Normal distribution (distribusi normal) mangrupa hal anu penting dina probability distribution di loba widang.
Biasa ogé disebut Gaussian distribution, hususna dina widang fisika jeung rékayasa.
Dina kaayaan sabenerna kumpulan distribusi mibanda bentuk anu sarupa, bédana ngan dina paraméter location jeung scale: mean jeung simpangan baku. Standard normal distribution nyaéta distribusi normal anu mibanda nilai mean sarua jeung nol sarta nilai standar deviasi sarua jeung hiji. Sabab bentuk grafik dénsitas probabilitas mangrupa bell, sering disebut bell curve.

Sajarah

Distribusi normal mimiti dikenalkeun ku de Moivre dina artikel taun 1733 (dicitak ulang edisi kaduana dina The Doctrine of Chances, 1738) dina kontek "pendekatan" sebaran binomial keur n anu loba.  Hasil de Moivre diteruskeun ku Laplace dina bukuna Analytical Theory of Probabilities (1812), mangsa kiwari disebut Theorem of de Moivre-Laplace.

Laplace ngagunakeun distribusi normal keur analysis of errors dina percobaanna. Method of least squares nu kacida pentingna dikenalkeun ku Legendre dina taun 1805. Gauss, ogé ngakukeun yén manéhna geus maké métodeu  anu sarua ti mimiti taun 1794, justified it rigorously in 1809 by assuming a normal distribution of the errors.

Istilah "bell curve" ngacu ka Jouffret nu ngagunakeun watesan "bell surface" dina taun 1872 keur bivariate normal dina komponen bébas (independent). Istilah "sebaran normal" "ditemukan" sacara sewang-sewangan ku Charles S. Peirce, Francis Galton jeung Wilhelm Lexis kira-kira taun 1875 [Stigler]. This terminology is unfortunate, since it reflects and encourages the fallacy that "everything is Gaussian". (See the discussion of "occurrence" below).

Yen sebaran disebut sebaran normal atawa Gaussian, ngagantikeun sebaran de Moivrean,
is just an instance of Stigler's law of eponymy:
"No scientific discovery is named after its original discoverer".

Spesifikasi sebaran normal

Aya sababaraha jalan keur nangtukeun random variable. Anu paling ngagambarkeun nyaéta probability density function (plot at the top), which represents how likely éach value of the random variable is. The cumulative density function is a conceptually cléaner way to specify the same information, but to the untrained eye its plot is much less informative (see below). Equivalent ways to specify the normal distribution are: the moments, the cumulants, the characteristic function, the moment-generating function, and the cumulant-generating function. Some of these are very useful for théoretical work, but not intuitive. See probability distribution for a discussion.

All of the cumulants of the normal distribution are zero, except the first two.

Fungsi probabiliti densiti

Fungsi dénsitas probabilitas dina sebaran normal nu mana méan μ jeung simpangan baku σ (sarua jeung, varian σ2) mangrupa conto  fungsi Gauss,

(Tempo ogé fungsi eksponensial jeung pi.) Lamun variabel acak X mibanda distribusi ieu, bisa dituliskeun X ~ N(μ, σ2). Lamun μ = 0 jeung σ = 1, distribusi disebut distribusi standar normal, rumusna

Gambar di luhur nunjukkeun grafik probability density function tina sebaran normal nu mana μ = 0 jeung sababaraha nila σ.

For all normal distributions,
the density function is symmetric about its méan value. About 68% of the aréa under the curve is within one standard deviation of the méan, 95.5% within two standard deviations, and 99.7%  within three standard deviations. The inflection points of the curve occur at one standard deviation away from the méan.

Fungsi Sebaran Kumulatif

Fungsi sebaran kumulatif (saterusna disebut cdf) hartina probabilitas di mana nilai variabel X leuwih leutik tinimbang x, jeung digambarkeun dina watesan fungsi densiti nyaéta

Standar normal cdf, sacara konvensional dilambangkeun ku , mangrupa nilai cdf umum di-evaluasi ku  jeung ,

The standard normal cdf can be expressed in terms of a special function called the error function, as

The following graph shows the cumulative distribution function for values of z from -4 to +4:

On this graph, we see the probability that a standard normal variable has a value less than 0.25 is approximately equal to 0.60.

Generating functions

Moment generating function

Fungsi karakteristik

Fungsi karakteristik dihartikeun salaku nilai ekspektasi
.
Keur sebaran normal, ieu bisa ditembongkeun dina fungsi karakteristik nyaéta

saperti nu katempo ku kuadrat eksponen nu lengkep.

Pasipatan

 Lamun X ~ N(μ, σ2) sarta a sarta b mangrupa wilangan riil, mangka aX + b ~ N(aμ + b, (aσ)2).
 If X1 ~ N(μ1, σ12) and X2 ~ N(μ2, σ22), and X1 and X2 are independent, then X1 + X2 ~ N(μ1 + μ2, σ12 + σ22).
 If X1, ..., Xn are independent standard normal variables, then X12 + ... + Xn2 has a sebaran chi-kuadrat with n degrees of freedom.

Standardizing normal random variables

As a consequence of Property 1, it is possible to relate all normal random variables to the standard normal.

If X is a normal random variable with méan μ and variance σ2, then

is a standard normal random variable: Z~N(0,1).
An important consequence is that the cdf of a general normal distribution is therefore

Conversely, if Z is a standard normal random variable, then

is a normal random variable with méan μ and variance σ2.

The standard normal distribution has been tabulated, and the other normal distributions are simple transformations of the standard one.
Therefore, one can use tabulated values of the cdf of the standard normal distribution to find values of the cdf of a general normal distribution.

Generating normal random variables

For computer simulations, it is often useful to generate values that have a normal distribution.
There are several methods; the most basic is to invert the standard normal cdf. More efficient methods are also known.
One such method is the Box-Muller transform.
The Box-Muller transform takes two uniformly distributed values as input and maps them to two normally distributed values.
This requires generating values from a uniform distribution, for which many methods are known. See also random number generators.

The Box-Muller transform is a consequence of Property 3 and the fact that the chi-square distribution with two degrees of freedom is an exponential random variable (which is éasy to generate).

The central limit theorem

The normal distribution has the very important property that
under certain conditions, the distribution of a sum of a large number of independent variables is approximately normal.
This is the so-called central limit theorem.

The practical importance of the central limit théorem is that the normal distribution can be used as an approximation to some other distributions.

 Sebaran binomial mibanda paraméter n sarta p ngadeukeutan kana normal keur n nu badag sarta p teu deukeut ka 1 atawa 0. Pendekatan sebaran normal mibanda méan μ = np sarta simpangan baku σ = (n p (1 - p))1/2.
 A Poisson distribution with paraméter λ is approximately normal for large λ. The approximating normal distribution has méan μ = λ and standard deviation σ = √λ.

Whether these approximations are sufficiently accurate depends on the purpose for which they are needed, and the rate of convergence to the normal distribution.
It is typically the case that such approximations are less accurate in the tails of the distribution.

Occurrence

Approximately normal distributions occur in many situations, as a result of the central limit theorem.
When there is réason to suspect the presence of a large number of small effects acting additively, it is réasonable to assume that observations will be normal.
There are statistical methods to empirically test that assumption.

Effects can also act as multiplicative (rather than additive) modifications. In that case, the assumption of normality is not justified, and it is the logarithm of the variable of interest that is normally distributed. The distribution of the directly observed variable is then called log-normal.

Finally, if there is a single external influence which has a large effect on the variable under consideration, the assumption of normality is not justified either. This is true even if, when the external variable is held constant, the resulting distributions are indeed normal. The full distribution will be a superposition of normal variables, which is not in general normal. This is related to the théory of errors (see below).

To summarize, here's a list of situations where approximate normality
is sometimes assumed. For a fuller discussion, see below.
 In counting problems (so the central limit théorem includes a discrete-to-continuum approximation) where reproductive random variables are involved, such as
 Binomial random variables, associated to yes/no questions;
 Poisson random variables, associates to rare events;
 In physiological méasurements of biological specimens:
 The logarithm of méasures of size of living tissue (length, height, skin aréa, weight);
 The length of inert appendages (hair, claws, nails, teeth) of biological specimens, in the direction of growth; presumably the thickness of tree bark also falls under this category;
 Other physiological méasures may be normally distributed, but there is no réason to expect that a priori;
 Méasurement errors are assumed to be normally distributed, and any deviation from normality must be explained;
 Financial variables
 The logarithm of interest rates, exchange rates, and inflation; these variables behave like compound interest, not like simple interest, and so are multiplicative;
 Stock-market indices are supposed to be multiplicative too, but some reséarchers claim that they are log-Lévy variables instéad of lognormal;
 Other financial variables may be normally distributed, but there is no réason to expect that a priori;
 Light intensity
 The intensity of laser light is normally distributed;
 Thermal light has a Bose-Einstein distribution on very short time scales, and a normal distribution on longer timescales due to the central limit théorem.

Of relevance to biology and economics is the fact that complex systems tend to display power laws rather than normality.

Photon counts

Light intensity from a single source varies with time, and is usually assumed to be normally distributed. However, quantum mechanics interprets méasurements of light intensity as photon counting. Ordinary light sources which produce light by thermal emission, should follow a Poisson distribution or Bose-Einstein distribution on very short time scales. On longer time scales (longer than the coherence time), the addition of independent variables yields an approximately normal distribution. The intensity of laser light, which is a quantum phenomenon, has an exactly normal distribution.

Measurement errors

Repéated méasurements of the same quantity are expected to yield results which are clustered around a particular value. If all major sources of errors have been taken into account, it is assumed that the remaining error must be the result of a large number of very small additive effects, and hence normal. Deviations from normality are interpreted as indications of systematic errors which have not been taken into account. Note that this is the central assumption of the mathematical theory of errors.

Physical characteristics of biological specimens

The overwhelming biological evidence is that bulk growth processes of living tissue proceed by multiplicative, not additive, increments, and that therefore méasures of body size should at most follow a lognormal rather than normal distribution. Despite common claims of normality, the sizes of plants and animals is approximately lognormal. The evidence and an explanation based on modéls of growth was first published in the classic book

Huxley, Julian: Problems of Relative Growth (1932)

Differences in size due to sexual dimorphism, or other polymorphisms like the worker/soldier/queen division in social insects, further maké the joint distribution of sizes deviate from lognormality.

The assumption that linéar size of biological specimens is normal léads to a non-normal distribution of weight (since weight/volume is roughly the 3rd power of length, and gaussian distributions are only preserved by linéar transformations), and conversely assuming that weight is normal léads to non-normal lengths. This is a problem, because there is no a priori réason why one of length, or body mass, and not the other, should be normally distributed. Lognormal distributions, on the other hand, are preserved by powers so the "problem" goes away if lognormality is assumed.

 blood pressure of adult humans is supposed to be normally distributed, but only after separating males and females into different populations (éach of which is normally distributed)
 The length of inert appendages such as hair, nails, teet, claws and shells is expected to be normally distributed if méasured in the direction of growth. This is because the growth of inert appendages depends on the size of the root, and not on the length of the appendage, and so proceeds by additive increments. Hence, we have an example of a sum of very many small lognormal increments approaching a normal distribution. Another plausible example is the width of tree trunks, where a new thin ring if produced every yéar whose width is affected by a large number of factors.

Financial variables

Because of the exponential nature of interest and inflation, financial indicators such as interest rates, stock values, or commodity prices maké good examples of multiplicative behaviour. As such, they should not be expected to be normal, but lognormal.

Benoît Mandelbrot, the popularizer of fractals, has claimed that even the assumption of lognormality is flawed.

Lifetime

Other examples of variables that are not normally distributed include the lifetimes of humans or mechanical devices. Examples of distributions used in this connection are the sebaran eksponensial (memoryless) and the Weibull distribution. In general, there is no réason that waiting times should be normal, since they are not directly related to any kind of additive influence.

Test scores

The IQ score of an individual for example can be seen as the result of many small additive influences: many genes and many environmental factors all play a role.

 IQ scores and other ability scores are approximately normally distributed. For most IQ tests, the méan is 100 and the standard deviation is 15.

Criticisms: test scores are discrete variable associated with the number of correct/incorrect answers, and as such they are related to the binomial. Moreover (see this USENET post), raw IQ test scores are customarily 'massaged' to force the distribution of IQ scores to be normal. Finally, there is no widely accepted model of intelligence, and the link to IQ scores let alone a relationship between influences on intelligence and additive variations of IQ, is subject to debate.

Tempo ogé

 multivariate normal distribution.

Tumbu kaluar jeung rujukan

 A. Kropinski's normal distribution tutorial
 S. M.Stigler: Statistics on the Table, Harvard University Press 1999, chapter 22. History of the term "normal distribution".
 Earliest Known uses of some of the Words of Mathematics. See:  for "normal",  for "Gaussian", and  for "error".
 Earliest Uses of Symbols in Probability and Statistics. See Symbols associated with the Normal Distribution.

Probability and statistics

Sebaran normal


Historical linguistics is the study of language change. It has five main concerns:
to study changes in particular languages
to discover the pre-history of languages, and group them into language families (comparative linguistics)
to develop theories about how and why language or sound changes
to describe the history of speech communities
to study the history of words, etymology.

History and development
Modern historical linguistics dates from the late 18th century. It grew out of the earlier discipline of philology, the study of ancient texts and documents dating back to antiquity.

At first, historical linguistics was comparative linguistics. The focus was on the well-known Indo-European languages, many of which had long written histories. Scholars also studied the Uralic languages, another language family for which less early written material exists.

Since then, there has been linguistic work in non-European languages, such as on the Austronesian languages and various families of Native American languages.

Comparative linguistics is now part of a discipline of historical linguistics. For Indo-European languages, comparative study is now a well-developed field. Most research is being carried out on their later development, such as the development of the modern standard varieties.

Some scholars have done studies attempting to establish super-families. They have, for example, linked Indo-European, Uralic, and other families into Nostratic. Such attempts have not been accepted widely. The information needed to establish relatedness becomes thinner the farther back. The time depth of linguistic methods is limited because of chance word resemblances and variations between language groups. Scholars can trace language changes back to around 10,000 years. The dating of the various proto-languages is also difficult; several methods are available for dating, but only approximate results are possible.

References

Branches of linguistics

Historical linguistics


Hop-o'-My-Thumb (Hop-on-My-Thumb), or Hop o' My Thumb, also known as Little Thumbling, Little Thumb, or Little Poucet (), is one of the eight fairytales published by Charles Perrault in Histoires ou Contes du temps passé (1697), now world-renowned. It is Aarne-Thompson type 327B. The small boy defeats the ogre. This type of fairytale, in the French oral tradition, is often combined with motifs from the type 327A, similar to Hansel and Gretel; one such tale is The Lost Children.

The story was first published in English as Little Poucet in Robert Samber's 1729 translation of Perrault's book, "Histories, or Tales of Past Times". In 1764, the name of the hero was changed to Little Thumb. In 1804, William Godwin, in "Tabart's Collection of Popular Stories for the Nursery", retitled it Hop o' my Thumb, a term that was common in the 16th century, referring to a tiny person.

Summary
Hop-o'-My-Thumb () is the youngest of seven children in a poor woodcutter's family. His greater wisdom compensates for his smallness of size. When the children are abandoned by their parents, he finds a variety of means to save his life and the lives of his brothers. After being threatened and pursued by an ogre, Poucet steals his magic seven-league boots while the monster is sleeping.

Plot

A poor woodcutter and his wife are no longer able to support their children and intend to abandon them in a forest. Hop-o'-My-Thumb, overhearing his parents, plans ahead and collects small white pebbles from a river. He uses the stones to mark a trail that enables him to successfully lead his brothers back home. However, the second time round, he uses breadcrumbs instead, which the birds eat up.

The brothers are lost in the woods. Hop-o'-My-Thumb climbs up a tree and spots a distant light. The boys walk towards it. They come at last to a house, and learn that it belongs to an ogre. Hop-o'-My-Thumb, fearing the wolves, decides to take the risk of staying in the monster's residence.

The ogre allows the boys to sleep for the night, and provides a bed for them in his daughters' room. But the ogre wakes up not too long after, and prepares to kill them in their slumber. Hop-o'-My-Thumb, who anticipated the possibility, already planned ahead and replaced the daughters' gold crowns with the bonnets worn by him and his brothers. As a result, the ogre kills his daughters instead, and goes back to bed. Once he is snoring, Hop-o'-My-Thumb directs his siblings out of the house.

The ogre wakes up in the morning to discover his grave mistake, puts on his seven-league boots, and races after the boys. They spot the ogre while walking. Hop-o'-My-Thumb once again thinks fast and hides in a small nearby cave. The ogre, who is tired, happens to rest close to their hiding spot. Hop-o'-My-Thumb instructs his brothers to make their way home, and meanwhile, removes the boots from the sleeping ogre. He puts them on, and the boots, being magical, resize to fit him.

Hop-o'-My-Thumb uses the boots to make a fortune, and returns to his family's home, where they live happily ever after.

History and analysis

The French folktale was first published by Charles Perrault as Le petit Poucet in Histoires ou contes du temps passé in 1697. The French name for the hero, "Poucet" /pusɛ/, derives from the French word "pouce" /pus/, which means "thumb", "big toe", or "inch". The suffix "-t" gives it an affectionate touch, given the morphemes of the language.

The beginning mentions that "le petit Poucet" was no bigger than a man's thumb when he was born. However, it seems that for the remainder of the story, the protagonist is just a small child, and the tale bears no resemblance to Tom Thumb. As is the nature of traditional stories, passed on orally, the beginning passage might be a remnant from an older tale, ancestral to both Hop-o'-My-Thumb and Tom Thumb.

The first half of Hop-o'-My-Thumb is very similar to Hansel and Gretel. The woodcutter parents are no longer able to support their children and abandon them. The hero lays a trail of breadcrumbs, which thanks to the birds, does not help him get back home. Such laying of trail is found in many stories, one of the oldest being Theseus and the Minotaur.

The second half of the story involves an ogre, which the hero outsmarts. It bears resemblance to Sweetheart Roland and Themisto.

Adaptations

 Hop-o'-My-Thumb, his brothers, and the ogre appear in the final act of Tchaikovsky's ballet The Sleeping Beauty.
 He is also portrayed in Ravel's Ma mère l'oye.
 Jean-Claude Mourlevat adapted the Hop-o'-My-Thumb character in the award-winning children's novel The Pull of the Ocean, originally published in France under the title L'enfant Ocean.
 Hop o' My Thumb ... The Story Retold. Laura E. Richards. London: Blickie & Son, 1886.  Also, Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1886.
 The short story "Little Poucet" by Steve Rasnic Tem appears in the adult fairy-tale collection Snow White, Blood Red, 2000.
 An animated adaptation, Hop-o'-My-Thumb (Мальчик-с-пальчик), was made in 1938 in the Soviet Union.
 Hop o' My Thumb, 1913–1914 Broadway musical.

Illustrations

Illustrations by Gustave Doré
Gustave Doré contributed 11 illustrations to an 1862 edition of Perrault's book, Les Contes de Perrault.

Other illustrators
Heinrich Leutemann and Carl Offterdinger illustrated a German fairytale collection, Mein erstes Märchenbuch (My first Fairytale Book), published at the end of the 19th century. Another German illustrator was Alexander Zick.

See also

Thumbling
Tom Thumb
Molly Whuppie
Momotarō
Hansel and Gretel
Buttercup
The Flea
Patufet
Ivasyk-Telesyk

References

External links

Sur la Lune: "Little Tom Thumb" by Charles Perrault

French fairy tales
Works by Charles Perrault
Fictional ogres
Child characters in fairy tales
Male characters in fairy tales
Filicide in fiction
ATU 300-399

ru:Мальчик-с-пальчик (сказка)

Hop-o'-My-Thumb


Consolevania is an internet television program that is about video games. It also has funny stories, although not all of these are about games.  It is made by Rab Florence and Ryan Mcleod in Glasgow, Scotland. Consolevania must be downloaded from the internet rather than watching it on a television set. Consolevania is named after a video game called Castlevania on the Super Nitendo video game console.

Rab and Ryan, also made a normal television show for BBC Scotland, called videoGaiden.  It has less swearing in it.

Some of the funny characters in Consolevania are:

 John Gacy - A clown who pretends not to kill children
 Sammy Miller - A man who tries to make the show safer but ends up hurting himself
 Hitler - The Hitler in Consolevania is angry about losing the war and tries to stop the show

Consolevania has a good reputation because the presenters care about video games and they sometimes makes fun of certain people who make video games. People also like the funny stories and swearing.

Other websites

 Consolevania - The Consolevania website

Video games
Entertainment websites

Consolevania


Neukölln is a borough of Berlin. It has an area of  and has, as of 2003, about 307,400 inhabitants and one of the highest percentage of foreigners in Berlin.
Its current mayor is Heinz Buschkowsky (SPD).

History
When it was first mentioned in 1360, the village was called Richardsdorf and owned by the Order of St. John

The coat of arms of the borough has a Maltese cross to remember this part of its history.

In 1737, Frederick William I of Prussia let Moravians from Bohemia settle in the area. They built their own church and houses off the village centre along the road to Berlin, which is now called Richardstraße. The new Bohemian village was granted its own constitution in 1797.

When both parts of the village were reunited in 1874, the population was 8,000 inhabitants. It had nearly doubled, to 15,000 by the next year.

On 1 May 1899 the area, then the largest village of Prussia, became an independent city and got its current name in 1912. Its independence ended in 1920, when it was made part of Greater Berlin . Between 1966 and 1975, the "Gropiusstadt" was built. This city-within-a-city  was designed by architect Walter Gropius. Gropius was the last director of the Bauhaus school of arts and architecture, which set up in Berlin when it moved from Dessau. Gropiusstadt has over 60,000 inhabitants.

Individuals associated with Neukölln
Actress Mady Rahl and Lotte Ulbricht, wife of East German leader Walter Ulbricht, were born in Neukölln.

References in popular culture
 "Neuköln" (deliberately spelt with one 'l') is an instrumental piece by David Bowie, the ninth track on his 1977 album "Heroes".
 The last track of Miss Kittin's first solo album I Com is called "Neukölln 2".

Twin cities
  Cologne
  Wetzlar
  Leonberg
  Marino
  Bat Yam

Other websites
  Official Homepage
  WebTV from Berlin, Neukoelln

Neukölln


Anarchy (from Greek αναρχια meaning "without a leader") is a word that has more than one meaning. Some of its meanings are:
 When there is no leader, or when nobody has power over everyone (used just in the anarchist movement).
 When there is no political order, and there is confusion (used often from mass media)
 When people do not have any reason to work together, or do not have anything that makes them feel like a group.

In the first meaning listed, an anarchy might be a made-up or real society based on a group's beliefs about anarchism (see anarcho-communism).

In the second meaning listed, "anarchy" has to do with having no political order. The CIA World factbook  says that there is only one nation, Somalia, that is in a state of anarchy. In Somalia, the government is no longer in control, and some parts of the country are ruled by mobs and warlords who sometimes fight one another.

There are some countries (Afghanistan, Albania, Burundi, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Rwanda) where government is "emerging" or "transitional", and were in civil unrest in the near past. The DC  says that the Solomon Islands is moving towards civil unrest because "violence, corruption and crime have undermined stability and civil society".

When there is no political order, more than one government or political authority might sometimes compete for the same food, oil, land, or groups of people. The word "Anarchy" to used to describe this. However, because there is more than one competing authority, a better word might be polyarchy. The difference between "anarchy" and "polyarchy" is important to someone who thinks that true anarchy would work well. The word for someone who thinks this is "anarchist", and the word for this kind of thinking is "anarchism". Anarchism has been thought about for hundreds of years. The book called "The Politics of Individualism" attempts to teach its readers that anarchism is not always simply an opposition to the government, but a complicated political movement against the domination of few people.

Other uses of the word
Anarchy which follows the death of a ruler and ceases when his successor rises to power, is called interregnum (literally: "in-between rules").

(Another use of the word "Anarchy" is when it is said as "The Anarchy". This is the name that is sometimes given to the civil war and unsettled government in England when Stephen of England was King.) (See The Anarchy)

References

Economic systems
Society

Anarchy


Korean masks have been used since the 6th century. The oldest mask in Korea is a lacquered mask that was excavated in one of the tumuli in Gyeongju. In the past, the masks were used for shamanistic ceremonies to drive away evil spirits or raise ghosts. Also, they were used for mask plays like BongsanTalchum, SandaeNoli.

In Korea, tal means mask. Tal is an ancient Chinese word that means a face, a tool for face, a mask, etc. The word tal means a mask and disease in Korea. That is why Korean masks normally represent the face of demons or monsters that cause various diseases. Ancient Korean believed that the mask of strong demons can drive weak demons out.

Masks in theatre
Mask plays have different themes. Basic themes are biting satire, ritual dances, exorcism rites, parody of human weaknesses, social evils and the privileged class.

A lot of talchum, or plays, mock stereotyped of annoying personalities in the lower classes. The most distinguishing feature of the Korea mask plays is variations of specific lines in plays. According to actors and regions, the specific lines in plays can be changed. With regional variations, the mask play is usually performed on traditional holidays.

Shamanistic masks
Korean masks used in shamanistic practices were made of wood. They had several coasts of lacquer to give the masks gloss and to and waterproof them for wearing. In Korea, many people have believed that the lacquer tree can drive away evil spirits. That is why Koreans used lacquered masks. The horrifying or grotesque masks were used in shamanistic practices for their ability to evoke fear, and humor, in ceremonial rites.

Headgear
Korean culture

Korean mask


Hartwig (; died 5 December 1023) was the archbishop of Salzburg from 991 until his death. He was a younger son of the Bavarian count palatine Hartwig of the Aribonid family. The Gesta archiepiscoporum Salisburgensium calls him a "friend of divine praise" (divinae laudis amicus).

On 23 December 970, Hartwig became a subdeacon in Salzburg Cathedral. On 19 September 973 he was promoted to deacon, and on 18 September 985 he was ordained a priest. On 12 August 991 he was consecrated as the successor to Archbishop Frederick. He took part in the Easter synod at Ingelheim that denied the validity of the election of Gerbert of Aurillac to the vacant archdiocese of Reims.

In 996, Hartwig accompanied the young king, Otto III, to Rome for his imperial coronation in May. There he participated in the election and ordination of Pope Gregory V, who performed the coronation. For his role in the coronation, Otto granted Hartwig the right to hold a market at Salzburg and the right to mint coin. A record of the various gifts and transactions of Hartwig's episcopate has survived in the form of a "tradition book" (Traditionsbuch).

After Otto's death, Henry supported the election of Henry II, whom he accompanied to Mainz for his coronation in 1002. Thereafter the king showered him with gifts and privileges. In 1007, Hartwig was present when Henry founded the diocese of Bamberg. In 1012, he was present at the consecration of the new cathedral. In 1014, he was present at the coronation of Henry as Holy Roman Emperor in Rome.

In his later years, Hartwig extended the choir of the cathedral. He worked with Anastasius Aschericus, the archbishop of Esztergom, to establish the Hungarian mission field. In 1020 he received six Königshufen (literally "royal hooves", an old unit of land) at Bamberg.

Notes

Sources

1023 deaths
Year of birth unknown
Roman Catholic archbishops of Salzburg
10th-century archbishops
11th-century archbishops

Hartwig (archbishop of Salzburg)


A voltmeter is an instrument uised for meisurin electrical potential difference atween twa pynts in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters muive a pointer across a scale in proportion tae the voltage o the circuit; digital voltmeters gie a numerical display o voltage bi uise o an analog tae digital converter.

A voltmeter in a circuit diagram is represented bi the letter V in a circle.

Voltmeters are made in a wide range o styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a panel are uised tae monitor electric generators or ither fixed apparatus. Portable instruments, uisually equipped tae an aa meisur current an resistance in the form o a multimeter, are standard test instruments uised in electrical an electronics work. Ony measurement that can be converted tae a voltage can be displayed on a meter that is suitably calibrated; for ensaumple, pressure, temperature, flow or level in a chemical process plant.

General purpose analog voltmeters mey hae an accuracy o a few percent o full scale, an are uised wi voltages frae a fraction o a volt tae several thoosand volts. Digital meters can be made wi heich accuracy, teepically better nor 1%. Specially calibrated test instruments hae higher accuracies, wi laboratory instruments capable o meisurin tae accuracies o a few pairts per million. Meters uisin amplifiers can meisur tiny voltages o microvolts or less.

Electronic test equipment
Meisurin instruments
Electrical meters

Voltmeter


In Norse mythology, Annar ("second/another") was the second husband of Nótt ("Night") and father of Jörð. He was a grandfather of the god Thor.

In the Gylfaginning, it is said:
"She (Nótt) was wedded to him that was called Annar; Jörð was their daughter."
Norse mythology

Annar


Somerset MRT Station (NS23) is an underground station on the North South Line of the Mass Rapid Transit in Orchard planning area, Singapore. The station serves the central part of Orchard Road, serving 313 @ Somerset, Orchard Central and Orchard Gateway.

The section of tracks between this station and Dhoby Ghaut is the shortest between any two MRT Stations on the North South Line, taking 1 minute for a train to travel between these two stations.

Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations

Somerset MRT station


is a professional wrestling video game released in 2000 for the Nintendo 64 game console. The game was only released in Japan and is the sequel to 1997's Virtual Pro Wrestling 64. The subtitle, Ōdō Keishō, translates to English as Royal Road Succession, which is also the name of the game's single player mode.

The game features the same engine as WWF WrestleMania 2000 but the two titles otherwise differ considerably and feature entirely different rosters. WrestleMania 2000 was released in Japan as well, unlike previous AKI-developed WCW titles.

Production
At the 1999 Nintendo Space World, fans got a preview of the game which was 65% completed. Modes boasted were Tournament, League, Ranking and Grand Meeting, as well as the newly added Belt Edit, Champion Road and an expanded player creation mode. The game was said to have over 1,000 different move combinations and a roster of "way over 100 fighters".

Features
Catering to the Japanese fanbase, Virtual Pro Wrestling 2: Ōdō Keishō deemphasizes the gimmicks and theatrics of American wrestling while introducing various competitive, sportsman-like attributes of puroresu. It features no WWF license and is based entirely on Japanese wrestling; consequently, unlike previous games which included WCW wrestlers, none of the current WWF superstars at the time were included in VPW 2. Asmik Ace Entertainment was only licensed to genuinely represent talent from AJPW; thus, for legal purposes, all other performers were given generic names and altered apparel with the ability to be modified by the player.

VPW 2 omitted the newly introduced Cage match and First Blood match of WrestleMania 2000 as they were unconventional to Japanese wrestling (a common misconception is that a "First Blood" option does exist, whereby, if the wrestler bleeds twice the match is stopped by the official - however this is a referee stoppage match setting). It did, however, resurrect the test-of-strength grappling function and the striking combination grapple from 1998's WCW/nWo Revenge. It also introduced the running grapple as an intuitive counterpart to the long-established running strike. VPW 2 boasts hundreds of moves including many prohibited in mainstream American wrestling such as the dangerous hangman's DDT, Russian neckdrop, and Burning Hammer. In a first for 3D wrestling games, an entirely unique grappling system was also developed for mixed martial artists which corresponds with optional shootfighting rules. Such stipulations place emphasis on strike combinations, judo takedowns, and submissions and allows strikes to cause substantial damage. This in conjunction with professional wrestling standards allows for unique hybrid-style matches.

In contrast to the theatrical entrances of American pro wrestlers, performers in VPW 2 are given a simple backstage intro and are audibly announced upon entering the ring. Venues include the Nippon Budokan, Kawasaki Stadium, Korakuen Hall, and the Tokyo Dome. Entrance themes are limited to a few signature AJPW themes and original MIDI songs of generic rock music. The player can also choose from three different referees with distinct reaction times and count speeds.

VPW 2 expanded the Create a Wrestler mode that debuted in WrestleMania 2000 and boasts a detailed mask editing feature. The game includes a largely generic roster based on real-life performers which sets the foundation for the player to modify attire and names to create more faithful representations of the actual wrestlers. VPW 2 is the only game in the THQ/AKI series to include a "Logic" factor. When creating a wrestler, the player can choose what types of moves are used at certain points of the match when the created wrestler is controlled by the computer. The Belt Creation mode is carried over with a new addition, the Triple Crown, which unifies three championship belts (the PWF World Heavyweight Championship, NWA International Heavyweight Championship, and NWA United National Championship). The "Smoking Skull" WWF Heavyweight Championship was originally available for selection within Belt Creation mode, but it was removed from the final version of the game and is currently only accessible through video game cheat devices.

The 12-month Royal Road Succession mode largely parallels the Road to WrestleMania mode included in WrestleMania 2000. As common in Japan, some contests are held over large loving cup trophies rather than championship belts, and opportunities to unlock wrestlers are abundant.

Roster

All Japan Pro Wrestling

New Japan Pro-Wrestling

Frontier Martial Arts Wrestling

Michinoku Pro Wrestling, Osaka Pro Wrestling, and Toryumon

Fighting Network RINGS

Pancrase

Pride FC

BattlARTS

Wrestling Legends

Reception
Virtual Pro Wrestling 2: Ōdō Keishō gained positive reviews. On release, Famitsu magazine scored the game a 30 out of 40 and while IGN's Aaron Boulding criticized the bland pre-match animation, he praised the addition of various moves. Regarding American gamers, Boulding considered it "a nice addition to the library of the most extreme hardcore wrestling fan".

With a strong fanbase behind the AKI wrestling game series, VPW 2 would become the second most popular import title on the N64 after Sin and Punishment. Professional wrestlers Samoa Joe and A.J. Styles, who were both involved in the development of TNA Wrestling's first video game, had hoped the game would replicate the style of VPW 2. Styles, an avid fan of the AKI wrestling series, has cited VPW 2 as the all-time greatest pro wrestling game.

See also
 WWF No Mercy
 List of licensed professional wrestling video games

References

2000 video games
Asmik Ace Entertainment games
Japan-exclusive video games
Nintendo 64 games
Nintendo 64-only games
Virtual Pro Wrestling games
Mixed martial arts video games
Syn Sophia games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Video games developed in Japan

Virtual Pro Wrestling 2: Ōdō Keishō


Bauxite is the main ore of aluminium. It is mostly aluminium oxide.

Bauxite is the most important aluminium ore. It is largely made up of the minerals Gibbsite Al(OH)3, Boehmite γ-AlO(OH), and Diaspore α-AlO(OH), together with the iron oxides Goethite and Hematite, the clay mineral Kaolinite and small amounts of Anatase TiO2. It was named after the village Les Baux-de-Provence in southern France, where it was first discovered in 1821 by geologist Pierre Berthier. Today the four biggest producers are Australia, Brazil, China and India.

Kinds

There are two main kinds of bauxite ores: carbonate bauxites (karst bauxites), and silicate bauxites (lateritic bauxites). Carbonate bauxites were discovered earlier, and occur mainly in Europe and Jamaica above carbonate rocks such as limestone and dolomite.

Lateritic bauxites occur in many countries of the tropical belt. They were formed from various silicate rocks such as granite, gneiss, basalt, syenite, and shale.

For bauxite to be created there must be intense weathering conditions and very good drainage. Bauxite deposits with highest aluminium content are frequently located below an iron-bearing surface layer. In lateritic bauxite, the aluminum hydroxide contained in laterite deposits is almost entirely a form called gibbsite.

Rocks
Ores

Bauxite


The Kori Creek (, ) is a tidal creek and maritime Border dispute  between the Kutch region of the Indian state of Gujarat and the Kachchhi region of the Pakistani province of Sindh. It is in the Rann of Kutch marshland east of the Sir Creek, which is disputed between India and Pakistan. It is a 96 km (60 mi) strip of water disputed between the Republic of India and Pakistan, claimed by India as a part of the Indian Rann of Kutch marshlands. The creek, which opens up into the Arabian Sea, divides the Kutch region of the Indian state of Gujarat with the Sindh province of Pakistan.
The long-standing dispute hinges in the actual demarcation "from the mouth of Kori Creek to the top of Kori Creek, and from the top of Kori Creek eastward to a point on the line designated on the Western Terminus". From this point onwards, the boundary is unambiguously fixed as defined by the Tribunal Award of 1968.

The creek itself is in the uninhabited marshlands. During the monsoon season between June and September, the creek floods its banks and envelops the low-lying salty mudflats around it. During the winter season, the area is home to flamingoes and other migratory birds.

Dispute

The dispute is in the interpretation of the boundary line between Kutch and Sindh as depicted in a 1914 and 1925 map. At that time, the region was a part of Bombay Presidency of undivided India. After India's independence in 1947, Sindh became a part of Pakistan while Kutch became a part of India.

The resolution, which demarcated the boundaries between the two territories, included the creek as part of Sindh province, thus setting the boundary as the eastern flank of the creek. The boundary line, known as the "Green Line", is disputed by India which maintains that it is an indicative line, known as a "ribbon line" in technical jargon. India's position is that the boundary is mid-channel as depicted in another map drawn in 1925, and implemented by the installation of mid-channel pillars back in 1924.

India supports its stance by citing the Thalweg Doctrine in International Law. The law states that river boundaries between two states may be, if the two states agree, divided by the mid-channel. Though Pakistan does not dispute the 1925 map, it maintains that the Doctrine is not applicable in this case as it only applies to bodies of water that are navigable, which the Kori Creek is not. India rejects the Pakistani stance by maintaining the fact that the creek is navigable in high tide, and that fishing trawlers use it to go out to sea. Several cartographic surveys conducted have supported the Indian claim. Another point of concern for Pakistan is that Kori Creek has changed its course considerably over the years. If the boundary line is demarcated (outlined) according to the Thalweg principle, Pakistan stands to lose a considerable portion of the territory that was historically part of the province of Sindh. Accepting India's stance would also result in the shifting of the land/sea terminus (end) point several kilometres to the disadvantage of Pakistan, leading in turn to a loss of several thousand square kilometres of its Exclusive Economic Zone under the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea.

In April 1965, a dispute there contributed to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, when fighting broke out between India and Pakistan. Later the same year, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson persuaded both countries to set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute. A verdict was reached in 1968, which saw Pakistan getting 10% of its claim of 9,000 km² (3,500 sq. miles).

The disputed region was at the center of international attention in 1999 after Mig-21 fighter planes of the Indian Air Force shot down a Pakistani Navy Breguet Atlantique surveillance aircraft over the Kori Creek on August 10, 1999, killing all 16 on board. India claimed that the plane had strayed into its airspace, which was disputed by the Pakistani navy. (See the Atlantique Incident)

Economic reasons
Though the Kori Creek has little military value, it holds immense economic gain. Much of the region is rich in oil and gas below the sea bed, and control over the creek would have a huge bearing on the energy potential of each nation. Also once the boundaries are defined, it would help in the determination of the maritime boundaries which are drawn as an extension of onshore reference points. Maritime boundaries also help in determining the limits of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) and continental shelves. EEZs extend to 200 nautical miles (370 km) and can be subjected to commercial exploitation.

The demarcation would also prevent the inadvertent crossing over of fishermen of both nations into each others' territories.

Dispute resolution
The Federal Government of Pakistan lays claim to the entire creek as per paras 9 and 10 of the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 signed between the then provincial Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj, then the ruler of the former Princely state of Kutch.
However since 1969, there have been eight rounds of talks between the two nations, without a breakthrough. Steps to resolve the dispute include:
 Allocation
 Delimitation
 Demarcation
 Administration

Since neither side has conceded ground, India has proposed that the maritime boundary could be demarcated first, as per the provisions of Technical Aspects of Law of Sea (TALOS). However, Pakistan has firmly refused the proposal on the grounds that the dispute should be resolved first. Pakistan has also proposed that the two sides go in for international arbitration, which India has flatly refused. India maintains that all bilateral disputes should be resolved without the intervention of third-parties.

References

Rivers of Pakistan
Territorial disputes of India
Territorial disputes of Pakistan

Kori Creek


Hanging is caused when a person is held by a rope around the neck. The Oxford English Dictionary says that hanging in this sense is "specifically to put to death by suspension by the neck". Hanging is often used as a form of execution or suicide.

The first known account of execution by hanging was in Homer's Odyssey (Book XXII). In this meaning of the common word hang, the past and past participle is hanged instead of hung.

As a form of death penalty, it is still used in Japan and certain African countries.

Differences between long and short drop
Long drop is when the condemned is dropped from a trapdoor a few feet above the ground and mostly causes the dislocation of the neck, resulting in almost instant death.

Short drop is when the condemned is made to stand on an object, then the object is taken from under them and they die from strangulation.

References

Death

Hanging (death)


In computing, a serial port is a serial communication physical interface through which information  transfers, either in or out, one bit at a time (in contrast with parallel port).

During most of the personal computers history, serial ports connected computers to devices such as terminals and various peripherals.

While such interfaces as  Ethernet, FireWire, and USB all send data as a serial stream, the term "serial port" usually identifies hardware meeting the requirements of the RS-232 standard, for the purpose of interfacing with a modem or with a similar communication device.

For many computer peripheral devices the USB interface has replaced the serial port. While nearly every server has a serial port, many modern low-end workstations and laptops often don't have one. The serial port is not present for cost savings, and is considered to be a legacy port on personal computers.

However, serial ports can be found in industrial systems, scientific analysis and laboratory equipments, point of sales and some industrial and consumer products. Network equipments (such as routers and switches) often have serial ports for configuration. Serial ports are still used in these areas as they are simple, cheap and allow communications between devices.

Computer hardware
Computer networking
Electrical connectors
Computer buses

Serial port


The Historic Columbia River Highway is an approximately  scenic highway in the U.S. state of Oregon between Troutdale and The Dalles, built through the Columbia River Gorge between 1913 and 1922. As the first planned scenic roadway in the United States, it has been recognized in numerous ways, including being listed on the National Register of Historic Places, being designated as a National Historic Landmark by the U.S. Secretary of the Interior, being designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers, and being considered a "destination unto itself" as an All-American Road by the U.S. Secretary of Transportation. The historic roadway was bypassed by the present Columbia River Highway No. 2 (Interstate 84) from the 1930s to the 1950s, leaving behind the old two-lane road. The road is now mostly owned and maintained by the state through the Oregon Department of Transportation as the Historic Columbia River Highway No. 100 (still partially marked as U.S. Route 30; see Oregon highways and routes) or the Oregon Parks and Recreation Department as the Historic Columbia River Highway State Trail.

The original highway was promoted by lawyer and entrepreneur Sam Hill and engineer Samuel C. Lancaster, to be modeled after the great scenic roads of Europe.  From the very beginning, the roadway was envisioned not just as means of traveling by the then popular Model T, but designed with an elegance that took full advantage of all the natural beauty along the route.

When the United States highway system was officially established in 1926, the highway became the part of U.S. Route 30. Since then, modern Interstate 84 has been built parallel to the highway between Portland and The Dalles, replacing it as the main travel route and resulting in the loss of some of the original sections of road.

History

Planning and construction

The Columbia River Gorge is the lowest crossing of the Cascade Mountains, carved by the Columbia River during the Cascades' uplift. Rafting down the gorge from The Dalles was one of the most expensive and dangerous parts of the Oregon Trail, traveled by thousands of emigrants to the Oregon Territory, until the Barlow Road opened in 1846 around the south side of Mount Hood. A wagon road was finally built through the gorge in the 1870s, when The Dalles and Sandy Wagon Road was constructed along the south shore from The Dalles to the Sandy River east of Portland. However, this road had steep (20%) grades and a crooked and narrow alignment, and it was not until 1882 that the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company finally opened a water-level route, partially destroying the wagon road. With the onset of the automobile and the good roads movement of the early 20th century, a road was once again needed, and Multnomah County began constructing a 20-foot (6 m) roadway with 9% grades, but ran into difficulties relating to the railroad's location. At Shellrock Mountain to the east, long believed to be an impassable barrier, Governor Oswald West used prison labor in 1912 to prove that it was possible to build a road, at least temporarily.

The eventual highway was primarily designed by engineer and landscape architect Samuel C. Lancaster, a lifelong friend of good roads promoter Samuel Hill. His first contribution to the Pacific Northwest was as a consultant for Seattle's Olmsted boulevard system, part of its preparations for the 1909 Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition. In 1908, the two traveled to Europe for the First International Road Congress, where Hill represented the state of Washington. Hill was especially impressed by Switzerland's Axenstrasse, a road built along Lake Lucerne in 1865 that included a windowed tunnel, and wanted to build a similar scenic highway through the Columbia River Gorge. With Lancaster's help, Hill built the experimental Maryhill Loops Road from the river east of the gorge up the Columbia Hills to his planned Quaker utopian community at Maryhill. The road was the first asphalt road in the state, designed with gradual horseshoe curves to avoid steep grades. However, Washington's lawmakers denied his request for a cross-state trunk route on the river's north bank, and Hill crossed the river to Oregon, the last of the states in the far Western U.S. to create a highway department. With the help of his life-size model at Maryhill, he convinced the state legislature to create the State Highway Commission in 1913, which would work with the counties to build roads. The Multnomah County commissioners agreed later that year that the state should design the route to distance it from county politics, and set aside an initial $75,000.

In laying out the highway, Lancaster sought not only to create a transportation artery, but to make the gorge's "beautiful waterfalls, canyons, cliffs and mountain domes" accessible to "men from all climes". According to locating engineer John Arthur Elliott,

Lancaster began surveying near the Chanticleer Inn, where Larch Mountain Road, part of Multnomah County's existing road network, began climbing the hills of the gorge. For five months, from September 1913 to January 1914, he laid out a route for about 21 miles (34 km) to the Hood River County line west of Cascade Locks. The alignment generally had a maximum grade of 5% and curve radius of 200 feet (60 m), and was wide enough for 18 feet (5.5 m) of macadam (later asphalt) and two 3-foot (1 m) gravel shoulders. To accomplish this, Lancaster used curves similar to the road he had designed at Maryhill where the highway descended from Crown Point.

To carry rainwater off the road, Lancaster designed a comprehensive drainage system, including raising the center of the road, installing concrete curbs and gutters as on a city street, and taking the road over heavy flows on culverts. Eleven larger reinforced concrete bridges and several full or half viaducts were specially designed for the Multnomah County portion of the highway, taking the road over streams or along steep hillsides with a minimum of earthmoving. Masonry was used for retaining walls, which kept the highway from falling off the hillside, and guard walls, which kept drivers and pedestrians from falling off the road. At Oneonta Bluff, the highway passed through the first of five tunnels, as the land to the north was taken by the rail line. With the completion of the Oneonta Tunnel and a number of bridges, the road was open to traffic west of Warrendale, near Horsetail Falls, by October 1914. In April 1915, Multnomah County voters approved the cost of covering the initial macadam with a patented long-lasting bituminous mixture known as Warrenite, which was completed to the county line by the end of the summer.

For the section west of the Chanticleer Inn, Multnomah County generally made improvements to existing roads. Base Line Road (Stark Street) stretched east from Portland almost to the Sandy River; the roadway east of Troutdale Road to the river, including the present Sweetbriar Road, was somewhat circuitous. An old wooden Pratt through truss bridge over the Sandy collapsed on April 25, 1914, and its steel replacement was built as part of the Columbia River Highway project. A new extension of Base Line Road, built in 1915, gradually descended the riverbank to the bridge. Between the river and the inn, existing roads were incorporated into the highway, which bypassed other sections such as Nielson Road and Bell Road. The county built a second approach to the highway in 1916, using the existing Sandy Boulevard to Troutdale and a 1912 through truss bridge that connected to Woodard Road. A new roadway bypassed Woodard Road's steep grades, following the riverbank to the east end of the 1914 bridge. The entire length of the highway in Multnomah County was maintained by the county until January 16, 1930, when the state took over maintenance of the Sandy Boulevard route. (Stark Street was never a state-maintained highway, though for a time it was signed as U.S. Route 30 Alternate.)

Beyond Multnomah County, State Highway Department engineer John Arthur Elliott surveyed a route along the river through Hood River County in 1913 and 1914, mostly using the 1870s wagon road where available. County voters approved a bond issue in mid-1914 to pay for construction west of the city of Hood River, helped by highway promoter Simon Benson's purchase of the entire issue and promise to pay any overruns. The most difficult location was at Mitchell Point, where the old road included grades of up to 23% to take it over a saddle, and the railroad occupied the only available land between the cliff and the river. Elliott solved the problem by building the Mitchell Point Tunnel—a windowed tunnel like on Switzerland's Axenstrasse—through the cliff, with a viaduct on the west approach. Construction began in March 1915, and the Mitchell Point section was opened to traffic in early September, at a cost of about $47,000. To dedicate the completed highway between Portland and Hood River, two ceremonies were held at Multnomah Falls and Crown Point on the same day in June 1916.

Between Hood River and The Dalles, construction was delayed by rugged terrain west of and debate over the best route east of Mosier. Elliott considered several options west of Mosier, including a route close to the railroad, which had again taken the best location along the river, and a route over the Mosier Hills, closer to the existing county road (now Old Dalles Drive and Hood River Road). The former, while shorter, would be, in Elliott's words, "passing a section made up of views which would leave a lasting impression on the traveler". Elliott had left the State Highway Department by 1917, when new locating engineer Roy A. Klein surveyed a third alignment. It was closer to the river than the old county road, yet higher than Elliott's river alignment, in order to avoid closing the rail line during blasting. Just after leaving Hood River on a 1918 bridge over the Hood River, which had replaced an older wooden truss bridge, the highway climbed via a series of loops, similar to the ones at Crown Point. From there it followed the course of the river, partway up the hillside. Near the east end, the Mosier Twin Tunnels, completed in 1920, carried the road through a portion of the hill; the eastern of the two included two windows, similar to the five at Mitchell Point. Because of its beauty, photographers like William Henry Jackson, Benjamin A. Gifford, Arthur Prentiss and Carleton Watkins documented the construction of this highway.

The final piece to The Dalles was laid out by J. H. Scott of the State Highway Department. It followed an inland route, climbing existing county roads to the Rowena Crest, where it used a third set of loops to descend to river level at Rowena. There it picked up a former alignment of the Oregon-Washington Railroad and Navigation Company most of the way to The Dalles. Most of the bridges in Wasco County were designed by Conde McCullough, who would later become famous for his work on U.S. Route 101, the Oregon Coast Highway. A completion ceremony for the Columbia River Highway was held on June 27, 1922, when Simon Benson symbolically helped pave the final portion near Rowena. By then, the roadway was part of a longer Columbia River Highway, stretching from Astoria on the Pacific Ocean east to Pendleton as Highway No. 2 in a large network of state highways. In the State Highway Department's fifth biennial report, published in 1922, it reported that construction costs to date on the Columbia River Highway totaled about $11 million, with the state contributing $7.6 million, the federal government $1.1 million, and the counties $2.3 million ($1.5 million of which was from Multnomah County). In 1926, the American Association of State Highway Officials designated the road as part of U.S. Route 30. The first realignment was made by 1935 at the west entrance to The Dalles, where a more direct route along West 2nd Street bypassed the old alignment along West 6th Street, the Mill Creek Bridge, and West 3rd Place.

Water-level bypass

Even as construction was ongoing on the east end of the Columbia River Highway, the design had become obsolete, as motorists wanting to get to their destination greatly outnumbered tourists taking a pleasure drive. There were also problems with rockfall, especially west of the Mosier Twin Tunnels. By 1932, Lancaster proposed a new water-level route, while keeping the old road as a scenic highway. The first such bypass was necessitated by the federal government's creation of Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River. The dam would flood the railroad, and the highway would need to be moved so the railroad could take its place. The highway's new two-lane alignment, completed in 1937, crossed the old road several times between the community of Bonneville (just east of Tanner Creek) and Cascade Locks. The realignment had the effect of closing the old road to all but the most local of traffic, since the construction of the east portal of the new Toothrock Tunnel, just west of a new bridge over Eagle Creek, had destroyed a section of road on the hillside.

By the end of the 1940s, the original cross section of 18 feet (5.5 m) of pavement and two 3-foot (1 m) shoulders had been modified to 24 feet (7.5 m) of pavement. The Mosier Twin Tunnels were similarly widened from 8⅔ feet (2⅔ m) to 10 feet (3 m) in each direction in 1938 to accommodate larger trucks, but this was not enough, and traffic signals were later installed at the tunnels to regulate one-way traffic. A 1948 bypass of the Oneonta Tunnel was made possible by moving the railroad slightly north on fill; the railroad benefited by removing the risk of the thin tunnel wall collapsing onto the track. Oneonta Tunnel was sealed in 1948 but revealed again fifty-five years later as part of the Historic Columbia River Highway restoration project.

More comprehensive bypass planning began by 1941, when the State Highway Commission adopted surveys for the new highway.

Restoration and current use

Starting in June 2006, the Oregon Department of Transportation, using about $1.5 million in state and federal money, began restoring the Oneonta Tunnel to its 1920s appearance. The tunnel officially reopened March 21, 2009 for pedestrian and bicycle traffic.

The Eagle Creek Fire swept through the Gorge in September 2017, causing rockslides that closed the historic highway for a year. The highway remained closed between Bridal Veil and Ainsworth State Park until November 23, 2018 for restoration and reconstruction work.

Route description and historic designations

Although the city of Troutdale has named the old highway "Columbia River Highway" west to 244th Avenue, where it is cut by I-84, signs for the scenic byway begin at exit 17 of I-84, and point south on Graham Road to the west end of downtown Troutdale. Modern milepoint zero of the Historic Columbia River Highway No. 100 is located at the west end of the Sandy River bridge, historic milepost 14.2.

Modern highways, including I-84, and other developments have resulted in the abandonment of major sections of the historic original highway. In the interest of tourism and historical preservation, seventy-four miles of the original road—from Troutdale to The Dalles—have been established as the Historic Columbia River Highway (HCRH). Forty miles of the route are open to motor vehicles:
The 24 westernmost miles starting in Troutdale (at the eastern edge of urban Portland) provide access to dozens of hiking trails, Crown Point Vista House, and numerous waterfalls such as Multnomah Falls. This section forms a loop with the Mount Hood Scenic Byway.
The 16 easternmost miles ending in The Dalles.

The remaining portions of the HCRH designated for non-motorized use are now known as the Historic Columbia River Highway State Trail. These are being developed as money becomes available. Roughly seven miles between Hood River and Mosier have been open to non-motorized traffic since 2000, passing through the historic Mosier Tunnels.

Once restoration is complete, the highway will serve as a scenic and alternative bicycle route for I-84 and US 30 between The Dalles and Portland. Currently, cyclists wishing to travel between these two towns must ride on the shoulders of I-84 for much of the distance, or the much more dangerous and narrow State Route 14 on the Washington side of the river.

The Columbia River Highway is the nation's oldest scenic highway. In 1984 it was recognized as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers. In 2000 it was designated a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service as "an outstanding example of modern highway development".

The Columbia River Highway Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.  It includes 38 contributing structures on .

See also

Columbia River Gorge
List of National Historic Landmarks in Oregon
List of Registered Historic Places in Oregon

References

External links

Historic Columbia River Highway : History, Features, Historic Photos and Postcards, Hiking, Camping, Cycling

50th Anniversary Exhibit of the Oregon State Archives
Heritage Preservation Services of the National Park Service
National Historic Landmark data sheet
National Scenic Byways Program page
Oregon Department of Transportation page
Oregon Parks and Recreation state trail page
Heritage Preservation Services, National Park Service
Flexibility in Highway Design, Federal Highway Administration
Friends of the Historic Columbia River Highway
(Historical) Oregon State Highway System Map  Oregon State Highway Commission  (as adopted: November 27, 1917)
Official State Map of Oregon   ODOT  Transportation Development Division  Geographic Information Services Unit
History of State Highways in Oregon  ODOT Salem Headquarters, Right of Way Engineering (August 4, 2017)

Auto trails in the United States
Historic trails and roads in Oregon
All-American Roads
Columbia River Gorge
U.S. Route 30
National Historic Landmarks in Oregon
Named state highways in Oregon
Interstate 84 (Oregon–Utah)
Scenic highways in Oregon
State parks of Oregon
Roads on the National Register of Historic Places in Oregon
National Register of Historic Places in Multnomah County, Oregon
National Forest Scenic Byways
Transportation in Multnomah County, Oregon
Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks
Transportation in Wasco County, Oregon
Transportation in Hood River County, Oregon
National Register of Historic Places in Wasco County, Oregon
Tourist attractions in Multnomah County, Oregon
Tourist attractions in Wasco County, Oregon
Tourist attractions in Hood River County, Oregon
National Register of Historic Places in Hood River County, Oregon
Historic American Engineering Record in Oregon

Historic Columbia River Highway


Saluda is a census-designated place (CDP) in and the county seat of Middlesex County, Virginia, United States. The population as of the 2010 Census was 769.

The Middlesex County Courthouse was built between 1850 and 1874 by architects William R. Jones and John P. Hill, and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. A new courthouse complex was built in the 2003–2004 time-frame, but the opening was stalled due to various construction problems, leading to a legal dispute between the County board and the contractor. It was eventually opened in 2007.

An older notable building is the Christ Church. The highly decorated Marine, veteran of the Banana Wars, World War II, and the Korean War, Lieutenant General Lewis Burwell "Chesty" Puller was raised in Saluda. He died in Hampton, Virginia in 1971, and was buried in historic Christ Church's Cemetery near Saluda.

References

Census-designated places in Middlesex County, Virginia
County seats in Virginia
Unincorporated communities in Virginia
Census-designated places in Virginia

Saluda, Virginia


Newgrounds is an American website hosted in Glenside, Pennsylvania, United States. Created in 1995, the site has Adobe Flash animations and games, but also features a music and art portal. The site was started and is owned by Tom Fulp. Newgrounds is different from most other Flash websites by its automated submission and rating system. It was the first website in history to produce a fully automated user-made content system.

References

Related pages
Adobe Flash

Websites

Newgrounds