Undang-undang China adalah salah satu tradisi undang-undang tertua di dunia.  Pada abad ke-20 dan ke-21, undang-undang di China telah menjadi campuran kompleks kecapaian China tradisional China dan pengaruh Barat.

Untuk kebanyakn sejarah China, sistem hukumnya telah diasaskan falsafah Konfucian kawalan sosial melalui pendidikan akhlak, dan juga emfasis Legalist pada undang-undang dikod dan criminal sanction. Berikutnya Revolusi 1911, Republik China menggunakan kod legal gaya Barat dalam tradisi hukum sivil (khususnya pengaruh Jerman). Pertubuhan Republik Rakyat China pada 1949 membawa dengannya ;ebih sistem pengaruh Soviet hukum sosialis. Meskipun, tradisi yang terdahulu dari sejarah China telah mengekal pengaruh mereka, walaupun ke hari ini.

Undang-undang di Republik Rakyat China kini mengalami pembaharuan beransur-ansur, dan juga banyak elemen dalam dan luar negara mengemfasiskan keperluan untuk memperkuatkan kedaulatan undang-undang di China, dan perdagangan antarabangsa dan globalisasi mendorong penukarang dalam pelbagai bidang undang-undang dalam negeri China.

Tradisi hukum China

Gagasan undang-undang
Perkataan untuk undang-undang dalam bahasa Cina klasik ialah fǎ.  Sifat Cina untuk fǎ menandakan makna "adil", "lurus" dan "keadilan", berasal dari airnya radical. Ia juga menjalankan segi "piawai, ukuran, dan model". Derk Bodde and Clarence Morris held that the concept of fǎ had an association with yi (義: "social rightness"). Yan Fu, dalam terjemahan bahasa Cinanya dari De l'esprit des lois Montesquieu diterbitkan pada 1913, memberi amaran kepada para pembacanya tentang perbezaan di antara fǎ China dan undang-undang Barat: "Perkataan 'undang-undnag' dalam bahasa-bahasa Barat mempunyai empat terjemahan berlainan i "rites", "decorum"), fǎ (法: "undang-undang manusia") dan zhì (制: "kawalan").

Sebuah istilah yang mendahului fǎ was xíng (刑), yang terdahulunya mungkin merujukkan pada pancungan. Xíng kemudian berkembang menjadi suatu istilah umum untuk undang-undang yang berkaitan dengan hukuman jenayah. Sejarah awal Shang Shu merakam bentuk-bentuk terawal "lima hukuman": bercacah, pencacatan, pengembirian, pengudungan, dan kematian. Sekali undang-undang ditulis menjadi wujud, makna xíng telah dipanjangkan untuk memasuki bukan hanya hukuman tetapi juga mana-manan larangan negara yang pelanggarannya akan menyebabkan dalam hukuman. Pada zaman moden, xíng dapat difahami dari segi hukum banduan atau hukum jenayah. Suatu contoh kegunaan klasik xíng adalah xíng bu (刑部: "Jabatan Hukuman") untuk jabatan undang-undang atau keadilan di kemaharajaan China.

Dua sekolah falsafah Cina utama dibincang di bawah, Konfusianisme dan Legalism, secara kuat mempengaruhi gagasan undang-undang di China. Secara ringkas, di bawah Konfusianisme, negara seharusnya mengetuai rakyat dengan sifat baik dan oleh itu mencipta suatu erti kemaluan yang akan mencegah kelakuan buruk. Di bawah Legalism, undang-undang seharusnya di awam mengisytiharkan piawai kelakuan dibelakangi oleh pemaksaan negara. Ketegangan di antara dua sistem ini yang Konfusianisme tergantung pada tradisi yang membuat pemimpin ketua rumah tangga seluruh China sementara Legalism membuat undang-undang piawai yang maharaja jua terpaksa mematuh. Faktor umum adalah bahawa kedua-dua yang tersebut ke peringkat berlainan suatu tanggapan paternalistik negara, yang mengetahui lebih daripada rakyatnya dan membuat undnag-undang untuk melindungi mereka. Konsep ini berterusan di sepanjang zaman imperial, ke dalam zaman republik, dan masih dapat dilihat bertindak hari ini.

Tidak seperti tamadun utama lain di mana undang-undang tulisan dijalankan dengan mulia dan sering dihargai pada asal-usul ramalan, undang-undang di China awal dilihat dari segi sekular asli dan pada kemunculan permulaannya disambut dengan permusuhan oleh ahli fikir Confucian sebagai penandaan kemerosotan akhlak serius, suatu pelanggaran keakhlakan manusia, dan juga suatu gangguan urutan kosmik keseluruhannya. Mengikut sejarah, kesedaran orang dan penerimaan kebiasaan etik telah dibentuk lebih lanjut oleh pengaruh merebak adat dan kegunaan hak milik dan dengan menanam petunjuk akhlak daripada dengan mana-mana sistem dijadikan undang-undang secara rasmi. Maharaja-maharaja terdahulu sungguhpun mencakup gagasan Legalist sebagai cara menggunakan kawalan ke atas wilayah dan penduduk mereka yang besar dan membesar. Proses ini disatukan dengan kepercayaan Cina tradisional pada urutan kosmos, memegang bahawa kelakuan betul adalah kelakuan selaras dengan jawapan sesuai dimuatkan oleh fǎ. Xíng menyatakan kos potensi pada individu menggunakan mereak dan mengenakan denda untuk tindakan ini.

Zaman kemaharajaan dicirikan terutamanya oleh konsep undang-undang sebagai berkhidmat negara, sebagai cara mengenakan kawalan ke atas kewarganegaraan. Sewaktu lewat dinasti Qing ada usaha untuk membaharukan kod-kod undang-undang terutamanya dengna mengimpot kod Jerman sedikit pengubahsuaian. Usaha ini berterusan dan telah diluaskan sewaktu zaman republikan mengakibatkan Perlembagaan Sementara 1912 yang memasuki gagasan kesamaan di bawah undang-undang, hak asasi untuk wanita, dan hak lebih lebar untuk warga negara vis-à-vis kerajaan.  Permulaan zaman komunis pada mulanya menggulingkan perkembangan hak individu dengna konsep asas mengembalikan yang pada alat negara. Selepas Revolusi Kebudayaan membinasakan taraf profesional intelektual dan legal, ia mengambil hingga took 1982 untuk gagasan hak individu untuk menimbul semula sebagai pengaruh penting pada undang-undang China.

Perlembagaan kini, dicipta di 1982, menyatakan dalam Rencana V bahawa tiada pertubuhan atau individu adalah di atas undang-undang dan dalam Rencana III membuat Kongres Rakyat dan pentadbiran negara bertanggung jawab kepada rakyat, membuka jalan untuk usaha kemudian untuk membenarkan penguatkuasaan hak asasi individu. Pesej Administrative Litigation Law of 1987 mencipta jalan keluar untuk para individu dari tindakan kerajaan yang sembarangan, suatu lebuh yang terdahulunya tidak ada. Sungguhpun lazim berduduk dalam terhadap tindakan undang-undang, litigasi dalam mahkamah China telah bertambah secara dramatis, terutamanya dalam tahun baru-baru ini. Kelemahan berterusan mahkamah diakibatkan dari bergantung kepada kerajaan tempatan untuk sokongan kewangan dan pihak kuat kuasa menjejaskan keberkesanan remedi-remedi ini tetapu ini juga telah bermula untuk berubah dengan permulaan China untuk menambah latihan undang-undang dan keprofesionalan bidang kehakiman. Satu avenue perayuan individu dari tindakan kerajaan yang berterusan menjadi penting adalah adat xinfang atau petisyen oleh warga negara dan pegawai individu untuk perubahan. Kegunaan berlanjutan lebar xinfang mencerminkan nyata bahawa banyak pegawai masih mampu menghindari hukuman undang-undang dan penghindaran yang menjadi asas sistem undang-undang, dan juga kebolehan pegawai untuk secara peribadi bercampur tangan untuk mengubah akibat yang tidak adil. Baru-baru ini xinfang telah di diinstitusikan ke suatu peringkat dengan kerajaan pusat memandat bahawa setiap peringkat pentadbiran menubuhkan suatu pejabat xinfang untuk mengendalikan petisyen dan melapor mereka ke pangkat-pangkat tinggi. Jawapan ini mengikut penggunaan kuasa peribadi jelas bertentangan dengan gagasan kedaulatan undang-undang, dan lebih dahsyat, sesetengah cendiakiawan telah menyatakan bahawa xinfang kini berfungsi sebagai suatu sistem kutipan bermaklumat untuk kerajaan daripada suatu mekanisme kajian semula berkesan.

Confucianism dan Legalisme
Confucianism and Legalism are two major Classical legal theories or philosophies developed during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, a time that saw the most impressive proliferation of new ideas and philosophies in Chinese history.   While both theories call for governmental hierarchy, they differ drastically in their views of human potential and the preferred means to achieve political order.  Nevertheless, both theories have influenced and continue to influence the development of cultural, social, and legal norms in China.

The basic premise of Confucianism is the idea that human beings are fundamentally good.  With this optimistic view on human potential, Confucius advocates for ruling through li – traditional customs, mores, and norms – which allow people to have a sense of shame and become humane people with good character, rather than through government regulations and penal law.  The idea is that people will internalize the acceptable norms and only take proper actions.  This will not only lead to a harmonious social order, but it will also provide the additional benefit of improving an individual's inner character and the overall quality of the society.  In contrast, codified laws require external compliance, and people may abide by the laws without fully understanding the reason for compliance.  As such, a social order achieved through formal laws does not come with the additional benefit of better citizenry.  It is worth noting, however, that even Confucius did not advocate for the elimination of formal laws.  Rather, according to Confucius, laws should be used minimally and reserved only for those that insist on pursuing one's self-interests without taking into account the well being of the society.

As Confucius rejects the general use of formal laws to achieve social order, what lies vital to Confucius' theory is the willing participation by citizens of the society to search for commonly accepted, cooperative solutions.  In addition to willing participation of citizens, there must also be grounds or bases upon which commonly acceptable solutions can be arrived at - the concept known as li.  Li is commonly understood as a set of culturally and socially valued norms that provide guidance to proper behaviors that will ultimately lead to a harmonious society.  These norms are not fixed or unchangeable over time but rather a reflection of what is accepted at a particular time in a particular context.  When conflicts arise, the li have to be applied and interpreted to produce a just result and restore the harmony of the society.  However, in the absence of any procedural safeguard afforded by codified laws, interpretation of li is subject to abuse.

Recognizing that people in a society hold diverse interests, Confucius charges the ruler with the responsibility to unify these interests and maintain social order.  This is not done by dictatorship but by setting an example.  Therefore, a ruler needs not to force his people to behave properly.  Instead, the ruler needs only to make himself respectful, and the people will be induced and enlightened by his superior virtues to follow his example – an ideal known as wuwei.  Nevertheless, the ruler must know and understand the li to be able to create solutions to conflict and problems the society faces.  As the people are to follow the moral standards and example set by the ruler, to a large extent, the quality of the ruler determines the quality of the political order.

In contrast to Confucius' li-based theory, the Legalism advocates the utilization of codified laws and harsh punishment to achieve social order.  This is due to the legalists' belief that all human beings are born evil and self-interested.  Therefore, if left unrestrained, people would engage in selfish behavior which will undoubtedly lead to social unrest.  To cure this defect and force people to behave morally, the only way, believed the legalists, is to publicly promulgate clearly written laws and impose harsh punishments.

Realizing that the abilities of rulers are often limited and that reliance on the ruler's ability and judgment often leads to adverse results, the legalists designed a system in which the law is run by the state, not the ruler.  This ensures that the laws will be applied impartially without the interference of personal bias of the ruler or ones who are responsible for applying the laws.  It also makes it irrelevant whether the ruler has superior abilities.  This non-action promoted by the legalists is their understanding of the concept of wuwei, which is different from the Confucians' understanding of the same concept.  Notwithstanding such an understanding, the ruler, like in Confucianism, has the ultimate authority to decide what the law should be.  Therefore, like Confucianism, Legalism is subject to abuse as well.  In fact, the Qin emperor implemented strict laws and extremely harsh punishments without taking into account mitigating circumstances even for insignificant crimes.  For example, books were burned and people holding different ideals were buried alive.  While the Qin emperor successfully instilled fear and respect for law into the minds of his people, the harshness of the law led to his quick demise after only 14 years of reigning over China.

In summary, although both Confucianism and Legalism were developed in a period of turmoil and both were aimed at the re-unification of the country, the two theories went opposite directions with one advocating for and one against the use of formal laws to achieve social order.  What the two theories have in common is their concession of the ultimate authority to the ruler, who remained above and beyond the li or law.  It is true that neither theory is ideal in achieving a social order.  Nevertheless, both theories have had a significant impact on the cultural and legal development in China, and their influence remains visible today.

Confucianisation of law
The significant influence of the Legalist tradition in Chinese law has historically been overlooked. Although the Confucian ideology provided the fundamentals for the substance of traditional law, the Legalist school constructed the important framework of the traditional legal system. The Han dynasty retained the basic legal system established under the Qin but modified some of the harsher aspects in line with the Confucian philosophy of social control.

The Han dynasty formally recognized four sources of law: lü (律: "codified laws"), ling (令: "the emperor's order"), ke ("statutes inherited from previous dynasties") and bi ("precedents"), among which ling has the highest binding power over the other three. Most legal professionals were not lawyers but generalists trained in philosophy and literature. The local, classically trained, Confucian gentry played a crucial role as arbiters and handled all but the most serious local disputes.

Eventually, the incorporation of the essentials of Confucianist li into legal codes occurred with this Confucian conception dominating ancient Chinese law. Ch'ü concludes that the gradual process of Confucianisation of law was the most significant development in the legal system of China prior to 20th century modernization. The line between ruling by moral influence and ruling by punishment was not always clearly delineated. For example, li could be enforced by moral influence and legal means. The metamorphosis of li into law depended on its widespread and unvaried acceptance by society.

Although the codification of law was largely completed by the Tang Code of CE 624, throughout the centuries the Confucian foundations of the Tang Code were retained, and indeed with some aspects of it strengthened by the later dynasties.

The Confucian notion that morality and self-discipline was more important than legal codes caused many historians, such as Max Weber, until the mid-20th century to conclude that law was not an important part of Imperial Chinese society.  This notion, however, has come under extreme criticism and is no longer the conventional wisdom among Sinologists, who have concluded that Imperial China had an elaborate system of both criminal and civil law which was comparable to anything found in Europe.

During the Qing dynasty, criminal justice was based on extremely detailed Great Qing Legal Code. One element of the traditional Chinese criminal justice system is the notion that criminal law has a moral purpose, one of which is to get the convicted to repent and see the error of his ways. In the traditional Chinese legal system, a person could not be convicted of a crime unless he has confessed. This often led to the use of torture, in order to extract the necessary confession. These elements still influence modern Chinese views toward law. All capital offenses were reported to the capital and required the personal approval of the emperor.

There was no civil code separate from the criminal code, which led to the now discredited belief that traditional Chinese law had no civil law. More recent studies have demonstrated that most of the magistrates' legal work was in civil disputes, and that there was an elaborate system of civil law which used the criminal code to establish torts.

Modernization
The introduction and translation of legal texts into Chinese is believed to have been started under the auspices of Lin Zexu in 1839. More systematic introduction of Western law together with other Western sciences started with the establishment of Tongwen Guan in 1862. The major efforts in translation of Western law that continued until the 1920s prepared the building blocks for modern Chinese legal language and Chinese law. Legal translation was very important from 1896 to 1936 during which period the Chinese absorbed and codified their version of Western laws. These efforts were assisted by the medium of the Japanese legal language and law developed in Japan during the Meiji period which involved in large part Japanese translation of European Continental laws.

In the late Qing dynasty there was a concerted effort to establish legal codes based on European models. Because of the German victory in the Franco-Prussian War and because Japan was used as the model for political and legal reform, the law codes which were adopted were modeled closely after that of Germany.

Attitudes toward the traditional Chinese legal system changed markedly in the late-20th century.  Most Chinese and Westerners of the early 20th century regarded the traditional Chinese legal system as backward and barbaric.  However, extensive research into China's traditional legal system has caused attitudes to become more favorable in the late-20th and early 21st centuries.  Researchers of the early and mid-20th century tended to compare the traditional Chinese legal system to then contemporary systems, finding the former to be backward.  However, more recent research compared the 18th century Chinese legal system to European systems of the 18th century, resulting in a far more positive view of traditional Chinese law.

The Department of Punishment was changed to fa bu (法部: "Department of Law") in the early 1900s legal reforms.

Republik China

Law in the Republic of China (Taiwan) is mainly a civil law system. The legal structure is codified into the Six Codes: the Constitution, the Civil Code, the Code of Civil Procedures, the Criminal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedures and in Administrative laws.

Republik Rakyat China

After the Communist victory in 1949, the People's Republic of China quickly abolished the ROC's legal codes and attempted to create a system of socialist law copied from the Soviet Union. With the Sino-Soviet split and the Cultural Revolution, all legal work was suspected of being counter-revolutionary, and the legal system completely collapsed.

Over the past century, there have been numerous constitutions in China.   The first attempts towards implementing a constitution in China were made during the final decade of the Qing Dynasty.  Several constitutions were subsequently promulgated by various controlling groups between that time and the establishment of the PRC.  The PRC had a provisional constitution from its inception until the enactment of its first constitution in 1954.  This initial constitution was based on the constitution of the Soviet Union.  It was shortly ignored, however, and became without legal force.  Although it provided that the National People's Congress (NPC) would be elected every four years as the highest state power, these guidelines were not adhered to.  The second constitution of the PRC was modeled on the ideology of the Cultural Revolution and promulgated in 1975.  This constitution subjected the NPC to the Communist Party and removed previous constitutional protections such as equality under the law and private property succession rights.  It was also immediately disregarded through breaches of its provisions and in-adherence to guidelines regarding the NPC.  The third constitution of the PRC was adopted in 1978.  Although this version moved away from the ideologies of the Cultural Revolution, it did retain some remnants of it.  It also retained Communist Party control over the state structure.  However, reformists subsequently gained power, which lead to the breakdown of this constitution as focus shifted to economic construction and modernization.

With the start of the Deng Xiaoping reforms, the need for reconstructing a legal system to restrain abuses of official authority and revolutionary excesses was seen.  In 1982, the National People's Congress adopted a new state constitution that emphasized the rule of law under which even party leaders are theoretically held accountable. This reconstruction was done in piece-meal fashion.  Typically, temporary or local regulations would be established and after a few years of experimentation, conflicting regulations and laws would be standardized.

The current Constitution of the PRC was enacted in 1982 and reflects the model of the first PRC constitution.   The Constitution provides that leadership is through the working class, which in turn is led by the Communist Party. This Constitution also contains more extensive rights than any of the previous constitutions.  The rights include equality before the law, political rights, religious freedom, personal freedom, social and economic rights, cultural and educational rights, and familial rights.  These rights, however, are connected to social duties.  The duties include safeguarding the unity, security, honor, and interests of the country, observing law and social ethics, paying taxes, and serving in the military.  Neither the rights nor duties provided for in the Constitution are exhaustive.

The Constitution provides that the NPC is the supreme organ of state power over a structure of other people's congresses at various levels.   The NPC has power to amend the Constitution by a two-thirds majority, promulgate legislation, elect and remove highest-level officials, determine the budget, and control economic and social development planning.  The NPC also includes a Standing Committee that functions much as the NPC does when the NPC is not in session.  Although the Standing Committee has had some powers since 1955, its law-making powers were initially provided for in the 1982 Constitution.  The NPC sits at the highest level in the hierarchy of governmental structure in the PRC.  This national level is followed in descending order by the provincial level (including autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the national level), the prefectural level, the county level, and the townships and towns level.  Government members at the lower two levels are directly elected, and those at the higher levels are elected by the lower levels.  In addition to the NPC, the provincial people's congresses possesses legislative power and can pass laws so long as they do not contravene the Constitution or higher legislation or administrative regulations.

The Constitution states its own supremacy.   However, it has been theorized that the supremacy of the Communist Party means that the Constitution and law are not supreme, and that this perspective is the result of the Marxist view of law as simply a superstructure combined with a lack of recognition of rule of law in philosophical or historical tradition.  Although the Constitution provides for legislative, executive, judicial, and pro-curatorial powers, they are all still subject to Communist Party leadership.  Often, important political decisions are made through actions which are not regulated by the Constitution.  Additionally, courts may not rely on the Constitution in deciding cases, and they may not review legislation for Constitutionality.  Nonetheless the Constitution does provide the linguistic framework for conducting government affairs and describing them in the media.

Since 1979, when the drive to establish a functioning legal system began, more than 300 laws and regulations, most of them in the economic area, have been promulgated. The use of mediation committees, informed groups of citizens who resolve about 90% of the PRC's civil disputes and some minor criminal cases at no cost to the parties, is one innovative device. There are more than 800,000 such committees in both rural and urban areas.

In drafting the new laws, the PRC has declined to copy any other legal system wholesale, and the general pattern has been to issue laws for a specific topic or location.  Often laws are drafted on a trial basis, with the law being redrafted after several years.  This process of creating a legal infrastructure piecemeal has led to many situations where the laws are missing, confusing, or contradictory, and has led to judicial decisions having more precedental value than in most civil law jurisdiction.  In formulating laws, the PRC has been influenced by a number of sources including traditional Chinese views toward the role of law, the PRC's socialist background, the German-based law of the Republic of China on Taiwan, and the English-based common law used in Hong Kong.

Legal reform became a government priority in the 1990s. The Chinese government has promoted a reform it often calls "legalisation" (法制化). Legalisation, among other things, has provided the regime with a gloss of legitimacy and has enhanced predictability. There have been major efforts in the rationalization and strengthening of the legal structure and institution building in terms of developing and improving the professionalism of the legislature, judiciary and legal profession. As market reforms have deepened and social inequality has widened, legal forums - ranging from mediation and arbitration commissions to courts - have come to play an increasingly prominent role.

The 1994 Administrative Procedure Law allows citizens to sue officials for abuse of authority or malfeasance. In addition, the criminal law and the criminal procedures laws were amended to introduce significant reforms. The criminal law amendments abolished the crime of "counter- revolutionary" activity. However political dissidents are sometimes charged on the grounds of subverting state security or publishing state secrets.  Criminal procedures reforms also encouraged establishment of a more transparent, adversarial trial process.  Minor crimes such as prostitution and drug use are sometimes dealt with under re-education through labor laws. The PRC constitution and laws provide for fundamental human rights, including due process, but some have argued that they are often ignored in practice. (See Human rights in the People's Republic of China.)

The basic principles of Chinese legislative drafting include generality and flexibility. Sometimes excessive generality and omissions in Chinese law, coupled with the wide discretionary powers conferred on local authorities to implement laws, undermines the predictability and certainty of law. Furthermore, as Chinese law is intended to be educative, the language of the law is that of the ordinary language comprehensible to the average citizen, although many laws are drafted in broad and indeterminate language.

As a result of a pending trade war with the United States of America over violations of intellectual property rights of American corporations in the early 1990s, the People's Republic of China's trademark law has been modified and now offers significant protections to foreign trademark owners.

After the transfers of sovereignty, Hong Kong and Macau continue to practice English Common Law and Portuguese legal systems respectively, with their own courts of final appeal. In other words, Hong Kong and Macau are outside of the legal jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China, except on constitutional issues.

Due to the growing sophistication of Chinese laws, the expansion of the rule of law, as well as an influx of foreign law firms, China has also begun to develop a legal services market. Foreign lawyers have accompanied foreign capital and their clients to China which has had an immense influence on the promulgation of new Chinese laws based on international norms, especially in regards to intellectual property and corporate and securities law.

On July 1, 1992, in order to meet growing demand, the Chinese government opened the legal services market to foreign law firms allowing them to establish offices in China when the Ministry of Justice and the State Administration of Industry and Commerce (SAOIC) issued the Provisional Regulation of Establishment of Offices by Foreign Law Firms regulation.
As a result, many foreign law firms, including the United States'  Baker & McKenzie and Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison, along with several British firms, incorporated consulting firms in their home countries or Hong Kong and then set up subsidiaries in Beijing or Shanghai to provide legal services.

However, there still many regulatory barriers to entry to protect the domestic legal industry. Issues relating to Chinese law must be referred to Chinese law firms and foreign lawyers are also prohibited from interpreting or practicing Chinese law nor representing their clients in court. However, in reality many foreign law firms interpret laws and manage litigation by directing the local firms they must have cooperative relationships with. In this regards China's restrictive legal market can be directly tied to a phobia of people asserting their legal rights in the face of rampant corruption. Information received from the State Council Legislative Office suggests that China may be allowing foreigners to sit the Chinese Lawyers Examination, or have a mutual recognition treaty with other countries to allow foreign lawyers to conduct non-litigation Chinese legal work.

While the trend in China's legal landscape is to continue to open up the legal market, China's laws and regulations have helped develop a number of domestic Chinese firms to specializing to meet demand of a booming economy. According to Asia Law and Business magazine China Awards, the top China firms were King & Wood PRC Lawyers, Commerce & Finance Law Offices, Fangda Partners, Haiwen & Partners, Jun He Law Offices and Lehman, Lee & Xu.

Hak undang-undang
China Klasik tidak mempunyai persamaan semantik dengan konsep "hak". Gagasan hak diperkenalkan ke China dari Barat. Terjemahannya sebagai quanli (权利) dicipta oleh William Alexander Parsons Martin pada 1864, dalam terjemahannya Elements of International Law Henry Wheaton.

Nota

Rujukan
Deborah Cao, Chinese Law: A Language Perspective (Hants, England: Ashgate Publishing, 2004).
Albert Hung-Yee Chen, An Introduction to the Legal System of the People's Republic of China (1992).
Neil J. Diamant et al. (ed.), Engaging the Law in China: State, Society, and Possibilities for Justice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005).
Phillip C. C. Huang, Code, Custom and Legal Practice in China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001).
Xin Ren, Tradition of the Law and Law of the Tradition (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1997).
Scott Andy, China Briefing Business Guide: Mergers and Acquisition Law in China (Kowloon,Hong Kong: Asia Briefing Media, 2007).

Pautan luar
Chinese Legislative Information Network System full text search of English translations of hundreds of PRC laws and regulations
Ancient Chinese Theories of control (management study)
Judicial independence should come first China Daily/Beijing Review 2005-11-15 (article on Peking University legal scholar He Weifang)

Kanun undang-undang
Sejarah undang-undang

Undang-undang China


Driftwood is wood that has been washed onto the shore of a sea, river, or lake by winds, tides, waves or man.

In some waterfront areas, driftwood is a major nuisance. However, the driftwood provides shelter and food for birds, fish and other aquatic species as it floats in the ocean. Gribbles, shipworms and bacteria decompose the wood and gradually turn it into nutrients that are reintroduced to the food web. Sometimes, the partially decomposed wood washes ashore, where it also shelters birds, plants, and other species. Driftwood can become the foundation for sand dunes.

Driftwood can be:
a tree or part of a tree that is in a large body of water because of strong winds or flooding
buildings and their contents that are in the sea because of floods, storms and tsunamis
wooden objects placed into the water from shore
remains of wooden ships and boats
lost cargo

In history
According to Norse mythology, the first humans, Ask and Embla, were formed out of two pieces of driftwood, an ash and an elm, by the god Odin and his brothers, Ve and Vili.

Driftwood carried by Arctic rivers was the main, or sometimes only, source of wood for some Inuit and other Arctic populations living north of the tree-line until they came into regular contact with European traders.

Many people use driftwood as parts of decorative furniture or other art forms, and it is a popular element in the scenery of fish tanks.

Wood

Driftwood


Modes of limited transposition are a kind of musical scale.  They were used by the French composer Olivier Messiaen.

Major scales have twelve different transpositions.  This means that a major scale can start on any of the twelve notes (C, C#, D, D# etc.).  There are also twelve different transpositions of the minor scale.  Each transposition ("each scale") is a different combination of notes (in this case: all of them).

A chromatic scale (one which uses every note, i.e. using all white and black notes of a keyboard) only has one transposition.  This means that a chromatic scale can start on any note: each time it is the same combination of notes.

Messiaen was fascinated by scales that only had a few (usually two or three) transpositions.  For example: the whole tone scale, which rises by a whole tone each time, has two transpositions.  It can start, for example, on a C, so that the notes are C, D, E, F#, G#, A#, C.  It can start on a C# so that the notes are C#, D#, F, G, A, B, C#.  Transposing this up another semitone, starting on D,  would give D, E, F#, G#, A#, C, D which is exactly the same combination of notes as the first one (the starting note is not important).  The whole-tone scale was used by many composers including Glinka, Liszt and, especially, Debussy.  Messiaen called it the  first mode of transposition.

Messiaen's second mode, also called the "octatonic scale",  rises by alternating semitone, tone, semitone, tone etc.  Messiaen used this scale a great deal, not just in his tunes but in the chords that he used (i.e. melodically and harmonically).

The third mode rises by a pattern of tone, semitone, semitone.  It has four transpositions.

The other four modes each have a total of six transpositions.

Messiaen liked these modes because there is no note which sounds like the starting note.  All the notes sound equal.  He described them as having "the charm of impossibilities."

Music theory

Modes of limited transposition


The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a model with four layers which is for both modelling current Internet architecture, as well as providing a set a rules that govern  all forms of transmission over a network. DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of Defense,created it in the 1970s. It evolved from ARPANET, which was an early wide area network and a predecessor of the Internet. The TCP/IP Model is sometimes called the Internet Model or less often the DoD Model.

This model was being made at the same time as the OSI Model was created. The TCP/IP model is not the same as the OSI Model, however it was influenced by the model, which is why many names of the different layers are the same.

The TCP/IP model describes a set of general design guidelines and implementations of specific networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over a network.  TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination.  Protocols exist for a variety of different types of communication services between computers.

TCP/IP has four abstraction layers as defined in RFC 1122: link layer, IP layer, transport layer and  application layer. People often compare this layer architecture with the seven-layer OSI Reference Model; using terms such as Internet reference model. This is incorrect, however, because it is descriptive while the OSI Reference Model was intended to be prescriptive, hence being a reference model.

The TCP/IP model and related protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

Internet protocols

TCP/IP model


Albert Bertel Thorvaldsen (; sometimes given as Thorwaldsen; 19 November 1770 – 24 March 1844) was a Danish and Icelandic sculptor and medalist of international fame, who spent most of his life (1797–1838) in Italy. Thorvaldsen was born in Copenhagen into a working-class Danish/Icelandic family, and was accepted to the Royal Danish Academy of Art at the age of eleven. Working part-time with his father, who was a wood carver, Thorvaldsen won many honors and medals at the academy. He was awarded a stipend to travel to Rome and continue his education.

In Rome, Thorvaldsen made a name for himself as a sculptor. Maintaining a large workshop in the city, he worked in a heroic neo-classicist style. His patrons resided all over Europe.

Upon his return to Denmark in 1838, Thorvaldsen was received as a national hero. The Thorvaldsen Museum was erected to house his works next to Christiansborg Palace. Thorvaldsen is buried within the courtyard of the museum. In his time, he was seen as the successor of master sculptor Antonio Canova. Among his more famous public monuments are the statues of Nicolaus Copernicus and Józef Poniatowski in Warsaw; the statue of Maximilian I in Munich; and the tomb monument of Pope Pius VII, the only work by a non-Catholic in St. Peter's Basilica.

Early life and education

Thorvaldsen was born in Copenhagen in 1770 (according to some accounts, in 1768), the son of Gottskálk Þorvaldsson, an Icelander who had settled in Denmark.  His father was a wood-carver at a ship yard, where he made decorative carvings for large ships and was the early source of influence on his son Bertel's development as a sculptor and on his choice of career. Thorvaldsen's mother was Karen Dagnes (her surname sometimes is reported as Grønlund), a Jutlandic peasant girl. His birth certificate and baptismal records have never been found, and the only existing record is of his confirmation in 1787. Thorvaldsen had claimed descent from Snorri Thorfinnsson, the first European born in America.

Thorvaldsen's childhood in Copenhagen was humble.  His father had a drinking habit that slowed his career. Nothing is known of Thorvaldsen's early schooling, and he may have been schooled entirely at home. He never became good at writing, and he never acquired much of the knowledge of fine culture that was expected from an artist.

In 1781, by the help of some friends, eleven-year-old Thorvaldsen was admitted to Copenhagen's Royal Danish Academy of Art (Det Kongelige Danske Kunstakademi), first as a draftsman, and from 1786 at the modeling school. At night he would assist his father with wood carving. Among his professors were Nicolai Abildgaard and Johannes Wiedewelt, who are both likely influences for his later neo-classicist style.

At the Academy he was highly praised for his works. In 1793, he won several prizes, from silver to gold, for a relief of St. Peter healing a crippled beggar. He was consequently granted a Royal stipend, enabling him to complete his studies in Rome. Leaving Copenhagen on 30 August on the frigate Thetis, he landed in Palermo in January 1797 and traveled to Naples, where he studied for a month before making his entry to Rome on 8 March 1797. Since the date of his birth had never been recorded, he celebrated this day as his "Roman birthday" for the rest of his life.

Career

In Rome he lived at the Casa Buti, on the Via Sistina, in front of the Spanish Steps and had his workshop in the stables of the Palazzo Barberini. He was taken under the wing of Georg Zoëga a Danish archeologist and numismatist living in Rome. Zoëga took an interest in seeing to it that the young Thorvaldsen acquired an appreciation of the antique arts. As a frequent guest at Zoëga's house he met Anna Maria von Uhden, born Magnani. She had worked in Zoëga's house as a maid and had married a German archeologist. She became Thorvaldsen's mistress and left her husband in 1803. In 1813 she gave birth to a daughter, Elisa Thorvaldsen.

Thorvaldsen also studied with another Dane, Asmus Jacob Carstens whose handling of classic themes became a source of inspiration. Thorvaldsen's first success was the model for a statue of Jason; finished in 1801 it was highly praised by Antonio Canova, the most popular sculptor in the city. But the work was slow in selling and his stipend having run out, he planned his return to Denmark. In 1803, as he was set to leave Rome, he received the commission to execute the Jason in marble from Thomas Hope, a wealthy English art-patron. From that time Thorvaldsen's success was assured, and he did not leave Italy for sixteen years.

The marble Jason was not finished until 25 years later, as Thorvaldsen quickly became a busy man. Also in 1803, he started work on Achilles and Briseïs his first classically themed relief. In 1804 he finished Dance of the Muses at Helicon and a group statue of Cupid and Psyche and other important early works such as Apollo, Bacchus og Ganymedes. During 1805, he had to expand his workshop and enlist the help of several assistants. These assistants undertook most of the marble cutting, and the master limited himself to doing the sketches and finishing touches. Commissioned by Ludwig I of Bavaria in 1808 and finished in 1832 a statue of Adonis is one of the few works in marble carved solely by Thorvaldsen's own hand, and at the same time it is one of the works that is closest to the antique Greek ideals.

In the spring of 1818 Thorvaldsen fell ill, and during his convalescence he was nursed by the Scottish lady Miss Frances Mackenzie. Thorvaldsen proposed to her on 29 March 1819, but the engagement was cancelled after a month. Thorvaldsen had fallen in love with another woman: Fanny Caspers. Torn between Mackenzie and Anna Maria Von Uhden, the mother of his daughter Elisa Sophia Carlotta von Uhden Thorvaldsen, Thorvaldsen never succeeded in making Miss Caspers his wife.

In 1819, he visited his native Denmark. Here he was commissioned to make the colossal series of statues of Christ and the Twelve Apostles for the rebuilding of Vor Frue Kirke (from 1922 known as the Copenhagen Cathedral) between 1817 and 1829, after its having been destroyed in the British bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807. These were executed after his return to Rome, and were not completed until 1838, when Thorvaldsen returned with his works to Denmark, being received as a hero.

Death

Towards the end of 1843 he was prohibited from working for medical reasons, but he began to work again in January 1844. His last composition from 24 March was a sketch for a statue of the genie in chalk on a blackboard. At night he had dinner with his friends Adam Oehlenschläger and H. C. Andersen, and he is said to have referred to the finished museum saying: "Now I can die whenever it is time, because Bindesbøll has finished my tomb."

After the meal he went to the Copenhagen Royal Theatre where he died suddenly from a heart attack. He had bequeathed a great part of his fortune for the building and endowment of a museum in Copenhagen, and left instructions to fill it with all his collection of works of art and the models for all his sculptures, a very large collection, exhibited to the greatest possible advantage. Thorvaldsen is buried in the courtyard of this museum, under a bed of roses, by his own wish.

Works

Thorvaldsen was an outstanding representative of the Neoclassical period in sculpture. In fact, his work was often compared to that of Antonio Canova and he became the foremost artist in the field after Canova's death in 1822. The poses and expressions of his figures are much more stiff and formal than those of Canova's. Thorvaldsen embodied the style of classical Greek art more than the Italian artist, he believed that only through the imitation of classical art pieces could one become a truly great artist.

Motifs for his works (reliefs, statues, and busts) were drawn mostly from Greek mythology, as well as works of classic art and literature. He created portraits of important personalities, as in his statue of Pope Pius VII. Thorvaldsen's statue of Pope Pius VII is found in the Clementine Chapel in the Vatican, for which he was the only non-Italian artist to ever have been commissioned to produce a piece. Because he was a Protestant and not a Catholic, the church did not allow him to sign his work. This led to the story of Thorvaldsen sculpting his own face on to the shoulders of the Pope, however any comparison between Thorvaldsen's portrait and the sculpture will show that this is just a fanciful story built on some smaller similarities.
His works can be seen in many European countries, especially in the Thorvaldsen Museum in Copenhagen, where his tomb is in the inner courtyard.  Thorvaldsen's Lion Monument (1819) is in Lucerne, Switzerland. This monument commemorates the sacrifice of more than six hundred Swiss Guards who died defending the Tuileries during the French Revolution. The monument portrays a dying lion lying across broken symbols of the French monarchy.

Thorvaldsen produced some striking and affecting statues of historic figures, including two in Warsaw, Poland: an equestrian statue of Prince Józef Poniatowski that now stands before the Presidential Palace; and the seated Nicolaus Copernicus, before the Polish Academy of Sciences building—both located on Warsaw's Krakowskie Przedmieście. A replica of the Copernicus statue was cast in bronze and installed in 1973 on Chicago's lakefront along Solidarity Drive in the city's Museum Campus. A statue (Gutenberg Denkmal) of Johannes Gutenberg by Thorvaldsen can be seen in Mainz, Germany.

Museums and collections

The Thorvaldsen Museum is the museum in Copenhagen, Denmark where Bertel Thorvaldsen's works are displayed. The museum is located on the small island of Slotsholmen in central Copenhagen next to Christiansborg Palace. Designed by Michael Gottlieb Bindesbøll, this building was constructed from public collection funds in 1837. The museum displays a collection of the artist's works in marble as well as plaster, including the original plaster models used in the making of cast bronze and marble statues and reliefs, copies of those works that are on display in museums, churches, and at other locations around the world.

The museum also features Bertel Thorvaldsen's personal collection of paintings, Greek and Roman sculptures, drawings, and prints the artist collected during his lifetime, as well as personal belongings he used in his work and everyday life.

Outside Europe, Thorvaldsen is less well known. However, in 1896 an American textbook writer wrote that his statue of the resurrected Christ, commonly referred to as Thorvaldsen's Christus (created for Vor Frue Kirke), was "considered the most perfect statue of Christ in the world." The statue has appealed to the members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and a 3.4 m replica is on display at Temple Square in Salt Lake City, Utah. There is also a replica of this statue in visitors' centers associated with the LDS Church's temples in Mesa, Arizona, Laie, Hawaii, México City, Los Angeles, California, Portland, Oregon, Washington D.C., Hamilton, New Zealand, and São Paulo, Brazil, along with visitors' centers in Independence, Missouri, and Nauvoo, Illinois. The Christus is also a feature of the visitors' center associated with the church's Rome Italy Temple, where it is displayed alongside Thorvaldsen's statues of the Twelve Apostles also from Vor Frue Kirke. In the Paris France Temple it is an outdoor feature, placed in the courtyard. Additionally, the LDS Church has historically used images of the statue in official church media, with this increasing with its use as a formal symbol, beginning in April 2020.

Additional replicas of the Christus include a full-size replica at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland within its iconic dome, and a full-sized copy in bronze at the Ben H. Powell III family plot in Oakwood Cemetery in Huntsville, Texas as a memorial to the Powell's son Rawley.

Thorvaldsen's Christus was recreated in Lego by parishioners of a Swedish Protestant church in Västerås and unveiled on Easter Sunday 2009.

Thorvaldsen's primary mastery was his feel for the rhythm of lines and movements. Nearly all his sculptures can be viewed from any chosen angle without compromise of their impact. In addition, he had the ability to work in monumental size. Thorvaldsen's classicism was strict; nevertheless his contemporaries saw his art as the ideal, although afterwards art took new directions. A bronze copy of Thorvaldsen's Self-Portrait stands in Central Park, New York, near the East 97 Street entrance.

Gallery: Thorvaldsen's works

Notes

Further reading

 Malta 1796–1797: Thorvaldsen's Visit (1996. Malta & Cop.)
 Jørnæs, B. Billedhuggeren Bertel Thorvaldsens liv og værk (1993)
 E. Lerberg, Fire danske Klassikere: Nicolai Abildgaard, Jens Juel, Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg og Bertel Thorvaldsen [exhibition catalogue] (1992)
 Kunstlerleben im Rom: Bertel Thorvaldsen, der danische Bildhauer und seine deutschen Freunde, ed. G. Bott [exhibition catalogue] (1991)
 Lauretta Dimmick, 'Mythic Proportion: Bertel Thorvaldsen's Influence in America', in Thorvaldsen: l'ambiente, l'influsso, il mito, ed. P. Kragelund and M. Nykjær (1991) (=Analecta Romana Instituti Danici, Supplementum 18.), pp. 169–191.
 The Age of Neoclassicism [exhibition catalogue] (1972)
 H. Fletcher, 'John Gibson: an English pupil of Thorvaldsen', in Apollo; 96:128 (1972 October), pp. 336–340.
 J. B. Hartmann, 'Canova, Thorvaldsen and Gibson', in English miscellany; 6 (1955), pp. 205–235.
 R. Zeitler, Klassizismus und Utopia: Interpretationen zu Werken von David, Canova, Carstens, Thorvaldsen, Koch (1954)
 Trier, S. Thorvaldsen (1903)
 Rosenberg, C. A. Thorwaldsen ... mit 146 Abbildungen (1896) (= Kunstlermonographie; 16)
 Wilde, A. Erindringer om Jerichau og Thorvaldsen (1884)
 Eugène Plon, Thorwaldsen, sa vie ... (1880)
 R. W. Buchanan, Thorvaldsen and his English critics (1865?)
 Thiele, J. M. Thorwaldsens Leben ... (1852–1856)
 Killerup, Thorwaldsens Arbeiten ... (1852)
 Andersen, B. Thorwaldsen (1845)
Mordaunt Roger Barnard (trans)  The life of Thorvaldsen: Collated from the Danish of Just Matthias Thiele, 1865 (Digitised )

 Stefano Grandesso, Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770–1844), introduzione di Fernando Mazzocca, catalogo delle opere a cura di Laila Skjøthaug 2010, Cinisello Balsamo (MI), Silvana Editoriale, .
 Stefano Grandesso, Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770–1844), Introduction by Fernando Mazzocca, Stig Miss; with catalogue by Laila Skjøthaug, Second English and Italian Edition, 2015, Cinisello Balsamo (Milan), Silvana Editoriale, .

External links

Thorvaldsen's Museum, Copenhagen
Art and the empire city: New York, 1825–1861, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Thorvaldsen (see index)
The Thorvaldsens Museum Archives, a Documentation Centre on the life, work and context of Bertel Thorvaldsen
St. Peter's Basilica
Adonis (links to larger image in new window)
Adonis (5 views)
Jason with the Golden Fleece (links to larger image)
The Three Graces (relief)
23 works
Albert Thorwaldsen 1770 – 1844, L'Illustration Journal Universel, No. 59 Vol III, April 1844 (French)
Portrait by Samuel Morse, 1831

1770 births
1844 deaths
18th-century Danish sculptors
18th-century male artists
19th-century Danish sculptors
19th-century male artists
19th-century Danish medallists
Neoclassical sculptors
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts alumni
Directors of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts
Danish people of Icelandic descent
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Recipients of the Thorvaldsen Medal
Sculptors from Copenhagen

Bertel Thorvaldsen


The University Research Corridor (URC) is an alliance between Michigan State University, the University of Michigan, and Wayne State University to transform, strengthen, and diversify the state of Michigan's economy.  The three institutions of the URC together draw $1.878 billion in federal academic research dollars to Michigan, 94 percent of the total coming into the state.

Over the past five years, URC universities have announced an average of one new invention every day, and collectively these discoveries have led to more than 500 license agreements for new technologies and systems. Detroit News columnist Dan Howes once wrote that the three universities together offer "the closest thing Michigan has to Silicon Valley—an intellectual powerhouse."

The URC had 137,583 students enrolled in the fall of 2010. The students at the URC universities are drawn from throughout Michigan and around the world. Students from the state of Michigan accounted for 75% of total enrollment in the fall of 2009, while 15% came from elsewhere in the U.S. and the remaining 10% came from other countries.

Location

The URC institutions are all based in the southeast/south-central area of the Michigan's lower peninsula.  Wayne State University is located in the heart of the state's largest city — Detroit — in the Midtown Cultural Center.  Michigan State University is located four miles east of the Michigan State Capitol, in East Lansing.  The third university in the URC — the University of Michigan — is located 40 miles west of Detroit in Ann Arbor.

Transportation

The corridor is served by the three major Interstate Highways in Southeastern Michigan—I-75, I-94, and I-96. Further enabling the close collaboration between these institutions, each school is under a two-hour drive of its URC peers.

The main airport of the region—among the top 20 largest airports in the world—is the Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport (DTW).  Both Wayne State University and The University of Michigan are roughly a half-hour drive from the Romulus-based airport.  However, when traveling to East Lansing, the Capital Region International Airport is the most convenient—just a 20-minute commute to the MSU campus.

Peer comparison

A 2014 Economic Impact Report by Anderson Economic Group ranked the URC second in the Innovation Power Ranking when compared to seven other major university research clusters in six states, including well-known hubs such as North Carolina's Research Triangle Park, California's Innovation Hubs and Massachusetts' Route 128 Corridor. The report also found that URC universities conferred 32,483 graduate and undergraduate degrees in 2012, more than any of the university innovation clusters the URC has benchmarked itself against since 2007. The URC also granted the highest number of medical degrees and second-highest number of high-demand degrees overall, saw its research and development spending rise to nearly $2.1 billion and continued to commercialize its research through patents and start-up companies.

Ongoing emphasis

Economic Stimulus
 An economic report detailing the collective successes of the URC universities as well as a metric comparison to their peer clusters is released annually each winter.

Notes

External links
 URC
 Michigan State University
 Wayne State University
 University of Michigan

High-technology business districts in the United States
Economy of Michigan
Michigan State University
University of Michigan
Wayne State University
2006 establishments in Michigan

University Research Corridor


The Political Cesspool is a far-right, white supremacist weekly talk radio show syndicated by Liberty News Radio Network, and Accent Radio Network. First broadcast in 2004 twice a week from radio station WMQM, it is currently broadcast from Millington, Tennessee, from radio station WLRM on Saturday nights.

According to its statement of principles, the program stands for "The Dispossessed Majority", represents "a philosophy that is pro-White", and is "against political centralization." It has attracted criticism from The Nation, The New Republic, the Stephen Roth Institute, the Southern Poverty Law Center, and the Anti-Defamation League for promoting anti-Jewish and racist views.

The show features founder and main host James Edwards, co-hosts Bill Rolen, Winston Smith, Keith Alexander, and Eddie Miller, and producer Art Frith; former staffers include Co-founder Austin Farley. Its guests have included author Jerome Corsi, Minuteman Project leader Jim Gilchrist, former Constitution Party presidential candidate Michael Peroutka, actor Sonny Landham, British National Party leader Nick Griffin, Vermont secessionist Thomas Naylor, and paleoconservative activist Pat Buchanan. It is carried by at least three licensed radio stations in the United States, in addition to one unlicensed Part 15 station and the satellite Galaxy 19.

Foundation and history
James Edwards and Austin Farley established The Political Cesspool on October 26, 2004, as a paleoconservative alternative to GOP radio shows such as the Sean Hannity Show; in Farley's words, the show focused on efforts "to preserve our Southern heritage and its symbols," while James Edwards described the show as "politically incorrect". It was initially broadcast on AM 1600 WMQM, a Memphis-based radio station, on Tuesdays and Thursdays. Edwards and Farley invited friends Bill Rolen, who is a board member of the Council of Conservative Citizens, and Jess Bonds as guest hosts, as well as radio expert Art Frith. Before, Frith had worked for a number of other radio stations including American Forces Radio and Television Service (AFRTS) (in Keflavik, Iceland; Anchorage, Alaska; and Nea Makri, Greece), KFQD (in Anchorage), and WBCK (in Battle Creek, Michigan).

In 2005, the group moved to WMQM's Millington-based sister station, AM 1380 WLRM, and switched to a nightly schedule, Monday through Friday. Farley left the program in November of that year. Two years later, Goeff Melton joined to help set up the show's official website and the show entered syndication with Dixie Broadcasting Radio Network. The program went on hiatus on February 15, 2008, because staff members said they "needed a break".

In June 2008, the show returned to the airwaves on WLRM, but airing only on Saturday nights (its schedule as of 2010). One year later, the show switched from Republic Broadcasting Network to Liberty News Radio Network, with which it is currently associated. As of August 2009, Bonds and Melton are no longer linked with the program. Frith now lives in Nashville, Michigan, but remains a part of the show's staff. Since WLRM is not audited by Arbitron, the show's ratings are unknown.

Statement of principles
The Political Cesspool describes its views as "pro-White" and "against political centralization". Its statement of principles, borrowed from the Council of Conservative Citizens, reads:

The Political Cesspool Radio Program stands for The Dispossessed Majority. We represent a philosophy that is pro-White and are against political centralization. You can trust The Political Cesspool to give you the "other side of the news"–to report on events which are vital to your welfare but which would otherwise be hushed up or distorted by the controlled press.

We make no attempt to give you "both sides." We'll leave the establishment side to your daily newspaper, television and other radio shows. We will bring to you some of the most renowned thinkers, writers, pundits, activists, entertainers and elected officials each broadcast as our guests. Furthermore, we pledge that The Political Cesspool will correct any meaningful error or fact. Make up your own mind who is being honest with you: the establishment media or The Political Cesspool Radio Program.

 The United States government should be independent of any international organization of governments and American law should not be imposed by organizations such as the United Nations.
 America would not be as prosperous, ruggedly individualistic, and a land of opportunity if the founding stock were not Europeans.
 Since family is the foundation of any strong society, we are against feminism, abortion, and primitivism.
 Private property rights are inviolable. They come from our God-given right to life.
 We wish to revive the White birthrate above replacement level fertility and beyond to grow the percentage of Whites in the world relative to other races.
 Issues such as education, environmental law, and police should be decentralized down to the lowest level to insure natural rights and efficiency.
 Secession is a right of all people and individuals. It was successful in 1776 and this show honors those who tried to make it successful in 1865.
 We are cultural conservatives because we have certain morals to which we adhere. We are against homosexuality, vulgarity, loveless sex, and masochism.
 We wish for American government to stop interfering politically, militarily, and socially outside of the borders of the United States of America. We want non-interventionism.

Primary host

James Edwards, a lifelong resident of Memphis, Tennessee, is the co-founder and primary host of The Political Cesspool. In 2000, Edwards volunteered for Pat Buchanan's presidential campaign. He later said that this experience inspired him to become politically active, and he wrote an essay called "Why I Love Pat Buchanan" in which he stated his view that Buchanan "tells it like it is". Edwards ran for the Tennessee House of Representatives in 2002 and lost. During the campaign he met fellow right-wing political activist Austin Farley, who later became a cohost of The Political Cesspool. Edwards sits on the Board of Directors of the American Third Position Party, a political cohort that advocates white nationalism —and a form of economic nationalism known as Third Position The Nation wrote that Edwards "has leveraged sponsorship from neo-Nazi and Holocaust denial groups to become America's most popular white supremacist radio host."

Other staff of The Political Cesspool include co-hosts Eddie "The Bombardier" Miller, Keith Alexander, and Winston Smith. Most of the show's staff claim descent from Confederate soldiers.

Guests

The Political Cesspool has over the years featured many guest appearances, including political activists, Holocaust deniers, economists, and musicians. Former Tennessee gubernatorial candidate Carl "Twofeathers" Whitaker, who claims partial Native American ancestry and is known for his strong support of the Minuteman movement, has appeared on the show, as has conservative Native American activist David Yeagley. Filmmakers Merlin Miller (A Place to Grow, Jericho) and Craig Bodeker (A Conversation about Race) have featured.

Author Jerome Corsi was interviewed in July 2008.  During the discussion he spoke about his financial newsletter, and promoted his New York Times number one bestselling book The Obama Nation.  The interview included several statements that have been widely described as racist; for example, he opined that US President Barack Obama identifies more with his "African blood" than his American roots and that the President "rejects everyone white, including his mother and his grandparents". Corsi scheduled another promotional appearance on The Political Cesspool one month later, however, he canceled this appearance, citing "travel plans that changed". James Edwards said that he believed the incident "just goes to show what incredible pressure everyone in public life is under to never have anything to do with anyone who speaks up for the interests of white people."  Fellow authors John Derbyshire and Steve Sailer have also been guests.

Constitution Party nominee Michael Peroutka used his appearance in 2004 to promote his presidential campaign.  Party member Michael Goza described the show as "Christian/Constitutionalist", and "a great blessing to our cause". Thomas Naylor, of the Vermont secessionist organization Second Vermont Republic, appeared on the show to celebrate Confederate History Month in April 2007, while American Third Position Party Chairman Bill Johnson appeared to promote his party.

On May 8, 2006, Minuteman Project leader Jim Gilchrist spoke on the program. Co-host Bill Rolen agreed with Gilchrist's view that illegal immigrants' intentions are to "just squat here and plunder whatever social benefits our programs provide them". However, Rolen disagreed with Gilchrist's claim that illegal immigration was "the 21st century slave trade". Gilchrist's colleague in the Minuteman movement, Chris Simcox, has also been a guest of the show.

Paleoconservative activist and former presidential candidate Pat Buchanan has appeared  twice as of May 2009. In a June 2008 interview arranged by his publicist, he promoted his book Churchill, Hitler and the Unnecessary War. During the broadcast, Buchanan defended Charles Lindbergh against charges of saying bad things about Jews, stating that his reputation "has been blackened because of a single speech he gave and a couple of paragraphs in it where he said that ... the Jewish community is beating the drums for war  but frankly, no one has said what he said was palpably untrue." At the end of the interview, James Edwards said, "Mr. Buchanan, thank you so much for coming back on our program, for fighting for our people." Previously, in September 2006, Buchanan had made an appearance to promote his book State of Emergency; during this interview, he said that "we are being invaded by people of different cultures" and argued that Americans "cannot survive a bifurcated culture or a heavily Hispanicized culture, tilted towards Mexico ... I think that's the beginning of the end of the United States."

Self-proclaimed "racial realist" Jared Taylor, whom James Edwards considers to be a close friend, has appeared at least ten times. In an article he wrote for VDARE, Taylor described the program as "racially oriented". Although describing itself as "America First", the show has also hosted foreign guests, including Croatian racist Tomislav Sunić, Australian white nationalist Drew Fraser, Russian Austrian School economist Yuri Maltsev, British lawyer Adrian Davies, Canadian conservative blogger Kathy Shaidle, and British National Party (BNP) leaders Simon Darby and Nick Griffin; Griffin appeared as a guest before and after his election to the European Parliament. During his post-election appearance, Griffin attributed the BNP's electoral successes to a fear of "creeping process of Islamification".

Controversy and criticism
The show has frequently been criticised by anti-racist groups and persons over its stated views, such as the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), Anti-Defamation League (ADL), Stephen Roth Institute, and writer Max Blumenthal. The Political Cesspool was added to the Southern Poverty Law Center's hate group watch list in 2006. James Edwards was "ecstatic", saying "I don't think you've arrived in the conservative movement until you've made it to the Southern Poverty Law Center's Hate Watch". Edwards describes the SPLC as a group composed of "communists and civil rights hustlers". The SPLC's Hatewatch has referred to The Political Cesspool as  "an overtly racist, anti-Semitic radio show hosted by [a] self-avowed white nationalist" and as "the nexus of hate in America". The Anti-Defamation League has also criticized the show; Edwards has attacked the ADL as "America's most powerful hate group" and has claimed that its definition of a "neo-Nazi [is] any white person who disagrees with a Jew".

Writer Max Blumenthal, who reported on an attempt by one of the show's staff to advertise at a rally for former Alaska governor and Republican vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin, described The Political Cesspool as having a "racist ideology", and highlighted anti-Jewish, racist, and homophobic comments that Edwards had made on his blog. The Stephen Roth Institute has also written about the show, noting that "[James] Edwards openly espoused many of his guests' views and during speeches to extremist audiences, including members of the white supremacist Council of Conservative Citizens and the racist League of the South, he gained the support of a wide array of extremists." In an article about antisemitism in Belgium, the Stephen Roth Institute commented on the show's interview with Filip Dewinter, a member of the Belgian Parliament  and a leader of the Vlaams Belang movement. Newsweek magazine used one of co-host Winston Smith's statements to argue that the rise in popularity of white racism is due to the combination of the late-2000s recession and the election of a black president. Many such groups have been attempting to gain new recruits and increase their political power by rebranding themselves as defenders of "white heritage" while trying to hide their dislike of minorities and Jews. Smith states, "[t]he emphasis is different now. We don't talk as much about what blacks have done to us; we're more focused on ourselves and our own culture."

City Park demonstration

In 2005, the staff of The Political Cesspool organized a rally at Confederate Park, which, along with two other Confederacy-themed parks in downtown Memphis, has been the subject of a longtime disagreement for honoring Confederate soldiers and ideals. The park had been criticized earlier by a black Shelby County official, which attracted the notice of New York-based activist Al Sharpton, who was invited by the Reverend LaSimba Gray to hold a demonstration in Memphis. Sharpton planned a march called the Rally for Dignity from downtown Memphis to another park honoring Confederate Lieutenant General Nathan Bedford Forrest who was involved early in the organization of the Ku Klux Klan. Sharpton canceled the march after Edwards and The Political Cesspool staff obtained a permit to demonstrate in Confederate Park, located along Sharpton's planned march route.

Sharpton settled for a protest at Forrest Park. At the demonstration, he argued that "We need to show the rest of the world that the day for honoring people like this is over", and said in an interview that his objections were not related to race but to Forrest's Civil War-era (1861–1865) actions against the United States. Estimates of attendance at the rallies vary; according to the Southern Poverty Law Center, James Edwards attracted about 200 white counter-demonstrators to the Confederate Park vigil, while Sharpton's protest at Forrest Park attracted a few dozen black demonstrators, whom Edwards referred to as "rabble". The Memphis Flyer estimated that Sharpton attracted about 250 supporters. In the aftermath of the city park controversy, show affiliates Edwards, Farley, Bonds, and Rolen received the "Dixie Defender Award" from the Sons of Confederate Veterans.

Later that year, Memphis city councilman E. C. Jones awarded Edwards and Farley  with a certificate "in appreciation of outstanding contributions to the community". Edwards and Farley also received an honorary city council membership from Jones, who had previously appeared on The Political Cesspool. According to The Commercial Appeal, Jones had not listened to the show before the incident, and was unaware of its views. After a reporter informed him of the show's views, Jones initially refused to say he was sorry. However, after another reporter confronted him with more details about the show's ideology, he changed his view, saying that he probably would not appear again. Carol Chumney, another member of the Memphis City Council, was also invited to appear on The Political Cesspool, but ultimately declined the invitation after listening to an episode of the show; Chumney said, "what I heard was about advocating for prostitution … So I told them I had other commitments."

Radio stations that air the show
The Political Cesspool airs on four stations as of 2010: WLRM in Millington, Tennessee, KHQN in Spanish Fork, Utah,
KNAK-AM in Delta, Utah, and micro1650am in Tonawanda, New York; it is also broadcast from the satellite Galaxy 19. The Accent Radio Network-affiliated stations KHQN and KNAK-AM currently air a shortened version of the show (two hours), in contrast to the three-hour Liberty News Radio Network (WLRM) version. Galaxy 19 airs the full lineups of both ARN and Liberty News Radio Network on separate channels, and as such it airs both the long version and short version of the show. One of the stations, micro1650am, is a 100-milliwatt FCC Part 15 station, and as such it has no call letters.

References

Other websites
Official Website

Radio programs

The Political Cesspool


Archibald Scott Couper (; 31 March 1831 – 11 March 1892) was a Scottish chemist who proposed an early theory of chemical structure and bonding.  He developed the concepts of tetravalent carbon atoms linking together to form large molecules, and that the bonding order of the atoms in a molecule can be determined from chemical evidence.

Life and work
Couper was the only surviving son of a wealthy textile mill owner near Glasgow.  He studied at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh and intermittently in Germany during the years 1851-54.  He began the formal study of chemistry at the University of Berlin in the autumn of 1854, then in 1856 entered Charles Adolphe Wurtz's private laboratory at the Faculty of Medicine in Paris (now the University of Paris V: René Descartes).

Couper published his "New Chemical Theory" in French in a condensed form on 14 June 1858, then in detailed papers simultaneously in French and English in August 1858.  Couper's idea that carbon atoms can link to each other following valence regularities was independent of a paper by August Kekulé proposing the same concept. (Kekulé had already proposed the tetravalence of carbon in 1857.)  However, through a misunderstanding with Wurtz, Kekulé's paper appeared in print first, in May 1858, and so Kekulé captured the priority for the discovery of the self-linking of carbon atoms.  When Couper angrily confronted Wurtz, Wurtz expelled him from the laboratory.

In December 1858, Couper received an offer of an assistantship from the University of Edinburgh.  However, Couper's health began to decline after his disappointment.  In May 1859 he suffered a nervous breakdown, and entered an institution as a private patient.  Released in July 1859, he almost immediately suffered a relapse—it was said to have been from sunstroke—and was treated again until November 1862.  But his health was now broken, and he did no more serious work, spending the last 30 years of his life in the care of his mother.

Couper's research differed from Kekulé's in several ways.  He was open to the idea of divalent carbon, which Kekulé was not.  He provided many more resolved formulas in his paper than Kekulé had, and in two cases even suggested (hetero)cyclical formulas, which could have influenced Kekulé in his later suggestion of the benzene ring.  Couper adopted the atomic weight of oxygen as 8 rather than 16, so there are twice as many oxygen atoms in Couper's formulas as in those of Kekulé.  Finally, Couper used dotted lines or dashes between the atoms in his formulas, approximating the appearance of later formula styles.  In this respect, his work was probably influential on the early structural theorists Aleksandr Butlerov and Alexander Crum Brown.

See also
History of the molecule

References

1831 births
1892 deaths
Scottish chemists
Organic chemists
Scottish scholars and academics
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
University of Paris alumni
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
People from Kirkintilloch
British expatriates in France

Archibald Scott Couper


A monochord, also known as sonometer (see below), is an ancient musical and scientific laboratory instrument, involving one (mono-) string (chord). The term monochord is sometimes used as the class-name for any musical stringed instrument having only one string and a stick shaped body, also known as musical bows. According to the Hornbostel–Sachs system, string bows are bar zithers (311.1) while monochords are traditionally board zithers (314). The "harmonical canon", or monochord is, at its least, "merely a string having a board under it of exactly the same length, upon which may be delineated the points at which the string must be stopped to give certain notes," allowing comparison.

A string is fixed at both ends and stretched over a sound box. One or more movable bridges are then manipulated to demonstrate mathematical relationships among the frequencies produced. "With its single string, movable bridge and graduated rule, the monochord (kanōn [Greek: law]) straddled the gap between notes and numbers, intervals and ratios, sense-perception and mathematical reason." However, "music, mathematics, and astronomy were [also] inexorably linked in the monochord." As a pedagogical tool for demonstrating mathematical relationships between intervals, the monochord remained in use throughout the Middle Ages.

Experimental use

The monochord can be used to illustrate the mathematical properties of musical pitch and to illustrate Mersenne's laws regarding string length and tension: "essentially a tool for measuring musical intervals". For example, when a monochord's string is open it vibrates at a particular frequency and produces a pitch. When the length of the string is halved, and plucked, it produces a pitch an octave higher and the string vibrates at twice the frequency of the original (2:1) . Half of this length will produce a pitch two octaves higher than the original—four times the initial frequency (4:1)—and so on.  Standard diatonic Pythagorean tuning (Ptolemy's Diatonic Ditonic) is easily derived starting from superparticular ratios, (n+1)/n, constructed from the first four counting numbers, the tetractys, measured out on a monochord. The mathematics involved include the multiplication table, least common multiples, and prime and composite numbers.

"As the name implies, only one string is needed to do the experiments; but, since ancient times, several strings were used, all tuned in exact unison, each with a moveable bridge, so that various intervals can be compared to each other ." A "bichord instrument" is one, "having two strings in unison for each note [a course]," such as the mandolin. With two strings one can easily demonstrate how various musical intervals sound. Both open strings are tuned to the same pitch, and then the movable bridge is put in a mathematical position on the second string to demonstrate, for instance, the major third (at 4/5th of the string length)  or the minor third (at 5/6th of the string length) .

Many contemporary composers focused on microtonality and just intonation such as Harry Partch, Ivor Darreg, Tony Conrad, Glenn Branca, Bart Hopkin, and Yuri Landman constructed multistring variants of sonometers with movable bridges.

Instruments

Parts of a monochord include a tuning peg, nut, string, moveable bridge, fixed bridge, calibration marks, belly or resonating box, and an end pin.

Instruments derived from the monochord (or its moveable bridge) include the guqin, dan bau, koto, vina, hurdy-gurdy, and clavichord ("hence all keyboard instruments"). A monopipe is the wind instrument version of a monochord; a variable open pipe which can produce variable pitches, a sliding cylinder with the numbers of the monochord marked. End correction must be used with this method, to achieve accuracy.

Monochord practitioners

The monochord is mentioned in Sumerian writings, and, according to some, was reinvented by Pythagoras (sixth century BCE). Dolge attributes the invention of the moveable bridge to Guido of Arezzo around 1000 CE.

In 1618, Robert Fludd devised a mundane monochord (also celestial or divine monochord) that linked the Ptolemaic universe to musical intervals. "Was it [Mersenne's discoveries through use of the monochord (1637)] physical intuition or a Pythagorean confidence in the importance of small whole numbers? ... It was the latter."

The psalmodicon, a similar instrument but with a chromatic fret board replacing the moveable bridge, was developed in Denmark in the 1820s and became widespread throughout Scandinavia in churches as an alternative to the organ. Scandinavian immigrants also brought it to the United States. It became quite rare by the latter 20th century, but more recently has been revived by folk musicians.

An image of the celestial monochord was used on the 1952 cover of Anthology of American Folk Music by Harry Everett Smith and in the 1977 book The Cosmographical Glass: Renaissance Diagrams of the Universe (p. 133) by S. K. Heninger Jr., . A reproduction of the monochordum mundanum (mundane monochord) illustration from page 90 of Robert Fludd's "Utriusque Cosmi, Maioris scilicet et Minoris, Metaphysica, Physica, Atque Technica Historia" ("Tomus Primus"), 1617, was used as the cover art for Kepler Quartet's 2011 audio CD, Ben Johnston: String Quartets Nos. 1, 5 & 10 (New World Records Cat. No. 80693), which is classical music that uses pitch ratios extended to higher partials beyond the standard Pythagorean tuning system.

A modern playing technique used in experimental rock as well as contemporary classical music is 3rd bridge. This technique shares the same mechanism as used on the monochord, by dividing the string into two sections with an additional bridge.

Sonometer

A sonometer is a diagnostic instrument used to measure the tension, frequency or density of vibrations. They are used in medical settings to test both hearing and bone density. A sonometer, or audiometer, is used to determine hearing sensitivity, while a clinical bone sonometer measures bone density to help determine such conditions as the risk of osteoporosis.

In audiology, the device is used to test for hearing loss and other disorders of the ear. The audiometer measures the ability to hear sounds at frequencies normally detectable by the human ear. Several test are usually conducted using the audiometer which will then be used to assess hearing ability. Results typically are recorded on a chart known as an audiogram.

A clinical bone sonometer is a device which tests for the risk of bone fractures associated with osteoporosis. This test, called an ultrasound bone densitometry screening, is not typically used for diagnostic purposes; it is generally used as a risk assessment tool. Testing is often recommended for those whose personal history indicates a possible high risk for osteoporosis.  Testing is usually conducted by an orthopedist, rheumatologist or neurologist specializing in the treatment of osteoporosis. The patient simply places his or her heel in the sonometer, and it is then scanned using ultrasound to determine bone density. This is a fast and low-cost procedure generally lasting 30 seconds or less.  Results typically are available immediately following the procedure. Two score results are possible: a T-score, which compares a patient's scan against that of a young person of the same gender; and a Z-score, which compares the scan against someone of similar age, weight and gender. The T-scores results are used to assess the risk of osteoporosis. A score above -1 indicates a low risk for osteoporosis; below -1 to -2.5 indicates a risk of developing osteoporosis; and a score below -2.5 indicates more intensive testing should be performed and that osteoporosis is likely present. The Z-score reports how much bone the patient has as compared to others his age. If this number is high or low, further testing may be ordered.

See also

Beat (acoustics)
Harmonic Canon
Long-string instrument

References

External links
"The Monochord in the Medieval and Modern Classrooms", JMHP.

Continuous pitch instruments
Box zithers

Measuring instruments
Pythagorean philosophy

Monochord


A fireplace is a brick or metal structure used to hold a fire. Fireplaces are most often used for heating but they can also be used for cooking. The part of the fireplace that holds the fire is called a firebox or a firepit. There is a chimney or flue above the firebox that lets the smoke from the fire go outside.

Until the early 1900s, most homes had one or more fireplaces as a source of heat for the residents of the house. In the mid-1900s, gas, oil, and electric heaters became more common and fireplaces were used less often as a source of heat. In the late 1900s, fireplaces were less commonly built in new houses.

References

Other websites
 Fireplace -Citizendium

Fire
Home appliances
HVAC

Fireplace


The Cambria and Indiana Railroad (C&I)  is a railway company that is located in the southeastern part of Indiana County, Pennsylvania in the United States. Incorporated in 1904 and built in 1910 with the intention of carrying lumber, coal was discovered in the area soon after its construction, and C&I's fortunes subsequently became closely intertwined with the coal industry.

C&I became the "richest railroad in the country", generating the most revenue per mile of track, during the 1930s and 1940s. The increasing use of electricity for heating purposes, however, dealt a severe blow to C&I and in 1995, C&I divested almost all its assets.

Brief history
The Cambria and Indiana Railroad, originally named Blacklick and Yellow Creek Railroad (B&YC), was founded in 1904 by Vinton Lumber Company as a subsidiary company to haul its lumber. Soon after its construction, coal was found in the area and the subsidiary was subsequently purchased by John Heisley Weaver and B. Dawson Coleman for US$100,000 in 1910 to serve its coal interests in the Cambria and Indiana counties.

At the time of purchase, the B&YC was only ten miles long but the railroad was extensively extended soon after its acquisition to better serve its new purpose. Construction began in February, 1911 and the name of the company was officially changed on 20 April 1911 to reflect the name of the two counties that it served. By 1919, C&I was also serving 23 other mines in the area. Scheduled passenger service started in 1914 until 1 December 1931, after which, it only ran only when needed until the late 1930s.

The first locomotive on the C&I was a Baldwin Steam Locomotive #3 which was subsequently sold in January 1930. The C&I became the "richest railroad in the country", generating the most revenue per mile of track, during the 1930s and 1940s. All this, however, was to change as a result of the declining use of coal for heating homes in preference for electricity. By 1962, there were only four mines left on the line, spelling the apparent demise of the C&I.

Bethlehem Steel became the majority owner of the railway in 1950. Business picked up when the BethEnergy subsidiary, opened Mine 33 near Ebensburg in 1963, and Barnes & Tucker opened a large mine at Stiles in 1965, thus sustaining C&I for another thirty years. However, in the summer of 1994, Bethlehem closed down Mine 33, spelling the apparent demise of the C&I. A year later, C&I sold almost all its trackage as scrap and donated most of its abandoned right-of-way to the Cambria County Conservation and Recreation Authority to become part of the Ghost Town Trail for use by bicyclists and walkers. C&I locomotives were dispatched to other Bethlehem subsidiary railroads. A small portion of trackage was retained by Conrail and another portion was sold to a private owner. In 1998, the private owner sold 9.6 miles of the abandoned track back to the C&I. Bethlehem Steel was acquired by ISG in 2003.

In 2004, nearly 10 years following the closing of Mine 33 and the end of C&I operations, ISG reported plans to reopen Mine 33 to produce coke primarily for steel-making by 2006, and also to generate electricity. This development was shelved in late 2006 due to economic conditions.

See also

Colver Historic District
Revloc Historic District

References

Defunct Pennsylvania railroads
Former Class I railroads in the United States
Railway companies established in 1911
American companies established in 1911

Cambria and Indiana Railroad