The Saya is a music and dance that originated in Los Yungas-Chicaloma Bolivia. The artform's name comes from the Kikongo term nsaya, which means communal work led by a singing voice, akin to a work song. The Saya's instrumentation and dance also reflects the influence of traditional Andean music.

Enslaved Africans were taken to South America to work in a range of industries. Their customs, music, was merged with the native cultures gave rise to mixtures. The specific history of many of these practices has disappeared, but many authors have worked to identify cultural survivals in Afro-descended groups throughout South America.

Many dances have been derived from the Saya. Caporales was based on these dances,  created and presented to the public for the first time in 1969 by the Estrada brothers who were inspired in the Afro-Bolivian Saya character of the Caporal . This character was, in turn, inspired by the foreman on the haciendas of the Yungas.

In the present day, Afro-Bolivians have used the Saya in their struggle to reclaim their rights within Bolivian society. In this movement, the Saya has functioned both as a way of expressing and solidifying Afro-Bolivian identity among black Bolivians, and as a way to express their identity in the context of national social movements based on ethnic identities.

Many festivals where the dance is performed have a prominent religious aspect. One supposedly dances for The Virgin Mary and promises to dance for three years of one's life.

Dances derived from the Saya

In Caporales, the male dancer looks near identical to his Caporal counterpart. However, while the Caporal outfit is usually larger and constricting, a Saya uniform is usually made from lighter material and fitted to the body for better, more fluid arm movement.  Sometimes a whip may be used like in Caporales, but this is the exception and is more popular to dance simply with white or black gloves (depending on the uniform colors). Female dancers also have a more fitted and relaxed outfit compared to their Caporal counterparts.  The differences in that case, however, are more subtle (lighter material, less skirt, laced sleeves, etc.)

The Caporales is usually considered very masculine: men will move and use their arms with much emphasis on looking strong and "macho".  Women, while emulating the men's moves, will simply concentrate on showing off their legs and skirts in a flirtatious manner.

The rhythms of all of these dances are different from the Saya as well as the whole dance. Caporales is especially appreciated by young people of the middle and upper class who form huge Caporales groups for Carnival, Gran Poder and other "entradas".

External links
 Educational Video on Afro-Bolivian Saya

References

Afro-Bolivian
Peruvian culture
Bolivian culture
Bolivian dances
Latin American folk dances
Peruvian dances
Andean music

Saya (art form)


Gauri Khan () (née Chibber, born 8 October 1970) is an Indian movie producer. A Hindu of Punjabi Mohyal origin, born in New Delhi, India.  She graduated from Modern School, New Delhi and has a degree in History from Lady Sriram College. She is married to Bollywood actor Shah Rukh Khan. She has produced some of the movies with her husband as the main actor, including Paheli (an unsuccessful  Indian submission to the Oscars in 2005), Main Hoon Na, and Om Shanti Om. She also made a short guest appearance in Om Shanti Om.

She used to host a weekly Hindi music countdown show, "Oye", for a music channel in the 1990s. She is the face of the fashion line, Aftershock.  She was on the January 2008 cover of the Indian edition of Vogue magazine.

Together with Shahrukh Khan, Gauri is part-owner and part-producer of the production company, Red Chillies Entertainment (RCE). Shah Rukh started the company for his friend and colleague, director-choreographer Farah Khan. With the backing of RCE, Farah launched her directorial career with the movie, Main Hoon Na (2004).

Gauri has three children: Aryan Khan born 12 November 1997, Suhana Khan born 23 May 2000 and AbRam Khan born in 2013.

She was also crowned the queen of Bollywood at the Zee Cine Awards in 2008.

References

Other websites

1970 births
Living people
Indian movie producers
People from New Delhi

Gauri Khan


The Burial of the Sardine (Spanish: El entierro de la sardina) is an oil-on-panel painting by Spanish artist Francisco Goya, usually dated to the 1810s. The title is posthumous, referring to the culminating event, Entierro de la Sardina, of a three-day carnival in Madrid ending on Ash Wednesday.  Masked and disguised revellers are seen dancing their way to the banks of the Manzanares, where a ceremonial sardine will be buried. Goya does not illustrate the fish in the painting, nor the large doll made of straw, called a pelele, from which it hung; the centrepiece is the darkly grinning "King of the Carnival".

The painting has been dated between 1793 and 1819, but most accounts place it toward the end of this range on account of the painting's style and its place within the shifting themes of Goya's art as he aged. The Burial appears to fit within a progression beginning with the artist's bright, youthful works—in which he painted commissions of popular entertainments and colourful cartoon tapestries—and his much later, psychologically darker Black Paintings.  The  painting is certainly a tribute to the common people, depicting an exuberant crowd carousing on the first day of Lent while other Spanish Catholics worship at church. Yet the celebration takes on a sinister aspect due to the many masked and blank faces (see the detail in "Gallery") surrounding the gaily dancing women in white; the grey, distorted trees and encroaching dark colours; and the eye-catching black banner that parades an unsettling mascot. Such festivals as the "Burial of the Sardine" originated with themes of mortality: masks were worn to ward off the spirits of criminals and those who had died violently. The word "mortus" ("death") is barely visible on the banner though in a preparatory ink sketch by Goya (in the gallery below) it features prominently over an indistinct shape which may be a representation of the sardine itself. The painting forms a loose thematic set with other paintings of religious ceremony that Goya produced around the same time, among which are A Procession of Flagellants (Procesión de disciplinantes) and Inquisition Scene (Auto de fe de la Inquisición).

Goya scholar Fred Licht writes:

[The Burial of the Sardine] is also one of the most astonishing virtuoso performances to come down to us from Goya's brush. Rarely did Goya again reach such decisiveness of touch. Every brushstroke is a calligraphic marvel at the same time that it describes with consummate precision the expression of faces and the emotional charge of each stance or gesture. We have arrived here at the perfect balancing point between the early tapestry cartoons and the later Black Paintings. All the riotous gaiety of the former appeals to the eye from the surface of the painting. But in the darkening of the colors, in the masklike ambiguity of the faces... and especially in the overwrought gestures and expressions, one begins to feel the obscurely disturbing undertones of mass hysteria underlying the fiesta.

Gallery

See also
List of works by Francisco Goya

Notes

References

 Connell, Evan S. Francisco Goya: A Life. New York: Counterpoint, 2004.
 Hagen, Rose-Marie & Hagen, Rainer. Francisco Goya, 1746–1828. Taschen, 2003.

Paintings by Francisco Goya
1810s paintings
Paintings in the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando
Dance in art

The Burial of the Sardine


A knot is a fixed looping of a piece of string or rope. Knots are often used for binding things together. While a knot is often made from rope, it can also be made from many other things. In fact, a knot is actually the condition a long flexible object is in. For example, hair can be tied in a knot. The ends of balloons are tied in a knot to prevent the air from escaping. The average person over 5 or so years of age is likely capable of tying a knot; most of these knots people tie are probably with their shoelaces. Ribbons are also tied in a knot so as to appear pretty, as when wrapped around a gift. In addition, knots are also made by sailors in many different forms and for many different purposes. There are even people who have adopted knot-making as a hobby.

Related pages

 List of knots

More reading

Basic English 850 words

Knot


Beale Melanchthon Schmucker (August 26, 1827 – October 15, 1888) was an American Lutheran leader,  liturgical scholar and historian.

Biography
The Rev. Beale M. Schmucker, D.D. was born in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the son of German-American Lutheran pastor and theologian Samuel Simon Schmucker and Mary Catherine Steenbergen.  He was graduated from Pennsylvania College during 1844. In 1847,  Schmucker was a graduate of the Lutheran Theological Seminary at Gettysburg. Schmucker served as Secretary of the Alumni Association of Philadelphia Lutheran Seminary at the time of his death in 1888.
In 1870 he received the degree of D.D. from the University of Pennsylvania.

Schmucker was the pastor of Lutheran churches in Martinsburg, Virginia and Shepherdstown, Virginia, 1847–51; Allentown, Pennsylvania, 1852; Easton, Pennsylvania, 1862; Reading, Pennsylvania, 1867; and Pottstown, Pennsylvania, 1881–88.

Schmucker collaborated with A. T. Geissenhainer on A Liturgy for the Use of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. In particular,  Schmucker worked to revive historic liturgical practice. His knowledge of details in matters pertaining to the order of service, especially of the Lutheran Church of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, was unusually extensive and accurate.

Selected works
The First Pennsylvania Liturgy, Adopted in 1748 (1882)
The Early History of the Tulpehocken Churches (1882)
The Lutheran Church in Pottstown (1882)
The Lutheran Church in Frederick, Maryland (in Quarterly Review, 1883)
The Lutheran Church in the City of New York during the First Century of its History (in Church Review, 1884–85)
The Organization of the Congregation in the Early Lutheran Churches in America (1887)
A Liturgy for the Use of the Evangelical Lutheran Church(1888)

He was co-editor of the Hallesche Nachrichten (Allentown, Pennsylvania, and Halle, Germany, vol. i., 1884; English ed., Reading, Pennsylvania, vol. i., 1882), which is the primary source of information concerning the early history of the Lutheran Church in the United States. Schmucker also edited:
 Liturgy of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1860)
 Collection of Hymns of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania (1865)
 Church-Book of the General Council (1868)
 Ministerial Acts of the General Council (1887).
He published numerous articles on doctrinal, historical, and liturgical subjects, of which many have been republished separately in pamphlet-form.

References

Other sources
Gross, Ernie. This Day In Religion. New York: Neal-Schuman Publishing, 1999. .

External links
Schmucker, Beale Melanchthon from Christian Cyclopedia
Schmucker, Beal Melanchthon from Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge

1827 births
1888 deaths
19th-century American Lutheran clergy
Liturgists
Lutheran liturgy and worship
People from Gettysburg, Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania alumni
Lutheran Theological Seminary at Philadelphia alumni
19th-century Lutheran theologians

Beale M. Schmucker


Barium hydroxide is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Ba(OH)2. It contains barium and hydroxide ions.

Properties
Barium hydroxide is a white solid. It dissolves in water to make a basic solution. It decomposes to barium oxide when heated in a vacuum. It reacts with carbon dioxide to make barium carbonate. It reacts with any sulfate to make barium sulfate. It reacts with hydrogen sulfide to make barium sulfide.

Preparation
It is made by dissolving barium oxide in water.

Uses
Barium hydroxide is used in titrations. If sodium hydroxide solution is used, some sodium carbonate may be in there. It is less basic than sodium hydroxide, so the titration can be messed up. When barium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to make barium carbonate, it forms a white solid that can be removed.

It is used as a strong base in organic chemistry. It is used to clean up sulfuric acid spills by making barium sulfate. It can also be used for removing ink marks from clothes.

Safety
Barium hydroxide is corrosive because it is basic. It is also toxic because of barium ions.

Related pages
Barium peroxide

Barium compounds

Barium hydroxide


A graphics tablet is an input device for computers. Users can use them to hand-draw images, graphics or handwriting as if they were drawing on a piece of paper. They use a pointing device, most often a stylus.

Graphics tablets are one way of "digitizing" a physical piece of artwork. Instead of using hardware like scanners, one can simply trace an image from a piece of paper and it will be recreated on the screen.

Another thing that graphics tablets can do is handwriting recognition, which is popular in East Asia as a quick way to enter Chinese characters into an application.

Parts
Surface: A tablet has a flat surface on which the user can draw. This surface can be of different sizes or shapes, most often a square. Images drawn on a graphics tablet are most often not shown on the surface itself but can only be seen on a screen. However, there are special graphics tablets which allow the user to see their input right on the drawing surface. These hybrids are combination of a graphics tablet and a screen. Graphics tablets often have features like pressure sensitivity or stylus hovering that most touchscreens lack.

Stylus: A stylus is a pen-like device that is used to give the tablet its input. It is also used to detect different amounts of pressure, often for use in a drawing program to change line thickness or color density.

Puck: After stylus, pucks are the most commonly used tablet accessory. A puck is a mouse-like device that can detect its absolute position and rotation. Professional pucks often have a loupe for greater precision.

Types
Passive tablets use electromagnetic induction technology. The tablet generates an electromagnetic signal, which is received by a circuit in the stylus. The wires in the tablet then change to a receiving mode and read the signal generated by the stylus to read its position. The stylus does not require a battery for this.

Active tablets use self-powered electronics that generate and send a signal to the tablet. These graphics tablets may listen for pen signals constantly, reducing inaccuracies in the reading of user input. This type of stylus often requires a battery, making it larger and heavier.

Optical tablets operate by a very small digital camera in the stylus.

Acoustic tablets are early models of graphics tablets. A small sound generator is mounted in the stylus and the sound is picked up by two microphones placed near the surface.

Capacitive tablets work by detecting electrostatic or capacitive signals by a stylus or human. Capacitive touchscreens are most often used in smartphones and tablet computers, making them the most well known type of input device next to a computer mouse. However, these are rarely used in graphics tablets as the lack of precision and many other features make them less useful.

Uses
Because a stylus can be used to measure pressure, tilting and other factors, it is useful for use in digital art (especially two dimensional). These factors can be used to change brush size, opacity, shape, color and more in certain graphic programs depending on the input. Graphics tablets are often used for technical drawing and computer-aided design as well as for digital drawing, graphic design, sketches and much more.

They are also used for online teaching, e.g. live tutorials or lessons where visual information is needed. Some users prefer tablet computers for some purposes, though those devices often lack sensors for pressure and tilt.

When it comes to buying a drawing tablet, you have two options either you can buy a drawing tablet with screen or one without screen. Drawing tablets with screen are way costlier than screenless tablets.

Manufacturers

Wacom Co.
KYE System
IBall
Hanvon Co.
Genius
Huion
Monoprice
Ugee

Computer hardware

Graphics tablet


DP2, meaning Diesel Prototype number 2, was a prototype Type 4 mainline diesel locomotive built in 1962 by English Electric at their Vulcan Foundry in Newton-le-Willows to demonstrate its wares to British Railways. As the Deltics were then in production, it was decided to produce the locomotive on the same production line; the bodyshell used for DP2 reputedly being the eighteenth made. While DP2 looked like a Class 55 locomotive in outline, there were many detail differences; particularly the large bodyside radiator vents at one end, and the single roof fan as opposed to the four symmetrically placed fans on the Deltics. These differences were the external effect of DP2 being totally different from the twin-engined Deltics internally, being the forerunner of the Class 50.

DP2
English Electric locomotives
Vulcan Foundry locomotives
Co-Co locomotives

British Rail DP2


Randy White  (born September 3, 1948 in Halifax, Nova Scotia) is a Canadian accountant and former politician. White was first elected to the House of Commons of Canada as the Reform Party Member of Parliament (MP) for
Fraser Valley West, British Columbia in the 1993 federal election.

In the 1997 election, he was re-elected for the riding of Langley—Abbotsford, and became a Canadian Alliance MP in 2000 when Reform was joined by dissident members of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada.

White served as the Reform Party's House Leader from 1997 to 2000 and as the Canadian Alliance House Leader from 2001 to 2002. He also served as Caucus Chair in 2001, and as Deputy Caucus Chair in 2002. He joined the new Conservative Party of Canada upon the merger of the Alliance with the Progressive Conservative Party in early 2004.

In 2004, Randy White famously was quoted saying "to heck with the courts" in regard to overturning same-sex marriage. Bruce Cheadle of the Canadian Press said that this comment "may have cost the Conservatives the election".

White left politics in 2006 and did not run in the 2006 federal election. He has continued activity in the area of drug policy, including founding The Drug Prevention Network of Canada.

In 2010, the British Columbia Conservative Party announced that White had joined the party and would chair its tactical advisory group.

White is a former member of the Royal Canadian Air Force.

References

External links

1948 births
Canadian Alliance MPs
Conservative Party of Canada MPs
Living people
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from British Columbia
Politicians from Halifax, Nova Scotia
Reform Party of Canada MPs
21st-century Canadian politicians

Randy White (Canadian politician)


England before the English
 Main articles: Prehistoric Britain and Roman Britain

Archaeology shows that people came to southern England long before the rest of the British Isles, probably because of the friendly climate between and during the ice ages of long ago.

Julius Caesar invaded what is now England in 55 and 54 BC, as part of the Gallic Wars, and was defeated. He wrote in De Bello Gallico that there were many tribes there, very similar to other Celtic tribes in Europe. Coins, and later Roman historians, have given us the names of some of the rulers of the tribes, and what they did.

In 43 AD, Claudius successfully invaded England with 40,000 soldiers landing at Gaul at Richborough, Kent.

For hundreds of years, what is now England was a Roman province, Britannia. The Romans later gave up on the province and left the Celtic people on their own as the Roman Empire began to fall apart. The influence of the Romans meant that the territory of England had already experienced unity before the Anglo-Saxons arrived.

Anglo-Saxon England

Analysis of human bodies found at an ancient cemetery near Abingdon, England, shows that Saxon immigrants and native Britons lived side-by-side.
The Romano-British population (the Britons) was assimilated. The settlement (or invasion) of England is called the Saxon Conquest, or the Anglo-Saxon or English Conquest.
From the 4th century AD, many Britons left to cross the English Channel from Wales, Cornwall and southern Britain, and started to settle the western part of Gaul (Armorica), where they started a new nation: Brittany. The Britons gave their new country its name and the Breton language, Brezhoneg, a sister language to Welsh and Cornish. The name "Brittany" (from "Little Britain") arose at this time to tell the new Britain apart from "Great Britain". Brezhoneg is still spoken in Brittany today.

The Vikings
After a time of raids, the Vikings also began to settle in England and to trade, eventually controlling an area called the Danelaw from the late 9th century. One Viking settlement was at York, called Jorvik by the Vikings. Viking rule left traces in the English language — because Old English was already related to Old Norse, many Norse words began to be used in English at this time.

England during the Middle Ages

The defeat of King Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 against Duke William II of Normandy, later called William I of England, and the following Norman conquest of England caused important changes in the history of Britain. William ordered the Domesday Book to be written. This was a survey of the entire population, and their lands and property, to help in collecting taxes.

William also ruled Normandy, then a powerful duchy in France. William and his nobles spoke, and held court, in Anglo-Norman, in Normandy as well as in England. The use of the Anglo-Norman language by the aristocracy was kept up for centuries, and had a great influence on the development of Old English into Middle English.

In England, the Middle Ages was a time of war, civil war, rebellions from time to time, and many plots among the nobles and royalty. England had more than enough cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton. The nation's international economy was based on the wool trade, where wool from northern England was sold to the textile merchants of Flanders to make into cloth. Medieval foreign policy was also shaped by relations with the Flemish cloth business. An English cloth business was developed in the fifteenth century, allowing the English also to become wealthier.

In the reign of Henry II, the king got some power back from the barony and the Church. Henry's successor, Richard I "the Lion Heart", took part in the Third Crusade, and defended his French territories against Philip II of France. His younger brother John, who followed him as king, was not so lucky; he lost Normandy and many other French territories. In 1215, the barons led an armed rebellion and forced him to sign the Magna Carta, which put legal limits on the King's personal powers.

The reign of Edward I (1272–1307) was rather successful. Edward strengthened the powers of his Government, and called the first English Parliament. He conquered Wales.  His son, Edward II, lost the Battle of Bannockburn against Scotland.

The Black Death, an epidemic that spread over all of Europe and parts of Asia, arrived in England in 1349 and killed perhaps up to a third of the population.

Edward III gave land to powerful noble families, including many people with royal blood.  Because land was like power in these days, some powerful men could now try to claim the Crown.

Tudor England

The Wars of the Roses ended with the victory of Henry Tudor, who became king Henry VII of England, at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, where the Yorkist king, Richard III was killed.

His son, Henry VIII split with the Roman Catholic Church over a question of his divorce from Catherine of Aragon.  Though his religious position was not entirely Protestant, this led to the Church of England breaking from the Roman Catholic Church. There followed a time of great religious and political troubles, and the English Reformation.

Henry VIII had three children, all of whom would wear the Crown.  The first to reign was Edward VI of England.  Although he was intelligent, he was only a boy of ten when he took the throne in 1547.

When Edward VI died of tuberculosis in 1553 Mary I took the throne when crowds cheered for her in London, which people at the time said was the largest show of affection for a Tudor monarch.  Mary, a loyal Catholic who had been influenced greatly by the Catholic King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, tried to get the country back to Catholicism.  This led to 274 burnings of Protestants, and much hatred from her people.  Mary lost Calais, the last English possession on the Continent, and became even more unpopular (except among Catholics) at the end of her reign.

The reign of Elizabeth returned a sort of order to England in 1558.  The religious question that had divided the country since Henry VIII was put to rest by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, which set up the Church of England in much the same form it has today.

The slave trade that made Britain a major economic power began with Elizabeth, who gave John Hawkins permission to start trading in 1562.

The government of Elizabeth was more peaceful, apart from the revolt of the northern earls in 1569, and she was able to lessen the power of the old nobility and expand the power of her government.  One of the most famous events in English military history was in 1588 when the Spanish Armada lost against the English navy, commanded by Sir Francis Drake.  Elizabeth's government did much to make her government stronger, and to make common law and administration more effective throughout England.

In all, the Tudor period is seen as an important one, leading to many questions that would have to be answered in the next century during the English Civil War.  These were questions of how much power the monarch and Parliament should have, and how much one should control the other.

The Stuarts and the Civil War

Elizabeth died without children who could take the throne after her. Her closest male Protestant relative was the king of Scotland, James VI, of the house of Stuart, so he became James I of England, the first king of the entire island of Great Britain, although he ruled England and Scotland as separate countries.

The English Civil War began in 1642, mainly because of conflicts between James' son, Charles I, and Parliament. The defeat of the Royalist army by the New Model Army of Parliament at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645 destroyed most of the King's forces. The capture and trial of Charles led to his beheading in January 1649 at Whitehall Gate in London. A republic was declared, and Oliver Cromwell became the Lord Protector in 1653. After he died, his son Richard Cromwell followed him in the office, but soon quit. The monarchy was returned in 1660, after England had a time of anarchy, with King Charles II again in London.

In 1665, London was hit with the plague, and then, in 1666, the capital was burned for 5 days by the Great Fire, destroying around 15,000 buildings.

In 1689, the Dutch Protestant William of Orange, replaced the Catholic King James II in what is called the Glorious Revolution. However, in Scotland and Ireland, Catholics loyal to James II were not so happy, and a series of bloody revolts followed. These rebellions continued until the mid-18th century, when Charles Edward Stuart was defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.

The First Act of Union made Scotland, England and Wales into one country. The history of England after this 1707 Act is a part of Great Britain's history.

References

Other websites
 Full text of The History of England From the Norman Conquest to the Death of John  (1066–1216) from Project Gutenberg.
 New and Improved Timeline of England coming soon from BBC.
 Timeline  of England.
 Medieval England

Further reading
 A History of Britain: At the Edge of the World, 3500 BC – 1603 AD by Simon Schama, BBC/Miramax, 2000
 A History of Britain, Volume 2: The Wars of the British 1603–1776 by Simon Schama, BBC/Miramax, 2001
 A History of Britain - The Complete Collection on DVD by Simon Schama, BBC 2002 ASIN B00006RCKI
 The Isles, A History by Norman Davies, Oxford University Press, 1999,
 The History of England, From the First Invasion by the Romans to the Accession of William and Mary in 1688, 1819 by Father John Lingard (Roman Catholic perspective)
 Shortened History of England by G. M. Trevelyan Penguin Books
 A History of the English-Speaking Peoples by Sir Winston Churchill Cassell reference,  — the writing of which helped bring Churchill to public attention in the 1930s, and which forms the basis of many later reference works
 Letters of the Kings of England, now first collected from the originals in royal archives, and from other authentic sources, private as well as public by J O Halliwell-Phillipps, London, H. Colburn, 1846. vol. 1 — Google Books

History of England


Charles Aznavour (22 May 1924 – 1 October 2018) was an Armenian-French singer, songwriter and actor. He was one of France's most popular and long lasting singers, and also one of the most well-known French singers in other countries.

Career
He appeared in more than 60 movies and written more than 1000 songs (including 150 in English, 100 in Italian, 70 in Spanish, and 50 in German).

He has sold over 100 million albums. Aznavour started his final tour in late 2006. Aznavour was born as Shahnour Vaghinag Aznavouryan in Paris, the son of Armenian immigrants Michael Aznavouryan & Knar Baghdasaryan. His parents introduced him to the world of theatre at an early age. He dropped out of school at the age of nine, already aspiring to the life of an artist. He began to perform at this time, and soon took the stage name "Aznavour" which he was know by for the rest of his career.

His big break came when the singer Edith Piaf heard him sing and arranged to take him with her on tour in France and to the USA. Aznavours voice is shaded towards the tenor range, but possesses the low range and coloration more typical of a baritone, contributing to his unique sound.

Death
On 1 October 2018 it was announced that Aznavour had died at his home in the village of Mouriès in the south of France at the age of 94. An autopsy report said Aznavour died of cardiopulmonary arrest caused by pulmonary edema.

Film
1989: Charles Aznavour Armenia 1989 Armenfilm ( Gyumri, Leninakan,Nostradamus, General Andranik, Sumgayit, Karabagh)
movie director Levon Mkrtchyan
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tHEd5L1i6gg

References

Other websites

 Official site
 Original discography, catalogue and discussion group

1924 births
2018 deaths
Deaths from pulmonary edema
Deaths from cardiopulmonary arrest
French movie actors
Armenian diaspora
French singers
French songwriters

Charles Aznavour


Thorne Webb Dreyer (born August 1, 1945) is an American writer, editor, publisher, and political activist who played a major role in the 1960s-1970s counterculture, New Left, and underground press movements. Dreyer now lives in Austin, Texas, where he edits the progressive internet news magazine, The Rag Blog, hosts Rag Radio  on KOOP 91.7-FM, and is a director of the New Journalism Project.

In June 2012 Dreyer topped a published list of Austin's most important political bloggers,<ref name="austin.culturemap.com">Seale, Shelley, ""Election 2012: Keep up with Austin's top political bloggers"CultureMap Austin, June 2, 2012.</ref> and in 2011 received the noted Eddy Award for best Austin radio personality.

Dreyer was "an influential journalist in the underground press movement of the 1960s and early 1970s," according to the documentary encyclopedia, Conflicts in American History, which included him in a series of 73 short biographies of key figures in "The Postwar and Civil Rights Era: 1945-1973" in the United States.

He was a founder and editor of two of the most important of the Sixties underground newspapers, The Rag in Austin and Space City! in Houston, was an editor at Liberation News Service (LNS) in New York, and managed Pacifica Radio's KPFT 90.1-FM in Houston.

Thorne Dreyer was active in Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), the moving force in the 1960s New Left and perhaps the most important student-based activist organization in U.S. history. Dreyer's writing was published worldwide and his work has been cited or excerpted in more than 100 books.

Family and early life
An only child, Dreyer was born in Houston, Texas, on August 1, 1945, the son of Martin Dreyer and Margaret Lee Webb. He attended Bellaire High School, where he studied theater with noted teacher and director Cecil Pickett – who later taught at the University of Houston and whose students included actors Dennis and Randy Quaid and Cindy Pickett. Dreyer later studied acting with William Hickey at New York's HB Studio, and briefly attended the University of Texas at Austin where he took liberal arts and theater courses.

Dreyer's family was at the center of a large literary and activist community in Houston. His mother, Margaret Webb Dreyer, was an acclaimed artist, teacher, and peace activist – and a leading light in the local cultural scene—and his father, Martin Dreyer, was a fiction writer and long-time travel editor at the Houston Chronicle and was a winner of the national Big Story Award for "investigative journalism in the interest of justice." Sandra J. Levy, writing in the Archives of American Art Journal, called Margaret Webb Dreyer "a moving force in Houston from the 1940s to the 1970s," and she is included in the University of Texas at Austin's Gallery of Great Texas Women and her biography is featured at the Handbook of Texas Online. The couple owned and ran Dreyer Galleries, one of Houston's earliest and most prominent art galleries. According to Cite's Raj Mankad, Dreyer Galleries also "served as a countercultural hub," hosting art openings, political meetings, and social gatherings attended by Jane Fonda, Robert Altman, Warren Hinckle, and others.

While in Houston, Thorne Dreyer engaged in an eclectic array of pursuits. He worked professionally as an actor, a freelance writer and editor, a political consultant, a correspondent for Texas Monthly magazine, a public information officer for the City of Houston, a booking agent for jazz and rock musicians, an event planner, and a bookseller—and for years operated a leading Houston public relations business.

He has one son, Dustin Dreyer, who lives in Houston.

SDS and radical activism
In 1963, Dreyer went to Austin to attend the University of Texas, but soon joined SDS and became heavily involved in the New Left—in student power and civil rights activities and the fast-growing movement against the Vietnam War. He organized demonstrations and guerrilla theater actions and helped put together the now-legendary Gentle Thursday happenings on the University of Texas campus.

"In the '60s my values crystallized," Dreyer would later tell Karen Kane, in the December 7, 1980, issue of the Houston Chronicle's Texas Magazine. "What happened during those years I will carry with me the rest of my life.... We had visions of a better world, and dedicated ourselves to building it." Kane wrote that Dreyer "was on the cutting edge" of the 1960s movement. Dreyer traveled widely, participating in SDS conferences and national demonstrations and gatherings of the burgeoning underground media.

In 1966, as part of an SDS summer project, Dreyer helped run a radical storefront in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco. In September 1967, Dreyer was one of 40 peace activists, religious leaders, and movement journalists invited to travel to Bratislava, Czechoslovakia, for a direct meeting with high-level representatives of the North Vietnamese and the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam, in what was an unprecedented effort to explore new avenues for peace. Sol Stern wrote that "for the first time, high-ranking NLF representatives would... be included in discussions with American peace activists." Author Mary Hershberger wrote that the meeting, organized by SDS founder Tom Hayden and peace activist David Dellinger, "resulted in the first prisoner of war release to American peace activists."

In her book, Dreams and Everyday Life, Penelope Rosemont wrote about the historic demonstrations outside the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. "Thorne Dreyer came into town from Austin, Texas, to edit the SDS wall poster called Handwriting on the Wall," she said. Handwriting on the Wall was published each night during the convention and posted all over town, playing an important role in keeping the thousands of demonstrators informed about the week's cascading events. These wall posters were featured in the 2011 exhibit, "Left to Right: Radical Movements of the 1960s," at the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum in Austin.

The Rag

In October 1966, the first issue of The Rag was published in Austin—partly in response to the election of an ultra-conservative editor of the traditionally-liberal UT student newspaper, The Daily Texan—with Thorne Dreyer and Carol Neiman as editors. (They were actually called "funnels," in keeping with the group's anti-authoritarian approach.) In his acclaimed memoir, Famous Long Ago, Ray Mungo wrote that "The Rag's chief 'funnel,' Thorne Dreyer, exercises an authority that is gentle and decent."The Rag was the first underground paper in the South and the sixth member of the Underground Press Syndicate (UPS). Cited by historian Laurence Leamer as "one of the few legendary undergrounds," The Rag was credited with being the first of its genre to successfully combine the radical politics of the New Left with the spirit of the burgeoning alternative culture, and, according to historian John McMillian, it served as a model for many papers that followed.

Abe Peck, author of Uncovering the Sixties: The Life and Times of the Underground Press, wrote that "The Rag was the first independent undergrounder to represent... the participatory democracy, community organizing and synthesis of politics and culture that the New Left of the midsixties was trying to develop." Author Douglas C. Rossinow, described The Rag as "enormously important to local activists," and historian McMillian said that The Rag was regarded by the Austin community as "a beautiful and precious thing."

The paper tempered serious political analysis with ample doses of humor, and The Rag provided a primary forum for two of the most important of the Sixties underground graphic artists – Gilbert Shelton, whose iconic Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers comix would be republished in papers all over the world, and Jim Franklin, whose surrealist armadillos helped create what writer Hermes Nye called "the Great Armadillo Cult." Austin, long a haven for bohemians and iconoclasts, was also the center of a very active left political community based at the University of Texas campus and was a major player in the massive Sixties drug and music culture – incubating talents like Janis Joplin and the Thirteenth Floor Elevators and some of the pioneering psychedelic poster and comix artists. And The Rag united those communities into a potent political force.

Underground press and LNS

Thorne Dreyer heralded the coming of The Rag ("from deep in the bowels of reaction... where apathy and dullness thrive") in a letter addressed to the founding members of the Underground Press Syndicate. This colorful dispatch — dated October 5, 1966 — is included as a historical document in Conflicts in American History, a 13-volume encyclopedia published in 2010.

On March 26, 1967, Dreyer and Carol Neiman attended the first national convergence of underground papers at Stinson Beach, California. Historian Abe Peck wrote that "at Stinson Beach, the paper that most prefigured those to come [The Rag] was represented... by several writers, including the increasingly important Thorne Dreyer." Dreyer also participated in a historic meeting of the United States Student Press Association (USSPA) in Minneapolis in August 1967 at the invitation of its newly elected director, Marshall Bloom. At the meeting Bloom was purged from USSPA because of his radical politics (and, some thought, because of what John McMillian refers to as Bloom's "effeminate demeanor"). Bloom and colleague Ray Mungo then founded Liberation News Service (LNS).

The underground press started out with a handful of papers on the East and West Coasts, but soon spread like wildfire and, according to historian McMillian, author of the 2011 book Smoking Typewriters: The Sixties Underground Press and the Rise of Alternative Media in America, the papers' combined readership eventually reached into the millions. Rolling Stone's John Burks quoted Thorne Dreyer as saying that the Underground Press Syndicate (UPS) was organized "to create the illusion of a giant coordinated network of freaky papers poised for the kill." But, as McMillian and others would emphasize, the underground press was no illusion, and in fact played a vital and dynamic role in the 1960s cultural revolution.

According to historian James Lewes, "A number of underground newsworkers – including Marshall Bloom, Thorne Dreyer, Ray Mungo, and Victoria Smith – argued that their papers filled a vacuum left by the collective failure of mainstream media to address the needs of the growing counterculture and anti-Vietnam War movements." John Leo wrote in The New York Times that the underground press was "consciously subjective" and "rooted in personal experience." Leo quoted Dreyer as saying that "objectivity is a farce," and that the underground papers were different from the establishment media because they were upfront about their biases.

In 1968, Thorne Dreyer left The Rag to help build the editorial collective at Liberation News Service in New York City. LNS, which was becoming the hub for alternative journalism in the United States, supplied the growing movement media with interpretive coverage of current events and reports on movement activities and the Sixties counterculture. In a history of Liberation News Service, Allen Young — who had worked for both The Washington Post and LNS — wrote: "The people of the underground press helped forge a national youth culture and in both subtle and direct ways influenced their colleagues in the 'establishment media.'"

During this time Dreyer's writings were widely distributed, appearing regularly in dozens of periodicals. His coverage of the March 27, 1967, anti-war action at the Pentagon in Washington – with its massive acts of civil disobedience – was distributed by LNS and published around the world. Called "an exuberant, emotional, firsthand account" by historian John McMillian, Dreyer's Pentagon commentary has been excerpted in a number of books about the era, including Norman Mailer's award-winning Armies of the Night. In the scholarly journal Genre, Bimbisar Irom referred to Dreyer's "dissenting, unassimilated... powerful individual voice," noting that he was close "to Mailer's own political sensibilities as an 'independent radical'...."

In 1969 LNS published a long essay co-authored by Thorne Dreyer and Victoria Smith, titled "The Movement and the New Media," which was considered to be the first serious journalistic portrait of the increasingly powerful underground press phenomenon. Dreyer also wrote extensively about the growing repression of underground papers throughout the country.

Space City! and the KKK

In his book The Paper Revolutionaries: The Rise of the Underground Press, Laurence Leamer called Houston's Space City! "unquestionably one of the strongest underground papers in America." In Leamer's words, the paper "had a special importance in Houston since the city is a sprawled-out, Texas version of Los Angeles. The paper holds the radical community together."Space City! (originally called Space City News) was founded June 5, 1969, by Dreyer and Victoria Smith – who had worked together at LNS in New York – in coordination with former Rag staffers Dennis Fitzgerald and Judy Gitlin Fitzgerald, and community organizers Cam Duncan and Sue Mithun Duncan. The staff was run as a collective, with all editorial and production responsibilities being shared, and in the beginning the three couples also lived together in a communal home, sharing meals and chores.Space City! quickly moved to the fore of the second generation of underground papers—developing a reputation for its advocacy journalism, power structure research, and arts coverage – and it served as a center for the bustling Texas boomtown's peace and hipster communities while spinning off a host of other countercultural institutions.

In a 1976 book about modern Texas folklore, Hermes Nye wrote that "the dark-haired bespectacled, lovely Victoria Smith and her compadre, dashing mustachioed Thorne Dreyer... helped lay the cornerstone of Houston's Space City!... a well written, sprightly sheet... [that] also had an eye for vivid, telling graphics and poetry of a high level." Historian Leamer wrote about Space City!: "There is a solid intelligence to the reviews and cultural articles... It is a radical journalism grounded in fact... resolved and balanced in content and full of common purpose..."

John Siemssen, writing in Houston's Other, quoted former Space City! staffer Bobby Eakin: "Thorne [Dreyer] was the glue that held the paper together..." Eakin added, "When it was tense and they were ready to tear into each other, Thorne would hop on a chair and recite a [humorous] monologue."

Unlike The Rag, Space City! met with violent opposition from some elements in the community, facing the wrath of right wing vigilantes openly identified with a local Ku Klux Klan group. As Victoria Smith wrote in Ken Wachsberger's Insider Histories of the Vietnam Era Underground Press, "we endured break-ins, thefts, tire-slashings, potshots (including a steel arrow fired from a crossbow through the front door), and threats, both to staff members and advertisers."

Raj Mankad wrote at OffCite that the Klan's violent actions against Space City! were part of a larger picture of "threats and acts of violence against progressive and radical institutions in Houston. The KPFT [Pacifica] station transmitter was bombed off the air twice. Bullets were shot at and yellow paint thrown on the walls of Margaret Webb Dreyer's gallery," which was located a few blocks from the Space City! offices.

Progressive politics and public relations
After Space City! shut its doors, Thorne Dreyer worked with KPFT-FM, the listener-supported Pacifica radio station in Houston, where he hosted "The Briarpatch," a long-running interview and talk show, and turned the station's monthly programming guide into an underground-style tabloid called the Mighty 90 News. Dreyer would also serve for a time as the station's general manager.

During this period he became active in the progressive wing of the Democratic Party in Harris County and was on the Texas staff of George McGovern's anti-war presidential campaign. He edited a statewide campaign tabloid, served as a McGovern delegate to the Texas State Democratic Convention, and attended the party's national convention at Miami Beach in 1972. He was also a supporter and friend of Houston's young progressive mayor, Fred Hofheinz, working in his campaign and then working as a public information officer in the City of Houston's Model Cities Department during the Hofheinz administration.

In 1975 Dreyer and Teague Cavness started an advertising and public relations partnership called Dreyer Cavness Associates that specialized in progressive political campaigns. They managed Kathy Whitmire's successful 1978 campaign for Houston City Controller, the city's second most powerful elected position. Whitmire, who would serve two terms as Controller and then five terms as Mayor of Houston, was the first woman elected to citywide office in Houston. After the election, Teague Cavness left the partnership to serve as Whitmire's chief aide and Dreyer continued in business as Thorne Dreyer Associates.

During this time Thorne Dreyer gained a reputation as an event planner for political campaigns, charities, and arts organizations. In 1978, The Houston Post ran a feature story with the headline, "Political parties: The campaign get-together taking on aura of best show in any town, thanks to Thorne Dreyer," in which writer Gary Christian said, "Dreyer, 32-year-old public relations man making a name for himself with his party-planning, is out to defeat that deadly seriousness surrounding political parties..." Dreyer's lively, creative events – that pulled together people from the arts and political communities—were cited by The Texas Observer as the best political parties in the state. Dreyer also worked as a feature writer and correspondent for the early Texas Monthly magazine and as a booking agent and personal manager for jazz and rock musicians – including popular jazz singer Cy Brinson—and handled advertising, promotion, and booking for a number of popular Houston clubs and music venues, including Cody's, Rockefeller's, and Mum's Jazzplace, where he also served as a manager. Dreyer also worked for Half Price Books, buying and selling used and rare books, and later ran an online bookselling business.

During the 1990s, according to the Austin American-Statesman's Brad Buchholz, Thorne Dreyer "suffered through a divorce, depression and two prison sentences for cocaine possession." Dreyer weathered a time of major personal crisis, struggling with severe clinical depression, the breakup of his marriage, and a long-standing bout with drug use. At a time when prosecution for cocaine possession was at its most severe, Dreyer was twice arrested and convicted for possession of small quantities of the controlled substance. During this time Dreyer did little productive work. Many veterans of the Sixties New Left experienced similar periods of crisis and "burnout," and a few, like Dreyer's friend Abbie Hoffman, even committed suicide.

But Thorne would soon turn his life around as he reunited with old friends and colleagues and once again became committed to the spirit of social change.

Rag Reunion and The Rag Blog

On Labor Day weekend in 2005 in Austin, Thorne Dreyer joined as many as 100 former staffers and followers of The Rag for an historic three-day reunion that included a series of spirited meetings, social events, concerts, and art shows. Inspired by the Rag Reunion and the renewed contacts, energy, and commitment that grew out of it, Dreyer moved back to Austin in 2006, and once again became involved in alternative journalism and political organizing.

Dreyer now edits The Rag Blog, an Internet newsmagazine that has built a wide and loyal following in the progressive blogosphere. He is also host and producer of Rag Radio, a popular weekly interview show, and serves as a director of the New Journalism Project, a Texas 501(c)(3) nonprofit corporation, that publishes The Rag Blog.

Melanie Scruggs wrote in 2012 that "The Rag simply went dormant, and in fact, has come to life... as a blog initiated at the Rag Reunion... and Funnelled by none other than Thorne Dreyer himself. The Rag legacy carries onward even as so few people of the new Austin generation appreciate the impact that it had on their city and so much of what makes it a vibrant place to live."

In a June 2012 feature on Austin's leading political bloggers, CultureMap Austin put Thorne Dreyer and The Rag Blog at the top of its list. Pointing out that Dreyer and The Rag "both came of age in the tumultuous sixties," author Shelley Seale wrote, "The Rag Blog features commentary on contemporary politics and culture and has been an original internet source on subjects like Occupy Wall Street, the environmental and sustainability movements, and other issues of social activism."The Rag Blog, which was founded in 2006 by Richard Jehn, has developed global reach and in 2011 had its one millionth visitor. Many of The Rag Blog's contributors are veterans of the original Rag and the Sixties underground press. The editorial core group includes Sarito Carol Neiman, Dreyer's original Rag co-editor who later edited SDS' New Left Notes; former Rag staffers Mariann Wizard and Alice Embree (who also worked with New York's Rat and was active in the Women's Liberation Movement); filmmaker and writer William Michael Hanks; and art director James Retherford, who edited The Spectator, a Sixties underground paper published in Bloomington, Indiana, and was active with the YIPPIES.

Historian and publisher Paul Buhle said in 2009 that "The Rag Blog is in many ways what The Rag... was in the middle 1960s, a light in the darkness... not only readable but funny," calling it "the best place for insights in the entire blogosphere that I follow."

Rag Radio is a weekly public affairs program that features hour-long in-depth interviews with prominent figures in politics and the arts. Rag Radio is broadcast every Friday from 2-3 p.m. (Central) on KOOP 91-7 FM, an all-volunteer cooperatively-run community radio station in Austin, and is rebroadcast every Sunday at 10 a.m. (Eastern) on WFTE, 90.3-FM in Mt. Cobb, PA, and 105.7-FM in Scranton, PA. Rag Radio also has a widespread Internet following and all episodes are posted as podcasts at the Internet Archive.

Dreyer also helped set up an Austin chapter of Movement for a Democratic Society (MDS), associated with the newly reestablished SDS. The group organized demonstrations around opposition to the U.S. war in Iraq and other progressive issues. Dreyer was involved with Progressives for Obama, which offered critical support to Barack Obama during his initial campaign for president (the organization has continued under the name Progressive America Rising), and has also helped organize a series of cultural and educational activities in Austin through the New Journalism Project.

After a long drought, Dreyer began writing again, with his work appearing on The Rag Blog and around the Internet. He is a contributing editor to the online Next Left Notes and in 2006 wrote a major cover story for The Texas Observer called "The Spies of Texas" featuring exclusive revelations about how the UT-Austin campus police tracked the lives of dissidents and iconoclasts in the Sixties.

The Rag in the digital age
John McMillian writes that "some of what's happening in the left-wing blogosphere can... be compared to the Sixties underground press," and Thorne Dreyer told the Austin Chronicle's Kevin Brass that "There are a lot of similarities in the two eras." Brass, indeed, sees The Rag Blog as "part of an effort to revive some of the rabble-rousing counterculture spirit of the Sixties." Yet, Kevin Brass writes, Dreyer and The Rag Blog are "working in a media landscape light-years removed from the offset printing presses of their youth. While the original Rag would be lucky to sell 15,000 copies on Austin street corners... on any given day, a Rag [blog] post might pingpong through the digital atmosphere, creating the type of traffic the kids of the Sixties couldn't imagine, not even with the right psychedelics."

Dreyer, who has referred to recent changes in his personal life and his renewed commitment to social change and activist journalism as a "virtual rebirth," told Austin's public radio station, KUT-FM, that "our strength is in being together and realizing that we're not alone, and I think that's why the Internet has been very useful... in helping to uncover injustices and... in helping people feel like they're part of something larger."

In a 2008 feature story in the Austin American-Statesman, Brad Buchholz wrote: "Thorne Dreyer's belief system for a new millennium is anchored in community and participation and a sense of humor. As a younger man, he led a charge to change the world, thinking it his generation's calling. Today, Dreyer has the gentle feeling at times that the movement has repaid the favor and saved him."

References

External links
 The Rag Blog

 Selected articles by Thorne Dreyer
 "The Spies of Texas: Newfound files detail how UT-Austin police tracked the lives of Sixties dissidents," by Thorne Dreyer, The Texas Observer, November 16, 2006.
 "The Movement and the New Media," by Thorne Dreyer and Victoria Smith, Liberation News Service, March 1, 1969.
 "Rag Radio: Carl Davidson on Mondragon and Workers' Cooperatives," by Thorne Webb Dreyer, Truthout, September 20, 2011.
 "The Mad Mix: Montrose, The Heart of Houston," by Thorne Dreyer, CITE: The Architecture and Design Magazine of Houston, Summer 2010
 "Montrose Lives: Houston's Montrose: The strangest neighborhood east of the Pecos" by Thorne Dreyer and Al Reinert, Texas Monthly, April 1973.
 "Sixties Radicals: Whatever Happened to the New Generation," by Thorne Dreyer, Texas Monthly, November 1976.
 "People call for revolution: Pentagon up-tight," by Thorne Dreyer, The Rag, August 30, 1967. (Simultaneously published in the Washington Free Press and then distributed by Liberation News Service.)
 "God Goes to the Astrodome," by Thorne Dreyer, Texas Monthly, January 1974.

Documents
 "Letter to the Underground Press Syndicate," by Thorne Dreyer, October 5, 1966. (The Rag Archives).

Interviews
 Dreyer, Thorne Webb and Louis J. Marchiafava. Thorne Webb Dreyer Oral History, Houston Oral History Project, July 15, 1976.
 Thorne Dreyer interviewed by Jeff Farias, April 29, 2010 (25 min.).
 Thorne Dreyer and Sherwood Bishop discuss underground newspaper Space City! and Sixties Houston at Zine Fest Houston 2009.
 Interview with Thorne Dreyer by Texas Public Radio about "Spies of Texas," Nov. 24, 2006
 "The Eyes of Texas Were Upon Texas Radicals," Interview with Thorne Dreyer on News 8 Austin, Video and Transcript, 2006.
 Video interview with Thorne Dreyer and others from the Rag Reunion, September 2005, by People's History in Texas, 2005.
 "Veteran activist pinpoints 1960s spirit in Occupy movement" Interview by John A. Salazar for YNN, Time Warner Cable, 2011
 Jeff Zavala's videos of Thorne Dreyer's Rag Radio interviews with Scott Crow, Robert Jensen, and Diane Wilson, at The Rag Blog, 2011.
 Podcast of Thorne Dreyer and Alice Embree speaking about The Rag and the Underground Press at Public Affairs Forum, First Unitarian Universalist Church, Austin, February 19, 2012. Broadcast by People United, KOOP-FM, Austin

Partial bibliography

Books
 Abernethy, Francis Edward, What's Going On? In Modern Texas Folklore (Austin: The Encino Press, 1976), Nye, Hermes, "Texas Tea and Rainy Day Woman," p. 118
 Anderson, Terry H., The Movement and the Sixties (New York : Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 178.
 Baunstein, Peter and Doyle, Michael William, Imagine Nation : the American Counterculture of the 1960s and '70s (New York : Routledge, 2002), pp. 107, 113
 Bizot, Jean-Francois, Free Press: Underground & Alternative Publications, 1965–1975, (New York: Universe, 2006), Cover and pp. 4–5. Photograph.
 Burks, John, "The Underground Press," The Age of Paranoia: How the Sixties Ended (New York: Pocket Books, 1972), p. 17
 Fixx, James F, Ed., New York Times: The Great Contemporary Issues: The Mass Media and Politics, (New York: Arno Press, 1972.) pp. 96–98.
 Garvy, Helen, Rebels With a Cause : A Collective Memoir of the Hopes, Rebellions and Repression of the 1960s (Los Gatos, California : Shire Press, 2007), p. 112.
 Giles, Robert and Robert W. Snyder, 1968 : Year of Media Decision (New Brunswick, New Jersey : Transaction Publishers, 1998), pp. 148, 170.
 Glessing, Robert J., The Underground Press in America (Bloomington, Indiana : The Indiana University Press, 1970), pp. 36, 49. (spelled "Dryer")
 Hare, A. Paul and Herbert H. Blumberg, Nonviolent Direct Action: American Cases: Social-Psychological Analyses, (Washington and Cleveland: Corpus Books, 1968), pp. 266–267.
 Kengor, Paul, Dupes: How America's Adversaries Have Manipulated Progressives for a Century, (Wilmington, DE, ISI Books, 2010), p. 467.
 Leamer, Laurence, The Paper Revolutionaries : The Rise of the Underground Press (New York : Simon and Schuster, 1972), pp. 41, 44-45, 47, 62, 63, 66, 104, 105, 108
 Lewes, James, Protest and Survive: Underground GI Newspapers during the Vietnam War, (Westport, CT, Praeger, 2003), pp. 38, 46, 67.
 Mailer, Norman, The Armies of the Night : History as a Novel : The Novel as History (New York : New American Library, 1968), pp. 274–5.
 McMillian, John, Smoking Typewriters: The Sixties Underground Press and the Rise of Alternative Media in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 9, 53, 58-59, 62, 72-73, 91, 97-99, 129, 151, 162, 164, 171, 210, 222, 241, photo gallery 9
 Mungo, Raymond, Famous Long Ago : My Life and Hard Times with Liberation News Service (Boston : Beacon Press, 1970), pp. 9, 116, 126.
 Pardun, Robert, Prairie Radical : A Journey Through the Sixties (Los Gatos, California : Shire Press. 2001), pp. 162, 227, 264.
 Peck, Abe, Uncovering the Sixties: The Life and Times of the Underground Press (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), pp. 58, 59, 75-76, 148-49, 287.
 Romm, Ethel Grodzins, The Open Conspiracy: What America's angry Generation is Saying. (Harrisburg, PA, Stackpole Books, 1970), pp. 40, 157.
 Rosemont, Penelope, Dreams of Everyday Life: André Breton, Surrealism, Rebel Worker, sds & the Seven Cities of Cibola (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 2008), p. 202.
 Rossinow, Douglas C., Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), pp. 176, 192, 194, 257-58, 260, 269.
 Sale, Kirkpatrick, SDS, (New York: Random House, 1973), pp. 392, 527.
 Stewart, Sean, Ed., On the Ground: An Illustrated Anecdotal History of the Sixties Underground Press in the U.S. (Oakland, CA: PM Press, 2011), pp. v-vii, 2, 18-22, 46-49, 89-90, 142-43, 179, 190-91, 196.
 Trodd, Zoe and Brian L. Johnson, Eds, Conflicts in American History: A Documentary Encyclopedia, Volume VII (New York: Facts on File, 2010), Chapter 11: "The New Left and the Underground Press" by John McMillian, pp. 239, 240, 242, 249, 250, 251, 252, 255, 257, Biography of Thorne Dreyer, 502.
 Wachsberger, Ken, Editor, Voices from the Underground : Insider Histories of the Vietnam Era Underground Press, Part 1 (East Lansing : Michigan State University Press, 2011), pp. 299, 300 (photo), 301, 302, 310, 313 (photo).
 Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, Merriam Webster, Springfield, Mass (1983), Usage example for "liberate." (In multiple editions from 70s to present.)

Scholarly articles and academic papers
 Burr, Beverly, "History of Student Activism at the University of Texas at Austin (1960-1988)", Paper, University of Texas at Austin, Spring 1988, p. 20, 30
 Harvey, Marti G., "The Evolution of The Rag, An Analysis of the Social, Political and Technological Influences on the Birth of One Underground Newspaper in the 1960s," Masters Thesis, May 2010, University of Texas at Arlington, pp. vii, 11, 16, 22-23. 25, 27- 29, 36-42, 52-59, 62, 64-69, 72, 75-76.
 Holder, Matt, "A 'Molotov cocktail thrown at respectability and decency in our nation' : The Rhetoric, Revolutionary Zeal, and Myth-making of The Rag, 1966-1972", Honors Thesis, Southwestern University, 1996, Thesis Advisor, Jan C. Dawson, History.
 Irom, Bimbisar, "Genre and Political Transition: The Problematic of the Collective Novel in Norman Mailer's The Armies of the Night," Genre (Duke University Press, 2011), p. 49
 Lewes, James, "The Underground Press in America (1964-1968): Outlining an Alternative, the Envisioning of an Underground," Journal of Communication Inquiry, October, 2000, pp. 379–400 (Iowa City, Iowa : Sage Publications, Inc.), pp. 387, 390, 392, 397, 400.
 Mailer, Norman, "The Battle of the Pentagon" Commentary, April 1968.
 McMillian, John, "Smoking Typewriters : The New Left's Print Culture, 1962-1969," Doctoral Thesis, Columbia University, 2006, Dissertation Advisor, Provost Alan Brinkley
 McVicker, Jeanette, "One Nation, Under a Groove? Assessing the Legacy of the Sixties Underground Press," H-Net Reviews in the Humanities and Social Sciences, July 2011.
 Olan, Susan Torian, "The Rag: A Study in Underground Journalism." Masters Thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 1981
 Rossinow, Doug, "The New Left in the Counterculture: Hypotheses and Evidence," Radical History Review, 1997
 Scruggs, Melanie, "The Rise and Fall of The Rag: Problems for Alternative Media in a Radical Movement's Decline." Plan II Honors Thesis, University of Texas at Austin, April 22, 2012; Supervising Professor, Robert Jensen, pp. 3, 5, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 54, 60, 61.
 Slonecker, Blake, "Living the Movement: Liberation News Service, Montague Farm, and the New Left, 1967-1981." Dissertation, 2009, University of North Carolina Press at Chapel Hill, pp. 26, 36, 46, 105, 107, 110, 122,

Periodicals and online publications
 Brass, Kevin, "Media Watch:The Rag in the Modern World," Austin Chronicle (February 12, 2010)
 Boyle, Shane Patrick, "Zine Fest: When Houston Is Cool," The Rag Blog, June 2, 2009.
 Boyle, Shane Patrick, "Underground in H-Town: A Rich History of Alternative Media," The Rag Blog, May 19, 2010.
 Buchholz, Brad, "Thorne Dreyer back after 40 years: Radical returns to Austin..." The Austin American-Statesman, February 24, 2008. (Reposted on the Sixties website.)
 Burks, John, "The Underground Press: A Special Report," Rolling Stone, October 4, 1969
 Chriss, Nicolas C., "Officer to Play Down Marine Quiz Findings", Los Angeles Times, July 13, 1967, pp. 14–15.
 Christian, Gary, "Political parties: The campaign get-together taking on aura of best show in any town, thanks to Thorne Dreyer," Houston Post, April 30, 1978.
 Feldman, Claudia, "Houston's '60s night scene: Joplin sang here for $20 a night," Texas Magazine, Houston Chronicle, August 13, 1989.
 Holland, Dick, "UT's Radicals", Austin American-Statesman, July 19, 1998, Page D-6.
 Kane, Karen, "Thorne Dreyer: Echoes of rebellion and random gunfire," from "The '60s: The young radicals, then and now," Texas Magazine, Houston Chronicle, Dec. 7, 1980, pp. 10–14.
 Leo, John, "Politics Now the Focus of Underground Press," New York Times, September 1, 1968,
 Mankad, Raj, "Space City! Underground," Cite: The Architecture & Design Review of Houston, Summer 2010, p. 18.
 Mankad, Raj, "Underground in H-Town," OffCite, May 21, 2010
 Martin, Debi "Sixties-era 'underground' newspapers live on in new media websites and blogs," Debi Martin website, July 26, 2011.
 McLemee, Scott, "Andy Warhol, Then and Now," Inside Higher Ed, Feb. 24, 2010.
 Raskin, Jonah, "John McMillian's 'Smoking Typewriters'," The Rag Blog, Feb. 21, 2011.
 Shivani, Anis, "Pressing for change: John McMillian's 'Smoking Typewriters' charts history of underground newspapers," Austin American-Statesman, Feb. 20, 2011.
 Siemssen, John, "Remembering Houston's First Alternative Newspaper," Houston's Other'', Summer 1998
 Smith, Cheryl, "Everything Old is New Again: 'The Rag' Returns to Austin," Austin Chronicle, Sept. 2, 2005.
 Seale, Shelley, "Election 2012: Keep up with Austin's top political bloggers," CultureMap Austin, June 2, 2012.

1945 births
American political activists
Living people
Members of Students for a Democratic Society
American newspaper editors
American male journalists
American anti–Vietnam War activists
American male bloggers
American bloggers
American alternative journalists
American radio journalists
Journalists from Houston
Writers from Austin, Texas
Activists from Texas
21st-century American non-fiction writers

Thorne Webb Dreyer


A courtship is a time in the relationship of a couple. During a courtship, a couple gets to know one another. They later decide if they will get engaged, married or other such agreement. A courtship may be a private and informal matter between two people. On the other hand, it may be public. Or it could be a formal arrangement with the approval of a family.

There is a great difference between couples. The average extent of a courtship differs quite a bit across the world. Courtship may be entirely omitted, as in some cases of arranged marriage.

In the United Kingdom, there was a poll of over 3,000 engaged or married couples. The average time between first meeting and an accepted marriage proposal was two years and eleven months. The women felt ready to accept at an average of two years and seven months.

In the earlier 1800s, young adults were expected to court with the intention of finding a marriage partner, not social reasons. In the more traditional forms of Christianity, this concept of courtship has been kept.

In recent research, it has been found that marriage rates have dropped with people. There are not so many courted relationships in the society of today. This means that fewer people are getting married and practicing premarital sex. Many families are started with children, and then marriage. Traditions are referred to as a thing of the past. However, there are many people who still follow the old-fashioned courting route for their relationships.

References

Marriage

Courtship


François Xavier d'Entrecolles (1664 in Lyon – 1741 in Beijing; Chinese name: 殷弘绪, Yin Hongxu) was a French Jesuit priest, who learned the Chinese technique of manufacturing porcelain through his investigations in China at Jingdezhen with the help of Chinese Catholic converts between 1712 and 1722, during the rule of the Kangxi Emperor.  His observations were published in a long letter in 1712, and carefully studied in several European countries, even though Meissen porcelain was already making hard-paste porcelain in Germany by then. The letter's author was given as Père d'Entrecolles ("Father d'Entrecolles"), and he is still very often referred to as this.

Religious career
D'Entrecolles entered the Society of Jesus in 1682. He arrived in China in 1698 to become a member of the Jesuit China missions. Initially proselytizing in Jiangxi, he then became Superior General of the French Jesuits in China from 1706 to 1719.

D'Entrecolles was then Superior of the French Residence in Beijing from 1722 to 1732. He died in Beijing in 1741.

Manufacture of porcelain

Independently of d'Entrecolles, but unknown to him, in 1710 the German Johann Friedrich Böttger (and possibly Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus before him in 1708) had already discovered the secret of hard-paste porcelain manufacture, which led to the establishment of the Meissen Porcelain Manufactory. D'Entrecolles used direct observation at the kilns, as well as the technical knowledge of some of his converts, and also directly consulted Chinese technical sources, thought to be the 1682 printing of the Fu-liang Hsien Chih.

D'Entrecolles sent back to Father Orry, S.J., Procator of the Jesuit missions in China and the Indies, a detailed, very comprehensive and well-structured letter to communicate his findings:

"From time to time I have stayed in Ching-tê-chên to administer to the spiritual necessities of my converts, and so I have interested myself in the manufacture of this beautiful porcelain, which is so highly prized, and is sent to all parts of the world. Nothing but my curiosity could ever have prompted me to such researches, but it appears to me that a minute description of all that concerns this kind of work might, somehow, be useful in Europe." Introduction of "The Letters of Père d'Entrecolles".

The letters were sent to Father Louis-François Orry, treasurer in Paris of the Jesuit missions to China and India, who soon had them published in the Jesuit missions' annual report Lettres édifiantes et curieuses de Chine par des missionnaires jésuites (1702–76). They were again published by Jean-Baptiste Du Halde in 1735, with English editions appearing in 1736 or 1738. The letters were later again published by Abbé Jean-Baptiste Grosier in his General Description of China. D'Entrecolles also sent material specimens to Europe, which were analysed by Réaumur, and led to the establishment of the Sèvres Manufactory once equivalent materials were found in Europe.

In England, his work encouraged the creation of various porcelain works, such as Plymouth porcelain.

D'Entrecolles left Jingdezhen for Beijing to take new responsibilities in 1723.

He died in Beijing in 1741.

Other works
D'Entrecolles also wrote letters about how the Chinese raised silkworms, and manufactured artificial flowers and synthetic pearls, and practised oral vaccination against smallpox. In 1734 d'Entrecolles also discussed how the Chinese manufactured mercury.

As a result of d'Entrecolles' work, which has sometimes been described as Industrial espionage By whom? Citations required, Chinese exports of porcelain soon shrank considerably, especially by the end of the reign of the Qianlong Emperor.

D'Entrecolles was also a translator of Chinese scientific works into French.

Legacy
Following the publication by Father Orry, and later by Jean-Baptiste du Halde in his Description de l'Empire de la Chine (1735), d'Entrecolles' account was used verbatim with attribution in Diderot's Encyclopédie (1751–72).

Josiah Wedgwood, the famous English porcelain manufacturer, is known to have copied extracts of d'Entrecolles' work in his Commonplace Book. D'Entrecolles' work was also reproduced, without attribution, in Malachy Postlethwayt's widely influential Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce (1757–74).

See also

 Orientalism in early modern France
 Jesuit China missions

Notes

References
Baghdiantz McAbe, Ina 2008 Orientalism in Early Modern France, , Berg Publishing, Oxford
 Finley, Robert, 2010 The pilgrim art. Cultures of porcelain in world history, University of California Press,

1664 births
1741 deaths
17th-century French Jesuits
18th-century French Jesuits
French expatriates in China

François Xavier d'Entrecolles


The Community College of Baltimore County (CCBC) is a public community college in Baltimore County, Maryland, with three main campuses and three extension centers.

Academics
CCBC has more than 100 associate degree and certificate programs in a wide range of fields. Annual enrollment is greater than 72,000 students, most of whom live in the surrounding communities. The college has nationwide and international ties as well, with the student body representing 55 countries.  The Catonsville, Dundalk, and Essex campuses each have an Honors Program for day and evening students.

Campuses
CCBC has three main campuses located in the Catonsville, Dundalk, and Essex communities of Baltimore County, Maryland, as well as extension centers located in the Hunt Valley, Owings Mills, and Randallstown communities of Baltimore County.  Each campus started as its own college, with Hunt Valley, Owings Mills, and Randallstown centers being extensions to Catonsville Community College, however, in 1998 the separate colleges of Catonsville, Dundalk, and Essex merged to form the Community College of Baltimore County.

Catonsville Campus
Currently located at 800 South Rolling Road, Catonsville, Maryland, and approximately one mile west of the Baltimore Beltway, the Catonsville campus of CCBC originated in 1957 as Catonsville Community College (CCC). Originally, the college operated out of the basement of Catonsville High School with an enrollment of 53 students, and shared a curriculum with that of Essex Community College, founded at the same time. Between 1959 and 1963, the County Board of Education raised funds to purchase a permanent campus for the college, eventually buying the Knapp Estate (a dairy farm in Catonsville).  The construction on new classroom buildings began in 1962.  As of 2005, the CCBC Catonsville campus has 19 buildings.  The former manor / farm house was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980. The campus mascot is the cardinal.

Dundalk Campus
Community College of Baltimore County Dundalk Campus is one of the three main campuses of CCBC which was started in 1970 and built in 1971. As of 2005 it has 16 buildings, and houses the Baltimore County police training academy. Its signature gardens serve as living classrooms for students and areas of tranquil beauty for campus visitors.  The campus mascot is the lion.

Essex Campus

Currently located at 7201 Rossville Boulevard, Essex, Maryland, the Essex Campus of CCBC originated in 1957 as Essex Community College.  Originally, the college operated out of Kenwood High School with an enrollment of 59 and shared a curriculum with that of Catonsville Community College.  Jokingly, it is referred to by many of its students as The University of Rossville Boulevard.  As of 2005, it has 14 buildings.  The campus mascot is the knight. CCBC Essex has one of the top rated associate nursing programs in the region.

Extension centers

CCBC has a number of extension centers around Baltimore County, most notably in Hunt Valley, Owings Mills, and Randallstown.

Hunt Valley Extension Center
Community College of Baltimore County Hunt Valley Campus is one of the three supplemental campuses of CCBC. It uses a leased building located in 11101 McCormick Road, a business park in Hunt Valley, Maryland.

Owings Mills Extension Center
Community College of Baltimore County Owings Mills Campus is the second of the two supplemental campuses of CCBC. It used a leased building located at 110 Painters Mill Road in Owings Mills, Maryland until 2013, when it moved into a brand new building of its own along with the Baltimore County Public Library in Owings Mills on the (new) Grand Central Avenue (also in Owings Mills, Maryland), near the Owings Mills Metro Train Station.

Randallstown Extension Center
The Community College of Baltimore County introduced a new campus at the Liberty Center in the Randallstown Plaza Shopping Center in January 2011.

Notable alumni
 Sonny Askew – Professional soccer player
 Talmadge Branch – Politician and member of Maryland House of Delegates
 Thomas L. Bromwell – Politician
 Joan Carter Conway – Politician and Maryland State Senator
 Glynn Davis – Professional baseball player
 Too Tall Hall – Harlem Globetrotters player
 Mel Kiper, Jr. – Sports analyst
 J.B. Jennings – Politician and Minority Leader of the Maryland State Senate
 Katherine A. Klausmeier – Politician and Maryland State Senator
 Jeff Nelson – Professional baseball player
 James F. Ports, Jr. – Politician and Maryland State Delegate
 Mike Rowe – Television host
 Matthew VanDyke – Documentary filmmaker, revolutionary, and journalist

References

External links

Two-year colleges in the United States
Community and junior colleges in Maryland
Universities and colleges in Baltimore County, Maryland
Baltimore County, Maryland landmarks
Mortuary schools
NJCAA athletics
1957 establishments in Maryland
Aviation schools in the United States

Community College of Baltimore County


Bratwurst is a dish of German origin. It is a type of sausage. It is composed of pork or beef, and sometimes veal.

Where the word comes from
Bratwurst is a sausage in German cuisines, from Old High German brätwurst, from brät which is a derivative of the Old High German word "brato". "Brato" originally meant hacked meat, intestines. The other part of the word is wurst which means sausage.

Where the sausage comes from

Though originally Celtic in origin, the German "Bratwurst" comes from Franconia, specifically Weißenburg-Treuchtlingen.

Major Types of German Bratwurst
There are many different kinds of these sausages. All are special in their own way:
 Coburger Bratwurst: A Bratwurst originating in the city of Coburg in Bavaria. It is made from a minimum of 15% veal or beef, and its seasonings include only salt, pepper, nutmeg, and lemon zest. It is coarse in texture and measures about 10 inches in length. Traditionally it is grilled over pinecones and served in a bread roll (Brötchen).
 Fränkische Bratwurst: A relatively long (4-8 inches), thick, coarse sausage, originating from the Franconia (Franken) region in Bavaria. It dates back to 1573. The Fränkische Bratwurst is traditionally served with sauerkraut or potato salad, but with no mustard.
 Kulmbacher Bratwurst: The Kulmbacher Bratwurst, from the city of Kulmbach in Bavaria, is made mainly from finely ground veal. They are long and thin.
 Nürnberger Rostbratwurst: A small, thin bratwurst from the city of Nürnberg. It is no longer than 3-4 inches and weighs no more than 1 oz. They are traditionally served is sets of 6 or 12 (depending on your appetite) with horseradish and sauerkraut or potato salad.
 Nordhessische Bratwurst: The Nordhessische Bratwurst (from Northern Hessen) is similar to the Thüringer Rostbratwurst in taste. It is made from coarsely ground pork and is heavily seasoned. It measures around 8 inches in length. Traditionally, it is grilled over a wood fire and served on a cut-open roll (Brötchen) with mustard.
 Rote Wurst: The Rote Wurst is a favorite Bratwurst of the Swabian region. It is similar to the Bockwurst, and is made from finely ground pork and bacon. Its taste is spicy. To prevent splitting during grilling or pan frying, an X is cut into the ends of the sausage. The ends open during cooking, but the rest of the sausage remains intact, giving it its traditional shape.
 Thüringer Rostbratwurst: The Thüringer Rostbratwurst is a spicy sausage from Thüringen. It is long (6-8 inches) and thin in shape. Traditionally, it is grilled over a wood fire and eaten with mustard and bread.
 Würzburger Bratwurst: The Würzburger Bratwurst, also known as the Winzerbratwurst, comes from the city of Würzburg. It's size is similar to the Thüringer Rostbratwurst, but its ingredients include white Franken wine.
A "Bratwurst meal" often is eaten with sauerkraut, mashed potatoes and roasted onions. Sometimes, it is also served with a potato sauce, or a potato salad.

How the sausage is prepared
Today, most kinds of Bratwurst are prepared by roasting them. Depending on the kind of Bratwurst, it may have been cooked beforehand. Sausages that use raw meat, and that are not roasted or cooked before they are eaten are usually not called Bratwurst.

How people eat the sausage
The sausage is usually eaten with a hot or sweet German mustard or sliced and eaten as Currywurst. Sometimes, some hot French mustard is served as well. Bratwurst is almost always served with a hard German roll and usually accompanied by a beer. It is a popular snack in German-speaking countries, where it is sold at various fast food outlets and is often consumed while standing.

Bratwurst in the US
In the United States, bratwurst are usually eaten with bread (a hot dog bun or a hardroll, for example) and topped with mustard and/or many of the other condiments often eaten with hot dogs, including onions (grilled and/or raw), relish, sauerkraut, etc. The bratwurst is occasionally eaten with a pair of brat links nestled in a buttered hardroll with these same toppings, which is called a 'double brat'.

Within the US, bratwurst is strongly identified with Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and other areas in a band stretching from the north side of Chicago up through Minnesota and scattered pockets elsewhere in the Midwest.

They are especially popular in areas of the US where German-Americans settled in large numbers, like Sheboygan, Wisconsin, which is informally known as the Bratwurst Capital of the World because of the city and county's very strong German roots and connections to bratwurst. Johnsonville Foods, the nation's largest bratwurst maker, is based in the nearby unincorporated village of Johnsonville. The city also celebrates Sheboygan Bratwurst Days, a community festival held on the first Thursday-Saturday of August each year that celebrates the bratwurst.  Other traditional Wisconsin brat manufacturers include Klement's Sausage Company and Usinger's, both of which are based in Milwaukee.

The city of Madison, Wisconsin, holds an annual festival billed as the World's Largest Brat Fest. The four-day charity event sees tens of thousands of brats sold by "celebrity" cashiers, usually local television, radio, and government personalities. Brat Fest's self-proclaimed world record is 189,432 brats consumed during the 2004 event.

Another town with German-American roots associated with bratwurst is Bucyrus, Ohio, which is known for its unique recipe incorporating fennel. It holds a bratwurst festival annually in mid-August attracting over 100,000 visitors annually.

Bratwurst(s) is/are often simply called brat(s).

References

German food
Sausage

Bratwurst


Alexander Vyacheslavovich Ossovsky (, July 31, 1957) was a musical writer, critic and musicologist, professor at Saint Petersburg Conservatory, pupil of Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, and friend of Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alexander Siloti and Nikolai Tcherepnin. He was from the Russian Empire and later the Soviet Union.

Biography
Alexander Ossovsky was born on March 31, 1871, in Kishinev, Bessarabia, Russian Empire into the family of Vyacheslav Stepanovich Ossovsky, who was a department chair in the Odessa Court; his mother was Yevgenia Cherkunova. The composer Mykola Vilinsky was his cousin. Ossovsky graduated from the Law School at Moscow University (1893).

After graduation he worked at the Ministry of Justice in Saint Petersburg. From 1896 to 1898 he studied at Saint Petersburg Conservatory. From 1900 to 1902 he studied composition with the composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. In 1894 Ossovsky started his career as a talented and prolific musical writer, musical critic and musicologist. Between 1915 and 1918 and 1921 to 1952, Ossovsky was a professor at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory (then Leningrad Conservatory), and in 1937 he became a deputy director there.

He was one of the founders of "Muzykal'nyi Sovremennik" ("Musical Contemporary") magazine in Saint Petersburg (1915–17). From 1923 to 1925 Ossovsky was the director, and from 1933 to 1936 the Art Chair, at the Leningrad Philharmonic. From 1943 to 1952 he was director at the Leningrad Music and Theater Research Institute. In 1931–33 he worked at the State Hermitage Museum in Leningrad.

Ossovsky maintained close ties with the composers of Belyayev's Circle and had become friend and colleague with a number of the members of Russian musical elite, including Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alexander Siloti and Alexander Glazunov. He contributed extensively to Siloti's concert programs as a writer, editor and critic.

In 1911 he helped Sergei Prokofiev publish his first works by writing a special letter in strong support of the composer to the Russian publisher P. Jurgenson. The same year, in Kiev, Rachmaninoff at the request of Ossovsky auditioned Ossovsky's cousin, Ksenia Derzhinskaia (1889–1951), and helped to launch her opera career; she became an eminent Russian singer and prima donna at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow. Ossovsky was a friend of the composer Nikolai Tcherepnin and mentored his son – also a famous composer, Alexander Tcherepnin – during the early years of his career.

Ossovsky died in 1957, in Leningrad, Soviet Union (now Saint Petersburg, Russia). He had written a series of papers and monographs dedicated to research and analysis of the works of such outstanding Russian composers as Mikhail Glinka, Glazunov, Rimsky-Korsakov and others. He was one of the first musicologists who introduced music of Bach, Rameau, Corelli, Vivaldi and Wagner to the Russian public. His memoir of Rachmaninoff is of special interest and value, because he gives first-hand accounts of, and insights into, many important events in the biographies of Rachmaninoff and other musicians. Ossovsky's works are frequently cited in many Western publications about Russian composers and their music.

Selected works (in Russian)

Aleksandr Konstantinovich Glazunov: His life and creative work,  Alexander Siloti Concerts Publishing House, Sanct-Petersburg, 1907.
Mirovoe znachenie russkoi muzyki, (Worldwide significance of Russian classical music), Leningrad,. 1948.
N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, in "Soviet Music" coll. of papers, book 3, Moscow. 1944.
Selected papers and memoirs. Leningrad, 1961
Muzikal'no-kriticheskie stat'ji (Musical and critic papers), Leningrad, 1971
Vospominaniia. Issledovaniia (Memoirs. Research). Leningrad, 1968.

References

External links
 Works by Alexander Ossovsky
 Alexander Ossovsky
 Rimsky-Korsakov Saint-Petersburg State Conservatory. See History, Department of history of Foreign music

1871 births
1957 deaths
Russian music theorists
Russian music critics

Memoirists from the Russian Empire
Musicologists from the Russian Empire
Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Soviet writers

Alexander Ossovsky


In the George Orwell book Nineteen Eighty-Four, an Unperson in Newspeak is someone who has been vaporized. Vaporization is when a person is secretly murdered and erased from society, the present, the universe, and existence. Such a person would be taken out of books, photographs, and articles so that no trace of them is found in the present anywhere – no record of them would be found. This was so that a person who defied the Party would be gone from all citizens' memories, even friends and family. There is no Newspeak word for what happened to unpeople, therefore it is thoughtcrime to say an unperson's name or think of unpeople.

This is similar to the Stalinist Soviet Party erasing people from photographs after death; this is an example of "real" unpeople.

The Stalin-era Soviet Union also provided real-world examples of unpersons in its treatment of Leon Trotsky and other members of the Communist Party who became politically inconvenient. In his 1960 magazine article "Pravda means 'Truth'", reprinted in Expanded Universe, Robert A. Heinlein argued that John Paul Jones and a mysterious May 15, 1960 cosmonaut had also received this treatment.

Other websites
 A look at Orwell's Newspeak

Words

en:List of Newspeak words#Unperson

Unperson


An insecticide is a poison made to kill insects and spiders.

Insects are very tough animals that have adapted to a great variety of settings. Therefore, the poison used to kill them is also deadly to humans. There can be great danger of eating pesticide when you have vegetables. This is why often people will rub an apple on their jumper before eating it. This adds a nice shine to the apple and rubs away some of the pesticides. If you do not clean the jumper there is a risk pesticide might build up.

Insecticide