The History of North America deals with an area where humans came to live relatively recently, compared to Africa, Europe, and Asia.

Scientists have different theories as to the origins of the early human population of the continent.  The indigenous peoples of North America themselves have many creation stories, that tell that native Americans have been present on the land since its creation.

Pre-Columbian Era

Before contact with Europeans the natives of North America were divided into many different communities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in several culture areas, which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones of North America and give a good indication of the main occupation of the people who lived there (e.g. the Bison hunters of the Great Plains, or the farmers of Mesoamerica). Native groups can also be classified by their language family. It is important to note that peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, nor were they always allies.

Scientists believe that the Inuit people of the high Arctic came to North America much later than other native groups, as evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture artifacts from the archaeological record, and their replacement by the Thule people.

During the thousands of years of native inhabitation on the continent, cultures changed and shifted. Archaeologists often name different cultural groups they discover after the site where they are first found. One of the oldest cultures yet found is the Clovis culture of modern New Mexico. A more recent example is the group of related cultures called the Mound builders (e.g. the Fort Walton Culture), found in the Mississippi river valley. They flourished from 3000 BC to the 1500s AD.

The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes and squash. Perhaps most importantly they domesticated one of the world's major staples, maize (corn).

As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, important cultural development was possible there. For example, the Maya civilization developed a writing system, built huge pyramids, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero 500 years before anyone in the Old World. The Mayan culture was still present when the Spanish arrived in Central America, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire farther north.

Upon the arrival of the Europeans in the "New World", native peoples found their culture changed drastically. As such, their affiliation with political and cultural groups changed as well, several linguistic groups went extinct, and others changed quite quickly. The name and cultures that Europeans recorded for the natives were not necessarily the same as the ones they had used a few generations before, or the ones in use today.

Arrival of Europeans

Early discoveries

There was limited contact between North American peoples and the outside world before 1492. Several theoretical contacts have been proposed, but the earliest physical evidence comes to us from the Norse or Vikings. Norse captain Leif Erikson is believed to have reached the Island of Newfoundland circa 1000 AD. They named their new discovery Vinland. The only Norse site yet discovered in North America is at L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland and Labrador. The Norse colonies were later abandoned.

The Viking voyages did not become common knowledge in the Old World, and Europeans remained ignorant of the existence of the Americas, until 1492. As part of a general age of discovery Italian sailor Christopher Columbus proposed a voyage west from Europe to find a shorter route to Asia. He eventually received the backing of Isabella I and Ferdinand II, Queen and King of newly united Spain. In 1492 Columbus reached land in the Bahamas.

Almost 500 years after the Norse, John Cabot explored the east coast of what would become Canada in 1497. Giovanni da Verrazzano explored the East Coast of America from Florida to presumably Newfoundland in 1524. Jacques Cartier made a series of voyages on behalf of the French crown in 1534 and penetrated the St. Lawrence River.

Successful colonization

Initially, European activity consisted mostly of trade and exploration. Eventually Europeans began to establish settlements. The three principal colonial powers were Spain, England, and France, although eventually even small powers like the Netherlands and Sweden received minor holdings on the continent.

Settlement by the Spanish started the European colonization of the Americas, involving genocide of the native Indians. They gained control of most of the largest islands in the Caribbean and conquered the Aztecs, gaining control of present-day Mexico and Central America. This was the beginning of the Spanish Empire in the New World. The first successful Spanish settlement in continental North America was Veracruz in 1519, followed by many other settlements in colonial New Spain and Spanish Florida.

The first successful English settlements were at Jamestown (1607) (along with its satellite, Bermuda in 1609) and Plymouth (1620), in what are today Virginia and Massachusetts respectively. The first French settlements were Port Royal (1604) and Quebec City (1608) in what is now Nova Scotia and Quebec. The Fur Trade soon became the primary business on the continent and as a result transformed the Native Americans lifestyle.

Farther to the south, plantation slavery became the main industry of the West Indies, and this gave rise to the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade.

Colonial Era

By 1663 the French crown had taken over control of New France from the fur-trading companies, and the English  charter colonies gave way to more metropolitan control.  This ushered in a new era of more formalized colonialism in North America.

Rivalry between the European powers created a series of wars on the North American landmass that would have great impact on the development of the colonies.  Territory often changed hands multiple times.  Peace was not achieved until French forces in North America were vanquished at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec City, and France ceded most of her claims outside of the Caribbean.

Viceroyalty of New Spain was the name of the viceroy-ruled territories of the Spanish Empire in Asia, North America and its peripheries from 1535 to 1821.

Age of Revolutions

The coming of the American Revolution had a great impact across the continent.  Most importantly it directly led to the creation of the United States of America.  However, the associated American Revolutionary War was an important war that touched all corners of the region.  The flight of the United Empire Loyalists led to the creation of English Canada as a separate community.  Meanwhile, Spain's hold on Mexico was weakening. Independence was declared in 1810 by Miguel Hidalgo, starting the Mexican War of Independence. In 1813, José María Morelos and the Congress of Anáhuac signed the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America, the first legal document where the separation of the New Spain with respect to Spain is proclaimed. Spain finally recognized Mexico's independence in 1821.

Expansion era

From the time of independence of the United States, that country expanded rapidly to the west, acquiring the massive Louisiana territory in 1803.  An attempt at northern expansion was blocked by Britain during the War of 1812.  At the same time, British settlement in Canada increased.
US expansion was complicated by the division between "free" and "slave" states, which led to the Missouri Compromise 1820.  Likewise, Canada faced a division between French and English communities that led to the outbreak of civil strife in 1837.  Mexico faced constant political tensions between liberals and conservatives, as well as the rebellion of the English-speaking region of Tejas, which declared itself the Republic of Texas 1836.  In 1845 Texas joined the United States, which would later lead to the Mexican–American War.  As a result of conflict with Mexico, the United States made further territorial gains in California and the Southwest.

In Mexico, the entire era was dominated by the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz.

World Wars era

The Great War

As part of the British Empire, Canada immediately was at war in 1914.  Canadian troops bore the brunt of several major battles during the early stages of the war including the use of poison gas attacks at Ypres.  Newfoundland troops suffered a devastating loss on July 1, 1916, the First day on the Somme.  Losses became grave, and the government eventually brought in conscription, despite the fact this was against the wishes of the majority of French Canadians.  In the ensuing Conscription Crisis of 1917, riots broke out on the streets of Montreal.

The United States stayed apart from the conflict until 1917, joining the Entente powers.  The United States was then able to play a crucial role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that shaped interwar Europe.

Mexico was not part of the war as the country was embroiled in the Mexican Revolution at the time.

Interwar years

The 1920s brought an age of great prosperity in the United States, and to a lesser degree Canada.  But the Wall Street Crash of 1929 combined with drought ushered in a period of economic hardship in the United States and Canada.

From 1936 to 1949, this was a popular uprising against the anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917.

The Second World War

Once again Canada found itself at war before its neighbours, however even Canadian contributions were slight before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

The entry of the United States into the war helped to tip the balance in favour of the allies.

Two Mexican tankers, transporting oil to the United States, were attacked and sunk by the Germans in the Gulf of Mexico waters, in 1942. The incident happened in spite of Mexico's neutrality at that time. This led Mexico to declare war to the Axis nations and entered the conflict.

The devastation of Europe in the war led North American countries to more important roles in world affairs. The United States especially emerged as a "superpower".

Post-War
The early Cold War era saw the United States as the most powerful nation in a Western coalition of which Mexico and Canada were also a part. At home, the United States witnessed convulsive change especially in the area of race relations. In Canada this was mirrored by the Quiet Revolution and the emergence of Quebec nationalism.

Mexico experienced an era of huge economic growth after World War II, a heavy industrialization process and a growth of its middle class, a period known in Mexican history as the "El Milagro Mexicano" (Mexican miracle).

The Caribbean saw the beginnings of decolonization, while on the largest island the Cuban Revolution introduced Cold War rivalries into Latin America.

Notes

References
 Bennett, Norma V. (1997), Pioneer Legacy,
 Kane, Katie Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination Cultural Critique, No. 42 (Spring, 1999), pp. 81–103 doi:10.2307/1354592
 Churchill, Ward A Little Matter of Genocide 1997 City Lights Books

History of North America

History of North America


William Laughton Lorimer (1885-1967) wis a scholar o the Greek an Scots leid enthusiast frae Strathmairtine near Dundee, best kent for pittin The New Testament ower intil Scots.  He wis the first Scots New Testament translator tae wirk straucht frae the oreeginal Greek texts an no frae an Inglis version.

Life
Lorimer wis born tae Rev. Robert Lorimer, a meenister o the Free Kirk o Scotand, an Isabella Lockhart Robertson, the sievent o aicht bairns born til thaim.  He wis eddicate at the High School of Dundee, Fettes College (whaur he wis Heid o the Schuil for twa year) an Trinity College, Oxford whaur he leared at Clessical leids an leeteratur.  In 1910 he wis appyntit Asseestant in the Greek tae Professor Burnet at the Varsity o Saunt Andras.  He bidit in Saunt Andras, whaur he mairiet on ane o his students, Marion Rose Gordon, in 1915.  Tho he wis commeesioned in the Gordon Hielanders in 1914, problems wi his heal meant he coudna perform fechtin service ava, an sae frae 1916 tae 1919 wrocht in the Intelligence Directorate o the Weir Office, whaur his readin o the neutral press kindelt in him an interest in lesser spak leids an the strauchles thay faced.  Efter the Weir endit, he retoured wi his guidwife an young son tae Saunt Andras finally settlin doun in 1921.  The follaein year his guidwife dee'd o a suddent, as wis ordinar in thae days, he teuk in a maid tae help wi the raisin o his son.  This maid, Mrs Helen MacGregor (1873/4 - 1930) wis a native speaker o Scots, an ower the years baith William Lorimer an his son learnt mair nor a tait Scots frae her.  He retired frae his wark at the Varsity in 1955, an efter an illness stairtin in December 1966, he dee'd on the 25t o Mey the follaein year, at the auld eild o aichty-ane.

The New Testament

The Translate
Lorimer haed aye been interestit in the Scots leid (syne he wis a bairn o nine year auld he haed written doun Scots wirds an eedioms) an his kennin o the strauchles o minority leids that he got frae his readins o the neutral press durin the Weir led him tae feel that something needit daein tae rescue the Scots leid.  He becam convinced, that gin Socts wis tae be ruised up frae the laich status that it haed fawen tae, it needit twa main things first: I) a guid modren dictionar an II) a guid modren translate o The New Testament that maist weel-read fowk an mony ithers wad be fameeliar wi.  Sometime aboot September 1945, he decidit tae yoke tae on pittin The New Testament ower intil Scots.  Bein an unco dab-haund wi leids, he read throu mony translates o New Testament beuks (for exemplar he reads throu at least 174 translates o the cutty beuk o Philemon in twinty-three leids includin aicht in the Laitin, twa in the Coptic, twa in Syriac, twa in Nether-Saxon, twinty-three in German, sieven in Dens, five in Norse, three in Swadish, ane in Faeroese, sax in Dutch, twa in Fleems, twinty-twa in French, ane in Occitanian, twa in Catalan, fowerteen in Italian, fower in Rhaeto-Romaunsch, fower in Modren Greek, twa in Scots, fowerty-aicht in Inglis an ane in Esperanto).

His first drauchts wis begoued in 1957, an bi early 1961 he stairtit wark on The Gospels that teuk him twa year an three month tae feenish the first drauchts o.  The last o the first drauchts (that seems tae hae been Hebrews) wis feenished on the 10t o October 1965.  It haed sae faur taen him aicht year tae pit the hail New Testament ower intil Scots.  Bi nou he wis aichty year auld, an aw he haed wis the first draucht.  He stairtit his reveesions o the drauchts, but as it cam tae be clearer that he wadna leeve muckle langer, he stairtit makkin jottins anent whit he wantit duin wi the warks - anent spellins an sae furth.

As he seems tae hae kent, Lorimer wadna leeve tae feenish his great darg.  He dee'd in 1967 wi maist o his manuscripts unrevised.  The wark passed on tae his son, Robert Lorimer, wha uised his faither's jottins for guidal as he revised an edited the texts.  In 1983, twinty-sax year efter Lorimer begoud his first drauchts an saxteen year efter he dee'd, The New Testament In Scots wis finally setten furth.

It wes an instant success, sellin oot the hail first prent-rin in jist thrie week, an haes been established synesen as ane o the great classics o Scots leitature, an ane o the heidmaist Scots warks o the 20t century, an can be aften fun in lists o great Scottish buiks.

Style
Lorimer wis aye keen tae evyte scrievin in ae style, but raither wantit tae pit ower the sindry styles o the oreeginal scrievers wi deeferent styles o Scots.  Pairt o this wis won at wi his spellins (see ablo), but wi the prose styles an aw.  Abuin aw, Lorimer's hamelt style wis able tae mak sic fowk as Jesus an Peter kythe as jyners an fisherfowk bi evytin makkin thaim spaek in airteeficial, heichly elevatit styles as thay dae in mony translates.  At the same time, his prose haes the musardie that chairacterises Scots prose - alleeterations (Ye canna sair God an Gowd - Matt. 6:24), plentifu eedioms (Black s' be your faa - Matt. 23:13),  seemalies (My speech will be like the cheepin o a spug tae him, an his will be like the chitterin o a swallow tae me - I Cor 14:11) an sae furth.  In daein sae, Lorimer shawed himsel tae be a maister o Greek eedioms forby - as in the last exemplar that gaes intil muckle depth anent the oreegins o the Greek wird βάρβαρος (bárbaros).

Spellin
For tae represent mair better the deeferent styles o Greek uised bi the scrievers o The New Testament Lorimer held back frae uisin a staundart orthography in his translate, jottin himsel that  "Jesus spakna staundart Aramaic" .  For tae win at this, Lorimer sortit the documents o The New Testament intil twal authorial units that wad hae internal orthographic conseestancy, tho thay wad be slichtly deeferent frae ilk ither.  Thir authorial units wis:

Matthew
Mark [ootwi 2 (a) an 16: 9-20]
Luke, Acts
John, I John, II John, III John [ootwi 4 (a) Jn. 7:53- 8:11: 4 (b), Jn. 21]
Paul - inc. Romans, I an II Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, Colossians, I an II Thessalonians, Philemon, an Ephesians
Pastorals inc. I an II Timothy an Titus
Hebrews
Jeames
I Peter
II Peter
Jude
Revelation

Uisin thir authorial units alloued Lorimer tae wirk aboot orthographical issues that haedna been redd at the time (mony o them still haesna) sic as the uiss o aa/aw an oo/ou.  He coud uise aw the variants tae gie ilk authorial unit its ain chairacter as it haes in the Greek but no in ither leids sic as the Inglis translate that maist Scots wis fameeliar wi.  Forby he rejectit the uiss o the apologetic apostrophe an uises-it-na ava. Lorimer uised accents as a haund for thaim that's no acquent wi Scots for tae shaw whit vouel soonds is tae be uised - e.g. he uises thaim in wirds sic as Spírit  an Generâtion.

Recordit version
At the Edinburgh Beuk Festival, 2006, a recordtit CD version o the Gospel o Luke read bi Scots actor Tam Fleming wes set furth tae gey positive reviews an selt oot.  Ae review cam in Lallans - Nummer 70, as wes bi the weil kent Scots screiver David Purves:

Lorimer's leid, as read by Tam Fleming, haes the ring o truith about it, an the dramatic smeddum needfu in onie artistic performance.  Thir ir pryceless qualities in a warld nou under thraet frae globalisation an social collapse.

In 2008, Wild Goose Publications (the publishin brainch o the Iona Community) an the Lorimer Trust brocht oot the ithir thrie Gospels (Matthew, Mark an John), read bi Tam Fleming an aa.  Thir recordins haes been praised frae monie fowk, amang thaim the weil kent an respectit umwhile MP, Tony Benn:

...WL Lorimer's translate o The New Testament intil Scots an the readin o it by Tam Fleming carries [the greinin fer justice] forrit in a gate that'll mak it faur mair real tae thaim that heir it.  Fer the Bible is the dyte o the conflicts atween the Kinds that haed pouer an the Prophets that preachit richteousness an thon conflict is alive the day an aye wull be.

Kirkman Canon William Anderson wes positive aboot the recordins anaa:

...Whit we hae been gied is nae sense a performance, but raither a thochtfou darg o luve...This is a gem o a recordin that we suld be deeply greatfou fer...

Ither wark
Tho Lorimer's maist kenspeckle wark wis his New Testament in Scots, his ingine in baith the Scots an Greek led tae ither contreibutions in thir fields.  Forby wirkin on the revised edeetion Liddell & Scott's Greek Lexicon, he wis ane o heidmaist ootside contreebuters tae the Scottish National Dictionary, an in 1947 he wis waled as a member o the Scottish National Dictionary Association's Executive Cooncil, a body that he wis chairman o frae 1953 till his daith in 1967.

Miscellanie
A quote frae Lorimer's translate is setten afore the Scots Pairlament.  It is taen frae I Corinthians 13 an reads:
Gin I speak wi the tungs o men an angels, but hae nae luve in my hairt, I am nane better nor a dunnerin bress or a rínging cymbal.

References

Soorces
The New Testament in Scots - translate bi William Laughton Lorimer (1983)
William Lorimer's New Testament in Scots an appreciation - David Ogston (chaipter taen frae The Bible in Scottish Life and Literature, ed. David F. Wright (1988)
A History o the Scots Bible: wi Selected Texts - Graham Tulloch (1989)
Review o spoken wird recordin o Luke's Gospel frae Lorimer's translate bi Tom Fleming - David Purves, Lallans 70.  (2007)

Fremmit airtins
Sample o the owerset, evenin Inglis an Scots - the Parable o the Guid Samaratin (Luke 10: 25–37
Lorimer's owerset, frae Canongate
Spaeken wurd recordin o Luke's Gospel bi Tam Fleming, frae Wild Goose Publications / Iona Community
Easter Tide readins frae the owerset by Tam Fleming

1885 births
1967 daiths
Fowk frae Angus
Fowk eddicatit at the Heich Schuil o Dundee
Fowk eddicatit at Fettes College
Alumni o Trinity College, Oxford
Academics o the Varsity o St Andras
Scots-leid writers
Breetish biblical scholars
Scots lexicographers
Scots translators
Translators frae Greek
Translators o the Bible intae Scots

William Laughton Lorimer


Laccaria amethystina, commonly known as the amethyst deceiver, or amethyst laccaria, is a small brightly colored mushroom, that grows in deciduous and coniferous forests. The mushroom itself is edible, but can absorb arsenic from the soil. Because its bright amethyst coloration fades with age and weathering, it becomes difficult to identify, hence the common name "deceiver". This common name is shared with its close relation Laccaria laccata that also fades and weathers. It is found mainly in Northern temperate zones, though it is reported to occur in tropical Central and South America as well. Recently, some of the other species in the genus have been given the common name of "deceiver".

Taxonomy
This species was first described in 1778 by well-known English botanist and apothecary William Hudson as Agaricus amethystinus, and later put into the genus Laccaria by Mordecai Cubitt Cooke. The amethyst deceiver has had many binomials over a great many years, but reference to the amethyst coloration is featured in most of these. It was once placed in the genus Collybia, as Collybia amethystina, which was probably due in part to its tough collybioid-like stem. Its present binomial places it in the genus Laccaria, with the specific epithet amethystina, a pairing first used by Cooke in 1884. In 1922 it was named as a variant of Laccaria laccata, Laccaria laccata var. amethystina (Cooke) Rea, which is now a synonym.

Description

The cap is 1–6 cm in diameter, and is initially convex, later flattening, and often with a central depression (navel). When moist it is a deep purplish lilac, which fades upon drying out. It is sometimes slightly scurfy at the center, and has pale striations at the margin.  The stem is the same colour as the cap, and has whitish fibrils at the base, which become mealy at the top. It is fibrous, hollow, fairly tough when rolled in the fingers, with dimensions of  long by  thick. The flesh is without a distinctive taste or smell, and is thin, with pale lilac coloration. The gills are colored as the cap, often quite distantly spaced, and are dusted by the white spores; their attachment to the stem is sinuate—having a concave indentation before attaching to the stem.

Microscopic characteristics
The spores are spherical and hyaline, and bear pointed spines (echinulate) that are long relative to the size of the spore; they typically have dimensions of 7–10 by 7–10 µm. The basidia, the spore-bearing cells, are club-shaped and hyaline, and are 30–64.5 by 8.5–14  µm.

Distribution and habitat
Laccaria amethystina is a common species in most temperate zones of Europe, Asia, Central, South, and eastern North America. It grows solitary to scattered with a variety of deciduous and coniferous trees, with which it is mycorrhizally associated, though it most commonly occurs with trees in the Fagales. It appears in late summer to early winter, and often with beech; in Central and South America, it more commonly grows in association with oak. Research has shown that L. amethystina is a so-called "ammonia fungus", an ecological classification referring to those fungi that grow abundantly on soil after the addition of ammonia, or other nitrogen-containing material; the congeneric species Laccaria bicolor is also an ammonia fungus.

Edibility
As with other members of the genus Laccaria, this species is edible, though generally not considered a choice edible. While not inherently toxic, in soils that are polluted with arsenic, it can bioaccumulate a high concentration of that element.

Similar species
There are several purplish species in North America that were formally labeled as L. amethystina before Gregory M. Mueller described them as distinct species in 1984. Laccaria amethysteo-occidentalis is found in western North America, where L. amethystina does not occur. It is a very common mushroom in its geographical range. Besides geographical difference, L. amethysteo-occidentalis differs from L. amethystina in several ways: ecologically, the former occurs only in association with conifers, while the latter occurs mainly with hardwoods of the order Fagales. The sporocarp of L. amethysteo-occidentalis is on average larger than that of L. amethystina, and has a deeper purple coloration, that fades to vinaceous rather than brownish shades. The spores are also quite distinct between the two, in that the spores of L. amethysteo-occidentalis are not as strongly globose as those of L. amethystina, being generally of a subglobose or even broadly ellipsoid shape, and additionally having much shorter spines than the spores of L. amethystina.

Another species that was segregated by Mueller from L. amethystina is Laccaria vinaceobrunnea, a species found in the Gulf Coast region of the southern United States. L. vinaceobrunnea is distinguished from L. amethystina and L. amethysteo-occidentalis macroscopically by color, with the former species having a deep purple color only in very young specimens, which soon fades to a violaceous- or reddish-brown color, and eventually to dull orange-brown or buff color with age. Its spore features are intermediate between L. amethystina and L. amethysteo-occidentalis, having a subglobose to broadly ellipsoid shape like L. amethysteo-occidentalis (rather than the strongly globose shape of L. amethystina spores) and long spines characteristic of L. amethystina. The pileipellis of L. vinaceobrunnea is unique within Laccaria, having a distinct palisadoderm, rather than the undifferentiated type or fasciculate trichoderm that is characteristic of other species of Laccaria. L. vinaceobrunnea is also somewhat distinguished by habitat, being highly specific in association with Quercus virginiana. L. amethystina is also often associated with this species, but is associated with many other tree species in the Fagales as well.

In 1988, a third species of purple Laccaria, Laccaria gomezii, was described by Mueller as distinct from L. amethystina. This species is associated with Quercus and is endemic to the cloud forests of Central America and northern South America (habitats in which L. amethystina also occurs). L. gomezii is similar to L. vinaceobrunnea in a number of characteristics, but the fresh sporocarp is a darker purple than either L. vinaceobrunnea or L. amethystina. Its lamellae distinguish it from other members of the L. amethystina group, with L. gomezii having attached to subdecurrant, very closely spaced lamellae, in contrast to the sinuate to arcuate, narrowly attached lamellae of other species in this group. The spores of L. gomezii are similar to those of L. vinaceobrunnea and Laccaria amethysteo-occidentalis, and it lacks the distinct pileipellis hyphae of L. vinaceobrunnea.

Notes

References
 (Archived at: CYBERLIBER: an Electronic Library for Mycology.)
 (Archived at: Archive.org.)
 Field Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2010-12-12.

External links

 Index Fungorum

amethystina
Fungi of North America
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of Asia
Edible fungi
Ammonia fungi
Taxa named by William Hudson (botanist)

Laccaria amethystina


Outsourcing is a term from economics. Sometimes a company decides to change its structure, in such a way, that it no longer performs certain tasks which are not its core business. Instead, the company hires or collaborates with other companies which can then perform these functions.

Any business or company can hand over a part of their process or specific services to be handled by a third party. According to The Deloitte Global Outsourcing Survey 2018, among the industries that refer to outsourcing are technology and media, financial services, consumer and energy, followed by government and public services and life sciences and healthcare.

Among the industries that generate the most revenue are information technology outsourcing and business processes, that includes financial outsourcing and consumer.
Global outsourcing industry revenue from 2010 to 2018, by service type
(in billion U.S. dollars)

Reasons for outsourcing
There are many reasons why a company uses outsourcing, including:
 reducing the overall cost of production, development or services
 reaching a wider pool of experts
 accessing knowledge unavailable through other means
 improving flexibility of business processes
 reducing the cost of labor

Types of Outsourcing
Most of the processes in the company can be outsourced in parts or in general. However, depending on the location of the ultimate executor, level of their involvement and amount of services they render, there are following types of outsourcing:
 professional outsourcing
 IT outsourcing
 multisourcing
 manufacturer outsourcing
 BPO
 process-specific outsourcing
 offshore outsourcing
 reshoring
 nearshoring

Professional Outsourcing
If a company requires specific services and don't want or cannot afford to hire a dedicated specialist within the company, they can outsource such services. Among commonly outsourced professional services are accounting, legal services, IT, call center support, etc. This allows a company to be more flexible and manage their expenses rationally.

IT Outsourcing
One of the most commonly outsourced professional service, information technology (IT) represents the wide range of services. Companies can outsource research and prototype development, development of software, maintenance, and support. Such contracts allow reducing the costs as contractors can be hired for the period required.

Multisourcing
If a company has both internal and external experts working on the same task, such form of outsourcing will be called multisourcing. It involves a distributed team that can be working in two or more locations all over the world. Unlike other types of outsourcing, this one is focused on the result and is often based on the 'partners' approach rather than  'client/worker' model.

Manufacturer Outsourcing
Numerous enterprises refer to the outsourcing of their manufacturing if it allows reducing the cost and decreasing the prime cost of an item produced. Among other reasons for manufacturer outsourcing can be a lack of expertise, time/cost efficiency and a shortage of human resources.
BPO
Unlike professional outsourcing when the whole exercise is transferred to a third-party, this type of outsourcing focuses on a specific process. The primary reason for business process outsourcing is a knowledge gap that is too expensive to close. A typical example of business process outsourcing would ba machinery maintenance (typically outsourced to a company that provided it).

Process-Specific Outsourcing
Unlike business process outsourcing, process specific knowledge focuses on outsourcing of an action that another company can do faster or cheaper, which allows business to reduces the costs or improve clients' experience. This form would request a third party to perform actions according to the contract (for example, delivery services have estimate dates/time, conditions of the delivered goods, etc.)

Offshore Outsourcing
Globalization and expansion of international business cooperation have triggered offshore outsourcing, making companies choose the providers of services or goods from countries far from their location. Not only does it help reduce the costs, but also opens the business to new markets and experts from other parts of the globe. Common offshore destinations are China and India (manufacturing), Eastern Europe (Ukraine, Romania, Poland for IT).

Reshoring
The reversed process of bringing manufacturing or development back to the country is called reshoring. Such a decision can be justified if the costs of long-distance shipment, customs, and all the subsequent expenses overweight the benefits of offshoring.

Nearshoring
If the company can transfer part of its manufacturing or services to the country nearby (common border or close proximity) and final destination has a similar business approach and legislation, then this form of outsourcing, is called nearshoring. One of the examples of nearshoring is cooperation between Scandinavian manufacturers and Baltic countries.

References

Economics

Outsourcing


Lottery is a form of gambling where people pick numbers for a prize, usually money. It is forbidden by some governments although allowed by others. Until after World War II, lottery systems were banned in most countries, including the United States and Europe. Nowadays, lottery is a real method of revenue in some countries, including United States.

Gambling

Lottery


Kryptos is the name of a sculpture (art that is like a statue) on the grounds of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in Langley, Virginia, USA.  Kryptos is very famous.  It has codes (secret hidden messages) on it.  There are four messages.  People know what three of the messages say.  No one knows what the fourth message says yet.

A man named Jim Sanborn made Kryptos in 1990.  Kryptos is in a garden in the middle of a building called CIA Headquarters.

Not very many people have seen Kryptos, because only a few people are allowed to go into the CIA building.  They do very important work at the CIA, and have to be very careful.

The word Kryptos comes from the Greek language.  It means "hidden".

The sculpture is about 12 feet high and 20 feet long.  It is made of metal and different kinds of rocks. It has thousands of letters and other things written in the metal.

The first person to find out what the first three messages say, was Jim Gillogly.  He learned the answers in 1999.  After he said what the answer was, the CIA said that a man who works at the CIA, David Stein, knew the answer too.  A few years later the NSA (another agency in Washington D.C.) said that they had people who had solved it too.

Before he made Kryptos, Jim Sanborn had not made any other sculptures with letters on them.  After Kryptos he made many other sculptures with letters on them.  Some of them have secret messages. One is called Antipodes.  There are two copies of Antipodes.  One belongs to a man in California.  The other is in a museum in Washington DC called the Hirshhorn Museum.

Another sculpture that Sanborn made which has secret messages is called the Cyrillic Projector.  It has secret messages in Russian.  The Cyrillic Projector was independently cracked by Michael Bales and Frank Corr in 2003.

There are two famous books that talk about Kryptos, which were written by Dan Brown. He wrote a book in 2003 called The Da Vinci Code.  On the cover of the book is art.  In the art there are secret messages.  Two of the messages talk about Kryptos.  Dan Brown wrote another book in 2009 called The Lost Symbol, which also talks about Kryptos.

Other websites
The CIA website about Kryptos
NY Times Library An article in the newspaper (The New York Times: CIA's Artistic Enigma Reveals All but Final Clues, – June 16, 1999)
Elonka Dunin's Kryptos page
Washington Post ("Cracking the Code of a CIA Sculpture" – July 19, 1999)
New York Times article and other articles  ("Gillogly Cracks CIA Art", & "The Kryptos Code Unmasked")
Wired News ("Solving the Enigma of Kryptos" – January 21, 2005)
CNN story, "Cracking the Code", June 19, 2005

Pictures of Kryptos from high up in the sky
Windows Live Local - Several images. (zoom in and click on aerial / bird's eye links at left)
Terraserver-USA
Google Maps

Sculptures
Buildings and structures in Virginia
Central Intelligence Agency
1990 works

Kryptos


Donald Bitzer é um engenheiro estadunidense.

Inventor da tela de plasma e reconhecido como "pai do PLATO", dedicou-se a melhorar a produtividade em sala de aula mediante a utilização de tecnologias computacionais e de telecomunicações.
cience at North Carolina State University.

Ligações externas
Home Page
Two oral history interviews with Donald L. Bitzer, Instituto Charles Babbage, University of Minnesota.  Bitzer discusses his relationship with Control Data Corporation (CDC) during the development of PLATO, a computer-assisted instruction system. He describes the interest in PLATO of Harold Brooks, a CDC salesman and his help in procuring a 1604 computer for Bitzer's use. Bitzer recalls the commercialization of PLATO by CDC and his disagreements with CDC over marketing strategy and the creation of courseware for PLATO.
Oral history interview with Thomas Muir Gallie, Instituto Charles Babbage, University of Minnesota.  Gallie, a program officer at the National Science Foundation (NSF), describes the impact of Don Bitzer and the PLATO system.
Oral history interview with Robert E. Morris, Instituto Charles Babbage, University of Minnesota. Morris describes his work with the PLATO computer-assisted education system and outlines the interaction and technology transfer that occurred between the University of Illinois and Control Data Corporation.
University of Illinois Computer-based Education Research Laboratory PLATO Reports, PLATO Documents, and CERL Progress Reports, Instituto Charles Babbage, University of Minnesota.  Archival collection contains internal reports and external reports and publications related to the development of PLATO and the operations of University of Illinois's CERL.
Control Data Corporation records. Computer-based education, Instituto Charles Babbage, University of Minnesota. Computer-Based Education (CBE) series documents CDC's objective to create, market and distribute PLATO courseware internally within various CDC departments and divisions, and externally.

Inventores dos Estados Unidos
Engenheiros dos Estados Unidos

Donald Bitzer


William Woodbridge (August 20, 1780October 20, 1861) was a U.S. statesman in the states of Ohio and Michigan and in the Michigan Territory prior to statehood. He served as the second governor of Michigan and a United States Senator from Michigan.

Early life in Connecticut and politics in Ohio
Woodbridge was born in Norwich, Connecticut. Through an entirely paternal line he was a direct descendant of English Puritan John Woodbridge. As a child moved with his family to Marietta, Ohio, in about 1790. He began the study of law in Marietta and developed a close friendship with Lewis Cass. He returned to Connecticut to complete his law studies, and after returning to Ohio, was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1806 where he began a practice in Marietta, Ohio. In June 1806, he married Juliana Trumbull, the daughter of John Trumbull.

He was a member of the Ohio House of Representatives in 1807, and was elected to the Ohio Senate in 1808, serving from 1809 to 1814. He was also the prosecuting attorney for New London (now Washington County, Ohio) from 1808 to 1814.

Politics in Michigan Territory
In 1814, Woodbridge's old friend Lewis Cass, who had become Governor of the Michigan Territory, encouraged him to accept appointments as Secretary of the Territory and as the collector of customs at the Port of Detroit. On October 15, 1814, Woodbridge reluctantly accepted the appointments from President James Madison and moved to Detroit, Michigan. During the frequent absences of Cass, Woodbridge served as acting governor. In 1817, Woodbridge became a trustee of the University of Michigan.

Under the rules of territorial government, the territory did not have representation in the U.S. Congress. Woodbridge influenced Congress to pass legislation authorizing the selection of a non-voting delegate to Congress. Woodbridge became the Michigan Territory's first delegate, serving in the 16th Congress from March 4, 1819, to his resignation on August 9, 1820, due to illness in his family. Solomon Sibley succeeded Woodbridge as delegate. He remained the Territorial Secretary while delegate.

As a delegate, Woodbridge worked for the passage of legislation that recognized old French land titles in the territory according to the terms of the previously signed treaties. He also secured approval for the construction of government roads from the Great Miami River to Detroit, and from Detroit to Chicago. He was also a strong advocate for Michigan's claim to the Toledo Strip, which was disputed with the state of Ohio.

In 1828, he was appointed one of three Territorial Supreme Court justice by President John Quincy Adams, succeeding James Witherell and serving in this capacity until 1832 when his term expired and President Andrew Jackson chose a replacement who was not from the Whig Party as Woodbridge was.

Politics and Governorship in the State of Michigan
Woodbridge was a delegate to the state constitutional convention in 1835 and a member of the Michigan State Senate from 1838 to 1839. He was elected as the second Governor of Michigan in 1840, leading the Whig Party to sweeping statewide victories under the slogan "Woodbridge and reform" (along with William Henry Harrison's national campaign). He resigned as governor on February 23, 1841, to take a seat in the United States Senate and was succeeded by his Lieutenant Governor, J. Wright Gordon.

Woodbridge was elected to the Senate by the Michigan Legislature and served from March 4, 1841 to March 3, 1847. He was only one of two Whig Senators who represented Michigan, alongside Augustus S. Porter whom he served with for most of his term. Woodbridge served as chairman of the Committee on Public Lands in the 28th Congress from 1843 to 1844, and of the Committee on Patents and the Patent Office in the 29th Congress from 1845 to 1846.  He did not seek reelection.

Retirement and death
After leaving the Senate, he retired from public life and devoted his time to horticulture. He died in Detroit and is interred there in Elmwood Cemetery.

The following bear his name:
Woodbridge Township, Michigan, in Hillsdale County, Michigan
The Woodbridge Historic District and Woodbridge Avenue in Detroit
Woodbridge Elementary School in the Zeeland, Michigan Public School district

References

Benjamin Harrison and Governor Woodbridge

Political Graveyard
memorial library

1780 births
1861 deaths
Governors of Michigan
Justices of the Michigan Supreme Court
Delegates to the United States House of Representatives from Michigan Territory
United States senators from Michigan
Ohio lawyers
Ohio Whigs
Michigan state senators
Ohio state senators
Members of the Ohio House of Representatives
Regents of the University of Michigan
American Congregationalists
Politicians from Marietta, Ohio
Michigan Democratic-Republicans
Michigan Whigs
Whig Party United States senators
Burials at Elmwood Cemetery (Detroit)
Whig Party state governors of the United States
Delegates to the 1835 Michigan Constitutional Convention
19th-century American judges
19th-century American lawyers
19th-century American politicians

William Woodbridge


Seven Network is one of three major television networks in Australia. It started broadcasting in 1956. In recent years, it has grown into a diversified media company. Seven Network's main shareholder is Kerry Stokes.

Seven Network's studio headquarters are in a converted warehouse at Jones Bay Wharf in Pyrmont, Sydney.  Its headquarters for its news department are in Martin Place, Sydney. Seven's major production facilities are at Epping in Sydney's northern suburbs. Seven Network are planning to move their production facilities to a specially built site at the Australian Technology Park in Redfern.

Australian television networks

Seven Network


Parassinikadavu Muthappan temple is a temple located at Parassinikadavu in Anthoor municipality on the banks of the Valapattanam river about  from Taliparamba and  from Kannur town in Kannur district, Kerala, India. Thiyya community urayima Principal deity of the temple is Sree Muthappan, whose divinity is presented as a ritualistic theyyam enactment in two versions called Thiruvappan and Vellattam. According to the local tradition the presiding deity is a manifestation of Lord Shiva.

Vellattam and Thiruvappan are the generic names for two types of ' Theyyam Ketti-aadal ' in the kavu/temples of North Malabar.

Vellattom is a minor version of the ritual enactment where the ornaments, decorations and parapharnelia are minimal thanks to which all actions including vaaythari (speech) is maximum and Attam (dance) will be at its peak. If you compare this level of enactment to the idol of a deity in a temple sanctum which is installed as per sathwic sasthra and vedic rituals, Vellattom is at par with the idol alone without the prabha-mandalam which circles it. An easier example is the Seeveli ceremony with only the small idol on top of the elephant.

On the other hand, Thiruvappana is the full version, with royal regalia and bigger dimension of prabhamandalam. Because the decorations are more and are of binding nature, the action is minimal and sluggish and the uriyaadal (replies to prayers) will be crisp, to the point and predictions will be accurate. To compare, Thiruvappana stands at par with temple idol with the Prabha-mandalam (representing the auric circle) around it and the Seeveli with the big Swarna-Kolam covering the small idol on top of the elephant .

Muthappan is considered as the manifestation of Lord Shiva himself in Nayattu (hunter) format. The Vellattam which comes initially is Siva himself as the said minimal version. But the Vellattom which comes along with the grand Thiruvappana of Muthappan later on, is the minimal version of Vishnu who according to mythology, comes to Siva's assistance when he started travelling with the poykannu (blindfold) and started suffering serious difficulties to travel and hunt for food.

Rituals of the temple is unique in that it does not follow the Satvic Brahminical form of worship, as in other Hindu temples of Kerala. The main mode of worship is the ritual enactment of both the versions of Muthappan, through a traditional dance known as Muthappan Theyyam. Fish, meat and toddy are the customary offerings to Muthappan. Muthappan Thiruvoppana Mahothsavam is the major festival of the temple, celebrated for three days every year on 19, 20 and 21  of Kumbham (the days correspond to 3, 4  and 5 March).

The legends of Muthappan

A version of the legend of Ponnu Muthappan is narrated here: The  King of Ancharamana Mannanar (Ayyankara Vazhunnor) of Eruvessi village and his wife,  Padikutty Amma,  had no offspring.  Padikutty  was an ardent devotee of Shiva and when she found a baby floating in a basket of flowers in the river water when she was coming back after a bath in the river, she took it as the blessing of Lord Shiva, and so was her husband. The child grew up and in his boyhood, he was always for the benefit of downtrodden and poor people. However, to the agony of his family he practiced hunting, and also started eating flesh, which was not allowed for a Naduvazhi. Unable to bear the indictments from his family, the boy decided to leave home. When his mother attempted to stop him, he looked at her in fury and appeared in his original godly figure before the parent. She bowed down before her son. Nonetheless, she requested him to cover his eyes with a Poikannu, a type of shield for the eyes, since she was afraid that such a fiery look on another occasion may cause to emanate the cosmic force, Shakti, that could change the entire world. Wearing a shield on his eyes, he left the family, and passed through various villages in Malabar, such as Kunnathurpadi, Puralimala, Padavil, Thillenkeri, Kannapuram, Parassinikadavu and Valluvankadav.

The legend relates Muthappan with a tribal family for the divine boy started being called as "Muthappan". Accordingly, when he reached a village called  Kunnathurpadi, he got a tribalman, Chantan as his friend. One day, when he saw Chantan tapping toddy from Palm tree the boy asked for it but was denied. All of sudden, Chantan was cursed and became a stone. His wife prayed and offered to perform the rituals, Oottu, Tiruvappana and Amruthakalasam, to propitiate the boy in the month of Dhanu. The boy relented and gave her husband back. The Chantan family started to conduct pooja to propitiate the boy and they called him in the name: "Muthappan".

However, according to another version of the legend Muthappan climbed the coconut tree and emptied the toddy jar in the absence of Chantan. When Chantan returned and saw Muthappan holding the jar, he was provoked and defied the latter. It was at this instant, Chantan was cursed.

The legend also describes a dog which always followed Muthappan throughout his journey. Hence, in the temple of Muthappan, dogs are considered divine and the temple entrance has an idol of dog, at both sides.

Rituals and festivals
The ritualistic enactment of both the minimal and maxima versions of Sree Muthappan, Thiruvappana and Vellattam, is performed daily in the early morning and in the evening. Puthari Thiruvappana festival, conducted on 16 Vrichikam (this Malayalam day corresponds to 1 or 2 December), is the first Thiruvappana of the temple year. It is associated with the harvesting season of the region. The last Thiruvappana of the temple year is on 30 Kanni every year.

See also
Anthoor
Lokanarkavu Temple
Sree Muthappan
Parassinikkadavu
Rajarajeshwara Temple
Kannur
Kunnathoor Padi
Valluvan Kadav Sree Muthappan Temple
Sree Muthappan Temple Nileshwar
Temples of Kerala

Photo gallery

References

External links

 Official website of Muthappan Temple

Hindu temples in Kannur district
Dharmashala, Kannur

Muthappan Temple


Earl Stonham is a small village and civil parish (formerly called Stonham Earl) in the Mid Suffolk district of Suffolk, England. It is between the A14 and A140 5 miles to the east of Stowmarket. The parish includes the hamlets of Forward Green and Middlewood Green. In 2005 its population was 650, decreasing to 629 at the 2011 Census.. The village is one of three Stonhams in the area – the other two are Stonham Aspal and Little Stonham.

History
Dating back to Roman times, Earl Stonham is most famous for its church. St. Mary's Church is known for its ornately carved single hammerbeam roof which depict many different scenes, including court jesters, foxes, and many angels.

Much of the village life revolves around the village hall, located in the centre of the village. It is the home to a thriving cricket club, and a youth club.

Earl Stonham is a local hotspot for recreational walkers, with beautiful countryside and gentle footpaths offering hours of footstepping for even the occasional rambler.

References

External links

 www.earlstonhamcricketclub.co.uk

Villages in Suffolk
Civil parishes in Suffolk
Mid Suffolk District

Earl Stonham


Moses ben Jacob Cordovero ( Moshe Kordovero ; 1522–1570) was a central figure in the historical development of Kabbalah, leader of a mystical school in 16th-century Safed, Ottoman Syria. He is known by the acronym the Ramak ().

After the Medieval flourishing of Kabbalah, centered on the Zohar, attempts were made to give a complete intellectual system to its theology, such as by Meir ibn Gabbai. Influenced by the earlier success of Jewish philosophy in articulating a rational study of Jewish thought, Moshe Cordovero produced the first full integration of the previous differing schools in Kabbalistic interpretation. While he was a mystic inspired by the opaque imagery of the Zohar, Cordoverian Kabbalah utilised the conceptual framework of evolving cause and effect from the Infinite to the Finite in systemising Kabbalah, the method of philosophical style discourse he held most effective in describing a process that reflects sequential logic and coherence. His encyclopedic works became a central stage in the development of Kabbalah.

Immediately after him in Safed, Isaac Luria articulated a subsequent system of Kabbalistic theology, with new supra-rational doctrines recasting previous Kabbalistic thought. While Lurianism displaced the Cordoverian scheme and became predominant in Judaism, its followers read Cordoverian works in harmony with their teachings. Where to them, Lurianism described the "World" of Rectification, Cordovero described the pre-Rectification World. Both articulations of the 16th century mystical Renaissance in Safed gave Kabbalah an intellectual prominence to rival Medieval Rationalism, whose social influence on Judaism had waned after the Expulsion from Spain.

Biography

Early life
The name Cordovero indicates that his family originated in Córdoba, Spain and perhaps fled from there during the expulsion of 1492 ensuing from the Spanish Inquisition. His Hebrew signature, however (Cordoeiro), strongly suggests a long-lasting residence in Portugal.

The Ramak was either born in, or moved to Safed in the Land of Israel, the city that was soon to become famed as a center of Kabbalah and mystical creativity. Albeit not involved in mystical studies until his twentieth year,
Ramak soon after gained a reputation of an extraordinary genius and a prolific writer. Besides his knowledge in Kabbalah, he was a Talmudic scholar and a man of commanding mastery in Jewish philosophical thought who was respected in these fields. Contrary to popular belief, however, Ramak was not one of the rabbis who received the special semicha ("ordination") from Rabbi Jacob Berab in 1538, alongside Rabbi Yosef Karo (Cordovero's teacher in Halakha), Rabbi Moshe of Trani, Rabbi Yosef Sagis, and Rabbi Moshe Alshich. As a whole, Ramak's contributions to posterity were in speculative and performative Kabbalah, but during his lifetime he was the renowned head of the Yeshiva for Portuguese immigrants in Safed.

Scholarship
According to his own testimony in the introduction to "Pardes Rimonim", in 1542, at the age of twenty, Ramak heard a "Heavenly voice" urging him to study Kabbalah with his brother-in-law, Rabbi Shlomo Alkabetz, composer of the mystical song Lecha Dodi. He was thus initiated into the mysteries of the Zohar. The young Ramak not only mastered the text, but decided to organize the Kabbalistic themes leading to his day and present them in an organized fashion. This led to the composition of his first book, Pardes Rimonim ("Orchard of Pomegranates"), which was completed in 1548 and secured Ramak's reputation as a brilliant Kabbalist and a lucid thinker. The Pardes, as it is known, was a systemization of all Kabbalistic thought up to that time and featured the author's attempt at a reconciliation of various early schools with the conceptual teachings of the Zohar in order to demonstrate an essential unity and self-consistent philosophical basis of Kabbalah.

His second work - a magnum opus titled Ohr Yakar ("Precious Light") - was a 16 volume commentary on the Zoharic literature in its entirety and a work to which Ramak had devoted most of his life (the modern publication of this great work has started during the mid 1960s and reached partial fruition in 2004 Jerusalem, though the 23-volume set left out about two-thirds of the Tikkunei Zohar; additional volumes are still being published). Some parts of Ohr Yakar have been published under separate titles, such as Shiur Qomah, Tefilah le-Moshe etc.

Some other books for which the Ramak is known are Tomer Devorah ("Palm Tree of Deborah"), in which he utilizes the Kabbalistic concepts of the Sephirot ("Divine attributes") to illuminate a system of morals and ethics; Ohr Neerav, a justification of and insistence upon the importance of Kabbalah study and an introduction to the methods explicated in Pardes Rimonim; Elimah Rabbati, a highly abstract treatise on kabbalistic concerns revolving around the Godhead and His relationship to the Sefirot; and Sefer Gerushin, a short and intimate composition which features the highly devotional slant of Ramak, as well as his asceticism and religious piety. Certain parts of Ramak's works are still in form of manuscripts, whereas his existing writings suggest many other compositions which he either intended to write or had actually written - but were lost.

Disciples
Around 1550 he founded a Kabbalah academy in Safed (then in Ottoman Syria), which he led for approximately twenty years until his death. He is buried in Old Cemetery of Tzfat / Safed. His disciples included rabbis Eliyahu de Vidas, author of Reshit Chochmah ("Beginning of Wisdom"), and Chaim Vital, who later became the official recorder and disseminator of the teachings of Rabbi Isaac Luria.

Ramak was survived by a wife whose name remains unknown (it is known that she was Solomon Alkabetz' sister) and by a son named Gedaliah (1562–1625). Gedaliah was the impetus behind the publication of some of Ramak's books in Venice, Italy c. 1584–7. Gedaliah was buried in Jerusalem, where he had spent most of his adult life after returning from Venice.

Succession of Kabbalistic interpretation after the Ramak
According to tradition, Isaac Luria (known by the acronym "Ari" or "Arizal") arrived in Safed on the exact day of the funeral of Moshe Cordovero in 1570. When he joined in the funeral procession, he realised that only he saw a pillar of fire following the Ramak's presence. The Zohar describes this spiritual revelation as a sign to the individual who sees it, that he is meant to inherit the succession of leadership from the departed person. However, as Luria had been instructed to find his chosen disciple in Safed, Haim Vital, to reveal his new teachings to, he avoided accepting Kabbalistic leadership until six months later, when Rabbi Haim Vital approached him. The Ari only lived for two years after this, until 1572, but in those few months he revolutionised the conceptual system of Kabbalah, with his new doctrines and philosophical system.

The two schools of Cordoveran and Lurianic Kabbalah give two alternative accounts and synthesis of the complete theology of Kabbalah until then, based on their interpretation of the Zohar. After the public dissemination of the Zohar in Medieval times, various attempts were made to give a complete intellectual system of theology to its different schools and interpretations. Influenced by the earlier rational success of Jewish philosophy, especially the work of Maimonides, in producing a systematic intellectual articulation of Judaism, the Ramak achieved the first accepted systemisation of Kabbalah, based on its rational categorisation and study. Subsequent followers of the Ari saw their teachings as harmonious with, and a deeper interpretation of the Zohar and the Ramak's system, but the new system of Isaac Luria revealed completely new doctrines, as well as new descriptions of the earlier ideas of Kabbalah. In time, Lurianic Kabbalah emerged as the dominant system; however, the works of the Ramak are still highly esteemed and widely studied, as well.

Among the Ramak's most visible books
 Pardes Rimonim ("An Orchard of Pomegranates") - Ramak's first book, an encyclopedic synthesis of the main trends of kabbalistic thought with numerous diagrams, which secured his reputation as a mystical genius.
 Ohr Yakar ("A Precious Light") - a Magnum opus of some 16 volumes in its extant manuscript form, which had occupied Ramak throughout his adult life - a classic commentary on the Zohar, Sefer Yetzirah and the Zoharic literary offshoots. Its publication ended around 2005 in Jerusalem (some 22 volumes). Certain parts, such as Tefilah le-Moshe and Shiur Qomah, were previously published as separate works.
Tomer Devorah ("Palm tree [of] Deborah") - a popular work of Musar Literature based on kabbalistic principles. It was translated into English by Louis Jacobs as "Moses Cordovero, The Palm Tree of Deborah", New York Sepher-Hermon Press, 1960,  BJ1287.C8T61J2; and later by Rabbi Moshe Miller (1993). First chapter was also translated with an extensive commentary by Henry Abramson under the title The Kabbalah of Forgiveness: The Thirteen Levels of Mercy in Rabbi Moshe Cordovero's Date Palm of Devorah (Tomer Devorah) (2014)
 Eilima Rabbati - of which 2/3 is still unpublished.
 Ohr Neerav ("A Pleasant Light" - can also mean "A Mixed Light" or "A Darkened
Light") - translated to English and annotated by Ira Robinson (1994).
 Sefer Gerushin ("The Book of Banishments") - a disclosure of Ramak's fellowship and their devotional piety in the Galilean outskirts of Safed. A highly informative text concerning Ramak's devotional piety and the use of landscape as the negotiator between heaven and earth.

Notes

External links
 Rabbi Moshe Cordovero
 Tomer Devorah (The Palm Tree of Deborah) - Cordovero's classic text
 Moses Cordovero's Meditations for the Ten Days of Repentance
 The Ramak
 Jewish Encyclopedia article
 "The Unity of God" - from The Garden of Pomegranates
 Video Lecture on Rabbi Moshe Cordevero by Henry Abramson of Touro College South
 Translation of First Chapter of Tomer Devorah excepted from Henry Abramson's The Kabbalah of Forgiveness.

1522 births
1570 deaths
Rabbis from Córdoba, Spain
16th-century rabbis from the Ottoman Empire
Rabbis in Ottoman Galilee
Kabbalists
Rabbis in Safed
Sephardi rabbis from Ottoman Palestine
Authors of Kabbalistic works
Burials at the Old Jewish Cemetery, Safed
Hebrew-language writers

Moses ben Jacob Cordovero


Don Juan DeMarco is a 1995 movie starring Johnny Depp. It was released to theaters by Warner Bros.

Plot
John Arnold DeMarco (Johnny Depp) believes himself to be Don Juan, the greatest lover in the world. Clad in a cape and eye-mask, he undergoes psychiatric treatment with Marlon Brando's character to cure him of his apparent disillusionment with his identity. But the psychiatric sessions have an unexpected effect on his psychiatrist, whose relationship with his wife, played by Faye Dunaway, is also affected.

Music
Selena made a brief cameo appearance as a Mariachi singer. A hit single for Bryan Adams, "Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman?", is the cornerstone of the soundtrack.

Cast
 Johnny Depp as John Arnold DeMarco/Don Juan
 Marlon Brando as Dr. Jack Mickler
 Faye Dunaway as Marilyn Mickler
 Géraldine Pailhas as Doña Ana
 Franc Luz as Don Antonio
 Bob Dishy as Dr. Paul Showalter
 Rachel Ticotin as Doña Inez
 Talisa Soto as Doña Julia
 'Tiny' Lister, Jr. as Rocco Compton
 Richard C. Sarafin as Detective Sy Tobias
 Tresa Hughes as Grandma DeMarco
 Stephen Singer as Dr. Bill Dunmore
 Selena as Mariachi singer

Other websites

 Movie stills
 Roger Ebert Review

1995 comedy movies
1995 drama movies
1995 romance movies
English-language movies

Don Juan DeMarco


The National Park Service (NPS) is part of the United States Department of the Interior. The National Park Service looks after many natural landscapes and historic and archaeological places and buildings. Millions of people from around the world visit the national parks. The National Park Service helps keep these parks in order.

Congress established the National Park service in 1916. The United States Secretary of the Interior appoints a director to head the office in Washington, D.C.

There are more than 400 areas in the National Park System. Of these, 63 are national parks. The Service also keeps the National Register of Historic Places.

Management
The National Park Service has two main jobs. One is to protect America's national parks. The other is to help visitors enjoy them. Some people think these two jobs conflict with each other.

They say some of the problems of the parks are the result of too many people visiting them. For example, the many vehicles in national parks cause pollution and road damage. And the many visitors cause water and waste systems to have to work hard.

Some national parks cost money to enter. But they're generally affordable. And parks that charge entry fees must share the money with parks that do not. That means they cannot keep all the money for things like repairs and improvements.

For years, the Park Service has said it does not have enough money to operate at its best. Sometimes visitors protest about conditions in the parks. For example, they say some roads and places to sleep have not been repaired as needed. Critics of the system say many parks lack enough employees.

Budget
Money to support America's national parks comes from the federal government and visitors. It also comes from businesses and individuals through the National Park Foundation. Congress established this organization in 1967. The job of the foundation is to gather private support for America's national parks.

In the nation's capital, for instance, the Target Corporation provided money to help restore the Washington Monument. Another example is Kodak. That company supports photo competitions at national parks. And there is much to photograph.

The National Park received additional funding in 2020. This means visitors get extra one day free visit to the parks every August.

Related pages
National park
List of national parks of the United States

References

Other websites
National Park Service

National parks in the United States
United States government agencies
United States Department of the Interior

National Park Service


Hakīm Abul-Hasan Yamīn al-Dīn Khusrow Balkhi Dehlavi (1253-1325) () or Amir Khosrow is a Persian poet. Amir Khusrow lived in Delhi. His poems are in Persian and Hindi.

Allaudin Khilji (1296 A.D - 1316 A.D) had a court minister named Hazrat Amir Khusro who was said to be highly gifted in music with an exceptionally innovative mind. His contribution to Hindustani classical music was said to be unmatched. It is also said that he created the Sitar (probably inspired by the Veena and other string instruments of Persia). The modification of the Pakhawaj into the Tabla is also credited to him.

It has also been said that Amir Khusro introduced many styles of singing including Khayal, Tarana, Ghazal and Qawali. He is credited for some most popular Ragas like Yaman, Poorya and Poorvi.

1253 births
1325 deaths
Persian poets

Amir Khosrow


According to the Hebrew Bible, Solomon's Temple was the first temple the Israelites built for God. It was also called the First Temple and was first built by Solomon. It stood next to the king's palace, and was both God's royal palace and Israel's center of worship. The Bible says that the Lord said to Solomon, "I have consecrated (made special or clean) this temple…by putting my name there forever. My eyes and my heart will always be there" (1 Kings 9:3). A symbol of holiness and royalty, it reminded the Israelites that God was the special head of Israel. It was patterned after the tabernacle and, in general, other temples at that time, and was divided into three important areas: the Most Holy Place, the Holy Place and the outer courtyard. It was built in Jerusalem, on the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite, where Solomon's father David had bought to build an altar to God.

Historical evidence
According to  secular historians, the Temple would have been completed in 957 BCE. The Babylonians destroyed it in 587 or 586 BCE. Rabbinic literature says that the temple stood for 410 years. According to the work Seder Olam Rabbah, written in the second century CE, the temple was built in 832 BCE, and destroyed in 433 BCE (3338 AM). This is 165 later than the secular estimates.

To date, no definite archaeological proofs for Solomon's Temple have been found and the only information regarding the First Temple in Jerusalem is inside the biblical books of Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel and 1-2 Kings.

Biblical description

Preparations for building the temple
At first, King David wanted to build a temple for God, but according to the Bible, God said to him through the prophet Nathan, "You are not to build a house for my name, because you are a warrior and have shed blood." However, he chose Solomon to build the temple. Before his death, David gave his son Solomon the plans for the building of the temple, and instructions for the priests and Levites, and all the work of serving in the temple. He also gave his own money to Solomon to help build the temple, and asked the people to help give gifts of money.

King Solomon sent a message to Hiram king of Tyre, who had been friends with his father David and sent David lots of wood to build his palace with. In this message, Solomon said that he wanted to build a temple for the Lord, and asked Hiram to send him wood. Hiram said that he would if Solomon gave food for the cost of the wood and work people did. So Hiram gave Solomon all the cedar and pine logs he wanted, and Solomon gave Hiram wheat for his family, and twenty thousand baths (about 115,000 gallons or 434 000 liters) of olive oil. King Hiram cut down the wood and sent them on  to a place called Joppa. From there they could take the wood up to Jerusalem.

Building the temple

According to the Bible, "In the 480th year after the Israelites had come out of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel, in…the second month, he began to build the temple of the LORD."(1 Kings 6:1) King Solomon brought Huram-Abi, whose mother was a widow from the tribe of Naphtali (one of the tribes of Israel) and whose father was a man from Tyre and a person who was a craftsman in bronze. Huram was very good at all kinds of work. In 2 Chronicles 2:7 it says that he was "...skilled to work in gold and silver, bronze and iron, and in purple, crimson, and blue yarn." He was especially good at working with bronze. When all the work King Solomon had done for the temple was finished, he brought in the things his father David had given to God, and put them in the treasuries of the temple. So "In the eleventh year in the month of Bul, the eighth month, the temple was finished in all its details according to its specifications." (1 Kings 6:38 NIV)

Dedicating the temple

When the temple was finished, King Solomon brought the  of the Lord's covenant to the temple and made all the people of Israel come there, and they sacrificed so many sheep and cattle "they could not be recorded or counted". Then the cloud filled the temple - just as God showed himself on the  at Mt. Sinai, he now showed himself at the temple in a cloud. Then King Solomon praised God. He said a prayer of dedication (giving to God) in front of the people of Israel. He asked God to keep his promise to King David of letting King David's sons rule forever (which, according to Christianity, becomes true when Jesus, the son of David, dies for mankind); then he added, "But will God really dwell on earth? The heavens, even the highest heaven, cannot contain you. How much less this temple I have built!"—reminding the people that God was not bound to the temple and could not be contained, even though he had chosen to come and  with the people of Israel in a special way. Then he asked God to answer the people of Israel when they prayed toward, or at, the temple; to hear from heaven when someone sinned, or enemies came to Israel, or there was drought or famine in the land, "...whatever disaster or disease may come, and when a prayer or plea (asking for something, request) is made by any of your people Israel...then hear from heaven, your dwelling place. Forgive and act; deal with each man according to all he does, since you know his heart (for you alone know the hearts of all men), so that they will fear you all the time they live in the land you gave our fathers" (1 Kings 8:38-40). Then Solom stood up and blessed the people of Israel, and gave sacrifices to God: "twenty thousand cattle and a hundred and twenty thousand sheep and goats. So the king and all the Israelites dedicated the temple of the LORD"(1 Kings 8: 63, NIV).

God comes to Solomon
According to the Bible, when Solomon had finished building the temple, God appeared to him and said, "I have heard the prayer and plea you have made before me...My eyes and my heart will always be there [at the temple you have made]." However, God also warned to Solomon the importance of obeying God's covenant (promise) in order to enjoy its blessings, not its curses. This was needed because God gave Solomon power and wealth, which many times made people forget the promise God had made with them.

Solomon also gave to Hiram king of Tyre 20 towns in Galilee because Hiram had given him all the cedar and pine and gold he had needed. But Hiram did not like the towns Solomon had given him and he said, "What kind of towns are these you have given me, my brother?" (1 Kings 9:13, NIV) He called them the Land of Cabul (which sounds like the Hebrew for good-for-nothing). Probably Solomon had become more indebted to Hiram than he had at first thought, so he had given the towns to Hiram king of Tyre as a sign that he would pay him later. 2 Chronicles 8:1-2 says that later, when Solomon became richer - maybe because of the expedition to Ophir (1 King 9:26-28;10-11) or the visit from the queen of Sheba.

Design

The temple of Solomon was next to the king's palace. The floor plan was like most West Semite kinds of floor plans. An early example of a floor divided into ulam, hekal, and debir (, main hall, and inner ) has been found at Syrian Ebla (c.2300 B.C.)  and much later but more around the time of Solomon, at Tell Tainat at the Orontes basin (c.900 B.C.). Like Solomon's, the later temple has three divisions has two columns at the entrance (in Solomon's palace, they are called Jakin and Boaz''), and is next to the royal palace.

The ark of the covenant of God was put inside the inner sanctuary - the Most Holy Place - which was about 30 feet (about 9 meters) long, wide and high, overlaid with pure gold. Solomon used lots of gold in the temple: this was probably because the bright gold symbolized the glory of God and his heavenly temple (Rev.21:10-11,18,21). Inside the temple were carved , palm trees and flowers. This is a reminder of the Garden of Eden, which humans could not live in anymore because of their sin. The temple was a symbol that the Israelites could come back to paradise through the temple.

Things inside the temple
Some discoveries today echo the words in 1 Kings 6-7.

Movable Bronze Basin
Something very much like the wheeled movable basin used in the courtyard of the temple has come from archaeological  on Cyprus.

Table for the Bread of the Presence
A stone altar having four horns on the corners was found at Megiddo. It shows a good idea of how the gold altar in the temple looked like. The table for the Bread of the Presence was also made of gold. The Bread of the Presence (twelve pieces of bread, one for every tribe of Israel), symbolized a continual offering to God by which Israel showed that she gave to God what she earned with her work, and that everything Israel had received was a blessing of God's.

Lamp stand
Ten lamp stands were in the temple, five on each side of the (1 Kings 7:49). Lamps like these have been found in many places in Palestine, including Hazor and Dothan.

Related pages
Solomon
David
Temple in Jerusalem

References

Other websites

Resources > Biblical History > Jerusalem, The First Temple  Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
 Jewish Encyclopedia Temple of Solomon.
 Nat, Arnold vander, "The Temple of Jerusalem ".
 Telushkin, Joseph, "The Temple". Jewish Literacy (Jewish Virtual Library).
  Wells, Steve, "The Skeptic's Annotated Bible".

Ancient Israel and Judah
Buildings and structures in Jerusalem
Temple Mount
10th century BC
1st millennium BC buildings and structures

Solomon's Temple


Interferons (IFNs) are proteins released by body cells in response to pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, parasites or to tumor cells. They allow cells to trigger the defenses of the immune system.

IFNs belong to the large class of glycoproteins known as cytokines.  Interferons are named after their ability to "interfere" with virus replication inside host cells.

IFNs also have other functions:
they activate immune cells, such as natural killer cells and macrophages;
they increase recognition of infection or tumor cells by up-regulating antigen presentation to T lymphocytes;
they increase the ability of uninfected host cells to resist new infection by virus.  Certain symptoms, such as aching muscles and fever, are related to the production of IFNs during infection.

About ten distinct IFNs have been identified in mammals; seven of these have been described for humans. All IFNs are very important for fighting viral infections.

Immunology
Molecular biology

Interferon


Solomon Eliot Asch (September 14, 1907 – February 20, 1996) was a Polish and American Gestalt psychologist.

Early life
Asch was born in Warsaw, the capital of Poland, to a Jewish family that considered themselves Polish. He grew up in a small town called Łowicz. In 1920, Asch and his family moved to the United States. They lived on the Lower East Side of New York. He did not speak English well, so he found school difficult. He learned English by reading Charles Dickens. Asch got his degree from the College of the City of New York in 1928. In 1930, he married Florence Miller.

Career
In the 1930s, Asch started to do research. In 1951, Asch did an experiment that is known as the Asch Experiment. Asch's experiment tested how much humans are influenced by other people's opinions. A textbook that Asch wrote, Social Psychology, was published in 1952. In 1966 Asch started the Institute for Cognitive Studies at Rutgers University. In 1972 he moved to the University of Pennsylvania. He stayed there as a professor of psychology until he retired in 1979. He started all of this research because he thought that there was a problem with the Sherif's conformity test.

References

1907 births
1996 deaths
American psychologists
American Jews
Polish psychologists
Polish Jews

Solomon Asch


The Emirates Discussion Forum (Arabic: منتدى الحوار الإماراتي), or simply uaehewar.net, is an internet forum focusing on the affairs of the United Arab Emirates. Since its launch in the summer of 2009, it has been described as the UAE's only credible online discussion forum, and was subjected to multiple censorship actions by UAE authorities.

Overview
The site was established in August 2009 by a group of UAE intellectuals and internet activists to provide a more genuine and free venue for debating national issues compared to state-controlled and subsidized media.
Uaehewar.net is distinguished from other UAE internet forums by a wider margin of freedom, allowing therefore the discussion of topics deemed as taboos in the conservative UAE society. Furthermore, the anonymity provided by the forum atmosphere encourages voicing out political opinions and critiques that are not usually expressed in the public arena due to fear of persecution.

Censorship and access disruptions

The first censorship action was carried out by UAE authorities in November 2009. The action specifically targeted an article entitled "Beyond the Biography of Allah" which offered an atheistic critique of monotheistic divinity, a taboo topic in the religiously conservative UAE society. However, since February 7, 2010, access to the website has been completely disrupted in the UAE; visitors receive a network error message. The US company that hosts the site, Host Rocket, confirmed that the inaccessibility in the UAE is not due to any technical problem. The unconventional method of blocking by the TRA has been interpreted by many as a plan to identify the owners of the website. On 14 March 2010, the Emirati lawyer and human rights activist Abdul Hamid Alkamiti filed a complaint to the prosecutor general in Dubai against the Telecomm Regulatory Authority demanding the disclosure of reasons behind the censorship action. As of May 2017, the website account had been suspended and not accessible to anyone in any part of the world.

References

Political Internet forums
Internet censorship in the United Arab Emirates
Emirati websites

Emirates Discussion Forum


Calamites is a genus of extinct arborescent (tree-like) horsetails to which the modern horsetails (genus Equisetum) are closely related. Unlike their herbaceous modern cousins, these plants were medium-sized trees, growing to heights of 30-50 meters (100-160 feet). They were components of the understories of coal swamps of the Carboniferous Period (around ).

Taxonomy
A number of organ taxa have been identified as part of a united organism, which has inherited the name Calamites in popular culture.  Calamites correctly refers only to casts of the stem of Carboniferous/Permian sphenophytes, and as such is a form genus of little taxonomic value.  There are two forms of casts, which can give mistaken impressions of the organisms.  The most common is an internal cast of the hollow (or pith-filled) void in the centre of the trunk.  This can cause some confusion: firstly, it must be remembered that a fossil was probably surrounded with 4-5 times its width in (unpreserved) vascular tissue, so the organisms were much wider than the internal casts preserved.  Further, the fossil gets narrower as it attaches to a rhizoid, a place where one would expect there to be the highest concentration of vascular tissue (as this is where the peak transport occurs). However, because the fossil is a cast, the narrowing in fact represents a constriction of the cavity, into which vascular tubes encroach as they widen.

Further organ genera belonging to sphenophytes include:
 Arthropitys (stems which are preserved in a mineralised form)
 Astromyelon (permineralised rhizomes, distinguished from Arthropitys by the absence of a carinal canal)
 Annularia and Asterophylites (form genera of leaf-whorls which are paraphyletic).

Anatomy

The trunks of Calamites had a distinctive segmented, bamboo-like appearance and vertical ribbing. The branches, leaves and cones were all borne in whorls. The leaves were needle-shaped, with up to 25 per whorl.

Their trunks produced secondary xylem, meaning they were made of wood. The vascular cambium of Calamites was unifacial, producing secondary xylem towards the stem center, but not secondary phloem.

The stems of modern horsetails are typically hollow or contain numerous elongated air-filled sacs. Calamites was similar in that its trunk and stems were hollow, like wooden tubes. When these trunks buckled and broke, they could fill with sediment. This is the reason pith casts of the inside of Calamites stems are so common as fossils.

Reproduction

Calamites reproduced by means of spores, which were produced in small sacs organized into cones. They are also known to have possessed massive underground rhizomes, which allowed for the production of clones of one tree. This is the only group of trees of their period known to have a clonal habit. This type of asexual reproduction would allow them to spread quickly into new territory, and help to anchor them firmly in the unstable ground along rivers and in newly deposited delta sediments. The rhizomes of Calamites look quite similar to the stems in most cases, but have nodes that get progressively closer together as they approach the apical area (the growth tip that spreads outward through the soil).

Different forms

Calamites come in a variety of different "form genera". One type, Calamites suckowi, is distinguishable from other Calamites forms by its prominent, swollen nodes and relatively wide-spaced longitudinal ribs. Another example, Calamites cisti, has much smaller nodes and the ribs are typically closer together.

In addition, the distance between successive node lines on a Calamites suckowi specimen is typically much wider than the diameter. In other forms like Calamites cisti, the opposite is true or the specimen is just slightly wider than the diameter.

However, the value of these form taxa is limited.  The distance between nodes, for example, is highly variable, and an intercalary meristem means that this distance varied as the organisms grew.

Extinction and classification
The genus Calamites is placed in the family Calamitaceae in the plant class Equisetopsida (formerly known as Sphenophyta) in the fern allies division Pteridophyta. The Calamitaceae finally became extinct in the Lower Permian, a time which also saw the origin and diversification of the herbaceous genus Equisetum, the only living sphenophyte genus.

See also
 Archaeopteris

References

 How large are the giant horsetails?
 "Sphenophyta: Fossil Record." Fossil Record of the Sphenophyta, ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/sphenophyta/sphenofr.html.
 Stewart, W. N. Paleobotany and the Evolution of Plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1983).
 Davis, Paul and Kenrick, Paul. Fossil Plants. Smithsonian Books (in association with the Natural History Museum of London), Washington, D.C. (2004).
Calamites, web.archive.org/web/20120315050635/www.scientific-web.com/en/Biology/Plants/Pteridophyta/Calamites.html.

Horsetails
Carboniferous plants
Permian plants
Prehistoric plant genera
Carboniferous first appearances
Cisuralian genus extinctions
Fossils of Georgia (U.S. state)
Paleozoic life of New Brunswick
Paleozoic life of Newfoundland and Labrador
Paleozoic life of Nova Scotia
Paleozoic life of Nunavut
Paleozoic life of Prince Edward Island
Prehistoric plants of North America

Calamites


Center of mass or barycenter of a system is the average position of all the mass in a system.

In a rigid body, the centre of mass is always in the same place. In a loose collection the center of mass may be in space, as it is in the Solar System. Also, as planets' orbits change slightly, so will the position of the barycenter.

A simple way to understand the concept of barycenter is to push a supermarket trolley. If you hold only one corner and push, it will only go in a straight line when you push through the centre of mass. Otherwise a turning force is created. This shows that the mass acts as if it were only in one place.

The center of gravity is a closely related term. It is the point where an object can be balanced perfectly by a sharp point holding it up under the object. It is the center of mass acting in a gravitational field.

History
The concept of center of mass was first introduced by the ancient Greek physicist, mathematician, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse.  Archimedes showed that the torque (turning force) exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point — their center of mass.

Archimedes was the first person to work out ways of finding the center of mass in various objects.

Relation between the two terms
The center of mass is often called the center of gravity because any uniform gravitational field g acts on a system as if the mass M of the system were concentrated at the center of mass R.

Basic physics ideas
Mechanics

Center of mass


Potassium hypomanganate is a chemical compound. It contains potassium and hypomanganate ions. It is a bright blue solid. It is unstable and rare. It can be made several ways: reduction of potassium permanganate with potassium sulfite; reduction of potassium manganate with hydrogen peroxide and potassium hydroxide; and disproportionation when manganese dioxide is dissolved in potassium hydroxide. It disproportionates into potassium manganate and manganese dioxide easily. Only a strong base can stop it from disproportionation.

Related pages
Sodium manganate
Sodium permanganate

Potassium compounds
Manganese compounds

Potassium hypomanganate


For other uses of the word, see Scalp (disambiguation)

The scalp is the anatomical area between the face and the neck.

Layers
It is usually described as having five layers, which can be remembered with the mnemonic "SCALP":

 S: The skin on the head from which head hair grows. It is richly supplied with blood vessels.
 C: Connective tissue. a thin layer of fat and fibrous tissue lies beneath the skin
 A: The aponeurosis (or Epicranial aponeurosis) is the next layer. It is a tough layer of dense fibrous tissue
 L: The loose areolar connective tissue layer provides an easy plane of separation between the upper three layers and the pericranium.  In scalping the scalp is torn off through this layer.
 P: The pericranium is the periosteum of the skull bones and provides nutrition to the bone and the capacity for repair.  It may be lifted from the bone to allow removal of bone windows (craniotomy).

References

Head (body part)

Scalp


The information superhighway (or ) is a late-20th-century phrase that aspirationally referred to the increasingly mainstream availability of digital communication systems (and ultimately, the Internet and its World Wide Web).

To some extent, it is associated with United States Senator and later Vice President Al Gore.

Definitions
There are a number of definitions of this term. The 1996 publication Wired Style: Principles of English Usage in the Digital Age defines the term as "the whole digital enchilada - interactive, cable, broadband, 500-channel [...] then-Senator Al Gore Jr. introduced it at a 1978 meeting of computer industry folk, in homage to his father, Senator Albert Gore Sr."

The McGraw-Hill Computer Desktop Encyclopedia, published in 2001, defines the term as "a proposed high-speed communications system that was touted by the Clinton/Gore administration to enhance education in America in the 21st century. Its purpose was to help all citizens regardless of their income level. The Internet was originally cited as a model for this superhighway; however, with the explosion of the World Wide Web, the Internet became the information superhighway".

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) defines the term as "a route or network for the high-speed transfer of information; esp. (a) a proposed national fiber-optic network in the United States; (b) the Internet." The OED also cites usage of this term in three periodicals:
the January 3, 1983 issue of Newsweek: "...information superhighways being built of fiber-optic cable will link Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D. C. in a 776-mile system on the East Coast."
the December 19, 1991 issue of the Christian Science Monitor: "Senator Gore calls NREN the "information superhighway" - a catalyst for what he hopes will become one day a national fiber-optic network."
the October 26, 1993 issue of the New York Times: "One of the technologies Vice President Al Gore is pushing is the information superhighway, which will link everyone at home or office to everything else—movies and television shows, shopping services, electronic mail and huge collections of data."

The working paper No.179, 1994, of the Center for Coordination Science at Massachusetts Institute of Technology describes the concept as follows: "The information superhighway directly connects millions of people, each both a consumer of information and a potential provider. (...) Most predictions about commercial opportunities on the information superhighway focus on the provision of information products, such as video on demand, and on new sales outlets for physical products, as with home shopping. (...) The information superhighway brings together millions of individuals who could exchange information with one another. Any conception of a traditional market for making beneficial exchanges, such as an agricultural market or trading pit, or any system where individuals respond to posted prices on a computer screen is woefully inadequate for the extremely large number of often complex trades that will be required."

Earlier similar phrases
Some other people used the term "superhighway" in application to telecommunications even earlier.

In 1964, M. Brotherton in his book "Masers and Lasers; How They Work, What They Do" on p. 5, wrote about laser beams and used the term "superhighways" for communication.

In 1974, Nam June Paik used the term "super highway" in application to telecommunications, which gave rise to the opinion that he may have been the author of the term "information superhighway". In fact, in his 1974 proposal "Media Planning for the Postindustrial Society – The 21st century is now only 26 years away" to the Rockefeller Foundation he used a slightly different phrase, "electronic super highway":

In 1972, Andrew Targowski presented the Polish National Development Program at the State Council for Informatics, which included the plan of developing the public computer network INFOSTRADA (INFO-STRADA), with autostrada meaning motorway in Polish. Later this plan and its topology were published in his book INFORMATYKA modele rozwoju i systemów (INFORMATICS, models of development and systems)

The building of new electronic super highways will become an even huger enterprise. Assuming we connect New York with Los Angeles by means of an electronic telecommunication network that operates in strong transmission ranges, as well as with continental satellites, wave guides, bundled coaxial cable, and later also via laser beam fiber optics: the expenditure would be about the same as for a Moon landing, except that the benefits in term of by-products would be greater.

See also

Al Gore and information technology
National Information Infrastructure
The Superhighway Summit
Knowledge policy
Cyberspace
Global village
HTTP and HTTPS

References

Further reading
Articles
Andrews, Edmund. "Policy Blueprint Ready for Data Superhighway." New York Times, Sept. 15, 1993.
 Besser, Howard. "The Information SuperHighway: Social and Cultural Impact," 1995.

Ferranti, Marc. "Europe Seeks a Lane on Info Highway," International Herald Tribune, October 1995.
 Gore, Al. "Remarks given by Vice President Gore at The Superhighway Summit, UCLA," January 11, 1994.
"Information Superhighways: The Next Information Revolution." The Futurist, January–February 1991, Vol. 25: 21–23.
 Kahn, Jeffery. "Building and Rescuing the Information Superhighway," 1993.
Special Issue: TIME magazine, 12 April 1993. "Take A Trip into the Future on the ELECTRONIC SUPERHIGHWAY"
 Gomery, Douglas. "What's At the End of the Infobahn?," American Journalism Review, May 1996.

Magazine covers
Special Issue: TIME magazine, 12 April 1993. "The Info Highway: Bringing a revolution in entertainment, news, and communication"
Popular Mechanics, January, 1994. "Understanding the Information Superhighway"

Internet terminology
History of the Internet
1970s neologisms

Information superhighway


Bettye McDonald Caldwell (December 24, 1924 – April 17, 2016) was an American educator and academic who influenced the development of Head Start. She was the 1993 recipient of the Society for Research in Child Development's Award for Distinguished Contributions to Public Policy for Children.

Biography
Caldwell was born in Smithville, Texas, to Thomas and Juanita McDonald. Her family was poor, as her father was a railroad engineer who lost his job when Caldwell was young. After graduating first in her high school class, Caldwell attended Baylor University, where she was a psychology and speech major. She earned a master's degree at the University of Iowa and a doctorate in psychology at Washington University. After graduate school, Caldwell was on the faculty or staff of several universities, including Northwestern University, Washington University, Syracuse University and SUNY Upstate.

While at Syracuse, Caldwell worked with pediatrician Julius Richmond on child development studies. Finding that poor children trailed off developmentally after the age of one, they created a day care center for children six months to five years of age. As the first infant group day care, the center required a waiver from the state. Caldwell felt that an emphasis on early childhood education could help to "level the playing field" for poor children before they started kindergarten. In 1964, Caldwell and Richmond's work led to the establishment of the Head Start project under Lyndon B. Johnson. Richmond was the first director of the project.

In the late 1960s, Caldwell moved to Arkansas. Working on the faculty of the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville, she established the Kramer Project, an initiative establishing a day care center associated with a Little Rock elementary school. Caldwell joined the faculty of the University of Arkansas at Little Rock in 1974. The school made her Donaghey Distinguished Professor in 1978, the same year that she was one of Ladies' Home Journal's 10 Women of the Year. She was named to the faculty of the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences in 1993.

She and her husband, Fred Caldwell, had two children, Paul Caldwell and Elizabeth Lawson. Fred Caldwell died in 2004. Bettye died in April 2016.

References

1924 births
2016 deaths
Educators from Texas
20th-century American women educators
20th-century American educators
People from Smithville, Texas
Baylor University alumni
University of Iowa alumni
Washington University in St. Louis alumni
Washington University in St. Louis faculty
Syracuse University faculty
Northwestern University faculty
University of Arkansas faculty
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences faculty

Bettye Caldwell