Gilbert Rohde (1894–1944), whose career as a furniture and industrial designer helped to define American modernism during its first phase from the late 1920s to World War II, is best known today for inaugurating modern design at Herman Miller Inc.

Background

Beginning in 1932, and continuing up to the time of his death in 1944, Rohde advised Herman Miller's president, Dirk Jan De Pree on design, marketing, and production. Herman Miller was one of a dozen furniture manufacturers where Rohde initiated modern design, among them the Heywood-Wakefield Company, the Widdicomb Company, and the Troy Sunshade Company.

Rohde lived in New York City and its environs throughout his life. He was educated in New York City public schools, graduating in 1913 from Stuyvesant High School, which was known at the time for its rigorous vocational studies program. Post-high school studies included classes at the Art Students League and the Grand Central School of Art. A 1927 trip to France and Germany was the prelude to his career in design, and marked the transition from his work in advertising illustration to design. His work reflected American Streamline Moderne design, as well as trends in European art and design (he made two additional trips to Europe in 1931 and 1937), including French moderne, the International Design style associated with the Bauhaus, and later, Surrealism. His biomorphic tables and desks, made by Herman Miller, were the first examples of biomorphic furniture manufactured in America, anticipating forms that would define mid-century modernism.

Advocate of Modernity
Rohde was a tireless advocate for modern furniture and interiors in American homes, apartments, offices, and commercial and institutional settings. He designed many lines of modular furniture, promoted for its flexibility, functionality, and suitability for apartments and small homes. He became known for experimenting with industrial materials in furniture and interiors, including Plexiglas, Lucite, Bakelite, and Fabrikoid (a leather-like fabric made by DuPont). One of his most innovative designs was a molded Plexiglas chair made in 1939, and shown at the Rohm and Haas display at the 1939 New York World's Fair. Of the two prototypes of this chair, one was acquired by the Museum of Modern Art in 2000. Rohde's work is included in major museum collections among them: the Brooklyn Museum, the Wolfsonian, the Minneapolis Institute of Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, The Henry Ford, the Newark Museum of Art, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, and the Dallas Museum of Art. In Europe his work is owned by the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Vitra Design Museum.

His Executive Office Group (EOG) line, launched in 1942 by Herman Miller, was the earliest example of a systems approach to office furniture. The line's 137 individual elements—drawers, drawer pedestals, tabletops, and other items—could be configured according to individual work requirements. It became the standard approach to high-end office furniture.

In addition to his design work, Rohde taught industrial design, first at the Design Laboratory (1935–37), a New Deal program in New York City sponsored by the Works Progress Administration, where he also served as director. He subsequently taught at New York University, and was a visiting lecturer at the University of Washington in Seattle. He participated in the founding of the Society of Industrial Designers (now IDSA).

Far Reaching
Rohde's work was publicized through hundreds of articles in design and architecture magazines, newspapers, and in popular magazines such as House Beautiful. His work was featured at several fairs of the 1930s, including the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago in 1933 and 1934, and in the Decorative Arts Pavilion at San Francisco's 1939 Golden Gate International Exposition. Consumers could purchase his furniture at upscale department stores in New York (Bloomingdale's), Washington (Woodward & Lothrop), Philadelphia (Wanamaker's), Cleveland (Halle Brothers Co.), and elsewhere.

By focusing on design for mass production, Rohde hoped to make modern design the national style of America and to bring modern design to the greatest number of consumers.

As part of its Pioneers of American Industrial Design series, the United States Postal Service issued on August 25, 2011, a commemorative first-class Forever stamp featuring a Rohde-designed clock.

References

Sources
Gilbert Rohde: Modern Design for Modern Living by Phyllis Ross (Yale University Press, 2009) ;
 "A Bridge to Postwar American Design: Gilbert Rohde and the 1937 Paris Exposition," by Phyllis Ross in Paris-New York: Design Fashion Culture 1925-1940 by Donald Albrecht, ed. (The Monacelli Press, 2008) ;
 "Merchandising the Modern: Gilbert Rohde at Herman Miller" by Phyllis Ross, Journal of Design History 2004 17(4): 359-376

Further reading
 "Exhibiting Modernity through the Lens of Tradition in Gilbert Rohde's Design for Living Interior" by Monica Obniski, Journal of Design History 2007 20(3): 227-242
 Livable Modernism by Kristina Wilson (Yale University Press, 2004) ;
 "Gilbert Rohde and the Evolution of Modern Design, 1927-1941" by Derek E. Ostergard and David Hanks, Arts Magazine 56 (October 1981): 98-107

Modernist designers
American furniture designers
American industrial designers
1894 births
1944 deaths
Art Students League of New York alumni
Grand Central School of Art alumni
New York University faculty
University of Washington faculty
Works Progress Administration workers

Gilbert Rohde


The Macedonian phalanx is an infantry formation developed by Philip II. It was used by his son Alexander the Great to conquer the Persian Empire. The formation was made up of spearmen carrying 18 to 20 ft (5.56 m) long pikes. These were called sarissas. They were two-handed; the smaller shields were slung over the left shoulder.

The Macedonian phalanx was impregnable from the front, but vulnerable from the sides and back, where it could be attacked by the enemy cavalry. Therefore, the system required protection, which it got from the Macedonian cavalry, which was the most flexible force. At the start of a battle, Alexander used the phalanx to pin down the enemy. His heavy cavalry would drive the enemy horse from the field, and then charge selected opponents or exposed enemy unit flanks. Then, the phalanx would move against the centre.

The early Greek city states often fought on narrow valley floors, where cavalry was not so important. Often, there was little or no cavalry. But in the Greco-Persian Wars, the battles were fought on more open land, where cavalry was a great force. An example of this is the Battle of Gaugamela. There, Alexander manoeuvered to the right to prevent a double envelopment from the Persian army. Darius commanded his cavalry on his left flank to check the oblique movement of the Greeks by attacking their cavalry. Alexander's Companion cavalry then charged the weakened enemy center where Darius was posted and were followed by the phalanx formation.

Military organizations
Military of ancient Greece

Macedonian phalanx


The Cape of Good Hope is a place near the far south end of Africa, where the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean meet. It is a well known area for ships that pass in the sea between southern Africa and Antarctica. It is in the Western Cape Province of South Africa and forms part of the Table Mountain National Reserve.

The first person from Europe to see it was the Portuguese man Bartolomeu Dias.  He saw it in 1488 and named it the "Cape of Storms". His king renamed it.

Other websites
An old map of Cape of Good Hope from 1842

Good Hope
Peninsulas
Western Cape

Cape of Good Hope


The Bach Choir is a world-famous amateur choir based in London. They sing the music of many composers, not just Johann Sebastian Bach.

History
The Bach Choir gave its first concert on 26 April 1876 with a performance of Bach's Mass in B minor. At this time more and more people in England were becoming interested in the music of Bach, but the Mass in B minor had never been performed in England. The conductor Otto Goldschmidt conducted the concert, and afterwards the Choir's committee decided to make The Bach Choir a permanent choir. Otto Goldschmidt was appointed as the Musical Director.

In those days all choir members came from rich families (the upper classes). New members had to pass an audition, but they also had to be "proposed" (recommended) by existing members and accepted by the committee. Queen Victoria became Patron of the choir in 1879. The Choir sang music by lots of different composers as well as Bach's motets, church music and the Mass in B minor.

Goldschmidt resigned in 1885 and Charles Villiers Stanford became conductor. Stanford had already become well known as organist of Trinity College, Cambridge and conductor of the Cambridge University Musical Society. He widened the repertoire of the Choir, and the concerts also included works for orchestra. Hubert Parry composed his popular anthem Blest Pair of Sirens for the choir to sing at the Golden Jubilee of the Queen in 1887. The Jubilee concert also included the first London performance of Berlioz's Te Deum, a work dedicated to the late Prince Consort.

20th century

Towards the end of the nineteenth century changes were made, including regular auditions for existing choir members, and stopping the requirement for new members to be proposed. Henry Walford Davies became the conductor. He improved the choir which was then taken over by Hugh Allen in 1908.

Hugh Allen found himself conducting a choir which included the young Ralph Vaughan Williams, who had joined in 1903 and Adrian Boult, who joined around 1914. Allen was strict, but good, and during his time as conductor the Choir gave many important first London performances including Vaughan Williams' Toward the Unknown Region and A Sea Symphony and Parry's Songs of Farewell.

When Allen resigned in 1921 his place was taken by Ralph Vaughan Williams who had by then become a famous composer. He had a gentler approach than Allen. He stayed until 1928 when he left to be able to work more on composition. In his place the Choir appointed Gustav Holst, but he became ill and was never able to take up his post. Instead, Adrian Boult took over for three years. During his time it became tradition to perform Bach's St Matthew Passion every year. This tradition continues today.

Boult was replaced by Reginald Jacques (pronounced: "Jakes"), who had been a pupil of Hugh Allen at Oxford. Jacques stayed until 1960. He managed to keep the Choir going through World War II, and the annual Carol Concerts became part of their tradition. They made a recording of the St Matthew Passion which filled 42 sides of the old 78 rpm. gramophone records.

Jacques was followed by David Willcocks who led the Choir almost to the end of the century. He broadened the Choir's repertoire, and they gave the first London concert hall performance of Britten's War Requiem, conducted by Britten himself, with Galina Vishnevskaya, Peter Pears and Tom Krause (who replaced Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau at the last minute) as soloists. The Choir then recorded the work and this recording sold more than 200,000 copies in the first five months. Willcocks took the Choir on tours to many parts of the world. His last performance was in 1998.

The Choir today

Today the Choir is conducted by David Hill. As well as spending much of his time with The Bach Choir, he is also conductor of the BBC Singers. The choir continues to do new things, such as giving world premieres of new music, as well as keeping up the tradition of performing the St Matthew Passion every spring at the Royal Festival Hall.

References

Basil Keen: The Bach Choir - The First Hundred Years (Ashgate)

Other websites
 The Bach Choir Website

Choirs

Bach Choir


A V10 engine, often just called a V10, is an internal combustion engine with 10 cylinders. The engine has five cylinders on each side called banks. The two banks form a "V"-shaped angle. All ten pistons turn a common crankshaft. A V10 engine can be powered by different types of fuels, including gasoline, diesel and natural gas.

Road cars

Until recently, V10s had rarely been used for road cars. A V12 runs smoother and is only a little harder to build. A V8 is easier to build and costs less to run.  New technology has made the use of V10 engines more practical.

Dodge designed a V10 for use in trucks.  The engine was revised and used in the Dodge Viper. Ford developed a heavy-duty V10 engine for use in their trucks.

European car builders later adopted the V10 configuration. High power V10 engines were put into supercars from Lamborghini and Porsche.  BMW and Audi then added V10s to their mid-range cars. Volkswagen developed a V10 turbodiesel engine.

Racing
The largest use of the V10 engines has been in Formula One racing. Alfa Romeo made the first modern Formula One V10 in 1986, but it was never used in a race car. Later the V10 was introduced by Honda and Renault before the  season. After turbochargers were banned, the V10 engine was often used. V10 engines were the only type used from the 1998 season. V10s were banned for the  season and Formula One teams started using V8 engines.

There are other cars with V10 engines in auto racing. The most common is the Judd engine.

References

Motors

V10 engine


Demetrius Terrell Williams (born March 28, 1983) is a former American football wide receiver. He was drafted by the Baltimore Ravens in the fourth round of the 2006 NFL Draft. He played college football at Oregon.

Early years
Williams was a SuperPrep All-American and was also a unanimous Long Beach Press-Telegram Best in the West selection. He accumulated 34 catches for 829 yards and 15 touchdowns in his senior year, in addition to returning one punt into the end zone. He played his high school football at perennial national powerhouse, De La Salle.

College career
Williams attended the University of Oregon and became one of the best receivers in Oregon history. His 162 career receptions tied him for 3rd all time, and his 2,660 yards are 4th all time. Williams' 11 games with 100 or more yards receiving is an Oregon record and his 20 career TD catches are good for 4th all time. He majored in Sociology.

Professional career

Baltimore Ravens
After initially being projected as a second round pick, Williams slipped to the fourth round and was the 111th selection in the draft, where he was picked by the Baltimore Ravens. After a strong training camp and an impressive pre-season, Williams became the slot receiver for the Ravens.

During the 2006 season, Williams caught 22 balls for 396 yards (18.0 avg) and 2 touchdowns.  His highlight came in Week 14 against the Cleveland Browns where he caught a 77-yard pass for a touchdown from Kyle Boller that sealed the game and the win for the Ravens. He also was a huge part of the (at the time) franchise record comeback win over the Tennessee Titans, where he caught 4 passes for 75 yards to help the Ravens overcome a 26-17 deficit and win the game 27-26. He finished the season with the (at that time) franchise best 18 yards per catch average for a Ravens rookie.

Coming into the 2007 season, he was expected to take a huge leap forward as the Ravens "deep threat" receiver, and looked to fulfill that promise with 18 receptions for 267 yards, before being eventually derailed by injury and put on IR after Week 9. He attempted to make a comeback in the 2008 season, once again looking to become the Ravens' big play-maker and stretch the field. After shaking off a little rust, he began to heat up near mid-season with a few big catches, including a 70 touchdown reception against the Oakland Raiders in Week 7. However, he was also unable to continue after that play, with pain from bone spurs in his leg that eventually put him on IR for the season, once again, after surgery.

The Ravens didn't draft any big receivers in the 2009 off-season, with general manager Ozzie Newsome stating that they had faith in the receivers they had, and that they were sticking with Williams as their field stretching player. Unfortunately, the injury bug would pop up yet again, this time with only a minor injury during the pre-season, but it was enough to keep him out a game, and give other players time to shine. Though he returned would return, and in the final game of the pre-season posted 4 catches for 77 yards, once again showing his downfield ability, the Ravens ultimately chose to go with Kelley Washington #3 receiver. Due to offensive coordinator Cam Cameron typically only using three receiver sets, this meant that Demetrius saw little to no playing time for over half the 2009 season. Washington went down with injury in a Week 13 matchup with the Detroit Lions, and Williams stepped in and made 2 catches for 45 yds. in a 48-3 rout. The following week, he again showed his promise as a playmaker, with 4 catches for 71 yards and a touchdown against the Chicago Bears. He remained active for the rest of the season, but Washington returned in the following weeks, retaking his #3 spot. Many fans openly wondered at the logic of not playing a speedy receiver like Williams, when the 2009 Ravens ranked near the bottom of the league in yards per catch, and yards after catch.

Though he remained with the team and worked hard in the 2010 Ravens off-season programs, he was ultimately cut in August 2010 after the Ravens had signed Donté Stallworth. Ironically, the Ravens had signed Stallworth to take Williams' former role as deep threat receiver, yet he himself would be inactive for much of the season with an injury. Williams finished his Ravens career with a total of 63 receptions, 1,008 yards, and four touchdowns on a 16.0 yard receiving average.

Cleveland Browns
Demetrius Williams signed with the Cleveland Browns on October 26, 2010. He was targeted twice in a loss to his old team (the Ravens) but saw little playing time overall, and ended the season without a reception. He did, however, see playing time on Cleveland's special teams unit. His contract was terminated on September 3, 2011.

Jacksonville Jaguars
Williams was signed by the Jacksonville Jaguars on August 12, 2012 and later released on August 31.

Sacramento Mountain Lions
He played for the Sacramento Mountain Lions of the United Football League for the 2012 season.

References

External links
Just Sports Stats
Baltimore Ravens bio
Cleveland Browns bio
Jacksonville Jaguars bio
Sacramento Mountain Lions bio

1983 births
Living people
People from Concord, California
Players of American football from Contra Costa County, California
American football wide receivers
Oregon Ducks football players
Baltimore Ravens players
Cleveland Browns players
Jacksonville Jaguars players
Sacramento Mountain Lions players
De La Salle High School (Concord, California) alumni

Demetrius Williams


A voltage spike is a sudden increase in voltage value over a short time in power systems. It can be caused by several factors, but mostly it is due to external or internal disturbance. A voltage spike might cause an increase in current, but the increase in voltage might have been caused by the current increase as well.

Electricity

Voltage spike


Algebraic Logic Functional (ALF) programming language combines functional and logic programming techniques. Its foundation is Horn clause logic with equality, which consists of predicates and Horn clauses for logic programming, and functions and equations for functional programming.

ALF was designed to be genuine integration of both programming paradigms, and thus any functional expression can be used in a goal literal and arbitrary predicates can occur in conditions of equations. ALF's operational semantics is based on the resolution rule to solve literals and narrowing to evaluate functional expressions. To reduce the number of possible narrowing steps, a leftmost-innermost basic narrowing strategy is used which, it is claimed, can be efficiently implemented. Terms are simplified by rewriting before a narrowing step is applied and equations are rejected if the two sides have different constructors at the top. Rewriting and rejection are supposed to result in a large reduction of the search tree and produce an operational semantics that is more efficient than Prolog's resolution strategy. Similarly to Prolog, ALF uses a backtracking strategy corresponding to a depth-first search in the derivation tree.

The ALF system was designed to be an efficient implementation of the combination of resolution, narrowing, rewriting, and rejection. ALF programs are compiled into instructions of an abstract machine, which is based on the Warren Abstract Machine (WAM) with several extensions to implement narrowing and rewriting. In the current ALF implementation programs of this abstract machine are executed by an emulator written in C.

In the Carnegie Mellon University Artificial Intelligence Repository, ALF is included as an AI programming language, more so as a functional/logic programming language Prolog implementation. A user manual describing the language and the use of the system is available. The ALF System runs on Unix and is available under a custom proprietary software license that grants the right to use for "evaluation, research and teaching purposes" but not commercial or military use.

References

External links
Publications of Michael Hanus, including many articles relevant to the design and theory of ALF
Information about getting and installing the ALF system

Functional logic programming languages
compilers and interpreters
Logic programming languages
Programming languages created in the 1990s

Algebraic Logic Functional programming language


The Banner o Cyprus (, ) came intae uise on August 16, 1960 unner the Zürich an Lunnon Agreements, wherebi a constitution wis draftit an Cyprus wis proclaimed an independent state.

The naitional banner features a map o the entirety o the island, wi twa olive branches belaw (a seembol o peace) on white (anither seembol o peace). The olive branches signify peace atween the Turks an Greeks. The map on the banner is a copper-orange colour, seembolisin the lairge deposits o copper ore on the island (chiefly in the form o chalcopyrite, which is yellae in colour), frae which it mey hae received its name.

Cyprus wis conquered bi the Ottoman Empire in 1571, which initiatit Turkis dounset on the island. It then fell unner Breetish control in 1878. The banner, adoptit at unthirldom in 1960, deliberately chose peaceful an neutral seembols in an attempt te indicate harmony atween the rival Greek an Turkish communities, an ideal that haes no yet been realized. In 1974, Turkish forces invadit an occupied the northren pairt o the island, formin the Turkish Republic o Northren Cyprus, a de-facto state recognised ae bi Turkey an the non sovereign Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic in Azerbaijan. Thay an aa introduced a banner seemilar tae the Turkish, wi invertit colours an twa reid stripes. The pairt which is occupied bi the Turkish forces an aa tends tae flee the naitional banner o Turkey, whilst in soothren Cyprus, the naitional banner o Greece is aften uised thegether wi the banner o Cyprus.

Naitional seembols o Cyprus
Cyprus
Cyprus

Banner o Cyprus


In finance, an Intermarket Spread is collateral sale of a futures contract on one exchange and the simultaneous purchase of another futures contract on another exchange within any given month. As with any other spread trade, an intermarket spread attempts to profit from the widening or narrowing of the gap between the two contract prices.

For example, an intermarket spread trade might involve buying a contract for West Texas Intermediate Crude Oil (on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange) while selling a contract for Brent Crude Oil (traded on the Intercontinental Exchange). The trade would gain or lose value based on the relative difference between the two underlying instruments, rather than the outright price.

Options (finance)
Derivatives (finance)

Intermarket spread


United Empire Loyalists were people living in the 13 colonies in what was British North America in the 1770s who did not agree with the American Revolution.

Many residents of the colonies (possibly a majority) either were not in complete agreement with the Revolution and its leaders, or were against it. Some of them actively worked against it, supporting King George III and the British Government. These people became known as "Tories". In many of the colonies, those who openly expressed being against the Revolution and those who joined militias loyal to King George were declared to be outlaws, and their properties taken away by the people favouring the Revolution.

Some of these people wanted to remain in a place that was still part of the British Empire, so they moved to what is now Canada. In many places there they received a warm welcome and became a valued part of their new home area. Many of them have maintained social groups which are limited to people whose ancestors were some of these people, and they are still called "United Empire Loyalists".

American Revolutionary War

United Empire Loyalists


Sir Edward Leader Williams (28 April 1828 – 1 January 1910) was an English civil engineer, chiefly remembered as the designer of the Manchester Ship Canal, but also heavily involved in other canal projects in north Cheshire.

Early life
Williams was born in Worcester on 28 April 1828, the son of a civil engineer also named Edward (responsible for works to make the River Severn navigable; also a keen amateur artist and friend of John Constable) and his Quaker wife Sarah Whiting. His brother Benjamin Williams Leader became a notable landscape artist. The family lived at Diglis House in Worcester (today the Diglis Hotel).

Career
After attending the Royal Grammar School Worcester Williams became an apprentice to his father. In 1856 he was chosen out of 110 applicants to be chief engineer for the development of the navigable northern section of the River Weaver in Cheshire. He began to specialise in canal construction and in 1865 produced plans for enlarging the Weston Canal, a short stretch of canal linking the river near Frodsham to docks at Weston Point, Runcorn.

On 1 September 1872, he joined the Bridgewater Navigation Company and worked on the Bridgewater Canal.

Manchester Ship Canal
After submitting proposals in competition with another engineer (Hamilton Fulton), Williams was then appointed by Daniel Adamson in 1882 to design a new ship canal linking Manchester with the Irish Sea. Williams became chief designer and chief engineer, helping the Manchester Ship Canal Company formulate its proposals for the necessary Act of Parliament. From its initial reading in 1883, it took two years for the Bill to receive Royal Assent, and a further two years before the first construction work started, in November 1887.

The canal opened in 1894, and has been described as "a feat without precedent in modern history". As well as the canal itself, major engineering landmarks of the scheme included the Barton Swing Aqueduct (carrying the Bridgewater Canal over the Ship Canal) and a neighbouring swing bridge for road traffic at Barton.

After the official opening of the Manchester Ship Canal on 21 May 1894, Edward Leader Williams of the Oaks, in the Parish of Dunham Massey, in the County Palatine of Chester was knighted by Queen Victoria on 2 July by Letters Patent.

Williams' other works include the Anderton Boat Lift (1875) near Northwich in Cheshire, which links the navigable stretch of the River Weaver with the Trent and Mersey Canal.

See also
Delamere Dock

References

Notes

Bibliography

External links

1828 births
1910 deaths
English canal engineers
People educated at the Royal Grammar School Worcester
Engineers from Worcester, England
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society

Edward Leader Williams


Armaan (), the Pakistani Urdu melodramatic black and white movie. It was produced by Waheed Murad and directed by Pervaiz Malik. It was the first Pakistani movie to complete 75 weeks in cinemas and, thus, became the first Pakistani 'Platinum Jubilee' movie. The movie was picturized in black and white prints and in beautiful locations of Karachi.

1960s Pakistani movies
1966 movies
Urdu-language movies

Armaan (1966 movie)


An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which at least one is a metal. Unlike chemical compounds with metallic bases, an alloy will retain all the properties of a metal in the resulting material, such as electrical conductivity, ductility, opacity, and luster, but may have properties that differ from those of the pure metals, such as increased strength or hardness. In some cases, an alloy may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties. In other cases, the mixture imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength.

In an alloy, the atoms are joined by metallic bonding rather than by covalent bonds typically found in chemical compounds. The alloy constituents are usually measured by mass percentage for practical applications, and in atomic fraction for basic science studies. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be further classified as homogeneous (consisting of a single phase), or heterogeneous (consisting of two or more phases) or intermetallic. An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements (a single phase, where all metallic grains (crystals) are of the same composition) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions, forming a microstructure of different crystals within the metal).

Examples of alloys include red gold (gold and copper), white gold (gold and silver), sterling silver (silver and copper), steel or silicon steel (iron with non-metallic carbon or silicon respectively), solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, bronze, and amalgams.

Alloys are used in a wide variety of applications, from the steel alloys, used in everything from buildings to automobiles to surgical tools, to exotic titanium alloys used in the aerospace industry, to beryllium-copper alloys for non-sparking tools.

Characteristics

An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements, which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a metal. An alloy is distinct from an impure metal in that, with an alloy, the added elements are well controlled to produce desirable properties, while impure metals such as wrought iron are less controlled, but are often considered useful. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will be soluble and dissolve into the mixture.
The mechanical properties of alloys will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is normally very soft (malleable), such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, such as copper. Although both metals are very soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will have much greater strength. Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron trades its great ductility for the greater strength of an alloy called steel. Due to its very-high strength, but still substantial toughness, and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most useful and common alloys in modern use. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel.

Like oil and water, a molten metal may not always mix with another element. For example, pure iron is almost completely insoluble with copper. Even when the constituents are soluble, each will usually have a saturation point, beyond which no more of the constituent can be added. Iron, for example, can hold a maximum of 6.67% carbon. Although the elements of an alloy usually must be soluble in the liquid state, they may not always be soluble in the solid state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a solid solution, becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a phase. If as the mixture cools the constituents become insoluble, they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous microstructure of different phases, some with more of one constituent than the other. However, in other alloys, the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs. If cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are supersaturated with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys can separate from the crystal lattice, becoming more stable, and forming a second phase that serves to reinforce the crystals internally.

Some alloys, such as electrum—an alloy of silver and gold—occur naturally. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel, but are not native to the Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was bronze, which is a mixture of the metals tin and copper. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients, because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components. Steel was another common alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires (smelting) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include pewter, brass and pig iron. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms. Carbon steel can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like mild steel or hard alloys like spring steel. Alloy steels can be made by adding other elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, vanadium or nickel, resulting in alloys such as high-speed steel or tool steel. Small amounts of manganese are usually alloyed with most modern steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like phosphorus, sulfur and oxygen, which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium, titanium, nickel, and magnesium alloys. Some modern superalloys, such as incoloy, inconel, and hastelloy, may consist of a multitude of different elements.

An alloy is technically an impure metal, but when referring to alloys, the term impurities usually denotes undesirable elements. Such impurities are introduced from the base metals and alloying elements, but are removed during processing. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form iron sulfide, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel. Lithium, sodium and calcium are common impurities in aluminium alloys, which can have adverse effects on the structural integrity of castings. Conversely, otherwise pure-metals that contain unwanted impurities are often called "impure metals" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form metal oxides; especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using fluxes, chemical additives, or other methods of extractive metallurgy.

Theory

Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other elements. The most common and oldest alloying process is performed by heating the base metal beyond its melting point and then dissolving the solutes into the molten liquid, which may be possible even if the melting point of the solute is far greater than that of the base. For example, in its liquid state, titanium is a very strong solvent capable of dissolving most metals and elements. In addition, it readily absorbs gases like oxygen and burns in the presence of nitrogen. This increases the chance of contamination from any contacting surface, and so must be melted in vacuum induction-heating and special, water-cooled, copper crucibles. However, some metals and solutes, such as iron and carbon, have very high melting-points and were impossible for ancient people to melt. Thus, alloying (in particular, interstitial alloying) may also be performed with one or more constituents in a gaseous state, such as found in a blast furnace to make pig iron (liquid-gas), nitriding, carbonitriding or other forms of case hardening (solid-gas), or the cementation process used to make blister steel (solid-gas). It may also be done with one, more, or all of the constituents in the solid state, such as found in ancient methods of pattern welding (solid-solid), shear steel (solid-solid), or crucible steel production (solid-liquid), mixing the elements via solid-state diffusion.

By adding another element to a metal, differences in the size of the atoms create internal stresses in the lattice of the metallic crystals; stresses that often enhance its properties. For example, the combination of carbon with iron produces steel, which is stronger than iron, its primary element. The electrical and thermal conductivity of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its base element, but engineering properties such as tensile strength, ductility, and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the atoms in the alloy, because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For example, impurities in semiconducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura.

Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting point, but a melting range during which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases (a slush). The temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus, and the temperature when melting is just complete is called the liquidus. For many alloys there is a particular alloy proportion (in some cases more than one), called either a eutectic mixture or a peritectic composition, which gives the alloy a unique and low melting point, and no liquid/solid slush transition.

Heat treatment

Alloying elements are added to a base metal, to induce hardness, toughness, ductility, or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be work hardened by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during plastic deformation by hammering, bending, extruding, et cetera, and are permanent unless the metal is recrystallized. Otherwise, some alloys can also have their properties altered by heat treatment. Nearly all metals can be softened by annealing, which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same degree as does steel.

The base metal iron of the iron-carbon alloy known as steel, undergoes a change in the arrangement (allotropy) of the atoms of its crystal matrix at a certain temperature (usually between  and , depending on carbon content). This allows the smaller carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal. When this diffusion happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in solution in the iron, forming a particular single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called austenite. If the steel is cooled slowly, the carbon can diffuse out of the iron and it will gradually revert to its low temperature allotrope. During slow cooling, the carbon atoms will no longer be as soluble with the iron, and will be forced to precipitate out of solution, nucleating into a more concentrated form of iron carbide (Fe3C) in the spaces between the pure iron crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, as it is formed of two phases, the iron-carbon phase called cementite (or carbide), and pure iron ferrite. Such a heat treatment produces a steel that is rather soft. If the steel is cooled quickly, however, the carbon atoms will not have time to diffuse and precipitate out as carbide, but will be trapped within the iron crystals. When rapidly cooled, a diffusionless (martensite) transformation occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform as the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, leaving those crystals very hard but much less ductile (more brittle).

While the high strength of steel results when diffusion and precipitation is prevented (forming martensite), most heat-treatable alloys are precipitation hardening alloys, that depend on the diffusion of alloying elements to achieve their strength. When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than normal, during the diffusionless transformation, but then harden as they age. The solutes in these alloys will precipitate over time, forming intermetallic phases, which are difficult to discern from the base metal. Unlike steel, in which the solid solution separates into different crystal phases (carbide and ferrite), precipitation hardening alloys form different phases within the same crystal. These intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in crystal structure, but tend to behave heterogeneously, becoming hard and somewhat brittle.

In 1906, precipitation hardening alloys were discovered by Alfred Wilm. Precipitation hardening alloys, such as certain alloys of aluminium, titanium, and copper, are heat-treatable alloys that soften when quenched (cooled quickly), and then harden over time. Wilm had been searching for a way to harden aluminium alloys for use in machine-gun cartridge cases. Knowing that aluminium-copper alloys were heat-treatable to some degree, Wilm tried quenching a ternary alloy of aluminium, copper, and the addition of magnesium, but was initially disappointed with the results. However, when Wilm retested it the next day he discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature, and far exceeded his expectations. Although an explanation for the phenomenon was not provided until 1919, duralumin was one of the first "age hardening" alloys used, becoming the primary building material for the first Zeppelins, and was soon followed by many others. Because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry, including the construction of modern aircraft.

Mechanisms

When a molten metal is mixed with another substance, there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form, called atom exchange and the interstitial mechanism. The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur. When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. This is called a substitutional alloy. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms respectively.

In the case of the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other and  can not successfully substitute for the other type of atom in the crystals of the base metal. Instead, the smaller atoms become trapped in the interstitial sites between the atoms of the crystal matrix. This is referred to as an interstitial alloy. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix.

Stainless steel is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys, because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices, but some of the iron atoms are substituted by nickel and chromium atoms.

History and examples

Meteoric iron

The use of alloys by humans started with the use of meteoric iron, a naturally occurring alloy of nickel and iron. It is the main constituent of iron meteorites. As no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel, the alloy was used as it was. Meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools, weapons, and nails. In many cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads. They were often used as anvils. Meteoric iron was very rare and valuable, and difficult for ancient people to work.

Bronze and brass

Iron is usually found as iron ore on Earth, except for one deposit of native iron in Greenland, which was used by the Inuit. Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold, and platinum, which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to the ancients. Around 10,000 years ago in the highlands of Anatolia (Turkey), humans learned to smelt metals such as copper and tin from ore. Around 2500 BC, people began alloying the two metals to form bronze, which was much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare, however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with zinc to form brass. Ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as hardness, toughness and melting point, under various conditions of temperature and work hardening, developing much of the information contained in modern alloy phase diagrams. For example, arrowheads from the Chinese Qin dynasty (around 200 BC) were often constructed with a hard bronze-head, but a softer bronze-tang, combining the alloys to prevent both dulling and breaking during use.

Amalgams

Mercury has been smelted from cinnabar for thousands of years. Mercury dissolves many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, to form amalgams (an alloy in a soft paste or liquid form at ambient temperature). Amalgams have been used since 200 BC in China for gilding objects such as armor and mirrors with precious metals. The ancient Romans often used mercury-tin amalgams for gilding their armor. The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold, silver, or tin behind. Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their ores.

Precious metals

Many ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes. In ancient Egypt and Mycenae, gold was often alloyed with copper to produce red-gold, or iron to produce a bright burgundy-gold. Gold was often found alloyed with silver or other metals to produce various types of colored gold. These metals were also used to strengthen each other, for more practical purposes. Copper was often added to silver to make sterling silver, increasing its strength for use in dishes, silverware, and other practical items. Quite often, precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive buyers. Around 250 BC, Archimedes was commissioned by the King of Syracuse to find a way to check the purity of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of "Eureka!" upon the discovery of Archimedes' principle.

Pewter

The term pewter covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin. As a pure metal, tin is much too soft to use for most practical purposes. However, during the Bronze Age, tin was a rare metal in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, so it was often valued higher than gold. To make jewellery, cutlery, or other objects from tin, workers usually alloyed it with other metals to increase strength and hardness. These metals were typically lead, antimony, bismuth or copper. These solutes were sometimes added individually in varying amounts, or added together, making a wide variety of objects, ranging from practical items such as dishes, surgical tools, candlesticks or funnels, to decorative items like ear rings and hair clips.

The earliest examples of pewter come from ancient Egypt, around 1450 BC. The use of pewter was widespread across Europe, from France to Norway and Britain (where most of the ancient tin was mined) to the Near East. The alloy was also used in China and the Far East, arriving in Japan around 800 AD, where it was used for making objects like ceremonial vessels, tea canisters, or chalices used in shinto shrines.

Iron

The first known smelting of iron began in Anatolia, around 1800 BC. Called the bloomery process, it produced very soft but ductile wrought iron. By 800 BC, iron-making technology had spread to Europe, arriving in Japan around 700 AD. Pig iron, a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon, was being produced in China as early as 1200 BC, but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. Pig iron has a lower melting point than iron, and was used for making cast-iron. However, these metals found little practical use until the introduction of crucible steel around 300 BC. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of pattern welding, around the 1st century AD, sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them, to create a tougher metal. Around 700 AD, the Japanese began folding bloomery-steel and cast-iron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords, using clay fluxes to remove slag and impurities. This method of Japanese swordsmithing produced one of the purest steel-alloys of the ancient world.

While the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 BC, mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin, the metal was much softer than bronze. However, very small amounts of steel, (an alloy of iron and around 1% carbon), was always a byproduct of the bloomery process. The ability to modify the hardness of steel by heat treatment had been known since 1100 BC, and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of blister steel during the Middle Ages. This method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time, but the absorption of carbon in this manner is extremely slow thus the penetration was not very deep, so the alloy was not homogeneous. In 1740, Benjamin Huntsman began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content, creating the first process for the mass production of tool steel. Huntsman's process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s.

The introduction of the blast furnace to Europe in the Middle Ages meant that people could produce pig iron in much higher volumes than wrought iron. Because pig iron could be melted, people began to develop processes to reduce carbon in liquid pig iron to create steel. Puddling had been used in China since the first century, and was introduced in Europe during the 1700s, where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air, to remove the carbon by oxidation. In 1858, Henry Bessemer developed a process of steel-making by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content. The Bessemer process led to the first large scale manufacture of steel.

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, but the term alloy steel usually only refers to steels that contain other elements— like vanadium, molybdenum, or cobalt—in amounts sufficient to alter the properties of the base steel. Since ancient times, when steel was used primarily for tools and weapons, the methods of producing and working the metal were often closely guarded secrets. Even long after the Age of reason, the steel industry was very competitive and manufacturers went through great lengths to keep their processes confidential, resisting any attempts to scientifically analyze the material for fear it would reveal their methods. For example, the people of Sheffield, a center of steel production in England, were known to routinely bar visitors and tourists from entering town to deter industrial espionage. Thus, almost no metallurgical information existed about steel until 1860. Because of this lack of understanding, steel was not generally considered an alloy until the decades between 1930 and 1970 (primarily due to the work of scientists like William Chandler Roberts-Austen, Adolf Martens, and Edgar Bain), so "alloy steel" became the popular term for ternary and quaternary steel-alloys.

After Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel in 1740, he began experimenting with the addition of elements like manganese (in the form of a high-manganese pig-iron called spiegeleisen), which helped remove impurities such as phosphorus and oxygen; a process adopted by Bessemer and still used in modern steels (albeit in concentrations low enough to still be considered carbon steel). Afterward, many people began experimenting with various alloys of steel without much success. However, in 1882, Robert Hadfield, being a pioneer in steel metallurgy, took an interest and produced a steel alloy containing around 12% manganese. Called mangalloy, it exhibited extreme hardness and toughness, becoming the first commercially viable alloy-steel. Afterward, he created silicon steel, launching the search for other possible alloys of steel.

Robert Forester Mushet found that by adding tungsten to steel it could produce a very hard edge that would resist losing its hardness at high temperatures. "R. Mushet's special steel" (RMS) became the first high-speed steel. Mushet's steel was quickly replaced by tungsten carbide steel, developed by Taylor and White in 1900, in which they doubled the tungsten content and added small amounts of chromium and vanadium, producing a superior steel for use in lathes and machining tools. In 1903, the Wright brothers used a chromium-nickel steel to make the crankshaft for their airplane engine, while in 1908 Henry Ford began using vanadium steels for parts like crankshafts and valves in his Model T Ford, due to their higher strength and resistance to high temperatures. In 1912, the Krupp Ironworks in Germany developed a rust-resistant steel by adding 21% chromium and 7% nickel, producing the first stainless steel.

Others

Due to their high reactivity, most metals were not discovered until the 19th century. A method for extracting aluminium from bauxite was proposed by Humphry Davy in 1807, using an electric arc. Although his attempts were unsuccessful, by 1855 the first sales of pure aluminium reached the market. However, as extractive metallurgy was still in its infancy, most aluminium extraction-processes produced unintended alloys contaminated with other elements found in the ore; the most abundant of which was copper. These aluminium-copper alloys (at the time termed "aluminum bronze") preceded pure aluminium, offering greater strength and hardness over the soft, pure metal, and to a slight degree were found to be heat treatable. However, due to their softness and limited hardenability these alloys found little practical use, and were more of a novelty, until the Wright brothers used an aluminium alloy to construct the first airplane engine in 1903. During the time between 1865 and 1910, processes for extracting many other metals were discovered, such as chromium, vanadium, tungsten, iridium, cobalt, and molybdenum, and various alloys were developed.

Prior to 1910, research mainly consisted of private individuals tinkering in their own laboratories. However, as the aircraft and automotive industries began growing, research into alloys became an industrial effort in the years following 1910, as new magnesium alloys were developed for pistons and wheels in cars, and pot metal for levers and knobs, and aluminium alloys developed for airframes and aircraft skins were put into use.

See also

 Alloy broadening
 CALPHAD
 Ideal mixture
 List of alloys

References

Bibliography

External links

Metallurgy
Chemistry

Alloy


Heinz Burt (24 July 1942 – 7 April 2000) was a German-born British rock and roll bassist and singer who performed under the stage name Heinz. He was also known as a member of the instrumental group the Tornados.

Life
Heinz was born in Detmold, Germany, but from the age of seven was brought up in Eastleigh, Hampshire, England. His German father had been killed during World War II and his mother decided to move to Britain. Heinz was influenced by the US singer Eddie Cochran and played in a local Eastleigh group, the Falcons, in the 1950s. Working in a Southampton grocery shop Heinz came to the attention of record producer Joe Meek, becoming his protégé. Meek styled Heinz's image, which included persuading him to peroxide his hair.

Heinz was a member of the Tornados, famous for their multi-million selling hit "Telstar". With Meek in love with Heinz, he struggled to launch him on a solo career. Due to the inadequacies of Heinz's voice, his vocals on his first single "Dreams Do Come True" were over-dubbed by another singer, a Meek artist named Mark Douglas or Billy Gray, but whose real name was William Halsey. The single was a commercial failure. With Meek vigorously promoting Heinz, he was sent on a tour with Gene Vincent and Jerry Lee Lewis. Audiences did not take to him, and he was attacked on stage and had beans thrown over him (to a contemporary audience 'Heinz' would have been associated with Heinz Baked Beans).

Heinz's next and biggest-selling solo hit was "Just Like Eddie", a tribute to Eddie Cochran. Its success coincided with the emergence of The Beatles and was the high point of commercial success for Heinz. Two successful EPs, Heinz and Live It Up, followed, and 1963 he appeared in the British music-film Live It Up! as Ron. Following a well-received tour with Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas and Bobby Rydell, Heinz was seen as belonging to an era of rock and roll as the more modern Merseybeat became more popular. He covered the Bob Dylan song "Don't Think Twice, It's Alright", which was another commercial failure.

A move from the Decca label to Columbia saw him gain a minor hit with "Diggin' My Potatoes". Differences of a professional and personal level with Meek appeared, and with Heinz introducing his girlfriend to Meek their relationship faltered. Although he had lived briefly in Meek's flat, further disagreements over royalties saw him move out, leaving some possessions behind including a shotgun. It was this shotgun with which Meek killed his landlady and then himself in 1967, and although Heinz was questioned by police, they concluded he had nothing to do with their deaths.

Meek's death ended Heinz's recording career as a solo artist, and he worked outside the music industry including in advertising at a local newspaper, The Dagenham Post.

Although often dismissed as a mediocre talent pushed into the spotlight by Meek, Heinz was an enthusiastic performer, and worked in pantomime and theatre in the 1970s, including a role in David Hare's Teeth 'n' Smiles in 1976, as a dim-witted would-be rock star. In later years, he appeared in 1960s revival shows and continued performing until the end; his last set was from a wheelchair at a social club two weeks before his death.

Backing groups
He was initially backed by the Saints, a band that included Roy Phillips, guitar, and Tab Martin, bass. His later backing groups (the Wild Ones or the Wild Boys) featured Ritchie Blackmore and others. Mick Underwood, Chas Hodges, Blackmore, and others performed on "Just Like Eddie" as members of the Outlaws.

Heinz performed at the London Rock and Roll Show in 1972, with Wilko Johnson of Dr Feelgood in his backing band, as shown in the documentary Oil City Confidential.

Sexuality
He was portrayed by JJ Feild in Telstar, a film about the life of Joe Meek, which was released in 2009. The film depicts him as Meek's gay lover at a time when homosexual acts were illegal in the United Kingdom. His family have denied that he was homosexual and have stated that the film is a slur on his life. His former wife, Della Burke, who was married to Heinz at the height of his success said, "It is completely and utterly untrue. Heinz was definitely heterosexual."

In the 1991 BBC documentary, The Very Strange Story of... the Legendary Joe Meek, when asked if Meek was in love with him, Heinz replied "Yes. It's an infatuation ... that was the thing with him, where I told him to get off, that I wasn't into that sort of thing ... if there's something you can't have you want it even more".

Death
Crippled by motor neurone disease, Heinz died in 2000, aged 57 following a stroke. He was cremated at Eastleigh Crematorium in Hampshire.

Discography

UK singles
"Dreams Do Come True" (Meek) / "Been Invited to a Party" (Meek, Burt) – May 1963 – Decca F 11652
"Just Like Eddie" (Goddard) / "Don't You Knock on My Door" – 1963 – Decca F11693 – UK No. 5
"I Get Up in the Morning" (Meek) / "Talk Like A Man" / "That Lucky Old Sun" / "Lonely River" (Meek) – 1963 – Decca DFE 8545
"Live It Up" (Meek) / "Don't You Understand" (Meek) / "When Your Loving Goes Wrong" (Meek) – 1963 – Decca DFE 8559
"Country Boy" (Geoff Goddard) / "Long Tall Jack" (Meek/Lawrence) – 1963 – Decca F11768 – UK No. 26
"You Were There" (Geoff Goddard) / "No Matter What They Say" (Meek/Lawrence) – 1964 – Decca F 11831 – UK No. 26
"Please Little Girl" / "For Loving Me This Way" (Meek) – 1964 – Decca F 11920
"Questions I Can't Answer" / "Beating of My Heart" (Meek) – 1964 – Columbia DB7374 – UK No. 39
"Diggin' My Potatoes" (Trad, arr. Meek/Burt) / "She Ain't Coming Back" – 1965 – Columbia DB7482 – Heinz & Wild Boys – UK No. 49
"End of the World" / "You Make Me Feel So Good" (Meek) – 1965 – Columbia DB 7656
"Heart Full Of Sorrow" / "Don't Worry Baby" (Meek /Stephen Reading) – 1965 – Columbia DB 7779
"Don't Think Twice, It's All Right" (Dylan) / "Big Fat Spider" (Meek/Davis) – 1965 – Columbia DB7559 – Heinz & Wild Boys
"Movin' In" (Adams) / "I'm Not A Bad Guy" (J. Allison) – 1966 – Columbia DB 7942
"Country Boy" (Geoff Goddard) / "Just Like Eddie" (Geoff Goddard) (Re-Recordings) – 1981 – Cargo CRS 010

US singles
1964:  "Questions I Can't Answer" / "Beating of My Heart" – Tower 110
1965:  "Digging My Potatoes" / "Don't Think Twice, It's Alright" – Tower 172
1965:  "Don't Worry Baby" / "Heart Full Of Sorrow" – Tower 195
1966:  "Movin' In" / "I'm Not A Bad Guy" – Tower 253

Albums
Tribute to Eddie (Decca LK 4599, 1964)
Live album – Various Artists; Live at The Cavern:"I Got A Woman" (live) / "Somebody To Love" (live) (Decca SLK 16294, 1965)

References

External links

1942 births
2000 deaths
20th-century English singers
20th-century German musicians
20th-century bass guitarists
English pop singers
Columbia Records artists
People with motor neuron disease
Musicians with disabilities
Decca Records artists
English rock bass guitarists
Male bass guitarists
German emigrants to England
German bass guitarists
German male singers
German pop singers
Musicians from Hampshire
People from Detmold
People from Eastleigh
20th-century British male singers
The Tornados members
German male guitarists

Heinz Burt


Ferromagnetism is a property of many materials like iron. They are magnets, so they are attracted to, or pulled towards other magnets. In physics, there are many different types of magnetism. Ferromagnetism is the strongest one. It is used every day in many technological objects, like television screens, credit cards and refrigerators.

Ferromagnets are materials that have some magnetization on their own. This means that at a temperature of absolute zero and without any magnetic field from other objects, they are still magnetic. The reason for this is that the electrons in a material have a spin. In ferromagnetic materials, the electrons like to have all the spins going one way, giving some magnetism. Usually, as the temperature is increased, the magnetization goes down. This is because the high temperature causes the electrons in the material to move around a bit more. They do not have the spins perfectly going in the same way anymore. The point at which there is no magnetization anymore is called the Curie temperature. This changes with different materials.

Some materials that are ferromagnets are: iron, cobalt, nickel. Hematite is also ferromagnetic but only above a certain temperature.

Related pages
Hysteresis

Magnetism

Ferromagnetism


The Illinois General Assembly is the state legislature of the state of Illinois. It comprises the Illinois House of Representatives and the Illinois Senate. The General Assembly was created by the first state constitution which was adopted in 1818. Illinois has 59 legislative districts. It had two representatives and one senator from each district.

General Assembly
State legislatures of the United States
Bicameral legislatures

Illinois General Assembly


John Burgoyne (24 February 1722 – 4 August 1792) was a general in the British Army. In 1777, he led the British troops in the Battle Of Saratoga where he surrendered to American general Horatio Gates. This success led to France and Spain recognizing the United States and offering aid to the continental army. Historians consider this to be the turning point for the American Revolutionary War.

British in the American Revolutionary War
British Army generals
1792 deaths
1722 births

John Burgoyne


The Abbey of Sant'Antimo, , is a former Benedictine monastery located in Castelnuovo dell'Abate, in the comune of Montalcino, Tuscany, central Italy. It is approximately 10 km from Montalcino about 9 km from the Via Francigena, the pilgrim route to Rome. After many years of disuse, the abbey was reoccupied in 1992 by a small community of Premonstratensian Canons Regular.  Since January 2016, the occupants are a community of monks of the Olivetan Benedictine order.

A tributary of the river Orcia, the Starcia, runs near the abbey.

The name
The name of the abbey may refer to Saint Anthimus of Rome, whose relics were supposedly moved here during the late 8th century.

History

The origins of the abbey are obscure. Archeological investigation of the site is incomplete, but has yielded artifacts from Late Classical times. The foundation of the original Benedictine monastery dates to the time of Charlemagne. The various accounts of Charlemagne founding the abbey are without direct historical foundation; they first appear in a document of the emperor Henry III from 1051.

The earliest document relating to the abbey is a land grant of Louis the Pious dated December 813, now in the Archivio di Stato of Siena. The abbot received full temporal powers in an imperial document of about 952. Following a bequest of Bernardo degli Ardengheschi, construction of the present church was begun before 1118, a date which is inscribed on the altar step and on a column to the left of it. Parts of the earlier structure remain visible in the crypt and in the so-called Cappella Carolingia, or Carolingian chapel.

This was the period of greatest power of the abbey, which had authority over 38 churches, from Pisa to Grosseto, and control of about 1000 mansi, or farm estates, throughout Tuscany. The most important possession of the abbey was the castle of Montalcino, which was the residence of the abbot.

In the mid-12th century, halted in its expansion northwards by Florence, Siena moved its attention to Montalcino. In 1145 the monks were forced to cede the castle of Radicofani the Sienese. In 1189 Pope Clement III placed the pieve of Montalcino under the bishop of Siena. Filippo Malavolti, podestà of Siena, attacked and partly destroyed Montalcino  in 1200. An agreement of 1212 stated that the abbey had to hand over a quarter of its territories to Siena, including Montalcino.

In 1291 Pope Nicholas IV ordered the union of the abbey with the Guglielmites, a reformed branch of the Benedectines, in order to give back strength to the abbey. However, after another period of decay in the 15th century, Pope Pius II annexed St. Antimus to the new diocese of Montalcino-Pienza (1462), whose bishop was Pius' nephew. The abbey decayed to the point that in the 19th century it was used as stable. In the 1870s the Italian state restored it.

In 1992 the abbey became again an active monastery with the arrival of a new religious community of Canons Regular of the Order of Premontre.

Architecture

Of the Carolingian edifice, the apse (called Cappella Carolingia) and the portal, richly decorated with animal and vegetable motifs, are visible. The Carolingian chapel has frescoes by Giovanni d'Asciano with stories of St. Benedict and currently acts as sacristy. Under the chapel is a crypt with a nave and two aisles divided by four columns.

The Sala Capitolare (Capitular Hall) is decorated with a triple mullioned window with richly decorated capitals.
Typically French in inspiration is the ambulatory with radial chapels. In Italy this scheme is known only in Santa Trinità of Venosa and the Cathedrals of Acerenza and Aversa, all in southern Italy, and in Santa Maria of Piè di Chianti, Marche. The ambulatory housed the pilgrims to pray the Martyrium, the place where the Saint's relic are placed.

The aisles and the ambulatory are groin vaulted, while the nave has trusses. The nave, which is c. 20-m high, is divided into three sections: the huge arcades, the matronaeum and the  (upper floor).

Notable is the so-called capital of "Daniel in the lions' den", work of the French Master of Cabestany. It shows Daniel praying between the hungry lions, and, on the other sides, the lions devouring the accusers.

The outer walls are made of alabaster; one can shine a light against the walls and see the light translated/reflected back out to the eye.

References

Further reading
Antonio Canestrelli (1897) "Ricerche storiche ed artistiche intorno all'abbazia di S. Antimo", Bullettino senese di storia patria IV (in Italian). Siena: Lazzeri, pp. 72–74
 (1910–12) L'abbazia di S. Antimo: monografia storico-artistica con documenti e illustrazioni (in Italian), Siena monumentale. Siena: Sordomuti (reprinted 1987, Castelnuovo dell'Abate: Sant'Antimo).
Joselita Raspi-Serra (1964) "Contributo allo studio di alcune sculture dell'abbazia di Sant'Antimo", Commentari, n.s., XV (in Italian), pp. 135–165.
 (1966) "The Preromanesque and Romanesque Sculptural Decorations of S. Antimo", Gesta V (January 1966), p. 34–38
Alberto Fatucchi (1989) "Le preesistenze dell'attuale abbazia romanica di Sant'Antimo", Atti e Memorie Accademia Petrarca di Lettere, Arti e Scienze, n.s. LI  (in Italian), pp. 357–378
I. Moretti (1990) "Il riflesso di Sant'Antimo nell'architettura romanica della Valdorcia", in: Alfio Cortonesi (ed.) La Val d'Orcia nel medioevo e nei primi secoli dell'età moderna: Atti del convegno internazionale di studi storici, Pienza, 15–18 settembre 1988 (in Italian), , pp. 299–332.

External links
Adrian Fletcher's Paradoxplace Sant'Antimo Photograph Pages

Monasteries in Tuscany
770s establishments
8th-century establishments in Italy
Christian monasteries established in the 8th century
12th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Romanesque architecture in Tuscany
Benedictine monasteries in Italy
Roman Catholic churches in Montalcino

Abbey of Sant'Antimo


Medina is a city located in the Eastside, a region of King County, Washington, United States. Surrounded on the north, west, and south by Lake Washington, opposite Seattle. Medina is bordered by Clyde Hill and Hunts Point, as well as the satellite city of Bellevue. The city's population was 2,969 at the 2010 census. The city is mostly residential and includes Bill Gates's house.

References

Cities in Washington (state)

Medina, Washington


Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (31 October 1875 — 15 December 1950) was a lawyer and influential political leader in the Indian independence movement. After independence, he played an important role in the integration of over 500 princely states into the Indian Union. He was deeply influenced by Gandhi's ideology and principles, having worked very closely with the leader. He was the first Home Minister of Independent India and his uncompromising efforts towards consolidation of the country earned him the title "Iron Man of India".

Childhood
Vallabhai Patel was born on October 31, 1875 in Nadiad village of modern day Gujarat to Jhaverbai and Ladbai. He belongs to rich class agriculturist Patidar (leva patidar patel) community and Vallabhbhai's father had served in the army of the Queen of Jhansi, and his mother was a very spiritual woman.

Starting his academic career in a Gujarati medium school, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel later shifted to an English medium school. In 1897, Vallabhbhai passed his high school and started preparing for law examination. He went to pursue a degree in law and travelled to England in 1910. He completed his law degree in 1913 from Inns of Court and came back to India to start his law practice in Godhra, Gujarat. For his legal proficiency, Vallabhbhai was offered many lucrative posts by the British Government but he rejected all. He was a staunch opponent of the British government and its laws and therefore decided not to work for the British.

In 1891, he married Zaverbai and the couple had two children. His daughter, Maniben Patel (1903-1990), was an activist while his son, Dahyabhai Patel (1905-1973) was a member of the parliament of India.

Patel shifted his practice to Ahmedabad. He became a member of the Gujarat Club where he attended a lecture by Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi's words deeply affected Vallabhai and he soon adopted Gandhi's principles to become a staunch follower of the charismatic leader. That is how deeply Gandhi's words had affected him. He didn't know that he would change India and start a successful career.

Role in the Indian National Movement
In 1917, Sardar Vallabhbhai was elected as the Secretary of the Gujarat Sabha, the Gujarat wing of the Indian National Congress. In 1918, he led a massive "No Tax Campaign" that urged the farmers not to pay taxes after the British insisted on tax after the floods in Kaira. The peaceful movement forced the British authorities to return the land taken away from the farmers. His effort to bring together the farmers of his area brought him the title of 'Sardar'. He actively supported the non-cooperation Movement launched by Gandhi. Patel toured the nation with him, recruited 300,000 members and helped collect over Rs.1.5 million.

In 1928, the farmers of Bardoli again faced a problem of "tax-hike". After prolonged summons, when the farmers refused to pay the extra tax, the government seized their lands in retaliation. The agitation took on for more than six months. After several rounds of negotiations by Patel, the lands were returned to farmers after a deal was struck between the government and farmers' representatives.

In 1930, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was among the leaders who were imprisoned for participating in the famous Salt Satyagraha movement initiated by Mahatma Gandhi. His inspiring speeches during the "Salt Movement" transformed the outlook of numerous people, who later played a major role in making the movement successful. He led the Satyagraha movement across Gujarat when Gandhi was under imprisonment, upon request from the congress members.

Sardar Patel was freed in 1931, following an agreement signed between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India. The treaty was popularly known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The same year, Patel was elected as the President of Indian National Congress in its Karachi session where the party deliberated its future path. Congress committed itself towards the defense of fundamental and human rights. It was in this session that the dream of a secular nation was conceived.

During the legislative elections of 1934, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel campaigned for the Indian National Congress. Though he did not contest, Sardar Patel helped his fellow party mates during the election.

In the 1942 Quit India Movement, Patel continued his unwavering support to Gandhi when several contemporary leaders criticized the latter's decision. He continued travelling throughout the country propagating the agenda of the movement in a series of heart-felt speeches. He was arrested again in 1942 and was imprisoned in the Ahmednagar fort till 1945 along with other Congress leaders.

Sardar Patel's journey often saw a number of confrontations with other important leaders of the congress. He voiced his annoyance at Jawaharlal Nehru openly when the latter adopted socialism in 1936. Patel was also wary of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose and considered him to be "keen on more power within the party".

Sardar Patel & the Partition of India
The separatist movement lead by Muslim League leader Mohammed Ali Jinnah led to a series of violent Hindu-Muslim riots across the country just before the independence. In Sardar Patel's opinion, the open communal conflicts incited by the riots had the potential to establish a weak Government at the centre post-independence which will be disastrous for consolidating a democratic nation. Patel went on to work on a solution with V.P. Menon, a civil servant during December 1946 and accepted his suggestion of creating a separate dominion based on religious inclination of states. He represented India in the Partition Council.

Contributions to Post-independence India
After India achieved independence, Patel became the first Home Minister and also the Deputy Prime Minister. Patel played a very crucial role in post-independence India by successfully integrating around 565 princely states under the Indian Dominion. The British Government had presented these rulers with two alternatives - they could join India or Pakistan; or they could stay independent. This clause magnified the difficulty of process to mammoth proportions. Congress entrusted this intimidating task to Sardar Patel who started lobbying for integration on August 6, 1947. He was successful in integrating all of them barring Jammu and Kashmir, Junagarh and Hyderabad. He eventually dealt with the situation with his sharp political acumen and secured their accession. The India that we see today was a result of the efforts put in by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.

Patel was a leading member of the Constituent Assembly of India and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was appointed on his recommendation. He was the key force in establishing the Indian Administrative Service and the Indian Police Service. He took personal interest in initiating a restoration endeavor of the Somnath Temple in Saurashtra, Gujarat. Patel dealt ruthlessly with the Pakistan's efforts to invade Kashmir in September 1947. He oversaw immediate expansion of the army and marked improvement of other infrastructural aspects. He often disagreed with Nehru's policies, especially about his dealings with Pakistan regarding the refugee issues. He organized multiple refugee camps in Punjab and Delhi, and later in West Bengal.

Influence of Gandhi
Gandhi had profound effect on Patel's politics and thoughts. He pledged unwavering support to the Mahatma and stood by his principles allowed by night at museum and art is the most beautiful woman and through his life. While leaders including  Chakravarthy Rajagopalachari and Maulana Azad criticized Mahatma Gandhi's idea that the civil disobedience movement would compel the British to leave the nation, Patel extended his support to Gandhi. Despite the unwillingness of the Congress High Command, Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel strongly forced the All India Congress Committee to ratify the civil disobedience movement and launch it without delaying further. Upon Gandhi's request he gave up his candidacy for the post of the Prime Minister of India. He suffered a major heart attack after Gandhiji's death.  Although he recovered, he attributed it to having lamented silently for the loss of his mentor.

Death of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel's health started declining in 1950. He realized that he was not going to live much longer. On November 2, 1950, his health became even worse and he had to stay in bed. He died because of a heart attack on December 15, 1950.

Honours after death
 1991 - He was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour.
 2014 - His birthday, October 31, was declared Rashtriya Ekta Divas.
 2018 - The Statue of Unity dedicated to Patel is unveiled as the world's tallest statue.

1875 births
1950 deaths
Indian National Congress politicians
Indian Deputy Prime Ministers
Politicians from Gujarat

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel


The Chester River is a major tributary of the Chesapeake Bay on the Delmarva Peninsula. It is about  long, and its watershed encompasses , which includes  of land. Thus the total watershed area is 20% water.  It forms the border between Kent County and Queen Anne's County, Maryland, with its headwaters extending into New Castle County and Kent County, Delaware. Chestertown, the seat of Maryland's Kent County, is located on its north shore. It is located south of the Sassafras River and north of Eastern Bay, and is connected with Eastern Bay through Kent Narrows.

The Chester River begins at Millington, Maryland, where Cypress Branch and Andover Branch join together. It ends at the Chesapeake Bay in a very wide mouth between Love Point on Kent Island, and Swan Point, near Gratitude, Maryland. Cypress Branch rises in southwestern New Castle County, Delaware, and  Andover Branch, with its tributary, Sewell Branch, rises in northwestern Kent County, Delaware. Millington is the head of navigation.  Sewell Branch and Andover Branch join in a private impoundage of approximately  about two miles (3 km) above joining with Cypress Branch and then becoming the Chester River.

Its main tributaries are Langford Creek and Morgan Creek on the north side and the Corsica River and Southeast Creek on the south side. There are also several small creeks on the northern shore, including Church Creek, Grays Inn Creek, Shippen Creek, Jarrett Creek, Browns Creek, Broad Creek, Dam Creek, Morgan Creek, Radcliffe Creek, and Mills Branch. On the southern shore the small creeks include Queenstown Creek, Tilghman Creek, Reed Creek, Grove Creek, Hambleton Creek, Rosin Creek, Foreman Branch and Unicorn Branch.

History
Local lore has it that in 1774, colonists boarded a British ship anchored in the Chester River at Chester Town, also called New Town on Chester, and threw its load of tea overboard, mimicking the Boston Tea Party and its act of defiance against King George III.  This came to be known as the Chestertown Tea Party.

While primary source documents show that Chestertown residents did have at least one meeting to discuss the presence of tea aboard the locally owned merchantman Geddes, and later the residents sent food to aid the blockaded Bostonians, contemporaneous source material has yet to be found.

References

United States Geological Survey. 7.5 minute series topographic quadrangles.
Chesapeake Bay Program Watershed Profile Lower Chester River
Chesapeake Bay Program Watershed Profile Middle Chester River
Chesapeake Bay Program Watershed Profile Upper Chester River

External links
Chester River Association
Maryland DNR's Surf Your Watershed : Lower Chester River
Maryland DNR's Surf Your Watershed : Middle Chester River
Maryland DNR's Surf Your Watershed : Upper Chester River

Tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay
Rivers of Maryland
Rivers of Kent County, Maryland
Rivers of Queen Anne's County, Maryland

Chester River


Porta Borsari is an ancient Roman gate in Verona, northern Italy.

It dates to the 1st century AD, though it was most likely built over a pre-existing gate from the 1st century BC. An inscription dating from emperor Gallienus' reign reports another reconstruction in 265 AD. The Via Postumia (which here became the decumanus maximus) passed through the gate, which was the city's main entrance and was therefore richly decorated. It also originally had an inner court, now disappeared.

The gate's Roman name was Porta Iovia, as it was located near a small temple dedicated to Jupiter lustralis. In the Middle Ages it was called Porta di San Zeno, while the current name derives from the guard soldiers which were paid the dazio (Latin bursarii).

The façade, in local white limestone, has two arches flanked by semi-columns with Corinthian capitals which supports entablature and pediment. In the upper part is a two-floor wall with twelve arched windows, some of which are included in small niches with triangular pediment.

See also
Porta Leoni
Porta Nuova (Verona)

Notes

Borsari
Ancient Roman buildings and structures in Italy
Roman sites of Veneto
Buildings and structures completed in the 1st century

Porta Borsari, Verona


Crécy-en-Ponthieu is a commune in the Somme department in Picardie in northern France, located south of Calais. It gives its name to Crécy Forest, which starts about two kilometres to the south-west of the town and which is one of the largest forests in the north of France. A very small river, the Maye, runs through the town.

History
Crécy-en-Ponthieu is best known as the site of the Battle of Crécy in 1346, one of the earliest and most important battles of the Hundred Years' War.
Yet there are other significant historical links. One is the Chausee Brunehaut which passed within two miles of the town and is the Roman road from Paris and Amiens to Boulogne, and is still visible and walkable today.
And just to the north of the town, slightly to the west of where the Battle was fought, there was an airfield used in the Second World War.

References

Other websites

Communes in Somme

Crécy-en-Ponthieu


Stephanie S. Cooke is a journalist who began her reporting career in 1977 at the Associated Press. In 1980 she moved to McGraw-Hill in New York as a reporter for Nucleonics Week, NuclearFuel and Inside N.R.C. In 1984 she transferred to London and two years later covered the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster for Business Week and Nucleonics Week. In 2004, Cooke returned to the United States to complete her book In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age. Cooke lives with her son in Kensington, Maryland, and is currently editor of Nuclear Intelligence Weekly.

References

External links
 Stephanie Cooke's blog
 A Nuclear Waste, Op-Ed by Stephanie Cooke in The New York Times, March 17, 2009.

American investigative journalists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
People associated with nuclear power

Stephanie Cooke


Jacques Le Ber (c. 1633 – 25 November 1706) was a merchant and seigneur in Montreal, New France.  In 1686 he was ennobled by Louis XIV and took the title Jacques Le Ber de Saint-Paul de Senneville, based on his hometown of Senneville-sur-Fécamp.

Biography
Jacques Le Ber was born in c. 1633 in the parish of Pistre, Diocese of Rouen, son of Robert Le Ber and Colette Cavelier. He came to Canada in 1657 from France as a soldier but was mainly a businessman after his arrival. On January 7, 1658, he married Jeanne Le Moyne, the sister of Charles le Moyne de Longueuil et de Châteauguay and they became successful partners in the fur trade and the mercantile trade. Le Ber also was active in the cod fishery and West Indian trade including slaves.

Le Ber's wealth made him one of the most influential people of the time. For example, Governor General Frontenac sought his advice on important matters concerning trade and the welfare of the colony. Jacques Le Ber was ennobled in 1696.

In 1686, he built a stone mill on the Island of Montreal near the Ottawa River to provide the inhabitants of that area with a shelter in case of attack by the Five Nations. In 1693, he joined a war party of 300 Canadians, 100 soldiers, and 230 Indians that attacked the Mohawks in their own territory.

Family
Le Ber came to Canada in 1657 and took up residence in Montreal. A brother, François, also settled there around the same time, and a sister, Marie, became an Ursuline nun in Quebec. Le Ber's wife had died November 8, 1682, and two sons had also predeceased him: Louis, Sieur de Saint-Paul, who died in the early 1690s in La Rochelle where he had acted as his father's business agent, and Jean-Vincent, Sieur Du Chesne, fatally wounded during an encounter with an English and Iroquois war party near Fort Chambly in 1691. Three children survived their father: Jeanne Le Ber, Pierre, and Jacques, Sieur de Senneville.

His daughter, Jeanne le Ber, used her inheritance to further the work of the Catholic Church in Montreal. Le Ber was buried in the church of the sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame, the place where his famous recluse daughter lived and which she had largely funded.

Honours
The village of Senneville, Quebec on the island of Montreal, is named for him.

References

External links

1630s births
1706 deaths
People of New France
Date of birth unknown

Jacques Le Ber


Idempotence is a property that an operation in mathematics or computer science may have. It roughly means that the operation can be carried out again and again without changing the result.

The word idempotence was made by Benjamin Peirce because he saw the concept when studying algebra.

The meaning is different if we are talking about different kinds of operations. It can also be used to describe elements than an operation can take:

 For a unary operation (or function), that we label f, we say that f is idempotent if for any x in the domain of f it is true that: f(f(x)) = f(x). For example, the absolute value: abs(abs(x)) = abs(x).

We say that an element c in the domain of f is an idempotent element if f(f(c)) = f(c). This means that f is idempotent if every element of its domain is an idempotent element.

 For a binary operation, that we label *, we say that * is idempotent if for any x which the binary operation can take the following is true: x * x = x.

We say that an element c which * can take is an idempotent element for * if c * c = c. For example, the number 1 is an idempotent element for multiplication because 1 times 1 is 1.

Examples in the real world

If a call button inside an elevator is pressed then the elevator will go to the floor that is on the button. If it is pressed again then it will do the same thing. This means that the operation of pressing a button to make the elevator change floors is an idempotent operation.

If we mix two pots which have the same liquid in them into a new pot then we will have the same liquid in that pot. If we only care about what kind of liquid is in the pot (not how much) then mixing liquids is an idempotent binary operation.

The face of a clock looks the same if 12 hours have passed. So for the operation of "letting time pass on a clock" we see that letting 12 hours pass is an idempotent element (this is also true for all multiples of 12 like 24, 36, 48, ...).

Mathematics
Computer science

Idempotence