Dudley Robert Herschbach (born June 18, 1932) is an American chemist at Harvard University. He won the 1986 Nobel Prize in Chemistry jointly with Yuan T. Lee and John C. Polanyi "for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes". Herschbach and Lee specifically worked with molecular beams, performing crossed molecular beam experiments that enabled a detailed molecular-level understanding of many elementary reaction processes. Herschbach is a member of the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.

Early life and education
Herschbach was born in San Jose, California on June 18, 1932. The eldest of six children, he grew up in a rural area. He graduated from Campbell High School, where he played football. Offered both athletic and academic scholarships to Stanford University, Herschbach chose the academic. His freshman advisor, Harold S. Johnston, hired him as a summer research assistant, and taught him chemical kinetics in his senior year. His master's research involved calculating Arrhenius A-factors for gas-phase reactions. Herschbach received a B.S. in mathematics in 1954 and an M.S. in chemistry in 1955 from Stanford University.

Herschbach then attended Harvard University, where he earned an A.M. in physics in 1956 and a Ph.D. in chemical physics in 1958 under the direction of Edgar Bright Wilson. At Harvard, Herschbach examined tunnel splitting in molecules, using microwave spectroscopy. He was awarded a three-year Junior Fellowship in the Society of Fellows at Harvard, lasting from 1957 to 1959.

Research

In 1959, Herschbach joined the University of California at Berkeley, where he was appointed an assistant professor of chemistry and became an associate professor in 1961. At Berkeley, he and graduate students George Kwei and James Norris constructed a cross-beam instrument large enough for reactive scattering experiments involve alkali and various molecular partners. His interest in studying elementary chemical processes in molecular-beam reactive collisions challenged an often-accepted belief that "collisions do not occur in crossed molecular beams". The results of his studies of K + CH3I were the first to provide a detailed view of an elementary collision, demonstrating a direct rebound process in which the KI product recoiled from an incoming K atom beam. Subsequent studies of K + Br2 resulted in the discovery that the hot-wire surface ionization detector they were using was potentially contaminated by previous use, and had to be pre-treated to obtain reliable results. Changes to the instrumentation yielded reliable results, including the observation that the K + Br2 reaction involved a stripping reaction, in which the KBr product scattered forward from the incident K atom beam. As the research continued, it became possible to correlate the electronic structure of reactants and products with the reaction dynamics.

In 1963, Herschbach returned to Harvard University as a professor of chemistry. There he continued his work on molecular-beam reactive dynamics, working with graduate students Sanford Safron and Walter Miller on the reactions of alkali atoms with alkali halides. In 1967, Yuan T. Lee joined the lab as a postdoctoral student, and Herschbach, Lee, and graduate students Doug MacDonald and Pierre LeBreton began to construct a "supermachine" for studying collisions such as Cl + Br2 and hydrogen and halogen reactions.

His most acclaimed work, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1986 with Yuan T. Lee and John C. Polanyi, was his collaboration with Yuan T. Lee on crossed molecular beam experiments. Crossing collimated beams of gas-phase reactants allows partitioning of energy among translational, rotational, and vibrational modes of the product molecules—a vital aspect of understanding reaction dynamics. For their contributions to reaction dynamics, Herschbach and Lee are considered to have helped create a new field of research in chemistry. Herschbach is a pioneer in molecular stereodynamics, measuring and theoretically interpreting the role of angular momentum and its vector properties in chemical reaction dynamics.

In the course of his life's work in research, Herschbach has published over 400 scientific papers. Herschbach has applied his broad expertise in both the theory and practice of chemistry and physics to diverse problems in chemical physics, including theoretical work on dimensional scaling. One of his studies demonstrated that methane is, in fact, spontaneously formed at high-pressure and high-temperature environments such as those deep in the Earth's mantle; this finding is an exciting indication of abiogenic hydrocarbon formation, meaning that the actual amount of hydrocarbons available on Earth might be much larger than conventionally assumed under the assumption that all hydrocarbons are fossil fuels. His recent work also includes a collaboration with Steven Brams studying approval voting.

Science and education

Hershbach's teaching ranges from graduate seminars on chemical kinetics to an introductory undergraduate course in general chemistry that he taught for many years at Harvard, and described as his "most challenging assignment".

Herschbach has been a strong proponent of science education and science among the general public, and frequently gives lectures to students of all ages, imbuing them with his infectious enthusiasm for science and his playful spirit of discovery. Herschbach has also lent his voice to the animated television show The Simpsons for the episode "Treehouse of Horror XIV", where he is seen presenting the Nobel Prize in Physics to Professor Frink.

In October 2010, Herschbach participated in the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Lunch with a Laureate program, where middle and high school students get to engage in an informal conversation with a Nobel Prize-winning scientist over a brown-bag lunch. He is also a member of the Festival's advisory board. Herschbach has participated in the Distinguished Lecture Series of the Research Science Institute (RSI), a summer research program for high school students held at MIT.

Although still an active research professor at Harvard, he joined the Texas A&M University faculty September 1, 2005, as a professor of physics, teaching one semester per year in the chemical physics program. As of 2010, he holds the title of professor emeritus at Harvard and remains well known for his involvement as a lecturer and mentor in the Harvard research community. He and his wife Georgene Herschbach also served for several years as the co-Masters of Currier House, where they were highly involved in undergraduate life in addition to their full-time duties.

Public service
He is a board member of the Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation and was the chairman of the board for Society for Science & the Public from 1992 to 2010. Herschbach is a member of the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto.

He is also an Eagle Scout and recipient of the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award (DESA).

Family

Herschbach's wife, Georgene Herschbach, served as the Associate Dean of Harvard College for Undergraduate Academic Programs. Prior to retirement in 2009, she chaired Harvard College's influential Committee on Undergraduate Education.

Awards and honors

Herschbach is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society and the Royal Chemical Society of Great Britain. In addition to the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, he has received a wide variety of national and international awards. These include the National Medal of Science, the ACS Award in Pure Chemistry, the Linus Pauling Medal, the Irving Langmuir Award, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, and the American Institute of Chemists Gold Medal.

Publications

 Herschbach, D. R. & V. W. Laurie. "Anharmonic Potential Constants and Their Dependence Upon Bond Length", University of California, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission) (January 1961).
 Herschbach, D. R.  "Reactive Collisions in Crossed Molecular Beams", University of California, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission) (February 1962).
 Laurie, V. W. & D. R. Herschbach. "The Determination of Molecular Structure from Rotational Spectra", Stanford University, University of California, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission) (July 1962).
 Zare, R. N. & D. R. Herschbach. "Proposed Molecular Beam Determination of Energy Partition in the Photodissociation of Polyatomic Molecules", University of California, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission) (January 29, 1964).

References

External links

 Video of a talk by Herschbach on Linus Pauling

1932 births
Living people
Scientists from San Jose, California
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
National Medal of Science laureates
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
American Nobel laureates
American physical chemists
Fellows of the American Physical Society
American people of German descent
Stanford University alumni
Harvard University alumni
Harvard University faculty
University of California, Berkeley College of Letters and Science faculty
Society for Science & the Public
Articles containing video clips
Chemical physicists
Campbell High School (California) alumni

Dudley R. Herschbach


Akershus is a former county in Norway. It was bordered by Hedmark, Oppland, Buskerud, Oslo and Østfold; the area has a short border with Sweden. Akershus was the second largest county in population after Oslo. It has more than half a million people living in it. The county was named after Akershus Fortress. The county administration was in Oslo, which was not part of the county.

On 1 January 2020 the county merged with Buskerud and Østfold to the current county of Viken.

Geography

Most of the county is in the districts Follo and Romerike. There are also the two smaller districts of Asker and Bærum which are west of Oslo. This happened when the municipality of Aker (surrounding Oslo) was moved from Akershus county to Oslo in 1948.

Akershus includes some of the lake Mjøsa and some of the river Glomma. Because it includes many suburbs of Oslo, notably Bærum, Akershus has a large number of people living in a small area. The main national railway lines into Oslo run through Akershus with many stations such as Asker, Ullensaker, Ski and Lillestrøm.

The county includes the historical place Eidsvoll, 48 km north of Oslo. This is where the National assembly voted the Norwegian constitution in 1814. South of Eidsvoll is the international airport of Oslo Airport at Gardermoen. The home of the crown prince is in Asker.

Buildings
The county has a major international airport, the Oslo Airport. It also has two university hospitals, Akershus University Hospital and Sunnaas Hospital.

History
Akershus became a fief in the 16th century. At that time it included the current counties of Hedmark, Oppland, Buskerud and Oslo. It also included municipalities of Askim, Eidsberg and Trøgstad in the county of Østfold. In 1685 Buskerud was separated from Akershus. In 1768 Hedmark and Oppland were also separated from Akershus. In 1842 Christiania (Oslo) was made separate as well. In 1948 Aker was transferred to the county of Oslo.

Origin
The county is named after Akershus Fortress. The fortress was built in 1299. Its name means "the (fortified) house of (the district) Aker".

Municipalities

 Asker
 Aurskog-Høland
 Bærum
 Eidsvoll
 Enebakk
 Fet
 Frogn
 Gjerdrum
 Hurdal
 Lørenskog
 Nannestad
 Nes
 Nesodden
 Nittedal
 Oppegård
 Rælingen
 Skedsmo
 Ski
 Sørum
 Ullensaker
 Vestby
 Ås

Other websites
 Akershus county website

Former counties of Norway
Viken (county)

Akershus


The War of the Fifth Coalition was fought in 1809. It was fought by a coalition of the Austrian Empire and the United Kingdom against Napoleon's French Empire and Bavaria. The main countries in the war were France and Austria Major battles between them happened in a large area of Central Europe from April to July. Many people died on both sides. France won the war after the Battle of Wagram in early July.

1809
1800s in Europe
fifth coalition
19th-century conflicts

War of the Fifth Coalition


The Third Battle of Panipat was a major battle of Indian history, fought on 14th January 1761. It was fought between the Afghan forces of Ahmad Shah Durrani along with his local Rohilla and other Pathan and Oudh allies, against the Maratha Empire.

The Durrani Afghan forces and their allies finally won and defeated the Marathas. The place of battle field is disputed by historians, but most of them are in favour of horiana in Punjab regions not far away from Delhi. The Marathas dug a trench which was three kilometres long and four hundred metres wide. Ahmad Shah Durrani showed his shrewdness by grounding pretended  tents behind which there was a four kilometres long  curtain. Behind the banner of curtain Ahmad Shah Durrani dug four kilometres long and twenty feet wide cannals. By extracting muds from the channel  five feet high, twenty feet wide and four kilometres long road was made behind which Afgan riflemen can take safer position to fire acutely targeting advancing Maratha soldiers. Furthermore, Ahmad Shah Durrani laid his short range movable cannons on the backs of camels positioned behind the road from which cannon fire could be made targeting the advancing Maratha soldiers over the heads of his own forces. There were four feeder roads one kilometre  away from each other on which Afgan horsemen could come down to battle field and if needed could retreat behind the shadow of five feet high covering road. These four feeder roads were short, narrow and sloping to battle field. Ahmad Shah Abdali tried to bait Maratha troops to advance and Marathas stepped into this trap. Afgans riflemen and short range cannons fired flawlessly onto the Marathas Army and Marathas'began to fall down one after another. In this final stage of battle Ahmad Shah Abdali's left flank and right flank came down to battle field surrounding Maratha forces on three sides. In this conjuncture  of the battle, Holker left the battle field realizing the battle was lost and Marathas almost lost their ground in the battle  leaving the chief Sadashivrorao Bhaou encircled by his  bodyguards in the midst of the battle field. Front troops of Ahmad Shah did not further advance fearing cannon fire of the Marathas'. Under the cover of these French made cannon 15,000 Maratha forces managed to flee leaving their chief vulnerable.

Some historians disputed that if Malharo Holkerr or Roghunath Rao was made chief of Maratha Army, the result might have been different, because they were well-known about the political situation of North India. Malharo Holker and Master Roghunath Rao invaded Bangla, Biher and Urisya during the reign of Nawab Alivordi Khan and campaigned guerrilla warfare against his kingdom. So, they were well-known about this locality and were experienced to campaign guerrilla warfare in this terrain. But it should be kept in mind that Sadashivro Rao Bhau who was peshwa's younger brother and peshwa's son Vishwash Rao also took part in this battle. If Roghunath Rao or Holker was made chief of the Maratha Army, lives of Baji Rao and Sadashivrorao Bhau would have been in jeopardy. Keeping this in mind, Peshwa made Sadashivrorao Bhau the chief of Maratha Army.

When the battle began at 8 a.m.on 14th January, 1761 after the Marathas' scantier foodgrains were engulfed by their soldiers, Durrani forces fired their short range cannons, but proved to be ineffective because of falling their ignition on the middle of the battlefield. Thus Ahmad Shah Durrani tried to thwart Maratha advance, he sent his special messenger over the river Jamuna to cross his roughly 15000 baluch soldiers who were engaged to block supply lines of Maratha. Ahmad Shah Abdali had little faith on his allies's ground troops. So, he cunningly played hit and run tactics until his 15000 Baluch troops completed crossing Jamuna toward the East. After reaching his 15000 cavalry troops in the evening, Ahmad Shah Abdali decided the final phase of his charge. In the meantime, after receiving message of crossing 15000 Afgan troops across the river Jamuna, Vishwasrao disappeared from the battlefield and secretly crossed the river Jamuna on the west. This was a major blow for the maratha side. On the other side Ahmad Shah Abdali tried to prolong the battle for minimum losses and maximum gains. And he was successful in his tactics.

References

1761
18th century in India

Third Battle of Panipat


Robert Edward "Bob" Brown (18 April 1927 – 29 November 2005) was an American ethnomusicologist who is credited with coining the term "world music". He was also well known for his recordings of music from Indonesia. Many of these recordings, among the first widely distributed and commercially available in the United States, inspired a generation of musicians to study and perform Indonesian gamelan music.

Brown grew up in Clinton, New York. He had a very extensive background in music while still young. He played timpani and bass drum in a band, double bass and cello in the school orchestra and accompanied the school chorus on piano. A sponsor enabled him to study music theory at the Utica Conservatory with Johannes Magendanz and study piano with Clara Magendanz. He performed the first movement of the Schumann piano concerto with the high school orchestra during his sophomore year.

The same year, he held the job of organist at Hamilton College. He also performed popular music with his own band, Bobby Brown and His Swingsters. During his undergraduate years at Ithaca College and his graduate studies at Cornell University he continued to work as an organist.

Bob Brown started his doctoral studies at UCLA as a piano major in 1953. After Mantle Hood began teaching at UCLA the following year, Brown switched to ethnomusicology and became Hood's first teaching assistant. Brown received his doctorate in ethnomusicology from UCLA. His dissertation was titled The Mrdanga: A Study of Drumming in South India (1965). He studied and played the mridangam.

Brown began teaching at Wesleyan University in 1961. He founded the world music/ethnomusicology program at Wesleyan. It was here that Brown first used the term "world music" to describe the ethnomusicology program.

Bob Brown followed the philosophy advocated by Mantle Hood, who could be considered the father of gamelan music education in the USA: that students become bi-musical. Bob Brown's own "World Music" programs from the 1960s onwards were built on the ideal of bi-musicality, which was an innovative approach to music education at the time. It proposed that students, after acquiring competence in the music of their native culture, study with master musicians from another culture, and thereby acquire competence in the musical performance and theory of that culture too. The result would be a person with musical competence in two cultures: bi-musicality.

Brown was one of the organizers of the American Society for Eastern Arts (ASEA). In 1973, Brown founded the Center for World Music. He remained president of the organization until his death. Thinking about how much musical experience was available to him in high school motivated him to start the "Music in the Schools program" for the Center for World Music.

Brown began teaching at San Diego State University in 1979. He served as the Chair of the School of Music for three years from 1979 to 1982. He retired in 1992. Brown also was the owner of Girikusuma or Flower Mountain, a center for traditional Balinese performing arts located in Bali.

In 2006, The University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana announced that Brown had bequeathed his extensive collection of instruments, recordings, books, paintings and artifacts and to the school's world music center. The Robert E. Brown Center for World Music, which opened in April 2008, was named in his honor.

Recordings
Brown produced five of the early recordings from Indonesia in the "Explorer Series" released on Nonesuch Records. Two of the recordings were from Bali, and three were from Java:
Bali: Gamelan Semar Pegulingan
Bali: Music from the Shadow Play, music from a wayang performance
Java: Court Gamelan (1971). This Grammy-nominated recording has been potentially heard throughout the galaxy. In 1977, NASA launched the space probe Voyager with a gold-plated copper record featuring sounds and images of life and culture on Earth. Working with Carl Sagan, Brown chose a track from the recording, Ketawang: Puspawarna, to represent Southeast Asia. He also recommended the recording "Jaat Kahan Ho" in Raga Bhairavi by Surashri Kesarbai Kerkar for inclusion on the Voyager disc, since he believed it to be the finest recorded example of Indian classical music.
Java: Court Gamelan, Volume II (1977)
Java: Court Gamelan, Volume III (1979)

References

External links
Robert E. Brown Papers and Center for World Music Records, c. 1945 - 2005, The Sousa Archives and Center for American Music
Ithaka: A Tribute to Robert E. Brown (1927-2005) SEM Newsletter 40-2 (Mar 06)

1927 births
2005 deaths
Cornell University alumni
American ethnomusicologists
Gamelan
Hamilton College (New York) alumni
Ithaca College alumni
People from Clinton, Oneida County, New York
Wesleyan University faculty
San Diego State University faculty
UCLA School of the Arts and Architecture alumni
Mridangam players
20th-century American musicologists

Robert E. Brown


Esperantido is a term used for languages derivatives of Esperanto and a constructed language for describing a language project based on or inspired by Esperanto.

The creator of the Esperanto was the eye doctor L. L. Zamenhof in 1887. He proposed reform in 1894 with several changes, and considered it "Reformed Esperanto".

The most popular project of Esperantido is the Ido, but it is far less popular than the original Esperanto, which continues to be the world's most popular constructed language of all universal language projects.

Constructed languages
Esperanto

Esperantido


Knox's Headquarters State Historic Site, in the town of New Windsor in Orange County, New York, consists of the Georgian house of the Ellison family, built in 1754 by immigrant William Bull of Hamptonburgh, NY, and the grounds around it. The site is located on Old Forge Hill Road, just south of Route 94 east of Vails Gate.

Although most closely associated with Henry Knox, who used it as his headquarters as the Revolutionary War drew to a close in the early 1780s, it was used as a general's headquarters throughout most of the war, by Nathanael Greene and Horatio Gates.

The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. While owned by the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation the Ellison House is administered and operated by the Palisades Interstate Park Commission, like many other state parks and historic sites in the mid and lower Hudson region.

Today, the house can be toured when the site is open. It is used to educate visitors about how 18th-century families such as the Ellisons actually lived. On holidays and special occasions staff dress in reproduction period clothing and give special events. Staff dressed as the 2nd Continental Artillery frequently demonstrate cannon use on the grounds during special events, as Knox was best known for his command of Continental artillery.

The house and its grounds were the setting and subject of the children's haunted-house novel Buried Treasure (1919), by the best-selling children's author Henry Everett McNeil.  The book is illustrated with McNeil's own photographs (made circa 1911 or 1912) of the various buildings and bridge at the Knox site.

The Jane Colden Plant Sanctuary along some of the trails in the nearby woods memorializes America's first female botanist, who also resided in the area.

See also

New Windsor Cantonment State Historic Site
Washington's Headquarters State Historic Site
List of National Historic Landmarks in New York
List of New York State Historic Sites

References

External links

Knox's Headquarters State Historic Site (Official site)

Houses completed in 1754
New York (state) in the American Revolution
New York (state) historic sites
National Register of Historic Places in Orange County, New York
Tourist attractions in Orange County, New York
Palisades Interstate Park system
American Revolutionary War sites
Georgian architecture in New York (state)
New Windsor, New York
National Historic Landmarks in New York (state)
Museums in Orange County, New York
Houses in Orange County, New York
Historic house museums in New York (state)
Living museums in New York (state)
American Revolutionary War museums in New York (state)
1754 establishments in the Province of New York
Buildings and structures in New Windsor, New York

Knox's Headquarters State Historic Site


County Mayo is a county in the province of Connacht, in Ireland.  Castlebar and Ballina are the two towns with the most people living in them in the county.  The highest point in Mayo and Connacht is Mweelrea.

Towns and villages
The following is a list of the towns and villages in County Mayo:
Achill Island
Balla, Ballina, Ballinrobe, Ballintober, Ballycastle, Ballyhaunis, Ballyglass, Ballyvary, Bangor, Belmullet, Bohola
Castlebar, Charlestown, Claremorris, Cong, Crossmolina
Derrew
Foxford
Geesala
Keel, Kilkelly, Killala, Kiltimagh, Knock
Louisburgh
Mayo, Mulrany
Newport
Swinford
Tourmakeady
Westport

Other websites
Mayo County Council's website
Map of Mayo

Gaeltacht

County Mayo


The MOS Technology 6581/8580 SID (Sound Interface Device) is the built-in programmable sound generator chip of the Commodore CBM-II, Commodore 64, Commodore 128, and MAX Machine home computers.

Together with the VIC-II graphics chip, the SID was instrumental in making the C64 the best-selling home computer in history, and is partly credited for initiating the demoscene.

History

The SID was devised by engineer Bob Yannes, who later co-founded the Ensoniq digital synthesizer and sampler company. Yannes headed a team that included himself, two technicians and a CAD operator, who designed and completed the chip in five months in the latter half of 1981. Yannes was inspired by previous work in the synthesizer industry and was not impressed by the current state of computer sound chips. Instead, he wanted a high-quality instrument chip, which is the reason why the SID has features like the envelope generator, previously not found in home computer sound chips.

Emphasis during chip design was on high-precision frequency control, and the SID was originally designed to have 32 independent voices, sharing a common wavetable lookup scheme that would be time multiplexed. However, these features could not be finished in time, so instead the mask work for a certain working oscillator was simply replicated three times across the chip's surface, creating three voices each with its own oscillator. Another feature that was not incorporated in the final design was a frequency look-up table for the most common musical notes, a feature that was dropped because of space limitations. The support for an audio input pin was a feature Yannes added without asking, which in theory would have allowed the chip to be used as a simple effect processor. The masks were produced in 7-micrometer technology to gain a high yield; the state of the art at the time was 6-micrometer technologies.

The chip, like the first product using it (the Commodore 64), was finished in time for the Consumer Electronics Show in the first weekend of January 1982. Even though Yannes was partly displeased with the result, his colleague Charles Winterble said: "This thing is already 10 times better than anything out there and 20 times better than it needs to be."

The specifications for the chip were not used as a blueprint. Rather, they were written as the development work progressed, and not all planned features made it into the final product. Yannes claims he had a feature-list of which three quarters made it into the final design. The later revision (8580) was revised to more closely match the specifications. For example, the 8580 slightly improved upon the ability to perform a binary AND between two waveforms, which the SID can only do in an odd and illogical manner that results in messy, and in some cases nearly silent, waveforms. Wave combinations on the 8580 result in cleaner waveforms than on the 6581, although irregularities are still present. Another feature that differs between the two revisions is the filter, as the 6581 version is far away from the specification.

Design

The SID is a mixed-signal integrated circuit, featuring both digital and analog circuitry. All control ports are digital, while the output ports are analog. The SID features three voices, with four types of waveforms able to be selected per voice: pulse wave (with variable duty cycle), triangle wave, sawtooth wave, and pseudorandom noise (called white noise in documentation). Multiple waveform types may be selected simultaneously, which produces certain complex/combined waveforms. The oscillators of each voice are built on a 24-bit phase accumulator. A voice playing a triangle waveform may be ring-modulated with one of the other voices, where the triangle waveform's bits are inverted when the MSB of the modulating voice's accumulator is set, producing a discontinuity and inversion of direction with the triangle's ramp. Voices may also be hard-synced to each other, where the synced voice's oscillator is reset whenever the MSB of the syncing voice's accumulator is increased. If both ring modulation and hard-sync are set to affect the same voice, the two effects are combined. The voice that ring modulates and/or syncs a given affected voice is determined by the following pattern: voice 1 affects voice 2, voice 2 affects voice 3, and voice 3 affects voice 1.

Each voice may be routed into a common, digitally controlled analog  multimode filter, which is constructed with aid of external capacitors to the chip. The filter has lowpass, bandpass and highpass outputs, which can be individually selected for final output amplification via the master volume register. Filter modes can also be combined together. For example, using a combined state of lowpass and highpass results in a notch (or inverted bandpass) output.
The programmer may vary the filter's cutoff frequency and resonance. An external audio-in port enables external audio to be passed through the filter.

The ring modulation, filter, and programming techniques such as arpeggio (rapid cycling between frequencies to make chord-like sounds) together produce the characteristic feel and sound of SID music.

Due to imperfect manufacturing technologies of the time and poor separation between the analog and digital parts of the chip, the 6581's output (before the amplifier stage) was always slightly biased from the zero level. Each time the volume register was altered, an audible click was produced. By quickly adjusting the amplifier's gain through the main 4-bit volume register, this bias could be modulated as PCM, resulting in a "virtual" fourth channel allowing 4-bit digital sample playback. The glitch was known and used from an early point on, first by Electronic Speech Systems to produce sampled speech in games such as Impossible Mission (1983, Epyx) and Ghostbusters (1984, Activision). The first instance of samples being used in actual musical compositions was by Martin Galway in Arkanoid (1987, Imagine), although he had copied the idea from an earlier drum synthesizer package called Digidrums. The length of sampled sound playback was limited first by memory and later technique. Kung Fu Fighting (1986), a popular early sample, has a playback length measured in seconds. c64mp3 (2010) and Cubase64 (2010) demonstrate playback lengths measured in minutes. Also, it was hugely CPU intensive - one had to output the samples very fast (in comparison to the speed of the 6510 CPU).

The better manufacturing technology in the 8580 used in the later revisions of Commodore 64C and the Commodore 128 DCR caused the bias to almost entirely disappear, causing the digitized sound samples to become very quiet. Fortunately, the volume level could be mostly restored with either a hardware modification (biasing the audio-in pin), or more commonly a software trick involving using the Pulse waveform to intentionally recreate the required bias. The software trick generally renders one voice temporarily unusable, although clever musical compositions can make this problem less noticeable.  An excellent example of this quality improvement noticeably reducing a sampled channel can be found in the introduction to Electronic Arts' game Skate or Die (1987). The guitar riff played is all but missing when played on the Commodore 64c or the Commodore 128.

At the X'2008 demo party, a completely new method of playing digitized samples was unveiled. The method allows for an unprecedented four (software-mixed) channels of 8-bit samples with optional filtering on top of all samples, as well as two ordinary SID sound channels. The method works by resetting the oscillator using the waveform generator test bit, quickly ramping up the new waveform with the Triangle waveform selected, and then disabling all waveforms, resulting in the DAC continuing to output the last value---which is the desired sample. This continues for as long as two scanlines, which is ample time for glitch-free, arbitrary sample output. It is however more CPU-intensive than the 4-bit volume register DAC trick described above. Because the filtering in a SID chip is applied after the waveform generators, samples produced this way can be filtered normally.

The original manual for the SID mentions that if several waveforms are enabled at the same time, the result will be a binary AND between them. What happens in reality is that the input to the waveform DAC pins receives several waveforms at once. For instance, the Triangle waveform is made with a separate XOR circuit and a shift-to-left circuit. The top bit drives whether the XOR circuit inverts the accumulator value seen by the DAC. Thus, enabling triangle and sawtooth simultaneously causes adjacent accumulator bits in the DAC input to mix. (The XOR circuit does not come to play because it is always disabled whenever the sawtooth waveform is selected.) The pulse waveform is built by joining all the DAC bits together via a long strip of polysilicon, connected to the pulse control logic that digitally compares current accumulator value to the pulse width value. Thus, selecting the pulse waveform together with any other waveform causes every bit on the DAC to partially mix, and the loudness of the waveform is affected by the state of the pulse.

The noise generator is implemented as a 23-bit-length Fibonacci LFSR (Feedback polynomial: x^22+x^17+1). When using noise waveform simultaneously with any other waveform, the pull-down via waveform selector tends to quickly reduce the XOR shift register to 0 for all bits that are connected to the output DAC. As the zeroes shift in the register when the noise is clocked, and no 1-bits are produced to replace them, a situation can arise where the XOR shift register becomes fully zeroed. Luckily, the situation can be remedied by using the waveform control test bit, which in that condition injects one 1-bit into the XOR shift register. Some musicians are also known to use noise's combined waveforms and test bit to construct unusual sounds.

The 6581 and 8580 differ from each other in several ways. The original 6581 was manufactured using the older NMOS process, which used 12V DC to operate. The 6581 is very sensitive to static discharge and if they weren't handled properly the filters would stop working, explaining the reason of the great quantity of dead 6581s in the market. The 8580 was made using the HMOS-II process, which requires less power (9V DC), and therefore makes the IC run cooler. The 8580 is thus far more durable than the 6581. Also, due to more stable waveform generators, the bit-mixing effects are less noticeable and thus the combined waveforms come close to matching the original SID specification (which stated that they will be combined as a binary AND). The filter is also very different between the two models. The 6581 cutoff range resembles a sigmoid function on a log scale and varies wildly between chips, while the cutoff range on the 8580 is a straight line on a linear scale and is both more consistent between chips and close to the designers' actual specifications. The 8580 filter can achieve higher resonances as well. Additionally, a better separation between the analog and the digital circuits made the 8580's output less noisy and distorted. The noise in 6xxx-series systems can be reduced by disconnecting the audio-in pin.

The consumer version of the 8580 was rebadged the 6582, even though the die on the chip is identical to a stock 8580 chip, including the '8580R5' mark. Dr. Evil Laboratories used it in their SID Symphony expansion cartridge (sold to Creative Micro Designs in 1991), and it was used in a few other places as well, including one PC sound-card.

Despite its documented shortcomings, many SID musicians prefer the flawed 6581 chip over the corrected 8580 chip, some even seeing the flaws as actual 'features' that made the SID chip distinct from other sound chips at the time. The main reason for this is that the filter produces strong distortion that is sometimes used to produce simulation of instruments such as a distorted electric guitar. Also, the highpass component of the filter was mixed in 3 dB attenuated compared to the other outputs, making the sound more bassy. In addition to nonlinearities in filter, the D/A circuitry used in the waveform generators produces yet more additional distortion that made its sound richer in character.

Features
 Three separately programmable independent audio oscillators (able to produce 65,535 equally spaced frequencies on a linear scale, 0.06–3906.19 Hz range on a 1 MHz clock)
 Four distinct waveforms per audio oscillator (triangle, sawtooth, pulse, noise). Any combination of triangle, sawtooth, and pulse may be selected at the same time to produce additional waveforms.
 One multi mode filter featuring low-pass, high-pass and band-pass outputs with 6 dB/oct (bandpass) or 12 dB/octave (lowpass/highpass) rolloff. The different filter modes may be combined to produce additional timbres, for instance a notch-reject filter.
 Three attack/decay/sustain/release (ADSR) volume envelope controls, one for each audio oscillator
 Three ring modulators
 Oscillator sync for each audio oscillator
 Two 8-bit analog-to-digital converters (typically used for game control paddles, but later also used for a mouse)
 External audio input (for sound mixing with external signal sources)
 Random number/modulation generator (via reading the state of the 3rd oscillator or 3rd envelope generator)

Revisions

No instances reading "6581 R1" ever reached the market. In fact, Yannes has stated that "[the] SID chip came out pretty well the first time, it made sound. Everything we needed for the show was working after the second pass." High-resolution photos of Charles Winterble's prototype C64 show the markings "MOS 6581 2082", the last number being a date code indicating that his prototype SID chip was produced during the 20th week of 1982, which would be within 6 days of May 17, 1982.

These are the known revisions of the various SID chips: (date codes are in WWYY w=week y=year format)

 6581 R1: Prototype, only appeared on the CES machines and development prototypes, has a date code of 4981 to 0882 or so. Has the full 12 bit filter cutoff range. An unknown number were produced, probably between 50 and 100 chips. All are ceramic packages.
 6581 R2: Will say "6581" only on the package. Filter cutoff range was reduced to 11 bits and the LSB bit disconnected/forced permanently on, but is still on the die. The filter is leaky at some ranges and they tend to run hotter than other sid revisions. Made from 1982 until at least 1983. First 10 weeks or so of chips have ceramic packages (these usually appear on engineering prototypes but a few are on sold machines), the rest have plastic packages.
 6581 R3: Will say "6581" only, "6581 R3" or "6581 CBM" on the package. Had a minor change to the protection/buffering of the input pins. No changes were made to the filter section. Made from before 1983 until 1986 or so. The 6581R3 since around the week 47 of 1985 made in the Philippines use the HMOS HC-30 degree silicon though the manufacturing process remained NMOS.
 6581 R4: Will say "6581 R4" on the package. Silicon grade changed to HMOS-II "HC-30" grade, though the manufacturing process for the chip remained NMOS. Produced from 1985 until at least 1990.
 6581 R4 AR: Will say "6581 R4 AR" on the package. Minor adjustment to the silicon grade, no die change from R4. Produced from around 1986 (week 22) until at least the year 1992.
 6582: Will say "6582" on the package. Typically produced around the year 1986 in Hong Kong.
 6582 A: Will say "6582A" (or "6582 A") on the package. Typically produced around the years 1989, 1990 and 1992 in the Philippines.
 8580 R5: Will say "8580R5" on the package. Produced from the years 1986 to 1993 in the Philippines, Hong Kong and in the US.

Some of these chips are marked "CSG" (Commodore Semiconductor Group) with the Commodore logo, while others are marked "MOS". This includes chips produced during the same week (and thus, receiving the same date code), indicating that at least two different factory lines were in operation during that week. The markings of chips varied by factory, and even by line within a factory, throughout most of the manufacturing run of the chip.

Remarking and forgery

Since 6581 and 8580 SID ICs are no longer produced, they have become highly sought after. In late 2007, various defective chips started appearing on eBay as supposedly "new". Some of these remarked SIDs have a defective filter, but some also have defective channels/noise generators, and some are completely dead. The remarked chips are assumed to either be factory rejects from back when the chip was still produced, or possibly "reject pulls" from one of the chip pulling operations that were used to supply the chips used in the HardSID cards.

Fake SID chips have also been supplied to unwitting buyers from unscrupulous manufacturers in China; the supplied chips are laser-etched with completely bogus markings, and the chip inside the package is not a SID at all.

Uses

Game audio

The majority of games produced for the Commodore 64 made use of the SID chip, with sounds ranging from simple clicks and beeps to complex musical extravaganzas or even entire digital audio tracks. Due to the technical mastery required to implement music on the chip, and its versatile features compared to other sound chips of the era, composers for the Commodore 64 have described the SID as a musical instrument in its own right. Most software did not use the full capabilities of SID, however, because the incorrect published specifications caused programmers to only use well-documented functionality. Some early software, by contrast, relied on the specifications, resulting in inaudible sound effects.

Well known composers of game music for this chip are Martin Galway, known for many titles, including Wizball, and Times of Lore, Rob Hubbard, known for titles such as ACE 2, Commando, Delta, International Karate, IK+, and Monty on the Run. Other noteworthies include Jeroen Tel (Cybernoid, Turbo Outrun, Robocop 3 and Myth), Ben Daglish (The Last Ninja, Jack the Nipper, Firelord, Gauntlet), David Dunn (Finders Keepers and Flight Path 737), David Whittaker (Speedball, BMX Simulator, Glider Rider) and Chris Hülsbeck (R-Type, Turrican and The Great Giana Sisters).

Recordings

The fact that many enthusiasts prefer the real chip sound over software emulators has led to several recording projects aiming to preserve the authentic sound of the SID chip for modern hardware.

The sid.oth4 project has over 380 songs of high quality MP3 available recorded on hardsid hardware and the SOASC= project has the entire High Voltage SID Collection (HVSC) released with 49 (over 35,000 songs) recorded from real Commodore 64s in a high quality MP3 file. Both projects emphasize the importance of preserving the authentic sound of the SID chip. In 2016, the Unepic Stoned High SID Collection (USHSC) was launched. It is a YouTube channel with over 50,000 SID tunes uploaded as single videos. The USHSC is based on both the SOASC= and HVSC, but also uploads recordings of recent SID music released at the Commodore Scene Database (CSDb) site. The channel features playlists containing roughly 5000 tunes each.

Reimplementations and derivatives

Emulation

 In 1989 on the Amiga computer, the demo "The 100 Most Remembered C64 Tunes" and later the PlaySID application was released, developed by Per Håkan Sundell and Ron Birk. This was one of the first attempts to emulate the SID in software only, and also introduced the file format for representing songs made on the C64 using the SID chip. This later spawned the creation of similar applications for other platforms as well as the creation of a community of people fascinated by SID music, resulting in The High Voltage SID Collection which contains over 57,000 SID tunes.

A SID file contains the 6510 program code and associated data needed to replay the music on the SID. The SID files have the MIME media type audio/prs.sid.

The actual file format of a SID file has had several versions. The older standard is PSID (current version V4). The newer standard, RSID, is intended for music that requires a more complete emulation of the Commodore 64 hardware.

The SID file format is not a native format used on the Commodore 64 or 128, but a format specifically created for emulator-assisted music players such as PlaySID , Sidplay and  JSidplay2. However, there are loaders like RealSIDPlay and converters such as PSID64 that make it possible to play a substantial portion of SID files on original Commodore computers.
 SIDPlayer, developed by Christian Bauer and released in 1996 for the BeOS operating system, was the first SID emulator to replicate the filter section of the SID chip using a second-order Infinite impulse response filter as an approximation.
 In June 1998, a cycle-based SID emulator engine called reSID became available. The all-software emulator, available with C++ source code, is licensed under the GPL by the author, Dag Lem. In 2008, Antti Lankila significantly improved the filter and distortion simulation in reSID. The improvements were included in VICE version 2.1 as well.
 In 2007 the JSidplay2 project was released, a pure Java based SID player developed by Ken Händel.

Hardware using the SID chip

 In 1989 Innovation Computer developed the Innovation Sound Standard, an IBM PC compatible sound card with a SID chip and a game port. MicroProse promised software support for the card, and Commodore BASIC programs that used SID required little conversion to run on GW-BASIC.
 In 1997, an electronic musical instrument utilizing the SID chip as its synthesis engine was released. It is called the SidStation, built around the 6581 model SID chip (as opposed to the newer 8580), and it's produced by Swedish company Elektron. As the SID chip had been discontinued for years, Elektron allegedly bought up almost all of the remaining stock. In 2004, Elektron released the Monomachine pattern-based sequencer with optional keyboard.  The Monomachine contains several synthesis engines, including an emulated 6581 oscillator using a DSP.
 In 1999 HardSID, another PC sound card, was released. The card uses from one to four SID chips and allows a PC to utilize the sound capabilities of the chip directly, instead of by emulation via generic sound cards (e.g. SoundBlaster).
 The Catweasel from German company Individual Computers, a PCI + Zorro multiformat floppy disk controller and digital joystick adapter for PCs, Macs, and Amigas, includes a hardware SID option, i.e. an option to insert one or two real SID chips in a socket for use when playing .MUS files.
 The MIDIbox SID is a MIDI-controlled synthesizer which can contain up to eight SID chips. It is a free open source project using a PIC microcontroller. Control of the synthesizer is realized with software or via a control panel with knobs, LEDs, LCD, etc., which may optionally be mounted on a keyboardless Commodore 64 body.
 The Prophet64 is a cartridge for the Commodore 64. It features four separate music applications, mimicking everything from modern sequencers to the Roland 303/909 series. With an optional User Port peripheral, the Prophet64 may synchronized to other equipment using DIN Sync standard (SYNC 24). The website now states "Prophet64 has been replaced with the MSSIAH."
 The MSSIAH is a cartridge for the Commodore 64 that replaces the Prophet64.
 Artist/hacker Paul Slocum developed the Cynthcart cartridge that enables you to turn your C64 into an analogue synthesizer. Its successor, Cynthcart 2, added MIDI in, out and thru ports.
 The Parallel Port SID Interface allows those with very slim budgets to connect the SID chip to a PC.
In 2003 a SID interface (and software to play Commodore 64 tunes) was released for the Z80 based Sam Coupé computer supporting both the 6581 and the 8580.
 In May 2009 the SID chip was interfaced to the BBC Micro and BBC Master range of computers via the 1 MHz bus allowing music written for the SID chip on the Commodore 64 to be ported and played on the BBC Micro.
 In October 2009 thrashbarg's project interfaced an SID chip to an ATmega8 to play MIDI files on a MOS 6581 SID.
 In March 2010 STG published the SIDBlaster/USB - an open source, open hardware implementation of the SID that connects to (and is powered by) a USB port, using an FTDI chip for the USB interface and a PIC to interface the SID.
 In August 2010 SuperSoniqs published the Playsoniq, a cartridge for MSX computers, with (in addition to other features) a real SID on it, ready to use on any MSX machine.
 In May 2015 Gianluca Ghettini developed SidBerry, an open source, open hardware board to interface a MOS 6581 SID chip to a RaspberryPi and play standard SID music files
 In 2016 Thibaut Varene published exSID, a USB audio device that can control a real 6581 and 8580 SID chip and natively playback most SID tunes.

Hardware reimplementations

 In 2008 the HyperSID project was released. HyperSID is a VSTi which acts like a MIDI controller for HyperSID hardware unit (synthesizer based on SID chip) and developed by HyperSynth company.
 The SwinSID is hardware emulation of the SID using an Atmel AVR processor, also featuring a real SID player based on the Atmel AVR processor.
 The V-SID 1.0 project (code name SID 6581D, 'D' for digital) from David  was born in 2005. This project is a hardware emulation of the SID chip from the Bob Yannes's interview, datasheets. The V-SID 1.0 engine had been implemented in a FPGA EP1C12 Cyclone from ALTERA, on an ALTIUM development board, and emulates all the characteristics of the original SID, except the filter which is a digital version (IIR filter controlled by a CPU).
 The PhoenixSID 65X81 project (2006) aimed to faithfully create the SID sound using modern hardware. The workings of a SID chip were recreated on an FPGA, based on interviews with the SID's creator, original datasheets, and comparisons with real SID chips. It was distinguished from similar attempts by its use of real analog circuitry instead of emulation for the legendary SID filter. However, the project was discontinued, because George Pantazopoulos, who was the head of this project, died on April 23, 2007, at the age of 29.
 The C64 Direct-to-TV emulates large portions the SID hardware, minus certain features such as (most notably) the filters. It reduces the entire C64 to a small circuit that fits into a joystick while sacrificing some compatibility.
 The SIDcog is a software SID emulator running on the Parallax Propeller. All three channels can be emulated on one of the Propeller's eight COG's.
 The ARMSID is a "plug & play" replacement of the MOS 6581 and MOS 8580 with analog inputs support.
 The FPGASID is a FPGA based SID replica providing high reproduction quality of the original device including all features such as the audio filters and the paddle registers. The device is a full featured stereo solution and can replace two SID chips in a single SID socket. Hardware base is an Altera MAX10 FPGA.

See also

 Sound chip
 MOS Technology VIC
 POKEY
 Original Amiga chipset#Paula
 Chiptune

References

Further reading

External links

 SID in-depth information page

 The 6581 SID Datasheet
 SID programming info
 MOS 8580 SID die shots

MOS Technology integrated circuits
Sound chips
Commodore 64
Commodore 64 music
Video game music file formats
Video game music technology

MOS Technology 6581


John Adams (1823-1887) a pioneer American glass manufacturer, and the founder of Adams Glass was born in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania in 1823.   He began working in glass manufacture at the age of 14.

Life and work

He developed the technique of using lime in place of lead to make glass.  This significantly lowered the cost of glass production.  He made good use of this advantage, turning his factory, located in Pittsburgh, into a large and successful operation.

He was a major producer of kerosene lamps.  Along with his sons Adolphus and William, he produced numerous artistic table glassware designs.  They also made such unusual items as glass plow-shares, washboards, and coffins.

John Adams also served on the Pittsburgh City Council, was a director of the Iron & Glass Dollar Savings Bank, street railway companies and Flint Glass Association.  He was an ardent Methodist, and lifelong Sunday school teacher.

After death

Five years after John Adams' death in 1886, his sons sold out their holdings in Adams & Company (also known as Adams Glass).  The Adams & Company factory became "US Glass, Factory A".

His daughter, Jennie Adams, became a well known missionary to China.  She founded an orphanage, and supported it by her second occupation which was discovering and trading in Chinese antiquities.

There is an oral tradition among his descendants that John Adams was a related to the presidential Adams family.  However, no evidence has been found to substantiate this claim.

John Adams and family remain united in death.  Their tombstones are arranged in a circle, around a large Adams Family obelisk, located in the Pittsburgh, Southside Cemetery.

References

Glass makers
1823 births
1886 deaths
19th-century American businesspeople

John Adams (glassmaker)


Nyokum is a festival celebrated by the Nyishi tribe of the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. The Word
Nyokum has been derived from the combination of two words - Nyok means land (earth) and Kum means collectiveness  or togetherness. Therefore, the Nyokum festival may very well be interpreted as inviting all the Gods and Goddesses of the universe, with the Nyokum Goddess as the principal deity, to a particular venue at a particular time. The festival is commonly celebrated by the people from all class and walk of life for better productivity, prosperity and happiness of all human beings.

Significance

The festival has a close link with cultivation. The Nyokum goddess, the goddess of prosperity is invoked for her blessings so that there may be more and more production of food-grains in the next harvesting season, that the visit of famine may be warded off, and that drought or flood may not hamper cultivation, nor should any insect or animal destroy plants and crops. The Goddess is invoked so that the human race may be strengthened and regenerated. All should be free from unnatural death due to accident, war and epidemic.

Ui or Oram Nyoko is the place meant for the life after death. It is also believed that there are numerous deities and spirits on earth. These are the deities and spirits of mountains, rivers, forest, animals crops, household and so on and so forth. Some of the spirits are benevolent and others are malevolent. The Nyishi believe that human being's can live a life of peace and prosperity on this earth only when a perfect harmony is maintained between man, God and nature. They also believe that prosperity and happiness can come to a man when God and nature are pleased. Misery, hardship and natural calamities like famine, flood, drought, earthquake, epidemic, warfare, accidental death and such unwanted incidents occur due to the displeasure and wrath of the God and Goddess of nature. It is, therefore, the Nyishi worship to propitiate the benevolent Gods and Goddess to protect and bring prosperity to them and to ward off the malevolent spirits from disturbing the peace and tranquility in their life, Nyokum Yullow is one of such propitiation.

Rituals

The main prayer structure of the Nyishi is made of bamboo, called the yugang. Alongside the yugang sacrificial animals are tethered. Like cows, mithuns, and goats. Often one finds small chickens hung from bamboo poles of the yugang. The nyubh or the traditional priest specifies the number and kinds of animals for sacrifice, or any other offering to be made. There are no idols in this worship. Neither is there any permanent structure. Besides the animal sacrifice, beer made from millet seeds and rice paste is used.

People turn up wearing their traditional clothes during this time. The men dress in a cotton eri robe draped from the shoulder and reaching the thighs. From their neck hangs a variety of bead jewellery necklaces. Often semi precious stones like turquoise adorn these necklaces. The men's attire is topped by a bamboo woven cap on the head. This cap is decorated with feathers or furs of wild animals. The beak of the hornbill is a favorite ornament for the traditional cap. The women also dress in their finery of par ej, earrings bead necklaces, topped with a headdress made of finely scaped bamboo.

There is singing and dancing before the head priest or nyubh comes with his attendants to perform the main ritual. Guests are welcomed with rice paste powder, and opo or millet seed beer which is scooped in dried gourd ladles. The song and dance are performed in a group. Usually men and women hold hands in a circular form and sing and dance these lines Nyokum bo tapa debe. And sometimes men dance mock fights with dao (short sword) and shield made of animal hide.

Rikham Pada the Folk Dance of the Nyishi Tribe

Rikham Pada means giant, handsome, undefeatable and matured man
Rinyam Yami means young and handsome looking boy

Both Rikham Pada and Rinyam Yami were two brothers.

They (Rikham Pada & Rinyam Yami) were attire with beautiful traditional dresses which adding up their handsomeness, the most beautiful girls of the universe were after them. So marriage proposals were impending like shooting star, flowing of pure and milky river water,

Rikham Pada was man of principle, therefore he rejected them. So their imagination of marrying to Rikham pada was depicting in the form of song and dances.

References

Festivals in Arunachal Pradesh

Nyokum


A slum is a part of a city or a town where many poor people live. It is a place where people may not have basic needs, such as running water, electricity, toilets, telephones, etc. Some of these people may also have social disadvantages, such as unemployment, no access to education, no access to health care, no municipal services, etc. There are slums in most of the big cities of developing countries and least developed countries (which are also labelled as the "Third World"). They may not be called slum, however; see shanty town.

Victorian London
Charles Dickens was a great author of Victorian London. His account of the St Giles rookery was:
"Wretched houses with broken windows patched with rags and paper; every room let out to a different family, and in many instances to two or even three – fruit and 'sweetstuff' manufacturers in the cellars, barbers and red-herring vendors in the front parlours, cobblers in the back; a bird-fancier in the first floor, three families on the second, starvation in the attics, Irishmen in the passage, a 'musician' in the front kitchen, a charwoman and five hungry children in the back one – filth everywhere – a gutter before the houses, and a drain behind – clothes drying, and slops emptying from the windows; (…) men and women, in every variety of scanty and dirty apparel, lounging, scolding, drinking, smoking, squabbling, fighting, and swearing".

Dickens, Sketches by Boz, 1839.

Sources
Mike Davis, Planet of Slums, 2006
Elizabeth Blum/ Peter Neitzke Favela Metropolis 2004

Other websites

 http://skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=131517
South Africa slum dwellers' movement
Slums of Victorian London
Slums of New Delhi, India
Every third person will be a slum dweller within 30 years, UN agency warns; John Vidal; The Guardian; October 4, 2003.
Mute Magazine Vol 2#3, Naked Cities - Struggle in the Global Slums

Shanty towns

Slum


The Volvo Ocean Race (known also as the Whitbread Round the World Race) is a yacht race around the world. It happens every three years. It is named after its current sponsor, Volvo. At this moment the Netherlands holds the record of most wins with the Dutch captain Conny van Rietschoten being the only skipper to win the race twice.

The race leaves Europe in October. The race started in Alicante, Spain, on October 11, 2008. The route for the 2008-2009 race was altered from previous years to include stopovers in India and Asia for the first time. The 2008-09 race covered nearly , took over nine months to finish, and reached an audience of 2 billion people worldwide.

During the nine months of the 2011–12 Volvo Ocean Race, which started in Alicante, Spain in October 2011 and finishes in Galway, Ireland, in July 2012, the teams are scheduled to sail over  of the world's most treacherous seas, and include locations such as Cape Town, Abu Dhabi, Sanya, Auckland, around Cape Horn to Itajaí, Miami, Lisbon, and Lorient.

References

Water sports
Sport in Spain
Alicante

Volvo Ocean Race


A rhombus is a parallelogram with all sides equal in length. A rhombus with all angles equal is called a square. The word rhombus comes from the Greek word rhombos, meaning "spinning top". A  rhombus is sometimes called a diamond, but not all rhombi are diamond shaped.
To find the perimeter of a rhombus, just add up all the sides. Also opposite sides are parallel and opposite angles are equal. Another interesting thing is that the diagonals (dashed lines in second figure) meet in the middle at a right angle.

References

Polygons

Rhombus


The Minuet in G, WoO 10, No. 2 is a piece of music for the piano. It was composed by Ludwig van Beethoven. The piece  was originally written for orchestra. This version was lost. Only an arrangement for piano exists. It is a very popular piece, especially among beginning pianists.

Music
The piece is composed in what is called ternary form or ABA form. This means that the piece has three distinct sections. The first and the third sections (the A sections) are the same. The second section (the B section) is entirely different music. The B section often provides a contrast in some way to the A section. The tempo marking for the Minuet in G is Moderato. The meter is 3/4.

The A section is composed of two 8 bar passages for a total of 16 bars. The tune is characterized by a repetitious but elegant dotted eighth note and sixteenth note legato pattern. The first 8 bars are played and repeated. This passage begins in the tonic key of G major, and modulates to the dominant key of D major. The second 8 bars are played and repeated. This passage begins in the dominant key of D major, and modulates to the tonic key of G major. The first phrase of this passage begins with 4 bars of principally quarter notes. The phrase returns to the dotted eighth note pattern at its close. Thus, the entire A section begins and ends in the tonic key with brushes on the dominant here and there. The right hand is occupied with playing mostly thirds and sixths through the A section. The left hand plays only  quarter notes.

Like the A section, the B section (or the Trio) is composed of two 8 bar passages for a total of 16 bars. Like the A section, it begins in the tonic key of G major, and modulates to the dominant key of D major at the end of the first 8 bars. This passage is repeated. The second 8 bars begin in the dominant key and end in the tonic key. These 8 bars are repeated. The entire B section is characterized by flowing, uninterrupted eighth notes in the right hand.  The left hand plays quarter notes but briefly joins the right hand in playing eighth notes at the beginning of the second 8 bar passage.  The left hand returns to playing quarter notes as the passage closes. When the B section is completed and all the repeats have been taken, the piece returns the A section. This return is usually played without performing the repeats.

Other websites
Minuet orchestral performance by the Philadelphia Orchestra
Minuet free scores at IMSLP

Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven
Solo piano pieces

Minuet in G (Beethoven)


Felipe de Jesús Calderón Hinojosa (born August 18, 1962) is a Mexican politician. He was President of Mexico from 1 December 2006 to 30 November 2012. He is a member of the Partido Acción Nacional (PAN), one of the three major Mexican political parties.

Calderón was born on August 18, 1962 in Morelia, Mexico. He studied at Free School of Law, at Autonomous Technological Institute of Mexico, and at Harvard University. Calderón has been married to Margarita Zavala since 1993. She ran for president in the 2018 election, but dropped out of the race.

Calderón is Chairperson of Global Commission for the Economy and Climate which issued The New Climate Economy Report.

Personal background[edit]
Felipe Calderón was born in Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico on August 18, 1962. He is the youngest of five brothers and son of Carmen Hinojosa Calderón and the late Luis Calderón Vega.

His father was a co-founder of the National Action Party and an important political figure. The elder Calderón occupied state posts and served a term as federal deputy. He spent most of his life working within the party and spent most of his free time promoting the PAN. The young Calderón was active in his father's campaigns. As a boy, he distributed party pamphlets and flyers, rode PAN campaign vehicles and chanted slogans at rallies.

After growing up in Morelia, Calderón moved to Mexico City, where he received a bachelor's degree in law from the Escuela Libre de Derecho. Later, he received a master's degree in economics from the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México (ITAM) and a Master of Public Administration degree in 2000 from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University.

Following his father's example, he joined the PAN, with the desire of one day becoming Mexico's president. It was in the National Action Party that Calderón met his wife, Margarita Zavala, who served in Congress as a federal deputy. They have three children, María, Luis Felipe and Juan Pablo.

Calderón is Roman Catholic.

Political and social views
To demands for detailed revelation of his personal positions on abortion, Calderón responded that he voted for life. Calderón's administration sought to maintain moderate positions on social policy and supported Mexican legislation guaranteeing abortion for rape victims, when pregnancy endangers a woman's life or in cases of severe fetal deformity; has publicly advocated the legalization of small quantities of cocaine and other drugs for addicts who agree to undergo treatment; and has approved a right-to-die initiative for ill patients to refuse invasive treatment or extraordinary efforts to prolong their lives. As for his economic policies, he supports balanced fiscal policies, flat taxes, lower taxes, and free trade.

Political career
He was a local representative in the Legislative Assembly and, on two different occasions, in the federal Chamber of Deputies. He ran for the governorship of Michoacán in 1995 and served as national president of the PAN from 1996 to 1999. During his tenure, his party maintained control of 14 state capitals, but also faced a reduced presence in the federal Chamber of Deputies.

Soon after Vicente Fox took office as president, Calderón was appointed director of Banobras, a state-owned development bank. He was accused by political opponents of committing abuse, disputing use of certain legal procedures to finance property valued between three and five million Mexican pesos (between US$300,000 and $500,000); however, once political objections arose, he used other means to formalize his transaction.

He joined the presidential cabinet as Secretary of Energy, replacing Ernesto Martens. He left the post in May 2004 in protest of Vicente Fox's criticism of his presidential ambitions while supporting those of Santiago Creel.

2006 presidential campaign
Members of his party chose him as the PAN presidential candidate. In a series of three primary elections, he defeated the favored former Secretary of the Interior under President Vicente Fox, and thus the election of Calderón as party candidate surprised many analysts. The PAN pointed to his competitive primary election as a sign of internal democracy. In other major parties, there was one candidate or all strong candidates but one were eliminated.

Calderón's campaign gained momentum after the first presidential debate. Subsequent poll numbers put him ahead of López Obrador from March to May; some polls favored him by as much as 9 percentage points. This trend in his favor was contained after the second presidential debate when López Obrador decided to start joining the debates. Final poll numbers days ahead of the results indicated that his opponent's prior lead had shrunk further; some polls gave López Obrador the lead, while others favored Calderón and still others indicated a technical tie.

Results

Presidency

Inauguration
Mexican Constitution states that the President must be inaugurated by taking the oath of office before Congress in the lower house, the Chamber of Deputies. The PRD opposition had threatened to not allow Calderón to take the oath of office and be inaugurated as president. Ahead of claims that the PRD would disrupt the precedings, the PAN took control of Congress's main floor three days before the inauguration was scheduled.

On November 30, 2006, outgoing President Vicente Fox Quesada and still President-elect Felipe Calderón Hinojosa stood side-by-side on national television as Fox turned over the presidential sash to a cadet, who handed it to Calderón. Afterwards, Fox read a short speech indicating that he had concluded his mandate by receiving the flag "that had accompanied him during the last six years which he had devoted himself completely to the service of Mexico and had the utmost honor of being the president of the republic". Calderón then made a speech to the Mexican public indicating that he would still attend the inauguration ceremony at the Chamber of Deputies. He made a call to unity.

Calderón's inauguration ceremony on 1 December at the Congress of the Union was tense and lasted less than five minutes, as he barely managed to recite the oath of office while the PRD legislators shouted in protest against the alleged electoral fraud and attempted to impede his inauguration, and afterward he quickly left the building for security reasons as some of the legislators engaged in violent brawls. Besides the claims of fraud, Calderón took office with the smallest percentage of votes for a winning presidential candidate in Mexican history (35.8%), which meant that his administration would face severe legitimacy problems. Only a month after taking office, Calderón declared war on the drug cartels and organized crime, thus beginning the Mexican Drug War. This was considered by many as an immediate strategy to gain popular legitimacy and acceptation for the new President after the convoluted elections.

References

Other websites

 Office of the President of Mexico site
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Felipe Calderon full access article
 Extended biography by CIDOB Foundation
 Felipe Calderón's speech to the Mexican people from the 'National Auditorium', 2006

1962 births
Living people
Presidents of Mexico
People from Michoacán
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath

Felipe Calderón


John Erskine, 23rd an de jure 6t Earl o Mar, KT (1675 – Mey 1732), Scots Jacobite, wis the auldest son o the 22nt Earl o Mar (who dee'd in 1689), frae whom he inheritit estates that wur hivily loadit wi debt. Bi modren reckonin he wis 23rd Earl o Mar o the first creation (frae c. 1114) an de jure 6t Earl o Mar o the seivent creation (frae 1565). He is whiles an aa termed the 11t Earl o Mar in the Scots Peerage, which wis reckoned frae the seicont creation (frae 1426). He wis nicknamed "Bobbing John" for his tendency tae shift back an fort frae faction tae faction, whether frae Tory tae Whig or Hanoverian tae Jacobite.

Life
He wis associated wi a pairty favourable tae the Govrenment, wis ane o the Commissioners for the Union, an wis made a Scots Secretary o State; becomin, efter the Union o 1707, a representative peer for Scotland, Keeper o the Signet an a Privy Counsellor. In 1713 Mar wis made a Breetish Secretary o State bi the Tories, but he seems tae hae been equally ready tae side wi the Whigs an, in 1714, he assured the new Keeng, George I, o his loyalty. Housomeivver, lik the ither Tories, he wis deprived o his office, an in August 1715 he went in disguise tae Scotland an placed hissel at the heid o the Jacobite adherents o James Edward, the Auld Pretender.

Meetin mony Hieland chieftains at Aboyne, he avoued an earnest desire for the unthirldom o Scotland an at Braemar on 6 September 1715, he proclaimed James VIII Keeng o Scotland, Ingland, Fraunce an Ireland, sicweys beginnin the '15 Jacobite risin. Gradually the forces unner his command war augmentit, but as a general he wis a complete failure. Precious time wis wastit at Perth, a feigned attack on Stirlin wis resultless, an he coud gie little assistance tae the Inglis Jacobites. At Sheriffmuir, whaur a battle wis focht in November 1715, Mar's forces lairgelie ootnumbered those o his opponent, the Duke o Argyll; but nae bravery coud atone for the signal incompetence displayed bi Lord Mar, an the fecht wis virtuallie a decisive defeat for the Jacobites.

Mar then met James Edward at Fetteresso; the cause housomeivver wis lost, an Mar an the Prince fled tae Fraunce, whaur he wad spend the remainder o his life. The Hanoveran court passed a Writ o Attainder for treason against Mar in 1716 as punishment for his disloyalty; this wis no liftit till 1824.

Mar sought tae interest foreign pouers in the cause o the Stuarts; but in the course o time he became thoroughly distrustit bi the Jacobites. In 1721 he acceptit a pension o £3500 a year frae George I, an in the follaein year his name wis freely mentioned in connection wi the trial o Bishop Atterbury, whom it wis asserted that Mar haed betrayed. This chairge mey aiblins be summarised as no proven. At the best his conduct wis heichlie imprudent, an sae in 1724 the Pretender feenally broke wi Mar. His later years wur spent in Paris an at Aix-la-Chapelle, whaur he dee'd in 1732.

Marriage, issue an descendants
Mar first mairit Lady Margaret Hay in 6 Aprile 1703. She bore him a son, Thomas, in 1705. Lady Margaret dee'd fower years later on 26 Aprile 1707. Mar mairit for his seicont wife Lady Frances Pierrepont, dochter o the 1st Duke o Kingston-upon-Hull. The match wis excellent, as it providit Mar wi the funds tae feenally begin tae clear his inheritit debts. Lady Frances went mad in 1728 due tae the stress o his exile in Fraunce. She outlived Mar bi 35 years, deein on 4 Mairch 1767.

Notable relatives
 Throu his marriage tae Lady Frances Pierrepont, Mar wis a brither-in-law o Lady Mary Wortley Montagu.
 Mar's brither James Erskine, Lord Grange wis a notit judge.
 Mar's son Thomas Erskine, Lord Erskine served as Grand Maister o the Grand Lodge o Scotland (1749-1750).

In popular cultur
The progresive rock baund Genesis wrote a sang, "Eleventh Earl of Mar" (foond on thair Wind & Wuthering album), aboot Mar an the 1715 Jacobite Risin.

He wis mentioned in a contemporary fowk sang "Come Ye O'ere Frae France", which wis recordit bi the Breetish electric fowk baund Steeleye Span.

1675 births
1732 daiths
Yerls or mormaers o Mar
Knichts o the Thristle
Scots generals
Dukes in the Jacobite peerage
Peers creatit bi James Francis Edward Stuart
Fowk o the Jacobite Risin o 1715
Scots representative peers
John
Scots Jacobites
17t-century Scots fowk
18t-century Scots fowk
Members o the Privy Cooncil o Scotland

John Erskine, Yerl o Mar (1675–1732)


Amaterasu (), Amaterasu-ōmikami ( or ) or Ōhirume-no-muchi-no-kami (), is a goddess in Japanese mythology. She is the Sun Goddess, and the most sacred of all Shinto deities. Her name, Amaterasu, means "(that which) illuminates Heaven." Her shrine is at Ise.

Tradition
Amaterasu is the sister of Susano'o, the god of the sea and storms, and of Tsukuyomi, the god of the moon. All three were created from Izanagi, when he washed his face to clean the dirtiness of Yomi, the underworld. Amaterasu was born when Izanagi washed out his left eye, Tsukuyomi was born from the washing of the right eye, and Susano'o from the washing of the nose.

Story
The tales tell of great rivalry between Amaterasu and Susano'o. When he was to leave Heaven forever because Izanagi ordered him to, he went to say goodbye to his sister. Amaterasu, suspicious, proposed him a challenge: each of them was to turn an object of the other's into people. Amaterasu created three women from Susanoo's sword while he created five men from her necklace. Amaterasu said the men were hers because they were born of her necklace. Susano'o destroyed her rice fields, threw a dead pony into her loom, and killed one of her assistants in anger. For this, Amaterasu, sad, angry and scared, went to hide inside Ama-no-Iwato, the "heavenly rock cave", so the Sun was hidden and the world became dark for a long time. The Oni (devils of Japanese mythology) came out to the dark world, and the gods could not make Amaterasu come out of the cave.

The intelligent goddess of happiness, Ama-no-Uzume (天宇受売命), took a big bucket, turned it upside down near the cave entrance, and began a dance on it, tearing off her clothing in front of the other Kami. They thought this was so funny that they laughed happily.

Amaterasu heard them, and looked out to see why the gods were laughing. When she opened the cave, she saw her wonderful reflection in a mirror Uzume had put on a tree, and slowly came out of the cave.

At that moment, the god Ameno-Tajikarao (天手力男命) closed the cave behind her, so she could not go back in. Another god tied a magic rope across the entrance. The sun goddess was then asked by the Kami Ame-no-Koyane (天児屋根命) to go back with the gods. She agreed, and light came back to the earth, but Susanoo was punished by being banished from Heaven.

Other websites
 Shinbutsudo: A Web Page for the Study of Japanese Religions

Gods and goddesses of Japan
Shinto
National personifications
National symbols of Japan
Amatsukami

Amaterasu


"Paul Revere's Ride" is a poem written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. It was published in 1860 in the magazine The Atlantic Monthly. It was published again in Longfellow's book Tales of a Wayside Inn. The poem is about Paul Revere's midnight ride through the Massachusetts countryside. He wanted to warn the patriots that the British were on their way to fight them. Longfellow was inspired to write the poem after visiting the Old North Church in Boston.

Other websites
Original text of "Paul Revere's Ride" by The Atlantic Online
Discussion of "Paul Revere's Ride" by the Maine Historical Society
"Paul Revere's Ride" lesson plan  by the National Endowment for the Humanities
The True Story of Paul Revere – The Midnight Ride
Wall Street Journal on "Paul Revere's Ride"
150 Years of "Paul Revere's Ride": About the Poem

Poems by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
19th-century American poems

1860 books

Paul Revere's Ride (poem)


Barbara Jean McNair (born 4 March 1934 – 4 February 2007) was an American musician and actress. She became very popular in the 1960s. She was a guest on many television programs, including The Bell Telephone Hour, The Steve Allen Show and The Hollywood Palace. Her Broadway play credits included No Strings and The Body Beautiful in the 1960s and 1970s.

McNair was born in Chicago. Around her seventies, she lived in Los Angeles. She died there resulting from throat cancer, age seventy-two.

American television actors
American stage actors
Actors from Chicago
1934 births
2007 deaths

Barbara McNair


Judicael (or Juhel, Judhel, Judhael), thus called in Breton sources, alias Berengar (or Berengarius) his name in Frankish sources, and sometimes known as Judicael Berengar, with both names being used together, was a Count of Rennes in the 10th century.

Biography
There are conflicting accounts of his parentage, one popular solution making him the son and successor of a count Berengar (sometimes identified with Berengar of Rennes, sometimes with that man's supposed maternal grandson of the same name) by a daughter of Gurvand, Duke of Brittany. However, an 11th-century collection of Angevin genealogies describes him as the son of Pascweten, son of Alan I, King of Brittany.

In 939 he fought alongside Alan II, Duke of Brittany and Hugh II, Count of Maine against the Vikings/Norsemen at the Battle of Trans-la-Forêt.

He is first documented as a count in the year 944. He witnessed charters of Alan II, Duke of Brittany, and on the latter's death apparently fell under the control of Wicohen, Archbishop of Dol. Later sources report the rescue of Judicael and his (unnamed) wife by his son Conan I. He appears to have been dead by 979, when his son was at the court of Odo I, Count of Blois.

Notes

Date of birth unknown
Date of death unknown
10th-century deaths
10th-century Breton people
Counts of Rennes

Judicael Berengar


Lutz Hachmeister (born 10 September 1959) is a German media historian, award-winning filmmaker and journalist. He particularly gained international attention for directing the 2005 film The Goebbels Experiment, co-produced by the BBC and the Canadian History channel, and featuring Kenneth Branagh as the narrator for the Goebbels Diaries. In 2006 Hachmeister established the Institute for Media and Communication Policy (IfM) in Berlin and Cologne, which is strongly tied to the Anglo-American media scene.

Academic career
Hachmeister was born in Minden/Westphalia. He graduated from the University of Münster, writing his doctoral thesis about the history of communication research in Germany. His professorial thesis (Habilitation) deals with Franz Six, Adolf Eichmann's superior, who was nominated to rule Great Britain as the head of the SD (Security Service of the Nazi paramilitary force SS) in case of a German occupation. Hachmeister's book about Six's career was widely recognized as one of the "new biographies" in the 1990s, describing in detail the mentality and role of the young academic elite in shaping the "Third Reich".

Contrary to current trends in media studies and communication research, Hachmeister's "konkrete Kommunikationsforschung" (concrete communication research) relies heavily on the classical socio-psychological models in US communication studies (Harold Dwight Lasswell, Robert Ezra Park). He also frequently refers to the Canadian communication theory and the German decisionist law professor Carl Schmitt.

Professional career
As a journalist, Hachmeister worked for several leading German newspapers, such as Der Tagesspiegel, Die Woche and Süddeutsche Zeitung. He is also associate professor for journalism at the University of Dortmund. His research on former Nazi intelligence specialists in the formative years of Germany's leading news magazine Der Spiegel aroused a debate about the history of the paper, which was usually considered to have pure leftist-liberal traditions. Hachmeister's documentary about the life and death of Hanns Martin Schleyer, the former head of the German employers association, who was murdered in 1977 by the Red Army Faction, won a Grimme-Award (Germany's most prestigious television prize) in 2004. The following year, The Goebbels Experiment premiered at the Berlin film festival und was selected as a New York Times critics' pick.

Hachmeister currently heads the Institute for Media and Communication Policy and is considered to be "Germany's leading media expert" (Berliner Zeitung, 21 July 1997). The Institute is particularly known for its high-ranking media colloquia, which host international guests like Alan Rusbridger, Greg Dyke or Norman Pearlstine. Hachmeister is also the founder of the Cologne Conference, a "media Bauhaus" and festival for aesthetic and strategic trends in the audiovisual industry.

Selected films
2017 "Wallraff war hier" (biographical documentary about German undercover journalist Günter Wallraff)
2015 "Der Hannover-Komplex" (documentary about the rise of the city of Hanover as a political powerhouse in Germany)
2011 The Real American - Joe McCarthy (docudrama, starring John Sessions, Justine Waddell and Trystan Gravelle)
2010 Three Stars ("Die Köche und die Sterne", TV documentary)
2008 Revolution! Das Jahr 1968 (Revolution! The Year 1968, documentary with Stefan Aust)
2008 Freundschaft! – Die Freie Deutsche Jugend (Friendship, documentary about the Free German Youth organization in the former German Democratic Republic)
2007 Baie des Milliardaires (Bay of Billionaires, documentary about the Cap d'Antibes)
2005 The Goebbels Experiment (documentary, narrated by Kenneth Branagh)
2004 Schleyer. Eine deutsche Geschichte. (Schleyer – The Business of Terror, documentary)
2000 Hotel Provençal. Aufstieg und Fall der Riviera. (Documentary about the rise and fall of the hotel at the French Riviera)
1997/98 mondän! (TV series about the posh places of the 1960s like Deauville, Portofino, Saint Tropez)

Selected bibliography
Hôtel Provençal. Eine Geschichte der Côte d'Azur. Munich, C. Bertelsmann 2021
Hannover. Ein deutsches Machtzentrum, Munich, DVA 2016
Heideggers Testament. Der Philosoph, der Spiegel und die SS, Berlin, Propyläen 2014
Grundlagen der Medienpolitik: Ein Handbuch. Munich, DVA 2008
Nervöse Zone: Politik und Journalismus in der Berliner Republik. Munich, DVA 2007
Wer beherrscht die Medien? Die 50 größten Medienkonzerne der Welt.4th ed., Munich, Beck 2005 (edited with Günther Rager)
Schleyer. Eine deutsche Geschichte. Beck, Munich 2004
Der Gegnerforscher. Die Karriere des SS-Führers Franz Alfred Six. Munich, Beck 1998
Theoretische Publizistik. Studien zur Geschichte der Kommunikationswissenschaft in Deutschland. Berlin, Wissenschaftsverlag Spiess 1987

Footnotes

External links

Institut für Medien- und Kommunikationspolitik
International Media Database

1959 births
German documentary film directors
German journalists
German male journalists
People from Minden
Media historians
Living people
German male writers
Mass media people from North Rhine-Westphalia

Lutz Hachmeister


Román Fresnedo Siri (February 4, 1903 – June 26, 1975) was a Uruguayan architect. He was born in Salto and died in Montevideo.

Siri, Winner of the PAHO Headquarters Project
An international competition to choose the most original design had been won in 1961 by a Uruguayan architect, Mr. Roman Fresnedo Siri. Siri had won acclaim for designing major civic buildings hroughout South America, including offices and hospitals. He also had a passion for the ocean, and even used his talents to design racing yachts.

Siri's spirit and originality did not disappoint. From its earliest days, architects and passersby alike were intrigued by surprises in the buildings' construction. Rising dramatically from the shore of the historic Potomac River, two distinct structures dominated the triangular block of land: a circular council chamber and an 11-story crescent-shaped secretariat. By December 1964, texture and pattern had begun to emerge, giving each building a distinct character. Geometric diamond shapes decorated the outside of the council chamber, visually played off against the elegant vertical lines of the larger secretariat building. Gradually, other elements were added: reflecting pools, white columns, and slim concrete fins that gave the buildings a soaring quality.

Just over two years after work began, the completed secretariat was ready to house hundreds of staff members in approximately 170,000 square feet of space, furnished with marble, paintings, sculptures, and other gifts from PAHO member nations.
The council chamber alone could accommodate 400 delegates within its circular walls. The new PAHO headquarters was officially opened on September 27, 1965.

Architects
1975 deaths
1903 births
Uruguayan people

Román Fresnedo Siri


Imperial Highness is a style of address traditionally used by members of an emperor's family. It ranks as the highest and most prestigious style used among royalty. It outranks the style of Royal Highness. The style is often associated with the title of Crown Prince.

Examples of usage
Her Imperial Highness Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia.
His Imperial Highness  The Tsesarevich of Russia (The title for the heir to the Russian throne. Who later succeeded as Tsar Nicholas II of Russia.
 His Imperial Highness Naruhito, The Crown Prince of Japan.
His Imperial Highness Crown Princess Masako . Wife of the son of the present Emperor of Japan and therefore the heir to the Imperial throne.
His Imperial Highness Prince Tomohito of Mikasa. Himself another member of the Japanese Imperial family.

Related pages
Titles of European royal heirs

References

Styles (manners of address)

Imperial Highness


Mansfield is a town in Nottinghamshire, England. There is also the smaller settlement of Mansfield Woodhouse to the north. The town is surrounded by a pocket of steep hills within the Maun Valley. It has a population of about 67,885.

Mansfield


Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (, 1792–1856) was a Russian mathematician. He became known for his achievements in non-Euclidean geometry.

Biography
Lobachevsky was born in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. His parents were Ivan Maksimovich Lobachevsky, a clerk in a landsurveying office, and Praskovia Alexandrovna Lobachevskaya. In 1800, his father died and his mother moved to Kazan. In Kazan, Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky attended Kazan Gymnasium. He graduated in 1807 and then went to Kazan University which was founded just three years earlier, in 1804.

At Kazan University, Lobachevsky was influenced by professor Johann Christian Martin Bartels (1769–1833). Bartels was a former teacher and friend of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Lobachevsky received a Master's degree in physics and mathematics in 1811. In 1814, he became a lecturer at Kazan University, and in 1822 he became a full professor. He served in many administrative positions and was the rector of Kazan University from 1827 to 1846. He retired (or was dismissed) in 1846. After this event his health rapidly deteriorated. In addition to teaching mathematics and physics at Kazan University Lobachevsky also was an astronomy teacher there.

In 1832, he married Varvara Alexivna Moisieva. They had seven children.

1792 births
1856 deaths
Russian geometers
People from Nizhny Novgorod

Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky


Kairos () is an auncient Greek wird meanin the richt or opportune moment (the supreme moment). The auncient Greeks haed twa wirds for time, chronos an kairos. Whilk the umwhile refers tae chronological or sequential time, the latter signifies a time atween, a moment o indeterminate time in which somethin special happens. Wha the special something is depends on who is uisin the wird. While chronos is quantitative, kairos haes a qualitative natur.  Kairos (καιρός) means wather in baith auncient an modren Greek an aw. The plural, καιροι (kairoi or keri) means the times.

References
 Mark Freier (2006) "Time Measured by Kairos and Kronos"

Resources
R. B. Onians, The Origins of European Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), pp 343–49
E. C. White Kaironomia: on the will to invent (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1987)
Leonard Sweet Missed Moments (Rev. Magazine Jan/Feb 2005), pp. 36
Paolo Moreno, L'attimo fuggente in Archeo magazine (XXII, 10, 260), October 2006, pp 114–117.
Mick Doherty "Kairos: Layers of Meaning" (Dept of English, Texas Tech University)
London, Jack.  "To Build a Fire."  Lost Face.  New York: The Macmillan Company, 1910.

Time
Rhetoric
Theologie
Greek loanwirds

Kairos