Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time is a 1987 history of geology by the paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould, in which the author offers a historical account of the conceptualization of Deep Time and uniformitarianism using the works of the English theologian Thomas Burnet, and the Scottish geologists James Hutton and Charles Lyell.

Deep Time
Gould ranks the development of the concept "deep time," which involved deliberately rejecting the biblical description of earth's past for nearly incomprehensible eons, with the revolutions associated with Copernicus and Charles Darwin.  To illustrate this, Gould picked three major figures in the history of geology, one traditional villain (Thomas Burnet) and two traditional heroes (James Hutton and Charles Lyell).

Flimsy 'cardboard'
Standard textbook accounts of the achievements of these three figures have long provided what Gould describes as a "self-serving mythology."  These flimsy "cardboard" accounts vaunt the superiority of empiricism and inductivism over the scientific nemesis of religious bigotry.

This legend as perpetuated by geology textbooks over the last century claims that geology remained in the service of the Mosaic story of creation so long as armchair geological theorists refused to place fieldwork ahead of scriptural authority.  Thomas Burnet was just such an archetypical religious spokesman.  A century later, Hutton heroically broke with this biblical zealotry by arguing that geological evidence must rest upon a solid empirical foundation.  The Earth's strata, when carefully examined, betray "no vestige of a beginning—no prospect of an end."   But Hutton was far ahead of his time. So it was not until Charles Lyell published the Principles of Geology that geologists finally came to accept Hutton's basic message and banished miraculous intervention, catastrophes, and biblical deluges from their science.

Having elaborated this bit of scientific melodrama, Gould proceeds to demolish it by showing that the actualities of Hutton's and Lyell's work were the opposite of the textbook legend.  His intention is not simply to debunk the textbook legend, which has already been debunked by historians such as Martin J. S. Rudwick.  He sets out to rectify the error and show the real sources of inspiration in the development of deep time which have not been properly understood.

Kuhnian revolutions
Gould is deeply influenced by Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962).  Kuhn argued, in part, that science is a social activity and that theories are intellectual constructions imposed on data, not demanded by them.   Along with Kuhn and other philosophers and sociologists of science, Gould has recognized that mental constructs (metaphors, analogies, personal philosophies, imaginative leaps)—not empirical discoveries—are what bring about scientific advance.   "Facts" are so embedded in a paradigm that they simply do not have the kind of independent probative power they were once thought to possess.

The development of the idea of deep time is by no means fieldwork, as the textbook myths would have us believe.   Rather, Gould pinpoints a powerful pair of metaphors—time's arrow and time's cycle—by which humankind has always tried to grasp the concept of time. Time's arrow captures the uniqueness and distinctive character of sequential events, whereas time's cycle provides these events with another kind of meaning by evoking lawfulness and predictability.

More importantly, this metaphorical pair of ideas was essential to the thinking of the three geological protagonists; and the paired concepts therefore offer the key, now obscured by textbook mythology, to unlocking their thinking about time.

Burnet

Burnet's theory is a one-cycle theory in which biblical narrative (time's arrow) runs its course within a wider conception of "the great year" and "great circle of time and fate" that bring about the return of Paradise.

It is his belief in Scripture that made Burnet a pariah in the history of geology.  Yet Burnet was hardly the religious fanatic he is painted to have been within the context of his contemporary scientific thought.

In contrast to textbook legend, Burnet was adamant about explaining the Biblical history of the earth entirely within the frame of natural science, devoid of all appeals to miracles or divine intervention. Thus this "bad guy" of geological textbook history was actually more devoted to rational, miracle-free science than the greatest scientists of his age.

Hutton's endless cycles of deep time

Before James Hutton, most geological theorists had dealt only with processes of decay.   The earth was created and its geologic structures just wore down through catastrophic events like weathering and especially the biblical Flood.

Hutton introduced the concept of repair into geology and, with it, the notion of deep time.  The textbook myths see this as a triumph of science and empiricism over religion, but it was nothing of the kind.

Hutton's theory of the earth as a geological clockwork of eroding continents balanced against uplifting ocean basins was not based on field observations but on a priori conceptions inspired jointly by religious considerations and "the most rigid and uncompromising version of time's cycle ever developed by a geologist."

Hutton's theory grew out of what may be called "the paradox of the soil."  Good soil, the product of the "denudation," or eroding, of rock strata, eventually loses its richness to the plant life it sustains.  Were there no geological source for continual new soil then the world would bear the intolerable stamp of an imperfectly designed abode for man's existence. Hutton's homocentric and teleological concept of the world therefore demanded that the soil, new soil, should never run out. This requirement in turn demanded the uplift of new strata to become the sources for soil replenishment.

So Hutton set out to find evidence for uplift (which he naturally did, since he was looking for it). He found much evidence interpreted to be repeated uplifts of the Earth's crust. This led him inexorably to the idea of deep time.

So rigid was Hutton's vision of an endlessly cycling earth having "no vestige of a beginning" and "no prospect of an end" that he lost all interest in the historical nature of geological change.  The Divine benevolence entailed in these cycles was everything to Hutton. Such is an unlikely hero for empiricist geology, who nevertheless became one.

Gould reconstructs the process of mythification of Hutton and sees it as involving several stages.

First, Hutton's long and turgid Theory of the Earth (1795) was popularized by his friend John Playfair (1802). Not only did Playfair make up for Hutton's difficult prose, but he also modernized Hutton's theory by soft-pedaling both his "denial of biblical history" and his repeated appeals to final causes. Subsequently, Charles Lyell, who needed an empiricist hero for his own account of the warfare between science and religious bigotry, bolstered Hutton's image as a fieldworker who had no conceptual bias. Finally the legend was consolidated in the writings of later geologists, who rarely bothered to read Hutton in the original.

Lyell's uniformitarianism

It is important to bear in mind that Charles Lyell was trained as a lawyer. His rhetorical skills were considerable and they are crucial to understanding his impact upon the history of geology.

When pleading for his favorite client, which became known as the "uniformitarian" theory of geology, he portrayed the previous history of his discipline as a gradual overcoming of primitive superstitions, wild speculations, and biblical allegiances. In doing so he created his own legend as an arch-empiricist free of all bias and preconception.

But Lyell was not selling just evidence and fieldwork over previous dogma and speculative theory. Rather he foisted upon his contemporaries a "fascinating and particular theory rooted in…time's cycle" by conflating a number of distinct elements under the single banner of "uniformitarianism," the regularity of physical laws with the irregularity of history.

The philosophical assumptions

First, Lyell argued for the uniformity of nature's laws (that is, the notion that laws do not change with time or place).  Second, he argued for the uniformity of process, which simply means always explaining past changes by currently known causes even if catastrophic interpretations may be just as explanatory.  Contrary to legend, Lyell's catastrophic opponents accepted both of these philosophical aspects of "uniformity."

What Lyell's critics did not accept were two further substantive hypotheses about the world that he included under the heading of good (uniformitarian) science.

The substantive hypotheses

These claims were that rates of geological change are always uniform and gradual and that the general state of the world also remains uniform (that is, there is no progression or directionality in the long run). Far from using Hutton's field data to show that the earth has passed through vast epochs of change, Lyell drew on the peculiarly static spirit of Hutton's vision to conceive an earth that, although unimaginably old, had changed hardly at all.

The last of these claims was the most peculiar of all within Lyell's vision of earth history.  It led him to deny all evidence of progression in the fossil record and hence to reject not only Lamarck's theory of evolution but also contemporary catastrophist notions, in which "higher" organisms were thought to replace "lower" ones after mass extinctions.  If fossils seemed to belie this, if mammals were absent from older rocks, it was simply because fossils were rare and scattered.

In showing how Hutton and Lyell were dedicated not to modern notions of geological dynamism but to antique ones of geological steady-state, Gould points out that Lyell was even less of an empiricist than most of his catastrophist and creationist opponents.

For Lyell was constantly forced to deny the literal evidence of the geological record, which shows whole groups of organisms being abruptly replaced by different sets of organisms in adjacent strata.  His gradualist reading of the geological record therefore required his constant "interpretation" of the recalcitrant evidence in order to reconcile it with his notions of time's stately cycle and a world without abrupt changes.

From steady state to progressionism

Nor was Lyell's eventual conversion to evolution a strictly empirical affair. When he finally took this step publicly, in 1868, it was not because he had been persuaded by Darwin's theory of natural selection. In fact, Lyell rejected that theory, accepting only a general evolutionary process without its celebrated Darwinian mechanism.

Admitting nonmiraculous progression (that is, evolution) in turn allowed him to preserve three of his four uniformities (uniformity of law, process, and rate) while giving up only uniformity of state.  This was as Gould notes, "the most conservative intellectual option available to him."

Charles Lyell may have lost the battle over progressionism to Darwinism, but through rhetoric he won a battle against catastrophism, which enabled his hypothesis of the uniformity of rate to become a textbook shibboleth.

The catastrophists of Lyell's day, Gould nevertheless maintains, were right all along.  The literal fossil evidence of major rapid changes in previous faunas does not need to be interpreted away, as Lyell tried to do by appealing to the imperfection of the geological record.

Gould sees supreme irony in the recent hypothesis of the Berkeley scientists Luis and Walter Alvarez that mass extinctions were caused by asteroidal or cometary impacts (a hypothesis now made plausible by the discovery of a worldwide iridium layer deposited at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary); for this is precisely the sort of wild "cosmological" speculation that Lyell derided in seventeenth-century writers like William Whiston.

Gould concludes Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle by insisting that arrows and cycles are "eternal metaphors" in the understanding of time. In a thoughtful complement to his discussion of the history of geology, he shows how these two metaphors have figured in the art and sculpture associated with major biblical themes.  Both metaphors, he concludes, are needed "for any comprehensive view of history."

Notes

References
The article is based upon the following book reviews:

Further reading
Additional book reviews include:

External links
 Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle on-line

Details
 Publisher: Harvard University Press
  (Hardback 1987)
  (Paperback 1988)
 Language: English

1987 non-fiction books
American non-fiction books
Books by Stephen Jay Gould
English-language books
Harvard University Press books
Science books
Philosophy of science literature

Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle


Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire is an architecturally significant country house from the Elizabethan era, a leading example of the Elizabethan prodigy house. Built between 1590 and 1597 for Bess of Hardwick, it was designed by the architect Robert Smythson, an exponent of the Renaissance style. Hardwick Hall is one of the earliest examples of the English interpretation of this style, which came into fashion having slowly spread from Florence. Its arrival in Britain coincided with the period when it was no longer necessary or legal to fortify a domestic dwelling.

After ownership for centuries by the Cavendish family and the line of the Earl of Devonshire and the Duke of Devonshire, ownership of the house was transferred to the Treasury in 1956 and then to the National Trust in 1959. The building was ruinous and required stabilisation and a subsequent restoration.

The Hall is fully open to the public and received 298,283 visitors in 2019.

History

16th century
Sited on a hilltop between Chesterfield and Mansfield, overlooking the Derbyshire countryside, Hardwick Hall was designed by Robert Smythson in the late 16th century. Ordered by Bess of Hardwick, Countess of Shrewsbury and ancestress of the Dukes of Devonshire, it was owned by her descendants until the mid-twentieth century.

Bess of Hardwick was the richest woman in England after Queen Elizabeth I, and her house was conceived to be a conspicuous statement of her wealth and power. The windows are exceptionally large and numerous at a time when glass was a luxury, leading to the saying, "Hardwick Hall, more glass than wall." The Hall's chimneys are built into the internal walls of the structure, in order to give more scope for huge windows without weakening the exterior walls.

The house's design also demonstrated new concepts not only in domestic architecture, but also of a more modern way in which life was led within a great house. Hardwick was one of the first English houses where the great hall was built on an axis through the centre of the house, rather than at right angles to the entrance.

Each of the three main storeys has a higher ceiling than the one below, the ceiling height being indicative of the importance of the rooms' occupants: least noble at the bottom and grandest at the top.

A wide, winding, stone staircase leads up to the state rooms on the second floor; these rooms include one of the largest long galleries in any English house. There is also a tapestry-hung great chamber with a spectacular plaster frieze illustrating hunting scenes; the room has been little altered.

The architecture was influential, and in March 1608 the Earl of Salisbury, who was planning new buildings at Hatfield House, asked Bess's son-in-law, the Earl of Shrewsbury, for a plan, "any rowgh drawght of Hardwick". Hardwick was but one of Bess's many houses. Each of her four marriages had brought her greater wealth. She was born in her father's manor house on the site of the later, now old Hall at Hardwick, which today is a ruin beside the 'new' hall.

17th century
After Bess's death in 1608, the house passed to her son William Cavendish, 1st Earl of Devonshire. His great-grandson, William, was created 1st Duke of Devonshire in 1694. The Devonshires made Chatsworth, another of Bess's great houses, their principal seat. Hardwick thus was relegated to the role of an occasional retreat for hunting and sometime dower house.

As a secondary home, it escaped the attention of modernisers and received few alterations after its completion.

The famed political philosopher Thomas Hobbes died at the Hall in December 1679. For the previous four or five years, Hobbes had lived at Chatsworth House, also owned by William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire. Hobbes had been a friend of the family since 1608 when he first tutored William Cavendish. After his death, many of Hobbes' manuscripts were found at Chatsworth House.

19th century
From the early 19th century, the antique atmosphere of Hardwick Hall was consciously preserved. A low, 19th-century service wing is fairly inconspicuous at the rear.

In 1844, William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire published a book called Handbook to Chatsworth and Hardwick. It was privately printed and provided a history of the Cavendish family's two estates.

20th century
In 1950, the unexpected death of the 10th Duke of Devonshire, with the subsequent death duties (rated at 80%), caused the sale of many of the Devonshire assets and estates. At this time, Hardwick was occupied by Evelyn, Duchess of Devonshire, the widow of the 9th Duke. The decision was taken to hand the house over to HM Treasury in lieu of Estate Duty in 1956. The Treasury transferred the house to the National Trust in 1959. The Duchess remained in occupation of the house until her death in 1960. Having done much, personally, to conserve the textiles in the house as well as reinstating the traditional rush matting, she was to be its last occupant.

Today

Hardwick Hall contains a large collection of embroideries, mostly dating from the late 16th century, many of which are listed in the 1601 inventory. Some of the needlework on display in the house incorporates Bess's monogram "ES", and may have been worked on by Bess herself. There is a large amount of fine tapestry and furniture from the 16th and 17th centuries. A remarkable feature of the house is that much of the present furniture and other contents are listed in an inventory dating from 1601. The Sea Dog Table is an especially important piece from around 1600, and the Eglantine Table has an inlaid top of interest to musical historians.

Hardwick is open to the public. It has a fine garden, including herbaceous borders, a vegetable and herb garden, and an orchard. The extensive grounds also contain Hardwick Old Hall, a slightly earlier house which was used as guest and service accommodation after the new hall was built. The Old Hall is now a ruin. It is administered by English Heritage on behalf of the National Trust and is also open to the public. Many of the Old Hall's major rooms were decorated with ambitious schemes of plasterwork, notably above the fireplaces. Remarkably, impressive fragments of these are still to be seen (protected by preservative coatings and rain-shields), though most of the building is unroofed.

Both Hardwick Hall and the Old Hall are Grade I listed (the highest designation) by Historic England.

Dan Cruickshank, an historian specialising in architecture, selected the Hall in 2006 as one of his five choices for Britain's Best Buildings, a documentary series made by the BBC for television. Innovative in its own time, it would serve, three centuries later, as a source of inspiration for the enormous Main Exhibition Building at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876. Hardwick Hall was an ideal model for a building which was intended to merge historicism with the large expanses of glass that had become de rigueur for the main exhibition halls at international expositions and fairs in the wake of the success of The Crystal Palace constructed for the 1851 London Exhibition.

In March 2012, a £6.5m restoration was completed; this included the addition of a large restaurant. In December 2020, three years of additional restoration had been completed and further work was being planned.

In modern media
Hardwick Hall was the setting for the 10-part BBC series Mistress of Hardwick, broadcast in 1972. Hardwick Hall was used in the 1978 Connections TV series to illustrate a long series of changes that occurred in home design as a result of the Little Ice Age. The house was described in the 1985 TV documentary Treasure Houses of Britain. Hardwick Hall was used for the exterior scenes and some interior scenes of Malfoy Manor in the 2010 film Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1.

See also
Grade I listed buildings in Derbyshire
Listed buildings in Ault Hucknall
Chatsworth House
Stainsby Mill

References

Further reading
 Adshead, David and Taylor, David A. H. B., editors, Hardwick Hall: a Great Old Castle of Romance, Yale University Press, 2016.
 Durant, David N., Bess of Hardwick, Peter Owen Publishers, 1999 (Revised edition).
 Durant, David N., The Smythson Circle, Peter Owen Publishers, 2011.

External links

Hardwick Hall information at the National Trust
Images of Hardwick Hall taken by Photographer John Gay
Detailed Tour of the Hardwick Estate
Listing Building Images of Hardwick Hall
Hardwick Old Hall visitor information from English Heritage
Teachers' resource kit for Harwick Old Hall : English Heritage
Risk assessment information for teachers, Hardwick Old Hall: English Heritage
 Panoramic images and QuickTime VR movies here and here
 Several photographs of the exterior taken in 1989
 Floor plan for third floor from B. Fletcher, History of Architecture, (London, 1921) pg. 700
 Drawing of plasterwork over fireplaces, from F. Simpson, A History of Architectural Development, Vol. III. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1922) p. 267, fig. 221
 Hardwick Hall, Doe Lea Robert Smythson for Bess Hardwick, 1597 (Floor plans and plan of grounds) PDF by London Metropolitan University

English Heritage sites in Derbyshire
Grade I listed buildings in Derbyshire
Grade I listed houses
Grade I listed museum buildings
Country houses in Derbyshire
National Trust properties in Derbyshire
Tourist attractions in Derbyshire
Houses completed in 1597
Historic house museums in Derbyshire
Gardens in Derbyshire
Textile museums in the United Kingdom
Elizabethan architecture

Hardwick Hall


Jessica McClure Morales (March 26, 1986), better called Baby Jessica, became famous at eighteen months because of an ordeal in Midland, Texas in which she tumbled into a well on Wednesday, October 14, 1987. Between then and October 16, workers spent almost 58 hours to free her from the 8 inch wide well casing 22 feet below the ground. This story gained worldwide attention, and became the subject of a television movie two years following the incident.

People from Texas
1986 births
Living people

Jessica McClure


Family Feud is an American television game show that has aired since 1976.

How to play
There are two families, each with five family members on their team. They have to guess the answers to a survey question asked to 100 people to win points for their team. The answers are seen on a huge survey board. Several survey questions are asked by host Steve Harvey. The point values are doubled at the third question, and they are tripled for the fourth question. If a Sudden Death question is needed, only the #1 answer will be on the board. Whoever reaches 300 points or more will win the game and go on to play the bonus round, Fast Money.

Fast Money
Two members of the winning family are asked five questions, one member at a time. One member stays on stage and is asked the questions while the other member is off-stage. After the answers are given (or if the time limit, either 15 seconds or 20 seconds, is up), the answers and their point values are revealed. After that, the other member is asked the same five questions, with a time limit of either 20 or 25 seconds. If they give the same answer to a question that the first member gave, a double-buzz will be heard, and the host will say, "Try again," after which another answer is given. Afterwards, the answers and their point values are revealed. If both contestants get 200 or more points, they win the grand prize.

Bullseye
From 1992 to 1995, a new round was introduced, called the "Bullseye" round from 1992 to 1994 and the "Bankroll" round from 1994 to 1995.

In the Bullseye round, each family member on each team went to the faceoff podium to try to get the #1 answer to a survey question. Each time they got it right, they won a dollar amount for their team's "bank." Each question was worth different dollar amounts, anywhere from $500 to $5,000. Whatever they won in this round was what they would play for in Fast Money.

In the Bankroll round, only one family member from each team went to the podium. Only three questions were asked this time; they played in all three questions.

The Bullseye round returned for John O'Hurley's last season in 2009. John O'Hurley did it the same way Ray Combs did. It was just like the old Bullseye round used from 1992 to 1994. However, it was thrown out again in 2010.

Other versions
Family Feud aired on ABC from 1976 to 1985. A syndicated version aired from 1977 to 1985. Both were hosted by actor Richard Dawson, who became famous for kissing all of the female contestants.

In 1988, Family Feud returned on CBS and in syndication with a new host, comedian Ray Combs. In 1992, the CBS version was expanded to an hour and included the Bullseye round. It was given a new name: The Family Feud Challenge. The syndicated version also got the Bullseye round in the Fall of that year and was named The New Family Feud. In 1993, The Family Feud Challenge was cancelled. In 1994, Ray Combs was fired and Richard Dawson was brought back to host the syndicated version. He only lasted one year, until 1995.

In 1999, the new version came on in syndication, with comedian Louie Anderson as host. Many people did not like him, and in 2002, he was replaced by Richard Karn. In 2006, Richard Karn left the show and John O'Hurley took his place, and in 2010 John O'Hurley left and Steve Harvey took his place. The show is still on the air today.

1976 American television series debuts
1970s American television series
1980s American television series
1990s American television series
2000s American television series
2010s American television series
American television game shows
CBS network shows
First run syndicated television programs
English-language television programs
ABC network series

Family Feud


Etudes Boreales is a set of etudes for cello and/or piano composed by John Cage in 1978. The set is a small counterpart to Cage's other etude collections - Etudes Australes for piano and Freeman Etudes for violin.

Etudes Boreales were composed for, and dedicated to, the cellist Jack Kirstein (1921-1996) and his wife, the pianist Jeanne Kirstein  (1924-1979). The latter performed Cage's piano works in the 1970s, but found Etudes Boreales unplayable; the first performer to find a way to play the pieces was percussionist Michael Pugliese (Pritchett, 199).

The set comprises four pieces. The cello parts are technically similar to Freeman Etudes: they are extremely demanding pieces composed using chance operations, every aspect of the work meticulously detailed in the score. The difference between the works is that in Etudes Boreales the pitch range is limited at any given time, and changes throughout the pieces, whereas in Freeman Etudes the range was unlimited. An excerpt from one of the etudes shows that the technique required involves the ability to jump accurately to any point on the fingerboard or beyond, which is particularly difficult in these pieces as they are to be played without vibrato (Stowell, 221):

The piano parts of Etudes Boreales were composed using star charts, as in Atlas Eclipticalis, Etudes Australes and Song Books (here Cage chose the maps of Atlas Boreales, an atlas of the northern sky by Antonín Bečvář, hence the title of the work).  However, the charts were used not to determine actual pitches, as in those works, but to determine where on the piano the performer is to play (the keyboard, the frame, the strings, etc.). This effectively transforms the piano etudes into percussion works (Pritchett, 199).

Cello and piano parts may be performed separately, as Etudes Boreales for cello or Etudes Boreales for piano, or simultaneously as duets, although they were composed independently.

Editions
 Edition Peters 66327-66328. (c) 1981 by Henmar Press.

References
 James Pritchett. The Music of John Cage, p. 199. Cambridge University Press, 1993.
 Robin Stowell. The Cambridge Companion to the Cello, p. 220–221. Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Compositions by John Cage
1978 compositions
Boreales
Boreales

Etudes Boreales


The Counter-Reformation was a movement within the Roman Catholic Church which began in the 1500s. It covered the following five areas:
 Doctrine (ideology)
 Ecclesiastical or Structural Reconfiguration
 Religious orders
 Spiritual Movements
 Political Dimensions

The Counter-Reformation began after Martin Luther's Reformation. In reaction, Catholics  reaffirmed some points of faith that the Protestants' objections had put in danger. These included the validity of the seven sacraments.  The Protestants had reduced the sacraments to only two, Baptism and the Eucharist. Protestants deny the doctrine of transubstantiation, which is seen as making Mass less important. Some reformation era groups had rejected the Mass entirely.   Luther's view was somewhere between that of the more radical reformers and the Catholic view.  Luther wrote that without faith neither Baptism nor the Eucharist is sufficient for salvation.  The Counter-Reformation specifically re-affirmed the Catholic understanding of the mass.

On other issues, Catholics effectively accepted some of the Protestant complaints. Penance  became a private confession and repentance from sin instead of outward actions. This served to correct the corrupt practice of selling forgiveness. This type of forgiveness, called Indulgence was the immediate cause of Luther's protests against abuses in the Catholic church.

As a result of the Counter Reformation, other abuses, such as Simony were also greatly curtailed. Thus the Protestant movement served not only to create new expressions of the Christian faith, but also to correct problems in the Catholic church which led to its revitalization.

Catholic missionaries, especially Jesuits went across the world to spread the Catholic faith. The Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition was also created, to revitalize the work of suppressing heresy.

Related pages
 Protestant Reformation
 Council of Trent
 Vatican II

References

Counter-Reformation


Blood is a liquid in humans and many animals. Blood is pushed through the organism by the heart. It brings nutrients and oxygen to the tissues of the body. It also takes away waste and carbon dioxide from tissues.

Blood is made up of blood plasma and various cells. These include red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Platelets help blood to clot. Hemoglobin is in red blood cells. White blood cells help fight infections and heal wounds.

Plasma
Blood plasma is the yellow liquid in which blood cells float. Plasma is made up of nutrients, electrolytes (salts), gases, non-protein hormones, waste, lipids, and proteins. These proteins are albumin, antibodies (also called immunoglobulins), clotting factors, and protein hormones. Plasma that does not have the protein fibrinogen is called serum and cannot clot. Adults have about 3 liters of plasma. Plasma is a liquid, mostly water (90%). Plasma takes up 55% of blood volume.

Red blood cells

Another name for red blood cell is erythrocyte. 'Erythro' means red; 'cyte' means cell. RBC is an acronym for red blood cell.

RBCs carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body. Cells in the body need oxygen to live. Cells also make carbon dioxide as a waste.

RBCs are filled with hemoglobin. This is a protein. It is made to carry a large amount of oxygen. Hemoglobin has iron in it. The iron and oxygen gives hemoglobin its red color. Erythropoietin promotes the creation of RBCs. Blood type antigens are carried on the surface of red cells.

RBCs also help the blood stay at a normal pH. The blood needs to be at a pH of 7.4. If it is much more or less than 7.4, a person can get very sick or die. RBCs stops changes in blood pH. The proteins and the carbon dioxide in the RBC do this.

White blood cells
White blood cells are a big part of the immune system. They attack things that do not belong in the body. They kill germs such as bacteria and viruses. They kill cancer cells. White blood cells also help to fight other toxic substances.

White blood cells find where the germs are, and start to destroy them. WBCs arrive in the blood. They also go out of the blood in places where there is infection. WBCs do this to fight the germs that make the infection. If they go out of the blood to fight an infection, they may return in the lymphatic system. So WBCs are in lymph nodes.

Another name for white blood cell is leukocyte. Leuko means white. -cyte means cell. WBC is an acronym for white blood cell. There are three main kinds of WBCs. They are lymphocytes, granulocytes and monocytes. Some of the WBCs mature into cells which do similar work in the tissues.

The different WBCs work in different ways. Some WBCs kill and eat germs and cancer cells. Some WBCs make antibodies. These are proteins that stick to a cell and tell other WBCs to kill it. Some WBCs make chemicals. They release these chemicals to fight things that do not belong in the body. These chemicals cause inflammation in a part of the body. When a germ makes someone sick, the body shows it. If a bacteria gets under someone's skin and causes an infection, the skin gets red, hot, and painful. This redness, heat, and pain are signs of inflammation. This shows that WBCs are fighting the infection and killing the bacteria.

Platelets
Platelets help make blood clot. A clot is when the liquid blood becomes solid. The body makes blood clot when the skin is cut. This stops blood from going out of the skin too much.

For blood to be able to clot is essential. But, rarely, some blood clots are bad. If a blood clot happens in a blood vessel going to the brain, it can cause a stroke. If it happens in a blood vessel going to the heart, it can cause a heart attack. This does not usually happen to young, healthy people with the exception of clotting conditions.

Platelets are not the only things that make clots. There are proteins in the blood that help make clots. Both platelets and clotting proteins are needed to make good clots.

Where blood comes from

Blood cells are made in the bone marrow. The spleen (a smaller, vital  organ situated inside the ribcage) manages the amount of white blood cells that flow throughout your blood, it also can manage many functions of the liver.  The bone marrow is the soft material in the middle of bones. Special cells in the bone marrow make most of the blood cells in the body.

Plasma proteins are made mostly by the liver. The water and electrolytes in plasma come from the food and water that a person eats.

Although blood is a fluid, in some respects it is a kind of connective tissue. Its cells  originate in bone marrow and the spleen, and in the blood there are potential molecular fibres in the form of fibrinogen. These are activated when a blood clot forms.

References

Basic English 850 words

Blood


Anthony Williams (born 19 August 1947) is an English musician who played bass guitar in the folk rock/rock band Stealers Wheel and who also played with Jethro Tull.

Career
Born in Durham City, he later moved to Blackpool, Lancashire where other future band members of Jethro Tull also lived including, Ian Anderson, Barriemore Barlow, John Evan and Jeffrey Hammond.

In the 1960s he played guitar with The Executives, a Blackpool based Mod band who recorded a handful of singles with frontman Roy Carr and future Jethro Tull bassist Glenn Cornick.

Williams originally auditioned to join Jethro Tull in 1968 along with Martin Barre. He also brought out a single, "Lazy River". From 1970 to 1971 he played bass guitar with the band Requiem.

In 1972 Williams joined Stealers Wheel, which had been formed earlier that year in Paisley, Renfrewshire by former school friends Gerry Rafferty and Joe Egan. Williams helped record their self-styled debut album Stealers Wheel, which was produced by the influential American songwriters and producers Leiber & Stoller. Williams left Stealers Wheel a year later. In 1978 he joined Jethro Tull, replacing John Glascock who was unwell, at the request of Ian Anderson. He joined them on their tour of North America before returning to studio work and television production.

After being contacted by iTunes and K-tel records in California, and following negotiations which started in 2006, Williams re-formed Stealers Wheel in Blackpool in 2008 with two other former band members, Rod Coombes and Paul Pilnick together with locally based musician and songwriter Tony Mitchell. On 10 November 2008 they started filming a music video for a re-release of "Stuck in the Middle" on the Fylde coast. They also began writing songs for a new album to be released in 2009, although they have no plans to go on tour.

Personal life
Williams works in elephant conservation, and has worked as a Public Relations advisor, based at Blackpool Zoo, for the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums. In 2007 he was elected as a local councillor in Blackpool.
He was re-elected in 2011 and was the Leader of the Conservative Group on Blackpool Borough Council
and a board member of the Arts Council North West. He resigned as Conservative Group in February 2023 and now sits an Independent member.

References

External links

People from Durham, England
Musicians from Blackpool
1947 births
Living people
English bass guitarists
English male guitarists
Male bass guitarists
Stealers Wheel members

Tony Williams (English musician)


Maud Frizon de Marco (born Danielle Maud Frizon; 1941 in Paris, France) is a fashion designer specializing in women's shoes. She began her career in the 1960s as a model for Parisian Haute Couture Houses of Nina Ricci, Jean Patou, and André Courrèges. At the time models had to provide their own shoes to match the clothes designers assigned them for their runway shows and photo shoots. Frizon disliked the available shoes from other designers, and in 1969 elected to create her own and opened her first boutique in the Saint-Germain-des-Prés district of Paris.

That first shoe collection, with each pair hand-cut and finished, was praised by critics as sexy and unpredictable. Frizon was an immediate success. Building on the traditions of Beth Levine and foreshadowing the later designs of Manolo Blahnik, Frizon shoes were showy and extravagant, and her name joined the ranks of the haute couture boutiques. At the height of her success in the 1980s her reputation was similar to that of Blahnik today.

Frizon often used expensive and everyday materials together in unusual combinations: lizard and snake, suede and satin, canvas and crocodile. Brigitte Bardot was a regular at the boutique, famous for her love of Frizon's high-heeled Russian boots.

In Shoes – Fashion and Fantasy Colin McDowell wrote "If shoes can be said to have a personality, none have more so than the products of Maud Frizon's imagination. [They are] original and innovative shoes that [are] to footwear what Dom Perignon is to champagne".

Although Frizon released shoes under her brands Maud Frizon and Miss Maud, she also designed footwear for Azzedine Alaia, Missoni and Sonia Rykiel,  among others. She is credited with introducing the 1978-79 cone heel that continued into the early 1980s, and she was the exclusive shoe designer at that time for the influential Thierry Mugler and Claude Montana lines.

She is married to Luigi De Marco with whom she founded and operated her company.

In 1999 Frizon and De Marco sold the company and its brands to Helene Wajnblum-Liu and her husband, who added handbags and leather accessories to the line as well as expanding the chain of Frizon boutiques. The firm remains headquartered in Paris, with boutiques in Paris, Lyon, New York, Beijing and Hong Kong.

References

External links
Official site
Shoe Icons:  Maud Frizon

1941 births
Living people
French fashion designers
French women fashion designers
Shoe designers

Maud Frizon


The following lists events that happened during 1985 in Afghanistan.

Afghanistan is locked in military stalemate throughout the year, with neither the Muslim insurgents nor the Soviet-backed government troops mounting any decisive military offensive, though there are numerous operations and clashes. The insurgents appear better equipped than previously, with antiaircraft weapons in particular, in their efforts to counter government forces, who are aided by an estimated 115,000 Soviet soldiers. Afghanistan remains completely dependent on Moscow.

Incumbents
 General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan: Babrak Karmal
 Chairman of the Revolutionary Council:  Babrak Karmal
 Chairman of the Council of Ministers: Sultan Ali Keshtmand

1985
Afghanistan produces 31% of the world's opium, according to the UN Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention.

January 1985
Soviet-Afghan troops launch an offensive in the provinces of Konarha, Nangarhar, and Paktia in eastern Afghanistan and Nimruz and Herat in the west, part of a move designed to cut off guerrilla supply routes.

January 10, 1985
PADA general secretary Karmal announces that membership of the ruling Communist Party has increased from 16,000 at the time it came to power to 120,000. On the same day, Afghanistan marks the 20th anniversary of the party's founding.

March 1985
A UN report on human rights in Afghanistan accuses Soviet forces of "bombarding villages, destroying food supplies, massacring civilians, and disregarding the Geneva convention." The report claims that the government is holding 50,000 political prisoners and that tortures in jails are "commonplace." The government rejects the claims as "fabrication."

March 23, 1985
According to resistance sources in Pakistan, some 400 Soviet and Afghan troops are killed when a series of chain-reaction explosions triggered by a time bomb engulfs a military convoy at Ollamd, near the Salang tunnel.

April 1985
Western diplomats claim that several hundred civilians have been killed in late March during Soviet-Afghan attacks in the provinces of Laghman in the east, Qonduz and Samangan in the north, and Herat.

April 23–25, 1985
A three-day Loya Jirga (grand council) is attended by 1,796 delegates. This traditional national tribal assembly had not been convened since the 1979 coup.

May 1985
Pressure from the Pakistanis, from outside supporters, and from the guerrilla commanders force the seven major resistance groups based in Peshawar to form an alliance. Inside Afghanistan, neighbouring ethnolinguistically oriented resistance groups unite for military and political purposes within their various regions. Internal struggles for leadership also occur in certain areas where the Soviets have little influence, such as Hazarajat and Nurestan. Although no national liberation front exists, the resistance groups begin to feel that they are part of an overall effort to liberate Afghanistan.

June 12, 1985
At least 20 Afghan Air Force planes are blown up at Shindand air base in the western province of Farah.

June, August, and December 1985
The UN special representative for Afghanistan, Cordovez, shuttles between separate rooms in the UN building in Geneva, meeting alternately with Afghan Foreign Minister Dost and his Pakistani counterpart, Khan. The foreign ministers do not meet directly, since to do so would amount to recognition by Pakistan of Karmal's regime. Iran once again boycotts the talks but is kept informed. The last round of talks adjourns on December 19 to allow the parties to study new UN proposals. Earlier, the U.S. announced its willingness to act as guarantor of a settlement that would involve Soviet troop withdrawal and an end to U.S. aid to the guerrillas.

August 1985
Foreign Minister Dost visits India, the only country outside the Soviet bloc with which relations improve during the year.

Mid-August 1985
An anti-guerrilla onslaught is launched by the joint Soviet-Afghan military command in eastern Afghanistan but falls far short of success. However, the offensive, described by area experts as among the biggest since the Soviet intervention in 1979, brings the war closer to the Pakistani border, a fact that worries Islamabad.

September 4, 1985
An Afghan airliner traveling from Kabul to Farah crashes near Kandahar, killing all 52 people on board. The government blames the guerrillas for the incident.

Afghanistan
Years of the 20th century in Afghanistan
Afghanistan
1980s in Afghanistan

1985 in Afghanistan


Richard Nicholson (baptised 26 September 1563 – 1638 or 1639) was an English composer and organist and the first Heather Professor of Music at the University of Oxford.

Life
Richard Nicholson was baptised in Durham and sang in Durham Cathedral choir from 1576 to 1580. He became organist of Magdalen College, Oxford, in January 1596 and obtained his Bachelor of Music degree from the University of Oxford in the following month. In 1626, William Heather appointed him as the first "Master of the Musicke" for the university, following a donation by Heather of music books, instruments and money for the purpose of theoretical and practical instruction in music. He was succeeded in the professorship by Arthur Phillips in November 1639, but he may have died in the previous year as the Magdalen College account books do not mention Nicholson after 1638.

Music known to be by Nicholson is mostly choral, although a few pieces for groups of instruments have been attributed to him. "O pray for the peace of Jerusalem" shows the influence of Thomas Tomkins. "When Jesus sat at meat" is for singers, including boy soloists, and instruments (viols), suggesting that it was composed for the classes that Nicholson was required to teach at Oxford. The Jews Dance for instrumental ensemble was recorded by the Julian Bream Ensemble in 1988. He also composed a five-part Latin motet, "Cantate Domino", which may have been for the purposes of his Oxford degree. He also contributed to The Triumphs of Oriana in 1601.

References

1563 births
1630s deaths
English classical organists
British male organists
16th-century English composers
English male composers
17th-century English composers
Heather Professors of Music
17th-century male musicians
Male classical organists

Richard Nicholson (musician)


The Kven language is a Finnic language spoken in northern Norway by the Kven people.

In 2005 the language was officially given minority status in Norway. This was for political and historical reasons. The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has rules for the signs of a minority language. Linguistically, however, it is seen as a mutually intelligible dialect of the Finnish language. Because of this it is grouped together with the Peräpohjola dialects, such as Meänkieli, spoken in Torne Valley in Sweden.

References

Languages of Norway

Kven language


Eko is an Italian manufacturer of electric guitars, acoustic guitars and similar instruments, catering to professional level and manufacturing largely for export. It is located in Recanati, Marche.

Products

Guitars

Their products include classical guitars, 12-string guitars, arch top guitars, electric guitars and acoustic bass guitars.

Eko gained high popularity during the rock 'n' roll craze of the 1960s, becoming the largest guitar exporter in Europe. Their electric models were often highly ornamented with pearl, featured 3 or 4 pickups and recognizable "rocker" switches for pickup selection. The acoustic models were popular in country and folk rock bands of the late '60s. The best-known models of the '60s include:

 Eko 400 Ekomaster (Fender Jaguar shape with flat-top,  Hagström-style control panel),
 Eko 500 (Fender Jaguar lookalike),
 Eko 700 (original triple-cutaway design with "hockey stick" head),
 Eko 290 (also known as Eko Barracuda, semi-hollow flat-top electric),
 Eko Rokes (rocket-shaped electric, made popular by an Italian pop band of the same name, The Rokes)
 Eko Kadett ('67 original double cutaway with characteristic long "horns") and
 Eko Ranger (the best-selling Eko product, acoustic in 6 and 12-string version).
 Eko 995 (violin bodied 4 string bass wildly popular in the late 60's)

Eko also produced guitars for Vox in the '60s, in the USA they were distributed through LoDuca brothers of Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
 Vox Mark III
 Vox Phantom
 Vox Ultrasonic

In the UK the instruments were imported by Rose-Morris, London.

In Australia their instruments were imported by Rose Music and often, but not always, branded with their house brand Eston.

Eko guitar has been manufacturing guitars since the early 60s and continue to through present day.

As of 2015, Eko guitars were imported and distributed in the United States by Kelley Distribution of Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

Other musical instruments

See also

 List of Italian Companies
 Vox (musical equipment)

References

External links

Official sites
 U.S. Eko website
 Eko Music Group (Italy)
 Eko guitars (Italy)

Musical instrument manufacturing companies of Italy
Electronics companies of Italy
Italian brands
Guitar manufacturing companies
Electronic organ manufacturing companies
Companies based in le Marche
Electronics companies established in 1959
Italian companies established in 1959

Eko Guitars


A Margrave () is a German nobleman.

Originally the Holy Roman Emperor would give a Markgraf an area of the borders (the Marches or ) to look after.  The Margrave would have to protect the people in the area from invaders, and at the same time protect the empire.

A Markgraf ranked higher than a graf, but lower than a duke.  The Margraves of Brandenburg were in control of such an important area that they were made Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, which was the highest honour in the Imperial Parliament.  There were no Kings in the Empire, so when the Margraves of Brandenburg took control of some territory outside the empire as well, they could call themselves King in Prussia.

As the Middle Ages ended and Europe and the Holy Roman Empire became more secure the military importance of the Margraves became less.  At the end of the German Empire in 1918, there were no Markgrafs left.  All had been given higher title, but may have kept the Markgraf title as an extra.  The Kings of Prussia, for example, always kept the lower title Margraves of Brandenburg.

History of Germany
German nobility

Margrave


The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (c. 50) (informally, and hereafter, the DDA) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which has now been repealed and replaced by the Equality Act 2010, except in Northern Ireland where the Act still applies. Formerly, it made it unlawful to discriminate against people in respect of their disabilities in relation to employment, the provision of goods and services, education and transport.

The DDA is a civil rights law. Other countries use constitutional, social rights or criminal law to make similar provisions.  The Equality and Human Rights Commission combats discrimination. Equivalent legislation exists in Northern Ireland, which is enforced by the Northern Ireland Equality Commission.

History
The Act was the culmination of a public campaign, and at least 100,000 people in demonstrations, to force the government to end state and business discrimination against disabled people. While the Race Relations Act 1976 and the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 guaranteed minimum standards for equality on grounds of race and gender, there had been very little concerning disabled people. Prior to the DDA, the first attempt to deal with the issue of disability was the Disabled Persons (Employment) Act 1944. This made it a legal requirement for companies with over 250 employees to employ a quota of disabled persons. This failed as there was not now anyone appointed to monitor these rights and as such was toothless.

Service providers
The Act placed duties on service providers and required "reasonable adjustments" to be made when providing access to goods, facilities, services and premises. These were introduced in three stages:

 Since 2 December 1994, it has been unlawful for service providers to treat disabled people less favourably for a reason related to their disability;
 Since 1 October 2002, service providers have had to make 'reasonable adjustments' for disabled people, such as providing extra help or making changes to the way they provide their services.
 Since 1 October 2004, service providers may have to make other 'reasonable adjustments' in relation to the physical features of their premises to overcome physical barriers to access.

Amending legislation
The Act was amended by the following legislation in Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland, where different amendments apply):

 The Disability Rights Commission Act 1999, which replaced the National Disability Council with the Disability Rights Commission (DRC);
 The Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001 inserted new provisions in Part 4 of the DDA 1995 in connection with disability discrimination in schools and other educational establishments;
 The Private Hire Vehicles (Carriage of Guide Dogs etc.) Act 2002, which prevented operators of such vehicles refusing to take assistance dogs, or making additional charges for such dogs.
 The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (Amendment) Regulations 2003, and the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (Pensions) Regulations 2003 which amended the DDA in line with the EU employment directive.
 The Disability Discrimination Act 2005, which completed the implementation of the Disability Rights Task Force recommendations, including the extension of the DDA 1995 to cover public transport, and the introduction of a duty on public authorities to promote equality for disabled people.
The Equality Act 2006 which transferred the role of the Disability Rights Commission to the Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC). The EHRC took on this role from 1 October 2007, and has powers to issue guidance on and enforce all the equality enactments (covering race, sex, disability, religion and belief, sexual orientation and age).

Principles

The DDA 1995 departed from the fundamental principles of older UK discrimination law (the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 and the Race Relations Act 1976). These Acts, also repealed and replaced by the Equality Act 2010, made direct discrimination and indirect discrimination unlawful.  However, these concepts are insufficient to deal with the issues of disability discrimination.

The core concepts in the DDA 1995 are, instead:
  less favourable treatment for a reason related to a disabled person's disability; and
  failure to make a "reasonable adjustment".

"Reasonable adjustment" or, as it is known in some other jurisdictions, 'reasonable accommodation', is the radical concept that makes the DDA 1995 so different from the older legislation.  Instead of the rather passive approach of indirect discrimination (where someone can take action if they have been disadvantaged by a policy, practice or criterion that a body with duties under the law has adopted), reasonable adjustment is an active approach that requires employers, service providers etc. to take steps to remove barriers from disabled people's participation.  For example:

  employers are likely to find it reasonable to provide accessible IT equipment;
  many shops are likely to find it reasonable to make their premises accessible to wheelchair users;
  councils are likely to find it reasonable to provide information in alternative formats (such as large print) as well as normal written form.

The Disability Rights Commission's Codes of Practice give more information to bodies with duties on assessing whether a particular adjustment is reasonable.  In general, the factors to consider would include:
  whether the proposed adjustment would meet the needs of the disabled person;
  whether the adjustment is affordable;
  whether the adjustment would have a serious effect on other people.

Sometimes there may be no reasonable adjustment, and the outcome is that a disabled person is treated less favourably.  For example, if a person was not able to understand the implications of entering into a mortgage or loan agreement, and they did not have anyone authorised to act for them, it would not make sense to require a bank or building society to enter into that agreement.  The Act therefore permits employers and service providers to justify less favourable treatment (and in some instances failure to make a reasonable adjustment) in certain circumstances.

An example would be a medieval castle open for public tours that didn't have modifications made for wheelchairs. To do so would destroy the castle's historical aspects such as the restrictive nature of the original circular staircases.

Housing

The system of protection of disabled people, especially those with mental health problems to keep their homes, has been greatly enhanced by certain recent rulings in the  UK Court of Appeal—City of Manchester v Romano.

Under the act it is unlawful to discriminate against a disabled person by evicting them or subjecting them to other detriment unless justified under the limited number of justifications set out in the act.

In practice the only relevant justification is that the landlord believes and also that it is objectively necessary for the protection of the health or safety of the disabled person or someone else.

Where the cause of the taking of proceedings is e.g. rent arrears which was caused by the disability e.g. by Housing Benefit being cancelled through non response to correspondence and the non response was caused by the disability, then not only is it discrimination, but it is discrimination which cannot be justified on the grounds allowed in the act.

This applies whether or not the landlord knew of the disability.

This applies even if
the landlord has a mandatory ground for possession, e.g.
two months rent arrears or
two months notice no reason in cases of assured shorthold tenancy where the actual reason is rent arrears
the tenancy is one where there is no statutory system of protection, e.g.
where in LA temporary accommodation under the homelessness duty
the tenancy is a business tenancy

The tenant may counter-claim and seek an injunction restraining the landlord from continuing the possession proceedings.

The judges were very worried about the extent of the law and urged Parliament to change it. However, there has since been a new act of Parliament and there was no weakening of this protection.

Cases
Coleman v Attridge Law AG Maduro' opinion and judgment (C‑303/06) [2007] IRLR 88
Paul v National Probation Service [2004] IRLR 190, [2003] UKEAT 0290_03_1311
Chacon Navas v Eurest Colectividades SA (2007) All ER (EC) 59 (C-13/05)
Goodwin v Patent Office [1999] ICR 302, on a person with paranoid schizophrenia
Vicary v British Telecommunications plc [1999] IRLR 680, per Morison J
Leonard v Southern Derbyshire Chamber of Commerce [2001] IRLR 19
Clark v TDG Ltd (t/a Novacold Ltd) [1999] IRLR 318
Jones v Post Office [2001] IRLR 384
Collins v Royal National Theatre Board Ltd [2004] IRLR 395
Archibald v Fife Council [2004] UKHL 32

See also
UK labour law
 Disability discrimination act – general definition, and list of acts by country
 Disability rights movement Disability rights activism
 Easy Access on public transport, etc.
 Persons with reduced mobility

Notes

External links
 Equality and Human Rights Commission:

 Article on DDA from Directgov – UK govt information
 Building websites to comply with the UK DDA
 Disabled Go List of resources from Disabled Go, a website founded by wheelchair user Gregory Burke
 Disability Statistics Some recent disability statistics
 Lainey Feingold's Global Law and Policy: UK

Disability law in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1995
Anti-discrimination law in the United Kingdom
Special education in the United Kingdom
Web accessibility
Disability legislation
Disability in Northern Ireland

Disability Discrimination Act 1995


Arsène Lupin is a French fictional character who appears in a book series of crime fiction novels written by French writer Maurice Leblanc, as well as a number of sequels and movie, television, stage play and comic book adaptations.

He made his debut in July 1905 in his first series, L'Arrestation d'Arsène Lupin (). The adventure of this bold thief earns a controversial reputation — the rage or fury of police officers who keep missing him on the scene of robbery, and even in the jail, and the admiration from citizens who love to check up on the newspapers to see if there's any article about his great robberies. Lupin is portrayed as patriotic, romantic, audacious, self-respecting, and respectful to women.

Backstory
Lupin was born in 1874. His father was a gymnastics teacher and taught him boxing and fencing which later became Lupin's attacking specialties. He was raised by a nanny Victoire, and their relationship lasted until the end of the series. His parents got divorced, and his mother started working for a relative who is fairly arrogant. In the house of the relative, Lupin robs a necklace as revenge. Until eighteen, he had been learning law, medicine, acting, and martial arts. His journey as a thief starts at age eighteen.

In addition to his real name, he likes using several fake names, such as Sernine and Perenna. They have different jobs, which vary from famous traveller to retired general. He sometimes disguises himself as a detective, and solves lots of mysterious incidents, and becomes famous. He usually buys a kind of identification card from an unknown and recently dead man, and uses his name.

The ending of his life is not clear, because the author, Maurice Leblanc, was dead in 1941 before completing Le Dernier Amour d'Arsène Lupin (), the 21st volume of the series. Leblanc was presented the French Legion of Honour award for inspiring the patriotism and pride of French people by his Lupin series. He bought a house in Etretat and named it Le Clos Lupin (the vacation of lupin), which is still famous as a tourist attraction.

Other websites

 The Extraordinary Adventures of Arsène Lupin, Gentleman-Burglar Public Domain Audio Book
 Arsène Lupin at Cool French Comics
 Free Arsène Lupin eBooks by Project Gutenberg
 Arsène Lupin timeline by A.-F. Ruaud (English version)

Fictional European people

Arsène Lupin


A tap, faucet, or spigot is something that a liquid or gas comes out of. Taps usually have a handle that can be turned to start or stop the liquid coming out.

Many taps give water and are used in homes. They are found in kitchens and bathrooms.

Water that comes out of a tap is called tap water. At many restaurants, a person can ask for tap water instead of bottled water.

Hardware (mechanical)

Tap (valve)


Fluoride is the reduced form of fluorine. When fluorine gains an electron by taking it from another substance (oxidizing it), it converts into fluoride. Fluoride is found in toothpaste and helps prevent tooth decay. Fluoride is added artificially to drinking water in some places and has caused a controversy over the harmful effects versus the benefits of fluoridation.

Related pages
Fluorine
Fluorite, a natural fluoride
Fluoridation

Fluorine compounds
Ions

Fluoride


Immenstaad am Bodensee is a municipality in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, on the north shore of Lake Constance (called the Bodensee in German) near the Austrian and Swiss borders. It is not to be confused with the similarly named town of Immenstadt, approximately 85 km East in Bavaria.

History

The first documented reference to Immenstaad dates to the year 1094, when the Bavarian Duke Welf IV acquired the possessions of Weingarten Abbey.  The controlling authorities were strongly factionalized until the Fürstenberg family bought the entire town in the late 18th century. In 1806 the town became a border town in the state of Baden-Württemberg.

Immenstaad am Bodensee  was the home of the former Dornier aerospace company, which now is part of the Airbus. It is more famous as a popular resort and well known for its wine and fruit farming activities.

References

External links

 Tourist Information Immenstaad

Populated places on Lake Constance
Bodenseekreis

Immenstaad am Bodensee


A weather forecast is a prediction of what the weather will be in the future. Weather stations measure things such as temperature, air pressure and cloud cover. Meteorologists use these measurements and fluid dynamics and other methods to predict the weather. A forecast for many days in the future is less trustworthy than one for tomorrow or the next day.

Meteorology

Weather forecast


Shlomo is the English form of שְׁלֹמֹה, the Hebrew name of the Israelite King Solomon. It is a popular name among Jews, especially in Israel.

The following individuals are often referred to only by the name Shlomo:

 Solomon, king of ancient Israel, according to various religious texts
 Shlomo (beatboxing artist) or Simon Shlomo Kahn (born 1983)
 Shlohmo or Henry Laufer, an American electronic musician

The following individuals have the given name Shlomo:

 Shlomo Amar (born 1948), former Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel and current Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem
 Shlomo Argov (1929–2003), Israeli diplomat whose attempted assassination led to the 1982 Lebanon War
 Shlomo Aronson (disambiguation), multiple people
 Shlomo Artzi (born 1949), Israeli singer and composer
 Shlomo Zalman Auerbach (1910–1995), Rosh Yeshiva of the Kol Torah yeshiva in Israel
 Shlomo Aviner (born 1943), Israeli Rosh Yeshiva of the Ateret Cohanim
 Shlomo Avineri (born 1933), Professor of Political Science, Hebrew University, Jerusalem
 Shlomo Bar (born 1943), Israeli musician and composer
 Shlomo Baum (1929–1999), Israeli military commando fighter
 Shlomo Ben-Ami (born 1943), Israeli diplomat, politician and historian
 Shlomo-Yisrael Ben-Meir (1910–1971), Israeli politician and member of the Knesset
 Shlomo Ben-Yosef (1913–1938), member of the Revisionist Zionist underground Irgun
 Shlomo Benizri (born 1961), former Israeli Labour and Welfare Minister
 Shlomo Bentin (1946–2012), professor of Psychology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
 Shlomo Bohbot (born 1942), Israeli politician and member of the Knesset
 Shlomo Breznitz (born 1936), Israeli author, psychologist, and president of the University of Haifa
 Shlomo Carlebach or Reb Shlomo (1925–1994), American Jewish rabbi, religious teacher, composer, and singe
 Shlomo Cohen (born 1941), Israeli diplomat
 Shlomo Cohen-Tzidon (1923–2012), Israeli politician and member of the Knesset
 Shlomo Cunin, American Hasidic rabbi
 Shlomo Dayan (born 1952), Israeli rabbi and former member of the Knesset
 Shlomo Dovrat, Israeli high-tech entrepreneur
 Shlomo Dykman (1917–1965), Polish-born Israeli translator and classical scholar
 Shlomo Eckstein (1929-2020), Israeli economist and President of Bar-Ilan University
 Shlomo Eitan, Hebrew language linguist
 Shlomo Eliahu (born 1936), Israeli businessman and former member of the Knesset
 Shlomo Elyashiv (1841–1926), Lithuanian Orthodox rabbi
 Shlomo Erell (born 1920), former Commander of the Israeli Navy
 Shlomo Freifeld (1925–1990), American Orthodox rabbi
 Shlomo Ganzfried (1804–1886), Hungarian Orthodox rabbi and author
 Shlomo Gazit (born 1926), Israeli former head of IDF military intelligence, President of Ben-Gurion University
 Shlomo Glickstein (born 1958), former Israeli tennis player
 Shlomo Goldman or Zvhil-Sanzer rebbe, American Hasidic rabbi
 Shlomo Goren (1917–1994), former Orthodox Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel
 Shlomo Grofman, Israeli real estate developer
 Shlomo Gronich (born 1949), Israeli composer, singer-songwriter, and choir conductor
 Shlomo-Ya'akov Gross (1908–2003), Israeli politician and member of the Knesset
 Shlomo HaKohen (Vilna) (1828–1905), Lithuanian Orthodox rabbi
 Shlomo HaKohen of Greece, 18th century mekubal and posek
 Shlomo HaKohen of Lissa, 18th century rabbi and biblical commentator
 Shlomo Halberstam (first Bobover rebbe) (1847–1905), first Bobover Rebbe
 Shlomo Halberstam (third Bobover rebbe) (1907–2000), third Bobover Rebbe
 Shlomo Hillel (born 1923), former Israeli Police and Interior Minister and Speaker of the Knesset
 Shlomo Jin, one of the first of the Kaifeng Jews to make aliyah; see Chinese in Israel
 Shlomo Kaplansky (1884-1950), Israeli politician and President of the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology
 Shlomo Lahat (1927–2014), eighth mayor of Tel Aviv
 Shlomo Lipetz (born 1979), Israeli baseball player
 Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz (1550–1619), rabbi, poet and Torah commentator
 Shlomo Mintz (born 1957), highly regarded Israeli violin virtuoso
 Shlomo Moussaieff (rabbi) (1852–1922), one of the founders of the Bukharian Quarter in Jerusalem
 Shlomo Moussaieff (businessman) (born circa 1925), Israeli born millionaire businessman
 Shlomo Chanoch Rabinowicz (1882–1942), fourth Radomsker Rebbe in Poland
 Shlomo Riskin (born 1940), founder of the Lincoln Square Synagogue in New York City
 Shlomo Sand (born 1946), Israeli historian
 Shlomo Sawilowsky (born 1954), professor of educational statistics, Wayne State University
 Shlomo Scharf (born 1943), Israeli football manager
 Shlomo Sternberg (born 1936), leading American mathematician known for his work in geometry
 Shlomo Sztencl (1884–1919), Rav of Tzelodz and Sosnowiec, Poland
 Shlomo Veingrad, formerly Alan Veingrad (born 1963), American NFL football player
 Shlomo Wiesel, the father of Elie Wiesel, Holocaust survivor
Shlomo Elisha Wiesel (born 1972), chief information officer of Goldman Sachs; hedge fund manager of the Niche Plus; son of Elie Wiesel
 Shlomo Zev Zweigenhaft (1915-2005), Rosh Hashochtim of Poland, Chief Rabbi of Hannover & Lower Saxony

The following individuals have the given name Szlomo:
 Szlomo Benjamin Fisz (1922–1989), Polish film producer and writer
 Szlomo Szmajzner (1927-1989), survivors of the Sobibór extermination camp
 Szlomo Zalman Lipszyc (1765-1839), Orthodox rabbi, and first Chief Rabbi of Warsaw

The following company is named Shlomo:

 Shlomo Group (founded 1974), an international holding group based in Israel

See also

 Hebrew name
 Š-L-M, the triconsonantal Semitic root
 Solomon (name)
 Shlomo, a South Park character appearing in the episode "Jewbilee".

References

Hebrew masculine given names
Masculine given names
Jewish given names

Shlomo


Sir George Iain Duncan Smith (born 9 April 1954 in Edinburgh, Scotland) is a British politician who is the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions from 2016 - 2016. He was the leader of the Conservative Party from September 2001 to November 2003 and is the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Chingford and Woodford Green.

Iain Duncan Smith served in the Scottish part of the British Army, the Scots' Guard from 1975 to 1981. He became a Conservative Party MP at the 1992 General Election for the constituency of Chingford (called Chingford and Woodford Green from 1997). He became a member of William Hague's shadow cabinet in 1997 and became Shadow Defence Secretary in 1999. When Hague resigned in 2001, Iain Duncan Smith was elected leader of the Conservative Party, defeating Kenneth Clarke and Michael Portillo. In November 2003, Conservative Party MPs passed a Vote of No Confidence in Iain Duncan Smith because they believed he could not win the general election. He was replaced by Michael Howard. After the 2010 General Election, Iain Duncan Smith was made the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions. He resigned in March 2016.

Iain Duncan Smith was the first leader of the Conservative Party to have been Roman Catholic and was the first to have been born in Scotland since Arthur Balfour.

References

Other websites
- Official site

1954 births
Living people
British Army officers
British Roman Catholics
Conservative Party (UK) MPs
Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK)
Leaders of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
Members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Politicians from Edinburgh
Scottish Christians
Secretaries of State of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
UK MPs 2015–2017
UK MPs 2017–2019
UK MPs 2019–present

Iain Duncan Smith


Royal Enfield wis the name unner which the Enfield Cycle Company (a division o the Breetish airms-makin company Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield Lock), made motorcycles, bicycles, lawnmowers an stationary ingines.  This legacy o wappens manufacture is reflectit in the logo, a cannon, an thair motto "Made like a gun, goes like a bullet". Uise o the brand name Royal Enfield wis licensed bi the Crown in 1890. The oreeginal Redditch, Worcestershire based company wis sauld tae E. & H. P. Smith in 1963 an then tae Norton-Triumph-Villiers (NVT). Production ceased in 1970 an the company wis dissolved in 1971.

In 1956 Enfield o Indie startit assemblin Bullet motorcycles unner licence frae UK components, an bi 1962 wur manufacturin complete bikes. Enfield o Indie bought the rights tae uise the Royal Enfield name in 1995. Royal Enfield production, based in Chennai, continues an Royal Enfield is nou the auldest motorcycle brand in the warld still in production wi the Bullet model enjoyin the langest motorcycle production run o aw time.

Companies established in 1898
Motorcycle manufacturers o the Unitit Kinrick
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers o the Unitit Kinrick
Companies based in Worcestershire
Companies disestablished in 1971

Royal Enfield


The Terai or Tarai is a region of northern India and southern Nepal. The Terai is a strip of natural marshland bordering the Yamuna River to the west and the Brahmaputra River to the east. To the north of the Terai are the Himalayas. The marshy areas have been reduced by drainage and cultivation.

Source

Geography of India
Geography of Nepal

Terai


LEO (; English: Lunar Exploration Orbiter) was the name of a proposed German mission to the Moon, announced by the German Aerospace Center (DLR) Director Walter Doellinger on March 2, 2007. Because the needed money for the year 2009 was diverted elsewhere, the start of the project was delayed indefinitely.

Precise characteristics of the mission were announced in early 2008, and estimated costs were projected to be ca. €350 million (~$514 million) over five years. The mission would involve a lunar orbiter that DLR intended to build and launch in 2012 to map the lunar surface. It would be the first German mission to the Moon and the first European mission to the Moon since SMART-1.

Numerous leading German planetologists, among them Gerhard Neukum, Ralf Jaumann and Tilman Spohn, have condemned the indefinite postponement and argue for resuming the LEO-project.

Design
The main satellite will weigh about 500 kilograms and is accompanied by a small sub-satellite, which weighs about 150 kilograms. The intended orbital altitude is about 50 km.

Planned experiments included measurements of lunar gravitational and magnetic fields. The main satellite would have also carried a microwave radar to probe beneath the lunar surface up to a depth of a few hundred meters. At maximum depth the radar would be able to resolve structures up to two meters.

Science objectives
The duration of the mission around the Moon will be four years, during which the charting of the entire lunar surface would take place. The survey is to be three-dimensional and in colour with one aim being to provide indications of significant geological formations that could later be of interest for drilling.

The probe will also investigate the Moon's magnetic and gravity fields, look for water and analyse the minerals on its surface. It will use the best camera currently available, the best radar sensors and unique spectrum sensors for measuring the mineral composition.

See also
 German space programme

References

External links
Germany plans unmanned lunar orbit. Reuters 11.07.2007
Germany plans unmanned Moon mission
Germany Mulls Sending Own Mission to the Moon. Deutsche Welle 04.03.2007

Missions to the Moon
Cancelled space probes
Space programme of Germany

LEO (spacecraft)


Michael Lawrence Tyler (born September 22, 1970), better known by his stage name Mystikal, is an American rapper from Louisiana. He initially gained fame in the mid-1990s as an artist under Master P's regionally successful independent label, No Limit Records. Mystikal is known for brash, obstreperous vocal delivery characterized by a distinctive rasp, as well as his 2000 singles: "Shake Ya Ass" (featuring Pharrell Williams) and "Danger (Been So Long)" (featuring Nivea). The songs reached number thirteen and fourteen respectively on the Billboard Hot 100 and preceded his fourth album, Let's Get Ready (2000), which peaked the Billboard 200 upon release.

Early life and education
Tyler grew up in New Orleans, Louisiana's 12th Ward. His father, who ran a small neighborhood store, died when Tyler was seven. He attended Cohen High School and afterward joined the United States Army as a combat engineer. As an aspiring rapper, he opened for Run-DMC and Doug E. Fresh at an outdoor concert at the Treme Center. Leroy "Precise" Edwards, the house producer for Big Boy Records, was in the audience, and granted him a contract.

Career

1994–1996: Early career and stint with Big Boy Records
Mystikal's debut album, Mystikal, was released on New Orleans-based independent record label Big Boy in 1994. The album was one of Big Boy's most successful albums and gained major success for Mystikal. In 1995, he found himself involved in conflict with fellow New Orleans rappers signed to rival Cash Money, including U.N.L.V. and The B.G.'z. They dissed him on tracks like "Drag 'Em in Tha River" by U.N.L.V. and "Fuck Big Boy" by The B.G.'z. He struck back with "Beware" and "Here I Go" which were on his second album, Mind of Mystikal. Mystikal's sister, Michelle Tyler, sang the chorus on "Not That Nigga" and her fate became a major influence on Mystikal's music after her death in September 1994. The songs "Dedicated to Michelle Tyler", "Murder" (both on Mind of Mystikal), "Murder 2", "Shine" (both on Unpredictable) and "Murder III" (on Let's Get Ready) refer to her death. Mystikal and Lil Wayne would eventually squash their feud and become collaborators.

1995–2000: Mind of Mystikal and stint with No Limit
Mystikal signed to Jive and released Mind of Mystikal in 1995. He signed to Master P's No Limit in 1996 and released Unpredictable in November 1997. He appeared on many of the No Limit albums released from 1997 through a chunk of 2000. He also collaborated with Mariah Carey on her Rainbow album on the track 'Did I Do That'. In late 1998, he released Ghetto Fabulous. That was his last album with the label, and he and No Limit parted ways in 2000.

2000–2004: Let's Get Ready, Tarantula and prison
In 1999, he had begun recording his fourth album before leaving No Limit. Let's Get Ready was released in 2000 and contained "Danger (Been So Long)", which featured rising pop star Nivea, and was the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs number-one single in June 2001. Let's Get Ready debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, making it Mystikal's only chart-topping album to date. The album also featured the popular, Neptunes-produced hit "Shake Ya Ass". The song attained cult-like popularity and can be heard in the background of numerous movies.

Mystikal's most recent solo release was the 2001 album Tarantula, which contained the hit single, "Bouncin' Back (Bumpin' Me Against The Wall)". Though it presented Mystikal's typical and funky flow style, which had the distinction of drawing comparison to legendary R&B soul screamers Little Richard and James Brown, the song also saw a blending of jazz and swing elements with hip-hop. The well received album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap Album in 2003, and Mystikal was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Male Rap Solo Performance that same year. Mystikal was also featured prominently in the single, "Move Bitch" by Ludacris as well as "I Don't Give a Fuck" by Lil Jon & The East Side Boyz along with Krayzie Bone, both in 2002. In 2003 he starred in the film 13 Dead Men. In 2003, Mystikal was indicted on charges of sexual battery and extortion. On January 15, 2004, he was sentenced to six years in prison after pleading guilty to forcing his hairstylist to perform sex acts. He served the full six years of his sentence and was released on January 14, 2010.

2010–2022

Mystikal headlined a concert at the Mahalia Jackson Theater of the Performing Arts on Mardi Gras, February 16, 2010. Mystikal's first song after being released from prison was an underground track with former No Limit labelmate Fiend entitled "I Don't Like You". A few weeks later, Atlanta-based, New Orleans-born R&B artist Lloyd released "Set Me Free" featuring Mystikal. The music video for "Set Me Free" was released on May 18, 2010, and was shot in New Orleans, primarily from the Calliope Projects.

In an interview in May 2010, he stated that he was still obligated to Jive Records for one more album and would be taking the necessary time to ensure the album would be his best to date. He made a promo song called "Papercuts" featuring Fiend and Lil Wayne. In 2011, he performed at the Gathering of the Juggalos. Mystikal and Busta Rhymes were signed to Cash Money Records by Birdman on November 16 the same year. His first single for the label, "Original", was released shortly thereafter and featured new label-mates Birdman and Lil Wayne.

In 2014, Mystikal recorded "Feel Right" for Mark Ronson's Uptown Special. The song and video were released in 2015.

Also in 2015, Mystikal appeared on Stevie Stone's Single Rain Dance with Tech N9ne from the 2015 release Malta Bend.

In January 2016, he performed in shows in Bahrain and Bulgaria with Danny! In February 2016, Mystikal toured the United States.

In April 2016, Mystikal was featured on "Just a Lil' Thick (She Juicy)" by Trinidad James along with Lil Dicky.

In 2017, he was featured on "FYM" by Joyner Lucas, from 508-507-2209.

Personal life
On his 24th birthday, Mystikal found his sister Michelle Tyler dead in her bedroom, having been stabbed and strangled. Her boyfriend at the time, Damion Neville, was charged with murder but later was acquitted due to a lack of evidence and a recanted confession.

Sexual battery conviction and other legal issues
On June 26, 2003, Mystikal pleaded guilty to sexual battery and extortion. On January 15, 2004, Mystikal was sentenced to six years in state prison after pleading guilty to sexually assaulting his hairstylist. The rapper and two bodyguards forced the woman to perform oral sex, and accused her of stealing $80,000 in checks. As part of a plea bargain, all three pleaded guilty. Mystikal initially claimed that the incident was consensual, but a videotape of the incident was later found at his home shortly after the charges were made. Negotiations during the trial held the videotape from being entered as evidence and Mystikal agreed to the plea bargain offered by the prosecution, avoiding the mandatory life sentence for sexual battery in Louisiana and expecting to receive probation. However, the case took a twist when the judge viewed the videotape at the sentencing, took into account Mystikal's two prior arrests (for drug and gun possession), and had him remanded into custody to begin serving a six-year sentence immediately. Mystikal's bodyguards, Leland Ellis and Vercy Carter, also pleaded guilty to sexual battery.

In August 2005, while incarcerated on the state sexual battery and extortion charges, Mystikal was charged federally with two misdemeanor counts of failing to file tax returns for 1998 and 1999. On January 12, 2006, he was convicted in federal court of the tax offenses, but was allowed to serve the one-year federal sentence concurrent with his six-year state sentence. Mystikal was incarcerated at Louisiana's Elayn Hunt Correctional Center. On January 19, 2006, Mystikal was denied parole at a parole board hearing. On January 11, 2007, Mystikal was released from custody on the federal misdemeanor tax convictions (as his one-year sentence had expired), but he remained in custody on the six-year sentence for the Louisiana state felony convictions. The news of his release caused confusion among fans who heard the news and mistakenly thought he had been released on parole. He was released January 14, 2010. After his release, Mystikal was registered as a sex offender.

On February 22, 2012, Mystikal was arrested again following a dispute with his domestic partner and was later given a misdemeanor charge of domestic abuse battery. He was detained for nine days and then released on bail. On April 16, he was given a three-month jail sentence for violating the terms of his probation he was given following his release from prison in January 2010. He was given credit for the nine days already served, reducing his confinement to 81 days. He began serving his sentence on May 14 at the East Baton Rouge Parish Jail. During his incarceration, he appeared in court to be heard on the domestic battery charges as well as for a hearing to determine child support payments for his two youngest children. Mystikal was released from jail in August 2012.

On August 21, 2017, Mystikal turned himself into the Caddo Parish Sheriff's Department after a warrant was issued for his arrest. He was subsequently charged with rape. He was held at the Caddo Correctional Center on a $3 million bond until February 14, 2019, when he was able to post bond. On December 17, 2020, the rape charges were dismissed due to lack of evidence.

On July 31, 2022, Mystikal was arrested in Ascension Parish, Louisiana.  According to WDSU Louisiana, Mystikal faces the following five charges:  simple criminal damage to property; false imprisonment; domestic abuse, battery, and strangulation; simple robbery; and first-degree rape. If convicted, he faces a mandatory sentence of life in prison.

Discography

Studio albums
Mystikal (1994)
Mind of Mystikal (1995)
Unpredictable (1997)
Ghetto Fabulous (1998)
Let's Get Ready (2000)
Tarantula (2001)

References

External links

1970 births
Living people
African-American male rappers
American male rappers
American extortionists
American people convicted of tax crimes
Jive Records artists
No Limit Records artists
Rappers from New Orleans
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American male musicians
United States Army personnel of the Gulf War
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American musicians

Mystikal


A gay icon is a prominent person (either living or dead) who is liked by the gay community. Gay icons are often glamourous and even flamboyant. They show strength through adversity. They often show a blend of masculine and feminine traits. Sometimes they show no gender traits at all. Gay icons can be male or female. They can be gay, straight, bisexual, or asexual. If they are gay, they can be openly gay or not. Sometimes living gay icons support LGBT causes, sometimes they do not. Some gay icons from history are tragic figures like Saint Sebastian, Oscar Wilde, or Judy Garland. Some more modern gay icons are entertainers like Ellen DeGeneres, Beyoncé, Lady Gaga,Cher, Barbra Streisand, Liza Minnelli, and Freddie Mercury.

Related pages
 Judy Garland as gay icon

Other websites
 GLBT Historical Society
 Gay men and women should just be themselves
 Christina up close
 Sophie Morris. From the tragic to the bland // New Statesman, August 1, 2005
 "Pink doesn't mean fluffy" John Howard. The Independent, (UK), August 4, 2005

Popular culture
LGBT

Gay icon


A Faraday cage or Faraday shield is an enclosure made from material that conducts electricity. It is used to block electric fields. The Faraday cage is named after the English scientist Michael Faraday, who invented it in 1836.

An electrical field outside the cage causes electric charges in the cage's conducting material to move around and cancel the field's effect inside the cage. It protects sensitive electronic equipment from external radio frequency interference (RFI).

Faraday cages are also used to enclose devices that produce RFI, such as radio transmitters, to prevent their radio waves from interfering with other nearby equipment. They are also used to protect people and equipment against actual electric currents such as lightning strikes and electrostatic discharges. The enclosing cage conducts current round the outside of the enclosed space and none passes though the inside space.

Electricity

Faraday cage


The History of Ming or the Ming History (Míng Shǐ) is one of the official Chinese historical works known as the Twenty-Four Histories. It consists of 332 volumes and covers the history of the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644. It was written by a number of officials commissioned by the court of Qing dynasty, with Zhang Tingyu as the lead editor. The compilation started in the era of the Shunzhi Emperor and was completed in 1739 in the era of the Qianlong Emperor, though most of the volumes were written in the era of the Kangxi Emperor.

The sinologist Endymion Wilkinson writes that the Mingshi, the second longest of the Twenty-Four Histories, after the History of Song, is "generally reckoned to be one of the best of the Histories and one of the easiest to read."

Background
After the Qing dynasty seized control of Beijing and North China, the Censor Zhao Jiding (趙繼鼎) was asked to compile the History of Ming in 1645 (the second year of the Shunzhi Emperor). In May 1645, the court of Qing dynasty established the committee consisted of the Grand Secretary Feng Quan, Li Jiantai, Fan Wencheng, Gang Lin, and Qi Chongge as the presidents to operate the compilation of the History of Ming. In the same year, the presidents nominated the vice presidents and compilers, and also nominated seven Zhang Guans, ten transcribers of Manchu language, and thirty-six transcribers of Chinese language to lift the curtain on compiling the History of Ming.

The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, from the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. The Ming Veritable Records were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in the History of Ming because of this.

Process

Stage 1
The official compiling of History of Ming started on May 2, 1645. At that time, which is the early years that the Qing first entered and hosted the Central Plain. With the obvious purpose of compiling the History of Ming, the Qing dynasty intended to declare the collapse of Ming, however, the court of Hongguang (founded by the Ming imperial clan) with capital of Nanjing was antagonistic to the Qing, and the compiling of History of Ming was the announcement of inexistence of Hongguang Court.
On May 15, the Army of Qing broke through Nanjing, and the Hongguang regime was destroyed. Zhu Yujian, the clan relative of Ming founded a new court called Longwu at Fuzhou. Meanwhile, Li Zicheng, the leader of the peasant uprising army jointed with the Ming's governor He Tengjiao, and fought against the court of Qing. It was impossible to concentrate a large member of stuffs to compiling the History of Ming in the unstable political and embattled situation.
The turbulent situation lasted until the 22nd year of Qing's Kangxi Emperor, the Kangxi Emperor conquered all opposing states and unified Mainland of China and Taiwan. In the stage 1, the court of Qing was busy on the conquest, so the compiling process basically had no progress.

Stage 2
After the Revolt of the Three Feudatories had calmed down, the court of Qing was able to concentrate manpower to compile the History of Ming formally. Thirty-five years passed since the court of Qing officially announced the compilation of the History of Ming. In the 17th year of Kangxi Emperor, Qing started drafting learned scholars from all of the country, and stage 2 of compiling got into its stride. In the 4th year of Qianlong Emperor (1739), the History of Ming was completed compiling of all it sections. It was the third time that the court of Qing organized staff to modify the manuscript of the History of Ming, and finalized its compiling.

One of the main sources for the History of Ming was Ming Veritable Records, i.e. the records of individual emperors' reigns, each of which was compiled soon after the respective emperor's death, based on the daily records accumulated during the reign.

Contents
The History of Ming follows a similar structure to previous standard histories:

 Annals (本紀) – volumes 1–24
 Treatises (志) – volumes 25–99
 Tables (表) – volumes 100–112
 Biographies (列傳) – volumes 113–332

Volumes 320–328 cover foreign states (外國). In contrast with previous histories many terms used exactly or closely match modern place names, including Korea (朝鮮) in volume 320, Vietnam (Annam – 安南) in volume 321, Japan (日本) in volume 322, the island of Luzon (呂宋) in the present-day Philippines in volume 323, Borneo (婆羅) in volume 323, Java (爪哇) in volume 324, Malacca (滿刺加) in volume 325, Sumatra (蘇門答喇) in volume 325, Johor (柔佛) in present-day Malaysia in volume 325,

See also

 History of the Ming dynasty
 Ming Veritable Records

References

Citations

Sources

 "The Ming History (Mingshi)," Section 9 Edward L. Farmer, Romeyn Taylor, Ann Waltner, Ming History An Introductory Guide To Research (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota, 1994), pp. 71–78.

External links

 Ming History English Translation Project
 History of Ming 《明史》 Chinese text with matching English vocabulary

1739 non-fiction books
18th-century history books
Ming
History books about the Ming dynasty
Qing dynasty literature
Qianlong Emperor

History of Ming


The patta (Marathi:दांडपट्टा is a sword, originating from the Indian subcontinent, with a gauntlet integrated as a handguard. Often referred to in its native Marathi as a dandpatta, it is commonly called a gauntlet-sword in English.

Description

The pata has a long straight blade ranging in length from . The blades were locally made by native artisans.

The characteristic feature of the pata is its hilt which takes the form of a half-gauntlet, the inside of which is usually padded. The hilt is attached to the blade by decorative arms that extend forward on both sides of the blade.

The Mughals developed a variation with matchlock pistols adjoining the handle. The hilt also has a long cuff which is usually decorated and in older examples inlaid and embellished with gold and silver. The swordsman holds the weapon by gripping a crossbar inside the gauntlet. The cuff is held close to the forearm by another bar or chain.

History
Created in Medieval India, the pata's use in warfare appears to be mostly restricted to the 17th and 18th century when the Maratha empire came into prominence. It was considered to be a highly effective weapon for infantrymen against heavily armoured cavalry. The Maratha ruler Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and his general Baji Prabhu Deshpande were reputedly trained in the use of the pata. When Mughal Afzal Khan's bodyguard Sayyid Banda attacked Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj with swords in the Battle of Pratapgad, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's bodyguard Jiva Mahala fatally struck him down, cutting off one of Sayyad's hands with a pata.

Recent discovery of Hero stone inscriptions has pushed back the antiquity of the pata to the 12th century.

Use
The pata is most commonly paired with either a shield or another pata, though it can also be used with a javelin, axe, or belt. The restrictive handle was particularly suited to the stiff-wristed style of South Asian swordsmanship. Despite its shape, the pata is used primarily for cutting rather than thrusting. The extended grip provided by the forearm permits powerful slashes but restricts any thrusts. This can be seen in mardani khel today and in colonial descriptions which describe spinning techniques with dual pata "much like a windmill".

Miniature paintings show that the pata was also wielded by mounted cavalry, which has led some modern collectors to erroneously conclude that the weapon was used for thrusting from horseback. However, the restriction on wrist movement would have made it difficult to dislodge the pata from an opponent's body, and doing so while mounted would most likely cause the swordsmen to fall off their horses. Rather, it is more probable that the pata was used in cut-and-run tactics, characteristic of the Maratha army. Cutting technique was practiced by slicing fruit on the ground like lemons or limes without touching the ground. This was and still is a common method of demonstration, often using a flexible blade to facilitate the trick. It is said that Maratha warriors would swing the pata in circular movement like whirlwind when encircled before they fell, so as to maximize the casualties on the opposition. It was to be effective when two soldiers fought together as pairs.

See also
Aruval
Basket-hilted sword, similar guarding concept
Chakram
Gatka
Katar
Scissor (gladiator)
Urumi

References

External links

Blade weapons
Indian swords
South Asian swords
Indian melee weapons
Fist-load weapons

Pata (sword)


Romantic Poetry was one branch of the Romantic movement. The first generation of Romantic poets (1798) were primarily Coleridge, William Blake and Wordsworth. The second generation was at its culmination in the 1820s, with poets such as Shelley, Byron and Keats. The movement showed an interest in the Gothic, Medieval art, and nature. The ballad form was re-introduced, and the poems often took their form from fairy tales and folk songs. Poets were enjoying writing for themselves rather than senior nobility, and later they were the source of inspiration for the Pre-Raphaelite painters.

Poetry

Romantic poetry