Ebenezer Sproat (February 9, 1752 – January 7, 1805), surname also spelled Sprout, was an officer of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, a pioneer to the Ohio Country, and one of the founders of Marietta, Ohio, the first permanent American settlement in the Northwest Territory. He served throughout the entire American war of independence, from April 1775 through November 1783, achieving the rank of colonel. After the war, he was a pioneer and surveyor in the Northwest Territory, and became a leader of the militia at Marietta during the Northwest Indian War. He was the first sheriff in the Northwest Territory and Ohio, serving fourteen years as sheriff of Washington County, the oldest county in Ohio.

Early life
Ebenezer Sproat was born in Middleborough, Massachusetts in 1752. He was the son of Bathsheba (Wood) and Ebenezer Sproat, who owned a farm and was the proprietor of the Sproat Tavern in Middleborough. During his boyhood and youth, he assisted his father in cultivating the farm. When quite young he became interested in the public affairs of the colony. Like his father Ebenezer grew to be a tall man and was of perfect proportions.

Revolutionary War
Ebenezer Sproat was in the field with the Continental Army throughout the American Revolutionary War, and was engaged in the battles of Trenton, Princeton, and Monmouth. He was a disciplinarian, but also of cheerful disposition, and was a favorite with both officers and enlisted ranks.

He initially served with Colonel Theophilus Cotton's Massachusetts Regiment during 1775. He joined as captain in April 1775, several days after the Battles of Lexington and Concord, and was promoted to major in June 1775. During 1776 he served with Colonel Ebenezer Learned's 3rd Continental Regiment. He was subsequently promoted to lieutenant colonel of Colonel William Shepard's 4th Massachusetts Regiment and served with this regiment from January 1777 to September 1778. While with this regiment, he was one of the officers who wintered at Valley Forge with General George Washington during the winter and spring of 1777 and 1778. He was said to be the tallest man in his regiment. Ebenezer subsequently transferred to the 12th Massachusetts Regiment, where he served until from September 1778 through year-end 1780.

Ebenezer Sproat next joined the 2nd Massachusetts Regiment where he served from January 1781 until November 1783. During January 1781, he was executive officer under General Robert Howe with a detachment of five hundred men, ordered out to suppress a mutiny of the 2nd New Jersey Regiment at Pompton, New Jersey. Three of the ringleaders of the mutiny were tried on the spot, with Lieutenant Colonel Sproat being president of the court-martial. This was a sorrowful duty for Colonel Sproat; two of the men were sentenced and executed. He often said that duty was the most painful ever imposed upon him. Ebenezer Sproat was promoted to colonel during September 1783, shortly before the end of his eight and one-half years of service in the Continental Army.

An anecdote illustrating Colonel Sproat's good nature with the enlisted ranks concerns a furlough early in the war when he was home visiting his mother. Three private soldiers asked for lunch at his parents' tavern, and when finished eating, asked him the cost. He informed them that the cost was about a shilling for each man. To their surprise, instead of collecting the money from them, he paid each man a shilling and wished them a good journey. Colonel Sproat was also on good terms with the officers such as General Von Steuben, and was a friend of General Washington.

Post-war in Rhode Island
After the war, Ebenezer Sproat lived in Providence, Rhode Island, where he married Catherine Whipple, daughter of Commodore Abraham Whipple of the Continental Navy. He purchased a store, and worked as a merchant, but was not successful. In 1786 he was appointed as surveyor for the state of Rhode Island. In that role, he participated in the surveying of the Seven Ranges in the Ohio Country.

The Ohio Country
Ebenezer Sproat became a shareholder of the Ohio Company of Associates, and was engaged as a surveyor with the company. On April 7, 1788, Ebenezer Sproat and a group of American pioneers to the Northwest Territory, led by Rufus Putnam, arrived at the confluence of the Ohio and Muskingum rivers to establish Marietta, Ohio as the first permanent American settlement in the Northwest Territory. Ebenezer's wife, daughter, and Commodore Whipple joined him at Marietta the following year.

Colonel Sproat, with his tall and commanding presence, was a notable member of the pioneer settlement of Marietta. He greatly impressed the local Indians, who in admiration dubbed him "Hetuck", meaning "eye of the buck dear", or "Big Buckeye". Some historians believe this is how Ohio came to be known as the Buckeye State, though a more commonly accepted explanation involves the later presidential campaign of William Henry Harrison.

During the Northwest Indian War he was authorized by Secretary of War Henry Knox to superintend the military affairs of the United States in Washington County. He was a founding member of the Society of the Cincinnati, and helped form the American Union Lodge No. 1 of Freemasons at Marietta along with others including Rufus Putnam, Benjamin Tupper, and William Stacy. Ebenezer Sproat was the first sheriff in the Northwest Territory, serving fourteen years from 1788 to 1802 as sheriff of Washington County, the oldest county in Ohio. At that time, the county encompassed lands from the Ohio River in the south, to Lake Erie in the north, embracing half of the eventual state of Ohio. Sheriff Sproat was cheerful and fond of company, and quite attached to horses and dogs. As sheriff, he always rode a horse during his long journeys through the county, accompanied by two or three large dogs. He filled the office of sheriff with dignity, and exhibited a great kindness in his execution of the law. He was often known to furnish a poor family with his own money for repayment of a debt, rather than to make an arrest.

Later life
In his latter years he was fond of physical labor and of cultivating the land. Ebenezer Sproat died in Marietta in early 1805, either on January 7, or perhaps during February, with his oft-repeated wish of a sudden exit fully answered. He is buried adjacent to his father-in-law, Commodore Whipple, and near many other American Revolutionary War soldiers and pioneers at Mound Cemetery in Marietta.

Notes

References

 Andrews, Martin R.: History of Marietta and Washington County, Ohio and Representative Citizens, Biographical Publishing Company, Chicago, Illinois (1902).
 Barker, Joseph: Recollections of the First Settlement of Ohio, Marietta College, Marietta, Ohio (1958); original manuscript written late in Joseph Barker's life, prior to his death in 1843.
 Birthplace of the Northwest Territory, Northwest Territory Celebration Commission, Marietta, Ohio (1938).
 Cutler, Julia Perkins: The Founders of Ohio, Brief Sketches of the Forty-Eight Pioneers, Robert Clarke and Co., Cincinnati, Ohio (1888).
 Drake, Francis S.: Memorials of the Society of Cincinnati of Massachusetts, Boston (1873).
 Goodman, R. and Brunsman, B. J.: This Day in Ohio History, Emmis Books, Cincinnati, Ohio (2005).
 Hawley, Owen: Mound Cemetery, Marietta, Ohio, Washington County Historical Society, Marietta, Ohio (1996).
 Heitman, Francis B.: Officers of the Continental Army during the War of the Revolution, Rare Book Shop Publishing Co., Washington, D.C. (1914).
 Hildreth, S. P.: Biographical and Historical Memoirs of the Early Pioneer Settlers of Ohio, H. W. Derby and Co., Cincinnati, Ohio (1852).
 Hildreth, S. P.: Pioneer History: Being an Account of the First Examinations of the Ohio Valley, and the Early Settlement of the Northwest Territory, H. W. Derby and Co., Cincinnati, Ohio (1848).
 Hulbert, Archer Butler: The Records of the Original Proceedings of the Ohio Company, Volume I, Marietta Historical Commission, Marietta, Ohio (1917).
 Hulbert, Archer Butler: The Records of the Original Proceedings of the Ohio Company, Volume II, Marietta Historical Commission, Marietta, Ohio (1917).
 New England Historic Genealogical Society, The Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati Profiles: Ebenezer Sprout, online database, NewEnglandAncestors.org (2004).
 Massachusetts Soldiers and Sailors in the War of the Revolution, Vol 14, Published by the Secretary of the Commonwealth, Wright and Potter Printing Co., Boston (1906).
 Ohio Division of Forestry: Ohio…The Buckeye State, Ohio Department of Natural Resources brochure (rev 11/1998)
 Smith, B. A. and Vining, J. W.: American Geographers, 1784–1812, Praeger Publishers, Westport, Connecticut (2003).
 Summers, Thomas J.: History of Marietta, The Leader Publishing Co., Marietta, Ohio (1903).
 Weston, Thomas: History of the Town of Middleboro, Massachusetts, Houghton Mifflin and Co., Riverside Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts (1906).
 Zimmer, Louise: True Stories of Pioneer Times, published by Broughton Foods company, Marietta, Ohio (1987).

External links

1752 births
1805 deaths
Continental Army officers from Massachusetts
American pioneers
History of Ohio
People from Washington County, Ohio
People from Marietta, Ohio
Ohio sheriffs
American surveyors
Burials at Mound Cemetery (Marietta, Ohio)
American people of the Northwest Indian War
People of colonial Massachusetts
American city founders

Ebenezer Sproat


A board of directors is a group of people. They normally oversee the actions of a corporation or other business. There are laws called  bylaws that the board follows. They organize the business, appoint the CEO, organize budgets and take care of financial matters.

Within a board, directors commonly organize themselves into several committees, such as:  audit committee, compensation committee, and human resource committee.

Usually once a year, the board of directors invite shareholders to a meeting to talk about the company.

Management

Board of directors


The Bangladesh Awami League (Bengali: বাংলাদেশ আওয়ামী লীগ; also translated Bangladesh People's League) is the mainstream secular political party in Bangladesh. The party is now headed by Sheikh Hasina, the daughter of the late Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The Awami League has been in government twice, about eight and a half years, since Bangladesh's independence in 1971.

Political parties in Bangladesh

Awami League


Year 693 (DCXCIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 693 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

واقعا
 جڳھ سان

 يورپ

 Sisebert, archbishop of Toledo, leads a rebellion against King Ergica of the Visigoths. He plans to assassinate Ergica and his wife Liuvigoto but fails, and is defrocked and excommunicated.
 April 25 – Sixteenth Council of Toledo: Ergica calls for a council of the church to deal with the security of the kingship. The rebels are anathematised and the Forum ludicum is modified.

 برطانيا

 King Oshere of Hwicce (sub-kingdom of Mercia) dies after a 13-year reign. He is succeeded by his four sons as apparent joint-kings: Æthelberht, Æthelheard, Æthelweard and Æthelric.
 King Ine of Wessex establishes his West Saxon "Law of Codes", to regain authority in his kingdom. He consolidates Wessex's territory in the western peninsula (approximate date).

عنوان سان
 مذھب
 Earconwald, bishop of London, dies and is succeeded by Waldhere. He is buried at St. Paul's Cathedral, and later revered as a saint.
 Wulfram of Sens attends the assembly of bishops at Valenciennes (Northern France).
 Callinicus I becomes the 71st patriarch of Constantinople, after the death of Paul II.

پيدائشون
 Alfonso I, king of Asturias (approximate date)

وفاتون
 Begga, Frankish abbess (b. 615)
 Bridei III, king of the Picts
 Earconwald, bishop of London
 Fáelchar ua Máele Ódrain, king of Osraige (Ireland)
 Oshere, king of Hwicce (Mercia)
 Paul III, patriarch of Constantinople

حوالا

693ع


Round or rounds may refer to:

Mathematics and science
 The contour of a closed curve or surface with no sharp corners, such as an ellipse, circle, rounded rectangle, or sphere
 Rounding, the shortening of a number to reduce the number of significant figures it contains
 Round number, a number that ends with one or more zeroes
 Roundness (geology), the smoothness of clastic particles

Music
 Round (music), a type of musical composition
 Rounds (album), a 2003 album by Four Tet

Places
 Round Point, a point on the north coast of King George Island, South Shetland Islands
 Grand Rounds Scenic Byway, a parkway system in Minneapolis
 Rounds Mountain, a peak in the Taconic Mountains, United States
 Round Mountain (disambiguation), several places

Repeated activities
 Round (boxing), a time period within a boxing match
 Grand rounds, a ritual in  medical education and inpatient care
 Round of drinks, a traditional method of paying in a drinking establishment
 Funding round, a discrete round of investment in a business
 Doing the rounds or patrol, moving through an area at regular intervals
 Round (Theosophy), a planetary cycle of reincarnation in Theosophy

Other
 Round (surname)
 Rounds (surname)
 Roundedness, rounding of lips when pronouncing vowels
 Labialization, rounding of lips when pronouncing consonants
 Round shot
 Cartridge (firearms), a single unit of ammunition
 Round steak, a cut of meat

Related pages

Basic English 850 words

Round


Bhisham Sahni (8 August 1915 – 11 July 2003) was an Indian writer, playwright in Hindi and an actor, most famous for his novel and television screenplay Tamas ("Darkness, Ignorance"), a powerful and passionate account of the Partition of India. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan for literature in 1998, and Sahitya Akademi Fellowship in 2002. He was the younger brother of the noted Hindi film actor, Balraj Sahni.

Biography
Bhisham Sahni was born on 8 August 1915 in Rawalpindi, in undivided Punjab. He earned a master's degree in English literature from Government College in Lahore, and a Ph.D. from Punjab University, Chandigarh in 1958.

He joined the struggle for Indian independence. At the time of Partition, he was an active member of the Indian National Congress and organized relief work for the refugees when riots broke out in Rawalpindi in March 1947.
In 1948 Bhisham Sahni started working with the Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA), an organization with which his brother, Balraj Sahni was already closely associated. He worked both as an actor and a director. At a later stage, he directed a drama 'Bhoot Gari'. This was adapted for the stage by film director, screenwriter, novelist, and journalist Khwaja Ahmed Abbas. As an actor, he appeared in several films, including Saeed Mirza's Mohan Joshi Hazir Ho! (1984), Tamas (1986), Kumar Shahani's Kasba (1991), Bernardo Bertolucci's Little Buddha (1993), and Aparna Sen's Mr. and Mrs. Iyer (2002).

As a result of his association with IPTA, he left the Congress and joined the Communist Party of India. Thereafter, he left Bombay for Punjab where he worked briefly as a lecturer, first in a college at Ambala and then at Khalsa College, Amritsar. At this time he was involved in organizing the Punjab College Teachers' Union and also continued with IPTA work. In 1952 he moved to Delhi and was appointed Lecturer in English at Delhi College (now Zakir Husain College), University of Delhi.

From 1956 to 1963 he worked as a translator at the Foreign Languages Publishing House in Moscow, and translated some important works into Hindi, including Lev Tolstoy's short stories and his novel Resurrection. On his return to India, Bhisham Sahni resumed teaching at Delhi College, and also edited the reputed literary magazine Nai Kahaniyan from 1965 to 1967. He retired from service in 1980.  Sahni was fluent in Punjabi, English, Urdu, Sanskrit, and Hindi.

Bhisham Sahni was associated with several literary and cultural organizations. He was General Secretary of the All India Progressive Writers Association (1975–85) and Acting General Secretary of the Afro-Asian Writer' Association and was also associated with the editing of their journal Lotus.  He was the founder and chairman of 'SAHMAT', an organization promoting cross-cultural understanding, founded in memory of the murdered theatre artist and activist Safdar Hashmi.

Literary works
Bhisham Sahni's epic work Tamas (Darkness, Ignorance 1974) is a novel based on the riots of  1947 Partition of India which he witnessed at Rawalpindi. Tamas portrays the horrors of senseless communal politics of violence and hatred; and the tragic aftermath – death, destruction, forced migration and the partition of a country.  It has been translated to English, French, German, Japanese and many Indian languages including Tamil,Gujarati, Malayalam, Kashmiri, Marathi and Manipuri. Tamas won the 1975 Sahitya Akademi Award for literature and was later made into a television film in 1987 by Govind Nihalani. Two of his masterpiece stories, Pali and Amritsar Aa Gaya Hai, are also based on the Partition.

Sahni's prolific career as a writer also included six other Hindi novels: Jharokhe (1967), Kadian (1971), Basanti (1979), Mayyadas Ki Madi (1987), Kunto (1993) and Neeloo, Nilima, Nilofar (2000)., over hundred short stories spread over ten collections of short stories, (including Bhagya Rekha (1953), Pahla patha (1956), Bhatakti Raakh (1966), Patrian (1973), Wang Chu (1978), Shobha Yatra (1981), Nishachar (1983), Pali (1989), and Daayan (1996) ; five plays including Hanoosh, Kabira Khada Bazar Mein, Madhavi, Muavze, Alamgeer, a collection of children's short stories Gulal ka keel'''. But his novel named Mayyadas Ki Mari (Mayyadas's Castle) was one of his finest literary creation, the backdrop of this narrative is historical and depicts the age when the Khalsa Raj was vanquished in Punjab and the British were taking over. This novel is a saga of changing social order and decadent set of values.
He wrote the screenplay for Kumar Shahani's film, Kasba (1991), which is based on Anton Chekhov's story,In the Gully. Although Sahni had been writing stories for a long time, he received recognition as a story writer only after the publication of his story 'Chief Ki Daawat'(The Chief's Party) in the Kahani magazine in 1956.

Bhisham Sahni wrote his autobiography Aaj Ke Ateet (Today's Pasts, Penguin 2016) and the biography of his brother Balraj Sahni, Balraj My Brother (English).

Plays
 Hanoosh (1977), staged by theatre director Rajindra Nath and Arvind Gaur (1993). it was adapted into Kashmiri as "Waqtsaaz" by Manzoor Ahmad Mir and was performed by the Artists participating in month-long Educational Theatre workshop organized by National School of Drama, at Srinagar Kashmir under the Direction of Sh. M. K. Raina in the year 2004.
 Kabira Khada Bazar Mein (1981): Many Indian theatre directors like M.K. Raina Arvind Gaur and Abhijeet Choudhary have performed this play.
 Madhavi (1982): First staged by theatre director Rajendra Nath. Later US-trained actress Rashi Bunny performed Madhavi as a solo play. This solo won many awards in international theatre festivals
 Muavze (1993): First performed by National School of Drama rep. with Bapi Bose. This is a very popular play among theatre groups Swatantra Theatre, Pune also performed various times.

 Literary style
Bhisham Sahni was one of the most prolific writers of Hindi literature.
Krishan Baldev Vaid said, "His voice, both as a writer and a man, was serene and pure and resonant with humane reassurances. His immense popularity was not a result of any pandering to vulgar tastes but a reward for his literary merits—his sharp wit, his gentle irony, his all-pervasive humor, his penetrating insight into character, his mastery as a raconteur, and his profound grasp of the yearnings of the human heart.

Noted Writer, Nirmal Verma, stated, "If we see a long gallery of unmatched characters in his stories and novels, where each person is present with his class and family; pleasures and pains of his town and district; the whole world of perversions and contradictions; it is because the reservoir of his (Bhisham Sahni's) experience was vast and abundant. At the request of his father – would anyone believe? – he dabbled in business, in which he was a miserable failure. With his high-spirits and passion for life of the common people, he traveled through villages and towns of Punjab with the IPTA theatre group; then began to teach to earn a living; and then lived in the USSR for seven years as a Hindi translator. This sprawling reservoir of experience collected in the hustle-bustle of various occupations ultimately filtered down into his stories and novels, without which, as we realize today, the world of Hindi prose would have been deprived and desolate. The 'simplicity of his work comes from hard layers of experience, which distinguish and separate it from other works of 'simplified realism. ...
"Bhisham Sahni is able to express the terrifying tragedy of Partition with an extraordinary compassion in his stories. Amritsar Aa Gaya Hai ('We have reached Amritsar') is one such exceptional work where Bhisham gets away from the external reality and points to the bloody fissures etched on people's psyche. This is possible only for a writer who, in the darkness of historic events has seen the sudden 'accidents' that happen inside human hearts from up close." ...
"After reading his last collection of stories Daayan (Witch), I was amazed that even after so many years there seemed no repetition or staleness in his writing. Each of his stories seemed to bring something sudden from newer directions, which was as new for him as it was unexpected for us. That Bhisham never paused, never halted in such a long creative journey is a big achievement; but what is bigger perhaps is that his life nurtured his work and his work nurtured his life, both nurtured each other continuously.

Kamleshwar, "Bhisham Sahni's name is etched so deeply into the twentieth century of Hindi literature that it cannot be erased. With Independence and till the 11th. July 2003, this name has been synonymous with Hindi story and playwriting. Bhisham Sahni had gained such an unmatched popularity that all kinds of readers awaited his new creations and each and every word of his was read. There was no need to ask a general reader if he had read this or that writing by Bhisham. It was possible to begin a sudden discussion on his stories or novels. Such a rare readerly privilege was either available to Premchand or, after Harishankar Parsai, to Bhisham Sahni. This too is rare that the fame he received from Hindi should, during his lifetime,  become the fame for Hindi itself.

Krishan Baldev Vaid. "Bhisham Sahni's last published book, an autobiography with the quiet title Aaj Ke Ateet (The Pasts of the Present), is a beautiful culmination of a lifetime of excellent writing. Apart from giving us an intimate account of some of the salient phases of his life, it epitomizes his literary qualities. It is full of fun and insights; it is variegated; it is fair; it is unsmug; it is absorbing; it is also his farewell to his family, his milieu, his readers, and his friends.

He begins at the beginning and ends very near the end. The book glows with the sense of ending without, however, any trace of morbidity or self-pity. The early part, where Bhisham tenderly evokes his earliest memories and records his childhood in an affectionate middle-class family in Rawalpindi, is for me the most moving part of this self-portrait. With characteristic elegance and an unfailing eye for significant detail, the elderly author looks back with nostalgic longing at the world of his childhood and achieves a small but brilliant portrait of the artist as a little child.

 Awards and honours

During his lifetime, Bhisham Sahni won several Awards including Shiromani Writers Award,1979, Uttar Pradesh Government Award for Tamas, 1975, Colour of Nation Award at International Theatre Festival, Russia for Play Madhavi by Rashi Bunny,2004, Madhya Pradesh Kala Sahitya Parishad Award, for his play 'Hanush', 1975 the Lotus Award from the Afro-Asian Writers' Association, 1981 and the Soviet Land Nehru Award, 1983, and finally the Padma Bhushan for literature in 1998, Shalaka Samman, New Delhi 1999=2000, Maithlisharan Gupta Samman, Madhya Pradesh, 2000–2001, Sangeet Natak Academy Award 2001, Sir Syed National Award for best Hindi Fiction Writer 2002, and India's highest literary award the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship in 2002.

On 31 May 2017, India Post released a commemorative postage stamp to honour Sahni.

References

External links

 Sharma, Rajendra (19 July 2003). . Frontline magazine. Archived from the  on 29 October 2006. Retrieved 22 August 2006.
 Bhatnagar, Ashwini (27 July 2003). "Commoners' chronicler". The Tribune'' (Chandigarh). Retrieved 31 August 2006.
 Watch Tamas online

 'The Boss Came to Dinner' at Foundation of SAARC writers
 Govind Nihalani speaks of Bhisham Sahni and Tamas
 Bhisham Sahni talking about his personal experience of Partition and the writing of his Partition novel 'Tamas'

1915 births
2003 deaths
People from Rawalpindi
Hindi-language writers
Indian children's writers
Indian male dramatists and playwrights
Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Hindi
Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in literature & education
Pahari Pothwari people
Punjabi people
Punjabi Hindus
Indian Hindus
Indian Marxist writers
Indian Communist writers
Hindi dramatists and playwrights
Indian People's Theatre Association people
Indian male novelists
Academic staff of Delhi University
20th-century Indian novelists
20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Indian male actors
Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award

Bhisham Sahni


Shortening is a semisolid fat used in baking. It makes foods crumbly. Shortening doesn't smoke as easily as butter or oil, and it is 100% fat. Butter is 80% fat. It works by stopping long gluten polymers from forming in the food. It does not need to be refrigerated. It also is cheaper than butter. It can make foods last longer.

Shortening is mostly made from hydrogenated oils, which have trans fats in them. Trans fats can cause heart attacks. People making shortening try to take out the trans fats.

References

Cooking fats
Baking

Shortening


The centromere is a special region of a chromosome, usually near the middle. It is where the two identical sister chromatids stay in contact as the chromosome attaches to the spindle in mitosis. The region contains specific types of DNA, which are tandem repetitive sequences (satellite DNA). These sequences bind specific proteins called "cen"-proteins.

During mitosis the centromeres can be seen during the metaphase stage as a constriction at the chromosome. At this centromeric constriction the two halves of the chromosome, the sister chromatids, are held together until late metaphase.

References
Cell biology

Centromere


Space Race is a BBC docudrama series first shown in Britain on BBC2 between 14 September and 5 October 2005, chronicling the major events and characters in the American/Soviet space race up to the first landing of a man on the Moon. It focuses on Sergei Korolev, the Soviet chief rocket designer, and Wernher von Braun, his American counterpart. The series was a joint effort between British, German, American and Russian production teams.

Reception

Awards
Royal Television Society 2006
Nominated: RTS Television Award for Best Production Design (Drama): Alan Spalding
Sir Arthur Clarke Award 2006
Won: Sir Arthur Clarke Award for Best Presentation (TV & Radio)

Episodes

Episode 1: "Race For Rockets" (1944–1949)
The results of Wernher von Braun's work on the V-2 for the Nazis at Mittelwerk and Peenemünde is shown, and his final activities within Germany during the last years of the Second World War, as both American and Soviet forces race to capture German rocket technology. However, when the Americans gain the upper hand by recovering von Braun and most of his senior staff, along with all their technical documents and much other materiel. Sergei Korolev's is released from the Gulag to act as the Soviets' rocketry expert alongside former colleague Valentin Glushko, and how he is set to work bringing Soviet rocket technology up to date with that of von Braun, working with what material and personnel are left after von Braun's escape to the US.

Episode 2: "Race For Satellites" (1953–1958)
As the Cold War intensifies, Korolev is asked to build a rocket capable of carrying a five-ton warhead to America; he designs and constructs the R-7 Semyorka, the first ICBM, and is later allowed to use it to launch the first satellite, Sputnik 1, quickly following up with the rushed Sputnik 2. Meanwhile, von Braun struggles to persuade the US government to allow him to launch his own satellite; after Sputnik's launch and the failure of the US Navy to launch a Vanguard satellite, he is finally allowed to launch the first American satellite, Explorer 1. Korolev announces that the Americans have evened the score and that they are in a space race, which they intend to win.  At the end of the episode, two men are shown walking down a corridor, one of them wearing a spacesuit.

Episode 3: "Race For Survival" (1959–1961)
Both the Americans and Soviets are planning crewed space flights, and we see both sides preparing to do so with the development of the Vostok programme (USSR) and Project Mercury (USA).  As well as basic details about the capsules and their delivery vehicles, we also see some of the selection and training of the Russian cosmonauts, and rather less of that of their counterparts in the US. After difficulties and failures on both sides, including a side story about a catastrophic failure of one of the first Russian ballistic missiles, the Soviets succeed in putting Yuri Gagarin into space first, with the Americans putting Alan Shepard up shortly afterwards.

Episode 4: "Race for the Moon" (1964–1969)
Both countries now plan to put a man on the Moon; the Americans pull ahead in the space race with Project Gemini, but then suffer a disaster with the Apollo 1 fire.  Meanwhile, despite a notable successes such as the first space walk by Alexei Leonov, the Soviet space programme struggles to keep up amid internal strife. Glushko and Korolev permanently fall out in an argument about fuel; Korolev turns to Nikolai Kuznetsov to develop engines instead. Kuznetsov delivers the NK-33, very efficient but much less powerful than the Americans' F-1. The Soviet program suffers further blows when Korolev dies during surgery, Gagarin dies in a jet crash, Soyuz 1 crashes and kills Vladimir Komarov, and the prototype booster for the Moon shot, the N-1 rocket, fails to successfully launch. In America, von Braun has continuing difficulties with the Saturn V, especially combustion instability in the large F-1 engine, but these are ultimately overcome almost by brute force at great expense, and the rocket successfully launches the first crewed lunar mission, Apollo 8, and the first crewed lunar landing, Apollo 11. The final episode finishes with brief text summaries of the remaining careers of the various people involved.

Production details
The BBC filmed Space Race in and around the town of Sibiu, Transylvania in Romania. Romania has signed the EU co-production treaty which allows for EU co-productions. Compared to other locations, Romania attracted the BBC with unspoiled natural locations, experienced crews and moderately priced production facilities.

The series was filmed with the Panasonic SDX 900 DVCPro50 professional camcorder. This allowed keeping to the speedy shooting schedule and provided the 'gritty' look appropriate to the time period. Shot in widescreen 25fps progressive mode, the series deliver rich, filmic feel, which compares favourably with high definition.

Cast

Richard Dillane – Wernher von Braun
Steve Nicolson – Sergei Korolev
John Warnaby – Vasily Mishin
Ravil Isyanov – Valentin Glushko
Rupert Wickham – Kurt H. Debus
Tim Woodward – Marshal Mitrofan Nedelin
Eric Loren – Castenholz
Chris Robson – Dieter Huzel
Mark Dexter – Staver
Oliver de la Fosse – Staver's Lieutenant
Vitalie Ursu – Yuri Gagarin
Oleg Stefan – Alexei Leonov
Mariya Mironova – Nina
Jeffry Wickham – Nikolai Kuznetsov
Robert Jezek – Robert R. Gilruth
Robert Lindsay – Narrator
Stuart Bunce – Lev Gaidukov
David Barrass – Helmut Gröttrup
Constantine Gregory – Nikita Khrushchev
Simon Day – Kammler
Nicholas Rowe – R. V. Jones
Mikhail Gorevoy – Ivan Serov
Stephen Greif – Colonel Holger Toftoy
Anna Barkan – Ksenia Koroleva
Max Bollinger – Russian cosmonaut (VO)
Todd Boyce – Alan Shepard
Emil Măndănac – Viacheslav Lapo, Russian sound technician
Mihai Dinvale – German Scientist
Anthony Edridge – Chris Kraft

Inaccuracies and errors
Most of the historical and technological data presented in the series are heavily simplified, and sometimes contain outright untruths or errors. The series would best be described and interpreted as giving a general impression of the subject matter, rather than rigorous factual account.

Factual errors
 An early scene shows Serov executing Polish resistance fighters who discovered a V-2. This did not happen. A team of British and Polish soldiers and scientists formed a mission to retrieve a fallen V-2 near the Blizna V-2 missile launch site in Poland.
 Footage showing early rocket club activity of von Braun actually shows Reinhold Tiling's rockets, a rival to the VfR club that von Braun belonged to. The VfR rockets were crude engines attached to sticks.
 Key figures are missing from the presented history. Andrei Tupolev, Vladimir Chelomei and Mikhail Yangel are also conspicuously absent, for example, even in the sequence depicting the disastrous explosion of Yangel's prototype R-16 ICBM. In the series, Glushko is generally identified with all rocket projects competing with Korolev within the USSR, even those for which he had only partial responsibility or was a subcontractor.
 The narrator said twice that the Mercury-Redstone could put an astronaut into orbit. In reality, the best the Redstone rocket could do was put an astronaut into a 15-minute "suborbital" ballistic trajectory, which peaked out around 120 miles up. The first orbital flight of an American astronaut did not occur until 20 February 1962, when the Mercury capsule was put into orbit with a more powerful Atlas rocket. Indeed, NASA report TMX-53107 called Mercury-Redstone "a prelude to an orbital flight program" (pg 1–2). However, Episode 3, "Race for Survival", is at pains to disclaim orbital capability. The narrator says (from 8'46" to 8' 51") only that the V-derived Redstone "has only a tenth of the power of Korolev's rocket. Barely enough to put a man into space." This of course is why Freedom 7, Alan Shepard's Redstone-launched capsule, was suborbital.
The narrator states that Gagarin flies "over a sleeping America" even though Vostok's flightpath did not take the craft anywhere near North America, except the Aleutian Islands. Gagarin did say "I'm over America", though. America includes South America and Vostok 1's flight path did just touch America in that sense. Gagarin spoke at night, while still over the Pacific, but only three minutes from the Straits of Magellan; a little earlier he was near Hawaii, which had become one of the US less than two years earlier.
Episode 1 features a map of Europe with wrongly indicated countries. Switzerland is labeled Austria, Austria is labelled Yugoslavia and the Czech Republic is labelled Hungary.
Episode 1 features the surrender of Wernher von Braun to the Americans; at that time, he had a badly fractured arm, which was not mentioned in the series.
In Episode 2 the narrator states twice that the R-7 rocket has 32 engines. This is not entirely correct. The R-7 and its successors have four side boosters and a core booster. Each side booster has a single rocket engine with four combustion chambers, two vernier combustion chambers, and one set of turbopumps. The central core has a similar engine but with four vernier combustion chambers instead of two. This makes total of 32 chambers, not engines. In the scene where Glushko is supposedly testing the clustering scheme, only one engine is shown.
One of the cosmonauts, after seeing the Vostok's cockpit for the first time (Episode 3), asks where the controls are. Also the Gagarin flight scene indicates that there were no controls inside. In fact controls were present on board the Vostoks, but they were blocked to prevent the cosmonauts from manipulating them. A set of codes was placed aboard, so that the cosmonaut could unlock the controls if necessary.
When the Mission Control is shown for the first time in Episode 3 it shows that all the flight controllers have a TV screen showing the launch pad. In reality only the flight director had a TV screen. The other consoles had only meters to measure the various systems.
In Episode 4 the narrator states that "if they (Apollo 8) fail to lock into the Moon's orbit they will fly on, forever lost in space". In fact, Apollo 8 used a free return trajectory that would have taken them back to Earth had the engine performing lunar orbit injection failed.

Unconfirmed statements
The series repeats the claim Korolev was denounced by Glushko several times. There are no known documents substantiating this statement. Glushko had been imprisoned himself before Korolev was arrested and had been sentenced to eight years in a prison camp "for participating in sabotage organization". He was retained to work for the NKVD to develop aircraft jet boosters. In 1942, at Glushko's request, NKVD transferred Korolev from another prison to Glushko's OKB.

Filming inaccuracies
 American soldier who meet Von Braun carry a SKS carbine instead of the standard us M1.
 Usage of period footage is inconsistent, in particular with regard to the R-7 and its variants.
 The scene that depicts transporting a V-2 missile to firing position uses a different missile pulled by the Soviet ZIL-157 truck.
 In the sequence with the train leaving the German station with scientists one can read "CFR" on the locomotive, which stands for Căile Ferate Române (Romanian Railways).
 The scene depicting a launch from Kapustin Yar, which is dated by 1948, includes vehicles that were not produced at that time, in particular the ZIL-157 (1958), the ZIL-131 (1967) and the UAZ-469 (1971).

Notes
 While Korolev's last name often appears to be mispronounced as "Korolyov" in the film, this is closer to its pronunciation in the Russian language.
While both Glushko and Korolev were civilian engineers, they were correctly depicted as wearing military uniform during their stay in Germany, as both had been given commissions in the Red Army.

Companion book
A companion book to the series was written by Deborah Cadbury.

Selected editions

Notes
The National Geographic Channel broadcast the series as a two-part mini-series in 2006.

See also

 From the Earth to the Moon
 When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions

References

External links

2005 British television series debuts
2005 British television series endings
2000s British documentary television series
BBC television docudramas
Science docudramas
2000s British television miniseries
English-language television shows
Cultural depictions of Yuri Gagarin
Cultural depictions of Nikita Khrushchev
Cultural depictions of Wernher von Braun
Alexei Leonov
Alan Shepard
BBC television documentaries about history during the 20th Century
Works about V-weapons

Space Race (TV series)


A radio program (usually radio programme in the United Kingdom) or radio show is a segment of content intended for broadcast on radio. It may be a one-time production or part of a periodically recurring series. A single program in a series is called an episode.

Well known radio programs are Democracy Now! and the chart show Ö3 Austria Top 40.

Radio program


Brian Edward Stewart,  (born April 21, 1942) is a Canadian journalist. Stewart is  best known for his news reports and documentary features as senior correspondent of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's (CBC) flagship news hour, The National, where he worked for over two decades.

A past Gemini award winner as Canada's Best Overall Journalist, Stewart also hosted network current affairs shows including CBC News: Our World, and continues to appear frequently on CBC as a current affairs analyst and documentary essayist following his retirement in 2009.  A journalist since 1964, Mr Stewart has been a reporter in both print and television.

He is currently a Distinguished Senior Fellow with the Munk School of Global Affairs at the University of Toronto.

Early life and education
Born in Montreal, Quebec on April 21, 1942, Stewart spent much of his youth in Halifax, Nova Scotia and England. Stewart's father was the president of the Simpsons department store chain.  He attended Upper Canada College and Thornton Hall
in Toronto in 1958 and graduated from the Ryerson School of Journalism in 1964.

Career
Stewart first worked in print as a reporter with the (now defunct) Oshawa Times, the Richmond-Twickenham Times (UK) and The Montreal Gazette through the years 1964–71. He first joined the CBC in 1971 at CBMT Montreal as a host of the supper-hour television current affairs program Hourglass. In 1973 he was appointed a national reporter in Ottawa where he was the network's foreign affairs and military specialist.  He became CBC's foreign correspondent in London in 1982 where he worked until joining NBC as a foreign correspondent in 1985. Stewart returned to Canada in 1987 to become senior reporter with the CBC's The Journal, a post in which he wrote and hosted a series of specials on North American and world politics.

Stewart has been one of Canada's most prominent foreign correspondents. He covered many of the world's conflicts and has reported from ten war zones, from El Salvador and Beirut to Afghanistan.  During the Gulf War, he was the first Canadian reporter to get into the liberated Kuwait City. In the Second Sudanese Civil War in 1989, his report on child slavery, Sudan: Children of Darkness (with Tony Burman), won several international awards, including the UNDA prize at the Monte Carlo Television Festival. He has worked extensively in underdeveloped countries and was the first North American reporter to focus the world's attention on the massive Ethiopian famine of 1984–85 (also with Tony Burman). In 1987, Stewart's career was the subject of a major documentary, The War Reporters, produced by Brian McKenna.

"Having Brian Stewart on a story meant no one could ever beat us," says Mark Starowicz, creator and executive producer of The Journal. "It would always be brilliant journalism and it would always be head and shoulders over any reportage by any other journalist in the world covering that story."

During the Ethiopian Famine of in 1984 Stewart covered the near death survival of a three-year-old girl Birhan Woldu, reports that made her the Face of Famine in 1985 and the subject of a famous video played during the Live Aid Concert.  Stewart later return to search for the girl in Northern Ethiopia and continued to chronicle her life over two decades.  The two were interviewed on the Oprah Winfrey Show in 2006.  Birhan Woldu, who  remains close friends of Stewart's family, went on to graduate from college with degrees in Agriculture and Nursing in Ethiopia.  The story of Stewart's discovery of her is told in the 2012 book "Feed the World: Birhan Woldu and Live Aid" by British journalist Oliver Harvey.

In the course of his reporting career, Stewart has interviewed such leading world's leading figures, including Margaret Thatcher, Lech Wałęsa, Nelson Mandela and Henry Kissinger.  In 1994 he was made host of CBC current affairs show The Magazine and later conducted extensive interviews with newsmakers as host of two interview shows, including CBC News: Our World. He was a frequent back-up Anchor on The National to Host Peter Mansbridge.

Personal
Stewart married CBC broadcaster and journalist Tina Srebotnjak in 1989, and they have a daughter, Kathleen Stewart (b. 1993). The Stewart family lives in Toronto. In the article "Black Mischief" published in the February 2007 issue of Vanity Fair, Stewart is described as the closest friend of former newspaper mogul Conrad Black. Of Black, Stewart is quoted as saying, "He has a child-like hunger that cannot be assuaged. He is driven by the need to be somebody, to be noticed, that is beyond the norm. He has a totally tin ear when it comes to his P.R. persona."

Awards and honours
In 1988, Stewart received a Centre for Investigative Journalism Award in the "Television" category for his groundbreaking report on the Air India Flight 182 crash.

Stewart received the Gemini Award as "Best Overall Broadcast Journalist," the prestigious Gordon Sinclair Award, in 1996. Nominated for numerous Geminis, he won "Best Information Segment" in 1994 for Rwanda: Autopsy of a Genocide, in which he uncovered advanced warnings of the mass murders. In 1995, his moving report Return To Ethiopia was broadcast internationally and his documentary The Somalia Affair won top prize for investigative reporting at the Canadian Association of Journalists awards in 1993.

In May 2004, he presented the Convocation Address during the 160th Anniversary of Toronto's Knox College, University of Toronto, titled On the Front Lines .

He was the 2009 Ross Munro Media Award Recipient; awarded by the Conference of Defence Associations (CDA), in concert with the Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute, in recognition of "his extraordinary contribution to increasing public understanding of Canadian defence and security issues."
In 2012 he was made an honorary doctor of Theology after giving the Convocation address at the Atlantic School of Theology in Halifax to mark his service to humanity as a reporter.  In June 2012 he was awarded the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Medal. In 2013, he was made a Member of the Order of Ontario.

He was appointed to the Order of Canada in 2022 with the rank of Officer.

References

External links
Watch the original TV report that inspired Live Aid and Live 8 (1 November 1984)

1942 births
Anglophone Quebec people
Canadian television news anchors
Canadian television reporters and correspondents
CBC Television people
Canadian Screen Award winning journalists
Living people
Members of the Order of Ontario
Montreal Gazette people
Toronto Metropolitan University alumni
20th-century Canadian journalists
21st-century Canadian journalists
Centre for Investigative Journalism Award winners
Officers of the Order of Canada
Journalists from Toronto

Brian Stewart (journalist)


Return of the Phantom is a point-and-click graphic adventure game developed and published by MicroProse in 1993. It was produced by Matt Gruson and designed/written by future James Bond novelist Raymond Benson. It is based on the 1910 novel The Phantom of the Opera by Gaston Leroux.

The game was the second graphical adventure game developed by MicroProse, following Rex Nebular and preceding Dragonsphere. It was developed using the MicroProse Adventure Development system, and made use of 256-colour graphics. A CD version featuring full voices for the characters was also released.

Plot
The Palais Garnier is in the midst of the world premiere of Don Juan Triumphant when the enormous chandelier adorning the domed ceiling of the auditorium plunges into the middle of the stalls and kills several members of the audience. The player takes the role of Raoul Montand, a detective from the Sûreté and patron of the Opera. The manager, Monsieur Brie, suspects the Phantom may be the cause and has Raoul investigate. Raoul encounters the leading actress of the show, Christine Florent, who has received a note from the Phantom which threatens her. Some time later, Christine is found strangled by the Phantom. Raoul goes to the catwalk where the Phantom appears and pushes him off the edge. Then, he awakens to find himself transported back in time to the year 1881 where he is mistaken for the Viscount Raoul de Chagny.

During a production, Erik captures Christine Daaé. After a great deal of work and exploring, Raoul enters the Phantom's lair and rescues Christine, but the Phantom appears once more and re-captures Christine. Raoul climbs to the chandelier and does battle with the Phantom, eventually causing the chandelier to fall and kill both men. Raoul awakens back in his own time, where none of the events related to the Phantom seem to have taken place, but before the credits begin the Phantom's shadow is seen behind him.

Characters
Raoul Montand (Voiced by Stuart W. Howard): The player character; an investigator of the French Secret Police: The Sûreté.
Christine Florent (Voiced by Jonathan Caspian-Kaufman): The present opera star; somehow connected with Christine Daae.
Christine Daaé (Voiced by Jonathan Caspian-Kaufman): A simple-minded girl from Sweden; the woman whom the Phantom loves.
Monsieur Brie (Voiced by Raymond Benson): The present opera manager.
Monsieur Richard (Voiced by Douglas Kaufman): Opera manager of the past.
Madame Giry (Voiced by Lynne Siglar): The Phantom's box-keeper; knows that Raoul is from the future.
Jacques (Voiced by Nick Raye): A man who knows a great deal about the Phantom; is eventually killed.
Julie Giry (Voiced by Dorianne Weaver): A descendant of Madame Giry who also knows about the Phantom.
Charles (Voiced by Steven Zumbrun): Present day stage master.
Edgar Degas (Voiced by Douglas Kaufman): An artist interested in painting pictures of ballerinas; somehow knows that Raoul is from the future.
Erik, the Phantom of the Opera (Voiced by Greg Kemper): The main antagonist throughout the entire game.

Reception
QuestBusters called Return of the Phantom "a high quality game with few bugs" and praised the game for having used professional actors, a designer with real-world experience in Broadway theatre, and an original "Bach inspired" score. The magazine wrote that "Micro Prose uses their own unique adaptation of the classical animation overlaying process, producing a very life-like final animation video. Numerous digitized sound effects round off the experience."

Computer Gaming World in October 1993 called the game's plot "gripping" and "intriguing". While criticizing the slow movement speed and lack of keyboard shortcuts, and the game "offering only 12 to 18 hours of gaming for the average player" given the  price, it praised the rotoscoped animation—"as fluid and lifelike as that of any computer product to date"—and "rich and full" music. The magazine concluded that Phantom was best suited for those who preferred story over puzzles, especially at a lower price. It criticized the CD-ROM version as "a disappointment" for "unspiring vocals and slow [CD] access". In April 1994 the magazine said that the CD version "needed more rehearsals prior to release". While preferable to the floppy version "the vocal talent leaves much to be desired", and with no added lip movement animation the game resembled "a poorly subtitled foreign film". Power Unlimited gave the game a score of 70% writing: "Return of the Phantom is a great adventure for beginners. It also looks good, so it can easily keep your attention. It is a pity that the story and the sound are not much."

References

External links

1993 video games
Adventure games
DOS games
DOS-only games
MicroProse games
Point-and-click adventure games
Works based on The Phantom of the Opera
Video games about police officers
Video games about time travel
Video games based on novels
Video games developed in the United States

Return of the Phantom


Gerardus Johannes Geers, (Delft, 10 December 1891 – Groningen, the 2 May 1965), was a Dutch linguist and Hispanist. He wrote his thesis on the language of the Blackfoot Indians in North America but spent his career studying the Spanish language and Spanish culture.

In 1917 Geers travelled to Spain to become the governor of the children of the Dutch envoy in Madrid. He mingled in leftist intellectual circles and translated Das Kapital in Spanish. Under the pseudonym of Cayo Graco he published articles in socialist periodics like Nuestra Palabra and El Comunista. Despite his diplomatic immunity as part of the household of the envoy he was expelled from Spain for alleged "subversive activities".

Geers made a career as a teacher and became a pioneer of hispanismo in the Netherlands. He translated Miguel de Cervantes, Unamuno, Ortega y Gasset and Diez del Corral. As an hispanist he criticized the popular "Leyenda negra" and he defended King Philip II of Spain against the many accusations.

In "El problema de los romances" (1920) Geers denied the popular thesis of Milá y Fontanals en Menéndez Pelayo that the Spanish literary romances were descended from the Spanish epic works. Geers proposed that they stood in the tradition of the middle-Latin lyrics. Geers thesis was falsified by E. García Gómez in his article "La lírica hispano-árabe y la aparición de la lírica románica" (Al-Andalus, XXI (1956)) based on recently discovered kharga-material.

Geers became a professor of Hispanic studies in Groningen.

External links

Linguists from the Netherlands
Linguists from Spain
1891 births
1962 deaths
20th-century Dutch philosophers
Dutch expatriates in Spain
Dutch political philosophers
Dutch socialists
Leiden University alumni
People from Delft
Political philosophers
Linguists of Algic languages
20th-century linguists

Gerardus Johannes Geers


Korean Augmentation to the United States Army (KATUSA) is a scheme of military duty in South Korea. Under this program, soldiers in the South Korean Army are given posts in U.S. Army bases that are located in several places in South Korea. KATUSA soldiers are under the command of both the South Korean Department of Defense and the U.S. Department of Defense. The purpose of the KATUSA program has been different depending on the historical situation in Korea.

History
The KATUSA system was established in July 1950 during the Korean War. It was started as a spoken agreement between President Syngman Rhee and U.S. General Douglas MacArthur. At that time, the U.S. Army needed a military force that had the proper knowledge of the geography of Korea, and the abilities to distinguish ally troops (South Korea) from enemy troops (North Korea) and communicate better between U.S. soldiers and Korean soldiers. Therefore, some were drafted to KATUSA by force, and others voluntarily (by their own choice) applied . After training, they were divided into the U.S. military, such as 2nd, 7th, 24th, 25th divisions. During the Korean Wars, a total 43,660 KATUSA soldiers fought for South Korea with U.S. forces. Of these soldiers, 11,365 went missing or were killed in action.

After a ceasefire agreement between the United States and North Korea, the U.S. government decided to keep the KATUSA system. It was kept so that KATUSA soldiers could make up for the instant shortage of U.S. forces from the military evacuation. The KATSUA soldiers could also help the American soldiers who stayed behind in Korea to keep a good relation with the Korean military. Therefore, the KATUSA system still has been operating in Korea with some changes in its method of operations.

Process
Every South Korean male aged between 18 and 28 must do at least 18 months of military service. As of 2012, the Department of Defense recruits KATUSA soldiers for the next year every September. So people who want to perform their military duty under the KATUSA program apply for it in September.

The people applying must have at least one valid score among the various English competency tests: TOEIC, TEPS, TOEFL (PBT or IBT), G-TELP Level 2, FLEX. The Department of Defense has set cut-off points for each of these tests, which have changed over time. After the department finishes recruiting applicants, it randomly picks KATUSA soldiers for the next year who meet all the standards required. It announces the names of applicants who got accepted to be KATUSA on November of the same year.

When the time has come for the applicants to enter the military, they gather at Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) training camp, which is located at Nonsan-si, Chungcheongnam-do. Trainees have to finish all the basic training courses like any other ROKA soldier. These go for five weeks. After they finish the training, the soldiers with Private rank go to the KATUSA Training Academy (KTA), which is located at Uijeongbu. They get specialized trainings that help them to adapt to life in the U.S. Army, and to become "ambassadors" working for the mutual cooperation between South Korea and the United States. This training goes for 3 weeks. After this, trainees are assigned as soldiers to U.S. Army posts in South Korea. The placements are made according to several scores they get during training.

Military of South Korea


Bavarie, or the Free State o Bavarie is the lairgest an sooth-eastern maist federal state o Germany. The caipital is Munich.

Geography

Bavarie haes mairches wi Austrick (sooth an east) an Swisserland (sooth-wast), Czech Republic (east), Free State o Saxony, in the north-east, Free State o Thuringie, in the north, Land o Hesse, in the north-east, Land o Baden-Württemberg, in the wast.

It's the biggest land o Germany.

The maist important ceeties are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg, (Regensburg), Würzburg, Ingolstadt, Fürth, Erlangen an Landshut.

States o Germany

Bavarie


An internet portal or web portal is a website used to enter the Internet. It can also be used to describe a website to enter certain parts of the Internet, like Wikipedia's Community Portal.

Many ISPs have their own portals, but there are many other portals by other companies, like Microsoft's MSN, Ask.com, and Yahoo!.

Internet

Web portal


A rodeo is a North American sport. It is a collection of several similar activities that came from the history of the day-to-day lives of Mexican vaqueros (cowboys) and American cowboys. It has events that came from the handling of cattle, and the riding and training of horses. Rodeos started as a competition between the cowboys to see who was the best. Over time it has gone from taking a collection of money for the person who won to today's large professional competitions such as the National Finals Rodeo with a lot of money for the winners.

Equestrian sports

Rodeo


Godfrey Blow (born 6 October 1948) is an artist based in Kalamunda, Western Australia. He is the founder of the Perth Stuckists.

Life and art

Godfrey Blow was born in North Hykeham, Lincolnshire, England on the same day as fellow Stuckist artist, Eamon Everall. After attending Sheffield Hallam University where he gained a BA Hons degree and Manchester Metro University, where he qualified as a teacher, Blow emigrated to Australia in 1982. Since then he has made his living by teaching and through his artwork. More recently the emphasis has been on his art, as his work has increasingly become a featured part of private and public collections in Australia, including Artbank, The Art Gallery of Western Australia, University of Western Australia and the collections of the cities of Bunbury, Albany and Fremantle.

In 2001 Judith McGrath reviewed his 2001 solo show at The Church Gallery:

He first joined the Stuckists in 2002, when he founded the Perth Stuckists after a conversation with Stuckism founder, Charles Thomson. Since then he has exhibited with the group, most notably in their landmark exhibition, The Stuckists Punk Victorian at the Walker Art Gallery during the 2004 Liverpool Biennial. He is also one of the featured artists exhibiting in the Triumph of Stuckism; an exhibition of new Stuckist paintings curated by Naive John, which comprises part of Liverpool's 2006 Biennial.

His highly finished paintings are worked on over many months, and draw mainly from the often arid and rocky landscape which surrounds his home. In his use of hot, earth colours and crisp detail, he is quintessentially an Australian artist pursuing typically Australian themes. In October 2006, Blow was a finalist in Australia's richest award for landscape painting, the Fleurieu Peninsula Biennale Art Prize.

Exhibitions
Solo Shows.
2014   Harvison Gallery, Landscape, Sea and Beyond, 195 Brisbane Street, Perth
2006	Stafford Studios, "Symbols & Metaphors", Cottesloe, Perth, W.A.
2001	Church Gallery, Claremont, Perth, W.A.
1998	Gomboc Gallery, James Street, Middle Swan, W.A.
1996	Gomboc Gallery, James Street, Middle Swan, W.A.
1993	The Geraldton Regional Gallery, 24 Chapman Road, Geraldton, W.A.
1992	Lawrence Wilson Art Gallery,"Facing the Dawn", University of Western Australia, Perth, W.A.
1989	Fremantle Arts Centre, Fremantle, W.A.
1986	Quentin Gallery, Claremont, Perth, W.A.
1984	Undercroft Gallery, University of Western Australia, Perth, W.A.
1983	Fremantle Arts Centre, Fremantle, W.A.
	Glyde Gallery, Mosman Park, Perth, W.A.
1980	Hendon Library, Hendon, London, England.
1976	Barnet Arts Centre, London, England.

Collections
The Art Gallery of Western Australia
Curtin University of Technology
City of Bunbury
Artbank
Education Department of Western Australia
Holmes a Court Collection
The University of Western Australia
Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital
City of Fremantle
City of Albany
Sheffield Hallam University
Dr John Collis
Various private collections in Australia, France, India & U.K.

Awards
1984 Bunbury City Invitation Art Purchase Award, WA.
1985 Western Australia Week Invitation Art Award, WA.
1987 Silver Anniversary Art Award, 25th Albany Art Competition, WA.
1987 Highly Commended, Royal Agricultural Society of WA Invitation Art Award, WA.
1993 Highly Commended, The City of Gosnells Art Award, WA.
2002 Cossack Art Award, Category:Painting, WA.
2006 Finalist for The Fleurieu Peninsula Biennial Art Prize for Australian Landscape Painting, South Australia.
2007 Highly Commended, Minnawarra Art Award, City of Armadale, WA.
2007 Mandorla Art Award Finalist, WA.

Books
Germaine, Max "Artists and Galleries of Australia", 1990
Rykes, Graham "A Buyers Guide to Australian Art", 1992
Thorpe, D.W. "Who's Who of Australian Visual Artists", 1995
 Ed. Frank Milner, 2004, "The Stuckists Punk Victorian" National Museums Liverpool,

See also
Stuckism
Stuckism in Australia
Regan Tamanui
The Stuckists Punk Victorian

References

External links
Harvison Gallery website
 Stuckist web site
Godfrey Blow on the Walker Gallery site
Interview with Godfrey Blow, 2005
Godfrey Blow on mungbeing.com
Godfrey Blow web site
Triumph of Stuckism symposium official site
Under The Cover of Romantic Anonymity
Fleurieu Peninsula Biennale Art Prize
Rewarding Art:works by Godfrey Blow.
Godfrey Blow interviewed by Brian Sherwin- myartspace.com

1948 births
Living people
Australian painters
Modern painters
Stuckism
People from North Kesteven District

Godfrey Blow


In rail transport, a derailment occurs when a rail vehicle such as a train comes off its rails. Although many derailments are minor, all result in temporary disruption of the proper operation of the railway system and they are a potentially serious hazard.

A derailment of a train can be caused by a collision with another object, an operational error (such as excessive speed through a curve), the mechanical failure of tracks (such as broken rails), or the mechanical failure of the wheels, among other causes. In emergency situations, deliberate derailment with derails or catch points is sometimes used to prevent a more serious accident.

History

The first recorded train derailment in history is known as the Hightstown rail accident in New Jersey that occurred on 8 November 1833. The train was traveling between Hightstown and Spotswood, New Jersey, and derailed after an axle broke on one of the carriages as a result of a journal box catching fire. The derailment resulted in one casualty and twenty-three injuries, and it was recorded that both New York railroad magnate Cornelius Vanderbilt and former U.S president John Quincy Adams were on the train as it took place, in which Adams wrote about the event in his journal.

During the 19th century derailments were commonplace, but progressively improved safety measures have resulted in a stable lower level of such incidents. A sampling of annual approximate numbers of derailments in the United States includes 3000 in 1980, 1000 in 1986, 500 in 2010, and 1000 in 2022.

Derailments in the United States

Causes

Derailments result from one or more of a number of distinct causes; these may be classified as:

 the primary mechanical failure of a track component (for example broken rails, gauge spread due to sleeper (tie) failure)
 the primary mechanical failure of a component of the running gear of a vehicle (for example axlebox failure, wheel breakage)
 a fault in the geometry of the track components or the running gear that results in a quasi-static failure in running (for example rail climbing due to excessive wear of wheels or rails, earthworks slip)
 a dynamic effect of the track-vehicle interaction (for example extreme Hunting oscillation, vertical bounce, track shift under a train, excessive speed)
 improper operation of points, or improper observance of signals protecting them (signal errors)
 as a secondary event following collision with other trains, road vehicles, or other obstructions (level crossing collisions, obstructions on the line)
 train handling (snatches due to sudden traction or braking forces, referred to as slack action in North America).

Broken rails
Broken rails are a leading cause of derailments. According to data from the Federal Railroad Administration, broken rails and welds are the most common reason for train derailments, making up more than 15 percent of derailment cases.
A traditional track structure consists of two rails, fixed at a designated distance apart (known as the track gauge), and supported on transverse sleepers (ties). Some advanced track structures support the rails on a concrete or asphalt slab. The running surface of the rails is required to be practically continuous and of the proper geometrical layout.

In the event of a broken or cracked rail, the rail running surface may be disrupted if a piece has fallen out, or become lodged in an incorrect location, or if a large gap between the remaining rail sections arises. 170 broken (not cracked) rails were reported on Network Rail in the UK in 2008, down from a peak of 988 in 1998/1999.

 In jointed track, rails are usually connected with bolted fishplates (joint bars). The web of the rail experiences large shear forces and these are enhanced around the bolt hole. Where track maintenance is poor, metallurgical fatigue can result in the propagation of star cracking from the bolthole. In extreme situations this can lead to a triangular piece of rail at the joint becoming detached.
 Metallurgical changes take place due to the phenomenon of gauge corner cracking (in which fatigue microcracking propagates faster than ordinary wear), and also due to the effects of hydrogen inclusion during the manufacturing process, leading to crack propagation under fatigue loading.
 Local embrittlement of the parent metal may take place due to wheel spin (traction units rotating driving wheels without movement along the track).
 Rail welds (where rail sections are joined by welding) may fail due to poor workmanship; this may be triggered by extremely cold weather or improper stressing of continuously welded rails, such that high tensile forces are generated in the rails.
 The fishplates (joint bars) in jointed track may fail, allowing the rails to pull apart in extremely cold weather; this is usually associated with uncorrected rail creep.

Derailment may take place due to excessive gauge widening (sometimes known as road spread), in which the sleepers or other fastenings fail to maintain the proper gauge. In lightly engineered track where rails are spiked (dogged) to timber sleepers, spike hold failure may result in rotation outwards of a rail, usually under the aggravating action of crabbing of bogies (trucks) on curves.

The mechanism of gauge widening is usually gradual and relatively slow, but if it is undetected, the final failure often takes place under the effect of some additional factor, such as excess speed, poorly maintained running gear on a vehicle, misalignment of rails, and extreme traction effects (such as high propelling forces). The crabbing effect referred to above is more marked in dry conditions, when the coefficient of friction at the wheel to rail interface is high.

Defective wheels
The running gear – wheelsets, bogies (trucks), and suspension—may fail. The most common historical failure mode is collapse of plain bearings due to deficient lubrication, and failure of leaf springs; wheel tyres are also prone to failure due to metallurgical crack propagation.

Modern technologies have reduced the incidence of these failures considerably, both by design (specially the elimination of plain bearings) and intervention (non-destructive testing in service).

Unusual track interaction
If a vertical, lateral, or crosslevel irregularity is cyclic and takes place at a wavelength corresponding to the natural frequency of certain vehicles traversing the route section, there is a risk of resonant harmonic oscillation in the vehicles, leading to extreme improper movement and possibly derailment. This is most hazardous when a cyclic roll is set up by crosslevel variations, but vertical cyclical errors also can result in vehicles lifting off the track; this is especially the case when the vehicles are in the tare (empty) condition, and if the suspension is not designed to have appropriate characteristics. The last condition applies if the suspension springing has a stiffness optimised for the loaded condition, or for a compromise loading condition, so that it is too stiff in the tare situation.

The vehicle wheelsets become momentarily unloaded vertically so that the guidance required from the flanges or wheel tread contact is inadequate.

A special case is heat related buckling: in hot weather the rail steel expands. This is managed by stressing continuously welded rails (they are tensioned mechanically to be stress neutral at a moderate temperature) and by providing proper expansion gaps at joints and ensuring that fishplates are properly lubricated. In addition, lateral restraint is provided by an adequate ballast shoulder. If any of these measures are inadequate, the track may buckle; a large lateral distortion takes place, which trains are unable to negotiate. (In nine years 2000/1 to 2008/9 there were 429 track buckle incidents in Great Britain).

Improper operation of control systems
Junctions and other changes of routing on railways are generally made by means of points (switches – movable sections capable of changing the onward route of vehicles). In the early days of railways these were moved independently by local staff. Accidents – usually collisions – took place when staff forgot which route the points were set for, or overlooked the approach of a train on a conflicting route. If the points were not correctly set for either route – set in mid-stroke – it is possible for a train passing to derail.

The first concentration of levers for signals and points brought together for operation was at Bricklayer's Arms Junction in south-east London in the period 1843–1844. The signal control location (forerunner of the signalbox) was enhanced by the provision of interlocking (preventing a clear signal being set for a route that was not available) in 1856.

To prevent the unintended movement of freight vehicles from sidings to running lines, and other analogous improper movements, trap points and derails are provided at the exit from the sidings. In some cases these are provided at the convergence of running lines. It occasionally happens that a driver incorrectly believes they have authority to proceed over the trap points, or that the signaller improperly gives such permission; this results in derailment. The resulting derailment does not always fully protect the other line: a trap point derailment at speed may well result in considerable damage and obstruction, and even a single vehicle may obstruct the clear line.

Derailment following collision
If a train collides with a massive object, it is clear that derailment of the proper running of vehicle wheels on the track may take place. Although very large obstructions are imagined, it has been known for a cow straying on to the line to derail a passenger train at speed such as occurred in the Polmont rail accident.

The most common obstructions encountered are road vehicles at level crossings (grade crossings); malicious persons sometimes place materials on the rails, and in some cases relatively small objects cause a derailment by guiding one wheel over the rail (rather than by gross collision).

Derailment has also been brought about in situations of war or other conflict, such as during hostility by Native Americans, and more especially during periods when military personnel and materiel was being moved by rail.

Harsh train handling
The handling of a train can also cause derailments. The vehicles of a train are connected by couplings; in the early days of railways these were short lengths of chain ("loose couplings") that connected adjacent vehicles with considerable slack. Even with later improvements there may be a considerable slack between the traction situation (power unit pulling the couplings tight), and power unit braking (locomotive applying brakes and compressing buffers throughout the train). This results in coupling surge.

More sophisticated technologies in use nowadays generally employ couplings that have no loose slack, although there is elastic movement at the couplings; continuous braking is provided, so that every vehicle on the train has brakes controlled by the driver. Generally this uses compressed air as a control medium, and there is a measurable time lag as the signal (to apply or release brakes) propagates along the train.

If a train driver applies the train brakes suddenly and severely, the front part of the train is subject to braking forces first. (Where only the locomotive has braking, this effect is obviously more extreme). The rear part of the train may overrun the front part, and in cases where coupling condition is imperfect, the resultant sudden closing up (an effect referred to as a "run-in") may result in a vehicle in tare condition (an empty freight vehicle) being lifted momentarily, and leaving the track. This effect was relatively common in the nineteenth century.

On curved sections, the longitudinal (traction or braking) forces between vehicles have a component inward or outward respectively on the curve. In extreme situations these lateral forces may be enough to produce derailment.

A special case of train handling problems is overspeed on sharp curves. This generally arises when a driver fails to slow the train for a sharp curved section in a route that otherwise has higher speed conditions. In the extreme this results in the train entering a curve at a speed at which it cannot negotiate the curve, and gross derailment takes place. The specific mechanism of this may involve bodily tipping (rotation) but is likely to involve disruption of the track structure and derailment as the primary failure event, followed by overturning.

Fatal instances include the Santiago de Compostela derailment in 2013 and the Philadelphia train derailment two years later of trains traveling about . Both went at about twice the maximum allowable speed for the curved section of track.

Flange climbing
The guidance system of practical railway vehicles relies on the steering effect of the conicity of the wheel treads on moderate curves (down to a radius of about 500 m, or about 1,500 feet). On sharper curves flange contact takes place, and the guiding effect of the flange relies on a vertical force (the vehicle weight).

A flange climbing derailment can result if the relationship between these forces, L/V, is excessive. The lateral force L results not only from centrifugal effects, but a large component is from the crabbing of a wheelset which has a non-zero angle of attack during running with flange contact. The L/V excess can result from wheel unloading, or from improper rail or wheel tread profiles. The physics of this is more fully described below, in the section wheel-rail interaction.

Wheel unloading can be caused by twist in the track. This can arise if the cant (crosslevel, or superelevation) of the track varies considerably over the wheelbase of a vehicle, and the vehicle suspension is very stiff in torsion. In the quasi-static situation it may arise in extreme cases of poor load distribution, or on extreme cant at low speed.

If a rail has been subject to extreme sidewear, or a wheel flange has been worn to an improper angle, it is possible for the L/V ratio to exceed the value that the flange angle can resist.

If weld repair of side-worn switches is undertaken, it is possible for poor workmanship to produce a ramp in the profile in the facing direction, that deflects an approaching wheel flange on to the rail head.

In extreme situations, the infrastructure may be grossly distorted or even absent; this may arise from a variety of causes, including earthwork movement (embankment slips and washouts), earthquakes and other major terrestrial disruptions, or deficient protection during work processes, among others.

Wheel-rail interaction

Nearly all practical railway systems use wheels fixed to a common axle: the wheels on both sides rotate in unison. Tramcars requiring low floor levels are the exception, but much benefit in vehicle guidance is lost by having unlinked wheels.

The benefit of linked wheels derives from the conicity of the wheel treads—the wheel treads are not cylindrical, but conical. On idealised straight track, a wheelset would run centrally, midway between the rails.

The example shown here uses a right-curving section of track. The focus is on the left-side wheel, which is more involved with the forces critical to guiding the railcar through the curve.

Diagram 1 below shows the wheel and rail with the wheelset running straight and central on the track. The wheelset is running away from the observer. (Note that the rail is shown inclined inwards; this is done on modern track to match the rail head profile to the wheel tread profile.)

Diagram 2 shows the wheelset displaced to the left, due to curvature of the track or a geometrical irregularity. The left wheel (shown here) is now running on a slightly larger diameter; the right wheel opposite has moved to the left as well, towards the centre of the track, and is running on a slightly smaller diameter. As the two wheels rotate at the same rate, the forward speed of the left wheel is a little faster than the forward speed of the right wheel. This causes the wheelset to curve to the right, correcting the displacement. This takes place without flange contact; the wheelsets steer themselves on moderate curves without any flange contact.

The sharper the curve, the greater the lateral displacement necessary to achieve the curving. On a very sharp curve (typically less than about 500 m or 1,500 feet radius) the width of the wheel tread is not enough to achieve the necessary steering effect, and the wheel flange contacts the face of the high rail.

Diagram 3 shows the running of wheelsets in a bogie or a four-wheeled vehicle. The wheelset is not running parallel to the track: it is constrained by the bogie frame and suspension, and it is yawing to the outside of the curve; that is, its natural rolling direction would lead along a less sharply curved path than the actual curve of the track.

The angle between the natural path and the actual path is called the angle of attack (or the yaw angle). As the wheelset rolls forward, it is forced to slide across the railhead by the flange contact. The whole wheelset is forced to do this, so the wheel on the low rail is also forced to slide across its rail.

This sliding requires a considerable force to make it happen, and the friction force resisting the sliding is designated "L", the lateral force. The wheelset applies a force L outwards to the rails, and the rails apply a force L inwards to the wheels. Note that this is quite independent of "centrifugal force". However at higher speeds the centrifugal force is added to the friction force to make L.

The load (vertical force) on the outer wheel is designated V, so that in Diagram 4 the two forces L and V are shown.

The steel-to-steel contact has a coefficient of friction that may be as high as 0.5 in dry conditions, so that the lateral force may be up to 0.5 of the vertical wheel load.

During this flange contact, the wheel on the high rail is experiencing the lateral force L, towards the outside of the curve. As the wheel rotates, the flange tends to climb up the flange angle. It is held down by the vertical load on the wheel V, so that if L/V exceeds the trigonometrical tangent of the flange contact angle, climbing will take place. The wheel flange will climb to the rail head where there is no lateral resistance in rolling movement, and a flange climbing derailment usually takes place. In Diagram 5 the flange contact angle is quite steep, and flange climbing is unlikely. However, if the rail head is side-worn (side-cut) or the flange is worn, as shown in Diagram 6 the contact angle is much flatter and flange climbing is more likely.

Once the wheel flange has completely climbed onto the rail head, there is no lateral restraint, and the wheelset is likely to follow the yaw angle, resulting in the wheel dropping outside the rail. An L/V ratio greater than 0.6 is considered to be hazardous.

It is emphasised that this is a much simplified description of the physics; complicating factors are creep, actual wheel and rail profiles, dynamic effects, stiffness of longitudinal restraint at axleboxes, and the lateral component of longitudinal (traction and braking) forces.

Rerailing

Following a derailment, it is naturally necessary to replace the vehicle on the track. If there is no significant track damage, that may be all that is needed. However, when trains in normal running derail at speed, a considerable length of track may be damaged or destroyed; far worse secondary damage may be caused if a bridge is encountered.

With simple wagon derailments where the final position is close to the proper track location, it is usually possible to pull the derailed wheelsets back on to the track using rerailing ramps; these are metal blocks designed to fit over the rails and to provide a rising path back to the track. A locomotive is usually used to pull the wagon. A huge disadvantage of doing it this way is that the ramps can seriously damage the infrastructure because of which this procedure may not be used in several countries.

If the derailed vehicle is further from the track, or its configuration (such as a high centre of gravity or a very short wheelbase) make the use of ramps impossible, jacks may be used. In its crudest form, the process involves lifting the vehicle frame and then allowing it to fall off the jack towards the track. This may need to be repeated.

A more sophisticated process involves a controlled process using slewing jacks in addition.
This combination of lifting and sliding is called a hydraulic rerailing system. A system consisting of high pressure hydraulic lifting jacks (used for lifting the train) so a sliding system can be positioned underneath the vehicle. The sliding system consist of a beam (also called a bridge) with sleds or carriages which are moved laterally with a horizontally positioned high pressure hydraulic jack to push the vehicle back above track. After which it is lowered again on the track.

Photographs of early locomotives often indicate one or more jacks carried on the frame of the locomotive for the purpose, presumed to be a frequent occurrence.

When more complex rerailing work is needed, various combinations of cable and pulley systems may be used, or the use of one or more rail-borne cranes to lift a locomotive bodily. In special cases road cranes are used, as these have greater lifting and reach capacity, if road access to the site is feasible.

In extreme circumstances, a derailed vehicle in an awkward location may be scrapped and cut up on site, or simply abandoned as non-salvageable.

Examples
Note: there is a large list of railway accidents in general at Lists of rail accidents.

Primary mechanical failure of a track component
In the Hatfield rail crash in England in 2000, which killed four people, rolling contact fatigue had resulted in multiple gauge corner cracking in the surface; 300 such cracks were subsequently found at the site. The rail cracked under a high speed passenger train, which derailed.

In the earlier Hither Green rail crash, a triangular segment of rail at a joint became displaced, and lodged in the joint; it derailed a passenger train and 49 persons died. Poor maintenance on an intensively operated section of route was the cause.

Primary mechanical failure of a component of the running gear of a vehicle
In the Eschede train disaster in Germany, a high speed passenger train derailed in 1998, killing 101 people. The primary cause was the fracture from metal fatigue of a wheel tyre; the train failed to negotiate two sets of points and struck the pier of an overbridge. It was the most serious railway accident in Germany, and also the most serious on any high speed (over ) line. Ultrasonic testing had failed to reveal the incipient fracture.

Dynamic effects of vehicle–track interaction
In 1967 in the UK there were four derailments due to buckling of continuously welded track ("CWR"): at Lichfield on 10 June, an empty carflat train (a train of flat cars for transporting automobiles); on 13 June an express passenger train was derailed at Somerton; on 15 July a freightliner train (container train) was derailed at Lamington; and on 23 July an express passenger train was derailed at Sandy. The official report was not entirely conclusive as to the causes, but it observed that the annual total of buckling distortions was 48 in 1969, having been in single figures in every previous year, and that [heat-related] distortions per 1,000 miles per annum were 10.42 for CWR and 2.98 for jointed track in 1969, having been a maximum of 1.78 and 1.21 in the previous ten years. 90% of the distortions could be attributed to one of the following:
 failure to comply with the instructions for laying or maintaining CWR track
 recent interference with the consolidation of the ballast
 the effect of discontinuities in the CWR track such as points etc.
 extraneous factors such as formation subsidence.

Improper operation of control systems

In the Connington South rail crash on 5 March 1967 in England, a signaller moved the points immediately in front of an approaching train. Mechanical signalling was in force at the location, and it was believed that he improperly replaced the signal protecting the points to danger just as the locomotive passed it. This released the locking on the points and he moved them to lead to a loop line with a low speed restriction. The train, travelling at , was unable to negotiate the points in that position and five people died.

Secondary events following collision
A passenger train was derailed in the Polmont rail accident in the UK in 1984 upon hitting a cow at speed; the train formation had the locomotive at the rear (propelling) with a light driving-trailer vehicle leading. The cow had strayed on to the line from adjacent agricultural land, due to deficient fencing. 13 persons died in the resulting derailment. However this was thought to be the first occurrence from this cause (in the UK) since 1948.

Train handling effects
The Salisbury rail crash took place on 1 July 1906; a first class only special boat train from Stonehousepool, Plymouth England, ran through Salisbury station at about ; there was a sharp curve of ten chains (660 feet, 200 m) radius and a speed restriction to . The locomotive overturned bodily and struck the vehicles of a milk train on the adjacent line. 28 people were killed. The driver was sober and normally reliable, but had not driven a non-stopping train through Salisbury before.

There have been several other derailments in the UK due to trains entering speed-restricted sections of track at excessive speed; the causes have generally been inattention by the driver due to alcohol, fatigue or other causes. Prominent cases were the Nuneaton rail crash in 1975 (temporary speed restriction in force due to trackwork, warning sign illumination failed), the Morpeth accident in 1984 (express passenger sleeping car train took  restricted sharp curve at full speed; alcohol a factor; no fatalities due to the improved crashworthiness of the vehicles)

See also

 Guard rails
 Lists of rail accidents
 Rail sabotage
 Train wreck
 Tram accident

Notes

References

Further reading

Rail technologies
Railway accidents and incidents

Derailment


The National Imagery Transmission Format Standard (NITFS) is a U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and Federal Intelligence Community (IC) suite of standards for the exchange, storage, and transmission of digital-imagery products and image-related products.

DoD policy is that other image formats can be used internally within a single system; however, NITFS is the default format for interchange between systems. NITFS provides a package containing information about the image, the image itself, and optional overlay graphics. (i.e. a "package" containing an image(s), subimages, symbols, labels, and text as well as other information related to the image(s)) NITFS supports the dissemination of secondary digital imagery from overhead collection platforms.

Guidance on applying the suite of standards composing NITFS can be found in MIL-HDBK-1300A, National Imagery Transmission Format Standard (NITFS), 12 October 1994. The NITFS allows for Support Data Extensions (SDEs), which are a collection of data fields that provide space within the NITFS file structure for adding functionality. Documented and controlled separately from the NITFS suite of standards, SDEs extend NITF functionality with minimal impact on the underlying standard document. SDEs may be incorporated into an NITF file while maintaining backward compatibility because the identifier and byte count mechanisms allow applications developed prior to the addition of newly defined data to skip over extension fields they are not designed to interpret. These SDEs are described in the Compendium of Controlled Extensions (CE). This standard is mandated in the DoD for imagery product dissemination.

NITF has been implemented and fielded since the early 1990s. Its content evolved over the years to embrace new technology in support of emerging operational requirements. NITF has adopted the ISO/IEC 15444-1 standard for imagery compression, JPEG 2000. Commercial implementations of the standard are largely driven by marketability to the DoD and IC.

A follow-on update to the standard, Mil-Std-2500C, has been released. Following this update to 2500B, future documentation will be done using ISO/IEC documents and processes based on ISO/IEC 12087-5, Basic Image Interchange Format, in lieu of military standards.

The following documents define the standard:
 MIL-STD-2500C(1) — National Imagery Transmission Format (Version 2.1) for the National Imagery Transmission Format Standard, 1 May 2006, Superseding MIL-STD-2500B/CN2
 MIL-STD-2500B(2) — National Imagery Transmission Format (Version 2.1) for the National Imagery Transmission Format Standard, 22 August 1997 with Notice 1, 2 October 1998, and Notice 2, 1 March 2001.
 NITF Extensions 2.1 — The Compendium of Controlled Extensions (CE) for the National Imagery Transmission Format (NITF), Version 2.1, 16 November 2000.
 MIL-STD-188-199(1)— Vector Quantization Decompression for the National Imagery Transmission Format Standard, 27 June 1994 with Notice 1, 27 June 1996.

Do not confuse this with the British National Transfer Format.

References

External links
 NITFS Technical Board Public Page
 Reference Library for NITFS Users
 NITRO

United States Department of Defense information technology
Raster graphics file formats
Graphics standards

National Imagery Transmission Format


Georg Cantor (3 March 1845 - 6 January 1918) was an important German mathematician.  He founded set theory and worked on transfinite numbers.

Life
Cantor was born in St Petersburg, Russia. His father had a Jewish-Danish, his mother an Austrian background. His father was a Protestant. He was a rich merchant. His mother was a Roman Catholic. She was very artistic. When his father became ill in 1856 the family moved to Frankfurt. Georg went to private schools and then to gymnasien in Darmstadt and Wiesbaden.  He soon showed that he was brilliant at maths.  His father wanted him to be an engineer but Georg persuaded him to let him study mathematics.  He spent a short time studying at the University of Zürich, but soon went to Berlin where he studied physics, philosophy and mathematics.  He was very influenced by the teaching of Weierstrass, Kummer and Kronecker, who were later to become his enemies.  He wrote a doctoral thesis in which he said that asking questions was more important than finding the answers.  He was talking about a problem that Carl Friedrich Gauss had left unanswered.

Cantor taught for a time at a girls' school in Berlin,  then he became a lecturer in Halle where he remained for the rest of his life.  He became full professor there in 1879.  Cantor worked on the theory of numbers, continuum hypothesis and then on trigonometric series, starting with ideas that had been developed by Bernhard Riemann on complex variables.  He sent a paper on algebraic numbers to be published in Crelle's Journal, but Kronecker was against it.  However, Dedekind supported Cantor, and eventually the article was published.  This article showed that Cantor was a great mathematician.

When his father died in 1863 he had enough money to build a house for his wife and five children.

Cantor thought that infinite numbers really existed, and used ideas from ancient and medieval philosophy to prove his point.  Kronecker disagreed with him.  He thought that only integers existed.  Kronecker said that "God made integers and all the rest is the work of man".  Kronecker stopped Cantor from being offered a professorship in Berlin, a position he ought to have had since he was one of the greatest mathematicians in the world.  Cantor stayed at Halle and continued to work into his old age, although he often suffered from fits of depression.  He often lost his temper, but he was also a very kind man.  He always gave encouragement to young mathematicians with new ideas.  He did not want them to suffer like he had because of older mathematicians who felt threatened by new ideas.  A lot of Cantor's work led eventually to what is called "new mathematics" in schools today.

Cantor died in a mental hospital in Halle on 6 January 1918.

References

Related pages
Cantor set
Cantor's diagonal argument
Cantor's theorem

1845 births
1918 deaths
German academics
German mathematicians
Scientists from Saint Petersburg
Set theorists

Georg Cantor