Badminton is a sport for two or four( "singles" or "doubles") people. The game is either one player against one player or a team of two players against another team of two players. Players use rackets to hit a shuttlecock over a net but if it goes too far it will be an out. It is often enjoyed in various settings, from casual backyard matches to to intense professional tournaments.

The aim of the game is to hit the shuttlecock over the net in a way that the other player or pair cannot hit it back properly before it hits the floor. Every time this is done, the player or pair gets one point. They also get to serve. The first player or pair to reach 21 points wins a set.

The winner of the match is the first to win 2 sets.

History
Badminton traces its history to a game called George Cajoles, which was played in Pune, India in the 19th century by the British military officers stationed there. This game was taken by retired officers back to England where it developed and quickly grew in popularity.

In 1877, the first set of written rules were arranged by the newly formed Bath Badminton Club. The All England Open Badminton Championships, the first badminton competition in the world, was held in 1899.
Badminton has been an Olympic sport since 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona.
Although badminton originated in England, it is mainly played in countries of Asia such as China, Nepal, Indonesia, India, and the Republic of Korea that now dominates this sport.
The first Indian to win the All England Badminton Championship was Prakash Padukone in the year 1980.

Equipment
Rackets
Shuttlecocks
Net/ court
Line Courtyard
Badminton shoes

References

Other websites
 International Badminton Federation
 Badminton Central
 Badminton World Federation
 https://www.badmintonengland.co.uk/

Badminton


Earth's mantle is a layer of silicate rock between the crust and the outer core. It has a mass of  and thus makes up 67% of the mass of Earth. It has a thickness of  making up about 46% of Earth's radius and 84% of Earth's volume. It is predominantly solid but, on geologic time scales, it behaves as a viscous fluid, sometimes described as having the consistency of caramel. Partial melting of the mantle at mid-ocean ridges produces oceanic crust, and partial melting of the mantle at subduction zones produces continental crust.

Structure

Rheology
Earth's mantle is divided into two major rheological layers: the rigid lithosphere comprising the uppermost mantle, and the more ductile asthenosphere, separated by the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary. Lithosphere underlying ocean crust has a thickness of around , whereas lithosphere underlying continental crust generally has a thickness of . The lithosphere and overlying crust make up tectonic plates, which move over the asthenosphere.

The Earth's mantle is divided into three major layers defined by sudden changes in seismic velocity:

 the upper mantle (starting at the Moho, or base of the crust around  downward to )
 the transition zone (approximately ), in which wadsleyite (≈ ) and ringwoodite (≈ ) are stable
 the lower mantle (approximately ), in which bridgmanite (≈ ) and post-perovskite (≈ ) are stable

The lower ~200 km of the lower mantle constitutes the D" (D-double-prime) layer, a region with anomalous seismic properties. This region also contains large low-shear-velocity provinces and ultra low velocity zones.

Mineralogical structure

The top of the mantle is defined by a sudden increase in seismic velocity, which was first noted by Andrija Mohorovičić in 1909; this boundary is now referred to as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or "Moho".

The upper mantle is dominantly peridotite, composed primarily of variable proportions of the minerals olivine, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, and an aluminous phase. The aluminous phase is plagioclase in the uppermost mantle, then spinel, and then garnet below ~. Gradually through the upper mantle, pyroxenes become less stable and transform into majoritic garnet.

At the top of the transition zone, olivine undergoes isochemical phase transitions to wadsleyite and ringwoodite. Unlike nominally anhydrous olivine, these high-pressure olivine polymorphs have a large capacity to store water in their crystal structure. This has led to the hypothesis that the transition zone may host a large quantity of water. At the base of the transition zone, ringwoodite decomposes into bridgmanite (formerly called magnesium silicate perovskite), and ferropericlase. Garnet also becomes unstable at or slightly below the base of the transition zone.

The lower mantle is composed primarily of bridgmanite and ferropericlase, with minor amounts of calcium perovskite, calcium-ferrite structured oxide, and stishovite. In the lowermost ~ of the mantle, bridgmanite isochemically transforms into post-perovskite.

Composition

The chemical composition of the mantle is difficult to determine with a high degree of certainty because it is largely inaccessible. Rare exposures of mantle rocks occur in ophiolites, where sections of oceanic lithosphere have been obducted onto a continent. Mantle rocks are also sampled as xenoliths within basalts or kimberlites.

Most estimates of the mantle composition are based on rocks that sample only the uppermost mantle. There is debate as to whether the rest of the mantle, especially the lower mantle, has the same bulk composition. The mantle's composition has changed through the Earth's history due to the extraction of magma that solidified to form oceanic crust and continental crust.

It has also been proposed in a 2018 study that an exotic form of water known as ice VII can form from supercritical water in the mantle when diamonds containing pressurized water bubbles move upward, cooling the water to the conditions needed for ice VII to form.

Temperature and pressure
In the mantle, temperatures range from approximately  at the upper boundary with the crust to approximately  at the core-mantle boundary. The temperature of the mantle increases rapidly in the thermal boundary layers at the top and bottom of the mantle, and increases gradually through the interior of the mantle. Although the higher temperatures far exceed the melting points of the mantle rocks at the surface (about  for representative peridotite), the mantle is almost exclusively solid. The enormous lithostatic pressure exerted on the mantle prevents melting, because the temperature at which melting begins (the solidus) increases with pressure.

The pressure in the mantle increases from a few hundred megapascals at the Moho to  at the core-mantle boundary.

Movement

Because of the temperature difference between the Earth's surface and outer core and the ability of the crystalline rocks at high pressure and temperature to undergo slow, creeping, viscous-like deformation over millions of years, there is a convective material circulation in the mantle. Hot material upwells, while cooler (and heavier) material sinks downward. Downward motion of material occurs at convergent plate boundaries called subduction zones. Locations on the surface that lie over plumes are predicted to have high elevation (because of the buoyancy of the hotter, less-dense plume beneath) and to exhibit hot spot volcanism. The volcanism often attributed to deep mantle plumes is alternatively explained by passive extension of the crust, permitting magma to leak to the surface: the plate hypothesis.

The convection of the Earth's mantle is a chaotic process (in the sense of fluid dynamics), which is thought to be an integral part of the motion of plates. Plate motion should not be confused with continental drift which applies purely to the movement of the crustal components of the continents. The movements of the lithosphere and the underlying mantle are coupled since descending lithosphere is an essential component of convection in the mantle. The observed continental drift is a complicated relationship between the forces causing oceanic lithosphere to sink and the movements within Earth's mantle.

Although there is a tendency to larger viscosity at greater depth, this relation is far from linear and shows layers with dramatically decreased viscosity, in particular in the upper mantle and at the boundary with the core. The mantle within about  above the core–mantle boundary appears to have distinctly different seismic properties than the mantle at slightly shallower depths; this unusual mantle region just above the core is called D ("D double-prime"), a nomenclature introduced over 50 years ago by the geophysicist Keith Bullen. D may consist of material from subducted slabs that descended and came to rest at the core–mantle boundary or from a new mineral polymorph discovered in perovskite called post-perovskite.

Earthquakes at shallow depths are a result of faulting; however, below about  the hot, high pressure conditions ought to inhibit further seismicity. The mantle is considered to be viscous and incapable of brittle faulting. However, in subduction zones, earthquakes are observed down to . A number of mechanisms have been proposed to explain this phenomenon, including dehydration, thermal runaway, and phase change.
The geothermal gradient can be lowered where cool material from the surface sinks downward, increasing the strength of the surrounding mantle, and allowing earthquakes to occur down to a depth of between  and .

The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ~. Pressure increases as depth increases, since the material beneath has to support the weight of all the material above it. The entire mantle, however, is thought to deform like a fluid on long timescales, with permanent plastic deformation accommodated by the movement of point, line, and/or planar defects through the solid crystals composing the mantle. Estimates for the viscosity of the upper mantle range between  and  Pa·s, depending on depth, temperature, composition, state of stress, and numerous other factors. Thus, the upper mantle can only flow very slowly. However, when large forces are applied to the uppermost mantle it can become weaker, and this effect is thought to be important in allowing the formation of tectonic plate boundaries.

Exploration
Exploration of the mantle is generally conducted at the seabed rather than on land because of the relative thinness of the oceanic crust as compared to the significantly thicker continental crust.

The first attempt at mantle exploration, known as Project Mohole, was abandoned in 1966 after repeated failures and cost over-runs. The deepest penetration was approximately . In 2005 an oceanic borehole reached  below the sea floor from the ocean drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution.

More successful was the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) that operated from 1968 to 1983. Coordinated by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego, DSDP provided crucial data to support the seafloor spreading hypothesis and helped to prove the theory of plate tectonics. Glomar Challenger conducted the drilling operations. DSDP was the first of three international scientific ocean drilling programs that have operated over more than 40 years. Scientific planning was conducted under the auspices of the Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling (JOIDES), whose advisory group consisted of 250 distinguished scientists from academic institutions, government agencies, and private industry from all over the world. The Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) continued exploration from 1985 to 2003 when it was replaced by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP).

On 5 March 2007, a team of scientists on board the RRS James Cook embarked on a voyage to an area of the Atlantic seafloor where the mantle lies exposed without any crust covering, midway between the Cape Verde Islands and the Caribbean Sea. The exposed site lies approximately three kilometres beneath the ocean surface and covers thousands of square kilometres.
A relatively difficult attempt to retrieve samples from the Earth's mantle was scheduled for later in 2007. The Chikyu Hakken mission attempted to use the Japanese vessel Chikyū to drill up to  below the seabed. This is nearly three times as deep as preceding oceanic drillings.

A novel method of exploring the uppermost few hundred kilometres of the Earth was proposed in 2005, consisting of a small, dense, heat-generating probe which melts its way down through the crust and mantle while its position and progress are tracked by acoustic signals generated in the rocks. The probe consists of an outer sphere of tungsten about one metre in diameter with a cobalt-60 interior acting as a radioactive heat source. It was calculated that such a probe will reach the oceanic Moho in less than 6 months and attain minimum depths of well over  in a few decades beneath both oceanic and continental lithosphere.

Exploration can also be aided through computer simulations of the evolution of the mantle. In 2009, a supercomputer application provided new insight into the distribution of mineral deposits, especially isotopes of iron, from when the mantle developed 4.5 billion years ago.

In 2023, JOIDES Resolution recovered cores of what appeared to be rock from the upper mantle after drilling only a few hundred meters into the Atlantis Massif. The borehole reached a maximum depth of 1,268 meters and recovered 886 meters of rock samples consisting of primarily peridotite. There is debate over the extent to which the samples represent the upper mantle with some arguing the effects of seawater on the samples situates them as examples of deep lower crust. However, the samples offer a much closer analogue to mantle rock than magmatic xenoliths as the sampled rock never melted into magma or recrystallized.

See also
 Internal structure of Earth

References

External links

 The Biggest Dig: Japan builds a ship to drill to the earth's mantle – Scientific American (September 2005)
 Information on the Mohole Project

Structure of the Earth

Earth's mantle


Nitrogen narcosis is a problem for underwater divers. It affects the brain and nervous system a lot like alcohol, but goes away when the diver rises to a shallower depth. It does not have lasting effects after the depth is reduced.

Who can get it
Any underwater diver who goes deeper than 30 m (100 ft)while breathing air, or any time when the pressure of nitrogen in the breathing gas is more than about 3,2 bar.

How to prevent it
It only happens when the pressure of nitrogen is high. If the pressure is kept low by staying at a shallower depth it will not happen. If the breathing gas has less nitrogen it will only start at a deeper depth. Helium gas can be used in place of nitrogen in breathing gas for divers to make it less likely to have nitrogen narcosis.

What actually happens
The nitrogen gas dissolved in the diver affects the working of nerve cells. At higher pressures more nitrogen can be dissolved.

It starts off as a mild effect like being slightly drunk, but as the pressure increases it gets more serious, like getting more drunk. Eventually the diver may lose consciousness.

Why is it a problem
A diver who has nitrogen narcosis will have slower reactions and may not think clearly. If something goes wrong the diver may not be able to cope with the problem. This can be dangerous.

What to do about it
The diver can move to a shallower depth or change to a different breathing gas with less nitrogen. This will usually be a mixture containing helium.

Safety
Health problems
Nitrogen

Nitrogen narcosis


The Kyoto Protocol is a plan created by the United Nations for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change that tries to reduce the effects of climate change, such as global warming. The plan says that countries that adopt (follow) the Kyoto Protocol have to try to reduce how much carbon dioxide (and other "greenhouse gases" that pollute the atmosphere) they release into the air.

Establishment
The full name of the Kyoto Protocol is the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. It is called the Kyoto Protocol because it was made in Kyoto, Japan. The Kyoto Protocol was officially put into "full force" on February 16, 2005. On February 16, Russia began to follow (ratify) the Kyoto Protocol and it was decided to be put into "full force". As of 2020, 192 countries have agreed to follow the Kyoto Protocol.

Adoption status
There are still 29 countries which have not yet adopted it. Croatia and Kazakhstan have signed the treaty, but have not ratified it (made it a law they have to follow). Donald Trump and The United States of America has signed it but said that they will not ratify it. Australia has only recently ratified the Kyoto Protocol under the previous Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd. Both of these countries have said that the fact that China and India are using exceptions to the treaty (those countries believe parts of the treaty do not apply to them and they will not follow those parts) in the name of industrialization is unfair and that they will not ratify because of this, although it is believed that the U.S. and Australia are protecting their economic interests by not ratifying. The countries' leaders say that changing their use of greenhouse gases will make their people lose jobs. The twenty four other countries have neither signed nor ratified the treaty.

Other websites
The Kyoto Protocol

United Nations
Kyoto
Climate change
Green politics

Kyoto Protocol


The Malibu Coast is an American Viticulture Area located in the Santa Monica Mountains of western Los Angeles County. The appellation is 46 miles long and eight miles wide, rising from the Pacific Coast to an elevation of 3,111 feet. The National Agricultural Statistics Service's "California Grape Acreage Report Crop 2015" documented the most widely planted varietals in Los Angeles County as Cabernet Sauvignon (69 acres), Syrah (32 acres), Zinfandel (21 acres), Merlot (20 acres), and Chardonnay (10 acres).

The Malibu Coast AVA designation was granted by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau in July, 2014 but wine grapes have grown in the Malibu Coast as far back as 1824, when the first documented vineyard was planted at Rancho Topanga Malibu Sequit by José Bartolomé Tapia. Prior to Prohibition, Los Angeles County was California's largest wine producer by volume. The first modern day vineyard was planted in 1985 by restaurateur Michael McCarty, with the help of Dick Graff of Monterey's Chalone Vineyard. Today the appellation is home to 52 commercial grape growers and 198 acres of vines. Notable producers include Dolin Estate, which initiated the AVA and has twice been named one of the Best 101 wineries in America, Montage Vineyards, Colcanyon Estate Wines and Malibu Sanity.

References

Food and drink in California
American Viticultural Areas
American Viticultural Areas of California
American Viticultural Areas of Southern California
2014 establishments in California
Santa Monica Mountains

Malibu Coast AVA


Milhouse Van Houten is a fictional character on the animated television series the Simpsons.  Milhouse has blue hair and very large eyebrows.  Milhouse is Bart Simpson's best friend and sidekick.  Milhouse is allergic to many things.  Milhouse is constantly savagely bullied particularly by Nelson Muntz.  Milhouse has a crush on Lisa Simpson who does not feel the same way about him.  Even though Milhouse is described by Lisa as "the class nerd" Milhouse tells Bart that "I'm not a nerd! Nerds are smart."  Milhouse' parents Kirk and Luan get divorced.  Milhouse is extremely insecure.  Milhouse is routinely humiliated by the bullies.  On one occasion, Bart tells Milhouse that he is surprised to see him since he thought he had a " three-o-clock wedgie with Nelson and Milhouse says "I had to reschedule."  Milhouse is easily reduced to crying even though he is allergic to his own tears.  Milhouse has very large round glasses.  Bart has on more than one occasion let Milhouse take the fall for something Bart did.  Though in the episode "Little Orphan Millie" Bart admits that he actually cares about Milhouse by saying "I love him. I love him so much."

The Simpsons characters
Animated human characters
Fictional characters introduced in 1988

Milhouse Van Houten


A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and electron holes as charge carriers. In contrast, a unipolar transistor, such as a field-effect transistor (FET), uses only one kind of charge carrier. A bipolar transistor allows a small current injected at one of its terminals to control a much larger current flowing between the terminals, making the device capable of amplification or switching.

BJTs use two p–n junctions between two semiconductor types, n-type and p-type, which are regions in a single crystal of material. The junctions can be made in several different ways, such as changing the doping of the semiconductor material as it is grown, by depositing metal pellets to form alloy junctions, or by such methods as diffusion of n-type and p-type doping substances into the crystal. The superior predictability and performance of junction transistors quickly displaced the original point-contact transistor. Diffused transistors, along with other components, are elements of integrated circuits for analog and digital functions.  Hundreds of bipolar junction transistors can be made in one circuit at very low cost.

Bipolar transistor integrated circuits were the main active devices of a generation of mainframe and minicomputers, but most computer systems now use CMOS integrated circuits relying on field-effect transistors. Bipolar transistors are still used for amplification of signals, switching, and in mixed-signal integrated circuits using BiCMOS. Specialized types are used for high voltage switches, for radio-frequency (RF) amplifiers, or for switching high currents.

Current direction conventions
By convention, the direction of current on diagrams is shown as the direction that a positive charge would move.  This is called conventional current.  However, current in metal conductors is generally due to the flow of electrons. Because electrons carry a negative charge, they move in the direction opposite to conventional current. On the other hand, inside a bipolar transistor, currents can be composed of both positively charged holes and negatively charged electrons.  In this article, current arrows are shown in the conventional direction, but labels for the movement of holes and electrons show their actual direction inside the transistor.

Arrow direction
The arrow on the symbol for bipolar transistors indicates the p–n junction between base and emitter and points in the direction in which conventional current travels.

Function

BJTs exist as PNP and NPN types, based on the doping types of the three main terminal regions.  An NPN transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped region, and a PNP transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin n-doped region. N-type means doped with impurities (such as phosphorus or arsenic) that provide mobile electrons, while p-type means doped with impurities (such as boron) that provide holes that readily accept electrons.

Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge carriers (electrons and holes) across a junction between two regions of different charge carrier concentration. The regions of a BJT are called emitter, base, and collector. A discrete transistor has three leads for connection to these regions. Typically, the emitter region is heavily doped compared to the other two layers, and the collector is doped more lightly (typically ten times lighter) than the base. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charge carriers injected from a heavily doped emitter into the base where they are minority carriers (electrons in NPNs, holes in PNPs) that diffuse toward the collector, so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices.

In typical operation, the base–emitter junction is forward biased, which means that the p-doped side of the junction is at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. When forward bias is applied to the base–emitter junction, the equilibrium between the thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the emitter depletion region is disturbed. This allows thermally excited carriers (electrons in NPNs, holes in PNPs) to inject from the emitter into the base region. These carriers create a diffusion current through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter toward the region of low concentration near the collector.

To minimize the fraction of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector–base junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority-carrier lifetime. Having a lightly doped base ensures recombination rates are low. In particular, the thickness of the base must be much less than the diffusion length of the carriers. The collector–base junction is reverse-biased, and so negligible carrier injection occurs from the collector to the base, but carriers that are injected into the base from the emitter, and diffuse to reach the collector–base depletion region, are swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region. The thin shared base and asymmetric collector–emitter doping are what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two separate diodes connected in series.

Voltage, current, and charge control
The collector–emitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the base–emitter current (current control), or by the base–emitter voltage (voltage control). These views are related by the current–voltage relation of the base–emitter junction, which is the usual exponential current–voltage curve of a p–n junction (diode).

The explanation for collector current is the concentration gradient of minority carriers in the base region. Due to low-level injection (in which there are much fewer excess carriers than normal majority carriers) the ambipolar transport rates (in which the excess majority and minority carriers flow at the same rate) is in effect determined by the excess minority carriers.

Detailed transistor models of transistor action, such as the Gummel–Poon model, account for the distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behaviour more exactly. The charge-control view easily handles phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base region are created by the absorption of photons, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are generally used in circuit design and analysis.

In analog circuit design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately linear. That is, the collector current is approximately  times the base current. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming that the base–emitter voltage is approximately constant and that collector current is β times the base current. However, to accurately and reliably design production BJT circuits, the voltage-control model (e.g. the Ebers–Moll model) is required. The voltage-control model requires an exponential function to be taken into account, but when it is linearized such that the transistor can be modeled as a transconductance, as in the Ebers–Moll model, design for circuits such as differential amplifiers again becomes a mostly linear problem, so the voltage-control view is often preferred. For translinear circuits, in which the exponential I–V curve is key to the operation, the transistors are usually modeled as voltage-controlled current sources whose transconductance is proportional to their collector current. In general, transistor-level circuit analysis is performed using SPICE or a comparable analog-circuit simulator, so mathematical model complexity is usually not of much concern to the designer, but a simplified view of the characteristics allows designs to be created following a logical process.

Turn-on, turn-off, and storage delay

Bipolar transistors, and particularly power transistors, have long base-storage times when they are driven into saturation; the base storage limits turn-off time in switching applications. A Baker clamp can prevent the transistor from heavily saturating, which reduces the amount of charge stored in the base and thus improves switching time.

Transistor characteristics: alpha () and beta ()
The proportion of carriers able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure of the BJT efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the base region causes many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be injected from the base into the emitter. A thin and lightly doped base region means that most of the minority carriers that are injected into the base will diffuse to the collector and not recombine.

Common-emitter current gain
The common-emitter current gain is represented by F or the -parameter FE; it is approximately the ratio of the collector's direct current to the base's direct current in forward-active region. (The F subscript is used to indicate the forward-active mode of operation.) It is typically greater than 50 for small-signal transistors, but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications. Both injection efficiency and recombination in the base reduce the BJT gain.

Common-base current gain
Another useful characteristic is the common-base current gain, F. The common-base current gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.980 and 0.998. It is less than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they cross the base region.

Alpha and beta are related by the following identities:

Beta is a convenient figure of merit to describe the performance of a bipolar transistor, but is not a fundamental physical property of the device. Bipolar transistors can be considered voltage-controlled devices (fundamentally the collector current is controlled by the base–emitter voltage; the base current could be considered a defect and is controlled by the characteristics of the base–emitter junction and recombination in the base). In many designs beta is assumed high enough so that base current has a negligible effect on the circuit. In some circuits (generally switching circuits), sufficient base current is supplied so that even the lowest beta value a particular device may have will still allow the required collector current to flow.

Structure

BJTs consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions: the emitter region, the base region and the collector region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p type in a PNP transistor, and n type, p type and n type in an NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).

The base is physically located between the emitter and the collector and is made from lightly doped, high-resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape without being collected, thus making the resulting value of α very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large β. A cross-section view of a BJT indicates that the collector–base junction has a much larger area than the emitter–base junction.

The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is usually not a symmetrical device. This means that interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the transistor leave the forward active mode and start to operate in reverse mode. Because the transistor's internal structure is usually optimized for forward-mode operation, interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the values of α and β in reverse operation much smaller than those in forward operation; often the α of the reverse mode is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily due to the doping ratios of the emitter and the collector. The emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is lightly doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be applied before the collector–base junction breaks down. The collector–base junction is reverse biased in normal operation. The reason the emitter is heavily doped is to increase the emitter injection efficiency: the ratio of carriers injected by the emitter to those injected by the base. For high current gain, most of the carriers injected into the emitter–base junction must come from the emitter.

The low-performance "lateral" bipolar transistors sometimes used in CMOS processes are sometimes designed symmetrically, that is, with no difference between forward and backward operation.

Small changes in the voltage applied across the base–emitter terminals cause the current between the emitter and the collector to change significantly. This effect can be used to amplify the input voltage or current. BJTs can be thought of as voltage-controlled current sources, but are more simply characterized as current-controlled current sources, or current amplifiers, due to the low impedance at the base.

Early transistors were made from germanium but most modern BJTs are made from silicon. A significant minority are also now made from gallium arsenide, especially for very high speed applications (see HBT, below).

The heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) is an improvement of the BJT that can handle signals of very high frequencies up to several hundred GHz. It is common in modern ultrafast circuits, mostly RF systems.

Two commonly used HBTs are silicon–germanium and aluminum gallium arsenide, though a wide variety of semiconductors may be used for the HBT structure. HBT structures are usually grown by epitaxy techniques like MOCVD and MBE.

Regions of operation

Bipolar transistors have four distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT junction biases:
 Forward-active (or simply active)  The base–emitter junction is forward biased and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the greatest common-emitter current gain, βF, in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the collector–emitter current is approximately  proportional to the base current, but many times larger, for small base current variations.
 Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted)  By reversing the biasing conditions of the forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this mode, the emitter and collector regions switch roles. Because most BJTs are designed to maximize current gain in forward-active mode, the βF in inverted mode is several times smaller (2–3 times for the ordinary germanium transistor). This transistor mode is seldom used, usually being considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of bipolar logic. The reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude lower in this region.
 Saturation  With both junctions forward biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates high current conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the other direction in the case of NPN, with negatively charged carriers flowing from emitter to collector). This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.
 Cut-off  In cut-off, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse biased) are present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a logical "off", or an open switch.

Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage, they overlap somewhat for small (less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, in the typical grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic, the "off" state never involves a reverse-biased junction because the base voltage never goes below ground; nevertheless the forward bias is close enough to zero that essentially no current flows, so this end of the forward active region can be regarded as the cutoff region.

Active-mode transistors in circuits

The diagram shows a schematic representation of an NPN transistor connected to two voltage sources. (The same description applies to a PNP transistor with reversed directions of current flow and applied voltage.)  This applied voltage causes the lower p–n junction to become forward biased, allowing a flow of electrons from the emitter into the base. In active mode, the electric field existing between base and collector (caused by VCE) will cause the majority of these electrons to cross the upper p–n junction into the collector to form the collector current IC. The remainder of the electrons recombine with holes, the majority carriers in the base, making a current through the base connection to form the base current, IB. As shown in the diagram, the emitter current, IE, is the total transistor current, which is the sum of the other terminal currents, (i.e. IE = IB + IC).

In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in the direction of conventional current – the flow of electrons is in the opposite direction of the arrows because electrons carry negative electric charge. In active mode, the ratio of the collector current to the base current is called the DC current gain. This gain is usually 100 or more, but robust circuit designs do not depend on the exact value (for example see op-amp). The value of this gain for DC signals is referred to as , and the value of this gain for small signals is referred to as . That is, when a small change in the currents occurs, and sufficient time has passed for the new condition to reach a steady state  is the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base current. The symbol  is used for both  and .

The emitter current is related to  exponentially. At room temperature, an increase in  by approximately 60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10. Because the base current is approximately proportional to the collector and emitter currents, they vary in the same way.

History
The bipolar point-contact transistor was invented in December 1947 at the Bell Telephone Laboratories by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain under the direction of William Shockley. The junction version known as the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), invented by Shockley in 1948, was for three decades the device of choice in the design of discrete and integrated circuits. Nowadays, the use of the BJT has declined in favor of CMOS technology in the design of digital integrated circuits. The incidental low performance BJTs inherent in CMOS ICs, however, are often utilized as bandgap voltage reference, silicon bandgap temperature sensor and to handle electrostatic discharge.

Germanium transistors
The germanium transistor was more common in the 1950s and 1960s but has a greater tendency to exhibit thermal runaway. Since germanium p-n junctions have a lower forward bias than silicon, germanium transistors turn on at lower voltage.

Early manufacturing techniques
Various methods of manufacturing bipolar transistors were developed.

 Point-contact transistor – first transistor ever constructed (December 1947), a bipolar transistor, limited commercial use due to high cost and noise.
 Tetrode point-contact transistor – Point-contact transistor having two emitters. It became obsolete in the middle 1950s.
 Junction transistors
 Grown-junction transistor first bipolar junction transistor made. Invented by William Shockley at Bell Labs on June 23, 1948. Patent filed on June 26, 1948.
 Alloy-junction transistor emitter and collector alloy beads fused to base. Developed at General Electric and RCA in 1951.
 Micro-alloy transistor (MAT) high-speed type of alloy junction transistor. Developed at Philco.
 Micro-alloy diffused transistor (MADT) high-speed type of alloy junction transistor, speedier than MAT, a diffused-base transistor. Developed at Philco.
 Post-alloy diffused transistor (PADT) high-speed type of alloy junction transistor, speedier than MAT, a diffused-base transistor. Developed at Philips.
 Tetrode transistor high-speed variant of grown-junction transistor or alloy junction transistor with two connections to base.
 Surface-barrier transistor high-speed metal-barrier junction transistor. Developed at Philco in 1953.
 Drift-field transistor high-speed bipolar junction transistor. Invented by Herbert Kroemer at the Central Bureau of Telecommunications Technology of the German Postal Service, in 1953.
 Spacistor around 1957.
 Diffusion transistor modern type bipolar junction transistor. Prototypes developed at Bell Labs in 1954.
 Diffused-base transistor first implementation of diffusion transistor.
 Mesa transistor developed at Texas Instruments in 1957.
 Planar transistor the bipolar junction transistor that made mass-produced monolithic integrated circuits possible. Developed by Jean Hoerni at Fairchild in 1959.
 Epitaxial transistor a bipolar junction transistor made using vapor-phase deposition. See Epitaxy. Allows very precise control of doping levels and gradients.

Theory and modeling

BJTs can be thought of as two diodes (p–n junctions) sharing a common region that minority carriers can move through. A PNP BJT will function like two diodes that share an N-type cathode region, and the NPN like two diodes sharing a P-type anode region.  Connecting two diodes with wires will not make a BJT, since minority carriers will not be able to get from one p–n junction to the other through the wire.

Both types of BJT function by letting a small current input to the base control an amplified output from the collector. The result is that the BJT makes a good switch that is controlled by its base input. The BJT also makes a good amplifier, since it can multiply a weak input signal to about 100 times its original strength. Networks of BJTs are used to make powerful amplifiers with many different applications.

In the discussion below, focus is on the NPN BJT. In what is called active mode, the base–emitter voltage  and collector–base voltage  are positive, forward biasing the emitter–base junction and reverse-biasing the collector–base junction. In this mode, electrons are injected from the forward biased n-type emitter region into the p-type base where they diffuse as minority carriers to the reverse-biased n-type collector and are swept away by the electric field in the reverse-biased collector–base junction.

For an illustration of forward and reverse bias, see semiconductor diodes.

Large-signal models
In 1954, Jewell James Ebers and John L. Moll introduced their mathematical model of transistor currents:

Ebers–Moll model

The DC emitter and collector currents in active mode are well modeled by an approximation to the Ebers–Moll model:

The base internal current is mainly by diffusion (see Fick's law) and

where
  is the thermal voltage  (approximately 26 mV at 300 K  ≈ room temperature).
  is the emitter current
  is the collector current
  is the common base forward short-circuit current gain (0.98 to 0.998)
  is the reverse saturation current of the base–emitter diode (on the order of 10−15 to 10−12 amperes)
  is the base–emitter voltage
  is the diffusion constant for electrons in the p-type base
 W is the base width

The  and forward  parameters are as described previously. A reverse  is sometimes included in the model.

The unapproximated Ebers–Moll equations used to describe the three currents in any operating region are given below. These equations are based on the transport model for a bipolar junction transistor.

where
  is the collector current
  is the base current
  is the emitter current
  is the forward common emitter current gain (20 to 500)
  is the reverse common emitter current gain (0 to 20)
  is the reverse saturation current (on the order of 10−15 to 10−12 amperes)
  is the thermal voltage (approximately 26 mV at 300 K ≈ room temperature).
  is the base–emitter voltage
  is the base–collector voltage

Base-width modulation

As the collector–base voltage () varies, the collector–base depletion region varies in size. An increase in the collector–base voltage, for example, causes a greater reverse bias across the collector–base junction, increasing the collector–base depletion region width, and decreasing the width of the base. This variation in base width often is called the Early effect after its discoverer James M. Early.

Narrowing of the base width has two consequences:
 There is a lesser chance for recombination within the "smaller" base region.
 The charge gradient is increased across the base, and consequently, the current of minority carriers injected across the emitter junction increases.

Both factors increase the collector or "output" current of the transistor in response to an increase in the collector–base voltage.

Punchthrough
When the base–collector voltage reaches a certain (device-specific) value, the base–collector depletion region boundary meets the base–emitter depletion region boundary. When in this state the transistor effectively has no base. The device thus loses all gain when in this state.

Gummel–Poon charge-control model
The Gummel–Poon model is a detailed charge-controlled model of BJT dynamics, which has been adopted and elaborated by others to explain transistor dynamics in greater detail than the terminal-based models typically do. This model also includes the dependence of transistor -values upon the direct current levels in the transistor, which are assumed current-independent in the Ebers–Moll model.

Small-signal models

Hybrid-pi model

The hybrid-pi model is a popular circuit model used for analyzing the small signal and AC behavior of bipolar junction and field effect transistors. Sometimes it is also called Giacoletto model because it was introduced by L.J. Giacoletto in 1969. The model can be quite accurate for low-frequency circuits and can easily be adapted for higher-frequency circuits with the addition of appropriate inter-electrode capacitances and other parasitic elements.

h-parameter model

Another model commonly used to analyze BJT circuits is the h-parameter model, also known as the hybrid equivalent model, closely related to the hybrid-pi model and the y-parameter two-port, but using input current and output voltage as independent variables, rather than input and output voltages. This two-port network is particularly suited to BJTs as it lends itself easily to the analysis of circuit behaviour, and may be used to develop further accurate models. As shown, the term x in the model represents a different BJT lead depending on the topology used. For common-emitter mode the various symbols take on the specific values as:
 Terminal 1, base
 Terminal 2, collector
 Terminal 3 (common), emitter; giving x to be e
 ii, base current (ib)
 io, collector current (ic)
 Vin, base-to-emitter voltage (VBE)
 Vo, collector-to-emitter voltage (VCE)

and the h-parameters are given by:
 hix = hie for the common-emitter configuration, the input impedance of the transistor (corresponding to the base resistance rpi).
 hrx = hre, a reverse transfer relationship, it represents the dependence of the transistor's (input) IB–VBE curve on the value of (output) VCE. It is usually very small and is often neglected (assumed to be zero) at DC.
 hfx = hfe, the "forward" current-gain of the transistor, sometimes written h21. This parameter, with lower case "fe" to imply small signal (AC) gain, or more often with capital letters for "FE" (specified as hFE) to mean the "large signal" or DC current-gain (βDC or often simply β), is one of the main parameters in datasheets, and may be given for a typical collector current and voltage or plotted as a function of collector current. See below.
 hox = 1/hoe, the output impedance of transistor. The parameter hoe usually corresponds to the output admittance of the bipolar transistor and has to be inverted to convert it to an impedance.

As shown, the h-parameters have lower-case subscripts and hence signify AC conditions or analyses. For DC conditions they are specified in upper-case. For the CE topology, an approximate h-parameter model is commonly used which further simplifies the circuit analysis. For this the hoe and hre parameters are neglected (that is, they are set to infinity and zero, respectively). The h-parameter model as shown is suited to low-frequency, small-signal analysis. For high-frequency analyses the inter-electrode capacitances that are important at high frequencies must be added.

Etymology of hFE
The h refers to its being an h-parameter, a set of parameters named for their origin in a hybrid equivalent circuit model (see above). As with all h parameters, the choice of lower case or capitals for the letters that follow the "h" is significant; lower-case signifies "small signal" parameters, that is, the slope the particular relationship; upper-case letters imply "large signal" or DC values, the ratio of the voltages or currents. In the case of the very often used hFE:
 F is from Forward current amplification also called the current gain.
 E refers to the transistor operating in a common Emitter (CE) configuration.
So hFE (or hFE) refers to the (total; DC) collector current divided by the base current, and is dimensionless. It is a parameter that varies somewhat with collector current, but is often approximated as a constant; it is normally specified at a typical collector current and voltage, or graphed as a function of collector current.

Had capital letters not been used for used in the subscript, i.e. if it were written hfe the parameter indicate small signal (AC) current gain, i.e. the slope of the Collector current versus Base current graph at a given point, which is often close to the hFE value unless the test frequency is high.

Industry models

The Gummel–Poon SPICE model is often used, but it suffers from several limitations. For instance, reverse breakdown of the base–emitter diode is not captured by the SGP (SPICE Gummel–Poon) model, neither are thermal effects (self-heating) or quasi-saturation. These have been addressed in various more advanced models which either focus on specific cases of application (Mextram, HICUM, Modella) or are designed for universal usage (VBIC).

Applications
The BJT remains a device that excels in some applications, such as discrete circuit design, due to the very wide selection of BJT types available, and because of its high transconductance and output resistance compared to MOSFETs.

The BJT is also the choice for demanding analog circuits, especially for very-high-frequency applications, such as radio-frequency circuits for wireless systems.

High-speed digital logic
Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) use BJTs.

Bipolar transistors can be combined with MOSFETs in an integrated circuit by using a BiCMOS process of wafer fabrication to create circuits that take advantage of the application strengths of both types of transistor.

Amplifiers

The transistor parameters α and β characterize the current gain of the BJT. It is this gain that allows BJTs to be used as the building blocks of electronic amplifiers. The three main BJT amplifier topologies are:
 Common emitter
 Common base
 Common collector

Temperature sensors

Because of the known temperature and current dependence of the forward-biased base–emitter junction voltage, the BJT can be used to measure temperature by subtracting two voltages at two different bias currents in a known ratio.

Logarithmic converters
Because base–emitter voltage varies as the logarithm of the base–emitter and collector–emitter currents, a BJT can also be used to compute logarithms and anti-logarithms. A diode can also perform these nonlinear functions but the transistor provides more circuit flexibility.

Avalanche pulse generators
Transistors may be deliberately made with a lower collector to emitter breakdown voltage than the collector to base breakdown voltage. If the emitter–base junction is reverse biased the collector emitter voltage may be maintained at a voltage just below breakdown. As soon as the base voltage is allowed to rise, and current flows avalanche occurs and impact ionization in the collector base depletion region rapidly floods the base with carriers and turns the transistor fully on. So long as the pulses are short enough and infrequent enough that the device is not damaged, this effect can be used to create very sharp falling edges.

Special avalanche transistor devices are made for this application.

Vulnerabilities

Exposure of the transistor to ionizing radiation causes radiation damage. Radiation causes a buildup of 'defects' in the base region that act as recombination centers. The resulting reduction in minority carrier lifetime causes gradual loss of gain of the transistor.

Transistors have "maximum ratings", including power ratings (essentially limited by self-heating), maximum collector and base currents (both continuous/DC ratings and peak), and breakdown voltage ratings, beyond which the device may fail or at least perform badly.

In addition to normal breakdown ratings of the device, power BJTs are subject to a failure mode called secondary breakdown, in which excessive current and normal imperfections in the silicon die cause portions of the silicon inside the device to become disproportionately hotter than the others. The electrical resistivity of doped silicon, like other semiconductors, has a negative temperature coefficient, meaning that it conducts more current at higher temperatures. Thus, the hottest part of the die conducts the most current, causing its conductivity to increase, which then causes it to become progressively hotter again, until the device fails internally. The thermal runaway process associated with secondary breakdown, once triggered, occurs almost instantly and may catastrophically damage the transistor package.

If the emitter–base junction is reverse biased into avalanche or Zener mode and charge flows for a short period of time, the current gain of the BJT may be permanently degraded, as the emitter is smaller than the collector and cannot dissipate significant power. This is a common ESD failure mechanism in low-voltage devices.

See also

 Bipolar transistor biasing
 Gummel plot
 Insulated gate bipolar transistor
 Multiple-emitter transistor

Notes

References

External links

Transistor modeling
Transistor types

Bipolar junction transistor


The Fearless Vampire Killers, or Pardon Me, But Your Teeth Are in My Neck (shortened to The Fearless Vampire Killers; originally released in the United Kingdom as Dance of the Vampires) is a 1967 comedy horror film directed by Roman Polanski, written by Gérard Brach and Polanski, produced by Gene Gutowski and starring Polanski with his future wife Sharon Tate, along with Jack MacGowran and Alfie Bass, and featuring Ferdy Mayne.

In the film, a doddering vampire hunter and his bumbling assistant travel to a small mountain village where they find the tell-tale traces of vampirism. The assistant becomes enchanted by the local tavern keeper's daughter, before she is promptly abducted. Determined to save the buxom maiden, they confront the undead Count in his castle. The film has been adapted into a musical, Dance of the Vampires (first adapted in German under the translated title Tanz der Vampire).

Plot
The film is set "deep in the heart of Transylvania" and the story appears to take place sometime during the mid-19th century. Professor Abronsius, formerly of the University of Königsberg, and his apprentice Alfred are on the hunt for vampires. Abronsius is old and withering and barely able to survive the cold ride through the wintry forests, while Alfred is bumbling and introverted. The two hunters come to a small village seemingly at the end of a long search for signs of vampires. The two stay at a local inn full of angst-ridden townspeople who perform strange rituals to fend off an unseen evil.

While staying at the inn, Alfred develops a fondness for Sarah, the overprotected daughter of the tavern keeper Yoine Shagal. Alfred witnesses Sarah being kidnapped by the local vampire lord Count von Krolock. Crazed with grief and armed only with a bunch of garlic, Shagal attempts to rescue her but does not get very far before he is captured, drained of his blood and vampirised. After Shagal rises and attacks Magda, the tavern's beautiful maidservant and the object of his lust when he was still human, Abronsius and Alfred follow his trail in the snow, which leads them to Krolock's ominous castle in the snow-blanketed hills nearby. They break into the castle but are trapped by the Count's hunchbacked servant, Koukol. They are taken to see the Count, who affects an air of aristocratic dignity while questioning Abronsius about why he has come to the castle. They also encounter the Count's son, the foppish (and homosexual) Herbert. Meanwhile, Shagal, no longer caring about his daughter's fate, sets up his plan to turn Magda into his vampire bride.

Despite misgivings, Abronsius and Alfred accept the Count's invitation to stay in his ramshackle Gothic castle, where Alfred spends the night fitfully. The next morning, Abronsius plans to find the castle crypt and destroy the Count by staking him in the heart, seemingly forgetting about the fate of Sarah. The crypt is guarded by the hunchback, so after some wandering they attempt to climb in through a roof window. However, Abronsius gets stuck in the aperture, and it falls to Alfred to complete the task of killing the Count in his slumber. At the last moment his nerve fails him and he cannot accomplish the deed. Alfred then has to go back outside to free Abronsius, but on the way he comes upon Sarah having a bath in her room. She seems oblivious of her danger when he pleads for her to come away with him, and informs him that a ball is to take place this very night. After briefly taking his eyes off her, Alfred turns to find Sarah has vanished into thin air.

After freeing Abronsius, who is half-frozen, they re-enter the castle. Alfred again seeks Sarah but meets Herbert instead, who first attempts to seduce him, and then, after Alfred realizes that Herbert's reflection does not show up in the mirror, reveals his vampire nature and attempts to bite him. Abronsius and Alfred flee from Herbert through a dark stairway to safety, only to be trapped behind a locked door in a turret. As night is falling, they become horrified witnesses as the graves below open up to reveal a huge number of vampires of various past centuries at the castle, who hibernate and meet once a year only to feast upon any captives the Count has provided for them. The Count appears, mocking them and tells them their fate is sealed. He leaves them to attend the ball, where Sarah will be presented as the next vampire victim.

The hunters escape by firing a cannon at the door—substituting steam pressure for gunpowder—and come to the ball in disguise, where, although exposed by their reflections in a huge mirror, they are able to grab Sarah and escape. Fleeing in a horse-drawn sleigh, Abronsius and Alfred are unaware that it is too late for Sarah; she awakens in mid-flight as a vampire and bites Alfred, thus allowing vampires to be released into the world.

Cast

Production
Roman Polanski talks about production difficulties in his autobiography: "Our first month's outdoor filming became a series of ingenious improvisations, mainly because the last-minute switch from one location (Austria) to another (Urtijëi, an Italian ski resort in the Dolomites) had left us so little time to revise our shooting schedules. The fact that we were filming in Italy entailed the employment of a certain number of Italian technicians and that, in turn bred some international friction. Gene Gutowski (the film's European producer) rightly suspected that the Italians were robbing us blind."

Cinematographer Douglas Slocombe said: "I think he [Roman] put more of himself into Dance of the Vampires than into any other film. It brought to light the fairy-tale interest that he has. One was conscious all along when making the picture of a Central European background to the story. Very few of the crew could see anything in it—they thought it old-fashioned nonsense. But I could see this background....I have a French background myself and could sense the Central European atmosphere that surrounds it. The figure of Alfred is very much like Roman himself—a slight figure, young and a little defenseless—a touch of Kafka. It is very much a personal statement of his own humor as he used to chuckle all the way through the scenes." This film was the source material for the European stage musical Tanz der Vampire. It is peppered with numerous references to King Richard III of England, who even appears in the ball scene.

When the film was first released in the United States, MGM wanted to market it as a "farce". MGM head editor Margaret Booth and head of theatrical post-production Merle Chamberlain cut 12 minutes' worth of material, and along with adding the animated prologue among other changes, the character of Professor Abronsius was re-dubbed to give him a goofy, cartoony voice that would suit the "kooky" tone of the film. This version was slightly retitled as The Fearless Vampire Killers, or Pardon Me, But Your Teeth Are in My Neck. This was the version most commonly seen in the U.S. until it vanished from circulation in the mid-1970s. In the early 1980s, MGM unearthed a print of Roman Polanski's original cut and sent it to various repertory & revival houses for screenings. Polanski's cut has garnered new interest and reevaluated opinions from critics and fans of Polanski's works, who have previously bashed the film in its mutilated U.S. cut. Since then, the original version of the film is the one more commonly available today and has been released on VHS, LaserDisc, DVD and Blu-ray, and occasionally airs on TCM.

The Fearless Vampire Killers was Polanski's first feature to be photographed in color using a widescreen 2.35:1 aspect ratio. The film is also notable in that it features Polanski's love of winter sports, particularly skiing.

The score was provided by Krzysztof Komeda, who also scored three other films for Polanski, including Rosemary's Baby.

Animated opening sequence
United States
The sequence begins on a sunny day when a bird is minding his own business when the sun behind him sinks and the crescent moon rises in its place, starting the night. The bird becomes alarmed and speeds away. Zooming out, the camera reveals the setting of a graveyard where Professor Abronsius and Alfred bump into each other. The two shake hands and a green vampire pops out from a grave behind them. After the successful scare, the vampire laughs as the camera zooms in on him. This process is repeated twice. A bag falls from the sky; Abronsius reaches in and takes out a box containing garlic, which he and Alfred eat. They sneak up to the vampire (who has no idea where they are), tap his shoulder and breathe garlic breath on him, causing him to shrink and run off. The bag drops to them again and Alfred brings out a gold crucifix and gives it to Abronsius. They sneak up on the now plugged-nose vampire, show him the crucifix, and again he shrinks and runs off. He hides behind the tree and tries to scare them again, but the sun replaces the moon, signaling the vampire to run, and Abronsius and Alfred chase him to a coffin. The bag appears one last time and Abronsius takes out a mallet and a wooden stake. With Alfred's help, he kills the vampire, then places the lid on the coffin. In the pitch-black backdrop, Professor Abronsius and Alfred congratulate each other until the MGM logo appears, startling them. The lion in the logo roars as its fangs grow longer. Frightened, Abronsius and Alfred run away, and blood drips out of the lion's mouth.

United Kingdom/Europe
The comedy mask disappears and the MGM lion turns into a cartoon vampire with blood dripping from its mouth in the logo, from its older airings of this film in some European countries, the MGM lion fades instead with a different-looking vampire design appears with blood drips that come out of a vampire, unlike its original version, the alternative version never saw its home video releases.

Release

Critical reception

The Fearless Vampire Killers holds an approval rating of 69% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2/10. The site's critics' consensus reads: "This uneven but amiable 1967 vampire picture is part horror spoof, part central European epic, and 100 percent Roman Polanski, whose signature sensibility colors every frame."

Home media
The Fearless Vampire Killers was released to DVD by Warner Home Video on September 13, 2005 as a Region 1 widescreen DVD, and later in other territories. This version is Polanski's original cut bearing The Fearless Vampire Killers title card. A region-free Brazilian DVD was issued by Cinemagia that, while using a dated 4:3 letterbox master of the original cut, has the U.S. prologue as a bonus feature. Outside of 16 mm or 35 mm prints, no known official releases of the re-edited U.S. cut exist.

The film, using the same version as the 2005 DVD, was released by Warner Home Video in France on December 20, 2013. This Blu-ray is locked to Region B and does not play on most North American Blu-ray players. In September 2019, Warner Archive announced a U.S. Blu-ray for The Fearless Vampire Killers. Released two months later, it utilizes a new 2019 HD re-master of Polanski's original cut, along with the extras from the DVD release and the addition of the U.S. animated prologue.

See also

 List of British films of 1967
 Vampire films

References

Bibliography

External links

 The Fearless Vampire Killers at the British Film Institute

 "The Fearless Vampire Killers: A Tale of Two Versions" DVD Savant
 "The Fearless Vampire Killers Retrospective by Scott Hutchins" Film Scope

1967 films
1967 comedy films
1967 horror films
1967 LGBT-related films
1960s American films
1960s British films
1960s comedy horror films
1960s English-language films
1960s supernatural horror films
American comedy horror films
American LGBT-related films
American supernatural comedy films
American supernatural horror films
American vampire films
British comedy horror films
British LGBT-related films
British supernatural horror films
British vampire films
Films adapted into plays
Films directed by Roman Polanski
Films scored by Krzysztof Komeda
Films set in castles
Films set in country houses
Films set in the 19th century
Films set in Transylvania
Films shot at Associated British Studios
Films shot at MGM-British Studios
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Films shot in Italy
Films with screenplays by Gérard Brach
Films with screenplays by Roman Polanski
Filmways films
LGBT-related comedy horror films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Vampire comedy films

The Fearless Vampire Killers


HMS Barfleur was a 90-gun second-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, designed by Sir Thomas Slade on the lines of the 100-gun ship Royal William, and launched at Chatham Dockyard on 30 July 1768, at a cost of £49,222. In about 1780, she had another eight guns added to her quarterdeck, making her a 98-gun ship; she possessed a crew of approximately 750. Her design class sisters were the , , and . She was a ship of long service and many battles.

In June 1773, King George III reviewed the British fleet at Spithead. Barfleur, under Captain Edward Vernon, was on this occasion the flagship of the fleet commander, Vice-Admiral Thomas Pye.

She distinguished herself as the flagship of Rear-Admiral Samuel Hood on the Leeward Islands station during the American War of Independence. Under Captain John Knight, she was flagship at the indecisive action of 28 April 1781 off Martinique against the French fleet of Rear-Admiral Comte de Grasse, at which Barfleur lost five men killed.

She next took part in the battles of the Chesapeake, St. Kitts and the Saintes. At the Battle of the Chesapeake on 5 September 1781, under Captain Alexander Hood (later Lord Bridport), she was again the flag of Samuel Hood, second in command to Rear-Admiral Thomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves. The battle was won against the French under de Grasse, which had a profound effect on the outcome of the American war.

She saw further action in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, taking part in Richard Howe's victory at the Glorious First of June as the flagship of Rear-Admiral (W) George Bowyer, with Captain Cuthbert Collingwood in 1794. In this battle she engaged the French  on 29 May and took a major part in the general action of 1 June, with a total loss of 9 killed and 25 wounded.

She later saw action under Lord Bridport at the Battle of Groix. In 1797 she was with Admiral Sir John Jervis at the Battle of Cape St Vincent.

In 1805, under Captain George Martin, she was part of the Channel Fleet. Her final battle was fought in a squadron under Admiral Sir Robert Calder at the Battle of Cape Finisterre on 22 July 1805 in the attack on the combined Franco-Spanish fleet off Ushant. The action was fought in heavy weather, part of the time in thick fog. The master and four others were killed and Lieutenant Peter Fisher and six others were wounded.

In 1807 under Captain Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke she served in the Channel Fleet. In 1808, under Capt. D. M'Cleod, she served as the flagship of Rear-Admiral Charles Tyler and was engaged in the blockade of Lisbon and the escort to Plymouth of the first division of the Russian squadron commanded by Vice-Admiral Dmitry Senyavin. In 1811, under Captain Sir Thomas Hardy, she was engaged in actions in support of the army under Lord Wellington at Lisbon.

After the conclusion of the Napoleonic wars, Barfleur spent some years in ordinary at Chatham, and was finally broken up there in January 1819.

Notes

References

Lavery, Brian (2003) The Ship of the Line - Volume 1: The development of the battlefleet 1650-1850. Conway Maritime Press. .
Michael Phillips. Barfleur (98) (1768). Michael Phillips' Ships of the Old Navy. Retrieved 31 August 2008.

External links

Ships of the line of the Royal Navy
Barfleur-class ships of the line
1768 ships

HMS Barfleur (1768)


A diaper (or nappy) is a piece of clothing. It is worn by those who cannot control their urine or feces.

Diapers can be made of cloth (usually cotton) that can be washed and used again. They can also be disposable (put in the garbage after they are used up). Disposable diapers are usually made of plastic or man-made (artificial) fibers and contain chemicals that are  very absorbent.

Diapers that can be washed must be folded in intricate ways (like origami) before being put on. With the disposable you must constantly buy new ones.

Viewed as unpleasant by some, diapers are mostly used by children from birth until the child has learned to use a toilet. They are also used by older people. There are adult diapers for people with medical problems.

In the United Kingdom, Australia and several other countries, a diaper is called a nappy.

Sometimes adults who do not have medical problems also wear diapers.  This can be for different reasons.  Sometimes it is because they have a profession where they cannot always get to a bathroom, like astronauts. Some adults wear diapers for fun. This is usually a form of sexual pleasure, or for emotional reasons.  These people are often called "diaper-lovers" or "adult-babies." The scientific term for liking to wear diapers is "Diaper Fetishists."

Underwear

Diaper


A diesel generator is a diesel-electric system, a diesel engine that powers a electrical generator to produce electricity. Diesel generators are located at places where there is no electricity supply from the electrical grid or for emergency supply if there is problem with the normal electricity supply.

Diesel generator is often referred as generator set or genset for short, which is a combination of diesel generator with its supporting equipment, such as base, canopy, control system, sound attenuation, circuit breaker, starting system, exhaust system, diesel fuel supply etc.

Electricity

Diesel generator


A sport is an organised, competitive, entertainin, an skilful activity requirin commitment, strategy, an fair play, in which a winner an loser can be defined bi objective means. Generally speakin, a sport is a gemme based in pheesical athleticism. Activities sic as buird gemmes an caird gemmes are whiles classifee'd as "mind sports," but strictly speakin "sport" bi itsel refers tae some pheesical activity. Non-competitive activities mey an aa qualify, for example tho joggin or playin catch are uisually clessifee'd as forms o recreation, thay mey an aa be informally cried "sports" due tae thair similarity tae competitive gemmes.

Sports are govrened bi a set o rules or customs. Pheesical events sic as scorin goals or crossin a line first aften define the result o a sport. Housomeivver, the degree o skill an performance in some sports sic as divin, dressage an feegur skeitchin is judged accordin tae well-defined criteria. This is in contrast wi ither judged activities sic as beauty pageants an body biggin, whaur skill daes no hae tae be shawn an the criteria are no as well defined.

Records are kept an updatit for maist sports at the heichest levels, while failurs an accomplishments are widely annoonced in sport news. Sports are maist aften played juist for fun or for the semple fact that fowk need exercise tae stay in guid pheesical condeetion. Housomeivver, professional sport is a major soorce o entertainnment.

Sport


Staple may mean:
 Staple (fastener), a small piece of metal used to hold sheets of material or wires together
 Staple food, a food that is the basic part of a diet. This meaning is often used to cover other areas besides food (A rollercoaster is a theme park staple).
 Staple (textiles) is the raw material, or its length and quality, of fibre from which textiles are made. It is the material in its standard form as a traded commodity.
 The Staple Singers, a United States gospel, soul, and R&B singing group.
 Staple (band), a Christian post-hardcore band.
 STAPLE!, a convention for creators of comics, minicomics, and other independent media

Places
 A staple port was one in which trade in specified goods was regulated. The term is a medieval one. Normally the king licensed a particular group of merchants to trade in the commodity, in an area such as his kingdom and their trading had to be done in the staple town or port.
 The staple was the staple port where wool exports were traded. From 1363 to 1558, this was at Calais.
 Staple, Nord (pronunciation: stohpl) is a commune in the Nord département of France. This is the name in its Flemish form.
 Étaples, Pas-de-Calais, is another place in which the word appears but in its French form.
 Staple, Kent is a village in Kent, England near Sandwich.

Staple


A varve is a pattern in sediment which is made by annual processes (deposits which vary during the year). Varves are amongst the smallest-scale events in stratigraphy. They form only in fresh or brackish water. Varves are important in palynology, and can be fossilized as rhythmites.

The classic varve archetype is a light/dark-coloured couplet deposited in a glacial lake. The light layer is usually silt and fine sand deposited when spring meltwater brings sediment into the lake.

During winter, when meltwater and its sediment is reduced and the lake surface freezes, fine clay-size sediment is deposited forming a dark-coloured layer.

Varve formation needs the absence of bioturbation (lake bottom disturbed by animals). Therefore, varves usually form under anoxic conditions.

Geology

Varve


Heather "Aslyn" Mitchell Nash (born September 21, 1980) is an American pop singer and songwriter from Atlanta, Georgia. She released two full-length albums, Lemon Love and The Dandelion Sessions, as well as a 4-disc EP. She is also the sister of three members of the band Georgia.

Early years
Aslyn was born in west Florida and raised in Chiefland, Florida, outside of Gainesville.  At the age of seven, she began taking piano lesson Immediately submersing herself into the music scene, she did everything she could to gain exposure to live performing: entering talent contests, singing at weddings, and performing at church.

Upon graduating from high school, Aslyn attended Carson-Newman College in Jefferson City, Tennessee and received her college degree. She then followed her dream of performing, which led her to Atlanta, Georgia, where she lived on various people's couches for a while as she performed throughout the town.

During this phase in her life, Aslyn purchased her first car with saved money. She referred to this car as a "lemon", and it eventually inspired the title track of her debut album, "Lemon Love". She briefly dated Butch Walker, mentioning him in her song "Golden" as "Number Five."

Musical career
While performing on a nightly basis, Aslyn began to immerse herself in many different genres of music.  Many artists influenced her including Stevie Wonder, The Beatles, Earth Wind & Fire, and Queen.

Beginning in 2002, Aslyn began to compose many of the songs that would be the basis for Lemon Love. Record companies in Los Angeles began to show interest in Aslyn's music, inspiring her to begin searching for a record label.

Aslyn performed a very personal song for Capitol Records entitled "493–1023" which speaks about her father's job loss and ensuing loss of family stability.  Upon hearing the song, the record label signed her immediately.

While preparing to record and write the songs for her debut CD, Aslyn requested to work with producer Guy Chambers.  She had become interested in Chambers' work after hearing the heavily European sound on many of Robbie Williams' albums. Chambers produced eight of the twelve tracks on Lemon Love.  For the remaining four, Aslyn worked with a California-based producer, Eric Valentine.

Two singles were released off the album: "Be the Girl" and "Gotta Get Over You". The first single that peaked at #35 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. Aslyn's sound as a performer has been classified as more of an "independent pop/alternative singer". Her single "Be the Girl" was featured in an episode of Laguna Beach: The Real Orange County on MTV."Be the Girl" also got featured in the "Bratz: Rock Angelz" video game.

After the release of her album, Aslyn began to tour the United States which such headliners as Ryan Cabrera, Better Than Ezra, Gavin DeGraw, The Click Five, and Chris Isaak. The album peaked at #36 on the Billboard Top Heatseeker chart.

In January 2008, Aslyn released an EP entitled The Grand Garden EP. The EP features 27 songs divided up into four parts or phases, most of which were recorded between Lemon Love and The Dandelion Sessions. The following year, she toured with Toby Lightman.

Her second album, The Dandelion Sessions, was released on August 1, 2009 on iTunes.
Aslyn also performed at the benefit Zac Brown Band and Friends Concert on October 30, 2009 to help raise money for Athens' historic Georgia Theatre which burned down four months earlier on June 19.

In 2011, Aslyn released a live album Five Live on digital services on February 14. The physical version of the release was made available on May 14, 2012 through Amazon's Burn-On-Demand service.

Aslyn joined singing on the Get $leazy tour with Kesha in 2011 in addition to also appearing on an episode of Victorious with the band.

Later that year, Aslyn contributed vocals and co-wrote some songs on Kalen Nash's Ukred album which was released in 2012.

Aslyn formed the duo DEGA with her husband, Kalen Nash in 2013. They are currently touring festivals and select tour dates. Their debut album DEGA is set for release in 2017.

Personal life
Aslyn married musician Kalen Nash on October 15, 2011. Her brothers were in a country rock band called 'Georgia'. They were signed with Atlantic Records from 2007 to 2010.

Discography

Albums

Singles

EPs
2008: The Grand Garden EP

Tours
2017
Spring Tour(with Washed Out)
2012
Cayamo 2012
2011
Get $leazywith Kesha
2010
Summer Tour
Western Tourwith Toby Lightman
2009
Cayamo 2009
2008
The Rock Boat VIII
2007
The Rock Boat VII
2006
The Rock Boat VI
2005
House of Blues Tourwith special guest, Ryan Cabrera
University Tourwith special guest, Gavin DeGraw
Ride the Wave Tourwith special guest, The Click Five

References

External links

Official site

American women pop singers
American women singer-songwriters
American pop pianists
American women pianists
Carson–Newman University alumni
Capitol Records artists
Singer-songwriters from Florida
Living people
American rock pianists
1980 births
People from Levy County, Florida
21st-century American women singers
21st-century American singer-songwriters
21st-century American pianists

Aslyn


Darius Milhaud (pronounced "DAR-yus MEE-oh") (born Marseille, 4 September 1892; died Geneva 22 June 1974) was a French composer. He was a member of the group called Les Six. He is one of the most important French composers of the 20th century. He wrote more than 400 compositions. His music is often influenced by jazz and polytonality (music in more than one key at once).

Life

Milhaud's family were Jewish. He grew up in Aix-en-Provence. His father was an almond dealer. When he was very small he often listened to the songs that were being sung by the women who were sorting out the nuts. They were folksongs from the Provence. When he was a young man he liked to go for walks in the Provence country. This was an important part of his life.

Milhaud's parents liked music. His father was a pianist and often played at local music gatherings. His mother had a nice contralto voice. When he was seven he learned to play the violin. He loved the music of Claude Debussy, whom he met once.

Milhaud studied in Paris at the Paris Conservatory where he met Arthur Honegger and Germaine Tailleferre who were also to become members of Les Six. He studied composition under Charles-Marie Widor and harmony and counterpoint with André Gédalge. He also studied privately with Vincent d'Indy. He taught himself to play the piano. In Paris he was able to listen to music by a lot of great composers.

He was terribly sad when a close friend was killed in World War I. He decided to go to Brazil. He worked there for nearly two years, deciphering codes. He liked the sounds of the jungle. These sounds were to have an impact on his music. The other great influence was jazz, which he heard in 1922 in New York.

Milhaud returned to France and worked very hard. He often travelled. In 1940 he had to emigrate to the United States because the Nazis were arresting Jewish musicians. In America he gave lectures.

His health became poor. He had rheumatoid arthritis for nearly all his adult life, and by 1948 he was in a wheelchair. He still continued to travel, and to teach, for as long as possible. Probably his most famous student was Dave Brubeck.

In 1925 Milhaud married his cousin, an actress called Madeleine Milhaud. She often performed speaking parts in her husband's musical works. In his final years, she devoted herself to looking after him. She died in Paris on 17 January 2008 at the age of 105.

His works

Milhaud's most popular works include Le Boeuf sur le Toit (ballet), La création du monde (a ballet for small orchestra with solo saxophone, influenced by jazz), Scaramouche (for Saxophone and Orchestra, also for two pianos), and Saudades do Brazil (dance suite). His autobiography is called Notes Sans Musique (Notes Without Music), later rewritten as Ma Vie Heureuse (My Happy Life).

References
 Groves Dictionary online

1892 births
1974 deaths

20th-century French composers
French autobiographers
People from Aix-en-Provence

Darius Milhaud


The Masked Marauder is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He briefly served as the central villain of the Daredevil title.

Publication history
The Masked Marauder first appeared in Daredevil #16-19 (May-Aug. 1966), and was created by Stan Lee, John Romita Sr., and Frank Giacoia.

The character subsequently appears in Daredevil #22-23 (Nov.-Dec. 1966), #26-27 (March–April 1967), Iron Man #60-61 (July-Aug. 1973, Werewolf by Night #42-43 (Jan., March 1977), and Peter Parker, the Spectacular Spider-Man #25-28 (Dec. 1978-March 1979). The character appears again many years later in Punisher War Journal #4 (April 2007).

The Masked Marauder received an entry in the All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A to Z: Update #3 (2007).

Fictional character biography

Versus Daredevil
Frank Farnum was the manager of the Manhattan building in which the law offices of Nelson and Murdock reside. How and why he became the Masked Marauder has never been revealed. He first appeared as an already successful crime leader with men, money, and resources at his command.

The Masked Marauder first came to the public's attention in a confrontation with Spider-Man; Spider-Man foiled his plans, but the Marauder himself escaped. He later clashed with Spider-Man again, with the same result, when he launched a big attack on the World Motors Building in order to steal a new auto engine design, the XB-390, intending to modify it into a weapon.

In order to prevent Spider-Man from stopping him a third time, he ordered a half dozen of his men to impersonate Daredevil and attack Spider-Man, hoping to draw the two superheroes into conflict. When he heard of a fight between Spider-Man and Daredevil through a live news broadcast, he executed a fresh assault on the World Motors Building and stole the XB-390. However, J. Jonah Jameson set a trap by announcing the XB-390 is useless without the formula for fueling it. Falling for the deception, the Masked Marauder attacked the World Motors Building again, and his plans were yet again foiled by Spider-Man. Enraged, he defeated Spider-Man and tried to kill him, but was stopped by Daredevil. Once again, all of his men were captured. While fleeing the scene he overheard Foggy Nelson, a lawyer working out of an office in his building, insinuating to Karen Page that he is really Daredevil. Days later, he noticed Page going into the law office late one evening; his suspicious aroused, he confronted her in his civilian identity in the hope she would let slip some of Nelson's secrets (due to an editorial oversight, he is referred to as "Mr. Dunn" in this scene). However, Page gave nothing away and collapsed into a faint during their conversation. During this time he employed Nelson to draw up new leases for his building; it is never revealed if this was genuinely a matter of business, or an excuse to more closely study the man that he believed to be Daredevil.

Taking on new men, culled from the New York City underworld, the Marauder arranged to have the Gladiator sprung from prison. He intended to use him as glorified muscle, but the Gladiator proved very hard to tame, and the Marauder was forced to take him on as his partner. Meanwhile, he ordered his men to attack Foggy Nelson in his office. Though they failed, their attack revealed that Nelson was not in fact Daredevil. With the Gladiator, he hatched a plan to take over the Maggia by publicly defeating Daredevil, and sent an android called the Tri-Man against him. When this failed, he transported the Gladiator and Daredevil into a Colosseum movie set controlled by the Maggia. However, the Gladiator refused to continue fighting Daredevil after he saved him from the arena's lions. Bemused by his repeated failures, the Maggia told the Masked Marauder they "wouldn't even want you for a mascot".

Still convinced there is some connection between Nelson and Daredevil, the Marauder teamed up with the Stilt-Man and kidnapped Nelson, his partner Matt Murdock (Daredevil's alter ego), and Karen Page, holding them captive in a helicopter surrounded by a force field that disintegrates anything it comes in contact with. Murdock told them Daredevil is his twin brother Mike and, while Stilt-Man searched for the non-existent Mike, changed into his costume. He fought the Marauder and unintentionally knocked him into the lethal force field.

Battling other heroes
The Masked Marauder was presumed dead until he re-appeared in Detroit some years later. He revealed that his force field disintegrator was actually a teleportation device that allowed him to escape and start over again elsewhere. With his henchmen Steele and Hacker, he stole Tony Stark's experimental space shuttle and ran afoul of Iron Man, who defeated him.

Later, the Marauder again encountered Iron Man along with Jack Russell, the Werewolf by Night. His plans (with his new henchmen Pardee, Creach, and Strenk) involved creating the Tri-Animan (an android created by the merging of three animals instead of three men) to aid in his revenge against the Maggia. He failed.

When the Marauder next appeared, he had somehow become Big M, the leader of the Nefaria "family" of the Maggia. In battle with Spider-Man and Daredevil, he "permanently" blinded the web-slinger and threatened New York with his "bombdroid", a Tri-Man carrying a nuclear device. As a blinded Spider-Man succeeded in defusing the bomb, Daredevil defeated the Marauder.

Post-Civil War
The Masked Marauder, along with a number of low-level supervillains, was attending a viewing/funeral/barroom brawl for the Stilt-Man (killed by the Punisher), when the Punisher (posing as a bartender) poisoned their drinks before blowing the bar up. They all had to get their stomachs pumped and be treated for third-degree burns.

Secret Invasion
During the Secret Invasion storyline, the Masked Marauder was seen helping the Hood fight the Skrulls.

Powers and abilities
The Masked Marauder is a costumed criminal scientist whose helmet projects "opti-blasts" which can temporarily or permanently blind a victim. He is an engineering genius, and his inventions include the Tri-Man, the Tri-Animan, the Bombdroid, a truck with a "hydraulic hoist", a helicopter with a force field, and a teleportation device which can affect even unwitting targets who are far away. He also has modest training in the martial arts.

His planning abilities and knack for inspiring trust have allowed him to command well-trained teams of henchmen. However, his plans are often spoiled by his mental quirks. He suffers from obsessive–compulsive personality disorder and insists that his men execute his plans according to timetables that schedule each step down to the second. Even a few seconds' deviation from one of his timetables causes him to become extremely agitated. He is also excessively arrogant, and always assumes that his opponents will be rendered completely helpless by his opti-blasts, despite being repeatedly proven wrong on this point.

Notes

References

External links
 Masked Marauder at Marvel Wiki
 Masked Marauder at Comic Vine

Characters created by John Romita Sr.
Characters created by Stan Lee
Comics characters introduced in 1966
Fictional gangsters
Fictional inventors
Marvel Comics male supervillains
Marvel Comics martial artists
Marvel Comics supervillains

Masked Marauder


is a judo kata that focuses on counter-attacks to throwing techniques.  It is not an officially recognized kata of judo, but its importance is attested to by its inclusion in Kawaishi's The complete seven katas of judo.  Writing in the early post-war period, Kawaishi described the kata as being practiced less in Japan than in Europe.

However, according to recent scholarly research, gonosen-no-kata likely never even existed in Japan. After Japanese judoka from Waseda University in Tokyo visited England in the 1920s and publicly demonstrated several counter-techniques developed at their home University, the exercises were henceforth in Britain (and later in France and other parts of Europe) represented as a formalized kata and practiced and taught that way by Kawaishi Mikinosuke, Koizumi Gunji, Ōtani Masutarō, and Tani Yukio.

Techniques
O soto Gari countered by O soto Gari
Hiza Guruma countered by Hiza Guruma
O uchi Gari countered by okuri ashi barai
De ashi Harai countered by De Ashi Barai
Ko soto Gake countered by Tai Otoshi
Ko uchi Gari countered by Sasae Tsurikomi Ashi
Kubi Nage / Tsuri goshi countered by Ushiro Goshi
Koshi Guruma countered by Uki Goshi
Hane Goshi countered by Sasae Tsurikomi Ashi
Harai Goshi countered by Utsuri Goshi
Uchi Mata countered by Te guruma
Seoi Nage countered by Sumi Gaeshi

External links

 Video of the Go no sen no kata at the JudoInfo.com web site.

References

Judo kata

Go-no-sen-no-kata


President Lincoln and Soldiers' Home National Monument, sometimes shortened to President Lincoln's Cottage, is a national monument on the grounds of the Soldiers' Home, known today as the Armed Forces Retirement Home. It is located near the Petworth and Park View neighborhoods of Washington, D.C. President Lincoln's Cottage was formerly known as Anderson Cottage.

President Abraham Lincoln and family resided seasonally on the grounds of the Soldiers' Home to escape the heat and political pressure of downtown Washington, as did President James Buchanan (1857–1861) before him. President Lincoln's Cottage also served as the Summer White House for Presidents Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–1881) and Chester A. Arthur (1881–1885).

History
The historic Cottage, built in the Gothic revival style, was constructed from 1842 to 1843 as the home of George Washington Riggs, who went on to establish the Riggs National Bank in Washington, D.C.  Lincoln lived in the cottage June to November 1862 through 1864 and during the first summer living there, Lincoln drafted the preliminary draft of the Emancipation Proclamation. Mary Todd Lincoln fondly recalled the campus; in 1865, she wrote, "How dearly I loved the Soldiers' Home."

Poet Walt Whitman, who was living on Vermont Avenue near the White House in 1863, often saw the president riding to or from Soldiers' Home. He wrote in The New York Times, "Mr. LINCOLN generally rides a good-sized easy-going gray horse, is dressed in plain black, somewhat rusty and dusty; wears a black stiff hat, and looks about as ordinary in attire, &c., as the commonest man...I saw very plainly the President's dark brown face, with the deep cut lines, the eyes, &c., always to me with a deep latent sadness in the expression." Whitman quoted this article in his 1876 book Memoranda During the War, adding the phrase: "We have got so that we always exchange bows, and very cordial ones."

The Soldiers' Home stands on  atop the third highest point in Washington. The Home was designated a National Historic Landmark on November 7, 1973, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 11, 1974. In 2000, the cottage was placed on the National Trust for Historic Preservation's 11 Most Endangered list. Then about 2.3 acres (9,300 m2) of the Home was proclaimed a National Monument by President Bill Clinton on July 7, 2000. The National Trust took on the restoration which was completed in 2007. The Cottage exterior was restored to the period of Lincoln's occupancy in the 1860s in a joint venture by  the Philadelphia firm J. S. Cornell & Son, and  Stephen Ortado, Historic Structures, according to the standards of the National Park Service. Today the property is leased by the National Trust for Historic Preservation through a cooperative agreement with the Armed Forces Retirement Home; and is managed by President Lincoln's Cottage at the Soldiers' Home, an independent 501(c)(3) charity.

President Lincoln's Cottage opened to the public on February 18, 2008. A reproduction of the Lincoln desk on which he wrote the Emancipation Proclamation was commissioned by the Trust for use in the Cottage. The original drop-lid walnut paneled desk is in the Lincoln Bedroom of the White House. The desk is the only surviving piece of furniture that is known to have been placed in the White House and the Cottage during the Lincoln era.

The adjacent Robert H. Smith Visitor Education Center features exhibits about the Soldiers' Home, wartime Washington, D.C., Lincoln as Commander-in-Chief during the Civil War, and a special exhibit gallery. President Lincoln's Cottage and Visitor Education Center is open to the public for tours seven days a week.

See also
 United States Soldiers' and Airmen's Home National Cemetery
 150th Pennsylvania Infantry
 List of national monuments of the United States

References

 Preservation Vol 59, Number 1, Jan/Feb 2007, page 6

External links

 Official website: President Lincoln's Cottage at the Soldiers' Home
 Armed Forces Retirement Home: Washington, D.C.
 National Trust: President Lincoln and Soldiers' Home National Monument
 Presidential Proclamation 7329 of July 7, 2000
 National Historic Landmark information
  Aerial view of exterior restoration of Lincoln Cottage at the Soldiers' Home
 Letters from Mary Todd Lincoln
 The Shot Through Abraham Lincoln's Hat

Booknotes interview with Matthew Pinsker on Lincoln's Sanctuary: Abraham Lincoln and the Soldiers' Home, December 21, 2003.
J.S. Cornell & Son

2000 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Monuments and memorials to Abraham Lincoln in the United States
Gothic Revival architecture in Washington, D.C.
Historic house museums in Washington, D.C.
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.
Monuments and memorials in Washington, D.C.
National Monuments in Washington, D.C.
Presidential museums in Washington, D.C.
Protected areas established in 2000
National Trust for Historic Preservation