රැධිර වර්ගයක් (වෙනත් ලෙසකින් රැධිර ගණයක්) යනු රතු රුධිර සෛලයන්ගේ (RBCs) පෘෂ්ඨය මත උරුම වු ප්‍රතිදේහජනක ධාතුන්ගේ පැවතීම හෝ නොපැවතීම මත රැධිර වර්ගීකරණයකි. රුධිර ගණ පද්ධතිය මත රදාපවතිමින්, මේ ප්‍රතිදේහජනකයන් ප්‍රෝටීන, කාබෝහයිඩ්රේට, ග්ල්ය්කෝප්‍රෝටීන, හෝ ග්ල්ය්කෝලිපිඩ, විය හැකිය. Some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from one allele (or very closely linked genes) and collectively form a blood group system.
Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 32 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT). The two most important ones are ABO and the RhD antigen; they determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB and O, with + and - denoting RhD status).

Many pregnant women carry a fetus with a blood type different from their own, and the mother can form antibodies against fetal RBCs. Sometimes these maternal antibodies are IgG, a small immunoglobulin, which can cross the placenta and cause hemolysis of fetal RBCs, which in turn can lead to hemolytic disease of the newborn called erythroblastosis fetalis, an illness of low fetal blood counts that ranges from mild to severe. Sometimes this is lethal for the fetus; in these cases it is called hydrops fetalis.

රුධිර ගණ
A complete blood type would describe a full set of 30 substances on the surface of RBCs, and an individual's blood type  is one of many possible combinations of blood-group antigens. Across the 30 blood groups, over 600 different blood-group antigens have been found, but many of these are very rare, some being found mainly in certain ethnic groups.

Almost always, an individual has the same blood group for life, but very rarely an individual's blood type changes through addition or suppression of an antigen in infection, malignancy, or autoimmune disease. Another more common cause in blood type change is a bone marrow transplant. Bone-marrow transplants are performed for many leukemias and lymphomas, among other diseases. If a person receives bone marrow from someone who is a different ABO type (e.g., a type A patient receives a type O bone marrow), the patient's blood type will eventually convert to the donor's type.

Some blood types are associated with inheritance of other diseases; for example, the Kell antigen is sometimes associated with McLeod syndrome. Certain blood types may affect susceptibility to infections, an example being the resistance to specific malaria species seen in individuals lacking the Duffy antigen. The Duffy antigen, presumably as a result of natural selection, is less common in ethnic groups from areas with a high incidence of malaria.

ABO blood group system

The ABO system is the most important blood-group system in human-blood transfusion. The associated anti-A and anti-B antibodies are usually immunoglobulin M, abbreviated IgM, antibodies. ABO IgM antibodies are produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances such as food, bacteria, and viruses. The O in ABO is often called 0 (zero, or null) in other languages.

Rh blood group system

The Rh system (Rh meaning Rhesus) is the second most significant blood-group system in human-blood transfusion with currently 50 antigens. The most significant Rh antigen is the D antigen, because it is the most likely to provoke an immune system response of the five main Rh antigens. It is common for D-negative individuals not to have any anti-D IgG or IgM antibodies, because anti-D antibodies are not usually produced by sensitization against environmental substances.  However, D-negative individuals can produce IgG anti-D antibodies following a sensitizing event: possibly a fetomaternal transfusion of blood from a fetus in pregnancy or occasionally a blood transfusion with D positive RBCs. Rh disease can develop in these cases. Rh negative blood types are much less common in proportion of Asian populations (0.3%) than they are in White (15%).
The presence or absence of the Rh antigens is signified by the + or − sign, so that for example the A− group does not have any of the Rh antigens.

ABO and Rh distribution by country

As with many other genetic traits, the distribution of ABO and Rh blood groups varies significantly between populations and countries.

Other blood group systems

32 blood-group systems have been identified, including the ABO and Rh systems. Thus, in addition to the ABO antigens and Rh antigens, many other antigens are expressed on the RBC surface membrane. For example, an individual can be AB, D positive, and at the same time M and N positive (MNS system), K positive (Kell system), Lea or Leb negative (Lewis system), and so on, being positive or negative for each blood group system antigen. Many of the blood group systems were named after the patients in whom the corresponding antibodies were initially encountered.

සායනික වැදගත්කම

රුධිර පාරවිලනය

Transfusion medicine is a specialized branch of hematology that is concerned with the study of blood groups, along with the work of a blood bank to provide a transfusion service for blood and other blood products. Across the world, blood products must be prescribed by a medical doctor (licensed physician or surgeon) in a similar way as medicines.

Much of the routine work of a blood bank involves testing blood from both donors and recipients to ensure that every individual recipient is given blood that is compatible and is as safe as possible.   If a unit of incompatible blood is transfused between a donor and recipient, a severe acute hemolytic reaction with hemolysis (RBC destruction), renal failure and shock is likely to occur, and death is a possibility. Antibodies can be highly active and can attack RBCs and bind components of the complement system to cause massive hemolysis of the transfused blood.

Patients should ideally receive their own blood or type-specific blood products to minimize the chance of a transfusion reaction.  Risks can be further reduced by cross-matching blood, but this may be skipped when blood is required for an emergency. Cross-matching involves mixing a sample of the recipient's serum with a sample of the donor's red blood cells and checking if the mixture agglutinates, or forms clumps. If agglutination is not obvious by direct vision, blood bank technicians usually check for agglutination with a microscope. If agglutination occurs, that particular donor's blood cannot be transfused to that particular recipient.  In a blood bank it is vital that all blood specimens are correctly identified, so labelling has been standardized using a barcode system known as ISBT 128.

The blood group may be included on identification tags or on tattoos worn by military personnel, in case they should need an emergency blood transfusion. Frontline German Waffen-SS had blood group tattoos during World War II.

Rare blood types can cause supply problems for blood banks and hospitals. For example Duffy-negative blood occurs much more frequently in people of African origin, and the rarity of this blood type in the rest of the population can result in a shortage of Duffy-negative blood for these patients.  Similarly for RhD negative people, there is a risk associated with travelling to parts of the world where supplies of RhD negative blood are rare, particularly East Asia, where blood services may endeavor to encourage Westerners to donate blood.

Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)

A pregnant woman can make IgG blood group antibodies if her fetus has a blood group antigen that she does not have. This can happen if some of the fetus' blood cells pass into the mother's blood circulation (e.g. a small fetomaternal hemorrhage at the time of childbirth or obstetric intervention), or sometimes after a therapeutic blood transfusion.  This can cause Rh disease or other forms of hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) in the current pregnancy and/or subsequent pregnancies.  If a pregnant woman is known to have anti-D antibodies, the Rh blood type of a fetus can be tested by analysis of fetal DNA in maternal plasma to assess the risk to the fetus of Rh disease. One of the major advances of twentieth century medicine was to prevent this disease by stopping the formation of Anti-D antibodies by D negative mothers with an injectable medication called Rho(D) immune globulin. Antibodies associated with some blood groups can cause severe HDN, others can only cause mild HDN and others are not known to cause HDN.

 රුධිර නිෂ්පාදනය
To provide maximum benefit from each blood donation and to extend shelf-life, blood banks fractionate some whole blood into several products. The most common of these products are packed RBCs, plasma, platelets, cryoprecipitate, and fresh frozen plasma (FFP).  FFP is quick-frozen to retain the labile clotting factors V and VIII, which are usually administered to patients who have a potentially fatal clotting problem caused by a condition such as advanced liver disease, overdose of anticoagulant, or disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC).

Units of packed red cells are made by removing as much of the plasma as possible from whole blood units.

Clotting factors synthesized by modern recombinant methods are now in routine clinical use for hemophilia, as the risks of infection transmission that occur with pooled blood products are avoided.

රතු රුධිර සෛල අනුකූලතාවBlood group AB  individuals have both A and B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood plasma does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. Therefore, an individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but cannot donate blood to any group other than AB.  They are known as universal recipients.Blood group A  individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the B antigen. Therefore, a group A individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals with type A or AB.Blood group B  individuals have the B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the A antigen.  Therefore, a group B individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals with type B or AB.Blood group O'  (or blood group zero in some countries) individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum contains IgM anti-A and anti-B antibodies against the A and B blood group antigens. Therefore, a group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (i.e., A, B, O or AB). If a patient in a hospital situation were to need a blood transfusion in an emergency, and if the time taken to process the recipient's blood would cause a detrimental delay, O Negative blood can be issued.  They are known as universal donors.

Table note
1. Assumes absence of atypical antibodies that would cause an incompatibility between donor and recipient blood, as is usual for blood selected by cross matching.

An Rh D-negative patient who does not have any anti-D antibodies (never being previously sensitized to D-positive RBCs) can receive a transfusion of D-positive blood once, but this would cause sensitization to the D antigen, and a female patient would become at risk for hemolytic disease of the newborn.  If a D-negative patient has developed anti-D antibodies, a subsequent exposure to D-positive blood would lead to a potentially dangerous transfusion reaction. Rh D-positive blood should never be given to D-negative women of child bearing age or to patients with D antibodies, so blood banks must conserve Rh-negative blood for these patients. In extreme circumstances, such as for a major bleed when stocks of D-negative blood units are very low at the blood bank, D-positive blood might be given to D-negative females above child-bearing age or to Rh-negative males, providing that they did not have anti-D antibodies, to conserve D-negative blood stock in the blood bank. The converse is not true; Rh D-positive patients do not react to D negative blood.

This same matching is done for other antigens of the Rh system as C, c, E and e and for other blood group systems with a known risk for immunization such as the Kell system in particular for females of child-bearing age or patients with known need for many transfusions.

ප්ලාස්මා අනුකූලතාව

Recipients can receive plasma of the same blood group, but otherwise the donor-recipient compatibility for blood plasma is the converse of that of RBCs: plasma extracted from type AB blood can be transfused to individuals of any blood group; individuals of blood group O can receive plasma from any blood group; and type O plasma can be used only by type O recipients.

Table note
1. Assumes absence of strong atypical antibodies in donor plasma

Rh D antibodies are uncommon, so generally neither D negative nor D positive blood contain anti-D antibodies.  If a potential donor is found to have anti-D antibodies or any strong atypical blood group antibody by antibody screening in the blood bank, they would not be accepted as a donor (or in some blood banks the blood would be drawn but the product would need to be appropriately labeled); therefore, donor blood plasma issued by a blood bank can be selected to be free of D antibodies and free of other atypical antibodies, and such donor plasma issued from a blood bank would be suitable for a recipient who may be D positive or D negative, as long as blood plasma and the recipient are ABO compatible.

Universal donors and universal recipients

With regard to transfusions of packed red blood cells, individuals with type O Rh D negative blood are often called universal donors, and those with type AB Rh D positive blood are called universal recipients; however, these terms are only generally true with respect to possible reactions of the recipient's anti-A and anti-B antibodies to transfused red blood cells, and also possible sensitization to Rh D antigens. One exception is individuals with hh antigen system (also known as the Bombay phenotype) who can only receive blood safely from other hh donors, because they form antibodies against the H antigen present on all red blood cells.

Blood donors with particularly strong anti-A, anti-B or any atypical blood group antibody are excluded from blood donation. The possible reactions of anti-A and anti-B antibodies present in the transfused blood to the recipient's RBCs need not be considered, because a relatively small volume of plasma containing antibodies is transfused.

By way of example: considering the transfusion of O Rh D negative blood (universal donor blood) into a recipient of blood group A Rh D positive, an immune reaction between the recipient's anti-B antibodies and the transfused RBCs is not anticipated. However, the relatively small amount of plasma in the transfused blood contains anti-A antibodies, which could react with the A antigens on the surface of the recipients RBCs, but a significant reaction is unlikely because of the dilution factors.  Rh D sensitization is not anticipated.

Additionally, red blood cell surface antigens other than A, B and Rh D, might cause adverse reactions and sensitization, if they can bind to the corresponding antibodies to generate an immune response.  Transfusions are further complicated because platelets and white blood cells (WBCs) have their own systems of surface antigens, and sensitization to platelet or WBC antigens can occur as a result of transfusion.

With regard to transfusions of plasma, this situation is reversed. Type O plasma, containing both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, can only be given to O recipients.  The antibodies will attack the antigens on any other blood type.  Conversely, AB plasma can be given to patients of any ABO blood group due to not containing any anti-A or anti-B antibodies.

Blood group genotyping
In addition to the current practice of serologic testing of blood types, the progress in molecular diagnostics allows the increasing use of blood group genotyping. In contrast to serologic tests reporting a direct blood type phenotype, genotyping allows the prediction of a phenotype based on the knowledge of the molecular basis of the currently known antigens. This allows a more detailed determination of the blood type and therefore a better match for transfusion, which can be crucial in particular for patients with needs for many transfusions to prevent allo-immunization.

ඉතිහාසය

The two most significant blood group systems were discovered by Karl Landsteiner during early experiments with blood transfusion: the ABO group in 1901  and in co-operation with Alexander S. Wiener the Rhesus group in 1937.  Development of the Coombs test in 1945,
the advent of transfusion medicine, and the understanding of ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn led to discovery of more blood groups, and now 30 human blood group systems are recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT), and across the 30 blood groups, over 600 different blood group antigens have been found; many of these are very rare or are mainly found in certain ethnic groups.  Blood types have been used in forensic science and were formerly used to demonstrate impossibility of paternity (e.g., a type AB man cannot be the father of a type O infant), but both of these uses are being replaced by genetic fingerprinting, which provides greater certainty.

සමාජය හා සංස්කෘතිය

A popular belief in Japan is that a person's ABO blood type is predictive of their personality, character, and compatibility with others. This belief is also widespread elsewhere in Asia, notably Taiwan and South Korea. Deriving from ideas of historical scientific racism, the theory reached Japan in a 1927 psychologist's report, and the militarist government of the time commissioned a study aimed at breeding better soldiers. The fad faded in the 1930s due to its lack of scientific basis and ultimately the discovery of DNA in the following decades which it later became clear had a vastly more complex and important role in both heredity generally and personality specifically. No evidence has been found to support the theory by scientists, but it was revived in the 1970s by Masahiko Nomi, a broadcaster with a background in law who had no scientific or medical background. Despite these facts, the myth still persists widely in Japanese popular culture.

මේවාත් මලන්න
Blood type (non-human)

යොමුව

වැඩිදුර කියවීම්

බාහිර සබැඳුම්
BGMUT Blood Group Antigen Gene Mutation Database at NCBI, NIH has details of genes and proteins, and variations thereof, that are responsible for blood types

 Blood types – intuitive explanation using Venn diagrams

Type
Genetics
Hematology
Transfusion medicine

රැධිර වර්ගය


Antonio Tejero Molina (born Alhaurín el Grande, Malaga, Spain, 1932) was a Lieutenant Colonel in the Civil Guard ().

On 23 February 1981, he stormed into the parliament building with fellow military and Civil Guard officers, and held the Spanish government hostage During that time, Spain was going from dictatorship to democracy. Tejero did not want democracy and wanted Spain to stay in the dictatorship.

His coup failed thanks to King Juan Carlos I. Tejero thought the King would support him because the King had been  trained by Spain's old dictator, Francisco Franco.  Instead King Juan Carlos I went on television dressed in his uniform as commander-in-chief of the Spanish Army and said the coup was wrong.  The coup soon stopped, and Spanish television had pictures of the coup leaders trying to escape by climbing out of the windows of the parliament building

1932 births
Living people
Spanish military people

Antonio Tejero


Spring is the season after winter and before summer. Days become longer and weather gets warmer in the temperate zone because the Earth tilts relative to its orbital plane around the Sun.  In many parts of the world it rains for hours.  This helps the plants grow and flowers bloom.  Often people with hay fever suffer more, because some plant pollens are allergens. Many animals have their breeding seasons in spring.  At the start of spring, people suffering from seasonal affective disorder will feel better.  The vernal equinox in springtime makes days and nights equally long in the temperate zone.

Holidays celebrated in spring include Passover and Easter.  In many countries, the period of school between early January and later May or early June is referred to as the "Spring Semester" or "Spring Term".  Spring break is a vacation period in early spring at universities and schools in various countries in the world.

Basic English 850 words

Spring (season)


The hypermoderns were a school of chess players who set out to rethink some of the principles of chess openings. The name was given to them by the Polish-French grandmaster Tartakower.

The key idea was, in reaction to the older ideas of Siegbert Tarrasch, to dispute control of the centre by more subtle methods. Whereas old theory was to occupy the centre with two or three pawns immediately, the hypermoderns concentrated more on attacking the opponent's centre. A characteristic first move was 1Nf3 with White, or 1...Nf6 with Black, especially in reply to 1d4. To 1e4 they favoured an asymmetric defence such as 1...e6 or 1...c5 rather than the classical reply 1...e5.

Nimzovich was the founder, and Alekhine, Tartakower, Réti, Grünfeld, and  Bogolyubov all took part. All were top grandmasters of the 1920s and 30s. Several modern openings owe their popularity to this group: Alekhine's Defence (1e4 Nf6); Réti's Opening (1Nf3); the King's Indian Defence (1d4 Nf6 2c4 g6 3Nc3 Bg7); the Grünfeld Defence (1d4 Bf6 2c4 g6 3Nc3 d5) and the Modern Defence (1...g6).p178

References

Chess

Hypermodern


In the United States, National Maritime Day is held every May 22 to honor people who have served in the United States Merchant Marine service.

The first National Maritime Day was May 22, 1933, based on a joint resolution passed by the United States Congress on May 20, 1933. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first President to issue a proclamation about the day.

The biggest National Maritime Day celebration was in 1946, the first National Maritime Day after the Allied Powers won World War II. That year, governors of many U.S. states also officially named the day National Maritime Day or Maritime Day for their state. The first National Maritime Day after the end of the Korean War, in 1954, was also more widely celebrated than most.

In the 2006 annual proclamation by president George W. Bush, he made special mention of the Merchant Marine service's hurricane aid work following Hurricane Katrina and the other hurricanes of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season.

References
Joint Resolution of Congress text
List of 1946 state and city proclamations
Text of Bush proclamation

Holidays of the United States

National Maritime Day


Disability Living Allowance (DLA) is a social security benefit in the United Kingdom paid to eligible claimants who have personal care and/or mobility needs as a result of a mental or physical disability. It is tax-free, non-means-tested and non-contributory. The benefit was established by the Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992, integrating the former benefits Mobility Allowance and Attendance Allowance and introducing two additional lower rates of benefit. Prior to 2013 it could be claimed by UK residents aged under sixty five years. However, the benefit was phased-out for the majority of claimants between 2013 and 2015 and replaced by a new Personal Independence Payment. DLA can still be claimed by children under sixteen and can still be received by existing claimants who were aged sixty five or over on 8 April 2013.

Eligibility

DLA is restricted to people who fall into all of the following categories:

 They must ordinarily be resident and present in the UK
 They must meet the rules concerning age: new DLA claims can only be made if the claimant is under 16; however existing claimants can continue to claim DLA if they were born on or before 8 April 1948.
 They must not be living in certain types of residential accommodation
 They must have had a disability for at least three months, and expect it to continue for at least six more months
 They must have care and/or mobility needs.
Usually, to qualify for Disability Living Allowance (DLA) for children the child must:
 Be under sixteen
 Need extra looking after or have walking difficulties
 Be in Great Britain, another European Economic Area (EEA) country or Switzerland when you claim - there are some exceptions, e.g. family members of the Armed Forces
 Be habitually resident in the UK, Ireland, Isle of Man or the Channel Islands
 Not be subject to immigration control
 Have lived in Great Britain for two of the last three years, if over 3 years old
Children under the age of three.
 A child under six months must have lived in Great Britain for at least thirteen weeks.
 A child aged between six months and three years must have lived in Great Britain for at least twenty six of the last 156 weeks.

Individuals can qualify for DLA whether or not they are working. Earnings do not affect the amount of DLA received.  People who are terminally ill typically qualify for the highest rate of Care component of DLA under what is termed "special rules".

Care component
DLA care component is paid at one of three rates: lowest, middle and highest.  From April 2021 the rates are:

Lowest rate eligibility
Individuals are entitled to the lowest rate care component if they are so severely disabled that they:
 require another person to give them attention in connection with their bodily functions for a significant portion of the day during a single period or a number of periods; or
 cannot prepare a cooked main meal for themselves provided they have all the ingredients and are aged 16 or over.

Middle rate eligibility
Individuals are entitled to the middle rate care component if they are so severely disabled that they:
 require another person to give them frequent attention throughout the day in connection with their bodily functions; or
 require prolonged or repeated attention during the night in connection with their bodily functions; or
 require continual supervision throughout the day in order to avoid substantial danger to themselves or others; or
 require another person to be awake for a prolonged period or at frequent intervals at night, for the purpose of watching over them in order to avoid substantial danger to themselves or others.

Highest rate eligibility
Individuals are entitled to the highest rate care component if they meet one of the day conditions and one of the night conditions for the middle rate care component.

Mobility component
DLA mobility component is paid at one of two rates: lower and higher.  From April 2021 the rates are:

Lower rate eligibility
Individuals are entitled to the lower rate mobility component if they are so severely mentally or physically disabled that they cannot walk outdoors on an unfamiliar route without guidance or supervision from another person most of the time.

Higher rate eligibility
Individuals are entitled to the higher rate mobility component if they:-
 are physically disabled and as a result are unable, or virtually unable, to walk; or
 are physically disabled and the exertion required to walk would endanger their life or health; or
 have had both legs amputated at or above the ankle, or were born without legs or feet; or are blind and deaf and need someone with them outdoors.
 are severely mentally impaired and/or have severe behavioural problems and receive the highest rate care component.

Mobility allowances (usually using the Motability scheme) are structured to provide persons with disabilities with mechanical aids to their mobility, which may include wheelchairs, scooters, or automobiles.

See also
Severe Disablement Allowance
Invalidity Benefit
Incapacity Benefit
Attendance Allowance
Employment and Support Allowance
Personal Independence Payment

References

External links
Guardian Special Report - State Benefits

Social security in the United Kingdom
Disability in the United Kingdom

Disability Living Allowance


Laonikos Chalkokondyles, Latinized as Laonicus Chalcocondyles (; c. 1430 – c. 1470) was a Byzantine Greek historian from Athens. He is known for his Demonstrations of Histories in ten books, which record the last 150 years of the Byzantine Empire.

Life
The Chalkokondyles were one of the oldest native families in Athens and had gained great prominence. At the time of Laonikos it was ruled by the Florentine Acciaioli family. His father George was a kinsman of Maria Melissene, the wife of Duke Antonio I Acciaioli. When Antonio died in 1435, Maria attempted to secure control of the Duchy of Athens and sent George on a mission to the Ottoman Sultan Murad II, asking that the government of Athens might be entrusted to herself and George Chalkokondyles. However, during his absence, the Duchess was enticed out of the Acropolis and a young scion of the Acciaiuoli family, Nerio II, was proclaimed Duke of Athens. Meanwhile, George Chalkokondyles had his proposal rejected, despite offering the Sultan 30,000 gold pieces, and was cast into prison. George Chalkokondyles managed to escape to Constantinople, according to William Miller "leaving his retinue, tents and beasts of burden behind him", but after leaving Constantinople by ship, he was captured by an Athenian ship and taken back to the Sultan, who pardoned him.

George with Laonikos and the rest of the family relocated to the Peloponnese, which was under Byzantine rule as the Despotate of the Morea. In 1446 Constantine Palaiologos, then Despot of the Morea, sent George on a diplomatic mission to Murad II to obtain the independence of the Greek states south of Thermopylae; enraged at the offered terms, the Sultan put George Chalkokondyles into prison, then marched on Constantine's forces holding the Hexamilion wall on the Isthmus of Corinth and after bombarding it for three days, destroyed the fortifications, massacred the defenders, then pillaged the countryside, ending all hopes of independence. According to Miller, Laonikos was "evidently" an eye-witness to this battle, although the historian Theodore Spandounes claims Laonikos was the secretary of Murad II and present at the Battle of Varna in 1444.

The one glimpse we have of Laonikos himself is in the summer of 1447, when Cyriacus of Ancona met him in the summer of 1447 at the court of Constantine Palaiologos at Mistra. Cyriacus describes him as a youth  ("surprisingly learned in Latin and Greek literature"). It was at Mistra where Laonikos was taught by George Gemistos Plethon, and who gave Laonikos his personal copy of the Histories of Herodotus: Laur. Plut. 70.6, written in 1318, with corrections by Plethon, and later used by Bessarion in 1436 to make another copy, contains a subscription written by Laonikos.

Laonikos' movements and actions after 1447 are not known with certainty. His account of the circumcision of Sultan Mehmed II's sons in 1457 suggest he was an eye-witness to the event, and his account of Ottoman finances indicate he interviewed the Sultan's accountants. Internal evidence has led Byzantinist Anthony Kaldellis to put the date Laonikos stopped writing his Histories as 1464. While Laonikos Chalkokondyles greatly relied on Ottoman sources for the sections on the Ottomans, his narrative on the rule of Mehmed II is generally antagonistic. Thus, it has been argued that Laonikos Chalkokondyles was writing for the contemporary western audience in the Turcica genre rather than for the post-Byzantine intellectuals associated with the Ottoman court. Other speculations about Laonikos Chalkokondyles' life are not as widely accepted.

According to Kaldellis, Chalkokondyles was the first to use Byzantine to refer to the state as he advocated a neo-Hellenic identity of the Romans.

Portrayals in fiction
In the 1954 Albanian–Soviet movie The Great Warrior Skanderbeg, Laonikos Chalkokondyles is portrayed as an official historian at the Ottoman Court with opportunistic views on politics who tries to discourage Skanderbeg from an anti-Ottoman insurrection. After Skanderbeg leaves the Ottoman army and becomes leader of Albania on his own right, Chalkokondyles is brought as a hostage to his court to witness the First Siege of Krujë.

The Histories of Chalkokondyles
After the Fall of Constantinople, Chalkokondyles wrote his most important historical work, Demonstrations of Histories  (Ἀποδείξεις Ἱστοριῶν). This historical work comprises one of the most important sources for the students of the final 150 years of Byzantine history, despite being defective in its chronology. It covers the period from 1298 to 1463, describing the fall of the Byzantine empire and the rise of the Ottoman Turks, which forms the centre of the narrative, down to the conquest of the Venetians and Mathias, king of Hungary, by Mehmed II. The capture of Constantinople he rightly regarded as an historical event of far-reaching importance and compared it to the fall of Troy. The work also sketches other manners and civilization of England, France and Germany, whose assistance the Greeks sought to obtain against the Turks. For his account of earlier events he was able to obtain information from his father.

His model is Thucydides (according to Bekker, Herodotus), his language is tolerably pure and correct, and his style is simple and clear. The text, however, is in a very corrupt state. The archaic language he used made his texts hard to read in many parts, while the antiquarian names, with which he named people of his time, created confusion (Γέται, Δάκες, Λίγυρες, Μυσοί, Παίονες, Ἕλληνες). The extended use of the name "Hellenes" (Ἕλληνες), which Laonikos used to describe the Byzantines contributed to the connection made between the ancient Greek civilization and the modern one.

Chalkokondyles' History was first published in a Latin translation by Conrad Clauser at Basel in 1556, although the translation itself bears the date of November 1544. A French translation was published by Blaise de Vigenère in 1577 with a later edition by Artus Thomas, with valuable illustrations on Turkish matters. The editio princeps of the Greek text had to wait until 1615 for J. B. Baumbach's printing.

The two best editions are: Historiarum Libri Decem, ed. I. Bekker, Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae (Bonn 1843) and Historiae Demonstrationes, 2 vols., ed. E. Darko, (Budapest 1922–7). The text can also be found in J.-P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, volume 159.

A complete English translation (by Anthony Kaldellis) of The Histories was published in two volumes in 2014 by Harvard University Press, as volumes 33 and 34 of The Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library. Partial translations include one of Books I-III in Laonikos Chalkokondyles. A Translation and Commentary of the Demonstrations of Histories, trans. Nikolaos Nikoloudis (Athens 1996) and another of Book VIII in J. R. Melville Jones, The Siege of Constantinople: Seven Contemporary Accounts (Amsterdam 1972), pp. 42–55.

See also
Greek scholars in the Renaissance

Notes

References

Bibliography
E. Darko, 'Zum Leben Laonikos Chalkondyles', Byzantinische Zeitschrift 24 (1923-4) 29–39.
Anthony Kaldellis, A New Herodotos: Laonikos Chalkokondyles on the Ottoman Empire, the Fall of Byzantium, and the Emergence of the West, Harvard University Press, 2014.

Further reading
There is a biographical sketch of Laonicus and his brother, Demetrius Chalcondyles in Greek by Antonius Calosynas, a physician of Toledo, who lived in the latter part of the sixteenth century: see C. Hopf, Chroniques Gréco-romanes (Paris 1873), pp. 243–5.
Hans Ditten, Der Russland-Exkurs des Laonikos Chalkokondyles : interpretiert und mit Erläuterungen versehen (Berlin 1968).
Jonathan Harris, "Laonikos Chalkokondyles and the rise of the Ottoman Empire", Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 27 (2003), 153–70.
Nikolaos Nikoloudis, "Laonikos Chalkokondyles on the Council of Florence", Ekklesiastikos Pharos 3 (1992) 132–4.
Speros Vryonis, "Laonikos Chalkokondyles and the Ottoman budget", International Journal of Middle East Studies, 7 (1976), 423–32, and reprinted in Vryonis, Studies on Byzantium, Seljuks and Ottomans,  No. XII.
 Aslıhan Akışık, "Self and Other in the Renaissance: Laonikos Chalkokondyles and Late Byzantine Intellectuals" , Ph.D. dissertation, 2013.
Aslıhan Akışık-Karakullukçu, "A question of audience: Laonikos Chalkokondyles' Hellenism", Byzantinische Zeitschrift 112.1 (2019), 1-30.

External links
Opera Omnia by Migne Patristica Graeca with analytical indexes

1430s births
1470 deaths
Writers from Athens
15th-century Byzantine historians
Greek Renaissance humanists
Byzantine Athenians
15th-century Greek people
Laonikos
People from the Duchy of Athens
People from the Despotate of the Morea
15th-century Greek writers
15th-century Greek educators

Laonikos Chalkokondyles


Joseph Pulitzer (April 10, 1847 – October 29, 1911) was an American publisher of Jewish descent. He is best known for the Pulitzer Prizes, which were started after his death by his will.

He is also known, long with William Randolph Hearst, for starting yellow journalism as a way to sell more papers by printing sensationalism in articles.

Early days: The Post-Dispatch
Joseph Pulitzer was born in Makó, in present-day Hungary. Originally, he wanted to do a military career, but was turned down by the Austrian army. They said his health was bad and that he did not see very well. He went to live in the United States in 1864 to serve the Union in the American Civil War. After the war he settled in St. Louis, Missouri. In 1868 he began working there for a German-language daily newspaper, the Westliche Post. He joined the Republican Party and was elected to the Missouri State Assembly in 1869. In 1872, Pulitzer bought the Post for $3,000. Then, in 1878, he bought the St. Louis Dispatch for $2,700 and merged the two papers, which became the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, which remains St. Louis' daily newspaper. It was at the Post-Dispatch that Pulitzer developed his role as a champion of the common man with exposés and a hard-hitting populist approach.

The New York World
By 1883, Pulitzer had made a lot of money. In that year, he bought the New York World. That newspaper had been losing $40,000 a year. He paid $346,000 to Jay Gould, the owner. Pulitzer changed its focus to human-interest stories, scandal, and sensationalism. In 1885, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, but resigned after a few months' service. He did not like politics. In 1887, he recruited the famous investigative journalist Nellie Bly. In 1895 the World introduced the popular Yellow Kid comic by Richard F. Outcault. This was the first newspaper comic printed with color. Under Pulitzer's leadership, circulation grew from 15,000 to 600,000, making The New York World the largest newspaper in the nation.

Health problems
The editor of the rival New York Sun attacked Pulitzer in print. He called him "The Jew who gave up his religion". This was in 1890. This was intended to turn away Pulitzer's Jewish readership. Pulitzer's already failing health deteriorated rapidly, and he left the newsroom. He continued to actively manage the paper from his vacation retreat in Bar Harbor, Maine and his New York mansion.

In 1895, William Randolph Hearst purchased the rival New York Journal, which led to a circulation war. This competition with Hearst, particularly the coverage before and during the Spanish-American War, linked Pulitzer's name with yellow journalism.

After the World exposed a fraudulent payment of $40 million by the United States to the French Panama Canal Company in 1909, Pulitzer was indicted for libeling Theodore Roosevelt and J. P. Morgan. The courts dismissed the indictments, in a victory for freedom of the press.

Tries to set up a school for journalism
In 1892, Pulitzer offered Columbia University's president, Seth Low, money to set up the world's first school of journalism. The university initially turned down the money, evidently unimpressed by Pulitzer's unscrupulous character. In 1902, Columbia's new president Nicholas Murray Butler was more receptive to the plan for a school and prizes, but it would not be until after Pulitzer's death that this dream would be fulfilled. Pulitzer left the university $2 million in his will, which led to the creation in 1912 of the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism, but by then the first school of journalism had been created at the University of Missouri. Columbia's Graduate School of Journalism remains one of the most prestigious in the world.

Joseph Pulitzer died aboard his yacht in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina in 1911. He is interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York. In 1917, the first Pulitzer Prizes were awarded, in accordance with Pulitzer's wishes.

In 1989, Pulitzer was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame.

References
 Brian, Denis. Pulitzer: A Life (2001)

Other websites
 A well-researched paper on Pulitzer's life and journalism
 A well-written detailed biography
 St. Louis Walk of Fame

1847 births
1911 deaths
American journalists
Hungarian Jews
Jewish American politicians
Jewish American writers
Jewish military people
Military personnel of the American Civil War
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Politicians from New York City

United States representatives from New York (state)
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
Writers from New York City

Joseph Pulitzer


Côtes-d'Armor is a department found in the west of France. Its prefecture is Saint-Brieuc and its population is about 561,000 (). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Côtes-d'Armor has also 3 subprefectures: Dinan, Guingamp and Lannion.

Côtes-d'Armor

Côtes-d'Armor


Shots are a brand of confectionery currently manufactured by Cadbury. They consist of milk chocolate balls coated in a hard sugar outer layer and are sold in Ireland and the United Kingdom.

In 2009 the packaging was re-designed to look similar to the Cadbury Clusters packaging.  They are unusually hard to find, motorway service stations being one of the few places where they are almost certain to be found.

India & South Africa
There is a variant of Shots available in India and South Africa under the Dairy Milk brand called "Dairy Milk Shots", which use a thinner coating of sugar than the ones in the UK.

References

External links
 Cadbury UK - Shots
 Cadbury South Africa - Dairy Milk Shots

Shots
Mondelez International brands

Cadbury Shots


The  is a short work attributed to Tacitus, in dialogue form, on the art of rhetoric. Its date of composition is unknown, though its dedication to Lucius Fabius Justus places its publication around 102 AD.

Summary
The dialogue itself, set in the 70s AD, follows the tradition of Cicero's speeches on philosophical and rhetorical arguments. It is set in the home of Curiatius Maternus, one of the speakers, to whom two leading lawyers of the day, Marcus Aper and Julius Secundus, have come to discuss a recent event; the fourth speaker, Lucius Vipstanus Messalla, arrives later. All four men are attested historical personages. The beginning of the work is a speech in defence of eloquence and poetry. It then deals with the decadence of oratory, for which the cause is said to be the decline of the education, both in the family and in the school, of the future orator. The education is not as accurate as it once was; the teachers are not prepared and a useless rhetoric often takes the place of the general culture.

After a lacuna, the  ends with a speech delivered by Maternus reporting what some believe is Tacitus's opinion. Maternus thinks that great oratory was possible with the freedom from any power, more precisely in the anarchy, that characterized the Roman Republic during the civil wars. It became anachronistic and impracticable in the quiet and ordered society that resulted from the institution of the Roman Empire. The peace, warranted by the Empire, should be accepted without regret for a previous age that was more favorable to the wide spread of literacy and the growth of great personality.

Critical evaluation

Some believe that at the base of all of Tacitus's work is the acceptance of the Empire as the only power able to save the state from the chaos of the civil wars. The Empire reduced the space of the orators and of the political men, but there is no viable alternative to it. Nevertheless, Tacitus does not accept the imperial government apathetically, and he shows, as in the Agricola the remaining possibility of making choices that are dignified and useful to the state.

The date of publication of the  is uncertain, but it was probably written after the Agricola and the Germania. Many characteristics set it apart from the other works of Tacitus, so much so that its authenticity may be questioned, even if it is always grouped with the Agricola and the Germania in the manuscript tradition. The way of speaking in the  seems closer to the model of Cicero, refined but not prolix, which inspired the teaching of Quintilian; it lacks the incongruities that are typical of Tacitus's major historical works. It may have been written when Tacitus was young; its dedication to Fabius Iustus would thus give the date of publication, but not the date of writing. More probably, the unusually classical style may be explained by the fact that the  is a work of rhetoric. For this genre the structure, the language, and the style of Cicero were the usual models.

References

External links

Prose texts in Latin
2nd-century Latin books
Rhetoric
Dialogues
Works by Tacitus

Dialogus de oratoribus


Sir Roger Norrington OBE (born 16 March 1934) is a British conductor who is famous for conducting music from historical periods using period instruments.

Life
Norrington studied at Clare College, Cambridge and the Royal College of Music where his teachers included  Adrian Boult.

Norrington started his career singing tenor.  In 1962 he formed the Schütz Choir (later the Schütz Choir of London). From 1969 to 1984, he was conductor (music director) of Kent Opera. In 1978 he formed the London Classical Players and he conducted them until 1997.  From 1985 to 1989 he was Principal Conductor of the Bournemouth Sinfonietta. From 1990 to 1994, he was music director of the Orchestra of St. Luke's. In 1998, he became principal conductor of the Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra.  He became Artistic Advisor of the Handel and Haydn Society in 2006.

Norrington is best known for performances of Baroque, Classical and Romantic music using period instruments and period style.  He likes his orchestras to play with very little vibrato.

He conducted the Last Night of The Proms for the first time on 13 September 2008.

Norrington was made an OBE in 1980, a CBE in 1990 and a Knight Bachelor in 1997.

British conductors
Performers of early music
1934 births
Living people
Grammy Award winners
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Knights Bachelor

Roger Norrington


The Missouri Compromise, also called the Compromise of 1820, was a plan proposed by Henry Clay of the U.S. state of Kentucky. It was signed by President James Monroe and passed in 1820. The agreement was between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery groups in the United States Congress, mostly about the regulation of slavery in the western territories. It admitted Missouri as a slave state to please the South and it also admitted Maine as a free state to please the North. It kept the balance of power in the United States Senate between the free states and slave states. The plan also called for slavery to be banned from the Louisiana Territory north of the parallel 36 degrees 30' north (also known as the Missouri Compromise Line), except inside the borders of the proposed state of Missouri.

Before the agreement, the House of Representatives had refused to accept this compromise and a conference committee was appointed. The United States Senate refused to concur in the amendment, and the whole measure was lost.

During the following session (1819-1820), the House passed a similar bill with an amendment, created on January 26, 1820 by John W. Taylor of New York, allowing Missouri into the union as a slave state. In December, the question had been complicated by the admission in of Alabama, a slave state, making the number of slave and free states the same. Also, there was a bill in passage through the House (January 3, 1820) to admit Maine as a free state.

The Senate decided to connect the two measures. It passed a bill for the admission of Maine with an amendment allowing the people of Missouri to make a state constitution. Before the bill returned to the House, a second amendment was adopted on the motion of Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois, excluding slavery from the Missouri Territory north of the parallel 36°30' north (the southern boundary of Missouri), except within the limits of the proposed state of Missouri.

1820 in the United States
19th century in Missouri
Slavery in the United States
Origins of the American Civil War

Missouri Compromise


Miri Ben-Ari is a hip-hop violinist.  She was born in Israel in 1978 and was brought up in a small town near Tel Aviv. She was trained as a classical violinist.  She was a prodigy and was praised by famous violinists like Yehudi Menuhin and Isaac Stern.

At the age of 16 she took herself to the United States.  She spoke no English at the time. In New York City, she met several musicians such as the trumpeter Wynton Marsalis who supported her.  She became interested in contemporary R&B (Rhythm and Blues) and hip-hop. In January 2001 she appeared in the Carnegie Hall with the rapper Wyclef Jean.  Later that year her TV performances on Showtime at the Apollo added to her fame. Her second jazz album, entitled Song of The Promised Land features the dance single Peace in the Middle East as well as two tracks together with Wynton Marsalis.  She has now sold millions of records, and is known as "the hip-hop violinist".  This was the title of a record released in 2005 by Universal which includes the single "Sunshine to the Rain" featuring Scarface and Anthony Hamilton.  In 2004 she toured world-wide with rapper Kanye West.   She has a very personal sound which is a mixture of Classical, jazz, hip-hop, R&B and world music.  She won her first Grammy award in 2005 for co-writing "Jesus Walks" which received a trophy for the "Best Rap Song" in 2005.

1978 births
Living people
Jazz musicians
Jewish Israeli musicians
Israeli violinists

Miri Ben-Ari


Elegance is the attribute of being unusually effective and simple. It is frequently used as a standard of {tastefulness, particularly in the areas of fashion and decoration.

Some associate elegance with simplicity of design. Others understand the word in an opulent light as in tasteful richness of design or ornamentation, like in "the elegance of clothings."

Visual stimuli are considered elegant if a small number of colors and stimuli are used. The color white is often associated with elegance, usually along with blue or black.

Related pages
 Aesthetics

Vocabulary

Elegance


In music, a part is a line of music which is played by one player or group of players (or sung by one or more singers).  This is the usual meaning of the word "part" when talking about musical compositions.

When a group of instruments are all playing the same notes together - like the first violins in an orchestra, they are all playing the same part.  The second violins are playing another part, the violas are playing yet another part, etc.

In a string quartet each of the four instruments plays a different part.

A group of singers who are all singing the tune together are singing in unison.  If they divide into soprano, alto, tenor and bass, they are singing in four parts.  The sopranos may be singing the tune and the altos, tenors and basses are providing the harmony underneath.  This is called "4 part harmony".  If each of the four parts has its own share of the melody (or its own melody) it is polyphonic music.  Polyphonic music is always in several parts.

Sometimes music for the piano or organ may be written in a strict number of parts, e.g. a 5 part fugue for the piano could also be performed on five different instruments because there are always exactly five different lines of music (although sometimes a part will have a rest, but this is always shown by rests in the music).  Although written on two staves for the pianist (or three staves for an organist) it could be written on five staves: one stave for each part.

Another word for a musical part is voice.  In most other European languages the word for part in this musical sense is the same as the normal word for  voice e.g. in German: Stimme or French voix.

In general, the more parts there are in a musical composition the harder it is to compose because they all have to fit together to sound nice.  The 16th century composer Thomas Tallis wrote a motet called Spem in alium which is in 40 parts.  A choir of at least 40 people is needed to sing it, and even then each person will be singing something different to all the others.

Orchestral parts
A slightly different (but related) meaning of "part" can be the actual printed music that a player in an orchestra or band puts on the music stand to play from.  The oboe part, for example, will just have the notes that the oboe plays.  In contrast, the conductor has a musical score in which all the instrumental parts are written underneath one another.

"Part" meaning "section"
The word part can also be used in its normal meaning of  section (i.e. a bit of something). We can say: "the first part of the movement is played just by the woodwind instruments".

Sometimes a large work like an oratorio will be split into two or three "Parts" (in opera these would be called "Acts").

Musical terminology

Part (music)


Male enhancement supplements work by increasing the amount of blood flow the genital region receives and the volume of blood that it can retain. In a flaccid state, the penis, like any other part of the body, receives a normal amount of blood flow. When an erection occurs, the penis is surged with a rich supply of blood which is then trapped in the spongy tissues of the Cavernosa and Spongiosum.

Male enhancement supplements can be synthetic or herbal. Synthetic ones may have more side-effects.

The time it takes to see results, said to be a matter of weeks, depends on a man's body type, eating habits, overall health, genetics, and other factors.

Some herbal male enhancement supplements

Supplements which are said to have effect, may be made from herbs such as:
 Muira Puama (a powerful aphrodisiac),
 Ginkgo biloba (improves peripheral circulation, oxygenation, and increases blood flow to the genitals),
 Horny Goat (stress reduction),
 Panax Ginseng (Used to combat impotence, infertility, and premature ejaculation, it normalizes blood pressure while rejuvenating and revitalizing the body. It also promotes the growth of nerve tissue.),
 Damiana (a sexual stimulant for men and women),
 Inosine (improves performance),
 Tribulus Terrestris (increase levels of testosterone by increasing the body's production of luteinizing hormone (LH) levels),
 Cayenne Fruit (stimulates blood flow by strengthening the heart, capillaries, and nerves),
 Ginseng (rejuvenator, sexual stimulant, and body fortifier against the effects of environmental stress),
 Fo-Ti (rejuvenating properties; ancients believed it can help one preserve youthfulness and restore fertility),
 Gotu Kola (impotence remedy) and
 Saw Palmett (nourish the nerves, toning and strengthening the male reproductive system, particularly the prostate gland).
 All Natural Male Enhancement FAQ – The Positive Effects and Side Effects

Human sexuality

Male enhancement


Carambola (Averrhoa carambola), also known as star fruit, is a tropical fruit. The fruit grows on trees that are native to India, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. Star fruit is common in the south of Asia, Australia and all of the islands around Australia. The tree is also grown in tropic islands.

Origins and distribution

The carambola has been growing in parts of Asia for hundreds of years. It may have first been in Sri Lanka and Moluccas. Malaysia grows the most carambola in the world and it also grows in Bangladesh.
Because of insects and disease, whole carambolas cannot be taken into the USA.  In the USA, star fruit is grown in Florida, Texas, South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, California, Texas, Arizona, Puerto Rico and Hawaii.

Taste
Star fruit tastes best ripe (yellow with a little green). It will also be brown on the five edges and feel hard. If the star fruit is overripe it will be yellow with brown spots. You can eat all of the fruit, even the skin. It is sweet and very juicy. The taste is a little bit like a subtle mix of papaya, orange and grapefruit.

Cultivation
The Carambola is a tropical fruit. In Northern India, it grows up to 4,000 feet in elevation. It prefers a total exposure to the sun but requires high humidity and a total of 70 inches or more of rainfall a year. It requires good drainage of the soil.

Carambola trees are planted 20 feet or more from each other. They grow fast and makes fruit when they are four or five years old. The rain during Spring makes the amount of fruit lower. In perfect conditions, Carambola can make from 200 to 400 pounds of fruit a year. The fruit is picked mainly during the months of June, July, and August.

Major pests are fruit flies, ants, and birds.  In the United States, they are also vulnerable to frosts.

Tropical fruit

Carambola


In Computer science, a queue is a data structure, used for storing items, before they are processed. Generally, the following operations exist:
 Enqueue: add the item to the back of the queue
 Dequeue: remove the item at the front of the queue
 Optionally, there may be an operation to look at the item at the front of the queue, without removing it.
Items that are between the first and the last element of the queue are not directly accessible.

There is a specialization, called priority queue: In a priority queue, each item also has a weight, which determine the position of the item in a queue.

Data structures

Queue (abstract data type)


The  (BOE; "", from 1661 to 1936 known as the Gaceta de Madrid, "") is the official gazette of the Kingdom of Spain and may be published on any day of the week. The content of the BOE is authorized and published by Royal Assent and with approval from the Spanish Presidency Office.

The BOE publishes decrees by the , Spain's Parliament (comprising the Senate and the Congress of Deputies) as well as those orders enacted by the Spanish Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 provides in Article 9.3 that "The Constitution guarantees ... the publication of laws." This includes the official publishing of all Spanish judicial, royal and national governmental decrees, as well as any orders by the Council of Ministers.

According to Royal Decree 181/2008 of 8 February, the BOE is the official journal of the Kingdom of Spain, providing the State Government the means to publish mandatory laws, regulations and other acts approved by the parliaments. It therefore contains a comprehensive list of all Laws passed in parliament, the provisions adopted by the Government of Spain and the general provisions of the Autonomous Communities.

Following Law 11/2007 of 22 June, concerning the electronic access of citizens to Public Services, and Royal Decree 181/2008 of 8 February, concerning the official gazette, the publication ceased in its traditional print format on 31 December 2008 and switched to an online mode of dissemination.

Structure
Since 2009, the gazette is now primarily published electronically. Each individual notice is now published as its own electronic document, pagination begins and ends every year with each notice following a continuous page numbering system.

Notices are currently structured in the following way:

Section I General provisions
The organic laws, laws, royal legislative decrees and royal decree-laws.
International treaties and conventions.
The laws of the legislative assemblies of the autonomous communities.
Regulations and other general provisions.
The normative regulations emanating from the governing councils of the Autonomous Communities.

Section II Authorities and personnel
Composed of two subsections:
Appointments, situations and incidents.
Competitions and contests.

Section III Other provisions
Composed of the provisions that must be published with no general character or apply to other sections: grants and subsidies, service letters, collective agreements of general scope, curricula, etc.

Section IV Administration of Justice
Edicts, notices, requisitions and announcements of the Courts.

Section V Ads
Grouped as follows:
Ads bidding and awards.
Other official announcements.
Bulleting.

There is also an independent supplement in which statements, statements and orders of the Constitutional Court are published.

See also
 Boletín Oficial del Estado (Spanish Wikipedia)
 Spanish government orders and decorations
 Grandees of Spain

References

External links

 Official website of the  (BOE)

Daily newspapers published in Spain

Government agencies of Spain
Spanish-language newspapers

Boletín Oficial del Estado


A wide receiver (or WR, wideout) is an American football player whose main duty is to catch the football when it is thrown by the quarterback.

Wide receivers may also block, run with the football and sometimes throw the football besides just catching it. They can wear jersey numbers 10-19 and 80-89 in the National Football League, but there are no limits in college football.

American football positions

Wide receiver


Liberation theology is a movement within the theology of Christianity. It is particularly active in the Roman Catholic Church. The Jesuits are one of the orders who also follow it. Liberation Theology aims to help the poor people in the world. Often, its ideas are strongly coupled and influenced by those of Socialism and Marxism.

Christian theology

Liberation theology


Sēo Basƿe Heorte is a U.S. mīlitisc decoration gegiefen on naman þæs Foresittend þāra Geānlǣhtra Rīca tō þǣm þe those who are wounded or killed while serving in or with the U.S. military after April 5, 1917.

Appearance

Sēo Basƿe Heorte is heortod medal within a Gold border, 1 3/8 inches wide, containing a profile of General George Washington. Above the heart appears a shield of the Washington Coat of Arms (a White shield with two Red bars and three Red stars in chief) between sprays of Green leaves. The reverse (which is shown to the right) consists of a raised Bronze heart with the words "FOR MILITARY MERIT" below the coat of arms and leaves. The ribbon is 1 3/8 inches wide and consists of the following stripes: 1/8 inch White 67101; 1 1/8 inches Purple 67115; and 1/8 inch White 67101.

Stǣr
Sēo frume Basƿe Heorte, designated as the Badge of Military Merit, was established by General George Washington by order from his headquarters at Newburgh, New York, August 7, 1782.

Subsequent to the Revolution, the Badge of Military Merit (also known as the Order of the Purple Heart) had fallen into disuse and no further awards were made. By Order of the President of the United States, the Purple Heart was revived on the 200th Anniversary of George Washington's birth, out of respect to his memory and military achievements, by War Department General Orders No. 3, dated February 22, 1932. The criteria was announced in War Department Circular dated February 22, 1932 and authorized award to soldiers, upon their request, who had been awarded the Meritorious Service Citation Certificate, Army Wound Ribbon, or were authorized to wear Wound Chevrons subsequent to April 5, 1917. Purple Heart #1 was awarded to General Douglas MacArthur who was, at that time, serving as Chief of Staff of the United States Army.

During the early period of Ōðru Ƿoruldgūþ (December 8, 1941 to September 22, 1943), the Purple Heart was awarded both for wounds received in action against the enemy and for meritorious performance of duty. With the establishment of the Legion of Merit, by an Act of Congress, the practice of awarding the Purple Heart for meritorious service was discontinued. By Executive Order 9277, dated December 3, 1942, the decoration was extended to be applicable to all services and the order required that regulations of the Services be uniform in application as far as practicable. This executive order also authorized award only for wounds received.

Executive Order 10409, dated February 12, 1952, revised authorizations to include the Service Secretaries subject to approval of the Secretary of Defense. Executive Order 11016, dated April 25, 1962, included provisions for posthumous award of the Purple Heart. Executive Order 12464, dated February 23, 1984, authorized award of the Purple Heart as a result of terrorist attacks or while serving as part of a peacekeeping force subsequent to March 28, 1973.

The Senate approved an amendment to the 1985 Defense Authorization Bill on June 13, 1985, which changed the precedent from immediately above the Good Conduct Medal to immediately above the Meritorious Service Medals. Public Law 99-145 authorized the award for wounds received as a result of friendly fire. Public Law 104-106 expanded the eligibility date, authorizing award of the Purple Heart to a former prisoner of war who was wounded before April 25, 1962.

The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1998 (Public Law 105-85) changed the criteria to delete authorization for award of the Purple Heart Medal to any civilian national of the United States while serving under competent authority in any capacity with the Armed Forces. This change was effective May 18, 1998.

Criteria

Award Specifications
The Purple Heart differs from all other decorations in that an individual is not "recommended" for the decoration; rather he or she is entitled upon being killed or wounded in a manner meeting the specific criteria of AR 600-8-22:
 In any action against an enemy of the United States;
 In any action with an opposing armed force of a foreign country in which the Armed Forces of the United States are or have been engaged;
 While serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party;
 As a result of an act of any such enemy of opposing armed forces;
 As the result of an act of any hostile foreign force;
 After March 28, 1973, as a result of an international terrorist attack against the United States or a foreign nation friendly to the United States, recognized as such an attack by the Secretary of the department concerned, or jointly by the Secretaries of the departments concerned if persons from more than one department are wounded in the attack; or,
 After March 28, 1973, as a result of military operations, while serving outside the territory of the United States as part of a peacekeeping force.
 After December 7, 1941, by weapon fire while directly engaged in armed conflict, regardless of the fire causing the wound.
 While held as a prisoner of war or while being taken captive.

A "wound" is defined as an injury to any part of the body from an outside force or agent. A physical lesion is not required; however, the wound for which the award is made must have required treatment by a medical officer and records of medical treatment for wounds or injuries received in action must have been made a matter of official record.

Individuals wounded or killed as a result of "friendly fire" in the "heat of battle" will be awarded the Purple Heart as long as the "friendly" projectile or agent was released with the full intent of inflicting damage or destroying enemy troops or equipment.

Award Examples

Examples of enemy-related injuries which clearly justify award of the Purple Heart are as follows:
Injury caused by enemy bullet, sharpnel, or other projectile created by enemy action.
Injury caused by enemy placed mine or trap.
Injury caused by enemy released chemical, biological or nuclear agent.
Injury caused by vehicle or aircraft accident resulting from enemy fire.
Concussion injuries caused as a result of enemy generated explosions.

Denial Examples

Examples of combat related injuries which do not qualify for the Purple Heart are as follows:

Developing a service connected disability, such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, months or years after having been engaged in enemy combat.
Suffering environmental injuries in a combat zone, such as frostbite or sunburn
Injured while performing a mission related to combat, but not in direct contact with enemy forces. An example would be falling and breaking a bone while on a patrol for an enemy camp or being involved in a vehicle accident while tranversing a road through a combat zone.
A physical disability which occurred relating to combat with the enemy. An example would be a service member who suffered from hearing loss after having been shelled by enemy artillery.
An injury which occurred in combat, but was as the result of taking cover or retreating. An example would be a soldier who, while under fire from the enemy, dives into a fox hole and shatters a bone or dislocates a joint.
A malicious injury caused by another allied solider. An example would be having been shot deliberately, by another friendly forces soldier, as the result of an argument.
Injured by the enemy through sheer negligence of duty. An example would be intentionally walking into a marked enemy minefield or deliberately exposing oneself to enemy fire with a desire to be wounded or killed. Such cases are often very hard to determine, since the definition of negligence is open to interpretation.
Any self inflicted wound, even if it was during combat with an enemy. If determined to be "in the heat of the battle", such as being shot with one's own weapon while struggling hand to hand with an enemy, the Purple Heart may be authorized. The stipulation mainly applies to those who wound themselves on purpose to avoid combat duty or who seek evacuation from a dangerous area.

Presentation Procedures

Modern Day Presentations

Current active duty personnel are awarded the Purple Heart upon recommendation from their chain of command, stating the injury that was received and the action in which the service member was wounded. The award authority for the Purple Heart is normally at the level of an Army Brigade, Marine Corps Division, Air Force Wing, or Navy Task Force. While the award of the Purple Heart is considered automatic for all wounds received in combat, each award presentation must still be reviewed to ensure that the wounds received were as a result of enemy action.

Modern day Purple Heart presentations are recorded in both hardcopy and electronic service records. The annotation of the Purple Heart is denoted both with the service member's parent command and at the headquarters of the military service department. An original citation and award certificate are presented to the service member and filed in the field service record.

Unrecorded Presentations

During the Vietnam War, Korean War and World War II, the Purple Heart was often awarded "on the spot", with occasional entries made into service records, but this was often not the case. In addition, during the mass demobilizations that followed each of America's major wars of the 20th century, it was a common occurrence for the Purple Heart to be omitted from service records, due to clerical errors, once the service record was closed upon discharge.

An added complication is that a number of field commanders would engage in "bedside presentations" of the Purple Heart which would typically entail a General entering a hospital with a box of Purple Hearts, pinning them on the pillows of wounded service members, and then departing with no official records kept of the visit or the award of the Purple Heart. Service members, themselves, could complicate the issue by leaving hospitals unofficially, returning to their units in haste to rejoin a battle or to not appear as a malinger. In such cases, even if a service member had received actual wounds in combat, both the award of the Purple Heart, as well as the entire visit to the hospital which treated the enemy wound, would never be recorded in official records.

Retroactive Presentations

Service members requesting retroactive awards of the Purple Heart must normally apply through the National Personnel Records Center. Following a review of service records, those Army members so qualified are awarded the Purple Heart by the U.S. Army Human Resources Command in Alexandria, Virginia. Air Force veterans are awarded the Purple Heart by the Awards Office of Randolph Air Force Base while the Navy, Marine Corps, and United States Coast Guard presents Purple Hearts to veterans through the Navy Liaison Officer at the National Personnel Records Center.

Simple clerical errors, where a Purple Heart is denoted in military records but was simply omitted from a Report of Separation, are corrected on site at the National Personnel Records Center through issuance of a document known as a DD-215.

Pre-Creation Requests

As the Purple Heart did not exist prior to 1932, records of the decoration are not annotated in service histories of those veterans who were wounded or killed by enemy action prior to the establishment of the medal. The Purple Heart, however, is retroactive to 1917 meaning that it may be presented to veterans as far back as the First World War. In such cases, service departments will review service histories and all available records to determine if a veteran may be retroactively awarded the Purple Heart.

Destroyed Record Requests

Due to the 1973 National Archives Fire, a large number of retroactive Purple Heart requests are difficult to verify since all records to substantiate the award may very well have been destroyed. As a solution to this, the National Personnel Records Center maintains a separate office to deal with Purple Heart requests where service records have been destroyed in the 1973 fire. In such cases, NPRC searches through unit records, military pay records, and records of the Department of Veterans Affairs. If a Purple Heart is warranted, all available alternate records sources are forwarded to the military service department for final determination of issuance.

Last resort requests

Some veterans, who have exhausted all available sources, often still feel that they should be awarded a Purple Heart, even if there are no records of the decoration. In such cases, service members may appeal directly to the military service department by way of a Defense Department Form 149, which requests an official change to military records. Usually, if the 149 is denied by the service department, there is nothing more a veteran can do and will not be awarded the Purple Heart. In some cases, however, veterans have been recommended for the Purple Heart, after the fact, by a United States Senator or Congressman. Such cases are treated as brand new award recommendations and the process for presenting the Purple Heart begins again with a review of records and interview of witnesses to the action in which a service member was wounded.

Ūtanƿeard bend

Military Order of the Purple Heart

Awards and decorations of the U.S. military

Basu Heorte


The Original Soundtrack er det tredje album fra den britisk popgruppe 10cc. Det indeholder gruppens populære sang "I'm Not In Love". De havde få uger inden udgivelsen skrevet kontrakt med Mercury Records til en værdi af mere end 1 mio. dollar. Hovedbaggrunden til denne aftale er sangen "I'm Not in Love".

Eric Stewart udtalte:

"At that point in time we were still on Jonathan King's label, but struggling. We were absolutely skint, the lot of us, we were really struggling seriously, and Philips Phonogram wanted to do a deal with us. They wanted to buy Jonathan King's contract. I rang them. I said come and have a listen to what we've done, come and have a listen to this track. And they came up and they freaked, and they said "This is a masterpiece. How much money, what do you want? What sort of a contract do you want? We'll do anything, we'll sign it". On the strength of that one song, we did a five-year deal with them for five albums and they paid us a serious amount of money."

Numre
 "Une Nuit A Paris"
 "I'm Not In Love"
 "Blackmail"
 "The Second Sitting for the Last Supper"
 "Brand New Day"
 "Flying Junk"
 "Life Is A Minestrone"
 "The Film of My Love"

Eksterne henvisninger

10cc-album
Album fra 1975

The Original Soundtrack