Chung-Yao Chao (; 27 June 1902 – 28 May 1998) was a Chinese theoretical physicist. He studied the scattering of gamma rays in lead by pair production in 1930, without knowing that positrons were involved in the anomalously high scattering cross-section. When the positron was discovered by Carl David Anderson in 1932, confirming the existence of Paul Dirac's "antimatter", it became clear that positrons could explain Chung-Yao Chao's earlier experiments, with the gamma rays being emitted from electron-positron annihilation.

He entered Nanjing Higher Normal School (later renamed National Southeastern University, National Central University and Nanjing University), in 1920 and earned a BS in physics in 1925. Then he earned a PhD degree in physics under supervision of Nobel Prize laureate Robert Andrews Millikan at California Institute of Technology in 1930. Later he went back to China and joined the physics faculty of Tsinghua University in Beijing.

Nobel Prize controversy
The 1936 Nobel Prize for Physics went to Carl D. Anderson for the discovery of the positron. While a graduate student at Caltech in 1930, Chao was the first to experimentally identify positrons through electron–positron annihilation, but did not realize what they were. Anderson, Chao's classmate at Caltech, used the same radioactive source, , as Chao. (Historically,  was known as "thorium C double prime" or "ThC", see decay chains.) Fifty years later, Anderson admitted that Chao had inspired his discovery: Chao's research formed the foundation from which much of Anderson's own work developed. Chao died in 1998, without sharing in a Nobel Prize acknowledgment.

References

Further reading

1902 births
1998 deaths
Boxer Indemnity Scholarship recipients
California Institute of Technology alumni
Educators from Shaoxing
Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Academic staff of the National Central University
Physicists from Zhejiang
Nanjing University alumni
National Central University alumni
Academic staff of the National Southwestern Associated University
Scientists from Shaoxing
Academic staff of Tsinghua University
Academic staff of the University of Science and Technology of China
Academic staff of Yunnan University

Chung-Yao Chao


Isidore Dyen (16 August 1913 in Philadelphia – 14 December 2008 in Newton, Massachusetts) was an American linguist, Professor Emeritus of Malayo-Polynesian and Comparative Linguistics at Yale University. He was one of the foremost scholars in the field of Austronesian linguistics, publishing extensively on the reconstruction of Proto-Austronesian phonology and on subgrouping within the language family, the latter principally by means of lexicostatistics.

The youngest son of a rabbi and his wife who had immigrated from Kiev, Ukraine, "Iz" (as he was known to friends) grew up speaking Yiddish at home and studying Hebrew at Gratz College in preparation for rabbinical training. However, during the course of earning a B.A. in 1933, an M.A. in 1934, and a Ph.D. in 1939 at the University of Pennsylvania, his interests shifted to comparative linguistics. After completing a dissertation on "The Sanskrit indeclinables of the Hindu grammarians and lexicographers" he planned to specialize in Slavic languages, but the needs of the U.S. Army during World War II drew him into languages in the Pacific Theater of Operations.

He learned Malay well enough to teach it to troops headed for the Southwest Pacific and to produce a 2-volume pedagogical text, Spoken Malay (1943). After the war, he did fieldwork on two more genetically and typologically disparate Austronesian languages, Chuukese (rendered as "Trukese" at that time) and Yapese, as a member of the Tri-Institutional Coordinated Investigation of Micronesian Anthropology sponsored by Yale University, the University of Hawaii, and the Bernice P. Bishop Museum. Out of this came his A Sketch of Trukese grammar (1965).

At the same time, he began applying his comparative method to revise and elaborate phonological reconstructions that had earlier been published by Otto Dempwolff (1934–38). A series of articles such as "The Malayo-Polynesian word for 'two'" (1947), "The Tagalog reflexes of Malayo-Polynesian D" (1947), "Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *Z" (1951), and "Dempwolff's *R" (1953), eventually culminated in a monograph, The Proto-Malayo-Polynesian laryngeals (1953). His application of the same methods to his own new data from Chuukese led to a monograph On the history of the Trukese vowels (1949), which brilliantly demonstrated how the nine vowels of Chuukese had derived quite regularly from the four-vowel system Dempwolff had reconstructed for Proto-Austronesian.

Works

Notes

References

1913 births
2008 deaths
Gratz College
University of Pennsylvania alumni
Linguists from the United States
Linguists of Austronesian languages
Yale University faculty
Yiddish-speaking people
20th-century linguists

Isidore Dyen


The 1997 Tostitos Fiesta Bowl game was a post-season college football bowl game between the Penn State Nittany Lions and the Texas Longhorns on January 1, 1997, at Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona. Penn State defeated Texas, 38-15. The game was part of the 1996-1997 Bowl Alliance of the 1996 NCAA Division I-A football season and represented the concluding game of the season for both teams.

The Longhorns, who were fresh off their upset of No. 3 Nebraska in the first ever Big 12 Championship Game, went into their second straight Alliance bowl with a five-game winning streak.

Game Summary

Texas outgained Penn State 242-95 yards in the first half and posted a 12-7 lead at the half. Quarterback James Brown completed 13 of 18 passes for 150 yards and Ricky Williams ran for 47 yards and a touchdown on nine carries in the first 30 minutes. However, an interception, two drives which were stopped at the Penn State 11, and a failed two-point conversion allowed the Nittany Lions to remain close.

Penn State's opening score was set up by a Brown interception at the Texas 26 on the second play from scrimmage. The Lions drove to the end zone in four plays, which ended in a four-yard touchdown pass from Wally Richardson to Curtis Enis.

The Longhorns bounced back and drove to the Penn State seven, and Phil Dawson connected on a 28-yard field goal to cut the lead to 7-3.

The Lions ended with a three-and-out on consecutive possessions and, on their first possession of the second quarter, Texas planned another solid drive and found the end zone as Williams charged ran across the goal line for a seven-yard score. The two-point conversion failed.

The third quarter was the turning point in the game. Penn State scored 21 points with three rushing scores and limited the Longhorns to just a field goal. Penn State led 28-15 at the end of the third quarter.

On the Lions' final series of the third quarter, Chafie Fields set up a one-yard touchdown run by Anthony Cleary on an 85-yard double-reverse to the Texas five-yard line.

Texas failed to produce any more offense as Penn State scored 10 more points to seal the 38-15 victory. Penn State outgained the Texas offense 425-360, 330-118 in the second half.

References

Fiesta Bowl
Penn State Nittany Lions football bowl games
Texas Longhorns football bowl games
Fiesta Bowl
Bowl Alliance
January 1997 sports events in the United States
1997 in sports in Arizona

1997 Fiesta Bowl (January)


Build-out is an urban planner's estimate of the amount and location of potential development for an area.  Sometimes called a "lot-yield analysis", build-out is one step of the land use planning process.  Evaluation of potential development impacts begins with a build-out analysis.

Purpose
Performing a build-out analysis identifies the holding capacity of the land. The build-out calculation provides the supply of development for forecasting future land use growth.  Land use forecasting or allocation adds demand factors such as economic growth and the land's relative attractiveness for new development.  Land developers perform build-out calculations to assess the profitability of a parcel of land.

Potential impacts can be derived from build-out by multiplying the amount of development by various factors (e.g. calculating the number of new school children, traffic trips and water demand).  Note: the multipliers frequently vary by land use type.  These figures only provide the raw demand for these facilities and additional analysis is required (e.g. subtracting existing students from school capacity or a traffic study).

Calculation methods
Build-out applies land use or zoning assumptions about density to the available land area. The build-out calculation may deduct land due to physical constraints to development (e.g. sensitive natural resources), potential infrastructure dedications (e.g. streets, public open space, or stormwater management structures), and practical design considerations (e.g. lot layout inefficiencies).  Existing buildings may reduce the available capacity for new development.  Many times these constraints are not known until well after a build-out calculation is performed.

A build-out calculation multiplies the land area by density factors. Residential density is most often expressed as residential dwelling units per acre (DU/ac), but a minimum lot size is also used (especially in zoning).  (Note: outside the United States, the metric system usually uses hectares as the area unit of measurement).  A floor area ratio (FAR) typically describes non-residential development, based on the ratio of building floor space to land area, both using the same unit of measure.  Additional analysis might estimate the number of buildings or building coverage based on the number of dwelling units per building, the number of stories and/or the building size in square feet.

Example analysis

A typical analysis of build-out might start with  of land with a proposed density of 4 dwelling units per acre.
A simple multiplication (10x4) would produce a build-out of 40 units.
A more complex analysis might deduct  for  of  road right-of-way (ROW). This leaves  with 37 units allowed.
The land might contain  of flood plain, a constraint to development. Some communities allow the developer to shift the density elsewhere on the property, keeping the total units at 40. Other communities prohibit density shifting, reducing the target number of units to 31 units.
Existing structures will limit the number of additional new dwelling units allowed on the land.  If an existing subdivision contains 6 dwelling units, the available capacity is 34 units.
Combining these dwelling unit deductions (40-3-9-6) equals 22 dwellings units for residential build-out.

See also
Civil Engineering
Land use
Natural landscape

Urban studies and planning terminology

Build-out


The Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haiti (FRAPH) () was a far-right
paramilitary group organized in mid-1993. Its goal was to undermine support for the popular Catholic priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide, who served less than eight months as Haïti's president before being deposed, on 29 September 1991, by a coup.  The group received covert support and funding from the United States government.

The formation of FRAPH
FRAPH was established by Emmanuel "Toto" Constant, who went on the Central Intelligence Agency payroll as an informant and spy in early 1992 (according to the Agency, this relationship ended in mid-1994, but the following October the US embassy in Haïti was openly acknowledging that Constant – now a born-again democrat – was on its payroll). According to Constant, shortly after Aristide's ouster, Colonel Patrick Collins, a U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), attache who was stationed in Haiti from 1989 to 1992, pressured him to organize a front that could oppose the Aristide movement and do intelligence work against it.

U.S. involvement in Haiti
During the 1992 U.S. presidential campaign, candidate Bill Clinton had promised to restore democracy to Haiti if elected. Inaugurated in 1993, the administration had to deal with a continuing refugee problem in Florida. Condemning FRAPH and the military regime as nothing more than "armed thugs," the administration cooperated with a multinational force and dispatched 15,000  troops sent and a high-level negotiating team (Jimmy Carter, Sam Nunn, and Colin Powell) to force the military to step down, restoring Aristide to power in August 1994 after international sanctions and pressure had failed to produce any results. Although the presence of U.S. and UN peacekeepers helped restore calm and security, this success, claims researcher Lisa A. McGowan, was undermined by their refusal to disarm the disbanded Haitian military and paramilitaries. As McGowan wrote,

"[USAID] is providing funding and technical assistance to strengthen Haiti's judicial system, yet the U.S. has refused Haitian government requests to deport FRAPH leader Constant, who was imprisoned in the U.S. and wanted in Haiti on murder charges. Instead, the U.S. Justice Department released him from prison. Furthermore, the Clinton administration refuses to give the Haitian government uncensored copies of the documents seized from FRAPH headquarters, raising suspicions that the documents contain incriminating information about CIA and other U.S. collaboration with Haitian paramilitaries. Documents that were obtained revealed, for example, that the CIA knew that Constant was directly implicated in the 1993 murder of Justice Minister Guy Malory, yet kept him on their payroll until the return of Aristide in 1994."

It subsequently emerged that the US government had in fact played a significant role in establishing and funding FRAPH. The investigative journalist Allan Nairn broke the story in an article published in The Nation in 1994. Nairn based his findings on interviews with military, paramilitary and intelligence officials in Haïti and the United States as well as Green Beret commanders and  internal documents from the U.S. and Haitian armies. Nairn spoke directly with Constant himself, then being held in a Maryland jail, shortly before he was due to be deported to Haïti. According to Constant, he started the group that became FRAPH at the urging of the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), and that even after the U.S. occupation got under way in September 1994, "other people from [his] organization were working with the DIA", aiding in operations directed against "subversive activities".

In February 1996, the New York-based Center for Constitutional Rights (CCR) announced that it had obtained thousands of pages of newly declassified U.S. documents, which they claim revealed that the U.S. government recognized the brutal nature of FRAPH but denied it in public. Describing the attitude of US government officials, CCR lawyer Michael Ratner said

"they were talking out of both sides of their mouth. They were talking about restoring democracy to Haïti, but at the same time, they were undermining democracy in the coup period – at times supporting a group that committed terrorist acts against the Haitian people."
According to Ratner, U.S. suspicions of Aristide's leftist populism prodded them to seek support from even the most brutal anti-Aristide elements. Observers such as Ratner, Nairn and Lisa McGowan have argued that covert assistance to antidemocratic forces such as FRAPH was used to pressure Aristide into abandoning his ambitious program for social reform and adopt harsh economic reforms when the U.S. returned him to power.

References

Bibliography
Grann, David. "Giving 'The Devil' His Due." The Atlantic Monthly, June 2001.
Whitney, Kathleen Marie (1996), "Sin, Fraph, and the CIA: U.S. Covert Action in Haiti", Southwestern Journal of Law and Trade in the Americas, Vol. 3, Issue 2 (1996), pp. 303–332.

External links
Human Rights Watch article on FRAPH
Amnesty International article on FRAPH
Allan Nairn discusses Haiti, an interview by Anthony Arnove, Z Magazine, June 1995

Paramilitary organizations based in Haiti
Far-right politics in North America
History of Haiti
Haiti–United States relations
Human rights in Haiti

Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haïti


The Plan Azur is an investment project initiated by the Moroccan government in 2001. The project aims at boosting tourism in Morocco through the development of six coastal resorts, five on the Atlantic coast and one on the Mediterranean coast. The project was launched in order to achieve the "Vision 2010" strategy which aimed to attract 10 million visitors a year to Morocco.

Plan Azur was developed to provide 80,000 beds and 10 golf courses. The project suffered several setbacks and delays, due to financial difficulties and to the lack of marketing.

List of coastal resorts

Mediterrania-Saïdia
Mediterrania-Saïdia is the only Plan Azur resort on the Mediterranean coastline. The 7,000,000 sq m real estate project was launched in 2005 by a Spanish property developer Fadesa. The completion was planned for 2009, however, updates are documented on the official Mediterrania Saidia site.

Criticism
Mediterrania-Saïdia is close to one of Morocco's most biodiverse hotspots, the estuary of the Oued Melouia. Here, in dune forests are some of Moroccos's rarest species, and the construction companies involved at the site have come under criticism for poor environmental planning, leading to invasive impacts on these unique natural spaces.

Port Lixus
Port Lixus, a lower density resort than Mediterrania-Saïdia, is near Larache on the northern Atlantic coast, this Azur Plan resort will include two 18-hole golf courses, a new marina, a sports and leisure complex, several hotels and luxurious apartments and villas.

Salixus, a Belgian-Dutch consortium, is the master developer of this €1 billion, 4,620,000 sq m real estate project, earmarked for final completion in 2015.

Mazagan
South of Casablanca is Mazagan - Situated near El Jadida on the Atlantic coast. This Azur Plan resort was launched in late 2007 and will include a  casino, two 18-hole golf courses, over 15 km of beach and several hotels and luxury properties.

Mogador Essaouira
Mogador Essaouira the fourth Plan Azur resort covering 5,700,000 sq m will include two 18-hole  golf courses with more  properties and hotels.

Taghazout
North of Agadir, the development will include several 4 and 5 star hotels, 2 golf courses, and several residential, leisure and retail facilities. Phase 1 properties are due for completion in late 2008.

Playa Blanca
The final of the six of the Plan Azur regions is Playa Blanca where development rights have been awarded to Fadesa, the main developer of the Mediterrania-Saïdia resort.

See also
 Tourism in Morocco
 Economy of Morocco

References and notes

Seaside resorts in Morocco
2001 establishments in Morocco
Tourism in Morocco
Economic policy in Africa
Economic development programs
Economic history of Morocco

Plan Azur


Mary Jane Holmes (April 5, 1825 – October 6, 1907) was an American author who published 39 novels, as well as short stories. Her first novel sold 250,000 copies; and she had total sales of 2 million books in her lifetime, second only to Harriet Beecher Stowe. Her books included: "Tempest and Sunshine" (1854), "English Orphans" (1855), "Homestead on the Hillside" (1855), "Lena Rivers" (1856), "Meadow Brook" (1857), "Dora Deane" (1858), "Cousin Maude" (1860), "Marian Gray" 186^, "Hugh Worthington" (1864), "Cameron Vide" (1867). "Rose Mather" (1868), "Ethelyn's Mistake" (1869), "Edna Browning" (1872), "Mildred" (1877), "Forest House" (1879), "Daisy Thornton," "Queenie Hetherton" (1883), "Christmas Stories" (1884), "Bessie's Fortune" (1885). "Gretchen" (1887), "Marguerite" (1891).

Portraying domestic life in small-town and rural settings, she examined gender relationships, as well as those of class and race. She also dealt with slavery and the American Civil War with a strong sense of moral justice. Since the late 20th century, she has received fresh recognition and reappraisal, although her popular work was excluded from most 19th-century literary histories.

Early life and education
Mary Jane Hawes was born in Brookfield, Massachusetts in 1825, the fifth of Fanny (Olds) and Preston Hawes' nine children.  The household was economically modest, but the parents encouraged intellectual endeavor. She may also have been influenced by her uncle, Rev. Joel Hawes (1789-1867), for many years minister at the First Congregational Church in Hartford, Connecticut, and known for his published sermons and other writings. Preston Hawes died when Mary Jane was 12 and she started teaching school at 13. Interested in writing from an early age, she published her first story at 15.

Marriage and family
On August 9, 1849, Hawes married Daniel Holmes, a graduate of Yale College from New York City. They moved for a time to Versailles, Kentucky in the Bluegrass Region, where they both taught for a few years.  These were formative years, as Holmes used the small-town, rural setting and people she knew as inspiration for her first novel and others set in the antebellum South.

In 1852 the Holmes family returned to New York and settled in Brockport, a short distance west of Rochester, where Daniel read law and was ultimately admitted to the bar. He went into practice and also served in local politics.  They had no children. Holmes' supportive marriage was one she used as a model for several portrayed in her novels.

Career
Holmes used her experiences in Kentucky for the material of several novels. In 1854 at the age of 29, she published her first novel, Tempest and Sunshine. Its central girl characters, Julia and Fanny, were reportedly modeled on the local family of John Singleton and his daughters Bettie and Susan. The portrayal of girls with contrasting characters was resolved with a sense of moral justice, as they both traveled personal journeys of growth. While sales of the novel were slow at first, they steadily continued, and ultimately totaled about 250,000 copies. Reprinted in 1886, this novel was her most popular. She was first published by Appleton, and later for 20 years by G.W. Carleton, which was succeeded by G.W. Dillingham, all of New York City. As The Nation noted in its obituary at her death:
It is an eternal paradox of our world of letters that the books which enjoy the largest sale are barely recognized as existing by the guardians of literary tradition. Mrs. Mary Jane Holmes, who died Sunday at Brockport, N.Y., wrote thirty-nine novels with aggregate sales, it is said, of more than two million copies, and yet she had not even a paragraph devoted to her life and works in the histories of American Literature. ("The Week")

The theme of most of her novels was domestic life, reflecting society in the antebellum years, as well as during and after the American Civil War.  Her books were very popular and she was published by major firms in New York.  Her sales were second nationally only to those of Harriet Beecher Stowe; in total Holmes sold more than two million books.

As the literary scholar Judith Fetterley notes:
[T]the literature of mid-nineteenth century women is essentially about women. Thus the first truth the women have to tell is that not all Americans are male and the assumption that an American text must be a man's story told by men is partisan to say the least. Were this truth to be told, of course, it would require a redefinition of what constitutes an American theme; it would require the possibility that a story by a woman about women could be an American text...at issue equally is the matter of perspective. For a man's story told by a man is not necessarily the same as a man's story told by a woman.

Critics of the time and early 20th century classified Holmes' and other women authors' work as "sentimental" and downplayed it because of appeal to the common reader.  Recent critics have appreciated how Holmes grappled seriously with issues of gender, race and class, as well as slavery and the Civil War. She created attractive characters who also had flaws, with whom readers could identify. The scholar Earl Yarington notes that her heroines "go out, often on their own accord, into an uncertain world and make new lives for themselves."  This experience provides the heroine "with an education so she can learn how to thrive and improve not only her own conditions, but also the conditions of others."  Her work appealed to many readers at a time of rapidly expanding literacy among women.

While Holmes traveled extensively to Europe and Asia, trips from which she collected art, she continued to write and publish about one book annually.  She wrote a total of 39 novels, plus numerous short stories and novellas. Many were first serialized in the New York Weekly "storypaper".  The popularity of her novel Marian Grey (1863) reportedly led to a jump in the paper's circulation by 50,000, and it reached 100,000 by 1865.

Holmes was active in the Episcopal Church and its charitable activities.  She started local activities to share her collection from her travels and education with young women.

Death and legacy
Holmes died in 1907, at the age of 82, in Brockport.  Her obituary was published a few days later in the Nation,<ref>"Mary J. Holmes", "The Week," Nation', 10 Oct 1907, p. 316</ref> reflecting her stature.  Long excluded from literary histories of the nineteenth century written by men, the author was reappraised by scholars in the late 20th and early 21st century, who recognized her achievements and the value of her work.

Books

Tempest and Sunshine (New York, 1854); reprint New York: G.W. Dillingham (1886)
The English Orphans (1855)
The Homestead on the Hillside and other Tales (Auburn, 1855)
'Lena Rivers (1856)Meadow Brook (New York, 1857)
Dora Deane, or the East India Uncle, and Maggie Miller, or, Old Hagar's Secret (1858)
Cousin Maude and Rosamond (1860)Marian Grey; or The Heiress of Redstone Hall (1863)Hugh Worthington (1863)
Darkness and Daylight (1864)
The Cameron Pride, or Purified by Suffering, or Family Pride (1867)The Christmas Font, a story for young folks (1868)Rose Mather, a Tale of the War (1868)
Ethelyn's Mistake (1869)Millbank; or, Roger Irving's Ward (1871)Edna Browning; or The Leighton Homestead (1872)West Lawn, and The Rector of St. Mark's (1874)
Edith Lyle or Edith Lyle's Secret (1876)Mildred (1877)
Daisy Thornton and Jessie Graham (1878)Glen's Creek (1878)Forrest House (1879)Chateau d'Or (1880)Red Bird (1880)Madeline (1881)Queenie Hetherton (1883)Christmas Stories (1884)
Bessie's Fortune (1885)
Tracy Park
Gretchen (1887)
AikensideRed Bird's Christmas Story (1892)

Notes

Further reading
"Mary Jane Holmes: Works in the Collection", Early American Fiction, University of Virginia Library
Nina Baym, Woman's Fiction: A Guide to Novels by and about Women in America 1820–70, Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1978, reprint 1993.
Denise D. Knight and Emmanuel S. Nelson, Nineteenth-Century American Women Writers: A Bio-Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook Book, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997
Grace Carson,"The Works of Mary Jane Holmes, A Brockport Union Catalog." M. A. Thesis. SUNY College at Brockport, 1988.
Elaine K. Ginsberg, "Mary Jane Hawes Holmes." American Women Writers, Vol. 2, Ed. Lina Mainiero. New York: Ungar, 1980, pp. 317–19.
Mary Kelley, Private Woman, Public Stage: Literary Domesticity in Nineteenth-Century American Fiction, New York: Oxford UP, 1984.
Donald A. Koch, "Introduction: Tempest and Sunshine by Mary Jane Holmes and The Lamplighter by Maria Susanna Cummins", Popular American Fiction, Ed. Koch. New York: Odyssey, 1968. v–xviii.
Earl Yarington, "Legacy Profile: Mary Jane Holmes", Legacy: A Journal of American Women Writers, 2008
Helen Waite Papashvily, All the Happy Endings: A Study of the Domestic Novel in America, the Women Who Wrote It, the Women Who Read It, in the Nineteenth Century, 1956; reprint 1972.
Fred Lewis Pattee, The Feminine Fifties, New York: 1940; reprint New York: Kennikat Press, 1966.
Barbara J. McGuire, "The Orphan's Grief: Transformational Tears and the Maternal Fetish in Mary Jane Holmes's 'Dora Deane; or, the East-India Uncle'", Legacy 15 (1998): 171–87.
"Noted Authoress Passes Away." [Rochester] Republic Democrat, 10 Oct. 1907: 1.
Jane Tompkins, ""Sentimental Power: Uncle Tom's Cabin and the Politics of Literary History", in Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction, 1790-1860, New York: Oxford UP, 1985, pp. 122–146.
Jane Tompkins, Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction, 1790–1860'', New York: Oxford UP, 1985.

External links

1825 births
1907 deaths
19th-century American novelists
American women novelists
People from Brookfield, Massachusetts
People from Versailles, Kentucky
Novelists from Kentucky
Novelists from New York (state)
19th-century American women writers
Kentucky women writers
Activists from Kentucky
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Woman of the Century

Mary Jane Holmes


Bernard Vonnegut I, WAA, FAIA, (August 8, 1855 – August 7, 1908) was an American lecturer and architect active in late-nineteenth and early-twentieth-century Indiana. He was a co-founder of the locally renowned Indianapolis architectural firm of Vonnegut and Bohn, and was active in a range of residential, religious, institutional, civic, and commercial commissions. He is the namesake and grandfather of scientist Bernard Vonnegut, father of the architect Kurt Vonnegut Sr., and grandfather of author Kurt Vonnegut.

Early life and education
Bernard Vonnegut I was born on August 8, 1855, in Indianapolis, Indiana, to Freethinker German-American parents Katarina Blank, a homemaker, and Clemens Vonnegut (1824–1906), a powerful nineteenth-century German-American businessmen in Indianapolis and founder of the Vonnegut Hardware Company.

Growing up in Indianapolis, he was described as the opposite of his father: artistic, extremely modest, retiring, unsociable, slightly introverted. "He had no intimates, and took but little part in social activities. He was never a happy...but was inclined to be reticent, shy, and somewhat contemptuous of his environment...and evidently unhappy in Indianapolis most of the time." He briefly worked for his father's firm but disliked it.

His father was on the Board of School Commissioners of the City of Indianapolis, and young Bernard attended the German-English School and Indianapolis High School with his brothers Clemens Jr., Franklin, and George. Throughout his childhood, his artistic talent was noticed. Family lore relates that he had wanted to work as a theatrical designer after becoming stagestruck, "but learned that almost no one could make a living at that--so he became an architect instead."

On the advice of his father's friend, Alexander Metzger, Vonnegut "took the course in architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and later studied at the Polytechnic Institute of Hanover, Germany.

After returning from Germany, he lived in New York City during the late 1870s and early 1880s, the city's "Gilded Age." He worked as a draftsman for a number of years in the offices of famous architect George B. Post. There, according to family lore, he became highly productive and more sociable. He felt his creativity and pursuit of arts were appreciated and respected in a way that they had not been in Indiana. His happiness was only interrupted when his family ordered him to return to the Midwest and his family's social circle and marry a good German girl.

Personal life
Vonnegut married Nanette Schnull, the daughter of Henry Schnull and Matilde Schramm, a well-respected and wealthy German-American family in Indianapolis. The "Schnull-Vonnegut clan was slightly condescending," and considered near the top of "the pecking order in the social hierarchy of the community, and particularly in the German group...." The couple had three children: Kurt (1884–1957), Alex (b. 1888), and Irma (b. 1890). Although not active in the Indianapolis community, he was a cultured man of the arts, reading the poetry of Heine and heavily favoring German culture. The family frequently lived abroad, and sent their young sons to the American School in Strasbourg. While Nanette was educated in music and literature, she did not share most of her husband's interests and by all accounts theirs was not a happy marriage. "Kurt and Irma...identified with their father, while Alex identified with his mother."

Feeling unappreciated in Indianapolis, he returned to being silent and unsociable. He frequently suffered indigestion and headaches and died at the age of fifty-three, only two years after his father, of intestinal cancer, never living to see any of his children married.

Professional career in Indianapolis
In 1886, Vonnegut was "elected a member of the Western Association of Architects," and following their consolidation with the American Institute of Architects in 1889, he became a Fellow. Additionally, he was a member of the Architectural League of America

He founded his own firm in 1883 in Indianapolis before establishing the architectural firm of Vonnegut & Bohn in 1888 with Arthur Bohn (b. 1861). The firm went on to create many landmarks in Indianapolis and greater Indiana, and a number have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

In 1888, Julia Schnull, the sister of Vonnegut's mother, married J. George Mueller, the secretary-treasurer of the Mooney-Mueller Drug Company in Indianapolis. A Mueller (and probably descendant) joined Vonnegut & Bohn as a partner in the 1940s and the firm was briefly renamed Vonnegut, Bohn & Mueller before a 1946 merger that wiped out the latter two names.

List of works attributed to him

The First Chamber of Commerce of Indianapolis
The Athenæum (Das Deutsche Haus), 401 E. Michigan Street, German Renaissance Revival style building built in two phases—the east wing 1893–94, and the west wing, 1897–1898. Listed in 1973 on the National Register of Historic Places.(Design by Bernard Vonnegut I and Arthur Bohn)Photo of Athenæum
William H. Block Company (Indianapolis) building (after 1910) (Design by Bernard Vonnegut I and Arthur Bohn)Photo in 1912, Photo in 1919, Photo in 1919, Photo in 1924,
The John Herron Art Institute (Indianapolis, Indiana) (Design by Bernard Vonnegut I)
Photo of Herron Art Institute
The L. S. Ayres Store Building (Indianapolis, Indiana) (Design by Bernard Vonnegut I)
The Fletcher Trust Building (Indianapolis, Indiana)
The Students Building, Indiana University Bloomington (Design by Bernard Vonnegut I)
Delaware Street Temple (Indianapolis, Indiana) (Design by Bernard Vonnegut I)
Shortridge High School (Indianapolis, Indiana) (Design by Bernard Vonnegut I)
The Federal Building (Vincennes, Indiana) (Design by Bernard Vonnegut I)

References

External links
Photo and signature of Bernard Vonnegut
Photo of Bernard Vonnegut
Vonnegut and Bohn Architectural Renderings, 1896, 1911, Collection Guide , Indiana Historical Society
Mrs. Bernard Vonnegut Obituary Page 1, Mrs. Bernard Vonnegut Obituary Page 2

1855 births
1908 deaths
Architects from Indianapolis
American people of German descent
19th-century American architects
American ecclesiastical architects
MIT School of Architecture and Planning alumni
Art Deco architects
Fellows of the American Institute of Architects
Western Association of Architects
Vonnegut family
Beaux Arts architects
20th-century American architects

Bernard Vonnegut I


Johann Heinrich Vogeler (December 12, 1872 – June 14, 1942) was a German painter, designer, and architect, associated with the Düsseldorf school of painting.

Early life

He was born in Bremen, and studied at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf from 1890–95. His artistic studies during this period included visits to Belgium and Italy.

Vogeler was a central member of the original artist colony in Worpswede, which he joined in 1894.
In 1895 Vogeler bought a cottage there and planted many birch trees around it, which gave the house its new name: Barkenhoff (Low German for Birkenhof, or "birch tree cottage"). In 1901, he married Martha Schröder.

He made book illustrations in an art nouveau style, and executed decorative paintings for the town hall of Bremen shortly before traveling to Ceylon in 1906. During a trip to Łódź, he studied Maxim Gorky's works, which resulted in the development of a deep sympathy for the working class. This feeling reached further heights when he saw life in the slums of Glasgow and Manchester during a trip. In 1908 he and his brother Franz founded the 'Worpsweder Werkstätte', which produced household objects. His paintings increasingly reflected his sympathy for the working class.

During the First World War
He volunteered for military service in World War I in 1914, and he was sent to the eastern front in 1915. Vogeler learned of the Bolsheviks ideology during his time at the front as well as through his trips to Poland, Romania, Dobrudscha and Russia. After he made a written appeal for peace to the German Emperor, he was briefly sent to a mental hospital in Bremen before being discharged from military service.

Political activism
After the war he became a pacifist. During the German Revolution of 1918–19, he joined the workers' and soldiers' council of the Bremen Soviet Republic, together with his friend Curt Stoermer. He joined the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), but when it split, he joined the Communist Workers Party of Germany (KAPD). He was close to Franz Pfemfert, who published Die Aktion. After the end of the Revolution, he was arrested for some time. It was at that time that he and his wife Martha were divorced. From that point on, he wanted to work ideologically, and the romanticism of his earlier work gave way to proletarian content. In 1931 Vogeler and his second wife Zofia "Sonja" Marchlewska, daughter of Julian Marchlewski, emigrated to Russia. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union he along with other German citizens was deported in 1941 to Kazakhstan by the Soviet authorities, and died there in 1942.

KPD leader Wilhelm Pieck apparently had wanted to prevent his deportation, but Vogeler himself refused privileged treatment. As his wife Zofia and son Jan were Polish citizens they were drafted instead of being deported with him. Jan soon became a founding member of the National Committee for a Free Germany and after a long post-war academic career in Moscow died in his father's Worpswede in 2005. Zofia emigrated to Poland and died in Warsaw in 1983.

Meanwhile, the Barkenhoff became a children's home. It was recently restored and has re-opened as a Heinrich Vogeler Museum in 2004.

Late works from Heinrich Vogeler's oeuvre appear to have some Egyptian influences, particularly in images such as Der Aufbau der zentralasiatischen Sowjetrepubliken (1927). The influence remains in Worpswede amongst particular sculptures, and market performances.

Gallery

References

External links

1872 births
1942 deaths
Artists from Bremen (city)
Communist Party of Germany politicians
Communist Workers' Party of Germany politicians
19th-century German painters
19th-century male artists
German male painters
20th-century German painters
20th-century male artists
Modern painters
German emigrants to the Soviet Union
German pacifists
German Army personnel of World War I
Art Nouveau illustrators

Heinrich Vogeler


An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a device to capture particles from a flowing gas. It uses the force produced by electrostatic charge. ESPs are used in many power plants which burn fuel to produce energy, such as in power stations. Any gas produced by fuel burning will pollute the air much less after being passed through an ESP.

Air pollution
Machines

Electrostatic precipitator


Hope Lodge is a historic building located at 553 South Bethlehem Pike in Fort Washington, Pennsylvania, in the United States. This mansion has been described as "one of the finest examples of Georgian Colonial architecture in this part of the country. It was used by Continental troops during the 1777 Philadelphia Campaign during the American Revolution.

History
Originally named "Whitemarsh Estate," Hope Lodge is a Georgian country mansion built between 1743 and 1748 by Quaker businessman Samuel Morris and designed by Philadelphia architect Edmund Woolley. The Pennsylvania guide noted in 1940 that Morris' English fiancée—for whom the Lodge was allegedly built—broke off the engagement after hearing that "Morris, in his cups, remarked: 'I have built the pen, now all I have to do is to go to England, get the sow, and start the litter.' He died a bachelor, leaving the estate to his brother Joshua." Upon Morris's death in 1770, his brother Joshua sold the property to William West, another Philadelphia merchant.  During the autumn of 1777, Washington's Continental Army spent six weeks camped at nearby Whitemarsh. During the encampment, Hope Lodge was used as a hospital by George Washington's surgeon general John Cochran, and as quarters for Major General Nathanael Greene.  When West died in 1784, the house was purchased by the English banker Henry Hope (to whom Adam Smith dedicated The Wealth of Nations and whose family would later own and lend their name to the Hope Diamond) and it was presented as a wedding gift to his ward, James Watmough.  In 1832, the Watmough family sold the property to Jacob Wentz, their tenant farmer, and the Wentz family remained in residence at Hope Lodge for ninety years.  In 1921, the property was sold to Keasbey and Mattison Company, who intended to demolish the home to expand a nearby limestone quarry.  Hope Lodge was saved from destruction by William and Alice Degn, who purchased the property from Keasbey and Mattison in 1922.  In 1957, ownership of the lodge was transferred to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.

Hope Lodge is listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.

Mather Mill is part of the Hope Lodge property, but is not open due to structural reasons.

Hope Lodge today
Hope Lodge was operated by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission as a museum and historic site.  On November 20, 2009, the site was closed due to state budget constraints which reduced the agency's budget by 43%.  This reduction resulted in mass layoff of PHMC employees, and the closure or reduction in hours and/or services at many PHMC-operated sites throughout the state of Pennsylvania.

The site plays host to various community events, such as Ambler Symphony concerts; as well as an annual reenactment of the 1777 Whitemarsh Encampment.  Tours of the interior of the building are available seasonally (April through October).

Owners of Hope Lodge
1743 to 1770: Samuel Morris (1709-1770)
1770 to 1776: Joshua Morris
1776 to 1784: William and Mary West
1784 to 1832: Watmough Family
1832 to 1921: Wentz Family
1921 to 1922: Keasbey and Mattison Company
1922 to 1957: William and Alice Degn
1957 to Present: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission

See also
 Clifton House

Further reading
H.D. Eberlein and H.M. Lippincott, The Colonial Homes of Philadelphia and Its Neighbourhood, J.B. Lippincott Co., Phila. and London, 1912.

References

External links

Historic Hope Lodge - Witness to America

Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission
"Through a Looking Glass: Colonial and Colonial Revival Hope Lodge" article from Pennsylvania Heritage Magazine

Museums in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
American Revolutionary War sites
Pennsylvania in the American Revolution
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
Historic American Buildings Survey in Pennsylvania
Historic house museums in Pennsylvania
Houses in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
Houses completed in 1750
National Register of Historic Places in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania

Hope Lodge (Whitemarsh Township, Pennsylvania)


Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) is a Linux feature that gives a variety of security rules, including mandatory access controls. It does so by using Linux Security Modules (LSM) in the Linux kernel. It is not a Linux distribution, but rather a group of changes that can be used on Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux and BSD.

Linux

Security-Enhanced Linux


An pedestrian crossing (or crosswalk) is a painted road surface where pedestrians may cross a road. They are part of a safety system which allows people to cross roads when it is safe to do so. In town and cities, traffic and pedestrians are both users of roads. There must be rules which keep pedestrians safe, but allow traffic to flow as smoothly as possible.

Pedestrian crossings may be controlled with  traffic lights, or other devices. Laws relating to pedestrian crossings vary according to the country. Sound signal are included in some countries.

Marked pedestrian crossings are often found at intersections. but may be at other points on busy roads.  They are also installed where large numbers of pedestrians are attempting to cross (such as in shopping areas) or where vulnerable road users (such as school children) regularly cross. Rules govern usage of the pedestrian crossings to ensure safety. For example, in some areas, the pedestrian must be more than halfway across the crosswalk before the driver may proceed.

Roads
Street furniture

Pedestrian crossing


Knockwurst is a type of sausage. In North America, knockwurst refers to a short, plump sausage that comes from the Holstein region in Germany. They contain ground veal, ground pork, and fresh garlic stuffed into hog casings.  The sausages are aged for two to five days, then smoked over oak wood. Knackwurst is often prepared highly seasoned.

References

Sausage

Knockwurst


Rāvūri Bharadvāja (1927 – 18 October 2013) was a Jnanpith award winning Telugu novelist, short-story writer, poet and critic. He wrote 37 collections of short stories, seventeen novels, four play-lets, and five radio plays. He also contributed profusely to children's literature. Paakudu Raallu, a graphic account of life behind the screen in film industry, is considered his magnum opus. Jeevana Samaram is another of his popular works.

He could not study beyond class 7 but earned fame through his short stories, poetry and critical reviews. He had done several odd jobs but later worked in weeklies and also in All India Radio.

Ravuri Bharadwaja was born as the eldest child to Ravuri Kottayya and Mallikamba in his maternal village. He was brought up in his native village, Tadikonda in Guntur district. At the age of 14, he left his house and stayed on in the village, on the banks of the village tank. He was supported by friendly and kind villagers for food, working as a farm labour, a construction worker and other menial jobs- which became subjects of his later stories.  He received honorary doctorates, a Central Sahitya Akademi award and ultimately the Jnanpith award. He was only the third Telugu writer to be honoured with the country's highest literary award. He was awarded the 48th Jnanpith award for the year 2012 which was announced on 17 April 2013 for his contribution to Telugu literature through many notable works. He died in Hyderabad on 18 October 2013.

Education
He was born in Moguluru village, Krishna District in the house of his maternal grandparents. He was educated till Class 7 only, in his native Tadikonda in Guntur district. However his books are used as course works in B.A, M.A and there have even been several PhD degrees awarded for research on his works. He got honorary doctorates from Andhra, Nagarjuna, Vignan and Jawaharlal Nehru Technological Universities for his literary prowess.

Awards
Bharadhwaja has been twice awarded the State Sahitya Academy Award for Literature and in 1983 was the winner of the Central Sahitya Academy Award. In 1968, he was the inaugural recipient of the Gopichand Literary Award. He was conferred the Rajalakshmi Award for Literature in 1987 and the Lok Nayak Foundation's Literary Award in 2009. In 2013, Ravuri Bharadhwaja became the third Telugu author to be conferred the Jnanpith award for his contribution to Telugu literature.

Works
He has  37 collections of short stories, 17 novels, six short novels for children and eight plays to his credit.
Phantomy quintette and other stories, Translator Purush, India Balaji Grandha Mala, 1970
Love's labour lost and other stories, Rāvūri Bharadvāja, Translator Purush, M. Seshachalam, 1975
Ad infinitum: featurised poetic story, Rāvūri Bharadvāja, Balaji Grandhamala, 1987
Kaumudi translated by Navnit Madrasi, 1988
Un Aankhon ki katha: (short story). Bharatiya Jnanpith, 1991
Ripple-marks: readings from Bharadwaja's Eegiac pentad

References

Sources
60 years and after: about Dr. Ravuri Bharadwaja, Purush, s.n., 1987
Telugulō smr̥ti sāhityaṃ-Bharadvāja racanalu: siddhānta vyāsaṃ, Vai. E. Viśālākṣmi, Śrīsatyasāyi Pracuraṇalu, 1998

External links
"Ravuri Bharadwaja - Drops of Light", Lokabhiramam, 30 November 2009

1927 births
2013 deaths
Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Telugu
Recipients of the Jnanpith Award
Indian male short story writers
Indian male novelists
20th-century Indian poets
20th-century Indian novelists
Indian male poets
Poets from Andhra Pradesh
People from Krishna district
20th-century Indian short story writers
Novelists from Andhra Pradesh
20th-century Indian male writers

Ravuri Bharadhwaja


The Wounded Knee Massacre was a brief fight between the Native American Lakota people and the US Army. It took place at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota on December 29, 1890. About 300 Lakota and 25 soldiers were killed. The Lakota were part of the Sioux nation. The army had been sent into the area to take the guns owned by the Lakota.

Ghost Dance
During the 1890's, a Native American shaman, named Wovoka, began teaching people about his visions for the future. He said the living would join with the dead, and the prairies would be covered in new soil. This would bury the European settlers, and life would return to the way it had been with lots of bison and other animals to hunt. To make this happen, he told people they would have to perform the Ghost Dance. The dancers wore brightly colored shirts with pictures of bison and eagles. They believed the shirts had magic powers which would protect them from bullets. The Ghost Dance caused a lot of excitement in the Sioux camps. European settlers were worried by these beliefs and the sight of wild and crazy people dancing in the snow. They demanded protection from the army.

Massacre
The army was sent in to the Native American camps to arrest the leaders and take away their weapons until things settled down. Chief Sitting Bull was killed when the army tried to arrest him at Standing Rock Reservation of December 15, 1890. The army then went to arrest Chief Big Foot. On December 28, the army found Chief Big Foot, who was leading his people south to the Pine Ridge Reservation, near the Wounded Knee Creek. The next morning Chief Big Foot met with Colonel Forsyth.

During the meeting a shot was fired, and very quickly both groups began shooting at each other. The army had Hotchkiss cannons which fired into the tepees. Many women and children were caught in the gunfire. When the shooting stopped over 300 people had been killed.

References

History of South Dakota
Massacres in the United States
War crimes
1890s in the United States

Wounded Knee Massacre


Tengwar is a constructed writing system, invented by J. R. R. Tolkien. The tengwar is used in his fictional world Middle-earth, for example the book The Lord of the Rings.
In the Quenya language, tengwar means "letters", tengwa is the singular and means "letter".

The tengwar are used to write some of Tolkien's constructed languages, like for example the elven languages Quenya and Sindarin. But Tolkien used the tengwar mostly for writing English. Because the tengwar is an alphabet, it can be used to write almost any language.

History
In the late 1910s, J. R. R. Tolkien developed the script Sarati, which was  already a bit similar to tengwar. The tengwar were probably developed in the late 1920s or in the early 1930s. The first published sample of tengwar writing was 1937 in The Hobbit, to so-called The Lonely Mountain Jar Inscription. The full explanation of the tengwar was published in 1955 in Appendix E of The Lord of the Rings.

Modes and sounds

The tengwar have a certain order, and are usually shown in a table/chart. They are sorted by how they look, which is also connected to how they sound. Because it is an alphabet, every tengwa means a sound. The main tengwar letters are placed into four vertical series (témar) and six horizontal rows (tyeller).

There are different ways to write with tengwar, which are called "modes". Between these modes there are differences, sometimes only a few and sometimes many differences. In different modes, the tengwar sometimes mean different sounds. In some modes the tengwar are used for vowels and consonants; and in other modes the tengwar are only used for the consonants, and the vowels are marked by signs above or below the tengwa, as in abugida writing. These vowel signs are called tehtar ("signs"; singular: tehta, "sign").
There are different modes to write the different Middle-earth languages. People have also made new modes to write English and other modern languages with the tengwar.

The tengwar is written in a table/chart with the way the letters sound. For example, if the sound comes from the front of the mouth it is in 1 row. Each column is for the sounds that come from the nose, throat, or lips.

Use
Tolkien used the tengwar to write texts for his fictional world Middle-earth and other things. He used it to write in the languages he invented (for example Quenya and Sindarin), but also used the tengwar to write English.

After Tolkien's Middle-earth books became famous, people also got interest in his languages and writing scripts. The tengwar are used by fans to write new things, or to re-write existing texts with tengwar.

Related pages

J. R. R. Tolkien
Middle-earth

Middle-earth

Tengwar


A natural language is the kind which we use in everyday conversation and writing. For example English, Hindi, Chinese. Natural languages are always very flexible, and people speak them in slightly different ways.

There are some natural languages which are simplified, such as Basic English and Special English.

An artificial language is quite different, as it is built for some special purpose. They are always very precise, and must be used according to pre-set rules. Symbolic logic, mathematics, programming languages.

Related pages
Artificial language
Formal language
Natural language processing

Language

Natural language


Brendan Smith (born Juin 1956) is a politeecian in the Republic o Ireland, an a member o the Irish pairlament in Dublin, representin the pairty Fianna Fáil.  He represents the Cavan-Monaghan consteetuency in Dáil Éireann.

1956 births
Livin fowk
Alumni o Varsity College Dublin
Fianna Fáil politeecians
Members o the 27t Dáil
Members o the 28t Dáil
Members o the 29t Dáil
Members o the 30t Dáil
Members o the 31st Dáil
Meenisters for Justice (Ireland)
Politeecians frae Coonty Cavan
Teachtaí Dála
Meenisters for Agricultur (Ireland)
Meenisters o State o the 30t Dáil
Meenisters o State o the 29t Dáil

Brendan Smith


Photolithography is the combination of photography and lithography. Its uses include the mass printing of photographs. Microphototolithography is the use of photolithography to transfer geometric shapes on a photomask to the surface of a semiconductor wafer for making integrated circuits.

Manufacturing

Photolithography makes integrated circuits such as memory and central processing units.

A special light-and-shadow pattern is shone through a photomask, onto a sheet or wafer of silicon that had been covered with a material called a photoresist. The light hardens the photoresist. When the board is dipped into a special acid, the parts that had no light on them are dissolved away.

Memory chips have thousands or millions of identical cells. Because is much easier to make than a CPU, (a large die with a non-repetitive structure), RAM chips are far less expensive than processors.

Technology
Electronics

Photolithography


Anspert (died 7 December 881) was archbishop of Milan from 861 to 881.

Biography
Despite the tradition that he was a member of the Confalonieri family, this is not confirmed. When he was not a bishop yet, Anspert received by emperor Louis II the asset of Ansprand, who had killed the monarch's brother.

He was appointed archbishop of Milan on 26 June 868 and under Louis II he was missus dominicus. An educated man, he asked Irish monks to found the archbishop's scriptorium in Milan, a center for production of illuminated manuscripts. On 12 August 875, he moved to Brescia, where the emperor had just died, and organized his sepulture in the basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan. In the January of the following year he participated to the coronation of Charles the Bald in Pavia, and received from the new king further territories at Cavenago, Vimercate and Ornago. In July 877 he took part in a council at Ravenna in which he obtained several privileges for the Milanese archbishopric.

After the Charles the Bald's death (877), Anspert entered in conflict with Pope John VIII, who favored Boso of Vienne as King of Italy, while the Milanese proposed Carloman of Bavaria. On 1 June 879 he was excommunicated and, in the following October, deposed; however, Anspert remained in charge as the Milanese clergymen supported him. Anspert and John reconciled when they met at the coronation of Charles the Fat as King of Italy (6 January 880) at Ravenna.

During his tenure as archbishop the church of Milan was named as Ambrosian

Anspert died at Milan in December 881 and was buried in the church of Sant'Ambrogio.

Sources

Further reading
Margherita Giuliana Bertolini, 'Ansperto' in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, Volume 3 (1961)

Date of birth unknown
Place of birth unknown
881 deaths
Archbishops of Milan
People temporarily excommunicated by the Catholic Church

Anspert


The Sweetwater River is a  long tributary of the North Platte River, in the U.S. state of Wyoming. As a part of the Mississippi River system, its waters eventually reach the Gulf of Mexico.

Course
The Sweetwater rises in southwestern Fremont County, at the continental divide near South Pass Wyoming, on the southern end of the Wind River Range. It flows ENE along the north side of the Antelope Hills, then ESE, through Fremont County, past Jeffrey City, between the Granite Mountains to the north and the Green Mountains (Wyoming) to the south, through what are now cattle-raising areas. In southern Natrona County, it passes Devil's Gate and Independence Rock along the Oregon, California and Mormon Trails, and empties into the North Platte as the Sweetwater arm of Pathfinder Reservoir.

History
The Sweetwater River valley provided a route used by fur trappers, mountain men and fur traders as they went to their annual summertime Rocky Mountain Rendezvous located usually somewhere along the Green River Wyoming. These trappers and traders soon established a path for their pack trains along the Sweetwater and eventually cleared a rough wagon trail to the Green River.

In fall of 1823, trappers and fur traders Jedediah Smith and Thomas Fitzpatrick led their trapping crew south from the Yellowstone River to the Sweetwater River. They were looking for a safe location to spend the winter. Smith reasoned since the Sweetwater flowed east it must eventually run into the Missouri River. Trying to transport their extensive fur collection down the Sweetwater and North Platte River, they found after a near disastrous canoe crash that the rivers in Wyoming were too swift and rough for water passage. On July 4, 1824, they cached their furs under a dome of rock they named Independence Rock and started their long trek on foot to the Missouri River via the Sweetwater, North Platte and Platte River valleys. Upon arriving back in a settled area on the Missouri River they bought pack horses (on credit) and retrieved their furs. They had re-discovered the route that Robert Stuart of the Astor Expedition had taken in 1813—eleven years before. Thomas Fitzpatrick was often hired as a trail guide when the fur trade almost ceased in 1840. Jedediah Smith was killed by Indians about 1831.

By 1843 the Sweetwater River valley was a regular wagon trail providing the water, grass and  fuel needed on the Oregon, California and Mormon Trails across Wyoming. The Sweetwater provided an almost direct path from the Platte and North Platte Rivers to the wide South Pass Continental Divide between the Atlantic Ocean rivers and Pacific Ocean rivers. South Pass was the easiest pass across the Atlantic and Pacific drainages. These wagon trails crossed the meandering Sweetwater River about nine times on their about 10 to 20 day trips along the Sweetwater River before they reached South Pass.  The Sweetwater River's connection to the California Trail is of particular interest to members of the Fraternity of Phi Gamma Delta, since it is a site where two early members met, including one of the fraternity's six founders.  At a time when such a meeting was incredibly unlikely, the coincidence was so fortuitous as to be chronicled in the fraternity's history.

See also
 List of rivers of Wyoming

References

Rivers of Wyoming
Bodies of water of Natrona County, Wyoming
Bodies of water of Fremont County, Wyoming
Tributaries of the North Platte River

Sweetwater River (Wyoming)


Tyropoeon Valley (Greek:   i.e., "Valley of the Cheesemakers") is the name given by Josephus the historian (Wars 5.140) to the valley or rugged ravine, in the Old City of Jerusalem, which in ancient times separated Mount Moriah from Mount Zion and emptied into the valley of Hinnom.

The Tyropoeon, filled over the centuries with a vast accumulation of debris, and almost a plain, was spanned by bridges, the most noted of which was Zion Bridge, which was probably the ordinary means of communication between the royal palace on Zion and the temple.

The western wall of the Temple Mount rose up from the bottom of this valley to the height of 84 feet, where it was on a level with the area, and above this, and as a continuance of it, the wall of Solomon's cloister rose to the height of about 50 feet, "so that this section of the wall would originally present to view a stupendous mass of masonry scarcely to be surpassed by any mural masonry in the world."

In the Copper Scroll this valley is called in Hebrew the Outer Valley (3Q15 col.8, line 4). The name  () possibly arose as an ancient mistranslation from Hebrew to the Greek of Josephus's book; Semitic languages use the same root for outer and congeal.

See also
Geography of Israel

References

Ancient Israel and Judah
Geography of Jerusalem
Hebrew Bible valleys

Tyropoeon Valley


Orthography is an official or correct way to write a particular language. It includes rules of spelling. Orthography may also include rules about punctuation, capitalization, and diacritics (e.g. accents). In English, spelling is a problem for all learners, and is the main issue in orthography.

Some languages have someone to decide the correct spelling, such as the Académie française. English does not. English orthography was the work of the early printers. They had to decide how particular words would be spelled in their books. Gradually the number of alternative spellings began to drop. The word which is "merry" today was spelled in about 30 ways in written sources from the 9th to the 16th century.p970

English orthography
English orthography, or English spelling, is the way the 26 letters of the alphabet are used to write down the 36 (IPA) sounds of English. The first manuscripts in Old English were written using the Latin alphabet. It had 24 letters.p16

Vowels
No alphabet fits its language exactly. One reason for this is that there are always more sounds than letters. In English there are far more vowel sounds than vowels. The ancient Greeks, who were the first to use letters for vowels, decided to use only a few letters for their vowel sounds. This choice influenced all later alphabets:
"The importance of the Greeks in the history of alphabetic writing is paramount. All the alphabets in use in Europe today stand in direct or indirect relation to the ancient Greek".

English would need about 20 vowels to represent the vowel phonemes (~sounds) in common use,p237 and some languages do have more letters for vowels. The Georgian language has a total of 41 letters. A shorter alphabet works by using two or three letters for a single sound, or one letter for several sounds.

Consonants
The English alphabet has only three consonants which have one sound, cannot be produced by other combinations and are never silent: n, r and v. The English language uses 22 to 26 consonant phonemes.

Dialects
The other reason that alphabets never exactly fit languages is dialect. A spoken language varies from place to place and from time to time. This is very obvious with English, as the pronunciation is so different in different parts of the world. A written language will always be less flexible than its spoken parent. It has a different function, and is produced mechanically. It must serve everyone who speaks the language, and it does this by keeping the spelling similar from one time to another.

Therefore, all alphabets have sounds which are difficult to represent with the letters in use. And English also has other problems: sounds that can be written in different ways, and spelling which can be pronounced in different ways. This all gives rise to problems of spelling.

British and American English
Differences between American English and British English spelling came about mainly as the result of one man. Noah Webster (1758–1843) wrote a Grammar, a Spelling book, and finally an American dictionary of the English language. In the course of this, he proposed a number of simplifications in spelling. In his dictionary, he chose s over c in words like defense, he changed the re to er in words like center, he dropped one of the Ls in traveler. At first he kept the u in words like colour or favour but dropped it in later editions. He also changed tongue to tung: that did not stick. His main reason was to help children learn to read and write. Webster's dictionary contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before.

Webster did create a slightly different identity for American English. But, because his efforts did not address some of the most glaring problems, his variations make little difference to the way the language is used.  An example of the real problems in English orthography is the word ending -ough, which is pronounced several different ways: tough, bough, cough...  The root causes of spelling variation are historical.  Loan words come with their own (foreign) spelling.  Some French loan words are still spelled in the French way; others have been changed.

English spelling reform has been proposed by many people since Webster, such as George Bernard Shaw, who proposed a new phonetic alphabet for English. In some cases Webster's changes have been widely adopted in Britain: the spelling programme came from the French; US program is clearly simpler, and more consistent with word endings in English. In our modern world, English orthography is still a problem. In some countries (notably, France) a national committee can give advice and direction as to spelling. English has long escaped from national custody.
 Spelling, though important, is less important than how the language is used in practice. The differences between British and American English in use are more to do with idiom, slang and vocabulary than they are to do with spelling. In this respect, spelling in writing or print is a bit like pronunciation in speech. They are the necessary outer clothes, but the inner substance is more important.
 In Wikipedia (note the spelling), articles may be in either American or British English, but should be consistent within each article. More details: Wikipedia:Manual of Style

Dictionaries and phonetics
Modern British spelling and use was greatly influenced by the two great English dictionaries, Samuel Johnson's A dictionary of the English language (1755), and James Murray's Oxford English Dictionary. Johnson's dictionary was hugely influential, abroad as well as at home. The dictionary was exported to America.

"The American adoption of the Dictionary was a momentous event not just in its history, but in the history of lexicography. For Americans in the second half of the eighteenth century, Johnson was the authority on language, and the subsequent development of American dictionaries was coloured by his fame".p224

For American lexicographers, the dictionary was impossible to ignore:
"America's two great nineteenth-century lexicographers, Noah Webster and Joseph Emerson Worcester, argued fiercely over Johnson's legacy ... In 1789 [Webster] declared that 'Great Britain, whose children we are, and whose language we speak, should no longer be our standard; for the taste of her writers is already corrupted, and her language on the decline.' ... Where Webster found fault with Johnson, Joseph Worcester saluted him ... In 1846 he completed his Universal and critical dictionary of the English Language.p226

Some people argue which language is the easiest to spell. People who learn a second language tend to think that their first (native) language is the easiest. However, for the learner, programmatic languages, with well-defined rules, are easier to start with than English. The spelling of the English language is by far the most irregular of all alphabetic spellings and thus the most difficult to learn. English is, in its origin, a Germanic language. From its early roots as Anglo-Saxon, it has borrowed words from many other languages: French (a Romance language) and Latin are the most frequent donors to English.

Languages that use phonetic spelling are easier to learn to spell than others. With phonetic spelling the words are spelled as they are pronounced. The Italian word "orologio" for instance is pronounced oh-ro-LO-jo ("gi" always making a "j" sound.) In English, one comes across the word "knife". In "knife", the "k" is not spoken, even though in English it's more common to pronounce "K"s when they are in words.

History of English spelling
One of the problems we have is that similar sounding words may be spelt quite differently. Rough and ruff; meet and meat; great and grate. Words with complicated spelling may be pronounced simply: Leicester is pronounced 'Lester'. Even what rules we do have are frequently broken. "i before e except after c" has over 100 exceptions.p272 Almost all these problems have come about for historical reasons. English has been changing for the last thousand years, and as the language changes, so parts of it get stuck with different spellings.

Here are some of the causes of English orthography:

 Originally a 23-letter alphabet for the 35 or so phonemes (sounds) of Old English. Other letters were added later.
 After the Norman conquest, French scribes introduced new spellings.
 Printing. Many of the early printers came from the continent of Europe, and brought other spelling norms to England. But, although print stabilised spelling, pronunciation continued to change.
 Printing coincided with the Great Vowel Shift at the end of Middle English (end 14th to 15th centuries). To avoid complex details, here is what happened: over a century, the pronunciation of all the vowels changed, and is still not standard throughout Britain. In any event, the spelling of thousands of words now reflects their pronunciation in Geoffrey Chaucer's time.
 16th-century scholars tried to indicate the history of a word by its spelling: the silent 'b' in 'debt' is there to reflect the Latin debitum.
 More loan words added in the late 16th to early 17th century, such as pneumonia, idiosyncrasy, epitome, cocoa.

English has a huge number of words, but its spelling comes from many different sources. "The large and varied lexicon of English has been bought at the expense of an increasingly deversified graphology".p275

Differences between languages
Some languages have a high correspondence between phonemes and letters. That means they get close to one letter for each sound. If there was a perfect correspondence, that language would have phonemic orthography. English is highly non-phonemic. It has almost every kind of deviation known:
 different letters for the same sound
 two or more letters for a single sound
 sound depends on nearby letters
 vast range of words whose sound varies according to dialect
 huge number of loan words with imported spellings
 defective: it does not represent some important differences in phonemes. Example: the difference between the voiced th (the) and the unvoiced th (thin).

This field of study is called "orthographic depth". The orthographic depth of an alphabetic script is the degree to which a written language deviates from simple one-to-one letter–phoneme correspondence. It shows how easy it is to predict the pronunciation of a word from its spelling. Shallow orthographies are easy to pronounce based on the written word, and deep orthographies are difficult to pronounce based on how they are written. In shallow orthographies, the spelling-sound correspondence is direct: given the rules of pronunciation, one is able to "say" the word correctly.

Most other international languages have similar problems: in French, Arabic or Hebrew, new readers have difficulty learning to decode words. As a result, children learn to read more slowly. In both Spanish and Italian there is a more direct connection between spelling and pronunciation. Those are languages with low orthographic depth.

Related pages
 Ghoti

References

Spelling

Orthography


Terrain, or relief, is the third or vertical dimension of land surface (aka "up and down" dimension.) When relief is described underwater, the term bathymetry is used. Topography has recently become an additional synonym, though in many parts of the world it retains its original more general meaning of description of place.

Terrain is used as a general term in physical geography, referring to the lie of the land. This is usually expressed in terms of the elevation (height of the land,) slope (angle of the elevation,) and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects surface water flow and distribution. Over a large area, it can affect weather and climate patterns

Physical geography

Terrain


"Three Men and a Comic Book" is the twenty-first episode of the second season of The Simpsons. It first started on the Fox network in the United States on May 9, 1991. In this episode, Bart catches a quick look of the first issue of "Radioactive Man" for sale at a comic book convention. So Bart, Martin, and Milhouse combine their money to buy the valuable comic book, only to lose it because to their selfishness and being unable to share.

Other websites

1991 television episodes
The Simpsons (season 2) episodes

Three Men and a Comic Book


Richard Hooker (25 March 1554 – 2 November 1600) was an English priest in the Church of England and an influential theologian. He was one of the most important English theologians of the sixteenth century.  His defence of the role of redeemed reason informed the theology of the seventeenth-century Caroline Divines and later provided many members of the Church of England with a theological method which combined the claims of revelation, reason and tradition.

Scholars disagree regarding Hooker's relationship with what would later be called "Anglicanism" and the Reformed theological tradition. Traditionally, he has been regarded as the originator of the Anglican via media between Protestantism and Catholicism. However, a growing number of scholars have argued that he should be considered as being in the mainstream Reformed theology of his time and that he only sought to oppose the extremists (Puritans), rather than moving the Church of England away from Protestantism. The term "Anglican" is not found in his writings and indeed first appears early in the reign of Charles I as the Church of England moved towards an Arminian position doctrinally and a more "Catholic" look liturgically under the leadership of Archbishop William Laud.

Youth (1554–1581)
Details of Hooker's life come chiefly from Izaak Walton's biography of him.  Hooker was born in the village of Heavitree in Exeter, Devon sometime around Easter Sunday (March) 1554. He attended Exeter Grammar School until 1569.  Richard came from a good family, but one that was neither noble nor wealthy.  His uncle John Hooker was a success and served as the chamberlain of Exeter.

Hooker's uncle was able to obtain for Richard the help of another Devon native, John Jewel, bishop of Salisbury.  The bishop saw to it that Richard was accepted to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he became a fellow of the society in 1577. In addition to his assistance securing admittance, Jewel also agreed to fund Hooker's education.  On 14 August 1579 Hooker was ordained a priest by Edwin Sandys, then bishop of London. Sandys made Hooker tutor to his son Edwin, and Richard also taught George Cranmer, the great nephew of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer.  In 1580 he was deprived of his fellowship for "contentiousness" having campaigned for the losing candidate (Rainoldes, a lifelong friend who would become a leader of the Puritan party and participate in the Hampton Court Conference of 1604) in a contested election to the presidency of the college.  However, he recovered it when Rainoldes finally assumed the post".

London and marriage (1581–1595)
In 1581, Hooker was appointed to preach at St Paul's Cross and he became a public figure, more so because his sermon offended the Puritans by diverging from their theories of predestination.  Some ten years before Hooker arrived in London, the Puritans had produced an "Admonition to Parliament" together with "A view of Popish Abuses" and initiated a long debate which would last beyond the end of the century.  John Whitgift (soon to become Archbishop of Canterbury) produced a reply, and Thomas Cartwright a reaction to the reply. Hooker was drawn into the debate through the influence of Edwin Sandys and George Cranmer.

He was also introduced to John Churchman, a distinguished London merchant who became Master of the Merchant Taylors' Company.  It was at this time, according to his first biographer Walton, that Hooker made the "fatal mistake" of marrying his landlady's daughter, Jean Churchman. As Walton put it: "There is a wheel within a wheel; a secret sacred wheel of Providence (most visible in marriages), guided by His hand that allows not the race to the swift nor bread to the wise, nor good wives to good men: and He that can bring good out of evil (for mortals are blind to this reason) only knows why this blessing was denied to patient Job, to meek Moses, and to our as meek and patient Mr Hooker."  However, Walton is described by Christopher Morris as an "unreliable gossip" who "generally moulded his subjects to fit a ready-made pattern," and both he and John Booty give the date of the marriage as 1588.  Hooker seems to have lived on and off with the Churchmans until 1595 and, according to Booty, he "seems to have been well treated and considerably assisted by John Churchman and his wife".

Hooker became rector of St. Mary's Drayton Beauchamp, Buckinghamshire, in 1584, but probably never lived there. The following year, he was appointed Master of the Temple in London by the Queen (possibly as a compromise candidate to those proposed by Lord Burleigh and Whitgift). There, Hooker soon came into public conflict with Walter Travers, a leading Puritan and Reader (lecturer) at the Temple, partly because of the sermon at Paul's Cross four years before, but mainly because Hooker argued that salvation was possible for some Roman Catholics. The controversy abruptly ended when Travers was silenced by the Archbishop in March 1586 and the Privy Council strongly supported the decision.

About this time, Hooker began to write his major work Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, a critique of the Puritans and their attacks on the Church of England and particularly the Book of Common Prayer.

In 1591, Hooker left the Temple and was presented to the living of St Andrew's, Boscombe, Wiltshire to support him while he wrote. He seems to have lived mainly in London but apparently did spend time in Salisbury where he was subdean of Salisbury Cathedral and made use of the Cathedral Library.  The first four volumes of the major work were published in 1593, with a subsidy from Edwin Sandys, and apparently the last four were held back for further revision by the author.

Last years (1595–1600)
In 1595, Hooker became rector of the parishes of St. Mary the Virgin in Bishopsbourne and St. John the Baptist in Barham, both in Kent, and left London to continue his writing.  He published the fifth book of "Of the Laws" in 1597.  It is longer than the first four taken together. He died 3 November 1600 at his rectory in Bishopsbourne and was buried in the chancel of the church, being survived by his wife and four daughters.  His will includes the following provision: "Item, I give and bequeth three pounds of lawful English money towards the building and making of a newer and sufficient pulpitt in the p'sh of Bishopsbourne." The pulpit can still be seen in Bishopsbourne church, along with a statue of him. Subsequently, a monument was erected there by William Cowper in 1632 which described him as "judicious".

Works

Apart from the Lawes, Hooker's lesser writings, which are few in number, fall into three groups: those related to the Temple Controversy with Travers (including three sermons); those connected with the last writing of the last books of the Laws; and other miscellaneous sermons (four complete plus three fragments).

Learned Discourse of Justification
This sermon from 1585 was one of those that triggered Travers' attack and appeal to the Privy Council. Travers accused Hooker of preaching doctrine favourable to the Church of Rome when in fact he had just described their differences emphasising that Rome attributed to works "a power of satisfying God for sin".  For Hooker, works were a necessary expression of thanksgiving for unmerited justification by a merciful God. Hooker defended his belief in the doctrine of Justification by faith, but argued that even those who did not understand or accept this could be saved by God.

Hooker also expresses in this work the classic ordo salutis that recognises the distinction between justification and sanctification as two forms of righteousness while at the same time emphasising the role the sacraments have in justification. Hooker's approach to this topic is seen as a classic example of the Anglican via media.

Of the Lawes of Ecclesiastical Politie

Of the Lawes of Ecclesiastical Politie is Hooker's best-known work, with the first four books being published in 1594. The fifth was published in 1597, while the final three were published posthumously, and indeed may not all be his own work.  Structurally, the work is a carefully worked out reply to the general principles of Puritanism as found in the "Admonition" and Thomas Cartwright's follow-up writings, more specifically:
 Scripture alone is the rule that should govern all human conduct;
 Scripture prescribes an unalterable form of Church government;
 The English Church is corrupted by Roman Catholic orders, rites, and ceremonies;
 The law is corrupt in not allowing lay elders;
 "There ought not to be in the Church Bishops".
Of the Lawes has been characterised as "probably the first great work of philosophy and theology to be written in English". The book is far more than a negative rebuttal of the puritan claims: it is (here McAdoo quotes John S. Marshall) "a continuous and coherent whole presenting a philosophy and theology congenial to the Anglican Book of Common Prayer and the traditional aspects of the Elizabethan Settlement".

Quoting C. S. Lewis, Stephen Neill underlines its positive side in the following terms: hitherto, in England, "controversy had involved only tactics; Hooker added strategy. Long before the close fighting in Book III begins, the puritan position has been rendered desperate by the great flanking movements in Books I and II. ... Thus the refutation of the enemy comes in the end to seem a very small thing, a by-product."

It is a massive work that deals mainly with the proper governance of the churches ("polity").  The Puritans advocated the demotion of clergy and ecclesiasticism. Hooker attempted to work out which methods of organising churches are best. What was at stake behind the theology was the position of Queen Elizabeth I as the Supreme Governor of the Church.  If doctrine were not to be settled by authorities, and if Martin Luther's argument for the priesthood of all believers were to be followed to its extreme with government by the Elect, then having the monarch as the governor of the church was intolerable.  On the other side, if the monarch were appointed by God to be the governor of the church, then local parishes going their own ways on doctrine were similarly intolerable.

In political philosophy, Hooker is best remembered for his account of law and the origins of government in Book One of the Politie. Drawing heavily on the legal thought of Thomas Aquinas, Hooker distinguishes seven forms of law: eternal law ("that which God hath eternally purposed himself in all his works to observe"), celestial law (God's law for the angels), nature's law (that part of God's eternal law that governs natural objects), the law of reason (dictates of Right Reason that normatively govern human conduct), human positive law (rules made by human lawmakers for the ordering of a civil society), divine law (rules laid down by God that can be known only by special revelation), and ecclesiastical law (rules for the governance of a church). Like Aristotle, whom he frequently quotes, Hooker believes that humans are naturally inclined to live in society. Governments, he claims, are based on both this natural social instinct and on the express or implied consent of the governed.

The Laws is remembered not only for its stature as a monumental work of Anglican thought, but also for its influence in the development of theology, political theory, and English prose.

Scholastic thought in a latitudinarian manner

Hooker worked largely from Thomas Aquinas, but he adapted scholastic thought in a latitudinarian manner.  He argued that church organisation, like political organisation, is one of the "things indifferent" to God.  He wrote that minor doctrinal issues were not issues that damned or saved the soul, but rather frameworks surrounding the moral and religious life of the believer.  He contended there were good monarchies and bad ones, good democracies and bad ones, and good church hierarchies and bad ones: what mattered was the piety of the people.  At the same time, Hooker argued that authority was commanded by the Bible and by the traditions of the early church, but authority was something that had to be based on piety and reason rather than automatic investiture. This was because authority had to be obeyed even if it were wrong and needed to be remedied by right reason and the Holy Spirit.  Notably, Hooker affirmed that the power and propriety of bishops need not be in every case absolute.

Legacy
King James I is quoted by Izaak Walton, Hooker's biographer, as saying, "I observe there is in Mr. Hooker no affected language; but a grave, comprehensive, clear manifestation of reason, and that backed with the authority of the Scriptures, the fathers and schoolmen, and with all law both sacred and civil." Hooker's emphasis on Scripture, reason, and tradition considerably influenced the development of Anglicanism, as well as many political philosophers, including John Locke. Locke quotes Hooker numerous times in the Second Treatise of Civil Government and was greatly influenced by Hooker's natural-law ethics and his staunch defence of human reason. As Frederick Copleston notes, Hooker's moderation and civil style of argument were remarkable in the religious atmosphere of his time. In the Church of England he is celebrated with a lesser festival on 3 November and the same day is also observed in the calendars of other parts of the Anglican Communion.

See also

 High church
 Low church
 Broad church
 Central churchmanship
 Anglican doctrine

References

Further reading
 Atkinson, Nigel, Richard Hooker and the Authority of Scripture, Tradition and Reason (Regent, 2005)
 Brydon, Michael, The Evolving Reputation of Richard Hooker: An Examination of Responses, 1600–1714 (Oxford, 2006)
 Davies, E.T., The political ideas of Richard Hooker (London, 1946)
 Dominiak, Paul, Richard Hooker. The Architecture of Participation  (T&T Clark, 2020)
 Faulkner, Robert K., Richard Hooker and the Politics of a Christian England (1981)
 Grislis, Egil, Richard Hooker: A Selected Bibliography (1971)
 Hooker, Richard, A Learned Discourse of Justification. 1612.
 Hooker, Richard, Works (Three volumes). Edited by John Keble, Oxford, 1836; Revised by R. W. Church and F. Paget, Oxford, 1888. Reprint by Burt Franklin, 1970 and by Via Media Publications.
 Hughes, Phillip Edgecumbe (1982), Faith and Works: Cranmer and Hooker on Justification (1982).

 Littlejohn, W. Bradford, The Peril and Promise of Christian Liberty: Richard Hooker, the Puritans, and Protestant Political Theology (Eerdmans, 2017)
 A. C. McGrade, ed., Richard Hooker and the Construction of Christian community (1997)
 Munz, Peter, The Place of Hooker in the History of Thought (1952, repr. 1971).
 http://www.johnjayinstitute.org/resources/publications/three-things-conservatives-could-learn-from-richard-hooker/

External links

 Hooker's works online (in 10-page pdfs)
 Hooker's works online (in HTML, Kindle, facsimile PDF, including all 8 books of the  Laws)
 Biography and articles about Hooker
 Entry on Hooker in Cambridge History of English and American Literature

 Biographical sketch
 Archbishop Rowan Williams' lecture on The Laws
 Exeter cathedral page
 Hooker at the Temple Church
 Hooker at Bishopsbourne Church including summary of his dates and writings
 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Wood, James, ed. The Nuttall Encyclopædia. London and New York: Frederick Warne, 1920. s. v. "Hooker, Richard" and "Ecclesiastical Polity, the Law of".
 Richard Hooker Modernization Project--The Davenant Institute
Find-a-Grave: Richard Hooker
Geni: Richard Hooker

1554 births
1600 deaths
16th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians
16th-century English Anglican priests
16th-century English theologians
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Oxford
Anglican saints
Burials in Kent
English Calvinist and Reformed theologians
English Christian theologians
Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Oxford
Masters of the Temple
Writers from Exeter
People of the Elizabethan era
Systematic theologians
16th-century Anglican theologians

Richard Hooker


Andromache is a person in Greek mythology. She is the wife of Hector of Troy and mother of Astyanax.

After the Trojan War, Neoptolemus took her and Helenus as slaves. Of Neoptolemus she had a child named Molossus. After Neoptolemus died, Andromache married Helenus, and became Queen of Epirus.

People in Greek mythology
Slaves

Andromache


Mutual intelligibility is where the speakers of one language can understand another language because they are alike. This is sometimes (but not always) used to decide whether they are different languages or different dialects.

There are noticeable differences in accent, vocabulary, and spelling between British and General American English, but speakers can largely understand each other without serious problems.  These dialects are therefore mutually intelligible.

Sometimes, even different languages can be mutually intelligible.Hindi and Urdu are called different languages, but speakers of both languages can largely understand each other if they are using everyday language. This is because the two languages used to be dialects of Hindustani, the official language of British India until India became independent. Since the two languages are so alike, they are sometimes called together as Hindi-Urdu.

Also, dialects of a certain language can sometimes be mutually unintelligible. Chinese, for example, has hundreds of different dialects, and many native speakers of those dialects cannot understand each other without knowing the other's dialect. For example, the local dialects of Beijing, Shanghai, and Hong Kong are Mandarin, Shanghainese/Wu Chinese, and Cantonese/Yue in that same order. If natives from each of these cities were to talk to each other in their native dialects, they would not understand each other. This is because they are too different from each other. This is why the governments of China and Taiwan want their citizens to speak Standard Mandarin in public so that there can be a spoken dialect of Chinese everyone can understand. While the spoken dialects are mutually unintelligible, they all use the same written code, Chinese characters, so they can understand each other if they write to each other.

These examples above show that the difference between language and dialect is often hard to define, even for linguists, or people who study languages as their job.

When a speaker of one language can understand what a speaker of another language is saying but not the other way around, it is called asymmetric intelligibility. An example of of this is Portuguese and Spanish. While Portuguese speakers say they can understand Spanish without major problems, Spanish speakers, on the other hand, have a very difficult time understanding Portuguese speakers. This situation is actually quite common across languages.

Language

Mutual intelligibility


In archaeology, a tool stone is a type of stone that is used to manufacture stone tools,
or tools that use stone as raw material.

Generally speaking, tools that require a sharp edge are made using cryptocrystalline materials that fracture in an easily controlled conchoidal manner.
Cryptocrystalline tool stones include flint and chert, which are fine-grained sedimentary materials; rhyolite and felsite, which are igneous flowstones; and obsidian, a form of natural glass created by igneous processes. These materials fracture in a predictable fashion, and are easily resharpened. For more information on this subject, see lithic reduction.

Large-grained materials such as basalt, granite and sandstone may also be used as tool stones, but for a very different purpose: they are ideal for ground stone artifacts. Whereas cryptocrystalline materials are most useful for killing and processing animals, large-grained materials are usually used for processing plant matter. Their rough faces often make excellent surfaces for grinding plant seeds. With much effort, some large-grained stones may be ground down into awls, adzes, and axes.

See also
 Cupstone
 Lithic technology

References

Archaeological artefact types
Lithics

Tool stone