Edward of Westminster (13 October 1453 – 4 May 1471), also known as Edward of Lancaster, was the only son of Henry VI of England and Margaret of Anjou. He was killed aged seventeen at the Battle of Tewkesbury.

Early life
Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster, London, the only son of Henry VI of England and his wife, Margaret of Anjou. At the time, there was strife between Henry's supporters and those of Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York, who had a claim to the throne and challenged the authority of Henry's officers of state. Henry was suffering from mental illness, and there were widespread rumours that the prince was the result of an affair between his mother and one of her loyal supporters. Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset and James Butler, 5th Earl of Ormond, were both suspected of fathering Prince Edward; however, there is no firm evidence to support the rumours, and Henry himself never doubted the boy's legitimacy and publicly acknowledged paternity. Edward was invested as Prince of Wales at Windsor Castle in 1454.

War over the English throne
In 1460, Henry was captured by the supporters of the Duke of York at the Battle of Northampton and taken to London. The Duke of York was dissuaded from claiming the throne immediately, but he induced Parliament to pass the Act of Accord, by which Henry was allowed to reign but Edward was disinherited, as York or his heirs would become king on Henry's death.

Queen Margaret and Edward had meanwhile fled through Cheshire. By Margaret's later account, she induced outlaws and pillagers to aid her by pledging them to recognise the seven-year-old Edward as rightful heir to the crown. They subsequently reached safety in Wales and journeyed to Scotland, where Margaret raised support, while the Duke of York's enemies gathered in the north of England.

After York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield, the large army which Margaret had gathered advanced south. They defeated the army of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, one of York's most prominent supporters, at the Second Battle of St Albans. Warwick had brought the captive Henry in the train of his army, and he was found abandoned on the battlefield. Two of Warwick's knights, William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville, and Sir Thomas Kyriell, who had agreed to remain with Henry and see that he came to no harm, were captured. The day after the battle, Margaret asked Edward what death the two knights should suffer. Edward readily replied that their heads should be cut off.

Exile in France

Margaret hesitated to advance on London with her unruly army, and subsequently retreated. They were routed at the Battle of Towton a few weeks later. Margaret and Edward fled once again, to Scotland. For the next three years, Margaret inspired several revolts in the northernmost counties of England, but was eventually forced to sail to France, where she and Edward maintained a court in exile. (Henry had once again been captured and was a prisoner in the Tower of London.)

In 1467 the ambassador of the Duchy of Milan to the court of France wrote that Edward "already talks of nothing but cutting off heads or making war, as if he had everything in his hands or was the god of battle or the peaceful occupant of that throne."

After several years in exile, Margaret took the best opportunity that presented itself and allied herself with the renegade Earl of Warwick. Louis XI of France wanted to start a war with Burgundy, allies of the Yorkist Edward IV. He believed if he allied himself to restoring Lancastrian rule they would help him conquer Burgundy. As a compliment to his new allies Louis made young Edward godfather to his son Charles. Prince Edward was married to Anne Neville, Warwick's younger daughter, in December 1470, though there is some doubt as to whether the marriage was ever consummated.

Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury

Warwick returned to England and deposed Edward IV, with the help of Edward IV's younger brother, the Duke of Clarence. Edward IV fled into exile to Burgundy with his youngest brother the Duke of Gloucester, while Warwick restored Henry VI to the throne.  Prince Edward and Margaret lingered behind in France until April 1471. However, Edward IV had already raised an army, returned to England, and reconciled with Clarence. On the same day Margaret and Edward landed in England (14 April), Edward IV defeated and killed Warwick at the Battle of Barnet. With little real hope of success, the inexperienced prince and his mother led the remnant of their forces to meet Edward IV in the Battle of Tewkesbury. They were defeated and Edward of Westminster was killed.

According to contemporary sources, Edward was overtaken and slain in the battle during the rout of the Lancastrians, with some accounts attributing the deed to the Duke of Clarence, to whom the prince appealed to for help. Paul Murray Kendall, a biographer of Richard III, accepts this version of events. Another version states that Clarence and his men found the grieving prince near a grove following the battle, and immediately beheaded him on a makeshift block, despite his pleas.

Another account of Edward's death is given by three Tudor sources: The Grand Chronicle of London, Polydore Vergil, and Edward Hall. It was later dramatised by William Shakespeare in Henry VI, Part 3, Act V, scene v. Their story is that Edward was captured and brought before the victorious Edward IV and his brothers, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Gloucester, and his followers. The king received the prince graciously, and asked him why he had taken up arms against him. The prince replied defiantly, "I came to recover my father's heritage." The king then struck the prince across his face with his gauntlet hand, and Gloucester and Clarence killed the prince with their swords.

However, none of these accounts appears in any of the contemporaneous sources, which all report that Edward died in battle.

Edward's body is buried at Tewkesbury Abbey. His widow, Anne Neville, married the Duke of Gloucester, who eventually succeeded as Richard III in 1483.

Epitaph
The Latin memorial brass to Edward in Tewkesbury Abbey is set in the floor between the choir stalls, under the tower. It reads as follows:

This can be translated into English as follows:

"Here lies Edward, Prince of Wales,
cruelly slain whilst but a youth.
Anno Domini 1471, May fourth.
Alas, the savagery of men.
Thou art the sole light of thy Mother,
and the last hope of thy race."

Ancestry and family tree

Notes

References
 R. A. Griffiths, The Reign of King Henry VI (1981), especially the Epilogue.
 Alison Weir, Lancaster and York: The Wars of the Roses, London (1995)

External links
 Richard III Society
 The Death of Edward of Lancaster at Tewkesbury

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1453 births
1471 deaths
15th-century English nobility
Princes of Wales
Dukes of Cornwall
English military personnel killed in action
Heirs apparent who never acceded
Heirs to the English throne
House of Lancaster
People from Westminster
People of the Wars of the Roses
English Roman Catholics
Burials at Tewkesbury Abbey
Sons of kings

Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales


6-Fluoro-α-methyltryptamine (6-fluoro-AMT, 6F-AMT) is a tryptamine derivative related to compounds such as alpha-methyltryptamine and 5-MeO-AMT, which has been sold as a designer drug. Animal tests showed it to be somewhat less active than AMT or 5-fluoro-AMT, but it was nevertheless allegedly manufactured and sold from the laboratory operated by Leonard Pickard and Gordon Todd Skinner, who described 6-fluoro-AMT as "a beast".

In interviews, Skinner stated that he first began to experiment with 6-fluoro-AMT in the early 1980s by giving it to high school friends. Their experiences made him cautious about the appropriate dosage amounts, which he says ranges from 25mg to 75mg [Skinner weighed about 250lbs at the time of his own bioassay]. Skinner said that it is a long-lasting psychedelic with significantly more time distortion, and felt the drug was enhanced by combining it with ALD-52.

See also
 5-Fluoro-AET
 6-Fluoro-DMT
 6-Fluoro-DET
 7-Chloro-AMT
 O-4310

References

Tryptamines
Fluoroarenes

6-Fluoro-AMT


Цврсто моделирање (или моделирање) е прецизна претстава на цврсти делови на објект, односно модели на цврсти објекти соодветни за компјутерска обработка. Исто така е познато како просторно моделирање.  Други методи на моделирање вклучуваат  површински модели  (користени интензивно во автомобилството и дизајн на потрожувачки производи, како и анимации во филската индустрија) и wire frame модели (кои можат да бидат повеќезначни за цврсти зафатнини).

Примарни употреби на цврсто моделирање се CAD, engineering анализи, комјутерска графика и анимација, рапидно прототипирање, медицинско тестирање, визуелизација на продукти и визуелизација на научни истражувања.

Основни теоретски концепти
Постојат неколку начини на кои тврст модел може да се конструира, обично од едноставни објекти (како што се површина, линии, и/или точки).
 Sweeping
 An area feature is "swept out" by moving a primitive along a path to form a solid feature. These volumes either add to the object ("extrusion") or remove material ("cutter path").
 Also known as 'sketch based modeling'.
 Analogous to various manufacturing techniques such as extrusion, milling, lathe and others.
 Гранична претстава (BRep)
 A solid object is represented by boundary surfaces and then filled to make solid.
 Also knowing as 'surfacing'.
 Analogous to various manufacturing techniques; Injection moulding, casting, forging, thermoforming, etc.
 Инстанцирање на параметизирани примитиви.
 An object is specified by reference to a library of parameterized primitives.
 For example, a bolt is modeled for a library, this model is used for all bolt sizes by modifying a set of its parameters.
 Spatial occupancy enumeration (voxel)
 The whole space is subdivided into regular cells, and the object is specified by the set of cells it occupies.
 Models described this way lend themselves to Finite difference analysis.
 This is usually not done after a model is made, as part of automated pre-processing for analysis software.
 Клеточна декомпозиција
 Similar to "spatial occupancy", but the cells are neither regular, nor "prefabricated".
 Models described this way lend themselves to FEA.
 This is usually done after a model is made, as part of automated pre-processing for analysis software.
 Констуирачка цврста геометрија (CSG)
 Simple objects (primitives) are combined using Boolean operations (union, difference, intersection) and linear transformations.
 A special data structure is called a CSG-tree, where primitives are leaves and operations are nodes.
 Функциска претстава (FRep)
 Any object is represented by a single real function of point coordinates. A point is outside the object if the function is negative, inside the object if the function is positive, and on the boundary if the function is zero (isosurface).
 The function is evaluated at a point by traversing a tree structure similar to the CSG-tree.
 Feature based modeling
 Complex combinations of objects and operators are considered together as a unit which can be modified or duplicated.
 Order of operations is kept in a history tree, and parametric changes can propagate through the tree.
 Параметарско моделирање
 Attributes of features are parameterized, giving them labels rather than only giving them fixed numeric dimensions, and relationships between parameters in the entire model are tracked, to make changing numeric values of parameters easier.
 Almost always combined with features, giving parametric feature based modeling.
 Facet modeling
 Forming the outside surface form of the volume from any triangular planes
 Often used in reverse engineering of physical models.

Историја
Solid modeling has to be seen in context of the whole history of CAD, the key milestones being the development of Romulus which went on to influence the development of Parasolid and ACIS and thus the mid-range Windows based feature modelers such as IronCAD, Alibre Design, SolidWorks, and Solid Edge and the arrival of parametric solid models system like T-Flex and Pro/ENGINEER.

Практични апликации

Параметарско тврсто моделирање КАД
Solid modelers have become commonplace in engineering departments in the last ten years due to faster PCs and competitive software pricing. They are the workhorse of machine designers.

Solid modeling software creates a virtual 3D representation of components for machine design and analysis. Interface with the human operator is highly optimized and includes programmable macros, keyboard shortcuts and dynamic model manipulation. The ability to dynamically re-orient the model, in real-time shaded 3-D, is emphasized and helps the designer maintain a mental 3-D image.

Design work on components is usually done within context of the whole product using assembly modeling methods.

A solid model generally consists of a group of features, added one at a time, until the model is complete. Engineering solid models are built mostly with sketcher-based features; 2-D sketches that are swept along a path to become 3-D. These may be cuts, or extrusions for example.

Another type of modeling technique is 'surfacing' (Freeform surface modeling). Here, surfaces are defined, trimmed and merged, and filled to make solid. The surfaces are usually defined with datum curves in space and a variety of complex commands. Surfacing is more difficult, but better applicable to some manufacturing techniques, like injection molding. Solid models for injection molded parts usually have both surfacing and sketcher based features.

Engineering drawings are created semi-automatically and reference the solid models.

The learning curve for these software packages is steep, but a fluent machine designer who can master these software packages is highly productive.

The modeling of solids is only the minimum requirement of a CAD system's capabilities.

Parametric modeling uses parameters to define a model (dimensions, for example). The parameter may be modified later, and the model will update to reflect the modification. Typically, there is a relationship between parts, assemblies, and drawings. A part consists of multiple features, and an assembly consists of multiple parts. Drawings can be made from either parts or assemblies.

Example: A shaft is created by extruding a circle 100 mm. A hub is assembled to the end of the shaft. Later, the shaft is modified to be 200 mm long (click on the shaft, select the length dimension, modify to 200). When the model is updated the shaft will be 200 mm long, the hub will relocate to the end of the shaft to which it was assembled, and the engineering drawings and mass properties will reflect all changes automatically.

Examples of parameters are: dimensions used to create model features, material density, formulas to describe swept features, imported data (that describe a reference surface, for example).

Related to parameters, but slightly different are Constraints. Constraints are relationships between entities that make up a particular shape. For a window, the sides might be defined as being parallel, and of the same length.

Parametric modeling is obvious and intuitive. But for the first three decades of CAD this was not the case. Modification meant re-draw, or add a new cut or protrusion on top of old ones. Dimensions on engineering drawings were created, instead of shown.

Parametric modeling is very powerful, but requires more skill in model creation. A complicated model for an injection molded part may have a thousand features, and modifying an early feature may cause later features to fail. Skillfully created parametric models are easier to maintain and modify.

Parametric modeling also lends itself to data re-use. A whole family of capscrews can be contained in one model, for example.

Забава
Animation of computer generated characters is, technically, an example of parametric modeling, though few in the industry would consider it to be. Characters' skin is modelled with NURBS patches and stitched together or polygon modelled. The skin of characters is then parametrically associated to a skeleton within characters (with many characters' skins now being driven by muscle simulation systems). The skeleton of a character is rotated into poses, which parametrically drives the shape of the characters' skin for each frame to create animation.

Мидицинско цврсто моделирање
Modern computed axial tomography and magnetic resonance imaging scanners can be used to create solid models of internal body features. Optical 3D scanners can be used to create point clouds or polygon mesh models of external body features.

Uses of medical solid modeling;
 Visualization
 Visualization of specific body tissues (just blood vessels and tumor, for example)
 Designing prosthetics, orthotics, and other medical and dental devices (this is sometimes called mass customization)
 Creating polygon mesh models for rapid prototyping (to aid surgeons preparing for difficult surgeries, for example)
 Combining polygon mesh models with CAD solid modeling (design of hip replacement parts, for example)

Поврзанотака
Сметачка графика
 Сметачка геометрија
 Euler Гранична претстава
 Инженерско цртање
 Техничко цртање
 Список на на CAD-фирми

Надворешни врски
 Example of relational solid modeling
 Medical Solid Models - Heart and Skeleton
 The Solid Modeling Association

Сметачка графика
3D сметачка графика
Моделирање

Стереометриско моделирање


The Search for One-eye Jimmy is a 1994 comedy film written and directed by Sam Henry Kass.

Synopsis
Set in Brooklyn, New York, the movie is the story of a California film student Les (Holt McCallany) who returns to the town in which he grew up to shoot a film about it. The first individual he happens upon is Joe "Head" (so named because of the size of his head) played by Michael Badalucco. While interviewing him, they are told of a neighborhood man named "One-eyed" Jimmy (because of his glass eye) who has gone missing.

They then decide to switch gears from a documentary to a docu-drama, filming the hunt for Jimmy as they go. They come across one quirky character after another, each one giving his account of where Jimmy was last, or where he could be.

Jimmy's brother, played by Steve Buscemi, is not very interested in finding his brother. "Disco Bean", John Turturro's version of a disco-dancing freak stuck in an abandoned building dancing non-stop actually gives his account of how Jimmy lost his eye. "Colonel Ron", (Samuel L. Jackson), is a homeless, toothless, strange Vietnam veteran who catches fish in the Gowanus Canal, and  may actually be the most intelligent one in the bunch.

"Lefty" (Mancini) and "Junior" (Nick Turturro) constantly get into physical altercations because Junior, a kleptomaniac, is always stealing Lefty's car. The group uncover a ransom note but to meet the demands of the kidnappers they must borrow a large amount of money from the local loan shark "The Snake", played by Sirico, who thinks it is not worth the asking price to rescue Jimmy who he calls a "bum". Snake was formerly known as "The Whale" but has just returned from six months in a health spa where he lost two hundred lbs. and now wants to be known as "The Snake". The gang pays a visit to a psychic (Aida Turturro) in vain.

Completely distraught, Jimmy's mother (Anne Meara) commissions an amateur sketch artist Ellen (Jennifer Beals) to craft a poorly drawn portrait of Jimmy on a "missing person" flyer from a photograph, rather than using the actual photograph itself. Ultimately she decides she must throw a house party in Jimmy's honor, and invites the entire group of zany characters that we have met along the way. They all show up, and have a great time, and Joe Head woos Ellen as he displays dance moves passed on to him by Disco Bean.

Towards the end Jimmy winds up making his way home after his mother calls an early end to the party. He was trapped in the superintendent's apartment in the basement of his apartment house for five days, where he stayed alive by eating cat food. Visibly shaken, he recounts a tale of not having any beer to drink during his disappearance, and having to watch basic television channels since the super did not pay for cable. Jimmy vows that he will never do his laundry in the building again.

Les leaves, disappointed about the anticlimactic end to his story, but parts with Joe as friends. Later on, Joe and Junior, claiming they now own the rights after a financial dispute, are seen pitching the story to a Hollywood executive.

Cast
 Sam Rockwell as Jimmy "One-Eye Jimmy" Hoyt
 Steve Buscemi as Ed Hoyt
 John Turturro as "Disco" Bean
 Nicholas Turturro as Junior
 Aida Turturro as Madame Esther
 Anne Meara as Holly Hoyt
 Samuel L. Jackson as Colonel Ron
 Adam LeFevre as Detective
 Holt McCallany as Les
 Ray 'Boom Boom' Mancini as "Lefty"
 Jennifer Beals as Ellen
 Michael Badalucco as Joe Head
 Tony Sirico as Whale / Snake
 Mallory Kass as Little Girl

Screenings
The Search for One-Eye Jimmy had a 25th Anniversary screening at The Art of Brooklyn Film Festival in June 2017. Director Sam Henry Kass was in attendance for the Q&A that followed.

References

External links

1994 films
1994 comedy films
1996 comedy films
1996 films
1990s English-language films
American comedy films
1990s American films

The Search for One-eye Jimmy


Oscar Ariel González Mezzenasco (born October 28, 1974) is a former Argentine naturalized Mexican footballer who last played as a center forward, for Irapuato. He played most of his career in the first and second divisions of Mexican football.

During his career, he won three league championship trophies and was the league's top goal scorer four times. He led the Mexican league teams of Irapuato and San Luis to promotion to the first division on three separate occasions. He is San Luis's all-time top goal scorer with 51 goals, and he is placed 12th in the all time goal scoring table for the Mexican Second division with 74 goals in his name. González is known as Apache (Spanish for Native American) during his career for having long hair that resembled the Native Americans.

González retired from professional football in 2013 at the age of 38, But came out of retirement in November 2014.

Club career

Gimnasia
Ariel Gonzalez began his football career at Argentine First Division team Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata in 1994. Ariel Gonzalez reached second place in the league in three occasions with Gimnasia during the 1995 Clausura tournament, 1996 Clausura tournament and, 1998 Apertura tournament. Shortly After he Left Argentina and came to Play in the Mexican Primera A second tier of Football of Mexico with Real San Luis.

Real San Luis
Ariel debuted in Mexico during the Clausura 2000 season with Real San Luis. in his second season with Real San Luis, Ariel was placed 6th in the goal scoring table with 11 goals for Real San Luis in his name. after 2 seasons in the second division with Real San Luis, Ariel Gonzalez was traded to Querétaro in the Second Division in July 2001.

Querétaro
Ariel Gonzalez came to Querétaro for the Invierno 2001 season which he was placed 3rd in the goal scoring table with 12 goals in his name. Querétaro had the best offensive in that season with 33 goals. Ariel's second season at that team was probably his best since he won the title of top goal scorer of the league with 15 goals scoring almost half of the team's goals of the season (31). Ariel was then traded to Irapuato FC in July 2002.

Irapuato
Ariel came to Irapuato for the Apertura 2002 season. In his first season with the team he won the Second Division title with Irapuato beating La Piedad in the Final though Penalties in which Ariel missed his penalty but Irapuato still won. During the playoffs in that season he contributed  by scoring against Oaxaca in the quarterfinals on December 4, 2002, and once again in the semifinal against Tapatio. Ariel played both legs of the finals as a starter and did not get substituted out. After the Championship Irapuato waited on who would be crowned champions of the next season (Clausura 2002) and it was hated cross town rivals León.

After winning the Apertura 2002 championship, Irapuato got the chance to play in the promotional final against bitter crosstown rivals (champions of the Clausura 2002), where they won and secured a place in the Mexican First division for the Clausura 2003 season.

His debut in the Mexican First division was on August 3, 2003, in a 1–1 tied game against Morelia during the Clausura 2003 season.
After two seasons with Irapuato and one in the first division, Ariel was traded to first division América in December 2003.

America

Ariel officially was traded to América on December 10, 2003, for the Clausura 2004 season. He felt the pressure for playing for such an important team like América and playing next to great players such as Cuauhtémoc Blanco, Reinaldo Navia, and Pavel Pardo. he made 15 appearances and 4 goals with América. He reached the playoffs with América but were eliminated in the quarterfinal. Apart with playing in the Mexican League, Ariel participated in the 2004 Copa América with América making 5 appearances in the tournament.

after one season with América Ariel was traded to second division team Real San Luis.

Return to San Luis
After two seasons in the first division of Mexico Ariel returned to San Luis for the Apertura 2004 season, team where he started his career in Mexico. San Luis won the league title winning the final against Atletico Mexiquense. Thus receiving the opportunity of playing the promotional final against previous Champions, and former team Querétaro where they won in a combined score of 3-2 earning a spot in the Mexican first division. Ariel played a vital role by scoring in the second leg of the matches in the 1st minute of extra time. The game ended in a combined score of 3-2.

During the Clausura 2006 season San Luis received 2nd place in the Championship, losing in the final against Pachuca with a combined score of 0-1.

After 3 seasons with San Luis and 2 seasons in the first division, Ariel was traded to Pumas in December 2006.

Pumas
Ariel came to Pumas UNAM in the first division for the Apertura 2006 season, as an Important re enforcement. Pumas were placed first in their group ( C ) and qualified to the playoffs where they were defeated in the quarterfinals by Pachuca. During his time in Pumas; Ariel, Esteban Solari, and Ignacio Scocco where an important trio of forwards for Pumas in the Mexican league notably all Argentinians. in His second season with Pumas he made 11 appearances but failed to score a single goal and was placed in the list of transferables, and was eventually Loaned to San Luis.

Loaned to San Luis
Ariel was loaned to San Luis from Pumas as a re-enforsment for the Apertura 2007 season. San Luis reached the quarterfinals before being eliminated by Guadalajara. He managed 11 appearances and scored one goal, against Veracruz on August 29, 2007, in a 2–1 win.

Veracruz
Pumas eventually traded 33-year-old González to Veracruz for the Clausura 2008 season and Veracruz was eventually relegated to the second division after one season with Ariel Gonzalez. After two poor played seasons with Veracruz, González was loaned to Irapuato for 2 seasons in December 2009.

The Clausura 2008 season was González's last season in the First Division of Mexico. His last game in the Mexican first division was a 0–2 loss against Puebla on April 11, 2008.

Return to Irapuato
Ariel González was loaned by Veracruz to Irapuato for 2 seasons from the beginning of the Clausura 2009 to the end of the Clausura 2010 (also known as Bicentenario 2010) season. In the Bicentenario 2010 season Ariel won the top goal scorer title with 11 goals. he scored half of Irapuato's goals in that season 11 out of 21 goals, however Irapuato did not reach the playoffs that season. He was sent back from loan to Veracruz but Irapuato decided to transfer Ariel to Irapuato Permanently.

Irapuato bought González for the Apertura 2010 season, Ariel led Irapuato to the playoffs eventually losing in the semifinals against Veracruz 3-2. He received the Captain armband during that season and captained Irapuato until his retirement.

In his second season with Irapuato during the Clausura 2011 season Ariel captained Irapuato to the Final against Tijuana, he played an Important role by scoring in the Semi final against Atlante UTN and securing the final for Irapuato. he ranked second in the goal scoring table behind Blas Perez with Ariel having 12 goals scored throughout the Clausura 2011 season.

With the championship Irapuato received the chance of playing the promotional final against Tijuana however Irapuato lost with a margin of one goal (1-2) and missed out the opportunity of playing in the Mexican First division.

during the Apertura 2011 season or Ariel's 3rd season with Irapuato, they reached the playoffs but were eliminated by cross town rivals León in the quarterfinals with a combined score of 0-3.

For the Clausura 2012 Ariel did not have a good performance as well as Irapuato and they missed the playoffs.

Again for the Apertura 2012 Irapuato missed out the playoffs and a 37 yr old Ariel was seen less and less fit.

The Clausura 2013 in the Liga de Ascenso (Second division) was Ariel's last season with Irapuato and the final season played in his professional career.

He made his final appearance with Irapuato April 20, 2013, against Leones Negros and shortly retired from Professional football after a 19-year career from 1994 to 2013.

2014 Return to Irapuato
On November 11, 2014, it was announced Ariel was coming back to Irapuato alongside former teammates Gerardo Gómez, and Jorge Manrique as reinforcements for the Clausura 2015 season.

Statistics

Club

Honours

Club
Gimnasia
Primera División:
Runner Up (3) : 1995 Clausura, 1996 Clausura, and 1998 Apertura

Irapuato
Campeón de Ascenso:
Champion (1): 2003
Runner Up (1) : 2011
Liga de Ascenso:
Champion (2):   Apertura 2002, Clausura 2011

San Luis
Campeón de Ascenso:
Champion (1): 2005
Liga de Ascenso:
Champion (1):   Apertura 2004
Primera Division de Mexico:
Runner Up (1) : Clausura 2006

Individual
Goalscoring Leader
Ascenso MX (4):
 Invierno 2002 with Querétaro
 Apertura 2004 with San Luis
 Apertura 2009 with Irapuato
 Bicentenario 2010 with Irapuato

References

External links

1974 births
Living people
Footballers from Mendoza, Argentina
Argentine men's footballers
Argentine emigrants to Mexico
Naturalized citizens of Mexico
Mexican men's footballers
Club América footballers
C.D. Irapuato footballers
San Luis F.C. players
C.D. Veracruz footballers
Club Universidad Nacional footballers
Querétaro F.C. footballers
Argentine Primera División players
Liga MX players
Men's association football forwards

Ariel González


Forestry means working to take care of forests.  Someone who has a job looking after forests is called a forester.

Forests are very important for the world today. Much of the water cycle and carbon cycle goes through forests. Many of them are disappearing because people destroy them for firewood or to make farms. A forester makes sure the forest and all the animals that live there are healthy.  Foresters also make sure the forest is in good condition for people to use.  They makes sure that forests are not destroyed by wildfires before they are ready to use for timber production (cutting down trees to use the wood).

Forests are important for recreation (letting people enjoy them).  They are very important today because humans produce a lot of carbon dioxide and the trees in forests help to turn this back into oxygen, which we breathe to live. Foresters also help the government figure out what to do about artificial forestry. Many universities offer forestry courses. Forestry students also study zoology, botany and ecology.

Natural sciences

Forestry


Johann Philipp Eduard Gaertner (2 June 1801, Berlin – 22 February 1877, Flecken Zechlin, in Rheinsberg) was a German painter who specialized in depictions of urban architecture.

Early life and work

Education
In 1806, he moved with his mother to Kassel, where he received his first drawing lessons. They returned to Berlin in 1813 and he took up a six-year apprenticeship at the Royal Porcelain Factory. Although many artists had begun their careers at the Factory, he felt that the instruction provided was superficial and took drawing classes at the Academy of Arts.

In 1821, he accepted a position as a decorative painter in the studios of Carl Wilhelm Gropius, the Royal Court Theater painter, where he remained until 1825. During this time, he became increasingly attracted to architectural painting. He was able to finance a study trip to Paris by selling a portrait of King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia to the Royal family. While there, he acquired more skill in the manipulation of light and atmosphere, and was inspired by the magnificent vistas of medieval buildings to devote himself almost entirely to painting vedute.

Successes
Upon his return to Berlin, he became a free-lance painter. In 1829, he married and ultimately had twelve children. Over the next ten years, he devoted himself to documenting the Biedermeier style buildings of Berlin and, with Royal customers in mind, produced a series of scenes depicting the castles in Bellevue, Charlottenburg and Glienicke. In 1833, he was admitted to the Academy and designated a "Perspective Painter".

The following year, he began his most famous work: a six panel panorama of Berlin. It was painted from the roof of the Friedrichswerder Church, which is flat (and a popular place for sightseers, because all of the city's best-known buildings can be seen from there). This work was purchased by the King and a second version was bought by the King's daughter, Tsarina  Alexandra Feodorovna. Its purchase became the occasion for a trip to Moscow and St. Petersburg (1837–1838), during which Gaertner painted extensively.

Career decline
In 1840, King Friedrich Wilhelm III died. His successor, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, preferred Italian-style paintings with Greek landscapes and bought very little from Gaertner who, without the income from his principal client, soon began to have financial difficulties.

He eventually made contact with a group that was interested in the protection and restoration of monuments and needed to have an illustrated inventory of them. As a result, Gaertner traveled to villages and towns throughout Prussia, making watercolor sketches, including scenic views meant to be sold on his return to Berlin. By this means, he was able to attract some middle-class customers, but they proved to be no substitute for Royal patronage. He began to turn away from architecture, producing romantic scenes full of steep cliffs, Roma, ruins, and oak trees, but never restored that patronage. His paintings from this period are generally considered to be inferior.

As the century progressed, he increasingly suffered from competition with the newly emerging art of photography. In 1870, he and his family decided to leave the hectic atmosphere of Berlin and settle in Flecken Zechlin, a rural area near Rheinsberg. It was there that he died in 1877. His widow requested an annual allowance of 150 Marks from the Artist Support Fund of the Academy, but her application was denied. His works were virtually forgotten until the "Deutschen Jahrhundert-Ausstellung" of 1906 when they were shown again. Major exhibitions were staged in 1968, 1977, and 2001.

Method
It is believed that he made use of a camera obscura to sketch the layouts of his paintings. Although this is not expressly mentioned in his working notes, he does make oblique references to a "drafting machine" and some of his sketches are done on tracing paper. He also possessed a collection of photographs, but there is no indication that these were used as models.

Sources and further reading

 Irmgard Wirth: Eduard Gaertner. Der Berliner Architekturmaler. Propyläen, Frankfurt 1979, .
 Dominik Bartmann: Eduard Gaertner 1801–1877. Begleitband zur Ausstellung im Museum Ephraim-Palais, Berlin, 2001. Nicolai, Berlin 2001, .
 Frauke Josenhans: Gaertner, (Johann Philipp) Eduard, in: Bénédicte Savoy, France Nerlich : Pariser Lehrjahre. Ein Lexikon zur Ausbildung deutscher Maler in der französischen Hauptstadt. Vol. 1: 1793-1843. De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2013, , .

References

External links

 Eduard Gaertner – Exhibition in the Museum Ephraim-Palais, Berlin

1801 births
1877 deaths
19th-century German painters
German male painters
Painters from Berlin
19th-century German male artists

Eduard Gaertner


The Central Bank of the Argentine Republic (, BCRA) is the central bank of Argentina, being an autarchic entity.

Article 3 of the Organic Charter lists the objectives of this Institution: "The bank aims to promote, to the extent of its powers and within the framework of the policies established by the national government, monetary stability, financial stability, employment, and economic development with social equity.

Establishment
Established by six Acts of Congress enacted on May 28, 1935, the bank replaced Argentina's currency board, which had been in operation since 1899. Its first president was Ernesto Bosch, who served in that capacity from 1935 to 1945.

The Central Bank's headquarters on San Martín Street (in the heart of Buenos Aires' financial district, known locally as the city), was originally designed in 1872 by architects Henry Hunt and Hans Schroeder. Completed in 1876, the Italian Renaissance-inspired building initially housed the Mortgage Bank of the Province of Buenos Aires. The Central Bank's offices were transferred to an adjacent address upon its establishment, and were expanded to their present size by the purchase of the Mortgage Bank building in 1940, as well as by the construction of a twin building behind it.

Drawing from a 1933 study on Argentine finance by Bank of England director Sir Otto Niemeyer, the institution's charter was drafted by Argentine economist Raúl Prebisch; Prebisch would serve as general manager until 1943. The Central Bank was a private entity during its first decade, and British Empire interests held a majority stake; the president of the Central Bank was appointed by the president of Argentina, but 11 of its 12 directors were private bank CEOs. Pursuant to the Roca–Runciman Treaty of 1933, Central Bank reserves accrued from Argentine trade surpluses with the United Kingdom were deposited in escrow at the Bank of England, and this clause, which had led to nearly US$1 billion in inaccessible reserves (more than half the total) by 1945, prompted the BCRA's nationalization by order of Juan Perón on March 24, 1946.

Modern history
Normally subordinate to the Economy Ministry in matters of policy, the Central Bank took a more prominent role during the Latin American debt crisis when, in April 1980, it enacted Circular 1050. This measure, enacted to shield the financial sector from the cost of receiving payments in suddenly devalued pesos, bankrupted thousands of homeowners and businesses by indexing mortgages to the value of the US dollar locally, which had risen around fifteenfold by July 1982 when Central Bank President Domingo Cavallo rescinded the policy.

During the years of Cavallo's Convertibility Law, which established a 1:1 fixed exchange rate between the Argentine peso and the United States dollar on April 1, 1991, the BCRA was mainly in charge of keeping foreign currency reserves in synch with the monetary base. The policy deprived the Central Bank of exchange-rate flexibility, however, and ended at the depth of a record economic crisis a decade later.

The repeal of the Convertibility Law in January 2002 was accompanied by a 70% devaluation and depreciation of the peso to nearly 4 pesos, and the Central Bank's role afterward was the accumulation of reserves in order to gain a measure of control of the exchange rate. The BCRA buys and sells dollars from the market as needed to absorb large foreign trade surpluses and keep the official exchange rate at internationally competitive levels for Argentine exports and to encourage import substitution.

As part of a wider debt restructuring effort that brought Argentina out of its default three years earlier, in December 2005 President Néstor Kirchner announced the payment of Argentina's IMF debts in a single, anticipated disbursement. The payment was effected on January 3, 2006, employing about US$9.8 billion from BCRA reserves. This decreased the amount of reserves by one third, but did not cause adverse monetary effects, save from an increased reliance on the local bond market, which requires somewhat higher interest rates.

The BCRA continued to intervene in the exchange market, usually buying dollars, though occasionally selling small amounts (for example, reacting to rumors of a possible increase of the Federal Reserve's reference rate, which caused a minor spike in the dollar's value). Its reserves reached US$28 billion in September 2006, recovering the levels prior to the IMF payment, and rose to US$32 billion at the close of the year. The exchange rate was maintained relatively undervalued, prompted by the BCRA's market intervention as a buyer.

While fiscal policy remained fairly tight, monetary policy was highly expansionary with growth in Argentina's money supply of over 23% annually from 2003 to 2007. Citing its disapproval of this policy, the influential Global Finance magazine gave Martín Redrado, President of the Central Bank, a D grade in its October 2006 survey of global central bankers. The magazine held that Redrado "missed the opportunity to act to curb inflation when the economy was expanding at its fastest, with inflation expected to reach 12% in 2006, up from 7.7% in 2005 and 4.4% in 2004." Price controls helped keep inflation that year to 9.8%, though the public's perception of it was higher due to the sample composition used to measure the index; differences between official and private inflation estimates widened dramatically from 2007 onward. The BCRA, however, obtained exceptionally high returns on investment funded by its reserves, for a total of US$1.4 billion (a yearly rate of 5.7%) in 2006, and continued to do so in subsequent years.

Fallout from the 2008 financial crisis later forced President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's administration to seek domestic financing for growing public spending, as well as for foreign debt service obligations; her administration, like many of her predecessors, has used the nominally independent Central Bank to prop up government finances and to support political goals. The president ordered a US$6.7 billion account opened at the Central Bank for the latter purpose in December 2009, implying the use of the Central Bank's foreign exchange reserves, and drawing direct opposition from Redrado. He was dismissed by presidential decree on January 7, 2010, prior to which Economy Minister Amado Boudou had announced that Mario Blejer (who had expressed support for the measure) would be appointed in his stead.

Following an impasse, Redrado was ultimately replaced by Mercedes Marcó del Pont, President of the National Bank of Argentina, on February 3.

Redrado's removal triggered a vocal rebuke from opposition figures in Congress, who, citing the need to preserve the Central Bank's nominal autarky, expressed doubts as to the decree's legality.

A court injunction blocked Kirchner's planned use of reserves for the retirement of high-interest bonds, a move that could have provided numerous vulture funds (holdouts from the 2005 debt restructuring who had resorted to the courts in a bid for higher returns on their defaulted bonds) a legal argument against the central bank's autarky, and thus make judgement liens against the central bank's overseas accounts possible.

The BCRA acquired a greater role as a commercial lender subsequently. The Bicentennial Fund, established in January 2010 as the vehicle for the controversial refinancing plan that led to Redrado's removal, financed fixed investment projects totaling US$2.4 billion in its first two years; a change proposed by President Fernández de Kirchner to the bank's governing statutes would allow it to function as a commercial lender outright.

The Argentine Senate approved a reform of the Central Bank charter on 22 March 2012. Under the new regime the government will be free to pay public debt using the Central Bank's reserves. The bank would also be enabled to expand its lending capacity to the Treasury, effectively giving a boost to the government's finances. Marcó del Pont's successor, National Bank President Juan Carlos Fábrega, shifted monetary policy to an anti-inflationary stance during 2014, however, raising the benchmark 3-month note interest rate to over 28%. The rate hike had the effect of reducing Central Bank operating profits, which reached a record US$12 billion in 2014, by up to 90%; but it also absorbed around US$5 billion in liquidity from the economy, and contributed to a reduction in inflation from an estimated 37% in 2014 to around 25%. This policy was largely continued by Fábrega's successor, former National Securities Commission President Alejandro Vanoli.

The Central Bank's foreign exchange reserves, which from early 2008 to early 2012 hovered between US$47 billion and US$50 billion, declined by 2014 to less than US$30 billion (an eight-year low) before stabilizing and recovering slightly. This reduction had two major facets: annual current account deficits of US$5 billion brought about by smaller merchandise trade surpluses, growing spending by Argentine tourists abroad, and interest payments on bonds held overseas (foreign debt); and a capital account deficit that reached US$7 billion in 2013 amid a foreign exchange control policy that proved counterproductive and was substantially eased in January 2014.

The official exchange rate, which had oscillated around 3 pesos per dollar since early 2003, was adversely impacted by the international 2008 financial crisis, and likewise weakened to 8 pesos per dollar by the first half of 2014. A parallel, "blue" exchange market - a fixture of Argentine finance in the 1970s and '80s - reemerged when foreign exchange controls were tightened in 2012; it similarly stabilized at around 13 pesos when controls were eased in 2014.

One of the first changes to economic policy from the Macri administration, just seven days after Macri had taken office, was to remove the currency controls that had been in place for four consecutive years. The move signified a 30% devaluation of the peso, and was met with both criticism and praise.

See also

 List of presidents of the Central Bank of Argentina
 Argentine peso
 Banco Alas
 Economy of Argentina

References

External links

Economy of Argentina
Banks of Argentina
Argentina
Buildings and structures in Buenos Aires
Government buildings in Argentina
Government buildings completed in 1876
Government agencies established in 1935
1935 establishments in Argentina
Government agencies of Argentina

Central Bank of Argentina


Mindroling Monastery is one of the six major monasteries of the Nyingma school in Tibet. It was founded by Rigzin Terdak Lingpa in 1676. Tendrak Lingpa's lineage is known as the Nyo lineage. Mindroling in Tibetan means "Place of Perfect Freedom". It is near Lhasa on the south side of the Tsangpo river.

Mindroling was damaged in 1718 by the Dzungar Mongols from East Turkistan.
It was built again during the life of the Seventh Dalai Lama, Kelzang Gyatso (1708-1757).

Mindroling Monastery has a university. Nyingma scholars and yogis from all over Tibet studied there. The students studied Buddhist scriptures, astronomy, Tibetan lunar calendar, calligraphy, rhetoric, and Traditional Tibetan medicine. Monks studied thirteen major sutra and tantra texts of the Nyingma. They also learned from found teachings called terma. The head of the school was very important in Tibet.

At the time of the 1959 revolt against Chinese Communist rule in Central Tibet, there were around 300 monks at Mindroling. In the years after 1959, the monastery again was damaged, but not as badly as other monasteries such as Ganden. Now, the monastery is still being rebuilt .

In 1965, His Eminence Khochhen Rinpoche and a small group of monks started a new Mindroling monastery located near the hill town of Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand state, India. It now contains Ngagyur Nyingma College, one of the largest Buddhist institutes in India.

Related pages
 List of Tibetan monasteries

Other websites
Website of the new Mindroling Monastery in India

Tibetan Buddhism
Lhasa
Monasteries

Mindroling Monastery


Material failure theory is an interdisciplinary field of materials science and solid mechanics which attempts to predict the conditions under which solid materials fail under the action of external loads. The failure of a material is usually classified into brittle failure (fracture) or ductile failure (yield). Depending on the conditions (such as temperature, state of stress, loading rate) most materials can fail in a brittle or ductile manner or both. However, for most practical situations, a material may be classified as either brittle or ductile.

In mathematical terms, failure theory is expressed in the form of various failure criteria which are valid for specific materials.  Failure criteria are functions in stress or strain space which separate "failed" states from "unfailed" states.  A precise physical definition of a "failed" state is not easily quantified and several working definitions are in use in the engineering community.  Quite often, phenomenological failure criteria of the same form are used to predict brittle failure and ductile yields.

Material failure
In materials science, material failure is the loss of load carrying capacity of a material unit. This definition introduces to the fact that material failure can be examined in different scales, from microscopic, to macroscopic. In structural problems, where the structural response may be beyond the initiation of nonlinear material behaviour, material failure is of profound importance for the determination of the integrity of the structure. On the other hand, due to the lack of globally accepted fracture criteria, the determination of the structure's damage, due to material failure, is still under intensive research.

Types of material failure
Material failure can be distinguished in two broader categories depending on the scale in which the material is examined:

Microscopic failure
Microscopic material failure is defined in terms of crack initiation and propagation. Such methodologies are useful for gaining insight in the cracking of specimens and simple structures under well defined global load distributions. Microscopic failure considers the initiation and propagation of a crack. Failure criteria in this case are related to microscopic fracture. Some of the most popular failure models in this area are the micromechanical failure models, which combine the advantages of continuum mechanics and classical fracture mechanics. Such models are based on the concept that during plastic deformation, microvoids nucleate and grow until a local plastic neck or fracture of the intervoid matrix occurs, which causes the coalescence of neighbouring voids. Such a model, proposed by Gurson and extended by Tvergaard and Needleman, is known as GTN. Another approach, proposed by Rousselier, is based on continuum damage mechanics (CDM) and thermodynamics. Both models form a modification of the von Mises yield potential by introducing a scalar damage quantity, which represents the void volume fraction of cavities, the porosity f.

Macroscopic failure
Macroscopic material failure is defined in terms of load carrying capacity or energy storage capacity, equivalently. Li presents a classification of macroscopic failure criteria in four categories:
 Stress or strain failure
 Energy type failure (S-criterion, T-criterion)
 Damage failure
 Empirical failure

Five general levels are considered, at which the meaning of deformation and failure is interpreted differently: the structural element scale, the macroscopic scale where macroscopic stress and strain are defined, the mesoscale which is represented by a typical void, the microscale and the atomic scale. The material behavior at one level is considered as a collective of its behavior at a sub-level. An efficient deformation and failure model should be consistent at every level.

Brittle material failure criteria
Failure of brittle materials can be determined using several approaches:
 Phenomenological failure criteria
 Linear elastic fracture mechanics
 Elastic-plastic fracture mechanics
 Energy-based methods
 Cohesive zone methods

Phenomenological failure criteria
The failure criteria that were developed for brittle solids were the maximum stress/strain criteria.  The maximum stress criterion assumes that a material fails when the maximum principal stress  in a material element exceeds the uniaxial tensile strength of the material.  Alternatively, the material will fail if the minimum principal stress  is less than the uniaxial compressive strength of the material.  If the uniaxial tensile strength of the material is  and the uniaxial compressive strength is , then the safe region for the material is assumed to be

Note that the convention that tension is positive has been used in the above expression.

The maximum strain criterion has a similar form except that the principal strains are compared with experimentally determined uniaxial strains at failure, i.e.,

The maximum principal stress and strain criteria continue to be widely used in spite of severe shortcomings.

Numerous other phenomenological failure criteria can be found in the engineering literature.  The degree of success of these criteria in predicting failure has been limited.  Some popular failure criteria for various type of materials are:
 criteria based on invariants of the Cauchy stress tensor
 the Tresca or maximum shear stress failure criterion
 the von Mises or maximum elastic distortional energy criterion
 the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion for cohesive-frictional solids
 the Drucker-Prager failure criterion for pressure-dependent solids
 the Bresler-Pister failure criterion for concrete
 the Willam-Warnke failure criterion for concrete
 the Hankinson criterion, an empirical failure criterion that is used for orthotropic materials such as wood
 the Hill yield criteria for anisotropic solids
 the Tsai-Wu failure criterion for anisotropic composites
 the Johnson–Holmquist damage model for high-rate deformations of isotropic solids
 the Hoek-Brown failure criterion for rock masses
 the Cam-Clay failure theory for soil

Linear elastic fracture mechanics

The approach taken in linear elastic fracture mechanics is to estimate the amount of energy needed to grow a preexisting crack in a brittle material.  The earliest fracture mechanics approach for unstable crack growth is Griffiths' theory.  When applied to the mode I opening of a crack, Griffiths' theory predicts that the critical stress () needed to propagate the crack is given by

where  is the Young's modulus of the material,  is the surface energy per unit area of the crack, and  is the crack length for edge cracks or  is the crack length for plane cracks.  The quantity  is postulated as a material parameter called the fracture toughness.  The mode I fracture toughness for plane strain is defined as

where  is a critical value of the far field stress and  is a dimensionless factor that depends on the geometry, material properties, and loading condition.  The quantity  is related to the stress intensity factor and is determined experimentally.  Similar quantities  and  can be determined for mode II and model III loading conditions.

The state of stress around cracks of various shapes can be expressed in terms of their stress intensity factors.  Linear elastic fracture mechanics predicts that a crack will extend when the stress intensity factor at the crack tip is greater than the fracture toughness of the material.  Therefore, the critical applied stress can also be determined once the stress intensity factor at a crack tip is known.

Energy-based methods

The linear elastic fracture mechanics method is difficult to apply for anisotropic materials (such as composites) or for situations where the loading or the geometry are complex.  The strain energy release rate approach has proved quite useful for such situations.  The strain energy release rate for a mode I crack which runs through the thickness of a plate is defined as

where  is the applied load,  is the thickness of the plate,  is the displacement at the point of application of the load due to crack growth, and  is the crack length for edge cracks or  is the crack length for plane cracks.  The crack is expected to propagate when the strain energy release rate exceeds a critical value  - called the critical strain energy release rate.

The fracture toughness and the critical strain energy release rate for plane stress are related by

where  is the Young's modulus.  If an initial crack size is known, then a critical stress can be determined using the strain energy release rate criterion.

Ductile material failure (yield) criteria

A yield criterion often expressed as yield surface, or yield locus, is a hypothesis concerning the limit of elasticity under any combination of stresses. There are two interpretations of yield criterion: one is purely mathematical in taking a statistical approach while other models attempt to provide a justification based on established physical principles. Since stress and strain are tensor qualities they can be described on the basis of three principal directions, in the case of stress these are denoted by , , and .

The following represent the most common yield criterion as applied to an isotropic material (uniform properties in all directions). Other equations have been proposed or are used in specialist situations.

Isotropic yield criteria
Maximum principal stress theory – by William Rankine (1850). Yield occurs when the largest principal stress exceeds the uniaxial tensile yield strength. Although this criterion allows for a quick and easy comparison with experimental data it is rarely suitable for design purposes. This theory gives good predictions for brittle materials.

Maximum principal strain theory – by St.Venant. Yield occurs when the maximum principal strain reaches the strain corresponding to the yield point during a simple tensile test. In terms of the principal stresses this is determined by the equation:

Maximum shear stress theory – Also known as the Tresca yield criterion, after the French scientist Henri Tresca. This assumes that yield occurs when the shear stress  exceeds the shear yield strength :

Total strain energy theory – This theory assumes that the stored energy associated with elastic deformation at the point of yield is independent of the specific stress tensor. Thus yield occurs when the strain energy per unit volume is greater than the strain energy at the elastic limit in simple tension. For a 3-dimensional stress state this is given by:

Maximum distortion energy theory (von Mises yield criterion) also referred to as octahedral shear stress theory. – This theory proposes that the total strain energy can be separated into two components: the volumetric (hydrostatic) strain energy and the shape (distortion or shear) strain energy. It is proposed that yield occurs when the distortion component exceeds that at the yield point for a simple tensile test. This theory is also known as the von Mises yield criterion.

The yield surfaces corresponding to these criteria have a range of forms.  However, most isotropic yield criteria correspond to convex yield surfaces.

Anisotropic yield criteria
When a metal is subjected to large plastic deformations the grain sizes and orientations change in the direction of deformation. As a result, the plastic yield behavior of the material shows directional dependency.  Under such circumstances, the isotropic yield criteria such as the von Mises yield criterion are unable to predict the yield behavior accurately. Several anisotropic yield criteria have been developed to deal with such situations.
Some of the more popular anisotropic yield criteria are:
 Hill's quadratic yield criterion
 Generalized Hill yield criterion
 Hosford yield criterion

Yield surface

The yield surface of a ductile material usually changes as the material experiences increased deformation.  Models for the evolution of the yield surface with increasing strain, temperature, and strain rate are used in conjunction with the above failure criteria for isotropic hardening, kinematic hardening, and viscoplasticity.  Some such models are:
 the Johnson-Cook model
 the Steinberg-Guinan model
 the Zerilli-Armstrong model
 the Mechanical threshold stress model
 the Preston-Tonks-Wallace model

There is another important aspect to ductile materials - the prediction of the ultimate failure strength of a ductile material.  Several models for predicting the ultimate strength have been used by the engineering community with varying levels of success.  For metals, such failure criteria are usually expressed in terms of a combination of porosity and strain to failure or in terms of a damage parameter.

See also
 Fracture mechanics
 Fracture
 Stress intensity factor
 Yield (engineering)
 Yield surface
 Plasticity (physics)
 Structural failure
 Strength of materials
 Ultimate failure
 Damage mechanics
 Size effect on structural strength
 Concrete fracture analysis

References

Mechanical failure
Plasticity (physics)
Solid mechanics
Mechanics
Materials science
Materials degradation
Fracture mechanics

Material failure theory


Jules-Henri Vernoy de Saint-Georges (7 November 1799 – 23 December 1875) was a French writer. He was born in Paris on 7 November 1799 and died there on 23 December 1875. He was one of the most prolific librettists of the 19th century.  He joined with others to write the librettos for the ballet Giselle by Adolphe Adam, for the opera La fille du regiment by Donizetti, and the opera La jolie fille de Perth for Bizet. He wrote over seventy works for the stage. He wrote novels. He liked plot twists and unlikely coincidences. His works are short on convincing characterizations. He was old-fashioned, dressing in 18th century style.

Writers from Paris
Librettists
1799 births
1875 deaths

Jules-Henri Vernoy de Saint-Georges


Fiberboard (American English) or fibreboard (British English)  is a type of engineered wood product that is made out of wood fibers. Types of fiberboard (in order of increasing density) include particle board or low-density fiberboard (LDF), medium-density fiberboard (MDF), and hardboard (high-density fiberboard, HDF).

It is sometimes used as a synonym for particle board, but particle board usually refers to low-density fiberboard. Plywood is not a type of fiberboard, as it is made of thin sheets of wood, not wood fibers or particles. Fiberboard, particularly medium-density fiberboard, is heavily used in the furniture industry. For pieces that will be visible, a veneer of wood is often glued onto fiberboard to give it the appearance of conventional wood.

In the packaging industry, the term "fiberboard" is often used to describe a tough kraft-based paperboard or corrugated fiberboard for boxes.

"Fiberboard" is also an intermediate product, an output of a pulp mill used as input for a paper mill.

Manufacture

Fiberboard manufacture begins with wood chipping: fresh or recycled wood material is cut and sorted to small pieces of similar size. Chips are washed to remove things such as dirt and sand. Metal scraps such as nails can be removed with a magnet placed over a conveyor belt on which the chips move forward. In the case of, for example, MDF (medium density fiberboard) and not particle board, chips are then steamed to soften them for defibration. Small amount of paraffin wax is added to the steamed chips and they are transformed into fluffy fibers in a defibrator and soon afterwards sprayed with adhesives such as urea-formaldehyde (UF) or Phenol formaldehyde resin (PF). Wax prevents fibers from clumping together during storage. Chips in the case of particle board are also sprayed with a suitable adhesive before the next steps. Fibers or chips are arranged into a uniform "mat" on a conveyor belt. This mat is pre-compressed and then hot-pressed. Hot-pressing activates the adhesive and glues the fibers or chips together. Board is then cooled, trimmed, sanded and maybe veneered or laminated.

UF resins are dominantly used in the MDF industry because of their low cost and fast curing characteristics. However, pressures on the use of UF resins are mounting steadily due to potential problems associated with formaldehyde emission. On the other hand, PF resins are more durable and do not emit formaldehyde after cure. The industry has traditionally shied away from using PF resins due primarily to their higher cost and much slower curing rate than UF resins. However, the press times for PF-bonded fiberboard can be substantially reduced by manipulating the fiber mat temperatures, molecular weight distribution of PF resins and pressing parameters. As a result, the press times for PF-bonded fiberboard can be made comparable to those for UF-bonded fiberboard. Also, the resin content required for PF-bonded fiberboard is less than 5% to achieve a good board quickly. This is considerably lower than that required for UF-bonded fiberboard.

Certain types of fiberboard can be considered "green" building products. Consisting of bio-based, secondary raw materials (wood chip or sugarcane fibers) recovered from within  of manufacturing facilities, the binding agent used in this type of fiberboard is an all-natural product, consisting of vegetable starch containing no added formaldehydes.

Use
Fiberboard, classified by ASTM C208, Standard Specification for Cellulosic Fiber Insulating Board, has many benefits and is used in residential and commercial construction.

Applications include:

 sound proofing/deadening
 structural sheathing
 low-slope roofing
 sound deadening flooring underlayment

Fiberboard is also used in the automotive industry to create free-form shapes such as dashboards, rear parcel shelves, and inner door shells. These pieces are usually covered with a skin, foil, or fabric such as cloth, suede, leather, or polyvinyl chloride.

RSI Direct, a bi-weekly e-newsletter covering the roofing, siding and insulation industries, promotes the use of fiberboard as a coverboard in roof systems:

More than two billion square feet of this product have been installed in the U.S. roofing market.

See also
Beaverboard
Corrugated fiberboard
Donnacona fiberboard
Hardboard
Homasote
Masonite
Oriented strand board
Paperboard
Particle board
Plywood
Pressed wood

References

External links

 Composite Panel Association
 European Panel Federation
FIBERBOARD SHEATHING  at InspectApedia.com, identification, types, composition, history

Engineered wood
Building materials

Fiberboard


Gardner Read (January 2, 1913 in Evanston, Illinois – November 10, 2005 in Manchester-by-the-Sea, Massachusetts) was an American composer and musical scholar.

His first musical studies were in piano and organ, and he also took lessons in counterpoint and composition at the School of Music at Northwestern University. In 1932 he was awarded a four-year scholarship to the Eastman School of Music (B.M. and M.M.), where he studied with Bernard Rogers and Howard Hanson. In the late 1930s he also studied briefly with Ildebrando Pizzetti, and Aaron Copland.

After heading the composition departments of the St. Louis Institute of Music, the Kansas City Conservatory of Music and the Cleveland Institute of Music, Read became Composer-in-Residence and Professor of Composition at the School of Music at Boston University. He remained in this post until his retirement in 1978.

His Symphony No. 1, op. 30 (1937, premiered by Sir John Barbirolli) won first prize at the New York Philharmonic-Symphony Society's American Composers' Contest, while his second symphony (op. 45, 1943) won first prize in the Paderewski Fund Competition. Another first prize came in the 1986 National Association of Teachers of Singing Art Song Competition, won by his Nocturnal Visions, op. 145. He wrote one opera, Villon, in 1967.

His book Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice (1969/1979) attempted to catalogue the rapidly changing landscape of notation for contemporary western art music.

Bibliography
Dodd, Mary Ann, and Jayson Rod Engquist (1996). Gardner Read: A Bio-Bibliography. Greenwood Press.  .  (Contains a complete list of his compositions.)
Read, Gardner (1953, rev. 1969).  Thesaurus of Orchestral Devices. Pittman Publishing Corp.
 -- (1964, rev. 1972).  Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice.  Crescendo Publishing, (1964, 1972); Taplinger Publishing Company (1979, 2nd edition).
 -- (1975, 1993).  Contemporary Instrumental Techniques.  Schirmer Books, 1975.  ASIN 0028721004.  Revised as Compendium of Modern Instrumental Techniques.  Greenwood Press, 1993.
 -- (1978).  Modern Rhythmic Notation.  Indiana University Press. ASIN 0253338670
 -- (1979).  Style and Orchestration.  Schirmer Books/MacMillan Publishing Company, 1979.
 -- (1987).  Source Book of Proposed Music Notation Reforms.  Greenwood Press.
 -- (1990).  Twentieth Century Microtonal Notation.  Greenwood Press.
 -- (1998).  Pictographic Score Notation.  Greenwood Press.
 -- (2004).  Orchestral Combinations: The Science and Art of Instrumental Tone Color.  Scarecrow Press, Inc.

External links

Gardner Read official site
Interview with Gardner Read, June 4, 1987

20th-century classical composers
American male classical composers
American classical composers
Bienen School of Music alumni
Concert band composers
Eastman School of Music alumni
University of Missouri–Kansas City faculty
Cleveland Institute of Music faculty
American opera composers
Male opera composers
Musicians from Evanston, Illinois
1913 births
2005 deaths
Writers from Evanston, Illinois
Pupils of Bernard Rogers
20th-century American composers
Classical musicians from Illinois
20th-century American male musicians
Albany Records artists

Gardner Read


Frederick William Bremer (12 July 1872 in Stepney, London – 1941 in Walthamstow, England) was a British gasfitter, plumber, engineer and inventor recognised as the man who built the first petrol-fuelled car in Great Britain in 1892.

Bremer car
A gas-fitter and plumber by trade, Frederick is remembered for building (with assistant Tom Bates) the first British four-wheeled motor car with an internal combustion engine in 1892 (claimed in 1912 by the British magazine Motor). In 1894 he took his car on the roads of Walthamstow, his home town.

After completing the car Bremer moved on to other projects including a four-cylinder car in 1894 which has not survived to the present day. Bremer also operated a series of small businesses, including the Bremer Engineering Company, and took out patents, which included one for improved gears for motor carriages.

Frederick married Annie Elizabeth Garner on 22 April 1916, despite the marriage certificate listing him as Frederick Brewer, and his father as Gerberd Brewer.

In 1933 Bremer donated his car to the Vestry House Museum in Walthamstow, where it can still be seen. In 1964 the Bremer Car was entered into the London to Brighton Veteran Car Run enlisted as car number 1, but the crankshaft broke after . The next year, again as car number 1, it completed the  course in just under eight hours.

Bremer died in 1941 and is buried at St Mary's Church in Walthamstow along with his wife Annie.

Legacy
Frederick Bremer School, a specialist engineering college named after Bremer, opened in September 2008. The school replaced Warwick School for Boys and Aveling Park School.

See also
John Henry Knight

References

External links
 Frederick Bremer School Home Page

1872 births
1941 deaths
Engineers from London
Gasfitters
British plumbers
People from Stepney

Frederick Bremer


Several ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name Resolute. Another was planned but never completed:

  was a 12-gun gun-brig launched in 1805. She was used as a tender from 1814, a diving bell vessel from 1816 and a convict hulk from 1844. She was broken up in 1852.
 HMS Resolute was to have been a screw frigate. She was ordered in 1847 but cancelled in 1850.
  was a discovery vessel, previously the civilian ship Ptarmigan. She was purchased in 1850 as HMS Refuge but renamed HMS Resolute later that year.  She was abandoned in the Arctic in 1855, but salvaged by the Americans and returned in 1856. She was broken up in 1879.
  was an iron screw storeship purchased on the stocks in 1855 and launched that year.  She became a troopship and was renamed HMS Adventure in 1857. She was broken up in 1877.
 Resolute (1907) was a fishing drifter, hired by the Admiralty between 1915 and 1919
 Resolute (1942) was a tug built in the United States under Lend-Lease and returned in 1943 to serve as .  She was sold to the French Navy as Malabar and sank in 1967.

See also

Royal Navy ship names

HMS Resolute


YaST (Yet another Setup Tool) is a Linux operating system setup and configuration tool.

YaST is featured in the openSUSE Linux distribution, as well as in SUSE's derived commercial distributions. It is also part of the defunct United Linux.

YaST features tools that can configure many aspects of the system.

YaST was released first in April 1995. The first SuSE distribution that included YaST was released in May 1996. YaST was re-written in 1999 and included first in SuSE Linux 6.3 as only an installer. YaST2 was added to the desktop in SuSE Linux 6.4 and co-existed with YaST1 until YaST1's removal in SuSE Linux 8.0.

Details

YaST is free software that SUSE has made available under the GPL in 2004.
It is a tool for administering and maintaining a SUSE Linux installation. It allows administrators to install software, configure hardware, set up networks and servers, and more.

A feature of YaST is that it contains both Graphical user interface (GUI) and Text-based user interface (TUI) (with ncurses) front ends. This is especially useful for non-GUI installations such as servers, for system administration over slow Internet connections, and for when one is unable to boot into a graphical X server but still requires an advanced user interface to the package manager (for example, a novice user trying to downgrade an Xorg package to fix a graphical installation).

YaST offers package management functionality through the ZYpp project. The first ZYpp enabled package management YaST applications had performance problems and long start up times, but was improved in the 10.2 and 10.3 releases. Starting with openSUSE 11.0 alpha 3, ZYpp was integrated with the SAT solver project, making YaST and Zypper faster than other rpm based package managers.

YaST used to include SaX and SaX2, the Suse Advanced X configuration. SaX was re-written as SaX2 in SuSE Linux 6.4. SaX1 was removed in SuSE Linux 8.1 and SaX2 was removed from the YaST Control Center in openSUSE 11.2. SaX2 was removed completely in openSUSE 11.3. The GTK interface was removed in openSUSE Leap 42.1.

YaST often receives updates and improvements in Tumbleweed and between versions of Leap. openSUSE Leap 15.1, for example, saw improvements to the YaST interface for managing firewalls including the addition of an interface in the command line version of YaST. In this same release of openSUSE Leap, YaST now has an updated logo and improved partition management module.

YaST is implemented in the Ruby programming language.

AutoYaST
AutoYaST is a system for installing one or more openSUSE systems automatically without user intervention. AutoYaST installations are performed using a control file with installation and configuration data.

The profile of each current system is stored in /root/autoyast.xml.

WebYaST
WebYaST is a web interface for YaST that can be used to check the status of the current machine. It can check on the installation of packages, shutdown or reboot the system, change some system settings (such as the time), and change the status of system services or daemons.

YaST4Debian
The change of license of YaST from a previous rather restrictive license to the GPL in 2004 made it possible to port YaST to other Linux distributions.
As a consequence of this, the project YaST4Debian was launched, which worked on a port of YaST to Debian.

The project, which was in contact with the YaST team of Novell/SuSE, reached some important milestones, such as the port of the modules yast2-ncurses and yast2-qt. Currently, the project is dormant, searching for a new voluntary project maintainer.

See also

 Webmin
 GAdmintools
 Calamares
 APT (software)
 RPM Package Manager
 ZYpp

References

External links
 YaST on GitHub
 YaST at openSUSE
 SUSE Linux Enterprise Administration Guide – contains many YaST usage examples
 YaST, AutoYast and ZENworks Linux Management
 YAST for Fedora?
 Project: Yast - oss.oracle.com
 YaST4Debian Project website

1996 software
Free package management systems
Free software programmed in Ruby
Linux package management-related software
Linux PMS graphical front-ends
Free software that uses ncurses
SUSE Linux
Unix configuration utilities

fr:SUSE#Centre de contrôle YaST

YaST


Dream pop began in the United Kingdom in the mid-1980s. It is a subgenre of pop rock and alternative rock. Dream pop music is mainly about the singer's ethereal textures and mood (feelings). The musical instruments mainly played on dream pop music are the guitar, bass, drums, and synthesizers. Shoegaze is a type of dream pop. 4AD is a record label that is associated with dream pop. Some dream pop bands are My Bloody Valentine, Cocteau Twins, and Mazzy Star.

Other websites
 [ Allmusic entry on dream pop]

Music genres

Dream pop


Digital signal can mean two different things:
 discrete-time signals that are digitized.
 the waveform signals in a digital system.

Discrete-time signals

Digital signals are digital representations of discrete-time signals, which are often produced by changing an analog signal.

An analog signal is a datum that changes over time (for instance the temperature at a given place; the depth of a certain point in a pond; or the amplitude of the voltage at some node in a circuit). A discrete-time signal is a sampled version of an analog signal: the value of the datum is noted at fixed intervals (for example, every microsecond) rather than continuously.

In short, a digital signal is a quantized discrete-time signal; a discrete-time signal is a sampled analog signal.

In the digital revolution the usage of digital signals has increased significantly.
Many modern media devices, especially the ones that connect with computers use digital signals to represent signals that were traditionally represented as analog signals; cell phones, music and video players, personal video recorders, and digital cameras are examples.

In most applications, digital signals are represented as binary numbers, so their precision of quantization is measured in bits.

Waveforms in digital systems

In computer architecture and other digital systems, a waveform that switches between two voltage levels representing the two states of a Boolean value (0 and 1) is referred to as a digital signal.

The clock signal is a special digital signal that is used to synchronize digital circuits.
The image shown can be considered the waveform of a clock signal.
Logic changes are triggered either by the rising edge or the falling edge.

Electrical engineering
Telecommunications

Digital signal


Surin was an Iranian aristocrat from the Suren family, who briefly served as the Patriarch of the Church of the East in 753.  Although he was not recognized as a legitimate patriarch by his contemporaries, he is included in the traditional list of patriarchs of the Church of the East.

Sources
Brief accounts of Surin's reign are given in the Ecclesiastical Chronicle of the Jacobite writer Bar Hebraeus (floruit 1280) and in the ecclesiastical histories of the Nestorian writers Mari (twelfth-century), Amr (fourteenth-century) and Sliba (fourteenth-century).

Surin's patriarchate
The following account of Surin's reign is given by Mari:

Surin bribed Abanus, the emir of al-Madaïn, to send his henchmen to compel the people to consecrate him on the fifth Sunday of Easter.  Some took the eucharist, while others broke the fast.  Abanus sent his satellites against those who remained.  They rounded them up and, standing by the very gates of the altar with drawn swords, forced them to consecrate Surin, which they did with tears in their eyes.  Yaqob, metropolitan of Jundishapur, as he spoke the words of the consecration over him, raised his hands to heaven and prayed that no good would befall him.  Then the fathers told Saffah what had happened and begged for his help, and he had Abanus flogged and told the fathers to hold a fresh election.  And so Surin was deposed in Hira on the Sunday after Ascension.  Then the fathers went to al-Madaïn with Yahya ibn Ibrahim and consecrated Yaqob.  But Surin and his relatives ceaselessly attacked him, and finally al-Mansur threw him into prison.  Yaqob was eventually released, and was asked by the faithful to send Surin to Basra, since its metropolitan had died.  Yaqob granted their request, but Surin was hated by the people of Basra, and while he was received by some, he was shunned by others.  Meanwhile, al-Mansur was now better informed about him, and ordered that he should be thrown into prison.  He fled from Isa ibn Shahlafa, but the emir of al-Madaïn soon captured him and imprisoned him.  After his death he was buried in the monastery of Shemon, and his name was inscribed in the roll of the metropolitans of Basra.

See also
 List of patriarchs of the Church of the East

Notes

References
 Abbeloos, J. B., and Lamy, T. J., Bar Hebraeus, Chronicon Ecclesiasticum (3 vols, Paris, 1877)
 Assemani, J. A., De Catholicis seu Patriarchis Chaldaeorum et Nestorianorum (Rome, 1775)
 Brooks, E. W., Eliae Metropolitae Nisibeni Opus Chronologicum (Rome, 1910)
 Gismondi, H., Maris, Amri, et Salibae: De Patriarchis Nestorianorum Commentaria I: Amri et Salibae Textus (Rome, 1896)
 Gismondi, H., Maris, Amri, et Salibae: De Patriarchis Nestorianorum Commentaria II: Maris textus arabicus et versio Latina (Rome, 1899)

External links

Patriarchs of the Church of the East
8th-century bishops of the Church of the East
Nestorians in the Abbasid Caliphate
House of Suren
8th-century Iranian people
8th-century archbishops
8th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate

Surin of Seleucia-Ctesiphon


The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I was a large theatre during the first World War. Battles here were fought between the Allied Powers (especially Britain and Russia) and the Central Powers (especially the Ottoman Empire).

This theatre was the largest of all the theatres of WWI. It was made of four main campaigns. In the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, mainly British forces defeated the Turkish army. In the Mesopotamian Campaign, British forces, mainly the Army of India, also defeated the Turkish army. In the Caucasus Campaign, Turkey fought against the Russian Empire and other forces. In the Dardanelles Campaign the Turkish army defeated British forces, mainly colonial. There were also minor campaigns in Arabia and Southern Arabia, Aden, and Persia.

Fighting here began on October 29, 1914 and ended on October 30, 1918. A peace treaty was signed on August 10, 1920.

Middle East
World War I

Middle Eastern theatre of World War I


In baseball, an at bat (AB) or time at bat is used for certain statistics.  These statistics include batting average, on base percentage, and slugging percentage. It is a more narrow definition of a plate appearance. A batter starts with an at bat every time he faces a pitcher; however, the batter gets "no time at bat" in the following cases:
 He receives a base on balls (BB).
 He is hit by a pitch (HBP).
 He hits a sacrifice fly or a sacrifice hit (also known as sacrifice bunt).
 He is awarded first base due to interference or obstruction, usually by the catcher.
 The inning ends while he is still at bat (due to the third out being made by a runner caught stealing, for example). In this case, the batter will come to bat again in the next inning, though he now has no balls or strikes on him.
 He is replaced by another hitter before his at bat is completed (unless he is replaced with two strikes and his replacement strikes out).

Section 10.02.a.1 of the official rules of Major League Baseball defines an at bat as:
"Number of times batted, except that no time at bat shall be charged when a player: (1) hits a sacrifice bunt or sacrifice fly; (2) is awarded first base on four called balls; (3) is hit by a pitched ball; or (4) is awarded first base because of interference or obstruction..."

Examples
An at bat is counted when:
The batter reaches first base on a hit
The batter reaches first base on an error
The batter is called out for any reason other than as part of a sacrifice
There is a fielder's choice

References

Baseball statistics

At bat


The 1857 War of Independence in Murree, part of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (better known as the Indian Mutiny), was a minor conflict between the tribes surrounding the hill station of Murree (now Pakistan) and the colonial government of British India The local tribes had become angry with the British ever since the British had started their colonial rule in the area.

Today Murree is part of Pakistan but in 1857 it was part of British India, ever since the British rule began in India there had been rebellions and wars against the British. However, in 1857 rebellions broke out in many different places, Murree being one of these places. People thought the rule of the British was about to be overthrown. In the Murree hills it was the Dhund Abbasi and Karlal tribes who rose up against the British.

Background
Although the tribes of Murree had risen against the British, not everyone had been against British rule. Before British rule had been established in the area, the tribes had fought against the Sikhs. Under the command of Mohammed Ali Shah (also known as the Pir of Plasi), they had fought against the Sikh Army in Balakot - the troops here were commanded by Syed Shah Ismail Shahid and Syed Ahmad Shaheed (known as "The Martyrs")

The British, after battling in Rawalpindi in 1845 had captured Rani Jind Kaur, the widow of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (the former Ruler of Punjab) - this caused the collapse of Sikh rule and, when the British marched into the Murree area, the local tribes at first welcomed them. However, many of the tribes soon considered that they had exchanged one form of occupation for another and events elsewhere in India also encouraged an uprising.

The British had recruited many of the tribes in the area into their army, for example many members of the Satti tribe were recruited as Sepoys and the British commanders (like elsewhere across Colonial India) won this war largely by the use of Indian soldiers.

War reaches Murree
The War against the British then reached Murree and the Southern Areas of Hazara Division, the part of which is now known as Circle Bakote in July 1857 when the Dhund Abbasi leader Sardar Sherbaz Khan Abbasi planned to attack the British.

Attack on Murree
By the end of August many of the British troops who had been in Murree had left to join the campaign in Delhi. Rebels had taken Delhi from British control and the British had sent as many soldiers as they could. The decision to send troops to Delhi meant that the defence of Murree was weakened However the British were unable to take Delhi quickly, and as Delhi still held out against the British the Dhund tribesmen decided to take Murree. The Dhund attacked Murree by rising on every side at the same time and crowding up the nearer hill-sides threatening destruction of the station. Several of the table-servants supported the hill-men, and for some hours the danger to Murree became imminent.

According to the 1857 Punjab Mutiny Report the attack failed because the British were told of the plan to attack them. One of Lady Lawrence's servants, named Hakim Khan, told the British of the attack to come. The loyalty of Hakim was described in the report as "the means, under God, of saving Murree" The British quickly organised defences, and quickly got volunteers. A cordon of sentries surrounded the station and the three weakest points were held in some force. When the Dhunds arrived in the middle of the night they found the whole station waiting for them.

After a few hours of skirmishing the Dhunds retreated with the loss of two or three of their men who had come within musket range of the British. After that, the British quickly arrested, convicted and executed two Hindustani doctors for being involved in the plot. They had been educated in government institutions, were practising in Murree and employed by the government. The British suspected that the Dhunds were expecting support from their Hindustani allies, so as well as the doctors several domestic servants were seized and punished.

An urgent request was sent to troops in Hazara to reinforce Murree and Major Beecher sent every available man from Abbottabad to Murree - however the British troops in Murree had managed to secure the station and beat off the attack before the arrival of reinforcements.

Aftermath
The revolt did not succeed, the rebels' leaders were  arrested and punished. All of Sardar Sherbaz Khan Abbasi's eight sons were blasted by cannon fire in Murree whilst Sardar Sherbaz Khan Abbasi himself was hanged till death.

References

1857
19th century in India

Murree rebellion of 1857


Natural process variation, sometimes just called process variation, is the statistical description of natural fluctuations in process outputs.

Equations

The following equations are used for an x-bar-control chart:

In the example, with n = 10 samples, the targeted mean, , and standard error of the mean,  are:

That is, independent 10-sample means should themselves have a standard deviation of 0.0316. It is natural that the means vary this much, for by the central limit theorem the means should have a normal distribution, regardless of the distribution of the samples themselves.

The importance of knowing the natural process variation becomes clear when we apply statistical process control. In a stable process, the mean is on target; in the example, the target is the filling, set to 1 litre. The variation within the upper and lower control limits (UCL and LCL) is considered the natural variation of the process.

Usage

When a sample average (size n = 10 in this case) is located outside the control limits, then this is an indication that the process is out of (statistical) control. To be more specific:

The Western Electric rules conclude that the process is out of control if:
 One point plots outside the 3σ-limits (the UCL and LCL).
 Two out of three consecutive points plot beyond a 2σ-limit.
 Four out of five consecutive points plot at a distance of 1σ or beyond from the centerline.
 Eight consecutive points plot on one side of the center line.

Goal

The most important goal of understanding the principle of natural process variation is to consider the natural variance in the output before we make any changes to the process. Since SPC tends to minimize the process variations in time, as we better understand the process and have more experience with running it, we try to reduce the variation of it. The knowledge of the principle of natural variance helps us avoid making any unnecessary changes to the process, which might add variance to the process, instead of removing it.

References

  Douglas C. Montgomery, George C. Runger. Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers, 4/e. Wiley, 2006. .
 An Introduction to Understanding Variation
 Respecting Natural Variation

Statistical process control

Natural process variation


Crucifixion is an oil painting by German artist Lucas Cranach the Elder. One of many versions of the subject painted by Cranach, this one, created in 1532, is now in the Indianapolis Museum of Art.

Description
The bottom half of the painting is crowded with figures, all symbolically arranged to the left and the right of Christ. On the right is the Virgin Mary, who is held by John the Evangelist, and Mary Magdalene is holding onto the Cross. The Good Thief and Longinus gaze directly at him, alluding to their salvation. There is a sharp contrast to those on the right, which includes Roman soldiers who are avoiding his gaze and the Impenitent thief, depicted as bald and bloated. Behind them are contemporary figures, who are considered unenlightened, as they have not yet borne witness to Christ.

The painting emphasizes Jesus Christ's sacrifice, and uses the witnesses to show recognition of the event of his death as a clear reference to new Lutheran theology; sinful mankind is only redeemed through Christ, not through the Catholic church.

Historical information
Cranach was the court painter to the electors of Saxony in Wittenberg, an area in the heart of the emerging Protestant faith. His patrons were powerful supporters of Martin Luther, and Cranach used his art as a symbol of the new faith. Cranach made numerous portraits of Luther, and provided woodcut illustrations for Luther's German translation of the Bible. Crucifixion should be seen through the lens of this new reformed religion.

Acquisition
The Indianapolis Museum of Art purchased the painting in 2000, using funding from the Clowes Collection. The provenance of Crucifixion is ambiguous, and the Indianapolis Museum of Art is attempting to learn where the painting originated.

References

Paintings by Lucas Cranach the Elder
1532 paintings
Paintings in the Indianapolis Museum of Art
Cranach
Paintings of the Virgin Mary
Paintings depicting Mary Magdalene
Lutheran art
16th-century allegorical paintings

The Crucifixion (Cranach)


Dr Paul Güssfeldt (spelled Güßfeldt in German)  (14 October 1840 – 18 January 1920) was a German geologist, mountaineer and explorer.

Biography
Güssfeldt was born in Berlin, where he also died almost 80 years later. After attending the Collège Français in his home city, he studied natural sciences and mathematics in Heidelberg (where he joined the Vandalia student corps), from 1859 to 1865, and then in Berlin, Gießen and Bonn.

When the first expedition was sent out by the German African Society () in 1872, he was chosen its leader. The expedition sailed to the coast of the Kingdom of Loango, but was shipwrecked near Freetown on 14 January 1873 and lost all its stores and equipment. Although Güssfeldt succeeded in establishing a station on the coast, he was unable to penetrate into the interior, and returned to Germany in the summer of 1875. In 1876 he visited Egypt and the Arabian Desert (with Georg August Schweinfurth).

He made several first ascents in the Alps, including Piz Scerscen with Hans Grass and Caspar Capat on 13 September 1877 via the north-west spur (the Eisnase route). On 12 August 1878, Hans Grass, Johann Gross and he first climbed the Biancograt north ridge of Piz Bernina. He made winter ascents of the Grandes Jorasses and the Gran Paradiso, as well as putting up several new routes on Mont Blanc, including the Peuterey ridge on 15–19 August 1893 (with Emile Rey, Christian Klucker and César Ollier). Pointe Güssfeldt (4,112 m), the highest summit on the Aiguille Blanche de Peuterey is named after him, as is the Güssfeldtsattel, the col between Piz Scerscen and Piz Roseg also known as the Porta da Roseg. This steep ice slope was first climbed by Güssfeldt with guides Hans Grass, Peter Jenny and Caspar Capat on 13 September 1872.

Güssfeldt explored a portion of the Andes, where he discovered a number of glaciers in latitude 34° 30' S. He also ascended to the top of the volcano of Maipo. In 1883 he made the first attempt on Aconcagua by a European. Bribing porters with the story that there was treasure on the mountain, he approached Aconcagua via the Rio Volcan, making two attempts on the peak by the north-west ridge and reaching an altitude of 6,500 metres. The route that he prospected is now the normal route up the mountain.

Between 1889 until 1914 Güssfeldt was invited by the German Emperor Wilhelm II to join him for his annual summer cruise in the North Sea, which Güssfeldt was given the responsibility of planning as well. The emperor was fond of Güssfeldt and wrote about him in his memoirs.

Works
 In den Hochalpen. Erlebnisse aus den Jahren 1859-85 (3d ed. 1893)
 Kaiser Wilhelms II. Reisen nach Norwegen in den Jahren 1889-92 (1892)
 Die Loangoexpedition, jointly with Julius Falkenstein and Eduard Pechuël-Loesche (1879 et seq.)

Sources
Johannes E. S. Schmidt: Die Französische Domschule und das Französische Gymnasium zu Berlin. Schülererinnerungen 1848–1861. Herausgegeben und kommentiert von Rüdiger R. E. Fock., published by Verlag Dr. Kovac, Hamburg 2008,  (German)
Paul Güßfeldt: Dr. Gussfeldt's Work in the Andes. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography (New Monthly Series), 6, No. 11, 1884, pp. 658–661.

References

External links

1840 births
1920 deaths
German mountain climbers
German explorers of Africa
People from Berlin
Französisches Gymnasium Berlin alumni
People of the Franco-Prussian War
Members of the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina

Paul Güssfeldt


Burial is the act of placing an object or dead body into the ground, specifically a grave.

Human bodies are usually buried in a cemetery. It is common practice in many places to put bodies into a coffin and place the coffin into the grave. The grave is then usually marked with a headstone so that people know who has died and can visit them.

In the past, often during times of war, many bodies have been placed into the same grave without coffins. This is called a mass burial or a mass grave.

Related pages
 Death
 Funeral
 Cremation

Death customs

Burial