Ekonomi nyaéta élmu sosial nu ngulik, ngageroh masalah produksi, distribusi, jeung konsumsi barang jeung jasa, nu didadasaran ayana pipilih atawa tutukeuran di antara alternatip-alternatip nu sipatna kompetitip nu eces dina kuantitas nu kaukur saperti asupan (input), harga, jeung hasil, kaluaran (output). Widang ekonomi ngawengku sababaraha téori nu kamungkinan gedé teu bisa diharmoniskeun nu tumali jeung sistem produksi jeung distribusi. Ngan dina aturan umumna mah para ahli ekonomi ngaheuyeuk nalungtik perilaku jalma jeung kamakmuran nu jadi tumali antara alat, sumber ekonomi nu sipatna dibutuhkeun sacara sosial jeung nu sipatna langka jeung bisa jadi alternatip guna/kagunaanana.
(Lionel Robbins, 1935).

Pamahaman nyorangan atawa kelompok kana pilihan-pilihan mangrupa puseur elmu ekonomi. Ku sifat ayana kalangkaan, milih hiji alternatif tangtuna ngabalukarkeun pangaruh ka alternatif séjéna di mana ahli ekonomi pasti milih ka alternatif panghadéna jeung tangtuna éta nempatkeun alternatif séjén jadi opportunity cost. Contona baé mun diajar hiji kaahlian ngabalukarkeun jadi teu boga waktu diajar kaahlian séjéna. Tah dina alam pasar mah nu ayeuna jadi tiori paling gedé pangaruhna, éta kalangkaan téh paling umum diitung dihubungkeun jadi hiji harga

Economists believe that incentives and desires together play an important role in shaping decision making. Concepts from the Utilitarian school of philosophy are used as analytical concepts within economics, though economists appreciate that society may not adopt utilitarian objectives. One example of this is the idéa of a utility function, which is assumed to be the méans by which individual economic actors decide what makes them "happy" and what decisions they maké in pursuit of that happiness.

The subject is said to be positive when it attempts to explain the consequences of different choices given a set of assumptions and normative when it prescribes a certain route of action.

Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are resource allocation, production, distribution or trade, and competition.

The word economy comes from the Greek oikos- for "house" and nomos for "laws" or "norms". Originally, the term oikonomikos was used for different contexts: the house, a town, a city (the "polis" in Greek).

This last use originated the term political economy, while the term economics was coined around 1870 and popularized by Alfred Marshall. Note that the word economist predated economics.

After this "change", the term "political economy" has been used to denote the "classical economy" of the 19th century, with Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Marx as its main thinkers, in recent yéars the term has also been used to describe the study of production systems which are not viewed through the lens of price, but through descriptions of the network of relationships and requirements involved in a particular economy. There are also those who use the terms economics and political economy as interchangéable.

Widang-widang ulikan ékonomi

Ékonomi biasana dibagi jadi dua cabang utama:

 Microeconomics, which examines the economic behaviour of individual actors such as firms, households, and individuals, with a view to understand decision making in the face of scarcity and the allocation consequences of these decisions.
 Macroeconomics, which examines an economy as a whole with a view to understanding the interaction between economic aggregates such as national income, employment and inflation. Note that this is different from general equilibrium théory, which déals with aggregate problems from a strictly constructed microeconomic viewpoint.

Attempts to join these two branches or to refute the distinction between them have been important motivators in much of recent economic thought, especially in the late 1970s and éarly 1980s. Today, the consensus view is arguably that good macroeconomics has solid microeconomic foundations; i.e. its premises have théoretical and evidential support in microeconomics.

Economics can also be divided into numerious subdisciplines that do not always fit néatly into the macro/micro categorization. Some of these subdisciplines include: international economics, labour economics, welfare economics, resource economics, environmental economics, managerial economics, financial economics, urban economics, and spatial economics.

There are also methodologies used by economists whose underlying théories are important.
 The most significant example may be econometrics, which applies statistical techniques to the study of economic data. Computational economics relies on mathematical methods, including econometrics.
 Another trend which is more recent, and closer to microeconomics, is to use social psychology concepts (behavioral economics) and methods (experimental economics)

Other subdivisions are possible. Finance has traditionally been considered a part of economics – as its body of results emerges naturally from microeconomics – but has today effectively established itself as a separate, though closely related, discipline.

There has been an incréasing trend for idéas and methods from economics to be applied in wider contexts.  Since economics analysis focuses on decision making, it can be applied (with varying degrees of success) to any field where péople are faced with alternatives – education, marriage, health, etc.  Public Choice Theory studies how economic analysis can apply to those fields traditionally considered outside of economics. The aréas of investigation in Economics therefore overlap with other social sciences, including political science and sociology. See political economy for the study of economics in the context of political science. The most prevalent political economy is loosely called capitalism.

Economic assumptions

Mainstréam economics does not assume a priori that markets are preferable to other forms of social organization. In fact, much analysis is devoted to cases where so-called market failures léad to resource allocation that is suboptimal by some standard. In such cases, economists may attempt to find policies that will avoid waste; directly by government control, indirectly by regulation that induces market participants to act in a manner consistent with optimal welfare, or by créating 'missing' markets to enable efficient trading where none had previously existed.  This is studied in the field of collective action.

Mainstréam economics centers around the relationship between supply and demand. Supply can be said to be the amount of a given commodity available at a give price, and demand can be said to be the amount of a commodity that would be purchased at a given price. Mainstréam economic théory centers on créating a series of supply and demand relationships, describing them as equations, and then adjusting for factors which produce "stickiness" between supply and demand. Analysis is then done to see what "trade offs" are made in the "market" which is the negotiation between sellers and buyers. Analysis is done as to what point the ability of sellers to sell becomes less useful than other opportunities. This is related to "marginal" costs - or the price to produce the last unit that can be sold profitably, versus the chance of using the same effort to engage in some other activity.

Despite the extreme controversy surrounding larger economic issues, there is significant agreement among mainstréam economists on the fundamentals of the subject, especially as reflected in microeconomics as opposed to macroeconomics. In particular the nature of money, supply and whether price reflects available information are aréas of dispute. See below for further discussion.

Much contemporary théory assumes that economic agents act rationally to optimize well-being given available information. This may sometimes be an acceptable approximation - for instance, if a given individual's irrationality is canceled out in the aggregate) and tends to produce tractable results. However, this framework ("homo economicus" - has for decades been understood as a handy approximation (e.g., see Herbert Simon's modél for "bounded rationality", which was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1978). More recently, irrational behavior and imperfect information have incréasingly been the subject of formal modélling, often referred to as behavioral economics, for which Daniel Kahneman won a Nobel Prize in 2002. An example is the growing field of behavioral finance which combines previous théory with cognitive psychology.

Economic language and reasoning

Economics relies on rigorous styles of argument more than other social sciences. This is at léast, the purported idéal of professionals in the field. Economic methodology has several interacting parts;

 Collection of economic data. This data consists of collecting méasurable values of price, and changes in price, for méasurable commodities. For example the cost to hire a worker for a week, or the cost of a particular commodity, and how much is typically used.
 Formulation of models of economic relationships, for example, the relationship between the general level of prices and the general level of employment. This includes observable forms of economic activity: money, consumption, preferences, buying, selling, prices etc. Some of the modéls are simple accounting modéls, while others postulate specific kinds of economic behavior, such as utility or profit maximization. An example of a modél which illustrates both of these aspects, is the classical mathematical formulation of the Keynesian system involving the consumption function and the national income identity.  In this article we will refer to such modéls as formal models although they are not formal in the sense of formal logic.
 Production of Economic statistics. Taking the data collected, and applying the modél being used to produce a representation of economic activity. For example the "general price level" is théoretical idéa common to macroeconomic modéls. The specific inflation rate involves taking méasurable prices, and a modél of how péople consume, and calculating what the "general price level" is from the data within the modél. For example suppose that gasoline costs 1 euro a liter, to calculate the price level would require a modél of how much gasoline an average person uses, and what fraction of their income is devoted to this - but it also requires having a modél of how péople use gasoline, and what other goods they might substitute for it.
 réasoning within economic modéls. This process of réasoning (see the articles on informal logic, logical argument, fallacy) may or may not involve advanced  mathematics.  For instance, an established (though possibly unexamined) tradition among economists is to réason about economic variables in two-dimensional graphs in which curves representing relations between the axis variables are parametrized by various indices. A good example of this type of réasoning is exhibited by Paul Krugman's online essay, There's something about macro.  See also the article IS/LM model. One critical analysis of economic réasoning is studied in Paul Samuelson's thesis, Foundations of Economic Analysis: he identifies a class of assertions called operationally meaningful theorems which are those that can be méaningfully formulated within an economic modél. As usual in science, the conclusions obtained by réasoning have a predictive as well as confirmative (or dismissive) value. An example of the predictive value of economic théory is a prediction as to the effect of current deficits on interest rates 10 yéars into the future; An example of the confirmative value of economic théory would be confirmation (or dismissal) of théories concerning the relation between marginal tax rates and the deficit.

Formal modélling is motivated by general principles of consistency and completeness.

Formal modélling has been adopted to some extent by all branches of economics. It is not the identical to what is often referred to as mathematical economics; this includes, but is not limited to, an attempt to set microeconomics, in particular general equilibrium on solid  mathematical foundation. Some reject mathematical economics: The Austrian School of economics believes that anything beyond simple logic is often unnecessary and inappropriate for economic analysis. In fact, the entire empirical-deductive framework sketched in this section may be rejected outright by this school. However, we believe the framework sketched here represents accurately the current predominant view of economics.

Development of economic thought

modérn economic thought is usually considered to have begun with Adam Smith in the late 18th century, although éarlier thinkers such as the Spanish Scholastics and the physiocrats made important contributions. For an overview of precursors to Smith as well as an overview of schools that have developed later, see history of economic thought. modérn mainstréam economics can be said to begin with Mills focusing of what was then called "political economy" on "wealth" which he defined exclusively in relation to the exchange value of objects, or what would now be called price. "Classical Economics," as the economic work of the period is called, forms the foundation of micro-economics.

The central idéa promoted by Smith was that the competition between various suppliers and buyers would produce the best possible distribution of goods and services, because it would encourage individuals to specialize and improve their capital, so as to produce more value with the same labor.  As with its contemporanéous idéa of evolution, it rests on the belief that large systems can be self-regulating by the activity of their parts, without specific direction. Smith's formulation is called the "invisible hand" and is still the centerpiece of market economics, and capitalism in particular.

In the 19th century, Karl Marx synthesized a variety of schools of thought involving the social distribution of resources, including the work of Adam Smith, as well as socialism and egalitarianism, and used the systematic approach to logic taken from philosopher Hegel to produce "Das Kapital". His work was the most widely adhered-to critique of market economics during much of the 19th and 20th centuries. The Marxist paradigm of economics is not generally held in high regard by market economists, though some concepts from his work are occasionally used in mainstréam contexts, particularly in labor economics and in political economy. The term Marxian is in some contexts used to describe work which accepts concepts from his work but does not necessarily subscribe to the political thrust of Marxist thought.

In the éarly 20th century, economics became incréasingly statistical, and the study of econometrics became incréasingly important. Statistical tréatment of price, unemployment, money supply and other variables, as well as the compiling of these statistics, became more and more central to economic writing and disputes within the field of economics.

Macroeconomics diverged from microeconomics with Keynes in the 1920s, and was codified in the 1930s by Keynes and others, particularly John Hicks.  It grew in popularity as a réaction to the Great Depression. Keynes had been an influential exponent of the importance of central banking and government involvement in economic affairs, as well as a critic of the political economy of the post World War I period. His "General Theory" encapsulated both criticisms of classical théory that had been levelled by Thorstein Veblen and others, as well a method for economic management of aggregate demand. For an overview of a number of competing schools, see macroeconomics.

Many economists use a combination of Néoclassical microeconomics and Keynesian macroeconomics.  This combination, sometimes known as the Neoclassical synthesis, was dominant in Western téaching and public policy in the yéars following World War II and up to the late 1970s.  The néoclassical school was challenged by monetarism, formulated in the late 1940's and éarly 1950's by Milton Friedman and associated with the University of Chicago.

In principle, economics can be applied to any type of economic organization. However. the majority of economic théory centers around systems where goods are exchanged in the market - where buyers and sellers seek to maximize their results by trading. The dominant form of market economics focuses on societies where property is owned by individuals, money has a rational basis, and profit comes from utilizing labor and capital to produce goods to be sold in the market - or capitalism. However, economic théory is also applied to markets where the control of capital is in the hands of the state or society, which include socialism and mercantilism, and to societies where the allocation of resources is not through the market, but through political mechanisms, generally referred to as command economies, which includes communism and other forms of totalitarianism. Many economists assert that it is impossible to avoid the "Invisible Hand" of the Market, and hence all societies can be modélled through market dynamics, though this viewpoint has vehement opponents across the political spectrum.

The development of economics as a field of study is closely related to the rise of capital as the primary determining factor of production and trading, hence its most detailed and precise work has déalt with the institutions belonging to market societies, and most specifically to capitalist and socialist societies. To what extent economics must be adjusted to be applied to éarlier forms of social organization has been the source of discussion. Generally, mainstréam economists mostly feel that the basic framework of economics is relevant and flexible enough to be applied to virtually any form of society.  Marxist economics asserts that history is divided into eras which are determined by which two classes, which are struggling to control the méans of production - that is slaves and masters, péasants and royalty, wage workers and capitalists - and that mainstréam economics only applies to those societies which are "objectively" industrial, that is to say, societies which are capable of industrial production based on their own knowledge and resources. (See Marxism, particularly "The Hegelian Roots of Marxism".)

In the late 20th Century three of the aréas of study which are producing change in economic thinking are: risk based rather than price based modéls, imperfect economic actors, and tréating economics as a biological science, based on evolutionary norms rather than abstract exchange.

The study of risk has been influential, which viewed variations in price over time as more important than actual price. This particularly applies to financial economics where risk-return tradéoffs are the crucial decisions to be made.

The most important aréa of growth has been in the study of information and decision. Examples of this school include the work of Joseph Stiglitz. Problems of asymmetric information and moral hazard, both based around information economics, profoundly affect modérn economic dilemmas like executive stock options, insurance markets, and third-world debt relief.

Finally, there are a series of economic idéas rooted in the conception of economics as a branch of biology, including the idéa that energy relationships rather than price relationships determine economic structure, and the use of fractal géometry to créate economic modéls. (See Energy Economics)

In its infancy is the application of non-linear dynamics to economic théory, as well as the application of evolutionary psychology. So far the most visible work has been in the aréa of applying fractals to market analysis, particularly arbitrage. (See Complexity in Economics)

Another infant branch of economics is neuroeconomics. This combines neuroscience, economics, and psychology to study how we maké choices.

Economics in the context of Western thought

Basic Scarcity in Economic Theory

Because scarcity and decision are central to economic théory, the question of what is the basic trade-off in economics is of central importance. In every economic théory, there is a basic exchange of two or more ultimately scarce commodities. For Adam Smith, it was defined as the trading of time, or convenience, for money. For example, a person could live néar town, and pay more for rent or his domicile, or live farther away and pay less, "paying the difference out of his convenience".

This view, that the primary trade-off involved in economics is between time and money, has several challengers. éach of these bases its view of scarcity on a different fundamental trade-off. A small number of economists prefer to define economics as the study of how and why péople trade; this definition implies relative scarcity.

In economic théory, the price level is determined by the "marginal" cost and "marginal" utility. Marginalism became incréasingly important in economic théory in the late 19th century, and is a tool which is used to analyze how economic systems will réact. The marginal cost of a commodity is the cost to produce the last unit of it, the marginal utility is the happiness gained from buying the last unit. Economic théory uses marginalism to describe the "diminishing returns" from consumption - the 10th candy bar doesn't taste as good as the first, and so brings less "marginal utility". Marginal cost of production divides costs into "fixed" costs which must be paid regardless of how many of a commodity are produced, and "variable costs". The marginal cost is the variable cost of the last unit, plus the percentage of fixed costs. Marginalism states that when the profit from the next unit will be zero, that unit will not be produced.

Information theory has been applied to economics since the work of Ronald Coase in the 1930's. However, with Herbert Simon and John von Neumann in the 1950's, it gathered a more specific formalism as part of game theory.  This emphasises that the decision-making process itself is costly.

Marxist economics generally denies the trade-off of time for money. In the Marxist view, concentrated control over the méans of production is the basis for the allocation of resources among classes.  Scarcity of any particular physical resource is subsidiary to the central question of power relationships embedded in the méans of production.

The question of the environment is viewed, in the traditional economic framework, as being related to the externalization of costs. That is, market economics assumes that a good which is underpriced, is overconsumed. Externalization of cost, in this view, will be corrected by pricing the overconsumed resources which are being used, for example the work of Lester Thurow and also see Pigovian taxes. Not all economics study accepts this paradigm, and, instéad, there is a seven decade old tradition of viewing economic relationships as being based on the scarcity of energy, rather than price, as the central féature of economics.

Value Theory

It could be argued that benéath an economic théory is a théory of value. Value can be defined as the underlying activity which economics describes and méasures. It is what is "really" happening.

Adam Smith defined "labor" as the underlying source of value, and "the labor theory of value" underlies the work of Karl Marx, David Ricardo and many other "classical" economists. The "labor theory of value" argues that a good or service is worth the labor that it takes to produce, and the abundance or scarcity of labor determines the price of a commodity. The labor théory of value and the closely related cost-of-production theory of value  dominates the work of most classical economists, but they are far from the only accepted basis for "value". For example neoclassical economists and Austrian School economists prefer the marginal theory of value.

"Market theory" argues that there is no "value" separate from price, that the market incorporates all available information into price, and that so long as markets are open, that price and value are one and the same. This théory rests on the idéa of the "rational economic actor".  This was orginally asserted by Mill.

Another set of théories rest on the idéa that there is a basic external scarcity, and that "value" represents the relationship to that basic scarcity. Théories based on economics being limited by energy or based on a "gold standard" are of this type.

All of these value théories are used in current economic work.

Price

Price is the méasurable quantities involved in an exchange. Price théory, therefore, charts the movement of méasurable quantities over time, and the relationship between price and other méasurable variables. In Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations this was the trade-off between price and convenience. A gréat déal of economic théory is based around prices and the théory of supply and demand.

Supply and demand assume that the factors affecting the agents who supply a particular commodity can be separated from those who wish to sell it. Sellers have a quantity they would wish to sell at every given price and a price for any quantity they wish to sell; buyers have a quantity they will demand at any given price and a price that they will pay to if they have to buy a particular quantity.

The market 'cléars' at the point where all the supply and demand at a given price balance. That is, the amount of a commodity available at a given price equals the amount that buyers are willing to purchase at that price. It is assumed that there is a process that will result in the market réaching this point, but exactly what the process is in a réal situation is an ongoing subject of reséarch. Markets which do not cléar will réact in some way, either by a change in price, or in the amount produced, or in the amount demanded. Graphically the situation can be represented by two curves; one showing the price-quantity combinations buyers will pay for, or the demand curve, one showing the combinations sellers will sell for, or the supply curve. The market cléars where the two are in equilibrium, that is where the curves intersect. In a general equilibrium modél, all markets in all goods cléar simultanéously and the 'price' can be described entirely in terms of tradéoffs with other goods. For a century the Say's Law was believed in economic théory, which said that markets, as a whole, would always cléar.

In many practical economic modéls, some form of "price stickiness" is incorporated to modél the observed fact that in many markets prices do not move fluidly. Economic policy often revolves around arguments as to what is causing "economic friction", or price stickiness, and which is, therefore, preventing the supply and demand from réaching equilibrium.

Another aréa of economic controversy is on whether price méasures value correctly. In mainstréam market economics, where there are significant scarcities not factored into price, there is said to be an externalization of cost. Market economics predicts that scarce goods which are under-priced are over-consumed (See social cost). This léads into public goods théory.

Economics and other disciplines

There is some degree of tension between economics and ethics, another of the most basic social sciences, which tends to avoid quantification and emphasize balances of rights.  modérn economics déals with this tension explicitly – according to some thinkers a théory of economics is also, or implies also, a théory of moral reasoning.  One way economists déal with this is to qualify discussions of economic choice by noting that "all else being equal..." referring to moral or social factors that are supposedly held equivalent for all choices that one might make.  For exploration of this issue, see the moral purchasing article.

Another premise is that economics fits within a finite ecosystem where there are at léast some abundant resources – for instance, when fueling a fire one is usually concerned with finding the wood, and not so much with finding the air to burn it with.  Economics explicitly does not déal with free abundant inputs – one criticism is that it often conflicts with ecology's view of what affects what.  Human beings are, according to ecologists, merely one species participating in a vast energy system on this planet – economy is a subset of ecology that déals with just one species' habits and wants.  See nature's services for the economic view of ecology and green economics for the view wherein economics is a subset of ecology.

A third premise is that economics suggests market forms and other méans of distribution of scarce goods that do not just affect "desires and wants" but also "needs" and "habits".  Much of so-called economic "choice" is involuntary, certainly given the conditioning that péople have to expect certain quality of life.  This léads to one of the most hotly debated aréas in economic policy: namely the effect and efficacy of welfare policies.  This is viewed as a failure to respect economics réasoning by libertarians, who argue that redistribution of wéalth is morally and economically wrong. And viewed as a failure of economics to respect society by socialists, who argue that disparities of wéalth should not have been allowed in the first place.  This led to both 19th century labour economics and 20th century welfare economics before being subsumed into human development theory.

The debates above are all quite old.  The term economics was coined in around 1870, and popularised by influential "neoclassical" economists such as Alfred Marshall.  Prior to this the subject had been known as political economy and referred to "the economy of polities" – competing states.  The older term is still often used instead of economics, especially by radical economists such as Marxists who strongly question assumptions of "mainstream" technical and quantitative economics.  Use of this term often signals an a basic disagreement with the terminology or paradigm of market economics. Political economy explicitly brings political considerations into economic analysis and therefore tends to be more normative. Some mainstréam universities (such as the University of Toronto and many in the United Kingdom) have a political economy department rather than an economics department.

See also

Microeconomics
Microeconomics — Supply and Demand — Consumer Theory — Production theory — Experimental economics — Behavioral economics — General equilibrium — Industrial organization — Financial economics — Managerial economics — International trade — Labor economics — Development economics — Environmental economics — Welfare economics — Public choice theory — Public goods — Transport economics — Health economics — Marginal demand

Macroeconomics
Macroeconomics — Stabilisation policy — Monetary policy — Fiscal policy — Economic growth — Purchasing power parity — Supply side economics — Keynesian economics — Gold standard

Methodology
Cycles — Econometrics — Game Theory — Mathematical economics — Evolutionary economics

Related fields
History of economic thought — Economic history — Praxeology — Political economy — Political science — Economic geography — Finance — Operations research — Economic anthropology — Public finance — Home economics — Neuroeconomics

Critics
Steve Keen

Selected topics
Communism — Capitalism — Coordinatorism — Market economy — Informal economy — Freiwirtschaft — Synthetic economies — Participatory economics — Natural capitalism — Stock exchange — economic indicator — Regulation — Deregulation — Privatization — Network effect— Laissez-faire

Finding related topics
List of economics topics
List of economic geography topics
List of finance topics
List of economics consultancies and think tanks
List of economists
List of international trade topics
Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel
List of production topics
List of accounting topics
List of management topics
List of marketing topics
List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics
List of information technology management topics
List of human resource management topics
List of business law topics
 Important publications in economics

Tumbu kaluar

 Buku téks ékonomi na Bukuwiki
 A source of free study notes on economics
 A guide to several online economics textbooks
OCED Statistics Organization For Co-operation and Economic Development Statistical site.
 Economics Directory
Bureau of Labor Statistics American Labor Department's statistical division.
World Bank's Data Web Page
US Department of Commerce Economics Statistics
World Lecture Hall  Economics Section
Essential Principles of Economics  Text in Progress on Economics
Economics Resources on the Net
National Bureau of Economic Research Economics material from the organization that declares Recessions and Recoveries.
The library of economics and liberty , a site with numerous articles and essays written by well-known economists
St Louis Federal Reserve Gateway to the Federal Reserve, including working papers, links to lectures and other material.
David Friedman's Price Theory Text Entire text on-line.
Brief Introduction to Macroeconomics by Paul Krugman
Paul Krugman's Page, including the essay There's something about macro.
 LibertyForums – Classical Liberal, Libertarian & Objectivist Discussion Board
 The National Voluntary Content. ERIC Digests.
 Recent Trends in Economic Education. ERIC Digest.
 Classiques des Sciences Sociales  More than 800 full text books and articles (in French)

Ékonomi
Élmu sosial

Ékonomi


Francis Ysidro Edgeworth (Edgeworthstown, Irlanda, 1845eko otsailaren 8a - Oxford, 1926ko otsailaren 13a) irlandar ekonomialaria izan zen, bereziki mikroekonomian egindako ekarpenengatik ezaguna. Estatistikan ere lan ugari zituen, hala nola zenbaki indizeen arloan.

Lanak

Bildumak
 F. Y. Edgeworth (1925) Papers relating to political economy 3 vols. Available online at Gallica
 Philip Mirowski (ed.)(1994). Edgeworth's Writings on Chance, Economic Hazard, and Statistics, Rowman & Littlefield.
 Charles R. McCann Jr. (ed.)(1966) F.Y. Edgeworth: Writings in Probability, Statistics and Economics, 3 vols. Cheltenham, Glos.: Elgar.
 Peter Newman (ed.) (2003) F.Y. Edgeworth : Mathematical psychics, and further papers on political economy Oxford University Press.

Artikulu eta liburuak
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 New and Old Methods of Ethics, 1877.
 "The Hedonical Calculus", 1879, Mind

 Mathematical Psychics: An essay on the application of mathematics to the moral sciences, 1881.
 "Mr. Leslie Stephen on Utilitarianism", 1882, Mind
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 "The Method of Least Squares", 1883, Phil Mag
 "The Physical Basis of Probability", 1883, Phil Mag
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 "Review of Jevons's Investigations", 1884, Academy
 "The Rationale of Exchange", 1884, JRSS
 "The Philosophy of Chance", 1884, Mind
 "On the Reduction of Observations", 1884, Phil Mag
 "A Priori Probabilities", 1884, Phil Mag
 "Chance and Law", 1884, Hermathena
 "Methods of Statistics", 1885, Jubilee Volume of RSS.
 "The Calculus of Probabilities Applied to Psychic Research, I & II", 1885, 1886, Proceedings of Society for Psychic Research
 "On Methods of Ascertaining Variations in the Rate of Births, Deaths and Marriages", 1885, JRSS
 "Progressive Means", 1886, JRSS
 "The Law of Error and the Elimination of Chance", 1886 Phil Mag
 "On the Determination of the Modulus of Errors", 1886, Phil Mag
 "Problems in Probabilities", 1886, Phil Mag
 "Review of Sidgwick's Scope and Method", 1886, Academy
 "Review of Jevons's Journals", 1886, Academy
 "Four Reports by the committee investigating best method of ascertaining and measuring variations in the monetary standard", 1887, Reports of the BAAS (Parts I & 3; Part 2)
 "Observations and Statistics: An essay on the theory of errors of observation and the first principles of statistics", 1887, Transactions of Cambridge Society.
 Metretike, or the method of measuring probability and utility, 1887.
 "On Observations Relating to Several Quantities", 1887, Hermathena
 "The Law of Error", 1887, Nature
 "The Choice of Means", 1887, Phil Mag
 "On Discordant Observations", 1887, Phil Mag
 "The Empirical Proof of the Law of Error", 1887, Phil Mag
 "On a New Method of Reducing Observations Relating to Several Quantities", 1888, Phil Mag
 "New Methods of Measuring Variation in General Prices, 1888, JRSS
 "The Statistics of Examinations", 1888, JRSS
 "The Value of Authority Tested by Experiment", 1888, Mind
 "Mathematical Theory of Banking", 1888, JRSS
 "On the Application of Mathematics to Political Economy: Address of the President of Section F of the British Association for the Advancement of Science", 1889, JRSS
 "The Mathematical Theory of Political Economy: Review of Walras's Elements", 1889, Nature
 "Review of Wicksteed's Alphabet", 1889, Academy
 "Review of Bohm-Bawerk's Kapital und Kapitalismus", 1889, Academy
 "Review of Bertrand's Calcul des Probabilites", 1889, J of Education
 "Points at which Mathematical Reasoning is Applicable to Political Economy", 1889, Nature
 "Appreciation of Gold", 1889, QJE

 "The Element of Chance in Competitive Examinations", 1890, JRSS
 "Economic Science and Statistics", 1889, Nature
 "Review of Marshall's Principles", 1890, Nature
 "Review of Jevons's Pure Logic", 1890, Academy
 "Review of Walras's Elements", 1890, Academy
 "Review of Bohm-Bawerk's Capital and Interest", 1890, Academy
 "La Théorie mathématique de l'offre et de la demande et le côut de production", 1891, Revue d'Economie Politique
 "Osservazioni sulla teoria matematica dell' economica politica", 1891, GdE (trans. "On the Determinateness of Economic Equilibrium")
 "Ancora a proposito della teoria del baratto", 1891, GdE
 "Review of Ricardo's Principles", 1891, J of Education
 "Review of Keynes's Scope and Method", 1891, EJ
 "An Introductory Lecture on Political Economy", 1891, EJ
 "Review of Sidgwick's Elements of Politics", 1891, EJ
 "Review of Second Edition of Marshall's Principles", 1891, EJ
 "Mathematical Investigations in the Theory of Value and Prices," Connecticut Academy, 1892.
 "Correlated Averages", 1892, Philos Magazine
 "The Law of Error and Correlated Averages", 1892, Philos Magazine.
 "Recent Attempts to Evaluate the Amount of Coin Circulating in a Country", 1892, EJ
 "Review of Marshall's Economics of Industry", 1892, Nature
 "Review of Cantillon's Essai", 1892, EJ
 "Review of Palgrave's Dictionary", 1892, EJ
 "Review of Bohm-Bawerk's Positive Theory of Capital", 1892, EJ
 "Review of Smart's Introduction to the Theory of Value", 1892, EJ
 "Review of Dusing's Das Geschlechtverhaltniss", 1892, EJ
 "Review of Benson's Capital, Labor and Trade", 1892, EJ
 "Review of Smart's Women's Wages", 1893
 "Review of Bonar's Philosophy", 1893, Mind
 "Review of Walsh's Bimetallism", 1893, EJ
 "Review of Fisher's Mathematical Investigations", 1893, EJ
 "Professor Böhm-Bawerk on the Ultimate Standard of Value", 1894, EJ
 "One More Word on the Ultimate Standard of Value", 1894, EJ
 "Review of Wiser's Natural Value", 1894, EJ
 "Theory of International Values: Parts I, II and III", 1894, EJ
 "Recent Writings on Index Numbers", 1894, EJ
 "The Measurement of Utility by Money", 1894, EJ
 "Asymmetric Correlation between Social Phenomenon", 1894, JRSS
 Entries: "Average", "Census", "Cournot", "Curves", "Demand Curves", Difficulty of Attainment", "Distance in Time", "Error", 1894, in Palgrave, editor, Dictionary of Political Economy, Vol. 1.
 "Review of the Webbs' History of Trade Unionism", 1894, EJ
 "Review of Third Edition of Marshall's Principles", 1895, EJ
 "Mr. Pierson on the Scarcity of Gold", 1895, EJ
 "Thoughts on Monetary Reform", 1895, EJ
 "The Stationary State in Japan", 1895, EJ
 "A Defense of Index-Numbers", 1896, EJ
 "Statistics on Unprogressive Communities", 1896, JRSS
 "The Asymmetrical Probability Curve (Abstract)", 1894, Proceedings of Royal Society
 "The Asymmetrical Probability Curve", 1896, Phil Mag
 "The Compound law of Error", 1896, Phil Mag
 Entries: "Gossen", "Index Numbers", "Intrinsic Value", "Jenkin", "Jennings", "Least Squares" and "Mathematical Method", 1896, in Palgrave, editor, Dictionary of Political Economy, Vol. 2.
 "Review of Price's Money", 1896, EJ
 "Review of Nicholson's Strikes and Social Problems", 1896, EJ
 "Review of Pierson's Leerboek, Vol. 1", 1896, EJ
 "Review of Pierson's Leerkook, Vol. 2", 1897, EJ
 "Review of Bastable, Theory of International Trade", 1897, EJ
 "Review of Grazani's Istituzioni", 1897, EJ
 "La teoria pura del monopolio", 1897, GdE, (trans."The Pure Theory of Monopoly")
 "The Pure Theory of Taxation: Parts I, II and III", 1897, EJ
 "Miscellaneous Applications of the Calculus of Probabilities", Parts 1, 2, 3, 1897, 1898, JRSS
 "Review of Cournot's Recherches", 1898, EJ
 "Professor Graziani on the Mathematical Theory of Monopoly", 1898, EJ
 "Review of Darwin's Bimetallism", 1898, EJ
 "On the Representation of Statistics by Mathematical Formulae", Part 1 (1898), Parts 2, 3, 4 (1899)
 "On a Point in the Theory of International Trade", 1899, EJ
 "Review of Davidson, Bargain Theory of Wages", 1899, EJ
 "Professor Seligman on the Mathematical Method in Political Economy", 1899, EJ
 Entries: "Pareto", "Pareto's Law", "Probability", Supply Curve" and "Utility", 1899, in Palgrave, editor, Dictionary of Political Economy, Vol. 3
 "Answers to Questions by Local Taxation Commission", 1899, Reprint of Royal Commission for Local Taxation
 "The Incidence of Urban Rates, Parts I, II and III" 1900, EJ
 "Defence of Mr. Harrison's Calculation of the Rupee Circulation", 1900, EJ
 "Review of J.B. Clark's Theory of Distribution", 1900, EJ
 "Review of Smart's Taxation of Land-Values", 1900, EJ
 "Review of Bastable, Theory of International Trade (3rd edition)", 1897, EJ
 "Review of Bonar and Hollander, Letters of Ricardo", 1900, EJ
 "Mr. Walsh on the Measurement of General Exchange Value", 1901, EJ
 "Disputed Points in the Theory of International Trade", 1901, EJ
 "Review of Gide's Cooperation", 1902, EJ
 "Review of Wells's Anticipations", 1902, EJ
 "Methods of Representing Statistics of Wages and Other Groups Not *"Fulfilling the Normal Law of Error", with A.L. Bowley, 1902, JRSS
 "The Law of Error", 1902, Encycl Britannica
 "Review of Cannan's History of Theories of Production", 1903, EJ
 "Review of Bortkiewicz's Anwendungen and Pareto's Anwendungen", 1903, EJ
 "Review of Bastable's Public Finance", 1903, EJ
 "Review of Bastable's Cartels et Trusts", 1903, EJ
 "Review of Pigou's Riddle of the Tarriff", 1904, EJ
 "Review of Nicholson's Elements", 1904, EJ
 "Review of Bowley's National Progress", 1904, EJ
 "Review of Plunkett's Ireland", 1904, EJ
 "Review of Northon's Loan Credit", 1904, EJ
 "Review of Graziani's Istituzione", 1904, EJ
 "Review of Dietzel's Vergeltungzolle", 1904, EJ
 "Preface", 1904, in J.R. MacDonald, editor, Women in the Printing Trades.
 "The Theory of Distribution", 1904, QJE
 "The Law of Error", 1905, Transactions of Cambridge Society
 "Review of Nicholson's History of English Corn Laws", 1905, EJ
 "Review of Cunynghame's Geometrical Political Economy", 1905, EJ
 "Review of Carver's Theory of Distribution", 1905, EJ
 "Review of Taussig's Present Position", 1905, EJ
 "Review of Henry Sidgwick: A memoir", 1906, EJ
 "The Generalised Law of Error, or Law of Great Numbers", 1906, JRSS
 "Recent Schemes for Rating Urban Land Values", 1906, EJ
 "On the Representation of Statistical Frequency by a Series", 1907, JRSS
 "Statistical Observations on Wasps and Bees", 1907, Biometrika
 "Review of de Foville's Monnaie and Guyot's Science economique", 1907, EJ
 "Appreciations of Mathematical Theories", Parts I & II (1907), Parts III & IV (1908), EJ
 "On the Probable Errors of Frequency Constants", I, II & III (1908), Add. (1909), JRSS
 "Review of Andreades's Lecture on the Census", 1908, EJ
 "Review of Rea's Free Trade", 1908, EJ
 "Review of Withers's Meaning of Money", 1909, EJ
 "Review of Mitchell's Gold Prices", 1909, EJ
 "Review of Jevons's Investigations", 1909, EJ
 "Application du calcul des probabilités à la Statistique", 1909, Bulletin de l'Institut international de statistique
 "On the Use of the Differential Calculus in Economics to Determine Conditions of Maximum Advantage", 1909, Scientia
 "Applications of Probabilities to Economics, Parts I & II", 1910, EJ.
 "The Subjective Element in the First Principles of Taxation", 1910, QJE
 "Review of John Stuart Mill's Principles", 1910, EJ
 "Review of Colson's Cours", 1910, EJ
 "Review of J. Maurice Clark's Local Freight Discriminations", 1910, EJ
 "Review of Hammond's Railway Rate Theories", 1911, EJ
 "Probability and Expectation", 1911, Encycl Britannica
 "Monopoly and Differential Prices", 1911, EJ
 "Contributions to the Theory of Railway Rates", Part I & II (1911), Part III (1912), Part IV (1913), EJ
 "Review of Moore's Laws of Wages", 1912, EJ
 "Review of Pigou's Wealth and Welfare", 1913, EJ
 "On the Use of the Theory of Probabilities in Statistics Relating to Society", 1913, J of RSS
 "A Variant Proof of the Distribution of Velocities in a Molecular Chaos", 1913, PhilMag
 "On the Use of Analytical Geometry to Represent Certain Kinds of Statistics", Parts I-V, 1914, J of RSS
 "Recent Contributions to Mathematical Economics, I & II", 1915, EJ
 On the Relations of Political Economy to War, 1915.
 The Cost of War and ways of reducing it suggested by economic theory, 1915.
 "Economists on War: Review of Sombart, etc.", 1915, EJ
 "Review of Pigou's Economy and Finance of War", 1916, EJ
 "Review of Preziosi's La Germania alla Conquista dell' Italia", 1916, EJ
 "British Incomes and Property", 1916, EJ
 "On the Mathematical Representation of Statistical Data", Part I (1916), Parts II-IV (1917), J of RSS
 "Review of Gill's National Power and Prosperity", 1917, EJ
 "Review of Lehfeldt's Economics in Light of War", 1917, EJ
 "Some German Economic Writings about the War", 1917, EJ
 "After-War Problems: Review of Dawson at al.", 1917, EJ
 "Review of Westergaard's Scope and Methods of Statistics", 1917, JRSS
 "Review of Anderson's Value of Money", 1918, EJ
 "Review of Moulton and Phillips on Money and Banking", 1918, EJ
 "Review of Loria's Economic Causes of War", 1918, EJ
 "Review of Arias's Principii", 1918, EJ
 "Review of Smith-Gordon, Rural Reconstruction of Ireland and Russell's National Being", 1918, EJ
 "On the Value of a Mean as Calculated from a Sample", 1918, EJ
 "An Astronomer on the Law of Error", 1918, PhilMag
 Currency and Finance in Time of War, 1918.
 "The Doctrine of Index-Numbers According to Prof. Wesley Mitchell", 1918, EJ
 "Psychical Research and Statistical Method", 1919, JRSS
 "Methods of Graduating Taxes on Income and Capital", 1919, EJ
 "Review of Cannan's Money", 1919, EJ
 "Review of Andreades's Historia", 1919, EJ
 "Review of Lehfeldt's Gold Prices", 1919, EJ
 A Levy on Capital for the Discharge of the Debt, 1919.
 "Mathematical Formulae and the National Commission on Income Tax", 1920, EJ
 "On the Application of Probabilities to the Movement of Gas Molecules", Part I (1920), Part II (1922), Phil Mag
 "Entomological Statistics", 1920, Metron
 "Review of Gustav Cassel's Theory of Social Economy", 1920, EJ
 "Review of Bowley's Change in Distribution of National Income", 1920, JRSS
 "Review of the Webbs' History of Trade Unionism", 1920, EJ
 "Molecular Statistics", Part I (1921), Part II (1922), JRSS
 "On the Genesis of the Law of Eror", 1921, PhilMag
 "The Philosophy of Chance", 1922, Mind
 "The Mathematical Economics of Professor Amoroso", 1922, EJ
 "Equal Pay to Men and Women for Equal Work", 1922, EJ
 "Review of Keynes's Treatise on Probability", 1922, JRSS
 "Review of Pigou's Political Economy of War", 1922, EJ
 "Statistics of Examinations", 1923, JRSS
 "On the Use of Medians for Reducing Observations Relating to Several Quantities", 1923, Phil Mag
 "Mr. Correa Walsh on the Calculation of Index Numbers", 1923, JRSS
 "Index Numbers According to Mr. Walsh", 1923, EJ
 Women's Wages in Relation to Economic Welfare, 1923, EJ
 "Review of Marshall's Money, Credit and Commerce", 1923, EJ
 "Review of The Labour Party's Aim", 1923, EJ
 "Review of Bowley's Mathematical Groundwork", 1924, EJ
 "Review of Fisher's Economic Position of the Married Woman", 1924, EJ
 "Untried Methods of Representing Frequency", 1924, JRSS
 Papers Relating to Political Economy, 3 volumes, 1925.
 "The Plurality of Index-Numbers", 1925, EJ
 "The Element of Probability in Index-Numbers", 1925, JRSS
 "The Revised Doctrine of Marginal Social Product", 1925, EJ
 "Review of J.M. Clark's Overhead Costs", 1925, EJ.
 "mathematical method in political economy," 1926, Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy, reprinted in 1987, The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3.
 "Mr Rhode's Curve and the Method of Adjustment", 1926, JRSS

Irlandako ekonomialariak
Estatistikariak
Irlandako matematikariak
Longford konderriko jendea

Francis Ysidro Edgeworth


Akbar (Abu'l-Fath Jalal ud Son of Virat Kohli. Akbar, 25 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), also known as Akbar the Great was the 3rd Mughal Emperor.ref name="iranica"></ref> He was born in Umerkot (now Pakistan). He was the son of 2nd Mughal Emperor Humayun.

Akbar became the de jure king in 1556 at the age of 13 when his father died. Akbar was too young to rule, so Bairam Khan was appointed as Akbar's regent and chief army commander. Soon after coming to power Akbar defeated Himu, the general of the Afghan forces, in the Second Battle of Panipat. After a few years, he ended the regency of Bairam Khan and took charge of the kingdom. He initially offered friendship to the Rajputs. However, he had to fight against some Rajputs who opposed him. In 1576 he defeated Maharana Pratap of Mewar in the Battle of Haldighati. Akbar's wars made the Mughal empire more than twice as big as it had been before, covering most of the Indian subcontinent except the south (excluding the Deccan Plateau).

Administration

Akbar's system of central government was based on the system that had evolved since the Delhi Sultanate, but the functions of various departments were reorganised with detailed regulations for their functioning
 The revenue department was headed by a wazir, responsible for all finances and management of jagir and inamdar feudal lands.
 The head of the military was called the mir bakshi, appointed from among the leading nobles of the court. The mir bakshi was in charge of intelligence gathering, and also made recommendations to the emperor for military appointments and promotions.:)
 The mir saman was in charge of the imperial household, including the harems, and supervised the functioning of the court and royal bodyguard.
 The judiciary was a separate organization headed by a chief qazi, who was also responsible for religious beliefs and practices. in

Religious policy
Akbar was a Muslim. He realized that to establish a strong empire, he had to gain the confidence of his Hindu people who were the majority in India.

Din-i-ilahi (Religion of God) was a religious path suggested by Akbar. It was a code of moral conduct which reflected Akbar's secular ideas and he desire to achieve peace, unity, tolerance in his empire. Belief in one god, worship of source of light, non-killing of animals, Having peace with all were some features of Din-i-ilahi. It didn't have any rituals, holy books, temples or priests.

Male circumcision was not to be done before the boy was 12 years old, and after that it was optional. It was a Jewish custom adopted by Islam. Akbar's rule was that it should be made optional and should be done, if at all, at an age when boys could understand what it was. Here Akbar gave every man a choice and opportunity to have a play of his reason. Indeed, the boy of reason as he was, he could not deny it to others.

When he was at Fatehpur Sikri, he held discussions as he loved to know about others' religious beliefs. On one such day, he got to know that the religious people of other religions were often bigots (intolerant of others religious beliefs). This led him to form the idea of the new religion, Sulh-e-kul meaning universal peace. His idea of this religion did not discriminate other religions and focused on the ideas of peace, unity and tolerance. This gesture of his made the Hindus and people of other religions call him with different names and start loving him.

Personality
Akbar's reign was chronicled by his court historian Abul Fazal in the books Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari. Other sources of Akbar's reign include the wod Sirhindi. Akbar was an artisan, warrior, artist, armourer, administrator carpenter, emperor, general, inventor, animal trainer, technologist. He became emperor at the age of 13.

Navaratnas
Akbar had Navaratnas (nine jewels in Sanskrit) in his court which include Abul Fazl, Faizi, Tansen, Birbal, Raja Todar Mal, Raja Man Singh, Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, Fakir Azizudin and Mohd Shakil Hasan

Akbarnama
(Pronounced as Akbar-e-Namah)The Akbarnāma means the Book of Akbar. It is the official biographical account of Akbar written by Abu Fazl. It includes vivid and detailed descriptions of his life and times. It also includes the information about the flora, fauna, life of the people of his reign, and the places Akbar used to visit.

The work was commissioned by Akbar, and written by Abul Fazl, one of the Navratnas (Nine Jewels) of Akbar's royal court. The book took seven years to complete. An illustration was done in the Mughal school of painting. A part of this is Ain-i-Akbari.

Death
On 3 October 1605, Akbar fell ill with an attack of dysentery, from which he never recovered. Twelve days after his sixty third year he died on 27 October 1605, after which his body was buried at a mausoleum in Sikandra (Agra): Akbar's tomb.

References

1542 births
1605 deaths
Akbar
Deaths from dysentery

Akbar


Walter Arnold Hadlee  (4 June 1915 – 29 September 2006) was a New Zealand cricketer and Test match captain. He played domestic first-class cricket for Canterbury and Otago.  Three of his five sons, Sir Richard, Dayle and Barry played cricket for New Zealand. The Chappell–Hadlee Trophy, which is competed for by ODI teams from New Zealand and Australia is named in honour of the Hadlee family and the Australian Chappell family.

Hadlee captained one of New Zealand's most highly regarded teams, the 1949 side which toured England in an era when New Zealand had yet to win a Test. As an administrator, he guided New Zealand cricket in the mid-1970s during years of increasing professionalism, the Kerry Packer threat and the sporting boycott of South Africa.

He was awarded the Bert Sutcliffe Medal in 2001.

Early life
Hadlee was born in Lincoln, Canterbury.  His father was a blacksmith with 9 siblings, whose parents arrived in Dunedin in 1869.   The young Hadlee fell in love with cricket when he was about 10. He read cricket history avidly, kept scorebooks of all the big games at Lancaster Park, and practised assiduously.  Though he initially appeared awkward, at Christchurch Boys' High School, he also played hockey and rugby, and developed into a punishing batsman, particularly strong on the drive.  He finished his school career by captaining the first eleven.  He trained as a chartered accountant.

First-class career
In his first season for Canterbury (1933–34) Hadlee averaged over 50, and 94 in his second; he eventually scored 10 centuries for the province. Hadlee played 44 matches for Canterbury before retiring in 1951–52, having scored 3,183 runs at an average of 43.60.  His highest score was 194 not out.

After playing against touring MCC teams, Hadlee made his Test debut for New Zealand against England at Lord's in 1937, only 11 years after New Zealand joined the Imperial Cricket Conference, and 7 years after it played in its first Test match.  Tall and elegant, he was known as an upright and attacking opening batsman. He missed the opportunity to play during the Second World War.  His short sight prevented him from joining the Armed Forces.

He scored 198 for Otago against the touring Australian team in 1945–46, and was appointed captain of New Zealand for the first Test in peacetime, against Australia that year.  On a rain-affected pitch in Wellington, New Zealand were bowled out for 42 and 54, losing by an innings, and did not play Australia again in Tests until 1973–74.

Although he made 1,225 runs in 1937, including an innings of 93 in the Test at Old Trafford which ended after he trod on his stumps, it was his captaincy of the 1949 New Zealand team to England that proved to be the pinnacle of his playing career. The 1949 team is still cited as one of the finest New Zealand has sent abroad and there were some illustrious names in the side, including Bert Sutcliffe, Martin Donnelly, John Reid, Jack Cowie, Tom Burtt, Harry Cave, Merv Wallace, Verdun Scott, Geoff Rabone and Frank Mooney.  During the tour, he scored 1,439 runs, averaging 36 an innings, with two centuries. Out of 35 matches, his team lost just one, to Oxford University, on a rain-damaged pitch, and drew the four-Test series 0–0.

As leading English writer John Woodcock noted: "Hadlee was a courageous and enterprising batsman, a popular and successful captain who played his cricket in the sporting manner usually associated with his country". John Arlott called him a "strategic commander of real ability".

In all, Hadlee played 19 innings in 11 Tests, scoring 543 runs at an average of 30.16.  He was never dismissed in Tests in single figures.  His last Test was against England in Wellington in 1950–51.  His only Test century, 116, was scored against England at Christchurch in 1946–47 as an opening batsman.  He retired from first-class cricket in 1952. He continued playing senior club cricket in Christchurch for another 15 years, eventually scoring a record 15,391 club runs.

In his first-class career, he scored 7523 runs from 117 matches, averaging 40.44 and notching up 18 centuries.

Cricket administration
Hadlee was a national selector, a New Zealand team manager, and a member of the management committee and Board of Control of New Zealand cricket from 1950 to 1983. He was chairman from 1973 to 1978 and president from 1981 to 1983.

He was a member of the "No Maoris, No Tour" protest movement, protesting against the All Blacks tour to South Africa in 1960.  He was later blacklisted by the South African Non-Racial Olympic Committee (SANROC) for writing an article in the 1982 Wisden  which called for South Africa be permitted to play international cricket.  In the 1950 King's Birthday Honours, Hadlee was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for services in the field of sport, and he was promoted to Commander of the same order, for services to cricket, in the 1978 Queen's Birthday Honours.

Private life
Hadlee married Lilla Monro in 1940.  They had met on the ship to England in 1937.  They had five sons. He took great pride that three of his five sons represented New Zealand: Dayle, a Test fast bowler, and Barry, a batsman in the inaugural 1975 Cricket World Cup, were eclipsed by Richard, who became a leading all-rounder: he took 431 Test wickets – a world record at the time – and 1,490 first class wickets, and also finished with a Test batting average of 27.16.  Richard was knighted for services to cricket.  A fourth son, Martin, played club cricket in Christchurch.

When asked to vote, for the 2000 edition of Wisden, for his choice of the five cricketers of the 20th century, he included his son Richard, confessing it was "embarrassing ... But there's a job to be done.  I will cite the bare facts."  He had considered Dennis Lillee for his selection, but found Richard's test match performance put him marginally ahead.

He published an autobiography, Innings of a Lifetime, in 1993.

In later life, he enjoyed lawn bowls.  He died, aged 91, at the Princess Margaret Hospital in Christchurch, reportedly from a stroke, some six weeks after hip replacement surgery.

On 20 January 2017, Walter Hadlee's son, Sir Richard Hadlee, spoke about a project he has undertaken about his father 's 1949 England tour as New Zealand captain. He shared how Walter Hadlee was an important figure in his life.

References

External links

Walter Hadlee dies aged 91, Cricinfo, 29 September 2006.
 Obituary, The Times, 30 September 2006
Obituary, The Independent, 2 October 2006
 Obituary, The Daily Telegraph, 3 October 2006

1915 births
2006 deaths
New Zealand Test cricket captains
New Zealand Test cricketers
Canterbury cricketers
Otago cricketers
New Zealand cricket administrators
New Zealand Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Cricketers from Christchurch
People educated at Christchurch Boys' High School
New Zealand national cricket team selectors
Burials at Avonhead Cemetery
People from Lincoln, New Zealand
Walter
South Island cricketers

Walter Hadlee


Santiago Argüello (1791–1862) was a Californio, a soldier in the Spanish army of the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Las Californias, a major Mexican land grant ranchos owner, and part of an influential family in Mexican Alta California and post-statehood California.

Family
Santiago Argüello was born in Monterey, Las Californias Province of New Spain. He was the son of: José Darío Argüello - a soldier, pioneer in Las Californias, founder of Pueblo de Los Angeles (Los Angeles), twice a Spanish colonial governor (of Alta California and of Baja California); and María Ignacia Moraga - a niece of José Joaquín Moraga, the founder of Pueblo de San José (San Jose).  His brother was Luis Antonio Argüello, California's first native-born governor, in office from 1822–1825 as Mexican Alta California governor.

Argüello married María del Pilar Ortega in Santa Barbara in 1810, the granddaughter of José Francisco Ortega - Commandant of the Presidios of San Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterey, and Loreto. Also Mayor of Pueblo de San Diego. They had fifteen children together, five in Santa Barbara and ten in San Diego.
Among their children were:
Santiago E. Argüello, Francisco, Ignacio, José Antonio, José Ramon Argüello, Santiago E. Arguello, Refugia (married to Juan Bandini), Teresa (married to José M. Bandini), María Luisa (married to governor Agustín V. Zamorano), and Concepción (married to Agustin Olvera).

Argüello was tall and stout. His fair complexion and black hair, along with his distinguished manner gave him a 'regal' presence,  though his reserved manners caused some to dislike him. He was a man of ability and left an 'honorable' record.

Career
In 1805, Argüello entered the Spanish Army as a cadet in Yerba Buena (present day San Francisco).  He spent his Spanish and Mexican military years at the Presidio of San Francisco, the Presidio of Santa Barbara, and the Presidio of San Diego.

Presidio and Pueblo of San Diego
Argüello was paymaster at the Presidio of San Diego in 1818, and in 1821 had a garden in Mission Valley.

Argüello took part in preparations to defend the Presidio against the 1818 Hippolyte de Bouchard Piracy Invasion but, after attacking Mission San Juan Capistrano, Bouchard bypassed San Diego and continued south into Mexico. Post-Mexican Independence (1822), Argüello was lieutenant of the San Diego Company from 1827–31, and commandant from 1830 to 1835. From 1831 to 1835, Argüello was captain of the company and took part, with his brother-in-law Agustín V. Zamorano, in the 1831 revolt against Governor Manuel Victoria. In 1833-34 he was a revenue officer at San Diego.

Argüello helped the pueblo (town) of San Diego in 1835, with other soldiers.  They sent a committee of five to the presidio commandant to complain of pueblo residents' hunger, lack of clothing, and back pay due - with a demand for payment to them. The commandant began to put the five soldiers in irons, but the threats of their comrades compelled him to desist. They appealed to the General, who promised justice for the residents, which he administered soon after.

Ranchos
In 1829, Argüello was granted Rancho Tía Juana. From 1838 to 1840  Santiago Argüello was administrator of the Mission San Juan Capistrano, and in 1841 for that service he was granted Rancho Trabuco.  In 1846 Argüello was granted Rancho Ex-Mission San Diego from the secularized Mission San Diego de Alcalá lands.

Mexican-American War
During the Mexican–American War he was friendly to the Americans and gave them considerable aid, fighting at Fort Stockton. He welcomed the stabilizing influence of the Americans, as the Mexican Alta California government was in disarray after the ouster of Governor Manuel Micheltorena in 1846.

With his brother-in-law Juan Bandini he issued an appeal not to resist the Americans. U.S. soldiers were quartered at his house and he held a commission as captain in the U.S. California Battalion.

He was a member of the U.S. California military territory legislative council in 1847, and was later made customs collector of the Port of San Diego.

Santiago Argüello died on his Rancho Tía Juana in Baja California, Mexico, in 1862. He is buried at El Campo Santo in San Diego, California. His widow María died in 1878.

See also
List of Ranchos of California
List of pre-statehood governors of California
  For the various branches of the last name in both the Western Hemisphere and in Spain see also Argüello

References

Californios
People of Mexican California
Mexican people of the Mexican–American War
People of the Conquest of California
1791 births
1862 deaths
Mayors of places in Mexico
Mexican-American people in California politics
Paymasters
People from Monterey, California
Military personnel from San Diego

Santiago Argüello


1000 ईसापूर्व से पहले
 2000 ईसापूर्व — Scotland, Carved Stone Balls exhibit a variety of symmetries including all of the symmetries of Platonic solids.
 1800 BC — Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, findings volume of a frustum
 1650 BC — Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, copy of a lost scroll from around 1850 BC, the scribe Ahmes presents one of the first known approximate values of π at 3.16, the first attempt at squaring the circle, earliest known use of a sort of cotangent, and knowledge of solving first order linear equations

ईसा पूर्व प्रथम सहस्राब्दी
 800 ईसापूर्व — बौधायन, author of the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, a Vedic Sanskrit geometric text, contains quadratic equations, and calculates the square root of 2 correct to five decimal places
 ca. 600 BC — the other Vedic "Sulba Sutras" ("rule of chords" in Sanskrit) use Pythagorean triples, contain of a number of geometrical proofs, and approximate π at 3.16
 5th century BC — Hippocrates of Chios utilizes lunes in an attempt to square the circle
 5th century BC — Apastamba, author of the Apastamba Sulba Sutra, another Vedic Sanskrit geometric text, makes an attempt at squaring the circle and also calculates the square root of 2 correct to five decimal places
 530 BC — Pythagoras studies propositional geometry and vibrating lyre strings; his group also discover the irrationality of the square root of two,
 370 BC — Eudoxus states the method of exhaustion for area determination
 300 BC — Euclid in his Elements studies geometry as an axiomatic system, proves the infinitude of prime numbers and presents the Euclidean algorithm; he states the law of reflection in Catoptrics, and he proves the fundamental theorem of arithmetic
 260 BC — Archimedes proved that the value of π lies between 3 + 1/7 (approx. 3.1429) and 3 + 10/71 (approx. 3.1408), that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle and that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal base and height. He also gave a very accurate estimate of the value of the square root of 3.
 225 BC — Apollonius of Perga writes On Conic Sections and names the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola,
 150 BC — Jain mathematicians in India write the "Sthananga Sutra", which contains work on the theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, quartic equations, and permutations and combinations
 140 BC — Hipparchus develops the bases of trigonometry.

प्रथम सहस्राब्दी
 ca. 340 — Pappus of Alexandria states his hexagon theorem and his centroid theorem
 500 — Aryabhata writes the "Aryabhata-Siddhanta", which first introduces the trigonometric functions and methods of calculating their approximate numerical values. It defines the concepts of sine and cosine, and also contains the earliest tables of sine and cosine values (in 3.75-degree intervals from 0 to 90 degrees)
 600s — Bhaskara I gives a rational approximation of the sine function
 700s — Virasena gives explicit rules for the Fibonacci sequence, gives the derivation of the volume of a frustum using an infinite procedure, and also deals with the logarithm to base 2 and knows its laws
 700s — Shridhara gives the rule for finding the volume of a sphere and also the formula for solving quadratic equations
 820 — Al-Mahani conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as doubling the cube to problems in algebra.
 ca. 900 — Abu Kamil of Egypt had begun to understand what we would write in symbols as
 975 — Al-Batani — Extended the Indian concepts of sine and cosine to other trigonometrical ratios, like tangent, secant and their inverse functions. Derived the formula:  and .

1000–1500
 ca. 1000 — Law of sines is discovered by Muslim mathematicians, but it is uncertain who discovers it first between Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, Abu Nasr Mansur, and Abu al-Wafa.
 ca. 1100 — Omar Khayyám "gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections." He became the first to find general geometric solutions of cubic equations and laid the foundations for the development of analytic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry. He also extracted roots using the decimal system (Hindu-Arabic numeral system).
 1135 — Sharafeddin Tusi followed al-Khayyam's application of algebra to geometry, and wrote a treatise on cubic equations which "represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry."
 ca. 1250 — Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi attempts to develop a form of non-Euclidean geometry.
 15th century — Nilakantha Somayaji, a Kerala school mathematician, writes the "Aryabhatiya Bhasya", which contains work on infinite-series expansions, problems of algebra, and spherical geometry

17वीं शताब्दी
 1600s – Putumana Somayaji writes the "Paddhati", which presents a detailed discussion of various trigonometric series
 1619 – Johannes Kepler discovers two of the Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra.

18वीं शताब्दी
 1722 – Abraham de Moivre states de Moivre's formula connecting trigonometric functions and complex numbers,
 1733 – Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri studies what geometry would be like if Euclid's fifth postulate were false,
 1796 – Carl Friedrich Gauss proves that the regular 17-gon can be constructed using only a compass and straightedge
 1797 – Caspar Wessel associates vectors with complex numbers and studies complex number operations in geometrical terms,

19th century
 1806 – Louis Poinsot discovers the two remaining Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra.
 1829 – Bolyai, Gauss, and Lobachevsky invent hyperbolic non-Euclidean geometry,
 1837 – Pierre Wantsel proves that doubling the cube and trisecting the angle are impossible with only a compass and straightedge, as well as the full completion of the problem of constructibility of regular polygons
 1843 – William Hamilton discovers the calculus of quaternions and deduces that they are non-commutative,
 1854 – Bernhard Riemann introduces Riemannian geometry,
 1854 – Arthur Cayley shows that quaternions can be used to represent rotations in four-dimensional space,
 1858 – August Ferdinand Möbius invents the Möbius strip,
 1870 – Felix Klein constructs an analytic geometry for Lobachevski's geometry thereby establishing its self-consistency and the logical independence of Euclid's fifth postulate,
 1873 – Charles Hermite proves that e is transcendental,
 1878 – Charles Hermite solves the general quintic equation by means of elliptic and modular functions
 1882 – Ferdinand von Lindemann proves that π is transcendental and that therefore the circle cannot be squared with a compass and straightedge,
 1882 – Felix Klein invents the Klein bottle,
 1899 – David Hilbert presents a set of self-consistent geometric axioms in Foundations of Geometry

20वीं शताब्दी
 1901 – Élie Cartan develops the exterior derivative,
 1905 – Einstein's theory of special relativity.
 1912 – Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer presents the Brouwer fixed-point theorem,
 1916 – Einstein's theory of general relativity.
 1930 – Casimir Kuratowski shows that the three-cottage problem has no solution,
 1931 – Georges de Rham develops theorems in cohomology and characteristic classes,
 1933 – Karol Borsuk and Stanislaw Ulam present the Borsuk-Ulam antipodal-point theorem,
 1955 – H. S. M. Coxeter et al. publish the complete list of uniform polyhedron,
 1981 – Mikhail Gromov develops the theory of hyperbolic groups, revolutionizing both infinite group theory and global differential geometry,
 1983 – the classification of finite simple groups, a collaborative work involving some hundred mathematicians and spanning thirty years, is completed,
 1991 – Alain Connes and John Lott develop non-commutative geometry,
 1998 – Thomas Callister Hales (almost certainly) proves the Kepler conjecture,

21वीं शताब्दी
 2003 – Grigori Perelman proves the Poincaré conjecture,
 2007 – a team of researches throughout North America and Europe used networks of computers to map E8 (mathematics).

सन्दर्भ

बीजगणित
ज्यामिति

बीजगणित और ज्यामिति का कालक्रम


Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet (December 10, 1787 - September 10, 1851) was an American teacher and the founder of the American School for the Deaf. He founded the school in 1817.

History
Gallaudet was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He went to Yale University. He got his bachelor's degree in 1805 and master's degree in 1808. He wanted to do many things for example,  study law or study religion. In 1814, Gallaudet became a preacher.

Gallaudet chose not to become a preacher when he met Alice Cogswell, the nine-year-old deaf daughter of a neighbor, Dr. Mason Cogswell. He taught her many words by writing them in the dirt. Cogswell asked Gallaudet to go to Europe to learn ways for teaching deaf people.

While in Great Britain, he met Abbé Sicard, head of a school for deaf people in Paris, and two of its deaf teachers, Laurent Clerc and Jean Massieu. Sicard asked Gallaudet to go to Paris to study the school's ways of teaching the deaf. Gallaudet studied with Sicard. He learned sign language from Massieu and Clerc, who were both graduates of the school.

Gallaudet asked Clerc to go back to America with him. The two men toured New England and got money to create a school for deaf students in Hartford, Connecticut which later became known as the American School for the Deaf. Young Alice was one of the first seven students in the United States.

1787 births
1851 deaths
American teachers
Yale University alumni
Educators from Philadelphia

Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet


Imago is a Filipino rock band composed of Kharren "Kurei" Granada (vocals), Myrene "Maps" Academia (bass), Tim Cacho (guitar), Zach Lucero (guitar) and Mervin Panganiban (drums).

History
Imago was formed in 1997 With Aia de Leon on vocals and rhythm guitar, Tim Cacho on lead guitar, Arvin Gatmaitan on bass and back up vocals, Zach Lucero on drums and London-born Michelle Pritchard on violin. After their tribal-sounding track entitled "Rainsong" spent considerable time being played on NU107's In The Raw, a program for independent bands in the country, it eventually graduated into the station's mainstream playlist.  They were then signed a recording contract with Viva Records and were able to record their debut album entitled, Probably Not But Most Definitely under the helm of producer/musician Bob Aves and Grace Nono. The album was released in June 27, 2001, and included 19 tracks which included their pre-album songs like "Rainsong" and "Alay" as well as an electronica remix of "Rainsong" by friend and musician (former Eraserheads drummer) Raimund Marasigan under the Squid 9 nom de musique.  The album was highly regarded by the alternative industry for their courage to take on a Celtic/World Music feel in their music rather than the rap-growl (fondly known as "Hupaw" by most music critics) scene that was growing at the time, as well as the poetic approach to their lyrics.

The band has picked up a handful of Katha and NU107 Rock Awards (Best Female Award for Aia De Leon and Best Music Video for "Akap") from the first cd. All this while maintaining a consistent public presence around Metro Manila, playing in various venues with other bands in the lineup as well as part of various production events such as Admit One and Sunday Grabe Sunday.  During this time, Aia also joined the all-girl alt-pop band Fatal Posporos, as a bassist, replacing their original member Annette Ortiz who left for the United States and now a member of the newly reformed Filipino band, Prettier than Pink.

Around this time period, bassist Arvin Gatmaitan and violinist Michelle Pritchard parted ways with the band. Arvin played with progressive metal band Eternal Now and went into the English Training business, alongside teaching stringed instruments (bass, guitar, ukulele) at The British School Manila. Michelle followed her other passion, race car driving and became a regular competitor in the Philippine motorsports scene. Michelle was also hosting the NBC TV show, Auto Review and was associate editor for C! Magazine. Michelle was briefly married to Wolfgang drummer, Wolf Gemora and has now returned to her London roots and is now married to Irish-born Kevin Byrne with whom she has two young boys. Michelle's signature Celtic-influenced violin strokes were missed by many early fans as Imago's sound morphed into mainstream pop shortly after Myrene Academia, former NU107 DJ and Sandwich bassist joined the band.

Imago's second album was released 2 years after, though they had been playing most of their new material during gigs.  Recorded in 2003, the CD's release was delayed by unexpected record label setbacks and was thus aptly titled Take 2 which was clearly a reflection of the band's second attempt in releasing an album. The material is relatively heavier compared to the first album, trading in the ethereal cum New Age sensibilities with a modern pop rock flavor, even incorporating rap along with the staccato-type of singing they had been known for. Released independently, Take 2 featured hit songs such as Akap and Anino  [2]. Take 2 produced the new sound and gave the band a wider audience, having been played in some mainstream CHR (Current Hit Radio) format stations. "Taning" was also included in the soundtrack to the Peque Gallaga comeback experimental film, Pinoy Blonde.

In 2006, Imago released their third album, "Blush" under Universal Records. with "Taralets" as the lead single which was one of the certified hits of 2006 in the radio and music video channels. The song was also used as a theme song for the movie "Pitong Dalagita" and as a campaign jingle for a Philippine senatorial candidate. In the same year, they recorded a revival of Ewan, which was originally sung by the APO Hiking Society. In 2007, they earned a nomination for Favorite Artist in the 2007 MYX Music Awards. They also released their second single of their "Blush" album, "Sundo". The music video was directed by Marie Jamora which was also the director for their previous videos, Akap and Taralets.

After the success of the third single Walang Misteryo, their fourth single, entitled "Under Repair" was recently released. The video of the latest single features the band impersonating ABBA.

"Blush" has also been certified Gold Record in the Philippines January 2008, for reaching 15,000 copies,  shortly after the release of the album's Special Edition CD.

In March 2008, the band was invited to be one of the many other artists from all over the world to perform in the annual Mosaic Music Festival in Singapore. Lead vocalist Aia de Leon, also shared vocal duties with Broken Social Scene's Kevin Drew during his band's opening number at the same event.

In 2010, Imago released its fourth album entitled "Effect Desired None" with "Huling Yakap Ng Mundo" as the lead single.

In April 2013, lead vocalist Aia de Leon left the band. On September 13, it was announced that Mayumi Gomez would be the band's new lead vocalist.

On June 25, 2014, Imago released its Kapit album. With 8 tracks on the album, Imago fans recognized the familiar sound of the group they were accustomed to. The album is produced by Raimund Marasigan of Sandwich and Eraserheads fame.

Band members
Current members
Kharren "Kurei" Granada– lead vocals (2022–present)
Myrene Academia – bass guitar, backing vocals (1997–present)
Tim Cacho – lead guitar (1997–present)
Zach Lucero – lead and rhythm guitar, backing vocals, occasional drums and percussion (1997–present)
Mervin Panganiban – drums and percussion (2013–present)

Early members
Aia de Leon – lead vocals, guitars (1997–2013)
Michelle Pritchard – violin (1997–2002)
Arvin Gatmaitan – bass guitar, backing vocals (1997-2003)
Mayumi Gomez - lead vocals, keyboards (2013–2019)
Kiara San Luis – lead vocals, guitar (2019–2022)

Discography

Probably Not But Most Definitely (2001)
Pretty me
Pauna
Rainsong
Bathala
The Box
Tugon
Hiwaga
On Shadows & Tendencies
Do
Alay
Salitoo
Otherwise
Idlip
Salitree
Unwed
Wishlist
Laya
18
(Bonus Track) Rainsong Remix

Take 2 (2004)
Freefall
Phoenix
Akap
Bihag
Taning
Anino
Reset
Gratitude
One Way
Soft Return
Rush
Roasted Anino Mix (Bonus track)
Preset/Reset (Bonus track)
Taning/Mahal kong Kalaguyo (Bonus track)
Taning/Ipagpatuloy ang Kasalanan (Bonus track)

Blush (2006)
Zelo
Lula
Sundo
Under Repair
Highway
Lights Out
Last Dance
Closer
Taralets
Walang Mysteryo
So Be It
S.R.O

Effect Desired None (2010)
Bawal
Ang Huling Yakap Ng Mundo
Sutil
Sa Ngalan Mo
Yahoo
Effects Desired None
Premonition
Can I
Sagad
Spare Change Glitter

Kapit (2015)
Kapit
Nagkalimutan
Then was Forever
Summer Baby
Sa Wala
Malaya
Then Was Forever (Remix)
Kapit (Remix)

Miscellaneous
Spolarium - Ultraelectromagneticjam!: The Music Of The Eraserheads
Ewan - Kami nAPO muna
Let It Snow - Close Up Season of Smiles
Umagang Kay Ganda - Theme Song for ABS-CBN's "Umagang Kay Ganda" morning program
Love is in my hair (OST for the CineMalaya Film entry PISAY)
Show Me Your Smile - Kami nAPO muna ulit
Taralets - Theme Song for Pitong Dalagita
Blue Kiss (song) - Cover song (Promotional Purposes only)

Collaborations of Imago
Ultraelectromagneticjam!: The Music Of The Eraserheads (Sony BMG Music Philippines, 2005)
ROK ON! (Viva Records, 2005)
Kami nAPO muna (Universal Records, 2006)
Super! The Biggest Opm Hits Of The Year (Universal Records, 2006)
Pinoy Ako 2 (Star Music, 2006)
Kami nAPO muna ulit (Universal Records, 2007)
The OPM Love Album (Universal Records, 2008)
Super Astig Hits (Universal Records, 2016)

Awards and nominations

References

External links
Official Yahoogroups

Filipino rock music groups
Universal Records (Philippines) artists
Musical groups from Quezon City
Musical groups established in 1997
1997 establishments in the Philippines
Female-fronted musical groups

Imago (band)