A barista ( , , ; "bartender") is a person, usually a coffeehouse employee, who prepares and serves espresso-based coffee drinks, and often teas as well.

Etymology and inflection
The word barista comes from Italian and Spanish where it means a male or female "bartender" who typically works behind a counter, serving hot drinks (such as espresso), cold alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, and snacks. Prieto (2021) shows that the word barista has been documented since 1916 in both Spanish and Italian. The native plural in English and Spanish is baristas, while in Italian the plural is baristi for masculine (literally "barmen", "bartenders") or bariste for feminine (literally "barmaids").

Application of the title

While the title is not regulated, most coffee shops use the title to describe the preparer of coffee and operator of an espresso machine.

Baristas generally operate a commercial espresso machine, and their role is preparing and pulling the shot; the degree to which this is automated or done manually varies significantly, ranging from push-button operation to an involved manual process. Espresso is a notoriously finicky beverage, and good manual espresso-making is considered a skilled task. Further, preparation of other beverages, particularly milk-based drinks such as cappuccinos and lattes, but also non-espresso coffee such as drip or press pot, requires additional work and skill for effective frothing, pouring and most often latte art. In Starbucks, over the counter employees are referred to as "baristas", although the preparation process is fully automated.

The barista usually has been trained to operate the machine and to prepare the coffee based on the guidelines of the roaster or shop owner, while more experienced baristas may have discretion to vary preparation or experiment.
To make the coffee well, there is a series of steps needing attention, including grinding the beans, extracting the coffee, frothing the milk and pouring.

Beyond the preparation of espresso and other beverages and general customer service, skilled baristas acquire knowledge of the entire process of coffee to effectively prepare a desired cup of coffee, including maintenance and programming of the machine, grinding methods, roasting, and coffee plant cultivation, similar to how a sommelier is familiar with the entire process of winemaking and consumption. A barista can acquire these skills by attending training classes, but they are more commonly learned on the job.

Competition
Formal barista competitions originated in Norway, and one such is the World Barista Championships, held annually at varied international locations. Baristas worldwide compete, though they must first compete in a competition held in their own country to qualify to enter in the WBC, such as the United States Barista Championship.

See also
 Bikini barista
 Milkman
 Soda jerk
 Sommelier

References

Coffee culture
Hospitality occupations
Food services occupations

Coffee in Italy

Barista


Lester R. Brown (born March 28, 1934) is an environmental analyst who has authored and co-authored over fifty books. His books have been translated into more than forty languages. He is the founder of the Worldwatch Institute and founder and president of the Earth Policy Institute.

The recipient of twenty-five honorary degrees and a MacArthur Fellowship, Brown has been described as "one of the world's most influential thinkers."

Writings
Brown has authored or coauthored 50 books. One of the world's most widely published authors, his books have appeared in some 40 languages. Among his earlier books are Man, Land and Food, World Without Borders, and Building a Sustainable Society. His 1995 book Who Will Feed China? challenged the official view of China's food prospect, spawning hundreds of conferences and seminars.

In May 2001, he founded the Earth Policy Institute to provide a vision and a road map for achieving sustainable development. In November 2001, he published Eco-Economy: Building an Economy for the Earth, and his most recent book is World on the Edge: How to Prevent Environmental and Economic Collapse (2011).

Awards
He is the recipient of many prizes and awards, including 25 honorary degrees, a MacArthur Fellowship, the 1987 United Nations' Environment Prize, the 1989 World Wide Fund for Nature Gold Medal, and the 1994 Blue Planet Prize for his "exceptional contributions to solving global environmental problems." More recently, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Italy, the Borgström Prize by the Royal Swedish Academy of Agriculture and Forestry, and appointed an honorary professor of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. In 1991, the American Humanist Association named Brown the Humanist of the Year.

Related pages
 Earth Policy Institute

References

Other websites
 Earth Policy Institute  - biography of Lester R. Brown
 Lester Brown Interview about The Water Crisis MP3
Books online:
 Plan B: Rescuing a Planet under Stress & a Civilization in Trouble (2003); complete book online (html pages and pdf document)
 Lester R. Brown: Plan B 3.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization (2008); complete book online (html pages and pdf document)
 Lester R. Brown: Plan B 4.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization (2010); complete book online (html pages and pdf document)
 Lester R. Brown: World on the Edge: How to Prevent Environmental and Economic Collapse (2011); complete book online (html pages and pdf document)

Living people
American environmentalists
1934 births
Writers from New Jersey

Lester Brown


The MICR is a device that can recognise human readable characters printed on documents such as cheques using a special magnetic ink. The reader reads these characters by examining their shapes. Characters are printed in a special font. Each character is formed by a 7 x 10 matrix. The MICR has a magnetic head which can detect the magnetic pattern for each character.

The abbreviation MICR stands for Magnetic Ink Character Recognition. This is a type of data input often found in banks. The bank account number and other details are printed onto bank cheques (USA - checks)in a special font with magnetic ink.

The magnetic characters can be read very quickly and accurately by MICR readers.

Numbers in a special MICR font

Data input

MICR


eSTREAM is a project to identify "new stream ciphers that might become suitable for widespread adoption",  organized by the EU ECRYPT network. It was set up because of the failure of all six stream ciphers submitted to the NESSIE project.  The call for primitives was first issued in November 2004. The project was completed in April 2008. The project was divided into separate phases and the project goal was to find algorithms suitable for different kinds of application.

Other websites
 Homepage for the project
 Discussion forum
 The eSTREAM testing framework
 Update 1: (PDF)
 Notes on the ECRYPT Stream Cipher project by Daniel Bernstein
 estreamJ - Java implementations of eSTREAM ciphers, plus a live performance test

Cryptography

ESTREAM


Kanchanaburi ( (Pronunciation)) is the lairgest o the wastren provinces (changwat) o Thailand. Neighborin provinces are (frae north clockwise) Tak, Uthai Thani, Suphan Buri, Nakhon Pathom an Ratchaburi. In the wast it borders Kayin State, Mon State an Tanintharyi Region o Myanmar.

A province in the Central Plains, Kanchanaburi borders Burma tae the wast wi the Tanaosi range as a borderline. It is frequentit bi tourists who hae been attractit bi its lang history an ancient civilizations, a location o the Brig ower the River Khwae – 'Kwai' as it is kent internaitionally an scene o the historic Warld War II. Producers o the movie the Bridge Over the River Kwae are guilty o givin the river an brig baith the wrong spellin an mis-pronunciaton. It is pronounced 'Kwae' as in the Inglish wird 'Hair'. The province is an aa famous for its natural attractions such as forests, muntains, caves an waterfalls.

References

Provinces o Thailand

Kanchanaburi Province


An octet is a word used to describe the sequence of 8 things in a row.

In music, an octet is an ensemble consisting of eight instruments or voices, or a composition written for such an ensemble.

Technology
Octets are used in the technology field very often.  For example, the eight binary digits in a byte has been called an octet.  The term "octet" is used to avoid ambiguity, because some old computers had different numbers of bits per byte.  It is mainly used with describing IP addresses. An IPv4 address consists of four octets (which can be written as their decimal values 255.255.255.255).

In France, French Canada and Romania, "octet" is used in common language instead of "byte" to talk about 8 bits, for example, a megabyte (MB) is called a megaoctet (Mo).

Numbers

Octet


A Cockapoo (also called a Spoodle or Cockerpoo) is a hybrid dog. It is a mix of an American Cocker Spaniel and a Poodle; (in most cases the Miniature Poodle or Toy Poodle), or by breeding a Cockapoo with another Cockapoo.

The Cockapoo has been around since 1950 and the first dictionary reference was a 1960 Oxford English Dictionary citation. Because it is a mixed breed, it is not recognised by purebred kennel clubs.

Other websites
 The American Cockapoo Club
 Cockapoo Crazy
 Cockapoo Place

Dog breeds

Cockapoo


Harry "Cuby" Muskee (10 June 1941 – 26 September 2011) was the singer of the blues band Cuby + Blizzards, which he co-founded with Eelco Gelling.
Muskee was born in Assen, and died in Rolde aged 70.

Biography
Muskee was born in the Wilhelmina Hospital in Assen. Early on, he lived with his mother at his grandmother's place, because his father was captured and transported to Germany. Only after the war – when he was four years old – he saw his father for the first time. The family moved to Rotterdam, but returned to Assen after two years. His mother suffered from multiple sclerosis and could not properly care for her child. Because his father, a fire chief, was mostly away from home, his grandmother largely took care of Muskee.

At fifteen he went for his first guitar lessons. At high school he came into contact with jazz and Dixieland music. Together with the brothers Henk and Jaap Hilbrandie he founded the band The Mixtures. From this band emerged later on the 'Old Fashioned Jazz Group'. This band mostly played at school dances in Assen.

Through listening to the American Forces Network radio station – for U.S. soldiers stationed in Germany – Muskee came into contact with blues music. When he discovered the album Live at Newport by John Lee Hooker, he decided that he also wanted to make this kind of music. In 1961, when Muskee was 20 years old, his mother died, and a year later his grandmother died. Shortly afterwards, Muskee broke through with The Blizzards.

After the breakup of Cuby + Blizzards – in 1972 – he toured around with formations like Red White 'n Blue, the Harry Muskee Band, the Muskee Gang and Muskee. Ultimately, the original name Cuby + Blizzards proved to be the most catchy and under this name, assisted by the Groningen guitarist Erwin Java (since 1986), Muskee toured for many years. In addition, he presented music programs on Radio Drenthe. For the same channel, he made a study tour through the southern states of the United States in search of the roots of the blues. A statue of Harry Muskee was placed in Grolloo, in 1997.

Muskee died in Rolde on 26 September 2011 of cancer. After his death, a special museum to honor Harry Muskee was opened in Grolloo.

References

External links
  Harry (Cuby) Muskee Museum, Grolloo

1941 births
2011 deaths
Dutch male singers
Musicians from Drenthe
People from Assen

Harry Muskee


The 1973 oil crisis started on October 17, 1973. when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) said, because of the Yom Kippur War, that they would no longer ship petroleum to nations that had supported Israel in its conflict with Syria and Egypt (The United States, Canada, its allies in Western Europe, and Japan). The embargo was lifted in March 1974.

About the same time, OPEC members agreed to raise world oil prices, after attempts at negotiation with the "Seven Sisters" oil company earlier in the month failed. Due to the dependence of the industrialized world on crude oil and the role of OPEC as a major supplier, these price increases hurt the economies of the targeted countries, while at the same time limiting economic activity. The targeted countries responded with new, and mostly permanent, attempts to limit any more dependency.

During this time, many other problems arose. These problems badly affected the economy of the world. The problems continued even after 10 years until the early 1980s. The higher oil prices continued until 1986. Japan did well soon after the 1973 oil crisis. For example, Japanese companies started manufacturing automobiles that used less oil to run. Soon many other automobile companies in different countries also started to manufacture automobiles that used less oil to run. The Japanese also began focusing on producing electronics such as transistor radios and televisions. This production is what helped the Japanese economy to bounce back after the shock of the oil crisis.

1973
Arab–Israeli conflict
Economic history

1973 oil crisis


MOSFET stands for metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor.  It is an electronic component that acts as an electrically controlled switch.

Transistors are small electrical devices that are used in radios, calculators, and, perhaps most famously, computers; they are some of the most basic building blocks of modern electronic systems.  A few MOSFETs amplify or process analog signals but most are used in digital electronics.

MOSFETs act like valves for electricity. They have one input connection (the "gate") which is used to control the flow of electricity between two other connections (the "source" and "drain"). Said another way, the gate acts as a switch that controls the two outputs. Think of a dimmable light switch: the knob itself selects 'ON', 'OFF', or somewhere in between, controlling the brightness of the light. Think of a MOSFET in place of the light switch: the switch itself is the "gate", the "source" is the power coming into the house, and the "drain" is the light bulb.

The name MOSFET describes the structure and the function of the transistor. MOS refers to the fact that a MOSFET is built by layering metal (the "gate") on oxide (an insulator which prevents the flow of electricity) on semiconductor (the "source" and "drain"). FET describes the action of the gate on the semiconductor. An electric signal is sent to the gate, which creates an electric field that alters the connection between the "source" and "drain".

Almost all MOSFETs are used in integrated circuits. As of 2008, it is possible to fit 2,000,000,000 transistors on a single integrated circuit. In 1970, that number was around 2,000.

Operation
There are four common types of MOSFET:

The enhancement mode N-Channel MOSFET, where the switch between the "source" and "drain" is usually off. You can turn the switch on by applying a positive voltage to the "gate", so it is at a higher voltage than the "source". The P-Channel MOSFET is also usually off, but you use a negative voltage to turn it on. The Depletion mode N and P-Channel MOSFET transistors are very similar to their enhancement mode counterparts, but they are normally on, and you use a negative or positive voltage to turn it off. The Depletion mode P-Channel MOSFET isn't normally available for use.

Summary

Differences between MOSFETs

Integrated circuits
A small piece of silicon can have millions of MOSFETs created on it. This makes an integrated circuit.

This section is about single MOSFETs with three connections.

Heat
If the MOSFET is partly on, it will reduce the power going through it. It does that by converting some power into heat. Even if it is on, it will still convert some power to heat. The MOSFET also has a resistance. When current flows from the MOSFET's drain to its source, there will be a voltage drop. Multiply that current, and the voltage, to get the power loss. That lost power becomes heat. The MOSFET must get rid of that heat, usually by passing it into the air. Smaller MOSFETs warm up and heat the nearby air, while some other MOSFETs must be on a circuit board, which has a larger area to heat more air. The highest-power MOSFETs must be under a heatsink.

Other differences between MOSFETs
There are lots of different MOSFETs available. When choosing a MOSFET, once you have decided among the 4 main types, there are lots of other things to think about. Differences between MOSFETs include:
 VGSS - The allowed voltage between the gate and source. If you apply too large a voltage, the MOSFET will break.
 VDSS - The allowed voltage between the drain and source. If you apply too large a voltage, the MOSFET will break.
 ID - The allowed current between the drain and source. If you are trying to power a large load, such as a motor, then you need a MOSFET designed for high currents.
 VGS(TH) ("Threshold voltage") - Approximately how big a voltage you need to apply to the "gate" for it to switch. How much the MOSFET is "on" depends on the exact voltage at the "gate", the temperature, and the voltage at the "drain". The datasheet for the MOSFET will have details.
 RDS(ON) - When the MOSFET is fully "on", it will act like a resistor with this value. A higher value means, when the MOSFET is fully "on", there is more wasted power and more heat. Smaller is better.
 PD - The largest amount of heat that the MOSFET can give off every second without breaking. (The "power dissipation"). If you make the MOSFET give off heat faster than this, then the MOSFET will overheat and break.
 RθJA - How bad the MOSFET is at transferring that heat to the air. Lower numbers are better. For MOSFETs that use a heatsink, they will say how bad they are at transferring heat to the heatsink.
 TJ - The working temperature of the part of the MOSFET that is generating the heat. If you make it go above the limit, the MOSFET will break.
 tD(ON) and tD(OFF) - The time it takes to turn the MOSFET on and off. Smaller, low voltage and low current MOSFETs, can be fast enough to use in the fastest computers. Larger, higher power MOSFETs, tend to be slower.
 Static electricity can break a MOSFET. Some MOSFETs include protection against static electricity.
 Some parts include several MOSFETs on a single device. This can be smaller than having separate MOSFETs. It can also be cheaper to make an electronic circuit board with less parts.

Theory

There are many different ways to make MOSFETs on the semiconductor. The simplest method is shown in the diagram to the right of this text. The blue part represents P-type silicon, while the red part represents N-type silicon. The intersection of the two types makes a diode. In silicon semiconductor, there is a quirk called the "Depletion Region". In doped silicon, with one part being doped N-Type, and one part being doped P-Type, a depletion region will naturally form on the intersection between the two. This is because of their acceptors and donors. P-type silicon has acceptors, also known as holes, which attract electrons towards them. The N-Type silicon has donors, or electrons, which are attracted to holes. In the border between the two, the electrons from the N-Type fill the holes in the P-type. This results in the acceptor, or P-type atoms becoming negatively charged, and since negative charges attract positive charges, acceptors, or holes, will flow towards the "junction". On the N-Type side, there is a positive charge, which results in the donors, or electrons, flowing towards the "junction." When they get there, they will be repelled by the negative charge on the other side of the junction, since alike charges repel. The same will happen on the P-Type side, the donors, or holes will be repelled by the positive area in the N type side. No electricity can flow between the two, since no electrons can move to the other side.

MOSFETs use this to their advantage. The "Body" of the MOSFET is powered negatively, which widens the depletion region, since the holes are filled with the new electrons, so the opposite force to the electrons on the N side becomes much larger. The "Source" of the MOSFET is powered negatively, which shrinks the depletion zone in the N type entirely, since there are enough electrons to fulfill the positive depletion zone. The "Drain" has a positive power. When the "Gate" is supplied with positive power, it will make a small electromagnetic field, which will remove the depletion zone directly below the gate, since there will be a "spray" of holes, which will make something called an "N-Channel". The N-Channel is a temporary region of the P-Type silicon area where there is no depletion zone. The positive electric field will neutralize all of the spare electrons that make up the depletion zone. The electrons in the source area will then have a clear way to move to the "Drain", which would make electricity flow from source to drain.

References

Other websites
 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor Citizendium

Electronic components

MOSFET


The 437th Operations Group (437 OG) is an active United States Air Force unit. It is the flying component of the Eighteenth Air Force 437th Airlift Wing, stationed at Charleston Air Force Base, South Carolina.

The unit's World War II predecessor unit, the 437th Troop Carrier Group was a C-47 Skytrain transport unit assigned to Ninth Air Force in Western Europe. During the Normandy campaign, the group released gliders over Cherbourg and carried troops, weapons, ammunition, rations, and other supplies for the 82nd Airborne Division in Operation NEPTUNE. For these actions, the group received a Distinguished Unit Citation.

Overview
The 437 OG is responsible for flying the C-17 Globemaster III jet cargo aircraft, the newest aircraft in the AMC airlift system.

Units
The group consists of the following units:
 14th Airlift Squadron
 15th Airlift Squadron
 16th Airlift Squadron
 437th Operations Support Squadron

History
 For additional lineage and history, see 437th Airlift Wing

World War II
From May–December 1943, the 437th Troop Carrier Group trained with C-47 Skytrain cargo planes in Indiana, Missouri, and North Carolina. In January 1944, the group deployed to England, where it prepared for the invasion of Nazi-occupied Europe. During the Normandy campaign, the group released gliders over Cherbourg Naval Base and carried troops, weapons, ammunition, rations, and other supplies for the 82nd Airborne Division in Operation Neptune. For these actions, the group received a Distinguished Unit Citation.

The air echelon deployed to Italy in July 1944 and participated in the Allied invasion of southern France in August 1944 dropping paratroops of the 1st Airborne Task Force. During Operation Market Garden in September 1944, the group released gliders carrying troops and equipment for the airborne attack in the occupied Netherlands. In December 1944, the group re-supplied the 101st Airborne Division in the Bastogne area of Belgium during the Battle of the Bulge. After moving to France in February 1945, the unit released gliders in support of an American crossing of the Rhine River called Operation Varsity in March 1945. The 437th continued to supply the offensive forces in April, while also evacuating wounded personnel to rear-zone hospitals. After V-E Day, the group evacuated prisoners of war and displaced persons to relocation centers. The group then returned to the United States and was inactivated.

Cold War
Trained as a reserve unit until August 1950, when it was ordered to active duty because of the outbreak of war in Korea and later moved to Japan in November 1950. Between December 1950 and June 1952, the group airlifted ammunition, rations, aircraft parts, gasoline, and other war supplies from Japan to United Nations bases in Korea, while evacuating wounded troops from Korea to hospitals in Japan. During 1951, the 437th also dropped paratroops and flew re-supply and reinforcement missions in support of the Eighth Army in Korea. Between January–June 1952, the group transported battlefield replacements and evacuated troops on leave. From June 1952 – November 1957, the group again served as Reserve training organization flying C-46s.

Modern era
Activated as part of Objective Organization adoption by 437 AW in October 1991. Assumed control of operational squadrons. Routinely deployed aircraft and aircrews in support of humanitarian and contingency operations in the Balkans, Southwest Asia, Africa, Russia, and provided disaster relief support, 1992–2001. Supported Global War on Terrorism contingencies from October 2001–.

Lineage
 Established as 437 Troop Carrier Group on 15 April 1943
 Activated on 1 May 1943
 Inactivated on 15 November 1945
 Redesignated 437 Troop Carrier Group, Medium, on 10 May 1949
 Activated in the Reserve on 27 June 1949
 Ordered to active duty on 10 August 1950
 Inactivated on 10 June 1952
 Activated in the Reserve on 15 June 1952
 Inactivated on 16 November 1957
 Redesignated: 437 Military Airlift Group on 31 July 1985 (Remained inactive)
 Redesignated: 437 Operations Group on 24 September 1991
 Activated on 1 October 1991.

Assignments

 I Troop Carrier Command, 1 May 1943
 50th Troop Carrier Wing, February 1944
 53d Troop Carrier Wing, 17 February 1944
 50th Troop Carrier Wing, 10 July 1945
 U.S. Forces European Theater, 18 July 1945

 I Troop Carrier Command, 6 August 1945
 IX Troop Carrier Command, 4–15 November 1945
 437th Troop Carrier Wing, 27 June 1949 – 10 June 1952; 15 June 1952 – 16 November 1957
 437th Airlift Wing, 1 October 1991–present

Stations

 Baer Field, Indiana, 1 May 1943
 Sedalia Army Air Field, Missouri, 8 June 1943
 Pope Field, North Carolina, 10 October 1943
 Baer Field, Indiana, 29 December 1943–c. 12 January 1944
 RAF Balderton (AAF-482), England, January 1944
 RAF Ramsbury (AAF-469), England, 5 February 1944
 Air echelon deployed to: Montalto Di Castro Airfield, Italy, July–August 1944
 Air echelon deployed to: RAF Chilbolton (AAF-404), England, 1–6 September 1944

 Coulommiers-Voisins Airfield (A-58), France, 24 February – 28 July 1945
 Baer Field, Indiana, 15 August 1945
 Marfa Army Airfield, Texas, 14 September – 15 November 1945
 Chicago-Orchard Airport (later, O'Hare Field-Chicago International Airport), Illinois, 27 June 1949
 Shaw AFB, South Carolina, 14 August – 16 October 1950
 Brady Air Base, Japan, 8 November 1950 – 10 June 1952
 O'Hare International Airport, Illinois, 15 June 1952 – 16 November 1957
 Charleston AFB, South Carolina, 1 October 1991–present

Components
 14th Airlift Squadron: 1 April 1992–present
 15th Airlift Squadron: 1 October 1993–present
 16th Airlift Squadron: 1 October 1993 – 29 September 2000; 1 July 2002–present
 17th Airlift Squadron: 1 October 1991 – 25 June 2015
 20th Airlift Squadron: 1 October 1991 – 1 October 1993
 36th Airlift Squadron: 1 December 1991 – 1 October 1993
 76th Airlift Squadron: 1 October 1991 – 1 October 1993
 41st Tactical Airlift Squadron: 1 October 1991 – 1 April 1992
 83d Troop Carrier Squadron (T2): 1 May 1943 – 15 November 1945; 27 June 1949 – 10 June 1952; 15 June 1952 – 16 November 1957
 84th Troop Carrier Squadron (Z8): 1 May 1943 – 15 November 1945; 27 June 1949 – 10 June 1952; 15 June 1952 – 16 November 1957
 85th Troop Carrier Squadron (90): 1 May 1943 – 15 November 1945; 27 June 1949 – 10 June 1952; 15 June 1952 – 1 July 1957
 86th Troop Carrier Squadron (5K): 1 May 1943 – 15 November 1945; 27 June 1949 – 1 August 1950; 26 January 1951 – 10 June 1952.

Aircraft

 C-47 Skytrain, 1943–1945
 C-53 Skytrooper, 1943–1945
 C-109 Liberator Express, 1945
 CG-4A Waco, 1943–1945
 Horsa glider, 1944

 C-46 Commando, 1949–1952; 1952–1957
 C-119 Flying Boxcar, 1951
 C-141 Starlifter, 1991–2000
 C-17 Globemaster III, 1993–present

References

 Maurer, Maurer (1983). Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History.
 Johnson, David C. (1988), U.S. Army Air Forces Continental Airfields (ETO), D-Day to V-E Day; Research Division, USAF Historical Research Center, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.
 437th Operations Group

External links

Operations groups of the United States Air Force

437th Operations Group


The Banner o Suriname is formed bi five horizontal baunds o green (top, dooble width), white, red (quadruple width), white, an green (dooble width). Thare is a lairge, yellow, five-pointit starn centred in the reid baund.

The banner wis adoptit on November 25, 1975, upon the unthirldom o Suriname. The starn represents the unity o aw ethnic groups, the reid stripe staunds for progress an luve, the green for hope an fertility, an the white baunds for peace an juistice.

Banner afore 1975
The pre-unthirldom banner consistit o five coloured starns connectit bi an ellipse.  The coloured starns representit the major ethnic groups that comprise the Surinamese population:  the oreeginal Amerindians, the colonizin Europeans, the Africans brocht in as slaves tae wirk in plantations an the Hindus, Javanese an Cheenese who came as indentured wirkers tae replace the Africans who escaped slavery an settled in the hinterland.  The ellipse representit the harmonious relationship amangst the groups. Thare wis an' a' a banner for uise bi the Govrenor, based on the naitional banner.

Suriname
Naitional seembols o Suriname

Banner o Suriname


Claudio Acquaviva, SJ (14 September 1543 – 31 January 1615) was an Italian Jesuit priest. Elected in 1581 as the fifth Superior General of the Society of Jesus, he has been referred to as the second founder of the Jesuit order.

Early life and family

Claudio Acquaviva was born in Atri, Abruzzo, the son of Giovanni Antonio Acquaviva d'Aragona, 9th Duke of Atri, descended from a noble family illustrious at the court of Naples for its patronage of humanist culture. His grandfather, Andrea Matteo Acquaviva (1456–1528), was a condottiere and humanist whose brother Belisario Acquaviva (1464–1528), Duke of Nardo, was also a noted man of letters. Some older texts, including those illustrated in this article, spell his name Aquaviva.

After initial studies of humanities (Latin, Greek and Hebrew) and Mathematics, he studied Jurisprudence in Perugia.

He had heard of the Society of Jesus through his friendship with Francis Borgia and Juan de Polanco. He was particularly impressed by the works of the Early Companions during the Plague in 1566 and decided to join the Order in 1567. With the blessing of Pius V he asked the then Superior General, Francis Borgia, to be admitted to the noviceship. After completing his studies, he was very soon given positions of important responsibility, his administrative gifts marking him out for the highest posts.  He soon became the Provincial superior of Naples and then of Rome; and during this office he offered to join the Jesuit mission to England that set out under Robert Parsons in the spring of 1580.

His nephew, the Jesuit missionary and martyr Rodolfo Acquaviva (1550-1583) was inspired to join the Society of Jesus at the age of seventeen by the example of Claudio who was twenty-five when he joined the year before in 1567.

General Congregation IV

Upon the death of Everard Mercurian on 1 August 1580, the Fourth General Congregation was called for 7 February 1581.  Acquaviva was elected the next Superior General, being then only thirty-seven years old, to the great surprise of Gregory XIII. However, the extraordinary sense of governance he displayed - in particular when his leadership was questioned -, the continuous apostolic vitality of the Jesuits as well as the regular increase of membership that came to the Society during his long generalate, abundantly justified the votes of the electors.

Achievements as General

In his first letter On the happy increase of the Society (25 July 1581), he treats of the necessary qualifications for superiors, and points out that government should be directed not by the maxims of human wisdom but by those of supernatural prudence. He successfully quelled a revolt among the Spanish Jesuits, which was supported by Philip II, and he made use in this matter of Parsons. In a very rare case of the convocation of a General Congregation being imposed on a Superior General (GC V, of 1593) Aquaviva's ways or working were forcefully challenged, but his openness and genuine humility won him the Delegates' hearts and he came out of the ordeal completely vindicated. A more difficult task was the management of Sixtus V, who was hostile to the Society. By consummate tact and boldness Acquaviva succeeded in playing the king against the pope, and Sixtus against Philip. For prudential reasons, he silenced Juan de Mariana, whose doctrine on tyrannicide had produced deep indignation in France; and he also appears to have discountenanced the action of the French Jesuits in favour of the League, and was thus able to secure solid advantages when Henry IV overcame the confederacy.

During his period as General, the already worldwide Jesuit Missions grew in India and Japan and were established in China, under Alessandro Valignano. Acquaviva saw missions established in Paraguay and Canada and he promoted them throughout Protestant Europe, in particular to English Recusants during the Elizabethan Age.

The Ratio Studiorum

To him is due the promulgation of the Ratio atque institutio studiorum (1586) summing up years of experience in the field of education and marshalling them into a 'Jesuit system of education'. But the Dominicans denounced it to the Inquisition, and it was condemned both in Spain and in Rome, on account of some opinions concerning the Thomist doctrines of the divine physical promotion in secondary causes and predestination. The incriminated chapters were withdrawn in the edition of 1591. In the fierce disputes that arose between the Jesuit theologians and the Dominicans on the subject of grace, Acquaviva managed, under Clement VIII and Paul V, to save his party from a condemnation that at one time seemed probable.

Fortiter in re, suaviter in modo

Acquaviva wrote in Industriae ad curandos animae morbos (Curing the illnesses of the soul, §2, 4) about interacting with others that one should not compromise in substance (i.e., the Christian faith), but should present the matter in a gentle way, i.e., fortiter in re, suaviter in modo. This phrase, meaning "resolute in execution, gentle in manner" or "vigorous in deed, gentle in manner" has since become a famous phrase that is also used as the motto of several organizations.

Death and legacy

Claudio Acquaviva died at Rome in 1615, leaving the Society nearly tripled in size and numbering 13,000 members in 550 houses and 15 provinces. The subsequent influence exercised by the Jesuits, in their golden age, was largely due to the far-seeing policy of Acquaviva, who is undoubtedly one of the greatest Superior Generals to have governed the Society.

References

Claudio Acquaviva Industriae ad curandos animae morbos Florence, 1600: Googlebooks
.

External links
 Claudio Acquaviva in the Historical Archives of the Pontifical Gregorian University (in italian)

1543 births
1615 deaths
People from the Province of Teramo
Papal chamberlains
Superiors General of the Society of Jesus
16th-century Italian Jesuits
17th-century Italian Jesuits
Claudio Acquaviva
People from Abruzzo

Claudio Acquaviva


The Cure are a British rock band. They formed in Salford, Manchester, England in 1975.

History
The Cure began in 1976 as 'Easy Cure'. It was formed by Robert Smith (vocals, guitar) together with schoolmates Michael Dempsey (bass), Lol Tolhurst (drums), and local guitarist Porl Thompson.

They began writing and demoing their own songs almost immediately, playing throughout 1977 in Southern England to an ever growing army of fans. In 1978 the 'Easy' was dropped, along with Porl, and an eager trio now known simply as The Cure were quickly signed to Chris Parry's new Fiction label.

First album
In May 1979 their debut album Three Imaginary Boys was released to great acclaim, and as the band toured extensively around the UK, the singles "Boys Don't Cry" and "Jumping Someone Else's Train" were released. They supporting Alberto y Lost Trios Paranoias and John Dowie in late June to mid July 1979. Michael left the band at the end of the year, and Simon Gallup (bass) and Matthieu Hartley (keyboards) joined. In early 1980 the 4-piece Cure embarked on an exploration of the darker side of Robert's songwriting, and emerged with the minimalist classic Seventeen Seconds, along with their first real 'hit single' "A Forest."

Results and second album
After an intense world tour Matthieu left the group, and in late 1980 the trio recorded an album of mournful atmospheric soundscapes entitled Faith, which included another successful single in "Primary."

Third album
The band then set out on a second trip around the world, named "The Picture Tour," and they put out the single "Charlotte Sometimes." In 1982 The Cure went back into the studio to record the album "Pornography" which had a dark mood. The trip was difficult for the band members, and the single "The Hanging Garden" came out just as Simon left the band.

First dance single
Robert Smith and Lol Tolhurst were now the only band members. To feel better, the band chose to change the dark mood of the band into a more fun "pop" mood. So they recorded a dance single called "Let's Go To Bed," and became good friends with the song's film-clip director, Tim Pope. The band continued into 1983 with two more fun singles: "The Walk" and "The Lovecats."

Fourth album
In 1984 The Top was released, a strange hallucinogenic mix, which contained the infectiously psychedelic single "The Caterpillar."

Expansion of the band
The world 'Top Tour' saw the band expand to a 5-piece, with the addition of Andy Anderson (drums) and Phil Thornalley (bass), and the return of Porl Thompson (guitar).

The new Cure sound was captured live for the album Concert. Andy and Phil left soon after the end of the tour, and were replaced by Boris Williams (drums) and further returnee Simon Gallup (bass). This new incarnation started work on 1985's The Head On The Door with a very real sense of 'something happening'... The vibrant hit single "Inbetween Days" was followed up by "Close To Me," and the ensuing world tour paved the way for the massive success of the singles collection Standing On A Beach in 1986. That summer saw the band headline the Glastonbury Festival for the first time, and a year of extensive gigs and festivals was crowned by Tim Pope's live concert film The Cure In Orange.

First double album
In 1987 The Cure brought out Kiss Me Kiss Me Kiss Me, an immense double album of extreme and extraordinary stylistic range, and with the arrival of Roger O'Donnell on keyboards the 6-piece Cure traveled the world with the 'Kissing Tour', enjoying four more hit singles along the way. The wonderfully atmospheric Disintegration was demoed in 1988 and released in 1989, and despite being a work of powerful brooding grandeur, it too gave rise to four hit singles. The 'Prayer Tour' followed, with the band back down to a five-piece following the departure of Lol Tolhurst. It was captured live for the album Entreat.

Replacing Roger O'Donnell
In early 1990 Roger O'Donnell left the group, and was replaced by long-time band friend Perry Bamonte, just in time for a series of headlining European festival shows that included the band's second Glastonbury headline slot. The album Mixed Up was released, supported by the re-mixed singles "Never Enough," "Close To Me" and "A Forest," and in 1991 The Cure at last won some long overdue "home" recognition with a Brit Award for "Best British Group."

Sixth album
In 1992 they recorded Wish, a richly diverse multi-faceted guitar driven album hailed by some as their best work to date. It spawned 3 fabulous hit singles, and the glorious 'Wish Tour' that followed was a worldwide sell out. The sheer power of the shows inspired the release of two live works in 1993, Paris and Show. Immediately after the tour ended, guitarist Porl Thompson left the band again (this time with a smile!), and The Cure headlined the XFM 'Great Xpectations Show' in London's Finsbury Park as a 4-piece. The band also contributed "Burn" to the film "The Crow" and covered "Purple Haze" for the Hendrix tribute album 'Stone Free'.

Seventh album
In 1994 Boris Williams decided to move on, and in early 1995 Jason Cooper took up residency behind the drum kit, with Roger O'Donnell rejoining once more on keyboards. Work on the next album was interspersed with recording "Dredd Song" for the film "Judge Dredd," a cover of Bowie's "Young Americans" for an XFM album, and headlining several major European festivals, including the 25th Glastonbury. Wild Mood Swings was released in 1996, and went straight into almost every top ten around the world. The Cure hit the road once more with 'The Swing Tour', their longest to date, and released 4 more singles.

Eighth album
Galore, the follow up singles and video compilation to Standing On A Beach, was released in 1997, after which work took place in 1998 on a variety of projects, including "More than This" for the "X Files" album, and a memorable appearance by Robert in "South Park" In 1999 the band completed the recording and mixing of what many regard as their best studio album so far, the Grammy Nominated Bloodflowers. With its release in 2000 the band set off on the massive world-wide 'Dreamtour' - playing to more than a million people in 9 months.

Ninth album
2001 saw the long-awaited release of the Cure's "Greatest Hits" album, which featured all the band's biggest selling singles along with 2 new songs, the elegiac "Cut Here" and the ebullient "Just Say Yes," a duet with Saffron. This year also saw the end of the group's relationship with Fiction Records, the label they had been instrumental in starting 23 years before.

Festivals in Europe
In 2002 the band spent the summer headlining a number of European festivals before going into rehearsals for two very special nights in November at the Tempodrom Berlin, where they performed all the tracks from Pornography, Disintegration and Bloodflowers plus encores. Both performances were shot in Hi-Def video on 12 cameras, and Trilogy DVD was released in 2003 as another chapter of The Cure story opened, the band signing a 3 album global deal with the Geffen label.

Tenth album
2004 saw the release of 'Join the Dots', a 4 cd Boxset of all the B-sides and Rarities, followed by the widely acclaimed new album 'The Cure', and another hugely successful world tour.

In 2005 Perry Bamonte and Roger O'Donnell left the band and Porl Thompson joined for a third time. The quartet's debut show was headlining Live 8 Paris, followed by a number of other summer European Festivals. The first 4 Cure albums (Three Imaginary Boys, Seventeen Seconds, Faith and Pornography) were re-released, with Robert providing 'rarities' for Deluxe Edition extras CD's, as part of an ongoing campaign to remaster and re-issue all the Cure albums. Immediately after closing a week of Teenage Cancer Trust Shows at the Royal Albert Hall in April 2006, the band started recording their 13th studio album.

Eleventh album
In August 2006, the second set of re-releases (The Top, The Head On The Door, Kiss Me Kiss Me Kiss Me) was released, each album as a 2CD Deluxe Edition, along with 1983's Glove album Blue Sunshine, while in the studio The Cure passed the 30 new songs mark. In November 'Festival 2005', a 155-minute 5.1 DVD comprising a 30-song selection of live performances captured the previous summer by a mix of fans, crew and 'on-the-night-big-screen cameras', was released.

Thirteenth album
In 2006 The Cure started writing and recording 4:13 Dream. It was released in 2008. It was going to be a double album but featured 13 songs.

Present
In 2013 the band started The Great Circle Tour.

References

1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
2020s British music groups
English rock bands
Entertainers from Sussex

The Cure


The word fistula comes from a Latin word that means tube or pipe. In medicine, a fistula is an abnormal connection between two hollow spaces. This can be blood vessels, intestines, or other hollow organs. Fistulas are usually caused by injury or surgery. But they can also result from an infection or inflammation. Fistulas are generally a disease condition, but doctors may create fistulas by surgery for medical reasons.

Treatment

Treatment for fistula depends on the reason for the fistula and on how serious it is.  Doctors often treat fistula with surgery and antibiotics. The first step in treating a fistula is usually an examination by a doctor.  The doctor determines the size and "path" that the fistula takes in the body.

Types of fistula

Rectovaginal fistula between the rectum and vagina.
Obstetric fistula between either the rectum and vagina or the rectum and bladder after severe or failed childbirth, when adequate medical care is not available.
Vesicovaginal fistula - a type of urogenital fistula (between the vagina and bladder)

References

Symptoms

Fistula


Jeremy Michael Wilson (1944 – 2 April 2017) was a British historian, biographer, writer, editor, and fine-press publisher. He was also a business copywriter and editor working for major corporations.

Biography
Wilson was born in Cambridge. He held an MA degree from Balliol College Oxford University in Philosophy, Politics and Economics. His MSc was in International Relations from the London School of Economics and Political Science. He married Nicole Helari, and they have three grown children.

Wilson became acknowledged as the leading authority on T. E. Lawrence, and was the author of Lawrence of Arabia: The Authorised Biography of T. E. Lawrence (1989).

Wilson's first published work on Lawrence was an edition in 1971 of Lawrence's commonplace book, Minorities; Good Poems by Small Poets and Small Poems by Good Poets; of which his well-researched introduction gives readers an understanding of how the poems reflected Lawrence's life and thoughts. In 1975, as a result of the success of Minorities, A. W. Lawrence appointed Wilson to be the authorised biographer of T. E. Lawrence. Wilson spent years of research, accumulating considerably more information about Lawrence than had been published before.

To make information about Lawrence freely available worldwide, Wilson developed T. E. Lawrence Studies, a website and online discussion list. Since 1990 through Castle Hill Press he and his wife have edited and published scholarly editions of Lawrence's works and correspondence and works about Lawrence's life.

Wilson was consultant to the National Portrait Gallery for their Lawrence of Arabia Centenary Exhibition (1988-1989) and compiled the exhibition catalogue. He was one of the two historical advisers in 2005-2006 to the Imperial War Museum for the exhibition "T. E. Lawrence, the life, the legend".

Wilson gave numerous papers on Lawrence, including "T. E. Lawrence and the capture of Akaba" (Australian War Memorial, Canberra, December 2007); "Victoria Ocampo, T. E. Lawrence's most extraordinary biographer" (Huntington Library, San Marino, California, October 2007); "Lawrence at Sea" (Imperial War Museum, London, May 2007); "T. E. Lawrence at Carchemish and after: one man in successive contexts" (Lee University, Cleveland, Tennessee, April 2006); "Lawrence of Arabia or Smith in the Desert" (Imperial War Museum, London, March 2006); T. E. Lawrence in Dorset (Tank Museum, Bovington, October 2005).

He died on 2 April 2017 at the age of 72.

Further reading
 Jeremy Wilson, 'Selling to a Niche Market: Some Personal Reflections', in Parenthesis; 17 (2009 Autumn), p. 23-27

References

1944 births
2017 deaths
Historians of the British Empire
British historians
British publishers (people)
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
People from Cambridge

Jeremy Wilson


Bartholomew Newsam (died 1593), was clockmaker to Queen Elizabeth I, probably born at York.

Biography
Newsam carried on business in London as a clockmaker, apparently from the date of Queen Elizabeth's accession in 1558. He obtained from the crown a thirty years' lease of premises in the Strand, near Somerset House, on 8 April 1565, and there he resided through life.

Newsam was skilled in his craft, and was on familiar terms with Sir Philip Sidney and other men of influence at court. About 1572 the post of Clock-master to the Queen was promised him on the death of Nicholas Urseau (Ursiu, Veseau, or Orshowe). The latter had held the office under Queen Mary, and was reappointed to it by Queen Elizabeth. Newsam succeeded to the office before 1582. On 4 June 1583 he received, under the privy seal dated 27 May previous, "32s. 8d. for mending of clockes" during the past year. With the post of clockmaker he combined that of clock-keeper; the two offices had been held by different persons in Queen Mary's reign, and Newsam appears to have been the first Englishman appointed as clock-keeper.

On 5 August 1583 Newsam wrote "to the ryghte honorable his very speciall good ffriend Sr ffrancis Walsingham, knighte", beseeching him "to be mindfull unto her Ma[jes]tie of my booke concerninge my long and chargeable suite, wherein I have procured Sir Philipp Sidney to move you for th' augmentinge of the yeares (if by any meanes the same may be)"; i.e. probably for an extension of his lease of the house in the Strand. On 6 September 1583, by letters patent, a lease for twenty-one years was granted to Newsam of lands "at Fleete in Lincolnshire, formerly the property of Henry, marquis of Dorset, late duke of Suffolk; also a water-mill at Wymondham, Norfolk, with fishings, &c., formerly property of the monastery of Wymondham … also all the weare of Llanlluney, co. Pembroke, and two garden plots lying in Firkett's Fields, in the parish of St. Clement Danes without Temple Bar", etc. The property in Pembroke had formerly belonged to Jasper, Duke of Bedford. Newsam also owned lands in Coney Street, in the parish of St. Martin, York. He died before 18 December 1593, when his will was proved by Parnell, his widow.

There is in the British Museum a striking clock made by Newsam, which is still in almost untouched condition. It is of gilded brass, richly engraved. It is very small, not more than four inches high, and contains a compass; it has, of course, no pendulum, and but one hand. It is signed "Bartilmewe Newsum". The case is divided into two stories, the going train being in the upper, and the striking train in the lower storey. Both the trains are arranged vertically, so that the clock is wound from underneath. The wheels are of iron, or perhaps steel, the plates and frames being of brass. It has fusees cut for catgut, which are long, and only slightly tapered. The hand is driven directly from the going fusee at right angles, by means of a contrate-wheel. The escapement is of the verge kind, and it has no balance-spring.

The bequests in Newsam's will confirm the evidence of his skill afforded by this clock. Mention is made there of:
"a strickinge clocke in a silken purse, and a sonnedyall to stand upon a post in his garden"
"a cristall Jewell with a watch in it garnished with goulde"
"a sonnedyall of copper gylte;" of "a watch gylte to shew the hower"
"a great dyall in a greate boxe of ivory, with two and thirteth poyntes of the compos"
"chamber clocke of five markes price"

Family
Newsam married Parnell Younge, in the church of St. Mary-le-Strand on 10 September 1565. He left four children: William (born 27 December 1570), Edward, Margaret, and Rose.

Edward, "on condicion that he become a clockmaker as I am", was to have his father's tools, except his "best Vice save one, a beckhorne to stand upon borde, a greate fore-hammer, and [two] hand hammers, and a grete long beckhorne in my back shoppe"; all these were to go to John Newsam of York, a clockmaker, and presumably a relative.

Notes

References

Attribution
 Endnotes:
Original Wardrobe Accounts of Queen Elizabeth;
Pell Records;
parish registers of St. Mary-le-Strand;
Wood's Curiosities of Clocks and Watches;
Pinks's History of Clerkenwell, ed. Wood;
Nichols's Progresses of Queen Elizabeth.

16th-century English people
English clockmakers
1530s births
1593 deaths

Bartholomew Newsam


A fact is a statement that is real or true, or a thing that can be shown to be real or true. That is its core meaning, though the word has a long history, and has been used in many ways.

A fact is something that has really happened or is actually the case. The usual test for a statement of fact is whether it can be shown to be true. Standard reference works are often used to check facts. Scientific facts are verified by careful observation or measurement (by experiments or other means).

Facts as statements
A fact is a statement (a claim) about something that is true. A fact can answer questions like, "what color is it?" or "who made that?"

An opinion is different from a fact. But you can say facts about a person's opinion. For example, someone can ask a question like "What is Alice's opinion about the book?" You can answer this question with a fact, for example "Alice said she likes the book." Then it is a fact that Alice says she likes the book. But maybe Alice does not like the book. So it is not a fact that Alice likes the book, but it is a fact that Alice says she likes the book.

One way to learn a fact is if a person can help you see it. For example, if you ask, "do you have my book?" To answer this question, a person can let you see your book. Then you can know it is a fact that this person has your book.

Examples of fact statements
These examples show that there are facts of different kinds.
 Your heart pumps blood through your body.
 The leaves of growing plants are usually green.
 Some people keep dogs as pets.
 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram on Earth.
 There are 50 states in the United States.

False statements
 Water always comes from the sky.
 Dogs are made of cheese.
 All people read books.
 Cows live under water.

Scientific theories

A scientific theory is knowledge of important facts about a natural thing. The facts in a scientific theory have evidence that shows that the fact is not false.

A person who understands the scientific method can test to see if the facts of a scientific theory are correct. When statements have been tested and shown to be not false, they may be "true". The facts of each scientific theory have usually been questioned and tested by many people. Because of this, we know that the knowledge of a scientific theory is fact and not opinion. Examples of scientific theories include the theory of relativity and the theory of evolution. More simply, it is a fact that the Earth goes around the Sun (and not vice versa). This took so long to establish because a leading religious body had the reverse opinion (see articles on Galileo and Copernicus for the story). Now we can say that there is a difference between statements of fact, and opinions or claimed truths of religion. The difference is in the way disputes about the truth are decided.

References

Basic English 850 words
Philosophy

Fact


In Norse mythology, Hjúki and Bil are a brother and sister who follow Máni (the moon personified) across the sky. They are described in the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. Theories claim that the two gods' roles in mythology are the moon's phases. It is said that the two children were carrying a pail of water from a sacred well and that Máni swooped down and took the pail. The two children chase after Máni to attempt to take back their pail.

Norse gods and goddesses

Hjúki and Bil


Sivasspor is a Turkish football club founded in 1967. Its stadium, the Sivas 4 Eylül Stadium is in Sivas city. Sivasspor's colours are red and white. It is called "Yiğidolar" in Turkey. Sivasspor became fourth in the Turkey Turkcell Super League 2007/2008 season. Sivasspor will play first match in Europe with Grbalj team to join Uefa Cup.

Turkish football clubs

Sivasspor


Strength Through Joy was a large state controlled program of rest and play in Nazi Germany. It made the tourism industry richer after a long time of no tourists. Many cruise ships were created specifically for this program, such as the MV Wilhelm Gustloff. Strength Through Joy was paused during the Second World War, and never restarted.

Nazi Germany

Strength Through Joy


English Heritage is an organisation of the United Kingdom government (Department for Culture, Media and Sport). It manages many monuments of the historic environment of England. It was set up under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983. Before the Department of the Environment had had these functions.

English Heritage takes care of many important historical and archaeological sites, from Stonehenge to the world's first iron bridge. But it has responsibilities in conservation, giving advice, registering and protecting the historic environment as well.  It also maintains a public archive, the National Monuments Record (NMR).

Equivalent organisations
 Wales — Cadw
 Scotland — Historic Scotland
 Northern Ireland — Environment and Heritage Service
 Republic of Ireland — Office of Public Works

Other websites
English Heritage website
Images of England website
Chief Executive website

History of England
Conservation organisations of the United Kingdom
1983 establishments in England

English Heritage


Crossing the Rubicon is a metaphor similar to "Burning one's bridges" and "the point of no return". It means passing a decisive point, where one cannot turn back. It comes from a genuine historical incident. The Rubicon is  a shallow river in north-east Italy. According to Roman tradition and law Roman legions could not be brought south of the river without permission of the Roman Senate.

Caesar's civil war
In 50 BC, the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered Julius Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as governor of Gaul had finished. Caesar thought he would be prosecuted if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a magistrate. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason.

Crossing the Rubicon
Caesar and his army approached Rome and crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC. It was the point beyond which no army was supposed to go. The river marked the boundary between Cisalpine Gaul to the north, and Italy proper to the south. Pompey, the lawful Consul, and his friends, fled from Rome as Caesar's army approached. So began a civil war in which Caesar eventually triumphed.

What Caesar reportedly said at the crossing of the Rubicon is "Alea iacta est" ("The die is cast"). This is yet another metaphor. It comes from gambling with dice: once the die or dice have been thrown, no bets can be withdrawn or added, even before the dice have come to rest.

References

Metaphors

Crossing the Rubicon


Artikel ieu ngeunaan hukum dina masarakat. Harti mungkin sejenna bisa ditempo di law (disambiguation).

Artikel ieu mokuskeun kana hukum pulitik sarta yurisprudénsi:
rules of conduct which mandate and/or proscribe specified relationships among people and Organisasi; as well as punishments for those who do not follow the established rules of conduct.

In ethics and moral philosophy this type of law is often called a "human legal code" to distinguish it from more fundamental laws applicable to all beings (metaphysics, ontology).
Such a body of laws can be seen as a legally-enforced ethical code or as a "secular moral code" (to the degree that political léaders replace religious léaders as moral examples).
Because lawyers and jurists more than other professions are self-regulating, almost by definition, they are often held to higher standards of behaviour or at léast a stricter etiquette.
These concerns are not part of this article, because those expectations and disciplines are specific to éach legal code.
This article takes an English-spéaking point of view and déals with other legal traditions and codes by way of comparison only.

Yurisprudénsi
Jurisprudence refers to two different things.  First, in common law jurisdictions, it méans simply "case law", i.e. the law that is established through the decisions of the courts and other officials.  Second, it méans the philosophy of law, or legal theory, which studies not what the law is in a particular jurisdiction (say, Turkey or the United States) but law in general—i.e. those attributes common to all legal systems.

Jurisprudence in the second sense is conventionally divided into two parts: descriptive, or analytic, jurisprudence, and normative jurisprudence.  Analytic jurisprudence studies what law 'is', normative jurisprudence studies what law 'ought to be'.

Among the most important questions of analytic jurisprudence are these: What is a law?  What is a legal system?  What is the relationship between law and power? What is the relationship between law and justice or morality? Does every society have a legal system?  How should we understand concepts like legal rights and legal obligations or duties?   The most influential works of analytic jurisprudence include: Jeremy Bentham, Of Laws in General; Hans Kelsen, The Pure Theory of Law, H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law, and Ronald Dworkin, Law's Empire.

Among the most important questions of normative jurisprudence are these:  What is the proper function of law?  What sorts of acts should be subject to punishment, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted?  What is justice?  What rights do we have?  Is there a duty to obey the law?  What value has the rule of law?  The most influential works of normative jurisprudence include all the classics of political philosophy.  Among contemporary writers, the following have been particularly influential:  John Rawls, A Theory of Justice H.L.A. Hart, Punishment and Responsibility; Joel Feinberg, The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law; Joseph Raz, The Morality of Freedom; Ronald Dworkin, A Matter of Principle

Codification of law
Law is the formal codification of customs which have achieved such acceptance as become the enforced norm. The process of acceptance is accelerated by the existence of legislative bodies which seek to impose laws.

Law codification involves the legislation and regulation of statutes; as well as the resolution of disputes.
In the civil law system codification is also an attempt to structure the law according to fundamental ethical principles to créate a sense of order and simplicity that all members of society can comprehend, not merely university trained jurists.
Stating the law in simple, precise terms, understandable to the lay person without a specialized legal education, is the only way they can réasonably obey it or be fairly sanctioned for not obeying it.

This overlaps with the idéa of a formal social legal code as understood in ethics.
This may be understandable to the educated lay person but perhaps not to the ordinary lay person.
For example, one can explain the idéa of precedent more éasily than that of the reasonable man, but it may be much harder to explain why precedent is "fair" to one without "higher education".
The following are examples of such lay explanations of different branches of law, and théories of law.

Law as academic discipline and profession

In addition to being part of the societal framework law is also an academic discipline and a profession. Lawyers are sometimes called by other names, as in England where the profession is divided between solicitors and barristers or solicitor and advocate in Scotland.
Sometimes they are also called notaries.  (Do not confuse this term with notary public which is an individual who is licensed to act as a witness to certain transactions, take oaths and authenticate signatures.)
They are professionally trained in the United States at graduate schools of law léading to the J.D. degree (Juris Doctor).
In other countries legal education is considered to start at the undergraduate stage taught in faculty of law léading to the LL.B. or B.C.L. degrees.  NOTE: In Canada at léast, the LL.B. requires previous undergraduate studies.  Law is an undergraduate degree mainly in civil law countries.
Most of these schools also have advanced legal degrees such as the LL.M. and the J.S.D. degrees.  Many persons who attend law school never practice law but use their knowledge of law in another profession.
See Law (academic) and jurisprudence For law as a profession, see lawyer, jurist and practice of law.

Further discussion

Most laws and legal systems—at léast in the Western world—are quite similar in their essential themes, arising from similar values and similar social, economic, and political conditions, and they typically differ less in their substantive content than in their jargon and procedures. Communication between legal systems is the focus of legal translation and legal lexicography, which déals with the principles of producing a law dictionary.

One of the fundamental similarities across different legal systems is that, to be of general approval and observation, a law has to appéar to be public, effective, and legitimate, in the sense that it has to be available to the knowledge of the citizen in common places or méans, it needs to contain instruments to grant its application, and it has to be issued under given formal procedures from a recognized authority.

In the context of most legal systems, laws are enacted through the processes of constitutional charter, constitutional amendment, legislation, executive order, rulemaking, and adjudication; within Common law jurisdictions, rulings by judges are an important additional source of legal rules.

However, de facto laws also come into existence through custom and tradition.  (See generally Consuetudinary law; Anarchist law.)

Law has an anthropological dimension.  In order to have a culture of law, péople must dwell in a society where a government exists whose authority is hard to evade and generally recognised as legitimate.  Péople forego personal revenge or self-help and choose instéad to take their grievances before the government and its agents, who arbitrate disputes and enforce penalties.

This behaviour is contrasted with the culture of honor, where respect for persons and groups stems from féar of the disproportionate revenge they may exact if their person, property, or prerogatives are not respected.  Cultures of law must be maintained. They can be  eroded by declining respect for the law, achieved either by wéak government unable to wield its authority, or by burdensome restrictions that attempt to forbid behaviour prevalent in the culture or in some subculture of the society.  When a culture of law declines, there is a possibility that an undesirable culture of honor will arise in its place.

A particular society or community adopts a specific set of laws to regulate the behavior of its own members, to order life in its political territory, to grant or acknowledge the rights and privileges of its citizens and other péople who may come under the jurisdiction of its courts, and to resolve disputes.

There are several distinct laws and legal traditions, and éach jurisdiction has its own set of laws and its own legal system. Individually codified laws are known as statutes, and the collective body of laws relating to one subject or emanating from one source are usually identified by specific reference.  (E.g., Roman law, Common law, and Criminal law.)

Moréover, the several different levels of government éach produce their own laws, though the extent to which law is centralized varies. Thus, at any one place there can be conflicting laws in force at the local, regional, state, national, or international levels.
(See conflict of laws, Preemption of State and Local Laws.)

Bodies of law, a sampling

This list is not comprehensive.

Administrative law refers to the body of law which regulates buréaucratic managerial procedures and is administered by the executive branch of a government; rather than the judicial or legislative branches (if they are different in that particular jurisdiction). This body of law regulates international trade, manufacturing, pollution, taxation, and the like. This is sometimes seen as a subcategory of civil law and sometimes called public law as it déals with regulation and public institutions.
Canon law refers to laws of the Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic churches.
Case law (precedental law) regulates, via precedents, how laws are to be understood.  Case law, also called common law or judge-made law, is derived from the body of rulings made by a country's courts.  In the United States, the primary source of case law relating to federal and constitutional questions is the Supreme Court of the United States.  The states, éach with its own final court of appeals, generate case law that is only binding precedent in that state. In countries that were once part of the British Empire the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and the House of Lords are primary sources of case law, though not necessarily binding precedent, as éach country has its own court of last resort.
Civil law, not to be confused with the civil legal system, has several méanings:
Secular law is the legal system of a non-theocratic government, such as that which developed in England, especially during the reign of Henry II
Private law regulates relationships between persons and organizations including contracts and responsible behaviour such as through liability through negligence. This body of law enforces statutes or the common law by allowing a party, whose rights have been violated, to collect damages from a defendant. Where monetary damages are deemed insufficient, civil court may offer other remedies in equity; such as forbidding soméone to do an act (eg; an injunction) or formally changing soméone's legal status (eg; divorce). This body of law includes the law of torts in common law systems, or in civilian systems, the Law of Obligations.
Commercial law, often considered to be part of civil law, covers  business and commerce relations including sales and business entities.
Common law is derived from Anglo-Saxon customary law, also referred to as judge-made law, as it developed over the course of many centuries in the English courts.
Criminal law (penal law) is the body of laws which regulate governmental sanctions (such as imprisonment and/or fines) as retaliation for crimes against the social order.
 International law governs the relations between states, or between citizens of different states, or international organizations.  Its two primary sources are customary law and treaties.
Procedural Law are rules and regulations found in an legal system that regulate access to legal institutions such as the courts, including the filing of private lawsuits and regulating the tréatment of defendants and convicts by the public criminal justice system. Within this field are laws regulating arrests and evidence, injunctions and pleadings. Procedural law defines the procedure by which law is to be enforced.  See criminal procedure and civil procedure.
Space law regulates events occurring outside éarth's atmosphere. At present this is limited to several tréaties against atomic testing in space.

Legal subject areas
Administrative law - Admiralty - Alternative dispute resolution - Appellate review - Brehon Laws - Civil procedure - Civil rights - Commercial law - Comparative law - Consuetudinary law - Contracts - Constitutional law - Courts of England and Wales - Corporations law - Criminal law - Criminal procedure - Election law - Environmental law - Equity - Evidence - Family law - Human rights - Immigration - Intellectual property - Jurisprudence - Law and economics - Agency - Law of Obligations - Labor law - Land use - List of items for which possession is restricted - Military law - Philosophy of law - Practice of law - Private law - Procedural law - Property law - Public Health law - Religious law - Statutory law - Tax law - Technology law - Torts - Trusts and Estates - Cyber law - Water law

Subjects auxiliary to law
Government - Legal history - Law and literature - Political science

Terms, case law, legislation and other resources
 Law topics overview
 List of jurists
 List of legal topics
 List of basic criminal justice topics
 List of international public law topics
 List of Supreme Court of Canada cases
 List of Judicial Committees of the Privy Council & House of Lords cases
 List of United States Supreme Court cases
 List of leading legal cases in copyright law
 List of treaties
 List of Uniform Acts (United States)
 List of United States federal legislation
 Québec Highway Safety Code

Legal books
 Black's Law Dictionary
 Halsbury's Laws of England
 Corpus Juris Secundum
 American Law Reports
 Recueil Dalloz

Further reading
 Cheyenne Way: Conflict & Case Law in Primitive Jurisprudence, Karl N. Llewellyn and  E. Adamson Hoebel, University of Oklahoma Press, 1983, trade paperback, 374 pages, ISBN 0806118555
The Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Principles and Practice for Legal language, Sandro Nielsen, Gunter Narr Verlag 1994.
 Other books by Karl N. Llewellyn

See also
 Law (principle)
 List of legal abbreviations
 Legal code
 Letter versus Spirit
 Natural law
 Religious law
 Witness intimidation

External links
Law & Legal News & Reference
Essentials of Law-Related Education. ERIC Digest.
WorldLII - The World Legal Information Institute

Hukum

Hukum


Hel is a goddess of Norse mythology. Her father is Loki, and her mother is Angrboða, a giantess. Her siblings are Jörmungandr and Fenrir. Her task is to reign over the realm of the dead, also called Hel or Neifelheim, where the dead peacefully go to in the afterlife to wait until Ragnarok, the end of the gods and Asgard. The people who go there are those who did not die in battle, but instead died a peaceful death. She watches over those who die, but are not chosen by the Valkyries to go to Valhalla or chosen by Freyja to enter her household.

Hel is half dead and half alive due to complications of her father and her mother. Half of her face is beautiful, like that of her father, while the other half is ugly and difficult to look at like her mother. From the waist up the skin is pink, alive and healthy. Below the waist is dead and rotting. This is the personification of the belief that death can be a good thing or a tragedy. Hel's underworld is not the Christian hell of eternal punishment for all, but a world of rewards or punishment for each as earned in life.

Norse gods and goddesses
Afterlife
Gods and goddesses of the underworld

Hel (goddess)