Ing ngisor iki pratélan Situs Warisan Donya UNESCO ing Asia, Australia lan Pasifik (Australasia).

Afganistan
 Cultural Landscape and Archaeological Remains of the Bamyan Valley
 Minaret and Archaeological Remains of Jam

Armenia
 Monasteries of Haghpat and Sanahin (1996, 2000)
 Cathedral and Churches of Echmiatsin and the Archaeological Site of Zvartnots (2000)
 Monastery of Geghard and the Upper Azat Valley (2000)

Azerbaijan
 Walled City of Baku
 Gobustan Rock Art Cultural Landscape

Australia
 Australian Fossil Mammal Sites (Riversleigh/Naracoorte)
 Central Eastern Rainforest Reserves
 Fraser Island
 Great Barrier Reef
 Greater Blue Mountains Area
 Heard and McDonald Islands
 Kakadu National Park
 Lord Howe Island
 Macquarie Island
 Purnululu National Park
 Royal Exhibition Building and Carlton Gardens
 Shark Bay
 Sydney Opera House
 Tasmanian Wilderness
 Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park
 Wet Tropics of Queensland
 Willandra Lakes Region

Bangladesh
 Historic Mosque city of Bagerhat
 Ruins of the Buddhist Wiyara at Paharpur
 The Sundarbans

Kamboja
 Angkor

Cina
 The Great Wall (1987)
 Mount Taishan, Shandong province (1987)
 Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing (the Forbidden City) (1987) and Shenyang (Mukden Palace) (2004)
 Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, Gansu proivince (1987)
 Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor in Xi'an, Shaanxi province (1987)
 Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian, Beijing municipality (1987)
 Mount Huangshan, Anhui province (1990)
 Jiuzhaigou Valley Scenic and Historic Interest Area, Sichuan province (1992)
 Huanglong Scenic and Historic Interest Area, Sichuan province (1992)
 Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area, Hunan province (1992)
 Mountain Resort and its Outlying Temples in Chengde, Hebei province (1994)
 Temple and Cemetery of Confucius, and the Kong Family Mansion in Qufu, Shandong province (1994)
 Ancient Building Complex in the Wudang Mountains, Hubei province (1994)
 Historic Ensemble of the Potala Palace, including the Jokhang Temple and Norbulingka, Lhasa, Tibet (1994, 2000, 2001)
 Lushan National Park, Jiangxi province (1996)
 Mount Emei Scenic Area, including Leshan Giant Buda Scenic Area, Sichuan province (1996)
 Old Town of Lijiang, Yunnan province (1997)
 Ancient City of Ping Yao, Shanxi province (1997)
 Classical Gardens of Suzhou, Jiangsu province (1997, 2000)
 Summer Palace, an Imperial Garden in Beijing (1998)
 Temple of Heaven: an Imperial Sacrificial Altar in Beijing (1998)
 Mount Wuyi, Fujian province (1999)
 Dazu Rock Carvings, Chongqing municipality (1999)
 Mount Qingcheng and the Dujiangyan Irrigation System, Sichuan province (2000)
 Ancient Villages in Southern Anhui-Xidi and Hongcun (2000)
 Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang, Henan province (2000)
 Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, including the Ming Dynasty Tombs and the Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum (2000, 2003, 2004)
 Yungang Grottoes, Datong, Shanxi province (2001)
 Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas (2003)
 Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom, Jilin and Liaoning provinces (2004)
 Historic Centre of Macau (2005)
 Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries (2006)
 Yin Xu, Henan province (2006)
 Kaiping Diaolou and Villages, Guangdong province (2007)
 South Cina Karst, Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi provinces (2007)

Georgia
 Bagrati Cathedral in Kutaisi and Gelati Monastery
 Historical Monuments of Mtskheta
 Upper Svaneti

India

 Agra Fort, Uttar Pradesh
 Ajanta Caves, Maharashtra
 Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh
 Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park, Gujarat
 Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, Maharashtra
 Churches and Convents of Goa
 Elephanta Caves, Maharashtra
 Ellora Caves, Maharashtra
 Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh
 Great Living Chola Temples, Tamil Nadu
 Group of Monuments at Hampi, Karnataka
 Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu
 Group of Monuments at Pattadakal, Karnataka
 Humayun's Tomb, Delhi
 Kaziranga National Park, Assam
 Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan
 Khajuraho Group of Monuments, Madhya Pradesh
 Mahabodhi Temple Complex, Bihar
 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam
 Mountain Railways of India
 Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Park, Uttaranchal
 Qutub Minar and its monuments, Delhi
 Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh
 Red Fort, New Delhi
 Konark Sun Temple, Orissa
 Sundarbans National Park, West Bengal
 Taj Mahal, Uttar Pradesh
 Mysore Palace, Karnataka

Indonésia

 Barabudhur Komplèk Candhi
 Taman Nasional Komodo
 Taman Nasional Lorentz
 Prambanan Komplèk Candhi
 Sangiran Situs Purbakala
 Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon
 Alas Tropis Sumatra, kalebu Taman nasional Gunung Leuser, Taman Nasional Kerinci Seblat lan Taman Nasional Bukit Barisan Selatan

Iran
 Bam and its Cultural Landscape
 Naghsh-i Jahan Square
 Pasargadae
 Persepolis
 Chogha Zanbil
 Takht-é Soleyman
 Dome of Soltaniyeh
 Bisotun

Israèl
 Masada
 Old City of Acre
 White City of Tel Aviv—the Modern Movement
 Biblical Tels-Megiddo, Hazor, Beer Sheba
 Incense Route-Desert Cities in the Negev
 Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls
(The Old City of Jerusalem is within East Jerusalem, which has been under Israèli control since 1967, but is not recognized as Israèli territory by the UN and some countries. The site was proposed as a World Heritage site in 1981 by Jordan, which withdrew its claims to the city in 1988.)

Jepang

 Buddhist Monuments in the Horyu-ji Area
 Gusuku (castle) Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom of Ryūkyū
 Himeji Castle
 Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome)
 Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto (Kyoto, Uji and Otsu Cities)
 Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara
 Historic Villages of Shirakawa-go and Gokayama (Shirakawa-go, Gokayama)
 Itsukushima Shinto Shrine
 Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine and its Cultural Landscape
 Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range
 Shirakami-Sanchi
 Shiretoko Peninsula, Hokkaidō
 Shrines and Temples of Nikkō
 Yakushima

Kazakhstan

 The Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi
 Petroglyphs within the Archaeological Landscape of Tamgaly

Koréa Lor
 Complex of Goguryeo Tombs

Koréa Kidul

 Changdeokgung Palace Complex
 Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites
 Gyeongju Historic Areas
 Haeinsa Temple Janggyeong Panjeon, the Depositories for the Tripitaka Koreana Woodblocks
 Hwaseong Fortress in Suwon
 Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes
 Jongmyo Shrine
 Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple
Deleng uga: National treasures of Koréa

Laos
 Town of Luang Phrabang
 Vat Phou and Associated Ancient Settlements within the Champasak Cultural Landscape

Malaysia
 Gunung Mulu National Park
 Kinabalu Park
 Melaka

Mongolia
 Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape
 Uvs Nuur Basin (shared with Russian Federation)

Nepal
 Kathmandu Valley
 Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buda
 Royal Chitwan National Park
 Sagarmatha National Park

Niu Selan
 New Zealand sub-antarctic islands (Snares Islands, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands and Campbell Islands)
 Te Wahipounamu-South West New Zealand (Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park, Westland/Tai Poutini National Park, Mount Aspiring National Park and Fiordland National Park)
 Tongariro National Park

Pakistan
 Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro
 Buddhist Ruins at Takht-i-Bahi and Neighbouring City Remains at Sahr-i-Bahlol
 Fort Lahore
 Shalimar Gardens (Lahore) in Lahore
 Historic Monuments of Thatta
 Rohtas Fort
 Taxila

Filipina

 Baroque Churches of the Philippines, including
 San Agustin Church, Intramuros, Manila;
 Paoay Church, Paoay, Ilocos Norte;
 Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion (Santa Maria) Church Santa Maria, Ilocos Sur;
 Santo Tomas de Villanueva (Miag-ao) Church, Miag-ao, Iloilo
 Historic Town of Vigan
 Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park
 Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras
 Tubbataha Reef Marine Park

Kapuloan Pitcairn
 Henderson Island

Ruslan (pérangan Asia)
'' Deleng uga List of World Heritage Sites in European Russia
 Central Sikhote-Alin
 Golden Mountains of Altai
 Lake Baikal
 Natural System of Wrangel Island Reserve
 Uvs Nuur Basin  (shared with Mongolia)
 Volcanoes of Kamchatka

Kapuloan Solomon
 East Rennell

Sri Lanka

 Ancient City of Polonnaruwa
 Ancient City of Sigiriya
 Golden Temple of Dambulla
 Old Town of Galle and its Fortifications
 Sacred City of Anuradhapura
 Sacred City of Kandy
 Sinharaja Forest Reserve

Thailand

 Ban Chiang Archaeological Site
 Dong Phaya Yèn – Khao Yai Forest Complex
 Historic City of Ayutthaya and Associated Historic Towns
 Historic Town of Sukhothai and Associated Historic Towns
 Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuaries

Turki
 Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia (1985)
 Great Mosque and Hospital of Divriği (1985)
 Historic Areas of Istanbul (1985)
 Hattusa (1986)
 Nemrut Dağı (1987)
 Hierapolis–Pamukkale (1988)
 Xanthos–Letoon (1988)
 City of Safranbolu (1994)
 Archaeological Site of Troy (1998)

Turkmenistan
 Ancient Merv
 Kunya-Urgench
 Parthian Fortress of Nisa

Uzbekistan

 Historic Centre of Bukhara
 Historic Centre of Shahrisabz
 Itchan Kala in Khiva
 Samarkand-Crossroads of Cultures

Vietnam
 Complex of Hué Monuments
 Ha Long Bay
 Hoi An Ancient Town
 My Son Sanctuary
 Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park

Réferènsi

Deleng uga
 Pratélan Situs Warisan Donya ing Afrika
 Pratélan Situs Warisan Donya ing Éropah
 Pratélan Situs Warisan Donya ing Amérika
 Pratélan Situs Warisan Donya ing nagara-nagara Arab
 Pratélan Situs Warisan Donya sajeroning bebaya

Pranala njaba
 UNESCO World Heritage Sites-Official site
 UNESCO World Heritage Centre-Official site
 List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites-Official site
 VRheritage.org-documentation of World Heritage Sites
 Sun Temple of Konark, Puri, Orissa, India, Asia - UNESCO World Heritage Site

Situs Warisan Donya
Asia lan Australasia

en:List of World Heritage Sites#Asia
simple:Lists of World Heritage Sites

Dhaptar situs warisan donya ing Asia lan Australasia


The Larabanga Mosque () is a mosque built in the Sudanese architectural style in the village of Larabanga, Ghana. It is the oldest mosque in the country and one of the oldest in West Africa, and has been referred to as the "Mecca of West Africa". It has undergone restoration several times since it was founded in 1421. The World Monuments Fund (WMF) has contributed substantially to its restoration and lists it as one of the 100 Most Endangered Sites. The restoration works have revived the knowledge of adobe maintenance.

The mosque has an old Quran, believed by the locals to have been given as a gift from heaven in 1650 to Yidan Barimah Bramah, the Imam at the time, as a result of his prayers. The mosque, built using West African adobe, has two tall towers in pyramidal shape, one for the mihrab which faces towards Mecca forming the facade on the east and the other as a minaret in the northeast corner. These are buttressed by twelve bulbous shaped structures, which are fitted with timber elements.

Location
The mosque is located in the Islamic town of Larabanga, close to Damongo in the West Gonja District of the Savannah Region of Ghana. The town is situated about 15 kilometers north of Damongo, and 4 kilometers south of the Mole National Park entrance.

History
According to a legend, in 1421, an Islamic trader named Ayuba had a dream while staying here, near a "Mystic Stone", instructing him to build a mosque. Strangely, when he awoke, he found that the foundations were already in place and he proceeded to construct the mosque until it was completed. There is a belief that he left instructions that he should be buried close to the mosque and that after three days, the baobab which would shoot up on his grave was to be preserved from generation to generation. The baobab tree next to the mosque today is reputed to mark the site of Ayuba's grave. The townsfolk of Larabanga supposedly depend on the leaves and stem of this baobab tree for healing of ailments.

Unlike mosques situated in urban settings in West Africa, the Larabanga Mosque is comparatively small. Rural mosques, like Larabanga's, were usually conceived by a single marabout and loosely based on styles seen elsewhere such as in the Great Mosque of Djenné. In order to achieve a physical resemblance to the architecture used elsewhere, the Larabanga Mosque had to incorporate large buttresses in order to compensate for the poorer quality of building materials. Larabanga is one of eight ancient and highly revered mosques in Ghana and is also the oldest. It is a place of pilgrimage and is considered the Mecca of West Africa.

In the 1970s, a mixture of sand and cement was applied to the external faces of the mosque with the intention of protecting the mosque from wind and rain damage. However, this treatment resulted in substantial damage to the building as moisture became trapped in the walls built of adobe and started a deterioration process of the structure, with termites infesting the wooden supports under humid conditions. This resulted in part of the mosque collapsing and during the repair work it caused some distortions of the structural elements and the exterior of the mosque.

Owing to the effect of prevailing winds and rains on the walls, the mosque has needed several renovations and restoration work which over the years have altered some of its exterior designs. In September 2002, a severe storm destroyed the mihrab and the minaret. As a result, the World Monuments Fund (WMF) placed the mosque on the 2002 World Monuments Watch, also considering the damage sustained after the inappropriate restoration in the 1970s. The Ghana Museums and Monuments Board decided to restore the mosque and sought advice from CRAterre, an architectural firm based in Grenoble, France which has expertise in building earthen structures. The renovation work was supported by a WMF, with a grant fund of US$50,000 from American Express. The local community also provided support. The conservation process involved removal of the earlier cement plaster from the surfaces of the mosque, the wooden structural components were replaced, the minaret and the mihrab were reconstructed, the portal was redone, and the interior and exterior surfaces were plastered in the traditional way. The renovation resulted in reassessing the state of conservation of the site, involving a team of local artisans and labourers. It helped to restore the monument with special emphasis on reviving the knowledge of Adobe maintenance.

Features

Like other mosques in Northern and Savannah Regions of Ghana, Larabanga Mosque is built in the traditional Sudanic-Sahelian architectural style, using local materials and construction techniques. The mosque is built with wattle and daub, and measures about  by . It has two towers in pyramidal shape, one for the mihrab which faces towards Mecca forming the facade on the east and the other as a minaret in the northeast corner. In addition, 12 buttresses of conical shape on the external walls are strengthened by horizontally-aligned timber elements. The architectural style is also known as "flat-footed adobe architecture".  All the structures are given a white wash.  The mosque has an old Quran, believed by the locals to have been given as a gift from heaven in 1650 to Bramah, the Imam at the time, as a result of his prayers. The local community has also been supported in a handicraft and tourism project to generate funds not only for meeting the maintenance expenses of the mosque but also improve the economic conditions of the people.

See also

 Lists of mosques
 List of mosques in Africa
 Madina Masjed

References

Bibliography

External links

"Larabanga Mosque: A Ghanaian Treasure Reborn," ICON Magazine, Winter 2003/2004, p. 37. (archived at the Wayback Machine)

15th-century mosques
Mosques in Ghana
Northern Region (Ghana)
1421 establishments
15th-century establishments in Africa
Sudano-Sahelian architecture

Larabanga Mosque


The Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso (Spanish: Palacio Real de La Granja de San Ildefonso), known as La Granja, is an early 18th-century palace in the small town of San Ildefonso, located in the hills near Segovia and  north of Madrid, within the Province of Segovia in central Spain.

It became the summer residence of the Kings of Spain from the 1720s during the reign of King Felipe V. The palace is in a restrained Baroque style, surrounded by extensive gardens in the formal Jardin à la française style with sculptural fountains.  It is now open to the public as a museum.

History

The area was a favourite hunting grounds for many Castilian kings, due to its location on the forested northern slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama.  In the 15th century, Henry IV of Castile built the first hunting lodge on the site, along with a small shrine dedicated to San Ildefonso (Saint Ildephonsus of Toledo), which gave this place its first name.

Isabella I of Castile granted both buildings to the monks of the Santa Maria del Parral monastery in Segovia, who built an almshouse and developed a granja (farm) alongside the lodge and shrine.

Palace
The site was purchased from the monks in 1719 by King Philip V, after his summer palace nearby at Valsaín burned to a shell. He was the first Spanish king from the French Bourbon dynasty. Beginning in 1721, Philip began building a new palace and gardens modeled on Versailles, built by his grandfather, Louis XIV of France. Like Versailles it embraced a cour d'honneur on the approaching side, and formal gardens, with a main axis centred on the palace, that were surrounded by woodland in which further hidden garden features were disposed. Like Versailles, La Granja began as a retreat from the court but became a centre of royal government.

For the architect, Philip began with an unpretentious project by the Spanish architect Teodoro Ardemans, incorporating a chapel centred on one facade, which was enlarged in a second phase, ca 1728-34 under Andrea Procaccini and Sempronio Subisati, who provided the courtyards in the flanks, then given its definitive character by Filippo Juvarra, who was brought from Turin, based on recommendations in the circle of Philip's second queen, Elizabeth Farnese of Parma, and his assistant, Giovanni Battista Sacchetti.

When the King decided to abdicate in 1724, his intention was to retire to La Granja.  Unfortunately Philip's heir, King Louis I, died that same year, and Philip had to return to the throne. Consequently, a place designed for leisure and quiet retreat thus became an important meeting place for the King, his ministers and the court.  The town of San Ildefonso expanded to provide housing and services to the courtiers who wanted a place near the king's favourite residence.  Military barracks, a collegiate church (1721–1724, built to designs of Teodoro Ardemans, and dedicated to the Holy Trinity, 22 December 1723), and even a royal glass factory (1728) were built to provide for the palace. The glass factory, which had some initial successes from 1720 at Nuevo Baztan in the province of Madrid, was moved under the direction of its Catalan foreman, Ventura Sit, to San Ildefonso, where supplies of timber were plentiful, and a royal patron was near. The best glass of Venetian type produced in the works dates from the last quarter of the 18th century. As La Granja de San Ildefonso, the glassworks continue today as a subsidiary of Saint Gobain.

The church was selected as his burial site by Philip, marking a break with his Habsburg predecessors. The frescoes by Giambattista Tiepolo, completed by Francisco Bayeu, were badly damaged in a fire of 1918.

Philip's successor Ferdinand VI bequeathed the royal site of San Ildefonso, with all it contained, to his father's second wife, Isabel Farnese, who was effectively forced to live there, well away from Madrid politics, for the duration of his reign.  She maintained a considerable court there.  At her death in 1766, it reverted to the Crown in the person of her son Charles III.

For the next one hundred and twenty years, La Granja was the court's main summer palace, and many royal weddings and burials, state treaties, and political events took place within its walls. However, from the 1880's the court preferred to sojourn at the seaside palaces in the Basque Country and the royal site became rarely used. In 1918 a major fire damaged the palace and although the damage was repaired much of the interior decoration and contents were lost.

Currently the royal site is part the Patrimonio Nacional of Spain, which holds and maintains many of the Crown's lands and palaces.   It is a popular tourist attraction, with gardens, and interiors displaying rooms with marble from Carrara, Japanese lacquer, and crystal chandeliers; portraits and other paintings; and a Museum of Flemish tapestries.

Gardens
Extending over , the gardens around the palace are one of the best examples of 18th-century European garden design in the Jardin à la française style in Spain. The French designer from the official French royal offices of Robert de Cotte was René Carlier, who used the natural slope of the site in the palace grounds design, for enhancing axial visual perspectives, and to provide sufficient head for water to shoot out/up from the twenty-six sculptural fountains in the formal gardens and landscape park.

Sculptors arrived from Paris to execute designs on the site. They included: René Frémin (1672–1744, at La Granja until 1738), to whom the execution of many vases and sculptures was attributed in 18th-century inventories; Jean Thierry; and others who are little more than names in archival references.

Fountains
All of the fountains represent themes from classical mythology, including Greek deities, allegories and scenes from myths.  They are cast in lead to prevent corrosion, and painted over to simulate bronze, a nobler material, or lacquered over white oxidised lead to imitate marble. A group of richly sculptural vases have been attributed to designs by the "dazzling maverick" Gilles-Marie Oppenord, which were probably forwarded through the offices of Robert de Cotte, overseeing French royal building projects as intendant des Bâtiments du Roi. Bruno Pons noted in the sculptural vases "an almost excessively brilliant style, quite distinct from French royal taste and showing an undeniably superior understanding of ornament".

The "Baths of Diana" fountain is the focal point of several garden alleés, and was made from lead and then painted to look like bronze and marble. It and its marble statues form some of the most impressive and well conserved architecture from this period in Spain. Fremin, Thierry, and Bousseau led a team of sculptors who between 1720 and 1745 created this stunning feature, brought to life by the fountains' spectacular water displays. However, regarding the elaborate "Baths of Diana", the chronically depressed Philip remarked, "It has cost me three millions and amused me three minutes."

The original waterworks and piping are still functional. They rely purely on gravity to project water up the fountain jets, including to the  height of the  "Fame" fountain.  A reservoir,  (the Sea), lies secluded at the highest point of the landscape park, and provides the supply and water pressure for the whole system.
In spite of the protests of the royal accountant, in 1736 twelve dromedaries were sent from the Royal Palace of Aranjuez to help in the works of the reservoir.
The last one died in 1740.

In the present day, only a few fountains are active on each day.  Twice a year, on the feast days of San Fernando and of San Luis, all twenty-six fountains are set to jet and flow, providing memorable experiences.

Gallery

See also
 List of Baroque residences
 Buildings inspired by Versailles

References

External links
 Patrimonio Nacional: Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso website
Spain is culture.com: Gardens at La Granja de San Ildefonso
 Musique09.free.fr: Photographs of Palacio La Granja de San Ildefonso

Palaces in Castilla–La Mancha
Gardens in Spain
Historic house museums in Spain
Museums in Castilla–La Mancha
La Granja
San Ildefonso (Segovia)
Houses completed in 1724
Buildings and structures in the Province of Segovia
Baroque palaces
Baroque gardens
Baroque architecture in Spain
Châteaux with formal gardens in France
1724 establishments in Spain
Filippo Juvarra buildings
Philip V of Spain

ru:Ла Гранха


A petabyte (PB) is a unit of measurement in computers and similar electronic devices. One petabyte holds 1000 terabytes (TB) or 1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes.

Large organizations use petabytes of storage to hold massive amounts of data. To store this amount of data at home would require about 1000 large home computers.  People at home probably do not use petabytes, they would use terabytes (primarily for very large backups), gigabytes, megabytes and occasionally kilobytes.

One thousand petabytes make one exabyte.

There is also already petabyte supercomputers such as Frontier and Summit.

Units of information

Petabyte


In Buddhism, enlightenment (called bodhi in Indian Buddhism, or satori in Zen Buddhism) is when a Buddhist finds the truth about life and stops being reborn because they have reached Nirvana. Once you get to Nirvana you are not born again into samsara (which is suffering). Buddhists believe a person can become enlightened by following the Middle Way;  the Middle Way is not too extreme in either way of living, neither an extremely luxurious life of ease and enjoyment nor an extremely harsh life on living on the minimum of the most basic necessities. One develops Sila (morality), Samadhi (concentration), and Prajna (insight or wisdom). This is thought to take a very long time, according to many buddhist monks and nuns.

Method
After establishing a strong foundation of Sila (morality), Buddhists become enlightened by using meditation. While they practice Vipassana meditation, they relax their mind with clear understanding of the law of impermanence, which clears their minds of all attachments; craving, aversion, and delusion are destroyed.

The Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) is described as the first known (historical) person to have reached enlightenment and was the founder of Buddhism. (Buddhists know him as the Shakyamuni Buddha, and believe there were Buddhas before him and will be after him.) The story of his life is told as an example of what he learned.

Life at the Palace
Siddhartha was a rich aristocrat and the son of a ruler of a republic. His father went to a fortune teller who predicted that Siddhartha would either become a king or a religious leader. If Siddhartha saw any suffering then he would become a great religious leader. His father wanted him to become a king, so he gave Siddhartha many things and did not let him see any suffering. Siddhartha married a woman and had a son. He named his son Rahula. Some say Siddhartha left the palace to pursue a spiritual path on the day his son was born.

Four Sights
Siddhartha went to the Shramana teachers to ask for help. Siddhartha traveled for four days. On the first day, he saw an old man. On the second day, he saw a sick woman. On the third day, he saw a funeral. It was his first time seeing death. On the fourth day he saw a sadhu (holy man). This man was very poor. Siddhartha thought that the man was happy even though he was poor. Siddhartha also knew that he was not happy even though he was rich. He decided to leave the palace and never go back.

Asceticism
Siddhartha walked through the forest. In the forest, he found a group of ascetics. He watched them and thought this was the way to be enlightened. For six years he lived with the ascetics. For some time, he ate one grain of rice and drank from the river every day. One day a boat was on the river with a musician and his students on it. Siddhartha heard the musician say, "If the string is too tight, it will snap. If it is too loose, it will not play." After hearing that, Siddhartha knew that he wanted to find a middle way, something more effective than asceticism. He took a bowl of rice with milk from a village woman. He then had the strength, to meditate until Enlightenment.

Enlightenment
Siddhartha sat at the bottom of the Bodhi tree. He made a promise to keep meditating until he was enlightened. For forty days Devaputra Mara, the leader of demons, tried to stop Siddhartha. He made Siddhartha think of scary things. He made demons try to hurt Siddhartha with spears, arrows, fire, and rocks. Siddhartha did not fear them and kept his mind relaxed and the hurtful things became like flowers and many coloured lights. From Sila (morality), Samadhi (concentration), and Prajna (insight; wisdom), he became  enlightened. After he was enlightened, he taught people about what he had learned for 45 years. He died when he was 80 years old.

References

Buddhist terminology

Enlightenment (Buddhism)


Rotation is the movement of an object in a circular motion.

A two-dimensional object rotates around a  center (or point) of rotation. A three-dimensional object rotates around a line called an axis. If the axis of rotation is within the body, the body is said to rotate upon itself, or spin– which implies relative speed and perhaps free-movement with angular momentum. A circular motion about an external point (for example the Earth around the Sun) is called an orbit or more properly orbital revolution.

Types of rotation

Rotation around a point in one plane can be in a clockwise direction or an anticlockwise direction.

Aviation
In flight dynamics, the principal rotations are known as pitch, roll and yaw. The term rotation is also used in aviation to refer to the upward pitch of an aircraft, particularly when starting the major climb for takeoff. The same terms are used for fish moving through water.

Amusement rides
Many amusement rides provide rotation. A Ferris wheel and observation wheel have a horizontal central axis, and parallel axes for each gondola, where the rotation is opposite, by gravity or mechanically.

Sports
Rotation, usually called spin, plays a role in many sports. Topspin and backspin in tennis. English, follow and draw in billiards and pool. Curve balls in baseball and spin bowling in cricket.  Table tennis paddles are specialized to allow players to spin the ball as they hit it.

Related pages
Precession
Torque

Other websites
 Product of Rotations at cut-the-knot
 When a Triangle is Equilateral at cut-the-knot
 Rotation (Interactive Animation) at Math is Fun
 Rotate Points Using Polar Coordinates

Geometry
Mechanics

Rotation


Stress is the force per unit area on a body that tends to cause it to change shape.

Stress is a measure of the internal forces in a body between its particles. These internal forces are a reaction to the external forces applied on the body that cause it to separate, compress or slide. External forces are either surface forces or body forces. Stress is the average force per unit area that a particle of a body exerts on an adjacent particle, across an imaginary surface that separates them.

The formula for uniaxial normal stress is:

where σ is the stress, F is the force and A is the surface area.

In SI units, force is measured in newtons and area in square metres. This means stress is newtons per square meter, or N/m2. However, stress has its own SI unit, called the pascal. 1 pascal (symbol Pa) is equal to 1 N/m2. In Imperial units, stress is measured in pound-force per square inch, which is often shortened to "psi". The dimension of stress is the same as that of pressure.

In continuum mechanics, the loaded deformable body behaves as a continuum. So, these internal forces are distributed continually within the volume of the material body. (This means that the stress distribution in the body is expressed as a piecewise continuous function of space and time.) The forces cause deformation of the body's shape. The deformation can lead to a permanent shape change or structural failure if the material is not strong enough.

Some models of continuum mechanics treat force as something that can change. Other models look at the deformation of matter and solid bodies, because the characteristics of matter and solids are three dimensional. Each approach can give different results. Classical models of continuum mechanics assume an average force and do not properly include  "geometrical factors". (The geometry of the body can be important to how stress is shared out and how energy builds up during the application of the external force.)

Shear stress

Simple stresses
In some situations, the stress within an object can be described by a single number, or by a single vector (a number and a direction). Three such simple stress situations are the uniaxial normal stress, the simple shear stress, and the isotropic normal stress.

Uniaxial normal stress
Tensile stress (or tension) is the stress state leading to expansion; that is, the length of a material tends to increase in the tensile direction. The volume of the material stays constant. When equal and opposite forces are applied on a body, then the stress due to this force is called tensile stress.

Therefore in a uniaxial material the length increases in the tensile stress direction and the other two directions will decrease in size. In the uniaxial manner of tension, tensile stress is induced by pulling forces. Tensile stress is the opposite of compressive stress.

Structural members in direct tension are ropes, soil anchors and nails, bolts, etc. Beams subjected to bending moments may include tensile stress as well as compressive stress and/or shear stress.

Tensile stress may be increased until the reach of tensile strength, namely the limit state of stress.

Stress in one-dimensional bodies
All real objects occupy three-dimensional space. However, if two dimensions are very large or very small compared to the others, the object may be modelled as one-dimensional. This simplifies the mathematical modelling of the object. One-dimensional objects include a piece of wire loaded at the ends and viewed from the side, and a metal sheet loaded on the face and viewed up close and through the cross section.

Related pages
 Tension
 Bending
 Stress–strain curve

References

Bibliography

Other websites
 Stress analysis, Wolfram Research
 ESDU Stress Analysis Methods
 True stress and true strain
 Stress-Strain Curve for Ductile Material
 Encyclopædia Britannica article

Materials science
Elasticity (physics)
Solid mechanics
Engineering

Stress (mechanics)


Chandigarh, also called "The Beautiful City", is a city in India. It is a union territory, because it is the capital of two states: Punjab and Haryana. As a territory it does not belong to either state. Before 1 November,1966 it was capital of Punjab, but after formation of Haryana on 1 November, 1966 it become a union territory.There are many tourism places in Chandigarh like Rock garden, Rose garden and Sukhna lake.

Chandigarh came into existence in 1952 when its first stone was laid. It is one of the modern cities of India, designed by a French architect Le Corbusier. It was the dream city of India's first Prime Minister, Sh.Jawahar Lal Nehru.

It is well known for its mixed cultural background and its fast development in the field of Information Technology. It has outlets of many famous multinational companies established here and is emerging as a hub for business development. The territory covers an area of 44 mi² or 114 km², it is bigger than Montserrat but smaller than Jersey. It's also the proposed capital of Khalistan.

Territorial symbols of Chandigarh

Capital cities in India
Punjab, India
Haryana
Territories of India

Chandigarh


Weary Willies is a 1929 animated short produced by George Winkler which stars Oswald the Lucky Rabbit. The film is also the penultimate Oswald cartoon created during the Winkler period.

Plot summary
Oswald is a penniless vagabond who comes out of one of the train cars after it makes a stop. As he steps out of the train, Oswald sees a guard passing by. Therefore, he hurries back inside and shuts the door, but because Oswald's baggage (a sack tied to a stick) is left outside, the suspicious guard decides to inspect the train. When the guard opens the door and peeps in, Oswald, coming out from another exit, kicks the officer in and makes a run for it.

Wondering on the countryside, the hungry Oswald sees a homeless bear camping under a tree. The two meet and befriend each other. They then start to fry an egg using the camp fire and other limited equipment that they have. While Oswald and the bear couldn't agree on how they should have the fried egg, a squirrel pops out from the tree and snatches it from them.

The two uneasy friends are left wondering what they should do next. Suddenly, they see roasted chicken on a window sill of a nearby house. The bear tells Oswald to filch it. Oswald is initially reluctant but ultimately agrees after getting strangled by the bear. The rabbit enters the house's yard and approaches the window, only to be chased out of the gate by the resident dog.

Oswald comes up with another idea when he notices the clothesline connects between the gate and the window. The plan works and Oswald gets his hands on the roasted chicken. Upon exiting the gate, he is spotted by a patrolling cop, prompting him to leave quickly. Passing by his friend, Oswald tosses the food to the bear who catches it. The rabbit figures he'd rather run to somewhere than to be tormented by the cop.

When the bear is about to take a bite of the roasted chicken, the cop, approaching from behind, swipes it in the blink of an eye. The surprised bear then looks around and notices the cop pointing a gun at him. He too flees. As they walk away together, Oswald and the bear point fingers at each other over not having to eat anything. Meanwhile, the cop carries the roasted chicken and puts it back on the window sill. Just then, the dog, watching from one of the house's corners, thinks another act of pilferage is taking place. In this, the dog chases the cop down the road, passing by Oswald and the bear who are enjoying the incident.

See also
 Oswald the Lucky Rabbit filmography

References

External links
 Of Rocks and Socks: The Winkler Oswalds (1928-29)
 Weary Willies at the Big Cartoon Database

1929 films
1929 animated films
1920s American animated films
1920s animated short films
American black-and-white films
Short films directed by Friz Freleng
Oswald the Lucky Rabbit cartoons
Universal Pictures short films
Universal Pictures animated short films
Animated films about animals
Screen Gems short films

Weary Willies


Mardi Gras (Fat Tuesday) is a festival held the day before Ash Wednesday (shrove Tuesday) which signifies the end of the Carnival season and the start of Lent. Many cities (especially those with large Catholic populations) like New Orleans are famous for their Mardi Gras.

During Mardi Gras, almost everyone takes part in celebrating with lavish parades and parties. Many different people celebrate Mardi Gras in their own way, some people have small parties and eat many of the tasty pastries and some people have huge parties and celebrate in a big way. Some of the pastries they eat are called king's cake, hot cross buns, punchskis, tricolor scrolls and thick sugar cookies. There are many more things that other people eat but these are the usual American celebration food for mardi gras. There are so many different parades and kinds of celebrations.

In some countries, including the United Kingdom, Ireland and Australia, the day is called Shrove Tuesday, Fat Tuesday, Pancake Tuesday or Pancake Day.

Mardi Gras is also celebrated in French speaking countries.

Festivals

Mardi Gras


The Arabuko Sokoke Forest Reserve is located on the coast of Kenya, 110 km north of Mombasa and is protected as a national Forest Reserve. The Arabuko Sokoke National Park, situated at the north-western edge of the Arabuko Sokoke Forest Reserve, is only a few square kilometres in size and constitutes only a small portion of the latter.

Protection
The National Park was gazetted only in the late 1980s and in fact straddles the Forest Reserve boundary, with about 50% lying outside the boundary. This outer section actually lies outside an electric elephant fence installed in 2006/7 and is now fully inhabited by local communities to the extent that there is no sign on the ground to show where the National Park begins or ends. The National Park doesn't add any particular protection to the forest which is the largest fragment of coastal forest (420 square km) left in East Africa.

The Forest Reserve, on the other hand, is jointly managed by the Kenya Forest Service, Kenya Wildlife Service, National Museums of Kenya and the Kenya Forest Research Institute and is one of the better protected forests in Kenya. The forest was first protected as a Crown Forest in 1943, and was gazetted in the 1960s. The forest is threatened by the desire for land by local people. Several national and international conservation organisations are working with the Kenya Wildlife Service to protect the park.

Wildlife
The Arabuko Sokoke Forest is an area of high endemism, containing endemic mammals, birds and plants. It contains three forest types, mixed forest, Brachystegia and Cynometra, each of which protects different communities of plants and animals.

It protects many endemic and near-endemic species. The Clarke's weaver is completely endemic to the forest, while the eponymous Sokoke scops owl, Sokoke pipit, and the Amani sunbird and spotted ground thrush are found only here and in a forest fragment in Tanzania. The park adjoins Mida Creek, a mangrove forest that is an important shorebird wintering ground, protecting species such as the Terek sandpiper and the crab plover.

The endearing golden-rumped elephant shrew, an endemic elephant shrew, is the most noticeable of the park's endemic mammals; the Sokoke bushy-tailed mongoose and Aders's duiker (found only here and in Zanzibar) are more elusive. The forest also has savannah elephants, African civets, as well as sokokes, baboons and vervet monkeys. The park is also recognised as an outstanding centre of amphibian diversity.

Gallery

See also
 Coastal forests of eastern Africa
 Cameraria sokoke

External links

 Kenya Wildlife Service – Arabuko Sokoke National Park

 ASSETS - Arabuko-Sokoke Schools and Eco-tourism Scheme, an initiative aiming at linking forest conservation with local education

National parks of Kenya
Protected areas established in 1990
Coast Province
Northern Zanzibar–Inhambane coastal forest mosaic

Arabuko Sokoke National Park


John of Procida () (1210–1298) was an Italian medieval physician and diplomat.

He was born in Salerno, educated in the Schola Medica as a physician. He was a noted physician for his age and received a professorial chair at this university.  He came to the attention of Frederick II, who was patron of the university, and he eventually became Frederick's personal physician and attended him to his death. He was also personal physician to Cardinal John Orsini, the future Pope Nicholas III.  Being noticed for his intelligence and pragmatism, he rose through the diplomatic ranks in the Hohenstaufen Kingdom of Sicily. He was actually John III, son of John II of Procida and Clemenza Logoteta, of the family of the lords of the island of Procida.

He was originally a counsellor of Frederick II and was entrusted with the education of Frederick's son Manfred. He was at Manfred's side until his defeat at the Battle of Benevento in 1266. In that year he went to Viterbo, Italy and arranged the marriage of his daughter to the Neapolitan Guelph, Bartholomew Caracciolo, and then served with the Hohenstaufen army. After the defeat of the Hohenstaufens at Tagliacozzo he escaped to Venice. His estates were confiscated by Charles; and his wife and daughter were mistreated or raped by the French knight sent to evict them and one of his sons murdered. In 1269 or 1270 he was in Germany trying to drum up support for the return of the Hohenstaufen to the throne of Sicily. While existing Sicilian legends overplay John of Procida's role in the dramatic politics of this time, Runciman concurs that he was at the centre of a "vast political conspiracy" in support of the House of Hohenstaufen (backed by the Byzantines and their Genoese allies) and against Charles of Anjou and his ally the Pope.

In 1279 and 1280 John (or, as Runciman argues, one of his sons at his behest) travelled to Sicily to stir up the discontents in favour of King Peter of Aragon and thence to Constantinople to procure the support of the emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus. Michael refused to aid the Aragonese king without papal approval and so diplomatic efforts turned to Rome, where he gained the consent of Pope Nicholas III, who feared the ascent of Charles of Anjou in the Mezzogiorno. John of Procida then returned to Barcelona. The result of these travels was to link Byzantine gold and Genoese assistance behind Aragonese ambitions in Sicily. Through John's secret diplomatic actions the conditions were set for the 1282 uprising of the Sicilian Vespers which destroyed Charles' crusading invasion fleet (aimed first at recapturing Constantinople) at anchor in Messina, providing the conditions for the security of Constantinople and the ability of Peter III to recover the island.

On 2 February 1283, Peter, who had invaded Sicily in the wake of the Vespers uprising, nominated John as Grand Chancellor. He was put in charge of the island when Peter went to France to take up a challenge by Charles later that year. All this did not stop the aged diplomat from continuing his frenetic activity at the varied courts of Europe's monarchs. It was on one of these trips that he died, at Rome, at the age of eighty-eight years, in 1298.

The legacy of John of Procida is controversial. Lu rebellamentu di Sichilia, a Sicilian-language tract from 1290, lauds him highly and it may well be his own memoir as dictated to a scribe. He is more typically portrayed, particularly by Guelph partisans, as cospiratore contro l'autorità costituita, a "conspirator against the constitutional authority", as in the Tuscan Liber Jani de Procida et Palialoco, which presents him in negotiations with Michael VIII, and in the Leggenda di Messer Gianni di Procida, written by a Modenese Guelph. His reputation has experienced a bit of a rehabilitation, and he has been called one of the first politicians and diplomats in the modern senses of the terms. Clearly, his diplomatic role was important: the Sicilian uprising began the War of the Sicilian Vespers, the "world war" of the 13th century, a key event in the subsequent history of Europe.

According to legend, he was in Naples incognito on 29 October 1268, when they executed Conradin. He supposedly recovered the guanto di sfida (gauntlet) Conradin threw into the crowd before his execution.

Sources
 Chaytor, H. J. (1933). A History of Aragon and Catalonia. London: Methuen.
 Mendola, Louis. Sicily's Rebellion against King Charles. New York, 2015. Translation of Lu rebellamentu di Sichilia.
 Runciman, Steven. The Sicilian Vespers. Cambridge University Press, 1958.

References

1210 births
1298 deaths
People from Salerno
13th-century Sicilian people
13th-century Italian physicians
Medieval Italian diplomats
13th-century diplomats
People of the War of the Sicilian Vespers
Court of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
Characters in The Decameron

John of Procida


In Greek mythology, Helen, also known as Helen of Troy (Ancient Greek: Ἑλένη, Helénē), was said to have been the most beautiful woman in the world. The queen of Sparta, Helen was married to Menelaus, but later eloped with Prince Paris of Troy (most often depicted as being kidnapped) and taken to Troy, resulting in the Trojan War as the Achaeans set out to bring her back to Sparta. She was believed to be the daughter of Zeus and Leda, the wife of King Tyndareos of Sparta, and was the sister of twins Castor and Pollux, and Clytemnestra.

Other websites

Helen

Helen of Troy


A mandala (, ) is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid to meditation and trance induction. In the Eastern religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Shinto it is used as a map representing deities, or especially in the case of Shinto, paradises, kami or actual shrines. A mandala generally represents the spiritual journey, starting from outside to the inner core, through layers.

Hinduism

In Hinduism, a basic mandala, also called a yantra, takes the form of a square with four gates containing a circle with a center point. Each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas often have radial balance.

A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It may be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or meditative rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent the abode of the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar, "Yantras function as revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the spiritual aspect of human experience"

Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes:

The term 'mandala' appears in the Rigveda as the name of the sections of the work, and Vedic rituals use mandalas such as the Navagraha mandala to this day.

Buddhism

Vajrayana

In Vajrayana Buddhism, mandalas have been developed also into sandpainting. They are also a key part of Anuttarayoga Tantra meditation practices.

Visualisation of Vajrayana teachings

The man mandala can be shown to represent in visual form the core essence of the Vajrayana teachings. The mandala represents the nature of the Pure Land, Enlightened mind.

An example of this type of mandala is Vajrabhairava mandala a silk tapestry woven with gilded paper depicting lavish elements like crowns and jewelry, which gives a three-dimensional effect to the piece.

Mount Meru

A mandala can also represent the entire universe, which is traditionally depicted with Mount Meru as the axis mundi in the center, surrounded by the continents. One example is the Cosmological Mandala with Mount Meru, a silk tapestry from the Yuan dynasty that serves as a diagram of the Tibetan cosmology, which was given to China from Nepal and Tibet.

Wisdom and impermanence

In the mandala, the outer circle of fire usually symbolises wisdom. The ring of eight charnel grounds represents the Buddhist exhortation to be always mindful of death, and the impermanence with which samsara is suffused: "such locations were utilized in order to confront and to realize the transient nature of life". Described elsewhere: "within a flaming rainbow nimbus and encircled by a black ring of dorjes, the major outer ring depicts the eight great charnel grounds, to emphasize the dangerous nature of human life". Inside these rings lie the walls of the mandala palace itself, specifically a place populated by deities and Buddhas.

Five Buddhas

One well-known type of mandala is the mandala of the "Five Buddhas", archetypal Buddha forms embodying various aspects of enlightenment. Such Buddhas are depicted depending on the school of Buddhism, and even the specific purpose of the mandala. A common mandala of this type is that of the Five Wisdom Buddhas (a.k.a. Five Jinas), the Buddhas Vairocana, Aksobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha and Amoghasiddhi. When paired with another mandala depicting the Five Wisdom Kings, this forms the Mandala of the Two Realms.

Practice

Mandalas are commonly used by tantric Buddhists as an aid to meditation.

The mandala is "a support for the meditating person", something to be repeatedly contemplated to the point of saturation, such that the image of the mandala becomes fully internalised in even the minutest detail and can then be summoned and contemplated at will as a clear and vivid visualized image. With every mandala comes what Tucci calls "its associated liturgy ... contained in texts known as tantras", instructing practitioners on how the mandala should be drawn, built and visualised, and indicating the mantras to be recited during its ritual use.

By visualizing "pure lands", one learns to understand experience itself as pure, and as the abode of enlightenment. The protection that we need, in this view, is from our own minds, as much as from external sources of confusion. In many tantric mandalas, this aspect of separation and protection from the outer samsaric world is depicted by "the four outer circles: the purifying fire of wisdom, the vajra circle, the circle with the eight tombs, the lotus circle". The ring of vajras forms a connected fence-like arrangement running around the perimeter of the outer mandala circle.

As a meditation on impermanence (a central teaching of Buddhism), after days or weeks of creating the intricate pattern of a sand mandala, the sand is brushed together into a pile and spilled into a body of running water to spread the blessings of the mandala.

Kværne in his extended discussion of sahaja, discusses the relationship of sadhana interiority and exteriority in relation to mandala thus:

Offerings

A "mandala offering" in Tibetan Buddhism is a symbolic offering of the entire universe. Every intricate detail of these mandalas is fixed in the tradition and has specific symbolic meanings, often on more than one level.

Whereas the above mandala represents the pure surroundings of a Buddha, this mandala represents the universe. This type of mandala is used for the mandala-offerings, during which one symbolically offers the universe to the Buddhas or to one's teacher. Within Vajrayana practice, 100,000 of these mandala offerings (to create merit) can be part of the preliminary practices before a student even begins actual tantric practices. This mandala is generally structured according to the model of the universe as taught in a Buddhist classic text the Abhidharma-kośa, with Mount Meru at the centre, surrounded by the continents, oceans and mountains, etc.

Theravada Buddhism
Various Mandalas are described in many Pali Buddhist texts. Some of the examples of the Theravada Buddhist Mandalas are:

 Mandala of Eight Disciples of Buddha describing the Shakyamuni Buddha at center and Eight great disciple in eight major directions.

 Mandala of Buddhas is the mandala consisting of nine major Buddhas of the past and the present Gautama Buddha occupying the ten directions.

 Mandala of Eight Devis includes the eight Devis occupying and protecting the eight corners of the Universe.

In Sigālovāda Sutta, Buddha describes the relationships of a common lay persons in Mandala style.

Shingon Buddhism

One Japanese branch of Mahayana Buddhism – Shingon Buddhism – makes frequent use of mandalas in its rituals as well, though the actual mandalas differ. When Shingon's founder, Kukai, returned from his training in China, he brought back two mandalas that became central to Shingon ritual: the Mandala of the Womb Realm and the Mandala of the Diamond Realm.

These two mandalas are engaged in the abhiseka initiation rituals for new Shingon students, more commonly known as the  (). A common feature of this ritual is to blindfold the new initiate and to have them throw a flower upon either mandala. Where the flower lands assists in the determination of which tutelary deity the initiate should follow.

Sand mandalas, as found in Tibetan Buddhism, are not practiced in Shingon Buddhism.

Nichiren Buddhism

The mandala in Nichiren Buddhism is a  (), which is a paper hanging scroll or wooden tablet whose inscription consists of Chinese characters and medieval-Sanskrit script representing elements of the Buddha's enlightenment, protective Buddhist deities, and certain Buddhist concepts. Called the Gohonzon, it was originally inscribed by Nichiren, the founder of this branch of Japanese Buddhism, during the late 13th Century. The Gohonzon is the primary object of veneration in some Nichiren schools and the only one in others, which consider it to be the supreme object of worship as the embodiment of the supreme Dharma and Nichiren's inner enlightenment. The seven characters Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō, considered to be the name of the supreme Dharma, as well as the invocation that believers chant, are written down the center of all Nichiren-sect Gohonzons, whose appearance may otherwise vary depending on the particular school and other factors.

Pure Land Buddhism

Mandalas have sometimes been used in Pure Land Buddhism to graphically represent Pure Lands, based on descriptions found in the Larger Sutra and the Contemplation Sutra. The most famous mandala in Japan is the Taima mandala, dated to about 763 CE. The Taima mandala is based on the Contemplation Sutra, but other similar mandalas have been made subsequently. Unlike mandalas used in Vajrayana Buddhism, it is not used as an object of meditation or for esoteric ritual. Instead, it provides a visual representation of the Pure Land texts, and is used as a teaching aid.

Also in Jodo Shinshu Buddhism, Shinran and his descendant, Rennyo, sought a way to create easily accessible objects of reverence for the lower-classes of Japanese society. Shinran designed a mandala using a hanging scroll, and the words of the nembutsu () written vertically. This style of mandala is still used by some Jodo Shinshu Buddhists in home altars, or butsudan.

Bodhimandala

Bodhimaṇḍala is a term in Buddhism that means "circle of awakening".

Sand mandalas

Sand mandalas are colorful mandalas made from sand that are ritualistically destroyed. They originated in India in the 8th-12th century but are now practiced in Tibetan Buddhism. Each mandala is dedicated to specific deities. In Buddhism Deities represent states of the mind to be obtained on the path to enlightenment, the mandala itself is representative of the deities palace which also represents the mind of the deity. Each mandala is a pictorial representation of a tantra. for the process of making Sand mandalas they are created by monks that have trained for 3-5 years in a monastery. These sand mandalas are made to be destroyed to symbolize impermanence, the Buddhist belief that death is not the end, and that one's essence will always return to the elements. It is also related to the belief that one should not become attached to anything. To create these mandalas, the monks first create a sketch, then take colorful sand traditionally made from powdered stones and gems into copper funnels called Cornetts and gently tap sand out of them to create the sand mandala. Each color represents attributes of deities. While making the mandalas the monks will pray and meditate, each grain of sand represents a blessing. Monks will travel to demonstrate this art form to people, often in museums.

Mesoamerican civilizations

Mayan Tzolk'in

The Maya civilization tended to present calendars in a form similar to a mandala. It is similar in form and function to the Kalachakra (Wheel of Time) sand paintings of Tibetan Buddhists. Maya symbolism was later used in the Dreamspell calendar, developed by José Argüelles. Sometimes described as an authentic Mayan mandala, it is "inspired by" elements of the 260-day Tzolk'in calendar (as opposed to the 365-day Haab' calendar).

Aztec Sun Stone

The Sun Stone is thought to be a ceremonial representation of the entire universe as seen by the Aztec religious class, in some ways resembling a mandala.

The earliest interpretations of the stone relate to its use as a calendar. In 1792, two years after the stone's unearthing, Mexican anthropologist Antonio de León y Gama wrote a treatise on the Aztec calendar using the stone as its basis. Some of the circles of glyphs are the glyphs for the days of the month. The four symbols included in the Ollin glyph represent the four past suns that the Mexica believed the earth had passed through.

Another aspect of the stone is its religious significance. One theory is that the face at the center of the stone represents Tonatiuh, the Aztec deity of the sun; it is for this reason that the stone became known as the "Sun Stone." Richard Townsend proposed a different theory, claiming that the figure at the center of the stone represents Tlaltecuhtli, the Mexica earth deity who features in Mexica creation myths. Modern archaeologists, such as those at the National Anthropology Museum in Mexico City, believe it is more likely to have been used primarily as a ceremonial basin or ritual altar for gladiatorial sacrifices than as an astrological or astronomical reference.

Yet another characteristic of the stone is its possible geographic significance. The four points may relate to the four corners of the earth or the cardinal points. The inner circles may express space as well as time.

Lastly, there is the political aspect of the stone. It may have been intended to show Tenochtitlan as the center of the world and therefore, as the center of authority. Townsend argues in favor of this idea, claiming that the small glyphs of additional dates amongst the four previous suns - 1 Flint (Tecpatl), 1 Rain (Atl), and 7 Monkey (Ozomahtli) – represent matters of historical importance to the Mexica state. He posits, for example, that 7 Monkey represents the significant day for the cult of a community within Tenochtitlan. His claim is further supported by the presence of Mexica ruler Moctezuma II's name on the work.

Christianity

The Cosmati pavements, including that at Westminster Abbey, are geometric supposedly mandala-like mosaic designs from thirteenth century Italy. The Great Pavement at Westminster Abbey is believed to embody divine and cosmic geometries as the seat of enthronement of the monarchs of England.

Similarly, many of the Illuminations of Hildegard von Bingen can be used as mandalas, as well as many of the images of esoteric Christianity, as in Christian Hermeticism, Christian Alchemy, and Rosicrucianism.

Alchemist, mathematician and astrologer John Dee developed a geometric symbol which he called the Sigillum Dei (Seal of God) manifesting a universal geometric order which incorporated the names of the archangels, derived from earlier forms of the clavicula salomonis or key of Solomon.

The Layer Monument, an early 17th-century marble mural funerary monument at the Church of Saint John the Baptist, Maddermarket, Norwich, is a rare example of Christian iconography absorbing alchemical symbolism to create a mandala in Western funerary art.

Western psychological interpretations

The re-introduction of mandalas into modern Western thought is largely credited to psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. In his exploration of the unconscious through art, Jung observed the common appearance of a circle motif across religions and cultures. He hypothesized that the circle drawings reflected the mind's inner state at the moment of creation and were a kind of symbolic archetype in the collective unconscious. Familiarity with the philosophical writings of India prompted Jung to adopt the word "mandala" to describe these drawings created by himself and his patients. In his autobiography, Jung wrote:

Jung claimed that the urge to make mandalas emerges during moments of intense personal growth. He further hypothesized their appearance indicated a "profound re-balancing process" is underway in the psyche; the result of the process would be a more complex and better integrated personality.

American art therapist Joan Kellogg later created the MARI card test, a free response measure, based on Jung's work.

Transpersonal psychologist David Fontana proposed that the symbolic nature of a mandala may help one "to access progressively deeper levels of the unconscious, ultimately assisting the meditator to experience a mystical sense of oneness with the ultimate unity from which the cosmos in all its manifold forms arises."

In architecture

Buddhist architecture often applied mandala as the blueprint or plan to design Buddhist structures, including temple complex and stupas. A notable example of mandala in architecture is the 9th century Borobudur in Central Java, Indonesia. It is built as a large stupa surrounded by smaller ones arranged on terraces formed as a stepped pyramid, and when viewed from above, takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. Other temples from the same period that also have mandala plans include Sewu, Plaosan and Prambanan. Similar mandala designs are also observable in Cambodia, Thailand and Myanmar.

In science

Circular diagrams are often used in phylogenetics, especially for the graphical representation of phylogenetic relationships. Evolutionary trees often encompass numerous species that are conveniently shown on a circular tree, with images of the species shown on the periphery of a tree. Such diagrams have been called phylogenetic mandalas.

In art

Mandala as an art form first appeared in Buddhist art that were produced in India during the first century B.C.E. These can also be seen in Rangoli designs in Indian households.

In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it originally meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life itself, a cosmic diagram that shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends beyond and within various minds & bodies.

In archaeology

One of the most intense archaeological discoveries in recent years that could redefine the history of eastern thought and tradition of mandala is the discovery of five giant mandalas in the valley of Manipur, India, made with Google Earth imagery. Located in the paddy field in the west of Imphal, the capital of Manipur, the Maklang geoglyph is perhaps the world's largest mandala built entirely of mud. The site wasn't discovered until 2013 as its whole structure could only be visible via Google Earth satellite imagery. The whole paddy field, locally known as Bihu Loukon, is now protected and announced as historical monument and site by the government of Manipur in the same year. The site is situated 12 km aerial distance from Kangla with the GPS coordinates of 24° 48' N and 93° 49' E. It covers a total area of around 224,161.45 square meters. This square mandala has four similar protruding rectangular 'gates' in the cardinal directions guarded each by similar but smaller rectangular 'gates' on the left and right. Within the square there is an eight petalled flower or rayed-star, recently called as Maklang 'Star fort' by the locals, in the centre covering a total area of around 50,836.66 square meters. The discovery of other five giant mandalas in the valley of Manipur is also made with Google Earth. The five giant mandalas, viz., Sekmai mandala, Heikakmapal mandala, Phurju twin mandalas and Sangolmang mandala are located on the western bank of the Iril River.  Another two fairly large mandala shaped geoglyph at Nongren and Keinou are also reported from Manipur valley, India, in 2019. They are named as Nongren mandala and Keinou mandala.

In politics

The Rajamandala (or Raja-mandala; circle of states) was formulated by the Indian author Kautilya in his work on politics, the Arthashastra (written between 4th century BCE and 2nd century BCE). It describes circles of friendly and enemy states surrounding the king's state.

In historical, social and political sense, the term "mandala" is also employed to denote traditional Southeast Asian political formations (such as federation of kingdoms or vassalized states). It was adopted by 20th century Western historians from ancient Indian political discourse as a means of avoiding the term 'state' in the conventional sense. Not only did Southeast Asian polities not conform to Chinese and European views of a territorially defined state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic apparatus, but they diverged considerably in the opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration. Empires such as Bagan, Ayutthaya, Champa, Khmer, Srivijaya and Majapahit are known as "mandala" in this sense.

In contemporary use

Fashion designer Mandali Mendrilla designed an interactive art installation called Mandala of Desires (Blue Lotus Wish Tree) made in peace silk and eco friendly textile ink, displayed at the China Art Museum in Shanghai in November 2015. The pattern of the dress was based on the Goloka Yantra mandala, shaped as a lotus with eight petals. Visitors were invited to place a wish on the sculpture dress, which will be taken to India and offered to a genuine living Wish Tree.

Gallery

See also

Citations

General sources

 Brauen, M. (1997). The Mandala, Sacred circle in Tibetan Buddhism Serindia Press, London.
 Bucknell, Roderick & Stuart-Fox, Martin (1986). The Twilight Language: Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism. Curzon Press: London.
 Cammann, S. (1950). Suggested Origin of the Tibetan Mandala Paintings The Art Quarterly, Vol. 8, Detroit.
 Cowen, Painton (2005). The Rose Window, London and New York, (offers the most complete overview of the evolution and meaning of the form, accompanied by hundreds of colour illustrations.)
 Crossman, Sylvie and Barou, Jean-Pierre (1995). Tibetan Mandala, Art & Practice The Wheel of Time, Konecky and Konecky.
 Fontana, David (2005). "Meditating with Mandalas", Duncan Baird Publishers, London.
  Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions International.
 Mipham, Sakyong Jamgön (2002) 2000 Seminary Transcripts Book 1 Vajradhatu Publications
 Somorjit, Wangam (2018). "World's Largest Mandalas from Manipur and Carl Jung's Archetype of the Self", neScholar, vol.04, Issue 01, ed.Dr. R.K. Nimai Singh
 Tucci, Giuseppe (1973). The Theory and Practice of the Mandala trans. Alan Houghton Brodrick, New York, Samuel Weisner.
 Vitali, Roberto (1990). Early Temples of Central Tibet London, Serindia Publications.
 Wayman, Alex (1973). "Symbolism of the Mandala Palace" in The Buddhist Tantras Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass.

Further reading

 Grotenhuis, Elizabeth Ten (1999). Japanese mandalas: representations of sacred geography, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press
  (see index)

External links

 Introduction to Mandalas
 Mandalas in the Tradition of the Dalai Lamas' Namgyal Monastery by Losang Samten

Buddhist philosophical concepts
Buddhist art
Buddhist meditation
Ceremonies
Hindu philosophical concepts
Indian iconography
Meditation
Religious objects
Religious symbols
Tibetan Buddhist practices
Tibetan Buddhist ritual implements

Mandala


Dwight Hicks was born April 5, 1956 in Mount Holly, New Jersey. He was a professional American football player. He played the defensive back position for the Toronto Argonauts in 1978. He also played in the National Football League (NFL) for the San Francisco 49ers from 1979 to 1985 and for the Indianapolis Colts in 1986. Before that, Dwight Hicks played for the University of Michigan. He is a four-time Pro Bowl selection from 1981 to 1984. He helped the 49ers to win 2 NFL Championships in Super Bowl XVI and Super Bowl XIX.

Hicks led the NFL in interceptions in the 1981 season, and return yards. He went on to be very important in the Super Bowl. After the 49ers lost a fumble on the opening kickoff, the Cincinnati Bengals got the football to San Francisco 5-yard line. Hicks made an interception and stopped the Bengals from scoring.

In Hicks eight NFL seasons, he had 32 interceptions, 602 interception return yards, 14 fumble recoveries, 112 fumble return yards, and 4 touchdowns.

Hicks went on to become a popular character actor in movies such as The Rock, Jack, Armageddon, and In the Mix after his football career. He also made appearances on many television programs. Some shows that he appeared on include Nash Bridges, The Pretender, The Practice, The X-Files, ER and The O.C.

Indianapolis Colts players
San Francisco 49ers players
Toronto Argonauts players
American movie actors
Actors from New Jersey
Sportspeople from New Jersey
American television actors
1956 births
Living people

Dwight Hicks


"Houmet" redirects here, for further information on the placename element, please see "-hou"

Les Houmets are to the east of Guernsey in the Channel Islands. Their name comes from hou, a Norman/Guernésiais word meaning islets. They are tidal islands.

Amongst the islets are Houmet Benest/Houmet Benêt, Houmet Paradis and Houmet Hommetol (Omptolle). Although Victor Hugo suggests that they were heavily eroded by quarrying (which was certainly true in the case of Crevichon off Herm), Victor Coysh disagrees saying:

"While much work of this nature was in progress in the parishes of the Vale and St. Sampson in the last century [i.e. 19th], quarrying was not responsible for any marked alteration in the coast off which Les Houmets lie. In fact, they have been islets for a very long time, as ancient maps reveal. Did the author ever visit them, I wonder."

Victor Hugo
Victor Hugo who wrote about many of the Channel Islands in his books, described Les Houmets, in The Toilers of the Sea (Les Travailleurs de la mer). Gilliat, the main character lives on Houmet Paradis:

"This house was called the Bû de la Rue. It was on the point of a tongue of land, or rather of rock, that made a little separate harbour in the creek of Houmet Paradis. The water was very deep here. This house was all alone on the point, almost off the land, with just enough land for a small garden. The high tides sometimes inundated the garden. Between the port of St. Sampson and the creek of Houmet Paradis rises a steep hill, surmounted by the block of towers covered with ivy, and known as Vale Castle, or the Chateau de l'Archange; so that, at St. Sampson, the Bû de la Rue was shut out from sight..."

Moreover, this house had some very nasty inhabitants besides Gilliat,
"The country people told how, towards the close of the great Revolution, a woman, bringing with her a little child, came to live in Guernsey. She was an Englishwoman; at least, she was not French. She had a name which the Guernsey pronunciation and the country folks' bad spelling had finally converted into 'Gilliatt.'...the house of the Bû de la Rue was haunted at this period. For more than thirty years no one had inhabited it. It was falling into ruins. The garden, so often invaded by the sea, could produce nothing. Besides noises and lights seen there at night-time, the house had this mysterious peculiarity: any one who should leave there in the evening, upon the mantelpiece, a ball of worsted, a few needles, and a plate filled with soup, would assuredly find in the morning the soup consumed, the plate empty, and a pair of mittens ready knitted. The house, demon included, was offered for sale for a few pounds sterling. The stranger woman became the purchaser, evidently tempted by the devil, or by the advantageous bargain.

"She did more than purchase the house; she took up her abode there with the child; and from that moment peace reigned within its walls. The Bû de la Rue has found a fit tenant, said the country people. The haunting ceased. There was no longer any light seen there save that of the tallow candle of the newcomer. 'Witch's candle is as good as devil's torch.' The proverb satisfied the gossips of the neighbourhood...

"Today it would be useless to look for the cove of Houmet Paradis, for Gilliat's house and for the creek where he sheltered the boat. The Bû de la Rue no longer exists. The little peninsula where this house stood has fallen under the pick-axe of the destroyers of the sea-cliffs and has been loaded, cart-load, by cart-load, on the vessels belonging to the dealers in rocks and granite... All this ridge of rock has been long ago taken to London."

The novel was written in the 1860s and set in the 1820s when the islands were still inhabited.

The islets
Houmet Benest/Benêt is about two hundred yards (180 m) from the shore. It is triangular, and 80 × 50 yards (73 × 45 m). There is an 18th century gun battery here, to defend against the French. The German occupation added their own, and the British another after the Germans left. The steamer Clarrie sank off Houmet Benêt in 1921, in the Great Roussel. Heathery Brae in 1952 tried to salvage it, but ended up being wrecked itself, and there are also the wrecks of Vixen (a brig), Rescue (a tug) and Romp (a cutter) went ashore here. It is covered in grass and brambles.

Houmet Paradis, the fictional Gilliat's home, was originally known as Houmet de l'Eperquerie, as it was used for fish gutting, and drying on stands known as perques (perches). It was formerly owned by the Collas family, whose estate at Paradis, gave the islet its new name. In the 1920s, it was used for quarrying, and it was also used for grazing cattle, and has a lot of grass. In 1951 it was sold to James Watson of Newcastle upon Tyne for £500 who placed the island under the stewardship of the National Trust of Guernsey. It remained within the family until 2004 when it was sold at auction by James Watson's grandson (also called James Watson who live on Alderney) to a local consortium to keep the island as a nature reserve.

Hommetol, more commonly called Omptolle by the Ordnance Survey etc., is used for gathering ormer. It is mostly covered in thrift.

References
 Coysh, Victor Channel Islets
 Hugo, Victor The Toilers of the Sea (Les Travailleurs de la mer)

Other websites
 Houmet Paradis site, Guernsey National Trust

Uninhabited islands of the Bailiwick of Guernsey
Tidal islands

Houmets


Tiruchirappalli is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Its name in Tamil means "town of the respected Chira (name of a Jain monk)". It is also often called Trichy or Tiruchi. It was also called Trichinopoly by the British.

Tiruchirappalli is the administrative headquarters of Tiruchirapalli District. It is the fourth-largest municipal corporation in Tamil Nadu. About 10,67,912 people lived there in 2008. It is a very old city with many important temples, monuments, churches and mosques. The famous temples being Rockfort Temple, Srirangam Temple, Thiruvanaikkovil Temple, Samayapuram Temple, Nachiyar Kovil etc. Nearby, Woraiyur, the old Trichy, is where the early Chola kings had their capital city, until about 850. There are picnic / sightseeing spots in and around trichy like Kallanai (Grand Anaicut) built by Karikala Cholan, Mukkombu.
Tiruchirapalli district

Cities in Tamil Nadu

Tiruchirappalli


Stretching is a kind of physical fitness exercise in which a muscle (or muscle group) is stretched on purpose to its fullest length in order to help the muscle's elasticity and its tone. This helps a person have better control of his or her muscles and be more flexible.

Stretching, in its most basic form, is a natural and instinctive activity; it is done by many animals including humans. It may be done while yawning. Stretching often is done instinctively after waking from sleep, after long periods of being inactive, or after leaving small spaces and areas.

Many athletes and dancers stretch deliberately before or after exercise in order to enhance performance and reduce injury.

There are three basic types of stretching: ballistic, dynamic, and static stretching.

Related pages

 Flexibility training
 Healthy lifestyle
 Rhythmic gymnastics

Notes

References

 Weerapong, Pornratshanee, Patria A. Hume, and Gregory S. Kolt. "Stretching: Mechanisms and Benefits for Sports Performance and Injury Prevention." Physical Therapy Reviews 9.4(2004): 189-206.
 LaRoche, Dain, and Declan A. J. Connolly. "Effects of Stretching on Passive Muscle Tension and Response to Eccentric Exercise." American Journal of Sports Medicine 34.6(2006): 1000-1007.

Further reading
 Shrier, Ian. "When and Whom to Stretch?" Physician & Sportsmedicine 33.3(2005): 22–26.
Fitness

Stretching


Sharlot Mabridth Hall (October 27, 1870 – April 9, 1943) was an American journalist, poet and historian.  She was the first woman to hold an office in the Arizona Territorial government and her personal collection of photographs and artifacts served as the starting collection for a history museum which bears her name.

Background

Hall was born to James Polk Knox and Adeline Susannah Boblett Hall in Lincoln County, Kansas on October 27, 1870.  In November 1881, her family followed the Santa Fe Trail to Arizona Territory, moving to the Orchard Ranch on the Lynx Creek 20 miles south of Prescott.  During the trip, near Dodge City, she was thrown from her horse and suffered an injury to her back or hip.  The pain of the injury would remain with her the rest of her life. Hall was educated in public schools, first near the present location of Dewey, Arizona and later in Prescott.  At an early age, Hall demonstrated an interest and talent in poetry.  Upon graduation she went to Los Angeles to attend the Cumnock School Of Expression.  In 1921 Hall received an honorary Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Arizona.

At the age of 20, Hall sold her first article to a children's magazine for US$4.00.  By age 22 she was working as a journalist, poet, and essayist.  Hall became a regular contributor to Charles Lummis' magazine Land of Sunshine and in 1901, when two other poets were unable to complete their deadline, she wrote the poem which announced the magazine's new name of Out West.  In 1906, Hall was promoted to associate editor for the magazine.

In 1905, when legislation to admit Arizona Territory and New Mexico Territory as a single combined state was proposed in the U.S. Congress, Hall responded by writing the poem Arizona.  The poem, which mocked the proposal and made the case for Arizona's independent statehood, was published in several publications and a copy of the poem was given to every member of Congress.  In 1909, Hall was appointed Territorial Historian by Governor Sloan.  This was followed the next year with the release of Cactus and pine: songs of the Southwest, her first compilation.  In 1911, Hall made a trip to the Arizona Strip in an effort to raise awareness of the area's potential among Arizona residents and prevent Utah from obtaining the region as Nevada had obtained Pah-Ute County in 1866.  In 1912 she resigned as Territorial Historian and returned to her family ranch to care for her parents.

Hall returned to the public view in 1923 with the release of an expanded version of Cactus and pine containing a selection of additional poems.  This was followed by her selection as a presidential elector, voting for Calvin Coolidge, in 1925.  Hall wore a custom dress made of copper for the balloting ceremony.  She also used her trip to Washington D.C. to visit a variety of museums and learn about their management.

Following the death of her father, Hall acquired the cabin which had served as the "Governor's mansion" for Arizona Territory's first governors.  In addition to her living quarters, she used the building to house her collection of artifacts related to Arizona pioneers and pre-historic Yavapai county.  This move was followed, in 1928, with her founding of the Prescott Historical Society.  The same year she opened what she called the Old Governor's Mansion Museum, now known as the Sharlot Hall Museum.

Over the following years, Hall oversaw the expansion of her museum through the acquisition of a variety of additional historical buildings.  She was also a popular speaker, giving talks on local history and folklore to schools and clubs throughout the state.  Hall died on April 9, 1943, and was buried in a family plot in Prescott's Pioneer Cemetery.

Two years after her death, the Prescott Historical Society changed their name to the Sharlot Hall Historical Society.  Additionally, Hall was among the first to be inducted into the Arizona Women's Hall of Fame.  In 1984, the Sharlot Hall Award was established and is awarded annually to "an Arizona woman who has made a valuable contribution to the understanding and awareness of Arizona and its history."

Bibliography
 Cactus and pine: Songs of the Southwest (1910, 1923)
 Poems of a Ranch Woman

Notes

References

Further reading

External links
 Who was Sharlot M. Hall? from Sharlot Hall Museum
 Sharlot Madbrith Hall, Arizona Women's Hall of Fame

1870 births
1943 deaths
People from Lincoln County, Kansas
American historians
Poets from Arizona
People from Prescott, Arizona
Women in Arizona politics
Arizona pioneers
American women journalists
American women poets
American women historians

Sharlot Hall


Milford is a village in Derbyshire, England, on the River Derwent, between Duffield and Belper on the A6 trunk road.

Until the end of the 18th century it was no more than a few houses near the point, about a quarter of a mile further south, where a Roman road from  the Wirksworth lead mines forded the river. The road still exists as it passes across the Chevin hill and descends into the village by what is now Sunny Hill. It is thought to have then proceeded along the east bank of the river to the Roman garrison of Derventio, in what is now Derby where it connected with Rykneld Street.

At nearby Makeney, in 1554, Burchard Kranich built the first Smeltmill for extracting lead from its ore. In 1581 Sir John Zouch of Codnor Castle set up a wire drawing works. This followed the opening of a works in Hathersage in 1566 where Christopher Schutz, a German immigrant, had invented a process for drawing wire. Hathersage became a centre for wire drawing and, later, needle making.

Of Makeney, it was written in 1817, Makeney, a hamlet of [the parish of Duffield], (Machenie), is described in the Domesday Survey as one of the manors of Henry de Ferrars. It is now considered as parcel of the manor of Duffield. About 700 hands are employed by Messrs. Strutt in the spinning and bleaching of cotton, at Millford, a populous manufacturing village in this parish.There is a Unitarian chapel at Millford, supported by Mr. Strutt; who supports also a Lancasterian school, in which the numbers are about 300: a room to accommodate about 400 is now building at Millford. The girls in this school, and that at Belper, are taught to sew, cut out, &c. as well as to read and write. A chapel has lately been erected here for the Wesleyan Methodists.

The Royal Mint had acquired the rights to Schutz' process in 1568 and set out to restrict its use to the Company of Mineral and Battery Works.  However, the works continued supplying the Belper nail makers among others and by the time Jedediah Strutt bought it, it consisted of two forges and a slitting and rolling mill, occupying both sides the river. Some of the mill buildings are now the Riverside Garden Centre.

In 1778 Jedediah Strutt built cotton spinning mills after the pattern developed by Richard Arkwright having been in partnership with him when he built the mill at Cromford. Part of the Milford mill still exists as well as much of the workers' housing.
Milford's claim to fame is that one of Strutt's apprentices at Milford was Samuel Slater, who absconded to America carrying Arkwright's system in his head. He settled in Pawtucket, Rhode Island and replicated Arkwright's success.

There is some debate about the origin of the name Milford. It is generally reckoned to be a corruption of  mule forde and it is so recorded (briefly) in the Domesday Book when it was owned by Henry de Ferrers. There were a number of fords, which probably changed their position as the river changed its course.  An old lane leading down to one of them was called "Save Penny Lane," because people who used it, and crossed the ford, saved the penny toll which Messrs. Strutt charged for crossing the bridge they had built. Afterwards, the Strutts had the ford destroyed and the river deepened. At some time, however, Milford was called New Mills. A map of 1787 names the road from Duffield as New Mills Road, and Samuel Slater's indentures as an apprentice  record him as living in "New Mills, in the Parish of Duffield".

The Holly Bush Inn is a 17th or early 18th century Grade II listed public house at 2 Holly Bush Lane, Makeney (part of Milford). It is on the Campaign for Real Ale's National Inventory of Historic Pub Interiors.

See also
Listed buildings in Belper
Milford Hydro

References

External links

Milford & Makeney village website

"Picture the Past" Milford circa 1900

Villages in Derbyshire
Towns and villages of the Peak District
Belper

Milford, Derbyshire


Richard David Robinson (born May 3, 1941) is an American former professional football player who was a linebacker in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the Penn State Nittany Lions and professionally for the Green Bay Packers and the Washington Redskins.  Robinson was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1997 and the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2013.

Early life
Robinson, the youngest child of Leslie Robinson and his wife, Mary Gaines, lived in Mount Laurel, New Jersey for the first 18 years of his life. Robinson is a 1959 graduate of Moorestown High School and a member of three unbeaten NJSIAA championship teams:
 1957 South Jersey Group III championship football team, with a record of 9–0,
 1958 State Group III championship basketball team, with a record of 22–0,
 1959 State Group III championship basketball team, with a record of 22–0.
Robinson earned the name "Lefty" because he was a left-footed kicker.

College career
From 1960 to 1962, Robinson played end on offense and defense at Penn State University. The Nittany Lions' record was 24–8 under the guidance of head coach Rip Engle and assistant coach Joe Paterno. Robinson's honors in 1962 included: All-America status, College Player of the Year from the Newark Athletic Club, and College Lineman of the Year from the Philadelphia Sports Writers Association.

In 1962, during his senior year, Robinson led Penn State to a 9–1 regular- season, made 17 receptions for 178 yards and was named a first-team All-America by the Associated Press, NEA, Football Writers (Look), Post and Time magazines. The first-team All-East choice also was named the nation's top collegiate lineman by the Philadelphia Sportswriters.

Robinson was the MVP of the 1962 Gator Bowl, despite the Nittany Lions' loss to Florida. He was inducted into the Gator Bowl Hall of Fame in 1996.

Robinson was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1997.

Robinson is among 22 members of the Penn State football family who are enshrined into the National Football Foundation and College Hall of Fame (1997). He was inducted into the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame in 1982.

Robinson earned his degree in Civil Engineering at Penn State University. He also minored in economics.

Professional career
Robinson was drafted by the Packers in the first round of the 1963 NFL Draft and by the San Diego Chargers in the third round of the AFL Draft of the same year.  He was also drafted by the Montreal Alouettes of the Canadian Football League (CFL).  Originally, he did not think he would end up playing in Green Bay. The Chargers had a financial package of $38,000 for Robinson but ran out of money and were going to trade his AFL rights to the Buffalo Bills. Robinson's fiancé (and future wife) Elaine had been to Buffalo and knew how cold it was there, but had never been to Green Bay. Robinson would later recall that she didn't join him there until his second year in the NFL.

Robinson Made his NFL Debut on September 15, 1963 against the Chicago Bears. The Packers decided to move Robinson from defensive end to linebacker. After backing up incumbent Dan Currie during his rookie season,  Robinson became the starting left side linebacker for the Packers and remained in that role with the team through 1972.  Alongside the immortal MLB Ray Nitschke and Pro Bowler Lee Roy Caffey, the three formed one of the best starting units of linebackers in NFL history. Robinson was not only adept at defending the run but also against the pass. He intercepted 21 passes as a Packer, including five in 1966, which tied cornerback Bob Jeter for the team lead. Robinson played on two Super Bowl Championship teams, and won a total of three NFL Titles with the Packers (1965, 1966, 1967).  During that time, he developed a reputation as a big-game player.  Perhaps the most notable example came in the 1966 NFL Championship game against the Dallas Cowboys. On a fourth down play from the Packers' two-yard-line, Robinson pressured Cowboys quarterback Don Meredith into a desperation pass that was intercepted by safety Tom Brown in the end zone, preserving a 34–27 victory by the Packers.  Despite this, Vince Lombardi, the future Hall of Fame head coach of the Packers, was not pleased that Robinson had freelanced on the play and gave him the coach's lowest grade possible, a minus two. However, Lombardi would later privately praise Robinson for making the game-winning play.

{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 1em; font-size: 85%; background:yellow; width:27em;" cellspacing="3"
| style="text-align: left;" | "Trying to pass over Robinson, with his arms and reaction, is like trying to pass over the Empire State Building."
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | Jack Christiansen
|}

After Lombardi's retirement as Packers' head coach following Super Bowl II, the aging team went into a period of decline under new coach (and former defensive coordinator) Phil Bengtson. Individually, Robinson continued to shine. He was named 1st Team All-Pro by the NEA and UPI in 1968. In 1969, he was again named 1st Team All-Pro by the NEA and UPI and was also chosen for the 1st Teams of the New York Daily News, PFW and The Sporting News. Robinson suffered a setback during the 1970 season when he tore his Achilles tendon, but was ready for the start of the 1971 season. By then, Bengtson had been replaced as Packers' head coach by Dan Devine. Robinson did not get along with Devine and would later state that, while he felt that Vince Lombardi was the best coach he ever played for, Devine was his worst coach at any level: high school, college, or pros. Although the team rebounded from a 4–8–2 record in Devine's first season to finish 10–4 and win the NFC Central Divisional title, the 1972 season would be Robinson's last in a Packers uniform.

Robinson then finished his career with the Washington Redskins from 1973 to 1974, playing under another future Hall of Fame head coach in George Allen. He later stated that he was fine with the trade to the Redskins because there was no way that he would play for Devine anymore.  Robinson continued his high level of play in D.C., intercepting four passes during his first season with the Redskins. On October 14, 1973, Robinson returned one of those four interceptions 28 yards for the only touchdown of his career during a 21–3 Redskins win over the New York Giants. Robinson retired from the NFL in August 1975 after a career of twelve professional seasons.  He finished his career with 27 interceptions for return yardage totaling 449 and the one aforementioned touchdown. He also recovered 12 fumbles.  Robinson was named to three Pro Bowls in 1966, 1967, and 1969 and was selected for one of the linebacker spots on the NFL's all-decade team for the 1960s.  In 2004, he was named to the Professional Football Researchers Association Hall of Very Good in the association's second HOVG class

After football
Robinson has pursued many different endeavors since retiring as an NFL player. During his career, he had worked in the off-season as an engineer at Campbell's Soup in Camden, New Jersey through 1967 and then for Schlitz Brewery in Milwaukee. He then worked full-time with Schlitz upon his retirement from pro football. In April 1984, he started his own beer distributorship in Akron, Ohio until semi-retiring in 2001. He then worked in sales for an artificial turf company before officially retiring in 2006. Robinson has also been a member of the Board of Directors for the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Robinson was the sixth Nittany Lion in history of the program to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.

Robinson and Royce Boyles co-authored The Lombardi legacy: thirty people who were touched by greatness''. In 2009, the second edition of the book was published by Goose Creek Publishers.

In addition to being a member of the College Football and Gator Bowl Halls of Fame, Robinson was also inducted into the Packers Hall of Fame in February 1982.  Robinson was elected as part of the 2013 class for the Pro Football Hall of Fame on February 2, 2013.

Robinson was the twelfth member of Vince Lombardi's championship Green Bay Packers, including Lombardi himself, to be enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.  He was the sixth Nittany Lion to be honored in the Professional Football Hall of fame in Canton, joining Jack Ham, Franco Harris, August Michalske, Lenny Moore and Mike Munchak.

In 2011, Robinson was faced with a different struggle in his life. He was told that he may have pancreatic cancer which is 98% deadly. He said "I had a brother die of pancreatic cancer. I know the odds of pancreatic cancer. I went home and started making plans for my demise." After his doctors appointment, Robinson received the news that he did not have pancreatic cancer; however he did have colon cancer and 80% blockage of one of his major arteries. But, after two months spending a lot of time in the hospital, the doctors gave Robinson news that he was cancer free and did not have to receive chemotherapy. After going through this life altering time, Robinson told reporters, " I am here for a purpose."

In September 2013, Moorestown High School retired Dave Robinson's old jersey, number 89. This made Robinson the only Moorestown player to ever receive such an honor.

References

External links

1941 births
Living people
American football linebackers
Green Bay Packers players
Penn State Nittany Lions football players
Washington Redskins players
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees
Western Conference Pro Bowl players
Moorestown High School alumni
People from Mount Laurel, New Jersey
Players of American football from Burlington County, New Jersey
Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame

Dave Robinson (American football)