A fireteam or fire team is a small modern military subordinated element of infantry designed to optimize "NCO initiative", "combined arms", "bounding overwatch" and "fire and movement" tactical doctrine in combat. Depending on mission requirements, a typical "standard" fireteam consists of four or fewer members: an automatic rifleman, a grenadier, a rifleman, and a designated fireteam leader. The role of each fireteam leader is to ensure that the fireteam operates as a cohesive unit. Two or three fireteams are organized into a section or squad in co-ordinated operations, which is led by a squad leader.

Historically, militaries with strong reliance and emphasis on decentralized NCO-corp institutions and effective "bottom-up" fireteam organization command structures have had a significantly better combat performance from their infantry units, when in comparison to militaries limited to officer-reliant operations, traditionally larger units lacking NCO-leadership and "top-down" centralized command structures. Fireteam organization addresses the realities of 21st century warfare, where combat is getting exponentially faster and more lethal, as it identifies and removes anything which slows down the reaction time between first detection of an enemy and rounds impacted.

U.S. Army doctrine recognizes the fire team, or crew, as the smallest military organization while NATO doctrine refers to this level of organization simply as team. Fireteams are the most basic organization upon which modern infantry units are built in the British Army, Royal Air Force Regiment, Royal Marines, United States Army, United States Marine Corps, United States Air Force Security Forces, Canadian Forces, and Australian Army.

Concept

The concept of the fireteam is based on the need for tactical flexibility in infantry operations.  A fireteam is capable of autonomous operations as part of a larger unit.  Successful fireteam employment relies on quality small unit training for soldiers, experience of fireteam members operating together, sufficient communications infrastructure, and a quality non-commissioned officer corps to provide tactical leadership for the team.

These requirements have led to successful use of the fireteam concept by more professional militaries. It is less useful for armies employing massed infantry formations, or with significant conscription. Conscription makes fireteam development difficult, as team members are more effective as they build experience over time working together and building personal bonds.

In combat, while attacking or maneuvering, a fireteam generally spreads over a distance of , while in defensive positions the team can cover up to the range of its weapons or the limits of visibility, whichever is less. In open terrain, up to  can be covered by an effective team, although detection range limits effectiveness beyond  or so without special equipment. A team is effective so long as its primary weapon remains operational.

National variations

Canadian
In the Canadian Army "fireteam" refers to two soldiers paired for fire and movement. Two fireteams form an "assault group", which is analogous to most other militaries' understanding of a fireteam; two assault groups and a vehicle group of one driver and one gunner form a section of ten soldiers.
Team leader: An NCO (sergeant if assault group one master corporal if assault group two), carries a C7 rifle.
Rifleman: One corporal or private, carries a C7 rifle.
Grenadier: One corporal or private, carries a C7 rifle with an M203 grenade launcher.
Gunner: One corporal or private, carries a C9 light machine gun.

China
People's Liberation Army forces traditionally used a three-man "cells" (equivalent to fireteams) as the smallest military formation and such organization was widely employed throughout the Second Sino-Japanese War, Chinese Civil War, Korean War, Sino-Indian War, as well as Sino-Vietnamese War. It is unofficially named the "three-three organization". ()

In Chinese sources, this tactic is referred to as "three-three fireteams", after the composition of the attack: three men would form one fireteam, and three fireteams one squad. A Chinese platoon, consisting of 50 men, would form three ranks of such fireteams, which would be employed to attack "one point" from "two sides." With each cell carries at least one automatic weapon (In the Korean War, it was submachine guns or light machine guns. In the early to mid cold war, it was assault rifles or squad automatic weapons), while the rest carried bolt-action rifle or semiautomatic rifle so that each "cell" could independently fire and maneuver.

An example of a People's Volunteer Army fireteam in the late Korean War,
Squad leader/second in command/party member: Carried a Type 50 SMG, acted as the team leader
Rifleman/machine gunner: Carried a Mosin–Nagant rifle or a DP-27 machinegun
Rifleman/assistant machine gunner: Carried a Mosin–Nagant rifle

French
The French section (groupe de combat – "combat group") is divided into two teams. The "fire team" (équipe de feu) is based around the section-level automatic rifle or light machine gun. The "shock team" (équipe de choc), made up of riflemen armed with rifle grenades or disposable rocket launchers, is the reconnaissance and maneuver unit. The teams employ bounding overwatch, with one element covering as the other moves. The team leaders have handheld radios so the elements can stay in contact with each other, as well as with the section leader's backpack radio set. The most common symbol of the modern French junior NCO (chef d'équipe) has been a radio hanging around their neck.

United Kingdom

Infantry units of the British Army, Royal Marines and RAF Regiment introduced the fireteam concept following the adoption of the SA80 rifle and light support weapon. An infantry section of eight men contains two fireteams, Charlie and Delta, each comprising an NCO (corporal or lance corporal) and three privates.
Team leader: This NCO carries an L85 rifle with an L123 underslung grenade launcher. Some units vary with one of the privates carrying the grenade launcher rather than the NCO.
Rifleman: Two privates carry L85 rifles. Under earlier fireteam organization there also were two riflemen, but the second of these was later substituted with a designated marksman, leaving the section with one rifleman per fireteam. From 2019, the earlier organization was restored and the section commander was given discretion to re-role the section gunner as a third rifleman if needed.
Gunner: One private per section carries an L7A2 GPMG. Earlier section organizations had one private per fireteam carrying an L86 light support weapon (intended to replace the L7A2) and then an L110 light machine gun; the L110A3 was removed from service in 2019, with the earlier L7A2 being reinstated as the section machine gun.
Designated marksman: One private per section carries an L129A1 sharpshooter rifle. Earlier fireteam organizations had one private per fireteam carrying either an L86A2 light support weapon or an L129A1 depending on availability; the L86A2 was removed from service in 2019, with the L129A1 officially becoming the standard section DMR.
The fireteam is generally used as a subdivision of the section for fire and maneuver rather than as a separate unit in its own right, although fireteams or fireteam-sized units are often used for reconnaissance tasks, special operations, and urban patrols (usually being to referred to as a "brick" in the latter scenario).

United States

Army
The U.S. Army particularly emphasizes the fireteam concept.
Per U.S. Army doctrine a typical fire team consists of four soldiers.

Team Leader (TL): Usually either a sergeant or corporal (although occasionally a team is led by a specialist or private first class when the platoon has a shortage of junior NCOs). Provides tactical leadership for the team at all times; standard equipped with backpack GPS/radio set, and either an M16 rifle or M4 carbine.
Rifleman (R): Is 'the baseline standard for all infantrymen'. They are equipped with the M16 rifle or M4 carbine. The rifleman is usually assigned with the grenadier to help balance the firepower capabilities of the automatic rifleman.
Grenadier rifleman (GR): Provides limited high-angle fire over "dead zones". A grenadier is equipped with an M4 or M16 with an M203 grenade launcher (or the newer M320 grenade launcher) mounted to the weapon.
Automatic rifleman (AR): Provides overwatch and suppressive fire through force multiplication. The most casualty-producing person in a fireteam, in terms of firepower and maneuverability when compared to the standard nine-man rifle squad. An automatic rifleman is equipped with an M249 light machine gun. The automatic rifleman is usually assigned with the team leader to maximize directed fields of fire and to help balance the firepower capabilities of the grenadier.

In a stryker brigade combat team's (SBCT) infantry rifle companies, one man in each rifle squad fireteam is either the squad anti-armour specialist (RMAT) armed with an FGM-148 Javelin, or the squad designated marksman (DM) who carries an M4 carbine and M14 rifle. In both cases, these two positions replace the basic rifleman of the standard rifle squad.

Marine Corps

The United States Marine Corps doctrine dictates that any active fireteam will include at least one 2-man gunnery-team and summarizes its fireteam organization with the mnemonic "ready-team-fire-assist", the following being the arrangement of the fireteam when in a column:
 Rifleman: acts as a scout for the fireteam; "ready".
 Team leader: uses an M203 and works as the designated grenadier; "team".
 Designated automatic rifleman: uses an M249 light machine gun or M27 IAR and serves as second in command for the fireteam; "fire".
 Assistant automatic rifleman: standard rifleman tasked with providing spotting support, range-finding, carries extra LMG ammunition, and offers close-protection should the fireteam fall under attack; "assist".

Navy
Navy construction force, "Seabee" construction battalions, utilize fireteams (as well as companies, platoons, and squads), similar in size to those employed by the USMC, in their organizational structure. Seabee units may be attached to Marine Corps units.

Other
Many other armed forces see the squad as the smallest military unit; some countries' armies have a pair consisting of two soldiers as the smallest military unit. In others a fireteam is composed of two pairs of soldiers (fire and maneuver team) forming a fireteam. Vietnamese communist forces, who received extensive advisory support from Chinese communists, also adopted a fireteam concept similar to that of Chinese, known as "tam tam chế", and such organization is still in use.

History
Fireteams have their origins in the early 20th century. From the Napoleonic Wars until World War I, military tactics involved central control of large numbers of soldiers in mass formation where small units were given little initiative.

Groups of four soldiers were mainly employed for guard duty, or as bodyguards for VIPs. In the Roman Army they were referred to as quaternio (Greek τετράδιον).

Skirmishers in the Napoleonic War would often work in teams of two, ranging ahead of the main group and providing covering fire for each other.

World War I
During World War I, trench warfare resulted in a stalemate on the Western Front. In order to combat this stalemate, the Germans developed a doctrinal innovation known as infiltration tactics (based on the Russian tactics used in the Brusilov Offensive), in which a brief intensive artillery preparation would be followed by small, autonomous teams of stormtroopers, who would covertly penetrate defensive lines. The Germans used their stormtroopers organized into squads at the lowest levels to provide a cohesive strike force in breaking through Allied lines. The British and Canadian troops on the Western Front started dividing platoons into sections after the Battle of the Somme in 1916. (This idea was later further developed in World War II). French Chasseur units in WWI were organized into fireteams, equipped with a light machine gun (Chauchat) team and grenades, to destroy German fire positions by fire (not assault) at up to 200 meters using rifle grenades. The light machine gun team would put suppressive fire on the enemy position, while the grenadier team moved to a position where the enemy embrasure could be attacked with grenades. The Chasseur tactics were proven during the Petain Offensive of 1917. Survivors of these French Chasseur units taught these tactics to American infantry, who used them with effectiveness at St. Mihiel and the Argonne. It was typical of a fireteam in this era to consist of four infantrymen: two assaulters with carbines, one grenadier, and one sapper.

Interwar period
In the inter-war years, United States Marine Corps Captain Evans F. Carlson and Merritt A. Edson are believed to have developed the fireteam concept during the United States occupation of Nicaragua (1912–1933). At that time the US Marine squad consisted of a Corporal and seven Marines all armed with a bolt-action M1903 Springfield rifle and an automatic rifleman armed with a Browning Automatic Rifle. The introduction of the Thompson submachine gun and Winchester Model 1912 shotgun was popular with the Marines as a point-defense weapon for countering ambush by Nicaraguan guerrillas within the thick vegetation that could provide cover for a quick overrun of a patrol. A team of four men armed with these weapons had proven more effective in terms of firepower and maneuverability than the standard nine-man rifle squad.

Carlson, who later went to China in 1937 and observed Communist 8th Route Army units of the National Revolutionary Army in action against the Imperial Japanese Army, brought these ideas back to the US when the country entered World War II. Under his command, the 2nd Marine Raider battalion were issued with the semi-automatic M1 Garand rifle and were organized in the standard 4-man fireteam (although it was called firegroup) concept, 3 firegroups to a squad with a squad leader. A firegroup was composed of an M1 Garand rifleman, a BAR gunner and a submachine gunner. After sustaining severe wounds, Carlson was replaced and his battalion later disbanded and reorganized under conventional Marine doctrine of ten-man squads. Later, Carlson's fireteam concept was re-adopted.

World War II
WWII US Army rifle squads consisted of twelve soldiers divided into three teams: The A "Able" (contemporary spelling alphabet) team consisted of the squad leader and two scouts, the support B "Baker" team of the BAR gunner, assistant gunner, and ammunition bearer, and C "Charlie" team of the assistant squad leader, also serving as the anti-tank grenadier, and five riflemen, one of whom served as the alternate anti-tank grenadier). In an assault the A team would provide overwatch and security or assist the C team in the assault, as the squad leader directed, while the B team provided suppressive fire. Suppressive fire from the BAR would be supplemented by fire from the rifles of his team as he reloaded, and could be further supplemented by platoon medium machine guns.

The US Army Rangers and Special Service Force adopted an early fireteam concept when on campaign in Italy and France. Each squad sub-unit of four or five men was heavily armed, composed of a two-man BAR automatic rifleman and assistant, a scout (marksman/grenadier) armed with an M1903 Springfield with a rifle grenade discharger, and a team leader armed with an M1 carbine or M1 Thompson submachine gun. Their later misuse as conventional infantry negated their special training and fighting skill and their use as "fire brigades" against larger enemy forces negated their advantages in aggressiveness and firepower.

Meanwhile, the communist Chinese established the three-man fireteam concept as the three-man cell when they organized a regular army, and its organization seemed to have been disseminated throughout all of Asia's communist forces, perhaps the most famous of which are the PAVN/NVA (People's Army of Vietnam/North Vietnamese Army) and the Viet Cong.

Battle pair

A battle pair is the smallest unit above the individual soldier, in the modern era chiefly employed by Baltic militaries and special forces like the Special Air Service.  It consists of two soldiers with one soldier acting as senior of the two fighters (decided amongst the two or by their superior). A fireteam in turn consists of at least two fire and maneuver teams, and a squad of two or more fireteams.

It may be known in the United States as a fire and maneuver team. This concept has not been widely utilized. The United States and most Commonwealth armies mainly rely on the concept of fire teams forming a squad.

Estonia
Such a team is known as a Lahingpaar or battle pair.

Finland
Until 2015 in the Finnish Defence Forces, three taistelupari (combat pairs) formed a squad along with a squad leader. A three-man fireteam is now the smallest standard unit in  Finnish infantry doctrine.

France
The French Army has the concept of a binôme ('pair'). In the regular forces it is the pairing of an experienced soldier with a recruit or replacement. The new soldier learns from the experienced soldier how to properly perform the everyday tasks and responsibilities of his assignment.

In the old colonial forces (like the French Foreign Legion) it was a means of imposing order. The pair were responsible for each other – if one member broke the rules or deserted, the other would be punished for not preventing it.

Sweden
According to the Swedish Armed Forces field manual, a Stridspar working in unison is as effective as four soldiers of same quality acting individually.

See also
 Battle buddy
 Infantry
 Military science
 Sniper team

References

Military units and formations by size
Teams

Fireteam


Sababaraha ahli matematika maké istilah fungsi karakteristik sarua jeung "fungsi indikator".  The indicator function of a subset A of a set B is the function with domain B, whose value is 1 at éach point in A and 0 at éach point that is in B but not in A.

In probability theory, the characteristic function of any probability distribution on the real line is given by the following formula, where X is any variabel acak with the distribution in question:

Here t is a real number, E lambang nilai ekspektasi and F is the cumulative distribution function.  The last form is valid only when f—the probability density function—exists.  The form preceding it is a Riemann-Stieltjes integral and is valid regardless of whether a density function exists.

If X is a vector-valued random variable, one takes the argument t to be a vector and tX to be a dot product.

A characteristic function exists for any random variable. More than that, there is a bijection between cumulative probability functions and characteristic functions. In other words, two probability distributions never share the same characteristic function.

Given a characteristic function φ, it is possible to reconstruct the corresponding cumulative probability distribution function F:

In general this is an improper integral; the function being integrated may be only conditionally integrable rather than Lebesgue-integrable, i.e. the integral of its absolute value may be infinite.

Characteristic functions are used in the most frequently seen proof of the central limit theorem.

Characteristic functions can also be used to find moments of random variable.  Provided that n-th moment exists, characteristic function can be differentiated n times and

Related concepts include the moment-generating function and the probability-generating function.

The characteristic function is closely related to the Fourier transform:
the characteristic function of a distribution with density function f is proportional to the inverse Fourier transform of f.

Fungsi karakteristik


The Tatra Mountains (), Tatras, or Tatra  (Tatry either in Slovak () or in Polish () - plurale tantum), are a series of mountains within the Western Carpathians that form a natural border between Slovakia and Poland. They are the highest mountains in the Carpathians. The Tatras are distinct from the Low Tatras (), a separate Slovak mountain range further south.

The Tatra Mountains occupy an area of , of which about  (77.7%) lie within Slovakia and about  (22.3%) within Poland. The highest peak, called Gerlachovský štít, at 2,655 m (8710 ft), is located north of Poprad, entirely in Slovakia. The highest point in Poland, Rysy, at 2,499 m (8200 ft), is located south of Zakopane, on the border with Slovakia.

The Tatras' length, measured from the eastern foothills of the Kobylí vrch (1109 m) to the southwestern foot of Ostrý vrch (1128 m), in a straight line, is  (or  according to some), and strictly along the main ridge, . The range is only  wide. The main ridge of the Tatras runs from the village of Huty at the western end to the village of Ždiar at the eastern end.

The Tatras are now protected by law by the establishment of the Tatra National Park, Slovakia and the Tatra National Park, Poland, which are jointly entered in UNESCO's World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
In 1992, UNESCO jointly designated the Polish and Slovak parks a transboundary biosphere reserve in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, under its Man and the Biosphere Programme.

Etymology
The first written record of the name is from 999, when the Bohemian Duke Boleslaus II, on his deathbed, recalled when the Duchy of Bohemia extended to the Tritri montes. Another mention is in the 1086 document from Henry IV, wherein he referred to the Diocese of Prague with Tritri mountains. Still another is in 1125, where the Kosmas chronicles (Chronica Boemorum) mention the name Tatri.

Machek in 1931 favored the theory of the Polish linguist Rozwadowski with a syllabic r like in the words chrt (Czech hound), smrt (Czech death). In Czech this syllabic is sometimes with vowels i, e or u for example črný – černý, so the Czech reconstruction from Tritri/Tritry would be Trtry. In Polish, the term Tatry is firstly mentioned in 1255. Syllabic r often has vowels on both sides in Polish, so in case of Tarty we can reconstruct the name to Tartry, where the vowel a originated before the syllabic r which dissimilated. This theory is supported by Hungarian forms of term Turtur, Turtul, Tortol from 12th to 14th centuries. It is unknown how the Slovak term looked like until the 17th century when the form Tatry is firstly mentioned and was probably taken from Polish and later found its way into Czech and Hungarian. The term Tatra also appears as a general term in Slovak for barren or stony land, and also in Little Russia for rocks and little stones in a river. Machek stresses that the name has no Slavic origin and mentions Rozwadowski's theory of an Illyrian origin because of a connection with a Herzegovian highland called Tatra, thus taken from local inhabitants. The name is also close to the Ukrainian word for gravel, toltry.

Overview

The Tatras are a mountain range of a corrugated nature, originating from the Alpine orogeny, and therefore characterized by a relatively young-looking lie of the land, quite similar to the landscape of the Alps, although significantly smaller. It is the highest mountain range within the Carpathians.

It consists of the internal mountain chains of:
 Eastern Tatras (Východné Tatry, Tatry Wschodnie), which in turn consist of:
 the Belianske Tatras (Belianske Tatry, Tatry Bielskie)
 and the High Tatras (Vysoké Tatry, Tatry Wysokie)
 Western Tatras (, )

The overall nature of the Tatras, together with their easy accessibility, makes them a favorite with tourists and researchers. Therefore, these mountains are a popular winter sports area, with resorts such as Poprad and the town Vysoké Tatry (The Town of High Tatras) in Slovakia created in 1999, including former separate resorts: Štrbské Pleso, Starý Smokovec, and Tatranská Lomnica or Zakopane, called also "winter capital of Poland". The High Tatras, with their 24 (or 25) peaks exceeding 2,500 m above sea level, together with the Southern Carpathians, represent the only form of alpine landscape in the entire  length of arc of the Carpathians.

Ownership and border disputes
By the end of the First Polish Republic, the border with the Kingdom of Hungary in the Tatras was not exactly defined. The Tatras became an unoccupied borderland. On 20 November 1770, under the guise of protection against the epidemic of plague in the Podolia, an Austrian army entered into Polish land and formed a cordon sanitaire, seizing Sądecczyzna, Spiš and Podhale. Two years later, the First Partition of Poland allocated the lands to Austria. In 1824, Zakopane region and area around Morskie Oko were purchased from the authorities of the Austrian Empire by a Hungarian Emanuel Homolacs. When Austria-Hungary was formed in 1867, the Tatra Mountains have become a natural border between the two states of the dual monarchy, but the border itself still has not been exactly determined. In 1889, a Polish Count Władysław Zamoyski purchased at auction the Zakopane region along with the area around Morskie Oko. Due to numerous disputes over land ownership in the late 19th century, attempts were made at the delimitation of the border. They were fruitless until 1897, and the case went to an international court which determined on 13 September 1902 the exact course of the Austro-Hungarian border in the disputed area.

A new round of border disputes between Poland and Czechoslovakia started immediately after the end of the First World War, when these two countries were established. Among other claims, Poland claimed ownership of a large part of the Spiš region. This claim also included additional parts of the Tatra Mountains. After several years of border conflicts, the first treaty (facilitated by the League of Nations) was signed in 1925, with Poland receiving a small northernmost part of the Spiš region, immediately outside (to the north-east of) the Tatra Mountains, thus not changing the border in the mountains themselves. During the Second World War there were multiple attempts by both sides of the conflict to occupy more land, but the final treaty signed in 1958 (valid until present day) preserved the border line agreed in 1925.

Borders and hiking

With the collapse of the Austrian Empire in 1918 and the creation of Poland and Czechoslovakia, the Tatra Mountains started to be divided by international border. This brought considerable difficulties to hikers, as it was illegal to cross the border without passing through an official border checkpoint, and for many decades there were no checkpoints for hikers anywhere on the border ridge. The nearest road border crossings were Tatranská Javorina - Łysa Polana and Podspády - Jurgów in the east, and Suchá Hora - Chocholów in the west. Indeed, those who did cross elsewhere were frequently fined or even detained by border police of both countries. On the other hand, the permeable border in the Tatra Mountains was also heavily used for cross-border smuggling of goods such as alcohol, tobacco, coffee, etc. between Poland and Czechoslovakia. Only in 1999, more than 80 years after the dissolution of the Austrian Empire, the governments of Poland and Slovakia signed an agreement designating several unstaffed border crossings (with only irregular spot checks by border police) for hikers and cyclists on the 444 km-long Slovak-Polish border. One of these border crossings was created in the Tatra Mountains themselves, on the summit of the Rysy peak. However, there were still many other peaks and passes where hiking trails ran across the border, but where crossing remained illegal. This situation finally improved in 2007, with both countries accessing the Schengen Area. Since then, it is legal to cross the border at any point (i.e. no further official checkpoints were designated). Rules of the national parks on both sides of the border still apply and they restrict movement to official hiking trails and (especially on the Slovak side) mandate extensive seasonal closures in order to protect wildlife.

Climate

The Tatras lie in the temperate zone of Central Europe. They are an important barrier to the movements of air masses. Their mountainous topography causes one of the most diverse climates in that region.

Precipitation
The highest precipitation figures are recorded on the northern slopes. In June and July, monthly precipitation reaches around . Precipitation occurs from 215 to 228 days a year. Thunderstorms occur 36 days a year on average.

Snow cover
Maximum thickness on the summit amounts to:
 in Poland - Kasprowy Wierch:
 in Slovakia - Lomnický Štít:
Peaks are sometimes covered with snow or ice throughout the year. Avalanches are frequent.

Temperature
Extreme temperatures range from  in the winter to  in warmer months. Temperatures also vary depending on the altitude and sun exposure of a given slope. Temperatures below  last for 192 days on the summits.

Winds

The average wind speed on the summits is 6 m/s.
southerly winds on the northern side
westerly winds at the base of Tatra (Orava-Nowy Targ Basin)
foehn winds (Polish: halny) most often occur between October and May. They are warm and dry and can cause extensive damage.
Maximum wind speed  (6 May 1968).

On 19 November 2004, large parts of the forests in the southern Slovak part of the High Tatras were damaged by a strong wind storm. Three million cubic metres of trees were uprooted, two people died, and several villages were totally cut off. Further damage was done by a subsequent forest fire, and it will take many years until the local ecology is fully recovered.

Flora

The Tatra Mountains have a diverse variety of plant life. They are home to more than 1,000 species of vascular plants, about 450 mosses, 200 liverworts, 700 lichens, 900 fungi, and 70 slime moulds. There are five climatic-vegetation belts in the Tatras.

The distribution of plants depends on altitude:
up to 1,300 m: Carpathian beech forest; almost no shrub layer, herbaceous layer occupies most of the forest floor
to 1,550 m: Spruce forest; shrub layer poorly developed, mosses are a major component
to 1,800 m: Mountain Pine, numerous herbs
to 2,300 m: high altitude grasslands
from 2,300 m up: Subnivean - bare rock and almost no vegetation (mostly lichens)

Fauna

The Tatra Mountains are home to many species of animals: 54 tardigrades, 22 turbellarians, 100 rotifers, 22 copepods, 162 spiders, 81 molluscs, 43 mammals, 200 birds, 7 amphibians and 2 reptiles.

The most notable mammals are the Tatra chamois, marmot, snow vole, brown bear, wolf, Eurasian lynx, red deer, roe deer, and wild boar. Notable fish include the brown trout and alpine bullhead.

The endemic arthropod species include a caddis fly, the spider Xysticus alpicola and a springtail.

Summits

Eastern Tatras

Gerlachovský štít - 2655 m (Slovakia)
Lomnický štít - 2634 m (Slovakia)
Ľadový štít - 2627 m (Slovakia)
Pyšný štít - 2621 m (Slovakia)
Zadný Gerlach - 2616 m (Slovakia)
Lavínový štít - 2606 m (Slovakia)
Ľadová kopa - 2602 m (Slovakia)
Kotlový štít - 2601 m (Slovakia)
Malý Pyšný štít - 2592 m (Slovakia)
Kežmarský štít - 2558 m (Slovakia)
Vysoká  - 2547 m (Slovakia)
Končistá - 2538 m (Slovakia)
Baranie rohy - 2526 m (Slovakia)
Dračí štít - 2523 m (Slovakia)
Ťažký štít - 2520 m (Slovakia)
Malý Kežmarský štít - 2513 m (Slovakia)
Rysy - 2503 m, 2499 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Kriváň - 2495 m (Slovakia)
Slavkovský štít - 2452 m (Slovakia)
Batizovský štít - 2448 m (Slovakia)
Veľký Mengusovský štít (Slovak); Mięguszowiecki Szczyt Wielki (Polish) - 2438 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Malé Rysy (Slovak); Niżnie Rysy (Polish) - 2430 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Východna Vysoka - 2429 m (Slovakia)
Východný Mengusovský štít (Slovak); Mięguszowiecki Szczyt Czarny (Polish) - 2410 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Prostredný Mengusovský štít (Slovak); Mięguszowiecki Szczyt Pośredni (Polish) - 2393 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Čubrina (Slovak); Cubryna (Polish) - 2376 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Svinica (Slovak); Świnica (Polish) - 2301 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Kozi Wierch - 2291 m (Poland)
Jahňaci štít - 2230 m (Slovakia)
Zamarła Turnia - 2179 m (Poland)
Kościelec - 2155 m (Poland)
Mnich - 2068 m (Poland)

Western Tatras

Bystrá - 2248 m (Slovakia)
Jakubina - 2194 m (Slovakia)
Baranec - 2184 m (Slovakia)
Baníkov - 2178 m (Slovakia)
Klin (Slovak); Starorobociański Wierch (Polish) - 2176 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Pachoľa - 2167 m (Slovakia)
Hrubá kopa - 2166 m (Slovakia)
Nižná Bystrá - 2163 m (Slovakia)
Štrbavy - 2149 m (Slovakia)
Jalovecký príslop - 2142 m (Slovakia)
Hrubý vrch (Slovak); Jarząbczy Wierch (Polish) - 2137 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Tri kopy - 2136 m (Slovakia)
Veľká Kamenistá (Slovak); Kamienista (Polish) - 2126 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Krzesanica - 2122 m (Slovakia/Poland) - summit of Czerwone Wierchy / Red Mountains
Volovec (Slovak); Wołowiec (Polish) - 2064 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Kasprov vrch (Slovak); Kasprowy Wierch (Polish) - 1987 m (Slovakia/Poland)
Giewont - 1894 m (Poland)
Sivý vrch - 1809 m (Slovakia)

Tourism

In 1683, an anonymous author published a book of adventures and excursions in the Tatras. It became very popular in Europe and contributed to the growth of tourism in the Tatras. As it later turned out, its author was Daniel Speer, born in Wrocław, who for a time lived in the sub-Tatra region.

A popular tourist destination in Poland is Zakopane but the developed tourist base also includes Kościelisko, Poronin, Biały Dunajec, Bukowina Tatrzańska, Białka Tatrzańska, Murzasichle, Małe Ciche, Ząb, Jurgów, Brzegi.

In Slovakia, the most important tourist base is the city Vysoké Tatry, consisting of three parts: Štrbské Pleso, Starý Smokovec and Tatranská Lomnica.

The Polish "national mountain" (featured prominently in myths and folklore) is Giewont, while the Slovak one is Kriváň.

Trails

Orla Perć is considered the most difficult and dangerous mountain trail in the Tatras, a suitable destination only for experienced tourists and climbers. It lies exclusively within the Polish part of the Tatras, was conceived in 1901 by Franciszek Nowicki, a Polish poet and mountain guide, and was built between 1903 and 1906. Over 100 individuals have died on the route since it was established. The path is marked with red signs. The death of Polish philosopher Bronisław Bandrowski is often used by guides as a cautionary tale for tourists. He committed suicide after he was trapped for days on a rocky ledge in one of the trails near Zakopane.

The highest point in the Tatra Mountains that can be freely accessed by a labeled trail is Rysy.

Most of the peaks in the Western Tatras (on both sides of the border), including the main ridge are freely accessible by hiking trails. In the Slovak part of the Eastern Tatras, only seven peaks (out of 48 with prominence of at least 100 m) are accessible by hiking trails (Rysy, Svinica/Świnica, Slavkovský štít, Kriváň, Kôprovský štít, Východná Vysoká, and Jahňací štít). Two of these (Rysy and Svinica/Świnica) are located on the border with Poland and accessible from the Polish side. The rest of the peaks on the Slovak side (including the highest one, Gerlachovský štít) can only be accessed when accompanied by a certified mountain guide. UIAA members can climb them without a certified guide, but not using the normal (easiest) routes (from the III degree of difficulty).

In the Slovak part most of the hiking trails in the Tatras are closed from 1 November to 15 June. Only trails from settlements up to the mountain huts are open. In Poland, the trails are open year-round.

Human engagement
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the mountains were used for sheep grazing and mining. Many trees were cut down to make way for humans. Although these activities were stopped, the impact is still visible. Moreover, pollution from the industrialized regions of Kraków in Poland or Ostrava in Czech Republic, as well as casual tourism, cause substantial damage. Volunteers however initiate litter removal events frequently, on both sides of the border.

The Slovak Tatra National Park (Tatranský národný park; TANAP) was founded in 1949 (), and the contiguous Polish Tatra National Park (Tatrzański Park Narodowy) in 1954 (). The two parks were added jointly to the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve list in 1993.

In 2013, the International Union for Conservation of Nature threatened to cancel the Slovak TANAP's status of a national park because of the large investments (mainly in skiing infrastructure) in the park, which seriously interfere with the landscape and nature.

In popular culture
 The theme of the song "Nad Tatrou sa blýska" is that there is a storm in the Tatras. The song was the second part of the dual national anthem of Czechoslovakia from 1918 to its dissolution in 1993, and since became the national anthem of Slovakia.
 Czech composer Vítězslav Novák's 1902 symphonic poem V Tatrách ('In the Tatras', Op.26) was directly inspired by the mountains.

The 1999 film Ravenous was filmed in the Tatra Mountains.
In 2006, the Bollywood film Fanaa, portraying places in Kashmir, was filmed at Zakopane, mainly because of the risks associated with insurgency in Kashmir, as well due to some similarities in a mountain landscape.
 Leo Frankowski mentions the Tatras several times in his science fiction novels in the Conrad Stargard series.

Notable people
(Alphabetical by surname)
 Adam Asnyk, poet and dramatist, one of the first members of the Tatra Society
 Klemens Bachleda (1851–1910), Polish mountain guide and mountain rescuer
 Oswald Balzer
 Tytus Chałubiński, founder of the Polish Tatra Society
 Jan Długosz (mountaineer)
 Walery Eljasz-Radzikowski
 Julian Fałat
 Jan Nepomucen Głowacki, considered the father of Polish school of landscape painting, was the first to devote an entire series of works to Tatra Mountains
 Seweryn Goszczyński, Polish Romantic poet who escaped there from the Austrian invader
 Ludwig Greiner, identified Gerlachovský Peak as the summit of the Tatras and Carpathians
 Ruth Hale (alpinist)
 Władysław Hasior
 William Horwood (novelist), whose novel Wolves of Time largely takes place in the Tatra mountains
 Mieczysław Karłowicz
 Jan Kasprowicz
 Kornel Makuszyński
 Franciszek Nowicki
 Władysław Orkan
 Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer
 Daniel Speer, Baroque composer and writer
 Stanisław Staszic
 Mieczysław Szczuka
 Karol Szymanowski
 Göran Wahlenberg
 Stanisław Witkiewicz
 Leon Wyczółkowski
 Władysław Zamoyski
 Mariusz Zaruski
 Ludwik Zejszner
 Stefan Żeromski

Rankings

 Polish Tatra National Park is ranked 12th place by CNN
 The Wall Street Journal recognized Morskie Oko as one of the five most beautiful lakes in the world

See also
Mountain Rescue Service (Slovakia)
Sudetes
Tatrzańskie Ochotnicze Pogotowie Ratunkowe (Tatra Volunteer Search and Rescue (Poland))
Tourism in Poland

References

Bibliography

External links

 – (available in: ENG)
  Municipal website (available in: ENG, SLV)
 Zakopane – municipal website (available in: POL, ENG)
 TANAP – Slovak Tatra National Park (available in: SLV, ENG, POL)
 TPN – Polish Tatra National Park (available in POL only)

Commercial tourism-oriented websites
 The High Tatras - Accommodation and Tourism (available in: SLV, CZE, POL, ENG, GER)
 Vysoké Tatry, Slovakia (available in: ENG, GER, SLV, POL)
 Tatry - The smallest mountains in the biggest detail. (available in: ENG, CZE)
 Tatra auf Travelia.sk

Mountaineering
 Tatra Volunteer Rescue Service (available in POL only)
 Mountaineering in Tatra Mountains (practical info about climbing in Tatras)

Photography
 K2 Studio - photographs of the Tatras (available in: SLV, ENG)
 360 - a spherical panoramic journey in 1583 pieces (available in: POL, ENG)
 CinemaPhoto.pl - photographs in Tatras (available in: POL, ENG)
 Astonishing Vintage Images of the Tatra Mountains

Mountain ranges of Poland
Mountain ranges of Slovakia
Mountain ranges of the Western Carpathians
Natura 2000 in Poland
Natura 2000 in Slovakia
Prešov Region
Lesser Poland Voivodeship

Tatra Mountains


Zbigniew Pełczyński (, 29 December 1925 – 22 June 2021) was a Polish-British political philosopher and academic. He taught politics at Pembroke College, Oxford, from 1957 to 1992, and was later an Emeritus Fellow of the college. Pełczyński was instrumental in providing opportunities for scholars from Poland and other post-communist countries to study at British universities, especially at Oxford and Cambridge.

Early life and education
Pełczyński was born in Grodzisk Mazowiecki, Poland in December 1925. He fought in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising and was taken prisoner by the Germans. After the war Pełczyński settled in Britain, where he attended St. Andrews University in Scotland. In 1956, he completed his D.Phil. thesis at Oxford University on Hegel's minor political works.

Academic career
After 1956, Pełczyński made regular visits to Poland and was instrumental in developing several programmes for the education of students from communist Europe at Oxford. In 1982, he was instrumental in establishing a scholarship program for Polish students at Oxford. Then in 1986, through collaboration with the  Hungarian-American philanthropist George Soros, who earlier had established the Open Society Foundations, scholarships became available for Hungarian students at Oxford and the Stefan Batory Foundation was established in Poland. The programme widened with participation from Cambridge University, Manchester University, and other British universities.

In the United States, Pełczyński became well known for having been the politics tutor at Oxford University for the Rhodes Scholar and future President Bill Clinton. Other famous students include prime minister of Hungary Viktor Orbán, former Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs Radek Sikorski and journalist and biographer Walter Isaacson.

Pełczyński was an honorary member of the Polish academic society Collegium Invisibile, a prestigious institution that offers tuition for outstanding Polish students.

Public and political activity
In 1990s Pełczyński was advising the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Sejm (lower chamber of the parliament), which was working on the new Constitution of the Republic of Poland. He was an advisor to the Chief of the Chancellery of the Prime Minister of Poland on government institutional reforms and was a member of Prime Minister's Council on the education of civil servants. He was consulting the European Economic Union and the OECD on government reforms and public administration in Poland.

He was the founder and a chairman of the Stefan Batory Trust in Oxford, and a member of the Polonia Aid Foundation Trust in London.

In 1994 Pełczyński founded the School for Young Social and Political Leaders in Warsaw. The organization, which subsequently changed its name to the School for Leaders Society, states as one of its goals "creating social capital based on leadership".

Published works
 Hegel's political writings translated by T. M. Knox; with an introductory essay by Z. A. Pełczyński. (1964; 1998)
 Hegel's political philosophy: problems and perspectives: a collection of new essays edited by Z. A. Pełczyński. (1971; 1975)
 The History of Poland since 1863 R. F. Leslie ... et al. ; edited by R. F. Leslie. (1980)
 Poland: The Road From Communism "Special R. B. McCallum lecture, 29 May 1982." (1982)
 Conceptions of liberty in political philosophy edited by Zbigniew Pełczyński and John N. Gray. (1984)
 The state and civil society: studies in Hegel's political philosophy (1984)
 Wolność, państwo, społeczeństwo: Hegel a problemy współczesnej filozofii politycznej (1998)

A biography of Pełczyński by his former student David McAvoy was published in 2012: Zbigniew Pelczynski: A Life Remembered (Guilford, Surrey: Grosvenor House Publishing, 2012).

References

External links
Witness – BBC World Service interview with Pełczyński about his experiences in the Warsaw Uprising
Z. A. Pelczynski, Political Community and Individual Freedom in Hegel's Philosophy of State, 1984.
 Maria Kruckzkoska, "Oksford w Warszawie," Magazyn Gazety Wyborczej, 10 January 1997
Dr Zbigniew Pełczyński OBE - Pembroke College, Oxford

1925 births
2021 deaths
Alumni of Nuffield College, Oxford
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Alumni of the University of St Andrews
Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom
British political philosophers
Fellows of Collegium Invisibile
Fellows of Pembroke College, Oxford
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Recipients of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Polish academics
People from Grodzisk Mazowiecki
Warsaw Uprising insurgents

Zbigniew Pełczyński


The 4A Engine is a graphics middleware engine developed by 4A Games for use in their video game Metro 2033, published by THQ. It supports Direct3D APIs 9 through 12, OpenGL 3.2, Nvidia PhysX, and Nvidia 3D Vision.

Development
The engine was developed in Ukraine by a set of people who split off from GSC Game World a year before the release of S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl, notably Oles Shishkovtsov and Oleksandr Maksimchuk, the programmers who worked on the development of the X-Ray engine used in the S.T.A.L.K.E.R. video game series. The engine itself is capable of running on PC, the Xbox 360, and the PlayStation 3.

Shishkovtsov and his colleagues split from the development of S.T.A.L.K.E.R because that "its inherent inability to be multi-threaded, the weak and error-prone networking model, and simply awful resource and memory management which prohibited any kind of streaming or simply keeping the working set small enough for 'next-gen' consoles" along with its "terrible text-based scripting", which he explained led to the delays in the original game.

The game is multi-threaded such that only PhysX had a dedicated thread and uses a task-model without any pre-conditioning or pre/post-synchronising, allowing tasks to be done in parallel. When the Xbox 360 iteration had been measured during development, they were running it at "approximately 3,000 tasks per 30ms frame on Xbox 360 on CPU-intensive scenes with all hardware threads at 100 percent load". Shishkovtsov also said that the GeForce 6 series architecture of the RSX Reality Synthesizer in the PlayStation 3 proved to be very useful during development noted that there were many "wasted cycles". The engine can utilise a deferred shading pipeline, and uses tesselation for greater performance, and also has HDR (complete with blue shift), real-time reflections, colour correction, film grain and noise, and the engine also supports multi-core rendering.

The 4A Engine implementation of Metro 2033 features volumetric fog, double PhysX precision, object blur, sub-surface scattering for skin shaders, parallax mapping on all surfaces and greater geometric detail with a less aggressive LOD(s).

Using PhysX, the engine uses many features such as destructible environments, and cloth and water simulations, and particles that can be fully affected by environmental factors. The audio in the engine features 3D sound positioning, spatialisation and attenuation.

Controversy
There have been accusations that the 4A Engine is a modified version of the X-Ray engine used in the S.T.A.L.K.E.R series, instead of an original development. 4A denied the accusations. Shishkovtsov also noted that porting the original engine to consoles would have proved extremely difficult.

Games using 4A Engine
 Metro 2033 (2010)
 Metro: Last Light (2013)
 Metro Redux (2014)
 Arktika.1 (2017)
 Metro Exodus (2019)

References

Further reading

2010 software
3D graphics software
Game engines for Linux
Global illumination software
Metro 2033
Proprietary software
Video game engines

4A Engine


James E. Day (born July 7, 1946 in Thornhill, Ontario) was a Canadian Olympic equestrian show jumping champion and Thoroughbred horse trainer.

Day first joined the Canadian Equestrian Team in 1964, and in 1966 tied the record high jump of 7 feet 1 inch at the National Horse Show in New York. Day took gold in individual jumping at the 1967 Pan American Games. Day was named Canada's Horseman of the Year three years running in 1966 through 1968. In 1968, he was a member of Canada's gold-medal equestrian team at the Summer Olympics in Mexico City. At 22 years of age, Day was the youngest member of the show jumping team. In the 1972 Olympics in Munich he finished 4th individually, and a team 6th. In the 1976 Summer Olympics he competed in both the show jumping and three-day eventing competitions, coming in 15th individually and 5th team in the show jumping, and not finishing the three-day eventing competition, although the Canadian team came in 6th.

In 1971, Day took a job training race horses for Ernie Samuel, who had recently founded Sam-Son Farm. Day assisted in building the operation into a top Thoroughbred racing and breeding facility over the next 25 years. His training successes include two American Eclipse Awards, five Canadian Horse of the Year honors, two Queen's Plate awards, the Breeders' Cup Distaff and the Canadian Triple Crown in 1991. Day was voted Canada's top trainer on four occasions.

In 1995, Day left the employ of Sam-Son Farm and continued training for others. In 1997 he became only the third trainer to ever win  Arlington Park's Mid-America Triple. His horse Honor Glide won the three races made up of the Arlington Classic Stakes in late June, the American Derby in July, and the Secretariat Stakes in August.

Jim Day was inducted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame in 1968, the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame in 1971, and the Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame in 2006.

References

1946 births
Living people
Animal sportspeople from Ontario
Canadian show jumping riders
Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Canadian horse trainers
Olympic equestrians for Canada
Canadian male equestrians
Equestrians at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Equestrians at the 1972 Summer Olympics
Equestrians at the 1976 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for Canada
People from Thornhill, Ontario
Olympic medalists in equestrian
Medalists at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Pan American Games gold medalists for Canada
Pan American Games bronze medalists for Canada
Pan American Games medalists in equestrian
Equestrians at the 1967 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 1967 Pan American Games

Jim Day


ICOCA is an IC (Integrated Circuit) Card used on the JR West rail network in Japan. It stands for "Integrated Circuit Operating Card." It can be used as a riding ticket or digital cash. For example, you can use it to get on a train or, to buy a drink at a convenience store, or bread from a bakery.

How To Purchase

The Green Windows (midori-no-madoguchi) of JR stations sell ICOCA cards. The price of the card is 500 yen (about $5 USD), but at first you must pay 2,000 yen (about $20 USD), and you immediately get 1,500 yen (about $15 USD) of cash on the card. The limit you can have on the card is 20,000 yen (about $200 USD).

Origin of Name
The name of the card is a play on the phrase, "Ikoka" (行こか), which means, "Let's go," in the western Japanese dialect.

Japanese railways

ICOCA


Fort Crowder was a U.S. Army post located in Newton and McDonald counties in southwest Missouri, constructed and used during World War II.

Establishment and purpose

Camp Crowder was a military installation named in honor of Major General Enoch H. Crowder, provost marshal of the United States during World War I and author of the Selective Service Act of 1917. The camp, located south of Neosho, Missouri, was established in 1941.

The Army selected the Neosho site for the post due to its proximity to water, a cross roads to two major railroads (Kansas City Southern and the Frisco railroads), and two major U.S. highways (US 71 running north-south and US 60 and US 66, running east-west). Originally it was to serve as an armor training center. As it was constructed, it was re-designated as a U.S. Army Signal Corps replacement training center, an Army Service Forces training center and an officer candidate preparatory school, the first of its kind at any military installation.  The post also served as an infantry replacement center and had a German prisoner of war camp.

By 1943 the army had acquired , 66.9 sq. mi. in Newton and McDonald counties.

Notable individuals
Carl Reiner was stationed at Camp Crowder in the 1940s and when he created the 1960s-era The Dick Van Dyke Show,  he made the post the setting where Rob and Laura Petrie, portrayed by actors Dick Van Dyke and Mary Tyler Moore, met; Rob was a sergeant in Special Services and Laura was a USO dancer.  Cartoonist Mort Walker was also stationed there and drew inspiration for Camp Swampy of his Beetle Bailey comic strip. Jean Shepherd featured many stories of his time at Camp Crowder in various monologues. The post is also notable as the birthplace of landmark LabVIEW programmer Michael Porter.

Post-war and Cold War use

In 1946, the post was deactivated and placed in a caretaker status. While the core of the post was retained, many of the wood temporary barracks were declared surplus and sold. The base's movie theatre was disassembled and reassembled on the campus of what is today the University of Missouri – Kansas City where it was the University of Kansas City Playhouse until being torn down for a new theatre.  A walled patio and fireplace with masks of Comedy and Tragedy were built near the theater and are still landmarks on the university campus.

In the early 1950s, local congressman Dewey Jackson Short, (R-7th District of Missouri) senior member of the House Armed Services Committee secured authorization and initial funding to build two permanent barracks and a disciplinary barracks and reactivate the post as a permanent installation, Fort Crowder. Beginning as a reception center for newly inducted draftees and enlistments who were issued the initial uniform clothing allowance and transferred to other army posts for initial testing and subsequent assignment to a basic training command. Short tried to have it designated a permanent  home for the Army's military police training school.

The space age

With Short's defeat in the 1956 election, the fort lost its legislative patron and was deactivated again in 1958. As that took place, about  of the post was turned over to the U.S. Air Force as a buffer zone around Air Force Plant 65,  a government owned-contractor operated liquid propelled rocket engine manufacturing facility operated by the Rocketdyne division of North American Aviation. The complex, serviced by a spur of the Kansas City Southern Railroad, included a main manufacturing facility, an engine testing area (ETA) for the live fire testing of rocket engines, a component testing area (CTA), and a former Camp Crowder warehouse, Building 900, as a warehouse and later engine overhaul and manufacturing.

For 16 years, starting in 1957, rocket engines for missiles such as the Atlas, Thor and Saturn were assembled and tested at Air Force Plant 65. The facility constructed and tested engines for the Mercury and Gemini programs until its contract ended in 1968.

The permanent barracks, were obtained as surplus and formed the core of the community college campus for Crowder College in 1962.

Final disposition

With the end of the North American Rockwell contract, the remaining federal government holdings were transferred to the General Services Administration as surplus property for interim management and eventual disposal. In the mid-1980s, the remaining parcels of the former post were transferred to the Missouri Department of Conservation for wildlife management and outdoor recreation, the Neosho R-5 public school district for agriculture instructional farm, and the Missouri National Guard to operate a military training facility under license from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on . The remainder of the land was given to various public and private entities which uses now include a municipal airport, industrial parks, industrial waste treatment facility operations, regional landfill, underground fuel storage, burn pits and lagoons.

Environmental issues
Groundwater and soil contamination has been identified in various areas of the base's original property boundaries. Trichloroethylene contamination in soils and groundwater has been documented at the site and may include off-site contamination in a number of private wells.   Waste material generated from the former Fort include aviation and vehicular fuels, oils, greases, metals, paints and solvents.

References

External links
Camp Crowder

Crowder
Buildings and structures in Newton County, Missouri
Closed installations of the United States Army
United States Army Signals Intelligence Service installations
Buildings and structures in McDonald County, Missouri

Fort Crowder


Malaya is both a name and word that has different meanings in different places.

Malaya first recorded in the Vayu Purana ( 1 BCE - 7 CE) as Malayadvipa ( 'Malaya island') refers to the Sumatra island. Malaya also mentioned in the Amoghapasa inscription ( 1300s CE) found in the estuary of Batanghari river in West Sumatra, refers to the region in Sumatra.

Malaysia & Singapore

In the history of Malaysia and Singapore, "Malaya" () can refer to:

 British Malaya, (18th century-1946) a loose collection of British controlled states in the Malay Peninsula, including Singapore
 The Malayan Union, (1946-1948) a post-war British colony consisting of all states in British Malaya, excluding Singapore
 The Federation of Malaya (Persekutuan Tanah Melayu) (1948-1963), the successor of the Malayan Union (also excluding Singapore) which gained independence within the Commonwealth of Nations in 1957
 present-day Peninsular Malaysia, the states and territories formerly comprising the Federation of Malaya (1963-present), now also known formally as the States of Malaya (Negeri-negeri Tanah Melayu)

Other uses
 Malaya (movie), a 1949 American film set in Japanese occupied Malaya
 In the Shambhala tradition, the name of a "National Forest" or sacred garden, comparable to the Garden of Eden.
 Oxana Malaya (born 1983), a feral child that lived most of her life in the company of dogs, picking a number of their habits.
 Malay Archipelago, for the macroregion

Related pages
 Malay (disambiguation)

Malaya


Kairouan () (cried Kirwan or Al Qayrawan an aa), is the caipital o the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisie.  Referred tae as the Islamic Cultural Caipital, it is a UNESCO Warld Heritage site. The ceety wis foondit bi the Arabs aroond 670. In the period o Caliph Mu'awiya, it became an important centre for Islamic an Quranic learnin, an sicweys attractin a lairge nummer o Muslims frae various pairts o the warld, next anerlie tae Mecca an Medina. The holy Mosque o Uqba is situatit in the ceety. It is considered bi mony Muslims tae be Islam's fowert holiest ceety.

Etymology
The oreeginal name wis derived frae Arabic kairuwân, frae Persian Kâravân, meanin "military/civilian camp" (frae Kâr, "war/military,"  an van/wan, "ootpost"), "caravan", or "restin place" (see caravanserai).

History
Kairouan wis foondit in aboot the year 670 when the Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi o Amir Muauia selectit a site in the middle o a dense forest, then infestit wi wild beasts an reptiles, as the location o a military post for the conquest o the Wast. It wis locatit far frae the sea whaur it wis safe frae continued attacks o the Berbers who haed fiercely resistit the Arab invasion. Berber resistance continued, led first bi Kusaila whose troops killed Uqba at Biskra aboot fifteen years efter the military post wis established, an then bi a Berber woman cried Al-Kahina who wis killed an her airmy defeatit in 702. Subsequently, thare wis a mass conversion o the Berbers tae Islam. Kharijites or Islamic 'ootsiders' which formed an egalitarian an puritanical sect appeared an are still present on the island o Jerba. In 745, Kharijite Berbers captured Kairouan, which wis awready at that time a developed ceety wi luxuriant gardens an olive groves.

Pouer struggles remained till Kairouan wis recaptured bi Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab at the end o the 8t century. In 800, Ibrahim wis confirmed Emir an hereditary ruler o Ifriqiya bi Caliph Harun ar-Rashid in Baghdad. Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab foondit the Aghlabid dynasty that ruled Ifriqiya atween 800 an 909. The new Emirs embellished Kairouan an made it thair caipital which suin became famous for its weel an prosperity reachin the levels o Basra an Kufa an givin Tunisie ane o its gowden ages lang sought efter the glorious days o Carthage.

The Aghlabites biggit the great mosque an established in it a varsity that wis a centre o eddication baith in Islamic thocht an in the secular sciences. Its role can be compared tae that o the University o Paris in the Middle Ages. In the 9t century, the ceety became a brilliant focus o Arab an Islamic culturs attractin scholars frae aw ower the Islamic Warld. In that period Imam Sahnun an Asad ibn al-Furat made o Kairouan a temple o knawledge an a magnificent centre o diffusion o Islamic sciences. The Aghlabids biggit pailaces forby, fortifications an fine waterworks o which anerlie the puils remain. Frae Kairouan envoys frae Charlemagne an the Holy Roman Empire returned wi glowin reports o the Aghlabites pailaces, libraries an gardens – an frae the cripplin taxation imposed tae pey for thair drunkenness an sundry debaucheries. The Aghlabite pacified the kintra an conquered Sicily in 827 forby.

In 893, throu the mission o Ubaydalla Said, the Kutama Berbers frae the wast o the kintra stairtit the muivement o the Shiite Fatimids. The year 909 saw the owerthrow o the Sunni Aghlabite that ruled Ifriqiya an the creation o the Shiite Fatimid dynasty. Durin the reign o the Fatimids, Kairouan wis neglectit an lost its importance as the new rulers residit first in Raqqada but suin moved thair caipital tae the newly biggit Al Mahdiyah on the coast o modren Tunisie. Efter succeedin in extendin thair rule ower aw o central Maghreb, an aurie consistin o the modren kintras o Morocco, Algerie, Tunisie an Libie, thay eventually moved east tae Egyp tae foond Cairo makin it the caipital o thair vast Caliphate an leavin the Zirids as thair vassals in Ifriqiya. Govrenin again frae Kairouan, the Zirids led the kintra throu anither airtistic, commercial an agricultural heyday. Schools an varsities flourisht, owerseas tred in local manufactures an farm produce ran hie an the courts o the Zirids rulers wur centres o refinement that eclipsed those o thair European contemporaries.

When the Zirids declared thair unthirldom frae Cairo an thair conversion tae Sunni Islam in 1045 bi givin allegiance tae Baghdad, the Fatimid Caliph Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah sent as punishment hordes o troublesome Arab tribes (Banu Hilal an Banu Sulaym) tae invade Ifriqiya. Thir invaders sae utterly destroyed Kairouan in 1057 that it niver regained its umwhile importance an thair influx wis a major factor in the spread o nomadism in auries whaur agricultur haed previously been dominant. Some 1,700 years o intermittent but continual progress wis undone athin a decade as in maist pairt o the kintra the land wis laid tae waste for nearly twa centuries. In the 13t century unner the prosperous Hafsids dynasty that ruled Ifriqiya, the ceety stairtit tae emerge frae its ruins. It is anerlie unner the Husainid Dynasty that Kairouan stairtit tae fynd an honorable place in the kintra an throughoot the Islamic warld. In 1881, Kairouan wis taken bi the French, efter which non-Muslims wur alloued access tae the ceety.

Releegion

The maist important mosque in the ceety is the Great Mosque o Sidi-Uqba, cried the Great Mosque o Kairouan an aa. It haes been said that seiven pilgrimages tae this mosque is considered the equivalent o ane pilgrimage tae Mecca. Efter its establishment, Kairouan became an Islamic an Quranic learnin centre in North Africae. An airticle bi Professor Kwesi Prah describes hou durin the medieval period, Kairouan wis considered the third holiest ceety in Islam efter Mecca an Medina. The day, mony consider the ceety as the fowert holiest in Islam.

Judaism, nae langer prevalent in the ceety, haes an illustrious history in Kairouan, parteecularly in the early Middle Ages. Rabbeinu Chushiel, his son Rabbeinu Chananel, an R. Nissim Ben Jacob (R. Nissim Gaon) wur aw frae Kairouan an Rabbi Isaac Alfasi studied thare, as did mony ither great rabbis. Kairouan wis sicweys the first major centre o Jewish learnin ootside o Babylonie an Eretz Yisrael. In memory o Sufi saints, Sufi festivals are held in the ceety.

Twin touns
 Fes, Morocco, syne 22 October 1965
 Tlemcen, Algerie, syne 28 Mey 1969
 Córdoba, Spain, syne 10 Juin 1969
 Cairo, Egyp, syne 14 Mairch 1976
 Samarkand, Uzbekistan, syne 5 October 1977
 Timbuktu, Mali, syne 2 Juin 1986
 Bursa, Turkey, syne 26 December 1987

References

Arabic airchitectur
Airchaeological steids in Tunisie
Populatit places in Tunisie
Communes o Tunisie
Haly ceeties
Populatit places established in the 7t century
Warld Heritage Steids in Tunisie

Kairouan


Julie Deborah Kavner (born September 7, 1950) is an American film an telly actress, comedian an vyce actress.  She first attractit notice for her role as Valerie Harper's character's younger sister in the sitcom Rhoda for which she won a Primetime Emmy Awaird for Ootstaundin Supportin Actress in a Comedy Series. Houever, she is syne best kent for her vyce role as Marge Simpson on the animatit telly series The Simpsons.

1950 births
Livin fowk
American film actresses
American televeesion actresses
American vyce actresses
Actresses frae Los Angeles
Primetime Emmy Awaird winners
Ootstaundin Performance bi a Supportin Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Awaird winners
San Diego State Varsity alumni
American weemen comedians
20t-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses

Julie Kavner


In mathematics, a pairtial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation that contains unkent multivariable functions an thair pairtial derivatives. (A special case are ordinary differential equations (ODEs), which deal wi functions o a single variable an thair derivatives.)

References
 Partial Differential Equations (Graduate Studies in Mathematics) Lawrence C. Evans, American Mathematical Society.
 Partial Differential Equations I-III (Applied Mathematical Sciences) Michael Taylor, Springer.
 Egorov, Y. V., & Shubin, M. A. (2013). Foundations of the classical theory of partial differential equations. Springer Science & Business Media.
 Egorov, Komech and Shubin - Elements of the Modern Theory of Partial Differential Equations (1999) Springer.
 Sommerfeld, A. (1949). Partial differential equations in physics. Academic Press.
 Renardy, M., & Rogers, R. C. (2006). An introduction to partial differential equations. Springer Science & Business Media.
 Olver, P. J., Introduction to partial differential equations. Berlin: Springer.

Further Readin
 Computational Partial Differential Equations Using MATLAB, Jichun Li and Yi-Tung Chen, Chapman & Hall.
 Ames, W. F. (2014). Numerical methods for partial differential equations. Academic Press.
 M. Nakao, M. Plum, Y. Watanabe (2019) Numerical Verification Methods and Computer-Assisted Proofs for Partial Differential Equations (Springer Series in Computational Mathematics).

Researchers
 Leonid Kantorovich
 Ryogo Hirota
 Sofia Kovalevskaya

Multivariable calculus
Differential equations

Concepts in physics

Pairtial differential equation


Bride of the Regiment is a 1930 American pre-Code musical film directed by John Francis Dillon and filmed entirely in Technicolor. The screenplay by Ray Harris and Humphrey Pearson is based on the book of the 1922 stage musical The Lady in Ermine by Frederick Lonsdale and Cyrus Wood, which had been adapted from the 1919 operetta Die Frau im Hermelin by Rudolph Schanzer and Ernst Welisch. The story is a remake of a 1927 First National silent film, The Lady in Ermine, that starred Corinne Griffith. It was later remade by 20th Century-Fox as That Lady in Ermine (1948) starring Betty Grable and Douglas Fairbanks Jr.

Plot
The film takes place during a period in which Austria controlled Italy during the Austro-Italian War of 1830. Colonel Vultow, played by Walter Pidgeon, leader of Austrian cavalry regiment, is sent to Italy to put down a revolt led by the Lombardian aristocracy. Vultow decides to go to the castle of Count Adrian Beltrami, played by Allan Prior, one of the leaders of the revolution. This happens to be Beltrami's wedding day. As he is emerging from the church following his wedding to Countess Anna-Marie (Vivienne Segal), Beltrami learns that Colonel Vultow is quickly approaching the town in search of him. At the behest of his bride, Beltrami flees the castle, but he asks Tangy, a silhouette cutter, to impersonate him and protect Anna-Marie. When Adrian returns in disguise, he is introduced to Vultow as a singer and silhouette cutter, and when the count demands for him create a silhouette, he enlists Tangy's aid. The deception is discovered, and Vultow sentences Adrian to death by a firing squad unless Anna-Marie submits to his sexual demands.

Eager to save her husband, Anna-Marie shows a portrait of her great-grandmother to Vultow and explains why the woman is wearing only an ermine cloak. Her ancestor once killed a man to protect her honor, and the countess fears she will be forced to do the same. The painting comes to life and Anna-Marie's great-grandmother steps down from the frame and embraces Vultow, now drunk on champagne. He falls asleep and dreams Anna-Marie willingly gives herself to him, and when he awakens, he orders Adrian to be freed in the mistaken belief Anna-Marie is now his. When Vultow receives news that the Italian troops are advancing, he departs, and the count and countess are reunited.

Pre-Code sequences
The film was full of so much Pre-Code humor that it ran into censorship problems in many areas. The film drew large crowds in Chicago where it played as an "Adults Only" feature. The soundtrack reveals some amazingly suggestive dialogue. In one sequence, Myrna Loy (playing a depraved dancer named Sophie) finds out Vultow (Walter Pidgeon) who had previously fallen for her charms and made love to her has met with Anna-Marie (Vivienne Segal) and fallen for her charms and has completely forgotten about her. Sophie declares "I'll get him back! I'll dance until his blood is steaming!" and proceeds to begin a smoldering dance number on top of a long dinner table in a very seductive manner in an attempt to lure back Vultow from the charms of Anna-Marie. In another scene, Vultow has a conversation with Anna-Marie. He believes he has had sexual relations with her during the previous night. In reality, however, he dozed off after drinking too much liquor and dreamed the entire episode. The conversation runs as follows:

Vultow: "Have you learned that sometimes defeat can be sweet? That even surrender may have its, umm, compensation?
Anna-Marie: "I've learned how a gallant soldier, umm, conducts himself in victory"
Vultow: Merely a question of practice, my dear."
Anna-Marie: "Ha Ha."
Vultow: "My victories have been numerous."
Anna-Marie: "Really?"

Cast
 Vivienne Segal as Countess Anna-Marie
 Allan Prior as Count Adrian Beltrami
 Walter Pidgeon as Colonel Vultow
 Ford Sterling as Tangy
 Myrna Loy as Sophie
 Lupino Lane as Sprotti

Songs
 "Broken-Hearted Lover" (Sung by Allan Prior)
 "Dream Away" (Sung by Walter Pidgeon and Vivienne Segal)
 "When Hearts Are Young" (Sung by Walter Pidgeon and Extras)
 "In a Gypsy Camp" (Danced by Myrna Loy)
 "Shrimp's Dance" (Danced by Lupino Lane)
 "Soldier Song" (Sung by Walter Pidgeon and Soldiers)
 "You Still Retain That Girlish Figure" (Sung by Lupino Lane and Louise Fazenda)

Production

The film is notable as the first Technicolor feature to include an outdoor sequence filmed at night, a difficult task due to the lighting that was necessary for Technicolor photography at that time. No expense was spared on the lavish gowns and sets and two thousand extras are reported to have been in the production. Aside from one tune retained from the original stage production - "When Hearts are Young (in Springtime") - the songs for the film were composed by Edward Ward and Al Bryan. The film differed from most film operettas of the time in that its musical numbers, various comic bits, and even a few characters are unrelated to the basic plot. No complete prints of the film are known to exist.

Critical reception
The quality and beauty of the Technicolor photography was universally praised. One reviewer proclaimed that it was "one of the most thrilling and at the same time pictorially beautiful picture that has reached the screen for a long time. The color is clear, brilliant and remarkable for its depth, giving an illusion of third dimension." Another reviewer noted the "beautiful indoor shots and the brilliance of its parade of costumes."

Mordaunt Hall of The New York Times observed, "The dialogue here may be suited to an operetta on the stage, but it is scarcely suited to scenes in a picture ... As one witnesses the scenes being unfurled, it seems as though the actors were enjoying this film so much they did not care whether audiences found it entertaining or not."

Preservation status
The only known surviving fragment is a 20 second long clip found in 2023. The large amount of Pre-Code content, which raised alarm even before the Code began to be enforced (in 1934) may have contributed to the film's disappearance as this would have made the film unacceptable for Associated Artists Productions in the 1958 when a number of early Technicolor features were transferred to black and white film. The soundtrack, which was recorded on Vitaphone disks, survives intact.

See also
 List of lost films
 List of incomplete or partially lost films
 List of early color feature films
 List of early Warner Bros. sound and talking features

References

External links

 Bride of the Regiment Soundtrack at Internet Archive

1930 films
1930s color films
1930 lost films
American films based on plays
Lost American musical films
Films directed by John Francis Dillon
1930 musical films
First National Pictures films
Warner Bros. films
Films set in Lombardy
Films set in 1830
Films based on operettas
Films based on adaptations
Films produced by Robert North
Early color films
Films scored by Edward Ward (composer)
1930s American films

Bride of the Regiment


Sociology is the study of societies and how humans act in groups. Sociology is a social science.  People who study sociology are called sociologists.  A society is the community of people living in a particular country or region and having shared customs, laws, and organizations.

Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in 1780 was first to use the term. The problems caused by the change to an industrial society, where many people moved to cities and worked in factories, were an early focus of sociology. Auguste Comte, Max Weber and Émile Durkheim were leading figures in the study of social phenomena.  Themes included: community, authority, status, alienation and lack of power.

In the 2000s, some sociologists look at such things as: race, ethnicity, class, gender, the family and social interaction. They also study the breakdown of social structures; crime and divorce.

Work of sociologists

Sociologists research the structures that organize society, such as race, gender (whether a person is male or female), and social classes (rich or poor). They study the family and examine problems such as crime and drug abuse.

Most sociologists work in one or more specialty areas or "sub-fields". Sociology includes many sub-fields that examine different aspects of society. For example, social stratification studies inequality and class structure in society.  The field of demography studies changes in population size or type.  Criminology examines criminal behavior and crime.  Political sociology studies government and laws.  Sociology of race and sociology of gender examine how people think about race and gender.

Many sociologists also do research outside of the university. Their research is supposedly intended to help teachers, lawmakers, and government administrators to make better institutions, government programs, and rules.

Sociologists often use statistics to count and measure patterns in how people act or behave. Sociologists also interview people or hold group discussions to find out why people behave in certain ways. Some sociologists combine different research methods.

History of sociology

Social analysis has been done since the time of Plato. Sociology became accepted as a type of science in the early 1800s. European cities were changing as many people moved into cities and began working in factories. Sociologists tried to understand how people interacted and how groups interacted.

The word "sociology" was invented by French thinker Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in 1780. Early thinkers who wrote about sociology included Auguste Comte and Max Weber.

Sociology was taught in a university for the first time at the University of Kansas in 1890. The first European department of sociology was founded in 1895 at the University of Bordeaux by Émile Durkheim. The first sociology department to be established in Britain was at the London School of Economics and Political Science in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by Max Weber.

Related pages
 Political economy
 Anthropology
 Social psychology
 Social structure
 Sociolinguistics
 Sociological imagination
 Structural functionalism
 Marxism

Further reading
 Babbie, Earl R. 2003. The Practice of Social Research, 10th edition. Wadsworth, Thomson Learning Inc.,
 Giddens, Anthony. 2006. Sociology (5th edition), Polity, Cambridge.
 Nisbet, Robert A. 1967. The Sociological Tradition, London,

Other websites
 An insight to Human Sociology

Sociology


An audio filter is a frequency dependent circuit, working in the audio frequency range, 0 Hz to 20 kHz. Audio filters can amplify (boost), pass or attenuate (cut) some frequency ranges. Many types of filters exist for different audio applications including hi-fi stereo systems, musical synthesizers, effects units, sound reinforcement systems, instrument amplifiers and virtual reality systems.

Types
Low-pass
Low-pass filters pass through frequencies below their cutoff frequencies, and progressively attenuates frequencies above the cutoff frequency. Low-pass filters are used in audio crossovers to remove high-frequency content from signals being sent to a low-frequency subwoofer system.

High-pass
A high-pass filter does the opposite, passing high frequencies above the cutoff frequency, and progressively attenuating frequencies below the cutoff frequency. A high-pass filter can be used in an audio crossover to remove low-frequency content from a signal being sent to a tweeter.

Band-pass
A band-pass filter passes frequencies between its two cutoff frequencies, while attenuating those outside the range. A band-reject filter attenuates frequencies between its two cutoff frequencies, while passing those outside the 'reject' range.

All-pass
An all-pass filter passes all frequencies, but affects the phase of any given sinusoidal component according to its frequency.

Applications
In some applications, such as in the design of graphic equalizers or CD players, the filters are designed according to a set of objective criteria such as passband, passband attenuation, stopband, and stopband attenuation, where the passbands are the frequency ranges for which audio is attenuated less than a specified maximum, and the stopbands are the frequency ranges for which the audio must be attenuated by a specified minimum. In more complex cases, an audio filter can provide a feedback loop, which introduces resonance (ringing) alongside attenuation.  Audio filters can also be designed to provide gain (boost) as well as attenuation.
In other applications, such as with synthesizers or sound effects, the aesthetic of the filter must be evaluated subjectively.

Audio filters can be implemented in analog circuitry as analog filters or in DSP code or computer software as digital filters. Generically, the term 'audio filter' can be applied to mean anything which changes the timbre, or harmonic content of an audio signal.

Self-oscillation
Self-oscillation occurs when the resonance or Q factor of the cutoff frequency of the filter is set high enough that the internal feedback causes the filter circuitry to become a sine tone sine wave oscillator.

See also
Electrical resonance
Electronic filter
Equalization (audio)
Feedback
Linear filter
Oscillation
Self-resonant frequency

Tone, EQ and filter
Synthesizer electronics
Electronic circuits

Audio filter


Henry Bacon (November 28, 1866February 16, 1924) was an American Beaux-Arts architect who oversaw the engineering and design of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., built between 1915 and 1922, which was his final project before his 1924 death.

Early life and education
Bacon was born in Watseka, Illinois. He studied briefly at the University of Illinois, Urbana in 1884, but left to begin his architectural career as a draftsman.

Career

Early career
Bacon initially worked in the office of McKim, Mead & White in New York City, one of the best-known architectural firms at the time. His works of that period were in the late Greek Revival and Beaux-Arts styles with which the firm was associated. They included the 1889 World Expo in Paris, Boston Public Library in Boston, the New York Herald Building, Harvard Club of New York City, Columbia University's Morningside Heights campus, and Pennsylvania Station, each in New York City, and the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.

While at McKim, Mead & White, Bacon won, in 1889, the Rotch Traveling Scholarship for architectural students. This gave him two years of study and travel in Europe, which he spent learning and drawing details of Roman and Greek architecture. In Turkey, he met his future wife, Laura Florence Calvert, daughter of a British consul. He traveled with another fellowship student, Albert Kahn from Detroit, Michigan, who also went on to become a leading industrial architect.

After returning to the U.S., Bacon worked for a few more years with his mentor, Charles McKim, including on such projects as the Rhode Island State House in Providence, Rhode Island. He served as McKim's personal representative in Paris during the World Exposition in 1889 and in Chicago for the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893, for which McKim, Mead & White was designing several buildings.

In 1897, Bacon left with James Brite, a younger architect from the firm, to found the partnership of Brite and Bacon Architects. Brite was in charge of financial, administrative, and contracting aspects of the partnership, while Bacon was in charge of the architectural design and construction. The partnership immediately won the competition for the Jersey City, New Jersey's public library and the Hall of History for American University in Washington, D.C. They built a number of public buildings and a small number of private residences, which most notably included La Fetra Mansion in Summit, New Jersey.

The partnership was selected in 1897 to build three private residences: La Fetra Mansion; Laurel Hill, a three-story Georgian mansion in Columbia, North Carolina; and Donald McRae House in Wilmington, North Carolina. The La Fetra Mansion was designed and built by Bacon, and his design was published in the September 1901 issue of Architecture, the preeminent architectural professional journal of its time. The LeFetra Mansion fully exhibits Bacon's preference for Beaux-Arts Neo-Greek and Roman architectural styles. His simple and elegant lines, and his skill in dimensions and proportions, were described as expressing a stately elegance, peaceful tranquility, and sense of divine protection.

Lincoln Memorial
In 1897, following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, Bacon was also approached by a group, which had organized to raise public and private funds to build a monument in Washington, D.C. to memorialize President Abraham Lincoln. Bacon began his conceptual, artistic, and architectural design for the Lincoln Memorial that year. He continued in the effort, although the funding to build the project was not secured until years later. The Brite and Bacon Partnership dissolved in 1902, partly resulting from Brite's disagreement over Bacon's passion and the unpaid time he spent on the memorial design.

Prominent buildings and monuments
After that, Bacon practiced under his own name with significant success, building a large number of public buildings and monuments which became renowned, until his death in 1924. His later works included the Danforth Memorial Library in Paterson, New Jersey in 1908, the Ridgewood, New Jersey 1924 War Memorial in Van Neste Park; the train station in Naugatuck, Connecticut; Waterbury Hospital Waterbury, Connecticut; Court of the Four Seasons at the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco in 1915; World War I Memorial at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the Confederate Memorial in Wilmington, North Carolina; and many other distinguished public buildings and monuments.

In 1913, Bacon was elected into the National Academy of Design as an associate member, and he became a full member in 1917.

Bacon was very active as a designer of monuments and settings for public sculpture. He designed the Court of the Four Seasons for the 1915 Panama Pacific Exposition in San Francisco, and the World War I Memorial at Yale University. He collaborated with sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens on the Sen. Mark Hanna Monument in Cleveland, Ohio, and with Daniel Chester French on several monuments, notably the Lincoln Memorial's pensive colossal Lincoln. Olin Memorial Library, one of Bacon's buildings at Wesleyan University, houses many of Bacon's documents and blueprints of the Lincoln Memorial.

Bacon rarely found time to design private residences. There are three known residential projects that are clearly his work. The first is the La Fetra Mansion in Summit, New Jersey, designed and built by the firm of Brite & Bacon from 1897 to 1900. Bacon skillfully integrated into a residential setting many of his signature Greek Revival and Roman Renaissance elements and proportions. The resulting elegance was astoundingly masterful. The La Fetra Mansion was commissioned by industrialist Harold A. La Fetra of the Royal Baking Powder Company, which later merged with RJR Nabisco. The second is Donald McRae House in Wilmington, North Carolina, built for his close friend Donald McRae.

The third Bacon-designed private residence is Chesterwood House, which he designed for his friend, the noted sculptor Daniel Chester French, as his summer home and studio at Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Its exterior bears similarity to the La Fetra Mansion.

Bacon served as a member of the U.S. Commission of Fine Arts from 1921 until his death in 1924.

In May 1923, President Warren G. Harding presented Bacon with the American Institute of Architects's Gold Medal, making him the sixth recipient of the honor.

Death and legacy
Bacon died of cancer in New York City, and he is buried at Oakdale Cemetery in Wilmington, North Carolina.

During World War II, a U.S. Navy Liberty Ship, the SS Henry Bacon, was named for Bacon. It was commissioned on November 11, 1942. In 1964, sculptor Joseph Kiselewski created the Henry Bacon Medal for Memorial Architecture, cast in bronze by the Medallic Arts Company in honor of Bacon.

Notable monuments and public buildings
Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.
Danforth Memorial Library in Paterson, New Jersey
Naugatuck, Connecticut train station
Great War Memorial, in Naugatuck, Connecticut, ca. 1920
Van Vleck Observatory, the Olin Memorial Library, the Eclectic Society House, and many dormitories and other buildings at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut
Union Square Savings Bank, now Daryl Roth Theatre, in Manhattan, New York City
Ambrose Swasey Pavilion (1916) in Exeter, New Hampshire
Chelsea Savings Bank in Chelsea, Massachusetts
Halle Brothers Department Store in Cleveland, Ohio
The Eseeola Lodge in Linville, North Carolina
Waterbury General Hospital in Waterbury, Connecticut
National City Bank in New Rochelle, New York
Citizens & Manufacturers National Bank in Waterbury, Connecticut
First Congregational Church in Providence, Rhode Island
Gates for the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, Virginia
Woodmere High School in Woodmere, New York
Public Bath in Brooklyn, New York City
Foster Mausoleum at Upper Middleburgh Cemetery in Middleburgh, New York
Perry Memorial Arch at Seaside Park in Bridgeport, Connecticut
Illinois Centennial Monument in Chicago, Illinois
Westlawn Mausoleum in Omaha, Nebraska

Architectural settings, bases and exedra for sculpture
Bonney Memorial (1898), Francis Edwin Elwell, sculptor, Lowell Cemetery, Lowell, Massachusetts

Commodore George Hamilton Perkins, (1902), Daniel Chester French, sculptor, New Hampshire State House, Concord, New Hampshire
Roswell Pettibone Flower Monument, (1902), Augustus Saint-Gaudens, sculptor, Watertown, New York
Col. James Anderson Monument, (1904), Daniel Chester French, sculptor, Allegheny Square, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Melvin Memorial (1906-1908), Daniel Chester French, sculptor, Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord, Massachusetts

August Robert Meyer Memorial,  (1909) Daniel Chester French, sculptor, Kansas City, Missouri
Statue of Samuel Spencer, (1910) Daniel Chester French sculptor, carved by the Piccirilli Brothers, Atlanta, Georgia
James Oglethorpe Monument, (1910) Daniel Chester French sculptor, Savannah, Georgia
Burnside Fountain, (1912) by Charles Y. Harvey, Worcester Common, Worcester, Massachusetts
Prehn Mausoleum, (1912) Karl Bitter sculptor, carved by the Piccirilli Brothers, Cedar Lawn Cemetery, Paterson, New Jersey
Abraham Lincoln 1912 statue by Daniel Chester French, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1912.
Carl Schurz Monument, (1913) Karl Bitter sculptor, Morningside Park, New York City
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Monument, (1914), Daniel Chester French, sculptor, Longfellow Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Lafayette Memorial, (1917), Daniel Chester French sculptor, Prospect Park, Brooklyn, New York
Ruth Anne Dodge Memorial, (1918), Daniel Chester French sculptor, Fairview Cemetery, Council Bluffs, Iowa
Depew Memorial Fountain, (1919), Karl Bitter and Alexander Stirling Calder sculptors, University Park, Indianapolis, Indiana
Russell Alger Memorial Fountain, (1921), Daniel Chester French, sculptor, Grand Circus Park, Detroit, Michigan
Dupont Circle Fountain, (1921), Daniel Chester French sculptor, Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C.
Statue of the Marquis de Lafayette, (1921), Daniel Chester French sculptor, Easton, Pennsylvania
Alexander Hamilton Monument, (1923), James Earle Fraser sculptor, Washington D.C.
Jesse Parker Williams Memorial, (c. 1924), Daniel Chester French sculptor, Westview Cemetery, Atlanta, Georgia
American Revolutionary War Memorial, (c. 1915), Daniel Chester French sculptor, Jno. Williams, Inc. (NY) founder, Danville, Illinois

References

Notes

Bibliography
The American Institute of Architects
The American Academy of Arts & Letters
Thomas, Christopher, the Lincoln Memorial and its Architect
Thomas, Christopher, The Lincoln Memorial and American Life, 2002
The Olin Library, Wesleyan University
Kvaran, Einar Einarsson, America's Monuments, unpublished manuscript
Richman, Michael, Daniel Chester French: An American Sculptor, The Preservation Press, Washington D.C., 1976
Richman, Michael, Daniel Chester French and Henry Bacon, 1980
Tolles, Bryant and Carolyn, New Hampshire Architecture: An Illustrated Guide, New Hampshire Historical Society, Hanover, New Hampshire, 1979
Wilkinson, Burke, and David Finn, photographs,  Uncommon Clay: The Life and Works of Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, San Diego  1985
Wilson, Richard Guy, The AIA Gold Medal, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,  1984

External links

 Biography
 Thomas, Christopher A. "The Lincoln Memorial and Its Architect, Henry Bacon (1866-1924)" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1990)

1866 births
1924 deaths
People from Watseka, Illinois
Architects from Illinois
Architects from New York City
Burials at Oakdale Cemetery (Wilmington, North Carolina)
People from Wilmington, North Carolina
University of Illinois School of Architecture alumni
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Fellows of the American Institute of Architects
Recipients of the AIA Gold Medal
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters

Henry Bacon


St. James House of Prayer Episcopal Church, also known as the Episcopal House of Prayer, is an active Episcopal parish and historic church building in Tampa, Florida, United States. It is located at 2708 Central Avenue in the city's Tampa Heights neighborhood. On February 21, 1991, the building was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. The structure is also included as an official contributing property within the Tampa Heights Historic District, which was declared a Historic District nationally by the United States Department of the Interior on August 4, 1995, and locally by the city of Tampa on September 7, 2000.  Additionally, the building is one of only two churches to have been designated a Local Landmark Structure by the city of Tampa.

Parish history
St. James House of Prayer is an active parish under the Tampa Deanery of the Episcopal Diocese of Southwest Florida, which is within Province 4 of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, part of the worldwide Anglican Communion.

The congregation officially formed in 1997 through the merger of two long established congregations, St. James Episcopal Church and The House of Prayer Episcopal Church.  The merger of the two was made after the former St. James Church property was chosen as the site for the new Blake High School.  Meanwhile, The House of Prayer had lost their rector and parish status after a decline in membership.  Joining the two congregations was mutually beneficial, matching the parishioners in need of a priest with the priest in need of a pulpit.  The union resulted in full parish status being conferred upon the new St. James House of Prayer in 2001.

The original St. James Episcopal was organized in 1892 as an Anglican Episcopal Church for the city's black population.  At that time, segregation was the norm, and many black Bahamian and Cuban immigrants were arriving in Tampa to work in the cigar industry.  St. James Episcopal Church would go on to serve Tampa's African-American community for more than a century.

Nearly as old was Tampa's third white Episcopal church, the House of Prayer, founded in 1907.  The church served the population of Tampa Heights, and by 1926 was named a parish by the local diocese.  The House of Prayer went on to become one of Tampa's first racially integrated churches in the 1960s, but within the next decade much of its membership moved away as the Tampa Heights neighborhood had entered a period of serious decline.  Efforts to reverse the downward trend in the neighborhood began in the 1990s, resulting in the establishment of the Tampa Heights Historic District at both the local and national levels.

Church building

The historic church building was erected in 1922 and dedicated in February, 1923.  The Reverend William C. Richardson, MD, a retired physician-turned-priest, personally spearheaded the construction of the church, even purchasing and donating the land. He selected architect Louis A. Fort to design the Gothic Revival church, including a tower, battlements, and stained glass windows.  The church building is unique in its construction, with  concrete walls on the interior, and exterior walls composed entirely of flint rock, stacked with mortar.  The rocks were collected from the bottom of the Hillsborough River where it empties into the bay, however, the rocks did not occur there naturally.  The rocks came from all around the world aboard the sailing ships of centuries past, and wound up in Tampa as the ships discarded ballast from their hulls.  Because of the striking stonework exterior, the building is occasionally referred to as "The Rock Church."

The building's official listing with the National Register of Historic Places is under the name "Episcopal House of Prayer", since the historic status was determined prior to the merger of churches which created today's St. James House of Prayer Episcopal Church.

See also

 Episcopal Diocese of Southwest Florida
 Tampa Heights Historic District

References

External links
 Hillsborough County listings at National Register of Historic Places
 Florida's Office of Cultural and Historical Programs
 Hillsborough County listings
 Episcopal House of Prayer
 Tampa Heights Historic District map
 St. James House of Prayer Episcopal Church

Churches in Tampa, Florida
Episcopal church buildings in Florida
African-American history of Florida
Bahamian-American culture in Florida
Caribbean-American culture in Tampa, Florida
Cuban-American culture in Tampa, Florida
National Register of Historic Places in Tampa, Florida
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Florida
Churches completed in 1922
20th-century Episcopal church buildings
Christian organizations established in 1997
Gothic Revival church buildings in Florida
1922 establishments in Florida
Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in Florida


Ochre or Ocher is a golden-yellow or light yellowish brown colour.  The word is from the Greek ochros, meaning "yellow".  Ochre is natural earth pigment containing hydrated iron oxide.

Meaning of ochre

The use of ochre is particularly intensive: it is not unusual to find a layer of the cave floor impregnated with a purplish red to a depth of eight inches. The size of these ochre deposits raises a problem not yet solved. The colouring is so intense that practically all the loose ground seems to consist of ochre. One can imagine that the Aurignacians regularly painted their bodies red, dyed their animal skins, coated their weapons, and sprinkled the ground of their dwellings, and that a paste of ochre was used for decorative purposes in every phase of their domestic life. We must assume no less, if we are to account for the veritable mines of ochre on which some of them lived.

Tones of ochre colour comparison chart

 Banana Yellow (Yellow Ochre) (Human Feces) (Hex: #CCCC33) (RGB: 204, 204, 51)

 Ochre (Hex: #CC7722) (RGB: 204, 119, 34)

Pigments

Ochre