Lieutenant Colonel Sir Stewart Gore-Browne  (3 May 1883 – 4 August 1967), called Chipembele by Zambians, was a soldier, pioneer white settler, builder, politician and supporter of independence in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia).

Early life
Gore-Browne was born in London, England. His father was Francis Gore Browne, a lawyer and writer on company law, his paternal grandfather was Sir Thomas Gore Browne, who had been governor of New Zealand and Tasmania. His paternal aunt was Ethel Locke King.

Gore-Browne was educated at Wixenford Preparatory School for five years and Harrow School for a further three. He passed into the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich in 1900 and was commissioned into the Royal Field Artillery. From 1902 to 1904 he did survey work in Natal before returning to England to take up motor racing at Brooklands racing circuit created on the Locke family estate by Hugh F. Locke King, the husband of his aunt Ethel Gore-Browne.

Gore-Browne was sent to Northern Rhodesia in 1911 as part of an Anglo-Belgian boundary commission, surveying and laying out the border between the Belgian Congo and Northern Rhodesia. From his boyhood, Gore-Browne had an ambition to own an estate but though comparatively wealthy, knew that he could not afford much land in Britain.

When he heard in 1914 that the British South Africa Company which administered Northern Rhodesia was selling land very cheaply to white settlers in the north-east of the country, he travelled there looking for a site which he found at Shiwa Ngandu. His development of this estate is covered in the linked article.

Settles at Shiwa Ngandu
During the First World War, Gore-Browne was sent to the Western Front, where he reached the rank of Lt.-Colonel and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO). In 1920 he retired from the army and returned to Northern Rhodesia to settle at Shiwa Ngandu and build his estate; the story of the establishment of his estate is told in The Africa House by Christina Lamb.

At his new home Gore-Browne cultivated a military bearing and wore a monocle. He often frightened his workers with an explosive anger; the Bemba people called him Chipembere ('Rhinoceros', alternative spelling Chipembele), a name which had originally been given to him when he shot a rhinoceros at Shiwa Ngandu, but later they used it to refer to his temper.

As a young man Gore Browne courted Lorna Bosworth Smith for three years, but she married someone else. She and her husband Edwin Goldmann died young, and in England in 1927, Gore Browne met their orphaned daughter Lorna Goldmann (1908–2002). Despite the quarter-century difference in their ages, they married that year and went to live at Shiwa Ngandu. They had two daughters, Lorna and Angela. However, from 1934 the couple spent much time apart. Lady Gore-Browne did not share her husband's dreams for the estate and they divorced in 1950. She moved to London where she called herself 'Mrs Browne'.

Political career
Gore-Browne's political career began in 1935, when he was elected to Northern Rhodesia's legislative council. Gore-Browne represented one of seven constituencies of voters. He disagreed with British colonial
'trusteeship' and, instead, looked to a future 'partnership'. He thought settlers ought to have a larger share in government, but also argued for the interdependence of "white and black" prosperity. Unlike other white politicians, such as his friend Roy Welensky, a trade union leader, Gore-Browne felt no threat from African social and educational advance, and the consequent addition of qualified voters to the electoral roll.

These political views can be seen as relating to his management and development of the Shiwa Ngandu estate, where he was completely dependent on the African people and isolated from white settler society by hundreds of kilometres. He realised the need to educate and train local people in the skills his estate required, and realised that it would also benefit from a prosperous local community. To an extent he was paternalistic but was also capable of friendships and good working relationships with many Africans.

From 1938 to 1951 he was nominated to represent African interests in the legislative council, for which he was knighted in 1945. In the Legislative Council, Gore-Browne soon became a power in the land. He helped set the stage for Northern Rhodesia. He was more closely attuned to African thinking than the administration was and "[h]e always enjoyed the respect and trust of Africans ... [h]e was an eloquent speaker and his speeches were the most statesman like that had ever been heard in Northern Rhodesia. He was a man of outstanding calibre, forceful and courageous", said Welensky.

When African mineworkers went on strike in 1940, Gore-Browne counselled limiting the use of force. He also sought out African opinion and denounced various forms of the colour bar (a form of racial segregation). He welcomed the growth of African welfare societies and trade unions, and managed to get the white government to set up African representative councils. In Britain, he made contact with Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda (the future president of Malawi) and his faith in African abilities was strengthened by visits to Uganda and West Africa in 1946–47.

However, by 1946 Roy Welensky had begun campaigning for the amalgamation of Northern Rhodesia with Southern Rhodesia, where white settlers enjoyed self-government. Gore-Browne was opposed to Welensky's push for amalgamation and resigned in protest from the leadership of the elected members of the legislative council. Instead, he devised a scheme intended to appeal to both white and black people, calling for 'responsible government'. However, he mishandled the scheme's presentation in 1948 and alienated his African supporters. By 1950 he felt that he no longer had a role in politics and resigned from the legislative council in 1951 and retired to devote his energies to Shiwa.

He continued to advise first the African National Congress under his early protégé, Harry Nkumbula and later, after the break away, the United National Independence party, under his close friend, Kenneth Kaunda.

By the late 1950s Shiwa Ng'andu epitomised everything Sir Stewart represented – orderly, neat, precise. For years it had been an oasis for travellers on the Great North Road, a place where hospitality had never been refused; and this little bit of England in Africa never ceased to impress its visitors.

Family in Africa
In 1962 after a failed attempt to come back into politics, he went to live quietly at Shiwa with his daughter and son-in-law, Lorna and John Harvey (who managed the estate), and his four grand children, Penelope, Charles, Mark and David. Lady Gore-Browne, still living in England made occasional long visits to Shiwa. Their second daughter, Angela, married with two daughters, Karen and Miranda, had moved to Kenya where she lectured at the Royal College in Nairobi.

His constant companion was his chauffeur of more than 30 years, Henry Mulenga. Together they had toured much of Africa and, in 'seven seas tours', most of Europe; between them there was a strong bond of friendship. "Sir Stewart has bought me a farm of my own 15 miles from Shiwa", Henry once revealed. "My family live there and I visit them at weekends. When my services are no longer required at Shiwa, I shall retire there to become a full-time farmer".

Semi-retirement
Gore-Browne spent most of his later years at Shiwa Ngandu, where he replaced citrus crops with cattle. However, he remained actively interested in politics. When, in 1953, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was imposed against the wishes of some local settlers and urban Africans, Gore-Browne opposed it because he felt that it was based on the discredited idea of 'partnership'. By 1960 he was committed to African majority rule, and was friendly with Kenneth Kaunda, leader of the United National Independence Party.

In the general election of 1962, Gore-Browne stood for that party. However, he failed to win enough white votes to qualify. In 1964 he was an honoured guest at Zambia's independence ceremonies in Lusaka.

He died from pneumonia at Kasama Hospital, Zambia, on 4 August 1967. He was buried at Shiwa Ngandu two days later in Zambia's only to date state funeral for a white person. Kenneth Kaunda, then President of Zambia, gave the eulogy.

Lady Lorna Gore-Browne, his wife, died in London in 2002 at the age of 93.

John and Lorna Harvey (his daughter) were murdered by gunmen on their other farm in Chisamba in 1992. After this, the mansion was left vacant and in disrepair. His grandson, David Harvey, continued living on a remote part of the land but not in the ruined mansion. It was not until 1999 when Gore-Browne's eldest grandson, Charlie, took over the mansion and, together with his wife Jo, they set about the monumental task of restoring the house and turning the huge grounds into a fully-functioning farm once more. As at 2016, Charlie and Jo also used the house as a special guest house.

References

External links

1883 births
1967 deaths
British Army personnel of World War I
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Deaths from pneumonia in Zambia
British emigrants to the British Empire
Knights of the Order of Saint James of the Sword
Members of the Legislative Council of Northern Rhodesia
People educated at Harrow School
People educated at Wixenford School
Military personnel from London
Royal Artillery officers
Settlers of Zambia
United National Independence Party politicians
White Zambian people
Gore-Brown, Stewart

Stewart Gore-Browne


The Brukenthal National Museum (; ) is a museum in Sibiu, Transylvania, Romania, established in the late 18th century by Samuel von Brukenthal (1721-1803) in his city palace. Baron Brukenthal, governor of the Grand Principality of Transylvania has established his first collections around 1790. The collections were officially opened to the public in 1817, making the museum the oldest institution of its kind on the territory of modern-day Romania.

Today, in its extended form, it is a complex comprising six museums, which, without being separate administrative entities, are situated in different locations around the city and have their own distinct cultural programmes.

The Art Galleries
The Art Galleries are located inside the Brukenthal Palace and include a number of about 1,200 works belonging to the main European schools of painting, from the 15th to the 18th century: Flemish-Dutch, German and Austrian, Italian, Spanish and French Schools. The Galleries also include collections of engravings, books, numismatics, and minerals.

Gallery

The Brukenthal Library
The Brukenthal Library is also located inside the Brukenthal Palace. It comprises approximately 300,000 library units (manuscripts, incunables, rare foreign books, old Romanian-language books, contemporary books and specialised magazines) including the highly illuminated 16th-century Brukenthal Breviary, a book of hours.

The Museum of History
The Museum of History is part of a building which is considered to be the most important ensemble of non-religious Gothic architecture in Transylvania. The museum initially focused its activities on representing the historic characteristics of Hermannstadt (Nagyszeben, present Sibiu) and its surroundings, but in time it has come to reflect the entire area of Southern Transylvania.

The Museum of Pharmacology
The Museum of Pharmacology is located in an historical building dated 1569, where one of the oldest pharmacies in present-day Romania was located. It is the basement of this house where Samuel Hahnemann invented homeopathy and developed his version of treatment. Some of his phials and plans are on display. The furniture is in Viennese style. The exhibition is organized on the structure of a classical pharmacy that includes two laboratories, a homeopathic sector and a documentation sector. It contains over 6,000 ancient medical instruments and dispensing tools from the time when Sibiu was home to more chemists than anywhere else in Transylvania. At the front, a reconstructed shop is decked out with wooden counters and stacks of glass jars creating the atmosphere of an 18th-century apothecary. A valuable collection of wooden pharmaceutical jars, marked with paint, is also featured.

The Museum of Natural History
The Museum of Natural History began to take shape in 1849, through the foundation of the Transylvanian Society of Natural Sciences (), which had as members important local and foreign figures in science and culture. The collections of the museum comprise over 1 million exhibits (including mineralogy-petrography, palaeontology, botany, entomology, malacology, the zoology of the vertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, as well as ichthyology, ornithology, and the zoology of mammals).

The Museum of Arms and Hunting Trophies
The Museum of Arms and Hunting Trophies reflects the evolution in time of weapons and hunting tools. Important is as well the collection of trophies belonging to the collections Witting and A. Spiess, the last one comprising 1,058 items acquired in 1963. Opened for the public in 1966 in Spiess House, the exhibition contains now over 1,500 units. Some traditional hunting procedures are also exhibited, including contemporary engravings. Aspects of the animal life and suitable times for hunting them are also presented here.

See also
Brukenthal High School
Eyes of Sibiu
Council Tower of Sibiu

External links

 Dutch Art in Brukenthal Museum
Virtual tour of the Brukenthal National Museum provided by Google Arts & Culture

Museums established in 1817
Art museums and galleries in Romania
National museums of Romania
Palaces in Romania
Buildings and structures in Sibiu
S
History museums in Romania
1817 establishments in the Austrian Empire
19th-century establishments in Hungary
1817 establishments in Romania
Museums in Sibiu County

Brukenthal National Museum


The United States Congress is the legislative, or law making, branch of the United States government. It meets in the United States Capitol.

It has two houses (parts): The United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. This two house system is known as a bicameral (bi is the Latin word for "two", and camera is Latin for "chamber" or "room") legislature. There are 435 Representatives in Congress, split between the states based on how many people live in the state. There are 100 Senators in Congress, with two coming from each state.

The primary duty of Congress is to write, debate, and pass bills (laws they want).   For Congress to pass a bill, both houses must pass exactly the same bill.  For each house to pass a bill, more than half of its members must vote in favor of passing the bill.  After both houses pass the same bill, this bill is then sent to the President.  If the President agrees the bill should be a law he or she signs the bill within 10 days.  If the president does not agree, then he or she can veto the bill and send it back to Congress.  If the bill is neither signed nor vetoed by the president within 10 days, the bill becomes law anyway if Congress does not adjourn (end its session) within that time.  If Congress adjourns within that time, the bill does not become a law.  Congress may override a president's veto of a bill by having more than two thirds of its members passing the bill.  In that case, the bill becomes law even though the president vetoed it.

Article 1 of the United States Constitution lists what subjects Congress can pass laws on.

Members of Congress cannot be arrested, except for certain crimes, during a session of Congress or going to or returning from a session.

Each house of Congress can decide to expel (throw out) one of its members if more than two thirds of them vote to expel him or her.

The political party with the most members in a house of Congress usually decides which bills are voted on in their house.

Related page

 Parliamentary procedure

References

National legislatures
Bicameral legislatures

United States Congress


Mistaken Point Ecological Reserve is one of the world's greatest fossil sites. It is part of Newfoundland and Labrador, in Canada.

Mistaken Point was so named because sailors found it a navigational hazard on the foggy tip of Newfoundland's Avalon Peninsula. The site is on Canada's Tentative List for proposed UNESCO World Heritage Sites. No-one can visit the fossil site without an official guide; collecting actual fossils may not be done.

The fossils
The fossils are in Mistaken Point's tilted and faulted mudstone and sandstone. They are exposed, visible on the surface. They are part of the Ediacaran biota, the oldest complex (multicellular) life forms. The Ediacaran is the last period in the Proterozoic eon. They date to 579 to 542 million years ago, when all life was in the sea.

The Reserve is the only place in the world where you can see a 565-million-year-old sea floor which preserves the ecology of these ancient deep sea communities.

This lagerstätte includes over 30 types of ancient creatures, most of them extinct groups unknown in our modern world.

The palaeoecology
The creatures lived on the bottom of a deep ocean, below the depths that light could reach. What is now Newfoundland was then between latitudes 40°–65° South.

The imprints of the soft-bodied animals were preserved in place on the muddy sea floor when they were suddenly buried by repeated volcanic ash-falls. The ash (tuff) layers contain zircon, which makes it possible for geologists to accurately date the fossil layers by radiometric dating. Fossils of similar age are found in Russia and Australia, but the variety found at Mistaken Point make the site unique.

Related pages
Fortune Head
Ediacaran biota
Lagerstätten

References

Geography of Newfoundland and Labrador
Lagerstätten

Mistaken Point Ecological Reserve


Baron Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen (20 February 1880 – 5 November 1923) was a French novelist and poet. His life forms the basis of a fictionalised 1959 novel by Roger Peyrefitte entitled The Exile of Capri (L'exilé de Capri).

In 1903, a scandal involving school pupils made d'Adelswärd persona non grata in the salons of Paris and dashed his marriage plans. For much of the rest of his life, he took up residence on Capri in self-imposed exile with his long-time lover, Nino Cesarini. He became a "character" on the island in the inter-war years, featuring in novels by Compton MacKenzie and others. His house, Villa Lysis, remains one of Capri's tourist attractions.

Early life
He was born in Paris, France, as Jacques d'Adelswärd, on 20 February 1880, son of Axel d'Adelswärd and Louise-Emilie Alexandrine d'Adelswärd (née Vührer). As he was related on his paternal side to Axel von Fersen, a Swedish count who had had a supposed relationship with Marie Antoinette, d'Adelswärd took on the name Fersen later in his life to advertise his link with his distant relative. D'Adelswärd's grandfather had founded the steel industry in Longwy-Briey. D'Adelswärd went to school in Paris and studied briefly there at the École libre des sciences politiques, and afterward at the University of Geneva. His mother, Louise-Emilie (1855-1935), came from a Catholic Alsatian family. D'Adelswärd's maternal grandfather, Thomas Michel Alexandre Vührer (1817-1886), was a referendary at the French Ministry of State, director of Le Paris-Journal as well as founder of the Parisian newspaper Le Soir. D'Adelswärd's father died when he was seven years old. He was assigned a guardian, Viscount Elie Marie Audoin de Dampierre (1846-1909), who was a friend of the family. During d'Adelswärd's teenage years, the family spent long summer vacations at his grandfather's estate on Jersey, where d'Adelswärd reportedly had an intimate encounter with a blond Eton schoolboy.

In 1897, d'Adelswärd visited Capri and other parts of Italy with his mother. The family steel furnaces had become profitable enough to make d'Adelswärd a rich and 'eligible' bachelor when he inherited at the age of 22. Apart from joining the military, he travelled extensively and settled down as a writer. He published Chansons légères (1900) and Hymnaire d'Adonis (1902) and other poems and novels. In 1902 he holidayed in Venice, where he associated with the novelist Jean Lorrain. On his return to Paris, he published a novel, Notre Dame des mers mortes.

'Messes noires' scandal
In 1903, d'Adelswärd and his friend, Albert François (Hamelin) de Warren (1881-1928), brother of Rene de Warren, were rumoured to be holding "entertainments" – tableaux vivants of pupils from the best Parisian schools – in his house at 18 Avenue de Friedland. One of the first alleged "victims" was Eduardo (Bruno) de Warren (1886-1957), brother of Hamelin. D'Adelswärd and Hamelin were arrested on charges of inciting minors to commit debauchery. D'Adelswärd was arrested on 9 July by Octave Hamard, chief of the Paris police, and his deputy Blot by order of Charles de Valles, pretrial judge. The order stated the suspicion of indecent behaviour with minors and offending public decency. He was brought to La Santé Prison after arrest. The newspapers and magazines published alleged details of d'Adelswärd's and Hamelin's orgies, which they called Messes noires (Black Masses), in their homes twice a week, with youngsters from the upper classes, mostly recruited from the Lycée Carnot and the Chaptal, Condorcet, Janson-deSailly, and Saint-Joseph-des-Tuileries schools.

According to Peyrefitte, the scandal started with a failed blackmail attempt by d'Adelswärd's former servant, demanding 100,000 francs in return for his silence. D'Adelswärd's mother refused to pay, so he went to the police. At the beginning, the police dismissed the allegations. But the story was later confirmed by another arrested blackmailer who was an intimate acquaintance of Albert François de Warren. Will Ogrinc reported that, after investigating the French National Archives in 2003, he did not come across any documents about the failed blackmail attempt by d'Adelswärd's former valet and that it was probably invented by Peyrefitte. In the court documents, the valet, whose name was Velpry, told investigators about the periodic visits of brothers Croisé de Pourcelet to d'Adelswärd's apartment and that, after one of their visits, he had found obscene photos and handkerchiefs stained with semen on the table. He also claimed that he had let d'Adelswärd's mother know about it and quit his job. Some documents mention that d'Adelswärd was blackmailed by several rent boys with whom he had relations. The dossier mentions the names of six rent boys: Beret, Boscher, twenty-one-year-old Kothé, Lefebvre, nineteen-year-old Leroy, and fifteen-year-old Verguet, though there is no mention as to which of them might have been the blackmailer.

Police started to watch some of the schoolboys, which at first sight confirmed the allegations. Hamelin fled to the United States on 27 June 1903, but d'Adelswärd was arrested. His aunt Jeanne d'Adelswärd and former guardian Viscount Audoin de Dampierre employed Edgar Demange, a lawyer who previously defended Alfred Dreyfus, in his defence.

Trial
The trial started on 28 November 1903 in the Seine Tribunal. It was presided over by Judge Bondoux. It was a closed trial with the public barred from the hearings. Some schoolboys testified for the prosecution. The defence tried to prove d'Adelswärd's heterosexuality by making him testify about his encounters with women. D'Adelswärd and de Warren were found guilty, but having been in prison for five months already d'Adelswärd was set free immediately after the trial. He was also fined 50 francs and lost civil rights for five years. Hamelin stayed in prison and appealed his sentence to a higher court. The "entertainments" had been attended by the cream of Parisian society, including some Catholic priests and the writer Achille Essebac. This could be a factor which may have induced the court to drop some charges. According to Will Ogrinc, the court limited the case to "inciting minors to debauchery" because of illegal conduct between boys and two young men in their twenties, preventing implications against older participants. Many boys did not appear at the interrogations and trial, since they had been sent to the countryside by their parents to avoid embarrassing revelations.

There is no detailed description of the boys' testimony, but Peyrefitte writes of Jean Lorrain's report that, after tableaux vivants, d'Adelswärd followed the boys who had been stimulated by the entertainment to the bathroom and masturbated them.

Failed marriage
The scandal foiled d'Adelswärd's plans to marry Blanche Suzanne Caroline de Maupeou (1884-1951), daughter of the respected aristocratic and wealthy Protestant industrialist Viscount de Maupeou. The court documents mention that one of the blackmail letters was sent to the Viscount prior to the scandal and that Blanche's family was happy to receive the information prior to his arrest and to cancel his marriage plans. After d'Adelswärd's release on 3 December 1903, he tried to visit his fiancée with the intent of explaining the affair, but was sent away by a servant. There were rumours in the press that he tried to end his life, but the accounts in Gazzetta Piemontese and Le Figaro differ.

On Capri

Construction of Villa Lysis and world travels

After his marriage plans were foiled, d'Adelswärd remembered the island of Capri from his youth, and decided to build a house there. The island had already attracted other homosexual or bisexual visitors, such as Christian Wilhelm Allers, Somerset Maugham, E. F. Benson, Lord Alfred Douglas, Robert Ross, Oscar Wilde, Friedrich Alfred Krupp, Norman Douglas, and Compton and Faith Mackenzie; and attracted many others during d'Adelswärd's stay. He stayed originally at the Grand Hotel Quisisana and then bought land at the top of a hill in the northeast of the island, close to where the Roman emperor Tiberius had built his Villa Jovis two millennia earlier. He commissioned his friend Édouard Chimot to design a villa, initially called Gloriette, but was eventually christened Villa Lysis (later sometimes referred to as Villa Fersen) in reference to Plato's Socratic dialogue Lysis discussing friendship (or, according to modern notions, homosexual love). When the construction started, d'Adelswärd left Capri to visit the Far East. He mostly spent time on Ceylon, where he wrote Lord Lyllian. He returned to Capri in the autumn of 1904, visiting the United States on the way back.

At some point after his return, he had to flee Capri temporarily, since some islanders blamed d'Adelswärd for a local worker's accidental death during the construction of Villa Lysis. He went to Rome, where he met a fourteen-year-old construction worker selling newspapers, Nino Cesarini. D'Adelswärd fell in love with the boy immediately. He obtained Cesarini's family's permission to take him as secretary. In the spring of 1905 d'Adelswärd and Cesarini visited Sicily, where they met with Wilhelm von Gloeden in Taormina.

The construction of the villa was completed in July 1905. Villa Lysis is a notable building. Its style is described by some as "Liberty" but is not Liberty or Art Nouveau in the French manner but may perhaps be described as "Neoclassical decadent". The large garden is connected to the villa by steps leading to an Ionic portico. In the atrium a marble stairway with wrought-iron balustrade leads to the first floor, where there are bedrooms with panoramic terraces, and a dining room. The ground-floor sitting-room, decorated with blue majolica and white ceramic, overlooks the Gulf of Naples. In the basement there is a  'Chinese Room', in which opium was smoked.

D'Adelswärd and Cesarini travelled to Paris, where d'Adelswärd delivered a manuscript to publishers and went directly to Oxford. After returning to Capri, d'Adelswärd, Cesarini and their four boy-servants travelled to China. They all returned to Villa Lysis at the beginning of 1907.

Temporary exile from Capri
D'Adelswärd published his novel about Capri Et le feu s'éteignit sur la mer… ('And the fire was smothered by the sea') in 1909. The novel told the story of young sculptor Gérard Maleine on Capri. The book was highly criticized, since d'Adelswärd wrote quite frivolously about Caprian habits and morals. Some islanders, recognising themselves in the book, tried to prevent its distribution. Roberto Ciuni reports that the Communal Council of Capri decided to pursue d'Adelswärd's expulsion from the island at its formal meeting on 16 September 1909. Villa Lysis and its inhabitants had a nasty reputation among locals. Giorgio Amendola, the future leader of the Italian Communist Party, who lived on Capri when he was an eleven-year-old boy, led a small gang of boys and girls in 1918, and wrote in his autobiography:

Local authorities used the parties d'Adelswärd threw to celebrate Cesarini's army enlistment and twentieth birthday as an additional reason for expelling him from the island. The parties were held in the Matermània grottos and included theatrical shows with d'Adelswärd playing handsome young Hypatos and Cesarini playing the role of a soldier of Mithra. Fearing the scandal, authorities asked d'Adelswärd's brother-in-law, marquis Alfredo di Bugnano, who was married to d'Adelswärd's sister Germaine, to intervene. The marquis summoned d'Adelswärd to Naples and presented him with two options – either to leave Italy voluntarily or be expelled officially. D'Adelswärd chose to leave. He returned to France in November 1909 and stayed briefly in Paris at 24 rue Eugène Manuel. Cesarini left Capri with d'Adelswärd.

The couple did not stay in Paris for long. They left for Porquerolles on the Îles d'Hyères near Toulon, and later moved to Villa Mezzomonte in Nice. D'Adelswärd also travelled to the Far East again, returning in early 1911. Cesarini was discharged from military service in September 1911 and d'Adelswärd took him on a trip through the Mediterranean to the Far East. They returned to Nice at the end of Spring 1912.

D'Adelswärd acquired permission to return to Capri in April 1913. He dedicated the poem, Ode à la Terre promise ('Ode to the Promised Land') to the Italian Prime Minister Luigi Luzzatti as a celebration of his return.

Later life

When war broke out in 1914, d'Adelswärd was asked to report for military service by the French authorities. He was found unfit for service by specialists in the French consulate in Naples and sent to a hospital for opium addiction. It was reported that he secretly used cocaine while in hospital to compensate for opium. At that time he met Italian sculptor Vincenzo Gemito. After d'Adelswärd came back to Capri, doctors declared him incurably ill. He mostly spent his days without leaving the villa, either working in his study or using opium in the smoking room, which was called his Opiarium by the Naples newspaper Il Mattino.

In 1920, d'Adelswärd met fifteen-year-old Corrado Annicelli, son of a notary from Sorrento, who came for a vacation to Capri with his parents.

He spent the rest of his life based in Capri, and died there in 1923 – allegedly by suicide achieved through drinking a cocktail of champagne and cocaine. His ashes are conserved in the non-Catholic cemetery of Capri. His lover, Nino Cesarini, returned to Rome.

Lord Lyllian
Lord Lyllian, published in 1905, is one of d'Adelswärd's more important novels, satirizing the scandal around himself in Paris, with touches of the Oscar Wilde affair thrown in for good measure. The hero, Lord Lyllian, departs on a wild odyssey of sexual debauchery, is seduced by a character who seems awfully similar to Oscar Wilde, falls in love with girls and boys, and is finally killed by a boy. The public outcry about the supposed Black Masses is also caricatured. The work is an audacious mix of fact and fiction, including four characters that are alter egos of d'Adelswärd himself.

Lord Lyllian was translated and first published in English in 2005.

Akademos revue
Akademos. Revue Mensuelle d'Art Libre et de Critique (1909) was d'Adelswärd's short-lived attempt at publishing a monthly literary journal. It was a periodical of a luxurious kind, each issue printed on several sorts of deluxe paper, with contributions by well-known authors, like Colette, Henry Gauthier-Villars, Laurent Tailhade, Josephin Peladan, Marcel Boulestin, Maxim Gorky, Georges Eekhoud, Achille Essebac, Claude Farrère, Anatole France, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Henri Barbusse, Jean Moréas and Arthur Symons.

In each issue, as is clear from d'Adelswärd's letters to Georges Eekhoud, a homosexual element was carefully introduced: a poem, an article, or a hint in the magazine's serial Les Fréquentations de Maurice by Boulestin. As a magazine with homosexual agenda it was the first of its kind in the French language, although only about 10% of Akademos may be counted as homosexual. In its 'gay' content it trod similar ground to that of the German journal, Der Eigene, published between 1896 and 1931 by Adolf Brand. This is not a coincidence, as d'Adelswärd studied the German publications that tried to push for the social acceptance of homosexuality before launching Akademos. Also he corresponded with Brand and Magnus Hirschfeld.

Akademos lasted only one year—there were twelve monthly issues, amounting to some 2,000 pages. Perhaps its production costs were too great; but in a letter to Eekhoud, d'Adelswärd complained of the lack of interest of the press and the public; and a general hostility from press or society cannot be ruled out.

Further reading

Books by Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen

Conte d'amour (1898), poetry
Chansons légères (1900), collection of poetry
Musique sur tes lèvres (Ebauches et Débauches) (1901)
L'Hymnaire d'Adonis: à la façon de M. le marquis de Sade (1902)
Notre-Dame des mers mortes (Venise) (1902)
Les cortèges qui sont passés (1903)
L'Amour enseveli: poèmes (1904)
Lord Lyllian (1905), novel (republished Montpellier (France) QuestionDeGenre/GKC, 2011 with a preface by Jean de Palacio and postface by Jean-Claude Féray)
Ainsi chantait Marsyas... (1907)
Une jeunesse (1907)
Le baiser de Narcisse (1907), novel (republished in 1912 with illustrations by Ernest Brisset)
Et le feu s'éteignit sur la mer (1909)
Hei Hsiang (Le parfum noir) (1921)

Biographical
 Jacques Perot: Le destin français d'une famille suédoise: les barons Adelswärd (Bulletin du musée Bernadotte, no. 26, 1986), pp. 13-29.
 Patrick Cardon, ed: Dossier Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen (1993, Lille, Cahiers Gay-Kitsch-Camp).
 Norman Douglas: Looking Back: An Autobiographical Excursion (1933), pp. 358-366.
 Wolfram Setz, ed: Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen – Dandy und Poet (2006, Bibliothek Rosa Winkel).
 James Money: Capri: Island of Pleasure (1986).
 Robert Aldrich: The Seduction of the Mediterranean (1996, Routledge), pp. 124-130 and 243-244.
 Viveka Adelswärd: "Alltför adlig, alltför rik, alltför lättjefull - Jacques d'Adelswärd Fersen" (2014, Carlssons), pp. 1-201.
 Gianpaolo Furgiuele: Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen. Persona non grata (2015, Lille-Paris, Ed. Laborintus).
 Jamie James: Pagan Light: Dreams of Freedom and Beauty in Capri (2019, Farrar, Straus and Giroux).

Fictionalized
 Edwin Cerio: Il Marchese di Pommery, c. 1927
 Alfred Jarry: La Chandelle verte, 1969
 Compton Mackenzie: Vestal Fire, 1927
 Edward Prime-Stevenson: Out of the Sun, 1913
 Roger Peyrefitte: L'Exilé de Capri, 1959

Film
 Capri – Musik die sich entfernt, oder: Die seltsame Reise des Cyrill K. , 1983. — Made-for-TV movie directed by Ferry Radax for the WDR featuring d'Adelswärd-Fersen, Nino Cesarini, and other historical Capri celebrities.
 Music video of soprano Nicole Renaud singing d'Adelswärd-Fersen's poem, Mon cœur est un bouquet, shot in super 8 film at Villa Lysis, Capri, by Karine Laval.

Music
The lyrics of the song Les amants solitaires by French soprano Nicole Renaud consist of four poems by d'Adelswärd-Fersen.

References

External links

Will H.L. Ogrinc, Frère Jacques. A shrine to love and sorrow. Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen (1880-1923). Fourth, revised edition. Retrieved August 20, 2023.
Article about the book "L'hymnaire d'Adonis" of Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen
Pictures of Villa Lysis today

Nicole Renaud & Mario Bindi "Les amants solitaires" based on Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen poem
 Massimo Colella, Profilo biografico di attori partenopei del XX secolo: VI. Corrado Annicelli, 2022 (https://www.centrostuditeatro.it/2022/03/corrado-annicelli/).

Digitized books
Scans of books by d'Adelswärd-Fersen at Gallica digital library
The premiere issue of Akademos
Issues #7 through #12 of Akademos at Gallica digital library

1880 births
1923 suicides
1923 deaths
Writers from Paris
20th-century French poets
Gay poets
Gay novelists
LGBT nobility
Capri, Campania
French LGBT rights activists
French LGBT poets
French LGBT novelists
Drug-related suicides in Italy
20th-century French novelists
20th-century French male writers
French male poets
French male novelists
French expatriates in Italy

Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen


Woodside is a neighbourhood in Croydon, in the London Borough of Croydon, England. Woodside Racecourse opened in 1866 on a park called Stroud Green Farm, it has now closed and is now the site of Ashburton Learning Village, closing in 1890. Woodside station opened to serve visitors to the racecourse, but not a lot of people used it when the course closed so it was replaced to make way for a tram line.

Woodside is close to South Norwood and Addiscombe.

London Borough of Croydon

Woodside, London


Mechanical engineering is a branch of engineering that applies the principles of Mechanics and Materials science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It involves the production and usage of heat and mechanical power for the design, production, and operation of machines and tools. They can range from building a rocket ship down to things as small as an integrated circuit. It is one of the oldest and broadest engineering disciplines.

Notes

Mechanical engineering

Mechanical engineering


James Dennis Alan "Denny" Hamlin (born November 18, 1980 in Chesterfield, Virginia)
 is an American race car driver. Currently, he drives the No. 11 Toyota Camry for Joe Gibbs Racing in the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series.

Career

Racing before NASCAR
Hamlin started his racing career in 1988, at the age of 7 years old, racing Go-Karts. At the age of 16, he was racing Ministocks. In his first stock car race, at Langley Speedway, Hamlin won the pole position, and won the race. In 2004, while racing full-time in Late Model Stock Cars, Hamlin was signed to a development program  with Joe Gibbs Racing.

NASCAR career

2004-2006
In 2004, Hamlin raced in five NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series (NCTS) races with the team EJP Racing. He finished tenth in his first race, at Indianopolis Raceway Park. He ran his first  ARCA RE/MAX Series race at Talladega Superspeedway, finishing third in the #10 Pontiac owned by Andy Hillenburg. His last start of the year came at Darlington Raceway, when he started his first Busch Series race. He started twenty-seventh but finished eighth in the #18 Joe Gibbs Driven Performance Oil Chevrolet.

Hamlin raced the full season in the #20 Rockwell Automation Chevrolet in the Busch Series. He finished 5th in the final championship points standings as a rookie in that series.  Hamlin also raced in his first Nextel Cup Series races in 2005, making his Cup first start at Kansas Speedway as driver of the #11 FedEx Chevrolet. He made seven starts in the Sprint Cup series in 2005. He finished the Sprint Cup season with three top 10 finishes in seven starts and one pole at Phoenix International Raceway.

In 2006, Hamlin raced his first full season in the NASCAR Nextel Cup Series. He also drove in the Busch Series full-time. In Hamlin's first race as a Nextel Cup driver, he won the 70-lap 2006 Budweiser Shootout. Hamlin became the first Rookie to win the Budweiser Shootout. Hamlin got his first career Busch Series win at Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez on March 5th 2006. On June 11 2006, Hamlin won his first career Nextel Cup Series race at the Pocono 500.  He got his second career win on July 23, in the Pennsylvania 500, also at Pocono Raceway. In the Nextel Cup Series, Hamlin won the Raybestos Rookie of the Year award and finished third in the final standings.

2007-2008
In 2007 Denny Hamlin finished 12th overall in the final standings in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. In the Nationwide Series, Hamlin won three races, Darlington, Michigan, and Dover in the #20 Rockwell Automation Chevy.

In 2008, Hamlin finished 8th in the Sprint Cup Series and won early in the season at Martinsville Speedway. He won three races in the Nationwide Series, driving both the #18 and #20 cars for Joe Gibbs Racing, as well as the #32 Dollar General/Haas Avocados car for Braun Racing.

2009

In 2009 Hamlin won his fifth career race at Pocono Raceway on August 3, 2009. The win was Hamlin's third at Pocono. It was an emotional win for Hamlin as his grandmother, Thelma Clark, died the Friday before the race.

Hamlin also won races at Martinsville Speedway, his home track Richmond International Raceway, and the last race of the year at Homestead-Miami Speedway. Hamlin ended the season 5th in the Sprint Cup Series points.

2010

On January 22, 2010, Denny Hamlin tore the anterior cruciate ligament in his left knee while playing basketball.
On March 27, 2010 Hamlin said he was going to have surgery on his left knee the next Monday. If he did not have the surgery, his knee would have been injured worse.

Three weeks after his surgery on April 19, 2010, Hamlin won the race at Texas Motor Speedway. It was the 10th win of his career.

Later in the season Hamlin finished 43rd in a race at Atlanta Motor Speedway. This was the first time that Denny Hamlin finished last in a race. This race moved Hamlin into 10th place in the Sprint Cup Series points, and made sure he would have a place in the championship race. Denny Hamlin won 8 races in the 2010 Sprint Cup Series but finished the season 2nd in Sprint Cup Series points behind Jimmie Johnson.

2011
After a strong second place finish in 2010, 2011 was not a very good year for Denny Hamlin. Hamlin had mechanical problems many times in 2011, and this hurt his chances at finishing well in the points. Hamlin only won one race in 2011, and finished the season 9th in the points standing.

References

Other websites
Denny Hamlin's official website
Joe Gibbs Racing's Official Denny Hamlin Website

American racecar drivers
Sportspeople from Virginia
1980 births
Living people
NASCAR drivers

Denny Hamlin


유엔 총회 결의 제195호는 1948년 12월 12일에 유엔 총회가 프랑스 파리에서 결의했으며, 대한민국 정부를 한반도 유일의 합법정부로 승인한 결의다.

개관
1948년 미군정 이후 대한민국이 한반도 내 유일의 합법정부라는 것을 유엔 총회에서 결의안이 채택되었다.

전문
[195 (III). The Problem of the independence of Korea]

the General Assembly

Having regard its resolution 112(II) of 14 November 1947 concerning the problem of the independence of Korea,

Having considered the report of the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea(hereinafter referred to as the "Temporary Commission"), and the report of the Interim Committee of the General Assembly regarding its consultation with the Temporary Commission,

Mindful of the fact that, due to difficulties referred to in the report of the Temporary Commission, the objectives set forth in the resolution of 14 November 1947 have not been fully accomplished, and in particular that unification of Korea has not yet been achieved,

1. Approves the conclusions of the reports of the Temporary Commission;

2. Declares that there has been established a lawful government ( the Government of te Republic of Korea) having effective control and jurisdiction over that part of Korea where the Temporary Commission was able to observe and consult and in which the great majority of the people of all Korea reside; that this Government is based on elevations which were a called expression of the free will of the electorate of that part of Korea and which were observed by the Temporary Commission; and that this is the only such Government in Korea;

3. Recommends that the occupying powers should withdraw their occupation forces from Korea as early as practicable;

4. Resolves that, as a means to the full accomplishment of the objectives set forth in the resolution of 14 November 1947, a Commission on Korea consisting of Australia,, China, El Salvador, France, India, the Philippines and Syria, shall be established to continue the work of the Temporary Commission and carry out the provisions of the present resolution, having in mind the status of the Government of Korea as herein defined, and in particular to :

 (a) Lend its good offices to bring about the unification of Korea and the integration of all Korean security forces in accordance with the principles laid down by the General Assembly in the resolution of 14 November 1947;

 (b) seek to facilitate the removal of barriers to economic, social and other friendly intercourse caused by the division of Korea;

 (c ) Be available for observation and consultation in the further development of representative government based on the freely-expressed will of the people;

 (d) Observe the actual withdrawal of the occupying forces and certify the fact of withdrawal when such has occurred; and for this purpose, if it so desires, request the assistance of military experts of the two occupying powers;

5. Decides that the Commission:

 (a) Shall, within thirty days of the adoption of the present resolution, proceed to Korea, where it shall maintain its seat;

 (b) shall be regarded as having superseded the Temporary Commission established by the resolution of 14 November 1947;

 (c ) Is authorized to travel, consult and observe throughout Korea;

 (d) Shall determine its own procedures;

 (e) May consult with the Interim Committee with respect to the discharge of its duties in the light of developments and within the terms of the present resolution;

 (f) Shall render a report to the next regular session of the General Assembly and to any prior special session which might be called to consider the subject-matter of the present resolution, and shall render such interim reports as it may deem appropriate to the Secretary-General for distribution to Members;

6. Requests that the Secretary-General shall provide the Commission with adequate staff and facilities, including technical advisers as required; and authorizes the Secretary-General to pay he expenses and per diem of a representative and an alternate from each of the states members of the Commission;

7. Calls upon the Member States concerned, the Government of the Republic of Korea, and all Koreans to afford every assistance and facility to the Commission in the fulfillment of its responsibilities;

8. Calls upon Member States to refrain from any acts derogatory to the results achieved and to be achieved by the United Nations in bringing about the complete independence and unity of Korea;

9. Recommends that Member States and other nations, in establishing their relations with the Government of the Republic of Korea, take into consideration the facts set out in paragraph 2 of the present resolution,

Hundred and eighty-seventh plenary meeting

12 December 1948.

관련문서

 대한민국
 한반도

각주

유엔 총회 결의
대한민국-유엔 관계
1948년 유엔
1948년 대한민국

유엔 총회 결의 제195호


The IBM System/360 architecture is the model independent architecture for the entire S/360 line of mainframe computers, including but not limited to the instruction set architecture. The elements of the architecture are documented in the IBM System/360 Principles of Operation and the IBM System/360 I/O Interface Channel to Control Unit Original Equipment Manufacturers' Information manuals.

Features

The System/360 architecture provides the following features:
 16 32-bit general-purpose registers
 4 64-bit floating-point registers
 64-bit processor status register (PSW), which includes a 24-bit instruction address
 24-bit (16 MB) byte-addressable memory space
 Big-endian byte/word order
 A standard instruction set, including fixed-point binary arithmetic and logical instructions, present on all System/360 models (except the Model 20, see below).
 A commercial instruction set, adding decimal arithmetic instructions, is optional on some models, as is a scientific instruction set, which adds floating-point instructions. The universal instruction set includes all of the above plus the storage protection instructions and is standard for some models.
 The Model 44 provides a few unique instructions for data acquisition and real-time processing and is missing the storage-to-storage instructions. However, IBM offered a Commercial Instruction Set" feature that ran in bump storage and simulated the missing instructions.
 The Model 20 offers a stripped-down version of the standard instruction set, limited to eight general registers with halfword (16-bit) instructions only, plus the commercial instruction set, and unique instructions for input/output.
 The Model 67 includes some instructions to handle 32-bit addresses and "dynamic address translation", with additional privileged instructions to provide virtual memory.

Memory
Memory (storage) in System/360 is addressed in terms of 8-bit bytes. Various instructions operate on larger units called halfword (2 bytes), fullword (4 bytes), doubleword (8 bytes), quad word (16 bytes) and 2048 byte storage block, specifying the leftmost (lowest address) of the unit. Within a halfword, fullword, doubleword or quadword, low numbered bytes are more significant than high numbered bytes; this is sometimes referred to as big-endian. Many uses for these units require aligning them on the corresponding boundaries. Within this article the unqualified term word refers to a fullword.

The original architecture of System/360 provided for up to 224 = 16,777,216 bytes of memory. The later Model 67 extended the architecture to allow up to 232 = 4,294,967,296 bytes of virtual memory.

Addressing
System/360 uses truncated addressing similar to that of the UNIVAC III. That means that instructions do not contain complete addresses, but rather specify a base register and a positive offset from the addresses in the base registers. In the case of System/360 the base address is contained in one of 15 general registers. In some instructions, for example shifts, the same computations are performed for 32-bit quantities that are not addresses.

Data formats
The S/360 architecture defines formats for characters, integers, decimal integers and hexadecimal floating point numbers. Character and integer instructions are mandatory, but decimal and floating point instructions are part of the Decimal arithmetic and Floating-point arithmetic features.

 Characters are stored as 8-bit bytes.
 Integers are stored as two's complement binary halfword or fullword values.
 Packed decimal numbers are stored as 1 to 16 8-bit bytes containing an odd number of decimal digits followed by a 4-bit sign. Sign values of hexadecimal A, C, E, and F are positive and sign values of hexadecimal B and D are negative. Digit values of hexadecimal A-F and sign values of 0-9 are invalid, but the PACK and UNPK instructions do not test for validity.
 Zoned decimal numbers are stored as 1 to 16 8-bit bytes, each containing a zone in bits 0-3 and a digit in bits 4-7. The zone of the rightmost byte is interpreted as a sign.
 Floating point numbers are only stored as fullword or doubleword values on older models. On the 360/85 and 360/195 there are also extended precision floating point numbers stored as quadwords. For all three formats, bit 0 is a sign and bits 0-7 are a characteristic (exponent, biased by 64). Bits 8-31 (8-63) are a hexadecimal fraction. For extended precision, the low order doubleword has its own sign and characteristic, which are ignored on input and generated on output.

Instruction formats
Instructions in the S/360 are two, four or six bytes in length, with the opcode in byte 0. Instructions have one of the following formats:
 RR (two bytes). Generally byte 1 specifies two 4-bit register numbers, but in some cases, e.g., SVC, byte 1 is a single 8-bit immediate field.
 RS (four bytes). Byte 1 specifies two register numbers; bytes 2-3 specify a base and displacement.
 RX (four bytes). Bits 0-3 of byte 1 specify either a register number or a modifier; bits 4-7 of byte 1 specify the number of the general register to be used as an index; bytes 2-3 specify a base and displacement.
 SI (four bytes). Byte 1 specifies an immediate field; bytes 2-3 specify a base and displacement.
 SS (six bytes). Byte 1 specifies two 4-bit length fields or one 8-bit length field; bytes 2-3 and 4-5 each specify a base and displacement. The encoding of the length fields is length-1.

Instructions must be on a two-byte boundary in memory; hence the low-order bit of the instruction address is always 0.

Program Status Word (PSW)

The Program Status Word (PSW) contains a variety of controls for the currently operating program. The 64-bit PSW describes (among other things) the address of the current instruction being executed, condition code and interrupt masks.

Load Program Status Word (LPSW) is a privileged instruction that loads the Program Status Word (PSW), including the program mode, protection key, and the address of the next instruction to be executed. LPSW is most often used to "return" from an interruption by loading the "old" PSW which is associated with the interruption class. Other privileged instructions (e.g., SSM, STNSM, STOSM, SPKA, etcetera) are available for manipulating subsets of the PSW without causing an interruption or loading a PSW; and one non-privileged instruction (SPM) is available for manipulating the program mask.

Interruption system
The architecture defines 5 classes of interruption. An interruption is a mechanism for automatically changing the program state; it is used for both synchronous and asynchronous events.

There are two storage fields assigned to each class of interruption on the S/360; an old PSW double-word and a new PSW double-word. The processor stores the PSW, with an interruption code inserted, into the old PSW location and then loads the PSW from the new PSW location. This generally replaces the instruction address, thereby effecting a branch, and (optionally) sets and/or resets other fields within the PSW, thereby effecting a mode change.

The S/360 architecture defines a priority to each interruption class, but it is only relevant when two interruptions occur simultaneously; an interruption routine can be interrupted by any other enabled interruption, including another occurrence of the initial interruption. For this reason, it is normal practice to specify all of the mask bits, with the exception of machine-check mask bit, as 0 for the "first-level" interruption handlers. "Second-level" interruption handlers are generally designed for stacked interruptions (multiple occurrences of interruptions of the same interruption class).

Input/Output interruption
An I/O interruptionPoOps occurs at the completion of a channel program, after fetching a CCW with the PCI bit set and also for asynchronous events detected by the device, control unit or channel, e.g., completion of a mechanical movement. The system stores the device address into the interruption code and stores channel status into the CSW at location 64 ('40'X).

Program interruption
A Program interruption occurs when an instruction encounters one of 15 exceptions; however, if the Program Mask bit corresponding to an exception is 0 then there is no interruption for that exception.
On 360/65, 360/67 and 360/85 the Protection Exception and Addressing Exception interruptions can be imprecise, in which case they store an Instruction Length Code of 0.
The Interruption code may be any of

 An operation exceptionPoOps is recognized when a program attempts to execute an instruction with an opcode that the computer does not implement. In particular, an operation exception is recognized when a program is written for an optional feature, e.g., floating point, that is not installed.
 A privileged operation exceptionPoOps is recognized when a program attempts to execute a privileged instruction when the problem state bit in the PSW is 1.
 An execute exceptionPoOps is recognized when the operand of an EXECUTE instruction (EX) is another EXECUTE instruction.
 A protection exceptionPoOps is recognized when a program attempts to store into a location whose storage protect key does not match the PSW key, or to fetch from a fetch protected location whose storage protect key does not match the PSW key.
 An addressing exceptionPoOps is recognized when a program attempts to access a storage location that is not currently available. This normally occurs with an address beyond the capacity of the machine, but it may also occur on machines that allow blocks of storage to be taken offline.
A specification exceptionPoOps is recognized when an instruction has a length or register field with values not permitted by the operation, or when it has an operand address that does not satisfy the alignment requirements of the opcode, e.g., a LH instruction with an odd operand address on a machine without the byte alignment feature.
 A data exceptionPoOps is recognized when a decimal instruction specifies invalid operands, e.g., invalid data, invalid overlap.
 A fixed-point overflow exceptionPoOps is recognized when significant bits are lost in a fixed point arithmetic or shift instruction, other than divide.
 A fixed-point divide exceptionPoOps is recognized when significant bits are lost in a fixed point divide or Convert to Binary instruction.
 A decimal overflow  exceptionPoOps is recognized when significant digits are lost in a decimal arithmetic instruction, other than divide.
 A decimal divide exceptionPoOps is recognized when significant bits are lost in a decimal divide instruction. The destination is not altered.
 An exponent overflow exceptionPoOps is recognized when the characteristic in a floating-point arithmetic operation exceeds 127 and the fraction is not zero.
 An exponent underflow exceptionPoOps is recognized when the characteristic in a floating-point arithmetic operation is negative and the fraction is not zero.
 A significance exceptionPoOps is recognized when the fraction in a floating-point add or subtract operation is zero.
 A floating-point divide exceptionPoOps is recognized when the fraction in the divisor of a floating-point divide operation is zero.

Supervisor Call interruption
A Supervisor Call interruptionPoOps occurs as the result of a Supervisor Call instruction; the system stores bits 8-15 of the SVC instruction as the Interruption Code.

External interruption
An ExternalPoOps interruption occurs as the result of certain asynchronous events. Bits 16-24 of the External Old PSW are set to 0 and one or more of bits 24-31 is set to 1

Machine Check interruption
A Machine Check interruptionPoOps occurs to report unusual conditions associated with the channel or CPU that cannot be reported by another class of interruption. The most important class of conditions causing a Machine Check is a hardware error such as a parity error found in registers or storage, but some models may use it to report less serious conditions. Both the interruption code and the data stored in the scanout area at '80'x (128 decimal) are model dependent.

Input/Output

This article describes I/O from the CPU perspective. It does not discuss the channel cable or connectors, which have a  separate article; there is a summary elsewhere and details can be found in the IBM literature and in FIPS PUB 60-2.

I/O is carried out by a conceptually separate processor called a channel. Channels have their own instruction set, and access memory independently of the program running on the CPU. On the smaller models (through 360/50) a single microcode engine runs both the CPU program and the channel program. On the larger models the channels are in separate cabinets and have their own interfaces to memory. A channel may contain multiple subchannels, each containing the status of an individual channel program. A subchannel associated with multiple devices that cannot concurrently have channel programs is referred to as shared; a subchannel representing a single device is referred to as unshared.

There are three types of channels on the S/360:

 A byte multiplexer channel is capable of executing multiple CCWs concurrently; it is normally used to attach slow devices such as card readers and telecommunications lines. A byte multiplexer channel could have a number of selector subchannels, each with only a single subchannel, which behave like low-speed selector channels.
 A selector channel has only a single subchannel, and hence is only capable of executing one channel command at a time. It is normally used to attach fast devices that are not capable of exploiting a block multiplexer channel to suspend the connection, such as magnetic tape drives.
 A block multiplexer channel is capable of concurrently running multiple channel programs, but only one at a time can be active. The control unit can request suspension at the end of a channel command and can later request resumption. This is intended for devices in which there is a mechanical delay after completion of data transfer, e.g., for seeks on moving-head DASD. The block multiplexer channel was a late addition to the System/360 architecture; early machines had only byte multiplexer channels and selector channels. The block multiplexer channel was an optional feature only on the models 85 and 195. The block multiplexor channel was also available on the later System/370 computers.

Conceptually peripheral equipment is attached to a S/360 through control units, which in turn are attached through channels. However, the architecture does not require that control units be physically distinct, and in practice they are sometimes integrated with the devices that they control. Similarly, the architecture does not require the channels to be physically distinct from the processor, and the smaller S/360 models (through 360/50) have integrated channels that steal cycles from the processor.

Peripheral devices are addressed with 16-bit addresses., referred to as cua or cuu; this article will use the term cuu. The high 8 bits identify a channel, numbered from 0 to 6, while the low 8 bits identify a device on that channel. A device may have multiple cuu addresses.

Control units are assigned an address "capture" range. For example, a CU might be assigned range 20-2F or 40-7F. The purpose of this is to assist with the connection and prioritization of multiple control units to a channel. For example, a channel might have three disk control units at 20-2F, 50-5F, and 80-8F. Not all of the captured addresses need to have an assigned physical device. Each control unit is also marked as High or Low priority on the channel.

Device selection progresses from the channel to each control unit in the order they are physically attached to their channel. At the end of the chain the selection process continues in reverse back towards the channel. If the selection returns to the channel then no control unit accepted the command and SIO returns Condition Code 3. Control units marked as High Priority check the outbound CUU to be within their range. If so, then the I/O was processed. If not, then the selection was passed to the next outbound CU. Control units marked as Low Priority check for inbound (returning) CUU to be within their range. If so, then the I/O is processed. If not, then the selection is passed to the next inbound CU (or the channel). The connection of three controls unit to a channel might be physically -A-B-C and, if all are marked as High then the priority would be ABC. If all are marked low then the priority would be CBA. If B was marked High and AC low then the order would be BCA. Extending this line of reasoning then the first of N controllers would be priority 1 (High) or 2N-1 (Low), the second priority 2 or 2N-2, the third priority 3 or 2N-3, etc. The last physically attached would always be priority N.

There are three storage fields reserved for I/O; a double word I/O old PSW, a doubleword I/O new PSW and a fullword Channel Address Word (CAW). Performing an I/O normally requires the following:
 initializing the CAW with the storage key and the address of the first CCW
 issuing a Start I/O (SIO) instruction that specifies the cuu for the operation
 waiting for an I/O interruption
 handling any unusual conditions indicated in the Channel Status Word (CSW)

A channel program consists of a sequence of Channel Control Words (CCWs) chained together (see below.) Normally the channel fetches CCWs from consecutive doublewords, but a control unit can direct the channel to skip a CCW and a Transfer In Channel (TIC) CCW can direct the channel to start fetching CCWs from a new location.

There are several defined ways for a channel command to complete. Some of these allow the channel to continue fetching CCWs, while others terminate the channel program. In general, if the CCW does not have the chain-command bit set and is not a TIC, then the channel will terminate the I/O operation and cause an I/O interruption when the command completes. Certain status bits from the control unit suppress chaining.

The most common ways for a command to complete are for the count to be exhausted when chain-data is not set and for the control unit to signal that no more data transfers should be made. If Suppress-Length-Indication (SLI) is not set and one of those occurs without the other, chaining is not allowed. The most common situations that suppress chaining are unit-exception and unit-check. However, the combination of unit-check and status-modifier does not suppress chaining; rather, it causes the channel to do a command retry, reprocessing the same CCW.

In addition to the interruption signal sent to the CPU when an I/O operation is complete, a channel can also send a Program-Controlled interruption (PCI) to the CPU while the channel program is running, without terminating the operation, and a delayed device-end interruption after the I/O completion interruption.

Channel status
These conditions are detected by the channel and indicated in the CSW.PoOps

 Program-controlled interruptionPoOps indicates that the channel has fetched a CCW with the PCI bit set. The channel continues processing; this interruption simply informs the CPU of the channel's progress. An example of the use of Program-controlled interruption is in the "Program Fetch" function of Contents Supervision, whereby the control program is notified that a Control/Relocation Record has been read. To ensure that this record has been completely read into main storage, a "disabled bit spin", one of the few which remains in the control program, is initiated. Satisfaction of the spin indicates that the Control/Relocation Record is completely in main storage and the immediately preceding Text Record may be relocated. After relocation, a NOP CCW is changed to a TIC and the channel program continues. In this way, an entire load module may be read and relocated while utilizing only one EXCP, and possibly only one revolution of the disk drive. PCI also has applications in teleprocessing access method buffer management.
 Incorrect lengthPoOps indicates that the data transfer for a command completed before the Count was exhausted. This indication is suppressed if the Suppress-Length-Indication bit in the CCW is set.
 Program checkPoOps indicates one of the following errors
 Nonzero bits where zeros are required
 An invalid data or CCW address
 The CAW or a TIC refers to a TIC
 Protection checkPoOps indicates that the protection key in the CAW is non-zero and does not match the storage protection key.
 Channel data checkPoOps indicates a parity error during a data transfer.
 Channel control checkPoOps indicates a channel malfunction other than Channel data check or Interface control check.
 Interface control checkPoOps indicates an invalid signal in the channel to control unit interface.
 Chaining checkPoOps indicates lost data during data chaining.

Unit status
These conditions are presented to the channel by the control unit or device.PoOps In some cases they are handled by the channel and in other cases they are indicated in the CSW. There is no distinction between conditions detected by the control unit and conditions detected by the device.

 AttentionPoOps indicates an unusual condition not associated with an ongoing channel program.  It often indicates some sort of operator action like requesting input, in which case the CPU would respond by issuing a read-type command, most often a sense command (04h) from which additional information could be deduced. Attention is a special condition, and requires specific operating system support, and for which the operating system has a special attention table with a necessarily limited number of entries.
 Status modifierPoOps (SM) indicates one of three unusual conditions
 A Test I/O instruction was issued to a device that does not support it.
 A Busy status refers to the control unit rather than to the device.
 A device has detected a condition that requires skipping a CCW. A CCW with a command for which Status Modifier is possible will normally specify command chaining, in which case the SM is processed by the channel and does not cause an interruption.

 A typical channel program where SM occurs is

     ...
     Search Id Equal
     TIC           *-8
     Read Data

 where the TIC causes the channel to refetch the search until the device indicates a successful search by raising SM.

 Control unit endPoOps indicates that a previous control unit busy status has been cleared.
 BusyPoOps indicates that a device (SM=0) or a control unit (SM=1) is busy.
 Channel endPoOps indicates that the device has completed the data transfer for a channel command. There may also be an Incorrect length indication if the Count field of the CCW is exhausted, depending on the value of the Suppress-Length-Indication bit.
 Device endPoOps indicates that the device has completed an operation and is ready to accept another. DE may be signalled concurrently with CE or may be delayed.
 Unit checkPoOps indicates that the device or control unit has detected an unusual conditions and that details may be obtained by issuing a Sense command.
 Unit exceptionPoOps indicates that the device has detected an unusual condition, e.g., end of file.

Channel Address Word
The fullword Channel Address Word (CAW) contains a 4-bit storage protection key and a 24-bit address of the channel program to be started.

Channel Command Word
A Channel Command Word is a doubleword containing the following:
 an 8-bit channel Command CodePoOps
 a 24-bit addressPoOps
 a 5-bit flag fieldPoOps
 an unsigned halfword Count fieldPoOps

CCW Command codes
The low order 2 or 4 bits determine the six types of operations that the channel performs;. The encoding is

The meaning of the high order six or four bits, the modifier bits, M in the table above, depends upon the type of I/O device attached, see e.g., DASD CKD CCWs. All eight bits are sent to and interpreted in the associated control unit (or its functional equivalent).

Control is used to cause a state change in a device or control unit, often associated with mechanical motion, e.g., rewind, seek.

Sense is used to read data describing the status of the device. The most important case is that when a command terminates with unit check, the specific cause can only be determined by doing a Sense and examining the data returned. A Sense command with the modifier bits all zero is always valid.

A noteworthy deviation from the architecture is that DASD use Sense command codes for Reserve and Release, instead of using Control.

CCW flags
The flags in a CCW affect how it executes and terminates.

Channel Status Word
The Channel Status Word (CSW) provides data associated with an I/O interruption.

 The Protection Key field contains the protect key from the CAW at the time that the I/O operation was initiated for I/O complete or PCI interruptions.PoOps
 The Command Address field contains the address+8 of the last CCW fetched for an I/O complete or PCI interruption. However, there are 9 exceptionsPoOps.
 The Status field contains one byte of Channel status bits, indicating conditions detected by the channelPoOps, and one byte of Unit status bits, indicating conditions detected by the I/O unitPoOps. There is no distinction between conditions detected by the control unit and conditions detected by the device.
 The Residual Count is a half word that gives the number of bytes in the area described by the CCW that have not been transferred to or from the channelPoOps. The difference between the count in the CCW and the residual count gives the number of bytes transferred.

I/O instructions

The S/360 has four I/O instructions: Start I/O (SIO), Test I/O (TIO), Halt I/O (HIO) and Test Channel (TCH). All four are privileged and thus will cause a privileged operation program interruption if used in problem state. The B1 (base) and D1 (displacement) fields are used to calculate the cuu (channel and device number); bits 8-15 of the instructions are unused and should be zero for compatibility with the S/370.

Start I/O (SIO)
SIO attempts to start the channel program pointed to by the CAW, using the storage protection key in the CAW.

Test I/O (TIO)
TIO  tests the status of a channel and device. It may also store a CSW, in which case it completes with condition code 1.

Halt I/O (HIO)
HIO attempt to terminate an active channel program. It may also store a CSW, in which case it completes with condition code 1.

Test Channel (TCH)
TCH tests the status of a channel. It does not affect the status of an active channel program and does not store a CSW,

Operator controls

The architecture of System/360 specified the existence of several common functions, but did not specify their means of implementation. This allowed IBM to use different physical means, e.g., dial, keyboard, pushbutton, roller, image or text on a CRT, for selecting the functions and values on different processors. Any reference to key or switch should be read as applying to, e.g., a light-pen selection, an equivalent keyboard sequence.

 System Reset sends a reset signal on every I/O channel and clears the processor state; all pending interruptions are cancelled. System Reset is not guaranteed to correct parity errors in general registers, floating point registers or storage. System Reset does not reset the state of shared I/O devices.
 Initial Program Load (IPL)PoOps is a process for loading a program when there isn't a loader available in storage, usually because the machine was just powered on or to load an alternative operating system. This process is sometimes known as Booting.

 As part of the IPL facility the operator has a means of specifying a 12-bit device address, typically with three dials as shown in the operator controls drawing. When the operator selects the Load function, the system performs a System Reset, sends a Read IPL channel command to the selected device in order to read 24 bytes into locations 0-23 and causes the channel to begin fetching CCWs at location 8; the effect is as if the channel had fetched a CCW with a length of 24, and address of 0 and the flags containing Command Chaining + Suppress Length Indication. At the completion of the operation, the system stores the I/O address in the halfword at location 2 and loads the PSW from location 0.

 Initial program loading is typically done from a tape, a card reader, or a disk drive. Generally, the operating system was loaded from a disk drive; IPL from tape or cards was used only for diagnostics or for installing an operating system on a new computer.
 Emergency pull switchPoOps (Emergency power off, EPO) sends an EPO signal to every I/O channel, then turns off power to the processor complex. Because EPO bypasses the normal sequencing of power down, damage can result, and the EPO control has a mechanical latch to ensure that a customer engineer inspects the equipment before attempting to power it back on.
 Power onPoOps powers up all components of the processor complex and performs a system reset.
 Power offPoOps initiates an orderly power-off sequence. Although the contents of storage are preserved, the associated storage keys may be lost.
 The Interrupt keyPoOps causes an external interruption with bit 25 set in the External Old PSW.
 The Wait lightPoOps indicates that the PSW has bit 14 (wait) set; the processor is temporarily halted but resumes operation when an interruption condition occurs.
 The Manual lightPoOps indicates that the CPU is in a stopped state.
 The System lightPoOps indicates that a meter is running, either due to CPU activity or due to I/O channel activity.
 The Test lightPoOps indicates that certain operator controls are active, when certain facilities, e.g., INSTRUCTION STEP, have been used by a Diagnose instruction or when abnormal thermal conditions exist. The details are model dependent.
 The Load lightPoOps is turned on by IPL and external start. It is turned off by loading the PSW from location 0 at the completion of the load process.
 The Load unitPoOps controls provide the rightmost 11 bits of the device from which to perform an IPL.
 The Load KeyPoOps starts the IPL sequence.
 The Prefix Select Key SwitchPoOps selects whether IPL will used the primary prefix or the alternative prefix.
 The System-Reset KeyPoOps initiates a System Reset.
 The Stop KeyPoOps puts the CPU in a stopped state; channel programs continue running and interruption conditions remain pending.
 The Rate SwitchPoOps determines the mode in which the processor fetches instructions. Two modes are defined by the architecture:
 PROCESS
 INSTRUCTION STEP
 The Start KeyPoOps initiates instruction fetching in accordance with the setting of the Rate Switch.
 The Storage-Select SwitchPoOps determines the type of resource accessed by the Store Key and Display Key. Three selections are defined by the architecture:
 Main storage
 General registers
 Floating-point registers
 The Address SwitchesPoOps specify the address or register number for the Store Key, Display Key and, on some models, the Set IC Key..
 The Data SwitchesPoOps specify the data for the Store Key and, on some models, the Set IC Key.
 The Store KeyPoOps stores the value in the Data Switches as specified by the Storage-Select Switch and the Address Switches.
 The Display KeyPoOps displays the value specified by the Storage-Select Switch and the Address Switches.
 The Set IC=PoOps sets the instruction address portion of the PSW from the Data Switches or the Address Switches, depending on the model.
 The Address-Compare SwitchesPoOps select the mode of comparison and what is compared. Stop on instruction address compare is present on all models, but stop on data address compare is only present on some models.
 The Alternate-Prefix LightPoOps is on when the prefix trigger is in the alternate state.

Optional features

Byte-aligned operands
On some models, e,g., the S/360-85, the alignment requirements for some problem-state instructions were relaxed. There is no mechanism to turn off this feature, and programs depending on receiving a program check type 6 (alignment) on those instructions must be modified.

Decimal arithmetic
The decimal arithmetic feature provides instructions that operate on packed decimal data. A packed decimal number has 1-31 decimal digits followed by a 4-bit sign. All of the decimal arithmetic instructions except PACK and UNPACK generate a Data exception if a digit is not in the range 0-9 or a sign is not in the range A-F.

Direct Control
The Direct ControlPoOps feature provides six external signal lines and an 8-bit data path to/from storage.

Floating-point arithmetic
The floating-point arithmetic feature provides 4 64-bit floating point registers and instructions to operate on 32 and 64 bit hexadecimal floating point numbers. The 360/85 and 360/195 also support 128 bit extended precision floating point numbers.

Interval timer
If the interval timer feature is installed, the processor decrements the word at location 80 ('50'X) at regular intervals; the architecture does not specify the interval but does require that value subtracted make it appear as though 1 were subtracted from bit 23 300 times per second. The smaller models decremented at the same frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) as the AC power supply, but larger models had a high resolution timer feature. The processor causes an External interruption when the timer goes to zero.

Multi-system operationMulti-system operation''PoOps is a set of features to support multi-processor systems, e.g., Direct Control, direct address relocation (prefixing).

Storage protection
If the storage protection feature is installed, then there is a 4-bit storage key associated with every 2,048-byte block of storage and that key is checked when storing into any address in that block by either a CPU or an I/O channel. A CPU or channel key of 0 disables the check; a nonzero CPU or channel key allows data to be stored only in a block with the matching key.

Storage Protection was used to prevent a defective application from writing over storage belonging to the operating system or another application. This permitted testing to be performed along with production. Because the key was only four bits in length, the maximum number of different applications that could be run simultaneously was 15.

An additional option available on some models was fetch protection. It allowed the operating system to specify that blocks were protected from fetching as well as from storing.

Deviations and extensions
The System/360 Model 20 is radically different and should not be considered to be a S/360.

The System/360 Model 44 is missing certain instructions, but a feature allowed the missing instructions to be simulated in hidden memory thus allowing the use of standard S/360 operating systems and applications.

Some models have features that extended the architecture, e.g., emulation instructions, paging, and some models make minor deviations from the architecture. Examples include:
 The multisystem feature on the S/360-65 which modifies the behavior of the direct control feature and of the Set System Mask (SSM) instruction.
 The System/360 Model 67-2 had similar, but incompatible, changes.

Some deviations served as prototypes for features of the S/370 architecture.

See also
 Memory protection key

Notes

ReferencesS360'''

Further reading
   Chapter 3 (pp. 41110) describes the System/360 architecture.

External links
 Introduction to IBM System/360 Architecture (Student Text)

Computing platforms
architecture
Computer architecture
Computer-related introductions in 1964

IBM System/360 architecture


Richard D. Winters (Januar 21, 1918 - Januar 2, 2011) wis an American war hero, daikert wi mony medals, an ane o the maist weel-kent an respectit sodgers in the warld for his actions durin Warld War II. He commaundit the gey weel-kent Easy Company o the 506t Parachute Infantry Regiment, 101t Airborne Division, fechtin wi thaim athort Europe, includin Normandy, Hollannd, an Belgium. He wis awardit the Distinguished Service Cross, and the Bronze Star (twice) for his gallantry. He wis recommendit for the Medal o Honor for his actions in Fraunce, an wad o gat it, haed it no been for Americae's policy o ane Medal o Honor per division (it haed awreadies been awardit tae Robert G. Cole). He haed jynt the 101st wi his great pal Lewis Nixon, an thay serrt thegither throu the war. Aucht his bravery, he is gey weel-kent an respectit an featuirt in the TV series Baun o Brithers, whilk documentit Easy Companys war. He wis portrayed bi Damian Lewis. He died 2nd january 2011 at 92 year auld.

1918 births
2011 daiths
American militar personnel o Warld War II
American Lutherans
Band of Brothers chairacters
Franklin & Marshall College alumni
Operation Overlord fowk
Fowk frae Ephrata, Pennsylvanie
Fowk frae Lancaster, Pennsylvanie
Fowk frae Hershey, Pennsylvanie
Recipients o the Distinguished Service Cross (Unitit States)
Unitit States Airmy officers
Recipients o the Croix de Guerre (Fraunce)

Richard Winters


Johann Friedrich Wilhelm von Bezold (June 21, 1837 – February 17, 1907) was a German physicist and meteorologist born in Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria. He is best known for discovering the Bezold effect and the Bezold–Brücke shift.

Bezold studied mathematics and physics at the University of Munich and the University of Göttingen. He taught meteorology in Munich from 1861, becoming a professor in 1866. In 1868 he began teaching at the Technical University of Munich. In 1875, he was named a member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences.

From 1885 to 1907 director of the Prussian Institute of Meteorology at the University of Berlin. As a scientist, he was mainly interested in the physics of the atmosphere, and he contributed much to the theory of electrical storms.

Bezold was one of the early researchers of atmospheric thermodynamics. He considered pseudo-adiabatic processes describing air as it is lifted, expands, cools, and eventually condenses and precipitates its water vapor.

It was Bezold's investigations of Lichtenberg dust figures that were useful to Heinrich Rudolf Hertz during his attempt to physically validate Maxwell's mathematical analysis of electromagnetic waves.

References

W. von Bezold, Zur Thermodynamik der Atmosphäre. Pts. I, II. Sitz. K. Preuss. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin, pp. 485–522, 1189–1206; Gesammelte Abhandlugen, pp. 91–144. English translation by Abbe, C. The mechanics of the Earth's atmosphere. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, no 843, 1893, 212–242.

External links
Wilhelm von Bezold (1876) The theory of color and its relation to art and art-industry... translated from the German by S. R. Koehler - digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library

1837 births
1907 deaths
Burials at Stahnsdorf South-Western Cemetery
German meteorologists
German untitled nobility
19th-century German physicists
Scientists from Munich
Scientists from the Kingdom of Bavaria
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
University of Göttingen alumni
Academic staff of the Technical University of Munich
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities

Wilhelm von Bezold


Hope & Faith was an American television series. It was a sitcom that aired for three seasons on ABC from 2003 to 2006. For its first two seasons the series was part of a revived TGIF comedy block.

The series starred Faith Ford as Hope and Kelly Ripa as Faith. Ford plays a homemaker with a husband (played by Ted McGinley) and three children. Ripa plays her sister, a soap opera star whose character is killed off, leading her to move in with her sister's family. The series is based in part on the life of its creator, Joanna Johnson, a former cast member of The Bold and the Beautiful. The series featured guest stars such as Tony Curtis, Dean Cain, Robert Wagner, Regis Philbin (Ripa's co-host on Live with Regis and Kelly), Kathie Lee Gifford, and Mark Consuelos (Ripa's husband).

The series was primarily filmed at New York City's Silvercup East, a sister studio to Silvercup Studios, to accommodate Ripa's schedule with Live with Regis and Kelly.

All 73 episodes were picked up by the American television network WE: Women's Entertainment, as the total number of produced episodes was short of what was required for American television syndication.

American sitcoms
2003 American television series debuts
2006 American television series endings
English-language television programs

Hope & Faith


Croke Park () is a stadium. It is the biggest stadium in Ireland. It is in the middle of Dublin. It is the third largest stadium in Europe. It can hold 82,300 people. The stadium is owned by the GAA (Gaelic Athletic Association), Ireland´s biggest sport organisation. Since 1884 it is used by the GAA. The annual finals of the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship and Senior Hurling Championship are held here Music concerts by major international acts have also been held. From 2007–2009 it was also used for rugby and soccer. The stadium is named after Thomas Croke, an archbishop, who was an early mentor of the GAA.

History
The area was used since 1870 as a sports ground. It was called Jones's Road Sportsground. Since the foundation of the Gaelic Athletic Association it was used for major events in Gaelic sports. In 1913 the ground was bought by them. At this time the ground had one stand and earth walls around the field. In the 1920s the capacity raised by building new stands. In the 1980s the GAA decided to build a high capacity stadium. The final constructions were in 2003.

Bloody Sunday
During the Irish War of Independence on November 21, 1920 Croke Park was the scene of a massacre by the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC). The police shot into a crowd which was visiting a Dublin-Tipperary Gaelic football match. The dead included 13 spectators and Tipperary's captain, Michael Hogan. To his memory the new stand of 1924 was named "Hogan Stand".

Stadiums in Europe
Buildings and structures in Dublin
Irish War of Independence
Sport in Dublin
1870 establishments in Europe
19th-century establishments in the Republic of Ireland

Croke Park


gPhoto is a set of software applications and libraries for use in digital photography. gPhoto supports not just retrieving of images from camera devices, but also upload and remote controlled configuration and capture, depending on whether the camera supports those features.

Released under the GNU Lesser General Public License, gPhoto is free software.

Support
gPhoto supports more than 2500 cameras as of June 2019. It is cross-platform, running under Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD and other Unix-like operating systems.

gPhoto has support for the Picture Transfer Protocol (PTP) and will also connect to devices that use the Media Transfer Protocol (MTP). Many cameras are not supported by gPhoto, but have support for the USB mass storage device class, which is well-supported under Linux.

gPhoto supports camera tethering control, preview, viewfinder in PTP or camera specific protocols on numerous cameras.

Applications
gPhoto provides a library, libgphoto2, to allow for other frontends to be written for it, and a command-line interface. gtkam is the official GUI client for gPhoto. Other clients are the KDE program digiKam and the GNOME program  Shotwell.  GVfs uses libgphoto2 to expose on-camera photos to GNOME applications via a virtual filesystem.

DigiKam, gtkam and  support tethering capture and viewfinder for supported cameras.

References

External links

 List of supported cameras

Digital photography
Free graphics software
Photo software
Unix software
Photo software for Linux
C++ libraries

GPhoto


A gros was a type of silver coinage of France from the time of Saint Louis. There were gros tournois and gros parisis. The gros was sub-divided in half gros and quarter gros. The original gros created by St Louis weighed about 4.52 g of nearly pure silver, and was valued at one sou, that is 12 deniers or 1/20 of a livre tournois. Unlike the gold écu that was minted in small numbers, mostly for prestige reasons, the gros was a very common coin, and very widely copied by non royal mints.

Notes

See also
 Groschen

Medieval currencies
Numismatics

Gros (coinage)


A smart card is a card with a microchip in it. Such cards are used as a method of identification and authentication.

Plastic cards that allow to take out money from a automated teller machine (ATM) often are smart cards nowadays (Some of them still have a magnetic stripe which holds the same information). Very often the user is identified with a PIN. If the PIN is entered correctly, money can be withdrawn. If the PIN is not entered correctly, the card is blocked (after a number of false attempts).

At first, smart cards were used in public telephones in France, in 1983. There, the card simply stored a pre-paid credit. This credit was reduced when calls were made. Another way to solve the problem is that the balance is stored in a remote database. To make calls, a (usually toll-free number) is first called. From there, additional calls can be made. This eliminates the need for cards with chips on them.

Smart cards also have many other uses, such as for making payments. These kinds of cards are used a lot in Japan, Singapore, and the Octopus card in Hong Kong.

Kinds
There are two basic kinds of smart cards:
 Simple cards only contain memory that can be read and written to. Examples of this model are phone cards, or cards for health insurance. All the processing of the data is done outside the cards
 Complex cards contain an integrated microchip. In addition to being able to store data, they can also do some of the data processing. Unlike with the simple cards, there is generally no way to directly access the memory of the card. Examples of such cards include the bank cards that can be used for withdrawing money, or the SIM cards used in mobile phones.
Both kind of cards contain a controller for managing the I/O.

Many smart cards have RFID technology that allows them to be used without inserting them into a machine. They just need to be placed on a reader. These are called "contactless smart cards" and many credit and debit cards in the 21st century are this kind.

References

Other websites
What is a smart card? (from HowStuffWorks)

Money
Authentication methods

Smart card


The Blue Bridge (, Siniy most) is a  bridge that spans the Moika River in Saint Petersburg, Russia. The Blue Bridge is the widest bridge in Saint Petersburg and is sometimes claimed to be the widest bridge in the world – a claim, however, that has not been recognized by international reference works, such as the Guinness World Records.

The Blue Bridge spans the Moika River and is located in front of the Mariinsky Palace at Saint Isaac's Square in city's historic centre. The first cast iron bridge on the site was designed in 1805 by the architect William Heste, and built in 1818. This bridge was a single-span bridge resting on stone supports, and measured 41 metres across. In 1842–1844, the bridge was widened on its northern side to its present width of 97.3 metres - just as wide as the adjacent Isaac's Square. Soon after the bridge was widened, there were rumours that the new width of the bridge was 99.9 metres instead of the actual 97.3. This rumour even made it into some official booklets and textbooks. Today, most of the Blue Bridge serves as a parking lot.

The bridge's name dates from a 19th-century tradition of color-coding the bridges crossing the Moika River. Like other colored bridges, the Blue Bridge got its name from the color of its sides facing the river. Today only four colored bridges survive, the other ones being the Red Bridge, the Green Bridge and the Yellow Bridge respectively. Three of them kept their original names, while Yellow Bridge has been renamed to Pevchesky Bridge.

See also
List of bridges in Saint Petersburg

References

Yuriy Vladimirovich Novikov et al., Mosty i naberezhnye Leningrada, Lenizdat : Saint Petersburg (Russia),
Michail Samoylovich Bunin, Mosty Leningrada : Ocherky istorii i architektury mostov Peterburga-Petrograda-Leningrada, Leningrad: Stroyizdat, 1986.

Bridges in Saint Petersburg
Bridges completed in 1818
Saint Isaac's Square
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Saint Petersburg

Blue Bridge (Saint Petersburg)


A Mexican standoff is a three person duel. In a two person duel the person who shoots first has the advantage. In a Mexican duel it is different. If person A shoots B, then person C has the advantage as they can shoot person A while they are busy. So in a Mexican standoff nobody wants to be the first one to shoot. As well as this, nobody can take the risk of backing down. The term is often used to describe a confrontation between two equals, where neither side will gain a winning advantage by being the first to shoot, but neither side can risk backing down. The Cold War between the USA and the Soviet Union is often described as being a Mexican standoff, with neither country prepared to be the first to risk using nuclear weapons.

The idea of a Mexican standoff is often used as part of the plot in movies.

This page mentioned, but misquoted, in the last scene of The Big Bang Theory episode #506.

Dispute resolution

Mexican standoff