Porton Down is a science and defence technology campus in Wiltshire, England, just north-east of the village of Porton, near Salisbury. It is home to two British government facilities: a site of the Ministry of Defence's Defence Science and Technology Laboratory – known for over 100 years as one of the UK's most secretive and controversial military research facilities, occupying  – and a site of the UK Health Security Agency. Since 2018, part of the campus has housed Porton Science Park, which is owned and operated by Wiltshire Council and has private sector companies in the health, life science and defence and security sectors.

Location
Porton Down is just north-east of the village of Porton, near Salisbury, in Wiltshire, England. To the north-west lies the MoD Boscombe Down airfield operated by Qinetiq. On some maps, the land surrounding the complex is identified as a "Danger Area".

History of government use

Porton Down opened in 1916 as the War Department Experimental Station, shortly thereafter renamed the Royal Engineers Experimental Station, for testing chemical weapons in response to German use of this means of war in 1915.  The laboratory's remit was to conduct research and development regarding chemical weapons agents used by the British armed forces in the First World War, such as chlorine, mustard gas, and phosgene.

Work at Porton started in March 1916. At the time, only a few cottages and farm buildings were scattered on the downs at Porton and Idmiston. By May 1917, the focus for anti-gas defence and respirator development had moved from London to Porton Down, and by 1918, the original two huts had become a large hutted camp with 50 officers and 1,100 other ranks. After the Armistice in 1918, Porton Down was reduced to a skeleton staff.

Post First World War

In 1919, the War Office set up the Holland Committee to consider the future of chemical warfare and defence. By 1920, the Cabinet agreed to the committee's recommendation that work would continue at Porton Down. From that date a slow permanent building programme began, coupled with the gradual recruitment of civilian scientists. By 1922, there were 380 servicemen, 23 scientific and technical civil servants, and 25 "civilian subordinates". By 1925, the civilian staff had doubled.

By 1926, the chemical defence aspects of Air Raid Precautions (ARP) for the civilian population was added to the Station's responsibilities. In 1929 the Royal Engineers Experimental Station became the Chemical Warfare Experimental Station (CWES) (1929–1930), and in 1930 the Chemical Defence Experimental Station (CDES) (1930–1948). In 1930, Britain ratified the 1925 Geneva Protocol with reservations, which permitted the use of chemical warfare agents only in retaliation. By 1938, the international situation was such that the Cabinet authorised offensive chemical warfare research and development and the production of war reserve stocks of chemical warfare agents by the chemical industry. This included conducting chemical warfare trials, known as the Rawalpindi experiments, on servicemen in the British Indian Army to test the effects of mustard gas.

Second World War

During the Second World War, research at CDES concentrated on chemical weapons such as nitrogen mustard. As Allied armies penetrated Germany, they discovered operational stockpiles of munitions and weapons that contained new chemical warfare agents, including highly toxic organophosphorous nerve agents such as sarin, unknown to Britain and the Allies at the time.

To examine biological weapons, a highly secret separate department, called the Biology Department, Porton (BDP), was established within CDES in 1940, under veteran microbiologist Paul Fildes. Its focus included anthrax and botulinum toxin, and in 1942 it infamously carried out tests of an anthrax bio-weapon at Gruinard Island. In 1946, it was renamed the Microbiological Research Department (MRD) and, in 1957, the Microbiological Research Establishment (MRE).

The Common Cold Unit (CCU) was sometimes confused with the MRE, with which it occasionally collaborated but was not officially connected. The CCU was at Harvard Hospital, Harnham Down, on the west side of Salisbury.

Post-war period

When the Second World War ended, the advanced state of German technology regarding the organophosphorous nerve agents, such as tabun, sarin and soman, had surprised the Allies, who were eager to capitalise on it. Subsequent research took the newly discovered German nerve agents as a starting point, and eventually VX nerve agent was developed at Porton Down in 1952.

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, research and development at Porton Down was aimed at providing Britain with the means to arm itself with a modern nerve agent-based capability and to develop specific means of defence against these agents. In the end these aims came to nothing on the offensive side because of the decision to abandon any sort of British chemical warfare capability in favour of nuclear weapons. On the defensive side there were years of difficult work to develop the means of prophylaxis, therapy, rapid detection and identification, decontamination, and more effective protection of the body against nerve agents, capable of exerting effects through the skin, the eyes and respiratory tract.

Tests were carried out on servicemen to determine the effects of nerve agents on human subjects, with one recorded death due to a nerve gas experiment. There have been persistent allegations of unethical human experimentation at Porton Down, such as those relating to the death of Leading Aircraftman Ronald Maddison, aged 20, in 1953. Maddison was taking part in sarin nerve agent toxicity tests; sarin was dripped onto his arm and he died shortly afterwards.

In the 1950s, the station, now renamed the Chemical Defence Experimental Establishment (CDEE), became involved with the development of CS, a riot-control agent, and took an increasing role in trauma and wound ballistics work. Both these facets of Porton Down's work had become more important because of the unrest and increasing violence in Northern Ireland.

On 1 August 1962, Geoffrey Bacon, a scientist at the Microbiological Research Establishment, died from an accidental infection of the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis. In the same month an autoclave exploded, shattering two windows. Both incidents generated considerable media coverage at the time.

In 1970, the senior establishment at Porton Down was renamed the Chemical Defence Establishment (CDE) for the next 21 years. Preoccupation with defence against nerve agents continued, but in the 1970s and 1980s, the Establishment was also concerned with studying reported chemical warfare by Iraq against Iran and against its own Kurdish population.

Porton Down was the laboratory where initial samples of the Ebola virus were sent in 1976 during the first confirmed outbreak of the disease in Africa. The laboratory now contains samples of some of the world's most aggressive pathogens, including Ebola, anthrax and the plague, and is leading the UK's current research into viral inoculations.

21st century

Until 2001, the military installations based at Porton Down were part of the UK government's Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA). DERA was to be split into two parts: QinetiQ, initially a government-owned company; and, the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (Dstl), created to incorporate the activities of DERA deemed unsuitable for the privatisation planned for QinetiQ; particularly the Porton Down site.

In 2013, Dstl scientists tested samples from Syria for sarin, which is still manufactured there, to assess soldiers' equipment.

In April 2018, Porton Down was responsible for analysis of the substance used in the nearby Salisbury poisonings, which was ultimately identified by Dstl as a Novichok nerve agent.

Site names

The location's government use has been split into two separately controlled locations since 1979: the original military establishment under the Ministry of Defence, and the site to the south under the Department of Health, which had been opened in 1951 for the Microbiological Research Establishment, then in 1979 transferred to the Ministry of Health to focus on public health research, with the Defence aspects returning to the then-titled Chemical Defence Establishment.

Associated locations

Sutton Oak, Merseyside
A factory in Sutton Oak, St Helens was requisitioned in 1917 by the War Department, renamed HM Factory, Sutton Oak and started producing the chemical warfare agent diphenyl chloroarsine. The site switched to producing Adamsite in 1922. In 1923 the War Office halted the requisition and purchased the site, renaming it the War Office Research Establishment, a.k.a. Chemical Warfare Research Establishment, and later the Chemical Defence Research Establishment Sutton Oak. During the 1920s, the site switched to producing mustard gas products, starting with the HS variant and adding the HT variant in the 1930s, and also filling armaments. After WW2, the site also produced the nerve agent sarin for experimental purposes. The site closed in 1957, with much of the work transferring to Chemical Defence Establishment Nancekuke.

RRH Portreath, Cornwall
This Royal Air Force site, built in 1940, was renamed Chemical Defence Establishment Nancekuke in July 1949. Manufacture of sarin in a pilot production facility commenced there in the early 1950s, producing about 20 tons from 1954 until 1956.  It was intended as a stockpile and production facility for the UK's chemical defences during the Cold War, focussed on nerve agents, including small amounts of VX intended mainly for laboratory test purposes and to validate plant designs and optimise chemical processes for potential mass-production; full-scale production of VX agent never took place. In the late 1950s, the chemical weapons production plant was mothballed, but was maintained through the 1960s and 1970s in a state whereby production could easily re-commence if required.

Non-government use
A few small scientific start-ups were allowed to use buildings on the Porton Down campus from the mid-1990s. Tetricus Science Park has housed companies including and GW Pharmaceuticals.

In 2014, an expansion plan was predicted to create 2,000 jobs. Creation of Porton Science Park started in 2016, with £9.5m in funding from Wiltshire Council, the Swindon and Wiltshire Local Enterprise Partnership and the European Regional Development Fund. The first building opened in 2018, with Ploughshare Innovations, Dstl's technology transfer company, among the tenants. Further expansion began in 2022.

Areas of concern

Trials

Open air
In 1942, Gruinard Island was dangerously contaminated with anthrax after a cloud of anthrax spores was released over the island during a trial. In 1981, a team of activists landed on the island and collected soil samples, a bag of which was left at the door at Porton Down. Testing showed that it still contained anthrax spores and in 1986 the Government felt obliged to take necessary steps to successfully decontaminate the island.

Between 1963 and 1975 the MRE carried out trials in Lyme Bay in which live bacteria were sprayed from a ship to be carried ashore by the wind to simulate an anthrax attack. The bacteria sprayed were the less dangerous Bacillus globigii and Escherichia coli, but it was later admitted that the bacteria could adversely affect some vulnerable people. The town of Weymouth lay downwind of the spraying. When the trials became public knowledge in the late 1990s, Dorset County Council, Weymouth and Portland Borough Council and Purbeck District Council demanded a public inquiry to investigate the experiments. The Government refused a Public Inquiry but instead commissioned Professor Brian Spratt, to conduct an Independent Review of the possible adverse health effects. He concluded that individuals with certain chronic conditions may have been affected.

In 1954 the British Government sent biological warfare scientists to the Bahamas to release Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses near an uninhabited island.

Other research showed that in Obanaghoro in southern Nigeria four British scientific missions spent 15 months dispersing and assessing the effects of experimental nerve gases. The effect on Nigerians is unknown. Historians have been unable to find out who did the extremely hazardous work of "hand charging" weapons containing the nerve agents nor have they been able to discover the effects on local schools, villages or the soil.

Human trials
 Porton Down has been involved in human testing at various points throughout the Ministry of Defence's use of the site. Up to 20,000 people took part in various trials from 1949 up to 1989:
From 1999 until 2006, it was investigated under Operation Antler. In 2002 a first inquest and in May 2004, a second inquest into the death of Ronald Maddison during testing of the nerve agent sarin commenced after his relatives and their supporters had lobbied for many years, which found his death to have been unlawful. The Ministry of Defence challenged the verdict which was upheld and the government settled the case in 2006. In 2006, 500 veterans claimed they suffered from the experiments.

In February 2006, three ex-servicemen were awarded compensation in an out-of-court settlement after they had claimed they were given LSD without their consent during the 1950s.
In 2008, the MoD paid 360 veterans of the tests £3m without admitting liability.

Secrecy
Most of the work carried out at Porton Down has to date remained secret. Bruce George, Member of Parliament and Chairman of the Defence Select Committee, told BBC News on 20 August 1999 that:
I would not say that the Defence Committee is micro-managing either DERA or Porton Down. We visit it, but, with eleven members of Parliament and five staff covering a labyrinthine department like the Ministry of Defence and the Armed Forces, it would be quite erroneous of me and misleading for me to say that we know everything that's going on in Porton Down. It's too big for us to know, and secondly, there are many things happening there that I'm not even certain Ministers are fully aware of, let alone Parliamentarians.

Use of animals
Dstl's Porton Down site conducts animal testing. The "three Rs" of "reduce" (the number of animals used), "refine" (animal procedures) and "replace" (animal tests with non-animal tests) are used as the basic code of practice. There has been a decrease in animal experimentation in recent years. Dstl complies with all UK legislation relating to animals. Animals used include mice, guinea pigs, rats, pigs, ferrets, sheep, and non-human primates (believed to be marmosets and rhesus macaque). Publicly released figures are detailed below:

Different departments at Porton Down use animal experiments in different ways. Dstl's Biomedical Sciences department is involved with drug evaluation and efficacy testing (toxicology, pharmacology, physiology, behavioural science, human science), trauma and surgery studies, and animal breeding. The Physical Sciences department also uses animals in its "Armour Physics" research.

Like other aspects of research at Porton Down, precise details of animal experiments are generally kept secret. Media reports have suggested they include exposing monkeys to anthrax, draining the blood of pigs and injecting them with E. coli bacteria, and exposing animals to a variety of lethal, toxic nerve agents. Different animals are used for very different purposes. According to a 2002 report from the Animal Welfare Advisory Committee of the Ministry of Defence, mice are used mainly to research "the development of vaccines and treatments for microbial and viral infections", while pigs are used to "develop personal protective equipment to protect against blast injury to the thorax".

In popular culture

Novels
An institute similar to Porton Down, the Mordon Microbiological Research Establishment, features in the 1962 novel The Satan Bug by Alistair MacLean. Porton Down features in the 1977 novel The Enemy by Desmond Bagley, the 2010 mystery novel Before the Poison by Peter Robinson, and the 2022 novel Tick Tock by Simon Mayo.

Movies
Porton Down is featured in the 2022 psychological horror film The Sleep Experiment directed by John Farrelly. Two detectives begin an investigation into a disastrous secret military experiment where five prisoners were kept awake for thirty days in the facility.

Television
Porton Down and activities there during the 1940s and early 1950s were a significant plot point in Episodes One and Two of the second season of ITV's mystery series The Bletchley Circle. Experiments conducted at Porton Down also appear in the BBC detective drama Spooks, including the development of the VX Nerve Agent and other potentially deadly biological weapons.

Porton Down is referenced frequently in the 2020 BBC TV drama The Salisbury Poisonings, portraying its role in testing substances linked to the 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal.

Porton Down is referenced frequently in the ITV Trigger Point series, as the origin of a military grade explosive compound HMX-319 which is nicknamed "Her Majesty's Explosive".

Comics
Grimbledon Down was a comic strip by British cartoonist Bill Tidy, published for many years by New Scientist. The strip was set in an ostensibly fictitious UK government research lab, referring to the controversial Porton Down biochemical research facility.

Music
"Porton Down" is the name of a song by Peter Hammill. The song "Jeopardy" by Skyclad is about the experiments developed in Porton Down.

See also

 The United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction
 CDE Nancekuke – manufacturing outstation of Chemical Defence Establishment, 1950s and 60s
 MoD Boscombe Down and Defence CBRN Centre – neighbouring facilities
 David Kelly, Lancelot Ware – notable individual connected to Porton Down
 Rawalpindi experiments – experiments involving the use of mustard gas carried out on British and Indian soldiers in the 1930s
 Keen as Mustard, a documentary film on British and American WWII mustard gas tests in tropical Australia in the 1940s
 Operation Vegetarian – British military plan to disseminate linseed cakes infected with anthrax spores onto the fields of Germany in 1942
 Dugway Proving Ground and Fort Detrick – comparable facilities in the United States of America
 Biopreparat – comparable facility in the former USSR
 Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal

References
 Porton Down: A Brief History by G B Carter, Porton Down's official historian.
 Chemical and Biological Defence at Porton Down 1916–2000 (The Stationery Office, 2000). by G B Carter
 Cold War, Hot Science: Applied Research in Britain's Defence Laboratories, 1945–1990 by Bud & Gummett

Notes

External links

 Dstl official website
 Porton Down Cold War Research Project, 1945–1989 – University of Kent, 2010
 Wiltshire police Operation Antler information, archived in 2007
 Letter from the Department of Health to Health Authorities regarding the Porton Down volunteers, 2005
 Archive of the month – Gaddum Papers Pharmacology and war: the papers of Sir John Henry Gaddum, March 2007, Royal Society
 Inside Porton Down: Britain's Secret Weapons Research Facility – television programme, BBC Four, 28 June 2016

1916 establishments in England
Biological research institutes in the United Kingdom
Biological warfare facilities
British human subject research
Buildings and structures in Wiltshire
Chemical research institutes
Chemical warfare facilities in the United Kingdom
Military research establishments of the United Kingdom
Military medical research
Research institutes in Wiltshire
Science parks in the United Kingdom
Toxicology in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom biological weapons program

Porton Down


Shatin Pui Ying College () is a Christian secondary school in Hong Kong. Its English name is simply said to be SPYC or PYC. It was started in 1978, and uses the money given by the Hong Kong government. There are 4 classes each for Forms 1 to 6 (as in 2019). The school icon is an eagle, which means courage and determination. Its location is at 9 Fung Shun Street, Wo Che Estate, Sha Tin District, Hong Kong.

What the school does
The school teaches its students for public examinations. The school motto is: Faith, Hope, Love" (「信、望、愛」). The school teaches the students other things to gain higher qualities of moral (德), intelligent (智), physical (體), social (群), art (美) and heart (靈).

School history
The father of the school is Rev Henry Noyes. In 1879, he built a school in Guangzhou, teaching Mathematics and Science. Later he built more schools in Taishan, Jiangmen and Hong Kong.

In 1978, someone built the 5th school which is Shatin Pui Ying College. Mr Wong Wai Wah was the Principal. In the first year, the school worked on the campus of Baptist Lui Ming Choi Secondary School at Lek Yuen Estate. In September 1979, the school could move into Wo Che Estate. The school library was opened since September 1982.

In order to make it possible for all the Form 3 students to study as Form 4 in the school, the school changed the class structure. The Student Union was set up in September 1995 and Parent-Teacher Association in 1996. In 1996, Principal Wong gave up working and the Vice Principal Ms Yau Oi Yuen started doing his work. The elite class system was deleted in September, 1996.

The library system was changed to use computer since September 2001. The new wing building of the school has been finished since July 2005. In the new wing, there are classrooms for higher forms classes, a new library, some special rooms and computer rooms.

Teaching languages

English
Exchange students from Italy and Germany help the students learn English. The school has many English activities such as English Tutorial Class, English Drama Competition, Form 1 Bridging Programme, Lyrics-writing Course, English Immersion Speech Competition, Interviewing Tourists, English Phonetics Class, English Enhancement Course, Summer English Class, Overseas Immersion Course, Summer English Camp for senior form students, Summer English Day Camp for junior form students, Intra-school and Inter-school English Debate Competitions and English Musicals.

Chinese
The Chinese Language teachers write their own teaching units for the students. There are many Chinese activities such as Creative Writing Class, Chinese Week, Prose Writing Class, Reading Club, Modern Poetry Writing Class, Verse-speaking Gathering, Story Writing Class, and Seminar on Reading, Seminar on Modern Poetry, Intra-school and Inter-school Chinese Debate Competitions and Report and Comment on Chinese Words of Wisdom.

Putonghua
The school teaches Putonghua. There are many activities such as Putonghua Day, Tongue-Twisters, Putonghua Class, Singing Contest, Putonghua Broadcast and Putonghua Corner. Students in the school can learn more about the Chinese culture from the activities such as Workshop on Chinese clipart, Chinese Tea Tao and Chinese Culture and General Studies Competition.

Students in examinations
All Form 1 new students are Band 1 students. All of the Form 3 students can study as Form 4 in the school. Students have good results in public examinations. The average passing percentage for the HKCEE and HKALE is higher than 90%. The best student in HKCEE got 8As in 2004.

All Form 6 students in the school are from the Form 5 in the same school, except the exchange students from other countries. Most of the Form 7 students can study in the universities these years.

According to the government, the school teaches Chinese language, English language and Mathematics very well from 2000 to 2006.

The school gives the good students some awards, such as scholarships, Academic Awards, Flying Eagle Awards and Improvement Awards. The school gives money to some students to take part in some inter-school competition and courses in some universities such as the University of Hong Kong, the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. There are some tutorial classes to improve junior students' skills in both English and Chinese languages and also Mathematics.

Special things

Reading activities
Reading Time is designed to help students having a good reading habit. Reading Days are held by the school library for all students to read or to take part in activities related to reading.

Information technology
There are many computer subjects in the school, such as Information Technology (IT) for Forms 1 to 3, Computer and Information Technology (CIT) for Forms 4 and 5, and Computer Applications (CA) for Forms 6 and 7.

Teaching art
The school has organised 3 musicals, The Comeback Kid, Soul for Sale and The Last Move. The songs inside are written by the students and past students. Every Form 1 student has to play at least 1 musical instrument. The Photography Club and the Audio-Visual Group teaches students many skills, such as film editing, image recording, lighting, backdrop setting and sound engineering.

Study about the world
The school invites some guest speakers to the school to give speeches. Students can know more about the political, social and economic issues in Hong Kong and around the world. The school lets the students to join some extracurricular activities such as "The Youth Summit", "Dinner with Outstanding Citizens" and "Hong Kong International Model United Nations". The school lets the students to join mainland and overseas cultural tours.

Student leaders
The students can take leadership-training courses and extracurricular activities, such as activities such as "Youth Leaders Auditorium 2005", "The 6th Basic Certificate Course for Student Leaders", "Outstanding Leadership Development Programme" and "Youth Think Tank Training Project". There are Free Talks so that students can have better training in giving speeches.

Flying Eagle Award
This award is only for the students who have good learning habit, good examination results, good self-discipline, good responsibility, community skills and studies in school activities. There are 4 phases in this award. Students can get a Bronze Eagle Badge in Phase 1, a Silver Eagle Badge in Phase 2, a Gold Eagle Badge in Phase 3 and a cup in Phase 4.

Study about God
There are many activities to teach students about the Christian principles, such as Gospel Week, Gospel Camp Evangelical Team, Evangelical Broadcast, Bible Study Groups and Christian Fellowship.

School life

School songs
There is a school song with Chinese lyrics. Its melody is the same as the song O Christmas Tree and there are two paragraphs. There is also a school hymn with English lyrics. There are three paragraphs in this school hymn.

School uniform
All boys in the school wear white shirts and green trousers, and all girls wear white dresses with green drawstrings as summer uniform. The boys wear grey trousers and the girls wear grey dresses with white socks as winter uniform. Both boys and girls wear green ties when wearing winter uniform.

When students have physical education lessons, they wear PE uniform. From 2000, students can wear PE uniform to school without changing at school. From 2001, the PE uniform has been changed into a new format that is grey and blue in colour. The PE T-shirts have 3 different colours, namely black, blue and red, with respect to the students' house.

Classes
The class names are combined with one number and one English character, such as "6B". After the New Secondary School program was out, the number of classes and students per class was changed. There are about 30 students in each class from Form 1 to Form 6. 1A and 1B are remedial classes whereas 1C to 1E perform better in exams. The classes are mixed when students go into Form 2 or Form 3.

All Form 3 students have to choose their subjects after finishing their year. After finishing  years of High Form study, students have to join the public exam, DSE (usually in April).

Houses
Each Form forms a House, with its own chairman and committee members elected by the students in the own Form. Each House has its own colour such as black, blue or red, just like the students' PE uniform. The forms from the same colours form some cheering teams during the sports days.

Sports days and swimming gala
There are 2 sports days every year. The sports days take places on the Yuen Wo Road Sports Ground. Besides the various types of sports competitions, there are competitions among the cheering teams. The swimming gala is held every year with the Pui Ying Secondary School. It takes place on the Hong Kong Island or Sha Tin District alternatively every two years.

External competitions
Students in the school take parts in many external competitions in many fields such as music, sports, debates, writings, mathematics and other academic competitions. One of the most notable competitions is the Hang Lung Mathematics Award. The school's HLMA team got an Honourable Mention in 2004 and a Special Commendation in 2006.

School organizations

Student union
The Student Union was established in November 1994. Its election activity is held in November every year. It helps the school setting new school rules and improves students' lives. It organises activities such as blood donation days and ball game competitions.

Student Guidance Committee
It is formed by some teachers, social worker and psychologist to teach students how to have a true value.

Careers Guidance Committee
It helps students plan for their future by giving them information about different study opportunities and the world of work.

Disciplinary Committee
Some students may be naughty, so there are some prefects catching the naughty students.

School library
The school library has over 20000 books available to students. Every year there are about 100 school librarians. The book borrowing system was changed from man power only into computer system in 2001. The location of it was moved to the new wing building of the school in 2005. It organises Reading Day every year.

Information Technology Committee
It is made up of an IT technician and some teachers. They work together to provide the up-to-date information for the use of IT in teaching and learning. It trains the teachers and maintaining computer hardware and software. It also provide some advanced computers and facilities including digital video cameras and viewers.

Extra-curricular Activities Committee
There are 5 groups of extracurricular activities, including studying, services, entertainment, sports and Christian programme. They are divided into 40 clubs and activity groups.

Civic Education Committee
It teaches the students about civic education. There are many activities for the students to join..

Religious Education Committee
It is formed by a group of Christian teachers and Christ's Harvest Church to organize some special activities, Morning Assembly and Fellowship.

Pui Ying family
The school has good relationship with Guangzhou Pui Ying, Xiguan Pui Ying, Jiangmen Pui Ying, Taishan Pui Ying and Pui Ying Secondary School. In Canada, there is a Pui Ying Christian Services Society Pui Ying Alumni Associations can be found all over the world, such as in the USA, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, England, South Africa, Japan, Peru, Singapore, Thailand, Guangzhou, Taishan, Jiangmen and Taiwan.

Well known past students
 Joey Yung (容祖兒): A very popular female Canto pop singer and actress.
 Louise Ho (何璐怡): A female dubbing actress in TVB.
 Tsoi Chi Fu (蔡智夫): A writer of a computer reference book.

References

Other websites
 The official website of Shatin Pui Ying College
 Secondary School Profile

Schools in Hong Kong

Shatin Pui Ying College


Achlorhydria and hypochlorhydria is when there is very little, or no gastric acid in the stomach. It can come with other medical problems.

Signs
The lowering acid level itself can make symptoms similar to gastroesophageal reflux disease, and hinders protein digestion by holding back the enzyme pepsin. Pepsin needs a low gastric PH to become active. Low acid levels in the stomach are also linked with bacteria growing too much, which can stop the body taking in nutrients or vitamins.

Diseases and disorders of the digestive system

Achlorhydria


Gaston François Marie, Viscount Eyskens (1 April 1905 – 3 January 1988) was a Christian democratic politician and prime minister of Belgium. He was also an economist and member of the Belgian Christian Social Party (CVP-PSC).

He served three terms as the prime minister of Belgium, holding the position from 1949 to 1950, 1958 to 1961 and 1968 to 1973. During his periods in office, Eyskens was confronted with major ideological and linguistic conflicts within Belgium including the Royal Question in 1950, the School War in 1958, the independence of the Belgian Congo in 1960 and the split of the University of Leuven in 1970. He oversaw the first steps towards the federalization of Belgium (constitutional reform of 1970).

Family
Eyskens was born in Lier, the son of Antonius Franciscus Eyskens (1875–1948) and Maria Voeten (1872–1960). On 10 August 1931 he married Gilberte Depetter (1902–1981), with whom he had two sons: Erik Eyskens (Leuven 20 July 1935 – Antwerpen 31 August 2008) and Mark Eyskens. His son Mark also became Prime Minister, serving from 6 April 1981 to 17 December 1981.

Career

Academic career

Eyskens studied at the Catholic University of Leuven where he gained a master and doctorate degree. In 1927 he became Master of Science at Columbia University. In 1931 Eyskens became a professor at the University of Leuven. He later became dean of the economics faculty. He also served on the board of Lovanium University in the Congo.

Eyskens was made doctor honoris causa by Columbia University, the University of Cologne and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Political career
During the early 1930s Eyskens was chief of staff of CVP ministers Edmond Rubbens and Philip Van Isacker. In 1939 Eyskens was elected to the Belgian Chamber of Representatives. He was steadily re-elected (in 1946, 1949, 1950, 1954, 1958 and 1961) and served until 1965.

In 1945 and between 1947 and 1949 he was Minister of Finance. On 11 August 1949 he became Prime Minister of Belgium in a coalition (Eyskens I) between Christian-democrats and liberals. His cabinet fell in June 1950 over the constitutional crisis caused by King Leopold III's actions during the Second World War. In the short lived government of Jean Duvieusart (June–August 1950) Eyskens was Minister of Economic Affairs.

Between 26 June 1958 and 6 November 1958, Eyskens led a minority government which was the most recent government of Belgium (Eyskens II) not to be a coalition government. On 6 November, Eyskens formed a coalition government with the liberals (Eyskens III) which remained in power until 3 September 1960. On 3 September 1960 he formed his third government (Eyskens IV), again a coalition with the liberal party. This government fell on 25 April 1961 over the Unitary Law (which raised the fiscal pressure by 7 billion Belgian francs, cut spending in education and the military, and reformed unemployment benefits and government pensions) and had caused large-scale strikes. During these years he also had to deal with the School War and the independence of the Belgian Congo.

In the general election of 1965 Eyskens was elected to the Belgian Senate (re-elected in 1968 and 1971). In the government led by Pierre Harmel (1965–1966) he again served as Minister of Finance. Student unrest and questions of discrimination against the ethnic Flemish population brought down the Belgian government in February 1968. On 17 June 1968, Gaston Eyskens formed his fifth government (Eyskens V); this time a centre-left coalition between the Christian Democrats and the Socialists. On 20 January 1973, he formed his sixth and last government (Eyskens VI), again a coalition with the Socialists.

His last two governments were plagued by linguistic troubles regarding the split of the old bilingual Catholic University of Leuven into a Dutch-language university (the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven), which stayed in Leuven and a French-language university which moved to Louvain-la-Neuve and became the Université catholique de Louvain and the start of the process of changing Belgium from a unitary state into a federation with the creation of the Communities. Upon the fall of his last government Gaston Eyskens retired from politics.  He died in Leuven.

Honours
 : Minister of State by RD of 5 April 1963.
 : Created Viscount Eyskens by RD in September 1973.
 : Member of the Royal Academy.
 : Commander in the Order of Leopold II, by RD of 15 February 1946.
 : Knight Grand Cross in the Order of the Crown, by RD of 8 April 1954.
 Knight Commander in the Order of Saint Gregory the Great.

References

External links

 Gaston Eyskens at Belgium Prime Minister
 Gaston Eyskens at Encyclopædia Britannica
 Territorial Party Politics in Western Europe
 Gaston Eyskens in ODIS - Online Database for Intermediary Structures
 Archives of Gaston Eyskens in ODIS - Online Database for Intermediary Structures
 Gaston Eyskens Collection in KU Leuven Libraries

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1905 births
1988 deaths
Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968) alumni
Columbia University alumni
Belgian economists
Christian Democratic and Flemish politicians
Christian Social Party (Belgium, defunct) politicians
20th-century Belgian politicians
Politicians from Leuven
People from Lier, Belgium
Belgian Ministers of State
Finance ministers of Belgium
Prime Ministers of Belgium
Viscounts of Belgium
Belgian Roman Catholics
People of the Congo Crisis

Knights Commander of the Order of St Gregory the Great
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
Commanders of the Order of Leopold II

Gaston Eyskens


Iván Francisco Villazón Aponte (born October 25, 1959, in the city of Valledupar, Colombia), is one of the most renowned vallenato singers in Colombia. His career as a singer began in 1984 after dropping out of college where he was pursuing a degree in law.

Early life
Villazon spent his childhood in the city Valledupar where he attended middle school in the Colegio María Montessori.  He grew up loving "parrandas" (parties) that his father Crispin organized with local musicians like Colacho Mendoza, Adán Montero, Ovidio Granados, Rodolfo Castilla and Alejo Duran, among many others.  For high school Villazon was sent to the city of Bogotá to study in the Colegio REFOUS.  After graduation he spent four years in college studying law in the Externado University but dropped out to pursue a vallenato singing career.

Singing career
In 1984 Villazon recorded his first album with accordion player Alfredo Gámez under the Philips Records label and named it the Arco Iris (Rainbow) featuring a song of the same name written by Rafael Escalona. The album was a success and the song is still considered his trademark.

In 1985 he teamed up with accordion player Orangel Maestre and released a new album under the same record label with the name Una Voz, Un Rey. Three songs from this album became major hits: Mella Condolete by composer Hernando Marin, Pedazo de Acordeon by Alejo Duran and Sufrir de nuevo by van Ovalle.

In 1986 Villazon joined with accordion player Raul Martinez to record two albums, Los Virtuosos and Vamo' Amanece, under the CBS record label (now Columbia Records). The award-winning song El amor es un cultivo recorded in this album became a major hit, along with Sed de alma and Matica de toronjil. In 1987 they recorded their third album named Los Virtuosos Volumen II, producing two major hits; Recuérdame written by singer and composer Gustavo Gutiérrez Cabello and Yo tenia un amigo written by composer Rafael Manjarrez. Personal differences arose between Villazon and Martinez and they decided to separate.

In 1988 Villazon teamed up with accordion player and Vallenato Legend Festival winner Cocha molina who had been the partner of Diomedes Diaz. They recorded the album Por ti Valledupar from which they produced three major hits; No espero mas by composer Efren Calderon, Que siga la fiesta by José Alfonso Maestre and Por ti Valledupar of Gustavo Gutierrez, under the CBS record label. In 1989 they recorded their second album together named Enamorado de ella with hit songs Mis Condiciones by Gustavo Gutierrez and Enamorado de ella by Rafael Manjarrez. In 1990 they recorded their third album under the CBS record label titled El Amor Canta Vallenato with the hit songs Mi novia querida by Gustavo Gutierrez, El Amor Canta Vallenato by Ignasio Urbina and Volá pajarito by Alejo Duran.

This same year Villazon and Molina decided to go their different ways and Villazon teamed up with accordion player Beto Villa to record the album La Compañía under the recording label EMI. This album represents his most successful album because all of the album's songs became major hits on radio, including El Perdón, El Niño Bonito, La Suegra, El Guayabito and La Fuerza del Amor. After this successful production Villazon and Beto Villa split and Villazon took two years off from the stage and recording studios.

In 1993 Villazon worked with accordion player Franco Arguelles and recorded the album Mar de Lagrimas on the Colombian record label CODISCOS, with the hit songs Quereme by Juancho Rois, Cuando hablo de Tí by Iván Ovalle and a musical mosaic honoring Pacho Galán. In 1994, they recorded their second album together named Noticias, producing successful songs like Decídete by Fabián Corrales, Noticias by Efraín Barliza and Acabaste con mí Vida by Juancho Rois. This year the group won the Congo de Oro prize in the Barranquilla's Carnival, the Sirena de Oro in the Vallenato Legend Festival and the Super Estrella Internacional de Oro song of the year for the song Decídete by Fabian Corrales. The group also achieved prominence internationally in locations where vallenato is not part of the mainstream, like Cuba, Canada and Aruba. In 1996 Villazon and Arguelles recorded the album Sin Limites under the record label CODISCOS in which a fusion with other musical genres was tried with songs like Almas Felices by Alfonso Cotes Maya, La Pelionera by Emiliano Zuleta and Cuando muera esta ilusión by Luis Egurrola.  This collaboration was not widely successful. They later changed record labels to BMG Ariola of Colombia, recording the album Entrégate with songs like No te ruego más by Jorge Valbuena, Entrégate by Fabián Corrales, Yo la Ví by Jacobo Ibarra and Marcos Torres, and Corazón Sensible by Franco Arguelles. This album earned a Disco de Oro for its sales and a second Congo de Oro. In 1999 Villazon and Arguelles released the albums Tiempo de Vallenato and later Detalles.

In 2000 Arguelles left the group to record an album with Diomedes Diaz. Villazon partnered with Saul Lallemand producing the following albums; El Mundo al Reves, Amores, Juglares Legendarios I, Póngale la Firma, El Desafío, El Gallo Fino, El Poder del Amor and El Aviador.

Discography

Albums:
 El Arco Iris – 1984
 Una voz un rey – 1985
 Vamo' amanecé – 1986
 Los Virtuosos – 1987
 Por Ti Valledupar – 1988
 Enamorado de Ella – 1989
 El Amor Canta Vallenato – 1990
 La Compañía – 1991
 Mar de Lágrimas – 1993
 Noticia – 1994
 Sin Límites – 1995
 Entrégate – 1996
 Tiempo de Vallenato – 1997
 Detalles – 1998
 El Mundo al Revés – 1999
 Amores – 2000
 Juglares Legendarios Vol 1 – 2001
 Póngale la Firma – 2002
 El Desafío – 2002
 El Gallo Fino – 2003
 El Poder del Amor – 2004
 El Sueño de mi vida – 2005
 El Aviador – 2006
 23 Años de Grandes Exitos-Su Trayectoria [2007]
 Pa' que te enamores [2008] Iván Zuleta
 El Vallenato Mayor [2009] José María Chema Ramos

Family
Villazon is the son of Crispín Villazón de Armas y Clara Aponte López. He married Aida Mercedes García Tolosa and has three children: Crispin Enrique, Iván David and Daniel Camilo.
Lucas Francisco, Carolina and Francisco Villazon are Ivan's brother children.

Notes

External links
ElVallenato.com Ivan Villazon
lavallenata.com – Ivan Villazon
radiouno.com – Ivan Villazon

1959 births
Living people
People from Valledupar
20th-century Colombian male singers
Vallenato musicians
21st-century Colombian male singers

Iván Villazón


The Byam Martin Mountains are a rugged mountain range extending the length of Bylot Island, Nunavut, Canada. It is one of the most northern ranges in the world and is an extension of the Baffin Mountains which in turn form part of the Arctic Cordillera mountain system. The highest mountain in the range is Angilaaq Mountain, , located near the island's center. Sharp peaks and ridges, divided by deep glacier-filled valleys are typical features in the range and has been extensively modified by glacial erosion. The Byam Martin Mountains have not been conducive to habitation. While there are no permanent settlements in the Byam Martin Mountains, Inuit from Pond Inlet and elsewhere regularly travel to the range.

The Byam Martin Mountains are made up of Archean-Aphebian igneous crystalline rock and Proterozoic metasedimentary and metamorphic rock, such as gneiss.

History

The first known expedition to the Byam Martin Mountains was by Pat Baird in 1939.  He traversed Bylot Island from the Aktineq Glacier to Bathurst Bay on the east coast and returned down the Sermilik Glacier.  On June 7, 1939 he climbed an unnamed, 6,000 ft mountain at coordinates 73deg 06.7'N 078deg 30.5'W.  Mount Thule 1,711m (5,614 ft) was climbed in 1954 by American Ben Ferris, a member of the Harvard Mountaineering Club.  In 1963, British explorer Bill Tilman sailed his boat to the north coast and traversed the island from north to south, but did not climb any of the larger peaks.  Laurie Dexter, an Anglican minister and Arctic resident, explored and climbed peaks on the southern coast.  In 1974, Dr. George Van Brunt Cochran climbed an unnamed peak west of the Narsarsuk Glacier on the south coast.  In 1977, a Canadian expedition led by Rob Kelly and four others, traversed the island from NW to SE.  They climbed 20 peaks, including Pat Baird's unnamed peak on July 27, 1977.  In June 1981, another  Canadian expedition led by Jack DeBruyn with three other members of the Grant MacEwan Mountain Club from Edmonton, Alberta,  traversed the island from NW to S.  They climbed 15 peaks, with 14 first ascents, and also Pat Baird's unnamed peak on July 3, 1981.  In 1984, another Canadian expedition led by Mike Schmidt and others traversed the island from N to SE, climbing 28 peaks, with 16 first ascents.

See also
Sirmilik National Park, which includes most of Bylot Island

Gallery

References

Mountain ranges of Qikiqtaaluk Region
Arctic Cordillera

Byam Martin Mountains


Component could mean:
 Electronic component, part of electronic circuits
 Component ingredient, the main ingredient in a food
 Component video, a type of analog video information that is sent or stored as two or more separate signals
 Symmetrical component, in electrical engineering, analysis of unbalanced three-phase power systems
 Component-based software engineering, a field of study within software engineering dealing with software components, reusable software elements with a specification
 Component (thermodynamics), a chemically distinct part of a phase of a system
 Component (VTA), a light-rail station in San Jose, California
Lumped component, a model of spatially distributed systems

In math
 Component (group theory), a quasisimple subnormal subgroup
 Connected component (analysis), a maximal set where there exists a path between any two elements, also known as a path component
 Connected component (graph theory), a maximal connected subgraph
 Connected component (topology), a maximal connected subspace of a topological space
 Vector component, a term in the breaking down of a vector into various directions such as axial, radial or tangential

Component


A chart or graph is an image which summarizes data and presents it in an easy to understand way. Charts are often used to make it easier to understand the relationships of different aspects of the data. It is easier to read a chart than the raw data.

Types of charts
 A bar chart uses bars to show values for different categories.
 A pie chart shows percentage values as a slice of a pie.
 A flow chart shows the separate steps of a process.

C

Chart


Lee "Hacksaw" Hamilton is an American sportscaster and radio talk show host based in San Diego, California. He was co-host of the  "Hacksaw and Hayworth" show on from 6:00am–9:00am Pacific Time Monday through Friday  on XEPRS-AM, known on-air as "San Diego's Sports Leader, The Mighty  1090" and he worked alongside producers Bobby Wooldridge and Alex Padilla. Hacksaw is also a regular contributor to SanDiego.com.

Born as Paul Mahon, he grew up in Northport, NY on Long Island.   Hamilton is also a host on Sirius XM Satellite Radio's MLB Network Radio channel. He began calling play-by-play for the NFL on Compass Media Networks in 2009.

Hamilton had been the afternoon drive-time host on KLSD, "XTRA Sports 1360" in San Diego, from its launch in November 2007 until September 3, 2008, when his contract with parent company Clear Channel Communications expired and Clear Channel wanted better ratings so they let him go. The expiration also ended a job he had at KLAC in Los Angeles.

Prior to 2007, he worked 17 years at XETRA-AM "XTRA Sports 690", a station that was operated by the current American operator of XEPRS, John Lynch.

In July 2014, Hamilton left XEPRS-AM but continues daily sports commentary and connects with fans on his website "Lee Hacksaw Hamilton.com".

Years in Southern California
From 1986 to 2005, he hosted a daily four-hour talk show on those stations. In July 2005, he lost the show as part of a restructuring as KLAC de-emphasized sports talk in favor of "man talk." He was replaced by Matt "Money" Smith and Joe Grande, both of whom once read sports news as part as morning shows on music stations (respectively, KROQ-FM and KPWR), as well as former UCLA Bruins quarterback Wayne Cook.  Hamilton still had a daily segment at the start of the show until 2006.

Before Southern California
In the mid-1970s, Hamilton was the play-by-play voice of the Mohawk Valley Comets - Utica, New York of the North American Hockey League. He then called the play-by-play for the Cleveland Crusaders of the World Hockey Association on WWWE "3WE" 1100. After the Crusaders moved to Minnesota, Lee hosted an evening sports talk radio show, the "Sports Desk" on Akron, Ohio radio station WHLO. He hosted the long-running sports radio program Sportswatch on WIBX in Utica.

Hamilton was announcer for the football and basketball programs at Arizona State University and a talk-show host in Phoenix for news/talk/sports station KTAR. His show, "620 Sportsline", was a four-hour show similar in format to the show he would host in Southern California. The main reason he left KTAR was the opportunity to do play-by-play for the NFL San Diego Chargers before Phoenix was chosen for an NFL franchise.

Play-by-play work
Hamilton has also been a noted play-by-play host for the San Diego Chargers, Seattle Seahawks, USC Trojans, Minnesota Vikings, and San Diego State Aztecs.

Hamilton was the radio play-by-play announcer for the Chargers from 1986 to 1997. Hamilton replaced Ted Leitner, who later replaced Hamilton in 1997 when XTRA Sports lost the broadcasting rights to KFMB. (Hamilton and Leitner became broadcast partners in 2007 as KOGO assumed the broadcast rights to San Diego State Aztecs football games.  Hamilton was normally the color commentator, but switched to play-by-play for a few early-season games when Leitner called San Diego Padres games on XEPRS-AM.) Prior to that he called USC Trojans football from 1997 to 2000 alongside Paul McDonald.

Hamilton called the game for Super Bowl XXIX in January 1995 where the Chargers, in their only appearance, were defeated by the San Francisco 49ers. His partners were Jim Laslavic and Pat Curran. Broadcasting team partner Chet Forte became ill and was unable to continue during the Chargers' run to the Super Bowl.

Other assignments
Other play-by-play assignments include the USC Trojans football team, the Seattle Seahawks (1998–1999), the Pac-10 men's basketball tournament, and National Football League games on Sports USA Radio Network.

Catchphrases
Hamilton is best known for his pet phrases: "Show me your lightning bolt!", and "I am bleeping brilliant!" and, "You use the line or you lose the line," his argumentative attitude toward some callers, and "I've won awards, I have a national reputation, I've built a sportstalk empire".  He also uses the phrase "Bring your A Game, don't be lame!" on occasion.

On one occasion at a regular weekly live show at a restaurant in Mission Valley, he ended a brief interview with a patron at the host restaurant who was a fireman "down it firefighter".

Nationally syndicated sports talk host Jim Rome used to broadcast on the same station as Hamilton, and often imitated him saying "React to me!", "Show me your lightning bolt!", and "Good night now!" on The Jim Rome Show.

References

External links

Major League Baseball broadcasters
College basketball announcers in the United States
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American radio personalities
American sports announcers
American talk radio programs
American television talk show hosts
College football announcers
Minnesota Vikings announcers
National Football League announcers
San Diego Chargers announcers
San Diego State Aztecs football announcers
Seattle Seahawks announcers
Sportspeople from Suffolk County, New York
USC Trojans football announcers
World Hockey Association broadcasters

Lee Hamilton (sports)


A search engine is a website that allows users to look up information on the World Wide Web (WWW), part of the Internet. The search engine will achieve this by looking at many web pages to find matches to the user's search inputs. It will return results ranked by relevancy and popularity by the search engine. The most popular search-engines are Google Search and Bing. Older services include Webcrawler are,  Yahoo! Search, Ask.com Lycos, and Alta Vista. Examples of specialized engines are Ecosia (supports ecological goals) or Tenor (picture engine).

To use a search engine you must enter at least one keyword into the search box. Usually, an on-screen button must be clicked on to submit the search. The search engine looks for matches between the keyword(s) entered and its database of websites and words.

After the user inputs their search or query into the search bar, a list of results will appear on the screen known as the search engine results page (SERP). This list of webpages contains matches related to the user's query in a particular order determined by a ranking system. Most search engines will remove "spam" pages from the list of results to provide a better list of results. The user can then click on any of the links to go to that webpage.

Search engines are some of the most advanced websites on the web. They use special computer code to sort the web pages on SERPs. The most popular or highest-quality web pages will be near the top of the list.

When a user types words into the search engine, it looks for web pages with those words. There could be thousands, or even millions, of web pages with those words. So, the search engine helps users by putting the web pages it thinks the user wants first.

Search engines are very useful to find information about anything quickly and easily. Using more keywords or different keywords improves the results of searches.

A search service may also include a portal with news, games, and more information besides a search engine.  Yahoo! has a popular portal, while Google has a simple design on its front page.  Search services usually work without charging money for finding sites, and are often supported with text or banner advertisements.

Crawling
Search engines use robots to 'crawl' online content. The process of crawling is the first measure that search engines take before indexing content in virtually any form–videos, text, images, webpages, etc. The content may constitute newly uploaded content to the internet or content that features updates or changes to its material. These robots, also known as crawlers or bots, record the information along with its links. Once the material has been crawled, it can be stored in a massive URL database. It's this database that generates internet search results.

Indexing
After the bots crawl content, it can be indexed in the database and arranged in terms of its relevance. If internet content has not been crawled or indexed, it is unlikely to appear in the search results when someone makes a query no matter how relevant that content may be. After the content has been crawled, each of its words is indexed. The search engines also pinpoint where words are located on the crawled pages. During the indexing process, the search engine compares the content to other content with similar 'words' and decides how to organize it within its index.

Ranking
Ranking is a complex process that is dependent on search engine algorithms. When a searcher makes a query on Google looking for anything from 19th-century British landscape painters to New York City plumbers, the search engine will generate a list of good matches to that query. How these matches appear in the list relates to their rank. The search engine lists what it 'thinks' are the best answers to the query early in its search results.

Google and other search engines rely on algorithms to interpret the searcher's query, identify the websites and pages in its index that are related to the request, and it then ranks them in terms of relevance in its presented search results list. What's important to search engines is to provide searchers with the most relevant matches to their queries possible. Website operators, in turn, use search engine optimization to give their pages a higher rank.

References

Search engines

Search engine


The Coolie-Begar  or Coolie- Utar movement was a non-violent movement by the general public of Kumaun in the Bageshwar town of United Provinces in 1921. This movement was led by Hargovind Pant and Badri Datt Pandey, who were awarded the titles of 'Jannayak' and 'Kumaon Kesari' respectively after the success of this movement. The aim of this movement was to put pressure on the British to end the practice of Coolie-Begar. Mahatma Gandhi, while praising the movement, named it 'Bloodless Revolution'.

Introduction and reasons
'Coolie Begar' or ' Coolie-Utar' referred to the law requiring locals of the hill regions of Kumaun to provide free transportation for the luggage of travelling British officials. It was the responsibility of the 'Village Head' of different villages, to make available a certain number of coolies for a certain period. For this work, there was a regular register, in which the names of all the villagers were written and everyone was forced to do this work alternately.

The dissatisfaction between the public, due to the collusion of the Village Heads, the landlords and the patwaris, and the discrimination between the people increased as the head and patwari of the village started promoting this virtue to get rid of their personal interests. Sometimes, people were also forced to do extremely disgusting things. Such as picking up garbage or washing clothes for the British etc. The locals were being exploited by the British physically and mentally. Eventually, people started to unite to protest against this.

History

The Chand rulers, during their reign, initiated a tax related to horses in the state. It was possibly the earliest form of the 'Coolie Begar' exploitation. This practice took a widespread form of governance under the rule of Gorkhas. Though the British ended it initially, they gradually not only re-enforced this system, but brought it to its formidable form. Earlier this was not on the general public, but on those salaried farmers who used to collect tax from the landowners or collectors. Hence, this practice directly influenced those tenants who owned land. But the reality was that these rich landlords and jurists had imposed their parts of slavery on landless farmers, laborers and weak sections of society who accepted it as conditional remuneration. Thus, this practice continued, despite the opposition of local people.

Background

During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Haldwani, that was the gateway to the Kumaon area, was seized by the rebels of Rohilkhand. Though the British succeeded in crushing the rebellion in its infancy itself, the tension of suppression of that time sporadically flared into different forms of resistance from time to time. There was also a dissatisfaction with the British's exploitation of the forests of Kumaon.

Coolie Begar was made mandatory for the residents of Kumaon division in 1913. It was opposed everywhere; Badri Datt Pandey led the movement in Almora, while other leaders like Anusuya Prasad Bahuguna and Pt. Govind Ballabh Pant also played an active role in the Movement in Garhwal and Kashipur respectively. Through his Almora Akhbar, Badri Datt Pandey started protesting against this evil. In 1920, the annual Convention of the Congress was held in Nagpur. several leaders including Pt Govind Ballabh Pant, Badri Datt Pandey, Hargovind Pant, Victor Mohan Joshi, Shyam Lal Shah etc. attended the session, to take the blessings of Mahatma Gandhi for the Coolie Begar movement. When they came back, they started raising awareness against this evil.

Movement

On 14 January 1921, on occasion of the Uttarayani fair, this movement was initiated from the grounds of Confluence (Bagad) of Saryu and Gomati. Before the commencement of this movement, a notice was issued by the District Magistrate to Hargovind Pant, Lala Chiranjilal and Badri Datt Pandey, but it had no effect on them. To participate in this movement, people from different villages came out to the fair ground, and turned it into a huge show. The people first went to the Bagnath Temple to offer prayers, and then about 40 Thousand people went to Saryu Bagad, in front of the procession carrying a flag, with the words "End the Coolie Begar". After that, there was a meeting in Saryu Ground, Badri Datt Pandey, while addressing the gathering, took an oath saying, "Taking the water of the sacred Saryu, and with the Bagnath temple as a witness, we pledge that we will not tolerate 'Coolie Utar', 'Coolie Begar' and 'Coolie Burdayash' any more." All the people took this oath and the Village heads who had brought the 'record registers' with them, flung these registers into the confluence while raising slogans in praise of Bharat Mata.

The then deputy commissioner of Almora district was also present in the crowd. Though he wanted to open fire on the crowd, he had to step back due to the lack of police force.

Aftermath

After the success of this movement, people gave the title of 'Jannayak' to Hargovind Pant and that of 'Kumaon Kesari' to Badri Datt Pandey. People not only supported the movement but also strictly followed it and continued to protest against this practice. The result was that the government was forced to end the tradition by bringing a bill in the House. Mahatma Gandhi was very impressed with this movement and paid a visit to Bageshwar and Kausani himself in 1929. He also established a Gandhi Ashram in Chanunda. After this, Gandhiji wrote about this movement in Young India stating "its effect was complete, it was a bloodless revolution."

Notes

References

Indian independence movement
Bageshwar
History of Uttarakhand

Coolie-Begar movement


Jack Warner may refer to:

Film and TV
Jack L. Warner (1892–1978), head of Warner Bros. studio
Jack M. Warner (1916–1995), American film producer
Jack Warner (actor) (1895–1981), British film and television actor

Sportspeople
Jack Warner (catcher) (1872–1943), American baseball catcher
Jack Warner (pitcher) (born 1940), American baseball relief pitcher
Jack Warner (third baseman) (1903–1986), American baseball third baseman
Jack Warner (football executive) (born 1943), Trinidadian former football administrator and current politician
Jack Warner (footballer, born 1911) (1911–1980), Welsh football player with Swansea Town, Manchester United and Oldham
Jack Warner (footballer, born 1898) (1898–1950), English football inside forward, played for Man. City, Watford and Thames
Jack Warner (footballer, born 1883) (1883–1948), English football full-back, played for Preston NE, Southampton and Portsmouth
Jack Warner (sport shooter), British Olympic shooter

Other(s)
Jack Warner, founder of the Westervelt Warner Museum of American Art

See also
Jackie Warner (disambiguation)
John Warner (disambiguation)
Warner (disambiguation)

Jack Warner


Elizabeth MacNicol  (1869–1904) was a Scottish painter and member of the Glasgow Girls group of artists affiliated with the Glasgow School of artists.

Early life and education
MacNicol was born in Glasgow, Scotland, on 5 July 1869, the daughter of Peter MacNicol, a teacher and school principal, and Mary Ann Matthews. Several of her siblings died in infancy (including her twin sister Mary), but she grew up with two surviving sisters with whom she shared a penchant for music. She had some health problems consequent on suffering from allergies during the summer months. She attended Glasgow School of Art from 1887 until 1892 and afterwards, at the urging of school director Francis Henry Newbery, studied art in Paris at the Académie Colarossi, which was one of the first of the Paris studios to offer classes in which women trained alongside men. She was thus part of the first wave of women artists who were crossing to Paris from the United Kingdom to further their art education as their male peers had been doing for several generations. However, she apparently did not gain much from her time at Académie Colarossi, feeling that she was being constantly repressed rather than encouraged.

Career
On her return to Scotland, MacNicol moved back into the family home and not long afterwards acquired a studio in St Vincent Street. In 1893 she exhibited Fifeshire Interior at the Royal Scottish Academy (the only time she would exhibit there), and Study of a Head at the Royal Glasgow Institute. In 1895, she exhibited work at the Stephen Goodden Art Rooms in Glasgow, and in 1896 at the Munich Secession Exhibition. That year she spent time in the artist's colony of Kirkcudbright, where she painted the portrait of leading Kirkcudbright artist Edward Atkinson Hornel. In 1899 she married Alexander Frew, a physician and artist, and they lived in the Hillhead area of Glasgow, where she set up a large studio at the back of the house. Both her parents died in 1903, and she was in the late stages of a pregnancy when she died in Glasgow on 4 June 1904, at the age of 34. Her husband remarried shortly before his own death by suicide in 1908, and his second wife sold the Hillhead house and all of MacNicol's paintings the same year. This could be one reason that so few of MacNicol's works and papers are known to exist; there are only a few letters and photographs, and no sketchbooks appear to have been found.

MacNicol's paintings in oil and watercolour are influenced by the plein air tradition of the Barbizon School, as well as by the impressionism of James McNeill Whistler and some of her Glasgow contemporaries among the Glasgow Boys such as Hornel. She was known for her masterful command of color, light, and texture, while her portraits are admired for their solid composition and psychological depth. One contemporary writer, admiring her dextrous touch and expressive color, compared her favourably to Berthe Morisot. Like Morisot, she often painted young, fashionable women posing outdoors, but with a distinctive dappling of leaf shadows that creates a strong overall pattern of alternating light and dark. During her lifetime, her work was exhibited in Scotland and London, as well as in several European and American cities. Today she is included in group known as the Glasgow Girls, among whom are also numbered Margaret MacDonald, Frances MacDonald, Jessie M. King, Jessie Wylie Newbery, Ann Macbeth, and Norah Neilson Gray. The Glasgow Girls were featured in a 1990 traveling exhibition organized by curator Jude Burkhauser and originating at Glasgow's Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum. Her work is held in the collections of the Kelvingrove Museum as well as the Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery in Glasgow.

References

External links

1869 births
1904 deaths
19th-century Scottish painters
19th-century Scottish women artists
20th-century Scottish painters
20th-century Scottish women artists
Académie Colarossi alumni
Alumni of the Glasgow School of Art
People educated at Hutchesons' Grammar School
Artists from Glasgow
Deaths in childbirth
Scottish women painters
Scottish portrait painters

Bessie MacNicol


A Rake's Progress (or The Rake's Progress) is a series of eight paintings by 18th-century English artist William Hogarth. The canvases were produced in 1732–1734, then engraved in 1734 and published in print form in 1735. The series shows the decline and fall of Tom Rakewell, the spendthrift son and heir of a rich merchant, who comes to London, wastes all his money on luxurious living, prostitution and gambling, and as a consequence is imprisoned in the Fleet Prison and ultimately Bethlem Hospital (Bedlam). The original paintings are in the collection of Sir John Soane's Museum in London, where they are normally on display for a short period each day.

The filmmaker Alan Parker has described the works as an ancestor to the storyboard.

Paintings

I – The Heir
In the first painting, Tom has come into his fortune on the death of his miserly father. While the servants mourn, he is measured for new clothes. Although he has had a common-law marriage with her, he now rejects the hand of his pregnant fiancée, Sarah Young, whom he had promised to marry (she holds his ring and her mother holds his love letters). He pays her off, but she still loves him, as becomes clear in the fourth painting. Behind Tom the Administrator of the estate filches a coin from the money bag Tom holds. Evidence of the father's miserliness abound: his portrait above the fireplace shows him counting money; symbols of hospitality (a jack and spit) have been locked up at upper right; the coat of arms shows three clamped vises with the motto "Beware"; a half-starved cat reveals the father kept little food in the house, while lack of ashes in the fireplace demonstrates that he spent even less money on wood to heat his home. A servant hanging mourning crepe accidentally uncovers a cache of gold coins. The engraving (right), which is reversed left-to-right compared to the painting, shows the father went so far as to resole his shoes with a piece of leather cut from a Bible cover. An account book has an entry of the miser joy of getting rid of a bad shilling.

II – The Levée
In the second painting, Tom is at his morning levée in his new London home, attended by musicians and other hangers-on all dressed in expensive costumes. Surrounding Tom from left to right: a music master at a harpsichord, who was supposed to represent George Frideric Handel or Nicola Porpora; a fencing master; a quarterstaff instructor; a dancing master with a violin; a landscape gardener, Charles Bridgeman; an ex-soldier offering to be a bodyguard; a bugler of a fox hunt club. At lower right is a jockey with a silver trophy showing Toms racehorse "Silly Tom". In the background left are more hangers on including a poet; a wig maker and a hat maker. The quarterstaff instructor looks disapprovingly on both the fencing and dancing masters. Both masters appear to be in the "French" style, which was a subject Hogarth loathed. Upon the wall, between paintings of roosters (emblems of cockfighting), there is a painting of the Judgement of Paris.

III – The Orgy

The third painting depicts a wild party or orgy underway at a brothel. The prostitutes are stealing the drunken Tom's watch. On the floor at bottom right is a night watchman's staff and lantern — souvenirs of Tom's 'wild night' on the town. The scene takes place at the Rose Tavern, a famous brothel in Covent Garden. The prostitutes have black spots on their faces to cover syphilitic sores.

IV – The Arrest
In the fourth, he narrowly escapes arrest for debt by Welsh bailiffs (as signified by the leeks, a Welsh emblem, in their hats) as he travels in a sedan chair to a party at St. James's Palace to celebrate Queen Caroline's birthday on Saint David's Day (Saint David is the patron saint of Wales). On this occasion he is saved by the intervention of Sarah Young, the girl he had earlier rejected; she is apparently a dealer in millinery and pays the bill. In comic relief, a man filling a street lantern spills the oil on Tom's head. This is a sly reference to how blessings on a person were accompanied by oil poured on the head; in this case, the 'blessing' being the 'saving' of Tom by Sarah, although Rakewell, being a rake, will not take the moral lesson to heart. In the engraved version, lightning flashes in the sky toward White's gambling club and a young pickpocket has just emptied Tom's pocket. At the lower right urchins are gambling. The painting, however, shows the young thief stealing Tom's cane, and has no lightning.

V – The Marriage
In the fifth, Tom attempts to salvage his fortune by marrying a rich but aged and ugly old maid at St Marylebone. In the background, Sarah arrives, holding their child while her indignant mother struggles with a guest. It looks as though Tom's eyes are already upon the pretty maid to his new wife's left during the nuptials.

VI – The Gaming House
The sixth painting shows Tom pleading for the assistance of the Almighty in a gambling den at White's club after losing his reacquired wealth. Neither he nor the other obsessive gamblers seem to have noticed a fire that is breaking out behind them.

VII – The Prison
All is lost by the seventh painting, and Tom is incarcerated in the notorious Fleet debtors' prison. He ignores the distress of both his angry new wife and faithful Sarah, who cannot help him this time. Both the beer-boy and jailer demand money from him. Tom begins to go mad, as indicated by both a telescope for celestial observation poking out of the barred window (an apparent reference to the longitude rewards offered by the British government) and an alchemy experiment in the background. Beside Tom is a rejected play; another inmate is writing a pamphlet on how to solve the national debt. Above the bed at right is an apparatus for wings, which is more clearly seen in the engraved version at the left.

VIII – The Madhouse
Finally insane and violent, in the eighth painting he ends his days in Bethlem Hospital (Bedlam), London's infamous mental asylum. Only Sarah Young is there to comfort him, but Rakewell continues to ignore her. While some of the details in these pictures may appear disturbing to 21st-century eyes, they were commonplace in Hogarth's day. For example, the fashionably dressed women in this last painting have come to the asylum as a social occasion, to be entertained by the bizarre antics of the inmates. In the engraving the name of the prostitute Betty Careless is shown carved into the rail of the stairs.

Engravings
Hogarth published engravings of the paintings on 25 June 1735, the day that the Engravers' Copyright Act became law. The composition of several of the engravings is reversed from the paintings, due to the printing process.

Adaptations
Gavin Gordon composed a 1935 ballet titled The Rake's Progress, based directly on Hogarth's paintings. It was choreographed by Ninette de Valois, designed by Rex Whistler, has been recorded several times, and remains in the repertoires of various ballet companies.

The 1945 British comedy-drama film The Rake's Progress, released in the US as Notorious Gentleman, is loosely based on the paintings.

The 1946 RKO film Bedlam, produced by Val Lewton and directed by Mark Robson, was inspired by A Rake's Progress. Hogarth received a writing credit for the film.

Igor Stravinsky's 1951 opera The Rake's Progress, with a libretto by W. H. Auden and Chester Kallman, is loosely based on the story from Hogarth's paintings. In 1961, David Hockney created his own print edition version of The Rake's Progress; he has also created stage designs for the Stravinsky opera.

In 2012, English artist Grayson Perry created a series of tapestries named The Vanity of Small Differences, an adaptation of Hogarth's originals.

In 2014 Ulrike Theusner created a version  with eight paintings accompanied by copper engravings on the same themes.

The British artist Henry Hudson depicted the rake in his 2015 show at the Sotheby's S2 gallery.

See also
A Harlot's Progress
List of works by William Hogarth

References

External links

A Rake's Progress Analysis and Critical Reception
A Rake's Progress at Sir John Soane's Museum
Hogarth's A Rake's Progress, Sophie Harland, Smarthistory

English art
1730s paintings
Paintings by William Hogarth
Paintings in London
Collection of Sir John Soane's Museum
Prostitution in paintings
Works about prostitution in the United Kingdom
London in art

A Rake's Progress


Televangelism is the use of modern mass media such as television or radio to speak of the faith. Usually this is done to convince other people of one's own beliefs. It is common with Christianity but also occurs with other religions. The word is a made up of television and evangelism. The term was started by Time magazine. Today it is also used for preachers who use modern mass media, such as radio, or the internet to spread the gospel.

Please note, that televangelism is different from watching a Christian mass (or other religious programme, for example, the blessings Urbi et Orbi of the Pope) on television, or other media.

In Christianity

Televangelists often give speeches, or sermons. There they tell about the good news, and they ask people to do specific things. Most often, they want donations either for their organisation, or for a specific cause. Most televangelists make a connection between wonders or miracles, and the donations of the faithful. What they preach is a form of prosperity theology, and this connection is a defining characteristic.

In Christianity, televangelists often have positions that are close to those of the Charismatic Movement, or of Pentecostalism.

In Islam

Televangelism also exists in Islam. There, the people are either Salafi Sunni Muslims, or they are Shiites or Alevites.

Yusuf al-Qaradawi is a very popular Islamic tellevangelist.

Harun Yahya is an Turkish Islamic televangelist who has creationist ideas. Politically, his ideas are close to the Gülen movement. He has a very modern interpretation; in his broadcasts, he also shows women with few clothes, which is unusual for the Islamic world.

Criticism
Televangelism has also been critiziced: Conservative Christian theologian John Mc Arthur wrote: "Someone needs to say this plainly: The faith healers and health-and-wealth preachers who dominate religious television are shameless frauds. Their message is not the true Gospel of Jesus Christ. There is nothing spiritual or miraculous about their on-stage chicanery. It is all a devious ruse designed to take advantage of desperate people. They are not Godly ministers but greedy impostors who corrupt the Word of God for money's sake. They are not real pastors who shepherd the flock of God but hirelings whose only design is to fleece the sheep. Their love of money is glaringly obvious in what they say as well as how they live. They claim to possess great spiritual power, but in reality they are rank materialists and enemies of everything holy."

References

Televangelism


Antonine Barada (August 22, 1807 – March 30, 1885), alternatively spelled Antoine Barada, was an American folk hero in the state of Nebraska; son of an Omaha mother, he was also called Mo shi-no pazhi in the tribal language. While Barada was a historic man, contemporary accounts of his prodigious strength helped establish him as a regional legend, in the mold of Paul Bunyan and Febold Feboldson. Barada's exploits have been counted as fakelore by historians.

Early life
Antoine Barada was born in 1807 at St. Marys, Iowa, which was once located across the Missouri River from Nemaha County, Nebraska.  His parents were Michel Barada, a French-American fur trapper and interpreter, and Ta-ing-the-hae, or "Laughing Buffalo", a full-blood Omaha and sister to the chief. His namesake grandfather, Antoine Barada, Sr. (1739–1782), was born in Gascony, France, and was one of the first settlers of St. Louis, Missouri.

In 1813 Antoine was abducted by the Lakota while the family lived near Fort Lisa (Nebraska). Six months later he was returned, after Michel Barada paid the ransom of two ponies.  His father immediately sent the boy to live with an aunt in St. Louis.  At the age of nine, Antoine returned to the Plains with an Indian hunting party.

As a young man, Antoine Barada married Marcellite Vient, a French woman from St. Louis.  In 1856 they returned to Nebraska to settle on the Nemaha Half-Breed Reservation; because of his half-Omaha ancestry, Barada was eligible for a land patent from the US government.  He set up a trading post at the reservation, from which the town of Barada grew.  He and his wife settled  northeast of Falls City, Nebraska.

Myth
Barada's myth is widely known in Nebraska.  In Love Song to the Plains, the early 20th-century Pulitzer Prize-winning writer Mari Sandoz stated, "'Toine Barada stories were told as far as the upper Yellowstone." In the 1930s, Louise Pound of the Federal Writer's Project of the Works Progress Administration collected dozens of stories about Barada, many of which are repeated today.  One tale reported, "He was once matched to wrestle with Jean Palos, a Greek wrestling champion... The mighty Palos was notorious for his rough treatment of an opponent.  Antonine won the match by pinching his opponent with his toes while he slapped him into unconsciousness with one blow on his ear."

Barada was known as a huge man, commonly thought to be almost  tall and widely regarded as a giant. His strength was well known as well, and he was always asked to assist with barn raising, as he would single-handedly hold heavy beams in place while they were fastened down.  When local farmers needed assistance loading hogs for market, they would also call on Barada.  Rather than use a loading chute, Barada simply picked the hogs up and set them in the wagon.  Every time townsfolk needed someone's strength, Barada took the call.

In 1832 Barada was in St. Louis when he was challenged to prove his strength. He lifted a stone weighing 1,700 pounds, after which point the date of the feat and the weight were inscribed on the stone for future generations. The stone is purported to still stand there. Barada was also widely regarded for his marksmanship.  Lore recorded his ability to shoot prairie chickens on the fly from horseback, as well as the ability to shoot two quail from every covey.  He was known as a fair hunter, one who never shot a bird on the ground.

One tale of Barada recounted that while working with a lazy railroad crew in Nebraska, Barada became upset.  He grabbed the drop hammer and threw it across the Missouri River, at which point the earth where the hammer fell buckled.  The hammer fall created Nebraska's Missouri River breaks.  Barada was still angry and slammed his fist down on a pile.  It was driven so far into the soil that it pierced a water table.  Legend says that all of Nebraska would have flooded from this bung hole if Antoine Barada hadn't plugged it by sitting over it. Antonine was also purportedly involved in the Underground Railroad.  Known as the "Lifeguard of the Missouri", Barada supposedly saved many slaves from drowning by personally carrying them across the Missouri River from the state of Missouri into Nebraska.

Half-Breed Tract
Barada received a patent on  of land in 1856 on the Nemaha Half-Breed Reservation. The town of Barada was established in that tract soon after Barada's claim. Barada ran a fur-trading post there for at least 20 years, during which time the town grew around him.

Death
Barada died in 1885 and is buried alongside his wife in the Catholic cemetery just east of Barada, the village that bears his name.

In 1951 several of Barada's descendants were members of a lawsuit brought against the Government of the United States for recognition of their descent from a full tribal member of the Omaha nation, and their entitlement to compensation related to land allotments and financial benefits received by tribal members. According to the suit, in the 1870s Barada applied to the tribe for membership based on his maternal ancestry. He was rejected due to discriminatory practices by tribal elders and Indian agents. Unlike many Native American tribes, the Omaha have a patrilineal system of descent, so may have rejected Barada because of his French-American father. They considered children with European/white fathers to be "white" and did not accept them into the tribe unless they were officially adopted.

In the 1951 case, the Indian Claims Commission acknowledged there might have been discrimination by the tribe against certain mixed-blood descendants such as Barada; however, the court dismissed the case on the grounds that the Indian Claims Commission did not have jurisdiction over a group claim of individual members; rather, its responsibilities were to adjudicate claims of tribes against the government. The federal government has continued to defer to the federally recognized tribes' sovereignty to determine their own rules for membership and eligibility for voting and benefits.

References

Bibliography
 Sandage, S.A. (2008) Half-Breed Creek: A Tall Tale of Race on the Frontier, 1804–1941. Announcement

1807 births
1885 deaths
American folklore
People from Warren County, Iowa
People from Richardson County, Nebraska
Fakelore
Giants
Tall tales
Native American history of Nebraska
American fur traders
American Métis people
People of the American Old West
Nebraska people of French descent
Nebraska folklore

Antonine Barada


Andris Piebalgs (born September 17, 1957, in Valmiera) is a Latvian politician. Since 22 November 2004 he has been the European Commissioner for Energy.

He was born in Valmiera and was educated at the University of Latvia in Riga. He worked as a teacher in Valmiera in the 1980s. After Latvia became independent from the USSR he was education minister (in charge of schools) from 1990 to 1993, and finance minister (in charge of money) from 1994 to 1995. He was Latvia's ambassador to Estonia from 1995 to 1997, and to the European Union from 1998 to 2003, when he helped Latvia join the EU. He also helped to start a political party called the Latvian Way.

He speaks Latvian, English, German, French, and Russian, and some Estonian.

Before he was made a European Commissioner Piebalgs worked for Sandra Kalniete, a member of the last Commission.

Other websites
 Official website

1957 births
Living people
European Commissioners
Latvian politicians

Andris Piebalgs


Magnus II of Sweden, or Magnus Henriksson (died 1161) was a Danish lord.  He was King of Sweden between 1160 and 1161.

His mother was Ingrid Ragvaldsdotter, a granddaughter of Inge I. His father was the Danish lord Henrik Skatelår.

Magnus killed Eric the Saint as he left the church in Uppsala on May 18, 1160. He ruled as king of almost all of Sweden.  Then he was murdered by the men of Charles Sverkerson, the rival king, the year after.

Kings and Queens of Sweden
1130s births
1161 deaths

Magnus II of Sweden


A gatehouse was a strong building built over the gateway to a city or castle. A gatehouse is found on European castles, manor houses and mansions.

Sometimes gatehouses defended a town by being built across a bridge, a river or a moat, as in Monmouth.

English gatehouses
Ightham Mote
Nottingham Castle
Stokesay Castle
Stanway Hall, Stanway, Gloucestershire
Westwood, Worcestershire
Burton Agnes Hall, Yorkshire
Hylton Castle, Hylton, Sunderland

French gatehouses
Château de Suscinio
Château de Trécesson
Château de Vitré

Fortification

Gatehouse


The Leonids are a prolific meteor shower associated with the comet Tempel–Tuttle.

The Leonids get their name from the direction their shower seems to come from. This direction is called the radiant. The meteors appear to come from the constellation Leo.

The Leonids peak in the month of November.

Astronomical phenomena

Leonids


An aqueduct is a man-made channel that carries water from one place to another. Usually, they are used to supply water to cities and towns. They may also carry water for irrigation, or for hydroelectricity. Pipes, canals, tunnels, and bridges that serve this purpose are all called aqueducts. Some aqueducts carry a canal for boats and ships. The word "aqueduct" comes from the Latin words "aqua" (water) and "ducere" (to lead). Aqueducts have been used since ancient times.

List of major aqueducts

Ancient Greek aqueducts
 The Eupalinian aqueduct on the Greek island of Samos.

Roman aqueducts

 The Pont du Gard in southern France
 Barbegal aqueduct, France
 Eifel aqueduct, Germany
 Caesarea Maritima, Israel
 Kavala, Greece
 Patras, Greece
 Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain
 Acueducto de los Milagros, Mérida, Spain
 Tarragona, Spain
 Almuñécar, Spain (5 aqueducts - 4 still in use)
 Valens aqueduct, Istanbul, Turkey
 Aqua Augusta, Italy
 Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus, as part of the Porta Maggiore, Rome, Italy
 Skopje aqueduct, Skopje, North Macedonia

Other aqueducts

 Wignacourt Aqueduct, Malta. Built in the 16th century to transport water from the old capital city of Malta, Mdina to the new capital city Valletta. Today, only part is visible in the localities of Balzan, Birkirkara and Santa Venera.
 Aqueduct St-Clément, Montpellier, France - 17th century
 Águas Livres Aqueduct, in Lisbon, Portugal (built 1731-1748)
 Carioca aqueduct in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (built 1744-1750)
 Aqueduct of Teruel, Spain
 Roquefavour aqueduct, France - built between 1842 and 1847
 Winnipeg aqueduct, Manitoba, Canada - built between 1915 and 1919
 Canal de l'aqueduc, Quebec, Canada
 Päijänne water Tunnel, a 120 kilometer long underground aqueduct (continuous tunnel) connecting lake Päijänne to Greater Helsinki.
 Wan Mat Saman aqueduct, Kedah, Malaysia - built between 1900 and 1909

 Mathur aqueduct in Tamil Nadu state, India
 Surviving Spanish aqueducts in Mexico:
 Aqueduct of Querétaro, Mexico - built between 1726 and 1738, 1.3 km long and featuring 74 arches.
 Aqueduct of Morelia, Michoacan, built between 1735 and 1738.
 Aqueduct of Acámbaro, Guanajuato, built in 1528  .
 Levadas,  of 17th century aqueducts on the Portuguese island of Madeira.
 Espada aqueduct, built 1735, in San Antonio, Texas, United States.
 Quabbin aqueduct,  long tunnel, in Massachusetts, United States.
 Chicopee Valley aqueduct,  long, in Massachusetts, United States.

 Central Arizona Project Aqueduct
 California aqueduct, a 714 mile long combination of canals, pipelines and tunnels, in the Central Valley of the United States.
 Delaware aqueduct, in New York State, United States - at 85 miles (137 km) long, the world's longest continuous underground tunnel.
 High Bridge, part of the former Croton Aqueduct, built in 1848, is the oldest surviving bridge in New York City.

References

Water infrastructure

Aqueduct


Polynesia, Pacific Ocean ke ek island ke group hae.

Triangle
Polynesia ek triangleke shape me hae, jiske top me Hawai'i, bottom left me New Zealand aur bottom right me Easter Island hae.

Polynesia ke Island
 American Samoa (overseas United States territory)
 Cook Islands (self-governing state in free association with New Zealand)
 Easter Island (part of Chile, called Rapa Nui in Rapa Nui)
 French Polynesia ("overseas country", a territory of France)
 Hawaii (a state of the United States)
 New Zealand (called Aotearoa in Māori, usually associated with Australasia)
 Niue (self-governing state in free association with New Zealand)
 Samoa (independent nation)
 Tokelau (overseas dependency of New Zealand)
 Tonga (independent nation)
 Tuvalu (independent nation)
 Wallis and Futuna (overseas territory of France)

Oceania

Polynesia


A party is a person or group of persons that make up a single entity for the purposes of the law. They are a participant in legal proceeding and have an interest in the outcome. Parties include: the plaintiff, the defendant, a petitioner or a  respondent. They can also be a cross-complainant (a defendant who sues someone else in the same lawsuit) or a cross-defendant (a person sued by a cross-complainant). A person who only appears in the case as a witness is not considered a party.

Courts use various terms to identify the role of a particular party in civil litigation. They usually call the party that brings a lawsuit as the plaintiff, or, in older American cases, the party of the first part. The party against whom the case was brought as the defendant, or, in older American cases, the party of the second part.

Related pages
 Erga omnes
 Ex parte proceeding
 Inter partes proceeding
 Intervention (law)

References

Legal terms

Party (law)


A smith, or metalsmith, is a person who makes things from metal.

Metal smiths were very important before industrialisation because they made metal tools for farming (especially the plough) and weapons for fighting in wars. Because of the importance of smiths, the name of their craft ('Smith') turned into a surname.

Etymology of smith
The word smith means "to hit" or "to strike". Originally, smiths made things from metal by using a hammer.

As an English suffix, -smith at the end of a word means a craftsmen.  For example, a "locksmith" makes locks.

Types of smiths
Types of smiths include:

 an arrowsmith forges arrow heads;
 a blacksmith works with iron and steel;
 a bladesmith forges knives, swords and other blades;
 a coppersmith, or brownsmith, works with copper;
 a fendersmith makes and repairs the metal fender before fireplaces, protecting rugs and furniture in mansions and fine estates, and often looks after the fires as well;
 a goldsmith works with gold;
 a gunsmith works with guns;
 a locksmith works with locks;
 a pewtersmith works with pewter;
 a silversmith, or brightsmith, works with silver;
 a tinsmith, or tinner, works with light metal (such as tinware) and can refer to someone who deals in tinware;
 a swordsmith is a bladesmith who forges only swords;
 a whitesmith works with white metal (tin) and can refer to someone who polishes or finishes the metal rather than forging it.

Artisans and craftpersons

The ancient traditional tool of the smith is a forge or smithy, which is a fire which allows compressed air (through a bellows) to heat the inside of the forge until it is hot enough for metal to become more malleable so that it can be hammered into the shape that is required.  Smith or smithy refers to the hammering onto the metal using an anvil to support the work.  Anvils come in many sizes and shapes.

The term, metalsmith, often refers to artisans and craftpersons who practice their craft in many different metals, including gold, copper and silver. Jewelers often refer to their craft as metalsmithing, and many universities offer degree programs in metalsmithing, jewelry and blacksmithing as part of their fine arts programs.

A tinker is a metalsmith who mends kettles, pots and pans.  They were often poor, itinerant workers (walking from place to place looking for jobs).

Machinists

Machinists are metalsmiths who produce high-precision parts and tools. The most advanced of these tools, CNC machines, are computer controlled and largely automated.
Metalworking occupations

Smith (metalwork)


Ratchet & Clank is a platforming and shooting game for the PlayStation 2. It was made by Insomniac Games and published by Sony. It was released on November 7, 2002 in North America, November 8, 2002 in Europe, and December 3, 2002 in Japan. It is the first game in the Ratchet & Clank series.

The game is about the character Ratchet, a made-up animal called a Lombax, and his robot friend Clank. Ratchet and Clank travel around the galaxy to defeat an evil alien named Chairman Drek, who is trying to destroy planets. The player is able to use many weapons and machines to attack enemies and solve puzzles.

Gameplay
In this game, the player plays as Ratchet most of the time, but can play as Clank sometimes. Ratchet can use lots of weapons and gadgets to attack enemies, solve puzzles, and jump over gaps. Clank can control smaller robots called "Gadgebots" who do things for him that Clank can not do on his own. There are lots of different places the player can go to.

Story

A factory making lots of big robots is seen. One day a small robot is made by accident. He sees a video of an alien leader called Drek. Drek wants to break up lots of planets, and then use the pieces to make a new planet for his people, because his people'sold planet has become too polluted to live in. The video scares the robot, and he gets away in a spaceship, but crashes on a made-up planet called Veldin.

Ratchet is a made-up animal called a Lombax, who lives on Veldin. He wants to leave Veldin in his spaceship, and have adventures. Ratchet finds the small robot and calls him "Clank". Clank wants to stop Drek, and wants Ratchet to help him find a superhero called Captain Qwark, who he thinks will stop Drek. Clank fixes Ratchet's ship, so that Ratchet will help him.

Later on, Ratchet and Clank find Qwark. But Qwark is working for Drek, and he tries to kill Ratchet and Clank. They both get away from Qwark, but Ratchet is angry at Clank. Clank wants to stop Drek, but Ratchet only wants to find Qwark and kill him.

Soon, Ratchet shoots down Qwark's spaceship. After this happens, he sees a video with Drek's army destroying a city. The video makes Ratchet feel bad, and he says sorry to Clank for not helping him to find Drek.

They soon find out that Drek has a weapon called the "Deplanetizer". He is going to destroy Veldin, Ratchet's home, and this makes Ratchet angry. They find Drek, but he tells them he only did he whole thing to get money. People bought parts of his new planet, and Drek has made lots of money. But after the whole planet has been bought, he is going to pollute it. Then he will have to make another new planet, and get lots more money. But Ratchet and Clank kill Drek after a long fight, and use the Deplanetizer to destroy Drek's new planet. This makes lots of rocks fall down to Veldin. Clank gets his arm hurt, and Ratchet asks if he wants it fixed, and they both walk away together.

References

3D platform games
PlayStation 2 games
2002 video games
Ratchet & Clank
Windows games
MacOS games

Ratchet & Clank (2002 video game)