The Cold War (1947 - 1991) was the tense fighting between the United States and its allies and the Soviet Union (also called the USSR) and its allies between the end of World War II and the fall of the Soviet Union. It is called the "Cold" War because the Americans and the Soviet Union never actually fought each other directly. Instead, they attacked each other in conflicts known as proxy wars in which powerful countries fight a foreign war but do not send their own troops. Both sides built large militaries with many new weapons and advanced technology. They spied on each other and threatened each other.

Conflicting countries
Most of the countries on one side were allied by NATO, whose most powerful country was the United States. Most of the countries on the other side were allied by the Warsaw Pact, whose most powerful country was the Soviet Union.

The Western Bloc was the name of the capitalist countries led by the United States. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an alliance created in 1949 and included the United States, the United Kingdom, France, West Germany,Canada, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Greece, and Turkey. Other countries allied with the Western Bloc include Israel, Brazil, South Korea, Kenya (1960-1991), Bangladesh (1964-1968), Pakistan, North Yemen, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Philippines, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

The Eastern Bloc was the group of socialist countries led by the Soviet Union. The Warsaw Pact was an alliance created in 1955 and included the USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. Other countries allied with the Eastern Bloc included Angola (1975–1991), Cuba, Bolivia, Cambodia(1977–1979), South Yemen, Tunisia, Nepal, Libya (1974–1991), Mongolia, Jamaica, North Korea, China and Laos (1975–1991).

Background
In February 1917, Tsar Nicholas II of the Russian Empire was overthrown because people were unhappy with their living conditions (like being a serf), especially during World War I. The new government in Russia was a democratic socialist government. Unfortunately, it was ineffective, and people were still unhappy. In November 1917, a communist group called the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the new government and were supported by groups of workers called Soviets. The Bolsheviks created a new communist government called the Russian Soviet Federation Socialist Republic (also called simply Soviet Russia or the Russian SFSR).

However, not everyone supported the communists. Many countries that had been part of the Russian Empire had left, such as Belarus, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The Russian Civil War began, with the Soviet Russian Red Army fighting against the White Army of anticommunist Russians. The White Army was not very united or organized. The Allied Powers of World War I, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, invaded Russia to support the White Army and stop the Red Army. The Red Army eventually won the war in 1922, and established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (also called the Soviet Union), along with the newly formed Socialist Republics of Ukrainian SSR, Armenian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR and Georgian SSR.

World War Two
The start of the Cold War in 1947 was caused by a belief that all governments would become either communist or capitalist. The Western Allies feared that the Soviet Union would spread communism to the rest of Europe and was very concerned that Soviet agents had learnt how to make atomic bombs after the war.

Both nations had opposed Nazi Germany although the United States worked with Nazi scientists and Soviet Union had chosen not to fight with Germany in the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact and the two occupied Poland in 1939. However, Germany turned against the Soviet Union in June 1941 and invaded it during Operation Barbarossa.

After World War II

After World War II, Germany was left in ruins. The victorious Allies that occupied it split it into four parts. in the western half of Germany, one part was given to the United States, one to the United Kingdom, and one to France. The eastern half was occupied by the USSR. The city of Berlin was also split among the four countries even though it was entirely within the eastern half.

The Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland or BRD), or West Germany, was recognized by the Western Allies in June 1949 and was a capitalist democracy. West Berlin was considered a part of the country. The Soviets named their section of Germany the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik or DDR), or East Germany, later in 1949; it was a communist dictatorship.

From April 1948 to May 1949, the Soviets blockaded West Berlin to prevent the city from using West Germany's currency. The United States and its allies supplied the city by airplanes until September 1949 in what became known as the Berlin Airlift. Many East Germans wanted to live in West Germany for having greater quality of life and political freedom. In 1961, the East German government built the Berlin Wall, dividing the two halves of the city, and heavily guarded it to prevent more people from escaping to the west. The wall was considered a symbol of the Cold War and the Iron Curtain that divided Europe.

Khrushchev era (1953 - 1964)

Espionage, or "spying," has been around for a long time and was very important during the Cold War. After its successful nuclear espionage in the Manhattan Project, the Soviets created their spy organs, especially the KGB. The CIA led Americans efforts abroad, and the FBI led counterespionage. Catching foreign spies and fighting domestic subversion were KGB functions.

In 1953, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin died, and Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev took his place. Khrushchev later took sole control of the Soviet Union. Khrushchev's Secret Speech marked a period of de-Stalinization, and Khrushchev tried to undo many of the things done by Stalin (such as the Gulag prisons and Stalin's cult of personality).

In the United States, there was a "Red Scare", and when the Soviets detonated their own atom bomb, there was a big political fallout and the United States government made everybody scared about communists. Famous people in many fields who had been Communist sympathizers in the past like Larry Adler lost their positions. Many actors were 'blacklisted' and so were not hired to act in movies, which ruined their careers. US Senator Joseph McCarthy was believed by many when he accused some important Americans of being communists, including some high government officials.

The 1950s were the beginning of the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union. It began when the Soviets put the first satellite, Sputnik 1, into orbit around Earth. They were the first country to send a vehicle into space. The United States responded by starting NASA and soon sent up its own satellites. The Soviets also sent the first man (Yuri Gagarin) into Earth orbit and claimed that proved communism to be the better ideology.

In the 1950s, the United States (under President Dwight Eisenhower) created a policy called "New Look" to cut defense spending and to increase the number of nuclear weapons as a deterrent in order to prevent the Soviet Union from attacking the West. The Soviets also increased their nuclear force, which resulted in mutual assured destruction.

In the Suez Crisis of 1956, the Cold War alliances were broken in an important way for the first time with the Soviet Union and United States favoring one side and Britain and France the other. The Western Allies also decided to let Soviet troops suppress the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.

US vice-president Richard Nixon engaged in several talks with Khrushchev during the 1950s. One of these was the 1959 "Kitchen Debate" in a model kitchen in Moscow. The debates highlighted the political and economic differences between the Americans and the Soviets. The following year, the United States U-2 spy plane crashed in the Soviet Union. Tensions between the two countries increased.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

After the United States had invaded Cuba and failed in the Bay of Pigs, the Soviet Union attempted to supply Cuba with nuclear missiles. The missiles in Cuba would have allowed the Soviet Union to target almost the entire United States effectively. In response the United States sent a large number of ships to blockade Cuba to prevent the Soviet Union from sharing the weapons. The United States and Soviet Union agreed that the Soviet Union would no longer give nuclear weapons to Cuba if the United States didn't invade Cuba again. That was the highest period of tension during the Cold War and was the closest the world came to a nuclear war, with possible global conflict to follow.

Détente (1962–1981)

After the agreement that ended the Cuban Missile Crisis, relations between both sides eased up. Several treaties, designed to reduce the number of nuclear weapons, were signed. In 1964, the US under President Lyndon Johnson invaded North Vietnam, which resulted in a humiliating defeat for the Americans and South Vietnam in 1975. During this period of détente, the United States began building a good relationship with the People's Republic of China, which had once been an ally of the Soviet Union.

End of the Cold War (1981 - 1991)

The policy of détente ended in 1981, when US President Ronald Reagan ordered a massive military build-up to challenge Soviet influence around the world. The United States began to support anti-communists all over the world with money and weapons. The idea was to help them overthrow their communist governments.

The Soviets had a slow economy during this decade because military spending was at an all-time high. They tried to keep up with the United States in military spending but could not do so. In the Soviet war in Afghanistan, which started in 1979, the Soviets had a difficult time fighting resistance groups, with some of them armed and trained by the United States. The Soviets' failed invasion of Afghanistan is often compared to the American failure during the Vietnam War.

In the late 1980s, the new Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, made an effort to make an ally of the United States to fix world problems caused by the war, with the ultimate aim of eliminating nuclear weapons. However, that did not take place because Reagan insisted on having a nuclear missile defence system. The people of the Soviet Union were divided. Some wanted Gorbachev to fight harder to eliminate nuclear weapons, but others did not want him to be talking to the United States at all. The mixed feelings created an atmosphere of political infighting, and the people were no longer united behind one goal. Also, the Communist Party started to crumble.

After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and without communist rule holding together the countries that comprised the Soviet Union, it was divided into smaller countries in 1991 like Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania and Georgia. Eastern Europe got very poor and broken and returned to capitalism. The Cold War was over.

Not all historians agree on when the Cold War ended. Some think it ended when the Berlin Wall fell, but others think it ended when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991.

References

Other websites

 Cold War -Citizendium

Cold War

Cold War


Salyan is a raion o Azerbaijan. Its caipital is Salyan. It lays adjacent tae the Kura River. Tae the north are several productive ilefields (Kursenge, beside the prominent mud volcano o the same name, an Karabaghli, a few km NW) operatit (in 2001) bi the Salyan Oil company. It comprises maist o the Shirvan Naitional Pairk an aw.

Destricts o Azerbaijan
Salyan, Azerbaijan

Salyan Rayon


In electronics, a split-pi topology is a pattern of component interconnections used in a kind of power converter that can theoretically produce an arbitrary output voltage, either higher or lower than the input voltage. In practice the upper voltage output is limited to the voltage rating of components used. It is essentially a boost (step-up) converter followed by a buck (step-down) converter. The topology and use of MOSFETs make it inherently bi-directional which lends itself to applications requiring regenerative braking.

The split-pi converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter that has an output voltage magnitude either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. It is a switched-mode power supply with a similar circuit configuration to a boost converter followed by a buck converter. Split-pi gets its name from the pi circuit due to the use of two pi filters in series and split with the switching MOSFET bridges.

Other DC–DC converter topologies that can produce output voltage magnitude either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude include the boost-buck converter topologies (the split-pi, the Ćuk converter, the SEPIC, etc.) and the buck–boost converter topologies.

Principle of operation
In typical operation where a source voltage is located at the left-hand side input terminals, the left-hand bridge operates as a boost converter and the right-hand bridge operates as a buck converter. In regenerative mode, the reverse is true with the left-hand bridge operating as a buck converter and the right as the boost converter.

Only one bridge switches at any time to provide voltage conversion, with the unswitched bridge's top switch always switched on. A straight through 1:1 voltage output is achieved with the top switch of each bridge switch on and the bottom switches off. The output voltage is adjustable based on the duty cycle of the switching MOSFET bridge.

Applications
 Electric drivetrain
 Motor control
 Battery balancing
 Regenerative braking

References
 British Patent GB2376357B - Power converter and method for power conversion

DC-to-DC converters
Voltage regulation

Split-pi topology


The Green Revolution was a spread of technology by Norman Borlaug, who earned the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 and is held to have saved over a billion people from starving to death, from the 1930s to the 1960s. It was made up of the creation of different types of cereal grains that grew more food than average, more use of modern systems for watering crops, making management more modern, and the spread of hybridized seeds, man-made fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.

Background
In the 20th century, big spending in modern and scientific research for agriculture led to the growth of more food in industrial countries. The Rockefeller Foundation and Ford Foundation helped to change these scientific technologies to fit the conditions in developing countries. The first research was on rice and wheat, two of the most important food crops for developing countries. Irrigation and the growth of better plant types, in addition to more use of fertilizers and pesticides, led to more food growth in Asia and Latin America, starting in the late 1960s. The term "Green Revolution" was used to mean the large growth in agriculture that happened at this time.

References

Environment
Agriculture

Green Revolution


Autonomous regions of China are areas with very large numbers of ethnic minorities living in them. Their local government is similar to a province, but unlike provinces, minority languages are often co-official alongside the Chinese language, and some laws are written to meet the needs of the minority groups. China's five autonomous regions are the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (East Turkestan), and the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. Their shortened names are Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, Xinjiang, and Ningxia respectively. The largest minority group in each region are the Zhuang, the Mongol, the Tibetan, the Uighur, and the Hui people respectively.

Autonomous regions of China

Autonomous regions of China


Nozomi trains are the fastest Shinkansen "bullet" trains in Japan. They can reach Osaka from Tokyo in two and a half hours. The trains are called "bullet" trains because they travel so fast, like a bullet from a gun. These trains have speeds of up to .

The second fastest Shinkansen trains is the Hikari train.  The third fastest Shinkansen train is the Kodama train. In the Japanese language, "Nozomi" means hope, "Hikari" means light and "Kodama" means "echo."

"Shinkansen" means "New Trunk Line" in Japanese because it was built with all new bridges, tunnels through mountains and under water, and special tracks for high speed trains so it could go directly (straight) from city to city. Before the Shinkansen, trains in Japan were slower because they were old and had to go around many mountains, or share the track with cars on road crossings.

Rapid transit systems
Shinkansen

Nozomi (Shinkansen)


A yew is a coniferous tree. The name is mainly used for species of the genus Taxus, and sometimes for other conifers in the family Taxaceae.

Poison
All species of yew contain highly poisonous alkaloids known as taxanes. All parts of the tree except the arils (red 'fruits') contain the alkaloid.

The arils are edible and sweet, but the seeds are dangerously poisonous. Unlike birds, the human stomach can break down the seed coat and release the taxanes into the body. It can have fatal results if yew 'berries' are eaten without removing the seeds first.

The seeds and leaves will kill cattle and horses, but deer can break down the poisons and will eat yew foliage freely. Deer browsing of yews is often so extensive that wild yew trees are restricted to cliffs and steep slopes the deer cannot get to. The foliage is also eaten by the larvae of some Lepidopteran insects including the willow beauty moth.

Description
Yews are slow growing and can be very long-lived, and reach heights of 1-40 m, with trunk diameters of up to 4 m. They have reddish bark, spear-shaped flat, dark-green leaves 1-4 cm long and 2-3 mm broad, arranged spirally on the stem, but with the leaf bases twisted to align the leaves in two flat rows either side of the stem.

The tree is dioecious: the sexes are on separate trees. The seed cones are highly modified, each cone containing a single seed 4-7 mm long partly surrounded by a modified scale which develops into a soft, bright red berry-like structure called an aril, 8-15 mm long and wide and open at the end.

The arils are mature 6-9 months after pollination, and are eaten by thrushes, waxwings and other birds, which disperse the hard seeds undamaged in their droppings.

The male cones are round, 3-6 mm diameter, and shed their pollen in early spring. Yews are mostly dioecious, but occasional individuals can be variably monoecious, or change sex with time.

All the yews are very closely related to each other, and often described together as Taxus baccata. They are Gymnosperms in the Pinophyta. They appear in the early Cretaceous  period.

Yew wood is reddish brown (with whiter sapwood), and is very springy. It was traditionally used to make bows, especially the longbow.

Conifers
Plant families

Yew


Cardcaptor Sakura is a Canadian Children's Television and manga series on Nickelodeon. It is also an anime series. Cardcaptor Sakura is sometimes abbreviated as CCS.

Cardcaptor Sakura was created in 1996 by a team of artists named CLAMP. CLAMP has created many other series, but Cardcaptor Sakura is one of the most popular. The manga was first published in Nakayoshi from 1996 to 2000. The story is about Sakura Kinomoto, a middle school student who accidentally frees a deck of magical cards from a book hidden in her father's study. The book's guard, Keroberos, gives Sakura the task to find and capture the troublemaking cards. The series focuses on themes of love and family, Sakura and her friends, and their different relationships.

The anime aired on Japanese television from 1998 to 2000, changing parts of the manga's story and introducing new characters, and has two films as well. The English version of the anime was licensed by Nelvana, renamed Cardcaptors, and the story was changed a lot to suit an American audience.

Story
Ten-year old Sakura Kinomoto is an athletic girl in middle school. She finds a strange book, named the Clow Book, in her father's study. She finds the Clow Cards inside. She learns the cards are magical, accidentally setting them free when she calls the name of the Windy Card. The book's guardian, Kero, gives Sakura the task of finding and capturing the cards, using the Clow Wand to seal them in their card forms. Sakura is helped by her best friend Tomoyo Daidouji, who designs Sakura's battle costumes and records her adventures on a video camera. Sakura meets Syaoran Li, a boy of her age and a relative of the Clow Cards' creator Clow Reed. Syaoran wants to capture the cards himself, becoming Sakura's rival, though they later become friends. The two capture all of the cards between them, but have to face the second guardian of the Clow Cards, Yue, to decide who will become the new master of the cards. Yue is revealed to be the true form of Yukito Tsukishiro, the friend of Sakura's older brother Toya. Sakura defeats Yue and becomes the new owner of the Clow Cards.

Eriol Hiiragizawa, a student from England, arrives in Sakura's town and begins causing magical troubles around town. Sakura learns she has to transform the cards into Sakura Cards to continue using their magic or they would become normal cards. Eriol is revealed to be a reborn Clow Reed, and after tasking Sakura with one last challenge, all of the cards are successfully transformed. Syaoran, who fell in love with Sakura, confesses to her, who comes to love him in return. Syaoran returns home to Hong Kong but returns two years later to be with Sakura.

Characters
The characters' Japanese names are followed by their English names.

Media
Cardcaptor Sakura is shown in many countries around the world. CCS is popular, because it is very cute. There are many posters and many toys about CCS.

Anime series based on manga

Cardcaptor Sakura


Habitat II, the Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements, was held in Istanbul, Turkey, from 3–14 June 1996, twenty years after Habitat I held in Vancouver, Canada, in 1976. Popularly called the "City Summit", it brought together high-level representatives of national and local governments, as well as private sector, NGOs, research and training institutions and the media. Universal goals of ensuring adequate shelter for all and human settlements safer, healthier and more livable cities, inspired by the Charter of the United Nations, were discussed and endorsed.

Habitat II received its impetus from the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and General Assembly resolution A/RES/47/180. The conference outcomes were integrated in the Istanbul Declaration and the Habitat Agenda, and adopted as a new global action plan to realize sustainable human settlements. The Secretary-General of the Conference was Dr. Wally N'Dow.

The objectives for Habitat II were stated as: in the long term, to arrest the deterioration of global human settlements conditions and ultimately create the conditions for achieving improvements in the living environment of all people on a sustainable basis, with special attention to the needs and contributions of women and vulnerable social groups whose quality of life and participation in development have been hampered by exclusion and inequality, affecting the poor in general;to adopt a general statement of principles and commitments and formulate a related global plan of action capable of guiding national and international efforts through the first two decades of the next century.

A new mandate for the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) was derived to support and monitor the implementation of the Habitat Agenda adopted at the Conference and approved by the General Assembly.

Habitat III met in Quito, Ecuador, from 17–20 October 2016.

Previous negotiations
The organizational session of the Preparatory Committee (PrepCom) for Habitat II was held at UN Headquarters in New York from 3–5 March 1993. Delegates elected the Bureau and took decisions regarding the organization and timing of the process. The First Substantive Session of the Preparatory Committee of the PrepCom was held in Geneva from 11–22 April 1994. Delegates agreed that the overriding objective of the Conference was to increase world awareness of the problems and potentials of human settlements as important inputs to social progress and economic growth, and to commit the world's leaders to making cities, towns and villages healthy, safe, just and sustainable. The Earth Negotiations Bulletin prepared a comprehensive report on the first session of the PrepCom. The PrepCom also took decisions on the organization of the Conference and financing, in addition to the areas of: National Objectives, International Objectives, Participation, Draft Statement of Principles and Commitments and Draft Global Plan of Action.

Habitat II at the 49th United Nations General Assembly
The Second Committee of the UN General Assembly addressed Habitat II from 8–16 November 1994. The Earth Negotiations Bulletin prepared a year-end update report on Habitat II preparations that included a report on the General Assembly's treatment of this agenda item. A draft resolution on the "United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II)" (A/C.2/49/L.27) was first tabled by the co-sponsors, Algeria, on behalf of the G-77 and China, and Turkey. After informal consultations by members of the Second Committee, the Vice Chair, Raiko Raichev (Bulgaria) submitted a new draft resolution (A/C.2/49/L.61). This resolution was adopted as orally amended by the Committee on 9 December 1994.The operative part of the resolution, as contained in L.61, took note of the reports of the PrepCom on its organizational session and first substantive session and endorsed the decisions contained therein. The resolution approved the PrepCom's recommendation that a third substantive session of the PrepCom be held at UN Headquarters early in 1996 to complete the preparatory work for the Conference.

The Second Session of the Habitat II Preparatory Committee
The Second Substantive Session of the PrepCom was held in Nairobi, Kenya, from the 24 April - 5 May 1995. The Earth Negotiations Bulletin published a summary of the meeting.

The Third Session of the Habitat II Preparatory Committee
The Third Session of the Habitat II Preparatory Committee was held in New York from 5–17 February 1996. The Earth Negotiations Bulletin published a summary of the meeting

See also
 UN-Habitat
 World Urban Forum
 Habitat I
 Habitat III
 United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III)

References

United Nations conferences
Diplomatic conferences in Turkey
20th-century diplomatic conferences
1996 in international relations
Human settlement
Urban planning
United Nations Human Settlements Programme
Turkey and the United Nations
1990s in Istanbul

Habitat II


DirectFB (Direct Frame Buffer) is a software library with a small memory footprint that provides graphics acceleration, input device handling and abstraction layer, and integrated windowing system with support for translucent windows and multiple display layers on top of the Linux framebuffer without requiring any kernel modifications. DirectFB is free and open-source software subject to the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL).

The library allows developers an alternative to a full X Window System (X11) server used in Unix-like operating systems. DirectFB allows applications to talk directly to video hardware through a direct API, speeding up and simplifying graphic operations.

It is often used by games and embedded systems developers to circumvent the overhead of a full X Window System server implementation.  In 2006, a version of DirectFB was included in the software stack for the CE Linux Forum's Audio/Video Graphics Specification V2.

DirectFB can host XDirectFB, a rootless X server implementation that uses DirectFB windows for X11 top-level windows. XDirectFB is an interface that mimics the X11 interface through the DirectFB API to simplify running applications written for X11 on DirectFB.

DirectFBGL is an OpenGL extension for DirectFB/XDirectFB that uses Direct Rendering Infrastructure (DRI) in the Mesa 3D library to support OpenGL hardware acceleration.

Among the products that use DirectFB are LinuxTV, Ben Nanonote, the unreleased Palm Foleo mobile companion, the webOS operating system, Panasonic Viera Connect TVs and the Philips TVs based on jointSPACE.

See also

 Direct Rendering Manager
 KMS driver
 General Graphics Interface
 Linux framebuffer
 SVGAlib, a low-level graphics library which runs on Linux and FreeBSD

References

External links
 DirectFB explained in detail on Embedded Linux Wiki

Free computer libraries
Graphics libraries
Linux APIs

DirectFB


Jan Opperman (February 9, 1939 – September 4, 1997), was an American racecar driver. He won the 1971 Knoxville Nationals, the premiere event in sprint car racing. In 1976, he won the Hulman Classic at Terre Haute, Ind., which at the time featured most of the top sprint car drivers in the country and had several drivers in the field who would start the Indianapolis 500 later that month.

Born in Long Beach, California, Opperman died in Fountain, Florida, 16 years after suffering critical injuries from a crash during a race in Jennerstown, Pennsylvania.  Known primarily as a sprint car driver, he also drove in the USAC Championship Car series, racing in the 1974 and 1976 seasons.  He had 9 champ car starts, including the 1974 and 1976 Indianapolis 500 with 3 top ten finishes.

Considered a natural driving talent, Opperman attracted the attention of Indy 500 veterans Parneli Jones and A.J. Foyt. His first start at Indianapolis came with the team co-owned by Jones, a sprint car veteran and winner of the 1963 Indianapolis 500. Opperman spent his early sprint car racing career running "outlaw" rather than sticking to one sanctioning body. He won dozens of races each year traveling across the country from race track to race track in pursuit of the best paying races.

Opperman was just hitting his stride in the elite United States Auto Club's, sprint, midget and dirt car (called Silver Crown division today) divisions when he suffered critical head injuries while battling for the lead of the Hoosier Hundred at the Indianapolis State Fairgrounds in early September 1976. Opperman missed the 1977 season, but returned to racing on the outlaw circuit in 1978 but never again attained the level of success he achieved before that accident.

Early in his career, Opperman was known as a hippie and part of the drug culture.  During the 1960s when living in Beaver Crossing, Nebraska he became a dynamic Christian, and, until his catastrophic accident, was working toward creating a ranch in western Montana for troubled youth.

One of Opperman's trademarks was a battered western hat that had been worn by his brother, Jay, who died while racing a sprint car at Knoxville Raceway on May 16, 1970.

Awards
Opperman was inducted in the National Sprint Car Hall of Fame in the first class in 1990.
Opperman was inducted in 2011 to the International Motor Sports Hall of Fame in Talladega, AL.

Indianapolis 500 results

External links
 Reflections on Auto Racing's Original Outlaw, Johnson County Daily Journal, September 13, 1997
 Colorful Character Jan Opperman - Speed Sport, 25 April 2020

1939 births
1997 deaths
Indianapolis 500 drivers
International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees
National Sprint Car Hall of Fame inductees
Sportspeople from Long Beach, California
Racing drivers from California
People from Seward County, Nebraska
USAC Silver Crown Series drivers
World of Outlaws drivers

Jan Opperman


Henry George Moon (18 February 1857 Barnet, Hertfordshire – 6 October 1905 St Albans, Hertfordshire), was an English landscape and botanical painter, noted for his orchid paintings illustrating Reichenbachia, a monthly publication named in honour of Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach of Hamburg, the great orchidologist.

He was the eldest son of Henry Moon, parliamentary agent at Westminster. He received his schooling at Dr. Bell's in Barnet, and later became a student at the Birkbeck and Saint Martin's schools of art.

When he was 21, Moon worked as a legal clerk intending to become a barrister, but in 1880 his interest in art led to his joining the art team of The Garden, a fashionable horticultural journal. From then on, Moon created most of the magazine's coloured plates. He spent much time during this period furthering his interest in landscape painting, and was greatly influenced by a companion, William Edward Norton (1843–1916), an American painter. Moon also contributed art work to The English Flower Garden, Wild Garden, and Flora and Silva.

Moon first went to St Albans in 1884, visiting the orchid nursery of Frederick Sander in order to make drawings for The English Flower Garden, which was being published by William Robinson. In 1885, Sander approached him about illustrating the Reichenbachia. Moon devoted the following four years of his life to painting most of the plates, and directing the printing side which was done by hand in Sander's printing works at St Albans. Moon produced the woodcuts and the printing was carried out by a certain Mr. Moffat.

In the autumn of 1892, Moon settled permanently in St Albans with his mother and sister. Two years later he married Sander's daughter  and produced a steady flow of paintings for Sander and a number of publications. He was frequently to be found in the countryside, painting and sketching.

Moon did most of the plates for Reichenbachia, with a number of other artists contributing. Some of the work is unsigned, known contributors being Walter Hood Fitch, A. H. Loch, George Hansen, Charles Storer (1817–1907), J. Watton, and J. L. Macfarlane.

He played an active and valued role in art circles as judge and critic, and often attended working sessions and exhibitions at the London sketching clubs - the Birkbeck, the Gilbert-Garrett, the Langhorn, and the Polytechnic.

Moon's already frail health suffered as a result of the constant demands placed on it -  doing his own framing, and dealing with the constant claims made on his time and energy from other sources. His death at the relatively youthful age of forty-eight, brought great sorrow  to his family, the firm of Sander, and the worlds of botanical art and orchid culture. He left his widow and two young sons.

References

External links

1857 births
1905 deaths
Botanical illustrators
Alumni of Birkbeck, University of London
People from Chipping Barnet
Alumni of Saint Martin's School of Art
19th-century English painters
English male painters
19th-century English male artists

Henry Moon


Lee Mark Ranaldo (born February 3, 1956) is an American guitarist, singer and songwriter, best known as a co-founder of the rock band Sonic Youth. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked Ranaldo at number 33 on its "Greatest Guitarists of All Time" list. In May 2012, Spin published a staff-selected top 100 guitarist list, ranking Ranaldo and his Sonic Youth bandmate Thurston Moore together at number 1.

Biography

Ranaldo was born in Glen Cove, Long Island, studied art and graduated from Binghamton University. He has three sons, Cody, Sage and Frey, and is married twice, first with Amanda Linn in 1981 but later divorced, and now with experimental artist Leah Singer.

Ranaldo started his career in New York in several bands, including The Flucts, and by playing guitar in Guitar Trio with Rhys Chatham before joining the electric guitar orchestra of Glenn Branca. In Branca's orchestra he played mainly electric guitar, but he also played some of the harmonic guitars Branca designed and built. In 1981, Ranaldo and David Linton briefly joined the band Plus Instruments that had been formed by Truus de Groot. With this line-up they recorded the album February - April 1981, released on the Dutch Kremlin label. After the release of the album, Ranaldo left the band and started Sonic Youth with Thurston Moore and Kim Gordon.

Solo records during Sonic Youth
In 1987, Ranaldo released his first solo album, From Here to Infinity, compositions which ended in locked grooves.  The second side of the album also featured an unplayable engraving by Savage Pencil.

Among Ranaldo's solo records are Dirty Windows, a collection of spoken texts with music, Amarillo Ramp (For Robert Smithson), pieces for the guitar, and Scriptures of the Golden Eternity. His books include several with art or photography by Leah Singer, including Drift, Bookstore, Road Movies, and Moroccan Journal: Jajouka excerpt (from a full-length book of writings on Moroccan travels and music).  Ranaldo has also published Jrnls80s (published by Soft Skull Press), as well as a book of poems, Lengths & Breaths, with photography by Cynthia Connolly. His most recent book of poetry, Against Refusing, was published by Water Row Press in April 2010 with cover artwork by Leah Singer. His visual and sound works have been shown at galleries and museums in Paris, Toronto, New York, London, Sydney, Los Angeles, Vienna, and elsewhere.

After Sonic Youth
After Sonic Youth went on hiatus in 2011, Ranaldo released Between the Times and the Tides in early 2012 on Matador Records.  The record was the first under his own name to feature comparatively straightforward, vocal pop rock songs.  Contributors to the record include Jim O'Rourke, Sonic Youth drummer Steve Shelley, former Sonic Youth drummer Bob Bert, Wilco's Nels Cline, Alan Licht, John Medeski, and bassist Irwin Menken.

Preceded by a 2012 event at Nuit Blanche, on October 21, 2011, The Music Gallery, InterAccess and the Images Festival presented the North American premiere of Ranaldo's Contre Jour, a performance piece for swinging guitar, with visuals by longtime partner and collaborator Leah Singer. This performance was also done in Paris, Rotterdam, during IFFR, and Madrid. In 2012, he performed a solo concert at Parisian music club La Maroquinerie where he was photographed by Jean-Pierre Domingue.

To tour for the album, Ranaldo organized The Dust as his formal group, featuring Licht, Shelley, and bassist Tim Lüntzel. In 2013, his follow-up album Last Night on Earth was released, credited to Lee Ranaldo and the Dust.

In 2014 Ranaldo and the Dust spent one week in Barcelona with producer Raül Refree and cut a full-band, all-acoustic album, Acoustic Dust, consisting of songs from Between The Times and the Tides and Last Night On Earth, plus cover songs including Neil Young's Revolution Blues, Sandy Denny's Bushes and Briars, and Mike Nesmith (The Monkee)'s You Just May Be The One.

In September 2017, Ranaldo released Electric Trim, his third proper solo album, made in collaboration with Barcelona Musician/Producer Raül Refree, on Mute records. The album featured 9 songs, many of the lyrics co-written with American author Jonathan Lethem. Musical contributors included Nels Cline, Sharon Van Etten, Alan Licht, Tim Luntzel, Kid Millions and Steve Shelley. A film about the making of the album HELLO HELLO HELLO : LEE RANALDO : ELECTRIC TRIM was directed by Fred Riedel.

Besides working as a guitarist, Ranaldo has frequently produced sound, performance and visual art independently of Sonic Youth. He has released over fifty solo, band and collaborative recordings, and a dozen books; including travel journals, poetry and artists' books. His work has been exhibited at numerous galleries and museums, including the Hayward Gallery in London, the Sydney Museum of Contemporary Art, NSCAD in Halifax, the Kunsthalle Düsseldorf, Mercer Union in Toronto, and Printed Matter, Inc., Artspace and White Columns in New York. In 2017 there was a large overview exhibition in Menen, Belgium about his visual art.

In 2019 he was the curator for a concert series in Fondation Feltrinelli in Milan, Italy, under the umbrella name of Natural Disruptors.

Collaborations and side projects
Ranaldo has produced albums for artists including Babes in Toyland, You Am I, Magik Markers, Deity Guns, and Dutch art rock-ensemble Kleg. He has edited a volume of tour journals from the 1995 Lollapalooza tour written by himself, Thurston Moore, Beck, Stephen Malkmus, Courtney Love, and others.

Ranaldo has worked with jazz drummer William Hooker on improvised music, and reading and improvising poetry and released several records together.

His main side projects are Drift and Text of Light.

Drift is a duo with his wife Leah Singer, with whom he has performed many live installation pieces with improvised music. The collaboration, utilizing live manipulated 16mm film projections, electric guitar and recited texts, occupied the duo from the early 1990s until late 2005, when they re-created the performance as an art installation at Gigantic Art Space, a gallery in New York City. Since then the pair have been performing a new piece entitled "iloveyouihateyou", a combination installation and performance work that has been presented in the US and Europe. In 2005 Drift released a box set with a DVD and a book.

Text of Light was founded in 2001 by Ranaldo, Alan Licht, Ulrich Krieger, Christian Marclay and William Hooker. The core group is Ranaldo, Licht and Krieger with changing DJs (Marclay, DJ Olive, Marina Rosenfeld) and drummers (Hooker, Tim Barnes, Steve Shelley). The music is free improvised and mostly played along with, but not really referencing, films by Stan Brakhage. The name for the band comes from Brakhage's film The Text of Light.

In 2007 Ranaldo collaborated with British rock band The Cribs on their third album Men's Needs, Women's Needs, Whatever. Ranaldo performs a spoken word piece against the track "Be Safe". Ranaldo made an appearance in the 2008 feature documentary by Nik Sheehan about Brion Gysin and the Dreamachine entitled FLicKer.

Glacial Trio is a band consisting of Ranaldo, Bagpiper David Watson and drummer Tony Buck. In 2010 Ranaldo released the solo album Maelstrom From Drift on Three Lobed Recordings with guest appearances of Buck and Watson. The band released On Jones Beach in 2012.

Art projects

Visual works
Ranaldo also has had some exhibitions with his visual arts and video works in combination with Sonic Youth-related art (posters, flyers, album covers, etc.).
This took place as gallery and museum shows in Porto, Halifax, Miami, Tampa, Vienna, Prague, Gent, Bratislava, Auckland, Salt Lake City and in Brooklyn and at the VOLTA fair in Manhattan in 2015.
Artist-in-Residence: CNEAI, Paris (2007, 2008); NSCAD, Halifax, Nova Scotia (2013); Villa Arson, Nice, France (2014). In October 2017 his first European solo exhibition 'Lost Ideas' by Curator Jan Van Woensel takes place in Cultuurcentrum De Steiger in Menen, Belgium together with a music festival curated by Ranaldo. The festival also features his field recording sound art piece 'Shibuya Displacement'.

Sound art
In the late 2000s Ranaldo started giving many sound art performances in the US and Europe with his installation 'Suspended Guitar', which involved a guitar hanging on a rope from the ceiling feedbacking and being played with a bow, or hitting against the body or the strings. In 2006 he made the sound art piece 'Shibuya Displacement (a Soundwalk)' for the Hudson Valley Center For Contemporary Art.

Equipment

Ranaldo usually uses Fender Jazzmaster, Telecaster Deluxe electric guitars and sometimes Gibson Les Pauls, with radically alternative tunings, and modifications. One of his Jazzmasters has a single coil pickup installed between the bridge and the tailpiece to exploit the resonating chiming sounds on that area of string at these so-called tailed bridge guitars.  Ranaldo is one of the few popular artists to use the Ovation Viper solid body electric.

In 2007 Yuri Landman built for Ranaldo the Moonlander, a biheaded electric guitar with 18 strings: 6 normal strings and 12 sympathetic strings.

Since Ranaldo and Moore, together with Elvis Costello, J Mascis and The Cure's Robert Smith, are known for being key figures in the popularisation and resurrection of the Fender Jazzmaster (although Television's Tom Verlaine preceded them), Fender introduced in 2009 a special Lee Ranaldo signature edition of a transparent blue version, together with a transparent green one for Thurston.

In 2013, Ranaldo played a Watcher guitar from the French company Custom77 during his last Lee Ranaldo & The Dust tour throughout Europe.

Printed works
Bookstore and Others (Paperback) - Lee Ranaldo, Leah Singer, Hozomeen Press (April 1995),
Drift (box set with DVD) - Lee Ranaldo, Leah Singer, Gigantic ArtSpace (2005),
Ground Zero: New Yorkers Respond (Paperback) - Lee Ranaldo, David Amram, Frank Messina, Wasteland Press (August 15, 2002),
Hello from the American Desert (Paperback) - Lee Ranaldo, Curt Kirkwood, Silver Wonder Press (November 2007)
JRNLS80s (Paperback) - Lee Ranaldo, Soft Skull Press (1998),  (Portuguese edition 2017 by Terreno Estranho)
Lengths & Breaths (Paperback) - Lee Ranaldo, Cynthia Connolly, Water Row Press (August 2004),
Moroccan Journal (Hardcover) - Lee Ranaldo, Fringecore (1999),
Moroccan Journal: Jajouka excerpt (Unknown Binding) - Lee Ranaldo, Leah Singer, Ring Tarigh for the Literary Renaissance (1997), ASIN: B0006RJF80
Online Diaries: the Lollapalooza '95 tour journals (Paperback) - Beck, Courtney Love, Stephen Malkmus, Thurston Moore, Lee Ranaldo, Mike Watt, David Yow, Soft Skull Press (1996),
Road Movies (Paperback) - Lee Ranaldo, Leah Singer, Soft Skull Press (November 30, 2004),
Against Refusing (Hardcover) - Lee Ranaldo, Water Row Press (April 2010),
 Burglarproof Wheelbase
 Water Days (w/ Leah Singer) (also in French published by Dis Voir under the title 'Jours D'eau')
 IloveyouIhateyou (w/ Leah Singer), (Magasin3 catalog)
 Some Writings on Music and Musicians, self-published, 2017
 How not to get played on the Radio, SoundBarn press December 2012, 22 poems

Discography
Solo albums
From Here to Infinity (1987)
Scriptures of the Golden Eternity (1993) (Recorded 1988-1989)
Dirty Windows (1998) (Recorded 1991-95)
Amarillo Ramp (For Robert Smithson) (1998) (Recorded 1990-95)
Outside My Window The City Is Never Silent - A Bestiary (2002) (Recorded 1991-95)
Music For Stage And Screen (2004)
Ambient Loop For Vancouver (2006)
Maelstrom From Drift (2008)
Between the Times and the Tides (Matador Records, 2012)
Last Night on Earth (with the Dust) (2013)
Acoustic Dust (with the Dust) (2014)
Electric Trim (2017)
  Names of North End Women  (with Raul Refree) (2020)

Singles and EPs
A Perfect Day EP (1992)
Broken Circle / Spiral Hill EP (1994)
Countless Centuries Fled into the Distance Like So Many Storms (2008)

Compilations
East Jesus (1995)

Collaborations with William Hooker
 Envisioning (1995)
 The Gift Of Tongues (also with Zeena Parkins) (1995)
Clouds (1997)
 Bouquet [also with Christian Marclay] (2000)
 Out Trios Volume One: Monsoon (also with Roger Miller) (2003)
 Oasis Of Whispers (also with Glen Hall) (2005)
 The Celestial Answer (2005)

Collaborations with others
 cover of Pink Floyd's "Money" on Martin Bisi's Creole Mass LP (1988)
 MMMR (also with Loren Mazzacane Connors, Jean-Marc Montera & Thurston Moore) (1997)
 New York - Ystad (with Thurston Moore, Steve Shelley, Mats Gustafsson) (2000)
 New Life After Fire (For Tom Thomson) (With Dave Dyment) (2003)
 Four Guitars Live (Ranaldo / Giffoni / Moore / Cline (2006)
 Les Anges Du Péché [Jean-Marc Montera / Thurston Moore / Lee Ranaldo] (2011)
 Trouble and Desire (The Callas with Lee Ranaldo) (2018)
 Ranaldo Jarmusch Urselli Pandi (Lee Ranaldo / Jim Jarmusch / Marc Urselli / Balazs Pandi) (2019)
 Churning of the Ocean (Lee Ranaldo / Jim Jarmusch / Marc Urselli / Balazs Pandi) (2021)
 Velvet Serenade (Pascal Comelade, Ramon Prats, Lee Ranaldo) (2023)

Live recordings
 Fuck Shit Up (with Thurston Moore & Christian Marclay) (2000) [Live]
 Text Of Light (a band which included Alan Licht, Christian Marclay, Tim Barnes, Ulrich Krieger, William Hooker) (2004)

As a band member
See discography for Sonic Youth discography
 Glacial (Lee Ranaldo, David Watson & Tony Buck) - On Jones Beach, LP, (2012) Insound
 Afternoon Saints
 Text of Light
 Plus Instruments - February - April 1981, Kremlin records, 1981

References

External links

Lee Ranaldo: The Bridge published on the Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine @ Ubuweb
Lee's interview for Slovak music magazine Novy Popular (in English), 2010
Lee's interview for I Heart Noise

1956 births
Living people
American experimental guitarists
American male guitarists
Sonic Youth members
American rock guitarists
American male singers
American rock singers
Record producers from New York (state)
American male poets
Noise rock musicians
Drunken Fish Records artists
SST Records artists
Binghamton University alumni
People from Glen Cove, New York
The Minus 5 members
American alternative rock musicians
No wave musicians
20th-century American guitarists
Atavistic Records artists

Lee Ranaldo


Mountain View is a city in California in the San Francisco Bay Area. It is north of San Jose and south of San Francisco. It is the fourth largest city in Santa Clara County behind San Jose, Sunnyvale, and Santa Clara. It is part of Silicon Valley.

Geography

Mountain View is located south of the San Francisco Bay and west of the Santa Cruz Mountains. It is bordered by Palo Alto to the northwest, Los Altos to the south and southwest, and Sunnyvale to the east.

Transportation

The major highways in Mountain View are California State Route 85, California State Route 82, California State Route 237, and U.S. Route 101. California State Route 85 terminates at U.S. 101 and California State Route 237 terminates at California State Route 82. California 82 is known as the El Camino Real and follows the historic route of U.S. 101 through the San Francisco Bay Area. From Mountain View, tourists can take U.S. 101 North to get to San Francisco, U.S. 101 South to get to San Jose and Los Angeles, California 85 South to get to Los Gatos and Gilroy, California 237 East to get to Milpitas, California 82 North to get to Los Altos and Palo Alto, and California 82 South to get to Sunnyvale, Santa Clara, and San Jose.

Companies

Companies in Mountain View include Google and Mozilla.

Mountain View, California


The Bava Beccaris massacre, named after the Italian General Fiorenzo Bava Beccaris, was the repression of widespread food riots in Milan, Italy, on 6–10 May 1898. In Italy the suppression of these demonstrations is also known as Fatti di Maggio (Events of May) or I moti di Milano del 1898 (the Milan riots of 1898). At least 80 demonstrators were killed, as well as two soldiers, and 450 wounded, according to government sources.

The overreaction of the military led to the demise of Antonio Di Rudinì and his government in July 1898 and created a constitutional crisis, strengthening the opposition. The events of May marked a height of popular discontent with government, the military and the monarchy.

Background
In 1897, the wheat harvest in Italy was substantially lower than the years before; it fell from on average 3.5 million tons in 1891–95 to 2.4 million tons that year. Moreover, import of American grain was more expensive due to the Spanish–American War in 1898. Wheat prices in Milan increased from 225 lire a tonne to 330 lire a tonne in April 1898.

In order to try to diminish the rising prices the government of Di Rudinì was urged to abolish the duty on imported wheat. In January 1898 the tariff was lowered from 75 lire a tonne to 50 lire, but this was generally considered to be too little and too late. Street demonstrations demanding "bread and work" began in the South of Italy, which already had seen widespread revolts by the Fasci Siciliani in 1893–94. In towns like Bari and Naples rioting could be suppressed, while Florence was controlled by demonstrators for a whole day. The situation escalated when demonstrators were shot by nervous policemen, and rioting increased.

The riots

On 5 May 1898 workers organized a strike against the rise of food prices. The first blood was shed that day at Pavia, when the son of Giuseppe Mussi, a deputy from Milan, was killed by the police in an attempt to control the crowd. The next day, 6 May, workers of the Pirelli factory went on strike in the morning and leaflets denouncing the events of the previous day were distributed. Riots broke out and two were shot and killed. Riots also broke out in Florence and Livorno.

Di Rudinì's government declared a state of siege in Lombardy and the city. General Fiorenzo Bava Beccaris, a veteran of the wars of independence that had unified Italy was ordered to Milan. Infantry, cavalry and artillery were brought into the city, as well as railway troops because railway workers had gone on strike as well. The troops were mainly conscripts from rural and alpine areas, considered to be more reliable in a time of civil unrest than those from urban districts. With reserves, Bava Beccaris had 45,000 men at his disposal.

On 7 May, 60,000 people went on strike, moving from the working-class neighbourhoods in the outskirts of the city towards the city center of Milan. Bava Beccaris deployed his forces in the Piazza del Duomo, Milan's central square, determined to stop the strikers and force them back to the city outskirts and regain control over the central railway station. The troops met with fierce resistance while trying to remove the barricades that had been erected, and were bombarded with stones and tiles from the rooftops. Some of the demonstrators had acquired rifles from the workshops of arms manufacturers.

General Bava Beccaris ordered his troops to fire on demonstrators and used the artillery as well. The streets were cleared. On 9 May 1898 the troops used artillery to breach the walls of a monastery outside Porta Monforte, but they found inside only a group of beggars who were there to receive assistance from the friars. According to the government, 80 demonstrators and other civilians were killed, as well as two soldiers. A total of 450 persons were wounded. The opposition claimed 400 dead and more than 2,000 injured people. According to The New York Times 300 people were killed and 1,000 wounded.

Backlash
Military tribunals were set up, over some of which Bava Beccaris personally presided, that sentenced about 1,500 people to prison. The conduct of the authorities was deemed by analysts to be "a travesty of justice and a mockery of legal procedure." Newspapers considered to be in opposition to the government were suppressed, and several Catholic and Socialist organisations were dissolved.

Filippo Turati, one of the founders of the Socialist Party of Italy (PSI) in 1892, was arrested, accused of inspiring the riots, and given a 12-year prison sentence. In fact, he had been trying to calm down the situation with a pamphlet calling on the demonstrators to be "calm and patient" and arguing that the "days for street fighting are past." He was freed a year later, in 1899, after a wave of discontent in the country. The experience convinced him that the way ahead was the parliamentary route and he renounced violent action.

Aftermath

King Umberto I praised general Bava Beccaris and awarded him the medal of the Great Cross of the Order of Savoy (Grande Ufficiale dell'Ordine Militare di Savoia) a month later, "to reward the great service you rendered to our institutions and to civilization, and to attest to my affection and the gratitude of myself and the country". On 29 July 1900, the king was assassinated in Monza by the anarchist Gaetano Bresci, who claimed he had come directly from the United States to avenge the victims of the repression, and the insult of the decoration awarded to Bava Beccaris.

The overreaction of the military led to the demise of Di Rudini and his government in May 1898 and created a constitutional crisis, strengthening the opposition. The massacre marked a height of popular discontent with government, the military and the monarchy.

The new Prime Minister Luigi Pelloux, who in May 1898 had restored public order in Bari without recourse to martial law, introduced a new Public Safety Bill to reform police laws, taken over by him from the Rudinì cabinet. The law made strikes by state employees illegal; gave the executive wider powers to ban public meetings and dissolve subversive organisations; revived the penalties of banishment and preventive arrest for political offences; and tightened control of the press by making authors responsible for their articles and declaring incitement to violence a crime.

The new coercive law was fiercely obstructed by the Socialist Party, which, with the Left and Extreme Left, succeeded in forcing General Pelloux to dissolve the Chamber in May 1900, after he had promulgated the new law by royal decree. Even members of his conservative constituency accused him of acting unconstitutionally and Pelloux had to resign office after the general election in June.

Depictions in art
The artist Quinto Cenni prepared a series of 34 eyewitness paintings showing various scenes of the disturbances in the city and of the actions taken to suppress them. These generally favoured the government version of events, showing soldiers behaving with restraint under provocation and being welcomed by ordinary citizens.

See also
 Kingdom of Italy
 List of massacres in Italy

References

Further reading
 Clark, Martin (1984/2014). Modern Italy, 1871 to the Present, New York: Routledge,
 Sarti, Roland (2004). Italy: A reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present, New York: Facts on File Inc.,
 Seton-Watson, Christopher (1967). Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870–1925, New York: Taylor & Francis,
 Stephenson, Charles (2014). A Box of Sand: The Italo-Ottoman War 1911–1912, Tycehurst: Tattered Flag,

External links
  I moti del pane - maggio 1898

History of Milan
1898 in Italy
1898 riots
Massacres in 1898
Massacres in Italy
Labor disputes in Italy
Riots and civil disorder in Italy
Economic history of Italy
Protests in Italy
19th century in Milan
May 1898 events
Massacres committed by Italy
1898 murders in Italy

Bava Beccaris massacre


Russian police reform (, Zakon o Politsii; Law on Police) is a reform initiated by then President Dmitry Medvedev to improve the efficiency of Russia's police forces, decrease corruption and improve the public image of law enforcement among other goals. On 7 February 2011, amendments were made to laws on the police force, the criminal code and the criminal procedure code.

The amendments came into force on 1 March 2011. These changes stipulate a personnel cut of 20%, the renaming of Russian law enforcers from "militsiya" (militia) to "politsiya" (police), substantial increases in salaries, centralisation of financing, and several other changes. Around 217 billion rubles ($7 billion) have been allocated from the federal budget to finance the reform.

Background
The Russian law enforcers (called militsiya before the reform) had a poor public image: over half of the population admit that they do not trust the police. Compared to other countries, the trust in the police in Russia is higher than in Ukraine and Belarus, but less than in Slovakia and substantially smaller than in Western European countries such as Germany. Many people in Russia have had bad experiences with the militsiya and, when becoming victims of a crime, are reluctant to call the militsiya for help.

Corruption is widely believed to be significant among Russian law enforcement officers. According to a 2005 study by the Levada-Center research organisation, almost 60% of the surveyed police officers had additional jobs to supplement their income, and almost 20% gained additional income during working hours. The Russian state does not monitor the private business activities of its law enforcement officers. In comparison, 20–90% of policemen in the cities of the United States conduct private business, but have to report their activities to the police authorities.

Russian police are relatively poorly paid, and low wages are widely regarded as one of the main reasons for corruption and abuse of office among the law enforcement officers.

Chronology
The beginning of the reforms were announced by President Dmitry Medvedev at the end of 2009. The reason for those reforms was a shooting started by a police officer at a supermarket on 29 April 2009. On 24 December 2009, the Presidential decree number 1468 was issued. It ordered the Interior Ministry to plan measures for cutting the amount of law enforcement personnel by 20%, making the police salary arrive exclusively from the federal budget prohibiting funding by regional authorities. A proposal was developed by a working group consisting of 14 non-governmental human rights organisations put forward.

In early August 2010 a draft law was posted on the Internet for public discussion. The website was popular, with more than 2,000 comments posted within 24 hours of its opening. Based on citizen feedback, several modifications to the draft were made. On 27 October 2010, President Medvedev submitted the draft to the lower house of the State Duma.

On 9 October 2010, Finance Minister Alexei Kudrin announced that around 217 billion rubles ($7 billion) will go to the police reform from the federal budget in 2012–2013. Some of money will be spent in increasing police officers' salaries by 30%.

The lower house of the Duma voted to approve the bill on 28 January 2011, and the upper house followed suit on 2 February 2011. On 7 February 2011, President Medvedev signed the bill into law. The changes came into effect on 1 March 2011.

In July 2011, the Kremlin passed a law to triple the salary amount for police officers. The law also boosts pensions and other benefits for veterans and introduces subsidies to purchase housing, and also cancels the current housing provision system. For instance, a Lieutenant will now earn 33,000 to 45,000 rubles a month compared to the 10,000 ruble pay.

Main changes and aims of the reform

Name change
Under the reform, the name of Russian law enforcers was changed from the Soviet-era term "militsiya" (militia) to the more universal term of "politsiya" (police) on 1 March 2011.

Centralisation
As a result of the reform, the Russian police will be made a federal-level institution, with funding accomplished fully from the federal budget. Under the old system, police units responsible for public order and petty crimes were under the jurisdiction of regional and city authorities, financed from regional budget and responsible more to the regional governors than to the federal center.

Changes to police and detainee rights
According to the new law, the detainee will receive a right to make a telephone call within 3 hours of the detention. They will also receive the right to have a lawyer and translator from the moment of their detention, and the police must inform the detainee of their rights and duties. The police will lose its right to carry out and demand checks of a company's financial and business activities. The police may also no longer detain a citizen for an hour just to find out their identity.

References

2011 in Russia
Law enforcement in Russia
Law reform in Russia
Dmitry Medvedev
Reform in Russia

Russian police reform


Gare do Oriente (), or alternately, the Lisbon Oriente Station is one of the main Portuguese intermodal transport hubs, and is situated in the civil parish of Parque das Nações, municipality of Lisbon.

History

In 1994, the station was proposed as part of the modernization of the Linha do Norte, a modification to the rail line to facilitate the future development of a new station in eastern Lisbon. Located along Avenida D. João II, over Avenida de Berlim and Rua Conselheiro Mariano de Carvalho, the station was planned to occupy the lands once occupied by Apeadeiro dos Olivais, which was demolished in the 1990s in order to make way for the new station.

Bids for building the project on lands to be used for the 1998 exposition were solicited internationally. The concept was originally designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava in 1995, and built by Necso.

The station was inaugurated on 19 May 1998, as part of the celebrations marking the opening of the Expo '98 world's fair. At the time of its opening it was considered the largest intermodal station in Portugal, winning the Brunel Award on 7 October 1998, in the category of large new construction projects.

Architecture

Oriente Station is situated in an urban area of reclaimed industrial and abandoned buildings fronting the northern margin of the Tagus River, situated  from the city centre.

Ambitious in its conception, the modernist station includes a Lisbon Metro station, a high-speed commuter and regional train hub, a local, national and international bus station, a shopping centre and a police station. The rail station was conceived with a multi-modal platform intersecting the cardinal axes for the various transport modes.

With some influence from Gothic architecture, the station bears considerable resemblance to Santiago Calatrava's earlier Allen Lambert Galleria within Toronto's Brookfield Place. Calatrava's objective was to realize a new space with ample room and functionality providing multiple connections between various zones in the metropolitan area of Lisbon.

One important aspect of the station is its link to the urban environment in which it was constructed. The decision to elevate the rail line, for example, eliminated a physical barrier between the city and the Tagus River margin. The station, covered in a lattice structure of glass and metal, is constructed of reinforced concrete and raised  over the roadway. By January 2011, there were eight lines that extended  across  platforms, between  in height.

In addition to the many galleries that are part of the station, it is connected to the Centro Comercial Vasco da Gama (Vasco da Gama Commercial Centre/Mall) and the Lisbon Metro through a subterranean access, as well as a first floor connection to the train platforms and a pedestrian walkway.

Services

References

Notes

Sources

External links
 Portal das Nações Discover the Orient Station

Santiago Calatrava structures
Oriente
Railway stations in Lisbon
Neo-futurist architecture
Parque das Nações
1998 establishments in Portugal
Railway stations in Portugal opened in the 20th century

Gare do Oriente


Matthew Raymond "Matt" Dillon (born Februar 18, 1964) is an American actor an film director.

Matt Dillon made his featur film debut in Over the Edge (1979) an established himsel as a teen idol bi starnin in films sic as My Bodyguard (1980), Tex (1982), Rumble Fish (1983) an The Outsiders (1983). Fraee the late 1980s onward, Dillon achieved further success, starnin in sic films as Drugstore Cowboy (1989), Singles (1992), The Saint of Fort Washington (1993), To Die For (1995), Beautiful Girls (1996), In & Out (1997), There's Something About Mary (1998), an Wild Things (1998). In a 1991 airticle, famed movie creetic Roger Ebert referred tae him as the best actor within his age group, alang wi Sean Penn.

In the 2000s, he made his directin debut wi City of Ghosts (2002) an went on tae starn in the films Crash (2004), Factotum (2005), You, Me and Dupree (2006), Nothing but the Truth (2008) an Sunlight Jr. (2013). During his career, he earned mony awairds an nominations includin Oscar an Gowden Globe nominations for his performance in Crash an a Grammy Awaird for Best Spoken Wird Album nomination for narratin Jack Kerouac's On the Road. Syne 2015, he haes starned in the FOX telly shaw Wayward Pines, for which he wis nominatit for a Saturn Awaird.

References

1964 births
American male film actors
American male bairn actors
American fowk o Erse strynd
Livin fowk
Lee Strasberg Theatre Institute alumni
Independent Spirit Awaird winners
Male actors frae New York
Ootstaundin Performance bi a Cast in a Motion Pictur Screen Actors Guild Awaird winners
El Camino College Compton Center alumni
20t-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
Independent Spirit Awaird for Best Male Lead winners
Fowk frae Mamaroneck, New York
Fowk frae New Rochelle, New York
American fowk o Scots strynd
American fowk o German strynd
American male televeesion actors

Matt Dillon


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Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung (Alberich)) is a cycle of four operas by Richard Wagner.

Stories
The first opera in the cycle is Das Rheingold.
The second opera in the cycle is Die Walküre.
The third opera in the cycle is Siegfried.
The fourth opera in the cycle is Götterdämmerung.

The story of each opera can be found in the separate articles.

Sometimes it is known as a "tetralogy" meaning: four works that belong together.

Wagner took the story of the operas from a book called the Nibelungenlied (the Nibelung Song) which was written in the 12th century by a German poet.  We do not know the name of the poet.  The story is about the ancient gods from German mythology.

Composition
Wagner made a lot of changes to the story in order to make it suitable for his four operas.  Wagner's story tells of a hoard of gold which is being guarded by the Rhinemaidens.  The dwarf Alberich steals the gold and uses some of it to make a ring which makes the owner powerful over all the world.  When Wotan, the chief god, steals it from him, Alberich puts a curse on the ring.  The ring will bring death to whoever has it.  The ring goes through the hands of several characters, all of whom die in the end.

Alberich belongs to a race of dwarfs called the "Nibelungs".  The word "Nibelungen" in the title of the cycle: Der Ring des Nibelungen ("The Ring of the Nibelung"), refers to Alberich (it is singular, not plural).

The story of Wagner's Ring cycle sounds quite fantastic and strange, like a fairy tale.  Although the characters seems very different from real people,  the story tells us all about basic human emotions.  It is a story about greed, love, lust, intrigue etc.  This is what makes it so powerful.

Wagner's music matches each character and situation beautifully.  It develops continuously: there are no breaks in the music during the acts.  Wagner used what he called leitmotifs (leading motives).  These are tunes or chords or little musical phrases which are linked to particular people in the opera.  In this way he can hint at things very cleverly in the music.  For example: there is a leitmotiv for the curse.  Whenever we hear this curse motive we know that the curse of the ring is working.

Wagner spent about twenty years writing the Ring cycle.  He started in the 1850s when he was living in Switzerland.  He wrote all the libretto (the words) himself, as he always did for his operas.  By 1857 he had finished the first two operas and two thirds of Siegfried.  It was many years later that he finally finished Siegfried and wrote the final opera as well.

Opera house
Wagner wanted to have the Ring cycle performed in a special opera house which would be built in the way he wanted.  He needed a lot of money for his ideas, and he was very lucky to find someone who adored his music and was happy to give him a lot of money.  This was King Ludwig II of Bavaria (sometimes called the "mad king of Bavaria" because he did become insane).  Wagner told the King that the Ring cycle would be performed in Munich which was the capital city of Bavaria.  Later, when it seemed impossible to build a new opera house there, Wagner broke his promise and built his opera house in Bayreuth instead.  The King did not seem to mind and still gave him lots of money for the project as well as a nice house to live in.  Das Rheingold was first performed in Munich in 1869 and Die Walküre in 1870.  The whole Ring cycle was first performed in 1876 in the new opera house called the Festspielhaus in Bayreuth.

Operas by Richard Wagner
1860s operas

Der Ring des Nibelungen


A Web service is defined as "a software system designed to support interoperable machine-to-machine interaction over a network". Web services are frequently just Web APIs that can be accessed over a network, such as the Internet, and executed on a remote system hosting the requested services.

The W3C Web service definition encompasses many different systems, but in common usage the term refers to clients and servers that communicate over the HTTP used on the Web. Such services tend to fall into one of two camps: Big Web Services and RESTful Web Services.

"Big Web Services" use XML messages that follow the SOAP standard and have been popular with traditional enterprise. In such systems, there is often a machine-readable description of the operations offered by the service written in the Web Services Description Language (WSDL). The latter is not a requirement of a SOAP endpoint, but it is a prerequisite for automated client-side code generation in many Java and .NET SOAP frameworks (frameworks such as Spring, Apache Axis2 and Apache CXF being notable exceptions). Some industry organizations, such as the WS-I, mandate both SOAP and WSDL in their definition of a Web service.

More recently, RESTful Web services have been regaining popularity, particularly with Internet companies. These also meet the W3C definition, and are often better integrated with HTTP than SOAP-based services. They do not require XML messages or WSDL service-API definitions.

Internet

Web service


The BBC Philharmonic is a national British broadcasting symphony orchestra and is one of five radio orchestras maintained by the British Broadcasting Corporation.  The Philharmonic is a department of the BBC North Group division based at MediaCityUK, Salford. The orchestra's primary concert venue is the Bridgewater Hall, Manchester.

History
The 2ZY Orchestra was formed in 1922 for a Manchester radio station of the same name. It gave the first broadcast performances of many famous English works, including Elgar's Dream of Gerontius and Enigma Variations and Holst's The Planets. The orchestra was part-funded by the British Broadcasting Company (precursor of the BBC), and renamed the Northern Wireless Orchestra in 1926.

When the BBC Symphony Orchestra was established in London in 1930, the new Corporation cut its regional orchestras' funding. The Northern Wireless Orchestra was downsized to just nine players, and renamed the Northern Studio Orchestra.

Three years later, however, the BBC reversed its decision and maintained a full orchestra again – from 1934 it was called the BBC Northern Orchestra. This was the beginning of the orchestra in its present form. It rehearsed and broadcast from the Milton Hall, Deansgate, Manchester.

The orchestra played at its first Prom in 1961, and enjoyed popularity with performances at the Free Trade Hall, a venue it shared with the Hallé.

On 21 January 1967, the name of the orchestra was changed to the BBC Northern Symphony Orchestra.  Following a labour dispute in 1980, the orchestra received a vote of confidence from the BBC in 1982. The BBC expanded the orchestra and changed its name to the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra, or the BBC Philharmonic for short.

Yan Pascal Tortelier was principal conductor of the orchestra from 1992 to 2002, and now holds the title of conductor laureate. Gianandrea Noseda became principal conductor of the orchestra in September 2002. In October 2006, the orchestra changed Noseda's title to chief conductor, in conjunction with his contract extension through 2010. Noseda concluded his tenure as chief conductor in 2011 and now has the title of conductor laureate along with Tortelier. In July 2010, the orchestra announced the appointment of Juanjo Mena as its next chief conductor, effective with the 2011–2012 season, with an initial contract of three years.  Vassily Sinaisky, principal guest conductor of the orchestra from 1996 through January 2012, now has the title of conductor emeritus with the orchestra. In March 2011, the orchestra announced the appointment of John Storgårds as its next principal guest conductor, effective January 2012. In January 2017, the orchestra announced the appointment of Ben Gernon as its next principal guest conductor, as of the autumn of 2017. In parallel, Storgårds took the title of chief guest conductor of the orchestra. Mena concluded his tenure as principal conductor in the summer of 2018.

In March 2018, Omer Meir Wellber first guest-conducted the orchestra.  On the basis of this appearance, in October 2018, the orchestra announced the appointment of Wellber as its next chief conductor, effective with the 2019-2020 season, with an initial contract of 4 years.  Following his withdrawal from his two scheduled 2022 Proms appearances, Wellber was no longer listed as affiliated with the BBC Philharmonic as of the summer of 2022.  Gernon likewise stood down as the orchestra's principal guest conductor in 2022.  In November 2022, the orchestra named Storgårds its next chief conductor, with immediate effect.

Since September 2007, the orchestra has been in a major partnership with Salford City Council, enabling the Orchestra to build active links with Salford and its communities. In 2011, the BBC Philharmonic moved to their new dedicated 6,400 sq ft (590 m2) studio at dock10 studios in Media City, Salford Quays, along with a number of other BBC departments that made the move.

Performances
Like all BBC performing groups, the orchestra contributes to the schedule of BBC Radio 3. Since 1996, most of the orchestra's live performances have been at the city's Bridgewater Hall, although it frequently tours the UK and internationally.

Whilst not having a formal "composer in residence", since 1991, the orchestra has appointed major composers to collaborate in programs of contemporary music, including Peter Maxwell Davies, James MacMillan, and HK Gruber. In more recent years, the orchestra has collaborated with BBC Radio 1 in producing orchestral performance with modern artists, including symphonies with bands Nero, The xx and The 1975.

The BBC Philharmonic has made over 150 recordings, including series of British film music, the music of George Enescu, and Stokowski's Bach transcriptions have been featured, all on the Chandos label.

Principal conductors

 Charles Groves (1944–1951)
 John Hopkins (1952–1957)
 George Hurst (1958–1968)
 Bryden Thomson (1968–1973)
 Raymond Leppard (1973–1980)
 Edward Downes (1980–1991)
 Yan Pascal Tortelier (1992–2002)
 Gianandrea Noseda (2002–2011)
 Juanjo Mena (2011–2018)
 Omer Meir Wellber (2019–2022)
 John Storgårds (2022–present)

References

External links

 Official website of the BBC Philharmonic
 Discography at Chandos
 Discography at Naxos

Philharmonic
British symphony orchestras
Musical groups from Manchester
1922 establishments in the United Kingdom
Musical groups established in 1922
Organisations based in Salford
Radio and television orchestras
Varèse Sarabande Records artists

BBC Philharmonic


Molokai (sometimes mistakenly called Molokaʻi) is the fifth largest island in the U.S. Hawaiian Islands.  The island is 38 miles long and 10 miles across. Its land area is 261 square miles.  The highest mountain is named Kamakou, and it is 4,970 feet (1,514 meters) high.

Molokai has many local indigenous names including Molokai 'Aina Momona (land of abundance), Molokai Pule O'o (land of powerful prayer), and Molokai Nui A Hina (of the goddess Hina). It is one of the least developed of the Hawaiian islands.

The only big town is named Kaunakakai, which is also the main or chief port on the island.  The airport is in Central Molokai. Also on the island is  Kalaupapa, which is a place for people who have a diease called leprosy.

Molokai has many Hawaiian fish ponds along its south shore. Many of these have been cleaned and fixed.

Islands of Hawaii

Molokai


A peace treaty is a formal (official) agreement which ends a conflict. The conflict is usually between countries or governments, but may be between any other kind of group. The conflict is usually armed conflict, such as war, or serious disputes which might lead to war.

A peace treaty is different from an armistice, which is an agreement to cease hostilities, or a surrender, in which one side agrees to give up its arms.

Peace treaties are made in stages:
Negotiation (this may take a long time).
Agreeing a form of words.
Signing the document.

Peace treaties may include various items:
Borders between countries.
Processes for solving future disputes.
Sharing resources (such as water).
What to do with refugees.
Settling existing debts.
Scale of armaments each party is allowed to have.

Ancient history

The earliest recorded peace treaty was between the Hittite and Egyptian empires. The Battle of Kadesh (about 1274 BC) took place in what is modern Syria. The entire Levant was at that time contested  between the Egyptian and Hittite empires. After a costly four-day battle, in which neither side gained a clear advantage, both sides claimed victory.

Fear of further conflict between the two states persuaded both rulers, Hattusili III and Ramesses II, to end their dispute and sign a peace treaty. Both sides were threatened by other enemies. Egypt had to defend her western border against Libyan tribesmen, while the Hittites faced the threat of the Assyrian Empire, which had conquered Mesopotamia.p256.

The peace treaty was recorded in two versions. One was in Egyptian hieroglyphics, the other in Akkadian, using cuneiform script. Fortunately, both versions survive. Such dual-language recording is common to many treaties. This treaty differs from others in that the two language versions are differently worded. Most of the text is identical, but the Hittite version claims that the Egyptians came suing for peace, while the Egyptian version claims the reverse.p73–79; 62–64.

The treaty was made in year 21 of Ramesses' reign, probably 1258 BC.p257 It contains a mutual-assistance pact in case one of the empires should be attacked by a third party, or in the event of internal strife. There are articles on the forced repatriation (sending back) of refugees, and provisions that they should not be harmed. So this might be called the first extradition treaty. There are also threats of retribution, should the treaty be broken.

This treaty is so significant that a reproduction hangs in the United Nations headquarters.

References

Relating page
Ceasefire
Peace of Westphalia

Dispute resolution

Peace treaty


In organic chemistry, an elimination reaction is when some atoms or group of atoms are taken away from a bigger molecule. Usually, a double or a triple bond are made by this reaction.

There are two main ways to do an elimination reaction. The first is called E1. It happens in two steps. If there is a good leaving group in the molecule, it can leave on its own. Then, a base or another substance can take away the other group. The second way is called E2. This happens only in one step. In this case, the base takes away one group while at the same time the leaving group goes away.

A common elimination reaction happens with alcohols. If there is strong acid around, a molecule of water can be eliminated to form the double bond.

Chemical reactions

Elimination reaction


William Arthur Ward (December 17, 1921 – March 30, 1994) was an American motivational writer.

More than 100 articles, poems and meditations written by Ward were published in such magazines as Reader's Digest, The Phi Delta Kappan, Science of Mind, and various Christian publications. His column "Pertinent Proverbs" was published by the Fort Worth Star-Telegram and also in American service club publications. He was a frequently quoted writer in Quote, an international weekly digest for public speakers.

A graduate of McMurry College, he received his master's degree at Oklahoma State University but did not complete his doctoral work at the University of Texas and at North Texas State University. In 1962 he was awarded an honorary Oklahoma City University degree in recognition of his "professional achievement, literary contributions and service to others."

Ward was an assistant to the president of Texas Wesleyan College (now Texas Wesleyan University) in Fort Worth beginning in 1955. In addition to his professional responsibilities, he was for two years the director of Methodist men for the Methodist Central Texas Conference, and for four years he taught the 140-member Sigler Bible Class at Polytechnic Methodist Church, where he also served as Sunday School superintendent and a church lay leader.

He was a professional member of the American College Public Relations Association, the International Platform Association, the Religious Public Relations Council and Phi Delta Kappa. In Fort Worth he was on the board of directors of numerous organizations, including Rotary, American Red Cross and Boy Scouts of America.

His biography appears in Who's Who in American Education, Who's Who in Public Relations, and Who's Who in the South and Southwest.

Works
Fountains of Faith,
For This One Hour, ASIN B000OKBF82
Thoughts of a Christian Optimist ASIN B00POEXA5O
Prayer Is

References

External links

 William Arthur Ward official web site

1921 births
1994 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
American motivational writers
McMurry University alumni
Oklahoma State University alumni
Texas Wesleyan University
University of North Texas alumni
University of Texas at Austin alumni

William Arthur Ward


In Sanskrit, Itihasa means history. For Hindus, an Itihasa is a story that tells about what happened in the past in the land of India. Itihasas are usually epic poems. The important itihasas to Hindus are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Modern excavations and archaeological evidences are slowly beginning to find evidences to prove these Indian epics as actual history.

The original meaning of Iithasa had a more precise connotation than the word History. The etymology attested to by Panini's indicates itiha to mean 'thus indeed, in this tradition' .
One of the earliest references to Itihaasa in the literature of antiquity is in Chanakyas's Arthashastra. Our investigations lead us to believe that the Mauryan empire for which he was the preceptor began in 1534 BCE. He defines Itihaasa, in the context of the syllabus prescribed for training of a Prince, with the following words;

पुराणमितिव्रुत्तमाख्यायिकोदाहरणं धर्मशास्त्रं चेतीतिहासः
Puraana (the chronicles of the ancient), Itivrtta (history), Akhyayika (tales), Udaaharana (illustrative stories), Dharmashastra (the canon of Righteous conduct), and Arthashastra (the science of Government) are known by (comprise the corpus of Itihaasah, ) History
Kautilya's Arthashastra, Book 1, Chapter 5
Thus, History in this definition takes on the meaning more akin to the sense of Historiography and is perhaps even more eclectic and appears to indicate a superset of political science and History as we use them today. We feel vindicated therefore in calling our forthcoming conference a conference on Indian History ( http://www.india-forum.com/forums/index.php?showtopic=2088), since we seem to ascribe the same broad meaning that Kautilya did 3 millennia ago.

The quintessential quote is that of Kalhana in the Rajatarangini,12th century CE (1147 to 1149 CE) who is regarded as a modern in Indian parlance
धर्मार्थ काममोक्षाणामुपदेश समान्वितं ।
पुरावृत्तं कथायुत्तरूपमितिहासं प्रचक्षते ।।
"Dharmaartha-kaama-moskshanaam upadesa-samanvitam |
Puraa-vrttam, kathaa-yuttarupam Itihaasah prachakshate ||"

History will be the narration of events as they happened, in the form of a story, which will be an advice to the reader to be followed in life, to gain the purusaarthas namely Kama the satiation of desires through Artha the tool, by following the path of Dharma the human code of conduct to gain Moksha or liberation.
Clearly there is an emphasis on the traditions and on the utilitarian aspect of History, embedded in the etymology of Itihaasa. The reason we draw emphasis to the ambiguity in the use of the word History is that, in our usage, while we adhere to the broader usage of the word History, it makes for clarity in usage if the Civilizational aspects are distinguished into distinct categories

References

Hinduism
Hindu texts

Itihasa


In an experiment, the parts being studied can be classed as either dependent or independent variables. The dependent variable is the possible outcome of the experiment; the effect. It depends on what happens to other variables in the experiment. The dependent variable is basically the part that you are changing. For example, if you want to know how much light a plant needs to grow, the amount of growth is the dependent. If you wanted to see if a plant would grow better in hot or cold areas your independent variable would be the temperature of the air.

The independent variable is the variable that you have control over, what you can choose and manipulate. It is usually what you think will affect the dependent variable. In some cases, you may not be able to manipulate the independent variable. It may be something that is already there and is fixed, something you would like to evaluate with respect to how it affects something else, the independent variable like color, kind, time. As an example, you are interested in how stress affects heart rate in humans. Your independent variable would be the stress and the dependent variable would be the heart rate. You can directly manipulate stress levels in your human subjects and measure how those stress levels change heart rate.

Mathematics
In mathematics, the dependent variable changes with the independent variable, hence the name (it depends on the independent variable).

In calculus, a function is a map whose action is specified on variables. Take x and y to be two variables. A function f may map x to some expression in x. Assigning gives a relation between y and x. If there is some relation specifying y in terms of x, then y is known as a dependent variable (and x is an independent variable).
A dependent variable is also known as a "response variable", "regressand", "measured variable", "responding variable", "explained variable", "outcome variable", "experimental variable", and "output variable".

If the independent variable is referred to as an "explanatory variable" then the term "response variable" is preferred by some authors for the dependent variable.

Experiments
Mathematics

Dependent and independent variables


A B-movie is usually a low-budget movie crafted by second rate talents and starring lesser-known actors. In the past, these movies were the second feature on a double-bill.  Some actors (such as Bela Lugosi) appeared mostly in B-movies. Today, many of these movies are highly regarded.  Detour starring Tom Neal and Ann Savage, for example, has come to be considered as one of the greatest of film noirs.

B-movie


Heston and Isleworth was a local government district of Middlesex, England from 1894 to 1965.

Boundaries and background
The urban district was created on their mass creation in 1894 on approximately the same boundaries of the medieval parishes of the same names. A town hall was completed in 1905. It gained the status of municipal borough in 1932.  In 1894 the two parishes were formed into one urban district except for the small minority of Heston north of the Grand Junction Canal , which was transferred to Southall Urban District.

In 1934, the minority of Cranford parish east of the Crane  was added to the borough and overall generous adjustments were made in its boundaries with Twickenham, Brentford and Chiswick, and Southall-Norwood.

Areas also included within boundaries
Before 1894 but in the late 19th century new ecclesiastical parishes, hence neighbourhoods in the traditional definition, had been legally recognised within the large parishes: four in Hounslow and churches in Spring Grove and Osterley parts of Isleworth.  Due to the multitude of other competing settlement names within these catch-all original parishes:

 Old Isleworth
 Spring Grove
 Osterley
 Syon Lane
 North Hyde
 Sutton Green
 Hounslow
 Hounslow East
 Hounslow West
 Lampton
 Worton
 Wyke
 Scrattage (completely defunct)

there is substantial overlap today in these and varied preference for names of London neighbourhoods, and the wards of the United Kingdom may conflict with definitive personal preference, such as use of the 19th century names in planning the estates in this area, Conservation Area names, individual development names, or original hamlet names.

Successor
In 1965 the municipal borough was abolished and its former area transferred to Greater London to be combined with the Municipal Borough of Brentford and Chiswick to the east and the Feltham Urban District to the south-west to form the London Borough of Hounslow. Minor loss of land, much smaller than any single original parish, took place on 1 April 1965 to the new London Boroughs of Ealing and Richmond upon Thames.

Coat of arms
The arms of Heston and Isleworth were granted in 1932. They were: Tierced in pairle Azure, Sable and gules in chief two wings conjoined argent to the dexter a cross bottonée or and to the sinister a lion rampant guardant per fesse of the last and or the fourth. The motto was 'UNITATE FORTIOR' (Latin: Stronger by union).
The silver wings on blue referred to Heston Aerodrome. The gold cross bottony came from the seal of the Monastery of St. Saviour and St. Brigit of Syon, founded in 1416 at Twickenham by King Henry V and moved to the site on which Syon House now stands circa 1431. The gold and silver lion came from the arms of Hounslow Priory, founded in the thirteenth century by the Trinitarian Brothers of Redemption, on the site now occupied by Holy Trinity Church. The motto referred to the union of the two formerly separate parishes of Heston and Isleworth.

References

External links
A Vision of Britain - Heston and Isleworth MB

Districts abolished by the London Government Act 1963
Districts of England created by the Local Government Act 1894
History of the London Borough of Hounslow
Municipal boroughs of England
History of local government in Middlesex
Isleworth

Municipal Borough of Heston and Isleworth


The Pieterskerk is a late-Gothic Dutch Protestant church in Leiden dedicated to Saint Peter. It is known today as the church of the Pilgrim Fathers, where the pastor John Robinson was buried. It is also the burial place of the scientist Willebrord Snellius.

History
In around 1100 the site held the county chapel of the counts of Holland, rebuilt in 1121. The present building took approximately 180 years to build, starting in 1390.  Famous Leiden dignitaries are buried there, including the painter Jan Steen and the Leiden professor Herman Boerhaave. The beautiful stained-glass windows already took a terrible blow during the Beeldenstorm, but were completely destroyed a couple of centuries later, in the gunpowder explosion of 12 January 1807. The windows were boarded up, and it wasn't until 1880 that a large-scale restoration took place.

The Pieterskerk used to have a church tower, the Westtoren (west tower) from 1290 on. It was nicknamed "Coningh der Zee" (king of the sea), and was completed in stages, eventually reaching 110 metres (including the 35-metre-tall wooden spire). It collapsed in the night of 5 March 1512. The tower was not restored and the church remains towerless.

Not only the stained glass windows were vandalised during the Beeldenstorm, many other beautiful statues and paintings were made victim of the Reformation. The internationally renowned painting Het Laatste Oordeel by Lucas van Leyden was barely saved by mayor Van Swanenburg.

On 7 July 1572 the church was closed for services. It reopened on 5 October of the same year for the first Protestant service. After this date the building of the church can be considered completed. In following centuries small homes were built against the sides of the church. They are still there today.

The building was deconsecrated in 1971 and since 1975 has been managed by a foundation and rented for a wide variety of events. Since 2001, with 50% government funding, a long-term restoration project started that ran until 2010. Discoveries made during this and earlier restorations were put on permanent display in the church. A mummy is also on display, that the foundation has chosen not to subject to scientific scrutiny. Though the windows have been lost, the various grave monuments by prominent Leiden sculptors can still be seen. The building is open to the public.

In 2007 there was a famous concert by the choral group Libera.

Burials
Before 1811 many prominent people were buried in the Pieterskerk, such as the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius (known for Arminianism), Herman Boerhaave, Jan Steen, the botanist Rembert Dodoens, Johannes de Laet, and John Robinson, pastor of the "Pilgrim Fathers".

For a listing, see the category Burials at the Pieterskerk, Leiden.

Gallery

References

External links

 Church website

Rijksmonuments in Leiden
Churches in Leiden
Gothic architecture in the Netherlands
Puritanism

Pieterskerk, Leiden


The Dictionarium Anglo-Britannicum is a dictionary compiled by philologist John Kersey, which was first published in London in 1708.

It was the third dictionary he had edited, after his 1702 A New English Dictionary and his 1706 revision of Edward Phillips' 1658 dictionary The New World of English Words. The Dictionarium Anglo-Britannicum is essentially an abridged version of this latter dictionary.

References
 Hüllen, Werner, A History of Roget's Thesaurus: Origins, Development and Design (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). . pp. 159–169.

External links
 Scan of the Dictionarium from Google Books

English dictionaries
1708 books

Dictionarium Anglo-Britannicum