The Grand Canyon Lodge is a hotel and cabins complex at Bright Angel Point on the North Rim of the Grand Canyon.  It was designed by Gilbert Stanley Underwood, who designed a number of other hotels in national parks for the Utah Parks Company and other concessioners. Built in 1927–28, the Grand Canyon Lodge resort complex consists of the Main Lodge building, 23 deluxe cabins, and 91 standard cabins, some of which were moved to the north rim campground in 1940. All guests are housed in cabins detached from the main lodge, which serves as a dining, concessions and service facility. Constructed of native Kaibab limestone and timber, the complex was designed to harmonize with its rocky and forested setting. The Grand Canyon Lodge complex is notable for its setting and rustic design, as well as its status as the only complete surviving lodge and cabin complex in the national parks.

History
The new hotel complex on the North Rim was built in 1927–28 by the Utah Parks Company, a subsidiary of the Union Pacific Railroad, which operated similar concessions in Zion and Bryce Canyon National Parks. Until then, most of the concession activity on the North Rim was at the camp run by W.W. Wylie, a concessioner more closely associated with Yellowstone National Park, who operated the tent camp that eventually became the Grand Canyon Inn and Campground after it was taken over by the Utah Parks Company.

The Grand Canyon Lodge initially consisted of the Main Lodge building, 20 deluxe cabins, and 100 standard cabins. 20 additional cabins were constructed in 1928. The lodge and many of the cabins were built in the fall and winter of 1927–28, in a region known for its severe winter weather. Cabin construction continued through the summer of 1928. A 1932 fire that began in the lodge's basement destroyed much of the main lodge and two cabins. The lodge was rebuilt in 1936–37 to a modified design, that re-used much of the original stonework, but which was otherwise scaled back, lacking the original's second story and observation tower. Underwood increased the amount of stonework and modified the roofline in response to the original lodge's experience of heavy snowfall. Debate continues over the role Underwood played, if any, in the rebuilt Grand Canyon Lodge, as he was by then working for the Federal government, and his signature is not apparent on the reconstruction drawings.

Description
Gilbert Stanley Underwood was employed by the Union Pacific Railroad to design resort hotels at Zion, Bryce Canyon, Yosemite, and Grand Canyon.  Underwood purposefully designed the stonework to appear like natural rock outcroppings. The main lodge building is set slightly downhill into the side of the canyon and is the complex's central feature. The structure of both the original and rebuilt lodges is a mixture of Kaibab limestone and peeled Ponderosa pine logs.

The original lodge was a shallow U-shaped structure featured the central south-facing Sun Room with large windows and open stone terraces to either side. The east terrace featured an outdoor stone fireplace. The dining room ran along the western terrace with a bank of windows overlooking the canyon and a dramatic log truss roof augmented by concealed steel reinforcement. The eastern wing was a two-story structure with a recreation room on the lower level and a female employee dormitory on the upper level. The roof of the Sun Room was a terrace that stepped up into the main lobby, which was itself capped with an observation tower. The wings held bathing facilities, gift shops and a soda fountain, with a basement containing service areas, and a large room below the Sun Room. The original lodge, with its shallow roof, expressed California design influences, with elements of Spanish Revival style.

The rebuilt lodge maintained the same general outline, but was simplified and strengthened against the severe winter snow loads of the North Rim. The Dining Room was reconstructed largely as it was before, but with a steeper roof pitch, and the Recreation room received similar treatment, without the original upper level, and on a smaller scale than the Dining Room. Compared with the original there was greater use of stone throughout the lodge. The Sun Room was rebuilt in the same relationship to the lobby as before. The reconstruction included wrought iron hardware and lighting fixtures that complement the rustic wood and stone structure. The overall effect of the reconstructed lodge was one of more strongly expressed rustic character.

Cabins
All guest accommodation at the Grand Canyon Lodge was and remains in small detached cabins, arranged in duplex or quadplex plans. Cabins fell into two categories: Regular and Deluxe. The regular cabins, sometimes called economy cabins, were built as true log cabins with gabled roofs, each of two rooms divided by a log wall with a door. Located to the northwest of the lodge, 91 of these were built. 46 were altered with a bathroom extension of simulated log construction with a toilet for each side, while most of the remainder had single shared bathrooms built inside. Each cabin has an unroofed stone porch at either end. The deluxe cabins, located to the northeast of the lodge, are frame structures sheathed with half-logs. 18 are duplexes (another two burned when the lodge burned and were never replaced) and five are quadplexes. Floor plans and porch arrangements vary. All deluxe cabins share prominent porches of heavy log construction, many of which are on the edge of the canyon and have their own views. Deluxe cabins included stone chimneys. The regular cabins are still in use, divided into cabins that retain the original layout, and renovated cabins that combine both rooms into one larger cabin.

The cabin complex is significant in its retention of both classes of cabins. At other parks the cabins have either been removed, or the economy cabins have vanished, or, as at Zion, the main lodge has been destroyed.

Historic designation
The Grand Canyon Lodge was declared a National Historic Landmark on May 28, 1987. It had previously been placed on the National Register of Historic Places on  September 2, 1982. The historic district includes a rustic drinking fountain and a trail shelter near the head of the North Kaibab Trail.

References

External links

 Architecture in the Parks: A National Historic Landmark Theme Study: Grand Canyon Lodge, by Laura Soullière Harrison, 1986, at National Park Service.
 Grand Canyon Lodge Photos
  and Grand Canyon Lodge, Bright Angel Kiosk, North Rim, Grand Canyon, Coconino County, AZ

 Official website

Grand Canyon, North Rim
Buildings and structures in Grand Canyon National Park
Railway hotels in the United States
Hotel buildings completed in 1928
Hotel buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Arizona
Park buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Arizona
National Register of Historic Places in Coconino County, Arizona
National Historic Landmarks in Arizona
Hotels established in 1928
1928 establishments in Arizona
Grand Canyon
Historic American Buildings Survey in Arizona
Buildings and structures in Coconino County, Arizona
Tourist attractions in Coconino County, Arizona
Gilbert Stanley Underwood buildings
National Park Service rustic in Arizona
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Arizona
National Register of Historic Places in Grand Canyon National Park

Grand Canyon Lodge


The Henry Ford Company wis the seicont company for Henry Ford, foondit November 3, 1901. It resultit frae the reorganization o the Detroit Automobile Company, his first unsuccessful attempt at automobile manufacture a year afore. In Mairch 1902, Ford left the company follaein a dispute wi his financial backers, William Murphy an Lemuel Bowen. In a final settlement, Ford left wi his name an 900 dollars; he went on tae stairt the Ford Motor Company in 1903.

In August 1902, Henry M. Leland wis brocht in bi the investors tae appraise the plant an equipment prior tae sellin them. Instead, Leland persuadit them tae continue in the automobile business.  The Henry Ford Company reorganized that year as Cadillac in honor o Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, the foonder o Detroit.

Cadillac's first caur wis completit on October 17, 1902, the 10 horsepouer (7 kW) Cadillac. Based on Henry Ford's design (except for the ingine, designed bi Leland & Faulconer), it wis practically identical to the 1903 Ford Model A.

Locatit in Detroit at the intersection o Clark Street an Michigan Avenue in a triangle o land boondit bi the intersection o twa railway lines, the oreeginal manufacturin plant remained in operation unner Cadillac till the early 1990s, referred tae as baith "Cadillac Main" an "Cadillac Plant #1".  Durin the last decade or so, the plant wis gradually closed doun—as the freight elevators in its multi-story assembly buildings wur the cause o production bottlenecks, especially when ane or maire wur shut doun for mechanical failure (despite an ootside maintenance contractor haein an on-site office an elevator repair an service personnel).

In the late 1990s, Cadillac completely shut doun aw operations at that plant, an the land wis leveled, tae be redeveloped as an industrial pairk.

See an aw
 Cadillac (automobile)
 Ford Motor Company
 Leet o automobile manufacturers

Companies established in 1901
Companies disestablished in 1902
Motor vehicle manufacturers o the Unitit States
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan

Henry Ford Company


The Navajo language (Navajo: Diné Bizaad) is a Southern Athabaskan language that is spoken in the United States, specifically in the Navajo Nation (in the states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah). It is the most widely spoken Native American language in the US and the most spoken Indigenous language in the Americas north of the US-Mexico border. In 2011, almost 170,000 Americans spoke Navajo at home. Navajo is famous for being used by the Navajo Code Talkers during World War II (Pacific Theater).

Compared to many other languages, the Navajo language has a lot of sounds, including many that are not found in the English language. Navajo is also a tonal language, like Chinese, which means that pitch is used to make words different from each other. English is not a tonal language. For these reasons and many more, many English speakers find it difficult to learn Navajo.

In Navajo, new words are made by adding prefixes and suffixes to a part of a word called the stem. These prefixes and suffixes add meaning, such as tense, who is doing the action, and so on. In Navajo, sentences are arranged as subject-object-verb although they can be arranged in other ways too.

Navajo does not have a lot of loanwords from other languages.

The Navajo language is written with the Latin alphabet, just like English. The current alphabet was developed in the 1930s. Before this, the Navajo did not have their own alphabet.

Name
The Navajo do not call themselves or their language "Navajo." The word "Navajo" is from the Tewa word Navahu, which means "large field" (nava "field" + hu "valley"). The Tewa are another group of Native Americans and speak their own language. That Tewa word eventually made it into the Spanish language, where it referred to an area in New Mexico. That Spanish word then was used in English to refer to the Navajo people, who live in New Mexico.

The Navajo call themselves Diné, which means "people." They call their language Diné bizaad ("people's language). They also call their language Naabeehó bizaad, which is based on the word "Navajo."

Classification
Navajo is part of the Athabaskan language family. A language family is a group of languages that are related to each other and come from a common ancestor language. For example, English is part of the Indo-European language family because it has a lot of similarities with languages spoken in Europe, the Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent. Navajo is one of the most southernmost Athabaskan languages. Other Athabaskan languages are spoken in Alaska and on the Pacific coast.

Like many other Athabaskan languages, Navajo has tones. However, the tones evolved independently in different languages. For example, what is a "high" tone in Navajo is a "low" tone in other Athabaskan languages and vice versa.

The Western Apache language is the language that is most closely related to Navajo. They share a lot of the same tones and a lot of words. Navajo is similar to other Apachean language.

History

The ancestors of the Navajo are thought to have come from the northern US and Canada, because other Athabaskan languages are spoken in those places. Archaeologists think that the Navajo came to the Southwest by 1500.

Starting in the 1800s, the Spanish colonized the Navajo territory as part of Mexico. Then the US took over the area after the Mexican-American war. After that, American settlers came and set up schools to teach the Navajo about English and Christianity. They did not allow the Navajo to use their language in order to make them learn English. Children were forced to wash out their mouths with soap if teachers found them speaking Navajo. Because of this, many parents were afraid to teach their children the language.

Robert W. Young and William Morgan (Navajo) were two men who worked for the Bureau of Indian Affairs. They created a single alphabet for the Navajo language. Before then, there were many alphabets used to write down the Navajo language.

A white American man who lived with the Navajo recommended that the language be used as a code language during World War II.  Back then, there were no Navajo dictionaries and very few non-Navajo spoke the language. Also, the Navajo language is very different from German and Japanese, the languages of the enemies at the time. The military started to recruit Navajo men to become code talkers. These code talkers sent code messages in Navajo. The code talkers used very specific words for military words (such as "iron fish" for submarine) so that even other Navajo would have a hard time understanding if they didn't learn the meanings of those terms. The Japanese found out they were speaking Navajo because a professor who studied Native American languages recognized it, but they could not understand the words of the code. There were other code talkers in other Native American and non-Native American languages, but the Navajo Code Talkers were the most famous.

After World War II, the Navajo language began to decline. More roads were built into Navajo land, which exposed them more to English. However, things began to change in the 1960s. President Johnson signed a law that said that kids who don't speak English are allowed to have bilingual education. That was when the Navajo began to open up schools that taught in both English and Navajo.

Today, Navajo is considered to be a language in trouble because more and more of the Navajo now speak English only. However, people are working to change it by speaking and writing in Navajo and teaching the language to other people.

Grammar
In Navajo, new words are created by putting prefixes in front of other words.

Navajo is called a subject-object-verb language. This means that the subject is first and the verb is last ("I you love"). This is different from English, which is a subject-verb-object language ("I love you").

Verbs
Verbs (action words) are the most important part of Navajo grammar. Every sentence needs a verb. Each verb is composed of a root, with additional prefixes and suffixes attached to form a word.

Nouns
Nouns are people, places, and things. They are not as important in Navajo. Many nouns are created by adding certain prefixes and suffixes to verbs.

Unlike in some other languages, Navajo nouns do not have grammatical gender. They also do not change in the plural (unlike English, which usually adds the suffix -s to indicate plural nouns).

Navajo nouns are organized as animate (people, plants, and animals) or inanimate (everything else).

In the Navajo language, possession is not indicated by 's or words such as my. Instead, prefixes are added to the beginning of words. (Example: chidí 'car' - shichidí 'my car')

Adjectives
Navajo does not have adjectives. Verbs play the role of adjectives.

Numbers

The Navajo words for million (miiltsoh), billion (binyóón), and other large numbers are based on English.

Days of the Week
The Navajo borrowed the 7-day week from the Spanish. The first day of the week is Sunday, which is Damóo. This comes from the Spanish word for Sunday, Domingo.

Letters

The Navajo language uses the ABCs, just like English. Before, the Navajo language had no writing system. As missionaries came, they made up their own alphabets. However, some linguists came up with a single alphabet that represented the sounds of Navajo well. This alphabet has lots of extra letters and marks so that all the sounds of the Navajo language can be written correctly.

Below is a chart of all the Navajo letters.

Vowels
 a, as in bra
 e, as in met
 i, as in see
 o, as in go
 aa
 ee
 ii
 oo
 ą
 ę
 į
 ǫ
 ąą
 ęę
 įį
 ǫǫ

The hooks underneath the letters are called ogoneks and represent nasal vowels. Nasal vowels are not found in English, but they are found in languages like French and Portuguese.

High tones are represented with a mark called an acute accent, such as á.

Double letters lengthen the vowels so that they are said a bit longer than just one letter.

Consonants
 ', like the pause in uh-oh
 b, like spill
 ch, like child
 ch'
 d, like stay
 dl, like atlas
 dz, like cats
 g, like skate
 gh, which is not a sound that is found in English
 h, like he
 hw, like blowing out a candle
 j, like teacher
 k, like king
 k'
 kw, like liquid
 l, like lake
 ł, which is not a sound that is found in English
 m, like man
 n, like nice
 s, like sad
 sh, like shell
 t, like tie
 t'
 tł
 tł'
 ts, like cats
 ts'
 w, like was
 x, is pronounced like h. It's a letter that is used after "s" or "h" to avoid confusion with "sh" or "hh"
 y, like yellow
 z, like was
 zh, like garage

Sample text
Navajo: Ashiiké t'óó diigis léi' tółikaní ła' ádiilnííł dóó nihaa nahidoonih níigo yee hodeez'ą́ jiní. Áko t'áá ał'ąą ch'il na'atł'o'ii k'iidiilá dóó hááhgóóshį́į́ yinaalnishgo t'áá áłah ch'il na'atł'o'ii néineest'ą́ jiní. Áádóó tółikaní áyiilaago t'áá bíhígíí t'áá ał'ąą tł'ízíkágí yii' haidééłbįįd jiní. "Háadida díí tółikaní yígíí doo ła' aha'diidził da," níigo aha'deet'ą́ jiní'. Áádóó baa nahidoonih biniiyé kintahgóó dah yidiiłjid jiní' ...

English: Some crazy boys decided to make some wine to sell, so they each planted grapevines and, working hard on them, they raised them to maturity. Then, having made wine, they each filled a goatskin with it. They agreed that at no time would they give each other a drink of it, and they then set out for town lugging the goatskins on their backs ...

References

Languages of the United States

Navajo language


Arlo Davy Guthrie (born July 10, 1947) is an American musician and songwriter, and is the son of folk music legend Woody Guthrie. His most famous song is Alice's Restaurant, which was also the title of his first album.

Early life
Guthrie learned music from his father, who wrote songs for him like "Goodnight Little Arlo". When the young Guthrie became thirteen years old, his father gave him a Bar Mitzvah, and invited many folk musicians. It was called "the first hootenanny bar mitzvah in history."

Guthrie met Bob Dylan when Dylan came from Minnesota to meet his father Woody. Dylan taught Guthrie a new way to play the harmonica. Guthrie started college after high school, but dropped out.

"Alice's Restaurant"
During 1965, Guthrie visited his friends Alice and Ray Brock in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, who lived in an old church, and owned a restaurant. He recorded a musical commercial for the restaurant. When Thanksgiving came that year, they invited many people, and afterwards there was a lot of garbage to be picked up and thrown away. Guthrie and another friend tried to take the garbage to a dump, but it was closed. They found a large trash pile not far away, and unwisely decided to throw their garbage onto the same pile. (Dumping trash where it does not belong is called 'littering' and is a crime in most places.)

When local police found out, they arrested Guthrie and his friend. Since the young men had long hair and looked like hippies, the police wanted to prosecute them and make an example of them to other young people. They prepared a big court case against Guthrie and his friend, with many photographs of the litter pile. It turned out the local judge was blind, could not look at the photographs, and was not interested in the case. He fined Guthrie and his friend fifty dollars, and ordered them to clean up the pile.

Not long after, Guthrie received a draft notice. The United States Army wanted him to become a soldier. Guthrie went for a physical examination by a doctor, and had to fill out a questionnaire giving information about himself. When asked if he had ever been arrested, he talked about the littering incident. He soon found himself sitting on a bench together with criminals, some of which were violent or dangerous. He could not believe the way he was treated by the Army. He began to complain and protest his treatment. The Army officers decided he would not make a good soldier, but might become a threat to the American government. They fingerprinted Guthrie, and let him go.

Guthrie decided later the two incidents would make a good protest song and he built one around the jingle he had written. He called the song "Alice's Restaurant Massacree", and recorded it in front of a live audience. He did not want other young men to be drafted, and suggested in the song that they might get out of the draft by doing like he had.

The recording became half of his first album, and the rest was filled out with other music, like "The Motorcycle Song". The album became a hit record.

Later career
Guthrie later recorded other albums and songs. His cover of the Steve Goodman song, "The City of New Orleans", about a famous train named after the city, became another hit. He bought a farm with the money he earned from his music, and lived there between recording sessions and performing tours.

In time, he became interested in charity work. He noticed people of different religious beliefs did not always work well together for the same causes, because their beliefs kept them apart. He tried to work around the differences, and help people find ways to work together to solve the same problems. He started the Guthrie Center, as a place for people to work together. He later bought the old church where his friends had lived, and made it the headquarters for the Guthrie Center.

References

Other websites
The Guthrie Center

American guitarists
Singer-songwriters from New York (state)
Musicians from New York City
Singers from New York City
American folk musicians
1947 births
Living people
Warner Bros. Records artists

Arlo Guthrie


Stephens is an unincorporated community in Oglethorpe County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2010 census, the ZIP Code Tabulation Area for Stephens' post office had a population of 1035. The community of Stephens (including its post office) is located along State Route 77 between Maxeys and Lexington, at the intersection of Salem Road, which heads east through some rural and low-density residential areas and eventually on to State Route 22.

History
An old variant name was "Antioch". The present name is after Alexander Stephens (1812–1883), Vice President of the Confederate States of America.

Not much evidence is left at the heart of the community, as the railroad that once ran along State Route 77 from Athens to Union Point was pulled up in 2000, and all that stands are a few abandoned buildings including a recently closed convenience store. The community's ZIP code still includes most areas in southern Oglethorpe County, however.

Geography
Stephens is located at  (33.79480, −83.16140).

Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 1035 people, 378 households, and 269 families residing in the area.  There were 460 housing units .  The racial makeup of the area was 66.6% White, 24.7% African American, 0.2% Asian, 6.7% from other races, and 1.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.3% of the population.

There were 378 households, out of which 27.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.6% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.8% were non-families. 24.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.74 and the average family size was 3.28.

In the area the population was spread out, with 24.7% under the age of 18, 10.1% from 18 to 24, 19.6% from 25 to 44, 30.0% from 45 to 64, and 15.6% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 40.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 107.8 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 107.7 males.

The median income for a household in the area was $36,115, and the median income for a family was $44,750. The per capita income for the area was $15,655.  About 13.9% of families and 19.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.3% of those under age 18 and 20.6% of those age 65 or over.

References

Unincorporated communities in Oglethorpe County, Georgia
Athens – Clarke County metropolitan area
Unincorporated communities in Georgia (U.S. state)

Stephens, Georgia


Mynydd y Dref (Welsh : "Mountain of the Town") or Conwy Mountain is a hilly area to the west of the town of Conwy, in Wales.  To the north it overlooks the sea of Conwy Bay, and to the south lie the foothills of the Carneddau range of mountains, of which it forms a part.  Mynydd y Dref is the remains of an ancient volcano that erupted about 450 million years ago.

At the summit of Conwy Mountain are the Neolithic Hut Circles and the Iron Age hillfort of Castell Caer Seion (sometimes called Castell Caer Lleion). Castell Caer Seion comprised a stone walled fort, and remains show this to have been an extensive site, incorporated more than 50 hut circles and levelled platform houses, and with a citadel and outposts.

Limited excavations were undertaken in 1951.  No datable remains were found, only slingstones, querns and stone pestles and mortars, which suggests that, unlike many hillforts in north Wales, this site was not reoccupied in the late Roman period.

Millstones were quarried on Conwy Mountain during the Napoleonic wars.

Tracks and footpaths cross Conwy Mountain, and many walks, which can be accessed from Sychnant Pass at its western end.
The route along Conwy Mountain comprises a section of the North Wales Path, a way-marked long-distance walk of some 60 miles which runs close to the North Wales coast between Prestatyn in the east and Bangor in the west.

See also
List of hillforts in Wales
 :Category:Hillforts in Conwy County Borough

References

Mountains and hills of Conwy County Borough
Volcanoes of Wales
Ordovician volcanoes
Conwy
Mountains and hills of Snowdonia

Mynydd y Dref


The Indochina Wars () were a series of wars which were waged in Southeast Asia from 1946 to 1992, by communist Indochinese forces (mainly the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) against the opponents (mainly French, the State of Vietnam, South Vietnam, American, Cambodian, Laotian Royal, and Chinese forces). The term "Indochina" originally referred to French Indochina, which included the current states of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. , it applies largely to a geographic region, rather than to a political area. The wars included:
 The First Indochina War (called the Indochina War in France and the French War in Vietnam) began after the end of World War II in 1946 and lasted until the French defeat in 1954. After a long campaign of resistance against the French and the Japanese, Viet Minh forces had claimed a victory (the August Revolution) after Japanese and Vichy French forces surrendered in the North on 15 August 1945. In the War in Vietnam (1945–46), British forces temporarily occupied the South, starting from 13 September 1945, only to restore French colonial control in 1946. In the United Nations, and through their alliance with the United Kingdom and the United States, the French demanded return of their former Indochina colony prior to agreeing to participate in the NATO alliance (founded in 1949) opposing Soviet expansion beyond the countries of the Warsaw Pact (founded in 1955) in the Cold War. The communist/nationalist Viet Minh, whom the Allies had supported during World War II, continued fighting the French with support from China and the Soviet Union, ultimately forcing the NATO-backed French out of Indochina (1954).
 The Second Indochina War (called the Vietnam War in the West or the American War in Vietnam) began as a conflict between the United States-backed South Vietnamese government and its opponents, both the North Vietnamese-based communist Viet Cong (National Liberation Front) and the  People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), known in the West as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). The conflict began in 1955 and lasted until 1975 when the North Vietnamese conquered South Vietnam. The United States, which had supported France during the first Indochina war, backed the Republic of Vietnam government in opposition to the communist Viet Cong and PAVN. The North benefited from military and financial support from China and the Soviet Union, members of the communist bloc. Fighting also occurred during this time in Cambodia between the US-backed government, the PAVN, and the communist-backed Khmer Rouge (known as the Cambodian Civil War, 1967–1975) and in Laos between the US-backed government, the PAVN, and the communist-backed Pathet Lao (known as the Laotian Civil War or Secret War, 1959–1975).
 The Third Indochina War was a period of prolonged conflict following the Vietnam War, in which several wars were fought:

 The Cambodian–Vietnamese War began when Vietnam invaded Cambodia and deposed the genocidal Khmer Rouge regime. The war lasted from May 1975 to December 1989.

 The Sino-Vietnamese War was a short war fought in January–March 1979 between the People's Republic of China and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The Chinese launched a punitive expedition in revenge for the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, and withdrew a month later to prewar positions. Skirmishes along the border would continue until November 1991.

 After the triumph of the Pathet Lao, an anti-communist insurgency in Laos lasted until most Hmong insurgents surrendered in 2007, though some resistance cells remained active for several years after. Thailand, which supported the Lao insurgents, as well as the anti-Vietnamese forces in the Third Indochina War, fought a few skirmishes with Vietnam in 1984, and a short conflict with Laos in 1987.

FULRO insurgency against Vietnam - United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races

 The Communist Party of Thailand fought an insurgency from 1965 to 1989. They received backing from Laos and Vietnam from 1975 to 1979 but were expelled from their bases and lost most of their supply lines after they sided with the Cambodian-Chinese aligned forces, rather than the pro-Soviet Vietnamese and Laotian regimes.

Background

French Indochina

French colonization and occupation of the region was a consequence of missionary work of the 16th century, which had resulted in Catholics forming a converted minority. While Gia Long tolerated Catholicism, his successors Minh Mạng and Thiệu Trị were orthodox Confucians, admiring ancient Chinese culture. They forbade Catholic proselytism, as it was usually the religious arm of colonization and they resisted European and American attempts to establish colonial trade posts, which France tried to impose against the laws of the country. This was seen by colonial powers as "provocative".

Confucian isolationist policy led the Vietnamese to refuse industrial modernization, so that they were not able to resist military power of a French invasion. In August 1858, Napoleon III ordered the landing of French forces at Tourane, (present-day Da Nang), beginning a colonial occupation that was to last almost a century. By 1884, the French had complete control over the country, which now formed the largest part of French Indochina. It took the Vietnamese people almost a century to expel the last colonial influence in their country.

Indochina during World War II

A continuous thread of local resistance began with Hàm Nghi, then to Phan Đình Phùng, Phan Bội Châu and lastly to Ho Chi Minh, who returned to Vietnam from France and helped to create the Viet Minh national independence coalition in 1941. A founding member of the French Communist Party, Ho Chi Minh had de-emphasised his communist ties and dissolved the Indochinese Communist Party, in order to unite the country. When the Vietnamese famine broke out in 1945 causing 2 million deaths, after French and Japanese colonial administration continued to export food to France in a post war economy, the Viet Minh arranged a massive relief effort, consolidating popular support for their nationalist cause. Ho Chi Minh was elected Prime Minister of the Viet Minh in 1945.

When World War II ended, the August Revolution expelled the Japanese colonial army and gave control of the country to Viet Minh. The Japanese surrendered to the Chinese Nationalists in North Vietnam. Emperor Bảo Đại abdicated power to the Viet Minh, on August 25, 1945. In a popular move, Ho Chi Minh made Bảo Đại "supreme adviser" to the Viet Minh-led government in Hanoi, which asserted its independence on September 2 as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and issued a Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. In 1946, Vietnam had its first constitution.

In 1948, France tried to regain its colonial control over Vietnam. In South Vietnam, the Japanese had surrendered to British forces, who had supported the Free French in fighting the Viet Minh, along with the armed religious Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo sects and the Bình Xuyên organized crime group. The French re-installed Bảo Đại as the head of state of Vietnam, which now comprised central and southern Vietnam. The ensuing war, between the French-controlled South and the independent communist-allied North, is known as the First Indochina War. It ended in a resounding defeat of the French Colonial Troops (Troupes coloniales) by the People's Army of Vietnam at Dien Bien Phu.

History

First Indochina War

In the First Indochina War, the Viet Minh, supported by the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, fought to gain their independence from the French, supported initially by the remaining troops of the Japanese Army after its surrender to Britain, also by the State of Vietnam, and later by the United States in the frame of the Cold War. This war of independence lasted from December 1946 until July 1954, with most of the fighting taking place in areas surrounding Hanoi. It ended with the French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and French withdrawal from Vietnam after the Geneva Accords.

Second Indochina War

The Second Indochina War, commonly known as the Vietnam War, pitted the recently successful Communist Vietnam People's Army (VPA or PAVN, but also known as the North Vietnamese Army or NVA) and the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam (Vietnamese NLF guerrilla fighters allied with the PAVN, known in America as the Viet Cong, meaning 'Communists Traitor to Vietnam') against United States troops and the United States-backed by South Vietnamese Government ARVN (Republic of Vietnam soldiers).

During the War, the North Vietnamese transported most of their supplies via the Ho Chi Minh Trail (known to the Vietnamese as the Truong Son Trail, after the Truong Son mountains), which ran through Laos and Cambodia. As a result, the areas of these nations bordering Vietnam would see heavy combat during the war.

For the United States, the political and combat goals were ambiguous: success and progress were ill-defined and, along with the large numbers of casualties, the Vietnam War raised moral issues that made the war increasingly unpopular at home. U.S. news reports of the 1968 Tet offensive, especially from CBS, were unfavorable in regard to the lack of progress in ending the war. Although the 1968 Tet offensive resulted in a military victory for South Vietnam and the United States, with virtually complete destruction of the NLF forces combat capability, it was, by the intensity of the combats, the contradiction it implied with recent reports of withdrawals of US troops and status of the war, also a turning point in American voter opposition to U.S. support for their Cold War Vietnamese allies.

The United States began withdrawing troops from Vietnam in 1970, with the last troops returning in January, 1973. The Paris Peace Accords called for a cease-fire, and prohibited the North Vietnamese from sending more troops into South Vietnam - although the North Vietnamese were permitted to continue to occupy those regions of South Vietnam they had conquered in the 1972 Easter Offensive.

The North Vietnamese never intended to abide by the agreement. Fighting continued sporadically through 1973 and 1974, while the North Vietnamese planned a major offensive, tentatively scheduled for 1976. The North Vietnamese Army in South Vietnam had been ravaged during the Easter offensive in 1973, and it was projected that it would take until 1976 to rebuild their logistical capabilities.

The withdrawal had catastrophic effects on the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN). Shortly after the Paris Peace Accords, the United States Congress made major budget cuts in military aid to the South Vietnamese. The ARVN, which had been trained by American troops to use American tactics, quickly fell into disarray. Although it remained an effective fighting force throughout 1973 and 1974, by January 1975 it had disintegrated. The North Vietnamese hurriedly attacked the much weakened South, and were met with little resistance.

Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, was taken by the PAVN on April 30, 1975, and the Second Indochina War ended.

The fighting that took place between North and South Vietnam following United States withdrawal is sometimes called the Third Indochina War; this term usually refers to a later 1979 conflict, however (see below).

Third Indochina War

The Third Indochina War, commonly known as the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, started on 1 May 1975 when the Kampuchean Revolutionary Army invaded the Vietnamese island of Phu Quoc. Vietnamese forces quickly counter-attacked, regaining their territory and invading the Kampuchean island of Koh Wai.

In August 1975, Vietnam returned the island of Koh Wai to Kampuchea and both governments started making peaceful noises, but behind the scenes tensions were mounting. On 30 April 1977, Kampuchea started attacking Vietnamese villages. In September, six divisions crossed the border, advancing 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) into Tay Ninh Province. Angered by the scale of the attacks, the Vietnam People's Army assembled eight divisions to launch a retaliatory strike against Kampuchea.

In December, in an effort to force the Kampuchean government to negotiate, the Vietnamese forces invaded Kampuchea, easily defeating the Kampuchean army. On 6 January 1978, Vietnamese forces were only 38 kilometers (24 mi) from Phnom Penh; however, the Kampuchean government remained defiant and the Vietnamese leadership realised they would not secure their political objective and decided to withdraw their troops.

As Kampuchean forces soon resumed their attacks across the border, the Vietnamese launched another limited counter-attack in June, forcing the Kampucheans to retreat. Again the Vietnamese withdrew and the Kampucheans resumed their attacks. The Vietnamese had had enough; in December 1978, Vietnam launched a full-scale invasion. Phnom Penh was captured in January 1979, the ruling Khmer Rouge were driven from power and a pro-Vietnamese government was installed.

In 1984, Vietnam unveiled a plan for the disengagement of its army from Kampuchea. In 1988, the Vietnamese Government began withdrawing forces in earnest; the last men left in September 1989.

The Third Indochina War also refers to the Sino-Vietnamese War, which was fought in February–March 1979 between the People's Republic of China and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Shortly after the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, the People's Republic of China, who were the Khmer Rouge's political ally, launched a punitive invasion of Vietnam. Fighting was short but intense. The Chinese advanced about forty kilometers into Vietnam, occupying the city of Lang Son on 6 March. There, they claimed the gate to Hanoi was open, declared their punitive mission achieved, and withdrew.

On 23 October 1991, the Cambodian-Vietnamese War was officially declared over as a result of negotiations and the signing of 1991 Paris Peace Agreements.

See also
Korean War
Sino-Soviet split

References

Further reading

20th century in Cambodia
20th century in Laos
20th century in Vietnam
Cold War conflicts
Wars involving Cambodia
Wars involving Laos
Wars involving Vietnam

Indochina Wars


Hobo is a word for a homeless person who travels to different cities and towns to look for work. Hobos usually travel by train "hopping" (riding in empty train freight railcars without paying for a ticket), or sometimes "riding the rods" (lying dangerously near the train wheels, underneath the cars).

Hobos stay in very cheap hotels in cities, or camp in simple shelters ("shanties") in shanty towns near the rail yards. There were many hobos during the Great Depression in the United States because many people lost their jobs and homes. Many people blamed President Herbert Hoover for the Depression, so hobo camps were sometimes called "Hoovervilles".

Rail transport
People

Hobo


A geographical coordinate system is a coordinate system. This means that every place can be specified by three sets of three numbers, called coordinates.

A full circle can be divided into 360 degrees (or 360°); this was first done by the Babylonians; Ancient Greeks, like Ptolemy later extended the theory.

Today, degrees are divided further. There are minutes, and seconds; 1 minute (or 1') in this context is 1/60 of a degree; 1 second (or 1") is 1/60 of a minute.

The first concept needed is called latitude (Lat, or the Greek symbol "phi", ). For it, the Earth is cut up into 180 circles, from the Equator at 0°. The poles are at 90°, the North Pole is at 90° N(orth), the South Pole is at 90° S(outh). Places with the same latitude are on a circle, around the Earth.

The other concept is called longitude (Long, or the Greek symbol "lambda", ), sometimes referred to as "meridian". The 0° longitude line (or zero meridian) goes through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich. Greenwich is a part of London. Then lines are drawn in a similar way; the opposite (or "antipodal") meridian of Greenwich is considered both 180°W(est), and 180°E(ast).

The third number is the height, altitude, or depth. This is given with respect to some fixed (usually easily calculable point). One of these is called mean sea level.

Coordinate systems
Geocodes

Geographic coordinate system


Craftsman was a style of architecture in the United States in the early 20th century.  It is called that because Gustav Stickley, a craftsman furniture maker, had a magazine called The Craftsman.  The movement was part of the Arts and Crafts movement that started in England in the late 19th century.  It wanted a "simpler way of life" that was not like American and English industrialized society.  Architects such as Greene and Greene designed Craftsman homes such as the Gamble House.  These houses were well-made, but did not have a lot of ornamentation.  Often they played off of natural themes.  A smaller version of the craftsman home was the bungalow.  By the 1910s, Craftsman bungalows were being built in large numbers in and around American cities.  Besides America and England, there was a lot of Craftsman architecture in Japan.

Architectural styles

Craftsman architecture


Jules Léopold Gravereaux (; 1 May 1844 in Vitry-sur-Seine – 23 March 1916 in Paris) was a French rosarian. He was a top executive at the department store Le Bon Marché and in 1892 purchased land at the village of L'Haÿ about 8 km south of Paris. There, he built the first ever complete garden devoted exclusively to roses, the Roseraie de L'Haÿ. It became so popular that a few years later the village changed its name to L'Haÿ-les-Roses.

Biography
His parents were Jean Narcisse Gravereaux, carpenter, and Marie Henriette Gervais. In March 1856, at age 12, he was apprenticed to a hatter of rue du Bac. He was hired two years later by the haberdashery of Aristide Boucicault and wife. In 1852, Mr. and Mrs. Boucicault bought the land in front of their shop to build Le Bon Marché. Jules Gravereaux began at Le Bon Marché in 1864 as a private seller and moved up the ranks.  He joined the board in 1871.

In August 1873, he married Laure Marie Alexandrine Thuillier (1852-1932). They had seven children. Two of whom died in infancy.

Mrs. Boucicault had no children and at her death, she bequeathed all her shares of Le Bon Marché to its employees based on their seniority. Present since the beginning, Jules Gravereaux inherits enough to retire in 1892 at age 48.

While working for Le Bon Marché he became interested in roses while on textile buying trips to Lille.  In 1892, he bought a large property in L'Haÿ and hired the famous landscape architect Édouard André to lay out a garden of 1600 roses. Here he hybridized his own roses and made his own rose oil for perfume.

Roseraie de L'Haÿ reached peak capacity at 8000 roses in 1910, every type known at the time.

Jules Gravereaux died in Paris March 23, 1916.

Other work in roses
In 1900, Jules Gravereaux, by now a well known rosarian (an expert cultivator of roses) and rhodologist (a specialist in studying and classifying roses), was hired by Jean-Claude Nicolas Forestier, the Commissioner of Gardens for the city of Paris, to help create the public rose gardens at Château de Bagatelle.  He donated 1200 roses for the garden, which is the site of the International New Rose Trial (Concours international de roses nouvelles de Bagatelle).

In 1901, the Ministry of Agriculture asked him to collect wild plants of the genus Rosa and those used in the horticultural and industrial production of rose perfume. He started this mission in the Balkans. Back at L'Haÿ, he decided to create new rose varieties for the production of perfume, which would facilitate the process of distillation.  He worked on hybrids of Rosa rugosa and developed the cultivar 'Rose à parfum de L'Haÿ', among others.  In all he created 27 new cultivars, primarily for rose oil production.

In 1911, Gravereaux helped recreate the rose collection of Joséphine de Beauharnais at her Château de Malmaison by researching all species and cultivars available in Europe in her lifetime, and donating the 197 roses his research turned up.  This list included 107 gallicas, 27 centifolias, 3 mosses, 9 damasks, 22 Bengals, 4 spinosissimas, 8 albas, 3 luteas, 1 musk, and the species alpina, arvensis, banksia, carolina, cinnamomea, clinophylla, laevigata (the Cherokee rose), rubrifolia (aka glauca), rugosa, white and red, sempervirens, and setigera.

Awards and honours
 He was made Chevalier (in 1902) and Officier (in 1910) in the Legion of Honour.
 He was made Commander of Agricultural Merit for his activities in developing interest for rose gardens and rose commerce (around 1900).
 In 1914, the town of L'Haÿ changed its name to L'Haÿ-les-Roses.
 There is a street named after him in L'Haÿ-les-Roses: Avenue Jules Gravereaux.
 In the year 2000, L'Haÿ-les-Roses public park Roseraie de L'Haÿ was commemorated with a marker as part of the official Méridienne verte (Green Meridian).  This line is a continuation of the Paris meridian mentioned in the Dan Brown book The Da Vinci Code.  This meridian has also been referred to as the Serpent Rouge through the Church of Saint-Sulpice, Paris and as the Rose Line.

Partial list of publications
 Collection botanique du genre Rosa (1899). Botanical collection of the genus Rosa.
 Catalogue des roses cultivées à L'Haÿ (1900). Catalogue of roses grown at L'Haÿ.
 Rapport sur la culture des roses dans la péninsule des Balkans (1901). Report on the cultivation of roses in the Balkan Peninsula.
 Les Roses cultivées à L'Haÿ en 1902. Roses grown at L'Hay in 1902. Essai de classement (1902). Test rankings.
 Manuel pour la description des rosiers (1906). Manual for the description of the Rose.
 Les Roses à parfum et la fabrication de l'essence à la Roseraie de L'Haÿ de 1901 à 1905 (1906). Perfume roses and manufacture of rose oil at the Roseraie de L'Haÿ from 1901 to 1905.
 La Rose dans les sciences, dans les arts et dans les lettres (1906). The Rose in the sciences, arts and letters.
 La Malmaison. Les roses de l'Impératrice Joséphine. The roses of Empress Josephine. 1912.

Partial list of rose varieties commemorating Jules Gravereaux, his family, and garden
 'La France Victorieuse', Tea rose hybrid
 'Rhodologue Jules Gravereaux'
 'Rhodophile Gravereaux'
 Rosa 'Madame Jules Gravereaux'
 Rosa rugosa var. 'Amélie Gravereaux' (named after his daughter)
 Rosa rugosa var. 'Rose à Parfum de l'Haÿ'
 Rosa rugosa var. 'Roseraie de l'Haÿ' (named after the rosarium)
 'Rosomane Gravereaux'

References

External links
 Roseraie du Val-de-Marne website
  Archives départementales du Val-de-Marne - Fonds du Musée de la Rose
  Jules Leopold Gravereux Family History

1844 births
1916 deaths
Rose breeders
French gardeners
Recipients of the Legion of Honour

Jules Gravereaux


An outbreak is an event that sometimes cannot be controlled for several months or years. The word "outbreak" is a term used in epidemiology. It describes what happens when a disease becomes widespread that first thought. An outbreak can affect a small group or affect thousands of people across the world. An outbreak can be epidemic.

Types
Common source - all victims got the disease from the same source (such as water pollution)
Continuous source - when the disease continues to spread for a longer time.
Point source - when the disease continues to spread for a short time.
Propagated - disease is spread from person to person.
Behavioral risk related - disease is spread by a person's behavior such as sexually transmitted diseases and malnutrition.
Zoonotic - disease is spread from animal to animal.
Patterns of an outbreak
Endemic - a common disease such as influenza, measles, mumps, pneumonia, colds and smallpox. This is characterized by a place, group or activity.
Epidemic - when the disease affect a large group of people.
Pandemic - when the disease affects people worldwide.

References

Epidemiology

Outbreak


Henry Constable (1562 – 9 October 1613) was an English poet, known particularly for Diana, one of the first English sonnet sequences. In 1591 he converted to Catholicism, and lived in exile on the continent for some years. He returned to England at the accession of King James, but was soon a prisoner in the Tower and in the Fleet. He died an exile at Liège in 1613.

Family
Henry Constable, born in Newark-on-Trent in 1562, was the only child of Sir Robert Constable (d. 12 November 1591) and Christiana Dabridgecourt, widow of Anthony Forster, and daughter of John Dabridgecourt of Langdon Hall, Warwickshire. His paternal grandparents were Sir Robert Constable (before 1495 – 29 October 1558) and Katherine Manners, the daughter of George Manners, 11th Baron de Ros, and sister of Thomas Manners, 1st Earl of Rutland. According to Sullivan, the connections Robert Constable acquired through his marriage 'opened up a career of military service and public office'. Constable served under Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex, in the campaign after the Northern Rebellion of 1569, and was knighted by Sussex at Berwick. He was Marshal of Berwick from 1576 to 1578, and was appointed Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance at some time before 4 August 1588. In the same year he had a son who was also named Henry, who became a Royalist army officer and the 1st Viscount Dunbar. Other children included daughter, Dorothy Lawson, who became a priest harbourer.

Career
Henry Constable matriculated as a fellow commoner at St John's College, Cambridge at Easter 1578, and took his BA on 29 January 1580. His contemporary at Cambridge was Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex. He was enrolled at Lincoln's Inn on 21 February 1583, but there is no further record of his legal studies. On 12 September of that year Constable was in Scotland. He was then posted to Paris on the recommendation of his father's friend, Sir Francis Walsingham, serving under the English ambassador there, Sir Edward Stafford, between 14 December 1583 and April 1585. In May 1585 he was at Heidelberg, and he may have travelled to Poland. During this period, according to Sullivan, Constable acted as a spokesperson for Protestant causes.

Constable was probably at the English court during 1588–9, as he is recorded as having attended the funeral of his kinsman, John Manners, 4th Earl of Rutland, in March 1588, and as having been in contact with Arabella Stuart in 1589. During this period he was reported to have been one of Queen Elizabeth's favourites.

He was sent to Edinburgh in 1589 on the occasion of King James VI's marriage, and by this time was a member of the circle of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex. His religious convictions were still to outward appearances Protestant. About this time he is credited with having written the anonymous tract Examen pacifique de la doctrine des Huguenots, published in September 1589, in which, according to Sullivan, he wrote as a Roman Catholic urging his countrymen to support Henri IV, who had just been crowned King. Constable seems to have left Scotland with the French diplomat Jean Hotman in October 1589, but returned in 1590, and wrote a sonnet, "To the King of Scotland upon the occasion of his longe stay in Denmarke by reason of the coldnesse of the winter and the freezing of the sea."

In 1591 Constable went to Normandy with the English forces under Essex who laid siege to Rouen. At some time between his arrival in France and the death of his father on 12 November 1591 Constable openly embraced Roman Catholicism. Henri IV granted him a small pension. For the next decade he was principally based in Paris, but travelled to Rome in 1595. On 3 October 1596 he was in Rouen, from which Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury, wrote to Sir Robert Cecil that 'Here is Mr. H. Constable; who, lest he should have intruded himself into my company, I desired Mr Edmunds to let him know my desire he should forbear either coming, writing, or sending unto me, which he hath hitherto performed'. During this period he was also in Antwerp and Brussels. Until 1597 he kept up his connections with the Essex circle, writing to Essex himself and to Anthony Bacon. He continued to claim loyalty to Queen Elizabeth, and supported King James' claim to the English throne in preference to the claim of the Spanish Infanta, daughter of Philip II of Spain. On 1 March 1599 Constable arrived at Leith in Scotland, and eventually obtained access to King James, remaining until September, 'hunting and conversing on poetry and divinity' with the King. In 1600 he again travelled to Rome to seek Pope Clement VIII's approval of another visit to King James.

On James's accession Constable hoped to return to England, and wrote first to friends in Scotland for support, and on 11 June 1603, to his kinsman, Roger Manners, 5th Earl of Rutland, and to Sir Robert Cecil. By December of that year he was back at court, and was granted a warrant on 8 February 1604 by which he obtained possession of his inherited lands. However his continued pursuit of plans to influence King James towards toleration of Catholics resulted in his imprisonment in the Tower, where he remained from 14 April to 9 July 1604. The Venetian ambassador Nicolò Molin heard that Constable had written letters to the Papal nuncio or envoy in Paris, which were intercepted, leading to his arrest.

Constable was subsequently placed under house arrest, and deprived of his inheritance. He was in the Fleet prison on 11 February 1608, when John Chamberlain wrote to Sir Dudley Carleton that no sooner was Sir Tobie Matthew released, and 'no sooner gan nor his nest scant cold, when Harry Constable was committed in his roome and nestles in the same lodging'. Constable was imprisoned on at least one other occasion. On 31 July 1610 he was granted licence to leave England. He returned to Paris, and on 27 November 1611 rumours of his death were passed on by John Chamberlain to Sir Dudley Carleton: 'Sir William Bowes is lately dead, and we hear that Harry Constable hath taken the same way in Fraunce'. Little more is known of his activities apart from the record of his presence at a theological disputation on 4 September 1612. In 1613 his friend, Cardinal Perron, sent him to Liège on a mission to convert an English Protestant divine, Benjamin Carier. Constable died at Liège on 9 October 1613.

Literary accomplishments

In 1592 Diana, a sequence of twenty-three sonnets by Constable, was published in London by Richard Smith, one of the first sonnets sequences in English. A second edition, containing five new sonnets by Constable with additions by Sir Philip Sidney and other poets followed in 1594. Sullivan considers that the 1594 publication was undertaken on Richard Smith's initiative. There were two further editions in 1597 and 1604. Four poems by Constable were included in England's Helicon in 1600, among them Damelus Song to his Diaphenia and Venus and Adonis. According to W. Carew Hazlitt, 'A more beautiful specimen of early English lyric poetry than The Sheepheard's Song of Venus and Adonis could hardly be found in the whole circle of Elizabethan poetry'.

The Todd manuscript contains additional love sonnets by Constable, and Harleian MS 7553 contains seventeen 'Spirituall sonnettes, to the honour of God: and hys saintes'.

Constable's verse is characterised by fervour and richness of colour. Of the numerous sonnets he wrote, the twenty-eight of the sonnet sequence Diana, and the four prefixed to Sir Philip Sidney's An Apology for Poetry, contain his best work. In My lady's presence makes the roses red, he is able to capture Spenser's charm. His rhyme scheme is mixed Italian and English, like Sidney's, the octave being Italian and the sestet English.

Constable was highly reputed as a poet in his own day. In the censure of contemporary poets in Act I, Scene ii, of the anonymous Elizabethan play, The Return From Parnassus, Iudicio passes judgment favourably on Constable, saying that:
Sweete Constable doth take the wondring eare
And layes it up in willing prisonment.

Ben Jonson also pays tribute to Constable's verse in Underwood:
Hath our great Sydney Stella set,
Where never star shone brighter yet?
Or Constable's ambrosiac muse
Made Diana not his notes refuse

Constable is known to have written two theological tracts in 1596 and 1597 which are no longer extant. He also responded to A Conference about the Next Succession, generally attributed to Robert Persons. Constable's Discoverye of a Counterfecte Conference … for Thadvancement of a Counterfecte Tytle, which supported King James' claim to the English crown, was printed in Paris in 1600, although the title page falsely claimed that it had been printed in Cologne.

Footnotes

References

Further reading

 Ceri Sullivan, "The Physiology of Penance in 1590s Weeping Texts", Cahiers Élisabéthains 57 (2000), pp. 31–48, examines Constable's religious verse.

External links

 Diana: The Sonnets and Other Poems of Henry Constable
Constable, Henry, in A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature

1562 births
1613 deaths
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
English Catholic poets
Converts to Roman Catholicism
English Roman Catholics
People from Newark-on-Trent
16th-century Roman Catholics
17th-century Roman Catholics
16th-century English poets
17th-century English poets
17th-century English male writers
17th-century English writers
English male poets

Henry Constable


A scute is a bony external plate or scale, as on the shell of a turtle, the skin of crocodiles or the feet of some birds.

Properties
Scutes are similar to scales and serve the same function. Unlike the scales of fish and snakes, which are formed from the epidermis, scutes are formed in the lower vascular layer of the skin and the epidermal element is only the top surface. Forming in the living dermis, the scutes produce a horny outer layer, that is superficially similar to that of scales.

The dermal base may contain bone and produce dermal armour. Scutes with a bony base are properly called osteoderms. Dermal scutes are also found in the feet of birds and tails of some mammals, and are believed to be the primitive form of dermal armour in reptiles.

The term is also used to describe the heavy armour of the armadillo and the extinct glyptodon, and is occasionally used as an alternative to scales in describing snakes or certain fish, such as sturgeon.

Animal anatomy
Vertebrates

Scute


The Wrestler is a 2008 American sports drama film directed by Darren Aronofsky and written by Robert Siegel. The film stars Mickey Rourke, Marisa Tomei, and Evan Rachel Wood. Rourke plays an aging professional wrestler who, despite his failing health and waning fame, continues to wrestle in an attempt to cling to the success of his 1980s heyday. He also tries to mend his relationship with his estranged daughter and to find romance with a woman who works as a stripper.

Production began in January 2008 and Fox Searchlight Pictures acquired rights to distribute the film in the United States; it received a limited release on December 17, 2008, and was released nationwide on January 23, 2009. It was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on April 21, 2009, in the United States. It was released in the United Kingdom on January 16, 2009.

The film received universal acclaim and won the Golden Lion Award at the 65th Venice International Film Festival, where it premiered. Film critic Roger Ebert called it one of the year's best films, while Rotten Tomatoes reported that 98% of critics gave the film positive reviews. The success of the film revitalized the career of Mickey Rourke, who went on to receive a BAFTA award, a Golden Globe Award, an Independent Spirit Award and an Oscar nomination for Best Actor. Tomei also received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress.

Plot
Professional wrestler Robin Ramzinski, better known by his ring name Randy "The Ram" Robinson, rose to fame in the 1980s. Now past his prime, Randy wrestles on weekends for independent promotions in New Jersey while living in a trailer park and working part-time at a supermarket under Wayne, a demeaning manager who mocks Randy's wrestling background. As a regular at a strip club, Randy befriends a stripper named Cassidy who, like Randy, is past her prime. After winning a local match, Randy agrees to a proposed 20th-anniversary rematch with his most notable opponent, "The Ayatollah", which Randy hopes could return him to stardom.

Randy intensifies his training, which includes steroid injections. After wrestling in a hardcore match, Randy suffers a heart attack backstage and undergoes coronary artery bypass surgery. His doctor informs him that he nearly died and has to stop taking steroids, and also warns Randy not to wrestle anymore, as his heart can no longer handle the exertion. Reluctantly, Randy decides to retire and begins working a full-time shift at the supermarket's deli counter.

At Cassidy's suggestion, Randy visits his estranged daughter Stephanie, whom he had abandoned when she was a child, but she rebuffs him. While helping Randy buy a gift for Stephanie, Cassidy reveals that she has a son. Randy makes romantic advances toward her, which she rejects on the grounds of her job. Later, Randy gives the gift to his daughter and apologizes for abandoning her. The two bond over a visit to a beachfront boardwalk, where he often took her as a child, and agree to meet for dinner on the coming Saturday.

Randy goes to Cassidy's strip club to thank her, but she once more rejects him, resulting in a heated exchange. Upset, Randy goes to see a wrestling match and finds solace in his wrestling friends. While at a bar with them, he gets drunk, snorts cocaine, has sex with a woman in the women's restroom, then wakes up in her bedroom the next morning. Exhausted, he sleeps the entire day and misses his dinner with Stephanie. He goes to her house to apologize, but she angrily tells him she hates him and never wants to see him again.

At the deli counter, a patron recognizes Randy as the wrestler, though he denies it. The customer persists, which agitates Randy, who then cuts his own hand on the slicer and promptly quits on the spot, going into a rampage in the store while insulting Wayne and the customers. Spurred by the fan's recognition of him and with nothing left, Randy decides to return to wrestling and reschedules the rematch with The Ayatollah. He reconciles with Cassidy, who has also just quit her job, though she begs him not to wrestle because of his heart condition and pleads with him to cancel the match. However, Randy disregards her advice, explaining to her that he belongs in the ring with his fans and fellow wrestlers who love and respect him.

As he wrestles, Randy begins to feel chest pain and becomes unsteady. Noticing this, The Ayatollah urges him to initiate the pin and end the match. Randy refuses, however, and climbs the top rope for his signature finishing move, a diving headbutt called the "Ram Jam". He looks over and sees Cassidy has left. As the crowd cheers his name, Randy, with tears in his eyes and smiling from his fans' cheers, leaps from the top rope.

Cast

 Mickey Rourke as Robin Ramzinski / Randy 'The Ram' Robinson
 Marisa Tomei as Pam / Cassidy
 Evan Rachel Wood as Stephanie Ramzinski
 Mark Margolis as Lenny
 Todd Barry as Wayne
 Judah Friedlander as Scott Brumberg
 Ernest Miller as Bob / 'The Ayatollah'
 Ajay Naidu as Medic
 Wass Stevens as Nick Volpe
 John D'Leo as Adam
 Gregg Bello as JAPW Promoter Larry Cohen
 Armin Amiri as Dr. Moayedizadeh

Professional wrestlers who appeared in the film include: Robbie E, Necro Butcher, Nick Berk, The Blue Meanie, Sabian, Nate Hatred, Ron Killings, L.A. Smooth, Jay Lethal, Johnny Valiant, Jim Powers, Austin Aries, Claudio Castagnoli, Larry Sweeney, Paul E. Normous, Romeo Roselli, John Zandig, Chuck Taylor, Nigel McGuinness, D. J. Hyde, Kit Cope, Drew Gulak, Bobby Dempsey, Judas Young, Pappadon, and Jay Santana.

Production

The Wrestler was written by Robert D. Siegel, a former writer for The Onion, and entered development at director Darren Aronofsky's Protozoa Pictures. Nicolas Cage entered negotiations in October 2007 to star as Randy. The following month Cage left the project, and Mickey Rourke replaced him in the lead role. According to Aronofsky, Cage pulled out of the movie because Aronofsky wanted Rourke as the lead character. Aronofsky stated that Cage was "a complete gentleman, and he understood that my heart was with Mickey and he stepped aside. I have so much respect for Nic Cage as an actor and I think it really could have worked with Nic but, you know, Nic was incredibly supportive of Mickey and he is old friends with Mickey and really wanted to help with this opportunity, so he pulled himself out of the race." In a 2009 interview with Access Hollywood, Cage denied Aronofsky's account, stating that "I wasn't, quote, 'dropped' from the movie. I resigned from the movie because I didn't think I had enough time to achieve the look of the wrestler who was on steroids, which I would never do."

When first approached for the lead role, Rourke was initially reluctant, stating, "I didn't really care for the script, but I wanted to work with Darren and I kind of thought that whoever wrote the script hadn't spent as much time as I had around these kind of people and he wouldn't have spoken the way the dude was speaking. And so Darren let me rewrite all my parts and he put the periods in and crossed the T's. So once we made that change, I was okay with it."

Wrestler Hulk Hogan claimed in 2012 on The Howard Stern Show that he was also offered the role of Randy "The Ram" Robinson. Hogan claims he turned down the role because he felt he wasn't the right man to portray the character. Aronofsky disputed Hogan's claims, stating on his personal Twitter page that, "...the role of the Wrestler was always [Rourke's]; it was never Hulk Hogan's as he claims on [The Howard Stern Show]."

The roughly 40-day shoot began in January 2008, with filming taking place on 16mm film throughout New Jersey in Elizabeth, Linden, Rahway, Roselle Park, Hasbrouck Heights, Garfield, Asbury Park, Dover, a supermarket in Bayonne where Rourke served and improvised with real customers, and in New York. Scenes were also shot at The Arena in Philadelphia. The shoot wrapped up in March.

Afa Anoa'i, a former professional wrestler, was hired to train Rourke for his role. Anoa'i brought his two main trainers, Jon Trosky and Tom Farra, to work with Rourke for eight weeks. Both trainers also have parts in the film.

One scene features a fictional Nintendo Entertainment System video game called Wrestle Jam '88. It starred the characters of Robinson and The Ayatollah. Aronofsky requested a fully functioning game for the actors to play. Programmer Randall Furino and the film's title designer Kristyn Hume created a playable demo with a working interface and AI routines that also featured 1980s era-appropriate graphics and music.

To add more realism, the locker room scenes were improvised for Rourke and others to look as if they were actually socializing. Some of the deli scenes were improvised because Aronofsky was filming Rourke actually working there.

Marisa Tomei was made to do 36 takes to get her pole dancing right.

Music

Clint Mansell, the composer for Aronofsky's previous films, π, Requiem for a Dream, and The Fountain, reprised his role as composer for The Wrestler. Slash played the guitars on the score. A new Bruce Springsteen song, also titled "The Wrestler", plays over the film's closing credits. Springsteen wrote the song while on tour in Europe after receiving a letter and a copy of the script from Rourke.

The Guns N' Roses song "Sweet Child o' Mine" is played during Randy's ring entrance at the end of the film. In his Golden Globe Award acceptance speech, Rourke mentioned that Axl Rose donated the song for free due to the film's modest budget, and the film's closing credits thank Rose for this. Rourke had used the same song as his intro music during his stint as a boxer in the early 1990s. In the film, his character Randy even mocks one of Axl Rose's biggest rivals in the early 1990s popular music scene, Kurt Cobain.

Also featured in the film are two Ratt songs ("Round and Round" and "I'm Insane"), the Quiet Riot song "Metal Health" (which is Randy's entrance song except for the last match), the FireHouse song "Don't Walk Away", the Slaughter song "Dangerous", the Scorpions song "Animal Magnetism", "Balls to the Wall" by Accept, "Soundtrack to a War" by Rhino Bucket and the Cinderella song "Don't Know What You Got (Till It's Gone)". The two Ratt tunes are actually recordings by Rat Attack, a project featuring Ratt lead singer Stephen Pearcy and guitarists George Lynch (Dokken) and Tracii Guns (L.A. Guns). The Madonna song "Jump" is played in the bar scene. The Birdman and Lil Wayne song "Stuntin' Like My Daddy" can be heard in the strip club. Also in the film is a song called "Let Your Freak Out" by independent Toronto singer-songwriter Deesha which can be heard during the strip club scene where Marisa Tomei's character is having an emotional conversation with Mickey Rourke's character.

In the Toronto International Film Festival interview conducted by James Rocchi, Aronofsky credited the 1957 Charles Mingus song "The Clown", an instrumental piece with a poem read over the music about a clown who accidentally discovers the bloodlust of the crowds and eventually kills himself in performance, as a major source of inspiration for the movie. Aronofsky also said the brief reprise of Senator and Presidential-candidate John McCain's "Bomb bomb Iran" to the tune of The Beach Boys' "Barbara Ann" in the movie evolved as improvisation on the set. The Ayatollah wrestling character's persona had developed more than 20 years before but, in part through this musical moment and its connection with the character, came to still feel appropriate to Aronofsky in 2008.

Promotion

WWE helped promote the film through an on-screen angle (a fictional storyline used in wrestling). This involved the heel Chris Jericho criticizing legendary retired wrestlers such as Ric Flair, who he felt were embarrassing themselves, as well as Mickey Rourke for his portrayal in The Wrestler. At the 15th Screen Actors Guild Awards, Rourke announced he would be competing at WrestleMania 25, specifically targeting Jericho. The announcement led to a confrontation between the two on Larry King Live, which showed signs of second thoughts from Rourke. On January 28, it was announced through Rourke's spokesperson that the actor would not compete at WrestleMania, and he was soon after announced instead as a guest.

Rourke was also invited to the 2009 WWE Hall of Fame induction ceremony the night before WrestleMania. The angle culminated the following night where Jericho faced Ricky Steamboat, Roddy Piper, and Jimmy Snuka in a handicap match. After his victory, Jericho dismantled Flair and challenged Rourke, who finally entered the ring and punched him out. Flair then congratulated Rourke.

Reception

Film critics
The Wrestler received almost universal critical acclaim. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 98% of critics gave the film positive reviews based upon a sample of 233 reviews, with an average rating of 8.4/10, and gave it a Golden Tomato for best drama of 2008. The critical consensus states that "Mickey Rourke gives a performance for the ages in The Wrestler, a richly affecting, heart-wrenching yet ultimately rewarding drama." At Metacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film has received an average score of 80, based on 36 reviews, signifying "generally favorable reviews". Alonso Duralde, of MSNBC, said, "Rourke's work transcends mere stunt-casting; his performance is a howl of pain that seems to come from a very real place."

Todd McCarthy, of Variety, said, "Rourke creates a galvanizing, humorous, deeply moving portrait that instantly takes its place among the great, iconic screen performances." Ben Mankiewicz, from At the Movies, said, "To put it simply, this is the best film I've seen this year." Le Monde praised the film for melding European film style with an American plot, and stated that "Mickey Rourke's performance in 'The Wrestler' is a continuous celebration of the burdens and splendors of the profession of performance." One other French film critic, Philippe Azoury, praised its portrayal of "the American heartland" as what he viewed as a bleak wasteland.

Although The Wrestler was not technically in Roger Ebert's "Best Films" list, he includes a note at the bottom of his review: "'The Wrestler' is one of the year's best films. It wasn't on my 'best films' list for complicated and boring reasons."

Professional wrestling industry

Prominent wrestling figures have commented on the film. During an NPR interview, Aronofsky remarked  on WWE chairman Vince McMahon's feelings on The Wrestler:

WWE Hall of Famer Bret "The Hitman" Hart, who was a multi-time world champion in both WWE and WCW, enjoyed The Wrestler and applauded Rourke's "clairvoyant" performance, but called the film a "dark misinterpretation" of the business. He asserted: "Randy "The Ram" Robinson was a main-eventer who sold out Madison Square Garden. So was I ... Although the film speaks superbly to the speed bumps all pro wrestlers navigate, I'm happy to report most of us don't swerve off the road quite so severely." WWE play-by-play commentator Jim Ross called it a "really strong, dramatic film that depicts how people who are obsessed with their own lives and their careers can self-destruct".

Former WWE and TNA world champion Mick Foley enjoyed the film, saying: "Within five [minutes], I had completely forgotten I was looking at Mickey Rourke. That guy on the screen simply was Randy 'the Ram' Robinson." WWE Hall of Famer "Rowdy" Roddy Piper was said to have been highly emotional after watching a screening of the film. Aronofsky said of Piper: "He loved it. He broke down and cried in Mickey's arms, so he was psyched that this story was finally told." Insights on the film from Roddy Piper and other former pro wrestlers can be seen in Fox Searchlight Pictures's "Wrestler Round Table", which was included on the Blu-ray release of the film.

Professional wrestling manager, color commentator and former promoter Jim Cornette criticized the film for being an unrelentingly depressing view of the professional wrestling world, saying it was neither realistic nor accurate of the profession for most wrestlers involved in it.

Controversy in Iran
In March 2009, Javad Shamaqdari, cultural adviser to the-then Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, demanded an apology from a delegation of Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences actors and producers visiting Iran for what he characterized as negative and unfair portrayals of Iran in The Wrestler and other Hollywood films.

Top ten lists
The film appeared on many critics' top ten lists of the best films of 2008.

 1st – Matt Cale, Ruthless Reviews
 1st – Ben Mankiewicz, At the Movies
 1st – Joshua Rothkopf, Time Out
 1st – Owen Gleiberman, Entertainment Weekly
 2nd – Marc Doyle, Metacritic
 2nd – Peter Hartlaub, San Francisco Chronicle
 3rd – Anthony Lane, The New Yorker
 3rd – Marc Savlov, The Austin Chronicle
 3rd – Peter Vonder Haar, Film Threat
 4th – Richard Roeper, Chicago Sun-Times
 4th – Ben Lyons, At the Movies
 4th – David Denby, The New Yorker
 5th – James Berardinelli, ReelViews

 5th – Mick LaSalle, San Francisco Chronicle
 6th – Ty Burr, The Boston Globe
 7th – David Ansen, Newsweek
 7th – Ray Bennett, The Hollywood Reporter
 7th – V.A. Musetto, New York Post
 8th – Premiere
 8th – Nathan Rabin, The A.V. Club
 9th – Elizabeth Weitzman, New York Daily News
 9th – Josh Rosenblatt, The Austin Chronicle
 10th – Dana Stevens, Slate
 10th – Joe Morgenstern, The Wall Street Journal
 10th – Joe Neumaier, New York Daily News

Accolades

References

External links

2008 films
2000s English-language films
2008 independent films
2000s sports drama films
American independent films
American sports drama films
BAFTA winners (films)
Fox Searchlight Pictures films
Film controversies in Iran
Films about old age
Films directed by Darren Aronofsky
Films featuring a Best Drama Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films produced by Darren Aronofsky
Films scored by Clint Mansell
Films set in New Jersey
Films shot in New Jersey
Films shot in New York (state)
Films shot in Pennsylvania
Golden Lion winners
Independent Spirit Award for Best Film winners
Professional wrestling films
Protozoa Pictures films
Films about self-harm
2008 drama films
Films about striptease
American psychological drama films
2000s psychological drama films
Films about father–daughter relationships
Films shot in 16 mm film
2000s American films

The Wrestler (2008 film)


The Battle of Monroe's Crossroads (also known as the Battle of Fayetteville Road, and colloquially in the North as Kilpatrick's Shirttail Skedaddle) was a battle during the Carolinas Campaign of the American Civil War in Cumberland County, North Carolina (now in Hoke County), on the grounds of the present day Fort Liberty Military Reservation. Involving about 4,500 men, it pitted mounted Confederate cavalry against dismounted Union cavalry. It was one of the last all-cavalry battles of the Civil War. The inconclusive fighting lasted for several hours early on the morning of March 10, 1865. The Confederate attack delayed the Federal cavalry's movement toward Fayetteville, denying Brevet Maj. Gen. Hugh Judson Kilpatrick the honor of entering the town first.

Battle

The main Confederate assault was at dawn and against a poorly guarded and sleeping Union camp. In command of the Confederate forces were Lt. Gen. Wade Hampton and Maj. Gen. Joseph Wheeler, who were operating together for the first time. One of the goals (not fulfilled) was the capture of Kilpatrick himself, using a small elite squadron of hand-picked troopers. Kilpatrick, ensconced with his mistress in a small log cabin near the farmhouse of Charles Monroe, managed to flee the chaotic scene in his nightshirt, hiding for a period in a nearby swamp before regaining his composure and reorganizing his troops. While initially routed, the Federal cavalry soon recovered and counterattacked, eventually pressuring the Confederates to withdraw from the camp. Anticipating the approach of Union infantry, the Confederate commanders ordered their troops to disengage from the action in the mid-morning. Hampton's cavalry finally withdrew in good order toward Fayetteville. Confederate Brig. Gen. Thomas Harrison, Brig. Gen. William Y.C. Humes, Col. and brigade commander James Hagan and Col. and brigade commander Moses W. Hannon were wounded during the battle. Brig. Gen. William W. Allen and Colonel and brigade commander Henry Marshall Ashby were injured when their horses were shot from under them.

Aftermath
The Battle of Monroe's Crossroads gained the additional time needed for the Confederate infantry to conduct an organized crossing of the Cape Fear River at Fayetteville unmolested by the advancing Federals. With their troops and equipment east of the Cape Fear, the Confederates burned the bridges as Union forces entered the city.

The graves of several unidentified Union soldiers can still be seen today in the training area of Ft. Bragg a few miles south of the Normandy Dropzone near the Coleman Impact Area. All visits must be approved by range control.

Notes

References
 Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
 Longacre, Edward G. A Soldier to the Last: Maj. Gen. Joseph Wheeler in Blue and Gray. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2007. .
 National Park Service battle study
 NPS CWSAC battle summary
 CWSAC Report Update
 North Carolina History Project

1865 in the American Civil War
1865 in North Carolina
Monroe's Crossroads
Monroe's Crossroads
Monroe's Crossroads
Hoke County, North Carolina
Monroe's Crossroads
March 1865 events

Battle of Monroe's Crossroads


Hƿælsang is the collection sōna macodon fram hƿalum tō communicate. The word "song" is used in particular to describe the pattern of predictable and repetitious sounds made by certain species of whales (notably the humpback whale) in a manner that to cetologists is reminiscent of human singing.

The biological processes used to produce sound vary from one family of cetaceans to another. However, all whales, dolphins, and porpoises are much more dependent on sound for communication and sensation than their terrestrial cousins because the absorption of light by water makes sight difficult and because the relatively slow movement of water compared to air decreases the effectiveness of the sense of smell. Increased ambient noise in the world's oceans due to shipping gives rise to environmentalists' concerns that humans are destroying this important feature of the marine habitat.

Sōngestrēon
Mennisc scellaþ by expelling air through the larynx. The vocal cords within the larynx open and close as necessary to separate the stream of air into discrete pockets of air. These pockets are shaped by the throat, tongue, and lips into the desired sound.

Cetacean sound production differs markedly from this mechanism. The precise mechanism differs in the two major sub-families of cetaceans: the Odontoceti (toothed whales—including dolphins) and the Mystceti (baleen whales—including the largest whales, such as the blue whale).

Tōðedes hƿæles sōngestrēon

Toothed whales do not make the long, low-frequency sounds known as the whale song. Instead they produce rapid bursts of high-frequency clicks and whistles. Single clicks are generally used for echolocation whereas collections of clicks and whistles are used for communication. Though a large pod of dolphins will make a veritable cacophony of different noises, very little is known about the meaning of the sound. Frankell (1998) quotes one researcher characterizing listening to such a school as like listening to a group of children at a playground.

The sounds themselves are produced by passing air through a structure in the head rather like the human nasal passage called the phonic lips. As the air passes through this narrow passage, the phonic lip membranes are sucked together, causing the surrounding tissue to vibrate. These vibrations can, as with the vibrations in the human larynx, be unconsciously controlled with great sensitivity. The vibrations pass through the tissue of the head to the melon, which shapes and directs the sound into a beam of sound for echolocation. Every toothed whale except the Sperm Whale has two sets of phonic lips and is thus capable of making two sounds independently. Once the air has passed the phonic lips it enters the vestibular sac. From there the air may be recycled back into the lower part of the nasal complex, ready to be used for sound creation again, or passed out through the blowhole.

The French name for phonic lips—museau de singe—translates to "monkey lips," which the phonic lip structure is supposed to resemble. New cranial analysis using computed axial and single photon emission computed tomography scans in 2004 showed that, at least in the case of bottlenose dolphins, air may be supplied to the nasal complex from the lungs by the palatopharyngeal sphincter, enabling the sound creation process to continue for as long as the dolphin is able to hold their breath (Houser et al., 2004).

Balēnes hƿæles sōngestrēon
Balēne hƿalas næbbaþ phonic lip structure. Instead they have a larynx that appears to play a role in sound production, but it lacks vocal chords and scientists remain uncertain as the exact mechanism. The process, however, cannot be completely analogous to Humans because whales do not have to exhale in order to produce sound. It is likely that they recycle air around the body for this purpose. Cranial sinuses may also be used to create the sounds, but again researchers are currently unclear how.

Purpose of whale-created sounds
While the complex and haunting sounds of the Humpback Whale (and some Blue Whales) are believed to be primarily used in sexual selection (see section below), the simpler sounds of other whales have a year-round use. While toothed dolphins (including the orca) are capable of using echolocation (essentially the emission of ultra-sonic beams of sound waves) to detect the size and nature of objects very precisely, baleen whales do not have this capability. Further, unlike some fish such as sharks, a whale's sense of smell is not highly developed. Thus given the poor visibility of aquatic environments and the fact that sound travels so well in water, human-audible sounds play a role in such whales' navigation. For instance, the depth of water or the existence of a large obstruction ahead may be detected by loud noises made by baleen whales.

The song of the Humpback Whale

Two groups of whales, the Humpback Whale and the subspecies of Blue Whale found in the Indian Ocean, are known to produce the repetitious sounds at varying frequencies known as the whale song. Marine biologist Philip Clapham describes the song as "probably the most complex [songs] in the animal kingdom" (Clapham, 1996).

Male Humpback Whales perform these vocalizations only during the mating season, and so it is surmised the purpose of songs is to aid sexual selection. Whether the songs are a competitive behaviour between males seeking the same mate, a means of defining territory or a "flirting" behaviour from a male to a female is not known and the subject of on-going research.

Interest in the whale song was aroused by researchers Roger Payne and Scott McVay, who analysed the songs in 1971. The songs follow a distinct hierarchical structure. The base units of the song (sometimes loosely called the "notes") are  single uninterrupted emissions of sound that last up to a few seconds. These sounds vary in frequency from 20 Hz to 10 kHz (the typical Human range of hearing is 20 Hz to 20 kHz). The units may be frequency modulated (i.e., the sound may go up, go down, or stay the same during the note) or amplitude modulated (get louder or quieter).

A collection of four or six units is known as a sub-phrase, lasting perhaps ten seconds. A collection of two sub-phrases is a phrase. A whale will typically repeat the same phrase over and over for two to four minutes. This is known as a theme. A collection of themes is known as a song. The whale will repeat the same song, which last perhaps twenty minutes, over and over again over the course of hours or even days. This "Russian doll" hierarchy of sounds has captured the imagination of scientists.

Further, each whale's song will slowly evolve over time. For example, over the course of a month a particular unit that started as an "upsweep" (increasing in frequency) may slowly flatten to become a constant note. Another unit may get steadily louder. The pace of evolution of a whale's song also changes—some years the song may change quite rapidly, whereas in other years little variation may be recorded.

Whales occupying the same geographical areas tend to sing similar songs, with only slight variations. Whales from non-overlapping regions sing entirely different collections of units.

As the song evolves it appears that old patterns are not revisited. An analysis of 19 years of whale songs found that while general patterns in song could be spotted, the same combinations never recurred.

Humpback Whales may also make stand-alone sounds that do not form part of a song, particularly during courtship rituals. Finally, the Humpbacks make a third class of sound called the feeding call. This is a long sound (5–10 sec. duration) of near constant frequency. Humpbacks generally feed co-operatively by gathering in groups, swimming underneath shoals of fish and all lunging up vertically through the fish and out of the water together. Prior to these lunges, whales make their feeding call. The exact purpose of the call is not known, but research suggests that fish do know what it means. When the sound was played back to them, a group of herring responded to the sound by moving away from the call, even though no whale was present.

Ōðre Hƿælsōnas
Mǣst balēnra hƿala scellaþ æt ymbe 15–20 hertza. Hūru, sǣlic biologists æt þǣre Woods Hole Oceanographic Insetenne meldodon in þǣm New Scientist in Gēolmōnþe 2004 þæt hīe ƿǣron on spyrunge hƿæl in þǣm Norðum Pacifiscum geond 12 gēara fec þe ƿæs "on singunge" æt 52 Hz. Þā cræftmenn ne cunnon nū sƿeotolian þās mægenscēadunge of þǣm regole; hūru, is him ƿitodlic þæt se hƿæl is balēn and borlīce gelīclic tō bēonne nīƿe cynn, and þis manaþ þæt nū cūþ cynn hæbben ƿīdran sƿēgendlican fāgunge þonne ǣr geþōht.

Mǣst ōðra hƿala and delfina scellaþ of varying degrees of complexity. Of particular interest is the Beluga (the "sea canary") which produces an immense variety of whistles, clicks and pulses.

Human interaction
Though some observers suggest that undue fascination has been placed on the whales' songs simply because the animals are under the sea, most marine mammal scientists believe that sound plays a particularly vital role in the development and well-being of cetaceans. It may be argued those against whaling have anthropomorphized the behaviour in an attempt to bolster their case. Conversely pro-whaling nations are perhaps disposed to downplay the meaning of the sounds, noting for example that little is taken in the "moo" of cattle.

Researchers use hydrophones (often adapted from their original military use in tracking submarines) to ascertain the exact location of the origin of whale noises. Their methods allow them also to detect how far throughout an ocean a sound travels. Research by Dr Christopher Clark of Cornell University conducted using thirty-years worth of military data showed that whale noises travel up to 3,000 km. As well as providing information about song production, the data allows researchers to follow the migratory path of whales throughout the "singing" (mating) season.

Prior to the introduction of human noise production, Clark says the noises may have travelled right from one side of an ocean to the other. His research indicates that ambient noise from boats is doubling each decade. This has the effect of halving the range of whale noises. Those that do believe the whale songs are significant to the continued well-being of well-populations are particularly concerned by this increase in ambient noise. Other research has shown that increased boat traffic in, for example, the waters off Vancouver, has caused some orca to change the frequency and increase the amplitude of their sounds, in an apparent attempt to get themselves heard. Environmentalists fear that such boat activity is putting undue stress on the animal as well as making it difficult to find a mate.

Media

Nemnunga
Lone whale's song remains a mystery, New Scientist, issue number 2477, 11 Gēolmōnaþ 2004
Sound production, by Adam S. Frankell, in the Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals (pp 1126-1137) ISBN 0125513402 (1998)
In search of impulse sound sources in odontocetes by Ted Cranford in Hearing by Whales and Dolphins (W. Lu, A. Popper and R. Fays eds.). Springer-Verlag (2000).
Progressive changes in the songs of Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae): a detailed analysis of two seasons in Hawaii fram K.B.Payne, P. Tyack and R.S. Payne in Communication and behavior of whales. Westview Press (1983)
BBC News, 28 Solmōnaþ 2005. Unwefung þæs hwala sanges

Ūtanwƿarde bendas
 This link was down on 13th May 2005, but all internal links on the Cornell site still point there too, so I am assuming it is a temporary blip. If you check it again later, and it is still down, feel free to move it --->
Cornell University's hwæl communication research webbtramet

Dēor
Cetaceans
Animal communication
Zoomusicology
Animal intelligence

Hwælsang


Diana Palmer is a character in the American comic strip The Phantom. She is the wife of Kit Walker, the titular hero. The couple have two children together, Kit and Heloise. Most recently, Diana has been working in the UN's Bangalla office.

Family
Diana was born into a wealthy family, to mother Lily Palmer and father Henry Zapman. Zapman's fate is unknown, but he is presumed to have died while Diana was still young, leaving Lily Palmer to raise her only child with the help of her brother, Dave Palmer. She has three cousins, Don, Lisa and Ann Palmer, but no siblings.

Meeting Kit Walker
Diana first met Kit Walker in Clarksville, United States, when they were both children. Kit, having recently arrived to live in the United States together with his faithful friend Guran of the Bandar tribe, had run away from his aunt and uncle, Sid and Bessie, due to strong homesickness. Diana, only eight years old at the time, convinced the ten-year-old Kit to stay together with his aunt and uncle.

Some time later, Kit rescued Diana from a panther, which had recently escaped from the local Zoo, and was now running freely around in Clarksville. Kit, with his years of jungle training, shot the animal dead with a bow and arrows he had taken from his sports-teacher.

After the dramatic events with the panther, the two did not see each other for years, before they were unexpectedly reunited at a Christmas party several years later, both around the age of eighteen to twenty. Kit was already a celebrated sportsman in almost every field, and Diana had broken records for her diving.

Kit and Diana fell in love with each other that Christmas holiday, the relationship going as far as Kit considering proposing to her.

However, his plans were interrupted by Guran, who came back to the United States from Bangalla to tell Kit that his father was dying after being stabbed in the back by Rama Singh, leaving Kit with no other choice than leaving Diana and travelling back to his homeland to take over the mantle of the Phantom.

Marriage
Kit proposed to Diana in the Sunday strip of October 30, 1977, and she immediately accepted at that time. Kit and Diana married later in 1977. The wedding took place in Skull Cave. President of Bangalla Lamanda Luaga and President of Ivory-Lana Goranda were both present at the wedding, and so were Mandrake the Magician, Lothar and Diana's mother and uncle, Lily and Dave Palmer.

Career
After a short career as a nurse, Diana is today working in the UN and also has an Olympic medal in diving and a black belt in karate.

In other media
In 1979, norwegian musicians Herodes Falsk and Jahn Teigen wrote a song named Sala Palmer about Diana (named Sala in the norwegian translation), sung from the perspective of The Phantom.

Diana was portrayed by Jeanne Bates in the 1943 Phantom movie serial. However, in the serial, she is the niece of Professor Davidson, and she is not romantically involved with the Phantom, but is intending to marry a man named Byron Anderson in the beginning of the story.

In 1996, Kristy Swanson portrayed her in Paramount's big budget film The Phantom, featuring Billy Zane in the title role. Diana is here sent out by her uncle Dave (in the film, a wealthy newspaper publisher) to Bangalla to help with the search for a fabled weapon of doom, the Skulls of Touganda. When she is trapped by the henchmen of bad guy Xander Drax, she is saved by the Phantom, who unbeknownst to her is really her college boyfriend, Kit Walker. Towards the end of the film (according to the novelisation) she works out the Phantom's true identity based on the fact that he appeared just after Kit disappeared.

In the 2009 miniseries, Diana Palmer Walker is seen in the opening sequence fleeing with young Kit from Singh Brotherhood assassins in a desperate car chase through New York. She uses an automatic to fight back, but is killed (presumably drowned) when her car is driven off the street into the river. Kit manages to escape the sinking car, but because of a concussion from the crash develops slight amnesia but dreams of her for many years while not knowing who she really is.

References

Female characters in comics
The Phantom characters
Fictional karateka
Fictional nurses
Fictional Olympic competitors
Fictional aquatics sportspeople
Fictional United Nations personnel

Diana Palmer (The Phantom)