Doctor Who is a BBC science fiction television series. The series is about an alien time-traveller known as "the Doctor". In his space-time ship, the TARDIS (Time and Relative Dimension in Space), the Doctor and his companions travel through space and time.

The television series ran from 1963 to 1989 and started running again in 2005. It is the longest running science fiction television series in the world.

There were two Doctor Who movies made in the 1960s. Peter Cushing played the Doctor in these movies, but he was not the Doctor in the television series. In 1996, there was also a television movie starring Paul McGann. There have been many other versions of Doctor Who in books, comics, games, other shows, music videos, remixes, fan fiction, documentaries, the news, in magazines, toys, cosplay, decorations, on the internet, on radios, on DVDs, on Blu-ray, On other disc formats and other forms of entertainment.

as of 2023 Doctor who will only be shown on Disney plus outside of Ireland and the UK.

Story outline
The story is about a person who calls themselves "The Doctor". They travel in their space-time-ship TARDIS ("Time And Relative Dimension In Space"), with which he can go anywhere in time and space. Because of an error in its chameleon circuit, the outside of the TARDIS always looks like a 1960s-style British police public call box (similar to a blue telephone box), but on the inside the TARDIS is much bigger.

The Doctor is an alien, a Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey. At first, they travelled only with their granddaughter Susan Foreman. Later, the Doctor took other people with them. They are usually called "companions" or "assistants". The Doctor and their companions travel through space and time, have a lot of adventures, and often save many people.

Some people think that the Doctor's name is not actually "Doctor Who", but other people think there is no mistake. The character was named Doctor Who in the titles until the Fifth Doctor, and after the 2005 restart the Ninth Doctor, played by Christopher Eccleston, is called Doctor Who in the titles too. The Second Doctor once signed a letter as "Dr W.".

History
Doctor Who was first shown in 1963, with William Hartnell as the Doctor. When Hartnell left the show in 1966, the writers came up with the idea that the Doctor would regenerate (at the time called renewal) and transform into the Second Doctor, who was played by Patrick Troughton. In 1970, when Jon Pertwee took over as the Third Doctor, the series switched from black-and-white to colour.

Before 1978, the BBC would sometimes throw away or wipe episodes they did not need. This was because they did not usually show episodes on television more than once, and they needed to reuse video tape to record new broadcasts. Some of the episodes that were thrown away have been found since then, but 97 of the 851 episodes are still missing. However, audio recordings of all missing episodes exist, and some of these have been released on home video with animations.

Seven actors played the Doctor from 1963 until 1989, when the series stopped production. In 1996, the BBC teamed with Fox Broadcasting Company and Universal Pictures to create a film version, in which Paul McGann played the Eighth Doctor. It was hoped that the film would lead to a new series, but this did not happen.

Instead, the series started again in 2005, with Christopher Eccleston as the Ninth Doctor. He was replaced by David Tennant at the end of the series. The latest actor to play the Doctor is Jodie Whittaker, who joined the show in the 2017 Christmas episode. In May 2022, it was announced that Ncuti Gatwa will play the Doctor from 2023.

In the Guinness World Records, Doctor Who is listed as the longest running science fiction television series in the world. In 2013, it celebrated its 50th birthday with a special episode. It will celebrate its 60th birthday in late 2023.

The Doctor

The Doctor is the central character of Doctor Who. They are an alien, a Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey. The Doctor often takes other people with them, who are usually called "companions", "assistants" or "friends" (or, due to a misunderstanding, "partners"). They are most often human.

The current companion is Ruby Sunday

As a Gallifreyan, the Doctor looks human on the surface. However, there are differences. For example, they have two hearts. Also, if badly injured or dying, they can regenerate. During the regeneration, their body heals and renews itself. Then, they take on a different appearance and personality. They are the same person (sort of) with the same memories and knowledge. But, they look different and has a new personality. Because of this, the Doctor can be played by different actors. And in over fifty years, this is why the character has not actually "changed".

Incarnations and actors of the Doctor

Up until now, the Doctor has regenerated fourteen times, and each "incarnation" was played by a different actor (except for the Tenth Doctor, who used up two regenerations by channeling excess regeneration energy after healing to his old hand that had been chopped of in The Christmas Invasion). (Numbers refer to incarnations that used up regenerations).
First Doctor - William Hartnell (1963–1966)
Second Doctor - Patrick Troughton (1966–1969)
Third Doctor - Jon Pertwee (1970–1974)
Fourth Doctor - Tom Baker (1974–1981)
Fifth Doctor - Peter Davison (1981–1984)
Sixth Doctor - Colin Baker (1984–1986)
Seventh Doctor - Sylvester McCoy (1987–1989, 1996)
Eighth Doctor - Paul McGann (1996)
War Doctor - John Hurt (2013)
Ninth Doctor - Christopher Eccleston (2005)
Tenth Doctor - David Tennant (2005–2010) (Regenerated in 2008)
Tenth Doctor - David Tennant (2005–2010) (Regenerated in 2010)
Eleventh Doctor - Matt Smith (2010–2013)
Twelfth Doctor - Peter Capaldi (2013–2017)
Thirteenth Doctor - Jodie Whittaker (2017-2022)
Fourteenth Doctor - David Tennant (2022-2023)
Fifthteenth Doctor - Ncuti Gatwa (2023–)

The Doctor has been played by other actors in other media: theatre plays, parodies, etc. These are not officially part of the Doctor Who story.

The movies Dr. Who & the Daleks and Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D. star Peter Cushing as a human scientist named Doctor Who. Shortly after it was announced that the series would return from its nineties hiatus, Richard E. Grant voiced The Doctor in an animated serial. The BBC issued press releases identifying Grant as the "ninth Doctor" but this was later disregarded by the revived BBC television series.

Sometimes different incarnations of the Doctor meet each other. Usually episodes with several Doctors are made when the program celebrates an anniversary.  In 1973, when the show was 10 years old, the episode "The Three Doctors" was shown. It had the first three Doctors.

In 1983, there was the 20th anniversary special. "The Five Doctors". Patrick Troughton, John Pertwee, Peter Davison and Richard Hurndall (replacing William Hartnell) played The Doctor. Tom Baker refused to play in it, so they used the old footage of the incomplete "Shada" episode to show him.

In 1985, there was the episode "The Two Doctors", with the Second and the Sixth Doctors.

The fifth Doctor met the tenth incarnation in mini-episode named "Time Crash". It was aired in 2007.

The Tenth, Eleventh, and War Doctors met each other in the 50th anniversary special on November 23, 2013. That was the first time the War Doctor was seen. That special had short appearances by all the other Doctors with the use of old, recycled footage. It also had a mysterious version of the Doctor from the far off future played by Tom Baker. The Eighth Doctor also made a return in 2013 for a 50th anniversary special mini-episode.

On August 4, 2013, Peter Capaldi was revealed as the actor who would play the Twelfth Doctor.

The 12th doctor Peter Capaldi met the 1st doctor just before each doctor's regeneration in the last episode of Capaldi's series.

On July 16, 2017, it was revealed that Jodie Whittaker would replace Capaldi as the Doctor. She is the first female Doctor.

In the 2020 episode "Fugitive of the Judoon", Jo Martin was introduced in a surprise twist as the Fugitive Doctor. She is the first black actor to play the Doctor. It is suggested that the Fugitive Doctor is from the Thirteenth Doctor's past.

Another episode from the same year, "The Timeless Children", revealed that there were many incarnations of the Doctor before William Hartnell. The Thirteenth Doctor had forgotten them because the Time Lords had erased her memory. Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times said, although he preferred the idea of Hartnell being the first incarnation, he could accept numerous incarnations prior, but felt the timeless child origin did "not make for involving television", and expressed various criticisms of the episode, even attacking its cliffhanger ending, calling it overall an "awful, boring mess" and concluded that the show "deserves – and indeed needs – a lengthy rest".=Doctor Who The Timeless Children review: the much-vaunted finale is an overblown gush of nonsense/ Andrew Cartmel, a former Doctor Who script editor during the 1980s, commented negatively on Chibnall's writing, believing the episode "depletes the mystery" of Doctor Who, stating "there's a lot of detail in specifics, which is the last thing you want. Number one: it depletes the mystery, and number two: that was the chief failing of the Moffat era".=ANDREW CARTMEL THINKS TIMELESS CHILD "DEPLETES THE MYSTERY" OF DOCTOR WHO|

Caroline Siede of The A.V. Club praised Sacha Dhawan's performance as the Master, but felt "The Timeless Children" still left "the biggest questions unanswered". She criticised Whittaker's Doctor for being "a passive character", finding it hard to connect to the Doctor's reaction. Siede also comments negatively on the "exposition-heavy pep talk", as well as the Doctor's escape. She cites the episode's conclusion "doesn't feel earned on either a character level or a plot one", criticizing the last-minute reveal that Ko Sharmus was part of the group that sent the Cyberium back in time and attacks the episode "undercuts the big heroic moment where the Doctor decides not to lower herself to the Master's level of violence by having her happily accept that same amount of carnage so long as Ko Sharmus is the one pulling the trigger. Doctor Who has never been super consistent about the Doctor's willingness to resort to violence, but the morality whiplash here is pretty unforgivable." She also found it hard to connect to Graham reassuring Yaz, citing that she had no character development. Like Mulkern, she also comments negatively on the cliffhanger ending, and concluded, "The Timeless Children" "raises far more questions than answers". Devan Coggan of Entertainment Weekly thought it "a bold reveal" that the Doctor lived countless lives long before William Hartnell's Doctor, though she had misgivings about Whittaker turning out "not to be the first female Doctor at all". She praised Whittaker and Dhawan's performances and also commented on the Cybermen decked out in Timelord capes and regalia as "rather silly", as well as "few other characters and plot points get lost in all the big revelations, and the companions largely take a backseat to the Doctor's journey." Conversely, Michael Hogan offered a positive review for The Daily Telegraph, criticising Whittaker's performance, feeling her shocked reaction to the revelation she was the timeless child "was doubtless replicated on sofas nationwide. This was the sort of "timey-wimey, wibbly-wobbly" narrative tricksiness for which previous showrunner Steven Moffat was often criticised", but praising the writing for Graham, Ryan and Yaz. John Hussey of Cult Fix praised the episode, stating "admirable in ways, is, unfortunately, a disappointing capper to an improved series. It's a shame that promising elements are buried in convoluted, overblown plotting, that doesn't work as a layered thematic ending of itself. It threatens at times to be a poetic, bold dive or rumination on the show's mythic nature, and while well-produced it lacks the courage or clarity to properly articulate an emotional story for the characters beyond ultimately not-that-shocking or devastating revelations. Believe me, I love messy ambition- I just wish it left me feeling what it wanted me to.." He further went on to criticise the Doctor's passiveness. The Guardian gave the drama four stars, deeming it a " finale takes audacious flights, rewriting Doctor Who lore to extravagant degrees, creating an alternative backstory for the creation of Gallifrey and a completely new backstory for the Doctor, that reveals her as the fabled Timeless Child: not the last of the Timelords, but the first."

Within the fan community, the episode received a negative reaction to the origin. Several fan websites expressed their concerns about the changes that "The Timeless Children" introduced into the canon and folklore of the series. Thus, within the fanbase itself, the critical reception was largely negative, with many fans voicing their concerns. The episode was criticised by critics and fans. In response to complaint emails sent to the BBC, viewers were told the scene "Doctor Who is a beloved long-running series and we understand that some people will feel attached to a particular idea they have of the Doctor, or that they enjoy certain aspects of the programme more than others. Opinions are strong and this is indicative of the imaginative hold that Doctor Who has – that so many people engage with it on so many different levels. We wholeheartedly support the creative freedom of the writers and we feel that creating an origin story is a staple of science fiction writing. What was written does not alter the flow of stories from William Hartnell's brilliant Doctor onwards – it just adds new layers and possibilities to this ongoing saga. We have also received many positive reactions to the episode's cliff-hanger. There are still a lot of questions to be answered, and we hope that you will come back to join us and see what happens, but we appreciate that it's impossible to please all of our viewers all of the time and your feedback has been raised with the programme's Executive Producer."

In contrast, former showrunner Steven Moffat praised the episode, and defended the recton. Chibnall later said he knew that the recton would be divisive, but still went ahead stating, "I knew from the start. And it was part of what I talked to Charlotte [Moore] and Piers [Wenger] about, just opening up the mythology to more stories. The purpose was to bring narrative opportunity and to be able to go to places that were shut off before now. That's the big thing really."

TARDIS

The TARDIS (Time And Relative Dimension In Space) is the Doctor's time machine. It can travel to any point in time and space, but the Doctor can never fully control it. The Doctor explains that TARDISes are not built, but they are grown like plants. The TARDIS is alive and has a mind of its own. In the episode The Doctor's Wife when the Doctor is able to communicate directly with its mind, the TARDIS explains that it did not always take him where he wanted to go but that "I always took you where you needed to go."

The TARDIS is bigger on the inside than the outside, which is commented on by almost everyone who enters. On the inside, the TARDIS looks like a giant spaceship, but on the outside it looks like a police telephone box. These telephone boxes were still a common sight in many British cities when the series first began in 1963, but after the walkie-talkie was invented they were no longer needed. They were used by the police as workstations - and people could also use them to call the police.

The Doctor stole the TARDIS from a Time Lord museum when he began his travels. It was described as being a rather old "Type 40" model, whereas the best version is the "Type 70" used by the upper class Time Lords. The TARDIS has a device called the chameleon circuit which is supposed to change its shape on the outside to allow it to disguise it. In the very first story, this device stopped working and left the TARDIS stuck in the shape of a police box.

The farthest the Doctor has ever travelled in the TARDIS is to the Big Bang (the beginning of the Universe) and 100 trillion years into the future (the end of the Universe) (in the episode "Utopia"). The inside of the TARDIS is much bigger than its outside (it is "dimensionally transcendental"). It has a lot of different rooms. The most important of which is the "console room" where the Doctor pilots the TARDIS.

Companions

The Doctor usually takes other people with them, who are usually called "companions" or "assistants". The Doctor and their companions travel through space and time, have a lot of adventures, and often save many people. The character of the companion was there so that the people watching the series could identify and feel close to a character. The companions were often present-time humans, so people could feel close to them, and they knew as much as the viewers. Because of this, the Doctor could explain things to their companions, and at the same time to the viewers. Almost all the Doctor's companions have been human, or human-looking aliens. Two companions were robots.

Species

The forces for evil
Overview: The BBC's link to a visual summary of Dr Who's opponents:

The Master

The Master is a renegade Time Lord. He is the Doctor's nemesis. He was conceived as "Professor Moriarty to the Doctor's Sherlock Holmes". The character first appeared in 1971, played by Roger Delgado. He continued in the role until his death in 1973.  The Master was briefly played by Peter Pratt and Geoffrey Beevers until Anthony Ainley took over. He continued to play the character until Doctor Who's "hiatus" in 1989. The Master returned in the 1996 television movie of Doctor Who, played by Gordon Tipple in the ultimately unused pre-credits voiceover, then Eric Roberts. The Master was in the three-part finale of the 2007 series, portrayed by Derek Jacobi. He regenerated into John Simm at the end of the episode "Utopia". Simm next appeared in the last (and two-part) episode of the Tenth Doctor in 2009/2010. He then regenerated off-screen into a Time Lady (Michelle Gomez), who returned for the Twelfth Doctor's first series in 2014. In Whittaker's run, the Master returned as Sacha Dhawan in 2020 and 2022

Daleks

The Daleks are one of the most powerful races in the Doctor Who history. They are the Doctor's worst enemies. They are alien mutants that live inside metal machines that look like pepper pots. Each Dalek casing has an eyesalk, a gunstick and a sucker arm that looks like a plunger. Daleks believe that they should conquer the universe and "exterminate" all other lifeforms that they believe are lesser than them. They can not be easily hurt by guns because their casing reflects or destroys the bullets. They were created on the planet Skaro by an evil scientist named Davros.

The Daleks first appeared in the very first season of Doctor Who, in a serial called "The Daleks" shown between 1963 and 1964. They most recently appeared in the episode "Revolution of the Daleks" in 2021.

Cybermen

Cybermen are another enemy of the Doctor. They are one of their worst enemies. In the original series, they come from the planet Mondas. In the new series, some of them come from a parallel universe. Cybermen travel across the universe taking people and turning them into machines. They stomp around saying "DELETE!". They kill by electrocution. They are partially vulnerable to the metal gold, and can be killed by gold bullets. They change their look over time, but stay recognizable by "handlebars" on their heads, and tear drops in their eyes.

The Doctor has faced them many times. The first was in "The Tenth Planet" (William Hartnell's last episode). A more recent episode was "World Enough and Time/The Doctor Falls" (the last two episodes of Peter Capaldi's last season).

Sontarans
The Sontarans are a group of aliens, bred in clone batches, that believe in war over anything else. They must face their enemy in combat because of their weak spot on the back of their neck, the probic vent. They have been said to look like baked potatoes.

The Doctor first met them in The Time Warrior (Jon Pertwee).  They have been on the show and its spinoffs repeatedly.

Earth reptiles
The Sea Devils and the Silurians lived in the time of the dinosaurs until the catastrophe of the Moon's approach drove them into hibernation. They slept longer than planned and emerged late in the 20th century. The human scientist who discovered the Silurians estimated their era incorrectly. A later Doctor Who story said that they should have been classified as the Eocenes. A second species of hibernating Earth reptiles lived primarily underwater. They were labeled "sea devils" by a frightened, superstitious construction worker who encountered them.

Ice Warriors
The Ice Warriors are a species of war-like alien who come from the planet Mars. They are human-like green reptiles who can only live in cold climates. The Doctor had to stop them from invading the planet Earth when their home planet became too hot for them to live in. However, they later became a more peaceful species when they joined a group of planets called the Galactic Federation. Other planets in the Federation include Earth and Peladon.

Weeping Angels
The Weeping Angels are creatures who have existed since the beginning of the universe. Most of them look like stone statues of angels. They can send people back in time by touching them, which they use to feed off energy. They cannot move if someone is looking at them, unless that person looks away or blinks. Anything that looks like an angel can become a Weeping Angel, such as video footage of a Weeping Angel or even the Statue of Liberty.

The forces for good

Time Lords
The Time Lords are the alien race which the Doctor belongs to. They have two hearts. They can avoid dying by regeneration (transforming their bodies). The Time Lords were in some episodes in the classic series. Sometimes they were allies of the Doctor (at one point he became their president). Other times they were enemies. The Time Lords came from the planet Gallifrey.

Time Lords have the power to travel in time, but they choose not to use it to change the history of other planets. The Doctor disagrees with this, because they want to use time travel to fight on the side of good against evil. However, sometimes the Time Lords give the Doctor missions to change history for them. For example, in "Genesis of the Daleks" the Time Lords send the Doctor back in time to stop Davros from creating the Daleks.

Some Time Lords choose to break the rules of Time Lord society and become renegades. The Doctor and the Master are both renegade Time Lords. Other renegade Time Lords include the Meddling Monk and the Rani.

When the series returned in 2005, the Time Lords had disappeared in the "Time War". This was a very big war with the Daleks. The Doctor explained that he stopped the war by destroying Gallifrey, killing all of the Time Lords and Daleks. He believed he was the last of the Time Lords, until he discovered that the Master had also survived. Jenny, who was created artificially in The Doctor's Daughter, is not a true Time Lord. For many years, the Doctor felt sorry for destroying Gallifrey. In the 2013 episode The Day of the Doctor, the Doctor learns that he did not actually destroy his planet, but that he had moved it to another universe.

In the 2020 episode "The Timeless Children", the Doctor learns that she was not originally a Time Lord. Instead she came from another reality, and was adopted by someone from Gallifrey named Tecteun. Tecteun did experiments on the Doctor to take her power to regenerate and transplant it in other Gallifreyans. This is how the Time Lord race was created.

Regeneration
As of 2024, the Doctor has been played by fifteen actors. They are William Hartnell, Patrick Troughton, John Pertwee, Tom Baker, Peter Davison, Colin Baker, Sylvester McCoy, Paul McGann, John Hurt, Christopher Eccleston, David Tennant, Matt Smith, Peter Capaldi, Jodie Whittaker and Ncuti Gatwa.

When Time Lords are dying, they "regenerate." This causes a Time Lord's body to completely change, healing itself at the same time. Each time this happens, Time Lords have a different appearance and a different personality. Even with such big changes, Time Lords do not become different people, and will keep their memories each time they "regenerate." This periodic change makes them live a very long time.

A Time Lord is believed to only be able to regenerate 12 times. This means that Time Lords can have a total of 13 different incarnations. This line became stuck in the public consciousness despite not often being repeated, and was recognised by producers of the show as a plot obstacle for when the show finally had to regenerate the Doctor a thirteenth time. The episode "The Time of the Doctor" depicted the Doctor acquiring a new cycle of regenerations, starting from the Twelfth Doctor, due to the Eleventh Doctor being the product of the Doctor's twelfth regeneration from his original set.

A criminal incarnation of the Doctor was somehow spawned between his 12th and final lives - the 'Valeyard'. It tried to sacrifice the sixth Doctor so that he could obtain more "regenerations," allowing himself to live even longer.

The Master was already in his 13th life when he was introduced to the series. His 14th and 15th (and possibly later) incarnations were obtained by taking over the bodies of innocent victims. When the character returned to the show in 2007, the Master was in his 16th (or later) incarnation. Soon, he regenerates into his (~)17th incarnation. Later, he explains that the Time Lords resurrected him to be a great soldier when the Time Lords were fighting the Daleks in the Time War. It is likely that, having been resurrected, he had 12 more regenerations available to him.

A Time Lord can choose not to regenerate. It appears that the process happens all on its own when a Time Lord is dying. But, it can be stopped if the Time Lord does not want to regenerate. This was seen when the (~)17th incarnation of the Master chose to die from a gunshot wound instead of living on as a prisoner in the Doctor's TARDIS.

A Time Lord's body makes a huge amount of energy when regenerating. There is so much of this "regeneration energy" that a Time Lord can regrow a body part that gets removed, as long as it happens soon enough after regenerating. When the Doctor regenerated into his 10th incarnation, his hand was cut off in a sword fight. Because it had been less than 15 hours since he had regenerated into this incarnation, he was able to quickly grow a new hand.

If a Time Lord has kept a part of his or her body that had been removed (like the 10th Doctor's hand, from before), it can be used to keep a Time Lord from changing during regeneration. The 10th incarnation of the Doctor kept the hand that was cut off in the sword fight in a jar on board the TARDIS. Eventually, he was shot by a Dalek, and his body began the regeneration process. After his body had finished healing, but before his body could change into a new one, the Doctor sent all of the extra energy into the hand in the jar.

Theme Tune
Just like any other TV program, Doctor Who has a theme tune that is well known. The theme tune has had many people composed and re-arranged the theme with people like Dick Mills, Delia Derbyshire, Peter Howell, Dominic Glynn, Keff Mcculloch, John Debney, Murray Gold and Segun Akinola who is the current composer for the current series. With current audio technology, several special 5.1 audios have been released which allows audio experts to isolate and reconstruct the theme.

Related pages

Torchwood
The Sarah Jane Adventures

References

Other websites

 The Official Website

1963 establishments in the United Kingdom
1963 television series debuts
1960s British television series
1970s British television series
1980s British television series
2000s British television series
2000s science fiction television series
2010s British television series
2010s science fiction television series
BBC Television programmes
British science fiction television series

Time travel television series
English-language television programs

Doctor Who


The Walkington Wold burials in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, comprise the skeletal remains of 13 individuals from the Anglo-Saxon period which were discovered in the late 1960s, during the excavation of a Bronze Age barrow. Subsequent examinations have concluded that they were decapitated Anglo-Saxon criminals, and that the site is the most northerly of its kind known in England.

Original excavation

Archaeologists Rod Mackey and John Bartlett discovered the burials while excavating the Bronze Age barrow at Walkington Wold, about 2 kilometres (1.25 miles) west of the Yorkshire village of Walkington, from 1967 to 1969. Twelve skeletons were unearthed, ten of which were without skulls, though eleven skulls were also found, most of which were without jawbones. All were buried randomly, though three appeared to have been buried together, with most of the skulls well away from the bodies. Some of the skulls were found at the centre of the barrow mound, while the bodies were all located at the perimeter. Theories of their identity included victims of a late Roman massacre, Anglo-Saxon executions, or even a Celtic head cult.

Re-evaluation
The skeletons were re-examined in 2007 by archaeologists Jo Buckberry from Bradford University and Dawn Hadley from Sheffield University. It was revealed that in fact 13 individuals were unearthed in the late 1960s, all had been aged between 18 and 45, and, while eight of the skeletons and nine of the skulls were identified as certainly male, none were identified as female. Radiocarbon dating showed that the remains range from the mid 7th century to the early 11th century. It also indicated that the apparent "triple burial" in fact consisted of separate burials in the same location. Examination of the skeletons revealed that their owners were subjected to judicial execution by decapitation, one of which required several blows. Furthermore, the heads were probably displayed on poles as warnings to others, which was a known practice in Anglo-Saxon England. While the burial site is ideally situated for public display on a rise by a road, the absence of jawbones from most of the skulls suggests that they fell off as the heads decomposed on the poles.

The crimes of the men are unknown, owing to the lack of any associated documentation. The burial site is between Walkington and the deserted village of Hunsley, adjacent to the modern hamlet of High Hunsley, at the boundary of the then hundreds of Welton and Cave. The use of an ancient barrow site situated on the boundaries between communities indicates that the executed were excluded from the community, even in death. According to Mackey, the site had been known locally as "'Hell's Gate' – suggesting there was a folk memory [from] when it was used as an execution site."

Significance

While Walkington Wold is "unusual in being the most northerly example yet found of an Anglo-Saxon execution cemetery", the site contributes evidence that such execution cemeteries were used periodically over a long time, being established long before their first documentation in the 10th century, and that men, rather than women, tended to be executed for crimes in mid to late Anglo-Saxon England. It also demonstrates continuity over a period which includes the upheavals of Scandinavian invasion and settlement.

The selection of a Bronze Age barrow for the burials fits a pattern of Anglo-Saxon re-use of ancient barrows and mounds. Such barrows were thought to be the haunt of dragons, goblins and the like, and the executed criminals at Walkington Wold, excluded from normal human society by their criminal activity and subsequent executions, were made outcasts in death by their association with such spirits.

Notes

See also
 List of Anglo-Saxon cemeteries
 Bed burial
List of Anglo-Saxon bed burials

References
Bartlett, J.E. & Mackey, R.W. 1973.  "Excavations at Walkington Wold, 1967–1969." East Riding Archaeologist 1(2), 1–100.

Hadley, D.M. & Buckberry, J.L. 2005. "Caring for the Dead in Late Anglo-Saxon England", in Tinti, F. (ed) Pastoral Care in Late Anglo-Saxon England (Woodbridge: Boydell), 121–147.

Wood, A. 2007. "Grisly discovery of headless bodies gives insight into justice Saxon style." Yorkshire Post, 31 December.

Further reading
Bailey, G.B. 1985. "Late Roman Inland Signal Station, or Temple? Functional Interpretation at Walkington Wold." Yorkshire Archaeological Journal 57, 11–14.
Buckberry, J. L. 2008. "Off with their heads: The Anglo-Saxon execution cemetery at Walkington Wold, East Yorkshire". In E. Murphy (ed.) Deviant burial in the archaeological record. (Oxford: Oxbow), 148–168
Mackey, R.W. 2006. "Walkingon Executions Re-dated" East Riding Archaeological Society Newsletter 2 November.
Reynolds, A. 1997. "The Definition and Ideology of Anglo-Saxon Execution Sites and Cemeteries" in De Boe, G. & Verhaege, F. (eds) Death & Burial in Medieval Europe (Zellick: Instituut voor het Archeologisch Patrimonium), 33–41.

External links
Angelika Franz, "Das Geheimnis von Hell's Gate" – German language, includes image gallery.

Barrows in England
Anglo-Saxon sites in England
Archaeological sites in the East Riding of Yorkshire
Execution sites in England
Anglo-Saxon burial practices
Yorkshire Wolds

Walkington Wold burials


Erbreichsplan is a German word meaning "plan for a hereditary empire". It refers to the proposal of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (1191–1197), to abolish imperial election and make the Holy Roman Empire hereditary within his family, the Staufer. This would effectively have combined the Empire and its three kingdoms—Germany, Italy and Burgundy—with the hereditary kingdom of Sicily, which belonged to Henry and his heirs in right of his wife, the heiress Constance. Since Sicily was a papal fief, this plan was strongly opposed by the Papacy. It also failed to generate sufficient support among the imperial princes.

Background

Henry, who had been crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1191, was known for being highly aggressive in guarding and expanding the rights of the imperial crown. In 1194, he invaded the Kingdom of Sicily and conquered it from its king, William III. That same year, his wife Constance gave birth to a son, Frederick II, who would, if all went well, inherit both the Imperial title and the Kingdom of Sicily. It was Henry's dream to have the Empire and Sicily permanently unified under the House of Hohenstaufen.

Unfortunately for Henry's plans, however, the Empire was an elective monarchy, meaning that the Hohenstaufens' hold on the imperial title depended on a favorable election by the princes after the death of every Emperor. The dynasty's hold on the empire could never be secure as long as the princes controlled the electoral process. Henry was aware of developments in other European countries such as France, where the principle of hereditary monarchy was firmly established and the strength of the crown was increasing. Henry ultimately decided on pursuing a way to change the imperial title into a hereditary one, and attempted to gain the support of the princes of the Empire.

The secular princes, for their part, feared Henry's extensive powers. Although hereditary succession for princes (Leihezwang) had become customary within the Empire, it was still not a formal right and on multiple occasions Henry refused to enfeoff the direct heir of a deceased prince with the latter's territory (the most notable example of this being Henry's seizure of the Margraviate of Meissen in 1195 as a vacant fief after the death of Albrecht the Proud, rather than enfeoffing Albrecht's brother Dietrich I with the margraviate). As a result, the princes were nervous about their rights of inheritance and were willing to grant certain concessions to the Emperor in exchange for the preservation of these rights.

The plan

After his capture of Sicily in 1194 Henry was busy organizing for a possible crusade and negotiating over the election of his son Frederick as his successor within the Empire. The secular princes in the meantime made their desire for hereditary imperial fiefs, and for the recognition of the capacity for inheritance by the female line as well, known. By agreeing to consider these demands, Henry was able to gain the acceptance by a majority of the secular princes for the idea of hereditary monarchy. Henry also bought the support of the ecclesiastical princes by announcing that he would be willing to give up the right of jus spolii, which had for years been used against Church lands.

Despite the high degree of support he had from the secular and ecclesiastical princes for the idea, however, Henry was unable to secure an agreement in writing. The first obstacle to the plan was the Archbishop of Cologne, Adolf of Altena. Besides being opposed towards Henry's rule in general, Adolf was unwilling to give up the significant level of influence that his position traditionally held over the imperial election. When he aroused the resistance of several Saxon and Thuringian princes against the Emperor, Henry realized that he would be unable to establish hereditary monarchy without resistance.

Henry next turned to the papacy, hoping that if he could get the support of the pope that the matter would be settled. Pope Celestine III, however, had many reasons to oppose such a plan, including the longstanding papal opposition to the expansion of Imperial power in Italy. Henry tried to compromise with Celestine, offering to meet several papal demands and probably offering a financial incentive. Ultimately the pope decided that the hazards of a hereditary monarchy were too great and refused to support Henry.

Henry now found his campaign to turn his office into a hereditary one stalled. He gave up on his plans for the time being, in the meantime securing the election of Frederick as King of the Romans in late 1196. Over the next year he was bogged down by a revolt in Sicily and preparations for the Crusade, when he suddenly died in September 1197. His death put a definitive end to his plans for hereditary Imperial succession; the issue was quickly forgotten as the Empire quickly descended into civil war between Philip of Swabia and Otto IV. Henry's attempts to turn the Imperial title into a hereditary one were ultimately futile, and the Holy Roman Empire remained an elective monarchy (albeit de facto under the Habsburgs for the last four centuries, with a brief interruption) all the way up until its dissolution in 1806.

Notes

References
Hampe, Karl. Germany Under the Salian and Hohenstaufen Emperors. Trans. Ralph Bennett. Oxford: Blackwell, 1973.
Haverkamp, Alfred. Medieval Germany, 1056-1273. Trans. Helga Braun and Richard Mortimer. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Monarchy of the Holy Roman Empire
1190s in the Holy Roman Empire
1194 in Europe
Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor

Erbreichsplan


The testimony of simplicity is a shorthand description of the actions generally taken by members of the Religious Society of Friends (Friends or Quakers) to testify or bear witness to their beliefs that a person ought to live a simple life in order to focus on what is most important, and ignore (or minimize) what is least important.

The Religious Society of Friends believes that a person's spiritual life and character are more important than the quantity of goods he possesses or his monetary worth.  They also believe that one should use one's resources, including money and time, deliberately in ways that are most likely to make life truly better for oneself and others. The word testimony describes the way that they testify or bear witness to their beliefs in their everyday life. A testimony is therefore not a belief, but is committed action arising out of their religious experience. Testimony to simplicity includes the practice among Quakers (members of the Religious Society of Friends) of being more concerned with one's inner condition than one's outward appearance and with other people more than oneself.

General explanation
Early Friends believed that it was important to avoid fanciness in dress, speech, and material possessions, because those things tend to distract one from waiting on God's personal guidance.  They also tend to cause a person to focus on himself more than on his fellow human beings, in violation of Jesus' teaching to "love thy neighbor as thyself".  This emphasis on plainness, as it was called, made the Friends in certain times and places easily recognizable to the society around them, particularly by their plain dress in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Simplicity to Friends has generally been a reference to material possessions. Friends have often limited their possessions to what they need to live their lives, rather than accumulating luxuries. The testimony is not just about the nature of one's material possessions, but rather also about one's attitude towards these material goods. Many Friends who have been considered exemplary have also been wealthy; their commitment to the testimony, however, led them to use their wealth for spiritual purposes, including aid to the poor and oppressed. On the other hand, some Friends, such as John Woolman, gave up much of their wealth and economic position when they felt it to be a spiritual burden. In recent decades Friends have given the Testimony an ecological dimension: that Friends should not use more than their fair share of the Earth's limited resources.

Like many aspects of Quaker life, the practice of plainness has evolved over time, although it is based on principles that have been a lasting part of Quaker thought. These principles now form part of the Quaker testimonies. Plainness is an  extension of the testimony of simplicity and can still be observed today among modern Friends who do not follow fashion trends or purchase extravagant clothing.

This testimony also finds expression in the tradition of plain walls and functional furniture in Quaker meeting houses.

Simplicity in dress

Traditionally, wearing plain dress was an answer to a number of Friends' concerns. Expensive styles were used to show social inequality and make statements about wealth. Only a select few could afford expensive adornments, which could then be used to exacerbate differences between people based on class, where people in fancy clothing would not want to be seen socializing with others dressed tattily. This was part of the inspiration for the Quaker testimony to equality. In addition, the frequent buying of expensive new styles and discarding what had recently been bought, was considered wasteful and self-seeking, where Friends instead aimed to focus on simplicity, and the important things in life. Notably, Friends did not consider it right to judge people on their material possessions, but this could not be achieved in a society which placed an emphasis on keeping up to date with inconsequential but expensive new trends. At the time, this practice of plainness meant Friends were obviously identifiable.

As fashions changed over time, the Quaker ideal of plain dress stood out against contemporary clothing. As a result, the traditional forms of this practice were dropped by most Friends. Today, it is more likely that Friends will try to put their faith into action by dressing in a plain version of current fashions—such as avoiding clothing displaying designer labels. They may also try to buy only the clothing they need, and pay more for fairly traded clothing that has been made ethically.

Friends used to have a strong tradition of simplicity in dress, more properly called "plain dress". Plain dress generally meant wearing clothes that were very similar to Amish or conservative Mennonite dress: often in dark colors and lacking adornments such as fancy (or any) pockets, buttons, buckles, lace, or embroidery. This was widely practiced until the late 19th and early 20th century, when most Friends began dressing more like the rest of society. As the Quaker Oats brand shares the Quaker name, despite having no links with the Society of Friends, there is now a somewhat popular misconception that Friends today still wear the traditional clothing. A small minority of contemporary Friends continue to dress plainly.

Traditional plain dress has survived among the Conservative Friends and Holiness Friends branches of Quakerism, which is today represented by meetings such as the Ohio Yearly Meeting and the Central Yearly Meeting respectively, where there exist Friends who have kept plain dress alive up to the present day. For Conservative Friends, plain dress for men usually includes "a broad-brimmed felt or straw hat, trousers with suspenders instead of a belt, and muted colors in the fabrics: blacks, whites, greys, browns", sometimes with "broad-fall trouser cuts". Quaker men traditionally are clean-shaven. Conservative Quaker women practice Christian headcovering by wearing a "scarf, bonnet, or cap" and "wear long-sleeved, long dresses". The number of contemporary Friends voluntarily wearing traditional plain dress is growing and has been called by some Quakers "The New Plain".

Some Conservative Friends do not self-describe this witness as being part of their simplicity testimony, but rather their integrity testimony, viewing it as an obedience to God's will rather than a witness to a human-generated ideal. Thomas Hamm, in his book Quakers in America, describes a transition among most Friends from plainness to simplicity.

However, the vast majority of Quakers today (apart from Conservative Friends and Holiness Friends) are all but indistinguishable from non-Quakers as far as style of clothing is concerned.

Simplicity in speech

Plainness in speech addressed other concerns than materialism: honesty, avoiding class distinction and vestiges of paganism, and the speaking of truth. These principles were put into practice by affirming rather than making an oath or shaking hands to agree upon a deal, setting fixed prices for goods, avoiding the use of honorific titles and using familiar forms for the second person pronoun. Early Friends also objected to the names of the days and months in the English language, because many of them referred to Roman or Norse gods, such as Mars (March) and Thor (Thursday), and Roman emperors, such as Julius (July). As a result, the days of the week were known as "First Day" for Sunday, "Second Day" for Monday, and so forth. Similarly, the months of the year were "First Month" for January, "Second Month" for February, and so forth. For many Friends today, this is no longer a priority, though the tradition is still kept up by some—especially in the term "First-Day school" for Sunday schools organized by Friends.  Many Friends organizations continue to use the "simple calendar" for official records.

Early Friends practiced plainness in speech by not referring to people in the "fancy" ways that were customary. Often Friends would address everyone, including high-ranking persons, using the familiar forms of "thee" and "thou", instead of the respectful "you". Later, as "thee" and "thou" disappeared from everyday English usage, many Quakers continued to use these words as a form of "plain speech", though the original reason for this usage disappeared, along with "hast" and "hath". In the eighteenth century, "thou hast" disappeared, along with the associated second-person verb forms, and the otherwise strange "thee is" became normal "plain speech".  Today there are still Friends that will use "thee" with other Quakers. (Note: in 17th century English the forms above would have been "thou hast" and "thou art".) Interestingly, some Friends now use the word "thou"—but sometimes as a plural form.

In languages that today maintain the T–V distinction, usage varies. Following the British usage, early francophone Quakers preferred the use of the more informal tu to address even those who would by convention be addressed with the more formal vous. In more contemporary times, however, usage has swung the other way, and French-speaking Quakers today are more likely than others to use the formal vous. In part, this is a recognition of the complexity of the notion of simplicity in speech, whose intent might be understood to be not a requirement of informality, but a desire to address everyone "simply", i.e., uniformly. The rejection of the past use of tu by white French missionaries to address Africans may be a factor in the contemporary francophone usage.

Titles, such as Mr., Mrs., Miss, Dr., Rev., etc., are often avoided by many Friends.  Instead Friends tend to address each other by first and last name with no title.  In many Quaker communities children address adults by either their first names, or first and last names but with no title, and in many Quaker schools teachers are called by their first names as well.    It is conventional for Friends who do not know each other well, who in non-Quaker circles would address each other with a title, to use first name and last name together, rather than to adopt the more familiar first name only.  Friends also tend not to use the appellation sir or madam to refer to someone of whom they do not know the name, instead using the term Friend.  In letter-writing, where others might use the phrase Dear Sir or Madam, many Quakers would instead write Dear Friend, and in such letters, rather than finishing yours faithfully would finish either yours in truth or yours in friendship.
This practice is now considered more a part of the Testimony of Equality than a part of the Testimony of Simplicity.

Additionally early Friends and modern Friends do not swear oaths, even in courtrooms (a choice that has been allowed in Britain since 1695, and is protected in the United States by the Constitution, and one that can be problematic elsewhere). When required, Quakers may instead "affirm" that they are going to tell the truth.  This was considered an aspect of simplicity because it was simply telling the truth rather than embellishing it with an oath, which is not necessary if one is supposed to always tell the truth.  It is also an aspect of the Testimony of Integrity.  It comes in part from Christ's teaching in the sermon on the mount:

In a similar manner Friends avoid haggling over prices. They simply set a fixed price that they considered fair, which went against the custom of earlier times, but was felt by them to be simpler and more honest (this practice is generally considered more a part of the Testimony of Integrity than a part of the Testimony of Simplicity).

Simplicity in general life

The Testimony of Simplicity is an important part of Quaker life, and many examples of its influence can be seen in both day-to-day and ceremonious practices. In keeping with the testimony, for example, many meetings that have care of a graveyard ask that those erecting monuments to deceased Friends keep the testimony in mind and erect only a simple, low-lying stone.

Citations

General and cited sources

 Hamm, Thomas D., Quakers in America, (Contemporary American Religion series), Columbia University Press, 2003. . NOTE: The section on "Simplicity" is at pp. 101–108. Some pages from this section are available on Google Books.
Fager, Charles E., "The Quaker Testimony of Simplicity" in Quaker Religious Thought, Vol. 14, #1. Summer, 1972.
 Foster, Richard J., Freedom of Simplicity, Harper & Row, 1981.
 Pym, Jim, Listening To The Light: How To Bring Quaker Simplicity And Integrity Into Our Lives, Rider Books, 1999.
 Whitmire, Catherine, Plain Living: A Quaker Path to Simplicity, Sorin Books, 2001.

External links
From Quaker Faith and Practice, Britain Yearly Meeting
Reasons Quaker Women Give for Going Plain
Plainnness & Simplicity group on QuakerQuaker.org

Christianity and society
Quaker practices
Quaker theology
Simple living
Testimony

Testimony of simplicity


In rhetoric, a tautology is the repetition of a statement, for example, "With malice toward none, with charity for all".

Unlike a tautology in logic, it is not automatically true.

Examples
 The phrase "A is A", often mistakenly attributed to Aristotle, was a favorite of Ayn Rand. The idea frequently appears in her  philosophy, especially as written in her novel Atlas Shrugged.
 The phrase A is B because A is B.
 In his book Mostly Harmless, Douglas Adams used the phrase, "Anything that happens, happens. Anything that in happening causes something else to happen, causes something else to happen. Anything that in happening happens again, happens again. Though not necessarily in that order."
 Comedian Mitch Hedberg joked about a tautological advertisement for a boxing match: "It said, It's a fight to the finish! (pause) That's a good place to end."

Figures of speech

Tautology (rhetoric)


Eyeglasses (U.S),glasses or spectacles ( also more rarely cheaters) are pieces of glass or clear plastic, called lenses, that are held in front of a person's eyes by a frame made of metal or plastic. They can be used for many reasons. These include safety. fashion and to correct a person's vision.  The earliest known eyeglasses are in the thirteenth century in Italy.

Uses
Corrective lenses let some people see or read better if they have problems seeing. If the someone is long-sighted (the light is focusses past the retina), they use a different type of glasses than someone who is short-sighted. Lenses can also correct Astigmatism. Contact lenses also help people see better. Corrective lenses usually are made by opticians following eyeglass prescription from an optometrist. It's also possible to get adjustable focus glasses where one can change the lens power.

Reading glasses that are sold over the counter may help those with presbyopia who only need to wear glasses occasionally. They typically come in lens powers from +0.25 to +4.

3d glasses are used during 3d movies.

Glasses can also protect the eyes. Goggles and safety glasses are strong and protect the eyes from flying objects. Sunglasses (with dark tinted lenses) keep too much sunlight from getting in people's eyes. Some glasses are tinted for special applications, fashion and light sensitivity conditions. Some eyeglasses, often with yellow lenses, block blue light from a computer, game, tablet, smart phone or TV.

Styles
Eyeglasses are made in many different styles. These may be worn for fashion or function. These styles include:
 Aviator glasses - Usually metal frames with a bar directly above the nose bridge.
 Wayfarer glasses - Eyeglasses or sunglasses with thicker plastic frames and small metal detailing on the front of the glasses.
 Wraparound glasses - Those where the lenses curve around the face offering a greater field of vision and more protection than "flat" glasses.
Wire-rim glasses - Glasses with thin !metal frames.
Horn-rimmed glasses - With thicker plastic frames.
 Windsor, granny or John Lennon glasses - with perfectly round lenses.
 Flip up glasses - Glasses with two pairs of lenses, the outer pair flips up and down as needed.
 Mountaineering glasses - Frames with fabric shields on the temples. Designed to protect the eyes at high altitudes.
 Semi-rimless glasses - With the lens rim only on top.
 Rimless glasses - Without eye rims.
 GI glasses or birth control glasses - Eyeglasses, usually considered ugly, issued by the United States Military to its soldiers at basic training.

Historical styles
 Rivet spectacles or scissors glasses - One of the oldest styles dating back to the medieval era and essentially consisting of two magnifying glasses attached at the handles with a rivet. These seem to have been invented in Florence around 1286. In a sermon from 1306, a Dominican friar wrote: "It is not yet twenty years since there was found the art of making eyeglasses, which make for good vision… And it is so short a time that this new art, never before extant, was discovered."
 Pince-nez - Glasses without temple arms, popular during the 19th and early 20th centuries

Related pages
 Myopia (nearsightedness)
Hyperopia (farsightedness)
Corrective lens
 Bifocals

References

Eyeglasses


Robert Michael John Fox (born 25 March 1952) is an English theatre and film producer, whose work includes the 2002 film The Hours.

Life and career
He was born the third son of theatrical agent Robin Fox and actress Angela Worthington. He is the younger brother of actors Edward Fox and James Fox. The actress Emilia Fox is his niece and the actors Laurence Fox and Freddie Fox are his nephews. His maternal grandfather was playwright Frederick Lonsdale. Fox was educated at Harrow School.

Fox has been a theatrical producer in the West End and on Broadway for over two decades.
His productions include Another Country, Burn This starring John Malkovich; the world premiere of Arthur Miller's The Ride Down Mt. Morgan; Edward Albee's Three Tall Women; many plays by David Hare: Skylight with Michael Gambon and Lia Williams, Amy's View with Judi Dench, and The Breath of Life with Maggie Smith and Judi Dench.
Other Fox productions include Hedda Gabler, Closer by Patrick Marber, The Lady in the Van by Alan Bennett starring Maggie Smith and directed by Nicholas Hytner; a revival of Pinter's The Caretaker with Michael Gambon, Gypsy on Broadway; The Boy from Oz starring Hugh Jackman; and The Pillowman by Martin McDonagh starring Billy Crudup and Jeff Goldblum.
Fox is currently co-producing two new plays: on Broadway, The Vertical Hour by David Hare starring Julianne Moore and Bill Nighy, and in the West End, Frost/Nixon by Peter Morgan with Frank Langella and Michael Sheen at the Gielgud Theatre.

Fox executive-produced the film of Closer, directed by Mike Nichols and starring Julia Roberts, Jude Law, Clive Owen and Natalie Portman. Before that, he produced The Hours with Scott Rudin, directed by Stephen Daldry, starring Nicole Kidman, Meryl Streep and Julianne Moore; and Iris (Miramax/Mirage) directed by Richard Eyre, starring Judi Dench, Kate Winslet and Jim Broadbent, both of which garnered Oscars in 2003. Other credits include executive producer on Another Country; a television film of Suddenly, Last Summer with Maggie Smith; and A Month by the Lake for starring Vanessa Redgrave, Edward Fox and Uma Thurman. He co-produced Notes on a Scandal for Fox Searchlight starring Cate Blanchett and Judi Dench.

Personal life
Fox is married to Fiona Golfar, with whom he has two children. He was previously married to Celestia Sporborg, with whom he had three children, and to the actress Natasha Richardson from 1990 to 1992.

References

External links

1952 births
People educated at Harrow School
People from Cuckfield
English film producers
English theatre managers and producers
Living people
Robin Fox family
Golden Globe Award-winning producers

Robert Fox (producer)


Territorial changes of the Baltic states refers to the redrawing of borders of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia after 1940. The three republics, formerly autonomous regions within the former Russian Empire and before that of former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and as provinces of the Swedish Empire, gained independence in the aftermath of World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917. After a two-front independence war fought against both Bolshevist Russian and Baltic German nationalist forces, the countries concluded peace and border treaties with Soviet Russia in 1920. However, with World War II and the occupation and annexation of these republics into the Soviet Union twenty years after their independence, certain territorial changes were made in favour of the Russian SFSR. This has been the source of political tensions after they regained their independence with the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Some of the disputes remain unresolved.

The main issues are the territories which were part of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia in the interwar period, but which became incorporated into the Russian SFSR, Byelorussian SSR and Poland after World War II. In addition, some territories that were not controlled by the independent Baltic republics were also annexed during the Soviet era. Most notable case is Vilnius taken from Poland by the USSR to become the capital of Lithuania.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union the issue of these territories was raised by the Estonian and Latvian governments. Lithuania has never officially raised the question of its borders and has border treaties with all its neighbors. Only marginal political groups use the "issue of borders" in their political rhetoric.

Actual territorial changes after World War II

This is a list of actual territorial changes that happened when Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were incorporated into the Soviet Union and became the Baltic Soviet Socialist Republics. All the boundaries established by these changes exist up to modern days (now they are delimiting the boundaries of independent Baltic states). The modern Russian, Belarusian or Polish official names of locations mentioned in this section are given in the first place, while, where applicable, the official interwar names (Lithuanian, Latvian or Estonian) are given in parentheses.

Estonia
In January 1945, some territories of Estonian SSR were ceded to the Russian SFSR: the Russian–Estonian boundary in the north of Lake Peipus was moved westwards by about 12 kilometers from its interwar location (which was delimited by the Treaty of Tartu); the new boundary (which exists up until these days) runs along Narva river. The Russian-Estonian boundary that used to run in the middle of Lake Peipus did not change, while the boundary south of Lake Peipus was also moved westwards (by about 25 kilometers). Overall, about 2,210 km2 of land changed hands, including Ivangorod (Jaanilinn, then eastern suburb of Narva), the town of Pechory (Petseri), and areas in and around Izborsk (Irboska), Lavry (Laura), and Rotovo (Roodva), and the Kolpina Island (Kulkna) in southern Lake Peipus.

Latvia
In the late 1944, a territory in northeastern Latvian SSR of about 1,300 square kilometers was ceded to Russian SFSR. This area includes towns of Pytalovo (until 1938 Jaunlatgale, since 1938 – Abrene) and four rural districts. All these areas during the interwar constituted the eastern part of the Abrene County of Latvia, while during the Russian Empire they were part of Ostrovsky Uyezd of Pskov Governorate. According to the 1935 Latvian census, Russians were 85.8% of the population of the ceded territory, while Latvians were 12.5%.  They were added to Pskov Oblast of Russian SFSR. Russian-Latvian boundary in the southeastern Latvia did not change. Although Poland moved westwards after the war, and now resides over 320 km from the borders of Latvia, traces of its influence continue to remain in Latgale.

Lithuania
After the annexation of Lithuania into the Soviet Union in 1940, a new eastern boundary of Lithuania (Lithuanian SSR) was delimited. The boundary which was delimited in 1920 by Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty had not been the eastern and southern boundary of Lithuania during most of the period because the Vilnius region became part of Poland in early 1920s. Lithuania, however, continued to claim the 1920 border as official and the Soviets continued to recognise these areas as part of Lithuania rather than Poland as well. In 1940, when Lithuania was incorporated into the Soviet Union, a new boundary was drawn, enlarging the de facto Lithuanian territory, though not to the full extent of the republic's claim. The notable gain was the city of Vilnius, which again became Lithuania's capital. The control of the Vilnius region was partitioned between the Lithuanian SSR (including towns of Švenčionys, Druskininkai and the village of Dieveniškės), the Belarusian SSR and Nazi Germany (the latter territory was returned to Poland after World War II).  Main cities that were recognised by Soviets as a part of Lithuania by the 1920 treaty but were not added to Lithuanian SSR include Grodno (Gardinas), Lida (Lyda), Smarhonʹ (Smurgainys), Pastavy (Pastovys), Ashmyany (Ašmena), Braslaw (Breslauja), Suwałki (Suvalkai).

Reasons for the territorial changes
The redistribution of lands after World War II was based on the ethnicity of local populations – some of the territories that had a clear non-Baltic majority were attached to other republics; this, however, also happened to some territories which had a clear Baltic majority (many of them were enclaves in areas without a Baltic majority). In Latvia and Estonia, parts of territories which had not belonged to the Governorate of Estonia, the Riga Governorate, Vitebsk Governorate or the Courland Governorate within the Russian Empire were detached, but there is no evidence that this was a reason for the transfer of territory. In Lithuania's case, the detaching did not have any historical foundation.

History of the territories after resumption of independence
Under the Soviet rule the territories that were added to the Russian SFSR and the Byelorussian SSR were largely Russified, due to insufficient support for Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian languages, characterized by too few schools with curricula in these languages . They saw a significant migration of Russian-speaking people. In some of the territories that became part of Poland, Lithuanian language schools existed and still exist.

The territories were not returned to the Baltic states after they regained independence and remain parts of Russia, Belarus and Poland. In general, the official government policy of Latvia and Estonia is not to push the issue, but the territories' return is supported by some, usually marginal, organizations inside these countries, such as the Abreniešu apvienība (Abrenian Union) in Latvia.

Estonia

The Estonia-Russia border treaty had been signed in Moscow on 18 May 2005 and ratified by Estonia, but was not ratified by Russia — official reason for this was the fact that Estonia's internal treaty ratification legislation passed by parliament mentioned the 1920 Treaty of Tartu (the treaty under which these territories were originally recognised as Estonian).

On 6 September 2005, the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs summoned Anne Härmaste, Chargé d'Affaires ad interim of Estonia in Russia, and handed her a note containing a notice of the intention of the Russian Federation to withdraw its signature and not to become a party to the Treaty Between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Estonia on the Russian-Estonian State Border and to the Treaty Between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Estonia on the Delimitation of the Sea Areas in the Narva Estuary and Gulf of Finland.

The Treaty of Tartu is considered to be a historical document of no legal power by Russia, while in Estonia the situation is different, as officially Estonia considers itself the continuation state of the interwar Estonia.

Latvia
It was assumed that the Russian-Latvian border treaty would be signed in 2005. In Latvia the opposition, primarily the organization Abreniešu apvienība consisting of people deported from Pytalovo and surroundings, lobbied for nationwide referendum on such treaty as they saw it as violating the constitution of Latvia (principle of territorial unity). The government ruled out a possibility of referendum, however the negotiations for border treaty were suspended by Russia after the Latvian parliament issued a declaration stating that Latvia was occupied by the Soviet Union and claiming material compensation from Russia for the period of occupation.

President Vladimir Putin in his speech regarding these territories said that "it goes against the spirit of modern Europe" to raise issues like this one, that "Russia as well has lost many of its external territories during the breakup of the Soviet Union, such as the Crimea". In an interview with Komsomolskaya Pravda in May 2005, Putin addressed the issue of Pytalovo, when he stated that Russia would not hold any negotiations with Latvia which involved territorial losses for Russia.

Lithuania
Lithuania immediately after independence recognised the borders established in 1940 as the borders of Lithuania and signed border agreements with Belarus and Poland. Relations with neighbouring Russia have been strained since then but maintain diplomatic alliance with Poland and Belarus.

See also
 Baltic Russians
 Estonian War of Independence
 Latvian War of Independence
 Lithuanian Wars of Independence
 Reunification
 Territorial changes of Russia

References

External links

 This issue from a U.S.-based political analysis organization (includes information about the Pytalovo region), supports Latvian viewpoint (archived link)
 Example A map comparing the interwar Estonian territory with that today (the territories detached in 1945 are striped)

Baltic
History of the Baltic states
Baltic
Occupation of the Baltic states
Geographic history of Estonia
Geography of Latvia
Foreign relations of Estonia
Foreign relations of Belarus
Baltic
Geographic history of Latvia
History of Lithuania (1918–1940)
Baltic States
Baltic


Lakshmi Pooja (), is a Hindu religious festival celebrated once in a year. It is celebrated on the Amavasya (new moon day) of Krishna Paksha (Dark fortnight). In the Vikram Samvat Hindu calendar it is celebrated in the month of Ashwin or Kartik. The puja is done on the third day of Tihar and is considered as the main event of Deepawali.

In Hinduism, Lakshmi is goddess of wealth and lord Vishnu's wife. It is believed that in this day she visits her followers and give them gifts and blessings. To welcome the Goddess, people clean their houses and make it bright with lights. They also prepare good food and sweets for offerings.

Hindu festivals
Festivals in India

Lakshmi Puja


Doenjang is a Korean soybean paste. It is salty and savory, and is used to season many kinds of Korean food. It is similar to Miso, Japanese soybean paste.

History
The history of Doenjang begins before the period of three kingdoms. Books from the Chosun dynasty explain the way to make good Doenjang, saying that if doenjang in a house tastes bad, food in the house tastes bad. This means doenjang has been an important food in Korea for a long time.

Manufacture
The main ingredients of Doenjang are sea water and Meju. The basic way to make Doenjang is to take Mejus and put them into big jars with sea water. Bad bacteria and odor are removed by adding charcoal and sun-dried chili peppers. Liquid is then taken out to make Korean soy sauce. This sauce takes about 20 to 30 days to make. The Mejus are taken out from the jar and tempered. Salt and soy sauce is added on this paste and the paste is put in jars again. After sun-drying for several days, it becomes Doenjang.

Variety
There are several kinds of Doenjang; Chungukjang, Makjang, Dambukjang, BbamjangBbagaejang, Patjang, Jipjang, Garoojang, and Borijang. Each is made in different ways using different ingredients or at different times of the year. For example, Chungukjang is made within two to three days, whereas the other take longer time to make. Patjang uses red bean. Makjang is made in Spring.
Moreover there are several attempts to improve doenjang using additional ngredients, such as green tea.

Use
Many traditional Korean foods, which are well known as healthy food, uses Doenjang as their ingredients. Doenjang Jjigae and Chungukjang JJigae are examples of this.
Also, Korean have doenjang when they eat Ssambop, Samgyupsal, etc.

Health
According to recent research, Doenjang has several materials that prevent cancer. Doenjang is very nutritious. Since Doenjang is a fermented food like yogurt and cheese, it is said that the older it is, the better it is.

References

 KM.Hwang et al., Doenjang Extract Has Anticancer Activity and Induces Apoptosis in AGS Human Gastric Adenocarcinoma, Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Vol.10 No.2, 2005. June
 Cancer Weekly, Doenjang's active compounds are genistein and linoleic acid, published on 2003. May

Korea
Korean food

Doenjang


Systematics is one of the main fields in biology. It is closely related to taxonomy.

Systematics is the study of the diversification of life on the planet Earth, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time.

Relationships are usually seen as evolutionary trees (cladograms, phylogenetic trees, phylogenies).

Phylogenies have two components, branching order (showing group relationships) and branch length (showing amount of evolution). Phylogenetic trees of species and higher taxa are used to study the evolution of traits (anatomical or molecular characteristics), and the distribution of organisms (biogeography). Systematics is used to help us understand the evolutionary history of life on Earth.

"Systematic biology" and "taxonomy" are terms that are often confused and used interchangeably. They were defined as follows:

Systematics is the field which (a) provides scientific names for organisms, (b) describes them, (c) preserves collections of them, (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys for their identification, and data on their distributions, (e) investigates their evolutionary histories, and (f) considers their environmental adaptations. Taxonomy is that part of systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above.

References

Evolutionary biology
Taxonomy

Systematics


Pyramid is a game show which was shown on television. Many different versions of the show have been made. The current show is on GSN. on 1973 Present Until 1989 on ABC Game Show Network CBS Call NBC on New 2012 or 2016 in Match Game Wheel of Fortune & Jeopardy Game Show Network GSN (1994 Present) in 2001

History

$10,000 Pyramid
The first version of the game was called the $10,000 Pyramid. It was hosted by Dick Clark. The game show offered the largest prize on television at the time.

Other versions
The show ran for other versions. Some versions offered $25,000 as the prize. Others offered $100,000 as the prize.

The Pyramid
In 2012, GSN premiered a new version called The Pyramid. The show is based on the format of the old ones. This version premiered on September 3, 2012. It is hosted by Mike Richards. In this version, getting all 7 words right won the contestant $500, and the amount they would play for in the Winner's Circle went up by $5,000.

Gameplay
There are two halves of the game. The first and second halves are almost equal. In the first half, normal people team with famous people. One of the teams will try to describe a word to the other. There are seven words in each round. There are six total rounds in the first half. At the end of the half the team with the most points moves on. They go to the "Winner's Circle". In the Winner's Circle, one player will use short phrases to tell the other a category. There are six categories for the Winner's Circle. If the team guesses all six correct in one minute they win the prize money. For the second half the players switch famous people. The gameplay is the same in the second half.

Bonus cards
There have been many bonuses offered on the show. Some of the bonus cards are:
7/11: This was hidden under one of the first round subjects. The player would get $1,100 if they answered all 7 right in time.
Mystery 7: The player would get a surprise if they guessed all 7 words right in time. Prizes included trips, computers, and other items.

American television game shows
CBS network shows
First run syndicated television programs
English-language television programs

Pyramid (game show)


Rodgau is a city in the Offenbach Rural District in the state of Hesse, Germany. It is the largest city of the district by area and by population as well.

Geography

Rodgau is in the Rhine Main area  southeast of Frankfurt am Main. The whole area of the town is  large and it is  above sea level. It is a plain area with no hills.

About 35 to 20 million years ago in the age of tertiary the whole region was lying under sea level. At that time it was covered by an ocean which was warm and not very deep. Lots of sediments sank to its bottom. Then the region rose again and the water left, leaving soil which is mostly sandy and poor.

The town consists out of 5 former independent villages. On 1 January 1977 they were united and became the municipality of Rodgau. On 15 September 1979 city rights were given to the municipality.

The former villages, now urban districts, are from north to south: Weiskirchen, Hainhausen, Jügesheim, Dudenhofen and Nieder-Roden. They all lie by a small creek, the Rodau, flowing through the city from south to north. Rodgau got its name from this creek. The ending -gau means area or district. Rod- is a hint to the former landscape. The German verb roden means cutting down trees to cultivate land. Rod- is also part of the name of Nieder-Roden.

The neighbours of Rodgau are:
 Obertshausen (North)
 Hainburg and Seligenstadt (East)
 Babenhausen, Eppertshausen and Rödermark (South)
 Heusenstamm and Dietzenbach (West)

Rodgau has 43,047 inhabitants (2008). Nearly 10% of the people living here are from foreign countries. They come from 52 different nations. 39% of the people are of catholic religion, 25.5% are of protestant religion and 35.5% have another or no religion.

The climate of the town is mild with an average temperature of 10.5 °C. There is less rain than in other parts of Germany.

Some local people are speaking a regional type (dialect) of the German language with a certain tone and special words. It is a Hessian dialect (German: Hessisch). This language type is related to other dialects in the south of Germany. In former times mostly every village had its own special dialect, sometimes hard to understand for people of other parts of Germany. Today the dialect speakers are a minority and the majority of them does not speak the real dialect. They rather speak a kind of regular German with a certain pronunciation.

History

The first settlements were build in the 8th century. Later in the 12th and 13th century the names of the settlements were written down in documents. During the times the villages belonged to different owners. Because of the reformation the people of the village of Dudenhofen became protestant, but all the others remained catholic. This led to the situation, that the Dudenhofen people married partners from nearby Babenhausen, Dietzenbach and other protestant places but did not have relatives in the catholic Rodgau villages. Around 1830 the settlements had a total population of about 4,000 people. In 1939 the amount of inhabitants was about 11,500. It increased to about 34,000 in 1970 and to about 45,000 at the end of the 2000s.

Formerly the people in the Rodgau area were farmers and craftsmen but not tradesmen. Every family had land to grow their food. When the property was handed to the next generation it was divided within the children. Therefore, most families had only small farms and were poor. With the industrial revolution the Rhine Main area got lots of factories and developed to a center for metal working and leather manufacturing, also chemical engineering. Many men got workmen and found a job in the factories and earned money. This increased living conditions partly.

After world war II the Rhine Main area was one of the hot spots in Germany because of its central location and its traffic opportunities. Many companies settled down because of the Rhine Main airport and the motorways connecting the region with all parts of Germany. From the 1960s on the Rodgau villages were a huge development area, especially in Nieder-Roden and Jügesheim. Lots of small and middle seized companies started or moved to the area giving jobs to the people. Houses were built and people from other parts of Germany or from other countries came to the area for working and living. The fields near the villages were needed for building and the prices for the land exploded in the 1970s. All this increased the living conditions dramatically.

The growing villages formed an urban areal and in the late 1970s the municipality of Rodgau was shaped. Since then the former villagers and the new residents slowly began to develop a Rodgau identity. Most of the foreign people at first came from Italy, Spain and Portugal, later from Yugoslavia and Greece, then from Turkey. Often the male members came to earn money and send it to their family abroad. In many cases the families moved to Germany later, settled down and got German citizens, bought houses or built one. Only few went back to their home countries. The children went to German schools and are nowadays regular members of the community.

Politics

The administration of the formerly independent villages was centralized and the new city hall is in the central part of Rodgau, Jügesheim. There are citizen offices in every former village, called Anlaufstelle to deal with minor affairs.

Head of the city is a mayor (CDU). The parliament has 45 seats. Last elections in 2006 had the following results:

 1 Bürger/FWG = Bürger/Freie Wählergemeinschaft. This is an independent party of citizens, which has a focus on single local matters.
 2 Dt. Liste = Deutsche Liste. This is a conservative party. Most people and most other parties say, that this party stands for positions of Neo-Nazism.

Rodgau is ruled by a center-right alliance of CDU and FDP.

The city government and the mayor got problems because after the parliament elections three members of the CDU delegates left the CDU parliamentary group. The following political trouble influenced the later mayor elections (2009) and led to a new mayor, now from the SPD. He will start in April 2010.

Coat of Arms

The coat of arms was given to the city in 1978. It stands for the former villages and their religion. From bottom left to top right runs a silvery band. It is the picture of the creek Rodau. The fife stars on the band are the picture of the fife villages lying by the creek.

Top left is the picture of a luther rose. It is a religious symbol and it stands for the protestant religion of Dudenhofen. Bottom right is a picture of a wheel. This is not a religious symbol.  But it stands for the catholic religion of Weiskirchen, Hainhausen, Jügesheim and Nieder-Roden.

Both pictures are standing for the former owners of the villages. The rose stands for the Count of Hanau and later the Count of Darmstadt. The wheel comes from the archbishop of Mainz. The rose is on one side of the creek and the wheel is opposite to it on the other side of the creek. This means that the villages had trouble and fights because of their different religion.

Twinned cities

  Puisseau, France
  Hainburg, Austria
  Nieuwpoort, Belgium
  Donja Stubica, Croatia

Culture and Sights

The two main fields of Rodgau culture are the surrounding nature and the peoples clubs. It is typically German, that most of the people of Rodgau are a member of one or more of the clubs.

These associations have a focus on singing, sports, orchestra music, socker, breeding pet animals, dancing and many other. There are about 50 clubs in Rodgau, where people come together and spend their free time. The associations are an important part of the social life of the city, especially for the people of the former villages partly to keep their villager identity. The clubs are open to new members, who like to share the focus and to develope social contacts.

Rodgau is surrounded by large forests. On weekend many people go there for a walk or make trips by bicycle on the narrow lanes which are leading all through the woods. Often there are places for doing sports or having a barbecue. The facilities are kept kleen and in order by work departments of the city administration.

Because of the village history there are no theaters or museums in the city, but there are well known ones in the cities nearby, mostly in Frankfurt (Senckenbergmuseum; on natural history), Offenbach (Ledermuseum; on leather handycraft and artswork) and Darmstadt (Theater). There are no famous buildings in Rodgau but some architecture (stile of buildings) typical for the region. The old churches of the villages and the framework houses are worth to look at.

There are five protestant and six catholic churches in the city. For the Muslim there are two mosques, one in Nieder-Roden and one in Jügesheim.

Rodgau has two cinemas, many restaurants of different style, bars and some dancefloors.

Once in the year in January and February the whole region is celebrating carnival, the local name is Fasenacht or Fastnacht. It is mostly a tradition of catholic areas. The local names come from a period named Fastenzeit (a time of fasting) some weeks before Easter, when one should do fasting. The celebrations are always ending on Tuesday midnight and the fasting period starts on the following Wednesday, named Aschermittwoch.

In autumn every village has an extra weekend to celebrate. It is the memorial to the opening of their church. The feasts are named Kirchweih or - in the local dialect - Kerb. In former times great autumn fairs were held on that weekend and the people, especially the young ones of the nearby places, went to the feasts to meet each other in the village, to have pleasure, to dance together and make friends.

During late spring and summer many small feasts are celebrated on weekend, mostly in the forests at the barbecue places. They are arranged by the local clubs and associations, even by the local political parties. They are open to the public and people go there to socialize, having a meal and drinking some beer.

The most special and expensive vegetable of the region is asparagus, which loves the poor sandy soil. It is gathered in May and June. Because of the same reason the region has a lot of potato dishes. Some of them are very special and only available on special occasions like the Bauernkeeskuche (farmers cheese pie). It is a sort of salty potato pie, that is made with a bread dough.

Economics und Infrastructure

Traffic

The traffic in Rodgau runs mostly individual by car. A lot of people are working in nearby cities. They have to drive to their jobs in Frankfurt, Offenbach or other big places. They use the motorway A3 running through the north of Rodgau.

East along the city runs the B45 from north to south, a motorway-like street connecting all the urban districts with the motorway A3 and the cities of Offenbach, Frankfurt and Hanau to the north and Darmstadt to the south. The suburban railway no. 1 (German: S-Bahn-Linie 1) runs to Offenbach and, since 2003 directly to Frankfurt. A poor bus system (a single line) connects the urban districts frequently. Rodgau can be easyly reached by street from most other parts of Germany. This was one reason for its fast development in the past.

Information

The city has no own daily newspaper. There are the Offenbach-Post and the Frankfurter Rundschau, both with additional pages (supplement) about Rodgau. The Offenbach-Post supplement is named Rodgau-Post. It comes weekly on Thursday. There are two weekly papers for free which are brought to every house: The Rodgau-Zeitung and the Bürgerblatt. The Dreieich-Spiegel also comes to the houses for free and has a part with Rodgau things. There is a quarterly city magazine mein rodgau, with articles about people, sports, culture and life style.

Radio information comes by the radio station Hessischer Rundfunk (HR) on channel 1 to 4, You FM and hr-info. Other radio stations are Hit Radio FFH, also Radio Primavera in the nearby bavarian city of Aschaffenburg.

Medicine

Rodgau does not have a hospital. The next clinic is about  away in Seligenstadt. The town is short with specialist doctors. Patients often have to go to nearby cities, if they want to see a doctor on special diseases, for example a heart disease. There is a medical emergency center in Dudenhofen to give fast help in case of a heart attack.

Education

The city has many kindergartens and primary schools in each urban district. There is a secondary school (highschool) in Dudenhofen. For colleges and universities the students have to go to the nearby cities.

References

Other websites

 Site of the ADFC bicycle club Rodgau, looked up on 14 January 2010, German.
 Site about the Rodgau lake public bath, looked up on 14 January 2010, German.

Offenbach (district)

Rodgau


Sukkur district () (talqa) in Sindh Province in Pakistan is divided into 5 administrative areas (tehsils), namely; Sukkur City, New Sukkur Tehsil, Rohri Tehsil, Saleh Pat Tehsil and Pano Akil Tehsil. Among them Sukkur city and new Sukkur are urban centre while Pano Akil is famous for having one of largest military cantonment of the country. Rohri is the smallest tehsil of the Sukkur district, both in area and population but is has one of ancient and important railway junction.

Other websites
Sukkur City

Sukkur District

Sukkur District


Memorial Town Hall is the historic town hall of Monson, Massachusetts.  Located on Main Street on land donated by the local prominent Reynolds family, the High Victorian Gothic stone building was constructed in 1885 to a design by George Potter.  In keeping with a memorial to the town's fallen soldiers, there are two cannons (one from the American Civil War, the other from the First World War) in front of the building.

The hall, which was built of the locally quarried granite (from the same quarry that supplied granite for the Springfield Armory), the building's basic shape is that of a T.  The northwest (left front) corner has a four-story tower, and the southwest (right front) corner has a smaller octagonal turret. In between, a gabled pavilion is centered on the front faced perpendicular to the main roofline.  The stem of the T extends northeast to the rear of the building.  Arches and other decorative elements are shaped out of ashlar granite in alternating light and dark colors.  The building's roof is slate; the front portion is hipped, with the center interrupted by the front-facing gable. The rear section ends in a gable.

Inside the hall, the front houses town offices, and a space that was originally used as a GAR meeting space, and the rear of the building houses an auditorium with stage.  Interior spaces have not been significantly altered since the building's construction was completed, and most continue to be used for their original purpose.  The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984,  and was included as a contributing property in the Monson Center Historic District in 1991.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Hampden County, Massachusetts

References

Monson
Buildings and structures in Hampden County, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Hampden County, Massachusetts
Historic district contributing properties in Massachusetts
Monson, Massachusetts

Memorial Town Hall


Joseph Rea Reed (March 12, 1835 – April 2, 1925) was an Iowa Supreme Court justice, one-term Republican U.S. Representative from Iowa's 9th congressional district in southwestern Iowa, and chief justice of a specialized federal court.

Biography
Born in Ashland County, Ohio, Reed attended the common schools and Vermillion Institution in Hayesville, Ohio from 1854 to 1857.
He moved to Adel, Iowa, in 1857.
After studying law, he was admitted to the bar in 1859 and engaged in the practice of law at Adel until 1861.

In July 1861, upon the outbreak of the American Civil War, Reed enlisted as first lieutenant in the 2nd Iowa Independent Battery Light Artillery. He was promoted to captain in October 1864, and served until June 10, 1865. Following the war, he resumed the practice of law in Adel. He served as member of the Iowa Senate in 1866 and 1868, moving to Council Bluffs, Iowa, in 1869.

In 1872, he became a judge. He served as judge of the district court from 1872 to 1884. He was then elevated to the Iowa Supreme Court, where he served from January 1, 1884, until he resigned on February 28, 1889 (including two months as chief justice).

In 1888, Reed received the Republican nomination for election as the 9th congressional district's representative in the U.S. House, after incumbent Republican Joseph Lyman declined to seek a third term. After winning the general election, Reed served in the Fifty-first Congress. However, Reed was not re-elected, but was defeated in 1890 by Democrat Thomas Bowman as part of the Democrats' landslide victory. He served in Congress from  March 4, 1889 to March 3, 1891.

In June 1891, he was named by President Benjamin Harrison as the chief justice of the new United States Court of Private Land Claims, a court created to decide land claims guaranteed by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in the territories of New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, and in the states of Nevada, Colorado, and Wyoming.  He served on that court from 1891 to 1904. He then resumed the practice of law in Council Bluffs, where he died on April 2, 1925. He was interred in Walnut Hill Cemetery.

References

1835 births
1925 deaths
Republican Party Iowa state senators
Iowa state court judges
Justices of the Iowa Supreme Court
People from Ashland County, Ohio
People from Adel, Iowa
Union Army officers
People of Iowa in the American Civil War
Politicians from Council Bluffs, Iowa
United States Court of Private Land Claims judges
United States Article I federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison
19th-century American judges
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Iowa
Chief Justices of the Iowa Supreme Court

Joseph Rea Reed


Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is NO2. It contains nitrogen and oxide ions. The nitrogen is in the +4 oxidation state.

Properties

Nitrogen Dioxide is a reddish-brown gas with a distinct, pungent odor similar to that of Chlorine. It causes significant and damaging pulmonary effects when it is inhaled, due to the formation of both Nitric (HNO3) & Nitrous (HNO2) acids when it reacts with Water present in the lungs. When Nitrogen Dioxide is compressed or cooled to near 0° C, two molecules of the Dioxide bond, forming the colorless Dinitrogen Tetroxide. It is a strong oxidizing agent. Upon heating, Nitrogen Dioxide decomposes back into lower oxides of Nitrogen (NO) as well as Oxygen. It reacts with iodides to form nitrites and elemental iodine. The presence of NO2 in concentrated Nitric acid causes the acid to take on a yellow color, depending on the concentration of the dissolved gas.

Preparation
Nitrogen dioxide is normally made by oxidation of nitric oxide by oxygen in air. It can also be made by heating some nitrates. It can be made by reacting concentrated nitric acid with copper or tin.

Uses
It is used to make nitric acid by dissolving it in water. Nitric oxide is also released.

Safety
Nitrogen dioxide is very toxic. It has a foul odor, which aids in its detection. Much care should be taken to avoid contact with this compound.

Related pages
Nitrous oxide
Nitrous acid

Nitrogen compounds
Oxides

Nitrogen dioxide


The Islamic Democratic Party (IDP) was an Islamic political party from the Maldives. On June 2, 2005, the country's 50 member parliament voted unanimously to allow and operate political parties in Maldives. IDP subsequently submitted its registration and was registered. IDP was officially granted registration on December 12, 2005. The founding members are Umar Naseer, Mohamed Haneef, Ahmed Inaz, Mohamed Ibrahim Didi, Abdulla Waheed and Mahamed Hassan Manik.

Umar Naseer was a Police officer respected by his superiors and subordinates alike. He was trained in UK in other countries. He operates a security firm called Alarms Pvt Ltd. and also Whale Submarine, which is a tourist submarine for enthusiasts who wants to look into the underwater world of Maldives.

Mohamed Haneef was a police officer, who resigned from the military and began his political career. He is well known among Maldivians as the person who organised two strikes against then President Ibrahim Nasir in 1975.

The party was dissolved in 2013.

External links
  Official website

2005 establishments in the Maldives
Islamic organisations based in the Maldives
Islamic political parties in the Maldives
Political parties disestablished in 2013
Political parties established in 2005
2013 disestablishments in Asia

Islamic Democratic Party (Maldives)


McKinley Park, one of the 77 official community areas of Chicago, Illinois, is located on the city's southwest side.

McKinley Park is served by three neighborhood newspapers: the Bridgeport News, the Archer Journal News and the Brighton Park/McKinley Park Life. The neighborhood newspapers are delivered weekly on Wednesdays to homes, businesses and other establishments throughout the neighborhood.

Two stops on the Orange Line rapid transit have boosted property values and created the development of a shopping mall on Archer and Ashland Avenue.

The area is named after President William McKinley.

Other websites
Official City of Chicago McKinley Park Community Map
McKinleyPark.org - A Web site for the McKinley Park neighborhood of Chicago

Community areas of Chicago

McKinley Park, Chicago


In psychiatry, the term thought disorder or formal thought disorder refers to a condition where people have problems with consistent and straight thinking leading to abnormalities e.g. with spoken and written language. The people who have this condition use language that is disordered, or sometimes hard to follow. According to the psychiatrists, language is a reflection of thought processes. People who have difficulty speaking therefore often also have difficulty thinking.

Thought disorder is considered to be a symptom of psychotic mental illness, but there can also be other causes for it.

The condition it describes is permanent. It affects speech and writing. Those affected may speak all the time, or they may show patterns like switching ideas inside a sentence. They may also use different words that do not fit together at all; this is known as 'word salad'.

Eugen Bleuler, who named schizophrenia, held that its defining characteristic was a disorder of the thinking process. However, although the delusions and hallucinations of psychosis could also be considered as disorders of thought, the term formal thought disorder applies specifically to the presumed disruption in the flow of conscious verbal thought that is inferred from spoken language. This is typically what is referred to when the strictly less accurate, more commonly used but abbreviated term, 'thought disorder', is used.

References

Symptoms

Thought disorder