Mathias Eick (born 26 June 1979) is a Norwegian jazz musician, and the brother of the jazz musicians Johannes Eick and Trude Eick. He is mainly known from his releases on the jazz label ECM Records. His main instrument is the trumpet, but he also plays upright bass, vibraphone, piano and guitar. He has performed with several well-known music groups and musicians, e.g. Jaga Jazzist, Manu Katché, and the Trondheim Jazz Orchestra together with Chick Corea and Pat Metheny. Besides this he is also known for his collaboration with Norwegian singer-songwriter Thomas Dybdahl, and recordings with the Norwegian bands Turboneger, DumDum Boys, Motorpsycho, D'Sound and Bigbang.

Career

After finishing high school, he started on the Music program at the Toneheim Folkehøyskole near by Hamar, followed by studies on the Jazz program at Trondheim Musikkonsevatorium.

Born in 1979 Eick has marvellous range of achievements to show for himself: in 2007 he won the International Jazz Talent, awarded to him by the International Jazz Festivals Organization situated in New York. He then won the Statoil Scholarship in 2009, undoubtedly the largest scholarship in Norway, as he was heading for the release of his second album on one of the worlds most influential jazz record labels, ECM.

In the meantime Eick keeps himself busy participating on several albums playing either trumpet, double bass, vibraphone, piano, guitar, or in his own words "anything needed." Some of his collaborators have been, among a vast amount of others, Trondheim Jazz Orchestra and Chick Corea, Iro Haarla, Manu Katché and Jacob Young. Eick is also a member of the Norwegian genre-defying group Jaga Jazzist, a group with which he has performed for many years. In the summer of 2006 he toured with Jan Gunnar Hoff Group and Mike Stern and in October/November on European tour with Thomas Dybdahl.

Eicks band is currently a five-piece, featuring two drummers, bass, piano and Eick himself. The lineup changes invariably as all the participating musicians are amongst Norway's finest, but for the most part the band consists of Andreas Ulvo (piano), Torstein Lofthus and Gard Nilssen (drums), and Audun Erlien (bass). The music is composed by Eick and pays tribute to both the truly unique Scandinavian soundscape, as well as the lyricism and melancholy of the Canadian trumpeter Kenny Wheeler.

In 2013 Eick appeared at the North Sea Jazz Festival within his own Quintet including Andreas Ulvo (piano, Fender Rhodes, keyboards, electronics), Audun Erlien (bass), Andreas Bye & Kenneth Kapstad (drums).

Discography

Solo albums
2008: The Door (ECM)
2011: Skala (ECM)
2015: Midwest (ECM)
2018: Ravensburg (ECM)
2021: When We Leave (ECM)

As a Sideman

With Jaga Jazzist
2001: A Livingroom Hush (Ninja Tune)
2003: The Stix (Ninja Tune)
2005: What We Must (Ninja Tune)
2010: One-Armed Bandit (Ninja Tune)
2013: Live with Britten Sinfonia (Ninja Tune)

With Jacob Young
2004: Evening Falls (ECM)
2007: Sideways (ECM)

With Jan Gunnar Hoff
2008: Magma (Grappa Music)

With Iro Haarla
2004: Northbound (ECM) with Trygve Seim, Uffe Krokfors and Jon Christensen
2011: Vespers (ECM) with Trygve Seim, Ulf Krokfors and Jon Christensen

With Manu Katché
2007: Playground (ECM) with Trygve Seim, Marcin Wasilewski, Slawomir Kurkiewicz and David Torn

With Music for a While including Tora Augestad, Stian Carstensen, Martin Taxt and Pål Hausken
2007:: Weill Variations (Grappa Music)
2012: Graces That Refrain (Grappa Music)
2014: Canticles of Winter (Grappa Music)

With Lars Danielsson
2009: Tarantella (ACT Music)
2014: Liberetto II (ACT Music)

With Ola Kvernberg's Liarbird
2011: Liarbird (Jazzland Recordings), the commissioned work, live from Moldejazz 2010 including Bergmund Waal Skaslien (viola), Eirik Hegdal (saxophone), Håkon Kornstad (saxophone), Ingebrigt Håker Flaten and Ole Morten Vågan (bass), as well as Erik Nylander and Torstein Lofthus (drums)

With Elvira Nikolaisen
2013: I Concentrate On You (Grappa)

With Eple Trio
2014: Universal Cycle (Shipwreckords)

With Vincent Peirani
2013: SWR NewJazz Meeting 2013 with Émile Parisien (Jazzhaus)
2016: Living Being Extended with Émile Parisien, Leïla Martial, Yoann Serra, Tony Paeleman and Julien Herné (SWR JazzHaus)

With Unifony (Minco Eggersman and Theodoor Borger)
 2018: Unifony (Butler Records)

As a Session Musician
 2001: Motorpsycho - Phanerothyme
 2002: Motorpsycho - It's a Love Cult
 2002: Arcturus - The Sham Mirrors
 2003: The Gathering - Souvenirs
 2003: Motorpsycho w/ Jaga Jazzist Horns - In the Fishtank 10
 2004: Lars Horntveth - Pooka
 2004: Janove Ottesen - Francis' Lonely Nights
 2005: Turbonegro - Party Animals
 2006: Kinny & Horne - Forgetting to Remember
 2007: Ulver - Shadows of the Sun
 2008: Jan Gunnar Hoff - Magma
 2009: Youn Sun Nah - Voyage
 2009: Inger Marie Gundersen - My Heart Would Have a Reason
 2009: Thomas Dybdahl - En Samling (compilation)
 2009: Silvertongue - Diamond Sky
 2010: Motorpsycho - Heavy Metal Fruit
 2010: Mighty Sam McClain w/ Mahsa Vahdat - Scent of Reunion: Love Duets Across Civilizations
 2012: Mighty Sam McClain w/ Mahsa Vahdat - A Deeper Tone of Longing: Love Duets Across Civilizations
 2012: Alexander Von Mehren - Aéropop

Awards
Mathias Eick was awarded "The International Jazz Award for New Talent 2007". He received a prize of $20,000 US on 13 January 2007 during the IAJE 34th Annual International Conference in New York City where he also performed. The annual prize was founded by IAJE in cooperation with the International Jazz Festivals Organization (IJFO). He was awarded the 2014 DNB price at Kongsberg Jazzfestival (300,000 NOK).

References

External links

IAJE 34th Annual International Conference  (PDF Brochure).
 International Jazz Festivals Organizations (IJFO)
International Association for Jazz Education (IAJE).

Festival sites
Molde-jazz
Montreal Jazz festival
Montreux Jazz Festival
Monterey Jazz Festival

Jaga Jazzist members
1979 births
ECM Records artists
Living people
Musicians from Furnes, Norway
Norwegian jazz composers
Norwegian jazz trumpeters
Male trumpeters
Norwegian multi-instrumentalists
20th-century Norwegian trumpeters
21st-century Norwegian trumpeters
20th-century Norwegian multi-instrumentalists
21st-century Norwegian multi-instrumentalists
Norwegian University of Science and Technology alumni
Male jazz composers
Trondheim Jazz Orchestra members
Jacob Young Group members
Music for a While (band) members
Motif (band) members

Mathias Eick


Alexander Arkadievich Galich (, born Alexander Aronovich Ginzburg, 19 October 1918 – 15 December 1977) was a Soviet poet, screenwriter, playwright, singer-songwriter, and dissident.

Biography
Galich is a pen name, an abbreviation of his last name, first name, and patronymic: Ginzburg Alexander Arkadievich. He was born on 19 October 1918 in Ekaterinoslav (then Dnipropetrovsk and now Dnipro), Ukraine, into a family of Jewish intellectuals. His father, Aron Samoilovich Ginzburg, was an economist, and his mother, Fanni Borisovna Veksler, worked in a music conservatory. For most of his childhood he lived in Sevastopol. Before World War II, he entered the Gorky Literary Institute, then moved to Konstantin Stanislavski's Operatic-Dramatic Studio, and then to the Studio-Theatre of Alexei Arbuzov and Valentin Pluchek (in 1939).

He wrote plays and screenplays, and in the late 1950s, he started to write songs and sing them accompanying himself on his guitar. Influenced by the Russian city romance tradition and the art of Alexander Vertinsky, Galich developed his own voice within the genre. He practically single-handedly created the genre of "bard song". Many of his songs spoke of the Second World War and the lives of concentration camp inmates—subjects which Vladimir Vysotsky also began tackling at around the same time. They became popular with the public and were made available via magnitizdat.

His first songs, though rather innocent politically, nevertheless were distinctly out of tune with the official Soviet aesthetics. They marked a turning point in Galich's creative life, since before this, he was a quite successful Soviet man of letters. This turn was also brought about by the aborted premiere of his play Matrosskaya Tishina written for the newly opened Sovremennik Theatre. The play, already rehearsed, was banned by censors, who claimed that the author had a distorted view of the role of Jews in the Great Patriotic War. This incident was later described by Galich in the story Generalnaya Repetitsiya (Dress Rehearsal).

Galich's increasingly sharp criticism of the Soviet regime in his music caused him many problems. After it was established in 1970, the dissident  Committee on Human Rights in the USSR included Galich as an honorary member. In 1971, he was expelled from the Soviet Writers' Union, which he had joined in 1955. In 1972, he was expelled from the Union of Cinematographers. That year he became baptized in the Eastern Orthodox Church by Alexander Men.

Galich was forced to emigrate from the Soviet Union in 1974. He initially lived in Norway for one year, where he made his first recordings outside of the USSR. These were broadcast by him on Radio Liberty. His songs critical towards the Soviet government became immensely popular in the underground scene in the USSR. He later moved to Munich and finally to Paris.

On the evening of 15 December 1977, he was found dead by his wife, clutching a Grundig stereo recording antenna plugged into a power socket. While his death was declared to be an accident, no one witnessed the exact circumstances of his death. The results of the official investigation were not publicly released by French police.

According to his daughter Alena Galich-Arkhangelskaya, Galich was murdered by the KGB. Journalist and KGB agent Leonid Kolosov claimed that KGB chairman Yuri Andropov personally authorized a mission to bring Galich back to the USSR, promising a restoration of citizenship and artistic freedom. But it remains unknown if KGB agents ever made him such an offer.

In 1988, he was posthumously re-instated into the Writers' and Cinematographers' Unions. In 2003, the first memorial plaque for Galich was put up on a building in Akademgorodok (Novosibirsk) where he performed in 1968. That same year, the Alexander Galich Memorial Society was founded.

Music

Alexander Galich, like most bards, had a fairly minimal musical background. He played his songs on a seven string Russian guitar, which was fairly standard at the time. He often wrote in the key of D minor, relying on very simple chord progressions and fingerpicking techniques. He had basic piano playing skills as well.

Galich had a signature cadence that he would usually play at the conclusion of a song (and sometimes at the beginning). He would play the D minor chord toward the top of the fretboard (fret position 0XX0233, thickest to thinnest string, open G tuning), then slide down the fretboard to a higher voiced D minor (0 X X 0 10 10 12).

Bibliography

 Alexander Galich. Songs and Poems (translated and edited by Gerald Stanton Smith) -  Ann Arbor: Ardis, April 1983, 203 pages
 Richard A. Zavon. The Dilemma of Soviet Man: A Study of the Underground Lyrics of Bulat Okudzhava and Aleksandr Galich. - U.S. Army Institute for Advanced Russian and East European Studies, 1977, 128 pages
 Alexander Galich. Dress Rehearsal: A Story in Four Acts and Five Chapters (translated and edited by Maria R. Bloshteyn) - Slavica Pub, February 2009, 221 pages,

Discography
 «A whispered cry» — sung in Russian by Alexander Galitch. Recorded in 1974 at The Arne Bendiksen Studios, Oslo, Norway.(1974)
 «Unpublished songs of Russian bards» Produced by Hed-arzi ltd., Israel (1974)
 «Galich in Israel — Holocaust Songs Russian» (Live Concert version, 1975). «GALTON» Studios. Manufactured By Gal-Ron (Israel).
 «Alexander Galich — Cheerful Talk» (Live Concert version, 1975). «GALTON» Studios (Ramat-Gan), 220390, STEREO 5838. Manufactured By Gal-Ron (Israel).
 «Alexander Galich — The laughter through the tears». Fortuna, Made in USA (1981-?)
Audio records of Galich reading his poetry, 2000

Notes

References
Alexandr Galich, Songs and poems; transl. by Gerald Stanton Smith, Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1983,

External links
 Alexander Galich's bio
 Galich page on the bard.ru site
 Alexander Galich - video
Poem "Experience of nostalgia" by Galich by actress Lada Negrul

1918 births
1977 deaths
Writers from Sevastopol
Soviet Jews
Soviet dramatists and playwrights
Soviet male writers
20th-century Russian male writers
Soviet screenwriters
Russian male screenwriters
Soviet male singer-songwriters
Soviet singer-songwriters
Seven-string guitarists
Soviet poets
Ukrainian male poets
Jewish poets
Russian-language poets
Soviet dissidents
Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy from Judaism
Soviet expellees
Soviet emigrants to Norway
Soviet emigrants to Germany
Soviet emigrants to France
Accidental deaths by electrocution
Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery
Russian male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century guitarists
20th-century Russian male singers
Maxim Gorky Literature Institute alumni
20th-century Russian screenwriters
Accidental deaths in France
20th-century pseudonymous writers

Alexander Galich (writer)


In music, an arpeggio is a group of notes in a chord which are played one after the other, instead of all at the same time. The arpeggio may either go up or go down, but it is more common going up.

The word arpeggio comes from the Italian word arpeggiare, which means "to play on a harp". This is because harps are very good at playing arpeggiated chords.

An arpeggio is a type of broken chord, but there are many different kinds.

Learning many musical instruments include playing scales and arpeggios. They are often played as part of music examinations, especially for piano and the string instruments. This is because these skills are useful for playing a lot of music. For example, Bach's Prelude in C () is made of many different arpeggios. Guitarists sometimes play arpeggios instead of strumming, and banjo players do it a lot.

An "arpeggiated chord" means a chord which is "spread". This means the notes do not start exactly at the same time. This is sometimes called arpeggiato, and in modern music is called a rolled chord. An arpeggiated chord is written with a wiggly line going from top to bottom in front of the chord. An arpeggiated chord is spread from the lowest to the highest note. Occasionally composers such as Béla Bartók ask for them to be played from top to bottom. This is shown by adding an arrow pointing down.

References

Musical terminology

Arpeggio


Hurricane Hunters are special aircraft that fly into or around a tropical cyclone to gather information (or data). Hurricane Hunters are only used to study tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean.

Other websites
 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron homepage
 403rd Wing Homepage
 Air Weather Reconnaissance Association homepage
 NHC Reconnaissance data archive
 The NOAA Aircraft Operations Center homepage
 Navy Hurricane Hunters homepage
 VW-1 All Hands Alumni Association homepage

Hurricane Hunters


A comptroller (pronounced either the same as controller or as ) is a management-level position responsible for supervising the quality of accounting and financial reporting of an organization. A financial comptroller is a senior-level executive who acts as the head of accounting, and oversees the preparation of financial reports, such as balance sheets and income statements.

In most Commonwealth countries, the comptroller general, auditor general, or comptroller and auditor general is the external auditor of the budget execution of the government and of government-owned companies. Typically, the independent institution headed by the comptroller general is a member of the International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions. In American government, the comptroller is effectively the chief financial officer of a public body.

In business management, the comptroller is closer to a chief audit executive, holding a senior role in internal audit functions. Generally, the title encompasses a variety of responsibilities, from overseeing accounting and monitoring internal controls to countersigning on expenses and commitments.

Etymology
The word is a variant of "controller". The "cont-" or "count-" part in that word was associated with "compt-", a variant of the verb "count". The term, though criticized by lexicographers such as Henry Watson Fowler, is probably retained in part because in official titles it was deemed useful to have the title dissociated from the word and concept "control".

A variant explanation is that comptroller evolved in the 15th century through a blend of the French compte ("an account") and the Middle English  (someone who checks a copy of a scroll, from the French contreroule "counter-roll, scroll copy"), thus creating a title for a  who specializes in checking financial ledgers. This etymology explains why the name is often pronounced identically to "controller" despite the distinct spelling. However, comptroller is sometimes pronounced phonetically by those unaware of the word's origins or who wish specifically to avoid confusion with "controller".

Business role
A comptroller is a person in the business who oversees accounting and the implementation and monitoring of internal controls, independently from the chief financial officer in some countries. In the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Israel and Canada, a comptroller or financial comptroller is a senior position, reporting to the CFO in companies that have one.

In business, the title is typically spelled controller, with government organizations only using the spelling comptroller.

Government role

India
In India, Comptroller is an appointment.

 The Comptroller and Auditor General of India is the authority which audits all receipts and expenditure of the Government of India and the state governments, including those of bodies and authorities substantially financed by the government.

 The Comptroller of the President's Household is responsible for the President of India's Household at the Rashtrapati Bhavan. The post is held by a Naval officer of the rank of Captain.

 There are officers called Comptroller of the Governor's household in each state who are responsible for the Governor's households at the Raj Bhavans of each States and union territories of India.

Mexico
In Mexico, the comptroller, translated as 'contralor', was established in the public administration during the presidency of Miguel de la Madrid, when he created the  in 1982. This ministry was  renamed as the Secretariat of the Civil Service by president Vicente Fox in 2003. Nevertheless, several states still name as General Comptroller Office their audit and oversight institutions. Namely, Mexico City has the Secretariat of the General Comptroller of Mexico City and Jalisco has the Comptroller General Office of the State of Jalisco.

United Kingdom
The title of comptroller is used in the Royal Household for various offices, including:

 the Comptroller of the Household (nowadays a sinecure, invariably held by a government whip in the House of Commons). The office was established as part of the Wardrobe (a powerful department of household and state) in the 13th century, in order to maintain a check on the accounts of the Treasurer of the Household. Today, the Comptroller's duties outside of government are minimal and mainly ceremonial.

 the Comptroller of the Lord Chamberlain's Office, who is a full-time member of the Royal Household; his duties are concerned with the arrangement of ceremonial affairs rather than financial affairs.

The Comptroller of the Navy is a post in the Royal Navy responsible for procurement and matériel.

The Comptroller and City Solicitor is one of the High Officers of the City of London Corporation, responsible for provision of all legal services. The post of comptroller dates from 1311, and that of City Solicitor from 1544; the two were amalgamated in 1945.

The Comptroller General of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks is the head of the UK Intellectual Property Office or Patent Office.

The Comptroller and Auditor General is head of the National Audit Office, and is the successor of the former Comptroller General of the Exchequer and the former Commissioners of Audit.

United States
The title of comptroller is held by various government officials.

The Comptroller General is the director of the Government Accountability Office (GAO), an agency founded in 1921 (as General Accounting Office) to ensure the accountability of the federal government.

Banks are supervised by the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, an officer within the federal Department of The Treasury.

Several states and local governments (cities, counties, etc.) have comptrollers, variously elected or appointed, with widely varying powers over budgetary and management matters. (See Connecticut Comptroller, Florida Comptroller, Illinois Comptroller, Comptroller of Maryland, State Comptroller of New Jersey, New York State Comptroller, Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts; New York City Comptroller.)

Spain
In Spain, the word comptroller is translated as "Interventor".

 The Comptroller General is the head of the Office of the Comptroller General of the State Administration (IGAE), an agency founded in 1874 to ensure the accountability of the Spanish administration.
 All the government departments and agencies have a unit of the IGAE, with a comptroller as its head.
 The Armed Forces and the Social Security are supervised by the Comptroller General of the Defence and the Comptroller General of the Social Security, respectively.
 Since 2007, the Royal Household has an auditor known as the Comptroller of the Royal Household of His Majesty the King.
 All the regions and local administrations possesses comptrollers.

See also

 State Comptroller (disambiguation)
Comptroller of the Household

References

External links

Management occupations

Comptroller


Phosphorescence is a process in which energy absorbed by a substance is released relatively slowly in the form of light. This is in some cases the mechanism used for "glow-in-the-dark" materials which are "charged" by exposure to light. Unlike the relatively fast reactions in a common fluorescent tube, phosphorescent materials used for these materials absorb the energy and "store" it for a longer time as the processes required to re-emit the light occur less often.

Light

Phosphorescence


In cryptography, a ciphertext-only attack (COA) or known ciphertext attack is an attack model for cryptanalysis where the attacker is assumed to have access only to a set of ciphertexts.

The attack is completely successful if the corresponding plaintexts can be deduced (extracted) or, even better, the key. The ability to obtain any amount of information from the underlying ciphertext is considered a success.

Every modern cipher attempts to provide protection against ciphertext-only attacks. The process of selecting a new cipher design standard usually takes many years and includes exhaustive testing of large quantities of ciphertext for any statistical different approach from random noise. On the other hand, poor cipher depends on home-grown proprietary algorithms that have not been subjected to extensive testing and inspection; for this reason, many computer-age encryption systems are still subject to ciphertext-only attack but still in use. Examples include:

 Early versions of Microsoft's PPTP virtual private network software used the same RC4 key for the sender and the receiver (later versions solved this problem but may still have other problems). In any case where a stream cipher like RC4 is used twice with the same key, it is open to ciphertext-only attack.
 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), the first security protocol for Wi-Fi, proved susceptible to several attacks, most of them ciphertext-only.
 Some modern cipher designs have later been shown to be suspect to ciphertext-only attacks. For example, Akelarre.

Related pages
 Chosen-plaintext attack
 Chosen-ciphertext attack
 Known-plaintext attack

References

 Alex Biryukov and Eyal Kushilevitz, "From Differential Cryptanalysis to Ciphertext-Only Attacks," CRYPTO 1998, pp 72–88;

Cryptography

Ciphertext-only attack


"The Summer Solstice", also known as "Tatarin" or "Tadtarin", is a short story written by Filipino National Artist for Literature Nick Joaquin.  In addition to being regarded as one of  Joaquin's most acclaimed literary works, the tale is considered to be controversial.  The story narrates a ritual performed by women to invoke the gods to grant the blessing of fertility by dancing around a Balete tree that was already a century old.  Joaquin later turned this short story into a play entitled Tatarin: A Witches' Sabbath in Three Acts, on which a film adaptation has been based.

Overview

Tatarin, also sometimes spelled Tadtarin, was a three-day traditional fertility ritual involving women and held during summer in the Philippines.  The last day of the festival coincided with St. John's Day; a Catholic feast.  Men dressed as women were able to participate in the pagan celebration.  It is similar to the fertility rites of Obando, Bulacan.

Apart from being considered as Joaquin's personal favorite, The Summer Solstice was also one of the most anthologized.  Although popular, it was also regarded controversial due to conflicting interpretations about the masterpiece.  Filipino literary critics had debated over the ending of the story, questioning what was victorious in the narrative.  The items in conflict were paganism against Christianity, the primitive against the civilized, and the status of men against the status of women.

The narrative of The Summer Solstice begins with St. John's Day, as it occurred in the 1850s in the Philippines.   Entoy informed Doña Lupeng that Amada had participated in the Tatarin fertility ritual.  Amada was believed to have become the Tatarin personified.  The next day, while on board a carriage, Doña Lupeng started a conversation regarding how Amada could still believe in such a ritual.  Don Paeng cut her short because children were listening.  The carriage stopped, and they watched the St. John's Day procession.  Thinking and speaking to herself, Doña Lupeng mocked the men's demonstration of arrogance during the procession.  Upon arriving at the house, Doña Lupeng found out that Guido, Don Paeng's cousin, had participated in both the St. John's Day procession and the Tatarin ritual.  Guido enjoyed the "fiestas".  Guido kissed Doña Lupeng's feet as the latter was on her way to look for her children. Doña Lupeng told Don Paeng about the incident.  Don Paeng was disgusted and reasoned that a woman needed love and respect, not adoration.  Doña Lupeng and Don Paeng went to see the Tatarin ritual at the plaza.  The revelers had their own St. John statue.  Doña Lupeng joined the ceremony.  Failing from pulling Doña Lupeng out of the ritual, Don Paeng had to ask the carriage driver, Entoy, to take Doña Lupeng back.  At the house, Doña Lupeng was able to make Don Paeng tell her that he adored her.  In submission, Don Paeng kissed Doña Lupeng's feet.

Linguistic analysis

An analysis related to the language used in this piece of literature revealed that the speech or dialogue of the characters represented "stereotypical notions of masculinity and femininity", the difference between genders, and the hierarchy that bound the two sexes.  In spite of the part where the character Don Paeng was presented as a crawling man who kissed the feet of Doña Lupeng, female critics viewed the story as against women and anti-feminist.  On the other hand, male critics saw the short story as pro-woman and feminist.

Critics considered The Summer Solstice as pro-woman or a tale of "triumphant women" because of Don Paeng's submission to Doña Lupeng and the portrayal of women's reproductive role that made them "rulers of men".

However, there were also critics who called The Summer Solstice as "pseudo-feminist" or a work that was not truly feminist because to them the authority and power given to women in the story was unreal, short-lived, of no social value, mysterious, and illusory.  Based on the story, the empowerment of women emerged only once a year, in summer, and only during the Summer solstice.  The role of women in the story was further described as "demonized" and "sexualized".

Literary reviews

Other items that literary critics focused on in The Summer Solstice included Joaquin's literary style and theme.  In general, critics agree that Joaquin's stylistic genre was to present the way of life and culture in the Philippines during the transition from being Hispanic into American.  Some critics praised Joaquin for his style of "setting the mood" for a presentation of a past full of mysticism, but others found Joaquin's melodrama as excessive thus pushing away from the story's "narrative logic and formal elements".  The presentation of pagan rituals and Christian rites, superstitious and religious beliefs, the old and the new were argued to be more of a "fission" rather than a "fusion" due to the existence of the struggles occurring between the pairs mentioned.  Contradicting descriptions of the Philippines during its pre-colonial past also led literary reviewers to regard Joaquin as a writer who was unable to "embrace" the ambience of such a time in Philippine history because he was more "nostalgic" of the colonial history of the country.  Thus, Joaquin through The Summer Solstice and his other stories, was summarized as a search for his country's "national and cultural identity."

References

External links
Video of The Summer Solstice as a play at youtube.com
Excerpts from Nick Joaquin's The Summer Solstice at journals.upd.edu.ph
Excerpt from Nick Joaquin's The Summer Solstice at peerpapers.com
Fashion adaptation of Nick Joaquin's The Summer Solstice at abs-cbnnews.com

Philippine short stories
Works by Nick Joaquin

The Summer Solstice


Graphite, like diamond, is an allotrope of carbon. They are very similar to each other but the different structures of the molecule affect the chemical and physical properties. Graphite is made of layers of carbon atoms. These layers can slide over each other very easily. This means that it is very soft. It is a dull gray in appearance. Due to the delocalized electrons between the layers, it can conduct electricity very well.

Graphite can be formed from coal put under high heat and pressure. Also, graphite can be turned into diamond with enough heat and pressure. This is how synthetic (man-made) diamonds are made.

Most graphite comes from mines in northeastern China. It is also found in Sri Lanka, Canada and the United States. It is also called Lead Black because it looks like the metal lead. It was named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789 originating from the Greek language.

It can be used as a lubricant to make mechanical devices run smoother. The most common use of graphite is the "lead" in a pencil, which also has clay.

High-purity graphite is used as a neutron moderator in some nuclear reactors, such as RBMKs and AGRs.

Related pages
 Carbon

Allotropes of carbon

Graphite


Mariano José de Larra (24 March 1809 - 13 February 1837) was a Spanish romanticist writer noted for satire and perhaps the best prose writer of 19th-century Spain.

He was born in Madrid; his father served as a doctor in the French army, and, as an afrancesado, was forced to leave the Peninsula with his family in 1812. In 1817 Larra went back to Spain, knowing less Spanish than French. His nature was disorderly, his education was imperfect, and, after futile attempts to obtain a degree in medicine or law, he made an imprudent marriage at the age of twenty, broke with his relatives and became a journalist.

On the 27th of April 1831 he produced his first play, No más mostrador, based on two pieces by Scribe and Dieulafoy. Though wanting in originality, it is brilliantly written, and held the stage for many years. On the 24th of September 1834 he produced Macías, a play based on his own historical novel, El doncel de don Enrique el Doliente (1834).

The drama and novel are interesting as experiments, but Larra was essentially a journalist, and the increased liberty of the press after the death of Ferdinand VII gave his caustic talent an ampler field. He was already famous under the pseudonyms of Juan Pérez de Munguía and Fígaro which he used in El Pobrecito Hablador and La Revista Española respectively. Madrid laughed at his grim humour; ministers feared his vitriolic pen and courted him assiduously; he defended Liberalism against the Carlist rebellion; he was elected as deputy for Ávila, and a great career seemed to lie before him. But the era of military pronunciamientos ruined his personal prospects and patriotic plans. His writing took on a more sombre tinge; domestic troubles increased his pessimism, and, in consequence of a disastrous love-affair, he committed suicide by shooting himself in February 1837.

Larra lived long enough to prove himself the greatest prose-writer that Spain can boast during the 19th century. He wrote at great speed with the constant fear of the censor before his eyes, but no sign of haste is discernible in his work, and the dexterity with which he aims his venomous shafts is amazing. His political instinct, his abundance of ideas and his forcible, mordant style would have given him a foremost position at any time and in any country; in Spain, and in his own period, they placed him beyond all rivalry.

References

Influence
Some of his phrases like Vuelva usted mañana (come back tomorrow) or Escribir en España es llorar (To write in Spain is to cry) are still applied to chastise present-day ills.
The Spanish-language clone of the Slashdot Internet forum, Barrapunto, uses Pobrecito Hablador ("Poor little talker") as the name for anonymous commenters.
The Premio Mariano José de Larra rewards young outstanding journalists in Spain.

Other websites
Mariano José de Larra in the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes.
Proyecto Mariano José de Larra en Internet
 Mariano José de Larra: text, concordances and frequency list

1809 births
1837 deaths
Spanish journalists
Swedish playwrights
Suicides by firearm
Writers from Madrid

Mariano José de Larra


Flagler County, in Florida, United States, was created in 1917.  It was named for Henry Morrison Flagler, a famous railroad builder who built the Florida East Coast Railway. At the 2020 census, 115,378 people lived in the county.

In 1998, when two brush fires threatened to become one huge brush fire in Flagler County, a mandatory evacuation was ordered for the entire county.  This was the first and so far the only time a whole county was evacuated in Florida. Flagler is also a sports town. Three Flagler baseball teams have made it to the State Tournament in the last 2 years.

Land
According to the 2000 census, the county has a total area of , of which  (or 84.97%) is land and  (or 15.03%) is water.

Counties nearby
St. Johns County, Florida - north
Volusia County, Florida - south
Putnam County, Florida - west

Parks and gardens
 Belle Terre Park
 Betty Steflik Preserve
 Bings Landing
 Bird of Paradise Nature Reserve
 Bull Creek Campground
 Bulow Creek State Park
 Bulow Plantation Ruins Historic State Park
 Central Park in Town Center
 Children's Memorial Garden
 Gamble Rogers Memorial State Recreation Area
 Graham Swamp Preserve
 Haw Creek Preserve / Russell Landing
 Heroes Memorial Park
 Herschel King Park
 Hidden Trails Park
 James F. Holland Memorial Park
 Jungle Hut Park
 Lehigh Trail
 Longs Landing Estuary
 Malacompra Park
 Moody Homestead Park
 Old Dixie Park
 Old Salt Park
 Palm Coast Community Center & Park
 Palm Coast Linear Park
 Princess Place Preserve
 Ralph Carter Park
 River to Sea Preserve
 Seminole Woods Neighborhood Park
 Shell Bluff Park
 Silver Lake Park
 St. Joe Walkway
 Varn Park
 Veteran's Park
 Wadsworth Park
 Washington Oaks State Gardens
 Waterfront Park
 Wickline Park

Rivers and waterways
 Atlantic Ocean
 Dead Lake
 Crescent Lake
 Intracoastal Waterway
 Matanzas River
 Pellicer Creek

People

As of the census of 2000, there were 49,832 people, 21,294 households, and 15,672 families living in the county.  The population density was 103 people per square mile (40/km²).  There were 24,452 housing units at an average density of 50 per square mile (19/km²).  The racial makeup of the county was 87.27% White, 8.83% Black or African American, 0.27% Native American, 1.17% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.96% from other races, and 1.47% from two or more races.  5.09% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 90.1% spoke English, 5.0% Spanish and 1.2% German as their first language.

1.8% of the population identified themselves as being of non-Hispanic West Indian Ancestry.

In 2000 there were 21,294 households out of which 21.10% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.80% were married couples living together, 8.10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.40% were not related. 21.60% of all households were made up of people living alone and 12.00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.67.

In the county the population was spread out with 17.90% under the age of 18, 4.80% from 18 to 24, 20.30% from 25 to 44, 28.30% from 45 to 64, and 28.60% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 50 years. For every 100 females there were 92.10 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.90 males.

The median income for a household in the county was $40,214, and the median income for a family was $45,625. Males had a median income of $31,184 versus $24,865 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,879.  About 6.70% of families and 8.70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.70% of those under age 18 and 4.40% of those age 65 or over.

Flagler county was ranked the fastest-growing county in the nation by the US Census Bureau from 2000 to 2005, with a 53.3% change, with a July 1, 2005 population estimate at 76,410.

Cities and towns

Incorporated
 City of Bunnell
 City of Flagler Beach
 City of Palm Coast
 Town of Marineland
 Town of Beverly Beach

Unincorporated
Flagler Estates (also in St. Johns County)
Hammock
Painters Hill
Espanola
Bimini
Dupont
Korona
Codys Corner
Favoretta
St. Johns Park
Daytona North
Relay

Transportation

Major roads
  Interstate 95
  U.S. 1
  SR A1A
  SR 11
  SR 20
  SR 100

Politics
Because the demographics of the county are changing quickly, Flagler County is often an unpredictable county in presidential and other elections, although the general trend has been towards the Republican party in recent years.

Education
Flagler County Public Schools enroll about 13,000 students. It includes two public high schools: Flagler Palm Coast and Matanzas High School. The county also has 5 elementary schools and 2 middle schools.

Flagler county schools are:
 Belle Terre Elementary K-6th
 Bunnell Elementary K-6th
 Rymfire Elementary K-6th
 Old Kings Elementary K-6th
 Wadsworth Elementary K-6th
 St. Elizabeth Ann Seton Catholic School Pre K-8th
 Buddy Taylor Middle School 7th-8th
 Indian Trails middle School 7th-8th
 Matanzas High School 9th-12th
 Flagler Palm Coast High School 9th-12th
 Pathways Academy (alternative school)
 iFlagler Virtual School 7th-12th
 Imagine School at Town Center (charter)
 Academies of Excellence's Heritage Academy (charter)
 Daytona State College (Daytona Beach, Florida (main campus)/ Palm Coast, Florida)

References

Other websites

Government links/Constitutional offices
 Flagler County Board of County Commissioners official website
 Flagler County Supervisor of Elections
 Flagler County Property Appraiser
 Flagler County Sheriff's Office
 Flagler County Tax Collector

Special districts
 Flagler County Public Schools
 St. Johns River Water Management District

Judicial branch
 Flagler County Clerk of Courts
  Public Defender, 7th Judicial Circuit of Florida  serving Flagler, Putnam, St. Johns, and Volusia counties
  Office of the State Attorney, 7th Judicial Circuit of Florida
  Circuit and County Court for the 7th Judicial Circuit of Florida

Tourism links
 Flagler County Tourist Development Council

1917 establishments in the United States
1910s establishments in Florida

Flagler County, Florida


Nicholas Ridley, Baron Ridley of Liddesdale,  (17 February 1929 – 4 March 1993), was a British Conservative Party politician and government minister.

As President of the Selsdon Group, a free-market lobby within the Conservative Party, he was closely aligned with Margaret Thatcher, and became one of her Ministers of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in 1979. Responsible for the Falkland Islands, he tried to resolve the long-running sovereignty issue with Argentina, which detected Britain's reluctance to defend the territory, and later invaded it.

As Secretary of State for Transport, Ridley performed a key function in building up coal stocks in advance of the 1984–85 miners' strike, which helped the government to defeat the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM).

As Secretary of State for the Environment, Ridley opposed a low-cost housing development near his own property, earning him the title of "NIMBY" ("Not in My Back Yard"). He was also responsible for introducing the "poll tax" (formally known as the Community Charge), which was one of the main factors leading to Thatcher's resignation in 1990. He was created a life peer in 1992.

Background and education
Ridley was the second son of Matthew White Ridley, 3rd Viscount Ridley, and Ursula ( Lutyens), daughter of architect Sir Edwin Lutyens. His elder brother was Matthew White Ridley, 4th Viscount Ridley. He was educated at West Downs School, Winchester, Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford, where he gained a third in mathematical moderations in 1947 and a second-class degree in engineering science in 1951.

A contemporary at Eton was Tam Dalyell, later Labour MP for West Lothian. The two men were not even able to agree on whether or not Dalyell had been Ridley's fag, though Dalyell greatly admired Ridley's skills as an artist, quoting his teacher as saying that Ridley was "more talented than his grandfather" Edwin Lutyens.

Ridley held a national service commission as a lieutenant in the 1st Battalion of The Loyal Regiment in 1947 and was later a Territorial Army captain in the Northumberland Hussars Yeomanry. He later became a civil engineer and company director.

Political career, 1955–1979
At the 1955 general election, Ridley unsuccessfully contested the safe Labour seat of Blyth. He was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Cirencester and Tewkesbury at the 1959 election. He was appointed as Parliamentary Private Secretary in 1962, and from 1964 he was a Select committee member before joining the front bench. In 1973, he co-founded the Selsdon Group, which was opposed to the abandonment of the radical 1970 manifesto by Edward Heath. He closed his keynote speech at the group's launch by citing the "Ten Cannots" of William J. H. Boetcker, adding that they "could well become the guiding principle of the Selsdon Group". The members of the group were seen as disloyal at the time but their ideas came to prominence in the Thatcher years.

In government, 1979–1990
When the Conservatives were returned to office at the 1979 general election, Ridley was appointed to the new Conservative government as Minister of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. In this position he was assigned responsibility for policy concerning the Falkland Islands, a position in which according to Patrick Cosgrave, he did not acquit himself well and "seriously misread the intentions of the Argentinian government". His first visit to the Islands was in July 1979, after which the Foreign Office considered the options, given that the idea of 'Fortress Falklands' was deemed unfeasible on the grounds of cost – Britain could not afford to maintain a sufficiently powerful military presence on the Islands to deter an invasion.

Ridley held a secret, informal meeting with his Argentine opposite number Carlos Cavandoli in September 1980, and the two sides broadly agreed to a "leaseback" arrangement whereby nominal sovereignty would be given to Argentina but British administration would be maintained for a fixed number of years, likely 99, until the final handover, as well as co-operating on the Islands' economic development and exploitation of fish and potential oil resources. The meeting took place at a village hotel ten miles outside Geneva, Switzerland, under the pretext of a holiday for Ridley and his wife, so as to avoid Parliamentary and media accusations of a sell-out. Ridley returned to the Islands in November to try to persuade the Islanders to accept the proposal but they were unconvinced, and as he left islanders shouted abuse at him while playing a recording of "Rule, Britannia!". A prominent local islands politician, Adrian Monk, also made what the then Governor of the islands, Sir Rex Hunt, described as a 'Churchillian' explanation of the population's views in a Falklands radio broadcast on 2 January 1981. Likewise, Parliament gave the proposals a hostile reception, pointing out that British people should not be transferred, against their wishes, to the control of an Argentine military junta which had committed multiple human rights violations. In the face of this opposition, the Conservative government once again reiterated that the Islanders' wishes were 'paramount'.

In February 1981, with the support of the Islands' Councillors, the British government met Argentine representatives in New York but the British proposal for a sovereignty freeze was rejected by the junta. British intelligence reports continued to suggest that Argentina would invade the Islands only if it was convinced there was no prospect of eventual transfer of sovereignty.

Ridley advised that leaseback remained the only feasible solution and recommended that Britain initiate an education campaign to persuade the islanders. His fierce political opponent Tam Dalyell believed he was right and that but for Ridley's "confrontational style", "off-handed and offensive disdain" which upset both the islanders and the House of Commons, this policy could have avoided the war. The proposal was rejected by Lord Carrington who felt that any attempt to put pressure on Islanders would be counter-productive. However, the cumulative effect of stalled sovereignty negotiations, the British Nationality Act 1981 (which would deprive many Islanders of their rights as full British citizens), the announced withdrawal of , the shelving of plans to rebuild the Royal Marine barracks at Moody Brook, and the proposed closure of the British Antarctic Survey base at Grytviken on South Georgia, was to convince Argentina that Britain had no future interest in the Falkland Islands. Argentina invaded the islands in April 1982, beginning the Falklands War, but was repulsed in June of that year, with the islands remaining in British hands.

Financial Secretary to the Treasury
From 1981 to 1983 Ridley was the Financial Secretary to the Treasury.

Secretary of State for Transport
Following the 1983 election, Ridley, always regarded by Margaret Thatcher as "one of us", was a beneficiary of her move to cull the Tory wets and joined her cabinet as Secretary of State for Transport. In that role he played a major part in making preparations for a potential loss of coal supplies, which proved an important factor in deciding the outcome of the miners' strike. Ridley had long been acutely aware of the threat the trade unions could pose to the execution of Conservative policies and, in the wake of the Heath government's union difficulties, had authored the Ridley Plan, which set out means of dealing with the trade unions and was a prototype for later developments. The Thatcher government attached considerable importance to being properly prepared for a major miners' strike and backed down from a confrontation with the miners in its first Parliament. By the time that the miners did strike, from early March 1984, considerable efforts had been made in ensuring the availability of stockpiled coal at power stations, non-unionised transport workers and oil-fired generation plant.

He oversaw bus deregulation with the Transport Act 1985 as a precursor to privatisation of bus services. This led to a period of intense competition between rival bus companies, known at the time as the bus wars and the dramatic subsequent growth of Stagecoach Group, FirstGroup and the other major bus operators.

Never far from controversy, Ridley had to apologise following the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster in 1987, for remarking that he would not be pursuing a particular policy "with the bow doors open". The ship had capsized, with loss of 193 lives, as a result of sailing with its bow doors open.

Secretary of State for the Environment
As Secretary of State for the Environment from 1986 to 1989, he is credited with popularising the phrase NIMBY or Not in My Back Yard to describe those who instinctively opposed any local building development. It was soon revealed that Ridley opposed a low cost housing development near a village where he owned a property. More importantly, he was the Cabinet Minister responsible for the introduction of the 'Poll tax' (formally known as the Community Charge), a policy that brought a standing ovation at the Conservative Party conference at which it was announced, and riots across the country when it was implemented. Ridley had reduced the implementation timetable from 5 to 2 years, which made it much easier for opponents to identify 'losers' and gain support for protest.

Secretary of State for Trade and Industry
On 14 July 1990, he was forced to resign as Secretary of State for Trade and Industry after an interview was published by The Spectator. He had described the proposed Economic and Monetary Union as "a German racket designed to take over the whole of Europe" and said that giving up sovereignty to the European Union was as bad as giving it up to Adolf Hitler. The interview was illustrated with a cartoon depicting Ridley running away having added a Hitler moustache to a poster of the German Chancellor Helmut Kohl. While Ridley was not one of the most powerful government members, he was regarded as a Thatcherite loyalist and his departure was a significant break in their ranks. Margaret Thatcher herself resigned a few months later. Some commentators point to Ridley's resignation, its manner, and the European issue at its core, as leading indicators for the next decade of Conservative Party politics. On 8 November 1991, Ridley advised people to vote for anti-European candidates regardless of their parties.

Baron Ridley of Liddesdale
On 28 July 1992, Ridley was created a life peer as Baron Ridley of Liddesdale, of Willimoteswick in the County of Northumberland. Despite being a free-marketeer, in January 1993 Ridley spoke out against railway privatisation, and when in government, advised Thatcher against doing so. The final speech he gave was an address against the Maastricht Treaty on 17 February 1993 in the House of Lords, which he had always vehemently opposed and voted against in 1991. In an article for The Times written days before he died, he suggested that the rich should be taxed more to help Britain out of the recession.

At the 1996 Nicholas Ridley Memorial Lecture, Thatcher said of Ridley that,

Ridley was also secretary of the Canning Club, a councillor on Castle Ward Rural District Council and a member of the executive committee of the National Trust.

Personal life
Lord Ridley of Liddesdale was married to Clayre Campbell, daughter of Alistair Campbell, 4th Baron Stratheden and Campbell. They divorced in 1974. They had three daughters: social worker Susanna Rickett, designer and writer Jessica Ridley, and historian Jane Ridley, Professor of History at the University of Buckingham. He was a keen water colourist and photographer.

In 1990, asked to comment on the resignation of his cabinet colleague Norman Fowler who had given as the reason for his resignation the wish "to spend more time with my family", Ridley quipped that the last thing he wanted to do was spend more time with his family. Ridley's puppet on Spitting Image was always portrayed with a cigarette.

He died of lung cancer on 4 March 1993.

Arms

References
Footnotes

Bibliography

External links

The Papers of Lord Ridley of Liddesdale held at Churchill Archives Centre

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1929 births
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Loyal Regiment officers
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Nicholas
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ហែងរីហ ហឺត () (២២ កុម្ភៈ ១៨៥៧ – ១ មករា ១៨៩៤) ជារូបវិទូសញ្ជាតិអាឡឺម៉ង់ដែលបានបកស្រាយ និងបន្លាយពង្រីកបន្ថែមលើទ្រឺស្ដីអេឡិចត្រូម៉ាញ៉េទិចនៃពន្លឺ ដែលបានរកឃើញមុខដំបូងដោយ  ម៉ាកស្វែល។ គាត់ជាមនុស្សទីមួយដែលបានរកឃើញរលកសញ្ញាវិទ្យុក្នុងឆ្នាំ១៨៨៨។  គាត់ក៏បានបកស្រាយនិងពន្យល់ថា ពន្លឺគឺជារលកសញ្ញាអេឡិចត្រូម៉ាញ៉េទិច។ ដូច្នេះហើយទើប ខ្នាតនៃប្រេកង់ (ហឺត / Hz) យកតាមឈ្មោះរបស់គ្នា។

ជីវប្រវត្តិ

ឆ្នាំដំបូងៗ
ហឺតចាប់កំណើតនៅរដ្ឋហាំបួក (Hamburg) ដែលជាអតីតរដ្ឋឯករាជមួយនៅក្នុងសហព័ន្ធអាល្លឺមង់ ទៅក្នុងគ្រួសារមួយមានវណ្ណៈខ្ពស់ មានទ្រព្វសម្បត្តិស្ដុកស្ដម្ភនិងកំរិតវប្បធម៌ខ្ពស់។ ឪពុករបស់គាត់ឈ្មោះ ហ្គាស្តាវ ហ្វែរឌីណាន់ ហឺត (Gustav Ferdinand Hertz) ជាអ្នកនិពន្ធសៀវភៅនិងក្រោយមកក្លាយជាសមាជិកសភាជាតិ។  His mother was the former Anna Elisabeth Pfefferkorn. His paternal grandfather David Wolff Hertz (1757–1822), fourth son of Benjamin Wolff Hertz, moved to Hamburg in 1793 where he made his living as a jeweller. He and his wife Schöne Hertz (1760–1834) were buried in the former Jewish cemetery in Ottensen. Their first son Wolff Hertz (1790–1859), was chairman of the Jewish community. His brother Hertz Hertz (1797–1862) was a respected businessman. He was married to Betty Oppenheim, the daughter of the banker Salomon Oppenheim, from Cologne. Hertz converted from Judaism to Christianity and took the name Heinrich David Hertz.

While studying at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums in Hamburg, he showed an aptitude for sciences as well as languages, learning Arabic and Sanskrit. He studied sciences and engineering in the German cities of Dresden, Munich and Berlin, where he studied under Gustav R. Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz.

In 1880, Hertz obtained his PhD from the University of Berlin; and remained for post-doctoral study under Hermann von Helmholtz.

In 1883, Hertz took a post as a lecturer in theoretical physics at the University of Kiel.

In 1885, Hertz became a full professor at the University of Karlsruhe where he discovered electromagnetic waves.

The most dramatic prediction of Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, published in 1865, was the existence of electromagnetic waves moving at the speed of light, and the conclusion that light itself was just such a wave. This challenged experimentalists to generate and detect electromagnetic radiation using some form of electrical apparatus.

The first clearly successful attempt was made by Heinrich Hertz in 1886. For his radio wave transmitter he used a high voltage induction coil, a condenser (capacitor, Leyden jar) and a spark gap—whose poles on either side are formed by spheres of 2 cm radius—to cause a spark discharge between the spark gap's poles oscillating at a frequency determined by the values of the capacitor and the induction coil.

To prove there really was radiation emitted, it had to be detected. Hertz used a piece of copper wire, 1 mm thick, bent into a circle of a diameter of 7.5 cm, with a small brass sphere on one end, and the other end of the wire was pointed, with the point near the sphere.  He bought a screw mechanism so that the point could be moved very close to the sphere in a controlled fashion. This "receiver" was designed so that current oscillating back and forth in the wire would have a natural period close to that of the "transmitter" described above. The presence of oscillating charge in the receiver would be signaled by sparks across the (tiny) gap between the point and the sphere (typically, this gap was hundredths of a millimeter).

In more advanced experiments, Hertz measured the velocity of electromagnetic radiation and found it to be the same as the light's velocity. He also showed that the nature of radio waves' reflection and refraction was the same as those of light and established beyond any doubt that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation obeying the Maxwell equations.

Hertz's experiments would soon trigger the invention of the wireless telegraph, radio, and later television.  In 1930 the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) recognized his work by naming the unit of frequency—one cycle per second—the "hertz".

Meteorology
He always had a deep interest in meteorology probably derived from his contacts with Wilhelm von Bezold (who was Hertz's professor in a laboratory course at the Munich Polytechnic in the summer of 1878). Hertz, however, did not contribute much to the field himself except some early articles as an assistant to Helmholtz in Berlin, including research on the evaporation of liquids, a new kind of hygrometer, and a graphical means of determining the properties of moist air when subjected to adiabatic changes.

Contact mechanics

In 1886–1889, Hertz published two articles on what was to become known as the field of contact mechanics. Hertz is well known for his contributions to the field of electrodynamics (see below); however, most papers that look into the fundamental nature of contact cite his two papers as a source for some important ideas. Joseph Valentin Boussinesq published some critically important observations on Hertz's work, nevertheless establishing this work on contact mechanics to be of immense importance. His work basically summarises how two axi-symmetric objects placed in contact will behave under loading, he obtained results based upon the classical theory of elasticity and continuum mechanics. The most significant failure of his theory was the neglect of any nature of adhesion between the two solids, which proves to be important as the materials composing the solids start to assume high elasticity. It was natural to neglect adhesion in that age as there were no experimental methods of testing for it.

To develop his theory Hertz used his observation of elliptical Newton's rings formed upon placing a glass sphere upon a lens as the basis of assuming that the pressure exerted by the sphere follows an elliptical distribution. He used the formation of Newton's rings again while validating his theory with experiments in calculating the displacement which the sphere has into the lens. K. L. Johnson, K. Kendall and A. D. Roberts (JKR) used this theory as a basis while calculating the theoretical displacement or indentation depth in the presence of adhesion in their landmark article "Surface energy and contact of elastic solids" published in 1971 in the Proceedings of the Royal Society (A324, 1558, 301–313). Hertz's theory is recovered from their formulation if the adhesion of the materials is assumed to be zero. Similar to this theory, however using different assumptions, B. V. Derjaguin, V. M. Muller and Y. P. Toporov published another theory in 1975, which came to be known as the DMT theory in the research community, which also recovered Hertz's formulations under the assumption of zero adhesion. This DMT theory proved to be rather premature and needed several revisions before it came to be accepted as another material contact theory in addition to the JKR theory. Both the DMT and the JKR theories form the basis of contact mechanics upon which all transition contact models are based and used in material parameter prediction in nanoindentation and atomic force microscopy. So Hertz's research from his days as a lecturer, preceding his great work on electromagnetism, which he himself considered with his characteristic soberness to be trivial, has come down to the age of nanotechnology.

Electromagnetic research

In 1886, Hertz developed the Hertz antenna receiver. This is a set of terminals which is not electrically grounded for its operation. He also developed a transmitting type of dipole antenna, which was a center-fed driven element for transmitting UHF radio waves. These antennas are the simplest practical antennas from a theoretical point of view.

In 1887, Hertz experimented with radio waves in his laboratory. These actions followed Michelson's 1881 experiment (precursor to the 1887 Michelson–Morley experiment), which did not detect the existence of aether drift.  Hertz altered Maxwell's equations to take this view into account for electromagnetism. Hertz used a Ruhmkorff coil-driven spark gap and one meter wire pair as a radiator. Capacity spheres were present at the ends for circuit resonance adjustments. His receiver, a precursor to the dipole antenna, was a simple half-wave dipole antenna for shortwaves.  Hertz published his work in a book titled: Electric waves: being researches on the propagation of electric action with finite velocity through space.

Through experimentation, he proved that transverse free space electromagnetic waves can travel over some distance. This had been predicted by James Clerk Maxwell and Michael Faraday. With his apparatus configuration, the electric and magnetic fields would radiate away from the wires as transverse waves. Hertz had positioned the oscillator about 12 meters from a zinc reflecting plate to produce standing waves. Each wave was about 4 meters. Using the ring detector, he recorded how the magnitude and wave's component direction vary. Hertz measured Maxwell's waves and demonstrated that the velocity of radio waves was equal to the velocity of light. The electric field intensity and polarity was also measured by Hertz. (Hertz, 1887, 1888).

The Hertzian cone was first described by Hertz as a type of wave-front propagation through various media. His experiments expanded the field of electromagnetic transmission and his apparatus was developed further by others in the radio. Hertz also found that radio waves could be transmitted through different types of materials, and were reflected by others, leading in the distant future to radar.

Hertz helped establish the photoelectric effect (which was later explained by Albert Einstein) when he noticed that a charged object loses its charge more readily when illuminated by ultraviolet light. In 1887, he made observations of the photoelectric effect and of the production and reception of electromagnetic (EM) waves, published in the journal Annalen der Physik. His receiver consisted of a coil with a spark gap, whereby a spark would be seen upon detection of EM waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. He observed that the maximum spark length was reduced when in the box. A glass panel placed between the source of EM waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap.

When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he substituted quartz for glass, as quartz does not absorb UV radiation. Hertz concluded his months of investigation and reported the results obtained. He did not further pursue investigation of this effect, nor did he make any attempt at explaining how the observed phenomenon was brought about.

Hertz did not realize the practical importance of his experiments. He stated that,
 "It's of no use whatsoever[...] this is just an experiment that proves Maestro Maxwell was right—we just have these mysterious electromagnetic waves that we cannot see with the naked eye. But they are there."
Asked about the ramifications of his discoveries, Hertz replied,
 "Nothing, I guess."
His discoveries would later be more fully understood by others and be part of the new "wireless age". In bulk, Hertz' experiments explain reflection, refraction, polarization, interference, and velocity of electric waves.

In 1892, Hertz began experimenting and demonstrated that cathode rays could penetrate very thin metal foil (such as aluminium). Philipp Lenard, a student of Heinrich Hertz, further researched this "ray effect". He developed a version of the cathode tube and studied the penetration by X-rays of various materials. Philipp Lenard, though, did not realize that he was producing X-rays. Hermann von Helmholtz formulated mathematical equations for X-rays. He postulated a dispersion theory before Röntgen made his discovery and announcement. It was formed on the basis of the electromagnetic theory of light (Wiedmann's Annalen, Vol. XLVIII).  However, he did not work with actual X-rays.

Death at age 36
In 1892, an infection was diagnosed (after a bout of severe migraines) and Hertz underwent some operations to correct the illness.  He died of Wegener's granulomatosis at the age of 36 in Bonn, Germany in 1894, and was buried in Ohlsdorf, Hamburg at the Jewish cemetery.

Hertz's wife, Elizabeth Hertz (maiden name: Elizabeth Doll), did not remarry. Heinrich Hertz left two daughters, Joanna and Mathilde. Subsequently, all three women left Germany in the 1930s and went to England, after the rise of Adolf Hitler. Charles Susskind interviewed Mathilde Hertz in the 1960s and he later published a book on Heinrich Hertz. Heinrich Hertz's daughters never married and he does not have any descendants, according to the book by Susskind.

Legacy and honors
His nephew Gustav Ludwig Hertz was a Nobel Prize winner, and Gustav's son Carl Hellmuth Hertz invented medical ultrasonography.

The SI unit hertz (Hz) was established in his honor by the IEC in 1930 for frequency, an expression of the number of times that a repeated event occurs per second. It was adopted by the CGPM (Conférence générale des poids et mesures) in 1960, officially replacing the previous name, the "cycle per second" (cps).

In 1969 (East Germany), a Heinrich Hertz memorial medal was cast. The IEEE Heinrich Hertz Medal, established in 1987, is "for outstanding achievements in Hertzian waves [...] presented annually to an individual for achievements which are theoretical or experimental in nature".

A crater that lies on the far side of the Moon, just behind the eastern limb, is named in his honor. The Hertz market for radio electronics products in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, is named after him.  The Heinrich-Hertz-Turm radio telecommunication tower in Hamburg is named after the city's famous son.

Hertz is honored by Japan with a membership in the Order of the Sacred Treasure, which has multiple layers of honor for prominent people, including scientists.

Heinrich Hertz has been honored by a number of countries around the world in their postage issues, and in post-World War II times has appeared on various German stamp issues as well.

On his birthday in 2012, Google honored Hertz with a Google doodle inspired by his life's work on its home page.

Nazi revisionism
Although Hertz would not have considered himself Jewish, his "Jewish" portrait was removed by the Nazis from its prominent position of honor in Hamburg's City Hall (Rathaus) because of his partly "Jewish ancestry."  Hertz was a Lutheran; and although his father's family had been Jewish, his father had converted to Catholicism before marrying. The painting has since been returned to public display.

មើលផងដែរ

People
 Jagadish Chandra Bose
 Berend Wilhelm Feddersen
 Hans Christian Ørsted
 David Edward Hughes
 Reginald Fessenden
 Guglielmo Marconi
 Nikola Tesla
 Wilhelm Röntgen

Lists and histories
 Electromagnetism timeline
 Timeline of mechanics and physics
 List of people on stamps of Germany
 List of physicists
 Radio history
 Outline of physics
 Wireless telegraphy

Electromagnetic radiation
 Microwave

Other
 List of German inventors and discoverers

កំនត់ចំណាំ

ឯកសារយោង

 Hertz, H.R. "Ueber sehr schnelle electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der Physik, vol. 267, no. 7, p. 421-448, May 1887. (WILEY InterScience)
 Hertz, H.R. "Ueber einen Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die electrische Entladung", Annalen der Physik, vol. 267, no. 8, p. 983-1000, June, 1887. (WILEY InterScience)
 Hertz, H.R. "Ueber die Einwirkung einer geradlinigen electrischen Schwingung auf eine benachbarte Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, vol. 270, no. 5, p. 155-170, March, 1888. (WILEY InterScience)
 Hertz, H.R. "Ueber die Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen der Physik, vol. 270, no. 7, p. 551-569, May, 1888. (WILEY InterScience)
 Hertz, H.R. (1893). Electric waves: being researches on the propagation of electric action with finite velocity through space (translated by David Evans Jones). Ithica, New York: Cornell University Library.  10-ISBN 1-429-74036-1; 13-ISBN 978-1-429-74036-4
 Hertz, H. R.(1899) The Principles of Mechanics Presented in a New Form, London, Macmillan, with an introduction by Hermann von Helmholtz (English translation of Die Prinzipien der Mechanik in neuem Zusammenhange dargestellt, Leipzig, posthumously published in 1894).
 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Global History Network, IEEE History Center: "Heinrich Hertz" (retrieved 27 Jan 2007)
  Jenkins, John D. "The Discovery of Radio Waves - 1888; Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1847-1894)" (retrieved 27 Jan 2008)
 Koertge, Noretta. (2007). Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York: Thomson-Gale.     10-ISBN 0-684-31320-0; 13-ISBN 978-0-684-31320-7
 Naughton, Russell. "Heinrich Rudolph (alt: Rudolf) Hertz, Dr : 1857 - 1894" (retrieved 27 Jan 2008)
 Roberge, Pierre R. "Heinrich Rudolph Hertz, 1857-1894" (retrieved 27 Jan 2008)
 Robertson, Struan. "Buildings Integral to the Former Life and/or Persecution of Jews in Hamburg" (retrieved 27 Jan 2008)
 Robertson, Struan. "Heinrich Hertz, 1857-1894" (retrieved 27 Jan 2007)

អានបន្ថែម

 Appleyard, Rollo. (1930). Pioneers of Electrical Communication". London: Macmillan and Company. [reprinted by Ayer Company Publishers, Manchester, New Hampshire: 10-ISBN 0836-90156-8; 13-ISBN 978-0-836-90156-6 (cloth)]
 Baird, Davis, R.I.G. Hughes, and Alfred Nordmann, eds. (1998). 'Heinrich Hertz: Classical Physicist, Modern Philosopher. New York: Springer-Verlag.  10-ISBN 0-792-34653-X; 13-ISBN  978-0-792-34653-1
 Bodanis, David.  (2006). Electric Universe: How Electricity Switched on the Modern World.  New York: Three Rivers Press.  10-ISBN 0-307-33598-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-307-33598-2
 Buchwald, Jed Z. (1994). The Creation of Scientific Effects : Heinrich Hertz and Electric Waves. Chicago : University of Chicago Press. 10-ISBN 0-226-07887-6; 13-ISBN 978-0-226-07887-8 (cloth)  10-ISBN 0-226-07888-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-226-07888-5 (paper)
 Bryant, John H. (1988). Heinrich Hertz, the Beginning of Microwaves: Discovery of Electromagnetic Waves and Opening of the Electromagnetic Spectrum by Heinrich Hertz in the Years 1886-1892.   New York : IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). 10-ISBN 0-879-42710-8; 13-ISBN 978-0-879-42710-8
 Lodge, Oliver Joseph. (1900). Signalling Across Space without Wires by Electric Waves: Being a Description of the work of Heinrich Hertz and his Successors.  [reprinted by Arno Press, New York, 1974. 10-ISBN 0-405-06051-3
 Maugis, Daniel. (2000). Contact, Adhesion and Rupture of Elastic Solids. New York: Springer-Verlag. 10-ISBN 3-540-66113-1; 13-ISBN 978-3-54066113-9]
 Susskind, Charles. (1995).Heinrich Hertz :a Short Life. San Francisco: San Francisco Press.   10-ISBN 0-911-30274-3; 13-ISBN 978-0-911-30274-5

តំណភ្ជាប់ខាងក្រៅ

 Hertzian radiation - better known as radio waves: what it is and how it happens
 Encyclopædia Britannica'' (1911): Hertz biography

ហេនរីច ហឺត


A flight recorder is a recorder placed in an aircraft to help with investigating an aircraft accident or incident. For this reason, they have to be capable of surviving extremely rough treatment. They are usually built to withstand an impact of 3600 g and temperatures of over 1,000 °C (as required by EUROCAE ED-112), because a powerful impact followed by a very hot fire is what often happens in a plane crash.

There are two types of protected Flight Recorder, Flight data recorder (FDR) and Cockpit voice recorder (CVR). In some cases, the two recorders may be combined in a single FDR/CVR unit. The first combined flight recorder was invented by Australian scientist, David Warren.

These recorders are often called "black boxes". They can be used in other vehicles including trains and cars. The car's recorder can monitor the speed of the car or the sharpness of turns. The train's recorder can be used to upgrade after a crash to reduce the chance of another crash.

Aviation safety

Flight recorder


A satellite navigation or satnav system is a way of pinpointing position very exactly.

Satnav uses a system of satellites. The system gives exact positioning. It allows small electronic receivers to find their position (longitude, latitude, and altitude/elevation). The position is given within a few metres using time signals transmitted along a straight line (line of sight) by radio from satellites. The signals also allow the receivers to calculate the current local time to high precision. A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be called a global navigation satellite system (GNSS). Global Positioning System is the biggest and most used GNSS. GLONASS, owned by Russia, is the second biggest. China, India, and the European Union are working on similar systems of their own.

Satellites
Navigation

Satellite navigation


A cartridge (also called a round, sometimes a shell) is a type of ammunition, consisting of a cylindrical casing (made of metal, usually brass) that has inside of it a bullet, gunpowder and primer. It is made to fit neatly in the chamber of a gun. This kind of cartridge became usual in the 19th century.

Ammunition

Cartridge (firearms)


A cottage is a term often used for a small house. This word comes from England where it is used to mean a house that has one main storey, with a second, lower storey of bedrooms which fit under the roof upstairs. In many places the word cottage is used to mean a small old-fashioned house. In the United States the word cottage is often used to mean a small holiday home.

Cottages are usually found in villages or in the countryside, rather than in the town. They are nearly always built from material that can be found nearby. A cottage may be built of stone, of brick or of timber. It may have a roof of tiles, slates, shingles, shakes or thatch.

Houses

Cottage


Pronunciation, ke matlab bhasa ke ek sabd ke kon rakam se bola jaae hae.==References==

Bahaari jorr
 Forvo — All the words in the world pronounced by native speakers. See also Forvo.
 Inogolo — American English audio pronunciation guide
 Sounds Familiar? — Listen to examples of regional accents and dialects from across the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website
 Howjsay — Enter a word to hear it spoken.  About 100,000 words in British English with alternative pronunciations.

Phonetics

Pronunciation


An aurora, also called polar light, northern light or southern light, is a natural light display in the sky. They are usually seen in the high latitudes (Arctic and Antarctic) regions. Auroras are produced when the Earth's magnetosphere is disturbed by the solar wind.

An aurora around the North Pole is called the Aurora borealis or 'northern lights'. Around the South Pole is the Aurora australis or 'dawn of the south' or 'southern lights'. It can be seen from long distances, stretching in the sky many hundreds of miles.

Auroras can happen at any time, however, they can only be seen at night because their light is not as intense as the light of day. Faint stars can even be seen through the aurora.

Many legends are associated with the aurora in all countries where this phenomenon regularly occurs.

How it happens
An aurora occurs when the Sun sends off small particles into space. These particles are mainly electrons, with charge and energy, which means they contribute to electricity. Earth has a protective shield of energy around it. This is called the "magnetic field" and forms an elongated sphere around the Earth called the "magnetosphere". The Earth's magnetic field keeps off most solar wind.

At high-latitude areas (polar areas), the magnetic field is vertical. It does not keep off particles of the solar wind which can come from the magnetosphere and hit the particles of the air (Earth's atmosphere). When they hit, the atmosphere is heated and excited and the excess gets away, a phenomenon which we see as moving lights in the sky above 100 km altitude typically. An aurora can be especially bright following a solar flare and coronal mass ejection (CME) when the charged particles rips through the electromagnetic field because of their power.

On other planets

Auroral phenomena have been observed on other planets that have a magnetic field, such as Jupiter, and Saturn. It is believed to be a widespread phenomenon in the Solar System and beyond.

References

Earth sciences
Meteorology

Aurora


A flying ace or fighter ace is a military pilot who has shot down five or more enemy aircraft in air combat. Use of the term "ace" in military aviation began in World War I (1914–18). French newspapers called Adolphe Pegoud, as l'as (French for "ace") after he became the first pilot to shoot down five German aircraft. Many other pilots later became aces, and some are very famous today, like the "Red Baron", Manfred von Richthofen who had 80 kills.

Erich Hartmann was the ace with the most kills; he had 352.

Some countries have recognized armor commanders as "tank aces" for destroying five enemies.

Other websites
 Fighter ace list

Occupations in aviation

Flying ace


Fatigue or tiredness is a physical or mental feeling. It happens when someone is ready to sleep or has done a lot of physical exercise. The person may feel weak, slow or sleepy. They may yawn and may find it difficult to keep the eyes open. Usual fatigue goes away when you rest or sleep.

Fatigue may also be caused by physical or mental illness, jet lag, drug or alcohol use, medications, blood loss, malnutrition, starvation, stress or boredom.

Health

Fatigue