The official name of Qambar District is Qamber-Shahdad Kot District (). This name was chosen by much conflict between the people of Qambar Ali Khan City and Shahdad Kot City in the days of Chief Minister of Sindh Arbab Ghulam Rahim in 2004. This district of Sindh province, Pakistan was originally part of Larkana District, which was later divided into two districts. At first its name was Shahdad Kot District but after much protests by Qambar City it was renamed to Qambar Shahdad Kot District.

Districts of Sindh

Qambar District


Dan Morgan (1830 - 9 April 1865) was an Australian bushranger. His real name was John Fuller, but he may have had his mother's surname and been known as Daniel Owen. He was also called John Smith, "Down-the-river Jack" and "Billy the Native". His most famous name was "Mad Dan Morgan."  He robbed people in the Riverina area, but was seen as a friend of the poor workers.

Early life
Dan Morgan was born in Campbelltown, New South Wales in 1830. His mother was Mary Owen, known as "The Gipsy". As a small child he was adopted by "Jack the Welshman", a travelling hawker from Appin. He went to school in Appin. As a young teenager, he hit a policeman and was put in Berrima Gaol for six months. He went to Victoria to look for gold in the 1850s. In 1854 he was arrested for armed robbery at Castlemaine, Victoria. Judge Redmond Barry (the same judge who sentenced Ned Kelly) sent him to Pentridge Gaol for twelve years, the first two years spent in chains. He was also kept on the prison ship Success. He was released after six years and went back to Appin. He worked as a stockman at Wagga Wagga.

Bushranger

In 1860 he stole horses from two squatters (farmers) at Whitfield, Victoria in the King River valley. The squatters, Evans and Bond, followed Morgan's tracks to where he was camped. They shot Morgan with their guns, but he was able to escape.

In July 1865, Morgan and his friend, "German Bill", began to rob from farms around Gundagai, New South Wales. They stole food, gunpowder, guns, watches, and horses. There is story that he killed German Bill, but there is no proof. Morgan robbed the police magistrate from Wagga Wagga, Henry Bayliss. Morgan said he would not shoot him as long as he didn't report the robbery to the police. Bayliss told the police at Urana, and a search party was sent from Wagga Wagga. With the help of black trackers (Indigenous Australians with tracking skills), the police found Morgan's camp. In the shooting that followed, Morgan shot Bayliss in the hand and shoulder. Morgan escaped into the bush. After more robberies, the government put a reward of £500 for the capture of Morgan.

In June 1864, Morgan went to Round Hill station (farm), near the town of Culcairn, New South Wales, where he locked all the workers up. He made the squatter (owner), Watson, give them all extra alcohol. When they asked him about bushranging, he became angry. He wanted to kill Watson, but after Watson's wife stood in front of her husband, Morgan shot him in the hand. He then told farm worker John McLean to go and get help, but quickly changed his mind and shot McLean in the back. McLean was badly wounded. Morgan was upset by this, and stayed with him even though the police were searching for him. McLean died from his injuries three days after being shot. One week later, June 24 1864, he met up with two policemen near Tumbarumba. Morgan shot police Sergeant McGinnerty dead. The other man, Constable Churchley, escaped. After the killings, the government increased the reward to £1000. In September, another policeman, Sergeant Smyth, was shot and killed. Morgan said that he fired the shot. In March 1865, the government made him an outlaw, which meant he could be shot and killed by anyone without warning.

Mad Dan
Morgan often became angry, sometimes without warning. Farmers in the area were scared he would set their crops and haystacks on fire. He would be very nasty to any farmer that did not treat their workers properly. In 1865 he held up a farm at Mohanga. He made the farmer, Bobby Rand, give all the workers a drink, then made him dance for them until he collapsed.

A Victorian newspaper said that if he came to Victoria, the police there would soon catch him. He went to the King River area of Victoria and began to rob farms. He wanted to get back at Evans who had shot him several years earlier. On April 8 1865, he held up the Peechelba station (farm). He made them cook and serve him dinner. One of the maids was able to escape and tell the neighbors what was happening. By 3.00 am, the police had arrived from Wangaratta and together with workers from nearby farms, they surrounded Peechelba. When he came out of the farm house next morning he was shot in the back by a stockman, Jack Quinlan. He died at 2.00pm.

After death

Police Superintendent Cobham took Morgan's body back to Wangaratta and put it on display. Dr. Henry, of Benalla, cut off Morgan's beard, tearing off skin as he cut it. Henry cut off Morgan's head and sent it to Professor George Halford at Melbourne University for examination. People were horrified by the idea of Morgan's body being cut into pieces; the government was forced to have an inquiry. Cobham got into a lot of trouble and was given a less important job.

References

1830 births
1865 deaths
Bushrangers
People from New South Wales

Dan Morgan (bushranger)


Palm, Inc. was an American company that specialized in manufacturing personal digital assistants (PDAs) and developing software. They were the designer of the PalmPilot, the first PDA successfully marketed worldwide, and were known for the Treo 600, one of the earlier successful smartphones. Palm developed the Palm OS software for PDAs and smartphones, which were released under its line of Palm-branded devices and also licensed to other PDA manufacturers.

The company was also responsible for the first versions of webOS, the first multitasking operating system for smartphones, and enyo.js, a framework for HTML5 apps. In July 2010, Palm was purchased by Hewlett-Packard (HP) and in 2011 announced a new range of webOS products. However, after poor sales, HP CEO Léo Apotheker announced in August 2011 that it would end production and support of Palm and webOS devices, marking the end of the Palm brand after 19 years. In October 2014, HP sold the Palm trademark to a shelf corporation tied to the Chinese electronics firm TCL Corporation.

History
Palm, headquartered in Sunnyvale, California, was responsible for numerous products including the Pre and Pixi as well as the Treo and Centro smartphones. Previous product lines include the Pilot 1000, Palm Pilot Pro, Palm III, Palm V, Palm VII, Zire and Tungsten. While their older devices run Palm OS Garnet, four editions of the Treo run Windows Mobile.

Founding and acquisition
Palm Computing, Inc. was founded in 1992 by Jeff Hawkins, who later hired Donna Dubinsky and Ed Colligan, all of whom guided Palm to the invention of Palm Pilot. The company was originally started to write software for the Zoomer, a consumer PDA manufactured by Casio for Tandy. The Zoomer devices were also distributed by Casio and GRiD, while Palm provided the PIM software. The PEN/GEOS operating system was provided by Geoworks.

The Zoomer failed commercially, but Palm continued generating revenue by selling synchronization software for HP devices, and the Graffiti handwriting recognition software for the Apple Newton MessagePad.

The company was acquired by U.S. Robotics Corp. in 1995. In June 1997, U.S. Robotics was acquired by 3Com and Palm became a 3Com subsidiary. In June 1998, the founders became unhappy with the direction in which 3Com was taking the company, and left to found Handspring.

Stock offering and split into PalmSource and PalmOne

3Com made the Palm subsidiary an independent, publicly traded company on 1 March 2000, and it traded on the NASDAQ under the ticker symbol PALM. Palm Inc had its IPO during the dot-com bubble and in its first day of trading the shares of the new company hit an all-time high of US$95.06. But competition and the end of the tech bubble caused Palm's shares to lose 90% of their value in just over a year. By June 2001 the company's shares were trading at US$6.50, making it the worst performing PDA manufacturer on the NASDAQ index at the time.

In January 2002, Palm set up a wholly owned subsidiary to develop and license Palm OS, which was named PalmSource in February. PalmSource was then spun off from Palm as an independent company. In October 2003, the hardware division of the company merged with Handspring, was renamed to palmOne, Inc. and traded under the ticker symbol PLMO. The Palm trademark was held by a jointly owned holding company.

United as a single company

In May 2005, palmOne purchased PalmSource's share in the 'Palm' trademark for US$30 million. In July 2005, palmOne launched its new name and brand, reverting to Palm, Inc. and trading under the ticker symbol PALM once again.

In late 2005, ACCESS, which specializes in mobile and embedded web browser technologies, acquired PalmSource for US$324 million.

On 4 January 2006, Palm released the Palm Treo 700w, the first Windows Mobile-powered Treo, in a partnership with Verizon Wireless and Microsoft.

In December 2006, Palm, Inc. paid US$44 million to ACCESS for an irrevocable license to use and modify the source code for Palm OS Garnet as well as ship Palm OS Garnet in any Palm product without paying royalties; with this arrangement, the Palm company could once again develop both its hardware and software.

In June 2007, Palm formed a strategic relationship with the private-equity firm Elevation Partners, who purchased a 25% equity stake of the company for US$325 million – an investment that came after months of rumours about a possible Palm sale. Palm CEO Ed Colligan acknowledged that "We were approached by larger parties over the last six months," and "the reality is that we thought this was the best outcome for our business and our investors."

On 18 December 2008, Palm CEO Ed Colligan announced that the company would no longer develop any new handheld PDAs. Palm announced the webOS operating system and Palm Pre smartphone at the Consumer Electronics Show on 8 January 2009, and released on 6 June 2009 with Sprint. The design team was led by Matias Duarte, Mike Bell, Peter Skillman and Michael Abbott.

In early 2009, the hype over WebOS sent Palm's stock from US$3 to a high of about US$18.  While reviews of the Palm Pre were positive, launching with only one U.S. carrier (Sprint, which was also a distant third in the market) proved to be a crucial mistake that limited sales, even though it became Sprint's phone. The Pre was often described as Palm's swan song as it was too late to keep the company – with only $250 million in cash and short- term investments at the beginning of 2009 – independent for long. By 2010 the share price of Palm dropped to below US$4.

Acquisition by HP and demise

On 28 April 2010, Hewlett-Packard announced it would purchase Palm at $5.70 a share for $1.2 billion in an all-cash deal. The acquisition was completed on 1 July 2010.

The Palm global business unit was to be responsible for webOS software development and webOS-based hardware products, from a robust smartphone roadmap to future slate PCs and netbooks.

In February 2011, HP unveiled a new line of WebOS products, including the Pre 3, Veer, and TouchPad; however, these products were branded under HP's name and not with the Palm name. In July 2011, as part of a reorganization, WebOS head Jon Rubinstein was demoted from senior vice president to a "product innovation role", and replaced by Stephen DeWitt, head of HP's North American consumer PC unit. At the same time, Palm was renamed the "webOS global business unit", effectively ending the use of the Palm brand.

The launch of the TouchPad was met with extremely poor sales; on 18 August 2011, HP announced that it would immediately end the production and support of all Palm and WebOS devices, and would be "exploring options to optimize the value of webOS software going forward", including a potential sale of the division to another company. HP also cancelled the U.S. release for the Pre 3 and Veer, and infamously, held a fire sale on remaining TouchPad stock, lowering prices for the tablet to as low as US$99 (which, however, led to a major spike in demand for the device). The decision, made by HP's CEO at the time Léo Apotheker, along with its $11.7 billion acquisition of Autonomy, and threats to spin-off HP's consumer business, led to a major decline in HP's market performance, with its shares falling in value by 45.4%.

Following the resignation of Apotheker and his replacement by Meg Whitman, it was announced in December 2011 that an open source version of much of WebOS would be created. Shortly afterward, Jon Rubinstein, along with a number of other senior Palm staff members, began to leave HP. On 15 August 2012, it was revealed that HP had re-organized the remaining WebOS team as a unit known as "Gram", made up of the remaining components of Palm. In February 2013, HP announced that it had sold the WebOS team, along with a license to the WebOS source code, documentation, and underlying patents, to LG Electronics. LG planned to primarily use the WebOS platform for its smart TV products, rather than on mobile devices, but did not rule out the possibility.

TCL ownership, new device
On 30 December 2014, it was reported that in October 2014, HP had sold the Palm trademark and related intellectual properties to Wide Progress Global Limited, a shelf company controlled by Nicolas Zibell — a regional president of TCL Corporation, which markets Android smartphones under the Alcatel brand. At the same time, it was discovered that the former Palm.com now redirected to MyNewPalm.com; the site displayed a "coming soon" page with the previous orange Palm logo, and the slogan "Smart move", which is also the slogan used by Alcatel OneTouch.

TCL publicly confirmed its acquisition of the Palm brand on 6 January 2015, stating that it planned to "re-create" the company with a new team based in Silicon Valley, and incorporate crowdsourcing into its product development.

On 15 October 2018, a new Palm companion device was unveiled, which is manufactured by a new Palm-branded startup company from California that is financially backed by TCL and basketball player Stephen Curry. It is an "ultra-mobile", Android-based device designed to serve as a smaller, simplified companion to a larger smartphone. The new device was announced as being exclusive to Verizon Wireless, only available as an add-on to an existing or new device plan.

See also

 List of Palm OS devices
 Palm (PDA)
 Palm Desktop
 Palm Foleo
 PalmSource, Inc.

References

External links

1992 establishments in California
2011 disestablishments in California
American companies established in 1992
Companies based in Silicon Valley
Companies based in Sunnyvale, California
Computer companies established in 1992
Computer companies disestablished in 2011
Defunct companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Defunct computer companies based in California
Defunct mobile phone manufacturers
Electronics companies established in 1992
Electronics companies disestablished in 2011
Hewlett-Packard acquisitions
Manufacturing companies based in California
Software companies established in 1992
Software companies disestablished in 2011
Technology companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
2000 initial public offerings
2010 mergers and acquisitions
Defunct computer companies of the United States

Palm, Inc.


Grigol Robakidze () (October 28, 1880, Sviri (West Georgia) – November 19, 1962, Geneva) was a Georgian writer, publicist, and public figure primarily known for his prose and anti-Soviet émigré activities.

Biography
He was born on October 28, 1880, in the village of Sviri, Imereti (west Georgia). After the graduation from Kutaisi Classical Gymnasium (1900), he took courses at the University of Tartu (Estonia) and the University of Leipzig (Germany). Robakidze returned from Germany in 1908, and gradually became a leading person among the young Georgian symbolists. In 1915, he founded and led the Blue Horns, a new group of symbolist poets and writers which would later play an important role, particularly during the next two decades. Heavily influenced by Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, his prose centered "on the search of mythological archetypes and their realisation in the life of a nation, and although its intrigue is always artificial and displays much of pose, he was highly respected both by his compatriots and a number of important European literary figures, such as Stefan Zweig and Nikos Kazantzakis." In 1917, he played a role in founding of the Union of Georgian Writers. He was involved in the national liberation movement of Georgia of 1914–1918. Robakidze got a diplomatic post in 1919, when he took part in the Paris Peace Conference as an executive secretary of the state delegation of the Democratic Republic of Georgia.

After annexation of Georgia by Soviet Russia in 1921, he remained in the country, but was known for his anti-Soviet sentiments. His famous play Lamara was staged by the leading Georgian director Sandro Akhmeteli in 1930, a performance which became a prize-winner at the 1930 Moscow Drama Olympiad.

Robakidze and his wife defected to Germany the same year. Despite Lavrenti Beria's objections, they had secured exit visas, ostensibly to supervise the translation of his works into German, and had decided not to return. This hardened Beria's resolve to deal with the rest of the Blue Horns. Lamara continued to be staged to prove the achievements of Soviet theatrical art, although without the name of the playwright being announced. His defection, along with Vladimir Mayakovsky's suicide, silenced most of his fellow poets for a long while. As an émigré, Robakidze had a rather unhappy life.

During World War II, he participated in the right-wing patriotic émigré organizations such as the Committee of Independence of Georgia (1941), the Union of Georgian Traditionalists (1942) and Tetri Giorgi. After the war, his two books on Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler were believed to favour Nazism. Famous representatives of the Georgian political emigration rejected this claim.

He died a broken man in Geneva on November 19, 1962. He was later reburied in the Cemetery of Leuville-sur-Orge, France, a burial ground of the Georgian emigration to Europe.

Grigol Robakidze's Links to Kurban Said

In her book Ali and Nino – Literary Robbery!, Tamar Injia claims that Ali and Nino: A Love Story by Kurban Said (Austria, 1937) is extensively plagiarized from, and owes much of its existence to The Snake's Skin by Grigol Robakidze (Germany, 1928). By comparing passages from both novels (35 comprehensive extracts), the author argues that sections from Ali and Nino: A Love Story are copied from The Snake's Skin. Additionally, by analyzing the literal parallels in both novels, the author shows "side-by-side" similarities in content, namely repeated stories, myths, legends, characters and plot structures. The specific passages in question relate to excursions that Ali and Nino made to Tbilisi and to Iran.

Injia's research findings were first published in a series of articles in the Georgian newspaper Our Literature  (2003) and later printed as books Grigol Robakidze… Kurban Said – Literary Robbery (2005) in Georgian  and Ali and Nino – Literary Robbery! (2009) in English.

The findings of Injia were supported and shared by the representatives from various literary circles, scholars and researchers from Georgia and the US: Gia Papuashvili –  documentary movie producer and philologist; Levan Bregadze – German linguist, Georgian literary critic and philologist; Zaza Alexidze – former Director of the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts, and discoverer and decipherer of the Caucasian Albanian written script; Betty Blair – researcher of authorship of Ali and Nino: A Love Story and founding editor of magazine Azerbaijan International.

Main works

 "Georgian poet Vazha Pshavela".-"Russkaya Mysl", August, 1911 (in Russian)
 "Georgian Modernism".-Russian journal "ARS", Tbilisi, 1918 (in Russian)
 "Portraits", Tbilisi, 1919 (in Russian)
 "Lamara", Tbilisi, 1928 (in Georgian)
 "Das Schlangenhemd". Ed. by Stefan Zweig, Jena, 1928 (in German)
 "Megi - Ein georgisches Mädchen", Tübingen, 1932 (in German)
 "Die gemordete Seele", Jena, 1933 (in German)
 "Vražděná duše", Prague, 1934 (in Czech)
 "Der Ruf der Göttin", Jena, 1934 (in German),
 "Die Hüter des Grals", Jena, 1937 (in German),
 "Adolf Hitler in the Eyes of an Unknown Poet", 1937-38 (in German)
 "Mussolini", 1938-39 (in German)
 "Dämon und Mythos", Jena, 1935 (in German),the article "Stalin als Ahrimanische Macht" is part of this book
 "Kaukasische Novellen", Leipzig, 1932; München, 1979 (In German)
 "La Georgie en son image du monde".- "Bedi Kartlisa"- Le destin de la Georgie", No 16, Paris, 1954 (in French)
 "Vom Weltbild der Georgier".- "Atlantis", October, 1961, Zürich (in German)
 "Hymne an Orpheus" (Poem).- Collection "Grigol Robakidze", Munich, 1984 (in German).

Scholarship
 Avetisian, Violeta. "The Third Shore of Grigol Robakidze and Vladimir Nabokov". Intellectual 16 (2011): 15–23, (in Russian).
 Dichter schreiben über sich selbst, Jena, 1940 (in German)
 Nikos Kazantzakis. Toda Raba, Paris, 1962 (in French)
 "Grigol Robakidze" (Collection), Published by Dr. Karlo Inasaridze, Munich, 1984 (in Georgian, German and French)
 Urushadze, Levan. "Grigol Robakidze as a Political Figure." Periodical Scientific Journal Prometheus 5, no. 17 (2005): 172–175 (in Georgian, Eng. summary).

See also
 List of Eastern Bloc defectors

References

1880 births
1962 deaths
Nationalists from Georgia (country)
Dramatists and playwrights from Georgia (country)
German-language writers
Soviet defectors
20th-century dramatists and playwrights from Georgia (country)
Expressionist writers
Expressionist poets
20th-century writers from Georgia (country)
Burials at Leuville cemetery

Grigol Robakidze


Mysticism is the belief that people can directly experience God or true reality, rather than through books, ritual or other people. People who practice this are called mystics.

Mystics exist within most religions, though not all people who practice religions are mystics. Mystics may experience visions or dreams, or hear God as a voice.

Hindu mystics
Some examples of Hindu mystics:

Shankara
Sri Ramakrishna

Christian mystics
Some examples of Christian mystics:

Augustine of Hippo (354–430)
Gregory I (590–604)
Bridget of Sweden (1303–1373)
John of the Cross (1542–1591)
George Fox (1624–1691)
William Blake (1757–1827)
Thomas Merton (1915–1968)

Islamic mystics
Islamic Mysticism is known as Tassawuf (or Sufism) and a detailed list of Muslim Sufi mystics is given on the Sufism page.

Jewish mystics
Some examples of Jewish mystics:

Menachem Mendel Schneerson (1902-1994)

Buddhist mystics
Some examples of Buddhist mystics:

Siddhartha Gautama (563 BC-483 BC)
Bodhidharma (440-528)

Related page
Spirituality

Theology
Reality

Mysticism


Neonatal diabetes mellitus (NDM) is a type of diabetes. It happens during the first 6 months of human life. Infants with this condition do not produce enough insulin. This causes an increase of blood sugar. NDM is often mistaken for the much more common Type 1 diabetes, although type 1 often happens after the first 6 months of life. In almost 60% of those with NDM, this condition lasts their whole life.

Symptoms of NDM include thirst, frequent urination and dehydration. Most fetuses with NDM do not grow properly in the uterus. Newborns are much smaller than most other newborns. After birth, many babies do not gain enough weight or grow as rapidly as other babies.

References

Diabetes mellitus

Neonatal diabetes mellitus


Dame Helen Lydia Mirren DBE (born Helen Lydia Mironoff; 26 July 1945) is an English actor active in theatre, movie and television.

Early life
Mirren was born in Chiswick, Middlesex, England, to a Russian father and an English mother, she was raised in Essex.

Acting
She began her acting career in 1963 with the National Youth Theatre, later joining the Royal Shakespeare Company. She has since then appeared with several theatre companies in a wide variety of roles. She is widely regarded as one of the greatest British actresses of all time.

She began appearing in movies while still very young but did not really attract attention until the late 1970s. Her movies include: Caligula (1979), The Long Good Friday (1980), Excalibur (1981), Cal (1981), White Nights (1985), Pascali's Island (1988), The Cook, The Thief, His Wife and Her Lover (1989), The Madness of King George (1994), Gosford Park (2001), and The Queen (2006), for which she won the Academy Award for best actress, and several other awards (Golden Globe, BAFTA, etc.).

Mirren has also appeared in several series on television, notably as Inspector Jane Tennison in the Prime Suspect series, she was also acclaimed as Queen Elizabeth I in the series Elizabeth I (2006).

Personal life
Mirren is an atheist. She has no children. She began a relationship with Taylor Hackford in 1986. The couple married in 1997.

References

Other websites

1945 births
Living people
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from Essex
Actors from Middlesex
BAFTA Award winners
British atheists
Emmy Award winning actors
English movie actors
English stage actors
English television actors
English voice actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Screen Actors Guild Award winners

Helen Mirren


Baron Abercromby, of Aboukir and Tullibody, was a title in the peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 28 May 1801 for Mary, Lady Abercromby, in honour of her husband, the noted military commander Lieutenant-General Sir Ralph Abercromby, who won the Battle of Aboukir in 1801 and later died from wounds at the Battle of Alexandria. The latter was the grandson of Alexander Abercromby, member of the Scottish Parliament for Clackmannanshire from 1703 to 1707, younger son of Sir Alexander Abercromby, 1st Baronet, of Birkenbog (see Abercromby baronets).

Lady Abercromby was succeeded by her eldest son, George, the second baron. He represented Edinburgh and Clackmannan in the House of Commons. On his death the title passed to his son George, the third baron. He sat as Member of Parliament for Clackmannanshire, Stirling and Clackmannan and Kinross. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the fourth baron. He was deputy lieutenant of Stirlingshire in 1860. He was childless and was succeeded by his younger brother John, the fifth baron. He was president of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. On his death in 1924 without male issue the barony became extinct.

James Abercromby, third son of Sir Ralph Abercromby and Baroness Abercromby, served as speaker of the House of Commons from 1835 to 1839 and was created Baron Dunfermline in 1839.

Barons Abercromby (1801)
Mary Anne Abercromby, 1st Baroness Abercromby (d. 1821)
George Abercromby, 2nd Baron Abercromby (1770–1843)
George Ralph Campbell Abercromby, 3rd Baron Abercromby (1800–1852)
George Ralph Campbell Abercromby, 4th Baron Abercromby (1838–1917)
John Abercromby, 5th Baron Abercromby (1841–1924)

See also
Abercromby baronets, of Birkenbog
Baron Dunfermline

Notes

References

www.thepeerage.com

Extinct baronies in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
1801 establishments in the United Kingdom
1924 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Abercromby family
Noble titles created in 1801

Baron Abercromby


In electronics, a voltage divider is an electrical circuit which creates an output voltage which is proportional to an input voltage. Voltage dividers are also known as resistor divider and potential divider. It can be made of two resistors or it can be one potentiometer (variable resistor). The output voltage is depends on component values, or on the setting of the potentiometer. When an electrical load gets power from the divider's center point, the voltage may change.

Electronic circuits

Voltage divider


An orphan is a child who has lost both parents. Their parents are either dead or didn't want the child. Some orphans end up in a house called an orphanage. This is where children with no parents live. Many children that live in an orphanage get fostered or adopted by a person or a couple. Some people are called other names as in todays day and age it may be offensive.

Causes
Sometimes parents get sick and die while their child or children are still young, and if no close relatives take care of them, if they cannot or will not do so, they are normally raised in an orphanage. When several children, brothers or sisters are left orphaned they are sometimes split up; one child going to one family or one child going to a foster family while another may stay in the orphanage or foster home.

Sometimes parents may not have jobs or money and abandon their children because they cannot afford to bring them up. The parents may feel that if someone else brings them up they may have a better future in the long run.

Orphan care
In many developing countries orphans are often seen wandering about begging for money and food; many may not be going to school. Not much organised help exists for them in poor countries.

But in richer countries many orphanage, organisations and institutions help the orphans and work to help parents when they are sick or very poor so they do not abandon their children. Organisations such as churches and community services sometimes will assist them.

Orphans in history
Many characters of books and movies have been orphans, such as Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Annie, Heidi, Batman, and Harry Potter.

Notes and references

Family

Orphan


24 Hours of Explicit Sex (original title: 24 Horas de Sexo Explícito) is a 1985 sexploitation B-film by Brazilian director José Mojica Marins. Marins is also known by his alter ego Zé do Caixão (Eng: Coffin Joe).

Marins shot the film for the production company Fotocenas Filmes which agreed to finance his project of a new Zé do Caixão film. After the release of the film, producers failed to finance Marins for his project. 24 Horas de Sexo Explícito was Marins' biggest box-office success and two years later, he directed a sequel named 48 Hours of Hallucinatory Sex.

Plot
Three men make a wager on which one will have sex with more women in a period of 24 hours. They hire an obese and flamboyant gay man to be the judge and keep tally. They get 7 "ugly" women for the challenge. One man comments to another that "these women look like something from a Coffin Joe movie". The men gather them at a beach house and the competition begins. One man decides to quit the competition and return home to his wife (veteran Brazilian porn actress Vânia Bournier), whom he finds having sexual intercourse with "Jack", their German Shepherd dog, in Brazil's first scene of cinematic zoophilia. (The sex was simulated.) Her husband takes revenge by leaving her to romance a talking male horse, whom the man persuades to penetrate her in the rear-end. Most sexual events are narrated and critiqued by a caged parrot.

When the 24 hour period expires, the judge counts the scores of the remaining two men and the score is tied. They are encouraged until the judge announces the tie-breaker would involve the men performing acts on the judge. The duo flees the beach house pursued by the eager judge as the end screen appears.

References

External links

Official filmsite with trailer
 Official Zé do Caixão site

1985 films
1980s pornographic films
Brazilian erotic films
1980s Portuguese-language films
Zoophilia in culture
Sexploitation films
Films directed by José Mojica Marins
1980s exploitation films

24 Hours of Explicit Sex


Ealdgyth (fl. c. 1057–1066), also Aldgyth or Edith in modern English, was a daughter of Ælfgar, Earl of Mercia, the wife of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn (d. 1063), ruler of all Wales, and later the wife and queen consort of Harold Godwinson, king of England in 1066. She was described by William of Jumièges as a considerable beauty.

Family
Ealdgyth was the daughter of Ælfgar, who had been earl of East Anglia a number of times in the 1050s and was appointed earl of Mercia in c. 1057, in succession of his father Earl Leofric. Ælfgar's wife Ælfgifu was probably her mother, and Eadwine, the later earl of Mercia, and Morcar, earl of Northumbria, were her brothers.

In 1055, Ælfgar was exiled on the charge of treason. He went to Ireland to muster troops and formed an alliance with Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, who had been king of Gwynedd (1039–1055) but assumed the sovereignty of all Wales in 1055. Ælfgar and Gruffudd invaded England and plundered Hereford, bringing great humiliation to Earl Ralph, who needed to call in external support to repel the invaders. When peace was made, Ælfgar resumed office before succeeding his father as earl of Mercia in c. 1057.

Marriages and issue

Gruffudd ap Llywelyn

It was presumably in the year of her father's appointment (c. 1057) that Ealdgyth married his political ally, King Gruffudd ap Llywelyn. William of Jumièges describes her as a woman of considerable beauty. Walter Map also wrote of a beautiful lady much beloved by the king and so he may have had Ealdgyth in mind. On her marriage, she was given a modest amount of land in England, though the only estate which can be certainly identified as having belonged to her is one at Binley, Warwickshire. She bore the king a daughter called Nest. Nest later became the wife of Osbern fitzRichard, a marcher lord on the Herefordshire border, who acquired Binley. Nest and Osbern had a daughter who married Bernard de Neufmarché, also a marcher lord. The chronicles also record two of Gruffudd's sons, Maredudd and Ithel, probably for Idwal, who died in 1069, and a third son may be Owain ap Gruffudd (d. 1059).

The alliance between Ealdgyth's father and husband was of great significance in resisting the growing power of the Godwinesons. On the death of Earl Ralph in 1057, Hereford was added to Harold's earldom. The following year, Ælfgar was outlawed for a second time, but he was restored to office before long. Ælfgar is last heard of in 1062 and seems to have died by 1063, when Harold Godwineson invaded Wales. Gruffudd was killed in the event.

Harold Godwinson

Ealdgyth later became the wife and queen consort of her late husband's enemy Harold. The date of the marriage is unknown, but it must have taken place at some stage before the Conquest, whether before or after Harold's coronation as king of England (January 1066). It seems that Harold's choice of bride was "aimed not only at securing the support of the Mercian house for himself in his royal ambitions, but also at weakening the links between that same house and the rulers of north Wales". In any event, Ealdgyth was soon to be widowed for a second time. In October that year, Harold was defeated and died in the Battle of Hastings, which was fought against the invading forces of William, Duke of Normandy, who would subsequently ascend the English throne. At the news of Harold's death, Ealdgyth's brothers went to London to fetch her and immediately sent her to Chester for shelter. It is unknown what happened to her thereafter. Harold had a number of children with his common law wife Edith the Fair, but his marriage to Ealdgyth may not have produced any offspring. It has been suggested that Ealdgyth may have been the mother of Harold's son Harold, but this possibility is not universally accepted.

Notes

References

External links

|-

11th-century English people
11th-century English women
English royal consorts
Anglo-Saxon royal consorts
Remarried royal consorts

Edith of Mercia


The relationship between a doctor and a patient is a very important part of medicine. Only when there is a good relationship between the two is it possible to have high-quality healthcare. This relationship is also at the base of medical ethics. Many medical schools teach the doctors to be to keep a professional relationship with their patients, to respect the patients' dignity and privacy.

This relationship has asymmetric information though. The doctor knows more than the patient, but has to explain the patient's situation, and has to ask the patient what treatments should be done. There is a very similar relationship between the patient and nurses, psychologists.

There are different legal norms that regulate this relationship. Examples of such norms are the Hippocratic oath, the Declaration of Geneva. Professional responsibility may also govern such a relationship.

Ideally, patient and doctor trust each other. If they do, this can have a positive influence on the development of disease or condition. Healing can be hindered if the patient does not take the prescribed drugs, of if these drugs are not taken in the doses prescribed.

If the relationship is too good this can preclude efficiency. In certain cases, it may be good to get the opinion of a second doctor, regarding a condition.

Other websites

Related pages
 Health care
 Universal health care

Medicine
Relationships

Doctor-patient relationship


A zine (a short way of referring to a fanzine) is a photocopied newspaper or magazine about music, politics, or another issue. Zines are usually photocopied by hand, and made by amateurs who do not have training in journalism. Only a small number of copies of a zine are usually made. Zines are often sold at record stores. A music zine might include reviews of line music shows, interviews with bands, and advertisements for CDs. Zines were an important part of the punk rock and hardcore punk subcultures.

Publications

Zine


A drawbridge is a bridge that can be moved in order to stop or allow passage across it. They were often built as part of medieval castles which had moats.

Modern drawbridges are often built across large, busy waterways. They can be lifted to allow large ships to pass or lowered to allow land vehicles or pedestrians to cross.

Bridges

Drawbridge


Eine kleine Nachtmusik is the name given to the Serenade No. 13 for strings in G major, K 525 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. It is one of his most popular pieces and the opening tune is heard in many places, e.g. on mobile phones.It was composed in 1787 and is a serenade for strings.

The title Eine kleine Nachtmusik means literally: "A little Night Music". "Nachtmusik" was a title which was often given to serenades in the 18th century. A serenade in the 18th century was a lighthearted piece of music, often played during feasts. This serenade is written for two violins, viola, and cello and possibly a double bass as well. It is either performed as a string quartet (just four players) or by a small group of instruments, in which case at least one double bass is normally added.

The structure of the music

There are four movements:

 I. Allegro (fast)
 II. Romanze: Andante
 III. Menuetto
 IV. Rondo: Allegro

The first movement has this famous opening tune:

The movement is in sonata form. A short while after the famous opening theme comes a second theme which is more graceful and in D major, the dominant key of G major. The first part (exposition) closes in D major and is repeated. The next part (development section) begins on D major and goes to other keys before the music returns to G major for the last part (recapitulation).

The second movement is a "Romanza".  It is marked "Andante" ("at a walking pace").  It is gentler and slower than the first movement.  Three tunes are heard during the movement, which has an ABACA structure.

The third movement is a minuet and trio (ABA) in G major.

The fourth and last movement is in sonata rondo form. This finale returns with the liveliness of the first movement.

Compositions by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Eine kleine Nachtmusik


A story can be different things:
 when we tell others about a thing that happened, or a thing we thought of: Bob read the children a story; Mary told John the story of her life.
 a report in a newspaper or on the television news: Did you see the story about George Bush on page 12?
 a thing we tell others that is not real: Little Johnny said he was a millionaire, but he's not, it was only a story. See fiction
 in US English, a level of a building: The house has eight stories. (In British English this is a storey).

Story


Charles Gardner Radbourn (December 11, 1854 – February 5, 1897), nicknamed "Old Hoss", was an American professional baseball pitcher who played 12 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB). He played for Buffalo (1880), Providence (1881–1885), Boston (National League) (1886–1889), Boston (Player's League) (1890), and Cincinnati (1891).

Born in New York and raised in Illinois, Radbourn played semi-professional and minor league baseball before making his major league debut for Buffalo in 1880. After a one-year stint with the club, Radbourn joined the Providence "Grays." During the 1884 season, Radbourn won 60 games, setting an MLB single-season record that has never been broken, or even seriously approached. He also led the National League (NL) in earned run average (ERA) and strikeouts to win the Triple Crown, and the Grays won the league championship. After the regular season, he helped the Grays win the 1884 World Series, pitching every inning of the three games.

In 1885, when the Grays team folded, the roster was transferred to NL control, and Radbourn was claimed by Boston. He spent the next four seasons with the club, spent one year with the Boston franchise of the single-season Players' League, and finished his MLB career with Cincinnati. Radbourn was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in  1939.

Early life
Radbourn was born on December 11, 1854, in Rochester, New York, the second of eight children to Charles and Caroline (Gardner) Radbourn. Charles Radbourn (the elder) had immigrated to the United States from Bristol, England, to find work as a butcher; Caroline followed soon after.

In 1855, the Radbourn family moved to Bloomington, Illinois, where Radbourn was raised. As a teenager, Radbourn worked as a butcher with his father, and as a brakeman for the Indiana, Bloomington and Western Railway company.

Early baseball career
In 1878, Radbourn joined the Peoria Reds, a barnstorming team, as their right fielder and "change pitcher". No substitutions were allowed at the time so if the starting pitcher became ineffective in the late innings the change pitcher, usually playing right field, would exchange positions with the starter to try to save the game. In 1879 he signed with Dubuque in the newly formed Northwest League. Radbourn made the major leagues in 1880 as second baseman, right fielder and change pitcher for the Buffalo Bisons of the National League. He played in six games, batted .143, and never pitched an inning, but practiced so hard he developed a sore shoulder and was released. When he recovered, he pitched for a pick-up Bloomington team in an exhibition game against the Providence Grays. He impressed everyone so much that Providence signed him on the spot for a salary variously reported as $1,100 or $1,400.

Providence Grays

1881–1883
During Radbourn's first season with the Grays in 1881, he split pitching duties with John Montgomery Ward. Radbourn pitched 325.1 innings and compiled a win–loss record of 25–11. He became the team's primary pitcher in 1882, pitching 466 innings and going 33–19 with a 2.11 earned run average. He led the NL with 201 strikeouts and six shutouts and was second-best in wins and ERA. In 1883, he pitched 632.1 innings and led the league in wins, going 48–25. His 2.05 ERA and 315 strikeouts both ranked second in the NL.

1884 season

When Providence failed to win the pennant in 1883, the franchise was on shaky financial ground. Ownership brought in a new manager, Frank Bancroft, and made it plain: win the pennant or the team would be disbanded.

Early in the season, Radbourn shared pitching duties with Charlie Sweeney. Radbourn, who had a reputation for being vain, became jealous as Sweeney began to have more success, and the tension eventually broke out into violence in the clubhouse. Radbourn was faulted as the initiator of the fight and was suspended without pay after a poor outing on July 16, having been accused of deliberately losing the game by lobbing soft pitches over the plate. But on July 22, Sweeney had been drinking before the start of the game and continued drinking in the dugout between innings. Despite being obviously intoxicated, Sweeney managed to make it to the seventh inning with a 6–2 lead; when Bancroft attempted to relieve him with the change pitcher, Sweeney verbally abused him before being ejected and storming out of the park, leaving Providence with only eight players. With only two players to cover the three outfield positions, the Grays lost the lead, then lost the game.

Afterward, Sweeney was kicked off the Grays, and this left the team in a state of disarray with the consensus view that the team should be disbanded. At that point, Radbourn offered to start every game for the rest of the season (having pitched in 76 of 98 games the season before) in exchange for a small raise and exemption from the reserve clause for the next season. From that point, July 23 to September 24 when the pennant was clinched, Providence played 43 games and Radbourn started 40 of them and won 36. Soon, pitching every other day as he was, his arm became so sore he couldn't raise it to comb his hair. On game day he was at the ballpark hours before the start, getting warmed up. He began his warm up by throwing just a few feet, increasing the distance gradually until he was pitching from second base and finally from short center field.

Radbourn finished the season with a league-leading 678.2 innings pitched and 73 complete games, and he won the Triple Crown with a record of 60–12, a 1.38 earned run average, and 441 strikeouts. His 60 wins in a season is a record which is expected never to be broken because no starter has made even as many as 37 starts in a season since 1991. Also, his 678.2 innings pitched stands at second all-time, behind only Will White (680 in 1879) for a single season.

After the regular season ended, the NL champion Grays played the American Association champion New York Metropolitans in the 1884 World Series. Radbourn started each game of the series and won all three, while allowing just three runs, all unearned.

Statistical notes

There is a discrepancy in Radbourn's victory total in 1884. The classic MacMillan Baseball Encyclopedia, the current edition of The Elias Book of Baseball Records, his National Baseball Hall of Fame biography, and Baseball-Reference.com all credit Radbourn with 60 wins (against 12 losses). Other sources, including Baseball Almanac, MLB.com, and Edward Achorn's 2010 book, Fifty-nine in '84, give Radbourn 59 wins. Some older sources (such as his tombstone plaque) counted as high as 62. There is no dispute about the  innings pitched, only over the manner in which victories were assigned to pitchers; the rules in the early years allowed more latitude to the official scorer than they do today.

According to at least two accounts, in the game of July 28 at Philadelphia, Cyclone Miller pitched five innings and left trailing, 4–3. Providence then scored four runs in the top of the sixth. Radbourn came in to relieve, and pitched shutout ball over the final four innings, while the Grays went on to score four more and win the game, 11–4. The official scorer decided that Radbourn had pitched the most effectively, and awarded him the win. Under the rules of the day, the scorekeeper's decision certainly made sense. However, under modern scoring rules, Miller would get the win, being the "pitcher of record" when he left the game, and Radbourn would have been credited with a save for closing the game and "pitching effectively for three or more innings". Some modern sources retroactively awarded the win to Miller.

1885 season
Radbourn pitched effectively in the majors for several more years but was not able to duplicate his success of 1883 and 1884. In 1885, he pitched 445.2 innings and went 28–21. The Grays folded after the season, and the roster was transferred to NL control.

Later baseball career
Radbourn was claimed by Boston, and he spent the next four seasons with the club, winning 27, 24, 7, and 20 games. He then jumped to the rebel Players' League and spent 1890 with its Boston club and, after the PL folded, played the 1891 season with Cincinnati, where he recorded his 300th victory before retiring. Radbourn's career record was 310–194.

Later life and legacy

After retiring from baseball, Radbourn opened up a successful billiard parlor and saloon in Bloomington, Illinois. He was seriously injured in a hunting accident soon after retirement, in which he lost an eye.  He died in Bloomington on February 5, 1897, at age 42, and was interred in Evergreen Cemetery.

Radbourn was posthumously inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1939. In 1941, a plaque was placed on the back of his elaborate headstone, detailing his distinguished career in baseball. In the 2001 book The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, Bill James ranked Radbourn as the 45th-greatest pitcher of all time.

It is speculated Radbourn might be the namesake of the charley horse, a painful leg cramp not unlike that from which he suffered. While the term "Charley Horse" does come about from the time he was playing baseball and new articles of the time mentioning "the new disease" seem to always relate it to Baseball players, it seems to be because "Charley" was for horses as "Rover" is for dogs and a reference to the stiff-leggedness that the condition forces on those who are experiencing it.

Radbourn is also known for being the first person photographed gesturing the middle finger. In 1886, an image was captured of him "flipping off" a member of the New York Giants in a team photo.

See also

 300 win club
 List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career ERA leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career WHIP leaders
 List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders
 List of Major League Baseball annual ERA leaders
 List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders
 List of Major League Baseball annual shutout leaders
 List of Major League Baseball no-hitters

References

External links

1854 births
1897 deaths
19th-century baseball players
American people of English descent
Boston Beaneaters players
Boston Reds (PL) players
Buffalo Bisons (NL) players
Cincinnati Reds players
Deaths from syphilis
Dubuque Red Stockings players
Major League Baseball pitchers
National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
National League ERA champions
National League Pitching Triple Crown winners
National League strikeout champions
National League wins champions
Providence Grays players
Saloonkeepers
Sportspeople from Bloomington, Illinois
Baseball players from Rochester, New York
American shooting survivors
Burials in Illinois

Charles Radbourn


Agostino Carracci (sometimes also spelled Agostino Caracci, August 16, 1557 – March 22, 1602) was an Italian painter and printmaker.  His brother Annibale and cousin Lodovico Carracci were more famous than he was.

He thought nature was an ideal. He founded a school that was competing with that of Caravaggio. Together with his brothers, he founded the Accademia degli Incamminati. The academy helped painters of the School of Bologna to become famous.

Related pages
 List of Italian painters

Other websites
Catholic Encyclopedia: Carracci

1557 births
1602 deaths
16th-century Italian painters
Printmakers

Agostino Carracci


Collision detection is a program used on computers to help it understand when two objects will hit into each other. When a computer shows two things on the screen, or controls two things in real life (like robots), it sometimes needs a special program to detect where objects to understand where things are. This might be used to help make sure things like planes do not hit each other, or just to display a video game.

It is also called CD (for collision detection) or interference detection.

Computer science

Collision detection


Starch is a complex carbohydrate. It is made of many glucose units joined by chemical bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store. It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets. Pasta, potatoes, bread, and other starchy foods are made out of carbohydrates.

Starch in every day activities

Starch in food
Some good food sources of starch are cereals, bread, potatoes, grains, peas, and beans. Starch is also used for thickening sauces in cooking and thickening cold foods during a preheat. Starch is a white powder that is tasteless and odourless. Corn starch or cornflour is known as a popular kind of starch made from corn.

Foods with a lot of starch produce more energy than other foods. However, if this energy is not used, it is turned into fat by the liver through de novo lipogenesis.

Laundry starch
There are also different kinds of starch, like laundry starch, which gives clothing a smooth and crisp feel. Sweat and dirt from a person's wrist and neck will stick to the starch on the clothes, not to the fibers of the clothes, and will wash away along with the starch. Then, after each laundry load, the starch can be used again.

Other facts
Starch glues are used in wood, cotton, and bonding of paper. Animals and humans have amylase, so they can digest starch.
Starch was used in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries to stiffen the collars and ruffs of the fine linen which surrounded the neck. Starch also requires heat to thicken. The actual temperature depends on the type of starch.

Carbohydrates

Starch


Kosher tourism is tourism which is geared mostly towards  Orthodox Jews. The accommodations in these destinations include kosher foods, and are within walking distance of Orthodox synagogues. Flights to these destinations often have kosher airline meals available.

Holiday travel
Many kosher vacation packages are geared toward the Jewish holidays throughout the year including Passover, Sukkot and Hanukkah. In Israel, schools are on vacation and parents take advantage of the free time to travel within the country or overseas. Yeshivas in other parts of the world also have a vacation period during these holidays known as Bein Hazmanim.

Passover
A seasonal subcategory of the Kosher tourism industry is travel for Passover, a period of a week that otherwise involves special preparation of the personal home and kitchen. It includes specially designed all-inclusive Passover cruises and resorts.

Sukkot
The week-long holiday of Sukkot involves the need to eat meals and sleep in a sukkah which destinations and locations wishing to attract observant Jews will build, either for eating only, or overnight use as well.

Hanukkah
During the holiday of Hanukkah, places such as Modi'in are popular for those who want to see the historical sites where many of the events leading up to the Maccabean Revolt took place.

Haredi tourism
Another subcategory of the Kosher tourism industry is tourism products geared toward the Haredi community. This segment of the Kosher tourism industry has a potential customer base of about 800,000 households. Important aspects of this segment of the industry include separate hours for men and women at swimming pools and beaches and the hotels might remove televisions or Internet access from rooms and the lobby.

See also

 Kashrut

References

Kashrut
Religious tourism

Kosher tourism


Cuno Amiet (28 March 1868 – 6 July 1961) was a Swiss painter, illustrator, graphic artist and sculptor. As the first Swiss painter to give precedence to colour in composition, he was a pioneer of modern art in Switzerland.

Biography
Amiet was born in Solothurn, and was the son of the chancellor of the canton of Solothurn, Josef Ignaz Amiet (1827–1895). He attended the Kantonsschule Solothurn, where he graduated with the Matura in 1883. After studies with the painter Frank Buchser, he attended the Academy of Fine Arts Munich in 1886–88, where he befriended Giovanni Giacometti.  In 1888–92, Giacometti and Amiet continued their studies in Paris, where Amiet studied at the Académie Julian under Adolphe-William Bouguereau, Tony Robert-Fleury and Gabriel Ferrier.

Dissatisfied with academic art, Amiet joined the Pont-Aven School in 1892, where he learned from Émile Bernard, Paul Sérusier, Roderic O'Conor and Armand Séguin. In Pont-Aven, he came to prefer the use of pure colour to tonal painting.  In 1893, Amiet's lack of funds forced him to return to Switzerland, where he set up a studio in Hellsau. A first exposition at the Kunsthalle Basel in 1894 was generally ill-received. In the 1890s, Amiet continued to collaborate with Giacometti and had only modest commercial success, until he was commissioned in 1898 to paint a portrait of Ferdinand Hodler, whose work would later exert a great influence on Amiet.  His fortunes improved greatly in the 1900s, when he began participating in numerous European expositions and competitions, winning a silver medal in the Exposition Universelle for his work Richesse du soir (1899).

After his 1898 marriage to Anna Luder von Hellsau (d. 1951), Amiet moved to Oschwand. Initially he stayed at a guesthouse, but in 1908 he moved to a house built by Otto Ingold. In 1913, he also purchased a farmers house nearby.  His house would become a meeting place for artists and writers such as Wilhelm Worringer, Adolf Frey, Hermann Hesse, Arthur Weese, and Samuel Singer, and where he taught students such as Werner Miller, Marta Worringer, Hans Morgenthaler, Hanny Bay, , Albert Müller, Josef Müller, Walter Sautter, Werner Neuhaus, and Peter Thalmann.

In the late 1920s and in the 1930s, Amiet executed numerous wall paintings. A 1931 fire in the Münchner Glaspalast destroyed 50 of his most significant works. Amiet was a member in the Swiss Federal Art Commission (1911–15 and 1931–32), a board member of the Gottfried Keller Foundation (1934–48) and of the Kunstmuseum Bern (1935–48). He was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Berne in 1919. He died in 1961 in  Oschwand.

Work
Amiet created more than 4,000 paintings, of which more than 1,000 are self-portraits. The great scope of his work of 70 years, and Amiet's predilection for experimentation, make his œuvre appear disparate at first – a constant, though, is the primacy of colour.  His numerous landscape paintings depict many winter scenes, gardens and fruit harvests. Ferdinand Hodler remained a constant point of reference, although Amiet's artistic intentions diverged ever further from those of Hodler, whom Amiet could and would not match in his mastery of monumental scale and form.

While Amiet took up themes of expressionism, his works retain a sense of harmony of colour grounded in the French tradition. He continued to pursue mainly decorative intentions at the beginning of the 20th century, but his late work of the 1940s and 50s is focused on more abstract concepts of space and light, characterised by dots of colour and a pastel brilliance.

References

External links

 Gallery at SIKART

1868 births
1961 deaths
19th-century Swiss painters
Swiss male painters
20th-century Swiss painters
Swiss Roman Catholics
Academy of Fine Arts, Munich alumni
Pont-Aven painters
20th-century Swiss sculptors
20th-century Swiss male artists
Académie Julian alumni
People from Solothurn
19th-century Swiss male artists

Cuno Amiet


Achilles on Skyros is an episode in the myth of Achilles, a Greek hero of the Trojan War. Not existing in Homer's epic poem Iliad, the episode is written down in detail in some later versions of the story, particularly the Achilleid by the Roman poet Statius. The story of how Achilles disguised himself as a girl at the court of the king of Skyros, fell in love with one of the princesses, and married her before leaving for Troy, became a popular topic in arts and literature from Classical times until the middle of the 20th century. The carnivalesque disguises and gender transpositions at the heart of the story were particularly popular in opera, with over 30 different operas on the theme between 1641 and 1857.

Story

According to ancient sources, rather than allow her son Achilles to die at Troy as prophesied, the nymph Thetis sent him to live at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros, disguised as another daughter of the king or as a lady-in-waiting, under the name Pyrrha "the red-haired", Issa, or Kerkysera. There Achilles had an affair with Deidamia, one of the daughters of Lycomedes, and they had one or two sons, Neoptolemus and Oneiros. Since another prophecy suggested that the Trojan War would not be won without Achilles, Odysseus and several other Achaean leaders went to Skyros to find him. Odysseus discovered Achilles by offering gifts, adornments and musical instruments as well as weapons, to the king's daughters, and then having his companions imitate the noises of an enemy's attack on the island (most notably, making a blast of a trumpet heard), which prompted Achilles to reveal himself by picking a weapon to fight back, and together they departed for the Trojan War. In some versions, Deidamia dressed as a man followed him.

The most detailed and elaborate version is that found in the Roman poem Achilleid. In the poem, Thetis resolves to hide Achilles away at the court of Lycomedes. Achilles is quite reluctant, but eventually consents, attracted by the beauty of the king's most fair daughter, Deidamia. Thetis has him dressed up as a maiden and introduces him to Lycomedes as her daughter who would have had an Amazon-like upbringing and now needed to learn feminine ways by living among ordinary girls of her age, so as to prepare for a normal marriage in the future; Lycomedes agrees to take care of the "girl" and his unsuspecting daughters accept Achilles into their company as another fellow maiden. After some time he develops a particularly close friendship with Deidamia and it becomes increasingly difficult for him to hide his romantic and sexual interest in her. Eventually, at a nighttime festival in honor of Dionysus where men are normally not allowed, Achilles gives way to his sexual desires and rapes Deidamia.

Afterwards, trying to console her, he discloses his true name and origin; despite being scared by what has happened, Deidamia doesn't want Achilles to suffer punishment from her father and resolves to keep the incident and his identity, as well as the fact that she has conceived a child, a secret. When Odysseus and his comrades arrive at Scyros, Achilles, long annoyed by his female disguise, is about to reveal himself but Deidamia holds him back. Odysseus then performs the trick with the gifts and the trumpet and thereby reveals the secret. Achilles hears Deidamia cry and confesses to Lycomedes that they have been engaged in sexual behavior and have had a child together. As the Achaeans are about to sail off to the war, Deidamia is heartbroken over the impending loss of Achilles and asks if she could go with him, but that seems impossible; she then implores him to keep their son in his thoughts, and to never have children with other women. Achilles swears to one day return to Deidamia, but the reader knows that he will die at Troy.

Artistic renditions

This part of the Trojan War myths has been the subject of many works of art throughout the centuries. Taken from the point of view of Achilles, Deidamia, or a neutral observer, a number of themes have received attention in the later artwork and stories, ranging from the comical aspects of crossdressing and the misunderstandings it involves, over gender differences, heroism, homosexual and heterosexual love, and initiation rites, to rape, incest, and domestic violence.

While most later versions go essentially back to the 1st century CE version of Statius, the story of Achilles on Skyros was known earlier than this. There are references to artworks by Polygnotus and Athenion of Maroneia, and a now lost 5th century BCE play by Euripides.

One of the earliest and best studied Renaissance versions of the story was Tirso de Molina's 1612 play El Aquiles. It was followed by a number of other Spanish plays on the same topic. One of its foci was the change in Achilles from fleeing war to being a war hero. This was emphasized by the many changes and transformations used in the play. But the more typical themes of gender confusion and homosexual love are also apparent, and strengthened by the indication that the role of Achilles should be played by a woman.

It has often been used as the theme for an opera or ballet, with the libretto by Metastasio as the most popular. The first opera based on this story seems to have been La finta pazza by Francesco Sacrati, with a libretto by Giulio Strozzi. It was the first and probably the most popular opera of the seventeenth century. It was first performed at the inauguration in 1641 of the Teatro Novissimo in Venice, the first time ever a building was created specifically to perform operas. Anna Renzi was the main singer. The production then was performed many times all over Italy and abroad, including a 1645 performance in Paris, which was the second time ever that an opera was staged in France.

The Metastasio libretto was first used for an opera in 1736 by Antonio Caldara, at the occasion of the marriage of Maria Theresa with the future Holy Roman Emperor, Francis I. Due to the short notice given for the marriage, the libretto was finished after only 18 days, compared to the three months Metastasio usually needed. Despite this, it enjoyed a reasonable success and was used for decades, set to music by at least 29 composers. Further version include the 1737 opera by Domenico Sarro, used for the inauguration of the Teatro di San Carlo, the opera house of Naples, and starring Vittoria Tesi.

The popularity of the theme was due to a number of factors, but a major part was the aspect of disguises and crossdressing, with Achilles dressed as a girl and his role often performed by women. Some librettists, especially the earlier ones like Giulio Strozzi, Carlo Capece and Ippolito Bentivoglio approached this from a carnivalesque point of view, emphasizing the comedy, the masquerade and the (homo-)erotic aspects of it. Others like Metastasio or Paolo Rolli more focused on the failed struggle to conceal the masculinity of the archetypical hero Achilles, and how the inherent nature of the person is stronger than the nurture he receives.

Well known composers writing an opera on this theme include Domenico Scarlatti with his 1712 Tetide in Sciro, John Gay's 1733 Achilles, and Georg Friedrich Händel in 1741 with Deidamia.

Literature

Ca. 1st century BCE: Epithalamium of Achilles and Deidameia, anonymous, sometimes ascribed to Bion of Smyrna
1st century CE: Achilleid by Statius
2nd century CE: The Speech of the Embassy to Achilles (Op. 16 Behr) by Aelius Aristides, section 17 (Behr)
11th century: Deidamia Achilli, an anonymous Ovidian epistle from Deidamia to Achilles
14th century: the story is mentioned in the Divina Commedia by Dante, Purgatorio chapter 9 verse 34-42
1805: Achille à Scyros by Jean-Charles-Julien Luce de Lancival
1890, Achilles in Scyros by Robert Bridges (2nd edition 1892)
1935: Achille ou le mensonge by Marguerite Yourcenar, also published as Déidamie1995: "Achilles Speaks of His Deception in the Court of Lykomedes" by Michael Martone, first published in The American Voice, pp. 80–82. Republished in Four for a Quarter: Fictions, pp. 135-137. Martone read the story at the Knox Writers House.
1998: the story of Achilles on Skyros is included in the Age of Bronze comics by Eric Shanower
2011: a version of this story is included in the contemporary historical fiction novel The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller.
2022: Wrath Goddess Sing by Maya Deane imagines Achilles on Skyros as a transgender woman.

Visual arts

Paintings

5th century BCE,  Achilles in Skyros by Polygnotus
4th or 3rd century BCE: Athenion of Maroneia painted an image of Odysseus discovering Achilles in a maiden's clothing
1st century BCE: the Chamber of Achilles on Skyros, decorated with frescoes, in the Domus Aurea
1st century CE: anonymous wall-paintings of Achilles in Skyros in the House of the Dioscuri and other places in Pompei
Early 17th century: Odysseus recognises Achilles (disguised as a woman) amongst the daughters of Lycomedes by Frans Francken the Younger
1649-50: Nicolas Poussin, Discovery of Achilles on Skyros
1656: Nicolas Poussin, Achilles on Skyros1664: Achilles discovered by Ulysses by Jan de Bray
17th century: Achilles and Ulysses Leaving Skyros by Claude François
Niccolò Bambini, Achilles at Skyros Pieter van Lint, Achilles among the Daughters of Lycomedes, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem
Gian Pietro Bellori, 2 paintings of Achilles in Skyros, one now in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, one in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond
18th century: Achilles at the Court of King Lycomedes with His Daughters by Pompeo Batoni

Tapestries
Mid 18th century: Achille chez les filles de lycomède à Skyros, reconnu par Ulysse, now kept in the Hôtel de Soubise

MosaicsAchilles on Skyros, mosaic from Zeugma, Commagene
"Achilles at Skyros discovered by Ulysses", mosaic from [(Villa Romana La Olmeda, Spain)]

Sculptures

1695: Achille à Scyros by Philibert Vigier, located at the Tapis Vert of the Gardens of Versailles

Stage

Plays
5th century BC: Skyrioi by Euripides (lost, but described as a play about Achilles hiding on Skyros)
1612: El Aquiles by Tirso de Molina
Ca. 1640: El caballero dama (The Gentleman as a Lady) by Cristóbal de Monroy y Silva
1653: El monstruo de los jardines (The Monster of the Gardens) by Pedro Calderón de la Barca

Opera

1641: La finta pazza by Francesco Sacrati (music) and Giulio Strozzi (libretto)
1663: Achille in Sciro by Giovanni Legrenzi (music) and Ippolito Bentivoglio (libretto)
1663: Achille in Sciro by Antonio Draghi (music) and Cav. Ximenez (libretto)
1712: Tetide in Sciro by Domenico Scarlatti (music) and Carlo Sigismondo Capece (libretto)
1727: Achille in Sciro, anonymous work performed at the opera house of Franz Anton von Sporck in Prague, and probably based on the Bentivoglio libretto
1733: Achilles by John Gay
1735: Achille et Déidamie by André Campra (music) and Antoine Danchet (libretto)
1736: Achille in Sciro by Antonio Caldara (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1737: Achille in Sciro by Domenico Sarro (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1738:Achille in Sciro by Giuseppe Arena (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1739: Achille in Sciro by Pietro Chiarini (music) and Metastasio (libretto) (adapted by Bartolomeo Vitturi
1740: Achille in Sciro by Leonardo Leo
1741: Deidamia by George Frideric Handel (music) and Paolo Antonio Rolli (libretto)
1744: Achille in Sciro by Francesco Corselli (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1745: Achille in Sciro by Gennaro Manna (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1747: Achille in Sciro by Giovanni Battista Runcher (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1749: Achille in Sciro by Niccolò Jommelli (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1751: Achille in Sciro by Gregorio Sciroli (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1754: Achille in Sciro by Antonio Maria Mazzoni (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1759: Achille in Sciro by Johann Adolph Hasse (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1759: Achille in Sciro by Giuseppe Sarti (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1764: Achille in Sciro by Ferdinando Giuseppe Bertoni (music)
1765: Achille in Sciro by Johann Friedrich Agricola (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1766: Achille in Sciro by Florian Leopold Gassmann (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1767: L'Achille in Sciro by Johann Gottlieb Naumann
1772: Achille in Sciro by Antonio Amicone
1773: Achilles in Petticaots by Thomas Arne (music) and John Gay (libretto)
1774: Achille in Sciro by Pasquale Anfossi (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1774: Achille in Sciro by Pietro Pompeo Sales (music) and Metastasio (libretto)
1778: Achille in Sciro by Giovanni Paisiello
1785: Achille in Sciro by Gaetano Pugnani
1794: Achille in Sciro by Marcello Bernardini and Metastasio (libretto)
1800: Achille in Sciro: Commedia dramatica per musica, libretto by Publio Quintiliano Settimio
1825: Achille in Sciro by Pietro Antonio Coppola (music) and Rapisarda (libretto)
1857: Achille à Scyros by François Anatole Laurent de Rillé (operette)

Ballet
1804: Achille à Scyros by Pierre Gardel (ballet) and Luigi Cherubini (music)
1830: Achilles at Scyros by Carlo Blasis
1921, Achilles auf Skyros'' by Egon Wellesz (music) after Hugo von Hofmannsthal

Notes

External links

Achilles
Greek mythology in art
Sexuality in fiction
LGBT themes in Greek mythology
Trojan War literature
Skyros

Achilles on Skyros


St. Joseph the Betrothed Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church is a Ukrainian church located in Chicago and belonging to the St. Nicholas Eparchy for the Ukrainian Catholics. The building has an ultra-modern roof, comprising thirteen gold domes which symbolize the twelve apostles and Jesus Christ as the largest center dome.

Church building

Interior
The interior of the church is adorned with Byzantine style icons (frescoes).

Relief geometric patterns of crosses are etched into the walls of the second story of the current structure.  The underlying materials from which the crosser were made was left visible until in 1996 and 1997 pastor Fr. Pavlo Hayda had them painted, and the gold domes restored. The iconostasis inside the church is a traditional Byzantine iconostasis with two tiers and is in the Modern Cossack Baroque Style.

In the rear, on the west end of the altar server and priest sacristy, is the diminutive St. Paraskevia Chapel, named after the saint from whom Fr. Shary's (see History) mother took her name. Daily morning services take place here, and the main sanctuary is used for celebrating Divine Liturgies on Saturdays, Sundays, and high holy days. The iconostasis in the chapel is the original for the church on this site.

Grotto
Across the way from the church is a grotto Shrine dedicated to Our Lady of Hoshiv with an altar sometimes used for outdoor services (such as Pascha Blessing). In 2006, Fr. Pavlo's wife, Christine, led a restoration and relandscaping of the grotto into a memorial garden, which is now dedicated to deceased parishioners.

History
In August 1956, Archbishop Constantine Bohachevsky appointed Fr. Joseph Shary to organize a new community.  The first two Liturgies were celebrated at St. Patrick's High School Auditorium, with the first church being built at its current location.  This building stands north of the current church building and is used as a Parish Life Center that houses offices, classrooms, and a hall.  It is also home to the Selfreliance Ukrainian American Federal Credit Union's northwest branch.

As the community expanded, Fr. Shary realized the parish needed a larger facility.  He saw this as an opportunity to build what he termed a church for "The Glory of God and Future Generations." The church, designed by architect Zenon Mazurkevich of Philadelphia and constructed by Walter Bratkiv of REM Builders, Inc., was dedicated and consecrated by Bishop Jaroslav Gabro on May 22, 1977.

Milestones
The history of St. Joseph begins with Bishop Constantine Bohachevsky, Metropolitan of the Ukrainian Archeparchy of Philadelphia officially establishing St. Joseph Ukrainian Catholic Church on August 1, 1956.  Father Joseph Shary was sent here as the organizing pastor, who upon his arrival in Chicago was met with an energetic group of Ukrainian Catholics anxious to expand the Chicago Ukrainian religious community into the Northwest Side.

Timeline
On August 21, 1956, Cardinal Samuel Stritch, permitted the parish to use St. Patrick's Christian Brothers High School facilities on Belmont Avenue, until the newly formed parish was financially in a position to purchase land to build a church.  Stritch promised all possible assistance in this endeavor.

In 1958, building began on Cumberland Avenue.  The upper portion became the church, with the addition of pews, altars and other appropriate furnishings, which were gifts from Immaculate Heart of Mary Parish.

The lower hall became the hub of cultural, social and fund-raising functions, such as parish praznyks, sviachenes, bake sales, choir rehearsals, rummage sales, children's programs, Ukrainian dance lessons, dances, and countless other activities.

On October 1, 1975, construction of the new church edifice began.

On May 22, 1977, Bishop Jaroslav Gabro dedicated the church.

The large rock near the entrance ramp attracted attention to the church.  It is a piece of the Canadian Shield brought to the new church's building site.  It was retrieved by the contractors during excavation of the foundation.  The pastor saved it and had it placed in its present position after construction was completed in 1976.

In 1988, a hand-carved iconostasis, designed in the Byzantine-Ukrainian tradition by Borys Makarenko, was installed in the church.

The Altar Rosary Society (ARS) has promoted various Ukrainian cultural and social activities, bringing the various components of the society together. When the church was erected, the Altar Rosary Society covered the cost of the installation of the marble floor and apsidial wall.  They also sponsored the royal throne, the altars, and the tabernacle.  Additionally they provided and maintained the altar linens and many of the vestments. To raise this money, the Altar Rosary Society sponsored fashion shows, bake sales, yearly pascha sale, turkey raffles, bazaars, white-elephant sales, family picnics.  Additionally, the members staffed the kitchen, and equipped the church hall kitchen for dinners, picnics, carnivals, breakfasts and other activities.

St. Joseph Church Choir was established in August 1956.

For one and a half years, the choir was trained and directed by Father Shary. Julian Pozniak, a qualified and trained cantor and experienced choir director, remained the sole director and cantor for St. Joseph's until his retirement.  Jaroslav Stefaniuk, with Julian Pozniak's guidance, became choir director and cantor, until his death in March 2006.

Each Sunday the choir sang Divine Liturgy, caroled at Christmas time, and sang at various functions and events throughout the year. Performances took place for the Ukrainian community, but at religious and secular venues, such as the Museum of Science and Industry.

St. Joseph's choir joined with the St. Nicholas Cathedral Slavuta choir to become known as the Metropolitan Andrej Sheptytsky Choir of Chicago.  The choir recorded an album of a newly commissioned composition of the Divine Liturgy, by Andrij Hnatyshyn.  One of the most momentous performances by the choir was for the visit of Pope John Paul II in Grant Park, in 1979.

The Acres of Fun Festivals, and the Friday night Bingos, along with the Pyrohy sales were major fundraisers for the parish, due in large part to the parish volunteers.

Many young parishioners were in the Sts. Cyril and Methodious Youth Group, were altar servers, orboth.  They volunteered at parish events, as well as participating in liturgical services.  They volunteered in soup kitchens, participated in retreats and organized citywide youth nights.

Priests over the years
Many of the presiding priests were assigned to St. Joseph Parish while only in their twenties. The first pastor was Fr. Joseph Shary, after whom the parish is named, along with St. Josaphat in Munster, Indiana.

Pastors
 Rev. Joseph Shary	 1956-1982
 Msgr. William Bilinsky	 1982-1983
 Rev. Andriy Chirovsky	 1983-1985
 Rev. Mykhajlo Kuzma	 1985-1987
 Msgr. William Bilinsky	 1987-1995
 Rev. Pavlo Hayda	 1995-2007
 Rev. Mykola Buryadnyk  2008–Present

Current priests

Fr. Mykola Buryadnyk (2009–Present) - Pastor
Fr. Mykola Buryadnyk was assigned as pastor of St. Joseph parish in February 2008. Since he came to the parish, he helped establish and revitalize several parish organizations such as the Ukrainian Language Bible study Group, the martial arts school of Combat Hopak, the Vyshyvanka School of Dance, and the Homin Theater Group. Fr. Mykola, along with his pastoral ministry, also led the church's roof repairs and gold leaf reapplication the church's interior.

Fr. Volodymyr Kushnir (2010–Present)
Fr. Volodymyr was ordained to the priesthood in October 2009.  He is married to Oksana (Mendiuk), and they have a daughter Olya, who was born in 2004.  He was assigned to St. Joseph parish, as associate, in 2010.

Gallery

External links

Official website
 Photo slideshow of St. Joseph Church, Christmas 2009
 Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Saint Nicholas of Chicago
 List of the 10 most unique churches in the world

Ukrainian Catholic Metropolia of Philadelphia
Eastern Catholic churches in Illinois
Ukrainian Catholic churches in the United States
Joseph the Betrothed Church
Joseph the Betrothed Church
Christian organizations established in 1956
Rusyn-American culture in Illinois
Church buildings with domes

St. Joseph the Betrothed Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church


An interest rate is how much interest is paid by borrowers for the money that they borrow. It is usually a percentage of the sum borrowed. So, a simple 10% interest means that if one borrows $100, one pays back $110.

Interest rates in a  country are usually guided by a base rate set by its central bank. The interest rate to businesses and citizens is always above the base rate .

Finance

Interest rate


Villa Park is a football stadium in Birmingham, England. It is the current home stadium of Aston Villa. The colour of the seats are blue and claret because Villa's traditional home colours are claret and blue. The ground is located near the border between the two Birmingham inner-city suburbs of Aston and Witton, and is at the northern edge of Aston Park. The stands are called the Holte End, the Doug Ellis Stand, the Trinity Road Stand and the North Stand.

Football stadiums in England
Buildings and structures in Birmingham

Villa Park


A Trireme is an ancient oar-driven warship powered by about 170 oarsmen.  It was long and slender, had three tiers of oars and one sail.  On the bow was a battering ram that was used to destroy enemy ships.  The tip of the ram was made of bronze and could easily slice through the side of a wooden ship.

The Trireme was used by people of the Mediterranean Sea from the 7th to the 4th century BC and gets its name from its three rows of oars on each side, manned with one man per oar. The rowing men were not slaves, but were free men who were paid to row. In Ancient Greece, soldiers (called Hoplites) had to buy their own armour and weapons so men too poor to afford them became trireme rowers in wartime. They had to have a lot of practice at rowing as, during a battle, the ship had to be able to stop, start and turn very quickly.

As well as the rowing men, there were 30 others on a trireme. Some of these were sailors who worked the sail, others were soldiers who shot arrows and tried to get onto enemy ships, to attack their crews with swords and spears. The man who steered the trireme was called a kubernete by the Greeks. From this we get the English word Governor, for a person who leads a state.

Because there were many men crowded onto a small ship, triremes could not stay at sea very long. Often, they came to land each evening. The crew would pull the trireme out of the water and then sleep next to it on the beach.

Before a battle, the mast and sail were taken off and left on the shore. In battle, triremes would attempt to ram or board each other. Some triremes had catapults and ballistas on them, but they were hard to use in battle. Many ancient sea battles involved hundreds of triremes. In the Battle of Salamis, there were around 360 ships on the Greek side and 600 to 800 ships on the Persian side.

warships
Military of ancient Greece

Trireme


Mindanao is one of the three main island groups in the Philippines. It is the southernmost major island of the Philippines, and is the only island in the Philippines to have many Muslim people. Mindanao is northeast of Sabah. It may also refer to the main island in the group.

Islands of the Philippines

Mindanao


The Battle of Copenhagen also known as the Assault on Copenhagen on 11 February 1659 was a major battle during the Second Northern War, taking place during the siege of Copenhagen by the Swedish army.

Background
During the Northern Wars, the Swedish army under Charles X Gustav of Sweden, after invading the Danish mainland of Jutland, swiftly crossed the frozen straits and occupied most of the Danish island of Zealand, with the invasion beginning on 11 February 1658. This forced the Danes to sue for peace. A preliminary treaty, the Treaty of Taastrup, was signed on 18 February 1658, with the final treaty, the Treaty of Roskilde, signed on 26 February 1658, granting Sweden major territorial gains.

The Swedish king, however, was not content with his stunning victory, and at the Privy Council held at Gottorp on 7 July Charles X Gustav resolved to wipe his inconvenient rival from the map of Europe. Without any warning, in defiance of international treaty, he ordered his troops to attack Denmark–Norway a second time.

The Swedish armies had never left Denmark after the peace and already occupied all of Denmark apart from the capital, Copenhagen. After a failed assault, Copenhagen was put under siege in the hope of breaking the defense by starvation. In October 1658 however a Dutch relief fleet under Lieutenant-Admiral Jacob van Wassenaer Obdam defeated the Swedish fleet in the Battle of the Sound and lifted the sea blockade so that supplies and an auxiliary army could reach the capital. The Dutch were an ally of Denmark from the Anglo-Dutch Wars and were afraid that Swedish control of the Baltic would ruin their profitable trade in this area.

The opposing forces
After the Copenhageners had withstood about six months of siege, bombardments and attacks, the Swedes attempted to take the city by a grand assault, as a prolonged siege no longer offered any hope of success, now that the sea lanes had been opened by the Dutch.

The Copenhageners had been forewarned by spies, so they had planned their defences well and stockpiled weapons and ammunition.

The walls of Copenhagen bristled with about 300 pieces of cannon, mortars and other artillery, while a diverse mixture of weapons, ranging from muskets and arquebuses to morningstars, scythes, boiling water and tar had been readied for action. Craftsmen, students and other civilians were divided into nine companies, and each of these companies was allocated a part of the wall to defend. The professional soldiers were stationed at the outer field works, Kastellet (the Citadel) and Slotsholmen (the Castle Islet).

The Swedish army consisted of about 9,000 professional soldiers, while the Danish defenders, a mixture of professionals, militia and raw civilians, were of an equal number.

The assault

The Swedes started the action by making a diversionary attack at Christianshavn and Slotsholmen on the evening of 9 February. They were repulsed, and the Swedes left one of their assault bridges behind, which the Danes captured and measured. They found that the Swedish assault bridges were 36 feet long, and thus they realised that they could render these bridges useless by making the ice-free parts of the moats wider than that.

The moats and the beaches had been kept free of ice, and now the ice free zones were widened to 44 feet with help from 600 Dutch marines. The ice was thick, and the work was done in heavy snowfall from 4 o'clock in the afternoon till evening on 10 February.

Spies reported that the Swedish army had moved from their camp, Carlstad, at Brønshøj and had taken up positions behind Valby Hill, and when the Swedes began their assault about midnight the same evening, they met heavy resistance.

The main assaults were made against Christianshavn and Vestervold, but the chopped-up ice and the massed weaponry on the wall made the densely packed attackers pay a horrific toll in lives. Still, they fought their way to the top of the wall, and fierce hand-to-hand fighting broke out.

When the Swedes realised that the assaults on the Western part of the wall were in trouble, the choice was made to make a supporting attack at Østerport. The Swedes got very close to Nyboder and were in the process of crossing the moat, when they fell victim to a well-conducted ambush, and they withdrew with heavy losses.

At about five in the morning the Swedes gave up and retreated. They had taken severe losses. Before the walls 600 bodies were counted, and many more had perished in the ice-cold water and were never found. On top of that there were many wounded. The Danes had only suffered about 14 dead.

Aftermath
The Dutch in the spring of 1659 sent a second fleet and army under Vice-Admiral De Ruyter to further reinforce the city and cut the Swedish supply lines so that the siege would have to be lifted altogether. After Nyborg had been taken by a Dutch-Danish force, the Danish Isles were abandoned by the Swedes. Negotiations were opened and the Treaty of Copenhagen was signed on 27 May 1660, and it marked the conclusion of the Second Northern War between Sweden and the alliance of Denmark-Norway and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In conjunction with the Treaty of Roskilde, it ended a generation of warfare and established the present-day borders of Denmark and Sweden.

See also
 Fortifications of Copenhagen (17th century)

References
Citations

Bibliography

Second Northern War
Battles involving Denmark
Battles involving Sweden
1659 in Denmark
Conflicts in 1659
History of Copenhagen
17th century in Copenhagen
Sieges involving the Dutch Republic
Battles involving the Dutch Republic

Assault on Copenhagen (1659)


The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is a part of the United Nations. The purpose of this agency is to protect and support refugees when governments or the UN ask for help. The UNHCR helps refugees return home out of their voluntary will, settle locally, or move to a third country according to the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and other international law. The agency's headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland. It is a member of the United Nations Development Group chaired by United Nations Development Programme. The UNHCR has won two Nobel Peace Prizes in 1954 and in 1981.

List of High Commissioners

Related pages
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees

References