Pancakes (also called "griddlecakes", "hotcakes" or  "flapjacks") are a kind of bread made on a frying pan. They are baked in different ways, such as thin French crêpes or Vermont-style multigrain pancakes. Although it is mainly called "pancake" in the English speaking countries and it is thin dough, in Mexico, it is called "hotcake" and it is often thick dough. Most pancakes are quick breads that use baking powder, although some are also made using a yeast-raised or fermented batter.

In many different places, pancakes are served as breakfast or dessert, and they are served with sweet sauces or toppings such as maple syrup, jam, or sugar. Pancakes are also served with savory (non-sweet) fillings and toppings such as meat pie.

How pancakes are made
Some  pancakes have a leavening agent (something that makes the pancake rise while cooking), usually baking powder, eggs, flour, and milk, which makes a thick batter. This batter is either spooned or poured onto a hot surface which is coated in cooking oil or melted butter. The batter spreads to make a cake about 1/4 or 1/3 inch (1 cm) thick. The raising agent makes bubbles rise to the uncooked side of the pancake, where now the pancake is ready to be flipped (turned over).

At the end, the pancakes are very light in texture and are often served at breakfast topped with maple syrup, butter, or fruit. Vermont pancakes usually have a secondary grain added to the wheat flour, either oatmeal or buckwheat flour. Both of these recipes need more baking powder to leaven. In these pancakes, the texture is coarser, and the flavor is deeper, rather like toasted nuts.

Variety of pancakes

North American (Canada and the United States) style pancakes
Some pancakes served in restaurants are 3 to 4 pancakes of more or less 14 cm (5 inch) diameter. A smaller number may be ordered by asking for a "silver dollar" pancake is the same as a pancake about 7 cm (3 inches) in diameter - these pancakes are usually served in groups of five or ten.

British pancakes
British pancakes have three main ingredients: white flour, eggs, and milk. Some people also add melted butter to the batter. The batter is quite runny and makes a thin layer on the bottom of the frying pan when the pan is tipped to one side. It may form some colours during cooking, which result in a dark pancake with pale spots where the mix was, but the pancake does not rise. British pancakes don't rise as much as other pancakes because they have a different recipe.

These pancakes may be eaten with the traditional topping of lemon juice and sugar, or wrapped around savory stuffing and eaten as a main course. When baked instead of fried, this batter rises (even though it has no raising agents such as baking powder, it rises because the air beaten into the batter expands) and is known as Yorkshire pudding. British pancakes are similar to French crêpes, and Italian crespelle, but do not look "lacy".

However, in Scotland pancakes, known as Scotch pancakes or drop scones in the rest of Britain, are more like the American variation and are served as such (see below). Scotch pancakes often have sugar in the batter.

Scottish pancakes
Scottish pancake and fruit crumpet. Pancakes similar to the North American pancake but smaller (usually about 3.5 in / 9 cm across) are known in the British Isles as Scotch pancakes or (after the traditional method of dropping batter onto a griddle) drop-scones, and in Australia and New Zealand as pikelets. They can be served with jam and cream or just with butter. In the U.S. these are known as "silver dollar pancakes" because each pancake is about the size of an old-style U.S. silver dollar (with Eisenhower on the face, no longer minted).

In Scotland, they are rarely served for breakfast, but are usually served for dessert. They are available plain, or as a fruit pancake with raisins baked in, and larger thinner crumpets are made from the same recipe by watering down the mix. The griddle is generally called a girdle in Scotland.

French crêpes

French crêpes, popular in France, the French-speaking Canadian province of Quebec, and Brazil (where they are usually called pancake, or only crêpe) are made from flour, milk, and a relatively large proportion of eggs (compared with other types of pancakes). Due to their thinness, they are usually served with a filling such as fruit or ice cream. Maple syrup or other sweetened sauces are sometimes served with crêpes. Crêpes are also served as a dinner meal, by filling them with seafood or other meats.

Crêpes made out of buckwheat flour are known as galettes.

German pancakes
German pancakes often served in American pancake houses, are shaped like a bowl. They come in a variety of sizes, some quite large and nearly impossible for one person to finish. They are commonly eaten with lemons and powdered sugar, although jam is sometimes used as well. The pancakes eaten in Germany, however, are of the British variety. They are called Pfannkuchen, although in some areas (Berlin, Brandenburg, Saxonia) that is instead the local name for Berliner, a type of doughnut. Pancakes are called Eierkuchen (meaning "egg cake") there. In Swabia, cut pancakes (Flädle) are a traditional soup ingredient.

Austrian pancakes

In Austria, pancakes are called Palatschinken, a word which comes from Latin "placenta" by way of Romanian, and are usually filled with apricot jam but are also known to have a pleasing taste filled with a chocolate sauce or hazel nut spread. Similar pancakes with similar names can be found throughout the former Austria-Hungary (today Austria, Bosnia, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia and Serbia), (see Palatschinken). In Central Europe, there are also very popular pancakes called 321, which are prepared very quickly and easily. The recipe consists of three ingredients: 3 eggs, 2 cups of milk, and 1 cup of plain flour.

Scandinavian pancakes
Scandinavian pancakes are similar to British pancakes. They are traditionally served with jam and/or ice cream or whipped cream, although they may also be served as a main dish with a variety of savoury fillings. Traditional Swedish variations can be somewhat exotic. Some resemble British pancakes with a tiny diameter; these are called plättar, and they are fried several at a time in a special pan.

Others are like German pancakes but include fried pork in the batter; these are cooked in an oven. There are also potato pancakes, called raggmunk. These contain shredded raw potato and, sometimes, other vegetables. If the actual pancake batter is left out, the fried cakes of grated potatoes are called rårakor. Both the last two kinds are eaten traditionally with pork rinds and/or lingonberry jam.

Vegan pancakes
Vegan pancakes are not associated with any nationality, however they are a different and popular type of pancake. Vegan pancakes try to be like the American pancake by using direct substitutes such as egg substitute and soy milk. However, some kinds use baking soda and occasionally a small amount of vinegar as raising agents.

Indonesian pancakes
In Malaysia and Singapore a pancake-like snack is made with a filling, usually cheese or kaya but occasionally bean paste, ground peanut, blueberry or custard. There are other interesting variations, such as those made with soya bean replacing some of the flour. More commonly seen are serabis, pancakes made with rice flour and coconut milk and smothered with a sauce made from coconut milk and palm sugar (or brown sugar).

Eastern European blintz and blini
In Russia, Poland, Lithuania and Ukraine, blintz and blini are made from wheat or buckwheat flour, yeast, butter, eggs and milk. Blini come from the French crêpes which were introduced during before the time of the Soviet Union.

Mexican hot cakes
In Mexico they are generally called "hot cakes" rather than "pancakes". They are similar in style to pancakes served in the U.S. but are perhaps more likely to mix or replace wheat flour with corn. As well as being a popular breakfast at restaurants in all parts of the country, "hotcakes" are often sold on the streets of Mexico City and other cities and during the local celebrations of small towns at all hours of the day and night.  These vendors sell a single cake topped with some kind of sweet sauce.

Other kinds
In Ethiopia, injera is made from a fermented sourdough batter of buckwheat or the more traditional teff. Unlike North American and European pancakes, the injera is not served with sweet sauces or sugar. Instead, it is served with meat sauce, vegetables, and cooked eggs.

In Hungary, palacsinta are made from flour, milk and soda water, sugar, and eggs. They are served as a main dish. They are also served as a dessert. However, this depends on the filling. Sweet wine can also be added to the batter.
In Italy, cannelloni are made from pancake batter or noodle dough. They are then filled, covered with cheese, and baked.

In the Middle East, pita is made from flour and yeast.In India, dosa are made from rice flour and fried in a skillet. In Chinese cooking, green onion pancakes are the thin pancakes made with buckwheat flour and green onions, served with moo shu dishes. In Egypt, katief is made.  In Venezuela, pancakes are topped with butter and white cheese.

In Japan, Dorayaki is popular and it's like a sweet sandwich with bean paste and two pancake-like patties of castella.

Serving

Most types of pancake, (but not the Breton galette), are cooked one side at a time and flipped (turned over) by the cook halfway through. Tossing a pancake well can be quite difficult, but good cooks become very good at it, tossing them high in the air.

North American pancakes can be made sweet or savoury by adding foods like blueberries, strawberries, cheese or bacon to the batter; bananas or chocolate chips are sometimes dipped in the batter too. British pancakes can be stuffed (put things in the middle) after cooking with a wide variety of sweet or savoury fillings. Both are often sweetened after cooking by pouring on syrup or sprinkling with powdered sugar.

In Canada and the United States, the pancake is usually a breakfast food made in a person's home. Pancakes are also served at restaurants and diners.

In Britain, pancakes are eaten as a dessert, or served savoury with a main meal. They are also traditionally eaten on Shrove Tuesday which is also known as "Pancake Day". (Shrove Tuesday is better known in the United States, France and other countries as Mardi Gras or Fat Tuesday.) According to tradition, this used to be done in order to use up the last of the fat and rich foods before Lent which was a time when people did not eat rich foods.  Charity or school events are often organised on Pancake Day.

In the Netherlands pancakes are called pannekoeken and eaten at dinner. Pancake restaurants are popular family restaurants and serve many varieties of sweet, savoury, and stuffed pancakes.  The Netherlands also has another kind of pancake called "poffertjes".  Each poffertje is quite small.  They are cooked on a large griddle with lots of holes for each poffertje.  The cook pours the batter quickly into all the holes by pouring up and down the rows.  When they are cooked,several poffertjes are put on a plate and sprinkled with icing sugar and melted butter.  There is often a poffertje stall at Dutch markets.

In Sweden and in Finland it is traditional to eat yellow pea soup followed by pancakes on Thursdays. A smaller pancake, often called a "silver dollar" pancake, is sometimes used to make hors d'oeuvres in place of crackers or other bread-like items.

Banana pancakes are a popular item in Western-oriented backpackers' cafes in many Asian countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, India, and China.

References

Breakfast foods
Cakes

Pancake


Olympias (; c. 375–316 BC) was a Greek princess of the Molossians, and the eldest daughter of king Neoptolemus I of Epirus, the sister of Alexander I of Epirus, the fourth wife of Philip II, the king of Macedonia and the mother of Alexander the Great. She was extremely influential in Alexander's life and was recognized as de facto leader of Macedon during Alexander's conquests. After her son's death, she fought on behalf of Alexander's son Alexander IV, successfully defeating Adea Eurydice. After she was finally defeated by Cassander, his armies refused to execute her, and he finally had to summon family members of those Olympias had previously killed to end her life. According to the 1st century AD biographer, Plutarch, she was a devout member of the orgiastic snake-worshiping cult of Dionysus, and he suggests that she slept with snakes in her bed.

Origin
Olympias was the eldest daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of the Molossians, an ancient Greek tribe in Epirus, and sister of Alexander I of Epirus. Her family belonged to the Aeacidae, a well-respected family of Epirus, which claimed descent from Neoptolemus, son of Achilles. Apparently, she was originally named Polyxena, as Plutarch mentions in his work Moralia, and changed her name to Myrtale prior to her marriage to Philip II of Macedon as part of her initiation into an unknown mystery cult.

The name Olympias was the third of four names by which she was known. She probably took it as a recognition of Philip's victory in the Olympic Games of 356 BC, the news of which coincided with Alexander's birth (Plut. Alexander 3.8). She was finally named Stratonice, which was probably an epithet attached to Olympias following her victory over Eurydice in 317 BC.

Queen of Macedonia
When Neoptolemus I died in 360 BC, his brother Arybbas succeeded him on the Molossian throne. In 358 BC, Arybbas made a treaty with the new king of Macedonia, Philip II, and the Molossians became allies of the Macedonians. The alliance was cemented with a diplomatic marriage between Arybbas' niece, Olympias, and Philip in 357 BC. It made Olympias the queen consort of Macedonia, and Philip the king. Philip had allegedly fallen in love with Olympias when both were initiated into the mysteries of Cabeiri at the Sanctuary of the Great Gods, on the island of Samothrace, though their marriage was largely political in nature.

One year later, in 356 BC, Philip's race horse won in the Olympic Games; for this victory, his wife, who was known then as Myrtale, received the name Olympias. In the summer of the same year, Olympias gave birth to her first child, Alexander. In ancient Greece people believed that the birth of a great man was accompanied by portents. As Plutarch describes, the night before the consummation of their marriage, Olympias dreamed that a thunderbolt fell upon her womb and a great fire was kindled, its flames dispersed all about and then were extinguished. After the marriage Philip dreamed that he put a seal upon his wife's womb, the device of which was the figure of a lion. Aristander's interpretation was that Olympias was pregnant of a son whose nature would be bold and lion-like. Philip and Olympias also had a daughter, Cleopatra, who later married her uncle, Alexander I of Epirus, to further diplomatic ties between Macedonia and Epirus.

According to primary sources, their marriage was very stormy due to Philip's volatility and Olympias' ambition and jealousy, which led to their growing estrangement. Things got more tumultuous in 337 BC when Philip married a noble Macedonian woman, Cleopatra, the niece of Attalus, who was given the name Eurydice by Philip. At a gathering after the marriage, Philip failed to defend Alexander's claim to the Macedonian throne when Attalus threatened his legitimacy, causing great tensions between Philip, Olympias, and Alexander. Olympias went into voluntary exile in Epirus along with Alexander, staying at the Molossian court of her brother Alexander I, who was the king at the time.

In 336 BC, Philip cemented his ties to Alexander I of Epirus by offering him the hand of his and Olympias' daughter Cleopatra in marriage, a fact that led Olympias to further isolation as she could no longer count on her brother's support. However, Philip was murdered by Pausanias, a member of Philip's somatophylakes, his personal bodyguard, while attending the wedding, and Olympias, who returned to Macedonia, was suspected of having countenanced his assassination.

Alexander's reign and the Wars of the Diadochi
After the death of Philip II, which Olympias was believed to have either ordered or been an accessory to according to some ancient historical accounts, Olympias was allegedly also involved in overseeing the execution of Eurydice and her child in order to secure Alexander's position as the rightful king of Macedonia. During Alexander's campaigns, she regularly corresponded with him and may have confirmed her son's claim in Egypt that his father was not Philip but Zeus. The relationship between Olympias and Alexander was cordial, but her son tried to keep her away from politics. However, she wielded great influence in Macedonia and caused troubles to Antipater, the regent of the kingdom. In 330 BC, she returned to Epirus and served as a regent to her cousin Aeacides in the Epirote state, as her brother Alexander I had died during a campaign in southern Italy.

After Alexander the Great's death in Babylon in 323 BC, his wife Roxana gave birth to their son named Alexander IV. Alexander IV and with his uncle Philip III Arrhidaeus, the half brother of Alexander the Great who may have been disabled, were subject to the regency of Perdiccas, who tried to strengthen his position through a marriage with Antipater's daughter Nicaea. At the same time, Olympias offered Perdiccas the hand of her and Philip's daughter, Cleopatra. Perdiccas chose Cleopatra, which angered Antipater, who allied himself with several other Diadochi, deposed Perdiccas, and was declared regent, only to die within the year.

Polyperchon succeeded Antipater in 319 BC as regent, but Antipater's son Cassander established Philip II's son Philip III (Arrhidaeus) as king and forced Polyperchon out of Macedonia. He fled to Epirus, taking Roxana and her son Alexander IV with him, who had previously been left in the care of Olympias. At the beginning, Olympias had not been involved in this conflict, but she soon realized that in the case of Cassander's rule, her grandson would lose the crown, so she allied with Polyperchon in 317 BC. The Macedonian soldiers supported her return and the united armies of Polyperchon and Olympias, with the house of Aeacides, invaded Macedonia to drive Cassander out from power.

After winning in battle by convincing the army of Adea Eurydice, the wife of Philip III, to side with her own, Olympias captured and executed the two in October 317 BC. She also captured Cassander's brother and a hundred of his partisans. Cassander soon blockaded and besieged Olympias in Pydna and one of the terms of the capitulation had been that Olympias's life would be saved, but Cassander had decided to execute her, sparing only temporarily the lives of Roxana and Alexander IV (they were executed a few years later in 309 BC). When the fortress of Pydna fell, Cassander ordered Olympias killed, but the soldiers refused to harm the mother of Alexander the Great. In the end, the families of her many victims stoned her to death with the approval of Cassander, who is also said to have denied to her body the rites of burial.

Iconography
A medal bearing the name "Olympias" was found in 1902 at Abu Qir, Egypt that dates back to AD 225–250, and belongs to the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki. The reverse shows a Nereid mounted on a fantastic sea creature. It had been suggested that the Olympias depicted on the medal was Queen Olympias, but this theory has been challenged. The name ΟΛΥΜΠΙΑΔΟΣ is thought to refer to the Olympiads instead.

In popular culture
 Olympias was portrayed by French actress Danielle Darrieux in the 1956 film Alexander the Great, a historical epic which starred Richard Burton as Alexander and Fredric March as his father.
 Olympias appears in Maurice Druon's 1960 novel Alexander the God.
 Olympias is a character in The Young Alexander the Great (1960) by Naomi Mitchison.
 Olympias appears in The Conqueror (1962) by Edison Marshall.
 Olympias is a character in Aubrey Menen's A Conspiracy of Women (1965).
 Olympias is a major character in two of the three novels of Mary Renault's acclaimed Alexander Trilogy, Fire from Heaven (1969) and Funeral Games (1981). Olympias is frequently referenced in the second novel of the trilogy, The Persian Boy (1972).
 Olympias is the subject of Michael A. Dimitri's 1993 novel The Daughter of Neoptolemus.
 Olympias is a character in Valerio Massimo Manfredi's 2001 novel Alexander: Child of a Dream.
 Angelina Jolie starred as Olympias in Oliver Stone's 2004 film Alexander, which co-starred Colin Farrell as Alexander and Val Kilmer as Philip.
 Olympias appears in Empire of Ashes: A Novel of Alexander the Great (2004) by Nicholas Nicastro
 Olympias is a character in The Virtues of War: A Novel of Alexander the Great (2005), by Steven Pressfield, told in the first person by Alexander.
 Olympias is the subject of Judith Tarr's 2008 novel Bring Down the Sun (Alexander the Great #2).
 Olympias appears in the fictional biography of Alexander God of War (2012) by Christian Cameron.
 Olympias also appears in the Indian series Porus, portrayed by Sameksha.
 Olympias (called Myrtale, her earlier name) appears in Jeanne Reames's duology Dancing with the Lion (2019).
 Olympias is also the name of the queen of Macedonia in the manga "Historie" by Hitoshi Iwaaki.
 Olympias appears a character in Horrible Histories in a skit named "Made in Macedonia".

See also
Alkimachos of Pydna

References

Bibliography
Primary sources
Plutarch, Alexander, Parallel Lives, online at Perseus Project.

Secondary sources

External links

Family of Alexander the Great
Executed ancient Greek people
Ancient Epirotes
Ancient Macedonian queens consort
Executed royalty of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
People who died under the regency of Cassander
Wives of Philip II of Macedon
Women in Hellenistic warfare
316 BC deaths
4th-century BC executions
4th-century BC Greek people
370s BC births
4th-century BC women regents
Ancient Molossians
Mothers of monarchs
Executed royalty

Olympias


The U.S. Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) is a network of American communications satellites (each called a tracking and data relay satellite, TDRS) and ground stations used by NASA for space communications.  The system was designed to replace an existing network of ground stations that had supported all of NASA's crewed flight missions.  The prime design goal was to increase the time spacecraft were in communication with the ground and improve the amount of data that could be transferred. Many Tracking and Data Relay Satellites were launched in the 1980s and 1990s with the Space Shuttle and made use of the Inertial Upper Stage, a two-stage solid rocket booster developed for the shuttle. Other TDRS were launched by Atlas IIa and Atlas V rockets.

The most recent generation of satellites provides ground reception rates of 6 Mbit/s in the S-band and 800 Mbit/s in the Ku- and Ka-bands. This is mainly used by the United States military.

Origins
To satisfy the requirement for long-duration, highly available space-to-ground communications, NASA created the Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network (STADAN) in the early 1960s. Consisting of parabolic dish antennas and telephone switching equipment deployed around the world, the STADAN provided space-to-ground communications for approximately 15 minutes of a 90-minute orbit period. This limited contact-period sufficed for uncrewed spacecraft, but crewed spacecraft require a much higher data collection time.

A side-by-side network established right after STADAN in the early 1960s, called the Manned Space Flight Network (MSFN), interacted with crewed spacecraft in Earth orbit.  Another network, the Deep Space Network (DSN), interacted with crewed spacecraft higher than 10,000 miles from Earth, such as the Apollo missions, in addition to its primary mission of data collection from deep space probes.

With the creation of the Space Shuttle in the mid-1970s, a requirement for a higher performance space-based communication system arose. At the end of the Apollo program, NASA realized that MSFN and STADAN had evolved to have similar capabilities and decided to merge the two networks to create the Spacecraft Tracking and Data Network (STDN).

Even after consolidation, STDN had some drawbacks. Since the entire network consisted of ground stations spread around the globe, these sites were vulnerable to the political whims of the host country. In order to maintain a high-reliability rate coupled with higher data transfer speeds, NASA began a study to augment the system with space-based communication nodes.

The space segment of the new system would rely upon satellites in geostationary orbit.  These satellites, by virtue of their position, could transmit and receive data to lower orbiting satellites and still stay within sight of the ground station. The operational TDRSS constellation would use two satellites, designated TDE and TDW (for east and west), and one on-orbit spare.

After the study was completed, NASA realized that a minor system modification was needed to achieve 100% global coverage.  A small area would not be within line-of-sight of any satellites – a so-called Zone of Exclusion (ZOE). With the ZOE, neither TDRS satellite could contact a spacecraft under a certain altitude (646 nautical miles). With the addition of another satellite to cover the ZOE and ground station nearby, 100% coverage could exist. The space-based network study created a system that became the plan for the present-day TDRSS network design.

As early as the 1960s, NASA's Application Technology Satellite (ATS) and Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) programs prototyped many of the technologies used on TDRSS and other commercial communications satellites, including frequency division multiple-access (FDMA), three-axis spacecraft stabilization and high-performance communications technologies.

, TDRS project manager is Jeff J. Gramling, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Robert P. Buchanan, Deputy Project Manager, retired after 41 years at NASA with TDRS as one of final missions. Boeing is responsible for the construction of TDRS K.

The network
TDRSS is similar to most other space systems, whereby it is composed of three segments: the ground, space and user segments. These three segments work in conjunction to accomplish the mission. An emergency or failure in any one segment could have catastrophic impact on the rest of the system. For this reason all segments have redundancy factored in.

Ground segment

The ground segment of TDRSS consists of three ground stations located at the White Sands Complex (WSC) in southern New Mexico, the Guam Remote Ground Terminal (GRGT) at Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station Guam, and Network Control Center located at Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. These three stations are the heart of the network, providing command & control services.  Under a system upgrade that has been completed, a new terminal has been built at Blossom Point, Maryland.

WSC, located near Las Cruces consists of:
White Sands Ground Terminal (WSGT)
Second TDRSS Ground Terminal (STGT)
Extended TDRS Ground Terminal (ETGT)

Additionally, the WSC remotely controls the GRGT on Guam.

The WSC has its own exit from U.S. Route 70 that is for facility staff only. NASA decided on the location of the ground terminals using very specific criteria.  Foremost was the ground station's view of the satellites; the location had to be close enough to the equator to view the skies, both east and west. Weather was another important factor – New Mexico has, on average, almost 350 days of sunshine per year, with a very low precipitation level.

WSGT went online with the 1983 launch of TDRS-A by the Space Shuttle Challenger. STGT became operational in 1994, completing the system after Flight-6's on-orbit checkout earlier in the year. Additionally, after completion of the second terminal, NASA held a contest to name the two stations. Local middle school students chose Cacique (kah-see-keh), meaning leader for WSGT, and Danzante meaning dancer for STGT. These names seem to have been for publicity purposes only, for official NASA documentation use WSGT and STGT or WSC as designators.

WSGT and STGT are geographically separated and completely independent of one another, while retaining a backup fiber-optic link to transfer data between sites in case of emergency. Each ground station has 19-meter dishes, known as Space-Ground Link Terminals (SGLT), to communicate with the satellites.  Three SGLTs are located at STGT, but only two are located at WSGT. The system architects moved the remaining SGLT to Guam to provide full network support for the satellite covering the ZOE. Considered a remote part of the WSGT, the distance and location of the SGLT is transparent to network users.

The Guam Remote Ground Terminal (GRGT)  is an extension of the WSGT. The terminal contains SGLT 6, with the Communication Service Controller (CSC) located at STGT's TDRS Operations Control Center (TOCC). Before the GRGT was operational, an auxiliary system was located at Diego Garcia.

Incorporation into the STDN
The major parts of the Space Flight Tracking and Data Network (STDN) are: the NASA Integrated Services Network (NISN), network control center (NCC), mission operations center (MOC), spacecraft data processing facility (SDPF), and the multi mission flight dynamics lab (MMFD).

NISN provides the data transfer backbone for space missions. It is a cost-effect wide area network telecommunications service for transmission of data, video, and voice for all NASA enterprises, programs and centers. This part of the STDN consists of infrastructure and computers dedicated to monitor network traffic flow, such as fiber optic links, routers and switches. Data can flow through NISN two ways: using the Internet Protocol Operational Network (IPONET) or the High Data Rate System (HDRS). IPONET uses the TCP/IP protocol common to all computers connected to the Internet, and is a standard way to ship data. The High Data Rate System transports data rates from 2 Mbit/s to 48 Mbit/s, for specialized missions requiring a high rate of data transfer. HDRS does not require the infrastructure of routers, switches and gateways to send its data forward like IPONET.

The NCC provides service planning, control, assurance and accountability. Service planning takes user requests and disseminates the information to the appropriate SN elements. Service control and assurance supports functions of real-time usage, such as receipt, validation, display and dissemination of TDRSS performance data. Service accountability provides accounting reports on the use of the NCC and network resources. The NCC was originally located at Goddard Space-flight Center, in Greenbelt, Maryland until 2000, when it was relocated to the WSC.

The MOC is the focal point of spacecraft operations. It will schedule requests for support, monitor spacecraft performance and upload control information to the spacecraft (through TDRSS). MOC consists of principal investigators, mission planners and flight operators. Principal investigators initiate requests for SN support. Mission planners provide documentation for the spacecraft and its mission. And flight operators are the final link, sending commands to the spacecraft and performing the operations.

The MMFD lab provides flight project and tracking network support. Flight project support consists of orbital and attitude determination and control. Orbital parameters are traced through the actual orbit of the mission spacecraft and compared to its predicted orbit. Attitude determination computes sets of parameters that describe a spacecraft's orientation relative to known objects (Sun, Moon, stars or Earth's magnetic field). Tracking network support analyzes and evaluates the quality of the tracking data.

Space segment

The space segment of the TDRSS constellation is the most dynamic part of the system. Even with nine satellites on orbit, the system provides support with three primary satellites, while using the rest as on-orbit spares capable of immediate usage as primaries. The original TDRSS design had two primary satellites, designated TDE, for east, and TDW, for west and one on-orbit spare. The surge in user requirements during the 1980s allowed NASA to expand the network with the addition of more satellites, with some being co-located in a particularly busy orbital slot. See Tracking and Data Relay Satellite for more details on the satellites.

User segment
The user segment of TDRSS includes many of NASA's most prominent programs. Programs such as the Hubble Space Telescope and LANDSAT relay their observations to their respective mission control centers through TDRSS. Since crewed space flight was one of the primary reasons for building TDRSS, the space shuttle and International Space Station voice communications are routed through the system.

Operations

The TDRSS system has been used to provide data relay services to many orbiting observatories, and also to Antarctic facilities such as McMurdo Station by way of the TDRSS South Pole Relay. The US-built sections of the International Space Station (ISS) use TDRSS for data relay. TDRSS is also used to provide launch data relay for expendable boosters.

Military applications
As early as 1989, it was reported that an important function of TDRSS was to provide data relay for the Lacrosse radar imaging reconnaissance satellites operated by the National Reconnaissance Office.

Almost twenty years later, on November 23, 2007, an on-line trade publication noted, "While NASA uses the (TDRSS) satellites to communicate with the space shuttle and international space station, most of their bandwidth is devoted to the Pentagon, which covers the lion's share of TDRSS operations costs and is driving many of the system's requirements, some of them classified."

In October 2008, the NRO declassified the existence of mission ground stations in the US called Aerospace Data Facility (ADF)- Colorado, ADF-East and ADF-Southwest near Denver, Colorado, Washington, D.C., and Las Cruces, New Mexico, respectively. ADF-Colorado and ADF-East are known to be located at Buckley AFB, CO  and Fort Belvoir, Virginia; ADF-Southwest is located at White Sands Missile Range, assumed to be at the White Sands TDRSS station.

Production
The first seven TDRSS satellites were built by the TRW corporation (now part of Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems) in Redondo Beach, California, and all of the satellites since then by Hughes Space and Communications, Inc., in El Segundo, California, (now a part of the Boeing corporation).

Cultural references
The TDRSS system is briefly mentioned in the James Bond movie, Moonraker. It is also brought up in the 1997 movie Event Horizon.

Launch history

Note: while a TDRSS satellite is in the manufacturing process it is given a letter designation, but once it has successfully achieved the correct geosynchronous orbit it is referred to with a number (for example, TDRS-A during development and before on-orbit acceptance, and TDRS-1 after acceptance on orbit and put into operational use). Thus, satellites that are lost in launch failures or have massive malfunctions are never numbered (for example, TDRS-B, which was never numbered due to its loss in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster).

See also

 European Data Relay System

 Luch (satellite) – Russian data relay system
 Satellite Data System – Another US data relay system for reconnaissance satellites
 Tianlian – Chinese data relay system

References

External links

 NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Space Network Official Page
 NASA's TDRSS program overview page
 NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center TDRS K/L Project Official Page

Notes
Baker, D. (Ed.) (2001) Jane's Space Directory: 2001–2002. Alexandria, Virginia: Jane's Information Group.
Consolidated Space Operations Contract (CSOC). (2000) Certification & Training Course 880 & 882: TDRSS Orientation & System Data Flow.
Kraft, C. (2002) Flight: My Life in Mission Control. New York: Plume Books.
Kranz, G. (2000) Failure is Not an Option. New York: Plume Books
NASA. (1996) 2nd TDRSS Workshop: 25–26 Jun 1996. Retrieved from Internet 25 Aug 2003. https://web.archive.org/web/20050126202052/http://nmsp.gsfc.nasa.gov/TUBE/pdf/infopack.pdf
Tracking Fox GPS Tracker. https://certifiedpedia.com/tracking-fox-gps-tracker-review/

NASA. (2000) Guam Remote Ground Terminal. Retrieved from Internet 25 Aug 2003. https://web.archive.org/web/20050214060604/http://nmsp.gsfc.nasa.gov/tdrss/guam.html
Sellers, J. (2000) Understanding Space: An Introduction to Astronautics.  New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Thompson, T. (1996) TRW Space Log. Redondo Beach, California: TRW Space & Electronics Group.
Wertz, J. & Larson, W. (1999) Space Mission Analysis and Design, Third Edition.  Torrance, California: Microcosm Press.

Communications satellite constellations

Communications satellite operators

ja:TDRS


Richard Hakluyt (; 1553 – 23 November 1616) was an English writer. He is known for promoting the English colonization of North America through his works, notably Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America (1582) and The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589–1600).

Hakluyt was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford.  Between 1583 and 1588 he was chaplain and secretary to Sir Edward Stafford, English ambassador at the French court. An ordained priest, Hakluyt held important positions at Bristol Cathedral and Westminster Abbey and was personal chaplain to Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, principal Secretary of State to Elizabeth I and James I. He was the chief promoter of a petition to James I for letters patent to  colonize Virginia, which were granted to the London Company and Plymouth Company (referred to collectively as the Virginia Company) in 1606. The Hakluyt Society, which publishes scholarly editions of primary records of voyages and travels, was named after him in its 1846 formation.

Family, early life and education
Hakluyt's patrilineal ancestors were of Welsh extraction, rather than Dutch as is often suggested; they appear to have settled in Herefordshire in England around the 13th century, and, according to antiquary John Leland, took their surname from the "Forest of Cluid in Radnorland." Some of Hakluyt's ancestors established themselves at Yatton in Herefordshire, and must have ranked amongst the principal landowners of the county. A person named Hugo Hakelute, who may have been an ancestor or relative of Richard Hakluyt, was elected Member of Parliament for the borough of Yatton in 1304 or 1305, and between the 14th and 16th centuries five individuals surnamed "de Hackluit" or "Hackluit" were sheriffs of Herefordshire. A man named Walter Hakelut was knighted in the 34th year of Edward I (1305) and later killed at the Battle of Bannockburn, and in 1349 Thomas Hakeluyt was chancellor of the diocese of Hereford. Records also show that a Thomas Hakeluytt was in the wardship of Henry VIII (reigned 1509–1547) and Edward VI (reigned 1547–1553).

Richard Hakluyt, the second of four sons, was born in Eyton in Herefordshire in 1553. Hakluyt's father, also named Richard Hakluyt, was a member of the Worshipful Company of Skinners whose members dealt in skins and furs. He died in 1557 when his son was aged about five years, and his wife Margery followed soon after. Hakluyt's cousin, also named Richard Hakluyt, of the Middle Temple, became his guardian.

While a Queen's Scholar at Westminster School, Hakluyt visited his guardian, whose conversation, illustrated by "certain bookes of cosmographie, an universall mappe, and the Bible," made Hakluyt resolve to "prosecute that knowledge, and kind of literature." Entering Christ Church, Oxford, in 1570 with financial support from the Skinners' Company, "his exercises of duty first performed," he set out to read all the printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could find. He took his Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) on 19 February 1574, and shortly after taking his Master of Arts (M.A.) on 27 June 1577, began giving public lectures in geography. He was the first to show "both the old imperfectly composed and the new lately reformed mappes, globes, spheares, and other instruments of this art." Hakluyt held on to his studentship at Christ Church between 1577 and 1586, although after 1583 he was no longer resident in Oxford.

Hakluyt was ordained in 1578, the same year he began to receive a "pension" from the Worshipful Company of Clothworkers to study divinity. The pension would have lapsed in 1583, but William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, intervened to have it extended until 1586 to aid Hakluyt's geographical research.

At the English Embassy in Paris

Hakluyt's first publication was one that he wrote himself, Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America and the Ilands Adjacent unto the Same, Made First of all by our Englishmen and Afterwards by the Frenchmen and Britons (1582).

Hakluyt's Voyages brought him to the notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and Sir Edward Stafford, Lord Howard's brother-in-law. At the age of 30, being acquainted with "the chiefest captaines at sea, the greatest merchants, and the best mariners of our nation," he was selected as chaplain and secretary to accompany Stafford, now English ambassador at the French court, to Paris in 1583. In accordance with the instructions of Secretary Francis Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting information of the Spanish and French movements, and "making diligent inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne discoveries in America." Although this was his only visit to Continental Europe in his life, he was angered to hear the limitations of the English in terms of travel being discussed in Paris.

The first fruits of Hakluyt's labours in Paris were embodied in his important work entitled A Particuler Discourse Concerninge the Greate Necessitie and Manifolde Commodyties That Are Like to Growe to This Realme of Englande by the Westerne Discoueries Lately Attempted, Written in the Yere 1584, which Sir Walter Raleigh commissioned him to prepare. The manuscript, lost for almost 300 years, was published for the first time in 1877. Hakluyt revisited England in 1584, and laid a copy of the Discourse before Elizabeth I (to whom it had been dedicated) together with his analysis in Latin of Aristotle's Politicks. His objective was to recommend the enterprise of establishing English plantations in the unsettled [by Europeans] region of North America, and thus gain the Queen's support for Raleigh's expedition. In May 1585 when Hakluyt was in Paris with the English Embassy, the Queen granted to him the next prebendary at Bristol Cathedral that should become vacant, to which he was admitted in 1585 or 1586 and held with other preferments till his death.

Hakluyt's other works during his time in Paris consisted mainly of translations and compilations, with his own dedications and prefaces. These latter writings, together with a few letters, are the only extant material out of which a biography of him can be framed. Hakluyt interested himself in the publication of the manuscript journal of René Goulaine de Laudonnière, L'histoire notable de la Floride située ès Indes Occidentales in Paris in 1586. The attention that the book excited in Paris encouraged Hakluyt to prepare an English translation and publish it in London under the title A Notable Historie Containing Foure Voyages Made by Certayne French Captaynes unto Florida (1587). The same year, his edition of Peter Martyr d'Anghiera's De Orbe Nouo Decades Octo saw the light at Paris. This work contains an exceedingly-rare copperplate map dedicated to Hakluyt and signed F.G. (supposed to be Francis Gualle); it is the first on which the name "Virginia" appears.

Return to England

In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Douglas Sheffield, Baroness Sheffield, after a residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589 he published the first edition of his chief work, The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation, using eyewitness accounts as far as possible. In the preface to this he announced the intended publication of the first terrestrial globe made in England by Emery Molyneux.

Between 1598 and 1600 appeared the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation in three volumes. In the dedication of the second volume (1599) to his patron, Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, Hakluyt strongly urged the minister as to the expediency of colonising Virginia. A few copies of this monumental work contain a map of great rarity, the first on the Mercator projection made in England according to the true principles laid down by Edward Wright. Hakluyt's great collection has been called "the Prose Epic of the modern English nation" by historian James Anthony Froude.

On 20 April 1590 Hakluyt was instituted to the clergy house of Wetheringsett-cum-Brockford, Suffolk, by Lady Stafford, who was the Dowager Baroness Sheffield. He held this position until his death, and resided in Wetheringsett through the 1590s and frequently thereafter. In 1599, he became an adviser to the newly-founded East India Company, and in 1601 he edited a translation from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvão's The Discoveries of the World.

Later life
In the late 1590s Hakluyt became the client and personal chaplain of Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, Lord Burghley's son, who was to be Hakluyt's most fruitful patron. Hakluyt dedicated to Cecil the second (1599) and third volumes (1600) of the expanded edition of Principal Navigations and also his edition of Galvão's Discoveries (1601). Cecil, who was the principal Secretary of State to Elizabeth I and James I, rewarded him by installing him as prebendary of the Dean and Chapter of Westminster on 4 May 1602. In the following year, he was elected archdeacon of the Abbey. These religious occupations have occasioned reconsideration of the role played by spiritual concerns in Hakluyt's writings on exploration, settlement, and England's relations with its Catholic rivals.

Hakluyt was married twice, once in or about 1594 and again in 1604. In the licence of Hakluyt's second marriage dated 30 March 1604, he is described as one of the chaplains of the Savoy Hospital; this position was also conferred on him by Cecil. His will refers to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of his death, and in another official document he is styled Doctor of Divinity (D.D.).

Hakluyt was also a leading adventurer of the Charter of the Virginia Company of London as a director thereof in 1589. In 1605 he secured the prospective living of Jamestown, the intended capital of the intended colony of Virginia. When the colony was at last established in 1607, he supplied this benefice with its chaplain, Robert Hunt. In 1606 he appears as the chief promoter of the petition to James I for letters patent to colonise Virginia, which were granted on 10 April 1606. His last publication was a translation of Hernando de Soto's discoveries in Florida, entitled Virginia Richly Valued, by the Description of the Maine Land of Florida, Her Next Neighbour (1609). This work was intended to encourage the young colony of Virginia; Scottish historian William Robertson wrote of Hakluyt, "England is more indebted for its American possessions than to any man of that age."

Hakluyt prepared an English translation of Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius' Mare Liberum (1609), a treatise that sought to demonstrate that the Dutch had the right to trade freely in the East Indies, contrary to Spanish and Portuguese claims of sovereignty over the seas, in the early 17th century. Helen Thornton has suggested that the translation was commissioned by Thomas Smythe who became treasurer of the Virginia Company in 1609 and was also Governor of the East India Company. In that year, Hakluyt was a consultant to the Company when it was renewing its charter. Grotius' arguments supported England's right to trade in the Indies. The translation may also have been part of the propaganda encouraging English people to settle in Virginia. In Mare Liberum, Grotius denied that the 1493 donation by Pope Alexander VI that had divided the oceans between Spain and Portugal entitled Spain to make territorial claims to North America. Instead, he stressed the importance of occupation, which was favourable to the English as they and not the Spanish had occupied Virginia. Grotius also argued that the seas should be freely navigable by all, which was useful since the England to Virginia route crossed seas which the Portuguese claimed. However, it is not clear why Hakluyt's translation was not published in his lifetime. George Bruner Parks has theorized that publication at that time would have been inconvenient to England because after England had successfully helped Holland and Spain to negotiate the Twelve Years' Truce during the Eighty Years' War, the work would have supported English claims for free seas against Spain, but not its claims for closed seas against Holland. Hakluyt's handwritten manuscript, MS Petyt 529, in Inner Temple Library in London was eventually published as The Free Sea for the first time in 2004.

In 1591, Hakluyt inherited family property upon the death of his elder brother Thomas; a year later, upon the death of his youngest brother Edmund, he inherited additional property which derived from his uncle. In 1612 Hakluyt became a charter member of the North-west Passage Company. By the time of his death, he had amassed a small fortune out of his various emoluments and preferments, of which the last was the clergy house of Gedney, Lincolnshire, presented to him by his younger brother Oliver in 1612. Unfortunately, his wealth was squandered by his only son.

Hakluyt died on 23 November 1616, probably in London, and was buried on 26 November in Westminster Abbey; by an error in the abbey register his burial is recorded under the year 1626. A number of his manuscripts, sufficient to form a fourth volume of his collections of 1598–1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who inserted them in an abridged form in his Pilgrimes (1625–1626). Others, consisting chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors, are preserved at the University of Oxford.

Hakluyt is principally remembered for his efforts in promoting and supporting the settlement of North America by the English through his writings. These works were a fertile source of material for William Shakespeare and other authors. Hakluyt also encouraged the production of geographical and historical writings by others. It was at Hakluyt's suggestion that Robert Parke translated Juan González de Mendoza's The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China and the Situation Thereof (1588–1590), John Pory made his version of Leo Africanus's A Geographical Historie of Africa (1600), and P. Erondelle translated Marc Lescarbot's Nova Francia (1609).

Legacy
The Hakluyt Society was founded in 1846 for printing rare and unpublished accounts of voyages and travels, and continues to publish volumes each year.

A 14-volume critical edition of Hakluyt's Principal Navigations is being prepared by the Hakluyt Edition Project for Oxford University Press under the general editorship of Daniel Carey, National University of Ireland, Galway, and Claire Jowitt, University of East Anglia.

Westminster School named a house after him as recognition of achievement of an Old Westminster.

In Svalbard (Spitsbergen), the Hakluythovden headland and Hakluytodden landspit in the northwestern region of Amsterdam Island are named after Richard Hakluyt.

Works

Authored

  Quarto. Reprint:

  Reprints:

  Folio. Reprint:
  2 vols.
  3 vols.; folio. Reprints:
  16 vols. Full-text of this edition available as follows: Volume 1; Volume 2 (Latin); Volume 3; Volume 4; Volume 5; Volume 6; Volume 7; Volume 8; Volume 9; Volume 10; Volume 11; Volume 12; Volume 13; Volume 14.
  12 vols. Full-text of this edition available as follows: Volume 1; Volume 2; Volume 3; Volume 4; Volume 5; Volume 6; Volume 7; Volume 8; Volume 9; Volume 10; Volume 11; Volume 12.

Edited and translated
 [] It seems likely that this work was not by Hakluyt: see "At the English Embassy in Paris" above.
  Quarto.
  Octavo.
  Quarto. Reprint:

  Quarto.

See also
 Étienne Bellenger

Notes

References

 Jones, John Winter, "Introduction" of

 "Richard Hakluyt," § 13 in pt. IV ("The Literature of the Sea") of vol. IV of

Further reading

Books

  2 vols.

News reports

External links

 Official website of the Hakluyt Society

 Works by Richard Hakluyt at Google Books

1550s births
1616 deaths
16th-century English Anglican priests
16th-century English writers
16th-century male writers
17th-century English Anglican priests
17th-century English writers
17th-century English male writers
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Burials at Westminster Abbey
Doctors of Divinity
English political writers
English travel writers
English people of Welsh descent
Fellows of Christ Church, Oxford
People educated at Westminster School, London
People from Hereford
Writers from Herefordshire

Richard Hakluyt


Racial democracy () is a term used by some to describe race relations in Brazil.  The term denotes some scholars' belief that Brazil has escaped racism and racial discrimination. Those researchers contend that Brazilians do not view each other through the lens of race and do not harbor racial prejudice towards one another. Because of that, while social mobility of Brazilians may be constrained by many factors, gender and class included, racial discrimination is considered irrelevant (within the confines of the concept racial democracy).

Overview
Racial democracy was first advanced by Brazilian sociologist Gilberto Freyre in his work Casa-Grande & Senzala (English: The Masters and the Slaves), published in 1933. Although Freyre never uses this term in the book, he did adopt it in later publications, and his theories paved the way for other scholars who would popularize the concept.

Freyre argued that several factors, including close relations between masters and slaves prior to their legal emancipation in 1888 and the supposedly benign character of Portuguese imperialism prevented the emergence of strict racial categories. Freyre also argued that continued miscegenation between the three races (Amerindians, the descendants of African slaves, and whites) would lead to a "meta-race", i.e.', a "postracial race" or a "race beyond race(s)".

Freyre's theory became a source of national pride for Brazil, which contrasted itself favorably vis-a-vis the contemporaneous racial divisions and violence in the United States.  Over time, his theory would become widely accepted both among Brazilians of all stripes and many foreign academics. Black researchers in the United States would make unfavorable comparisons between their own country and Brazil during the 1960s.

In the past four decades, after the publication in 1974 of Thomas E. Skidmore's Black into White, a revisionist study of Brazilian race relations, scholars have begun to criticize the notion that Brazil is actually a "racial democracy".  Skidmore argues that the predominantly white elite within Brazilian society promoted racial democracy to obscure very real forms of racial oppression.

Michael Hanchard, a political scientist at the University of Pennsylvania, has argued that the ideology of racial democracy, often promoted by state apparatuses, prevents effective action to combat racial discrimination by leading people to ascribe discrimination to other forms of oppression and allowing government officials charged with preventing racism to deny its existence a priori.

France Winddance Twine's 1997 ethnography also appears to support those contentions.

Hanchard compiles a great deal of research from other scholars demonstrating widespread discrimination in employment, education, and electoral politics. The seemingly paradoxical use of racial democracy to obscure the realities of racism has been referred to by scholar Florestan Fernandes as the "prejudice of having no prejudices". That is, because the state assumes the absence of racial prejudice, it fails to enforce what few laws exist to counter racial discrimination, as it believes that such efforts are unnecessary. In 2015, North American anthropologist John Collins argued that shifting engagements with collective memory, genealogically-based accounts of ancestry, and even UNESCO World Heritage programs have articulated with efforts by the Black Movement, academics, and progressive government actors to undermine claims about racial democracy in ways that increasingly lead Brazilians to self-identify as Black.

Gilberto Freyre on criticism

The life of Gilberto Freyre, after he published Casa-Grande & Senzala, became an eternal source of explanation. He repeated several times that he did not create the myth of a racial democracy, and that the fact that his books recognized the intense mixing between "races" in Brazil did not signify a lack of prejudice or discrimination. He pointed out that many people have claimed the United States to have been an "exemplary democracy" whereas slavery and racial segregation were present throughout most of the history of the United States.

"The interpretation of those who want to place me among the sociologists or anthropologists who said prejudice of race among the Portuguese or the Brazilians never existed is extreme. What I have always suggested is that such prejudice is minimal ... when compared to that which is still in place elsewhere, where laws still regulate relations between Europeans and other groups".

"It is not that racial prejudice or social prejudice related to complexion are absent in Brazil. They exist. But no one here would have thought of "white-only" Churches. No one in Brazil would have thought of laws against interracial marriage ... Fraternal spirit is stronger among Brazilians than racial prejudice, color, class or religion. It is true that equality has not been reached since the end of slavery ... There was racial prejudice among plantation owners, there was social distance between the masters and the slaves, between whites and blacks ... But few wealthy Brazilians were as concerned with racial purity as the majority were in the Old South".

See also

Assimilado
Casta
Colonial mentality
Colorism
La Raza Cósmica
Lusotropicalism
Mongrel complex
Multiracial democracy
Pardo
Partus sequitur ventrem
Race in Brazil
Racial hierarchy
Racial hygiene
Racial whitening in Brazil (Blanqueamiento)
Racism in Brazil
Racism in a Racial Democracy
Rainbow nation
Religious harmony in India
White privilege
Whitewashing (beauty)

References

Multiracial affairs in Brazil
Race in Latin America
Brazilian cultural conventions
Race and society

Racial democracy


Satanta (IPA: [seˈtʰæntə]) (Set'tainte ([séʔ.tˀã́j.dè])  or White Bear) ( – October 11, 1878) was a Kiowa war chief. He was a member of the Kiowa tribe, born around 1815, during the height of the power of the Plains Tribes, probably along the Canadian River in the traditional winter camp grounds of his people.

One of the best known, and last, of the Kiowa War Chiefs, he developed a reputation as an outstanding warrior and in his twenties was made a sub-chief of his tribe, under Dohäsan, as Chief. He fought with him at the First Battle of Adobe Walls, and earned enduring fame for his use of an army bugle to confuse the troops in battle.

Satanta was born the son of Chief Red Tipi and a Spanish captive and spent his youth south of the Arkansas River enjoying the peaceful alliance between the Kiowa and Comanche tribes.

Orator and warrior
One of best known leaders of his tribe in the 1860s–1870s, Satanta was well known for both his prowess as a warrior, and his soaring oratorical powers. Dohäsan was the principal Chief until his death. Satanta was one of the Chiefs who negotiated several treaties with the American government during the 1860s, including the Little Arkansas Treaty (1865) and the Medicine Lodge Treaty (1867). In the latter, Satanta agreed that the Kiowas would live on a reservation. When the tribe failed to move onto it, Satanta was seized by General George Custer and held as a hostage until the forced removal and migration took place.

At the First Battle of Adobe Walls
Satanta is primarily remembered in military history as the sub-chief to Dohäsan at the First Battle of Adobe Walls.  While Dohäsan, helped by Satank and Guipago, was in command of the combined Kiowa, Kiowa-Apache, and Comanche forces which opposed Kit Carson and his New Mexico forces in November 1864, Satanta is remembered for ably assisting him in repeated charges which drove the New Mexico volunteers from the field, and for his repeated blowing of an army bugle, which confused the troops under Carson.  Satanta would counter Carson's bugler with trumpeted commands of his own, on a day where the Plains Tribes managed to drive a US Army detachment from the field. The Indian forces assembled from their nearby winter encampments vastly outnumbered the Army detachment, which retreated in good order.

Medicine Lodge Treaty

At Medicine Lodge, Satanta, a tall, muscular man, came to be known as the "Orator of the Plains."

Like most treaties of the time, these agreements failed utterly to bring peace on the frontier. The Kiowa and Comanche accepted the treaty offerings and promised to no longer raid outside their reservation. But shortly after signing, the chiefs went into northern Texas on raiding missions, violating the treaty. In fact the Red River War erupted shortly afterwards. Unhappy that the reservation had reduced the Kiowa lands to nearly the size of Connecticut for the nearly wigwams, the chiefs began leading their young men on raiding parties off the reservations. In fact, records have documented over 250 innocent farmers, ranchers, women and children murdered and kidnapped by the Kiowa and Comanche warriors during the 1860s and 1870s. This situation, unstable in and of itself, worsened significantly with the death of Dohäsan, the last Kiowa Chief (over the entire Kiowa People) in 1866.

Without his binding personal leadership, Kiowa unity dissolved as a number of subchiefs, Tene-angopte, and, on the other side, Satanta and Guipago (Gui-pah-gho, Lone Wolf), struggled for power and to fill his place. The competition between the three set off a wave of raids across the southern plains from Kansas to Texas during the fall of 1866 and into 1867.

In one instance Satanta and a joint Kiowa-Comanche war party raided into the Texas panhandle and, after killing James Box, captured the man's wife and four children, whom they sold to the army at Fort Dodge, Kansas.

It is alleged that at Fort Dodge that Satanta, begging for liquor, accidentally drank animal medicine and was given pills that only made him even more sick. In revenge Satanta burned hay belonging to Mr. Coryell opposite the fort and killed three woodchoppers as well.

Fort Zarah
Satanta's fame grew after he managed to defuse a confrontation between the Kiowa and the US Cavalry near Fort Zarah, Kansas in 1867. A young Kiowa warrior was killed at the civilian camp near the army Fort, and the Kiowa massed to avenge his death. The cavalry, in turn, massed to protect the civilians.  Satanta managed to defuse the confrontation, but nonetheless, later in the day, the Cavalry attacked the Kiowa encampment.  Satanta then led the defense of the camp by the warriors while the women and children retreated.

Warren Wagon Train Raid

In 1871 Satanta led several attacks on wagon trains in Texas.  His undoing came with the Warren Wagon Train Raid on May 18, 1871. Immediately prior to that attack, the Indians had allowed an Army Ambulance with a small guard to pass unharmed;  in it was General William Tecumseh Sherman, but Mamanti, the medicine man, had advised the other chiefs to wait for a richer loot.

The wagon train had attempted to fight the war party by shifting into a ring formation, and all the mules were put into the center of the ring. Despite this, the warriors captured all of the supplies in the train, killing and mutilating seven of the wagoneer's bodies. Five men however, managed to escape. As soon as Col. Ranald S. Mackenzie learned of the incident, he informed Sherman. Sherman and Mackenzie searched for the warriors responsible for the raid.

Satanta foolishly bragged of his, Satank (Sitting Bear), and Ado-ete (Big Tree)'s involvement of the raid, and, in spite of Guipago's intervention (the head chief came in well equipped with loaded rifles and revolvers, fit to fight for his friend's liberty, but had to surrender in front of the massive presence of military troops) Sherman personally arrested him.

Trial of Satanta and Big Tree - First Indian Leaders Tried In State Court

General Sherman ordered the trial of Satanta and Big Tree, along with Satank making them the first Native American Leaders to be tried for raids in a US Court. Sherman ordered the three Kiowa sub-chiefs taken to Jacksboro, Texas, to stand trial for murder.

Satank had no intention of allowing himself to be humiliated by being tried by the white man's court, and told the Tonkawa scouts before the three were to be transported to Fort Richardson that they should tell his family they would be able to find his body along the trail.

Satank refused to get in the wagon, and after the soldiers threw him in, he hid his head under his red blanket (worn as a sign of his membership in the Koitsenko). The soldiers apparently believed the old Chief was hiding his face because of humiliation, but in reality, he was gnawing his wrists to the bone so that he could get out of the chains they had put on him. He began singing his death song, and when his hands were free, stabbed one of his guards with a knife he had secreted in his clothes, and managed to wrestle the man's rifle from him. Satank was shot to death before he could manage to fire.

His body lay unburied in the road, with his people afraid to claim it, for fear of the Army, though Col. Ranald S. Mackenzie assured the family they could safely claim Satank's remains.  Nonetheless, they were never claimed, and he lies now at Fort Sill.

At his trial Satanta warned what might happen if he was hanged: "I am a great chief among my people. If you kill me, it will be like a spark on the prairie. It will make a big fire - a terrible fire!"   Satanta was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death. Judge Soward ordered that Satanta "be taken by the Sheriff of Jack County and hanged until he is dead, dead, dead and God have mercy on his soul." However, the same judge also wrote to Texas Governor Edmund J. Davis recommending commutation to life in prison.

Governor Davis, under enormous pressure from leaders of the so-called Quaker Peace Policy, decided to overrule the court and the punishment was changed to life imprisonment. Satanta was freed after two years of imprisonment at the Huntsville State Penitentiary in Texas.

Release, recapture, and death at Huntsville

After a long and hard dealing with the U.S. Government officers, in 1872 Guipago was allowed to meet his friend Satanta and the young war chief Ado-ete in St. Louis, and only after this he accepted to go to Washington with some other Kiowa, Comanche, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Wichita and Delaware chiefs and talk about peace with President Ulysses S. Grant; after Satanta and Ado-ete were temporarily paroled, Guipago led the Kiowa delegation to Washington in September 1872, and got Indian Commissioner E.P. Smith's promise to release the two captives. Satanta and his companion were definitively released only in September 1873, Guipago having made clear to Indian agent James M. Haworth that his patience was now at its end.

Soon after their release, Satanta and Ado-ete, along with Guipago and Tsen-tainte (White Horse) were involved in attacking buffalo hunters and were present at the raid on Adobe Walls.  But the Kiowa People deny Satanta was involved in that battle, other than being present. He yielded up his war lance and other symbols of leadership to younger, more aggressive men. He was also present at the Battle of the Upper Washita.

His presence at the battle violated his parole, and was likely the reason the government called for his arrest. He surrendered in October 1874, and was returned to the state penitentiary at Huntsville, Texas. Guards reported that Satanta, forced to work on the road, would stare for hours at the traditional hunting grounds of his people, and seemed to wither away. In his book, the History of Texas, Clarance Wharton reports of Satanta in prisonAfter he was returned to the penitentiary in 1874, he saw no hope of escape. For a while he was worked on a chain gang which helped to build the M.K. & T. Railway. He became sullen and broken in spirit, and would be seen for hours gazing through his prison bars toward the north, the hunting grounds of his people.

In the end, deciding not to spend the rest of his life in prison, Satanta killed himself on October 11, 1878, by diving headlong from a high window of the prison hospital.  His family does not believe this to be true for Satanta was a strong Kiowa man.  Kiowa people do not believe in harming themselves.

Satanta was originally buried in the prison cemetery in Huntsville. In 1963 his grandson, an artist named James Auchiah, received permission to transfer Satanta's remains to Fort Sill, Oklahoma.

On October 7, 2000, Satanta's shield, bow and bow case, and arrows and quiver were returned to Fort Sill and dedicated by a ceremony that included the Fort Sill commander and Kiowan armed services veterans.

The character of Blue Duck in Larry McMurtry's Pulitzer Prize winning novel Lonesome Dove was partially based on the life and death of Satanta.

The actor Rodolfo Acosta played Satanta in 1959 in the third episode of the ABC western television series, The Rebel, starring Nick Adams.

See also
Texas-Indian Wars
Warren Wagon Train Raid
First Battle of Adobe Walls
Second Battle of Adobe Walls
Guipago
Satank
Dohasan
Tene-angopte

References

External links
Satanta page at Texas State Library & Archives Commission

Year of birth uncertain
1815 births
1874 in the United States
1878 deaths
1870s suicides
American people who died in prison custody
American people convicted of murder
American prisoners sentenced to death
Battles involving the Comanche
Kiowa people
Military personnel who died by suicide
Native American leaders
Native American people of the Indian Wars
People who died by suicide in prison custody
People convicted of murder by Texas
Prisoners sentenced to death by Texas
Prisoners who died in Texas detention
Suicides by jumping in the United States
Suicides in Texas
Texas–Indian Wars
Recipients of American gubernatorial clemency

Satanta


Julius Patzak (9 April 189826 January 1974) was an Austrian tenor distinguished in operatic and concert work.  He was particularly noted in Mozart, Beethoven and in early 20th-century German repertoire.

Biography
Julius Patzak was born in Vienna and originally studied conducting.  He was also taught composition, by Franz Schmidt, Guido Adler and Eusebius Mandyczewski. It was in 1926 that he decided instead upon a career as a singer, and he made his debut as Radames in Aida at Reichenberg in that year. He sang regularly at the Munich State Opera from 1928 to 1945, and at Vienna from 1946 to 1960. He appeared in London at Covent Garden in 1938 as Tamino in The Magic Flute, alternating with Richard Tauber, and again several times after the war, notably as Florestan in Fidelio.  This role and the title role in Hans Pfitzner's opera Palestrina were considered to be among his finest roles. In the latter he was pre-eminent among the followers of his Munich predecessor Karl Erb.

Patzak appeared in a number of operatic premieres, notably Richard Strauss's Friedenstag, Carl Orff's Der Mond and Gottfried von Einem's Dantons Tod.

Patzak sang the role of Gabriel von Eisenstein, a rich banker, in the recording of Die Fledermaus, with Clemens Krauss conducting the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, issued by London Records LLP 305.

Although he did not possess the most powerful of voices, it had a distinctive and attractive timbre and was used with such style, intelligence, charm and musicianship, and with such dramatic conviction, as to warrant a very high place among the operatic singers of his time. He was the very effective partner of Kathleen Ferrier in the recording of Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde under Bruno Walter, issued by Decca Records in 1952.  Patzak also performed and recorded in the Viennese popular style called Schrammelmusik.

He was awarded the Lilli Lehmann Medal in 1950.

Patzak died on 26 January 1974, at Rottach-Egern in Bavaria, aged 75.

Sources

External links
 Julius Patzak homepage
 History of the Tenor / Julius Patzak / Sound Clips and Narration

1898 births
1974 deaths
Austrian operatic tenors
Singers from Vienna
20th-century Austrian male opera singers

Julius Patzak


Archangel is a novel by Robert Harris set in modern Russia. It was published in 1998 and adapted for television by the BBC in 2005.

Plot summary

While attending a conference in Moscow, the historian Christopher "Fluke" Kelso is met by an old man named Papu Rapava, who claims to have been present at the death of Joseph Stalin. Immediately after Stalin's death, Lavrenty Beria supposedly took measures to secure a black notebook, which is believed to be Stalin's secret diary. Rapava spent years in Kolyma after the authorities tried to extract the book's location from him, but he has never revealed it though he knows that shadowy agents are still watching him in case he goes near the mysterious thing.

Kelso eventually locates the notebook, which Rapava had left to his daughter just before he was recaptured and tortured to death. It proves to be the memoirs of a young girl chosen by Stalin to be the mother of his secret heir. Following the trail to the remote northern city of Arkhangelsk, Kelso comes face to face with Stalin's son.

Raised in a log cabin filled with Stalin's personal effects, writings and recorded speeches, the son is a physical and ideological copy of his father. It is revealed that he had murdered the husband-and-wife KGB agents who had raised him from infancy when he decided they were untrustworthy. Young Stalin has been told that he would be sent for when it was time for him to assume control of his country, and he believes that Kelso is the promised messenger.

Stalin overcomes a special forces unit sent to eliminate him, which alarms Kelso by his ruthless and dispassionate use of violence, and he boards a train headed for Moscow. At each station, ever-larger crowds gather to witness the apparent resurrection of the famous dictator, and it appears that he might be able simply to stride through the doors of the Kremlin and assume command.

As he steps off the train in Moscow, Rapava's daughter, who has made her way into the crowd at the railway station, takes out her father's pistol. The novel ends there.

Television adaptation
Screenwriters Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais purchased the rights and hoped to make a film version but were unable to find sufficient backing. In the event, they wrote a three-part television version starring Daniel Craig, Yekaterina Rednikova, Gabriel Macht, and Avtandil Makharadze as Joseph Stalin. The adaptation was screened on BBC One in March 2005. The director was Jon Jones, and the adaptation was produced by Christopher Hall for the BBC's own in-house drama department, in collaboration with the independent production company Power and Baltic Film Services. It was filmed partly on location in Moscow, and also in Riga, Latvia. Later in the year, it was released on DVD.

External links
 Archangel television adaptation at bbc.co.uk.
 Archangel television adaptation at the Internet Movie Database.
 Archangel television adaptation at Baltic Film Services
 Michael Specter, The Evil Empire Strikes Back, The New York Times, 14 February 1999

1998 British novels
British novels adapted into films
Books about Joseph Stalin
Novels by Robert Harris
Novels set in Russia
Hutchinson (publisher) books
Novels set in the Commonwealth of Independent States
Cultural depictions of Joseph Stalin
Cultural depictions of Lavrentiy Beria
British novels adapted into television shows
sv:Döden väntar i Archangelsk

Archangel (Harris novel)


Mein Kampf () is a book written by Adolf Hitler and Rudolf Hess. Rudolf Hess helped Hitler write the book, but he is not mentioned as an author. The book consists of two parts. The first part was written by Hitler while he was in jail in Landsberg am Lech. He was put in jail after a failed putsch, in 1923. He wrote the second part after his (early) release from jail. From 1926 to 1930, both volumes were sold separately, at the price of 12 Reichsmark each. In 1930, both volumes were published as one book.

There were several editions between 1925 and 1945. With each new edition, the text was revised as well. This was done to clarify those parts of the text that were unclear. Probably, ghostwriters around Hitler did this work.

In the book, Hitler describes (talks about) his view of greater Germany. He also describes his future plan for Jews. When he came to power, in 1933, he realized (made happen) some of those plans. This resulted in a genocide known as The Holocaust. The book was given away for free at civil registry offices during the time when the Nazi government had power in Germany. The reason for giving the book away for free was because in part, the book was propaganda, and giving it away free was a way to recruit members.

After the Second World War, the book was made illegal to reprint or sell new copies in Germany and Austria. It is not illegal to own a book, and it is also not illegal to sell or buy such books second-hand.

The book has been called the "most evil book in history". Historians and journalists who have read also say that it is a badly written book.

The contents in short
 Hitler wanted to unite Austria with Germany. The annexation, or "Anschluß," took place in 1938. The sympathetic Austrian government asked Hitler to annex Austria to be part of the "Großdeutsche Reich" (The Greater German Reich).
 Several antisemitic beliefs in the book are developed. Special care is taken to portray Marxism as something very bad which had been a Jewish creation.
 The concept of nationally oriented socialism (Nationalsozialismus, which is where the Allied word Nazi (National Sozialistishe) comes from as they did not call themselves Nazi's). A war should be a war of races, not one of the different classes of society against each other. From this conflict, sympathy from German working class could be amassed.
 The political system of the Soviet Union referred to as Bolshevism should be split into parts. This should be done through what is called a war of the races (Rassenkrieg in German).
 According to the book there is not enough space for the German People to live. Winning such a race war would give the people (of "Aryan" blood) more space to live (Lebensraum), in the east. (At the time the book was written Germany was roughly the size of Texas).
 Germany should not fight a war on two fronts. Resultingly, England would be a good strategic partner in a war to come.
 Parliamentary or Democratic governments should be replaced with a state where a single leader makes decisions. This was believed to be more in the interest of the people.
 The structure of the NSDAP, as outlined in the second volume is developed.
 Some autobiographic stories, and a history of the NSDAP, both till 1924.

References

Nazism
1925 books
Adolf Hitler

Mein Kampf


Keshi pearls are small non-nucleated pearls typically formed as by-products of pearl cultivation. A Japanese word also meaning "poppy" (ケシ, 芥子), it is used in Japanese for all pearls that grew without a nucleus. Originally, keshi pearls referred to those pearls formed when a bead nucleus was rejected. More recently, keshi has been used to refer to second harvest pearls and even to freshwater non-nucleated pearls. However the later usage referring to freshwater pearls is considered erroneous by many leading gem trade associations. Because they have no nucleus, keshi pearls are composed entirely of nacre.

Origins
All of the following can cause a keshi pearl to grow:

 An attack on a pearl-producing mollusk by a predator that bores through its shell... similar to a way in which wild natural pearls are formed, except that captive molluscs are more susceptible.
 Accidents causing injury to mollusks, for example driving shell fragments into mantle tissue.
 Cultivation mishaps, generally separation of the mantle tissue graft from an inserted nucleus... this causes the intended nucleated pearl to fail, and a smaller keshi pearl to grow instead.
 Deliberate non-nucleated cultivation, still the most common type in freshwater pearl farming.
 Keeping freshwater mollusks with pearl sacs alive after harvesting the (first round of) pearls.

Except to the extent of noting that extremely small pearls (<2mm) are not cultivated, since there is no incentive to do so because naturally occurring tiny pearls are relatively plentiful, it is usually not possible to determine which of these caused an individual keshi pearl to grow. Because most keshi pearls come from farms where they are commonly and deliberately cultivated, it is necessary to classify keshi as cultivated / cultured pearls. Any natural pearl (without nucleus) may be called a keshi pearl, but doing so would be rather meaningless without mentioning the species of mollusc in which the pearl grew, or at least its geographic provenance. Use of "keshi pearl" without provenance is confusing and should be avoided.

Terminology

The term keshi (occasionally misspelled Keishi, apparently a confusion with "Heishi beads") was first used in Japan to refer to pearls without nuclei. Akoya pearl cultivation, which began in the 1920s in Japan, provided numerous small, most often greyish pearls as a by-product. Traders from India, where natural pearls were harvested and processed during past centuries, needed no sales talk to be convinced that they could sell Japan Akoya keshi in their market and to visiting Arabs as natural pearls, because their close similarities. Having access to Indian labor capable of sorting, drilling and stringing tiny pearls, arrangements were made to send Japanese keshi pearls to India (even during many years in which imports were not sanctioned), provide processing services at conditions without rival, and covertly retain pearls for sale in India under an allowance for pearls ruined in the course of processing.

Pearl importers in consumer countries, and the trade associations they constitute, have recommended limiting the use of the term keshi to ocean pearls, and banning its use for freshwater pearls. This is justified to some extent by the fact that ocean pearl keshi were known as a product for some years before their freshwater counterparts. Japanese language usage of keshi certainly includes freshwater pearls. It has always been a generic term, not a trademark, and its application to freshwater pearls by the Chinese is based on visual similarity that is quite close.

Chinese use of keshi for freshwater pearls is generally limited to those from a second (or subsequent) harvest. These differ considerably from the plump, full shapes of first-harvest freshwater pearls, which grow during a young mussel's growth period, when nacre production is at its peak. Older mussels produce nacre more slowly, and second-harvest freshwater pearls (if not nucleated) are generally flat and often thin, with concavities and texture mostly absent from first-harvest pearls. Curiously, the Chinese use keshi to differentiate between two distinct products, while Japanese usage, requiring only the absence of a nucleus, is equally applicable to both.

Nature vs. nurture controversy
Because it is impossible to determine whether an individual keshi pearl grew serendipitously or as a result of mantle tissue insertion, they are all classified as cultivated/cultured pearls. It is possible to speculate on the likelihood of  keshi pearls from various cultivations  based on supply and demand. Tiny "seed" pearls (<2mm)  occur commonly in all types of molluscs used for pearl cultivation, both ocean and freshwater, thus there has never been a need to find a way to  cultivate tiny sizes. Japan Akoya pearl production generated large numbers of tiny keshi pearls, the value of which was mostly in the labor-intensive processing, so there is little or no incentive to cultivate extra keshi. Southsea pearls on the other hand are farmed in larger molluscs, and keshi from these may reach considerable size and value. Freshwater cultivators in pre-1985 Japan commonly used up bits of active mantle tissue left over from in-body bead nucleation by slipping a few keshi into the mantle. Now the market of those keshi farmed in China is so low that they discard the leftovers rather than expending even a tiny fraction of their mussels' strength on producing freshwater keshi.

Freshwater keshi pearls from China are for the most part unquestionably cultivated, but in an indirect way. Active mantle tissue grafts in a mussel's mantle are needed in order for the first harvest of pearls (pearls not considered keshi by most Chinese dealers) to grow. Except for the insertion of nuclei in selected pearl sacs to make coin pearls and bead-nucleated "flame" pearls, keshi pearls will grow without any further intervention following the careful harvesting of the first round of pearls. Since mussels may live for many years, the process may be repeated;   however the amount of nacre produced continuously falls with age, and most cultivators harvest only twice.

Keshi pearls consist of solid nacre, and tend to have high luster as a result. All nacre colors typical of the mollusc under cultivation may be represented among keshi pearls harvested from the same, but in the case of Akoya pearls a larger portion of keshi is usually grey than of bead-nucleated pearls.

References

Pearls

Keshi pearl


The complex relationship between women and Islam is shown by both Islamic texts and the history and culture of the Muslim world. Islamic scholars maintain that the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, affirms women's religious and moral equality.

However, sharia (Islamic law) shows the marked differences between women's and men's roles, rights, and obligations, and many Muslim-majority countries give women different rights than men with regard to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, and education.

Islamic feminism is a type of feminism that focuses on women in Islam. Nawal El Saadawi is an Egyptian feminist who has written many books about women in Islam.

Islam

Women and Islam


The Birmingham to Peterborough Line is an important cross-country train track in the United Kingdom, making a connection from the Midlands to East Anglia. Passenger services are given by CrossCountry and East Midlands Trains, serving the following places:
Birmingham (New Street)
Water Orton
Coleshill
Nuneaton (The station used to be called Nuneaton Trent Valley)
Hinckley
Narborough
Wigston (South Wigston)
Leicester (The station used to be called Leicester London Road)
Melton Mowbray
Oakham
Stamford
Peterborough (The station used to be called Peterborough North)

On other tracks (Ely to Peterborough, Breckland and West Anglia) the trains keep going after Peterborough, through March and Ely to Thetford and Norwich or Wendens Ambo (Audley End) and Stansted Airport. Many of them run to Stansted. Services for Norwich come back out of Ely.

Other services using part of the Birmingham to Peterborough Line include Birmingham to Leicester local (close by) trains. The tracks also have a lot of cargo on the trains, being one of the big train tracks to Birmingham Freightliner Terminal (on the site of Birmingham Lawley Street railway station).

Stations that are not there anymore

Stations that are not on these tracks anymore are:
Croft railway station at Croft
Blaby railway station at Blaby
Glen Parva railway station at Glen Parva
Leicester
Syston
Rearsby railway station at Rearsby
Brooksby railway station at Brooksby
Frisby railway station at Frisby
Asfordby railway station at Asfordby
Ketton

Railway lines of England

Birmingham to Peterborough Line


Ultima Online is an fantasy-themed MMORPG (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game) played all around the world. Game servers are called shards. The game was launched in 1997 by Origin Systems. Nowadays it is owned by Electronic Arts. Like in other games, play is mostly about getting the best character.

Game play
The game continues with game mechanisms from the original single player game Ultima. It was designed as a kind of social and economic experiment.

Skills
Skill are measured in percent. The game has about 50 kinds of them. Magery, Necromancy, Alchemy, Mining... The highest amount of skill is 100%, but with special items it can be raised to 120%.

Statistics
Basic player statistics are strength, intelligence and dexterity.

Craft system
Ultima Online has a huge craft system. Players can make various things from weapons to whole ships.

Datadiscs
 Ultima Online: Second Age (1998)
 Ultima Online: Renaissance (2000) – world split into two copies, Felucca and Trammel
 Ultima Online: Third Dawn (2001)
 Ultima Online: Lord Blackthorn's Revenge (2002)
 Ultima Online: Age of Shadows (2003)
 Ultima Online: Samurai Empire (2004) – samurai theme
 Ultima Online: Mondain's Legacy (2005) – new race Elves
 Ultima Online: Kingdom Reborn (2007)
 Ultima Online: Stygian Abyss (2009) – new race Gargoyles

Datadiscs mostly add new monsters, items and maps.

OSI shards
OSI (Origin Systems Inc., now part of EA) is the name for official servers (shards). These servers have run more than 10 years.

 Pacific
 Atlantic
 Great Lakes

Shard emulation
Ultima Online files can be easily modified. This ability gives a free hand to many projects. To run your shard, you need a server emulator. The EA games tolerates other projects.
 RunUO
 Sphere
 POL

Curiosities
 Since the Renaissance, the world is split into two copies, Felucca and Trammel. The Trammel world did not allow player vs. player and was focused on fighting with monsters. The Felucca world allows player vs. player, and that makes the world darker.
 The game client use images only, there aren't any 3D models. For example, each character has about 500 images.
 Each character has graphics only in four directions. Another four are gotten by mirroring.
 Graphic and other files can be easily edited. This ability is an advantage for non-official projects.

System requirements
 Windows 95 and newer
 32 MB of RAM memory
 DirectX 5 or higher
 internet connection 32kbit/s or greater

References
http://www.uo.com
http://www.gamesites200.com/ultimaonline/
http://www.runuo.com
http://uo2.stratics.com/

Massively multiplayer online role-playing games
1997 video games

Ultima Online


The National Library of Brazil (, official name is ) is the depository of the bibliographic and documentary heritage of Brazil. It is located in Rio de Janeiro, the capital city of Brazil from 1822 to 1960, more specifically at Cinelândia square.

Considered by UNESCO the largest library in Latin America and the seventh largest in the world, its collections include about 9 million items. It organized the first library science courses in Latin America and its staff has led the modernization of library services, including the development of online databases.

History

The history of the National Library began on 1 November 1755, when Lisbon suffered a violent earthquake. The Royal Library was considered one of the most important libraries in Europe at that time. This irreparable loss to the Portuguese was the impetus for moving many of its contents to Brazil. The collection was brought in three stages, the first being in 1810 and two in 1811. The library of 60,000 books was accommodated initially in the upstairs rooms of the Third Order of Carmel Hospital (in accordance with the charter of July 27, 1810), located in the old back street of Carmel close to the Imperial Palace. The facilities, however, were considered inadequate and as well potentially jeopardizing the valuable collection. Therefore, on 29 October 1810, a date that was assigned to the official founding of the National Library, Prince Regent John (later King John VI of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves) issued a decree which provided that a royal library should be established from the funds of the royal treasury.

Expansion

The works for the new building of the library only took place in 1813, when the collection was transferred. While the process of setting up the books, which began in 1810, was taking place the consultation of the library collection could already be carried out by scholars, by royal consent, and in 1814, after the collection of the collection was completed, the consultation was public.

Officially established, the library continued to have a significant expansion through purchases, donations, mainly, and "tips", that is, by the obligatory delivery of a copy of all printed material in the typographic offices of Portugal (By decree of 12 September 1805) and in the Royal Printing, installed in Rio de Janeiro. This legislation on tips was improved over the years and culminated in Decree No. 1,825 of 20 December 1907, commonly called the Legal Deposit Decree, still in force.

Transfer of sovereignty
After the death of Queen Maria I in March 1816, the reign of King John VI began, and it remained in Brazil until 1821, when political circumstances made him return to Lisbon with the royal family, except for his eldest son Prince Pedro de Alcântara of Braganza (future Emperor of Brazil), who came to proclaim the independence of Brazil in 1822. Here also remained the Royal Library. At that time it had grown a lot and, after Independence, in 1822, became property of the Empire of Brazil, because its purchase is included in the Additional Convention to the Treaty of Friendship and Alliance signed between Brazil and Portugal on 29 August 1825. For the goods left in Brazil the royal family was indemnified in two million pounds sterling, of that value, eight hundred contos de reis were destined to the payment of the Royal Library, which was then called the Imperial and Public Library of the Court.

Building

In 1858, the library was transferred to the Passeio street, number 60, in Lapa square, and installed in the building that had the purpose to better shelter its collection. As its collection continued to grow with donations, acquisitions and through legal contributions, purchase of rare art collections at auctions and in bookstores around the world, a new building was needed that best suited its needs.

The constant and permanent growth of the collection of the library was fundamental for the realization of a project of construction of a seat that would attend all the needs of the library, adequately accommodating its collections. Based on this, his current building was designed, which had its cornerstone launched on 15 August 1905, during the government of Rodrigues Alves. The inauguration took place on 29 October 1910, during the Nilo Peçanha government and in the first centenary of the library.

The building of the National Library, whose project is signed by the military engineer Sousa Aguiar, has an eclectic style, in which neoclassical and art nouveau elements are mixed, and contains ornaments by artists such as Eliseu Visconti, Henrique and Rodolfo Bernardelli, Modesto Brocos and Rodolfo Amoedo. Eliseu Visconti, still in 1903, had already designed the ex-libris and the emblem of the National Library.

The library building is located at Rio Branco Avenue, number 219, Cinelândia Square, in the center of Rio de Janeiro, composing with the National Museum of Fine Arts and the Municipal Theater an architectural and cultural ensemble of great value.

Catalog
In 1911, Manoel Cicero Peregrino da Silva started a national union catalog for all Brazilian libraries. He set up the first library science course in South America. Many librarians went on to study in European and North American universities.

Legal deposit
In 1907, Presidential Decree no. 1825 established the duty of all publishers to send one copy of each publication to then-called Bibliotheca Nacional. In 2004, this decree was revoked by congressional Law no. 10,994, still in force, upholding the same mandate but updating its provisions.

Article 1st of Law no. 10,994 specifies that the legal deposit's aim is "to ensure the registration and custody of national intellectual production, to allow for the control, development and spreading of current Brazilian bibliography, and to defend and preserve national language and culture."

Significant collections
Among the significant collections of the National Library of Brazil is the Teresa Cristina Maria photograph collection, which includes 21,742 photographs dating from the nineteenth century. These photographs were left to the library by Emperor Pedro II in 1891. This collection has been inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 2003 in recognition of its world significance and outstanding universal value. It features images related to Brazil's history and people from the 19th century, including photographs by Moritz Lamberg. There are also photographs from Africa, North America, and Europe.

Gallery

List of former directors
(incomplete list)
 Frei Camilo de Monserrate (29 April 1853 to 19 November 1870)
 Benjamin Franklin Ramiz Galvão
 João Saldanha da Gama
 F. L. Bitencourt Sampaio
 Francisco Mendes da Rocha
 Raul Pompeia
 José Alexandre Teixeira de Melo  (1895–1900)
 Manuel Cícero Peregrino da Silva  (1900–1924)
 Mario Behring (interim, 1923)
 Aurélio Lopes de Souza
 Basílio de Magalhães
 Rodolfo Garcia  (1932–1945)
 Rubens Borba de Moraes  (1945–1947)
 Josué Montello  (1947–1953)
 Eugênio Gomes  (1951–1956)
 Adonias Aguiar Filho
 Jannice Monte-Mór
 Plínio Doyle
 Celia Ribeiro Zaher
 Affonso Romano de Sant'Anna (1990–1996)
 Eduardo Portella (1996–2002)
 Pedro Corrêa do Lago (2003–2005)
 Muniz Sodré  (2009–2011)
 Galeno Amorim (2011–2013)
 Renato Lessa (2013–2016)
 Helena Porto Severo da Costa (2016–2019)
 Rafael Nogueira (2019–2022)
 Luiz Carlos Ramiro Junior (2022–present)

See also
 List of libraries in Brazil
 Legal deposit
 National library
 Minuscule 2437
 Brazilian National Archives
 Asociación de Estados Iberoamericanos para el Desarrollo de las Bibliotecas Nacionales de Iberoamérica

References

External links

Official site
Encarta (Archived 2009-11-01)

ISBN agencies
Government of Brazil
Brazil
Libraries in Rio de Janeiro (city)
World Digital Library partners
Deposit libraries
Libraries established in 1810
1810 establishments in Brazil
National heritage sites of Rio de Janeiro (state)

National Library of Brazil