Kaspersky Internet Security (often abbreviated to KIS) was an internet security suite developed by Kaspersky Lab compatible with Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. Kaspersky Internet Security offers protection from malware, as well as email spam, phishing and hacking attempts, and data leaks. Kaspersky Lab Diagnostics results are distributed to relevant developers through the MIT License.

Windows edition

Version 2007 (6.0)
Version 6.0 was the first release of KIS. PC World magazine praised version 6.0's detection of malware. KIS detected 100 percent of threats on a subset of the January 2006 wild-list, a list of prevalent threats. The suite detected almost 100 (99.57%) percent of adware samples. KIS has the ability to scan within compressed or packed files, detecting 83.3 percent of the "hidden" malware. However, version 6.0 was criticized for not completely removing malware by leaving Registry entries and files. PC World also highlighted the suite's false positives — eight of 20,000 clean files were incorrectly flagged as malicious — and its noticeable impact on computer performance. However, data is cached from each scan, making each subsequent scan faster. The firewall blocked all attacks from inside and outside the computer when tested.

The magazine found the graphical user interface to be awkward to navigate. Features such as parental controls and instant messaging protection, found in competing suites from Symantec and McAfee, were not a part of version 6.0. Both CNET and PC World criticized the suite's relatively high retail price, US$79.95.

KIS 6.0 supports Windows 98 SE, ME, NT Workstation 4.0, 2000 Professional, XP Home Edition, XP Professional, XP Professional x64, and Vista. 50 megabytes of free space, Internet Explorer 5.5, and Windows Installer 2.0 are required. RAM and CPU requirements are dependent on the operating system.

Version 2008 (7.0)
Version 7.0 introduced a redesigned GUI. Components were renamed and reorganized; the Anti-hacker module was renamed to the Firewall, and the Anti-Spy module was integrated with the Privacy Control module. PC World described the new interface as "intuitive" and "great-looking".

Parental controls were introduced, with specific settings for different age categories, such as "child" or "parent". Within age categories are content categories, such as drugs or violence. Users can manually configure profiles. Filtering profiles can be associated with users. Since content is filtered at the network level, the feature will work with any Internet browser. The filter relies on a database of known URLs and can analyse websites in real-time. Attempts to access forbidden URLs are logged, and sites visited are tracked as well, raising privacy issues. Limits on Internet access may be set based on time, and chat rooms along with webmail sites can be manually blocked.

Spam filtering integrates with Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express, Windows Mail, and The Bat!. E-mail content is analysed and scored, and e-mail with scores above two specified thresholds are either marked as "!!spam" or "??probably spam". The Mail Dispatcher feature shows subject and sender information for messages, and allows users to avoid downloading blatant spam by selecting which messages to download. The filter self-trains by analyzing incoming and outgoing e-mail not marked as spam, or by analyzing folders only containing spam or valid e-mail. Senders of verified valid e-mail are whitelisted. E-mail can also be whitelisted or blacklisted based on phrases present in the text. E-mail with non-ASCII characters or invisible text can also be blocked. However, version 7.0 had a relatively poor showing, misidentifying 30 percent of valid messages in PC Magazine testing. 30 percent of spam also made to the inbox.

Protection against data leaks was incorporated in this release. The suite warns users when programs attempt to access or send data from certain areas, such as where Internet Explorer stores webform information.

Malware protection was mostly positive in detection and disinfection tests by AV-Test.org. Version 7.0 detected 100 percent of wildlist threats. Using one-month-old signatures and a set of new malware, however, detection fell to 14 percent. Files were scanned at 5.24 megabytes per second. Version 7.0 successfully identified all six actively running rootkits, four of six inactive rootkits, and was only able to remove two of six rootkits. The firewall correctly blocked all attempted outside connections, with a reasonable level of security when left on default settings.

This version drops support for the Windows 98, 2000, and NT. Windows XP Service Pack 2 is required, except in the case of XP Professional x64 edition. Vista is supported as well. RAM and CPU requirements are dependent on the operating system. 75 megabytes of free space, Internet Explorer 5.5, and Windows Installer 2.0.

Version 2009 (8.0)
This version introduces a revised user interface, an application filtering module, an updated anti-virus engine, and a vulnerability scanner. The main window separates settings in four categories, compared to eight in its predecessor. A status bar changes colour (green, yellow, and red) to reflect overall program status and flashes to divert attention when needed. PC Magazine also noted pop-up notifications were kept to a minimum.

Kaspersky claims the core anti-virus engine was revised to increase scan speed. PC Magazine found an initial scan took over two hours, however subsequent scans took two minutes to complete. However, malware detection was relatively low in comparison to other anti-virus applications tested. Out of 650 thousand samples, version 8.0 detected 95.6 percent. The top score was around 99 percent. Using two-week-old signatures, version 8.0 detected 52 percent of viruses in a different set of samples. Kaspersky also blocked about 60 percent of malware based solely on behaviour. The top performers scored 55.3 percent and 80 percent respectively. Version 2009 detected 98.1 percent of adware. However, PC World noted to achieve that kind of performance, users will have to modify program settings. On default settings, KIS allowed Zango to install. To block the installation, users must enable KIS to scan for "other malware".

The Security Analyzer looks for operating system and program patches. It also looks for vulnerable system settings, presenting users with a list of recommended actions to prevent malware from gaining access to a system. However, PC World criticized the amount of computer jargon used and lack of information about how adjust settings appropriately. On the other hand, PC Magazine found the feature straightforward, and often the solution involved downloading and installing an update.

KIS uses a whitelist by Carbon Black to classify trusted and malicious programs. Malicious programs are not allowed to run at all. Unknown programs falling in between the two categories are restricted in the actions they can perform. Its firewall blocked all attacks in PC Magazine testing. Phishing protection was introduced in this release. Testing by PC Magazine found the feature blocked 44 percent of phishing URLs. Internet Explorer 7 blocked 67 percent of the URLs, and Mozilla Firefox blocked 81 percent.

Spam filtering now integrates with Mozilla Thunderbird and scans NNTP traffic. Spam can be automatically diverted to its own folder. When using an unsupported e-mail client to download POP3, IMAP or NNTP mail, Kaspersky will still generate a report of all messages. However, in an unsupported client, there will be no toolbar nor will the program classify any messages as spam in the client itself.

Version 2010 (9.0)
Version 2010 of Kaspersky Internet Security introduced an overhauled user interface and a sandbox for running applications in a virtualized environment. The 220.127.116.116 build of KIS 2010 fully supported the Windows 7 operating system.

Version 2011 (11.0)
The beta version was released for all windows users on 8 June 2010.  This version included a new interface, as well as a gadget only available for Windows Vista and Windows 7 users.  PC Mag rated this version "very good" (4/5 stars).  Its firewall was noted to be very good, but that made up for its only adequate malware detection rates. Two critical fixes have been released by Kaspersky Lab, making the current version 188.8.131.526.

Version 2012 (12.0)
On 1 March 2011, Kaspersky released the first build of version 2012, it came out as beta version and in English, French and Russian version, with more versions due out later. On 7 June 2011 Kaspersky Lab announced the commercial release of Kaspersky Internet Security 2012 in France, Germany, Switzerland. The current version is 126.96.36.1994.

Version 2013 (13.0)
The beta version was released for all windows users on 3 March 2012.  This version includes an interface which looks (currently, at least) much like Internet Security 2012. There is no Safe Run option, no Proactive Defense, while instead the behavioural monitoring System Watcher seems to be taking greater responsibility for detecting malware and a Safe Banking feature has been added.

The release candidate (build 18.104.22.16888 RC) was released for all windows users on 20 July 2012.

The Final Version was released on 28 August 2012 build 22.214.171.12490

Version 2014 (14.0)
Beta testing started on 12 March 2013. This version introduced a Windows 8 like GUI design. The final version was released on 3 August 2013 build 188.8.131.5251 in India and Russia, then on August 13 in the US and August 27 in the UK. The 2014 release was frequently characterized as inferior to user expectations, largely due to its removal of a range of granular fine-tuning options in 2013 and earlier, which were used by experienced users; a number of these were added back in the 2015 beta by the time of its technical release (build 463).

As of February 13, 2014 build 22.214.171.12451(E) was released. Build 220.127.116.1151(I) is the latest (current) version.

Version 2015 (15.0)
In April 2014, a beta version of the 2015 product, build 463, was released, followed by a technical release preview, of the near-complete 2015 product. The first official release of the product was in Bangladesh in June 2014.

Version 2017 (17.0)

Version 2018 (18.0)

Version 2019 (19.0)

Version 2020 (20.0)

Version 2021 (21.0)

Controversies regarding security
In March 2015, Bloomberg accused Kaspersky of having close ties to Russian military and intelligence officials.
Kaspersky slammed the claims in his blog, calling the coverage "sensationalist" and guilty of "exploiting paranoia" to "increase readership".

As a result of alleged Russian involvement in the 2016 United States presidential election and ongoing investigations, the Department of Homeland Security officially banned the use of the Kaspersky Internet Security by the United States federal government in September 2017.

As of December 12, 2017, the use of Kaspersky software is banned from use by the American federal government by law.

See also

 Antivirus software
 Internet Security
 Comparison of antivirus software
 Comparison of firewalls
 Comparison of computer viruses
 Eugene Kaspersky
 Natalya Kaspersky
 Kaspersky Anti-Virus
 Kaspersky Lab

References

External links

2006 software
Antivirus software
Firewall software
Security software
Proprietary software
Windows security software
MacOS security software
Linux security software

Kaspersky Internet Security


Henry Edward Catto Jr. (December 6, 1930 – December 18, 2011) was an American businessman and public servant.

A native of San Antonio, Texas and son of a prominent insurance man, he was educated at T.M.I.—The Episcopal School of Texas, graduating in 1948, and at Williams College, graduating in 1952. In the early 1960s, Catto twice ran for the Texas Legislature as a Republican, losing both times. In his 1960 attempt, he lost to notorious San Antonio gambler V. E. "Red" Berry.

Catto held several positions within the United States government. He was the Deputy Representative to the Organization of American States from 1969 to 1971, Ambassador to El Salvador from 1971 to 1973, the Chief of Protocol of the United States from 1974 to 1976, the Ambassador to the United Nations Office at Geneva from 1976 to 1977, and the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs from 1981 to 1983.
In 1989, President George H. W. Bush appointed him as the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom. He held the position until 1991, when he became the director of the United States Information Agency.

From 1955 to 2000, he was a partner in the insurance brokerage firm Catto & Catto in San Antonio. From 1983 to 1989, he was vice chairman and president of a broadcast group at H&C Communications, operator of network television stations (Houston, Des Moines, Tucson, Nashville, Orlando-Daytona Beach, San Antonio). In 1999, he was elected chairman of the Atlantic Council of the United States, and in 2007, its chairman emeritus.  He was a contributing editor of the American Journalism Review. At the time of his death, he was vice chairman of the Aspen Institute, where he and his wife, Jessica Hobby Catto, had established the Catto Fellowship for a Sustainable Future. He and his wife also supported the Aspen Center for Environmental Studies.

Catto was a member of the board of the National Public Radio Foundation, having served on the NPR Board from 1995 to 2001. He was also a member of the Smithsonian National Board, and a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and the Advisory Council of America Abroad Media. He was Diplomat-in-Residence at the University of Texas at San Antonio, held honorary LLD degrees from the University of Aberdeen in Scotland and St. Mary's University in San Antonio, and was a member of the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple in London. He authored Ambassadors at Sea: The High and Low Adventures of a Diplomat (University of Texas Press, 1998).

Ambassador Catto was married to the late Jessica Hobby, daughter of William P. Hobby and Oveta Culp Hobby. Jessica Hobby Catto was a noted conservationist and journalist who wrote a blog for the Huffington Post on conservation, the media, and political issues right up until her death in 2009. Together the Cattos had four children. Henry Catto died at his home in San Antonio, Texas, on December 18, 2011.

References

External links

1930 births
2011 deaths
Ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom
Ambassadors of the United States to El Salvador
Williams College alumni
Deaths from leukemia
Texas Republicans
TMI Episcopal alumni
United States Information Agency directors
United States Assistant Secretaries of Defense
Chiefs of Protocol of the United States
20th-century American diplomats

Henry E. Catto Jr.


A concert hall is a place where concerts of classical music take place.  "Concert hall" can either mean the actual room where the concerts takes place, or the whole building.  The hall where the concerts are held may have a "stage" (where the performers are) and there will be an "auditorium" where the audience sits.

Some concert halls are purpose-built.  That means they were built to be concert halls.  Other concert halls may have been something else many years ago, e.g. a Corn Exchange (a place where farmers used to sell their corn) and the building has later been changed into a concert hall.  Purpose-built concert halls started about the beginning of the 20th century.  At that time scientists began to understand the importance of good acoustics (somewhere where the sound was good).

Concert halls that are purpose-built usually have fixed seating (seats that cannot be moved).  Some halls may have seats that can be moved, either by stacking them in small piles, or tiered seating that can fold up.  This allows the hall to be used for other things, e.g. dancing.

A concert hall is usually a big hall: big enough for an orchestra to be on the stage.  A small concert hall, designed for just a few performers (as in chamber music) may be called a "recital hall".

Some concert halls are especially famous.  In London there is the Royal Festival Hall on the banks of the river Thames, the Barbican Centre in the City (near St Paul's Cathedral) and the Royal Albert Hall in Kensington which is used for other events as well.  There is also a famous recital hall called the Wigmore Hall.  New York has the Carnegie Hall, Vienna has the Vienna Musikverein with a beautiful hall called the Golden Hall where the famous New Year's Day concerts are given.  In Germany there is the Berliner Philharmonie in Berlin and the Gewandhaus in Leipzig.  In Amsterdam there is the Concertgebouw (which means: "concert hall").

Concert halls

Concert hall


Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet (bapt. 12 July 1712 – 16 June 1779) was a British colonial administrator who served as governor of the provinces of New Jersey and Massachusetts Bay. His uncompromising policies and harsh tactics in Massachusetts angered the colonists and were instrumental in the building of broad-based opposition within the province to the rule of Parliament in the events leading to the American Revolution.

Appointed governor of New Jersey in 1758, he oversaw the province's participation in the later years of the French and Indian War, and had a generally positive relationship with its legislature. In 1760 he was given the governorship of Massachusetts, where he had a stormy relationship with the assembly. Early actions turned the colony's populists against him, and his responses to protests against Parliament's attempts to tax the colonies deepened divisions.  After protests against the Townshend Acts in 1768, Bernard sought British Army troops be stationed in Boston to oversee the colonists.  He was recalled after the publication of letters in which he was critical of the colony.

After returning to England, he continued to advise the British government on colonial matters, calling for hardline responses to ongoing difficulties in Massachusetts that culminated in the 1773 Boston Tea Party. He suffered a stroke in 1771 and died in 1779, leaving a large family.

Early life

Bernard was born in Brightwell-cum-Sotwell, (then in Berkshire, but part of Oxfordshire since 1974), England to the Rev. Francis and Margery (Winslowe) Bernard and was christened on 12 July 1712. His father died three years later. His mother remarried, but died of smallpox in 1718. He was thereafter probably raised by an aunt for several years since his stepfather was forced by a failed courtship to flee to Holland. His stepfather, Anthony Alsop, returned to Berkshire a few years later, and continued to play a role in the boy's upbringing. Bernard's formal education began at Westminster in 1725, and he then spent seven years at Oxford, where Christ Church granted him a Master of Arts in 1736. He read law at the Middle Temple and was called to the bar in 1737, after only four years (instead of the typical seven) of study. He settled in Lincoln, where he practised law and took on a variety of municipal posts. Among his neighbours in Lincoln were the Pownalls, who had one son (John) serving in the Colonial Office, and another, Thomas, who went to the North American colonies in 1753 and was appointed governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1757.

Bernard married Amelia Offley, daughter of the sheriff of Derbyshire, in December 1741, and the couple raised a large family: by 1757 the couple had eight living children. Because his prospects for further income to support this large family were unlikely in Lincoln, he apparently decided to seek a posting in the colonies. John Adams later described Bernard as "avaricious to a most infamous degree; needy at the same time, having a numerous family to provide for".

Governor of New Jersey

Bernard's wife was cousin to Lord Barrington, who became a Privy councillor in 1755. Probably through his connections to Barrington and the Pownalls, he secured an appointment as governor of the Province of New Jersey on 27 January 1758, a post that became available upon the death of Jonathan Belcher. Leaving some of his children with relatives, the couple sailed for North America with four of their children, arriving at Perth Amboy on 14 June 1758.

The colonies were in the middle of the French and Indian War at the time of Bernard's arrival. He established a good working relationship with New Jersey's assembly, and was able to convince the province to raise troops and funds for the ongoing war effort. He signed the Treaty of Easton, an agreement between New Jersey and Pennsylvania on one side, and a group of Indian tribes (the Minisink and Lenape being of principal concern to New Jersey) fixing boundaries between colonial and Indian lands. This effort was important, for it reduced raiding on the frontiers and made possible the reallocation of provincial military strength to the war with New France. It and other agreements negotiated by Bernard extinguished all of the remaining Indian titles to New Jersey. Negotiations with the Lenape also resulted in the establishment of the first formal Indian reservation, Brotherton, near present-day Indian Mills. This reservation was only sparsely populated, and was abandoned in 1801 when its remaining inhabitants joined the Stockbridge Indians in upstate New York.

Bernard also signed and secured the Charter of Bernardston, authorized and signed by King George II formally recognizing Bernardston, New Jersey (Bernards Township, New Jersey) on 24 May 1760. Records indicate that he officially resigned on 4 July 1760 to prepare for his voyage to Boston, MA, to take on his new role there as Governor of Massachusetts Bay, the area in New England that covered Maine, Massachusetts, and Vermont. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut were excluded.

Governor of Massachusetts

Through the influence of his connections in the Colonial Office, Bernard was appointed governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in late 1759. Delays in communications and slow travel were such that Bernard did not arrive in Boston until 2 August 1760. Although initially warmly welcomed, his tenure in Massachusetts was difficult. Bernard sought to vigorously enforce the Navigation Acts, in part because crown officials (including the governor and the customs officials) received shares of the proceeds from the seizure of ships that were caught violating the acts. The legal actions involving these seizures were heard in a jury-less admiralty court before a Crown-appointed judge, and were extremely unpopular. Bernard also made an early opponent of James Otis Jr. by appointing Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson to be chief justice of the province's highest court, a post that had been promised by several previous governors to Otis' father. Upset over the snub the younger Otis resigned his post as advocate general (i.e. the Crown's representative, equivalent to a government prosecutor) before the admiralty court, and devoted himself instead to arguing (sometimes pro bono) on behalf of the merchants in defence of their ships. These early actions during Bernard's tenure drew a clear dividing line between the "popular party" (exemplified by the Otises) opposed to British colonial policy and the "court party" (exemplified by Hutchinson) who supported it.

Bernard's difficulties were compounded when, after the death in late 1760 of King George II, it became necessary to reissue writs of assistance to customs tax collectors. These writs, which were essentially open-ended search warrants, were judicially controversial and so unpopular that their issuance was later explicitly disallowed by the United States Constitution. Hutchinson, who approved the writs in one of his first acts as chief justice, saw his popularity fall, and Otis, who argued the writs violated the Rights of Englishmen, gained in popularity. He was elected to the provincial legislature in May 1761, where he was well placed to continue his attacks on Bernard's policies. In the 1761 session of the assembly Otis engineered the gift of Mount Desert Island to Bernard, a partially successful stratagem to divert Bernard's attention from ongoing customs seizures.

 Bernard's unpopularity continued through other tax measures, including the Sugar Act (1763) and the Stamp Act (1765). While the passage of both acts occasioned protest, the response to the Stamp Act included rioting in the streets, and united many factions in the province against the governor. In 1767 the passage by Parliament of the Townshend Acts again raised a storm of protest in the colonies. In Massachusetts the provincial assembly issued a circular letter, calling on the other colonies to join it in a boycott of the goods subject to the Townshend taxes. Bernard was ordered in April 1768 by Lord Hillsborough, who had recently been appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, to dissolve the assembly if it failed to retract the letter. The assembly refused, and Bernard prorogued it in July.

Bernard commissioned Boston printer Richard Draper as the official printer for the Massachusetts provincial government and employed him to use his newspaper, The Boston News-Letter, to give voice to the Loyalist factions in Boston. Maier maintains that Bernard's letters to London greatly influenced officials there, but they "distorted" reality. "His misguided conviction that the 'faction' had espoused violence as its primary method of opposition, for example, kept him from recognizing the radicals' peace-keeping efforts....Equally dangerous, Bernard's elaborate accounts were sometimes built on insubstantial evidence." Warden argues that Bernard was careful not to explicitly ask London for troops, but his exaggerated accounts strongly suggested they were needed. In the fall of 1767 he warned about a possible insurrection in Boston any day, and his exaggerated report of one disturbance in 1768, "certainly had given Lord Hillsboro the impression that troops were the only way to enforce obedience in the town". Warden notes that other key British officials in Boston wrote London with the "same strain of hysteria". Four thousand British Army troops arrived in Boston in October 1768, further heightening tensions.  Bernard was vilified in the local press, and accused of writing letters to the ministry that mischaracterized the situation. Although he was challenged to release those letters he refused. Opposition agents in London were eventually able to acquire some of his letters, which reached members of the Sons of Liberty in April 1769. They were promptly published by the radical Boston Gazette, along with deliberations of the governor's council. One letter in particular, in which Bernard called for changes to the Massachusetts charter to increase the governor's power by increasing the council's dependence on him, was the subject of particularly harsh treatment, and prompted the assembly to formally request that "he might be forever removed from the Government of the Province". He was recalled to England, and Lieutenant Governor Hutchinson became acting governor. When Bernard left Boston on 1 August, the town held an impromptu celebration, decorated the Liberty Tree, and rang church bells.

His accomplishments in Massachusetts included the design of Harvard Hall at Harvard University and the construction of a summer estate on Pond Street in Jamaica Plain.

Return to England

Upon his return to England, he asked for and received a hearing concerning the colonial petition against his rule. The Privy Council in February 1770 considered the petition, and after deliberation dismissed all of the charges as "groundless, vexatious, and scandalous". Despite this vindication, Bernard resigned as governor in 1771. He was confirmed in the ownership of Mount Desert Island, a recognition he had been seeking since it was awarded to him in 1761. Although he had been promised a baronetcy and a pension of £1,000 for his service, he learned after his return that the pension had been reduced to £500 (the baronetcy, of Nettleham, was awarded at crown expense). His appeals on the matter were at first rejected, but when Lord North became Prime Minister in 1770, the pension was raised, but shortly after replaced by an appointment as commissioner on the Board of Revenue for Ireland, which paid the same amount.

Bernard became an advisor to the North administration on matters concerning the colonies. He generally took a harder line than his predecessor Thomas Pownall, who advocated for colonial interests in Parliament. Proposals he made in 1771 included ideas central to the 1774 Massachusetts Government Act, which severely constrained colonial political power, including a council appointed by the governor rather than one elected by the assembly. Bernard may also have played a role in the difficulties Benjamin Franklin had in being recognized as a colonial agent; after Franklin's credentials were refused by the colonial secretary, he encountered Bernard in an antechamber. Biographer Colin Nicolson observes that Bernard's presence as an advisor to the ministry "cast a shadow on virtually every American measure regarding Massachusetts that [Lord Frederick] North pursued between 1770 and 1774", because of Bernard's role in breaking the trust between the colonists and the London government and the subsequent radicalization of Massachusetts politics.

In 1774, when the North government was considering how to respond to the Boston Tea Party, Bernard published Select Letters on Trade and Government, containing proposals on how to deal with the ongoing difficulties in the colonies. He proposed to reconcile the constitutional grievances of the British and radical Americans by the possible introduction of American representatives into the Parliament of Great Britain. In the Select Letters, which included the essay Principles of Law and Polity which he drafted in 1764, he laid out a point-by-point exposition of his viewpoints concerning imperial governance. Some of his ideas were enacted, notably those enshrined in the Massachusetts Government Act; the outrage in London even sparked the sympathetic colonial advocate Thomas Pownall to propose the closure of Boston's port, which was enacted in the Boston Port Act.

Decline and death
In late 1771 Bernard was bequeathed the manor at Nether Winchendon upon the death of a cousin to whom he had been close since childhood. Combined with other uncertainties about where various family members would reside after he received the Irish appointment, the stress of the situation led Bernard to suffer a stroke. His mobility was impaired, but he took the waters at Bath, which appear to have helped his recovery. He applied for permission to resign from the Irish post, and settled first at the Nether Winchendon manor; in 1774 his resignation was accepted and his pension restored. He was well enough in 1772 to travel to Oxford, where he received an honorary Doctor of Civil Law from his alma mater, Christ Church. Because of his health he moved later in 1772 to a smaller house in nearby Aylesbury. He died on 16 June 1779, after an epileptic seizure, at Nether Winchendon; his grave is in St Mary's churchyard, Aylesbury.

Legacy
Bernard never believed the difficulties he had in Massachusetts were personal: instead of accepting some responsibility, he blamed his problems on the policies emanating from London that he was instructed to implement. John Adams wrote that Bernard's "antagonistic reports" of matters in Massachusetts were instrumental in turning British government policymakers against colonial interests. Bernard's name headed a list drawn up in Massachusetts after the American Revolutionary War broke out of "notorious conspirators against the government", and most of his property there was confiscated. Mount Desert Island was not entirely taken; Bernard's son John, who resided in Maine during the war and sided with the victorious colonials, was able to receive Massachusetts title to half of the island.

Upon the election of James Bowdoin to be Governor of Massachusetts in 1786, Reverend William Gordon in his sermon warned Bowdoin that he ignored the state's legislature at his peril, as Bernard had.

The Charter of Bernardston, authorized and signed by King George II formally recognized Bernardston in the Province of New Jersey on 24 May 1760. At the time, Bernardston included the current areas of Basking Ridge, Lyons, Liberty Corner, Bernardsville and Far Hills. The area would later be renamed Bernards Township. Vealtown, New Jersey, a town first settled around 1715 and located in Bernards Township, was renamed Bernardsville in Bernard's honour in 1840. Bernardston, Massachusetts was incorporated during his Massachusetts administration and is named for him. Bernard also named Berkshire County, Massachusetts (after his county of birth) and Pittsfield, Massachusetts (after British Prime Minister William Pitt).

Notes

References

  (Volume 2)

Primary sources
 Nicolson, Colin, ed. The Papers of Francis Bernard, Governor of Colonial Massachusetts, 1760–69, 6 vols. Colonial Society of Massachusetts and Univ. of Virginia Press, Boston: 2007-. Vols. 1 to 5 published to date.
 vol. 5: 1768–1769. (2015). xxvi, 460 pp.

External links

1712 births
1779 deaths
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Baronets in the Baronetage of Great Britain
Colonial governors of New Jersey
Colonial governors of Massachusetts
People from South Oxfordshire District
English barristers
Members of the Middle Temple
People of colonial Massachusetts
Neo-Latin poets
People from Jamaica Plain
People from Brightwell-cum-Sotwell

Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet


A Beretta 92 is a pistol and is one of the most famous pistols of the Italian company Beretta. It fires 9x19mm cartridges and it can hold 15 of them. It is the standard side-arm of many police and military units and the United States Army. In the US Army, the pistol got the name M9.

After the US military ended its ban on foreign-made weapons, its allies in NATO pressured the US to adopt a 9mm handgun to replace the M1911 because NATO has a rule that all NATO countries must use weapons with the same kinds of ammunition.

Pistols
Law enforcement equipment

Beretta 92


The Constitution of Australia is the law that set up the Australian Commonwealth Government and says how it works. It is made up of several documents. The most important is the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. The people of Australia voted in referendums from 1898–1900 to accept the Constitution. The Constitution was then passed as a part of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp), an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Queen Victoria signed it on 9 July 1900. The Constitution became law on 1 January 1901. Even though the Constitution was an Act of the United Kingdom parliament, the Australia Acts took away the power of the United Kingdom parliament to change the Constitution. Now only the Australian people can change it by referendum.

Two other laws support the Australian Constitution. The first is the Statute of Westminster, as passed by the Commonwealth as the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942. The second is the Australia Act 1986, which was passed by the Parliaments of every Australian state, the United Kingdom, and the Australian Federal Parliament. Together, these Acts had the effect of cutting all constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom. Even though the same person, King Charles III, is the monarch of both countries, these are now separate countries.

Under Australia's common law system, the High Court of Australia and the Federal Court of Australia have the power to decide what the constitution actually means.

History
The history of the Constitution of Australia began with moves towards federation in the 19th century. The Australian colonies joined together to form the Commonwealth of Australian in 1901.

Federation.

In the mid-19th century, the Australian colonies needed to work together on things that affected them all, especially tariffs between the colonies. This cooperation led to plans to join the colonies together in a single federation. The push to do this came mainly from Britain and there was little local support. The smaller colonies thought they would be taken over by the larger ones. Victoria and New South Wales did not agree about the need to protect local industry, as opposed to allowing everyone to trade freely. The then-recent American Civil War also weakened the case for federalism. These difficulties led to the failure of several attempts to bring about federation in the 1860s and 1850s.

By the 1880s Australians were worried about the growing presence of the Germans and the French in the Pacific. Along with a growing Australian identity, this created the opportunity to start the first inter-colonial body, the Federal Council of Australasia, in 1885. This Federal Council could make laws on certain subjects, but did not have a permanent office, an executive, or its own source of income. New South Wales, the largest colony, would not take part.

Henry Parkes, the Premier of New South Wales, pushed for a series of conferences in the 1890s to talk about federalism. The first was in Melbourne in 1890, and another, the National Australasian Convention, in Sydney in 1891. These were attended by colonial leaders. By the 1891 conference, many people wanted a federal system. Most of the discussion was about how this federal system would work. With help from Sir Samuel Griffith, a draft constitution was written. These meetings did not have popular support. The draft constitution also left out important, but difficult, issues, such as tariff policy. The draft of 1891 was given to colonial parliaments but was not supported by New South Wales. Without New South Wales, the other colonies were unwilling to continue.

In 1895, the six premiers of the Australian colonies agreed to set up a new Convention by popular vote. The Convention met over the course of a year from 1897 to 1898. The meetings produced a new Constitution that was the same as the 1891 draft, but with added provisions for responsible government. To get popular support, the draft was voted on by the electors of each colony. After one failed attempt, a changed draft was given to the electors of each colony except Western Australia. Five colonies passed the Bill that was then sent to the Westminster Parliament with a letter requesting the Queen to make it into law.

The British government made one change before the Bill was passed. The Chief Justices of the colonies wanted the right to appeal decisions of the High Court to the Privy Council on constitutional matters. They were worried that the limits of the powers of the Commonwealth or States could be changed by parliament. The British Parliament passed the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act in 1900. Western Australia finally agreed to join the Commonwealth in time for it to join the Commonwealth of Australia, which officially began on 1 January 1901.

In 1990, the Public Records Office in London loaned the original copy 1900 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act to Australia. The Australian government wanted to keep the copy. The British parliament agreed by passing the Australian Constitution (Public Record Copy) Act 1990.

The Statute of Westminster and the Australia Acts
Although Federation made Australia independent of Britain, legally the Commonwealth was a creation of the British Imperial Parliament, through the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp), which applied to Australia. As a result, there was continued uncertainty as to whether British Imperial laws still applied to the Commonwealth. This was fixed by the Statute of Westminster 1931, adopted by the Commonwealth via the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942. The Statute of Westminster freed the Dominions, including the Commonwealth, from Imperial laws and controls. Legally, this is the moment of Australia's national independence.

However, British laws were still more important in Australian states. This was fixed by the Australia Act 1986, which was passed by the parliaments of Australia, the United Kingdom, and each of the states. This law stopped the British Parliament's power to make laws over Australian states. It also stopped appeals from the Australian courts to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. As this was a very important document, Queen Elizabeth II travelled to Australia to sign the proclamation of the law.

One result of these two laws is that Australia is now a fully independent country. The Constitution is now different from the original Act, as the Australian people can change the Constitution, by referendum. However, the original Act remains on the UK's law book with a note saying, "The Constitution is not necessarily in the form in which it is in force in Australia". Even if the United Kingdom Parliament were to remove the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, it would have no effect on Australia.

Articles
The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp) contains a Preamble, and nine sections. Sections 1– 8 are the laws to set up the Commonwealth. Section 9, starting with the words "The Constitution of the Commonwealth shall be as follows ...", contains the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. The Constitution itself is in eight chapters, with 128 sections.

The Parliament
Chapter I sets up the Parliament of Australia. This has three parts:
 the Sovereign (King or Queen) of Australia, who is represented by the Governor-General of Australia
 the House of Representatives
 the Senate.

Section 1 says that legislative power belongs to the Parliament. It is the most powerful part of government.

Part II of Chapter 1 is about the Senate. Senators are to be "directly chosen by the people of the State", voting as a single electorate. Each State is to have the same number of senators. Currently, there are 12 senators for each State, and 2 each for the mainland territories, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory.

Part III of Chapter 1 is about the House of Representatives. Section 24 says the House must have twice as many members as the Senate, each elected by a single electorate. This is called the 'Nexus'. It designed to prevent swamping of the senate's power in the case of a joint sitting (see Section 57 below). The number of electorates in a State is to be based on its share of the national population.

Part IV of Chapter 1 says who can vote, who can be elected to the parliament, how much members can be paid, parliamentary rules and related matters.

Part V of Chapter 1 is about the powers of the parliament. Section 51 deals with powers of the Commonwealth parliament and are called "specific powers". There are also "concurrent powers", and both the Commonwealth and the States can make laws on these subjects. Federal law is more important if the laws are different (Section 109). Of the thirty-nine parts of section 51, a few have become very important in deciding how much power the Commonwealth government has in law. These include the Trade and Commerce Power, the Corporations Power and the External Affairs Power. Section 52 deals with powers that belong only to the Commonwealth parliament. States cannot make laws on these subjects.

The Executive Government
Chapter II sets up the executive branch of government. Executive power is to be exercised by the Governor-General, advised by the Federal Executive Council. The Governor-General is the commander in chief. He or she may appoint and dismiss the members of the Executive Council, ministers of state, and all officers of the executive government. These powers, along with the powers to dissolve (or refuse to dissolve) parliament (Section 5, Section 57), are termed "reserve powers". The use of these powers is by convention. Generally, the Governor-General acts only on the advice of the Prime Minister. There has been only one instance of the Governor-General not taking the Prime Minister's advice. Governor-General Sir John Kerr, acting on his own, dismissed Prime Minister Gough Whitlam in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis.

Reserve powers in all Westminster nations are only extremely rarely exercised outside of the understood conventions.  However, in contrast with the constitutions of other Commonwealth Realms such as Canada, which formally grant extensive reserve powers to the Monarch, even the formal powers of the Queen of Australia are extremely limited, and most powers can be used only by the Governor-General.

Section 68 says that the Command in chief of Australia's naval and military forces "is vested in the Governor General as the Queen's representative". The Commander in chief of the Australian Defence Force is now Her Excellency Quentin Bryce as the Governor General of Australia. The Queen of Australia is not in command of the military.

The Judicature
Chapter III sets up the judicial branch of government. Section 71 gives judicial power to a "Federal Supreme Court" called the High Court of Australia. The Parliament can also make new federal courts or give other courts federal powers. Such courts, called "Chapter III Courts", are the only courts that can use federal judicial power. Sections 73 and 75-78 outline the original and appellate jurisdiction of the High Court. Section 74 explains how an appeal can be made to the Queen in Council. Section 79 allows Parliament to limit the number of judges able to exercise federal jurisdiction and section 80 guarantees trial by jury for indictable offences against the Commonwealth.

Finance and Trade
Chapter IV deals with finance and trade in the federal system. Section 81 says that all Commonwealth revenue shall form the Consolidated Revenue Fund. Parliament can make laws as to the how its money is spent (Section 53). Unlike most other powers of the parliament, laws made under this power cannot usually be challenged. Section 90 gives the Commonwealth exclusive power over duties of custom and excise.

Section 92 provides that "trade, commerce, and intercourse among the States shall be absolutely free". The precise meaning of this phrase is the subject of a considerable body of law.

Section 96 gives the Commonwealth power to give money to States "on such terms and conditions as the Parliament thinks fit". This power is not limited by any other part of the Constitution, such as Section 99 that forbids giving preference to one State or over another State. It is subject only to Section 116, freedom of religion, and possibly other such freedoms. This power, which was only meant to be used ("during a period of ten years ... and thereafter until the Parliament otherwise provides"), has been used by the Commonwealth to encourage cooperation by the States to various extents over the years.

Section 101 sets up an Inter-State Commission, a body which is no longer exists, but which was meant to have a significant role in the federal structure.

The States
Chapter V says what the States can do in a federal system. Sections 106-108 preserve the Constitution, the powers of the Parliament, and the laws in force of each of the States.

Section 109 says that, where a State law is different to a federal law, the federal law applies.

Section 111 says that a State can give up any part of its lands to the Commonwealth. This has happened several times. South Australia gave the Northern Territory to the Commonwealth.

Section 114 stops any state from having its own military force. It also stops the State or the Commonwealth taxing each other's property.

Section 116 sets out "freedom of religion", by stopping the Commonwealth from making any law to start a religion, to impose any religious observance, or to stop a religion, and by stopping religious discrimination for public office.

New States
Chapter VI allows new states to be made, or to join the Commonwealth. Section 122 allows the Parliament to provide for the representation in Parliament of any new territory. Section 123 says that changing the boundaries of a State needs the support of the Parliament of that State and must pass a referendum in that State.

No new states have joined the Commonwealth since federation.

Miscellaneous
Chapter VII says that the seat of government of the Commonwealth (now Canberra) shall be in New South Wales but no less than one hundred miles from Sydney, and that the Governor-General may appoint deputies. Section 127 first said that Aborigines cannot be counted in any Commonwealth or State census. This section was changed in 1967.

Alteration of the Constitution

Chapter VIII sets out how the Constitution can be changed. Section 128 says that changes must be approved by a referendum. A successful change needs:
 a majority in both houses of the federal parliament; and
 a majority of votes nationally in a referendum.
 a majority in a majority of states

The Governor-General must put the referendum bill to the people between two and six months after passing parliament. After the constitutional amendment bill has passed both the parliament and the referendum, it then receives Royal Assent from the Governor-General. This makes it the new law and the wording of the Constitution is changed.

An exception to this process is if the amendment bill is rejected by one house of Federal Parliament. If the bill passes the first house and is rejected by the second, then after three months the first house may pass it again. If the bill is still rejected by the second house, then the Governor-General may choose to still put the bill to the people's vote.

Changes
As mentioned above, changing the Constitution requires a referendum in which the "Yes" vote achieves a majority nationally, as well as majorities in a majority of states.

Forty-four proposals to change the Constitution have been voted on at referendums. Eight have been approved. The following is a list of changes that have been approved.
 1906– Senate Elections– changed Section 13 to change the length and dates of Senators' terms of office.
 1910– State Debts– changed Section 105 to give the Commonwealth power to take over state debts.
 1928– State Debts– added Section 105A to make sure the Financial Agreement reached between the  Commonwealth and State governments in 1927 was legal.
 1946– Social Services– added Section 51 (xxiiiA) to give more power to the Commonwealth government over a range of social services.
 1967– Aborigines– changed Section 51 (xxvi) to give power to the Commonwealth government to legislate for people of any race to Aborigines; repealed Section 127 which stated that "In reckoning the numbers of the people of the Commonwealth, or of a State or other part of the Commonwealth, aboriginal natives shall not be counted."
 1977
Senate Casual Vacancies– part of the political fallout of the constitutional crisis of 1975; formalised the convention, broken in 1975, that when a casual vacancy arises in the Senate, the relevant state parliament must choose the a new Senator from the same political party as the departing Senator (if that party still exists).
 Referendums– changed Section 128 to allow residents of the Territories to vote in referendums, and be counted towards the national total.
 Retirement of Judges– changed Section 72 to make judges retire at age 70 from federal courts.

The role of conventions
As well as the written Constitution and Letters Patent issued by the Crown, conventions are an important part of the Constitution. These have developed over the years and define how various constitutional mechanisms work in practice.

Conventions play a powerful role in the operation of the Australian constitution because of its set-up and operation as a Westminster system of responsible government. Some important conventions include:
 The constitution includes a Prime Minister of Australia. This position began as the head of the cabinet. The Prime Minister is the head of government.
 While there are few constitutional restrictions on the power of the Governor-General, by convention the Governor-General acts on the advice of the Prime Minister.

However, because conventions are not written down, their existence and practice are open to debate. Real or alleged violation of convention has often led to political controversy. One extreme case was the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975, in which the operation of conventions was seriously tested. The ensuing constitutional crisis was resolved dramatically when the Governor-General Sir John Kerr dismissed the Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, appointing Malcolm Fraser as caretaker Prime Minister pending the 1975 general election. A number of conventions were said to be broken during this episode. These include:
 The convention that, when the Senator from a particular State vacates his or her position during the term of office, the State government concerned would nominate a replacement from the same political party as the departing Senator. This convention was allegedly broken first by the Lewis government of New South Wales and then by the Bjelke-Petersen government of Queensland, who both filled Labor vacancies with, respectively, an independent and a Labor member opposed to the Whitlam government.
Note: The convention was written into the Constitution after the national referendum of 1977. The change means a new Senator has to be from the same party as the old one. This would have prevented the appointment by Lewis, but not that by Bjelke-Petersen. However, the change also says that if "before taking his seat [the chosen Senator] ceases to be a member of that party...he shall be deemed not to have been so chosen or appointed".  Bjelke-Petersen appointee Albert Patrick Field was expelled from the Labor Party before taking his seat and would not have been appointed under the changed Constitution.
 The convention that, when the Senate is controlled by a party which does not control the House of Representatives, the Senate would not vote against money supply to the government. This convention was allegedly broken by the Senate controlled by the Liberal-Country party coalition in 1975.

Interpretation
In line with the common law tradition in Australia, the law on the interpretation and application of the Constitution has developed largely through judgments by the High Court of Australia. In a number of important cases, the High Court has developed several doctrines which underlie the interpretation of the Australian Constitution. Some examples include:
 Separation of powers– The three separate chapters dealing with the three branches of government implies a separation of powers, similar to that of the United States, but unusual for a government within the Westminster system. Thus, for example, the legislature cannot purport to predetermine the legal outcome, or to change the direction or outcome, of a court case.
 Division of powers– Powers of government are divided between the Commonwealth and the State governments, with certain powers being exclusive to the Commonwealth, others being concurrently exercised, and the remainder being exclusively held by the States.
 Intergovernmental immunities– Although the Engineers' Case held that there was no general immunity between State and Commonwealth governments from each other's laws, the Commonwealth cannot enact taxation laws that discriminate between the States or parts of the States (Section 51(ii)), nor enact laws that discriminate against the States, or such as to prevent a State from continuing to exist and function as a state (Melbourne Corporation v Commonwealth).

The vast majority of constitutional cases before the High Court deal with characterisation: whether new laws are part of the power granted to the Commonwealth government by the Constitution.

Criticism

Protection of rights
The Australian Constitution does not include a Bill of Rights. Some people at the 1898 Constitutional Convention wanted a Bill of Rights like the United States Constitution, but the majority felt that the traditional rights and freedoms of British subjects were enough. These would be protected by the Parliamentary system and independent judiciary which the Constitution would create. As a result, the Australian Constitution has often been criticised for not protecting rights and freedoms.

Some rights were included:
 Right to trial by jury– Section 80 creates a right to trial by jury for indictable offences against Commonwealth law. There are serious limits to this right however, since the Commonwealth is free to make any offence, no matter how serious the punishment, triable otherwise than on indictment. As Justice Higgins said in R. v. Archdall & Roskruge; Ex parte Carrigan and Brown (1928) 41 CLR 128: "if there be an indictment, there must be a jury, but there is nothing to compel procedure by indictment". In practice, however, no major issue of abuse of this loophole has been raised.
 Right to just compensation– Paragraph 51(xxxi) creates a right to just compensation for assets taken by the Commonwealth.
 Right to freedom of religion– Section 116 creates a limited right to freedom of religion. It stops the Commonwealth (but not the states) from "making any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion." This section is based on the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, but is weaker in operation. As the states keep all powers they had as colonies before federation, except for those explicitly given to the Commonwealth, this section does not affect the states' powers to legislate on religion, and, in accordance with High Court interpretations, no Federal legislation on religion, short of establishing an official religion of Australia, would be limited by it either.
 Right to freedom from discrimination against out-of-State residents -Section 117 stops disability or discrimination in one state against the resident of another state. This is interpreted widely (Street v Queensland Bar Association), but does not prohibit states from imposing residential requirements where they are required by the State's autonomy and its responsibility to its people.

In 1992 and 1994, the High Court of Australia found that the Constitution gave an "implied" right to freedom of political communication, in a series of cases including the Australian Capital Television case and the Theophanous case. This was seen as a necessary part of the democratic system created by the Constitution. The application of this "implied right" has, however, been restricted in later cases, such as Lange v ABC. It is in no way equivalent to a freedom of speech, and only protects individuals against the government trying to limit their political communication: it offers no protection against other individuals.

In 2007, the High Court of Australia in Roach v Electoral Commissioner said that sections 7 and 24 of the Constitution, by providing that members of the House of Representatives and the Senate be "directly chosen by the people", created a limited right to vote. This means that there is a universal franchise in principle, and limited the Federal Parliament's legislative power to change it. In the case, a legislative change to stop all prisoners from voting (as opposed to only those serving sentences of three years or more, as it was before the amendment) was rejected as breaking that right.

Other attempts to find other "implied rights" in High Court cases have not been successful.

Preamble
While a pro forma preamble prefaces the Imperial Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, the Australian Constitution itself does not have a preamble. There have been some calls to add one to express the spirit and aspirations embodied in the constitution. However, there has been fierce opposition, usually on the basis of the content of the preamble, as well as possible legal ramifications of this text. In 1999, a proposed preamble, written by John Howard, the then Prime Minister, was defeated in a referendum held concurrently with the Republic referendum. The "Yes" vote (in favour of the insertion of the preamble) did not achieve a majority in any of the six states.

Republic proposals
There have been many people who have wanted Australia to become a republic. On 6 November 1999, Australians did not support a law to remove the Queen and replace the Governor-General with a President. The President was to be appointed by a two-thirds majority of the members of the Commonwealth Parliament. Opinion poll results said that the majority of Australians were in favour of some form of a republic. Many voters who voted against the 1999 referendum wanted to be able to vote for a President. In research and polling following the 1999 referendum, people said that an appointed President would not be able to act independently of the Parliament. By being able to appoint the President, rather than having the people elect a President, many felt that too much power was being given to Parliament with no check or balance on that power. Support for holding another referendum in the near future seems to be growing, and another referendum may be held. Former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd said the current (2012) situation "no longer reflects either the fundamental democratic principles that underpin the Australian nation or its diversity". He was thinking about a referendum for an independent, elected President. He went on to say that "over the next year there would be an "accelerated public debate" about the monarchy question".

Commemoration
Constitution Day is celebrated on 9 July, the date the Constitution became law in 1900. The date is not a public holiday. Constitution Day was first held on 9 July 2000 to mark the centenary of the Constitution as part of the Centenary of Federation. The celebrations were not big and have not been widely held after 2001. Constitution Day was revived in 2007 and is jointly organised by the National Archives of Australia, which holds the original Constitution documents, and the Department of Immigration and Citizenship.

Notes

References

Related pages
Constitutionalism

Other websites
 Official text (PDF) as changed and in force today within Australia, from ComLaw

 Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, 1900 . The history, development, and structure of the Australian constitution at Documenting a Democracy.
 Full text (HTML) file of the Constitution . From the Parliament of Australia web site.
 Royal Commission of Assent  enacting the Constitution and founding of the Commonwealth of Australia. From the National Archives of Australia web site.
 The Australian Constitution: a First Reading , John Kilcullen, Macquarie University, 2004
 Final Report of the Constitutional Commission Summary: 1988

Law of Australia
Australia

Constitution of Australia


Conodonts are an extinct class of the phylum Chordata. They are now regarded as vertebrates, though the issue is still a live one.

For many years conodonts were known only from their feeding apparatus, which fossilises well. This is because most of the conodont animal was soft-bodied, so everything but the teeth were not fossilised in normal circumstances.

It was not until early 1980s that the conodont teeth were found with trace fossils of the host organism. It came from the Lower Carboniferous lagerstätte near Edinburgh, Scotland.

Conodont elements
The 'teeth', called conodont elements, are very common in the fossil record, and have been used in biostratigraphy.

They are also used as palaeothermometers. This is because under higher temperatures the phosphate undergoes colour changes, which are measured with the conodont alteration index. This has made them useful for petroleum exploration in rocks dating from the Cambrian to the Upper Triassic.

Description of the animal
Eleven fossil imprints of conodont animals are known. They depict an eel-like creature with 15 or, more rarely, 19 elements forming a bilaterally symmetrical array in the head. This array was a feeding apparatus different from the jaws of modern animals.

There are three forms of teeth, coniform cones, ramiform bars, and pectiniform platforms, which may have performed different roles.

The organisms range from a centimeter or so to the giant Promissum, 40 cm in length. It is now widely agreed that conodonts had large eyes, fins with fin rays, chevron-shaped muscles and a notochord.

The entire class of Conodonts, or at least what was left of them at the time, were wiped out by the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, which occurred roughly 200 million years ago.

References

Agnatha
Fossils

Conodont


The Imperia Tower is a building in Moscow, Russia. The building is part of the Moscow International Business Center. The building has a hotel, business center, offices and even private apartments. The building is 60 floors. The business space is from floors 2 to 3, the hotel area is from floors 33 to 41 and the private apartments are from floors 40 to 60. The building also has a great view of the full city of Moscow.

The parking area can hold 1,435 cars.

Skyscrapers in Russia
Buildings and structures in Moscow

Imperia Tower


Arnošt Lustig (; 21 December 1926 – 26 February 2011) was a renowned Czech Jewish author of novels, short stories, plays, and screenplays whose works have often involved the Holocaust.

Life and work
Lustig was born in Prague.  As a Jewish boy in Czechoslovakia during World War II, he was sent in 1942 to the Theresienstadt concentration camp, from where he was later transported to the Auschwitz concentration camp, followed by time in the Buchenwald concentration camp. In 1945, he escaped from a train carrying him to the Dachau concentration camp when the engine was destroyed by an American fighter-bomber. He returned to Prague in time to take part in the May 1945 uprising against the German occupation.

After the war, he studied journalism at Charles University in Prague and then worked for a number of years at Radio Prague. He worked as a journalist in Israel at the time of its War of Independence where he met his future wife, who at the time was a volunteer with the Haganah. He was one of the major critics of the Communist regime in June 1967 at the 4th Writers Conference, and gave up his membership in the Communist Party after the 1967 Middle East war, to protest his government's breaking of relations with Israel. However, following the Soviet-led invasion that ended the Prague Spring in 1968, he left the country, first to Yugoslavia, then Israel and later in 1970 to the United States. He spent the academic year 1970-1971 as a scholar in the International Writing Program at the University of Iowa. After the fall of communist regime in Czechoslovakia in 1989, he divided his time between Prague and Washington, D.C., where he continued to teach at the American University. After his retirement from the American University in 2003, he became a full-time resident of Prague. He was given an apartment in the Prague Castle by then President Václav Havel and honored for his contributions to Czech culture on his 80th birthday in 2006. In 2008, Lustig became the eighth recipient of the Franz Kafka Prize, and the third recipient of the Karel Čapek Prize in 1996.

Lustig was married to Věra Weislitzová (1927-2009), daughter of a furniture maker from Ostrava who was also imprisoned in the Terezín concentration camp. Unlike her parents, she was not deported to Auschwitz. She wrote of her family's fate during the Holocaust in the collection of poems entitled "Daughter of Olga and Leo." They have two children, Josef (1951) and Eva (1956).

Lustig died at age 84 in Prague on 26 February 2011 after suffering from Hodgkin lymphoma for five years.

His most renowned books are A Prayer For Katerina Horowitzowa (published and nominated for a National Book Award in 1974), Dita Saxová (1962, trans. 1979 as Dita Saxova), Night and Hope (1957, trans. 1985), and Lovely Green Eyes (2004).

Selected books
 Night and Hope (1957)
 Diamonds of the Night (1958) – contains the short story "Darkness Casts No Shadow", which was adapted into the film Diamonds of the Night (1964)
 Street of Lost Brothers (1959)
 Dita Saxová (1962)
 Transport from Paradise (1962)
 A Prayer for Kateřina Horovitzová (1964)
 The Bitter Smell of Almonds (1968)
 The Unloved: From the Diary of Perla S. (1979)
 Waiting for Leah (1992)
 The House of Returned Echoes (1994)
 Lovely Green Eyes: A Novel (2000)

Awards
 1980: National Jewish Book Award for Dita Saxová
1986: National Jewish Book Award for The Unloved: From the Dairy of Perla S.

See also

Transport from Paradise, a 1962 movie based on Lustig's novel
Diamonds of the Night, a 1964 movie based on Lustig's short story
A Prayer for Katerina Horovitzova, a 1965 movie based on Lustig's novel
Dita Saxová, a 1967 movie based on Lustig's novel
Fighter, a 2000 documentary film about Lustig

References

External links

Watch film about Arnost Lustig "Nine lives" at www.dafilms.com

1926 births
2011 deaths
20th-century Czech Jews
21st-century Czech Jews
Czech male writers
Jewish Czech writers
Theresienstadt Ghetto survivors
Auschwitz concentration camp survivors
Buchenwald concentration camp survivors
Czech expatriates in the United States
Recipients of Medal of Merit (Czech Republic)
Deaths from cancer in the Czech Republic
Deaths from Hodgkin lymphoma
International Writing Program alumni
Charles University alumni

Arnošt Lustig


The New Haven Museum and Historical Society (originally known as the New Haven Colony Historical Society) was founded in 1862 in New Haven, Connecticut for the purposes of preserving and presenting the region's history. The museum has a collection containing art, photography, furniture and other artifacts from throughout New Haven's history and regularly presents programs and special exhibits.

The Museum features exhibitions on New Haven, La Amistad, local art and decorative arts, with collections associated with Eli Whitney, Winchester, Yale, East Rock, Noah Webster, Benedict Arnold as well as changing exhibitions.  Educational programs provide interactive inquiry-based learning on local history.

The Whitney Research Library at the museum contains manuscript and archival holdings relevant to the New Haven area from the time of the first settlement to the present. The collection includes rare books, more than 300 manuscript collections, including personal papers, business and institutional records, court and municipal documents, maps, 4,000 architectural drawings and resources, account books and a collection of approximately 75,000 photographs. It also contains approximately 30,000 printed titles including monographs and pamphlets.  The library also includes genealogical materials, vital statistics and colonial and town records, passenger arrival lists to American ports, Federal census schedules for New Haven County on microfilm and a complete set of New Haven city directories from 1840.

The Colonial revival style current building was built in 1929 and was designed by J. Frederick Kelly.  The building includes a number of artifacts from demolished New Haven houses including a mantelpiece and urns from the Nathan Smith house and a mantelpiece from the Benedict Arnold house. The Ingersoll Room in the museum is decorated with furniture and portraits from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries documenting the home and life of New Haven's Ingersoll family.

References

Museums in New Haven, Connecticut
History museums in Connecticut
Historical societies in Connecticut
1862 establishments in Connecticut
Museums established in 1862

New Haven Museum and Historical Society


In computational complexity theory, asymptotic computational complexity is the usage of asymptotic analysis for the estimation of computational complexity of algorithms and computational problems, commonly associated with the usage of the big O notation.

Scope
With respect to computational resources, asymptotic time complexity and asymptotic space complexity are commonly estimated.  Other asymptotically estimated behavior include circuit complexity and various measures of parallel computation, such as the number of (parallel) processors.

Since the ground-breaking 1965 paper by Juris Hartmanis and Richard E. Stearns and the 1979 book by Michael Garey and David S. Johnson on NP-completeness, the term "computational complexity" (of algorithms) has become commonly referred to as asymptotic computational complexity.

Further, unless specified otherwise, the term "computational complexity" usually refers to the upper bound for the asymptotic computational complexity of an algorithm or a problem, which is usually written in terms of the big O notation, e.g..  Other types of (asymptotic) computational complexity estimates are lower bounds ("Big Omega" notation; e.g.,  Ω(n)) and asymptotically tight estimates, when the asymptotic upper and lower bounds coincide (written using the "big Theta"; e.g., Θ(n log n)).

A further tacit assumption is that the worst case analysis of computational complexity is in question unless stated otherwise. An alternative approach is probabilistic analysis of algorithms.

Types of algorithms considered
In most practical cases deterministic algorithms or randomized algorithms are discussed, although theoretical computer science also considers nondeterministic algorithms and other advanced models of computation.

See also
Asymptotically optimal algorithm

References

Computational complexity theory

Asymptotic computational complexity


Patriots' Day (sometimes spelled Patriot's Day or Patriots Day) is a legal holiday in Massachusetts. The holiday remembers the American men and women who fought during the Revolutionary War.

In the past, Patriots' Day was on April 19.  This was done in honor of Lexington and Concord.  These were the first battles of the American Revolutionary War that were fought on that date in 1775.  Since 1969, however, the holiday has been on the third Monday in April.

The Boston Marathon is run on this day every year. The Boston Marathon bombings happened on this day in 2013. The Boston Red Sox have played a home game at Fenway Park on this day every year since 1960.

Holidays of the United States
Massachusetts

Patriots' Day


Dr John H Watson M.D. is a fictional character in the Sherlock Holmes books by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.

Dr Watson returns to England from the Second Anglo-Afghan War. He saves money on an apartment by getting a roommate who turns out to be  Sherlock Holmes.  When Watson finds out Holmes is a detective he starts to follow him on his cases and write down everything Holmes does. Dr Watson is the narrator of all the stories except one.

In many cases Watson plays an important part in the narrative. In The Hound of the Baskervilles, for example, and in the long struggle against Professor Moriarty.

Early in the relationship, Dr Watson becomes engaged to marry Miss Mary Morstan, a former client of Sherlock Holmes (see The Sign of Four). Later it seems Watson's fiancée has apparently died.

In The Hound of the Baskervilles, Watson shows that he has picked up some of Holmes's skills at getting information from people. He observes to the reader, "I have not lived for years with Sherlock Holmes for nothing".

Characters in written fiction
British novels

Dr. Watson


In film editing, video editing and post production, screen direction is the direction that actors or objects appear to be moving on the screen from the point of view of the camera or audience. A rule of film editing and film grammar is that movement from one edited shot to another must maintain the consistency of screen direction in order to avoid audience confusion.

"Camera left" or "frame left" indicates movement towards the left side of the screen, while "camera right" or "frame right" refers to movement towards the right side of the screen.  "Foreground" refers to the apparent space close to the camera (and thus to the audience), and "background" refers to the apparent space in the distance away from the camera and the audience.

As an example of screen direction in use, if an actor is shown in one shot walking from screen left to screen right and then is shown in the next shot to be moving in the opposite direction (screen right to screen left), the audience will assume that the actor has changed direction and is walking back to where he started (in the absence of obvious contextual or environmental cues).

If the shot shows him again moving from screen left to screen right (as in the first shot), the audience will assume that the actor is continuing his previous movement and extending it to apparently cover a greater distance even if that is purely a fabrication of editing.

Another example would be if two characters are shown in a medium shot, say from the waist up, looking at each other, it is generally established that one is on the left of screen and the other on the right. The one on the left looks right to the other character and vice versa. When the editor cuts to a close shot of a person, it would be disorienting if the character looked the other way. The audience would assume that the character is looking at something else.

In the coverage of the scene, it is customary in film technique to be sure that screen direction is maintained. In a close up, the environmental cues are at a minimum.

It is the responsibility of the director, cameraman, and script supervisor on the set to maintain consistency of screen direction so that later during editing, the myriad short pieces of film can be properly assembled by the editor into a coherent film that tells the story intended.

Avant-garde, experimental, and some independent film and video productions often deliberately violate screen direction rules in order to create audience disorientation or ambiguity. However, unless it is done very skillfully, violation of screen direction can appear to the audience to be the result of filmmaker ineptitude rather than experimentation.

Cinematic techniques

Screen direction


Kimia kuantum mangrupa larapan mékanik kuantum dina masalah-masalah widang kimia.

Dadaran ngeunaan paripolah éléktronik atom jeung molekul patali jeung réaktivitina mangrupa hiji larapan kimia kuantum.

ku sabab ulikan mékanis-kuantum atom dianggap aya dina garis wates antara kimia jeung fisika, and not always included in quantum chemistry, what is often considered the first true calculation in quantum chemistry was that of the German scientists Walter Heitler and Fritz London (though Heitler and London are generally classed as physicists) on the hydrogen (H2) molecule in 1927. Heitler and London's method was extended by the American chemists John C. Slater and Linus Pauling to become the Valence-Bond (VB) [or Heitler-London-Slater-Pauling (HLSP)] method. In this method, attention is primarily devoted to the pairwise interactions of atoms, and this method therefore correlates closely with classical chemists' drawing of bonds between atoms.

An alternative approach was developed by Friedrich Hund and Robert S. Mulliken, in which the electrons are described by mathematical functions delocalized over an entire molecule. The Hund-Mulliken approach [or molecular orbital (MO) method] is less intuitive to chemists, but since it turns out to be more capable of predicting properties than the VB method, it is virtually the only method used in recent yéars.

In 1970s was créated a Quantum-Mechanical Théory of the Elementary Act of Chemical, Electrochemical and Biochemical réactions in Polar Liquids (by R.R. Dogonadze and others). R.R. Dogonadze was a founder of the well-known scientific school of Quantum Electrochemistry.

Sababaraha jejer dina kimia kuantum kayaning:

the Born-Oppenheimer approximation
Hartree-Fock self consistent field (SCF) théory
 Density functional theory

Some péople (other than those mentioned above) significant in the development of quantum chemistry:

Erich Hückel
Rudolph Pariser
Robert G. Parr
John Pople
Henry Eyring
Revaz Dogonadze

Kimia

Kimia kuantum


The Linnean Society of London is the world's biggest society for the study and discussion of taxonomy and natural history. It publishes a Zoological Journal, as well as Botanical and Biological Journals. It also prints The Linnean, a review of the history of the society and of taxonomy.

The Linnean Society was started in 1788. It was named after the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus. The Society is based at Burlington House in Piccadilly, London. Members can be a Student member, an Associate member or a full Fellow. To become a member, a person needs to be nominated by two or more Fellows, and succeed in an election. Fellows of the society can use the letters FLS after their names to show their membership of the Society (for example, John Smith FLS).

Medals and prizes
The Linnean Society of London wants to promote the study of all areas of the biological sciences. They especially want to promote the study of evolution, taxonomy, biodiversity and sustainability.  The Society awards medals and grants to help with this.

The following medals and prizes are awarded by the Linnean Society:
The Linnean Medal was started in 1888. It was awarded (until 1958) to a botanist one year and to a zoologist the next year. Since 1958 it has been awarded to one of each in the same year.
The H. H. Bloomer Award was started in 1963. The money comes from a legacy from the amateur naturalist Harry Howard Bloomer. It is awarded to an amateur naturalist who has made an important contribution to biology.
The Bicentenary Award was started in 1978, on the 200th anniversary of the death of Linnaeus. It is given to someone who has done important work and who is under the age of 40 years.
The Jill Smythies Award was started in 1986. It is awarded for botanical illustrations.
The Irene Manton Prize was started in 1990. It is awarded for the best dissertation in botany during an academic year.
The Darwin-Wallace Medal is awarded for very important advances in evolutionary biology.

Collections
Linnaeus' botanical and zoological collections were bought in 1783 by Sir James Edward Smith, the first President of the society. They are held in London by the Society. The collections include 14,000 plants, 158 fish, 1,564 shells, 3,198 insects, 1,600 books and 3,000 letters and documents. If you want to see them, you need to make an appointment.

James Smith's own plant collection is also kept by the Society. It has been put into a database by the Smith Herbarium Project at the National Museums Liverpool. 6,000 plants have been cleaned and repaired.

Linnean Societies worldwide
Australia
 Linnean Society of New South Wales
Canada
 Société linnéenne du Québec
France
 La Société Linnéenne de la Seine maritime
 Société linnéenne de Lyon
 Société linnéenne de Provence
 Société Linnéenne de Bordeaux
 Société Linnéenne de Normandie
Sweden
 The Swedish Linnaeus Society
United Kingdom
 The Linnean Society of London
United States
 The Linnean Society of Lake Superior, Inc.
 The Linnaean Society of New York

Other websites
  Works related to  at the English Wikisource

Linnean Society of London
Medals and prizes of the Linnean Society
Linnean Societies Worldwide
The Linnaean Society of New York
Scientific organisations based in the United Kingdom

Linnean Society of London


In music, a scale is a set of notes in order of their pitch (that is, their frequency). If the scale starts with the note which has the lowest pitch and goes up to the note with the highest pitch, the scale is called ascending. If the scale starts with the note which has the highest pitch and goes down to the note with the lowest pitch, the scale is called descending. Scales are often the same both ascending and descending, but this is not always true. Very often, a scale is defined over an interval (such as an octave). The most common scales use intervals of five, six or seven different notes.

Major and minor scales

Major scales
On a piano, there are white keys and black keys. If we start on the note C and play each white key going up until we come to the next C, we have played the C Major scale. It has eight notes because there are eight notes from each C to the next one: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C.

The note played by each black key has two names: it can be named by the note after it, or the note before it. For example, the black key after C can be called C♯ (C-sharp). Sharp means higher in pitch. That same note can also be called D♭ (D-flat) because it is the note before D. Flat means lower in pitch.

There are half steps (or semitones) between two keys next to each other on the piano. The key to the right plays a note half a step higher (sharp) and the key to the left plays a note half a step lower (flat). So between the third and the fourth note, and between the seventh and eighth note, there is only half a step. Starting the scale at the next white key (D), two black keys will need to be touched to get the same scale, the first one for the third note, the second for the seventh note: D, E, F♯, G, A, B, C♯, D. The pattern for an ascending major scale is up a whole step, up another whole step and then a half step, then a whole step, a whole step and another whole step, then half a step to complete the octave. This is often shown as: WWHWWWH or TTSTTTS (where T stands for tone and S stands for semitone).

Scales use either just sharps or just flats when choosing between the two names for the same note, when this is possible. In a scale of seven different notes, each letter is used only once. This means that some scales have one or two notes named with a sharp or a flat even though they are played by white keys. In the C♯ Major scale, for example, all the notes have names with a sharp: C♯, D♯, E♯, F♯, G♯, A♯, B♯, C♯. In this scale, E♯ is the name for the note played by the key that plays F and the B♯ is the name for the note played by the key that plays C. The same notes are used in the D♭ Major scale, but they all have different names: D♭, E♭, F, G♭, A♭, B♭, C, D♭.

Sometimes the major scale is sung to the words "do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do" (solfège). In the musical The Sound of Music, Maria teaches the children to sing by teaching them a song called "Doe, a deer, a female deer". Each line starts on the next note of the scale and uses a different English word for each note ("doe", "ray", "me", "far", "sew", "la" and "tea").

Minor scales
There are also minor scales. These work the same way as major scales, but use different patterns of intervals:
 natural minor uses half a step between the second and the third note, and between the fifth and the sixth note. Starting at A, and using only white keys gives A minor (natural minor): A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A.
 harmonic minor is the same as natural minor, except that there is only half a step between the seventh and eighth note. Taking the example from before, but using the black key between G and A instead of the G (raising it by half a step) gives A, B, C, D, E, F, G♯, A.
 melodic minor: The step from F to G♯ is three half steps and difficult to sing. For this reason, F♯ is used instead of F, but only going up the scale. Except for some forms of Jazz music, the natural minor is used going down the scale: A, B, C, D, E, F♯, G♯, A, G, F, E, D, C, B, A.

Different periods use different scales
Traditional western music generally uses seven notes, and repeats the first note (an octave higher or lower) to complete the octave.

During the Middle Ages, and the Renaisssance, the diatonic scale (the white keys of the piano) was used most often. Black keys (called accidentals) were less common. The classical period (1600 to 1900) generally used major and minor scales, as outlined above. Natural minor was used less. From about 1900, there are other scales, for example the chromatic scale (12 half tones).

References

Music theory

Scale (music)


Cao Cao ( 155-220) was a Chinese general. He managed to control the last Han Emperor Xian and conquered the whole northern China.

Cao Cao gathered an army in 184 to fight against the Yellow Scarves rebellion. After the Dong Zhuo had seized the Emperor Liu Bian in 189 and deposed him in favour of his brother Liu Xie (Emperor Xian), a coalition of local warlords all over the country arose against Dong. It was called by Cao Cao and led by Yuan Shao, and many powerful warriors joined it.
After Dong Zhuo's death through the hands of his foster son Lü Bu, Emperor Xian was controlled by Dong's associates. He fled to Chang'an (the old capital) in 195 but almost starved to death. Cao Cao saved him in 196 and brought him to his own place at Xuchang.

With the emperor under his control, Cao Cao managed to kill most of the minor warlords in Northern China and was even able to defeat Lü Bu and the powerful Yuan Shao at Guandu in 200. He tried to conquer the south, too, but Liu Bei and Sun Quan opposed him and defeated his forces in the Battle at Red Cliffs. Cao Cao led several campaigns against the south, but with fairly low success. Also, he managed to get the famous general Guan Yu killed by Sun Quan's general Lü Meng.

Cao Cao died in 220, and his son Cao Pi followed him in control of the emperor. He eventually deposed him the same year and became Emperor Wen of Wei, making his father posthumously Emperor Wu of Wei.

Poetry

Cao Cao was a poet. Only some of his poetry can be found today.

155 births
220 deaths
Three Kingdoms generals
Chinese poets

Cao Cao


Neil Grant Richardson (5 February 1930 – 8 October 2010) was an English composer and conductor.

As a composer, he is perhaps best known for "Approaching Menace" (the Mastermind theme tune) and "The Riviera Affair". During the 1960s–1990s, he was an arranger and conductor of various BBC Radio Orchestras, working on programmes such as String Sound and The Radio Orchestra Show. He was a prolific composer of library music for companies such as KPM, and his music has been used in numerous TV, film and radio productions.

The son of a Worcestershire clergyman, Neil Richardson was born in Stourport-on-Severn, and grew up in the village of Hartlebury. Aged eight, he went to become a chorister at Westminster Abbey. After leaving the Abbey school, he became a music scholar at Lancing College, Sussex, and continued his musical studies at the Royal College of Music, studying clarinet, piano and composition with professor William Lloyd Webber. During his National Service, he played solo clarinet with the band of the Royal Air Force at Cranwell. After completing his national service, he began a career as an arranger, writing and conducting for the BBC, particularly the then-numerous BBC Radio and concert orchestras. He was instrumental in creating the BBC Northern Radio Orchestra in 1975 and was its conductor for many years.  He died, aged 80, in Nerja, Spain.

Compositions
As a composer, Richardson was best known for his library music – incidental music for use in films and television, for example his "Approaching Menace", used as the theme to Mastermind. In the 1960s he often composed under the pseudonym "Oscar Brandenburg", a name he shared with Johnny Pearson and Alan Moorhouse, also well known in this area. For example, he co-composed the test card piece "Scotch Broth".

Another of his library music compositions, "The Riviera Affair" (aka "Prestige Production," from the 1970 KPM album Impact and Action, Vol. II), is best known to New Yorkers as the opening theme music for WOR-TV's late-afternoon movie program, The 4 O'Clock Movie, in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The song was also used as part of an homage of The 4 O'Clock Movie in the opening logo sequence for the 2007 heist film, Ocean's Thirteen.  NFL Films also used some of his compositions in its American football highlight films. His library theme "Another Happening" was used for the 2012 BBC Scotland series Britain on Film, which featured footage from the Rank Organisation's 1960s Look at Life newsreels.

He also orchestrated and conducted some of Richard Rodney Bennett's film music, such as for the 1994 film Four Weddings and a Funeral and Enchanted April. He also appeared as conductor in the 1980 album A Sure Thing, featuring Bennett's arrangements of Jerome Kern songs, alongside Bennett as piano soloist and French horn player Barry Tuckwell. He was also an arranger for numerous television productions including Agatha Christie's Poirot and The Charmer.

References

External links

1930 births
2010 deaths
Musicians from Worcestershire
People from Stourport-on-Severn
English film score composers
English male film score composers
English conductors (music)
British male conductors (music)
Light music composers
People educated at Lancing College
Alumni of the Royal College of Music
English clarinetists
Choristers at Westminster Abbey

Neil Richardson (composer)


Jason was a hero in Greek mythology. He was born in Thessaly, northern Greece. Jason was the captain of the ship called the Argos. The men who helped to sail the boat were called the Argonauts. The word Argonaut comes from the name of the boat: Argo and the word ending -naut meaning "sailor".

Jason and the Argonauts went to find the Golden Fleece. His father was Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcus. Jason fell in love with the daughter of the Golden Fleece's owner. Her name was Medea. Medea helped Jason get the Golden Fleece from her father. Jason and Medea killed the owner of the Golden Fleece and returned to Jason's city, Iolcus. Medea then killed Jason's half-brother Pelias so Jason could be in charge. When she was found out, Jason and Medea went to live in the Greek city of Corinth. Jason then married the princess of Corinth so they could stay. The story of Jason, the Argonauts, and the Golden Fleece is told in two modern movies: Hercules starring Steve Reeves, and Jason and the Argonauts starring Todd Armstrong.

References

People in Greek mythology

Jason


The François Bâby House is a historic residence located in Windsor, Ontario, Canada which was owned by the prominent local politician François Baby. The house is a two-storey, Georgian style, red brick house once known as La Ferme locally, and was a French-Canadian ribbon farm which was a long narrow tract fronting endwise on the Detroit River. The home itself has historical ties to the War of 1812 where it was used  as a headquarters by both the American and British forces.

Today, the François Baby House has been designated as a National Historic Site of Canada and serves as the current home of Windsor's Community Museum, a historical museum which displays the city's rich and colourful past.

Timeline
1751 - November 24. Land including site of the house granted by Pierre Celoron, Sieur de Bienville, commandant at French Detroit, to Pierre Réaume.
1800 - December 19. Suzanne Réaume Baby sold the farm to her son François for ten shillings plus one grain of pepper.
1812 - Spring and summer. Construction of the house. Original front faced the Detroit River
1812 - July 12. War of 1812 opened with invasion of Upper Canada across the Detroit River. Baby house commandeered, unfinished, by American Brigadier General William Hull
1812 - July 13. Defensive works established around the three inland sides. American camp was located in Baby's orchard.
1812 - August 7. Hull's position had worsened, and he withdrew his troops to the safety of Fort Lernoult, directly across the river from the house.
1812 - August 15. Arrival of main British force on upper Detroit River, led by Major General Isaac Brock. Bombardment of Detroit began. Americans returned fire.
1812 - August 16. Bombardment continued, and Detroit surrendered to invading British, Canadians, and Indians.
1838 - December 4. Battle of Windsor, fought in the Baby orchard, ended the Patriot War, which had resulted from political disturbances in Upper Canada. Invading "Patriots" were largely American.
1850 - October 8. Fire heavily damaged Baby House.
1890 - The House had been converted to a double dwelling. Original north porch replaced by a full-width lean-to. Pitt Street side became the front. Bay windows connecting porch, gables added to new front.
 1931 - House abandoned during the Great Depression.
1948 - Partial renovation. Additions removed, Pitt Street wall replaced.
1958 - Final renovation. François Baby House opened May 7 as the Hiram Walker Historical Museum.
1968 - Addition of underground storage and outdoor display facility

References

 "Mansion to Museum: The François Baby House And Its Times" Written by R. Alan Douglas, Essex County Historical Society, 1989.
 Windsor's Community Museum

External links

 Windsor's Community Museum

Buildings and structures in Windsor, Ontario
Burned buildings and structures in Canada
Georgian architecture in Canada
Houses in Ontario
National Historic Sites in Ontario
Designated heritage properties in Ontario

François Baby House