The Kingdom of Naples (; ; ), also known as the Kingdom of Sicily, was a state that ruled the part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was established by the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282–1302), when the island of Sicily revolted and was conquered by the Crown of Aragon, becoming a separate kingdom also called the Kingdom of Sicily. This left the Neapolitan mainland under the possession of Charles of Anjou. Later, two competing lines of the Angevin family competed for the Kingdom of Naples in the late 14th century, which resulted in the death of Joan I by Charles III of Naples. Charles' daughter Joanna II adopted King Alfonso V of Aragon as heir, who would then unite Naples into his Aragonese dominions in 1442.

As part of the Italian Wars, France went to war with Aragon over the kingdom in 1502; the war ended in an Aragonese victory that left Ferdinand II in full control of the kingdom by 1504. The Spanish held control of Naples throughout the 17th century where it remained an important source of economic and military power for the Spanish Crown. After the War of the Spanish Succession in the early 18th century, the possession of the kingdom again changed hands; the 1714 Treaty of Rastatt saw Naples given to Charles VI of the Austrian Habsburgs. However, Naples and Sicily were conquered by Charles, Duke of Parma (of the Spanish Bourbons) during the War of the Polish Succession in 1734, he was then installed as King of Naples and Sicily from 1735. In 1816, Naples formally unified with the island of Sicily to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

The territory of the Kingdom of Naples corresponded to the current Italian regions of Campania, Calabria, Apulia, Basilicata, Abruzzo, Molise, and also included some areas of today's southern and eastern Lazio.

Nomenclature

The term "Kingdom of Naples" is in near-universal use among historians, but it was not used officially by the government. Since the Angevins remained in power on the Italian peninsula, they kept the original name of the Kingdom of Sicily (). At the end of the War of the Vespers, the Peace of Caltabellotta (1302) provided that the name of the kingdom would be the Kingdom of Sicily  had become known colloquially as the Kingdom of Naples ( or ).

In the late Middle Ages, it was common to distinguish the two Sicilies by noting its location relative to the rest of Italy and the , i.e., the Strait of Messina. The peninsular kingdom was known as Sicily  or  ('on this side of Faro'), and the island kingdom was known as Sicily  or  (on the other side of Faro). When both kingdoms came under the rule of Alfonso the Magnanimous in 1442, this usage became official, although Ferdinand I (1458–94) preferred the simple title King of Sicily ().

In the 18th century, the Neapolitan intellectual Giuseppe Maria Galanti argued that Apulia was the true "national" name of the kingdom. By the time of Alfonso the Magnanimous, the two kingdoms were sufficiently distinct that they were no longer seen as divisions of a single kingdom. Despite being repeatedly in personal union, they remained administratively separate. In 1816, the two kingdoms finally merged to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

History

Background

Naples, which was the capital of the Duchy of Naples since the 7th century, surrendered to Roger II of Sicily in 1137, and was annexed to the Kingdom of Sicily. The Normans were the first to bring political unity to southern Italy in the centuries after the failure of the Byzantine effort to reconquer Italy. The Normans established a kingdom that included southern mainland Italy and the island of Sicily, which was primarily ruled from Palermo. The title of King of Sicily was established by the Antipope Anacletus II as early as 1130 and subsequently legitimized, in 1139, by Pope Innocent II. Since the royal titles over the State had been assigned to the Normans by Innocent II, the popes, in particular Pope Innocent III and Pope Innocent IV, claimed the feudal rights of the Church State over the Kingdom. After Constance, Queen of Sicily married Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, the region was inherited by their son Frederick II, as King of Sicily. The region that later became the separate Kingdom of Naples under the Angevins formed part of the Kingdom of Sicily, which included the island of Sicily and Apulia.

Angevin dynasty

Following the rebellion in 1282, King Charles I of Sicily (Charles of Anjou) was forced to leave the island of Sicily by Peter III of Aragon's troops. Charles, however, maintained his possessions on the mainland, customarily known as the "Kingdom of Naples", after its capital city.

Charles and his Angevin successors maintained a claim to Sicily, warring against the Aragonese until 1373, when Queen Joan I of Naples formally renounced the claim by the Treaty of Villeneuve. Joan's reign was contested by Louis the Great, the Angevin King of Hungary, who captured the kingdom several times (1348–1352).

Queen Joan I also played a part in the ultimate demise of the first Kingdom of Naples. As she was childless, she adopted Louis I, Duke of Anjou, as her heir, in spite of the claims of her cousin, the Prince of Durazzo, effectively setting up a junior Angevin line in competition with the senior line. This led to Joan I's murder at the hands of the Prince of Durazzo in 1382, and his seizing of the throne as Charles III of Naples.

The two competing Angevin lines contested each other for the possession of the Kingdom of Naples over the following decades. In 1389 Louis II of Anjou son of Louis I managed to seize the throne from Ladislas of Naples son of Charles III, but was expelled by Ladislas in 1399. Charles III's daughter Joanna II (r. 1414–1435) adopted Alfonso V of Aragon (whom she later repudiated) and Louis III of Anjou as heirs alternately, finally settling succession on Louis' brother René of Anjou of the junior Angevin line, and he succeeded her in 1435.

René of Anjou temporarily united the claims of junior and senior Angevin lines. In 1442, however, Alfonso V conquered the Kingdom of Naples and unified Sicily and Naples once again as dependencies of Aragon. At his death in 1458, the War of the Neapolitan Succession (1458–1462) erupted, after which the kingdom was again separated and Naples was inherited by Ferdinand I, Alfonso's illegitimate son.

Aragonese dynasty

When Ferdinand I died in 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, using as a pretext the Angevin claim to the throne of Naples, which his father had inherited in 1481 on the will of Charles IV of Anjou, nephew and heir of King René who had no surviving son. This began the Italian Wars.

Charles VIII expelled Alfonso II of Naples from Naples in 1495, but was soon forced to withdraw due to the support of Ferdinand II of Aragon for his cousin, Alfonso II's son Ferrantino. Ferrantino was restored to the throne but died in 1496 and was succeeded by his uncle, Frederick IV.

Charles VIII's successor, Louis XII reiterated the French claim. In 1501, he occupied Naples and partitioned the kingdom with Ferdinand of Aragon, who abandoned his cousin King Frederick. However, disputes over ownership of key Neapolitan territories made the deal quickly fall through, and Aragon and France resumed their war over the kingdom in 1502. The Spanish troops occupying Calabria and Apulia, led by Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordova, invaded and expelled all Frenchmen from the area. The resulting Aragonese victory left Ferdinand in full control of the kingdom by 1504 and Naples became a constituent kingdom of the Crown of Aragon.

The peace treaties that continued were never definitive, but they established at least that the title of King of Naples was reserved for Ferdinand's grandson, the future Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Ferdinand nevertheless continued in possession of the kingdom, being considered the legitimate heir of his uncle Alfonso I of Naples (Alfonso V of Aragon) and also to the former Kingdom of Sicily (Regnum Utriusque Siciliae).

The kingdom continued to be disputed between France and Spain for the next several decades, but French efforts to gain control of it became feebler as Habsburg power grew, and never genuinely endangered Spanish control.

The French finally abandoned their claims to Naples by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559. In the Treaty of London (1557), five cities on the coast of Tuscany were designated the Stato dei Presidi (State of the Presidi), and part of the Kingdom of Naples.

As the most populous holding of the Spanish Empire outside of Castile itself (with 3 million inhabitants in 1600), Naples remained an important source of economic and military power for the Spanish. Heavy taxation was levied upon the kingdom to pay for Spain's wars, especially after 1580. Beyond dispatching troops to fight the Eighty Years' War in the Low Countries, Naples also disbursed a third of the military expenditures accruing to the Spanish controlled Duchy of Milan and paid for the Spanish garrisons in Tuscany. This cost the kingdom 800,000 ducats annually, or about a third of the kingdom's revenues; moreover, the public debt also had a military origin, and interest payments on it devoured 40 percent of all tax income. Naples was rich enough to redeem the debt and pay an attractive ten percent in full to lenders. While the soldiers of Naples were under the command of the Spanish viceroy, Neapolitan nobles enjoyed ascendancy in the assemblies and committees that financed and administered the army.

The kingdom suffered a heavy burden from the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659). From 1631 to 1636 alone, Naples sent 53,500 soldiers and 3.5 million scudi to support the Spanish king. This was actually more than was raised in the same time by Castile, which had a population twice the size. Naples provided and paid for 10,000 troops and 1,000 horses annually from 1630 to 1643, on top of a 1 million ducat annual subsidy for the war effort and more funds and soldiers for the kingdom's garrisons and navy. The kingdom was increasingly forced to revert to borrowing to finance the war as it went on, which it could do due to its good credit. From 1612 to 1646, Neapolitan taxes tripled and the public debt quintupled, and 57 percent of the kingdom's revenue was devoted to interest payments. Spain's wars crushed the Neapolitan economy. Furthermore, 90 percent of taxes were collected by state creditors, meaning the state paid an effective interest rate of 70 percent annually on the money it borrowed to fight the war. The kingdom started selling state assets to anyone willing to buy them, which usually ended up being barons; these assets included prisons, forests, buildings, and even royal fortresses, as well as titles.

Due to this excessive taxation the people of Naples rose in revolt in 1647, forming the Neapolitan Republic with French assistance. The revolt was suppressed later that year by Spanish troops.

Spanish rule under the Habsburgs and Bourbons

After the War of the Spanish Succession in the early 18th century, possession of the kingdom again changed hands. Under the terms of the Treaty of Rastatt in 1714, Naples was given to Charles VI, the Holy Roman Emperor. He also gained control of Sicily in 1720, but Austrian rule did not last long. Both Naples and Sicily were conquered by a Spanish army during the War of the Polish Succession in 1734, and Charles, Duke of Parma, a younger son of King Philip V of Spain, the first member of the French House of Bourbon to rule in Spain, was installed as King of Naples and Sicily from 1735. When Charles inherited the Spanish throne from his older half-brother in 1759, he left Naples and Sicily to his younger son, Ferdinand IV. Despite the two Kingdoms being in a personal union under the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasties, they remained constitutionally separate.

Being a member of the House of Bourbon, Ferdinand IV was a natural opponent of the French Revolution and Napoleon. On 29 November 1798, he effectively started the War of the Second Coalition by briefly occupying Rome, but was expelled from it by French Revolutionary forces within the year and safely returned home. Soon afterwards, on 23 December 1798, Ferdinand fled Naples to Palermo as a French army closed in. In January 1799, the French armies installed a Parthenopaean Republic, but this proved short-lived, and a peasant counter-revolution inspired by the clergy allowed Ferdinand to return to his capital. However, in 1801 Ferdinand was compelled to make important concessions to the French by the Treaty of Florence, which reinforced France's position as the dominant power in mainland Italy.

Napoleonic kingdom

Ferdinand's decision to ally with the Third Coalition against Napoleon in 1805 proved more damaging. In 1806, following decisive victories over the allied armies at Austerlitz and over the Neapolitans at Campo Tenese, Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph as King of Naples, he conferred the title "Prince of Naples" to be hereditary on his children and grandchildren. When Joseph was sent off to Spain two years later, he was replaced by Napoleon's sister Caroline and his brother-in-law Marshal Joachim Murat, as King of the Two Sicilies.

Meanwhile, Ferdinand had fled to Sicily, where he retained his throne, despite successive attempts by Murat to invade the island. The British would defend Sicily for the remainder of the war but despite the Kingdom of Sicily nominally being part of the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Coalitions against Napoleon, Ferdinand and the British were unable to ever challenge French control of the Italian mainland.

After Napoleon's defeat in 1814, Murat reached an agreement with Austria and was allowed to retain the throne of Naples, despite the lobbying efforts of Ferdinand and his supporters. However, with most of the other powers, particularly Britain, hostile towards him and dependent on the uncertain support of Austria, Murat's position became less and less secure. Therefore, when Napoleon returned to France for the Hundred Days in 1815, Murat once again sided with him. Realising the Austrians would soon attempt to remove him, Murat gave the Rimini Proclamation hoping to save his kingdom by allying himself with Italian nationalists.

The ensuing Neapolitan War between Murat and the Austrians was short, ending with a decisive victory for the Austrian forces at the Battle of Tolentino. Murat was forced to flee, and Ferdinand IV was restored to the throne of Naples. Murat would attempt to regain his throne but was quickly captured and executed by firing squad in Pizzo, Calabria. The next year, 1816, finally saw the formal union of the Kingdom of Naples with the Kingdom of Sicily into the new Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

Scientists and philosophers of the Kingdom of Naples
 Trotula (11th–12th century), early representative and pioneer of women's medicine
 Trota of Salerno (12th–13th century), doctor
 Barlaam of Seminara (1290–1348), mathematician and philosopher
 Pietro Ranzano (1428–1492), Italian humanist, Dominican friar, bishop of Lucera, historian
 Luca Gaurico (1475–1558), astronomer and mathematician
 Bartolomeo Maranta (1500–1571),  physician and botanist
 Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia (1510–1580), the anatomist
 Aloysius Lilius (1510–1576), mathematician and astronomer, principal creator of the Gregorian calendar
 Giambattista della Porta (1535–1615), Renaissance sage, physician and botanist, author of Magia Naturalis
 Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), mathematician, astronomer, physicist, philosopher whose theories predict modern science
 Fabio Colonna (1567–1640), botanist
 Marco Aurelio Severino (1580–1656), surgeon and anatomist; first to include drawings of pathological lesions in his books.
 Giovanni Battista Zupi (1590–1650), astronomer, first to observe the phases of Mercury
 Giovanni Battista Hodierna (1597–1660), astronomer
 Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (1608–1679), physicist and mathematician who contributed to the principle of modern scientific inquiry by continuing Galileo's practice of testing hypotheses against observation. Having studied mathematics, Borelli also did extensive work on the moons of Jupiter, the mechanics of animal movements, and microscopically on the components of blood. He also used microscopy to investigate the stoma movement of plants and conducted studies in the field of medicine and geology.
 Agostino Scilla (1609–1650), the archaeologist who initiated the modern scientific study of fossils
 Leonardo Ximenes (1716–1786), mathematician, astronomer, physicist, geographer, engineer
 Domenico Cotugno (1736–1822), physician, first to provide the definitions of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and sciatica.
 Tiberius Cavallo (1746–1809), physicist, natural philosopher, inventor, scientist conducting electrical experiments
Giuseppe Saverio Poli (1746–1825), physicist, biology, natural historian
Annibale de Gasparis (1819–1892), astronomer known for his discovery of asteroids and his contributions to theoretical astronomy.
Vincenzo Cerulli (1859–1927), astronomer especially known for his work on Mars and Venus and his discovery of the minor planet 704 Interamnia.

Flags

See also
 History of Naples
 List of monarchs of Naples

References

Notes

Bibliography
 : vol. 1, vol. 2 (reprinted in one volume with a new introduction by John Davis as The History of the Kingdom of Naples: From the Accession of Charles of Bourbon to the Death of Ferdinand I, London: Tauris, 2009)

  (English translation of the revised 3rd edn. (1953) of Storia del regno di Napoli, 1st edn. Bari: Laterza, 1925)

Kingdom of Naples
History of Naples
Naples
Naples
1282 establishments in Europe
13th-century establishments in Italy
Italian Renaissance
1816 disestablishments in Italy
1816 disestablishments in Europe
States and territories disestablished in 1816
Early modern period
Former monarchies of Europe
Former countries
Spanish Empire in Europe

Kingdom of Naples


Mel Colmcille Gerard Gibson  (born Januar 3, 1956) is an American actor an filmmaker. He wis born in Peekskill, New York, an muived wi his parents tae Sydney, Australie, when he wis 12 year auld.

Gibson is best kent as an action hero, for roles sic as Martin Riggs in the Lethal Weapon buddy cop film series, an Max Rockatansky in the first three films in the Mad Max post-apocalyptic action series.

He studied actin at the Australian National Institute of Dramatic Art. During the 1980s, he foondit Icon Entertainment, a production company which independent film director Atom Egoyan haes cried, "an alternative to the studio system." Director Peter Weir cast him as ane o the leads in the creetically acclaimed Warld War I drama Gallipoli (1981), which earned Gibson a Best Actor Awaird frae the Australian Film Institute. The film helped tae earn Gibson the reputation o a serious, versatile actor.

In 1995, Gibson produced, directit, an starned in the epic historical drama film Braveheart, for which he wan the Gowden Globe an Academy Awaird for Best Director, alang wi the Academy Awaird for Best Pictur. In 2004, he directit an produced the financially successfu an controversial, biblical drama film The Passion of the Christ. He received further creetical notice for his directorial work o the 2006 action-adventur film Apocalypto, which is set in Mesoamericae during the early 16t century. In 2016, efter a 10-year hiatus frae directin, Gibson returned wi the creetically praised an financially successfu Hacksaw Ridge.

References

1956 births
20t-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
21st-century American writers
American emigrants tae Australie
American film directors
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male televeesion actors
American fowk o Australie strynd
American fowk o Inglis strynd
American fowk o Erse strynd
American fowk o Scots strynd
American fowk o Welsh strynd
American philanthropists
American Roman Catholics
American male screenwriters
American televeesion producers
American Tradeetionalist Catholics
Best Actor AACTA Awaird winners
Best Directin Academy Awaird winners
Best Director Gowden Globe winners
Erse male film actors
Livin fowk
Male actors frae New York
National Institute of Dramatic Art alumni
Fowk frae Peekskill, New York
Male actors frae Sydney
Producers that wan the Best Pictur Academy Awaird
Inglis-leid film directors
Academy Awaird winners

Mel Gibson


The Pennsylvania State University Creamery, also known as the Penn State Berkey Creamery or just The Creamery, is a producer and vendor of ice cream, sherbet, and cheese, all made through the Department of Food Science in the College of Agricultural Sciences of the Pennsylvania State University. It is the largest university creamery in the United States, using approximately 4.5 million pounds of milk annually, approximately 70% of which comes from a 210-cow herd at the university's Dairy Production Research Center and the rest local milk suppliers, and selling 750,000 hand-dipped ice cream cones per year. Offering over 100 ice cream flavors made with a butterfat content of 14.1% and ingredients from around the country and the world, the Creamery's ice cream is enjoyed by many students and alumni every day.

History
The first Creamery was built in 1865, and dairy short courses were first offered in 1892. Ice cream became a part of football weekend tradition in 1896, when Creamery ice cream was first sold to the public. By 1932, the Creamery was buying milk and cream from hundreds of nearby farmers and was selling ice cream in both State College and Altoona, Pennsylvania.

Ice cream makers Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield of Ben & Jerry's, are 1978 alumni of the Penn State Creamery correspondence course in ice cream-making, Agriculture 5150, which teaches manufacturers the basics of ice cream production.

During the 1980s the Creamery was using three million pounds of milk per year, and in 2004, it supplied the Penn State dining halls with over 225,000 gallons of milk. That same year, it produced 200,000 pounds of cheese products and 225,000 gallons of ice cream and sherbet, both selling these products and providing them for university use.

Only U.S. President Bill Clinton has been allowed to mix different flavors of Creamery ice cream. The Creamery normally does not allow mixing of flavors (i.e., having scoops of different flavors in one cone / cup).  The flavors President Clinton requested were Cherry Quist and Peachy Paterno.  However, when Clinton returned after his tenure as the President, Creamery workers would no longer serve him mixed flavors.

The Creamery moved from its long-time home in Borland Laboratory location to a new location in the new Food Science Building at the intersection of Curtin Road and Bigler Road in 2006. The new Creamery is closer to Beaver Stadium, the East Residence Halls dormitory complex, and a parking deck. When the move was first announced, there were some student protests, but these protests eventually subsided.

There are five Creamery ice cream flavors that have remained the most popular in recent Creamery history: Vanilla, Bittersweet Mint, Peanut Butter Swirl, Peachy Paterno, and Butter Pecan.
The new creamery facility has been named the Berkey Creamery, in honor of the Berkey family who donated a large sum of money to the construction of the Food Sciences Building, which includes the new creamery facility.

See also
 List of dairy product companies in the United States

References

External links
Penn State Creamery Home Page
Penn State Department of Food Science
Flavors available at the Penn State Creamery
Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences

Pennsylvania State University campus
Dairy products companies of the United States
Ice cream parlors in the United States
Tourist attractions in Centre County, Pennsylvania

Penn State University Creamery


A guinea is a coin that was minted in the Kingdom of England between 1663 and 1813. It is not used any more. The gold used to mint the first guineas was mined in the region of the same name in Africa.

Although guinea coins had not been made for a long time, prices often continued to be shown in guineas until British prices became decimal in 1971.  A guinea was worth £1,1s (one pound and one shilling).  This is the same as £1.05 in modern money.

Because a guinea was close to a pound, putting prices in guineas made the price seem less. A price of 39 guineas might look like "about £39".  In fact it is nearly £41. Prices in guineas were traditionally used for luxury goods before decimalisation. Savile Row tailors, bespoke boot makers, fine jewellers, and expensive motorcars were always priced in guineas.

Former currencies of the United Kingdom

Guinea (coin)


Seating capacity is the highest number of people who can sit in a specific space. This limit can be either from the amount of space available, or from a law saying how many people are allowed to be there at a time.

Seating capacity can be for different kinds of things. It can be the number of people who can fit in a vehicle, for example an automobile or an airplane. It can also be for a stadium. The largest sports building in the world, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, has a permanent seating capacity of more than 257,000 people. Seats can be added on the field to raise that number to about 400,000.

Stadiums
Vehicles

Seating capacity


Titus Lucretius Carus (ca. 98 BC – ca. 55 BC) was a Roman poet and philosopher. He is known for De rerum natura (in English:"On the Nature of the Universe"). It is an epic philosophical work about the beliefs of Epicureanism.

There are not any details about his life. Saint Jerome tells of how he became insane because of a love potion and wrote his poetry in between fits of insanity. Modern scholarship thinks this was just used to explain how he behaved. The De rerum natura had a large affect on the Augustan poets, including Virgil and Horace. The work were lost for a time. It was later found in a monastery in Germany. This work played an important part both in the development of atomism and in the efforts of many people of the Enlightenment era to build a new Christian humanism.

90s BC births
50s BC deaths
Ancient Roman poets
Ancient Roman philosophers

Lucretius


The Can-Am Duel is a Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series preliminary event before to the Daytona 500 held annually in February at Daytona International Speedway, It consists of two races, held on Thursday, determine the starting lineup for the Daytona 500 on Sunday.

Qualifying for the Daytona 500 is unique in NASCAR, Only the two front row starters (the pole position and the outside pole) are determined by the ordinary qualifying process of timed laps, After the top two positions are locked in, the rest of the starting grid is set in the finishing order in both races, Drivers participate in one of the two races, Half the field entering the Daytona 500 races in the first race, and the other half the second, The finishing order of the first race fills the odd positions in the starting grid (inside of each row), and the finishing order for the second race fills the even positions of the starting grid (outside of each row).

References

Related pages
 Daytona 500
 Advance Auto Parts Clash
 Coke Zero Sugar 400

1959 establishments in Florida
NASCAR races
Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series races
1959 in sports
February events

Can-Am Duel


Larry LeRoy Constantine (born 1943) is an American software engineer, professor in the Center for Exact Sciences and Engineering at the University of Madeira Portugal, and considered one of the pioneers of computing. He has contributed numerous concepts and techniques forming the foundations of modern practice in software engineering and applications design and development.

Biography
Constantine grew up in Anoka, Minnesota, and graduated from Anoka High School in 1961 after being active in debate and thespians as well as other extra curricular activities. He was named "Most Likely to Succeed" by his classmates. Constantine received an S.B. in management from the MIT Sloan School of Management in 1967 with a specialization in information systems and psychology. He received a certificate in family therapy 1973 from the Boston Family Institute, two-year post graduate training program.

Constantine started his working career as a technical aid/programmer at M.I.T. Laboratory for Nuclear Science in 1963. From 1963 to 1966 he was a staff consultant and programmer/analyst at C E I R, Inc. From 1966 to 1968 he was president of the Information & Systems Institute, Inc. In 1967 also he became a postgraduate program instructor at the Wharton School of Business, University of Pennsylvania. From 1968 to 1972 he was a faculty member of the I.B.M. Systems Research Institute.

In 1973 he became director of research, Concord, Massachusetts Family Service Society. From 1973 to 1980 he was assistant clinical professor of psychiatry, Tufts University, School of Medicine. Until 1987 he was assistant professor of human development and family studies (adjunct), University of Connecticut. From 1984 to 1986 he was also clinical supervisor, adolescent and family intervention, LUK, Inc., Fitchburg, Massachusetts. From 1987 to 1993 he also worked as independent consultant. He remained a chief scientist, principal consultant, Constantine & Lockwood, Ltd since 1993. From 1994-1999 he was professor of information technology, University of Technology Sydney, Australia. Since 2006 has been a professor in the mathematics and engineering department at the University of Madeira Portugal, where he headed the Laboratory for Usage-centered Software Engineering (LabUSE), A former research center dedicated to study the human aspects of modern software engineering before becoming Institute Fellow at the Madeira Interactive Technologies Institute in 2010.

In 1999 Constantine received the Jolt Award for Product Excellence, best book of 1999 for his "Software for Use". In 2001 he received the Platinum Award of Excellence (first place), Performance-Centered Design Competition 2001: Siemens AG, STEP-7 Lite. In 2006 he was recognized as a Distinguished Engineer by the Association for Computing Machinery, and in 2007 he was made a Fellow of the ACM. He is the 2009 recipient of the Stevens Award for "outstanding contributions to the literature or practice of methods for software and systems development." He received a Simon Rockower Award in 2011 from the American Jewish Press Association.

Work
Constantine specializes in the human side of software development. His published work includes the influential classic text, Structured Design, written with Ed Yourdon, and the award-winning "Software for Use", written with Lucy Lockwood. His contributions to the practice of software development began in 1968 with his pioneering work in "Modular programming" concepts.

Constantine was the primary force behind the discipline of Structured Design, in his book of the same name. The key features of Structured Design, such as Structure Chart, the Data flow diagram are all commonly used and taught worldwide.

Structured design

Constantine, who learned programming at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, began his professional career in computers with a summer job at Scientific Computing, at the time a subsidiary of Control Data Corporation, in Minneapolis. He went on to full-time work at MIT's Laboratory for Nuclear Science, where he wrote routines for analyzing spark chamber photographs, and then to C-E-I-R, Inc., where he worked on economics simulations, business applications, project management tools, and programming languages.

While still an undergraduate at MIT he began work on what was to become structured design, formed his first consulting company, and taught in a postgraduate program at the University of Pennsylvania Wharton School. The core of structured design, including structure charts and coupling and cohesion metrics, was substantially complete by 1968, when it was presented at the National Symposium on Modular Programming. He joined the faculty of IBM's Systems Research Institute the same year, where he taught for four years and further refined his concepts.

As part of structured design, Constantine developed the concepts of cohesion (the degree to which the internal contents of a module are related) and coupling (the degree to which a module depends upon other modules). These two concepts have been influential in the development of software engineering, and stand alone from structured design as significant contributions in their own right. They have proved foundational in areas ranging from software design to software metrics, and indeed have passed into the vernacular of the discipline.

Constantine also developed methodologies that combine human-computer-interaction design with software engineering. One methodology, usage-centered design, is the topic of his 1999 book with Lucy Lockwood, "Software For Use". This is a third significant contribution to the field, being both well used in professional practice and the subject of academic study, and taught in a number of human-computer interface courses and universities around the world. His work on human-computer interaction was influential for techniques like essential use cases and usage-centered design, which are widely used for building interactive software systems.

Family therapy
Constantine trained under family therapy pioneers David Kantor and Fred and Bunny Duhl at the Boston Family Institute, completing a two-year postgraduate certificate program in 1973. From 1973 to 1980 he was an assistant clinical professor of psychiatry in the Tufts University School of Medicine training family therapists and supervising trainees at Boston State Hospital. He became a Licensed Clinical Social Worker and later a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist in Massachusetts and was designated an approved supervisor by the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy.

His contributions to theory and research in family therapy and human systems theory were summarized in Family Paradigms (Guilford Press, 1986), a book heralded at the time as "one of the finest theoretical books yet published in the family therapy field" and "among the most significant developments of the decade." This work has also seen application in organization development.

He and his wife at the time, Joan Constantine, also researched and practiced group marriage in the 1970s.  They created the Family Tree organization to promote healthy non-monogamous families.  They collaboratively authored a book on the subject in 1974, Group Marriage: A Study of Contemporary Multilateral Marriage (Collier Books, 1974).

Patents
US Patents: 7010753 Anticipating drop acceptance indication; 7055105 Drop-enabled tabbed dialog; 8161026 Inexact date entry

Music
Although he played piano, saxophone, and violin as a child, Constantine gave up instrumental performance for singing. He sang with the award-winning Burtones ensemble while a student at MIT, is a twelve-year veteran and alum of the semi-professional Zamir Chorale of Boston, and is a member of the Zachor Choral Ensemble, a Boston-based group dedicated to keeping alive the memory of the Holocaust through music.

Constantine is also a composer with several major works to his credit. He studied theory and composition under George Litterst and Stephan Peisch at the New England Conservatory. His first commissioned work, Concerto Grosso No. 1 in G-minor, "Serendipity," was premiered by the Rockford (Illinois) Pops Orchestra on 9 July 1981. His choral work, "No Hidden Meanings," based on a text by psychologist Sheldon Kopp, was commissioned by the American Humanist Association and premiered at MIT's Kresge Auditorium, 20 June 1982.

His choral setting of the traditional Shehechiyanu blessing was premiered April 18, 2010 by HaShirim at the groundbreaking for Temple Ahavat Achim in Gloucester, Massachusetts.

Fiction
Constantine, an active (professional) member of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, is the author of numerous short stories, mostly published under several pseudonyms. He edited Infinite Loop (Miller Freeman Books, 1993), an anthology of science fiction by writers in the computer field described in the Midwest Book Review as "quite simply one of the best anthologies to appear in recent years."

Writing under the pen name Lior Samson, Constantine is the author of several critically acclaimed political thrillers, including Bashert, The Dome, Web Games, The Rosen Singularity, Chipset, Gasline, and Flight Track. His other fiction includes Avalanche Warning (Gesher Press, 2013), The Four-Color Puzzle (Gesher Press, 2013), and Requisite Variety: Collected Short Fiction (Gesher Press, 2011). His first novel, Bashert, was included in a time capsule at MIT by the class of 1967 for its 50th reunion. The time capsule is slated to be opened in 2067.

Publications
Constantine has more than 200 published papers to his credit, as well as 22 books. A selection:
 1974. Group marriage: A study of contemporary multilateral marriage. With Joan Constantine. Collier Books, 1974.
 1975. Structured Design. With Ed Yourdon. Yourdon Press.
 1981. Children and Sex: New Findings, New Perspectives. (ed.) with Floyd Martinson. Little Brown & Co (T).
 1986. Family Paradigms: The Practice of Theory in Family Therapy. Guilford Press.
 1995. Constantine on Peopleware. Yourdon Press Computing Series.
 1999. Software for Use: A Practical Guide to the Essential Models and Methods of Usage-Centered Design. With Lucy Lockwood. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
 2001. The Peopleware Papers: Notes on the Human Side of Software. NJ: Prentice Hall.
 2001. Beyond Chaos: The Expert Edge in Managing Software Development. (ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley.
 2002. ''The Unified Process Transition and Production Phases. (ed.) with Scott W. Ambler. CMP Books, Lawrence 2002, .

See also

 Rebecca Wirfs-Brock

References

External links
 Larry.Constantine homepage University of Madeira. (in Portuguese).
 Constantine & Lockwood Ltd. Larry Constantine's website.

American technology writers
American software engineers
MIT Sloan School of Management alumni
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Living people
1943 births

Larry Constantine


The Belashtitsa Monastery () is a convent in the western Rhodope Mountains near the village of Belashtitsa at 12 km to the south of Plovdiv. It is dedicated to St George the Victorious.

The monastery has been declared a monument of culture and consists of a church, chapel, dwellings and farm buildings. The church is one nave, one apse edifice with inner and outer narthex without a dome and frescoes. It was constructed in 1838. There is a holy spring at the outer narthex. There is a stone fountain in the yard which was built in 1831.

The monastery was established in 1020 by the Byzantine commander Nikephoros Xiphias who became governor of Plovdiv in 1018. Xiphias had important contributions for the Byzantine victory in the battle of Kleidion in 1014 which determined the fall of the First Bulgarian Empire four years later. His regiments crossed the Belasitsa mountain and attacked the Bulgarian troops of Emperor Samuil in the rare. According to the legent, the Byzantine Emperor Basil II gave to Xiphias some of the captured Bulgarians who built the village of Belasitsa near the monastery which was later renamed to Brestovitsa. The monastery was dedicated to Saint George.

It was destroyed by the Ottomans in 1364 in the course of the Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars and was rebuilt in the 18th century. It was burned by the Turks in 1878 during the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) when the defense lines of the retreating Ottomans passed through the line Kuklen-Brestnik-Brestovitsa. After the Liberation of Bulgaria the convent was rebuilt once again but remained under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople until 1906.

In the vicinity of the monastery there is a locality with plane trees and an Ottoman watch tower.

External links
 Belashtitsa Monastery on bulgarianmonastery.com
 Information on the monastery on journey.bg

Christian monasteries in Bulgaria
Bulgarian Orthodox monasteries
Rhodope Mountains
Buildings and structures in Plovdiv Province
11th-century establishments in the Byzantine Empire
1020 establishments in Europe

Belashtitsa Monastery


The Didache (; ), also known as The Lord's Teaching Through the Twelve Apostles to the Nations (), is a brief anonymous early Christian treatise (ancient church order) written in Koine Greek, dated by modern scholars to the first or (less commonly) second century AD.

The first line of this treatise is: "The teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles (or Nations) by the twelve apostles". The text, parts of which constitute the oldest extant written catechism, has three main sections dealing with Christian ethics, rituals such as baptism and Eucharist, and Church organization. The opening chapters describe the virtuous Way of Life and the wicked Way of Death. The Lord's Prayer is included in full. Baptism is by immersion, or by affusion if immersion is not practical. Fasting is ordered for Wednesdays and Fridays. Two primitive Eucharistic prayers are given. Church organization was at an early stage of development. Itinerant apostles and prophets are important, serving as "chief priests" and possibly celebrating the Eucharist; meanwhile, local bishops and deacons also have authority and seem to be taking the place of the itinerant ministry.

The Didache is considered the first example of the genre of Church Orders. The Didache reveals how Jewish Christians saw themselves and how they adapted their practice for Gentile Christians. The Didache is similar in several ways to the Gospel of Matthew, perhaps because both texts originated in similar communities. The opening chapters, which also appear in other early Christian texts, are likely derived from an earlier Jewish source.

The Didache is considered part of the group of second-generation Christian writings known as the Apostolic Fathers. The work was considered by some Church Fathers to be a part of the New Testament, while being rejected by others as spurious or non-canonical. In the end, it was not accepted into the New Testament canon. However, works which draw directly or indirectly from the Didache include the , the Apostolic Constitutions and the Ethiopic Didascalia, the latter of which is included in the broader canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

Lost for centuries, a Greek manuscript of the Didache was rediscovered in 1873 by Philotheos Bryennios, Metropolitan of Nicomedia, in the Codex Hierosolymitanus. A Latin version of the first five chapters was discovered in 1900 by J. Schlecht.

Date, composition and modern translations

Many English and American scholars once dated the text to the late second century AD, a view still held by some today, but most scholars now assign the Didache to the first century. The document is a composite work, and the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, with its Manual of Discipline, has provided evidence of development over a considerable period of time, beginning as a Jewish catechetical work which was then developed into a church manual.

Two uncial fragments containing Greek text of the Didache (verses 1:3c–4a; 2:7–3:2) were found among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (no. 1782) and are now in the collection of the Bodleian Art, Archaeology and Ancient World Library in Oxford. Apart from these fragments, the Greek text of the Didache has only survived in a single manuscript, the Codex Hierosolymitanus. Dating the document is thus made difficult both by the lack of hard evidence and its composite character. The Didache may have been compiled in its present form as late as 150, although a date closer to the end of the first century seems more probable to many.

The teaching is anonymous, a pastoral manual which Aaron Milavec states "reveals more about how Jewish-Christians saw themselves and how they adapted their Judaism for gentiles than any other book in the Christian Scriptures". The Two Ways section is likely based on an earlier Jewish source. The community that produced the Didache could have been based in Syria, as it addressed the gentiles but from a Judaic perspective, at some remove from Jerusalem, and shows no evidence of Pauline influence. Alan Garrow claims that its earliest layer may have originated in the decree issued by the Apostolic council of AD 49–50, that is by the Jerusalem assembly under James the Just.

The text was lost, but scholars knew of it through the writing of later church fathers, some of whom had drawn heavily on it. In 1873 in Istanbul, metropolitan Philotheos Bryennios found a Greek copy of the Didache, written in 1056, and he published it in 1883. Hitchcock and Brown produced the first English translation in March 1884. Adolf von Harnack produced the first German translation in 1884, and Paul Sabatier produced the first French translation and commentary in 1885.

Early references

The Didache is mentioned by Eusebius () as the Teachings of the Apostles along with other books he considered non-canonical:

Athanasius (367) and Rufinus () list the Didache among apocrypha. (Rufinus gives the curious alternative title , 'Judgment of Peter'.) It is rejected by Nicephorus (), Pseudo-Anastasius, and Pseudo-Athanasius in Synopsis and the 60 Books canon. It is accepted by the Apostolic Constitutions Canon 85, John of Damascus and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The   by an imitator of Cyprian quotes it by name. Unacknowledged citations are very common, if less certain. The section Two Ways shares the same language with the Epistle of Barnabas, chapters 18–20, sometimes word for word, sometimes added to, dislocated, or abridged, and Barnabas iv, 9 either derives from Didache, 16, 2–3, or vice versa. There can also be seen many similarities to the Epistles of both Polycarp and Ignatius of Antioch. The Shepherd of Hermas seems to reflect it, and Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen of Alexandria also seem to use the work, and so in the West do Optatus and the "Gesta apud Zenophilum." The  are founded upon the Didache. The Apostolic Church-Ordinances has used a part, the Apostolic Constitutions have embodied the . There are echoes in Justin Martyr, Tatian, Theophilus of Antioch, Cyprian, and Lactantius.

Contents
The Didache is a relatively short text with only some 2,300 words. The contents may be divided into four parts, which most scholars agree were combined from separate sources by a later redactor: the first is the Two Ways, the Way of Life and the Way of Death (chapters 1–6); the second part is a ritual dealing with baptism, fasting, and Communion (chapters 7–10); the third speaks of the ministry and how to treat apostles, prophets, bishops, and deacons (chapters 11–15); and the final section (chapter 16) is a prophecy of the Antichrist and the Second Coming.

Title
The manuscript is commonly referred to as the Didache.  This is short for the header found on the document and the title used by the Church Fathers, "The Lord's Teaching of the Twelve Apostles". A fuller title or subtitle is also found next in the manuscript, "The Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles by the Twelve Apostles".

Description
Willy Rordorf considered the first five chapters as "essentially Jewish, but the Christian community was able to use it" by adding the "evangelical section". The title 'Lord' in the Didache is reserved usually for "Lord God", while Jesus is called "the servant" of the Father (9:2f.; 10:2f.).  Baptism was practiced "in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit." Scholars generally agree that 9:5, which speaks of baptism "in the name of the Lord," represents an earlier tradition that was gradually replaced by a trinity of names." A similarity with Acts 3 is noted by Aaron Milavec: both see Jesus as "the servant (pais) of God". The community is presented as "awaiting the kingdom from the Father as entirely a future event".

The Two Ways
The first section (Chapters 1–6) begins: "There are two ways, one of life and one of death, and there is a great difference between these two ways."

Apostolic Fathers (1992) notes:

The closest parallels in the use of the Two Ways doctrine are found among the Essene Jews at the Dead Sea Scrolls community. The Qumran community included a Two Ways teaching in its founding Charter, The Community Rule.

Throughout the Two Ways there are many Old Testament quotes shared with the Gospels, and many theological similarities, but Jesus is never mentioned by name. The first chapter opens with the Shema ("you shall love God"), the Great Commandment ("your neighbor as yourself"), and the Golden Rule in the negative form. Then come short extracts in common with the Sermon on the Mount, together with a curious passage on giving and receiving, which is also cited with variations in Shepherd of Hermas (Mand., ii, 4–6). The Latin omits 1:3–6 and 2:1, and these sections have no parallel in Epistle of Barnabas; therefore, they may be a later addition, suggesting Hermas and the present text of the Didache may have used a common source, or one may have relied on the other. Chapter 2 contains the commandments against murder, adultery, corrupting boys, sexual promiscuity, theft, magic, sorcery, abortion, infanticide, coveting, perjury, false testimony, speaking evil, holding grudges, being double-minded, not acting as one speaks, greed, avarice, hypocrisy, maliciousness, arrogance, plotting evil against neighbors, hate, narcissism and expansions on these generally, with references to the words of Jesus. Chapter 3 attempts to explain how one vice leads to another: anger to murder, concupiscence to adultery, and so forth. The whole chapter is excluded in Barnabas. A number of precepts are added in chapter 4, which ends: "This is the Way of Life." Verse 13 states that one must not forsake the Lord's commandments, neither adding nor subtracting (see also Deuteronomy 4:2, 12:32). The Way of Death (chapter 5) is a list of vices to be avoided. Chapter 6 exhorts to the keeping in the Way of this Teaching:

The Didache, like 1 Corinthians 10:21, does not give an absolute prohibition on eating meat which has been offered to idols, but merely advises being careful. Comparable to the Didache is the "let him eat herbs" of Paul of Tarsus as a hyperbolical expression like 1 Corinthians 8:13: "I will never eat flesh, lest I should scandalize my brother", thus giving no support to the notion of vegetarianism in the Early Church. John Chapman in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1908) states that the Didache is referring to Jewish meats. The Latin version substitutes for chapter 6 a similar close, omitting all reference to meats and to , and concluding with  ('by our lord Jesus Christ[...] for ever and ever, amen'). This is the end of the translation. This suggests the translator lived at a day when idolatry had disappeared, and when the remainder of the Didache was out of date. There would be no other such reason for omitting chapter 1, 3–6, so these chapters were presumably not in the copy used by the translator.

Vice and virtue lists, and homosexuality
Vice lists, which are common appearances in Paul's epistles, were relatively unusual within ancient Judaism of the Old Testament times. Within the Gospels, Jesus' structure of teaching the Beatitudes is often dependent upon the Law and the Prophets. At times, however, Jesus expressed such vice lists that precede Paul's, such as in Mark 7:20–23. Paul's vice and virtue lists could bear more influence from the Hellenistic-Jewish influences of Philo (20 BC–50 AD) and other writers of the intertestamental period.

The way of death and the "grave sin", which are forbidden, is reminiscent of the various "vice lists" found in the Pauline Epistles, which warn against engaging in certain behaviours if one wants to enter the Kingdom of God. Contrasting what Paul wrote in 1 Corinthians 6:9–10, Galatians 5:19–21, and what was written in 1 Timothy 1:9–11 with Didache 2 displays a certain commonality with one another, almost with the same warnings and words, except for one line: "thou shalt not corrupt boys". Whereas Paul uses the compound word  (), a hapax legomenon literally meaning 'male-bedder', based on the Greek words for 'male' and 'lie with' found in the Septuagint translation of Leviticus 18:22, the Didache uses a word translated as 'child corrupter' () which is likewise used in the Epistle of Barnabas.

Rituals

Baptism
The second part (chapters 7 to 10) begins with an instruction on baptism, the sacramental rite that admits someone into the Christian Church. Baptism is to be conferred "in the Name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" with triple immersion in "living water" (that is, flowing water, probably in a stream). If this is not practical, baptism in cold or even warm water is acceptable. If the water is insufficient for immersion, it may be poured three times on the head (affusion). The baptized and the baptizer, and, if possible, anyone else attending the ritual should fast for one or two days beforehand.

The New Testament is rich in metaphors for baptism but offers few details about the practice itself, not even whether the candidates professed their faith in a formula. The Didache is the oldest extra-biblical source for information about baptism, but it, too lacks these details. The Two Ways section of the Didache is presumably the sort of ethical instruction that catechumens (students) received in preparation for baptism.

Fasting
Chapter 8 suggests that fasts are not to be on the second day and on the fifth day "with the hypocrites", but on the fourth day and on the preparation day. Fasting Wednesday and Friday plus worshiping on the Lord's day constituted the Christian week. Nor must Christians pray with their Judaic brethren; instead they shall say the Lord's Prayer three times a day. The text of the prayer is not identical to the version in the Gospel of Matthew, and it is given with the doxology "for Yours is the power and the glory forever." This doxology derives from 1 Chronicles 29:11–13; Bruce M. Metzger held that the early church added it to the Lord's Prayer, creating the current Matthew reading.

Daily prayer
The Didache provides one of the few clues historians have in reconstructing the daily prayer practice among Christians before the 300s. It instructs Christians to pray the "Our Father" three times a day but does not specify times to pray. Recalling the version of Matthew 6:9–13, it affirms "you must not pray like the hypocrites, but you should pray as follows." Other early sources speak of two-fold, three-fold, and five-fold daily prayers.

Eucharist
The Didache includes two primitive and unusual prayers for the Eucharist ("thanksgiving"), which is the central act of Christian worship. It is the earliest text to refer to this rite as the Eucharist.

Chapter 9 begins:

And concerning the broken bread:

The Didache basically describes the same ritual as the one that took place in Corinth. As with Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians, the Didache confirms that the Lord's supper was literally a meal, probably taking place in a "house church." The order of cup and bread differs both from present-day Christian practice and from that in the New Testament accounts of the Last Supper, of which, again unlike almost all present-day Eucharistic celebrations, the Didache makes no mention.

Chapter 10 gives a thanksgiving after a meal. The contents of the meal are not indicated: chapter 9 does not exclude other elements as well that the cup and bread, which are the only ones it mentions, and chapter 10, whether it was originally a separate document or continues immediately the account in chapter 9, mentions no particular elements, not even wine and bread. Instead it speaks of the "spiritual food and drink and life eternal through Thy Servant" that it distinguishes from the "food and drink (given) to men for enjoyment that they might give thanks to (God)". After a doxology, as before, come the apocalyptic exclamations: "Let grace come, and let this world pass away. Hosanna to the God (Son) of David! If any one is holy, let him come; if any one is not so, let him repent. Maranatha. Amen". The prayer is reminiscent of Revelation 22:17–20 and 1 Corinthians 16:22.

John Dominic Crossan endorses John W. Riggs' 1984 The Second Century article for the proposition that "there are two quite separate eucharistic celebrations given in Didache 9–10, with the earlier one now put in second place". The section beginning at 10.1 is a reworking of the Jewish birkat ha-mazon, a three-strophe prayer at the conclusion of a meal, which includes a blessing of God for sustaining the universe, a blessing of God who gives the gifts of food, earth, and covenant, and a prayer for the restoration of Jerusalem; the content is "Christianized", but the form remains Jewish. It is similar to the Syrian Church eucharist rite of the Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari, belonging to "a primordial era when the euchology of the Church had not yet inserted the Institution Narrative in the text of the Eucharistic Prayer".

Church organization
The church organization reflected in the Didache seems to be underdeveloped. Itinerant apostles and prophets are of great importance, serving as "chief priests" and possibly celebrating the Eucharist.  Development through the ages indicates that titles changed without understanding of the workings of the various roles by later editors in the belief that the roles were interchangeable – indicating that prophetic knowledge was not operating actively during a season of "closed vision" (as in the time of Samuel), modernised titles not indicating prophetic knowledge. The text offers guidelines on how to differentiate a genuine prophet that deserves support from a false prophet who seeks to exploit the community's generosity. For example, a prophet who fails to act as he preaches is a false prophet (11:10). The local leadership consists of bishops and deacons, and they seem to be taking the place of the itinerant ministry. Christians are enjoined to gather on Sunday to break bread, but to confess their sins first as well as reconcile themselves with others if they have grievances (Chapter 14).

Matthew and the Didache

Significant similarities between the Didache and the Gospel of Matthew have been found as these writings share words, phrases, and motifs. There is also an increasing reluctance of modern scholars to support the thesis that the Didache used Matthew. This close relationship between these two writings might suggest that both documents were created in the same historical and geographical setting. One argument that suggests a common environment is that the community of both the Didache and the gospel of Matthew was probably composed of Jewish Christians from the beginning. The Two Ways teaching (Didache 1–6) may also have served as a pre-baptismal instruction within the community of the Didache and Matthew. Furthermore, the correspondence of the Trinitarian baptismal formula in the Didache and Matthew (Didache 7 and Matthew 28:19) as well as the similar shape of the Lord's Prayer (Didache 8 and Matthew 6:5–13) appear to reflect the use of similar oral traditions. Finally, both the community of the Didache (Didache 11–13) and Matthew (Matthew 7:15–23; 10:5–15, 40–42; 24:11,24) were visited by itinerant apostles and prophets, some of whom were heterodox.

See also

 Ancient Church Orders
 Brotherly love (philosophy)
 Codex Hierosolymitanus
 Gospel according to the Hebrews
 Paedagogus

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

 .

 .
 .

External links

 An extensive list of English translations of the Didache
 Greek text in Latin alphabet  from Universität Bremen
 Didache text in Greek from CCEL
 Eight English translations; Greek text; Nine Commentaries; and Overview of the Didache by Early Christian Writings – Church Fathers
 Didache translated by Philip Schaff
 Didache translated by M.B. Riddle
 Didache translated by Charles H. Hoole. – English translation hosted by About.com

 "Didache", article from the 1901–6 Jewish Encyclopedia
 earlychurch.org.uk The Didache: Its Origin And Significance
 upenn.edu Electronic Edition by Robert A. Kraft (updated 28 July 1995)
 2012 Translation & Audio Version

 Didache at Oxford Bibliographies—an annotated bibliography. .

1st-century Christian texts
2nd-century Christian texts
1873 archaeological discoveries
Ancient church orders
Apostolic Fathers
Canon law codifications
Canon law history
Christian ethics
Christian terminology
Early Christianity and Judaism
New Testament apocrypha
Petrine-related books
Antilegomena
Christian law
Texts in Koine Greek

Didache


A single event upset (SEU) is a change of state caused by a low-energy ions or electro-magnetic or nuclear radiation or any other kind of interferences that can reach (called "strike") a sensitive node in a micro-electronic device, such as in a microprocessor, semiconductor memory, or power transistors. The error in the device output or operation caused as a result of the strike is called a SEU or a soft error. The SEU itself is not considered permanent damage to the transistor's, circuits' or devices'.

Electronic components

Single event upset


Unico Wilhelm, Count van Wassenaer Obdam (30 October 1692 – 9 November 1766) was a Dutch nobleman who was a diplomat as well as a composer. He reorganized the Bailiwick of Utrecht of the Teutonic Order. His most important surviving compositions are the Concerti Armonici, which until 1980 had been misattributed to the Italian composer Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710–1736) and to Carlo Ricciotti (1681–1756).

Early years

Van Wassenaer was born into a distinguished family of wealth, power and accomplishment—the House of Wassenaer. His grandfather, Jacob van Wassenaer Obdam, was supreme commander of the confederate Dutch navy, and was killed in battle in 1665 in the Second Anglo-Dutch War; his father, Jacob van Wassenaer Obdam (younger), served as a general of the army in the War of the Spanish Succession, but ruined his military reputation in 1703 in the Battle of Ekeren, and spent the rest of his career as a diplomat.

Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer was born in the family castle of Twickel, near Delden, on 30 October 1692, the son of Jacob van Wassenaer Obdam (1645–1714) and Adriana Sophia Raesfelt (died 1694). He grew up in the Hague, where he was taught to play the harpsichord and violin. In 1707-09 he stayed with his father and three sisters in Düsseldorf at the court of Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine. The strong Italian influences at the court had a major influence on his musical development.
On 18 September 1710 Unico Wilhelm was admitted to the University of Leiden to study law.
In December 1711 he interrupted his studies to go to Frankfurt for the coronation of the Emperor Charles VI.
In June 1713, after completing his studies, he returned to Düsseldorf where his father and sisters had settled.
He may have accompanied Arent van Wassenaer Duyvenvoorde on a visit to Britain in 1715–16.
He made a grand tour of France and Italy in 1717–18.

In 1723 Unico Wilhelm married Dodonea Lucia van Goslinga (the daughter of Sicco van Goslinga), with whom he had three children.

Official positions

Unico Wilhelm had inherited the estate of Twickel from his father in 1714 and three years later was admitted as a knight of Overijssel.
He lived in this region from 1719 to 1724, when he accepted a position in Holland.
His older brother Johan Hendrik found him a position as water manager of the Rhineland (1723), counsel to the Admiralty (1724) and governor of the Dutch East India Company (1734). These jobs kept him in and around the Hague. After his brother died in 1745 he moved into the Van Wassenaer house in the Kneuterdijk.
A year later he was admitted into the Dutch knighthood. Unico Wilhelm continued to spend part of his time at Twickel, and in 1726 he had maps made of this property and the rest of his inheritance.

In 1744 Unico Wilhelm was sent on a diplomatic mission to the French court, and in the autumn of 1744 and again in 1745 he was sent to the court of Clemens August, Elector of Cologne. In 1746 he went again to France,  and finally in 1746–47 to Breda for further discussions with the French.
Although clearly intelligent, Unico Wilhelm was not a natural diplomat.
Unico Wilhelm was a commander of the Bailiwick of Utrecht of the Teutonic Order.
He was made coadjutor in 1753, and introduced administrative and managerial innovations. In 1761 he was made Commander of the order.
He died in The Hague on November 9, 1766.

Music

While based at the Hague between 1725 and 1740, Unico Wilhelm wrote the six Concerti Armonici.
The Concerti armonici, published anonymously in 1740, were printed in London in 1755 as compositions by the violinist and impresario Carlo Ricciotti (c. 1681–1756). It has since been established that these were the work of Unico Wilhelm. There is no evidence that Ricciotti wrote any music.
The concerti were dedicated to Wilhelm's friend, Count Willem Bentinck. The slow movements of the concerti have expressive beauty.

The Polish composer Franciszek Lessel (1780–1838) asserted incorrectly that the concertos were written by Pergolesi. Since the style of the concertos is Italian, laid out in typical Roman fashion with four parts for violin and consisting of four parts instead of the Venetian three, they are comparable to works by Pietro Locatelli.

However, in 1979–1980 a manuscript of the six concerti was found in the archives of Twickel Castle (the castle where Van Wassenaer was born)   labeled "Concerti Armonici." Although the handwriting was not by Van Wassenaer, the manuscript did have an introduction in his hand, reading: "Partition de mes concerts gravez par le Sr. Ricciotti". Because of the research done by the Dutch musicologist Albert Dunning, there can be no doubt that the concerti were, in fact, written by Van Wassenaer.

Dunning quotes the composer's Foreword in full--

"Score of my concertos, engraved by Signor Ricciotti. These concertos were composed at different times between 1725 and 1740. When they were ready, I took them along to the musical gathering organized in The Hague by Mr Bentinck, myself and some foreign gentlemen.

Ricciotti played the first violin. Afterwards I allowed him to make a copy of the concertos. When all six were ready, he asked permission to have them engraved. Upon my refusal he enlisted the aid of Mr Bentinck, to whose strong representations I finally acquiesced, on condition that my name did not appear anywhere on the copy and that he put his name to it, as he did. Mr Bentinck wanted to dedicate them to me; I refused absolutely, after which he told Ricciotti to dedicate them to him. In this way these concertos were published against my wishes.

Some of them are tolerable, some middling, others wretched. Had they not been published, I would perhaps have corrected the mistakes in them, but other business has left me no leisure to amuse myself with them, and I would have caused their editor offence."

Concerto Armonico No. 2 in B flat Major (Allegro moderato) was among the works that formed the basis for Igor Stravinsky's Pulcinella, Tarantella, based on works considered at the time to be by Giovanni Battista Pergolesi.

Apart from Concerti Armonici, three sonatas for recorder and continuo were also discovered in the early 1990s.

References
Citations

Sources

Sources
Count Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer (1692–1766). A master unmasked, or the Pergolesi-Ricciotti puzzle solved. By Albert Dunning. Tr. by Joan Rimmer. Frits Knuf, 1980.

External links

Unico Willem van Wassenaer: the mystery composer
 Six Concerti Armonici (Sei concerti armonici), published by Carlo Bacciccia Ricciotti, The Hague, 1740. Performed by The Stuttgart Baroque Orchestra

People from Hof van Twente
Counts of the Netherlands
Dutch male classical composers
Dutch classical composers
Dutch Baroque composers
18th-century Dutch diplomats
Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer
1692 births
1766 deaths
Teutonic Knights
18th-century classical composers
18th-century male musicians

Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer


Beaumaris Pier is a pier in Beaumaris, Anglesey, North Wales.

Construction
Designed by Frederick Foster, it had a concrete and stone neck, wooden piles supporting iron girders, and a wooden deck. After opening in 1846, it was rebuilt in 1872 along the new classical Victorian era civil engineering lines, with screw piles made from iron, steel supporting girders and a wooden deck. In 1895, works extended its deck length to , with a T-shaped pontoon end, a pavilion, and added a  railway baggage line.

History
The reason for the reconstruction was to attract the pleasure steamers of the Liverpool and North Wales Steamship Company, which plied to and from Liverpool, Llandudno and the Isle of Man along the Menai Strait. An accessible pier meant that Beaumaris could compete for summer traffic alongside the similarly equipped Garth Pier at Bangor.

The most frequent steamers to call were the Snowdon, La Marguerite and St. Elvies. In the 1920s the local Sunday School regularly chartered the Snowdon for its annual trips to Llandudno. The company also provided the ferry Cynful, with regular summer service to Bangor, and evening excursions around Puffin Island.

The popularity of pleasure steamer services began to drop before World War II, due to competition from the cheaper motor bus. As a result, post-War there was some considerable deterioration to address, and with the decline in pleasure steamers, the decision was taken to demolish the T-head pontoon.

In the 1960s, through lack of maintenance, the pier became unsafe and was again threatened with demolition. But local yachtswoman and RNLI lifeboat secretary Miss Mary Burton made a large private donation to ensure the pier was saved for the town. With ownership passed to Beaumaris Town Council, they restored the residual structure at a cost of £15,000, with ownership passing to the Isle of Anglesey Borough Council in 1974. They undertook additional repair works, and set aside a budget for the replacement of decaying timbers.

In August 2010, Anglesey County Council approved plans for the refurbishment of the pier, to include: reinstatement of the pier to its former width (doubling its 1960s width); complete replacement of the decking; refurbishment of the kiosk and shelters; provision of a moveable landing pontoon, allowing its preservation during the winter storms.

Present
The refurbished Beaumaris Pier was unveiled for the 2011 season. There are refurbished seats with new planking, shelters plus an end pavilion, and a dual-purpose landing stage. Visitors can buy a license to enable Sea Fishing, and access commercial boat services to cross to Puffin Island, or travel down the Menai Strait. To the left of the piers main deck is the Blue Peter II lifeboat station. The full length of the pier was refurbished in 2011-2012 and a floating pontoon landing stage was installed at the seaward end of the pier. The works included replacing all of the timber decking and the steel beams supporting the deck, and restoring the pier to its full width. The pier was reopened in May 2012. The designer of the pier refurbishment was the Colwyn Bay office of Capita Symonds Ltd, and the contractor was BAM Nuttall Ltd.

In 2017 filming took place on the pier for the Netflix TV series Free Rein and scenes there were used in all three series.

References

External links

Beaumaris Pier, official website
Beaumaris Pier at National Piers Society

Buildings and structures in Anglesey
Piers in Wales
Transport infrastructure completed in 1846
Tourist attractions in Anglesey
Menai Strait
Beaumaris

Beaumaris Pier


Winning the Oil Endgame: Innovation for Profits, Jobs and Security is a 2005 book by Amory B. Lovins, E. Kyle Datta, Odd-Even Bustnes, Jonathan G. Koomey, and Nathan J. Glasgow, published by the Rocky Mountain Institute.  It presents an independent, transdisciplinary analysis of four ways to reduce petroleum dependence in the United States:
Using oil more efficiently, through smarter technologies that wring more (and often better) services from less oil (pp. 29–102).
Substituting for petroleum fuels other liquids made from biomass or wastes (pp. 103–111).
Substituting saved natural gas for oil in uses where they're interchangeable, such as furnaces and boilers (pp. 111–122).
Replacing oil with hydrogen made from non-oil resources (pp. 228–242).

Problems and solutions

The authors explain that the problems of oil dependence are manageable, suggesting that oil dependence is a problem we need no longer have. The proposed solutions to oil dependence are profitable and U.S. oil dependence can be eliminated by proven and attractive technologies that create wealth, enhance choice, and strengthen common security. The authors argue that America can lead the world into the post-petroleum era and create a vibrant economy. (p.xiii)

Reviews

Winning the Oil Endgame has received many positive reviews and the Wall Street Journal called the book "Perhaps the most rigorous and surely the most dramatic analysis of what it will take to wean us from foreign oil ... carried out by the Rocky Mountain Institute, a respected center of hard-headed, market-based research."

The Author

Amory Lovins has published 28 books and hundreds of papers.  His work has been recognized by the Right Livelihood Award, Onassis, Nissan, Shingo and Mitchell prizes, a MacArthur Fellowship, the Happold Medal, eight honorary doctorates, and the Heinz, Lindbergh, World Technology, and Hero of the Planet Awards. Lovins has also acted as a consultant to many Fortune 500 companies.

See also

Brittle Power
Efficient energy use
Energy conservation
Hypercar
Peak oil
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Renewable energy commercialization
Soft energy technology
Soft energy path
The Carbon War: Global Warming and the End of the Oil Era

References

External links
 Winning the Oil Endgame presentation at MIT  - Video of Lovins.
 Amory Lovins: We must win the oil endgame (TED presentation)
  Winning the Oil Endgame - The Book Home Page - Read Free Online or Buy

2005 non-fiction books
2005 in the environment
Petroleum politics
Books about petroleum
Energy policy
Energy in the United States
Environmental non-fiction books
Fossil fuels in the United States
Books by Amory Lovins

Winning the Oil Endgame


A nucleophile is a species that donates an electron-pair to an electrophile to form a chemical bond in a reaction. All molecules or ions with a free pair of electrons can be nucleophiles. This pair of electrons is called lone pair. Because nucleophiles donate electrons, they fit the definition of Lewis bases.

Nucleophilic describes the attraction of a nucleophile to the nuclei. Nucleophilicity, sometimes referred to as  nucleophile strength, refers to a substance's nucleophilic character and is often used to compare the attraction of atoms.

Neutral nucleophilic reactions with solvents such as alcohols and water are called "solvolysis". Nucleophiles may take part in nucleophilic substitution reactions. In those reactions, a nucleophile becomes attracted to a full or partial positive charge.

History
The terms nucleophile and electrophile were introduced by Christopher Kelk Ingold in 1929, replacing the terms cationoid and anionoid proposed earlier by A. J. Lapworth in 1925.

The word nucleophile is derived from nucleus and the Greek word φιλος, philos for love.

Properties
In general, within a row across the periodic table, the more basic the ion (the higher the pKa of the conjugate acid) the more reactive it is as a nucleophile. In a given group, polarizability is more important in the determination of the nucleophilicity. In other words, the easier it is to distort the electron cloud around an atom or molecule, the more readily it will react. For example, the iodide ion (I−) is more nucleophilic than the fluoride ion (F−).

Types of nucleophiles
Examples of nucleophiles are anions such as Cl−, or a compound with a lone pair of electrons such as NH3 (ammonia).

In the example below, the oxygen of the hydroxide ion donates an electron pair to bond with the carbon at the end of the bromopropane molecule.  The bond between the carbon and the bromine then undergoes heterolytic fission, with the bromine atom taking the donated electron and becoming the bromide ion (Br−). This is a SN2 reaction occurs by backside attack.  This means that the hydroxide ion attacks the carbon atom from the other side, exactly opposite the bromine ion.  Because of this backside attack, SN2 reactions result in a reversal of the configuration of the electrophile.  If the electrophile is chiral, it typically keeps its chirality, though the SN2 product's configuration is flipped as compared to that of the original electrophile (Walden inversion).

An ambident nucleophile is one that can attack from two or more places, resulting in two or more products.  For example, the thiocyanate ion (SCN−) may attack from either the S or the N. For this reason, the SN2 reaction of an alkyl halide with SCN− often leads to a mixture of RSCN (an alkyl thiocyanate) and RNCS (an alkyl isothiocyanate). Similar mixtures will happen in the Kolbe nitrile synthesis.

Carbon nucleophiles
Alkyl metal halides are carbon nucleophiles found in the Grignard reaction, Blaise reaction, Reformatsky reaction, and Barbier reaction, organolithium reagents, and anions of a terminal alkyne.

Enols are also carbon nucleophiles.  The formation of an enol is catalyzed by acid or base.  Enols are ambident nucleophiles, but, in general, nucleophilic at the carbon atom next to the carbons with double bond (alpha carbon atom).
Enols are commonly used in condensation reactions, including the Claisen condensation and the aldol condensation reactions.

Oxygen nucleophiles
Examples of oxygen nucleophiles are water (H2O), hydroxide anion, alcohols, alkoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide, and carboxylate anions.

Sulfur nucleophiles
Of sulfur nucleophiles, hydrogen sulfide and its salts, thiols (RSH), thiolate anions (RS−), anions of thiolcarboxylic acids (RC(O)-S−), and anions of dithiocarbonates (RO-C(S)-S−) and dithiocarbamates (R2N-C(S)-S−) are used most often.

In general, sulfur is very nucleophilic because of its large size, which makes it readily polarizable, and its lone pairs of electrons are readily accessible.

Nitrogen nucleophiles
Nitrogen nucleophiles include ammonia, azide, amines, and nitrites.

Related pages
Electrophile
Lewis base

References

Organic chemistry

Nucleophile


Hermann Emil Fischer (9 October 1852 – 15 July 1919) was a German chemist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1902.

Fischer was the founder of the chemistry of primary natural products: carbohydrates, purines and nucleosides, peptides and proteins. Amongst his many discoveries were the structure of carbohydrates, and he was the first to get synthetic peptides. He studied the active principles of tea, coffee and cocoa, namely, caffeine and theobromine.

Fischer also proposed the lock & key model of enzyme action.

Family
Fischer was married to Agnes Gerlach in Feb. 1888, but she died seven years after their marriage. They had three sons, named Hermann Otto Laurenz Fischer (16. Dec. 1888 - 09. Mar. 1960) Walter (05. Jul. 1891 – 04. Nov. 1916) and Alfred (3. Oct. 1894 – 29. Mar. 1917). Alfred was killed in World War I, Walter committed suicide at the age of 25 as a result of compulsory military training.

His eldest son Hermann Otto Laurenz Fischer, was Professor of Biochemistry in the University of California, Berkeley from 1948 until his death in 1960.

Death
At the end, suffering from terminal cancer, he is thought to have committed suicide in 1919.

Emil Fischer is burried at Friedhof Wannsee, Lindenstraße and since 1956 named as grave of honor for extraordinary services or achievements in his lifetimes.

References

1852 births
1919 deaths
German academics
German chemists
German Nobel Prize winners
Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners
Suicides in Germany

Hermann Emil Fischer


Because of the end of the Soviet Union, Russia went through a large change politically, economically, and militarily. First off the Soviet Union became the Russian Federation. People now consider that the Federation is a follow up of the Soviet Union. However, Post-Soviet Russia lacked the military and political power of the former USSR. Now that communism died, Russia could elect a President. In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected as the first president of Russia.

Change in Economy
Boris Yeltsin told his people that he would help the economy. One thing he did was help improve trade with other countries. However, not all his ideas would be good. When Yeltsin lifted price controls, a sudden increase in prices occurred (hyperinflation). Because the military was hit hard during the fall of the Soviet Union, many plants laid off workers because the Government was not sending the plants any new orders. This led to large unemployment.

In August 1998 the Russian government devalued the ruble and defaulted on their debt. This was called the 1998 Russian financial crisis. This was due in part to the Asian financial crisis and the war in Chechnya. Many banks were forced to close down. The government stopped making payment of wages, pensions and when workers were paid, it was often with goods rather than rubles.
Despite this, Russia came back from the August 1998 financial crash with speed. This was because the price of oil went up. Having the prices of oil go up, the exportation of the oil form Russia would cost more, this would bring in lots of money for the economy.

A series of privatizations occurred.

Relationships with Countries
Unlike in the Cold war, Russia now said that the West was considered an ally. In June 1998 they joined the NATO peace-keeping forces. The Russians also have begun relationships with China. In 1997 the Russians made a treaty with Belarus

Today
Russia in the 21st century has gone through many changes. In 2000 Vladimir Putin was made President of Russia. Through his term he had good and bad approval ratings. In 2001-2002 Putin took over several media stations. Issues like this have also occurred with print media. However Putin has done good things for Russia, Indeed, during real GDP grew on average 6.7% a year, average income increased 11% annually, and a positive balance of the federal budget now let the government to cut 70% of its debt during his term.

History of Russia

History of post-Soviet Russia


The Arawak were a group of people who lived in the northern part of South America, and the Carribean. After the colonization of South America, they  became extinct, within a period of about a century, to a century and a half. Today, only very few people who call themselves Arawak remain. There's also a group of languages called the Arawakian languages, which show what influence these people probably once had. Today, there are about 2000 speakers left, 1500 in Guyana, and 700 in Suriname.

In the year 1515, there were about 50.000 Native American allies (to the Spanish) on Haitit,  from an original estimate of 250.000. In 1550, there were about 500 people. 1650, there were none left.

Ethnic groups in South America
Guyanese people
Surinamese people

Arawak people


Woodworking is a skill. In woodworking, one can cut or sand (make wood smooth).

Safety measures
When one is doing woodworking, be careful of being hurt. Remember to wear safety goggles or a facemask (like safety goggles. but to protect ones face). Do not wear long clothing, because it can get stuck in a tool.

Courses
There are a lot of woodworking classes, many of them are offered in middle school.

In woodworking, the type of wood you get is very important. There are many kinds of softwood and many kinds of hardwood. The words hard and soft wood comes from the type of tree it came from. A hard pice of wood could be softwood.

There are a lot of tools that people use during woodworking, such as sandpaper (used to make wood smooth to touch), files, rasps (all used for trimming wood, cutting, etc.), saws (cutting wood), and automatic saws (saws that use electricity to run).

Woodworking


Dehydration (hypohydration) means less water in something. The word comes from the ancient Greek word for water, hydor.

People get dehydrated when they lose more water than they take in.  The human body needs water to survive.  If a person gets badly dehydrated, their body will be unable to work the right way.  Bad dehydration can cause organ damage and even death.

What causes dehydration?
A living organism will get dehydrated if their body is losing water in some way and they do not drink enough to replace the water.  The most common causes of dehydration are:
 Sweating a lot (because of hot weather or exercise)
 Bad diarrhea
 Vomiting (throwing up)
 Urinating more than usual (this can happen if a person has uncontrolled diabetes or takes medicines like diuretics which cause them to urinate more often)
 Fever

Who gets dehydration?
Any living being can get dehydrated.  Some people are more at risk of dehydration. Elderly people, very young children, and people with chronic illnesses are at the highest risk for dehydration.

Symptoms
Dehydrated people may have different symptoms depending on how dehydrated they are.  If dehydration is not treated, it will get worse.  As dehydration gets worse, the symptoms get more dangerous.

When people start to get dehydrated, they may have these symptoms:
Thirst
Dry, sticky mouth
Feeling tired or sleepy
Not urinating as much as usual
Dry skin
Headache
Constipation
Feeling dizzy or lightheaded
No tears come out when the person cries

When dehydration gets severe (very bad), its symptoms include:
 Being very thirsty
 Feeling irritable and confused (infants and children may be very fussy or get very sleepy)
 Very dry mouth and mucous membranes
 Shriveled, dry skin that is less elastic than normal (it doesn't "bounce back" when pinched into a fold)
 Urinating very little, with darkly colored urine, or not urinating at all
 Sunken eyes
 In infants, the fontanel (the soft spot on the top of the head) may be sunken
 Low blood pressure (blood pressure may also drop when the person sits up or stands up, making them feel dizzy or faint; this is called orthostasis)
 Fast heartbeat (tachycardia)
 Fast breathing (tachypnea)
 Fever
 In the most serious cases, delirium or unconsciousness

Severe dehydration is a medical emergency.  If a person with severe dehydration does not get medical treatment soon enough, they can die.

What problems may dehydration cause?
Bad dehydration can cause serious health problems. Some of these problems are:
 Heat injury.  When it is very hot outside, or when a person is exercising a lot, fluids like water help keep the body cool.  If the person is dehydrated, their body can overheat (it gets too hot and cannot cool itself down).  This can cause heat injury.  The mildest (least serious) form of heat injury is heat cramps (cramping, or pain, in the muscles).  As heat injury gets worse, it becomes heat exhaustion.  If the body keeps overheating and the person does not get medical treatment, heat exhaustion becomes heat stroke.  Heat stroke is a very serious medical emergency.  People with heat stroke can have damage to their organs and even die if they do not get treatment quickly enough.
 Swelling of the brain (cerebral edema).  Sometimes the body tries to fix dehydration by pulling a lot of water into its cells.  If the body pulls too much water into the cells, those cells can swell and break.  If this happens to the cells in the brain, the brain can swell.
 Seizures.  When a person gets dehydrated, their electrolytes can get out of balance.  Electrolytes are important salts in the body which carry electricity.  When electrolytes like sodium and potassium get out of balance, the body's electrical signals can get mixed up.  This can cause seizures.
 Shock.  Fluid is an important part of human blood.  Water makes up most of blood plasma, which carries blood cells and other important things to the entire body.  If a person gets very dehydrated, the amount of blood in the body drops.  This causes low blood pressure.  If a person does not have enough blood and oxygen in their body, they can go into shock.  In medicine, this is called hypovolemic shock.
 Kidney failure.  Bad dehydration can hurt the kidneys.  When the kidneys are hurt or not working properly, they cannot remove poisons and extra fluid from the blood.

How is dehydration treated?
To fix dehydration, a person has to replace the fluids and electrolytes that they have lost.

When dehydration is not too bad, people can usually treat themselves by drinking.   This is called oral rehydration therapy.  Stores sell special drinks like Pedialyte and Gatorade, which have both water and electrolytes in them.  People can also make their own oral rehydration solution (a drink which treats dehydration) by mixing water with sugar and salt.

People with very bad dehydration need emergency medical treatment.  They may need to get fluids intravenously (through a needle placed into a vein).  This replaces lost fluids and electrolytes much more quickly than drinking.  It is also helpful for people who are unable to drink because of nausea and vomiting from dehydration.

References

Health problems

Dehydration


Edward Robert Hughes  (5 November 1851 – 23 April 1914) was a British painter, who primarily worked in watercolours, but also produced a number of oil paintings. He was influenced by his uncle and artist, Arthur Hughes who was associated with the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, and worked closely with one of the Brotherhood's founders, William Holman Hunt.

Work
Having settled on his career choice, Edward Robert Hughes attended Heatherley's in London to prepare himself for the chance of entering the Royal Academy Schools. Hughes became a student at the Royal Academy School in 1868. While Pre-Raphaelitism played an influential part in shaping Hughes work, Aestheticism is also seen in his paintings.

E. R. Hughes is best known for his fantastical watercolours such as Midsummer Eve and Night with her Train of Stars, yet initially he built a career as a portrait painter to the upper classes.In addition to being an artist himself, E. R. Hughes was also a studio assistant to the elder artist and Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood founding member William Holman Hunt. In later life Hunt suffered from glaucoma, and Hughes made a substantial contribution to a number of Hunt's paintings. Two of the paintings that Hughes worked on with Hunt were The Light of the World, which is displayed in St Paul's Cathedral, and The Lady of Shalott, which is exhibited at the Wadsworth Atheneum.

On his own he experimented with techniques and was a perfectionist; he did studies for many of his paintings, some of which turned out to be good enough for exhibition.

Hughes held several important offices within the artistic community over his lifetime, such as becoming a member of the Art Workers Guild in 1888, and was on their committee from 1895 to 1897. He was elected to Associate Membership of the Royal Watercolour Society (ARWS) on 18 February 1891, and he chose as his diploma work for election to full membership a mystical piece (Oh, What's That in the Hollow?) inspired by a verse by Christina Rossetti entitled Amor Mundi. His painting A Witch was given by the Royal Watercolour Society to King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra to mark the coronation in 1902. This work is based on his illustration entitled The Demon transporting Isabella to Ortodosia in W. G. Waters's The Italian Novelists published in 1901. In later years Hughes served as the Vice-President of the RWS before leaving in 1903.Throughout his career, E. R. Hughes exhibited his works in several galleries around London: Dudley Gallery, Grosvenor Gallery, New Gallery, The Royal Academy, and toward the end of his career he exhibited with The Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours (RWS).

His works can be seen in public collections including Cartwright Hall, Bradford, Cambridge & County Folk Museum, Maidstone Museum & Art Gallery, Bruce Castle Museum, Kensington Central Library, Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery, the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, the Harris Museum & Art Gallery, Preston, and the National Trust for Scotland.

Birmingham Museums Trust staged a retrospective exhibition, Enchanted Dreams: The Pre-Raphaelite Art of E.R. Hughes, from 17 October 2015 to 21 February 2016 at Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery.

His auction record is $866,500 (£522,366) for Dream Idyll (A Valkyrie), sold at Sotheby's (New York) on 22 October 2009.

Family life
E. R. Hughes (known to his family as "Ted") was born in Clerkenwell, London, in 1851 to Edward Hughes Snr. and Harriet Foord. He had one brother, William Arthur Hughes, who was two years younger than him, became a frame maker (gilder), and by 1891 a photographer. During the 1860s he lived for a time with his uncle Arthur Hughes and his family, which included his son Arthur Foord Hughes, also an artist. In 1874 Hughes became engaged to Mary MacDonald, the daughter of the writer George MacDonald. Unfortunately Mary died four years later. In 1883 Hughes married Emily Eliza Davies. In 1913 they moved to St Albans, Hertfordshire, where he was later stricken with appendicitis. He died after surgery on 23 April 1914 in his home (no. 3 Romeland). The marriage did not produce any offspring.

List of works

Gallery

See also
 List of Pre-Raphaelite paintings

References

Bibliography

External links

 A British Symbolist In Pre-Raphaelite Circles: Edward Robert Hughes RWS (1851–1914) MPhil Thesis by Victoria Osborne

1851 births
1914 deaths
Artists from London
19th-century English painters
English male painters
20th-century English painters
English watercolourists
Alumni of the Heatherley School of Fine Art
Alumni of the Royal Academy Schools
Pre-Raphaelite painters
20th-century English male artists
19th-century English male artists

Edward Robert Hughes