"Rock Chalk, Jayhawk" (a.k.a. the Rock Chalk chant) is a chant used at University of Kansas Jayhawks sporting events. The chant is made up of the phrase "Rock chalk, Jayhawk, KU".

History
The chant was first adopted by the university's science club in 1886. Chemistry professor E.H.S. Bailey and his colleagues were returning by train to Lawrence after a conference. During their travel, they discussed a need of a rousing yell. They came up with "Rah, Rah, Jayhawk, Go KU", repeated three times.

By 1889, "Rock Chalk" had replaced the "Rah, Rah!" Rock Chalk is a transposition of "chalk rock," a type of limestone that exists in the Cretaceous-age bedrocks of central and western parts of the state and which is similar to the coccolith-bearing chalk of the white cliffs of Dover. (The University itself is located on top of Mount Oread, a ridge of flinty Carboniferous limestone used in some of the buildings.)  Those responsible for the change are unknown, with Bailey himself crediting the geology department, and others an English professor.

Kansas troops used it in the Philippine–American War in 1899, the Boxer Rebellion, and World War II. In the 1911 Border War football game, over 1,000 fans gathered in downtown Lawrence to listen to a "broadcast" of the game by telegraph and participated in cheers including the Rock Chalk.

In the 1920 Summer Olympics, Albert I of Belgium asked for a typical American college yell, and gathered athletes replied with the chant.

Former United States President Theodore Roosevelt called the Rock Chalk chant the best college chant he ever heard.

Usage

It is best known as being loudly chanted at basketball games at Allen Fieldhouse and football games at University of Kansas Memorial Stadium. During pregame, the refrain of "Rock chalk... Jay-Hawk... KU," is repeated twice slowly, and then three times quickly. It is usually preceded by the Kansas alma mater "Crimson and the Blue," and followed by the fight song, "I'm a Jayhawk."   Since the early 1990s, Kansas fans have been known to do the slow repetition of "Rock chalk... Jay-Hawk... KU" when the Jayhawks are believed to be safely ahead, and victory is guaranteed.

References

External links
MP3 of the chant

Chants
Kansas Jayhawks

Rock Chalk, Jayhawk


The mouth is the body orifice through which many animals ingest food and vocalize. The body cavity immediately behind the mouth opening, known as the oral cavity (or  in Latin), is also the first part of the alimentary canal which leads to the pharynx and the gullet. In tetrapod vertebrates, the mouth is bounded on the outside by the lips and cheeks — thus the oral cavity is also known as the buccal cavity (from Latin , meaning "cheek") — and contains the tongue on the inside. Except for some groups like birds and lissamphibians, vertebrates usually have teeth in their mouths, although some fish species have pharyngeal teeth instead of oral teeth.

Most bilaterian phyla, including arthropods, molluscs and chordates, have a two-opening gut tube with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other. Which end forms first in ontogeny is a criterion used to classify bilaterian animals into protostomes and deuterostomes.

Development

In the first multicellular animals, there was probably no mouth or gut and food particles were engulfed by the cells on the exterior surface by a process known as endocytosis. The particles became enclosed in vacuoles into which enzymes were secreted and digestion took place intracellularly. The digestive products were absorbed into the cytoplasm and diffused into other cells. This form of digestion is used nowadays by simple organisms such as Amoeba and Paramecium and also by sponges which, despite their large size, have no mouth or gut and capture their food by endocytosis.

However, most animals have a mouth and a gut, the lining of which is continuous with the epithelial cells on the surface of the body. A few animals which live parasitically originally had guts but have secondarily lost these structures. The original gut of diploblastic animals probably consisted of a mouth and a one-way gut. Some modern invertebrates still have such a system: food being ingested through the mouth, partially broken down by enzymes secreted in the gut, and the resulting particles engulfed by the other cells in the gut lining. Indigestible waste is ejected through the mouth.

In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the formation of the gut. In deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the anus while the gut eventually tunnels through to make another opening, which forms the mouth. In the protostomes, it used to be thought that the blastopore formed the mouth (proto– meaning "first") while the anus formed later as an opening made by the other end of the gut. More recent research, however, shows that in protostomes the edges of the slit-like blastopore close up in the middle, leaving openings at both ends that become the mouth and anus.

Anatomy

Invertebrates

Apart from sponges and placozoans, almost all animals have an internal gut cavity which is lined with gastrodermal cells. In less advanced invertebrates such as the sea anemone, the mouth also acts as an anus. Circular muscles around the mouth are able to relax or contract in order to open or close it. A fringe of tentacles thrusts food into the cavity and it can gape widely enough to accommodate large prey items. Food passes first into a pharynx and digestion occurs extracellularly in the gastrovascular cavity. Annelids have simple tube-like guts, and the possession of an anus allows them to separate the digestion of their foodstuffs from the absorption of the nutrients.
Many molluscs have a radula which is used to scrape microscopic particles off surfaces. In invertebrates with hard exoskeletons, various mouthparts may be involved in feeding behaviour. Insects have a range of mouthparts suited to their mode of feeding. These include mandibles, maxillae and labium and can be modified into suitable appendages for chewing, cutting, piercing, sponging and sucking. Decapods have six pairs of mouth appendages, one pair of mandibles, two pairs of maxillae and three of maxillipeds. Sea urchins have a set of five sharp calcareous plates which are used as jaws and are known as Aristotle's lantern.

Vertebrates
In vertebrates, the first part of the digestive system is the buccal cavity, commonly known as the mouth. The buccal cavity of a fish is separated from the opercular cavity by the gills. Water flows in through the mouth, passes over the gills and exits via the operculum or gill slits. Nearly all fish have jaws and may seize food with them but most feed by opening their jaws, expanding their pharynx and sucking in food items. The food may be held or chewed by teeth located in the jaws, on the roof of the mouth, on the pharynx or on the gill arches.

Nearly all amphibians are carnivorous as adults. Many catch their prey by flicking out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth, where they hold the prey with their jaws. They then swallow their food whole without much chewing. They typically have many small hinged pedicellate teeth, the bases of which are attached to the jaws, while the crowns break off at intervals and are replaced. Most amphibians have one or two rows of teeth in both jaws but some frogs lack teeth in the lower jaw. In many amphibians, there are also vomerine teeth attached to the bone in the roof of the mouth.

The mouths of reptiles are largely similar to those of mammals. The crocodilians are the only reptiles to have teeth anchored in sockets in their jaws. They are able to replace each of their approximately 80 teeth up to 50 times during their lives. Most reptiles are either carnivorous or insectivorous, but turtles are often herbivorous. Lacking teeth that are suitable for efficiently chewing of their food, turtles often have gastroliths in their stomach to further grind the plant material. Snakes have a very flexible lower jaw, the two halves of which are not rigidly attached, and numerous other joints in their skull. These modifications allow them to open their mouths wide enough to swallow their prey whole, even if it is wider than they are.

Birds do not have teeth, relying instead on other means of gripping and macerating their food. Their beaks have a range of sizes and shapes according to their diet and are composed of elongated mandibles. The upper mandible may have a nasofrontal hinge allowing the beak to open wider than would otherwise be possible. The exterior surface of beaks is composed of a thin, horny sheath of keratin. Nectar feeders such as hummingbirds have specially adapted brushy tongues for sucking up nectar from flowers.

In mammals the buccal cavity is typically roofed by the hard and soft palates, floored by the tongue and surrounded by the cheeks, salivary glands, and upper and lower teeth. The upper teeth are embedded in the upper jaw and the lower teeth in the lower jaw, which articulates with the temporal bones of the skull. The lips are soft and fleshy folds which shape the entrance into the mouth. The buccal cavity empties through the pharynx into the oesophagus.

Other functions of the mouth
Crocodilians living in the tropics can gape with their mouths to provide cooling by evaporation from the mouth lining. Some mammals rely on panting for thermoregulation as it increases evaporation of water across the moist surfaces of the lungs, the tongue and mouth. Birds also avoid overheating by gular fluttering, flapping the wings near the gular (throat) skin, similar to panting in mammals.

Various animals use their mouths in threat displays. They may gape widely, exhibit their teeth prominently, or flash the startling colours of the mouth lining. This display allows each potential combatant an opportunity to assess the weapons of their opponent and lessens the likelihood of actual combat being necessary.

A number of species of bird use a gaping, open beak in their fear and threat displays. Some augment the display by hissing or breathing heavily, while others clap their beaks.

Mouths are also used as part of the mechanism for producing sounds for communication. To produce sounds, air is forced from the lungs over vocal cords in the larynx. In humans, the pharynx, soft palate, hard palate, alveolar ridge, tongue, teeth and lips are termed articulators and play their part in the production of speech. Varying the position of the tongue in relation to the other articulators or moving the lips restricts the airflow from the lungs in different ways and changes the mouth's resonating properties, producing a range of different sounds. In frogs, the sounds can be amplified using sacs in the throat region. The vocal sacs can be inflated and deflated and act as resonators to transfer the sound to the outside world. A bird's song is produced by the flow of air over a vocal organ at the base of the trachea, the syrinx. For each burst of song, the bird opens its beak and closes it again afterwards. The beak may move slightly and may contribute to the resonance but the song originates elsewhere.

See also
 Human mouth
Oral manifestations of systemic disease

References

External links

Human head and neck
Animal anatomy
Digestive system
Facial features

Mouth


Ocean liner is the name given to (usually large) ships that are used to transport people or goods. These ships travel along given routes; they usually have a schedule. Usually, ocean liners travel long distances. The ships used for short distances, for example across a channel,  a lake, or between an island and the coast close by, are called ferries. Ocean liners are used for transportation. Cruise ships are different, they are used for pleasure.

The "golden Age" of the ocean liner was the first half of the 20th Century, when ocean liners commonly carried hundreds upon thousands of poor immigrants from Europe to North America, the United States especially. Hundreds of ocean liners were built during this period.

When WW2 started in 1939, many ocean liners were turned into troop ships, to transport soldiers to Europe and Asia, by both sides. After the war, most remaining ocean liners were returned to their original owners.

In the second half of the 20th century, ocean liners have been replaced by aircraft more and more. In the 1950's, as airplanes like the De Havilland Comet and Boeing 707 were built, ocean liners seemed redundant as jet liners were faster and easier to build than ocean liners. By the 1980's, most ocean liners had been retired with only a few outliers staying in service.

Ship types

Ocean liner


Astrophyllite is a very rare, brown to golden-yellow hydrous potassium iron titanium silicate mineral. Belonging to the astrophyllite group, astrophyllite may be classed either as an inosilicate, phyllosilicate, or an intermediate between the two. It forms an isomorphous series with kupletskite, to which it is visually identical and often intimately associated. Astrophyllite is of interest primarily to scientists and collectors.

Heavy, soft and fragile, astrophyllite typically forms as bladed, radiating stellate aggregates. It is this crystal habit that gives astrophyllite its name, from the Greek words astron meaning "star" and phyllon meaning "leaf". Its great submetallic gleam and darkness contrast sharply with the light (felsic) matrix the mineral is regularly found within. Astrophyllite is usually opaque to translucent, but may be transparent in thin specimens.

As the crystals themselves possess perfect cleavage, they are typically left in situ, the entire aggregate often cut into slabs and polished. Owing to its limited availability and high cost, astrophyllite is seldom seen in an ornamental capacity. It is sometimes used in jewellery where it is fashioned into cabochons.

Found in cavities and fissures in unusual felsic igneous rocks, astrophyllite is associated with feldspar, mica, titanite, zircon, nepheline, and aegirine. Common impurities include magnesium, aluminium, calcium, zirconium, niobium, and tantalum. It was first discovered in 1854 at its type locality; Laven Island, Norway. Kupletskite was not known until 1956, over a hundred years later.

Astrophyllite is found in a few scarce, remote localities: Mont-Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada; Pikes Peak, Colorado, US; Narsarsuk and Kangerdluarsuk, Greenland; Brevig, Norway; and the Kola Peninsula, Russia.

See also

List of minerals

References

Iron(II) minerals
Inosilicates
Triclinic minerals
Minerals in space group 2

Astrophyllite


Arthur Nikisch  (born Lébény Szent Miklós, Hungary,  12 October 1855; died Leipzig,  23 January 1922) was a Hungarian conductor.  He conducted in Germany as well as internationally and was thought of as the greatest conductor of his time.

Life
Arthur Nikisch was born in  Hungary (then the Austro-Hungarian Empire).  His father was from Moravia, his mother was Hungarian.  As a child he showed exceptional musical talent.  He learned the piano and the violin and studied at the Vienna Conservatory, where he won prizes for composition and for playing the violin and piano. He was playing the violin in the orchestra when Richard Wagner conducted a concert in Bayreuth to celebrate the beginning of the building of his new theatre: the Bayreuth Festspielhaus.  He joined the Vienna Court Orchestra where he played in concerts that were conducted by famous composers such as Brahms, Liszt, Verdi and Wagner.  Soon he started his career as conductor in Leipzig.  He quickly became internationally famous.  In 1889 he was invited to conduct the Boston Symphony Orchestra.  He conducted many concerts in the USA.  In 1893 he became conductor of the Budapest Opera.  Two years later he also became conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra, taking the place of Carl Reinecke.  In the same year he also became the main conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic.  He remained conductor of these two world famous orchestras until his death.

Nikisch gave concerts all over the world, appearing as guest conductor with great orchestras such as the Concertgebouw Orchestra in Amsterdam and the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra.  In 1912 he took the London Symphony Orchestra to the USA, the first European Orchestra to tour there (fortunately they cancelled their booking on the RMS Titanic at the last moment).   He conducted at the Leipzig Opera and taught conducting at the Leipzig Conservatory.

Nikisch was famous for his conducting of the great Romantic composers such as Schumann, Brahms, Bruckner, Tchaikovsky and Wagner as well as Beethoven.  He had a great influence on the next generation of conductors including Wilhelm Furtwängler and Sir Adrian Boult.  He helped composers such as Mahler, Max Reger and Richard Strauss to become famous by performing their music.

Nikisch married the singer Amélie Heusner.  Their son Mitja became a successful pianist.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980.

1855 births
1922 deaths
Hungarian conductors

Arthur Nikisch


The  was  an organization established in the Empire of Japan as part of the controls on civilian organizations under the National General Mobilization Law by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe.

Representatives from 74 nationalist organizations were assembled at the Prime Minister's residence in October 1937, and were told that their organizations were now part of the "Central League of the Spiritual Mobilization Movement", headed by Admiral Ryokitsu Arima and under the joint supervision of the Ministry of Home Affairs and Ministry of Education. The purpose of the Movement would be to rally the nation for a total war effort against China in the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Konoe later ordered another 19 nationalist organizations to join the League. This movement and other policies were part of "New Order" (Shintaisei) which was promulgated on 3 November 1938, a holiday marking emperor Meiji's birthday.

Apart from public calls for increased patriotism, the National Spiritual Mobilization Movement spanned some concrete programs like Boosting Production service to the Nation, Increasing Crops Service to the Nation and Student Volunteers Corps Service to the Nation. It was moreover part of a general move made by the Shōwa regime to closely control the information which had begun in 1936 with the establishment of the Cabinet Information Committee which launched two official magazines: the Shūhō (Weekly Report) in November 1936 and the Shashin Shūhō (Photographic Weekly Report). The purpose of these was "to ensure that the content and purport of the policies inaugurated by the Government are widely disseminated to the general citizenry  and correctly understood by them".

Konoe's successor, Prime Minister Hiranuma Kiichirō, turned the movement over to General Sadao Araki in January 1939, who revitalized it by having it sponsor public rallies, radio programs, printed propaganda and discussion seminars at tonarigumi neighborhood associations. Famous public figures were recruited to provide lectures on the virtues of thrift, hygiene and hard work, and to disseminate a sense of national pride in the Japanese kokutai.

The League was abolished on 20 December 1945 by the American occupation authorities after the surrender of Japan.

See also
 League of Diet Members Believing the Objectives of the Holy War
 Imperial Rule Assistance Association

References

Sources

Japan in World War II
Empire of Japan
1937 establishments in Japan
1945 disestablishments in Japan
Organizations established in 1937
Organizations disestablished in 1945
Propaganda in Japan


In English, an intransitive verb is an action that involves the object or person doing the action by itself. For example: "The door opened." (by itself) This contrasts with a transitive verb, where the action is done by someone or something else, i.e.: "The person opened the door."

Parts of speech

Intransitive verb


"Nightswimming" is the eighth episode of the American crime fantasy television series Awake, that first aired on the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) on April 19, 2012. Leonard Chang and co-executive producer Davey Holmes wrote "Nightswimming". 2.80 million watched it when it was first broadcast on television in the United States. Executive producer Jeffrey Reiner directed the episode, and critics liked the episode.

Awake's main character is Michael Britten (Jason Isaacs), a detective living in two different realities after a car crash. In one reality, where he wears a red wristband, his wife Hannah Britten (Laura Allen) survived the accident, and in another reality, where he wears a green wristband, his son Rex Britten (Dylan Minnette) survived. In the "green reality", Michael helps Accountant Marcus Ananyev (Elijah Alexander) and his wife Alina (Ayelet Zurer) start a new life in the Witness Protection Program after a gang member tried to kill Marcus. In the "red reality", Michael and Hannah prepare for a new life in Oregon after deciding to move there. They go swimming at a college pool because they love each other.

Many reviewers praised the story of the "red reality", but did not enjoy the arcs of the "green reality". This episode marked the first time Rex had not appeared in an episode of the series, the show's two therapists: Dr. Jonathan Lee (BD Wong) and Dr. Judith Evans (Cherry Jones) also did not appear in it. Even though it was the eighth episode, it was supposed to be the fifth episode. The music featured in it was "Pain in My Heart" by Otis Redding. Michael is seen shirtless in two scenes of the episode, one of those scenes were filmed at an actual campus swimming pool. During filming, a woman saw Isaacs naked and questioned it. Many critics commented on the themes of "Nightswimming". It was filmed in Los Angeles, California, and eight guest actors were in it.

References

Other websites
 "Nightswimming" at NBC.com

2012 television episodes

Nightswimming (Awake)


Scooter was an animated character used by Fox Sports during Major League Baseball games.  The character, a baseball with human facial characteristics, is voiced by Tom Kenny (best known for his work as the voice of SpongeBob SquarePants) and was designed by Fox to explain different types of pitches with the education of children in mind.

Critical reaction
Scooter debuted in the 2004 baseball season on April 16, during a game between the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox.  While Fox Sports television chairman David Hill called Scooter "really cute and really terrific," the character garnered few positive reactions otherwise, with Sports Illustrated writer John Donovan warning: "purists everywhere, grab the barf bag," and Sports Illustrated media writer Richard Deitsch using Scooter as an example of "how technology does not always help society." The Sporting News reported polling their staff with the question "What best summarizes your feelings for Scooter, FOX's talking baseball?", and 45% of respondents chose the answer "Send him to a slow, painful death." Despite the negative reactions, Scooter would still be used in televised baseball games until after the 2006 World Series.

Peter Puck comparisons
Some television historians have noticed the similarities between Scooter and Peter Puck, an animated hockey puck that was used by Hockey Night in Canada and NHL on NBC in the 1970s to explain the rules of hockey to viewers. However, Peter Puck was well loved by viewers and is often looked at with nostalgia, whereas Scooter has been met with little but derision.

References

External links
 Hoverboard
Article on Scooter

Fictional balls
Mascots introduced in 2004
Major League Baseball on Fox

Scooter (talking baseball)


The Education and Research Network (ERNET) is an autonomous scientific society of the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, Government of India. ERNET has made a significant contribution to the emergence of networking in the country. It practically brought the Internet to India and has built up national capabilities in the area of net-working, especially in protocol software engineering. It is the first internet service in india. It has not only succeeded in building a large network that provides various facilities to the intellectual segment of Indian society—the research and education community, it has over the years become a trendsetter in the field of networking.

Focus
ERNET is largest nationwide terrestrial and satellite network with point of presence located at the premiere educational and research institutions in major cities of the country. Focus of ERNET is not limited to just providing connectivity, but to meet the entire needs of the educational and research institutions by hosting and providing relevant information to their users. Research and Development and Training are integral parts of ERNET activities. The activities at ERNET India are organised around five technology focus areas:

National Academic and Research Network
Research and Development in the area of Data Communication and its Application
Human Resource Development in the area of High-end Networking
Educational Content
Campus-wide High Speed Local Area Network

Beginning
ERNET was initiated in 1986 by the Department of Electronics (DoE), with funding support from the Government of India and United Nations Development Program (UNDP), involving eight premier institutions as participating agencies— NCST (National Centre for Software Technology) [Now CDAC] Bombay, IISc (Indian Institute of Science) Bangalore, five IITs (Indian Institutes of Technology) at Delhi, Bombay, Kanpur, Kharagpur and Madras, and the DoE, New Delhi. ERNET began as a multi protocol network with both the TCP/IP and the OSI-IP protocol stacks running over the leased-line portion of the backbone. Since 1995, however, almost all traffic is carried over TCP/IP.

History of ERNET
 ERNET started with Dial-up network in 1986–87.
 Initially UUCP mail was only service started by ERNET.
 First leased line of 9.6 kbit/s was installed in Jan'1991 between Delhi and Mumbai.
 ERNET was allotted Class B IP address 22.214.171.124 by InterNIC in 1990. Subsequently, Class C addresses were allotted to ERNET by APNIC.
 All IITs, IISc Bangalore, DOE Delhi and NCST Mumbai were connected by 9.6 kbit/s leased line by 1992.
 In 1992, 64 kbit/s Internet gateway link was commissioned from NCST Mumbai to UUNet in Virginia near Washington DC.
 In 1998 ERNET India was registered as Autonomous Society.
 In 1999-2000 new terrestrial high speed backbone was set up.
 In 2000 POP infrastructure was upgraded.
 Satellite WAN was set up in 1993.
 Today, 1100 institutes are ERNET users under different schemes.

ERNET backbone
ERNET backbone is a sophisticated link of terrestrial and satellite-based wide area networks. The satellite WAN, using VSAT technology. The VSAT network acts as an overlay for the terrestrial WAN by providing backup links between the backbone sites. International connectivity is achieved through gateways at New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore and Kolkata, with a total capacity of 6.64 Mb. Daily traffic over ERNET exceeds 200 GB. ERNET architecture is based on industry standard TCP/IP protocol. This network had undergone a major upgrade during year 2000–2001 in association with CMC Ltd. (A Govt. of India Undertaking, then).

ERNET backbone is being enabled to support IPv6.

ERNET international gateway and PoP sites
The ERNET is supported by the following backbone sites which enable organizations located at different geographical locations to access various services.

ERNET Headquarters, New Delhi
Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, Mumbai
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune
Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre, Kolkata
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
University of Hyderabad
Center for Advanced Technology, Indore
Odisha Computer Application Centre, Bhubaneswar
Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Thiruvananthapuram
National Institute of Electronics & Information Technology, Gorakhpur
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati
ERNET VSAT HUB, Bangalore
Tezpur University, Tezpur
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Thiruvananthapuram

See also
National Knowledge Network

References

External links

National Knowledge Network
Academic computer network organizations
Wide area networks
Internet in India
Companies based in New Delhi
Research institutes in Delhi
Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (India)
National research and education networks
Science and technology in India
Telecommunications in India

ERNET


An exonym is a name of a person, a people group, language, or place used by people of other places and languages. An endonym is a name that people of a certain place and language call themselves. For example, the endonym of Germany is Deutschland, because that is what Germans call their country, and Germans call themselves and their language Deutsch. On the other hand, Germany and German are its exonym because English speakers, who are not German, use those names to describe it.

This is actually very common across languages for several reasons. One reason is because the sounds for an endonym may not exist in certain languages. It would be difficult for speakers of other languages to say them, so speakers of other languages make an exonym. For example, words in Japanese cannot end in any consonant that is not an "n" sound, and for that reason, Deutsch is Doitsu in Japanese. Japanese also adds Japanese morphemes so that there is no confusion between the country, the people, and the language. The German people are Doitsujin, in which -jin means people, and the name of the German language is Doitsugo, in which -go means language. While the country, people, and language of Laos can all be called Lao in English, they are called Raosu, Rasoujin, and Raosugo in Japanese in that same order.

Another reason why a country might call another country a different name is because people from a certain country might have different ideas about those people or associate them with certain things. For example, even though Greeks call their country Hellas, their country is known around the world as Greece because the Roman Empire named the region after Magna Graecia, which were coastal areas in southern Italy that were colonized by Greeks in the early days of Rome. Germany has a very large number of exonyms, being called Allemagne in French, Niemcy in Polish, and Saksa in Finnish. This is because Germany has interacted with many other European countries and the Germans were a collection of tribes speaking similar languages until they unified into a country in the late 19th century. Even though the Dutch call themselves Nederlanders in their own language, English speakers call them Dutch (a cognate of the German word Deutsch) because the words German and Dutch used to be interchangeable until Germany unified in the 1800s. From then on, German was used to describe people from Germany, while Dutch was used to describe people from the Netherlands.

Even though in Mandarin Chinese China is called Zhōngguó, meaning the "Middle Kingdom" or the "Central States", most other countries calls it China. It is believed that the word China cam from the word Qín, in which the Qin dynasty unified China. However, there are a few exceptions. In Japanese, it is called Chūgoku, which has the same meaning as the Chinese name, except it uses the Japanese pronunciation for the Chinese characters for the name 中國 / 中国. In Korean, it is called Jungguk for the same reason. In Russian, China is called Kitay.

A third reason why a country might call another place a different name is because a language can borrow a name from another language. Even though Japan is called Nippon or Nihon in Japanese, the word passed on to Europe through many different languages, all of which were very different from Japanese. Marco Polo heard about Kublai Khan sending soldiers to Cipangu, which in Chinese characters is 日本, which means "Sun's Origin". When the Portuguese arrived in Japan in the mid-16th century, who were the first Europeans to directly trade with Japan, they called the country Japão based on an old Malay word, which was borrowed from a southern Chinese dialect. Thus, most other countries call the country Japan. A few exceptions are Chinese, which call it Rìběn based on the Mandarin pronunciation of the Chinese characters, and Korean, which call it Ilbon based on the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese characters. Also, while many countries call European cities by their endonym, including Roma, Praha, Köln, and Napoli, the English names of many European cities are noticeably different, which are called Rome, Prague, Cologne, and Naples in the same order. These names were borrowed from French. Since French was the official language of England from the Norman invasion to King Henry V, many of the cities names came into English through French.

References

Ethnicity

Exonym and endonym


The Rosé Quartet was a string quartet formed by Arnold Rosé in 1882.

The group played together for 55 years, until 1938.  Arnold Rosé was the first violin for the whole of that time, but the other members changed. Julius Egghard played the second violin at first; then it was Albert Bachrich, until 1905 when Paul Fischer joined.  The viola player was Anton Loh, then Hugo von Steiner until 1901, then Anton Ruzitska; after 1920, Max Handl played the viola. Eduard Rosé, Arnold's brother, was the cellist at first, but left after one season he left to get married and was replaced by Reinhold Hummer.  The next cellist was Friedrich Buxbaum; cellist Anton Walter joined in 1921, but later on Buxbaum took over once more.

The group were particularly famous between 1905 and 1920, with Rosé, Fischer, Ruzitska, and Buxbaum.  They were known for their great performances of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, but also some more modern composers including Arnold Schoenberg.

The group often gave the first Vienna performances of works by Brahms, including his Clarinet Quintet and his Quintet in G major Opus 111. It also gave the first performance of Schoenberg's first and second string quartets and the sextet Verklärte Nacht in which they were joined by two other members of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra: Franz Jelinek, viola, and Franz Schmidt, cello.

String quartets

Rosé Quartet


A metropolitan-area Ethernet, Ethernet MAN, or metro Ethernet network is a metropolitan area network (MAN) that is based on Ethernet standards. It is commonly used to connect subscribers to a larger service network or for internet access. Businesses can also use metropolitan-area Ethernet to connect their own offices to each other.

An Ethernet interface is typically more economical than a synchronous digital hierarchy (SONET/SDH) or plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) interface of the same bandwidth. Another distinct advantage of an Ethernet-based access network is that it can be easily connected to the customer network, due to the prevalent use of Ethernet in corporate and residential networks.

A typical service provider's network is a collection of switches and routers connected through optical fiber. The topology could be a ring, hub-and-spoke (star), or full or partial mesh. The network will also have a hierarchy: core, distribution (aggregation), and access. The core in most cases is an existing IP/MPLS backbone but may migrate to newer forms of Ethernet transport in the form of 10 Gbit/s, 40 Gbit/s, or 100 Gbit/s speeds or even possibly 400 Gbit/s to Terabit Ethernet network in the future.

Ethernet on the MAN can be used as pure Ethernet, Ethernet over SDH, Ethernet over Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS), or Ethernet over DWDM. Ethernet-based deployments with no other underlying transport are cheaper but are harder to implement in a resilient and scalable manner, which has limited its use to small-scale or experimental deployments. SDH-based deployments are useful when there is an existing SDH infrastructure already in place; its main shortcoming is the loss of flexibility in bandwidth management due to the rigid hierarchy imposed by the SDH network. MPLS-based deployments are costly but highly reliable and scalable and are typically used by large service providers.

Metropolitan area networks
Familiar network domains are likely to exist regardless of the transport technology chosen to implement metropolitan area networks: Access, aggregation/distribution, and core.

 Access devices normally exist at a customer's premises, unit, or wireless base station. This is the network that connects customer equipment, and may include optical network terminal (ONT),  a residential gateway, or office router.
 Aggregation occurs on a distribution network such as an ODN segment. Often passive optical network, microwave or digital subscriber line technologies are employed, but some of them using point-to-point Ethernet over "home-run" direct fibre. This part of the network includes nodes such as Multi Tenanted Unit switches, optical line terminals in an outside plant or central office cabinet, Ethernet in the first mile equipment, or provider bridges.
 A MAN may include the transport technologies MPLS, PBB-TE and T-MPLS, each with its own resiliency and management techniques.
 A core network often uses IP-MPLS to connect different MANs together.

Much of the functionality of Ethernet MANs such as virtual private lines or virtual private networks is implemented by the use of Ethernet VLAN tags that allow differentiation of each part of the network. Logical differentiation of the physical network helps to identify the rights that the traffic has and to ease the management of hosts' access rights with respect to other users and networks.

MPLS-based Ethernet MANs
A Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) metro Ethernet network uses MPLS in the service provider's network. The subscriber will get an Ethernet interface on copper (for example, 100BASE-TX) or fiber (such as 100BASE-FX). The customer's Ethernet packet is transported over MPLS and the service provider network uses Ethernet again as the underlying technology to transport MPLS. So, it is Ethernet over MPLS over Ethernet.

Label Distribution Protocol (LDP) signaling can be used as site to site signaling for the inner label (VC label) and Resource reSerVation Protocol-Traffic Engineering (RSVP-TE) or LDP may be used as Network signaling for the outer label.

One restoration mechanism used in an MPLS based Metro Ethernet Networks is Fast ReRoute (FRR) to achieve sub-50ms convergence of MPLS local protection. For each deployment situation the benefit versus cost of MPLS must be weighed carefully, so if not implemented on a carrier's distribution network there might be more benefit for MPLS the core network.  In some situations the cost may not warrant the benefits, particularly if sub 50ms convergence time is already being achieved with pure Ethernet.

A comparison of MPLS-based Metro Ethernet against a pure Ethernet MAN:
 Scalability  In a properly designed Ethernet VLAN network, each switched path can have 4094 single tag VLANs.  Some aggregation and core switches can classify traffic by two VLANs using IEEE 802.1ad VLAN stacking, so with such aggregation devices properly placed in the center of a network, end segments and rings of single tag devices can receive only the traffic that they need. When using MPLS, Ethernet VLANs have local meaning only (like Frame Relay PVC). Same scalability considerations apply to the MAC addresses where in a pure Layer 2 Ethernet MAN all MAC addresses are being shared across the network, although this issue can be managed by smart network design and choosing switches with MAC tables sufficient for the size of network segments.
 Resiliency  pure Ethernet network resiliency relies on a Spanning Tree Protocol, IEEE 802.1w RSTP or IEEE 802.1s MSTP (30 to sub 50 ms convergence depending on network design) while MPLS-based MANs use mechanisms such as MPLS Fast Reroute to achieve SDH-like (50 ms) convergence times. Metro Ethernet can also use Link aggregation or Resilient Packet Ring where appropriate to add link redundancy and recovery in distribution networks. Some Ethernet vendors' RSTP convergence is also sub-50 ms, but this convergence time may vary from vendor to vendor. Ethernet protection switching is also standardized in ITU G.8031.
 Multiprotocol convergence  with the maturity on pseudowires standards (ATM virtual leased line VLL, FR VLL, etc.) an MPLS-based Metro Ethernet can backhaul IP/Ethernet traffic together with virtually any type of traffic coming from customer or other access networks (i.e. ATM aggregation for UMTS or TDM aggregation for GSM), while this could be more challenging in a pure Ethernet scenario.
 End to End OAM  MPLS-based MAN offers a wide set of troubleshooting and OAM MPLS-based tools which enrich Service Providers ability to effectively troubleshoot and diagnose network problems. These include for example, MAC ping, MAC traceroute, LSP ping etc. However, there are now Ethernet OAM tools defined in IEEE 802.1AB, IEEE 802.1ag and Ethernet in the First Mile (IEEE 802.3ah) for monitoring and troubleshooting Ethernet networks. EOAM (Ethernet Operations, Administration, and Maintenance) is a protocol for installing, monitoring, and troubleshooting MANs and WANs.

Ethernet over wireless
Some service providers deployed metro Ethernet networks using  fixed wireless  technology. These networks commonly are engineered with a majority of the network traffic using a mesh of multi-point and point-to-point microwave links. Carriers have more recently been referred to as metro wireless in many cases. Metro Wireless providers in many cases are able to produce shorter installation times due to less permitting and procedure necessary. Many consumers now rely on this type of technology to allow Internet access in areas where local telephone companies and cable companies do not or will no longer service due to copper theft or other business reasons. Wireless is also commonly used as a true redundant path to the Internet.

Metro-E carriers
In late September 2007 Verizon Business announced metro Ethernet across Asia-Pacific including Australia, Singapore, Japan and Hong Kong using Nortel equipment.

In late January 2009, Windstream announced it would begin offering metro Ethernet service to small and medium business customers.

In May 2011, Comcast announced its own metro Ethernet services to business customers in the United States.

See also
 Carrier Ethernet

References

Further reading

External links
Metro Ethernet Forum (MEF)
The Challenges of Ethernet Access

Metropolitan area networks
Ethernet
Network topology

Metro Ethernet


The Little River forms the western boundary of Cook County, Georgia. It is dammed at Reed Bingham State  Park forming a lake for fishing, swimming, and recreation.  There are two interesting structures along the river near the Cook and Brooks County line.  A few years ago, the Adel News ran a story about a "stone bridge" over the river.  It still stands and was built entirely from poured cement. It was abandoned around 1940 when the road took a different path.  About three miles south another bridge, with its middle section missing, crosses what looks like a small pond.

Rivers of Georgia (U.S. state)

Little River (Withlacoochee River)


Gizmondo is a handheld video game system. It is made by Tiger Telematics. It has GPRS and GPS. GPRS is used to go on the Internet, and GPS is where you can see where you are. Some games use the Gizmondo's GPS. It has a camera. It can also send text (words) and multimedia (pictures and videos and music) messages, play MP3/WAV/MIDI music and WMA/MP4 video, and play games. MP3, WAV, and MIDI are ways to keep music, and WMA and MP4 are ways to keep videos.

Releases
The Gizmondo came out in the United Kingdom in March 2005 for £229. It came out in the USA in October 22, 2005. Games include Agaju: the Sacred Path, Colors, and Chicane.

In February 2006, the company was forced into bankruptcy and stopped making the Gizmondo.

Handheld video games

Gizmondo


Hal McIntyre (born Harold William McIntyre; November 29, 1914, Cromwell, Connecticut – May 5, 1959 Los Angeles, California) was an American saxophonist, clarinetist, and bandleader.

McIntyre played extensively as a teenager and led his own octet in 1935. Shortly thereafter, he was offered a temporary slot as an alto saxophonist behind Benny Goodman; this lasted only ten days, but Glenn Miller heard of his ability and drafted him as a founding member of the Glenn Miller Orchestra, where he played from 1937 to 1941.

Miller encouraged McIntyre to start his own group again, and the McIntyre Orchestra first played in New Rochelle, New York in 1941; the ensemble included vocalists Gloria Van, Ruth Gaylor, and Al Nobel, bassist Eddie Safranski, and saxophonist Allen Eager. They played many major ballrooms throughout the United States, and played overseas for troops during World War II. He toured extensively with songstress Sunny Gale until the summer of '51. He maintained the orchestra into the 1950s, backing The Mills Brothers for their 1952 smash hit "Glow Worm".

He co-wrote the song "Daisy Mae" with Billy May which was recorded by Glenn Miller and His Orchestra.

McIntyre was critically injured in an apartment fire in 1959, and died at a hospital a few days later.

Radio
Beginning January 2, 1945, McIntyre and his orchestra had a weekly broadcast on the Blue Network. One feature of the program was that on each program the orchestra would "play the theme song of one of America's college fraternities as a salute to some member of that fraternity who has distinguished himself in the war effort."

References

General references

 Jason Ankeny, [ Hal McIntyre], All Music Guide
 George T. Simon (1912–2001), The Big Bands, revised edition, Macmillan Publishing Co., Collier Books (1974)
 Charles Eugene Claghorn (12-12-1911 – Oct 30, 2005), Biographical Dictionary of American Music, p. 290, Parker Publishing Co., West Nyack, New York (1973),
 Charles Eugene Claghorn (12-12-1911 – Oct 30, 2005), Biographical Dictionary of Jazz, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1982)
 Biography Index, a cumulative index to biographical material in books and magazines. Volume 16: September 1988 to August 1990, H.W. Wilson Co., New York (1990)
 Roger D. Kinkle (1916–2000), The Complete Encyclopedia of Popular Music and Jazz, 1900-1950, Three volumes, Arlington House Publishers, New Rochelle, New York (1974)
 Colin Larkin (born 1949), The Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Third edition. Eight volumes. MUZE, London (1998); Grove's Dictionaries, New York (1998)
 Barry Dean Kernfeld (born 1950), The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, First edition, Two volumes, Macmillan Press, London (1988)
 Barry Dean Kernfeld (born 1950), The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, St. Martin's Press, New York (1994)
 Barry Dean Kernfeld (born 1950), The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, Second edition, Three volumes, Macmillan Publishers, London (2002)
 Donald Clarke (born 1940), The Penguin Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Viking Press, New York (1989)

Inline citations

1914 births
1959 deaths
American jazz bandleaders
American jazz saxophonists
American male saxophonists
American jazz clarinetists
Big band bandleaders
20th-century American saxophonists
People from Cromwell, Connecticut
Jazz musicians from Connecticut
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
Glenn Miller Orchestra members

Hal McIntyre


A transcript is a written record of spoken language. In court proceedings, a transcript is usually a record of all decisions of the judge, and the spoken arguments by the litigants' lawyers. A related term used in the United States is docket, not a full transcript. The transcript is expected to be an exact and unedited record of every spoken word, with each speaker indicated. Such a record was originally made by court stenographers who used a form of shorthand abbreviation to write as quickly as people spoke. Today, most court reporters use a specialized machine with a phonetic key system, typing a key or key combination for every sound a person utters. Many courts worldwide have now begun to use digital recording systems. The recordings are archived and are sent to court reporters or transcribers only when a transcript is requested. Many US transcripts are indexed by Deposition Source so that they may be searched by legal professionals via the Internet. Transcripts may be available publicly or to a restricted group of persons; a fee may be charged.

Types

A transcript is also any written record of a speech, debate or discussion.

Rush transcripts are transcript requests that can be processed and mailed, or picked up, within short time of the request (usually 24 hours or less), provided there are no extenuating circumstances (such as unpaid bills). These expedited transcripts normally cost much more than regular transcripts.

Check against delivery

Sometimes, the first page of a transcript will have the words "Check Against Delivery" stamped across it, which means that the transcript is not the legal representation of the speech, but rather only the audio delivery is regarded as the official record. This is better explained in the French version of the message – Seul le texte prononcé fait foi, literally "Only the spoken text is faithful".

Conversely, it may be that the actual given speech differs from the way the speaker intended, or that it contains extra information that is not pertinent to the central points of the speech and that the speaker does not want to be left as a permanent record.

See also
 Rough ASCII
 Certificate of disposition
 Deposition (law)
 Discovery (law)
 Transcription (linguistics)
 Minutes
 Witness

References

Court reporting
Legal documents

Transcript (law)


François Amable Ruffin (31 August 1771 – 15 May 1811) was a general of division in Napoleon's First French Empire. He was mortally wounded while leading his troops against the British at Barrosa, Spain (March 1811).

Biography
Having been captain of a company of volunteers from Bolbec, he was named commander of the 7th Battalion of Seine-Inférieure on 20 September 1792. He fought in the French Revolution and subsequently in the battles of the First French Empire, seeing action at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 and the Battle of Heilsberg in 1807. His conduct at the Battle of Friedland in 1807 saw him given the title of comte de l'Empire and promoted to general of division (général de division), and he took command of Marshal Victor's I Corps.

Ruffin joined the Peninsular War, leading I Corps into Spain in September 1808. He served at Somosierra, Ucles, Medellin and Talavera, before commanding one of Victor's divisions at the Battle of Barrosa on 5 March 1811. During the battle for the Barrosa Ridge, Ruffin was shot through the neck, causing him to be paralysed. He was captured by the British army and shipped to England. Although he appeared to be recovering from his wound, he suffered a relapse on the voyage and died aboard the transport Gorgon on 15 May.

He was buried with full military honours at Portsmouth, and RUFFIN is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe in Paris.

References

1771 births
1811 deaths
French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
French military personnel killed in the Napoleonic Wars
French commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
French generals
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe
People from Bolbec

François Amable Ruffin


In Norse mythology, Þrívaldi (anglicized as Thrívaldi or Thrivaldi), whose name means "thrice mighty", is a jötunn killed by Thor.

This fact is mentioned by Snorri Sturluson in the Skáldskaparmál (4), according to which "killer of Þrívaldi" ("vegandi Þrívalda") is a kenning for Thor. Snorri quotes one stanza by Bragi Boddason, who calls Thor "cleaver apart of Þrívaldi's nine heads" ("sundrkljúfr níu höfða Þrívalda"), and another stanza by Vetrliði Sumarliðason who praises Thor for having battered ("lemja") Þrívaldi.

Þrívaldi is also listed in the þulur.

References

Jötnar
Thor

Þrívaldi


Sorority Row is a 2009 American horror thriller movie. It is a remake of The House on Sorority Row. It was released on September 11, 2009. Rumer Willis plays Ellie, and Audrina Patridge plays Megan. The movie is about a serial killer targeting a group of college students. Sorority Row was filmed in Pennsylvania. The reviews were negative for this movie.

2009 buddy movies
2009 horror movies
2009 thriller movies
2000s horror thriller movies
2000s serial killer movies
American buddy movies
American horror thriller movies
American movie remakes
American serial killer movies
English-language movies
Female buddy movies
Movies set in universities and colleges
Slasher movies
American independent movies

Sorority Row


Abdelbaset Ali Mohmed al-Megrahi (1 April 1952 – 20 May 2012) was a Libyan man who was convicted for the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. Megrahi was the head of security for Libyan Arab Airlines, Libya's national airline, and was accused of being a spy. He was born in Tripoli.

Megrahi was the only person convicted in connection with bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, which happened on 21 December 1988. He was held under armed guard in Libya from 1991 until 1999, when he was moved to the Netherlands. His trial began in May 2000 in a special court in the Netherlands. On 31 January 2001, he was convicted of 270 counts of murder. He was sentenced to life imprisonment.

He was held in Scottish prisons until he was released on compassionate grounds on 20 August 2009 because he had terminal prostate cancer. He returned to Tripoli that day and died of the disease there.

References

Murderers
People from Tripoli
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
1952 births
2012 deaths

Abdelbaset al-Megrahi


Doraha is a 1967 Pakistani Urdu movie. It is a black & white movie. Doraha is a classic romantic and melodious movie of 1960s. It is one of the best movies of Pervaiz Malik's and Waheed Murad's careers. At the box office, the movie did not earn much money. It gained more importance after several years. The movie became much more well liked during 1980s and 1990s. Doraha was produced by Sohail Rana and Pervaiz Malik. Malik also directed the movie. The movie stars Murad, Shamim Ara, Deeba, Ibrahim Nafees and Talish. For Doraha, Waheed Murad first casted Zeba, but after her marriage with Mohammad Ali, he picked Shamim Ara. The people that knew Murad knew that Shamim Ara was just a replacement. All the dialogue and songs were for Zeba

1960s Pakistani movies
1967 movies
Urdu-language movies

Doraha (1967 movie)


The Viking Age was a period of time in Northern European and Scandinavian history from the eighth to eleventh centuries. Scandinavian Vikings, also called Norsemen, explored the oceans and rivers of Europe through trade and warfare. The Vikings also reached Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland, and Anatolia. Some Vikings are believed to have settled at L'Anse aux Meadows, an archaeological site on the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland, Canada, at a place they called Vinland.

Start
In England the Viking Age began dramatically on June 8, 793, when Norsemen destroyed the abbey on Lindisfarne. Monks were killed in the abbey, thrown into the sea to drown, or carried away as slaves along with the church's wealth. The Viking devastation of Northumbria's Holy Island shocked and alerted the royal courts of Europe. "Never before has such an atrocity been seen," declared the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin of York. More than any other single event, the attack on Lindisfarne cast a shadow on the perception of the Vikings for the next 1100 years. In the 1890s scholars outside Scandinavia began to rethink the achievements, artistry, technological skills and seamanship of the Vikings.

Until Victoria's reign in Britain, Vikings were portrayed as violent and bloodthirsty. The stories from medieval England had always portrayed them as 'wolves among sheep'. During the nineteenth century, public opinions changed. The first challenges to the many anti-Viking images in Britain emerged in the 17th century. Some scholarly works on the Viking Age became available to readers in Britain. Archaeologists began to dig up Britain's Viking past. Linguists started to work on identifying Viking-Age origins for rural idioms and proverbs. The new dictionaries of the Old Norse language enabled the Victorians to study some of the Icelandic Sagas.

During the second half of the 18th century the Icelandic Sagas were still used as important historical sources, but the Viking Age was regarded as a barbaric and uncivilized period in the history of the Nordic countries. Until recently, what was known about the history of the Viking Age was based on the Icelandic Sagas, the history of the Danes written by Saxo Grammaticus, the Russian Primary Chronicle and the War of the Irish with the Foreigners. Few scholars still accept these texts as reliable sources; historians nowadays rely more on archaeology and numismatics, which have helped people understand the period.

Background

The Norsemen were explorers, colonizers and traders as well as plunderers. The Vikings from Norway explored the North Atlantic and settled Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Shetland and Orkney Islands, Caithness in Scotland, Greenland and (briefly) North America. The Vikings from Denmark raided ports and coastal towns along the coasts of Europe and Britain. The Vikings from Sweden pushed east, into areas that are now parts of Russia and Ukraine, establishing trade connections with the Middle East and beyond.

By the 9th century, a strong central authority was established in Jutland, and the Danes were looking beyond their own territory for land, trade and plunder. Norway had been settled over many centuries by Germanic peoples from Denmark and Sweden who made farming and fishing communities around its coasts and lakes. The mountains and fjords formed strong natural boundaries. The communities remained independent of each other, unlike the situation in Denmark which is lowland. By the year 800, there were 30 small kingdoms in Norway. The sea was the easiest way of communicating between these Norwegian kingdoms and the outside world. In the eighth century Scandinavians began to build war ships and send them on raids. The Viking longships were capable of travel on the open seas but also had a very shallow draft, meaning they could sail into shallower bays and farther up rivers than other ships of their time. This led to the term Viking, which came from the Old Norse word vīk (meaning inlet or bay). A person who went on raids was said to go "viking".

It is unknown what triggered the Vikings' expansion and conquests. This era was at the same time as the Medieval Warm Period (800 – 1300) and stopped with the start of the Little Ice Age (about 1250 – 1850). The lack of pack-ice during their time may have allowed the Norsemen to go "a-viking" or "raiding". It is believed that the heathen Norsemen suffered from unequal trade practices by Christian merchants who were given preference through a Christian network of traders. A two-tiered system of pricing existed among merchants who secretly traded with the Norse heathens. Viking raids occurred both separately and together with regular trading expeditions.

Historians also suggest that the Scandinavian population was too large for the peninsula and there were not enough crops to feed everyone. This led to a hunt for more land to feed the ever-growing Viking population. Internal conflicts, especially during the period of conquest and settlement that followed the early raids, caused the progressive centralisation of power into fewer hands. This meant that lower classes who did not want to be oppressed by greedy kings went in search of their own lands. Those who settled Iceland created Europe's first modern republic with a yearly assembly of elected officials called the Althing.

Overview
The earliest date given for a Viking raid is 787 AD when, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a group of men from Norway sailed to Portland, in Dorset. There, a royal official mistook them for merchants. They killed him when he tried to lead them to the king's manor to pay a trading tax on their goods. The beginning of the Viking Age in the British Isles is, however, often given as 793. It was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that the Northmen raided the important island monastery of Lindisfarne:
"AD. 793. This year came dreadful fore-warnings over the land of the Northumbrians, terrifying the people most woefully: these were immense sheets of light rushing through the air, and whirlwinds, and fiery dragons flying across the firmament. These tremendous tokens were soon followed by a great famine: and not long after, on the sixth day before the ides of January in the same year, the harrowing inroads of heathen men made lamentable havoc in the church of God in Holy-island (Lindisfarne), by rapine and slaughter." -Anglo Saxon Chronicle

In 794, according to the Annals of Ulster, there was a serious attack on Lindisfarne's mother-house of Iona, which was followed in 795 by raids on the northern coast of Ireland. From bases there, the Norsemen attacked Iona again in 802, causing great slaughter amongst the Céli Dé Brethren, and burning the abbey to the ground.

The end of the Viking Age is traditionally marked in England by three major events: the failed invasion by Haraldr Harðráði, who was defeated by Saxon King Harold Godwinson in 1066 at the Battle of Stamford Bridge; in Ireland, the capture of Dublin by Strongbow and his Hiberno-Norman forces in 1171; and in Scotland by the defeat of King Hákon Hákonarson at the Battle of Largs in 1263. Harold Godwinson was subsequently defeated within a month by William, Duke of Normandy, who was another descendant of Vikings. Normandy had been acquired by Normans (Norsemen) in 911. Scotland took its present form when it regained territory from the Norse between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries.

Most Scandinavian historians and archaeologists give a different definition. Instead, the Viking age is said to have ended with the establishment of royal authority in the Scandinavian countries and the adoption of Christianity as the dominant religion. The date is usually put somewhere in the early 11th century in all three Scandinavian countries. The end of the Viking Age in Norway is marked by the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. They proclaimed Norway as a Christian nation, and Norwegians could no longer be called Vikings.

The Kingdom of the Franks under Charlemagne was especially hard-hit by Viking raiders, who could sail down the Seine without much difficulty. Near the end of Charlemagne's reign and throughout the reigns of his sons and grandsons, a string of Viking raids began, leading to a Scandinavian conquest and settlement of the region now known as Normandy.

In 911, French King Charles the Simple made an agreement with the Viking warleader Rollo, a chieftain of either Norwegian or Danish origin. Charles gave Rollo the title of duke and granted him possession of Normandy. In return, Rollo swore fealty to Charles, converted to Christianity, and swore to defend the northern region of France against raids by other Viking groups. Several generations later, the Norman descendants of these Viking settlers identified themselves as French and brought the French language and their variant of French culture to England in 1066. With the Norman Conquest, they became the ruling aristocracy of Anglo-Saxon England, leading to the change from Old English to Middle English language.

Religion
At the start of the Viking age, the Vikings believed in the Norse religion. They believed in a  of gods and goddesses, as well as Valhalla, a heaven for warriors. The lower class of society would go to a place called "hel", similar to life on earth. According to Viking beliefs, Viking chieftains would please their war-gods by their bravery, and would become "worth-ship"; that is, the chieftain would earn a "burial at sea". They also performed land burials which often still included a ship, treasure, weapons, tools, clothing and even slaves and women buried alive with the dead chieftain, for his journey to Valhalla and adventure in the after-life. Poets composed sagas about the exploits of these chieftains, keeping their memories alive.

Freyr and his sister Freya were gods of "fertility", which means being able to grow. They made sure that people had many children and that the land produced plenty of crops. Some farmers even called their fields after Freyr, in the hope that this would ensure a good harvest. Toward the end of the Viking Age, more and more Scandinavians were converted to Christianity, often by force. The introduction of Christianity did not immediately end Viking voyages, but it may have been a factor that helped the Viking Age to an end.

Trade centres

Some of the most important trading ports during the period include both existing and ancient cities such as Jelling (Denmark), Ribe (Denmark), Roskilde (Denmark), Hedeby (Denmark, now Germany), Aarhus (Denmark), Vineta (Pomerania), Truso (Poland), Kaupang (Norway), Birka (Sweden), Bordeaux (France), Jorvik (England), Dublin (Ireland) and Aldeigjuborg (Russia).

Settlements outside Scandinavia
Britain
 Jórvík (Yorkshire)
 Danelaw
 Hjaltland
Eastern Europe
 Bjarmland
 Garðaríki
 Serkland
 Miklagard
Atlantic
 Faroe Islands
 Greenland
 Helluland
 Iceland
 Markland
 Vinland

In fiction and theater

In the late 19th century (1800s), Richard Wagner and other artists in the Romantic period made operas and other artwork about ancient Germanic culture.  They liked the Vikings because they were not Greeks or Romans.  They came up with the idea of Vikings wearing fur clothes and helmets with wings or horns on them and drinking out of hollowed-out animal horns.  Some ancient Germans wore helmets with horns on them, but real Vikings did not.  Wagner and his partners deliberately dressed the actors in the opera Ring des Nibelungen so they would look like ancient Germans and so the audience would feel like modern Germans came from medieval Vikings.

Related pages
 Viking

Notes

References
Carey, Brian Todd. "Technical marvels, Viking longships sailed seas and rivers, or served as floating battlefields", Military History 19, no. 6 (2003): 70-72.
Downham, Clare. Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland: The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press, 2007
Forte, Angelo. Oram, Richard. Pedersen, Frederik. Viking Empires. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005
Henry, Francoise. Irish Art in the Early Christian Period. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1940
Hudson, Benjamin. Viking Pirates and Christian Princes: Dynasty, Religion, and Empire in North America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Maier, Bernhard. The Celts: A history from earliest times to the present. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2003.
TimeRef - Viking Invasions of England

Other websites

 Jorvik and the Viking Age (866 AD - 1066 AD)
 Old Norse literature from «Kulturformidlingen norrøne tekster og kvad» Norway.
 BBC - History - Blood of the Vikings
 All About Vikings
 Viking memories in Oslo

History of Europe
Periods and ages in history

Viking Age


Johannes Rau (16 January 1931, Wuppertal – 27 January 2006, Berlin) was a German politician of the SPD. He was the eighth President of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1 July 1999 until 30 June 2004 and minister president of North Rhine-Westphalia from 1978 to 1998.

Education and work
He was born in Barmen, Wuppertal. His family was Protestant, and he was active in the Confessing Church, a part of the German Protestant Church which was against Nazism.

Rau left school in 1949 and worked as a journalist and publisher.

Political biography
Rau was a member of the All-German People's Party (GVP), which was founded by Gustav Heinemann, who also became a president of Germany. This party only existed from 1952 until 1957.

In 1958 Rau and Heinemann joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SDP), where he was active in the Wuppertal branch. He served on the City Council (1964-1978), where he was as chairman of the SDP Group (1964-1967) and later as Mayor (1969-1970).

In 1958 Rau was elected a member of the Landtag (state parliament) of North Rhine-Westphalia. In 1967 he became chairman of the SPD group in the Landtag, and in 1970 Minister of Science and Education in the cabinet of Minister President Heinz Kühn. He founded five universities in North Rhine-Westphalia during the 1970s. He also started Germany's first distance learning university at Hagen (modelled on the Open University in Britain).

In 1978 Rau became Minister President of North Rhine-Westphalia, where he remained until 1998, winning four elections for the SPD, which became biggest party in the Landtag each time and gained an absolute majority three times, in 1980, 1985, 1990 and finally 1995. From 1995 onwards, Rau led an SPD-Greens coalition in NRW.

In 1987 Rau tried to become chancellor of Germany for the SPD, but lost to Helmut Kohl's Christian Democrats (CDU). In 1994 Rau tried for the first time to become Federal President, but lost to Roman Herzog.

Rau twice served as President of the Bundesrat in 1982/83 and 1994/95, and was deputy for the Federal President. In 1998 Rau stepped down from his positions as SPD Chairman and Minister President, and on 23 May 1999, was elected Federal President by the Federal Assembly of Germany to succeed Roman Herzog (CDU). On 1 July 2004, he was succeeded by Horst Köhler.

In 2000 Rau was the first German head of state since the Holocaust to address the Knesset, the Israeli parliament, in German. Some Israeli delegates to walked out, but Israeli President Moshe Katsav supported and praised him for bridging the gap between the two states.

Following a long history of heart disease, he died a few days after his 75th birthday.

Private life
Johannes Rau was a practising Christian. He was sometimes called , "Brother John", to make fun of his strong Christian belief; but, he sometimes used this term himself.

On 9 August 1982 he married the political scientist Christina Delius (born 1956). Christina Rau is a granddaughter of Gustav Heinemann, former President of Germany. The couple had three children: Anna Christina, born 1983, Philip Immanuel, born 1985 and Laura Helene, born 1986.

After leaving office, Rau lived with his family in the federal capital Berlin. However, they also kept a house in Wuppertal.

Johannes Rau died on 27 January 2006 in Berlin of heart disease.

1931 births
2006 deaths
Deaths from heart disease
German Lutherans
German mayors
Ministers-President of North Rhine-Westphalia
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
People from Wuppertal
Politicians from North Rhine-Westphalia
Presidents of Germany

Johannes Rau


The State of the Union Address is a speech the president of the United States of America gives every year, usually in January. In the speech the president talks about how the country is doing and what plans he will be proposing for that year.

According to tradition, president speaks with its appeal annual. The US Constitution it does not set clear terms such appeals. Article II, Section 3 of the US Constitution reads «He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient».

Before the president enters the congressional chamber of the United States Capitol, the Sergeant at Arms always yells: "Mister/Madam Speaker, the President of the United States".

Presidency of the United States

State of the Union Address


A medical emergency is an injury or illness that poses an immediate threat to a person's long-term health or life.  It needs to be treated immediately.  Doctors that are trained in emergency medicine are taught how to react to medical emergencies, and how to resuscitate patients.

Response
When there is a medical emergency, emergency medical services should be notified as soon as possible by calling for help using a local emergency telephone number, such as 911 in the United States or Canada, 112 in most of continental Europe and on GSM cell phones, 999 in the UK and most of its former colonies (112 works as well), 15 in France, 118 in Italy, 119 in South Korea and Japan, 000 in Australia, 101 in Israel and 111 in New Zealand. Calls to emergency services are usually free of charge; they can be made from any phone; in the case of a prepaid phone no credit is required.

The people that answer emergency calls, emergency medical dispatchers, will ask questions about the person who needs immediate treatment; some of the questions are whether the person is  conscious, how badly injured they are, their name if it is known, and if they have any other illnesses. They will also ask some basic information about the called, such as the name of the person calling.

Many countries have laws that require anyone to help those in immediate danger. Help can mean as little as alerting emergency services, or telling other people that the person is having a problem. People that know first aid are expected to help as much as they can.  Moving the victim to a safe place can sometimes do more harm than good, and should be left to people that know how to properly move injured people unless there is no alternative (for example, in wilderness first aid). Many states have laws that protect those helping.

If the victim is not breathing, or if a heartbeat cannot be felt, artificial respiration and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) could be needed to keep a person's blood circulating long enough for medics to attempt revival.  Emergency medical technicians, Outdoor Emergency Care technicians or paramedics can use airway management techniques to help a person who is not breathing.

Clinical response
While in a hospital environment, staff members that are on duty are trained to deal with emergency situations.  Emergency medical physicians are trained to deal with many medical emergencies, and have up-to-date cardiopulmonary resuscitation and advanced cardiac life support certificates.  In major incidents, most hospitals have protocols to have staff that are not at work at the hospital to go on duty as fast as they can.

Emergency departments follow basic advanced cardiac life support protocols, which include keeping a patient's blood pressure and blood saturation at acceptable levels.  Possible exceptions include the clamping of arteries in severe haemorrhage.

Statistics
Most emergencies are quite unspectacular. They will happen close to home.
 53% happen at home (or when doing a hobby)
 15% happen at school
 6% are traffic accidents

Of all emergencies:
 49% are illnesses (like a stroke, cardiac arrest or other problems with the heart)
 10% are intoxications (like alcohol or other drugs)
 12% are accidents (traffic accidents, accidents in the house)
 17% are other things (for example, delivering a baby)
 15% are false alarms (it looked like an emergency, but it really wasn't).

Medical emergency


In economics, supply is the amount of something that companies are willing to provide in a market. The law of supply and demand will decide the price at which something will be bought and sold.

Description
According to C.R. McConnell and S.L.Brue, a supply is a scale showing the amount of a good or service that sellers offer for sale in the market at different prices for a while

The volume of supply (volume of output) is the number of goods that a commodity producer (enterprise, firm) is ready to offer at a certain price for a certain period, all other things being equal.

Amount of supply is the amount of a product or service that is on sale at a certain price at a certain time.

It is possible to consider both an individual supply (the offer of a specific seller) and the total value of the supply (the offer of all sellers present on the market). In economics, it is mainly the total value of the supply for a product or service that is studied.

Supply law
The law of supply is a direct relationship between the price and the value of the supply of goods or services during a certain period.

The increase in prices leads to additional profit, allowing the manufacturer to expand production, attracting new manufacturers to the market.

The manufacturer's main task is to solve the problem — how much product to make at a given price. There are 2 general ideas:

 the higher the price, the higher the offer;
 the lower the price, the lower the offer.

Factors affecting supply
Various factors can make a seller more or less willing to produce and sell a good. The more common ones are:
 Price of variable inputs: Variable inputs refers to the factors of production used to produce a good. When the cost of using these factors increases, the overall cost of producing the good increases as the marginal cost of producing the good increases. Firms thus produce less for the same amount of resources used and supply becomes lesser.
 Productivity: When factors of production become more productive, they can produce a greater output for the same amount of resources used. Productivity improvements include improvements in technology, increased training for labor, better usage of resources, etc.
 Government policies: When the government intervenes in the market, it can do so by subsidizing or taxing the production of the good. When a subsidy is provided, it lowers the marginal cost of producing the good, thus allowing firms to produce more for the same amount of resources used, thereby increasing supply. When a tax is used, the marginal cost of producing the good increases. Firms now produce lesser for the same amount of resources used and supply becomes lesser.
 Number and size of firms: When there are more firms in the market, more resources are being used to produce the good, thus increasing the supply of the good. When a firm gets bigger, the marginal cost of producing the good may decrease due to economies of scale, thus increasing the supply of the good.
 Supply shocks: When there are natural disasters (such as earthquakes or epidemics), there is a decrease in the factors of production as capital may be destroyed and labor being unable to work. Man-made disasters such as industrial disputes (e.g. strikes) will also cause labor to be unable to work. As there is a decrease in the factors of production, the supply of the good becomes lesser.
There may be other factors that affect the supply of a good, especially since it depends on whether the seller is willing to produce and sell the good.

References

Microeconomics

Supply


Matthäus Lang von Wellenburg (1469 – 30 March 1540) was a statesman of the Holy Roman Empire, a Cardinal and Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg from 1519 to 1540.

Life
Matthäus Lang was the son of a burgher of Augsburg and later received the noble title of Wellenburg after a castle near his hometown that came into his possession in 1507. After studying at Ingolstadt, Vienna and Tübingen he entered the service of Emperor Frederick III of Habsburg and quickly made his way to the front. He was also one of the most trusted advisers of Frederick's son and successor Maximilian I, and his services were rewarded in 1500 with the provostship of the cathedral at Augsburg and five years later with the position of the Bishop of Gurk. He also received the Bishopric of Cartagena in Murcia in 1510 and was appointed cardinal by Pope Julius II one year later. In 1514 he became coadjutor to Leonhard von Keutschach, the Salzburg Prince-Archbishop, whom he succeeded in 1519. He received the title of a Cardinal Bishop of the Suburbicarian diocese of Albano in 1535.

In the course of the Protestant Reformation Lang's adherence to the older faith, together with his pride and arrogance, made him very unpopular in his Salzburg diocese. As early as in 1523 he was involved in a serious struggle with his subjects in the City of Salzburg, and in 1525, during the German Peasants' War, he had again to fight hard to hold his own. Insurgents occupied the town of Hallein, devastated the archbishop's Burg Hohenwerfen and even laid siege to his residence at Hohensalzburg, until they were finally defeated with the aid of troops provided by the Swabian League.

Cardinal Lang was one of the chief ministers of Charles V; he played an important part in the tangled international negotiations of his time; and he was always loyal to his imperial masters. Not without reason has he been compared with Cardinal Wolsey. The writer and courtier Maximilianus Transylvanus, a secretary to Charles V, is often said to be a son of Lang's (see Maximilianus Transylvanus for this discussion).

Bibliography

 Nicole Riegel: Die Bautätigkeit des Kardinals Matthäus Lang von Wellenburg (1468–1540), Münster (Westf.)  2009.

References

External links
Salzburg Coins

1469 births
1540 deaths
16th-century German cardinals
Cardinal-bishops of Albano
Bishops of Cartagena
Roman Catholic archbishops of Salzburg
People from Augsburg
16th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Spain
Prince-archbishops of Salzburg

Matthäus Lang von Wellenburg


Adam Guettel (; born December 16, 1964) is an American composer-lyricist of musical theater and opera. The grandson of musical theatre composer Richard Rodgers, he is best known for his musical The Light in the Piazza, for which he won the Tony Award for Best Original Score and the Tony Award for Best Orchestrations.

Biography

Early years
Guettel was born on December 16, 1964, to film executive Henry Guettel and writer/composer Mary Rodgers, daughter of famed composer Richard Rodgers, and was raised on the Upper West Side of New York City. He performed as a boy soprano soloist in operas including Pelléas et Mélisande and The Magic Flute, both at the Metropolitan Opera and the New York City Opera, and in another production of Pelléas with the Santa Fe Opera. He was also slated to play Amahl in the film remake of Gian Carlo Menotti's "Amahl and the Night Visitors". He later claimed that he ended his career as a boy soprano at age 13, by faking that his voice was changing; he turned to music composition soon afterward.  He attended Phillips Exeter Academy, School Year Abroad (SYA France), Interlochen Center for the Arts and graduated from Yale University in 1987.

Career
His early works include 1996's Floyd Collins, Love's Fire, and Saturn Returns (which was recorded as Myths and Hymns).  Guettel's music was almost immediately characterized by its complexity and chromaticism.  His major influences include Igor Stravinsky, Maurice Ravel, Claude Debussy, Benjamin Britten, and Stevie Wonder. Stephen Sondheim has referred to Guettel's work as "dazzling."  Guettel's songs have been recorded by such artists as Audra McDonald and Brian d'Arcy James. He also contributed original scores to several documentary films, including Arguing the World and Jack: The Last Kennedy Film. In 1999, he performed a concert evening of his own work at New York's Town Hall.

In 2004, Guettel contributed vocals to Jessica Molaskey's P.S. Classics album Make Believe, dueting with Molaskey on his grandfather's song "Glad To Be Unhappy."  After six years working on the project, Guettel's musical The Light in the Piazza opened on Broadway in 2005.  The show, which starred Victoria Clark and Kelli O'Hara, met with mixed critical notices, but on June 5, 2005, Adam Guettel won the Tony Award for Best Original Score and the Tony Award for Best Orchestrations.

He spent much of the period from 2005 to 2007 working on a musical adaptation of The Princess Bride with original screenwriter William Goldman.  As of January 2007, Guettel had written the music for ten songs for the project.  An orchestral suite from the score was performed at the Hollywood Bowl in November 2006, and Lincoln Center conducted a workshop of Bride in January 2007.  The project was abandoned when Goldman reportedly demanded 75 percent of the author's share, even though Guettel was writing both the music and the lyrics.

In summer 2007, Guettel composed incidental music for a production of Anton Chekhov's play Uncle Vanya at the Intiman Playhouse in Seattle, Washington.

In July 2009, the Signature Theatre of Arlington, Virginia, commissioned Guettel to write a new musical for their 2011-2012 season, under the auspices of their American Musical Voices Project. Currently in the works, this will be a musical adaptation of the Danny Boyle film Millions. Other current projects include an opera based on the short stories of Washington Irving and the opera, The Invisible Man, commissioned by the Houston Grand Opera.

In 2019, Guettel's score for Aaron Sorkin's play To Kill A Mockingbird was nominated for a Tony Award.

In January 2023, Atlantic Theater Company announced an eight-week world premiere production of Guettel's adaptation of Days of Wine and Roses, with music, lyrics, and orchestrations by Guettel, book by Craig Lucas (Guettel's collaborator on The Light in the Piazza, almost 20 years previously), and direction by Michael Greif. The production starred Kelli O'Hara and Brian D'Arcy James and was the first full production of a new musical by Guettel since Piazza.

Another major aspect of Guettel's career is his work as a teacher. Since 1995, he has taught masterclasses and seminars in musical theatre performance and songwriting, considering this to be an important complement to his work as a composer. He has led such classes at DePauw University, DePaul University, New York University, Pace University, Harvard University, Yale University, Princeton University, Emerson College, Elon University, The Boston Conservatory, Southern Methodist University, Syracuse University, Wagner College and many others.

Guettel received an honorary doctorate from Lehman College in 2007.

Family
Guettel is the son of composer, author and Juilliard School chairman Mary Rodgers, who died on June 26, 2014, and grandson of legendary musical theater composer Richard Rodgers. His father, Henry Guettel (died October 7, 2013), was a film executive and was the executive director of the Theatre Development Fund.

When Guettel took up music composition in his mid-teens, he was encouraged by his family.  His mother said that she offered him advice for around a year, "After that, he was so far beyond anything I could ever have dreamed of, I just backed off."  Richard Rodgers, who died when Guettel was 15, overheard an early composition, said he liked it and asked him to play it louder.  Guettel has qualified the compliment, noting that "He was literally on his deathbed on the other side of the living-room wall."  In his high school and collegiate years and into his early twenties, Guettel worked as a rock and jazz musician, singing and playing bass, before realizing "that writing for character and telling stories through music was something that I really loved to do, and that allowed me to express love."

Influences
In an interview, Guettel stated a portion of his influences that included I. M. Pei, Louis Kahn, Vincent Scully, Jane Jacobs, Igor Stravinsky, Stevie Wonder, Adam de la Halle, Harry Nilsson, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Steve Jobs, Björk, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Benjamin Britten, William Inge, Stephen Sondheim, Jody Williams, and Marvin Gaye.

References

External links

 Adam Guettel Papers at the Library of Congress
 .
 .
 .
Adam Guettel's website

American musical theatre composers
American musical theatre lyricists
American people of German-Jewish descent
Broadway composers and lyricists
Jewish American composers
Jewish American musicians
Jewish American songwriters
Phillips Exeter Academy alumni
Songwriters from New York (state)
Tony Award winners
Drama Desk Award winners
Nonesuch Records artists
Yale University alumni
1964 births
Living people
Musicians from the Upper West Side
21st-century American Jews

Adam Guettel


A jet engine is any engine that creates force by releasing a high speed jet of a liquid or a gas.

An example of a jet engine is a full balloon that is not held closed. It will release the air and push the balloon forward.

Turbojet engines are used on airplanes. Turbojet engines have a gas compressor, a kind of fan, at the front that takes in air. The engine burns fuel to make the air expand, and it blows a big wind out the back. On the way out, the hot air turns another fan (a gas turbine) which turns the rod that turns the fan at the front to make it go.

Another kind of a jet engine is a rocket engine. Ramjet and pulse jet engines are rarer kinds of jet engine.

Other websites
 Jet Engine at Citizendium

Motors

Jet engine


The Tyre Destrict is a destrict in the Sooth Govrenorate o Lebanon.

Phoenician era
Tyre wis a major port in Phoenician times. It grew walthy frae its far-reachin colonies an industries o purpie-dyed textiles. This attractit the attention o conquerors amang them the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar an Alexander the Great.

Five millennie o history
Foondit at the stairt o the third millennium BC, Tyre oreeginally consistit o a mainland dounset an a modest island ceety that lay a short distance aff shore. But it wis no till the first millennium BC that the ceety experienced its gowden age.
In the 10t century BC Hiram, King o Tyre, jynt twa islets bi landfill. Later he extendit the ceety faur bi reclaimin a considerable aurie frae the sea. Phoenician expansion began aboot 815 BC when traders frae Tyre foondit Carthage in North Africae. Eventually its colonies spread aroond the Mediterranean an Atlantic, bringin tae the ceety a flourishin maritime tred. But prosperity an pouer mak thair awn enemies. Early in the saxt century BC Nebuchadnezzar, King o Babylon, laid siege tae the wawed ceety for thirteen years. Tyre stood firm, but it wis probable that at this time the residents o the mainland ceety abandoned it for the safety o the island.

Alexander's era
Alexander the Great In 332 BC set oot tae conquer this strategic coastal ceety durin the war atween the Greeks an the Persians, Unable tae storm the ceety he blockaded Tyre for seeven month, Tyre held on but the conqueror uised the debris o the abandoned mainland ceety tae big a causeway an ance athin reach o the ceety's waws, Alexander uised his siege ingines tae batter an feenally breach the fortifications.

Sae enraged at the Tyrians' defence an the amoont o men lost in the battle, Alexander destroyed hauf o the ceety. The toun's 30,000 residents war massacred or sauld intae slavery. Tyre an the whole o ancient Syria fell unner Roman rule in 64 BC. Nonetheless, for some time Tyre continued tae mint its ain siller coins.

Romans era
The Romans biggit great important monuments in the ceety, includin an aqueduct,
a triumphal airch an the lairgest hippodrome in antiquity.
Christianity figures in the history o Tyre, the name Tyre is mentioned in the new testament, Durin the Byzantine era the Airchbishop o Tyre wis the primate o aw the bishops o Phoenicie.
At that time the ceety witnessed a seicont gowden age as it can be seen frae the remains o its buildings an the inscriptions in the necropolis.

Islamic era
Tyre surrendered tae the Islamic airmies in 634, the ceety affered nae resistance an continued tae prosper unner its new rulers, exportin o succar as well as objects made o pairl an gless makin wis a guid soorce o income for the ceety.
Wi the decline o the Abbasid caliphate, Tyr acquired some unthirldom unner the dynasty o Banu Aqil, vassals o the Fatimid Caliphate. This wis a time when Tyre wis adorned wi funtains an its bazaar wur full o different kynds o merchandise includin carpets an jewelry o gowd an siller.

Thanks tae Tyre's strang fortifications it wis able tae resist tae onslaught o the Crusaders til 1124. Efter aboot 180 years o Crusader rule, the Mamluks reteuk the ceety in 1291, til it wis passed on tae the Ottomans at the stairt o the 16t century.

Lebanon era
Wi the end o Warld War I Tyre wis integratit intae the new naition o Lebanon.

Freemit airtins
 Tyre Destrict

Destricts o Lebanon
Tyre Destrict

Tyre Destrict


The AEC Regent III (also known as Regent 3 or Regent Mark III) was a type of double-decker bus chassis manufactured by AEC.

It was mainly built for operation outside London and overseas. It could be fitted with AEC's 9.6-litre diesel engine (except a minority with 7.7-litre ones), 'Wilson' preselective epicyclic gearbox (except for a minority with crash gearboxes; a synchromesh option also became available in the early 1950s) and air-pressure operated brakes (except a minority with vacuum brakes). The Regent III was available with bodies from a number of manufacturers including Park Royal, Metro Cammell Weymann and Charles H. Roe.

AEC Regent III was superseded by the AEC Regent V, not the AEC Regent IV underfloor-engined double decker which existed as a one-off prototype only. The last Regent IIIs were supplied to Reading Corporation in 1956.

Regent III in London
London Transport acquired 76 AEC Regent III buses with Weymann lowbridge bodywork. They were numbered as the RLH-class (Regent Low Height) and were used by London Transport from 1950 until 1971.

The first 20 RLHs were built in 1950 and were almost identical to 10 vehicles sold to Midland General who had originally ordered the vehicles. In 1952 a further batch of 56 buses was purchased which had minor differences. The fleet operated from various garages around both the Central area (painted red) and the Country area (painted green) of London Transport, usually where a low railway bridge over the road would otherwise cause a problem.

Many RLHs were sold for further use after London Transport. Due to their lower height of , about  lower than standard double-decker buses, a significant number found their way to other countries especially in Europe and the USA where maximum vehicle height restrictions allowed them to operate.

The RT-type

The AEC Regent III RT (RT-type) was first built in 1939 and was designed for and by London Transport. It was the standard red London bus during the 1950s, with a total of 4,825 buses built for London Transport. Although not all were in service at the same time.

Some RT-type buses were built for operation outside London, such as for St Helens Transport.

References

External links

The RLH Bus Information Centre
RLH 62 The RLH 62 Website

Regent III
Double-decker buses

AEC Regent III


Principal photography is the part of movie making when a movie is being filmed. It is after pre-production and before post-production.

Principal photography is usually the most expensive part of movie making. This is partly because the cost includes salaries for the actors and crew. It is also because some movie scenes are expensive if they include special props or special effects that are done on the set.

Feature movies usually have insurance when principal photography starts. This is in case something happens that makes the movie cost more to make. For example, if one of the actors dies before filming all his or her scenes, the scenes might have to be filmed again with a different actor. If sets or finished parts of the movie are destroyed, it might even be impossible to finish the movie.

Movie production

Principal photography


George Stepney (1663 – 15 September 1707) was an English poet and diplomat.

Stepney was the son of George Stepney, groom of the chamber to Charles II, and was born at Westminster. He was admitted on the foundation of Westminster School in 1676, and in 1682 became a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a fellow of his college in 1687.

Through his friend Charles Montagu, afterwards Earl of Halifax, he entered the diplomatic service, and in 1692 was sent as envoy to Brandenburg. He represented William III at various other German courts, and in 1702 was sent to Vienna, where he had already acted as envoy in 1693. In Nov 1697 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society

In 1705 Prince Eugene of Savoy requested Stepney's withdrawal on the grounds of his alleged favouritism towards the Hungarian insurgents, but the demand was taken back at the request of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, who had great confidence in Stepney. He was, nevertheless, removed in 1706 to The Hague. In the following year he returned to England in the hope of recovering from a severe illness, but died in Chelsea, London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Stepney had a full and accurate knowledge of German affairs, and was a great letter-writer. Among his correspondents was Gottfried Leibniz, with whom he was on friendly terms. Much of his official and other correspondence is preserved in the letters and papers of Sir John Ellis (British Library Add MS 28875-28956), purchased from the Earl of Macclesfield in 1872, and others are available in the record office. He contributed a version of the eighth satire of Juvenal to the translation (1693) of the satires by John Dryden and others. Samuel Johnson, who included him in his Lives of the Poets, called him a very licentious translator, and remarked that he did not recompense his neglect of the author by beauties of his own.

References

External links

1663 births
1707 deaths
People from Westminster
Ambassadors of England to the Holy Roman Empire
People educated at Westminster School, London
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal Society
Ambassadors of England to Sweden
Ambassadors of England to Poland
Burials at Westminster Abbey
Stepney family
17th-century English diplomats
18th-century diplomats
English male poets

George Stepney