Dresser Industries was a multinational corporation headquartered in Dallas, Texas, United States, which provided a wide range of technology, products, and services used for developing energy and natural resources. In 1998, Dresser merged with its main rival Halliburton. Halliburton sold many of former Dresser non "oil patch" divisions, retaining the M W Kellogg Engineering and Construction Company and the Dresser oil-patch products and services that complemented Halliburton's energy and natural resource businesses.  In 2001 Halliburton sold five separate, but somewhat related former Dresser non "oil patch" divisions, to an investment banking firm.  Those five operations later took the name "Dresser Inc."  In October 2010, Dresser Inc., was acquired by General Electric. It is headquartered in Addison, Texas.

History
Solomon Robert Dresser invented a "packer", using rubber for a tight fit, and after taking out a patent on May 11, 1880, he began advertising and selling his product, the Dresser Cap Packer, from Bradford, Pennsylvania, in the heart of the oilfields.  Dresser's packer was one of many available on the market, and it was another invention that saw a substantial expansion of the company.  A flexible coupling, the Dresser Joint, that he built in 1885 to join pipes together in such a way that they would not leak natural gas. This coupling also used rubber for a tight fit, and it was so successful that it permitted for the first time the long-range transmission of natural gas from the gas fields where it was extracted to the cities which were the main gas consumers.

As the natural gas industry prospered and expanded after 1900, Dresser's company grew as pipelines were built over great distances. By 1927 the company's annual sales had reached US$3.7 million and it was employing 400 workers.

Public offering
Following Dresser's death, his descendants decided to sell it, and in 1928 the Wall Street investment-banking firm of W. A. Harriman and Company, Inc., converted the firm into a public company by issuing 300,000 shares of stock.

H. Neil Mallon was selected as president and chief executive officer; he held that position until his retirement in 1962. Under Mallon, Dresser began a program of acquisitions designed to help it survive the threat posed to its core business by the introduction of welding for joining pipes together.  Starting in 1930 Dresser began acquiring companies that manufactured valves, heaters, pumps, engines and compressors and the company diversified into such products as oil derricks, blowers, drill bits, refractories, and drilling mud.

Acquisitions and divestitures
In 1949, Dresser's management was presented with an opportunity to broaden its product range beyond capital purchases. They were made aware of the potential to acquire the Magnet Cove Barium Corporation of Houston, Texas, the nation's second-largest producer of barite drilling mud. One of the partners was interested in selling their approximate one-third interest, which led to discussions with the owners about the possibility of selling the entire company. With Dresser's strong cash position, they began to explore the acquisition of Magnet Cove Barium. It held mineral reserves constituting 30 percent of the known U.S. barite deposits, and the 5 ½ million tons of barite could last thirty-eight more years at the current recoverable bar level of operations. The company reported current assets of $3.2 million and liabilities of $909,000. When it was learned that all of the Magnet Cove Barium's common stock could be acquired for $2.8 million in cash, the directors of Dresser quickly, without hesitation, approved the transaction on October 28, 1949. Five days later, the deal was done. Dresser had added Magnet Cove Barium to the Dresser Industries family.

In 1950, the company headquarters moved to Dallas to be near the center of the nation's major oil and gas fields. It continued to purchase well-known companies involved in manufacturing such things as overhead cranes, gasoline-dispensing pumps, and heavy equipment for mining and construction.

In 1968, the Wayne Oil Tank and Pump Company, established in 1891, merged with Dresser, becoming the Dresser-Wayne Company. Dresser Industries brought together Lane-Wells and the Pan Geo Atlas Corporation (PGAC) to form Dresser Atlas. PGAC's expertise in openhole logging and its international operations made it an ideal merger partner to form an integrated wireline services company. Since its inception, Lane-Wells had generated most of its income from perforating services, but log interpretation had narrowed down producing zones, resulting in fewer perforations and less revenue. Greatly expanded wireline logging capabilities helped the combined company continue to grow.

In 1974, the company acquired Galion Iron Works and the operating assets of the Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, Inc.  By 1975, Dresser's total sales exceeded $2 billion, with profits of more than $123 million.  Those sales came 28% from petroleum operations, 21% from industrial specialties, 24% from energy processing and conversion, 15% from construction and mining, and 12% from refractories and minerals.

During the 1980s, as the oil industry began to decline, Dresser's chairman, John Murphy, began to streamline the organization of the company, eliminating its insurance, mining, and construction-equipment divisions.

In 1982, the company acquired International Harvester's construction equipment business.
In 1984 the company acquired the earthmoving and mining product lines from American Standard's WABCO division, for a bargain price of $66.3 million.

On January 1, 1987, Dresser Industries and Ingersoll-Rand merged their common businesses to form Dresser-Rand Group with headquarters in Corning, New York. The newly formed company had 10 manufacturing and testing facilities, 70 sales offices, 30 service centers and more than 7,300 employees. The partnership started as a 50-50 relationship, but later Dresser took a 51% share of the assets while Ingersoll-Rand had 49%.

Komatsu Limited and Dresser Industries established Komatsu Dresser to make mining tractors, construction equipment and related equipment.  This 50-50 ownership lasted from September 1988 to August 1994, when Komatsu bought out Dresser's share.

By 1993, it generated sales of more than US$4 billion, and employed 31,800 people in fifty countries.  The company had three major divisions: Oil Field Products and Services, Industrial Operations, and Energy Processing and Conversion Equipment.  It spun off some of its manufacturing divisions, but crucially agreed to retain asbestos claims filed before the spinoff.

In 1994, the company expanded through acquisitions of Wheatley TXT (a manufacturer of pumps, valves, and metering equipment) and the Baroid Corporation (an oil-services firm in Houston that had been a direct competitor). To comply with federal antitrust regulations, Dresser sold off its interest in M-I Drilling Fluids Company and Western Atlas International. Upon completion of the Baroid merger, Dresser became the third-largest oil-services company in the world.

Merger with Halliburton
In 1998, Dresser merged with its main rival Halliburton and became known as Halliburton Company. Dick Cheney negotiated the US$7.7 billion deal, reportedly having done so during a weekend of quail-hunting. In 2001, Halliburton was forced to settle the asbestos lawsuits that it acquired including the landmark case Bell v. Dresser Industries  as a result of purchasing Dresser, causing the company's stock price to fall by eighty percent in just over a year.

The "New" Dresser

In April 2001, the Dresser division (excluding the former Kellogg division) entered an agreement to separate itself once again from Halliburton by management purchasing its equity, the new company to be called Dresser, Inc. Dresser, Inc. was a leading global multi-national owned by First Reserve Corporation and company management.

In February 2011, General Electric Co. agreed to buy oil-field equipment maker Dresser Inc. for $3 billion, expanding its biggest industrial unit. GE acquired Dresser from funds managed by Riverstone Holdings LLC and First Reserve Corporation. The move significantly expanded GE's offerings for energy and industrial customers worldwide and is the latest in a series of acquisitions over the last 10 years that have transformed GE's global energy portfolio.

The Dresser brand sells, services, and supports products that include: actuators, valves,  meters, instruments, regulators, switches, natural gas-fueled engines, piping specialties, retail and fleet fuel dispensers, blowers, and point-of-sale systems.

The Dresser brand operates in more than 60 countries with four principal business segments: Measurement and Distribution Systems, Flow Technologies, Infrastructure Solutions, and Power and Compression Systems. It retains trade names of Masoneilan, Consolidated, Becker, Mooney, ROOTS, and Wayne fuel pumps.

See also

 List of oilfield service companies
 Dresser Atlas

References

External links
 Official website

Multinational companies
Oilfield services companies
2011 mergers and acquisitions
Halliburton
Engineering companies of the United States

Dresser Industries


Percy Dwight Wickman (June 10, 1941 – July 3, 2004) was a Canadian politician and well-known activist for people with disabilities who was born in Thunder Bay, Ontario.

Wickman served as an alderman on Edmonton City Council from 1977 to 1986. He made the news when he was elected as Liberal MLA for Edmonton-Whitemud after unseating Alberta premier Don Getty in the 1989 election, despite the fact Getty had otherwise won a majority government. In 1993 election and 1997 election Wickman was re-elected as the MLA for Edmonton Rutherford. Wickman retired from politics in 2001.

Wickman died in 2004 due to a paraplegic-related illness.

Other websites
Embarrassment for Getty CBC Archives
Death of Percy Wickman

1941 births
2004 deaths
Canadian politicians
People from Thunder Bay
Disability activists
Canadian people with disabilities

Percy Wickman


Mariche is the name of a former native Venezuelan tribe.

Not much information from them as a tribe has survived to the present day. It is known that their descendants lived in what is now called Filas de Mariches, distrito Sucre, Estado Miranda and in the area of El Hatillo both near Caracas, Venezuela, where they lived very close to several Karina (Carib) tribes.

Reports by some scholars claim that Mariche natives inhabited a site called Guayana long before the discovery of South America by the Spaniards.

One of their more celebrated chiefs was Tamanaco who led them in the fight against the Spanish conquistadors during the 1560s and 1570s.

Indigenous peoples in Venezuela

Mariche people


Marsha Sue Ivins (born April 15, 1951) is an American retired astronaut and a veteran of five Space Shuttle missions.

Career
Ivins, born April 15, 1951, in Baltimore, Maryland, graduated from Nether Providence High School in Wallingford, Pennsylvania in 1969, and earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1973. She is Jewish-American. She went to work for NASA's Johnson Space Center, and worked mainly on orbiter displays and controls, before being assigned as a flight engineer in 1980 and co-pilot on NASA administrative aircraft. In 1984, Ivins was selected as an astronaut candidate.

She has flown aboard five space missions: STS-32 (1990), STS-46 (1992), STS-62 (1994), STS-81 (1997), and STS-98 (2001). Ivins retired from NASA on December 31, 2010.

Spaceflight experience

STS-32 (January 9–20, 1990) launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on an eleven-day flight, during which crew members on board the Space Shuttle Columbia successfully deployed a Syncom satellite, and retrieved the 21,400-pound Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF). Mission duration was 261 hours, 1 minute, and 38 seconds. Following 173 orbits of the Earth and 4.5 million miles, Columbia returned with a night landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California.

STS-46 (July 31 – August 8, 1992) was an 8-day mission, during which crew members deployed the EURECA (European Retrievable Carrier) satellite, and conducted the first Tethered Satellite System (TSS) test flight. Mission duration was 191 hours, 16 minutes, and 7 seconds. Space Shuttle Atlantis and her crew launched and landed at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, completing 126 orbits of the Earth in 3.35 million miles.

STS-62 (March 4–18, 1994) was a 14-day mission for the United States Microgravity Payload (USMP) 2 and Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology (OAST) 2 payloads. These payloads studied the effects of microgravity on materials sciences and other space flight technologies. Other experiments on board included demonstration of advanced teleoperator tasks using the remote manipulator system, protein crystal growth, and dynamic behavior of space structures. Mission duration was 312 hours, 23 minutes, and 16 seconds. Space Shuttle Columbia launched and landed at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, completing 224 orbits in 5.82 million miles.

STS-81 Atlantis (January 12–22, 1997) was a 10-day mission, the fifth to dock with Russia's Space Station Mir, and the second to exchange U.S. astronauts. The mission also carried the Spacehab double module providing additional middeck locker space for secondary experiments. In five days of docked operations more than three tons of food, water, experiment equipment and samples were moved back and forth between the two spacecraft. Following 160 orbits of the Earth, the STS-81 mission concluded with a landing on Kennedy Space Center's Runway 33 ending a 3.9 million mile journey. Mission duration was 244 hours, 56 minutes.

STS-98 Atlantis (February 7–20, 2001) continued the task of building and enhancing the International Space Station by delivering the U.S. laboratory module Destiny. The Shuttle spent seven days docked to the station while Destiny was attached and three spacewalks were conducted to complete its assembly. The crew also relocated a docking port, and delivered supplies and equipment to the resident Expedition-1 crew. Space Shuttle Atlantis returned to land at Edwards Air Force Base, California traveling 5.3 million miles in 203 orbits. Mission duration was 12 days, 21 hours, 20 minutes.

References

Interviews
 , Budapest, December 6, 2012.
 What It's Like to Spend 55 Days in Space, By Chris Mooney in Mother Jones, September 20, 2013, accessed May 7, 2014
 An Astronaut Reveals What Life In Space Is Really Like, By Marsha Ivins as told to Caitlin Roper in WIRED Magazine, November 19, 2014, accessed November 23, 2014

External links

NASA Biography

1951 births
Living people
20th-century American Jews
Women astronauts
University of Colorado alumni
American women engineers
NASA civilian astronauts
People from Baltimore
21st-century women engineers
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Mir crew members
21st-century American Jews
20th-century American women
21st-century American women

Marsha Ivins


The asthenosphere (frae Greek asthenēs 'weak'  + sphere) is the heichly viscous, mechanically waik an  ductilely-defurmin region o the upper mantle o the Yird. It lies belaw the lithosphere, at depths atween ~80 an ~200 km (~ 50 an 124 mile) ablo the surface. The lithosphere-asthenosphere boondary is uisually referred tae as LAB. Asthenosphere is generally solit altho some its regions coud be meltit (e.g. belaw mid-ocean ridge). The lawer boondary o the asthenophere is nae well defined. The thickness o the asthenosphere depends mainly on the temperatur. For some regions asthenosphere coud extend as deep as . It is considered the soorce region o  mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB).

References

Structure o the Yird
Plate tectonics

Asthenosphere


Wheat (Genus: Triticum) is a cereal grain. People eat it most often in the form of bread. It is a kind of grass whose fruit is a "head of wheat" with edible seeds. It was first grown in the Levant, a region of the Near East. Now it is cultivated worldwide.

World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined. Globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetable protein in human food. It has a higher protein content than other major cereals such as maize (corn) or rice. In terms of total production, it is second to rice as the main human food crop and ahead of maize (maize is used more for animal feeds). Almost 800,000,000 tonnes are harvested every year.

Wheat was a key factor enabling the emergence of city-based societies at the start of civilization. It was one of the first crops that could be easily cultivated on a large scale, and its seeds could be stored for long periods in a dry climate. Wheat helped the growth of city-states in the Fertile Crescent, including the Babylonian, Assyrian and persian empires.

Wheat grain is a staple food used to make flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads, biscuits, cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal, pasta, noodles, couscous. It can also be fermented to make ethanol, for alcoholic drinks, or biofuel.

An allergy to wheat (mostly from its gluten) can cause coeliac disease, which makes the sufferer have diarrhoea if they eat any food containing wheat.

Description
The wheat plant has long, slender leaves, stems that are hollow in most types of wheat plants, and heads that have many kinds of flowers, from 20 to 100. The flowers are grouped together in spikelets. Each spikelet has two to six flowers. In most spikelets, two or three of the flowers become fertilized, and this makes them produce the grains used for food.

Cultivated species of wheat
All cultivated wheats have more than one normal diploid set of chromosomes. The increases in chromosome sets occurs naturally at a low rate. Because they have more chromosomes, their ears of wheat are larger.  All man did was to select the plants with extra fat ears of wheat when they occurred. Now a whole range of cultivated wheats are available. These are just a few:

Hexaploid species (six sets of chromosomes)
Common wheat or Bread wheat (T. aestivum) – A hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world.
Spelt (T. spelta) – Another hexaploid species cultivated in limited quantities. Spelt is sometimes considered a subspecies of the closely related species common wheat (T. aestivum), in which case its botanical name is considered to be Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta.

Tetraploid species (four sets)
Durum (T. durum) – The only tetraploid form of wheat widely used today, and the second most widely cultivated wheat.
Emmer (T. dicoccon) – A tetraploid species, cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use.

Diploid species (normal two sets of chromosomes)
Einkorn (T. monococcum) – A diploid species with wild and cultivated variants. Domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat, but never reached the same importance.

Emmer wheat

Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum), or 'hulled wheat', is a type of awned wheat. It was one of the first crops domesticated in the Near East. It was widely cultivated in the ancient world, but is now a relict crop in mountainous regions of Europe and Asia.

In the wild, the awns of emmer wheat spikelets help them dig into the soil.  With humidity in the night, the awns of the spikelet become erect and draw together, and in the process push the grain into the soil.  During the day, the humidity drops and the awns slacken back again.  During the course of days and nights, the awns' pumping movements drill the spikelet as much as an inch into the soil.

Einkorn wheat
Einkorn wheat is one of the earliest cultivated forms of wheat, (Triticum monococcum). Grains of wild einkorn have been found in Paleolithic sites of the Fertile Crescent. It was first domesticated about 7500 BC (~9000 years ago), in the early Neolithic period.  Evidence from DNA suggests einkorn was domesticated in southeast Turkey, where a number of early farming villages have been found.  Its cultivation decreased in the Bronze Age, and today it is a relic crop that is rarely planted. It has found a new market as a health food. It is still used for bulgur (cracked wheat) or as animal feed, in mountainous areas of France, Libya, former Yugoslavia, Turkey and other countries. It often survives on poor soils where other species of wheat fail.

Einkorn was domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat, but was not so important.

Related pages
 Quinoa

References

Wheat


Quay Street is a street in the city centre of Manchester, England. The street, designated the A34, continues Peter Street westwards towards the River Irwell and Salford. It is the northern boundary of Spinningfields, the city's business district and Castlefield, the historical area of the city, lies to the south. Quay Street was created in the 18th century for access to a quay on the river and is lined by several listed buildings.

Edward Byrom built a quay on the River Irwell in the 1730s and the street was built to link it to Deansgate which was then known as Aldport Lane. In 1794, it was extended eastwards to Mosley Street. Richard Cobden's red brick townhouse, built in the Georgian style was the first home of Owens College and afterwards Manchester County Court. It is a Grade II* listed building. In the 1840s Harry Stokes ran a beerhouse at numbers 3 - 5 Quay Street. The Hospital for Skin Diseases was in Quay Street. The Opera House, formerly the New Theatre, was built in 1912 by Albert Richardson and Charles Lovett Gill with Farquarson in the Classical style.

Architect Joseph Sunlight built the Grade II* listed Sunlight House. He had planned to build the Quay Street Tower, a  highrise art deco building behind Sunlight House but was refused planning permission. Had it been built, it would have been not only Manchester's tallest building, but the tallest in Europe.

The street is known for Granada Studios, the UK's first purpose-built television studios and home to Granada Television. The building was designed by architect Ralph Tubbs and was an early example of a building constructed using the curtain wall method. In September 2010, the red 'Granada TV' sign was removed from the building as it was extensively corroded.

See also
List of notable streets and roads in Manchester

References

External links

 Manchester Directory

Streets in Manchester
Shopping streets in Manchester
Tourist attractions in Manchester

Quay Street


Lieutenant Colonel Robert Peter Fleming  (31 May 1907 – 18 August 1971) was a British adventurer, journalist, soldier and travel writer. He was the elder brother of Ian Fleming, creator of James Bond.

Early life
Peter Fleming was one of four sons of the barrister and Member of Parliament (MP) Valentine Fleming, who was killed in action in 1917, having served as MP for Henley from 1910. Fleming was educated at Durnford School and at Eton, where he edited the Eton College Chronicle. The Peter Fleming Owl (the English meaning of "Strix", the name under which he later wrote for The Spectator) is still awarded every year to the best contributor to the Chronicle. He went on from Eton to Christ Church, Oxford, and graduated with a first-class degree in English.

Fleming was a member of the Bullingdon Club during his time at Oxford. On 10 December 1935 he married the actress Celia Johnson (1908–1982), best known for her roles in the films Brief Encounter and The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie.

Travels

In Brazil
In April 1932 Fleming replied to an advertisement in the personal columns of The Times: "Exploring and sporting expedition, under experienced guidance, leaving England June to explore rivers central Brazil, if possible ascertain fate Colonel Percy Fawcett; abundant game, big and small; exceptional fishing; room two more guns; highest references expected and given." He then joined the expedition, organised by Robert Churchward, to São Paulo, then overland to the rivers Araguaia and Tapirapé, heading towards the last-known position of the Fawcett expedition.

During the inward journey the expedition was riven by increasing disagreements as to its objectives and plans, centred particularly on its local leader, whom Fleming disguised as "Major Pingle" when he wrote about the expedition. Fleming and Roger Pettiward (a school and university friend recruited onto the expedition as a result of a chance encounter with Fleming) led a breakaway group.

This group continued for several days up the Tapirapé to São Domingo, from where Fleming, Pettiward, Neville Priestley and one of the Brazilians hired by the expedition set out to find evidence of Fawcett's fate on their own. After acquiring two Tapirapé guides the party began a march to the area where Fawcett was reported to have last been seen. They made slow progress for several days, losing the Indian guides and Neville to foot infection, before admitting defeat.

The expedition's return journey was made down the River Araguaia to Belém. It became a closely fought race between Fleming's party and "Major Pingle", the prize being to be the first to report home, and thus to gain the upper hand in the battles over blame and finances that were to come. Fleming's party narrowly won. The expedition returned to England in November 1932.

Fleming's book about the expedition, Brazilian Adventure, has sold well ever since it was first published in 1933, and is still in print.

In Asia
Fleming travelled from Moscow to Peking via the Caucasus, the Caspian, Samarkand, Tashkent, the Turksib Railway and the Trans-Siberian Railway to Peking as a special correspondent of The Times. His experiences were written up in One's Company (1934). He then went overland in company of Ella Maillart from China via Tunganistan to India on a journey written up in News from Tartary (1936). These two books were combined as  Travels in Tartary: One's Company and News from Tartary (1941). All three volumes were published by Jonathan Cape.

According to Nicolas Clifford, for Fleming China "had the aspect of a comic opera land whose quirks and oddities became grist for the writer, rather than deserving any respect or sympathy in themselves". In One's Company, for example, Fleming reports  that Beijing was "lacking in charm", Harbin was a city of "no easily definable character". Changchun was "entirely characterless", and Shenyang was "non-descript and suburban". However, Fleming also provides insights into Manchukuo, the Japanese puppet state in Manchuria, which helped contemporary readers to understand Chinese resentment and resistance, and the aftermath of the Kumul Rebellion. In the course of these travels Fleming met and interviewed many prominent figures in Central Asia and China, including the Chinese Muslim General Ma Hushan, the Chinese Muslim Taoyin of Kashgar, Ma Shaowu, and Pu Yi.

Of Travels in Tartary, Owen Lattimore remarked that Fleming, who "passes for an easy-going amateur, is in fact an inspired amateur whose quick appreciation, especially of people, and original turn of phrase, echoing P. G. Wodehouse in only a very distant and cultured way, have created a unique kind of travel book". Lattimore added that it "is only in the political news from Tartary that there is a disappointment", as, in his view, Fleming offers "a simplified explanation, in terms of Red intrigue and Bolshevik villains, which does not make sense."

Stuart Stevens retraced Peter Fleming's route and wrote his own travel book.

Second World War
Just before war was declared, Peter Fleming, then a reserve officer in the Grenadier Guards, was recruited by the War Office research section investigating the potential of irregular warfare (MIR).  His initial task was to develop ideas to assist the Chinese guerrillas fighting the Japanese.  He served in the Norwegian campaign with the prototype commando units – Independent Companies – but in May 1940 he was tasked with research into the potential use of the new Local Defence Volunteers (later the Home Guard) as guerrilla troops.  His ideas were first incorporated into General Thorne's XII Corps Observation Unit, forerunner of the GHQ Auxiliary Units.  Fleming recruited his brother, Richard, then serving in the Faroe Islands, to provide a core of Lovat Scout instructors to his teams of LDV volunteers.

Meanwhile, Fleming wrote a speculative novel called The Flying Visit in which he imagined Adolf Hitler flying to Britain to propose peace with that nation, only to have United Kingdom let him return in light of the awkward diplomatic quandary he placed the British government in. It proved bizarrely prescient in 1941 when Hitler's Deputy, Rudolf Hess, did that exact excursion into Britain and Britain found their new high ranked Nazi prisoner cumbersome for their foreign and propaganda policies.

When Colin Gubbins was appointed to head the new Auxiliary Units, he incorporated many of Peter's ideas, which aimed to create secret commando teams of Home Guard in the coastal districts most liable to the risk of invasion. Their role was to launch sabotage raids on the flanks and rear of any invading army, in support of regular troops, but they were never intended as a post-occupation 'resistance' force, having a life expectancy of only two weeks.

Peter Fleming later served in Greece, but his principal service, from 1942 to the end of the war, was as head of D Division, in charge of military deception operations in Southeast Asia, based in New Delhi, India. He was scheduled to take part in the second Chindit operation, but this was cut short by the premature crash landing of a defective glider. The episode is described in an appendix Fleming contributed to Michael Calvert's book on the operation.

Fleming was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1945 Birthday Honours and in 1948 he was awarded the Order of the Cloud and Banner with Special Rosette by the Republic of China.

Later life
After the war Peter Fleming retired to squiredom at Nettlebed, Oxfordshire and was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant for Oxfordshire on 31 July 1970.

Death
Fleming died on 18 August 1971 from a heart attack while on a shooting expedition near Glen Coe in Scotland. His body was buried in the graveyard of St Bartholomew's Church in Nettlebed, where a  stained glass window dedicated to his memory was later installed in the church. The gravestone has verses he wrote himself:

He travelled widely in far places; Wrote, and was widely read.Soldiered, saw some of danger's faces,Came home to Nettlebed.

The squire lies here, his journeys ended – Dust, and a name on a stone –Content, amid the lands he tended,To keep this rendezvous alone.

Family

After the death of his brother Ian, Peter Fleming served on the board of Glidrose, Ltd, the company purchased by Ian to hold the literary rights to his professional writing, particularly the James Bond novels and short stories. Peter also tried to become a substitute father for Ian's surviving son, Caspar, who overdosed on narcotics in his twenties.

Peter and Celia Fleming remained married until his death in 1971. He was survived by their three children:

Nicholas Peter Val Fleming (1939–1995), writer and squire of Nettlebed. He deposited Peter Fleming's papers for public access at the University of Reading in 1975. These include several unpublished works, as well as the manuscripts of several of his books that are now out of print. Nichol Fleming's partner for many years was the merchant banker Christopher Roxburghe Balfour (born 1941), brother of Neil Balfour, second husband (1969–78) of Princess Jelizaveta of Yugoslavia. Nettlebed is now jointly owned by his sisters.
(Roberta) Katherine Fleming (born 1946), writer and publisher, is now Kate Grimond, wife of Johnny Grimond, foreign editor of The Economist. Johnny is the elder surviving son of the late British Liberal Party leader Jo Grimond, and grandson maternally of Violet Bonham-Carter, herself daughter of the British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith.  Kate and John have three children, Jessie (a journalist), Rose (an actress turned organic foods entrepreneur) and Georgia (a journalist, formerly at The Economist online, now living and freelancing in Rio de Janeiro).
Lucy Fleming (born 1947) is an actress. In the 1970s she starred as Jenny in the BBC's apocalyptic fiction series Survivors. She was first married in 1971 to Joseph "Joe" Laycock (died 1980), son of a family friend Robert Laycock and his wife Angela Dudley Ward, and was on honeymoon at the time of her father's sudden death in Argyllshire.  Lucy and Joe had two sons and a daughter, Flora. Flora and her father, Joe, were drowned in a boating accident in 1980. At the time of their deaths Lucy and Joe were separated on good terms. Lucy later married the actor and writer Simon Williams. Her sons are Diggory and Robert Laycock.

Peter Fleming was the godfather of the British author and journalist Duff Hart-Davis, who wrote Peter Fleming: A Biography (published by Jonathan Cape in 1974).  Duff's father Rupert Hart-Davis, a publisher, was a close friend of Peter, who gave him a home on the Nettlebed estate for many years and gave financial backing to his publishing ventures.

Legacy
The Peter Fleming Award, worth £9,000, is given by the Royal Geographical Society for a "research project that seeks to advance geographical science".

Fleming's book about the British military expedition to Tibet in 1903 to 1904 is credited in the Chinese film Red River Valley (1997).

Quotations
"São Paulo is like Reading, only much farther away." – Brazilian Adventure
"Public opinion in England is sharply divided on the subject of Russia. On the one hand you have the crusty majority, who believe it to be a hell on earth; on the other you have the half-baked minority who believe it to be a terrestrial paradise in the making. Both cling to their opinions with the tenacity, respectively, of the die-hard and the fanatic. Both are hopelessly wrong." – One's Company
The recorded history of Chinese civilisation covers a period of four thousand years.
The Population of China is estimated at 450 million.
China is larger than Europe.

The author of this book is twenty-six years old.
He has spent, altogether, about seven months in China.
He does not speak Chinese.

 Preface, One's Company

Fleming's works
Fleming was a special correspondent for The Times and often wrote under the pen-name "Strix" (Latin for "screech owl") as an essayist for The Spectator.

Non-fiction
1933 Brazilian Adventure – Exploring the Brazilian jungle in search of the lost Colonel Percy Fawcett.
1934 One's Company: A Journey to China in 1933 – Travels through the USSR, Manchuria and China.  Later reissued as half of Travels in Tartary.
1936 News from Tartary: A Journey from Peking to Kashmir – Journey from Peking to Srinagar via Sinkiang. He was accompanied on this journey by Ella Maillart (Kini). Later reissued as half of Travels in Tartary.

1952 A Forgotten Journey – A diary Fleming kept during a journey through Russia and Manchuria in 1934. Reprinted as To Peking: A Forgotten Journey from Moscow to Manchuria (2009, )
1953 Introduction to Seven Years in Tibet by Heinrich Harrer published by Rupert Hart-Davis, London
1955 Tibetan Marches – A translation from French of Caravane vers Bouddha by André Migot
1956 My Aunt's Rhinoceros: And Other Reflections — A collection of essays written (as "Strix") for The Spectator. Published by Rupert Hard-Davis, London.
1957 Invasion 1940 — an account of the planned Nazi invasion of Britain and British anti-invasion preparations of the Second World War. Published in the United States as Operation Sea Lion
1957 With the Guards to Mexico: And Other Excursions — A collection of essays written for The Spectator. Published by Rupert Hard-Davis, London.
1958 The Gower Street Poltergeist — A collection of essays written for The Spectator.
1959 The Siege at Peking — An account of the Boxer Rebellion and the European-led siege of the Imperial capital.
1961 Bayonets to Lhasa: The First Full Account of the British Invasion of Tibet in 1904
1961 Goodbye to the Bombay Bowler — A collection of essays written for The Spectator as 'Strix'.
1963 The Fate of Admiral Kolchak — a study of the White Army leader Admiral Kolchak who led the anti-Bolshevik movement in Siberia from November 1918 to January 1920.

Fiction
Books
1940 The Flying Visit – A humorous novel about an unintended visit to Britain by Adolf Hitler. Illustrated by David Low.
1942 A Story to Tell; and other Tales — A collection of short stories.
1951 The Sixth Column. A Singular Tale of Our Times — A humorous novella, around the idea of random traitors acting merely because they are in position to act, unlike fifth columnists with established ideological or command connections to foreign powers.
 The Sett (unfinished, unpublished)
Short fiction
 "The Kill" (1931)
 "Felipe" (1937)

Other
1932 Spectator's Gallery: Essays, Sketches, Short Stories & Poems from The Spectator — editor with Derek Verschoyle.
1933 Variety: Essays, Sketches and Stories — illustrated by Roger Pettiward.

References
Notes

Cited works

 La Gazette des Français du Paraguay – Peter Fleming Un Aventurier au Brésil – Peter Fleming Un Aventurero en Brasil – Numéro 5 Année 1, Asunción Paraguay.

External links
A short biography provided by the University of Reading
A profile stressing his travel writing
Peter Fleming's daughters
Source for the death date of his son Nicholas Fleming at ianfleming.org
Peter Fleming's rook rifle – a correspondence

 Podcast talk and live blogging at the Shanghai International Book Festival with Paul French's talk on Peter Fleming
 Paul French, "Peter Fleming"

Translated Penguin Book – at Penguin First Editions reference site of early first edition Penguin Books.
 I.B. Tauris published Fleming's To Peking: A Forgotten Journey from Moscow to Manchuria (out of stock 4/18), News from Tartary and Bayonets to Lhasa: The British Invasion of Tibet; also its A Dance with the Dragon: The Vanished World of Peking's Foreign Colony by Julia Boyd includes Fleming among its subjects.

1907 births
1971 deaths
English travel writers
Writers about the Soviet Union
Grenadier Guards officers
Members of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
People associated with the University of Reading
English people of Scottish descent
British Army personnel of World War II
Ian Fleming Publications directors
Peter
English male novelists
Bullingdon Club members

Peter Fleming (writer)


Antoine Isaac, Baron Silvestre de Sacy (; 21 September 175821 February 1838), was a French nobleman, linguist and orientalist. His son, Ustazade Silvestre de Sacy, became a journalist.

Life and works

Early life
Silvestre de Sacy was born in Paris to a notary named Jacques Abraham Silvestre, a Jansenist. He was born into an ardently Catholic bourgeois family. The surname extension of "de Sacy" was added by the younger son after the name of Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy, a famous Jansenist cleric who lived in the 17th century. Sacy's father died when he was seven years old, and he was educated on his own by his mother.

Philological studies

In 1781 he was appointed councillor in the cour des monnaies, and was promoted in 1791 to be a commissary-general in the same department. Having successively studied Semitic languages, he began to make a name as an orientalist, and between 1787 and 1791 deciphered the Pahlavi inscriptions of the Sassanid kings. In 1792 he retired from public service, and lived in close seclusion in a cottage near Paris till in 1795 he became the first and only professor of Arabic in the newly founded school of living Eastern languages (École speciale des langues orientales vivantes).

During this interval Sacy studied the religion of the Druze, the subject of his last and unfinished work, the Exposé de la religion des Druzes (2 vols., 1838). He published the following Arabic textbooks:
Grammaire arabe (2 vols., 1st ed. 1810)
Chrestomathie arabe (3 vols., 1806)
Anthologie grammaticale (1829)

In 1806 he added the duties of Persian professor to his old chair, and from this time onwards his life was one of increasing honour and success, broken only by a brief period of retreat during the Hundred Days.

Public offices and memberships
He was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions from 1832 onwards; in 1808 he had entered the corps législatif; he was created a baron of the French Empire by Napoleon in 1813; and in 1832, when quite an old man, he became a peer of France and regularly spoke in the Chamber of Peers (). In 1815 he became rector of the University of Paris, and after the Second Restoration he was active on the commission of public instruction. With Abel Rémusat, he was joint founder of the Société asiatique, and was inspector of oriental typefaces at the Imprimerie nationale.  In 1821 he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society

Egyptian hieroglyphics research
Silvestre de Sacy was the first Frenchman to attempt to read the Rosetta stone. He made some progress in identifying proper names in the demotic inscription.

From 1807 to 1809, Sacy was also a teacher of Jean-François Champollion, whom he encouraged in his research.

But later on, the relationship between the master and student became chilly. In no small measure, Champollion's Napoleonic sympathies were problematic for Sacy, who was decidedly Royalist in his political sympathies.

In 1811, Étienne Marc Quatremère, also a student of Sacy, published his Mémoires géographiques et historiques sur l'Égypte… sur quelques contrées voisines.

There was some rivalry between Champollion and Quatremère. Champollion published a paper in 1814 that covered some of the same territory. The allegations then arose that Champollion had plagiarized the work of Quatremère. Silvestre de Sacy seemed to take the side of Quatremère, according to Champollion.

There was also considerable rivalry between Champollion and Thomas Young, an English Egyptology researcher active in hieroglyphic decipherment. At first they cooperated in their work, but later, from around 1815, a chill arose between them. Again, Sacy took the side of Young.

Young started to correspond with Sacy, who advised Young not to share his work with Champollion and described Champollion as a charlatan. Consequently, Young avoided all direct contact with Champollion.

When Champollion submitted his Coptic grammar and dictionary for publication in 1815, de Sacy also opposed this.

Another student of Sacy was Johan David Åkerblad. He was a Swedish scholar who also contributed significantly to the investigation of the Rosetta Stone. Early on, in 1802, Åkerblad published his version of the Demotic alphabet; sixteen of these letters later proved to be correct and were used by Champollion, as well as by Young. Sacy felt that Akerblad was not getting enough credit for the good work that he was doing.

Thus, the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics was being hampered by political and personal considerations. There were also big political rivalries between England and France at that time that also stood in the way of co-operation.

Nevertheless, when, in spite of all adversity, Champollion had made big progress in decipherment by 1822resulting in his Lettre à M. DacierSacy cast all politics aside and warmly welcomed the good work of his student.

Other scholarly works
Among his other works are his edition of Hariri (1822), with a selected Arabic commentary, and of the Alfiya (1833), and his Calila et Dimna (1816), the Arabic version of the Panchatantra which has been in various forms one of the most popular books of the world. Other works include a version of Abd-el-Latif, Relation arabe sur l'Egypte, essays on the history of the law of property in Egypt since the Arab conquest (1805–1818), and The Book of Wandering Stars, a translation of a history of the Ottoman Empire and its rule of Egypt, particularly its recounting of the various actions of and events under the Ottoman governors of Egypt. To biblical criticism he contributed a memoir on the Samaritan Arabic Pentateuch (Mém. Acad. des Inscr. vol. xlix), and editions of the Arabic and Syriac New Testaments for the British and Foreign Bible Society. His students include  Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer.

Critical studies
Edward Said and other modern scholars have given critical attention to the theoretical foundations of "orientalism" in works like Chrestomathie arabe.

Notable students
In Edward Said's Orientalism, Sacy is described as "the teacher of nearly every major Orientalist in Europe, where his students dominated the field for about three-quarters of a century." Said also notes that several of Sacy's students were "politically useful" as part of French presence in Egypt following Napoleon's invasion.
 Jean-François Champollion, orientalist, translator of the Rosetta stone
 Étienne Marc Quatremère, a French orientalist who contributed to the research in Egyptian hieroglyphics.
 Johan David Åkerblad, a Swedish diplomat and orientalist; he contributed to the investigation of the Rosetta Stone.
 John Martin Augustine Scholz, Professor in Bonn
 Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer, Professor in Leipzig
 Johann Gottfried Ludwig Kosegarten, Professor in Jena and in Greifswald
 August Ferdinand Mehren, Professor in Copenhagen
 Justus Olshausen, Professor in Kiel
 Johann Gustav Stickel (1805–1896), Professor in Jena
  (1807–77), Professor in Uppsala
 Louis-Mathieu Langlès, Curator, Bibliothèque Nationale
 Adam Franz Lennig, German Catholic theologian, and one of the most influential German priests of his day.
 Samuel Gobat, Anglican-Lutheran Bishop of Jerusalem

Silvestre de Sacy assisted the young composer Fromental Halévy in his early career, giving him a testimonial during his application for the Prix de Rome.

Sacy died in his native city of Paris, aged 79.

Selected works
In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy, OCLC/WorldCat encompasses roughly 1,000+ works in 1,000+ publications in 16 languages and 3,000+ library holdings.

 Mémoires sur diverses antiquités de la Perse: et sur les médailles des rois de la dynastie des Sassanides; suivis de l'histoire de cette dynastie (1793)
 Principes de grammaire générale : mis à la portée des enfans, et propres à servir d'introduction à l'étude de toutes les langues (1799)
 Mémoire sur divers événements de l'histoire des Arabes avant Mahomet (1803)
 Chrestomathie arabe, ou, Extraits de divers écrivains arabes, tant en prose qu'en vers, avec une traduction française et des notes, à l'usage des élèves de l'École royale et spéciale des langues orientales vivantes (1806)
 Specimen historiae arabum by Bar Hebraeus (1806)
 Mémoire sur la dynastie des Assassins et sur l'origine de leur nom (1809)
 Grammaire arabe à l'usage des élèves de l'École spéciale des langues orientales vivantes (1810)
 Les séances de Hariri, publiées en arabe avec un commentaire choisi by Ḥarīrī (1822)
 Anthologie grammaticale arabe: ou, Morceaux choisis de divers grammairiens et scholiastes arabes, avec une traduction française et des notes ; pouvant faire suite a la Chrestomathie arabe (1829)
 Grammaire arabe à l'usage des élèves de l'Ecole spéciale des langues orientales vivantes (1831)
 Exposé de la religion des druzes, tiré des livres religieux de cette secte, et précédé d'une introduction et de la Vie du khalife Hakem-biamr-Allah (1838)
 Les mille et une nuits; contes arabes (1839)
 Bibliothèque de M. le baron Silvestre de Sacy (1846)
 Mélanges de littérature orientale (1861)

References

External links

Writers from Paris
1758 births
1838 deaths
18th-century French male writers
19th-century French historians
18th-century French historians
French Arabists
Arabic–French translators
French orientalists
Barons of the First French Empire
Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour
Members of the Chamber of Deputies of the Bourbon Restoration
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the July Monarchy
Linguists from France
Members of the Société Asiatique
Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
19th-century French translators

Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy


Gliders are aircrafts which do not have a motor. Gliders are controlled by their pilots by using control-sticks. Some gliders can only carry one person; others can carry two. In gliders with two seats, each pilot has a control-stick. Gliders always have seats for the pilots.

'Sailplanes' are gliders with long wings so that they will only lose height slowly. In some places a vertical draft makes the air go up faster than the glider is going down. The pilot of a glider can make it climb by flying to these places. This is called soaring. Good pilots can travel long distances by always finding rising air. Some pilots race each other over hundreds of kilometres each day. Other pilots just fly for fun.

Gliders cannot get into the air by themselves. They are pulled into the air by an aircraft with a motor or they are pulled up by motor on the ground.

There are two other types of gliders. Hang-gliders have frames to give the wings their shape, but do not have seats for their pilots and do not have control-sticks. The wings of paragliders are like parachutes and so do not have frames to give them their shape. These other two types of glider are often launched from the tops of hills or cliffs.
Aircraft

Glider


Kubla Khan is a poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. He wrote it in 1797, and it was published in 1816. It is a poem from the Romantic era, a time when people often made art about nature and emotions. Coleridge said that he wrote the poem after a dream he had, while on opium. He said that he was interrupted by a person from Porlock while he was writing it, and never got to finish it. Some people say that this is not completely true.

The first stanza of the poem describes a pleasure dome and a river called Alph, and the second stanza talks about an Abyssinian maid.

18th-century British poems
1790s works

Kubla Khan


The Matrix Revolutions is a 2003 movie that was written and directed by the Wachowskis. It is the sequel to The Matrix Reloaded. It is a prequel to The Matrix Resurrections.

Plot

When Neo wakes up, he finds himself at a train station. He is there because, when he used his power to destroy the sentinels at the end of the second movie, he touched the source and did not come back all the way. He is stuck there. Meanwhile, his girlfriend Trinity, Morpheus, and Seraph enter a club to talk to the Merovingian, who controls a lot of the Matrix. A gun fight ends in a Mexican standoff with guns pointed towards everyone. The Merovingian agrees to let Neo go, and Trinity picks him up.

The city of Zion is preparing for war. They pool all of their resources into a dock area. They use Armored Personnel Units (APU) to fight back. However, there are too many machines, and they soon have to fall back to the temple.

Niobe on her ship attempts to return to Zion by going through an area that only a very skilled pilot can go through. However, Niobe makes a mistake and the machines come after them. During one part of the dock battle, the commander Milfune tries to repel the machines but is overwhelmed. He dies. He tells the Kid to take his APU and to open the dock doors. The Kid does so and the ship comes through, blows its EMP, and saves the dock for now.

Near the end of the movie, Neo wants to take a ship to talk directly to the machines. Niobe turns her ship, the Logos, over to him. Earlier, Bane (who is now Smith) had stabbed a crew member and hid away on the Logos. While on the ship, Bane fights Neo and ends up burn his eyes out. However, Neo has the power and can still see and kills Bane. As Neo and Trinity approach, the machines attack. Trinity flies above the clouds to kill the machines, but it also destroys their engines, and they lose control and crash into the ground and Trinity is viciously killed by being impaled by metal rebar.

Neo walks up to the head of the machines, whose name is Deus Ex Machina. He says that Smith has gotten out of control and that he is the only one that can stop him. He says that he wants peace, so the machines stop attacking Zion. Neo and Smith start fighting again. This time Neo cannot beat him like he did with Bane. At the end, he says, "It was inevitable" and allows Smith to touch him and acquire him. Smith is then destroyed, as his only purpose was to balance Neo, who is now gone.

Cast
 Keanu Reeves as Neo
 Laurence Fishburne as Morpheus
 Carrie-Anne Moss as Trinity
 Hugo Weaving as Agent Smith
 Jada Pinkett Smith as Niobe

Other websites

2003 science fiction movies
Matrix series
Drone movies
IMAX movies
Sequel movies
Warner Bros. movies
English-language movies
Movies directed by The Wachowskis

The Matrix Revolutions


Object-oriented role analysis and modeling (OOram) is a method, based on the concept of role, for performing object-oriented modeling.

Originally (1989) coined Object Oriented Role Analysis, Synthesis and Structuring (OORASS), the method focuses on describing patterns of interaction without connecting the interaction to particular objects/instances. OOram was originally developed by Trygve Reenskaug (1996), a professor at the University of Oslo and the founder of the Norwegian IT company Taskon.  The use of "roles" in OOram is similar in application to that of agent-oriented programming.

Enterprise models created according to OOram may have a number of views, with each view presenting certain aspects of a model. The following ten views are proposed:
 Area of concern view: Textual description of a phenomenon represented in the role model.
 Stimulus-response view: Describes how environment roles may trigger activities in the organization (stimulus), together with the effect (response).
 Role list view: List describing all roles of a role model together with attributes and textual explanation.
 Semantic view: Describes meaning of roles and relationships between roles.
 Collaboration view: Describes patterns of roles and message paths.
 Interface view: Describes all messages that can be sent along a message path.
 Scenario view: Provides a sample sequence of messages flowing between roles (a concrete example).
 Process view: Describes data flow between roles and associated activities performed by the roles.
 State diagram view: For each role, the legal states can be described together with messages that trigger transitions.
 Method specification view: Describes what messages to send for each method belonging to a role. May also specify procedures to perform.

OOram suggests a varied mix of formal and informal notations and languages for representing and communicating models. Which view to use depends upon the needs in a particular situation.

See also
 Object modeling language
 View model
 Unified modeling language
 i*

References

Further reading

 Rebecca J. Wirfs-Brock and Ralph E. Johnson (1990). Surveying Current Research in Object-Oriented Design. Communications of the ACM, vol. 33, no. 9 (September 1990), pp. 105–124. OORASS on pp. 113–116.

Object-oriented programming


Deadhorse is a town in North Slope Borough, Alaska, United States. It is an unincorporated community. It is known for its production of oil.

Deadhorse is near Prudhoe Bay, which located along the coastline of Arctic Ocean. The James Dalton Highway connects Deadhorse with Fairbanks. Companies can send oil from Deadhorse, using the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) to the southern part of Alaska.

Tourists can take buses from Fairbanks using the Dalton Highway to get to Deadhorse. The town is in the Arctic Circle. Tourists can see the Sun at midnight in the summer. Kinds of animals, like arctic foxes, can been seen in this area.

Settlements in Alaska
Towns in the United States
Unincorporated communities in the United States

Deadhorse, Alaska


The Ipperwash Crisis was a dispute over Indigenous land that took place in Ipperwash Provincial Park, Ontario, on September 4, 1995. Several members of the Stoney Point Ojibway band occupied the park to assert claim to nearby land which had been expropriated from them during the Second World War.

During a violent confrontation, the Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) killed protester Dudley George. George was holding a stick when OPP officer Ken Deane shot him. George subsequently died from his injuries. Ken Deane later claimed that George had a firearm. Deane was found guilty of criminal negligence.

It was later alleged that the violent confrontation and eventual death of Dudley George came a day after newly elected Ontario Premier Mike Harris was alleged to have said to the OPP "I want the fucking Indians out of the park", according to a former attorney general. However, eight other present witnesses deny this allegation.

The ensuing controversy was a major event in Canadian politics. In 2003 a provincial inquiry, the Ipperwash Inquiry, was started after a change in government. Former Ontario Chief Justice Sidney B. Linden led the investigation of events, which was completed in the fall of 2006.

Background
In 1936, the province of Ontario created Ipperwash Provincial Park.  In 1942 during the Second World War, the Government of Canada wanted reserve land from the Stoney Point Band to use as a base for military training and offered to buy it for $15 per acre. They also promised to return the land after the war ended. The band rejected the offer, however, under the War Measures Act, the federal government expropriated the lands from the Stoney Point Reserve and established Military Camp Ipperwash. The First Nations claim that the grounds contain a burial site. As of 2010, archaeological surveys have established that such a site does indeed exist. As early as 1993, while Camp Ipperwash was still being used as a summer training centre for the Royal Canadian Army Cadets, band members had occupied portions of the camp and the adjacent piece of land. After the summer of 1993, the government moved the cadet camp to CFB Borden. There was growing tension about the base at Camp Ipperwash.

Occupation of the park
On Labour Day Monday, September 4, 1995, a group of people started a protest in Ipperwash Provincial Park to draw attention to the decades-old land claims. After the park closed at 6:00 p.m., protestors cut back a fence and by 7:30 had moved vehicles into the park. About thirty-five protestors occupied the park. The protestors had been threatening occupation since the spring. The original police strategy was to co-occupy the park peacefully with the First Nations. But when a protester from the group smashed the window of a police cruiser, the OPP pulled back from the park.

In anticipation of the move on the park by the Stoney Point First Nations, the OPP had prepared a contingency plan named Project Maple. The plan stressed "a peaceful resolution" and called for a team of two negotiators to be on call around the clock.

Progressive Conservative member of Provincial Parliament (MPP) Marcel Beaubien was in contact with the police the following day, and Beaubien also contacted the office of Premier Harris, in an attempt to put pressure on the government to intervene.

On September 5, 1995, the premier and several government officials met to discuss the Ipperwash protest. The meeting notes concluded that "the province will take steps to remove the occupiers as soon as possible."

Killing of Dudley George

On Wednesday, the OPP became concerned about a group of protesters who had wandered outside the park and into the Sandy Park lot area adjacent to the cottages. The group were allegedly carrying bats and sticks in their hands. The number of protesters has been debated, although police reports indicate a group of up to eight.

There was also misinformation about damage that had been done to a band councillor's car by this group of protesters. The damage to the councillor's car was from a rock thrown by one of the protesters who took exception to an article the councillor had written disapproving of the occupation. A rumour started that the protesters smashed up the vehicle of a female driver with baseball bats, a report that was later found by Justice Sidney Linden to be false and misleading.

Out of public safety concerns, the OPP decided to deploy the crowd management unit (CMU) to force the protesters back into the park. The CMU was a riot squad armed with steel batons, shields and helmets. The CMU was backed up by a tactical response unit (TRU). The OPP intended a show of force to move the protesters back inside the park.

On Wednesday evening, police riot squads marched down to the Sandy Parking Lot to confront the protesters. As the CMU advanced, the protesters initially retreated and the CMU responded by also retreating. One protester, Cecil Bernard George, approached the police (peacefully according to the protesters, violently according to police reports). George was taken down and surrounded by police and arrested. Protesters attempted to rescue George from the arrest by the police units. This resulted in a riot.

A car and a school bus driven by protesters started out of the park to assist the protesters in their fight against police. According to police officers, there was gunfire from these vehicles, but First Nations protesters have insisted they had no weapons in the park that night. The OPP TRU teams opened fire on the vehicles, resulting in the wounding of two Native protesters and the death of Dudley George, an Ojibwa protestor. Among the TRU members was Acting Sergeant Ken "Tex" Deane, a senior officer in charge of a four-man sharpshooter team with the job of escorting the force's crowd management unit. Deane was near the park entrance and fired three shots at Dudley George, who was about fifteen feet from the park entrance, and was hit and badly injured.

George's sister Carolyn and brother Pierre attempted to take him to the local hospital for treatment but were arrested and delayed by the OPP for over an hour. George was declared dead at 12:20 a.m. on September 7, 1995, at nearby Strathroy Middlesex General Hospital, in Strathroy, Ontario. Anthony O'Brien George (March 17, 1957 – September 7, 1995), nicknamed "Dudley", was the eighth of ten children born to Geneviève ("Jenny") Pauline Rogers George and Reg "Nug" (Reginald Ransford) George.

Consequences

Criminal investigation
Acting Sergeant Ken Deane (October 1961 – February 25, 2006) was convicted of criminal negligence causing death. Deane's defence was that he had believed that Dudley George was carrying a rifle. The judge rejected Deane's claim, stating that he had invented it "in an ill-fated attempt to disguise the fact that an unarmed man had been shot". He sentenced Deane to a conditional sentence of two years less a day to be served in the community, and 180 hours of community service.

Deane unsuccessfully appealed the verdict to the Ontario Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court of Canada. In September 2001, he pled guilty to discreditable conduct under the Police Services Act and in January 2002 was ordered to resign. He later worked in security at an Ontario Hydro nuclear station. On February 25, 2006, he died in a car accident when his vehicle collided with a semi-truck near Prescott. He died at the scene. He was to testify at the Ipperwash inquiry in a few weeks.

Inquiry
The George family repeatedly called on the Ontario and federal governments to launch an inquiry into the events at Ipperwash. A public inquiry was launched on November 12, 2003, after the Ontario Conservatives lost power to Dalton McGuinty's Ontario Liberal Party in the 2003 election.

The public inquiry was funded by the Government of Ontario but conducted by a neutral third party, Sidney B. Linden, pursuant to his powers as commissioner established under the Ontario Public Inquiries Act. The inquiry's mandate was to inquire and report on events surrounding the death of Dudley George. The inquiry was also asked to make recommendations that would avoid violence in similar circumstances in the future. The inquiry was neither a civil nor criminal trial.

During the inquiry, a 17-minute tape recording surfaced that cast new light on the events at Ipperwash. The tape records a conversation between OPP Inspector Ron Fox and Inspector John Carson, the OPP commander overseeing the standoff at Ipperwash, prior to George's death. They discussed Premier Mike Harris's view that the government has "tried to pacify and pander to these people far too long" and to use "swift affirmative action" to remove them from the park.

Other testimony has further put the Harris government in a bad light. In particular, former Harris aide Deb Hutton repeatedly testified in November, 2005 that she couldn't remember any specific conversations. This led Julian Falconer, acting as counsel for Aboriginal Legal Services of Toronto, to pointedly remark on cross-examination that Hutton had used phrases to the effect of "I don't recall" on 134 separate occasions in her in-chief testimony. Former Ontario Attorney General Charles Harnick also testified that Harris shouted, "I want the fucking Indians out of the park." Later witnesses denied Harnick's evidence, but the Ipperwash Inquiry concluded that Harnick's testimony was credible and that Premier Harris did in fact make the remarks (Report of the Ipperwash Inquiry, Vol.1, p. 363).

Harris appeared before the inquiry on February 14, 2006. He testified that he had never said the statement attributed to him by Harnick. Justice Linden "found the statements were made and they were racist, whether intended or not".

The evidentiary hearings of the inquiry ended on June 28, 2006. Justice Linden's final report and findings of the inquiry were released on May 31, 2007.

Return of land

On December 20, 2007, the Ontario government announced its intention to return the 56-hectare Ipperwash Provincial Park to its original owners, the Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point First Nation. The decision did not take immediate effect, as the land will be "co-managed" by the province and the Chippewas, with consultation from the surrounding community, for the time being. According to Aboriginal Affairs Minister Michael Bryant, the land will be fully returned over an unspecified period of time, until the Chippewas have full control.

On Thursday May 28, 2009, Ontario Aboriginal Affairs Minister Brad Duguid formally signed over control of Ipperwash Park to the Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point First Nation.

The settlement was finalized on April 14, 2016. Along with a $95 million payment, the land was signed over to the Kettle and Stoney Point First Nation by Minister of National Defence Harjit Sajjan and Minister of Indigenous and Northern Affairs Carolyn Bennett. Chief Thomas Bressette signed the agreement on behalf of the band.

See also
One Dead Indian
Oka Crisis
Burnt Church Crisis
Gustafsen Lake Standoff
Caledonia Land Dispute

References

Sources

External links
Indepth: Ipperwash from CBC News
Ipperwash Inquiry homepage
Hedican, Edward J., "The Ipperwash Inquiry and the Tragic Death of Dudley George", Canadian Journal of Native Studies 28:1 (2008)

Indigenous conflicts in Canada
Ontario political scandals
Protest-related deaths
1995 in Canada
1995 in Ontario
Indigenous peoples in Ontario
1996 in Ontario
Conflicts in 1995
Canadian commissions and inquiries

Ipperwash Crisis


The Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP, )  is a centre-left Islamic Socialist political party in Pakistan affiliated to the Socialist International. To date, its leader has always been a member of the Bhutto family. The Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians (PPPP) is a party formed in 2002 by the PPP for the purpose of complying with electoral rules governing Pakistani parties.

The party was founded on November 30 1967 by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto who was also its first chairman. The party creed is: "Islam is our faith; democracy is our politics; socialism is our economy; all power to the people."

Although its center lies in the southern province of Sindh, it also has considerable support in the more densely populated province of Punjab and even Azad Jammu and Kashmir as Azad Kashmir People's Party (Pakistan People's Party Jammu and Kashmir). It is currently in power and has been running the government since 2008; this is the 4th time the party has been in power since the Partition of Pakistan.

Further reading

Socialist International
Social democratic parties in Asia
Political parties in Pakistan

Pakistan People's Party


Aleksei Sergeyevich Suvorin (Russian: Алексей Сергеевич Суворин, 11 September 1834, Korshevo, Voronezh Governorate – 11 August 1912, Tsarskoye Selo) was a newspaper and book publisher and journalist whose publishing empire wielded considerable influence during the last decades of the Russian Empire.

He set out as a liberal journalist but, like many of his contemporaries, he experienced a dramatic shift in views, gradually drifting towards nationalism.

Early career
Suvorin was a quintessential selfmade man. Born of a peasant family, he succeeded in gaining access to a military school at Voronezh from which he graduated in 1850. In the following year, he arrived in St. Petersburg and joined a major artillery school there. With limited prospects of pursuing a military career, he spent eight years in his native haunts, teaching history and geography, first in Bobrov and then in Voronezh. No one could have predicted that within two or three decades, the provincial teacher would rise to become one of the most influential men in the empire.

A major step forward in his career was in 1861, when, electrified by the Emancipation Manifesto, he relocated to Moscow, where he found himself at the periphery of a burgeoning literary scene. At first money was tight, instigating Suvorin to move to St. Petersburg, where he joined the staff of the St. Petersburg Vedomosti, an influential newspaper with liberal leanings. He soon became its leading contributor and secretary to the editor in chief. Suvorin's feuilletons, published under the pen name "Stranger", were an instant sensation and inspired him to turn his attention to more creative writing.

Publishing
Suvorin's personality as a writer is somewhat overshadowed by his journalism. Nevertheless, he was very prolific and published a number of short stories and plays in the major outlets of the liberal media of which he was considered a leader. Capitalising on that success, Suvorin set up a publishing venture in 1871. Among his first publications was the Russian Calendar, which was in high demand all over Russia, followed by an unprecedented series of cheap editions of classics, both foreign and Russian. For more demanding readers, he issued a suite of richly illustrated albums about the great art galleries of Europe.

In the late 19th century, he launched a series of city directories, published on an annual basis (each were between 500 and 1500 pages long) for St. Petersburg, Moscow and the rest of Russia that detailed the names and addresses of private residents, government offices, public services and medium and large businesses. They are often referred to as the Suvorin directories, from the publisher's name. The directories are often used by modern genealogists to trace family members who lived in Imperial and early Soviet Russia when vital records are missing or prove difficult to find. Historians use them to research the social histories of late 19th century and early 20th century Russia.

By the end of the century, Suvorin's bookstores were everywhere, in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Odessa, Rostov, Saratov. He held a monopoly on the distribution of printed matter on the railway stations and trains, and he was probably the most influential publisher in the country.

Novoye Vremya

In 1876, Suvorin acquired ownership of the failing newspaper Novoye Vremya ("New Times"); he remained the editor in chief until his death. In 1880, he founded a reputable historical journal, Istorichesky Vestnik. He confessed to favour the newspaper over his family and worked hard to expand its circulation. By the end of the 1880s, Novoye Vremya counted as one of the most profitable and up-to-date enterprises in the Russian publishing industry.

The venture brought him an opportunity of influencing the younger generation with his conservative and increasingly reactionary pronouncements in the vein of Mikhail Katkov and Konstantin Pobedonostsev. Novoye Vremya enthusiastically supported the policies of anti-Semitism and russification promoted by the government of Alexander III.

In his book on the Russian Revolution of 1905, one of the former leaders of that revolution, Leon Trotsky, described Suvorin's hatred for even the very idea of revolution, which Suvorin portrayed in a bizarrely twisted misogynistic way: "'Revolution,' old Suvorin, that arch-reptile of the Russian bureaucracy, wrote at the end of November [1905], 'gives an extraordinary elan to men and gains a multitude of devoted, fanatical adherents who are prepared to sacrifice their lives.  The struggle against revolution is so difficult precisely because it has so much fervor, courage, sincere eloquence, and ardent enthusiasm to contend with.  The stronger the enemy, the more resolute and courageous revolution becomes, and with every victory it attracts a swarm of admirers.  Anyone who does not know this, who does not know that revolution is attractive like a young, passionate woman with arms flung wide, showering avid kisses on you with hot, feverish lips, has never been young.'"

During Suvorin's declining years, Vasily Rozanov and several other popular journalists of his newspaper were allowed considerable discretion in airing their idiosyncratic views. They pioneered a new style of adversary journalism, which frequently bordered on personal attacks.

Suvorin's intense dislike of reform and reformers was deeply entrenched: back in 1873, his first wife had been shot dead by her lover, a liberal officer who proceeded to commit suicide. Another influence was Fyodor Dostoyevsky, with whom he was on close terms, especially during the last year of the novelist's life. Suvorin was succeeded at the helm of the family business by one of his sons. His grave is in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra.

Suvorin Theatre

Ever since the 1860s, Suvorin had been interested in theatre and regularly published theatrical criticism. He befriended Anton Chekhov, when the latter was an aspiring journalist and became one of his few intimates. Their extensive correspondence is captivating reading. It illustrates the evolution of Chekhov's views on all aspects of Russia's life over the years. It has been noted that Chekhov was so blinded by his affection towards Suvorin that he wrote a one-act sequel to his anti-Semitic play.

By the second half of the 1890s, when Chekhov finally distanced himself from Suvorin, the latter had plunged headlong into theatre. With secure financial backing, he launched his own stage company in 1895. His powerful connections allowed him to get the censorship lifted on Leo Tolstoy's The Power of Darkness, which was premiered at his theatre. Before long, Suvorin's predilection for controversial pieces made his theatre unpopular with liberal elites. At the opening night of The Sons of Israel (1900), "the actors were pelted with apples, galoshes, and other missiles".

The reputation of Suvorin's theatre was so negative that after completing The Cherry Orchard, Chekhov wrote to his wife that he would not give the play to Suvorin even if he offered him 100,000 rubles and that he despised Suvorin's establishment. Despite the negative publicity, the company survived its founder and continued to operate profitably until the October Revolution, under the name Maly Imperial Theatre (Малый Императорский Театр). In retrospect, it appears to have been "the most important private theatre in St. Petersburg".

Since 1920, the building of the theatre, at 65 Fontanka Embankment, became the home of Bolshoi Drama Theatre (now known as Tovstonogov Drama Theatre).

References

Sources
Динерштейн Е.А. А.С. Суворин: Человек, сделавший карьеру. . Moscow, 1998.
Ambler, Effie. The Career of Aleksei S. Suvorin, Russian Journalism and Politics, 1861–1881. Wayne State University Press, 1972.
Encyclopaedia of St. Petersburg

1834 births
1912 deaths
People from Bobrovsky District
People from Bobrovsky Uyezd
Members of the Russian Assembly
Journalists from the Russian Empire
19th-century newspaper publishers (people)
Newspaper publishers (people) from the Russian Empire
Book publishers (people) from the Russian Empire
Burials at Nikolskoe Cemetery

Aleksey Suvorin


Louis XVI (23 August 1754  21 January 1793) was the King of France from 1774 until 1792, when the monarchy was abolished during the French Revolution. His overthrow and execution ended a monarchy that was over 1,000 years old, although he was not the last French king.

Louis came from the House of Bourbon. He became the king at the age of 20, after the death of his grandfather Louis XV. Early in his reign, he tried to make France more modern. He stopped the government from using torture and allowed people to be Protestant again. He and his minister Turgot took away some laws on selling grain, which led to high grain prices in years when the harvest was bad. He also supported the Americans in their war for independence from Great Britain. Debts from this war, other war debts and the outdated tax system caused major money problems in France. Louis's plans to solve the problems were blocked by the nobles. The money problems and the new ideas of the Age of Enlightenment caused more people to stop supporting the existing monarchy (the Ancien Régime) and demand change.

In 1789, Louis called the Estates-General (a parliament) to try to solve the problems. As a leader who was weak-willed and did not want to change the country much, he soon disappointed the elected politicians who wanted to reduce the king's powers. Protests against the monarchy became more common, especially among the poorer people of Paris and the middle class. This led to the Storming of the Bastille in July and the Women's March on Versailles in October. These events caused the king to lose control of the country to the National Assembly.

At first, the Assembly did not plan to abolish the monarchy. But the idea became more popular as rebellions and protests broke out across France, more radical politicians started to lead the government, money problems became worse and foreign governments threatened to invade. Louis and his wife Marie Antoinette slowly became unpopular symbols of the Ancien Régime that people wanted to leave behind. Their failed escape from Paris in June 1791 was a disaster. It convinced many people that they were plotting with foreign governments to overthrow the Assembly. He was arrested during a riot in August 1792 and the monarchy was abolished the next month. The government took away his titles, calling him Citizen Louis Capet, taking the surname from Hugh Capet, an early French king. He was put on trial by the National Convention, found guilty of treason, and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793. He was the only king of France to be executed.

Early life and marriage

Louis XVI was born in 1754 during the reign of his grandfather King Louis XV while his grandmother was the popular Queen Marie Leczinska. His father was Louis Ferdinand, Dauphin of France, the heir to the throne. His mother was Marie Josephe of Saxony. His parents liked his older brother more than Louis and were upset when Louis's brother died while still a child. Louis's parents turned against him and he became a shy boy. His father died early in Louis's life and Louis became the heir to the throne. Because of this, he took the title of dauphin.

In 1770, when Louis was 15, he married Marie Antoinette, an Austrian princess. They had met only two days before the wedding. Many people in France did not want Louis to have an Austrian wife, because France's alliance with Austria was not popular. The two countries had been enemies until 1756, when they had become allies. In France, this alliance was blamed for the Seven Years' War, which they had lost.  Louis and Marie Antoinette were not close in the early years of their marriage, but they did grow to love each other. It was not until 1777 that they had sexual relations. They did not manage to have children for several years after that. This made the marriage difficult. The situation was made worse when rude pamphlet called libelles were published. These libelles mocked them for not being able to have children. One asked: "Can the King do it? Can't the King do it?" In the end, he and Marie Antoinette had four children:

 Marie Thérèse of France (December 19, 1778)
 Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France (October 22, 1781)
 Louis XVII of France (March 27, 1785)
 Sophie of France (July 9, 1787)

They also adopted six children.

Reign as an absolute monarch

Louis became the king when Louis XV died in 1774. He was 20 years old. Louis took charge of a country which had big problems. After the Seven Year's War, France was no longer the most powerful country in Europe. The country had debts because of the war, and because its tax system was outdated. Many nobles and other rich people could avoid paying taxes, something that many ordinary people hated. It was also the Age of Enlightenment, a time when people were becoming more interested in ideas like democracy and liberalism. A growing number of people opposed the absolute monarchy of France.

Louis wanted to be a good, popular king. One of his early decisions was to give powers back to the parlements that had been taken away in the later reign of Louis XV. The parlements were not parliaments in the modern meaning; they were not elected assemblies of politicians. The parlements were actually important regional courts and their judges supported the local nobles. They often stopped the kings from changing the country and stopped laws from having an effect in their provinces. When he brought back the parlements, Louis said "It seems to me to be the general wish and I want to be loved." He chose the Comte de Maurepas to be his main advisor, and Maurepas served in this role until his death in 1781. He also chose Anne Robert Jacques Turgot to be his minister of finance.

Turgot suggested they should relax the laws that limited when grain could be sold and how much it could be sold for. However, these changes caused high grain prices in years when the harvest was bad. This caused the Flour War protests in 1775. Some of Turgot's other reforms were blocked by the nobles and parlements. In 1776, Louis changed his mind and sacked Turgot. He replaced him with Jacques Necker. Necker tried to publish a complete list of everything the government was spending money on, but this ended up hiding much of the spending. In 1783, Louis then chose Charles Alexandre de Calonne as his main minister of finance.

Louis and his government supported the Americans in the American Revolutionary War, because they wanted to weaken Great Britain. They wanted revenge because they had lost Quebec to the British in the Seven Years' War. The Americans won and the British agreed to let them be independent in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. However, their other attempts to weaken the British Empire were mostly stopped because their navy lost the Battle of the Saintes, and France did not gain many new lands. Moreover, the debts from the war worsened the government's money problems. By 1787, the money problems were out of control.

Louis called an Assembly of Notables, a meeting of the most senior French nobles, to discuss how to solve the money problems. He wanted to stop the nobles and parlements from blocking his attempts to solve them. But the nobles were shocked when they learned how bad the problems were and refused to help. Louis also tried to stop the Parlement of Paris from getting in the way, even arresting two of members, but it did not work because too many people supported the parlement. He also brought back Jacques Necker. Louis decided he had no choice but to call the Estates-General, the French parliament, which had not met since 1614.

French Revolution

The Estates-General of 1789 began sitting in May. Like previous Estates-General, it was designed to represent the "three estates" that made up French society. A quarter of its members were elected by the First Estate (Catholic Church priests), another quarter were elected by the Second Estate (the nobles) and the other half were elected by wealthy people from the Third Estate (everyone else). The politicians of the Third Estate wanted to talk about changing French society and reducing the powers of the king, but the king only wanted them to talk about taxes. He very quickly managed to annoy these politicians. For example, they were told that all members would have an equal vote, but then the king decided instead that the Third Estate members would only have half a vote. The Third Estate members thought it was unfair that they represented 95% of the population, but had only a third of the power in the Estates-General.

In June 1789, the Third Estate members announced that they were the National Assembly. Louis tried to stop them from meeting. On 20 June, all but one of those members signed the Tennis Court Oath. They promised that they would stay together until the king agreed to reduce his powers. Although Louis did offer some more rights to the Third Estate, they decided that this was not enough. On 11 July, Louis sacked many advisors who supported the National Assembly. This included Jacques Necker, who was quite popular. Ordinary people in Paris strongly supported Necker and the National Assembly. They began to fear that the king was going to stop the National Assembly. A riot broke out, leading to the Storming of the Bastille on 14 July.

Louis backed down and agreed to let the National Assembly run the country. The National Assembly started to carry out some dramatic changes to France. They passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and ended the laws that allowed the nobles to be treated better than ordinary people.

On 5 October 1789, a crowd of protestors (mostly women) gathered in Paris to protest the high price of bread. They decided to have a march to the Palace of Versailles. where the king lived. They broke into the palace. Some guards were killed, and the rest did not stop them. The protestors demanded that the royal family come with them to Paris. Louis did not want to come, but he gave in to their demands. He signed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and went with them to Paris. He moved into the older Tuileries Palace.

Either the Storming of the Bastille or the Women's March on Versailles could be seen as the moment the king lost control of his country.

Failed escape

Louis would not be content as puppet king for very long. He was unhappy with the way he, his family and the church were being treated. The moderate politicians were losing support to more radical ones. But even though he was really a prisoner in the Tuileries Palace, Louis had allies in the army and other countries who would have supported the king over the politicians. Louis and Marie Antoinette planned to escape from the Tuileries on the night of June 21, 1791, disguised as servants. The royal family travelled towards the Fortress of Montmédy, which was a base for soldiers who supported the king and was on the border with the Austrian Netherlands. On their way to Montmédy, they were caught in the village of Varennes and forced to return to Paris. This incident became known as the flight to Varennes.

When Louis and his family were brought back to the Tuileries, guards now watched over them far more. Whether rightly or wrongly, many people in France believed that the king and queen were plotting with foreign governments to restore the absolute monarchy. The next year, these tensions led to France starting a war with Austria and Prussia. In July 1792, Prussia's Duke of Brunswick wrote "We will destroy Paris into the ground if anything happens to our royal majesty, the king and queen." He was trying to help the king and queen, but instead it did the opposite.

Arrest and execution

Arrest
In August 1792, a riot broke out in Paris. A crowd of protestors, encouraged by radical politicians, invaded the Tuileries. Louis was arrested on 13 August and sent to the Temple, an ancient Paris fortress used as a prison. On September 21, the National Convention (the new National Assembly) declared France to be a republic and abolished the monarchy. They took away Louis's titles and gave him an ordinary name: Louis Capet. They believed that Capet should be his surname because he was related to the House of Capet.

Execution

Louis was charged with several crimes, with the National Convention (the new National Assembly) acting as the judge. The main crime they accused him of was plotting with Austria to restore the absolute monarchy. They quickly voted that he was guilty. Nobody at the Convention liked Louis, but the Girondins at least wanted to spare his life. Maximilien Robespierre and the Montagnards said that he should be killed, and more than half of the members voted to have him executed. Many of them believed that they were not just punishing Louis for a crime, but also destroying the idea of monarchy.

For the last time, Louis was reunited to his family and promised to come back the next morning, but he did not. On his way to the guillotine, Louis said "I trust that my death will be for the happiness of my people, but I grieve for France, and I fear that she may suffer the anger of the Lord." Before his execution, he made a speech saying "I die innocent of all the crimes that I was accused of; I forgive those who have caused my death; and I pray to God that the blood you are going to shed may never bring harm upon France." He tried to say more, but his speech was drowned out by a roll of drums. He was executed on January 21, 1793 in Place de la Revolution (now Place de la Concorde) in central Paris. He was 38 years old. Marie Antoinette was executed nine months later.

Legacy

At first, Louis was buried in a nearby graveyard. In 1815, his and Marie Antoinette's remains were moved to the Basilica of Saint Denis, the traditional burial site for French kings. There are statues of them in the church. The Chapelle expiatoire was also built as a memorial to him, on the site of his original grave. The composers Luigi Cherubini and Paul Wranitzky both wrote funeral music in memory of him. Louisville, the largest city in Kentucky, was named after him because of his support for the American Revolution.

Louis XVI would not be the last French king. Two of Louis's brothers would become kings after the 1814 Bourbon Restoration: Louis XVIII and Charles X. Louis XVI's sons had died of diseases before then, and his daughter could not inherit the throne. The last French king was Louis-Philippe I, their distant relative. The last French monarch was Napoleon III, who was an emperor rather than a king.

In the 19th century, the French historians Jules Michelet and Alphonse de Lamartine noted how many French people came to feel sorry for Louis XVI, and this led to the monarchy being brought back in 1814. Although they did not agree on everything, both historians said that ending the monarchy in 1792 was the right decision, but that the king and queen should not have been killed. Michelet said that these executions encouraged more executions, leading to the Reign of Terror.

References

Other websites

Dauphins and Dauphines of France
Executed French people
Kings and Queens of France
People executed by decapitation
Princes of Andorra
1754 births
1793 deaths
People of the French Revolution

Louis XVI


Rapids are found on rivers. Rapids are formed by one or more of the following:  constriction, obstruction, gradient, and flow rate.  For instance, when water is flowing swiftly over a rocky river bed, rapids can be formed.  Rapids are typically found in or near the mountains, due to the element of gradient.  Formally, the word "rapids" is always plural, (like "scissors" and "trousers"), but is often used in the singular when speaking of a specific rapid or when it would be grammatically awkward; e.g., "Sweet's Falls Rapids vs. Sweet's Falls Rapid).  The word "rapid" means "very fast."

Because of the splash made by the water going over rocks, rapids are also called "whitewater". Some people enjoying whitewater canoeing or whitewater rafting as a sport.

Related pages
 Waterfall

Rivers

Rapids


Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian conditioning) is a type of learning that happens subconsciously.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was the first to show the way in which it works. He did this in an experiment using dogs. Pavlov noticed that the dogs naturally salivated when they saw food. This behaviour did not need to be taught. In this example, the food is an unconditioned stimulus. He paired this unconditioned stimulus (showing food to the dogs) with another, neutral stimulus: the ringing of a bell. Pavlov discovered that, if the two stimuli are presented together again and again, the organism learns that they belong together. As a result, it is enough to show the neutral stimulus to get a conditioned response or reflex.

Classical conditioning is an important factor in everyday life. It can be applied in many areas such as behavioural therapies, responses to drugs and in modern day marketing strategies.

Classical conditioning is different from operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a different kind of learning. It happens when an individual or animal learns a behaviour as a result of a consequence of that behaviour. For example, a child may learn to open a box to get some sweets. So, when a behaviour has a good result, the organism learns to associate the behaviour with this good result. As such, learning the behaviour and repeating it.

So, operant conditioning explains voluntary changes in behaviour. Classical conditioning explains how reflexes are trained.

Terminology
Unconditioned stimulus: This is the thing that causes an automatic response. In Pavlov's experiment, the unconditioned stimulus is the food.

Unconditioned response: This is what naturally happens when a person or animal experiences the unconditioned stimulus. Such as salivating from the sight of food.

Conditioned stimulus: This is the neutral stimulus (the ringing of a bell). When it is frequently presented together with the unconditioned stimulus, it will start to cause the same automatic response.

Conditioned response: This is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus (the bell). It is the same as the unconditioned response. At the end of Pavlov's experiment, the dogs salivated at the sound of the bell, even when no food was shown.

Generalisation: This happens when an organism responds in the same way when presented with similar things. For example, the dogs salivate when they hear similar bells because they generalise what they learned.

Discrimination: This is the opposite to generalisation. The dogs will not salivate when they hear a whistle because they can tell the difference.

Extinction: Extinction happens when the conditioned stimulus (the bell) is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (the food) for a long amount of time. In the end, the dog will unlearn the conditioned response. The conditioned response becomes extinct.

Applications

Behavioural therapies
The same learning process that develops a conditioned response can be used to teach a new behaviour or change old ones. Some mental health therapies are often linked to classical conditioning.

Aversion therapy aims to stop a harmful behaviour by replacing a positive response with a negative one. This makes a person associate the harmful behaviour with a bad feeling. For example, a doctor can give a person a medicine that makes them sick (unwell) if they drink alcohol. This person will learn to associate the drinking of alcohol with feeling ill.

Systematic desensitisation is often used to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders. The person is exposed to what they fear or what causes them to feel anxious. The therapy aims to condition a response of relaxation instead. This is a form of counterconditioning. In time, the feared stimulus produces a conditioned response of relaxation.

Flooding is similar to desensitisation. This therapy directly exposes the person to their phobias and anxieties. For example, a person who is claustrophobic is locked in a small room for some time. This aims to expose the person to their feared thing in a safe environment and help them overcome their fears.

Conditioned drug response
There are two kinds of conditioned drug responses.

First, a drug user may become more tolerant to a drug if it is taken in similar surroundings (a similar setting) every time. This is because the familiar setting will bring about a compensatory response. As a result, taking the drug in similar settings will help your body tolerate the drug. Alternatively, taking the drug outside of the regular setting will make it harder (more difficult) for your body to manage its effects. For this reason, overdose is more common when a user takes a drug in a new setting.

In other cases, the opposite may happen. If a stimulus is present every time a drug is taken, the stimulus alone may produce a conditioned physiological response the same as the effect of the drug. For example, people who drink lots of coffee may experience the feeling of being alert (wide awake) from the smell of coffee. So, without drinking coffee, they experience the same effects from only the smell.

Modern culture
Classical conditioning theory is used in the modern day to elicit a certain response. A common example is its use in advertising. Advertisers will attempt to make consumers associate their product with a good feeling or response. For example, beauty adverts will use models with clear skin to advertise their products. This will make people associate the product with smooth, healthy skin.

Other examples of strategies used to make a positive advertisement are using happy music, good-looking models and cute animals and babies.

References

Psychology
Experiments

Classical conditioning