Oscar Leonard Carl Pistorius ( , ; born 22 November 1986) is a South African former professional sprinter and convicted murderer. Both of his feet were amputated when he was 11 months old owing to a congenital defect; he was born missing the outside of both feet and both fibulae. Pistorius ran in both nondisabled sprint events and in sprint events for below-knee amputees. He was the 10th athlete to compete at both the Paralympic Games and Olympic Games.

After becoming a Paralympic champion, Pistorius attempted to enter nondisabled international competitions, over persistent objections by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) and arguments that his artificial limbs gave an unfair advantage. Pistorius prevailed in this legal dispute. At the 2011 World Championships in Athletics, Pistorius was the first amputee to win a nondisabled world track medal. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, Pistorius was the first double-leg amputee participant.

On 14 February 2013, Pistorius shot and killed his girlfriend, paralegal and model Reeva Steenkamp, in his Pretoria home. He claimed he had mistaken Steenkamp for an intruder hiding in the bathroom. He was arrested and charged with murder. At his trial the following year, Pistorius was found not guilty of murder, but guilty of culpable homicide. He received a five-year prison sentence for culpable homicide and a concurrent three-year suspended sentence for a separate reckless endangerment conviction.

Pistorius was temporarily released on house arrest in 2015 while the case was presented on appeal to a panel at the Supreme Court of Appeal of South Africa, which overturned the culpable homicide verdict and convicted him of murder. In July 2016, Judge Thokozile Masipa extended Pistorius's sentence to six years. On appeal by the state for a longer prison sentence, the Supreme Court of Appeal increased the prison term to a total of 15 years. Pistorius was denied parole in 2023.

Early life
Oscar Leonard Carl Pistorius was born to Henke and Sheila Pistorius on 22 November 1986 in Sandton, Johannesburg, in what was then Transvaal Province (now Gauteng Province) of South Africa. He grew up in a Christian home and has an elder brother, Carl, and a younger sister, Aimée. Pistorius credits his mother, who died at the age of 43 when Pistorius was 15 years old, as a major influence in his life. Pistorius is from an Afrikaner family with partial Italian ancestry from his maternal great-grandfather, who was an Italian emigrant to Kenya. Afrikaans is his mother tongue and he is also fluent in English.

Pistorius was born with fibular hemimelia (congenital absence of the fibula) in both legs. When he was 11 months old, both of his legs were amputated halfway between his knees and ankles. He attended Constantia Kloof Primary School and Pretoria Boys High School, where he played rugby union in the school's third XV team. He played water polo and tennis at provincial level between the ages of 11 and 13. In addition, Pistorius took part in club Olympic wrestling, and trained at Jannie Brooks's garage gym in Pretoria. Brooks remarked that it took six months before he noticed that Pistorius "had no legs", but nonetheless was able to do many exercises, including "boxing, skipping, and doing press-ups".

After a serious rugby knee injury in June 2003, he was introduced to running in January 2004 while undergoing rehabilitation at the University of Pretoria's High Performance Centre with coach Ampie Louw, and "never looked back". His first racing blades were fitted by South African prosthetist Francois van der Watt. Because he was unable to find suitable running blades in Pretoria, Van der Watt ordered the pair to be made by a local engineer. However, as these quickly broke, Van der Watt referred Pistorius to American prosthetist and Paralympic sprinter Brian Frasure to be fitted for blades by Icelandic company Össur.

Pistorius began studying for a bachelor of commerce (B.Com.) in business management with sports science at the University of Pretoria in 2006. In a June 2008 interview for his University's website, he joked: "I won't graduate soon. With all the training I have had to cut down on my subjects. Hopefully I'll finish by the time I'm 30!" Asked by a journalist for his "sporting motto", he said: "You're not disabled by the disabilities you have, you are able by the abilities you have."

Sporting career

Pistorius competed in T44 (single below-knee amputees) events though he is classified in T43 (double below-knee amputee). Sometimes referred to as the "Blade Runner" (after the science fiction film of the same name) and "the fastest man on no legs", Pistorius took part in the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens and came third overall in the T44 100-metre event. Despite falling in the preliminary round for the 200 metres, he qualified for the final. He went on to win the final in a world record time of 21.97 seconds, beating a pair of American runners, Marlon Shirley and Brian Frasure, both with single amputations.

In 2005, Pistorius finished sixth in the nondisabled South African Championships over 400 metres with a world-record time of 47.34 seconds, and at the Paralympic World Cup in the same year, he won gold in the 100 metres and 200 metres, beating his previous 200-metre world record. At the 2006 IPC Athletics World Championships, Pistorius won gold in the 100-, 200- and 400-metre events, breaking the world record over 200 metres. On 17 March 2007, he set a disability sports world record for the 400 metres (46.56 seconds) at the South African Senior Athletics Championships in Durban; and at the Nedbank Championships for the Physically Disabled held in Johannesburg in April 2007. He became the world record holder of the 100- and 200-metre events with times of 10.91 and 21.58 seconds, respectively.

Pistorius was invited by the IAAF to take part in what would have been his first international nondisabled event, the 400-metre race at the IAAF Grand Prix in Helsinki, Finland, in July 2005. He was unable to attend, however, because of school commitments. On 13 July 2007, Pistorius ran in the 400-metre race at Rome's Golden Gala and finished second in run B with a time of 46.90 seconds, behind Stefano Braciola who ran 46.72 seconds. This was a warm-up for his appearance at the 400 metres at the Norwich Union British Grand Prix at the Don Valley Stadium in Sheffield on 15 July 2007. As American Olympic champion Jeremy Wariner stumbled at the start of the race and stopped running, Pistorius took seventh place in a field of eight in wet conditions with a time of 47.65 seconds. However, he was later disqualified for running outside his lane. The race was won by American Angelo Taylor with a time of 45.25 seconds. Pistorius had ambitions of competing in other non-disabled events. In particular, he had set his sights on competing at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing, China, but was not selected by the South African Olympic Committee.

Dispute over prostheses

Pistorius has been the subject of criticism because of claims that his artificial limbs give him an advantage over runners with natural ankles and feet. He runs with J-shaped carbon-fibre prostheses called the "Flex-Foot Cheetah" developed by biomedical engineer Van Phillips and manufactured by Össur.

On 26 March 2007, the IAAF amended its competition rules to include a ban on the use of "any technical device that incorporates springs, wheels, or any other element that provides a user with an advantage over another athlete not using such a device". The IAAF stated that the amendment was not specifically aimed at Pistorius. To decide whether he was running with an unfair advantage, the IAAF monitored his track performances using high-definition cameras to film his race against Italian club runners in Rome on 13 July, and his 400 metres in Sheffield on 15 July 2007, at which he placed last.

In November 2007, Pistorius was invited to take part in a series of scientific tests at the German Sports University Cologne under the guidance of Professor of Biomechanics Dr Peter Brüggemann in conjunction with Elio Locatelli, who was responsible for all technical issues in the IAAF. After two days of tests, Brüggemann reported on his findings on behalf of the IAAF. The report claimed that Pistorius's limbs used 25% less energy than runners with complete natural legs running at the same speed, and that they led to less vertical motion combined with 30% less mechanical work for lifting the body. In December, Brüggemann told Die Welt newspaper that Pistorius "has considerable advantages over athletes without prosthetic limbs who were tested by us. It was more than just a few percentage points. I did not expect it to be so clear." Based on these findings, on 14 January 2008, the IAAF ruled Pistorius's prostheses ineligible for use in competitions conducted under the IAAF rules, including the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. Pistorius called the decision "premature and highly subjective" and pledged to continue fighting for his dream. His manager, Peet van Zylm, said his appeal would be based on advice from experts in the United States who had said that the report "did not take enough variables into consideration".

Pistorius subsequently appealed against the decision to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) in Lausanne, Switzerland, and appeared before the tribunal at the end of April 2008. After a two-day hearing, on 16 May 2008, CAS upheld Pistorius's appeal and the IAAF council decision was revoked with immediate effect. The CAS panel unanimously determined that Brüggemann tested Pistorius's biomechanics only at full-speed when he was running in a straight line (unlike a real 400-metre race); that the report did not consider the disadvantages that Pistorius has at the start and acceleration phases of the race; and that overall there was no evidence that he had any net advantage over non-disabled athletes. In response to the announcement, Pistorius said: "My focus throughout this appeal has been to ensure that disabled athletes be given the chance to compete and compete fairly with non-disabled athletes. I look forward to continuing my quest to qualify for the Olympics."

Attempts to qualify for 2008 Summer Olympic Games
To have a chance of representing South Africa at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing in the individual 400-metre race, Pistorius had to attain the Olympic "A" standard time of 45.55 seconds; the "B" qualifying time of 45.95 seconds, which applies if no other athlete from his country achieved the faster time, did not apply. Each national athletics federation is permitted to enter three athletes in an event if the "A" standard is met, and only one athlete if the "B" standard is met. However, he was eligible for selection as a member of the relay squad without qualifying. His best chance was to try for a time of close to 46 seconds to make the 4 × 400-metre relay team. However, he said: "If I make the team I don't want to be the reserve for the relay, I want to be in the top four. I want to bring something to the race and make the relay stronger." To give him a chance of making the South African Olympic team, selectors delayed naming the team until 17 July.

On 2 July 2008, Pistorius competed in the 400 metres in the B race of the Notturna International in Milan but was "disappointed" when at 47.78 seconds his fourth-place finish was over the minimum Olympic qualifying time. His performance on 11 July 2008 at the Rome Golden Gala was an improvement of more than a second, though his sixth-place time of 46.62 seconds in the B race was still over the Olympic qualification time. Nonetheless, he was pleased with his performance, commenting that he felt he could improve on it.

On 15 July 2008, IAAF general secretary Pierre Weiss commented that the world athletics body preferred that the South African Olympic Committee not select Pistorius for its 4 × 400 metres relay team "for reasons of safety", saying that Pistorius could cause "serious damage" and risk the physical safety of himself and other athletes if he ran in the main pack of the relay. Pistorius branded this as the IAAF's "last desperate attempt" to get him not to qualify, and threatened legal action if the IAAF did not confirm that it had no objections to his participation in the relay. The IAAF responded by issuing a statement saying that Pistorius was welcome to seek qualification for the Olympics and future competitions under IAAF rules: "The IAAF fully respects the recent CAS decision regarding the eligibility of Oscar Pistorius to compete in IAAF competitions, and certainly has no wish to influence the South African Olympic Committee, who has full authority to select a men's 4 × 400m relay team for the Beijing Olympics."

Coming third, with a personal best time of 46.25 seconds, at the Spitzen Leichtathletik meeting in Lucerne, Switzerland, on 16 July 2008, Pistorius failed to qualify for the 400 metres at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games by 0.70 seconds. Athletics South Africa later announced that he would also not be selected for the 4 × 400 metres relay team as four other runners had better times. Pistorius would not have been the debut leg amputee to participate in the Olympic Games as George Eyser had competed earlier. Pistorius's compatriot Natalie du Toit, a swimmer whose left leg was amputated above the knee after a traffic accident, was the debut amputee Olympian, at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. Asked about the possibility of the IAAF offering him a wild card to take part in the Olympics, Pistorius responded: "I do not believe that I would accept. If I have to take part in the Beijing Games I should do it because I qualified." He expressed a preference for focusing on qualification for the 2012 Summer Olympic Games in London, stating that it was a more realistic target as "sprinters usually reach their peak between 26 and 29. I will be 25 in London and I'll also have two, three years' preparation."

2008 Summer Paralympics
Pistorius participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing in the 100, 200 and 400 metres (T44). On 9 September, in the heats of the 100 metres, he set a Paralympic record with his time of 11.16 seconds. Later, following a slow start, he rallied to snatch gold from the United States' Jerome Singleton in the 100 metres in a time of 11.17 seconds, 0.03 seconds ahead of the silver medallist. Four days later, on 13 September, the defending Paralympic champion in the 200-metre sprint won his second gold in the event in a time of 21.67 seconds, setting another Paralympic record. He completed a hat-trick by winning gold in the 400 metres in a world-record time of 47.49 seconds on 16 September, calling it "a memory that will stay with me for the rest of my life".

2011 and qualification for 2012 Summer Olympic Games

In January 2011, a slimmer, trimmer Pistorius won three IPC Athletics World titles in New Zealand but was beaten for the first time in seven years in the 100 metres by Jerome Singleton. He subsequently won the T44 400 metres in 47.28 seconds and the 100 metres in 11.04 seconds at the BT Paralympic World Cup in May to reassert himself as the world's leading Paralympic sprinter.

Pistorius competed across a number of non-disabled races in the summer of 2011 and posted three times under 46 seconds, but it was at the 19th Internazionale di Atletica Sports Solidarity Meeting in Lignano, Italy, on 19 July, that he set a personal best of 45.07 seconds in the 400 metres, attaining the World Championships and Olympic Games "A" standard qualification mark.

Pistorius won the 400-metres event with a posted time that ranked him as 15th fastest in the world.

On 8 August 2011, it was announced that he had been included in the South African team for the World Championships in Daegu, South Korea, and had been selected for the 400-metre and the 4 × 400 metre relay squad. In the heats of the 400 metres, Pistorius ran in 45.39 seconds and qualified for the semi-final. However, in the semi-final, he ran 46.19 seconds and was eliminated.

In the heats of the 4 × 400 metres relay, Pistorius ran the opening leg as South Africa advanced to the finals with a national record time of 2 minutes 59.21 seconds. However, he was not selected to run in the finals since he had the slowest split time of 46.20 seconds. This caused a controversy, as the first leg is normally Pistorius's slowest since it requires a start from blocks, and he was restricted to the first leg by Athletics South Africa "on safety grounds". He initially tweeted: "Haven't been included in final. Pretty gutted.", but later added: "Well done to the SA 4 × 400 m team. Was really hard watching, knowing I deserved to ." Pistorius still won the silver medal because he ran in the heats, becoming the first amputee to win a non-disabled world track medal. Reflecting on his World Championship debut, Pistorius said: "I really enjoyed the whole experience. I ran my second fastest time ever in the heats and was really pleased to have reached the semi-finals. In the relay, I was unbelievably chuffed to have broken the South African record, and hopefully my name will stay on that for a long time to come."

On 4 July 2012, the South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee (SASCOC) announced that Pistorius had been included in the Olympic team for the 400-metre and the 4 × 400 metres relay races.

2012 Summer Olympic Games

At the 2012 Summer Olympic Games on 4 August 2012, Pistorius became the debut amputee runner to compete at an Olympic Games. In the 400-metre race, he took second place in the first heat of five runners, finishing with a time of 45.44 seconds (his best time that season) to advance to the semi-finals on 5 August. He ran in the second semi-final, where he finished eighth and last with a time of 46.54 seconds.

In the first semi-final of the 4 × 400 metres relay race on 9 August, the second leg runner of the South African team, Ofentse Mogawane, fell and was injured before reaching the third leg runner, Pistorius. South Africa was passed into the final on appeal to the IAAF, due to interference by Vincent Kiilu, the Kenyan athlete who downed Mogawane. The South African relay team eventually finished eighth out of the field of nine in the final on 10 August. However, it established a season's best time for the team of 3 minutes 3.46 seconds, with Pistorius running the final leg in 45.9 seconds. Pistorius was chosen to carry the South African flag for the closing ceremony.

2012 Summer Paralympics
Pistorius also carried the flag at the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Paralympics on 29 August. He entered the T44 classification men's 100 metres, 200 metres and 400 metres races, and the T42–T46 4 × 100 metres relay.

In the 200-metre competition, Pistorius established a new T43 world record of 21.30 seconds in his heat on 1 September, but he was defeated in the final the next day by Alan Oliveira of Brazil. Pistorius took silver, and subsequently complained about the length of Oliveira's blades. He later apologised for the timing of his remarks, but not the content of his complaint. The IPC confirmed the length of Oliveira's blades were proportional to his body, with all the finalists measured before the race. The IPC also confirmed that Pistorius had raised the issue of blade length with it six weeks prior to the race. SASCOC issued a statement welcoming Pistorius's apology for his outburst, declared its full support for him and promised to assist him in discussions with the IPC about the issue of lengthened prostheses after the conclusion of the Games. The IPC expressed willingness to engage with Pistorius about the issue. Australian runner Jack Swift and American runner Jerome Singleton  also expressed support for Pistorius's position.

Pistorius won a team gold medal on 5 September, running the anchor leg as part of the South African 4 × 100 metres relay team setting a team world record time of 41.78 seconds. His Beijing Olympics 100-metre title was defended with a season's best time of
11.17 seconds but was succeeded by Great Britain's Jonnie Peacock. On 8 September, the last full day of competition, Pistorius won gold in the T44 400 metres with a time of 46.68 seconds, breaking the Paralympic record.

Achievements

Disability sports events

Non-disabled sports events

Other awards and accolades
In 2006, Pistorius was conferred the Order of Ikhamanga in Bronze (OIB) by then President of South Africa, Thabo Mbeki, for outstanding achievement in sports. On 9 December 2007, Pistorius was awarded the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Helen Rollason Award, which is conferred for outstanding courage and achievement in the face of adversity. This was later revoked following his conviction for murder.

In May 2008, Pistorius made the "Time 100" – Time magazine's annual list of the world's most influential people – appearing third in the "Heroes & Pioneers" section. Erik Weihenmayer, the first blind person to climb Mount Everest, wrote in an essay that Pistorius was "on the cusp of a paradigm shift in which disability becomes ability, disadvantage becomes advantage. Yet we mustn't lose sight of what makes an athlete great. It's too easy to credit Pistorius's success to technology. Through birth or circumstance, some are given certain gifts, but it's what one does with those gifts, the hours devoted to training, the desire to be the best, that is at the true heart of a champion." In 2012, he made the list again.

In February 2012, Pistorius was awarded the Laureus World Sports Award for Sportsperson of the Year with a Disability for 2012. On 22 August 2012, he was honoured with the unveiling of a large mural depicting his achievements in the town of Gemona, Italy.

On 9 September 2012, Pistorius was shortlisted by the IPC for the Whang Youn Dai Achievement Award as a competitor "who is fair, honest and is uncompromising in his or her values and prioritises the promotion of the Paralympic Movement above personal recognition". According to director Craig Spence, he was nominated by an unnamed external organisation from South Korea. The award went to two other athletes.

After the 2012 Summer Paralympics, the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow announced it would confer on Pistorius, among others, an honorary doctorate. In February 2015, following his conviction for culpable homicide, the university revoked the honorary degree.

Sponsorship and charitable activities
In 2012, Pistorius had sponsorship deals worth US$2 million a year with Össur, BT, Nike, Oakley and Thierry Mugler. He also participated as a model in advertising campaigns.

Following the murder charge, sponsors were initially hesitant to abandon him, but after a week sponsors began to withdraw their support.

In 2008, Pistorius collaborated in the release of a music CD called Olympic Dream. Produced in Italy, it consists of disco remixes of music pieces that Pistorius finds inspirational, and two tracks written for him, "Olympic Dream" and "Run Boy Run", for which he provided voiceovers. Part of the CD's proceeds of sale went to charity. Pistorius also actively supports the Mineseeker Foundation, a charity that works to raise awareness for landmine victims and has a support programme to provide prostheses for survivors.

Personal life
Pistorius has three visible tattoos: the dates of his mother's birth and death ("LVIII V VIII – II III VI" – 8 May 1958 – 6 March 2002) are tattooed on the inside of his right arm; on his back is the Bible verse  which begins, "I do not run like a man running aimlessly"; on his right arm are the Olympic rings and olive wreath.  He lived in Silverwoods Country Estate, Pretoria. The house was sold in June 2014. Aside from running, his interests include architecture, motorbiking, playing the electric guitar and breeding race horses.

Pistorius's autobiography, Dream Runner, was published in Italian in 2007 with Gianni Merlo, a journalist with La Gazzetta dello Sport. An English version titled Blade Runner was released in 2008. In 2010, Pistorius appeared on L'isola dei famosi, an Italian version of Celebrity Survivor. On 7 January 2012, he appeared as a special guest on the Italian version of Dancing with the Stars called Ballando con le Stelle at Auditorium Rai in Rome, where he danced a tango with Annalisa Longo to ABBA's "The Winner Takes It All". On 9 October 2012, Pistorius appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. He was also scheduled to appear on Piers Morgan Tonight and the Larry King Now show at later dates.

In February 2009, Pistorius was seriously injured when he was thrown from a boat in an accident on the Vaal River near Johannesburg. He was airlifted to Milpark Hospital, where he underwent surgery to repair broken facial bones, including his nose and jaw. There were initial concerns about his fitness, but he recovered fully. However, the accident affected his training and running schedule for that year.

Pistorius was scheduled as an amateur golfer in the 2012 Alfred Dunhill Links Championship held at St Andrews, Carnoustie and Kingsbarns in Scotland. Pistorius has a 21 handicap in South Africa, but played off an 18 handicap for the Championship. In 2010, he played in the Laureus World Sports Awards Golf Challenge at the Abu Dhabi Golf Club in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and the Help-net Fund Celebrity Charity Golf Day.

Pistorius is related to the South African psychological profiler, Micki Pistorius, who is his aunt.

Murder of Reeva Steenkamp

In the early morning of Thursday, 14 February 2013, Pistorius shot and killed Reeva Steenkamp at his home in Pretoria. Pistorius admitted that he shot Steenkamp four times, causing her death, but claimed he mistook her for a possible intruder.

Pistorius's murder trial began on 3 March 2014 in the Pretoria High Court. On 20 May 2014, the trial proceedings were adjourned until 30 June to enable Pistorius to undergo psychiatric evaluation to establish whether he could be held criminally responsible for shooting Steenkamp. Judge Thokozile Masipa agreed to a request for the evaluation by prosecutor Gerrie Nel after forensic psychiatrist Merryll Vorster testified for the defence that she had diagnosed Pistorius with generalised anxiety disorder. On 30 June 2014, the trial resumed after the evaluation reports said Pistorius could be held criminally responsible. The state prosecutor was quoted as saying, "Mr. Pistorius did not suffer from a mental illness or defect that would have rendered him not criminally responsible for the offence charged". The defense closed its case on 8 July and closing arguments were heard on 7 and 8 August.

On 12 September, Pistorius was found guilty of culpable homicide and one firearm-related charge of reckless endangerment related to discharging a firearm in a restaurant. He was found not guilty of two other firearm-related charges relating to possession of illegal ammunition and firing a firearm through the sunroof of a car. On 21 October 2014, he received a prison sentence of a maximum of five years for culpable homicide and a concurrent three-year suspended prison sentence for the separate reckless endangerment conviction.

Prison term
In June 2015, Pistorius was recommended for early release, as early as August. South African Commissioner of Correctional Services Zach Modise told the BBC of the decision by the case management committee at the Kgosi Mampuru II prison in Pretoria, where Pistorius was being held: "Under South African law he is eligible for release under 'correctional supervision' having served a sixth of his sentence."

After Pistorius served approximately one-sixth of his prison term, his release date to house arrest was announced for 21 August 2015. This release was based on good behaviour and the fact that he was not considered a danger to the community. Pistorius was expected to remain under house arrest and correctional supervision, and was expected to perform community service as part of his continuing sentence. Regardless of his release from prison, Pistorius could not return to official athletic competition until the whole five years of his sentence was complete. On 19 August 2015, his release was unexpectedly blocked by South Africa's Justice Minister Michael Masutha. According to Masutha, the parole board's decision for early release was "premature". Legal experts noted that the move could have been due to political pressure and had implications for other cases of pending early release. He was released from prison on 19 October 2015.

Case appeal
On 4 November 2014, prosecutors applied to the sentencing judge for permission to appeal the culpable homicide verdict, stating that the five-year prison term was "shockingly light, inappropriate and would not have been imposed by any reasonable court". Judge Thokozile Masipa ruled on 10 December 2014 that the prosecution could challenge her ruling of acquitting Pistorius of premeditated murder and convicting him of the lesser charge of culpable homicide; however she ruled that the state could not appeal the length of the sentence. The case was then set for appeal in front of a five-person panel at the Supreme Court of Appeal.

The date for prosecutors to submit court papers outlining their arguments was set for 17 August 2015, and the date for the defence team's response was set for 17 September 2015. The date for the appeal hearing was set for November 2015. The prosecutors' argument rested on Judge Masipa's application of the legal principle of dolus eventualis (whether an accused did actually foresee the outcome of his actions, rather than whether he or she should have), and that the judge made an error in concluding Pistorius had not foreseen that by firing four shots through the closed door of the toilet cubicle, he would kill or injure whoever was behind the door.

The appeal was heard on 3 November 2015, in the Supreme Court of Appeal, Bloemfontein. The matter was heard before five Supreme Court judges. By a unanimous decision, the court overturned Pistorius's culpable homicide conviction and found him guilty of murder in the death of Reeva Steenkamp. Judge Eric Leach read the summary of judgment. The panel of five judges found for the prosecutor's argument that Pistorius must have known that someone would die if he fired through the closed door into a small toilet cubicle. In the words of Judge Leach, "Although he may have been anxious, it is inconceivable that a rational person could have believed he was entitled to fire at this person with a heavy-calibre firearm, without taking even that most elementary precaution of firing a warning shot, which the accused said he elected not to fire as he thought the ricochet might harm him."

According to the judgment, the person who Pistorius thought was in the cubicle had nothing to do with the results of his actions. The culpable homicide verdict was replaced with a murder conviction, and the case was referred back to the trial court for a sentencing hearing when it reconvened on 18 April 2016.

On 8 December 2015, it was announced Pistorius would continue to remain free on bail but under house arrest pending his appeal to the Constitutional Court. On 3 March 2016, it was announced Pistorius had been denied his right to appeal, and would next be due in court on 13 June 2016 to begin a five-day sentencing hearing for the murder conviction, concluding on 17 June 2016.

On 15 June 2016, the sentencing was adjourned by Judge Thokozile Masipa until 6 July 2016.

Second prison term
On 6 July 2016, Judge Thokozile Masipa sentenced Pistorius to six years' imprisonment for murder, rather than her original sentencing of five years' imprisonment for culpable homicide; once again he was incarcerated in the hospital wing at the Kgosi Mampuru II jail. It was anticipated that Pistorius would be eligible for release on parole, after serving three years of his sentence, in 2019.

On 7 August 2016, Pistorius was treated at Kalafong Hospital, in Pretoria, after sustaining minor injuries to his wrists after slipping in his cell. Media reports of Pistorius injuring himself intentionally were said to be "completely untrue" by his brother Carl, who added that he was "doing well given the circumstances".

On 21 July 2016, the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) confirmed that it would appeal against Judge Thokozile Masipa's "shockingly lenient" 6-year jail sentence. The appeal hearing took place on 26 August 2016 and the bid to appeal the sentence was rejected by Masipa, who said that the NPA had "no reasonable prospect of success" of securing a longer prison sentence for Pistorius. The NPA was then given 21 days to take its appeal bid to the Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA). On 15 September 2016, it was confirmed that the NPA would make a fresh bid to extend Pistorius's jail sentence and would file papers to the SCA on 16 September. After this announcement, sources associated with Pistorius's family and the defence team accused Gerrie Nel and the NPA of pursuing a "personal vendetta" against Pistorius.

Pistorius was briefly released from prison for four hours on 14 October 2016 through a compassionate leave license to attend the funeral service of his grandmother, who died on 8 October 2016.

In November 2016, Pistorius was transferred from the Kgosi Mampuru jail to Atteridgeville Correctional Centre, which is smaller and better adapted for disabled prisoners because it has better facilities for inmates including bathtubs in cells. It also holds prisoners who are serving six-year sentences or less.

In March 2023 it was announced that a parole board would consider an early release for Pistorius on 31 March, despite his serving just half of his sentence. Pistorius' release was opposed by Barry and June Steenkamp, Reeva Steenkamp's parents. Ahead of the hearing, June Steenkamp said Pistorius was "not remorseful or rehabilitated". According to his parole lawyer, Pistorius had been a model prisoner, a factor taken into account for parole. If he had been granted parole, the parole board would have had several options ranging from full parole to day parole, or correctional supervision. Pistorius was denied parole, with a lawyer for the Steenkamp family stating that "we were … advised at this point in time that it has been denied and it will be considered again in one year's time".

Sentence appeals and parole proceedings
On 19 September 2017, it was confirmed that the SCA would hear the state's arguments appealing to extend Pistorius's sentence on 3 November 2017, with its final ruling being confirmed on 24 November 2017.

On 24 November 2017, the SCA increased Pistorius's jail sentence to 13 years and five months. Prosecutors had argued that the six-year term was too short. The SCA ruled his sentence be increased to 15 years, less time already served.

On 19 December 2017, it was confirmed that Pistorius had filed papers with the Constitutional Court to appeal the newly increased sentence and have his previous six-year sentence reinstated. On 9 April 2018, it was confirmed that on 28 March 2018 the appeal was dismissed by the courts; Pistorius was not to be eligible for parole until at least 2023. After an additional hearing, parole was again denied on 31 March 2023. He will not be eligible for parole again until August 2024.

Steenkamp Foundation
Reeva Steenkamp's mother told the hosts of the British television programme This Morning that she had forgiven Pistorius during his trial. She founded the Reeva Steenkamp Foundation to help prevent "similar cases" in the future.

In popular culture
An unofficial biopic based on public records titled Oscar Pistorius: Blade Runner Killer, was aired on 18 November 2017 on South African TV. The movie was made without the consent of either the Pistorius or Steenkamp families. The Pistorius family threatened legal action against Lifetime Movies, the American television network that produced the movie.

On 1 August 2018, Amazon Prime released a four-part documentary series on its video service titled Pistorius; the episodes are titled "The Dream", "Valentine's Day", "A Good Day to Tell You That I Love You" and "The Man Who Wasn't There".

On 27 September 2020, ESPN released a four-part documentary series on its streaming service ESPN+ titled The Life and Trials of Oscar Pistorius.

Notes

References

Further reading

 Van Hilvoorde, Ivo; Landeweerd, Laurens (2008), "Disability or Extraordinary Talent – Francesco Lentini (Three Legs) versus Oscar Pistorius (No Legs)", Sport, Ethics and Philosophy 2 (2): 97–111,

External links

1986 births
Living people
2013 murders in South Africa
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Afrikaner people
Sprinters with limb difference
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Paralympics
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Crime in South Africa
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People convicted of murder by South Africa
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Prisoners and detainees of South Africa
Recipients of the Order of Ikhamanga
South African amputees
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Sportspeople convicted of murder
Athletes from Pretoria
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Violence against women in South Africa
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World record holders in para-athletics

Oscar Pistorius


Sonja Sutter (17 January 1931 – 1 June 2017) was a German film actress. She was one of the few actors that was allowed to appear in productions in both East and West Germany. She is remembered for her role as Fraulein Rottenmeier in the German TV series  from 1978. This series aired in many countries in Europe during the 1980s and 1990s, and was dubbed into several languages. She is also remembered for having had several roles in the TV series Derrick from 1983 to 1998.

Biography

Sonja Sutter was born in Freiburg, Germany. She went on the Rudolf Steiner School in Freiburg but ended with only a limited education but she later studied Greek and Latin. At that time she matured into the decision to become an actress. Her stage debut was in 1950 at the Municipal Theater. Later she worked in Stuttgart, at the Schauspielhaus in Hamburg and at the State Theater in Munich. In test shots for a movie by and with Luis Trenker, the DEFA director Slatan Dudow discovered and engaged Sutter for the role as Renate Ludwig in the German movie Frauenschicksale in 1952.

After this movie many film offers came from West Germany and Sutter was thus one of the few artists of her time, which worked on two German territories. Her big breakthrough came in 1957 with Lissy, an award-winning movie, which gave Sonja Sutter a certain notoriety in East Germany. During the 1950s she starred in movies like Die Barrings (1955), Star mit fremden Federn (1955), Das Schweigen im Walde (1955), Drei Birken auf der Heide (1956) and Johannisnacht (1956). In 1961 she lost, , the opportunity to participate in further DEFA films related with the construction of the Berlin Wall

From 1961 until her death, she lived in Vienna and worked at the Burgtheater. She appeared in 16 TV-movies and in such popular German TV-series like Der Kommissar, Tatort and Derrick. In Derrick she played in 6 episodes from 1983-98.

Death
Sutter died on 1 June 2017 in Baden bei Wien, Austria, at the age of 86.

Filmography

Films
1976  (Frau Sörby)
1976 Ich will leben (Lucille)
1961 [[Everyman (film)|Jedermann]] (Gute Werke)
1958 Der Lotterieschwede (Frau Jönsson)
1958 Sie kannten sich alle (Herte Klausner)
1958 Tatort Berlin (Walters Freundin)
1957 Lissy (Liesbeth 'Lissy' Frohmeyer)
1956 Three Birch Trees on the Heath (Rose Heidkämper)
1956 Johannisnacht (Irene Hofmann)
1955 Die Barrings (Gisa von Eyff)
1955 Star mit fremden Federn (Isolde Sturm)
1955 Das Schweigen im Walde (Lo Petri)
1954  (Lena)
1952 Frauenschicksale (Renate Ludwig)

TV
2005 The Old Fox (TV series) – "Der Nachruf" (Gerda Walser)
2003 Schlosshotel Orth (TV series) - "Falsche Fährten" (Elisabeth)
2000 The Old Fox (TV series) – "Der Schatten des Todes" (Berta Kolberg)
1998 Derrick (TV series) – "Mama Kaputtke" (Kraus)
1995 Derrick (TV series) – "Eines Mannes Herz" (Eva Dalinger)
1995 Lieben wie gedruckt 'Dora Krummacher (TV series)
1993 The Old Fox (TV series) – "Korruption" (Ilse Brinkmar)
1992 Derrick (TV series) – "Der stille Mord" (Greta Zinser)
1992 Derrick (TV series) – "Mord im Treppenhaus" (Helga Strohm)
1991 The Old Fox (TV series) – "Das Gericht" (Beate Kranz)
1990 Wilhelm Tell (Armgard) (TV movie)
1989 The Old Fox (TV series) – "Bahnhofsbaby" (Carola Wendisch)
1986 Derrick (TV series) – "Die Rolle seines Lebens" (Lydia Theimer)
1983 Derrick (TV series) - "Die Tote in der Isar" (Gerlinde Rudolf)
1981 Tatort (TV series) – "Mord in der Oper" (Frau Homann)
1980 Die weiße Stadt (Lepa) (TV movie)
1978  (Fraulein Rottenmeier) (TV series)
1976 Der Kommissar - Der Held des Tages (Frau Weise) (TV series)
1976 Wir pfeifen auf den Gurkenkönig (Mutter Hogelmann) (TV movie)
1970/II Nachbarn (Sie) (TV movie)
1970 Jedermann (Glaube) (TV movie)
1968 Schmutzige Hände (Olga) (TV movie)
1965 Onkel Wanja - Szenen aus dem Landleben (Jelena Andrejewna - seine Frau) (TV movie)
1964 Die letzte Folge (Gwendoline) (TV movie)
1964 Heinrich VI (TV movie)
1963 Ein Dorf ohne Männer (Die Blonde) (TV movie)
1963 Elektra (TV movie)
1962 Lumpazivagabundus (Amorosa - Beschützerin der wahren Liebe) (TV movie)
1961 Die Verschwörung des Fiesco zu Genua (Leonore) (TV movie)
1957 Der Geisterzug (Julia) (TV movie)
1957 Mrs. Cheneys Ende (Mrs. Cheney) (TV movie)
1957 Minna von Barnhelm'' (Minna von Barnhelm) (TV movie)

References

External links

1931 births
2017 deaths
German film actresses
German television actresses
Actors from Freiburg im Breisgau
20th-century German actresses
21st-century German actresses

Sonja Sutter


The China Syndrome is a disaster movie about a near-meltdown at a nuclear power plant. It was released on March 16, 1979, twelve days before the Three Mile Island accident. The term "China syndrome" refers to a scenario, not meant to be taken literally, where a reactor core could melt through the Earth "all the way to China".

Plot summary
News reporter Kimberly Wells (Jane Fonda) and her cameraman Richard Adams (Michael Douglas) are filming a special on nuclear power at the (fictional) Ventana Nuclear Power Plant when they witness an earthquake followed by a reactor scram. In the control room, Jack Godell (Jack Lemmon) notices that the water level is high and asks another member of the crew to open a relief valve. Ted Spindler (Wilford Brimley) warns him that regulations do not permit opening the relief valve, but he proceeds to open it anyway. The control room crew then notices that the water level is actually dangerously low, and declare an emergency over the intercom ordering all personnel to safety areas. They manage to bring the water level back up to a safe level, meanwhile, Richard secretly films the incident. Richard wants to show the film on television, but the station manager will not allow it. Richard then steals the film and shows it to a group of nuclear engineers who determine that the plant came very close to the China syndrome, where the core would have melted through its containment and down into the Earth, contaminating a large area. Meanwhile, Jack Godell discovers that the welds on the main pump are not safe, and takes over the plant by force, locks himself in the control room, and demands to be interviewed on television. A SWAT team is called in, and proceeds to break into the control room. The other members of the control room crew cut wires in other areas of the plant to intentionally cause a scram. When the scram begins, the main pump fails, and Jack Godell is shot by the SWAT team.

Response of the nuclear power industry
Upon its release, the movie was criticized by the nuclear power industry, referring to the movie as "sheer fiction" and a "character assassination of an entire industry". Twelve days after the movie was released, however, the Three Mile Island accident occurred in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania. Both the accident depicted in the movie and the real-world accident at Three Mile Island involved loss of water through a relief valve, as well as the control room crew incorrectly reading water levels.

1979 thriller movies
American disaster movies
American thriller movies
Columbia Pictures movies
Movies about nuclear technology
Movies about journalists
Movies about television
Movies about whistleblowing
Movies set in California
Movies directed by James Bridges

The China Syndrome


The Simplex algorithm is an algorithm which is used to solve problems of Linear programming or linear optimization. It was first used by George Dantzig in 1947, but other people like Kantorovich laid the foundations in 1939. The algorithm runs in two steps:
First a solution to the problem is found, or the certainty that no solution exists.
The solution found earlier is improved, if this is possible.
Step 2 is run multiple times: Each time, a given solution is improved, until this is no longer possible.

Combinatorial optimization

Simplex algorithm


Battle of Marihueñu was one of the early decisive battles of the Arauco War; it took place between the Mapuche leader Lautaro and the Spanish general Francisco de Villagra on 23 February 1554.

History

After the defeat at the Battle of Tucapel, the Spanish had hurriedly reorganized their forces, reinforcing fort La Imperial for its defense and abandoning Confines and Arauco in order to strengthen Concepción. Araucanian tradition had dictated a lengthy celebration after their victory, which kept Lautaro from exploiting the weakness of the Spanish position as he desired. It was only in February 1554 that he succeeded in putting together an army of 8,000 men, just in time to confront a punitive expedition under the command of Francisco de Villagra at the Battle of Marihueñu.

Lautaro chose the hill of Marihueñu to fight the Spanish, and subsequently organized his forces in four divisions: two had the mission of containing and wearing down the enemy, another would be held in reserve to launch a fresh attack as the Spanish were about to crumble, and the last would work to cut off their retreat.  Additionally, a small group was sent to destroy the reed bridge the Spanish had erected across the Bío-Bío River, which would further disrupt the anticipated retreat of Villagra.

The Spanish attack broke the first Mapuche lines, but the quick action of the third group maintained the Mapuche position. Later, the wings of this division began to attack the Spanish flanks, and the fourth division attacked from behind.  After hours of battle and the loss of their artillery, only a small group of Spanish were able to retreat after a desperate fight to break through the Mapuche that blocked their escape in their rear.

Additional information

References

Sources
 Jerónimo de Vivar,  Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera de los reinos de Chile (Chronicle and abundant and true relation of the kingdoms of Chile) ARTEHISTORIA REVISTA DIGITAL; Crónicas de América (on line in Spanish)
 de Góngora Marmolejo, Alonso, Historia de Todas las Cosas que han Acaecido en el Reino de Chile y de los que lo han gobernado (1536-1575) (History of All the Things that Have happened in the Kingdom of Chile and of those that have governed it (1536-1575)), University of Chile: Document Collections in complete texts: Cronicles (on line in Spanish)
 Mariño de Lobera, Pedro, Crónica del Reino de Chile , escrita por el capitán Pedro Mariño de Lobera....reducido a nuevo método y estilo por el Padre Bartolomé de Escobar.  Edición digital a partir de Crónicas del Reino de Chile Madrid, Atlas, 1960, pp. 227-562, (Biblioteca de Autores Españoles ; 569-575).  Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes (on line in Spanish)

Conflicts in 1554
Battles involving Spain
Battles of the Arauco War
1554 in the Captaincy General of Chile

Battle of Marihueñu


A web application is a software application that can be run without being installed on the client and that has several parts: A part of it will run on the remote web server, another part will run on the client, usually inside a web browser. Both parts communicate over a computer network, for example the internet. The protocol they often use is  called HTTP. This kind of application design is called client-server model. A Web application can be advantageous because the use of browsers allows the application to be compatible with most standard computers and operating systems whilst it does not take up memory on a computer's hard dive and is accessible from nearly any computer or device a person might use.The parts are usually called "tiers". The most common kind is a three-tier application: One tier is called Presentation tier, another is called Application tier, and the third is called Storage tier. Common examples of web applications are those used for web mail, or for online banking. Social media sites, such as Wikipedia are also web applications.

Benefits and drawbacks

Benefits

 Web applications run "inside" a browser; no complex installation is needed.
 Web applications require very little disk space (or computing power) on the client. All the client does is display the data.
 Web applications solve some of the "compatibility issues" (Windows, Mac, Linux); all that is needed is a browser.
 In many cases, the data is stored remotely too. As with other cloud computing, this can allow easy communication and cooperation.
 Help for communication and mail

Drawbacks

 Because they run inside a web browser, most web applications "look" very different to regular programs. The user experience or ease of use is different and some may dislike it.
 Web applications need to be coded so they follow standards. Any browser that also follows the standard can be used. Small changes in a given browser's implementation of a standard may prevent that browser from using the web application.
 Web applications need a connection to the server where the application runs, all the time. The connection may need a certain bandwidth. Without an adequate connection, the application may not be usable; in the worst case, data may be lost.
 Many applications are dependent on the server that hosts them. When the server is switched off, or the company goes bust, the application is no longer usable. Traditional applications continue to work.
 The company offering the web application has complete control over it. This also means that they may launch a new version when they want to; the option to "skip" a less popular version does not exist.
 In many cases, the data is stored remotely too. It may not be possible to export the data so that it can be used with another application.
 The company can theoretically track anything the users do. This can cause privacy problems.

References

Other websites
HTML 5 Draft recommendation,  changes to HTML and related APIs to ease authoring of web-based applications.
The Other Road Ahead – An article arguing that the future lies on the server, not rich interfaces on the client

Web Applications Working Group at the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
Requirements to Become a Web Developer

Computer science

Web application


Pancritical rationalism (literally "criticism of all things", from pan-, "all", also known as PCR), also called comprehensively critical rationalism (CCR), is a development of critical rationalism and panrationalism originated by William Warren Bartley in his book The Retreat to Commitment. PCR attempts to work around the problem of ultimate commitment or infinite regress by decoupling criticism and justification. A pancritical rationalist holds all positions open to criticism, including PCR itself. Such a position in principle never resorts to appeal to authority for justification of stances, since all authorities are held to be intrinsically fallible.

References

 William W. Bartley: The Retreat to Commitment (Open Court, 1990), .
 William W. Bartley: Rationality versus the Theory of Rationality. In Mario Bunge (Ed.): The Critical Approach to Science and Philosophy (New York: Free Press, 1964).
 William W. Bartley: The Philosophy of Karl Popper. Part III. Rationality, Criticism, and Logic. Philosophia 11:1–2 (February 1982), 121–221.
 David Miller: Comprehensively Critical Rationalism: A Restatement and Defence. (Open Court, 1994), .
 Gerard Radnitzky, William W. Bartley (Eds.): Evolutionary Epistemology, Rationality and the Sociology of Knowledge (Open Court, 1987), .
 Mariano Artigas: The Ethical Nature of Karl Popper's Theory of Knowledge: Including Popper's unpublished comments on Bartley and critical rationalism (Peter Lang Publishing, 1999), .

External links
Pancritical Rationalism: An Extropic Metacontext for Memetic Progress
Writings on W. W. Bartley
The Bartley Institute

Metaphilosophy
Rationalism
Criticism
Epistemological theories

Pancritical rationalism


Hemel Hempstead is a town in England. It is 25 miles north-west of London. The town is off the M1 motorway, 20 minutes drive from Luton Airport and 40 minutes from London itself.

History
The town began as an Anglo Saxon village where two river valleys met in the Chiltern Hills. The local area grew very good grain. By Tudor times, the village became a market where grain and straw were sold. The town also had many water mills to grind the grain. Local people also earned money by plaiting the straw to be made into hats.

From about 1800, the town changed as the Industrial revolution took place. It is on the shortest route between London and the Birmingham. As trade between these two cities increased, a canal and a railway were built that passed very close to the town. Some of its water mills were changed from grinding grain to places where paper was made by machine. Some of these grew into giant paper making factories.

After the Second World War,  the government in London wanted to build many new homes for people who had had their homes destroyed by bombs in the war. It decided to build some new towns where houses could be built in an very good environment. Hemel Hempstead was chosen to be one of these towns. Many new districts were built during the 1950s and 1960s all around the old town of Hemel Hempstead. It grew into a middle size town of over 80,000 people.

Many new industries came to the town helped by money from the government and because it is where important motorways cross each other.

Hemel Hempstead became world famous for a brief time in 2005 when an oil depot in the town at Buncefield exploded. It caused a big toxic smoke cloud to cover all the surrounding areas. Millions of pounds in damage was done, but no one was killed.

Towns in Hertfordshire

Hemel Hempstead


Fifth Avenue is a large avenue in New York City (U.S.). Running from Greenwich Village in southern Manhattan to Harlem in the north, the avenue marks the line dividing Manhattan into two parts, called the East Side and the West Side. The nearest avenues, on either side, are Madison Avenue (east) and Sixth Avenue (west), also known as the Avenue of the Americas.

There are many famous sights, such as the New York Public Library, St. Patrick's Cathedral, Rockefeller Center and Central Park (which runs along the west side, between 59th and 110th Street). On Fifth Avenue there are many expensive shops like Gucci.

Related pages
 Madison Avenue

Roads in New York City

Fifth Avenue


Akilathirattu Ammanai (; from akilam (world) + thirattu (collection) + ammanai (ballad)), also called Thiru Edu (venerable book), is the main religious book of the Southern Indian Ayyavazhi, officially a branch of Hinduism. The title is shortened as Akilam. This is the largest Ammanai work.

History
According to the book, Hari Gopalan Citar wrote this book on the twenty-seventh day of the Tamil month of Karthikai (November/December) in the year 1016 ME (1841 CE). The author says that God woke him up during his sleep and ordered him to take the first words from what he said. Akilathirattu was recorded on palm leaves. Then in 1939 it was given printed form.

According to the author, the book is the story of God coming in this age, the Kali Yukam or Iron Age, to rule the world by transforming it into that of Dharma Yukam. This story of faith has woven together the historical facts about Ayya Vaikundar and his activities, with mixing of episodes from the Hindu Puranas (mythologies) and Itihasas (epics). It is presented as if Vishnu is telling the whole story to his consort Lakshmi.

Though the Citar Hari Gopalan wrote the book Akilam, as per him, he did not know any thing about the contents of the book. He woke up in the morning as usual and he did not know what he had written the day before.

As soon as Ayya Vaikundar attained Vaikundam, the tied-up palm leaf text, which was until then not opened. It was there the regulations of Ayyavazhi contains. As per the instructions found there in Akilam, Ayyavazhi was preached by the Citars far and wide.

Ayyavazhi
Hindu texts
1840s books

Akilattirattu Ammanai


A variable star is a star that is sometimes brighter or dimmer. Most stars have only very small differences in brightness, like the Sun. But some stars can vary hugely.

There are generally two types of variable stars:
 A star being eclipsed, where the changes in brightness are from perspective, are called extrinsic variables. For example, in a solar eclipse the moon gets between the sun and Earth. Binary star systems sometimes show eclipses, as do planetary systems with giant planets.
 Stars whose brightness actually changes are called intrinsic variables. The stars get bigger and smaller over time. Some pulsate at a constant rate, some do not. All of them change the rate at which energy is put out, which changes their appearance to us.

Intrinsic variable stars
There are a number of different types of variable stars.

Intrinsic variable stars: variation caused by changes in the physical properties of the stars themselves. Three subgroups:
Pulsating variables: stars whose radius expands and contracts as part of their natural evolutionary ageing processes.
Eruptive variables: stars who experience eruptions on their surfaces like flares or mass ejections.
Cataclysmic or explosive variables: stars which undergo a cataclysmic change, such as novae and supernovae.

Pulsating variables

Cepheids and Cepheid-like
Classical Cepheids include: Eta Aquilae, Zeta Geminorum, Beta Doradus, RT Aurigae, Polaris, and the namesake Delta Cephei.  The North Star (Polaris) is the closest classical Cepheid, but it has many peculiarities and its distance is not certain.
Type II Cepheids include: W Virginis and BL Herculis.
Dwarf Cepheids include: Delta Scuti, SX Phoenicis.
RR Lyrae variables. Very common, used as absolute candles in globular clusters. RR Lyrae

Long period and semi-regular
 Mira. Typical of a class of stars with pulsation periods longer than 100 days. They are red giant stars in the very late stages of stellar evolution. They will expel their outer envelopes as planetary nebulae and become white dwarfs in a few million years.

Eruptive variables
Eruptive variables are caused by a star throwing something out, or sometimes by something falling in.

Protostars
Protostars are young objects that have not yet completed the process of contraction from a gas nebula to a true star. Most protostars show irregular brightness variations.

Giants and Supergiants
Large stars lose their matter relatively easily. Variability due to eruptions and mass loss is fairly common among giants and supergiants.

Cataclysmic or explosive stars
Supernovae are the most dramatic events in the universe. A supernova can briefly emit as much energy as an entire galaxy, brightening by more than 20 magnitudes (over one hundred million times brighter). Supernovae result from the death of an extremely massive star, many times heavier than the Sun.

The supernova explosion is caused by a white dwarf or a star core reaching a certain mass/density limit, the Chandrasekhar limit. Then the star collapses in a fraction of a second. This collapse "bounces" and causes the star to explode and emit an enormous amount of energy.

The outer layers of these stars are blown away at speeds of many thousands of kilometers an hour. The expelled matter may form nebulae called supernova remnants. A well-known example of such a nebula is the Crab Nebula, left over from a supernova that was observed in China and North America in 1054. The core of the star or the white dwarf may either become a neutron star (generally a pulsar) or disintegrate completely in the explosion.

A supernova may also result from mass transfer onto a white dwarf from a star companion in a double star system. The infalling matter pushes the white dwarf over the Chandrasekhar limit. The absolute luminosity of this type of supernova can be calculated from its light curve, so these explosions can be used to fix the distance to other galaxies. One of the most studied supernovae is SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud.

Eclipsing variables
 Algol
 β Lyrae
 W Ursae Majoris

References

Types of stars

Variable star


Bear Swamp is a forested parkland in Ashfield, Massachusetts.  The Trustees of Reservations owns and maintains the property.

Although Bear Swamp was once a sheep pasture and later a source of cordwood and lumber, it now seems much like an untouched wilderness.  The landscape is irregular, well-drained, and covered with nutrient-rich soils.  Protected from the elements, hardwood trees such as ash, hickory, basswood, maple, and cherry grow straight and tall.

Three miles (5 km) of trails lead to different parts of the reservation. The Beaver Brook Trail traces the southern rim of a shallow pond and wet meadow where an old beaver dam rests atop an old stone milldam. Although many trees have died in the flooded zone, the water is receding and the forest is returning. The Fern Glade Trail features a variety of ferns and woodland wildflowers. A scenic vista on the Lookout Trail and the hillside meadow at the Apple Valley Overlook both offer views of nearby apple orchards and the Green Mountains of Vermont beyond.
Seasonal hunting is permitted at this property subject to all state and town laws.

History
Concerned that the growing population of Ashfield would spell an end to its wild places, Rev. Philip and Esther Steinmetz began to buy land in the early 1960s with the intention of preserving it forever.  They gave this area to the public in 1968.  Various other gifts of land by the Steinmertzes and others increased the size of the land, as did additional land purchased in 1997.

See also

List of old growth forests in Massachusetts

References
The Trustees of Reservations: Bear Swamp

The Trustees of Reservations
Open space reserves of Massachusetts
Protected areas of Franklin County, Massachusetts
Forests of Massachusetts
Protected areas established in 1968
1968 establishments in Massachusetts

Bear Swamp


Dame Dorothy Tutin,  (8 April 19306 August 2001) was an English actress of stage, film and television. For her work in the theatre, she won two Olivier Awards and two Evening Standard Awards for Best Actress. She was made a CBE in 1967 and a Dame (DBE) in 2000.

Tutin began her stage career in 1949 and won the 1960 Best Actress Evening Standard Award for Twelfth Night. Having made her Broadway debut in the 1963 production of The Hollow Crown, she received a Tony Award nomination for her role in the 1968 original Broadway production of Portrait of a Queen. In the 1970s, she won a second Best Actress Evening Standard Award and won the Olivier Award (then the Society of London awards) for Best Actress in a Revival for A Month in the Country and The Double Dealer. Her films included The Importance of Being Earnest (1952), The Beggar's Opera (1953), A Tale of Two Cities (1958), Savage Messiah (1972) and The Shooting Party (1985).

An obituary in The Daily Telegraph described her as "one of the most enchanting, accomplished and intelligent leading ladies on the post-war British stage. With her husky voice, deep brown eyes, wistful smile and sense of humour, she brought an enduring charm to all kinds of stage drama, ancient and modern, as well as to films and television plays in a career that spanned more than 40 years".

Biography
Dorothy Tutin was born in London on 8 April 1930, the daughter of John Tutin and Adie Evelyn Fryers, a Yorkshire couple who married the following year.

She was educated at St Catherine's School, Bramley, Surrey and studied for the stage at PARADA and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. Tutin was also a talented pianist.

In 1963 she married the actor Derek Waring, and they had two children, Nicholas (born 1966) and Amanda, both of whom became actors (mother and daughter appeared together in the 1989 All Creatures Great and Small episode "Mending Fences"). Dorothy Tutin and Derek Waring remained married until her death in 2001 at the age of 71 from leukaemia. Waring died in 2007, also from cancer.

Career

Theatre
Dorothy Tutin made her first stage appearance at the Boltons on 6 September 1949, playing Princess Margaret of England in William Douglas-Home's play The Thistle and the Rose.

She joined the Bristol Old Vic Company in January 1950, appearing as Phebe in As You Like It, Anni in Denis Cannan's Captain Carvallo and Belinda in John Vanbrugh's The Provok'd Wife. She joined the Old Vic company in London for the 1950–51 season, playing Win-the-Fight Littlewit in Ben Jonson's Bartholomew Fair, Ann Page in The Merry Wives of Windsor and Princess Katharine in Henry V.

At the Lyric Theatre in September 1951, she played Martina in Christopher Fry's Thor with Angels, followed in January 1952 by Hero in John Gielgud's production of Much Ado About Nothing at the Phoenix Theatre.

Subsequent roles included:

Rose Pemberton in The Living Room (Graham Greene), Wyndham's Theatre, April 1953
Sally Bowles in I Am a Camera (John Van Druten), New Theatre, March 1954
Joan in The Lark (Jean Anouilh), Lyric Hammersmith, March 1955
Hedvig in The Wild Duck, Saville Theatre, December 1955
Caroline Traherne in The Gates of Summer, touring, September 1956
Jean Rice in The Entertainer, Royal Court, April 1957

Work with the RSC
Tutin first joined the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre Company for the 1958 season in Stratford-upon-Avon, appearing as Juliet in Romeo and Juliet, Viola in Twelfth Night and Ophelia in Hamlet. With the same company (but renamed the Royal Shakespeare Company from January 1961), she appeared as:

Cressida in Troilus and Cressida, Royal Shakespeare Theatre, Stratford, July 1960
Viola in Twelfth Night, Aldwych Theatre, December 1960 (Evening Standard Awards Best Actress)
Sister Jeanne in The Devils, Aldwych, February 1961.
Juliet in Romeo and Juliet, Stratford, August 1961
Desdemona in Othello, Stratford October 1961, Aldwych, October 1962
Varya in The Cherry Orchard, Aldwych, December 1961 and October 1962
Polly Peachum in The Beggar's Opera, Aldwych, July 1963

Other work included:
Beatrice in Beatrice et Benedict (concert version) Royal Festival Hall, November 1963
Queen Victoria in Portrait of a Queen, Bristol Old Vic March 1965; Vaudeville Theatre, May 1965; and Henry Miller NY, February 1968 (Tony nominee)
Rosalind in As You Like It, RSC Stratford and Aldwych, summer 1967, then at the Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, January 1968
Ann in Ann Veronica, Belgrade Theatre, Coventry, February 1969
Francine in Play on Love, St Martin's Theatre, January 1970
Alice in Arden of Faversham, RSC Theatregoround Festival, Roundhouse, November 1970
Kate in Old Times, Aldwych, June 1971
Title role in Peter Pan, London Coliseum, December 1971 and 1972
Maggie Wylie in What Every Woman Knows, touring, March 1972 and Albery Theatre, November 1974
Natalya Petrovna in A Month in the Country, Chichester Festival Theatre, 1974 season; and (for Prospect Productions) Albery Theatre, November 1975 (Evening Standard Awards Best Actress) & (Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Revival)
Lady Macbeth in Macbeth, Yvonne Arnaud Theatre, October 1976
Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra, Edinburgh Festival 1977 and Old Vic November 1977
Madame Ranevsky in The Cherry Orchard, National Theatre, Olivier, February 1978
Lady Macbeth in Macbeth, National, Olivier, June 1978
Lady Plyant in The Double Dealer, National, Olivier, September 1978 (Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Revival)
Genia Hofreiter in Undiscovered Country, National, Olivier, June 1979
Madame Dubarry in Reflections, Theatre Royal Haymarket, March 1980
Hester Collyer in The Deep Blue Sea, Greenwich Theatre September 1981
 Sarah in After the Lions by Ronald Harwood. World premiere directed by Michael Elliott at the Royal Exchange, Manchester 1982
Deborah in A Kind of Alaska (part of a Pinter Other Places triple-bill), Duchess Theatre, March 1985
Blanche Jerome in Brighton Beach Memoirs, Aldwych Theatre, December 1986
Sonia in Loleh Bellon's Thursday's Ladies, Apollo Theatre, September 1987
Edna Selby in Harlequinade and Millie Crocker-Harris in The Browning Version, Royalty Theatre, March 1988
Desiree Armfeldt in A Little Night Music, Minerva Theatre, Chichester, August 1989; Piccadilly Theatre, October 1989
Elderly Woman in Mountain Language and Melissa in Party Time (Harold Pinter), Almeida Theatre, November 1991
Rhoda Monkhams in Rodney Ackland's After October, Minerva, Chichester, May 1997, Richmond Theatre and Greenwich Theatre, June 1997, co-starring with Nicholas Waring
Fonsia Dorsey in The Gin Game, Savoy Theatre, March 1999, co-starring with Joss Ackland

Films and television
Tutin won the role of Cecily in Anthony Asquith's film version of Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest (1952), for which she received a BAFTA nomination for Most Promising Newcomer). She then played Polly Peachum to Laurence Olivier's Macheath in Peter Brook's film version of The Beggar's Opera (1953).

Her next major film role was as Lucie in the film A Tale of Two Cities (1958), opposite Dirk Bogarde.

She continued to divide her appearances among stage, TV and film, appearing in the title role of a television production of Jean Anouilh's Antigone (1959) and the film Cromwell (1970) as Queen Henrietta Maria, and then played Anne Boleyn in the BBC's series The Six Wives of Henry VIII (also 1970), which starred Keith Michell in the title role. She also played Margot Asquith, the wife of Prime Minister H.H. Asquith, in the dramatic series Number 10 (1983). She appeared in the Ken Russell film Savage Messiah (1972), and was a panellist over many years (at least from 1967 to 1983) on Face the Music.

She also performed as the teacher Sarah Burton in the TV series South Riding (1974), based on the novel South Riding by Winifred Holtby. She starred as Mrs. Alving in Yorkshire Television production of Ibsen's Ghosts  (1977). In the early 1980s, Tutin also appeared in the made-for-television film Murder with Mirrors (1985, based on an Agatha Christie novel) along with Helen Hayes and Bette Davis. Another of her notable roles was as Goneril in an Emmy-winning television production of Shakespeare's King Lear (1983), opposite Laurence Olivier as King Lear. She guest starred in an episode of the 1980s TV-series Robin of Sherwood as Lady Margaret of Gisbourne.

Awards and nominations

Honours
Tutin was created a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) by The Queen in 1967, and raised to Dame Commander (DBE) in 2000.

Filmography

References
Notes

Sources
Who's Who in the Theatre 17th edition, Gale (1981). .
Theatre Record and its annual Indexes.

External links

Obituary: The Independent
Obituary: The Daily Telegraph

1930 births
2001 deaths
Alumni of RADA
English film actresses
English television actresses
English stage actresses
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Actresses awarded damehoods
Deaths from leukemia
Actresses from London
Royal Shakespeare Company members
Deaths from cancer in England
People educated at St Catherine's School, Bramley
Laurence Olivier Award winners

Dorothy Tutin


In United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative, 532 U.S. 483 (2001), the United States Supreme Court rejected the common-law medical necessity defense to crimes enacted under the federal Controlled Substances Act of 1970, regardless of their legal status under the laws of states such as California that recognize a medical use for marijuana.  Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative was represented by Gerald Uelmen.

Background
This case would not have arisen without the passage of Proposition 215. California's Compassionate Use Act, allowed a patient or his primary caregiver to cultivate or possess marijuana on the advice of a physician.  Bolstered by the enactment, certain groups organized to supply marijuana patients in a manner consistent with the Act. The Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative is one such group.

In January 1998, the U.S. Government sued the OCBC to stop the cultivation and distribution of marijuana in violation of federal law.  The Government based its argument on the provisions of the Controlled Substances Act, which forbade the distribution, manufacture, and possession with intent to distribute or manufacture a controlled substance (including marijuana).  The lawsuit began in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California, and came before District Judge Charles R. Breyer. He concluded that the government would likely prevail on the merits and issued the injunction.

The OCBC believed, however, that ceasing the distribution of marijuana to patients would be harmful to it and so violated Judge Breyer's injunction.  The Government brought contempt proceedings against the OCBC. The OCBC argued that the distributions were medically necessary. Judge Breyer found OCBC in contempt, denied OCBC's request to authorize medically necessary distributions of marijuana, and authorized the U.S. Marshals to seize OCBC's premises. Then, the OCBC agreed to stop distributing marijuana. It also appealed Judge Breyer's decision to the Ninth Circuit.

The Ninth Circuit reversed and held that medical necessity was a legally cognizable defense to charges under the Controlled Substances Act.  Accordingly, the district court could have fashioned an injunction that was more limited in scope than a total ban on distributing marijuana. The Ninth Circuit ordered the district court to consider the criteria by which OCBC could distribute marijuana under the rubric of medical necessity. The government then asked the U.S. Supreme Court to review the case, and the Court granted certiorari.

When the case came before the Court, Justice Stephen Breyer recused himself from deciding the case because his brother Charles had been the district judge in the case.

Decision
Justice Thomas wrote for the majority.  The OCBC contended that the Controlled Substances Act was susceptible of a medical necessity exception to the ban on distribution and manufacture of marijuana.  The Court concluded otherwise.

In 1812, the Court had held in United States v. Hudson and Goodwin that there were no common-law crimes in federal law. The law thus required Congress, rather than the federal courts, to define federal crimes. The Controlled Substances Act did not recognize a medical necessity exception.

Thus, "a medical necessity exception for marijuana is at odds with the terms of the Controlled Substances Act." When it passed the Controlled Substances Act, Congress made a value judgment that marijuana had "no currently accepted medical use." It was not the province of the Court to usurp the value judgment made by the legislature. Thus, it was wrong for the Ninth Circuit to hold that the Controlled Substances Act contained a medical necessity defense. It was also wrong for the Ninth Circuit to order the district court to fashion a more limited injunction that would take into account the fact that marijuana was necessary for certain people to obtain relief from symptoms of chronic illnesses.

Subsequent history
The Court expressly noted that it did not decide another important issue of federal law: whether federal law could override a California law that allowed the purely-local cultivation and distribution of marijuana. It ordered the Ninth Circuit to address that argument in the first instance, and the Ninth Circuit in turn asked the district court to do so.

After further proceedings in the district court, the OCBC appealed to the Ninth Circuit again. The Ninth Circuit stayed its decision pending the Supreme Court's decision in Gonzales v. Raich, which was issued in June 2005.  The Ninth Circuit remanded the case to the district court, which rejected the claim, and OCBC appealed again to the Ninth Circuit.  The Ninth Circuit stayed the proceedings in this case.  The stay expired October 16, 2006.

Aftermath
Since the decision in this case and the US Congress's passage of the Rohrabacher–Farr amendment, allowing state medical cannabis programs, the OCBC has gone on to become the largest distributor of medical marijuana ID cards in California. Currently, over 100,000 patients throughout the state are registered members of the OCBC's ID program.

See also
 List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 532
 List of United States Supreme Court cases

References

External links

  Transcript of the oral argument in the Supreme Court
  Decision of the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals
 Schaffer Library of Drug Policy, Legal Documents from U.S. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative et al.
Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative, Legal Documents from U.S. v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative et al.
Drug Policy Alliance, "Medical Marijuana Cases: US v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers Cooperative"
 Brief of the Solicitor General

Cannabis law reform in the United States
Drug control case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
United States controlled substances case law
2001 in United States case law
2001 in cannabis
Cannabis law in California
Healthcare in Oakland, California


Euronext is a stock exchange in Europe. It has buildings in Belgium, France, Netherlands, Portugal and the United Kingdom.

Euronext was created on September 22 2000, when the stock exchanges of Amsterdam, Brussels Stock Exchange and Paris Bourse were joined together in a merger. In recent years, Euronext has become the fifth largest stock exchange on the planet.

In April 2007, it merged with New York Stock Exchange to form NYSE Euronext ().

Stock exchanges in Europe
2000 establishments in Europe

Euronext


In computing, a tiling window manager is a window manager with an organization of the screen into mutually non-overlapping frames, as opposed to the more common approach (used by stacking window managers) of coordinate-based stacking of overlapping objects (windows) that tries to fully emulate the desktop metaphor.

History

Xerox PARC
The first Xerox Star system (released in 1981) tiled application windows, but allowed dialogs and property windows to overlap. Later, Xerox PARC also developed CEDAR (released in 1982), the first windowing system using a tiled window manager.

Various vendors
Next in 1983 came Andrew WM, a complete tiled windowing system later replaced by X11. Microsoft's Windows 1.0 (released in 1985) also used tiling (see sections below).  In 1986 came Digital Research's GEM 2.0, a windowing system for the CP/M which used tiling by default. One of the early (created in 1988) tiling WMs was Siemens' RTL, up to today a textbook example because of its algorithms of automated window scaling, placement and arrangement, and (de)iconification. RTL ran on X11R2 and R3, mainly on the "native" Siemens systems, e.g., SINIX. Its features are described by its promotional video. The Andrew Project (AP or tAP) was a desktop client system (like early GNOME) for X with a tiling and overlapping window manager.

MacOS X 10.11 El Capitan released in September 2015 introduces new window management features such as creating a full-screen split view limited to two app windows side-by-side in full screen by holding down the full-screen button in the upper-left corner of a window.

Tiling window managers

Microsoft Windows

The built-in Microsoft Windows window manager has, since Windows 2.0, followed the traditional stacking approach by default. It can also act as a rudimentary tiling window manager.

To tile windows, the user selects them in the taskbar and uses the context menu choice Tile Vertically or Tile Horizontally. Choosing Tile Vertically will cause the windows to tile horizontally but take on a vertical shape, while choosing Tile Horizontally will cause the windows to tile vertically but take on a horizontal shape. These options were later changed in Windows Vista to Show Windows Side by Side and Show Windows Stacked, respectively.

Windows 7 added "Aero Snap" which adds the ability to drag windows to either side of the screen to create a simple side-by-side tiled layout, or to the top of the screen to maximize. Windows 8 introduced Windows Store apps; unlike desktop applications, they did not operate in a window, and could only run in full screen, or "snapped" as a sidebar alongside another app, or the desktop environment.

Along with allowing Windows Store apps to run in a traditional window, Windows 10 enhanced the snapping features introduced in Windows 7 by allowing windows to be tiled into screen quadrants by dragging them to the corner, and adding "Snap Assist" — which prompts the user to select the application they want to occupy the other half of the screen when they snap a window to one half of the screen, and allows the user to automatically resize both windows at once by dragging a handle in the center of the screen.

Windows 10 also supports FancyZones, a more complete tiling window manager facility allowing customized tiling zones and greater user control, configured through Microsoft PowerToys.

History
The first version (Windows 1.0) featured a tiling window manager, partly because of litigation by Apple claiming ownership of the overlapping window desktop metaphor. But due to complaints, the next version (Windows 2.0) followed the desktop metaphor. All later versions of the operating system stuck to this approach as the default behaviour.

List of tiling window managers for Windows
 AquaSnap - made by Nurgo Software. Freeware, with an optional "Professional" license.
Amethyst for windows - dynamic tiling window manager along the lines of amethyst for MacOS.
 bug.n – open source, configurable tiling window manager built as an AutoHotKey script and licensed under the GNU GPL.
 MaxTo — customizable grid, global hotkeys. Works with elevated applications, 32-bit and 64-bit applications, and multiple monitors.
WS Grid+ – move and/or resize window's using a grid selection system combining benefits of floating, stacking and tiling. It provides keyboard/mouse shortcuts to instantly move and resize a window.
 Stack – customizable grid (XAML), global hotkeys and/or middle mouse button. Supports HiDPI and multiple monitors.
 Plumb — lightweight tiling manager with support for multiple versions of Windows. Supports HiDPI monitors, keyboard hotkeys and customization of hotkeys (XAML).
 workspacer — an MIT licensed tiling window manager for Windows 10 that aims to be fast and compatible. Written and configurable using C#.
 dwm-win32 — port of dwm's general functionality to win32. Is MIT licensed and is configured by editing a config header in the same style as dwm.
 GlazeWM — a tiling window manager for Windows inspired by i3 and Polybar.
 Komorebi — a tiling window manager that works as an extension to Microsoft's Desktop Window Manager.

X Window System

In the X Window System, the window manager is a separate program. X itself enforces no specific window management approach and remains usable even without any window manager. Current X protocol version X11 explicitly mentions the possibility of tiling window managers. The Siemens RTL Tiled Window Manager (released in 1988) was the first to implement automatic placement/sizing strategies. Another tiling window manager from this period was the Cambridge Window Manager developed by IBM's Academic Information System group.

In 2000, both larswm and Ion released a first version.

List of tiling window managers for X
 awesome – a dwm derivative with window tiling, floating and tagging, written in C and configurable and extensible in Lua. It was the first WM to be ported from Xlib to XCB, and supports D-Bus, pango, XRandR, Xinerama.
 bspwm – a small tiling window manager that, similarly to yabai, represents windows as the leaves of a full binary tree. It does not handle key-binds on its own, requiring another program (e.g. sxhkd) to translate input to X events.
 Compiz – a compositing window manager available for usage without leaving familiar interfaces such as the ones from GNOME, KDE or Mate. One of its plugins (called Grid) allows the user to configure several keybindings to move windows to any corner, with five different lengths. There are also options to configure default placement for specific windows. The plugins can be configured through the Compiz Config Settings Manager / CCSM.
 dwm – allows for switching tiling layouts by clicking a textual ascii art 'icon' in the status bar. The default is a main area + stacking area arrangement, represented by a []= character glyph. Other standard layouts are a single-window "monocle" mode represented by an M and a non-tiling floating layout that permits windows to be moved and resized, represented by a fish-like ><>. Third party patches exist to add a golden section-based Fibonacci layout, horizontal and vertical row-based tiling or a grid layout. The keyboard-driven menu utility "dmenu", developed for use with dwm, is used with other tiling WMs such as xmonad, and sometimes also with other "light-weight" software like Openbox and uzbl.
 herbstluftwm – a manual tiling window manager (similar to i3 or Sway) that uses the concept of monitor independent tags as workspaces. Exactly one tag can be viewed on a monitor, with each tag containing its own layout. Like i3 and Sway, herbstluftwm is configured at runtime via IPC calls from herbstclient.
 i3 – a built-from-scratch window manager, based on wmii. It has vi-like keybindings, and treats extra monitors as extra workspaces, meaning that windows can be moved between monitors easily. Allows vertical and horizontal splits, tabbed and stacked layouts, and parent containers. It can be controlled entirely from the keyboard, but a mouse can also be used.
 Ion – combines tiling with a tabbing interface: the display is manually split in non-overlapping regions (frames). Each frame can contain one or more windows. Only one of these windows is visible and fills the entire frame.
 Larswm – implements a form of dynamic tiling: the display is vertically split in two regions (tracks). The left track is filled with a single window. The right track contains all other windows stacked on top of each other.
 LeftWM – a tiling window manager based on theming and supporting large monitors such as ultrawides.
 Qtile – a tiling window manager written, configurable and extensible in Python.
 Ratpoison — A keyboard-driven GNU Screen for X.
 spectrwm — a dynamic tiling and reparenting window manager for X11. It tries to stay out of the way so that valuable screen real estate can be used for more important content. It strives to be small, compact and fast. Formerly called "scrotwm" (a pun based on the word "scrotum").
 StumpWM – a keyboard driven offshoot of ratpoison supporting multiple displays (e.g. xrandr) that can be customized on the fly in Common Lisp. It uses Emacs-compatible keybindings by default.
 wmii (window manager improved 2) supports tiling and stacking window management with extended keyboard, mouse, and filesystem based remote control, replacing the workspace paradigm with a new tagging approach. The default configuration uses keystrokes derived from those of the vi text editor.  The window manager offers extensive configuration through a virtual filesystem using the 9P filesystem protocol similar to that offered by Plan 9 from Bell Labs. Every window, tag, and column is represented in the virtual filesystem, and windows are controlled by manipulating their file objects (in fact, the configuration file is just a script interfacing the virtual files).  This RPC system allows many different configuration styles, including those provided in the base distribution in plan9port and Bourne shell. The latest release 3.9 also includes configurations in Python and Ruby. The latest release supports Xinerama, shipping with its own keyboard-based menu program called wimenu, featuring history and programmable completion.
 xmonad – an extensible WM written in Haskell, which was both influenced by and has since influenced dwm.

Wayland
Wayland is a new windowing system with the aim of replacing the X Window System. There are only a few tiling managers that support Wayland natively.

List of tiling window managers for Wayland
Hyprland — Hyprland is a dynamic tiling wayland compositor that offers unique features like smooth animations, dynamic tiling and rounded corners.
Sway — Sway is "a drop-in replacement for the i3 window manager, but for Wayland instead of X11. It works with your existing i3 configuration and supports most of i3's features, and a few extras".
River - River is a dynamic tiling Wayland compositor with flexible runtime configuration, it is maintained and under regular updates.
CageBreak is a tiling compositor for wayland, based on cage and inspired by Ratpoison, which is easily controlled through the keyboard and a unix domain socket.
dwl - dwl is a wayland compositor, that was intended to fill the same space in the Wayland world that dwm does in X11. Like dwm, it is written in C, has a small codebase and lacks any configuration interface besides editing the source code.

Others
The Oberon operating and programming system, from ETH Zurich includes a tiling window manager.
The Acme programmer's editor / windowing system / shell program in Plan 9 is a tiling window manager.
The Samsung Galaxy S3, S4, Note II and Note 3 smartphones, running a custom variant of Android 4, have a multi-window feature that allows the user to tile two apps on the device's screen. This feature was integrated into stock Android as of version 7.0 "Nougat".
The Pop Shell extension, from Pop!_OS can add tiling windows manager functionalities to GNOME.
The Amethyst window manager by ianyh, which provides window tiling for macOS and was inspired by xmonad.

Tiling applications

Although tiling is not the default mode of window managers on any widely used platform, most applications already display multiple functions internally in a similar manner.  Examples include email clients, IDEs, web browsers, and contextual help in Microsoft Office. The main windows of these applications are divided into "panes" for the various displays. The panes are usually separated by a draggable divider to allow resizing. Paned windows are a common way to implement a master–detail interface.

Developed since the 1970s, the Emacs text editor contains one of the earliest implementations of tiling. In addition, HTML frames can be seen as a markup language-based implementation of tiling. The tiling window manager extends this usefulness beyond multiple functions within an application, to multiple applications within a desktop. The tabbed document interface can be a useful adjunct to tiling, as it avoids having multiple window tiles on screen for the same function.

See also
Split screen (computer graphics)
Integrated development environment style interface

References

External links
 Comparison of Tiling Window Managers — Arch Linux Wiki

User interface techniques
Window managers

Tiling window manager


The Girl Hunters (1962) is Mickey Spillane's seventh novel featuring private investigator Mike Hammer.  It was adapted for the screen in 1963; Spillane himself played Mike Hammer.

Plot
Hammer has been a drunk living in gutters around New York City for the past seven years.  Hammer's secretary and fiancée, Velda, is believed to be dead after a botched protection job involving a Chicago socialite and her new husband. Then, Hammer is apprehended and taken to an undisclosed location, where he is interrogated by former friend Captain Pat Chambers.  Chambers, who blames Hammer for Velda's death, pummels him repeatedly, but slacks off.  Richie Cole, a dock worker, is dying of severe gunshot wounds at City General Hospital and has insisted on talking to Hammer exclusively to reveal the identity of his killer.  Hammer, upon interviewing the victim, discovers that Velda is still alive and facing execution by a top level Soviet assassin dubbed "The Dragon", her only chance being Hammer finding her first.  The man tells Hammer that he has left clues to her location, but dies immediately afterwards.

The alarming news causes Hammer to sober up and prepare to go out on his own, despite being out of commission.  He soon discovers the pressure is on from Pat to discover the killer's identity.  Despite many threats, Hammer successfully brushes off Chambers, but then finds himself being muscled by a Federal Agent named Art Rickerby.  Rickerby reveals to Hammer that Richie Cole was a field agent and his former protégé.  In order to gain information and gun carrying privileges, Hammer makes deals with Rickerby, the condition being that Hammer brings him the Dragon alive.

Hammer's investigations lead him to Laura Knapp, the widow of a Senator also murdered by the Dragon.  Whilst gaining more clues from Laura and death attempts by the Dragon, Hammer hurries to find Velda, as the clock is ticking, and time is not on his side.

Film version

A restored print was screened at the 2010 edition of the Festival de Cannes as an Official Selection of the Cinéma de la Plage.

1962 American novels
Novels by Mickey Spillane
American novels adapted into films
E. P. Dutton books
Mike Hammer (character) novels

The Girl Hunters


Aspartame (also known as E951 or NutraSweet) is an artificial sweetener. It was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter.  It can be used to replace some kinds of sugar. It is not based on sugars. It is not like saccharin.

Problems
People with Phenylketonuria cannot take Aspartame
Aspartame may cause problems with the skin, such as rashes, or dermatitis
It may cause  headache or migraine.

References

Sweeteners

Aspartame


In Judaism, a Bar Mitzvah is a Jewish boy, and a Bat Mitzvah a Jewish girl, who has turned 13 years old (or for a girl in the Orthodox movement, 12 years old). They go through a rite of passage which symbolizes the young person's responsibility for themselves.

Before the bar mitzvah, the child's parents hold the responsibility for the child's actions. After this age, the boys and girls bear their own responsibility, and are able to participate in all areas of Jewish community life. It marks their coming of age. The terms are also used for the ceremony celebrating this event.

 Bar Mitzvah (pl. B'nai Mitzvah) comes from the Aramaic , "one (m.) to whom the commandments apply". (If it were Hebrew it would be  (ben) not  (bar).  is "son" in Aramaic, and  (ben) is son in Hebrew.).
 Bat Mitzvah (pl. B'not Mitzvah) is , "one (f.) to whom the commandments apply" (Ashkenazi: Bas Mitzvah).

According to Jewish law, when Jewish children reach the age of majority (generally thirteen years for boys and twelve for girls.) Then they become responsible for their actions, and "become a Bar or Bat Mitzvah". This is also the time when physical puberty normally begins. Before this the child's parents have the responsibility that the child follows Jewish law and tradition and, after this age, children have their own responsibility for Jewish ritual law, tradition, and ethics and have the right to take part in all areas of Jewish community life.

References

Further reading
Oppenheimer, Mark.  Thirteen and a Day: The Bar and Bat Mitzvah across America.  New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2005.

Other websites
 Schauss, Hayyim. History of Bar Mitzvah
 "Bar Mitzvah, Bat Mitzvah and Confirmation"
 The Official Israeli Ministry of Tourism Website with information about celebrating Bar/Bat Mitzvah in Jerusalem
 Secular Humanistic Bar/Bat Mitzvah

Jewish culture

Bar and Bat Mitzvah