The American President is a 1995 American romantic comedy-drama film directed and produced by Rob Reiner and written by Aaron Sorkin. The film stars Michael Douglas as President Andrew Shepherd, a widower who pursues a relationship with environmental lobbyist Sydney Ellen Wade (Annette Bening) – who has just moved to Washington, D.C. – while at the same time attempting to win the passage of a crime control bill during a re-election year. Martin Sheen, Michael J. Fox and Richard Dreyfuss star in supporting roles.

The American President grossed $107.9 million on a budget of $62 million, and was praised by critics for its performances (especially of Douglas and Bening), musical score, story, and screenplay. Composer Marc Shaiman was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score for The American President. The film was nominated for Golden Globes for Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Actor in a Comedy/Musical for Michael Douglas, Best Actress in a Comedy/Musical for Annette Bening, and Best Comedy/Musical. The American Film Institute ranked The American President No. 75 on its list of America's Greatest Love Stories.

Plot
Popular Democratic President Andrew Shepherd prepares to run for re-election. The president and his staff, led by Chief of Staff and best friend AJ MacInerney, attempt to consolidate the administration's 63% approval rating by passing a moderate crime control bill. However, support for the bill in both parties is tepid: conservatives reject it, and liberals think it is too weak. If passed, however, Shepherd's re-election is presumed to be guaranteed. Shepherd resolves to announce the bill, and have the Congressional support to pass it, by his State of the Union Address.

When the widowed President's cousin, Judith, is sick and unable to act as hostess at a state dinner for the French president, Shepherd realizes his staff's public portrayal of him as lonely widower is true. Soon after, Shepherd meets and is attracted to Sydney Ellen Wade, a lawyer employed by an environmental lobbying firm that is working to pass legislation to substantially reduce carbon dioxide emissions. During a meeting, Shepherd strikes a deal with Wade: if she can secure 24 votes for the environmental bill before his State of the Union Address, he will deliver the last 10 votes. MacInerney believes Wade will fail to obtain enough votes, thus releasing Shepherd from responsibility if the bill fails to pass.

Shepherd and Wade begin seeing each other and fall in love. Presidential hopeful Senator Bob Rumson steps up his attacks, focusing on Wade's activist past and maligning Shepherd's ethics and family values. The President's refusal to refute Rumson's aspersions lowers his approval ratings and erodes crucial political support that threatens the crime bill.

Wade is dejected after her failed meeting with three Michigan congressmen to discuss the environmental bill. When she tells Shepherd about the meeting, she inadvertently mentions that the congressmen want to defeat both the President's crime bill and Wade's environmental bill. Shepherd and A.J. are conflicted about how they obtained this sensitive information, but are unable to ignore the opportunity to pass the crime bill, even if it means the president going back on his deal with Wade.

Eventually, Wade secures enough votes for the environmental bill while Shepherd is three short. He can only obtain them by shelving the environmental bill to solidify the three Michigan congressmen's votes for the crime bill  which he agrees to do. Wade's firm fires her for failing to achieve their objectives and for seemingly jeopardizing her political reputation. She goes to see Shepherd to end their relationship and says she has a job opportunity in Hartford, Connecticut. While he defends the crime bill as his top priority, she criticizes it as weakly worded with little chance of preventing crime.

Prior to the State of the Union Address, Shepherd makes a surprise appearance in the White House press room and rebukes Rumson's attacks on his values and character, as well as his relentless innuendos that Wade prostituted herself for political favors. He declares he will send the controversial environmental bill to Congress with a massive 20% cut in fossil fuelsfar more than the 10% originally proposed. Furthermore, he is withdrawing the crime bill for a stronger one with significant gun control measures. His passion galvanizes the press and his staff. Shepherd and Wade reconcile, then she walks him to the doors of the House chamber where he enters to thunderous applause as he is about to deliver the State of the Union Address.

Cast

Production
Originally, actor Robert Redford approached a number of screenwriters with the single-line premise, "the president elopes". Sorkin, on the basis of his treatment, was selected by Redford to write the screenplay with Redford attached to star. Emma Thompson turned down the role of Sydney Wade. When Reiner was brought aboard to direct, Redford dropped out. At the time, in October 1994, with cameras set to roll on November 30 of that year, Redford's publicist attributed his decision to his desire "to do a love story, but (Reiner) wanted to do something that was ultimately about politics".  Other sources suggested that Redford and Reiner "didn't get along,...It was a personality thing."

In later interviews, writer Aaron Sorkin told TV Guide he wrote the screenplay while high on crack cocaine while he was living at the Four Seasons Hotel in Los Angeles, which is why it took him three years to complete it.

An extensive White House set, of both the East and West Wings, was built on the Castle Rock Entertainment lot in Culver City. The set's Oval Office was later reused for the films Nixon and Independence Day.

Lawsuit
William Richert sued the Writers Guild of America over not being credited on the screenplay of the film. Richert claimed Sorkin's screenplay was a thinly veiled plagiarism of Richert's 1981 screenplay The President Elopes. After Guild arbitration, Sorkin was awarded full credit on The American President. Richert also claimed that the television series The West Wing was derived from part of the same screenplay.

Release
The American President grossed $60.1 million in the United States, and $47.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $107.9 million.

The film grossed $10 million in its opening weekend (finishing third), $9.7 million in its second weekend, and $5.3 million in its third (finishing sixth both times).

Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 91% based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 7/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "A charming romantic comedy with political bite, Rob Reiner's The American President features strong lead performances and some poignant observations of politics and media in the 1990s." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 67 out of 100, based on 21 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.

It received praise and "Two Thumbs Up" from Siskel and Ebert who were surprised by how good the film was considering Rob Reiner's previous film, North, was both of their selections for the worst movie of the year. Ebert said after detesting North he was very happy and pleased to give Reiner's next film a unanimously positive review. Siskel praised Douglas and Bening for their performances.

Legacy

Influence on The West Wing
The screenplay for the film inspired many aspects of Sorkin's later television drama The West Wing. The two productions follow the staff of a largely idealized White House, and like many of Sorkin's projects, share ideologies.

The film's influence can be seen most clearly in early episodes of the series; some dialogue in the two are nearly identical. Sorkin has been known to say that much of the first season was actually taken from material he edited out of the first draft of The American President script.

One of the issues touched on in the film and developed in the series relates to gun control bills, developed in "Five Votes Down". While the bill is ultimately withdrawn by President Shepherd because it is ineffectual, on the series President Bartlet and his staff work hard to pass their bill even though it is badly flawed (and end up doubly unhappy when VP John Hoynes, whom the President and senior staff are feuding with, clinches the bill for them by persuading an influential southern Democrat to support it).

More significant is the issue of a "proportional response" to military attacks on American assets abroad. In The American President, Andrew Shepherd finds himself in the Situation Room having to order such an attack against Libya's intelligence headquarters after they bombed a missile defense system called "C-STAD" (Capricorn Surface-to-Air Defense) which had been positioned by the U.S. in Israel. He muses for a single line "Someday, someone's gonna have to explain to me the virtue of a proportional response", before giving the order. In "A Proportional Response", President Bartlet finds himself in similar circumstances (Syrian intelligence shot down a U.S. plane in Jordan and killed numerous Americans, including a young Naval officer who the President had decided would be his personal physician) and, seated in the White House Situation Room with his own National Security Council asks: "What is the virtue of a proportional response?" In both cases, the President chooses a military response that is relatively measured, but in the movie President Shepherd never considers a "disproportionate" response while President Bartlet plans such an action to destroy a large civilian airport in Syria; he eventually gives the green light for a strike similar to the one used in the movie.

The Global Defense Council, the fictional environmental lobby where Sydney Wade worked, is also featured in the West Wing episode called "The Drop-In", and is often referred to in other episodes.

In The American President, Sydney Ellen Wade is ultimately fired from her lobbyist position because the president has brokered a deal that causes her legislative effort to fail. Similarly, in the final episode of the third season of The West Wing, Deputy Chief of Staff Josh Lyman uses the same tactic and ends up getting Amy Gardner fired from her position at the Women's Leadership Conference. Josh and Amy are dating when this takes place, just as the main characters are here. However, on the TV series it is Amy who tries to scuttle a bill (welfare reform) and Josh refuses to accept the demands of three Republican Congressmen because they amount to blackmail.

The American President includes mention of a Governor Stackhouse, while there is a Minnesota senator Howard Stackhouse (George Coe) in the two West Wing episodes "The Stackhouse Filibuster" and "The Red Mass". In the same way, the French President attending a state dinner in The American President seems to be the same President d'Astier that is often referred to in the West Wing.

Several actors from The American President reappear in The West Wing, including Martin Sheen (whose character in The American President, A.J., is at one point accused by Shepherd of lacking the courage to run for office himself) as President Josiah Bartlet, Anna Deavere Smith as National Security Advisor Dr. Nancy McNally, Joshua Malina as White House Communications Director Will Bailey, Nina Siemaszko as Ellie Bartlet, Ron Canada as Under Secretary of State Theodore Barrow, and Thom Barry as Congressman Mark Richardson.

Portrayals of the president as idealistic but indecisive are also similar. In The American President, Shepherd has to be convinced by his staff to stand up to his Republican opponent and pursue gun control and environmental legislation decisively. In The West Wing, Bartlet is sometimes referred to as "Uncle Fluffy" when endorsing moderate views that are more conciliatory and less resolute (for example, in the episodes "Let Bartlet Be Bartlet" and "The Two Bartlets"). More generally, both presidents are former university professors (history in the movie, economics in the show) with no military experience and a low tolerance for political expediency.

Other legacy
The concept for the television show Spin City was set in motion after the writers had seen Michael J. Fox in The American President playing one of the President's political aides. They wanted him to play a similar character for television.

In January 2012, while criticizing then-leader of the opposition Tony Abbott in a speech at the National Press Club in Canberra, Australian Federal Minister Anthony Albanese plagiarised several lines from The American President.

In April 2013, New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd drew a sharp contrast between President Obama's unsuccessful effort to secure passage of expanded background-check legislation in the Senate, on one hand, and the all-out vote-gathering effort in The American President. The President responded to the column at the 2013 White House Correspondents' Dinner, noting the criticism and posing a series of rhetorical questions to Michael Douglas, who he said was in the audience, including, "Could it be that you were an actor in an Aaron Sorkin liberal fantasy?"

In the 2016 Presidential election candidate Ted Cruz paraphrased a portion of The American President when fellow candidate Donald Trump insulted Cruz's wife. Cruz stated, "...and if Donald wants to get into a character fight, he's better off sticking with me because Heidi is way out of his league," referencing the speech President Shepherd made about Rumson's attacks on Sydney Ellen Wade.

The film is recognized by the American Film Institute as #75 in its 2002 list of 100 Years...100 Passions.

References

External links

 The American President full movie on Youtube

 White House Museum – How accurately does the movie portray the actual White House? (Review)

1995 films
1990s English-language films
1990s political comedy-drama films
1995 romantic comedy-drama films
American political comedy-drama films
American romantic comedy-drama films
Films scored by Marc Shaiman
Films about elections
Films about fictional presidents of the United States
Films about widowhood in the United States
Films directed by Rob Reiner
Films set in the White House
Films set in Washington, D.C.
Films shot in Washington, D.C.
Films with screenplays by Aaron Sorkin
Castle Rock Entertainment films
Universal Pictures films
Columbia Pictures films
1990s American films

The American President


Major General John Bradstreet, born Jean-Baptiste Bradstreet (21 December 1714 – 25 September 1774) was a British Army officer during King George's War, the French and Indian War, and Pontiac's War. He was born in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia, to a British Army lieutenant and an Acadian mother. He also served as the Commodore-Governor for Newfoundland.

Life
Jean-Baptiste Bradstreet was the son of Agathe de Saint Etienne de La Tour and her first husband, Edward Bradstreet. It is unknown whether he was related to Puritan Simon Bradstreet. Bradstreet died in New York City on 25 September 1774.  He had married (to the widow of a cousin who shared his name), and had two children.

Military service
Through his Acadian mother's influence he was accepted into the regular British army in 1735. Bradstreet's early military service consisted of garrison duty in Nova Scotia with the 40th Regiment of Foot, during which time he took advantage of his Acadian heritage and engaged in trade with the French at Louisbourg.  As a young officer he was stationed at Canso, during King George's War he was captured in the French raid on Canso, however he was released within a year. During his internment Bradstreet developed plans for the capture of Louisbourg, although it is not clear whether these plans were ever implemented and to his dismay he was not given command of the expedition. However Bradstreet accepted a commission as lieutenant-colonel of the 1st Massachusetts Regiment and contributed to the final victory at Louisbourg, which fell after a siege in 1745.

French and Indian War

In 1755, Bradstreet, then a captain, was appointed as Governor William Shirley's adjutant general.  In 1756 he led a relief column to Fort Oswego with supplies. Upon his return he was attacked a combined French-Indian force. He survived but his warnings to Governor Shirley and Lord Loudon of the weak condition of Fort Oswego were largely ignored in midst of their ongoing power struggle. The French captured and burned Oswego later the same year. In the spring of 1757 he assembled supplies and transports at Boston for Loudoun's abortive expedition against Louisbourg, and at Halifax in August he was among those who felt that the attack should not be postponed. On 27 December 1757 he was appointed Lt. Colonel and in 1758 he participated in the attack on Fort Carillon, where he led the advance guard following the death of General George Howe. The Battle ended in disaster and Bradstreet attempted to organize some sort of retreat, which had turned into a chaotic rout. After the failed attempt to capture Ticonderoga, Bradstreet immediately proposed his idea to attack Fort Frontenac, the key French supply base on Lake Ontario. Bradstreet's proposal met with approval from British planners and he was given a force of approximately 3,000 men to carry out the operation. Bradstreet reached Lake Ontario on 21 August and four days later was within sight of the fort, which surrendered on the 27th. After sacking and burning the fort, Bradstreet's force retreated to British territory. With this attack the French had (at least temporarily) their supply line in the Great Lakes cut. Under the new British commander in North America, Jeffery Amherst, Bradstreet served as deputy quartermaster general in Albany, a lucrative position which he held until the end of the war.

Pontiac's War
Shortly after the French and Indian War, Bradstreet was appointed colonel in 1764 and was ordered to lead a force of 1,400 men to reinforce Fort Detroit in response to the outbreak of Pontiac's War. His superiors considered Bradstreet to have mismanaged his final campaign; exceeding his orders by attempting to negotiate independent peace treaties and failing to act aggressively enough against Pontiac's forces. This left his military reputation badly tarnished in later years, although he was still promoted to the rank of Major General in the British Army on 25 May 1772.

Bateau and Transport Service
Bradstreet is often remembered today for his work organizing and leading a corps of armed boatmen and teamsters in the British service, tasked with moving supplies and troops along the inland waterways of upstate New York and the Great Lakes. A substantial logistical feat, the force was developed from 1756 and grew to the strength of several thousand men, organized into dozens of companies, using hundreds of bateaux and whaleboats to transport the thousands of tons of supplies and equipment necessary for Britain to wage war in the colonial Northwest by supplying the army's far-flung outposts. Also a combat force, the 'Battoe Men', as they were sometimes called, took part in combat operations, most famously Bradstreet's assault on Fort Frontenac/Carillon in 1758.

See also
 Military history of Nova Scotia

References

 William G. Godfrey. Pursuit of Profit and Preferment in Colonial North America: John Bradstreet's Quest. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, 1982

 John Bradstreet. Louisbourg Journal, 1745

1714 births
1774 deaths
People from Annapolis County, Nova Scotia
British Army major generals
British military personnel of the French and Indian War
British people of Pontiac's War
Governors of Newfoundland Colony

John Bradstreet


The Raduga KSR-2 (NATO reporting name: AS-5 "Kelt") was a Soviet cruise missile developed to replace the KS-1 Komet (NATO: AS-1 "Kennel"). It was developed in 1958 and entered service in 1962. The missile was normally armed with a conventional high-explosive warhead, although it could be fitted with a one-megaton nuclear warhead.

Development
Flight testing of the missile as part of the K-16 weapon system in 1958, with two missiles being carried on BD-352 pylons under the wings of a modified Tu-16 bomber designated as  Tu-16KSR-2. The bomber was fitted with a newly developed Roobin-1K (Ruby) search and target illumination radar which has a maximum range of approximately 200 kilometers. During the tests, missiles were fired at ships and ground targets.

Description
The missile itself, like the earlier KS-1, is extremely large, nearly nine meters in length with a wingspan of approximately four and a half meters and weighing 4,000 kilograms. It has swept wings with two wing fences on each wing.

The K-16 system was accepted into Soviet Navy service in 1962. Egypt purchased a number of the K-16 systems. An updated version of the missile entered service in 1967 designated the KSR-2M. It borrowed some features from the KSR-5 missile (NATO:AS-6 "Kingfish") including a new Isayev S5.6.0000 rocket motor. This allowed the new missile to be launched from altitudes as low as 500 meters rather than the previous 1,500 meters.

The missile was prepared for launch by the navigator; the degree of automation provided by the Roobin-1K eliminated the need for a separate radar operator. For propulsion it used a liquid-fueled twin-chamber rocket motor that delivered  in boost mode and  in cruise mode. The fuel consisted of the TG-02 (sometimes TT-S2) fuel and AK-20F oxidizer which were toxic and highly corrosive, which made ground handling of the missile difficult.

Once the launching aircraft's radar has locked onto a target, the missile can be launched. The rocket motor fires immediately after release in boost mode, accelerating the missile to its cruise speed. Once the missile turns on an approach course to the target, the motor switches to cruise mode, shutting down one of its chambers. The missile's autopilot then flies a course using inertial guidance toward the target. In anti-shipping mode the missile engages its J-band active radar in the final approach to the target.

Variants
An anti-radar variant of the missile designated KSR-11 was also produced, being externally almost identical to the KSR-2. The KSR-11 was intended to home in on and destroy air-defence radar and ECM facilities. The missile used a 2PRG-11 passive radar seeker.

A target drone version of the missile designated KRM-2 (MV-1) also entered service in 1966, with a different rocket motor, a range of 376 kilometers and a level flight endurance of 433 seconds.

Combat history
Egyptian Tu-16 bombers reportedly launched 13 KSR-2 and 12 KSR-11 missiles during the 1973 Yom Kippur War. One of the Kelt missiles launched at Tel Aviv from Tu-16 was shot down by an IAF jet.

Operators

Former operators

Notes

References

Cold War anti-ship missiles of the Soviet Union
Nuclear air-to-surface missiles
Nuclear cruise missiles of the Soviet Union
KSR-002
KSR-002
MKB Raduga products
Military equipment introduced in the 1960s

KSR-2


William Perkins (Bulkington, Warwickshire, 1558 - 22 oktober 1602) wie in predikant en teolooch dy't ien fan wichtichste lieders fan de puriteinske beweging yn de tsjerke fan Ingelân wie.

Teologyske opfettings
Perkins wie in oanhinger fan de "dûbele predestinaasjelear" en hat in protte war dien om de Ingelsken oan de lear fan Theodore Beza te krijen. Hy wie ferantwurdlik foar de publikaasje yn 't Ingelsk fan Bezá's ferneamde traktaat oer dûbele predestinaasje.

Publikaasjes fan Perkins
Libellus de Memoria, Verissimaque Bene Recordandi Scientia  (1584)
Antidicsonus Cuiusdam Cantabrigiensis   (1584)
Foure Great Lyers, Striuing Who Shall Win the Siluer Whetstone: Also, A Resolution to the Count  (1585)
A Treatise Tending Vnto a Declaration Whether a Man be in the Estate of Damnation or in the Estate of Grace: And If he be in the First, How he may in Time Come out of it: if in the second, how he maie discerne it, and perseuere in the same to the end. The points that are handled are set downe in the page following  (1590)
Armilla aurea, id est, Miranda series causarum et salutis & damnationis iuxta verbum Dei: Eius synopsin continet annexa tabula  (1590)
A golden chaine, or the description of theologie: containing the order of the causes of saluation and damnation, according to Gods woord. A view of the order wherof, is to be seene in the table annexed  (1591)
The foundation of Christian religion : gathered into sixe principles. And it is to bee learned of ignorant people, that they may be fit to hear sermons with profit, and to receiue the Lords Supper with comfort  (1591)
Prophetica, sive, De sacra et vnica ratione concionandi tractatus  (1592)
A case of conscience : the greatest that euer was; how a man may know whether he be the child of God or no. Resolued by the word of God. Whereunto is added a briefe discourse, taken out of Hier. Zanchius  (1592)
An exposition of the Lords prayer : in the way of catechising seruing for ignorant people  (1592)
Tvvo treatises·: I. Of the nature and practise of repentance. II. Of the combat of the flesh and spirit  (1593)
An exposition of the Lords praier : in the way of catechisme  (1593)
A direction for the government of the tongue according to Gods word  (1593)
An exposition of the Symbole or Creed of the Apostles : according to the tenour of the Scriptures, and the consent of orthodoxe Fathers of the Church  (1595)
A salve for a sicke man, or, A treatise containing the nature, differences, and kindes of death : as also the right manner of dying well. And it may serue for spirituall instruction to 1. Mariners when they goe to sea. 2. Souldiers when they goe to battell. 3. Women when they trauell of child  (1595)
A declaration of the true manner of knowing Christ crucified  (1596)
A reformed Catholike, or, A declaration shewing how neere we may come to the present Church of Rome in sundrie points of religion, and wherein we must for euer depart from them : with an advertisement to all fauourers of the Romane religion, shewing that the said religion is against the Catholike principles and grounds of the catechisme  (1597)
De praedestinationis modo et ordine : et de amplitudine gratiae diuinae Christiana & perspicua disceptatio  (1598)
Specimen digesti, sive Harmoniæ bibliorum Veteris et Novi Testamneti  (1598)
A warning against the idolatrie of the last times : And an instruction touching religious, or diuine worship  (1601)
The true gaine : more in worth then all the goods in the world  (1601)
How to liue, and that well: in all estates and times, specially when helps and comforts faile  (1601)

Postúm:
The works of that famous and worthie minister of Christ, in the Universitie of Cambridge, M.W. Perkins : gathered into one volume, and newly corrected according to his owne copies. With distinct chapters, and contents of euery book, and a generall table of the whole  (1603)The reformation of couetousnesse: Written vpon the 6. chapter of Mathew, from the 19. verse to the ende of the said chapter  (1603)A commentarie or exposition, vpon the fiue first chapters of the Epistle to the Galatians: penned by the godly, learned, and iudiciall diuine  (1604)Lectures vpon the three first chapters of the Reuelation: preached in Cambridge anno Dom. 1595  (1604)Gvilielmi Perkinsi Problema de Romanæ fidei ementito Catholicismo. : Estq´; Antidotum contra Thesaurum Catholicum Iodoci Coccij. Et [propaidoia] iuventutis in lectione omnium patrum  (1604)The first part of The cases of conscience : Wherein specially, three maine questions concerning man, simply considered in himselfe, are propounded and resolued, according to the word of God  (1604)Satans sophistrie ansuuered by our Sauiour Christ: and in diuers sermons further manifested  (1604)Hepieíkeia: or, a treatise of Christian equitie and moderation  (1604)M. Perkins, his Exhortation to repentance, out of Zephaniah: preached in 2. sermons in Sturbridge Faire. Together with two treatises of the duties and dignitie of the ministrie: deliuered publiquely in the Vniuersitie of Cambridge. With a preface præfixed touching the publishing of all such workes of his as are to be expected: with a catalogue of all the perticulers [sic] of them, diligently perused and published, by a preacher of the word  (1605)Works newly corrected according to his owne copies  (1605)Of the calling of the ministerie two treatises, describing the duties and dignities of that calling  (1605)The combat betweene Christ and the diuell displayed, or A commentarie upon the temptations of Christ  (1606)A godlie and learned exposition vpon the whole epistle of Ivde...  (1606)A C[hristian] and [plain]e treatise of the manner and order of predestination : and of the largenes of Gods grace  (1606)The arte of prophecying, or, A treatise concerning the sacred and onely true manner and methode of preaching  (1607)A cloud of faithfull witnesses, leading to the heauenly Canaan, or, A commentarie vpon the 11 chapter to the Hebrewes  (1607)A treatise of mans imaginations : Shewing his naturall euill thoughts: His want of good thoughts: The way to reforme them  (1607)A discourse of the damned art of witchcraft: so farre forth as it is revealed in the Scriptures and manifest by true experience ...  (1608)The vvhole treatise of the cases of conscience : distinguished into three bookes  (1608)Christian oeconomie: or, A short survey of the right manner of erecting and ordering a familie : according to the scriptures  (1609)A graine of musterd-seede: or, the least measure of grace that is or can be effectuall to saluation  (1611)A resolution to the countryman prooving it utterly unlawfull to buy or use our yeerely prognostications  (1618)Deaths knell: or, The sicke mans passing-bell : summoning all sicke consciences to pr[e]pare themselues for the coming of the grea[t] day of doome, lest mercies gate be shut against them: fit for all those that desire to arriue at the heauenly Ierusalem. Whereunto are added prayers fit for housholders. The ninth edition.  (1628)The works of William Perkins, ed. Ian Breward  (1970)

 Fierder lêze
, "William Perkins," The Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 281: British Rhetoricians and Logicians, 1500-1660, Second Series, Detroit: Gale, 2003, sd. 215-28.
, Ramism in William Perkins' Theology, New York: Peter Lang, 1987.
, The Rhetoric of the Conscience in Donne, Herbert, and Vaughan'', Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 9780199547845.

Ingelsk predikant
Ingelsk teolooch
Ingelsk publisist
Persoan berne yn 1558
Persoan stoarn yn 1602

William Perkins


Cremation is the act of burning a body after it has died. Cremation is a popular option to dispose of (get rid of) a body instead of burying it. The place where cremations take place is called a crematorium or crematory.

Religions which approve cremation include Christianity, Jehovah's Witnesses, Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, Shinto, and Neopaganism. Judaism and Mormonism strongly discourage cremation. Islam, Neo-Confucianism, and Zoroastrianism disapprove it.

Ways of keeping or disposing of the cremated remains
Cremated remains (also called ashes) are returned to the person's family. The family then has a few options of what to do with the remains. Usually the ashes are buried in an urn at a cemetery plot just as a coffin is buried in normal earth burial. Many religions require the ashes to be handled in dignified manner. In Scandinavia it is customary to bury the ashes ín an urn in a family grave (a grave which contains the remains of many family members). Family graves are also popular in Japan and Thailand.

Sometimes the cremated person has thought about what they want to be done with their remains and have shared their desires with their family. Cremated remains can be kept in a container called an urn, which in turn can be buried on cemetery plot or placed in a depot called columbarium, or thrown into the air or water of a place that was special to the cremated person, or buried anonymously in the ground. These are the most popular choices of what to do with remains. There are also other, less common, options of how to dispose of the remains. Some examples of ways to scatter the remains are: through fireworks, shot from guns, or dropped from an airplane or hot air balloon. Remains can even be sent into space or turned into a diamond. The latter can be done because humans and diamonds are both made largely from carbon.

Queen Victoria, pioneer in cremation jewelry
Queen Victoria is the most well-known mourner because she went into a state of mourning for several decades. To honour her late Prince Albert, Queen Victoria "took to wearing black jet jewelry, from Whitby, in Yorkshire". As a limited and fairly difficult medium to work with, jet was expensive. It's a hard material, requiring skilled craftsmanship to avoid breakage during carving.

Related pages
 Human death

References
 Technical report #30  – Incineration of Human Bodies

Other websites

 Cremation Association of North America
 International Scattering Society
 Crematory in Europe
 Crematorion Jewelry history

Death customs

Cremation


Mario Jeckle (25 August 1974 – 11 June 2004) was a German computer scientist.

From 1997 to 2003, Jeckle attended the University of Applied Science in Augsburg.  In 1998, he received his computer science degree for his thesis (paper) "Prozeßkettenmodellierung am Beispiel der Gießwerkzeugentwicklung und prototypische Implementierung auf Basis des EDM/PDM - Systems Metaphase" (An example of process chain modelling in  casting tool development and prototype implementation on basis of the EDM/PDM - Systems Metaphase). At Augsburg, he taught Java, Java Threads, XML and software engineering.

In 2003, Jeckle became a professor at the University of Applied Sciences in Furtwangen.  He taught about XML, databases, software engineering, and "eBusiness" (electronic business).

Jeckle was also a W3C and OMG representative of DaimlerChrysler Research and developed technical standards for XML, UML 2.0, and others.  At the beginning of 2004, he was a member of the Technical Architecture Group of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Jeckle was also an writer of books and a well-known speaker at conferences and seminars (information groups).

Jeckle was a member of the International Red Cross.  On 11 June 2004, he died while giving aid to others who had a car accident on a German highway. While helping, another driver lost control and hit Jeckle and another man.

Memberships
 Associate Editor of International Journal of Web Services Research
 Associate Editor of International Journal on Web Services
 Chairman of the mailinglist of GOOAL.net
 Editor of W3C-Dokuments Composite Capability/Preference Profiles (CC/PP): Processing and Protocol Requirements 1.0
 Executive Committee Member of the IEEE Technical Community for Services Computing
 DaimlerChrysler Research member of the Advisory Committee des World Wide Web Consortiums (W3C)
 Headleader of the Masters of System Architekture in Furtwangen.
 Member of the Device Independence Working Group (W3C)
 Member of the Technical Architecture Group (W3C)
 Member of the Web Service Architecture Working Group (W3C)
 Member of the Editorial Boards des International Journal of Grid and Utility Computing
 Member of the Advisory Board des International Journal on Cases on Electronic Commerce
 Member of the Editorial Board des International Journal for Infonomics
 Member of the Editorial Board des International Journal of IT Standards & Standardization Research
 Member of the Fachbeirat the lecture "Java Spektrum"
 Member of the German Architect Board of ASQF
 Member of the IBM Developer Works Research Panel
 Member of the Java Community Process
 Member of the Technical Advisory Board der Gentleware AG

Other websites
 private Homepage of Mario Jeckle (in German)
 Informatikpreis 1998  (in German)
  Tim Berners-Lee to the death of Mario Jeckle (W3C)
  In Memoriam: Mario Jeckle (W3C)

German computer scientists
1974 births
2004 deaths

Mario Jeckle


Wader is a common term in ornithology for birds which walk about in shallow water. Sometimes they are called shore-birds. They are members of the order Charadriiformes, which are water birds. The Charadriiformes also includes marine-going seabirds with webbed feet. The evolutionary relationships of these birds are very complicated.

Most waders live in wetland or coastal environments.  Many species of Arctic and temperate regions are strongly migratory, but tropical birds are often resident. Some of the Arctic species, such as little stint, are amongst the longest distance migrants, spending the non-breeding season in the southern hemisphere.

Most species eat small invertebrates picked out of mud or exposed soil. Different lengths of bills allow different species to feed in the same habitat without direct competition for food. Many waders have sensitive nerve endings at the end of their bills which let them detect prey hidden in mud or soft soil. Some larger species, especially those adapted to drier habitats, take larger prey like insects and small reptiles.

Many of the smaller species found in coastal habitats are often called "sandpipers". The smallest member of this group is the least sandpiper, small adults of which can weigh as little as 15.5 grams and measure just over 13 cm (5 inches). The largest species is believed to be the Far Eastern curlew, at about 63 cm (25 inches) and 860 grams (1.9 lb), although the beach thick-knee, is the heaviest at about 1 kg (2.2 lb).

References

Charadriiformes

Wader


Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. Metals are good at heat conduction. The thermal conductivity of a material is a defining property that aids in the development of effective heating/cooling technologies. A value for thermal conductivity can be determined by measuring the rate at which heat can pass through a material.

Thermal resistivity is the opposite of thermal conductivity. This means not conducting heat much. Materials with high resistivity are called "thermal insulators" and are used in clothing, thermoses, home insulation, and cars to keep people warm or in refrigerators, freezers, and thermoses to keep things cold.

Thermal conductivity is often represented by the Greek letter "kappa", .  The units of thermal conductivity are watts per meter-kelvin.  Watts are a measure of power, meters are a measure of length, and kelvins are a measure of temperature.  From the units, we can see that thermal conductivity is a measure of how much power moves through a distance due to a temperature difference.

Some great thermal insulators are:
Vacuum, Aerogel, Polyurethane

Some great thermal conductors are:
Silver, Copper, Diamond

Silver is one of the most thermally conductive materials (and is relatively common), and because of this there are some cool experiments you can do with silver that show extremely well how thermal conduction works.

One example is when you put 2 spoons in boiling water, one spoon is steel and the other is silver. When you take the spoons out of the boiling water, the silver spoon is hotter than the steel spoon. The reason for this is that silver conducts heat better than steel. The silver spoon will also cool off faster because of this, as it is better at releasing heat.

Another example of silver's thermal conductivity is to put different materials on ice cubes.  An iron washer will just sit on the ice and slowly become colder.  A copper penny will melt through the ice cube and become colder faster.  A silver coin, spoon, or ring on the ice cube will sink into it almost as though the ice cube were made of thick syrup, and the silver will become ice cold almost instantly.  Again, this is because the silver is really good at drawing heat from the air and giving it to the ice cube.  Copper is also good at this, but not as much as silver.

Thermodynamics

Thermal conductivity


Adhesion is the process in which dissimilar particles stick together. In the case of similar particles, this effect is called cohesion. Adhesion results from the physical properties of the interface between two phases. The forces that result in adhesion are not fully known, there are different explanations. Five different types of adhesion have been proposed:
Mechanical adhesion: Adhesive materials fill the voids or pores, and interlock
Chemical adhesion: Where they join, two materials form a Chemical compound.
Dispersive adhesion: Two materials are held together by Van der Waals forces
Electrostatic adhesion: Two materials are held together by electrostatic charge
Diffusive adhesion: Two materials are held together with Atomic diffusion, it is derived from a sanskrit word adhere meaning to hold on

Adhesives

Adhesion


The Holden 48-215, an aa kent unofficially as the Holden FX is a mid-size, sax-cylinder sedan which wis produced bi the Australian automaker, General Motors–Holden's Ltd atween November 1948 an October 1953. The design wis originally penned in the Unitit States bi Chevrolet afore Warld War II, but wis rejectit acause it wis deemed too sma for the U.S. market. Instead the design became the basis o the 48-215 model. Development o the 48-215 began in 1944. Three prototypes wur built bi hand in 1946 bi American an Australian ingineers at the General Motors wirkshop in Detroit. Efter months o durability an performance tests in Americae, these prototypes wur shipped tae Australie. The sole survivin prototype, Holden Prototype Car No. 1, is pairt o the Naitional Museum o Australie collection. The Holden wis released for sale tae the public in 1948 at Port Melbourne, Victoria, bi the then Australian Prime Meenister, Ben Chifley. The caur wis marketit simply as the "Holden", athoot a model name.

The 50-2106 Coupe Utility, based on the 48-215 sedan, wis released in Januar 1951  an in Julie 1953 the Holden Business Sedan, essentially a taxi version o the 48-215, wis addit tae the range.  The 48-215 model made way for the updatit Holden FJ in 1953, which woud later became an iconic Australian caur.

References

Freemit airtins
 Holden 48-215 sales brochure Retrieved frae Unique Cars and Parts on 15 September 2008
 Holden 48-215
 Holden Prototype Car No. 1 at the Naitional Museum o Australie

Caurs o Australie
First automobile made bi manufacturer
48-215

Holden 48-215


Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought was a libertarian journal published between 1965 and 1968.  Founded by Murray N. Rothbard, Karl Hess, George Resch, and Leonard P. Liggio, it was edited and largely written by Murray Rothbard.

History

In the 1960s, Rothbard began questioning the alliance between libertarians and conservatives, especially given the vast difference of opinion on such issues as the Vietnam War.  Rothbard concluded that libertarianism had its roots in the political left, and therefore that libertarians of the Old Right would be better suited in alliance with the growing anti-authoritarianism of the New Left.

As Rothbard put it in the opening editorial of the journal: "Our title, Left and Right, reflects our concerns in several ways.  It reveals our editorial concern with the ideological; and it also highlights our conviction that the present-day categories of *left* and *right* have become misleading and obsolete, and that the doctrine of liberty contains elements corresponding with both contemporary left and right.  This means in no sense that we are middle-of-the-roaders, eclectically trying to combine, or step between, both poles; but rather that a consistent view of liberty includes concepts that have also become part of the rhetoric or program of right and of left.  Hence a creative approach to liberty must transcend the confines of contemporary political shibboleths."

Following that editorial in the first issue, Rothbard's essay "Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty" was made available to readers.  It explained in detail the origin of libertarian thought as an extension of radical, left-wing liberalism and the origin and nature of the unholy alliance of libertarianism with the conservative right.

Book
In 2007, the Ludwig von Mises Institute collected together and published as a book all issues of the journal.  The 690-page book was titled Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought (Complete, 1965–1968). .

See also

 Anarcho-capitalism
 Left libertarianism
 Libertarian Forum, The

References

External links
 Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought archives

Libertarian magazines published in the United States
Defunct political magazines published in the United States
Libertarianism in the United States
Books by Murray Rothbard
Magazines established in 1965
Magazines disestablished in 1968


Rejection, or the verb reject, may refer to:

 Social rejection, in psychology, an interpersonal situation that occurs when a person or group of people exclude an individual from a social relationship
 Transplant rejection, in medicine, the immune reaction of a host organism to a foreign biological tissue, such as in a transplantation
 In telecommunications, rejection is the receiving of the desired signal without interference from another undesired one.
 In basketball, rejection is a slang term for a block
 In mathematics, the rejection of a vector a from a vector b is the component of a perpendicular to b, as opposed to its projection, which is parallel to b.
 In statistics, rejection of a null hypothesis in favour of an alternative hypothesis when doing a hypothesis test.
 In statistics, rejection sampling is a technique used to generate observations from a distribution
 In zoology, the shunning of one or more animals in a litter
 Rejection of Jesus, described in the New Testament

Art, media and entertainent
 "Reject", a song by Green Day from Nimrod
 "Reject", a song by Living Sacrifice from Reborn, 1997
 The Rejection (EP)
 Rejection (song), song by Martin Solveig
Rejection, a 2009 film with Gary Farmer
Rejection (film), a 2011 Ukrainian film
 "Rejection", a song by AC/DC from Power Up

See also
 Accept (disambiguation), the opposite of rejection
 Rejectionism (disambiguation)

Rejection


Maxim Vengerov (born 1974) is a famous Russian violinist/conductor.

Life

Career
Universally hailed as one of the world's finest musicians, and often referred to as the greatest living string player in the world today, Grammy award winner Maxim Vengerov also enjoys international acclaim as a conductor and is one of the most in-demand soloists.

Born in 1974, he began his career as a solo violinist at the age of five, won the Wieniawski and Carl Flesch international competitions at ages 10 and 15 respectively, studied with Galina Tourchaninova and Zakhar Bron, made his first recording at the age of 10, and went on to record extensively for high-profile labels including Melodia, Teldec and EMI, earning among others, Grammy and Gramophone artist of the year awards.

In 2007 he followed in the footsteps of his mentor, the late Mstislav Rostropovich, and turned his attention to conducting and in 2010 was appointed the first chief conductor of the Gstaad Festival Orchestra. June 2014 saw Mr Vengerov graduate with a Diploma of Excellence from the Moscow Institute of Ippolitov-Ivanov with professor Yuri Simonov and he has since enrolled in a further 2-year program of opera conducting.

In the 2016/17 season Mr Vengerov returned to Australia to open the season of the Sydney Symphony Orchestra and conducted the season finale of the Queensland Symphony Orchestra, with whom he is Artist in Residence this year. Further guest conducting engagements included the RTE Orchestra Dublin, Munich Philharmonic and Melbourne Symphony Orchestras.

The coming 17/18 season will see Mr Vengerov return to Carnegie Hall with the Montreal Symphony Orchestra and premiere a new concerto at the Beijing Music Festival written for him by the renowned composer Qigang Chen before conducting Eugene Onegin in Brisbane and Moscow. He will also tour Europe, China and the US in recital.

As one of Mr Vengerov's greatest passions is the teaching and encouraging of young talent, he has held various teaching positions around the world and is currently Ambassador and visiting Professor of the International Menuhin Music Academy in Switzerland (IMMA) and as of September 2016, the Polonsky Visiting Professor of Violin at the Royal College of Music in London.

In 1997 Mr Vengerov became the first classical musician to be appointed International Goodwill Ambassador by UNICEF.

He plays the ex-Kreutzer Stradivari (1727).

References

Other websites
 Maxim Vengerov official site
 Maxim Vengerov fan site

1974 births
Living people

Grammy Award winners
Russian violinists
Novosibirsk

Maxim Vengerov


Moses Leaving for Egypt is a fresco by the Italian Renaissance painter Pietro Perugino and his workshop,  executed around 1482 and located in the Sistine Chapel, Rome. It depicts a journey by the prophet Moses.

History
The commission of the work originated in 1480, when Perugino was decorating a chapel in the Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Pope Sixtus IV was pleased by his work, and decided to commission him also the decoration of the new Chapel he had built in the Vatican Palace. Due to the size of the work, Perugino was later joined by a group of painters from Florence, including Botticelli, Ghirlandaio and others.

Perugino's assistants in the Sistine Chapel included Pinturicchio. Some  figures in the fresco were traditionally attributed to him, but this has been disputed by 20th-century art historians. They were  painted by Andrea d'Assisi, Rocco Zoppo or, less likely, Lo Spagna or Bartolomeo della Gatta, other Perugino's collaborators of the time.

Description
The fresco depicting the voyage of Moses is the first on the wall right to the altar, and faces the Baptism of Christ on the opposite wall.

The painting shows Moses (dressing in yellow and green as in the other frescoes of the cycle) leaving for Egypt, after he had been exiled from Midian, with Zipporah to his right. In the center, an angel asks him to circumcise his son Eliezer (scene on the right), as a sign of the alliance between Yahweh and the Israelites. The baptism, depicted on the opposite fresco, was in fact considered by several early Christian writers, including Augustine, as a kind of "spiritual circumcision". The ceremony is on the right, and includes Zipporah.

In the right background Moses and Zipporah are greeting Jethro before leaving. Natural elements include the hill landscape in the background, characterized by thin trees (including a palm, a symbol of Christian sacrifice), and the birds: two of them are mating, an allusion to the renovations cycles of the nature. On the left background is a group of shepherds. The dames with flying dresses were a common element of Florentine early Renaissance painting, used also by Ghirlandaio and Botticelli.

References

Sources

1480s paintings
Paintings by Pietro Perugino
Sistine Chapel wall frescoes
Paintings depicting Moses
Angels in art
Birds in art
Camels in art
Sheep in art
Dance in art
Dogs in art

Moses Leaving for Egypt (Perugino)


The People's Republic of China claims that the island of Taiwan is part of its territory, but the Republic of China (which was the government that controlled all of China from 1911 to 1949) still claims the land as theirs, and does still control Taiwan.

Many people say the government stops people from having freedom of speech, freedom of religion and other political rights that people in other countries have. China still has one-party rule, and is not a democracy.

Territorial disputes
The following territories are claimed by China (PRC and/or ROC) and by another country or more.

Diaoyu Islands (with Japan)
Nansha Archipelago (with Vietnam, Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines)
Xisha Archipelago (with Republic of China and Vietnam)
South Tibet - parts of Arunachal Pradesh (with Republic of India)
Aksai Chin - part of Kashmir (with Republic of India)

Lost territories (Unequal treaties)
Unequal treaties were forced onto Asian countries when European imperialism reached Asia.
The list includes claims from PRC and ROC, as well as unofficial historical claims.
Note: Japan's and Korea's unequal treaties have been resolved since the end of WWII.

 Mongolia (lost to independence)
 Tuva (lost to Russian Empire)
 Outer Manchuria (lost to Russian Empire)
 Kyrgyzstan (lost to Russian Empire)
 parts of Kazakhstan (lost to Russian Empire)
 parts of Myanmar (lost to British Empire)
 Bhutan (lost to British Empire)
Hong Kong (lost to British Empire) (returned to PRC with effect from 1 July 1997 under the Sino-British Joint Declaration)
 Macau (lost to Portugal) (transferred to PRC on 20 December 1999)
 Tonkin & Northern Annam (lost to France)
 Ryukyu Islands (lost to Japanese Empire)

Related pages
1989 Tiananmen Square protests
List of Chinese dissidents
Movies banned in China
Websites blocked in China
Falun Gong

Politics of China

Political problems of China


Iveagh House is a Georgian house which now contains the headquarters of the Department of Foreign Affairs in Dublin, Ireland. It is also sometimes used colloquially as a metonym referring to the department itself.

Iveagh House was originally two houses, nos 80 and 81 St Stephen's Green. No 80 was designed by Richard Cassels in 1736 for Bishop Clayton. It was later the home of barrister and Master of the Rolls John Philpot Curran.

After both houses were bought by Benjamin Guinness in 1862 he served as his own architect, combined the two houses and produced the building as it now stands. On the Portland stone facade pediment he placed his parents' arms: on the left the Milesian lion, with the Red Hand of Ulster above, for the Magennis clan of County Down; and on the right the arms of the Lee family, Dublin builders from about 1700. The building has nine bays, with the central three broken forward and pedimented. The interior of the building is hugely elaborate and decorative, with a staircase and ballroom lined with alabaster. The staircase also has ornate ironwork, marble columns and circular roof lights.

The building was donated to the Irish state by Benjamin Guinness's grandson, Rupert, Lord Iveagh, in 1939, and was renamed Iveagh House. The original Iveagh House is still a part of the Iveagh Trust nearby.

The Iveagh Gardens at the back of the house were given to University College Dublin (UCD), by The 1st Lord Iveagh in 1908, in connection with the formation of its campus on Earlsfort Terrace. The gardens have since been transferred to the OPW and are now used as a public park. The conservation and restoration of the Gardens commenced in 1995 and to date most of the original features have been restored, for example the Maze in Box hedging with a Sundial as a centre piece.  The restored Cascade and exotic tree ferns all help to create a sense of wonder in the 'Secret Garden'.

External links

Department of Foreign Affairs
Virtual Tour of Iveagh House

References

Richard Cassels buildings
Buildings and structures in Dublin (city)
1939 establishments in Ireland
St Stephen's Green

Iveagh House


अटोमोबाइल वा अटोमोबिल वा मोटर कार छगू घःचा दूगु मोटर गाडी ख। थुकिइ कार इञ्जिन वा मोटर छ्येला यात्रुतेत छगू थासं मेगु थासय् यातायातयायेत छ्येलि। साधारण कथं थुकियात लंय् छ्येलिगु छम्ह निसें च्याम्ह मनुतक्क च्वने ज्युगु प्येचा दुगु व सामान ढुवानी स्वया नं मनुतेगु यातायातया निंतिं देकातःगु गाडीया रुपय् परिभाषित याइ। तर थ्व परिभाषा कथंया यक्व गाडी दैगुलिं थ्व परिभाषा प्रिसाइज मजु।

नांया उत्त्पत्ति
अटोमोबाइल खँग्वः दक्ले न्ह्यः फांसे भाषाय् युनानी भाषाया अटो [थमंतुं] व मोबिलिस [सनिगु] खँग्वः स्वाना मेमेगु यान वा प्राणीतेसं सालेम्वागु थमंतुं सनिगु यानयात परिभाषित यायेत छ्येलातःगु खने दु। थुकिया मेगु नां कार धाःसा ल्याटिन भाषाया खँग्वः कारस वा कारम [घःचा दुगु यान], वा मध्य अङ्ग्रेजी खँग्वः कारे ['गाडा'] (फांसे भाषा नं ), व कारोस (अर्थ: गेलिक भाषाय् व्यागन) नं वःगु धैगु विश्वास दु।

सन् २००२तक्कय् हलिमय् ५९० मिलियन प्यासेञ्जर कार दुगु (करिब ११ मनुया निंतिं छगू कार) दूगु तथ्याङ्क दु।

इतिहास

हलिमया दक्ले न्हापांगु अटोमोबाइल सुनां देकल धैगु खँय् विवाद दु। निकोलस-जोसेफ कग्नटनं करिब सन् १७६९इ सलं सालिगु यानयात मोडिफाइयाना हलिमया दक्ले न्हापांगु थमंतुं सनिगु मेक्यानिकल यान वा अटोमोबाइल देकुगु धैगु यक्व विज्ञतेगु विश्वास दु। तर कग्नत भाजुया स्वचा दुगु यान धाथें संगु वा स्थिर जुगु प्रमाण धाःसा मदु। अथे जुगुलिं मेमेपिन्सं फर्डिन्याण्ड भर्बिएस्ट, जिसुइट चीन मिसनया छम्ह सदस्यं करिब १६७२इ चिनिया जुजुयात लल्हानादीगु हा-शक्तिं सनिगु छगू कतांमरी यान सिरपा हलिमया दक्ले न्हापांगु सनिगु (तर मनु च्वने मछिंगु) अटोमोबाइल यान जुगु विश्वास या।  अविवादित कथं दुगु तथ्य छु दु धाःसा रिचार्ड ट्रेभिथिक भाजुं थःमेसिनं देका सन् १८०१य् ब्वयादिगु पफिङ्ग डेभिल रोड लोकोमोटिभ हलिमया दक्ले न्हापांगु ब्वयेज्या जुगु स्टिम पावर्ड यान ख। थ्व यान ब्वयेयात छ्येलातःसां थुकिलि ताहाक ईतक्क स्टिम चाप गाक्क तयेमछिंगुलिं थुकिया व्यवहारिक ज्या धाःसा सिक्क हे म्हो जक्क जुवन।

In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box, and bearings; however, it was not developed further.

François Isaac de Rivaz, a Swiss inventor, designed the first internal combustion engine, in 1806, which was fueled by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen and used it to develop the world's first vehicle, albeit rudimentary, to be powered by such an engine. The design was not very successful, as was the case with others such as Samuel Brown, Samuel Morey, and Etienne Lenoir with his hippomobile, who each produced vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by clumsy internal combustion engines.

In November 1881 French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile that was powered by electricity. This was at the International Exhibition of Electricity in Paris.

Although several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach, and Siegfried Marcus) were working on the problem at about the same time, Karl Benz generally is acknowledged as the inventor of the modern automobile.

An automobile powered by his own four-stroke cycle gasoline engine was built in Mannheim, Germany by Karl Benz in 1885 and granted a patent in January of the following year under the auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie., which was founded in 1883. It was an integral design, without the adaptation of other existing components and including several new technological elements to create a new concept. This is what made it worthy of a patent. He began to sell his production vehicles in 1888.

In 1879 Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had been designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle.

His first Motorwagon was built in 1885 and he was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on January 29, 1886. Benz began promotion of the vehicle on July 3, 1886 and approximately 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a model intended for affordability. They also were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz automobile to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early automobiles, initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany.

In 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine, called a boxermotor in German. During the last years of the nineteenth century, Benz was the largest automobile company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and because of its size, Benz & Cie., became a joint-stock company.

Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (Daimler Motor Company, DMG) in Cannstatt in 1890 and under the brand name, Daimler, sold their first automobile in 1892, which was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, that they retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895 about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after falling out with their backers. Benz and the Maybach and Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each other's early work. They never worked together because by the time of the merger of the two companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG.

Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes, that was placed in a specially-ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek. This was a production of a small number of vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902, a new model DMG automobile was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine which generated 35 hp. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers.

Karl Benz proposed co-operation between DMG and Benz & Cie. when economic conditions began to deteriorate in Germany following the First World War, but the directors of DMG refused to consider it initially. Negotiations between the two companies resumed several years later when these conditions worsened and, in 1924 they signed an Agreement of Mutual Interest, valid until the year 2000. Both enterprises standardized design, production, purchasing, and sales and they advertised or marketed their automobile models jointly—although keeping their respective brands.

On June 28, 1926, Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the Daimler-Benz company, baptizing all of its automobiles Mercedes Benz as a brand honoring the most important model of the DMG automobiles, the Maybach design later referred to as the 1902 Mercedes-35hp, along with the Benz name. Karl Benz remained a member of the board of directors of Daimler-Benz until his death in 1929 and at times, his two sons participated in the management of the company as well.

In 1890, Emile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines and so laid the foundation of the automobile industry in France.

The first design for an American automobile with a gasoline internal combustion engine was drawn in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester, New York, who applied for a patent for an automobile in 1879, but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built and proved to work (a requirement for a patent). After a delay of sixteen years and a series of attachments to his application, on November 5, 1895, Selden was granted a United States patent () for a two-stroke automobile engine, which hindered, more than encouraged, development of automobiles in the United States. His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911.

In Britain there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860. Santler from Malvern is recognized by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first petrol-powered car in the country in 1894 followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895 but these were both one-offs. The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from the Daimler Motor Company, a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896 after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines. Lawson's company made its first automobiles in 1897 and they bore the name Daimler.

In 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel was granted a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897 he built the first Diesel Engine. Steam-, electric-, and gasoline-powered vehicles competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s.

Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design, only Mazda's version of the Wankel engine has had more than very limited success.

इन्धन व प्रपल्सन प्रविधि

आया ईले आपालं अटोमोबाइल ग्यासोलिन (पेट्रोल) वा डिजेल छ्यला इन्टर्नल कम्बस्चन इञ्जिन संकिगु या। थुकिलिं प्रदुषण व ग्लोबल वार्मिङ्ग जुइगु खने दु।  चिकं आधारित इन्धनया दनाच्वंगु भा, कडा वातावरणीय विधान व ग्रीनहाउस ग्यासया नियन्त्रणया कारणं वैकल्पिक उर्जा स्रोतय् यक्व मालेज्या जुयाच्वंगु दु। वर्तमानय् जुयाच्वंगु मू प्रविधि विकासय् हाइब्रिड वाहन, विद्युतीय वाहन व हाइड्रोजन वाहन मू खनेदु।

पेट्रोलियम इन्धन

डिजेल
डिजेल-इञ्जिनया कार युरोपय् नांजा। थ्व इन्धनया कार दकले न्ह्यः सन् १९३०या दशकय् मर्सिडिज बेञ्ज व साट्रोएनं पिकागु ख। थ्व इञ्जिनया मू फाइदा धाःगु ५०% इन्धन प्रभावकारी कथं छ्वइगु ख। ग्यासोलिन इञ्जिनय् इन्धन २७% जक्क ज्या व।

ग्यासोलिन

Gasoline engines have the advantage over diesel in being lighter and able to work at higher rotational speeds and they are the usual choice for fitting in high-performance sports cars. Continuous development of gasoline engines for over a hundred years has produced improvements in efficiency and reduced pollution. The carburetor was used on nearly all road car engines until the 1980s but it was long realised better control of the fuel/air mixture could be achieved with fuel injection. Indirect fuel injection was first used in aircraft engines from 1909, in racing car engines from the 1930s, and road cars from the late 1950s. Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) is now starting to appear in production vehicles such as the 2007 (Mark II) BMW Mini. Exhaust gases are also cleaned up by fitting a catalytic converter into the exhaust system. Clean air legislation in many of the car industries most important markets has made both catalysts and fuel injection virtually universal fittings. Most modern gasoline engines also are capable of running with up to 15% ethanol mixed into the gasoline - older vehicles may have seals and hoses that can be harmed by ethanol. With a small amount of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85%. 100% ethanol is used in some parts of the world (such as Brazil), but vehicles must be started on pure gasoline and switched over to ethanol once the engine is running. Most gasoline engined cars can also run on LPG with the addition of an LPG tank for fuel storage and carburetion modifications to add an LPG mixer. LPG produces fewer toxic emissions and is a popular fuel for fork lift trucks that have to operate inside buildings.

Biofuels

Ethanol, other alcohol fuels (biobutanol) and biogasoline have widespread use an automotive fuel. Most alcohols have less energy per liter than gasoline and are usually blended with gasoline. Alcohols are used for a variety of reasons - to increase octane, to improve emissions, and as an alternative to petroleum based fuel, since they can be made from agricultural crops. Brazil's ethanol program provides about 20% of the nation's automotive fuel needs, as a result of the mandatory use of E25 blend of gasoline throughout the country, 3 million cars that operate on pure ethanol, and 6 million dual or flexible-fuel vehicles sold since 2003. that run on any mix of ethanol and gasoline. The commercial success of "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, have allowed sugarcane based ethanol fuel to achieve a 50% market share of the gasoline market by April 2008.

Electric

The first electric cars were built around 1832, well before internal combustion powered cars appeared. For a period of time electrics were considered superior due to the silent nature of electric motors compared to the very loud noise of the gasoline engine. This advantage was removed with Hiram Percy Maxim's invention of the muffler in 1897. Thereafter internal combustion powered cars had two critical advantages: 1) long range and 2) high specific energy (far lower weight of petrol fuel versus weight of batteries). The building of battery electric vehicles that could rival internal combustion models had to wait for the introduction of modern semiconductor controls and improved batteries. Because they can deliver a high torque at low revolutions electric cars do not require such a complex drive train and transmission as internal combustion powered cars. Some post-2000 electric car designs such as the Venturi Fétish are able to accelerate from 0-60 mph (96 km/h) in 4.0 seconds with a top speed around 130 mph (210 km/h). Others have a range of 250 miles (400 km) on the EPA highway cycle requiring 3-1/2 hours to completely charge. Equivalent fuel efficiency to internal combustion is not well defined but some press reports give it at around .

Stnsmbeam

Steam power, usually using an oil- or gas-heated boiler, was also in use until the 1930s but had the major disadvantage of being unable to power the car until boiler pressure was available (although the newer models could achieve this in well under a minute). It has the advantage of being able to produce very low emissions as the combustion process can be carefully controlled. Its disadvantages include poor heat efficiency and extensive requirements for electric auxiliaries.

Air

A compressed air car is an alternative fuel car that uses a motor powered by compressed air. The car can be powered solely by air, or by air combined (as in a hybrid electric vehicle) with gasoline/diesel/ethanol or electric plant and regenerative braking. Instead of mixing fuel with air and burning it to drive pistons with hot expanding gases; compressed air cars use the expansion of compressed air to drive their pistons. Several prototypes are available already and scheduled for worldwide sale by the end of 2008. Companies releasing this type of car include Tata Motors and Motor Development International (MDI).

Gas turbine
In the 1950s there was a brief interest in using gas turbine engines and several makers including Rover and Chrysler produced prototypes. In spite of the power units being very compact, high fuel consumption, severe delay in throttle response, and lack of engine braking meant no cars reached production.

Rotary (Wankel) engines
Rotary Wankel engines were introduced into road cars by NSU with the Ro 80 and later were seen in the Citroën GS Birotor and several Mazda models. In spite of their impressive smoothness, poor reliability and fuel economy led to them largely disappearing. Mazda, beginning with the R100 then RX-2, has continued research on these engines, overcoming most of the earlier problems with the RX-7 and RX-8.

Rocket and jet cars
A rocket car holds the record in drag racing. However, the fastest of those cars are used to set the Land Speed Record, and are propelled by propulsive jets emitted from rocket, turbojet, or more recently and most successfully turbofan engines. The ThrustSSC car using two Rolls-Royce Spey turbofans with reheat was able to exceed the speed of sound at ground level in 1997.

Safety

There are three main statistics to which automobile safety can be compared:

While road traffic injuries represent the leading cause in worldwide injury-related deaths, their popularity undermines this statistic.

Mary Ward became one of the first documented automobile fatalities in 1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland and Henry Bliss one of the United State's first pedestrian automobile casualties in 1899 in New York.
There are now standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the EuroNCAP and the US NCAP tests, as well as insurance-backed IIHS tests.

Economics and impacts

Cost and benefits of usage

The costs of automobile usage, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs, maintenance, fuel, depreciation, parking fees, tire replacement, taxes and insurance, are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits - perceived and real - of vehicle usage.  The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence and convenience.

Cost and benefits to society

Similarly the costs to society of encompassing automobile use, which may include those of: maintaining roads, land use, pollution, public health, health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life, can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that automobile use generates.  The societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of automobile production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities.  The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far reaching implications for the nature of societies.

Impacts on society and environment

Transportation is a major contributor to air pollution in most industrialised nations. According to the American Surface Transportation Policy Project nearly half of all Americans are breathing unhealthy air. Their study showed air quality in dozens of metropolitan areas has got worse over the last decade.  In the United States the average passenger car emits 11,450 lbs (5 tonnes) of carbon dioxide, along with smaller amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen.  Residents of low-density, residential-only sprawling communities are also more likely to die in car collisions, which kill 1.2 million people worldwide each year, and injure about forty times this number. Sprawl is more broadly a factor in inactivity and obesity, which in turn can lead to increased risk of a variety of diseases.

Improving the positive and reducing the negative impacts
Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less polluting, car designs (e.g. hybrid vehicles) and the development of alternative fuels. High fuel taxes may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive.  On average, today's automobiles are about 75 percent recyclable, and using recycled steel helps reduce energy use and pollution.  In the United States Congress, federally mandated fuel efficiency standards have been debated regularly, passenger car standards have not risen above the  standard set in 1985. Light truck standards have changed more frequently, and were set at  in 2007. Alternative fuel vehicles are another option that is less polluting than conventional petroleum powered vehicles.

Future car technologies

Automobile propulsion technology under development include gasoline/electric and plug-in hybrids, battery electric vehicles, hydrogen cars, biofuels, and various alternative fuels.

Research into future alternative forms of power include the development of fuel cells, Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), stirling engines, and even using the stored energy of compressed air or liquid nitrogen.

New materials which may replace steel car bodies include duraluminum, fiberglass, carbon fiber, and carbon nanotubes.

Telematics technology is allowing more and more people to share cars, on a pay-as-you-go basis, through such schemes as City Car Club in the UK, Mobility in mainland Europe, and Zipcar in the US.

Alternatives to the automobile

Established alternatives for some aspects of automobile use include public transit (buses, trolleybuses, trains, subways, monorails, tramways), cycling, walking, rollerblading, skateboarding, horseback riding and using a velomobile. Car-share arrangements and carpooling are also increasingly popular–the U.S. market leader in car-sharing has experienced double-digit growth in revenue and membership growth between 2006 and 2007, offering a service that enables urban residents to "share" a vehicle rather than own a car in already congested neighborhoods.  Bike-share systems have been tried in some European cities, including Copenhagen and Amsterdam. Similar programs have been experimented with in a number of U.S. Cities.  Additional individual modes of transport, such as personal rapid transit could serve as an alternative to automobiles if they prove to be socially accepted.

See also

 Air pollution
 Car classification
 Car donation
 Driving
 List of countries by automobile production
 List of countries by vehicles per capita
 Lists of automobiles
 Society of Automotive Engineers
 Sustainable transport
 U.S. Automobile Production Figures - production figures for each make from 1899 to 2000
 V2G
 V2V

References

External links

 Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile

प्रविधि
Vehicles

अटोमोबाइल


The 100th Grey Cup was a Canadian football game between the East Division champion Toronto Argonauts and the West Division champion Calgary Stampeders of the Canadian Football League to decide the Grey Cup champions of the 2012 season.

The game took place on Sunday, November 25, 2012, at Rogers Centre in Toronto, Ontario. This was the fourth (and last) Grey Cup game played at Rogers Centre (by the next Grey Cup game that Toronto hosted in 2016, it was played at BMO Field), and the 46th in the city of Toronto.

The Argonauts defeated the Stampeders 35–22 to win their 16th Grey Cup title.

This was the third meeting between Calgary and Toronto for the Grey Cup championship and the first since the 79th Grey Cup in 1991. This was also the second consecutive year that the Grey Cup game involved, and was won by, the team from the host city. The result of the game also meant that Argonauts owner David Braley became the first team owner to win back-to-back Grey Cups with two different teams; Braley also owned the 2011 champions, the BC Lions (Braley has since sold the Toronto Argonauts). Over 5.8 million viewers watched the game, with roughly 5.5 million originating from English Canada, making the game the most-watched Grey Cup ever recorded on English-language television.

Following the game, Toronto running back Chad Kackert was named the Most Valuable Player. His teammate, defensive end Ricky Foley received the Dick Suderman Trophy as the Most Valuable Canadian.

Host city selection
On February 5, 2010, news agencies reported that the game had been awarded to Toronto. On June 11, 2010, it was officially announced by the CFL that the city of Toronto would host the game. Toronto hosted the first Grey Cup and has been the site of the most Grey Cup games. It was the 46th time that Toronto hosted the event (and 4th at Rogers Centre).

100th Grey Cup celebrations
The league promoted the 100th Grey Cup in several ways. The Grey Cup 100 Train Tour, with three CFL-themed railway coaches, criss-crossed Canada for ten weeks. Starting September 9 at Pacific Central Station in Vancouver, the Grey Cup was placed on board the train during an official ceremony. The coaches traveled east across Canada, visiting over 100 communities including all eight CFL cities as well as Ottawa, Quebec City, Moncton, and Halifax. It also made stops in Nunavut and Newfoundland and Labrador. The train arrived in Toronto on November 17, 2012. It featured a museum car, a railcar with contemporary memorabilia, and a car containing the Grey Cup itself.

Canada Post celebrated the 100th Grey Cup by issuing a series of commemorative postage stamps, designed by Bensimon Byrne of Toronto. Stamps have been produced for each team; every franchise chose one player in its history to be on the foreground of their team's stamp and the background features a historical moment from a past Grey Cup.

In the week leading up to the game, the Canadian government recognized the historical significance of the Grey Cup at a ceremony at Varsity Stadium in Toronto, which hosted the Grey Cup game twenty-nine times between 1909 and 1957. Because of this recognition the Grey Cup will be placed in Canada's system of national historic sites, persons and events.

On November 22, the Queen of Canada, Elizabeth II, issued a message recognizing the hundredth edition of the game, as well as the 48th edition of the Vanier Cup, which was played two days prior to the Grey Cup. In her message, the Queen noted the monarchial ties of both championships and wished an enjoyable weekend for the teams, players and fans.

Path to the Grey Cup

Calgary Stampeders

The Stampeders finished second in the West Division with a 12–6 record, including four consecutive victories leading into the playoffs. As a result, they hosted the third place Saskatchewan Roughriders in the West Semi-Final at McMahon Stadium. Calgary was led by running back Jon Cornish, whose total of 1,457 rushing yards during the season set a league record for most by a Canadian-born player. Stampeders' head coach John Hufnagel named first-string quarterback Drew Tate the starter even though it would be his first full game since suffering a shoulder injury on July 7 against Toronto. Tate excelled in the game; he completed 22 of 26 passes for 363 yards and was named the CFL's offensive player of the week to lead Calgary to a 36–30 victory in the game. The game ended in dramatic fashion as, after a Calgary field goal with 1:22 remaining in the game put the Stampeders up 29–23, Saskatchewan quarterback Darian Durant engineered a quick touchdown drive to give the Roughriders a one-point lead with one minute to play.  However, Tate connected on a 68-yard touchdown pass to Romby Bryant with 19 seconds remaining to complete the Calgary victory.

The victory advanced the Stampeders to the West Final, played in Vancouver, against the 13–5 BC Lions. It was revealed in the days leading up to the November 18 game that Tate suffered a broken wrist late in the game against Saskatchewan that ended his season.  Veteran backup Kevin Glenn, who was the team's primary quarterback for much of the season due to Tate's injuries, was named the starter against BC. Glenn threw three touchdown passes to lead the Stampeders to a 34–29 win over the defending champion Lions. Cornish rushed for 112 yards on 18 carries and caught two passes for 42 yards was named the CFL's top Canadian for the week.

Toronto Argonauts

The 9–9 Argonauts finished second in the East Division and hosted the division semi-final against the Edmonton Eskimos, who at 7–11 finished fourth in the West but crossed over by virtue of having a superior record to the third place team in the East, the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. Toronto quarterback Ricky Ray was the focus of the game, as he spent the first nine years of his CFL career as Edmonton's franchise quarterback until a trade prior to the 2012 season sent him to Toronto. Edmonton struggled throughout the season to replace him, and in the East Final, starter Kerry Joseph completed only four passes for 64 yards before being replaced at half time.  Backup Matt Nichols replaced him until suffering a serious ankle injury in the second half.  Ray, meanwhile, completed 23 of 30 passes for 239 yards and led the Argonauts offence to a team-record 31 points in the second quarter en route to a 42–26 victory.

The Argonauts then faced the division leading Montreal Alouettes (11–7) in the East Final.  Toronto receiver Chad Owens, who led the CFL with 3,863 all-purpose yards, was a former Alouette who was traded by the team to Toronto in 2010. He led all players in the East Final with 207 receiving yards on 11 catches, and was named the league's most outstanding player of the week.  Ray threw for 399 yards and Toronto took advantage of turnovers to defeat the favoured Alouettes 27–20.

Head-to-head
Calgary and Toronto met twice in the regular season, both games won by the Argonauts. The first, a 39–36 victory on July 7 in Toronto, was the game where Tate suffered the shoulder injury that forced him onto the injured list for 14 games.  The second win came in Calgary, a 22–14 victory on August 18. Despite the outcome of their two regular season meetings, Calgary was named a two-point favourite over Toronto in the Grey Cup by sports betting agencies.

It was also the third meeting between the two teams in Grey Cup play. They first met in the 59th Grey Cup in 1971, when the Stampeders won a defensive battle 14–11.  It was Calgary's first Grey Cup victory since their perfect season in 1948. The two teams met again 20 years later in the 79th Grey Cup.  Calgary quarterback Danny Barrett set Grey Cup records of 39 pass completions and 56 attempts as the Stampeders more than doubled the Argonauts offensive production, 406 yards to 174.  Special teams were the difference in the game however, as Barrett was intercepted three times and Toronto's Rocket Ismail ran an 87-yard kickoff return for a touchdown en route to a 36–21 Argonaut victory.

Game summary
Calgary, being the designated away team, made the call of heads for the coin toss; the result was a tails, allowing Toronto to choose to receive the ball for the first half of the game. The roof of the Rogers Centre was closed for the entirety of the game.

On Toronto's first offensive play of the game, quarterback Ricky Ray was intercepted by Quincy Butler. It was Ray's first interception since October 27. However, Calgary was unable to capitalize on the turnover and was forced to punt the football to end their first drive. Calgary committed their first turnover of the game on their next possession when running back Jon Cornish fumbled the ball on a handoff from quarterback Kevin Glenn. Toronto ended up opening up the scoring on the ensuing drive thanks to a five-yard touchdown run by the league's Most Outstanding Player Chad Owens.

The Stampeders responded to the touchdown with a field goal by Rene Paredes to cut the score down to 7–3 and they quickly regained possession of the ball, but the drive was cut short when Glenn was picked off by Toronto cornerback Pacino Horne, who ran the ball in for a touchdown to put the Argos up 14–3 early in the second quarter. On their following possession, Toronto found themselves at Calgary's 12-yard line following a 62-yard pass from Ray to Jason Barnes, but were forced to settle for a field goal by the Stampeders defence. Calgary responded with a field goal of their own to reduce the Argo lead to 17–6. Toronto would add another touchdown before halftime on a one-yard touchdown catch by Dontrelle Inman from Jarious Jackson.

Having received the ball at the start of the second half, Calgary moved the ball from their own 10-yard line to scoring range thanks to a 15-yard pass from Glenn to slotback Marquay McDaniel and a Toronto pass interference penalty. However, the Toronto defence again forced the Stampeders to kick a field goal, cutting the score to 24–9. Following a Toronto field goal midway through the third quarter, Calgary's Larry Taylor ran the ensuing kickoff 105 yards for an apparent touchdown, however the play was called back around midfield due to a holding penalty called against Keon Raymond.  The penalty negated the score, and the Stampeders were again unable to overcome the Argonauts defence, punting the ball. On their next drive, the Stampeders were unable to capitalize despite a penalty to Toronto player Adriano Belli, who received a disqualification after an altercation with Calgary offensive lineman Jon Gott;  Calgary was forced to punt the ball, but was able to force Toronto to concede a safety three plays later to end the third quarter.

The fourth quarter opened promisingly for Calgary. On a second-and-long play by the Stampeders, a pass interference penalty was called on Argos defensive back Ahmad Carroll to put them in scoring range. However, the Argonauts defence again prevented the Stampeders from reaching the end zone and Calgary settled for their fourth field goal of the game. With 5:56 left in the game, Ricky Ray threw his second touchdown pass of the night to put the Argos up 34–14. Stampeders receiver Maurice Price scored his team's lone touchdown of the game with twenty seconds remaining on the clock and followed up with the two-point conversion.  After a failed onside kick, Toronto allowed the clock run down, winning the game by a final score of 35–22.

Toronto's Chad Kackert was named the Most Valuable Player of the Grey Cup after rushing the ball 20 times for 133 yards and adding 62 yards from 8 pass receptions. Defensive end Ricky Foley, a native of Courtice, Ontario, won the Dick Suderman Trophy as the game's top Canadian player after recovering a Calgary fumble early in the game and for helping to limit Calgary's Cornish to 57 yards rushing for the game.

Scoring summary

First Quarter
TOR – TD Owens 5 yd pass from Ray (Waters convert) (7:32) 7 – 0 TOR
CGY – FG Paredes 40 (4:09) 7 – 3 TOR
Second Quarter
TOR – TD Horne 25 yd interception return (Waters convert) (14:46) 14 – 3 TOR
TOR – FG Waters 16 (9:25) 17 – 3 TOR
CGY – FG Paredes 18 (2:33) 17 – 6 TOR
TOR – TD Inman 1 yd pass from Jackson (Waters convert) (0:22) 24 – 6 TOR
Third Quarter
CGY – FG Paredes 27 (6:29) 24 – 9 TOR
TOR – FG Waters 30 (3:01) 27 – 9 TOR
CGY – Safety (0:04) 27 – 11 TOR
Fourth Quarter
CGY – FG Paredes 19 (9:58) 27 – 14 TOR
TOR – TD Durie 7 yd pass from Ray (Waters convert) (5:56) 34 – 14 TOR
TOR – Single Prefontaine 53 yd punt (1:42) 35 – 14 TOR
CGY – TD Price 12 yd pass from Mitchell (Price 2-pt convert) (0:20) 35 – 22 TOR

Ceremonies and associated events
A "fan parade", called the Sun Life Grey Cup Fan March, took place on November 25, moving from Varsity Stadium at the University of Toronto to Rogers Centre. The coin toss, using the first 100th Grey Cup commemorative coin struck by the Royal Canadian Mint, was executed by Governor General of Canada David Johnston, as was the ceremonial kickoff.

Entertainment
The CFL unveiled an "all-Canadian, all-star lineup" of musical acts to perform the pre-game and halftime shows at the game.  Burton Cummings, former lead singer of 1960s–1970s rock band The Guess Who, performed "O Canada", and country artist Johnny Reid performed as part of the pre-game show.  The halftime show featured pop artists Justin Bieber and Carly Rae Jepsen, along with rock band Marianas Trench and balladeer Gordon Lightfoot. CFL commissioner Mark Cohon explained that the lineup spanned multiple generations of music, was "quintessentially Canadian and undoubtedly world class", and would "command a huge and diverse audience, entertaining our most loyal fans and attracting new ones to our game's greatest showcase."

Despite the CFL's endorsement, many questioned the league's choice of performers. In particular, the selection of Justin Bieber was criticized for his lack of appeal to the demographic attending the game. During the halftime show, Bieber was booed throughout his performance, whereas Gordon Lightfoot's shortened performance of "Canadian Railroad Trilogy" was met with raucous approval from the crowd. Burton Cummings also received criticism for accidentally omitting a line "God keep our land" from the national anthem.

Television
The game was broadcast in Canada on TSN in English and its sister station, RDS, in French.  TSN commissioned a documentary series, Engraved on a Nation, to commemorate the centennial.  The game was televised in the United States by NBCSN.

With an average of 5.5 million viewers for TSN, it was the most watched Grey Cup game of all-time on English television. Including RDS, viewership averaged 5.8 million, while over 13 million Canadians watched at least part of the contest.  While these totals represented a 28% increase over the year before, both fell short of the all-time records of 6.1 million viewers on average and 14 million total set in the 97th Grey Cup in 2009. The half-time show averaged 6.1 million viewers.

References

External links
Official Site

Grey Cup
Canadian football competitions in Toronto
Calgary Stampeders
Toronto Argonauts
Grey Cup
2012 in Toronto
2012 sports awards
2012 in Canadian television
November 2012 sports events in Canada

100th Grey Cup


Supercharger -As at higher altitude the atmospheric pressure decreases due to which density of air decreases. Hence, to increase the density of air, first time supercharger was introduced in the Internal combustion engine of Aircraft which compresses the air through compressor wheel. It was working as a parasitic load on engine as the drive is given through gear train of the engine. So to overcome this situation Turbocharger was introduced in which drive is given through the pressure of exhaust gases.turbocharger is not used in ic engines.
Aircraft engines
Motors

Supercharger


This is about the sport. You may be wanting to read about a fence.

Fencing is a sport that includes two people with swords. The aim is to score hits. There is also a referee.
In the olden times when two people argued they fenced the first one to draw blood was wrong and the person would be dead, so the person that won would claim the dead person's house and belongings.

Weapons

Foil

The foil is a light and easy to bend weapon, first made in mid 17th century as a weapon for practice. 'Hits' can only be scored by hitting the target area with the point of the sword. The target area is the torso.

Épée

The épée is the heaviest of the three weapons. To score a hit, the push-button on the end of the weapon must remain fully down for 2-10 milliseconds, and must arrive (hit) with a force of at least 7.35 newtons. The target area for Épée is the entire body. This includes the feet and the head.

Sabre

The sabre is the "cutting" weapon, with a curved guard (to protect the hand) and a triangular blade. However, in modern electric scoring, a touch with any part of the sabre, (point, flat or edge, as long as it is on target) will count as a hit. The target area in sabre is everything from the waist up, except for the hands.

Uniform
Fencers wear a uniform to avoid injury. They wear a mask of black mesh with a bib. Also, a jacket, short pants and a sort of half-a-shirt (called an underarm protector or plastron), all of white fabric. They must also wear socks that cover their legs. Women must wear a chest protector. These are collectively called "whites."

Related pages
Kendo
Swordsmanship

Other websites

 Fédération Internationale d'Escrime The organisation responsible for all international fencing

Summer Olympic sports

Fencing


The Armenian hypothesis suggests that the Proto-Indo-European languages was spoken in the Armenian Highland in the 3rd millennium BC. Scholars Tamaz Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov place the homeland in Armenia.

Related pages
Armenian Highland
Ancient Armenia

References
T. V. Gamkrelidze and V. V. Ivanov, The Early History of Indo-European Languages, Scientific American, March 1990
I.M. Diakonoff, The Prehistory of the Armenian People (1984).
Robert Drews, The Coming of the Greeks (1988), argues for late Greek arrival in the framework of the Armenian hypothesis.
Martiros Kavoukjian, Armenia, Subartu, and Sumer : the Indo-European homeland and ancient Mesopotamia, trans. N. Ouzounian, Montreal (1987), .

Indo-European
Armenian language
Ancient Armenia
Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups

Armenian hypothesis


The Bangladesh Cyclone of 1991 was an extremely devastating super cyclonic storm. On the evening of Monday, April 29, 1991 a strong super cyclonic storm struck the Chittagong area of southeastern Bangladesh with winds around 155 mph. The storm killed over 138,000 people and caused $1.5 billion in destruction. The cyclone left almost ten million homeless.

Deadly storms
20th century in Bangladesh
Cyclonic storms
1991 in Asia
1990s in weather

1991 Bangladesh cyclone


Endymion is a human character in Greek mythology.

His story is told by various ancient authors. In most versions he is a shepherd, and a young man of unusual handsomeness – so much so that the Moon goddess Selene falls in love with him. She uses her divine power to keep him asleep forever, preserving his youth and beauty.

The Endymion story has been re-told by poets and playwrights. The English playwright John Lyly wrote one version; and the poet John Keats used the story as the basis for his long poem Endymion.

The name also inspired Prince Endymion, the name of Momaru Chiba's (Darien in the English version) past life character and the lover of the reincarnated Princess Serenity, Usagi (Serena) Tsukino from the popular anime and manga Sailor Moon. In the future he becomes King Darien (キング・エンディミオン King Endymion), ruler of Crystal Tokyo, husband of Neo Queen Serenity and father of Rini.

People in Greek mythology

Endymion