter on Rush Road (southeast of I-20) in rural southwestern Kershaw County, outside Lugoff.

History
The station first signed on the air on November 7, 1953. The station's first telecast was a college football game between the University of South Carolina and the University of North Carolina. The Liberty Life Insurance Company, owners of WIS radio (560 AM, now WVOC) through its Broadcasting Company of the South subsidiary, and the Maresco Corporation, owners of WMSC (1320 AM, now WISW) merged their competing applications to avoid what could have been years of hearings and delays. Seven of WMSC's stockholders sold their shares in Maresco and joined the board of the television station, which was initially operated separately from WIS radio. However, the station was based alongside WIS radio at a new facility on Bull Street, where channel 10 is still headquartered today.

Charles Batson signed the station on the air, and remained the station's president and general manager until his retirement in 1983. It was the fourth television station to sign on in South Carolina and the third in the Columbia market, signing on just four months after WCOS-TV (channel 25)—which ceased operations in 1956—and two months after WNOK-TV (channel 67, now WLTX on channel 19, where it moved in 1961). WIS is the third-longest continuously operating station in the state, behind WCSC-TV in Charleston and WNOK/WLTX.

WIS radio (whose call letters stood for "Wonderful Iodine State", in reference to the abundance of iodine in the South Carolina soil) received the last new three-letter call sign in the U.S. on January 23, 1930, and the call sign was later shared with its television sibling. The station has been an NBC affiliate since its inception, owing to its radio sister's longtime affiliation with the NBC Red Network. However, until 1961, when a new channel 25 signed on as WCCA-TV (now WOLO-TV), it maintained a secondary affiliation with ABC, airing its programming outside of NBC network timeslots.

WIS-TV was a major beneficiary of an exception to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)'s "2½ + 1" plan for allocating VHF television bandwidth. In the early days of broadcast television, there were twelve VHF channels available, and 69 UHF channels (which was later reduced to 56 with the removal of high-band channels 70-83 in the early 1980s). The VHF bands were more desirable because signals broadcasting on that band traveled a longer distance. Because there were only twelve VHF channels available, there were limitations as to how closely the stations could be spaced. With the release of the FCC's Sixth Report and Order in 1952, the Commission outlined a new allocation table for VHF licenses and opened up the UHF band. Through these initiatives, almost all of the United States would be able to receive two commercial VHF channels plus one non-commercial allocation. Most of the rest of the country ("1/2") would be able to receive a third VHF channel. Other areas of the country would be designated as "UHF islands", since they were too close to larger cities for VHF service. The "2" networks became CBS and NBC, "+1" represented non-commercial educational (public television, usually affiliated with NET) stations, and "1/2" became ABC, which, as the smallest and weakest network then, usually wound up with the UHF allocation where no VHF allocation was available.

Originally, Columbia was assigned two VHF licenses, channels 7 and 10. This did not sit well with Walter J. Brown, owner of WSPA (950 AM) and WSPA-FM (98.9) in Spartanburg. He pressed Governor and fellow Spartanburg resident James F. Byrnes to use his influence with the FCC to move channel 7 from Columbia to Spartanburg, allowing him to launch WSPA-TV in 1956.

With this move, Columbia was now sandwiched between Charlotte (which had respectively been awarded channels 3 and 9) to the north, Florence–Myrtle Beach (channel 8, later 13) to the east, Charleston (channels 2, 4, 5, and 7) and Savannah (channels 3, 9, and 11) to the south, Augusta (channels 6 and 12) to the west, and Greenville–Spartanburg–Asheville (channels 4, 7, and 13) to the northwest. This created a huge "doughnut" in central South Carolina where there could be only one VHF license.

WIS-TV was fortunate to gain that license, providing many people in that part of South Carolina with their first clear reception of a television signal. Until the FCC mandated all-channel tuning in 1964, viewers needed a converter to watch UHF stations, and picture quality was marginal at best even with a converter. This allowed channel 10 to become one of the most dominant television stations in the country; it has been the far-and-away market leader for most of its history.

Channel 10 originally broadcast from a self-supporting tower atop its studios on Bull Street. In 1959, WIS-TV activated its current transmitter tower in Lugoff; the tallest structure located east of the Mississippi River at the time, it more than doubled the station's coverage area and provided at least secondary coverage as far north as Charlotte, as far south as Augusta, as far west as Greenwood and as far east as Florence. This included all but five of the state's 46 counties; in fact, until the arrival of cable television in the market in the late 1970s, channel 10 was one of only two stations that brought a clear signal to much of the outlying portions of the market—the other being WRLK-TV (channel 35), one of the two South Carolina Educational Television stations that serve the area. It would remain the tallest structure in South Carolina until Florence's WPDE-TV activated its signal in 1981. The station's original tower is still used as a backup; it is a longtime fixture of Columbia's skyline and is turned into a "Christmas tree of lights" during the holiday season.

For many years, WIS was one of two NBC affiliates that served the Florence–Myrtle Beach market, since that market was one of the few areas on the East Coast without its own NBC affiliate. It was the NBC affiliate of record for the Pee Dee (Florence) side of the market while Wilmington's WECT was the affiliate of record for Myrtle Beach and the Grand Strand. However, most cable systems on the Myrtle Beach side of the market began carrying WIS in the mid-1980s. After the FCC passed the syndication exclusivity rule in 1989, WIS set up a "virtual station" for cable systems in the Florence–Myrtle Beach market that aired separate syndicated programming for the area. It also began selling advertising specific to the market as well, mostly on the Pee Dee side. This ended when Raycom Media signed on an NBC affiliate within that market, WMBF-TV, in August 2008.

WIS had modest viewership on the South Carolina side of the Charlotte market for several years, especially after that city's NBC affiliation moved to WRET (channel 36, later WPCQ-TV and now WCNC-TV) in 1978. WRET's UHF signal did not have nearly as much penetration as the VHF signal of former NBC affiliate WSOC-TV (channel 9). Even after new owner Westinghouse Broadcasting doubled channel 36's transmitter power in 1979, many viewers on the South Carolina side of the market got a better signal from WIS even though its transmitter was  south of Charlotte. WIS appeared in The Charlotte Observer television listings well into the 1990s, and was carried on many cable systems on the South Carolina side of the Charlotte market well into the 21st century. A similar situation prevailed in Augusta, where WIS provided a stronger signal than WATU/WAGT (channel 26, now defunct) even though its transmitter was  north of Augusta. It remained on most Augusta-area cable systems, including in Augusta itself, well into the new millennium.

The Broadcasting Company of the South acquired several other television stations over the years. It was renamed as the Cosmos Broadcasting Corporation in 1965, with WIS radio and television serving as its flagship stations. Later in the decade, Liberty Life reorganized itself as the Liberty Corporation, with Liberty Life and Cosmos as subsidiaries. Cosmos sold WIS radio in 1986, but kept the WIS calls for channel 10. Liberty sold off its insurance businesses in 2000, bringing channel 10 directly under the Liberty Corporation banner. In 1991, after being known on-air as "TV 10" for most of its history, the station began branding itself as simply "WIS" (this was one year before the "-TV" suffix was officially dropped from its callsign); this lasted until 2003, when it branded as WIS News 10 for both general and newscast branding purposes.

On August 25, 2005, Liberty agreed to merge with Montgomery, Alabama–based Raycom Media. At the time, Raycom had already owned Fox affiliate WACH (channel 57). Raycom could not keep both stations as FCC duopoly rules forbid common ownership of two of the four highest-rated television stations in a single market based on Nielsen total-day ratings data for a given calendar month. Additionally, Columbia has only eight full-power stations, one fewer than what ownership rules allow to legally permit a duopoly in any case. Raycom opted to keep WIS and sold WACH to Barrington Broadcasting.

In February 2003, the station signed on its digital signal, becoming the last "Big Three"-affiliated station in the Columbia market to broadcast a digital signal (after WLTX, which signed on its digital signal in May 2002, and WOLO, which signed on theirs later that year). WIS' broadcasts became digital-only, effective June 12, 2009. For a week after the transition, some viewers lost access to NBC programming because WIS used its backup transmitter, which was not operating at full power. The station signed on a full-time digital transmitter from its Lugoff tower on June 19.

On June 25, 2018, Atlanta-based Gray Television announced it had reached an agreement with Raycom to merge their respective broadcasting assets (consisting of Raycom's 63 existing owned-and/or-operated television stations, including WIS), and Gray's 93 television stations) under Gray's corporate umbrella. The cash-and-stock merger transaction valued at $3.6 billion – in which Gray shareholders would acquire preferred stock currently held by Raycom – resulted in WIS gaining new sister stations in nearby markets, including CBS affiliate WRDW-TV and NBC affiliate WAGT-CD in Augusta (while separating it from WFXG) in addition to its current Raycom sister stations. The sale was approved on December 20, and was completed on January 2, 2019.

On May 29, 2019, Gray announced that WIS' second digital subchannel would become Columbia's CW affiliate effective September 30, 2019, with "Columbia's CW" replacing WKTC (channel 63). As part of the new affiliation, Bounce TV was moved to WIS-DT3, with Grit moving to WKTC-DT7.

Programming
WIS formerly preempted the third hour of the Today Show to air WIS Today; the third hour now airs on the station. However, as with most NBC affiliates, the station occasionally airs one hour of its The More You Know block on Saturday mornings prior to the station's weekend morning newscast in the event that NBC schedules a sports event during the noon hour on that day.

Over the years, channel 10 preempted NBC programming in moderation—most notably, the soap opera Search for Tomorrow during its NBC tenure from 1982 to 1986, and the 1990–91 NBC revival of Let's Make A Deal during its entire run. Although NBC has historically been far less tolerant of programming preemptions than the other networks, it was more than satisfied with WIS, which was one of its strongest affiliates. Although WIS broadcasts on a 24-hour schedule, it is one of the few remaining U.S. television stations that continues to sign off during the overnight hours for reasons other than necessary transmitter maintenance, occurring annually during the early morning hours of Christmas Day.

In 1963, the station debuted a long-running children's program Mr. Knozit, which was hosted by weather anchor Joe Pinner, who had been hired by WIS-TV a few months before. Four years later, the series would receive a Peabody Award for excellence in public service by way of children's programming. The show ran for 37 years, airing its final episode in 2000. Pinner, known in his later years as "Papa Joe", went into semi-retirement in 2000, but continued to provide weather reports and feature segments on the Friday edition of its noon newscast. He retired for good on September 1, 2018, after 55 years at the station.

WIS maintains the local rights to the highlight program from the South Carolina State Bulldogs (which it airs on Sunday mornings during the college football season); it had held rights to the South Carolina Gamecocks coach's show until the University of South Carolina decided to move the program to regional sports network Fox Sports Carolinas. After the Gamecocks joined the Southeastern Conference, WIS obtained the local television rights to Southeastern Conference football and men's basketball games (which made the station the home of the South Carolina Gamecocks); WOLO-TV (channel 25) and WKTC (channel 63) assumed rights to the games starting with the conference's 2010–11 athletic season.

News operation
WIS presently broadcasts 40 hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with seven hours on weekdays, two hours on Saturdays and three hours on Sundays); in addition, the station produces the public affairs program Awareness, which airs Sunday mornings at 11:00. WIS is a partner in the Raycom News Network, a system designed to rapidly share information on-air and online among Raycom's and Meredith Corporation's widespread groups of television stations (now all owned by Gray). In South Carolina, the company developed a regional network between WIS, WMBF, WCSC-TV in Charleston, WBTV in Charlotte and WHNS-TV in Greenville, in which stations share information, equipment such as satellite trucks and stories filed by the stations. Between them, these five stations cover almost all of South Carolina. Wilmington's WECT and Savannah's WTOC-TV also play a small part in the regional network.

For the better part of channel 10's history, its newscasts dominated the ratings in Columbia. Cosmos/Liberty made it a point to pour significant resources into its stations' news departments from the 1950s onward. This resulted in a higher-quality product than conventional wisdom would suggest for a market of Columbia's size. Although Columbia was the state's largest city for most of the 20th century and well into the new millennium, it has always been a small-to-medium-sized market because the surrounding suburban and rural areas are not much larger than the city itself. The station took full advantage of its near-statewide coverage to establish a tradition for strong local news coverage that continues today. Its dominance was helped by the fact that it was the only VHF station in the market. From the late 1970s until the mid-1990s, it was the only station in the market that offered a full schedule of local newscasts in all four dayparts (morning, midday, early and late evening).

Another factor behind WIS' run atop Columbia's ratings has been talent continuity. These staffers included news anchors Ed Carter and Susan Audé, who gained notoriety for her accomplishments as a reporter and anchor. Audé used a wheelchair due to having been paralyzed in an automobile accident. Carter became the station's main anchor in 1972, and Audé—by then known as Susan Audé Fisher (she divorced in 2000)—joined him at the anchor desk in 1982. The two remained paired together on its weekday evening newscasts until Carter retired in 1998; Audé later retired in 2006. As mentioned above, Joe Pinner served as a weatherman and children's host at the station from 1963 until his retirement in 2018. Jim Gandy, the station's chief meteorologist from 1984 to 1999, was known as "South Carolina's Weatherman"; he was the only area forecaster to predict Hurricane Hugo would make landfall in Charleston. Channel 10 continues to enjoy a staff with remarkably long tenures for a market of Columbia's size, including Jack Kuenzie, Judi Gatson, Dawndy Mercer Plank, Ben Tanner and Rick Henry, some of whom have been figures at the station for two decades.

Channel 10's news operation has long been well respected in the industry. In 1997, for instance, Hank Price of Northwestern University's Media Management Center recalled that whenever South Carolina was mentioned in television circles, "WIS' name will quickly come up" because it was seen as "a model for success." NBC affiliate relations director Lloyd Segal said that WIS was so dominant because it was "a midsize market station that acts like a major-market station." He added that at the time, WIS was one of 10 stations that NBC considered "outstanding partners" in gathering local news; WIS was by far the smallest station in that group, the other nine were in large markets.

While WIS still leads overall, its dominance is not as absolute as it once was. Since the turn of the millennium, it has had to fend off a spirited challenge from WLTX. It has consistently lost the #1 ranking in the noon timeslot to WLTX (mainly because of that station's CBS Daytime programming lead-in), and the early morning ratings crown has switched between the two stations multiple times. In 2019, it lost the early evening lead to WLTX for the first time in memory. While WIS still led the late news race overall, WLTX had pulled well ahead among adults aged 25–54.

WIS has won numerous awards for station quality and its news productions, including the Southeast Emmy Award for Best Newscast, the Edward R. Murrow Award, and several of the South Carolina Broadcasters Association's "Best Station of the Year" designation. In August 2007, Craig Melvin was named "Anchor of the Year" by SCBA. The station's on-air staff are named in the Best of the Media awards by the Columbia Free Times, and the station has been voted the "Best" by readers of The State newspaper several times.

In 1963, WIS moved its evening newscast from 6:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m., in hopes of taking advantage of having The Huntley-Brinkley Report as a lead-in. It was one of only a few stations in the Eastern Time Zone at the time to air a local newscast at 7:00 p.m. Most of Cosmos/Liberty's other stations followed WIS' lead and moved their early newscasts to 7:00 p.m. (6:00 p.m. in the case of Cosmos' stations in the Central Time Zone). It added a 6:00 p.m. newscast in 1991 as part of increased coverage of the Persian Gulf War. In 1970, WIS-TV premiered Awareness, a weekly public affairs program focusing on social and political issues concerning the minority population of the Midlands. In 1996, WIS entered into a news share agreement with Fox affiliate WACH to produce a 10:00 p.m. newscast for that station, which—buoyed by WIS's ratings dominance—became one of the highest-rated prime time newscasts in the United States; the agreement ended in March 2007, when WACH launched its own news department.

In 2006, WIS built a new set for its newscasts in preparation to an upgrade to high definition; the new set debuted in January 2007. On November 4, 2010, WIS became the second television station in the Columbia market (after WOLO) to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition. With the upgrade, the set received a refresh and a modified graphics package was introduced; the station also changed its weather branding to "First Alert Weather". On June 16, 2013, WIS expanded its news programming on weekend mornings with the debut of the market's first Sunday morning newscast, airing at 10:00 a.m.

Notable former on-air staff
 Susan Audé (Fisher) – anchor (1978–2006; retired)
 Angie Goff (now at WTTG in Washington, D.C.)
 Craig Melvin (now with Today, Dateline, and MSNBC; won a Regional Emmy Award in 2006)

Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:

Out-of-market cable and satellite carriage
WIS is carried on cable systems as far southwest as Aiken and as far northeast as Wadesboro, North Carolina. Until late 2009 or early 2010, it had been available on cable in Augusta, Georgia, despite the presence of an in-market NBC affiliate, WAGT. Even though WIS is carried in Wadesboro, Charlotte NBC affiliate WCNC-TV operates a translator in nearby Lilesville, W24AY, which covers Wadesboro. WIS' analog signal tended to be more receivable along the US 74 corridor between Wadesboro and Rockingham than the Lilesville translator. Until August 8, 2008, WIS was carried on digital cable in Rowland and Laurinburg, North Carolina. On that date, WMBF-TV signed on as the NBC affiliate for the Myrtle Beach-Florence market. DirecTV customers in Scotland and Robeson Counties in North Carolina received WIS as the default NBC station instead of WECT in nearby Wilmington. For many years, WECT has served this area, especially the town of Lumberton. Metrocast Cable (formerly Northland Cable)'s system in Bennettsville was one of the few providers in the Florence/Myrtle Beach/Lumberton market that did not drop WIS; it has since been dropped by that system also. Just outside that market, WIS remains on cable providers in many areas around South Carolina such as Georgetown and Williamsburg counties.

When CATV was first introduced in the area in the 1970s, WIS was carried in many border counties in North Carolina such as Mecklenburg, Richmond, southern Moore, Scotland, Robeson and Columbus counties. Of these areas, WIS only remains available in the Anson County town of Wadesboro. In Georgia, the station was formerly carried in the Screven County town of Sylvania.

References

External links

IS (TV)
NBC network affiliates
Bounce TV affiliates
Grit (TV network) affiliates
Circle (TV network) affiliates
Gray Television
Television channels and stations established in 1953
Peabody Award winners
1953 establishments in South Carolina

WIS (TV)


Solomon ben Jacob Almoli (before 1485 – after 1542) was a rabbi, physician and Hebrew author of the sixteenth century; lived in the Ottoman Empire, probably in Constantinople. As a physician he seems to have enjoyed quite a reputation, but he is better known as a Hebrew grammarian. He appears to have become a man of wealth in later years, for he published at his own expense numerous grammatical works. Thus in 1529 he published Ibn Ezra's "Yesod Mora," and in 1530 the work "Sefat Yeter" by the same author. To an edition of Ibn Yaḥyah's "Leshon Limmudim" in 1542 he supplied an introductory poem beginning with the words "Reu Sefer." Outside of the frequently reprinted "Pitron Ḥalomot," his other works are extremely rare.

Works
In 1517 he wrote an introductory ode to Elisha b. Abraham b. Mattathia's Magen David, which was a defense of ḳimḥi's grammatical system against Profiat Duran's criticism.
Shortly after, he published Halichot Sheva, a grammatical essay upon the sheva (Constantinople, 1519). (Link to .pdf file here.)
He also wrote Meassef Lechol ha-Maḥanot (The Collector for All Camps) (no date or place), which was, in a way, a prospectus for a Jewish encyclopedia. (The book is extremely rare; the Bodleian possesses only a manuscript copy of a part. Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 1936, 4.)
Best known and oftenest printed of all his works is his Pitron Ḥalomot or Mefasher Ḥelmin (Solution of Dreams), a dream-book, in which he explains all passages in the Talmud referring to dreams or their interpretation. It consists of three chapters upon the interpretation of dreams and upon the averting of evil dreams, and was first published in Salonica, about 1516 (link to .pdf file here). It was republished in 1518 in Constantinople, then later in Cracow; was printed in Amsterdam by Manasseh ben Israel (link to .pdf file here), and in 1694 appeared in a Judæo-German translation.
He also wrote a philosophical treatise upon the nature of the soul and its immortality, entitled Sha'ar ha-Shem he-Ḥadash, Constantinople, 1533.

References

 Its bibliography:
 Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2281;
 Carmoly, Hist. des Médecins Juifs, p. 159;
 Dukes, Zur Rabbinischen Spruchkunde, p. 70;
 Literaturblatt des Orients, xi. 265;
 Landau, Gesch. d. Jüdischen Aerzte, p. 85;
 Conforte, ḳore ha-Dorot, 34a:
 Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i. 1041, No. 1960.

15th-century births
16th-century deaths
Sephardi rabbis
Jewish writers
16th-century rabbis from the Ottoman Empire
Hebraists

Solomon Almoli


Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz (1695?–1775) was a French ethnographer, historian, and naturalist who is best known for his Histoire de la Louisiane. It was first published in twelve installments from 1751 to 1753 in the Journal Economique, then completely in three volumes in Paris in 1758.  After their victory in the Seven Years' War, the British published part of it in translation in 1763. It has never been fully translated into English.

The memoir recounts Le Page's years in the Louisiana colony from 1718 to 1734, when he learned the Natchez language and befriended native leaders. He gives lengthy descriptions of Natchez society and its culture, including the funeral rituals associated with the 1725 death of Tattooed Serpent, the second-highest ranking chief among the people.

It also includes his account of Moncacht-Apé, a Yazoo explorer who told him of completing travel to the Pacific Coast and back, likely in the late 17th or early 18th century.  Through this traveler, Le Page learned of oral traditions held by indigenous people of the West Coast. They told of the first Native Americans reaching North America by a land bridge from Asia. Le Page's book was carried as a guide by the Lewis and Clark Expedition as it explored the Louisiana Purchase starting in 1804.

Early life
Le Page Du Pratz was born in 1695 either in the Netherlands or France, and was raised in the latter country. He was educated, graduating from a French cours de mathematiques, and identified as an engineer and professional architect. Serving with King Louis XIV's dragoons in the French Army, he entered conflict in Germany in 1713 during the War of the Spanish Succession.

On 25 May 1718, Le Page left La Rochelle, France, with 800 men on one of three ships bound for Louisiana.  He arrived on 25 August 1718.  Le Page lived in La Louisiane from 1718 to 1734; about half of the period, 1720 to 1728, he lived near Fort Rosalie and Natchez on the Mississippi River. He had land and cultivated tobacco; in New Orleans he had bought two slaves, as well as a Chitimacha woman as a companion. She likely bore his children. In Natchez, he learned the language of the Natchez people, whose homeland this was, and befriended local native leaders.

When Le Page wrote his memoir more than a decade after returning to France, he used the verbatim words of many of his Native informants, rather than describing the "manners and customs of the Indians" in the detached fashion of so many later colonial authors. Because of his own interest in the origins of Native Americans, Le Page was especially attentive to the account by the Yazoo explorer Moncacht-Apé. He had traveled to the Pacific coast and back (a century before the later Lewis and Clark Expedition sponsored by the young United States). Le Page devoted three entire chapters to the Yazoo man's account of his travels. Moncacht-Apé was curious about the origins of his people and traveled to learn more. When he reached the Pacific coast, Moncacht-Apé heard Native oral histories that referred to an ancient land bridge from Asia.

Le Page lived at Natchez from 1720 to 1728 under the colonization scheme organized by John Law and the Company of the Indies. His familiarity with the local Natchez, and knowledge of their language and customs, is the basis for some of the unique aspects of his writings. He returned to New Orleans in 1728 to take an appointment as manager of the company's plantation across from the river from the city; he managed 200 slaves in the cultivation of tobacco. By this move, he avoided being killed in the Natchez revolt of 1729. Tensions and retaliatory attacks had escalated as European settlers encroached on Indian territory.

During the uprising by the Natchez, Chickasaw, and Yazoo, which Le Page described in detail, the Natives destroyed Fort Rosalie and killed nearly all of the male French colonists there. The Native Americans did not kill enslaved Africans or French women and children, whom they took as captives.

After the massacre, King Louis XV of France ended the concession of the Company of the Indies and seized control of the plantation which Le Page was managing. The French Army, bolstered by Indian allies, retaliated and attacked, putting down the Natchez Rebellion by 1731. They sold several hundred captive Indians into slavery and transported them to their colony of Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean, which was developed by slave labor for sugar cane plantations. Le Page du Pratz also wrote about the supposed Samba rebellion of 1731, in which he allegedly participated in arresting the conspiratorial slaves.

Writings
Le Page du Pratz waited more than fifteen years after his return to France before he wrote and published his memoir of Louisiana. The Memoire sur la Louisiane was published by installments between September 1751 and February 1753 in the Journal Oeconomique (Economic Journal), a Paris periodical devoted to scientific and commercial topics. In 1758, the three octavo volumes of the Histoire de la Louisiane were published. Part of the book was devoted to his ethnographic descriptions of the Native peoples of Louisiana, particularly the Natchez. His account included descriptions of the funeral of the Tattooed Serpent, the second-highest ranking chief, with drawings of the funeral procession and people offering themselves for sacrifice. Other sections described the history of the colony, from the Spanish and French explorers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries through establishment of the French settlements along the Mississippi.

In 1763, after the British had defeated France in the Seven Years' War, an English translation of part of Le Page du Pratz's work was published in London. The publishers changed the title, releasing it as The History of Louisiana, or of the Western Parts of Virginia and Carolina. This appeared to subordinate the former French colony to its British neighbors to the east, which had essentially claimed all lands west of each colony.  The preface asserted that the British "nation may now reap some advantages from those countries... by learning from the experience of others, what they do or are likely to produce, that may turn to account." The Lewis and Clark Expedition believed Le Page's work important enough to include among the guides which they took on their two-year journey beginning in 1804.

References

Further reading
 Shannon Lee Dawdy, "Enlightenment from the Ground: Le Page du Pratz's Histoire de la Louisiane", French Colonial History, Volume 3, 2003, pp. 17–34
 Gordon Sayre, "Le Page du Pratz's Fabulous Journey of Discovery: Learning about Nature Writing from a Colonial Promotional Narrative," in The Greening of Literary Scholarship: Literature, Theory, and the Environment, edited by Steven Rosendale (University of Iowa Press, 2002)
 Gordon Sayre, "Natchez Ethnohistory Revisited: New Manuscript Sources by Le Page du Pratz and Dumont de Montigny," Louisiana History 50:4 (Fall 2009), 407–436.
 Gordon Sayre, "A Newly-discovered Manuscript Map by Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz: From Mississippi Bubble to "Fleuve St. Louis," a new portrait of America's greatest river", Common-place 9:4 (June 2009)

External links

1695 births
1775 deaths
Historians of Louisiana
French naturalists
French slave owners
18th-century French historians
People of Louisiana (New France)
French male non-fiction writers

Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz


XTG Extreme Game is a Spanish men's and women's swimwear and underwear manufacturer from Gran Canaria, one of the Canary Islands. XTG also expanded its product line to other clothing including leisurewear, sportswear and accessories.

History

In 1987, director Luis Mentado Medina and his partner Lenita Burman started XTG Extreme Game designing and producing wetsuits. In the late 80's, the raising in the price of the high quality Japanese neoprene forced him out of business.
After that he decided to launch a line of men's swimwear, what became the actual XTG Extreme Game brand. It became the absolute leader in its sector in the Canary Islands and very popular in mainland Spain. It also has good sales in the rest of Europe.

In 2005 XTG presented their first XTG underwear collection, becoming the most sold and well known product from XTG internationally. After this success they launched a line of lingerie for the female market.

Recently, the company launched a sports wear collection, XTG GYM, and a kid's line, XTG Kid's Collection.

Now, with over 50 employees, XTG is a multi-million euro global enterprise and manufacturing over 100 different products.

Marketing
XTG retails in Spanish department stores like El Corte Inglés and internationally in Selfridges, Pyrénées Department Stores, Galeries Lafayette, Priape and Hankyu Department Store.

Their company online shop has experienced a sustained growth in sales around the world. The brand also has small boutiques in various cities around the world.

XTG Extreme Game promotes their products in magazines and signs in different countries and in traditional and not traditional venues on the internet, such as blogs and social networking sites Facebook and Twitter.

Products

All XTG products are manufactured in Gran Canaria and China with the business run completely out of the company's headquarters in Gran Canaria. The fabrics are bought from factories in Barcelona.

For the spring-summer 2011 season, XTG offers an "American" style in underwear and home-wear, using red, white, blue and black colours.

The XTG design style is colourful, complex and daring, with some of the recurrent themes being sex, popular characters and mythology. XTG is part of the Burmen group, along with the Lenita brand.

Controversy
In 2010, the "Religious" briefs & boxers, depicting a Jesus Christ on the back, was retired from department stores after complaints from Christian groups that intended to sue the company.

See also
Speedo (suit style)

References

External links
Official Website
Greta Lingerie

Underwear brands
Swimwear manufacturers
Clothing brands of Spain
Clothing companies of Spain
Companies of the Canary Islands

XTG Extreme Game


Arnie Kogen is an American comedy writer and producer. He has written for TV, film, and is a longtime writer for Mad Magazine.  Among his hundreds of Mad bylines, Kogen has written more than 100 film or television parodies.

Born in Brooklyn, New York City, New York, to Jewish parents, Kogen contributed to Mad soon after college at New York University. He wrote for many of the top stand-up comics of that time including Don Adams, Morty Gunty, and Jan Murray.  He moved on to writing for Candid Camera, The Les Crane Show, The Jackie Gleason Show and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.

In 1965 he co-wrote the feature film Birds Do It, starring Soupy Sales.

He moved to California with his family in 1968.  His many variety and sitcom credits include The Dean Martin Show, The Carol Burnett Show, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, The Rich Little Show, The Tim Conway Show, The Golden Globes (1972–1975), Donny and Marie, An Evening at the Improv, Newhart, Empty Nest, and MADtv.

Kogen has written comedy material for many entertainers including Steve and Eydie, Totie Fields, Flip Wilson, Jackie Vernon, Sammy Davis, Jr., Debbie Reynolds, Connie Stevens and Shelley Berman.

Kogen has won 3 Emmy Awards (7 nominations) and one WGA Award (3 nominations).

His son Jay Kogen, also an Emmy-winning comedy writer, was an original writer for the animated television series The Simpsons. His late daughter, Jill Arons, worked at The Bingo Bugle.

External links

 Complete list of Kogen's articles for MAD Magazine
 Arnie Kogen quoted in history of MAD Magazine

American comedy writers
American comics writers
American satirists
American parodists
American television writers
American male television writers
Living people
Writers Guild of America Award winners
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
Primetime Emmy Award winners
Mad (magazine) people
Screenwriters from New York (state)

Arnie Kogen


MC is an initialism for master of ceremonies or mic controller.

MC, M.C., Mc, mC or mc may also refer to:

Places
 Macau, a Chinese territory (FIPS country code)
 Monaco (ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code MC)

People
 Mc-, a Gaelic surname prefix of Mac-, meaning son, prefixed to Scottish and Irish names
 MC, pseudonym of the Korean StarCraft II player Jang Min Chul
 M.C., pseudonym of the Australian novelist Catherine Edith Macauley Martin

Arts, entertainment, and media

Television
 Mayans M.C., a television series spun off from Sons of Anarchy, about the fictional Mayans Motorcycle Club
 Multicinema, a Mexican pay TV network

Other arts, entertainment, and media
 Master of ceremonies or mistress of ceremonies
 MCing: Alternative term for rapping
 MC die microcomputer-zeitschrift (magazine), former German computer magazine
 Minecraft, a game released in 2011 by Mojang
 Music Choice, cable television channel

Businesses and organizations
 LVMH (pan-European stock exchange stock symbol MC)
 Marvel Comics
 McDonald's
 Missionaries of Charity, whose members use the post-nominal letters MC
 Motorcycle club

Education
 Marin Catholic High School, Kentfield, Marin County, California, US
 Marietta College, Marietta, Ohio, US
 Master of Counselling, an academic degree
 Michigan Collegiate, Warren, Michigan, US
 Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont, US
 Mississippi College, Clinton, Mississippi, US
 Montgomery College, Montgomery County, Maryland, US

Military
 Marine Corps, especially United States Marine Corps
 Mass communication specialist, a US Navy rating
 Master Chief (disambiguation), several ranks
 Military Cross, a British and Commonwealth military decoration

Science and technology

Astrophysics and astrology
 Mars Chart, see List of quadrangles on Mars
 Medium Coeli, midheaven point in astrology

Computing and technology
 .mc, the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Monaco
 Music Cassette - cassette tape, e.g. C60 or C90 for up to 120 minutes of recordings
 Microcassette tape, e.g. MC30 is 30-minute tape
 Midnight Commander, a file-management software
 Moving coil, a type of phonograph magnetic cartridge
 Main Content, MC an algorithm quality factor in website search engine ranking

Other uses in science and technology
 Mc, moscovium, chemical element 115
 Megacoulomb, an SI unit of electric charge
 Micro- (mc), alternative to SI prefix μ, e.g. mcg
 Microchimerism, the presence of a minority of extrinsic living cells in a host
 Millicoulomb (mC), an SI unit of electric charge

Other uses
 "Mc-", a prefix used to form McWords
 Marginal cost, in economics and finance
 Middle Chinese, an historical Chinese dialect
 1100 in Roman numerals

MC


Manso I () (died 1004) was the duke of Amalfi (966–1004) and prince of Salerno (981–983). He was the son of Duke Sergius I and the greatest independent ruler of Amalfi, which he controlled for nearly half a century. He is sometimes numbered Manso III.

When his father Sergius, of the Musco Comite family, assumed the Amalfitan throne in 958, he immediately associated his young son Manso with him. In 966, Manso succeeded to the full dukedom. He was even granted the Byzantine title patricius. From the start he had designs on the Principality of Salerno. In 977, he associated his own son  John with him as co-duke.

In 973, Manso conspired with Landulf of Conza and Marinus II of Naples to depose Gisulf I of Salerno. In 974, Gisulf was reinstated by Pandulf Ironhead. In 981, Manso took advantage of the youth of Pandulf II of Salerno and invaded that principality, removing him from office. Emperor Otto II, who was then in Italy fighting the Byzantines and the Saracens and in need of allies, gave Manso the imperial recognition he desired. Manso associated John with him in the rule, but the Amalfitans were tyrannical and unpopular. In 983, they were overthrown by the people, who elected the exiled count of the palace, John Lambert.

Exiled from Salerno, Manso did not find refuge in Amalfi, where his brother Adelfer had begun to reign in opposition to him. Though Manso succeeded in reestablishing himself in Amalfi by 986, it seems that Adelfer and his other brothers, Ademarius and Leo, continued to claim co-authority until at least 998. Nevertheless, Manso continued to rule Amalfi until his death. He built the cathedral of S. Andrea Apostolo and succeeded in getting Pope John XV to make Amalfi an archiepiscopal see (987). When he died, he was succeeded by his adult son.

According to the Arab traveller Ibn Hawqal, writing in 977, described Amalfi as:

...the most prosperous Lombard city, the most noble, the most illustrious for its conditions, the most wealthy and opulent. The territory of Amalfi borders that of Naples; a beautiful city, but less important than Amalfi.

References
Caravale, Mario (ed). Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani: LV Ginammi – Giovanni da Crema. Rome, 2000.

10th-century births
1004 deaths
Lombard warriors
Princes of Salerno
10th-century Lombard people
11th-century Lombard people
10th-century monarchs in Europe
11th-century dukes of Amalfi
Patricii
Year of birth unknown

Manso I of Amalfi


Fire Barn 5 or Fire Station 5 is a historic building in Elgin, Illinois. It was the fifth official fire barn in Elgin, originally housing horses and a fire fighting carriage. Over the years, the carriage was replaced by automobiles. The building is an example of Classical Revival architecture and operated as a fire station until 1991, the year it was added to the National Register of Historic Places. It now functions as the Elgin Fire Barn No. 5 Museum, a museum of firefighting history.

History
Elgin, Illinois was first settled in the 1830s and was incorporated in 1854. Upon incorporation, the city was able to raise taxes for public buildings, including a town hall and schools. With the success of the Elgin National Watch Company and the Gail Borden Condensing Company, Elgin became a prosperous manufacturing town by the late 1860s. It was at this point when the first fire department of Elgin was established following a bad fire on July 15, 1865. A storage facility was built for firefighting equipment, and featured a bell to alarm citizens when a fire broke out. Elgin citizens were eager to support the department because of reduced insurance premiums. Fire hydrants were installed in 1875. The department ran on a volunteer basis until the late 1880s, when professional carriage-drivers were hired to drive the fire engine. The growth of the department closely followed the growth of Elgin as a whole. The first fire station, capable of housing on-duty firefighters, was opened on January 19, 1889 on the site of the original truck house. Two years later, a second station was opened on Chicago Street near State Street. Two additional fire houses were built in 1896.

The economic success of Elgin in the early 1900s inspired town officials to build a fifth fire station in a distinct architectural style. The new station was built on the corner of Arlington Avenue and St. Charles Street. The city bought the lot from Thomas S. Wallin for $800. Local architect Smith Hoag was tasked with the fire house's design. The Classical Revival structured was completed in 1903 at a cost of $6,262. The first fire house captain was William Seyfarth. The station was built in near-isolation in the southeast extremes of Elgin, but the nearby neighborhoods quickly filled in. Wallin also deeded a small lot by the station to be used as a recreational area. In 1905, a fountain and basin were constructed there and stocked with fish. In the 1910s, many of the horse-drawn carriages of the fire department were replaced with automobiles. Telephone lines were installed between stations in 1919. During the Great Depression, Fire Station 5 was closed and the men instead worked Fire Station 1. While closed, the building briefly operated as the studio for sculptor Trygve Rovelstad. Fire Station Five reopened in 1939. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on August 5, 1991, shortly before it was to cease function as an operating station. It now operates as a museum and contains historical fire fighting artifacts, including a Silsby Steamer engine used to fight the Great Chicago Fire in 1871.

Architecture
Smith Hoag wanted the Fire Barn to reflect the changing public perception of firemen. The front of the building (south) was intended to resemble a commercial storefront with a large apparatus door. The door is not original; it had to be replaced to meet the demands of larger firefight equipment. The Classical Revival style was popular in the 1900s; Hoag incorporated elements of the style by including a second-floor bay window and fancy window shapes. The main door and bay window are both flanked with windows on each side. The building was built with blonde brick with red brick highlights on lintels at quoins. The roof is hipped and features a domed, octagonal, wooden cupola, used as a bell tower. A semi-circular stained glass window adorns the east side with brick pilasters below a brick frieze. Two windows are on east side of the semi-circular window. The south end of the eastern exterior has a chimney and the north end a dormer. The west side is similar to the east, but has a two-story bay window and no chimney or dormer. The north end features smaller windows and a hayloft.

Inside, the front of the building originally housed the fire fighting apparatus while the rear housed the horses. Personnel stayed on the second floor and could access the first floor via a brass sliding pole. A steep staircase, intended to keep horses from following firemen up to their quarters, also led to the second floor. Hay was stored on the third floor loft. The captain had a room of his own with a desk.

References

External links

 Elgin Fire Barn No. 5 Museum

Fire stations completed in 1903
Fire stations on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
Neoclassical architecture in Illinois
Elgin, Illinois
Museums in Kane County, Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in Kane County, Illinois
Firefighting museums in the United States
History museums in Illinois
Defunct fire stations in Illinois

Fire Barn 5 (Elgin, Illinois)


Paul Henry Nitze (January 16, 1907 – October 19, 2004) was an American businessman and government official who served as United States Deputy Secretary of Defense, U.S. Secretary of the Navy, and Director of Policy Planning for the U.S. State Department. He is best known for being the principal author of NSC 68 and the co-founder of Team B. He helped shape U.S. Cold War defense policy over the course of numerous presidential administrations.

Early life, education and family
Nitze was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, the son of Anina Sophia (Hilken), a homemaker, and William Albert Nitze, a professor of Romance linguistics who concluded his career at the University of Chicago. His parents were both of German descent. His ancestors came from the region of Magdeburg in the state of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. In his memoir, From Hiroshima to Glasnost, Paul Nitze describes how as a young boy he witnessed the outbreak of World War I while he was traveling in Germany with his father, mother, and sister, arriving in Munich just in time to be struck by the city crowds' patriotic enthusiasm for the imminent conflict.

Nitze attended The Hotchkiss School, where he was a member of the class of 1924 and the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools.  He graduated from Harvard University in 1928 and entered the field of investment banking.

In 1928 and 1929, the Chicago brokerage firm of Bacon, Whipple and Company sent Nitze to Europe. Upon his return, he heard Clarence Dillon predict the Great Depression and the decline of the importance of finance. Having attained financial independence through the sale to Revlon of his interest in a French laboratory producing pharmaceutical products in the United States, Nitze took an intellectual sabbatical that included a year of graduate study at Harvard in sociology, philosophy, and constitutional and international law. In 1929 he joined investment bank Dillon, Read & Co. where he remained until founding his own firm, P. H. Nitze & Co, in 1938. He returned to Dillon, Read as Vice-President from 1939 through to 1941.

In 1932, he married Phyllis Pratt, daughter of John Teele Pratt, a Standard Oil financier, and of Ruth Baker Pratt, Republican Congresswoman for New York. She died in 1987. They had four children: Heidi, Peter, William, and Phyllis Anina (Nina). The journalist Nicholas Thompson, who wrote a biography of Nitze and George F. Kennan, is his grandson. He was married to Elisabeth Scott Porter from 1993 until his death in 2004.

Nitze's brother-in-law, Walter Paepcke, founded the Aspen Institute and Aspen Skiing Company. Nitze continued to ski in Aspen until well into his 80s.

Government career
Nitze entered government service during World War II after having been hired by his Wall Street colleague James Forrestal when Forrestal became an administrative assistant to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1942, he became finance director of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, working for Nelson Rockefeller. In 1943 he became chief of the Metals and Minerals Branch of the Board of Economic Warfare, until he was named director, Foreign Procurement and Development Branch of the Foreign Economic Administration later that year. From 1944 to 1946, Nitze served as director and then as Vice Chairman of the Strategic Bombing Survey for which President Harry S. Truman awarded him the Legion of Merit. One of his early government assignments was to visit Allied-occupied Japan in the immediate aftermath of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and assess the damage. This experience framed many of his later feelings about the power of nuclear weapons and the necessity of arms control.

In the early postwar era and Cold War, he served in the Truman Administration as Director of Policy Planning for the State Department (1950–1953). He was also the principal author in 1950 of the highly influential but secret National Security Council policy paper, NSC 68, which provided the strategic outline for increased US expenditures to counter the perceived threat of Soviet armament. During the Korean War, he advised the Truman administration against blaming the Soviet Union for the conflict too directly in order to avoid risking an escalation to World War III.

From 1953 to 1961, Nitze served as president of the Foreign Service Educational Foundation while concurrently serving as associate of the Washington Center of Foreign Policy Research and the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) of the Johns Hopkins University. In 1956 he attended the Project Nobska anti-submarine warfare conference, where discussion ranged from oceanography to nuclear weapons.

Nitze co-founded the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) with Christian Herter in 1943 and the world-renowned graduate school, based in Washington, D.C., is named in his honor. His publications during this period include U.S. Foreign Policy: 1945–1955. In 1961, President Kennedy appointed Nitze Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs. In 1963, Nitze became the Secretary of the Navy, serving until 1967. According to the US Navy "as the Navy secretary, he raised the level of attention given to quality of Service issues. His many achievements included establishing the first Personnel Policy Board and retention task force (the Alford Board), and obtaining targeted personnel bonuses. He lengthened commanding officer tours and raised command responsibility pay."

Following his term as Secretary of the Navy, he served as Deputy Secretary of Defense (1967–1969), as a member of the US delegation to the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) (1969–1973). Later, fearing Soviet rearmament, he opposed the ratification of SALT II (1979).

Paul Nitze was a cofounder of Team B, a 1970s intelligence think tank that challenged the National Intelligence Estimates provided by the CIA. The Team B reports became the intellectual foundation for the idea of "the window of vulnerability" and of the massive arms buildup that began toward the end of the Carter administration and accelerated under President Ronald Reagan. Team B came to the conclusion that the Soviets had developed new weapons of mass destruction and had aggressive strategies with regard to a potential nuclear war. Team B's analysis of Soviet weapon systems was later believed to be largely exaggerated.

According to Anne Cahn of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (1977–1980), "if you go through most of Team B's specific allegations about weapons systems, and you just examine them one by one, they were all wrong." Nonetheless, some still claim that its conclusions about Soviet strategical aims were largely proven to be true, but this hardly squares with the elevation of Gorbachev in 1985.
Nitze was President Ronald Reagan's chief negotiator of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (1981–1984). In 1984, Nitze was named Special Advisor to the President and Secretary of State on Arms Control.

For more than forty years, Nitze was one of the chief architects of US policy toward the Soviet Union.

Awards and honors

In 1985 President Reagan awarded Nitze the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his contributions to the freedom and security of the United States.

In 1986, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

In 1989, Nitze received the US Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards.

In 1991, he was awarded the prestigious United States Military Academy's Sylvanus Thayer Award for his commitment to the Academy's ideals of "Duty, Honor, Country".[6]

In 1997, Nitze was awarded the Naval Heritage Award by the US Navy Memorial Foundation for his support of the US Navy while he was Secretary of the Navy.

Death and legacy
Nitze died in Washington, D.C., at age 97 in October 2004.
 The   is named in his honor. Nitze visited the ship for several ceremonial occasions prior to his death.
 The Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies of the Johns Hopkins University is named in his honor.
 St. Mary's College of Maryland, where he served as a trustee, has an honors program in his name.

Offices and positions held
 Vice chairman of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey (1944–1946)
 Director of Policy Planning for the United States Department of State (1950–1953)
 Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (1961–1963)
 Secretary of the Navy (1963–1967)
 Deputy Secretary of Defense (1967–1969)
 Member of the US delegation to the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (1969–1973)
 Special Adviser to the President and Secretary of State on Arms Control (1984–1989)

Quotes
 "I have been around at a time when important things needed to be done."
 "One of the most dangerous forms of human error is forgetting what one is trying to achieve."

See also
 Dangerous Capabilities: Paul Nitze and the Cold War

References

This article incorporates public domain text from the United States Navy.

Further reading
 Callahan, David. Dangerous Capabilities: Paul Nitze and the Cold War (1990) online
 Drew, S. Nelson, and Paul H. Nitze. NSC-68 forging the strategy of containment (1994) online.

 Gaddis, John Lewis, and Paul Nitze. "NSC 68 and the Soviet Threat Reconsidered." International Security 4.4 (1980): 164-176.
 Nitze, Paul, with Ann M Smith. From Hiroshima to Glasnost: At the Center of Decision: A Memoir (1989) online

 Talbott, Strobe. The Master of the Game: Paul Nitze and the Nuclear Peace (1989), scholarly biography; online
 Thompson, Nicholas. The Hawk and the Dove: Paul Nitze, George Kennan, and the History of the Cold War (2010) excerpt

External links

 Annotated bibliography for Paul Nitze from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
 Interview about the SALT I negotiations for the WGBH series War and Peace in the Nuclear Age

1907 births
2004 deaths
American people of German descent
Directors of Policy Planning
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Hotchkiss School alumni
Harvard University alumni
St. Mary's College of Maryland
Politicians from Amherst, Massachusetts
People from Washington, D.C.
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
United States Deputy Secretaries of Defense
United States Secretaries of the Navy
Reagan administration personnel
Lyndon B. Johnson administration personnel
University of Chicago Laboratory Schools alumni
Charles Pratt family
United States Assistant Secretaries of Defense

Paul Nitze


Haunch of Venison was a contemporary art gallery operating from 2002 until 2013. It supported the work of contemporary leading artists, presented a broad and critically acclaimed program of exhibitions to a large public through international exhibition spaces in London and New York.

History

Haunch of Venison was founded in 2002, and named after the London courtyard (Haunch of Venison Yard) in which the original gallery space was based.  In 2007,  Haunch of Venison became a subsidiary of Christie's International plc. but continues to operate as an independent company run by Senior International Director Emilio Steinberger.

Artists represented by Haunch of Venison include Rina Banerjee, Justin Mortimer, Thomas Heatherwick, Jitish Kallat, Jamie Shovlin, Joana Vasconcelos  and Turner
Prize nominees Richard Long, Simon Patterson, Katie Paterson and Nathan Coley.

The London gallery temporarily relocated to 6 Burlington Gardens from March 2009 to November 2011. In September 2011, the London gallery moved back to its original location at Haunch of Venison Yard, following extensive renovations by leading architect Annabelle Selldorf.

In March 2012, Haunch of Venison opened a second gallery space in London, located on Eastcastle Street in Fitzrovia. The new space, launched with an exhibition by young Scottish artist Katie Paterson (9 March – 28 April). The new space is situated in Fitzrovia; an area known historically for its artist communities and in recent years home to a number of significant contemporary art galleries.

As of 28 March 2013, Haunch of Venison ceased to represent artists, and the gallery spaces were combined with Christie's Private Sales to focus on the secondary market.

New York and Berlin
Haunch of Venison opened in New York in September 2008.  The inaugural exhibition, "Abstract Expressionism - A World Elsewhere" - curated by David Anfam - showcased the paintings, sculptures and photographs of Franz Kline, Willem de Kooning, Lee Krasner, Barnett Newman, Jackson
Pollock, Mark Rothko, Aaron Siskind, David Smith, and Clyfford Still. 2011 saw a survey exhibition of paintings by Peter Saul. The New York gallery was based in the Rockefeller Center from 2008 to 2011. In September 2011, the gallery relocated to a new space in Chelsea, also redesigned by Annabelle Selldorf.

Haunch of Venison Berlin opened in September 2007 and closed in December 2010. The gallery was located next to the city's contemporary art museum the Hamburger Bahnhof in a former industrial space allowing for the presentation of one-off projects and large-scale exhibitions. A concert by the fictional band 'Lustfaust' presented by Jamie Shovlin marked the opening. The last exhibition was a solo show by Yoko Ono.

Notes and references

Defunct contemporary art galleries in London
2002 establishments in England
Buildings and structures in the City of Westminster
Art galleries established in 2002
Art galleries disestablished in 2013

Haunch of Venison


Robert Field Stockton (August 20, 1795 – October 7, 1866) was a United States Navy commodore, notable in the capture of California during the Mexican–American War. He was a naval innovator and an early advocate for a propeller-driven, steam-powered navy.  Stockton was from a notable political family and also served as a U.S. senator from New Jersey.

Biography

Robert F. Stockton was born at Morven, Stockton Street, Princeton, New Jersey, into a political family; his father Richard Stockton was a U.S. senator and representative, and his grandfather, Judge Richard Stockton was attorney general for New Jersey and a signer of the Declaration of Independence.  Robert F. Stockton was of English descent, and his family had been in what is now the United States since the early colonial period. On March 4, 1823, he married Harriet Maria Potter in Charleston, South Carolina. Ten children were born to this marriage.

Early naval service
Stockton was appointed a midshipman in the U.S. Navy in September 1811, shortly after his 16th birthday, and served at sea and ashore during the War of 1812. After that conflict, Lieutenant Stockton was assigned to ships operating in the Mediterranean, in the Caribbean and off the coast of West Africa.  He was the first naval officer to act against the slave trade and captured several slave ships. In December 1821, while commanding the U.S.S. Alligator along the African Windward Coast, Lt. Stockton along with Dr. Eli Ayers of the American Colonization Society, negotiated a treaty that led to the founding of the state of Liberia. One source describes that he "leveled a pistol at King Peter's head and thereby convinced the latter to sell some of his territory". Though this story of coercion is now being severely challenged by Smithsonian Magazine as being fraudulent propaganda with the recent discovery of the original contract, records, and contemporary press articles which show that Liberia was founded when "the two men [Ayers & Stockton] spent four days ashore negotiating a contract with local leaders to purchase a narrow tract of land that scholars estimate covered about 140 acres. Payment would come in the form of trade goods... together worth roughly $7,000 in today's money. Both parties also pledged to live in peace and friendship for ever. Ayers recorded the deal in careful script on the front and back of a single sheet of paper. He signed it along with Stockton and six local leaders, who referred to themselves as Peter, George, Zoda, Long Peter, Governor, and Jimmy. They were called "kings" in the contract, although they were not monarchs in the European sense... American Newspapers published accounts of the purchase and transcripts of the contract...". Fourteen years later, in 1835 the Contract, which had been brought to the U.S. under safekeeping of the American Colonization Society, mysteriously went missing and "over the ensuing decades that loss [of the original document] contributed to the myth that the contract had never existed at all - that the Americans had simply seized the land by force or fraud... Because Ayers kept a detailed journal of the 1821 journey to Cape Mesurado [now Liberia], and newspapers printed the text of the agreement, we now know much of what happened that December. But the absence of the original document left an enormous hole in the historical record". But that myth has been exploded by the August 2021 re-discovery of that Contract at the Chicago History Museum among the donated papers of Elias Caldwell, clerk for the Supreme Court during the tenure of George Washington's nephew Justice Bushrod Washington who was a co-founder of the American Colonization Society. The Contract hadn't gone mysteriously missing, it had merely been among the co-founder's papers and, while "out of sight/out of mind", it was forgotten.

Business affairs
During the later 1820s and into the 1830s, he primarily devoted his attention to business affairs in New Jersey. In addition, Stockton owned and operated the Tellurium gold mine in Goochland County, Virginia and Fluvanna County, Virginia, purchasing it in 1848, after its discovery in 1832 by G.W. Fisher. The birth of his son John P. Stockton, later also a U.S. senator representing New Jersey, occurred during this time.

In 1835, he purchased a property in Monmouth County, New Jersey, called "Sea Girt". The property was purchased in 1875 by a group of land developers, with the name of Stockton's estate ultimately leading to the choice of the name Sea Girt, New Jersey, when the borough was established in 1918.

Resumes active naval service
In 1838, Stockton resumed active naval service as a captain. He served in the European area, but took leave in 1840 to undertake political work. Offered the post of U.S. Secretary of the Navy by President John Tyler in 1841, he declined the offer, but worked successfully to gain support for the construction of an advanced steam warship with a battery of very heavy guns.

This ship became , the Navy's first screw-propelled steamer. The ship was designed by John Ericsson. Stockton commanded her when she was completed in 1843. The ship was armed with two long 225-pounder wrought iron guns, called the "Peacemaker" and the "Oregon". Although he was the deviser of the defective gun, Captain Stockton's political influence allowed him to be absolved of all responsibility for the February 1844 explosion of the gun, the Peacemaker, on board the ship. The explosion killed two cabinet secretaries and several others.

Cleared by the court of any wrongdoing in the explosion incident, Stockton was sent by President James K. Polk to Texas.  Stockton carried with him Polk's offer to annex Texas, sailing on the Princeton and arriving in Galveston. Stockton's observations while in Texas made him aware of the looming war with Mexico, a fact he communicated directly to Polk once he arrived back in Washington. No vessel during the Mexican war was more useful than the Princeton in the Gulf of Mexico. The records of the Navy Department showed she performed more service than all the rest of the Gulf squadron put together.

Mexican–American War
Conquest of California

On July 23, 1846, Commodore Stockton arrived in Monterey, California, and took over command from the ailing Commodore John D. Sloat of the Pacific Squadron of U.S. naval forces in the Pacific Ocean. Commodore Sloat had previously raised the US flag, without resistance, at Monterey, but had no plan to conduct any further military operations on shore and once relieved, sailed home to the United States, leaving Commodore Stockton in command of all US forces. Stockton's command ship was  and his combined fleet of three frigates with about 480 men each, one ship of the line with about 780 men and up to four sloops with about 200 men each as well as three storeships made him the strongest force in California as well as the senior military commander and military governor.  He was the main driving force in continuing to take possession of Alta California.

On August 11, 1846, Commodore Stockton marched on Pueblo de Los Angeles to meet in battle with General Castro's army. Upon learning of the imminent arrival of Commodore Stockton, Castro retired, leaving behind all his artillery and made off in the direction of Sonora. Immediately after these events Stockton dispatched a courier, Kit Carson, to inform Washington of the proceedings and details of his conquest of California.

On December 6, 1846, Stockton learned that General Stephen Kearny had arrived in California with a small force and that he was besieged by vastly superior enemy forces at the Battle of San Pasqual. Kearny was among the wounded and in command of only 60 weary dragoons mounted on tired mules who were in a perilous position and under attack from a Californio-Mexican cavalry force under Andrés Pico. But for Commodore Stockton's immediate decision to take personal command of a relief column, the outcome could have been disastrous for Kearny.

Later, the combined forces consolidated control over San Diego, and in January 1847 won the minor skirmishes at the Battle of Rio San Gabriel and Battle of La Mesa taking back control of Los Angeles. Faced with the approximate 200 men under John C. Fremont's California Battalion as well as Stockton and Kearny's troops, the Californios sued for peace and signed the Treaty of Cahuenga, which ending fighting in Alta California. Stockton, as senior military authority and military governor of the occupied territory, authorized John C. Fremont's appointment to succeed him as military governor and commander of the California Battalion militia force. When General Kearny finally arrived with orders to assume control of the temporary government Stockton turned over control to Kearny.

Political pursuits
Stockton resigned from the Navy in May 1850 and returned to business and political pursuits. In 1851, he was elected as a Democrat from New Jersey to the United States Senate, where he sponsored a bill to abolish flogging as a Navy punishment. He resigned on January 10, 1853, to serve as president of the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company, a position he held until 1866.

He was a delegate to the unsuccessful Peace Conference of 1861  that attempted to settle the secession crisis; instead the American Civil War began later that year. In 1863, he was appointed to command the New Jersey militia when the Confederate Army invaded Pennsylvania. Stockton died at Princeton, New Jersey, in October 1866, and is buried in the Princeton Cemetery.

Legacy
Four U.S. Navy ships have been named  in his honor. The cities of Stockton, California and Stockton, Missouri are named in his honor, as is the borough of Stockton, New Jersey, Stockton Street in San Francisco, and Fort Stockton, San Diego, California, which is now a ruin, but was occupied during the Mexican–American War. In Mariposa County, California Stockton Creek is named after him due to a mine he owned in the California Gold Rush. In Liberia, Stockton Creek, a tidal channel that connects the Mesurado River and the Saint Paul River, and that separates Bushrod Island from the mainland in Monrovia, is also named for him.

Formerly Commodore Stockton Elementary School in San Francisco between Clay and Pacific Streets was named after him.
Stockton Street in San Jose was named after him and his Garden Alameda San Jose neighborhood.  In Sacramento, Stockton Boulevard is the historic thoroughfare linking Sacramento and Stockton, now superseded by Highway 99 and Interstate 5.

Fort Stockton California Historical Landmark No. 54.

References

Bibliography

 Brockmann, R. John, (2009)  Commodore Robert F. Stockton, 1795-1866: Protean Man for a Protean Nation Cambria Press, Amherst, Massachusetts, p. 622. The only scholarly biography.  Url
 Beach, Edward Latimer. The United States Navy: A 200-year History. Houghton Mifflin Company. C 1986. pp. 196–221.

Further reading

1795 births
1866 deaths
People from Princeton, New Jersey
Stockton family of New Jersey
Democratic Party United States senators from New Jersey
American people of English descent
New Jersey Democrats
United States military governors of California
History of Liberia
People from Sea Girt, New Jersey
19th-century American politicians
United States Navy officers
United States Navy personnel of the Mexican–American War
People of the Conquest of California
American people of the Bear Flag Revolt
People of New Jersey in the American Civil War
Burials at Princeton Cemetery

Robert F. Stockton


Vytautas (Lithuanian: , , ; styled "the Great" frae the 15t century onwards; c. 1350  October 27, 1430) wis ane o the maist famous rulers o medieval Lithuania. Vytautas wis the ruler (1392–1430) of the Grand Duchy o Lithuanie which chiefly encompassed the Lithuanians an Ruthenians. He wis also the Prince o Hrodna (1370–1382) an the Prince o Lutsk (1387–1389), postulated king o Hussites.

In modern Lithuanie, Vytautas is revered as a naitional hero an wis an important figure in the national rebirth in the 19t century. Vytautas is a popular male gien name in Lithuanie. Vytautas Magnus University wis named efter him. Monuments in his honour wur built in mony touns in the independent Republic of Lithuanie durin the interwar period, 1918–1939.

1350 births
1430 daiths
Lithuanie nobility
Belaroushie rulers
Gediminids
Fowk o the Hussite Wars
Grand Dukes o Lithuanie
Keengs o Lithuanie
Pretenders tae the Bohemian throne
Buirials at Vilnius Cathedral
Fowk in the Battle o Grunwald
Fowk frae Vilnius Coonty
Order o the Dragon

Vytautas


Economic stability is the absence of excessive fluctuations in the macroeconomy. An economy with fairly constant output growth and low and stable inflation would be considered economically stable. An economy with frequent large recessions, a pronounced business cycle, very high or variable inflation, or frequent financial crises would be considered economically unstable.

Measuring stability

Real macroeconomic output can be decomposed into a trend and a cyclical part, where the variance of the cyclical series derived from the filtering technique (e.g., the band-pass filter, or the most commonly used Hodrick–Prescott filter) serves as the primary measure of departure from economic stability.

A simple method of decomposition involves regressing real output on the variable "time", or on a polynomial in the time variable, and labeling the predicted levels of output as the trend and the residuals as the cyclical portion. Another approach is to model real output as difference stationary with drift, with the drift component being the trend.

Causes of instability

Macroeconomic instability can be brought on by the lack of financial stability, as exemplified by the Great Recession which was brought on by the financial crisis of 2007–2008.

Monetarists consider that a highly variable money supply leads to a highly variable output level. Milton Friedman believed that this was a key contributor to the Great Depression of the 1930s.

John Maynard Keynes believed, and subsequent Keynesians believe, that unstable aggregate demand leads to macroeconomic instability, while real business cycle theorists believe that fluctuations in aggregate supply drive business cycles.

Effects of instabilities

Economic instability can have a number of negative effects on the overall welfare of people and nations by creating an environment in which economic assets lose value and investment is hindered or stopped. This can lead to unemployment, economic recession, or in extreme cases, a societal collapse.

Stabilization policy

When a stabilization policy is implemented, it generally involves the use of either monetary policy or fiscal policy. Either of these may be advocated by Keynesian economists. However, they are generally opposed by monetarists and real business cycle theorists. Monetarists believe that well-intentioned contercyclical monetary policy will generally be counterproductive, adding to the existing variability of real output, and real business cycle theorists believe that such policies are misguided because they do not address the underlying causes of fluctuations, which they believe lie on the supply side of the economy.

See also
Automatic stabilizer
Stability and Growth Pact
Global financial system

References

External links
 World Bank GFDR Report

Business cycle
Macroeconomics

Economic stability


Simple aromatic rings, also known as simple arenes or simple aromatics, are aromatic organic compounds. They consist only of a conjugated planar ring system with delocalized pi electron clouds. Many simple aromatic rings have trivial names. They are usually found as substructures of more complex molecules ("substituted aromatics"). Typical simple aromatic compounds are benzene, indole, and cyclotetradecaheptaene.

Simple aromatic rings with non-carbon ring atoms are called "heterocyclic". For example, rings can include oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. Molecules with one ring are called monocyclic as in benzene. Molecules with two rings are called bicyclic as in naphthalene. Molecules with more than two rings are called polycyclic as in anthracene. Simple monocyclic aromatic rings are usually five-membered rings like pyrrole or six-membered rings like pyridine. Fused aromatic rings consist of monocyclic rings that share their connecting bonds.

Heterocyclic aromatic rings
The nitrogen (N)-containing aromatic rings can be separated into basic aromatic rings that are easily protonated, and form aromatic cations and salts (e.g., pyridinium), and non-basic aromatic rings.

 In the basic aromatic rings, the lone pair of electrons is not part of the aromatic system and extends in the plane of the ring. This lone pair is responsible for the basicityof these nitrogenous bases, similar to the nitrogen atom in amines. In these compounds, the nitrogen atom is not connected to a hydrogen atom. Examples of basic aromatic rings are pyridine or quinoline. Several aromatic rings contain basic as well as non-basic nitrogen atoms, e.g., imidazole and purine.
 In the non-basic rings, the lone pair of electrons of the nitrogen atom is delocalized and contributes to the aromatic pi electron system. In these compounds, the nitrogen atom is connected to a hydrogen atom. Examples of non-basic nitrogen-containing aromatic rings are pyrrole and indole.

In the oxygen- and sulfur-containing aromatic rings, one of the electron pairs of the heteroatoms  contributes to the aromatic system (similar to the non-basic nitrogen-containing rings). The second lone pair extends in the plane of the ring (similar to the basic nitrogen-containing rings).

Criteria for aromaticity

All of these molecules meet the following criteria:
 Molecule must be cyclic.
 Every atom in the ring must have a p orbital, which overlaps with p orbitals on either side (completely conjugated).
 Molecule must be planar.
 It must contain an odd number of pairs of pi electrons; must satisfy Huckel's rule: (4n+2) pi electrons, where n is an integer starting at zero.

In contrast, molecules with 4n pi electrons are antiaromatic.

Related pages
 Polycyclic aromatic compounds
 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)

References

Organic compounds
Organic chemistry

Simple aromatic rings


Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a virus that causes lung infections,(usually called respiratory tract infections). It is the major cause of lung infections and hospital visits in babies and children.  There is a medicine that can help prevent the virus in babies that have not been born yet if the doctor is worried the baby may get the virus.

References

Viruses
Breathing problems

Respiratory syncytial virus


The Mevlevi or Mevleviyya order (whirling dervishes) is a  school (tarika) of Sufism was founded by Hazrat Sheikh Mevlana Jalal-ud-din Rumi. He was also sometimes known as Jalal-ud-din Balkhi as he came from Balkh, Afghanistan, and settled in Konya, (modern Turkey). This order is also called the 'Order of the Whirling Dervishes' because of the famous sema whirling/dancing ritual that they practice.

Schools of Islamic law
Sufic orders

Mevlevi


North (cutty form nor') is ane o the fower main airts or airtins on a compass. North is for ordinar up on maist cairts. Canadae is benorth o the Unitit States, Venezuela is benorth o Brazil, an Roushie is benorth o Indie. The North Powl is the yondermaist nor'lins ye can gang. In ither wirds it is the nor'maist place on the Yird.

Orientation

North


Cyberjack was a Web browser application created by Delrina in 1995. It was sold as a stand-alone product, and was also bundled as part of Delrina's CommSuite 95 offering.

In addition to the Web browser application, it also included an ftp client, Usenet newsgroup reader, an IRC client, a graphic interface to gopher services and more. It used a Wizard-based front-end that provided access to all of these services. It was touted as being the first 32-bit based Web browsing program, and was aimed squarely at Windows 95 users. It could transform seamlessly from one application to another as required, a feature that would not be emulated until later browsers of the late 1990s.

As an application it had two main drawbacks: its browser application was incapable of rendering tables, which were then becoming predominant in Web site design, and it also lacked an email client. While table support was added more than a year later, by that time it had lost important mindshare.

In the end, it could not compete against other browser offerings that were offered for free, such as the contemporaneous Internet Explorer 2, which came out November 1995 and Netscape Navigator.

Although marketed by Symantec, the Cyberjack suite was written by a small South African startup, Vironix Software Laboratories. Vironix was owned by Dave and Paula Hall and originally operated from Westville, Durban. During the development of Cyberjack, the majority of the programmers moved to a new office in Muizenberg, a beach town near Cape Town. The entire programming team consisted of only about six developers, roughly one per Internet application. The suite was sold to Delrina, which was later bought by Symantec. However, it came to market at about the time that the Internet Explorer/Netscape Navigator browser war was developing, and the small programming team with limited resources could not keep up with the pace of browser development. After Cyberjack was discontinued by Symantec, Vironix went into liquidation although some of the members of the Cyberjack team went on to develop the WebFerret application.

See also
Internet Suite
List of mergers and acquisitions by Symantec

References

External links

Gopher clients
Windows-only proprietary software
Windows web browsers
Gopher (protocol)
1995 software
Discontinued internet suites

Cyberjack


Intonation, in music, can have two different meanings:

In plainchant, intonation is when a solo singer - usually the priest - sings the first phrase of a piece of music before the choir start to sing.  The intonation is the tune on which the music is based.  For example, when the choir sings a piece called Gloria the priest first sings "Gloria in excelsis Deo" ("Glory be to God") by himself, unaccompanied.  Then the choir continue singing with the words "et in terra pax....." ("and peace on earth....).
The word "intonation" is used in music to describe whether someone who is playing a musical instrument is playing in tune. This is not used for instruments such as the piano which are tuned already, but for an instrument such as the violin there is a lot of skill and practice needed to play with good intonation (to play well in tune).  A violinist needs to put his or her fingers in exactly the right place on the fingerboard, otherwise the note will be sharp (too high) or flat (too low).  Musicians playing in a group will need to listen to one another so that their tuning (intonation) is good. Players of wind instruments and singers all need to pay careful attention to their intonation.

Related pages
Musical tuning

Musical performance techniques
Vocal music

Intonation (music)


The Watford Joint Tube Stock was built for the service to Watford along both the Bakerloo tube and the London North Western Railway. As a result, the cars were owned by  both the Underground and the London North Western Railway. To be able to operate on both lines, the car floors were  higher than other tube cars. This was a compromise height between the platform heights on the two lines.

The cars were ordered in 1914, but construction was delayed by The First World War. As a result, the first cars were not delivered until early 1920.

A total of 72 cars were built by Metropolitan Carriage and Wagon: 36 motor cars, 24 trailers, and 12 driving trailers. They were formed into six-car trains, and for the first time a motor car was used in the middle of the train. For this to happen, there had to be a passageway by the switch compartment as required by the Board of Trade.

These cars were built with hinged doors to the passenger compartments, an arrangement that caused delays during station stops, as each door had to be manually checked before the train departed.

Notes

External links
London Transport Museum Photographic Archive

Watford Joint
Train-related introductions in 1920

London Underground Watford Joint Stock


In publishing, printers are the companies that supply printing services and persons who operate directly printing presses.

After the invention of the moveable type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1450, printers were made popular throughout Europe.

Today, printers are found throughout the world. They include:

 Newspaper printers, that are often owned by newspaper publishers
 Magazine printers, that are usually independent of magazine publishers
 Book printers, often not directly connected with book publishers
 Stationery printers
 Packaging printers
 Commercial printers, often offering digital and traditional printing services

An artist that operates a printing press to do their own works, especially by hand, is usually named by the term printmaker.

Famous printers
 Johannes Gutenberg
 John Baskerville
 Jodocus Badius
 Henry Estienne
 William Caxton
 Benjamin Franklin
 Colard Mansion
 Aldus Manutius
 Francysk Skaryna
 Ottaviano Petrucci
 Christoffel Plantijn
 Johann Froben
 Hieronymus Froben
 Wright Brothers
 Charlotte Guillard
 William Bradford
 Jacob Meghapart
 Grigor Marzuantsi
 Mkhitar Sebastatsi
 Voskan Yerevantsi

Printers

diq:Neşırxaney

Printer (publishing)


Joseph Ritter von Fraunhofer (6 March 1787 – 7 June 1826) was a German physicist.

He was born in 1787 in Bavaria. When he was 11 years old, he had no father and no mother. Because of that, he had to work to survive. He worked making glass objects for a man called Philipp Anton Weichelsberger.

One day, in 1801, the place where Fraunhofer was working fell down and was destroyed. Fraunhofer was inside when this happened. Luckily, some people found him in the middle of the bits of the house and saved him. The Prince of Bavaria was with these people and he decided to help Fraunhofer.

The prince decided to give Fraunhofer money and books to study. He studied for five years and one day he was invited to work for a man called Joseph Utzschneider. This man had a company that made glass lenses to be used in scientific instruments. And this company had a secret laboratory in a monastery called Benediktbeuern. In this laboratory people were trying to discover how to make better glass lenses. Glass lenses at that time was a very complicated technology. After three years, Fraunhofer was one of the directors of this company. And after eight years he was a partner of the owner.

Fraunhofer died very sick in 1826, probably because of the time he worked as a child.

Spectroscopy
During his time in Benediktbeuern, Fraunhofer did experiments with glass. He discovered very important things about light. One day Fraunhofer was playing with a piece of glass called a prism and a telescope in a room full of sunlight. When he used the telescope to look at the glass, he discovered that he could see all colours of the rainbow. But there were black lines between the colours.  Fraunhofer never discovered what the black lines were; he suggested they might be boundaries between different colors. Many years later, scientists discovered that these black spectral lines existed because some materials that exist in the sun and in the sky can absorb parts of the light.  Today scientists use a similar technique to discover what chemicals are in stars and planets.  The scientists who tried to find out what was happening call this part of science "spectroscopy".

1787 births
1826 deaths
German physicists
People from Bavaria

Joseph von Fraunhofer


Dario Franchitti (born 19 May 1973) is a Scottish racing driver. He is best known for winning the IndyCar Series championship four times (in 2007, 2009, 2010 and 2011). He won the Indianapolis 500 three times. He most recently drove for Chip Ganassi Racing. He won three of his four championships while driving for that team. Franchitti has also driven in NASCAR and sportscar races. In 2013, he retired from racing after he was hurt in a crash during a race.

Biography

Franchitti was born on 19 May 1973 in Bathgate, Scotland. He began racing as a young boy. In 1996, he ran in the DTM series for Mercedes-Benz. He moved to CART racing in 1997. He drove for Hogan Racing in 1997. Franchitti finished a strong second place in 1999. In 2000, he thought about moving to the Jaguar Formula One team, but stayed in IndyCar racing. At this time he was driving for Andretti Autosport.

In 2003, Franchitti moved to the Indy Racing League (now IndyCar). He had to miss much of the year after he was injured in a motorcycle accident. Dan Wheldon replaced Franchitti at a race in Japan.

2007 was Franchitti's most successful season so far. He won the Indianapolis 500 and the series title.

Franchitti spent 2008 in NASCAR with Chip Ganassi Racing. He had some strong results, but he had a difficult season and decided to return to IndyCar. (IndyCar had merged with ChampCar in 2008.) He drove for Ganassi's IndyCar team, where he replaced Wheldon.

The 2009 season was very successful for Franchitti. He won the title over his teammate Scott Dixon and Penske driver Ryan Briscoe after winning the final race in Miami.

In 2010, Franchitti had a long battle with Australian driver Will Power. Franchitti won his second straight title.

Franchitti won again in 2011 after another battle with Power. His longtime friend Dan Wheldon was killed in a massive crash at the last race of the season in Las Vegas.

Franchitti did not have as much success in 2012 or 2013. He did win the Indianapolis 500 in 2012. During the 2013 Houston Grand Prix, a crash happened when he was racing in a difficult part of the course. Franchitti and several fans were seriously injured. Franchitti retired from racing after this crash. He is still involved with racing. He will drive the pace car for the 2014 Indianapolis 500. His place at the Ganassi team was taken by Tony Kanaan.

Personal life

Franchitti married American actress Ashley Judd in December 2001. The couple broke up in 2013.

References

Scottish racecar drivers
1973 births
Living people
IndyCar Series drivers
Sportspeople from West Lothian

Dario Franchitti


In chemistry, a substitution reaction happens when an atom or a group of atoms is replaced by a different one. Substitution reactions can be of many different types.

In organic chemistry, the main ones are nucleophilic substitution and electrophilic substitution. These take their names from electrophiles and nucleophiles. However, substitution reactions can also happen under other conditions. For example, photochemical reactions (reactions that use light instead of heat) are used to put halogens in a molecule. Another example is using free radicals. Choosing the correct solvent and temperature conditions is very important to make sure that the reaction happens. Sometimes an elimination reaction can happen instead.

The product of a substitution reaction is often called a substituted molecule. For example, phenol can be called a substituted benzene.

Chemical reactions

Substitution reaction


The Archaeological Museum of Thera is a museum in Fira, Santorini, Greece. It was built in 1960 to replace an older one which had collapsed by the 1956 Amorgos earthquake.

Its collection houses artifacts that begin from Proto-Cycladic marble figurines of the 3rd millennium BC, and continue on to the Classical period.

There are prehistoric vases from Akrotiri dated to the 20th-17th centuries BC.

Later artifacts include pottery and amphorae of Geometric and Archaic periods. Many of these objects come from the ancient cemetery of Thera. One of them is a krater with Attic black figures from grave no. 1, with four ships on the internal surface, around the rim.

External links

Archaeological Museum of Thera. Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism.

Thera
Buildings and structures in Santorini
Museums established in 1960
Thera

Archaeological Museum of Thera


Pedro Nolasco Martín José María de la Candelaria Francisco Javier Ampudia y Grimarest  (January 30, 1805 – August 7, 1868) was born in Havana, Cuba, and served Mexico as a Northern army officer for most of his life. At various points he was the governor of Tabasco, Yucatán, and Nuevo León. He also served a short term as Secretary of National Defense under President Benito Juárez.

Ampudia began his career in the Spanish army, and emigrated to Mexico following the Mexican War of Independence. In 1836, Ampudia served with the Mexican artillery at the Siege of the Alamo and later saw heavy combat at the Battle of San Jacinto. During border skirmishes with Texas in the early 1840s, Ampudia commanded the 350-man garrison of Ciudad Mier which was attacked on December 26, 1842, by Texan militia. In a bloody two-day battle, over 600 Mexicans were killed but they eventually forced the enemy to surrender, earning the grudging respect of the Texans across the border.

Briefly appointed as commander-in-chief of the Mexican Army of the North in 1846, Ampudia was removed from command following the brutal public execution of a local guerrilla leader on his personal orders. As a conservador (a member of Mexico's conservative faction), Ampudia was quickly relegated to a staff position in favor of his liberal rival, General Mariano Arista. At the Battle of Palo Alto, Ampudia harshly criticized Arista for what he saw as "unacceptable tactical blunders" and continued his criticism at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma – a defeat for which Arista partially blamed him.

During the long retreat south, Ampudia was appointed commander-in-chief of the Army of the North, in time to command Mexican forces at the Battle of Monterrey. Despite orders from Antonio López de Santa Anna that he was to retreat to Saltillo, Ampudia chose to stand at Monterrey instead and informed Santa Anna that:

"The men will brook no further retreat in the face of the enemy."

After a skilled defense of the city, Ampudia found American forces entered from the west and east. Trapped in the city plaza and bombarded by U.S. forces with howitzers, general Ampudia chose to request a flag of truce and retreat his battered army. His arrangement with Zachary Taylor allowed the Army of the North to keep its weapons but march as far south as possible and neglect offensive operations for three months.  At Saltillo, Ampudia attempted to throw up a defense similar to that at Monterrey, but the inhabitants of the city would have none of it. His failure to defend that city led to his removal by Santa Anna, and like his former superior, Arista, Ampudia found himself spending most of the rest of the war in administrative duties, though he was in command of portions of the Mexican artillery at the Battle of Buena Vista in 1847.

Despite his controversial retreat at Monterrey, Ampudia remained popular in Mexican folklore as "the only man who could defeat Taylor." After the war, Ampudia's policies became gradually more liberal, so that he supported the government of Benito Juárez during the Maximillian Intervention and served with considerable bravery and skill as commander of the liberal Army of the East, in whose command he was gravely wounded. In 1868, Ampudia died (possibly from complications arising from his wartime injuries) and was buried in the Panteón de San Fernando.

See also
 Battles of the Mexican–American War
 History of Mexico
 History of Nuevo León
 Mexican–American War

References
 Bauer, K. Jack, "The Mexican–American War, 1846–1848"
 Miguel Ángel Peral, ed., "Diccionario Biográfico Mexicano"

External links
 Pedro Ampudia at A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington

1803 births
1868 deaths
Politicians from Havana
People of Mexican side in the Texas Revolution
Mexican military personnel of the Mexican–American War
Cuban emigrants to Mexico
Governors of Nuevo León
People from Monterrey

Pedro de Ampudia


George Drennen Fischer was an American activist and spokesman for the National Education Association. He presented the Statement on complete comprehensive Preschool Education and Child Day Care Act of 1969 before the choose select Subcommittee on Education, February 27, 1970. He also published on the state of Native American education with Walter Mondale. His actions got him put placed on the master list of Nixon political opponents.

References

Fischer's 1970 statement before the Senate *
George D. Fischer and Walter F. Mondale, "Indian Education-A National Disgrace," Today's Education, LIX ( March, 1970), p. 26.

American activists

George Drennen Fischer


Ransom can mean two things:
Holding a person against their will, in order to get some money (or some other things)
The money, or the goods which (could possibly) be obtained in such a way.

If people talk about that they need to pay money to the state or the police, to get free, the correct legal term used is usually bail.

Often in piracy, pirates would steal something or someone important and demand a ransom payment.

Piracy
Kidnapping

Ransom