Plain English Campaign Limited (PEC) is a commercial editing and training firm based in the United Kingdom. It was started in 1979 by Chrissie Maher. The company advocates for the use of simple ("plain") English. It tries to persuade organisations in the UK and abroad to communicate with the public simply. In 1990, Plain English Campaign created the Crystal Mark, its "seal of approval." This is a symbol printed on documents which the Plain English campaign thinks are very easy to understand. According to the Plain English Campaign, the symbol appears on over 20,000 documents worldwide.

The Plain English Campaign also gives out an annual "Foot in Mouth Award" for "a baffling comment by a public figure." The name of this award comes from a humorous English idiom. If a person has their "foot in their mouth," that means they are speaking badly and not paying attention to what they are saying. The plain English Campaign also gives out a "Golden Bull Award" for "the worst examples of written tripe". The name of this award also comes from a common English idiom. "Bull" is short for "bullshit," which literally means the excrement of a bull, but is often used to mean stupid, dishonest or unbelievable speech or writing. The word "tripe," similar to "bullshit," has both a literal and a figurative meaning. Literally, it means a food made from an animal's stomach lining. As it is used here, "tripe" means something very close to "bullshit."

In other words, the Plain English Campaign's "Foot in Mouth Award" is given to someone famous who speaks stupidly. The "Golden Bull Award" is given to someone famous who writes stupidly. Both awards are sarcastic. They are different from normal awards because they criticise, rather than honor, the people they are given to. Famous winners of the Foot in Mouth Award include George W. Bush and Donald Rumsfeld.

Plain English Campaign has worked for many organisations. Many UK forms and bills carry the Crystal Mark, including the British passport application form. Plain English Campaign is often described in the media as a "pressure group."

It regularly makes public comments about language-related news stories and about jargon. For example, in 2006 its supporters voted Bill Shankly the author of the greatest football quotation of all time. Plain English Campaign did a survey in 2004 and announced that 'At the end of the day' was considered the most irritating cliché. Chrissie Maher, who created Plain English Campaign, was awarded the Order of the British Empire in 1994 for her services to plain communication. Famous supporters of PEC include Margaret Thatcher and broadcaster John Humphrys.

Other websites

Companies of the United Kingdom
Prose

Plain English Campaign


A bassist is a musician whose musical instrument is a bass guitar or a double bass. In rock, pop, country, metal, jazz fusion, and funk music, most bassists play a bass guitar. In some types of jazz, and in rockabilly, bluegrass, and in symphony orchestras, bassists play a double bass.

Training
Many professional rock, pop, country, metal, and funk, rockabilly, and bluegrass, bassists learn to play by performing in groups for many years and by taking private lessons with bass teachers.

Bassists who play in symphony orchestras, or who play jazz or jazz fusion often learn to play the bass in a conservatory, music school, college, or university. College or university degrees in double bass include the Bachelor of Music degree (which takes four years) and the Master of Music degree (which takes two years).

There are fewer Bass players than traditional guitar players. Some believe the bass is harder to play, although it has fewer strings

Income
Bassists, like other musicians, have a much lower average income than many other job categories, such as accountants or administrators. Although a tiny number of famous bassists make a large amount of money, and a small number of bassists have full-time jobs in bands or orchestras, most bassists have low incomes. Many bassists do not earn enough from playing, so they do other music-related jobs, such as teaching bass.

Entertainment occupations

Bassist


Italian Libya was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy, from 1911 to (officially) 1947.

History

Italy conquered Libya in 1911 from the Ottoman Empire.  Libyan Muslims continued fighting against the Christian Italians for some years, mainly during World War I.

Fighting increased after the dictator Benito Mussolini took power in Italy.  Idris (later King of Libya) fled to Egypt in 1922. From 1922 to 1928, Italian forces under General Badoglio waged a "punitive pacification" campaign.  Badoglio's successor in the field, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, accepted the commission from Mussolini on the condition that he was allowed to crush Libyan resistance without having to follow either Italian or international law. Mussolini reportedly agreed immediately and Graziani intensified the oppression.  Some Libyans continued to defend themselves, with the strongest voices of dissent coming from Cyrenaica.  Omar Mukhtar, a sheikh of the Sennusi tribe, became the leader of the uprising.

After a much-disputed truce on 3 January 1928, the Italian policy in Libya reached the level of full-scale war, including deportation and concentration of people of northern Cyrenaica to deny the rebels the support of the local population.  After Omar Mukhtar's capture September 15, 1931 and his execution in Benghazi, the resistance gradually disappeared.  Limited resistance to the Italian occupation crystallized round Sheik Idris, the Sennusi Emir of Cyrenaica.

Creation of "Libya"

By 1934, Libya was fully pacified and the new Italian governor Italo Balbo started a policy of integration between the Arabs and the Italians. New laws in 1939 allowed Muslims to join the National Fascist Party and in particular the "Muslim Association of the Lictor" (Associazione Musulmana del Littorio).  The 1939 reforms  also allowed the creation of Libyan military units within the Italian army. During the North African Campaign of World War II this brought strong support for Italy among many Muslim Libyans, who enrolled in the Italian Army

Governor Balbo created "Libya" in 1934, with the unification of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and Fezzan in a single country.  He developed the new "Italian Libya" from 1934 to 1940, creating a huge infrastructure including 4,000 km of roads, 400 km of narrow gauge railways, new industries, and many new agricultural villages.

The Libyan economy prospered, mainly in the agricultural sector.  Even some manufacturing activities were developed, mostly related to the food industry.  Many building were made.  Furthermore, the Italians made modern medical care available for the first time in Libya and improved sanitary conditions in the towns. It was also created a huge web of connections to Italy, by sea and by air (like the Linea dell'Impero, an air route that united Libya with Rome and with Ethiopia/Somalia).

The italian language in libya was commonly used in the main cities and was understood by nearly all the native arab population in the early 1940s.

Howard Christie wrote that:

The Italians started numerous and diverse businesses in Tripolitania and Cirenaica. These included an explosives factory, railway workshops, Fiat Motor works, various food processing plants, electrical engineering workshops, ironworks, water plants, agricultural machinery factories, breweries, distilleries, biscuit factories, a tobacco factory, tanneries, bakeries, lime, brick and cement works, Esparto grass industry, mechanical saw mills, and the Petrolibya Society (Trye 1998). Italian investment in her colony was to take advantage of new colonists and to make it more self-sufficient. Total native Italian population for Libya was 110,575 out of a total population of 915,440 in 1940 (General Staff War Office 1939, 165/b).

Governor Balbo promoted the construction of many new villages  for many thousands of Italian colonists in the coastal areas of "Italian Libya" and of new villages for the Arabs.

Libya was an important theater of war in World War II.  On 13 September 1940, Italian forces used the "Via Balbia" (Mussolini's highway in northern Libya) for the invasion of Egypt.  British and allied Allied forces from Egypt, commanded by Wavell made a successful two-month campaign in (Tobruk, Bengasi, El Agheila).  Counteroffensives under Rommel in 1940-43, also took place here.  In November 1942, the Allied forces retook Cyrenaica; by February 1943, the last German and Italian soldiers were driven from Libya.

Related pages
Italian Tripoli
Libya's Italian language

Notes

20th century in Italy
20th century in Libya
Former colonies in Africa

Italian Libya


The Science Mission Directorate (SMD) of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) engages the United States' science community, sponsors scientific research, and develops and deploys satellites and probes in collaboration with NASA's partners around the world to answer fundamental questions requiring the view from and into space.

The Science Mission Directorate also sponsors research that both enables, and is enabled by, NASA's exploration activities. The SMD portfolio is contributing to NASA's achievement of the Vision for Space Exploration by striving to:

Understand the history of Mars and the formation of the Solar System. By understanding the formation of diverse terrestrial planets (with atmospheres) in the Solar System, researchers learn more about Earth's future and the most promising opportunities for habitation beyond our planet. For example, differences in the impacts of collisional processes on Earth, the Moon, and Mars can provide clues about differences in origin and evolution of each of these bodies.
Search for Earth-like planets and habitable environments around other stars. SMD pursues multiple research strategies with the goal of developing effective astronomically-detectable signatures of biological processes. The study of the Earth-Sun system may help researchers identify atmospheric biosignatures that distinguish Earth-like (and potentially habitable) planets around nearby stars. An understanding of the origin of life and the time evolution of the atmosphere on Earth may reveal likely signatures of life on extrasolar planets.
Explore the Solar System for scientific purposes while supporting safe robotic and human exploration of space. For example, large-scale coronal mass ejections from the Sun can cause potentially lethal consequences for improperly shielded human flight systems, as well as some types of robotic systems. SMD's pursuit of interdisciplinary scientific research focus areas will help predict potentially harmful conditions in space and protect NASA's robotic and human explorers.

Leadership
Nicola Fox is the Associate Administrator for the Science Mission Directorate beginning February 27, 2023. Recent Associate Administrators for the SMD include Edward J. Weiler (1998–2004, 2008–2011), Mary L. Cleave (2004–2005), Alan Stern (2007–2008), John M. Grunsfeld (2012–2016), and Thomas Zurbuchen (2016-2022).  Stern resigned 25 March 2008, to be effective 11 April, over disagreements with Administrator Michael D. Griffin.

Associate Administrator: Nicola Fox Assistant: Tricia Johnson
Deputy Associate Administrator: Sandra Connelly
Heliophysics Division Director: Margaret (Peg) Luce (acting)
Earth Science Division Director: Karen St. Germain Assistant: Jacob Griffin
Planetary Science Division Director: Lori Glaze
Astrophysics Division Director: Mark Clampin
Biological and Physical Sciences Division Director: Craig Kundrot
Resource Management Division Director: Holly Degn
Joint Agency Satellite Division Director: John Gagosian
Science Engagement and Partnerships Division Director: Kristen J Erickson

References

External links
About the Science Mission Directorate

NASA groups, organizations, and centers

Science Mission Directorate


The Great Rift Valley or East African Rift is a continuous geographical trench, about 6,000 kilometres (3,700 mi) in length, that runs from northern Syria in Southwest Asia to central Mozambique in East Africa. The rift is bordered by a series of mountains and active volcanoes. It is a site of faults and earthquakes.

Basically, the western part of Africa is rifting away from the eastern part.  This causes all the geological activity at the Valley.  Far in the future, a sea will run between these two parts of Africa. The Arabian peninsula is already almost separated.  The whole process is part of plate tectonics. In eastern Africa, the valley divides into two, the Western Rift Valley and the Eastern Rift Valley.

There are about 20 UNESCO World Heritage Sites which owe their formation to the geography and geology of the Great Rift Valley.

The Western Rift Valley
The Western Rift is edged by some of the highest mountains in Africa. It contains the Rift Valley lakes, which include some of the deepest lakes in the world (up to 1,470 metres deep at Lake Tanganyika). Much of this area is inside national parks.

The  African Great Lakes are a series of lakes formed by the tectonic action of the East African Rift.  Most lie within its rift valley..  They include Lake Victoria, the second largest fresh water lake in the world in terms of surface area, and Lake Tanganyika, the world's second largest in volume as well as the second deepest.

The African Great Lakes are divided among three different catchments (river basins).  Some, such as Lake Turkana, have internal drainage systems.  The largest, in order of size from largest to smallest are:
 Lake Victoria
 Lake Tanganyika
 Lake Malawi (Lake Nyasa)
 Lake Turkana (Lake Rudolf)
 Lake Albert

Eastern Rift Valley
The lakes in the Eastern Rift have no outlet to the sea and tend to be shallow, they have a high mineral content as the evaporation of water leaves the salts behind.

Lake Malawi (or Lake Nyasa: the name is disputed) is the most southern of the Great Lakes, and empties into the great Zambezi River via the Shire River.

Other websites

 The Ethiopian Rift Valley
 Rift! Geologic clues to what's tearing Africa apart (YouTube

World Heritage Sites in Asia
World Heritage Sites in Africa
Valleys

Great Rift Valley


A resignation is when someone quits or gives up the job they hold. Many times, especially in politics, a person who is resigning will give a resignation speech explaining why they resigned and what their plans are for the future.

A simular term for monarch, such as king or queen, is abdication.

Famous examples
Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990.
Charles de Gaulle, President of France from 1959 to 1970.
Richard Nixon, 37th President of the United States.

Politics
Employment

Resignation


Eastern European Time (EET) is one of the names of UTC+2 time zone, 2 hours ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. It is used in some European, North African, and Middle Eastern countries. Most of them also use Eastern European Summer Time (UTC+3) as a summer daylight saving time.

Where it is used

Two countries uses Eastern European Time all the year:
 Libya
 Egypt

The following countries, parts of countries, and territories use Eastern European Time during the winter only:
 Bulgaria, since 1894
 Cyprus, (Northern Cyprus abolished daylight saving and has switched to Moscow Time all year long in September 2016, but returned to EET in October 2017)
 Estonia, in years 1921-40 and since 1989
 Finland, since 1921
 Greece, since 1916
 Israel, since 1948
 Jordan
 Latvia, in years 1926-40 and since 1989
 Lebanon
 Lithuania, in 1920 and since 1989
 Moldova, in years 1924-40 and since 1991
 Palestinian territories
 Romania, since 1931
 Syria
 Ukraine, in years 1924-30 and since 1990

Moscow used EET between 1922-30 and 1991-92. In Poland this time was used between 1918-22.
Turkey, used EET between 1910-2016 except for the years 1978-85 and has switched to Moscow Time all year long.

In time of World War II MET (CET) was used in eastern countries, occupied by Germany.

Major metropolitan areas
Athens, Greece
Beirut, Lebanon
Brasov, Romania
Bucharest, Romania
Cluj Napoca, Romania
Chişinău, Moldova
Damascus, Syria
Helsinki, Finland
Jerusalem, Israel
Kyiv, Ukraine
Lviv, Ukraine
Minsk, Belarus
Nicosia, Cyprus
Riga, Latvia
Sofia, Bulgaria
Tallinn, Estonia
Tel Aviv, Israel
Thessaloniki, Greece
Timişoara, Romania
Vilnius, Lithuania

Time zones

Eastern European Time


Iron oxides are chemical compounds. There are sixteen known iron oxides. Iron oxides are used in pigments. It is used in both man-made and natural pigments.

Venetian red (haematite), Magnetite (Fe3O4), or a mixture of oxides make black or purple pigments. The umber, sienna and ochre are oxides or hydrated oxides of a yellow to chestnut colour.

Most iron oxide is mined as iron ore. Every year millions of tons go into blast furnaces to make iron.

Various iron oxides

Iron(III) oxide, reddish, commonly known as rust, found in the earth as haematite
Iron(II,III) oxide, magnetic, black, found in the earth as magnetite
Iron(II) oxide, black, rare, flammable, not stable at room temperature
Iron(II) hydroxide, dark green hydrated iron oxide

Iron compounds
Oxides

de:Eisen#Oxide

Iron oxide


Right ascension (abbreviated RA; symbol α) is the astronomical word for one of the two coordinates of a point on the celestial sphere when using the equatorial coordinate system. It is the celestial counterpart to longitude. The other coordinate is the declination.

The moon, planets and stars all have their own right ascension. Many of them are listed in an almanac. Using arithmetic, the object's right ascension and declination indicate where to look in the sky to see the object.

Related pages
 Sidereal time

Astronomy

Right ascension


The Battle of Little Round Top was part of the Battle of Gettysburg. It occurred on July 2, 1863. The troops under Joshua Chamberlain, the 20th Maine, formed the left flank for the Confederate troops. They repelled several charges by the Confederates. However, eventually Chamberlain's troops ran low on ammunition. Chamberlain ordered that the soldiers mount bayonets to their rifles and he ordered a charge down the hill against the Confederates. This charge surprised the Confederates and was successful.

The success in the Battle of Little Round Top is considered a turning-point in the Battle of Gettysburg and in the Civil War.

Little Round Top
1863 in Pennsylvania
July 1863 events

Battle of Little Round Top


Qikiqtaaluk Region or Baffin Region is an administrative region of Nunavut, Canada. Qikiqtaaluk is the traditional Inuktitut name for Baffin Island. While "Qikiqtaaluk Region" is the official name, some public organizations like Statistics Canada and Nunavut Tourism prefer to use "Baffin Region". The region covers the northeastearn and eastern parts of Nunavut.

The region consists of Baffin Island, the Belcher Islands, Akimiski Island, Mansel Island, Prince Charles Island, Bylot Island, Devon Island, Cornwallis Island, Bathurst Island, Amund Ringnes Island, Ellef Ringnes Island, Axel Heiberg Island, Ellesmere Island, the Melville Peninsula, the eastern part of Melville Island, and the northern parts of Prince of Wales Island, and Somerset Island, along with some smaller islands.

The regional seat and largets city is Iqaluit. According to the Canada 2006 Census, the population was 15,765.

National parks in the region include Auyuittuq National Park, Sirmilik National Park, and Bowman Bay Wildlife Sanctuary.

Related pages
 Ellesmere Island Volcanics

Nunavut

Qikiqtaaluk Region


A saint is a holy person. In many religions, saints are people who are believed to be holy.

In Christianity, the word "saint" refers to any person who is "in Christ", and in whom Christ dwells, whether in Heaven or in earth. Orthodox Christians and Catholics teach that all Christians in Heaven are saints, but some are worthy of more honor than others.<ref name=bebis>Bebis G The Saints of the Orthodox Church at Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America, New York</ref>

In the Christian Bible, not only one person is actually called a saint: "They envied Moses also in the camp, and Aaron the saint of the LORD." () The apostle Paul called himself "less than the least of all saints" in .
Paul's 2nd letter to the Corinthian Church speaks of ...all the saints in Achaia
.
Also to the saints in Ephesus as well as to all the saints in Christ Jesus at Philippi

General characteristics
Many religions use the "saint" idea to honor people, like Hindu saints. If a person is considered a saint, no matter what religion they belong to, they are usually:
 A very good person
 A very good teacher
 Able to work miracles
 Able to pray on behalf of believers
 Living without many material things or comforts
 Knowledgeable about holy things

 Christianity
 Anglicanism
In the Anglican Communion and the Continuing Anglican movement, a Saint is a person who has been elevated by popular opinion as a holy person. The saints are seen as models of holiness to be followed, and as a 'cloud of witnesses' that strengthen and encourage the believer during his or her spiritual journey (). Official Anglican policy recognizes the existence of the saints in heaven.

 Eastern Orthodoxy
In the Eastern Orthodox Church a saint is defined as anyone who is in Heaven, whether recognized here on earth, or not. This means Adam and Eve, Moses, and the various prophets (except for the angels and archangels) are all given the title of "Saint". In the Orthodox Church, sainthood refers to closeness to God.

 Lutheranism
In the Lutheran Church, all Christians, whether in heaven or on earth, are regarded as saints.  However, the church still recognizes and honors certain saints, including some saints honored by the Catholic Church.

 Methodism
While Methodists as a whole do not practice the patronage or veneration of saints, they do honor and admire them.  Methodists believe that all Christians are saints, but mostly use the term to refer to biblical people, Christian leaders, and martyrs of the faith. Many Methodist churches are named after saints, such as the Twelve Apostles, John Wesley, etc.

 Mormons (Latter-day Saints)
The beliefs within The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) with regard to saints are close to the beliefs of the Protestant faith. In the New Testament the saints are all those who have been baptized. "Latter-day" refers to the doctrine that members are living in the "latter days", before the Second Coming of Christ.  Therefore members are often referred to as "Latter-day Saints" or "LDS", and among themselves as "Saints".

 Oriental Orthodox
The Syriac Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and Armenian Apostolic Church do accept the existence of saints, but officially recognize them in their own ways.  For example, the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria canonizes saints, through the approval of that church's Holy Synod. A requirement of the Coptic Orthodox faith is that at least 50 years must pass from a saint's death to his canonization, and the Coptic Orthodox Pope must follow that rule.

 Other Christian groups
There are some groups who do not accept the idea of the Communion of Saints. Some believe all of the departed are in soul sleep until the final resurrection on Judgment Day. Others believe that the departed go to either Paradise or Tartarus, to await the day in which the living and the dead are judged. Certain groups do not believe that the departed have any connection with the living.

 Protestantism
In many Protestant churches, the word "saint" is used more generally to refer to anyone who is a Christian. This is similar to Paul's numerous references in the New Testament of the Bible. In this way, anyone who is within the Body of Christ (any Christian) is a 'saint' because of their relationship with Christ Jesus. Many Protestants consider prayers to the saints to be idolatry because they believe prayers should be given only to God himself.

  Roman Catholicism
One Roman Catholic website says that "There are over 10,000 named saints and beatified people from history, the Roman Martyrology and Orthodox sources, but no definitive head count".

Rev. Alban Butler published Lives of the Saints in 1756, containing 1,486 saints. The latest edition of this work contains the lives of 2,565 saints. Monsignor Robert Sarno, an official of Vatican's Congregation for the Causes of Saints, said it is impossible to say the exact number of saints.

The Catholic Church teaches that it does not make anyone into a saint. Instead, it recognizes a saint. In the Church, the title of Saint refers to a person who has been canonized (officially recognized) by the Catholic Church, and is therefore believed to be in Heaven.

Because the Church believes all people in Heaven are saints, there are many people believed to be in Heaven who have not been officially declared as saints. Sometimes the word "saint" is used to refer to Christians still living here on earth.

The veneration of saints, in Latin, cultus, or the "cult of the saints", describes devotion to a particular saint or saints.  Sometimes this is called "worship", but only in the old-sense meaning "to honor or give respect". According to the Catholic Church, Divine Worship is properly reserved only for God and never to the saints. Saints can be asked for help, just as one can ask someone on earth to pray for them.

A saint may be a patron saint of a cause or profession, or invoked against specific illnesses or disasters, sometimes by popular custom and sometimes by official statements of the Magisterium. Saints are not thought to have power of their own, but only that granted by God.

Becoming a Saint
A person who is seen as very holy can be declared a saint by a formal process, called canonization.  Formal canonization is a lengthy process often taking many years, even centuries. The first step in this process is an investigation of the candidate's life, undertaken by an expert. After this, the report on the candidate is given to the bishop of the area and more studying is done. It is then sent to the Congregation for the Causes of Saints in Rome.

If the application is approved, the person may be granted the title of "Venerable". Further investigations may lead to the candidate's beatification and given title of "Blessed". At least two important miracles are required to be formally declared a saint.  These miracles must have happened after the candidate died. Finally, when all of this is done the Pope canonizes the saint.

Once a person has been declared a saint, the body of the saint is considered holy. The remains of saints are called holy relics and are usually used in churches. Saints' personal belongings may also be used as relics. Some of the saints have a symbol that represents their life.

 Other religions
The word "saint" is not only used by Christianity. In many religions, there are people who have been recognized as having reached the highest goals of religious teaching. In English, the term saint is often used to translate this idea from many world religions.

 African Diaspora
Cuban Santería, Haitian Vodou, Brazilian Umbanda and Candomblé, and other similar syncretist religions adopted the Catholic saints, or at least the images of the saints, and applied their own spirits/deities to them.  They are worshiped in churches (where they appear as saints) and in religious festivals, where they appear as the deities.  The name santería was originally a negative term for those whose worship of saints deviated from Catholic norms.

 Buddhism

Buddhists hold the Arhats and Arahants  in special esteem, as well as Bodhisattvas and Buddhas.

 Discordianism

In Discordianism, anyone, living or dead, or even anything can be named a saint. Anyone may canonize anything or anyone else as everyone, whether they are aware of it or not, is a pope in the POEE. This is because "moral perfection isn't necessary for Discordian Sainthood. You just have to suffer a lot."

 Hinduism
There are people who have been described as being Hindu saints, most of whom have also been more specifically identified by the terms Sant, Mahatma, Paramahamsa, or Swami, or with the titles Sri or Srila.

 Islam
The Arabic word wali (Arabic ولي, plural Awliyā' أولياء) is usually translated into English as "Saint". However, the wali should not be confused with the Christian tradition of sainthood. An important early scholar of Sunni Islamic beliefs, Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Tahawi, mentioned in his book "Al-Aqidah At-Tahawiya":We do not prefer any of the saintly men among the Ummah over any of the Prophets but rather we say that any one of the Prophets is better than all the awliya' put together. We believe in what we know of Karamat, the marvels of the awliya' and in authentic stories about them from trustworthy sources.

Unlike Prophets and Messengers, the awliya can be either male and female. One of the best known female saints is Rabi`a al-Adawiyya.

It is widely regarded in Islam that the saints of saints is Ali Ibn Abi Talib the cousin of Muhammad all Sufi orders originate through his teachings. In addition all saints regard him as their champion 'The Saints of Saints'

In Sufism, the major wali are considered to have been masters in the art of spiritual purification.  Some groups within Islam hold the Hadrat (literally, Presence, a title of Sufi saints) in esteem.

Judaism
The word Tzadik "righteous", and its associated meanings, developed in Rabbinic thought from its Talmudic contrast with Hasid ("Pious" honorific), to its exploration in Ethical literature, and its spiritualisation in Kabbalah. In Hasidic Judaism, the institution of the Tzadik assumed central importance.

Sikhism
The concept of sant or bhagat is found in North Indian religious thought including Sikhism. Figures such as Kabir, Ravidas, Nanak, and others are widely regarded as belonging to the Sant tradition. Some of their mystical compositions are incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib. The term "Sant" is still sometimes loosely applied to living individuals in the Sikh and related communities.

Related pages
 Icon
 Patron saint

References

Notes

Bibliography
 Beyer, Jürgen, et al., eds. Confessional sanctity (c. 1550 - c. 1800). Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2003.
Bruhn, Siglind. Saints in the Limelight: Representations of the Religious Quest on the Post-1945 Operatic Stage. Hillsdale, New York: Pendragon Press, 2003. .
 Cunningham, Lawrence S. The Meaning of Saints. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980.
 Hawley, John Stratton, ed. Saints and Virtues. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
 Jean-Luc Deuffic (éd.), Reliques et sainteté dans l'espace médiéval
 O'Malley, Vincent J. "Ordinary Suffering of Extraordinary Saints", 1999.
 Perham, Michael. The Communion of Saints. London: Alcuin Club / SPCK, 1980.
 Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. Insight on the Scriptures: Volume 1. Brooklyn,:  Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1988.
 Woodward, Kenneth L. Making Saints. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

Other websites

 Inspirational Quotes from the Saints
 Today's Saints on the Calendar
 http://www.oodegr.com/english/istorika/britain/British_saints.htm
 Biographies of Saints and Gurus in the Indian Tradition

Saint


A feature movie or feature film is a movie (also called a film or motion picture) with a run time long enough to be the main or only movie to fill a program at a movie theatre. A program is the set of shows that people are given for one admission ticket. A feature movie is therefore a movie that runs for long enough to be the main or only show in a program. According to the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, American Film Institute, and British Film Institute, a feature movie runs for at least 40 minutes. The Screen Actors Guild states that it is 80 minutes or longer.

The majority of feature movies are between 70 and 210 minutes long. The Story of the Kelly Gang was the first feature movie based on length, and was released in Australia in 1906. The first feature-length movie based on a book was Les Misérables which was released in 1909.

Feature movie for children are usually between 70 and 105 minutes. Other early feature movies include a version of Oliver Twist (1912), Richard III (1912) and From the Manger to the Cross (1912).

Feature movie


Bicas is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Minas Gerais.  its population is estimated to be 14,554 inhabitants.

History

Initially a breakpoint for salesmen in the 18th century, Bicas obtained its independence from the city of Guarará in 1923. It was an attraction point for Italian immigrants and  other nationalities.

Until the 1970s, Bicas had a full-working train station and an active RFFSA (the extinct state railroad company) branch for repairing wagons. All this structure was dismantled and today the train station exists only as a historic site. Currently, Bicas has an economy based on commerce, agriculture and farming.

Annual Farming Expositions, with bull-riding and rodeos, cattle commerce and local products - typically in the last week of July of every year - are a tradition of several cities in Zona da Mata, and the Farming Exposition of Bicas is one of the most famous, attracting thousands of tourists from several parts of the country.

Notable people
Danilo Football player

Aerial photos

See also
List of municipalities in Minas Gerais

References

Municipalities in Minas Gerais

Bicas


The Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) was the first operator of the original underground New York City Subway line that opened in 1904, as well as other earlier railways and rapid transit lines in New York City. The company was bought by New York City in June 1940. The former IRT lines (the numbered lines in the current subway system) are now the A Division or IRT Division of the Subway.

The following services are or were part of the IRT or MTA IRT Division:

Line 1: Seventh Avenue Local
Line 2: Seventh Avenue Express
Line 3: Seventh Avenue Express
Line 4: Lexington Avenue Express
Line 5: Lexington Avenue Express
Line 6: Lexington Avenue Local
Line 7: Flushing Express and Local
Line S: 42nd Street Shuttle

Interborough Rapid Transit Company


A waterway is any body of water that can be used for transportation by people in boats. These include rivers, lakes, oceans, and canals.

They must be wide and deep enough for the boats, and either have no waterfalls and rapids, or have ways for boats to get around them, such as locks.

Waterway


In Norse meethology, Loki (), Loptr, or Hveðrungr is a god or jötunn (or both). Loki is the son o Fárbauti an Laufey, an the brither o Helblindi an Býleistr. Bi the jötunn Angrboða, Loki is the faither o Hel, the wouf Fenrir, an the warld serpent Jörmungandr. Bi his wife Sigyn, Loki is the faither o Narfi an/or Nari.  Bi the stallion Svaðilfari, Loki is the mither—givin birth in the form o a mare—tae the aicht-legged horse Sleipnir. In addeetion, Loki is referred tae as the faither o Váli in the Prose Edda.

Æsir
Jötnar
Shapeshiftin
Trickster gods

Loki


A sanctuary, in its original meaning, is a sacred place, such as a shrine or temple. By the use of such places as a safe haven, the term has come to be used for any place of safety. This secondary use can be a human sanctuary, such as a political sanctuary; and non-human sanctuary, such as an animal or plant sanctuary.

Religious buildings
Accommodations

Sanctuary


Theodor Heuss (31 January 1884 in Brackenheim - 12 December 1963 in Stuttgart) was a German politician. He was the first person elected to a regular term as President of the Federal Republic of Germany.

Heuss was born in Brackenheim, near Heilbronn. He studied art history and state studies in Munich and Berlin.
He received his doctorate in 1905 in Munich. In 1908 he married Elly Heuss-Knapp (1881-1952). He worked for a political magazine from 1908 to 1912, and then for a regional newspaper. In 1910 he joined the Progressive People's Party and stayed there until 1918.
Between 1923 and 1926 he published the magazine Die Deutsche Nation ("The German Nation"). Heuss became a member of the German Democratic Party (Deutsche Demokratische Partei, DDP) and was a member of parliament for two periods.

In 1933 Heuss voted for the Enabling Act (Ermächtigungsgesetz) against his personal beliefs, following his party.
After World War II Heuss was the first Minister of Culture in Baden-Württemberg. He was one of the founders of the Free Democratic Party of Germany after WW II.

In 1949 he was elected as first President of the Federal Republic of Germany. He was reelected once.

1884 births
1963 deaths
Members of the German Bundestag
German academics
Members of the Reichstag (Weimar Republic)
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Politicians from Baden-Württemberg
Politicians of the Free Democratic Party of Germany
Presidents of Germany

Theodor Heuss


Guardian Media Group plc (GMG) is a company in the United Kingdom that owns various mass media businesses including The Guardian and The Observer. GMG is owned by the Scott Trust. It began as the Manchester Guardian Ltd in 1907 when C. P. Scott bought the Manchester Guardian from his cousin Edward Taylor. It became the Manchester Guardian and Evening News Ltd when it bought the Manchester Evening News in 1924, later becoming the Guardian and Manchester Evening News Ltd after the change in the morning paper's name. It became the Scott Trust in 1993.

GMG has many parts to it business: Guardian News & Media (the Guardian, the Observer); GMG Radio (regional radio stations under the Smooth, Real, and Rock Radio brands); Trader Media Group (the Auto Trader magazine and website), which it owns jointly with private equity firm Apax); GMG Property Services (estate agency software providers Vebra and Core, lettings software provider CFP Software, graphic design consultancy The Media Design House and consumer portal ThinkProperty.com); and Emap, the B2B events, data and publishing company, also jointly owned with Apax.

Guardian Media Group exists to support the main business of its owner, the Scott Trust: to keep the financial and editorial independence of the Guardian forever.

In March 2007 GMG sold 49.9% of Trader Media Group to Apax Partners, in a deal that valued Trader Media Group at £1.35 billion. In December 2007 GMG and Apax made a successful bid to buy Emap for around £1 billion.

In February 2010, the group sold its GMG Regional Media division (consisting of two companies MEN Media and S&B Media which operated 31 local and regional newspaper titles) to Trinity Mirror plc for £44.8 million. The sale ended the historic connection between The Guardian and the Manchester Evening News. The Manchester TV channel, Channel M, and two newspapers in Woking were not included in the sale.

References

Media in the United Kingdom

Guardian Media Group


Ilocos Region is a region in the Philippines. Its regional center is San Fernando, La Union. The region has four provinces: Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union and Pangasinan.

Inhabitants are called Ilocanos and they speak the Ilocano language.

The term Ilocos Region is derived from this term. However, the designation of Ilocos as the basis of the name of the region promotes the wrong notion that all the residents of Region 1 are Ilocanos. Because 28% of the inhabitants are Pangasinan people, who belong to a different ethno-linguistic group from the Ilocanos.

Regions of the Philippines

Ilocos


Staveley () is a village in the South Lakeland district, in Cumbria, England. Historically part of Westmorland, it is situated  northwest of Kendal where the River Kent is joined by its tributary the Gowan. It is also known as Staveley-in-Westmorland and Staveley-in-Kendal to distinguish it from Staveley-in-Cartmel (a small village near Newby Bridge which is now in Cumbria but was previously in Lancashire). There are three civil parishes – Nether Staveley, Over Staveley and Hugill (part). Their total population at the 2011 Census was 1,593 but this includes those living in the hamlet of Ings in Hugill parish.

Governance

Historically within the county of Westmorland, it became part of the new non-metropolitan county of Cumbria in 1974.

Staveley is divided between three civil parishes;
 The village south of the rivers Gowan and Kent is in Nether Staveley,
 Most of the village north of the Gowan is in Over Staveley
 Part of the village to the north-west is in Hugill
The parishes now share a grouped parish council, formed in 2004, known as Staveley with Ings Parish Council.

Geography

The village is strategically placed at the junction of the rivers Kent and Gowan, at the mouth of the Kentmere Valley.  Three hills overlook the village; Reston Scar on the north side on which much of the village is built, Piked Howe to the northeast known to the locals as Craggy Wood and Lily Fell to the south in the direction of the village of Crook on the opposite side of the A591 bypass. Piked Howe and Reston Scar sit either side of the opening into the Kentmere Valley. Both mark the beginning of a larger horseshoe chain of hills known as the Kentmere Round.

The nearest village to the west is Ings, a small settlement which now shares schools and parish minister with Staveley.
To the south of the village is Crook, and to the north Kentmere which can only be accessed by road via Staveley village centre, meaning that the two villages have had a close relationship with each other for many centuries. But the village which had the strongest links to Staveley in more recent years is arguably Burneside which is the next stop on the railway line to the east on the way to Kendal. National Cycle Route 6 and the Dales Way footpath run through Burneside and Staveley.

The village got its name from the woodworking industry that thrived in the area due to the forests that originally covered the surrounding hills, and the close proximity of two rivers for processing the wood. Staveley means literally the 'field of staffs' (from the Middle English plural stave for staf OE stæf and the ME leye meaning pasture from Old English leah; akin to Old High German loh thicket, Latin lucus grove).

Woods in the area include:
 Beckmickle Ing (3.58 ha). A semi-natural wood with wet woodland adjacent to the River Kent. It is managed by the Woodland Trust
 Craggy Plantation, which is mainly deciduous. This area was used in the 1990s for testing various measures to control the spread of North American grey squirrels into the native red squirrel habitats.
In 2016 the Lake District National Park Authority announced its decision to sell Craggy Wood. After a successful appeal to raise the necessary funds, ownership was transferred to the Cumbria Wildlife Trust who intend to manage it as part of a larger nature reserve by linking it to Dorothy Farrer's Spring Wood.
 Dorothy Farrer's Spring Wood (4.6 ha). This wood is managed by the Cumbria Wildlife Trust. There is a tradition of coppicing, which the trust continues in the interests of biodiversity. Birdlife includes the pied flycatcher.
 Mike's Wood (3 ha) native woodland planted in the 1990s by the organisation Friends of the Lake District.

River Gowan

The Gowan, a tributary of the Kent, comes into the village from the west after passing through the village of Ings. There is sometimes flooding at the confluence.

There are two road bridges and also pedestrian bridges over the River Gowan in the village.
As a result of the Storm Desmond flood both the road bridges were closed because of damage to their structures, cutting the village in two for vehicular traffic.  The Station Road / Abbey Square bridge was reopened after minor repairs. Gowan Old Bridge, a twin arch stone bridge with attached concrete footbridge near the confluence of the rivers, had severe damage to its central pier and remained closed.  It was demolished in June 2016, after the re-routing of the gas main. A new single-span concrete beam bridge was constructed to replace it and opened on May 18, 2017.

History

The area has been inhabited since around 4000 BC (evidence of which can be seen close to High Borrans) when ancient Britons established farms.
It has been suggested that the Romans built a road near Staveley to link the Roman forts at Kendal (Alauna) and Ambleside (Galava). However, the existence of any Roman road in the immediate vicinity of Kendal is not confirmed. On the other hand, the Roman road at High Street (a few miles north of Staveley) is well evidenced.

Weekly markets and a three-day annual fair were held from 1329 when the village was granted a market charter.

In the 18th century a turnpike road from Kendal to Ambleside was constructed through Staveley. In Dorothy Wordsworth's journal for 1802 there are references to an inn at Staveley (possibly the Eagle and Child). She wrote:
"I am always glad to see Stavel(e)y; it is a place I dearly love to think of"

Since the 1840s Staveley has had a railway station on the Windermere Branch Line from Windermere to Oxenholme. It is one of only a few locations in the Lake District National Park to have a station, but in the 19th century most tourists continued their journey to the railhead at Windermere. Staveley remained relatively unaffected by mass tourism until the 20th century.

Another 19th-century project built through Staveley is the Thirlmere Aqueduct, commissioned in 1894. On its way to Manchester, the aqueduct passes under the River Kent at Staveley. Although the Staveley section of the aqueduct was constructed underground (via "cut-and-cover" and tunnelling techniques), some of the infrastructure associated with it is visible.

Mills
In the Middle Ages, the mills at Staveley produced woollen cloth. During the Industrial Revolution there was cotton production at Staveley, and there is an 18th-century mill building from this time. The cotton industry shifted to Lancashire, and the Staveley mills were converted to work wood. By 1850 bobbin turning was the main industry in the valley.

While there is no longer any bobbin production, there are a carpentry businesses in the village including Peter Hall.

Staveley Mill Yard

At the weir by Wilf's Cafe visitors can see water being drawn from the River Kent, which originally powered a waterwheel, replaced in 1902 with turbines.

Historic buildings
A conservation area protects much of Staveley. Originally designated to protect the centre of village, it was expanded in the 21st century, and crosses the River Kent to take in Staveley Park.

Staveley has a number of listed buildings, including its oldest building, a tower, all that remains of a medieval church dedicated to St Margaret. The structure is maintained as a clock-tower: on it is a plaque commemorating the Staveley men of F Company, Second V B Border Regiment, who served in the South Africa Campaign of 1900–01 under Major John Thompson.

In 1338 the then Lord of the Manor, Sir William Thweng agreed to build a church. Before this the villagers had been expected to travel 7 miles to Kendal each Sunday for services. The church, completed in 1388, was replaced by a new parish church, built in 1864–65 to a design by J. S. Crowther.  This Victorian church, dedicated to St James, is notable for the stained glass windows at the east end, which were designed by Sir Edward Burne-Jones and made by Morris and Co. They depict the Crucifixion and Ascension of Christ surrounded by angels and stars. One of the angels was used for the Royal Mail's second class Christmas stamp in 2009.

Other places of worship

There is a small Catholic church, now disused, situated on Station Road.
There are two former chapels, which were Wesleyan Methodist and Primitive Methodist prior to Methodist Union in 1932. They have been converted for residential use.

Education

Staveley CE Primary School was founded in 1755 and moved to its present position at Brow Lane on Reston Scar in 1840. A new building was built 30 years ago to house the infant classes. The school also caters for children from the nearby villages of Crook, Kentmere and Ings. Before the modern-day school that exists now, the school used to be housed in a small cottage on Main Street next to St. Margaret's Tower.

Cultural activities
The intimate (48 seat capacity) Staveley Roundhouse (a former gas holder) provides year round entertainment in the form of plays, art exhibitions, music and quiz nights.

See also

Listed buildings in Over Staveley
Listed buildings in Nether Staveley

References

External links

Staveley Village Association
Staveley with Ings Parish Council
Staveley Village Website
Staveley and District Historical Society
Virtual Tours of Staveley
The Operatic Society's fiftieth production (dead-link)
Staveley CE School
St James' CofE church
Wilf's Cafe – formerly the Bobbin Life
Staveley Natural Health Centre
Staveley Carnival
The Cumbria Directory – Staveley

Villages in Cumbria
South Lakeland District
Westmorland

Staveley, Cumbria


Interlaced video (also known as interlaced scan) is a technique for doubling the perceived frame rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth. The interlaced signal contains two fields of a video frame captured consecutively. This enhances motion perception to the viewer, and reduces flicker by taking advantage of the phi phenomenon.

This effectively doubles the time resolution (also called temporal resolution) as compared to non-interlaced footage (for frame rates equal to field rates). Interlaced signals require a display that is natively capable of showing the individual fields in a sequential order. CRT displays and ALiS plasma displays are made for displaying interlaced signals.

Interlaced scan refers to one of two common methods for "painting" a video image on an electronic display screen (the other being progressive scan) by scanning or displaying each line or row of pixels. This technique uses two fields to create a frame. One field contains all odd-numbered lines in the image; the other contains all even-numbered lines.

A Phase Alternating Line (PAL)-based television set display, for example, scans 50 fields every second (25 odd and 25 even). The two sets of 25 fields work together to create a full frame every 1/25 of a second (or 25 frames per second), but with interlacing create a new half frame every 1/50 of a second (or 50 fields per second). To display interlaced video on progressive scan displays, playback applies deinterlacing to the video signal (which adds input lag).

The European Broadcasting Union has argued against interlaced video in production and broadcasting. They recommend 720p 50 fps (frames per second) for the current production format—and are working with the industry to introduce 1080p 50 as a future-proof production standard. 1080p 50 offers higher vertical resolution, better quality at lower bitrates, and easier conversion to other formats, such as 720p 50 and 1080i 50. The main argument is that no matter how complex the deinterlacing algorithm may be, the artifacts in the interlaced signal cannot be completely eliminated because some information is lost between frames.

Despite arguments against it, television standards organizations continue to support interlacing. It is still included in digital video transmission formats such as DV, DVB, and ATSC. New video compression standards like High Efficiency Video Coding are optimized for progressive scan video, but sometimes do support interlaced video.

Description

Progressive scan captures, transmits, and displays an image in a path similar to text on a page—line by line, top to bottom.
The interlaced scan pattern in a standard definition CRT display also completes such a scan, but in two passes (two fields). The first pass displays the first and all odd numbered lines, from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. The second pass displays the second and all even numbered lines, filling in the gaps in the first scan.

This scan of alternate lines is called interlacing. A field is an image that contains only half of the lines needed to make a complete picture. Persistence of vision makes the eye perceive the two fields as a continuous image. In the days of CRT displays, the afterglow of the display's phosphor aided this effect.

Interlacing provides full vertical detail with the same bandwidth that would be required for a full progressive scan, but with twice the perceived frame rate and refresh rate. To prevent flicker, all analog broadcast television systems used interlacing.

Format identifiers like 576i50 and 720p50 specify the frame rate for progressive scan formats, but for interlaced formats they typically specify the field rate (which is twice the frame rate). This can lead to confusion, because industry-standard SMPTE timecode formats always deal with frame rate, not field rate. To avoid confusion, SMPTE and EBU always use frame rate to specify interlaced formats, e.g., 480i60 is 480i/30, 576i50 is 576i/25, and 1080i50 is 1080i/25. This convention assumes that one complete frame in an interlaced signal consists of two fields in sequence.

Benefits of interlacing

One of the most important factors in analog television is signal bandwidth, measured in megahertz. The greater the bandwidth, the more expensive and complex the entire production and broadcasting chain. This includes cameras, storage systems, broadcast systems—and reception systems: terrestrial, cable, satellite, Internet, and end-user displays (TVs and computer monitors).

For a fixed bandwidth, interlace provides a video signal with twice the display refresh rate for a given line count (versus progressive scan video at a similar frame rate—for instance 1080i at 60 half-frames per second, vs. 1080p at 30 full frames per second). The higher refresh rate improves the appearance of an object in motion, because it updates its position on the display more often, and when an object is stationary, human vision combines information from multiple similar half-frames to produce the same perceived resolution as that provided by a progressive full frame. This technique is only useful, though, if source material is available in higher refresh rates. Cinema movies are typically recorded at 24fps, and therefore do not benefit from interlacing, a solution which reduces the maximum video bandwidth to 5 MHz without reducing the effective picture scan rate of 60 Hz.

Given a fixed bandwidth and high refresh rate, interlaced video can also provide a higher spatial resolution than progressive scan. For instance, 1920×1080 pixel resolution interlaced HDTV with a 60 Hz field rate (known as 1080i60 or 1080i/30) has a similar bandwidth to 1280×720 pixel progressive scan HDTV with a 60 Hz frame rate (720p60 or 720p/60), but achieves approximately twice the spatial resolution for low-motion scenes.

However, bandwidth benefits only apply to an analog or uncompressed digital video signal. With digital video compression, as used in all current digital TV standards, interlacing introduces additional inefficiencies. EBU has performed tests that show that the bandwidth savings of interlaced video over progressive video is minimal, even with twice the frame rate. I.e., 1080p50 signal produces roughly the same bit rate as 1080i50 (aka 1080i/25) signal, and 1080p50 actually requires less bandwidth to be perceived as subjectively better than its 1080i/25 (1080i50) equivalent when encoding a "sports-type" scene.

Interlacing can be exploited to produce 3D TV programming, especially with a CRT display and especially for color filtered glasses by transmitting the color keyed picture for each eye in the alternating fields. This does not require significant alterations to existing equipment. Shutter glasses can be adopted as well, obviously with the requirement of achieving synchronisation. If a progressive scan display is used to view such programming, any attempt to deinterlace the picture will render the effect useless. For color filtered glasses the picture has to be either buffered and shown as if it was progressive with alternating color keyed lines, or each field has to be line-doubled and displayed as discrete frames. The latter procedure is the only way to suit shutter glasses on a progressive display.

Interlacing problems

Interlaced video is designed to be captured, stored, transmitted, and displayed in the same interlaced format. Because each interlaced video frame is two fields captured at different moments in time, interlaced video frames can exhibit motion artifacts known as interlacing effects, or combing, if recorded objects move fast enough to be in different positions when each individual field is captured. These artifacts may be more visible when interlaced video is displayed at a slower speed than it was captured, or in still frames.

While there are simple methods to produce somewhat satisfactory progressive frames from the interlaced image, for example by doubling the lines of one field and omitting the other (halving vertical resolution), or anti-aliasing the image in the vertical axis to hide some of the combing, there are sometimes methods of producing results far superior to these. If there is only sideways (X axis) motion between the two fields and this motion is even throughout the full frame, it is possible to align the scanlines and crop the left and right ends that exceed the frame area to produce a visually satisfactory image. Minor Y axis motion can be corrected similarly by aligning the scanlines in a different sequence and cropping the excess at the top and bottom. Often the middle of the picture is the most necessary area to put into check, and whether there is only X or Y axis alignment correction, or both are applied, most artifacts will occur towards the edges of the picture. However, even these simple procedures require motion tracking between the fields, and a rotating or tilting object, or one that moves in the Z axis (away from or towards the camera) will still produce combing, possibly even looking worse than if the fields were joined in a simpler method.
Some deinterlacing processes can analyze each frame individually and decide the best method. The best and only perfect conversion in these cases is to treat each frame as a separate image, but that may not always be possible. For framerate conversions and zooming it would mostly be ideal to line-double each field to produce a double rate of progressive frames, resample the frames to the desired resolution and then re-scan the stream at the desired rate, either in progressive or interlaced mode.

Interline twitter
Interlace introduces a potential problem called interline twitter, a form of moiré. This aliasing effect only shows up under certain circumstances—when the subject contains vertical detail that approaches the horizontal resolution of the video format. For instance, a finely striped jacket on a news anchor may produce a shimmering effect. This is twittering. Television professionals avoid wearing clothing with fine striped patterns for this reason. Professional video cameras or computer-generated imagery systems apply a low-pass filter to the vertical resolution of the signal to prevent interline twitter.

Interline twitter is the primary reason that interlacing is less suited for computer displays. Each scanline on a high-resolution computer monitor typically displays discrete pixels, each of which does not span the scanline above or below. When the overall interlaced framerate is 60 frames per second, a pixel (or more critically for e.g. windowing systems or underlined text, a horizontal line) that spans only one scanline in height is visible for the 1/60 of a second that would be expected of a 60 Hz progressive display - but is then followed by 1/60 of a second of darkness (whilst the opposite field is scanned), reducing the per-line/per-pixel refresh rate to 30 frames per second with quite obvious flicker.

To avoid this, standard interlaced television sets typically do not display sharp detail. When computer graphics appear on a standard television set, the screen is either treated as if it were half the resolution of what it actually is (or even lower), or rendered at full resolution and then subjected to a low-pass filter in the vertical direction (e.g. a "motion blur" type with a 1-pixel distance, which blends each line 50% with the next, maintaining a degree of the full positional resolution and preventing the obvious "blockiness" of simple line doubling whilst actually reducing flicker to less than what the simpler approach would achieve). If text is displayed, it is large enough so that any horizontal lines are at least two scanlines high. Most fonts for television programming have wide, fat strokes, and do not include fine-detail serifs that would make the twittering more visible; in addition, modern character generators apply a degree of anti-aliasing that has a similar line-spanning effect to the aforementioned full-frame low-pass filter.

Deinterlacing

ALiS plasma panels and the old CRTs can display interlaced video directly, but modern computer video displays and TV sets are mostly based on LCD technology, which mostly use progressive scanning.

Displaying interlaced video on a progressive scan display requires a process called deinterlacing. This is an imperfect technique, and generally lowers resolution and causes various artifacts—particularly in areas with objects in motion. Providing the best picture quality for interlaced video signals requires expensive and complex devices and algorithms. For television displays, deinterlacing systems are integrated into progressive scan TV sets that accept interlaced signal, such as broadcast SDTV signal.

Most modern computer monitors do not support interlaced video, besides some legacy medium-resolution modes (and possibly 1080i as an adjunct to 1080p), and support for standard-definition video (480/576i or 240/288p) is particularly rare given its much lower line-scanning frequency vs typical "VGA"-or-higher analog computer video modes. Playing back interlaced video from a DVD, digital file or analog capture card on a computer display instead requires some form of deinterlacing in the player software and/or graphics hardware, which often uses very simple methods to deinterlace. This means that interlaced video often has visible artifacts on computer systems. Computer systems may be used to edit interlaced video, but the disparity between computer video display systems and interlaced television signal formats means that the video content being edited cannot be viewed properly without separate video display hardware.

Current manufacture TV sets employ a system of intelligently extrapolating the extra information that would be present in a progressive signal entirely from an interlaced original. In theory: this should simply be a problem of applying the appropriate algorithms to the interlaced signal, as all information should be present in that signal. In practice, results are currently variable, and depend on the quality of the input signal and amount of processing power applied to the conversion.  The biggest impediment, at present, is artifacts in the lower quality interlaced signals (generally broadcast video), as these are not consistent from field to field.  On the other hand, high bit rate interlaced signals such as from HD camcorders operating in their highest bit rate mode work well.

Deinterlacing algorithms temporarily store a few frames of interlaced images and then extrapolate extra frame data to make a smooth flicker-free image. This frame storage and processing results in a slight display lag that is visible in business showrooms with a large number of different models on display. Unlike the old unprocessed NTSC signal, the screens do not all follow motion in perfect synchrony. Some models appear to update slightly faster or slower than others. Similarly, the audio can have an echo effect due to different processing delays.

History

When motion picture film was developed, the movie screen had to be illuminated at a high rate to prevent visible flicker. The exact rate necessary varies by brightness — 50 Hz is (barely) acceptable for small, low brightness displays in dimly lit rooms, whilst 80 Hz or more may be necessary for bright displays that extend into peripheral vision. The film solution was to project each frame of film three times using a three-bladed shutter: a movie shot at 16 frames per second illuminated the screen 48 times per second. Later, when sound film became available, the higher projection speed of 24 frames per second enabled a two-bladed shutter to produce 48 times per second illumination—but only in projectors incapable of projecting at the lower speed.

This solution could not be used for television. To store a full video frame and display it twice requires a frame buffer—electronic memory (RAM)—sufficient to store a video frame. This method did not become feasible until the late 1980s and with digital technology. In addition, avoiding on-screen interference patterns caused by studio lighting and the limits of vacuum tube technology required that CRTs for TV be scanned at AC line frequency. (This was 60 Hz in the US, 50 Hz Europe.)

In 1926, Ulises Armand Sanabria demonstrated television to 200,000 people attending Chicago Radio World's Fair. Sanabria's system was mechanically scanned using a 'triple interlace' Nipkow disc with three offset spirals and was thus a 3:1 scheme rather than the usual 2:1. It worked with 45 line 15 frames per second images being transmitted. With 15 frames per second and a 3:1 interlace the field rate was 45 fields per second yielding (for the time) a very steady image. He did not apply for a patent for his interlaced scanning until May 1931.

In 1930, German Telefunken engineer Fritz Schröter first formulated and patented the concept of breaking a single video frame into interlaced lines. In the USA, RCA engineer Randall C. Ballard patented the same idea in 1932. Commercial implementation began in 1934 as cathode-ray tube screens became brighter, increasing the level of flicker caused by progressive (sequential) scanning.

In 1936, when the UK was setting analog standards, early thermionic valve based CRT drive electronics could only scan at around 200 lines in 1/50 of a second (i.e. approximately a 10 kHz repetition rate for the sawtooth horizontal deflection waveform). Using interlace, a pair of 202.5-line fields could be superimposed to become a sharper 405 line frame (with around 377 used for the actual image, and yet fewer visible within the screen bezel; in modern parlance, the standard would be "377i"). The vertical scan frequency remained 50 Hz, but visible detail was noticeably improved. As a result, this system supplanted John Logie Baird's 240 line mechanical progressive scan system that was also being trialled at the time.

From the 1940s onward, improvements in technology allowed the US and the rest of Europe to adopt systems using progressively higher line-scan frequencies and more radio signal bandwidth to produce higher line counts at the same frame rate, thus achieving better picture quality. However the fundamentals of interlaced scanning were at the heart of all of these systems. The US adopted the 525 line system, later incorporating the composite color standard known as NTSC, Europe adopted the 625 line system, and the UK switched from its idiosyncratic 405 line system to (the much more US-like) 625 to avoid having to develop a (wholly) unique method of color TV. France switched from its similarly unique 819 line monochrome system to the more European standard of 625. Europe in general, including the UK, then adopted the PAL color encoding standard, which was essentially based on NTSC, but inverted the color carrier phase with each line (and frame) in order to cancel out the hue-distorting phase shifts that dogged NTSC broadcasts. France instead adopted its own unique, twin-FM-carrier based SECAM system, which offered improved quality at the cost of greater electronic complexity, and was also used by some other countries, notably Russia and its satellite states. Though the color standards are often used as synonyms for the underlying video standard - NTSC for 525i/60, PAL/SECAM for 625i/50 - there are several cases of inversions or other modifications; e.g. PAL color is used on otherwise "NTSC" (that is, 525i/60) broadcasts in Brazil, as well as vice versa elsewhere, along with cases of PAL bandwidth being squeezed to 3.58 MHz to fit in the broadcast waveband allocation of NTSC, or NTSC being expanded to take up PAL's 4.43 MHz.

Interlacing was ubiquitous in displays until the 1970s, when the needs of computer monitors resulted in the reintroduction of progressive scan, including on regular TVs or simple monitors based on the same circuitry; most CRT based displays are entirely capable of displaying both progressive and interlace regardless of their original intended use, so long as the horizontal and vertical frequencies match, as the technical difference is simply that of either starting/ending the vertical sync cycle halfway along a scanline every other frame (interlace), or always synchronising right at the start/end of a line (progressive). Interlace is still used for most standard definition TVs, and the 1080i HDTV broadcast standard, but not for LCD, micromirror (DLP), or most plasma displays; these displays do not use a raster scan to create an image (their panels may still be updated in a left-to-right, top-to-bottom scanning fashion, but always in a progressive fashion, and not necessarily at the same rate as the input signal), and so cannot benefit from interlacing (where older LCDs use a "dual scan" system to provide higher resolution with slower-updating technology, the panel is instead divided into two adjacent halves that are updated simultaneously): in practice, they have to be driven with a progressive scan signal. The deinterlacing circuitry to get progressive scan from a normal interlaced broadcast television signal can add to the cost of a television set using such displays. Currently, progressive displays dominate the HDTV market.

Interlace and computers
In the 1970s, computers and home video game systems began using TV sets as display devices.  At that point, a 480-line NTSC signal was well beyond the graphics abilities of low cost computers, so these systems used a simplified video signal that made each video field scan directly on top of the previous one, rather than each line between two lines of the previous field, along with relatively low horizontal pixel counts. This marked the return of progressive scanning not seen since the 1920s. Since each field became a complete frame on its own, modern terminology would call this 240p on NTSC sets, and 288p on PAL.  While consumer devices were permitted to create such signals, broadcast regulations prohibited TV stations from transmitting video like this. Computer monitor standards such as the TTL-RGB mode available on the CGA and e.g. BBC Micro were further simplifications to NTSC, which improved picture quality by omitting modulation of color, and allowing a more direct connection between the computer's graphics system and the CRT.

By the mid-1980s, computers had outgrown these video systems and needed better displays. Most home and basic office computers suffered from the use of the old scanning method, with the highest display resolution being around 640x200 (or sometimes 640x256 in 625-line/50 Hz regions), resulting in a severely distorted tall narrow pixel shape, making the display of high resolution text alongside realistic proportioned images difficult (logical "square pixel" modes were possible but only at low resolutions of 320x200 or less). Solutions from various companies varied widely.  Because PC monitor signals did not need to be broadcast, they could consume far more than the 6, 7 and 8 MHz of bandwidth that NTSC and PAL signals were confined to. IBM's Monochrome Display Adapter and Enhanced Graphics Adapter as well as the Hercules Graphics Card and the original Macintosh computer generated video signals of 342 to 350p, at 50 to 60 Hz, with approximately 16 MHz of bandwidth, some enhanced PC clones such as the AT&T 6300 (aka Olivetti M24) as well as computers made for the Japanese home market managed 400p instead at around 24 MHz, and the Atari ST pushed that to 71 Hz with 32 MHz bandwidth - all of which required dedicated high-frequency (and usually single-mode, i.e. not "video"-compatible) monitors due to their increased line rates. The Commodore Amiga instead created a true interlaced 480i60/576i50 RGB signal at broadcast video rates (and with a 7 or 14 MHz bandwidth), suitable for NTSC/PAL encoding (where it was smoothly decimated to 3.5~4.5 MHz). This ability (plus built-in genlocking) resulted in the Amiga dominating the video production field until the mid-1990s, but the interlaced display mode caused flicker problems for more traditional PC applications where single-pixel detail is required, with "flicker-fixer" scan-doubler peripherals plus high-frequency RGB monitors (or Commodore's own specialist scan-conversion A2024 monitor) being popular, if expensive, purchases amongst power users. 1987 saw the introduction of VGA, on which PCs soon standardized, as well as Apple's Macintosh II range which offered displays of similar, then superior resolution and color depth, with rivalry between the two standards (and later PC quasi-standards such as XGA and SVGA) rapidly pushing up the quality of display available to both professional and home users.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, monitor and graphics card manufacturers introduced newer high resolution standards that once again included interlace.  These monitors ran at higher scanning frequencies, typically allowing a 75 to 90 Hz field rate (i.e. 37.5 to 45 Hz frame rate), and tended to use longer-persistence phosphors in their CRTs, all of which was intended to alleviate flicker and shimmer problems. Such monitors proved generally unpopular, outside of specialist ultra-high-resolution applications such as CAD and DTP which demanded as many pixels as possible, with interlace being a necessary evil and better than trying to use the progressive-scan equivalents. Whilst flicker was often not immediately obvious on these displays, eyestrain and lack of focus nevertheless became a serious problem, and the trade-off for a longer afterglow was reduced brightness and poor response to moving images, leaving visible and often off-colored trails behind. These colored trails were a minor annoyance for monochrome displays, and the generally slower-updating screens used for design or database-query purposes, but much more troublesome for color displays and the faster motions inherent in the increasingly popular window-based operating systems, as well as the full-screen scrolling in WYSIWYG word-processors, spreadsheets, and of course for high-action games. Additionally, the regular, thin horizontal lines common to early GUIs, combined with low color depth that meant window elements were generally high-contrast (indeed, frequently stark black-and-white), made shimmer even more obvious than with otherwise lower fieldrate video applications. As rapid technological advancement made it practical and affordable, barely a decade after the first ultra-high-resolution interlaced upgrades appeared for the IBM PC, to provide sufficiently high pixel clocks and horizontal scan rates for hi-rez progressive-scan modes in first professional and then consumer-grade displays, the practice was soon abandoned. For the rest of the 1990s, monitors and graphics cards instead made great play of their highest stated resolutions being "non-interlaced", even where the overall framerate was barely any higher than what it had been for the interlaced modes (e.g. SVGA at 56p versus 43i to 47i), and usually including a top mode technically exceeding the CRT's actual resolution (number of color-phosphor triads) which meant there was no additional image clarity to be gained through interlacing and/or increasing the signal bandwidth still further. This experience is why the PC industry today remains against interlace in HDTV, and lobbied for the 720p standard, and continues to push for the adoption of 1080p (at 60 Hz for NTSC legacy countries, and 50 Hz for PAL); however, 1080i remains the most common HD broadcast resolution, if only for reasons of backward compatibility with older HDTV hardware that cannot support 1080p - and sometimes not even 720p - without the addition of an external scaler, similar to how and why most SD-focussed digital broadcasting still relies on the otherwise obsolete MPEG2 standard embedded into e.g. DVB-T.

See also
 Field (video): In interlaced video, one of the many still images displayed sequentially to create the illusion of motion on the screen.
 480i: standard-definition interlaced video usually used in traditionally NTSC countries (North and parts of South America, Japan)
 576i: standard-definition interlaced video usually used in traditionally PAL and SECAM countries
 1080i: high-definition television (HDTV) digitally broadcast in 16:9 (widescreen) aspect ratio standard
 Progressive scan: the opposite of interlacing; the image is displayed line by line.
 Deinterlacing: converting an interlaced video signal into a non-interlaced one
 Progressive segmented frame: a scheme designed to acquire, store, modify, and distribute progressive-scan video using interlaced equipment and media
 Telecine: a method for converting film frame rates to television frame rates using interlacing
 Federal Standard 1037C: defines interlaced scanning
 Moving image formats
 Wobulation: a variation of interlacing used in DLP displays
 Screen tearing

References

External links

 Fields: Why Video Is Crucially Different from Graphics – An article that describes field-based, interlaced, digitized video and its relation to frame-based computer graphics with many illustrations
 Digital Video and Field Order - An article that explains with diagrams how the field order of PAL and NTSC has arisen, and how PAL and NTSC is digitized
 100FPS.COM* – Video Interlacing/Deinterlacing
 Interlace / Progressive Scanning - Computer vs. Video
 Sampling theory and synthesis of interlaced video
 Interlaced versus progressive

Television technology
Video formats
1925 introductions

Interlaced video


is ane o 24 wairds o Osaka, Japan. It is namit efter the Shitennō-ji (Temple o the Fower Heavenly Keengs), which is locatit in the waird.

General information

Tennōji Station is the ceety's main sootheastren rail terminal wi Osaka Municipal Subway's Tennōji Station Midōsuji Line an Tanimachi Line, JR Tennōji as the terminus o the JR Hanwa Line (an a major stop on the Kyoto Line, Osaka Loop Line, Yamatoji Line an Kansai Airport Line) an the Kintetsu Abenobashi Station, directly athort the street frae Tennōji station is the terminus o the Kintetsu Minami-Osaka Line. Consequently it haes become a built up area in soothren Osaka. The biggins aroond the station include, the Kintetsu depairtment store, Mio, Station Plaza, an Hoop shoppin maws, Apollo Movie Theater an Lucias depairtment store. It addition, thare are several shoppin streets in the aurie includin Abenobashisuji.

Creeme
In 2011 body parts wur foond in a bin liner in Higashikozu Pairk.

Economy
Aigan, the eyeglasses (spectacles) chain, is heidquairtered in Tennōji-ku.

Attractions
 Shitennō-ji Temple is a historical steid anerlie 10 minutes bi fuit frae Tennōji.
 Isshin-ji is a temple locatit atween Tennoji Pairk an Shitennō-ji.
 Tennōji Pairk, (immediately wast o the station), includes a museum an Tennōji Zoo.
 Chausuyama Kofun is a Kofun locatit inside Tennōji Pairk.

Entertainment
Tennōji itsel is hame tae the Osaka Municipal Museum o Airt, Tennōji Zoo, the Keitaku-en Japanese garden (built bi the Sumitomo Corporation) an the Tennōji Botanical Garden.

There are three major shoppin centres richt bi Tennōji Station: Mio, a hip, upscale maw; Kintetsu Department Store; an Hoop.

The nearbi Shinsekai entertainment destrict wis established in the early pairt o the last century an still teems wi scores o eateries. It is owerleukit bi the Tsutenkaku touer, ane o Osaka's maist famous seembols.

Train stations

West Japan Railway Company (JR West)
Osaka Loop Line: Tennōji Station - Teradachō Station - Momodani Station - Tsuruhashi Station - Tamatsukuri Station
Hanwa Line, Kansai Main Line (Yamatoji Line): Tennōji Station
Kintetsu
Osaka Line: Osaka Uehommachi Station - Tsuruhashi Station
Osaka Abenobashi Station on the Minami-Osaka Line in Abeno-ku is close tae Tennōji Station in Tennōji-ku.
Hankai Tramway
Hankai Uemachi Line: Tennōji-eki-mae Station (Locatit in Abeno-ku, but close to Tennōji Station in Tennōji-ku.)
Osaka Municipal Subway
Tanimachi Line: Tanimachi Kyuchome Station - Shitennoji-mae Yuhigaoka Station - Tennōji Station
Tennōji Station on the Midōsuji Line is locatit in Abeno-ku, but close tae Tennōji-ku.
Sennichimae Line: Tanimachi Kyuchome Station - Tsuruhashi Station
Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line: Tamatsukuri Station

References

Freemit airtins

 Offeecial wabsteid o Tennōji

Wairds o Osaka

Tennōji-ku, Osaka