A garrotte is a weapon, usually a handheld length of chain, rope, scarf, wire or fishing line used to strangle a person. Garotte is normal British English spelling, with single 'r' as an alternate. Garrote with a single 't' is US English spelling. A Spanish version is garrote vil.

Assassination weapon
The garrote has been used for centuries for silent assassination. It was widely used in 17th and 18th century India by the Thuggee cult. A garrote can be made out of many materials, including slik scarves, ropes, cable ties, fishing lines, nylon, and even guitar strings, telephone cord and piano wire. The Indian version of the garrote often had a knot at the center to crush the larynx while applying pressure to the victim's back, usually by means of a foot or knee.

A stick may be used to tighten the garrotte (the Spanish word actually refers to the stick itself). In Spanish, the term may also refer to a rope and stick used to constrict a limb as a torture device.

Since World War II the garrotte has been regularly used as a weapon by soldiers as a silent means of eliminating (taking out) sentries and other enemy personnel. Instruction in the use of garrottes is in the training of many elite military units and special forces. A typical military garrote consists of two wooden handles attached to a length of flexible wire; the wire is looped over a sentry's head and pulled taut in one motion. Soldiers of the French Foreign Legion used a particular type of double-loop garrotte (referred to as la loupe), where a double coil of rope or cord is dropped around a victim's neck and then pulled taut. Even if the victim pulls on one of the coils, he only succeeds in tightening the other.

Execution device

The garrote was the main device used for capital punishment in Spain for hundreds of years. Originally, it was an execution where the convict was killed by hitting him with a club (garrote in Spanish). This later developed into a strangulation device, where the condemned was tied to a wooden stake, with a loop of rope placed around his neck. A wooden stick was placed in the loop, and by rotating the stick, the rope was tightened until the condemned person was strangled to death. As time went on, the execution method was modified in the form of a wooden chair to which the condemned was bound, while the executioner tightened a metal band around his/her neck with a crank or a wheel until asphyxiation of the condemned person was accomplished.

Other versions of this device incorporated a fixed metal blade or spike directed at the spinal cord to cause the breaking of the neck. Such a device can be seen in the James Bond film The World Is Not Enough, the Coppola classic The Godfather, and the Banderas/Jolie film, Original Sin. The spiked version, called the Catalan garrotte, was used as late as 1940. American authorities kept the garrotte for a time in the Philippines after that Spanish colony was captured in 1898.  Its use was abolished in 1902 (Act No. 451, passed 2 September 1902).

American military authorities in Puerto Rico used the garrotte to execute at least five convicted murderers in 1900. In a report to Congress, the American military governor said "that execution by the garrotte is far less inhumane and revolting than execution by hanging". However, the method was replaced by hanging. Since 1929, capital punishment has not existed under Puerto Rican law.

In the Ottoman Empire, execution by strangulation was reserved for very high officials and members of the ruling family. Unlike the Spanish version, a bowstring was used instead of a tightening collar.

The garrotte () is known to have been used in the first century BC in Rome. It is referred to in accounts of the Second Catiline Conspiracy, where conspirators were strangled with a laqueus. The implement is shown in some early reliefs, e.g., Répertoire de Reliefs grecs et romains, tome I, p. 341 (1919). It was also used in the Middle Ages in Spain and Portugal. It was employed during the conquista of the Americas, notably in the execution of the Inca emperor Atahualpa.

During the Peninsular War of 1808–1814, French forces regularly used the garrotte to execute Spanish guerrilleros, priests, and other opponents to Napoleonic rule. Around 1810 the earliest known metallic garrotte appeared in Spain, and on 28 April 1828, the garrotte was declared the sole method of executing civilians in that country.

In May 1897, the last public garrotting in Spain was performed in Barcelona. After that, all executions were performed inside prisons. In 1935 in Spain the legislature adopted a law prohibiting any member of the armed forces from being a Freemason. As a result of this edict, 80 Freemasons were garrotted to death in Málaga. This was one of the many issues that led to unrest that became the Spanish Civil War.

The last civilian executions in Spain by garrotting were in March 1974. Two men both convicted of killing police officers: they were the last state-sanctioned garrotings in Spain. In Spain, the garrote was abolished in 1978 along with the death penalty after adoption of a new constitution.

In 1990, Andorra became the last country to officially abolish the death penalty by garroting, though this method had not been used there since the late 19th century.

References

Weapons
Capital punishment

Garrotte


Harvey Claflin Mansfield Jr. (born March 21, 1932) is a retired American political philosopher. He was the William R. Kenan Jr. Professor of Government at Harvard University, where he taught since 1962. He has held Guggenheim and NEH Fellowships and has been a Fellow at the National Humanities Center; he also received the National Humanities Medal in 2004 and delivered the Jefferson Lecture in 2007. He is a Carol G. Simon Senior Fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution. He is notable for his generally conservative stance on political issues in his writings and his critiques of Christianity.

Mansfield is the author and co-translator of studies of and/or by major political philosophers such as Aristotle, Edmund Burke, Niccolò Machiavelli, Alexis de Tocqueville, and Thomas Hobbes, of Constitutional government, and of Manliness (2006). In interviews Mansfield has acknowledged the work of Leo Strauss as the key modern influence on his own political philosophy.His notable former students include: Mark Blitz, James Ceaser, Tom Cotton, Andrew Sullivan, Charles R. Kesler, Alan Keyes, William Kristol, Clifford Orwin, Paul Cantor, Delba Winthrop, Mark Lilla, Francis Fukuyama, Sharon Krause, Bruno Maçães, and Shen Tong.

Biography
Mansfield's father, Harvey Mansfield Sr., had been editor of the American Political Science Review, and was the Ruggles Professor Emeritus of Public Law and Government at Columbia University at the time of his death in 1988 at the age of 83.

Mansfield has been at Harvard since his own student days in 1949, having joined the faculty in 1962. He received his A.B. at Harvard in 1953, served in the United States Army in Virginia and France, and then received his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1961.

Mansfield was married to Delba Winthrop, with whom he co-translated and co-authored work on Tocqueville.

Political philosophy

A Student's Guide to Political Philosophy
In his 2001 book A Student's Guide to Political Philosophy, Mansfield traces the history of political philosophy in "the great books" written by Plato, Aristotle, Locke, Rousseau, and others of the "highest rank" (1). He also finds political philosophy in practical politics, which Mansfield considers necessarily partisan, because it involves citizens "arguing passionately pro and con with advocacy and denigration, accusation and defense" (2). He argues that politics does not merely consist of liberal and conservative options, but rather, they are fundamentally opposed to each other, with each side defending its own interest as it attempts to appeal to the common good (2). Since such adversarial sides in a political dispute appeal to the common good, an observer of the dispute can use his capacity to reason to judge which side supplies the most compelling arguments. If such an observer is competent to be a judge, he or she may be thought of as a political philosopher, or as at least on the way to engaging in political philosophy (2–3).

Mansfield stresses the connection between politics and political philosophy, but he does not find political philosophy in political science, which for Mansfield is a rival to political philosophy and "apes" the natural sciences (3–5). From Mansfield's point of view, political science replaces words like "good", "just", and "noble" with other words like "utility" or "preferences." The terms are meant to be neutral, but as a result of the political scientist's purported change of role and perspective from judge to so‑called "disinterested observer", such a "scientist" is not able to determine whose arguments are the best, because he or she falls victim to relativism, which, according to Mansfield, is "a sort of lazy dogmatism" (4–5).

In his guide, Mansfield reminds students that political science rebelled from political philosophy in the seventeenth century and declared itself distinct and separate in the positivist movement of the late nineteenth century: thus, he argues in it that whereas "Today political science is often said to be 'descriptive' or 'empirical,' concerned with facts; political philosophy is called 'normative' because it expresses values. But these terms merely repeat in more abstract form the difference between political science, which seeks agreement, and political philosophy, which seeks the best" (6).

Furthermore, according to Mansfield, when people talk about the difference between political philosophy and political science, they are actually talking about two distinct kinds of political philosophy, one modern and the other ancient. The only way to understand modern political science and its ancient alternative fully, he stresses, is to enter the history of political philosophy, and to study the tradition handed down over the centuries: "No one can count himself educated who does not have some acquaintance with this tradition. It informs you of the leading possibilities of human life, and by giving you a sense of what has been tried and what is now dominant, it tells you where we are now in a depth not available from any other source" (7–8). Although modern political science feels no obligation to look at its roots, and might even denigrate the subject as if it could not be of any real significance, he says, "our reasoning shows that the history of political philosophy is required for understanding its substance" (7–8).

Taming the Prince
In his book Taming the Prince, Mansfield traces the modern doctrine of executive power to Niccolò Machiavelli.  He argues that executive power had to be tamed to become compatible with liberal constitutionalism.

Political views

Western civilization
In response to multiculturalism on college campuses, Mansfield has defended the importance of preserving and teaching courses on Western civilization, even proposing a survey course that selects a dozen or so books that capture the principal themes.  Mansfield believes that understanding Western civilization is important because the books that explain it deal with problems associated with the human condition.

The "strong executive"
Mansfield has argued that the President of the United States has "extra-legal powers such as commanding the military, making treaties (and carrying on foreign policy), and pardoning the convicted, not to mention a veto of legislation", observing that the U.S. Constitution does not ask the President to take an oath to execute the laws, but rather, to execute "the office of the president, which is larger." Referring to domestic surveillance, Mansfield notes, "those arguing that the executive should be subject to checks and balances are wrong to say or imply that the president may be checked in the sense of stopped. The president can be held accountable and made responsible, but if he could be stopped, the Constitution would lack any sure means of emergency action. He defends the separation of powers, arguing that "the executive subordinated to the rule of law is in danger of being subordinate to the legislature."

Gender roles and equality

In his 2006 book Manliness, Mansfield defended a moderately conservative understanding of gender roles, and bemoaned the loss of the virtue of manliness in a "gender neutral" society. In a New York Times interview, he defined the concept briefly as "confidence in a situation of risk. A manly man has to know what he is doing." He defines the idea in more concrete terms in the book. There, a manly man does not have to know what he is doing, but only has to act as though he does. Also in the book, Mansfield subjects the concept of manliness to a test in which he refers for support of his argument to such diverse authorities as Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Rudyard Kipling, Ernest Hemingway, and Naomi Wood. In his argument, manliness is ultimately related to assertiveness—"decisiveness without complete knowledge"—and its place in society is debated. In an interview with Bill Kristol, Mansfield said, "What I wrote was a modest defense of manliness. And the emphasis [is] on modest because manliness can be bad as well as good. Not everyone who takes risks deserves to have them turn out right and so manliness is, I think, responsible for a lot of evil. You can say that terrorists are manly, they're willing to risk their lives and give their lives for a principle they believe in or a point they believe in."

Manliness was criticized by the philosopher and law scholar Martha Nussbaum in the June 22, 2006, issue of The New Republic. Nussbaum accuses Mansfield of misreading, or failing to read, many feminist and nonfeminist texts, in addition to the ancient Greek and Roman classics he cites. She argues that his book is based on overt misogynistic assumptions that take a position of indifference towards violence against women. Mansfield asserts, she contends, that a woman can resist rape only with the aid of "a certain ladylike modesty enabling her to take offense at unwanted encroachment."

Concerning controversial comments by former President of Harvard, Lawrence Summers, about mental differences between men and women, Mansfield said that it is "probably true" that women "innately have less capacity than men at the highest level of science...It's common sense if you just look at who the top scientists are".

LGBT rights
In 1993, Mansfield testified on behalf of Colorado's Amendment 2, which amended the state constitution to prevent gays, lesbians and bisexuals from pursuing legal claims of discrimination. In his testimony, he argued that being gay "is not a life that makes for happiness," that homosexuality is "shameful," and that by not being able to have children gay people were not "socially responsible." Nussbaum, who testified in the same trial against Amendment 2, later remarked that Mansfield's source for his claim that gay and lesbian people were unhappy was not contemporary social science research but the great books of the Western tradition (Plato, Tocqueville, Rousseau, etc.).

Grades and affirmative action
Mansfield has voiced criticism of grade inflation at Harvard University and claims it is due in part to affirmative action, but says he cannot show its causal effect. Critics have shown that grade inflation predates any significant presence of black students at Harvard. In November 1997, Mansfield  participated in a debate on affirmative action between Cornel West and Michael Sandel (arguing for affirmative action) with Ruth Wisse and himself (arguing against affirmative action). The debate attracted a "massive audience" of a thousand Harvard students, requiring its campus venue to be changed twice before it could take place in Harvard's Sanders Theater, prompting Professor Sandel to comment, "'This puts to rest the myth that this generation has a political apathy, and apathy to political debates.'" In 2013, Mansfield, after hearing from a dean that "the most frequent grade is an A", claimed to give students two grades: one for their transcript, and the one he thinks they deserve. He commented, "I didn't want my students to be punished by being the only ones to suffer for getting an accurate grade".

In response to grade inflation, according to Harvard Crimson, Mansfield revived the "ironic" (or the "inflated") grade in 2006, in order to let his students know what they really deserved in his class without causing them harm by grading them lower than the other professors at Harvard: "In Mansfield's 'true and serious' grading system, 5 percent of students will receive A's, and 15 percent will receive A-minuses. But Mansfield won't share those marks with anyone other than his teaching fellows and students. ... By contrast, Mansfield's 'ironic' grade—the only one that will appear on official transcripts—will follow average grade distribution in the College, with about a quarter of students receiving A's and another quarter receiving A-minu[s]es"; in contrast, their privately received deserved "real" (lower) grades usually centered around a C or C-minus, earning him the nickname "Harvey C-minus Mansfield." "This [grading] policy—meant to demonstrate the causes and effects of grade inflation—drew heat from students and faculty, and attracted national media attention." Mansfield himself has joked that his middle initial "C." stands for compassion: "That's what I lack when it comes to grading." In an interview with the Hoover Institution, Mansfield claimed that college professors are too quick to label students as exceptional.

Jefferson Lecture
On May 8, 2007, Mansfield delivered the 36th Jefferson Lecture ("the highest honor the federal government bestows for distinguished intellectual and public achievement in the humanities", according to the National Endowment for the Humanities, which sponsored the lecture). In his lecture, Mansfield suggests "two improvements for today's understanding of politics arising from the humanities ... first ... to recapture the notion of thumos in Plato, and Aristotle... [and] ...second ... the use of names—proper to literature and foreign to science".

This is a reference to his own philosophy, which forbids discounting the wisdom of the past simply because those who spoke it lived a long time ago.

Books
 Statesmanship and Party Government: A Study of Burke and Bolingbroke. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965.
 The Spirit of Liberalism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978.
 Machiavelli's New Modes and Orders: A Study of the Discourses on Livy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979. Rpt. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.
 Thomas Jefferson: Selected Writings. Ed. and introd. Wheeling, IL: H. Davidson, 1979.
 Selected Letters of Edmund Burke. Ed. with introd. entitled "Burke's Theory of Political Practice". Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
 The Prince: The Ambivalence of Modern Executive Power. New York: The Free Press, 1989.
 America's Constitutional Soul. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
 Machiavelli's Virtue. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
 A Student's Guide to Political Philosophy. Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2001.
 Manliness. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.
 Tocqueville: A Very Short Introduction. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Translations

 The Prince, by Niccolò Machiavelli. Introd. 2nd (corr.) ed. 1985; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. (Inc. glossary.)
 Florentine Histories, by Niccolò Machiavelli. Ed. and introd. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988. (Co-trans. and co-ed., Laura F. Banfield.)
 Discourses on Livy, by Niccolò Machiavelli. Introd. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. (Co-trans., Nathan Tarcov.)
 Democracy in America, by Alexis de Tocqueville. Introd. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. (Co-trans., Delba Winthrop.)

Awards and honors
 Guggenheim Fellowship (1970–71)
 National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship (1974–75)
 Member of the Council of the American Political Science Association (1980–82, 2004)
 Fellow of the National Humanities Center (1982)
 Member of the USIA's Board of Foreign Scholarships (1987–89)
 Member of the National Council on the Humanities (1991–94)
 Joseph R. Levenson Teaching Award (1993)
 President of the New England Historical Association (1993–94)
 Sidney Hook Memorial Award (2002)
 National Humanities Medal (2004)
 36th Jefferson Lecture for the National Endowment for the Humanities (2007)

Media appearances
 "Harvey Mansfield on the Neil Gorsuch Confirmation Hearings," Conversations with Bill Kristol, April 24, 2017.
 "Harvey Mansfield on Donald Trump and Political Philosophy," Conversations with Bill Kristol, December 19, 2016.
 "Harvey Mansfield on mysteries, Wodehouse, Wilson, Churchill, and Swift," Conversations with Bill Kristol, September 25, 2016.
 "Harvey Mansfield on America's Constitutional Soul," Conversations with Bill Kristol, July 31, 2016.
 "Harvey Mansfield on Manliness," Conversations with Bill Kristol, May 8, 2016.
 "Harvey Mansfield on Alexis de Tocqueville's "Democracy in America" Conversations with Bill Kristol, June 15, 2019.

See also
 Democracy in America
 Ellis Sandoz
 Leo Strauss

References

External links

 HarveyMansfield.org.  Website devoted to the work of Harvey Mansfield in a searchable format along with scholarly commentary, multimedia, biography, and other resources.
 "Democracy in America". Colloquium on their translation of the book Democracy in America, by Alexis de Tocqueville, presented by Harvey Mansfield and Delba Winthrop. March 30, 2001. Ashbrook Center, Ashland University, Ashland, Ohio.
 "Dr. Harvey Mansfield, Author of Manliness". Public lecture at the New Hampshire Institute of Politics, Saint Anselm College, Goffstown, New Hampshire. April 20, 2006. Accessed June 17, 2007. MP3 podcast.
 Harvey Mansfield, William R. Kenan, Jr., Professor of Government . Faculty webpage. Department of Government, Harvard University.
 "Harvey Mansfield" NEH website for 2007 Jefferson Lecture in the Humanities by Harvey C. Mansfield.
 Ifill, Gwen. "Then and Now: Mansfield". Transcript of interview with Harvey Mansfield. Broadcast on The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, September 13, 2002. Accessed June 18, 2007. (Inc. links to streaming video and RealPlayer audio.)
 Video of Stephen Colbert interviewing Harvey Mansfield about Mansfield's book Manliness on The Colbert Report, Comedy Central. Broadcast April 5, 2006. Accessed April 11, 2008. (Caption: "Harvey Mansfield and Stephen collide in a perfect storm of man musk.")

 In Depth interview with Mansfield, September 4, 2005

1932 births
Living people
Harvard University alumni
Harvard University Department of Philosophy faculty
Harvard University faculty
American political scientists
National Humanities Medal recipients
The American Spectator people
Claflin family
Political philosophers
20th-century American writers
21st-century American writers
20th-century American philosophers
21st-century American philosophers
People from New Haven, Connecticut
John M. Olin Foundation

Harvey Mansfield


World Bank Group paanch international sastha ke ek group hae. World Bank Group, member des ke  advice aur finance  for economic development aur  poverty kamti kae ke khatir de hae. Ii ek non-profit-making international organization hae jiske member governments own kare hae. Group ke headquarters Washington, D.C. e hae. Iske office 124 member countries me hae.

Iske 27th December 1945. ke Bretton Woods, New Hampshire me suruu karaa gais rahaa.

The group
Ii paanch organisation World Bank Group ke member hae:

 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), established in 1945,
  International Finance Corporation (IFC), established in 1956,
 International Development Association (IDA), established in 1960,
  Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), established in 1988 and
  International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), established in 1966.

Duusra websites
 World Bank Group (website)

Dher des ke sanstha

World Bank Group


Sir William Duncan Paterson Stewart  (born 6 June 1935) was President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh from 1999–2002 and Chairman of the Microbiological Research Authority.

Education
Stewart was educated at Bowmore Junior Secondary School, Dunoon Grammar School and the University of Glasgow, where he gained Bachelor of Science, Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of Science degrees.

Career

From 1990 to 1995 Stewart was Chief Scientific Adviser, Cabinet Office, and the first Head of the UK Office of Science and Technology (1992–1995).

Stewart is also Chairman of the National Radiological Protection Board (NRPB) and  Chairman of the Health Protection Agency. He has held a number of other high-profile appointments including: Architect of the Government's Technology Foresight Programme, which was launched in 1995 and Chairman of the Independent Expert Group on Mobile Telephones and Health, which reported in 2000.  He is a biologist by training. He was Chairman of Tayside University Hospitals NHS Trust but resigned following a critical report from the Tayside Task Force. He has served on numerous advisory committees, including the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution and the Natural Environment Research Council. Stewart was Chief Executive of the Agricultural and Food Research Council, a former Vice-President of the Royal Society of London and is a Past President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

Personal
Stewart is married to the former Elizabeth Smales, a senior medical officer at the Scottish Executive.

References

1935 births
Living people
Scottish biologists
Knights Bachelor
Chief Scientific Advisers to HM Government
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
People from Islay
Presidents of the British Science Association
Academics of the University of Nottingham
Academics of the University of London
Academics of the University of Dundee
Alumni of the University of Glasgow

William Stewart (biologist)


Riley Freeman is a character from the syndicated comic strip The Boondocks written by Aaron McGruder and its TV series adaptation. He often refers to himself as "Riley Escobar," and in season two of the TV series, he also refers to himself as "Young Reezy." He is Huey's younger brother who aspires to be like the rap artists and the gangsters that he admires.

Riley, who grew up on the South Side of Chicago, was moved along with his brother to Woodcrest, a peaceful, white suburb of Baltimore, Maryland by their granddad. Riley is eight. In some episodes, Riley and Huey would have a single storyline and in others, the two would each have their own in a single episode. Riley, like Huey, is voiced by Regina King. It is strongly suggested that Huey and Riley's birth parents are deceased.

Personality
Riley Freeman is an impressionable third grader who embraces the stereotypical "gangsta" lifestyle and lives his life like his idol rappers.  Influenced by rap music and television, he tends to defend his idols even when his imitations go against common sense and righteousness.  One example is his support of R. Kelly in "The Trial of R. Kelly": despite overwhelming evidence proving  R Kelly's guilt, Riley believes he should not have to miss out on his next album. This is further shown in "The Story of Gangstalicious Part 2" where he dresses in effeminate clothing  because Gangstalicious created the style. In order to be like his idols, he collects airsoft weapons and tags houses, as demonstrated in "The Garden Party" and "Riley Wuz Here". He is a fan of the movie Scarface in that he occasionally quotes lines from or alludes to the movie, and he has a white suit similar to the one worn by Tony Montana.

Riley seems to have a fair amount of criminal aptitude, as is demonstrated when he helped coordinate the kidnapping of Oprah Winfrey, and further demonstrated by his criticisms of Ed Wuncler III and Gin Rummy for their lack of criminal know-how ("Let's Nab Oprah").  Despite his pretensions to the contrary, Riley is not simpleminded: he can in fact be very resourceful and pragmatic, and "beats" Tom, a district attorney, in an argument over R. Kelly's confinement and trial. Perhaps due to idolizing the gangsta rap lifestyle he seems to have a level of street smarts possibly as great as his brother, often able to manipulate situations through lying and reverse psychology, which he refers to as getting into someone's "mental mind". Despite his crude thuggish lifestyle on rare occasions he has displayed acts of compassion (giving $100 to a panhandler he previously ignored and spat at).

Riley is quite brash and abrasive and often gets into undesirable situations without considering the consequences. He is rebellious and does not listen to anyone, especially Huey and Robert. He is brutally honest to the point of being very rude.

Despite the fact that Huey is forced to act as the voice of reason towards Riley's antics, usually without any success, Riley himself does become the voice of reason for his own friends, such as Thugnificent or Ed and Rummy.

When forced to fight, he resorts to a crude and thuggish form of attack, in contrast to his brother's carefully calculated attacks which seem rooted in martial arts. His method is simply to continue attacking, usually with concealed BB guns, and random objects, such as vases, or lamps. Riley sometimes overestimates his own crude combat abilities, such as when he tried to fight his brother in "Let's Nab Oprah". His thuggish fighting style, both with weapons and hand-to-hand, failed several times against the precision of Huey's martial arts ability. His street-fighting style has improved to a certain degree in season 3, best seen when he defeated Lamilton Taeshawn in the episode "Smokin' With Cigawettes". He does seem to have some talent with airsoft guns, as he fought Huey to a tie in season two. He has a strong amount of endurance and determination and given his previous beatings by his grandfather seems to have a high threshold for pain.

Riley has, in spite of himself, shown a great degree of intelligence from time to time. It has been shown he has a great understanding of the media world and music industry. This was shown when he tried to advise Thugnificent against starting a rap war with a much younger aspiring rap star Sgt. Gudder, knowing it would only cause unnecessary problems.

Riley is a talented artist, particularly with graffiti. His art is both eclectic and deep, ranging from depicting everyday objects to people. He has a creative manner of stylizing letters as well.

Relationships
 Huey Freeman
Huey and Riley tend to have a regular brotherly relationship despite their contradictory personalities. Due to the blunders Riley makes, Huey inevitably tries to teach him the error of his ways, but often to no avail. When their grandfather is not around, Huey usually will not hesitate to set Riley straight himself. In "...Or Die Trying", Riley does not have any problem with abandoning his brother to his fate, but in other episodes, he seems to trust him. Despite all this, Riley often insults his brother with the repeated phrase "Nigga, you gay," usually after receiving a hug (although he just distanced himself from Huey while speaking those words in the episode "...Or Die Trying"). In the Season 3 finale, however, Riley offers Huey a hug near the end without insulting him, but admiring Huey when they saw him on the television instead.

 Robert Freeman
Robert Freeman is Riley's paternal grandfather. Riley constantly disrespects Robert and Robert mainly resorts to physical punishment to keep Riley in line, but Riley seems accustomed to this kind of disciplinary action to the point where it does not influence or change his actions in any significant way. He seems to not understand his grandpa's rules and gets whipped with his belt when he makes a bad choice. They are shown to be close at times and agree on things in season two. In season three, the two are seen to have "father and son" moments, such as when they go out to try the new fried chicken in "The Fried Chicken Flu". They also attempt to go to the inauguration of Barack Obama in "It's a Black President Huey Freeman."

 Ed Wuncler III and Gin Rummy
Riley hangs out with them and refers to them as his friends. They are the closest thing to a gang that exists in Woodcrest. They have a great variety of real firearms and are free to commit any crime they wish since Ed's grandfather essentially owns the suburb. Riley sometimes accompanies them on their various misdeeds, and is not afraid to point out when their crimes are poorly-planned, or are only successful because of Ed's grandfather's status. However, Rummy dismisses Riley's reasoning and says they get away with crimes because he (Rummy) is a criminal mastermind. However, they tend to use him for their own personal gain, such as stealing his Granddad's car with knowledge that Riley will not reveal they did it, then when it was eventually returned, they stole his new bike, fitted with rims riding as they shouted: "Thank you for not snitching!...You stupid motherfucker!" Riley also contacts Ed when he needs additional muscle, such as when he tries to get his Lethal Interjection chain back from Butch Magnus or when he and Huey need to seek out the Xbox Killer.

 Dubois Family
Riley likes to make fun of the Dubois family – especially Tom. He mocks Tom's unmanliness, breaks Jazmine's beliefs, and makes fun of Sarah's cooking. He outwits Tom, an attorney, in an argument about R. Kelly's trial and makes fun of Tom's fear of being anally raped in prison. He also mocks Sarah's cooking by comparing her peach cobbler to vomit with peas in it.

 Cindy McPhearson

Cindy could be considered the white female counterpart of Riley and is initially an antagonist to Riley as seen in the season two episode "Ballin'". Cindy and Riley were initially rivals on different basketball teams in the local league, but in "The Story of Gangstalicious Part 2," Granddad invites her over to play with him, signifying a small amount of friendship. In the Season 3 episode "The Fundraiser," Cindy became a business partner of Riley's and helped him, Jazmine, and Phil, a seldom used stereotypical ignorant kid, sell large amounts of chocolate bars in order to make money. She becomes the last remaining partner of Riley, being the only one not to bail out of the organization. Her appearance in the TV series is similar to that of Cammy from the Street Fighter series.

 Lamilton Taeshawn
Due to their gangsta-like behavior depicted in the episode "Smokin' with Cigarettes," Riley is initially shown to be friends with Lamilton Taeshawn, as they enjoy hanging out with each other and doing bad things, such as causing a car-pile up, going on a joyride on Lamilton's grandmother's car that he stole, and smoking with cigarettes. However, Lamilton shows more of his sociopathic behavior when he enjoys movie scenes of people being murdered, as well as killing a dog while trespassing into his owner's property, and even assaulted his grandmother when she refused to buy him chicken. These events start to disturb Riley greatly, and ever since then, Riley finds Lamilton to be so disturbing and sick in nature and refuses to hang out with him again, and Lamilton would often try to kill Riley in return, resulting the two kids to have a brawl in the school rooftop. Despite his enmity with Lamilton, Riley cannot bear to kill him as he tried his best to prevent Lamilton from falling off the school rooftop, though Lamilton did fall (thanks to his former psychologist Dr. Doomis forcing Riley to let him go), but survived.

 Thugnificent

Thugnificent (Otis Jenkins) is Riley's favorite rap artist and neighbor. What can best be described as a "Professional Buffoon", Thugnificent was the leader of the group Lethal Interjection Crew. He had taken a liking to Riley and allowed him to join after irresponsibly having Riley perform several reckless and dangerous stunts. Riley and Thugnificent remained friends even after the downfall of Thugnificent's career.

Footnotes

The Boondocks characters
Animated human characters
Black characters in animation
Black people in comics
Child characters in animation
Child characters in comics
Child characters in television
Comics characters introduced in 1999
Fictional African-American people
Fictional businesspeople
Fictional characters from Chicago
Fictional characters from Maryland
Fictional criminals
Fictional orphans
Fictional victims of child abuse
Male characters in animated series
Male characters in comics

Riley Freeman


Piero Alva (born 14 February 1979 in Lima) is a Peruvian international football striker. He currently Retired.

Playing Style
Despite his winding up as one of the top goal scorers in his teams, Alva is more of a thinking, dribbling, and running forward who creates his own scoring chances and for his teammates, coming down fast by the sides, rather than being a speculative center-forward striker.

Club career
Alva got his start in Universitario de Deportes as a youth.  He got his break in 1998 when Oswaldo Piazza decided to promote several teenage players to the main line-up of the team, particularly after the team had secured the Apertura cup and thus a place in the final game.  This generation of players included Manuel Barreto, Mario Gómez, Jorge Araujo, Anthony Matellini, Luis Cordero, Oswaldo Carrion, Francisco Bazán, among others.  Alva's debut was in the 2nd half of a game against classic rival Sporting Cristal, a match that Universitario lost.  However, Universitario won the 1998 tournament.  Alva continued getting chances, despite his controversial playing style; he showed much skill but often did not know when to let go of the ball.  It was enough to get him called to the U-20 Peru national team. By 2000, with the departure of Mauro Cantoro and Roberto Farfan from the team, Alva entered the starting eleven.  He formed a powerful striking duo playing alongside Eduardo Esidio, aiding him to score the record number of goals in Peruvian football history (and the 2nd highest number of goals by any player worldwide that year) while scoring many of his own – 17 in the Peruvian tournament and one in the Copa Merconorte – and leading Universitario to their historic third championship in a row, capturing both the Apertura and Clausura titles.  He was called to join the Peru national football team.

In 2001 Alva was among a legion of star players of Universitario that demanded a much higher salary and left for other teams.  Alva was hired by Sporting Cristal for what was rumored to be a $100,000 contract.  However, Alva did not shine in his new team, and scored only 7 goals.  But his play was good enough to attract the attention of Unión de Santa Fe in the Argentine league, where Alva left to play in 2002.  This experience was short-lived and with little success.  Alva returned to Peru, and in 2003 he played for Sport Boys, scoring 10 goals.

Alva moved to Alianza Atletico Sullana in 2004, scoring 4 goals in the Apertura tournament and aiding his team's offense overall.  His play improved and was reminiscent of his peak in the 2000 season.  This attracted the attention of Universitario, who got him on a loan for the Clausura tournament.  He scored an additional 6 goals for 'la U'.  He officially signed on for Universitario in 2005, scoring 12 goals while playing in the midfield as the team's '10'. Although 'la U' failed to win both the Apertura and Clausura, winding up in 2nd place both times, they still scored the most points and the most goals, and thus qualified for the Copa Libertadores.  In 2006, in a striker role again, Alva scored 16 goals (3 in the Apertura, 13 in the Clausura), making him the second most effective striker of the Peruvian league.  He was invited back to Peru national football team.  He was also often the team captain of Universitario.  However, fans blamed him for missing scoring chances with easy-seeming set-ups in key games that led to Universitario's failure to win the Clausura tournament; despite being in the lead, they were tied at last minute by Cienciano and then lost the final match.

As a result, in 2007 Alva's relationship with the press, the fans, the managers, and his coach progressively deteriorated.  Alva was additionally criticized for possibly making false claims of being in negotiations with teams from Brazil, Argentina, and Europe in order to secure a higher contract from Universitario.  Alva's relationship with coach Jorge Amado Nunes worsened to the extent of an open verbal battle, leading to Nunes being ousted as coach.  It was never confirmed, but Nunes accused a group of players made up by Alva, Luis Guadalupe, Donny Neyra, Marco Ruiz, and Gregorio Bernales of being directly involved in his being fired.  Alva and these fellow players were accused of trying to run the team to keep the veteran players in charge.  A few weeks later, after new elections at the club, interim coach Edgar Ospina was removed for Nunes to be re-instated.  Alva and these other players played a very bad game against Deportivo San Martin, losing 0–3, and were accused of throwing the game in protest.  As a result, Alva was removed from the main team with most of the other controversial players and some others.  Alva negotiated a deal to leave the club.  He only scored 2 goals in this season. In June 2007, after much speculation and offers from local teams, it was announced that Alva would be playing in the Skoda Xanthi in Greece  In Greece, Alva had a bad season without goals and he released in May 2008. In July 2008. he signed a contract with Cienciano del Cuzco. He scored his first goal on 30 July. At the end of the season he scored 8 goals. In January 2009 he would sign for one year with Universitario de Deportes.

Titles

References

External links

1979 births
Living people
Footballers from Lima
Men's association football forwards
Peruvian men's footballers
Peru men's international footballers
Peruvian expatriate men's footballers
Club Universitario de Deportes footballers
Sporting Cristal footballers
Unión de Santa Fe footballers
Sport Boys footballers
Alianza Atlético footballers
Xanthi F.C. players
Cienciano footballers
Oriente Petrolero players
FBC Melgar footballers
Club Deportivo Universidad César Vallejo footballers
José Gálvez FBC footballers
Super League Greece players
Expatriate men's footballers in Argentina
Expatriate men's footballers in Greece
Expatriate men's footballers in Bolivia
Peruvian expatriate sportspeople in Argentina
Peruvian expatriate sportspeople in Bolivia
Peruvian people of Italian descent
Peruvian people of German descent

Piero Alva


The Sami knife (Sami: stuorraniibi = "big knife", ) is a large knife traditionally used by the Sami people.

The Sami knife has a long, wide, and strong blade that is suited for light chopping tasks such as de-limbing, cutting small trees for shelter  poles (See lavvu), brush clearing, bone breaking and butchering tasks, and is sometimes used as a substitute for an axe for chopping and splitting small amounts of firewood from standing dead trees—an essential ability when all dead and fallen wood is buried underneath many layers of snow—or for combat. Typical Sami knives have a blade length ranging from  to .

The handle is generally made from birch for better grip when used in snowy conditions. This also provides good control over the blade, particularly when using draw strokes, which are preferred when handling the knife with gloves, or while the hands are numb. The tang runs through the handle. The handle has no crossguard. Traditional material for the sheath is reindeer leather.

The blade's edge often has a Scandinavian (or "Scandi") grind, i.e. a single flat bevel. The blade should be strong enough to split (reindeer) bones, and tempered to sustain low temperatures. Some Sami knives have fullers.

The Sami people typically use two knives: the smaller called a buiku, puukko, or unna niibaš ("small knife"); while the larger "Sami knife" is called stuorra niibi ("big knife"). An even larger version known as a väkipuukko (or sax) is similar to a seax, named after the Saxons.

See also
Puukko
Yakutian knife
Seax

References

Knives
Blade weapons
Camping equipment
Culture of Finland
Sámi culture

Sami knife


Vaughan Alden Bass was an American painter of pin-up art.

Bass was a Chicago artist who started his career working for the Louis F. Dow Company in St. Paul during the mid-1930s. Bass created his own pin-ups for Brown & Bigelow, but he worked for Dow as a "paint over" artist, redoing work that other artists (notably Gil Elvgren) had done for the company.

Bass' style was often compared with that of Elvgren, Al Buell, and Joyce Ballantyne. In the late 1950s, Bass did a series of wrestling scenes that demonstrated his comfort with any subject matter. He created the Wonder Bread Girl in the 1950s; the Wonder Bread girl, is modeled after his own daughter. His portrait of President Dwight D. Eisenhower is in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.

See also
Pin-up girl
List of pinup artists

References

American illustrators
Pin-up artists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Vaughan Alden Bass


For the technology of putting many hard drives together, see RAID
A raid is an attack into enemy territory with no intent to get control of it. For example, the attack on Pearl Harbor was an air raid.

The attackers go away immediately after the attack. Most raids are brief and performed by a small number of people.

War

Raid


Sir Henry Lawrence (in full Henry Montgomery Lawrence) (28 June 1806-4 July 1857) was a senior British officer and administrator of British India. He was the first Chief Commissioner of the Punjab after its annexation by the British, following the Second Anglo-Sikh War. He died whilst defending Lucknow against a force of rebels, during the Indian Mutiny (or First Indian War of Independence) in July 1857.

His younger brother, Sir John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence, later succeeded Sir Henry in the Punjab and became the province's first Lieutenant-Governor.

1806 births
1857 deaths
British military people
Colonial officials of British India

Henry Lawrence


Apple Corps Ltd. is a multimedia company started 1968 by The Beatles. It grew out of their earlier company, Beatles Ltd., and included NEMS Enterprises, the company started by Beatles manager Brian Epstein.

Beginnings
The Beatles started Apple in 1967, because they wanted to help other musicians, writers, artists and other creative people to succeed. They knew many talents were not discovered, because the business side of their fields were controlled by large corporations. Many corporations cared more about making money than developing new ideas. The Beatles hoped to find and develop the best new talents. Brian Epstein helped to work out the plans for Apple, but died before the company was founded. Epstein's family sold NEMS Enterprises to the Beatles, because they did not wish to keep the company without him.

Apple's first business venture was a retail store, called the Apple Boutique. It was on Baker Street in London, England. The outside of the building was painted with a strange mural, and inside clothes and other items were for sale. The mural and clothes were designed by an artistic trio called The Fool. More things were stolen than sold in the boutique, and it was not profitable. Other local businesses did not like the mural outside, and got the city to order it removed. The Beatles decided to close the store, and gave away everything that had been for sale.

Apple bought a townhouse at 3 Savile Row in London, and it became Apple's headquarters. The Beatles spent nearly as much time there as they did at Abbey Road Studios. Nearly all the people who worked for them had offices in the building, and they planned to turn the basement into a recording studio. "Magic Alex", a Greek-born designer, was in charge of making the recording studio, and also electronics products that Apple could sell, such as an apple-shaped transistor radio.

Divisions
Apple Corps set up many divisions. Two of these were Apple Films and Apple Records. Apple Films handled the television movie Magical Mystery Tour, and also music videos (then called "promos") for new Beatles songs. Later Apple Films produced movies like Born to Boogie and Son of Dracula.

Apple Records turned out to be the most successful part of Apple Corps, mostly because of the Beatles's record sales. EMI had a recording contract with the band, but they agreed to become distributors for Apple Records. Apple would choose, sign up, and promote recording artists, while EMI would press their records and send them to stores. Hundreds of artists and bands sent in demoes to Apple, hoping to be signed up. As it turned out, most of the artists chosen were handpicked by the Beatles, their friends, or people who worked for them.

Badfinger, who were Apple's biggest-selling group besides the Beatles, were managed by Mal Evans, who had been the Beatles's road manager. Jackie Lomax was an old friend from Liverpool. Mary Hopkin was referred to Apple by Twiggy, a popular fashion model. Billy Preston played keyboards with Little Richard, who toured with the Beatles years earlier. The London chapter of the Radha-Krishna Temple had singers, who recorded an album with George Harrison released on Apple. Other bands and artists were also signed to Apple Records (including Yoko Ono, the wife of John Lennon), but most of their records never became hits.

Troubles
After Brian Epstein died, the Beatles had not sought a new manager. They believed they could handle their own affairs, working together with just their helpers and their normal business contacts. Over time, this proved to be a bad idea. Small disagreements between the band members turned into major problems at Apple, and agreements could not always be worked out. Many of the people hired to work for Apple caused more problems than they solved, or cost the company money. Magic Alex dreamed and talked big, but could not deliver on the promises he made. Even his recording studio at Apple had to be completely rebuilt, because he had not planned it well or asked for outside help.

The problems between the Beatles led to their breaking up early in 1970. Apple had been part of those problems, and each Beatle lost interest as he saw his hopes for Apple would not work out. Without their input, Apple soon wilted. Its divisions closed one by one. Apple Records's artists went to other labels, or retired from recording. Paul McCartney sued to dissolve the Beatles's business interests. The lawsuit went on for years. The rebuilt Apple Studio was well-liked, and a good place to work on recordings, but closed its doors by 1975. Apple's townhouse headquarters was sold. (A photograph of its front door, covered with graffiti, later appeared on a Ringo Starr album cover.)

Later history
In 1975, the Beatles dissolved their partnership, but decided to keep Apple Corps incorporated. It became the agency in charge of Beatles-related merchandise, such as collectibles, memorabilia, and new releases of old recordings by the band. Apple also owns the rights to most filmed and videotape of the Beatles, including their public appearances and concerts.

Apple Records reissued many of their non-Beatles recordings on compact disc in the early 1990s, again using EMI as distributors. A television miniseries, The Beatles Anthology, appeared in 1995, produced by Apple. It was a long documentary of the band's history, and included rare concert and video scenes. A companion book was published later.

Apple Corps was most recently in the news, because of a lawsuit between Apple Corps and Apple Computer Inc., an unrelated company. The two companies had trouble in the past, over the use of the Apple name. They made a deal that Apple Computers would not act as a music company. When Apple Computer Inc. began to sell their iPod, and set up their iTunes music store, Apple Corps believed they had broken their agreement, and took them to court. Apple Computers won the case, but the two companies later worked out a new deal. This deal now means that the Beatles music is now on the iTunes store, whereas it was not there before.

1968 establishments in the United Kingdom
The Beatles
British music companies

Apple Corps


Dina object-oriented programming (OOP), classes digunakeun keur ngelompokkeun variabel jeung fungsi nu patali. Class ngébréhkeun kumpulan variabel instance nu diéekapsulasi sarta méthode (fungsi), mungkin ogé ku jalan nerapkeun tipe éta babarengan jeung fungsi nu ngawangun nu bisa digunakeun keur nyieun objék class.

Class mangrupa pakét kohésif nu eusina jenis husus métadata compile-time. Dina kelas aya aturan-aturan nu ngajelaskeun kalakuan objects; Objek-objek ieu ngacu ka "instance" ti kelas eta. A class specifies the structure of data which éach instance contains as well as the methods (functions) which manipulate the data of the object and perform tasks; such methods are sometimes described as "behavior". A method is a function with a special property that it has access to data stored in an object. A class is the most specific type of an object in relation to a specific layer. A class may also have a representation (metaobject) at run-time, which provides run-time support for manipulating the class-related metadata.

Instances of a class will have certain aspects (aka: féatures, attributes or properties) in common. A class 'Person' for example would describe the properties common to all instances of the 'Person' class. One of the benefits of programming with classes is that all instances of a particular class will follow the defined behaviour of the class they instantiate. éach person is generally alike; but varies in such properties as "height" and "weight". The class would list types of such instance variables; and also define, via methods, the actions which humans can perform: "run", "jump", "sleep", "throw object", etc.

Antarbeungeut
A class can "implement" (or "realize") multiple interfaces, éach of which specify one or more abstract method signatures (name and type of the method and its paraméters) which must be defined (overridden) in that class.

Unlike multiple inheritance where actual code is inherited (along with naming and logical conflicts) interfacing allows to define a behaviour-interface (methods) all implementing classes should be able to fulfill. Partial implementations of interfaces are not allowed, that is, every specified method has to have an implementation. However some languages do not require that every paraméter combination needs to be supported.

éach interface of the class is associated with a type of object references referring to the interface, through which methods of objects can be invoked. éach reference points to a single instance of the class.
éach reference has a lifetime, which specifies how long the reference can be used, usually bound to the time when some specific operations are invoked via the interface. It is assumed that there is a mechanism for accessing the object with a valid object reference. However, while the object reference is a reference to a specific location at any one time, over time the same object can be located at different places.

The object-oriented programming methodology is designed in such a way that the operations of any interface of a class are usually chosen to be independent of éach other. This méans that an interface places no requirements for clients to invoke the operations of one interface in any particular order. This approach has the benefit that client code can rely that the operations of an interface are available for use whenever the client holds a valid reference to the object. This will also result in a client-server (or layered) design where servers do not depend in any
way on the clients.

The methods that are not in any of the interfaces of a class are private to the class, and not intended to be depended on by other classes.

The "set of all interfaces of a class" is sometimes called the interface of the class.

The internal data structures defined as part of a class are not considered to be part of its interface. Rather, public accessor methods can be used to inspect or alter object data. The various object-oriented programming languages enforce this to various degrees. For example, Java does not allow the programmer to access the private data of a class at all, wheréas in languages like Objective-C or Perl the programmer can do what they want. In C++, private methods are visible but not accessible in the interface; however they are commonly made invisible by explicitly declaring fully abstract classes that represent the interfaces of the class.

Struktur class

A class contains a description of structure of data ("state") stored in the objects of the class. The state of an object is stored in some resource, such as memory or a file. The storage is assumed to be located in a specific location, such that it is possible to access the object via references to the identity of the objects. However, the actual storage location associated with an object may change with time. In such situations, the identity of the object does not change. The state is encapsulated and every access to the state occurs via methods of the class. Specific data items in the state, such as xsize and ysize in the example, are sometimes called class attributes or class properties.

A class implements its interfaces by specifying methods that describe what operations can be performed on the data stored in the objects of the class. éach method specifies only tasks that are related to the stored data. Multimethods can be used when a single task requires access to many objects' data.

A class also describes a set of invariants that are preserved by every method in the class. An invariant is a constraint on the state of an object that should be satisfied by every object of the class. The main purpose of the invariants is to establish what objects belong to the class. An invariant is what distinguishes datatypes and classes from éach other, that is, a class does not allow use of all possible values for the state of the object, only those that are well-defined by the semantics of the intended use of the datatype. The set of supported methods often implicitly establishes an invariant. Some programming languages support specification of invariants as part of the definition of the class, and enforce them via the type system. Encapsulation of state is necessary for being able to enforce the invariants of the class.

An implementation of a class specifies constructor and destructor functions that allow création and destruction of objects of the class. A constructor that takes arguments can be used to créate an object from data. The main purpose of a constructor is to establish the invariant of the class, failing if the invariant isn't valid. The main purpose of a destructor is to destroy the identity of the object, invalidating any references in the process. A destructor that returns a value can be used to obtain a public representation (transfer encoding) of an object of a class and simultanéously destroy the copy of the object stored in current thréad's memory [If supported by the programming language used]. Constructors and destructors are also sometimes used to reserve and reléase resources associated with the object.

A class can also implement a set of auxiliary functions, sometimes called class functions or static methods. Static methods are often used to find, créate or destroy objects of the class. Constructors and destructors are sometimes specified as static methods. Often, mechanisms for sending an object to another location or changing the class of an object are specified as static methods.

The class members can be designated as public, private or protected. The public access specifier méans that all clients can access the member by its name. The private access specifier restricts the access to the class itself. The protected access specifier allows the class itself and all its subclasses to access the member. In addition, some languages, such as C++, support a mechanism where a function explicitly declared as friend of the class may access the members designated as private or protected. Access specifiers do not control visibility, in that even private members may be visible to client code. An inaccessible but visible member may be referred to at run-time (e.g. pointer to it can be returned from member functions), but all attempts to use it by referring to the name of the member from client code will be prevented by the type checker. Object-oriented design uses the access specifiers in conjunction with careful design of public method implementations to enforce class invariants. Access specifiers are intended to protect against accidental use of members by clients, but are not suitable for run-time protection of object's data.

Asosiasi antar class
In object-oriented design an association between two classes is a type of a link between the corresponding objects. A (two-way) association between classes A and B describes a relationship between éach object of class A and some objects of class B, and vice versa. Associations are often named with a verb, such as "subscribes-to".

An association role describes the role of an instance of a class when the instance participates in an association. An association role is related to éach end of the association. The role describes an instance of a class from the point of view of a situation in which the instance participates in the association. For example, a "subscriber" role describes instances of the class "Person" when it participates in a "subscribes-to" relationship with the class "Magazine". Also, a "Magazine" has the "subscribed magazine" role when the subscribers subscribe-to it.

Association role multiplicity describes how many instances correspond to éach instance of the other class(es) of the association. Common multiplicities are "0..1", "1..1", "1..*" and "0..*", where the "*" specifies any number of instances.

There are some special kinds of associations between classes. Composition between class A and class B describes a "part-of" relationship where instances of class B have shorter lifetime than the lifetime of the corresponding instances of the enclosing class. Class B is said to be a part of class A. This is often implemented in programming languages by allocating the data storage of instances of class A to contain a representation of instances of class B. Aggregation is like composition in that it describes that instances of a class are part of instances of the other class, but the constraint on lifetime of the instances is not required. The implementation of aggregation is often via a pointer or reference to the contained instance. In both cases, method implementations of the enclosing class can invoke methods of the part class.

Class lokal
When a class is declared inside a function it is called a local class. It has some unique properties like it can use global as well as static variables of the function declared before the class but can't access automatic variables. Global variables should be used with scope(::) operator.

There are some restriction on its use they can't have static data members and member functions must be defined inside the class only enclosing fuction can't access private members of the class but they can be made to do so by declaring them Friend to that local class.

Class sabagian

Partial classes are classes that can be split over multiple files, making it éasier to déal with large quantities of code. At compile time the partial classes are grouped together, thus logically maké no difference to the output. An example of the use of partial classes may be the separation of user interface logic and processing logic. A primary benefit of partial classes is allowing different programmers to work on different parts of the same class at the same time. They also maké automatically generated code éasier to interpret, as it is separated from other code into a partial class.
Partial classes have been around in SmallTalk under the name of Class Extensions for considerable time.
In pre-beta versions of Visual Studio 2005 the partial keyword was known as "expands" in Visual Basic.
With the arrival of the .NET framework 2 Microsoft then introduced partial classes (see partial types), supported in both C# 2.0 and Visual Basic 2005.

Subclass jeung superclass
Classes are often related in some way. The most popular of these relations is inheritance, which involves subclasses and superclasses, also known respectively as child classes (or derived classes) and parent classes (or base classes). If [car] was a class, then [Jaguar] and [Porsche] might be two sub-classes. If [Button] is a subclass of [Control], then all buttons are controls. Subclasses usually consists of several kinds of modifications (customizations) to their respective superclasses: addition of new instance variables, addition of new methods and overriding of existing methods to support the new instance variables.

Conceptually, a superclass should be considered as a common part of its subclasses. This factoring of commonality is one mechanism for providing reuse. Thus, extending a superclass by modifying the existing class is also likely to narrow its applicability in various situations. In Object-oriented design, careful balance between applicability and functionality of superclasses should be considered. Subclassing is different from subtyping in that subtyping déals with common behaviour wheréas subclassing is concerned with common structure.

Some programming languages (for example C++) allow multiple inheritance—they allow a child class to have more than one parent class. This technique has been criticized by some for its unnecessary complexity and being difficult to implement efficiently, though some projects have certainly benefited from its use. Java, for example has no multiple inheritance, as its designers felt that it would add unnecessary complexity.

Sub- and superclasses are considered to exist within a hierarchy defined by the inheritance relationship. If multiple inheritance is allowed, this hierarchy is a directed acyclic graph (or DAG for short), otherwise it is a tree. The hierarchy has classes as nodes and inheritance relationships as links. The levels of this hierarchy are called layers or levels of abstraction. Classes in the same level are more likely to be associated than classes in different levels.

There are two slightly different points of view as to whether subclasses of the same class are required to be disjoint. Sometimes, subclasses of a particular class are considered to be completely disjoint. That is, every instance of a class has exactly one most-derived class, which is a subclass of every class that the instance has. This view does not allow dynamic change of object's class, as objects are assumed to be créated with a fixed most-derived class. The basis for not allowing changes to object's class is that the class is a compile-time type, which does not usually change at runtime, and polymorphism is utilised for any dynamic change to the object's behaviour, so this ability is not necessary. And design that does not need to perform changes to object's type will be more robust and éasy-to-use from the point of view of the users of the class.

From another point of view, subclasses are not required to be disjoint. Then there is no concept of a most-derived class, and all types in the inheritance hierarchy that are types of the instance are considered to be equally types of the instance. This view is based on a dynamic classification of objects, such that an object may change its class at runtime. Then object's class is considered to be its current structure, but changes to it are allowed. The basis for allowing object's class to change is performance. It's more efficient to allow changes to object's type, since references to the existing instances do not need to be replaced with references to new instances when the class of the object changes. However, this ability is not réadily available in all programming languages. The performance analysis depends on the proposition that dynamic changes to object structure are common. This may or may not be the case in practice.

Alesan-alesan pikeun nerapkeun class
Classes, when used properly, can accelerate development by reducing redundant code entry, testing and bug fixing. If a class has been thoroughly tested and is known to be a solid work, it stands to réason that implementing that class or extending it will reduce if not eliminate the possibility of bugs propagating into the code. In the case of extension new code is being added so it also requires the same level of testing before it can be considered solid.

Another réason for using classes is to simplify the relationships of interrelated data. Rather than writing code to repéatedly draw a GUI window on the terminal screen, it is simpler to represent the window as an object and tell it to draw itself as necessary. With classes, GUI items that are similar to windows (such as dialog boxes) can simply inherit most of their functionality and data structures from the window class. The programmer then need only add code to the dialog class that is unique to its operation. Indeed, GUIs are a very common and useful application of classes, and GUI programming is generally much éasier with a good class framework.

Kategori class

Abstract and concrete classes
An abstract class, or abstract base class (ABC), is one that is designed only as a parent class and from which child classes may be derived, and which is not itself suitable for instantiation. Abstract classes are often used to represent abstract concepts or entities. The incomplete féatures of the abstract class are then shared by a group of sibling sub-classes which add different variations of the missing pieces. In C++, an abstract class is
defined as a class having at léast one pure virtual method, i.e., an abstract method, which may or may not possess an implementation.

Abstract classes are superclasses which contain abstract methods and are defined such that concrete subclasses are to extend them by implementing the methods. The behaviors defined by such a class are "generic" and much of the class will be undefined and unimplemented. Before a class derived from an abstract class can be instantiated, it must implement particular methods for all the abstract methods of its parent classes.

In computing, when specifying an abstract class, the programmer is referring to a class which has elements that are méant to be implemented by inheritance. The abstraction of the class methods to be implemented by the sub-classes is méant to simplify software development.

A concrete class, however, is a class for which entities (instances) may be créated. This contrasts with abstract classes which can not be instantiated because it deféats its purpose of being an 'abstract'.

Most object oriented programming languages allow the programmer to specify which classes are considered abstract and will not allow these to be instantiated (in Java, for example, the keyword abstract is used). This also
enables the programmer to focus on planning and design. The actual implementation of course is to be done in the derived classes.

In C++, an abstract class is a class having at léast one pure virtual function.
They can not be instantiated and will generate an error if an attempt is made. They are méant to function as stubs, allowing the programmer to identify what modules of functions (behaviour or methods) are needed without having to actually implement them. This is in line with OOP's philosophy of allowing the programmer to concentrate on how an object should behave without going into the actual detail.

Metaclasses
Metaclasses are classes whose instances are classes. A metaclass describes a common structure of a collection of classes. A metaclass can implement a design pattern or describe a shorthand for particular kinds of classes. Metaclasses are often used to describe frameworks.

In some languages such as Smalltalk and Ruby, a class is also an object; thus éach class is an instance of the unique metaclass, which is built in the language. For example, in Objective-C, éach object and class is an instance of NSObject. CLOS (Common Lisp Object System) provides metaobject protocols (MOP) to implement those classes and metaclasses.

Non-class-based programming
To the surprise of some familiar with the use of classes in OOP, it has been shown that one can design fully fledged object-oriented languages that do not have builtin supports of classes. Those languages are usually designed with the motive to address the problem of tight-coupling between implementations and interfaces due to the use of classes. For example, the Self language was designed to show that the role of a class can be substituted by using an extant object which serves as a prototype to a new object, and the resulting language is as expressive as Smalltalk with more generality in créating objects. See class-based OOP for the criticism of class-based programming and object-based languages for such non-class-based languages.

Run-time representation of classes
As a datatype, a class is usually considered as a compile-time construct. A language may also support prototype or factory metaobjects that represent run-time information about classes, or even represent metadata that provides access to reflection facilities and ability to manipulate data structure formats at run-time. Many languages distinguish this kind of run-time type information about classes from a class on the basis that the information is not needed at run-time. Some dynamic languages do not maké strict distinctions between run-time and compile-time constructs, and therefore may not distinguish between metaobjects and classes.

For example: if humans is a metaobject representing the class Person, then instances of class Person can be créated by using the facilities of the human metaobject.

Class without inheritance
Not every language that both supports objects and classes is generally seen as object-oriented. Examples are éarlier versions of Visual Basic, which lack the support for inheritance. The lack of inheritance severely impairs the full practice of object-oriented programming. Those languages, sometimes called "object-based languages", do not provide the structural benefits of statically type checked interfaces for objects. This is because in object-based languages it is possible to use and extend data structures and attach methods to them at run-time. This precludes the compiler or interpreter from being able to check the type information specified in the source code as the type is built dynamically and not defined statically. Most of these languages allow for instance behaviour and complex operational polymorphism (see dynamic dispatch and polymorphism).

Instantiation
As explained above, classes can be used to créate new objects by instantiating them. In most languages, the structures as defined by the class determine how the memory used by its instances will be laid out. This technique is known as the cookie-cutter model.

The alternative to the cookie-cutter modél is that of for instance Python, where objects are structured as associative key-value containers. In such modéls, objects that are instances of the same class could contain different instance variables, as state can be dynamically added to the object. This may resemble Prototype-based languages in some ways, but it is not equivalent.

Conto

C++

Conto 1

    #include <iostréam>
    #include <string>

    class Hello
    {
        std::string what;

        public:
            Hello(const char* s)
                : what(s)
            {
            }

            void say()
            {
                std::cout << "Hello " << what << "!" << std::endl;
            }
    };

    int main( int argc, char** argv )
    {
        Hello* hello_world = new Hello("world");
        hello_world->say();

        return 0;
    }

This example shows how to define a C++ class named "Hello". It has a private string attribute named "what", and a public method named "say".

Conto 2

 class Abstract
 {
 public:
      virtual void MyVirtualMethod() = 0;
 };

 class Concrete : public Abstract
 {
 public:
      void MyVirtualMethod()
      {
       //do something
      }
 };

An object of class Abstract can not be créated because the function MyVirtualMethod has not been defined (the =0 is C++ syntax for a pure virtual function, a function that must be part of any derived concrete class but is not defined in the abstract base class. The Concrete class is a concrete class because its functions (in this case, only one function) have been declared and implemented.

Conto 3

 #include <string>
 using std::string;

 class InetMessage
 {
   string m_subject, m_to, m_from;

 public:
   InetMessage (const string& subject,
                const string& to,
                const string& from);
   string subject () const;
   string to () const;
   string from () const;
 };

Java

Conto 1

 public class Example1
 {
   // This is a Java class, it automatically extends the class Object
 }

This example shows the simplest Java class possible.

Conto 2

 public class Example2 extends Example1
 {
   // This is a class that extends the class créated in Example 1.
   protected int data;

   public Example2()
   {
      // This is a constructor for the class.  It does not have a return type.
      data = 1;
   }

   public int getData()
   {
     return data;
   }

   public void setData(int d)
   {
     data = d;
   }
 }

This example shows a class that has a defined constructor, one member data, and two accessor methods for that member data. It extends the previous example's class. Note that in Java all classes automatically extend the class Object. This allows you to write generic code to déal with objects of any type.

REALbasic

Conto 1
 Class Hello
   Private Dim what as String

   Sub Constructor( s as String )
      what = s
   End Sub

   Sub Say()
      MsgBox "Hello " + what + EndOfLine
   End Sub
 End Class

 Sub App.Open()
    dim h as new Hello( "Foobar" )
    h.Say
 End Sub

This example is a port of the C++ example above. It demonstrates how to maké a class named Hello with a private property named what. It also demonstrates the proper use of a constructor, and has a public method named Say. It also demonstrates how to instansiate the class and call the Say method.

PHP

Conto 1
<?php
class A
{
   function foo()
   {
       if (isset($this)) {
           echo '$this is defined (';
           echo get_class($this);
           echo ")\n";
       } else {
           echo "\$this is not defined.\n";
       }
   }
}

$a = new A();
$a->foo();
?>

Tempo ogé
 Implementation inheritance
 Inheritance semantics
 Instantiation
 Hierarchy
 Class diagram (UML)
 Virtual Inheritance
 Class-based programming

Literatur
 Meyer, B.: "Object-oriented software construction", 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, 1997, ISBN 0-13-629155-4
 Rumbaugh et al.: "Object-oriented modeling and design", Prentice Hall, 1991, ISBN 0-13-630054-5
 ISO/IEC 14882:2003 Programming Language C++, International standard
 Abadi; Cardelli: A Théory of Objects

Object-oriented programming
Konsép pamrograman

Class (élmu komputer)


Bernd Herbert Schmitt is a professor of international business in the marketing department at Columbia Business School, Columbia University in New York. He is known for his research, books, speaking and consulting on customer experience, customer happiness, branding, innovation and for his work in Asia on Asian markets and consumers. He wrote several influential books in these areas like Experiential Marketing, Customer Experience Management, Big Think Strategy and Happy Customers Everywhere.

He holds a PhD in Psychology from Cornell University and joined Columbia in 1988. In 2011, he also became the Executive Director of the Institute on Asian Consumer Insight (ACI) in Singapore, funded by the Singapore Economic Development Board (EDB) and Nanyang Technological University (NTU).

Schmitt has done research, teaching and consulting in many parts of the world, especially in Asia. From 1996–2000, he was the head of marketing at The China Europe International Business School (CEIBS) in Shanghai and held the first marketing chair ever in China. He has also held visiting appointments and short-term teaching appointments at M.I.T, the University of Michigan, Yonsei University in South Korea, Hong Kong University, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, the University of Munich in Germany and Jagiellonian University in Poland.

Life and career
Schmitt was born in Heidelberg, Germany, where he attended high school and the University of Heidelberg, studying psychology. He went to Cornell University as an exchange student and later received a PhD in psychology. He joined Columbia University in 1988 and first taught courses in consumer behavior and advertising management. Later he taught marketing strategy and a popular course in branding. The branding course is also offered every year as a seminar during the Oktoberfest in Munich.

In the 1990s, he became interested in Chinese and Asian markets and consumers. He first visited China in 1991 and taught consumer behavior in Beijing at CEMI, a predecessor of CEIBS. He published articles on Chinese consumers and Chinese market segmentation. He also began his research, with other authors, like Shi Zhang, Yigang Pan, and Nader Tavassoli, on comparing Western and Asian languages. In 1996, he was appointed as the head of the marketing department at CEIBS and held the first marketing chair in China.

In the late 1990s, he began authoring books on customer experience like Experiential Marketing and Customer Experience Management.

In 1999, he became the director of the Center on Global Brand Leadership at Columbia Business School, which runs the annual Brite conference.

From 2000–2010, he spent a sabbatical at the University of Munich, Germany and also taught courses in South Korea and Singapore. He also was a frequent keynote speaker at conferences worldwide. He was featured among the Thinkers 50. He was on the marketing boards of Volkswagen AG and Samsung Electronics USA.

In 2011, he moved to Singapore to become the Executive Director of ACI – a new institute focused on Asian markets and consumers.

Contributions to marketing and management
Schmitt is widely known for his contributions to customer experience, brand management and innovative marketing. Experiential Marketing: How to Get Customers to Sense, Feel, Think, Act and Relate to Your Company and Brands introduced the concept of customer experience to marketing and brand management. Customer Experience Management provides a step-by-step framework for managing experiences. Big Think Strategy has methods and tools for innovative marketing. Happy Customers Everywhere provides management methods to delight customers and make them happy.

He often uses psychological concepts in his writings and applies them to marketing and business. His books have many case studies and also examples from opera and the arts. Experiential Marketing and Customer Experience Management use theories from sensory, cognitive and social psychology. Happy Customers Everywhere is influenced by Positive Psychology.

Schmitt authored and co-authored more than 60 articles in academic marketing, management and psychology journals. He did research on consumer attitudes, innovation and language in cross-cultural contexts (comparing Asian and western languages). His books have been translated into more than 20 languages.

Research and work in Asia
Schmitt has been researching, consulting and lecturing in Asia since 1991. He has written case studies on Asian companies including Korean companies Samsung, Yuan-Kimberly, Seoul Philharmonic Orchestra; Mary Kay in Shanghai and various Chinese companies such as Jahwa Corporation, Shanghai Venus Software and Shanghai Petrochemical.

He has held the first marketing chair in China. He has had visiting appointments at HKUST and Hong Kong University, CEIBS in Shanghai, Yonsei University in Seoul (South Korea), and at Singapore Management University.

Schmitt has consulted for Asian companies such as Sony, Sunstar, ADK in Japan; Samsung, Lotte, Amore Pacific, Hanjin in South Korea, Wheelock in Hong Kong and Tata Industries in India.

In 2011, he became the inaugural Executive Director of ACI. ACI organizes the Asia Consumer Summit, together with the Financial Times.

Publications

 Schmitt, B. (2012). Happy customers everywhere. How your business can benefit from the insights from positive psychology. New York: Palgrave.
 Schmitt, B. (2007). Big think strategy: How to leverage bold ideas and leave small thinking behind. Boston: Harvard Business Press.
 Schmitt, B. and Mangold, M. (2004). Kundenerlebnis als Wettbewerbsvorteil: Mit CEM Marken und Märkte gestalten. Wiesbaden: Gabler Verlag.
 Schmitt, B. (2003). Customer experience management: A revolutionary approach to connecting with your customers. New York: Wiley.
 Schmitt, B., Rogers, D. and Vrotsos, K. (2003). There's no business that's not show business: Marketing in an experience culture. Englewood-Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Financial Times.
 Schmitt, B. (2001). Build your own garage: Blueprints and tools to unleash your company's hidden creativity. The Free Press.
 Schmitt, B. (1999). Experiential marketing: How to get customers to sense, feel, think, act and relate to your company and brands. New York: The Free Press
 Schmitt, B. H. and Simonson, A. (1997). Marketing aesthetics: The strategic management of brands, identity and image. New York: The Free Press.

External links
 MeetSchmitt.com
 Bernd Schmitt at Columbia University
 Bernd Schmitt, Executive Director of Institute on Asian Consumer Insight (ACI)
 Bernd Schmitt Youtube

Columbia University faculty
Columbia Business School faculty
Living people
1957 births
Place of birth missing (living people)

Bernd Schmitt


Thomas Helmore (7 May 1811, in Kidderminster –  6 July 1890, in Westminster) was a choirmaster, writer about singing and author and editor of hymns and carols.

Helmore's father was a congregationalist minister (also called Thomas). During the boy's childhood, the family moved from Kidderminster to Stratford-upon-Avon, where Helmore later trained his father's choir and taught in a school which his father had founded. Until the age of sixteen, he was educated at Mill Hill School with his brother Frederick. In 1837, he began his studies at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, graduating in 1840. He was ordained in the Church of England in the same year, and took up a curacy at St Michael on Greenhill, Lichfield, where he was also a priest-vicar in the Cathedral.

Two years later, he was appointed as precentor and vice-principal at St Mark's College, Chelsea, where the principal was Derwent Coleridge (son of the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge). He soon came to be on friendly terms with his new colleague and, in 1844, he married Kate Pridham, who was Derwent Coleridge's sister-in-law.

His main duty at St Mark's was to train the students to sing a daily unaccompanied choral service in the college chapel. In the basic musical training, he was assisted by John Pyke Hullah. The choir's repertoire grew to include such as the anthems of Gibbons and Byrd and the motets of Palestrina, Vittoria and Marenzio. Helmore's growing reputation as a choirmaster led to his appointment in 1846 as master of the choristers in the Chapel Royal, St James's, where one of his pupils was Arthur Sullivan. He continued as precentor at St Mark's, however, until 1877.

At this time in Anglican and Catholic musical circles, there was a growing interest in plainsong. The sixteenth-century Booke of Common Praier Noted of John Merbecke was republished in 1844. In the same year, Helmore's friend William Dyce brought out his Book of Common Prayer with Plain Song. Helmore himself resolved to research and contribute. His aim was to create a setting which was authentic, but also well fitted to the text in tempo and accentuation. In 1849 he completed The Psalter Noted, the first of a series of similar works. His Primer of Plainsong (1877) came to be regarded as the standard work on the subject.

In 1853, the British ambassador to Sweden, G. J. R. Gordon, returned to England with a copy of the sixteenth-century song book Piae Cantiones, which he presented to John Mason Neale, known for his interest in early music. He, in turn, passed it on to Helmore whom he knew to be expert in the interpretation of the mensural notation in which the tunes were given. Neale translated the texts into English or, in a few cases, wrote completely new texts. He and Helmore published 12 of these tunes in that same year as Carols for Christmastide, and the following year 12 more as Carols for Eastertide. The Christmas set included Christ was born on Christmas Day from Resonet in laudibus, Good Christian men, rejoice from In dulci jubilo and Good King Wenceslas as completely new words for the spring carol Tempus adest floridum. Helmore immediately went on to publish a more substantial collection, The Hymnal Noted, where the texts were mostly Neale's translations from the Latin.

Helmore was appointed as executor of the will of Chauncy Hare Townshend and, on the latter's death in 1868, together with co-executrix Angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts, he undertook the responsibility of founding an elementary school in London, which was finally opened in Rochester Street, Westminster, in 1876.

His interest in plainsong led him to make several visits, in and after 1875, to the Abbey of Saint Gall in Switzerland, to examine an ancient manuscript supposed to be an accurate copy of a book on Gregorian chant written by Saint Gregory himself.

He died at his home in Pimlico on 6 July 1890 and was buried in Brompton Cemetery.

Some published works

A Manual of Plain Song; containing:- A Brief Directory of the Plain Song used in the Morning and Evening Prayer, Litany, and Holy Communion; together with The Canticles and Psalter Noted, 1850
Accompanying Harmonies to the Hymnal Noted (1852)
Accompanying Harmonies To The Brief Directory Of The Plain Song: Used In The Morning And Evening Prayer, Litany, And Holy Communion, 1853
Carols for Christmas-Tide, 1853 (with John Mason Neale)
Carols for Easter-Tide, 1854 (with John Mason Neale)
The Hymnal Noted, 1854
The Ancient Plain-Song of the Church: Adapted to the American Book of Common Prayer, 1855
The Psalter Noted: Carefully Compared and Made to Agree with the Psalter of the Standard Prayer (with Edward M. Pecke) (1856)
Christ Was Born on Christmas Day: A Carol (with J. M. Neale), illustrated edition 1864
Primer of Plainsong, 1877
Translation of Fétis' Treatise on Choir and Chorus Singing, 1885

References

1811 births
1890 deaths
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
19th-century English Anglican priests
English choral conductors
British male conductors (music)
English writers about music
19th-century conductors (music)
19th-century English musicians
Masters of the Children of the Chapel Royal

Thomas Helmore


Jean-Pierre Gorin (born 17 April 1943) is a French filmmaker and professor, best known for his work with Nouvelle Vague luminary Jean-Luc Godard, during what is often referred to as Godard's "radical" period.

Jean-Pierre Gorin was a student of Louis Althusser, Michel Foucault and Jacques Lacan. He was a radical leftist well before meeting Godard in 1966. Godard relied on some of his discussions with Gorin while writing the script of 1967's La Chinoise. Gorin played a role in making Le Gai Savoir, which was released in 1969. In 1968, Gorin and Godard founded the collective Dziga Vertov Group and together produced a series of overtly political films including Vent d'est (1970), Tout va bien (1972), and Letter to Jane (1972).

Gorin left France in the mid-1970s to accept a teaching position at the University of California, San Diego at the urging of the film-critic and painter Manny Farber. Gorin remained on the Visual Arts faculty thereafter, teaching film history and film criticism. He continued to make films—most notably a "Southern California tetralogy" of essay films: Poto and Cabengo (1978),  Routine Pleasures (1986), My Crasy Life (1991), and Letter to Peter (1992). Gorin describes his concept of Poto and Cabengo in 1988:

The film is about an unstructured discourse—the language of the twins—surrounded by structured discourses—the discourse of the family, the discourse of the media, the discourse of therapy, the discourse of documentary filmmaking.... [The twins' language] erupts as a subversive act which has not been authorized by any social or ideological establishment. In a sense its special threat is that its "unauthorized" nature relativizes the arbitrary nature of those institutionalized discourses. The singsong of the twins reveals the shaky grounds of institutional power. It relativizes discursive authority from the family to the scientific community in their competitive and ineffectual attempts to "define" the twins who spontaneously flit about the screen exceeding any definition.<ref>Tillman, Lynne. "Interview with Jean-Pierre Gorin" BOMB Magazine, Spring 1988. Retrieved 17 May 2013.</ref>

Selected filmography
 1972 Tout Va Bien 1972  Letter to Jane: An Investigation About a Still 1976 Here and Elsewhere 1980 Poto and Cabengo 1986 Routine Pleasures 1992 My Crasy Life 1992 Letter to Peter''

References

External links
  Jean-Pierre Gorin, UCSD site, bio
Burgan, John "Jean-Pierre Gorin", Encyclopedia of the Documentary Film, ed. Ian Aitken, Routledge, New York, 2006, pp. 312–3
 Senses of Cinema - Great Directors: Erik Ulman, Jean-Pierre Gorin
 Raymond Durgnat's Letter to Jean-Pierre, rouge.com
  Jump Cut interview

 Criterion's post "Three Popular Films by Jean-Pierre Gorin" 18 January 2012
 BOMB Magazine interview with Jean-Pierre Gorin by Lynne Tillman (Spring 1988)

1943 births
French experimental filmmakers
French film directors
Living people
University of California, San Diego faculty

Jean-Pierre Gorin