The Burrard Street Bridge (sometimes referred to as the Burrard Bridge) is a four-lane, Art Deco style, steel truss bridge constructed in 1930–1932 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The high, five part bridge on four piers spans False Creek, connecting downtown Vancouver with Kitsilano via connections to Burrard Street (formerly Cedar Street south of False Creek) on both ends. It is one of three bridges crossing False Creek. The other two bridges are the Granville Bridge, three blocks or  to the southeast, and the Cambie Street Bridge, about 11 blocks or  to the east. In addition to the vehicle deck, the Burrard Bridge has  wide sidewalks and a dedicated cycling lanes on both sides.

The architect of the Burrard Street Bridge was George Lister Thornton Sharp, the engineer John R. Grant. The bridge's two close approach spans are Warren trusses placed below deck level, while its central span is a Pratt truss placed above deck level to allow greater clearance height for ships passing underneath. The central truss is hidden when crossing the bridge in either direction by vertical extensions of the bridge's masonry piers into imposing concrete towers, connected by overhead galleries, which are embellished with architectural and sculptural details that create a torch-like entrance of pylons. Busts of Captain George Vancouver and Sir Harry Burrard-Neale in ship prows jut from the bridge's superstructure (a V under Vancouver's bust, a B under Burrard's).

Unifying the long approaches and the distinctive central span are heavy concrete railings, originally topped with decorative street lamps. These pierced handrails were designed as a kind of visual shutter (stroboscopic effect), so that at a speed of 50 km/h motorists would see through them with an uninterrupted view of the harbour. The effect works at speeds from about 40 to 64 km/h.

History

The Burrard Street Bridge, opened July 1, 1932, was built to provide a high-level crossing from Vancouver to the southwestern neighbourhoods in Kitsilano, by connecting Burrard Street to Cedar Street. After completion, Burrard was extended through to the base of downtown and Cedar Street disappeared.

At the opening ceremony, entertainment was provided by two bands, the Kitsilano Boy's Band and the Fireman's Band. An RCAF seaplane flew under the bridge and later a sugar replica of the bridge was unveiled at the civic reception in the Hotel Vancouver.

G.L. Thornton Sharp, of Sharp and Thompson, was the architect responsible for the distinctive towers on the bridge and its middle galleries. "Both central piers," Sharp told a reporter, "were designed and connected with an overhead gallery across the road. This helped to mask the network of steel in the truss from the two approaches, and has been treated as an entrance gateway to the city."  Along their other axis, the full height of the piers above the water also serve to frame a sea entrance gateway, notably for pleasure craft: "by sea and land we prosper".  The piers have provision for a rapid transit vertical lift span beneath the highway deck, never installed.

Recognition
Burrard Street Bridge has been assessed by heritage consultants retained by the City of Vancouver as being in the top category of historic buildings in Vancouver. The bridge appeared on a stamp issued by Canada Post in 2011, in a series showcasing five notable Art Deco structures in Canada.

Proposed bicycle lanes or widening

When constructed, the Burrard Street Bridge did not have dedicated lanes for cyclists, who shared the bridge's six vehicle lanes with motorists. Later, as traffic volume grew and speed limits were increased on the bridge to 60 km/h, cyclists were directed to share the bridge's sidewalks with pedestrians. Over time, the volume of pedestrians and cyclists on the  sidewalks created a dangerous situation, with several accidents occurring, which resulted in at least one successful lawsuit against the city.

Since the mid-1990s, the city of Vancouver has investigated various options to rectify the situation.  The two most prominent options were 1) to introduce bicycle lanes on the bridge's vehicle deck by reallocating one or more vehicle lanes, and 2) to build horizontal extensions on the outside of the bridge to create additional sidewalk space. Other options have included building an entirely new pedestrian and/or cyclist only bridge, and building another deck on the bridge below the existing deck.

Heritage advocates have been strongly opposed to the construction of outside sidewalk extensions, which would likely alter significantly the historical character of the bridge. Fiscal conservatives have also been opposed to high costs associated with this option.

Many motorists and others have opposed reallocation of vehicle lanes to bicycle lanes, believing that the reduction in vehicle carrying capacity would create excessive traffic problems both on the bridge and on and around alternate crossings, such as the Granville Street Bridge.

Timeline

Beginning March 26, 1996, in a six-month trial by the City, one commuter lane was closed to automobile traffic and made into a temporary cycling lane. However, after one week, the City was forced to revert the lane to its original purpose, due to outrage by some motorists.

On May 31, 2005, a detailed engineering and planning report was presented to Council, reviewing the situation broadly, presenting alternatives, and offering recommendations. (Its computer visualizations of various proposals [esp. pp. 8–12—notably p. 8—and Appendix E] are indispensable illustrations to the discussion. See )

That day Vancouver City Council voted 10–1 not to follow the recommendations of the report, but to reallocate the two curb-side lanes to cyclists for another trial, as part of Council's plan to increase cycling in Vancouver by 10 percent for the 2010 Winter Olympics.

The issue was carried into the municipal election of November 19, 2005.

On December 20, 2005, the newly elected Council voted 6-4 to cancel the lane reallocation trial and to proceed directly to widening the bridge sidewalks as promised in that election.

In 2006, the City considered removing the concrete railings and widening the bridge deck by outward ('outrigger') sidewalks, at projected cost of over $40 million. (See p. 8 of ) To preserve the bridge's heritage value, such cantilevered structures would not include the bridge's central piers, or towers. Critics of this plan argued that the resulting "pinch points" would defeat the purpose of widening the bridge by creating bottlenecks, through which a greater number of cyclists, skaters and pedestrians must pass over coming decades.

For the third consecutive year, in 2008 Heritage Vancouver listed the Burrard Bridge first on its Top Ten endangered sites in Vancouver. It had ranked fourth in 2005.

Sidewalk expansion was delayed by the Squamish First Nation, which controls the land directly under the south (or west) side of the bridge. For construction to begin, the city would require permission from this group, which has expressed concern that machinery working on the site may affect their land.

The Squamish First Nation erected advertising billboards on their properties, located at that bridge approach, and is proposing the same for similar properties by the Lions' Gate Bridge and the Ironworkers Memorial Second Narrows Crossing.

In a late April 2008 report to Council, city engineers raised the estimated cost of widening to $57 million, due to reconsideration of the additional weight to the existing bridge structure and rising construction costs. $61 million was set as a more likely figure.

In Nov. 2008 the current Council, which advocated widening the bridge, was defeated and replaced by a new mayor and Council opposed to the widening but supportive of lane reallocation from vehicles to cyclists. In late January 2009, in an economic downturn and anticipating the 2010 Winter Olympics, the City announced plans for trials of three kinds of auto traffic lane closings, allowing bicycle use of the road surface.  This would be supplemented by safety upgrades.

In March 2009, the City of Vancouver delayed discussing the Burrard Bridge Bike Lane Trial at least one month.  .  Council rescheduled meeting to May 5, 2009, to discuss the three kinds of possible trials, to begin summer 2009, where one approved.

On May 7, 2009, Council approved a motion to proceed with option 3 of the proposed trials, to begin in June 2009.  The proposed trial began on July 13.  It saw the southbound motor-vehicle curb lane and the northbound-side sidewalk allocated to bicycles, with the southbound-side sidewalk allocated to pedestrians.  The reassigned lane was separated from motor vehicles by a physical barrier. As part of the trial, traffic pattern changes to accommodate feeder bicycle traffic were also completed on Pacific St., next to the North bridgehead, over complaints from local merchants that cited lack of consultation and possible negative impacts on their businesses.   Three days into the trial, a local merchant reported a 46% drop in sales compared to the same days the year before.  Six weeks into the trial another local merchant reported a 25% drop in sales, and a local restaurant reported a 30% drop in sales.

Regarding effects on three kinds of traffic: two weeks into the trial, the City of Vancouver released a data report showing daily bicycle travel across the bridge had increased by an average of 30%.  The same report indicated little change in pedestrian trips, a slight drop in motor vehicle trips, but no change in motor vehicle travel times between 12th Avenue and Georgia Street along Burrard via the bridge.

In July 2009 a website allowing people to register opposition to the bike lane trail was set up by local realtor and former NPA parks candidate Keith Roy at www.unblockthebridge.ca .

(On August 24, 2009, the Vancouver Police Department announced a sharp increase in bicycle theft, with the first three weeks of August experiencing a 53 percent increase over 2008, however, VPD spokesperson Constable Jana McGuinness denied a link between the rise in theft and the lane reallocation trial.)

By 2019, the bike lane on the Burrard Bridge had become the busiest bike lane in North America. The Downtown Business Improvement Association, which had originally opposed the conversion of vehicle lanes into bike lanes, stated that it endorsed cycling infrastructure because many employees and customers bike to downtown businesses.

Electronic billboard
In December 2009 the Squamish First Nation erected an electronic billboard on their land adjacent to the south end of the bridge on the west side.  It is visible to traffic travelling in both directions on the bridge and each screen (one for each direction) measures 9 metres wide x 3 metres tall.  The advertisements will cycle every ten seconds.
There has been controversy and protest from neighbouring residents who claim the billboard is unsightly, blocks view corridors of the mountains and even that it is a dangerous distraction to drivers.
There are at least five other similar billboards going up near the Lions Gate Bridge and Ironworkers Memorial Second Narrows Crossing as well as near the Stawamus Chief on Highway 99.
The billboards were approved by the federal government.  Local and regional governments have acknowledged they have no control over what is done on native reserve lands.  The Squamish Nation has said that the purpose of the billboards is primarily to make money.

PCB contamination
There continues to be a significant problem with PCB contaminants at the bridge; in 2012 Vancouver City Council allocated $14 million in funding over two years to the removal of PCB contaminants from the Burrard and Granville bridges.

Photos of the bridge

See also
 Burrard Street
 List of bridges in Canada

References

External links

 Film of driving over the Burrard Bridge in the mid 1930s

 Bridges of Vancouver Pictures of Burrard Bridge
 The History of Metropolitan Vancouver
 Heritage Vancouver
 KatKam  Webcam of Burrard Bridge

Through arch bridges in Canada
Bridges in Greater Vancouver
Bridges completed in 1932
Art Deco architecture in Canada
Truss bridges in Canada
Road bridges in British Columbia
Buildings and structures in Vancouver

Burrard Bridge


Crush is a soft drink made by the Dr Pepper Snapple Group.

History
Crush was founded in 1911 with Clayton Howell and Neil Ward when they began working together on the project. After many attempts, Ward had made the process of mixing the ingredients to make the all-natural taste of Orange Crush. Howell had already made his own drink, Howell's Orange Julep, as soft drinks usually were named after the maker and the drink name. In this case, Crush was released under the name Ward's Orange Crush. In fact, the company who made Orange Crush drink added orange pulp to the drink to make drinkers think that it was made from fresh squeezed oranges. However, pulp has not been in the drink for the past few decades.

In 1980, Crush was sold to Procter & Gamble. Then in 1989, Cadbury Schweppes bought Crush from Procter & Gamble. Cadbury then made their drink business and called it Dr Pepper Snapple Group.

References

Soft drinks

Crush (drink)


An astronomer is a scientist who studies astronomy. Observational astronomers work in observatories with telescopes to collect information from things in outer space such as planets, stars, or galaxies. Theoretical astronomers study the collected information, and use it to help us understand how the universe behaves.

Related pages
 List of Astronomers

Science occupations

Astronomer


Sarah Yorke Jackson (July 1805? - August 23, 1887) was the daughter in law of US President Andrew Jackson and Rachel Donelson Jackson. She acted as the First Lady of the United States from November 26, 1834, to March 4, 1837.

Sarah Yorke was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Her parents were very rich. The exact date of her birth is not known. But, it was in July 1805. Her father's name was Peter Yorke. Her father had worked as a sea captain, and then became a merchant. Her mother's name was Mary Haines York. Her father died in 1805. While going to New Orleans, her mother died in 1820. Sarah had two other sisters. Her two aunts raised all the three children.

On November 24, 1831, Sarah married Andrew Jackson, Jr. He was the adopted son of president Andrew Jackson. The couple lived in the family plantation farm in Tennessee. There in 1834, a fire destroyed the main house. They came to Washington, and started living in the White House. By that time, they had become parents of two children.

The couple and their children reached the White House on November 26, 1834. She immediately started to act as the First Lady. At the same time, the President's niece Emily Donelson was also acting as the First Lady. This is the single example of two ladies acting as the First Lady in the history of the United States. In 1836, Emily died of tuberculosis. After that, Sarah continued to act as the First Lady.

President Jackson's term as president expired in 1837. Until then Sarah remained in the White House and continued to act as the First lady. By that time, a new house was constructed at Tennessee. The couple and the former president lived there for about eight years. In 1845, Andrew Jackson died. She continued to live there with her husband. When the American Civil War broke out, the couple moved to Mississippi. She died on August 23, 1887.

First Ladies of the United States
People from Philadelphia
1805 births
1877 deaths

Sarah Yorke Jackson


Jack Graf (April 19, 1919 – September 14, 2009) was a two-sport athlete at Ohio State University.  In football he was named Big Ten MVP in 1941 and in basketball he served as team captain in 1942.

In 1938 Graf enrolled at Ohio State, where his father Campbell "Honus" Graf had been a three-sport athlete and the 1914 football captain.  After college Honus had been a graduate assistant on the 1915 team and played professional football with Peggy Parratt's Cleveland Indians football club.  He later served on the Ohio State Athletic Council.

Jack Graf joined the Ohio State football team as quarterback and served as a backup to All-American Don Scott for two years.  In 1941, before Graf's senior year, Paul Brown replaced Francis Schmidt as an Ohio State head coach and Brown moved Graf to fullback.  As the featured back on the Ohio State offense, Graf led the Buckeyes to a 6–1–1 record.  He won the Chicago Tribune Silver Football award, the Most Valuable Player award in the Big Ten. His senior year, he ran for 10 touchdowns while passing for 2 more. Meanwhile, Graf was also a guard on the Ohio State basketball team and was named team captain as a senior.

The Cleveland Rams selected Graf in the 1942 NFL Draft, but he instead attended Harvard Business School.  In 1945 Graf and his brother Campbell Jr. joined their father's electrical engineering company to form Graf and Sons.  He also served 26 years as an assistant coach with the Ohio State basketball team.

Graf was inducted into the Ohio State Varsity O Hall of Fame in 1988.

References

1919 births
2009 deaths
American football running backs
Ohio State Buckeyes football players
Ohio State Buckeyes men's basketball coaches
Ohio State Buckeyes men's basketball players
Harvard Business School alumni
Basketball players from Columbus, Ohio
Sportspeople from Columbus, Ohio
American men's basketball players
Players of American football from Columbus, Ohio

Jack Graf


The Battle of Kupres ( / ) was a battle of the Bosnian War, fought between the Bosnian Croat Territorial Defence Force (Teritorijalna obrana – TO) supported by the Croatian Army (Hrvatska vojska – HV) troops on one side and the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA), augmented by the Bosnian Serb TO on the other at the Kupres Plateau, on 3–11 April 1992. During the fighting on 8 April, the Bosnian Croat TO was reorganised as the Croatian Defence Council (Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO). The objective of the battle was to control the strategic Kupres Plateau, a major supply route.

The opposing sides began bringing in reinforcements to the Kupres Plateau on 5 March to strengthen positions held around individual settlements populated by different ethnic groups, communications between those positions, and roads leading away from the plateau to the north and south. Different parts of the town of Kupres were controlled by the opposing forces, while the adjacent territory surrounding the town was controlled by the Bosnian Croat TO. In turn, that territory was surrounded by Bosnian Serb TO-held territory. By the end of the month, the bulk of the civilians living in the area were evacuated. On 2 April, negotiations to defuse the situation failed while the reinforcements continued to arrive. The battle commenced the next day. In Kupres itself, the Bosnian Croat TO achieved minor territorial gains on 4–5 April, before the JNA managed to advance to the outskirts of the town the next day. The JNA entered Kupres in the afternoon of 7 April and in the next few days, it successfully drove the Croatian forces from the plateau. The breakthrough came about after the infantry originally deployed to the battle was reinforced by an armoured battalion deployed from Knin.

Croatian forces were hampered by an inadequate command structure, poor coordination and lack heavy weapons. The battle resulted in more than 200 combat deaths, and established lines of control which would remain unchanged until 1994, when the plateau was recaptured by the HVO. In 2012, Republika Srpska authorities charged seven Croats with war crimes committed at the plateau against civilians and prisoners of war. The next year, Croatian authorities charged 21 former JNA members with war crimes against HVO prisoners captured at the Kupres Plateau.

Background
As the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA) withdrew from Croatia following the implementation of the Vance plan, it was reorganised into a new Bosnian Serb army. This reorganisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, ahead of the 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This declaration was later cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War. Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital, Sarajevo, and other areas on 1 March. On the following day, the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj. On 27 March, Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery, drawing a border crossing by the Croatian Army (Hrvatska vojska – HV) 108th Brigade in response.

Control of the Kupres area was contested by Bosnian Serbs and Croats. Before the war, the former represented the majority of the population on the Kupres Plateau, comprising a total of 51 percent of its inhabitants, while Croats accounted for 39 percent. The JNA deployed an armoured unit based in Mostar to the plateau in May 1991. The bulk of the force moved to Knin three months later, while a tactical group of the 30th Partisan Division redeployed to the general area as it withdrew from Slovenia after the Ten-Day War. In September, the Bosnian Croats established the Territorial Defence Force (Teritorijalna obrana – TO) headquarters which set up armed volunteer units. By November, these units had been organised as the Kupres Battalion. The battalion consisted of five companies and an independent platoon. A Central Intelligence Agency report described the unit as a "barely organized collection of mostly local villagers and townspeople". The arming of the various forces was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September 1991. In early 1992, the 30th Partisan Division was subordinated to the JNA 5th (Banja Luka) Corps and assigned Kupres as its area of responsibility (AOR). The division, likely comprising only 2,000 troops, was under the command of Colonel Stanislav Galić. As of 19 March, the 5th (Banja Luka) Corps was under command of Lieutenant General Momir Talić.

In April, the Bosnian Serbs were able to deploy 200,000 troops, hundreds of tanks, armoured personnel carriers (APCs) and artillery pieces. The Bosnian Croats could field approximately 25,000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons, while the Bosniaks were largely unprepared for combat with nearly 100,000 troops, but small arms for less than half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons.

Prelude
On 5 March, the Bosnian Serb TO requested equipment for two companies mobilised in villages around Kupres—Malovan, Rilić and Ravno. The mobilisation was motivated by poor military intelligence provided by the 30th Partisan Division. It indicated the presence of thousands of HV and Bosnian Croat troops in the vicinity of Kupres, supported by Leopard 1 tanks drawn from a contingent of approximately 100 Leopards that the JNA believed had been delivered to Croatia. In response, the division was tasked to deploy its elements to Kupres, Ključ, Mrkonjić Grad, Šipovo, Jajce and the Mount Vlašić, take command of the Bosnian Serb TO and repel the expected Croatian attack. In order to achieve this, the division mobilised the 1st, 13th and 19th Partisan Brigades—assigning Kupres to the 19th Brigade as its AOR. By 23 March, the brigade received mobilised troops sufficient to set up three companies. Their immediate task was to block the Malovan and Kupreška Vrata mountain passes. The next day, the divisional commander toured the plateau and was informed that the Bosnian Croat forces were in control of the villages of Olovo, Osmanlije and Zlosela, in addition to Kupreška Vrata. On 26 March, the Bosnian Serb TO battalion based in Malovan was subordinated to the 19th Partisan Brigade. At this time, both sides had a relatively small portion of their force inside Kupres, while the Bosnian Croat TO held the area adjacently surrounding the town. The Bosnian Serb TO and the JNA completely controlled the areas surrounding the Bosnian Croat TO force.

The Malovan-based battalion set up its first roadblock on 26 March, and the Kupres Battalion established its own checkpoints in response the following day. On 27 March, an attempt to reach a negotiated settlement failed and the commanding officer of the 19th Partisan Brigade announced that armed combat might start at a moment's notice. The news prompted the evacuation of civilians of all ethnicities on 27–28 March. According to the daily report of the 30th Partisan Division of 29 March, the Kupres Plateau was deserted except for able bodied and armed men. The same report noted that the JNA could not deploy to Kupres itself without a fight. The JNA was convinced that the HV had intervened at Kupres to threaten the Bosnian Serbs. Kupres had a high strategic value, because it sat astride a road linking the towns of Bugojno and Tomislavgrad from the central Bosnia region to western Herzegovina and further on to Croatia.

Reinforcements

On 29 March, the 5th (Banja Luka) Corps of the JNA decided took the initiative around Kupres, redeploying elements of the 1st Battalion of the 13th Partisan Brigade to the Kupres Plateau, along with units drawn from the 9th (Knin) Corps, and the 293rd Engineer Regiment. A company of the 3rd Battalion of the 13th Partisan Brigade was also moved to the plateau on the following day, while the rest of the brigade was ordered to be ready to move to Kupres. The Kupres Battalion of the Bosnian Croat TO mobilised an additional 200 troops in Kupres the same day. On 31 March, the strengthened 1st Motorised Battalion of the 11th Motorised Infantry Brigade, drawn from the 9th (Knin) Corps, arrived at the Kupres Plateau. The battalion was strengthened by the addition of a battery of five  mortars, six  howitzers, three  ZiS-3 guns and a platoon of  recoilless rifles.

In the afternoon of 2 April, a five-hour meeting of local political leaders took place in Kupres, at the request of JNA. The purpose of the meeting, attended by members of Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Biljana Plavšić and Franjo Boras, was to defuse the situation. While there was an agreement to establish an ethnically balanced police force in Kupres and remove the roadblocks, the opposing sides could not agree on the role of the JNA. The Bosnian Serbs wanted the JNA to deploy to Kupres itself to ensure their protection, while the Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks wanted it to leave. During that same day, the 30th Partisan Division ordered the forces under its command, as well as the recent reinforcements, to capture Kupres and Kupreška Vrata and then hold their ground against anticipated Croatian counterattacks. Bosnian Croat authorities ordered the mobilisation of TO units in the nearby towns of Tomislavgrad and Posušje, with an armoured force at their disposal consisting of two T-55 tanks, two M36 tank destroyers, and one BVP M-80 infantry fighting vehicle.

There were 100–200 HV troops in Kupres during the battle. Those included a group drawn from the 204th Brigade, led by Robert Zadro (son of late Blago Zadro, former commander of the 3rd Battalion of the brigade). During the fighting, elements of the Zrinski Battalion reached Kupres, while relatively small groups of soldiers drawn from the Frankopan Battalion and the 4th Guards Brigade arrived when the battle was nearly over. A company drawn from the 126th Infantry Brigade was deployed in Šuica, but it is unclear if it actively took part in the battle. There were also Croatian Defence Forces (Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS) units raised in Tomislavgrad and Posušje, which were involved in the fighting around Kupres. At the time, overall command of the Bosnian Croat forces was held by Brigadier Milivoj Petković.

Timeline

3 April
According to the JNA, the Bosnian Croat TO attacked in the morning of 3 April, reached the village of Donji Malovan and blockaded the Kupreška Vrata Tunnel by 7:30 a.m. The village was captured by Croats after three hours of combat, and the fighting shifted towards the village of Gornji Malovan and Kupres. By the end of the day, the Bosnian Serb TO force in Gornji Malovan was besieged. The JNA instructed the Yugoslav Air Force to attack after it received reports that 15 HV tanks had appeared on the battlefield. The 30th Partisan Division staff amended the plans formulated the previous day and advanced with elements of the 11th Motorised Brigade towards Kupres via Zlosela, against positions held by the Kupres Battalion at 1:15 p.m. The change of plans enabled elements of the 13th Partisan Brigade to catch up to them by 6:00 p.m. and caused the attack to fail.

Following news of the fighting, the 5th (Banja Luka) Corps called on its troops deployed in western Slavonia to reinforce the 30th Partisan Division. The corps felt it could weaken its positions in western Slavonia because the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) peacekeepers were expected to deploy there by the end of the month based on the Vance plan. Those troops consisted of the Volunteer Battalion of the 5th Corps, and they were augmented by the 2nd Howitzer Battalion of the 5th Mixed Artillery Regiment. The 1st Battery of the 5th Light Anti-Aircraft Defence Regiment was also added to the battalion.

4–5 April
On 4 April, the Bosnian Croat TO captured Gornji Malovan. At the same time, the Bosnian Croat TO received reinforcements from Posušje, as well as a company from Bugojno and Uskoplje each. Fighting intensified as the JNA reinforcements arrived. A part of the Croatian reinforcements, which had just arrived from Bugojno and Uskoplje, fled after coming under attack near Zlosela. However, the JNA failed to achieve a breakthrough—even with five attack helicopters deployed in support of its advance towards Zlosela and Kupreška Vrata at 1:30  p.m.

The forces attacking towards Kupreška Vrata were redeployed the next day to assist in the advance towards Zlosela. In Kupres itself, the Bosnian Croat TO secured the western part of the town, as well as Gornji Malovan. Regardless, no significant territory changed hands. Although the 9th (Knin) Corps dispatched ten tanks to Kupres from its 9th Tank Company, commanded by Colonel Slavko Lisica, only four of them reached Kupres, as six broke down along the way. In the town of Kupres itself, the Bosnian Croat TO was reinforced by the arrival of a group drawn from the HV special forces Zrinski Battalion. The 30th Partisan Division lost contact with the JNA troops (1st Battalion of the 19th Partisan Brigade) in Kupres at 1:00 p.m.

6 April
At dawn on 6 April, the JNA launched a fresh attack towards Kupres and Kupreška Vrata, leaving the bulk of the 13th Partisan Brigade in reserve and employing the rest of the force at the plateau. The artillery was used so intensely that the 30th Partisan Division had to request resupply of its depleted stocks. The most effective part of the advance was the 9th Tank Company, which quickly pushed through the defensive positions, bypassed Zlosela and reached Olovo. In contrast, the Bosnian Croat TO command in Kupres was overwhelmed by the complexity of the situation and could not track which units it had at its disposal—even losing track of units physically near the command post.

The JNA further reinforced its position at the Kupres Plateau by ordering the redeployment of the 9th Armoured Battalion of the 9th (Knin) Corps to the area. It also established the Operational Group 11 (OG-11) which was to take over the operation on 7 April, when the AOR of the 9th Corps was extended to the region. At the same time, the armoured and mechanised assets of the force were organised into the Tactical Group 1 (TG-1), commanded by Lisica. By the end of the day, the divisional reserve was committed to the battle, and the JNA claimed that they had captured Zlosela, Olovo and Osmanlije, as well as reaching the outskirts of Kupres. The Bosnian Croat TO captured the centre of Kupres and brought the 1st Battalion of the 19th Partisan Brigade into a difficult position, only to begin withdrawing towards Tomislavgrad after the main JNA force reached the town in the night of 6/7 April. Likewise, the Bosnian Croat TO started to pull back from Kupreška Vrata.

7 April
On 7 April, the bulk of the 9th Armoured Battalion arrived on the battlefield, adding 17 T-55s, eight M-60 APCs and five BVP M-80s. The unit entered Kupres in the late afternoon, followed by two battalions of the 13th Partisan Brigade. A battalion of the 11th Motorised Brigade performed mopping up operations in the Zlosela area. A part of the Bosnian Croat TO force was retreating in disarray, while a portion of the force was trapped in Kupres and Zlosela, trying to break out. In the evening, as the mop-up of the Olovo and Osmanlije area was completed, the OG-11 ordered attacks against Gornji Malovan and Donji Malovan. The next day, the TG-1 received a commendation by the commander of the 9th (Knin) Corps, Major General Ratko Mladić.

Final operations
After it captured Kupres, the OG-11 turned south, in the direction of Gornji Malovan, Donji Malovan and Šuica. The attack, spearheaded by the 9th Armoured Battalion, reached Gornji Malovan on 10 April, the day Robert Zadro was killed. Fighting continued around Kupres until 11 April. Most of the Bosnian Croat TO troops, formally reorganised as the Croatian Defence Council (Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO) on 8 April, withdrew from the Kupres Plateau towards Šuica, while a small portion of the troops was forced to retreat via the Mount Cincar towards Livno.

Aftermath

Sources disagree on the number of Bosnian Croat and HV casualties. Their number is variously reported as 160 or 177 killed. The Bosnian Serbs and the JNA sustained losses of 85 killed and 154 taken prisoner of war. The JNA also captured 23 Bosnian Croat TO troops. The figures are reported to include 19 civilian deaths on each side. Even though the Serbian media initially reported that the villages of Gornji Malovan and Donji Malovan had been torched and razed to the ground, the information proved to be incorrect—the settlements sustained relatively minor damage. Conversely, Croat- or Bosniak-inhabited villages were looted and torched. Zlosela suffered extensive damage—the village school was the only structure with a roof left in place.

Command and coordination of the Bosnian Croat forces had been particularly poor throughout the battle. HV General Janko Bobetko arrived in Tomislavgrad on 11 April to find that a company of the HV 126th Infantry Brigade, deployed to Šuica, had left its positions on its own accord. The move was followed by preparations for the evacuation of Šuica in expectation of a JNA advance south from Kupres. Bobetko managed to turn the 126th Brigade back to Šuica, persuading them to defend the town overnight in order to  defend the entire region. It is not clear if the OG-11 intended to continue its advance towards Šuica though. Soon after the Battle of Kupres, a portion of the 9th Armoured Battalion was transferred to Glamoč to support the Bosnian Serb TO attack towards Livno there. The lines of control stabilised and would not shift in the area for more than two years, until the 1994 Battle of Kupres. By mid-May 1992, Bosnian Serb forces controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

War crime charges
In 2012, Republika Srpska authorities charged seven Bosnian Croat officials and HVO officers with the killings of 19 Serb civilians and 20 members of the Bosnian Serb TO in the area of Kupres in 1992. The charges also pertained to the abuse of 18 prisoners of war captured in the Battle of Kupres. In 2013, Croatian authorities in Šibenik charged 21 former members of the JNA with the abuse of 23 HVO prisoners of war. The charges specify that the prisoners were detained and abused in Knin prison between 24 April and 14 May. The abuse is alleged to have caused the deaths of two of the prisoners and grave injuries to three others.

Footnotes

References
Books

Scientific journal articles

News reports

Other sources

Conflicts in 1992
Bosnian War
Battles involving Croatia
Battles of the Bosnian War
April 1992 events in Europe

Battle of Kupres (1992)


Esther is the name of a book in the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) and the Old Testament, and also its title heroine. It is the basis for the Jewish celebration Purim.

Author and Date

Although it is never said who wrote the book of Esther, from inside evidence it is possible to make some guesses about the author and when it was written. The author was a Jew, because he emphasizes where the Jewish festival came from and from the Jewish nationalism inside the story. The author probably lived in a Persian city, because he knew Persian customs well, and does not say anything about the land of Judah or Jerusalem. The earliest date of the book would be a little while after the events were told, for instance, about 460 B.C. (before Ezra's return to Jerusalem). It is also thought that the festival of Purim had been celebrated some time before this book was written.

Purpose, Themes, and Features

Purpose

The author's main purpose was to write about how the yearly festival of Purim started and to make people remember the saving of the Jewish people during King Ahaseurus' reign. The book shows both the start of the festival and why it should continue to be celebrated.

Themes

In the book, the author repeatedly talks about the conflict between Israel and the Amalekites, a conflict that began during the exodus and continued through Israel's history. The author of Esther views them as the symbol of all the powers of the world against God's people. Now that Israel has been released from captivity, Haman's dangerous edict is the final try in the Old Testament time to get rid of them. When Haman is defeated, Israel enjoys a time of rest.

Feasting is another important theme in Esther, as seen in the picture on the left. Banquets are the setting for important parts of the story. There are ten banquets.

Style and Features

Repetition is one of the main stylistic features of the book of Esther. The three groups of banquets come in pairs; there are two lists of the king's servants; two reports that Esther hid her identity; two gatherings of women; two houses for the women; two fasts; two talks by Haman with his wife and friends; two sudden visits to the king by Esther; two coverings of Haman's face; two royal commands; two cool-downs of the king's anger; two days for the Jews to protect themselves and take vengeance; and two letters about how Purim started.

Another important feature of this book that has often been wondered about is that it never directly talks about God, worship, prayer, or sacrifice. This has made some people think the book is not as religious as other books. However, it is possible that the author purposefully did not say anything about God or anything religious to show more clearly that it is God who controls all the "unimportant" coincidences that are in the story and ends in saving the Jews.

Content

The Book of Esther is about a Jewish girl adopted by her cousin, Mordecai, after her parents died.

The Persian King Ahaseurus kicked out his wife, Queen Vashti, after she refused his demand, and fell in love with Esther at a beauty contest. He took Esther as the new Persian queen, not knowing she was a Jew.

Haman, Ahaseurus' prime minister, developed a grudge against Mordecai because he would not bow down to him, but only to the God of Israel. He despised Mordecai because he was a Jew, and tried to trick the king into making a law to kill all Jews. Haman was unaware that Queen Esther herself was a Jew.

Queen Esther discovered the plot by Haman and worked to stop it. She invited the king to dine with Haman present so she could tell him about the plot. But her courage failed her and she said nothing.

She again invited King Ahaseurus and Haman to dine and this time she told the king of Haman's plot. The king, furious, stormed out and Haman begged Esther for mercy. When the king returned, he mistakenly believed Haman had molested his queen, and had him hanged on the same gallows that Haman had prepared for Mordecai. In the end, thanks to Esther's courage and influence, the king changed the law and saved the Jewish people.

References

Old Testament books
Books of the Hebrew Bible
5th-century BC books

Book of Esther


Sanford Dole (April 23, 1844 – June 9, 1926) was an American politician. Dole was a part of a group of businessmen who first forced a new Hawaiian national constitution on the country during King David Kalakaua's reign and then after his death removed Queen Liliuokalani from the throne and took control of the country in 1893. They removed the queen by threatening to use the warships of the U.S. Navy had in Honolulu harbor.

Queen Liliuokalani did not want her people to be harmed so she agreed to do what the revolutionists wanted.  The Queen went to Washington and talked to the American President, Grover Cleveland.  Cleveland decided that this had been an act of war against the Hawaiian Kingdom.  Cleveland ordered Sanford Dole, the President of the newly formed republic, to make Liliuokalani the queen again.

Dole refused to do this. He said that President Cleveland was interfering.  Dole remained the president of Hawaii from 1894 until 1900 after Cleveland was elected out of office.  The newly elected American president William McKinley signed the Newsland Resolution. The Newsland Resolution made Hawaii a territory of the United States.  This ended any legal or military chance of restoring the Queen and the Hawaiian Kingdom.

Dole served as governor of Hawaii from 1900 until 1903, he was the first when he accepted a position as United States District Court judge. He remained a judge until 1915.

Governors of Hawaii
1844 births
1926 deaths

Sanford Dole


An ecoregion (ecological region), sometimes called a bioregion, is the next smallest ecologically and geographically defined area beneath "realm" or "ecozone". Ecoregions cover relatively large area of land or water, and contain characteristic, geographically distinct natural communities and species. When defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the boundaries of an ecoregion approximate the original extent of the natural communities prior to any major recent disruptions or changes. The WWF has identified 825 terrestrial ecoregions, and approximately 450 freshwater ecoregions across the Earth.

World Wide Fund for Nature's full definition of an ecoregion, which is widely accepted and used, is the following:
A large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that(a) share a large majority of their species and ecological dynamics;(b) share similar environmental conditions, and;(c) interact ecologically in ways that are critical for their long-term persistence.--World Wide Fund for Nature - EcoregionsThe Global 200 is the list of ecoregions identified by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) as priorities for conservation.

 Terrestrial
A terrestrial ecoregion is a certain area of land which is different from the area near it. It has a distinct climate, geology, type of soil, water availability, and distinct living species (the animals and plants that live in the ecoregion).

For example, one ecoregion can be a desert. It would have sand, very little water, very hot temperatures during the day and very cold at night. The plants could be just bushes, small trees, cactii. The animals could be scorpions, little mammals, spiders.

Or for example, an ecoregion could be a tropical forest It would have warm temperatures all day, a lot of rainfall all year, a huge river crossing, and a very organic soil. The plants could be huge trees or ferns. The animals could be insects, birds, fish and apes.

 Marine
Marine ecoregions are regions of the world's oceans, that are defined by the WWF, to help activities for saving marine ecosystems.

The scheme used to find out these ecoregions is more or less the same as that for terrestrial ecoregions. Major habitat types are identified: polar, temperate shelfs and seas, temperate upwelling, tropical upwelling, tropical coral, pelagic, abyssal, and hadal (ocean trench) — which correspond to the terrestrial biomes. Major biogeographic realms, analogous to the seven terrestrial ecozones, represent large regions of the ocean basins: North Temperate Atlantic, Eastern Tropical Atlantic, Western Tropical Atlantic, South Temperate Atlantic, North Temperate Indo-Pacific, Central Indo-Pacific, Eastern Indo-Pacific, Western Indo-Pacific, South Temperate Indo-Pacific, Southern Ocean, Antarctic, Arctic, and Mediterranean.

The classification of Marine ecoregions is not developed to the same level of detail and comprehensiveness as that of the terrestrial ecoregions; only the priority conservation areas of the Global 200 are listed.

See Global 200 Marine ecoregions for a full list of marine ecoregions (World Wide Fund for Nature).

 Freshwater
Freshwater ecoregions are the freshwater habitats of a particular geographic area, including rivers, streams, lakes, and wetlands. Freshwater ecoregions are distinct from terrestrial ecoregions, which have biotic communities of the land, and marine ecoregions, which are biotic communities of the oceans.

The WWF speaks of seven major habitat types of freshwater ecoregions: Large rivers, large river headwaters, large river deltas, small rivers, large lakes, small lakes, and xeric basins.

Several freshwater ecoregions are listed in the Global 200, the WWF's priority ecoregions for conservation of biodiversity.

 Sources
 Brunckhorst, D. 2000. Bioregional planning: resource management beyond the new millennium.'' Harwood Academic Publishers: Sydney, Australia.

Related pages
Cape flower region
Great Barrier Reef

Other websites
 World Wide Fund for Nature: ecoregions
 Sierra club: ecoregions
 Activist network cultivating Ecoregions/Bioregions
 A National Ecological Framework for Canada
 Ecoregions of North America
 Interactive map and images of North American ecoregions at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
 Map of the ecozones

Ecoregion


Mary Noailles Murfree (January 24, 1850 – July 31, 1922) was an American author of novels and short stories who wrote under the pen name Charles Egbert Craddock.  She is considered by many to be Appalachia's first significant female writer and her work a necessity for the study of Appalachian literature, although a number of characters in her work reinforce negative stereotypes about the region.  She has been favorably compared to Bret Harte and Sarah Orne Jewett, creating post-Civil War American local-color literature.

The town of Murfreesboro, Tennessee, is named after Murfree's great-grandfather Colonel Hardy Murfree, who fought in the Revolutionary War.

Biography
Murfree was born on her family's cotton plantation, Grantland, near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, a location later celebrated in her novel, Where the Battle was Fought and in the town named after her great-grandfather, Colonel Hardy Murfree. Her father was a successful lawyer of Nashville, and her youth was spent in both Murfreesboro and Nashville. From 1867 to 1869 she attended the Chegary Institute, a finishing school in Philadelphia. Murfree would spend her summers in Beersheba Springs. For a number of years after the Civil War the Murfree family lived in St. Louis, returning in 1890 to Murfreesboro, where she lived until her death.

Being lame from childhood, Murfree turned to reading the novels of Walter Scott and George Eliot. For fifteen successive summers the family stayed in Beersheba Springs in the Cumberland Mountains of Tennessee, giving her the opportunity to study the mountains and mountain people more closely.

By the 1870s she had begun writing stories for Appleton's Journal under the penname of "Charles Egbert Craddock" and by 1878 she was contributing to the Atlantic Monthly. It was not until seven years later, in May 1885, that Murfree divulged that she was Charles Egbert Craddock to Thomas Bailey Aldrich, an editor at the Atlantic Monthly.
Murfree visited the Montvale Springs resort near Knoxville, from 1886. Although she became known for the realism of her accounts, in fact she was from a wealthy family and would have had little contact with the local people while staying at the resorts.

She is buried at Evergreen Cemetery in Murfreesboro.

Works

Fiction

 In the Tennessee Mountains (1884) (eight stories on the life and character of the Tennessee mountaineer)(e-book at Documenting the American South)
 Where the Battle Was Fought (1884)
 Down the Ravine (1885)
 The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains (1885)(e-book at Documenting the American South)
 In the Clouds (1886)
 The Despot of Broomsedge Cove (1888)
 The Story of Keedon Bluffs (1887)
 Abner Holden's Bound Boy (1890)
 In the "Stranger People's" Country (1891)
 His Vanished Star (1894)
 The Juggler (1897)
 The Story of Old Fort Loudon (1898)
 The Champion (1902)
 A Spectre of Power (1903)
 The Frontiersmen (1904) (e-book at Project Gutenberg)
 The Storm Centre (1905)
 The Amulet (1906)
 The Windfall (1907)
 The Fair Mississippian (1908)
 The Ordeal: A Mountain Romance of Tennessee (1912)
 The Story of Duciehurst: A Tale of the Mississippi (1914)

Short fiction
 The Phantoms of the Footbridge and Other Stories (1895)
 The Mystery of Witch-Face Mountain and Other Stories (1895)
 The Young Mountaineers (1897)
 The Bushwhackers and Other Stories (1899)
 Civil War Stories (contributor, 1900)
 The Raid of the Guerilla and Other Stories (1912)

See also
 Literature of Tennessee

References

Further reading
 Baskervill, William M. (1897). Charles Egbert Craddock. Nashville, Tenn.: Barbee & Smith.
 Harkins, E.F. & Charles H.L. Johnston (1902). "Charles Egbert Craddock." In: Little Pilgrimages Among the Women who have Written Famous Books. Boston: L.C. Page & Co., pp. 75–90.
 Vedder, Henry C. (1894). "Charles Egbert Craddock." In: American Writers Today. New York: Silver, Burdett and Company, pp. 171–186.

External links

 The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains free ebook in PDF, PDB and LIT formats
 Mary Noailles Murfree – bibliographical overview, description by a contemporary, links to works online
Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: Mary Noailles Murfree papers, 1877-1928

1850 births
1922 deaths
19th-century American novelists
20th-century American novelists
American women novelists
American women short story writers
Appalachian writers
People from Murfreesboro, Tennessee
Novelists from Tennessee
20th-century American women writers
19th-century American women writers
19th-century American short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Woman of the Century

Mary Noailles Murfree


Counting is something people do to find out how many things there are of any kind.

One way to count
The person counting in English usually starts with the number one, and gives this number to the first thing. The next thing is given the number two. Then, the next thing is given the number three. If there is another thing, it gets the number four. If after this there is another thing, it gets the number five. More things get more numbers. Each thing gets its own number in this way. The last number given to the last thing counted shows how many things there are.

Examples
 For example, to find out the number of hats in a group, a person counts the hats. The person gives a number to each hat.

 John has a black hat, a brown hat and a blue hat. Mary asks John, "How many hats do you have?". John  gives the number 1 to the black hat. John gives the number 2 to the brown hat. John gives the number 3 to the blue hat. Now John has no more hats. The biggest number John gave was three, and each hat has a number. John tells Mary, "I have three hats". John has counted the hats.

 There are the letters A, Q, L, and S on a piece of paper. How many letters are there on the piece of paper?

 Tom gives numbers to the letters. The letter A gets the number 1. The letter Q gets the number 2. The letter L gets the number 3. The letter S gets the number 4. There are no more letters to count. There are 4 letters on the piece of paper.

More counting
Counting is starting at a number and changing it up or down a certain number of times. In the examples above, counting started at one and then it changed by one each time something was counted. So at first the count was one. Then the count was changed by one, and one plus one is two, so the count was two. Then the count of two was changed by one again, and two plus one is three, so the count was three.

Counting can go up or down. Counting can be done on fingers.

More about counting
It has been shown that some birds are good at counting. Crows
are birds that are good at counting.

Mathematics

Counting


A trout is a kind of teleost fish that belongs to the Salmoninae subfamily of the Salmonidae family. There are many different kinds of trout. They belong to the same family as the salmon.

Most trout are freshwater fish. They live in clear streams, rivers and lakes in America, Europe, and Asia.

It is possible to work out the difference between a trout and any other fish, by looking for a second dorsal fin (or adipose fin). Also, you can find for spots in mature trout and parr marks in the young.

Salmoniformes
Edible fish

Trout


Totalitarianism is when regimes (political systems) control all public behavior and as much of private behavior as they can. No elections are held, or if they are, candidates must be approved by the ruling group. Physical force and/or arrests and detentions are used on people who protest against the regime. There are events such as parades or rallies. These suggest to the people that the ruling group is in complete control.

For some, totalitarianism is as old as history.  Main examples in modern times are Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, North Korea, the Soviet Union, and Eritrea.

There are other countries which had dictatorships, but never reached full totalitarianism. Italian fascism under Benito Mussolini, Spain under General Franco, Portugal under Dr. Salazar, China under Mao Zedong, and many Latin American countries for periods were dictatorships with some aspects of totalitarianism.  Some African countries have been dictatorships for long periods (e.g. Zimbabwe).  The Empire of Japan (predecessor state of the modern nation-state of Japan) was a well-known example of a totalitarian military dictatorship during World War II. The satire Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell was about such a society taken to extremes.

According to some, authoritarianism "does not attempt to change the world and human nature". In contrast, a totalitarian regime attempts to control virtually all aspects of the social life, including the economy, education, art, science, private life and morals of citizens.

Related pages
 Dictatorship
 Fascism
 Nazism
 Stalinism
 Communism
 Socialism

References

Forms of government
Political ideologies

Totalitarianism


Kenneth S. "The Rat" Linseman (born August 11, 1958) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played 15 seasons in the National Hockey League for the Philadelphia Flyers, Edmonton Oilers, Boston Bruins and Toronto Maple Leafs. He also played one season in the World Hockey Association for the Birmingham Bulls. He featured in four Stanley Cup Finals, notably winning the 1984 Stanley Cup with the Oilers.

Playing career
Linseman spent his entire junior career with the Kingston Canadians of the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League from 1974–77. He played in 187 games, scoring 286 points (133 goals-153 assists). He also added 33 points (16G-17A) in 25 playoff games.

Prior to the 1977 WHA draft, Linseman and his agent Art Kaminsky sued the WHA in United States District Court for a league rule preventing teenage players from playing in the league, which the court ruled violated anti-trust laws. Linseman was drafted by the WHA's Birmingham Bulls in the 1977 WHA Amateur Draft, and spent the 1977–78 with the Bulls, getting 76 points (38G-38A) in 71 games, and adding 4 points (2G-2A) in five playoff games. He was then drafted by the Flyers as their first-round, 7th overall pick in the 1978 NHL Amateur Draft.

Linseman began the 1978–79 season with the Maine Mariners of the American Hockey League, getting 39 points (17G-22A) in 38 games before getting called up by the Flyers. He finished the season in Philadelphia, earning 25 points (5G-20A) in 30 games, then added 8 points (2G-6A) in 8 post-season games. Linseman spent the entire 1979–80 season with the Flyers, getting 79 points (22G-57A) in 80 games, then added 22 points (4G-18A) in 17 playoff games. An injury limited Linseman to 51 games in 1980–81, getting 47 points (17G-30A), and had 20 points (4G-16A) in 12 playoff games. 1981–82 was the best season of Linseman's career, as he scored a career high 92 points (24G-68A) in 79 games, and had 275 PIM, which was 7th highest in the NHL. In 4 playoff games, Linseman registered 3 points (1G-2A). On August 19, 1982, the Flyers traded Linseman, along with Greg Adams and Philadelphia's first and third round picks in 1983 to the Hartford Whalers in exchange for Mark Howe and Hartford's third-round pick in 1983. The Whalers then swapped Linseman to the Edmonton Oilers with Don Nachbaur for Risto Siltanen and Brent Loney.

Linseman picked up the nickname "The Rat" both by his appearance and the way he played. He had a great talent for agitating the opposing team to a high level of frustration, leading them to take penalties. During his junior career, he was once charged for kicking a player in the head with his skates.

With the Oilers in 1982–83, Linseman had 75 points (33G-42A) in 72 games, and helped the Oilers to the Stanley Cup finals with 14 points (6G-8A) in 16 post-season games. In 1983–84, Linseman had 67 points (18G-49A) in 75 games, and helped the Oilers win the Stanley Cup with 14 points (10G-4A) in 19 games. He scored an NHL record 3 series clinching goals, since tied by Martin Gélinas of the Calgary Flames in 2004. After winning the Stanley Cup, Linseman found himself on the move as the Oilers dealt him to the Boston Bruins for Mike Krushelnyski on June 21, 1984.

Linseman had a solid 1984–85 season, with 74 points (25G-49A) in 74 games, and added 10 points (4G-6A) in five playoff games. Injuries held Linseman to 64 games in 1985–86, but he scored 81 points (23G-58A), and in 3 playoff games, had 1 assist. His production fell in 1986–87, as he was held again to 64 games, getting 49 points (15G-34A), and in 4 playoff games, had 2 points (1G-1A). In 1987–88, Linseman was healthy again, and saw his point total increase, getting 74 points (29G-45A) in 77 games, and helped the Bruins to the Stanley Cup Finals, earning 25 points (11G-14A) in 23 playoff games. Linseman had a productive 1988–89 season, as he got 72 points (27G-45A) in 78 games, however a late season injury prevented him from playing in any playoff games. In 1989–90, Linseman began the season with Boston, playing in 32 games and getting 22 points (6G-16A). He was traded to the Flyers on January 16, 1990 in exchange for Dave Poulin. Linseman then played 29 games with the Flyers, getting 14 points (5G-9A) as the team failed to make the playoffs.

On August 31, 1990, Linseman signed as a free agent with the Oilers and spent the 1990–91 season with the team, getting 36 points (7G-29A) in 56 games, and had an assist in two playoff games. On October 7, 1991, the Oilers traded Linseman to the Maple Leafs for cash; however Linseman spent only two games with Toronto, getting no points. He was released by the Leafs, and ended up playing 5 games in an Italian Hockey League with HC Asiago, getting 6 points (3G-3A) in 5 games, and then 7 points (3G-4A) in 6 playoff games. After the 1991–92 season, Linseman hung his skates up and retired.

Awards and achievements
 Stanley Cup champion – 1984
 OMJHL Second Team All-Star – 1977

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

International

References

External links

1958 births
Living people
Asiago Hockey 1935 players
Birmingham Bulls draft picks
Birmingham Bulls players
Boston Bruins players
Canadian ice hockey centres
Edmonton Oilers players
Kingston Canadians players
Maine Mariners (AHL) players
National Hockey League first-round draft picks
Philadelphia Flyers draft picks
Philadelphia Flyers players
Ice hockey people from Kingston, Ontario
Stanley Cup champions
Toronto Maple Leafs players

Ken Linseman


Bis saeculari (September 27, 1948), is an apostolic constitution, of Pope Pius XII on the Sodality of Our Lady issued to mark the two hundredth anniversary of the Papal bull Gloriosae Dominae of Pope Benedict XIV in 1748.

Apostolic constitutions are the highest form of papal teaching, above encyclicals, below dogmatization ex cathedra. The Sodality of Our Lady dates to 1584. It consists of associations of persons, sodalists, dedicated to a Christian life, following the model of the Virgin Mary.

Importance to the Church

Pope Pius XII expressed his support of the Marian Congregations. He described the Sodality as authentic "Catholic Action under the auspices and inspiration of the Blessed Virgin Mary" and called for its renewal in the post war era. The Pope established guidelines for the lay apostolate.

Pope Pius praised the Sodality for its "numerous and great services to the Church" and says of Sodalists "Indeed in propagating, spreading and defending Catholic doctrine they must be considered among the most powerful spiritual forces". Of the Rules of the Sodality he says "through them the members are perfectly lead to that perfection of spiritual life from which they can scale the heights of sanctity" and adds that "wherever Sodalities are in a flourishing condition - holiness of life and solid attachment to religion readily grow and flourish". He illustrates the point by adding that "the fact that they ever had the common good of the Church at heart and not some private interest is proved by the unimpeachable witness of that most brilliant series of Sodalists to whom Mother Church has decreed the supreme honours of the Altars; their glory throws lustre not merely on the Society of Jesus but on the secular clergy and on not a few religious families, since ten members of the Sodalities of Our Lady became founders of new Religious Orders and Congregations".

Because of their loyalty to the Church, they are welcome helpers of the hierarchies. In the future, twelve principles should be observed for sodalities to continue as an effective Church organization. The principles describe the continued value of existing rules, membership based on strict selections, Marian orientation not only in name, leadership by priests, clear but limited rights for priests and bishops, religious education of its members, and, cooperation with other lay organizations.

Bis saeculari had the effect of reinvigorating the movement, eventually leading to formation of national and international federations.

Quotations

 Any kind of apostolate belongs to the goals of sodalities, especially social obligations, the spreading of the kingdom of Christ, and the defence of the rights of the Church.
 The "perfect Catholic" formed by the Sodality, corresponds to the needs of our days no less than in previous times. More than ever before, we need men formed in the principles of Christian life.
 Sodalists should only be accepted, if they are in no way content with an average way of living. They should desire to climb the steep cliffs in their hearts, according to the rules, ascetic guidelines and exercises.
 It is the task of the sodality to train its sodalists so they may become a model of Christian and apostolic life to their fellow men.

See also
 Consecration and entrustment to Mary
 Marian papal encyclicals and Apostolic Letters

References

Sources
 Text of  Bis saeculari

Pope Pius XII Mariology
Pope Pius XII apostolic constitutions and bulls
1948 documents
1948 in Christianity

Bis saeculari


The Wild Sky Wilderness is a  wilderness area in the western Cascade Range of Washington state.  The wilderness is within the Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest north of the U.S. Highway 2 towns of Index and Skykomish.  The wilderness flanks, but does not include, the North Fork Skykomish River and the Beckler River.  The Henry M. Jackson Wilderness is adjacent to the east and northeast. The highest point in Wild Sky Wilderness is 6,244 foot Gunn Peak.

Until 2014 with the expansion of the Alpine Lakes Wilderness by President Obama, the Wild Sky Wilderness was significant because it was the first new federally designated wilderness in Washington since 1984.  Also, unlike many other wilderness areas in the Cascades, Wild Sky protects significant amounts of high productivity low-elevation forest.

Legislative history
The Wild Sky Wilderness required several legislative attempts before becoming law, despite broad local support.  Prior to 2007, the Wild Sky bill was blocked in committee by Representative Richard Pombo of California, who was not reelected in 2006.  President George W. Bush had been receptive to the proposal.

In February 2007, Senator Patty Murray and Rep. Rick Larsen introduced legislation to designate the Wild Sky as wilderness.  The bill then passed the House and had been approved by the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee.  Before the bill came to the Senate floor, however, it was put on hold by Oklahoma Republican Tom Coburn, and never reached a vote.

The Consolidated Natural Resources Act of 2008, creating the Wild Sky Wilderness, was passed by the U.S. Senate on April 10, 2008, and then passed the U.S. House of Representatives a little less than three weeks later on April 29.  President Bush signed the Wilderness into law on May 8, 2008.

Private land
When the Wild Sky Wilderness was first proposed, about  of private land (inholdings) were within its boundaries. Since 2003 the Wilderness Land Trust and Cascade Land Conservancy have purchased about one-third of this amount. Efforts continue to acquire the remaining inholdings.

In 2023, the Wilderness Land Trust transferred  near Silvertip Peak into the Wild Sky Wilderness.

See also
 List of U.S. Wilderness Areas

References

 Associated Press, "Nethercutt endorses Wild Sky wilderness", Seattle Post-Intelligencer, May 15, 2004
 Goldfarb, Sam, "Wild Sky wilderness bill back in Congress", The Seattle Times, February 7, 2007

External links
 The Wild Sky Wilderness Proposal, Washington Wild (political advocacy)
 Wild Sky Wilderness, U.S. Senator Patty Murray (political advocacy)
 The Wilderness Land Trust

IUCN Category Ib
Protected areas of King County, Washington
Protected areas of Snohomish County, Washington
Wilderness areas of Washington (state)
Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest

Wild Sky Wilderness


EénVandaag (OneToday) is a current affairs programme broadcast on the Dutch public television network NPO 1 (formerly Nederland 1), The programme, which airs on Monday to Saturday evenings at 6:15pm CET is a co-production of the broadcasting associations AVRO and TROS, and since 2014 AVROTROS.

Eén Vandaag initially aired on Nederland 2 as Twee Vandaag and was launched in 1993 as a joint-production between the pillar broadcasters TROS, the EO and Veronica. Up until that point, the three companies had produced their own weekly current affairs programmes - TROS Aktua, Tijdsein (EO) and Nieuwslijn (Veronica). Since then, the roll-call of participating broadcasters has changed several times. Currently, the programme is presented on alternate nights by Bas van Werven (originalfrom TROS) and Pieter Jan Hagens (original from AVRO). The programme's editor-in-chief is Jan Kriek.

EénVandaag is also broadcast each weekday on the international television station BVN.

Dossier EenVandaag

Since 2014 EenVandaag has also a spin off called Dossier EenVandaag that will be broadcast irregular, the concept is that questions were answered by Jan Born and Sander 't Sas, the emphasis is on criminality, corruption and secret documents leaked by whistleblowers.

Opinion panel
A recurring feature of the program is the Opinion Panel, a group of over 35,000 viewers who are regularly asked, via the Internet, for their opinion on current topics. This makes it one of the largest opinion panels in the Netherlands.

Politician of the year
In December 2004 the members of the opinion panel (together with members of parliament), were asked to choose their "politician of the year". Each group was asked to rank both the best and the worst politicians.

The parliamentarians chose as their best politician the Socialist Party leader Jan Marijnissen, followed by CDA leader (and Prime Minister at the time) Jan Peter Balkenende, followed by Wouter Bos (leader of the PvdA). As worst politician they chose Rita Verdonk, describing her as an "elephant in a china cabinet" (a Dutch expression meaning ruthless and incompetent). Geert Wilders and Mark Rutte are also elected to the Politician of the Year.

The members of the opinion panel also selected Marijnissen as best politician, but chose Bos as the worst. Remarkably, Verdonk appeared in second place and Balkenende in third on both the best and the worst lists.

Presenters and editors
Current
 Jan Kriek (editor-in-chief)
 Bas van Werven (presenter)
 Pieter Jan Hagens (presenter)
 Rik van de Westelaken (presenter)

Former
 Peter Beker (EO; editor in chief)
 Tijs van den Brink (EO; presenter)
 Pieter Jan Hagens (AVRO; presenter)
 Jaap Jongbloed (TROS; presenter)
 Klaas Samplonius (TROS; editor in chief)
 Jeroen Snel (EO; presenter)
 André Zwartbol (EO; presenter)
 Antoinette Hertsenberg (TROS)

External links

Dutch television news shows
1993 Dutch television series debuts
1990s Dutch television series
2000s Dutch television series
2010s Dutch television series
NPO 1 original programming

EenVandaag


The Night of the Iguana is a 1964 American drama film directed by John Huston, based on the 1961 play of the same name by Tennessee Williams. It stars Richard Burton, Ava Gardner, Deborah Kerr, Grayson Hall, Sue Lyon, and Cyril Delevanti.

The film won the 1964 Academy Award for Best Costume Design, and was nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Art Direction and Best Cinematography. Actress Grayson Hall received Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress, and Cyril Delevanti received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actor. In addition to Delevanti's nomination at the Golden Globes, Ava Gardner also received a Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama nomination. Both the picture and its director, John Huston, likewise received Golden Globe nominations.

Plot
The preface to the story shows Episcopal clergyman T. Lawrence Shannon having a "nervous breakdown" after being ostracized by his congregation and defrocked for having an inappropriate relationship with a "very young Sunday school teacher."

Two years later, Shannon, now a tour guide for the bottom-of-the-barrel Texas company Blake's Tours, is taking a group of Baptist schoolteachers by bus to Puerto Vallarta, Mexico. The group's brittle leader is Miss Judith Fellowes, whose 16-year-old niece Charlotte Goodall tries to seduce Shannon. Meanwhile, Fellowes accuses Shannon of trying to seduce Charlotte and declares that she will ruin him.

While approaching the group's hotel in the bus, Shannon suddenly veers off and recklessly drives the terrified passengers to a cheap Costa Verde hotel in Mismaloya, then removes the distributor cap from the engine. Shannon assumes that the hotel is run by an old friend named Fred, but the man had died recently and the hotel is now run by Fred's widow, the bawdy and flamboyant Maxine Faulk. Shannon convinces Maxine to allow the tour group to stay at the hotel, believing that they will be unable to reach a phone or escape.

Another new arrival at the hotel is Hannah Jelkes, a beautiful and chaste itinerant painter from Nantucket who is traveling with her elderly poet grandfather Nonno. They have run out of money, but Shannon convinces Maxine to let them have a room. Over a long night, Shannon battles his weaknesses for both flesh and alcohol, Miss Fellowes' niece continues to make trouble for him, and he is "at the end of his rope," similar to how an iguana is kept tied by Maxine's cabana boys. Shannon suffers a breakdown, the cabana boys truss him in a hammock, and Hannah ministers to him there with poppy-seed tea and frank spiritual counsel. Shannon frees the iguana from its rope.

Hannah's grandfather delivers the final version of the poem that he has been laboring to finish, about having heart in a corrupt world, and then dies. The characters try to resolve their confused lives, with Shannon and Maxine deciding to run the hotel together, although Maxine had offered to walk away and let Hannah run the hotel with Shannon. Hannah walks away from her last chance at love.

Cast
 Richard Burton as the Reverend Dr. T. Lawrence Shannon
 Ava Gardner as Maxine Faulk
 Deborah Kerr as Hannah Jelkes
 Sue Lyon as Charlotte Goodall
 Grayson Hall as Judith Fellowes, Charlotte's chaperone
 Cyril Delevanti as Nonno, poet and Hannah's grandfather
 Skip Ward as Hank Prosner
 Mary Boylan as Miss Peebles

Production
James Garner claimed that he was originally offered the role played by Richard Burton but he declined because "it was just too Tennessee Williams for me."

In September 1963, Huston, Lyon and Burton, accompanied by Elizabeth Taylor, arrived at Puerto Vallarta—a "remote little fishing village"—for principal photography in Mismaloya, which lasted 72 days. Huston liked the area's fishing so much that he bought a $30,000 house "in a cottage colony eight miles outside town."

By March 1964, months before the film's release, gossip about the film's production was widespread. Huston received a Writers Guild of America award for advancing "the literature of the motion picture through the years." At the award dinner, Allan Sherman performed a song to the tune of "Streets of Laredo" with lyrics that included, "They were down there to film The Night of the Iguana / With a star-studded cast and a technical crew. / They did things at night midst the flora and fauna / That no self-respecting iguana would do."

Reception
The film grossed $12 million worldwide at the box office, earning $4.5 million in U.S. theatrical rentals It was the 10th highest-grossing film of 1964.

Time magazine's reviewer wrote, "Huston and company put together a picture that excites the senses, persuades the mind, and even occasionally speaks to the spirit—one of the best movies ever made from a Tennessee Williams play."

Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote:

Since difficulty of communication between individuals seems to be one of the sadder of human misfortunes that Tennessee Williams is writing about in his play, The Night of the Iguana, it is ironical that the film John Huston has made from it has difficulty in communicating, too. At least, it has difficulty in communicating precisely what it is that is so barren and poignant about the people it brings to a tourist hotel run by a sensual American woman on the west coast of Mexico. And because it does have difficulty—because it doesn't really make you see what is so helpless and hopeless about them—it fails to generate the sympathy and the personal compassion that might make their suffering meaningful.

Crowther was particularly critical of Burton's performance: "Mr. Burton is spectacularly gross, a figure of wild disarrangement, but without a shred of real sincerity. You see a pot-bellied scarecrow flapping erratically. And in his ridiculous early fumbling with the Lolitaish Sue Lyon (whose acting is painfully awkward), he is farcical when he isn't grotesque."

Awards and nominations

Legacy
A statue of John Huston stands in Puerto Vallarta, celebrating the film's role in making the area a popular destination.

References

External links

1960s American films
1960s English-language films
1964 drama films
1964 films
American black-and-white films
American drama films
American films based on plays
Films based on works by Tennessee Williams
Films directed by John Huston
Films produced by Ray Stark
Films scored by Benjamin Frankel
Films set in hotels
Films set in Mexico
Films shot in Mexico
Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award
Films with screenplays by John Huston
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films

The Night of the Iguana (film)


The Harlem Globetrotters are an exhibition basketball team that combines athleticism and comedy. They are a "barnstorming" team, which means they travel around the world playing basketball in many different places.  Sometimes they play college or pro teams, but usually they play a team called the Washington Generals.

They were founded in 1925 in Chicago.  Almost all their players are African-American, which was unusual at the time of their founding (at that time, most professional basketball players were white).  In the 1930s and 1940s, they were one of the best basketball teams in the country, along with the New York Rens, another African-American basketball team.  By the 1950s, a lot of black players started playing in the NBA, and the Globetrobbers became a clown team.

The best-known Globetrotter is Meadowlark Lemon.  Wilt Chamberlain played for the Globetrotters for a while.  They were placed in the Basketball Hall of Fame as a team in 2001.

Basketball teams in the United States
American entertainers
African-American people

Harlem Globetrotters


One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich is a novel written by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, first published in November 1962 in the Soviet literary magazine Novy Mir (New World). Set in a Soviet labour camp in the 1950s, and describes a single day of an ordinary prisoner, Ivan Denisovich Shukhov.

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (I Denisovich himself) had first-hand experience in the Soviet labor camps called the Gulag, having been imprisoned from 1945 to 1953 for writing a derogatory comment in a letter to a fellow officer about the conduct of the war by Stalin.

1962 books
Russian novels
Books by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn

One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich


Railway brakes are brakes which are used for the cars of railway trains. The brakes are used to enable deceleration, to control acceleration when going down slopes or hills and to keep the cars standing while they are parked. There are several types of brakes, including vacuum brakes and air brakes.

Machines

Railway brake


The Academy Awards, commonly known as the Oscars, are the best-known movie awards in the United States. The awards have been given by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences since 1929. The awards ceremony takes place each year in late February or early March in Los Angeles, California.

History
At the end of the 1920s, the American film industry was in a crisis. When the radio was invented, people didn't go to the cinema as often as they used to. The owners of the studios had problems. They had to pay the workers a good salary, but that was impossible at that time. Many people fought for a good salary and a good working time.

The director of the successful Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer-Studios, Louis B. Mayer met two good friends because he wanted to speak about the problem.

Oscar statue

Naming
In the first years of the award, the trophy was called the Academy Award of Merit. The godfather of the name Oscar is not clear. It is certain, that the name was used in 1931. There may be four people, who could be the godparents. The former board secretary of the academy Margaret Herrick said: "He looks like my uncle Oscar!". Bette Davis said that he looks like my first husband Harmon "Oscar" Nelson. The film columnist Sidney Skolsky said, that he is the name-giver, and the fourth person was Walt Disney.

It is said that Oscar is not the official name of the statue. But the nickname is trademark-protected.

Trophy
The statue is around 13  inches tall and weighs about 8 pounds.

Categories
Current Awards

 Best Picture – since 1928
 Best Actor – since 1928
 Best Actress –since 1928
 Best Supporting Actor – since 1936
 Best Supporting Actress – since 1936
 Best Animated Feature – since 2001
 Best Art Direction – since 1928(also called Interior or Set Decoration)
 Best Cinematography – since 1928
 Costume Design – since 1948
 Directing  since 1928
 Documentary Feature since 1943
 Documentary Short Subject since 1941
 Film Editing – since 1935
 Best Foreign Language Film – since 1947
 Makeup – since 1981
 Original Music Score- since 1934
 Best Song- since 1934
 Animated Short Film – since 1931
 Live Action Short Film since 1931
 Academy Award for Sound Mixing since 1930
 Best Sound Effects Editing – since 1963
 Best Visual Effects – since 1939
 Best Adapted Screenplay – since 1928
 Best Original Screenplay – since 1940
 Academy Award, Scientific or Technical – since 1931, presented at three levels

Retired Awards

 Best Assistant Director – 1933 to 1937
 Best Dance Direction – 1935 to 1937
 Comedy Direction – 1928 only
 Engineering Effects – 1928 only
 Academy Award for Best Original Music or Comedy Score - 1995-1999
 Academy Award for Best Original Story – 1928 to 1956
 Academy Award for Best Score- Adaptation or Treatment – 1962 to 1962 and 1973
 Best Short Film - Color – 1936 and 1937
 Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels – 1936 to 1956
 Short Film - Novelty – 1932 to 1935
 Best Title Writing – 1928 only
 Unique and Artistic Production – 1928 only

Records

The most successful films

Gone with the Wind from 1939 was the most successful film for a long time with ten Oscars. Then, in 1960, Ben-Hur won eleven Oscars. In 1998 Titanic also won eleven Oscars, so they were in a tie. Six years later, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King won eleven Oscars.

The five categories 'Best Picture', 'Best Director', 'Best Actor', 'Best Actress' and 'Best Original Screenplay' are the most important categories and they are called the 'Big Five'. There are only three films that won all these categories: It Happened One Night, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and The Silence of the Lambs.

All About Eve, Titanic and La La Land had 14 nominations. This is the nomination record.

The most successful filmworkers
Katharine Hepburn (1907–2003) has the most awards as a performer with 4 Oscars in the category of 'Best Actress'. Meryl Streep has the most nominations as performers with 21 Oscar nominations. Jack Nicholson, Daniel Day-Lewis, and Walter Brennan (1894–1974) have three Academy Awards each, the most for men. Nicholson also has the nomination record for men with 12 nominations. The person who has the most Academy Awards is Walt Disney (1901–1966) with 26, including 4 Honorary Oscars and he has 37 nominations. Moreover, he won 4 awards in 1954, so he got the most awards in one year. The woman, who has the most Oscars is the costume designer Edith Head (1897–1981). She has 8 Oscars and 27 nominations. The living people with the most Oscars are the composer Alan Menken (8 Oscars) and special effects artist Dennis Muren (8 Oscars for best visual effects, plus one for technical achievement and 15 nominations). The cartoon characters Tom and Jerry are the cartoon movie stars with have the most awards with 7.

Other websites

 Website of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
 Official Academy Awards Database (searchable)
 .

Los Angeles

Academy Award


Psychological trauma is damage to the psyche that happens after a stressful event. It can be caused by things that make a person afraid. Common causes include humiliation, sexual abuse, bullying, psychological abuse and domestic violence. Living with any of those for a long time can cause psychological trauma.

People who have suffered psychological trauma, particularly in childhood and adolescence, are more likely to have psychological problems. Those problems can include posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and borderline personality disorder.

References

Psychology

Psychological trauma


The History of Middle-Earth, is a series compound by twelve volumes, published in 1983 to 1996, that analyze the works of J.R.R. Tolkien. The book was edited and compiled by his son, Christopher Tolkien. These books are extremely detailed, Christopher Tolkien wrote the books based the annotations of his father. But some texts continue not published, they continue in the libraries of Bodleian and Marquette University, and in particular hands, like in Elvish Linguistic Fellowship.

The first five books discuss about the ancient history of The Silmarillion and relational texts. From the sixth to the ninth, the books discuss about the history of Númenor in the formation of The Notion Club Papers. The books ten and eleven back to the Silmarillion, with the Annals of Beleriand and the Annals of Aman. The twelfth book discuss about the creation of Lord of the Rings' appendix.

The books are:

The Book of Lost Tales 1 (1983)
The Book of Lost Tales 2 (1984)
The Lays of Beleriand (1985)
The Shaping of Middle-earth (1986)
The Lost Road and Other Writings (1987)
The Return of the Shadow (The History of The Lord of the Rings v.1) (1988)
The Treason of Isengard (The History of The Lord of the Rings v.2) (1989)
The War of the Ring (The History of The Lord of the Rings v.3) (1990)
Sauron Defeated (adding The History of The Lord of the Rings v.4) (1992)
Morgoth's Ring (The Later Silmarillion v.1) (1993)
The War of the Jewels (The Later Silmarillion v.2) (1994)
The Peoples of Middle-earth (1996)

Books by J. R. R. Tolkien
Series of books
British fantasy books
Middle-earth

The History of Middle-earth


The Atlantic Standard Time Zone (AST) is a geographic region that keeps time by subtracting four hours from Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), resulting in GMT-4 (UTC-4).  The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time of the 60th degree meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory.

The Canadian provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island keep time by subtracting four hours from UTC. So does Bermuda, an island territory in the North Atlantic. In the summer, both places use daylight saving time. They keep Atlantic Daylight Time (ADT) (UTC-3) in the summer.

Other parts of the world that keep time by subtracting four hours from UTC include: many Caribbean islands, including Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and several South American countries, such as Paraguay, Chile, Bolivia, and parts of Brazil. Venezuela used AST until December 9, 2007, when it switched to UTC-4:30, but switched back to AST on May 1, 2016, at 2:30 a.m. local time.

References

Other websites
 World time zone map
 U.S. time zone map
 History of U.S. time zones and UTC conversion
 Canada time zone map
 Time zones for major world cities
 Official times across Canada
 The official U.S. time for the Atlantic Time Zone (no DST)

Time zones in the United States
Time in Canada

Atlantic Standard Time Zone


Corrosion in space is the corrosion of materials occurring in outer space. Instead of moisture and oxygen acting as the primary corrosion causes, the materials exposed to outer space are subjected to vacuum, bombardment by ultraviolet and X-rays, and high-energy charged particles (mostly electrons and protons from solar wind). In the upper layers of the atmosphere (between 90–800 km), the atmospheric atoms, ions, and free radicals, most notably atomic oxygen, play a major role. The concentration of atomic oxygen depends on altitude and solar activity, as the bursts of ultraviolet radiation cause photodissociation of molecular oxygen. Between 160 and 560 km, the atmosphere consists of about 90% atomic oxygen.

Materials
Corrosion in space has the highest impact on spacecraft with moving parts. Early satellites tended to develop problems with seizing bearings. Now the bearings are coated with a thin layer of gold.

Different materials resist corrosion in space differently. For example, aluminium is slowly eroded by atomic oxygen, while gold and platinum are highly corrosion-resistant. Gold-coated foils and thin layers of gold on exposed surfaces are therefore used to protect the spacecraft from the harsh environment. Thin layers of silicon dioxide deposited on the surfaces can also protect metals from the effects of atomic oxygen; e.g., the Starshine 3 satellite aluminium front mirrors were protected that way. However, the protective layers are subject to erosion by micrometeorites.

Silver builds up a layer of silver oxide, which tends to flake off and has no protective function; such gradual erosion of silver interconnects of solar cells was found to be the cause of some observed in-orbit failures.

Many plastics are considerably sensitive to atomic oxygen and ionizing radiation. Coatings resistant to atomic oxygen are a common protection method, especially for plastics. Silicone-based paints and coatings are frequently employed, due to their excellent resistance to radiation and atomic oxygen. However, the silicone durability is somewhat limited, as the surface exposed to atomic oxygen is converted to silica which is brittle and tends to crack.

Solving corrosion
The process of space corrosion is being actively investigated. One of the efforts aims to design a sensor based on zinc oxide, able to measure the amount of atomic oxygen in the vicinity of the spacecraft; the sensor relies on drop of electrical conductivity of zinc oxide as it absorbs further oxygen.

Other problems
The outgassing of volatile silicones on low Earth orbit devices leads to presence of a cloud of contaminants around the spacecraft. Together with atomic oxygen bombardment, this may lead to gradual deposition of thin layers of carbon-containing silicon dioxide. Their poor transparency is a concern in case of optical systems and solar panels. Deposits of up to several micrometers were observed after 10 years of service on the solar panels of the Mir space station.

Other sources of problems for structures subjected to outer space are erosion and redeposition of the materials by sputtering caused by fast atoms and micrometeoroids. Another major concern, though of non-corrosive kind, is material fatigue caused by cyclical heating and cooling and associated thermal expansion mechanical stresses.

References

External links
 The Cosmos on a Shoestring: Small Spacecraft for Space and Earth Science, Appendix B: Failure in Spacecraft Systems PDF
 New Scientist premium article: Space is corrosive
 NASA Long Duration Exposition Facility: surface contamination in space

Corrosion
Spaceflight

Corrosion in space


The Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences  () was an academy established in Berlin, Germany on 11 July 1700, four years after the Prussian Academy of Arts, or "Arts Academy," to which "Berlin Academy" may also refer.  In the 18th century, it was a French-language institution since French was the language of science and culture during that era.

Origins
Prince-elector Frederick III of Brandenburg, Germany founded the Academy under the name of Kurfürstlich Brandenburgische Societät der Wissenschaften ("Electoral Brandenburg Society of Sciences") upon the advice of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who was appointed president. Unlike other Academies, the Prussian Academy was not directly funded out of the state treasury. Frederick granted it the monopoly on producing and selling calendars in Brandenburg, a suggestion from Leibniz. As Frederick was crowned "King in Prussia" in 1701, creating the Kingdom of Prussia, the Academy was renamed Königlich Preußische Sozietät der Wissenschaften ("Royal Prussian Society of Sciences"). While other Academies focused on a few topics, the Prussian Academy was the first to teach both sciences and humanities. In 1710, the Academy statute was set, dividing the Academy into two sciences and two humanities classes. This was not changed until 1830, when the physics-mathematics and the philosophy-history classes replaced the four old classes.

Frederick the Great
The reign of King Frederick II of Prussia ("Frederick the Great") saw major changes to the Academy. In 1744, the Nouvelle Société Littéraire and the Society of Sciences were merged into the Königliche Akademie der Wissenschaften ("Royal Academy of Sciences"). An obligation from the new statute were public calls for ideas on unsolved scientific questions with a monetary reward for solutions. The Academy acquired its own research facilities in the 18th century, including an observatory in 1709; an anatomical theater in 1717; a Collegium medico-chirurgicum in 1723; a botanical garden in 1718; and a laboratory in 1753. However, those were later taken over by the University of Berlin.

As a French-language institution its publications were in French such as the Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences et belles lettres de Berlin which was published between 1745 and 1796.

A linguistics historian from Princeton University, Hans Aarsleff, notes that before Frederick ascended the throne in 1740, the academy was overshadowed by similar bodies in London and Paris. Frederick made French the official language and speculative philosophy the most important topic of study. The membership was strong in mathematics and philosophy, and included notable philosophers such as Immanuel Kant, Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert, Pierre-Louis de Maupertuis, and Etienne de Condillac. However, the academy was in a crisis for two decades at mid-century, due to scandals and internal rivalries such as the debates between Newtonianism and Leibnizian views, and the personality conflicts between the philosopher Voltaire and the mathematician Maupertuis. At a higher level, Maupertuis, the director from 1746 to 1759 and a monarchist, argued that the action of individuals was shaped by the character of the institution that contained them, and they worked for the glory of the state. By contrast, d'Alembert took a republican rather than monarchical approach and emphasized the international Republic of Letters as the vehicle for scientific advance. By 1789, however, the academy had gained an international repute while making major contributions to German culture and thought. Frederick invited Joseph-Louis Lagrange to succeed Leonhard Euler as director; both were world-class mathematicians. Other intellectuals attracted to the philosopher's kingdom were Francesco Algarotti, Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, and Julien Offray de La Mettrie. Immanuel Kant published religious writings in Berlin which would have been censored elsewhere in Europe.

19th century
Beginning in 1815, research businesses led by Academy committees (such as the Greek-Roman Archeology Committee or the Oriental Committee) were founded at the Academy. They employed mostly scientists to work alongside the corresponding committee's members. University departments emanated from some of these businesses after 1945.

20th century
On 25 November 1915 Albert Einstein presented his field equations of general relativity to the Academy.

Under the rule of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, the Academy was subject to the Gleichschaltung, a "Nazification" process that was established to take totalitarian control over various aspects of society. However, compared with other institutions, such as the universities where Jewish employees and members were expelled starting in 1933, Jewish Academy members were not expelled until 1938, following a direct request by the Ministry of Education.
The new Academy statute went into effect on 8 June 1939, reorganizing the Academy according to the Nazi leadership principle (the Führerprinzip).

Following World War II, the Soviet Military Administration in Germany, or SMAD, reorganized the Academy under the name of Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin () on 1 July 1946. In 1972, it was renamed Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR or AdW (). At its height, the AdW had 400 researchers and 24,000 employees in locations across East Germany. Following German Reunification, the Academy was disbanded and the Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften ("Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities") was founded in its place, in compliance with a 1992 treaty between the State Parliaments of Berlin and Brandenburg. Sixty of the AdW members broke off and created the private Leibniz Society in 1993.

Notable members
Christoph Ludwig von Stille 1696–1752, curator
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, founding president 1700
Jacob Paul von Gundling
Dimitrie Cantemir, foreign member 1714
 Gassen von Stein, Vice President, Doctor and member; 1732
Leonhard Euler 1741–1766
Montesquieu, foreign member 1746
Voltaire, c. 1750
Denis Diderot, foreign member 1751
Asmus Ehrenreich von Bredow, Lieutenant General, 30 November 1753
Johann Heinrich Lambert, c. 1763
Joseph-Louis Lagrange 1766–1786
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, foreign member 1769
Immanuel Kant, foreign member 1786
Heinrich Friedrich von Diez, honorary member 1814
Friedrich Schleiermacher, proper member 1810
Hermann von Helmholtz, corresponding member 1857; foreign member 1870; proper member 1871
Heinrich von Wild, corresponding member, 1881.
Ferdinand Georg Frobenius, proper member 1893
Max Planck, proper member 1894
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, foreign member 1900 (bi-centenary of the academy)
Friedrich Max Müller, foreign member 1900 (bi-centenary of the academy)
Josiah Willard Gibbs, corresponding member, 1900 (bi-centenary of the academy)
Henry Augustus Rowland, corresponding member, 1900 (bi-centenary of the academy)
Sir John Burdon-Sanderson, corresponding member, 1900 (bi-centenary of the academy)
William James, corresponding member, 1900 (bi-centenary of the academy)
Sir John Pentland Mahaffy, corresponding member, 1900 (bi-centenary of the academy)
Alexander Stuart Murray, corresponding member 1900 (bi-centenary of the academy)
Francis Llewellyn Griffith, corresponding member, 1900 (bi-centenary of the academy)
Frederic William Maitland, corresponding member, 1900 (bi-centenary of the academy)
Philipp Lenard, proper member 1905
Fritz Haber
Albert Einstein, proper member 1914
Kurt Sethe, corresponding member 1920; proper member 1930
Hermann Grapow, proper member 1938

References

Further reading
 President of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (Pub.) A History of more than 300 Years. Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities. Formerly the Prussian Academy of Sciences. BBAW, Berlin 2009,  (English and German)
 Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Hrsg.): Vertrieben aus rassistischen Gründen. Ausstellung im Rahmen des Berliner Themenjahres 2013 "Zerstörte Vielfalt. Berlin 1933–1938–1945", BBAW, Berlin 2013

External links
 MacTutor, The Berlin Academy of Science, University of St. Andrews, Scotland.
History of the Academy of the Sciences
Conference Reports of the Prussian Academy of Sciences (in German) at wikisource
Scholars and Literati at the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences (1700–1800), Repertorium Eruditorum Totius Europae – RETE

1700 establishments in Prussia
1992 disestablishments in Germany
Universities and colleges in Berlin
Organizations based in Prussia
Scientific organisations based in Germany
National academies of sciences
Scientific organizations established in 1700
Educational institutions established in 1700
Educational institutions disestablished in 1992
Frederick I of Prussia

Prussian Academy of Sciences