Prince Nguyễn Phúc Bửu Hội (c. 1915 – 28 January 1972) was a Vietnamese diplomat, scientist and cancer researcher.

Family
Born circa 1915, Bửu Hội was a native of the former imperial capital of Huế. He was a great-great-grandson of Emperor Minh Mạng, who ruled Vietnam from 1820 until his death in 1841. Mạng had been a staunch Confucianist, known for his conservative philosophy, in which he shunned the western world and technological and scientific innovations. He resisted Catholic and Buddhist missionaries in Vietnam and was known for his hostility toward them, as he believed they were undermining the Emperor's Mandate of Heaven.

Mạng's father was Emperor Gia Long, who had united Vietnam under its current state. Gia Long had reunited the nation under the newly formed Nguyễn Dynasty with the help of French volunteers recruited by the Jesuit missionary Pigneau de Behaine after more than 200 years of north–south division and multiple wars between the Nguyễn lords in the south and the Trịnh lords in the north.

Bửu Hội was a Confucianist, instilled with a sense of duty to family and service to the nation. In contrast to his ancestors, Bửu Hội was also a secular-minded Buddhist, and his mother later became a Buddhist nun under the dharma name Thích Diệu Huế. His father Ưng Úy headed the Privy Council of the Imperial Family. Ưng Úy was the Minister of Rites at Bảo Đại's court until 9 May 1945. During First Indochina War, Ưng Úy joined Vietminh's government and showed support to Ho Chi Minh during war against French.

Education
Bửu Hội completed his secondary schooling at the Lycée Albert Sarraut, a prestigious French-established school for the upper-class in Hanoi, the colonial capital of Vietnam. He then studied for a degree in pharmacy at the University of Hanoi while simultaneously auditing courses from the Faculty of Medicine. He had developed an interest in science from his youth, noting that this was "because of the desire of his mother and partly because of his own belief in the human value of science".

Hội left Vietnam in 1935 to study in Paris and was never to return as a resident. There, he befriended Ngô Đình Nhu, the younger brother of Ngô Đình Diệm while in France. Nhu was a staunch advocate of personalism and later became known for his efforts in running the clandestine Cần Lao party, which supplied Diệm's power base and acted as a security apparatus to crush dissent in South Vietnam. This formed a bond between the two men which saw Bửu Hội later serve in the diplomatic corps and as a scientific advisor to Diệm.

Scientific work
At the Sorbonne, he followed the regular curriculum towards his doctorate. He completed a "Licence ès Sciences" degree while serving as an Intern of Pharmacy at Paris hospitals. After a short stint under Jean Perrin in the Institute of Chemical Physics, he began his doctoral research in organic chemistry. He worked in the laboratory of Pauline Ramart, investigating the spectrophotometry of organic compounds.

During World War II
Bửu Hội's career was briefly interrupted by the outbreak of World War II. He volunteered in the French Army and served until Paris fell to Nazi Germany in May 1940. He found himself in Toulouse in the southern zone under the fascist Vichy France government. With the help of the physicist Paul Langevin whom he had met at Perrin's party, he was able to re-enter the Nazi-occupied northern France and return to Paris. He joined the research staff of the National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS) in 1941, and upon the Liberation of France in 1944 was appointed Maitre de Conferences at the École Polytechnique by the Provisional Government of Charles de Gaulle.

At around the same period in 1944, Bửu Hội met , the Director of Biological Research at the Radium Institute. At the time Lacassagne was establishing an interdisciplinary team for exploring the possibilities and uses of a hypothesis by Otto Schmidt, which became known as the electronic theory of hydrocarbon carcinogenesis. One of the effects of the Nazi occupation was that the foreign scientific literature brought into France was almost entirely German. As a result, this exposed Lacassagne to what to be the scientific foundation of his highly fruitful collaboration with Bửu Hội.

At the time, the electronic theory of molecular structure was in its formative years and was not considered as a vehicle by biologists for explaining phenomena, however Lacassagne saw promise in the prospect of Schmidt's hypothesis in attempting to explain carcinogenesis by a combination of elements of electron quantum theory, geometry and chemical structure.

Hội and his team relocated from the Radium Institute to larger facilities at the Institute of Chemistry of Natural Substances in 1960. The new quarters was part of the National Centrer of Scientific Research laboratory group at Gif-sur-Yvette near Paris. In 1962 he was promoted to Director of Research. Around 1967, he established further research groups under his guidance; one at Orléans at the Marcel Delepine Center and a second at the Lannelogue Institute at Vanves.

Scientific discoveries
His research spread beyond chemical carcinogenesis. He also published widely in organic chemistry, pharmacology, therapeutics, epidemiology and biochemistry. He started his research career with investigations on chaulmoogric and hypocarpic acids in his Polytechnique laboratory. At the time, these were the only products used for treating leprosy. Within a few years, he had established himself as an international authority in the chemotherapy of the disease. He delineated the role of the cyclopentene ring and its double bond and of the chain length in determining the toxicity and leprostatic activity of these compounds. Although from the time of his 1944 meeting with Lacassagne onwards he was preoccupied with the study of chemical carcinogenesis, he continued to devote substantial effort to the chemotherapy of leprosy and the associated chemotherapy of tuberculosis.

Chemical carcinogenesis
The overwhelming amount of Bửu Hội's contributions are in the field of chemical carcinogenesis and the synthesis of related organic chemical compounds. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, he had extensive collaborations with the quantum chemistry personnel of the Radium Institute on various aspects of the electronic theory of carcinogenesis. Bửu Hội was the first to propose the involvement of noncovalent forces. Together with Lacassagne and Rudali, in the 1940s he became the first to describe the phenomena of synergisma and antagonism between carcinogens. He demonstrated this by using hydrocarbons on the skin of mice and later extended this to hepatic and other carcinogens. Starting in 1947, he collaborated with François Zajdela and Lacassagne in exploring the relationships between the structure and carcinogenic activity of polynuclear compounds. The study spanned a groundbreaking scale and depth.

These involved the fundamental ring systems and derivatives of 1,2-benzanthracene, the dibenzopyrenes, steranthrenes, anthanthrene, 1,2,3,4-dibenzanthracene, a variety of benzo and dibenzofluoranthenes. This was extended to large-molecular-size and "hypercondensed" hydrocarbons, ring opening and partial hydrogenation. During his study of dibenzopyrenes, he discovered a molecular arrangement involving the framework of aromatic hydrocarbons. His studies of the carcinogenic azulenophenalenes led him to question the role of aromaticity. Aside from his studies with aza-replaced hydrocarbons, benz- and dibenzacridines and –carbazoles, he also synthesised and tested a number of new structural types of heteroaromatics with reference to the nature, number and position of the heteroatoms. These included the naphtho and benzo derivatives of pyridocarbazole and beta-carboline, heteroaromatics with sulfur, arsenic or selenium replacements. These were either alone or in association with nitrogen, as well as sulfur and nitrogen containing pseudoazulenes. A series of hydrocarbon-like polynuclear lactones were explored with the intent of establishing a connection between polynuclear aromatics and aflatoxins. Such studies of heteroatomic polynuclears led him to propose a "newer picture" of a carcinogenic hydrocarbon, helping the generalise the classical K-region hypothesis.

He contributed to studies on the carcinogenicity of 4-nitroquinoline-N-oxide derivatives, the production of plant tumors by a nitrosamine. He also studied metabolism and protein binding of polynuclears and the effect of the binding o DNA replication and transcription, testing the effect of various carcinogens on the hatching of shrimp eggs. From the mid-1960s onwards, Bửu Hội increasingly turned his focus to the structural facets of polynuclears which determine their ability to induce microsomal enzyme synthesis, in particular involving zoxazolamine and dicoumarol hydroxylation. Aside from his study of fundamental organic chemistry, chemical carcinogenesis and chemotherapy of leprosy and tuberculosis, Bửu Hội's team also conducted research into a wide range of issues of biological and therapeutic interest. These included the synthesis and testing anti-inflammatory non-steroid compounds, substituted sex hormones, anti-coagulant substances and their potentiation, antidiabetic agents, treatment of hypertension by methyl-DOPA, antioxidants and the chemophylaxy of aging and the toxicity of dioxine among others.

Professional appointments
In 1947, Hồ Chí Minh named him as the Rector of the University of Hanoi. He later served as science advisor to Diệm and was appointed in 1960 as the Director of the Atomic Energy Establishment of Vietnam. In this capacity, he was a key figure in the establishment of an Atomic Energy Research Center.

Political pursuits

Mid 1940s to Early 1960s

While in Paris, Bửu Hội had not limited his activities to scientific research. He had worked with Hồ Chí Minh's Vietminh to form the Democratic Republic of Vietnam which sought to establish independence from its formation in September 1945. His international reputation, generated by his scientific achievements, lent prestige to the Hồ Chí Minh government. Hội later broke off ties in 1950 when the Communists imposed a dictatorship on the resistance movement.[12]

In the early 1950s, Bửu Hội traveled to the United States. After the disruption of the Second World War, the president of the American Chemical Society had asked a colleague to resume contact with French chemistry circles by selecting three men regarded to be the outstanding chemists in France. Hội was one of the three selected by the ACS. At the time he was director of research in organic chemistry at the Radium Institute in Paris. Hội accepted the invitation of the ACS to deliver a series of lectures in the United States, where, in 1951, he traveled to the Maryknoll Seminaries in Lakewood, New Jersey to offer his support to Diệm in his quest to form an independent Vietnamese government.[13]

In early 1953, he traveled as a private citizen to the office of the Vietminh in Rangoon, the capital of Burma. Despite leaving the Vietminh three years earlier, his nationalist credentials allowed him to secure an audience. At the time he was the elected president of an association of some 25,000 Vietnamese workers and soldiers stranded in France after the Second World War. He had also been a delegated to the conference at Fontainebleau, the collapse of which had helped to spark the First Indochina War in 1946. Bửu Hội was accompanied by Jacques Raphael-Leygues, a radical socialist politician.

Before departing Paris, Hội had been authorised by French President Vincent Auriol to propose the opening of direct negotiations with France. He left a letter in Rangoon to be delivered to Vietminh leaders, prophetically predicting that this would be the last opportunity for them to deal with France directly without third part interference. He predicted that the United States would eventually intervene with force unprecedented in Vietnam if the situation was not resolved. Neither the French nor the Vietminh made further efforts to pursue negotiations. Years later, French officials blamed domestic political feuds and the lack of support from some sections of their government. The Vietminh blamed logistical difficulties for their late, minimal reply. After the French were defeated at Điện Biên Phủ in early 1954, Vietnam was partitioned at the Geneva Conference.[18]
In August 1954, Bửu Hội returned to South Vietnam for a visit. Diem had been named Prime Minister of what was then the French backed State of Vietnam. Vietnam was supposed to be reunified after national elections in 1956 following a temporary partition and transitional phase. Diệm was in trouble as the generals of the Vietnamese National Army disobeyed him and the national police were controlled by the Bình Xuyên, an armed criminal syndicate. Parts of the Mekong Delta were controlled by the private armies of the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects.[14]

Hội went to meet Phạm Công Tắc, the pope of the Cao Đài, and his entourage in their stronghold of Tây Ninh west of Saigon near the border with Cambodia. He went to a secret meeting with the Cao Đài general Trình Minh Thế at his base on Núi Bà Đen. Hội went on to meet with the Hòa Hảo in the Delta city of Cần Thơ and also met with Bình Xuyên leaders in Cholon. He further met with labor groups, army officers and representatives of the educated class. Later when the Saigon press was censored and partly shut down, he outlined his vision for Vietnam in the Paris magazine L'Express.[15]

Neutralism

Bửu Hội advocated a new "government of national solidarity" in Saigon that incorporated the religious sects. This contrasted to Diệm, who wanted to have unchallenged power with the sects in a subservient position. He felt that this would foster reconciliation between non-Communist nationalists in the south. Bửu Hội opposed a military buildup in the south, reasoning that the best defense against insurrection came from fostering popular participation in the administrative and economic institutions of the state. He favoured neutralism in South Vietnam's foreign affairs while remaining on positive terms with France and the United States. He argued that the colonial era and Vietnam's natural place in Asia was to join other nations such as India in a policy of non-alignment. He hoped that both North and South Vietnam could be admitted to the United Nations.

Diệm rejected these moderate policies, believing that a militantly anti-Communist stance was the solution for South Vietnam. This coincided with a fact finding mission by Democratic Party U.S. Senator Mike Mansfield, a Roman Catholic and strong Diệm supporter, who advocated a suspension of U.S. aid if Diệm were removed. L'Express, the newspaper in Paris which printed his ideas, was considered to be friendly with French Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France. As a result, the US State Department interpreted it as a French manoeuvre to replace Diệm with Hội. Strongly disapproving of Hội's foreign policies, the State Department warned Mendes-France that U.S. policy would change if Hội became Prime Minister.[16]

In 1958, Bửu Hội resumed work for Diệm on the international front. He was charged with attending to the Indian, Canadian and Polish diplomats from the International Control Commission that were charged with monitoring the Geneva Accords which partitioned Vietnam in 1954. He was also assigned the job of securing diplomatic links and greater recognition of the Republic of Vietnam on the international arena. He was named as South Vietnam's ambassador to various countries and several bodies of the United Nations. In addition, he was named as the director of the Vietnam Atomic Energy Center that was constructed near the central highlands resort town of Đà Lạt. It was to be South Vietnam's first nuclear reactor.[17]

The Buddhist crisis

The Buddhist crisis erupted in August 1963 after the shooting by authorities of nine Buddhists in Huế who were protesting a government ban on the flying of the Buddhist flag on Vesak, the birthday of Gautama Buddha. As civil disobedience and demands for religious equality by the Buddhist majority against Diệm's Catholic government grew, Diệm's forces repeatedly attacked Buddhists. In June, Bửu Hội wrote to Nhu to urge Diệm to further dialogue with the Buddhists and create a Ministry of Religious Affairs.

As Diệm remained intransigent on demands for religious equality and bringing those responsible for the Huế shootings to justice, his forces used chemicals on Buddhist protestors in Huế. The turning point was the self-immolation of Thích Quảng Đức on 11 June at a busy Saigon intersection. As the impasse continued, Hội's mother, who had been a Buddhist nun for many years, traveled from Huế to Saigon. The Buddhist leaders had announced that the mother of South Vietnam's most distinguished scientist and diplomat and member of the royal family, intended to burn herself to death to highlight oppression against Buddhists. The tension grew, and eventually in July, she made an appearance at a press conference at Saigon's Xá Lợi Pagoda, to repeat the threat. Outside, Nhu's men had organised a "spontaneous" demonstration where government supporters had been bussed in.

Concerned for his mother and the deteriorating situation in Vietnam, Hội returned home in attempt to mediate between the Buddhists and Diệm. Rumours began to circulate stating that the Americans wanted Hội inserted in a newly created post of Prime Minister, in order that the Ngô family's power would be diluted. He spent many hours talking with the Buddhist leader Thích Trí Quang at Xá Lợi to ensure that his mother would not actually self-immolate. The negotiations were fruitless and were futile. Shortly after midnight, the Special Forces of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam loyal to Nhu raided pagodas across the country, vandalising, looting and in some cases detonating them, arresting around 1400 monks and nuns. Up to 400 civilians disappeared or were killed trying to repel the invaders from the temples. Bửu Hội went to Gia Long Palace at the end of August to take leave and return to his laboratory. At the time, the United Nations had been strongly condemning the actions of Diệm's regime. When Nhu told him  (in French: "You have left me in the shit"), Hội agreed to defend Saigon at the UN in New York on the condition that a fact-finding mission would be allowed to enter the country and freely see the truth for themselves.

United States

Bửu Hội arrived in New York in the middle of September 1963. The American public had a highly unfavourable view of South Vietnam, due to the self-immolations and pagoda attacks. U Thant, the Buddhist Burmese who was the Secretary General of the United Nations sharply criticised the Vietnamese government, saying that there was no country so chaotic and deteriorating. The campaign against the Diệm regime was overtly led by Ceylon, but Saigon felt that Cambodia had been stirring up animosity among the Asian countries, having already broken off diplomatic relations after the raids. The UN session started on 17 September and Hội met with the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, Charles Yost, two days later. Bửu Hội contended that the Buddhist movement had transformed into a political movement to overthrow Diệm and claiming that media reports transmitted to America were inaccurate. Yost asserted that irrespective of what was happening, the situation was intolerable and that Diệm had to address it. Bửu Hội thought that implementing the five point plan Diệm signed in June but never intended to implement was the key. Bửu Hội acknowledged that anti-Buddhist discrimination in Vietnam was real. Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., the U.S. Ambassador in Saigon, described Hội's proposed solution as "oversimplified".

Bửu Hội outlined a plan to the United States' representatives to the United Nations to avoid a full-scale debate on South Vietnam in the General Assembly. He revealed that South Vietnam would reject a formal inquiry mission as interference in domestic affairs, but would try to seize the initiative to invite a fact finding mission. He reasoned that such a delegation would spark a rapprochement in Vietnam and would delay debate and condemnation by the Assembly until the mission had tabled its report. Privately he asked the Americans to tell Thích Trí Quang that he would not do anything to harm the Buddhist's cause.

Bửu Hội also visited the U.S. Department of State in Washington where he was given a mixed reception. Harlan Cleveland, the assistance secretary for international organization affairs thought that his "sophisticated" plan and his stature as an intellectual and diplomat would boost his cause. Undersecretary Averell Harriman and Assistant Secretary Roger Hilsman, well-known Diệm critics, were less enthusiastic. Bửu Hội's attempt to break the deadlock in relations since the pagoda raids failed to convince Harriman, who removed his hearing aid when Bửu Hội suggested the pro-Diệm former U.S. ambassador Frederick Nolting still had a positive role to play. When Hilsman criticised the treatment of the Buddhists, Hội asserted that the movement had become political and that the Buddhists had forced Diệm into a fight for survival. Hội parried U.S. calls for Diệm to remove Nhu, regarded as the corrosive influence in South Vietnam, from power. He asserted that Nhu was a great talent but noted that a Prime Minister should be appointed.

At the UN, the Ceylon delegate had begun to push for a resolution expressing serious concern about "the continuing violation of human rights in Vietnam". Since South Vietnam was not a member and had no right of reply, Bửu Hội and his team lobbied African and Asian countries behind the scene. Hội was also the South Vietnamese ambassador to six African nations. The result was that a polemical address by Ceylon on 7 October did not garner any support. A Soviet Union threat to use the International Control Commission to investigate the South's domestic affairs never materialized, either. The General Assembly voted unanimously to cut short the debate and accept the invitation to send a fact finding mission. Hội had managed to avert censure of his country and an unwanted debate on the role of the U.S. there. Lodge expressed disappointment at why the U.S. delegation helped to avoid a debate that would have condemned Diệm. Despite Hội's assurances that the mission would be free to move around the country and was not a stalling device, Lodge was adamant that Diệm would never allow them to see anything unfavourable.

Atomic Energy Center in Da Lat

On 28 October, Hội opened the Atomic Energy Center in Đà Lạt in his role as the director general of the Office of Atomic Energy. Diệm said of Hội's work, "In the non-aligned world, we have more friends now, thanks to the diplomatic bases laid by Professor Bửu Hội in Africa." On 31 October, he performed his last public duty in South Vietnam. Hội visited Nhu along with two Buddhist monks and ask him to intervene with Diệm to free "all Buddhist dignitaries, laymen and students till under detention". Nhu "promised to obtain from the president a favourable answer to this request". Diệm and Nhu were assassinated two days later after being deposed in a coup. Hội left Vietnam after the coup to resume his scientific research. He only returned on the occasion of the funeral of his mother.

Awards
Bửu Hội was a multiple laureate of the French Academy of Sciences, the French Academy of Medicine and the French Ministry of Education. His work in cancer research specifically yielded awards from the French Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale and the French league against cancer. Despite working for almost his entire academic career in France, he also received awards from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and received funding from the US National Cancer Institute.

Death
Hội died of a heart attack on 8 January 1972, his native country still divided and ravaged by civil war. It was only a few weeks after the passing of his research colleague Antoine Lacassagne, ending a prolific partnership described by Cancer Research as a "heroic and important chapter of the study of carcinogenesis". It went on to say that "his death robbed French science of one of its most illustrious figures". He had totaled almost 1100 scientific publications. His body was laid in state for five days in a sanctuary at Rue Gassendi in Paris, where French and Vietnamese alike paid their respects. Hội's stature also allowed him to develop contacts with French President Charles de Gaulle, who favored neutralizing Vietnam in the early 1960s. With the support of Bửu Hội, de Gaulle advised his ambassador in Saigon, Roger Lalouette, to float the concept with Diệm and Nhu.

References

Sources

1910s births
1972 deaths
People from Huế
Vietnamese diplomats
Vietnamese biochemists
Vietnamese Confucianists
Vietnamese Buddhists
20th-century French chemists
Nguyen dynasty
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
Date of birth missing
Place of death missing

Bửu Hội


The two-source hypothesis (or 2SH) is an explanation for the synoptic problem, the pattern of similarities and differences between the three Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. It posits that the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke were based on the Gospel of Mark and a hypothetical sayings collection from the Christian oral tradition called Q.

The two-source hypothesis emerged in the 19th century. B. H. Streeter definitively stated the case in 1924, adding that two other sources, referred to as M and L, lie behind the material in Matthew and Luke respectively. The strengths of the hypothesis are its explanatory power regarding the shared and non-shared material in the three gospels; its weaknesses lie in the exceptions to those patterns, and in the hypothetical nature of its proposed collection of Jesus-sayings. Later scholars have advanced numerous elaborations and variations on the basic hypothesis, and even completely alternative hypotheses. Nevertheless, "the 2SH commands the support of most biblical critics from all continents and denominations."

When Streeter's two additional sources, M and L, are taken into account, this hypothesis is sometimes referred to as the four-document hypothesis.

History

The two-source hypothesis was first articulated in 1838 by Christian Hermann Weisse, but it did not gain wide acceptance among German critics until Heinrich Julius Holtzmann endorsed it in 1863. Prior to Holtzmann, most Catholic scholars held to the Augustinian hypothesis (Matthew → Mark → Luke) and Protestant biblical critics favored the Griesbach hypothesis (Matthew → Luke → Mark). The Two-Source Hypothesis crossed the channel into England in the 1880s primarily due to the efforts of William Sanday, culminating in B. H. Streeter's definitive statement of the case in 1924. Streeter further argued that additional sources, referred to as M and L, lie behind the material in Matthew and Luke respectively.

Background: the synoptic problem

The hypothesis is a solution to what is known as the synoptic problem: the question of how best to account for the differences and similarities between the three synoptic gospels, Matthew, Mark and Luke. The answer to this problem has implications for the order in which the three were composed, and the sources on which their authors drew.

Any solution to the synoptic problem needs to account for two features:
The "triple tradition": The three gospels frequently share both wording and arrangement of "pericopes" (incidents, stories - this substantial sharing is what led to them being called "synoptic", or seeing-together). Where they differ on this shared material, Mark and Luke will agree against Matthew, or Mark and Matthew will agree against Luke, but very rarely will Mark be the odd one out. Matthew's and Luke's versions of shared pericopes will usually be shorter than Mark's.
The "double tradition": Sometimes Matthew and Luke share material which is not present in Mark. In these cases Matthew and Luke sometimes parallel each other closely, but at other times are widely divergent.

Overview of the hypothesis

The 2SH attempts to solve the synoptic problem by advancing two propositions, Marcan priority to explain the triple tradition, and the existence of a lost Q document to solve the double tradition. In summary, the two-source hypothesis proposes that Matthew and Luke used Mark for its narrative material as well as for the basic structural outline of chronology of Jesus' life; and that Matthew and Luke use a second source, Q (from German Quelle, "source"), not extant, for the sayings (logia) found in both of them but not in Mark.

Marcan priority

The 2SH explains the features of the triple tradition by proposing that both Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source. Mark appears more 'primitive': his diction and grammar are less literary than Matthew and Luke, his language is more prone to redundancy and obscurity, his Christology is less supernatural, and he makes more frequent use of Aramaic. The more sophisticated versions of Mark's pericopes in Matthew and Luke must be either the result of those two "cleaning up" Mark, if his is the first gospel, or of Mark "dumbing down" Matthew and/or Luke, if he was later. Critics regard the first explanation as the more likely. On a more specific level, Marcan priority seems to be indicated due to instances where Matthew and Luke apparently omit explanatory material from Mark, where Matthew adds his own theological emphases to Mark's stories, and in the uneven distribution of Mark's stylistic features in Matthew.

The existence of Q

The 2SH explains the double tradition by postulating the existence of a lost "sayings of Jesus" document known as Q, from the German Quelle, "source". It is this, rather than Marcan priority, which forms the distinctive feature of the 2SH as against rival theories. The existence of Q follows from the conclusion that, as Luke and Matthew are independent of Mark in the double tradition, the connection between them must be explained by their joint but independent use of a missing source or sources. (That they used Q independently of each other follows from the fact that they frequently differ quite widely in their use of this source).

Problems with the hypothesis
While the 2SH remains the most popular explanation for the origins of the synoptic gospels, two questions - the existence of the so-called "minor agreements," and problems with the hypothesis of Q - continue at the centre of discussion over its explanatory power.

The minor agreements

The "minor agreements"—the word "minor" here is not intended to be belittling—are those points where Matthew and Luke agree against Mark (for example, the mocking question at the beating of Jesus, "Who is it that struck you?", found in both Matthew and Luke but not in Mark). The "minor agreements" thus call into question the proposition that Matthew and Luke knew Mark but not each other. Streeter devoted a chapter to the matter, arguing that the Matthew/Luke agreements were due to coincidence, or to the result of the two authors' reworking of Mark into more refined Greek, or to overlaps with Q or oral tradition, or to textual corruption.

A few later scholars explain the minor agreements as being due to Luke's using Matthew in addition to Q and Mark (3SH). But the modern argument for Q requires Matthew and Luke to be independent, so the 3SH raises the question of how to establish a role for Q if Luke is dependent on Matthew. Accordingly, some scholars (like Helmut Koester) who wish to keep Q while acknowledging the force of the minor agreements attribute them to a proto-Mark, such as the Ur-Markus in the Marcan Hypothesis (MkH), adapted by Mark independently from its use by Matthew and Luke. Still other scholars feel that the minor agreements are due to a revision of the Mark found in the Bible, called deutero-Mark. In this case, both Matthew and Luke are dependent on proto-Mark, which did not survive the ages.

"Therefore, the minor agreements, if taken seriously, force a choice between accepting pure Marcan priority on one hand or the existence of Q on the other hand, but not both simultaneously as the 2SH requires."

Problems with Q

A principal objection to the 2SH is that it requires a hypothetical document, Q, the existence of which is not attested in any way, either by existing fragments (and a great many fragments of early Christian documents do exist) or by early Church tradition. The minor agreements are also, according to the critics, evidence of the non-existence of, or rather the non-necessity for, Q: if Matthew and Luke have passages which are missing in Mark (the "Who is it that struck you?" sentence quoted above is a famous example), this demonstrates only that Matthew is quoting Luke or vice versa.

Two additional problems are noteworthy, the "problem of fatigue" and the Q narrative problem. The first relates to the phenomenon that a scribe, when copying a text, will tend to converge on his source out of simple fatigue. Thus Mark calls Herod by the incorrect title basileus, "king", throughout, while Matthew begins with the more correct tetrarches but eventually switches to basileus. When similar changes occur in double tradition material, which according to the 2SH are the result of Matthew and Luke relying on Q, they usually show Luke converging on Matthew.

Pierson Parker in 1940 suggested that the non-canonical Gospel of the Hebrews was the second source used in the Gospel of Luke. This view is yet to gain influence.

Variants

The two-document hypothesis emerged in the 19th century: Mark as the earliest gospel, Matthew and Luke written independently and reliant on both Mark and the hypothetical Q.
In 1924 B. H. Streeter refined the two-document hypothesis into the four-document hypothesis based on the possibility of a Jewish M source (see the Gospel according to the Hebrews).

While the standard two-source theory holds Mark and Q to be independent, some argue that Q was also a source for Mark. This is sometimes called the Modified two-document hypothesis (although that term was also used in older literature to refer to the Four-document hypothesis).

A number of scholars have suggested a Three-source hypothesis, that Luke actually did make some use of Matthew after all. This allows much more flexibility in the reconstruction of Q.

Dunn proposes an Oral Q hypothesis, in which Q is not a document but a body of oral teachings.

Other hypotheses
Some form of the Two Source hypothesis continues to be preferred by a majority of New Testament scholars as the theory that is best able to resolve the synoptic problem. Nevertheless, doubts about the problems of the minor agreements and, especially, the hypothetical Q, have produced alternative hypotheses.

In 1955 a British scholar, A. M. Farrer, proposed that one could dispense with Q by arguing that Luke revised both Mark and Matthew. In 1965 an American scholar, William R. Farmer, also seeking to do away with the need for Q, revived an updated version of Griesbach's idea that Mark condensed both Matthew and Luke. In Britain, the most influential modern opponents of the 2SH favor the Farrer hypothesis, while Farmer's revised Griesbach hypothesis, also known as the Two Gospel hypothesis, is probably the chief rival to the Two Source hypothesis in America.

In 1838, the German theologian Christian Gottlob Wilke argued for a solution that combined Marcan priority with an extensively developed argument for Matthew's direct dependence upon both Mark and Luke. Thus, like Farrer, Wilke's hypothesis has no need for Q, but it simply reverses the direction of presumed dependence between Matthew and Luke proposed by Farrer. A few other German scholars supported Wilke's hypothesis in the nineteenth century, but in time most came to accept the two-source hypothesis, which remains the dominant theory to this day. The Wilke hypothesis was accepted by Karl Kautsky in his Foundations of Christianity and has begun to receive new attention in recent decades since its revival in 1992 by Huggins, then Hengel, then independently by Blair. Additional recent supporters include Garrow and Powell.

The traditional view is represented by the Augustinian hypothesis, which is that the four gospels were written in the order in which they appear in the bible (Matthew → Mark → Luke), with Mark a condensed edition of Matthew. This hypothesis was based on the claim by the 2nd century AD bishop Papias that he had heard that Matthew wrote first. By the 18th century the problems with Augustine's idea led Johann Jakob Griesbach to put forward the Griesbach hypothesis, which was that Luke had revised Matthew and that Mark had then written a shorter gospel using material on which both Matthew and Luke agreed (Matthew → Luke → Mark).

A variant of the Augustinian hypothesis, attempting to synchronise Matthew and Mark on the basis of the Mosaic "two witnesses" requirement of Deuteronomy 19:15 (Matthew + Mark → Luke), was proposed by Eta Linnemann, following rejection of the view of her teacher Rudolf Bultmann.

See also
 Biblical criticism
 Historicity of Jesus
 Q+/Papias hypothesis
 Common Sayings Source
 Gospel harmony

Notes and references

Synoptic problem
Biblical criticism
Christian terminology
Gospel of Mark
Gospel of Matthew
Gospel of Luke

Two-source hypothesis


Hercules: The Legendary Journeys is an American cult television series. It aired from January 16 1995 until November 22 1999. The series was created in 1995 by writer-producers Christian Willians under his production tag, Pacific Renaissance Pictures LTD with later co-executive producers being Sam Raimi, Robert Tapert, John Schulian and R. J. Stewart, the series is a Spin-off from the TV movies series aired in 1994, Hercules and the Amazon Women, Hercules and the Lost Kingdom, Hercules and the Circle of Fire, Hercules in the Underworld, and Hercules in the Maze of the Minotaur, the last of which served mostly as a clip show of the previous movies as a lead up to the series, was very loosely based on the tales of the classical Greek culture hero Hercules. It ran for six seasons, producing action figures and other memorabilia as it became one of the highest rated syndicated shows in television history.

Plot Summary
The series is set in a fantasy version of ancient Greece not precisely located in historical time. Although set in ancient Greece, the show also has a mixture of Oriental, Egyptian and Medieval elements in various episodes. The show stars Kevin Sorbo as Hercules and regularly features Michael Hurst as his sidekick Iolaus. Robert Trebor often rotates with Iolaus as Hercules' other sidekick, Salmoneus.

Typical plot lines involve Hercules and Iolaus, or Salmoneus, saving rustic villagers from monsters, evil warlords or the often selfish whims of the gods. In the earlier episodes, as mentioned in the show's opening title, Hercules' main nemesis is his evil stepmother Hera, who seeks to destroy Hercules using various monsters, because he is a reminder of her husband Zeus' infidelity. As the series progressed, a wider range of enemies was used; notably, the malicious Ares, god of war, replaced Hera as the show's primary antagonist. Towards the end of the series Ares is himself replaced by the evil god, Dahak, who is the main villain in the show's fifth season and sets off a story arc that has Hercules traveling to Sumeria, Norseland and Éire. Although Zeus, Hercules' father, is frequently cited by Hercules as a neglectful father, Zeus' love for Hercules is well-documented in the show. Indeed, Hercules is often referred to as the favorite son of Zeus. Zeus makes several appearances on the show, even saving his son's life and restoring his superhuman strength on one occasion when he needs it the most. Hercules, for his own part, is always there for Zeus when his father needs him, and in the end, Hercules reconciles with his father and buries whatever issues he has with the father he has come to understand and love.

The show had a successful spin-off, Xena: Warrior Princess, with which it shared recurring characters such as Ares, Autolycus, aforementioned Salmoneus, Aphrodite and Callisto. Both shows, although produced in New Zealand using mostly local actors who strove for American accents, were syndicated worldwide.

Characters and cast

Hercules

Hercules is the world's greatest hero. The son of Zeus, King of the Gods and the mortal woman Alcmene, Hercules uses his divine strength in the aid of all people. His father was never really there for him and Hercules looked on the centaur Ceridan, who was his master at the academy as a father figure. Despite this, there are many who wish him dead. Most notably, Hera, Queen of the Gods and the wife of Zeus, she despises Hercules because he is a testament to Zeus' infidelity and has tried to destroy Hercules and his loved ones at every opportunity. Despite the many tragedies that have befallen him, not least of which both of his wives being killed, Hercules continued to be a force of good in the world. Hercules is played by American actor Kevin Sorbo.

Iolaus
Iolaus has been Hercules' best friend for many years ever since they met at Cheiron's academy. A former thief, Iolaus has long since repented his unlawful ways and is now a permanent force for good. His happy-go-lucky attitude makes him a popular guy, especially among the ladies, but Iolaus has had more than his fair share of tragedy. Not only did he lose his wife Anya and their children to mysterious circumstances, but Iolaus himself has been killed three times. The first two times Hercules brought him back without too much hassle, but the third time was more complicated. In saving Nebula, Iolaus was killed by the treacherous Gilgamesh and Dahak took Iolaus' body as his own. Hercules teamed up with Zarathrusta to defeat Dahak and Iolaus was allowed to become a Servant of the Light in Heaven. Iolaus broke his pact with the angels however, in warning Hercules of Michael's plan to unleash the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse on the world. As punishment Iolaus was deprived of his status of Servant of the Light, but allowed to return to Earth to fight at Hercules' side. Iolaus is played by actors Michael Hurst and Dean O'Gorman.

Recurring
 Alcmene: Elizabeth Hawthorne, Liddy Holloway and Kim Michalis
 Althea: Willa O'Neill
 Aphrodite: Alexandra Tydings
 Apollo: Scott Michaelson
 Ares: Kevin Tod Smith
 Artemis: Rhonda McHardy
 Atalanta: Cory Everson
 Autolycus: Bruce Campbell
 Callisto: Hudson Leick
 Cassandra: Claudia Black
 Charon: Michael Hurst
 Cupid: Karl Urban
 Daedalus: Derek Payne
 Dahak: Michael Hurst, Mark Newnham
 Deianeira: Tawny Kitaen
 Demeter: Sarah Wilson
 Dirce: Lisa Chappell
 Discord: Meighan Desmond
 Falafel: Paul Norell
 Gabrielle: Renée O'Connor
 Hades: Erik Thomson, Mark Ferguson
 Hera: Meg Foster
 Iphicles: Kevin Smith
 Jason: Jeffrey Thomas, Chris Conrad
 Joxer: Ted Raimi
 Kernunnos: Stuart Devenie
 Mabon: Nicko Vella
 Morrígan: Tamara Gorski
 Nebula: Gina Torres
 Nemesis: Karen Witter, Teresa Hill and Kimberley Joseph
 Odin: Peter McCauley
 Orestes: Michael Hurst
 Persephone: Andrea Croton
 Psyche: Susan Ward
 Salmoneus: Robert Trebor
 Serena: Sam Jenkins, Kara Zediker
 Strife: Joel Tobeck
 Xena: Lucy Lawless
 Zeus: Roy Dotrice, Peter Vere-Jones, Charles Keating, Anthony Quinn.

International broadcast history
 In Australia, this show was shown on Network Ten on Saturdays at 7:30pm back in 1997. Right after it, at 8:30pm, Xena: Warrior Princess was aired.
 In Brazil, the show was previously shown on SBT from 1994 to 2000 and reruns being shown on Rede Record along Xena from February, 2006.
 In Dominican Republic, the show was shown along Xena on Telesistema 11, and its female-oriented brother channel Coral 39.
 In Egypt, the show was previously shown on Egyptian TV Channel 2 and also received reruns due to its huge popularity among Egyptian viewers.
 In France, the show was shown on TF1 and is currently repeated on NRJ 12.
 In Germany, it was shown on RTL at 20:15.
 In Greece, it was shown along Xena on Star Channel.
 In Israel, it was shown along Xena on Channel 1 and AXN.
 In Malaysia, it was shown along Xena on nt7 in 1999.
 In Singapore, it was shown on Channel 5.
 In the Netherlands, the show was shown on Yorin.
 In Poland, the show was shown on Polsat, TV4 and AXN.
 In Russia, the show was shown on STS.
 In Spain, the show was shown on the public TV station TVE, then it started broadcasting in regional TV channels. It's sometimes been broadcast along Xena.
 In Slovenia, the show was shown along Xena on POP TV and KANAL A, usually Weekends afternoon.
 In Sweden, the show was shown along Xena on TV3, together they were branded Äventyrssöndag.
 In Turkey, the show was shown along Xena on Kanal D.
 In the United Kingdom, the show was broadcast by subscription service Sky, who also ran Xena. It was also run by terrestrial Channel 5, in a Saturday tea-time 5:50 p.m. slot. For a while, some fourth season episodes were broadcast in a Sunday evening 8 p.m. slot, and some later re-runs of earlier episodes aired on Tuesday evenings, with the odd episode turning up late on during the night-time schedules. However, both shows abruptly disappeared from their schedules mid-way through the show's run, leaving several seasons unbroadcast. It is currently being shown on satellite/cable channel Bravo 2 on weekdays.

Awards and Nominations

Differences from the original mythology
 Hercules is shown to be a younger half-brother to Iphicles, while the myth states that Hercules was born a fraternal twin but half-brother to Iphicles since both Zeus and Amphitryon impregnated Alcmene at the same time.
 Jason is pictured here to be older than Hercules and marries Alcmene, which never happens in the myth. The mythical Jason dies when a part of Argos falls on him. Also, Jason and Hercules are somewhat the same age in the myth.
 Hercules never was along Atalanta in the myth, nor along Daedalus.
 Salmoneus is the name of a man who tried to impersonate Zeus.
 Hercules is sent after Persephone by Demeter. In the myth, Hermes is who was sent to rescue Persephone from Hades, and Persephone's stay is a result of eating the pomegranate seeds while staying there.
 Hercules is supposed to be a royal member from the House of Perseus. No mention of Perseus is ever made in the story.
 The mythical Iolaus was a son of Iphicles and Automedusa, and Hercules' eromenos in the Theban version of the myth, where the relationship was said to pre-figure or originate the Theban Band.
 Arachne did not become a dangerous spider monster as depicted in the show. She simply keeps weaving after Athena turns her into a spider.
 Hercules never falls in love with Psyche due to a love arrow, nor did Hera curse her grandson Cupid to become a green-eyed monster.
 Apollo is portrayed as an arrogant god. In the myth, Apollo is whom Hercules consults on the purification after he kills his first wife, Megara, while he is under Hera's madness.
 Hercules fights the Minotaur in the series. In the myth, it is Theseus who slays the Minotaur.
 The mythical Hercules kills his first wife, Megara, and their children after Hera strikes him with madness. In the series Hercules' first wife is Deianeira, and Hera kills her directly with a fireball. This story does not exist in the myth. Deianeira was Hercules' third wife, who accidentally tricked him into his death. He is later ascended by Zeus into with Hera's consent and married one of his half-sisters, Hebe, a daughter of Zeus and Hera. No mention of Hebe is made in these TV series.
 Hades looks younger than Zeus when he is supposed to be the older brother of Zeus even before Poseidon. Hades and Hercules are shown here to be allies, while in the myths Hades rarely works with Hercules, aside from that of a framed-up death. Hades never has an alliance with Hercules in the myth, although the two are not enemies. Also Hades has his own infidelities with two nymphs whom his niece/wife Persephone turns into plants.
 Aphrodite and Ares' relationship is not very emphasized, though flirtations between them are shown. Ares' paternity to Cupid is not stated clearly. Also, it should be emphasized that Aphrodite never has a happy relationship with Hephaestus nor do they reconcile and Aphrodite frequently cheats on him with Ares.
 Echidna never turns good nor befriends Hercules in the myth, where she has the body of a serpent with the head of a woman and is a Titan herself. She is not an octopus–like creature, as is portrayed in the show. In some sources of the myth, she mates with Hercules to produce three children who are all human.
 Here Hercules runs away from the offer to impregnate the fifty daughters of a king which in the myth he is tricked into sleeping with by the king who sends one daughter to his bed each night for fifty nights, Hercules believes them to be only one woman.
 The Hydra, Cerberus, Ladon, Medusa, Minotaur are specific, not generic monsters in mythology. Also Hydra, Cerberus, Orthrus, Chimera, the Nemean Lion, the Sphinx, Ethon and Ladon are siblings to each other, sons and daughters of Echidna and Typhon.
 Typhon is violent in the myth and Hera never locks him away as punishment to Echidna until she can kill Hercules. It is Zeus who locks Typhon away to separate him from Echidna, to avoid them from conceiving any more monsters after the war with the Titans is over.
 There are no accounts in most Greek myths which state that Hercules met Zoroaster, fought with somebody who seems to be the archangel Michael, helped Thor and all. Dahak is derived from a Persian myth based on the evil god Aži Dahāka, of darkness and sworn enemy to Allah or, in some, Ahura Mazda. The idea of helping Thor comes from the Marvel Comics incarnation.
 Ares is also supposed to be rejected by his own refined mother, Hera. But in the series, the two seem to get along and Hera seems to be unrefined like Ares. Ares is also portrayed in the series to be much of a Satan–like character in the later episodes, that is until Dahak comes.
 Hera is portrayed to be quite evil in some ways. Though in the Greek myths she only wants to inflict harm on Hercules and only does evil as a last resort, unlike her son Ares who harms many people.
 In the myth, Hera asks for Hercules' forgiveness when Hercules saves her from being raped by the Titan Portheryon and performs all labors required of him. She allows her daughter Hebe to marry Hercules when he becomes a full deity. In the series, after Hercules reunites Zeus and Hera, she stops hating Hercules, and even helps him stop Zeus from killing Xena's unborn child.
 Hercules becomes a full deity by Zeus, only to defeat Hera and Hercules later denounces his position. In the Greek myth, Hercules becomes a full deity because of Zeus' decision that his heroism surpasses the other demigods. When he meets Hera on Mt. Olympus, he is already at peace with Hera.
 Hephaestus is supposed to be a lame and ugly god, but in the series he is good-looking. Also, he reunites with Aphrodite after the many times she cheated on him, presumably with Ares, Hermes, Dionysus and even Adonis, which never happens in the myth.
 No mention of Hippolyta being Ares' daughter is ever made in the movie Hercules and the Amazon Women.
 Hermes is portrayed to be big and chubby, when most myths portray him to be slim and short.
 Hera appears as a pair of peacock-feathered eyes for many episodes, which in the mythology never happens, though this is a nod to her signature bird the peacock, on whose tail she placed the hundred eyes of her dead servant Argos Panoptes after his slaying by Hermes. Hera is never imprisoned in Tartarus and freed by Evander. Also, if she appears in the sky, she always shows her full face or part of her. Also Hera's blue monks never take over Troy.
 Hercules never has a mission to retrieve fire from Hera, who takes it away from Prometheus. In the myth, Zeus wants to get fire away from the mankind, not Hera, and Prometheus is condemned by Zeus to be chained for giving the fire to the mankind.
 Hera turns Atlas into stone. In Greek mythology, however, it is Perseus who turns Atlas to stone with the Medusa's head.
 Hera never banishes Nemesis into a mortal body for not wanting to kill Hercules.
 In the myth, Evander is not a son of Ares, but of Hermes and Nemesis.
 Also, Hera never falls in love with Adonis. Adonis is not killed by Zeus but by the jealous Ares who is somewhat still in love with Aphrodite.

DVD releases
Anchor Bay Entertainment has released all 6 seasons of Hercules: The Legendary Journeys as well as all TV-Movies on DVD in Region 1 for the very first time. The first two-season box sets are not closed-captioned, even though the original release of episodes on TV was.

Related pages
 Xena: Warrior Princess

References

Other websites

 Xena and Hercules Fan Films
 Hercules Characters Guide  at Hercjourneys.com

1995 American television series debuts
First run syndicated television programs
Action television series
Fantasy television series
Xenaverse
1999 American television series endings
English-language television programs

Hercules: The Legendary Journeys


The City of Dunedin Choir a community choir in a city called Dunedin which is in the South Island of New Zealand. It has people from all age groups: some are old, some are young. They are all from the Dunedin area. The choir sings large classical choral pieces of music. The choir has about 140 members at the moment.

The choir sings many types of music, including music from these periods: Baroque, Classical and Romantic  orchestral works, and also modern New Zealand choral music. The Choir usually sings in about four or five concerts a year, often performing with an orchestra called Southern Sinfonia. Choir practice is held every week  in the Crypt of St Paul's Cathedral on the Octagon in the middle of Dunedin.

Recent Performances

The music in the City of Dunedin Choir's recent concerts include:

Schubert: Mass in A Flat;
Orff: Carmina Burmana;
Elgar: Dream of Gerontius;
Bach: A Christmas Oratorio;
Ralph Vaughan Williams: Serenade to Music;
Handel: The King Shall Rejoice;
Purcell: Come ye Sons of Art;
Mendelssohn: As the Hart Pants;
Handel: My Heart is Inditing;
Haydn: Nelson Mass;
Handel: Messiah;
Bach: St. John Passion;
Faure: Cantique de Jean Racine;
Faure: Requiem and
Alexander Estrange: Zimbe!

Upcoming Concerts

Upcoming City of Dunedin Choir Concerts include a performance of 'Saint Nicolas' by Benjamin Britten.

History

The City of Dunedin Choir has been making audiences enjoy themselves around the region for nearly 150 years. The  choir used to be two choirs, the Musical Union and the Choral Society, which were both made in 1863 and they joined together the following year with George West as conductor.

The name of the choir became Dunedin Choral Society Incorporated  a few years later. The society stopped existing in 1888 but started existing with the same name as before in 1897 with James Coombs as conductor. It changed its name to Schola Cantorum in 1967, after joining together with the University Union Choir, and then it changed its name to City of Dunedin Choir in 1993, the year it had existed for 130 years. However, through all these "trading name" changes, the official name remains Dunedin Choral Society Incorporated.

Vice-Regal Patronage

The Choir's immediate past Patron was the Hon. Dame Silvia Cartwright. The choir's archives, which are at the Hocken Library, say that, Mr H.S. Chapman, Supreme Court Judge, was Patron in 1878 and Governor, the Earl of Ranfurly, was Patron in 1898. They also say that Sir Hercules Robinson, Governor from 1879 to 1880, attended several concerts during his time as Governor, but he was not a patron.

References

The archives of the City of Dunedin Choir are in the Hocken Library, Anzac Avenue, Dunedin, New Zealand.
 Dunedin Choral Society Incorporated Rules, 1994/96/2001.
 Campbell, Margaret. Music in Dunedin. Dunedin: Charles Begg and Co., 1945.

The Choir has recently been listed on SOUNZ (http://sounz.org.nz), a submission process which includes details of the Choir's performances of works by New Zealand composers. Only 13 other choirs are listed on SOunz

Other websites
Official website
Performer of New Zealand music, article on SOUNZ
Southern Sinfonia, performance partner to City of Dunedin Choir

Vocal music
1863 establishments
1860s establishments in New Zealand
Organizations based in New Zealand

City of Dunedin Choir


Saga Prefectural Chienkan Junior & Senior High School is both a junior and senior high school and is located in Saga City, Saga Prefecture, Japan. It was awarded the title of Super Science High School in Japan.

History
Chienkan High School is made up of two schools:
 Chienkan Senior High School
 Cheinkan Junior High School

Chienkan Senior High School

On March 27, 1987, the site for Chienkan was purchased from the Saga Prefectural Estate Development Public Corporation. Building of the school was completed in March 1988 and the school was officially established on April 1, 1988. On April 8, Chienkan celebrated its opening and entrance ceremony. The first principal of Chienkan was Mr. Uchikawa Kazumi1.

Chienkan Junior High School
Chienkan Junior High School was established on December 1, 2002. Mr. Morinaga Kazuo was appointed as the first principal. The official opening of Chienkan J.H.S. was on April 1, 2003.

School name
In the years preceding the Meiji Restoration, Japan was populated by a multitude of clans. Within this feudal society, the Saga Clan prospered. Its people set up a number of schools to lead the way in the great changes that would soon sweep Japan.

One of these schools was called "Chienkan". In 1867, Nabeshima Naomasa, lord of the Saga Clan, founded Chienkan in Nagasaki. Nabeshima's graduates played an important role in the political and economic backdrop to the Meiji revolution, and considered it their urgent business to implement Western thoughts and sciences in Japan.

So the original Chienkan School became a place for progressive Western learning, especially that of the English language. Many ambitious young people were drawn to this exciting academic center, where they studied subjects from technology to economics to legislation.

The word "Chien" has several meanings: "To make one's ambition lofty." "To invite people from distant places." "To go far." "Chien" is a noble and evocative word. It conjures images of adventure and discovery, of progress and innovation.

Today's Chienkan strives to actualize the values embodied in its name. The school believes that the dreams and ambitions of the first Chienkan School can be found in its namesake, and are more pertinent than ever. The name was chosen because the school hopes that it will continue the proud tradition of that name far into the future1.

School mottos
Cultivate: Cultivate your mind.
Create:    Create your own self.
Challenge: Challenge your limits.

School badge
The Kanji, 高, at the center of the school badge means a senior high school and the five redial C's around it are the initials of "Cultivate", "Create", "Challenge", "Character" and "Cosmopolitanism".

Alumni

Location
map to Chienkan (in Japanese)
Address (English): 1092-1 Fujinoki, Hyogo-machi, Saga-shi, Saga-ken, Japan 849-0915

See also
List of high schools in Japan

References
1. Saga Prefectural Chienkan Senior High School (Prospectus): General Survey of Chienkan, 2006 (History & School Name)

External links
Chienkan Website - in Japanese
Mext Super High School program (in Japanese)
List of SSH's.

High schools in Saga Prefecture
Schools in Saga Prefecture
Educational institutions established in 1988
1988 establishments in Japan


Fritz Müller (31 March 1821 – 21 May 1897), was a German biologist and doctor who went to live in southern Brazil. There he studied the natural history. He was an early supporter of Darwinism, and lived in Brazil for the rest of his life. Müllerian mimicry is named after him.

Life
Unlike most of his contemporaries in Britain, Müller had what would be seen today as a normal scientific education at the universities of Berlin and Greifswald, culminating in a doctoral degree. Then, he decided to study medicine. As a medical student, he began to question religion and in 1846 became an atheist. Despite completing the course, he did not graduate because he refused to swear the graduation oath, which contained the phrase "so help me God and his sacred Gospel".

Müller was disappointed by the failure of the Prussian Revolution in 1848, and realised there might be implications for his life and career. As a result, he emigrated to South Brazil in 1852, with his brother August and their wives, to join Hermann Blumenau's new colony in the State of Santa Catarina. The colony, near the coast on the Itajaí River, was called Blumenau. In Brazil, Müller, living with his wife Caroline, became a farmer, doctor, teacher and biologist, sometimes employed by the provincial government, sometimes surviving on his own efforts, sometimes defending against Indians but always collecting evidence of life in the Atlantic forest. The climate here is sub-tropical, and the vegetation typical of the Brazilian coast: it is not rain forest.

In 1876 he was appointed as Travelling Naturalist to the National Museum in Rio de Janeiro. This was the ideal post for him: it gave him the opportunity to range over the whole of the Itajaí system and study anything that interested him. A series of reports published in the Archivos of the National Museum record this work.

At last this, the best period of his life, was brought to an end indirectly, by the overthrow of the liberal monarchy of Dom Pedro II in 1889. The new Brazilian Republic was riddled with corruption and nepotism, and eventually there was a civil war in 1893-5. Travelling naturalists were to be based in Rio de Janeiro, and instructions were sent out. Müller refused point-blank and was dismissed, as was von Ihering in São Paulo.

In his retirement years Müller received many letters of support and offers of financial help (from Darwin, amongst others). His cousin Alfred Möller visited him, and eventually became his biographer. His rewards during life from the Brazilian state were minor; but his reputation now stands high. He was one of a half-dozen great naturalists to visit and work in South America during the nineteenth century. Humboldt, Darwin, Wallace, Bates, Spruce — and Fritz Müller. He was the only one of these to settle in Brazil for the rest of his life. A statue was erected to Müller in Blumenau in 1929.

Another of Fritz's brothers, Hermann Müller, was also an evolutionary biologist. He was especially interested in the coevolution between insects and flowers.p29 He, too, corresponded with Dariwn, who arranged for his 1873 book to be translated into English.

Chronology of life
A broad chronology of Müller's life is as follows:

1821-41: Childhood and schooling, near Erfurt.
1841-49: University and medical school, mostly at Greifswald and Berlin.
1849-52: Respite in the countryside.
1852-56: Emigration with brother August and their wives; lived at and near Blumenau on the river Itajaí.
1856-67: At Desterro (the provincial capital) on the island of Santa Caterina. He was mathematics teacher at the Lycée.
1867-76: Return to the Itajaí Valley as a minor provincial official. Worked as a botanist and as an advisor to farmers.
1876-91: Travelling naturalist of the National Museum. Explored throughout the Itajaí system. Dismissed by refusing order to live in Rio de Janeiro.
1891-97: Last years; visited 1890-93 by cousin Alfred Möller.

Biology
During his life Müller published oved 70 papers, mostly in German-language periodicals, some in English and Portuguese. The topics covered a range of natural history topics in entomology, marine zoology, and botany.

Müllerian mimicry
Müller's great discovery concerned the resemblance between two or more unpalatable species which are protected from predators capable of learning. The protection is often a noxious chemical, perhaps gained from the larva eating a particulat plant; or it may be a sting or other defence. It is an advantage for such potential prey to advertise their status in a way clearly perceptible to their predators; this is called aposematic or warning colouration. In Muller's case the prey were butterflies, and the predators usually birds or reptiles.

The aposematic colours are most often some combination of red, yellow, black, white, whereas palatable animals are usually cryptic. The noxious animals may display by slow flying, and in general are prominently visible. Noxious animals usually have thick, leathery cuticles through which, at certain points, they extrude noxious fluids when pecked; they will often survive a 'trial'.

In Müllerian mimicry an advantage is gained when unpalatable species resemble each other, especially when the predator has a good memory for colour (as birds, for instance, do have). Thus one trial may work to dissuade a bird from several species of butterfly which all fly the same 'flag'. Brazilian butterflies provide some of the most extraordinary examples of mimicry, and Müller, Bates and Wallace all had lengthy experience of this. All three traveller-naturalists believed firmly that such systems of mimicry could only come about by means of natural selection, and all of them wrote about it.

Stingless bees
One of his favourite topics was the life habits of the stingless honey-bees Melipoma and Trigona. They are protected by a venom which they squirt when disturbed. The local name for them is Cagafogo (fire-shitter).

Dimorphism in midges
Another discovery was the dimorphism in midges of the family Blepharicereidae. There are two female forms with different mouth-parts: one sucks blood, the other takes nectar, as does the male. To prove the point to skeptics, he sexed the flies carefully, and reared them from pupae.

Termites
By studying living termites Müller was able to correct many errors to be found in text-books. For example, their caste system is organised quite differently from ants, since the castes contain members of both sexes, whereas in hymenoptera the castes are unisexual and the males are haploid. Termites are placed in a different order from ants, the Isoptera.

Botanical work
Much of Müller's botany was stimulated by the series of botanical works published by Darwin in the years after the Origin. Müller made contributions in all these fields. After Darwin's Fertilisation of Orchids (1862) he spent years of work on orchids, sending observations to his brother Hermann and to Darwin. Darwin used some of this work in his second edition of 1877, and Hermann later became famous for his work on pollination. On Climbing plants (Darwin 1867) Müller sent a letter to Darwin listing 40 genera of climbing plants classified by their method of climbing. The next few months saw more observations, which Darwin had translated and published as Müller's first paper in English.

Müller and Darwin
Müller became a strong supporter of Darwin. He wrote Für Darwin in 1864, arguing that Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was correct, and that Brazilian crustaceans and their larvae could be affected by adaptations at any growth stage. This was translated into English as Facts and Arguments for Darwin in 1869. If Müller had a weakness it was that his writing was much less readable than that of Darwin or Wallace; both the German and English editions are hard reading indeed, which has limited the appreciation of this significant book.

Extensive correspondence exists between Müller and Darwin, and Müller also corresponded with Alexander Agassiz, Ernst Krause, and Ernst Haeckel.

Biographies
 Alfred Möller, 1920. Fritz Müller. Werke, Briefe und Leben [virtually the sole biographical source for this significant biologist]
 Cezar Zillig, 1997. Dear Mr. Darwin. A intimidade da correspondência entre Fritz Müller e Charles Darwin. Sky/Anima Comunicação e Design, São Paulo, 241 pp. [letters between Müller and Darwin, with very interesting comments on the life of Fritz Müller. In Portuguese]
 David A. West, 2003. Fritz Müller: a naturalist in Brazil. Blacksburg: Pocahontas Press.  [modern, and most welcome, though the biographical information rests almost entirely on Möller's book. West adds excellent summaries and assessments of Müller's biological work]

Related pages
List of biologists

References

1821 births
1897 deaths
German naturalists
German evolutionary biologists
German explorers
Brazilian scientists

Fritz Müller


John Deere (February 7, 1804 – May 17, 1886) was an American blacksmith and inventor. He started Deere & Company, which is a big company that makes farm equipment. In 1837, he invented the first successful steel plow. This worked better with the tough soil of the Midwestern United States.

John Deere was born in Rutland, Vermont, on February 7, 1804. He was the third son of William Rinold Deere and Sarah Yates Deere. In 1805, the family moved to Middlebury, Vermont, John's father worked as a tailor. In 1808, William took a boat to England, because he hoped to claim an inheritance and make a more comfortable life for his family. He was never heard from again, and people think that he must have died at sea. John's mother, Sarah, only had a small of money to raise him. John Deere's education was limited to the elementary schools of Vermont. At the age of 17 he learned how to be a blacksmith, which took him to several places in Vermont.

In 1836, John traveled to Grand Detour, Illinois, to make a fresh start. He had married and nine young children to look after. John was smart and hard working and he easily found work as a blacksmith. There were lots of farmers in Illinois and John had to fix their plows. The new farmers in Illinois struggled to turn heavy, sticky prairie soil with cast iron plows designed for the light, sandy soil of Vermont. John thought about the steel needles he had seen in father's tailor shop. The needles stayed smooth and shiny because they were pulled through rough leather. John Deere came up with the idea for a plow that would work. The plow in his mind was polished and shiny and made of steel just like his father's tailoring needles. It was shaped so that it could scour itself as it cut furrows. In 1837, he created his plow using a broken saw blade.

John sold his first plow to a farmer named Lewis Crandall. Lewis loved the plow told lots of other farmers. By 1841, John was making 100 of the plows every year. In 1843, he started working with another man named Leonard Andrus to help him keep up! By 1848, John had stopped working with Leonard and moved the business to Moline, Illinois. Moline had water power, coal and cheaper transportation than in Grand Detour. In 1850, John's company made 1600 plows. The company was soon producing other tools to go with the steel plow.

In 1858, John asked his son Charles to be in charge of the company. John stayed on as president of the company, but he also wanted to work on others things. He started a bank in Moline and joined a church. He was also the mayor of the city for two years and the director of the city library! John Deere died on May 17, 1886, at his home in Moline.

1804 births
1886 deaths
American inventors
Businesspeople from Illinois
American chief executives
American mechanical engineers
American mayors
Politicians from Vermont
Businesspeople from Vermont
Politicians from Illinois

fi:John Deere

John Deere


John Alexander Barfield (March 3, 1909 – January 16, 1974) was an American country and old-time music performer, best known for his 1939 recording of "Boogie Woogie", the first country boogie.

He was born in Tifton, Georgia, and in his youth played guitar on street corners with his brother Coot. They recorded for Columbia Records in Atlanta in 1927, but the recordings were not released.  Soon afterwards, Johnny Barfield became acquainted with Clayton McMichen and Bert Layne of the Skillet Lickers, touring with the group and recording with some of its offshoots, including McMichen's group, the Georgia Wildcats.  By 1932, he was performing both solo, and as a member of Layne's band.  In 1939, he won a recording contract with Bluebird Records, and released his version of "Boogie Woogie", a song derived from "Pinetop's Boogie Woogie" recorded in 1928 by Pinetop Smith.  Barfield's song is considered the first country boogie, and became popular on jukeboxes.

Barfield recorded again in 1940 and 1941, but failed to repeat his earlier success.  He continued to perform for several years.  He died in 1974, aged 64.

References

1909 births
1974 deaths
American country singer-songwriters
People from Tifton, Georgia
20th-century American singer-songwriters
Country musicians from Georgia (U.S. state)
Singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state)

Johnny Barfield


Cronyism is a specific form of in-group favoritism, the spoils system practice of partiality in awarding jobs and other advantages to friends or trusted colleagues, especially in politics and between politicians and supportive organizations. For example, cronyism occurs when appointing "cronies" to positions of authority regardless of their qualifications. This is in contrast to a meritocracy, in which appointments are made based on merit. Politically, "cronyism" is derogatorily used to imply buying and selling favors, such as votes in legislative bodies, as doing favors to organizations, or giving desirable ambassadorships to exotic places.

Etymology
The word "crony" first appeared in 17th-century London, according to the Oxford English Dictionary and is believed to be derived from the Greek word chronios (χρόνιος), meaning "long term".

A less likely but oft-quoted source is the supposed Irish term Comh-Roghna, which translates as "close pals", or mutual friends.

Concept

Government officials are particularly susceptible to accusations of cronyism, as they spend taxpayers' money. Many democratic governments are encouraged to practice administrative transparency in accounting and contracting, however, there often is no clear delineation of when an appointment to government office is "cronyism".

In the private sector, cronyism exists in organizations, often termed "the old boys' club" or "the golden circle"; again, the boundary between cronyism and "networking" is difficult to delineate.

It is not unusual for a politician to surround themself with highly qualified subordinates, and to develop social, business, or political friendships leading to the appointment to office of friends, likewise in granting government contracts. In fact, the counsel of such friends is why the officeholder successfully obtained their powerful position; therefore, cronyism usually is easier to perceive than to demonstrate and prove. Politicians with representatives of business, other special interests, as unions and professional organizations get "crony-business" done in political agreements, especially by "reasonable" and lucrative honorariums to the politician for making speeches, or by legal donations to ones election campaign or to ones political party, etc.

Cronyism describes relationships existing among mutual acquaintances in private organizations where business, business information, and social interaction are exchanged among influential personnel. This is termed crony capitalism, and is an ethical breach of the principles of the market economy; in advanced economies, crony capitalism is a breach of market regulations.

Given crony capitalism's nature, these dishonest business practices are frequently (yet not exclusively) found in societies with ineffective legal systems. Consequently, there is an impetus upon the legislative branch of a government to ensure enforcement of the legal code capable of addressing and redressing private party manipulation of the economy by the involved businessmen and their government cronies.

The economic and social costs of cronyism are paid by society. Those costs are in the form of reduced business opportunity for the majority of the population, reduced competition in the market place, inflated consumer goods prices, decreased economic performance, inefficient business investment cycles, reduced motivation in affected organizations, and the diminution of economically productive activity. A practical cost of cronyism manifests in the poor workmanship of public and private community projects.

Cronyism is self-perpetuating; cronyism then begets a culture of cronyism. This can only be apprehended by a comprehensive, effective, and enforced legal code, with empowered government agencies which can effect prosecutions in the courts.

Some instances of cronyism are readily transparent. With others, it is only in hindsight that the qualifications of the alleged "crony" must be evaluated. All appointments that are suspected of being cronyism are controversial. The appointed party may choose to either suppress disquiet or ignore it, depending upon the society's level of freedom of expression and individual personal liberty.

Examples

An example can be found in political activity in South Carolina, particularly in relation to Governor Henry McMaster, who initially gained his position after becoming the first high-level state official to endorse President Donald Trump and subsequently rose from lieutenant governor to governor of the state when President Trump appointed Nikki Haley to be the United States ambassador to the United Nations in November 2016. On July 9, 2019, Governor McMaster would then go on to attempt to force a vote for the President of the University of South Carolina ahead of schedule and for the benefit of his favorite candidate, Robert Caslen Jr., former superintendent of West Point Academy who was favored by President Trump and previously interviewed by the Trump administration for the position of National Security Advisor. Less than two weeks later, in spite of protestation from a majority of the student body, alumni, and major donors, the vote was cast in favor of Caslen on July 19, 2019.

The Russian president Vladimir Putin is alleged to be the "head of the clan", whose assets are estimated at $200 billion. A list of Russian and Ukrainian politicians associated with "kleptocratic style" has been published by the Kleptocracy Archives project.

U.S. President Donald Trump assigned at least five members of his private golf clubs to choice government jobs such as ambassadorships. This is the first time in modern history that a president has rewarded people with jobs that paid money to his own companies.

The nominations of Prime Minister Boris Johnson for the House of Lords were selected based on their support for his version of Brexit, rather than ability or service to the public as is customary (for instance, the previous Speaker of the House of Commons John Bercow did not receive a nomination due to Johnson's perception that he worked against him for getting key Brexit votes through). The process for procurement of government contracts during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom has been criticised by some as a "chumocracy" (cronyism).

India: High command culture
In India, it has been seen that the chiefs of national political parties directly appoint their close aides as the regional subordinates rather than through the party's internal elections—thus undermining the autonomy of the state units. The culture was first seen under the premiership of Indira Gandhi, then under her successor Sonia Gandhi, and now under the Bharatiya Janata Party's Modi government. Over the years, several chief ministers of wide range of parties have been appointed likewise. Before the independence of India, Mahatma Gandhi could override most decisions of the Indian National Congress, regardless of his on-paper status in the party.

See also

References

Further reading

 [Also in T. G. Andrews and R. Mead (Eds.), Cross Cultural Management, Volume 2 -The Impact of Culture 1: 126–150. Routledge, UK.]

External links

 "Favoritism, Cronyism, and Nepotism". Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, Santa Clara University.
 SuperNews: Hurricane Katrina - A political flash cartoon about the cronyism surrounding Michael D. Brown and Hurricane Katrina.

Corruption
Political terminology of the United States
Oligarchy
Ethically disputed political practices
Nepotism
Public choice theory
Group processes
Politics of India

Cronyism


The University of Alaska Museum of the North is a cultural and historical museum on the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus.

Mission
The museum's mission is to acquire, conserve, investigate, and interpret specimens and collections relating to the natural, artistic, and cultural heritage of Alaska and the Circumpolar North. Through education, research, and public exhibits, the museum serves the state, national, and international science programs. The museum develops and uses botanical, geological, zoological, and cultural collections; these collections form the basis for understanding past and present issues unique to the North and meeting the challenges of the future.

Founding and history

The museum, formerly known as the University of Alaska Museum, was housed in what is now known as Signers' Hall for much of its history. It was mandated as part of the original legislation establishing the university in 1917. In 1924, Charles E. Bunnell, then-president of the university, directed Otto Geist to collect items for display in the museum. The museum had no one single location until 1936, when it was housed in Signers' Hall. Before that, the collections were displayed or stored in several locations around the campus.

Over time, the collections overflowed the space, and a capital campaign was begun in 1975 to build a new museum. The campaign was completed in 2001 and the new building opened to the public in late 2005, with some galleries opening in 2006.

In September 2020, the museum became the permanent home of Chris McCandless's final resting place, Bus 142, which had been removed from its previous location along the Stampede Trail in June of that year citing safety issues. The bus will be restored and an outdoor exhibit will be created.

Collections

 Alaska Center for Documentary Film
 Alaska Frozen Tissue Collection
 Arctic Archival Observatory
 Archeology Collections
 Earth Sciences Collection
 Entomology Collection
 Ethnology Collection
 History Collection
 Fine Arts Collection
 Herbarium
 Fish, Amphibian, and Reptile Collections
 Mammal Collection
 Marine Invertebrates Collection
 Bird Collection

See also
J. P. Hubrick (born late 1800s, died 1930), photographer working in McCarthy, Alaska
 Brina Kessel, curator of terrestrial vertebrates, 1972–1990; curator of ornithology, 1990–1997

References

External links

1917 establishments in Alaska
Art museums and galleries in Alaska
History museums in Alaska
Museums in Fairbanks, Alaska
Native American museums in Alaska
Natural history museums in Alaska
Science museums in Alaska
Scientific organizations established in 1917
University museums in Alaska
University of Alaska Fairbanks


Nicholas Yonge (born about 1560; buried October 23, 1619) was an English singer and publisher (his name is an old spelling of the word "Young" and pronounced the same way).  He is most famous for publishing a collection of music called Musica transalpina in (1588).

Music publishing was quite a new thing in those days. Musica transalpina was a collection of Italian madrigals.  The Italian words of the madrigals were also translated into English.  Musica transalpina had 57 separate pieces by 18 Italian composers, including Alfonso Ferrabosco and Luca Marenzio.  Ferrabosco was living in England at the time.

The publication of this book had a huge influence on music in England.  It made madrigals very popular in England and during the next twenty years composers such as Thomas Morley, John Wilbye and Thomas Weelkes composed a large number of English madrigals.

In 1597 Yonge published a second book of Musica transalpina which was also very influential.

The title Musica transalpina  means: "music from across the Alps" because the music came from Italy which was the other side of the Alps.

References
David Brown, "Nicholas Yonge".  The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie.  20 vol.  London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980.

1560s births
1619 deaths
English singers

Nicholas Yonge


Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. The basic organic chemistry reaction types are addition reactions, elimination reactions, substitution reactions, pericyclic reactions, rearrangement reactions, photochemical reactions and redox reactions. In organic synthesis, organic reactions build new organic molecules. Organic reactions produce many man-made chemicals such as drugs, plastics, food additives, and fabrics.

More websites
Organic reactions @ Synarchive.com
Organic reaction flashcards from OSU
list of named reactions from UConn
organic reactions
Organic chemistry help-Best of the Web 2008
Organic chemistry help-Electronic Flashcards
Study-Organic-Chemistry.com
organic-reaction.com

References

Organic reaction


Professional Golfers' Association, (with or without the apostrophe), is the usual term for a professional association in men's golf. It is often abbreviated to PGA. There are several PGAs around the world. These include:

 Professional Golfers' Association (Great Britain & Ireland)
 Professional Golfers' Association of America

The women's version is Ladies Professional Golf Association. It is commonly abbreviated to LPGA. The United States association is called the LPGA. Other women's bodies have names based on where they are located. For example, LPGA of Japan or LPGA of Korea.

The organisations which run the world's two leading professional golf tours have the letters PGA in their names. They are now independent of the Professional Golfers' Associations that created them:
 The PGA Tour runs the PGA Tour, Champions Tour and Nationwide Tour.
 The PGA European Tour runs the European Tour, Challenge Tour and European Seniors Tour.

At first, PGAs were the main groups for all forms of professional golf in their area. Now some of them, including those of the United States, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and Ireland, are focused on the needs of the professional golfers who work as club or teaching professionals. They do not have as much to do with tournament professionals.

Golf
G

Professional Golfers Association


Dinosaur Ridge is part of the Morrison Formation, just west of Denver.

The Dinosaur Ridge area is one of the world's most famous dinosaur fossil localities. In 1877, some of the best-known dinosaurs were found here, including Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, Stegosaurus, and Allosaurus.

In 1973, the area was recognized for its uniqueness as well as its historical and scientific significance when it was designated the Morrison Fossil Area National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service.  In 1989, the Friends of Dinosaur Ridge formed to address increasing concerns regarding the preservation of the site and to offer educational programs on the area's resources.

The rocks on the west side of Dinosaur Ridge are part of the widespread Morrison Formation of Jurassic age. It is in these rocks, where Arthur Lakes discovered the dinosaur bones in 1877. Fifteen quarries were opened along the Dakota hogback in the Morrison area in search of these fossils.

The rocks on the east side of Dinosaur Ridge are part of the Cretaceous Dakota Formation.  When Alameda Parkway was being constructed in 1937 to provide access to Red Rocks Park, workers discovered hundreds of dinosaur footprints.  These were found to include mostly Iguanodon-like footprints. Carnivorous theropod tracks are also present.

The site features the Dinosaur Ridge Exhibit Hall with displays about the dinosaurs found at the site. Additionally, Dinosaur Ridge has interpretive signs at trail locations that explain the local geology, a volcanic ash bed, trace fossils, paleo-ecology, economic development of coal, oil and clay, and many other geologic and paleontological features.

References

Other websites
 Friends of Dinosaur Ridge
 Photos
 Dinosaur Ridge Information

Geography of Colorado
Dinosaurs of North America
Museums in the United States

Dinosaur Ridge