Ann Eliza Bleecker (October 1752 – November 23, 1783) was an American poet and correspondent. Following a New York upbringing, Bleecker married John James Bleecker, a New Rochelle lawyer, in 1769. He encouraged her writings, and helped her publish a periodical containing her works.

The American Revolution saw John join the New York Militia, while Ann fled with their two daughters. She continued to write, and what remained of the family returned to Tomhannock following Burgoyne's surrender. She was saddened and affected by the deaths of numerous family members over the years,  and died in 1783.

Bleecker's pastoral poetry is studied by historians to gain perspective of life on the front lines of the revolution, and her novel Maria Kittle, the first known Captivity novel, set the form for subsequent Indian Capture novels which saw great popularity after her death.

Childhood
Ann Eliza Schuyler was born in October 1752, in Albany in the Province of New York. She was the sixth child born to Margareta Van Wyck (1722–1777) and Brandt Schuyler (abt 1716–1752),
successful merchants and members of the American Dutch aristocracy. After a long illness, Ann Schuyler's father died just before she was born in 1752.
As a child, Ann Schuyler was known for her precocious writing ability, and was often asked to recite her poems, which ranged from sentimental or humorous to sophisticated or satirical. She would often compose impromptu poems at the request of friends.
Ann's mother remarried in 1760; she and her new husband Anthony TenEyck (1712–1775) had one daughter, Susanna TenEyck (1762-?). The TenEycks were also part of the Dutch elite, so Ann Schuyler's childhood seemed to be filled with security, abundance and happiness.

Marriage to John James Bleecker
On March 29, 1769, Ann Schuyler married a lawyer from New Rochelle, John James Bleecker (1745–95). The couple moved to Poughkeepsie shortly after their marriage. John gave up the practice of law and took up agriculture in 1771, when they moved to his pastoral country estate in Tomhannock,  north of Albany, in the Schaghticoke region which was settled by Dutch families. "The Bleecker home reflected their wealth by its furnishings and its setting." "From the beautiful gardens flourishing with beauty, to the young orchard bounded by a thick forest...to the west, vast cultivated fields and the roaring river of Tomhhanock." Bleecker considered her home a "retreat" and most of her pastoral poetry was written in the first five years of her life in Tomhhanock. She corresponded with friends and relatives, writing about her isolation and the beauty of her surroundings. An example excerpt from her poem An Evening Prospect:

 "Cast your eyes beyond this meadow,
 Painted by a hand divine,
 And observe the ample shadow
 of that solemn ridge of pine."

During this time she also had two daughters—Margaretta, born October 11, 1771, and Abeltje (Abella), born June 5, 1776.

On November 11, 1775, her husband was one of several appointed Deputies (or delegates) from Albany County to the Provincial Congress.
Her husband encouraged her writing, he called it "her genius".
In the winter of 1779, Bleecker published a periodical called the "Albany Gazette". The Gazette was composed entirely of her political essays, poems, and short stories, produced for the sole purpose of sharing entertainment and news with friends and relatives.

Impact of the American Revolution

In 1777, the Bleeckers' pastoral lives were interrupted by the American Revolutionary War. British troops, under the command of General John Burgoyne, invaded Tomhannock from Canada (as part of Burgoyne's Saratoga campaign to capture the Hudson River). In response, John Bleecker joined the New York Militia, and Ann Bleecker fled southward.

Ann Bleecker was forced to flee to Albany on foot with her two daughters, infant Abella and 6-year-old Margaretta. Along the way, Abella died of dysentery. Joined by her mother and sister Caty Swits, Ann Bleecker continued on to Red Hook, but her mother died en route there. An excerpt of a poem she wrote, Written in the retreat from Burgoyne, describing how she felt about her daughters death:

 At length her languid eyes clos'd from the day,
 The idol of my soul was torn away;
 Her spirit fled and left me ghastly clay!
 Then — then my soul rejected all relief,
 Comfort I wish'd not for, I lov'd my grief:
 'Hear, my Abella!' cried I, 'hear me mourn,'

After Burgoyne's surrender on October 17, 1777 (part of the aftermath of the Saratoga Campaign), Ann Bleecker, her daughter and sister (all that remained of the family), and possibly a slave child returned to Tomhannock. Caty Swits (1743–77) died during the return journey, devastating Ann Bleecker.

Her husband continued to serve in the militia. In 1779, Ann Bleecker was forced (it is unclear whether due to British troop activity, Native American activity, or some other reason) to flee with her surviving daughter to Albany again. But further trauma was yet to come. On hearing in 1781 that her husband had been captured by Loyalist forces or possibly "a band of wandering British soldiers", she suffered a miscarriage and nervous breakdown. Ann Bleecker never fully recovered from all these traumatic events. Her daughter, Margaretta Faugeres, later described how Bleecker developed a tendency toward depression and there was a melancholy reflection in her writings:

 "…she was frequently very lively, and would then give way to the flights of her fertile fancy, and write songs, satires, and burlesque: but . . . the heaviest dejection would succeed, and then all the pieces which were not as melancholy as herself, she destroyed."

Ann Eliza Bleecker died November 23, 1783. She is buried in the cemetery of the Reformed Dutch church in Albany (though all bodies buried there were moved to Albany Rural Cemetery in the early twentieth-century).

Literary impact
Bleecker did not write for posterity; she wrote letters to her friends and relatives which contained poems and short stories, which were later collected and published by her daughter.

Posthumous publication

In 1793, a significant part of Bleecker's work, after first appearing in The New-York Magazine in 1790 and 1791, was published by her daughter, Margaretta V. Bleecker Faugères, who was also a poet. She edited her mother's writings and added some of her own poems and essays to a collection entitled The Posthumous Works of Ann Eliza Bleecker; she included thirty-six poems, twenty-three letters, an unfinished short historical novel, The History of Henry and Ann, and The History of Maria Kittle, a captivity narrative set during the French and Indian War. Due to its popularity, The History of Maria Kittle was republished separately in 1797.

Maria Kittle
Bleecker's epistolary novel The History of Maria Kittle took the Indian Captivity story genre in new directions, as it was possibly the first American fictional account focusing on Native Americans. In the late 18th century, Indian Captivity stories subsequently became very popular. Maria Kittle has many features typical of the Indian Captivity story; there are many graphic scenes of violence, and it describes Native Americans as terrible savages who cruelly kill babies and women, and tells the story of Maria's journey as a captive. But by the end of the story, Maria gets rescued, and the real emotion comes out as three women in the story tearfully recount their stories of maternal loss to others. This story has many similarities to Bleecker's own experience with the death of her own daughter as a result of fleeing from the British Army. In telling her tale of loss, Bleecker hoped to help women overcome their tragedies. Yet these stories also helped foster racism toward Native Americans.

Bleecker's writing was exciting for the time, and her sense of style added dimension to a new type of novel, the didactic novel. Her expression was influenced by the "eighteenth-century British cult of sensibility". She wrote in a mannered, and often exaggerated way, to express her moral lesson. In addition, she used the epistolic literary device, structuring the story as a series of letters to her half-sister, Susan Ten Eyck, in which she interrupted the narrative to comment on the action and address Susan directly.

Poems
Ann Eliza Bleecker's pastoral poems exemplified a new style of American poetry, and, due to her experience of the American Revolutionary tumult, a new sense of national identity. These poems, written in the pastoral tradition, conveyed both the beauty of the colonial New York countryside and the horrific impact of war, suffering, death, and destruction. Because Bleecker was writing from the interesting perspective of a terrified young mother, her articulate depictions of the Revolutionary War are still read by historians today.

References

External links

 Women's Early American Historical Narratives from Google Books giving an excerpt from Bleeker's Maria Kittle novel.
 Tomhannock Reservoir on Google Maps
 Ann Elizabeth Bleecker page at Words of Women – site contains several poems by Bleecker which all are in the Public Domain.
 American Libraries Archive - site contains the complete work of "The Posthumous Works of Ann Eliza Bleecker".

18th-century American novelists
American women novelists
18th-century American poets
Writers from New York City
Women in the American Revolution
1752 births
1783 deaths
Writers of captivity narratives
People of the Province of New York
American women poets
Poets from New York (state)
People from Schaghticoke, New York
18th-century American women writers
Novelists from New York (state)
People of New York (state) in the American Revolution
Bleecker family
Colonial American poets
Writers from Albany, New York

Ann Eliza Bleecker


Juan Crisóstomo de Arriaga y Balzola (born Bilbao 27 January 1806; died Paris 17 January 1826) was an early 19th-century Spanish composer. He was still only 19 years old when he died. Like Mozart, he was a child prodigy and he might have become one of the world's most famous composers if he had lived.

His life

Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga was born in Bilbao, in the Basque Country in Spain. His father and older brother first taught him music. He started to compose when he was 11 years old, and by the time he was 15 he had already written 20 works. Many of these are now lost. He may have thrown them away, thinking that they were not very good. In 1921 he went to Paris where he studied the violin with Pierre Baillot, and counterpoint and harmony with François-Joseph Fétis at the Paris Conservatoire. He was so good that by 1824 he had become a teaching assistant in Fétis's class.

Arriaga died in Paris at the age of nineteen, probably of a lung disease and exhaustion.

His music

Arriaga has been called "The Spanish Mozart". His music, however, does not sound particularly Spanish. It has a more general European character, based on the style of Mozart and Beethoven. He wrote a symphony which sounds at times like Schubert. He also wrote an opera Los esclavos felices ("The Happy Slaves"), and three string quartets. The string quartets were the only works that were published while he was still alive.

1806 births
1826 deaths
Spanish composers
Romantic composers
Deaths from exhaustion
Deaths from lung disease

Juan Crisóstomo de Arriaga


Liu Heita () (died 623) was an agrarian rebel leader during China's transition period from the Sui dynasty to the Tang dynasty, who initially successively served under Hao Xiaode (), Li Mi, and Wang Shichong. He eventually followed Dou Jiande the Prince of Xia. After Dou was killed by Emperor Gaozu of Tang in 621 and his territory was taken by Tang, Liu rose to avenge Dou, and briefly recaptured Dou's territory, north of the Yellow River.

Liu was then defeated by the Tang general Li Shimin (the eventual Emperor Taizong) and then Li Shimin's brother Li Jiancheng the Crown Prince.

In 623, Liu was captured by his one-time subordinate Zhuge Dewei () and executed.

Service under Hao Xiaode, Li Mi, Wang Shichong, and Dou Jiande

Little is known about Liu Heita's background, and it is not known when he was born. He was from Zhangnan (漳南, in modern Handan, Hebei)—the same county as Dou Jiande—and was said to be brave and quick in reaction from his youth.  He was also said to favor drinking and gambling, much to his father's and brothers' dismay.  He became friendly with Dou, and whenever he lacked money, Dou would support him. He eventually joined agrarian rebels rising against Sui dynasty rule, and he initially followed Hao Xiaode (), and then after Hao joined Li Mi's forces, served under Li. After Li was defeated by Wang Shichong, then a Sui general, in 618, as Wang knew of Liu's ferocity, he made Liu a cavalry officer, but he thought little of Wang's actions, and often secretly laughed at Wang.

In 619, Liu was serving in the army of Wang's newly established state of Zheng (as Wang had the final Sui emperor, Yang Tong, yield the throne to him earlier that year), defending Xinxiang (新鄉, in modern Xinxiang, Henan), when he was captured by Li Shiji, a Tang dynasty general who had been forced to submit to and serve Dou's state of Xia.  Dou made Liu a general and created him the Duke of Handong.  He often had Liu command guerilla forces to make surprise attacks, and sometimes covertly entering enemy territory for intelligence purposes.  It was said that Liu won many victories under Dou.

Uprising against Tang
In 621, with Wang Shichong's state of Zheng under attack by the Tang general Li Shimin the Prince of Qin (the eventual Emperor Taizong) and in desperate straits, Dou Jiande believed that if Zheng were destroyed by Tang, his own Xia state would be cornered.  He therefore launched his army, seeking to save Zheng's capital Luoyang.  Li Shimin engaged him at the Battle of Hulao, and Dou was captured.  Wang then surrendered.  The Xia forces considered continuing to resist, but under the leadership of the official Qi Shanxing (), they surrendered Xia territory to Tang.

However, subsequently, Dou was executed by Emperor Gaozu of Tang (Li Shimin's father).  The former Xia generals and officials, who had returned to civilian life but who had been often harassed by Tang officials and worried that they would also be executed, gathered secretly and considered rising against Tang rule.  After they, led by Gao Yaxian (), were informed by fortunetellers that their leader should be someone named Liu, they first offered their leadership to the general Liu Ya (), who refused (and was then killed by them).  They instead offered the leadership to Liu Heita, who was then retired and tending to his garden, and he accepted.  In fall 621, they officially rose and captured Zhangnan. The former Xia soldiers gradually came out of retirement and joined him, and Liu offered sacrifices to Dou's spirit, declaring that the Xia forces had risen to avenge him.  His uprising was echoed by another agrarian leader, Xu Yuanlang, who had submitted to Tang but by now was nominally submitting to him.

Tang's emperor Gaozu initially sent his cousin Li Shentong () the Prince of Huai'an against Liu, in conjunction with the Tang official Li Yi the Prince of Yan. Liu defeated Li Shentong, however, at Raoyang (饒陽, in modern Hengshui, Hebei). Liu then defeated Li Yi as well, and Liu's fame spread through the region.  He also entered into an alliance with another agrarian leader, Gao Kaidao the Prince of Yan, as well as the Eastern Turks (Dongtujue).  Around the new year 622, Liu defeated Li Xiaochang (李孝常, the son of a cousin of Emperor Gaozu) and Li Shiji as well and recovered all of former Xia territory—the region north of the Yellow River.  Emperor Gaozu, now realizing that Liu was a major threat, decided to send Li Shimin and another son, Li Yuanji the Prince of Qi, to attack Liu.  Meanwhile, in spring 622, Liu claimed the title of Prince of Handong.  He organized his government in the same manner Dou did, retaining most of former Xia officials and generals.  Historians commented that he was even more fierce and resolute in military actions than Dou.  He set his capital at Mingzhou (now Guangfu), the same location as Dou's capital.

Defeat and death
Li Shimin arrived from the south as Liu was besieging Quzhou. Li Yi was coming from the north and the two Tang generals planned to capture the northern road from the Yellow River through Mingzhou to Yuzhou (Beijing), combining their forces and isolating the rebels from their Turkish allies. Liu split his forces. He was able to capture Luo Shixin () and, when Luo refused to join the rebels, had him executed. The other wing of his forces were defeated by Li Yi.

Eventually, the Tang and Handong forces stalemated across the Ming River for more than 60 days. Both sides tried to attack each other, without success. Meanwhile, Li Shimin set up a dam upstream on the Ming River. When Liu attacked, Li Shimin had the dam destroyed, and much of the Handong army was drowned.  Liu was able to flee with his general Wang Xiaohu (), but Handong defenses otherwise collapsed. Liu fled to the Eastern Turks (Dongtujue), and Handong territory fell into Tang hands.

In summer 622, Liu, with Turkish reinforcements, tried to return to the region. Li Yi was unable to stop him.  With Li Shimin having already returned to Chang'an at that point, Emperor Gaozu sent another son of a cousin, Li Daoxuan () the Prince of Huaiyang, to attack Liu, along with Li Yuanji.  However, Liu's army won battle after battle, and in winter 622, Liu engaged Li Daoxuan at Xiabo (下博, in modern Hengshui), defeating and killing Li Daoxuan. Within half a month, Liu again recovered all of former Xia territory.  Li Yuanji feared his power and hesitated at engaging him.

Meanwhile, Emperor Gaozu's oldest son, Li Jiancheng the Crown Prince, was by now in an intense rivalry with Li Shimin, as he feared that Li Shimin had the intent to seize the throne for himself rather than yielding to Li Jiancheng as the older brother. When Emperor Gaozu considered sending Li Shimin again, Li Jiancheng, at the suggestion of his staff members Wang Gui and Wei Zheng, volunteered.  Emperor Gaozu therefore sent him. Meanwhile, Liu's forces became bogged down while sieging Tang's Wei Prefecture (魏州, in modern Handan as well), and when Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji arrived, Liu's forces ran out of food supplies and collapsed.  Liu was able to flee, but in spring 623, as his flight, with only about 100 guards, took him to Rao Prefecture (饒州, in modern Hengshui), his prefect of Rao Prefecture, Zhuge Dewei, welcomed him into the city and held a feast for him.  In the middle of the feast, however, Zhuge ambushed him and his guards, capturing them and delivering them to Li Jiancheng.  Li Jiancheng had Liu Heita and his brother Liu Shishan () executed in the marketplace of his former capital Mingzhou. Before his death, Liu Heita lamented:

I was tending my garden. It was those people led by Gao Yaxian who brought me to this point.

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography
 .

Sui dynasty people
People executed by the Tang dynasty by decapitation
Generals from Hebei
Chinese princes
623 deaths
7th-century Chinese monarchs
Politicians from Handan
Executed people from Hebei
7th-century executions by the Tang dynasty
Year of birth unknown
Transition from Sui to Tang

Liu Heita


Berea College v. Kentucky, 211 U.S. 45 (1908), was a significant case argued before the United States Supreme Court that upheld the rights of states to prohibit private educational institutions chartered as corporations from admitting both black and white students. Like the related Plessy v. Ferguson  case, it was also marked by a strongly worded dissent by John Marshall Harlan. The ruling also is a minor landmark on the nature of corporate personhood.

Background
Berea College is a private liberal arts work college in Berea, Kentucky. It was founded in 1855 as a coeducational and desegregated school, admitting both black and white students and treating them without discrimination. In 1904, the "Day Law" (named for Carl Day, a Democrat from Breathitt County, Kentucky who had introduced the bill in the Kentucky House of Representatives) was passed by the Kentucky legislature, prohibiting any person, group of people, or corporation from the teaching of black and white students in the same school, or from running separate branches of a school for the teaching of black and white students within twenty-five miles of each other. Since at the time Berea was the only such integrated school in Kentucky (and the only such college in the South), it was clearly the target of this law. After Berea College's challenge to the law failed before the Kentucky Court of Appeals (although the distance provision was struck down), the case was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.

Opinion of the Court
The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the state. Justice Brewer delivered the main opinion that as the corporation in question was chartered under the laws of the state of Kentucky, it was within the rights of the state to make such prohibition to the college. While the state might not have the right to thus restrict the actions of private individuals, that portion of the law was a separate issue, and not under direct consideration; and that the rights and restrictions on individuals were not necessarily the same as for corporations.

Justice Harlan vigorously dissented, arguing that the formal title of the law, "An Act to Prohibit White and Colored Persons from Attending the Same School," and the nature of its provisions made clear that no such distinction between individual and corporate restriction existed in the intentions of the legislators, and that the separate consideration of those aspects of the law was not appropriate. Harlan furthermore declared, "The capacity to impart instruction to others is given by the Almighty for beneficent purposes and its use may not be forbidden or interfered with by Government—certainly not, unless such instruction is, in its nature, harmful to the public morals or imperils the public safety. The right to impart instruction, harmless in itself or beneficial to those who receive it, is a substantial right of property—especially, where the services are rendered for compensation. But even if such right be not strictly a property right, it is, beyond question, part of one's liberty as guaranteed against hostile state action by the Constitution of the United States."

Justice Day also dissented, separately from Harlan, but didn't write a dissenting opinion.

Subsequent developments
The result of the ruling was to allow states to prohibit integrated schooling in private institutions, as well as in public schools. Kentucky eventually amended the Day Law in 1950 to allow voluntary integration, shortly prior to the Brown v. Board of Education case which struck down racial segregation.

See also
 Civil Rights Cases,
 Gott v. Berea College

Notes

External links

Bernstein, David E. Lochner vs. Plessy: The Berea College Case, 25 J. Sup. Ct. Hist. 93 (2000)
Berea College v. Kentucky - info

1908 in United States case law
United States Supreme Court cases
Legal history of Kentucky
Berea College
1908 in Kentucky
Education in Kentucky
United States Supreme Court cases of the Fuller Court
United States education case law
School segregation in the United States
African-American history of Kentucky
Higher education case law

Berea College v. Kentucky


Antimony is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Sb. The symbol Sb is from the Latin name of 'stibium' for the element. It has the atomic number 51. Its atomic mass is 121.8. It is a blue-gray element that is somewhat toxic.

Properties

Physical properties

Antimony has four allotropes. The common allotrope of antimony is a blue-white metalloid. It looks black when powdered. It is brittle, soft, and shiny. Yellow and black antimony are unstable nonmetals. Yellow antimony is only found at very cold temperatures. It is made by oxidation of stibine. It turns into black antimony when light is shined on it or when it is warmer. Black antimony is normally made by heating metallic antimony until it boils and then cooling the vapors very quickly. It can ignite spontaneously (without any ignition source like a spark or a flame). It also corrodes easily. There is another explosive form of antimony that is made by electrolysis of antimony trichloride. This antimony explodes when changing into the metallic form. There is no chemical reaction; the atoms in the antimony crystal are rearranging themselves. When antimony is talked about it normally means the blue-white metalloid form, since it is most common.

Antimony is found as two stable (not radioactive) isotopes naturally. Sb- 123 and Sb-121

Chemical properties
Antimony is a rather unreactive element. It does not dissolve in acids easily. It can dissolve in oxidizing acids like nitric or sulfuric acid. It does not corrode easily in air, although the black allotrope can corrode. Antimony burns in air to make antimony trioxide. In excess air, it burns to antimony tetroxide.

Chemical compounds
Antimony forms chemical compounds in three oxidation states: -3, +3, and +5. -3 compounds are called antimonides. They are made by reacting antimony with other metals. They react with acids to make the toxic and unstable gas stibine. +3 compounds are the most common. They are weak oxidizing agents. They are somewhat covalent, having low melting points. Antimony trichloride is a colorless and soft solid that has a strong odor. Antimony trioxide is a white solid that dissolves a little in water. The other antimony(III) halides all react with water except for antimony trifluoride. +5 compounds are strong oxidizing agents. Antimony pentafluoride is highly reactive, as well as antimony pentoxide.

-3 compounds
-3 compounds are reducing agents. The antimonides have properties between alloys and salts.
Aluminium antimonide, black solid
Antimonide, the Sb3- ion
Stibine, unstable colorless gas made when antimonides react with acids
Zinc antimonide, gray solid

+3 compounds
+3 compounds are weak oxidizing agents. They are covalent. Most of them are colorless or light yellow solids. They are the most common antimony compounds.

Antimony tribromide, colorless solid, reacts with water
Antimony trichloride, colorless or pale yellow soft solid, reacts with water
Antimony trifluoride, light gray solid, dissolves in water
Antimony triiodide, yellow solid, reacts with water
Antimony trioxide, white solid, most common antimony compound
Antimony trisulfide, gray solid, flammable

Mixed oxidation state
Antimony tetroxide has antimony in both its +3 and +5 oxidation state.

+5 compounds
+5 compounds are strong oxidizing agents. They are rare.

Antimony pentachloride, pale yellow liquid
Antimony pentafluoride, colorless oily liquid
Antimony pentoxide, yellow solid

History
Antimony sulfide was known for a long time. Some things plated with antimony and made out of antimony were found in Egypt and Chaldea. The first time antimony was mentioned in Europe was in the 1540. The first native antimony was found in Sweden in 1783. Antimony sulfide and antimony were confused sometimes in antiquity. There is a question over what "stibium", the original name of antimony, meant.

Occurrence

Antimony is not common. It is found about as often as thallium. It is quite easy to get, though and is in many minerals. Antimony is sometimes found as an element, but normally it is found as stibnite, an antimony sulfide mineral. Stibnite is the main ore of antimony. China is the biggest maker of antimony; it makes 84% of all antimony. Other countries that make antimony are South Africa, Bolivia, and Kyrgyzstan. Antimony is not used in the human body.

Production
Antimony is made from stibnite by heating it with air. This makes antimony trioxide. Since it gets so hot, the antimony trioxide is evaporated. Other metal oxides in the stibnite ore do not evaporate. The antimony trioxide gas is condensed in a container. The antimony trioxide is then heated with carbon to make carbon dioxide and antimony. Another way to make antimony is to heat stibnite with scrap iron. This makes iron(II) sulfide and antimony. The antimony is separated and used.

Uses
About half of all antimony is used to make antimony trioxide for flame proofing.

It makes an alloy with lead. This alloy, 5% antimony and 95% lead, is harder than pure lead. It is used in lead acid batteries, as well as some other things. It is used  as an alloy with lead in the pipes of pipe organs. Pewter has antimony in it. Some lead-free solder has antimony in it. It is used as an alloy with lead in ammunition for small arms and in covering of cables as well. It is also used in some alloys that have very little friction like Babbitt metal.

Another use is in a catalyst for making some plastics. Antimony(III) oxide is added to some glass to remove bubbles for things like television screens. Antimony is used as a dopant in electronics. Some antimony compounds were used as medicines to kill protozoans. The antimony pill was a chunk of antimony that was supposed to heal diseases. It is used in medicines for pets. Antimony sulfide is used in matches.

Safety
Antimony is toxic. Its toxicity is similar to arsenic, although it is less toxic than arsenic. Breathing in antimony dust can be very dangerous. Antimony reacts with strong oxidizing agents. Small amounts of antimony come out of plastic bottles where antimony was used as a catalyst. Some people were concerned that too much antimony was coming out.

Semimetals

Antimony


A countertenor is a male singer who uses a falsetto voice to sing high notes like a female contralto or mezzo-soprano.

Countertenors were used a lot in the Renaissance and Baroque periods when females were not allowed to sing in church choirs. They did not have big, dramatic voices like castrati, so they were not normally used in opera. People forgot about this way of singing in the 18th and 19th centuries, although male altos continued to sing in English cathedral and church choirs. In the 20th century an English countertenor called Alfred Deller became very famous. He sang many songs from the Baroque period that had been written for the countertenor voice, for example songs by Henry Purcell who sang countertenor himself. Today there is a lot of interest again in using this type of voice for performing early music like Renaissance and Baroque music.

Vocal ranges

Countertenor


Johann Friedrich Herbart (; 4 May 1776 – 14 August 1841) was a German philosopher, psychologist and founder of pedagogy as an academic discipline.

Herbart is now remembered amongst the post-Kantian philosophers mostly as making the greatest contrast to Hegel—in particular in relation to aesthetics. His educational philosophy is known as Herbartianism.

Life
Herbart was born on 4 May 1776 in Oldenburg. Growing up as a fragile child because of an unfortunate accident, Herbart was taught by his mother at home until the age of 12. He continued his schooling at the Gymnasium for six years, and showed interest in philosophy, logic and Kant's work involving the nature of knowledge obtained from experience with reality. His education then continued at Jena, whereupon he studied philosophy and came to disagree with his teacher Fichte precisely because Fichte had taught him to think in a logical manner. He composed a few essays, which he had given to Fichte during his years at Jena, criticising the works of Schelling and advocating his contention for the German idealism promoted by others like Kant at the time.

Leaving Jena after three years, he tutored the children of Herr von Steiger, who was the Governor of Interlaken. During these three years, his tutoring job sparked his interest in educational reform. While tutoring in Switzerland, Herbart met and came to know Pestalozzi, the Swiss educator involved with issues of reform in the schools. Resigning from his tutoring position, Herbart went on to study Greek and mathematics at Bremen for three years, and then eventually moved on to attend Göttingen from 1801 to 1809. While there, he received a privat-docent for his endeavours in educational studies after receiving his doctoral degree. He gave his first philosophical lectures at Göttingen around 1805, whence he removed in 1809 to occupy the chair formerly held by Kant at Königsberg. Here he also established and conducted a seminary of pedagogy till 1833, when he returned once more to Göttingen, and remained there as professor of philosophy till his death. Herbart gave his last lecture in perfectly good health and then unexpectedly died two days later from apoplexy. He is buried in Albanifriedhof Cemetery in Göttingen.

Herbart was very much focused on his studies, and "he barely saw the world outside his study and the classrooms" making "his world the world of books and only books". Regardless of his relentless studying, he met an eighteen-year-old English girl named Mary Drake one night when playing a game of charades. He became acquainted with her and asked her for her hand in marriage. They lived a happy life with Mary supporting all of her husband's pursuits and contributions to the fields of pedagogy and psychology.

Philosophy

Philosophy, according to Herbart, begins with reflection upon our empirical conceptions, and consists in the reformation and elaboration of these, its three primary divisions being determined by as many distinct forms of elaboration. Logic, which stands first, has to render our conceptions and the judgments and reasonings arising from them clear and distinct. But some conceptions are such that the more distinct they are made the more contradictory their elements become; so to change and supplement these as to make them at length thinkable is the problem of the second part of philosophy, or metaphysics. There is still a class of conceptions requiring more than a logical treatment, but differing from the last in not involving latent contradictions, and in being independent of the reality of their objects, the conceptions that embody our judgments of approval and disapproval; the philosophic treatment of these conceptions falls under aesthetics.

Logic

In Herbart's writings logic receives comparatively meagre notice; he insisted strongly on its purely formal character and expressed himself in the main at one with Kantians such as Fries and Krug.

Metaphysics

As a metaphysician he starts from what he terms the higher scepticism of the Humean–Kantian sphere of thought, the beginnings of which he discerns in Locke's perplexity about the idea of substance. The validity of even the forms of experience is called in question on account of the contradictions they are found to involve. And yet that these forms are given to us, as truly as sensations are, follows beyond doubt when we consider that we are as little able to control the one as the other. To attempt at this stage a psychological inquiry into the origin of these conceptions would be doubly a mistake; for we should have to use these illegitimate conceptions in the course of it, and the task of clearing up their contradictions would still remain, whether we succeeded in our enquiry or not.

But how are we to set about this task? We have given to us a conception A uniting among its constituent marks two that prove to be contradictory, say M and N; and we can neither deny the unity nor reject one of the contradictory members. For to do either is forbidden by experience; and yet to do nothing is forbidden by logic. We are thus driven to the assumption that the conception is contradictory because incomplete; but how are we to supplement it? What we have must point the way to what we want, or our procedure will be arbitrary. Experience asserts that M is the same (i.e. a mark of the same concept) as N, while logic denies it; and so it being impossible for one and the same M to sustain these contradictory positions there is but one way open to us; we must posit several Ms. But even now we cannot say one of these Ms is the same as N, another is not; for every M must be both thinkable and valid. We may, however, take the Ms not singly but together; and again, no other course being open to us, this is what we must do; we must assume that N results from a combination of Ms. This is Herbart's method of relations, the counterpart in his system of the Hegelian dialectic.

In ontology, this method is employed to determine what in reality corresponds to the empirical conceptions of substance and cause, or rather of inherence and change. But first we must analyse this notion of reality itself, to which our scepticism had already led us, for, though we could doubt whether the given is what it appears, we cannot doubt that it is something; the conception of the real thus consists of the two conceptions of being and quality. That which we are compelled to posit, which cannot be sublated, is that which is, and in the recognition of this lies the simple conception of being. But when is a thing thus posited? When it is posited as we usually posit the things we see and taste and handle. If we were without sensations, i.e. were never bound against our will to endure the persistence of a presentation, we should never know what being is.

Keeping fast hold of this idea of absolute position, Herbart leads us next to the quality of the real:
This must exclude everything negative; for non-A sublates instead of positing, and is not absolute, but relative to A.
The real must be absolutely simple; for if it contain two determinations, A and B, then either these are reducible to one, which is the true quality, or they are not, when each is conditioned by the other and their position is no longer absolute.
All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity implies parts, and these are incompatible with simplicity.
But there may be a plurality of reals, albeit the mere conception of being can tell us nothing as to this.

The doctrine here developed is the first cardinal point of Herbart's system, and the name pluralistic realism has been proposed for it by Otto Pfleiderer.

The contradictions he finds in the common-sense conception of inherence, or of a thing with several attributes, will now become obvious. Take some thing, say A, having n attributes, a, b, c ...: we are forced to posit each of these because each is presented in intuition. But in conceiving A we make, not n positions, still less n+1 positions, but one position simply; for common sense removes the absolute position from its original source, sensation. So when we ask, What is the one posited? we are told the possessor of a, b, c or in other words, their seat or substance. But if so, then A, as a real, being simple, must be equal to a; similarly it must be b; and so on.

Now this would be possible if a, b, c ... were only contingent aspects of A, as for example 23, , 4+3+1 are contingent aspects of 8. Such, of course, is not the case, and so we have as many contradictions as there are attributes; for we must say A is a, is not a, is b, is not b, etc. There must then, according to the method of relations, be several As. For a let us assume A1+A1+A1 ... ; for b, A2+A2+A2 ...; and so on for the rest. But now what relation can there be among these several As, which will restore to us the unity of our original A or substance? There is just one; we must assume that the first A of every series is identical, just as the centre is the same point in every radius.

By way of concrete illustration Herbart instances "the common observation that the properties of things exist only under external conditions. Bodies, we say, are coloured, but color is nothing without light, and nothing without eyes. They sound, but only in a vibrating medium, and for healthy ears. Colour and tone present the appearance of inherence, but on looking closer we find they are not really immanent in things but rather presuppose a communion among several." The result then is briefly thus: In place of the one absolute position, which in some unthinkable way the common understanding substitutes for the absolute positions of the n attributes, we have really a series of two or more positions for each attribute, every series, however, beginning with the same (as it were, central) real (hence the unity of substance in a group of attributes), but each being continued by different reals (hence the plurality and difference of attributes in unity of substance). Where there is the appearance of inherence, therefore, there is always a plurality of reals; no such correlative to substance as attribute or accident can be admitted at all. Substantiality is impossible without causality, and to this as its true correlative we now turn.

The common-sense conception of change involves at bottom the same contradiction of opposing qualities in one real. The same A that was a, b, c ... becomes a, b, d ...; and this, which experience thrusts upon us, proves on reflection unthinkable. The metaphysical supplementing is also fundamentally as before. Since c depended on a series of reals A3+A3+A3 ... in connection with A, and d may be said similarly to depend on a series A4+A4+A4 ..., then the change from c to d means, not that the central real A or any real has changed, but that A is now in connection with A4, etc., and no longer in connection with A3, etc.

But to think a number of reals in connection (Zusammensein) will not suffice as an explanation of phenomena; something or other must happen when they are in connection; what is it? The answer to this question is the second hinge-point of Herbart's theoretical philosophy.

What actually happens as distinct from all that seems to happen, when two reals A and B are together is that, assuming them to differ in quality, they tend to disturb each other to the extent of that difference, at the same time that each preserves itself intact by resisting, as it were, the others disturbance. And so by coining into connection with different reals the self-preservations of A will vary accordingly, A remaining the same through all; just as, by way of illustration, hydrogen remains the same in water and in ammonia, or as the same line may be now a normal and now a tangent. But to indicate this opposition in the qualities of the reals A+B, we must substitute for these symbols others, which, though only contingent aspects of A and B, i.e. representing their relations, not themselves, yet like similar devices in mathematics enable thought to advance. Thus we may put A = α+β-γ, B = m+n+γ; γ then represents the character of the
self-preservations in this case, and α+β+m+n represents all that could be observed by a spectator who did not know the simple qualities, but was himself involved in the relations of A to B; and such is exactly our position.

Having thus determined what really is and what actually happens, our philosopher proceeds next to explain synthetically the objective semblance (der objective Schein) that results from these. But if this construction is to be truly objective, i.e. valid for all intelligences, ontology must furnish us with a clue. This we have in the forms of Space, Time and Motion which are involved whenever we think the reals as being in, or coming into, connection and the opposite. These forms then cannot be merely the products of our psychological mechanism, though they may turn out to coincide with these. Meanwhile, let us call them intelligible, as being valid for all who comprehend the real and actual by thought, although no such forms are predicable of the real and actual themselves.

The elementary spatial relation Herbart conceives to be "the contiguity (Aneinander) of two points," so that every "pure and independent line" is discrete. But an investigation of dependent lines which are often incommensurable forces us to adopt the contradictory fiction of partially overlapping, i.e. divisible points, or in other words, the conception of Continuity. But the contradiction here is one we cannot eliminate by the method of relations, because it does not involve anything real; and in fact as a necessary outcome of an intelligible form, the fiction of continuity is valid for the objective semblance. By its help we are enabled to comprehend what actually happens among reals to produce the appearance of water. When three or more reals are together, each disturbance and self-preservation will (in general) be imperfect, i.e. of less intensity than when only two reals are together. But objective semblance corresponds with reality; the spatial or external relations of the reals in this case must, therefore, tally with their inner or actual states. Had the self-preservations been perfect, the coincidence in space would have been complete, and the group of reals would have been inextended; or had the several reals been simply contiguous, i.e. without connection, then, as nothing would actually have happened, nothing would appear. As it is we shall find a continuous molecule manifesting attractive and repulsive forces; attraction corresponding to the tendency of the self-preservations to become perfect, repulsion to the frustration of this. Motion, even more evidently than space, implicates the contradictory conception of continuity and cannot, therefore, be a real predicate, though valid as an intelligible form and necessary to the comprehension of the objective semblance. For we have to think of the reals as absolutely independent and yet as entering into connections. This we can only do by conceiving them as originally moving through intelligible space in rectilinear paths and with uniform velocities. For such motion no cause need be supposed; motion, in fact, is no more a state of the moving real than rest is, both alike being but relations, with which, therefore, the real has no concern. The changes in this motion, however, for which we should require a cause, would be the objective semblance of the self-preservations that actually occur when reals meet. Further, by means of such motion these actual occurrences, which are in themselves timeless, fall for an observer in a definite time — a time which becomes continuous through the partial coincidence of events.

But in all this it has been assumed that we are spectators of the objective semblance; it remains to make good this assumption, or, in other words, to show the possibility of knowledge; this is the problem of what Herbart terms Eidolology, and forms the transition from metaphysic to psychology. Here, again, a contradictory conception blocks the way, that, viz. of the Ego as the identity of knowing and being, and as such the stronghold of idealism. The contradiction becomes more evident when the ego is defined to be a subject (and so a real) that is its own object. As real and not merely formal, this conception of the ego is amenable to the method of relations. The solution this method furnishes is summarily that there are several objects which mutually modify each other, and so constitute that ego we take for the presented real. But to explain this modification is the business of psychology; it is enough now to see that the subject like all reals is necessarily unknown and that, therefore, the idealist's theory of knowledge is unsound. But though the simple quality of the subject or soul is beyond knowledge, we know what actually happens when it is in connection with other's reals, for its self-preservations then are what we call sensations. And these sensations are the sole material of our knowledge; but they are not given to us as a chaos but in definite groups and series, whence we come to know the relations of those reals, which, though themselves unknown, our sensations compel us to posit absolutely.

Principles of education

Herbart's pedagogy emphasised the connection between individual development and the resulting societal contribution. In Platonic tradition, Herbart espoused that only by becoming productive citizens could people fulfill their true purpose: "He believed that every child is born with a unique potential, his Individuality, but that this potential remained unfulfilled until it was analysed and transformed by education in accordance with what he regarded as the accumulated values of civilisation".  Only formalised, rigorous education could, he believed, provide the framework for moral and intellectual development. The five key ideas which composed his concept of individual maturation were Inner Freedom, Perfection, Benevolence, Justice and Equity or Recompense.

According to Herbart, abilities were not innate but could be instilled, so a thorough education could provide the framework for moral and intellectual development. In order to develop an educational paradigm that would provide an intellectual base that would lead to a consciousness of social responsibility, Herbart advocated that teachers utilise a methodology with five formal steps: "Using this structure a teacher prepared a topic of
interest to the children, presented that topic, and questioned them inductively, so that they reached new knowledge based on what they had already known, looked back and deductively summed up the lesson's achievements, then related them to moral precepts for daily living".

In order to appeal to learners' interests, Herbart advocated using literature and historical stories instead of the drier basal readers that were popular at the time. Whereas the moralistic tales in many of the primers and readers of the period were predictable and allegorical, Herbart felt that children would appreciate the psychological and literary nuances of the masterpieces of the canon.

Though he died in 1841, his pedagogy enjoyed a renaissance of sorts in the mid-19th century; while Germany was its intellectual centre, it "found a ready echo in those countries such as the United Kingdom, France, and the United States in which the development of Individuality into Character appeared particularly well attuned to the prevailing economic, political and social circumstances." Among those who espoused and advocated his ideas in the United Kingdom was Catherine Isabella Dodd. The combination of individual potentiality and civic responsibility seemed to reflect democratic ideals.

Though the emphasis on character building through literary appreciation diminished somewhat after the movement toward utilitarianism following the First World War, Herbart's pedagogy continues to influence the field by raising important questions about the role of critical thinking, and literary appreciation in education.

Aesthetics and ethics

Aesthetics elaborates the ideas involved in the expression called forth by those relations of object which acquire for them attribution of beauty or the reverse. The beautiful is to be carefully distinguished from the allied conceptions of the useful or the pleasant, which vary with time, place and person; whereas beauty is predicated absolutely and involuntarily by all who have attained the right standpoint. Ethics, which is but one branch of aesthetics, although the chief, deals with such relations among volitions (Willensverhältnisse) as thus unconditionally please or displease. These relations Herbart finds to be reducible to five, which do admit of further simplification; and corresponding to them are as many moral ideas (Musterbegriffe), as follows:
Internal Freedom, the underlying relation being that of the individual's will to his judgment of it
Perfection, the relation being that of his several volitions each other in respect of intensity, variety and concentration
Benevolence, the relation being that between his own will and the thought of another's
Right, in case of actual conflict with other
Retribution or Equity, for intended good or evil
The ideas of a final society, a system of rewards and punishments, a system of administration, a system of culture and an animated society, corresponding to the ideas of law, equity, benevolence, perfection and internal freedom respectively, result when we take account of a number of individuals. Virtue is the perfect conformity of the will with the moral ideas; of this the single virtues are but special expressions. The conception of duty arises from the existence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue. A general scheme of principles of conduct is possible, but the sublimation of special cases under these must remain matter of fact. The application of ethics to things as they are with a view to the realisation of the moral ideas is moral technology (Tugendlehre), which the chief divisions are Paedagogy and Politics.

Theology

In theology, Herbart held the argument from design to be as valid of divine activity as for human, and to justify the belief in a supersensible real, concerning which, however, exact knowledge is neither tenable nor on practical grounds desirable.

Psychology

Herbart's concept of the Real

Building upon the teaching methods of Pestalozzi, Herbart contributed to pedagogy a psychological basis to help facilitate better learning as well as to ensure children's character development. He was the first individual to point out how important a role psychology plays on education. In developing his ideas about psychology, Herbart came to disagree with Kant about how true knowledge is obtained. Kant believed that we become knowledgeable through studying the innate categories of thought, while Herbart believed that one learns only from studying external and real objects in the world as well as the ideas that come about from observing them. Examining the difference between the actual existence of an object and its appearance, Herbart concluded that "the world is a world of things-in-themselves [and] the things-in-themselves are perceivable". Everything's appearance indicates that it exists. He considered all external objects existing in the world as reals, which can be compared to Leibniz's concept of monads.

Subscribing to Locke's empiricist viewpoint involving the tabula rasa, Herbart believed that the soul had no innate ideas or no already pre-established Kantian categories of thought. The soul, considered to be a real, was thought to be completely passive initially as well as very resistant to changes outside factors exert and force upon it. Even though reals are disrupted by other forces appearing to cause a change in the reals themselves, they are thought to be unchangeable. Reals tend to collide and struggle with one another so much so that each real fights for its own self-preservation (Selbsterhaltung). The way in which the soul helps to preserve itself from its outwardly perceived destruction is through Herbart's concept of Vorstellungen, or ideas or mental representations. These ideas were regarded as dynamic forces that Herbart attempted to explain by means of mathematical formulas. Newton's influence can be seen in Herbart's beliefs about how forces mechanically interact with one another in the world to affect perceptions of reality. The mechanics of ideas involved their ability to move in different ways, whether they be moving up into the conscious or delving down into the unconscious. Different ideas come into contact with each other and result in more complex ideas through the processes of blending, fusing, fading and combining in a multitude of approaches. It is evident Herbart thought that ideas were not precise imitations of the existing items in the world but that they were the direct consequence of the interactions of individuals' experiences with the external environment. An individual can gain all the facts and their associated truth only by understanding how their mental representations combine and potentially inhibit or contribute to one another.

Apperception

Herbart believed ideas crossed a limen of consciousness, or a boundary between the conscious and the unconscious, as they became clearer and strong enough to preserve themselves against their struggle with other forces. The ideas powerful enough to break through to the conscious formed the apperceiving mass, or a congregation of similar and related ideas dominating the conscious at any given moment. Expounding upon Leibniz's concept of petites perceptions and the idea of apperception, Herbart believed the apperceiving mass to be crucial in selecting similar ideas from down in the unconscious to join its forces in the conscious. Although the individual is focusing all of his/her attention on those complex ideas a part of the apperceiving mass in the conscious, it is possible for ideas in the unconscious to combine with other ideas related to them and struggle to break through the limen into the conscious, disrupting the present ideas a part of the apperceiving mass. Apperception played a key role in Herbart's educational theory. He saw apperception as more pivotal in the classroom than sense-perception, because focusing on a child's apperceiving mass in relation to the material being taught can inform teachers of how to implement the material in such a way as to direct the child's ideas and thoughts to attend to certain information.

Biographies
There is a life of Herbart in Hartenstein's introduction to his Kleinere philosophische Schriften und Abhandlungen (1842–1843) and by F. H. T. Allihn in Zeitschrift für exacte Philosophie (Leipzig, 1861), the organ of Herbart and his school, which ceased to appear in 1873. In America the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education was founded as the National Herbart Society.

Bibliography
Herbart's works were collected and published by his disciple G. Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1850–1852; reprinted at Hamburg, with supplementary volume, 1883–1893); another edition by Karl Kehrbach (Leipzig, 1882, and Langensalza, 1887).

The following are the most important:
Allgemeine Pädagogik (1806; new ed., 1894)
Hauptpunkte der Metaphysik (1808)
Allgemeine praktische Philosophie (1808)
Lehrbuch zur Einleitung in die Philosophie (1813; new ed. by Hartenstein, 1883)
Lehrbuch der Psychologie (1816,; new ed. by Hartenstein, 1887)
Psychologie als Wissenschaft (1824–25)
Allgemeine Metaphysik (1828–29)
Encyklopädie der Philosophie (2nd ed., 1841)
Umriss pädagogischer Vorlesungen (2nd ed., 1841)
Psychologische Untersuchungen (1839–40)

Some of his works have been translated into English under the following titles:
Textbook in Psychology, by Margaret Keiver Smith (1891)
The Science of Education and the Aesthetic Revelation of the World (1892) and Letters and Lectures on Education (1898), by H. M. and E. Felkin
ABC of Sense Perception and minor pedagogical works (New York, 1896), by W. J. Eckhoff and others
Application of Psychology to the Science of Education (1898), by B. C. Mulliner
Outlines of Educational Doctrine, translated by Alexis F. Lange, annotated by Charles De Garmo (1901)
Introductory Lecture to Students in Pedagogy  In Friesen, N. (ed.). Tact and the pedagogical relation: Introductory readings. New York: Peter Lang.

See also
 Neo-Kantianism

Notes

Citations

References

 [with prologue by Richard Robinson, epilogue by Norman A. Stahl, and history of reading since by P. David Pearson].

Further reading
 Boring, E.G. (1950). "German psychology before 1850: Kant, Herbart, and Lotze." In R.M. Elliott (Ed.), A history of experimental psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
 Crary, J. (1992). "Techniques of the observer." In J. Crary (Ed.), Techniques of the observer: On vision and modernity in the nineteenth century, (pp. 100–102). Massachusetts: MIT Press. Retrieved from
 De Garmo, C. (1895). Herbart and the herbartians. New York: C. Scribner's sons.
 Jahoda, G. (2009). "The metaphysical mechanics of the mind." Psychologist, 22(6), 558-559.

 Watson, R.I. (1968). "Kant and Herbart: Continental philosophical psychology." In C.P. Duncan & J. Wishner (Eds.), The great psychologists: From Aristotle to Freud (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company.

Older literature
 H. A. Fechner, Zur Kritik der Grundlagen von Herbarts Metaphysik (Leipzig, 1853)
 Julius Kaftan, Sollen und Sein in ihrem Verhältnis zueinander: eine Studie zur Kritik Herbarts (Leipzig, 1872)
 Moritz Wilhelm Drobisch, Über die Fortbildung der Philosophie durch Herbart (Leipzig, 1876)
 K. S. Just, Die Fortbildung der Kant'schen Ethik durch Herbart (Eisenach, 1876)
 Christian Ufer, Vorschule der Pädagogik Herbarts (1883; Eng. tr. by JC Zinser, 1895)
 G. Közie, Die pädagogische Schule Herbarts und ihre Lehre (Gutersloh, 1889)
 L. Strümpell, Das System der Pädagogik Herbarts (Leipzig, 1894)
 J. Christinger, Herbarts Erziehungslehre und ihre Fortbildner (Zurich, 1895)
 O. H. Lang, Outline of Herbart's Pedagogics (1894)
 H. M. and E. Felkin, Introduction to Herbart's Science and Practice of Education (1895)
 C. de Garmo, Herbart and the Herbartians (New York, 1895)
 E. Wagner, Die Praxis der Herbartianer (Langensalza, 1887) and Vollständige Darstellung der Lehre Herbarts (1888)
 J. Adams, The Herbartian Psychology applied to Education (1897)
 F. H. Hayward, The Student's Herbart (1902), The Critics of Herbartianism (1903), Three Historical Educators: Pestalozzi, Fröbel, Herbart (1905), The Secret of Herbart (1907), The Meaning of Education as interpreted by Herbart (1907)
 W. Kinkel, J. F. Herbart: sein Leben und seine Philosophie (1903)
 A. Darroch, Herbart and the Herbartian Theory of Education (1903)
 J. Davidson, A new Interpretation of Herbart's Psychology and Educational Theory through the Philosophy of Leibniz (1906)
 J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Psychology and Philosophy (1901–05).

External links

 Herbart's works Archive.org

1776 births
1841 deaths

19th-century educational theorists
19th-century essayists
19th-century German non-fiction writers
19th-century German male writers
19th-century German philosophers
19th-century philosophers
German idealists
Empiricists
Epistemologists
German logicians
German male essayists
German male non-fiction writers
German psychologists
History of education in Germany
Metaphysics writers
Ontologists
People from Oldenburg (state)
Philosophers of art
Philosophers of education
Philosophers of logic
Philosophers of psychology
University of Jena alumni
Academic staff of the University of Göttingen
Academic staff of the University of Königsberg

Johann Friedrich Herbart


Theodicy is a branch of theology that seeks to explain why a God that is seen as all-loving, all-seeing, and all-powerful allows evil to exist. The word comes from the Greek words for God and Judgment and so means the judgment of God. It was first made up  by the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz in 1710 in his work Théodicée. The subject has been the focus of argument and thought for hundreds of years before that and since.

Theodicy tries to explain why God, who has complete free will, has the power to change anything he wants to, can see all the evil in the world and is all-loving and compassionate, yet does nothing to alleviate the suffering in the world, especially the suffering of innocents.

The weakness of the arguments for Theodicy are  often used by atheists to emphasise the problems that go with the belief in God.

Some arguments
There are many arguments to try and explain evil; here is an incomplete list:

 The argument of the "Greater Good". God has a plan for the world which is unfolding as it should; this involves some suffering at the hands of evil for the arrival at a destination for the greater good of all. This is also called the Ultimate Harmony Theodicy .
 The Augustinian defence, originating from Saint Augustine of Hippo. God created the world as pure and good but it was spoiled by man through his sins and disobedience of God. This is also known as the Original Sin Theodicy, which says that evil came into the world because of humanity's original sin and so is the creation of humanity, not God.
 The  Irenaean  theodicy which was made by Irenaeus, a bishop who died in AD 202. This argues that God gave man free will, in other words the freedom to choose to do good or evil; this allows for the moral development of man.
 The Finite God Theodicy says that God is all-good but not all-powerful and so cannot prevent evil.
 "The best of all possible worlds" theodicy, which was thought up by Leibniz in 1710, says that God, because he is an infinitely perfect being, created a world that has the greatest possible balance of good and evil.
 Some forms of reincarnation believe that people suffer evil as a punishment for their wrong-doing in a previous life.
 Contrast Theodicy holds that evil is needed to enable people to appreciate or understand good.
 Warning Theodicy rationalizes evil as God's warning to people to mend their ways.

Related pages
Theism
Theodicy of disprivilege

Theology

Theodicy


A mineral acid (or inorganic acid) is an acid derived from one or more inorganic compounds, as opposed to organic acids which are acidic, organic compounds. All mineral acids form hydrogen ions and the conjugate base when dissolved in water.

Characteristics
Commonly used mineral acids are sulfuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3, they are also known as bench acids). Mineral acids range from superacids (perchloric acid) to very weak ones (boric acid). Mineral acids tend to be very soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents.

Mineral acids are used in many sectors of the chemical industry as feedstocks for the synthesis of other chemicals, both organic and inorganic.  Large quantities of these acids – especially sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and hydrochloric acid – are manufactured for commercial use in large plants.

Mineral acids are also used directly for their corrosive properties. For example, a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid is used for removing the deposits from the inside of boilers, with precautions taken to prevent the corrosion of the boiler by the acid. This process is known as descaling.

Examples
 Hydrochloric acid HCl
 Nitric acid HNO3
 Phosphoric acid H3PO4
 Sulfuric acid H2SO4
 Boric acid H3BO3
 Hydrofluoric acid HF
 Hydrobromic acid HBr
 Perchloric acid HClO4
 Hydroiodic acid HI

References

Mineral acid


The Ferapontov Monastery (), in the Vologda region of Russia, is considered one of the purest examples of Russian medieval art, a reason given by UNESCO for its inscription on the World Heritage List.

The monastery was founded by Saint Ferapont in 1398 in the inhospitable Russian North, to the east from the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery, named after his fellow monk, Saint Cyril of Beloozero. The fame of the monastery started to spread under Kirill's disciple, Saint Martinian, who was to become a father superior of the Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra in 1447.

Even after Martinian's death, his monastery was protected and favoured by members of Ivan III's family. The most ancient structure, the Cathedral of Nativity of the Virgin (1490), was built in brick by the masters of Rostov. This edifice is the best preserved of three sister cathedrals erected in the 1490s in the Russian North. All the interior walls are covered with invaluable frescoes by the great medieval painter Dionisius. This is the last surviving Russian medieval church with fully painted walls.

During the 1530s, they added a treasury, a refectory, and the unique Annunciation church surmounted by a belfry. At that time the monastery enjoyed special privileges conferred upon it by Ivan the Terrible, and possessed some 60 villages in the vicinity. The tsar himself frequently visited the monastery as a pilgrim.

In the Time of Troubles, the monastery was ravaged by the Poles. During its recovery the last buildings — the tent-like church of Saint Martinian (1641), a two-tented barbican church (1650), and a bell-tower (1680) — were added to the complex. The belfry clocks (1638) are said to be the oldest in Russia.

As the monastery gradually lost its religious importance, it was being turned into a place of exile for distinguished clerics, such as the Patriarch Nikon. It was abolished by Emperor Paul in 1798, reinstituted as a convent in 1904, closed by the Bolsheviks 20 years later, and turned into a museum in 1975. The museum constitutes a part of the Russky Sever (Russian North) National Park since 1991.

As of January 2013, images of the monastery and grounds were available via Google Street View.

External links
All the murals of the Ferapontov Monastery online
Official web page of the monastery

Religious buildings and structures completed in 1490
15th-century Russian Orthodox church buildings
Russian Orthodox monasteries in Russia
World Heritage Sites in Russia
Fresco paintings
Buildings and structures in Vologda Oblast
1398 establishments in Europe
14th-century establishments in Russia
Museums in Vologda Oblast
Art museums and galleries in Russia
Religious museums in Russia
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Vologda Oblast

Ferapontov Monastery


A speech and language therapist is a health care professional who specialises in communication and swallowing difficulties.  The main part of their work involves assessing people and planning therapy.  They work with people of all ages across different settings such as nurseries, schools, day centres, care homes, clinics and hospitals.

Communication difficulties
These can include difficulties with fluency (stuttering), making sounds and words, making sentences,
understanding what others say, and using language socially.  These difficulties fall into two main areas:

Language
There are two types of language difficulties:
Receptive
People with receptive language difficulties have problems understanding spoken and written language.  Because of this they usually also have expressive language difficulties although this is not always the case.
 Expressive
People with expressive language difficulties are able to understand but cannot say the words and sentences they want to.  This may be because of word finding difficulties or problems making sentences.

In children language difficulties are divided up into
delay:  language follows the normal developmental pattern but at a slower rate e.g. a four year old may have the language skills of someone 12 months younger.
disorder:  language is not following typical development.

Where language difficulties occur with no other difficulties the child may be diagnosed with Specific Language Impairment.

In adults acquired receptive and expressive language impairments are known as aphasia.  There are many different types of aphasia depending on which areas of the brain are damaged and what symptoms they show.

Swallowing difficulties
Speech therapists can help people with swallowing difficulties (dysphagia).  They help patients through changing their diets to different textures and consistencies, or they may recommend non-oral feeding.

References

Healthcare occupations
Speech disorders

Speech and language therapist


Acryl is a name for a number of chemical compounds that have an acrylic group, or of polymers of these compounds. Especially esters of acrylic acid are used to help make certain dyes and paints or as adhesives.

In organic chemistry, the acryloyl group is the functional group with structure H2C=CH–C(=O)–; it is the acyl group derived from acrylic acid. The preferred IUPAC name for the group is prop-2-enoyl. It is also (less correctly) known as acrylyl or simply acryl. Compounds containing an acryloyl group can be referred to as "acrylic compounds".

An acrylic compound is typically an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound: it contains a carbon–carbon double bond and a carbon–oxygen double bond, separated by a carbon–carbon single bond. It has therefore the properties characteristic for both functional groups :
 at the C=C bond: electrophilic addition of acids and halogens, hydrogenation, hydroxylation and cleavage of the bond
 at the C=O bond: nucleophilic substitution (such as in esters) or nucleophilic addition (such as in ketones). The carboxyl group of acrylic acid can react with ammonia to form acrylamide, or with an alcohol to form an acrylate ester.

In addition, since both double bonds are separated by a single C–C bond, the double bonds are conjugated.

Chemical compounds
Functional groups

Acryl


Sebuah giroskop kontrol momentum atau control momentum gyroscope (CMG) adalah perangkat kontrol sikap umumnya digunakan dalam sistem kontrol sikap pesawat ruang angkasa. Sebuah CMG terdiri dari rotor berputar dan satu atau lebih gimbal bermotor yang sudut rotor momentum miring. Sebagai rotor miring, momentum sudut berubah menyebabkan torsi gyroscopic pesawat ruang angkasa berputar.

Referensi

CMG applications and fundamental research are undertaken at several institutions.
 Georgia Tech's Panagiotis Tsiotras has studied variable-speed CMGs in connection with flywheel energy storage and has built a spacecraft simulator based on them: faculty page
 Virginia Tech's Christopher Hall has built a spacecraft simulator as well: faculty page
 Texas A&M's John Junkins and Srinivas Vadali have written papers on VSCMGs for use in singularity avoidance: faculty page
 Cornell's Mason Peck is researching CMG-driven nanosats with the Violet spacecraft: Violet project page
 Space Systems Group at the University of Florida under Prof. Norman Fitz-Coy have been researching on the development of CMGs for pico- and nano-satellites and on various steering logics for singularity avoidance SSG
 Professor Brij Agrawal at the Naval Postgraduate School has built two spacecraft simulators, at least one of which uses CMGs:
 Honeywell Defense and Space Systems performs research in Control Moment Gyros  They also have developed a spacecraft simulator driven by CMGs: CMG Testbed Video
 Naval Postgraduate School's Marcello Romano has studied variable-speed CMGs and has developed a mini single gimbal control moment gyro for laboratory experiment of spacecraft proximity maneuvers faculty page

Kontrol attitude wahana antariksa
Giroskop

Giroskop kendali momentum


Pratt is an English surname. Notable people with the surname include:

A–F
 Abner Pratt (1801–1863), American diplomat, jurist, politician, lawyer
 Al Pratt (baseball) (1847–1937), American baseball player
 Andy Pratt (baseball) (born 1979), American baseball player
 Andy Pratt (singer-songwriter) (born 1947), American singer-songwriter and musician
 Antwerp Edgar Pratt (1852-1924), British naturalist, explorer, collector of plants and animals
 Awadagin Pratt (born 1966), American concert pianist
 Babe Pratt (Walter Peter Pratt, 1916–1988), Canadian ice hockey player
 Betty Rosenquest Pratt, (1925–2016), American tennis player
 Bob Pratt (1912–2001), Australian rules footballer
 Caleb S. Pratt (1832–1861), Union Army officer
 Calvin Edward Pratt (1828–1896), Union Army officer
 Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden (1713–1794), British lawyer
 Charles Pratt (1830–1891), American businessman and philanthropist
 Chris Pratt (born 1979), American actor
 Christopher Pratt (1935–2022), Canadian artist
 Daniel Pratt (eccentric) (1809–1887), American speaker, author, performance artist, eccentric, and poet
 Daniel Pratt (industrialist) (1799–1873), American industrialist
 David Pratt (Canadian broadcaster) (late 20th/early 21st c.), Canadian sports radio personality and columnist
 David Pratt (assassin) (1908–1961), attempted assassin of South African Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd
 David Pratt (cricketer) (born 1938), English cricketer
 David Pratt (footballer) (1896–1967), Scottish football player and manager
 David Pratt (politician) (born 1955), Canadian politician
 Denis Charles Pratt (1908–1999), British writer, illustrator, actor, and artist's model, commonly known as Quentin Crisp
 Don Pratt (1892–1944), United States Army officer
 Dudley Pratt (1897–1975), American sculptor
 E. J. Pratt (1882–1964), Canadian poet
 Edmund T. Pratt Jr. (1927–2002), American CEO
 Eliza Jane Pratt (1902–1981), American politician
 Enoch Pratt (1808–1896), American businessman
 Fletcher Pratt (1897–1956), historian and science fiction/fantasy author
 Francis A. Pratt (1827–1902), American engineer, of the Pratt & Whitney aircraft engine company
 Frederick Haven Pratt (1873–1958), American professor of physiology

G–J
 Gary Pratt (born 1981), English cricketer
 George C. Pratt (born 1928), U.S. federal appellate judge
 George Dupont Pratt (1869–1935), environmentalist
 George Pratt (disambiguation), several people
 George Pratt, 2nd Marquess Camden (1799–1866), British peer and Tory politician
 Germaine Pratt (born 1998), American football player
 Greta Pratt (born 1960), American photographer
 Harold Douglas Pratt Jr. (born 1944), American ornithologist, bio acoustician, wildlife photographer, bird illustrator, and musician
 Henry Cheever Pratt (1803–1880), American artist and explorer
 Henry Otis Pratt (1838–1931), American lawyer, minister, and Iowa Republican U.S. Representative
 Herbert L. Pratt (1871–1945), American oil industrialist
 Hiram Pratt (1800–1840), American politician from Buffalo, New York
 Hodgson Pratt (1824–1907), British pacifist
 Hugo Pratt (1927–1995), Italian cartoonist
 Jane Pratt (born 1962), American magazine editor
 Jerome Pratt (1926–1984), American politician
 Jessica Pratt (musician) (born 1987), American singer-songwriter
 Jessica Pratt (soprano) (born 1979), Australian operatic soprano
 John Pratt (disambiguation), several people
 John Pratt (footballer) (born 1948), English footballer
 John Pratt (judge) (1657–1725), Lord Chief Justice of England and interim Chancellor of the Exchequer
 John Pratt (soldier) (1753–1824), United States Army officer
 John Pratt, 1st Marquess Camden (1759–1840), British politician
 John Teele Pratt (1873–1927), American corporate attorney, philanthropist, music impresario, and financier
 John Pratt (1931–2001), birth name of author John Winton
 John H. Pratt (1910–1995), U.S. court of appeals judge
 John Henry Pratt (1809–1871), British clergyman and mathematician
 John Lee Pratt (1879–1975), American businessman who served on GM's Board of Directors
 John Pratt (Canadian politician) (1894–1973), Manitoban politician
 John Pratt (Liberal politician) (1873–1952), Scottish Liberal politician
 John Pratt (cricketer) (1834–1886), English cricketer
 John S. Pratt (1931–2020), American Army drum instructor and drum book author
 Joseph Marmaduke Pratt (1891–1946), American politician
 Judson Pratt (1916–2002), American actor

K–Q
 Keith Pratt
 Keri Lynn Pratt (born 1978), American actress
 Khevin Pratt (born 1970), American football player
 Kyla Pratt (born c. 1985), American actress
 Kyle Pratt, a player on the 2008 Florida Gators football team
 Larry Pratt (baseball) (1887–1969), American baseball player
 Larry Pratt (born 1942), American lobbyist
 Lawton Leroy Pratt (1886–1943), American businessman, mortician, and funeral director
 Lorus Pratt (1855–1923), American artist
 Louise Pratt (born 1972), Australian politician
 Marvin Pratt (born 1944), American politician
 Mary Louise Pratt (20th c.), professor of Spanish and Portuguese languages and literature
 Mary Pratt (disambiguation), several people
 Mary Pratt (baseball) (1918–2020), American baseball player
 Mary Pratt (painter) (1935–2018), Canadian painter
 Matthew Pratt (1734–1805), American painter
 Michael Pratt (disambiguation), several people
 Lord Michael Pratt (1946–2007), British author
 Michael Pratt (American football) (born c. 2002), American football quarterback
 Michael Kenneth Pratt (born 1954), Australian policeman
 Mike Pratt (actor) (1931–1976), British actor
 Mike Pratt (basketball) (1948–2022), American basketball player, coach, and broadcaster
 Mike Pratt (politician) (born 1948), Australian politician as the Member for Adelaide
 Neisha Pratt (born 1973), Hong Kong cricketer
 Nicole Pratt (born 1973), Australian tennis player
 Nolan Pratt (born 1975), Canadian ice hockey player and assistant coach
 Orson Pratt (1811–1881), Latter Day Saint leader, brother of Parley P. Pratt
 Parley P. Pratt (1807–1857), Latter Day Saint writer, brother of Orson Pratt
 Percy Pratt (1874–1961), New Zealand cricketer
 Peter Pratt (1923–1995), British actor
 Phil Pratt (born 1942), Jamaican singer and record producer

R–Z
 Renée Gill Pratt (born 1954), American politician and convicted felon
 Reverend George Pratt (1817–1894), missionary, author of the first Samoan language grammar and dictionary
 Rey Pratt (1878–1931), Latter Day Saint leader in Mexico
 Richard Henry Pratt (1840–1924), American soldier and educator, founder of Carlisle Indian School
 Richard L. Pratt Jr. (born 1953), American Calvinist theologian and author
 Richard Pratt (Australian businessman) (1934–2009), Australian businessman
 Robert (1870–1935) and Henry (1863–1943) Pratt, Canadian settlers
 Rodney Pratt (born 1938), English cricketer
 Roger Pratt (architect) (1620–1684), English architect
 Samuel Jackson Pratt (1749–1814), English writer
 Samuel Pratt (1807 – c. 1875), American farmer and politician
 Sharon Pratt Kelly (born 1944), American politician
 Silas Gamaliel Pratt (1846-1916), American composer
 Spencer Pratt (born 1983), American television personality
 Susan May Pratt (born 1974), American actress
 Susan Pratt (born 1956), American actress
 Theodore Pratt (1901–1969), American novelist
 Thomas Pratt (Maryland politician) (1804–1869), American lawyer and politician
 Thomas Willis Pratt (1812–1875), American engineer and inventor
 Tim Pratt (born 1976), American science fiction and fantasy writer and poet
 Todd Pratt (born 1967), American baseball player, manager, and coach
 Tom Pratt (American football) (born 1935), American football player and coach
 Travis Pratt, American criminologist
 Vaughan Pratt (born 1944), computer scientist
 Victoria Pratt (born 1970), Canadian actress
 Wallace Pratt (1885–1981), American geologist
 Walter F. Pratt (born 1946), American legal scholar
 Walter L. Pratt (1868–1934), New York politician
 William Henry Pratt (1887–1969), birth name of actor Boris Karloff
 William V. Pratt (1869–1957), American admiral
 Zadock Pratt (1790–1871), US congressman and founder of Prattsville, New York

Fictional characters
 Atom (Al Pratt), comics character
 George Pratt, character in Philip Van Doren Stern's short story "The Greatest Gift"
 Greg Pratt, character from ER
 Kyle Pratt, a character in Flightplan
 Mrs. Pratt, a character in Vladimir Nabokov's novel Lolita
 Upson Pratt in the movie Creepshow
 William Pratt or Spike, a character from Buffy the Vampire Slayer
 Michaela Pratt, fictional character played by Aja Naomi King (List of How to Get Away with Murder characters)

See also
 Killing of Olivia Pratt-Korbel
 Tierra Ruffin-Pratt (born 1991), American basketball player
 Pratz (disambiguation)

English-language surnames

Pratt


Heterochromia means "different colours", and is most used for the description of different coloured eyes. Some people, and animals, have differences between the irises of their eyes. There are many different causes for this condition.

Genetic causes for heterochromia include genetic mosaicism, where changes may take place in the dividing cells leading up to iris formation in the embryo. Or, environmental damage may occur to the eyes. Or, various diseases and medical conditions may result in changes in eye colour.

Similar events may happen in other tissues, and sometimes result in visible tissue differences. However, the condition is most easily seen in the iris of the eye. The terms Hetrochromia iridis (= different colour of the iris), Heterochromia iridum (plural form) and Heterochromia iridium (a mistake in Latin grammar) are variously used when it is the eye colour which is specifically mentioned.

Eye

Heterochromia


Osamu Tezuka (, Tezuka Osamu, November 3, 1928 – February 9, 1989) was a famous Japanese cartoonist, manga artist, animator, producer and Doctor of Medicine, although he never practiced medicine. He was born in Osaka Prefecture. He created Astro Boy, Kimba the White Lion and Black Jack. He is often credited as the "Father of Anime", and is often considered the Japanese equivalent to Walt Disney, who was a major inspiration for Tezuka.

Tezuka began what was known as the manga revolution in Japan with his New Treasure Island published in 1947. His legendary output would spawn some of the most influential, successful, and well received manga series including the children mangas Astro Boy, Princess Knight and Kimba the White Lion, and the adult oriented series Black Jack, Phoenix, and Buddha, all of which won several awards.

Tezuka died of stomach cancer in 1989. His death had an immediate impact on the Japanese public and other cartoonists. A museum was constructed in Takarazuka dedicated to his memory and life works, and Tezuka received many posthumous awards. Several animations were in production at the time of his death along with the final chapters of Phoenix, which were never released.

Osamu Tezuka:
,"Manga is virtual. Manga is sentiment. Manga is resistance. Manga is bizarre. Manga is pathos. Manga is destruction. Manga is arrogance. Manga is love. Manga is kitsch. Manga is sense of wonder. Manga is … there is no conclusion yet."

1928 births
1989 deaths
Japanese manga artists
Cartoonists
People from Osaka Prefecture

Osamu Tezuka


Elmo Everett Smith (November 19, 1909July 15, 1968) was an American Republican politician who served as the 27th Governor of Oregon from 1956 to 1957.

Early life
Smith was born in Grand Junction, Colorado, on November 19, 1909. At the age of ten, his mother died, and at age thirteen, his father died, leaving young Elmo an orphan. He was sent to live with his uncle on a ranch near Wilder, Idaho. He supported himself financially as he pursued an education at the College of Idaho in Caldwell. Smith received his B.A. in History in 1932, and moved to nearby Ontario, Oregon, just across the Snake River from Idaho.

In Ontario, Smith began a long and successful career in the newspaper business. The year he arrived in town, Smith managed the Ontario Argus, and founded the Ontario Observer in 1936. As a newspaper owner and publisher, he began to gain stature in the community and entered politics.

Voters in Ontario elected Smith mayor in 1940, and returned him to office for a second term in 1942. He resigned in 1943 in order to enlist in the U.S. Navy during the Second World War.

Smith earned the rank of Lieutenant, serving in the Pacific Theater of Operations. He flew transport planes, and later commanded an air transport base in the South Pacific. He returned to civilian life at the war's 1945 conclusion.

Upon returning to Ontario, its citizens returned Smith to the mayor's office. He continued to manage his newspaper holdings, purchasing the John Day Blue Mountain Eagle, and gaining an interest in The Madras Pioneer; while selling off his Ontario papers. In 1948, voters in Grant, Malheur, and Harney counties elected him to represent the region in the state senate.

President of the Oregon State Senate
State Senator Smith would stand up to the influential trucking and powerful lumber industry lobbies to gain passage of an increase in the state highway tax. His support for transportation projects gained him the chairmanship on the Senate Roads and Highways Committee in 1952, and was elected President of the Senate in 1955.

Governorship
The unexpected death of Governor Paul L. Patterson on January 31, 1956, elevated Senate President Elmo Smith to fill out the remainder of the first half of his term. Upon assuming office, Smith found himself running the state and a campaign for the 1956 gubernatorial election.

His administration successfully raised spending on public education, formed a commission on aging, and joined a tri-state water-power consortium. He managed the state's finances in a fiscally conservative manner.

Governor Smith also helped create the Water Resources Board, the agency that today manages and regulates Oregon's water resources.

While winning the Republican nomination for governor, Smith was defeated in his attempt to win the governorship in his own right, to complete the last two years of Patterson's term. Robert D. Holmes, his Democratic challenger, managed to win a narrow victory in the 1956 gubernatorial race.

Later life
After leaving Salem, Smith concentrated on his newspaper empire, purchasing several weekly newspapers and the Albany Democrat-Herald, his largest acquisition. He ended up moving to Albany to better manage the Democrat-Herald.

Smith returned to politics in a bid for the United States Senate seat opened by the death of Richard Neuberger in 1960. Smith lost this race to Maurine Neuberger, the Senator's widow. A run for National Chairman for the Republican Party failed in 1964. His last attempt at elected office, the chairmanship of the Oregon State Republican Party was successful.

Death and legacy
Smith died of cancer on July 15, 1968, in Albany, aged 58, and is buried in the Willamette Memorial Park Mausoleum.

Smith's son, Dennis Alan "Denny" Smith, represented Oregon in the United States Congress from 1981 to 1991 and was the Republican nominee for Governor of Oregon in 1994.

References

Further reading
 Klooster, Karl. Round the Roses II: More Past Portland Perspectives, pg. 137, 1992

External links
 Oregon State Archives: Smith Administration – Photo, bio, records, and some public speeches of Governor Smith.

1909 births
1968 deaths
20th-century American politicians
United States Navy personnel of World War II
American newspaper publishers (people)
College of Idaho alumni
Deaths from cancer in Oregon
Republican Party governors of Oregon
Mayors of places in Oregon
Politicians from Albany, Oregon
People from Grand Junction, Colorado
People from Ontario, Oregon
People from Wilder, Idaho
Presidents of the Oregon State Senate
Republican Party Oregon state senators
Oregon Republican Party chairs
United States Navy officers
Military personnel from Oregon
Military personnel from Colorado

Elmo Smith


Tense is the form of a verb that shows the time something happened, or is going to happen. There are three main tenses:

Present tense: things that are true when the words are spoken or written.
Example: She goes to school. In this sentence, goes shows that it is a present tense. It suggests that she regularly goes to school.
Example: She is going to school. This says she is now going to school.
Past tense: things that were true before the words were spoken or written.
Example: She went to school. In this sentence, went shows that it is a past tense.
Future tense: things that will be true after the words are spoken or written.
Example: She will go to school. In this sentence, will shows that it is a future tense.

Tense can be shown by changing the spelling of a verb. For example, be can become am, is, and are in present tense, and was and were in past tense. In English, future tense is shown by adding will before the verb. For example, be becomes will be in future tense.

Some verb tenses are much more common than others in English.

Note: These tenses can be subdivided further (see below).

Aspect
There are also different kinds of tense within each main tense.
In addition to tense, verbs can also indicate the completion, progress, or duration of an action. This is done by adding "helping words" or "auxiliary words", such as be and have, before the verb. For example, "I give", "I have given", "I am giving", and "I have been giving" are all in present tense, but have different meanings. This is called aspect.

Other languages have different ways of showing tense. For example, Latin usually shows tense by changing the verb, like English. However, Chinese and Indonesian show tense by adding new words, instead of changing the verb.

References

Grammar

Tense (grammar)


Kudu are a type of African antelope that are found all over Africa, depending on the variety. There are two varieties of Kudu.  The Lesser Kudu and the Greater Kudu. The Lesser Kudu live in Eastern Africa and Kenya and Tanzania. The Greater Kudu live in Eastern and Southern Africa.

Appearance
They are a brown-grey color with white stripes that go down the center of their body.  They are very fast and stealthy.  For these facts their other African name is Grey Ghost.  The males have tall spiraling horns.  The females regularly have no horns. Greater Kudus are more slender than lesser Kudus. Baby Kudus usually are a lighter brown than adult Kudus.

Grouping and behavior
Male Kudus live widespread from the group, or in bachelor groups.  The males do not normally have long fights over dominance.  They normally prepare to fight but one stands up more lateral, making himself look larger and more of a threat.  Males are only seen with females during mating season, in groups of 6-10 with their offspring.  The calves grow very quickly and are usually ready to leave their mother at around six months.
Mother Kudus usually leave the group when they are ready to give birth.  They will leave the newborn out for 4–5 weeks.  Then the calf will start meeting its mother for short periods in times.  At 3–4 months it will be with its mother constantly.  At six months the calf will be old enough and join the group as an adult.

Diet
They do not eat meat, they eat plant shoots, and in dry season they eat fruit like wild watermelon for the liquid and natural sugars. The lesser kudu is less dependent on water sources than the greater kudu.

Bovines
Mammals of Africa

Kudu


Scarcity in economics is the lack of various forms of capital. Scarcity can be used to describe an economic situation in economics, or it can be used to describe more general situations.

In economics, scarcity is the result of people having "Unlimited Wants and Needs," or always wanting something new, and having "Limited Resources." Limited Resources means that there are never enough resources, or materials, to satisfy, or fulfill, the wants and needs that every person have. Scarcity is called the "basic economic problem," meaning that it always exists.

Scarcity exists due to the effects of nature such as drought, floods, storms, pest infestation, fire and other things.  Real scarcity can also exist by over use of non-renewable resources.  Goods (things) and services are also scarce because there are only a limited number of things in the world and due to the limits of technology and our own priorities.

More scarce goods and services have higher prices, because of supply and demand. Gold is used less than iron, but the price of gold is much higher, because gold is more scarce. Lawyers are paid more than janitors, because there is scarcity of qualified lawyers.

Scarcity of capital is the main constraint in economic development of developing countries. Economic growth is an increase in the production and consumption of goods and services. It entails increasing population or per capita consumption. It is represented by increasing Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Scarcity refers to limited resources. These resources are the inputs of production i.e., land, labor and capital.

Artificial scarcity

Artificial scarcity is when somebody limits the amount of goods or services that are available, although it would be simple to make more. Artificial scarcity can increase profits for a business. Some people will pay more for something that is scarce, because it shows that they are rich (a status symbol). Copyrights, patents, monopolies, cartels, planned obsolesence can make artificial scarcity.

References

Microeconomics

Scarcity