Universiti Paris () telah ditubuhkan pada pertengahan kurun ke-12, lebih lagi di antara 1160 dan 1170 (atau kemungkinan seawal 1150).  Pada 1970 ia mengatur semula sebagai 13 universiti berotonomi (Universiti Paris I–XIII). Universiti ini sering dirujukkan sebagai Sorbonne atau La Sorbonne selepas institusi collegiate (Collège de Sorbonne) ditubuhkan di sekitar 1257 oleh Robert de Sorbon.  Universiti seperti itu adalah lebih tua dan tidak pernah dipusatkan secara keseluruhan Sorbonne.  Dari tiga belas universiti pengganti kini, yang keempat pertama dalam bangunan bersejarah Sorbonne, dan tiga termasuk "Sorbonne" dalam nama-nama mereka.

Universiti-universitinya kini adalah pada dasarnya bebas dari satu sama lain, dan sesetengah berada di bawah Académie Créteil atau Académie Versailles daripada Académie Paris.  Sesetengah fungsi pentadbiran residual dari tiga belas universiti secara rasmi diseliakan oleh seorang canselor umum, Rector Académie aris, dengan pejabat-pejabat di Sorbonne.  Pada 2006, Maurice Quénet adalah Rector Akademi Paris dan Canselor Universiti-universiti Paris.  Naib Canselor Universiti-universiti Paris ialah Pierre Gregory. Sungguhpun hubungan ini, dan hubungan bersejarah, tiadanya sistem Universiti Paris yang mengikat universiti-universiti di suatu peringkat akademi.

Asal usul dan pertubuhan awal
Mirip dengan universiti zaman pertengahan awal lain (Universiti Bologna, Universiti Cambridge, Universiti Oxford), Universiti Paris telah ditubuhkan secara baik sebelum ia menerima suatu tindakan asas yang khusus dari Gereja pada 1200. Rujukan bersejarah terawal pada universiti ditemukan dalam rujukan Matthew dari Paris pada bilik kajian gurunya sendiri re(seorang abot dari St. Albans) dan penerimaannya ke dalam "persahabatan Tuan-Tuan dipilih" di universiti Paris pada lebih kurang tahun 1170. Tambahan, ia diketahui bahawa Paus Innocent III, mempunyai pepausan ditanggap pada usia 37 tahun, telah menamatkan pelajarannya di Universiti Paris pada 1182 pada usia 21 tahun. Ia membesar di bahagian terkemudian kurun keduabelas di keliling Katedral Notre Dame sebagai corporation mirip dengan perbadanan zaman pertengahan lain, seperti persatuan of saudagar atau pekerja mahir. Istilah bahasa Latin zaman pertengahan telah universitas telah mempunyai lebih makna umum dari sebuah persatuan.  The university of Paris was known as a universitas magistrorum et scholarium (a guild of masters and scholars).  Later universities such as the Charles University in Prague or the University of Heidelberg had different origins.
Universiti Paris telah digelarkan sebuah universitas magistrorum et scholarium (sebuah persatuan tuan dan sarjana).  Kenudian universiti seperti Universiti Charles di Praha atau Universiti Heidelberg telah mempunyai asal-usul lain.

Universiti ini mempunyai empat fakulti:  Seni, Perubatan, Undang-undang, dan Teologi.  Fakulti Seni adalah yang paling rendah pada penempatan, tetapi juga yang terbesar apabila para pelajar perlu bersiswazah di sana harus diadmitted salah satu dari fakulti lebih tingginya.  Para pelajar telah dibahagikan ke dalam empat nationes menurut dengan asal usul bahasa atau rantau: Perancis, Normandy, Picardy, dan England. Yang terakhir digelarkan negara Alemannian (Jerman).  Pergerakan pada tiap negara adalah lebih lebar daripada nama-nama yang mungkin mencadangkan: negara Inggeris-Jerman termasuk para pelajar dari Scandinavia dan Eropah Timur.

Fakulti dan sistem negara Universiti Paris (bersama dengan yang pada Universiti Bologna) menjadi model untuk semua universiti zaman pertengahan kemudian.
Di bawah pentadbiran Gereja, pelajar memakai jubah dan menyukur bahagian atas kepala mereka dalam tonsure, untuk menandakan mereka di bawah perlindungan gereja. Pelajar berjalan menurut peraturan dan undang-undang Gereja dan tidak tertakluk pada undang-undang atau halaman raja. Ini menyampaikan para pelajar menyalahgunakan undang-undang bandaraya, yang tidak mempunyai tempat meminta tolong lanjut pada keadilan dan telah merayu ke mahkamah Gereja. Para pelajar seringnya terlalu muda, memasuki sekolah pada usia 13 atau 14 dan diam selama 6 ke 12 tahun.

Sekolah-sekolah asal
Tiga sekolah khususnya masyhur di Paris, palatine atau sekolah istana, sekolah Notre-Dame, dan yang pada Sainte-Geneviève Abbey.  Kemerosotan diraja membawa kemerosotan yang pertama. Yang dua lain adalah purba tetapi tidak mempunyai penglihatan dalam kurun-kurun awal.  Kemuliaan sekolah palatine tanpa ragu-ragu melindungi milik mereka, sehingga ia secara penuh memberikan jalan pada mereka. Kedua-dua pusat ini lebih sering dilawat dan banyak dari tuan-tuan mereka berkayinan dengan pelajaran mereka.

Profesor pertama yang terkenal di sekolah Ste-Geneviève adalah Hubold, yang tinggal semasa kurun kesepuluh. Tidak puas hati dengan kursus-kursus di Liège, dia melanjutkan pelajarannya di Paris, memasuki atau menyekutukan dirinya dengan adegan Ste-Geneviève, dan menarik hati banyak pelajar melalui pengajarannya. Profesor yang berbeza dari sekolah Notre-Dame pada kurun kesebelas termasuk Lambert, pengikut Filbert dari Chartres; Drogo dari Paris; Manegold dari Jerman; Anselm dari Laon.  Kedua-dua sekolah ini menarik cendekiawan dari setiap negara dan menghasilkan banyak lelaki berilustrasi, di kalangan mereka adalah: St. Stanislaus dari Szczepanów, Biskop dari Kraków; Gebbard, Archbiskop dari Salzburg; St. Stephen, Abbot ketiga dari Cîteaux; Robert d'Arbrissel, pengasas Abbey dari Fontevrault dsb.  Tiga lelaki lain yang menambahkan prestij pada sekolah Notre-Dame dan Ste-Geneviève adalah William of Champeaux, Abélard, dan Peter Lombard.

Arahan berkemanusiaan terdiri dari grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy (trivium and quadrivium). To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and the Patristic Fathers.  It was completed by the study of Canon law.

The school of St-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève.  It was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of St-Victor.  Its most famous professors are Hugh of St. Victor and Richard of St. Victor.

The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris, as it did elsewhere.  A Bolognese compendium of canon law called the Decretum Gratiani brought about a division of the theology department.  Hitherto the discipline of the Church had not been separate from so-called theology; they were studied together under the same professor. But this vast collection necessitated a special course, which was undertaken first at Bologna, where Roman law was taught. In France, first Orléans and then Paris erected chairs of canon law.  Before the end of the twelfth century, the Decretals of Gerard (or Girard) La Pucelle, Mathieu d'Angers, and Anselm (or Anselle) of Paris, were added to the Decretum Gratiani.  However, civil law was not included at Paris.

In the twelfth century, medicine began to be publicly taught at Paris: the first professor of medicine in Paris records is Hugo, physicus excellens qui quadrivium docuit.

Two things were necessary to be a professor: knowledge and appointment.  Knowledge was proved by examination, the appointment came from the examiner himself, who was the head of the school, and was known as scholasticus, capiscol, and chancellor. This was called the licence or faculty to teach.  The licence had to be granted freely.  No one could teach without it; on the other hand, the examiner could not refuse to award it when the applicant deserved it.

The School of St-Victor, which shared the obligations as well as the immunities of the abbey, conferred the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Geneviève on the abbey or chapter.  The diocese and the abbey or chapter, through their chancellor, gave professorial investiture in their respective territories where they had jurisdiction.

Besides Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and St-Victor, there were several schools on the "Island" and on the "Mount". "Whoever", says Crevier "had the right to teach might open a school where he pleased, provided it was not in the vicinity of a principal school." Thus a certain Adam, who was of English origin, kept his "near the Petit Pont"; another Adam, Parisian by birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the Pont-au-Change" (Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris, I, 272).

The number of students in the school of the capital grew constantly, so that lodgings were insufficient.  French students included princes of the blood, sons of the nobility, and the most distinguished youths of the kingdom.  The courses at Paris were considered so necessary as a completion of studies that many foreigners flocked to them.  Popes Celestine II, Adrian IV and Innocent III studied at Paris, and Alexander III sent his nephews there.

Illustrious German and British students included Otto of Freisingen, Cardinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz, St. Thomas of Canterbury, and John of Salisbury; while Ste-Geneviève became practically the seminary for Denmark. The chroniclers of the time called Paris the city of letters par excellence, placing it above Athens, Alexandria, Rome, and other cities: "At that time", we read in the Chroniques de St-Denis, "there flourished at Paris philosophy and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts were studied and held in such esteem as they never were at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere in the world" ("Les gestes de Philippe-Auguste").  Poets said the same thing in their verses, and they compared it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable in the world.

Soon, the university required greater organization to maintain order among the students and define the relations of the professors.  First, the professors formed an association, for according to Matthew Paris, John of Celles, twenty-first Abbot of St Albans, England, was admitted as a member of the teaching corps of Paris after he had followed the courses (Vita Joannis I, XXI, abbat. S. Alban). The masters as well as the students were divided according to national origin, for as the same historian states, Henry II, King of England, in his difficulties with St. Thomas of Canterbury, wished to submit his cause to a tribunal composed of professors of Paris, chosen from various provinces (Hist. major, Henry II, to end of 1169). This was probably the beginnings of that division according to "nations" which was later to play an important part in the university.  After a decision made by Celestine III, both professors and students had the privilege of being amenable only to the ecclesiastical courts, not to civil courts.  Other decisions dispensed them from residence in case they possessed benefices and permitted them to receive their revenues.

The three schools of Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and St-Victor may be regarded as the triple cradle of the Universitas scholarium, which included masters and students; hence the name University.  Henry Denifle and some others hold that this honour is exclusive to the school of Notre-Dame (Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis), but the reasons do not seem convincing. He excludes St-Victor because, at the request of the abbot and the religious of St-Victor, Gregory IX in 1237 authorized them to resume the interrupted teaching of theology. But the university was in large part founded about 1208, as is shown by a Bull of Innocent III. Consequently the schools of St-Victor might well have furnished their contingent towards its formation. Secondly, Denifle excludes the schools of Ste-Geneviève because there had been no interruption in the teaching of the liberal arts. Now this is far from proved, and moreover, it seems incontestable that theology also had never ceased to be taught, which is sufficient for our point. Besides, the chancellor of Ste-Geneviève continued to give degrees in arts, something he would have ceased to have done when the university was organized if his abbey had no share in its organization. And while the name Universitas scholarium is quite intelligible on the basis of the common opinion, it is incompatible with the recent (Denifle's) view, according to which there would have been schools outside the university of Paris

Pertubuhan pada kurun ketigabelas

In 1200, King Philip II issued a diploma "for the security of the scholars of Paris" that made the students subject only to ecclesiastical jurisdiction.  The provost and other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for any offence, unless this was done to hand over the culprit to ecclesiastical authority.  The king's officers could never lay hands on the head of the schools unless they had a mandate from an ecclesiastical authority. This action was motivated at least in part by a violent incident between students and officers outside the city walls at a pub.

In 1215, the Apostolic legate, Robert de Courçon, issued new rules governing who could become a professor.  To teach the arts it was necessary to have reached the age of twenty-one, to have studied these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement as professor for at least two years. For a chair in theology the candidate had to be thirty years of age with eight years of theological studies, of which the last three years were devoted to special courses of lectures in preparation for the mastership. These studies had to be made in the local schools under the direction of a master, for at Paris one was not regarded as a scholar unless he had a particular master. Lastly, purity of morals was as important as reading. The licence was granted, according to custom, gratuitously, without oath or condition. Masters and students were permitted to unite, even by oath, in defence of their rights, when they could not otherwise obtain justice in serious matters. No mention is made either of law or of medicine, probably because these sciences were less prominent.

Priscian's "Grammar", Aristotle's "Dialectics", mathematics, astronomy, music, rhetoric and philosophy were taught in the arts course; to these might be added the Ethics of the Stagyrite and the fourth book of the Topics. But it was forbidden to read the books of Aristotle on Metaphysics and Physics, or abbreviations of them.

In 1229, a denial of justice by the queen led to suspension of the courses. The pope intervened with a Bull that began with lavish praise of the university: "Paris", said Gregory IX, "mother of the sciences, is another Cariath-Sepher, city of letters".  He commissioned the Bishops of Le Mans and Senlis and the Archdeacon of Châlons to negotiate with the French Court for the restoration of the university, but by the end of 1230 they had accomplished nothing. Gregory IX then addressed a Bull of 1231 to the masters and scholars of Paris. Not only did he settle the dispute, he empowered the university to frame statutes concerning the discipline of the schools, the method of instruction, the defence of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obsequies of masters and students (expanding upon Robert de Courçon's statutes).  Most importantly, the pope granted the university the right to suspend its courses, if justice were denied it, until it should receive full satisfaction.

The pope authorized Pierre Le Mangeur to collect a moderate fee for the conferring of the license of professorship. Also, for the first time, the scholars had to pay for their education: two sous weekly, to be deposited in the common fund.

Rektor
The university was organized as follows: at the head of the teaching body was a rector. The office was elective and of short duration; at first it was limited to four or six weeks. Simon de Brion, legate of the Holy See in France, realizing that such frequent changes caused serious inconvenience, decided that the rectorate should last three months, and this rule was observed for three years. Then the term was lengthened to one, two, and sometimes three years. The right of election belonged to the procurators of the four nations.

Empat negara

"Negara-Negara" bermuncul di bahagian kedua kurun keduabelas; mereak disebutkan dalam Bull of Honorius III pada 1222; kemudian mereka membentuk sebuah badan berbeza. Pada 1249 empat negara muncul dengan prokurator mereka, hak mereka (lebih atau kurang ditekrifkan), dan persaingan hebat mereka: negara-negara ini adalah Perancis, Inggeris, Norman, dan Picard. Selepas Perang Seratus Tahun negara Inggeris diganti oleh Jermanik. Keempat-empat negara mendirikan fakulti seni atau huruf.

Wilayah-wilayah diliputi oleh empat negara adalah:
Negara Perancis: semua bahagian tuturan Romawi Eropah kecuali yang termasuk dalam negara Norman dan Picard
Negara Inggeris (dinamakan 'negara Jerman' selepas Perang Seratus Tahun): Kepulauan British, bahagian tuturan Jermanik benua Eropah (kecuali yang termasuk dalam negara Picard), dan bahagian tuturan Slavik Eropah. Kebanyakan pelajar dalam negara itu datang dari Jerman dan Scotland, dan apabila ia dinamakan semula 'negara Jerman' ia kadang-kadang digelar natio Germanorum et Scotorum ("negara Jerman dan Scotland").
Negara Norman: provinsi kegerejaan Rouen, yang berkorespon lebih kurang dengan Duchy dari Normandy. Ini adalah sebuah wilayah bertuturan Romance, tetapi ia tidak termasuk dalam negara Perancis.
Negara Picard: biskop bertuturan Romawi Beauvais, Noyon, Amiens, Laon, dan Arras; biskop dwibahasa Thérouanne (tuturan bahasa Romawi dan Jermanik), Cambrai, dan Tournai; a large part of the bilingual bishopric of Liège; bahagian paling selatan bishopric bertuturan bahasa Jermaik Utrecht (bahagian yang bisphoric terletak selatan Sungai Meuse; yang sisanya bishopric utara Sungai Meuse milik negara Inggeris). Ia telah dianggarkan bahwa lebih kurang setengah pelajar di negara Picard adalah bertuturan bahasa-bahasa Romawi (Picard dan Walloon), dan bahagian separuh yang alin adalah penutur bahasa Jermanik (loghat Flemish Barat, Flemish Timur, Brabantian dan Limburgish).

Fakulti
To classify professors' knowledge, the schools of Paris gradually divided into faculties.  Professors of the same science were brought into closer contact until the community of rights and interests cemented the union and made them distinct groups.  The faculty of medicine seems to have been the last to form. But the four faculties were already formally established by 1254, when the university described in a letter "theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and rational, natural, and moral philosophy".  The masters of theology often set the example for the other faculties, e.g. they were the first to adopt an official seal.

The faculties of theology, canon law, and medicine, were called "superior faculties". The title of "Dean" as designating the head of a faculty, came into use by 1268 in the faculties of law and medicine, and by 1296 in the faculty of theology.  It seems that at first the deans were the oldest masters. The faculty of arts continued to have four procurators of its four nations and its head was the rector. As the faculties became more fully organized, the division into four nations partially disappeared for theology, law and medicine, though it continued in arts. Eventually the superior faculties included only doctors, leaving the bachelors to the faculty of arts. At this period, therefore, the university had two principal degrees, the baccalaureate and the doctorate. It was not until much later that the licentiate and the DEA became intermediate degrees.

Kolej

The scattered condition of the scholars in Paris often made lodging difficult.  Some students rented rooms from townspeople, who often exacted high rates while the students demanded lower.  This tension between scholars and citizens would have developed into a sort of civil war if Robert de Courçon had not found the remedy of taxation.  It was upheld in the Bull of Gregory IX of 1231, but with an important modification: its exercise was to be shared with the citizens.  The aim was to offer the students a shelter where they would fear neither annoyance from the owners nor the dangers of the world. Thus were founded the colleges (colligere, to assemble); meaning not centers of instruction, but simple student boarding-houses.  Each had a special goal, being established for students of the same nationality or the same science.  Often, masters lived in each college and oversaw its activities.

Four colleges appeared in the twelfth century; they became more numerous in the thirteenth, including Collège d'Harcourt (1280) and the Collège de Sorbonne (1257). Thus the University of Paris assumed its basic form. It was composed of seven groups, the four nations of the faculty of arts, and the three superior faculties of theology, law, and medicine. Men who had studied at Paris became an increasing presence in the high ranks of the Church hierarchy; eventually, students at the University of Paris saw it as a right that they would be eligible to benifices.  Church officials such as St. Louis and Clement IV lavishly praised the university.

Besides the famous Collège de Sorbonne, other collegia provided housing and meals to students, sometimes for those of the same geographical origin in a more restricted sense than that represented by the nations. There were 8 or 9 collegia for foreign students: the oldest one was the Danish college, the Collegium danicum or dacicum, founded in 1257.  Swedish students could, during the 13 and 14th centuries, live in one of three Swedish colleges, the Collegium Upsaliense, the Collegium Scarense or the Collegium Lincopense, named after the Swedish dioceses of Uppsala, Skara and Linköping.  The German College, Collegium alemanicum is mentioned as early as 1345, the Scots college or Collegium scoticum was founded in 1325. The Lombard college or Collegium lombardicum was founded in the 1330s. The Collegium constantinopolitanum was, according to a tradition, founded in the 13th century to facilitate a merging of the eastern and western churches. It was later reorganized as a French institution, the Collège de la Marche-Winville. The Collège de Montaigu was founded by the Archbishop of Rouen in the 14th century, and reformed in the 15th century by the humanist Jan Standonck, when it attracted reformers from within the Roman Catholic Church (such as Erasmus and Ignatius of Loyola) and those who subsequently became Protestants (John Calvin and John Knox).

Sejarah kemudian

In the fifteenth century, Guillaume d'Estouteville, a cardinal and Apostolic legate, carried out a project to reform the university, correcting its abuses and introducing various needed modifications.  This reform was less an innovation than a recall to the better observance of the old rules, as was the reform of 1600, undertaken by the royal government, with regard to the three superior faculties.  However, as to the faculty of arts, the reform of 1600 introduced the study of Greek, of the French poets and orators, and of additional classical figures like Hesiod, Plato, Demosthenes, Cicero, Virgil, and Sallust.  The prohibition to teach civil law was never well observed at Paris, but in 1679 Louis XIV authorized the teaching of civil law in the faculty of decretals. Thus, the name "faculty of law" replaced that of "faculty of decretals". The colleges meantime had multiplied; those of Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the fourteenth century. The Hundred Years' War was fatal to these establishments, but the university set about remedying the injury.

Remarkable for its teaching, the University of Paris played an important part: in the Church, during the Great Schism; in the councils, in dealing with heresies and  divisions; in the State, during national crises.  Under the domination of England it played a role in the trial of Joan of Arc.

Proud of its rights and privileges, the University of Paris fought energetically to maintain them, hence the long struggle against the mendicant orders on academic as well as on religious grounds. Hence also the shorter conflict against the Jesuits, who claimed by word and action a share in its teaching. It made liberal use of its right to decide administratively according to occasion and necessity. In some instances it openly endorsed the censures of the faculty of theology and pronounced condemnation in its own name, as in the case of the Flagellants.

Its patriotism was especially manifested on two occasions. During the captivity of King John, when Paris was given over to factions, the university sought to restore peace; and under Louis XIV, when the Spaniards crossed the Somme and threatened the capital, it placed two hundred men at the king's disposal and offered the Master of Arts degree gratuitously to scholars who should present certificates of service in the army (Jourdain, Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle, 132-34; Archiv. du ministère de l'instruction publique).

Kebinasaan kolej dan pertubuhan Universiti Perancis
Universiti kuno hilang dengan Perancis kuno sewaktu Revolusi Perancis. Pada 15 Sept., 1793, dipetisyen oleh Jabatan Paris dan beberapa kelompok jabatan, Konvensyen Negara berkeputusan bahawa berdikari dari sekolah rendah, "seharusnya didirikan dalam Republik tiga peringkat progresif arahan; pertama untuk ilmu amat diperlukan to artisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for further knowledge necessary to those intending to embrace the other professions of society; and the third for those branches of instruction the study of which is not within the reach of all men".

Measures were to be taken immediately: "For means of execution the department and the municipality of Paris are authorized to consult with the Committee of Public Instruction of the National Convention, in order that these establishments shall be put in action by 1 November next, and consequently colleges now in operation and the faculties of theology, medicine, arts, and law are suppressed throughout the Republic". This was the death-sentence of the university. It was not to be restored after the Revolution had subsided, any more than those of the provinces.

All the faculties were replaced by a single centre, the University of France. After a century, people recognized that the new system was less favourable to study.  They restored the old system of separate faculties in 1896, but without the faculty of theology.

Pemberontakan pelajar dan pertubuhan semula
Pada 1968 pemberontakan budaya digelarkan "Mei Perancis" (lihat juga Situationist International), menyebabkan penutupan universiti untuk hanya kali ketiga dalam sejarah. Peristiwa pertama adalah pada 1229, dan yang kedua disebabkan penyerbuan oleh tentera Jerman 1940. Pada 1968 par pelajar menunjuk perasaan pengaturan universiti dan hadnya, dan jua isu masyarakat umum.

Universiti Paris telah sejak itu mengatur semula ke dalam beberapa universiti dan sekolah autonomi, sesetengah dari mana membawa nama Sorbonne.  Kampus bersejarah, terletak di Quartier Latin di Rive Gauche, di 5th arrondissement Paris, mencirikan lukisan mural oleh Pierre Puvis de Chavannes.  Ia dibahagikan untuk kegunaan di kalangan beberapa universiti Paris, École nationale des chartes yang berprestij dan perkhidmatan Rector.

Pada Mac 2006 la Sorbonne telah diduduki semula sebagai sebahagian dari tunjuk perasaan luas negara terhadap pengenalan kerajaan CPE (kontrak pekerjaan pertama), yang mana sesetengah orang muda fikir akan mengesan mereka secara buruk.

Universiti kini

Tiga belas universiti pengganti Universiti Paris kini dipisahkan melebihi tiga akademi rantau Île-de-France. Penggabungan berlaku pada 2017 dan 2019 untuk menyatukan beberapa universiti. Bilangan universiti kini 11.

Tiga belas universiti pengganti

Lima perikatan universiti

Kebanyakan universiti ini telah memasuki, atau dalam proses membentuk (Mac 2008), pengumpulan baru di sepanjang barisan sebuah universiti kolej. Biasanya, pengumpulan ini mendapatkan bentuk undang-undang sebuah Pusat untuk Penyelidikan dan Pendidikan Tinggi (Pole de Recherche et d'Enseignement Supérieur, atau PRES), walaupun sesetengah telah memilih bentuk-bentuk lain pertubuhan. Pengumpulan ini menyampurkan universiti dan [[grande école|grandes écoles]].

Ada lima pusat seperti itu dalam rantau Paris:

{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
!Pengumpulan !! Universiti !! Grandes écoles
|-
! Paris Centre Universités
Only a project as of 2008.
|Paris I Panthéon-SorbonneParis V René DescartesParis VII Denis Diderot
|
|-
! Paris UniversitasOnly a project as of 2008.
|Paris II Panthéon-AssasParis III New SorbonneParis-Sorbonne UniversityParis VI Pierre and Marie CurieParis Dauphine
|École normale supérieureÉcole des hautes études en sciences sociales
|-
!Université Paris-Est
|Gustave EiffelParis XII Val de Marne
|École nationale des ponts et chausséesÉcole supérieure d'ingénieurs en électronique et électrotechnique
|-
!UniverSud Paris
|Paris XI SudVersailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines
|ENS Paris-SaclayCentraleSupélec
|-
!Université de Paris Île-de-France<small>Only a project as of 2008.<small>
|Paris 8 Vincennes in Saint-DenisParis XIII Nord
|Conservatoire National des Arts et MétiersSupmeca
|}

Dalam rantau Paris, suatu perikatan keenam wujud : PRES Cercy-Pontoise-Val d'Oise, dipusatkan di CY Cergy Paris Université.

Lihat juga

Kemogokan Universiti Paris 1229
Universiti Paris (Kutukan)
Senarai tokoh Universiti Paris
Senarai universiti am di Perancis mengikut akademi
Sekolah Bisnes Siswazah Sorbonne
École normale supérieure
Penempatan Hadiah Nobel

 Rujukan

Bacaan lanjut
 André Tuilier: Histoire de l'Université de Paris et de la Sorbonne ("Sejarah Universiti Paris dan Sorbonne"), dalam 2 jilid (Dari Asal-Usulnya ke Richelieu, Dari Louis XIV ke Krisis 1968), Paris: Nouvelle Librairie de France, 1997 ;
 Jean-Louis Leutrat: De l'Université aux Universités ("Dari Universiti ke Universiti-universiti"), Paris: Association des Universités de Paris, 1997
 Philippe Rive: La Sorbonne et sa reconstruction ("Sorbonne dan Pembinaan semulanya"), Lyon: La Manufacture, 1987
 Jacques Verger: Histoire des Universités en France'' ("Sejarah Universiti Perancis"), Toulouse: Editions Privat, 1986

Pautan luar

 Academi Paris
 Sorbonne - Universités Paris I, III, IV dan V (laman utama rasmi)
 Sejarah Universiti Paris
 News coverage of the most recent occupation of the Sorbonne
 Education Authority of Paris
english language coverage of the struggle against the CPE in France, including the occupations and demonstrations around the Sorbonne

Paris, Universiti

Universiti Paris


Anjou () is a former county, duchy (1360) and province centred on the city of Angers in the lower Loire Valley of western France.  Its traditional Latin name was Andegavia.

Anjou, or then the Angevin march (border lands) formed the border between Neustria and Aquitaine.  It also bordered between Neustria and Brittany. Sitting on a black slate rock was the Roman fortress of Angers. It guarded the rivers Mayenne and Loire that flowed around it.

The founder or first count of Anjou was Ingelger.

Anjou became a part of England from 1151-1199, when Henry II inherited the county. He became the Count of Anjou in addition to his other titles. His (third) son Richard the Lionheart became count after his father. At the peak of its power the Angevin Empire spread from Ulster to the Pyrenees. Richard had no legitimate issue, so in 1199 Anjou passed to his nephew, Arthur of Brittany. He was the son of Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany. The Crown of England passed to Henry II's fifth son and Richard's youngest brother, John.  Arthur was taken prisoner by King John in 1203 and was never seen again.  In 1204, Anjou was taken back by Philip II of France. It was later elevated to a duchy for Prince Louis, the second son of John II of France. It remained a duchy until the French Revolution.  Today, Anjou corresponds largely to the present-day département of Maine-et-Loire.

References

History of France
Geography of France
History of England

Anjou


Lambertus "Bep" van Klaveren (26 September 1907 – 12 February 1992) was a Dutch boxer, who won the gold medal in the featherweight division at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. Van Klaveren remains the only Dutch boxer to have won an Olympic gold medal. His younger brother Piet competed as a boxer at the 1952 Summer Olympics.

Biography
Born in Rotterdam as Lambertus Steenhorst, he adopted the name of his stepfather Pieter van Klaveren when he was eight. After primary school, he worked as a butcher's assistant and fought in his spare time. He seriously took up boxing aged 16, and around that time changed to a vegetarian diet believing it fits better for a boxer. In 1926 he won the national flyweight title and in 1927–29 the featherweight title. After his Olympic success in 1928, he received a hero's welcome in his hometown Rotterdam and was presented to the Dutch Queen and her prince consort.

In 1929 van Klaveren began a long career of professional boxer, which ended in 1956. In 1931 he became European champion in the lightweight division and in 1938 he won the same title in the middleweight division. During his professional tenure, van Klaveren fought on four continents and won fights against Ceferino Garcia and Kid Azteca. He also faced Hall of Famers Young Corbett III and Billy Petrolle.

In 1935 van Klaveren married Margarite Olivera, daughter of a banker. He lost much money through her excessive lifestyle and through his boxing manager. Van Klaveren was sentenced for one year for assaulting Olivera. He was released on bail after three months and fled to Rotterdam, leaving behind all his possessions.

During World War II van Klaveren served overseas with the Dutch army. He then moved to Australia with his second wife, an Australian nurse, and worked there as a sports teacher, dock worker, bouncer, and boxing instructor. He then returned to Rotterdam and retired in 1948, but returned to the ring in 1954 and won 11 out of 12 bouts. He retired for good in 1956 after an unsuccessful attempt to win the European welterweight title. The same year he married for the third time, and for several years ran a cigar shop with his wife, though with little success. He continued to train through all his life and did not smoke or drink alcohol. He died in 1992 in his native Rotterdam, aged 84. The same year a memorial statue of van Klaveren was installed in Rotterdam. The annual Bep van Klaveren boxing memorial was launched in 1993, and became the largest boxing competition in the Netherlands.

Gallery

Professional boxing record

References

1907 births
1992 deaths
Dutch male boxers
Olympic boxers for the Netherlands
Boxers at the 1928 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for the Netherlands
Boxers from Rotterdam
Olympic medalists in boxing
Featherweight boxers
Medalists at the 1928 Summer Olympics

Bep van Klaveren


East is ane o the fower main airtins, or airts, on a compass. East is for ordinar tae the richt on maist cairts. Japan is east o Cheenae, Saudi Arabie is east o Egyp, an Swaden is east o Norrowey. The kintras in the Eastren Mediterranean an aroond the Reid Sea an the Gulf o Arabie are for ordinar cried the "Middle East". Cheenae, Indie, Japan, an ither kintras in that pairt o the warld mak up the "Faur East." The sun an muin rise in the east.

Orientation

East


A banknote (more commonly known as a bill in the United States and Canada) is a paper by which a bank promises to pay to the bearer on demand. Together with coins, banknotes make up the cash forms of all modern money.
Coins are generally used for lower valued monetary units, and banknotes for higher values.

Originally, the value of money was determined by the value of the material the money was made of, such as silver or gold. However, carrying around a lot of precious metal was cumbersome and often dangerous. As an alternative, banknotes would be issued. In financial terms, a note is a promise to pay someone money.  Banknotes were originally a promise to give an amount of precious metal to anyone who presented the paper.  People could pay for things by giving the banknote, and thus the stored value (usually in gold or silver coins kept in the bank's vault) that the banknote promised.

Banknotes in Europe
In Europe the first paper money consisted of paper 'coins' issued in Protestant Leyden (today, Leiden) in the Netherlands during the Spanish siege of 1574. Over 5000 of the estimated 14,000 residents of Leyden died, mostly due to starvation. Even leather (often used to create emergency currency) was boiled and used to feed the people. So to create currency, the residents took covers and paper from hymnals and church missives and created paper planchets, which were struck using the same dies that were previously used to mint coins.

The first proper European banknotes were issued by Stockholms Banco, a predecessor of the Bank of Sweden, in 1660, although the bank ran out of coins to redeem its notes in 1664 and ceased operating in that year.

Banknotes in USA

Emergency paper money hand-written on playing cards was used in French Canada from 1685.

In the early 1690s, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was the first of the colonies to issue the permanently circulating banknotes. The use of fixed denominations and printed banknotes came into use in the 18th century.

In the United States, public acceptance of banknotes in replacement of precious metals was hastened in part by Executive Order 6102. This order carried the threat of a maximum $10,000 fine and a maximum of ten years in prison for anyone who kept more than $100 of gold in preference to bank notes. Similar measures were taken worldwide, with similar results.

Other websites
World Banknote Galleries
Ron Wise's Banknote World
worldpapermoney.org Online World Paper Money Museum
Bank Note Wiki - A collectors wiki that any user can edit
Numismondo - World Paper Money Picture Catalog
Gallery describing who/what is featured on modern world banknotes
World Banknotes issued since 1961 illustrated catalogue

Polymer Plastic Banknote Collections
Polymer Bank Notes of the World
Polymer Bank Notes in German by Thomas Krause

Banknote Collector Organisations
Banknotebank.com
International Bank Note Society
Atlantic Provinces Numismatic Association

Country Specific Banknote Collections
First Ukrainian Banknotes
Russian Banknotes 1898 - 1917
Geldschein.at - Austrian Banknotes, including huge gallery, collectors information and history of Austrian banknotes
Haiti Paper Money
Philippine Money(Banknotes and Coins)

Banknote Printers
US Bureau of Engraving and Printing
Note Printing Australia
American Bank Note Company
Canadian Bank Note Company Ltd
Giesecke & Devrient
Thomas de la Rue
François-Charles Oberthur

Currency

Banknote


Ethie Castle is a  14th-century castle, situated around 3 miles north of the fishing town of Arbroath in Angus, Scotland.

History

Ethie Castle dates to around 1300, when the monks at nearby Arbroath Abbey built a sandstone keep. The castle passed through the hands of the de Maxwell family and into the ownership of Scotland's last Cardinal, David Beaton who was murdered in St. Andrews in 1546. Its association with Cardinal Beaton is still evident as the castle includes a small chapel and the Cardinal's Sitting Room, with its secret staircase to the Great Hall above.

The castle was purchased in 1665 by the Carnegie family, who later became the Earls of Northesk. The 7th Earl was a Vice Admiral and commanded with Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. As a tribute, the Earl was entitled to incorporate Trafalgar in his arms and this can still be seen set in a dormer at Ethie. In 1927 the castle and grounds were bought by Glasgow artist and antique collector William Cunningham Hector.

The castle is reputed to be the basis for the fictional Castle of Knockwhinnock in Sir Walter Scott's novel The Antiquary. Sir Walter Scott was a close friend of William Carnegie, 8th Earl of Northesk and frequently stayed at Ethie Castle.

The castle was restored by the chief of the Forsyth Clan, Alistair Forsyth and it now serves as the clan's seat.

Ghosts
The castle is said to be haunted by a Grey Lady spectre as well as by David Beaton who was Abbot of Arbroath in the 16th Century.

References

External links
Ethie Castle Home Page

Ethie Castle
Ethie Castle
Category A listed buildings in Angus, Scotland
Listed castles in Scotland
Reportedly haunted locations in Scotland

Ethie Castle


Declán of Ardmore (; ; ; died 5th century AD), also called Déclán, was an early Irish saint of the Déisi Muman, who was remembered for having converted the Déisi in the late 5th century and for having founded the monastery of Ardmore (Ard Mór) in what is now County Waterford. The principal source for his life and cult is a Latin Life of the 12th century. Like Ailbe of Emly, Ciarán of Saigir and Abbán of Moyarney, Declán is presented as a Munster saint who preceded Saint Patrick in bringing Christianity to Ireland. He was regarded as a patron saint of the Déisi of East Munster.

Sources

The main source for Declán's life and cult is a Latin Life or vita, which, however, survives only in a redaction of the late 12th century. It is witnessed by two manuscript texts which Charles Plummer has shown to derive from the same original: (1) Dublin, TCD, MS E.3.11 (dubbed T by Plummer), f. 66b-71d; and (2) a somewhat more damaged version in Dublin, Primate Marsh's Library, MS V.3.4 (Plummer's M), f. 101 ff. These two manuscripts are also collectively known as the Dublin Collection (or the Codex Kilkenniensis, though the name is also used to refer to the Primate Marsh's Library manuscript only). In its received form, the Life leans heavily on the Life of St Ailbe of Emly in the Codex Salmanticensis, but earlier materials may have been incorporated. The introductory chapters draw on early Irish sagas, notably the origin legend of Déisi related in the Expulsion of the Déisi and the story of Lugaid Riab nDerg in Aided Meidbe and Medb's Three Husbands. Declán is emphatically designated as a bishop of the Déisi, which appears to echo the monastery's political ambitions in the 12th century, when the Irish Church was reformed into a diocesan system following the Synod of Rathbreasail and Synod of Kells. Ardmore aspired to the status of episcopal see in the new diocese, but the privilege went instead to Lismore, founded by St Mochuda.

Declán's Latin Life was later translated into Irish. This vernacular version, sometimes referred to as Betha Decclain, is preserved in two classes of copies. The earliest of these is a copy made, with some revision, by Mícheál Ó Cléirigh in 1629 and catalogued as Brussels, Royal Library, MS 4190–4200. Ó Cléirigh reports that his ultimate source was an "old book" (seinleabhar), but his direct exemplar was a manuscript dated 1582, in the possession of Eochaidh Ui Ifernain (Eochy O'Heffernan). The two remaining copies are Dublin, Royal Irish Academy MS 23 M 50, pp. 109–120, in the hand of one John Murphy "na Raheenach" and dated 1740, and a further manuscript once in private possession. The exemplar which underlies either of these is itself an imperfectly transmitted text.

Genealogies relevant to the saint are included in the Book of Leinster, An Leabhar Breac, Book of Ballymote, and a gloss to Félire Óengusso. and Rawlinson B 502.

Family background and career

It was through his father that Declán belonged to the royal dynasty of the Déisi Muman. The Latin Life names his father Erc(c), as do the Félire Óengusso and the genealogy in the Book of Ballymote, f. 231b. Variant traditions are recorded in the Book of Leinster (f. 348c) and the Book of Ballymote, f. 218b, which call his father Ernbrand, and in the Leabhar Breac (f. 15d), which calls him Ross (or Russ). The conflated version Ercbrand is found in Rawlinson B 502. Declán's mother Dethiden or Dethidin, as she is called in the Latin Life (§ 3), is not given any pedigree in the sources. Declán's birthplace is said to be Drumroe, near Cappoquin (western County Waterford).

In the Latin Life, Declán first embarks on a journey to Rome, where he studied and was ordained bishop by the Pope. At Rome, he meets his fellow countryman St Ailbe of Emly, and on returning to Ireland, he meets St Patrick. Throughout the text, Declán recognises the supreme authority of both saints and with Patrick he comes to an arrangement about the sphere of their mission in Ireland. On St Patrick's instructions, Declán founds the monastery of Ardmore (Irish Ard Mór), which lies near the Irish coast, in the southeast of the kingdom of the Déisi Muman, and having obtained Patrick's blessing, goes on to convert the Déisi to Christianity.

The span of Declán's lifetime and career is extended in another chapter (§ 15), which makes him a contemporary of Saint David of Wales in the 6th century. Likewise, the even later saint Ultan of Ardbraccan (d. 655 x 657) is presented as Declán's pupil.

The Lives also relate that the saint later paid a visit to the Déisi of Mide/Meath, where the King of Tara welcomed him and granted him land for the purpose of founding a "monastery of canons". The monastery founded there became known as Cill Décláin (Killegland, Ashbourne, County Meath).

The pre-Patrician saints of Munster

Declan is one of four Munster saints who had Lives written for them claiming that they founded monasteries and preached the Gospel in Munster before their younger contemporary Saint Patrick ever set foot in Ireland. These bishop saints, known since the 17th century as quattuor sanctissimi episcopi, also included Ailbe of Emly, Ciarán of Saigir and Abbán of Moyarney. The same claim was apparently made for Íbar of Beggery Island, according to the Life of St Abbán, which identifies him as Abbán's uncle and teacher, but no separate Life survives which offers any information to this effect. The relevant Lives are all found in the so-called Dublin Collection (see above), which bears a stamp of editorial intervention.

Their testimony, late though it seems, has often been treated in relation to the historical question of pre-Patrician Christianity in the south of Ireland. It has been argued that before the coming of Patrick, the south coast of Munster would have provided the most likely point of entry for the introduction of Christianity via Britain or via Gaul. The settlements of the Déisi and the Uí Liatháin in southwest Wales, as evidenced by the distribution of ogam-stones, provided an important connection between Britain and Ireland. A key aspect of this overseas link, the import of slaves, usually British Christians, by Irish raiders would have directly exposed Munster to the influence of Christianity. Further, Munster, lying opposite to Gaul, would have represented a first destination for Irish trading connections with the Continent. In the context of wine-trade, this is in some way corroborated by the archaeological record for pottery in Munster settlements.

The credit traditionally given to Saint Patrick for bringing Christianity to the island appears to owe much to the propaganda of one particular foundation. As early as the 7th century, Armagh was busy bolstering its claim to the status of the principal house founded by St Patrick. By promoting the cult of the saint, which entailed that Patrick was propagated as the apostle and first bishop of the Irish, it sought to establish and control a network of religious houses throughout the country. The fact that a missionary sent by Rome, Palladius, had been active before St Patrick, in 431, possibly in Leinster, did not sit well with its agenda. In the writings of Armagh scholars, notably Tírechán and Muirchú, Palladius' activities were therefore belittled as a failure, ignored or, as T.F. O'Rahilly famously argues in his hypothesis of the 'Two Patricks', silently conflated with those of Patrick. In Armagh historiography, the conversion of Munster became embodied in the story of the conversion of Óengus mac Nad Froích by St Patrick at Cashel, first told by Tírechán and subsequently elaborated many times over.

The Lives of Ailbe, Declán, Ciarán and Abbán in the Dublin Collection appear to reflect the need of the Munster houses to offer some counterweight against the Patrician dossier promoted by Armagh, even though they do not deny the national importance of Saint Patrick. Historian Richard Sharpe proposed the earlier Life of Ailbe in the Codex Salmanticensis was originally composed in the eighth century to further the cause of the Éoganacht church of Emly. In the same century, the Law of Ailbe (784) was issued, possibly in response to the Law of Patrick.

The Dublin Collection, however, goes further when it attributes to the saints an important pre-Patrician career. Pre-eminence is given to Ailbe, whose Dublin Life asserts that Munster was entrusted to him by St Patrick, while to similar effect, Ailbe is called a "second Patrick and patron of Munster" (secundus Patricius et patronus Mumenie) in Declán's Life.

Dagmar Ó Riain-Raedel has argued that this way of promoting Munster saints was anticipated in texts emanating from the Schottenklöster or Irish Benedictine monasteries of southern Germany, whose principal house was at Regensburg. Not only was there a strong Munster presence, but many such texts were written down in recognition of the generous donations received from the kings of Desmond and Thomond.

The most substantial achievement is the hagiographic compilation known as Magnum Legendarium Austriacum (The Great Austrian Legendary), begun sometime in the 1160s or 1170s. The prologue to a recension of St Patrick's Life preserved incomplete at Göttweig (Austria) asserts that disciples of one Mansuetus, an Irish bishop of Toul, had set themselves up as bishops in Ireland to prepare the way for St Patrick. In the mid-12th century, a Life was composed at Regensburg relating the life and miracles of Ailbe, under his German name St Albert. Ó Riain-Raedel connects this to the establishment of Cashel as an archiepiscopal seat in 1111, because it was Ailbe, being the patron saint of the nearby foundation of Emly, who played a key role in advertising its new status.

Commemoration

According to his Life, Declán is reposed in the Lord at his monastery in Ardmore and was subsequently buried there. His feast day in the martyrologies is 24 July. A Middle Irish note added to the Félire Óengusso, which is of no historical value, tells that Declán was responsible for introducing rye (Irish secal, from Latin secale) into Ireland.

Declán has enjoyed a steady cult in Waterford, where many church dedications still name him. Every year on his feast-day, locals and people from the region celebrate his pattern. The pattern includes various devotional acts at sites associated with his life. The path walked by Declan from Ardmore to Cashel, County Tipperary has been restored as St Declan's Pilgrim Path, and an annual walk of the path, nicknamed the "Irish Camino", is organised from 24 to 28 July, beginning in 2013.

A round tower still stands at the site of the saint's monastery at Ardmore as well as earlier ecclesiastical ruins, such as a stone oratory and a small stone church. The diocese of Ardmore and its episcopal church lasted until the 13th century.

Notes

Primary sources
Latin Life of St Declán, ed. Charles Plummer, Vitae sanctorum Hiberniae. Vol. 2. Oxford, 1910. pp. 32–59. Available from the Internet Archive.
Irish Life of St Declán, ed. and tr. Rev. Patrick C. Power, Life of St. Declan of Ardmore, with an Introduction, Translation and Notes. Irish Texts Society 16. London, 1914. Based on the Brussels MS, with variants from RIA MS 23 M 50. Edition and translation transcribed at CELT. Another transcription can be found at Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library.

Secondary sources
Breen, Aidan. "St Declan (Déclán)." Dictionary of Irish Biography. Accessed: 28 Jan 2010.
Kelly, Fergus (2000). Early Irish Farming. Early Irish Law Series IV. Dublin: DIAS.
Sharpe, Richard (1991). Medieval Irish Saints' Lives: An Introduction to 'Vitae Sanctorum Hiberniae'''. Oxford.
Johnston, Elva (2004). "Munster, saints of (act. c.450–c.700)." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, Sept 2004. Accessed: 14 Dec 2008.
Ó Cathasaigh, Tomás (1984). "The Déisi and Dyfed." Éigse 20. pp. 1–33.
Ó Riain-Raedel, Dagmar (1998). "The Question of the 'Pre-Patrician' Saints of Munster." In Early Medieval Munster. Archaeology, History and Society, ed. M.A. Monk and J. Sheehan. Cork. 17–22.

Further reading
Byrne, Francis John (1973). Irish kings and high-kings. London.
Byrne, Francis John (1994–95). "Dercu: the feminine of Mocu." Éigse 28. pp. 42–70.
De Paor, Liam (2003). Saint Patrick's World: The Christian Culture of Ireland's Apostolic Age. Dublin: Four Courts Press.

Ó Cadhla, Stiofán (2002). The Holy Well Tradition: The Pattern of St Declan, Ardmore, County Waterford, 1800–2000. Maynooth Studies in Local History 45. Dublin: Four Courts Press.
Ó Conchúir, Dónal (2001). Ardmore and Lismore: the Christian Antiquities of Ardmore and the Legacy of the Lismore Monastery. Waterford.
Ó Riain, Pádraig (2002). "Irish Saints' Cults and Ecclesiastical Families." In: Local Saints and Local Churches in the Early Medieval West'', ed. Alan Thacker and Richard Sharpe. Oxford. pp. 291–302.

External links

 Rev. Power's translation is available online from Christian Classics Ethereal Library

5th-century Irish bishops
5th-century Christian saints
5th-century Irish abbots
Irish Christian missionaries
Medieval saints of Munster
Canonizations by Pope Leo XIII
People from County Waterford
Dalcassians

Declán of Ardmore


A sleep disorder is a problem that stops people from sleeping normally. But really what is normal sleeping? There are many sleep disorders, and some of them are very serious.  A test commonly ordered for some sleep disorders is the polysomnogram.

Types of sleep disorders
Sleep disorders can be put into groups. These groups include:
Dysomnia - these are sleep disorders which cause too much or too little sleep. Some of these are caused within the body while some are externally caused. For example, insomnia and narcolepsy are two of the dysomnias.
Circadian rhythm sleep disorders - these cause sleeping at unusual times: too early, too late or not often. People with these disorders can usually get enough sleep, just at the "wrong" time of day. These disorders are sometimes included among the dysomnias. MeSH
Parasomnias - these are doing things not normally done while sleeping, without the person being aware of what they are doing. They include walking, eating, dressing, bedwetting and other events.
Medical or psychiatric disorders - these problems may also cause trouble sleeping.  People with depression or alcoholism may sleep poorly.

(Sleeping sickness, a disease carried by the Tsetse fly, is not classified as a sleep disorder.)

Common sleep disorders
The most common sleep disorders include:
 Bruxism: grinding or clenching the teeth while sleeping
 Delayed sleep phase syndrome/disorder (DSPS): a circadian rhythm sleep disorder (see above): waking up and falling asleep much later than normal, but with no problem staying asleep
 Hatzfeldt Syndrome, or Systemic Neuro-Epiphysial Disorder (SNED): an irregular sleep pattern, as well as irregular behavior
 Hypopnea syndrome: abnormally shallow or slow breathing while sleeping
 Narcolepsy: falling asleep spontaneously and unwillingly at the wrong times
 Night terror disorder: sudden awakening from sleep showing fear or terror
 Parasomnias, see above
 Periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD): Sudden uncontrolled movement of arms and/or legs during sleep, for example kicking the legs. (Can seem like hypnic jerk, but hypnic jerk is not a disorder.)
 Primary insomnia, inability to get to sleep or stay asleep, not caused by any other disorder
 Rapid eye movement behavior disorder (RBD): acting out violent or dramatic dreams while in "rapid eye movement" (REM) sleep, also called dream sleep
 Restless legs syndrome (RLS): urge or need to move legs. People with RLS often also have PLMD.
 Shift work sleep disorder (SWSD)
 Sleep apnea (obstructive type): often waking suddenly when breathing stops, and usually loud snoring
 Sleep paralysis: temporary paralysis of the body shortly before or after sleep.  Sleep paralysis may be accompanied by hallucinations of sight, hearing or touch. It is quite common.
 Sleepwalking: one of the parasomnias, "Sleepwalking — also known as somnambulism — involves getting up and walking around while in a state of sleep."

Common causes of sleep disorders
Changes in life style, such as shift work change or travelling over several time zones, can cause sleep disorders. Some other problems that can cause sleeping problems include:
Anxiety
Pain
Environmental noise
Various drugs and medications
Hormone imbalance
Circadian rhythm disorders

Treatment
A sleep diary or log can be used to help diagnose (define) the problem.  It can also be used to measure improvements.

According to Dr. William Dement of the Stanford Sleep Center, anyone who snores and is sleepy in the daytime should see a doctor about sleep disorders.

In case of chronic pain, both the pain and the sleep problems should be treated.  Pain can lead to sleep problems and vice versa.

The choice of a treatment for a sleep disorder depends on the patient's diagnosis, his/her medical and psychiatric history, and how she or he prefers to be treated. Medications sometimes work fast. On the other hand, sometimes behavioral treatment of insomnia may give more lasting results.

References

Sleep disorder


The Scots wars o Unthirldom wis wars focht atween the Kinrick o Scotland an the Kinrick o Ingland ower the unthirldom o Scotland in the late 13t an early 14t centuries. There wis twa wars: the first fae 1296 til 1328 (that wis by wi the Treaty o Embra) an the saicont fae 1332 til 1357(that wis by wi the Treaty o Berwick).

First war

The First War (1296–1328) wis precedit bi the regence o Scotland whan the bairn queen, Margaret o Norrowa, dee'd on her wey tae Scotland. There wis three pretenders fur the throne efter her daith an it wis ane o thaim, John Balliol, that got the throne but Edward o Ingland saw Scotland as his. It stairtit wi the Inglis invasion o Scotland in 1296, an endit wi the signin o the Treaty o Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328.

William Wallace wis a important feegur in the first war, winnin important battles, lik the Battle o Stirlin Brig. Wallace wis begowkit fae the Earl o Monteith an Edward o Ingland haed Wallace beheidit fur his participation in the rebellion. Edward propined Monteith wi land, the loch on it's the anerly the 'lake' in Scotland;t he ithers is cried lochs.

Later, it wis Robert the Bruce that led the unthirldom airmies, winnin at the Battle o Bannockburn in 1314. The peace treaty wisnae signed til fowerteen year later tho.

Saicont war

The Seicont War (1332–1357) began wi the Inglis-supportit invasion bi Edward Balliol an the "Disinheritit" in 1332, an endit in 1357 wi the signin o the Treaty o Berwick. The wars wis pairt o a great naitional crisis for Scotland an the period became ane o the maist definin times in the naition's history. At the end o baith wars, Scotland retained its status as an independent naition. The wars wis important for ither raisons, lik the emergence o the langbow as a key wappen in medieval warfare.

Invasions o Ingland
Militar history o Great Breetain
Medieval rebellions
Warfare o the Middle Ages
 Wars o Scots Unthirldom
13t century in Scotland
14t century in Scotland
Ingland–Scotland relations
Wars o unthirldom
History o Scotland

References

Wars o Scots Unthirldom


Asio is a genus o typical houlets, or true houlets, in the Strigidae faimily. The genus Asio contains the eared houlets, which are characterised bi feather tufts on the heid which gie the appearance o "ears". This group haes representatives ower maist o the planet, an the Short-eared Houlet is ane o the maist widespread o aw bird species, breedin in Europe, Asie, North an Sooth Americae, the Caribbean, Hawaii an the Galápagos Islands. Its geografic range extends tae aw continents except Antarctica an Australie.

These are medium-sized houlets, 30–46 cm (12–18 in) in length wi 80–103 cm (31.5–40 in) wingspans. Thay are lang winged an hae the characteristic facial disc.

The twa northren species are pairtially migratory, movin sooth in winter frae the northren pairts o thair range, or wanderin nomadically in puir vole years in search o better fuid supplies. Tropical Asio houlets are lairgely sedentary.

Asio houlets are mainly nocturnal, but Short-eared Houlets are an aa crepuscular. Maist species nest on the grund, but the Lang-eared Houlet, Asio otus, nests in the auld stick nests o craws, ravens an magpies (faimily Corvidae) an various hawks.

These houlets hunt ower open fields or grasslands, takin mainly rodents, ither smaa mammals an some birds.

Species
 Stygian Houlet,  Asio stygius
 Lang-eared Houlet,  Asio otus
 Abyssinian Houlet,  Asio abyssinicus
 Madagascar Houlet,  Asio madagascariensis
 Short-eared Houlet,  Asio flammeus
 Marsh Houlet,  Asio capensis
 Striped Houlet, Asio clamator - eften placed in Pseudoscops or Rhinoptynx

Twa fossil species are recognized nouadays:
 Asio brevipes (Glenns Ferry Late Pliocene o Hagerman, USA)
 Asio priscus (Late Pliocene o Santa Rosa Island, USA)

The supposed Late Eocene/Early Oligocene eared houlet "Asio" henrici haes been recognized as a member o the fossil barn-houlet genus Selenornis. "Asio" pygmaeus (often misspelt pigmaeus) cannae be assigned tae a genus wioot restudy o the material. "Asio" collongensis (Middle Miocene o Vieux-Collonges, Fraunce) is nou placed in the genus Alasio.(Mlíkovský 2002)

References
Mlíkovský, Jirí (2002): Cenozoic Birds o the Warld, Pairt 1: Europe. Ninox Press, Prague.  PDF fulltext

Bird genera

Asio


Joyce W. Cairns is a Scottish painter and printmaker based in Broughty Ferry, Scotland. In 2018, she was elected president of the Royal Scottish Academy (RSA).

Biography
Born in Edinburgh in 1947, Cairns was brought up in North East Scotland, where her father was a school master. In 1966, she went to Gray's School of Art in Aberdeen where she studied until 1970. She then took a Master of Art at the Royal College of Art in London from 1971 to 1974. This was followed by a fellowship at Gloucestershire College of Art and Design in Cheltenham. She went on to undertake a further period of study at Goldsmiths' College before returning to Aberdeen in 1976 to take up a teaching post at Gray's School of Art. On returning to Aberdeen, she moved into the small fishing village of Footdee at the mouth of the harbour in Aberdeen. With small houses facing on to a square, the village is flanked on one side by the industrial harbour of Aberdeen, and the large boats that pass by the house often appear in her paintings.

In 1985, Cairns was elected an associate member of the Royal Scottish Academy, became a full member in 1998 and in 2018 was elected president of the Royal Scottish Academy of Art and Architecture (RSA), the first woman to hold the position in the Academy's history. From 1985 to 1988 she served as the first female president of the Aberdeen Artist's Society. Cairns took early retirement from teaching in 2004 to focus completely on painting.  She now lives in Broughty Ferry, a suburb of Dundee.

Work
Cairns is a 'figurative painter of great expressive power'. Her paintings express autobiographical and psychological themes. In the 1970s, mythology was a great influence in her work, but it has been the themes of family, war, and memory that have dominated since. In 2006, Aberdeen Art Gallery hosted a major exhibition entitled War Tourist, an exhibition that recounted the horrors of war in personal terms through her own family history and as a passive observer or war tourist. Cairns visited Tunisia, where her father saw active service, and later Bosnia and the concentration camps of Eastern Europe. The outcome of these travels and years of research were exhibited in 26 large paintings in Aberdeen Art Gallery. Cairns' painting style is rooted in Expressionism and uses iconography to express a narrative. Often working on a large scale, the Cairns' preferred medium is oil on board  and the artist uses a grid to plan out elements in a composition.

Cairns has work in public collections including, Aberdeen University, Robert Gordon University, Strathclyde University, Grampian Hospitals Trust, Perth and Kinross Council and Angus Council. She exhibits work in the Compass Gallery, Tatha Gallery in Newport-on-Tay and Kilmorack Gallery.

Her work has been written about in many publications including War Tourist  and an interview with Janet Mackenzie in Studio International Contemporary Arts Magazine.

References

1947 births
Living people
20th-century Scottish painters
21st-century Scottish painters
20th-century Scottish women artists
21st-century Scottish women artists
20th-century British printmakers
Artists from Edinburgh
Alumni of Gray's School of Art
Alumni of the Royal College of Art
Alumni of Hospitalfield House
People associated with Dundee
Royal Scottish Academicians
Scottish printmakers
Scottish women painters
Artists from Aberdeen
People from Footdee

Joyce W. Cairns


Solomonia Yuryevna Saburova (;  – 18 December 1542) was the grand princess of Moscow as the wife of Vasili III of Russia. She was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as Saint Sofia of Suzdal.

Life
Her father was Yury Konstantinovich Saburov, a nobleman who was elevated to boyar upon his daughter's marriage to the monarch. One of her relatives later became the wife of Ivan IV's son and heir, Ivan Ivanovich, and another lady of the Saburov-Godunov clan was Irina Feodorovna, the wife of the last Rurikid tsar, Feodor I.  One other relative Boris Godunov reigned as Tsar Boris I of Russia.

Grand Princess
The wedding of Solomonia and Vasily III took place on 4 September 1505, in presence of the groom's father, Ivan III. Metropolitan Simon blessed the newlyweds at the Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow Kremlin. After twenty years, it became apparent that Solomonia was barren. Vasili perfectly understood that if he died childless his brothers would inherit the throne. In order to preclude this scenario, they were incarcerated or forbidden to marry until his own son was born. In the long term, this led to the extinction of the Rurikid dynasty and to the succession crisis known as the Time of Troubles.

Despite her shining beauty, exemplary morals and mild character, Solomonia's failure to beget an heir must have weighed upon Vasili's relations with his wife, who turned to foreign doctors for help. In 1525, the grand prince decided to divorce Solomonia with the approval of Metropolitan Daniel and the boyars, although Vassian Patrikeyev, Maksim Grek, and some other ecclesiastical authorities declared the divorce unlawful.

Later life
In November 1525, the marriage was annulled and Solomonia was forced to take the veil under the name of Sophia at the Nativity Monastery of Moscow. She was then moved to the Intercession Monastery in Suzdal, one of the many votive churches commissioned by Vasily and his wife in supplication for the birth of an heir.

Sigismund von Herberstein asserts in his Notes on Muscovite Affairs that she was forcefully taken to the convent, whereas the Russian chronicles tend to underline Solomonia's submission to the sovereign's will. There were rumors that Solomonia had given birth to a child named George within the walls of the monastery. She died in Suzdal in 1542.

In Culture

Solomonia Saburova's relationship with husband Vasili III of Moscow was fictionalised in the opera Neprigozhaya by Ella Adayevskaya.

References

|-

|-

|-

1490 births
1542 deaths
Princesses consort of Moscow
Russian saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church
16th-century Christian saints
Christian female saints of the Early Modern era
Daniilovichi family
Female saints of medieval Russia
Eastern Orthodox royal saints
16th-century Russian people
16th-century Russian women

Solomonia Saburova


Not to be confused with Single (music)
A promotional recording (or promo), is an audio or video recording that is released for free. They are released to promote a song that will be released through an album. Promos are sent to broadcasters, such as music radios, television stations, tastemakers, DJs, and music journalists. Recording labels perform this for their artist(s) to achieve airplay, positive reviews, and other exposure for fame.

Promos are often released in plain packaging. This means that a artwork or text may not appear on the cover. Most promos are marked with "Licensed for promotional use only. Sale is prohibited." In some cases, promos may ask the owner to return the promo back to the record label. However, it is not against the law to sell promotional recordings. There has been recalls of promos, but this is rare and not forced by recording labels.

Because promos are released in smaller quantities than CD singles, they are sometimes considered a collectors item. They are never released in record stores. Promotional recordings, in terms of airplay, can chart on the US Hot 100 Airplay and not the Billboard Hot 100 chart. This is because, the promotional recordings are not released physically.

Music industry

Promotional recording


Michael James Hegstrand (January 26, 1957 – October 19, 2003) was an American professional wrestler. He was best known as Road Warrior Hawk, one half of the tag team known as the Road Warriors (or the "Legion of Doom"), with Road Warrior Animal. Outside of the Road Warriors, Hawk was a sporadic challenger for world heavyweight championships on pay-per-view from the late 1980s to the mid 1990s. He headlined the inaugural 1993 edition of Extreme Championship Wrestling's premier annual event, November to Remember.

Early life
While living in Minneapolis, Hegstrand attended Patrick Henry High School where he graduated in 1976. After high school, he had various odd jobs to make ends meet such as a butcher. It was while working as a bouncer at Gramma B's in the Twin Cities that he caught the eye of Eddie Sharkey, a well-known wrestling trainer. Sharkey thought that Hegstrand, along with Joe Laurinaitis, Rick Rood and Barry Darsow could make it big in professional wrestling.

Professional wrestling career

Early career (1983–1986)

Hegstrand started his career as part of the Traveling All-Stars. He was billed as "Crusher Von Haig" and wrestled in Vancouver. Soon growing weary of the road and becoming homesick. Hegstrand traveled back home with Rood. Later in 1983, fate struck again when Laurinaitis's partner for the night found himself in legal trouble. Needing a quick replacement, Ole Anderson gave Hegstrand a call, and he accepted the booking to team with Laurinaitis. Neither man knew at the time that they would make wrestling history that day. When Paul Ellering was looking to put together a stable of heels in Georgia Championship Wrestling called The Legion of Doom it was decided to pair Laurinaitis with Hegstrand and change their names to "Animal" and "Hawk" respectively; thus, the Road Warriors were born. To look more intimidating the two shaved their heads into Mohawks and started wearing studded dog collars, leather chaps, and face paint. The look and name was taken from Mad Max 2: the Road Warrior, helping to paint the two as no-mercy monsters. Their interview style was vicious, yet charismatic and a bit humorous. Hawk was known for often beginning his promos with his trademark yell of "Wellllllllllllll!..." and ending with his catch phrase of "Oooooooooh, what a ruuuuuuuuuuuush!" The team was an instant hit, revolutionizing the tag-team scene with their power moves, no mercy attitudes, and innovative face paint that would spawn many future imitators in wrestling. In Georgia they won the NWA National Tag Team Championship four times before moving on to bigger promotions such as the American Wrestling Association in the US and All Japan Pro Wrestling in Japan, winning tag-team titles wherever they went.

National Wrestling Alliance / World Championship Wrestling (1986–1990)
Their hard hitting style, no nonsense attitude, and winning ways made the Road Warriors fan favorites wherever they went; even when they were booked as heels, the fans refused to boo them. They were so in demand that they started to split their time between the AWA and the National Wrestling Alliance until finally leaving the AWA for big money contracts with the NWA and a huge push for the monster duo. The move paid off instantly as they won the inaugural Jim Crockett, Sr. Memorial Cup Tag Team Tournament and feuded with the top stars of the NWA such as The Four Horsemen and The Russian Team (which included the Road Warriors' old training buddy Barry Darsow, then wrestling as Krusher Khrushchev). During their initial run in the Mid-Atlantic region of the NWA, they helped popularize the WarGames match, the Scaffold match, and their trademark Chicago Street Fight.

In 1988, the Road Warriors engaged in a violent feud with the Powers of Pain (The Barbarian and The Warlord), the first team that could truly match the Road Warriors in power (and who were one of the most well known Road Warrior clones). The Powers of Pain even went so far as to injure Animal's eye (kayfabe) during a weightlifting competition. When Animal returned, he initially wore a hockey goalie mask to protect his eye. The angle abruptly ended when the Powers of Pain left the NWA after finding out they were booked against the Road Warriors in a series of Scaffold Matches and they did not want to get hurt by falling off the scaffold. Near the end of 1988, the Road Warriors captured the NWA World Tag Team Championship from The Midnight Express whom they mauled in short order to win the titles in New Orleans. Despite being heels at the time and using brutal tactics against Stan Lane and "Beautiful" Bobby Eaton, once again they were cheered by the crowd. After being the "Uncrowned champions" for a long time, the Road Warriors' run with the tag-team titles was short-lived. Crooked referee Teddy Long used a fast count to cheat the Road Warriors out of their titles. In their last year with the NWA, the Warriors feuded mainly with The Varsity Club, The Samoan Swat Team, and The Skyscrapers before leaving the NWA in the summer of 1990.

World Wrestling Federation (1990–1992)
The Road Warriors immediately signed with the World Wrestling Federation and were pushed into a feud with Demolition (which once again included their old training partner Barry Darsow). Due to his health, Ax was replaced by a new member of Demolition, Crush. (Popular rumor at the time cited a heart condition on Bill Eadie's part, but this has been discredited in recent years. An allergic reaction to shellfish while in Japan after WrestleMania VI was the real cause of Eadie's temporary health problem. He confirmed this in a shoot interview in 2007.) However, fans did not react as strongly to this new Demolition team as they had to the original configuration, and the feud was considered a disappointment. During the early part of the feud, Legion of Doom often teamed with WWF World Heavyweight Champion The Ultimate Warrior in six-man tag matches against all three members of Demolition. Just over a year after signing with the WWF, the Legion of Doom won the WWF World Tag Team Titles from The Nasty Boys at SummerSlam 1991 and held them for about six months. When they lost the titles in February 1992 they were briefly taken off television, only to return with long-time manager Paul Ellering by their side, as well as a wooden dummy called "Rocco". Both members of the Legion of Doom thought the gimmick was stupid, as did most of the fans and it led to Hawk quitting the WWF, leaving Animal on his own for the first time in nine years. When Animal suffered a severe back injury a short while later, everyone thought it was the end of the legendary team.

Japan, ECW and Independents (1992–1995)
Hawk competed as a singles wrestler in Europe, Australia, and Japan and although he won nearly every singles match he competed in, he was usually seen (by North American and Japanese fans at least) as a tag team wrestler. Thus, he always fought either mid-card opponents or made teams with better-known singles stars. When he joined New Japan Pro-Wrestling he was immediately paired with Kensuke Sasaki, then simply known as a good mid-carder, as the Hell Raisers (Sasaki adopting the face paint and gimmick Power Warrior). The two dominated NJPW's tag team ranks for a while through their two wins of the IWGP Tag Team Championship, but no North American promoter thought about bringing them as a team, due to Sasaki's affiliation with NJPW. As a singles wrestler, Hawk found success in Europe, winning the CWA World Heavyweight Championship. Hawk also competed in NWA Eastern Championship Wrestling, the progenitor of Extreme Championship Wrestling, in 1993. Hawk left ECW in 1994. Hawk competed in the independent circuit for Pro Wrestling America, Mid Eastern Wrestling Federation, Smokey Mountain Wrestling and Midwest Territorial Wrestling.

World Championship Wrestling (1993, 1995–1996)
In August 1993 Hawk made sporadic appearances in World Championship Wrestling as a mystery partner of Dustin Rhodes and later as a replacement partner when Davey Boy Smith left the promotion but nothing permanent ever came of it, and Hawk left after Starrcade in December 1993. In May 1995, he reappeared in WCW. In July 1995, he helped Sting in a feud against Meng and Kurasawa, but a proposed singles feud with Kurasawa fell through due to an arm injury (in kayfabe Kurasawa broke Hawk's arm using a cross armbreaker, to let Hawk rest). Hawk returned in January 1996, but this time, he also brought Animal back with him as his back had finally recovered enough for him to return to active competition. During that time, Sting and Lex Luger had won the WCW World Tag Team Championship and the Warriors challenged them, to no success. The rise of the New World Order precluded further challenges, and they headed back to the WWF.

Return to WWF (1997–1999)
After leaving WCW they returned to the WWF where the Legion of Doom took part in the feud between "Stone Cold" Steve Austin and the Hart Foundation, siding with Austin. The Legion of Doom also became 2 time tag-team champions on October 7, 1997, when they defeated The Godwinns. In November 1997 the Legion of Doom faced the newly formed New Age Outlaws (Road Dogg and Billy Gunn) and shockingly lost the titles to the upstart team. On an episode of Monday Night Raw, L.O.D. challenged D-Generation X in a Tag Match. During the match, The New Age Outlaws attacked L.O.D. and shaved off one of Hawk's mohawks, and threw Animal through the announcers table. After several unsuccessful challenges the L.O.D. were repackaged as "Legion of Doom 2000" with manager Sunny, although she did not stay with the team for long.

During the Attitude Era, in which the WWF moved towards a more "adult" product, the Legion of Doom was placed into a storyline incorporating Hegstrand's real-life drug addiction and alcoholism, against the wishes of both Hegstrand and Laurinaitis. The storyline found the Legion of Doom crumbling as Hawk repeatedly showed up to matches apparently drunk or under the influence of drugs, and began demonstrating suicidal tendencies. In order to stabilize the team, a third member, Puke, was introduced later known as Droz. This led to the conclusion of the storyline, in which a suicidal Hawk climbed to the top of the TitanTron, the giant television monitor erected during episodes of WWF's Raw Is War to show match highlights to fans in attendance. Puke, supposedly attempting to rescue Hawk, climbed after him, only to apparently throw Hawk over the side (with a special effect being used to make it appear as though fans could see Hegstrand's body plunging a fatal distance behind the screen); Puke then revealed that he had been enabling Hawk's drug addiction in order to kill him and take his place in the Legion of Doom. Being forced to act out Hegstrand's personal demons onscreen eventually proved too much for both Hegstrand and Laurinaitis, and both men quit the company shortly after the "Puke killed Hawk" incident.

Late career (1999–2003)
While the Road Warriors never officially broke up, Animal started making an increasing number of solo appearances after they left the WWF as Hegstrand struggled with drug and alcohol addiction and generally did not appear at many wrestling shows during this time. In 2000, during a tour in Australia, Hegstrand was diagnosed with cardiomyopathy, a heart condition that stopped him from wrestling for a short while. He was able to overcome its effects and returned to a regular working schedule later on. Laurinaitis and Hegstrand became born-again Christians in 2001 and appeared at a number of Christian wrestling events run by Ted DiBiase and Nikita Koloff hoping to reignite their tag-team career. On June 22, 2002, International Wrestling Superstars, Road Warriors Animal & Hawk defeated the Headshrinkers for the World Tag-Team Championship. That victory also led to Team USA winning the International Tournament held in Atlantic City, New Jersey.

They also appeared in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling in late 2002 and early 2003 as part of a group that opposed Vince Russo's faction Sports Entertainment Xtreme but only wrestled one actual match for the company. Animal and Hawk made a surprise appearance on Raw on May 12, 2003, when they took on Kane and Rob Van Dam for the World Tag Team Championship. Although Hawk and Animal came up short in their attempt to become three-time champions, it was clear that Hawk had defeated the demons that had once kept him from competing, and the Road Warriors had hopes of returning to WWE. Later in 2003, Hawk made an appearance with the All World Wrestling League, a take-off of the 'original' Big Time Wrestling that was owned by The Original Sheik who died earlier that year; it was run by the sons of The Sheik, Eddie and Tom Farhat. They decided to book Hawk for an event in Holt, Michigan; that event was the second to last time Hawk wrestled. Two weeks before he died he wrestled his final match with Animal in Oshawa, Ontario, defeating Greg "The Hammer" Valentine and Buff Bagwell.

Death and legacy
Hegstrand died on October 19, 2003, in the early morning in his home in Indian Rocks Beach, Florida. He was 46 years old. His friends said that he and his wife Dale had recently bought a condominium near their current home and were packing their boxes the night before. Hegstrand said that he felt tired and went to take a nap. When his wife checked on him at about 1 am, he had died of a sudden heart attack. At the time of his death, Hawk and Animal were working on a book about their careers. Animal returned to WWE in mid-2005 and decided to dedicate his entire run to Hegstrand, including his tag team title victory with Heidenreich at The Great American Bash. On the March 28, 2011, episode of Raw, it was announced that the Road Warriors would be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame Class of 2011. On April 2, 2011, the night before WrestleMania XXVII they, along with Paul Ellering, were inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame by Dusty Rhodes.

Championships and accomplishments
All Japan Pro Wrestling
NWA International Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Road Warrior Animal
Cauliflower Alley Club
Tag Team Award (2020)
International Wrestling Superstars
IWS World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Road Warrior Animal
American Wrestling Association
AWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Road Warrior Animal
Catch Wrestling Association
CWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Fighting World of Japan Pro Wrestling
World Japan Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Road Warrior Animal
Georgia Championship Wrestling
NWA National Tag Team Championship (4 times) – with Road Warrior Animal
i-Generation Superstars of Wrestling
i-Generation Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Road Warrior Animal
Independent Pro Wrestling
IPW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Road Warrior Animal
Jim Crockett Promotions / World Championship Wrestling
NWA World Six-Man Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Road Warrior Animal and Dusty Rhodes (2) and Road Warrior Animal and Genichiro Tenryu (1)
NWA World Tag Team Championship (Mid-Atlantic version) (1 time) – with Road Warrior Animal
Iron Team Tournament (1989) – with Road Warrior Animal
Jim Crockett, Sr. Memorial Cup (1986) – with Road Warrior Animal
Mid-Atlantic Wrestling Alliance
MAWA Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Doug Gibson and Tim Horner
Mid-Eastern Wrestling Federation
MEWF Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ultimate Comet
Midwest Territorial Wrestling
MTW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Bobo Brazil, Jr.
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA Hall of Fame (Class of 2012)
NWA Legends Hall of Heroes (2016)
New Japan Pro-Wrestling
IWGP Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Power Warrior
Professional Championship Wrestling (Texas)
PWC Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Road Warrior Animal
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
(Class of 2011) (As a member of the Road Warriors)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Tag Team of the Year (1983, 1984, 1985, 1988)
Feud of the Year (1987)
Ranked No. 25 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1995
Ranked No. 1 of the 100 best tag teams of the "PWI Years" with Road Warrior Animal as the Road Warriors in 2003
Ranked No. 47 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the "PWI Years" in 2003
Quebec Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2015
Super World of Sports
One Night Tag Team Tournament (1990) – with Road Warrior Animal
Tokyo Sports
Best Foreigner Award (1985) with Road Warrior Animal
World Wrestling Federation / WWE
WWF Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Road Warrior Animal
WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2011) as a member of the Road Warriors
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Rookies of the Year award (1983)
Tag Team of the Year (1984)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996)

 The Road Warriors reign with the NWA World Six-Man Tag Team Championship, with Genichiro Tenryu, began December 7, 1988, after Ted Turner's purchase of Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling from Jim Crockett, Jr. and having it renamed World Championship Wrestling.

Hawk and Animal's reign with this championship also happened after Ted Turner bought and renamed the promotion. However, it took place before the title was renamed the WCW World Tag Team Championship.

See also
 List of premature professional wrestling deaths

References

External links

1957 births
2003 deaths
20th-century professional wrestlers
21st-century professional wrestlers
American male professional wrestlers
Expatriate professional wrestlers in Japan
People from Saint Paul, Minnesota
Professional wrestlers from Minnesota
Professional wrestlers who use face paint
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Road Warriors members
WWE Hall of Fame inductees
IWGP Heavyweight Tag Team Champions
WCW World Tag Team Champions
NWA International Tag Team Champions
NWA National Tag Team Champions
World Tag Team Champions (WWE)

Road Warrior Hawk


Christian apologetics is a field of Christian theology that tries to find a rational basis for the Christian faith. There have been many people who tried to do this, including Paul of Tarsus, Origen, Augustine of Hippo and C. S. Lewis. Apologists base their arguments on historical evidence and philosophy, amongst others.

Apologetics
Christian genres

Christian apologetics


The Indian March of Paul () was a secret project of a planned allied Russo-French expedition against the British Company rule in India. It was scuttled following the assassination of Emperor Paul I of Russia in March 1801.

Russia and Britain were allied during the French Revolutionary Wars of the 1790s. The simultaneous failure of their 1799 joint invasion of the Netherlands, as well as the 1799 Austro-Russian Italian and Swiss expedition which Britain partially financed, precipitated a change in attitudes. Britain's occupation of Malta in October 1800 incensed Emperor Paul in his capacity of Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller. He hastily broke with Britain and allied himself with Napoleon who came up with an extravagant plan of a Russo-French expedition to attack the British possessions in India.

Secret plans

The secret plan of the expedition, as preserved in the Russian archives, envisaged the joint operations of two infantry corps, one French (with artillery support) and one Russian. Each infantry corps had 35,000 men, the total force thus containing 70,000 men, plus artillery and a large contingent of Cossack cavalry.

Napoleon insisted that the command of the French corps be entrusted to General André Masséna. The route of advance schedule for the French corps started in May 1801 via the Danube and the Black Sea through southern Russia via Taganrog, Tsaritsyn, and Astrakhan.

At the Volga estuary, the French  were supposed to be joined by Russian forces. Then the joint Russo-French corps was to cross the Caspian Sea and land at the Iranian port of Astrabad. The whole trip from France to Astrabad was calculated to take eighty days. Further advance would take another fifty days via Herat and Kandahar before reaching the main areas of India in September of the same year.

The Indian March was designed to look very much like Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, with engineers, painters and scientists taking part. Also meticulously devised was the public relations side of the Indian expedition. For example, the instructions for trade with the local peoples included the recommendation to sell the cloths "of the colorings most liked by the Asians". The expeditionary force was to have in stock a reserve of fireworks for festive illuminations.

Outcome

In January 1801, the Don Cossack ataman Vasily Petrovich Orlov received orders for his cavalry force to march toward India. The route of advance schedule was to reach the steppe fort of Orenburg in a month, and from there to move via Bukhara and Khiva to the Indus River. Soon after receiving these orders, the 20,000-strong Cossack force started for the Kazakh steppes.

In his book about the Great Game, Peter Hopkirk narrates that Paul had not been able to obtain a detailed map of India until the Cossacks' departure from Orenburg. He quotes the Tsar as instructing Orlov: "My maps only go as far as Khiva and the River Oxus. Beyond these points it is your affair to gain information about the possessions of the English, and the condition of the native population subject to their rule".

When Orlov's modest Cossack contingent advanced as far south as the Aral Sea, they received intelligence of the Emperor's assassination. The Indian March was brought to a halt, and before long the Cossacks were commanded to retreat. It is tempting to speculate that the Pahlen plot was triggered by the Indian adventure, given that the high-placed Russian officials did not approve of it and their conspiracy was financed by British diplomacy. There is no evidence to confirm this conjecture.

Assessment

The British public learned about the incident years later, but it firmly imprinted on the popular consciousness, contributing to feelings of mutual suspicion and distrust associated with the Great Game. Hugh Seton-Watson observes that "the grotesque plan had no military significance, but at least showed its author's state of mind". This assessment is echoed by Hopkirk who remarks that "no serious thought or study has been given to this wild adventure".

See also
Duhamel plan (1854)
Khrulev plan (1855)

References

Literature

1801 in British India
1801 in France
1801 in military history
1801 in the Russian Empire
Campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars
Cancelled invasions
Cancelled military operations involving France
Cancelled military operations involving the Russian Empire
France–Russia military relations
Invasions by France
Invasions by Russia
Invasions of India
Military history of British India
Wars involving the Russian Empire
Paul I of Russia

Indian March of Paul