Françoys Joseph Arthur Maurice Bernier (12 July 19273 February 1993) was a Canadian pianist, conductor, radio producer, arts administrator, and music educator. He served as the music director of the Montreal Festivals from 1956 to 1960 and was an active conductor and a producer for CBC Radio during the 1950s and early 1960s. He was the General Director of the Orchestre Symphonique de Québec from 1960 to 1966 and then the orchestra's Music Director from 1966 to 1968. He was also active as a teacher of conducting at a number of universities, notably serving as the first director of the Music Department at the University of Ottawa.

Family background and education
Bernier was born into a prominent family of musicians in Quebec City. He was the son of cellist and music critic Maurice Bernier, the brother of cellist Pierre Bernier and pianist Gabrielle Bernier, and the nephew of pianist Gabrielle Bernier and of keyboardist and composer Conrad Bernier. His earliest musical education was with his grandfather, keyboardist and composer Joseph-Arthur Bernier.

Bernier received his general education from the Séminaire de Québec, where he also studied music from 1939 to 1947. From 1945 to 1950 he attended courses at the Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Québec, where he was a pupil of Françoise Aubut, Henri Gagnon, Hélène Landry, Ria Lenssens, and Father Alphonse Tardif. In 1949–1950 he pursued further studies at the Université Laval with Lucien Brochu and Marius Cayouette. He later studied music analysis and conducting with Sergiu Celibidache in Siena and Hermann Scherchen in Salzburg in 1962–1963 through grants awarded to him by the Canada Council.

Career
In 1950 Bernier joined the teaching staff of College Mathieu in Gravelbourg, Saskatchewan, where he remained for over two years. During that time he also worked as the first program director of the local radio station CFRG when it opened in June 1952. He left Gravelbourg in 1953 to become a producer of music programs for Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in Montreal.

Working for the French-language side of the CBC, Bernier was particularly active with the CBC Radio program Premières during his first year with the organization. In 1954 he worked as a producer for the CBC Television programs Concerts pour la jeunesse and L'Heure du concert. He also produced several live programs of classical music, including performances of Igor Stravinsky's Histoire du soldat (1955), Maurice Ravel's L'enfant et les sortilèges (1956, 1957), Charles Gounod's Faust (1957), Giacomo Puccini's Madama Butterfly (1958), and Jules Massenet's Manon (1960), among others.

In 1956 Bernier was appointed music director of the Montreal Festivals, a post he remained in until 1960 when he became general director of the Orchestre Symphonique de Québec. In 1960 he conducted the orchestra in the world premiere of Roger Matton's Mouvement symphonique no. 1 (1960), and in 1963 he conducted them in the premiere of Serge Garant's Ouranos. After six years as general director, he succeeded Wilfrid Pelletier as the orchestra's principal conductor in 1966. He held that post for two years, during which time he championed contemporary works by Canadian and French composers, in particular those by Olivier Messiaen. He conducted the world premiere of Matton's Te Deum with the OSQ in 1967 and again for its European premiere in 1969 with the Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française. He also was a guest conductor with a number of French orchestras, including the Orchestre des Concerts Colonne and the Orchestre National Bordeaux Aquitaine.

From 1959 to 1964 Bernier worked on the faculty of the Université Laval where he taught conducting and directed the university choir. He concurrently worked as the assistant director of the Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Québec from 1960 to 1968. From 1973 to 1975 he was President of the Canadian Music Council. He was also a member of the board of directors of the Encyclopedia of Music in Canada. He was appointed the first director of the Music Department at the University of Ottawa in 1969, a post he held through 1976. He remained on the UO's faculty until 1992. In 1977 he founded le Domaine Forget, a summer arts festival and school for music, dance, and theatre. He served as the general and artistic director of the school up until his death in Quebec City in 1993 at the age of 65.

Awards and honours
In 1992 Bernier was awarded the François Samson Prize and was honoured with an award from the Orchestre symphonique de Québec. In 1993 he was posthumously named a Chevalier of the National Order of Quebec and the University of Ottawa established a scholarship in his name. In 1996 Le Domaine Forget built a new concert hall which they named in his honour.

References

1927 births
1993 deaths
Knights of the National Order of Quebec
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation people
Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Québec alumni
Academic staff of the Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Québec
Université Laval alumni
Academic staff of Université Laval
Academic staff of the University of Ottawa
Canadian music educators
Male conductors (music)
Canadian radio producers
Musicians from Quebec City
20th-century Canadian conductors (music)
20th-century Canadian pianists
20th-century Canadian male musicians

Françoys Bernier


The ZX Spectrum was a range of home computers based on the Z80 microchip and sold by Sinclair Research Ltd, the business company owned by British inventor Sir Clive Sinclair. The computer was first produced in April of 1982 as part of a project to sell computers for a low price that any family could afford. The ZX sold more than any other computer at that time in Britain and Spain. The first ZX was especially known for being very small and relatively cheap. The keyboard was made of rubber and the casing was made of plastic.

Sinclair's company produced seven different ZX computers, but other companies had deals with Sinclair Research to build their own version of ZX computers. The biggest of those companies was the American electronics manufacturer Timex who produced three different ZX based computers. Timex were selling between 18,000 and 20,000 of the ZX Spectrum based home computer every month by June 1981 but the Timex computer did not work properly so they had to stop selling them in 1983. Timex were the manufacturers who made most of the Sinclair Research ZX for Europe but the European versions worked correctly. The Sinclair Research version of ZXs were made until 1990 but other companies around the world copied the ZX and made many versions after that. When Sinclair Research stopped making the ZX Spectrum there had been more than 10,000 different games available and lots of peripheral equipment. Some companies still sell new games for the ZX.

ZX Spectrums

 16k ZX Spectrum, (1982-1983)

 48k ZX Spectrum, (1983-1984)

 ZX Spectrum+, (1984-1985)

 ZX Spectrum 128k, (1985-1987)

 ZX Spectrum+2, (1987-1990)

 ZX Spectrum+2A, (1988-1990)

 ZX Spectrum+3, (1988-1990)

ZX Spectrum ancestors

 ZX80

 ZX81

Timex ZX based computers

 TS1000, (1982-1983), based on ZX81

 TS1500, (1983), based on ZX81

 TS2068, (1983)

 TC2068,

 TC2048

Other websites

 Sinclair Research , Sir Clive Sinclairs company website of new and unusual inventions
 The World of Spectrum, a complete reference site for ZX Spectrums and a collection of almost all the ZX software (these old games can now be played on any PC computer with the emulators on the website)
 Old Computers , ZX page in a museum of old computers
 Z80 Website, the microchip in the ZX

References

Historical computers
Video game consoles

ZX Spectrum


A victory title is an honorific title adopted by a successful military commander to commemorate his defeat of an enemy nation. The practice is first known in Ancient Rome and is still most commonly associated with the Romans, but it was also adopted as a practice by many later empires, especially the French, British and Russian Empires.

Roman victory titles

Victory titles were suffixed to the commander's name and were usually the name of the enemy defeated by the commander. Some victory titles became hereditary cognomina, while others were personal agnomina and not carried on by later family members. Names like Africanus ("the African"), Numidicus ("the Numidian"), Isauricus ("the Isaurian"), Creticus ("the Cretan"), Gothicus ("the Goth"), Germanicus ("the German") and Parthicus ("the Parthian") expressed the triumphal subjugation of these peoples or their territories, or commemorated the locations of general's successful campaigns, equivalent to modern titles like Lawrence of Arabia, and were not indicators of origin.

The practice of awarding victory titles was established in the Roman Republic. The most famous grantee of a Republican victory title was Publius Cornelius Scipio, who for his great victories in the Second Punic War, specifically the Battle of Zama was awarded by the Roman Senate the title "Africanus" and is thus known to history as "Scipio Africanus" (his adopted grandson Scipio Aemilianus Africanus was awarded the same title after the Third Punic War and is known as "Scipio Africanus the Younger"). Other notable holders of such victory titles include Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus, who was replaced by Gaius Marius as command-in-chief of the Jugurthine War; Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus, who commanded Roman anti-pirate operations in the eastern Mediterranean (and was father of Julius Caesar's colleague in his second consulate); Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus in 48 BC), while Marcus Antonius Creticus, another anti-piracy commander, (and father of Caesar's magister equitum, Mark Antony) actually lost in Crete and was called Creticus mockingly, as it also meant "Man made of Chalk". Marcus Porcius Cato "Uticensis" received his title posthumously from those glorifying his suicide, rather than defeat, at Utica.

The practice continued in the Roman Empire, although it was subsequently amended by some Roman Emperors who desired to emphasise the totality of their victories by adding Maximus ("the Greatest") to the victory title (e.g., Parthicus Maximus, "the Greatest Parthian"). This taste grew to be rather vulgar by modern standards, with increasingly grandiose accumulations of partially fictitious victory titles.

In a broader sense, the term victory title is sometimes used to describe the repeatable awarding of the invariable style of Imperator (Greek equivalent Autokrator; see those articles), which is the highest military qualification (as modern states have awarded a non-operational highest rank, sometimes instituted for a particular general), but even when it marks the recipient out for one or more memorable victories (and the other use, as a permanent military command for the ruler, became in fact the more significant one), it does not actually specify one.

Medieval victory titles
After the fall of Western Rome, the practice continued in modified form.
 Charlemagne, the first Carolingian emperor of the Franks, styled himself Dominator Saxonorum ("Dominator of the Saxons") after subduing by force the last major pagan people in the empire
 Byzantine Emperor Basil II (r. 960–1025) — "the Bulgar-slayer"
 King Richard I of England (r. 1189–1199) — "the Lionheart"
 King Edward I of England (r. 1272–1307) — "Hammer of the Scots"
 King Afonso IV of Portugal (r. 1325–1357) — "the Brave" for his victory in the Battle of Río Salado
 Ruler of Epirus Thomas Preljubović (r. 1367–1384) — "the Albanian-slayer"
 Prince Alexander Yaroslavich of Novgorod was called Alexander Nevsky for his victory in the Battle of Neva.
 Prince Dmitry of Moscow was styled Dmitry Donskoy for his victory over Mamai Khan at Kulikovo on the Don.

Modern victory titles
The term "victory-title" occurs in English from as early as 1938.

Modern monarchs awarded titles in commemoration of major military victories, but in the guise of a feudal aristocratic title, often hereditary, but only in appearance: an actual fief was not required, indeed they often were granted in chief of a battlefield where the awarding monarch simply had no constitutional authority to grant anything validly under local law.

This new form was even more specific than the Roman practice. Instead of naming the enemy — which could well need to be repeated — it linked the name of a battle, which was almost always unique. A further level of protection was available by naming a nearby place, such as 'Austerlitz' which Napoleon declared sounded better than the alternative.

Russian Empire
In the Russian Empire, many victory titles originated in the period between the accession of Catherine the Great (1762) and the death of Nicholas I of Russia (1855). But as early as 1707, after Alexander Menshikov occupied Swedish Ingria (Izhora) during the Great Northern War, Peter I of Russia officially designated him Duke or Prince of Ingria ( - gertsog Izhorsky). Other Russian victory titles (sometimes referencing whole campaigns rather than specific battles) include:

 1775 — Chesmensky ("Chesmean") for Count Aleksey Orlov for his victory in the naval Battle of Chesma
 1775 — Zadunaisky ("Transdanubian") for Count Pyotr Rumyantsev for his crossing the Danube during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
 1775 — Krymsky ("Crimean") for Prince Vasily Mikhailovich Dolgorukov for his victories in the Crimea during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
 1783 — His Serene Highness Prince Tavrichesky for Grigori Potemkin for his annexation of the Crimea and New Russia (the ancient Greeks called this area Taurida; see also Tauride Palace)
 1789 — Rymniksky for Alexander Suvorov for his victory in the Battle of Rymnik (Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792)
 1799 — Prince Italiysky ("Italian") for Suvorov, for the Italian Campaign of 1799 after the Battle of Trebbia
 1813 — His Serene Highness Prince Smolensky for Mikhail Kutuzov for his 1812 defeat of Napoleon at Krasnoi near Smolensk during Napoleon's invasion of Russia
 1827 — Count Erivansky for Ivan Paskevich for his capture of Erivan (Yerevan) in Armenia during the Russo-Persian War, 1826–1828
 1829 — Zabalkansky ("Transbalkan") for Count Ivan Dibich for having crossed the Balkan Mountains during the Russo-Turkish War, 1828–1829
 1831 — His Serene Highness Prince Varshavsky ("Varsovian") for Paskevich for having taken Warsaw during the Polish November Uprising of 1830–1831
 1855 — Karssky for Count Nicholas Muravyov for his capture of Kars after the Siege of Kars

Furthermore, similar titles were awarded for comparable non-military services to the empire, e.g. in 1858 — Amursky for another Nicholas Muravyov, who had negotiated a new border between Russian and China along the Amur River under the Treaty of Aigun.

General Wrangel awarded the last victory-title in Russia (Krymsky – "Crimean") unofficially after the abolition of the monarchy: to the White Lieutenant-General Yakov Aleksandrovich Slashchyov in August 1920 for his defence of the Crimea in 1919–1920.

France

First Empire

Napoleon I, the founder of the Bonaparte dynasty and only head of the First French Empire, owed his success – both his personal rise and the growth of his empire – above all to his military excellence, and he bestowed elaborate honours on his generals, especially those raised to the supreme army rank of maréchal (marshal).

The bestowing of a victory title (), commemorating a specific victory, was an ideal form of honour, and many incumbents were victorious marshals (or posthumously, in chief of the widow).

The highest of these titles referenced four nominal principalities, in most cases awarded as a "promotion" to holders of ducal victory titles:
 Marshal Davout, Prince d'Eckmühl –  1809 (extinct 1853) –  also duc d'Auerstaedt (see below)
 Marshal Masséna, Prince d'Essling – 1810 –  also duc de Rivoli
 Marshal Ney, Prince de la Moskowa –  1813 (extinct 1969) – also  duc d'Elchingen  – Bataille de la Moskowa is the French name for the Battle of Borodino of 1812
 Marshal Berthier, Prince de Wagram – 1809 (extinct 1918) – also duc de Valengin,  and Prince de Neuchâtel (a sovereign title granted in 1806), neither of which were victory titles.

Next in rank came ten dukedoms:
 Marshal Ney, duc de Elchingen –  1808 (extinct 1969)  – also Prince de la Moskowa
 Marshal Lefebvre, duc de Dantzig  –  28 May 1807 (extinct 1820) – Dantzig was then still a city republic, which became part of Prussia after Napoleon's defeat, and subsequently Gdańsk in Poland
 General Junot, duc d'Abrantès – 1808 (extinct 1859 but extended in female line in 1869, again extinct 1985)
 Marshal Davout, duc d'Auerstaedt – 1808 (extinct 1853, extended to collaterals) – also prince d'Eckmühl
 Marshal Augereau, duc de Castiglione – 1808 (extinct 1915)
 Marshal Lannes, duc de Montebello – 1808
 Marshal Marmont, duc de Raguse – 1808 (extinct 1852) – present-day Dubrovnik, on the Croatian coast; conquered as part of Napoleon's own Italian kingdom, soon to become part of France's imperial exclave the Illyrian provinces (1809–1816)
 Marshal Masséna, duc de Rivoli – 1808 – also Prince d'Essling
 Marshal Kellermann, duc de Valmy – 1808 (extinct 1868)
 Marshal Suchet, duc d'Albufera – 1813

Counts:
 Georges Mouton, comte de Lobau – 1810

July Monarchy
 Thomas Robert Bugeaud, duc d'Isly – 1844 (from the First Franco-Moroccan War)

Second Empire
Although Napoleon III never came close to his predecessor's military genius (history tends to remember his defeats), he loved tying into numerous aspects of the First Empire, so he not only revived many of its institutions and reestablished titles Napoleon I had awarded, but also made some new ones.

These included:
 Marshal Pélissier, duc de Malakoff – 1856 (from the Crimean War, extinct 1864)
 Marshal MacMahon, duc de Magenta – 1859 (from the Campaign of Italy; a newly invented dye took its name for the same battle)
 Charles Cousin-Montauban, comte de Palikao – 1862 (from the Second Opium War)

British Empire
Many victory titles have been created in the peerages of England, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Examples include:
 Godert de Ginkell, victor at the Battle of Aughrim, was created Baron of Aughrim as a subsidiary title of the Earldom of Athlone in 1692.
 Admiral Edward Russell, 1st Earl of Orford, victor of the Battle of Barfleur, was created Viscount Barfleur as a subsidiary title of the Earldom of Orford in 1697.
 James Stanhope, who captured Port Mahon during the War of the Spanish Succession, was created Viscount Stanhope of Mahon in 1717.
 Sir George Augustus Eliott, victor of the Great Siege of Gibraltar, was created Lord Heathfield, Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar in 1787.
 Admiral Sir Adam Duncan, victor of the Battle of Camperdown, was created Viscount Duncan of Camperdown in 1797. (His son was later created Earl of Camperdown.)
 Admiral Sir John Jervis, victor of the Battle of Cape St Vincent, was created Earl of St Vincent in 1797, and was further created Viscount St Vincent in 1801.
 Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Wellesley (later the 1st Duke of Wellington), victor of the Battle of Douro, was in 1809 created Baron Douro as the subsidiary title granted to him with the Viscountcy of Wellington (see below). He was later, in 1814, created Marquess Douro as the subsidiary title granted to him with the Dukedom of Wellington.
 General Sir Robert Napier, who commanded the Abyssinian Expedition of 1868 and captured the fortress of Magdàla, was created Baron Napier of Magdala in 1868.
 The Earl of Dufferin, Governor-General of India during the Third Anglo-Burmese War that resulted in the annexation of Upper Burma including its former capital Ava, was created Marquess of Dufferin and Ava, in the County of Down and the Province of Burma, and Earl of Ava, in the Province of Burma in 1888.
 Field Marshal Sir Julian Byng, who played an important role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge (1917), was created Baron Byng of Vimy in 1919 and was later promoted to a viscountcy.
 Field Marshal Sir John French, the first commander of the British Expeditionary Force in the First World War, was created Earl of Ypres in 1922.
 Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery, in honour of his 1942 victory in the Egyptian town of El Alamein against Rommel's Afrikakorps, was created Viscount Montgomery of Alamein in 1946.
 Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser, victor of the Battle of North Cape in 1943, was created Baron Fraser of North Cape in 1946.
 Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, who oversaw the recapture of Burma from the Japanese, was created Viscount Mountbatten of Burma in 1946 and Earl Mountbatten of Burma in 1947.

Often the victory is commemorated in the territorial designation rather than the peerage itself. Examples include:
 Robert Clive, victor of the Battle of Plassey, was created Baron Clive, of Plassey in the County of Clare in 1767.
 The Lord Amherst, who captured Montreal during the French and Indian War, was created Baron Amherst, of Montreal in the County of Kent in 1788. Though the designation refers to Montreal Park in Kent, the estate had been named after the victory.
 Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson, victor of the Battle of the Nile, was created Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk, in 1798, and (by this time a Vice-Admiral) was further created Viscount Nelson, of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk. He was created Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk in August 1801. After his victory and death at the Battle of Trafalgar, his brother was created Earl Nelson, of Trafalgar and of Merton in the County of Surrey, and Viscount Merton, of Trafalgar and of Merton in the County of Surrey, in 1805, in his honour. (Nelson also earned the Dukedom of Bronte in Sicily, awarded to him in 1799 (in recognition of military support) by King Ferdinand III of the Kingdom of Sicily.)
 Lady Abercromby, widow of Sir Ralph Abercromby, victor of the Battle of Aboukir, who had died of wounds received in that battle, was created Baroness Abercromby, of Aboukir and of Tullibody in the County of Clackmannan, in 1801, in honour of her late husband.
 John Hely-Hutchinson, victor of the Siege of Alexandria, was created Baron Hutchinson, of Alexandria and Knocklofty in the County of Tipperary, in 1801.
 Gerard Lake, victor of the Battle of Delhi (1803) and the Battle of Laswari (1803), was created Baron Lake, of Delhi and Laswary and of Aston Clinton in the County of Buckingham in 1804 and Viscount Lake with the same designation in 1807.
 Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Wellesley (later the 1st Duke of Wellington), victor of the Battle of Talavera, was created Viscount Wellington, of Talavera and of Wellington in the County of Somerset, in 1809.
 William Carr Beresford, victor of the Battle of Albuera (1811), was created Baron Beresford, of Albuera and Dungarvan in the County of Waterford in 1814.
 Rowland Hill, victor of the Battle of Almaraz (1812), was created Baron Hill, of Almaraz and of Hawkestone in the County of Shropshire in 1814 and Baron Hill, of Almaraz and of Hardwicke in the County of Shropshire in 1816.
 George Harris, victor of the Siege of Seringapatam (1799) against the Kingdom of Mysore, was created Baron Harris, of Seringapatam and Mysore in the East Indies and of Belmont in the County of Kent in 1815.
 William Amherst, 2nd Baron Amherst, Governor-General of India during the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826) that resulted in the annexation of Arakan, was created Earl Amherst, of Arracan in the East Indies in 1826.
 The Lord Combermere, who captured the fort at Bharatpur in 1826 while serving as Commander-in-Chief, India, was created Viscount Combermere, of Bhurtpore in the East Indies and Combermere in the County Palatine of Chester in 1827.
 Sir John Keane, commander at the Battle of Ghazni (1839), was created Baron Keane, of Ghuznee in Affghanistan and of Cappoquin in the County of Waterford in 1839.
 Sir Hugh Gough, victor at the Battle of Chinkiang (1842), in the Gwalior campaign (1843) and in the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846), was created Baron Gough, of ChingKangFoo in China and of Maharajpore and the Sutlej in the East Indies in 1846, and following the Battle of Gujrat (1849) was further created Viscount Gough, of Goojerat in the Punjab and of the City of Limerick in 1849.
 Sir Henry Hardinge, who concluded the Treaty of Lahore (1846) that ended the First Anglo-Sikh War, was created Viscount Hardinge, of Lahore and of King's Newton in the County of Derby in 1846.
 The Earl of Dalhousie, who was Governor-General of India during the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849) that resulted in the British annexation of the Punjab, was created Marquess of Dalhousie, of Dalhousie Castle in the County of Edinburgh, and of the Punjab in 1849.
 Hugh Henry Rose, who captured Jhansi (1858) during the Indian Mutiny, was created Baron Strathnairn, of Strathnairn in the County of Nairn and of Jhansi in the East Indies in 1866.
 Sir John Lawrence, who served as Chief Commissioner of the Punjab during the Indian Mutiny of 1857-1859, was created Baron Lawrence, of the Punjab and of Grateley in the County of Southampton in 1869.
 Sir Garnet Wolseley, who captured Cairo after the Battle of Tel el-Kebir (1882), was created Baron Wolseley, of Cairo and of Wolseley in the County of Stafford, in 1882.
 Sir Frederick Sleigh Roberts, victor of the Battle of Kandahar in 1880, was created Baron Roberts, of Kandahar in Afghanistan and of the City of Waterford in 1892. Following the Battle of Diamond Hill near Pretoria in 1900, he was further created Earl Roberts, of Kandahar in Afghanistan and of Pretoria in the Transvaal Colony and of the City of Waterford in 1901.
 Major-General Sir Herbert Kitchener, in recognition of his victory in the Battle of Omdurman (1898), was created Baron Kitchener, of Khartoum and of Aspall in the County of Suffolk (Khartoum being the less obscure but relatively nearby capital of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan), in 1898. In 1902 (by this time a full General) he was further created Viscount Kitchener of Khartoum, of Khartoum and of the Vaal in the Colony of Transvaal and of Aspall in the County of Suffolk (having been Administrator of Transvaal and of the Orange River Colony in 1901). In June 1914 (having achieved the rank of Field Marshal in 1909) he was further created Earl Kitchener of Khartoum and of Broome, of Khartoum and of Broome in the County of Kent.
 Field Marshal Sir John French, the first commander (1914-1915) of the British Expeditionary Force in the First World War, was created Viscount French, of Ypres and of High Lake in the County of Roscommon, in 1916.
 Admiral of the Fleet Sir David Beatty, the First Sea Lord (1919-1927) and formerly Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Fleet (1916-1919) during the last years of the First World War, was, as one of the subsidiary titles granted to him with the Earldom of Beatty, created Baron Beatty, of the North Sea and of Brooksby in the County of Leicester, in 1919.
 Field Marshal Sir Edmund Allenby, victor of the Battle of Megiddo (1918), was created Viscount Allenby, of Megiddo and of Felixstowe in the County of Suffolk, in 1919.
 Field Marshal Sir Herbert Plumer, commander in the Battle of Messines (1917), was created Baron Plumer, of Messines and of Bilton in the County of York, in 1919 and Viscount Plumer, of Messines and of Bilton in the County of York, in 1929.
 Field Marshal Sir William Birdwood, best known as the commander (1914-1918) of ANZAC troops in the First World War, was created Baron Birdwood, of Anzac and of Totnes in the County of Devon, in 1938.
 Field Marshal Sir Edmund Ironside, who commanded the British forces around Arkhangelsk in the North Russia Campaign of 1918-1920, was created Baron Ironside, of Archangel and Ironside in the County of Aberdeen, in 1941.
 Field Marshal Sir Henry Wilson, a senior British general in the Second World War, was created Baron Wilson, of Libya and of Stowlangtoft in the County of Suffolk, in 1946.

Austrian Empire
In the Austrian empire titles of nobility could be amended with territorial designations, the so-called predicates. These were usually named after the estates of the family in question, but sometimes the Habsburg rulers of Austria also granted victory titles. This happened particularly during World War I (1914-1918). Examples include:
 Colonel General Viktor Dankl, who in 1914 defeated Russian forces in the Battle of Kraśnik. When he was made a Graf (count) in 1918, he received the title of Graf Dankl von Krasnik.
 Colonel General Josef Roth, who played a decisive role in the Battle of Limanowa in 1914, when the Austro-Hungarian Army repelled a Russian breakthrough, was ennobled as Freiherr (baron) in 1918 with the style of Freiherr Roth von Limanowa-Lapanów.
 Major General Ignaz Trollmann, whose XIX. Corps helped to conquer the Lovćen mountain near Kotor in 1916, was ennobled as Freiherr (baron) in 1917 with the style of Freiherr Trollmann von Lovcenberg.

Kingdom of Hungary
The system used in the Kingdom of Hungary by the Habsburgs resembled the one employed in Austria. Titles of nobility could be amended with territorial designations, also called predicates. These were usually named after the estates of the family in question, but sometimes also specific victory titles were granted. Examples include:
 General Baron Pál Kray de Krajova et Topolya (1705–1804), who received the predicate de Krajova or Krajovai after he conquered the Romanian town of Craiova during the Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791).
 Colonel General Stefan Sarkotić, the Commanding General in Bosnia and Herzegovina during World War I, was ennobled as a Hungarian baron and the style of Baron Sarkotić von Lovćen in early 1917 after Trollmann's XIX. Corps had conquered the Lovćen mountain near Kotor.
 Sándor Szurmay was created baron by King Charles IV with the predicate de Uzsok or Uzsoki. He was the hero of the battle of Uzsok (March 1915).

During the Regency of Hungary after World War I, the Regent Miklós Horthy was not authorized to grant titles of nobility, but conferred the Order of Vitéz which sometimes but necessarily also carried noble predicates. Initially membership was restricted to men who had served with special distinction in the war.  Examples commemorating military action include:
 Captain Rihmer de Granasztó granted the title vitéz Gerlefalvi for his bravery at Gerlefalva, today Girovce, Slovakia.

Kingdom of Italy
The Kingdom of Italy under the House of Savoy of Piemonte-Sardinia granted many victory titles. The practice of bestowing such titles became especially common after the unification of Italy and again after World War I, when the Mussolini government (1922–1943) made a number of nominations. Examples include:
 General Enrico Cialdini, created Duca di Gaeta for his role during the Siege of Gaeta (1860). This was the concluding event of the war between the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, through which Cialdini's Piemonte-Sardinian forces secured victory over King Francis II of the Two Sicilies. The choice of this title was somewhat ironic as it had been the name of a Napoleonic duché grand-fief but only the withdrawal of the French fleet made the bombardment of Gaeta from the sea by Cialdini's forces possible.
 General Armando Diaz, created 1st Duca della Vittoria ("Duke of the Victory") in 1922. He had been the Chief of Staff of the Italian Army (1917–1918) during World War I.
 Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel, created 1st Duca del Mare ("Duke of the Sea") in 1922. He had been the Chief of the Italian Naval Staff (1913–1915 and 1917–1919) during World War I.
 Commodore Luigi Rizzo, created 1st Conte di Grado e di Premuda for his services as naval commander in World War I during which he also sank the Austrian battleship SMS Szent István.
 Costanzo Ciano, created 1st Conte di Cortellazzo e di Buccari, a naval commander in World War I and President of the Italian Chamber of Deputies between 1934 and 1939.
 Cesare Maria De Vecchi, created 1st Conte di Val Cismon in memory of the battles fought by his arditi on Monte Grappa in 1918. Later served as colonial administrator and Fascist politician.
 Gabriele D'Annunzio, created 1st Principe di Montenevoso in 1924 for his services as poet, journalist, novelist, dramatist and aviator during World War I.
 Marshal Pietro Badoglio, created 1st Marchese del Sabotino and later 1st Duca di Addis Abeba after the invasion of Abyssinia in 1935.
 General Rodolfo Graziani, created 1st Marchese di Neghelli for his services as leader of military expeditions in Africa before and during World War II.
 Prince Maurizio Ferrante Gonzaga di Vescovato, created 1st Marchese del Vodice in 1932. Also received the Gold Medal of Military Valor.  (Full Titles and decorations, in Italian)

Other monarchies
 The Spanish crown has awarded similar titles, such as Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo (hereditary) for the English Viscount Wellington (later Duke of Wellington). General O'Donnell was granted the title Duke of Tetuán by Isabella II after his success at the Battle of Tétouan. José Malcampo, 3rd Marquess of San Rafael, Prime Minister of Spain in 1871, during the reign of Amadeo I, was granted the titles of Count of Jolo and Viscount of Mindanao after he victoriously took the city of Jolo from the Sultanate of Sulu during his governorship-general (1874-1877) of the Philippines.
 So did the Portuguese kingdom, as Duque da Vitória (Duke of Victory), Marquês de Torres Vedras (from the Lines of Torres Vedras of 1809-1810) and Conde de Vimeiro (from the Battle of Vimeiro of 1808) awarded to the Duke of Wellington.
 The Kingdom of Naples awarded the title of Conte di Maida (Count of Maida) to British general John Stuart, commemorating the Battle of Maida in 1806.
 The Dutch royal house of Orange, then of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, created the first Duke of Wellington Prince of Waterloo (in Belgium) in 1815.

Sources and references
François R. Velde. Napoleonic Titles and Heraldry: Victory Titles

References

Roman naming conventions
Ancient Roman titles
Monarchy
Noble titles
Military awards and decorations of ancient Rome
Victory
Honorary titles

Victory title


The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (, shortened to Berufsbeamtengesetz), also known as Civil Service Law, Civil Service Restoration Act, and Law to Re-establish the Civil Service, was enacted by the Nazi regime in Germany on 7 April 1933. This law, which followed Adolf Hitler's rise to power by two months and the promulgation of the Enabling Act by two weeks, constituted one of the earliest instances of anti-Semitic and racist legislation in Germany.

The primary objective of the law was to establish a "national" and "professional" civil service by dismissing certain groups of tenured civil servants. Individuals of non-Aryan origin, particularly those of Jewish descent, were compelled to retire, while members of the Communist Party or affiliated organizations were to be terminated from their positions. Additionally, the law forbade Jews, non-Aryans, and political opponents from holding positions as teachers, professors, judges, or within the government. Its reach extended to other professions such as lawyers, doctors, tax consultants, musicians, and notaries. Initially, the law sought the dismissal of all non-Aryan civil servants, but subsequent amendments were introduced to exempt World War I veterans, individuals serving since August 1914, and those who had lost family members in the war.

This law represented a significant turning point for German Jewry, prompting notable figures such as Albert Einstein to resign and emigrate prior to being forcibly expelled. Another provision aimed to remove personnel deemed unreliable due to their political beliefs. The legislation defined Aryan lineage and established a distinction between Aryans and non-Aryans. It also included provisions for compulsory retirement and the requirement of providing evidence of Aryan ancestry. A series of related ordinances were issued to implement the law and introduce further regulations.

Articles of the law
Article 1 of the Law claimed that in order to re-establish a "national" and "professional" civil service, members of certain groups of tenured civil servants were to be dismissed. Civil servants who were not of Aryan descent were to retire. Non-Aryans were defined as someone descended from non-Aryans, especially those descended from Jewish parents, or grandparents. Members of the Communist Party, or any related or associated organisation were to be dismissed. This meant that Jews, other non-Aryans, and political opponents could not serve as teachers, professors, judges, or other government positions. Shortly afterwards, a similar law was passed concerning lawyers, doctors, tax consultants, musicians, and notaries.

As the law was first drafted by the Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick, all those of "non-Aryan descent" were to be fired immediately at the Reich, Länder and municipal levels of government. However, the President of Germany, Paul von Hindenburg objected to the bill until it had been amended to exclude three classes of civil servants from the ban:
World War I veterans who had served at the front
those who had been in the civil service continuously since 1 August 1914 (i.e. since the start of the War)
those who lost a father or son in combat in the Great War

Hitler agreed to these amendments and the bill was signed into law on 7 April 1933. In practice, the amendments excluded most Jewish civil servants and not until after Hindenburg's death in 1934, were they disallowed. Nonetheless, passage of the law was a crucial turning point in the history of German Jewry, for it marked the first time since the last German Jews had been emancipated in 1871 that an anti-Semitic law had been passed in Germany. In one particularly notable example of the law's effect, Albert Einstein resigned his position at the Prussian Academy of Sciences and emigrated to the United States before he could be expelled.

Article 4 of the Law ("Civil servants who, after their previous political activities, cannot guarantee that they will always stand up for the national state without reservation[…].") had the intention to remove all personnel that, because of their political views, could not be relied upon by the Party to execute its wishes (Gleichschaltung). This Article 4 affected all Germans irrespective of their "racial" origins.

Content
Following the decree, Albert Gorter redefined the term 'Aryan' in the Aryan paragraph as:

However, this definition was unacceptable because it included non-European races. Achim Gercke later redefined this unacceptable definition as the one already used by the Expert Advisor for Population and Racial Policy which stated "An Aryan is one who is tribally related to German blood. An Aryan is the descendant of a Volk domiciled in Europe in a closed tribal settlement since recorded history." This new definition allowed the Civil Service Law to differentiate between 'Aryans' and 'non-Aryans'. However, the quantity of how much Jewish blood an individual was allowed to have until it was considered to damage the German Volk remained untenable.

(The following is translated from the German version of this page.)
Political opponents of national socialism ("Officials who, on account of their past political activities cannot guarantee that they have always acted wholeheartedly for the national state") should either be forced into retirement or let go from their jobs.

Moreover, civil servants should be let go if they had started their jobs after 1918 and were now unable to demonstrate that they had acquired all the training necessary for their careers. These people were called "membership book officials (Parteibuch-Beamte)" in the language of National Socialist propaganda.

According to § 3 (1) of the "First Ordinance for the accomplishment of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, the first definition of a Jew was defined as:

They could be let go or prematurely forced into retirement. According to § 3 (2), however, "non-Aryan" officials should be left in their positions if they had occupied those positions since a date before August 1914. Those Jewish civil servants who had a son or father who had been killed in the First World War were also spared from being sacked. This loophole also applied to "Frontkämpfer" (Front-line soldiers) (see Frontkämpferprivileg). All persons in the civil service would have to be able to produce the Ariernachweis (proof of Aryan ancestry) in order to prove that they had no ancestors of the Jewish faith. The loophole was closed by the 1935 Nuremberg Laws. Jewish civil servants still holding their posts were given notice by 31 December 1935 at the latest.

According to § 6 of the law, civil servants could be forced into retirement without cause "for the simplification of administration". The vacant positions created by this action were not to be refilled.

In rapid succession numerous regulations were dispensed with, as well as many employees and labourers in civil service as well as in the Reichsbank.

Pensions were not allowed for all groups of people forced into the ranks of pensioners by this law. The guaranteed old-age pension was reduced in 1938 by the "Siebente Verordnung zum Reichsbürgergesetz".

On 1 September 1933, Frick issued the second supplementary decree of the law in attempt to define the terms "Aryan" and "non-Aryan":

Related ordinances
11 April 1933 – First Ordinance on the Implementation of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service
25 April 1933 – Law against the Overcrowding of German Schools and Universities
6 May 1933 – Third Ordinance on the Implementation of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service
21 January 1935 – Law on the Retirement and Transfer of Professors as a Result of the Reorganization of the German System of Higher Education

See also
Aryan certificate Ahnentafel, Ahnenpass to prove Aryan descent
Racial policy of Nazi Germany

Notes

References

 Bauer, Yehuda: A History Of The Holocaust. New York: F. Watts, 1982. .
 Friedländer, Saul: Nazi Germany and the Jews Volume 1. The Years of Persecution, 1933–1939. New York: HarperCollins, 1997 .
 Hentschel, Klaus, editor and Ann M. Hentschel, editorial assistant and translator: Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser: Basel, Berlin, Boston, 1996. .

External links
Robertson, Struan. "The Jewish Community in Hamburg 1860–1943". Retrieved September 25, 2005.
Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, April 7, 1933 in English
German original of the text
Berufsbeamtengesetz from German-language Wikipedia. Retrieved September 25, 2005.

1933 in Germany
1933 in law
Civil services
The Holocaust in Germany
Holocaust racial laws
Political and cultural purges
Law of Nazi Germany
Jewish German history
Repealed German legislation
April 1933 events


FTPmail is the term used for the practice of using an FTPmail server to gain access to various files over the Internet.  An FTPmail server is a proxy server which (asynchronously) connects to remote FTP servers in response to email requests, returning the downloaded files as an email attachment.  This service might be useful to users who cannot themselves initiate an FTP session—for example, because they are constrained by restrictions on their Internet access.

History

During the early years of the Internet, Internet access was limited to a few locations. High speed links were not available for most users, and online connectivity was rare and expensive. Download of large files (then considered to be over a few megabytes) was nearly impossible due to bandwidth limitations, as well as frequent errors and lost connections. The original FTP specification did not allow for a session to be resumed, and the transmission had to restart from the beginning.

FTPmail gateways allowed people to retrieve such files. The file was broken into smaller pieces and encoded using a popular format such as uuencode. The receiver of the email messages would later reassemble the original file and decode it. As the file was broken into smaller pieces, the chances of losing the transmission was much smaller. In case of loss of connectivity, the transmission could be restarted from that part. The process was slower but much more reliable. It also allowed people who accessed the Internet only through email using dial-up lines to download files that were located remotely. Unlike FTP, files could be transferred through FTPmail even if the user did not have an online Internet connection (for example, using BBSes or other specialized e-mail software).

Servers located at universities, such as  and , were popular. Some of these servers hosted software archives containing early versions of Linux and other GNU software. Access to these repositories via FTPmail was instrumental in allowing people from foreign countries to access these tools at a time where online connectivity was impossible from their location.

FTPmail services were common in the early 1990s, but dwindled in importance as more users gained direct internet access through SLIP, PPP and other Dial-up access internet protocols. FTP also has lost popularity in favor of other methods for file transfer, notably HTTP which is available to virtually all Internet users.

Procedure

An email is sent to a FTPmail server with the command to be performed, inserted as the body of the message. The server then processes the request by logging on to the remote site, retrieving the file, encoding it, and returning the result via email.

Basic commands used

References

See also
File Transfer Protocol

Servers (computing)
File Transfer Protocol

FTPmail


Takeshi's Castle was a Japanese game show. It aired from 1986 to 1990 on the Tokyo Broadcasting System. It involved players going through tough physical challenges given by Japanese actor Takeshi Kitano. Between 100 and 142 players competed in an episode. Episodes finished with a "Final Challenge" where the players who were left faced against Kitano. Here, players had to hit a paper ring or hit the sensor on Kitano's cart with a water gun. If a player did so, Kitano's cart was deactivated, the castle was "taken," and the player won the game. Winning players won one million yen. Only nine players won during the show's run.

The show has been shown in over 20 countries. Episodes would have an announcer of the country's language commenting on the action. It has become a popular show around the world.

1986 television series debuts
1990 television series endings
1980s television series
1990s television series
Japanese television series
Television game shows

Takeshi's Castle


For the electrical device that produces light, see Lightbulb.

A bulb is the part of some plants, mostly under the dirt, that stores food while the plant is resting from growing (a storage organ).

Some well-known bulbs people grow to use as food are onions and garlic. Some bulbs grown for the decorative flowers are the lily, tulip, and some irises.

Some plant storage organs that are similar to bulbs, but have different names are, tubers, corms (swollen stems), tuberous roots, and pseudobulbs.

Plant anatomy

Bulb


The spencer, dating from the 1790s, was originally a woolen outer tail-coat with the tails omitted. It was worn as a short waist-length, double-breasted, man's jacket. It was originally named after George Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer (1758–1834), who is reported to have had a tail-coat adapted after its tails were burned by coals from a fire. It was adopted as mess dress by British military officers, leading to the name mess jacket.

It was also soon adopted as a popular women's fashion on both sides of the Atlantic during the 1790–1820 Regency style period The spencer was worn as a cardigan, or as a short, fitted jacket cut to just above waist level, or, in Empire style, to the bust line, and tailored on identical lines to the dress.

The use of the term spencer continued well into the 19th century to mean more generally any type of short jacket or coat. In Australia, New Zealand and South Africa the term is sometimes used to refer to thermal underwear.

In current menswear, the term "spencer" is often synonymous with knitted vest or waistcoat.

Gallery

References

External links

1790s fashion
19th-century fashion
Coats (clothing)
History of clothing (Western fashion)

Spencer (clothing)


Juhani Komulainen (born 22 April 1953 in Jämsänkoski, Finland) is a Finnish composer of modern classical music. He lives in Helsinki.

Biography
Juhani Komulainen has studied composition at the University of Miami in the U.S., and with Einojuhani Rautavaara in Finland. He gained a reputation in the 1990s through his successful participation in several Finnish and international competitions. His choral music combines a melodic propensity, a lyrical basic mood, a soft brand of free tonality and a style-independent freedom of expression.

The compositions of Juhani Komulainen are performed at international music festivals, choral competitions and workshops. He is working extensively with Finnish choirs and vocal groups creating a wide range of new choral compositions which have been recently premiered at concerts and recordings by numerous choirs including Academic Female Choir Lyran, The EOL Chamber Choir, Vocal Ensemble Fiori, Jubilate Chamber Choir, Kampin Laulu chamber choir, Vocal Ensemble Lumen Valo, Tapiola Choir and Liiton Miehet.

Selected works
Choral Works: Mixed Choir
Salve, flos et decor (Tervehditty ollos, armoitettu)
Cat Morgan Introduces Himself. 1st prize in the South Coast Choral Society Composition Competition, California, U.S., 1986
Sade (Rain). Text by Leena Saarisalo ( in Finnish )
Three sonnets of Shakespeare
Four ballads of Shakespeare. 1st prize in the composition competition of the Helsinki Chapter of SULASOL, 1994
Herra, minun valoni (Lord, You are my light)
Satu (Saga)
Matka Eedeniin (Journey to Eden)
Fantaisies Decoratives I (Le Panneau - The Panel)
Fantaisies Decoratives II (Les Ballons - The Balloons)
Cycle sur St. Martin
Haltian herätys (Awakening of the elf)
Keltainen Nocturne (Yellow Nocturne)
Vaellus (Journey)
The Song of Solomon
Herra kanssas olkohon
Jesu Christe pie
Shall I compare thee...
Nyt ilovirttä veisaten (In dulci jubilo)
Nyt sieluni ylös (Siionin virsi)
Särkyköön mun sydämeni (Siionin virsi)

Choral Works: Treble Voices
Muurahaisten laulu (The Song of the Ants)
Sade (Rain). Text by Leena Saarisalo (in Finnish)
Antakaa lasten tulla (Let the children come). 1st prize in the 1992 Lohtaja Church Music Festival composition competition
Kuin sinapinsiemen. 1st prize in the 1992 Lohtaja Church Music Festival composition competition
Kudontalaulu (Knitting Song)
Polulla (On the trail)
Muisto (Memory)
Suvikuvia (Summer Scenes)
Shakesperean Settings
Syyskesän ilta (The late summer evening)
Vocalise
The Tide Rises, the Tide Falls
Kaksi yösonettia (Two Nocturnal Sonnets)
Call of the sea

Choral Works: Male Choir
Nouskaa te ruhtinaat
Metsä palaa (The forest is burning)
Metsässä (In the forest)
Three Landscapes of T. S. Eliot
most people
Hiljainen kumina syvällä ylläni

Works for Choir and Orchestra
Mysterium

Works for Soloist, Choir and Orchestra or Ensemble
Profeetan kutsuminen (Calling of a Prophet)
Sytytän kynttilän (Lighting a candle)

Works for String Orchestra
Bothnian Dance and Ballad

Electro-acoustic Works
Kalevala

Works for Solo Instrument
Ballade for piano
Aria magico
homage

Chamber Works
Impressioni
The Ides of March

Arrangements
Jesper Swedberg (1694): Lova Gud i himmelshöjd

External links
Juhani Komulainen in Profile

1953 births
Living people
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
Finnish classical composers
Musicians from Helsinki
University of Miami Frost School of Music alumni
Finnish male classical composers
20th-century male musicians
21st-century male musicians
20th-century Finnish composers
21st-century Finnish composers

Juhani Komulainen


Ignacio Milam Tang (born 20 June 1940) is an Equatoguinean politician who was Prime Minister of Equatorial Guinea from July 2008 to May 2012. He is a member of the Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea (PDGE). From May 2012 to June 2016, he was First Vice President of Equatorial Guinea, serving alongside President Obiang's son, Teodorín.

Political career
Tang is a member of the Fang ethnic group. He was Minister of Justice and Worship from 1996 to 1998, then Minister of Youth and Sports from 1998 to 1999. In 1999, he was elected as the Second Vice-President of the Chamber of People's Representatives, and he remained in that post until being appointed Deputy Prime Minister for the Civil Service and Administrative Coordination in the government of Prime Minister Cándido Muatetema Rivas on February 26, 2001. After two years as Deputy Prime Minister, he was instead appointed Minister of State and Secretary-General of the Presidency on February 11, 2003. It was announced on January 10, 2006, that he had been appointed Equatorial Guinea's Ambassador to Spain; he served in that position until July 2008.

Prime Minister
Tang was appointed Prime Minister by President Teodoro Obiang on July 8, 2008, replacing Ricardo Mangue Obama Nfubea. Obiang appointed the new government headed by Tang on July 14. About half of the members of the previous government were retained in Tang's government, despite Obiang's scathing criticism of the previous government. Significantly, Tang was the first member of the Fang ethnic group to be appointed Prime Minister since Obiang became President in 1979. At the time of his appointment, Tang was considered a supporter of close relations with Spain and was not believed to be a powerful figure in the PDGE regime.

Following Obiang's re-election in the November 2009 presidential election, Tang and his government resigned on 12 January 2010, as they were legally required to do. Obiang reappointed Tang Prime Minister later on the same day.

Vice president
Tang resigned as Prime Minister on 18 May 2012 and was replaced by Vicente Ehate Tomi on 21 May 2012. He was moved to the newly created post of First Vice-President on the same day, while Obiang's son, Teodorin Obiang, was simultaneously appointed Second Vice-President.

References

1940 births
Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea politicians
Living people
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Equatorial Guinea)
Vice presidents of Equatorial Guinea

Ignacio Milam Tang


The Hunsrück is a low mountain range in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.

It is bounded by the river valleys of the Moselle (north), the Nahe (south), and the Rhine (east). The Hunsrück is continued by the Taunus mountains on the eastern side of the Rhine. In the north behind the Moselle it is continued by the Eifel. To the south of the Nahe, there is the Palatinate.

Many of the hills are not higher than 400 m. But there are several chains of higher peaks within the Hunsrück, all bearing names on their own: the (Schwarzwälder) Hochwald, the Idarwald, the Soonwald, and the Binger Wald. The highest peak is the Erbeskopf (816 m).

Towns in the Hunsrück include Simmern, Kirchberg, and Idar-Oberstein, Kastellaun, and Morbach.  Frankfurt-Hahn Airport, a growing low-fare carrier and cargo airport is there as well.

The climate in the Hunsrück is characterised by rainy weather. Slate is mined in the mountains.

The German TV drama trilogy Heimat, directed by Edgar Reitz, examined the 20th-century life of a small fictional village in the Hunsrück.

Other websites

Photos of HEIMAT- und HEIMAT3 - film locations at Hunsrück/Germany

Geography of Rhineland-Palatinate
Mountain ranges of Germany

Hunsrück


In typography, the terms were set when all printing was done with metal type. Font or fount was all the letters or characters of a single size of a typeface. For example, all characters for 9-point Times New Roman is a font, and the 10 point size would be another font.

With the increase in the use of personal computers, the definition of font has changed. The term font is now often used as another name for a typeface. The size of the characters has no effect on fonts when using this definition.

Typography

Font


Rao Shri Bhojraj Singh Ji Saheb, was born in 1567 (Bhadwa Sudi 11, samwat 1624), Rao Bhojraj Ji was the ruler of Udaipurwati from 1621 to 1640.

Life
He was the son of Raja Shri Raisal Ji Saheb of Khandela and his fourth wife, Rani Hansa Kanwar Mertani Ji Sahiba of Merta (daughter of Jagmal Viramdevot of Merta). He received Kosambi region in 1608 as his jagir by his father, where he settled down in 1608 AD (samwat 1665), it was later renamed Udaipurwati, he was granted a mansab of 800 zat and 400 sawars, later raised to 1000 zat and 500 sawars. In 1582 AD (samwat 1639), he represented his father, Raja Raisal in the battle of Kangra.

In 1596, the year of famine, he started the construction of a tank, namely the "Bhoj Sagar" (in Khandela) for the relief of famine sufferers. He constructed the Fort and a famous Bhojbagh Garden.

Personal life
Thakur Bhojraj had 3 sons.
Todarmal who succeeded his father as the ruler of Udaipurwati
Rao Bhojraj Ji died c 1640 at Khandela. He was the ancestor of Bhojraj Ji Ka sect of Shekhawats.

References

Udaipurwati, Bhojraj
People from Rajasthan

Thakur Bhojraj


Meredith Ann Pierce (born July 5, 1958, in Seattle, Washington) is an American fantasy writer and librarian.  Her books deal in fantasy worlds with mythic settings and frequently feature young women who first wish only to love and be loved, yet who must face hazard and danger to save their way of life, their world, and so on, usually without being respected for their efforts until the end of the story.

Career
Her first book started a trilogy often referred to as The Darkangel Trilogy.  Published in 1982, The Darkangel featured a story that Pierce claims came to her all at once while she read the account of a dream recounted to Carl Jung, one of the fathers of psychiatry.  It was followed in 1984 by A Gathering of Gargoyles, and concluded in 1989 with The Pearl of the Soul of the World.  These books told the story of a slave girl who finds herself trying to kill a darkangel to avenge his kidnapping of her mistress.  She then finds herself forced to care for the thirteen wraiths who were once his beautiful and unwilling brides, and must also resist the attractions of the vampyre.  As she makes her way through the books, she finds more and more responsibility laid on her slender shoulders, with few friends and much danger as well.

Pierce's second and more popular trilogy, The Firebringer Trilogy, involved a tribe of unicorns on a different fantasy world.  It started with Birth of the Firebringer in 1985, continued in Dark Moon, published in 1992, and ended with The Son of Summer Stars in 1996.  Jan, the hero of the trilogy, is part messiah, part King Arthur-figure.  All three books were re-printed by Firebird Books in 2003.

Pierce has written other fantasy novels, which are frequently published as either Young Adult Fiction or as general Fantasy, and sometimes in each category.  Her most recent book, Waters Luminous and Deep, is a book of short stories marketed for adults.

Books

The Darkangel Trilogy
1982 The Darkangel
Won International Reading Association Children's Book Award
Won California Young Reader Medal
1985 A Gathering of Gargoyles
1990 The Pearl of the Soul of the World

The Firebringer Trilogy
1985 Birth of the Firebringer
1992 Dark Moon
1996 The Son of Summer Stars

Other books
1985 The Woman Who Loved Reindeer
1988 Where the Wild Geese Go - a picture book
2001 Treasure at the Heart of the Tanglewood
2004 Waters Luminous and Deep - a book of short fiction

External links

 , "Moon and Unicorn"
Interview at Sequential Tart

1958 births
Living people
American children's writers
American fantasy writers
American women short story writers
American women novelists
Writers from Seattle
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American women children's writers
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
Novelists from Washington (state)

Meredith Ann Pierce


The Stane Age (or Stane Eild) wis an aincient time whan fowk wis makkin tuils frae stane. Wid, banes an ither stuff wis uised for tuils an aw, bit stane (specially a kynd o stane cawed keezle-stane) was uised tae cut things.

The time began wi the first stane tuils. Some scientists think this happent atween 2 and 5 meellion year aby. The dates for this event wis mibbes no the same ilka place, an is no aye greed upon, acause thae fowk didnae write ony records. They killt animals for fuid and claes an aw.

The time efter the stane age is the Bronze Age, named efter the metal bronze. The stane age endit whan fowk foond oot whit wey tae mak things oot o metal, cried smeltin. The first metal was copper, follaed bi bronze. Fowk likely began uisin bronze steid o juist stane in the Middle East sometime atween 3000 an 2000 BC.

The Stane Age is dividit bi airchaeologists (fowk wha studies relics) intae three sections: Paleolithic ("auld stane"), Mesolithic ("mid stane") an Neolithic ("new stane"). Pottery wis inventit durin the Neolithic Stane Age.

Stane Age

Stane Age


Electroencephalography is a way to record certain patterns of brain activity, on the skin of the head. Nerve cells use electricity to transmit information. It is one of the methods of diagnosis which can be used for conditions that affect the nerves. An electroencephalogram is a recorded electroencephalography. Both are abbreviated EEG. Electroencephalography is used to detect epilepsy, coma, sleep and brain death. Special adaptations exists to research sleep, for example the length of sleep rhythms. Sleep occurs in different phases, the specially adapted EEG can show the length of these phases.

EEG waves
One way that scientists study EEG recordings is by looking at different waves in the EEG. These waves do not move across the body, but occur as changes in the signal at one place over time. They are studied using mathematical techniques for separating a signal into different frequencies. The slowest waves are called delta, and they occur at 1 to 4 cycles per second. Delta occurs in sleep and during anesthesia. The next frequency is called theta, and it occurs at 4 to 8 cycles per second. Theta is seen when a person is trying to keep many different things, such as numbers or words, in memory. It is also seen when a person is drowsy. After theta comes alpha, a wave occurring at 8 to 12 cycles per second. Alpha is seen over the back of the head when a person has his or her eyes shut. It is also seen when a person is resting or meditating. Faster than alpha is beta, a wave that occurs at 12 to 30 cycles per second. It is seen when a person is getting ready to move or no longer resting. It is also seen when a person takes benzodiazepine drugs. Finally, gamma is the fastest wave seen in EEG, occurring at 30 to 100 cycles per second. It is seen when a person is thinking or paying attention to something.

Neurology
Medical imaging

Electroencephalography


The Davis Cup is an annual tennis tournament. Countries from around the world compete against each other in teams.
Only the 16 best ranked teams take part. Teams play against each other in rounds or 'ties'. In each tie, 5 matches or 'rubbers' are played: four singles and one doubles match. The team to win the most matches (3 or more) is the winner and goes to the next round.

Tennis tournaments

Davis Cup


The Rock Paintings of Tsagaan Salaa are located in western Mongolia. Site is inside Altai Tavan Bogd National Park and was approved as part of a larger Petroglyphic Complexes of the Mongolian Altai World Heritage Site along with The Upper Tsagaan Gol Complex in 2011.

Site description
Within an area of roughly 15 km2 reside approximately 10,000 figures on the southern side of the White River Valley.  Dating from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age, this massive collection of pictorials primarily depicts livestock and big game both individual and in large herds.
These rock paintings are rich not only in their numbers, but also in meanings, expressiveness, subject and compositions. They are important monuments of the art of the transition from ancient hunter-gatherer societies to livestock breeding and the beginning of the classic nomad economy in Mongolia.

World Heritage status
This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on August 1, 1996 in the Cultural category.

References

External links
 Petroglyphic Complexes of the Mongolian Altai UNESCO Collection on Google Arts and Culture
Tsagaan salaa rock painting - UNESCO World Heritage Centre Accessed 2009-03-02.
Rock art in Mongolia
World Heritage Tentative List

Tsagaan Salaa Rock Paintings


The Elgin and Winter Garden Theatres are a pair of stacked theatres in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The Winter Garden Theatre is seven storeys above the Elgin Theatre. They are the last surviving Edwardian stacked theatres in the world.

History

The pair of theatres were originally built as the flagship of Marcus Loew's theatre chain in 1913. The building was designed by architect Thomas W. Lamb, who also designed the Ed Mirvish Theatre nearby.

Both theatres were built to show vaudeville acts and the short silent movies of the time. Each theatre was intended for a different class of patron. The gold-and-marble, domed, 'hard-top' lower theatre (originally called Loew's Yonge Street Theatre) was home to continuous vaudeville and movies. The upper-level Winter Garden is an 'atmospheric' country garden under the stars, painted with murals of plants and garden trellises, with tree trunk columns and lantern lights. The upper theatre was built for the 'Big Time' vaudeville market and had reserved seats at premium prices, catering to affluent patrons. As well as competing in a different market, the upper theatre could be used for experimentation with acts, without the risk of closing the lower theatre.

By 1928, feature-length silent films were popular, but sound films were just coming into their own. In 1928, the lower theatre was converted to show sound films and the upper theatre was closed. The Winter Garden remained shuttered for about sixty years. Left inside it was a large collection of vaudeville flats and scenery, now the world's largest surviving collection. In 1969, Loews sold the Elgin to Famous Players. By the 1970s, the Elgin was showing mainly B movies and soft-core pornography.

Recent history

Since 1979, the Elgin Theatre has served as one of the hosts to the annual Toronto International Film Festival.

In 1981, the Ontario Heritage Foundation bought the structure from Famous Players. The Elgin was closed as a movie theatre on November 15, 1981; the final film presented at the theatre was What the Swedish Butler Saw. From March 1985 through March 1987 the musical Cats was very successfully presented in the essentially unrestored Elgin, showing the viability of the theatre. The building closed in 1987 for a full restoration and reopened in 1989.

In 1991, Dr. David Griesinger and Steve Barbar of Lexicon, Inc., at the request of acousticians Neil Muncy and Robert Tanner, installed the first production LARES system, an electroacoustic enhancement system that augments architectural acoustics, in the Elgin Theatre.  This initial LARES system used two microphones placed at the balcony's front edge to pick up sound from the stage. The microphone signals were digitized and processed in two mainframe computers, and the resulting signals were sent to 56 loudspeakers in the main ceiling and 60 under the balcony, for the purpose of providing additional intelligibility and ambience.

The Elgin Theatre housed the world premiere of the Napoleon musical in 1994, which later transferred to London's West End in 2000.  In 1995, it was home to The Who's Tommy musical. Since 1996, Ross Petty Productions has staged pantomimes at the Elgin Theatre each Christmas season.

From February 10 to 14, 2004, Conan O'Brien taped four episodes of NBC's Late Night with Conan O'Brien from the Elgin Theatre. The visit came about via Toronto City Council's CDN$1 million (~US$750,000 at the time) payment to NBC to have the U.S. national television program visit Toronto for a week of shows, part of the overall council-funded PR effort of promoting Toronto as a tourist destination for Americans in the wake of the widely publicized summer 2003 Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic that adversely impacted the city's tourism industry.

The Elgin Theatre played host to the taping of Bryan Adams in Concert for the American broadcast of Great Performances on PBS. The show was filmed in July 2014 and first aired on March 1, 2015.

In popular culture
A pivotal scene in the 1973 made-for-TV film She Cried Murder takes place in the (then shuttered) Winter Garden.

The cover photos for Rush's 1981 live album Exit...Stage Left were shot at the Winter Garden and the Buffalo Memorial Auditorium.

The Winter Garden is seen in the 1994 film Camilla. The location is also featured in the 2017 movie The Shape of Water and receives an acknowledgement in the closing credits. The music video for "Changes" by the Montreal band Stars is also set there.

Emily St. John Mandel's 2014 novel Station Eleven begins on the stage of the Elgin Theatre.

Other Thomas Lamb theatres in Canada
 Ed Mirvish Theatre, Toronto
 Uptown Theatre, Toronto
 Capitol Cinema, Ottawa
 The Sanderson Centre for the Performing Arts, Brantford

See also
Opera Atelier

References

External links

Ontario Heritage Trust: The Elgin and Winter Garden Theatre Centre
Toronto's Historical Plaques – Loew's Yonge Street and Winter Garden Theatres
Toronto's Historical Plaques -Elgin and Winter Garden Theatres
Heritage Property Detail for 189 Yonge Street

Theatres in Toronto
National Historic Sites in Ontario
Movie palaces
Former cinemas in Toronto
City of Toronto Heritage Properties
Theatres on the National Historic Sites of Canada register
Ontario Heritage Trust
Loew's Theatres buildings and structures
Theatres completed in 1913
Thomas W. Lamb buildings

Elgin and Winter Garden Theatres


Cohiba is a brand for two kinds of premium cigar, one produced in Cuba for Habanos S.A., the Cuban state-owned tobacco company, and the other produced in the Dominican Republic for US-based General Cigar Company. The name cohíba derives from the Taíno word for "tobacco".

The Cuban brand is filled with tobacco that comes from the Vuelta Abajo region of Cuba which has undergone an extra fermentation process. Cuban Cohiba was established in 1966 as a limited production private brand supplied exclusively to Fidel Castro and high-level officials in the Communist Party of Cuba and Cuban government. Often given as diplomatic gifts, the Cohiba brand gradually developed a "cult" status. It was first released commercially for sale to the public in 1982. The Cohiba Siglo VI has received some of the highest scores in the line from blind reviews, including a 93 from Cigar Aficionado and a 90 from Blind Man's Puff.

The US Cohiba brand name was registered in the United States by the General Cigar Company in 1978 and cigars using that trademark have been produced for the American market in the Dominican Republic on a large scale from 1997. This Cohiba is related to the Cuban product in name only, containing no Cuban tobacco, and thus is the only "Cohiba" that can be sold legally in the United States.

Cuban Cohiba

History
Cuban Cohiba's origins trace back to the middle 1960s, when a bodyguard of Fidel Castro shared some of his private supply of cigars made by a local artisan named Eduardo Rivera. These cigars pleased Castro so much that a special production of the unbranded blend, produced under tight security, was made for Castro and other top government officials.

As Castro himself recalled the tale in 1994:

"I used to see the man smoking a very aromatic, very nice cigar, and I asked him what brand he was smoking. He told me that it was a special blend, but that it came from a friend who makes cigars and he gave them to him. I said, let's find this man. I tried the cigar, and I found it so good that we got in touch with him and asked him how he made it. Then we set up the house [the El Laguito factory], and he explained the blend of tobacco he used. He told which leaves he used from which tobacco plantations. He also told us about the wrappers he used and other things. We found a group of cigar makers. We gave them the material and that is how the factory was founded. Now Cohiba is known all over the world."

The production of special cigars for top officials under conditions of tight security was given extra impetus by fears of ongoing CIA assassination efforts against Fidel and Raul Castro and Che Guevara. The technical services department of the agency is now in fact known to have worked on the development of exploding cigars as a means of assassination from the early 1960s.

The Cuban Cohiba brand was formally launched in 1968 at the direction of Cubatabaco, the Cuban state tobacco marketing bureau. The head of Cubatabaco asked Avelino Lara, head of the El Laguito factory, to create a new super-premium blend which differed from all previously existing Cuban cigars. During the first few years of production only a few thousand boxes were produced annually, reserved for the use of high government officials and frequently given away as diplomatic gifts.

The Cuban Cohiba brand was launched as a premium cigar brand into markets outside of the US in 1982 in conjunction with the 1982 World Cup held in Spain.  At the time of its first public launch, the Cohiba marque consisted of just three vitolas (sizes): the Panetela, the Corona Especial, and the Lancero.  In 1989 three more vitolas were added: the Robusto, the Exquisito, and the Espléndido. These first  six are now collectively known as the company's Línea Clásica (classic line).

In 1992 Habanos SA launched the first sizes in what it calls the Línea 1492, commemorating Christopher Columbus and his voyage to the Americas, with each size named for a century since Columbus' discovery. The initial launch included the Siglo I, Siglo II, Siglo III, Siglo IV, and Siglo V, with a Siglo VI added in 2002.

Besides regular production, Habanos SA regularly releases limited release Cohíba cigars for such events as the annual Habanos Festival, brand anniversaries, and their annual Edición Limitada (limited edition) release of special sizes of their various cigar brands wrapped in a darker vintage leaf.  In 2007, Habanos released a new line of maduro-wrapped Cohibas, called "Maduro 5," in three sizes.

The Cuban Cohiba brand also carries two machine-made extensions cigarillos: the Mini and the Club.

Habanos SA have used their Cohiba brand name for non-cigar products, manufacturing Cohiba cigarettes since 1987 and Extra Cohiba Cognac since 1999.

In 1992 approximately 3.4 million cigars were produced in Cuba bearing the Cohiba label, out of a total Cuban cigar export production of approximately 60 million pieces.

Tobaccos

Cuban Cohibas have historically been known to use some of the finest cigar tobacco available in Cuba.  The tobacco for Cohiba is selected from the finest Vegas Finas de Primera (first-class tobacco fields) in the San Luis and San Juan y Martinez zones of the Vuelta Abajo region of Pinar del Río Province. In 1992 just 10 carefully selected fields totaling about 700 acres were used for production of the Cohiba brand, their exact location a carefully guarded trade secret. The production of these fields is further selected for quality, with the output of just five of these fields used in Cohiba production in an average year.

The tobacco used to fill the cigars is unique among Cuban brands owing to a special third fermentation in wooden barrels at the El Laguito factory, aimed at producing a smoother flavor than other cigars.  Originally all Cohibas were made at the El Laguito factory, a mansion located on the outskirts of Havana converted into a cigar-rolling school for women in 1961. Production of some Cohiba vitolas was later expanded to the Partagas factory in Havana, which manufactures its Cohiba product from pre-blended tobacco received from El Laguito.

Cohiba cigars tend to be medium to full-bodied in flavor.

Vitolas in the Cohiba line

The following list of vitolas de salida (commercial vitolas) within the Cohiba marque lists their size and ring gauge in Imperial (and Metric), their vitolas de galera (factory vitolas), and their common name in American cigar slang.

The La Línea Clásica Series
 Corona Especial - 6" × 38 (152 × 15.08 mm), Laguito No. 2, a panetela
 Espléndido - 7" × 47 (178 × 18.65 mm), Julieta No. 2, a churchill
 Exquisito - " × 33 (124 × 13.10 mm), Seoane, a small panetela
 Lancero - " × 38 (191 × 15.08 mm), Laguito No. 1, a long panetela
 Panetela - " × 26 (114 × 10.32 mm), Laguito No. 3, a small panetela
 Robusto - " × 50 (124 × 19.84 mm), Robusto, a robusto
The La Línea 1492 Series
 Siglo I - 4" × 40 (102 × 15.88 mm), Perla, a petit corona
 Siglo II - " × 42 (130 × 16.67 mm), Mareva, a petit corona
 Siglo III - " × 42 (156 × 16.67 mm), Corona Grande, a long corona
 Siglo IV - " × 46 (143 × 18.26 mm), Corona Gorda, a grand corona
 Siglo V - " × 43 (171 × 17.07 mm), Dalia, a lonsdale
 Siglo VI - " × 52 (149 × 20.64 mm), Cañonazo, a robusto extra
The Maduro 5 Series
 Genios - " × 52 (140 × 20.64 mm), Estupendos, a robusto extra
 Magicos - " × 52 (114 × 20.64 mm), Magicos, a petit robusto
 Secretos - " × 40 (111 × 15.88 mm), Reyes, a petit corona
The Behike Series
 BHK 52 ring gauge × 119 mm in length
 BHK 54 band gauge × 144 mm length
 BHK 56 band gauge × 166 mm length
Edición Limitada Releases
 Double Corona (2003) - " × 49 (194 × 19.45 mm), Prominente, a double corona
 Sublime (2004) - " × 54 (165 × 21.43 mm), Sublime, a double robusto
 Pirámide (2001/re-release in 2006) - " × 52 (156 × 20.64 mm), Pirámide, a pyramid
Special Releases
 Millennium Reserve Pirámide - " × 52 (156 × 20.64 mm), Pirámide, a pyramid
 Behike - " × 52 (191 × 20.64 mm), Behike, a double robusto

General Cigar Company's Cohiba
With the nationalization of the Cuban tobacco industry along with other businesses after the Cuban Revolution, many cigar makers fled the island and began growing tobacco in the Dominican Republic, Honduras, and Nicaragua, taking the brand names of their cigars with them. The Cuban industry contended that the brand names were the property of the nation, however, and parallel use of the same brand name resulted. Additionally, post-revolutionary trademark uncertainty and a US embargo against all Cuban goods made possible the relaunch of other Cuban brand names by private companies in other countries.

The General Cigar Company, a private firm having no relation whatsoever to the Cuban cigar industry, first registered the name Cohiba in the United States in 1978 and subsequently began selling cigars under the Cohiba brand in that country in the 1980s. Manufacture and sales of General Cigar's brand was significantly expanded during the 1990s cigar boom, with General Cigar's product known colloquially as "Red Dot Cohiba," owing to the red dot in the middle of the "O" in "Cohiba" on its bands and boxes.

In response to General Cigar's use of the Cohiba name, Cubatabaco, the government-run company in charge of cigars, and half-owner of Habanos SA along with Altadis SA, launched a long-running legal campaign to have General Cigar's trademark revoked.

These legal fisticuffs were resolved on June 19, 2006, when the U. S. Supreme Court [ denied] Cubatabaco's petition. As a result, the February 2005 decision of the U. S. 2nd Circuit Court of Appeals (Docket #04-2527), which confirmed General Cigar Company's exclusive ownership of the Cohiba trademark in the United States, is final.  The General Cigar-made Cohiba cigars now have a disclaimer on boxes that they are not affiliated in any way with the Cuban brand.

However, the United States government, in an amicus curiae brief filed in the Supreme Court, acknowledged that Cubatabaco could request U.S. government permission for judicial protection of the brand from the Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control, which administers the U.S. embargo. Cubatabaco has stated that they intend to pursue this course of action.

In a November 1992 interview, director of Cubatabaco Francisco Padrón indicated that in the event the American embargo of Cuban products were ended, return of the Cohiba brand name to Cubatabaco would be a prerequisite for any future distribution agreement with General Cigar Co. "The first condition is that they must pass the brand name to us. This is the first condition. Immediately. If not, forget about it," Padrón declared.

On February 25, 2015, the US Supreme Court handed Cuba a victory over its cigar litigation. The US Supreme Court declined to intervene in a long-running battle between a US and Cuban company over the Cohiba cigar trademark. By refusing to hear an appeal, the country's highest court leaves intact a ruling in favor of the Cuban firm.

Due to a US trade embargo with Cuba, Cubatabaco cannot sell its Cohiba cigars in the United States while they are sold worldwide and in Cuba. US company General Cigar sells its Dominican Republic-produced Cohiba cigars in the US. The legal dispute is over whether the Cuban company has to the right to challenge General Cigar's trademark in the US, despite the embargo, as reported by Agence France Presse.

General Cigar obtained a US registration for Cohiba in 1981 and a second registration in 1995. Cubatabaco had the trademark registered in Cuba in 1972. In the late 70s, it began registering the logo outside Cuba – in 115 countries – but was prohibited from selling merchandise in the US by the Cuban Assets Control Regulation (CACR).
In the case, Cubatabaco argued the CACR not only prevented the company from selling in the US, but also prevented it from challenging General Cigar's registrations.

In June 2014, the US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled in favor of the Cuban company by giving it standing to seek a cancellation of the registrations that block its own ability to register trademarks. The case will now move forward to the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board.

The challenge comes two months after President Obama announced in December that he planned to loosen some of the US-Cuba restrictions, including the easing of the decades-long trade embargo.

Under an easing of travel restrictions between the US and Cuba, American visitors will be able to buy and take home as many as 100 cigars.

In 2023, the first-ever box-pressed Cohiba called "Rivieria" consisting of six-region blend was released in the U.S.A.

Cohiba Riviera made its inaugural debut at a Kentucky Derby 2023 week even featuring Bourbon expert Tom Fischer and Cohiba National Brand Ambassador and cigar blender Sean Williams.

See also

 Cigar brands
 Cohiba (cigarette)

Footnotes

Further reading
 Anwer Bati, The Cigar Companion: The Connoisseur's Guide. Third Edition. Philadelphia and London: Running Press, 1997.
 Bernard LeRoy and Maurice Szafran, The Illustrated History of Cigars. London: Harold Starke, 1993.
 Min Ron Nee and Adriano Martínez Rius, Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Post-Revolution Havana Cigars. Hong Kong: Interpro Business Corp., 2003.
 Richard B. Perelman, Perelman's Pocket Cyclopedia of Havana Cigars. Third edition. Los Angeles: Perelman, Pioneer & Co., 2005.
 David Hall, The Cigar Nut - Cuban Cohiba Cigar History Cohiba Cigar History 2012.

External links

1966 establishments in Cuba
Cigar manufacturing companies
Habanos S.A. brands
Manufacturing companies established in 1966

Cohiba (cigar brand)


The Galápagos hotspot is a volcanic hotspot in the East Pacific Ocean responsible for the creation of the Galápagos Islands as well as three major aseismic ridge systems, Carnegie, Cocos and Malpelo which are on two tectonic plates. The hotspot is located near the Equator on the Nazca Plate not far from the divergent plate boundary with the Cocos Plate. The tectonic setting of the hotspot is complicated by the Galapagos Triple Junction of the Nazca and Cocos plates with the Pacific Plate. The movement of the plates over the hotspot is determined not solely by the spreading along the ridge but also by the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and the Cocos and Nazca Plates.

The hotspot is believed to be over 20 million years old and in that time there has been interaction between the hotspot, both of these plates, and the divergent plate boundary, at the Galapagos Spreading Centre. Lavas from the hotspot do not exhibit the homogeneous nature of many hotspots; instead there is evidence of four major reservoirs feeding the hotspot. These mix to varying degrees at different locations on the archipelago and also within the Galapagos Spreading Centre.

Hotspot theory

In 1963, Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson proposed the "hotspot" theory to explain why although most earthquake and volcanic activity occurs at plate boundaries, some occurs far from plate boundaries. The theory claimed that small, long-lasting, exceptionally "hot" areas of magma are located under certain points on Earth. These places, dubbed "hotspots", provide localized heat and energy systems (thermal plumes) that sustain long-lasting volcanic activity on the surface. This volcanism builds up seamounts that eventually rise above the ocean current, forming volcanic islands.
As the islands slowly moved away from the hotspot, by the motion of sliding plates as described by the theory of plate tectonics, the magma supply is cut, and the volcano goes dormant. Meanwhile, the process repeats all over again, this time forming a new island, on and on until the hotspot collapses. The theory was developed to explain the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, where historic islands could be traced to the northwest in the direction that the Pacific Plate is moving. The early theory put these fixed sources of heat for the plumes deep within the Earth; however, recent research has led scientists to believe that hotspots are actually dynamic, and able to move on their own accord.

Tectonic setting
The Galapagos hotspot has a very complicated tectonic setting. It is located very close to the spreading ridge between the Cocos and Nazca plates; the hotspot interacts with both plates and the spreading ridge over the last twenty million years as the relative location of the hotspot in relation to the plates has varied. Based on similar seismic velocity gradients of the lavas of the Carnegie, Cocos and Malpelos Ridges there is evidence that the hotspot activity has been the result of a single long mantle melt rather than multiple periods of activity and dormancy.

In Hawaii the evidence suggests that each volcano has a distinct period of activity as the hotspot moves under that portion of the Pacific plate before becoming dormant and then extinct and eroding under the ocean.  This does not appear to be the case in the Galapagos, instead there is evidence of concurrent volcanism over a wide area. Nearly all Galapagos Islands show volcanism in the recent geological past, not just at the current location of the hotspot at Fernandina.  The list below gives the last eruption dates for the Galapagos volcanoes, ordered from West to East.

The movement of the Nazca and Cocos plates have been tracked. The Nazca plate moves at 90 degrees at a rate of 58±2 km per million years. The Cocos Plate moves at 41 degrees at a rate of 83±3 km per million years. The location of the hotspot over time is recorded in the oceanic plate as the Carnegie and Cocos Ridges.

The Carnegie Ridge is on the Nazca plate is  long and up to  wide. It is orientated parallel to the plate movement, and its eastern end is approximately 20 million years old. There is a prominent saddle in the ridge at 86 degrees West where the height drops much closer to the surrounding ocean floor. The Malpelo Ridge, which is  long was once believed to be part of the Carnegie Ridge.

The Cocos Ridge is a 1000 km long feature located on the Cocos plate and is orientated parallel to the plates motion from the 91 degree west transform fault at the Galapagos Spreading Centre towards the Panamanian coast. The north eastern end of the ridge dates from about 13–14.5 million years ago. However, Cocos Island at the northern end of the ridge is only 2 million years old, and was therefore created at a time well after the ridge had moved away from the hotspot. The presence of a pronounced sedimentary hiatus in sediments on the Cocos Ridge indicates that the Cocos Ridge was probably buckled upon its initial shallow subduction along the Middle American Trench.

The current model for the interaction of the hotspot and the spreading centre between the Cocos and Nazca plates attempts to explain the ridges on both plates; the split between the Carnegie and Malpelo Ridge and subsequent volcanic activity away from the hotspot. There have been eight major phases in the last 20 million years.
 19.5 million years – 14.5 million years ago: the hotspot was located on the Nazca plate, forming a combined Carnegie and Malpelo Ridge. The type of lava erupted was a mix of plume material and depleted upper mantle, similar to the type of lava found in the central Galapagos islands at the current time.
 From 14.5 million years to 12.5 million years ago: the Galapagos Spreading Centre moved south and the ridge overlay the southern edge of the hotspot. Less material is erupted over the Nazca plate resulted in the saddle being formed in the Carnegie Ridge. The movement of the location of the Galapagos Spreading Centre starts to rift the Malpelo Ridge away from the Carnegie Ridge. The majority of the hotspot lavas are created on the Cocos plate resulting in the formation of the Cocos Ridge. The lavas formed here are similar to the types erupted on the western shield volcanoes of the Galapagos, which are predominantly plume.
 12 million years to 11 million years: The Galapagos hotspot is centred under the Galapagos Spreading Centre. plume-type lavas are now abundant on the Cocos Ridge.
 9.5 million years ago: the rifting between the Carnegie and Malpelo Ridges ends.
 5.2 million years ago to 3.5 million years ago: the Galapagos Spreading Centre has another ridge jump, moving northwards with the plume now erupting on the Nazca plate, similar to the present orientation.
 3.5 million to 2 million years ago: A short-lived east–west trending spreading centre is formed north of the Galapagos Spreading Centre. This new rift fails but leads to post abandonment volcanic activity and the subsequent formation of the Cocos Island and surrounding seamounts. Around the hotspot plume lavas predominate.
 2.6 million years ago: a major transform fault occurs north of the Galapagos hotspot. This results in widespread volcanism in the northern Galapagos along the Wolf Darwin Lineament and around Genovesa Island.
 Present : The Galapagos hotspot is south of the spreading centre and there is geochemical zonation of the plume.

Lava chemistry
Analysis of the radioactive isotopes of the lavas on the islands of the Galapagos archipelago and on the Carnegie Ridge shows that there are four major reservoirs of magma that mix in varying combinations to form the volcanic province.

The four types are:
PLUME – this is magma associated with the plume itself and is similar to magmas from other ocean islands within the Pacific. It has the characteristics of intermediate Strontium (Sr), Neodymium (Nd) and Lead (Pb) ratios. The PLUME lavas are found predominantly in the west of the islands, around Ferdinandina and Isabela Islands, which is near to the current position of the hotspot. The PLUME lavas erupted on Fernandina and Isabela are relatively cool. Analysis shows that they are as much as 100 degrees Celsius cooler than those in Hawaii. The cause of this is not fully understood but may be due to cooling in the lithosphere or being relatively cool at formation in the mantle. They are then found in lower quantities in a horseshoe pattern north and south of the central islands mixing with the other reservoirs as it progresses east. PLUME lavas are also found in the lavas from the Galapagos Spreading Centre due to convection and mixing of all of these lavas. In the upper mantle convection currents bring in mantle material at shallow angles from the south of the Galapagos Spreading Centre.  These convection current will draw in some PLUME type magma to the spreading centre where it is then erupted.

DGM – (Depleted Galapagos Mantle), this has similar characteristics to ocean ridge basalts throughout the Pacific and the Galapagos Spreading Centre. Partial melting of the upper mantle as a result of the spreading centre will leave mantle material depleted in some compounds.  It has low Sr and Pb isotope ratios and high Nd ratios.  DGM is found in the central islands of the Galapagos such as Santiago, Santa Cruz, San Cristobal and Santa Fe.  It fills in the centre of the horseshoe formed by the PLUME lavas to the west, north and south.

FLO – (Floreana), characteristic of that island's lavas. It is thought that this reservoir came from subducted ocean crust that has been entrained by the mantle plume.  It has enriched Sr and Pb ratios and is enriched with trace elements. FLO is associated principally with the island of Floreana and shows up on the mixing of lavas within the Galapagos along the southern side archipelago and is diluted to the east and north of there.

WD – (Wolf Darwin) is unique in the Pacific and resembles material from an Indian Ocean Ridge system.  It is found on the Wolf and Darwin Islands and the seamounts that connect them along the Wolf Darwin Lineament. It has a unique Pb ratio. WD is located along the northern side of the archipelago and dilutes to the east and south.

See also
Volcanoes of the Galápagos Islands

References

Hotspots of the Pacific Ocean
Galápagos Islands
Geology of Ecuador

Galápagos hotspot


Independent Grocers of Australia or (IGA) for short, is the largest independent supermarket group in Australia. It is part of the Independent Grocers Association which has shops all over the world. Each IGA shop is run by the local shopkeeper unlike big companies such as Woolworths and Coles which runs all of their shops across the country. A company supplies all IGA shops around the country and controls the use of the IGA name but does not own every one of each shop. The independent shopkeepers and their shops claim to be Local Heroes. There are over 1000 shops and three sub-brands.

IGA in Australia also has the Black & Gold brand name product range which first came about in 1980, the first such brand name product range to enter the independent food shops that are now called IGA. Now, it also has a premium brand name range also called IGA and a healthy range of products called IGA Way of Life.

Metcash Trading Limited is the company behind IGA and supplies the shops. Davids Holdings, Metcash's old name, brought the IGA name to Australia in 1988 with just 10 shops. Now, it has grown from 10 shops to over 1000 shops in less than 20 years.

The stores also have the Community Chest program, where they donate profits to local charities.

Related pages
 Ritchies, Australia's largest IGA chain

Other websites
 IGA Australia Website

Supermarkets of Australia
1988 establishments in Australia

IGA Australia


Sumbawa is an Indonesian island in the middle of the Lesser Sunda Islands chain. It has Lombok to the west, Flores to the east, and Sumba farther to the southeast. It is in the province of West Nusa Tenggara.

Sumbawa is 15,448 km² (three times the size of Lombok). About 1.5 million people live there. It marks the boundary between the islands to the west, which were influenced by religion and culture spreading from India, and the region to the east that was not so influenced.

Volcanoes
Sumbawa is inside the Pacific Ring of Fire. It is a volcanic island, including Mount Tambora (8°14'41"S, 117°59'35"E) which exploded in 1815, the most destructive volcanic eruption in modern history (roughly four times larger than the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, between Java and Sumatra, in terms of volume of magma ejected). The eruption killed as many as 92,000. It also apparently destroyed a small culture of Southeast Asian affinity, known to archaeologists as the Tamboran kingdom. It launched 100 cubic kilometers of ash into the upper atmosphere, which caused 1816 to be the "year without a summer."

Islands of Indonesia
Lesser Sunda Islands
West Nusa Tenggara

Sumbawa


Joasaphus Skripitsyn (, or Ioasaph or Joasaph; died 1555 or 1556) was the Metropolitan of Moscow and all Rus' from  1539 to 1542. He was the ninth metropolitan in Moscow to be appointed without the approval of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople as had been the norm.

Joasaph is known to have authored a number of theological works. Joasaphus was first a monk and then hegumen at the Trinity-St. Sergius Lavra (since 1529). He enjoyed the favor of Grand Prince Vasili III. After Metropolitan Daniel had been deposed at the church sobor of 1539, Joasaph was elected Metropolitan of Moscow just three days later (5 February 1539). He is known to have opposed the supporters of the Josephites or "Non-possessors" and favored the opponents of monastic landownership. Joasaph was the one to solicit young Ivan IV's forgiveness for the disgraced Belskys and prince Vladimir of Staritsa and render support for Maximus the Greek.

During the regency of Grand Duchess Elena Glinskaya, in the first five years of the reign of Ivan IV (1533–1538), Joasaph managed to keep his influence at the royal court, but in 1542, Joasaph fell into disgrace and was exiled to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery and then transferred to the Trinity-St. Sergius Lavra in 1547, where he would remain until his death on 27 July 1555.

References

Metropolitans of Moscow and all Russia
1550s deaths
Year of birth unknown

Joasaphus, Metropolitan of Moscow


Đây là danh sách các thành phố lớn nhất của Hoa Kỳ xếp theo dân số. Thành phố thủ phủ mỗi bang được in nghiêng.

Note 1:  The only incorporated place in Hawaii is the City & County of Honolulu. A portion of it, the Honolulu District, is sometimes regarded as the "city" for statistical purposes, although it has no government separate from that of the City and County as a whole. The U.S. Census Bureau defines Honolulu CDP (Census Designated Place) to coincide with the Honolulu District. Thus for Hawaii, the largest CDPs are ranked.

Note 2:  As of January 2006, New Orleans remains at a population of anywhere from 200.000-230.000 due to the effects of Hurricane Katrina which is only about 50% of the population. Many of the city's residents have relocated to Baton Rouge hoặc elsewhere, either temporarily hoặc permanently. When new Census estimates are released in mid-2006, it is expected that New Orleans will move down in the rankings.

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