A speedrun is a play-through, or a recording of this play-through of a whole video game or a part of it, in which the player tries to complete this game as fast as possible. This is done for entertainment and competition. The term is a compound of the words speed and run (run means playing the game here). It is usually used for games which do not have quickly finishing them as one of the main goals. For example, gamers do not "speedrun" a racing game. In those cases the game's standard setting for recording fast times is called a time attack or time trial mode. Speedruns are usually recorded on  video tapes (mainly where consoles are concerned), or as a digital file, by the people ("players") who make them. It is recorded for entertainment. It can also be used by others to verify that the players actually completed the game in the time they said that they did. Speedruns were created for entertainment. People who began comparing each others' playing skills through videos exchanged over the Internet started speedruns. People want verifiability to see whether a person followed the rules and thus see whether the run counts as a valid attempt to beat the record.

Speedrunning began as a small project. It was started few people who shared their runs online. However, it has become a phenomenon which is discussed in several active websites. There are many speedrun videos distributed for free on the Internet.

Tool-assisted speedruns
Tool-assisted speedruns (TAS) are played on a computer emulator. The player records the movie on the emulator and submits the movie file to TASvideos.org if the movie file is good enough to obsolete a published run on their site. These types of speedruns take longer to make because the player can use the advantage of going back in time in the game and finding the fastest reactions for enemies and other items to beat the game in a time which the game developer would never thought the game could be beaten so quickly.

Normal speedruns
Normal speedruns are played on a console or PC but some are done on mobile devices and recorded with a capture card or a DVD recorder. PC games are recorded with high quality screen recording software such as FRAPS and OBS. Two of the most common normal speedrun sites are called speedrun.com and Speed Demo's Archive. The runs are split into categories such as: any% NMS (which means that the runner must beat the game as fast as possible without any major skip glitches), 100% (which means that the runner must complete the whole game as fast as possible to get a 100% ending) and any% (which means that the player uses large-skip glitches that can be frame perfect). Before the speedrun is uploaded onto Speed Demo's Archive, the forum members have  to verify the run to make sure that the runner was not cheating or using any game hacks.

Role of bugs
Many speedruns take advantage of bugs in video games, especially clipping problems that allow a player to walk through walls.

References

Video game gameplay

Speedrun


Scandium is chemical element number 21 on the periodic table.  Its symbol is Sc.

Scandium is a metal in a group known as the transition metals.  It is also a rare earth metal.  What this means is that there is not very much scandium found in the earth.  Because of this, the pure metal can be expensive.  The pure metal is very reactive, and will react with other elements like oxygen.  The metal turns from shiny to gray.

Scandium is not very dangerous because there is not much of it on Earth, so there is not enough of it to harm us.  It does not have many uses. Its main use is perhaps as a component in Mercury-vapor lamps. Such lamps are used to light Stadiums.

Related pages
Periodic table
List of common elements

Transition metals

Scandium


The Microsoft Certified Technical Education Centre (Microsoft CTEC) channel provides training for computer professions in the use of Microsoft products. The term Microsoft Certified Technical Education Centre was introduced by Microsoft in early 1990s. Microsoft CTECs are authorised to deliver Microsoft Official Curriculum courses to computer professionals using Microsoft Certified Trainers (MCTs). Through Microsoft CTECs, Microsoft Certified Solution Providers learn about Microsoft BackOffice, Internet and developer tools technology.

Currently the program involves more than 900 training centers in North America with more than 1,900 Microsoft CTECs internationally. Microsoft Official Curriculum courses are taught by Microsoft Certified Trainers (MCTs), professionals certified by Microsoft for a particular product or technology.

Microsoft CTEC with the new program, Certified Partners for Learning Solutions.

External links
 Microsoft Official Learning Web site
 Microsoft Solution Finder

Microsoft divisions

CTEC


The Florida Avenue Bridge is a vertical lift bridge spanning the Industrial Canal in New Orleans, Louisiana.  The bridge has one railroad track, two vehicle lanes and two sidewalks. A parallel high-elevation four-lane roadway bridge is planned.

History

The Florida Avenue Bridge takes its name from Florida Avenue, formerly the Florida Walk alongside the Florida Canal.

Florida Avenue was one of the first four bridges built by the Port of New Orleans in the 1920s in order to provide railroad access across the Inner Harbor-Navigational Canal, locally referred to as the Industrial Canal. The three of the original four identical bridges are in use today—St. Claude Avenue, Almonaster Avenue, and Seabrook. While St. Claude Bridge no longer carries rail service, Almonaster and Seabrook remain dedicated to rail service only. The original Florida Avenue Bridge was removed in 2000 as a hazard to marine navigation and replaced with the current modern, steel structure which was completed in May 2005. It was designed by Modjeski and Masters, Inc. and built by American Bridge with a total project cost of approximately $47 million. The new bridge was primarily funded by the United States Coast Guard under a Truman-Hobbs appropriation.

The current bridge
The new bridge has a horizontal clearance of  and 156 feet (47.5 m) vertical clearance above the low water level in the fully raised position. In the lowered position, the vertical clearance is less than five feet above the low water level. position.

Most of the marine usage of the Florida Avenue site consists of towboat and barge traffic transiting from the Mississippi River, through the Corps of Engineer's Inner Harbor-Navigational CanalLock, then east following the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway.  The lift bridge is capable of sufficient vertical clearance for ship traffic.

The bridge has undergone repairs due to Hurricane Katrina storm surge in 2005. It sustained flooding once again due to Hurricane Gustav in 2008. Operations of the Port of New Orleans' four bridges across the Inner Harbor-Navigational Canal, including special alerts, can be found at www.portno.com at the link for citizen resources at the link for bridges.

Plans for a newer bridge
A parallel, four-lane, vehicular only, is planned to be built just south of (toward the Mississippi River from) the Port of New Orleans' existing lift bridge by the Louisiana State Department of Transportation and Development.  Design is underway, but due to funding issues, the construction has been placed on hold by the State of Louisiana.

References

External links

 www.portno.com
 American Bridge Company: Florida Avenue Bridge
 Louisiana TIMED Program: Florida Avenue Bridge
 Modjeski & Masters, Consulting Engineers:

Bridges in New Orleans
Vertical lift bridges in Louisiana
Intracoastal Waterway
Bridges completed in 2005
Road-rail bridges in the United States
Road bridges in Louisiana
Railroad bridges in Louisiana
Steel bridges in the United States
2005 establishments in Louisiana

Florida Avenue Bridge


In cell biology, the cytoplasm describes all material within a eukaryotic cell, enclosed by the cell membrane, except for the cell nucleus. The material inside the nucleus and contained within the nuclear membrane is termed the nucleoplasm. The main components of the cytoplasm are the cytosol (a gel-like substance), the organelles (the cell's internal sub-structures), and various cytoplasmic inclusions. The cytoplasm is about 80% water and is usually colorless.

The submicroscopic ground cell substance, or cytoplasmic matrix, that remains after the exclusion of the cell organelles and particles is groundplasm.  It is the hyaloplasm of light microscopy, a highly complex, polyphasic system in which all resolvable cytoplasmic elements are suspended, including the larger organelles such as the ribosomes, mitochondria, plant plastids, lipid droplets, and vacuoles.

Many cellular activities take place within the cytoplasm, such as many metabolic pathways,  including glycolysis, photosynthesis,  and processes such as cell division. The concentrated inner area is called the endoplasm and the outer layer is called the cell cortex, or ectoplasm.

Movement of calcium ions in and out of the cytoplasm is a signaling activity for metabolic processes.

In plants, movement of the cytoplasm around vacuoles is known as cytoplasmic streaming.

History
The term was introduced by Rudolf von Kölliker in 1863, originally as a synonym for protoplasm, but later it has come to mean the cell substance and organelles outside the nucleus.

There has been certain disagreement on the definition of cytoplasm, as some authors prefer to exclude from it some organelles, especially the vacuoles and sometimes the plastids.

Physical nature
It remains uncertain how the various components of the cytoplasm interact to allow movement of organelles while maintaining the cell's structure. The flow of cytoplasmic components plays an important role in many cellular functions which are dependent on the permeability of the cytoplasm. An example of such function is cell signalling, a process which is dependent on the manner in which signaling molecules are allowed to diffuse across the cell. While small signaling molecules like calcium ions are able to diffuse with ease, larger molecules and subcellular structures often require aid in moving through the cytoplasm. The irregular dynamics of such particles have given rise to various theories on the nature of the cytoplasm.

As a sol-gel

There has long been evidence that the cytoplasm behaves like a sol-gel. It is thought that the component molecules and structures of the cytoplasm behave at times like a disordered colloidal solution (sol) and at other times like an integrated network, forming a solid mass (gel). This theory thus proposes that the cytoplasm exists in distinct fluid and solid phases depending on the level of interaction between cytoplasmic components, which may explain the differential dynamics of different particles observed moving through the cytoplasm. A papers suggested that at length scale smaller than 100 nm, the cytoplasm acts like a liquid, while in a larger length scale, it acts like a gel.

As a glass

It has been proposed that the cytoplasm behaves like a glass-forming liquid approaching the glass transition. In this theory, the greater the concentration of cytoplasmic components, the less the cytoplasm behaves like a liquid and the more it behaves as a solid glass, freezing more significant cytoplasmic components in place (it is thought that the cell's metabolic activity can fluidize the cytoplasm to allow the movement of such more significant cytoplasmic components). A cell's ability to vitrify in the absence of metabolic activity, as in dormant periods, may be beneficial as a defense strategy. A solid glass cytoplasm would freeze subcellular structures in place, preventing damage, while allowing the transmission of tiny proteins and metabolites, helping to kickstart growth upon the cell's revival from dormancy.

Other perspectives

Research has examined the motion of cytoplasmic particles independent of the nature of the cytoplasm. In such an alternative approach, the aggregate random forces within the cell caused by motor proteins explain the non-Brownian motion of cytoplasmic constituents.

Constituents
The three major elements of the cytoplasm are the cytosol, organelles and inclusions.

Cytosol

The cytosol is the portion of the cytoplasm not contained within membrane-bound organelles. Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell volume and is a complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved molecules, and water. The cytosol's filaments include the protein filaments such as actin filaments and microtubules that make up the cytoskeleton, as well as soluble proteins and small structures such as ribosomes, proteasomes, and the mysterious vault complexes. The inner, granular and more fluid portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm.

Due to this network of fibres and high concentrations of dissolved macromolecules, such as proteins, an effect called macromolecular crowding occurs and the cytosol does not act as an ideal solution. This crowding effect alters how the components of the cytosol interact with each other.

Organelles

Organelles (literally "little organs") are usually membrane-bound structures inside the cell that have specific functions. Some major organelles that are suspended in the cytosol are the mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, and in plant cells, chloroplasts.

Cytoplasmic inclusions

The inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the cytosol. A huge range of inclusions exist in different cell types, and range from crystals of calcium oxalate or silicon dioxide in plants, to granules of energy-storage materials such as starch, glycogen, or polyhydroxybutyrate. A particularly widespread example are lipid droplets, which are spherical droplets composed of lipids and proteins that are used in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes as a way of storing lipids such as fatty acids and sterols. Lipid droplets make up much of the volume of adipocytes, which are specialized lipid-storage cells, but they are also found in a range of other cell types.

Controversy and research
The cytoplasm, mitochondria, and most organelles are contributions to the cell from the maternal gamete. Contrary to the older information that disregards any notion of the cytoplasm being active, new research has shown it to be in control of movement and flow of nutrients in and out of the cell by viscoplastic behavior and a measure of the reciprocal rate of bond breakage within the cytoplasmic network.

The material properties of the cytoplasm remain an ongoing investigation. A method of determining the mechanical behaviour of living cell mammalian cytoplasm with the aid of optical tweezers has been described.

See also

References

External links

Cell anatomy

Cytoplasm


InfiniteReality refers to a 3D graphics hardware architecture and a family of graphics systems that implemented the aforementioned hardware architecture that was developed and manufactured by Silicon Graphics from 1996 to 2005. The InfiniteReality was positioned as Silicon Graphics' high-end visualization hardware for their MIPS/IRIX platform and was used exclusively in their Onyx family of visualization systems, which are sometimes referred to as "graphics supercomputers" or "visualization supercomputers". The InfiniteReality was marketed to and used by large organizations such as companies and universities that are involved in computer simulation, digital content creation, engineering and research.

InfiniteReality
The InfiniteReality was introduced in early 1996 and was used in the Silicon Graphics Onyx. It succeeded the RealityEngine, although the RealityEngine coexisted with the InfiniteReality for some time for the Onyx as an entry-level option for deskside "workstation" configurations.

The InfiniteReality architecture was a third-generation design and is categorized as a sort-middle architecture. It was designed to render complex scenes in high-quality at 60 frames per second, roughly two to four times the performance of the RealityEngine it replaced. It was designed explicitly for use in conjunction with the OpenGL graphics library and implements most of the OpenGL pipeline in hardware.

The implementation is partitioned into Geometry (also known as the Geometry Engine), Raster Memory (also known as the Raster Manager) and Display Generator boards, with each board corresponding to each stage of the three major stages in the architecture's pipeline. The board set partitioning scheme is the same as the RealityEngine, as a result of Silicon Graphics wanting the RealityEngine to be easily upgradable to the InfiniteReality. Each pipeline consists of one Geometry Engine board, one, two or four Raster Manager boards and one Display Generator board.

The implementation comprises twelve ASIC designs fabricated in 0.5 and 0.35 micrometre processes with three layers of metal interconnect. These ASICs require a 3.3 V power supply. An InfiniteReality pipeline in a maximal configuration contains 251 million transistors. The InfiniteReality was developed by 55 engineers.

Given a system capable enough, such as certain models of the Onyx2 and Onyx 3000, up to 16 InfiniteReality pipelines can be hosted. The pipelines can be operated in three modes: multi-seat, multi-display and multi-pipe. In multi-seat mode, each pipeline can serve up to eight simultaneous users, each with their own separate displays, keyboards and mice. In multi-display mode, multiple outputs drive multiple displays, which is useful for virtual reality. The multi-pipe mode has two methods of operation. The first method requires a digital multiplexer (DPLEX) daughterboard to be installed in every pipeline, which combines the output of multiple pipelines. The second method uses MonsterMode software to distribute the data used to render a frame to multiple pipelines.

To interface the pipeline to the system, a Flat Cable Interface (FCI) cable is used to connect the Host Interface Processor ASIC on the Geometry Board to the Ibus on the IO4 board, a part of the host system.

Geometry board
The Geometry board is responsible for geometry and image processing and is divided into four stages, each stage being implemented by separate device(s). The first stage is the Host Interface. Due to the InfiniteReality being designed for two very different platforms, the traditional shared memory bus-based Onyx using the POWERpath-2 bus, and the distributed shared memory network-based Onyx2 using the NUMAlink2 interconnect, the InfiniteReality had to have an interface that could provide similar performance on both platforms, which had a large difference in incoming bandwidth (200 MB/s versus 400 MB/s respectively).

To this end, a Host Interface Processor, an embedded RISC core, is used to fetch display list objects using direct memory access (DMA). The Host Interface Processor is accompanied by 16 MB of synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM), of which 15 MB is used to cache display leaf objects. The cache can deliver data to the next stage at over 300 MB/s. The next stage is the Geometry Distributor, which transfers data and instructions from the Host Interface Processor to individual Geometry Engines.

The next stage is performing geometry and image processing. The Geometry Engine is used for the purpose, with each Geometry board containing up to four working in a multiple instruction multiple data (MIMD) fashion. The Geometry Engine is a semi-custom ASIC with a single instruction multiple data (SIMD) pipeline containing three floating-point cores, each containing an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), a multiplier and a 32-bit by 32-entry register file with two read and two write ports. These cores are provided with a 32-bit by 2,560-entry memory that holds elements of OpenGL state and provides scratchpad storage. Each core also has a float-to-fix converter to convert floating-point values into integer form. The Geometry Engine is capable of completing three instructions per cycle, and each Geometry board, with four such devices, can complete 12 instructions per cycle. The Geometry Engine uses a 195-bit microinstruction, which is compressed in order to reduce size and bandwidth usage in return for slightly less performance.

The Geometry Engine processor operates at 90 MHz, achieving a maximum theoretical performance of 540 MFLOPS. As there are four such processors on a GE12-4 or GE14-4 board, the maximum theoretical performance is 2.16 GFLOPS. A 16-pipeline system therefore achieves a maximum theoretical performance of 34.56 GFLOPS.

The fourth stage is the Geometry-Raster FIFO, a first in first out (FIFO) buffer that merges the outputs of the four Geometry Engines into one, reassembling the outputs in the order they were issued. The FIFO is built from SDRAM and has a capacity of 4 MB, large enough to store 65,536 vertexes. The transformed vertexes are moved from this FIFO to the Raster Manager boards for triangle reassembly and setup  by the Triangle Bus (also known as the Vertex Bus), which has a bandwidth of 400 MB/s.

Raster Memory board
The function of the Raster Memory board is to perform rasterization. It also contains the texture memory and raster memory, which is more commonly known as the framebuffer. Rasterization is performed in the Fragment Generator and the eighty Image Engines. The Fragment Generator comprises four ASIC designs: the Scan Converter (SC) ASIC, the Texel Address Calculator (TA) ASIC, the Texture Memory Controller (TM) ASIC and the Texture Fragment (TF) ASIC.

The SC ASIC and the TA ASIC perform scan conversion, color and depth interpolation, perspective correct texture coordinate interpolation and level of detail computation on incoming data, and the results are passed to the eight TM ASICs, which are specialized memory controllers optimized for texel access. Each TM ASIC controls four SDRAMs that make up one-eighth of the texture memory. The SDRAMs used are 16 bits wide and have separate address and data buses. SDRAMs with a capacity of 4 Mb are used by Raster Manager boards with 16 MB of texture memory while 16 Mb SDRAMs are used by Raster Manager boards with 64 MB of texture memory. The TM ASICs perform texel lookups in their SDRAMs according to the texel addresses issued by the TA ASIC. Texels from the TM ASICs are forwarded to the appropriate TF ASIC, where texture filtering, texture environment combination with interpolated color and fog application is performed. As each SDRAM holds part of the texture memory, all of the 32 SDRAMs must be connected to all of the 80 Image Engines. To achieve this, the TM and TF ASICs implement a two-rank omega network, which reduces the number of individual paths required for the 32 to 80 sort while maintaining the same functionality.

The eighty Image Engines have multiple functions. Firstly, each Image Engine controls a portion of the raster memory, which in the case of the InfiniteReality, is a 1 MB SGRAM organized as 262,144 by 32-bit words. Secondly, the following OpenGL per-fragment operations are performed by the Image Engines: pixel ownership test, stencil test, depth buffer test, blending, dithering and logical operation. Lastly, the Image Engines perform anti-aliasing and accumulation buffer operations. To deliver pixel data for display, each Image Engine has a 2-bit serial bus to the Display Generator board. If one Raster Manager board is present in the pipeline, the Image Engine uses the entire width of the bus, whereas if two or more Raster Manager boards are present, the Image Engine uses half the bus. Each serial bus is actually a part of the Video Bus, which has a bandwidth of 1.2 GB/s. Four Image Engine "cores" are contained on an Image Engine ASIC, which contains nearly 488,000 logic gates, comprising 1.95 million transistors, on a 42 mm2 (6.5 by 6.5 mm) die that was fabricated in a 0.35 micrometre process by VLSI Technology.

The InfiniteReality uses the RM6-16 or RM6-64 Raster Managers. Each pipeline is capable of display resolutions of 2.62, 5.24 or 10.48 million pixels, provided that one, two or four Raster Manager boards respectively are present. The raster memory can be configured to use 256, 512 or 1024 bits per pixel. 320 MB supports a resolution of 2560 by 2048 pixels with each pixel containing 512 bits of information. In a configuration with four Raster Managers, the texture memory has a bandwidth of 15.36 GB/s, and the raster memory has a bandwidth of 72.8 GB/s.

Display Generator board
The DG4-2 Display Generator board contains hardware to drive up to two video outputs, which may be expanded to eight video outputs with an optional daughterboard, a configuration known as the DG4-8. The outputs are independent and each output has hardware for generating video timing, video resizing, gamma correction, genlock and digital-to-analog conversion. Digital-to-analog conversion is provided by 8-bit digital-to-analog converters that support a pixel clock frequency up to 220 MHz.

Data for the video outputs are provided by four ASICs that de-serialize and de-interleave the 160-bit streams into 10-bit component RGBA, 12-bit component RBGA, L16, Stereo Field Sequential (FS) or color indexes. The hardware also incorporates the cursor at this stage. A 32,768 entry color index map is available.

Capabilities and performance
The InfiniteReality was capable of several advanced capabilities:

 8 by 8 multi-sampled anti-aliasing
 A maximum color depth of 48-bit RGBA
 16 overlay planes
 A 24-bit floating point Z-buffer
 Each pixel consists of 256 to 1,048 bits of data
 Stereo viewing was supported and was quad buffered

The InfiniteReality's performance was:

 11 million non-lighted, depth-buffered, anti-aliased, triangle strips (40 pixels each) per second
 8.3 million textured, depth-buffered, anti-aliased, triangle strips (50 pixels each) per second
 7+ million lighted, textured and anti-aliased triangles per second
 800 million trilinear mip-mapped, textured, 16-bit texel, depth buffered pixels per second
 750 million trilinear mip-mapped, textured, 16-bit texel, four by four sub-sample anti-aliased, depth buffered pixels per second
 710+ million textured and anti-aliased pixels per second
 300 million displayed pixels per second, distributed over one to eight outputs

InfiniteReality2
InfiniteReality2 is how hinv (an IRIX utility that lists the hardware present in a system) refers to an InfiniteReality that is used in the Onyx2. The InfiniteReality2 however, was still marketed as the InfiniteReality. It was the second implementation of the InfiniteReality architecture, and was introduced in late 1996. It is identical to the InfiniteReality architecturally, but differs mechanically as the Onyx2's Origin 2000-based card cage is different from the Onyx's Challenge-based card cage.

Introduced by the InfiniteReality2 is an interface scheme that is used in rackmount Onyx2 or later systems. Instead of being connected to the host system via a FCI cable, the board set is plugged into the rear of a midplane, which can support two pipelines. The midplane has eleven slots. Slot six to slot eleven are for the first pipeline, which may contain one to four Raster Manager boards. Slot one to four is for the second pipeline, which may contain one or two Raster Manager boards due to the number of slots there are. Because of this, maximally configured Onyx systems use one midplane for each pipeline to avoid restricting half of the 16 pipelines to a maximum of two Raster Manager boards. Slot five contains a Ktown board if the midplane is used in an Origin 2000-based system (Onyx2) or a Ktown2 board if the midplane is used in an Origin 3000-based system (Onyx 3000). The purpose of these boards is to interface the host system's XIO link to the Host Interface Processor ASIC on the Geometry board. These boards have two XIO ports for this purpose, with the top XIO port connected to the right pipeline and the bottom XIO port connected to the left pipeline.

Reality
The Reality is a cost-reduced version of the InfiniteReality2 intended to provide similar performance. Instead of using the GE14-4 Geometry Engine board and the RM7-16 or RM7-64 Raster Manager boards, the Reality used the GE14-2 Geometry Engine board and the RM8-16 or RM8-64 Raster Manager boards. The GE14-2 has two Geometry Engine Processors, instead of four like the other models. The RM8-16 and RM864 has 16 or 64 MB of texture memory respectively and 40 MB of raster memory. The Reality was also limited by the number of Raster Manager boards it could support, one or two. When maximally configured with two RM8-64 Raster Manager boards, the Reality pipeline has 80 MB of raster memory.

InfiniteReality2E
The InfiniteReality2E was an upgrade of the InfiniteReality, marketed as the InfiniteReality2, introduced in 1998. It succeeded the InfiniteReality board set and was itself succeeded by the InfiniteReality3 in 2000, but was not discontinued until 10 April 2001.

It improves upon the InfiniteReality by replacing the GE14-4 Geometry Engine board with the GE16-4 Geometry Engine board and the RM7-16 or RM7-64 Raster Manager boards with the RM9-64 Raster Manager board. The new Geometry Engine board operated at 112 MHz, improving geometry and image processing performance. The new Raster Manager board operated at 72 MHz, improving anti-aliased pixel fill performance.

InfiniteReality3
InfiniteReality3 was introduced in 2000 along with the Onyx 3000 to supersede the InfiniteReality2. It was used in the Onyx2 and Onyx 3000 visualization systems. The only improvement over the previous implementation was replacement of the RM9-64 Raster Manager with the RM10-256 Raster Manager, which has 256 MB of texture memory, four times that of the previous raster manager. When maximally configured with four Raster Managers, the InfiniteReality3 pipeline provides 320 MB of raster memory.

InfiniteReality4
InfiniteReality4 was introduced in 2002 to succeed the InfiniteReality3. It was used in the Onyx2, Onyx 3000 and Onyx 350. It is the last member of the InfiniteReality family, itself succeeded by the ATI FireGL-based UltimateVision, which was used in the Onyx4. The only improvement over the previous implementation was the replacement of the RM10-256 Raster Manager by the RM11-1024 Raster Manager, which has improved performance, 1 GB of texture memory and 2.5 GB of raster memory, four and thirty-two times that of the previous raster manager, respectively. When maximally configured with four Raster Managers, the InfiniteReality4 pipeline has 10 GB of raster memory. In a maximum configuration with 16 pipelines, the InfiniteReality4 contained 16 GB of texture memory and 160 GB of raster memory.

Comparison
The figures presented in the tables are for a minimal 1-pipeline and a maximal 16-pipeline configuration, except for the Reality, which was restricted to single pipe operation.

Hardware

Performance

Notes

References

Computer-related introductions in 1996
Graphics chips
SGI graphics

InfiniteReality


Mary and Matthew Darly were English printsellers and caricaturists during the 1770s.  Mary Darly (fl. 1756–1779) was a printseller, caricaturist, artist, engraver, writer, and teacher.  She wrote, illustrated, and published the first book on caricature drawing, A Book of Caricaturas [sic] (c. 1762), aimed at "young gentlemen and ladies." Mary was the wife of Matthew Darly, also called Matthias (fl. 1741–1778), a London printseller, furniture designer, and engraver.  Mary was evidently the second wife of Matthew; his first was named Elizabeth Harold.

Matthew Darly
Apprenticed to the clockmaker Umfraville Sampson in 1735, Darly himself took on four apprentices between 1752 and 1778. During the first part of his career, Matthew Darly moved from one part of the Strand to other, but he always called his shops the "Acorn" or the "Golden Acorn." He may have begun his career as an architect but then moved into furniture designs and caricature, and soon acquired fame. It was written of Richard Cosway that "so ridiculously foppish did he become that Matth. Darly the famous caricature print seller, introduced an etching of him in his window in the Strand as the 'Macaroni Miniature Painter.'"

Matthias Darly not only issued political caricatures, but designed ceilings, chimney pieces, mirror frames, girandoles, decorative panels and other furnishing accessories, He engraved many of Thomas Chippendale's designs for The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker's Director (plates dated 1753 and 1754, and plates in the second edition, 1762), and sold his own productions over the counter.  The first publication which can be attributed to him with certainty is a colored caricature, The Cricket Players of Europe (1741). In 1754, with a partner, Edwards, he issued A New Book of Chinese Designs, which was intended to minister to the passing craze for furniture and household decorations in the fanciful chinoiserie style, and also included some Rococo whimsical chairs and tables to be made out of gnarled roots. It was in this year that he engraved many of the plates for Chippendale's Director. A New Book of Ceilings followed in 1760. He published from many addresses, most of them in the Strand or its immediate neighborhood, and his shop was for a long period perhaps the most important of its kind in London.

Darly was for many years in partnership with a man named Edwards, and together they published many political prints, which were originally issued separately and collected annually into volumes under the title of Political and Satirical History. Darly was a member both of the Incorporated Society of Artists and the Free Society of Artists, forerunners and unsuccessful rivals of the Royal Academy, and to their exhibitions he contributed many architectural drawings, together with a profile etching of himself (1775). Upon one of these etchings, published from 39 Strand, he is described as Professor of Ornament to the Academy of Great Britain.

Darly's most important publication— his chief claim to being credited as an architect—  was The Ornamental Architect or Young Artist's Instructor...Consisting of the Five Orders drawn with their Embellishments (1770–1771), a title which was changed in the edition of 1773 to A Compleat Body of Architecture, embellished with a great Variety of Ornaments. He also issued Sixty Vases by English, French and Italian Masters (1767). In addition to his immense mass of other productions Darly executed many book plates, illustrated various books and cabinet-makers' catalogues, and gave lessons in etching.

His skill as a caricaturist brought him into close personal relations with the politicians of his time, and in 1763 he was instrumental in saving John Wilkes, whose partisan he was, from death at the hands of James Dunn, who had determined to kill him. Darly, who described himself as Liveryman and block maker, issued his last caricature in October 1780, and as his shop, No. 39 Strand, was let to a new tenant in the following year, it is to be presumed that he had by that time died, or become incapable of further work.

The Darlys

By 1756, the husband-and-wife team had printshops in Fleet Street and the Strand. Mary was the sole manager of the branch at "The Acorn, Ryders Court (Cranbourne Alley), Leicester Fields." Mary advertised in the daily papers in her own name as "etcher and publisher." She was one of the first professional caricaturists in England.

The Darlys' shops, some of the first to specialize in caricature, initially concentrated on political themes in the 1750s, at a time of political crises, but then focused on world of fashion.  "They seem to have been shrewd business people, changing their output in response to the fashion of the day." Their etchings and engravings included "Wigs" (12 October 1773), "The Preposterous Head Dress, or the Featherd Lady" (20 March 1776), "Phaetona or Modern Female Taste" (6 November 1776); "Miss Shuttle-Cock" (6 December 1776); and "Oh.  Heigh.  Oh.  Or a View of the Back Settlements" (9 July 1776), a play on words that refers to Ohio Country.

The Darlys also offered drawing lessons to upperclass men and women.

The Darlys relocated their shop from Fleet Street to the West End as the craze for homemade caricatures grew.  At their West End shop, they published between 1771 and 1773 six sets of satirical "macaroni" prints, each set containing 24 portraits. The new Darly shop became known as "The Macaroni Print-Shop". Matthew and Mary Darly fueled a rage for caricatures in London, flooding the market with prints on social life, such as those lampooning the so-called "macaronis."

During the 1770s, the Darlys sold a variety of prints at a wide range of prices and to customers from various social classes.  Their prints included depictions of prostitutes, market vendors, maidservants, and other women of the age.

They also engraved the drawings of others.  The Darlys advertised that "Ladies to whom the fumes of the Aqua Fortis are Noxious may have their Plates carefully Bit, and proved, and may be attended at their own Houses, and have ev'ry necessary instruction in any part of Engraving, Etching, Dry Needle, Metzotinto, etc..."

The Darlys advertised for amateurs to submit sketches for publication. They held an exhibition of amateur prints, such as of "several laughable Subjects, droll Figures, and sundry Characters."

The furniture-makers Ince and Mayhew employed Matthew Darly as an engraver.  William Austin was a rival of the Darlys.

The Darlys were responsible for bringing Henry Bunbury's talents as a humorous caricaturist to public attention by publishing his work, and Anthony Pasquin had studied in the earlier part of his career at Matthew Darly's studio.

There was a small engraved portrait of Mary Darly in the Print Room of the British Museum; it is called "The Female Connoisseur" (February 1772).  She is depicted examining a caricature sketch.

References

External links
 Lambiek Comiclopedia article about Matthew and Mary Darly

English caricaturists
English cartoonists
English engravers
English furniture designers
Married couples
18th-century English businesspeople

Mary and Matthew Darly


Fecundity, coming from the word fecund, generally means the ability to reproduce.

In biology and demography, fecundity is the ability to reproduce of an organism or population, measured by the number of gametes (eggs), seed set or asexual propagules.  Fecundity is under both genetic and environmental control, and is the major measure of biological fitness. Fecundation is another term for fertilisation.

Fecundity can increase or decrease in a population according to current conditions and certain regulating factors. For instance, in times of hardship for a population such as a lack of food, juvenile and eventually adult fecundity may decrease.

In the philosophy of science, 'fecundity' refers to the ability of a scientific theory to open new lines of theoretical inquiry. Here, the original meaning is extended by analogy.

Related pages
 Fertility

Biological reproduction

Fecundity


A bristle is a stiff hair or feather. Also used are synthetic materials such as nylon in items such as brooms and sweepers. Bristles are often used to make brushes for cleaning uses: common examples are the toothbrush and toilet brush. The bristle brush is a common household cleaning tool, often used to remove dirt or grease from pots and pans.

Hair

Bristle


Nurcholish Madjid (March 17, 1939 – August 29, 2005), in Indonesia affectionately known as Cak Nur, was a prominent Indonesian Muslim intellectual. Early in his academic career, Nurcholish was a leader in various student organizations. He soon became well known as a proponent for modernization within Islam. Throughout his career he continued to argue that for Islam to be victorious in the global struggle of ideas, it needs to embrace the concepts of tolerance, democracy and pluralism.

Biography

Born in Jombang, East Java, Madjid received his early education in religious institutions in Indonesia, so called pesantren. He later received his doctorate in Islamic Studies from the University of Chicago in the United States where he studied under the noted Pakistani-American scholar, Fazlur Rahman. In 2003 he participated in Indonesia's national elections as a candidate for the presidency. He served as Rector of Paramadina University in Jakarta from 1998 up until his death. Madjid was married and had two children.

In the 1970s, Cak Nur coined the slogan: 'Islam Yes, Islamic Party No',  which became very popular. The slogan helped combat the view that it was sinful for Muslims to vote against Islamic parties. The two most successful Muslim parties in Indonesia's 2004 general elections, the moderate National Awakening and United Development Parties, received 10.6% and 8.1% of the vote, respectively.

Publications
"The Issue of Modernization among Muslims in Indonesia: A Participant's Point of View", in: Gloria Davies, ed. What is Modern in Indonesian Culture, Athens, Ohio, Ohio University, 1978
Islam in Indonesia: Challenges and Opportunities, in: Cyriac K. Pullapilly, ed., Islam in the Modern World, Bloomington, Indiana: Crossroads, 1982
"The Necessity of Renewing Islamic Thought and Reinvigorating Religious Understanding", in: Charles Kurzman, ed. Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988
"In Search of Islamic Roots for Modern Pluralism: The Indonesian Experiences" in: Mark Woodward ed, Towards a New Paradigm, Recent Developments in Indonesian Islamic Thought, Tempe, Arizona, Arizona State University, 1996

References
 Abdullah Saeed (1997) "Ijtihād and Innovation in Neo-Modernist Islamic Thought in Indonesia", Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1997, p. 279-295
 Greg Barton (1997) Indonesia's Nurcholish Madjid and Abdurrahman Wahid as intellectual Ulama: The meeting of Islamic traditionalism and modernism in neo‐modernist thought, Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1997, p.  323-350.
 Ensiklopedia Nurcholis Madjid, Budhy Munawar-Rachman, Feb 2007.

Notes

External links
 Nurcholis Madjid and the Paramadina Foundation(pdf-file)
 Universitas Paramadina
 Obituary in The New York Times

1939 births
2005 deaths
People from Jombang Regency
Javanese people
University of Chicago alumni
Indonesian Muslims
20th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
Indonesian Muslim scholars of Islam
Muslim reformers

fr:Madjid

Nurcholish Madjid


Fresh Meat is a British comedy-drama television series created by Jesse Armstrong and Sam Bain, who also created Peep Show.

The first episode, directed by David Kerr, was broadcast on Channel 4 on 21 September 2011, and the show aired on Wednesdays at 10 pm. The second series started airing on 9 October 2012 and consists of 8 episodes. On 22 November 2012, a third series was commissioned and began broadcasting on 4 November 2013. Bain said ideas were being developed for a potential film adaptation, following the runaway success of 2011's The Inbetweeners Movie. Instead, a fourth series followed, filmed in 2015 and aired in February 2016 as a conclusion to the series.

Plot
The stories revolve around the lives of six students – Vod, Oregon, Josie, Kingsley, JP and Howard – who are freshers (with the exception of Howard) at the fictional Medlock University (loosely based on the University of Manchester). They live in a shared house off-campus in Rusholme rather than university halls of residence, due to their late application.

Main themes include: Oregon's insecurity and failed relationship with her English literature lecturer, Tony Shales; Vod's hedonistic, carefree lifestyle; Josie and Kingsley's tortured relationship; upper-class JP's attempts at popularity and impressing girls, and Howard's many eccentricities. On a larger scale, the series covers such student-related issues as financial issues, work pressures, grades, expulsion, partying, and internship competition. The final series involves job seeking, final exam pressure and the value of degrees.

Episodes

Characters

Main
Zawe Ashton as Violet "Vod" Nordstrom: A literature student and military brat, she is studying at the university on an RAF Officer Bursary. Vod appears streetwise, forthright, completely care-free and alludes to having anti-establishment views. She is the life and soul of any party, often drinks too much (a middle aged writer died from consuming the same amount as her) and takes hard drugs. Her university grades are poor and she regularly talks Oregon into allowing her to plagiarize her work. Despite her beliefs, she is fond of Oregon, who is from a privileged background, and helps her through some of her most difficult phases. While she is the first to shirk her workload in favor of a party, we occasionally see her become deeply distressed at the prospect of her work being evaluated, and it is implied that a large part of her apparent ambivalence towards her course can be attributed to a fear of failure coupled with her awareness that she has not received the same level of secondary education as her peers. In the pilot she tells Josie that she didn't study A-levels, and in one of the final episodes she responds to criticism of her ostensibly lackadaisical approach to her studies by pointing out that she had to work extremely hard to be accepted to university, juggling a factory job and an Access course in the evenings. This insecurity is further complicated by her abusive alcoholic mother, Chris, who refers to her as "the millstone around my neck". In the fourth series, it is revealed that she has amassed more than £70,000 of debt over the course of her degree, and her career prospects and ambitions are non-existent. This, however, proves to be the wake-up call she needs, and she puts in extra effort for her final exams, ultimately finishing with upper second-class honours (a "2:1"), a much higher grade than she was expecting. She later agrees to accompany Oregon to Laos.
Greg McHugh as Howard McGregor: A Scottish geology student who is older than the others, having previously done a year in Philosophy but changed courses after disagreements with professors. Howard is eccentric, socially inept and has many strange mannerisms. He is also the only non-fresher in the house, and the only housemate who does not demonstrate even the remotest interest in politics. With the exception of his housemates, he has few friends, but is usually friendly and well mannered. The housemates tend to approach him with caution, and his behaviour has occasionally cost them popularity. He does not socially interact very often, but has had a sexual fling with former housemate Sabine, and took a liking to Sam in the early parts of the third series. In the fifth episode of the third series, he is shown to be somewhat attracted to Candice, and they later form a relationship. His surname changes twice through the series: in series 1, it is Rowbottom; in series 2, it is MacCallum; and in series 3 and 4, it is McGregor. This is due to wanting to remain as anonymous and off the grid as possible, noting that he redacts his middlename from his Ordnance Survey job application, and has wiped his date of birth from the internet – ultimately, it is confirmed in series 4 that Howard's real surname is McGregor. In the fourth series Howard's reclusion worsens, becoming obsessed with studying for his final exams and partly due to breaking up with Candice. He eventually manages to secure a position at Ordnance Survey, despite his fears of living in London. In keeping with his superior intellect to the rest of the group, he is the highest achieving of all, finishing the year with first-class honours ("a one" or "a first"), and being the only one to leave with secure employment. It is revealed in the last episode of the series that he does not actually live in Scotland as he had led everyone to believe, but rather a few streets down from the house where the gang have been living for three years, and he had neglected to tell anyone because his parents embarrassed him. In a deleted scene, it's revealed that Howard later moves in with JP and Kingsley in Chelsea.
Kimberley Nixon as Josephine "Josie" Jones: A pharmacology student from Aberbeeg, who previously took dentistry and afterwards zoology. While initially coming across as sensible, shy and sweet natured (Oregon describes her as "perfect wife material") Josie soon turns out to be quite stubborn, foul-mouthed, short-tempered and selfish. In addition, she is something of an alcoholic, although she later tries to turn over a new leaf in series 3 when it lands her in trouble. Her personality problems are most often seen in her interactions with Kingsley, with whom she has a complicated and tortured relationship, a result of their mutual attraction. While the two started off on amiable terms, the sexual tension between them grew as a result of numerous heart-to-heart conversations through the paper-thin wall separating their rooms, which was complicated by her failing relationship with boyfriend and later fiancé Dave. In the second series, this becomes even further fraught when Kingsley forms a relationship with her new friend, Heather. Josie moves to Southampton to study zoology at the end of the second series, having been kicked off her dentistry course (due to drilling through someone's cheek while hungover during a dentistry practical). By the third series, they are able to finally form a relationship, and Josie returns to Manchester to take pharmacology. However, numerous attempts at making their relationship work, including a bonding trip, a "relationship amnesty" and exploring an open relationship, only led to further emotional pain for both. The two reluctantly decided to take a break from each other at the end of the third series to ensure that they did not damage their friendship as well. She takes beta blockers, implying she suffers from anxiety or stress. She does not demonstrate much interest in politics, although she often makes sarcastic comments about contentious political issues. In the fourth series, both she and Kingsley's feelings for each other have completely gone, although it is clear that she still feels sadness at its failure. She attempts to remedy this by having meaningless sex with JP, all the while scared of the looming prospect of spending the final year of her degree without her friends. In the latter part of the series, she struggles to come to terms with the fact that she may like JP, and her efforts to do so only hurt his feelings. Eventually, he forces her to acknowledge them publicly to the group, and they agree to form a relationship long-distance. The series ultimately closes with Josie doing a final round of her now-empty house, her sadness at bidding goodbye to her friends and the prospect of an entire year alone in it plain on her face as she leaves for the station.
Charlotte Ritchie as Melissa "Oregon" Shawcross: Oregon is a literature student and, like JP, from a privileged background. An idealist, Oregon is paranoid about how she is perceived by her peers, and believes that her privileged upbringing will negatively affect this. When she first arrives at university, she gives herself the nickname "Oregon", makes a clear effort to hide her background and immediately befriends Vod, the most outgoing and party-loving of the housemates. She attempts to emulate Vod in as many ways as possible, enthusiastically agreeing with every anti-establishment or anti-elitist view Vod expresses, even if she is guilty of what Vod is criticising. Despite discovering the truth about Oregon, Vod remains genuinely fond of her, and the two are close friends. She embarks on an affair with her lecturer, Tony Shales, and later unknowingly forms a relationship with his son, Dylan. The relationships end at the end of the second series. Oregon fancies herself as a political activist, but often displays a lack of world-wariness or understanding of contentious issues. After spending most of the third series running for Student Union presidency, she discovers the difficulty of the post, and spends the early part of the fourth series trying to enjoy the power of the job, despite the obvious lack of respect she commands, and budgetary problems. Eventually, her arrogance and unwillingness to admit her own mistakes lead to her being impeached from the post, and rejected from the prestigious Fulbright Scholarship in the USA. Her horrific final year is capped when she is awarded lower second-class honours (a "2:2"), far lower than her parents expected of her, and when she attempts to apply for a master's degree, she is given a place on Tony Shales's course purely because of his desire to get back together with her. Vod ultimately stands up for her to her overbearing mother, and the series ends with Oregon moving to Laos to write a novel, with Vod accompanying her.
Joe Thomas as Kingsley Owen: A geology student (who switched briefly to drama before reverting to geology in season 1) from Essex, who has only just been let off the leash after having spent many years living on a council estate, caring for his infirm, overbearing mother. He is friendly and charming, and more measured than everyone else, but is also incredibly insecure, unconfident and prone to making rash decisions that he comes to regret. In addition, he is afraid of confrontation and causing distress, but his efforts to avoid these situations inadvertently cause more problems for him. He is also an aspiring musician. He has a tortured relationship with Josie, a result of them sharing a mutual attraction to one another. Despite claiming to have had many sexual encounters in the past, he later reveals he is a virgin and, after a fling with drama student Ruth, is no longer a virgin. He started a relationship with Josie in the third series, but reluctantly agrees to take a break from her at the end of the series in order to salvage what was left of their friendship. Unlike his housemates, who are largely ignorant and idealistic, Kingsley has a reasonably advanced political compass, and his political preference is often hinted to be centre-left. In the fourth series, it is revealed he wishes to work in radio media, and he comes to the horrified realisation that geology might not have been the correct degree. He forms a relationship with a Swiss-Italian woman called Rosa, but she breaks up with him because of his insecurity over the fact she has a son not that much younger than him. Subsequently, he is shocked to discover Josie and JP are having sex, but eventually begrudgingly gives them his approval. At the end of the series, he obtains upper second-class honours, and an unpaid internship in London, and realises this will mean having to return to Essex and live with his mother. He is saved from this fate, however, when JP suggests he come and live with him rent-free in Chelsea.
Jack Whitehall as Jonathan "J.P." Pembersley: JP is a geology student and an Old Stoic who failed to get into a "proper" university. He is arrogant, has an air of cockiness and entitlement about him, and tends to look down on his fellow students. His tendency to make condescending and arrogant remarks annoys the other housemates, although Kingsley, with whom he has a tenuous friendship, usually gives as good as he gets. Unlike Oregon, he is open about his privileged background, and speaks with a posh accent. His efforts to appear "cool" often lead him into trouble. In fact, he is one of the most sensitive characters on the show. On occasion, he will let his guard down, and reveal his inner pain, such as his detached relationship with his parents and troubled childhood, his lack of a love life and the fact that he is indeed insecure about how his privilege is viewed by his peers. This is most notable in the third series, when his failed attempt to court Sam revealed a more downcast and vulnerable side to his personality. He displays only a minor interest in politics, and does not make his political beliefs clear, with the exception of mocking the Labour candidate in the union president election. In the fourth series, it is revealed he doesn't watch the news or keep up to date with current events. It is also revealed he has unrealistic and barely existent career ambitions, and is seemingly doomed to working a job organised by his overbearing older brother, Tomothy. True to form, he finishes the series with third-class honours ("a three" or "a third"). However, after Vod throws a party in his house without his permission, forcing him to take a more authoritative stance against the guests, he finally stands up to his brother and tells him he does not want his job, and to stop treating him like a child, before forcing Josie to acknowledge her feelings for him publicly, rather than hiding them and treating him as if he were repulsive. He also demonstrates how much he values Kingsley as a friend by asking him to come live with him, before revealing he plans to use his family's connections to find employment with Foxtons.

Recurring characters
Tony Gardner as Professor Tony Shales – Oregon's charming, somewhat pretentious English lecturer and love interest turned stalker.
Sara Stewart as Professor Jean Shales (series 1–2) – Tony's wife, whom Oregon initially idolises.  When she learns of Oregon's affairs with both her husband and son, though, their professional relationship ends.
Jack Fox as Ralph (series 1–3) – an Old Stoic from JP's year, and an acquaintance of his.
Robert Webb as Dan (series 1; guest series 2) – Kingsley, JP and Howard's geology lecturer.  He is an inept instructor and overly sensitive about complaints, which makes him seek petty revenge against Kingsley.
James Musgrave as Toby (series 1; guest series 2) – an Old Stoic, and acquaintance of J.P's
Adam Gillen as Brian (series 1) – a nerdy young man who befriends Howard.
Gemma Chan as Ruth (series 1) – a drama student who takes a shine to Kingsley.
Ben McGregor as Dave (series 1) – Josie's boyfriend and fiancé, he is a surly tough guy who marries another woman soon after learning that Josie slept with both JP and Kingsley.
Paul Lamb, "the Invisible Man" (series 1) – an unseen housemate whose presence in (and absence from) the house is barely noticed.
Jelka van Houten as Sabine (series 2–3; guest series 4) – a Dutch PhD student who replaces Paul Lamb as a housemate.  Humourless, daunting, and much older than the others, she finds her housemates generally irritating.
Sophie Wu as Heather (series 2–3) – a British Hong Konger dentistry student and friend of Josie's who begins to date Kingsley, causing friction in her friendship with Josie.
Ronan Raftery as Dylan Shales (series 2) – Oregon's boyfriend, who turns out to be the son of Professors Jean and Tony Shales.
Hannah Britland as Sam (series 3) – a love interest for JP and Howard, over whom they fight, and later a friend and potential love interest for Kingsley.
Faye Marsay as Candice Pelling (series 3): A first-year literature student who is a new tenant in the house in the third series. She is gifted at literature, often making Oregon jealous of her abilities. She and Howard connect emotionally, and eventually form a relationship. Candice leaves the house after the third series, and she and Howard break up after they spend less time together.
Peter Gadiot as Javier (series 3) – Vod's Mexican holiday fling, whom she marries in an attempt to dump him.
Catherine Steadman as Alison (series 3) – the outgoing president of the student union.  She dislikes Oregon and takes satisfaction in her difficulties as student body president.
Richard Goulding as Tomothy (series 4) – J.P.'s older brother who visits the house to discuss J.P.'s future after university.
Ayda Field as Rosa (series 4) – a university support officer and aide to Oregon, who quickly develops a relationship with Kingsley.

Production
Jesse Armstrong and Sam Bain created Fresh Meat'''s characters and wrote the first episode whilst watching The Young Ones on VHS; subsequent episodes were written by other writers. Bain has explained the reasons for this approach: "We always imagined this as a team-written show partly for practical reasons because Peep Show has been recommissioned, and moving forward if we're lucky enough to get another series of Fresh Meat we simply couldn't write two shows at once. So we always knew we wanted to bring other writers on board, some are more experienced, some very talented women writers, and one who had just graduated when we started writing."Fresh Meat is produced by Liverpool-based Lime Pictures and London-based Objective Productions. The programme was filmed at The Sharp Project in Manchester, a £16.5 million studio facility built to fill the void when Granada Studios closed in 2013. The programme is set in Manchester, and some location scenes are filmed on the campus of the real life Manchester Metropolitan University (close to the River Medlock) – including scenes set within the students' union, which are filmed in the students' union of Manchester Metropolitan University. Scenes in the characters' local pub are filmed at the King's Arms in Salford. Many exterior shots were filmed at the University of Manchester's main Oxford Road campus – particularly outside the library – and in series 2, the University of Salford's library and many exterior parts of the campus were used as a set. 28 Hartnell Avenue, the Victorian house in which the students live, is in fact 28 Mayfield Road in Whalley Range, Manchester.

Channel 4 announced that a second series had been commissioned in October 2011. Filming was completed in August 2012, and the series started broadcasting that following October. A third series was confirmed via Twitter following the second series' finale.
Filming of Series 4 began in March 2015 and wrapped on 28 May 2015.

Reception
Critical reaction to the first series' opening episodes was mixed, with reviews becoming more positive as the series progressed. The Guardian gave the opening episode a very positive review, finding it "sharp" and "refreshingly gag-dense".The Independent's review was also positive, saying "what really holds the thing together is an underlying sympathy, the sense that these characters might be comically foolish but they aren't (with some exceptions) contemptible."

However, Michael Deacon in The Daily Telegraph called the opening episode's script "a torrent of prattling self-hatred" and found the episode "drainingly bleak". Rupert Christiansen, also in the Telegraph, was similarly unimpressed, calling it "[p]athetically laboured and over-acted" and "limply written and predictable". Rachel Cooke of New Statesman felt the opening episode was a "damp squib" and commented that this might be because "the writers failed to remember that going to university is also rather melancholic, what with all the loneliness, the strange and soon-to-be-shed new friends and the general exhaustion of trying to act cool and grown-up".

By the end of the first series, the Radio Times said the show had been "full of well-worked plotlines and gorgeous character comedy", and The Daily Telegraph praised "the series' admirable habit of stirring pathos into the flow of gags" as well as complimenting the scripts and performances. The Guardian felt it had "managed to live up to sky-scraping expectations", and Metro said "Originally billed as a university version of The Inbetweeners, Fresh Meat has developed into something much more sophisticated than its more-established sibling."

The second series continued to receive positive reviews, with The Observer declaring the second episode "almost an hour of laugh-out-loud comic astuteness that single-handedly restored faith in the British ability to be funny", while The Independent on Sunday said "First time round, the student sitcom was chipper but clunky fare. But, just as its fresher gang have grown up, so the whole thing has become sharper, wiser, and more lovable".

The third series also continued to receive positive reviews. Andrew Collins of The Guardian identified some similarities between Fresh Meat and The Young Ones, but he suggested that "to say that Fresh Meat is a Young Ones for the Jägerbomb generation does neither show justice" and said "The Young Ones was like being picked up by the lapels and repeatedly shaken. Fresh Meat is more like being invited to stay". Collins also recognised Jack Whitehall's performance as J.P. and refuted Jonathan Ross's quip at the British Comedy Awards that, as an actor, Whitehall has "less range than a North Korean missile", adding that Whitehall's performance deepens with each episode.

Thomas H. Green of The Arts Desk wrote that, after "rocky" earlier episodes of the third season, the finale of the third season of Fresh Meat'' had "retrieved its sterling reputation". Green suggested the circumstances in the seventh episode of the season were incredible and "reality was pushed too far" but conceded that the finale delivered, with Kingsley and Josie's "soul-wringing, half-hearted" attempt at an open relationship and then the "wrenching" dissolution of their relationship for the sake of their friendship; Vod's wildly promising run at president of the student union and then sabotaging her own campaign to mend her friendship with Oregon, who wins but inherits dire straits facing the student union and its executive; the development and progression of Howard and Candice's relationship, culminating in romance; and JP, who "applies for a position" with (or attempts to seduce) Josie (who is in an open relationship) via a PowerPoint presentation, moves on from Sam, cleans the house and attempts to sell it, and laments that he is "horny".

Awards and nominations

Series 1

Series 2

References

External links

2011 British television series debuts
2016 British television series endings
2010s British comedy-drama television series
2010s British sitcoms
2010s college television series
British college television series
Channel 4 comedy dramas
Channel 4 sitcoms
English-language television shows
Television series by All3Media
Television shows set in Manchester
Television shows shot in Manchester

Fresh Meat (TV series)


Étienne Pierre Ventenat (1 March 1757 – 13 August 1808) was a French botanist born in Limoges. He was the brother of naturalist Louis Ventenat (1765–1794).

Ventenat took a trip to England while he was employed as director of the ecclesiastic library Sainte-Geneviève in Paris. While in England, he visited the country's botanical gardens. This inspired him to pursue a career in science. Later he studied under and worked with a botanist named Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle (1746–1800). In 1795, he was elected a member of the Institut national des sciences et des arts. They later changed their name to be the Académie des sciences.

In 1794 he wrote a treatise on the principles of botany. It was called Principes de botanique, expliqués au Lycée républicain par Ventenat. It did not receive much interest when it was released, and Ventenat became so disappointed that he reportedly made efforts to buy all copies of the book and have them destroyed. In 1798 he published a French translation of Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu's Genera plantarum as Tableau du règne végétal selon la méthode de Jussieu. In his translation of the work, Ventenat added information about the properties and uses of plants.

In 1799 he published Description des plantes nouvelles et peu connues, cultivées dans le jardin de J.-M. Cels. This book described plants in the botanical garden of Jacques Philippe Martin Cels (1740–1806). In 1803 he published Le Jardin de la Malmaison because Joséphine de Beauharnais (1763–1814) asked him to write it. He wanted to make sure the rare species of plants found in the gardens and greenhouses of Château de Malmaison were remembered forever. The pictures and drawings in the two aforementioned works were performed by famed botanical artist Pierre-Joseph Redouté (1759–1840). Ventenat is also credited with continuing the work on Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard's Histoire des champignons de la France. This was a landmark (very important) work on mushrooms native to France.

Other works
 Decas Generum Novorum, 1808.

References

 This article is based on a translation of an article from the French Wikipedia.

1808 deaths
1757 births
French botanists
Writers from Nouvelle-Aquitaine
People from Limoges

Étienne Pierre Ventenat


Indrapuri Barrage (also known as the Sone Barrage) is across the Son River in Rohtas district in the Indian state of Bihar.

The Barrage
The Sone Barrage at Indrapuri is  long and is the fourth longest barrage in the world. It was constructed by Hindustan Construction Company (HCC),the company which constructed the 2,253 m long Farakka Barrage, the longest in the world. Construction of the barrage was taken up in the 1960s and it was commissioned in 1968.

The Canal System
In 1873–74, one of the oldest irrigation systems in the country was developed with an anicut across the Son at Dehri. Water from the Son fed canal systems on both sides of the river and irrigated large areas.  A barrage was constructed 8 km upstream of the anicut. Two link canals connected the new reservoir to the old irrigation system and also extended it.

Sir John Houlton, the veteran British administrator, described (in 1949) the Son canal system as follows, "This is easily the largest canal system in Bihar; there are 209 miles of main canals, 149 of branch canals and 1,235 of distributaries… The canals are of enormous benefit to cultivation. They have converted a large area of infertile land into a richly productive area."

Future plans
There is a proposal for the construction of a dam across the Son, between Kadwan in Garhwa district of Jharkhand and Matiwan in Rohtas district of Bihar.

As per the National River Linking Project of the National Water Development Agency, there is a proposal for linking the Ganges with the Son, through the 149.10 km Chunar-Sone Barrage Link Canal. The canal will start from the right side of the Ganges near Chunar tehsil of Mirzapur district in UP and would link to the Indrapuri barrage. There would be three lifts at three places on the route. The lifts would be of 38.8 m, 16.10 m and 4.4 m.

References

Tourist attractions in Rohtas district
Dams in Bihar
Dams completed in 1968
Dams on the Son River
1968 establishments in Bihar
Canals in Bihar
20th-century architecture in India

Indrapuri Barrage


Steven Jay Ross (born Steven Jay Rechnitz; April 5, 1927 – December 20, 1992) was an American businessman and CEO of Time Warner (now Warner Bros. Discovery), Warner Communications, and Kinney National Services, Inc. Ross is also known for helping to popularize soccer in the United States.

Early life and education
Ross was born Steven Jay Rechnitz on April 5, 1927 in Brooklyn, New York City, the son of Jewish immigrants. His father—who lost all his money during the Great Depression—changed the family name to Ross in hope of finding work with fewer struggles. Ross attended Paul Smith's College for two years and then joined the U.S. Navy. After his military service, he went to work at his uncle's store in the Garment District in Manhattan.

Career
In 1953, he married Carol Rosenthal, the daughter of a Manhattan funeral home owner, Edward Rosenthal, who operated the largest funeral company in the United States, Riverside Memorial Chapel, where he accepted employment as a funeral director. After noticing that the limousines used in funeral processions were not being used at night, he convinced his father-in-law to let him establish a separate company that would lease out the vehicles in the evenings. The company was solidly profitable and enabled Ross to obtain bank financing to start a rental company, Abbey Rent a Car.

He later merged Abbey with a parking lot operator, the Kinney Parking Company, which was then owned by underworld crime figures Manny Kimmel and Abner Zwillman, and added an office cleaning business (which was jointly owned by the funeral home and a cousin of his father-in-law). Kinney was taken public in 1962 with a market valuation of $12.5 million. In 1964, Kinney purchased wood flooring manufacturer Circle Floor from Seymour and Paul Milstein for $15 million with Paul remaining as manager of the unit until 1971.

Ross served as company president and moved the firm from downtown New York to 10 Rockefeller Plaza. In 1966, Kinney expanded into the entertainment business by purchasing the Ashley-Famous talent agency (founded by Ted Ashley) and then in 1969, Kinney paid $400 million for the ailing Warner Bros.-Seven Arts film studio and television and record business. Three years later, after spinning off its non-entertainment assets, Kinney National Services renamed itself Warner Communications with Ross serving as co-CEO from 1969 to 1972.

Warner Communications/Time Warner
In 1971, Warner expanded into the cable television business by purchasing various small cable companies. Ross competed directly with the Big Three television networks that dominated television broadcasting, believing in the potential of narrowcasting whereby separate cable channels were developed to target specific audiences with narrower interests, mirroring the radio station model. This pioneering approach led to the creation of the successful cable TV channels MTV and Nickelodeon which were both later sold at a great profit.

In 1972, Ross was appointed CEO, president and chairman of Warner Communications. He introduced an incentive-based compensation program and delegated responsibility to his middle managers. His support and commitment to his employees, combined with lucrative financial incentives and a hands-off management style, inspired deep loyalty. Many employees saw him as a father figure: "Steve was very much what I wish my father was," Steven Spielberg said. Spielberg dedicated his 1993 film Schindler's List to Ross.

In 1976, Warner Communications purchased Atari, Inc. and had great success with its Atari 2600 consoles. But by 1983, Atari collapsed in the wake of the video games crash that same year, leaving Warner Communications vulnerable to a hostile takeover. Rupert Murdoch tried to buy Warner, but Ross was able to impede him by selling 20 percent of Warner to Chris-Craft Industries (then controlled by Herbert J. Siegel).

In 1979, needing financing to further expand its cable television business, Ross partnered with American Express, convincing its executives on the potential of selling AmEx credit cards direct to Warner cable TV customers. Warner-AmEx Cable was established and Warner received a much needed capital injection. AmEx's cross-sale expectations never materialized and in 1984, Warner bought out American Express's remaining share. The cable TV business eventually became the cornerstone of the company until being spun off in 2009.

In 1989, Warner Communications was merged with Time Inc. in a $14 billion deal creating the largest media and entertainment company at the time. The merger was seen as a perfect fit: Warner's business was 40 percent international while Time's business was 91% percent domestic; Warner had no magazines while Time had 23 titles; Warner had the world's largest record business while Time was not involved in music; and both were big in the capital intensive cable business where economies of scale mattered. Originally advertised as a combination of equals with both Ross and J. Richard Munro of Time Inc. listed as Co-Chief Operating Officers, within a year of the merger, Ross became the sole CEO. By 1989, Time Warner owned Time, People and Sports Illustrated magazines (the three largest advertising draws in American publishing); the Warner Bros. studio in Hollywood; the Warner, Atlantic, Elektra and Asylum record companies; Warner Books; DC Comics; Home Box Office and some of the country's largest cable television systems.

Visionary
Ross moved before many of his competitors to bet heavily on the worldwide potential of cable television, records, videos, and other experiments. Some of his ideas were successful and others failed, but he influenced the development of media and entertainment with his ideas. "If you're not a risk-taker," he once said, "you should get the hell out of business."

Ross's early interest in cable television helped him envision narrowcasting—cable channels created for specific audiences—MTV and Nickelodeon were expressly launched and developed to serve young audiences. Today, these two channels are still successful, and the cable television universe is now filled with hundreds of channels, specializing in many topics.

Other projects that Ross supported were not as successful as MTV and Nickelodeon, but certainly left a mark in television and helped shape the TV we are enjoying today. One important project was QUBE. Qube was launched in 1977 in Columbus, Ohio and was Ross' vision of how television could become interactive. Although this trial was not successful, it was an important step for what became known as advanced television. In some ways, the Qube project failed because it was ahead of its time. QUBE led to further attempts by Warner to integrate more services to cable television. Prominent among these was the Full Service Network that was launched in 1994 in Orlando, Florida.
Ross also supported Atari from 1977 to 1983, taking the first widely successful video game console to millions of homes around the world. For several years, Atari was a lucrative business for Warner Communications, but in 1983 it collapsed.
Although many of Ross' overly ambitious projects failed, some of these failures shaped future success in the video game and cable industries.

Soccer
Known for promoting and popularizing soccer in the United States, Ross was amongst the group of people who founded the New York Cosmos in 1971. Backed by his employer Warner Communications, the club brought soccer superstars Pelé and Franz Beckenbauer, as well as other prominent players such as Carlos Alberto, Vladislav Bogićević, Johan Neeskens, and Giorgio Chinaglia.

Ross was introduced to the sport during the late 1960s by one of his business executives Nesuhi Ertegun from Atlantic Records, the record company co-founded by Nesuhi's brother and also soccer enthusiast Ahmet Ertegun. The two brothers worked for Ross in the early 1970s after Atlantic got bought in 1967 by Warner Bros.-Seven Arts that in turn got bought by Ross's Kinney National Company two years later. When Nesuhi Ertegun had a business opportunity that would require leaving the company, Ross offered anything in an attempt to keep him. Ertegun expressed a desire to have a soccer club created and Ross, a fan of sports in general, obliged. Following the 1970 FIFA World Cup in Mexico that the Erteguns used to further establish contacts in the soccer world by throwing lavish parties, one of which was attended by Pelé, the brothers came back to New York and held Ross to his promise. In turn, Ross and longtime associate Jay Emmett reached out to eight other top executives and convinced them to contribute $35,000 each towards establishing a new soccer franchise that would compete in the struggling North American Soccer League.

Founding the New York Cosmos
The franchise called the New York Cosmos was created in early 1971 with Englishman Clive Toye as its first general manager and 37-year-old Gordon Bradley as the player/coach. Playing out their debut season in almost empty stadiums with virtually no media coverage, the Cosmos were a rag-tag semi-professional operation, but most importantly Ross was hooked and very much interested to see the team do well. Scared of losing money, the ten original investors sold their stake in the franchise to newly created Warner Communications (the company where Ross was CEO and chairman) for $1. Essentially, with the sale, Ross added the modest franchise to the vast media empire he was in charge of running.

Bringing Pelé to America
Following the first few seasons in obscurity, Ross decided that signing a big marquee name was the way forward to achieving greater prominence and ultimately securing the league's long-term dream—a network television deal.

The idea of bringing Pelé to America had actually been around for a while as NASL commissioner Phil Woosnam and eventual Cosmos GM Clive Toye discussed it as far back as 1970 and even made an approach to the player in spring 1971, one month after the Cosmos had been formed. However, in 1975 with Ross willing to spend the big money, conditions were finally there to make the dream transfer happen. He sent Emmett, Toye, Cosmos vice-president Raphael de la Sierra, and Nesuhi Ertegun to Brazil where they met with 34-year-old Pelé at a seaside resort and played soccer with him on the beach. Since by this time Real Madrid and Juventus also started sniffing around Pelé in an attempt to bring him to Europe for the first time, the Cosmos delegation used the possibility of making soccer big in a country new to the sport as their main lure and by the end of the day, the Brazilian agreed in principle to come to New York. The actual negotiation with Warner Communications lawyer Norman Samnick, who was deployed to Brazil by Ross, turned out to be a little more difficult: Ross was willing to risk $2 million for three years of play while Pelé demanded $5 million for two years. In the end, the deal agreed was a complex five-part contract worth around $4.5 million in total that included $1 million for three years of play, $1 million for ten years of marketing rights, $1 million for a fourteen-year PR contract, and another $1 million for a music contract. Warner Communications money thus managed to lure arguably then still the biggest name in soccer out of retirement. In addition to huge amounts of money, due to Pelé's special status in Brazil as the country's national treasure, getting him to leave his homeland for the first time in his career involved a lot of politics as well, especially when the Brazilian president demanded that Pelé play another year in Brazil for the "good of his people". Ross called on his political connections in an attempt to soften the Brazilian government's position and eventually managed to get to the US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, who personally called his Brazilian counterpart telling him that Pelé's move to New York would be a huge step forward in the US–Brazil relations.

Pelé's arrival created a media sensation and overnight transformed the fortunes of soccer in the USA. From the moment he signed his contract at the 21 Club on June 10, 1975 in front of ecstatic Ross and a crush of worldwide media, the player's every move was followed, bringing attention and credibility to the sport in America. His debut NASL match five days later versus Dallas Tornado at the dilapidated Downing Stadium on Randall's Island was broadcast live on CBS network. It was the Cosmos tenth match of the season and led by the Brazilian, who recorded an assist and a goal, they managed to come back from two goals down for the 2–2 final score. The contest was also Pelé's first competitive match in eight months since his last outing with Santos FC in October 1974. He would eventually end up with 5 goals in his debut season during which his biggest challenge became figuring out how to fit into this team of journeymen players with abilities far inferior to his. Still his biggest impact was on the sport in New York and the rest of America as Cosmos' home attendance got tripled in just half the season he was there. They also played in front of huge crowds on the road since everyone wanted to see Pelé – towards the end of the season when he pulled a hamstring and couldn't suit up, 20,000 fans in Philadelphia showed up just to see him in street clothes. Furthermore, the league's profile got raised as other NASL teams – encouraged by Ross' investment in Pelé and the prominence his arrival brought to the Cosmos franchise – started bringing over more big-name aging foreign stars such as George Best who was about to turn 30, 31-year-old Rodney Marsh, 34-year-old Geoff Hurst, and 35-year-old Bobby Moore.

More big names arrive in New York
Since the Cosmos failed to make the playoffs in Pelé's debut season, for the next season, Ross decided to complement his superstar with more prominent names from overseas, the biggest of which was 29-year-old temperamental Italian striker Giorgio Chinaglia from S.S. Lazio. The striker became an undeniable goal-scoring hit on the pitch with 19 goals in 19 league appearances that season, but his style of play as well as his egotistical and arrogant manner also got him many detractors both within and outside of the club. However, he endeared himself to Ross as the two soon became very close friends. Due to increased interest, the team moved to Yankee Stadium. Though the Brazilian midfield organizer and the Italian striker quickly developed an uneasy relationship, thanks to their assists and goals, respectively, the club managed to make the playoffs, losing to underdogs Tampa Bay Rowdies led by Rodney Marsh in the conference semifinal series 3 games to 1. Pelé still got the league MVP honors and Chinaglia became the league's top goalscorer. Though furious over the early playoff exit, Ross immediately took the team on an exhibition summer tour of Europe with stops to play friendly games in England, France, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy. Though hugely expensive, the tour generated plenty of publicity for Warner Communications.

The 1977 NASL season—Pelé's final season before retirement—began at the newly built Giants Stadium in New Jersey as New York Cosmos dropped "New York" from its name to become just the Cosmos. With the new giant home, Ross decided to Americanize the experience of going to a Cosmos game with cheerleaders, halftime show, and mascots. On the field, however, the squad got internationalized even further with a roster that had players from every corner of the world. Attendance rose slightly to just over 20,000 in the first five games (3 of which Cosmos lost), but still not enough to Ross' liking. In search of more people in the seats, Ross decided to raise the bar again. He reached for the checkbook midway through the season and looked oversees for more big stars, signing 31-year-old German superstar Franz Beckenbauer from Bayern Munich in May 1977. The German's debut was a 4–2 loss away at Tampa while the following week Cosmos beat Toronto at home in front of 31,000 fans. Ross was happy with the attendance increase, but wanted even more and to that end enlisted celebrities that did business with Warner Communications to make publicized appearances at Cosmos home games. People like Barbra Streisand, Mick Jagger, Phil Collins, Robert Redford, Muhammad Ali, Quincy Jones, Andy Warhol, Henry Kissinger, Steven Spielberg, etc. became a regular sight in the Cosmos locker room and in the luxury boxes at the Giants Stadium. Other changes were in order too as general manager Toye and head coach Bradley got fired and Tampa Bay's Eddie Firmani became the new coach. The team's striker Chinaglia was said to be the driving influence on Ross to hire Chinaglia's good friend Firmani as Chinaglia and Ross developed a personal relationship. Chinaglia thrived under Firmani, scoring goals one after another. The team's play as well as the attendance also started to pick up – led by Pele's hat-trick, the Cosmos finally managed to avenge the losses to Tampa Bay by beating them at home in front 62,394 fans. However, this was followed by another inexplicable dip in form with five losses in seven games. Ross reacted immediately, throwing more big money into the squad, signing Brazil national team's former inspirational captain defender Carlos Alberto who was about to turn 33 years of age. He joined the squad with only four games remaining in the 1977 regular season. By this time, the attendance was rising sharply as the team as well as the league started to catch major buzz. The summer of 1977 was the franchise's first true foray into big time: on August 14, the Giants Stadium was sold out for the Cosmos first game of the playoffs against Fort Lauderdale Strikers with 77,691 people in the stands. The Cosmos finally won the title defeating Seattle Sounders in the Soccer Bowl during late August as Beckenbauer became league MVP and Pelé retired in style.

Heading US bid to host the 1986 FIFA World Cup
In November 1982, when Colombia, the originally selected host of the 1986 FIFA World Cup, gave up on organizing the event, for economic reasons, Ross called upon all his soccer connections and campaigned hard to bring the tournament to the US including meeting with FIFA president João Havelange, but in May 1983 FIFA decided on Mexico as the replacement host. The United States eventually hosted the World Cup in 1994.

Personal life
Ross was married three times:
In 1953 he married Carol Rosenthal, daughter of Edward Rosenthal. They divorced in 1978. They had two children:
Toni Ross Salaway. She was married to Jeffrey H. Salaway, who died in 2001. They owned and operated Nick & Toni's restaurant in East Hampton, New York. They had two children, Sara and Noah.
Mark Ross, the co-founder with Sir George Martin of music production company, GrandMaster Music. Mark Ross had two children with his wife Cinthia: Caroline Ross (born 2002) and Brian Ross (born 2001).
In 1980 he married Amanda (née Mortimer) Burden, the daughter of Barbara (née Cushing) Mortimer (who later married CBS chairman, William S. Paley). They divorced 16 months later.
In 1982 he married Courtney Sale, daughter of a prosperous Bryan, Texas, family. She dated Ross before his marriage to Amanda Burden and upon their divorce, they rekindled the relationship, eventually marrying. They remained married until his death in 1992. They had a daughter, Nicole.

Death
Ross died on December 20, 1992, due to complications of prostate cancer, from which he suffered in his final years.  Three months later, when Clint Eastwood accepted the Best Picture Oscar for Unforgiven, he dedicated it to Ross's memory.

Legacy
Warner Bros. Studios has named its theater on the backlot of its historic Burbank studio property in honor of their longtime boss, and the UJA-Federation's Entertainment, Media & Communication Division has recognized Ross' commitment to philanthropy by naming the humanitarian award at its annual Leadership Award Dinner in his honor.

Awards and honors
In 1988, Ross was the recipient of the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

See also
 Master of the Game: Steve Ross and the Creation of Time Warner by Connie Bruck (Simon & Schuster, 1994)
 Once in a Life Time: The Extraordinary Story of the New York Cosmos (Paul Crowder and John Dower, 2006)

References

1927 births
1992 deaths
American chief executives
Warner Bros. Discovery people
Businesspeople from Brooklyn
National Soccer Hall of Fame members
American soccer chairmen and investors
North American Soccer League (1968–1984) executives
American media executives
People from East Hampton (town), New York
20th-century American businesspeople
Burials at Green River Cemetery
Philanthropists from New York (state)
20th-century American philanthropists
20th-century American Jews

Steve Ross (businessman)


A sealed lead acid battery or gel cell is a lead acid battery that has the sulfuric acid electrolyte coagulated (thickened) so it cannot spill out. They are partially sealed, but have vents in case gases are accidentally released for example by overcharging. They can be used for smaller applications where they are turned up side down. They are more expensive than normal lead acid batteries, but they are also safer.

They use different chemicals than dry cells, so they are rechargeable.

Related pages
Battery
Lead acid battery
Table of batteries

Batteries

Sealed lead acid battery


New Brunswick (postal abbreviation NB) is a province in the eastern part of Canada. The capital city of New Brunswick is Fredericton. Other large cities are Saint John and Moncton. More than 750,000 people live in New Brunswick.

The province is bordered by Quebec in the west, Nova Scotia in the east and the American state of Maine in the south. There is a link to Prince Edward Island also.

The English and French languages are both spoken in New Brunswick, and it is the only province in Canada where both languages are official. This is because about 33% of the people living in New Brunswick speak French.

Some industries including forestry, mining, and farming are important to the province,  and especially fishing since it is near the Atlantic Ocean.

References

Other websites

Official site of the Government of New Brunswick
Official site of Tourism New Brunswick
New Brunswick at the Department of Canadian Heritage
Maritime Tourism
Symbols of New Brunswick
New Brunswick Museum
New Brunswick Lighthouses
Historical and Genealogical Resources of New Brunswick historical census, birth, marriage and death records, immigration, settlement, biography, cemeteries, burial records, land records, First Nations and more
From Louis to Lord: New Brunswick Elections, 1960–2003

New Brunswick


The received view of theories is a position in the philosophy of science that identifies a scientific theory with a set of propositions which are considered to be linguistic objects, such as axioms.  Frederick Suppe describes the position of the received view by saying that it identifies scientific theories with "axiomatic calculi in which theoretical terms are given a partial observation interpretation by mean of correspondence rules."  The received view is generally associated with the logical empiricists.

Recently, the received view of theories has been displaced by the semantic view of theories as the dominant position in theory formulation in the philosophy of science.

Notes

Metatheory of science
Logical positivism

Received view of theories


International PEN is a worldwide association of writers. It was founded in London in 1921 to increase friendship and intellectual co-operation among writers everywhere. At first, he letters P, E, and N stood for "Poets, Essayists and Novelists". Now the group includes any other kinds of writers, such as journalists and historians.
Other goals included: to make the role of literature stronger in developing international understanding and world culture; to fight for freedom of expression; and to act as a powerful voice to help writers who are harassed, imprisoned, and sometimes killed for their views. It is the world's oldest human rights organization.

Role of PEN

PEN is a non-governmental organization that has a formal consultative relations with UNESCO and Special Consultative Status with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations.

The first PEN Club was founded in London in 1921 by Catherine Amy Dawson Scott. John Galsworthy was its first President. The first members included Joseph Conrad, Elizabeth Craig, George Bernard Shaw, and H.G. Wells.

The club established these goals:
To promote intellectual co-operation and understanding among writers;
To create a world community of writers that would emphasize the central role of literature in the development of world culture; and,
To defend literature against the many threats to its survival which the modern world poses.

Past Presidents of International PEN have included Malcolm Afford, Alberto Moravia, Heinrich Böll, Arthur Miller, Mario Vargas Llosa, Homero Aridjis and Jiří Gruša. The current President is John Ralston Saul and the current Executive Director is Caroline McCormick.

International PEN has its headquarters in London. There are also 145 independent PEN Centers in 104 countries around the world. Each of these centers are open to qualified writers, journalists, translators, historians and others actively engaged in any branch of literature. Nationality, race, color or religion cannot effect membership.

PEN Affiliated Awards

PEN awards dozens of literary awards each year. Some examples include:

The PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction
The PEN/Malamud Award, for excellence in the art of Short Fiction
The PEN/O. Henry Prize Stories (a yearly anthology, not an award)

PEN Charter
Literature, national though it be in origin, knows no frontiers, and should remain common currency among nations in spite of political or international upheavals.

In all circumstances, and particularly in time of war, works of art and libraries, the heritage of humanity at large, should be left untouched by national or political passion.

Members of PEN should at all times use what influence they have in favor of good understanding and mutual respect among nations; they pledge themselves to do their utmost to dispel race, class, and national hatreds and to champion the ideal of one humanity living in peace in the world.

PEN stands for the principle of unhampered transmission of thought within each nation and among all nations, and members pledge themselves to oppose any form of suppression of freedom of expression in their country or their community.

PEN declares for a free press and opposes arbitrary censorship in time of peace. It believes that the necessary advance of the world toward a more highly organized political and economic order renders free criticism of governments, administrations, and institutions imperative. And since freedom implies voluntary restraint, members pledge themselves to oppose such evils of a free press as mendacious publication, deliberate falsehood, and distortion of facts for political and personal ends.

Writers in Prison Committee
International PEN's Writers in Prison Committee works to help persecuted writers worldwide. The Writers in Prison Committee monitors the cases of over 900 writers who have been imprisoned, tortured, threatened, attacked, made to disappear, and killed for the peaceful practice of their profession. It publishes a bi-annual Case List  documenting free expression violations against writers around the world. This committee was started in 1960 in response to increasing attempts to silence voices of dissent by imprisoning writers,

Notable Members of International PEN
Homero Aridjis, President Emeritus.
Heinrich Böll
Joseph Conrad
Elizabeth Craig
Hermann Friedmann
Robie Macauley
Arthur Miller
Harold Pinter
Alfred Schmidt
George Bernard Shaw
H. G. Wells

References

 German Writers in French Exile, 1933-1940, by Martin Mauthner (London: 2007), .

Other websites
 International PEN
 PEN American Center (NYC)
 PEN Center USA (L.A.)
 PEN Canada
 PEN Sierra Leone
 PEN Turkish
 English PEN
 PEN Esperanto
 PEN South Africa
 PEN Poem Relay website, a protest related to the Beijing Olympics

International organizations
1921 establishments in Europe
Organisations based in London
Cultural organizations
Human rights organisations in the United Kingdom
1920s establishments in the United Kingdom

International PEN