Louise Hippolyte (10 November 1697 – 29 December 1731), was the only sovereign Princess of Monaco. She is the ancestor of the current reigning princely family of Monaco. A very popular monarch she officially ruled the state with her husband but died prematurely after a reign of only 11 months. At her death her husband abdicated in favour for their son Honoré .

Biography
Born at the Prince's Palace in Monaco, she was the second daughter of Antonio I of Monaco and Marie of Lorraine. The second of six children born to her parents, she was the first of their children to survive childhood.

Because she had no brothers, Louise Hippolyte became the heiress to the throne of Monaco. Her father ensured with the permission of Louis XIV, that her future husband should assume the surname of Grimaldi and rule Monaco jointly with her.

Married life

On 20 October 1715, at the age of eighteen, she married "Jacques François Goyon, Count of Matignon" after his family had proposed him as a candidate. His candidacy was supported by King Louis XIV, who wanted to increase French influence in Monaco. Prior to this, Louise Hippolyte's father was eager to wed his daughter to a Grimaldi cousin. This marriage did not materialise due to the poor finances of the Grimaldis at the time. The couple had several sons most of which were also given the title of Count of Matignon. Jacques François Goyon was given a higher ranking title by Louis XIV namely the Duke of Valentinois (1642). Overall the couple had a fairly unhappy married life. Her husband preferred Paris and would often leave his wife and children in Monaco when he travelled to the Court of Versailles.

Louise Hippolyte and Jacques had nine children. Her husband preferred to stay in Versailles (where he had several mistresses), instead of Monaco.

After the death of her father, Louise Hippolyte traveled from Paris to Monaco on 4 April 1731 and received an enthusiastic reception from the populace. When Jacques joined her a little while later, the reception was much colder.

At the end of 1731, Louise Hippolyte died of smallpox. Her husband neglected the affairs of Monaco and had to leave the country in May 1732. He abdicated in favour of their son, Honoré, the next year.

Her husband remained a widower, despite a large dowry offered to him by the Duchess of Maine to get him to marry her unattractive daughter, "Mademoiselle du Maine", a granddaughter of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan. The princess died of smallpox aged 34 and was buried in the Saint Nicholas Cathedral itself the family crypt of the House of Grimaldi.

Issue

The children of the couple were technically given the surname of "Goyon de Matignon" after their father however they were sometimes also known under the surname of Grimaldi too.

Antoine Charles Marie Grimaldi (16 December 1717 – 4 February 1718), Marquis of Baux and Count of Matignon.
Charlotte Thérèse Nathalie Grimaldi  (19 March 1719 – 1790), nun at the Convent of Visitation at Paris.
Honoré Grimaldi (10 November 1720 – 21 March 1795), successor of his parents.
Charles Marie Auguste Grimaldi  (1 January 1722 – 24 August 1749), Count of Carladés and of Matignon.
Jacques Grimaldi  (9 June 1723 – June 1723) died young.
Louise Françoise Grimaldi  (15 July 1724 – 15 September 1729), Mademoiselle des Baux.
François Charles Grimaldi (4 February 1726 – 9 December 1743), Count of Thorigny.
Charles Maurice Grimaldi (14 May 1727 – 18 January 1798), Count of Valentinois; married on 10 November 1749 to Marie Christine de Rouvroy; no children.
Marie Françoise Thérése Grimaldi (20 July 1728 – 20 June 1743), Mademoiselle d'Estouteville died of smallpox unmarried.

Titles and styles

10 November 1697 - 20 October 1715 Her Serene Highness The Hereditary Princess of Monaco.
20 October 1715 - 20 February 1731 Madame la comtesse de Matignon.  [And Hereditary Princess of Monaco.]
20 February 1731 – 29 December 1731 Her Serene Highness The Princess of Monaco. [And Duchess of Valentinois.]

House of Grimaldi
1697 births
1731 deaths
Deaths from smallpox
Dukes and duchesses of France
Princes and princesses of Monaco

Louise Hippolyte, Princess of Monaco


The Republic of the Rio Grande () was one of a series of independence movements in Mexico against the unitary government dominated by Antonio López de Santa Anna, including the Republic of Texas, and the second Republic of Yucatán. Insurgents fighting against the Centralist Republic of Mexico sought to establish the Republic of the Rio Grande as an independent nation in northern Mexico. The rebellion lasted from 17 January to 6 November 1840.

Background
After a decade of strife, Mexico won its independence from the Kingdom of Spain in 1821. After a failed attempt at a monarchy, Mexico adopted a new constitution, the 1824 Constitution. This new constitution established los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, or "the United Mexican States," as a federal republic. During the war for independence, many rebels were driven to Coahuila and Nuevo León, where this revolutionary mentality won the hearts and minds of the people.

In 1833, General Santa Anna was elected to his first term as president and was, at the time of his election, in support of the federal republic. However, after some members of government angered Santa Anna's political allies, Santa Anna decided to start a centralized government. Santa Anna suspended the constitution, disbanded Congress and made himself the center of power in Mexico. States were converted into departments without political or fiscal autonomy by replacing elected governors with appointed ones and substituting for state assemblies with juntas under Santa Anna's policies. Dismayed by these policies and the perception that the government was deaf to the complaints and plight of the residents in the north, Republic leaders aimed to expel the officials appointed by the central government and restore the Constitution of 1824. On November 3, 1838, one of the republic leaders, Antonio Canales Rosillo, issued a pronunciamiento against the government and in favor of federalism.

Resistance
In January 1839, Antonio Canales summoned a convention at the office of the Justice of the Peace in Laredo where the Constitution of 1824 was unanimously approved. Canales immediately began building an army and scoured the countryside looking for recruits; among those recruits were Texan Colonels Reuben Ross and Samuel Jordan. Intending to use the property of the church and convents to pay volunteers, in 1839 and 1840, Canales was able to freely travel both sides of the Rio Grande, and recruited a small army of both Tejano and Mexican vaqueros and Caddo Indians, as well as receiving the assistance of the Texian Auxiliary Corps.

On 3 October Canales and his army marched to the town of Mier, where they faced the Mexican army. During the battle, Colonels Reuben Ross and Samuel Jordan charged at the centralist forces and encircled them in a hacienda, where the Mexican army was forced to surrender. Three hundred and fifty centralist soldiers who were taken prisoner ultimately defected and enlisted in Canales' army. After the battle, Canales was seen as a hero throughout Northern Mexico and many towns began to support his cause. Within a few days, recruits, supplies, and cash were being sent to him.

Canales lingered in Mier for forty days before heading to Matamoros, a port town where another Centrist force was residing. In twenty-eight days, his one thousand man army reached the town only to find Mexican General Valentín Canalizo there with fifteen-hundred troops. Outmanned, Canales decided to withdraw and attack General Mariano Arista at Monterrey instead. Colonel Ross, appalled by this withdrawal, left Canales' army, taking fifty Texans with him. At Monterrey, General Canales sent three hundred cavalry under the command of Colonel José Antonio Zapata to lure Arista out of town. While Arista left the town unguarded to engage with Zapata, General Canales' army took a convent on the outskirts of town. However, on December 27, General Arista sent spies to Canales' army and bribed seven hundred Mexicans to abandon their army. Upon discovering this the next morning, Canales and the remnants of his army fled the battle.

Rebellion

A New Republic

On the 17 January 1840 a meeting was held at the Oreveña Ranch near Laredo. A group of notables from the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas advocated for a rebellion seeking secession from Mexico and formation of their own federal republic with Laredo as the capital. However, those states' own congresses and governments never took any action to support the insurgents, and requested the help of the Central government in Mexico City to aid the local state armies. Despite the lack of support from the state governments, the Republic of the Rio Grande was formed. The new Republic had an official newspaper: "Correo del Rio Bravo del Norte" and their state motto was Dios, Libertad y Convención (God, Liberty, and Convention).

The insurgents designated their own officials for the new republic. They were:
 Jesús de Cárdenas, A former lawyer and political chief of the Northern Department of Tamaulipas. He was sworn in as president of the new Republic.
 Antonio Canales, The commander-in-chief of the new republic and one of the founding fathers of the republic.
 Juan Nepomuceno Molano, A council representative for Tamaulipas.
 Francisco Vidaurri y Villaseñor, A council representative for Coahuila.
 Manuel María de Llano, A council representative for Nuevo León.
 Juan Francisco Farías, Secretary of State
 José María Jesús Carbajal, Secretary of State (after Farías)

Battle of Santa Rita de Morelos (24-25 March 1840)

Shortly after the formation of the Republic of the Rio Grande, word arrived that General Arista was in the Rio Grande valley. Texan Samuel Jordan urged Canales to retreat to Texas to recruit more Texans but Canales refused. Consequently, Samuel Jordan and 60 of his men left General Canales' army. While Canales and the army decided to fight, President Cardenas and the new government fled to Victoria, Texas.

Canales and his army met Arista outside the town of Santa Rita de Morelos. Needing provisions, Antonio Zapata and 30 men rode into town where Arista's men soon surrounded them. Outnumbered by 1,800 men, Zapata surrendered. General Arista offered to pardon Antonio Zapata under the condition that he swore allegiance to Mexico, but he refused. On 29 March 1840, Antonio Zapata was executed and his head placed on a spike in the town of Guerrero as a reminder to his wife, children, and federalists. While Zapata was being held prisoner, General Canales engaged Arista at San Fernando, losing 250 of his four hundred men in the process. After this defeat, Antonio Canales had no other option except to flee to Texas.

Texas's role in the Rebellion
From the beginning, President Cardenas realized that the success of the Republic of the Rio Grande depended on Texan support. Texas also had conflicting interests on whether to support the new Republic or not. On one hand, the formation of the Republic of the Rio Grande would create a buffer state between Mexico and Texas, postponing any possible intentions Mexico had for the reinvasion of Texas; on the other hand, Texas needed Mexico to recognize its independence and supporting the new Republic would certainly anger them. Texas's official stance on the issue was neutral, but president Mirabeau Lamar secretly encouraged Texans to volunteer in Canales's army and gave Canales access to Texan arms and ammunition.

Battle of Saltillo (25 October 1840)

In Texas, Canales rebuilt his new army at San Patricio under Colonel Samuel Jordan. The new army consisted of 300 Mexicans, 80 Cane Indians, and 410 Texans. With the new army, Canales marched out of Texas and was able to recapture the towns of Laredo, Guerrero, Mier, and Camargo.

Soon after, Canales ordered 350 men, under the command of Samuel Jordan and Canales' brother-in-law Juan Molano, to steal horses for future operations. After Jordan and Molano sacked the city of Ciudad Victoria and installed a new state government, they marched to Saltillo where the Mexican General Montoya was residing. Unbeknown to Jordan, Juan Molano had secretly switched sides and joined the centralist forces.

On 25 October 1840, the Mexican army under Montoya faced the army of the Republic of the Rio Grande under the command of Colonel Lopez (who had secretly switched allegiance to General Montoya as well). Colonel Lopez ordered Jordan and his men to move into a mountain gorge. Upon realizing the trap, Jordan, his men, and the remaining loyal vaqueros to the Rio Grande Republic turned around and took refuge in a hacienda. The Mexican army attacked the hacienda in full force but was unable to capture the Texans before they retreated. The Mexican army lost four hundred men attacking the hacienda while the Texans only lost five.

Defeat
After the defeat at Saltillo, General Canales secretly entered negotiations with General Arista and on November 6, 1840, Antonio Canales surrendered at Camargo. Canales soon accepted a position as an officer in Santa Anna's army. As part of conditions of surrender, no harm would come to the property or safety of former members of the republic. The Republic's debts would be assumed as well. A few days after Canales's surrender, President Cardenas and other officials entered Laredo to officially surrender.

Flag of the republic

The flag of the Republic of the Rio Grande has a blue hoist with three white stars run evenly along the hoist. The three stars represent the three states that seceded: Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas. The fly is split into three bands, one white, one red, and one black.

Legacy
Remnants of the republic's effect can be seen in:
 Zapata County, Texas, as well as the city of Zapata are named in honor of Republic of the Rio Grande cavalry commander, Colonel José Antonio de Zapata.
 Republic of the Rio Grande Capitol Building Museum is located in Laredo, Texas.
 As an addition to the historical six flags over Texas, the Laredo Morning Times newspaper adds a seventh flag to its banner: the flag for the Republic of the Rio Grande.

See also
 Juan Bautista Alvarado, leader of the California Revolt
 Filibuster (military)
 List of historical unrecognized states
 Revolt of 1837 (New Mexico)

References

General

Coppock, Mike. 2005. "The Republic of the Rio Grande." Wild West 18, no. 4: 46–52. History Reference Center, EBSCOhost (accessed November 1, 2016).
 De la Garza, Beatriz. From the Republic of the Rio Grande: A Personal History of the Place and the People. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2013.

 The Laredo Morning Times Online edition
 Lindheim, Milton. The Republic of the Rio Grande. Waco, TX: W.M. Morrison, Publishing Co., 1964.
 "Mexico – Filibustering: Republic of the Rio Grande," Flags of the World.
 "Northern Mexico—New Republic of the Rio Grande." American Masonic Register and Literary Companion (1839-1847) 1, no. 43 (jun 27 1840): 338.

 "The Republic of the Rio Grande: A Story of Its Rise and Fall," Sons of DeWitt Colony Texas.
 Valerio-Jiménez, Omar S. River of Hope: Forging Identity and Nation in the Rio Grande Borderlands. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2013.
 Vigness, David M. "Relations of the Republic of Texas and the Republic of the Rio Grande." The Southwestern Historical Quarterly 57, no. 3 (1954): 312–21.
 Yahoo! News article mentioning Republic of the Rio Grande in a present-day context

Further reading

1840 disestablishments in North America
1840 in Mexico
Rio Grande
History of Laredo, Texas
Mexican Texas
History of Nuevo León
Independent Mexico
States and territories established in 1840
States and territories disestablished in 1840
Former territorial entities in North America
Separatism in Mexico
1840 establishments in North America

Republic of the Rio Grande


Alexander Kartveli, born Aleksandre Kartvelishvili,  () (September 9, 1896 – July 20, 1974) was a Georgian aeronautical engineer and an aviation pioneer in the United States. Kartveli achieved important breakthroughs in military aviation in the time of turbojet fighters.

Education and early career
Alexander Kartvelishvili was born in Tbilisi, Georgia, which was part of Russian Empire at that time; into a noble Georgian family. (Georgians call themselves "kartvelebi", and his surname derives from "Kartveli", or Georgian). He graduated from the grammar school in Tbilisi in 1914. Later on, he decided to move to France, as one of several aviation engineer aspirants of Georgian origin, such as Michael Gregor.

Kartvelishvili graduated in 1922 from the Institut supérieur de l'aéronautique et de l'espace in Paris. He began working as a test pilot but was seriously injured during a test flight which ended the short-lived career. In 1922–1927, he worked for a while at the Louis Blériot company and designed the Bernard and Ferbois aircraft. In 1924, one of his aircraft established a world speed record.

In 1927, the American millionaire Charles Levine invited Kartvelishvili to New York, to join the Atlantic Aircraft Corporation in 1928 and in 1931 Kartvelishvili met the prominent engineer Alexander de Seversky, who was born in Georgia but was of Russian descent. In Seversky's company, which later was renamed Seversky Aircraft Corporation, Kartvelishvili worked as chief engineer. In 1939 the company again changed its name to "Republic Aviation Company".

Seversky Corporation
Kartvelishvili and Seversky worked on a series of new designs. During World War II the first projects resulted in the P-35 and one of the most effective US fighter aircraft of World War 2, the Republic P-47. The new fighter aircraft was a clear improvement over the comparatively lightly armed Seversky P-35.

After Kartvelishvili immigrated to the United States, Seversky almost immediately hired his fellow immigrant as chief engineer, and Kartveli quickly proceeded to design a number of very advanced aircraft, including the SEV-1XP, which outperformed the Curtiss P-36 Hawk during a 1936 Army Air Corps competition and served as a necessary step in developing all-metal aircraft. Known by the military designation Seversky P-35, it was the first modern US Army fighter, incorporating a metal fuselage, low-set wings, retractable landing gear and a radial engine. A different concept called Seversky SEV-3, a floatplane fitted with retractable wheels, failed to win a volume order, but the Seversky Corporation succeeded with selling a subsequent trainer model, the BT-8

Republic Aviation Company

In 1939, Seversky was removed as head of his company and the Republic Aviation Company was born. The first major aircraft to emerge from the new company was the P-47, using a new innovative design of Kartveli. Two concept works named XP-44 and XP-47 were developed but dropped as they did not meet the requirements of the Air Corps. According to records, Kartveli was called in from the Experimental Aircraft Division of the USAAC and informed about the prototypes being cancelled. During his return to New York on a train, he took a sheet of paper and drew a completely new design. The new aircraft was intended to break the back of the German Luftwaffe. The famous P-47 Thunderbolt with its robust characteristics was born. More than 15,000 P-47s were constructed. Despite some flaws, the heavily armed and extremely sturdy aircraft achieved more than Kartveli could hope.
At the end of the war Kartveli designed a sleek flying photo lab called the Republic XF-12, initially planned as a four-engine postwar transport; American Airlines canceled its orders and only two prototypes were built for the US Air Force.

Shortly after the end of World War II new concept of turbojet fighters would emerge. The F-84 Thunderjet which Kartveli had already developed in 1944, was going into serial production in 1946. Soon he would also add the swept-wing variant Republic F-84F Thunderstreak. A total of 10,000 of these new generation aircraft would be constructed. He would later lead the team that developed the F-105 Thunderchief. He was also heavily involved with a 1960s-era Air Force project called "Aerospaceplane",  to design and build an orbital logistics vehicle a decade before NASA attempted a similar concept, known as the Space Shuttle. The radical turboramjet-powered XF-103 was another stillborn Kartveli design, a victim of the propulsion community not being able to produce a suitable engine to power the Mach 3 interceptor. Kartveli contributed significantly to the science of flight and the readiness of the US military, and was involved in designing and leading of various projects. He was also consultant at Fairchild Republic and was the primary designer of the A-10 Thunderbolt II.

Major projects

P-47 Thunderbolt

The Republic P-47 was Alexander Kartvelis brainchild and the successor to a line of airplanes derived from the Seversky P-35, the XP-41, P-43 Lancer and XP-44 Rocket. The P-47 design team headed by Kartveli originally presented a design that was to be powered by a 1,150 hp Allison V-1710-39 engine with an armament of only two 0.50 inch machine guns. A contract was awarded by the USAAC in November 1939, and for an even lighter XP-47A, but as intelligence was coming back from the war in Europe, it was becoming apparent that the performance goals of the XP-47 program were already inadequate. The USAAC issued new requirements which included:
 Airspeed of 400 mph at 25,000 feet
 Armament of six .50 caliber machine guns, preferably eight
 Armor plating to protect the pilot
 Self-sealing fuel tanks
 A minimum of 315 gallons of fuel

The USAAC notified Kartveli that the XP-47A and the XP-44 Rocket contracts were canceled, since the P-43/XP-44 airframe was too small to meet the new requirements. (The XP-44 Rocket was based on the P-43 Lancer airframe with an even more powerful radial engine and never made it past the mock-up stage.) Kartveli then took the Seversky AP-4, a daring concept with the exhaust-driven turbocharger in the rear fuselage belly, and quickly prepared a rough sketch of a new XP-47B prototype. He planned to use the new 2,000 hp Pratt & Whitney Double Wasp XR-2800-21, eighteen cylinder, two-row radial engine, which was the largest and most powerful aircraft engine ever developed in the United States. The new design would incorporate eight 0.50 inch machine guns, additional ammunition, increased fuel capacity, and armor protection for the pilot. (The final fuel load was slightly under the capacity required, but this was overlooked as the aircraft met performance specifications.) Additionally, the airplane would include an efficient super-charging duct system that would offer the least interrupted airflow. Kartveli therefore adopted the unorthodox method of designing this feature first, and then building up the fuselage around it. Despite the fact that the supercharger was in the tail and the engine was in the nose, the arrangement worked quite well, providing a system that was durable and less susceptible to battle damage.

One of the most important features of the P-47 was its remarkable acceleration when the aircraft was put into a dive. Any plane that attempted to break off contact by going into a dive would soon be overcome by the remarkable speed of the P-47. Once the P-47 caught up to its prey, one burst from its eight 0.50 machine guns would obliterate anything it hit.

F-84 Thunderjet/F-84F Thunderstreak

In 1944, Kartveli began working on a turbojet-powered replacement for the P-47 Thunderbolt piston-engined fighter. The initial attempts to redesign the P-47 to accommodate a jet engine proved futile due to the large cross-section of the early centrifugal compressor turbojets. Instead, Kartveli and his team designed a brand-new aircraft with a streamlined fuselage largely occupied by an axial compressor turbojet engine and fuel stored in rather thick unswept wings. On September 11, 1944, the United States Army Air Force released General Operational Requirements for a day fighter with a top speed of 600 mph (521 knots, 966 km/h), combat radius of 705 miles (612 nm, 1,135 km), and armament of either six 0.50 inch (12.7 mm) or four 0.60 inch (15.2 mm) machine guns. In addition, the new aircraft had to use the General Electric TG-180 axial turbojet which entered production as the Allison J35.

On November 11, 1944, Republic received an order for three prototypes of the new XP-84. Since the design promised superior performance to the P-80 Shooting Star and Republic had extensive experience in building single-seat fighters, no competition was held for the contract. The name Thunderjet was chosen to continue the Republic Aviation tradition started with the P-47 while emphasizing the new method of propulsion. On January 4, 1945, even before the aircraft took to the air, the USAAF expanded its order to 25 service test YP-84A and 75 production P-84B (later modified to 15 YP-84A and 85 P-84B). Meanwhile, wind tunnel testing by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics revealed longitudinal instability and buckling of stabilizer skin at high speeds. The weight of the aircraft, a great concern given the low thrust of early turbojets, was growing so quickly that the USAAF had to set a gross weight limit of 13,400 pounds (6,078 kg). The results of preliminary testing were incorporated into the third prototype, designated XP-84A, which was also fitted with a more powerful J35-GE-15 engine with 4,000 pound-force (17.80 kN) of thrust.

The first prototype XP-84 was transferred to Muroc Army Air Field (present-day Edwards Air Force Base) where it flew for the first time on February 28, 1946, with Major William A. Lien at the controls. It was joined by the second prototype in August, both aircraft flying with J35-GE-7 engines producing 3,745 pound-force (16.66 kN) of thrust. The fifteen YP-84As delivered to Patterson Field (present-day Wright-Patterson Air Force Base) for service tests differed from XP-84s in having an upgraded J35-A-15 engine, carrying six 0.50 inch (12.7 mm) Browning M2 machine guns (four in the nose and one in each wing root), and having the provision for wingtip fuel tanks holding 226 US gallons (870 L) each. Due to delays with delivery of jet engines and production of the XP-84A, the Thunderjet had undergone only limited flight testing by the time production P-84Bs began to roll out of the factory in 1947. In particular, the impact of wingtip tanks on aircraft handling was not thoroughly studied, which proved problematic later.

After creation of the United States Air Force by the National Security Act of 1947, the Pursuit designation was replaced with Fighter, and P-84 became the F-84.

F-105 Thunderchief

The design of the F-105 Thunderchief began in the early 1950s as an internal project at Republic and was headed by Alexander Kartveli. Intended to be a replacement for the F-84 Thunderjet, the F-105 was created as a supersonic, low-altitude penetrator capable of delivering a nuclear weapon to a target deep within the Soviet Union. Led by Kartveli, the design team produced an aircraft centered on a large engine and able to achieve high speeds. As the F-105 was meant to be a penetrator, maneuverability was sacrificed for speed and low-altitude performance.

Intrigued by Republic's design, the US Air Force placed an initial order for 199 F-105s in September 1952, but with the Korean War winding down reduced it to 46 six months later. On October 22, 1955, the first YF-105A prototype flew, powered by a Pratt & Whitney J57-P-25 engine. Test flights with the YF-105A soon revealed that the aircraft was underpowered and suffered from problems with transonic drag. To counter these issues Republic replaced the engine with the more powerful Pratt & Whitney J75, altered the arrangement of the air intakes, and redesigned the F-105's fuselage.

The redesigned aircraft, dubbed the F-105B, proved able to achieve speeds of Mach 2.15. Also included were improvements to its electronics including the MA-8 fire control system, a K19 gun sight, and an AN/APG-31 ranging radar. With the alterations complete, the YF-105B first took to the sky on May 26, 1956. The largest single-engine fighter built for the US Air Force, the production model F-105B possessed an internal bomb bay and five external weapons pylons. The US Air Force planned to purchase 1,500 F-105s, however this order was reduced to 833 by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara.

Total list of projects

Bernard 191GR
Ferbois aircraft
Seversky P-35
Seversky SEV-3
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt
Republic XF-12
Republic XF-91 Thunderceptor
Republic F-84 Thunderjet
F-84G
XP-84
XP-84A
YP-84A
F-84B
EF-84B
F-84C
F-84D
F-84E
EF-84E
F-84G
F-84KX
Republic F-84F Thunderstreak
YF-84F
RF-84F
RF-84K
YF-84J
Republic F-105 Thunderchief
Rockwell X-30
Republic XF-103
Republic RC-3 Seabee
Republic P-43 Lancer
Republic XF-84H
Republic AP-100
A-10 Thunderbolt II

Death
Alexander Kartveli died on July 20, 1974, at Huntington (Long Island) Hospital, New York, USA.

The announcement by the Fairchild Republic Company, where Mr. Kartveli had been chief engineer emeritus and was still active as a consultant, said he had apparently succumbed to a heart attack at his home in Huntington.

See also
 Aviation history
 Aeronautics
 Aerospace engineering
 Avionics
 List of Georgians
 History of Georgia (country)

References

External links
 Aviation Pioneers – Alexander Kartveli
 Alexander Kartveli
 Alexander Kartveli The Man Behind Legends

Aircraft designers
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to France
French emigrants to the United States
Aircraft designers from Georgia (country)
People of World War II from Georgia (country)
American aerospace engineers
1896 births
1974 deaths
Engineers from Tbilisi
20th-century American engineers

Alexander Kartveli


Ionia was a region in the west of Asia Minor in Ancient Greek times. It was in what is now Turkey. It was the birthplace of the Hellenic civilization. The Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus, caused the migration of Ionic Greeks across the Aegean sea to Anatolia about 1000-900 BCE. The original Greek settlements in the region were numerous and small, but by the 8th century BCE they had consolidated themselves into 12 major cities—Phocaea, Erythrae, Clazomenae, Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, and Miletus on the mainland, with the islands Chios and Samos.By the end of the 7th century the Ionian cities had achieved great prosperity through their trading enterprises, their colonization efforts, and their manufacture of ceramics, textiles, and metalware. After World War One it was granted to Greece from Turkey in the Treaty of Sèvres, along with most of the islands in the Aegean sea, Thrace, and Turkey's most important city, Istanbul. The Turkish army drove the Greeks out soon after, killing many Greek people. They did not challenge the Greeks on the Aegean Islands, though.

Ancient Greek settlements

Ionia


Inferno is a distributed operating system started at Bell Labs and now developed and maintained by Vita Nuova Holdings as free software under the MIT License. Inferno was based on the experience gained with Plan 9 from Bell Labs, and the further research of Bell Labs into operating systems, languages, on-the-fly compilers, graphics, security, networking and portability. The name of the operating system, many of its associated programs, and that of the current company, were inspired by Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy. In Italian, Inferno means "hell", of which there are nine circles in Dante's Divine Comedy.

Design principles
Inferno was created in 1995 by members of Bell Labs' Computer Science Research division to bring ideas derived from their previous operating system, Plan 9 from Bell Labs, to a wider range of devices and networks. Inferno is a distributed operating system based on three basic principles:

 Resources as files: all resources are represented as files within a hierarchical file system
 Namespaces: a program's view of the network is a single, coherent namespace that appears as a hierarchical file system but may represent physically separated (locally or remotely) resources
 Standard communication protocol: a standard protocol, called Styx, is used to access all resources, both local and remote

To handle the diversity of network environments it was intended to be used in, the designers decided a virtual machine (VM) was a necessary component of the system. This is the same conclusion of the Oak project that became Java, but arrived at independently. The Dis virtual machine is a register machine intended to closely match the architecture it runs on, in contrast to the stack machine of the Java virtual machine. An advantage of this approach is the relative simplicity of creating a just-in-time compiler for new architectures.

The virtual machine provides memory management designed to be efficient on devices with as little as 1 MiB of memory and without memory-mapping hardware. Its garbage collector is a hybrid of reference counting and a real-time coloring collector that gathers cyclic data.

The Inferno kernel contains the virtual machine, on-the-fly compiler, scheduler, devices, protocol stacks, and the name space evaluator for each process' file name space, and the root of the file system hierarchy. The kernel also includes some built-in modules that provide interfaces of the virtual operating system, such as system calls, graphics, security, and math modules.

The Bell Labs Technical Journal paper introducing Inferno listed several dimensions of portability and versatility provided by the OS:

 Portability across processors: it currently runs on ARM, SGI MIPS, HP PA-RISC, IBM PowerPC, Sun SPARC, and Intel x86 architectures and is readily portable to others.
 Portability across environments: it runs as a stand-alone operating system on small terminals, and also as a user application under Bell Plan 9, MS Windows NT, Windows 95, and Unix (SGI Irix, Sun Solaris, FreeBSD, Apple Mac OS X, Linux, IBM AIX, HP-UX, Digital Tru64). In all of these environments, Inferno programs see an identical interface.
 Distributed design: the identical environment is established at the user's terminal and at the server, and each may import the resources (for example, the attached I/O devices or networks) of the other. Aided by the communications facilities of the run-time system, programs may be split easily (and even dynamically) between client and server.
 Minimal hardware requirements: it runs useful applications stand-alone on machines with as little as 1 MiB of memory, and does not require memory-mapping hardware.
 Portable programs: Inferno programs are written in the type-safe language Limbo and compiled to Dis bytecode, which can be run without modifications on all Inferno platforms.
 Dynamic adaptability: programs may, depending on the hardware or other resources available, load different program modules to perform a specific function. For example, a video player might use any of several different decoder modules.

These design choices were directed to provide standard interfaces that free content and service providers from concern of the details of diverse hardware, software, and networks over which their content is delivered.

Features

Inferno programs are portable across a broad mix of hardware, networks, and environments. It defines a virtual machine, known as Dis, that can be implemented on any real machine, provides Limbo, a type-safe language that is compiled to portable byte code, and, more significantly, it includes a virtual operating system that supplies the same interfaces whether Inferno
runs natively on hardware or runs as a user program on top of another operating system.

A communications protocol called Styx is applied uniformly to access both local and remote resources, which programs use by calling standard file operations, open, read, write, and close. As of the fourth edition of Inferno, Styx is identical to Plan 9's newer version of its hallmark 9P protocol, 9P2000.

Most of the Inferno commands are very similar to Unix commands with the same name.

History

Inferno is a descendant of Plan 9 from Bell Labs, and shares many design concepts and even source code in the kernel, particularly around devices and the Styx/9P2000 protocol.
Inferno shares with Plan 9 the Unix heritage from Bell Labs and the Unix philosophy. Many of the command line tools in Inferno were Plan 9 tools that were translated to Limbo.

In the mid-1990s, Plan 9 development was set aside in favor of Inferno.
The new system's existence was leaked by Dennis Ritchie in early 1996, after less than a year of development on the system, and publicly presented later that year as a competitor to Java. At the same time, Bell Labs' parent company AT&T licensed Java technology from Sun Microsystems.

In March–April 1997 IEEE Internet Computing included an advertisement for Inferno networking software. It claimed that various devices could communicate over "any network" including the Internet, telecommunications and LANs. The advertisement stated that video games could talk to computers,–a PlayStation was pictured–cell phones could access email and voice mail was available via TV.

Lucent used Inferno in at least two internal products: the Lucent VPN Firewall Brick, and the Lucent Pathstar phone switch. They initially tried to sell source code licenses of Inferno but found few buyers. Lucent did little marketing and missed the importance of the Internet and Inferno's relation to it. During the same time Sun Microsystems was heavily marketing its own Java programming language, which was targeting a similar market, with analogous technology, that worked in web browsers and also filled the demand for object-oriented languages popular at that time. Lucent licensed Java from Sun, claiming that all Inferno devices would be made to run Java. A Java byte code to Dis byte code translator was written to facilitate that. However, Inferno still did not find customers.

The Inferno Business Unit closed after three years, and was sold to Vita Nuova Holdings. Vita Nuova continued development and offered commercial licenses to the complete system, and free downloads and licenses (not GPL compatible) for all of the system except the kernel and VM. They ported the software to new hardware and focused on distributed applications. Eventually, Vita Nuova released the 4th edition under more common free software licenses, and in 2021 they relicensed all editions under mainly the MIT License.

Ports
Inferno runs on native hardware directly and also as an application providing a virtual operating system which runs on other platforms. Programs can be developed and run on all Inferno platforms without modifying or recompiling.

Native ports include these architectures: x86, MIPS, ARM, PowerPC, SPARC.

Hosted or virtual OS ports include: Microsoft Windows, Linux, FreeBSD, Plan 9, Mac OS X, Solaris, IRIX, UnixWare.

Inferno can also be hosted by a plugin to Internet Explorer. Vita Nuova said that plugins for other browsers were under development, but they were never released.

Inferno has also been ported to Openmoko, Nintendo DS, SheevaPlug, and Android.

Distribution
Inferno 4th edition was released in early 2005 as free software. Specifically, it was dual-licensed under two structures. Users could either obtain it under a set of free software licenses, or they could obtain it under a proprietary license. In the case of the free software license scheme, different parts of the system were covered by different licenses, including the GNU General Public License, the GNU Lesser General Public License, the Lucent Public License, and the MIT License, excluding the fonts, which are sub-licensed from Bigelow and Holmes.

In March 2021, all editions were relicensed under mainly the MIT License.

See also

 Language-based system
 Singularity (operating system)

Notes

References

Further reading
  describes the 3rd edition of the Inferno operating system, though it focuses more on the Limbo language and its interfaces to the Inferno system, than on the Inferno system itself. For example, it provides little information on Inferno's versatile command shell, which is understandable since it is a programming language textbook.
 , uses Inferno for examples of operating system design.
  was intended to provide an operating-system-centric point of view, but was never completed.

External links

 Documentation papers for the latest inferno release.
 Inferno Fourth Edition Download, including source code.
 Mailing list and other resources.
 Ninetimes: News and articles about Inferno, Plan 9 and related technologies.
 Inferno programmer's notebook - A journal made by an Inferno developer.
 Try Inferno: free, in-browser access to a live Inferno system.
 Inferno OS to Raspberry Pi Labs: Porting Inferno OS to Raspberry Pi

1996 software
ARM operating systems
Distributed operating systems
Embedded operating systems
Real-time operating systems
x86 operating systems
PowerPC operating systems
MIPS operating systems

Inferno (operating system)


Kids Incorporated, also called Kids Inc., was an American children's television program sitcom. The show had children with musical talent in every episode. The show was about singers/dancers and adolescents who had their own dance, rap and dance-rock pop band and group who cover songs, Kids Incorporated. They dealt with subjects like peer pressure and child abuse.

The pilot was recorded in August 31, 1983. It was released on VHS in 1985. The show began in September 1, 1984. The cast members were between eight and seventeen years old. Season 1 was aired on ABC, NBC, Nickelodeon, TBS Superstation, and CBS in 1984-1985. Season 2 was aired on CBN Cable Network and Nickelodeon in 1985-1986. Seasons 3-9 were aired on The Disney Channel in 1986-1994.

In 1984-1987, in seasons 1-3, Andrea Paige Wilson appeared as the 11-14 year old dancer and with Wendy Brainard as a 13-15 year old dancer.

In 1985-1989, in seasons 2-5, Gina Marie Vinaccia appeared as a 10-14 year old dancer.

In 1988-1989, in seasons 5-6, Kimberly Duncan appeared as a maybe 10-12 year old dancer.

In 1991, Fergie had a cameo appearance in the season 7 episode "A New Twist".

In 2016, season 10 will be aired on Disney Channel, Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, and TeenNick. Seasons 1-10 will be re-aired or rerun on Disney Channel, Disney XD, TeenNick, Nickelodeon and Cartoon Network.

Spin-offs
 Hannah Montana (2006-2011)
 A.N.T. Farm (2011-2014)

Other websites
 Kids Incorporated unofficial website

1984 American television series debuts
1980s American television series
1990s American television series
2010s American television series
American children's television series
American sitcoms
English-language television programs

Kids Incorporated


In computational chemistry, a constraint algorithm is a method for satisfying the  Newtonian motion of a rigid body which consists of mass points. A restraint algorithm is used to ensure that the distance between mass points is maintained. The general steps involved are: (i) choose novel unconstrained coordinates (internal coordinates), (ii) introduce explicit constraint forces, (iii) minimize constraint forces implicitly by the technique of Lagrange multipliers or projection methods.

Constraint algorithms are often applied to molecular dynamics simulations. Although such simulations are sometimes performed using internal coordinates that automatically satisfy the bond-length, bond-angle and torsion-angle constraints, simulations may also be performed using explicit or implicit constraint forces for these three constraints. However, explicit constraint forces give rise to inefficiency; more computational power is required to get a trajectory of a given length. Therefore, internal coordinates and implicit-force constraint solvers are generally preferred.

Constraint algorithms achieve computational efficiency by neglecting motion along some degrees of freedom. For instance, in atomistic molecular dynamics, typically the length of covalent bonds to hydrogen are constrained; however, constraint algorithms should not be used if vibrations along these degrees of freedom are important for the phenomenon being studied.

Mathematical background

The motion of a set of N particles can be described by a set of second-order ordinary differential equations, Newton's second law, which can be written in matrix form

where M is a mass matrix and q is the vector of generalized coordinates that describe the particles' positions.  For example, the vector q may be a 3N Cartesian coordinates of the particle positions rk, where k runs from 1 to N; in the absence of constraints, M would be the 3Nx3N diagonal square matrix of the particle masses.  The vector f represents the generalized forces and the scalar V(q) represents the potential energy, both of which are functions of the generalized coordinates q.

If M constraints are present, the coordinates must also satisfy M time-independent algebraic equations

where the index j runs from 1 to M.  For brevity, these functions gi are grouped into an M-dimensional vector g  below.  The task is to solve the combined set of differential-algebraic (DAE) equations, instead of just the ordinary differential equations (ODE) of Newton's second law.

This problem was studied in detail by Joseph Louis Lagrange, who laid out most of the methods for solving it.  The simplest approach is to define new generalized coordinates that are unconstrained; this approach eliminates the algebraic equations and reduces the problem once again to solving an ordinary differential equation.  Such an approach is used, for example, in describing the motion of a rigid body; the position and orientation of a rigid body can be described by six independent, unconstrained coordinates, rather than describing the positions of the particles that make it up and the constraints among them that maintain their relative distances.  The drawback of this approach is that the equations may become unwieldy and complex; for example, the mass matrix M may become non-diagonal and depend on the generalized coordinates.

A second approach is to introduce explicit forces that work to maintain the constraint; for example, one could introduce strong spring forces that enforce the distances among mass points within a "rigid" body.  The two difficulties of this approach are that the constraints are not satisfied exactly, and the strong forces may require very short time-steps, making simulations inefficient computationally.

A third approach is to use a method such as Lagrange multipliers or projection to the constraint manifold to determine the coordinate adjustments necessary to satisfy the constraints.

Finally, there are various hybrid approaches in which different sets of constraints are satisfied by different methods, e.g., internal coordinates, explicit forces and implicit-force solutions.

Internal coordinate methods

The simplest approach to satisfying constraints in energy minimization and molecular dynamics is to represent the mechanical system in so-called internal coordinates corresponding to unconstrained independent degrees of freedom of the system. For example, the dihedral angles of a protein are an independent set of coordinates that specify the positions of all the atoms without requiring any constraints. The difficulty of such internal-coordinate approaches is twofold: the Newtonian equations of motion become much more complex and the internal coordinates may be difficult to define for cyclic systems of constraints, e.g., in ring puckering or when a protein has a disulfide bond.

The original methods for efficient recursive energy minimization in internal coordinates were developed by Gō and coworkers.

Efficient recursive, internal-coordinate constraint solvers were extended to molecular dynamics.  Analogous methods were applied later to other systems.

Lagrange multiplier-based methods

In most of molecular dynamics simulations that use constraint algorithms, constraints are enforced using the method of Lagrange multipliers. Given a set of n linear (holonomic) constraints at the time t,

where  and  are the positions of the two particles involved in the kth constraint at the time t and  is the prescribed inter-particle distance.

The forces due to these constraints are added in the equations of motion, resulting in, for each of the N particles in the system

Adding the constraint forces does not change the total energy, as the net work done by the constraint forces (taken over the set of particles that the constraints act on) is zero. Note that the sign on  is arbitrary and some references have an opposite sign.

From integrating both sides of the equation with respect to the time, the constrained coordinates of particles at the time, , are given,

where  is the unconstrained (or uncorrected) position of the ith particle after integrating the unconstrained equations of motion.

To satisfy the constraints  in the next timestep, the Lagrange multipliers should be determined as the following equation,

This implies solving a system of  non-linear equations

simultaneously for the  unknown Lagrange multipliers .

This system of  non-linear equations in  unknowns is commonly solved using Newton–Raphson method where the solution vector  is updated using

where  is the Jacobian of the equations σk:

Since not all particles contribute to all of constraints,  is a block matrix and can be solved individually to block-unit of the matrix. In other words,  can be solved individually for each molecule.

Instead of constantly updating the vector , the iteration can be started with , resulting in simpler expressions for  and . In this case

then  is updated to

After each iteration, the unconstrained particle positions are updated using

The vector is then reset to

The above procedure is repeated until the solution of constraint equations, , converges to a prescribed tolerance of a numerical error.

Although there are a number of algorithms to compute the Lagrange multipliers, these difference is rely only on the methods to solve the system of equations. For this methods, quasi-Newton methods are commonly used.

The SETTLE algorithm
The SETTLE algorithm solves the system of non-linear equations analytically for  constraints in constant time. Although it does not scale to larger numbers of constraints, it is very often used to constrain rigid water molecules, which are present in almost all biological simulations and are usually modelled using three constraints (e.g. SPC/E and TIP3P water models).

The SHAKE algorithm
The SHAKE algorithm was first developed for satisfying a bond geometry constraint during molecular dynamics simulations. The method was then generalised to handle any holonomic constraint, such as those required to maintain constant bond angles, or molecular rigidity.

In SHAKE algorithm, the system of non-linear constraint equations is solved using the Gauss–Seidel method which approximates the solution of the linear system of equations using the Newton–Raphson method;

This amounts to assuming that  is diagonally dominant and solving the th equation only for the  unknown. In practice, we compute

for all  iteratively until the constraint equations  are solved to a given tolerance.

The calculation cost of each iteration is , and the iterations themselves converge linearly.

A noniterative form of SHAKE was developed later on.

Several variants of the SHAKE algorithm exist. Although they differ in how they compute or apply the constraints themselves, the constraints are still modelled using Lagrange multipliers which are computed using the Gauss–Seidel method.

The original SHAKE algorithm is capable of constraining both rigid and flexible molecules (eg. water, benzene and biphenyl) and introduces negligible error or energy drift into a molecular dynamics simulation. One issue with SHAKE is that the number of iterations required to reach a certain level of convergence does rise as molecular geometry becomes more complex. To reach 64 bit computer accuracy (a relative tolerance of ) in a typical molecular dynamics simulation at a temperature of 310K, a 3-site water model having 3 constraints to maintain molecular geometry requires an average of 9 iterations (which is 3 per site per time-step). A 4-site butane model with 5 constraints needs 17 iterations (22 per site), a 6-site benzene model with 12 constraints needs 36 iterations (72 per site), while a 12-site biphenyl model with 29 constraints requires 92 iterations (229 per site per time-step). Hence the CPU requirements of the SHAKE algorithm can become significant, particularly if a molecular model has a high degree of rigidity.

A later extension of the method, QSHAKE (Quaternion SHAKE) was developed as a faster alternative for molecules composed of rigid units, but it is not as general purpose.  It works satisfactorily for rigid loops such as aromatic ring systems but QSHAKE fails for flexible loops, such as when a protein has a disulfide bond.

Further extensions include RATTLE, WIGGLE, and MSHAKE.

While RATTLE works the same way as SHAKE, yet using the Velocity Verlet time integration scheme, WIGGLE extends SHAKE and RATTLE by using an initial estimate for the Lagrange multipliers  based on the particle velocities. It is worth mentioning that MSHAKE computes corrections on the constraint forces, achieving better convergence.

A final modification to the SHAKE algorithm is the P-SHAKE algorithm that is applied to very rigid or semi-rigid molecules. P-SHAKE computes and updates a pre-conditioner which is applied to the constraint gradients before the SHAKE iteration, causing the Jacobian  to become diagonal or strongly diagonally dominant. The thus de-coupled constraints converge much faster (quadratically as opposed to linearly) at a cost of .

The M-SHAKE algorithm
The M-SHAKE algorithm solves the non-linear system of equations using Newton's method directly. In each iteration, the linear system of equations

is solved exactly using an LU decomposition. Each iteration costs  operations, yet the solution converges quadratically, requiring fewer iterations than SHAKE.

This solution was first proposed in 1986 by Ciccotti and Ryckaert under the title "the matrix method", yet differed in the solution of the linear system of equations. Ciccotti and Ryckaert suggest inverting the matrix  directly, yet doing so only once, in the first iteration. The first iteration then costs  operations, whereas the following iterations cost only  operations (for the matrix-vector multiplication). This improvement comes at a cost though, since the Jacobian is no longer updated, convergence is only linear, albeit at a much faster rate than for the SHAKE algorithm.

Several variants of this approach based on sparse matrix techniques were studied by Barth et al..

SHAPE algorithm
The SHAPE algorithm is a multicenter analog of SHAKE for constraining rigid bodies of three or more centers. Like SHAKE, an unconstrained step is taken and then corrected by directly calculating and applying the rigid body rotation matrix that satisfies:

This approach involves a single 3×3 matrix diagonalization followed by three or four rapid Newton iterations to determine the rotation matrix.  SHAPE provides the identical trajectory that is provided with fully converged iterative SHAKE, yet it is found to be more efficient and more accurate than SHAKE when applied to systems involving three or more centers. It extends the ability of SHAKE like constraints to linear systems with three or more atoms, planar systems with four or more atoms, and to significantly larger rigid structures where SHAKE is intractable. It also allows rigid bodies to be linked with one or two common centers (e.g. peptide planes) by solving rigid body constraints iteratively in the same basic manner that SHAKE is used for atoms involving more than one SHAKE constraint.

LINCS algorithm
An alternative constraint method, LINCS (Linear Constraint Solver) was developed in 1997 by Hess, Bekker, Berendsen and Fraaije, and was based on the 1986 method of Edberg, Evans and Morriss (EEM), and a modification thereof by Baranyai and Evans (BE).

LINCS applies Lagrange multipliers to the constraint forces and solves for the multipliers by using a series expansion to approximate the inverse of the Jacobian :

in each step of the Newton iteration. This approximation only works for matrices with eigenvalues smaller than 1, making the LINCS algorithm suitable only for molecules with low connectivity.

LINCS has been reported to be 3–4 times faster than SHAKE.

Hybrid methods

Hybrid methods have also been introduced in which the constraints are divided into two groups; the constraints of the first group are solved using internal coordinates whereas those of the second group are solved using constraint forces, e.g., by a Lagrange multiplier or projection method.  This approach was pioneered by Lagrange, and result in Lagrange equations of the mixed type.

See also

 Molecular dynamics
 Software for molecular mechanics modeling

References and footnotes

Molecular dynamics
Computational chemistry
Molecular physics
Computational physics
Numerical differential equations

Constraint (computational chemistry)


Eugène Nicolas Sartory (1871, Mirecourt – 1946) was an influential French archetier/ bow maker from Mirecourt, France. After having first apprenticed with his father, he went on to work in Paris for Charles Peccatte and Joseph Alfred Lamy (père) before setting up his own shop in 1889.

His bows are marked "E.SARTORY A PARIS". The apex of the trend toward heavy, strong bows was exemplified in the output of Eugène Sartory, who developed a style of bow to which his atelier adhered consistently for decades. He fortified the Voirin model, producing sturdily built bows with strong shafts. Later on Sartory innovated the design of his bows; widening the head and altering the shaft cross-section as well as thickening the shaft above the handle. These changes provided more stability and reliability in the handling. In his early period, Sartory preferred dark pernambuco wood, whereas the later bows are generally of lighter color.

Vigneron and Fetique produced bows that at times could rival a Sartory in terms of strength and handling, but the consistency of Sartory bows has made them a perennial favorite among musicians even if they lack some of the subtlety of older bows. Sartory bows are utterly reliable as playing tools and will satisfy a wide variety of players.
His list of assistants includes Louis Morizot (perè), Jules Fetique & Louis Gillet. Hermann Wilhelm Prell worked for Sartory in Paris between 1897 and 1898.

Honors and awards
Eugène SARTORY won medals and prizes at various exhibitions and competitions :
1894 Lyon (France) International and Colonial Exhibition
1897 Bruxelles (date corrected thanks to Isaac Salchow)
1900 Paris (France) Universal and International Exhibition.
1905 Liege (Belgium) Universal and International Exhibition.
1906 Milan (Italy) Exposizione Internationale del Sempione
1908 London (Great-Britain) Franco-British Exhibition

Quotes

"The name Sartory is universally recognized due to the prolific and consistent output from the Sartory atelier. All of these qualities to make Sartory's among the least difficult bows to sell. Consequently the margin between wholesale and retail pricing is narrower with Sartory bows than with other fine string instruments and bows." - Stefan Hersh

"Sartory bows are synonimous with reliability and consistency and are the  bow of choice for many professional musicians." - Gennady Filimonov

References

 The Strad - February 2019 p. 48-55. Filimonov, Gennady Sartory and the fake bows/ "Phoney War"

 Dictionnaire Universel del Luthiers - Rene Vannes 1951,1972, 1985 (vol.3)
 Universal Dictionary of Violin & Bow Makers - William Henley 1970
 Eugène Nicolas Sartory: the modern classic of bow making

1871 births
1946 deaths
Luthiers from Mirecourt
Bow makers

Eugène Sartory


Forty-two is a number. It comes between forty-one and forty-three, and is an even number. It is divisible by 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, and 42.

42 is an extremely interesting number to mathematicians, because of its many features. For example:
It is the product of two consecutive integers (6 and 7), making it a pronic number.
It is the second sphenic number, the product of three distinct prime numbers.
It is an abundant number, the sum of its proper divisors is greater than the number itself.

There are at least a dozen more features of interest to number theory enthusiasts.

Appearance in literature
"42" is the "Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything" in Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy books.

The number makes regular appearances in Lewis Carroll's writings, such as in The Hunting of the Snark. Rule Forty-two in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland is "All persons more than a mile high to leave the court". Charles Dodgson was a mathematician.

Integers

42 (number)


Piety (from the Latin word pietas, meaning "devout" or "good") is generally used to refer either to Religious devotion or to spirituality. A common element in most ideas of piety is humility, or a lack of pride. It can also refer to a way to win the favor or forgiveness of God in Christianity.

Religious ethics

Piety


Reform means a useful change, or sometimes reversion to a pure original state.

"Reform" means changes. The UK government frequently uses the term "reform" to describe changes to public services, such as the National Health Service. But these changes are not accepted by all people as useful.

Re-form
A note about grammar: when used to describe something which is physically formed again, such as re-casting it in a mold/mould, or a band that gets back together, the proper term is re-form (with a hyphen), not "reform".

References

Philosophy

Reform


The Sporting News is a website and former magazine publication owned by Sporting News Holdings, which is a U.S.-based sports media company formed in December 2020 by a private investor consortium. It was originally established in 1886 as a print magazine. It became the dominant American publication covering baseball, acquiring the nickname "The Bible of Baseball".

From 2002 to February 2022, it was known simply as Sporting News. In December 2012, The Sporting News ended print publication and shifted to a digital-only publication. It currently has editions in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Japan.

History

Early history
March 17, 1886: The Sporting News (TSN), founded in St. Louis  by Alfred H. Spink, a director of the St. Louis Browns baseball team, publishes its first edition. The weekly newspaper sells for 5 cents. Baseball, horse racing and professional wrestling received the most coverage in the first issue. Meanwhile, the sporting weeklies Clipper and Sporting Life were based in New York and Philadelphia. By World War I, TSN would be the only national baseball newspaper.
1901: The American League, another rival to baseball's National League, begins playing. TSN was a vocal supporter of the new league and its founder, Ban Johnson. Both parties advocated cleaning up the sport, in particular ridding it of liquor sales, gambling and assaults on umpires.
1903: TSN editor Arthur Flanner helps draft the National Agreement, a document that brought a truce between the AL and NL and helped bring about the modern World Series.
1904: New York photographer Charles Conlon begins taking portraits of major league players as they pass through the city's three ballparks: the Polo Grounds, Yankee Stadium and Ebbets Field. His images, many of which were featured in TSN, have become treasured symbols of baseball's past.
1914: Alfred's son, J.G. Taylor Spink, takes over the paper.
1936: TSN names its first major league Sporting News Player of the Year Award, Carl Hubbell of the New York Giants. It is the oldest and most prestigious award given to the single player in MLB who had the most outstanding season. To this day, it remains voted on by MLB players.
1942: After decades of being intertwined with baseball, TSN adds in-season football coverage.
1946: TSN expands its football coverage with an eight-page tabloid publication titled The Quarterback. The tab is later renamed the All-Sports News as coverage of other sports is added, including professional and college basketball and hockey.
1962: J.G. Taylor Spink dies. His son C.C. Johnson Spink takes over the publication. In 1962, after Spink's death, the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) instituted the J. G. Taylor Spink Award as the highest award given to its members. Spink was also the first recipient.
1967: TSN publishes its first full-color photo, a cover image of Orioles star Frank Robinson.
1977: The Spink family sells TSN to Times Mirror in 1977.
1981: C.C. Johnson Spink sells TSN to Tribune Company.
1991: The Sporting News transitions to a glossy, full-color all-sports magazine.
1996: The Sporting News comes online, serving as a sports content provider for AOL. The following year, it launches sportingnews.com.
2000: Tribune Company sells TSN to Vulcan Inc., headed by tech billionaire Paul Allen. The following year, the company acquired the One on One Sports radio network, renaming it Sporting News Radio.
2002: The magazine drops the definite article from its name and becomes just Sporting News (SN). Subsequent covers reflect the change.
2006: Vulcan sells SN to Advance Media, which places the publication under the supervision of American City Business Journals (ACBJ).
2007: Sporting News begins its move from St. Louis, where it had been based since its founding, to ACBJ's headquarters in Charlotte, N.C. The publication leaves St. Louis for good in 2008, when it also became a bi-weekly publication.

Transition to digital publication
In 2011, Sporting News announced a deal to take over editorial control of AOL's sports website FanHouse. In December 2012, after 126 years, Sporting News published its final issue as a print publication, and shifted to becoming a digital-only publication.

The following March, ACBJ contributed Sporting News into a joint venture with the U.S. assets of sports data company Perform Group, known as Perform Sporting News Limited and doing business as Sporting News Media. Perform owned 65% of Sporting News Media. Sporting News would join Perform Group's other domestic properties, such as its video syndication unit ePlayer and its soccer website Goal.com. The deal excluded the magazine's Sporting News Yearbooks unit and NASCAR Illustrated.  Almost immediately after the venture was established, Sporting News laid off 13 staff writers. Perform Group acquired the remainder of Sporting News Media in 2015.

Under Perform's ownership, Sporting News shifted to a more tabloid-like editorial direction. The site introduced a new logo and website design in 2016. Following Perform's acquisition of ACBJ's remaining stake, it began to align itself more closely with the company's other units, including replacing Associated Press articles with Perform's own Omnisport wire service for articles and video content (which began to constitute a sizable portion of the site's overall content).  Sporting News also began to introduce new localized versions in other markets, with a focus on countries where it had launched its sports streaming service DAZN. These sites are, in turn, used to promote the DAZN service. Perform Media president Juan Delgado explained that the company was trying to preserve the heritage of the Sporting News brand by still publishing original content, while also publishing content oriented towards social media to appeal to younger users.

Later history
In September 2018, Perform Group spun out its consumer properties, including Sporting News and DAZN, into a new company known as DAZN Group. The remaining sports data business became Perform Content, and was sold in 2019 to Vista Equity Partners and merged with STATS LLC.

In the summer of 2020, Lindenwood University of St. Charles, Missouri, acquired the archives collection of The Sporting News from ACBJ. The collection was described as consisting of "10,000+ books on baseball, football, hockey, basketball, NCAA, and other sports."

In December 2020, DAZN Group sold Sporting News to a private investment consortium, which became Sporting News Holdings.

Athlete of the Year

Sportsman of the Year

From 1968 to 2008, the magazine selected one or more individuals as Sportsman of the Year. On four occasions, the award was shared by two recipients. Twice, in 1993 and 2000, the award went to a pair of sportsmen within the same organization. In 1999, the honor was given to a whole team. No winner was chosen in 1987.

On December 18, 2007, the magazine announced New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady as 2007 Sportsman of the Year, making Brady the first to repeat as a recipient of individual honors. Mark McGwire of the St. Louis Cardinals was also honored twice, but shared his second award with Sammy Sosa of the Chicago Cubs.

In 2009, the award was replaced by two awards: "Pro Athlete of the Year" and "College Athlete of the Year".  These in turn were replaced by a singular "Athlete of the Year" award starting in 2011.

1968 – Denny McLain, Detroit Tigers
1969 – Tom Seaver, New York Mets
1970 – John Wooden, UCLA basketball
1971 – Lee Trevino, golf
1972 – Charlie Finley, Oakland A's
1973 – O. J. Simpson, Buffalo Bills
1974 – Lou Brock, St. Louis Cardinals
1975 – Archie Griffin, Ohio State football
1976 – Larry O'Brien, National Basketball Association commissioner
1977 – Steve Cauthen, horse racing
1978 – Ron Guidry, New York Yankees
1979 – Willie Stargell, Pittsburgh Pirates
1980 – George Brett, Kansas City Royals
1981 – Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
1982 – Whitey Herzog, St. Louis Cardinals
1983 – Bowie Kuhn, Major League Baseball commissioner
1984 – Peter Ueberroth, Olympics organizer
1985 – Pete Rose, Cincinnati Reds
1986 – Larry Bird, Boston Celtics
1987 – (none)
1988 – Jackie Joyner-Kersee, Olympics
1989 – Joe Montana, San Francisco 49ers
1990 – Nolan Ryan, Texas Rangers
1991 – Michael Jordan, Chicago Bulls
1992 – Mike Krzyzewski, Duke basketball
1993 – Cito Gaston and Pat Gillick, Toronto Blue Jays
1994 – Emmitt Smith, Dallas Cowboys
1995 – Cal Ripken, Baltimore Orioles
1996 – Joe Torre, New York Yankees
1997 – Mark McGwire, St. Louis Cardinals
1998 – Mark McGwire, St. Louis Cardinals, and Sammy Sosa, Chicago Cubs (see also 1998 Major League Baseball home run record chase)
1999 – New York Yankees
2000 – Marshall Faulk and Kurt Warner, St. Louis Rams
2001 – Curt Schilling, Arizona Diamondbacks
2002 – Tyrone Willingham, Notre Dame football
2003 – Dick Vermeil, Kansas City Chiefs, and Jack McKeon, Florida Marlins
2004 – Tom Brady, New England Patriots
2005 – Matt Leinart, USC football
2006 – LaDainian Tomlinson, San Diego Chargers
2007 – Tom Brady, New England Patriots
2008 – Eli Manning, New York Giants

Pro Athlete of the Year
2009 – Mariano Rivera, New York Yankees
2010 – Roy Halladay, Philadelphia Phillies

College Athlete of the Year
2009 – Colt McCoy, Texas football
2010 – Kyle Singler, Duke men's basketball

Athlete of the Year
Beginning in 2011, the awards were merged back into a singular selection, Athlete of the Year.
2011 – Aaron Rodgers, Green Bay Packers
2012 – LeBron James, Miami Heat
2021 – Shohei Ohtani, Los Angeles Angels
2022 – Lionel Messi, Paris Saint-Germain

Sport-specific awards

Major League Baseball

TSN sponsors its own annual Team, Player, Pitcher, Rookie, Reliever, Comeback Player, Manager, and Executive of the Year awards. Many fans once held the newspaper's baseball awards at equal or higher esteem than those of the Baseball Writers' Association of America. Prior to 2005, the SN Comeback Player Award was generally recognized as the principal award of its type, as MLB did not give such an award until that year.

The Sporting News Most Valuable Player Award (discontinued in 1946)
Sporting News Player of the Year (all positions; in MLB)
Sporting News Pitcher of the Year (in each league)
Sporting News Rookie of the Year (from 1963 through 2003, there were two categories: Rookie Pitcher of the Year and Rookie Player of the Year)
Sporting News Reliever of the Year (discontinued in 2011)
Sporting News Comeback Player of the Year
Sporting News Manager of the Year (in each league (1986–present); in MLB (1936–1985))
Sporting News Executive of the Year (in MLB)

Minor League Baseball
The Sporting News Minor League Player of the Year Award (1936–2007)

Basketball
Sporting News NBA Executive of the Year Award (1973–2008)
Sporting News Men's College Basketball Player of the Year
Sporting News Men's College Basketball Coach of the Year Award

NFL
Sporting News NFL Player of the Year Award (1954–1969 and since 1980)
Sporting News AFC and NFC player of the year awards (1970–1979)
Sporting News NFL Rookie of the Year Award
Sporting News NFL Coach of the Year (since 1947)
Sporting News All-Pro Team (since 1980)
Sporting News All-Conference Team (from 1950s till 1979) (defunct)

College football awards
Sporting News College Football Player of the Year (1942)
Sporting News All-America Team (1934)
Sporting News College Football Coach of the Year

Also, between 1975 and 2005, Sporting News conducted an annual poll and named a national champion for Division I-A (now Division I FBS). It is regarded as a "major selector" in NCAA official records books.

Notable staff
 Thomas G. Osenton,  president and chief operating officer of Sporting News Publishing Company and publisher of The Sporting News weekly
 Bob Ferguson, journalist and author of Who's Who In Canadian Sport

Footnotes

External links

1886 establishments in Missouri
2012 disestablishments in North Carolina
American football mass media
Baseball magazines
Basketball magazines
Biweekly magazines published in the United States
College basketball mass media in the United States
College football mass media
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1886
Magazines disestablished in 2012
Magazines published in North Carolina
Magazines published in St. Louis
National Hockey League mass media
Online magazines with defunct print editions
Sports magazines published in the United States
Webby Award winners
Weekly magazines published in the United States

The Sporting News


A security clearance is a status granted (approved) to individuals allowing them access to classified information, e.g. state secrets. It is something like permission or a license. The term "security clearance" is also sometimes used in private organizations that have a formal process of selecting employees to access "sensitive information".

A clearance by itself is normally not sufficient to gain access; the organization must determine that the cleared person "needs to know" the information. No one is supposed to be granted access to classified information only because of rank, position, or a security clearance.

National security

Security clearance


Voice over Internet protocol (or VoIP) is a term used for a number of protocols that are used to carry voice data over packet switched networks. Before, telephony used a dedicated line that was only for calls. This was known as PSTN (or "public switched telephony network"). Using VoIP will reduce costs, as the "dedicated line" for telephony (and fax) is no longer needed.

There are a number of technical problems that must be solved first, though:
 Carrying voice data needs service guarantees (mostly in the form of "throughput", and "response time"). Not having this will result in a loss of signal (or in "hiccups")
 Most telephony networks provide the possibility to operate a phone, even when the power is lost in the area. This is done so that emergency calls can still be made. VOIP usually does not provide this possibility.
 The LAN is now used both for voice and data, and becomes a single point of failure. If there are problems with the LAN, this can also affect VOIP calls.
 The encoding schemes used for voice calls are not good choices for fax or other uses of the telephony network.

The vast majority of VoIP systems rely on two main protocols:

SIP :- SIP, or also known as session initiation protocol, has become the standard for multimedia sessions on the internet. The Engineering Task Force thinks of this protocol as the standard for audio, video and even instant messaging solutions. This task force is simply a large, international community, composed of anyone involved in the networking evolution online. SIP is modular, meaning that it can be changed around in whatever way needed. Depending on the type of data your business is wishing to transmit, your SIP deployment will need to be designed specifically for this. With that being said, VoIP and IM communications will need to work around these aspects, and be designed for one total approach.

H.323 :- This protocol has become the international standard for all communication over packet-switched networks. This includes LAN, WAN and even the general internet networks we all connect to. H.323 is considered an umbrella that includes all types of standards, which is what the internet is based on. H.323 focuses on voice, video, and data communications, designed specifically to operate over IP networks. At this point, this protocol has become the world market leader for voice and voice communications over IP networks. H.323 was developed by the international telecommunications union, which is the organization responsible for building the public telephone network.

References

Telephone
Internet protocols

Voice over Internet Protocol


Protoplasm is an old term, which  means the living substance that makes up a cell. It is no longer much used. Biologists prefer to talk about the cytoplasm and the cell nucleus.

In plant cells, it is surrounded by a cell wall. In animal cells, the whole cell is made of protoplasm, surrounded by a cell membrane. Protoplasm in living beings is made up of about 7580% water. However, this is rather misleading because the cytoplasm is full of structures called organelles, which do various tasks. The endoplasmic reticulum is the largest of these structures; there are many other organelles.

The word "protoplasm" was first used in 1846 by Hugo von Mohl to describe the substance in plant cells, apart from the cell wall, the cell nucleus and the vacuole. After the invention of the electron microscope it was clear that a living cell is much more complicated than von Mohl knew.

Cells

Protoplasm


In thermodynamics, thermodynamic potentials are parameters associated with a thermodynamic system and have the dimensions of energy. They are called "potentials" because in a sense, they describe the amount of potential energy in a thermodynamic system when it is subjected to certain constraints. The different potentials correspond to different constraints to which the system may be subjected. The four most common thermodynamic potentials are:

where T = temperature, S = entropy, p = pressure, V = volume. The Helmholtz free energy is often denoted by the symbol F, but the use of A is preferred by IUPAC (See Alberty, 2001).  is the number of particles of type i in the system. For the sake of completeness, the set of all  are also included as natural variables, although they are sometimes ignored.

Description and interpretation

Thermodynamic potentials are very useful when calculating the equilibrium results of a chemical reaction, or when measuring the properties of materials in a chemical reaction. The chemical reactions usually take place under some simple constraints such as constant pressure and temperature, or constant entropy and volume, and when this is true, there is a corresponding thermodynamic potential which comes into play. Just as in mechanics, the system will tend towards lower values of potential and at equilibrium, under these constraints, the potential will take on an unchanging minimum value. The thermodynamic potentials can also be used to estimate the total amount of energy available from a thermodynamic system under the appropriate constraint.

References

Other websites
Thermodynamic Potentials - Georgia State University
Chemical Potential Energy: The 'Characteristic' vs the Concentration-Dependent Kind

Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic potential


Orpiment is a mineral. Its chemical formula is As2S3. It is an orange to yellow mineral. It has a Mohs hardness of 1.5 to 2 and a specific gravity of 3.46. It melts at 300°C and oxidizes to arsenic trioxide at higher temperatures. It is toxic because it gets a layer of arsenic trioxide on it by oxidation in the air.

Orpiment was used as a pigment because it was one of the only yellow pigments that they could find. It is used to remove hair from hides.

Minerals

Orpiment


Bollywood, an Indian Hollywood, refers to the Hindi language movie industry in India.

The word is often used to describe Indian cinema as a whole, but more precisely it means Hindi language movies only. The term Bollywood combines Bombay (where most Hindi movies are made) and Hollywood (where most American movies are made).

Top 10 Bollywood actors are. Read

Bollywood makes many movies each year. Many Bollywood movies are called Masala movies. In Hindi, Masala means spice. These movies usually have higher levels of emotions, songs, revenge and differences between rich and poor in them.

Languages used in Bollywood movies
The movies made in Bollywood are usually in Hindi and Urdu. Some are made in Marathi, which is the main and official language of the state of Maharashtra, where Bollywood is located. Some are also in English.  Often, poetic Urdu words are used; see also Lollywood (Pakistan Cinema).

The number of dialogues and songs in English has increased lately. There are movies now where parts of the dialogue are in English. There is also a growing number of movies which are in English. Some movies are also made in more than one language. This is either done with subtitles, or by using several soundtracks.

What Bollywood movies are like
In general, Bollywood movies are like musicals. The audience expects to hear music. There are usually song-and-dance numbers as a part of the script. Often, the success of a movie depends on the quality of these musical numbers. Very often, the movie music is released before the movie. It helps make the audience bigger.

A good entertainer is generally referred to as paisa vasool. This means money's worth. Songs and dances, love triangles, comedy and thrills are all mixed up. Such movies are called masala movies, after the Hindustani word for a spice mixture, masala. Like masalas, these movies are a mixture of many things.

Bollywood movies are often longer than those made in Hollywood. A normal Bollywood movie is about 3 hours long. Bollywood movies are movies made for the masses. Other Indian movies are made inside or outside of the Bollywood tradition. They sometimes try to set higher standards. They often lose out at the box office to movies with more mass appeal.

Bollywood plots are usually melodramatic. They often use common ideas such as star-crossed lovers and angry parents, love triangles, family ties, sacrifice, corrupt politicians, kidnappers, scheming villains, hookers with a heart of gold, long-lost relatives and siblings separated by fate, dramatic reversals of fortune, and convenient coincidences.

Bollywood songs are called Hindi film songs or filmi songs. Most of the movies have songs in them. Bollywood songs along with dances are a characteristic part of Hindi cinema. They give these movies their popular appeal, cultural value and context. Songs are sung by playback singers which actors and actresses lip sync on screen.

Change
Bollywood ways of doing things are changing, however. A large Indian diaspora in English-speaking countries, and increased Western influence at home, have moved Bollywood movies closer to movies made in Hollywood. Kisses in the movies are now allowed. Plots tend to show Westernised city people dating and dancing in discos instead of arranged marriages.

Movie critic Lata Khubchandani writes,"..our earliest movies...(had) liberal doses of sex and kissing scenes in them. Strangely, it was after Independence the censor board came into being and so did all the strictures."
In 2001 five percent on Indian movies were shown in the United Kingdom which has a large Indian minority.

The emergence of streaming media and OTT platforms has disrupted the Bollywood industry as well. With COVID-19 affecting the entertainment industry worldwide, focus has shifted in recent year from cinema to web series. A number of successful web series are produced in Bollywood and overall the trend is shifting from musical films to different genres. This has also given rise to a trend of method acting in Bollywood, which more and more young actors are now taking up.

Related pages
 Jollywood (Sanskrit cinema)
 Lollywood (Pakistani cinema)
 Mollywood (Malayalam cinema)
 Tollywood (Telugu cinema)
 Hollywood

References

Hindi

Bollywood


The Sobig worm (also known as Sobig.F worm or W32.Sobig.F@mm) is a computer worm. It was first found on August 18, 2003. At the worst part of the infection, the Sobig worm made up one in every seventeen emails sent.

How it worked
The Sobig worm is a large emailing worm that sent itself to any email addresses with file extensions like .dbx, .eml, .hlp, .htm, .html, .mht, .wab, and .txt. The worm often used an email that includes "Re:" to seem as if people were being replied to from someone. The user would then open the email and click on the attachment, running the worm and downloading it on to their computer.

History
The worm was first found on August 18, 2003. After the infection had started, the worm tried to connect to the Internet to get to updates from 20 different internet servers on August 20. However, security officials were able to cut off and shut down the servers. The worm had a shut off date set for September 10, 2003.

Damage
At the height of the infection, the Sobig worm made up one in seventeen emails sent over the internet. The Sobig worm created over 1 million copies of itself for the rest of 2003.

References

Computer networking
Computer security
Computer science
Malware

Sobig


The National Veterans Art Museum, formerly the National Vietnam Veterans Art Museum, located at 4041 N. Milwaukee Avenue in Chicago's six corners neighborhood, is dedicated to displaying and studying art produced by veterans from the Vietnam War and other wars and conflicts. Originally a traveling exhibition, while in Chicago it was viewed by Mayor Richard M. Daley, who was so taken by the power of the art that he immediately insisted that the city provide a permanent home for it. The entrance hall had 58,226 dog tags hanging from the ceiling, representing the US soldiers who died in Vietnam. It and the other exhibits have been described as deeply moving.

History
The National Veterans Art Museum is the result of efforts of the Vietnam Veterans Art Group, formed in 1981. The group built a following almost immediately after their first show, Vietnam: Reflexes and Reflections, which opened in October 1981. With increasing popularity and press, the Group grew; veterans from all over the United States began to send in work to be displayed. In 1996 the Vietnam Veterans Art Group established a museum, the only one of its kind at 1801 S. Indiana Ave in Chicago's South Loop.

Mission
The museum's mission is to inspire greater understanding of the impact of war through the collection, preservation, and exhibition of art created by veterans of all U.S. military conflicts. The museum displays military and artistic heritage, helping civilians and veterans make connections across diverse ranges of experience. With nearly 2,500 works of art by more than 250 artists, the museum offers visitors of all ages and backgrounds insight into war from the viewpoint of people who were physically and emotionally involved in military conflicts. In addition, the museum provides an artistic outlet for veterans to work through and express their combat and military service experiences.

References

Museums in Chicago
Vietnam War museums
Vietnam
Art museums and galleries in Illinois
Military and war museums in Illinois

National Veterans Art Museum


Braathens SAFE Flight 139 was an aircraft hijacking that occurred in Norway on 21 June 1985. The incident took place on a Boeing 737-205 belonging to Braathens SAFE that was on a scheduled flight from Trondheim Airport, Værnes to Oslo Airport, Fornebu. The hijacker was Stein Arvid Huseby, who was drunk during most of the incident. It was the first plane hijacking to take place in Norway; there were no deaths and no injuries. Huseby was sentenced to three years' imprisonment and five years' detention.

Armed with an air gun, Huseby threatened a cabin attendant and told the captain to proceed as planned to Fornebu. He claimed (falsely) to have placed explosives on board. His demands were to make a political statement and talk to Prime Minister Kåre Willoch and Minister of Justice Mona Røkke. The plane landed at 15:30 at Fornebu and was surrounded by the police. After one hour, Huseby released 70 hostages in exchange for having the aircraft being moved closer to the terminal building. Thirty minutes later, Huseby released the remaining passengers. He drank throughout the incident, and at 17:30, after he consumed the plane's beer supply, he surrendered his weapon in exchange for more beer. The plane was immediately stormed and Huseby arrested.

Hijacking
The hijacking occurred on board Braathens SAFE Flight 139 en route from Trondheim Airport, Værnes to Oslo Airport, Fornebu. The aircraft was a Boeing 737-205, named Harald Gille (after Harald IV of Norway) with registration LN-SUG. The day before the hijacking, Huseby graduated from upper secondary school, where he studied health and social work. That evening, he purchased an air gun in Trondheim. The weapon was in his hand luggage when boarding the aircraft at Trondheim Airport, Værnes, where there was no security control. He selected a seat at the rear of the aircraft. While airborne, the hijacker showed a female flight attendant the air gun and asked her to inform the captain that he wanted control over the aircraft, but that otherwise all was to proceed as planned. The flight attendant and later the hijacker used the intercom to communicate with the pilot. The police were informed about the incident via air controllers at 15:05.

The plane landed at Fornebu at 15:30, fifteen minutes after schedule. The aircraft parked at a location  from the terminal. It was immediately surrounded by police special forces, as well as officers from Asker and Bærum Police Department. Two special-trained police officers were placed in the control tower, where they negotiated with Huseby. Fornebu was closed, and air traffic was rerouted to Oslo Airport, Gardermoen. The passengers were not informed about the incident until the aircraft was surrounded by the police. The hijacker informed the passengers and crew falsely that he had placed explosives in the toilet rooms, but that no one would be hurt if they cooperated. Huseby was dressed in a suit with sunglasses. The passengers on board described his actions as calm. During the whole incident, Huseby repeatedly asked for and drank beer.

Huseby's demands were to talk to Prime Minister Kåre Willoch and Minister of Justice Mona Røkke, both from the Conservative Party. He also wanted to hold a press conference at Fornebu. Huseby was unsatisfied with his treatment after he left prison. He demanded to receive guarantees for better treatment and economic security from the authorities. Assisted by a psychologist, the police negotiated with Huseby. One hour after the plane landed, 70 passengers were let out of the plane. The first group were those passengers who had or claimed they had transfers to other flights. In exchange, the aircraft was moved closer to the terminal building. The passengers were picked up by a bus and transported to the domestic terminal, where the police questioned them. The remaining passengers were let out thirty minutes later. Only the five crew members remained.

A friend of Huseby helped the police in the negotiations. At 18:30, the aircraft was out of beer, so Huseby agreed to throw the gun out of the window in exchange for more beer. This was delivered by a civilian police officer. The aircraft was then immediately stormed by special forces and Huseby was arrested. No one was injured in the hijacking.

Aftermath
Stein Arvid Huseby, originally from Karmøy, was at the time 24 years old. He had just finished studying at a Christian upper secondary school in Trondheim. He had previously been sentenced five times for violent offenses, including an armed robbery of a taxi and threatening a lensmann with a shotgun. He was beaten and abused by his father, and started drinking as a 13-year-old. He lost his job as a seaman due to drunkenness, and was put into a psychiatric institution in 1980, aged 19. In 1983, he was admitted to a Christian school, and had managed to stay away from alcohol for two years, but had started again just prior to the incident. He stated that he was afraid to lose his friends due to his misuse of alcohol.

During the court case, Huseby stated that he wanted help from society and attention drawn to his cause. However, he stated that he regretted doing this by hijacking. He stated that all he wanted was to send a message to the minister of justice and prime minister that he needed help, and that he did not intend that the other passengers be aware of his threats. Huseby stated that the hijacking was spontaneous and that he planned to make an armed robbery or take hostages at the Radisson SAS hotel in Oslo. His defence lawyer argued that Huseby did not commit a hijacking in the letter of the law, but had instead taken hostages, which would result in a lesser sentence. The court psychologists stated that Huseby had a difficult childhood, and had been defined as an alcoholic at the age of 17. They considered him to have a very underdeveloped ability to make rational decisions and weak mental health. They also stated that he committed crimes to identify himself due to his low self-esteem. On 29 May 1986, Huseby was found guilty of hijacking in Eidsivating Court of Appeal. He was sentenced to three years in prison and five years of preventive supervision.

References

Aircraft hijackings in Norway
Braathens accidents and incidents
1985 in Norway
Aviation accidents and incidents in 1985
Accidents and incidents involving the Boeing 737 Original
Oslo Airport, Fornebu
June 1985 events in Europe
1985 crimes in Norway
Terrorist incidents in Norway in the 1980s

Braathens SAFE Flight 139


Song Rhythm Tracks are musician's backing tracks that are composed entirely of percussion and/or drums and arranged for a song. Specifically, they do not include any harmony or melody parts. They are neither (i) traditional song backing tracks, which include harmonic accompaniment, nor (ii) traditional rhythm tracks, which are not arranged for a song.

Uses
Musicians, including singers, use these tracks to support both their practice and performance of popular song. Typical musical genres represented are pop, blues, jazz, folk and Latin, but any genre may be included that uses a constant pulse. The tracks provide higher-quality rhythmic backing due to being arranged for the song the musician plays. This has advantages over traditional (none song-arranged) rhythm tracks because the musical form of the song is followed by the rhythm.

Musicians would also use these backing tracks to practice, which was mentioned before. Guitarists would find what key the track is being played in, and play over it using either the major or minor scale to solo along, or to just jam. Vocalists would use these to practice their pitch, and their free-style. Not only would one person play along with a track, but a few people could join in. If they are lucky, they may just come up with a killer song.

Comparisons in use
Full song backing tracks provide a fuller arrangement of a song than song rhythm tracks do but they may be limited in the facilities to re-arrange / re-mix the backing track. For instance, there might be instruments included that the musicians wish to remove from the mix. Song Rhythm Tracks can be used as the basis for an arrangement generally without requirements of re-arranging the song rhythm tracks. Full song backing tracks are often used by singers as their sole accompaniment. Song rhythm tracks are used by single, or groups of, musicians that do not have a drummer.

As rhythmic backing does not include harmony, song rhythm tracks are simpler arrangements than full song backing and are arranged to the musical sectional and chorus structure of the song. These arrangements may be comparable to a drummer's accompaniment and can be used as the rhythm tracks in productions without additional arranging.

References

Other websites
Alive Drumming, vendor of Song Rhythm Tracks

Music technology

Song rhythm tracks


Little Whelnetham (well-NEE-thum) (sometimes Little Welnetham) is a village and civil parish in the West Suffolk district of Suffolk in eastern England. Located around two miles south of Bury St Edmunds, in 2005 its population was 180.

The parish also contains part of the village of Sicklesmere, with which sister village Great Whelnetham is contiguous. Until the Beeching Axe, the area was served by Welnetham railway station on the Long Melford-Bury St Edmunds branch line.

Church
The parish church of St Mary Magdalene is a medieval church whose origins are not precisely known. The tower seems typical of 14th century, and Pevsner dated it as such, but it may well be substantially older, with parts perhaps dating to the 12th century.

To the east of the church is four-metre structure of flint and rubble, almost certainly part of a circular tower and perhaps part of an earlier church.

Priory
The area was formerly the site of the Priory of the Holy Cross, a monastic priory dedicated to Thomas Becket founded in 1274 and dissolved in 1538, though there is some doubt as to whether it was in Little Whelnetham or Great Whelnetham. A Tudor house in Little Whelnetham, The Crutched Friars, is believed to have been part of the priory and is now a private residence.

Demography
According to the Office for National Statistics, at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001, Little Whelnetham had a population of 188 with 76 households.

Population change

Location grid

References

External links

Villages in Suffolk
Civil parishes in Suffolk
Borough of St Edmundsbury
Thedwastre Hundred

Little Whelnetham