Pterodactyl was the name given to a series of experimental tailless aircraft designs developed by G. T. R. Hill in the 1920s and early 1930s. Named after the genus Pterodactylus, a well-known type of Pterosaur commonly known as the pterodactyl, all but the first were produced by Westland Aircraft Ltd after Hill joined them.

History
Captain G.T.R. Hill developed the Pterodactyl series in an attempt to develop a safer aircraft: many pilots lost their lives when their aircraft stalled, went into a spin and flew into the ground, and Hill wanted to develop a design which was resistant to stalling and spinning. The pioneer J. W. Dunne had previously developed stable aircraft in the form of tailless swept wings and Hill took Dunne's ideas as his starting point.

Helped by his wife, he constructed a prototype which was flown as a glider in 1924. The design gained official interest and in 1925 it was fitted with a 35 h.p. Bristol Cherub engine and taken to Farnborough. It was later demonstrated to the Secretary of State for Air, Sir Samuel Hoare.

All subsequent examples were funded under Air Ministry contract and built by Westland Aircraft, who took on Hill for this purpose. The first Westland-built type, the Pterodactyl I, was built to Air Ministry Specification 23/26. It took the form of a braced shoulder-wing monoplane with fully moving wingtips and a single pusher propeller. If both tips were moved in the same way they functioned as elevators, in opposite ways then as ailerons. It was designated the Mk. IA or IB according to which engine was fitted. It and subsequent models flew initially from RAF Andover, the Mk. IA flying in 1928.

The Mks II and III failed to gain Ministry acceptance.

The next model to be built was a three-seat cabin monoplane to Ministry Specification 16/29, in which the all-moving tips were replaced by conventional ailerons. An unusual feature was the use of variable wing sweep to provide longitudinal trim. Designated the Mk. IV, it first flew in 1931.

The final Westland-built variant, the Mk. V, flew the next year, in 1932. Built to Ministry specification F.3/32, it was a two-seat fighter powered by a 600 h.p. Rolls-Royce Goshawk engine and differing noticeably from the previous versions in having a sesquiplane lower wing and tractor propeller. The lower wing was unswept and of short span, and braced to the upper wing. The forward propeller position, together with the tailless wing configuration, gave the rear gun turret an outstanding field of fire. Despite its performance and flyability in other respects rivalling its conventional competitor the Hawker Hart it was not accepted for production.

Associated with the Mk. V was a complementary Mk. VI design for a pusher variant with front-mounted gun turret, and the intention was to fly a mixed squadron with front-firing machines leading and rear-firing machines behind, but the Pterodactyl programme was cancelled before any order for the Mk, VI had been received.

At the time of cancellation, wind tunnel models of a Mk. VII four-engined reconnaissance seaplane had been tested, and a proposal for a Mk. VIII transatlantic airliner was being worked on.

After World War II, Hill helped develop the similar NRC tailless glider in Canada. Returning to England, he developed the aero-isoclinic wing and helped Short Brothers develop the Short SB.1 and SB.4 tailless swept-wing test aircraft.

Design characteristics
Hill's Pterodactyl designs were all intended to handle safely without any definite stall point, allowing reliable recovery without loss of altitude even by inexperienced pilots. The characteristic wing was of moderately tapered and swept planform, with reverse taper at the root to improve pilot vision.

The wing was "washed out", having a slight twist which reduced the angle of incidence progressively towards the tips, providing a near-stationary overall centre of pressure and ensuring that the aircraft was stable in pitch. Thus, no horizontal stabiliser was needed and the craft was tailless, allowing the fuselage to be relatively short.

Early examples used a patented system in which the wingtips pivoted to act as slab elevons providing control in pitch and roll, while later types had more conventional elevons in the wing trailing edge.

Yaw stability was generally achieved by vertical fins, and control by vertical rudders, but the exact arrangement varied between types and even during the flight testing of individual machines. The Mk. I differed in having horizontal "electroscope rudders" on the trailing edge, inboard of the movable wingtips, which acted to provide differential drag. The IA had no vertical surfaces but small fixed fins were added to the IB.

Aircraft
Pterodactyl
 Glider, built by G T R Hill and his wife in 1926; later fitted with Bristol Cherub engine in cooperation with the Air Ministry and test-flown at Farnborough.
Pterodactyl I

First Westland-built example, a braced monoplane. Initially fitted with a Bristol Cherub engine as the Mk. IA, later fitted with an Armstrong Siddeley Genet engine and smaller rudders as the Mk.IB. Air Ministry Specification 23/26 was issued to Westland for a "Tailless Aeroplane for Research Purposes" which allowed the ministry to subsidise the design and manufacture of the Pterodactyl IA. The aircraft was given serial J9251 and first flew in June 1928 from Andover.
Pterodactyl II and III
Design projects for variants with gull wings.
Pterodactyl IV
Three-seat cabin monoplane of  span and  length, produced in 1931. Pitch and roll control by elevons. Also a braced monoplane, the wings had variable sweep through a small range of angles, to allow longitudinal trim in flight in the absence of any horizontal stabiliser. Air Ministry Specification 16/29 was issued to Westlands for an "Experimental Tailless Aircraft" with a contract to design and build one aircraft. The aircraft was given serial K1947 and first flew in March 1931 with a 120hp de Havilland Gipsy III engine in a pusher configuration.
Pterodactyl V
Fighter design in the form of a sesquiplane with straight lower wing. Fitted with a 600 hp Rolls-Royce Goshawk engine and two Vickers machine guns, it demonstrated equal capability to conventional fighters of the day, but other issues prevented it from going into production. Air Ministry Specification F.3/32 for a "Two-Seater Fighter Aircraft" was issued to Westlands and serial K2770 was issued, although it was first flown from Andover in May 1934 by Harold Penrose with the test serial P-8.
Pterodactyl VI
Proposal contemporary with the Mk V, having a reversed layout with a pusher engine and front-mounted gun turret. The variant of the Mark V was submitted for Specification F.5/33 for a two-seater fighter aircraft with front-mounted turret. The specification was withdrawn as the designs submitted did not give any advance of current fighters.
Pterodactyl VII
Proposal to meet Specification 1/33 for a "Tailless Boat Seaplane". It was a flying boat with two tractor and two pusher engines. The Pterodactyl was to be produced in cooperation with Saunders-Roe and models were successfully tested in a water tank by the NPL. A novel design feature was the use of a retractable outboard engine at the stern to act as a water rudder.
Pterodactyl VIII
Proposed Flying wing transatlantic passenger aircraft with five pusher Rolls-Royce Griffon engines, this design may have had a delta wing.
Pterodactyl fighter
A design for a Pterodactyl-type twin-engined fighter was submitted against Specification F.22/33 for a Twin-Engined Fighter Aircraft; the specification and proposals were not proceeded with.

Surviving aircraft
The Pterodactyl 1A of 1926 is held by the Science Museum London.

See also

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

 Westland history 9 February 2007

External links

Intriguing aircraft – British Projects 9 February 2007

1920s British experimental aircraft
1930s British experimental aircraft
Tailless aircraft
Single-engined pusher aircraft
Pterodactyl
Flying wings
Turret fighters
Shoulder-wing aircraft

Westland-Hill Pterodactyl


An explanation is an attempt to answer the question "why". Asked of a person, it is a question about motive: "why did you do this?". Asked of a natural event, it is a question about natural causes (causation).

In science, an explanation is the link between an event which is a cause, and a second event, which is an effect. The phrase "cause and effect" refers to this. The relationship between the two events is known as causality. The philosopher Mario Bunge said, "We do not rest content with finding facts but wish to know why they should occur rather than not".

As a general rule, explanations move from what we know to what we do not know. This is important because it explains why different kinds of people may need different explanations. "A child, a lay person and an expert may need different explanations of the same thing, since what is already familiar to them will differ".

The asking of questions depends on language, and is peculiar to humans. It starts very soon after a child learns how to speak. A kind of game which young children play with adults is the 'why game'. Every parent gets the experience of their child asking a never-ending stream of why questions, until at last the adult says "Well, it just is!"

There can be plenty of argument about whether or not an explanation is appropriate, and if so, whether it is correct. If one asks why the sun gives out heat and light, to say "because it is daytime" is not appropriate, even if it might indeed be daytime. The real answer was not known until the 20th century. Before then peoples like the ancient Egyptians thought it was caused by a god (Aten).

Types
Different kinds of why questions need different kinds of explanations.  including:

General explanations
These add something to human knowledge.
 explanations which are based on a principle or theory.
"It is often said that a key difference between historians and political scientists is that historians tend to construct narrative-based explanations while political scientists ... tend to construct theory-based explanations".

Personal explanations
A personal question like "Why did you do that?" clearly asks for an explanation. What that explanation might be depends on context: it all depends on circumstance. This type of question about motives only applies to the people concerned.
 explanations which relate to goals or purposes.
Why are you doing that? Explanation: Because I'm going to build a boat.

Many kinds of explanations are made up of more than one type. An explanation can be valid or invalid or a combination of both. Some explanations may appear reasonable, but turn out to be misleading or wrong.

Related pages
 Argument

References

Causality
Philosophy
Human communication

Explanation


Sir Daniel Eyers Godfrey (20 June 1868 – 20 July 1939) was a British music conductor and member of a musical dynasty that included his father Daniel Godfrey (1831–1903). His son, also Dan Godfrey, was also a musician, station manager at BBC Manchester in the 1920s, and the first full-time conductor of the BBC Wireless Orchestra (1924–1926).

He was born in London, a member of a distinguished family of English bandmasters, and son of the bandmaster of the Grenadier Guards - (to whom the waltz Les Grenadiers, Op. 207, by Émile Waldteufel was dedicated.)

He founded the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra in 1893 and remained its leading conductor for 41 years, until 1934.  Although he was contracted by the Bournemouth Corporation to conduct a seasonal band of 30 musicians, his ambition was to build a permanent symphony orchestra in the town.

Godfrey gave the first performance of the reconstruction of Vaughan Williams's A London Symphony on 11 February 1915, and made acoustic recordings of excerpts of the work in 1923 and an abridged version in 1925. He also made electric recordings of Mozart's Jupiter Symphony, Dvořák's Slavonic Dances, Debussy's Petite Suite and Grieg's Sigurd Jorsalfar March with the London Symphony Orchestra.

Godfrey and the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra made several gramophone records for HMV from 1914 to 1930. He was knighted in 1922 'for valuable services to British music' largely as a result of a vigorous campaign on his behalf from Ethel Smyth.  He died in Bournemouth in 1939 aged 71 and is buried at St Peter's Church.

References

External links

 "Sir Dan Godfrey and the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra in Two Dances from Henry VIII" - 1931 Pathé newsreel

1868 births
1939 deaths
English conductors (music)
British male conductors (music)
Knights Bachelor
Conductors (music) awarded knighthoods

Dan Godfrey


The Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle, designed for NASA's Project Mercury, was the first American crewed space booster. It was used for six sub-orbital Mercury flights from 1960–1961; culminating with the launch of the first, and 11 weeks later, the second American (and the second and third humans) in space. The four subsequent Mercury human spaceflights used the more powerful Atlas booster to enter low Earth orbit.

A member of the Redstone rocket family, it was derived from the U.S. Army's Redstone ballistic missile and the first stage of the related Jupiter-C launch vehicle; but to human-rate it, the structure and systems were modified to improve safety and reliability.

Modifications from the Redstone missile

NASA chose the U.S. Army's Redstone liquid-fueled ballistic missile for its sub-orbital flights as it was the oldest one in the US fleet, having been active since 1953 and had many successful test flights.

The standard military Redstone lacked sufficient thrust to lift a Mercury capsule into the ballistic suborbital trajectory needed for the project; however, the first stage of the Jupiter-C, which was a modified Redstone with lengthened tanks, could carry enough propellant to reach the desired trajectory. Therefore, this Jupiter-C first stage was used as the starting point for the Mercury-Redstone design. The Jupiter-C's engine, however, was being phased out by the Army, so to avoid potential complications such as parts shortages or design revisions, the Mercury-Redstone designers chose the Rocketdyne A-7 engine used on the latest military Redstone. Hans Paul and William Davidson, propulsion engineers at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), were assigned the task of modifying the A-7 to be safe and reliable for crewed flights.

During 1959, most of ABMA were preoccupied with the Saturn project, but those engineers who could find enough free time in their schedule were invited to work on man-rating the Jupiter-C. As a starting point, the most obvious step was getting rid of its staging capability as the Mercury-Redstone would not utilize upper stages. Many of the more advanced Jupiter-C components were also removed for reliability reasons or because they were not necessary for Project Mercury.

The standard Redstone was fueled with 25 percent water–75 percent ethyl alcohol with liquid oxygen (LOX) used as the oxidizer, essentially the same propellants as the V-2, but the Jupiter-C first stage had used hydyne fuel, a blend of 60 % unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and 40 % diethylenetriamine (DETA). This was a more powerful fuel than ethyl alcohol, but it was also more toxic, which could be hazardous for an astronaut in a launch pad emergency.  Furthermore, hydyne had never been used with the new A-7 engine.  The Mercury-Redstone designers rejected hydyne and returned to the standard ethyl alcohol fuel. The lengthened propellant tanks were thus also necessary in lieu of using more powerful fuel.

Use of alcohol created a problem with the Mercury-Redstone in that the graphite thrust vector vanes could be eroded due to the significantly longer burn time, hence NASA put out a requirement that the launch vehicles needed high-quality vanes.

Because Mercury-Redstone had larger propellant tanks than the Redstone missile, an additional nitrogen bottle was added for tank pressurization, and an extra hydrogen peroxide tank for powering the turbopump due to the longer burn time.

The most important change in making the Mercury-Redstone a suitable vehicle for an astronaut was the addition of an automatic in-flight abort sensing system.  In an emergency where the rocket was about to suffer a catastrophic failure, an abort would activate the launch escape system attached to the Mercury capsule, which would rapidly eject it from the booster.  Either the astronaut or the ground controllers could initiate an abort manually, but some potential failures during flight might lead to disaster before an abort could be manually triggered.

The Mercury-Redstone's automatic in-flight abort sensing system solved this problem by monitoring the rocket's performance during flight. If it detected an anomaly which might threaten the astronaut, such as loss of flight control, engine thrust, or electrical power, it would automatically abort, shutting down the engine and activating the capsule's escape system. The abort system could not shut off the engine until at least 30 seconds after liftoff in order to prevent a malfunctioning launch vehicle from coming down on or near the pad; during the initial 30 seconds, only the Range Safety Officer could terminate the flight. Review of flight data from the more than 60 Redstone and Jupiter C launches since 1953 was used to analyze the most likely failure modes of this launch vehicle family. In the interest of simplicity, the abort sensing system had to be kept as simple as possible and only monitor parameters that were vital to booster operation. An automatic abort could be triggered by any of the following conditions, all of which could be indicative of a catastrophic launch vehicle malfunction:

Pitch, yaw, or roll angle deviating too far from the programmed flight profile,
Pitch or yaw angle changing too rapidly,
Pressure in the engine's combustion chamber falling below a critical level,
Loss of electrical power for the flight control system, or
Loss of general electrical power (including power for the abort sensing system itself), which could indicate a catastrophic failure.

Instant abort capability was important because certain failure modes such as loss of thrust upon liftoff (for example the third Redstone test flight in May 1954) could result in an immediate catastrophic situation. Other failure modes such as deviation from the proper flight path or a drop in engine chamber pressure during ascent did not necessarily present an immediate risk to the astronaut's safety and he could either initiate a manual abort by pulling a lever in the capsule to activate the Launch Escape System or ground control could send a command to activate it.

The range safety system was modified slightly in that a three-second delay would take place between engine cutoff and missile destruct so as to give the escape tower enough time to pull the capsule away.

The most visible difference between the Jupiter-C first stage and the Mercury-Redstone was in the section just below the Mercury capsule and above the propellant tanks.  This section was known as the aft section, a term which was inherited from the military Redstone. (The actual rear end of the rocket was called the tail section.) The aft section held most of the Mercury-Redstone's electronics and instrumentation, including the guidance system, as well as the adapter for the Mercury capsule.  In the military Redstone and the Jupiter-C first stage, when the rocket had burned out, its lower portion, containing the rocket engine and propellant tanks, would separate from the aft section and be discarded, and the aft section, with its guidance system, would direct the top half of the rocket during its unpowered ballistic flight.  However, in the Mercury-Redstone, the aft section was permanently attached to the lower portion of the rocket.  When the rocket had shut down, the Mercury capsule would separate from the aft section and would rely on its own guidance.

Other changes were made to improve the Mercury-Redstone's reliability.  The standard Redstone's ST-80 inertial guidance system was replaced in the Mercury-Redstone with the simpler LEV-3 autopilot.  The LEV-3, whose design dated back to the German V-2 missile, was not as sophisticated or as precise as the ST-80, but it was accurate enough for the Mercury mission and its simplicity made it more reliable.  A special instrument compartment was built in the "aft section" to hold the most important instrumentation and electronics, including the guidance system, the abort and destruct systems, the telemetry instrumentation, and the electrical power supplies.  To reduce the chance of failure in this equipment, this compartment was cooled before launch and kept pressurized during flight.

The fuel prevalves were deleted from the Mercury-Redstone in the interest of improved reliability, since if they closed during a launch, an abort condition could be triggered. On the three uncrewed flights, it was discovered that the Mercury-Redstone exhibited a roll transient of 8° per second versus 4° for the Redstone missile. Although this was below the 12° per second roll transient required to trigger an abort, the roll rate sensor was removed from the two crewed flights to reduce the chances of an accidental abort (the booster still retained the roll attitude angle sensor which would be triggered at 10°).

Mercury-Redstone 1A and Mercury-Redstone 2 both experienced overacceleration in flight, the former due to a problem with an accelerometer, the latter due to a problem with the LOX regulator which oversupplied the engine with oxidizer and caused thrust termination to occur 1.2 seconds early. The ASIS system activated and the escape tower yanked the capsule away, subjecting Ham, its chimpanzee passenger to high G loads. The third flight, Mercury-Redstone BD, was designed as an engineering test to correct these problems before the booster could be considered man-rated.

The space between the pressurized instrument compartment and the capsule was originally intended to hold a parachute recovery system for the rocket, but it had been left empty after this system was abandoned. The three uncrewed Mercury-Redstone flights exhibited high vibration levels and structural bending in the adapter area, so Alan Shepard's flight included 340 pounds of lead-infused plastic in the adapter section along with additional bracing and stiffeners. After Shepard still reported noticeable vibration during launch, Gus Grissom's booster included even more ballast. The Atlas booster used for orbital Mercury flights had also experienced this issue, but with more catastrophic results as Mercury-Atlas 1 was destroyed in-flight due to structural failure caused by excessive flexing at the point where the booster mated with the capsule adapter.

In total, some 800 modifications were made to the Redstone design in the process of adapting it for the Mercury program. The process of man-rating Redstone was so extensive that NASA quickly found themselves not using an off-the-shelf rocket, but what was in effect a completely new one and thus negating all of the hardware and flight test data from previous Redstone and Jupiter-C launches. This created a series of disputes between Von Braun's team at ABMA and NASA, as the former preferred simply making the abort system as foolproof as possible so as to guarantee that the astronaut would be bailed out of a malfunctioning launch vehicle, while the latter favored maximum booster reliability to minimize the chance of aborts happening at all.

Proposed parachute recovery system

The Mercury-Redstone designers originally planned for the rocket to be recovered by parachute after its separation from the Mercury capsule.  This was the first significant effort to develop a recoverable launch vehicle and the first to reach the testing phase.

The recovery system, at the top of the rocket, would have used two stages of parachutes.  In the first stage, a single parachute,  in diameter, would stabilize the rocket's fall and slow its descent.  This parachute would then draw out a set of three main parachutes, each  across.  The rocket would come down in the Atlantic Ocean, to be recovered by ship.

To determine the feasibility of this system, several tests were performed on full-sized Redstone, including water impact and flotation tests, and an exercise at sea in which a floating Redstone was picked up by a Navy recovery ship. All these tests showed recovery of the rocket to be workable. Further development was halted, however, due to lack of funding, so the parachute system was not tested.

Flights

Mercury-Redstone flights were designated with the prefix "MR-". Confusingly, the Mercury-Redstone boosters used for these flights were designated in the same way, usually with different numbers.  This designation can be seen on the rocket's tail end (usually visible in full resolution images, check the table below).

Two rockets, MR-4 and MR-6, were never flown. Although there had been rumors that NASA in the very beginning of Project Mercury had intended to launch each astronaut on a suborbital mission before beginning orbital Atlas flights, they only purchased eight Mercury-Redstone boosters, one of which was damaged in the unsuccessful MR-1 launch and not reused, and another used for the MR-BD flight (the original schedule was for one uncrewed Mercury-Redstone flight, one chimpanzee flight, and six crewed flights). Since Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom's flights were successful and since the Soviet Union had flown two orbital crewed space flights by the late summer of 1961, there was no need to continue with Redstone missions.

Gallery

Notes

References

Project Mercury
Rockets and missiles
NASA space launch vehicles
Suborbital spaceflight

Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle


Henry William Connor (1793–1866) was a Congressional Representative from North Carolina; born near Amelia Courthouse, Prince George County, Virginia, August 5, 1793; was graduated from South Carolina College at Columbia in 1812; served as aide-de-camp to Brig. Gen. Joseph Graham with rank of major in the expedition against the Creek Indians in 1814; settled in Falls Town, North Carolina; engaged in planting; elected as a Democratic-Republican to the Seventeenth Congress; elected as a Jackson Republican to the Eighteenth Congress; elected as a Jacksonian to the Nineteenth through the Twenty-fourth Congresses, and elected as a Democrat to the Twenty-fifth and Twenty-sixth Congresses (March 4, 1821 – March 3, 1841); chairman, Committee on the Post Office and Post Roads (Twenty-second through Twenty-fifth Congresses); was not a candidate for renomination in 1840; member of the State senate 1848–1850; died at Beatties Ford, North Carolina, January 6, 1866; interment in Rehobeth Methodist Church Cemetery, near Sherrills Ford, North Carolina

See also
Seventeenth United States Congress
Eighteenth United States Congress
Nineteenth United States Congress
Twentieth United States Congress
Twenty-first United States Congress
Twenty-second United States Congress
Twenty-third United States Congress
Twenty-fourth United States Congress
Twenty-fifth United States Congress
Twenty-sixth United States Congress
Entry in US Congress Biographical database

External links

Democratic Party North Carolina state senators
1793 births
1866 deaths
North Carolina Democratic-Republicans
Democratic-Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Jacksonian members of the United States House of Representatives from North Carolina
19th-century American politicians
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from North Carolina
People from Prince George County, Virginia

Henry William Connor


Landscape fabric is a textile material used to control weeds by inhibiting their exposure to sunlight.  The fabric is normally placed around desirable plants, covering areas where other growth is unwanted.  The fabric itself can be made from synthetic or organic materials, sometimes from recycled sources.

References
Gardening aids
Horticulture

Landscape fabric


Input is information that is "put in" to something. For example, when people talk, that is input for ears. The word is usually used when talking about computers. When someone types on a computer, the thing that they type is input. Usually, input is used to make output.

Input may refer to:

 Advice (opinion), an opinion or recommendation offered by someone
 Input (computer science), the act of entering data into a computer
 Information, any data entered into a computer or data processing system
 Input/output, the communication between a digital processing system
 Input device, a hardware device that is used to provide data for processing
 Power consumption, an amount of power used by a system

Communication
Computer science

Input


Reuel Marc Gerecht is an American writer and political analyst focused on the Middle East.  He is a senior fellow at the Foundation for Defense of Democracies, focusing primarily on the Middle East, Islamic militancy, counterterrorism, and intelligence.  He is a former director of the Project for the New American Century's Middle East Initiative and a former resident fellow at the American Enterprise Institute.  Earlier in his career Gerecht was a case officer at the CIA, primarily working on Middle Eastern targets.

Biography
In the 1990s, while Gerecht was living abroad, he occasionally wrote under the pseudonym of Edward Shirley.

He writes regularly for The Wall Street Journal, The New York Times, and The Washington Post, and many other publications. A contributing editor at The Weekly Standard, Mr Gerecht has been a foreign-affairs columnist for The New Republic magazine's foreign-affairs blog and a foreign correspondent for The Atlantic Monthly.

An expert in counterterrorism and the Middle East, Gerecht was prescient in a July 2001 article for The Atlantic when he criticized the intelligence community for their collective overconfidence towards Al Qaeda and Osama Bin Laden, reporting that U.S. officials claimed they were "picking apart" bin Ladin's terrorist network "limb by limb" just a few months before the September 11 terrorist attacks on New Tork City and Washington D.C.

Gerecht has advocated the re-establishment of diplomatic relationships with Tehran before any military action is taken.  According to journalist Andrew Sullivan, Gerecht also defends the use of physically coercive interrogation techniques in the ticking time bomb scenario.

Gerecht has been associated with the neoconservative movement in foreign affairs, which advocates an active and interventionist American foreign policy.  He was a strong proponent of military strikes against the Taliban and al-Qa'ida in Afghanistan in the 1990s, a backer of both the Afghan and Iraq wars (authoring, among other pieces, the article "An Iraq War Won't Destabilize the Mideast", written in 2002 as part of pro war opinion-making that would culminate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq), and has repeatedly urged a hawkish approach toward Iran, including preemptive strikes against Iran's nuclear sites and military retaliation for the alleged Iranian assassination plot against the Saudi ambassador in the United States.  Gerecht was a harsh critic of the Central Intelligence Agency's performance in the 1990s against the Islamic terrorist target, and has often written about the difficulties of reforming the American intelligence establishment.  A disciple and friend of the Princeton historian Bernard Lewis, Gerecht has nevertheless argued that Islamic fundamentalists, not Muslim liberals, will be the engine of political reform and democratization in the Middle East.  His views have often been condensed into the remark, "No Thomas Jefferson without Martin Luther".

Bibliography

 Know Thine Enemy: A Spy's Journey into Revolutionary Iran (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1997).
 The Islamic Paradox:  Shiite Clerics, Sunni Fundamentalists, and the Coming of Arab Democracy (AEI press, 2004)
 The Wave:  Man, God, and the Ballot Box in the Middle East (Hoover Institution, Stanford University, 2011)

References

Further reading
 "Can't Anyone Here Play This Game?" The Atlantic Monthly, February 1998
 "The Counterterrorist Myth," The Atlantic Monthly, July/August 2001
"An Iraq War Won't Destabilize the Mideast",  The New York Times. November 26, 2002
 "The Sorry State of the CIA," The Weekly Standard. July 19, 2004

External links

Living people
American Enterprise Institute
People of the Central Intelligence Agency
The Weekly Standard people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Reuel Marc Gerecht


The Grand Hotel Union () is a four-star hotel near the centre of the city of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia.

Built about a block from the city's central Prešeren Square between 1903 and 1905, it is notable for having been Ljubljana's first modern hotel, as well as—for a few years after its construction—the city's largest building.

The hotel was part of a programme of urban reconstruction during the administration of Mayor Ivan Hribar, initiated in the aftermath of the major 1895 earthquake that destroyed much of Ljubljana's medieval structures. Designed by the architect Josip Vancaš, it is a fine example of the Vienna Secession style. Its façade is almost 100 metres long, and its complex iron roof structure was considered a technical achievement at the time. Since its completion in 1905, the hotel has been redecorated twice, but retains its original style.

The ground floor of the building contains the Café Union (Unionska kavarna).

References

External links

Hotels in Ljubljana
Art Nouveau architecture in Ljubljana
Hotel buildings completed in 1905
Hotels established in 1905
Cultural venues in Ljubljana
Center District, Ljubljana
Josip Vancaš buildings
1905 establishments in Austria-Hungary
Art Nouveau hotels
20th-century architecture in Slovenia

Grand Hotel Union


Intern is the job title given to people who work in an organization that has an internship program. It is similar to an apprenticeship but is the term more commonly used if the work takes place in office environments. The work in an internship is expected to be part of the desired learning experience for the intern. The specific requirements for being an intern vary widely.

Internship positions are posted online similarly to job postings but focus instead on engaging students in real-world projects before they have completed their studies. Internships are usually temporary positions, often lasting between one school term and one year. Interns are sometimes given longer-term job opportunities.

Occupations

Internship


Flamingo/Lummus (often called either Flamingo or Lummus) is an urban neighborhood of South Beach in the city of Miami Beach, Florida, United States. Named for the famed Flamingo Hotel of the early 20th century, it is located in the eastern portion of the main island the city occupies.  It is roughly bound by Lincoln Road to the north, 5th Street to the south, Biscayne Bay and Alton Road to the west, and Ocean Drive and Lummus Park to the east.

Gallery

References

Neighborhoods in Miami Beach, Florida

Flamingo/Lummus


Rock en español is a Spanish language version of rock music. In English-speaking countries, people call Spanish rock "Rock en español", while in Spanish-speaking countries they call rock music "rock". Rock en español has music from the Caribbean such as ska, reggae and soca. Rock music began in 1956 when Gloria Ríos recorded "El relojito". Chicano rock are rock music sung by Mexican Americans, their version has R&B influences.

Rock music

Rock en español


Freerunning sleep can be sleep which is not adjusted, entrained, to the 24-hour cycle in nature.  Sleep which is entrained to 24 hours but is not artificially regulated by alarm clocks etc. can also be called freerunning sleep.

Scientific experiments

Animals which are kept in a laboratory for research in constant conditions, that is in constant light or constant dark, will freerun.  They live by their built-in circadian rhythms.  Each day will be a little bit shorter or a little bit longer than 24 hours.  It will be shorter if the animal's natural cycle is less than 24 hours long.  The animals sleep and are active as usual, but their timing gets to be farther and farther off.

Scientists let the animals freerun and then do experiments to see what sort of signals are most effective at entraining them.  They also experiment to see how long or short a cycle that animal can be entrained to.  Some animals can be entrained to a 22-hour day, but they can not be entrained to a 20-hour day.

Light is the most effective signal.  Some animals are quite easily entrained by the timing of meals.  Exercise is a signal for some animals. Heat is not effective.

Sometimes people stay in a laboratory for a few days in very low light without any knowledge of the time.  Such experiments show that adults, both older and younger, have a circadian cycle which is 24 hours and 11 minutes, on average.

People freerunning

Illness

Some people have a condition, a circadian rhythm sleep disorder, which makes them freerun all the time, even if they get out into daylight and eat regular meals.  Many of these people are blind, but some of them can see.  They have a long  circadian cycle and they do not entrain.  Scientists do not yet know why.

Intentional freerunning

Some people believe they will be more healthy if they do not sleep on a regular schedule.  They try to go to bed only when they are sleepy. They do not use alarm clocks.  They call this freerunning, but since they are exposed to daylight and dark, it's not the same as freerunning as the scientists use the term.

Sleep

Freerunning sleep


Xanthus (; , Xanthos, "yellow, blond") or Xanthos may refer to:

In Greek mythology
Xanthos (King of Thebes), the son of Ptolemy, killed by Andropompus or Melanthus
Xanthus (mythology), several figures, including gods, men, and horses
Balius and Xanthus, the horses of Achilles

People
Xanthus, Greek philosopher, master of the slave and fabulist Aesop
Xanthus (historian), a logographer who wrote a history of Lydia
Xanthos Hadjisoteriou (1920-2003), Greek Cypriot painter and interior designer
Xanthus Pagninius (1470–1541), Dominican, leading philologist and Biblical scholars
Xanthus Russell Smith, American artist
Xanthos (surname)

Geography
Xanthus (city) or Xanthos, city in ancient Lycia, the site of present-day Kınık, Antalya Province, Turkey
Xanthus (river) or Xanthos, river in ancient Lycia on which the city Xanthus was situated
Xanthus (Lesbos) or Xanthos, a town of ancient Lesbos, Greece
Xanthus Spur on the Trojan Range, mountain range in the Palmer Archipelago of the British Antarctic Territory

The arts
Xanthus, the antagonist in the musical People Are Wrong!
Xanthus, the fictional character in Robert Newcomb's fantasy series Blood and Stone
Xanthus, the name of Aristotle Bolt's estate in the Disney movie Escape to Witch Mountain (1975 film)

Species
Calliostoma xanthos, a species of sea snail
Cephonodes xanthus, a moth of the family Sphingidae
Myxococcus xanthus, a proteobacterium
Paracirrhites xanthus, a hawkfish from the Eastern Central Pacific
Protambulyx xanthus, a synonym for Protambulyx eurycles, a species of moth of the family Sphingidae

Other
Xanthus, the Latin form of Xanthos, an ancient Lycian city
4544 Xanthus (1989 FB) is an Apollo NEO discovered on March 31, 1989, by Henry Holt and Norman G. Thomas at Palomar Observatory
 , class of five auxiliary ships built for the United States Navy and Royal Navy
USS Xanthus, a Xanthus-class repair ship acquired by the United States Navy for the task of providing repairs to the fleet
Xanthus stele or Xanthian Obelisk, a stele bearing an inscription currently believed to be trilingual, in the ancient Lycian city of Xanthos

See also
Euxanthus
Xanthius
Xantho
Xanthosis

Kings in Greek mythology

Xanthus


Burkhanism or Ak Jang ( "the White Faith") is an indigenist new religious movement that flourished among the Altai people of Russia's Altai Republic between 1904 and the 1930s. The Russian Empire was suspicious of the movement's potential to stir up native unrest and perhaps involve outside powers. The Soviet Union ultimately suppressed it for fear of its potential to unify Siberian Turkic peoples under a common nationalism.

Originally millenarian, charismatic and anti-shamanic, the Burkhanist movement gradually lost most of these qualities—becoming increasingly routine, institutionalized (around a hierarchy of oral epic singers) and accommodating itself to the pre-existing Altaian folk religion. It exists today in several revival forms.

On the whole, the Burkhanist movement was shown to be a syncretistic phenomenon combining elements of ancient pre-shamanist, shamanist, Tibetan Buddhist and Eastern Orthodox Christian beliefs. According to a professor of Tomsk State University Liudmila Sherstova, it emerged in response to the needs of a new people—the Altai-kizhi or Altaians who sought to distinguish themselves from the neighboring and related tribes and for whom Burkhanism became a religious form of their ethnic identity.

Origins of the name

Burkhanism is the usual English-language scholarly name, which has its origin in the Russian academic usage. One of the Burkhanist deities is Ak-Burkhan, or "White Burkhan". Burkhan is Turkified version of the name Buddha, yet Burkhanism is not considered Buddhist, as the term is also used in shamanistic nomenclature. For example, in Mongolian shamanism, the name of the most sacred mountain, the rumored birthplace and final resting spot of Genghis Khan, is also Burkhan Khaldun. Ak-Burkhan is only one of a pantheon of deities worshiped by Burkhanists (see list below), but Ak-Burkhan nevertheless provides the name of the religion in Russian, and thence into other languages.

The Altaian name for the religion is Ak Jang "the White Faith". "White" refers to its emphasis on the upper world in the three-world cosmology of Tengrism. Alternatively, the name may also allude to Ak Jang's rejection of animal sacrifices in favor of offerings of horse milk or horse-milk alcohol. Jang means authority; faith; custom; law or principle; and canon or rules of ensemble. In more colloquial settings, the term may also be used as a "way of doing things" and is used in reference to religions as well as political systems.

Early history

In April 1904 Chet Chelpan (or, Chot Chelpanov) and his adopted daughter Chugul Sarok Chandyk reported visions of a rider dressed in white, and riding a white horse. This figure, whom they called Ak-Burkhan ("White Burkhan"), announced the imminent arrival of the mythical messianic hero Oirat Khan who was actually a real historical figureKhoit-Oirat prince Amursana. The central figure in the research of Burkhanism in the past forty years, however, has demonstrated that Oirot-khan is a mythologized image of the Dzungar past of the people of Altai-kizhi.
Chet and Chugul gathered thousands of Altaians for prayer meetings, initially in the Tereng Valley. These were violently suppressed by mobs of Russians, instigated by the Altaian Spiritual Mission, who were afraid of the potential of the competing religion to decrease the Orthodox Christian flock in Altai. Chet and Chugul were arrested, Chugul was released, and after a prolonged trial Chet was fully exonerated by court and released in 1906.

Researcher Andrei A. Znamenski compares the Burkanist movement to other indigenous revitalizing movements around the world, such as the Native American Ghost Dance or the Melanesian Cargo Cult. An exhaustively detailed treatment of the comparisons and comparability of Burkhanism with the Melanesian Cargo Cult, the Mennonites, the Dukhobors of Georgia, the Mariitsy of Nizhnii Novgorod, and many other movements, is provided in Sherstova's dissertation from the 1980s.

Znamenski says, the prime motivating factor was Altaians' fear of displacement by Russian colonists, Russification, and subjection to taxation and conscription on the same basis as Russian peasants.

Andrei Vinogradov (thesis linked below) sees Burkhanism as a typical nomadic Turko-Mongolian mobilization pattern—aiming to link families and clans (seok) into a steppe empire (which in this case never materialized). The Burkhanists' veneration of heroes from oral epics, he says, serves much the same cultural centralizing function as the veneration of other divine heroes such as Gesar, Manas, or Genghis Khan. As such it constitutes a major aspect of Turko-Mongolic religion, distinct from shamanism.

After the arrest of Chet and Chugul, Tyryi Akemchi arose to become the most prominent iarlikchi, and helped organize the movement. Having been exposed to Buddhism through his years as a translator in Mongolia, Tyryi added a number of Buddhist trappings to Burkhanist ritual, such as bells. Within a decade, most of the Altaian population had joined the new faith.

In 1918 Gregorii Choros-Gurkin and other Altaian leaders declared the formation of something called the "Karakorum-Altaian Regional Government" (Karakorum-Altaiskaia Okruzhnaia Uprava), with the object of establishing an "Karakorum-Altai Republic". This was intended to include not only Altai but also neighboring republics of Tuva and Khakassia. It was forcibly dissolved with arrival of Bolshevik power in 1922.

Deities

Burkhanism accepts the "three worlds" of Mongolic and Turkic tradition. (These are the upper, middle, and lower worlds—in other words heaven, earth, and the underworld.) However, it rejects worship of traditional deities associated with the underworld. In addition, it imports into worship many figures from Altaian oral epic lore, which were not worshipped in the "shamanic" part of the Altaian religion.

Uch Kurbustan—"Uch" means "three", while "Kurbustan" comes from the Soghdian "Khormazta" (and thence from the Avestan "Ahura Mazda"). Thus, a triune God. Though imported from oral epics, Uch Kurbustan is a generalized spirit rather than a hero of stories with a personality. He may be analogous with the Turko-Mongolian High God Tengri ("Heaven").

Rather than an import from Buddhism, Christianity, or Turkic Islam, this particular trinity is likely to have been inspired by other triune gods and heroes from Turkic culture (sometimes in the form of a god with three sons). Uch Kurbustan is connected with the following three messianic heroes, also from Altaian oral epic lore:

 Oirat or Galden-Oirat—mythological ancestor of the Western Mongols. A conflation / dim historical memory of a number of real-life Western Mongolian leaders from around the seventeenth century including Galdan Tseren.

 Amursana—a legendary Khoit-Oirat chieftain who fled Chinese territory for Russian after the 1756 Qing destruction of Dzungaria.

 Shunu ("Wolf")—the Altaian version of Asena, the totemic lupine ancestor recognized by various Turkic peoples.

The gods of the upper world, or aru tos ("pure ancestors"), are considered fragments or emanations of Uch Kurbustan. Burkhanism calls these Burkhans. Among them are:

 Ak-Burkhan ("White Burkhan")—depicted as an old man with white hair, a white coat, and white headgear, who rides a white horse. Possibly analogous to the Mongolian "white old man", Tsagan Ebugen. A symbol of good fortune.

 Jajyk—a formless spirit-mediator, assists with human-divine communication. Vinogradov compares with the Holy Spirit. Altaians distinguished between an Ak-Jajyk ("White Jajyk") who carried messages to the gods of the upper world, and a Sary-Jajyk ("Yellow Jajyk") who did the same for gods of the middle world, and is identified with the hearth.

 Umai—the goddess of childbirth and children. Other Turkic lore—but not the Altaian—makes her the consort of the High God Tengri, and thus a primordial mother figure.

 Ot-ene, the "Mother of Fire"—worshipped before every sacrifice, but especially during one of the three major Burkhanist festivals

Gods of the "middle world"—i.e. the familiar spheres of nature and human affairs—include numerous local spirits, such as spirits associated with mountains (taika-eezi) or springs (arzhans), or "masters of the game". They may also be associated with particular clans (seok). More generalized ones include:

 Altai-eezi, the "Master of Altai"—a sort of genius loci, suitably adapted for an Altaian national consciousness.

 Ul'gan—a spiritual ancestor of several Altaian clans. Originally a proper name, now generalized. Some sources describe Ul'gan as the creator of the universe in Burkhanist theology; this is probably a misunderstanding.

Historically, Burkhanism rejected the traditional gods of the underworld, notably Erlik (Yerlik), its chief. This rejection is closely related to Burkhanism's rejection of Altaian shamanism, and corresponding elevation of oral epic singers (yarlikchi). (By "shaman" is here meant manjaktu kams, i.e. the "costume-wearing" specialists who communicate with the underworld gods.) Both rejections are likely to have been inspired by oral epic lore, which regularly features shamans as villains.

Practices
Burning juniper (archyn) for blessing, purification, or healing
Home or hilltop altars (kure or murgul), with candles and milk-offerings
Erecting of cairns (oboo)
Recitation / composition / patronage of oral epics
Divination and weather-control
Display of white and yellow ribbons or streamers (from trees or strings, or dangling from the back of one's headgear)
Prayer while standing, with hands raised; or with prostrations
Celebration of festivals:
Shuten or Murgul—a semiannual (spring and fall) festival dedicated to Uch Kurbustan
Chok or Jajyk Choktor—a fall festival dedicated to jajyks
Ot Takyr—dedicated to Ot-Ene

Some sources speak of a list of "Twenty Commandments" for Burkhanism. The evidence for this is sparse. Alcohol and tobacco were proscribed in the early years.

Chugul came to be venerated as the main recipient of the original message. This was much less true of Chet, although both were addressed with honorific titles.

Burkhanism today
Russian painter Nicholas Roerich and his wife Helena Roerich passed through Altai in 1926. Nicholas painted Oirat—Messenger of the White Burkhan based on his understanding of the movement. (Note that the painting's title apparently gets the theology backward—it was rather White Burkhan who was the messenger for Oirat.) Followers of Agni Yoga, an esoteric movement founded by the Roerichs, have encouraged a recent revival of interest in Burkhanism among non-Altaians. At the same time they have insisted on a link with Tibetan Buddhism and a veneration of Mount Belukha, elements not found in traditional Burkhanism.

A number of Burkhanist revival organizations emerged during the 1990s, mostly as attempts to formulate or preserve an Altaian ethno-nationalist identity. To that end many of them have been persuaded to reconsider earlier Burkhanism's vexed relationship with shamanism and/or Buddhism.

According to recent statistical studies, up to 70 % or 81 % (data of the Research State Institute of Altaic Studies) of the Altaians continue to profess the so-called "Altai Faith"—Burkhanism, shamanism and other folk spiritual cults and traditions.

List of movements
 Altai Faith ()
 Sacral Altai public ecological organization () (2016)
 Altai Faith White Faith () (2004)
 Soul Ecology School "Tengri" () (1995)
 Spiritual and Health center "Ak Sanaa" ()
 Spiritual center of the Turks "Kin Altai" () (2005)
 Tengrism—Heavenly Faith () (2010)
 Buddhist communion—Ak Burkhan (1991)

Notable Burkhanists
Grigory Gurkin, a Soviet landscape artist and chairman of the Karakorum-Altaian Regional Government;
 (1938–2020), a poet and translator.

Sources

Secondary sources
 in English

 Johnson, David. What Was and Is Burkhanism?
 Vinogradov, Andrei. Ak Jang in the Context of Altai Religious Tradition

 in Russian

 Sherstova, Lyudmila (2010). Бурханизм: истоки религии и этноса [Burkhanism: sources of religion and nation], Tomsk State University Press. (a reproduction of Sherstova's dissertation from 1986, which was a result of the author's ethnographic expeditions to Altai in 1976-1985).
 Sherstova, Lyudmila (1997). Тайна долины Теренг [The secret of the Tereng Valley]. Gorno-Altaysk.

Primary sources

References

Altai Mountains
Altai people
Modern pagan traditions
Modern paganism in Russia
New religious movements
Religion in Siberia
Religious organizations established in 1904
Society of the Russian Empire
Tengriism
Turkic mythology

Burkhanism


Charlotte Louise Jackson (born 29 June 1978) is an English journalist and television presenter, who was formerly a presenter on Sky Sports News. She played lacrosse and tennis for Hampshire, while her mother played lacrosse for England.

Biography
Although she is from Portsmouth, she is a lifelong supporter of Liverpool as her family originated from the city. She spent much of her early years in Wickham, a village just north of Portsmouth.

Career
She was also a singer and backing vocalist and was a backing vocalist for Tony Christie for a TV appearance of his hit, "Is This the Way to Amarillo". She hosted the Barnardos Young Supporters Concert from 2005–2009, and participated in Catfight in 2007, a boxing match in Hammersmith Palais.

Broadcasting
In 2004 Jackson wrote and presented sports news for a variety of sports websites, including sportal.com, TEAMtalk, Football365 and Golf365 among other sports-related websites—where she wrote and presented sports bulletins. Jackson also presented the coverage of the National Hunt Festival for the official Cheltenham website in 2006.

She joined Setanta Sports News in 2007, co-hosting Lunchtime Live alongside Murray Dron, and presented various live events, including BetFred League of Legends darts tournament. She presented the Beijing Bulletin for Al Jazeera +3 Sport's coverage of the 2008 Summer Olympics, with Rhodri Williams.
In 2005 she appeared in Clarkson: Heaven and Hell as a dancer.

After the channel ceased broadcasting in June 2009, she joined Sky Sports in August 2009, presenting on Sky Sports News. She also regularly appears with Tim Shaw on his radio show, Absolution. She hosted the 2009 FIFA World Player of the Year Awards Ceremony in Zurich alongside Pedro Pinto. She appeared as a reporter in the Keith Lemon film.

Jackson presented Sky Sports Football quiz show Take it Like a Fan with John Fendley. The show is based on going to different British football league grounds and asking quiz questions.

She also presented the second series of ITV's 71 Degrees North alongside Paddy McGuinness, and was team captain for the girls for ITV's The Big Quiz—Sports Special.

In 2013, she was a contestant in ITV's celebrity diving show Splash!, where she reached the semi-finals, despite breaking a toe.

Personal life

She is married to former Fulham, Sunderland and Wales manager Chris Coleman. She announced in June 2014 that they were expecting their first child and a son arrived on 22 December, followed by a daughter in 2016.

Andy Gray incident
In late 2010, Sky Sports commentator Andy Gray and presenter Richard Keys were caught in a furore, when derogatory comments they made about female referees prior to a match were caught by a hot mic. Shortly after, footage emerged of more incidents of Gray engaged in sexist behavior, and consequently his contract was terminated by Sky.

References

External links
 Charlotte Jackson at TV Newsroom

1978 births
Living people
Mass media people from Portsmouth
Sky Sports presenters and reporters
21st-century English women singers
21st-century English singers
British women television journalists

Charlotte Jackson


Linda Hutcheon, FRSC, O.C. (born August 24, 1947) is a Canadian academic working in the fields of literary theory and criticism, opera, and Canadian studies. She is a University Professor Emeritus in the Department of English and of the Centre for Comparative Literature at the University of Toronto, where she has taught since 1988. In 2000 she was elected the 117th President of the Modern Language Association, the third Canadian to hold this position, and the first Canadian woman. She is particularly known for her influential theories of postmodernism.

Works

Postmodernism

Hutcheon's publications reflect an interest in aesthetic micro-practices such as irony in Irony's Edge (Routledge, 1994), parody in A Theory of Parody (Meuthen, 1985), and adaptation in A Theory of Adaptation (Routledge, 2006). Hutcheon has also authored texts which synthesize and contextualize these practices with regard to broader debates about postmodernism, such as The Politics of Postmodernism (Routledge, 1989), A Poetics of Postmodernism (Routledge, 1988), and Rethinking Literary History (OUP, 2002). She also edited influential texts on post-modernity, chief among them being A Postmodern Reader (SUNY, 1993), co-edited with Joseph P. Natoli.

Hutcheon's version of postmodernism is often contrasted with that of Fredric Jameson in North America: while the latter laments the lack of critical capacities to which postmodern subjects have access, and analyses present capitalist cultural production in terms of a dehistoricized spatial pastiche, Hutcheon highlights the ways in which postmodern modalities actually aid in the process of critique.

Specifically, Hutcheon suggests that postmodernism works through parody to "both legitimize and subvert that which it parodies" (Politics, 101). "Through a double process of installing and ironizing, parody signals how present representations come from past ones and what ideological consequences derive from both continuity and difference" (Politics, 93). Thus, far from dehistoricizing the present or organizing history into an incoherent and detached pastiche, postmodernism can rethink history and offer new critical capacities.

Hutcheon coined the term historiographic metafiction to describe those literary texts that assert an interpretation of the past but are also intensely self-reflexive (i.e. critical of their own version of the truth as being partial, biased, incomplete, etc.) (Poetics, 122-123). Historiographic metafiction, therefore, allows us to speak constructively about the past in a way that acknowledges the falsity and violence of the "objective" historian's past without leaving us in a totally bewildered and isolated present (as Jameson has it).

Canadian studies

Many of Hutcheon's writings on postmodernism are reflected in a series of books she has written and edited on Canada. The Canadian Postmodern is a discussion of postmodern textual practices used by Canadian authors of the late twentieth century such as Margaret Atwood and Robert Kroetsch. More than the other forms she discusses, Hutcheon sees irony as particularly significant to Canadian identity.

Hutcheon argues irony is a "...semantically complex process of relating, differentiating, and combining said and unsaid meanings - and doing so with an evaluative edge" that is enabled by membership in what she describes as "discursive communities". It is through membership in a shared discursive community that the listener is able to recognize that a speaker might be attempting offer an unsaid evaluation. She argues that Canadians lack of a clear nationalist metanarrative and international influences such as history as a British colony, proximity to the United States of America, and immigration, are disposed to seeing their identities as ironic – caught up in multiple discursive communities.  For Hutcheon's work on ethnic minority writing see Other Solitudes:  Canadian Multicultural Fiction.  Eds. Linda Hutcheon and Marion Richmond. (Oxford U.P. 1990).

Opera

Since the mid-1990s, Linda Hutcheon has published a number of books on opera with her husband Michael Hutcheon. These works often reflect her interests as a literary critic combined with his interests as a practicing physician and medical researcher.

Selected publications
A Theory of Adaptation. (NY and London: Routledge, 2006).
Opera: The Art of Dying. Harvard University Press, 2004 (with Michael Hutcheon).
Rethinking Literary History: A Forum on Theory. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002 (with Mario J. Valdés).
"Postmodern Afterthoughts". Wascana Review of Contemporary Poetry and Short Fiction 37.1 (2002): 5-12. [Link to article]
Bodily Charm: Living Opera. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000 (with Michael Hutcheon).
"A Crypto-Ethnic Confession". The Anthology of Italian-Canadian Writing. Ed. Joseph Pivato. Toronto: Guernica Editions, 1998.

Opera: Desire, Disease, and Death. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996 (with Michael Hutcheon).
 "The Post Always Rings Twice: The Postmodern and the Postcolonial". Material History Review 41 (1995): 4-23.  [Link to article]
 Irony's Edge: The Theory and Politics of Irony. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. Portuguese translation (Belo Horizonte, Brasil: Editora UFMG, 2000); final chapter reprinted in New Contexts of Canadian Criticism (Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2001).
"Incredulity toward Metanarrative: Negotiating Postmodernism and Feminisms". Collaboration in the Feminine: Writings on Women and Culture from Tessera. Ed. Barbara Godard. Toronto: Second Story, 1994. 186-192.   [Link to article]
The Canadian Postmodern: A Study of Contemporary English-Canadian Fiction. Toronto:  Oxford University Press, 1992.
Splitting Images: Contemporary Canadian Ironies. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1991.
"Historiographic Metafiction: Parody and the Intertextuality of History". Intertextuality and Contemporary American Fiction. Ed. P. O'Donnell and Robert Con Davis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. 3-32.   [Link to article]
The Politics of Postmodernism. London & New York: Routledge, 1989.
"The Postmodern Problematizing of History". English Studies in Canada 14.4 (1988): 365-382.   [Link to article]
A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction. London & New York: Routledge, 1988.
A Theory of Parody: The Teachings of Twentieth-Century Art Forms. 1984; rpt with new introduction; Champaign and Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001.
Leonard Cohen and His Works. Toronto; ECW Press; two different essays on his poetry and fiction, probably 1992 and 1994.  [Link to article]
Narcissistic Narrative 1980, 1985, 2013.

Awards
 2016, Lorne Pierce Medal
 2010, invested as an Officer of the Order of Canada
 2005, awarded the Killam Prize, by the Canada Council for the Arts
 1990, Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada

External links
Historiographic Metafiction Explained
Hutcheon Modules at the Purdue University Introductory Guide to Critical Theory
Biography
Bibliography
Official website
Centre for Comparative Literature at the University of Toronto.
 Online Publications (University of Toronto)

References

1947 births
Living people
Canadian feminists
Academic staff of the University of Toronto
Canadian literary critics
Canadian women literary critics
Irony theorists
Narcissism writers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Officers of the Order of Canada
Postmodern feminists
Presidents of the Modern Language Association

Linda Hutcheon


The Chalcedonian Creed is a creed which was made during the Council of Chalcedon in the year 451. This council is one of the seven ecumenical councils. It is recognised by the Eastern Orthodox, the Catholics, and by many Protestant Churches. It is the first council the Oriental Orthodox Church does not recognize.

The Chalcedonian creed was written during a controversy between the Western and Eastern Churches. They could not agree about the meaning of Incarnation, the influence of the emperor in the church, and the role of the Roman Pope. The Western Churches had no problems accepting the creed, but some Eastern Churches had.

The creed became doctrine in the Orthodox Church. The Coptic church of Alexandria disagreed. They used Cyril's formula instead. They said that the creed should say that Christ be acknowledged "from two natures" rather than "in two natures".

English translation of the Creed
We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach people to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood;
truly God and truly man, of a reasonable [rational] soul and body;
consubstantial [co-essential] with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood;
in all things like unto us, without sin;
begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God, according to the Manhood;
one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably;
the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person and one Subsistence, not parted or divided into two persons, but one and the same Son, and only begotten, God the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ;
as the prophets from the beginning [have declared] concerning Him, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us.

Ancient Christianity
Christian creeds

Chalcedonian Creed


Conscription, also called draft, is when a government forces people to enlist in the army or other military service. Usually, only men are conscripted, but in some countries such as Israel, Norway and Sweden, women are as well. A soldier who has been drafted to serve in the army is called a conscript.

Conscription may or may not be compulsory. If compulsory, it may be resisted. Usually, exceptions are allowed. Since men in their late teens and twenties are the main objective, conscription clashes with higher education, and exceptions may be allowed.

The first large, modern conscript army was the French Grand Army after the French Revolution.  Conscription soon became a common way of making up the armies. Almost all of the powerful armies in the world except United Kingdom were conscript armies, but during the World Wars, even the British Army used mostly conscripts.

Conscription was introduced in August 1916 in New Zealand during the First World War  because the number of men needed to be recruited had not been met.

Problems
Conscription armies are large, but they are often poorly equipped and trained and have poor morale. In combat they usually suffer many casualties. Usually conscripts serve with little pay. Conscription may be considered as a type of forced labour. In some countries, young men who refuse to join the army are sentenced to prison.  Many people "dodged" or illegally avoided conscription during the Vietnam War in the United States.

There are arguments for conscription. Some see it as fair since everyone shares the burden of service. A small country with few people can make up a large enough army by conscription. If a country is in the middleof hostile neighbours and war can break up at any time, or if the country is a buffer state (between two military powers), training all available young people as soldiers can be a good idea.

The alternatives for conscription are militia or universal conscription systems, as in Switzerland, or a professional army made up from volunteers. The United States gave up conscription during the Cold War. The Vietnam War proved so unpopular that the US Army no longer wanted conscripts, but volunteers, who have better motivation to serve. Most other Western countries followed the American example and gave up conscription. Some countries now have an all-volunteer army, and in Europe, universal conscription remains only in some countries like Finland, Russia and Turkey.

In Germany, conscription for the Bundeswehr was removed in July 2011 after a long discussion in the German Bundestag.

People who oppose conscription because of pacifism idea are called conscientious objectors. Some countries draft conscientious objectors but give them jobs in which they will not have to fight.

Military law

Conscription


Mimir was one of the Norse gods. After his head was chopped off in a battle between the Aesir and the Vanir, Odin carried it around. The head told him secrets and offered him advice. Mimir is the god of wisdom. He was the thinking part of Hoenir, the silent god.

Norse gods and goddesses

Mímir


Dimensional analysis is a method used in chemistry, physics, and other sciences. It is used to convert measurements and to find out something's dimensions. Sometimes it is called factor label method or unit analysis.

Any math done with numbers must also be done with their unit labels.  For example, when dividing 50 miles driven by 2 gallons of gas used, you not only divide 50 by 2 to get a result of 25, you also have to divide "miles" by "gallons", which gives the unit "miles/gallon" or "miles per gallon".  The final answer is "25 miles per gallon".

Looking at the unit labels can help in choosing what to do with the numbers. For example, to convert 2.3 miles to some number of meters, use the equation "1609.34 meters equals one mile" or 1609.34 meters per mile. Using division, the unit labels will be miles/meters/mile, which ends up as miles2/meter, which is not just the meters. With multiplication, the unit labels will be miles × meters/mile. The miles will cancel, leaving just meters.

Measurement

Dimensional analysis


Income inequality in the United States has increased significantly since the 1970s after several decades of stability, meaning the share of the nation's income received by higher income households has increased. Sometimes this is called a "pay gap". Usually males are paid higher than females which has caused protest.

History of the United States
Income
Economic indicators

Income inequality in the United States


Traffic calming measures are changes to a road to make car drivers slow down and to make the road safer for people who have to walk across the road. Some traffic calming techniques include installing speed bumps and narrowing roads, which make drivers slow down. Another way to make drivers slow down is to set speed limits. These speed limits can be enforced with automatic speed cameras. These cameras take photographs of people who are driving too fast. Another way to slow drivers down is to make curbs wider.

Traffic

Traffic calming


Kara Janx (born 17 September 1975) is a South African fashion designer best known for her participation as a contestant on the second season of Bravo's Project Runway, which aired from December 2005 to March 2006.

Early life
Born Kara Jankelowitz, in Johannesburg to an Ashkenazi Jewish family.

Career
Janx moved to New York City after obtaining a degree in architecture. She then became a fashion designer and launched her first collection in 2002. In 2009 Janx won the title of International Sportswear Designer of the Year, and then in 2011 she launched a successful bridal-wear line. On 14 January 2007, Janx married Sharone Sohayegh (sometimes referred to as Red) in South Africa. Sharone is involved in real estate. Kara gave birth to her first child, a 6 lb. 14 oz daughter named Dylan on 12 November 2007.  She gave birth to her second child, a boy named Calum, in 2009.

Project Runway
On Project Runway, Janx lasted eleven episodes before being eliminated.  She was, however, in the bottom two in the eighth episode, the Inspiration challenge, and in the bottom three during the seventh episode, the On Thin Ice challenge. She was one of the last four contestants remaining and just missed a spot in the final three at New York City's Olympus Fashion Week. Janx did get to show her collection at Fashion Week as a decoy so that viewers would not know who was actually in the final three until her last episode aired later that week.

Janx appeared on the first season of Project Runway All-Stars. She was eliminated in the seventh episode.

After Project Runway

Since Project Runway, Janx has designed for her own eponymous label. She worked as design director at Elie Tahari, and in 2015 debuted a new line, Tenby.

As a designer, Janx is especially well known for her kimono wrap dresses, one of which she wore on her original season of Project Runway.

References

External links
Kara Janx - official website
Kara Janx's Blog on Bravo
Kara Janx collection at Fashion Week

South African fashion designers
South African women fashion designers
Jewish fashion designers
Living people
South African Jews
Project Runway (American series) participants
1975 births

Kara Janx


In syntactic analysis, a constituent is a word or a group of words that functions as one unit within a hierarchical structure.

Phrases (noun phrases, verbal phrases, etc.) are usually constituents of a clause, but clauses may also be combined into a bigger structure.  For example, in the phrase "I didn't hear what you said," the subordinate clause "what you said" is combined into the main clause and is syntactically its object; this can be demonstrated by substituting the pronoun "it" for the subordinate clause "I didn't hear it."

Linguistics

Constituent (linguistics)


Sprouting is growing sprouts from seeds (germinating) to eat. Bean sprouts are a common ingredient, especially in Asian cuisine, made from sprouting beans. The typical beansprout is made from the greenish-capped mung beans (Vigna radiata). Other common bean sprouts are the usually yellow, larger-grained soy sprouts.

Vegetables

Sprouting


The Transportpolizei (German for "Transport Police") was the transit police of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), whose officers were commonly nicknamed TraPos. It was part of the Volkspolizei and dealt with all modes of transit but primarily with trains and railroads. It consisted of approximately 8,500 men, that were organized from a national level and at district level with each Deutsche Reichsbahn district; Berlin, Cottbus, Dresden, Erfurt, Greifswald, Halle, Magdeburg and Schwerin. They wore dark-blue uniforms (that were colloquially called "blueberries") instead of the standard green Volkspolizei uniform.  They were organized into sixteen companies and equipped with small arms and RPG-7 shoulder-fired antitank grenade launchers. The Transportpolizei supervised all larger train stations and controlled the travellers, particularly at the border with West Germany, and directed traffic. Before the building of the Berlin Wall, the Transportpolizei controlled the S-Bahn in West Berlin (as the Deutsche Reichsbahn controlled the S-Bahn in both East and West Berlin). In the 'interzone courses' (later called 'transit courses') there was always an escort party of the Transportpolizei present. The service training school of the Transportpolizei was in Halle.

From January 1953 until February 1957 the Transportpolizei was part of the Ministry for State Security, in turn part of the Office of the Secretary of State. Starting from March 1957 it was transferred to the Volkspolizei, whose supervising inspector was Otto Auerswald.

After German reunification in 1990 the Transportpolizei was dissolved, with some 1200 of its personnel transferring to the (West) German Bahnpolizei. On April 1, 1992 the Bahnpolizei was taken over by the German Federal Border Guard (now called the German Federal Police).

See also
 Eastern Bloc politics

Notes

 Wolfgang Mittmann (1998); Die Transportpolizei (1945–1990), Berlín: Links, Forschungen zur DDR-Gesellschaft.

External links
 Transportpolizei Lexicon
 Die Transportpolizei ("Trapo")

Defunct law enforcement agencies of East Germany
Law enforcement in East Germany
Paramilitary organisations based in Germany
Transit police departments
1992 disestablishments in Germany

Transportpolizei


Njörðr is the god of the seas and the wind in Norse mythology. A member of the Vanir, he is the father of the twin gods Freyr and Freyja by an unnamed sister of his. He is married to the jötunness Skaði, daughter of Þjazi.

Marriage With Skaði
Skadi's father Þjazi caught Loki, and forced him to lure out the goddess Iðunn, keeper of the apples which grant the Æsir their phenomenal youth and longevity. As the gods began to age, they sought out the one responsible for taking Idunn; discovering it was Þjazi, they killed him and freed Iðunn. Angered at the offense, Skaði came to fight the gods, but they did not want to fight her. The Æsir instead offered Skaði compensation, allowing her to choose a husband among the gods, but only by looking at their feet. Skaði wished to marry Baldr, the most handsome of the gods, but the feet she picked belonged to Njörðr, whose feet were shining and clean. (Odin later took Þjazi's eyes and placed them as stars in the night sky). When Skaði moved to her new husband's home near the sea, she missed her mountain home. Trapped in a loveless marriage, she only spends half her time with her husband. When Skaði is away, Njörðr is sad, causing storms at the sea.

Norse gods and goddesses

Njord


Malibu Shark Attack (a.k.a. Mega Shark of Malibu) is a 2009 TV film, directed by David Lister and produced for the Syfy channel. It is the 19th film in the Maneater Series.

Plot
Heather (Peta Wilson) is the head-lifeguard on a Malibu beach, alongside her ex-boyfriend Chavez (Warren Christie), Doug (Remi Broadway) and Barb (Sonya Salomaa). Also on the beach are Jenny (Chelan Simmons), a teenage girl who is reluctantly cleaning the beach for community service after she got caught shoplifting, and Bryan (Nicholas G. Cooper), Barb's boyfriend who proposes to her. Meanwhile, a tremor unleashes a group of Living fossil goblin sharks who begin to devour swimmers along the beach. Chavez travels to a nearby house that is undergoing construction and meets with the workers Colin (Jeffery Gannon), who is Heather's new boyfriend, George (Mungo McKay), Yancey (Renee Bowen) and Karl (Evert McQueen). A warning of a tsunami arises and Chavez returns to the beach, saving Heather who had been knocked into the water by a shark after being sent to investigate some people causing trouble in the water. Doug and Barb evacuate the beach, and take shelter in the lifeguard hut with Heather, Chavez, Jenny and Bryan.

As the tsunami hits, Bryan is knocked unconscious and Jenny suffers a large cut on her leg. Heather manages to stitch the cut together; however, the blood attracts the goblin sharks, and the group realize they are stranded in the hut, with help unlikely due to the damage the tsunami has created. The sharks soon begin to attack the hut and manage to break the floor, dragging Barb out and devouring her. As the group mourn Barb's death, the construction crew have become stranded in the house where they were working. Yancey decides to try to swim to land and get help; however, she is quickly attacked and eaten by sharks. Then a shark jumps up and drags Karl into the water. Soon after, Colin and George discover a boat and begin to travel to the hut. Back at the hut, the group manage to kill one of the sharks, and Chavez swims out of the hut to retrieve a flare gun. The others attempt to distract the sharks, but one attempts to eat Chavez, resulting in him shooting and killing the shark with the flare gun, instead of summoning help.

Chavez returns, and the group move up to the roof as the sharks continue to damage the hut. Colin and George arrive on the boat and everyone boards, but the fuel soon runs out, forcing them to drift to land. After hours, the boat reaches the house that was under construction. The boat becomes stuck on a gate, so George enters the site to try to find pliers to open the gate. As the rest wait, the sharks arrive. Bryan jumps into the water, sacrificing himself so the rest can escape. Doug, Jenny and Colin manage to get into the flooded house and encounter a shark but manage to kill it, while Heather and Chavez discover a half eaten George, before taking shelter in a car, where they reconcile. Chavez kills another shark, before entering the house with Heather. The group meet up, and manage to trap and kill the final shark. In the morning, a helicopter arrives to rescue the survivors

Cast
 Peta Wilson as Heather
 Warren Christie as Chavez
 Remi Broadway as Doug Crenshaw
 Chelan Simmons as Jenny
 Sonya Salomaa as Barbara "Barb" Simmons
 Nicolas G. Cooper as Bryan Conroy
 Jeff Gannon as Colin Smith
 Mungo McKay as George
 Evert McQueen as Karl
 Renee Bowen as Yancey

Reviews
Reviews have been mostly negative.

Home media
Malibu Shark Attack was released on DVD on August 16, 2011.

External links

2009 horror films
Syfy original films
Maneater (film series)
Films about sharks
2009 television films
Films about shark attacks
2009 films
Australian action adventure films
Australian comedy horror films
Films directed by David Lister
2000s American films

Malibu Shark Attack


Edgar Reitz (born 1 November 1932) is a German filmmaker and Professor of Film at the Staatliche Hochschule für Gestaltung (State University of Design) in Karlsruhe. He is best-known for his internationally acclaimed Heimat film series (1984-2013).

Early life and education
Reitz was born  in Morbach, Hunsrück. His father Robert was a watchmaker and his business in Morbach was later taken over by Reitz's brother Guido. Reitz's interest in acting and producing plays began in his school years in Simmern, where he was encouraged by his German teacher Karl Windhäuser. After taking his Abitur, he studied German studies, journalism, art history and theatre studies in Munich from 1952. His first experiences in film-making however were not theoretical; he worked as a camera, editing, and production assistant from 1953.

His interests in the advancement of new developments in film went as far as he cooperated with  Wolfgang Georgsdorf and his Osmodrama in 2016 which led to a complete scent synchronisation of his movie "home from home" which premiered as an allegedly well functioned cinema on 17 July 2016.

Institut für Filmgestaltung
In 1963 along with Alexander Kluge he founded the Institut für Filmgestaltung (Institute for Film Design) which was affiliated to the Ulm School of Design, where he taught film directing and camera theory until the School of Design closed in 1968. As part of the group around Kluge, Reitz was a participant in the Oberhausen Manifesto which was announced at the Oberhausen Short Film Festival of 1962. With this manifesto young German filmmakers demanded nothing less than a new form of cinema: "Der alte Film ist tot. Wir glauben an den neuen." ("The old film is dead. We believe in the new film"). The manifesto is associated with the motto "Papas Kino ist tot" ("Papa's cinema is dead"). Subsequently, the concept of the auteur gained in popularity in Germany, and Reitz played a significant role in shaping this concept in the following years.

Awards
Reitz received one of his first awards for his film Mahlzeiten which was awarded the prize for best debut work at the Venice Film Festival in 1967. In 1971 he founded Edgar Reitz Filmproduktion (ERF) in Munich. He now began to collaborate on films with his former academic colleague Alexander Kluge amongst them the 1974 fictitious documentary In Gefahr und größter Not bringt der Mittelweg den Tod. The lavish production costs of the 1979 film The Tailor of Ulm, which portrays the downfall of the aviation pioneer Albrecht Berblinger, caused Reitz's own financial circumstances to suffer. The film was entered into the 11th Moscow International Film Festival. It was during this crisis that the idea for a film project about his homeland, the Hunsrück, first came to Reitz. What began as an attempt at self-discovery, ultimately broadened out into the Heimat trilogy (from 1984), which met with critical acclaim, an enthusiastic international audience, and numerous prizes. With this epic and monumental production, Reitz achieved a quite new perspective, an approach, both poetical and realistic, to the past of Germany as it might have played out in the provinces.

In 2004 Reitz was awarded the Carl Zuckmayer Medal by the state of Rhineland-Palatinate for his life's work.
In the same year, he received the Master of Cinema Award of the International Filmfestival Mannheim-Heidelberg.
Reitz is married to the singer and actress Salome Kammer (who appeared in Heimats 2 and 3) and lives in Munich.

He is an atheist.

Selected filmography
 Lust for Love (Mahlzeiten) (1967)
 Cardillac (1970)
 Trip to Vienna (Die Reise nach Wien) (1973)
 In Danger and Deep Distress, the Middleway Spells Certain Death (In Gefahr und größter Not bringt der Mittelweg den Tod) (1974) (co-director: Alexander Kluge)
 Zero Hour (Stunde Null) (1977)
 "Grenzstation" in Germany in Autumn (Deutschland im Herbst) (1978)
 The Tailor from Ulm (Der Schneider von Ulm) (1978)
 Heimat (1984, TV series)
 Home from Home (Die andere Heimat) (2013)

Miscellaneous
 Eight Hundred Times Lonely (800 Mal Einsam – Ein Tag mit dem Filmemacher Edgar Reitz) (2019), film portrait of Edgar Reitz by the German filmmaker Anna Hepp

Sources
This article is derived principally from the German Wikipedia article of the same name and the sources listed there.

External links
Edgar Reitz's official website

Edgar Reitz Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)
Interview with Edgar Reitz from The Guardian
Long article about Reitz and Heimat by Carole Angier, from Sight and Sound, 1991
heimat123.de: substantial archive with information, reports, discussion and material about Edgar Reitz and his films  (English contents)
Heimat fan page

1932 births
Living people
People from Bernkastel-Wittlich
People from the Rhine Province
German atheists
Mass media people from Rhineland-Palatinate
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Members of the Academy of Arts, Berlin

Edgar Reitz


Walter Lockhart Gordon  (January 27, 1906 – March 21, 1987) was a Canadian accountant, businessman, politician, and writer.

Education
Born in Toronto, he was educated at Upper Canada College and the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario.

Early business career
Upon graduation, he joined the family accounting firm of Clarkson, Gordon and Company, in January 1927. He was a student there for four years, became a chartered accountant in early 1931, and was promoted to partner in 1935.

During World War II, Gordon served in the Bank of Canada and the federal Ministry of Finance. In 1946, he chaired the Royal Commission on Administrative Classifications in the Public Service.

The beginnings of economic nationalism
From 1955 to 1957, Gordon chaired the Royal Commission on Canada's Economic Prospects. The commission's reports, issued in 1956 and 1957, expressed concern about growing foreign ownership in the Canadian economy, particularly in the resource sector, and made recommendations to redress the problem. The themes raised in the reports were revisited by Gordon in his government career.

Political career
In the 1962 federal election, he was elected to the House of Commons of Canada as a Liberal. He was Minister of Finance from 1963 to 1965, during Prime Minister Lester Pearson's first minority government. Gordon's 1965 budget, which included an 11% tax on construction materials and manufacturing equipment, as well as the expansion of social programs, was attacked by the Opposition parties. Gordon persuaded Pearson to call the 1965 federal election and co-chaired the Liberal campaign. When the election failed to return a Liberal majority, Gordon, taking responsibility for giving the prime minister poor advice, resigned from Cabinet and returned to the backbench. In 1967, he returned to Cabinet as  President of the Privy Council from 1967 to 1968. He was noted for his economic nationalism and his support for new social programs.

Gordon disagreed, often sharply, with Pearson over the significant expansion in federal expenditures and the decline of sound financial management in Pearson's second administration, which began in 1965. The long friendship between the two men, which had begun in the mid-1930s, gradually unravelled.

Gordon supported Pierre Trudeau's winning 1968 bid for the Liberal leadership, after Pearson announced his retirement in late 1967. Trudeau, after he became prime minister, invited Gordon to join his Cabinet in April 1968. However, Gordon declined over some misgivings about being able to work successfully with Trudeau and decided not to run again for office in the June 1968 general election.

Returns to business
After leaving politics in 1968, he returned to business. He continued to argue for economic nationalist causes and in 1970, along with Peter C. Newman of the Toronto Star, economist Abraham Rotstein, and University of Toronto professor Mel Watkins, founded the Committee for an Independent Canada. Canadian historian Jack Granatstein argues in Yankee Go Home? that the CIC "helped to create the atmosphere in which Trudeau's government established the Canada Development Corporation in 1971 to 'buy back' Canada."

Later years
Gordon was the Chancellor of York University from 1973 to 1977. According to Dr. Stephen Azzi, Walter Gordon is responsible for "New Nationalism" in Canada. This is the idea of supporting stronger ties with Great Britain, to prevent Canada being absorbed by United States.
He published his political memoirs in 1977. He died in 1987.

Honours and awards

In 1976, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada.  He was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1946 for his war services.
In 2009, 1681 Honourable Walter L. Gordon, PC, CC, CBE, FCA, LLD (1906–1987) was added to the wall of honour at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario.

Archives
There is a Walter Lockhart Gordon fonds at Library and Archives Canada.

Electoral record

References

Further reading
 Azzi, Stephen. Walter Gordon and the Rise of Canadian Nationalism (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 1999).
 Smith, Denis. Gentle Patriot: A Political Biography of Walter Gordon, Edmonton 1973, Hurtig Publishers.

Writings
 Troubled Canada: The Need for New Domestic Policies, by Walter Gordon, 1961.
 A Choice for Canada: Independence or Colonial Status, by Walter Gordon, 1966.
 Storm Signals: New Economic Policies for Canada, by Walter Gordon, 1975.
 A Political Memoir, by Walter Gordon, Toronto 1977, McClelland & Stewart publishers, .

External links

1906 births
1987 deaths
20th-century Canadian civil servants
Canadian Ministers of Finance
Canadian nationalists
Canadian non-fiction writers
Chancellors of York University
Companions of the Order of Canada
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
Upper Canada College alumni
Royal Military College of Canada alumni
Canadian accountants
Canadian Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
20th-century Canadian memoirists

Walter L. Gordon


Isaac Husik (10 February 1876 – 22 March 1939) (Hebrew: יצחק הוזיק) was a Jewish historian, translator, and student of philosophy, one of the first three individuals to serve as official faculty at Gratz College in Philadelphia.

Biography
Husik  was born in Vasseutinez near Kyiv, Russian Empire, on 10 February 1876. Because of the worsening climate under the Russian imperial May Laws, in 1888, when he was 12 years old, he moved with his mother to Philadelphia. His father, the teacher Wolf Husik, rejoined them the following year. Isaac received his early instruction from his father and from Sabato Morais, rabbi at the Sephardic congregation Kahal Kadosh Mikveh Israel in Philadelphia, and one of the founders of the Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS). Husik attended JTS while preparing for secular studies, and received direct guidance from Morais, but did not ultimately pursue a rabbinical career.

Husik attended Central High School (Philadelphia), and then enrolled at University of Pennsylvania, where he received a master's degree in mathematics in 1899. Ultimately, however, his interests turned to the study of the classics, especially Aristotle, and he received his Ph.D. in philosophy from University of Pennsylvania in 1903. His thesis, entitled Judah Messer Leon's Commentary on the Vetus Logica, was published in Leyden in 1906.

While still a student at Penn, Husik accepted an Instructorship in Hebrew and Bible at Gratz College, but simultaneously remained an instructor in philosophy at Penn. He eventually left Gratz, and was appointed full professor of philosophy at Penn in 1922. He taught classes also at Yeshiva College, Hebrew Union College, and Columbia University Summer School.

In 1923, Husik was appointed editor of the Jewish Publication Society of America, in which capacity he served until his death.  He additionally served in a wide range of voluntary communal positions, and married Rose Gorfine late in life. He died suddenly at the age of 63. The philosopher Leo Strauss called him in his "Preface to Isaac Husik, Philosophical Essays: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern" (1952): "one of the most distinguished historians of philosophy America had produced".

Works
Husik's best known work is A History of Mediaeval Jewish Philosophy  (Jewish Publication Society, 1916, and several times thereafter), which was considered at the time to be a pioneering effort in English-language scholarship.   Like Julius Guttmann's Philosophies of Judaism, Husik's book offers rather thin treatment of mystical topics and thinkers, instead favoring the rational face of Jewish thought.  Husik had extensive knowledge of Hebrew, Arabic, German, and Greek, and relied heavily on primary sources in these languages when available.

A History of Mediaeval Jewish Philosophy discusses the philosophies of the following individuals:
 Isaac Israeli
 David ben Merwan al-Mukkamas
 Saadia ben Joseph al-Fayyumi
 Joseph al-Basir
 Joshua ben Judah
 Solomon ibn Gabirol
 Bahya ibn Pakuda
 Pseudo-Bahya
 Abraham bar Hiyya
 Joseph ibn Zaddik
 Judah Halevi
 Moses ibn Ezra
 Abraham ibn Ezra
 Abraham ibn Daud
 Moses Maimonides
 Hillel ben Samuel
 Levi ben Gerson
 Aaron ben Elijah of Nicomedia
 Hasdai ben Abraham Crescas
 Joseph Albo

Among Husik's other works are a translation of Joseph Albo's Book of Principles (ספר העקרים) in five volumes, which restores many passages removed by Christian censors, a translation of von Ihering's Law as a Means to an End (Zweck im Recht), and a translation of Stammler's The Theory of Justice.

References

External links

1876 births
1939 deaths
19th-century American writers
20th-century American writers
Jewish American writers
Gratz College
Yeshiva University faculty
Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion faculty
Columbia University faculty
University of Pennsylvania alumni
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
Central High School (Philadelphia) alumni

Isaac Husik