The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (RPO) is a British symphony orchestra based in London, that performs and produces primarily classic works.

The RPO was established by Thomas Beecham in 1946. In its early days, the orchestra secured profitable recording contracts and important engagements including the Glyndebourne Festival Opera and the concerts of the Royal Philharmonic Society. After Beecham's death in 1961, the RPO's fortunes declined steeply. The RPO battled for survival until the mid-1960s, when its future was secured after a report by the Arts Council of Great Britain recommended that it should receive public subsidy. A further crisis arose in the same era when it seemed that the orchestra's right to call itself "Royal" could be withdrawn.

In 2004, the RPO acquired its first permanent London base, at Cadogan Hall in Chelsea. The RPO also gives concerts at the Royal Festival Hall, the Royal Albert Hall and venues around the UK and other countries. Since the start of the 2021–2022 season, the orchestra's musical director has been Vasily Petrenko.

History

Origins

In 1932, Sir Thomas Beecham had founded the London Philharmonic Orchestra (LPO), which, with the backing of rich supporters, he ran until 1940, when finances dried up in wartime. Beecham left to conduct in Australia and then the US; the orchestra continued without him after reorganising itself as a self-governing body. On Beecham's return to England in September 1944 the LPO welcomed him back and, in October, they gave a concert together that drew superlatives from the critics. Over the next months, Beecham and the orchestra gave further concerts with considerable success, but the LPO players, now their own employers, declined to give him the unfettered control he had exercised in the 1930s. If he were to become chief conductor again, it would be as a paid employee of the orchestra. Beecham responded, "I emphatically refuse to be wagged by any orchestra ... I am going to found one more great orchestra to round off my career." In 1945 he conducted the first concert of Walter Legge's new Philharmonia Orchestra, but was not disposed to accept a salaried position from Legge, his former assistant, any more than from his former players in the LPO. His new orchestra to rival the Philharmonia would, he told Legge, be launched in "the most auspicious circumstances and éclat".

In 1946, Beecham reached an agreement with the Royal Philharmonic Society: his orchestra would replace the LPO at all the Society's concerts. He thus gained the right to name the new ensemble the "Royal Philharmonic Orchestra", an arrangement approved by George VI. Beecham arranged with the Glyndebourne Festival that the RPO should be the resident orchestra at Glyndebourne seasons. He secured backing, including that of record companies in the US as well as Britain, with whom lucrative recording contracts were negotiated. The music critic Lyndon Jenkins writes:

Beecham's orchestra
Beecham appointed Victor Olof as his orchestral manager, and they started recruiting. At the top of their list were leading musicians with whom Beecham had worked before the war. Four had been founder members of the LPO fifteen years previously: Reginald Kell (clarinet), Gerald Jackson (flute), James Bradshaw (timpani) and Jack Silvester (double-bass). From the current LPO they engaged the oboist Peter Newbury. Beecham persuaded the veteran bassoonist Archie Camden, who had been pursuing a solo career, to return to orchestral work. The cellos were led by Raymond Clark, enlisted from the BBC Symphony Orchestra. The principal horn player was Dennis Brain, who already held the same post in Legge's Philharmonia, but managed to play for both orchestras. Jenkins speculates that as Beecham knew all Britain's orchestral leaders at first hand he decided not to try to lure any of them away. His choice was John Pennington, who had been first violin of the London String Quartet from 1927 to 1934, and had then had a career in the US as concertmaster, successively, of the San Francisco Symphony, Los Angeles Philharmonic and Paramount Pictures orchestras.

On 11 September 1946, the Royal Philharmonic assembled for its first rehearsal. Four days later it gave its first concert, at the Davis Theatre, Croydon. Beecham telegraphed a colleague, "Press virtually unanimous in praise of orchestra. First Croydon concert huge success". Beecham and the orchestra played a series of out-of-town engagements before venturing a first London concert on 26 October. The Times then spoke of "a hall filled with golden tone which enveloped the listener". Before its London debut the orchestra made its first recording and, within two years, had made more than 100.

Within a few months, Pennington was forced to resign when the British Musicians' Union discovered that he was not one of its members. He was succeeded by his deputy Oscar Lampe, "a man who eschewed most social graces but played the violin divinely", according to Jenkins. In the early days, the orchestra comprised 72 players, all on yearly contract to Beecham, giving him first call on their services, subject to reasonable notice, but not otherwise restricting their freedom to play for other ensembles. A review of the London orchestral scene of the late 1940s said of the RPO and its main rival: "The Philharmonia and Royal Philharmonic share a very serious disability: that neither is a permanently constituted orchestra. Both assemble and disperse more or less at random ... there is no style which is distinctively RPO or Philharmonia."

Brain continued to play first horn for both orchestras; otherwise, from the early 1950s, there was generally more stability of orchestral personnel. In particular, the RPO became celebrated for its regular team of woodwind principals, in which Jackson was joined by Jack Brymer (clarinet), Gwydion Brooke (bassoon) and Terence MacDonagh (oboe). The Independent described them as "arguably the finest ever wind section ... [they] became known as 'The Royal Family'."

The RPO toured the United States in 1950, the first British orchestra to visit America since the London Symphony Orchestra (LSO) in 1912. This was a long-cherished plan of Beecham's, who had been unable to take the LPO to the US in the 1930s. He arranged 52 concerts in 45 cities in 64 days. The tour was described by Brain's biographers Gamble and Lynch as a huge success. It began on 13 October in Hartford, Connecticut and finished on 15 December in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. The concerto soloists were the pianist Betty Humby Beecham (the conductor's second wife) and orchestral principals: David McCallum (violin), Anthony Pini (cello) and the four members of the "Royal Family". In The New York Times, Olin Downes wrote of "magnificent music-making by Sir Thomas Beecham and the Royal Philharmonic". The following year, assessing all the London orchestras, Frank Howes, music critic of The Times, concluded that the RPO "comes nearest in quality and in consistency of style to the great international orchestras".

The orchestra's first appearance at the Proms took place in August 1952, conducted by Basil Cameron. Beecham made his Proms debut two years later, conducting the RPO in a programme of music by Berlioz, Schubert and Sibelius; The Times commented on "an evening of magnificent playing". In 1957, Beecham and the RPO made a European tour, beginning at the Salle Pleyel in Paris and ending at the Musikverein in Vienna.

Beecham conducted the RPO in his last concert, given at Portsmouth Guildhall on 7 May 1960. The programme, all characteristic choices, comprised the Magic Flute Overture, Haydn's Military Symphony, Beecham's own Handel arrangement Love in Bath, Schubert's Fifth Symphony, On the River by Delius, and the Bacchanale from Saint-Saëns's Samson and Delilah, with Delius's Sleigh Ride as an encore. Beecham suffered a heart attack the following month, from which he did not recover; he died in March 1961.

1961–2000

Rudolf Kempe, who had been appointed associate conductor in 1960, became principal conductor in 1961 and music director in 1962. Beecham's widow ran the affairs of the orchestra as best she could, but some senior players including Brymer and MacDonagh were unhappy with the management and they left. The orchestra reorganised itself in 1963 as a self-governing limited company, but almost immediately encountered difficulties. The Royal Philharmonic Society decided not to engage the RPO for its concerts; Glyndebourne booked the LPO instead of the RPO from 1964 onwards. The RPO was also excluded from the London Orchestral Concert Board's schedule of concerts, which meant that it was denied the use of London's main concert venue, the Royal Festival Hall. Kempe resigned, although he returned shortly afterwards. Helped by strong support from Sir Malcolm Sargent, the orchestra successfully mounted its own concerts at a cinema in Swiss Cottage,  to the north-west of the Festival Hall. A 1965 report to the Arts Council by a committee chaired by Alan Peacock recommended that all four independent London orchestras should receive adequate public subsidy.

The severance of the tie with the Royal Philharmonic Society in 1963 turned out to be temporary, but for three years it threatened to deprive the RPO of the "Royal" in its title. The matter was resolved in 1966, when, on the advice of Roy Jenkins who, as Home Secretary, had responsibility for such matters, the Queen conferred the title unconditionally on the orchestra.

The RPO celebrated its silver jubilee in 1971. On 15 September, the orchestra returned to Croydon, where it had made its debut 25 years earlier. The theatre in which it had first played had been demolished and the anniversary concert was therefore given at the Fairfield Halls. The programme consisted of the overture to The Marriage of Figaro, Beethoven's Emperor Concerto, and Holst's The Planets. Sir Adrian Boult conducted, and Clifford Curzon was the soloist. Five members of the original orchestra were still in the RPO for the jubilee concert: Leonard Brain (brother of Dennis), principal cor anglais; Lewis Pocock, co-principal timpani; Ernest Ineson, double bass; John Myers, viola; and Albert Pievsky, violin.

The RPO gave Kempe the title of "Conductor for Life" in 1970; he stepped down from the orchestra in 1975, the year before his death. He was succeeded as chief conductor by Antal Doráti, who held the post from 1975 to 1978; as in his earlier spells with the LSO and BBC Symphony Orchestra, he was not greatly liked by his players, but raised their standard of playing and imposed discipline.

In 1984 there was a new threat to the orchestra: a review carried out on behalf of the Arts Council by the journalist William Rees-Mogg opined that England lacked "a great eastern symphony orchestra": the suggestion was that the RPO should move to Nottingham. Another Arts Council report of the same period recommended that the RPO should supplement the LSO as resident orchestra at the Barbican Centre; neither proposal came to fruition. During the 1980s, the British government imposed strict constraints on public spending; to make up for lost revenue, the RPO, in common with the other self-governing London orchestras, was forced into increased reliance on business sponsorship as a primary source of funds. The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, recording this, comments, "Such sponsorship is, however, subject to changing circumstances and thus less secure in the long term."

Since 1993, the RPO has had a community and education programme, later given the title of "RPO Resound". It aims to increase "access to and engagement with world-class music-making." It has worked in venues including homeless shelters, hospices, youth clubs and prisons.

On 7 April 1994 the RPO, with guest leader Hugh Bean, was joined by the Cappella Giulia of Saint Peter's Basilica and the Accademia Filarmonica Romana, cellist Lynn Harrell and Academy-award winning actor Richard Dreyfuss, in the Papal Concert to Commemorate the Shoah, conducted by Sir Gilbert Levine. This historic concert was attended by Pope John Paul II, Chief Rabbi of Rome Elio Toaff, and President of Italy Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, and was broadcast throughout Europe via Eurovision and on PBS stations throughout the United States. It was released on CD by Justice Records and as video by Time-Warner.

21st century

The orchestra gives an annual series of concerts at the Festival Hall and, since 2004, has had a permanent home at Cadogan Hall, a former church in Chelsea, converted into a 900-seat concert hall and rehearsal space. At the Royal Albert Hall in London, the RPO gives performances ranging from large-scale choral and orchestral works to evenings of popular classics.

The RPO returned to international television on 29 July 2005, when it was joined by the London Philharmonic Choir and soloists Bozena Harasimowicz, Monica Groop, Jerry Hadley, and Franz-Josef Selig performing Beethoven's Missa Solemnis under the baton of Sir Gilbert Levine in Cologne Cathedral. This performance was televised  by Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR), 3sat and PBS and was released on DVD by Arthaus Musik.

The orchestra maintains a regional touring programme, taking in venues throughout the UK, and has established residencies in Aylesbury, Crawley, Croydon, Dartford, High Wycombe, Ipswich, Lowestoft, Northampton and Reading. The RPO regularly tours overseas; since 2010 it has played in Azerbaijan, Canada, China, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, Spain, Turkey and the US. In 2010–11 and two subsequent seasons the RPO was the resident orchestra for a series of concerts in Montreux, Switzerland. In 2010 the orchestra toured England, with a repertoire preponderantly of Beethoven, including the Violin Concerto in which Pinchas Zukerman was both soloist and conductor. In the same year, another tour featured Maxim Shostakovich conducting the music of his father, Dmitri Shostakovich. The RPO continues to feature at the Proms. In December 2015, RPO gave a concert with Sezen Aksu at Zorlu PSM. In November 2019, the Royal Albert Hall announced the RPO as its official associate orchestra, with an initial contract of 5 years.

The orchestra's community and education activities have continued into the 21st century. In May 2013, six youth ensembles from London boroughs and a 3,500-strong choir of children from local primary schools were given the chance to perform alongside members of the RPO at the Albert Hall. They played a piece composed by participants from all six musical ensembles.

In 2023 members of the orchestra were selected to play at the coronation of Charles III and Camilla.

Players and conductors
Among the well-known musicians who have been RPO principals in the mid-1950s and later, string players include Steven Staryk (leader, 1957–1959), Raymond Cohen (leader, 1959–1966), Alan Loveday (leader, 1967–1971), Erich Gruenberg (leader, 1972–1976), Barry Griffiths (leader, 1976–1989), Jonathan Carney (leader, 1991–1994) and Frederick Riddle (viola, 1953–1977). Among the woodwind principals have been Geoffrey Gilbert (flute, 1957–1961), James Galway (flute, 1967–1969), Antony Pay (clarinet, 1968–1978) and Michael Chapman (bassoon, 1978–1999). Principals in the brass section have included Alan Civil (horn, 1952–1955), Philip Jones (trumpet, 1956–1960), Elgar Howarth (trumpet, 1963–1969) and Martin Owen (horn, 1998–2008).

Chief conductors since Dorati have been Walter Weller (1980–1985), André Previn (1985–1992), Vladimir Ashkenazy (1987–1994), Yuri Temirkanov (1992–1998) and Daniele Gatti (1996–2009). Charles Dutoit was artistic director and principal conductor from 2009 until January 2018, when he resigned after allegations of sexual misconduct.

From 1992 to 2000, Peter Maxwell Davies was associate conductor and composer to the RPO. Other conductors with close ties to the orchestra have included Sir Charles Groves, Vernon Handley, Sir Charles Mackerras, Yehudi Menuhin, Gennady Rozhdestvensky and Leopold Stokowski. Grzegorz Nowak was appointed principal associate conductor in 2008, and in the following year, Pinchas Zukerman became the RPO's principal guest conductor.

Vasily Petrenko first guest-conducted the RPO in March 2016. In July 2018, the RPO announced the appointment of Petrenko as its new music director, with an initial contract of five years from the 2021–2022 season.

Recordings

From the RPO's earliest days to the end of Beecham's life, they made numerous recordings for His Master's Voice, CBS and RCA Victor. Among the works they recorded EMI chose several to be reissued at the end of the twentieth century in its "Great Recordings of the Century" series. They included a Delius programme; a Grieg programme; French ballet music; short works by Bizet, Chabrier, Fauré and Saint-Saëns; Tchaikovsky's Symphony No 4 and Nutcracker Suite; Mozart's Jupiter Symphony, Clarinet Concerto (Brymer) and Bassoon Concerto (Brooke); and Schubert's 3rd, 5th and 6th Symphonies.

After Beecham's death the orchestra made many recordings for Decca, sometimes under pseudonyms such as the "Beecham Symphony Orchestra", the "London Festival Orchestra" and the "Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra". Among the conductors with whom the RPO recorded in the 1960s were Sir John Barbirolli, Fritz Reiner, Charles Munch, Georges Prêtre, Kempe, Previn and Stokowski. Soloists included Earl Wild, Shura Cherkassky, Alan Civil and Luciano Pavarotti.

Igor Stravinsky recorded his opera The Rake's Progress with the RPO in 1964. Colin Davis made some of his earliest recordings with the orchestra, including Mozart and Rossini overtures, Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, and Stravinsky's Oedipus rex. From 1964 to 1979 the RPO was engaged by Decca to record Gilbert and Sullivan operas with the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company. The orchestra has also recorded for Deutsche Grammophon, Lyrita, Philips, Pye and Unicorn-Kanchana.

In 1986 the orchestra launched RPO Records, claimed to be "the world's first record label to be owned by a symphony orchestra". Recordings available on the RPO label in 2013 ranged from core symphonic repertoire and Tchaikovsky ballet scores to film music by various composers, light music by Burt Bacharach and Richard Rodgers, and an album called "Symphonic Rock", described as "Over 3 hours of classic rock anthems and pop tracks with an orchestral twist".

Non-classical work
As well as performing works from the classical repertoire, the RPO has recorded a number of film scores, including those for Powell and Pressburger's The Red Shoes and The Tales of Hoffmann. Other scores recorded by the RPO are Olivier's Richard III, The Bridge on the River Kwai, and The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes.

With Tony Bremner, Royal Philharmonic Orchestra rerecorded symphonic suites from various episodes of Star Trek: The Original Series. These recordings were released in 1985 under Label "X" in two volumes.

In 1987 the RPO established a sister ensemble, the Royal Philharmonic Concert Orchestra, which plays lighter classics. It succeeded a similar group, the Royal Philharmonic Pops Orchestra. In 1989, the RPO recorded the flamenco album "Soy Gitano" (I am a gipsy man) with Camarón de la Isla.

RPO players have been involved with many performances away from the classical repertory; in the 1960s they pioneered the "mixed media" concert, appearing with The Nice rock band. Later non-classical ventures included Yanni Live at the Acropolis, a concert held in Greece in 1993, conducted by Shahrdad Rohani; In 1992 UEFA commissioned the orchestra and the Academy of St Martin in the Fields chorus to record the UEFA Champions League Hymn. Jamaican reggae singers John Holt and Freddie McGregor performed with the Orchestra in 2003 at the Hammersmith Apollo in London.

Notes and references
Notes

References

Sources

External links

British symphony orchestras
London orchestras
Organisations based in London with royal patronage
Musical groups established in 1946
1946 establishments in England
Film scores
Cedille Records artists

Royal Philharmonic Orchestra


In abstract algebra, a finite field or Galois field is a field that contains only finitely many elements. Finite fields are important in number theory, algebraic geometry, Galois theory, cryptography, and coding theory. The finite fields are completely known.  Finite fields were named Galois Fields to honor Évariste Galois.

Algebraic geometry

Galois field


Cornsay is a hamlet and civil parish in County Durham, England. The population of the Civil Parish taken at the 2011 census was 1,128. It is  southeast of Consett and  southwest of Durham. It consists of nineteen dwellings, including four farms & is the home of Greenacres nudist club. All formerly belonged to Ushaw College for the training of Catholic priests, hence the organised nomenclature. East and West Farms are now in private hands as homes but the other two are still active, South Farm run by the Suddes family and North Farm by the Tweddle family.

On the village green is the enigmatic "draw well": on first look a bus shelter but, on closer inspection, a building with a 17th-century dedication. It was once the main source of water for the village, and later a site for the sale of paraffin at a time when the village was larger.  It was restored in 2007 by the removal of a breeze-block infill that had blocked the doorway and now has a new wrought-iron gate that allows inspection of the interior of the building.

See also Cornsay Colliery.

References

External links

Villages in County Durham

Cornsay


Dune is a fictional story set in a space empire far in the future. It is written by Frank Herbert. The book focuses on how politics, religion, technology and many other things interact.

In the world of the Dune series, computers are banned (they are not allowed anywhere). Some humans are taught how to think as fast as computers; they are known as 'Mentats'. The ruler of a planet is controlled by a House. The Houses must obey House Corrino, because the leader of House Corrino is also the Emperor.

Dune focuses on Paul Atreides, the 15-year-old heir to House Atreides. His family is forced by the Emperor who rules the Known Universe to leave the planet Caladan and to take control of the planet Arrakis. Arrakis is currently controlled by House Harkonnen, and is the only place that a spice called Melange is found. Melange is the most important thing in the universe. It lets you see the future and think much faster. If you take melange, you live much longer, sometimes even hundreds of years longer. It also lets you travel far distances at great speeds.

Arrakis is a planet that is almost covered in desert. This large desert is very dangerous because it does not have potable (drinkable) water, but mainly because giant worms live in the sand. There are many groups of native humans living there - they are called the Fremen. The Fremen have many rituals that keep water safe. This is important, or they would all die of dehydration (too little water to stay alive).

After his father is killed, Paul and his mother escape and take refuge with the Fremen. They use their abilities to achieve power over the Fremen and eventually use them to attack the Harkonnen armies, who have taken back control of the planet.

In the books, there are the Bene Gesserit sisterhood, a religious group with only women as its members. This is because men do not have the right kind of mind to learn their ways correctly. They have much more control over their minds and bodies than normal people. Their goal is to protect the human race forever. They have a secret goal, which they want to achieve by their breeding program. It is to make a man that can be a Bene Gesserit. They call him the Kwisatz Haderach. They want to use the Kwisatz Haderach to control people more easily. Paul's mother, Lady Jessica, is a member of the sisterhood and trains her son to use mental and physical powers.

Multiple films and TV series have been based on the Dune series, such as the 1984 film version directed by David Lynch, and the 2021 film directed by Denis Villeneuve.

Other websites

 Official website for Dune and its sequels
 DuneAudio.com - The Official Dune Audiobook Site  ~ news and contests for Dune audiobooks
 Complete Book Summary of Dune .

1965 books
Dune universe
Hugo Award winning books
Series of books
20th-century American novels

Dune (novel)


Pigeons or doves are the bird family Columbidae.

The common names pigeon and dove are often used interchangeably.  In ornithology, "dove" tends to be used for smaller species and "pigeon" for larger ones. The wild ancestor of the domestic pigeon is the "rock dove". The feral pigeon is common in many cities.

There are more than 300 species in the family. They usually make nests of sticks, and their two white eggs are incubated by both the male and the female parent. Doves feed on seeds, fruit and plants.

Unlike most other birds, the doves and pigeons produce a type of milk. It is produced in their crop, and called crop milk. Both sexes have this highly nutritious milk to feed their young.

Distribution and habitats
Pigeons and doves are distributed everywhere on Earth, except for the driest areas of the Sahara Desert, Antarctica and its surrounding islands and the high Arctic. They have colonised most of the world's oceanic islands. They are in eastern Polynesia and the Chatham Islands in the Pacific, Mauritius, the Seychelles and Réunion in the Indian Ocean, and the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean.

The family has adapted to most of the habitats available on the planet.  Doves may be arboreal or terrestrial  or partly terrestrial.  Species live in savannas, grasslands, deserts, temperate woodlands and forests, mangrove forests, and even the barren sands and gravels of atolls. Some species have large natural ranges.

The largest range of any species is that of the rock dove. This species lives in Britain and Ireland, northern Africa, across Europe, Arabia, Central Asia, India, the Himalayas and up into China and Mongolia. The range of the species increased dramatically after it was domesticated, because the species went feral in cities around the world. It lives in cities across most of North America, South America, sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, Japan, Australia and New Zealand.

The species is not the only pigeon to have increased its range due to the actions of man; several other species have become established outside of their natural range after escaping captivity. Other species have also increased their natural ranges due to habitat changes by humans.

The dodo and the solitaire
The dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire are two famous flightless birds on the Mascarene Islands in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar. They are extinct, but were alive before sailors found the islands. They had no fear of humans, whom they had never seen. The sailors hunted them, and killed them for food. Both species are now extinct. Animals introduced by man may also have hunted them. Their anatomy (osteology) and DNA sequence analyses show that they belong to the Columbidae family.

As a symbol
In the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, doves were used as symbols for the Canaanite mother goddess Asherah, the Phoenician goddess Tanit, and the Roman goddesses Venus and Fortunata.

The Christian symbol of a dove with an olive branch in its beak represents peace and comes from Genesis 8:6 - 12, also John 1:32–34.  The Christian stories came after very similar myths from earlier cultures.The Chaldean myth the Epic of Gilgamesh, Utnapishtim releases a dove and raven to find land; however, the dove merely circles and returns. Only then does Utnapishtim send forth the raven, which does not return, and Utnapishtim concludes the raven has found land.

As food

Several species of pigeons and doves are used as food, and probably any might be. The powerful breast muscles of the family make excellent meat. Domesticated or hunted pigeon were used as food in Mesopotamia, Ancient Rome and medieval Europe. It is familiar meat within Jewish, Arab, Assamese and French cuisines. According to the Tanakh, doves are kosher, and they are the only birds that may be used for a korban (offering). Other kosher birds may be eaten, but not brought as a korban. It is also eaten in Asian cuisines, such as Chinese and Indonesian cuisine. Young pigeons in cuisine are known as "squabs".

In Europe, the wood pigeon is commonly shot as a game bird. Rock pigeons were originally domesticated as a food species, and many breeds were developed for their meat-bearing qualities. The extinction of the passenger pigeon in North America was partly due to shooting for food. Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management has recipes for roast pigeon and pigeon pie, a popular, inexpensive food in Victorian industrial Britain.

Feral birds
A type of pigeon commonly found on the streets of large cities. Feral pigeons come in all shades, some bluer, others blacker. Some are pale grey with darker chequered markings, others an unusual shade of dull brick-red or cinnamon-brown. Others can be or less white while others look exactly like wild rock doves.

Related pages
 Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981
 Passenger pigeon

References

Dove


Endogamy is the idea that a person ought to marry another person from the same group as them. The type of group is not always the same; it could be based on a religion, a class or a social group. Often group endogamy is enforced by arranged marriages, this is a system based on benefits for the group rather than marriage for love.

Group adherence
By marrying a person with the same group characteristics, it means that the partners will have similar views or beliefs about something. Many people marry endogamously for reasons of compatibility, which can be due to choice. But there are also other reasons when there is less choice involved or there is disapproval if it is not followed.

By doing this it keeps the numbers of a group to a minimum and thus creates stronger group bonds. For example, when moving to another country, a Sikh family may actively look for other Sikh families to mix with in order to facilitate Sikh marriages. By merging, they create a stronger bond between their own communities and can be a way to deal with being a minority.

Biology
If a group has been marrying endogamously for a long period of time the gene pool may be smaller and there is a greater chance of genetic disease. For example, within the Jewish community Tay-Sachs disease is a common genetic disease.

Related pages
Exogamy

References
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/186956/endogamy
Levi-Strauss, C. (1969) The Elementary Structures of Kinship. Beacon Press
http://www.jewishgenetics.org/?q=content/tay-sachs-disease

Marriage
Genetics

Endogamy


A memorial is an object which serves as a memory of something, usually a person who has died or a famous event. Statues are a popular type of memorial.

A memorial hall is a building which serves to remind people of something, again usually people who have died. Memorial halls in the United Kingdom and United States are usually about World War I or World War II. Memorial halls in Germany and Poland are often about the Holocaust, when Nazi Germany killed many Jewish people. Memorial halls in China are usually about the Japanese part of World War II. Among important memorial halls, there are the Nanjing Massacre Museum and the Yad Vashem.

Related pages
Monument

Architecture

Memorial


Chandler Owen (April 5, 1889 – November 2, 1967) was an African-American writer, editor and early member of the Socialist Party of America.  Born in North Carolina, he studied and worked in New York City, then moved to Chicago for much of his career.  He established his own public relations company in Chicago and wrote speeches for candidates and presidents including Thomas Dewey, Dwight D. Eisenhower, and Lyndon B. Johnson.

Biography
Owen was born in Warrenton, North Carolina, in 1889. He graduated from Virginia Union University in 1913. Later, while studying economics at Columbia University in 1916, he joined the Socialist Party of America. He began a lifelong friendship with A. Philip Randolph and together they followed the lead of radical activist Hubert Harrison. They soon became known in Harlem as "Lenin" (Owen) and "Trotsky" (Randolph). The two started a journal in 1917, called The Messenger, which published leading literary and political writers. Soon after, while Owen was running for the New York State Assembly, he and Randolph were jailed, where they were mocked and treated cruelly for their Socialist affiliations.

Owen moved to Chicago, Illinois, shortly thereafter and found himself quickly enlightened with socialistic views. He became managing editor of the Chicago Bee, a major African-American publication, and continued to back Randolph in his efforts to unionize Pullman porters on the railroads. With his mounting career success, Owen went on to establish his own public relations company.  He remained interested in politics and wrote many speeches for politicians such as Wendell Willkie, Thomas Dewey, and even for US presidents Dwight Eisenhower and Lyndon B. Johnson.

In the 1920s, Owen became a Republican. He would later run unsuccessfully for a seat in the United States House of Representatives. For the remainder of his life, he worked in public relations and continue to write speeches.

Suffering from terminal kidney disease, Owen wrote a last letter to Philip Randolph saying, ..."Our long friendship, never soiled, is nearing its close. I've been in pain. If you were not living, I would commit suicide today." Owen died soon after in November 1967.

Like Harrison, Owen was an atheist. In a 1919 issue of The Messenger he and Randolph wrote, "We don't thank God for anything... our Deity is the toiling masses of the world and the things for which we thank are their achievement."

Electoral history

References

Banks, W. M. Black Intellectuals: Race and Responsibility in American Life, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1996.

External links
African American History Vignette: Chandler Owen (1889-1967).

1889 births
1967 deaths
People from Warrenton, North Carolina
African-American people in Illinois politics
Columbia University alumni
Members of the Socialist Party of America
Illinois Republicans
African-American writers
American writers
20th-century African-American people

Chandler Owen


Punk blues is a genre of music which mixes elements of Punk rock with Blues-rock. It is considered a type of Underground Music as it has not yet achieved mainstream popularity on radio and television and through sales of music. It is most popular in the United States. An example of a Punk blues band is the Imortal Lee County Killers and the Gun Club. One artist who may be considered to have been a big influence on this genre is Captain Beefheart.

References
http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/d13419

Rock music

Punk blues


The 14th Army was a field army of the Soviet Army, formed twice.

The army was first formed during the Winter War, in which two of its divisions fought in the Battle of Petsamo. After Operation Barbarossa, the army fought against German and Finnish attacks in Operation Silver Fox. In the middle of July 1941 the army was able to hold its positions. In October 1944 it fought in the Petsamo–Kirkenes Offensive and seized Pechenga. The army defended and guarded the newly captured territory until the end of the war. Its headquarters became the Belomorsky Military District at the end of July 1945. The army reformed in June 1948 from the 126th Light Mountain Rifle Corps as the 14th Army (Assault). Stationed on the Chukchi Peninsula, the army's mission was to invade Alaska in event of a war. It was disbanded in May 1953 after Stalin's death.

History
The first 14th Army was formed in October 1939 in the Leningrad Military District. It participated in the Soviet-Finnish war, during which its 52nd and 104th Rifle Divisions fought in the Battle of Petsamo.

From 24 June 1941 the army included the following units.

42nd Rifle Corps (Ist Formation 22 June 1941, disbanded 14 October 1941; was used to reinforce the Kandalksha operational group)
293rd Separate signals battalion
279th separate sapper battalion
104th Rifle Division
122nd Rifle Division
14th Rifle Division
52nd Rifle Division
1st Tank Division
23rd Murmansk Fortified Region
1st Mixed Air Division (HQ Murmansk, Colonel M.M. Golovnya, disbanded February 1942)
137th Fighter Aviation Regiment (Afrikanda) (SB)
145th Fighter Aviation Regiment (Shangui) (38 I-153)
147th Fighter Aviation Regiment (Murmashi) (36 I-153) Leonid Ivanov won the Hero of the Soviet Union posthumously while flying with this regiment up to his death on 27 June 1941.
258th Fighter Aviation Division was formed from the Air Forces of the 14th Army in 1942
a number of artillery and other units

The army was initially subordinated to the Northern Front and conducted defensive operations on the Murmansk, Kandalaksha and Ukhta directions against the German-Finnish Operation Silver Fox (29 June 1941 – 19 September 1941) and in coordination with the 7th Separate Army, in the Defensive Operations on the Petrozavodsk, Ukhtinsk, Rugozersk, and Olonetsk directions (1 July 1941 – 10 October 1941). In November 1941 three deer transportation units were formed in the 14th Army, each of them included 1,000 deer and 140–150 herdsmen and soldiers. From the middle of  Army was able to stop Finnish enemy forces advance, and subsequently until October 1944 (from 23 August 1941 as part of the Karelian Front) it solidly retained its sector positions, and conducted active offensive combat for the purpose of improvement in the position it occupied.

On 18 October 1944, the 14th Army after rearrangement was involved in the second stage of the Petsamo-Kirkenes Operation. From south to north in the battle were introduced 127th Light Rifle Corps, the reserve of the 31st Rifle Corps, 99th Rifle Corps, 126th Light Rifle Corps, 131st Rifle Corps. At that time, battles were mainly in the pursuit of the retreating enemy. 127th Light Rifle Corps and 31st Rifle Corps advanced on the Nickel, the 99th Rifle Corps and the 126th Light Rifle Corps on Ahmalahti, 131st Rifle Corps on Tarnet.

By 20 October 1944 127th Light Rifle Corps and 31st Rifle Corps semicircle covered Nickel from the north, south and south-west, 21 October 1944 126th Light Rifle Corps reached the lake Klistervati, 99th Rifle Corps 22 October 1944 released the road Ahmalahti – Kirkenes. 131st Rifle Corps has released 10/17/1944 to the state border and entered 18 October 1944 on Norwegian soil. Nickel was taken 22 October 1944.

Forcing Yar Fjord on 24–25 October 1944 Army troops fanned out in Norway. 31st Rifle Corps, without forcing the bay, and ran down the deep south, and reached Nausta 27 October 1944, coming on the Norwegian-Finnish border. The 127th Light Rifle Corps carried out an offensive attack in the same direction, but on the western shore of the Fjord. The 126th Light Rifle Corps undertook deep inroads in the west and reached the city 27 October 1944 Neiden 99th Rifle Corps and the 131st Rifle Corps rushed to Kirkenes, which was released on 25 October 1944, the then 99th Rifle Corps also sent the city Neiden.

By 29 October 1944, the Petsamo-Kirkenes operation was over, and with it the 14th Army's combat role. While the German forces evacuated and burned the far north of Norway, using scorched earth tactics, the Soviet advance was halted at the Tana River. Norwegian forces arrived to occupy the area between Soviet and German forces and support those civilians who had refused to evacuate. The 14th Army had taken the city of Petsamo (today Pechenga). Subsequently, until the end of the war the army defended the newly occupied territory and the state borders of the USSR with Finland and Norway.

Commanding officers
 Lieutenant General V. A. Frolov (October 1939 – August 1941)
 Major General Roman Ivanovich Panin (August 1941 – March 1942)
 Major General Vladimir I. Shcherbakov (March 1942 – May 1945), from the end of April 1943 lieutenant general.

On 31 July 1945 the army headquarters was disbanded and the personnel were used to fill out Headquarters Belomorsky Military District.

14th Assault Army (1948–1953)
The army was reformed in June 1948 from the 126th Light Mountain Rifle Corps as the 14th Army (Assault). According to some data, there were plans for its use in Chukchi Peninsula and, in the case of war, landing in Alaska. The army included the 116th, 117th and 121st Rifle Divisions, all former mountain rifle brigades. These divisions were not equipped like standard rifle divisions and lacked tank and antitank artillery battalions. The army included the 1221st and 1222nd Separate Cannon Artillery Regiments, the 280th Separate Engineer-Sapper Battalion and the 187th and 493rd Separate Communications Battalions as well as the 687th and 1252nd Separate Communications Companies.
It was commanded by Lieutenant General Nikolay Oleshev.
In 1949, the 95th Mixed Aviation Division (converted to fighters in 1952) at Anadyr became part of the army.
On 4 May 1951, Major General Georgy Latyshev took command of the army. Lieutenant General Ivan Rubanyuk became the army commander on 14 April 1952.
The army was disbanded in May 1953 after Stalin's death.

References

Sources

Lenskii, Ground forces of RKKA in the pre-war years: a reference (Сухопутные силы РККА в предвоенные годы. Справочник.) — St Petersburg, B & K, 2000

014
Military units and formations established in 1939
Military units and formations disestablished in 1953
1939 establishments in the Soviet Union
Military units and formations of the Soviet Union in the Winter War

14th Army (Soviet Union)


A seed is a smaa embryonic plant enclosed in a coverin cried the seed coat, uisually wi some stored fuid. It is the product o the ripened ovule o gymnosperm an angiosperm plants which occurs efter fertilization an some growth within the mither plant.  The furmation o the seed completes the process o reproduction in seed plants (stairtit wi the development o flouers an pollination), wi the embryo developed frae the zygote an the seed coat frae the integuments o the ovule. Aw seeds are different size, shape an colour.

Seeds hae been an important development in the reproduction an spread o flouerin plants, relative tae mair primitive plants such as mosses, ferns an liverworts, which dae nae hae seeds an uise ither means tae propagate themselves.  This can be seen bi the success o seed plants (baith gymnosperms an angiosperms) in dominatin biological niches on land, frae forests tae grasslands baith in het an cauld climates.

The term "seed" an aa haes a general meanin that antedates the abuin—onythin that can be sown, e.g. "seed" tatties, "seeds" o corn or sunflouer "seeds". In the case o sunflouer an corn "seeds", whit is sown is the seed enclosed in a shell or husk, whauras the tattie is a tuber.

Plant sexuality
Plant reproduction
Botany

Seed


Zoot Suit is a play written by Luis Valdez, featuring incidental music by Daniel Valdez and Lalo Guerrero.  Zoot Suit is based on the Sleepy Lagoon murder trial and the Zoot Suit Riots.  Debuting in 1979, Zoot Suit was the first Chicano play on Broadway. In 1981, Luis Valdez also directed a filmed version of the play, combining stage and film techniques.

Plot
Zoot Suit tells the story of Henry Reyna and the 38th Street Gang, who were tried for the Sleepy Lagoon murder in Los Angeles, during World War II.  After a run-in with a neighboring gang at the local lovers lane, Sleepy Lagoon, the 38th Street Gang gets into a fight at a party, where a young man is murdered.  Discriminated against for their zoot suit-wearing Chicano identity, twenty-two members of the 38th Street Gang are placed on trial for the murder, found guilty, and sentenced to life in San Quentin prison.  Meanwhile, in Los Angeles, Henry's brother Rudy is beaten and stripped of his zoot suit during the Zoot Suit Riots.

Through the efforts of George and other lawyers, as well as activist-reporter Alice, with whom Henry has a brief romantic encounter, the boys win their court appeal and are freed.  The play ends with a Reyna family reunion as Henry returns home and Rudy is about to leave to join the Marines. The scene suggests that it is not the happy ending we expect, however, as multiple endings of Henry's story are suggested: that he returned to prison and drug abuse, died in the war in Korea and was awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously, or married Della and had five children.

Characters

 El Pachuco: an allegorical character of the Chicano sub-culture of the same name.
 Henry Reyna: leader of the 38th Street Gang
 Enrique Reyna: Henry's father
 Dolores Reyna: Henry's mother
 Lupe Reyna: Henry's sister
 Rudy Reyna: Henry's brother
 George Shearer: lawyer for Henry and the 38th Street boys
 Alice Bloomfield: reporter and activist for Henry's case, as well as a brief love interest of Henry's
 Della Barrios: 38th Street Gang member and Henry's girlfriend
 The 38th Street Gang: includes Smiley Torres, Joey Castro, Tommy Roberts, Elena Torres, and Bertha Villarreal
 Rafas: leader of the Downey Gang, rival to the 38th Street Gang
 Downey Gang: include Ragman, Hobo, Cholo, Zooter, Guera, Hoba, Blondie, and Little Blue
 Lieutenant Edwards and Sergeant Smith: detectives
 Members of the Press:  includes Press (who doubles as the prosecution), Cub Reporter, and Newsboy
 The Court: includes Judge F. W. Charles and Bailiff
 Prison guard
 Military men: include Bosun's Mate, Sailors, Marine, Swabbie, Manchuka, and Shore Patrolman
 Extras: Girls, Pimp, Cholo

Historical context

The Sleepy Lagoon Murder
Zoot Suit is based on the Sleepy Lagoon Murder of 1942 and the Zoot Suit Riots of 1943 in Los Angeles, California. On August 1, 1942 José Díaz was at a birthday party at the Williams Ranch.  A disturbance occurred around 11:00 p.m. when a group of twenty white men from the Downey suburb arrived uninvited, complaining about a lack of beer.  The group from Downey Gang were kicked out of the party after demanding more beer.

Meanwhile, a group of men and women from 39th street drove their cars to the nearby swimming hole and lovers lane, dubbed "Sleepy Lagoon", also on the Williams Ranch.  Among the group were Henry Leyvas and his girlfriend Dora Baca, from whom the characters Henry Reyna and Della are contrived.  Also with them was friend Bobby Telles. As the group socialized, three men pulled up and began yelling insults, met equally with words from Leyvas.  The three drove off.  The 38th street group wandered off until they heard a commotion from the parked cars, where Leyvas and Baca remained.  A group of about sixteen men from the Downey gang were beating Leyvas and Baca, prompting members of the 38th street group to defend their friends. After the Downey group left, the group from 38th street gang left to gather more of their group, prior to returning to the Williams Ranch.

The group arrived at Sleepy Lagoon around 1:00 a.m. on the morning of the 2nd, to find no one, so someone suggested the Downey gang had moved to the party at the bunkhouse nearby at the Williams Ranch.  At the party, the Downey gang was not to be found.  Yet, somehow a fight broke out between the party goers and the 38th street gang.  The fight was brief, ending when someone yelled the police were coming.  In the aftermath of the fight, the party-throwers, the Delgadillos, discovered the body of José Díaz along the road, who had left the party shortly before the 38th street group arrived.  His pockets were turned inside out.  He was rushed to a hospital where he died an hour and a half after admission, with a concussion and two stab wounds.  The circumstances around Díaz's death still remain undetermined.

The People v. Zammora et al.
In the process of investigating the murder of José Díaz, hundreds of young men and women in the L.A. area were brought in for police processing.  Among the suspects arrested, several were severely beaten during questioning, including Henry Leyvas, Lupe Leyvas, Benny Alvarez, and Eugene Carpio, and Manuel Reyes. Twenty-two men were placed on trial as a group, under the defense of seven attorneys in the People v. Zammora et al.  George Shibley later joined as an attorney on the case, winning favor from the defendants and their families for his attempts to communicate in Spanish.  Alice McGrath was hired by Shibley to take notes on the trial.  Though the murder weapon was never produced, after six days of deliberation, only five of the twenty-two young men were found "not guilty."  The other seventeen young men were convicted of murdering José Díaz, including Henry Leyvas, who with José Ruíz and Robert Telles, was convicted of murder in the first degree and two counts of assault with a deadly weapon with intent to kill.  Leyvas, Ruíz, and Telles were sentenced to life in prison, while the other young men were sentenced to one to five years.

The ruling was reversed in October 1944 and the men were released, due to the efforts of the Sleepy Lagoon Defense Committee, with Alice McGrath as executive secretary.  However, many of the young men returned to prison, including Henry Leyvas.

The Zoot Suit Riots

With rising tension between the zoot suiters and military servicemen in the L.A. area, what is known as the Zoot Suit Riots began on June 3, 1943 when a group of sailors claimed to have been robbed and beaten by Pacheco.  Servicemen beat zoot suit wearing civilians with clubs and other makeshift weapons, and stripped them of their suits.   Approximately ninety-four civilians and eighteen servicemen were treated for serious injuries, with all of the ninety four arrested, but only two of the servicemen. One source claims the Riot continued for five nights, when military and police ended the violence. However, a second source states that the span of the Riots was nine days.

Production history

Stage debut
Zoot Suit premiered at The Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles on April, 1978.  This production with Center Theatre Group marked the first professionally produced Chicano play.  The initial ten-day run in April sold out in two days.  An audience of season ticket holders and local Mexican-Americans gave standing ovations each evening of the performances at the Mark Taper Forum.  A second run began in August and tickets sold out yet again.  This extended run was held at the Aquarius Theatre, Los Angeles.

Broadway production
The Broadway production debuted at the Winter Garden Theater on March 25, 1979, and closed on April 29 after 41 performances and 17 previews.  The production was directed by Luis Valdez and featured choreography by Patricia Birch. Edward James Olmos' portrayal of El Pachuco earned him a Tony Award nomination for best featured actor in a play, as well as a Theatre World award.
Zoot Suit was the second Latino written and directed play produced on Broadway, coming second only to Miguel Piñero's Short Eyes in 1974.  While Short Eyes won two Obie Awards, as well as the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award for Best American Play, Zoot Suit ran a mere five weeks on Broadway.

Valdez also directed a filmed version of the play, combining stage and film techniques.

30th anniversary production
In April 2008, Alma Martinez, member of the original 1978 cast of Zoot Suit directed the 30 year anniversary production at Pomona College in Claremont, California. This was the first time since its stage debut in 1978 that Zoot Suit had been produced in the Los Angeles area.  The two-week run managed to sell out prior to opening night, despite minimal advertisement, primarily in Latino publications.  Many outreach opportunities were taken, including an alumni night, a staff appreciation performance, matinees allowing over 1,000 high school students to attend, and the development of a study guide for students attending the performances.

The alumni event featured a reunion of original 1978 cast members, as well as members of the film version of Zoot Suit.  Luis Valdez and Alice McGrath, the community activist on whom Valdez based the character Alice, were given awards.  Also in the audience were members of the family of Henry Leyvas, on whom Henry Reyna was based.

In casting the revival, Martinez cast across the Claremont University Consortium in search of Latino students.  All of the Chicano roles featured actors making their stage debut, and the majority of the cast was composed of non-theatre majors.  Assistant director Shakina Nayfack modified the script to reduce homophobic and sexist language where possible.  Martinez cast a female in the traditionally male role of the Press.

Center Theatre Group's 50th Anniversary

As part of the Center Theatre Group's 50th Anniversary celebration, playwright and director Luis Valdez brought Zoot Suit to the Mark Taper Forum from January 31 to April 2, 2017. The play featured Rose Portillo and Daniel Valdez, who were original cast members from the 1978 production.  Instead of reprising their roles of Henry Reyna and Della, respectively, they returned to the stage to play the roles of Henry Reyna's parents.  Rose Portillo was delighted to bring Zoot Suit to new audiences and stated, "I'm over the moon. It was a dream come true the first time. It's a dream come true the second time, to come full circle and to work with Luis at the Taper, where Gordon Davidson and Luis were so influential on my artistic career. I'm looking forward to sharing Zoot Suit with a whole new crop of artists and audiences."  Similarly, Daniel Valdez said, "It's great to come back to where it all started 38 years ago. I'm looking forward to inhabiting the world of Zoot Suit once again."  Academy Award nominated actor Demián Bichir also starred as El Pachuco.

Criticism
Zoot Suit was well received in its initial production in Los Angeles. In his review for Theatre Journal, Jules Aaron laudes the play for its ability to both entertain and make a political statement.  Aaron also notes the emotional content of the play.  Richard Eder for The New York Times echoed Aaron's observations that the play is both entertaining and political.  He adds that Zoot Suit is a blend of Cantinflas and Brecht.  Eder adds his critique that the play is too specific to the Chicano community and lacks universality.

Valdez's play did not receive the same feelings in New York City when it made its Broadway debut.  Richard Eder voiced a different opinion of the Broadway staging from when he saw the production in L.A.    Eder notes that the design elements lacked harmony, and that Zoot Suit failed to combine entertainment with symbolism, plot, and moral. A week later, a New York Times review by Walter Kerr criticizes Valdez for his use of clichés.  Kerr also complains of the lack of emotional connection between Daniel Valdez and Miss Hensel, who play Henry and Alice, respectively.

Music
The songs threaded through Zoot Suit were written by Lalo Guerrero and the playwright's brother Daniel Valdez. Guerrero, known as the father of Chicano music, wrote music detailing the Chicano culture during World War II, resulting in the feature of the songs in Zoot Suit.  The music combines boogie-woogie and El Paso's version of R&B.

References

External links

 Study Guide at Pomona College
 Zoot Suit 2003 El Teatro Campesino production
Image of Zoot Suit cast members dance in the Mark Taper Forum, Los Angeles, 1978, Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.

1979 plays
Broadway plays
Hispanic and Latino American plays
Plays by Luis Valdez
Plays set in Los Angeles
Plays about race and ethnicity

Zoot Suit (play)


In mathematics, Dodgson condensation or method of contractants is a method of computing the determinants of square matrices. It is named for its inventor, Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (better known by his pseudonym, as Lewis Carroll, the popular author), who discovered it in 1866. The method in the case of an n × n matrix is to construct an (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix, an (n − 2) × (n − 2), and so on, finishing with a 1 × 1 matrix, which has one entry, the determinant of the original matrix.

General method
This algorithm can be described in the following four steps:
 Let A be the given n × n matrix. Arrange A so that no zeros occur in its interior. An explicit definition of interior would be all ai,j with . One can do this using any operation that one could normally perform without changing the value of the determinant, such as adding a multiple of one row to another.
 Create an (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix B, consisting of the determinants of every 2 × 2 submatrix of A. Explicitly, we write
 Using this (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix, perform step 2 to obtain an (n − 2) × (n − 2) matrix C. Divide each term in C by the corresponding term in the interior of A so .
 Let A = B, and B = C. Repeat step 3 as necessary until the 1 × 1 matrix is found; its only entry is the determinant.

Examples

Without zeros
One wishes to find

All of the interior elements are non-zero, so there is no need to re-arrange the matrix.

We make a matrix of its 2 × 2 submatrices.

We then find another matrix of determinants:

We must then divide each element by the corresponding element of our original matrix. The interior of the original matrix is
, so after dividing we get
.
The process must be repeated to arrive at a 1 × 1 matrix.

Dividing by the interior of the 3 × 3 matrix, which is just −5, gives  and −8 is indeed the determinant of the original matrix.

With zeros
Simply writing out the matrices:

Here we run into trouble. If we continue the process, we will eventually be dividing by 0. We can perform four row exchanges on the initial matrix to preserve the determinant and repeat the process, with most of the determinants precalculated:

Hence, we arrive at a determinant of 36.

Desnanot–Jacobi identity and proof of correctness of the condensation algorithm
The proof that the condensation method computes the determinant of the matrix if no divisions by zero are encountered is based on an identity known as the Desnanot–Jacobi identity (1841) or, more generally, the Sylvester determinant identity (1851).

Let  be a square matrix, and for each , denote by  the matrix that results from  by deleting the -th row and the -th column. Similarly, for
, denote by  the matrix that results from  by deleting the -th and -th rows and the -th and -th columns.

Desnanot–Jacobi identity

Proof of the correctness of Dodgson condensation
Rewrite the identity as

Now note that by induction it follows that when applying the Dodgson condensation procedure to a square matrix  of order , the matrix in the -th stage of the computation (where the first stage  corresponds to the matrix  itself) consists of all the connected minors of order
of , where a connected minor is the determinant of a connected  sub-block of adjacent entries of . In particular, in the last stage , one gets a matrix containing a single element equal to the unique connected minor of order , namely the determinant of .

Proof of the Desnanot-Jacobi identity
We follow the treatment in the book Proofs and Confirmations: The Story of the Alternating Sign Matrix Conjecture; an alternative combinatorial proof was given in a paper by Doron Zeilberger.

Denote  (up to sign, the -th minor of ), and define a
matrix  by

(Note that the first and last column of  are equal to those of the adjugate matrix of ). The identity is now obtained by computing  in two ways. First, we can directly compute the matrix product  (using simple properties of the adjugate matrix, or alternatively using the formula for the expansion of a matrix determinant in terms of a row or a column)
to arrive at

where we use  to denote the -th entry of . The determinant of this matrix is .
Second, this is equal to the product of the determinants, . But clearly

so the identity follows from equating the two expressions we obtained for  and dividing out by  (this is allowed if one thinks of the identities as polynomial identities over the ring of polynomials in the  indeterminate variables ).

References

Further reading
 Bressoud, David M. and Propp, James, How the alternating sign matrix conjecture was solved, Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 46 (1999), 637-646.
 Knuth, Donald, Overlapping Pfaffians, Electronic Journal of Combinatorics, 3 no. 2 (1996).

 Mills, William H., Robbins, David P., and Rumsey, Howard, Jr., Proof of the Macdonald conjecture, Inventiones Mathematicae, 66 (1982), 73-87.
 Mills, William H., Robbins, David P., and Rumsey, Howard, Jr., Alternating sign matrices and descending plane partitions, Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series A, 34 (1983), 340-359.
 Robbins, David P., The story of , The Mathematical Intelligencer, 13 (1991), 12-19.

External links

Determinants
Lewis Carroll

Dodgson condensation


Edition Peters is a classical music publisher founded in Leipzig, Germany in 1800.

History
The company came into being on 1 December 1800 when the Viennese composer Franz Anton Hoffmeister (1754–1812) and the local organist Ambrosius Kühnel (1770–1813) opened a concern in Leipzig known as the "Bureau de Musique." Along with publishing, the new firm included an engraving and printing works and a retail shop for selling printed music and instruments. Among its earliest publications were collections of chamber music works by Haydn and Mozart. When Hoffmeister departed for Vienna in 1805, the firm had already issued several works by the then new Viennese composer, Ludwig van Beethoven (Opp. 19–22; 39–42). Kühnel continued publishing new works, adding those of composers Daniel Gottlob Türk, Václav Tomášek, and Louis Spohr, all of whom went on to have a long relationship with the firm.

After Kühnel's death, the enterprise was sold to Carl Friedrich Peters (1779–1827), a Leipzig bookseller. Despite difficulties arising from the aftermath of the War of the Sixth Coalition and depression, Peters added new works by Weber, Hummel, Klengel, and Ries to the catalog along with his name (now "Bureau de Musique C. F. Peters") before his death. The next owner was a manufacturer, Carl Gotthelf Siegmund Böhme (1785–1855), who published many works of J. S. Bach after the revival of interest in his work with the assistance of Carl Czerny, Siegfried Dehn, Friedrich Konrad Griepenkerl and Moritz Hauptmann. Ownership of the company was transferred to a charity run by the City of Leipzig for a short period after Böhme's death (1855–1860).

The company was then sold to a Berlin music and book retailer, Julius Friedländer, on 21 April 1860. By 1863, Friedländer took on a partner, Dr. Max Abraham (1831–1900). Abraham employed many of the improvements to music printing that were introduced by the Leipzig engraver Gottlieb Röder, and launched the "Edition Peters" imprint in 1867. This series competed with Breitkopf & Härtel's similar Volksausgabe ("People's edition") series, launched at the same time. Two color schemes were used for the covers of this inexpensive series: a light green cover for works of earlier composers not affected by copyright restrictions; and pink covers for new, original works acquired by Peters or licensed from other publishers. By 1880, the year Abraham took over the directorship, Peters had begun issuing new works by contemporary composers of the era. By 1900, new works from composers including Brahms, Bruch, Grieg, Köhler, Moszkowski, Reger, Sinding and Wagner were included in the catalog.

Abraham's successor was his nephew, Henri Hinrichsen, who added works of Mahler, Pfitzner, Reger, Schoenberg, and Hugo Wolf. The works of Richard Strauss that were originally issued by Joseph Aibl (later Universal Edition) were acquired by Hinrichsen for Peters in 1932. Hinrichsen's sons Max (1901–1965), Walter (1907–1969), and Hans-Joachim (1909–1940) all entered the business in the 1930s.

Following the advent of the Nazi German government in Germany, Max Hinrichsen moved to London, where in 1938 he founded Hinrichsen Edition (renamed Edition Peters London in 1975), and his brother Walter moved to New York where he founded C. F. Peters Corp. (including the subsidiary Henmar Press) in 1948. By 1940, the Nazi regime forced Henri and Hans-Joachim Hinrichsen to turn over the company to Johannes Petschull (1901–2001), who later established the Frankfurt company in 1950 in partnership with the Hinrichsen heirs Walter and Max Hinrichsen.

In spite of suffering a similar degree of damage as other Leipzig publishers from the Allied bombing of Germany during the war, the Leipzig facility was re-opened in 1947, and transferred to state ownership of the East German government by 1949. Its first director was Georg Hillner, who was succeeded by musicologist Bernd Pachnicke in 1969. During the communist era, Peters Leipzig issued contemporary works of composers including Paul Dessau and Hanns Eisler, along with those of Soviet composers including Khachaturian and Shostakovich in addition to a number of urtext editions of works by Beethoven, Chopin, Fauré, Mahler, Scriabin, Vivaldi and others. Since the late 1960s the publisher also developed an internationally performed new music line, with composers such as Friedrich Goldmann and Georg Katzer. Following German reunification in 1990, the Leipzig concern was absorbed by the Frankfurt firm, who had acquired the catalogues of M.P. Belaieff in 1971, Schwann in 1974 and C.F. Kahnt in 1989.

The Peters Edition Ltd. (London), the C.F. Peters Corporation (New York), the C.F. Peters Musikverlag (Frankfurt/Main) and the Leipzig firms of the Edition Peters merged in August 2010 to form Edition Peters Group. In July 2014, the headquarters was moved from Frankfurt back to Leipzig. In 2023, Edition Peters was acquired by the Wise Music Group.

References

External links

 Stanton Family Collection at the Leo Baeck Institute New York

1800 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Peters
Peters
Mass media in Leipzig

Edition Peters


César Franck (born Liège, 10 December, 1822; died Paris, November 8, 1890), was a composer, organist and music teacher of Belgian and German origin who lived in France.  He was one of the great musicians of his time. He was organist at the church of Sainte Clotilde in Paris for more than 30 years, and he taught many talented young musicians.  Most of the music for which he is famous was composed when he was already quite old.

Life

César Franck was born in Liège, a town which is now in Belgium. His father came from near the German-Belgian border and his mother was German. Because his father wanted him to be a concert pianist, he was sent to study at the conservatoire in Liege before going to the Paris Conservatoire in 1837.  In 1842 his father made him come back to Liège so that he could practise for his career as a virtuoso pianist. He went back to Paris in 1844 and stayed there for the rest of his life.  He told his father he did not want to be a concert pianist.  This made his father very angry.

During his first years in Paris, Franck made his living by teaching and playing the organ. In 1848 he married.  His parents came to the wedding although they were still angry with him for not wanting to be a pianist.

In 1858 he became organist at a new church called Saint Clotilde Basilica.  He stayed there for the rest of his life.  He decided to improve his organ playing, in particular in the use of pedals and in improvisation.  At that time changes were being made in France to the pipe organ.  Aristide Cavaillé-Coll was a very famous organ builder.  He built an organ for Saint Clotilde Basilica and Franck gave the first recital on the new instrument in December 1859.  Franck became famous for the way he improvised on the organ after the services.  However, for many years he did not compose much.

Franck was becoming known as a teacher of organ and composition.  His group of pupils became known as the bande à Franck (the Franck band).  They included Henri Duparc, who introduced him to Alexis de Castillon.  Franck became organ professor at the Paris Conservatoire.  The students he taught included Vincent d'Indy, Ernest Chausson, and Louis Vierne. His organ works, especially the Grande Pièce Symphonique, were some of the best organ pieces to come from France (or anywhere else) in over a century.  They helped to prepare for the French symphonic organ style, which was to include many famous composers from the late 19th century onwards: people such as Vierne, Charles-Marie Widor and Marcel Dupré.

In 1872 he wrote an oratorio Rédemption.  It was not a success when it was first performed, but this was mainly due to the instrumental parts which had been badly copied, and by the famous conductor Edouard Colonne who conducted it very badly.  The work became popular years later after Franck had died.

Franck was now starting to compose the works which made him really famous.  He wrote a very large oratorio called Les Béatitudes.  Later he wrote a Piano Quintet and the symphonic poems Le chasseur maudit and Les Djinns.  His piano music included Prélude, choral et fugue and the Variations symphoniques.  In 1885 he was awarded the cross of the Legion d'honneur.  A year later he became president of the Société Nationale de Musique.  He wrote a Violin Sonata (1886) and a Symphony (1888), which are probably his two most famous compositions now.

In 1890, Franck was knocked down by a horse tram while crossing the road. He died shortly afterwards, although he still managed to compose his Trois chorals for organ just before he died.

His music
Many of Franck's works use "cyclic form", a way of making a long work with several movements sound like one piece by making the main theme or themes come back in later movements.  He wrote in a Romantic style which was partly influenced by the music of Wagner and Liszt.  Franck had big hands and when he wrote for the piano he often made the pianist play chords with very wide stretches.

He remains famous for just a small number of compositions written in his last years.  One of his best known shorter pieces is the motet Panis Angelicus, which was originally written for tenor solo, but is more often heard sung by a soprano or treble.

Other websites

Free Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
Free Scores  at the Choral Public Domain Library
International César Franck Society

1822 births
1890 deaths
Belgian composers
19th-century French composers
French organists
People from Liège
Romantic composers

César Franck


The Massachusetts Bay Colony was an English settlement in the 17th century on the east coast of North America.  The colony was later called New England and what is now the cities of Salem and Boston.  The Bay Colony also included what is now known as the States of Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

John Winthrop, the founder of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, continued to work on the colony, and improve it any possible way. He knew that the Church of England was bad, so he decided to improve it at the New World; either colonizing the natives or getting rid of them.

There were two companies who  brought settlers in the New World.  The first company was the Dorchester Company but was a failure.  The second company was in 1628 and called the Massachusetts Bay Colony.  This was successful and brought approximately 20,000 people to the Colony.

At first the colonists had a good friendship with the Native Americans but as more Europeans moved to these areas there were problems over land borders.  The Native Americans also had many different customs.  These differences led first to the Pequot War (1636–1638), and then to King Philip's War (1675–1676).  After these wars, the Native Americans became peaceful and others moved to different places.

The colony was doing well and made money trading with England.  They also traded with the West Indies.  In 1686 there was a civil war in England. King James II wanted to have total control over the colonies. After the war, the colonies remained the same until 1692.  Then Sir William Phips arrived and Massachusetts Bay and the Plymouth Colony were combined. The colonists helped in the running of the government and how it would spend its money.

Earlier times

From the earliest times many Native American lived in this area.  They farmed and hunted within their own land borders and did not cross each other's land.  Early in the 1600s, explorers, Samuel de Champlain and John Smith made a map of the area.

Living in the New World was very hard work for the first settlers. Many became ill and died though the cold winter.  There was not enough food, and the rest of the people decided to return to England after one year.  For awhile there was no more talk of settling people in those parts.  English ships did still come to the New England area for fishing and trading with the Indians.

Plymouth Colony

In November 1620, a group of Europeans arrived and started Plymouth Colony.  Other settlements were tried near there but they failed and the people either joined the Plymouth Colony, returned to England, or lived nearby the Colony.

The people of Plymouth faced many problems during the first years and could not pay back their investors.  In 1627 the companies left the colonists to take care of themselves.  Edward Winslow and William Bradford, two of its leaders, wrote about the Mayflower and the colony they created, called Plymouth Colony.  It was published in England in 1622 called Mourt's Relation. The two men have different opinions but it was written to encourage people to come to the New World to live.

References

References and further reading

 (five volume history of Massachusetts until the early 20th century)

17th century in Massachusetts
British North America

Massachusetts Bay Colony


Typesetting is the making of block-printed writing which is formed by using types grouped from sorts.

Typesetting uses the earlier steps of designing a font and storing it in some manner. Typesetting is the taking of the stored letters (called "sorts" in mechanical systems and "glyphs" in digital systems) and the ordering of them in the manner of a language's orthography for showing them on a page.

Letterpress era
During the letterpress era, moveable type was composed by hand for each page. Cast metal sorts were grouped into words and lines of text and tightly bound together to make up a page image called a forme. All letter faces were set to the same height, to form an even surface of type. The forme was mounted in a machine press, inked, and an impression made on paper.

The diagram at right shows a cast metal sort: a face, b body or shank, c point size, 1 shoulder, 2 nick, 3 groove, 4 foot. Wooden printing sorts were in use for centuries in combination with metal type.

Copies of formes were cast when expecting later printings of a text, freeing the costly type for other work. In this process, called stereotyping, the entire forme is pressed into a fine matrix such as plaster of Paris or papier mâché called Flong to create a positive, from which the stereotype forme was cast of type metal.

Hand composing was rendered commercially obsolete by continuous casting or hot-metal typesetting machines, such as the Linotype machine and Monotype at the end of the 19th century. The Linotype, invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler, enabled one machine operator to do the work of ten hand compositors by automating the selection, use and replacement of sorts, with a keyboard as input. Later advances, such as the typewriter or computer, pushed the state of the art even farther ahead. Still, hand composition and letterpress printing did not fall completely out of use. Since the introduction of digital typesetting, it has seen a renewal as an artisanal pursuit. However, it is a very small niche within the larger typesetting market.

Phototypesetting

Phototypesetting or "cold type" systems first appeared in the early 1960s and rapidly displaced continuous casting machines. These devices consisted of glass disks (one per font) that spun in front of a light source which selectively exposed characters onto light-sensitive paper. Originally they were driven by pre-punched paper tapes. Later they were hooked up to computer front ends.

One of the earliest electronic photocomposition systems was introduced by Fairchild Semiconductor. The typesetter typed a line of text on a Fairchild keyboard that had no display. To verify correct content of the line it was typed a second time. If the two lines were identical a bell rang and the machine produced a punched paper tape corresponding to the text. With the completion of a block of lines the typesetter fed the corresponding paper tapes into a phototypesetting device which mechanically set type outlines printed on glass sheets into place for exposure onto a negative film. Photosensitive paper was exposed to light through the negative film, resulting in a column of black type on white paper, or a galley.  The galley was then cut up and used to create a mechanical drawing or paste up of a whole page.  A large film negative of the page is shot and used to make a plates for offset printing.

Digital era
Before the 1980s, almost all typesetting for publishers and advertisers was done by specialist typesetting companies. These companies performed keyboarding, editing and production of paper or film output, and formed a large component of the graphic arts industry. In the United States, these companies were in rural Pennsylvania, New England or the Midwest where labor was cheap, and paper produced nearby, but still within a few hours' travel time of the major publishing centers.

In 1985, desktop publishing became available, starting with the Apple Macintosh, Aldus PageMaker (and later QuarkXPress) and PostScript. Improvements in software and hardware, and rapidly-lowering costs, popularized desktop publishing and enabled very fine control of typeset results at much lower cost than the minicomputer-based systems. At the same time, word processing systems such as Wang and WordPerfect revolutionized office documents. They did not, however, have the typographic ability or flexibility required for complex book layout, graphics, mathematics, or advanced hyphenation and justification rules (H and J).

By the year 2000, this industry segment had shrunk because publishers were now capable of integrating typesetting and graphic design on their own in-house computers. Many found that the cost of maintaining high standards of typographic design and technical skill made it more economical to out-source to freelancers and graphic design specialists.

The availability of cheap, or free, fonts made the conversion to do-it-yourself easier but also opened up a gap between skilled designers and amateurs. The advent of PostScript, supplemented by the PDF file format, provided a universal method of proofing designs and layouts, readable on major computer and operating systems.

SCRIPT variants
IBM created and inspired a family of typesetting languages with names that were derivatives of the word "SCRIPT". Latter versions of SCRIPT included advanced features such as automatic generation of a table of contents and index, multi-column page layout, footnotes, boxes, automatic hyphenation and spelling verification.

SGML and XML systems
SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) was based upon GML (IBM Generalized Markup Language). GML was a set of macros on top of IBM SCRIPT.

The arrival of SGML/XML as the document model made other typesetting engines popular. Such engines include Datalogics Pager, Penta, Miles 33's OASYS, Xyvision's XML Professional Publisher (XPP), FrameMaker, Arbortext, YesLogic's Prince, QuarkXPress and Adobe InDesign. These products allow users to program their typesetting process around the SGML/XML with the help of scripting languages. Some of them, such as Arbortext Editor and XMetaL Author, provide attractive WYSIWYG-ish interfaces with support for XML standards and Unicode to attract a wider spectrum of users.

Troff and successors
During the mid-1970s Joseph Ossanna, working at Bell Laboratories, wrote the troff (said as "tee-roff") typesetting program to drive a Wang C/A/T phototypesetter owned by the Labs; it was later enhanced by Brian Kernighan to support output to different equipment such as laser printers and the like. While its use has fallen off, it is still included with a number of Unix and Unix-like systems and has been used to typeset a number of high-profile technical and computer books. Some versions, as well as a GNU work-alike called groff, are now open source.

TeX and LaTeX

The TeX system, developed by Donald E. Knuth at the end of the 1970s, is another widespread and powerful automated typesetting system which has set high standards, especially for typesetting mathematics.

Related pages
 Hot metal typesetting
 Justification (typesetting)
 Printing
 Printing press
 Sort (typesetting)
 Technical writing
 Typeface
 Typography

References

Other websites
Metal Type - For Those who Remember Hot Metal Typesetting
TeX Users Group
The Lout Document Formatting System
XML page at www.W3C.org
SGML page at www.xml.org

Typography
Typesetting

Typesetting


The Enigma of Arrival: A Novel in Five Sections is a 1987 novel by Nobel laureate V. S. Naipaul.

Mostly an autobiography, the book is composed of five sections that reflect the growing familiarity and changing perceptions of Naipaul upon his arrival in various countries after leaving his native Trinidad and Tobago.

Most of the action of the novel takes place in Wiltshire, England, where Naipaul has rented a cottage in the countryside. On first arriving, he sees the area surrounding his cottage as a frozen piece of history, unchanged for hundreds of years.  However, as his stay at the cottage where he is working on another book becomes extended, he begins to see the area for what it is: a constantly changing place with ordinary people simply living lives away from the rest of the world.  This causes Naipaul to reflect upon the nature of our perceptions of our surroundings and how much these perceptions are affected by our own pre-conceptions of a place.

He re-examines his own emigration from Trinidad to New York City, and his subsequent removal to England and Oxford.  Naipaul's narration illustrates the growing understanding of his place in this new environment and the intricate relations of the people and the land around them.

His landlord is modelled on his real-life landlord Stephen Tennant (1906–1987), a 1920s socialite and a "bright young thing" who is also the model for the Hon. Miles Malpractice in novels by Evelyn Waugh and for Cedric Hampton in Love in a Cold Climate by Nancy Mitford. Naipaul rented a cottage at Tennant's Wilsford House estate, north of Salisbury.

References

External links
 Salman Rushdie, "A sad pastoral" (review), The Guardian, 13 May 1987.
"Return to Enigma," LA Review of Books, June 2018

1987 British novels
British autobiographical novels
Novels by V. S. Naipaul
Viking Press books
Novels set in Wiltshire

The Enigma of Arrival


The Catholic Police Guild (CPG) of England & Wales was founded in 1914 as the Metropolitan and City Catholic Police Guild. This was an association for Catholic Police men and women, and approved by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Westminster, in response to representations made by Catholics serving in the Metropolitan and City of London Police Forces. The Patron Saint of the Catholic Police Guild is Saint Michael, the Archangel.

The CPG has a Constitution and Rules approved by the Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales, and a National Executive Committee elected by members each year. The NEC invites a member to act as chairman and may also select a President, who serves a three-year term.

In 1974 the Guild became a national association with membership open to Police Officers serving in the Police Forces in the rest of England and Wales. More recently membership has been opened up to Police Staff & Police Community Support Officers. The CPG also has a Friends category of membership for other civilian supporters. The Guild has had a significant resurgence over the last couple of years. It is particularly experiencing growth in the North-West of England.

The Guild undertakes bi-annual pilgrimages to various important holy places, including Rome, the Holy Land, Fátima, Portugal, Santiago de Compostella in Spain and Poland. In 1985 the Guild went on pilgrimage to Rome to celebrate its seventieth year of foundation, and were addressed by Pope John Paul II on Friday, 12 April 1985.

CPG members often help with stewarding duties at Westminster Cathedral, and every October, Guild members carry the statue of Our Lady in procession from Westminster Cathedral to Brompton Oratory on behalf of the Rosary Crusade of Reparation. Both in 1982 with the visit of Pope John Paul II and in 2010 with the visit of Pope Benedict XVI, the Catholic Police Guild assisted with stewarding. In 1982, Michael Jeffers, a Chief Superintendent in the Metropolitan Police as well as the Chairman of the Guild, was made a Knight of St Gregory by Cardinal Basil Hume in recognition of his efforts leading the stewarding.

List of Chairpersons

Catholic Police Guild of Scotland

A Catholic Police Guild used to exist in Scotland. In recent years the Guild in this country ceased to operate. However, negotiations are currently underway to revive the Catholic Police Guild in Scotland.

References

External links
 The Catholic Police Guild of England & Wales website

Law enforcement in England and Wales
Catholic lay organisations
1914 establishments in the United Kingdom
Organizations established in 1914
Catholic Church in the United Kingdom

Catholic Police Guild


Sargis was Patriarch of the Church of the East between 860 and 872.

Sources
Brief accounts of Sargis's patriarchate are given in the Ecclesiastical Chronicle of the Jacobite writer Bar Hebraeus (floruit 1280) and in the ecclesiastical histories of the Nestorian writers Mari (twelfth-century), Amr (fourteenth-century) and Sliba (fourteenth-century).

Sargis's patriarchate
The following account of Sargis's patriarchate is given by Mari:

Sargis.  We have mentioned earlier how this man assisted when al-Mutawakkil passed through Damascus and established an excellent relationship with him.  After the death of Theodosius the caliph ordered that he should be appointed patriarch, but was warned that the metropolitans of Nisibis were not allowed to become patriarch because Bar Sawma had contrived the murder of Babowai and Yohannan the Leper had tried to murder Mar Hnanisho.  The caliph ignored this custom, and Sargis was consecrated in al-Madaïn on the Sunday after the fast of the apostles, on the twenty-first day of tammuz [July] in the year 1171 of the era of Alexander [AD 860].  His reign, and the peace and security that accompanied it, was a cause of joy to the faithful.   Instead of going to Dorqoni he went to Baghdad, where he was received with great honour, and from there went on to Samarra, where he could deal with matters needing his attention.  As a result the condition of the church improved in his reign.  He died on the second Sunday after the feast of the holy cross, in the third year of the caliphate of al-Mutamid.  The Christians did not dare to bury him in the monastery of Yazdapneh, because of what had happened to Abraham, and his body was instead buried in the monastery of Klilisho in Baghdad.  He reigned for twelve years, two months and one day.

See also
 List of patriarchs of the Church of the East

Notes

References
 Abbeloos, J. B., and Lamy, T. J., Bar Hebraeus, Chronicon Ecclesiasticum (3 vols, Paris, 1877)
 Assemani, J. A., De Catholicis seu Patriarchis Chaldaeorum et Nestorianorum (Rome, 1775)
 Brooks, E. W., Eliae Metropolitae Nisibeni Opus Chronologicum (Rome, 1910)
 Gismondi, H., Maris, Amri, et Salibae: De Patriarchis Nestorianorum Commentaria I: Amri et Salibae Textus (Rome, 1896)
 Gismondi, H., Maris, Amri, et Salibae: De Patriarchis Nestorianorum Commentaria II: Maris textus arabicus et versio Latina (Rome, 1899)

External links

9th-century bishops of the Church of the East
872 deaths
Patriarchs of the Church of the East
Year of birth unknown

Sargis of Seleucia-Ctesiphon


The Lisbon Recognition Convention, officially the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region, is an international convention of the Council of Europe elaborated together with the UNESCO. This is the main legal agreement on credential evaluation in Europe.

As of 2012, the convention has been ratified by all 47 member states of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg except for Greece and Monaco. It has also been ratified by the Council of Europe non-member states Australia, Belarus, Canada, the Holy See, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and New Zealand. The United States has signed but not ratified the convention.

Aims
The Convention stipulates that degrees and periods of study must be recognised unless substantial differences can be proved by the institution that is charged with recognition. Students and graduates are guaranteed fair procedures under the convention.
It is named after Lisbon, Portugal, where it was signed in 1997, and entered into force on 1 February 1999 (or later in some countries, subject to ratification date).

Convention bodies
The convention established two bodies which oversee, promote and facilitate the implementation of the convention:
 the Committee of the convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region, and
 the European Network of Information Centres on Academic Mobility and Recognition (the ENIC Network).

The committee is responsible for promoting the application of the convention and overseeing its implementation. To this end, it can adopt, by a majority of the Signatory Parties, recommendations, declarations, protocols and models of good practice to guide the competent authorities of the Parties. Before making its decisions, the Committee seeks the opinion of the ENIC Network. As for the ENIC Network, it upholds and assists the practical implementation of the convention by the competent national authorities.

Bologna Process
The Lisbon Recognition Convention is an important instrument for the Bologna Process which aims at creating the "European higher education area" by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe.

Historical background
The possibility for students to study abroad has been recognised as an essential element of European integration since the foundation of the Council of Europe in 1949. Within the Council of Europe, several international treaties were elaborated in this field: starting with the right to education under Article 2 of the first Protocol of 1952 to the European Convention on Human Rights, the European Convention on the Equivalence of Diplomas leading to Admission to Universities was opened for signature in 1953, the European Convention on the Equivalence of Periods of University Study in 1956, the European Convention on the Academic Recognition of University Qualifications in 1959, the European Agreement on continued Payment of Scholarships to students studying abroad in 1969, and the European Convention on the General Equivalence of Periods of University Study in 1990.

In addition, under Article 2 of the Council of Europe's European Cultural Convention of 1954, each Contracting Party shall, insofar as may be possible: encourage the study by its own nationals of the languages, history and civilisation of the other Contracting Parties and grant facilities to those Parties to promote such studies in its territory; and endeavour to promote the study of its language or languages, history and civilisation in the territory of the other Contracting Parties and grant facilities to the nationals of those Parties to pursue such studies in its territory.

References
Lisbon Recognition Convention

External links
List of signatory states

Educational assessment and evaluation
Education treaties
Higher education accreditation
Academia in Europe
Council of Europe treaties
UNESCO treaties
Treaties concluded in 1997
Treaties entered into force in 1999
1997 in education
Treaties of Albania
Treaties of Andorra
Treaties of Armenia
Treaties of Austria
Treaties of Azerbaijan
Treaties of Belgium
Treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Treaties of Bulgaria
Treaties of Canada
Treaties of Croatia
Treaties of Cyprus
Treaties of the Czech Republic
Treaties of Denmark
Treaties of Estonia
Treaties of Finland
Treaties of France
Treaties of Georgia (country)
Treaties of Germany
Treaties of Hungary
Treaties of Iceland
Treaties of Ireland
Treaties of Italy
Treaties of Latvia
Treaties of Liechtenstein
Treaties of Lithuania
Treaties of Luxembourg
Treaties of Malta
Treaties of Moldova
Treaties of Montenegro
Treaties of the Netherlands
Treaties of Norway
Treaties of Poland
Treaties of Portugal
Treaties of Romania
Treaties of Russia
Treaties of San Marino
Treaties of Serbia and Montenegro
Treaties of Slovakia
Treaties of Slovenia
Treaties of Spain
Treaties of Sweden
Treaties of Switzerland
Treaties of North Macedonia
Treaties of Turkey
Treaties of Ukraine
Treaties of the United Kingdom
Treaties of Australia
Treaties of Belarus
Treaties of the Holy See
Treaties of Israel
Treaties of Kazakhstan
Treaties of Kyrgyzstan
Treaties of New Zealand
Treaties of Tajikistan
1997 in Portugal
Treaties extended to Greenland
Treaties extended to the Faroe Islands
Treaties extended to the Caribbean Netherlands
Treaties extended to the Isle of Man

Lisbon Recognition Convention


A lysosome is a cell organelle. They are like spheres and they have hydrolytic enzymes which can break down almost all kinds of biomolecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, and cellular debris. They contain more than 50 different enzymes.

By convention, lysosome is the term used for animal cells. In plant cells, vacuoles do similar functions. With a wider definition, lysosomes are
found in the cytoplasm of plant and protists as well as animal cell.

Lysosomes work like the digestive system to break down, or digest, proteins, acids, carbohydrates, dead organelles, and other unwanted materials. They break up larger molecules into smaller molecules. Those smaller molecules can then be used again as building blocks for other large molecules.Sometimes, when the cell itself is dying or is dead the lysosomes will eat up the cell. This is why they are also known as 'suicide bags' of cells.

References

Organelles

Lysosome


Natural deduction is a branch of mathematical logic developed in Poland in the 1920s and 30s. It is meant to express inference rules closely related to the "natural" way of reasoning.

Spurred on by a series of seminars in Poland in 1926 by Łukasiewicz that advocated a more natural treatment of logic, Jaśkowski made the earliest attempts at defining a more natural deduction. In 1929 he first suggested in 1929 using a diagrammatic notation, and later updated his proposal in papers in 1934 and 1935.

References

Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy, 2000. Language, proof and logic. CSLI (University of Chicago Press) and New York: Seven Bridges Press. A gentle introduction to first-order logic via natural deduction, by two first rate logicians.

Other websites
 Clemente, Daniel, "Introduction to natural deduction."
 Pelletier, Jeff, "A history of natural deduction and elementary logic textbooks."

Logic

Natural deduction


VDC Corporation was a distributor of multichannel video programming that delivered live cable television through broadband connected computers in the United States. They developed and were involved in the distribution and delivery of live cable television programming channels.

History
VDC Corporation was founded in 2002 by Scott Wolf.  VDC was a pioneer in the delivery of live cable programming to mobile devices. The company transitioned its mobile product to the delivery of live cable television to desktop computers with their Virtual Digital Cable service launched in April 2006. In October 2006, VDC became one of the first providers to utilize the Microsoft Silverlight technology to provide secure, live distribution of streaming television.

In January 2007, VDC made public its decision to file a program-access complaint with the FCC to commence a proceeding to obtain enforcement of the program access rules under the 1992 Cable TV Consumer Protection Act, to ensure vertically integrated programming providers sell their programming to VDC. Such providers include Time Warner (CNN, TNT, TBS, Cartoon Network, HBO), Liberty Media, (Discovery Channel), Cablevision (Rainbow) and Comcast (E!, Golf Channel).

In late January 2010, the company posted a notice on their website stating that they had ceased offering subscriptions pending the FCC's decision on their program-access complaint.  This remained in place at least until July 2011; the website has since been replaced with a generic domain parking page.

Controversies
Congress attempted to encourage growth and competition in the vertically integrated cable marketplace with the 1992 Cable TV Consumer Protection Act. Using the internet, VDC claims to have brought diversity and increased competition to the marketplace:

The term 'multichannel video programming distributor' means an entity engaged in the business of making available for purchase, by subscribers or customers, multiple channels of video programming. Such entities include, but are not limited to, a cable operator, a multichannel multipoint distribution service, a direct broadcast satellite service, a television receive-only satellite program distributor, and a satellite master antenna television system operator, as well as buying groups or agents of all such entities.

VDC's complaint with the FCC was filed against Turner Broadcasting System to force Turner into compliance with the 1992 Cable Act and to recognize VDC as an MVPD. This would grant VDC mandatory access to broadcast Turner's programming on VDC's MVPD system.

The FCC debate also raises regulatory and broadcast issues involving net neutrality.

References

External links

Cable television companies of the United States
Streaming television

Virtual Digital Cable