An album is a collection of audio recordings (e.g., music) issued on a medium such as compact disc (CD), vinyl (record), audio tape (like 8-track or cassette), or digital. Albums of recorded sound were developed in the early 20th century as individual 78 rpm records collected in a bound book resembling a photo album; this format evolved after 1948 into single vinyl long-playing (LP) records played at  rpm.

The album was the dominant form of recorded music expression and consumption from the mid-1960s to the early 21st century, a period known as the album era. Vinyl LPs are still issued, though album sales in the 21st-century have mostly focused on CD and MP3 formats. The 8-track tape was the first tape format widely used alongside vinyl from 1965 until being phased out by 1983, being gradually supplanted by the cassette tape throughout the 1970s and early 1980s; the popularity of the cassette reached its peak during the late 1980s before sharply declining during the 1990s. The cassette had largely disappeared by the first decade of the 2000s.

Most albums are recorded in a studio, although they may also be recorded in a concert venue, at home, in the field, or a mix of places. The time frame for completely recording an album varies between a few hours to several years. This process usually requires several takes with different parts recorded separately, and then brought or "mixed" together. Recordings that are done in one take without overdubbing are termed "live", even when done in a studio. Studios are built to absorb sound, eliminating reverberation, to assist in mixing different takes; other locations, such as concert venues and some "live rooms", have reverberation, which creates a "live" sound. Recordings, including live, may contain editing, sound effects, voice adjustments, etc. With modern recording technology, artists can be recorded in separate rooms or at separate times while listening to the other parts using headphones; with each part recorded as a separate track.

Album covers and liner notes are used, and sometimes additional information is provided, such as analysis of the recording, and lyrics or librettos. Historically, the term "album" was applied to a collection of various items housed in a book format. In musical usage, the word was used for collections of short pieces of printed music from the early nineteenth century. Later, collections of related 78 rpm records were bundled in book-like albums (one side of a 78 rpm record could hold only about 3.5 minutes of sound). When LP records were introduced, a collection of pieces or songs on a single record was called an "album"; the word was extended to other recording media such as compact disc, MiniDisc, compact audio cassette, 8-track tape and digital albums as they were introduced.

History
An album (Latin , white), in ancient Rome, was a board chalked or painted white, on which decrees, edicts, and other public notices were inscribed in black. It was from this that in medieval and modern times, album came to denote a book of blank pages in which verses, autographs, sketches, photographs and the like are collected. This in turn led to the modern meaning of an album as a collection of audio recordings issued as a single item.

The first audio albums were actually published by the publishers of photograph albums. Single 78 rpm records were sold in a brown heavy paper sleeve with a large hole in the center so the record's label could be seen. The fragile records were stored on their sides. By the mid-1920s, photo album publishers sold collections of empty sleeves of heavier paper in bound volumes with stiff covers slightly larger than the 10" popular records. (Classical records measured 12".) On the paper cover in small type were the words "Record Album." Now records could be stored vertically with the record not touching the shelf, and the term was applied to the collection.

In the early nineteenth century, "album" was occasionally used in the titles of some classical music sets, such as Robert Schumann's Album for the Young Opus 68, a set of 43 short pieces.

With the advent of 78 rpm records in the early 1900s, the typical 10-inch disc could only hold about three minutes of sound per side, so almost all popular recordings were limited to around three minutes in length. Classical-music and spoken-word items generally were released on the longer 12-inch 78s, playing around 4–5 minutes per side. For example, in 1924, George Gershwin recorded a drastically shortened version of his new seventeen-minute composition Rhapsody in Blue with Paul Whiteman and His Orchestra. The recording was issued on both sides of a single record, Victor 55225 and ran for 8m 59s.  By 1910, though some European record companies had issued albums of complete operas and other works, the practice of issuing albums was not widely taken up by American record companies until the 1920s.

By about 1910, bound collections of empty sleeves with a paperboard or leather cover, similar to a photograph album, were sold as record albums that customers could use to store their records (the term "record album" was printed on some covers). These albums came in both 10-inch and 12-inch sizes. The covers of these bound books were wider and taller than the records inside, allowing the record album to be placed on a shelf upright, like a book, suspending the fragile records above the shelf and protecting them. In the 1930s, record companies began issuing collections of 78 rpm records by one performer or of one type of music in specially assembled albums, typically with artwork on the front cover and liner notes on the back or inside cover. Most albums included three or four records, with two sides each, making six or eight compositions per album.

By the mid-1930s, record companies had adopted the album format for classical music selections that were longer than the roughly eight minutes that fit on both sides of a classical 12" 78 rpm record. Initially the covers were plain, with the name of the selection and performer in small type. In 1938, Columbia records hired the first graphic designer in the business to design covers, others soon followed and colorful album covers cover became an important selling feature.

By the later '30s, record companies began releasing albums of previously released recordings of popular music in albums organized by performer, singers or bands, or by type of music, boogie-woogie, for example.

When Columbia introduced the Long Playing record format in 1948, it was natural the term album would continue. Columbia expected that the record size distinction in 78s would continue, with classical music on 12" records and popular music on 10" records, and singles on 78s. Columbia's first popular 10" LP in fact was Frank Sinatra's first album, the four-record eight-song "The Voice", originally issued in 1946.

RCA's introduction of the smaller 45 rpm format later in 1948 disrupted Columbia's expectations. By the mid-1950s, 45s dominated the singles market and 12" LPs dominated the album market and both 78s and 10" LPs were discontinued. In the 1950s albums of popular music were also issued on 45s, sold in small heavy paper-covered "gate-fold" albums with multiple discs in sleeves or in sleeves in small boxes. This format disappeared around 1960. Sinatra's "The Voice" was issued in 1952 on two extended play 45s, with two songs on each side, in both packagings.

The 10-inch and 12-inch LP record (long play), or  rpm microgroove vinyl record, is a gramophone record format introduced by Columbia Records in 1948. A single LP record often had the same or similar number of tunes as a typical album of 78s, and it was adopted by the record industry as a standard format for the "album". Apart from relatively minor refinements and the important later addition of stereophonic sound capability, it has remained the standard format for vinyl albums.

The term "album" was extended to other recording media such as 8-track tape, audio cassette, compact disc, MiniDisc, and digital albums, as they were introduced. As part of a trend of shifting sales in the music industry, some observers feel that the early 21st century experienced the death of the album.

Length
An album may contain any number of tracks. In the United States, The Recording Academy's rules for Grammy Awards state that an album must comprise a minimum total playing time of 15 minutes with at least five distinct tracks or a minimum total playing time of 30 minutes with no minimum track requirement. In the United Kingdom, the criteria for the UK Albums Chart is that a recording counts as an "album" if it either has more than four tracks or lasts more than 25 minutes. Sometimes shorter albums are referred to as mini-albums or EPs. Albums such as Tubular Bells, Amarok, and Hergest Ridge by Mike Oldfield, and Yes' Close to the Edge, include fewer than four tracks, but still surpass the 25-minute mark. The album Dopesmoker by Sleep contains only a single track, but the composition is over 63 minutes long. There are no formal rules against artists such as Pinhead Gunpowder referring to their own releases under thirty minutes as "albums".

If an album becomes too long to fit onto a single vinyl record or CD, it may be released as a double album where two vinyl LPs or compact discs are packaged together in a single case, or a triple album containing three LPs or compact discs. Recording artists who have an extensive back catalogue may re-release several CDs in one single box with a unified design, often containing one or more albums (in this scenario, these releases can sometimes be referred to as a "two (or three)-fer"), or a compilation of previously unreleased recordings. These are known as box sets. Some musical artists have also released more than three compact discs or LP records of new recordings at once, in the form of boxed sets, although in that case the work is still usually considered to be an album.

Tracks
Material (music or sounds) is stored on an album in sections termed tracks. A music track (often simply referred to as a track) is an individual song or instrumental recording. The term is particularly associated with popular music where separate tracks are known as album tracks; the term is also used for other formats such as EPs and singles. When vinyl records were the primary medium for audio recordings a track could be identified visually from the grooves and many album covers or sleeves included numbers for the tracks on each side. On a compact disc the track number is indexed so that a player can jump straight to the start of any track. On digital music stores such as iTunes the term song is often used interchangeably with track regardless of whether there is any vocal content.

A track that has the same name as the album is called the title track.

Bonus tracks

A bonus track (also known as a bonus cut or bonus) is a piece of music which has been included as an extra. This may be done as a marketing promotion, or for other reasons. It is not uncommon to include singles, B-sides, live recordings, and demo recordings as bonus tracks on re-issues of old albums, where those tracks were not originally included. Online music stores allow buyers to create their own albums by selecting songs themselves; bonus tracks may be included if a customer buys a whole album rather than just one or two songs from the artist. The song is not necessarily free nor is it available as a stand-alone download, adding also to the incentive to buy the complete album. In contrast to hidden tracks, bonus tracks are included on track listings and usually do not have a gap of silence between other album tracks. Bonus tracks on CD or vinyl albums are common in Japan for releases by European and North American artists; since importing international copies of the album can be cheaper than buying a domestically released version, Japanese releases often feature bonus tracks to incentivize domestic purchase.

Audio formats

Non-audio printed format

Commercial sheet music are published in conjunction with the release of a new album (studio, compilation, soundtrack, etc.). A matching folio songbook is a compilation of the music notation of all the songs included in that particular album. It typically has the album's artwork on its cover and, in addition to sheet music, it includes photos of the artist. Most pop and rock releases come in standard Piano/Vocal/Guitar notation format (and occasionally Easy Piano / E-Z Play Today). Rock-oriented releases may also come in Guitar Recorded Versions edition, which are note-for-note transcriptions written directly from artist recordings.

Vinyl records

Vinyl LP records have two sides, each comprising one-half of the album. If a pop or rock album contained tracks released separately as commercial singles, they were conventionally placed in particular positions on the album. During the sixties, particularly in the UK, singles were generally released separately from albums. Today, many commercial albums of music tracks feature one or more singles, which are released separately to radio, TV or the Internet as a way of promoting the album.  Albums have been issued that are compilations of older tracks not originally released together, such as singles not originally found on albums, b-sides of singles, or unfinished "demo" recordings.

Double albums during the seventies were sometimes sequenced for record changers. In the case of a two-record set, for example, sides 1 and 4 would be stamped on one record, and sides 2 and 3 on the other. The user would stack the two records onto the spindle of an automatic record changer, with side 1 on the bottom and side 2 (on the other record) on top. Side 1 would automatically drop onto the turntable and be played. When finished, the tone arm's position would trigger a mechanism which moved the arm out of the way, dropped the record with side 2, and played it. When both records had been played, the user would pick up the stack, turn it over, and put them back on the spindle—sides 3 and 4 would then play in sequence. Record changers were used for many years of the LP era, but eventually fell out of use.

8-track tape

8-track tape (formally Stereo 8: commonly known as the eight-track cartridge, eight-track tape, or simply eight-track) is a magnetic tape sound recording technology popular in the United States from the mid-1960s to the late 1970s when the Compact Cassette format took over. The format is regarded as an obsolete technology, and was relatively unknown outside the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia.

Stereo 8 was created in 1964 by a consortium led by Bill Lear of Lear Jet Corporation, along with Ampex, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Motorola, and RCA Victor Records. It was a further development of the similar Stereo-Pak four-track cartridge created by Earl "Madman" Muntz. A later quadraphonic version of the format was announced by RCA in April 1970 and first known as Quad-8, then later changed to just Q8.

Compact cassette

The Compact Cassette was a popular medium for distributing pre-recorded music from the early 1970s to the early 2000s. The first "Compact Cassette" was introduced by Philips in August 1963 in the form of a prototype. Compact Cassettes became especially popular during the 1980s after the advent of the Sony Walkman, which allowed the person to  control what they listened to. The Walkman was convenient because of its size, the device could fit in most pockets and often came equipped with a clip for belts or pants.

The compact cassette used double-sided magnetic tape to distribute music for commercial sale. The music is recorded on both the "A" and "B" side of the tape, with cassette being "turned" to play the other side of the album. Compact Cassettes were also a popular way for musicians to record "Demos" or "Demo Tapes" of their music to distribute to various record labels, in the hopes of acquiring a recording contract.

Compact cassettes also saw the creation of mixtapes, which are tapes containing a compilation of songs created by any average listener of music. The songs on a mixtape generally relate to one another in some way, whether it be a conceptual theme or an overall sound. After the introduction of Compact discs, the term "Mixtape" began to apply to any personal compilation of songs on any given format.

The sales of Compact Cassettes eventually began to decline in the 1990s, after the release and distribution Compact Discs. The 2010s saw a revival of Compact Cassettes by independent record labels and DIY musicians who preferred the format because of its difficulty to share over the internet.

Compact disc

The compact disc format replaced both the vinyl record and the cassette as the standard for the commercial mass-market distribution of physical music albums. After the introduction of music downloading and MP3 players such as the iPod, US album sales dropped 54.6% from 2001 to 2009. The CD is a digital data storage device which permits digital recording technology to be used to record and play-back the recorded music.

MP3 albums, and similar

Most recently, the MP3 audio format has matured, revolutionizing the concept of digital storage.  Early MP3 albums were essentially CD-rips created by early CD-ripping software, and sometimes real-time rips from cassettes and vinyl.

The so-called "MP3 album" is not necessarily just in MP3 file format, in which higher quality formats such as FLAC and WAV can be used on storage media that MP3 albums reside on, such as CD-R-ROMs, hard drives, flash memory (e.g. thumbdrives, MP3 players, SD cards), etc.

Types of album

The contents of the album are usually recorded in a studio or live in concert, though may be recorded in other locations, such as at home (as with JJ Cale's Okie, Beck's Odelay, David Gray's White Ladder, and others), in the field – as with early Blues recordings, in prison, or with a mobile recording unit such as the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio.

Studio

Most albums are studio albums — that is, they are recorded in a recording studio with equipment meant to give those overseeing the recording as much control as possible over the sound of the album. They minimize external noises and reverberations and have highly sensitive microphones and sound mixing equipment. In some studios, each member of a band records their part in separate rooms (or even at separate times, while listening to the other parts of the track with headphones to keep the timing right). In the 2000s, with the advent of digital recording, it became possible for musicians to record their part of a song in another studio in another part of the world, and send their contribution over digital channels to be included in the final product.

Live

Recordings that are done in one take without overdubbing or multi-tracking are termed "live", even when done in a studio. However, the common understanding of a "live album" is one that was recorded at a concert with a public audience, even when the recording is overdubbed or multi-tracked. Concert or stage performances are recorded using remote recording techniques. Albums may be recorded at a single concert, or combine recordings made at multiple concerts. They may include applause, laughter and other noise from the audience, monologues by the performers between pieces, improvisation, and so on. They may use multitrack recording direct from the stage sound system (rather than microphones placed among the audience), and can employ additional manipulation and effects during post-production to enhance the quality of the recording.

Notable early live albums include the double album of Benny Goodman, The Famous 1938 Carnegie Hall Jazz Concert, released in 1950. Live double albums later became popular during the 1970s. Appraising the concept in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981), Robert Christgau said most "are profit-taking recaps marred by sound and format inappropriate to phonographic reproduction (you can't put sights, smells, or fellowship on audio tape). But for Joe Cocker and Bette Midler and Bob-Dylan-in-the-arena, the form makes a compelling kind of sense."

Eric Clapton's Unplugged (1992), over 26 million copies, Garth Brooks' Double Live (1998), over 21 million copies, and Peter Frampton's Frampton Comes Alive! (1976), over 11 million copies, are among the best selling live albums.

In Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Albums of All Time 18 albums were live albums.

Solo

A solo album, in popular music, is an album recorded by a current or former member of a musical group which is released under that artist's name only, even though some or all other band members may be involved. The solo album appeared as early as the late 1940s. A 1947 Billboard magazine article heralded "Margaret Whiting huddling with Capitol execs over her first solo album on which she will be backed by Frank De Vol". There is no formal definition setting forth the amount of participation a band member can solicit from other members of their band, and still have the album referred to as a solo album. One reviewer wrote that Ringo Starr's third venture, Ringo, "[t]echnically... wasn't a solo album because all four Beatles appeared on it". Three of the four members of the Beatles released solo albums while the group was officially still together.

A performer may record a solo album for several reasons. A solo performer working with other members will typically have full creative control of the band, be able to hire and fire accompanists, and get the majority of the proceeds. The performer may be able to produce songs that differ widely from the sound of the band with which the performer has been associated, or that the group as a whole chose not to include in its own albums. Graham Nash of the Hollies described his experience in developing a solo album as follows: "The thing that I go through that results in a solo album is an interesting process of collecting songs that can't be done, for whatever reason, by a lot of people". A solo album may also represent the departure of the performer from the group.

Compilation album

A compilation album is a collection of material from various recording projects or various artists, assembled with a theme such as the "greatest hits" from one artist, B-sides and rarities by one artist, or selections from a record label, a musical genre, a certain time period, or a regional music scene. Promotional sampler albums are compilations.

Tribute or cover

A tribute or cover album is a compilation of cover versions of songs or instrumental compositions. Its concept may involve various artists covering the songs of a single artist, genre or period, a single artist covering the songs of various artists or a single artist, genre or period, or any variation of an album of cover songs which is marketed as a "tribute".

See also

 Album-equivalent unit
 Album-oriented rock
 Art release
 Comedy album
 Compilation album
 Concept album
 Lists of albums
 Record sales
 Remix album
 Soundtrack album
 Split album

References

Media formats

Album


An independent clause, also called a main clause, is a clause that can stand on its own. It contains all the information necessary to be a complete sentence. An independent clause has a subject that tells you what the sentence is about and a verb that tells you what the subject is doing. It expresses a complete thought, relaying that something has happened or was said.
 For example, in the sentence, 'My dog loves pizza crusts,' the subject is dog, the verb is loves and your reader now knows that 'your dog loves pizza crusts,' making it a complete thought.

Grammar

Independent clauses


The Panamanian Coat o Airms is a heraldic seembol for the Central American naition o Panama.  Thir airms wur adoptit provisionally an then definitively bi the same laws that adoptit the Panamanian banner.

Description

The centre section contains the Isthmus o Panama. The chief or tap pairt o the coat o airms comprises twa quarters. The tap left ower a field o siller a swuird an a rifle. In 1904 the airms wur made offeecial bi Law 64 o 4 Juin 1904 signed bi the Preses o Assembly Dr Genaro Ortega, an sanctioned bi the Preses o the Republic, Dr Manuel Amador Guerrero.

The offeecial description o the heraldic design is as follaes:

"It rests on a green field, seembol o the vegetation; it is o pointit form an it is intervened as far as the diveesion. The center shows the Isthmus wi its seas an sky, in which the muin begins tae rise abuin the waves an the sun begins tae hide ahint the muntain, markin therebi the solemn oor o the declaration o oor unthirldom. The heid is dividit in twa quarters: in the ane o the richt hand, in the silver field, a sword an a gun are hung meant as abandonment for aaways tae the ceevil wars, causes o oor ruin; in the ane o the left-haund side, an on field o gules, a crossed shovel an a grub hoe are shown shinin, tae seembolize the wirk "
"The end o the coat o airms an aa is dividit in twa quarters: the ane o the richt-haund side, in blue field, shows a cornucopia, emblem o the wealth; an the ane o the left-haund side, in field o silver, the winged wheel, seembol o the progress. Ahint the shield an coverin it wi his opened wings, is the eagle, emblem o the sovereignty, the heid turned towards the left, an takes in the tip a silver tape, which hangs frae richt tae left. On the tape the follaein motto is printit "Pro Mundi Beneficio "
"On the eagle, in arc form, nine gowd starns go in representation o the provinces in which the Republic is divideit. Like decorative accessories, tae each side o the coat o airms twa gathered naitional banners go on the ither haund below"

For thirtie-seiven years the Coat o Airms o the Republic o Panama wis no chynged till the Constitution o 1941 wis promulgatit. The Naitional Assembly dictatit in Mairch o this year Law 28 on the Coat o Airms, in which the follaein reforms wur introduced: the saber an the gun are meant as attitude o alert in defence o oor sovereignty, in the place o "abandonment tae mean guid bye tae the ceevil wars ".   311 projects appeared tae chynge the motto an the Jury named tae mak the selection decidit for: "Solo Dios sobre Nosotros" (Ae God Abuin Us). Nivertheless, the Naitional Assembly when approvin the Law 28 awready referred tae, rejectit it an preferred the ane o "Juistice, Honor an Freedom ".  Five years later, in 1946, Panama returned tae the auld seembol wi the well-kent motto o "Pro Mundi Beneficio ".

The formal adoption an regulation o the uise o the naitional banner, anthem an coat o airms wur reglamentit bi law 34 o 1949.

Hairpy Eagle Law

Law 34 o 1949 statit, as noted abuin, that an eagle wis tae be on the tap o the coat o airms.  Housomeivver, it didna specify wha species o eagle, even tho in maist schools the Hairpy Eagle wis the eagle species on tap o the coat o airms.  Law 18 o 2002 made the Hairpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) the naitional bird; an tae specify wha species o eagle wis tae be on the coat o airms, on Mey 17, 2006 law 50 wis approved bi the Naitional Assembly tae modify law 18 o 2002, an add that the Hairpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) wis the species o Eagle that on the Coat o Airms o the Republic o Panama.

References

Panama
Naitional seembols o Panama

Coat o airms o Panama


The Ibirapuera Auditorium () is a building conceived by Oscar Niemeyer for the presentation of musical spectacles, situated in Ibirapuera Park in São Paulo.

History
The auditorium completes the group of buildings in Ibirapuera park, as designed originally by the architect in the 1950s. Compared to the original proposal it is lacking only the access square that would separate it from the Oca, which would serve as the main entrance to the park.

At the 2008 Latin Grammy Awards the Brazilian Field awards were presented at the Ibirapuera Auditorium. In December of the same year, the Ibirapuera Auditorium was  the host of the final fashion show of America's Next Top Model, Cycle 12.

Architectural concept

The building possesses volumetric simplicity, composed of a single block that in plan has the form of a trapezoid and, in section, the form of a triangle. As well as the other buildings in the park such as the Oca dome, and a great part of the architect's work, the auditorium is composed of reinforced concrete painted white.

The unique form and spatial massing sets it apart from other auditoriums for concerts since the conception of the Paris Opera in the 19th century. It is composed of a separation of three parts, which makes a sequence of foyer, audience, stage from the exterior to the interior.

The group formed by the auditorium together with the Oca, which is a semi-sphere, composing two buildings of pure and white geometrical volumes, is considered the most important of the project from an architectural point of view. The articulation of the group would be made complete by a great civic square, marquee, and footbridge, that have not been realized.

A marquee, executed in red painted metal, covers the main access and gives identity to the building, characterizing it and differentiating it from other buildings. For this reason, the form and color of this element have transformed the branding of the auditorium and act as an architectural logo. It is called officially the Labareda - Portuguese for flame.

Internal organization

On the first floor is a foyer leading to the stage and audience. On the lower floor is a bar, rooms for administration, the music school and dressing rooms. The auditorium has an 18-meter-wide back door that, when opened, permits access to what is presented on the stage to people situated outside, for open-air concerts. stage.

Works of art
Tomie Ohtake and Luís Antônio Vallandro Keating

See also
List of Oscar Niemeyer works

References

External links

Ibirapuera Park, official website. Managed by Ibirapuera Park Management Council, it allows civil society to interact with Park's Administration.

Oscar Niemeyer buildings
Music venues completed in 2005
Music venues in São Paulo
Culture in São Paulo

Ibirapuera Auditorium


Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis (The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis) is an epistolary novel written by Ugo Foscolo between 1798 and 1802 and first published later that year. A second edition, with major changes, was published by Foscolo in Zurich (1816) and a third one in London (1817).

The model was Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774). Another influence is Rousseau's Julie, or the New Heloise (1761). Foscolo's work was also inspired by the political events that occurred in Northern Italy during the Napoleonic period, when the Fall of the Republic of Venice and the subsequent Treaty of Campoformio forced Foscolo to go into exile from Venice to Milan. The autobiographic elements reflect into the novel.

Ortis is composed of letters written by Jacopo to his friend Lorenzo Alderani; the last chapter is the description of the young man's last hours and suicide written by Lorenzo.

The plot is located in the countryside near Padua and takes place between October 1797 and March 1799. Jacopo Ortis is a patriot who must retreat in a village in Colli Euganei to escape political persecutions. Here he meets a girl, named Teresa, and her family. The two youths fall in love, but this love is impossible, since the girl is fiancée to Odoardo, and Jacopo is in no condition to offer her a marriage.

In despair, Jacopo travels through Italy (then divided into various little states) and visits many cities, among them Florence, with the historical tombs of Santa Croce, Milan, where he meets Giuseppe Parini, Genoa, Ventimiglia. After a deep meditation about nature, history and human fate, he resolves to go back to Veneto. He visits Teresa, then his mother. Finally he commits suicide.

Sources
 Ugo Foscolo, Opere, Ricciardi Editore, Milano-Napoli, 1974
  Giulio Ferroni, Profilo storico della letteratura italiana, Einaudi Scuola, Milano, 1992

1802 novels
1816 novels
Italian historical novels
Epistolary novels
Sentimental novels
Novels set in the 1790s
Padua
19th-century Italian novels

The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis


Jeffrey K. Hadden (1937–2003) was an American professor of sociology.  He began his teaching career at Western Reserve University and then at the University of Virginia commencing in 1972. Hadden earned his Ph.D. in 1963 at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he was trained as a demographer and human ecologist.

While teaching urban sociology at WRU, he co-authored with Louis H Massotti and Calvin J. Larsen Metropolis in crisis: social and political perspectives. With Massotti, he co-edited The Urbanization of the Suburbs (Sage Publications 1973) Hadden published numerous scholarly books and articles and essays on religion approaching the study of religion from the perspective of social movements theory and characterized his primary interest as the comparative study of religion and politics.

During the 1960s, Hadden studied and wrote about the involvement of liberal Protestant clergy in the Civil Rights Movement. He was probably best known for his studies of religious broadcasters and the emergence of the Christian Right in America during the 1980s, studying the ministries of Jerry Falwell in nearby Lynchburg, and Pat Robertson in Virginia Beach.

During the years of peak civil rights activity in the South, Evangelical clergy consistently criticized the involvement of liberal clergy on the grounds that religion and politics should not mix. Hadden's interest in religious broadcasters was significantly aroused as it became increasingly evident to him that they were themselves making overtures toward involvement and influence in the political process.

His first publication on the subject of religious broadcasting entitled "Soul-Saving Via Video" appeared in "Christian Century" in 1980.

In 1998, Hadden planned and oversaw the construction of three websites on religious freedom topics at the University of Virginia: The Religious Freedom Page,  Religious Broadcasting, and The Religious Movements Homepage Project. The latter effort involved the contributions of hundreds of undergraduate students who took Hadden's New Religious Movements sociology course during the period.

In 1993 he edited a two-volume work entitled Handbook of Cults and Sects in America with David Bromley (Professor of Sociology at Virginia Commonwealth University).

Hadden published 25 books as well as numerous articles throughout his career. He died on January 26, 2003, of pancreatic cancer in Charlottesville, Virginia at age 66.

Partial bibliography
Some of Hadden's books include
 Metropolis in crisis: social and political perspectives, (1967) F.E. Peacock,
 The Gathering Storm in the Churches, (1969) Doubleday.
 Religion in Radical Transition, (1973) 166 pp. Transaction Publishers
 Gideon's gang: A case study of the church in social action. (1974). 245pp, United Church Press,
 Prime Time Preachers: The Rising Power of Televangelism. with Charles E. Swann. (1981). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing.
 Prophetic Religions and Politics: Religion and the Political Order. (1986) 144 pp. Paragon House Publishers,
 America's uneasy relationship with non-Christian and oriental religions. (1986) Thomas Jefferson Institute (1986)
 Televangelism: Power and Politics on God's Frontier.  with Anson Shupe. (1988). New York: Henry Holt.
 Secularization and Fundamentalism Reconsidered with Anson Shupe. (1989). Paragon House.
 Religion and the Social Order: The Handbook on Cults and Sects in America with Bromley D. (1993). JAI Press

External links
The Religious Freedom Page
Religious Broadcasting

 World Religions and Spirituality Current version of the Religious Movements Homepage
 Hadden's entry in the Encyclopedia of Religion and Society

1937 births
2003 deaths
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
American sociologists
Sociologists of religion
Researchers of new religious movements and cults
Deaths from cancer in Virginia
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
University of Virginia faculty
Human ecologists
Presidents of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion

Jeffrey K. Hadden


ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු ජාතික ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායම, ජාත්‍යන්තර ක්‍රිකට් තරඟවලදී ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු රට නියෝජනය කරයි. එය ටෙස්ට් ක්‍රිකට් ඉතිහාසයේ ඒකාබද්ධ පැරණිතම කණ්ඩායම වන අතර 1877 දී පළමු ටෙස්ට් තරඟයට ක්‍රීඩා කර ඇත. කණ්ඩායම එක්දින ජාත්‍යන්තර ක්‍රිකට් සහ විස්සයි20 ජාත්‍යන්තර ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩා කරයි, 1970-71 තරග වාරයේ එංගලන්තයට එරෙහිව පළමු එක්දින තරඟ දෙකටම සහභාගී විය. සහ පළමු විස්සයි20 ජාත්‍යන්තරය, 2004-05 වාරයේ නවසීලන්තයට එරෙහිවයි, තරග දෙකම දිනමින්. කණ්ඩායම ඔස්ට්‍රේලියානු දේශීය තරඟ සඳහා ක්‍රීඩා කරන කණ්ඩායම් - ෂෙෆීල්ඩ් පළිහ, ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු දේශීය සීමිත ඕවර ක්‍රිකට් තරඟාවලිය සහ බිග් බෑෂ් ලීගය වෙතින් තම ක්‍රීඩකයින් ලබා ගනී.

The national team has played 803 Test matches, winning 378, losing 216, drawing 207 and tying 2. Australia is ranked the number-one team overall in Test cricket in terms of overall wins, win-loss ratio and wins percentage. , Australia is ranked fifth in the ICC Test Championship on 97 rating points.

The Australian cricket team has played 906 ODI matches, winning 555, losing 308, tying 9 and with 34 ending in no-result. They currently placed third the ICC ODI Championship, having done so for 130 of 161 months since its introduction in 2002. Australia have made a record seven World Cup final appearances (1975, 1987, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2007 and 2015) and have won the World Cup a record five times in total; 1987, 1999, 2003, 2007 and 2015. Australia is the first team to appear in four consecutive World Cup finals (1996, 1999, 2003 and 2007), surpassing the old record of three consecutive World Cup appearances by West Indies (1975, 1979 and 1983) and the first team to win 3 consecutive world cups (1999, 2003 and 2007). It is also the second team to win a  World Cup (2015) on home soil, after India (2011).

The team was undefeated in 34 consecutive World Cup matches until 19 March at the 2011 Cricket World Cup where Pakistan beat them by 4 wickets. Australia have also won the ICC Champions Trophy twice – in 2006 and in 2009 – making them the first and the only team to become back to back winners in the Champions Trophy tournaments. The team has also played 93 Twenty20 Internationals, winning 47, losing 43, tying 2 and with 1 ending in no-result making the final of the 2010 ICC World Twenty20, which they eventually lost to England.

ඉතිහාසය
The Australian cricket team participated in the first Test match at the MCG in 1877, defeating an English team by 45 runs, with Charles Bannerman making the first Test century, a score of 165 retired hurt. Test cricket, which only occurred between Australia and England at the time, was limited by the long distance between the two countries, which would take several months by sea. Despite Australia's much smaller population, the team was very competitive in early games, producing stars such as Jack Blackham, Billy Murdoch, Fred "The Demon" Spofforth, George Bonnor, Percy McDonnell, George Giffen and Charles "The Terror" Turner. Most cricketers at the time were either from New South Wales or Victoria, with the notable exception of George Giffen, the star South Australian all-rounder.

A highlight of Australia's early history was the 1882 Test match against England at The Oval. In this match Fred Spofforth took 7/44 in the game's fourth innings to save the match by preventing England from making their 85-run target. After this match The Sporting Times, a major newspaper in London at the time, printed a mock obituary in which the death of English cricket was proclaimed and the announcement made that "the body was cremated and the ashes taken to Australia." This was the start of the famous Ashes series in which Australia and England play a Test match series to decide the holder of the Ashes. To this day, the contest is one of the fiercest rivalries in sport.

The so-called 'Golden Age' of Australian Test cricket occurred around the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, with the team under the captaincy of Joe Darling, Monty Noble and Clem Hill winning eight of ten tours. It is considered to have lasted from the 1897–98 English tour of Australia and the 1910–11 South African tour of Australia. Outstanding batsmen such as Joe Darling, Clem Hill, Reggie Duff, Syd Gregory, Warren Bardsley and Victor Trumper, brilliant all-rounders including Monty Noble, George Giffen, Harry Trott and Warwick Armstrong and excellent bowlers including Ernie Jones, Hugh Trumble, Tibby Cotter, Bill Howell, Jack Saunders and Bill Whitty, all helped Australia to become the dominant cricketing nation for most of this period.

Victor Trumper became one of Australia's first sporting heroes, and was widely considered Australia's greatest batsman before Bradman and one of the most popular players. He played a record (at the time) number of Tests at 49 and scored 3163 (another record) runs at a high for the time average of 39.04. His early death in 1915 at the age of 37 from kidney disease caused national mourning. The Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, in its obituary for him, called him Australia's greatest batsman:  "Of all the great Australian batsmen Victor Trumper was by general consent the best and most brilliant."

The years leading up to the start of World War I were marred by conflict between the players, led by Clem Hill, Victor Trumper and Frank Laver, the Australian Board of Control for International Cricket, led by Peter McAlister, who was attempting to gain more control of tours from the players. This led to six leading players (the so-called "Big Six") walking out on the 1912 Triangular Tournament in England, with Australia fielding what was generally considered a second-rate side. This was the last series before the war, and no more cricket was played by Australia for eight years, with Tibby Cotter being killed in Palestine during the war.

Test cricket resumed in the 1920/21 season in Australia with a touring English team, captained by Johnny Douglas losing all five Tests to Australia, captained by the "Big Ship" Warwick Armstrong. Several players from before the war, including Warwick Armstrong, Charlie Macartney, Charles Kelleway, Warren Bardsley and the wicket-keeper Sammy Carter, were instrumental in the team's success, as well as new players Herbie Collins, Jack Ryder, Bert Oldfield, the spinner Arthur Mailey and the so-called "twin destroyers" Jack Gregory and Ted McDonald. The team continued its success on the 1921 Tour of England, winning three out of the five Tests in Warwick Armstrong's last series. The side was, on the whole, inconsistent in the latter half of the 1920s, losing its first home Ashes series since the 1911–12 season in 1928–29.

The 1930 Tour of England heralded a new age of success for the Australian team. The team, led by Bill Woodfull – the "Great Un-bowlable" – featured legends of the game including Bill Ponsford, Stan McCabe, Clarrie Grimmett and the young pair of Archie Jackson and Don Bradman. Bradman was the outstanding batsman of the series, scoring a record 974 runs, including one century, two double centuries and one triple century, a massive score of 334 at Leeds which including 309 runs in a day. Jackson died of tuberculosis at the age of 24 three years later, after playing eight Tests. The team was widely considered unstoppable, winning nine of its next ten Tests.

The 1932–33 England tour of Australia is considered one of the most infamous episodes of cricket, due to the England team's use of bodyline, where captain Douglas Jardine instructed his bowlers Bill Voce and Harold Larwood to bowl fast, short-pitched deliveries aimed at the bodies of the Australian batsmen. The tactic, although effective, was widely considered by Australian crowds as vicious and unsporting. Injuries to Bill Woodfull, who was struck over the heart, and Bert Oldfield, who received a fractured skull (although from a non-Bodyline ball), exacerbated the situation, almost causing a full-scale riot from the 50 000 fans at the Adelaide Oval for the Third Test. The conflict almost escalated into a diplomatic incident between the two countries, as leading Australian political figures, including the Governor of South Australia, Alexander Hore-Ruthven, protested to their English counterparts. The series ended in a 4–1 win for England but the Bodyline tactics used were banned the year after.

The Australian team put the result of this series behind them, winning their next tour of England in 1934. The team was led by Bill Woodfull on his final tour, and was notably dominated by Ponsford and Bradman, who twice put on partnerships of over 380 runs, with Bradman once again scoring a triple-century at Leeds. The bowling was dominated by the spin pair of Bill O'Reilly and Clarrie Grimmett, who took 53 wickets between them, with O'Reilly twice taking seven-wicket hauls.

Sir Donald Bradman is widely considered the greatest batsman of all time. He dominated the sport from 1930 until his retirement in 1948, setting new records for the highest score in a Test innings (334 vs England at Headingley in 1930), the most number of runs (6996), the most number of centuries (29), the most number of double centuries and the highest Test and first-class batting averages. His record for the highest Test batting average – 99.94 – has never been beaten. It is almost 40 runs per innings above the next highest average. He would have finished with an average of over 100 runs per innings if he had not been dismissed for a duck in his last Test. He was knighted in 1949 for services to cricket. He is generally considered one of Australia's greatest sporting heroes.

Test cricket was again interrupted by war, with the last Test series in 1938 made notable by Len Hutton scoring a world record 364 for England, with Chuck Fleetwood-Smith conceding 298 runs in England's world record total of 7–903. Ross Gregory, a notable young batsman who played two Tests before the war, was killed in the war.

The team continued its success after the end of the Second World War, with the first Test (also Australia's first against New Zealand) being played in the 1945–46 season against New Zealand. Australia was by far the most successful team of the 1940s, being undefeated throughout the decade, winning two Ashes series against England and its first Test series against India. The team capitalised on its ageing stars Bradman, Sid Barnes, Bill Brown and Lindsay Hassett while new talent, including Ian Johnson, Don Tallon, Arthur Morris, Neil Harvey, Bill Johnston and the fast bowling pair of Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller, who all made their debut in the latter half of the 1940s, and were to form the basis of the team for a good part of the next decade. The team that Don Bradman led to England in 1948 gained the moniker The Invincibles, after going through the tour without losing a single game. Of 31 first-class games played during the tour, they won 23 and drew 8, including winning the five-match Test series 4–0, with one draw. The tour was particularly notable for the Fourth Test of the series, in which Australia won by seven wickets chasing a target of 404, setting a new record for the highest run chase in Test cricket, with Arthur Morris and Bradman both scoring centuries, as well as for the final Test in the series, Bradman's last, where he finished with a duck in his last innings after needing only four runs to secure a career average of 100.

Australia was less successful in the 1950s, losing three consecutive Ashes series to England, including a horrendous 1956 Tour of England, where the 'spin twins' Laker and Lock destroyed Australia, taking 61 wickets between them, including Laker taking 19 wickets in the game (a first-class record) at Headingley, a game dubbed Laker's Match.

However, the team rebounded to win five consecutive series in the latter half of the 1950s, first under the leadership of Ian Johnson, then Ian Craig and Richie Benaud. The series against the West Indies in the 1960–61 season was notable for the Tied Test in the first game at the Gabba, which was the first in Test cricket. Australia ended up winning the series 2–1 after a hard fought series that was praised for its excellent standards and sense of fair play. Stand-out players in that series as well as through the early part of the 1960s were Richie Benaud, who took a then-record number of wickets as a leg-spinner, and who also captained Australia in 28 Tests, including 24 without defeat; Alan Davidson, who became the first player to take 10 wickets and make 100 runs in the same game in the first Test, and was also a notable fast-bowler; Bob Simpson, who also later captained Australia for two different periods of time; Colin McDonald, the first-choice opening batsman for most of the 1950s and early '60s; Norm O'Neill, who made 181 in the Tied Test; Neil Harvey, towards the end of his long career; and Wally Grout, an excellent wicket-keeper who died at the age of 41.

The Centenary Test was played in March 1977 at the MCG to celebrate 100 years since the first Test was played. Australia won the match by 45 runs, an identical result to the first Test match.

In May 1977 Kerry Packer announced he was organising a breakaway competition – World Series Cricket (WSC) – after the Australian Cricket Board (ACB) refused to accept Channel Nine's bid to gain exclusive television rights to Australia's Test matches in 1976. Packer secretly signed leading international cricketers to his competition, including 28 Australians. Almost all of the Australian Test team at the time were signed to WSC – notable exceptions including Gary Cosier, Geoff Dymock, Kim Hughes and Craig Serjeant – and the Australian selectors were forced to pick what was generally considered a third-rate team from players in the Sheffield Shield. Former player Bob Simpson, who had retired 10 years previously after a conflict with the board, was recalled at the age of 41 to captain Australia against India. Jeff Thomson was named deputy in a team that included seven debutants. Australia managed to win the series 3–2, mainly thanks to the batting of Simpson, who scored 539 runs, including two centuries; and the bowling of Wayne Clark, who took 28 wickets. Australia lost the next series 3-1 against the West Indies, which was fielding a full strength team, and also lost the 1978–79 Ashes series 5–1, the team's worst Ashes result in Australia. Graham Yallop was named as captain for the Ashes, with Kim Hughes taking over for the 1979–80 tour of India. Rodney Hogg took 41 wickets in his debut series, an Australian record. WSC players returned to the team for the 1979–80 season after a settlement between the ACB and Kerry Packer. Greg Chappell was reinstated as captain.

The underarm bowling incident of 1981 occurred when, in an ODI against New Zealand, Greg Chappell instructed his brother Trevor to bowl an underarm delivery to New Zealand batsman Brian McKechnie, with New Zealand needing a six to tie off the last ball. The aftermath of the incident soured political relations between Australia and New Zealand, with several leading political and cricketing figures calling it "unsportsmanlike" and "not in the spirit of cricket".

Australia continued its success up until the early 1980s, built around the Chappell brothers, Dennis Lillee, Jeff Thomson and Rod Marsh. The 1980s was a period of relative mediocrity after the turmoil caused by the Rebel Tours of South Africa and the subsequent retirement of several key players. The rebel tours were funded by the South African Cricket Board to compete against its national side, which had been banned—along with many other sports, including Olympic athletes—from competing internationally, due to the South African government's racist apartheid policies. Some of Australia's best players were poached: Graham Yallop, Carl Rackemann, Terry Alderman, Rodney Hogg, Kim Hughes, John Dyson, Greg Shipperd, Steve Rixon and Steve Smith amongst others. These players were handed three-year suspensions by the Australian Cricket Board which greatly weakened the player pool for the national sides, as most were either current representative players or on the verge of gaining honours.

Under the captaincy of Allan Border and the new fielding standards put in place by new coach Bob Simpson, the team was restructured and gradually rebuilt their cricketing stocks. Some of the rebel players returned to the national side after serving their suspensions, including Trevor Hohns, Carl Rackemann and Terry Alderman. During these lean years, it was the batsmen Border, David Boon, Dean Jones, the young Steve Waugh and the bowling feats of Alderman, Bruce Reid, Craig McDermott, Merv Hughes and to a lesser extent, Geoff Lawson who kept the Australian side afloat.

With the emergence of players such as Ian Healy, Mark Taylor, Geoff Marsh, Mark Waugh, and Greg Matthews in the late 1980s, Australia was on the way back from the doldrums. Winning the Ashes in 1989, the Australians got a roll on beating Pakistan, Sri Lanka and then followed it up with another Ashes win on home soil in 1991. The Australians went on to the West Indies and had their chances but ended up losing the series. However, they bounced back and beat the Indians in their next Test series. With the retirement of the champion but defensive, Allan Border, a new era of attacking cricket had begun under the leadership of firstly Mark Taylor and then Steve Waugh.

The 1990s and early 21st century were arguably Australia's most successful period, unbeaten in all Ashes series played bar the famous 2005 series and achieving a hat-trick of World Cups. This success has been attributed to the restructuring of the team and system by Border, successive aggressive captains, and the effectiveness of several key players, most notably Glenn McGrath, Shane Warne, Justin Langer, Matthew Hayden, Steve Waugh, Adam Gilchrist, Michael Hussey and Ricky Ponting. Following the 2006/07 Ashes series which Australia won 5 nil, Australia slipped in the rankings after the retirements of key players. In the 2013/14 Ashes series, Australia again defeated England 5 nil, and climbed back to 3rd on the ICC International Test Rankings. In February & March 2014 Australia beat the number 1 team in the world, South Africa, 2–1, and were re-ranked number 1 in the world. In 2015, Australia won the 2015 Cricket World Cup, losing just one game for the tournament. , Australia is ranked fifth in the ICC Test Championship, third in the ICC ODI Championship and seventh in the ICC T20I Championship.

මුලාශ්‍ර

ඔස්ට්‍රේලියා ජාතික ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායම


The Mike Douglas Show was an American daytime television talk show. The host Mike Douglas. The show was broadcast in syndication from 1961 to 1982. Westinghouse Broadcasting distributed the show. Many of the programs were made in studios of two of the company's TV stations.

Guests
The show featured the first television appearance of then 2 year old Tiger Woods who showed off his swing for Bob Hope and James Stewart. Others who appeared on the show over the years include Malcolm X, Martin Luther King, Jr., Mother Teresa, Jerry Rubin, Angela Davis, Alfred Hitchcock, Fred Astaire, Judy Garland, Bette Davis, Gene Kelly, Gene Tierney, Lucille Ball, Vivian Vance, Mark Hamill, Ginger Rogers, Ricardo Montalbán, Howard Keel, Celeste Holm, Dorothy Lamour, Dana Andrews, Vincent Price, Natalie Wood, Joan Crawford, Cliff Robertson, Peter Lawford, Nanette Fabray, Jack Lemmon, Tony Curtis, Lee Marvin, Paul Newman, Sean Connery, Roger Moore, Carrie Fisher, Robert Wagner, Diahann Carroll, George Hamilton, Victor Buono, Peter Ustinov, Tammy Grimes, Valerie Harper, Richard Dreyfuss, John Travolta, Louis Armstrong, Rosemary Clooney, Bing Crosby, Ethel Merman, Sammy Davis, Jr., Harrison Ford, Eydie Gormé, Jack Jones, Harry Belafonte, Liza Minnelli, Paul Anka, Robert Goulet, Carol Lawrence, Edie Adams, Debbie Reynolds, Gwen Verdon, Connie Francis, Olivia Newton-John, Ben Vereen, Joey Heatherton, Ruth Dickson, Frankie Laine, Eartha Kitt, Sergio Mendes, Buddy Rich, Jerry Vale, Lola Falana, Frankie Valli, Pearl Bailey, Lou Rawls, Tina Turner, Tom Waits, Eddy Arnold, Johnny Cash, Roy Clark, Kenny Rogers, Ray Stevens, Janis Ian, Bernie Taupin, Ian Anderson, Marcel Marceau, Muhammad Ali, Howard Cosell, Joe Namath, Mason Reese, Ralph Nader, Rex Reed, Martha Mitchell, Victor Borge, Kreskin, Imogene Coca, Phyllis Diller, Fannie Flagg, Lily Tomlin, Joan Rivers, Elayne Boosler, Milton Berle, George Burns, Sid Caesar, Mel Brooks, Alan King, Bill Cosby, Henny Youngman, Jack Carter, Redd Foxx, Rodney Dangerfield, Jan Murray, Shecky Greene, Buddy Hacket, Joey Bishop, Red Skelton, Steve Allen, Dan Rowan, Dick Martin, Marty Allen, Robert Klein, George Carlin, Sandy Baron, Arte Johnson, Frank Gorshin, Soupy Sales, Jonathan Winters, Charlie Callas, Norm Crosby, Rip Taylor, Foster Brooks, Irwin Corey, Leonard Barr, Pat Cooper, Rich Little, Stan Kann, Steve Landesberg, Andy Kaufman, Jimmie Walker, Jay Leno, Moe Howard of The Three Stooges, Gloria Parker with her Musical Glasses, Jimmy Edmonson.

Musical performers
 The Electric Light Orchestra
 The Beach Boys
 The Bee Gees
 Chuck Berry
 Brooklyn Dreams
 Ray Charles
 Cher
 Bo Diddley
 Minnie Riperton
 The Electric Prunes
 Every Mother's Son
 Aretha Franklin
 Liberace
 Virgil Fox
 Gary Lewis and the Playboys
 Genesis
 Herman's Hermits
 The Jacksons
 Jefferson Airplane
 Dick Jensen
 John Lennon
 KISS
 Little Anthony & the Imperials
 The Miracles
 Moby Grape
 The Rolling Stones
 Linda Ronstadt
 Sly & the Family Stone
 Barbra Streisand
 Donna Summer
 The Supremes
 The Turtles
 Frank Zappa
 Billy Joel
 The Raspberries
 Luiz Bonfá
 The Four Aces
 Jimi Hendrix

Guest co-hosts
There was a different co-host every week on the show. Some of the co-hosts include: Cesar Romero, Jackie Gleason, Joan Fontaine, Anne Baxter, Jimmy Dean, Richard Thomas, Florence Henderson, Brooke Shields, Shelley Berman, Richard Pryor, Dyan Cannon, Suzanne Somers, Jerry Lewis, Don Rickles, Minnie Pearl, Shirley Bassey, Bobby Darin, Tony Randall, Kaye Ballard, Totie Fields, David Brenner, Ted Knight, Bernadette Peters, Kate Jackson, Harry Chapin, Rod McKuen, Cicely Tyson, Karen Valentine, Johnny Mathis, Joel Grey, Carol Channing, Anne Murray, Anthony Newley, Marvin Hamlisch, Patty Duke, Cher, Mel Tillis, Steve Lawrence, Martha Raye, Tony Bennett, Mel Tormé, Frankie Avalon, Charlton Heston, Gordon MacRae, Richard Harris, Red Buttons, Billy Crystal, David Steinberg, Hugh O'Brian, Burt Reynolds, William Shatner, John Lennon & Yoko Ono.Jimi Hendrix

Other websites
 Official website , being licensing link for Mike Douglas Show clips from King World Productions, now part of CBS Television Distribution.

American television talk shows
Emmy Award winning programs
1961 television series debuts
1982 television series endings
English-language television programs

The Mike Douglas Show


Il trovatore (The Troubadour) is an Italian opera in four acts. The music was written by Giuseppe Verdi. The story and words were written by Salvatore Cammarano. It is based on a play by Antonio Garcia Gutiérrez called El trovador. The opera was first performed in Rome on January 19, 1853. It was an instant hit.

Roles
 Manrico, supposed son of Azucena and one of Prince Urgel's chieftains - tenor
 Leonora, lady-in-waiting to the Princess of Aragon - soprano
 Azucena, a gypsy woman - mezzo-soprano
 Conte di Luna, a young nobleman - baritone
 Ferrando, Captain of the Count's Guard - bass
 Ruis, a soldier in Manrico's service - tenor
 Inez, confidante of Leonora - mezzo-soprano

Story of the opera

Spain is suffering a civil war. Count di Luna fights for the Prince of Aragon. Manrico, a gypsy, fights for Prince Urgel.
Act 1. Ferrando tells of the old Count's two children. Years ago, one died and the other disappeared. An old gypsy was suspected. She was burnt at the stake. Her daughter Azucena vowed revenge. In the palace garden, Leonora waits for her mysterious lover. The Count di Luna is in love with Leonora. Manrico appears as Leonora's lover. The two men have a sword fight.

Act 2. At a gypsy camp, Azucena mutters about throwing her own child into a fire and saving the old Count's son.  She orders Manrico to avenge her wrongs upon the head of Count di Luna. Manrico is ordered to man Castellor.
Act 3. Di Luna lays siege to Castellor. He captures Azucena and sends her off to the stake. Inside the castle Manrico and Leonora are awaiting their marriage. Word is received about Azucena. Manrico hurries off to save her.
Act 4. Manrico is captured and sentenced to death with Azucena. Leonora enters to take his place. She takes poison to avoid Di Luna. Di Luna in a rage orders Manrico beheaded. Azucena tells Di Luna he has just killed his own brother.

Sources
 The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.

1850s operas
Operas set in Spain
Compositions by Giuseppe Verdi

Il trovatore


Princess Peach Toadstool (sometimes called Peach) is a character in the Mario video game series. In most of the games she appears in, she is kidnapped by the reptile monster King Bowser and his son, Bowser Jr. She is the princess of the Mushroom Kingdom, which is the main setting of most of the Mario games.

Appearance
Princess Peach's looks are different than what they used to be. In her first game, Super Mario Bros. (1985), she had red hair and her dress was white.  She had dark red hair in Super Mario Bros. 2 (1986).  In Super Mario World (1991), her looks changed. She had yellow hair. In the Mario sport series games, she wears different dresses because she cannot play well in her normal, long, pink dress.

Her name has changed over the years.  In Japan, her name was always Peach.  When Nintendo sold Super Mario Bros. in other countries, she was called Princess Toadstool.  In Super Mario 64, her name became Princess Peach Toadstool.

Peach appears most often as the damsel-in-distress – always being kidnapped by Bowser.  Mario must always rescue her.  In Super Princess Peach (2006), the tables are turned and Bowser kidnaps Mario instead.  Peach must then rescue Mario.

Peach has been voiced by two different actresses.  The first was Leslie Swan.  The second was Jen Taylor.

Playable appearances
 Super Mario Bros. 2—1988
 Mario Teaches Typing—1992
 Super Mario Kart—1992
 Super Mario All-Stars—1993
 Mario's Early Years: Fun with Letters—1994
 Mario's Early Years: Fun with Numbers—1994
 Mario's Early Years: Pre-School—1994
 Mario's Tennis—1995
 Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars—1996
 Mario Kart 64—1996
 Mario Teaches Typing 2—1997
 Mario Party—1998
 Mario Golf—1999
 Mario Party 2—1999
 Mario Tennis—2000
 Paper Mario—2000
 Mario Party 3—2000
 Super Mario Advance—2001
 Mario Kart Super Circuit—2001
 Super Smash Bros. Melee—2001
 Mario Party 4—2002
 Mario Golf: Toadstool Tour—2003
 Mario Party 5—2004
 Mario Kart: Double Dash!!—2003
 Mario Power Tennis—2004
 Mario Party 6—2004
 Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door—2004
 Mario Party Advance—2005
 SSX On Tour—2005
 Mario Superstar Baseball—2005
 Mario Party 7—2005
 Mario Kart DS—2005
 Mario Tennis: Power Tour—2005
 NBA Street V3—2005
 Super Mario Strikers—2006
 Super Princess Peach—2006
 Mario Hoops 3-on-3—2006
 Super Paper Mario—2007
 Yoshi's Island DS—2006
 Mario Strikers Charged—2007
 Mario Party 8—2007
 Itadaki Street DS—2007
 Super Smash Bros. Brawl - 2007
 Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games - 2007
 Mario Kart Wii - 2008
 Mario Super Sluggers - 2008
 Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Winter Games - 2009
 Mario & Sonic at the London 2012 Olympic Games - 2011
 Mario Kart 7 - 2011
 Fortune Street - 2011
 Mario Party 9 - 2012
 Mario Tennis Open - 2012
 Mario Kart Arcade GP DX - 2013
 Mario & Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games - 2013
 Super Mario 3D World - 2013
 Mario Party: Island Tour - 2013
 Mario Golf: World Tour - 2014
 Mario Kart 8 - 2014
 Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS / Wii U - 2014
 Mario Party 10 - 2015
 Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash - 2015

Fictional characters introduced in 1985
Mario series characters
Fictional princesses

Princess Peach


Hampden Park in Glasgow is Scotland's national football stadium. Its primary use is the home of Queen's Park F.C. and the Scotland national football team. It is also used for pop concerts and other sporting events.

Hampden was built in 1903, though all signs of the original stadium are long gone. It is known throughout the world as an iconic home of football and celebrated its centenary on October 31 2003. The stadium also houses the offices of the Scottish Football Association and the Scottish Professional Football League. During the 2012 Olympics it also hosted matches during the early stages of the Olympic football tournament. It has also hosted prestigious sporting events such as the finals of the European Cup (now the UEFA Champions League) and the UEFA Cup.

Hampden was the key stadium of the 2014 Commonwealth Games. It hosted the athletics during the tournament, Glasgow having been announced as the host city on 9 November 2007.

The stadium

The Scottish Cup Final is played at Hampden annually in May, for the honour of lifting the world's oldest national trophy - the Scottish Football Association Challenge Cup, made in 1873. Queen's Park were the first winners, beating Clydesdale F.C. 2-0 in the 1874 final.

Hampden Park hosted the 1960 European Cup final between Real Madrid and Eintracht Frankfurt, where over 130,000 people watched Real Madrid win 7-3. The 1976 final was also held at Hampden, when FC Bayern Munich defeated AS Saint-Etienne. Real Madrid were again victorious when Hampden Park hosted the final of the UEFA Champions League in 2002, defeating Bayer Leverkusen, aided by Zinedine Zidane's legendary "wonder goal". Hampden Park also hosted the 2007 UEFA Cup Final on May 16 when Sevilla defeated Espanyol to retain the trophy. It also held famous wins for the Scotland national football team, such as the 1-0 wins over Netherlands in November 2003, and against France in October 2006. One of the most exciting Scottish Cup Finals in history commenced at Hampden on May 4 2002 as Rangers defeated Celtic 3-2 with a last-minute diving header from Peter Løvenkrands. Diego Maradona made his international debut at Hampden Park and scored.

Stadium records

Among the British and European capacity records Hampden holds are:

1937 - Attendance 149,415 : Scotland v England (British Home Championship) - highest in Europe
1937 - Attendance 146,433 : Celtic v Aberdeen (Scottish Cup Final) - highest for a club match in Europe
1970 - Attendance 136,505 : Celtic v Leeds United (European Cup Semi-Final) - highest for a UEFA competition match

Other sports

In American football, the Scottish Claymores of NFL Europe played at the stadium between 1998 and 2004 before decamping to Hamburg to become the Hamburg Sea Devils. The league's championship game, the World Bowl, was held there in 2003. In that game, the Frankfurt Galaxy beat Rhein Fire.

The stadium has also hosted concerts, and in 2000 was the venue for a boxing card headlined by former world champion Mike Tyson. Robbie Williams' concert in September 2006 forced the Scottish national team to play their first Euro 2008 qualifier at Celtic Park instead.

Hampden hosted the athletics events at the 2014 Commonwealth Games. Glasgow was announced as the host city on 9th November 2007.

Football stadiums in Scotland
1903 establishments in Scotland

Hampden Park


3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency also known as 3-Methylcrotonylglycinuria or BMCC deficiency is an inherited disorder in which the body is unable to process certain proteins properly. People with this disorder have inadequate levels of an enzyme that helps break down proteins containing the amino acid leucine. This condition affects an estimated 1 in 50,000 individuals worldwide.

Presentation
Infants with this disorder appear normal at birth but usually develop signs and symptoms during the first year of life or in early childhood. The characteristic features of this condition, which can range from mild to life-threatening, include feeding difficulties, recurrent episodes of vomiting and diarrhea, excessive tiredness (lethargy), and weak muscle tone (hypotonia). If untreated, this disorder can lead to delayed development, seizures, and coma. Early detection and lifelong management (following a low-protein diet and using appropriate supplements) may prevent many of these complications. In some cases, people with gene mutations that cause 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency never experience any signs or symptoms of the disorder.

The characteristic features of this condition are similar to those of Reye syndrome, a severe disorder that develops in children while they appear to be recovering from viral infections such as chicken pox or flu. Most cases of Reye syndrome are associated with the use of aspirin during these viral infections.

Genetics
The MCCC1 and MCCC2 genes make protein subunits that come together to form an enzyme called 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase. This enzyme plays an essential role in breaking down proteins from the diet. Specifically, the enzyme is responsible for the fourth step in processing leucine. If a mutation in the MCCC1 or MCCC2 gene reduces or eliminates the activity of 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase, the body is unable to process leucine properly. As a result, toxic byproducts of leucine processing build up to harmful levels, damaging the brain and nervous system. This condition is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern.

Screening
It is one of the 29 conditions currently recommended for newborn screening by the American College of Medical Genetics.

Treatment

Symptoms can be reduced through avoidance of leucine, an amino acid. Leucine is a component of most protein-rich foods; therefore, a low-protein diet is recommended. Some isolated cases of this disorder have responded to supplemental biotin; this is not altogether surprising, consider that other biotin-related genetic disorders (such as biotinidase deficiency and holocarboxylase synthetase deficiency) can be treated solely with biotin. Individuals with these multiple carboxylase disorders have the same problem with leucine catabolism as those with 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency.

References
This article incorporates public domain text from The U.S. National Library of Medicine

External links

Amino acid metabolism disorders
Autosomal recessive disorders
Rare diseases


The Tung Chung Line is one of the 10 lines of the MTR system in Hong Kong. It links Tung Chung with Hong Kong Island. A part of the Tung Chung Line was built along with the two bridges and two mountains, Kap Shui Mun Bridge and the Tsing Ma Bridge. It currently travels through eight stations in 27 minutes along its route, which is indicated in orange.

MTR

Tung Chung Line (MTR)


A membrane is a thin soft layer of material. A membrane separates two things.

In biology a membrane can mean two things: a tissue membrane or the membranes of a cell. The membranes of cells are very small, while tissue membranes are larger.

Tissue membranes
A membrane can mean a thin layer of cells or tissue. This layer covers the body or an organ, or separates, or lines a body cavity. An example is the mucous membrane that is the skin that lines the inside of your nose and mouth. An epithelial membrane has two parts, one part is epithelial tissue and the other is connective tissue.

Membranes of cells

There are many different types of membranes in a cell. The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, covers one cell. Membranes also divide the cell into different spaces called organelles. Organelles are special areas of the cell that do different work. For example, the nucleus holds the DNA in a cell. The mitochondria make energy for the cell.

Membranes in cells are made of lipids (fats) and protein. The lipids keep the inside of the cell or the organelle separate from the outside. The proteins do many things. Plasma membranes give the cell messages from outside. They let some things (like glucose, calcium, and potassium) go into and out of the cell.

Cell biology
Plant anatomy

Membrane


William Stout (born September 18, 1949) is an American fantasy artist and illustrator with a specialization in paleontological art. His paintings have been shown in over seventy exhibitions, including twelve one-man shows. He has worked on over thirty feature films, doing everything from storyboard art to production design. He has designed theme parks and has worked in radio with the Firesign Theatre.

Biography

Comics and music industry

In 1973 Stout began drawing album covers for the Trademark of Quality bootleg record label.  He created 42 sleeves for the label and its subsidiaries, including the Rolling Stones' All-Meat Music (his first), the Yardbirds' Golden Eggs and More Golden Eggs, and the Who's Who's Zoo and Tales from the Who.  He became associated with the Firesign Theatre, and designed his first official album cover, In the Next World, You're on Your Own, in 1974.

From 1975 to 1977 Stout worked as art director for the rock magazine Bomp! During this time, he became one of the first American contributors to Heavy Metal magazine.  He continued to work occasionally designing posters and album sleeves.  These included the poster for Rock 'n' Roll High School featuring the Ramones in 1979, the controversial cover for the compilation album Beatlesongs in 1981, and the cover for The Smithereens Play Tommy in 2009.

Film and television
In 1977 Stout painted his first movie poster, for Ralph Bakshi's film Wizards. During his career, Stout has worked on the advertising for over 120 films.

In 1978, with Buck Rogers, Stout began his film production design career. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Stout and fellow illustrator Richard Hescox ran a Los Angeles art studio, working on such projects as the storyboards for Raiders of the Lost Ark and pop singer Michael Jackson's video Thriller. Fellow cartoonist Dave Stevens worked for a time in the same studio.

Stout has worked on over thirty feature films, including both 1980s Conan films, First Blood, The Hitcher, and Invaders from Mars. He was also the production designer of the Masters of the Universe film.

Stout illustrated the poster art and wrote the story (and the first draft of the script) of the film The Warrior and the Sorceress for Roger Corman, as well as writing a never-produced dinosaur feature for Jim Henson. For Industrial Light & Magic in 1996, he designed "Edgar", the big bug in Men in Black. Stout was the key character designer for the computer-animated feature Dinosaur (released in 2000). Stout worked as the conceptual designer for The Muppets' Wizard of Oz, and key designer for Guillermo del Toro's Pan's Labyrinth. Recent film work includes Christopher Nolan's  film The Prestige and creature design for Frank Darabont's & Stephen King's The Mist. He is slated to work on del Toro's At the Mountains of Madness as well as a proposed John Carter of Mars film.

Paleontological art
In 1981 Bantam Books published Stout's landmark masterwork The Dinosaurs: A Fantastic New View of a Lost Era (recently updated and re-published as The New Dinosaurs). In 1983, Stout was among those who illustrated Ray Bradbury's Dinosaur Tales. In 1984 he illustrated The Little Blue Brontosaurus, which was a 1984 Children's Choice Award recipient and the basis for the 1988 animated feature The Land Before Time.

In 1986, as a result of his paleontological reconstruction work, eleven Stout paintings were selected for inclusion in the traveling exhibition "Dinosaurs Past and Present," an important group show depicting the history of paleoart. The six-year tour included (among others) the Smithsonian Institution, British Museum, the Royal Ontario Museum, and the American Museum of Natural History.

In 1993, Universal Cartoon Studios chose Stout to design a prime-time animated series of Jurassic Park, which was ultimately shelved.

Also in 1993 Comic Images released William Stout's Lost Worlds, the first of three trading card sets.

Antarctica
In January 1989, Stout traveled to Antarctica and Patagonia. His experiences there eventually resulted in the one-man show "Dinosaurs, Penguins and Whales — The Wildlife of Antarctica." The exhibition was part of Stout's effort to alert and inform the public of the complex beauty of Antarctica, and to work as part of the international effort to make Antarctica the first "World Park." "Dinosaurs, Penguins and Whales" evolved into a forthcoming book, Lost Worlds: Modern and Prehistoric Life in Antarctica, the first visual overview of life in Antarctica.

In August 1991 Stout received a grant from the National Science Foundation to participate in their Antarctic Artists and Writers Program. For three months during the 1992-1993 austral summer, Stout was based at McMurdo Station and Palmer Station. He made several dives beneath the ice, climbed the active volcano Mount Erebus, camped in the dry valleys, and produced over one hundred painted studies as he carefully observed Antarctica's wildlife. Shortly thereafter, Stout drove over one thousand miles through central southern Chile, documenting the rare prehistoric forests there for inclusion in his Lost Worlds book.

Murals
In 1994 Stout painted two murals for the Houston Museum of Natural Science depicting "Life Before The Dinosaurs." In early 1998 Stout completed three Cretaceous murals and supervised two full-sized dinosaur sculptures for Disney's Animal Kingdom.

In 2007, Stout completed twelve large murals depicting the prehistoric life of San Diego for the San Diego Natural History Museum.

In addition, Stout's murals and paintings are on permanent display at the Houston Museum of Natural Science, the Orton Geological Museum, The Museum of the Rockies, and the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences.

Entertainment design
Beginning in 1987, Stout worked for Walt Disney Imagineering for a year and a half as a conceptualist, designer, and producer for Euro Disneyland, Disneyland, Tokyo Disneyland, and Walt Disney World. In 1989 he was hired by Lucasfilm/Industrial Light and Magic as conceptualist and chief designer for their first foray into themed entertainment centers. In 1991 Stout conceived and designed ZZ Top's Recycler tour. In 1994 Stout continued theme park attraction creation and design for MCA/Universal's Islands of Adventure. In late 1995, Steven Spielberg chose Stout as his senior concept designer for GameWorks, a Sega/Universal/DreamWorks SKG joint project. For two years Stout and his team oversaw the concepts, design, and execution of the first three GameWorks facilities in Seattle, Washington; Tempe, Arizona; and Ontario, California). Stout worked in 1998-1999 as the lead designer for Kansas City's Wonderful World of Oz theme park (which unfortunately was never developed). He was also a designer for Michael Jackson's private Neverland Ranch theme park.

Illustration
In 2001, Stout illustrated Richard Matheson's first children's book, Abu & The 7 Marvels, which won many awards. The Stout-illustrated book The Emerald Wand of Oz was released in 2005, followed by Trouble Under Oz in 2006. Stout's own publishing company, Terra Nova Press, has published thirty-four books on art and the history of art.

In 2013, he prepared and illustrated Legends of the Blues, a book comprising portraits of classic blues musicians, intended as a sequel to fellow cartoonist Robert Crumb's book Heroes of Blues, Jazz and Country.

Influences
On his website, Stout lists the following influences:
 Painting: Frank Frazetta, Thomas Moran, Norman Rockwell, Charles R. Knight, Stanley Meltzoff, Carl Evers
 Comics: Harvey Kurtzman, Alex Toth, Russ Manning, Robert Crumb, Wally Wood, Will Eisner, Hal Foster, Al Williamson, Robert Williams, Will Elder, Frazetta, Jean Giraud, Roy G. Krenkel, Franklin Booth, Arthur Rackham, Rick Griffin, Jim Evans, Gaspar Saladino
 Design: Alphonse Mucha, J. C. Leyendecker, Ron Cobb, Ludwig Hohlwein, Hokusai, Yoshitoshi, Maynard Dixon
 Color: Mucha, Edwin Austin Abbey, Yoshida Hiroshi, "most of the other great Japanese print artists," N. C. Wyeth, Frazetta, Giraud, Kurtzman, Edmund Dulac
 Watercolor: Harry Rountree, Frazetta, Moran, Edward Detmold, Alberto Vargas, Jack Davis
 Wildlife painting: Bob Kuhn, Bruno Liljefors, Robert Lougheed, Robert Bateman, Hokusai, Hiroshige, Knight

Personal life
In 1993 Stout was invited to join the California Art Club. He served for years as a member of their executive board, and is currently on their advisory board. Stout was unanimously voted a signature member in 1997.

William Stout resides in Pasadena, California, with his wife; they have two adult sons.

Exhibitions (selected)
 "The Prehistoric World of William Stout", 1977.
 "Dinosaurs, Penguins and Whales: The Wildlife of Antarctica", 1991–1995 — inspired by the three months Stout spent in Antarctica, shown in Moscow at the personal request of then-President Mikhail Gorbachev.
 "Studies From Gondwana - Landscapes and Wildlife of Antarctica," 1993
 "William Stout - Lost Worlds," 1994
 "William Stout's Visions of Gondwana - Past and Present Life in Antarctica," 1995
 "Dinosaurs On Ice - William Stout's Antarctica," 1997
 "Dinosaurs, Penguins & Whales: William Stout's Antarctica," 1999 — Stout's largest (55 paintings) show to date; held at the Muckenthaler Cultural Center in Fullerton, California

Awards
 Inkpot Award, 1978
 Children's Choice Award (The Little Blue Brontosaurus), 1984
 Society of Illustrators, Gold and Silver Medals (Abu & The 7 Marvels), 2002
 Benjamin Franklin Award, Best Young Adult Book (Abu & The 7 Marvels), 2002
 Bram Stoker Award nominee (Abu & The 7 Marvels), 2002
 Chesley Award nominee (Abu & The 7 Marvels), 2002
 Society of Illustrators Silver Medal (Tanagra Theatre poster), 2004
 Spectrum Silver Award (Tanagra Theatre poster), 2004
 Society of Illustrators Silver Medal (Cricket magazine cover), 2004
 Spectrum Gold Award, 2006

Notes

References
 Stout bio at Lambiek.net Comiclopedia

External links

1949 births
Living people
Animal artists
American illustrators
American comics artists
20th-century American painters
American male painters
21st-century American painters
21st-century American male artists
Paleoartists
American muralists
Artists from Pasadena, California
Artists from Salt Lake City
American production designers
American art directors
Fantasy artists
20th-century American male artists

William Stout


A barber is someone who cuts hair and shaves beards. Usually, it is men who go to a barber. Women usually go to hairdressers instead.  Barbers sometimes have a pole outside, which is red and white in most countries. Barbering is a most ancient and honorable profession, with a very interesting history. Barbering is the practice of cutting or trimming hair and includes shaving or trimming facial hair. Besides cutting hair, barbers also shampoo and style hair, mostly for male clients. Other duties include scalp treatment, skin care and fitting or grooming hairpieces. In some states, barbers color, highlight or bleach hair.

Job Description
The main job of a barber is to cut a client's hair. The goal is to improve the appearance of the hair and to adapt styles to the customer's wishes. Barbers also shape and trim beards and mustaches. Instruments such as scissors and combs must be kept sterile and in good condition, and the barber is also responsible for keeping the shop clean by sweeping up hair. Owners of barbershops also order supplies, pay bills and may hire and supervise staff. Good interpersonal skills and a positive attitude are important qualities to have when working as a barber. Examples of famous barbers are Alex Kelly and Cameron Kelly formally known as the Kelly Cutters. Many barbers use these men as examples and aim to also deliver a very high quality service.

With experience, barbers can manage a salon or barber shop, or eventually open their own shop. Advancement is also possible in teaching barbering. Some states combine barbering and cosmetology licenses into one. Some states allow transferring a barbering license from another state without additional formal training, but not all states allow this.

Personal service occupations

Barber


Ecumenism (or Oecumenism) is the idea that the different Christian denominations should work together more than they currently do. This idea is different from religious toleration. Over the years, Christianity has been split into many different movements. These separations are based on doctrine, on history, and what people do in everyday life.

The term ecumenical comes from the Latin oecumenicus, a phrase referring to "the whole world", meaning literally "inhabited" (lived in). In Christianity the qualification ecumenical is originally (and still) used in terms such as Ecumenical council and Ecumenical patriarch. The meaning pertains to the totality of the larger Church (such as the Catholic Church or the Orthodox Church). It is not restricted to one of its local churches or dioceses.

References

Church organization
Christian movements and denominational families

Ecumenism


Verner Wright Main (December 16, 1885 – July 6, 1965) was a politician from the U.S. state of Michigan.

Main was born in Ashley, Ohio, where he attended the public schools. He graduated from Marion High School in Marion, Ohio.  He also graduated from Hillsdale College of Michigan in 1907, and from the law department of the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor in 1914.  He served as principal of the high schools at Hudson, Michigan in 1908 and 1909 and at Niles from 1909 to 1912.  He was admitted to the bar in 1914 and commenced the practice of law in Battle Creek.

During the First World War, Main volunteered for military service with the Field Artillery and was in training at the officers' training camp at Louisville, Kentucky when the armistice was signed.  He later served as assistant prosecuting attorney of Calhoun County, Michigan in 1926.  He served in the Michigan State House of Representatives from 1927 to 1929.  He was also a member of the Battle Creek School Board 1929-1932.

Main was elected as a Republican from Michigan's 3rd congressional district to the 74th Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Henry M. Kimball and served from December 17, 1935 to January 3, 1937.  He was an unsuccessful candidate for re-nomination in 1936, losing to Paul W. Shafer in the Republican primary election. Main resumed the practice of law.  He died in Battle Creek and is interred there in Oak Hill Cemetery.

References

Verner Main at The Political Graveyard

1885 births
1965 deaths
Republican Party members of the Michigan House of Representatives
Hillsdale College alumni
University of Michigan Law School alumni
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan
20th-century American politicians
People from Delaware, Ohio

Verner Main


A biota is a term used for all the living things at a certain time at a certain place. Examples of biota include Cambrian biota and Madagascan biota. Because it includes all the living members of a given environment, the term is used especially in ecology. A similar term is biome, which is used to refer to geographical regions and environments. Tundra, for example, is a biome.

Flora, fauna and other forms of life such as fungi are collectively called biota.

Related pages
Biome
Fauna
Flora
Wildlife

Biology

Biota


Reinhold Platz (16 January 1886 – 15 September 1966) was a German aircraft designer and manufacturer in service of the Dutch company Fokker.

Platz was hired by Fokker in 1912 as a welder. His first hands-on projects were to weld the frame parts for the Fokker Spin. Platz became the head designer at the Fokker factory in Schwerin in 1916. Platz had no higher education like Anthony Fokker, but was a man of practical knowledge. This turned the two men into a strong team, in which Fokker was able to bring forth new revolutionary ideas to aircraft design, while Platz implemented them in prototype aircraft. Platz became the head designer at the Fokker factory in Amsterdam after World War I.

Platz is now largely credited with designing the innovative Fokker D.VII fighter aircraft.  Some have suggested that Platz was merely the foreman of the welding unit at Fokker, however, and that his status was raised in Weyl's book (see below) in an effort to denigrate Anthony Fokker's design achievements.

Platz was born in Cottbus and died in Ahrensburg.

References
Weyl, Alfred R. Fokker: The Creative Years. Putnam 1965.
Grosz, Peter. Reinhold Platz and the Fokker Co. Over the Front, Vol. 5, No. 3, Autumn 1990.

1886 births
1966 deaths
People from Cottbus
People from the Province of Brandenburg
Fokker
Aircraft designers
German aerospace engineers
Engineers from Brandenburg
Engineers from the German Empire

Reinhold Platz


A pretext (adj: pretextual) is an excuse to do something or say something that is not accurate. Pretexts may be based on a half-truth or developed in the context of a misleading fabrication. Pretexts have been used to conceal the true purpose or rationale behind actions and words. They are often heard in political speeches.

In US law, a pretext usually describes false reasons that hide the true intentions or motivations for a legal action. If a party can establish a prima facie case for the proffered evidence, the opposing party must prove that these reasons were "pretextual" or false. This can be accomplished by directly demonstrating that the motivations behind the presentation of evidence is false, or indirectly by evidence that the motivations are not "credible". In Griffith v. Schnitzer, an employment discrimination case, a jury award was reversed by a Court of Appeals because the evidence was not sufficient that the defendant's reasons were "pretextual". That is, the defendant's evidence was either undisputed, or the plaintiff's  was "irrelevant subjective assessments and opinions".

A "pretextual" arrest by law enforcement officers is one carried out for illegal purposes such as to conduct an unjustified search and seizure.

As one example of pretext, in the 1880s, the Chinese government raised money on the pretext of modernizing the Chinese navy. Instead, these funds were diverted to repair a ship-shaped, two-story pavilion which had been originally constructed for the mother of the Qianlong Emperor. This pretext and the Marble Barge are famously linked with Empress Dowager Cixi. This architectural folly, known today as the Marble Boat (Shifang), is "moored" on Lake Kunming in what the empress renamed the "Garden for Cultivating Harmony" (Yiheyuan).

Another example of pretext was demonstrated in the speeches of the Roman orator Cato the Elder (234–149 BC). For Cato, every public speech became a pretext for a comment about Carthage. The Roman statesman had come to believe that the prosperity of ancient Carthage represented an eventual and inevitable danger to Rome. In the Senate, Cato famously ended every speech by proclaiming his opinion that Carthage had to be destroyed (Carthago delenda est). This oft-repeated phrase was the ultimate conclusion of all logical argument in every oration, regardless of the subject of the speech. This pattern persisted until his death in 149, which was the year in which the Third Punic War began. In other words, any subject became a pretext for reminding his fellow senators of the dangers Carthage represented.

Uses in warfare

The early years of Japan's Tokugawa shogunate were unsettled, with warring factions battling for power. The causes for the fighting were in part pretextural, but the outcome brought diminished armed conflicts after the Siege of Osaka in 1614–1615.
 1614 (Keichō 19): The Shogun vanquished Hideyori and set fire to Osaka Castle, and then he returned for the winter to Edo.
 August 24, 1614 (Keichō 19, 19th day of the 7th month): A new bronze bell for the Hōkō-ji was cast successfully  ; but despite the dedication ceremony planning, Ieyasu forbade any further actions concerning the great bell:
"[T]he tablet over the Daibutsu-den and the bell bore the inscription "Kokka ankō" (meaning "the country and the house, peace and tranquility"), and at this Tokugawa Ieyasu affect to take umbrage, alleging that it was intended as a curse on him for the character 安 (an, "peace") was placed between the two characters composing his own name 家康 ("ka-kō", "house tranquility") [suggesting subtly perhaps that peace could only be attained by Ieyasu's dismemberment?] ... This incident of the inscription was, of course, a mere pretext, but Ieyasu realized that he could not enjoy the power he had usurped as long as Hideyori lived, and consequently, although the latter more than once Hideyori dispatched his vassal Katagiri Kastumoto to Ieyasu's residence (Sunpu Castle) with profuse apologies, Ieyasu refused to be placated."
 October 18, 1614 (Keichō 19, 25th day of the 10th month): A strong earthquake shook Kyoto.
 1615 (Keichō 20): Osaka Summer Battle begins.

The next two-and-a-half centuries of Japanese history were comparatively peaceful under the successors of Tokugawa Ieyasu and the bakufu government he established.

United States
 During the War of 1812, US President James Madison was often accused of using impressment of American sailors by the Royal Navy as a pretext to invade Canada.
 The sinking of the USS Maine in 1889 was blamed on the Spanish, despite early reports of it having been an accident, contributing to U.S. entry into the Spanish–American War.  The slogan "Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain!" was used as a rallying cry.
 Some have argued that United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt used the attack on Pearl Harbor by Japanese forces on December 7, 1941 as a pretext to enter World War II. American soldiers and supplies had been assisting British and Soviet operations for almost a year by this point, and the United States had thus "chosen a side", but due to the political climate in the States at the time and some campaign promises made by Roosevelt that he would not send American boys to fight in foreign wars. Roosevelt could not declare war for fear of public backlash. The attack on Pearl Harbor united the American people's resolve against the Axis powers and created the bellicose atmosphere in which to declare war.
 The 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident, later revealed to have been partly provoked and partly not to have happened, was used to bring the United States fully into the Vietnam War
 Critics have accused United States President George W. Bush of using the September 11th, 2001 attacks and faulty intelligence about the existence of weapons of mass destruction as a pretext for the war in Iraq.

Social engineering

A type of social engineering called pretexting uses a pretext to elicit information fraudulently  from a target. The pretext in this case includes research into the identity of a certain authorized person or personality type in order to establish legitimacy in the mind of the target.

See also

 Plausible deniability
 Proximate cause
 Causes of the Franco-Prussian War

Notes

References
 Bamford, James. (2004).  Pretext for War: 9/11, Iraq, and the Abuse of America's Intelligence Agencies.  New York: Doubleday Books. ; OCLC 55068034
 Cato, Marcus Porcius. On Agriculture (De agricultura) trans,   William Davis Hooper and Harrison Boyd Ash. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. OCLC  230499252
 Isikoff, Michael and David Corn. 2006.  Hubris: The Inside Story of Spin, Scandal, and the Selling of the Iraq War  New York: Crown Publishers.
 Min, Anchee. (2007).  The Last Empress. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1956). Kyoto, the Old Capital of Japan, Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.
 Stinnett Robert B. (2001). Day of Deceit: The Truth about FDR and Pearl Harbor New York: Simon & Schuster.
 Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou,  Annales des empereurs du Japon.  Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.

Propaganda techniques
Knowledge representation
Cognition
Attack on Pearl Harbor
Social engineering (computer security)

Pretext


The Gospel of Thomas (or the Gospel according to Thomas, Coptic: p.euaggelion p.kata.cwmas) is a text written during the era of the New Testament. It is considered to be an apocryphon. It was found in Nag Hammadi, Egypt in 1945.

The text is in the form of a codex, bound in what today is known as Coptic binding. It is almost complete. Unlike the other texts, it is not a narrative, but a collection of sayings and short dialogues attributed to Jesus. There are 114 sayings in the text. Most are compatible with the other gospels. They can also be found in one of the other gospels. Some were unknown to scholars before the codex was found. None of the big Christian groups accepts the Gospel of Thomas as canon.

Other websites

 Hypertext interlinear of Thomas; by Paterson Brown
 Gospel of Thomas with detailed comparisons with canonical sayings
 Gospel of Thomas Commentary

Gnosticism
Thomas, Gospel of

Gospel of Thomas


Sun Te-Ming or Sun Yat-sen (12 November 1866 – 12 March 1925) was born in China and was a Chinese political leader. Sun helped overthrow the Qing Dynasty in October 1911. This was the last imperial dynasty of China. He is often called as Father of the Nation.

He was president when the Republic of China was founded in 1912. He later co-founded the Kuomintang. Sun remains revered in both mainland China and Taiwan. A massive portrait of Sun continues to appear in Tiananmen Square for May Day and National Day.

Early years
Sun Yat-sen was born on 12 November 1866 to Sun Dacheng and Madame Yang in Cuiheng, Xiangshan County (now Zhongshan City), Guangdong.He had a cultural background of Hakka (with roots in Zijin, Heyuan, Guangdong) and Cantonese. His father owned very few lands and worked as a tailor in Macau, and as a journeyman and a porter. After finishing primary education, he moved to Honolulu in the Kingdom of Hawaii, where he lived a comfortable life of modest wealth supported by his elder brother Sun Mei.

Death
After his death in Beijing, his body was shown at a temple in the Fragrant Hills.

Presidents of the Republic of China
1866 births
1925 deaths
People from Guangdong

Sun Yat-sen