Barbara Mary Ward, Baroness Jackson of Lodsworth,  (23 May 1914 – 31 May 1981) was a British economist and writer interested in the problems of developing countries. She urged Western governments to share their prosperity with the rest of the world and in the 1960s turned her attention to environmental questions as well. She was an early advocate of sustainable development before this term became familiar and was well known as a journalist, lecturer and broadcaster. Ward was adviser to policy-makers in the UK, United States and elsewhere. She is the founder of the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).

Education and early career
Barbara Ward was born in Heworth, York, on 23 May 1914. Her family soon moved to Felixstowe. Her father was a solicitor with Quaker tendencies, while her mother was a devout Catholic. She attended a convent school before studying in Paris, first at a lycée, then for some months at the Sorbonne before going on to Germany. Though she had once planned to study modern languages, her interest in public affairs led to a degree course in politics, philosophy, and economics at Somerville College, Oxford University, from which she graduated in 1935.

She did post-graduate work on Austrian politics and economics. After witnessing antisemitism there and in Nazi Germany she began to help Jewish refugees, and mobilise Roman Catholic support for any forthcoming UK war effort, although she had initially been "sympathetic to Hitler". With Christopher Dawson, the historian, as leader and Ward as secretary, the Sword of the Spirit was established as an organisation to bring together Catholics and Anglicans opposing Nazism. It became a Roman Catholic group whose policies were promoted by the Dublin Review, which Dawson edited, and for which Ward wrote regularly.

During the Second World War, she worked for the Ministry of Information and travelled in Europe and the US. Partly on the strength of her 1938 book, The International Share-out, Geoffrey Crowther, editor of The Economist, offered her a job. She left the magazine in 1950 having risen to foreign editor, but continued to contribute articles throughout her life. As well as writings on economic and foreign policy, her broadcasts on Christian values in wartime were published as The Defence of the West by Sword of the Spirit. During this time she was also president of the Catholic Women's League and a popular panel member of the BBC programme The Brains Trust which answered listeners' questions. In 1946 she became a governor of the BBC and of the Old Vic theatre. After the war, Ward was a supporter of the Marshall Plan, of a strong Europe, and of a European free trade area.

International influence, and marriage
In 1950, Barbara Ward married Australian Commander Robert Jackson, an administrator for the United Nations. Their son Robert was born in 1956, the same year that his father was knighted. Ward continued to use her own name professionally and was not widely known as Lady Jackson. Over the next few years they lived in West Africa and made various visits to India, and these experiences helped form Ward's views on the need for Western nations to contribute to the economic development of poorer countries. For the next two decades both husband and wife travelled a great deal, and eventually their marriage suffered from this. A legal separation was arranged in the early 1970s though Ward, as a Catholic, did not want divorce. In 1976 when she was given a life peerage she used her estranged husband's surname for her title as Baroness Jackson of Lodsworth.

Ward had been a frequent public speaker since leaving university, and by the 1960s her lectures attracted international respect; several lecture series, including some presented in Canada, Ghana and India, were published in book form. Ward spent increasing amounts of time in the US, much of her work there funded by the Carnegie Foundation. Ward published The Rich Nations and the Poor Nations which became a bestseller in 1962.

In 1957 Harvard University gave her an honorary LittD and until 1968 she was a Carnegie fellow there, living for part of each year in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1966. She got to know Adlai Stevenson and John F Kennedy and acted as adviser to various influential policy makers, including Robert McNamara at the World Bank and Lyndon B Johnson, who welcomed her thoughts on his Great Society projects despite her opposition to the Vietnam war.

She influenced James Wolfensohn's thinking on development questions. She had influence in the Vatican, helped set up a pontifical commission for justice and peace, and in 1971 was the first woman ever to address a synod of Roman Catholic bishops. One of her proposals was that richer countries should commit a certain proportion of their GNP in aid to the developing world, and she also spoke of the need for institutions to enable and manage both 'aid and trade'. This was a practical as well as an ethical concern: Ward believed such policies would encourage stability and peace. She is sometimes called a "distributist".

Environmental concerns

Ward started to see a close connection between wealth distribution and conservation of planetary resources. "… the careful husbandry of the Earth is sine qua non for the survival of the human species, and for the creation of decent ways of life for all the people of the world." She used the phrases "inner limits and "outer limits" to refer to the inner limits of the human right to an adequate standard of living and the outer limits of what the Earth can sustain. In 1966, she published Spaceship Earth and is sometimes said to have coined the phrase. Ward is seen by some as a pioneer of sustainable development. She and René Dubos, co-authors of Only One Earth (), have been described as "parents" of a concept which "did not know its own name at first". Only One Earth: The Care and Maintenance of a Small Planet was written for the 1972 UN Stockholm conference on the Human Environment. The report was commissioned by Maurice Strong, secretary general of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment.

Ward's work was rooted in her sense of morality and Christian values. She saw care of the environment and concern for the well-being of all humankind as a "dual responsibility", especially for anyone sharing her religious outlook. At the same time, she believed wealth distribution combined with conservation was essentially a rational policy: "We are a ship's company on a small ship. Rational behaviour is the condition of survival." In 1971 she founded the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), acting as president from 1973 and chairman from 1980.

Later life
Ward had recovered from cancer in the late 1940s thanks, she believed, to the spiritual support of Padre Pio. The illness recurred twenty years later but surgery did not cure her. In 1973 she retired from Columbia University where she had been Schweitzer Professor of Economic Development for the previous five years and went to live in Lodsworth, Sussex. The next year she was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire, and on 18 October 1976 a life peer as Baroness Jackson of Lodsworth, of Lodsworth in the County of West Sussex; she and her husband both held noble titles in their own right. She wrote her last book, Progress for a Small Planet, despite her deteriorating health, discussing the "planetary community", dwindling resources used up too fast by wealthy countries, and the needs of poorer parts of the world. It was published in 1979, two years before her death on 31 May 1981, aged 67.

Legacy
In 1980, she received the Jawaharlal Nehru Award.

Pope John Paul II sent a Cardinal to represent him at Ward's requiem service. At her own request, she was buried in the graveyard of the local Anglican parish church.

Her brother, John Ward, was a noted civil engineer who, after his work on the M4 motorway in the 1960s, was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire. Her great-niece, Marsha Shandur, is now a music presenter on radio.

Affiliations
1972: Stockholm Conference on Human Environment (Earth Summit I)
1974: Cocoyoc Declaration, UNEP/United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Symposium on Patterns of Resource Use, Environment and Development strategies
1976: Vancouver Habitat Conference on Human Settlements

Barbara Ward Lectures
The International Institute for Environment and Development organises the 'Barbara Ward Lectures' in memory of Ward, who was the Institute's first director.
 2007 Mary Robinson, Former President of Ireland
 2008 Lindiwe Sisulu, Minister of Housing of the Republic of South Africa
 2010 Connie Hedegaard, European Commissioner for Climate Action
 2012 Christiana Figueres, executive secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
 2014 Fatima Denton, Co-ordinator for the African Climate Policy Centre of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
 2016 Debra Roberts, leader of the Environmental Planning and Climate Protection Department of eThekwini Municipality, Durban, South Africa and Co-Chair of Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2018 Gro Harlem Brundtland, the first woman Prime Minister of Norway and former Director-General of the World Health Organization

Selected works
The International Share-out (1938)
Turkey (1941)
Defence of the West (1942)
The West at Bay (1948)
Policy for the West (1951)
Faith and Freedom (1954)
Britain's interest in Atlantic union (1954)
Interplay of East and West (1957)
Five Ideas that Changed the World (1959)
India and the West (1961), published in the journal International Affairs, volume 37 issue 4
The Rich Nations and the Poor Nations (1961)
The Plan under Pressure (1963)
Nationalism and Ideology (1966) – lecture series – Carleton University
Spaceship Earth (1966), . See also, Survival of Spaceship Earth in 1972; Ward co-wrote and appeared in this documentary film Survival of Spaceship Earth (1972) - IMDb
The Lopsided World (1968) – lecture series – Johns Hopkins University
Only One Earth (1972) – with René Dubos
A new creation? Reflections on the environmental issue (1973)
The Home of Man (1976)
Progress for a Small Planet (1979)

References

Sources

 KimMarie McColdrick & Sonia Banerji, "Barbara Ward" in American Economic Association newsletter; October 1995.

External links

 Finding aid to Barbara Ward papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.

Further reading

1914 births
1981 deaths
British environmentalists
British women environmentalists
Deaths from cancer
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
British women economists
Alumni of Somerville College, Oxford
Roman Catholic writers
People from Felixstowe
Place of death missing
University of Paris alumni
20th-century British economists
20th-century British journalists
People from York
People from Lodsworth
Life peeresses created by Elizabeth II
Wives of knights

Barbara Ward, Baroness Jackson of Lodsworth


Tashu Kaushik is an Indian actress and model. She was earlier seen in films like Raju Maharaju, Dushasana, Vaikuntapali and Graduate. She started career as a stage choreographer. From stage shows, Tashu moved on to films through Ram Gopal Varma's Darwaaza Bandh Rakho.

Early life
Tashu Kaushik was born in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, to Rakesh Goud, a businessman. Her family moved to Mumbai in her childhood. She has appeared in many commercials over the years and has acted in a Bollywood film called Zoom.

Career
Tashu Kaushik has completed shooting for Telugabbai opposite Tanish. "My character in the film is a girl who is born and brought up abroad and is a model by profession. It's a glamorous character and you can see me in an all new contemporary look in the movie," says Tashu. The actress is also playing the leading lady opposite Sri of Eerojullo fame in Doola Seenu directed by Raj Kandukoori. She adds that her look in the entertainer will be a stark contrast to her role in Telugabbai. "In this movie, my character is a homely one and I'll be sporting saris mostly," she says. Her third film is Mike Testing 143, where she will be paired opposite Taraka Ratna.

She made her debut in Malayalam films with Rajesh Nair's Annum Innum Ennum. and in Kannada cinema in Cool Ganesha in 2013. She has signed up for her first Tamil film — Pazhaya Vannarapettai. Talking about Pazhaya Vannara Pettai Tashu says, "The movie is important to me because I get to play the role of a traditional girl who is always dressed in half-saris and salwars- a stark contrast to my glam doll stereotype in Tollywood."

She has her eyes set on filmmaking too and want to direct at least one film in the next 10 years. She was running her own restaurant in Versova in Mumbai when her first Telugu film offer came to her.

Filmography

References

External links

Living people
Actresses in Telugu cinema
Actresses in Tamil cinema
Actresses in Malayalam cinema
Female models from Uttar Pradesh
Actresses in Hindi cinema
21st-century Indian actresses
Indian film actresses
Year of birth missing (living people)
People from Kanpur
Actresses from Uttar Pradesh

Tashu Kaushik


Caps lock is the name of a key on a computer keyboard. When you press this key, letters that you type will be capital letters (like this, "ABC"), instead of lowercase ("abc"). The caps lock key is usually above the Shift key and below the Tab key on the left side of the keyboard. However, some people prefer it to be in other locations.

The way the caps lock key works is that once you press it, a light may come on, or you may get a message on the screen. This lets you know that text that you type will be in uppercase letters. When you press the key again, the light turns off, or another message may appear, saying that caps lock has been turned off and text you type will be back to lowercase letters.

Some keyboards and typewriters have a key called shift lock. It is a lot like the caps lock key in that letters you type will be in uppercase instead of lowercase. But shift lock also does something else: when it is on, keys which have two symbols on them, such as the number keys in the top row, will print the symbol on top, instead of the symbol on the bottom. For example, pressing the key with the number 1 on it will print the exclamation mark ("!") instead of the number 1. The caps lock key does not do this; it only affects the letter keys.

People who type a lot, such as those who use typewriters, use the shift key instead of the caps lock or shift lock keys unless they have to type many capital letters in a row. But there is also a neat trick you can do with the caps lock and shift keys: when caps lock is on, you can hold the shift key while typing and what you type will be in lowercase letters instead of capitals. This can be done on some computers, such as those running Microsoft Windows computers.

Not all computers have a caps lock key. Some of those that don't have been made for the One Laptop Per Child program.

References

Computer keyboard

Caps lock


A byleid, whiles cryed a dialect an aa, is a variety o a leid. It is the name gien tae a variety o spaek that isna conseidert tae differ eneuch frae the "staundart" variety o a leid for tae be cryed a leid o its ain.

Hou muckle differs there maun be afore a dialect becomes a leid is gey subjective an aften lippens on poleitical conseiderations (the debate ower whither Scots is a leid o its ain or juist a dialect o Inglis is a prime exemplar). This gies rise tae the saw that "a leid is juist a dialect wi an airmy an a navy" — that is, ae variety o langage is mair like tae be cryed a leid gin it's spak in an unthirlt kintra, an mair like tae be cryed a dialect gin it's spak in ae region o a lairger kintra.

Acause o this difeiculty, monie linguists disna like tae uise the terms "leid" an "dialect", an wad liefer talk anent "varieties o langage" juist.

See an aw
Anglo-Cornish
Bungee leid
Glaswegian
Hieland Inglis
Northumbrie byleid
Yorkshire byleid

Leid
Leid varieties an styles
Lexicology

Byleid


Google AdSense is a program that is run by Google. It lets publishers that are part of Google Display Network show Internet advertisements that are targeted to the site content and the audience. The advertisements can have words, images, videos, or other media. The advertisements are hosted, sorted, and maintained by Google.

Google
Advertising

Google AdSense


Crass was one of the first anarcho-punk bands. The band was formed in Essex, England in 1977. The band split up in 1984.

History

Original members
The group was first of all made up of Penny Rimbaud (playing drums) and Steve Ignorant (who sang). Later they were joined by other people who also lived together in their shared house (or commune) called Dial House.

First concerts
Crass did their first concert at a squatted festival in Huntley Street, North London. Soon after they played at the famous punk club The Roxy in  London's Covent Garden area. However the group were made to come off of the stage because they were very drunk. They also did early concerts with punk band the UK Subs, but not many people went to watch these concerts.

First fashion statements
After this members of Crass decided to be more serious about what they were doing. They decided to wear black clothes all of the time, whether or not they were on stage. This was so that no member of the band would be seen as the group 'leader'. They also made a banner that they hung up behind them when they were playing live. This had a logo on it that was made up of symbols like the Christian cross, the swastika and the British flag, as well as a snake with two heads that is eating itself. The meaning of this logo was the idea that "power will destroy itself".

Albums

First album
Crass released their first record in 1978. It was called The Feeding of the 5000. It was meant to have 18 songs on it, but one song was banned by the people who worked at the factory where the records were made. This was because they thought it was blasphemous. This song was  called "Asylum". The band instead released the record with a 2-minute gap where that song had been, which they called "The Sound of Free Speech". After this they set up their own record label, Crass Records. This was so that they could control what was on their own records in the future. They re-recorded and released the song that had been banned as a single. They also re-released the first LP with the banned song put back on it.

Second album
The second LP released by Crass was the double album Stations of the Crass. It was released in 1979. One side of this LP was a recording of a live concert that the band played at the Pied Bull pub in Islington, London on August 7, 1979.

Third album
Their next LP was released in 1981. It was called Penis Envy. The band had deliberately changed their sound for this record. The lyrics and the record cover artwork had a strong feminist message. Steve Ignorant did not appear upon it. Instead only the women members of the band, Eve Libertine and Joy DeVivre sung the songs.

Other albums recorded
The Crass Records label also released many other records by other musicians and bands. These included Flux Of Pink Indians, Conflict, Poison Girls, Zounds, Honey Bane, Rudimentary Peni and others.

English punk bands
Anarcho-punk bands

Crass


Acetylide, also known as ethynide, dicarbide, and percarbide, is an ion. Its chemical formula is C22-. It is made by deprotonation of acetylene. Some acetylides (chemical compounds contain acetylide ions) are explosive. Many acetylides are used in organic chemistry. Some are known as carbides. Copper(I) acetylide is an example.

Carbon compounds
Ions

Acetylide


The Defense Homes Corporation was created on October 23, 1940 to finance housing for war industry workers, and existed through 1942.

History
The Defense Homes Corporation was incorporated pursuant to a letter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt to the Secretary of the Treasury on October 18, 1940, to finance housing for war industries. Subdivisions and apartment complexes were constructed around the country where new war factories had caused a shortage of worker housing.

It was also known as "The Lanham Act" after Representative Fritz G. Lanham of Texas who championed the bill. To insure conservative support, the DHC was only to construct homes where the private homebuilding industry was not functioning. By January 1942, 207 projects had been completed and another 171 were authorized for construction.

On February 24, 1942, the Defense Homes Corporation was transferred to the Federal Housing Administration. In 1945, all assets were liquidated, with any remaining assets transferred to the Reconstruction Finance Corporation on June 30, 1948.

Examples of DHC projects
Colonial Hills, Ohio
Fairlington, Virginia

References

1940 establishments in the United States
1945 disestablishments in the United States
Corporations chartered by the United States Congress
Defunct agencies of the United States government
History of the government of the United States
New Deal agencies
Reconstruction Finance Corporation
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development

Defense Homes Corporation


The Journal des débats (French for: Journal of Debates) was a French newspaper, published between 1789 and 1944 that changed title several times. Created shortly after the first meeting of the Estates-General of 1789, it was, after the outbreak of the French Revolution, the exact record of the debates of the National Assembly, under the title Journal des Débats et des Décrets ("Journal of Debates and Decrees").

Published weekly rather than daily, it was headed for nearly forty years by Bertin l'Aîné and was owned for a long time by the Bertin family. During the First Empire it was opposed to Napoleon and had a new title imposed on it, the Journal de l'Empire.

During the first Bourbon Restoration (1813–1814), the Journal took the title Journal des Débats Politiques et Littéraires, and, under the second Restoration, it took a conservative rather than reactionary position. Under Charles X and his entourage, the Journal changed to a position supporting the liberal opposition represented by the Doctrinaires (Guizot, Royer-Collard, etc.) (1827–1829).

The Journal des Débats was the most read newspaper of the Restoration and the July Monarchy, before being surpassed by Émile de Girardin's La Presse and later by Le Petit Journal. The many contributions established the Journals reputation as a major influence on French culture, and especially French literature for the first half of the 19th century.

During the German occupation of France in World War II, the Journal continued to be published, which caused it to be suppressed after the Liberation of Paris in 1944.

Famous contributors

 Henry Aron
 Gustave Babin
 Hector Berlioz
 Maurice Blanchot
 Castil-Blaze
 Brada
 François-René de Chateaubriand
 Alexandre Dumas, père
 Charles-Marie de Féletz
 Léon Foucault
 Julien Louis Geoffroy
 Bernard Adolphe Granier de Cassagnac
 Victor Hugo
 Jules Janin
 Conrad Malte-Brun
 Charles Nodier
 Ferdinando Petruccelli della Gattina
 Ernest Reyer
 Eugène Sue
 Madame Sorgue
 George Barbu Știrbei
 Jean-Baptiste Louvet de Couvray

References

 Alfred Nettement, Histoire politique, anecdotique et littéraire du « Journal des débats », Dentu, Paris, 1842.
 Le Livre du centenaire du « Journal des débats », Plon, Paris, 1889.
 André-Jean Tudesq, « Le Journal des débats au temps de Guizot », Politique, avril-juin 1959.
 Ruth Jakoby, Das Feuilleton des « Journal des débats » von 1814 bis 1830: ein Beitrag zur Literaturdiskussion der Restauration, G. Narr, Tübingen, 1988. .

External links
 Le Journal des débats digital archives from 1800 to 1805, from 1805 to 1814 and from 1814 to 1944 in Gallica, the digital library of the BnF

1789 establishments in France
1944 disestablishments in France
Publications established in 1789
Publications disestablished in 1944
Defunct newspapers published in France
Defunct weekly newspapers
Newspapers of the Vichy regime
July Monarchy
Newspapers of the French Revolution
Bourbon Restoration
Weekly newspapers published in France

Journal des débats


Aachener Printen are a type of Lebkuchen originating from the city of Aachen in Germany. Somewhat similar to gingerbread, they were originally sweetened with honey, but are now generally sweetened with a syrup made from sugar beets.

The term is a protected geographical indication, meaning that all manufacturers must be located in or near Aachen.

History
The first pastries of this kind most likely originated from the city of Dinant in nearby Belgium. The city has produced pastries with engraved pictures (couques de Dinant) for over a thousand years. Copper producing (another specialty of Dinant) craftsmen who emigrated to Aachen in the 15th century probably brought the recipe, concept and tradition of engraved pastries with them to Aachen. Originally, the Printen were sold by Aachen's pharmacists since some of their ingredients (honey, several herbs and spices) were considered to possess medical benefits.

Production

Originally sweetened with honey, nowadays Aachener Printen are sweetened with the syrup from sugar beets as honey became temporarily unavailable when Napoleon issued a trade embargo, banning all trade with the main supplier of honey, the United States. The tradition of sweetening with sugar beets was kept even after Napoleon was defeated and the French occupation lifted.

Printen are made from a variety of ingredients including cinnamon, aniseed, clove, cardamom, coriander, allspice and also ginger. The exact mixture of these ingredients, however, is a close kept secret of the individual Printen bakeries.

Additionally to the original Printen, there are also Printen with nuts (usually almonds), covered in chocolate or glaze and marzipan.

See also
 List of German desserts

References

External links

 Aachener Printen
 Aachener printen
 Aachener printen

Biscuits
German cuisine
German pastries
German products with protected designation of origin
Anise

Aachener Printen


William "Caleb" Cale Yarborough (born March 27, 1939 in Timmonsville, South Carolina) is a former NASCAR Winston Cup Series driver and was one of the series personalities.

History
Yarborough is a three-time Winston Cup Champion, winning the series, 1976, 1977 and 1978. He is the only driver to only win three consecutive titles. His wins was placed at number 5, Yaroborough won the Daytona 500 five times in his career. His win coming from Wood Brothers Racing in his career, the second in 1977 for Junior Johnson, and back to back wins in 1983 and 1984, In 1984, he became the first driver to qualify for the Daytona 500 with a speed of .

He was involved in a wreck in the 1979 Daytona 500.

Early career
As a young kid, Yaroborough attended the Southern 500 as a spectator without a ticket, by 1958, he was able to be competing in the Grand National Circuit, In 1965, He was involved in a wreck by Sam McQuagg, Yaroborough's car sailed over the guardrail after tangling with McQuagg's car, Yaroborough tried to make a pass with McQuagg, but their tenders touched Yaroborugh's car went airborne, The car came to rest against a telephone pole outside the track, Yaroborough, who was uninjured, said "I knew I was in trouble when I saw the grass, because I knew there ain't no grass on the racetrack",

On February 25, 1968, he won his first big time race as he beat LeeRoy Yarbrough by less than a second to win the 1968 Daytona 500, Yarborough would win five more races incuding the Southern 500 by four car lengths above David Pearson.

Early in his career, Yarborough competed in the Indianapolis 500, racing in 1966-1967 and 1971-1972.

Sports Illustrated Car Exposure
He captured his second Daytona 500 in 1977, It was so important that Sports Illustrated put him on cover after his second Daytona 500 win, one of the first stock car drivers that cover on the legendary sports magazine, (see A.J. Foyt).

Awards

 Yarborough was inducted by the International Motrosports Hall of Fame in 1993
 He was inducted in the National Motorsports Press Association Hall of Fame in 1994
 He was inducted in the court of legends at Charlotte Motor Speedway in 1996
 He was inducted in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 1994.

Acting
Two episodes of the TV show The Dukes of Hazzard, was featured Cale playing himself, "Cale comes to the Hazzard" in 1984 and "Cale meets the Hazzard in 1979".

Related pages
 List of NASCAR drivers

References

1939 births
NASCAR drivers
Sportspeople from South Carolina
Living people

Cale Yarborough


The Ebenaceae are a family of flowering plants, which includes ebony and persimmon. The family has approximately 500 species of trees and shrubs in two genera, Diospyros and Euclea. The species are mostly evergreen and native to the tropics and subtropics, with a few deciduous species native to temperate regions. Diospyros contains 450-500 species and a pantropical distribution, with the greatest diversity of species in Indonesia and Malaysia. Euclea contains 20 species, native to Africa, the Comoro Islands, and Arabia. A persistent calyx on the fruits is characteristic of the family.

Ebenaceae


John Doucett (Doucette) (died November 19, 1726) was probably of French descent although he did not speak the language and was likely born in England. He was a career military man and, from 1702 on, received several promotions.

He was appointed lieutenant-governor of Annapolis Royal in May, 1717 and arrived in Nova Scotia in October. He was also acting on behalf of Richard Philipps, the new governor of Nova Scotia who was still in England. He administered the government there from 1717 to 1720 and was lieutenant-governor of Annapolis Royal, N.S. from 1717 to 1726. He was active and visible in both capacities, working to improve relations between the British and French colonists, to minimize smuggling and fisheries encroachment, and to secure a lasting peace between the various Indian chiefs and the government. He had some noteworthy successes, particularly securing a ratified peace with the First Nations at the close of Dummer's War.

References

1726 deaths
Governors of the Colony of Nova Scotia
Year of birth unknown
People in Father Rale's War
British Army officers

John Doucett


Mark Richard Hamill (born September 25, 1951) is an American actor, writer, producer, an director. He is best kent for his portrayal o Luke Skywalker in the oreeginal Star Wars trileegy (1977–1983), an seequl trileegy (2015-2019).

1951 births
20t-century American male actors
20t-century American writers
21st-century American male actors
21st-century American writers
American comics writers
American expatriates in Japan
American male film actors
American male soap opera actors
American male stage actors
American male televeesion actors
American male video gemme actors
American male vyce actors
American male writers
American fowk o Swadish strynd
BAFTA winners (fowk)
Californie Democrats
Livin fowk
Los Angeles Ceety College alumni
Male actors frae Oakland, Californie
Militar brats
Writers frae Oakland, Californie

Mark Hamill


Edom is a name given to Esau, the brother of Jacob, in the Hebrew Bible. It also means the nation that came from him.  The nation's name in Assyrian was Udumi. In Syriac it was . In Greek, it was  (Idoumaía). In Latin, it was  or .

The Edomite people were a Semitic-speaking tribal people. They lived in the Negev Desert and the Arabah valley. The Arabah valley is now the south of Dead Sea and next to the Jordan. The area has much red sandstone. This may have made the name "Edom".  The nation of Edom is known to have existed back to the 8th or 9th century BC. The Bible dates it back several centuries further. Recent archaeological proof may show an Edomite nation as long ago as the 11th century BC. However, people are not completely sure. Others argue that the 8th or 9th century dates are right.  The nation stopped being a settled state after the Jewish-Roman Wars.

References

Ancient people

Edom


David Hilbert (23 Januar 1862 – 14 Februar 1943) wis a German mathemateician born in Wehlau, bi Königsberg, Prussie (nou Znamensk, bi Kaliningrad, Roushie) that is kent as ane o the maist influential mathemateicians o the late 1800s an aerlie 1900s. His ain discoveries themsels wad hae gien him that repute, yet it wis his leadership in mathematics aa throu his hindmaist years that disteinguishes him. He haed a professorship in mathematics at the Varsity o Göttingen for maist o his life.

Major contreebutions
Hilbert solved a wheen important problems in the theory o invariants. Hilbert's basis theorem solved the kenspeckle problem in nineteent century invariant theory bi shawin that onie form o a particlar nummer o variables an o a gien degree haes a finite, but full seestem o independent raitional integral invariants an covariants.

Forbye he unifee'd the field o algebraic nummer theory wi his 1897 treatise Zahlbericht ("report on nummers").

Weel kent for his abeility ti mak discoveries in monie mathematical fields, Hilbert gaed on ti provide the first correct an full axiomatisation o Euclidean geometry ti pit in place o Euclid's axiomatisation o geometrie, in his 1899 beuk Grundlagen der Geometrie ("Foonds o Geometrie"). See Hilbert's axioms.

Forbye he laid the foonds o functional analysis bi studyin integral equations an formulatin a first version, in terms o quadratic forms in infinitely monie variables, o whit wad be cried Hilbert space. This wark turned oot in the 1920s ti be foondational for quantum mechanics.

His interest in pheesics, in the decade 1900-1910, wisna sae important as later contacts wi Albert Einstein an formulations o general relativity that holped its mathematical respectabeility (see Einstein-Hilbert action an aa).

Hilbert holped ti provide the basis for the theory o automata that wis later biggit upon bi computer scientist Alan Turing.

Miscellaneous talks, essays, and contreebutions
He pit forth a maist influential leet o 23 unsolved problems at the Internaitional Congress o Mathemateicians in Paris in 1900. This is maistlins reckoned the maist successfu an deeply conseidered compilation o open problems ivver ti be produced bi the ae mathemateician.

Ower an abuin that Hilbert's wark anteicipated an asseistit a puckle advances in the mathematical formulation o quantum mechanics. Thir includes his introduction o Hilbert space, an Hermann Weyl's pruif o the mathematical equeevalence o Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics an Erwin Schrödinger's wave equation.

His paradox o the Gran Hotel, a thocht on unco properties o the infinite, is aften uised in popular accoonts o infinite cairdinal nummers.

Hilbert's programme
In 1920 he proponed explicitly a research project (in metamathematics, as it was then cried) that becam kent as Hilbert's programme. He wantit mathematics ti be formulatit on a solit an full logical foondation. He believed that in preenciple this cuid be duin, by shawing that:

 aa o mathematics follaes frae a richt-chuisen finite seestem o axioms; an
 that some sic axiom seestem is aiblins conseistent.

There seems ti hae been baith technical an psychological raesons that he formulated this propone. It pruived his scunner at whit haed become kent as the ignorabimus, yet an aictive issue at his time in German thocht, that cuid be follaed back in that formulation ti Emil du Bois-Reymond.

This programme is recognisable yet in the maist popular philosophy o mathematics, amang wirkin mathemateicians that is, maistlins cried formalism. For exemplar, the Bourbaki group adoptit a milk-an-watter version o it as guid eneuch for the requirements o their twin projects o (a) writin encyclopaedic foondational warks, an (b) uphaudin the axiomatic method as a research tuil.

Houaniver Gödel's incompleteness theorem shawed in 1931 that Hilbert's grand plan wisna possible, as statit. The pynt 2 canna be combined with the pynt 1 in onie reasonable gate, sae lang as the axiom system is raelly finitary.

Later years
Saidly for Hilbert, he leeved ti see the end o the kenspeckle mathematical dynasty at the Varsity Göttingen, as the Nazis ruitit oot monie o the kenspeckle faculty members in 1933.

Aboot a year aifter the clair-oot, he gaed til a banquet, an was saeted neist ti the neow Meinister o Eddication, Bernhard Rust. Rust speirt, "Is't richt, Professor, that yer institute suffert sae muckle at the depairtin o the Jews an their freends?" Hilbert answert, "Suffert? Na, na, Herr Minister, it didna suffer. It juist nae langer exeists."

Bi the time Hilbert dee'd in 1943, the Nazis haed mair-or-less guttit the varsity, as monie o the tap faculty wis aither Jewish or haed mairiet Jews. His funeral wis attendit bi feower nor a dizzen fowk, juist twa o them bein fellae academics.

See forbye
 Einstein-Hilbert action
 Hilbert's Nullstellensatz
 Hilbert's syzygy theorem
 Hilbert's Theorem 90
 Hilbert space
 Hilbert-Speiser theorem
 Hilbert's irreducibility theorem
 Principles o Theoretical Logic

Mair readin
 Jeremy Gray, 2000, The Hilbert Challenge, ISBN 0-19-850651-1
 Constance Reid, Hilbert, ISBN 0-387-94674-8 (biography)

Fremmit airtins

 Hilbert's 23 Problems Address
 Hilbert's Program

1862 births
1943 daiths
Fowk frae Königsberg
Fowk frae the Province o Proushie
German agnostics
German mathematicians
19t-century mathematicians
20t-century mathematicians
Varsity o Königsberg alumni
Varsity o Königsberg faculty
Varsity o Göttingen faculty
Relativists
Geometers
Operator theorists
Mathematical analysts
Nummer theorists
Foreign Members o the Ryal Society
Buirials in Göttingen
Formalism (deductive)

David Hilbert


In nonstandard analysis, a hyperinteger n is a hyperreal number that is equal to its own integer part.  A hyperinteger may be either finite or infinite.  A finite hyperinteger is an ordinary integer.  An example of an infinite hyperinteger is given by the class of the sequence  in the ultrapower construction of the hyperreals.

Discussion
The standard integer part function:

is defined for all real x and equals the greatest integer not exceeding x.  By the transfer principle of nonstandard analysis, there exists a natural extension:

defined for all hyperreal x, and we say that x is a hyperinteger if  Thus the hyperintegers are the image of the integer part function on the hyperreals.

Internal sets
The set  of all hyperintegers is an internal subset of the hyperreal line .  The set of all finite hyperintegers (i.e.  itself) is not an internal subset.  Elements of the complement  are called, depending on the author, nonstandard, unlimited, or infinite hyperintegers. The reciprocal of an infinite hyperinteger is always an infinitesimal.

Nonnegative hyperintegers are sometimes called hypernatural numbers.  Similar remarks apply to the sets  and .  Note that the latter gives a non-standard model of arithmetic in the sense of Skolem.

References
 Howard Jerome Keisler: Elementary Calculus: An Infinitesimal Approach. First edition 1976; 2nd edition 1986. This book is now out of print. The publisher has reverted the copyright to the author, who has made available the 2nd edition in .pdf format available for downloading at http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html

Nonstandard analysis
Infinity
Calculus

Hyperinteger


A truck (or lorry in British English) is a motor vehicle used to transport goods, materials, or troops. The word "truck" comes from the Greek word "trochos", which means "wheel".  Most trucks use diesel fuel. Trucks have variations in size, power, and configuration, with the smallest being mechanically similar to an automobile, Also, the road spreads the weight of the truck which means larger amounts can be carried than with freight trains and railway tracks.

Sizes of trucks

Light trucks
Light trucks are trucks the size of cars. They are used by individuals and also companies. In the United States, a truck is a light truck if it weighs less than 6,300 kg (13,000 lb). Light trucks are only a little heavier than vans or pickup trucks, but require a special driver's license.

Medium trucks
Medium trucks are heavier than light trucks but lighter than heavy trucks. In the United States, a truck is a medium truck if it weighs between 6,300 kg (13,000 lb) and 15,000 kg (33,000 lb). Trucks that are used for local delivery and public service (dump trucks, garbage trucks) are normally around this size. Medium trucks have usually two axles: one at front and one at rear. The rear wheels may be coupled (that is: two wheels hitched together) to enable heavier load, but they may also be single.

Heavy trucks
Heavy trucks are the heaviest trucks that are allowed on the road. In the U.K. they are known as lorries. Usually heavy trucks have three axles: one at front and two at rear, and the rear axles have coupled wheels to enable heavy loads. Often heavy trucks pull trailers. They can be either full trailers which have both front and rear axles or boggies and their own brakes, and are connected to the towing truck with a towbar, or semi-trailers, which are attached to a special kind of a truck called tractor unit with a turntable coupling ("fifth wheel"). A semi-trailer is a kind of trailer which has wheels only in the back and the front rides on the back of the tractor unit. The tractor unit has an engine and the semi-trailer does not. Driving a heavy truck requires a professional driver's license. Truck drivers are called truckers.

The laws of various countries say what kind of vehicle combinations are allowed. A semi-trailer can be converted into a full trailer with using a dolly. A dolly is a small trailer which has only a bogie (= set of wheels), fifth wheel coupling for the semi-trailer and a towbar. Using a dolly, the semi-trailer can now be hitched to an ordinary cargo-carrying truck and does not need a tractor unit.

A heavy truck-trailer combination is often called a big rig or eighteen-wheeler.

The largest heavy trucks are the Australian road trains which may have up to four semi-trailers coupled to a tractor in a train-like fashion and may carry up to 200 tonnes of cargo.

Body types
Box trucks or Dry vans ("tilts" in the UK) have walls and a roof, making a closed cargo room. The rear has doors. Some have a side door.

Concrete mixers have a turning drum on back. Turning it one way mixes the concrete. Turning it the other way pushes the concrete out. The concrete goes down "chutes" (like large pipes with an open top). On most trucks the concrete comes out the back. Some new types have the concrete goes over the cab and down chutes in the front. Concrete is very heavy and hard to mix. Concrete mixers have to be very heavy duty.

Dump trucks ("tippers" in the UK) carry sand, gravel, and dirt. Most dump trucks have an open-top box bed with an opening "tail-gate" door on the back. The body lifts up at the front. The load falls out the tailgate and is "dumped" on the ground behind the truck.

Flatbed trucks have a flat body with no sides. There is a wall between the cab and the body. The load will not move forward and hit the cab. The truck can be loaded from the side or top.  Nothing covers the load. Some trucks have sides that can be taken off or folded down. Many times the load is covered with tarps.

Garbage trucks pick up garbage and trash from homes and some businesses. Most were loaded from the rear. Now some load from the front or side. The same type of truck is often used for recycling.

Semi-tractors ("artics" in the UK) have no bodies. They have a "fifth wheel" that carries weight. A semi-trailer has no front wheels. The front of the trailer goes on the fifth wheel. The semi-tractor carries weight from the trailer and pulls the trailer

Tank trucks ("tankers" in the UK) are designed to carry liquids or gases. They usually have a round tank that is long (a cylinder) lying on its side. There are many types of tanks because there are many liquids and gases. Most tankers are built for only one liquid.

Boom Truck  is a truck with a hydraulic arm. The hydraulic arm on a boom truck is called the boom. This boom will reach out past the end of the vehicle, and it will grab the vehicles that need to be towed. The boom of the truck remains in a fixed position, which allows it to be a very stable option when it comes to towing.

Wreckers ("recovery lorries" in the UK and sometimes "tow trucks" in the US) are used to lift and tow broken cars and trucks. They usually have a boom with a cable. Cars are often carried on special flatbeds.

References

See also Pickup truck

Truck


Myasthenia gravis is a rare autoimmune disease. It causes weak muscles and tiredness. Stress and hot weather can make the symptoms worse. It also gets worse with activity.

Myasthenia gravis is caused by your immune system attacking the nerves that tell your muscles to contract. It is treated in two main ways. First, a drug can be given to slow down your immune system using an immunosuppressant like steroids. Alternatively, a drug can be given to turn up the signal that tells your muscles to contract. The signal for contracting is a chemical your body makes called acetylcholine. We turn up this signal by blocking acetylcholine breakdown - these drugs are called acetylcholinesterase inhibitors.

Autoimmune diseases

Myasthenia gravis


Baron  was an academic and politician of the Meiji period Japan.

Biography
Katō was born on August 5, 1836, to a samurai family in Izushi domain, Tajima Province (present day Hyōgo Prefecture), and studied military science under Sakuma Shōzan and rangaku under Oki Nakamasu in Edo.

As an instructor at the Tokugawa bakufu's Bansho Shirabesho institute for researching Western science and technology from 1860 to 1868, he was one of the first Japanese to study German language and German philosophy.

After the Meiji Restoration, Katō wrote numerous theses recommending Japanese adoption of Western forms of government, especially that of a constitutional monarchy with a national assembly based on representative democracy. He joined the Rikken Seiyūkai political party, and was also a founding member of the Meirokusha intellectual society organized by Mori Arinori. A strong believer in social Darwinism, he drew parallels a democratic government and the natural order. As a member of the Genroin, he strongly supported Statism, a much more authoritarian version of government against the views propounded by the Freedom and People's Rights Movement.

Katō gave lectures to the emperor each week on constitutional and international law, using translations from western texts to explain the concept of separation of powers between executive, legislative and judiciary branches of government, the history of constitutions in Europe, and various forms of local administration.

Katō served as superintendent of the Departments of Law, Science, and Literature of Tokyo Imperial University 1877–1886, and again as president 1890–1893, and was head of the Imperial Academy 1905–1909. He was also a special adviser to the Imperial Household Agency.

Katō was appointed a member of the House of Peers in 1890, and was ennobled with the title of danshaku (baron) under the kazoku peerage system in 1900. In addition, he became a Privy Councilor.

He died on February 9, 1916.

Honours
From the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia

Baron - 1900
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure - December 1905.
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun - April 1906.
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers - February 1916 (posthumous)

Notes

References
Davis, Winston. (1996). The Moral and Political Naturalism of Baron Kato Hiroyuki. Institute for East Asian Studies. .
 Jansen, Marius B.  (2000). The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ;  OCLC 44090600
 Keene, Donald. (2002). Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852-1912. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 46731178
 Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005).  Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ;  OCLC 58053128

External links
National Diet Library Photo & Bio

1836 births
1916 deaths
People of Meiji-period Japan
Military personnel from Hyōgo Prefecture
Kazoku
Rikken Seiyūkai politicians
20th-century Japanese politicians
Members of the House of Peers (Japan)
Presidents of the University of Tokyo

Katō Hiroyuki


The flag of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, also known as the Ramhongsaek Konghwagukgi (literally "red-colored flag of the republic"), has a central red panel, bordered both above and below by a narrow white stripe and a broad blue stripe. The central red panel has a five-pointed red star in a white circle near the left side.

North Korea

National symbols of North Korea

Flag of North Korea


Apostrophe (Greek ἀποστροφή, apostrophé, "turning away"; the final e being sounded) is an exclamatory figure of speech. It occurs when a speaker breaks off from addressing the audience (e.g., in a play) and directs speech to a third party such as an opposing litigant or some other individual, sometimes absent from the scene. Often the addressee is a personified abstract quality or inanimate object. In dramatic works and poetry written in or translated into English, such a figure of speech is often introduced by the vocative exclamation, "O". Poets may apostrophize a beloved, the Muses, God or gods, love, time, or any other entity that can't respond in reality.

Examples
 "O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory?" 1 Corinthians 15:55, Paul the Apostle
 "O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth, / That I am meek and gentle with these butchers! / Thou art the ruins of the noblest man / That ever lived in the tide of times." William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, act 3, scene 1
 "O happy dagger! This is thy sheath; there rest, and let me die." Romeo and Juliet, act 5, scene 3, 169–170.
 "To what green altar, O mysterious priest, / Lead'st thou that heifer lowing at the skies, / And all her silken flanks with garlands drest?" John Keats, "Ode on a Grecian Urn"
 "O eloquent, just, and mighty Death!" Sir Walter Raleigh, A Historie of the World
 "Thou hast the keys of Paradise, oh just, subtle, and mighty opium!" Thomas De Quincey, Confessions of an English Opium-Eater
 "Roll on, thou dark and deep blue Ocean – roll!" Lord Byron, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage
"Thou glorious sun!" Samuel Taylor Coleridge, "This Lime Tree Bower"
 "Death, be not proud, though some have called thee / Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so." John Donne, "Holy Sonnet X"
 "And you, Eumaeus..." Homer, the Odyssey 14.55, κτλ.
 "O My friends, there is no friend." Montaigne, originally attributed to Aristotle
 "Ah Bartleby! Ah Humanity!" Herman Melville, "Bartleby, the Scrivener"
 "O black night, nurse of the golden eyes!" Electra in Euripides' Electra (c. 410 BC, line 54), in the translation by David Kovacs (1998).
 "Then come, sweet death, and rid me of this grief." Queen Isabel in Edward II by Christopher Marlowe

See also

 List of narrative techniques
 Fourth wall
 Simile

References

Figures of speech
Acting techniques

Apostrophe (figure of speech)


Janet Lynn Kavandi, a native of Carthage, Missouri, (born July 17, 1959) is an American scientist and a NASA astronaut. She is a veteran of three Space Shuttle missions, served as NASA's Deputy Chief of the Astronaut Office, and was the Center Director at the NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio from March 2016 until her retirement from NASA in September 2019. She was inducted into the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame in 2019.

Kavandi is President of Sierra Space.

Education
Kavandi graduated Valedictorian in 1977 from Carthage Senior High School - Carthage, Missouri. She went on to earn degrees in chemistry from Missouri Southern State College (bachelor's, 1980), the Missouri University of Science and Technology (masters, 1982), and the University of Washington (doctorate, 1990).

Career
Following graduation in 1982, Kavandi accepted a position at Eagle-Picher Industries in Joplin, Missouri, as an engineer in new battery development for defense applications. In 1984, she accepted a position as an engineer in the Power Systems Technology Department of Boeing Defense, Space & Security in Seattle, Washington. She served as the lead engineer of secondary power for the Short Range Attack Missile II, and principal technical staff representative involved in the design and development of thermal batteries for Sea Lance and the Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile. Other programs she supported include Space Station, Lunar and Mars Base studies, Inertial Upper Stage, Advanced Orbital Transfer Vehicle, Getaway Specials, Air Launched Cruise Missile, Minuteman, and Peacekeeper. In 1986, while still working for Boeing, she was accepted into graduate school at the University of Washington, where she began working toward her doctorate in analytical chemistry. Her doctoral dissertation involved the development of a pressure-indicating coating that uses oxygen quenching of porphyrin photoluminescence to provide continuous surface pressure maps of aerodynamic test models in wind tunnels. Her work on pressure indicating paints has resulted in two patents.

NASA career

Kavandi was selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in December 1994 and reported to the Johnson Space Center in March 1995. Following an initial year of training, she was assigned to the Payloads and Habitability Branch, where she supported payload integration for the International Space Station. Kavandi served as a mission specialist on STS-91 (June 2–12, 1998), the 9th and final Shuttle-Mir docking mission, concluding the joint U.S./Russian Phase 1 program. Following the mission, she worked as a CAPCOM (spacecraft communicator) in NASA's Mission Control Center. On her second mission, she served aboard STS-99 (February 11–22, 2000), the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, which mapped more than 47 million miles of the Earth's land surface to provide data for a highly accurate three-dimensional topographical map.

Kavandi subsequently worked in the Robotics Branch, where she trained on both the shuttle and space station robotic manipulator systems. On her most recent mission, she served aboard STS-104/ISS Assembly Flight 7A (July 12–24, 2001) on the tenth mission to the International Space Station. The shuttle crew installed the joint airlock "Quest" and conducted joint operations with the Expedition 2 crew. Kavandi had trained in the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory for spacewalking, but she did not take a spacewalk during STS-104.

Following her last mission, Kavandi again served as lead for the Payloads and Habitability Branch, then as the Branch Chief for the International Space Station (ISS). She was responsible for the training, operations, safety, and habitability of crews on board the ISS, as well as the hardware and software development and design reviews. She was also responsible for the scientific payloads that the ISS crews operate on-orbit and for coordination between international partners for visiting vehicles and associated operations. In 2005, Kavandi accepted a position as Deputy Chief of the Astronaut Office and served in that position until February 2008. Following that assignment, she became Deputy Director, Flight Crew Operations, and then Director, Flight Crew Operations Johnson Space Center.

A three flight veteran, Kavandi has logged over 33 days in space, traveling over 13.1 million miles in 535 Earth orbits.

In March 2016, Kavandi succeeded Jim Free as the Center Director at the NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio.

In September 2019, she retired from NASA and started at Sierra Nevada Corporation.

Awards and honors
National Honor Society, 1977.
Valedictorian of Carthage Senior High School, 1977.
Presidential Scholarship from Missouri Southern State University, 1977.
Graduated magna cum laude from Missouri Southern State University, 1980.
Certificates for Team Excellence and Performance Excellence from Boeing Missile Systems, 1991.
NASA Space Flight Medals
NASA Exceptional Service Medals, 2001 and 2002.
NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal, 2006.
United States Astronaut Hall of Fame, 2019.

References

External links

NASA biography October 2019

1959 births
Living people
Missouri Southern State University alumni
Missouri University of Science and Technology alumni
NASA civilian astronauts
People from Carthage, Missouri
People from Springfield, Missouri
United States Astronaut Hall of Fame inductees
University of Washington alumni
Women astronauts
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Center Directors of NASA
Mir crew members

Janet L. Kavandi


Executive Order 13769, also called Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States, is an executive order signed by United States President Donald Trump on January 27, 2017. It limits travel to the United States from some countries and by all refugees.

The order said that no more than 50,000 refugees could be let into the United States in fiscal year 2017 until it was deemed to be in the national interest by President Trump. It stopped the U.S. Refugee Admissions Program (USRAP) for 120 days (about four months). After that 120 days, the program would start again for individual countries. The order also stopped the entry of refugees from Syria. The order tells some Cabinet secretaries to stop entry of nationals from countries that do not meet adjudication standards under the Immigration and Nationality Act. The United States Department of Homeland Security lists these countries as Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen.

The Department of Homeland Security later allowed green card holders and dual nationals of other countries to enter the United States. However, they had to have a passport or nationality of a non-listed country.

There were many lawsuits that tried to stop the order. One was State of Washington v. Trump, which resulted in a temporary restraining order (TRO). The TRO was issued on February 3, 2017. It stopped much of the executive order. The issue is about whether the order is legal and whether it is against the United States Constitution.

More than 100 travelers were held. They were held for hours without family or legal assistance. Up to 60,000 visas were taken away.

Protests against the order took place in airports and cities.

The order was criticized by Democratic and Republican members of U.S. Congress, Catholic bishops, business leaders and universities.

References

United States law
Immigration
2017 in the United States

Executive Order 13769


The British Military Administration (BMA) was the interim administrator of British Malaya from August 1945, the end of World War II, to the establishment of the Malayan Union in April 1946. The BMA was under the direct command of the Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia, Lord Louis Mountbatten. The administration had the dual function of maintaining basic subsistence during the period of reoccupation, and also of imposing the state structure upon which post-war imperial power would rest.

Background

Prior to the Japanese occupation, British Malaya was divided into Federated and non-Federated states, and the Straits Settlements. In the 1930s, Edward Gent of the British Colonial Office was in favour of bringing these separate elements closer together. After the Japanese occupation, the British began to consider how to reconquer Malaya and reestablish colonial administration. The planning for the new administration was handled by the Civil Affairs, Malaya Planning Unit (CAMPU) and the Eastern Department of the Colonial Office under Gent. The first phase was to be a Military Administration that returned stability followed by a Malay Union that would bring together all the states under a single government to secure Britain's possessions in Malaya.

By early 1945, the British had plans to invade Malaya on 9 September under the code name Operation Zipper. However, the Japanese surrendered on 15 August, weeks before the planned invasion. As a result, British arrangements for a gradual re-establishment of colonial administration over Malaya and the other territories were now obsolete and a vast area including Malaya, Singapore, Burma, Indonesia, British North Borneo, Thailand, Indo-China, Sarawak, and Hong Kong was free from colonial control.

In the period between the Japanese Emperor's announcement and the arrival of Allied forces in Malaya, the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army focused its efforts on seizing control of territory across Malaya and punishing "collaborators" of the Japanese regime. A few of the Japanese occupation troops also came under attack from civilians during this period as they withdrew from outlying areas and some defected to the MPAJA.

Condition of Japanese-occupied Malaya

During the initial period of the Japanese occupation the Ethnic Chinese in Malaya were ill-treated by the Japanese because of their support for China in the Second Sino-Japanese War. Malaya's two other major ethnic groups, the Indians and Malays, escaped the worst of the initial Japanese maltreatment. The Japanese wanted the support of the Indian community to free India from British rule. They also considered the Malays not to be a threat. All three races were encouraged to assist Japanese war efforts by providing finance and labour. Some 73,000 Malayans were thought to have been coerced into work on the Thai-Burma Railway, with an estimated 25,000 dying. The Japanese also took the railway track from Malacca and other branch lines for construction of the Siam-Burma railway.

About 150,000 tons of rubber was taken by the Japanese, but this was considerably less than Malaya exported prior to the occupation. Because Malaya produced more rubber and tin than Japan was able to utilize Malaya lost its export income. Real per capita income fell to about half its 1941 level in 1944 and less than half the 1938 level in 1945.

Prior to the war Malaya produced 40% of the world's rubber and a high proportion of the world's tin. It imported more than 50% of its rice requirements, a staple food for its population. The Allied blockade meant that both imports and the limited exports to Japan were dramatically reduced.

During the occupation the Japanese replaced the Malayan dollar with their own version. Prior to occupation, in 1941, there was about Malaya $219 million in circulation. Japanese currency officials estimated that they had put $7,000 to $8,000 million into circulation during occupation. Some Japanese army units had mobile currency printing presses and no record was kept of the quantity or value of notes printed. When Malaya was liberated there was $500 million of uncirculated currency held by the Japanese in Kuala Lumpur. The unrestrained printing of banknotes in the final months of the war created hyperinflation with the Japanese money becoming valueless at the end of the war.

During the war the Allies dropped propaganda leaflets stressing that the Japanese issued money would be valueless when Japan surrendered. This tactic was suggested by Japanese policy makers as one of the reasons for the currencies falling value as Japanese defeats increased. Although a price freeze was put in place in February 1942, by the end of the war prices in Malaya were 11,000 times higher than at the start of the war. Monthly inflation reached over 40% in August 1945. Counterfeiting of the currency was also rife with both the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) printing $10 notes and $1 notes and the American Office of Strategic Services (OSS) printing $10 notes.

Because of Allied blockades against the Japanese, Malaya was short of food and medical supplies by the end of the war.

British return

Under Operation Jurist, Penang became the first state in Malaya to be liberated from Japanese rule. The Japanese garrison in Penang formally surrendered on 2 September 1945 aboard HMS Nelson and a party of the Royal Marines retook Penang Island the following day. The British subsequently occupied Singapore, with the Japanese garrison on the island formally surrendering on 12 September. The same day the BMA was installed in Kuala Lumpur. This was followed by the signing of the Malaya surrender document at Kuala Lumpur by Lieutenant-General Teizo Ishiguro, commander of the 29th Army; with Major-General Naoichi Kawahara, Chief of Staff; and Colonel Oguri as witnesses. Another surrender ceremony was held in Kuala Lumpur on 22 February 1946 for General Itagaki, the Commander of the 7th Area Army. The British re-occupation of Malaya included the four northern Malay states occupied by Thailand in 1943. It also gradually brought back into force the laws that had been in force prior to the Japanese occupation.

BMA established
The BMA was established on 15 August 1945 by Proclamation No 1 of the Supreme Allied Commander of Southeast Asia. The BMA assumed full judicial, legislative, executive and administrative powers and responsibilities and conclusive jurisdiction over all persons and property throughout Malaya including Singapore. Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten became the Director of the Administration in September 1945. Lieutenant General Philip Christison was appointed General Officer Commanding British forces in Malaya. Major-General Ralph Hone was given the post of Chief Civil Affairs Officer Malaya (CCAO(M)) responsible for the territory of Malaya. Further proclamations:
 disestablished Japanese tribunals were disestablished and replaced by military courts, a Superior Court to deal with people charged with offences against the laws and usages of war and military related offences, and a District Court to try criminal cases and inquiries into death;
 prohibited the sale of alcohol and civilian foodstuffs to members of the armed forces;
 made the former Malayan currency legal tender and effectively made the Japanese circulated currency worthless; and
 covered the safety of British and Allied Forces and the maintenance of public order and safety. Notices publicizing these also noted that the BMA was temporary in nature.
 a moratorium was placed on all dealings in land and all financial institutions were closed.

For the purpose of streamlining the administration and in preparation for the proposed Malayan Union, postwar Malaya was divided into 9 regions with Perlis-Kedah, Negeri Sembilan-Melaka, and the other states as regions in their own right. The regions were controlled by a Senior Civil Affairs Officer (ranked either Colonel or Lieutenant-Colonel). Earlier, the planning for civil affairs in the Malayan Peninsula was done by the Deputy Chief Civil Affairs Officer, Brigadier H C Willan. The Federal Secretariat in Kuala Lumpur hosted the Civil Affairs Headquarters. In October 1945 this office was merged with the office of the Chief Civil Affairs Officer.

Given the military nature of the administration, the official power of some of the pre-war civilian governments' entities were suspended, including the rights of the Malay sultanate rulers. Civil Affairs Officers also acted in the capacity of District Officers. Colonel John G. Adams of the London Irish Rifles (previously injured in action during the Sicilian campaign on the Catania plains) was selected as the President of the Superior Court in 1945.

Personnel
Although its name (British Military Administration) implies the BMA was primarily a military organisation. however there were civilian advisers and many of the military officials were civilians in uniform, it too often appeared indifferent to popular concerns. A complication factor was that the BMA had few seasoned professional administrators on whom to call. Nearly three-quarters of the senior staff had no previous experience in government and only a quarter of the Civilian Affairs senior staff had any knowledge of Malaya. Further, the armed component of the BMA was a source of innumerable complaints. As a British observer noted, "In general the Army behaved, and this goes for the officers also, as if they were in conquered enemy territory'.

Reoccupation
Penang was the first part of Malaya liberated from Japanese rule on 3 September by the Royal Marines. The first Allied troops into Johore were the 123rd Brigade of the 5th Indian Division on 7 September. They set up base near the causeway at Johor Bahru. The same day the West Yorkshire Regiment began occupying Klang in Selangor.

Issues facing the BMA
On arrival the BMA faced a range of issues requiring its immediate attention. These included the detention and disarming of the Japanese military, the identification and trial of war criminals, the release and repatriation of prisoners of war, the repair of key infrastructure, enabling the re-establishment of key industries, the disarming and repatriation of guerrilla armies including the MPAJA, the re-establishment of the rule of law, and the distribution of food and medical supplies.

The abolition of banana money meant that in the immediate period following re-occupation there was no legal currency in circulation, except for some pre-war currency kept by a few.

Further complicating matters pre-War British colonial administrations had adhered to a strict code of behaviour, and thus corruption had been virtually absent. Under the Japanese, however, bribery, smuggling, extortion, black market dealings, and other unsavory habits had become a way of life and were much too ingrained to be changed without a strenuous effort once the British returned. The Japanese had also used the slogan Malaya for the Malays as part of their war time propaganda raising with it a desire for independence from Colonial government. There were also significant racial divisions originating from the pre-war colonial period and exacerbated by the initial harsh treatment of Chinese population by the Japanese in comparison to the Malay and Indian populations, attacks and reprisals against Malays by the predominantly Chinese MPAJA, resentment by Malay's against Chinese and to a lesser extent Indian communities who were perceived as exploiting them and their country, and significant religious, cultural, and language differences between the races.

One aspect the military government might have been expected to be most successful- that of ensuring personal security- they were found wanting.. Firstly, the BMA were incapable of curbing what was widely referred to as 'gangsterism'. Over 600 murders reported between 1945 and 1948, and it was generally acknowledged that the actual total was much higher. Kidnapping and extortion were common throughout the Peninsula, as was piracy along the west coast. The overall crime rate in the Peninsula further fuelled resentment against the administration, which did little to curb crime and restore law and order.

Through the personnel make up and economic policies of the BMA, one may see they were in no good position of winning back the hearts and minds of the Malayan peoples. Except for the first few days after they returned to Malaya, the British never really regained the confidence of the general public. Failure to win the hearts and minds of Malayans would lead to other developments, for example the rise of the Malayan Communist Party.

Economic Policies
The greatest initial challenge of authority for the British Military Administration was its capacity to re-introduce and re-enforce order in trade and employment in the aftermath of Japanese surrender and departure. The destruction of the pre-War infrastructure was not conducted by the Japanese alone, rather the British use of a "scorched earth" policy as they retreated down the Peninsula in 1942..

From the onset it because quite clear that the British government in the metropole would not provide funds in the reconstruction of Malaya. Of course, Malaya was fortunate to have been saved from further destruction by the sudden surrender of the Imperial Japanese Army, but the damage already done was considerable. It was estimated, for example, that $105 million would be needed to restore that railway infrastructure to its pre-War condition. In addition, within a few days after the British arrived in Malaya, it was announced that the Japanese currency, or 'Banana money' as it was called, was 'worth no more than the paper on which it is printed'. This led to a drastic shortage of currency, nobody had any money to buy necessities such as food and fuel. Individual savings which had been carefully accumulated during the war years were completely wiped out overnight. This unsurprisingly created an increase of tension between the local populace and the BMA..

The BMA further set controls on currency payments for imported goods, goods imported from the US for example still had to paid in sterling or were under heavy restriction. This policy of the BMA was not of its own choice, it was a policy of the then Secretary of State for the Colonies. This policy was categorised as 'a regime of war time austerity as regards imports'. Only goods that were considered essential could be imported from outside the sterling area (Canada, Great Britain, Australia). This resulted in acute shortages of important supplies and machinery which in turn hampered Malaya's economic growth. Lastly, the sale price of key commodities were set by the British government in London and enforced by the BMA. The key commodities were rubber, tin and to a lesser extent timber. The artificially and unrealistically low prices were considered by most producers as unacceptable.  Hence, after the return of the British, the economic strategy of the British and to a lesser extent the Malayan government exasperated the country's business leaders. In particular. Malayan businessmen (ethnic Chinese) were greatly dissatisfied with the economic policies. It was felt by the local population that British interests were placed high above the interests of Malaya.

Prelude to Malayan Union

In May 1943 the Colonial Office began to consider how Malaya should be administered after the war. A plan was formulated in which the Federated and Unfederated Malay states, along with the Straits Settlements (excluding Singapore) were to be merged into a single entity called the Malayan Union. Included in the proposed union was the removal of political power from the Sultan's and granting of citizenship to non-Malays who had been resident in Malaya for at least 10 out of 15 years prior to 15 February 1942.

The proposal was announced on 10 October 1945 by George Hall, Secretary of State for the Colonies. Sir Harold MacMichael was empowered to sign revised treaties with the Malay Sultan's to enable the Union to proceed. MacMichael made several visits to the Malay rulers, beginning with Sultan Ibrahim of Johor in October 1945. The Sultan quickly consented to MacMichael's proposal scheme, which was motivated by his strong desire to visit England at the end of the year. MacMichael paid further visits to other Malay rulers over the proposal, and sought their consent over the proposal scheme. Many Malay rulers expressed strong reluctance in signing the treaties with MacMichael, partly because they feared losing their royal status and the prospect of their states falling into Thai political influence.

The full impact of the proposal came into view on 22 January 1946 with publication of the British Governments white paper on Malayan Union and the impacts of the treaties the Sultan's had been persuaded to sign. The Colonial office suddenly found that it had forgotten its own pre-war advice on the need to maintain the Malay populations position of privilege. Malay reaction was swift with seven political dissidents led by Awang bin Hassan organised a rally on 1 February 1946 to protest against the Sultan of Johore's decision to sign the treaties, and Onn Jaafar, who was then serving as a district officer in Batu Pahat, was invited to attend the rally.

A Pan Malay Congress was held on 1 March 1946 (the first of several) which began UMNO. The organisations aim was to oppose the Malayan Union. Onn also managed to persuade the Sultan's to boycott the inauguration ceremony for the Malayan Union. The British capitulated and agreed that while the Malayan Union still commenced on 1 April 1946 negotiations began in July 1946 for its replacement.

Gallery

See also
 British Malaya
 British Military Administration (Borneo)
 Japanese occupation of British Borneo
 Japanese occupation of Malaya
 Singapore in the Straits Settlements

References

F. S. V. Donnison, "British Military Administration in the far East." Pacific Affairs 30, no. 4 (1957) : 389–392.
Stubbs, Richard. Heart and Minds in Guerrilla Warfare: The Malayan Emergency 1948-1960. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Rudner, Martin. "The Organization of the British Military Administration in Malaya" ,Journal of Southeast Asian History 9, no. 1 (1968): 95–106.
British Document On the End of Empire Vol. 1, Edited by S. R. Ashton. London: University of London Press, 1995.

States and territories established in 1945
States and territories disestablished in 1946
Military history of Malaysia
Political history of Malaysia
British Malaya
Former countries in Malaysian history
British rule in Singapore
1945 establishments in British Malaya
1946 disestablishments in British Malaya
1945 in military history
1946 in military history
Former colonies in Asia
Military history of the British Empire and Commonwealth in World War II
Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II
Military history of Malaya during World War II

British Military Administration (Malaya)


USS Shelton (DD-790) was a  of the United States Navy, the second Navy ship named for Ensign James A. Shelton (1916–1942), who was killed in the Battle of Midway.

Construction and career
Shelton was laid down on 31 May 1945 by Todd Pacific Shipyards Inc., Seattle, Washington; launched on 8 March 1946; sponsored by Mrs. Loretta Shelton Miller; and commissioned on 21 June 1946.

Service in the United States Navy
Shelton began her shakedown cruise on 20 July and returned to Seattle for post-shakedown availability. She moved down the coast to San Diego, California on 12 October and, on 9 November, stood out of that port en route to the western Pacific for her first tour of duty with the 7th Fleet. While serving with that fleet, she visited ports in China, Korea, and Japan. The destroyer returned to the west coast on 22 June 1947 and conducted local operations in the San Diego area. The destroyer underwent overhaul at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington, from January to April 1948. After moving to San Diego on 19 April, Shelton operated along the California coast until sailing for WestPac and the 7th Fleet on 1 September. The seven-month deployment ended on 24 April 1949 when she sailed back into San Diego.

In June Shelton participated in a Midshipman training cruise which took her to Balboa, C.Z., and terminated in San Francisco at the end of July. She was in drydock there during October and November and, following sea trials, returned to San Diego in January 1950.

Korean War
Shelton sailed west again on 1 May 1950. When hostilities began in Korea, on 25 June, the destroyer was a unit of Task Force 77 (TF 77), the Striking Force of the 7th Fleet. She served on both coasts of Korea until returning to San Diego on 8 February 1951. After six months in the states, she was on her way back to the war zone in late August. As a fleet destroyer, she served with TF 72, 77, 95, 96, and 97.

Shelton also participated in special bombardment missions. With  at Hŭngnam on 25 October, she was taken under fire by enemy shore batteries and sustained one near miss. She was assigned to the bombline with  in December; and, for a week, they shelled rail lines, bridges, and other targets of opportunity. In January 1952, they bombarded the Songjin area.

Assigned to TG 95 the following month, Shelton aided in the defense of Yang Do when North Korean forces attempted to land on that island. The action lasted from 01:30 until 11:00 and resulted in the landings being repulsed with heavy losses. Still in the area on the 22d, the destroyer was taken under fire by five communist batteries on the mainland. She sustained four direct hits and approximately 50 near misses. Her losses were 12 casualties and a five-foot hole in the bow, but she silenced the batteries and remained on station for two more days before retiring to Sasebo, Japan for repairs. She then returned to the Korean coast.

Shelton returned to San Diego on 10 April where she began an upkeep period and then conducted local operations until 13 November. On that date, the destroyer sailed for its third tour of duty in the Far East during the Korean War. She arrived at Sasebo on 1 December 1952 for a three-day tender availability before joining TF 77. She operated with that task force for 40 days before entering Yokosuka, Japan for an upkeep period. Ready for sea on 26 January 1953, the destroyer joined the Formosa Patrol. Her next assignment was in Wonsan Harbor for 40 days, after which she again joined TF 95. Her deployment ended on the west coast on 29 June 1953.

From 1953 to 1959, Shelton divided her time between deployments with the 7th Fleet and west coast operations. On her annual deployment in 1957, she rescued 120 passengers from a New Zealand merchant ship.

She was on the west coast in 1960 and, from July to June 1961, she underwent Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization (FRAM) conversion at the Long Beach Naval Shipyard. Sheltons home port was changed to Yokosuka, and she sailed from Long Beach on 6 January 1962 for that port from which she operated until early March 1964.

On 5 March, Shelton was ordered to Subic Bay where she was joined by the destroyers  and , carrier , and oiler . All loaded to capacity with stores and consumable items and sailed, on 30 March, for the Indian Ocean on a six-week good will cruise. This was Operation "Handclasp" which was designed to aid foreign countries in the supply of consumable goods. The squadron visited Madagascar, Kenya, and Saudi Arabia before presenting a firepower demonstration for the Shah of Iran on 4 May.

 Vietnam War
The squadron was in Yokosuka two weeks later; but the deteriorating situation in Vietnam brought Shelton sailing orders to the South China Sea; and, on 2 June, she began a 28-day stay in the Gulf of Tonkin. The destroyer sailed for the west coast on 18 July, via Pearl Harbor, and arrived at her new home port, San Diego, on 31 August 1964.

Shelton operated from there until 24 August 1965, when she sailed to join the 7th Fleet off Vietnam. The destroyer provided anti-submarine protection and pilot rescue operations for Bon Homme Richard as well as firing numerous gunfire support missions. She was detached from the 7th Fleet on 1 February 1966 and returned to her home port the last of the month. The remainder of the year was spent in local operations with the exception of a midshipman cruise to Hawaii in June.

Shelton stood out of San Diego on 4 January 1967 and sailed for another tour off Vietnam. During the six and one-half months of her deployment, she performed such duties as: plane guard and anti-submarine warfare (ASW) protection at Yankee Station; screening  on Piraz Station; gunfire support off South Vietnam; and gunfire support off North Vietnam. She returned to San Diego on 18 June and resumed normal stateside operations. Shelton was deployed to Guam from 2 January 1968 to 9 April, where she conducted operations in support of Polaris missile tests.

Shelton was to return to Vietnam from 30 September 1968 to 2 May 1969; from 2 March to 3 September 1970; and from 6 April to 7 October 1971. She had six line periods during 1968–1969; four in 1970; and five in 1971.

After Shelton returned to San Diego in October, she spent almost nine months operating out of her home port until she was notified that her services were again needed in Vietnam. The destroyer departed on 13 June 1972 on what was to be her last deployment to the western Pacific. She was back on the gunline on 10 July for a 25-day period. On 4 August, she was taken under fire by a barrage of approximately 40 rounds from a nearby wooded section of beach. Her gun crews quickly responded and were credited with destroying one of the enemy gun emplacements. Shelton and
 were taken under fire on 19 October when they were on an intercept mission five miles north of the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). In the following 30 minutes, both ships fired over 120 rounds in an attempt to demolish the enemy sites. Immediately after observing four secondary explosions, Providence reported cross-fire from the island of Hon Co. Shelton bombarded the island and silenced the battery.

On 5 December, Shelton joined Task Unit 77.1.1 (TU 77.1.1) for a raid on targets in the vicinity of Hon Me Island. A barrage of return fire was received before counter battery fire from Shelton and  silenced the emplacements. Another raid near Hon Me, on 19 December, brought the heaviest hostile fire of the deployment: approximately 700 rounds, with many splashes only 50 yards from the ship. Shelton departed the Tonkin Gulf three days later and returned to San Diego on 13 January 1973 to prepare for decommissioning.

Shelton was struck from the Navy list on 31 March 1973 and sold to the Republic of China on 18 April 1973.

 Service in the Republic of China Navy
The ship served in the Republic of China Navy as ROCS Lai Yang (DD-920)'''.

later was under the Wu-Chin II modernization program in May 1980.

She was mounted with a OTO Melara 76 mm gun in 1982.

An upgrade equipped the ship with AAW capabilities and reclassified as DDG-920.

She was decommissioned by Taiwan on 16 March 1999.

In November 2002, she was sunk to be an artificial reef.

 Awards Shelton'' received eight battle stars for service in the Korean War and eight for service in Vietnam.

References

External links

Gearing-class destroyers of the United States Navy
Ships built in Seattle
1946 ships
Maritime incidents in 2002
World War II destroyers of the United States
Cold War destroyers of the United States
Korean War destroyers of the United States
Vietnam War destroyers of the United States
Chao Yang-class destroyers
Shipwrecks of Taiwan

USS Shelton (DD-790)


The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) is a professional organisation for architects in the United Kingdom.

It was originally named the Institute of British Architects in London and formed in 1834. The group was started by several important architects, including Philip Hardwick, Thomas Allom, William Donthorne, Thomas Leverton Donaldson, John Buonarotti Papworth and Thomas de Grey, 2nd Earl de Grey. It was awarded a Royal Charter in 1837, becoming the Royal Institute of British Architects in London, eventually dropping the reference to London in 1892.

The RIBA is a member organisation, with 44,000 members. Chartered Members are allowed to call themselves chartered architects and to add the post-nominals RIBA after their name; Student Members are not permitted to do so. In the past, fellowships of the institute were given, but this has stopped; those who continue to hold this title instead add FRIBA.

RIBA is based at 66 Portland Place, London—a 1930s Grade II* listed building designed by architect George Grey Wornum with sculptures by Edward Bainbridge Copnall and James Woodford. The Institute also maintains a dozen regional offices around the United Kingdom. Parts of the London building are open to the public, including the exhibition galleries and Library. It has a large architectural bookshop, a café, restaurant and lecture theatres. Rooms are hired out for events.

References

Bibliography
 H.M. Colvin, A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects, 1600–1840 (1997)
 Charles Read, "Earl de Grey" (2007)

Other websites
 RIBA
 RIBA Library  Books, photographs, drawings and archives
 RIBApix Images from the RIBA Library collections
 Register of Architects (ARB)

Organisations based in the United Kingdom

Royal Institute of British Architects


Hello is a greeting in the English language. It is common between two people in a non-formal (informal) setting, but can also be used in a formal setting. There are also many other ways of saying "hello", for example a wave of the hand, a salute or a bow (both very formal), a handshake (a little formal) or a high five (very informal). Saying "hello" is a sign of politeness, especially when it is said in a friendly way. "Hello" was first used in writing in about 1833.

Many people say "Hello" when they answer a phone call.

Other greetings like "hello" include; Hi , Hallo, Hiya, Howdy, Hey, Howya, 'Sup, Yo, 'Yello, Herro, Greetings, Good day, What's poppin', G'day mate, Top of the mornin' to you, Ay up, what's up mate and many more.

People then often say "goodbye" when they leave each other. "Goodbye" is a shortened version of the religious farewell expression "God be with ye", which indicates the user's religious belief, usually in a single god. Similar expressions exist in other languages such as: adieu, adieus, adieux, adios. These terms also possess religious undertones as they are derived from the Latin word "deus", meaning "god". This of course does not always mean they are religious.

Human communication
Messaging

Hello


The Battle of Cadfan was fought between English and Welsh forces in 1257. The battle consisted of two military engagements; one at Coed Llathen and the other at Cymerau. The word Cadfan is Welsh for "place of battle".

Background
In the years before the battle, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd of Gwynedd had been rapidly gaining power. Llywelyn had received much support from the lords of Deheubarth, Maredudd ap Rhys and Maredudd ap Owain, during the campaign, and as a reward for their loyalty, he gave them land that he had stripped from their nephew, Rhys Fychan (who was a supporter of the English king). Prince Edward (recently appointed Earl of Chester) had noticed Llywelyn's growing power and raised an army in an attempt to counter the potential threat of Llywelyn. Edward had support from several English nobles, however he had little aid from his father, Henry III of England.

The forces of Edward (led by the English nobles Stephen Bauzan, Lord of Breigan and Llansannor and Nicholas FitzMartin, Lord of Cemais) invaded Wales with a large army of English, Gascon, and south Welsh troops in an attempt to restore Rhys and to halt Llywelyn's growing power.

The English preparations and advance
The English army was transported by sea and landed near Carmarthen. On Tuesday 29 May 1257, the English army was assembled. The army was made up mainly of soldiers from England, but their ranks were bolstered by local English and Gascon colonists as well as some Welsh soldiers and mercenaries. The following Thursday, the English army marched towards Llandeilo through the Towy valley suppressing Welsh opposition and pillaging and destroying Welsh settlements. The English plan was to force the nearby fortress, Dinefwr Castle, to surrender through intimidation.

The battle

The first day
On Friday night, the English army encamped in the vicinity of Llandeilo Fawr. Maredudd ap Rhys and Maredudd ap Owain had armies hidden in the woods which had followed the English army. The Welsh army harassed the encamped English constantly with a combination of arrows, spears, and intimidating sounds. The English suffered some casualties, and since morale was low, Stephen Bauzan quickly sent Rhys Fychan (who had guided the army) to negotiate with Dinefwr castle's garrison. However, Rhys is said to have either been seized by the garrison or to have betrayed the English. Either way, the English army had now lost its guide.

The second day

The Battle of Coed Llathen
Lacking a guide, the English army decided to march back to Carmarthen. The Welsh armies in the woods hit the English with devastating guerrilla attacks (using mostly bows or javelins) from the first hour of Saturday right up until midday. There was an engagement between the two forces at midday which saw the Welsh troops outflank the English and successfully capture the English supply train at Coed Llathen. Although there seem to have been few casualties, the engagement at Coed Llathen swung the balance in favour of the Welsh since the English had lost most of their provisions.

The Battle of Cymerau
Following their defeat at Coed Llathen, the English army retreated westward towards Cymerau. The land at Cymerau was ideal for the Welsh since it contained ravines and heavily wooded areas which would allow the Welsh to ambush the English with ease. The land was also wet and marshy, meaning that the English knights would have trouble riding over it.

The Welsh ambushed the English with their full army and a bloody battle ensued. Many English were said to have been torn from their mounts and trampled to death by the Welsh army. Stephen Bauzan was killed along with around 1,000–3,000 of his men (the amount killed varies with the source). The remaining Englishmen fled the battle.

Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Gwynedd, is said to have been present at the battle, collecting spoils from the fallen English army.

Aftermath, later conflicts, and the Treaty of Montgomery
The victory at Cadfan allowed the Welsh forces to take the castles of Laugharne, Llansteffan, and Narberth. Rhys Fychan hastily made his peace with Llywelyn, and Llywelyn returned Rhys's lands to him. There was a problem, however: Maredudd ap Rhys and Maredudd ap Owain had now been stripped of their new land. The two therefore switched sides and paid homage to Henry later that year. King Henry (who had originally viewed Llywelyn's rising as only a small rebellion) was shocked. Henry quickly realized the seriousness of the situation and personally organized another attack on Wales during the same year. This attack also proved unsuccessful when supply ships from Ireland failed to reach Henry and Edward's invading army. Lacking food and supplies, the English army was forced to retreat, being constantly harassed by victorious Welsh guerrilla fighters on the way back. Edward launched yet another invasion of Wales in 1262 following Llywelyn's raids in the Welsh Marches. Edward, however, was forced to pull his armies out of Wales due to internal conflicts in England. Llywelyn retaliated by campaigning against the English Marcher Lords in a devastating campaign which led King Henry (who had been considerably weakened by the Second Barons' War) to open negotiations with Llywelyn at the Treaty of Montgomery which won Llywelyn much land at the expense of the defeated Marcher Lords.

References

Battles involving England
Battles involving Wales
1257 in Wales
13th century in Wales
Conflicts in 1257
England–Wales relations

Battle of Cadfan


Bouches-de-l'Elbe (; "Mouths of the Elbe", ) was a department of the First French Empire in present-day Germany that survived for three years. It was named after the mouth of the river Elbe. It was formed in 1811, when the region, originally belonging partially to Bremen-Verden (which in 1807 had been intermittently incorporated into the Kingdom of Westphalia), to Hamburg, Lübeck and Saxe-Lauenburg, was annexed by France. Its territory is part of the present-day German states of Lower Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg. Its capital was Hamburg.

The department was subdivided into four arrondissements and the following cantons (situation in 1812, French translated names where applicable):

 Hamburg (), cantons: Hamburg (6 cantons), Bergedorf, Hamm and Wilhelmsburg.
 Lübeck (), cantons: Lübeck (2 cantons), Lauenburg upon Elbe, Mölln, Neuhaus upon Elbe, Ratzeburg, Schwarzenbek and Steinhorst.
 Lüneburg (), cantons: Lüneburg, Bardowick, Buxtehude, Garlstorf, Harburg, Hittfeld, Tostedt and Winsen upon Luhe.
 Stade, cantons: Stade, Bremervörde, Freiburg upon Elbe, Himmelpforten, Horneburg, Neuhaus upon Oste, Otterndorf, Ritzebüttel, Jork and Zeven.

Its population in 1812 was 375,976.

After Napoleon was defeated in 1814, the department were dissolved and the area was redivided between the Kingdom of Hanover (Bremen-Verden), the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg, and the free cities of Hamburg and Lübeck.

References

External links

History of Hamburg
Former departments of France in Germany
1811 establishments in the First French Empire
19th century in Hamburg
History of Lübeck
States and territories disestablished in 1811
States and territories disestablished in 1814

Bouches-de-l'Elbe


The Principality or Margraviate of (Brandenburg-) Ansbach ( or ) was a  principality in the Holy Roman Empire centered on the Franconian city of Ansbach. The ruling Hohenzollern princes of the land were known as margraves, as their ancestors were margraves (so the principality was a margraviate but not a march).

History
The principality was established at the death of Frederick V, Burgrave of Nuremberg, on 21 January 1398, when his lands were partitioned between his two sons. The younger son, Frederick VI, received Ansbach and the elder, John III, received Bayreuth. After John III's death on 11 June 1420, the two principalities were reunited under Frederick VI, who had become Elector Frederick I of Brandenburg in 1415.

Upon Frederick I's death on 21 September 1440, his territories were divided between his sons; John received the principality of Bayreuth (Brandenburg-Kulmbach), Frederick received Brandenburg, and Albert received Ansbach. Thereafter Ansbach was held by cadet branches of the House of Hohenzollern, and its rulers were commonly called Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach.

On 2 December 1791, the reigning Prince and Margrave of Ansbach, Charles Alexander, who had also succeeded to Bayreuth, sold the sovereignty of his principalities to King Frederick William II of Prussia. The Margrave was middle-aged and childless, and Frederick William was his kinsman as the head of the House of Hohenzollern. The Margrave moved to England with his English second wife. Ansbach was formally annexed on 28 January 1792.

Princes and Margraves of Ansbach
 1398: Frederick VI, Burgrave of Nuremberg (from 1415 also Elector of Brandenburg)
 1440: Albert Achilles (from 1470 also Elector of Brandenburg)
 1486: Frederick I
 1515: George the Pious
 1543: George Frederick I
 1603: Joachim Ernst
 1625: Frederick III, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach
 1634: Albert II
 1667: John Frederick
 1686: Christian Albrecht
 1692: George Frederick II the Younger
 1703: William Frederick (before 1686–1723)
 1723: Charles William Frederick (1712–1757)
 1757: Charles Alexander (to 1791)

See also
 Ansbach-Bayreuth in the American Revolution
 Wolf of Ansbach

External links
 The Ansbach-Bayreuth Army in America at Exulanten.com
 German States to 1918, A–E on WorldStatesmen.org

 Ansbach and Bayreuth on Tacitus Historical Atlas

1398 establishments in Europe
1390s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1792 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Britain's German allies during the American Revolution
Franconian Circle
Former states and territories of Bavaria
History of Ansbach
Lists of princes
Lists of nobility
Principalities of the Holy Roman Empire

Principality of Ansbach