War of Honor is a science fiction novel by American writer David Weber, the  tenth book in the Honor Harrington series. It was first published in 2002.

Plot summary
Five years have passed since a truce was reached between Manticore and Haven, but there is still no formal peace treaty. Even though neither side wishes to resume fighting, political circumstances in both nations threaten to plunge them into war.

On Manticore, the administration of Prime Minister High Ridge focuses on strengthening its political position. They are determined to remain at least technically at war with Haven - peace would terminate the special war taxes they are diverting from the Royal Manticoran Navy's budget for their welfare programs and vote-buying schemes, and would end their ability to postpone elections in which they expect to lose their fragile majority. Manticore's allies, most notably Grayson and Erewhon, are infuriated with the new government's carelessness and outright rudeness in foreign affairs. From their seats in the House of Lords, Honor Harrington and Hamish Alexander voice their opposition to the High Ridge Administration's policies, and the government takes actions to discredit the war heroes.

Haven struggles to rebuild after the fall of the People's Republic. President Pritchart's administration faces increasing pressure from certain political factions that demand the Republic to be more assertive in its negotiations with the Star Kingdom. Admiral Thomas Theisman has to restore the Havenite Navy's morale and fighting capabilities after the long war with Manticore and a protracted campaign to conquer the remnants of the old People's Republic.

The Andermani Empire, at the encouragement of the Republic's secretary of state,  has adopted a confrontational stance with Manticore over the chaos-ridden Silesian Confederacy, and Honor Harrington is sent to the planet Sidemore, located near Silesian space, with a task force. She is ordered to go to Silesia at the behest of the Royal Navy's new management, who wishes to get her out of the political arena. The intention is to keep a close eye on the Andermani and their activities, and the risk of war between Manticore and the Empire is steadily rising.

Tensions also rise between Haven and Manticore. A new terminus of the Manticore Wormhole Junction has been discovered, and several worlds located near the new terminus request annexation into Manticore, triggering fears amongst the Havenites that Manticore is going to go on an expansionist rampage. The Manticoran government's ineptness and the schemes of some members of the Havenite government compounds an already unstable scenario, and President Pritchart orders the Havenite Navy to launch "Operation Thunderbolt": the resumption of combat operations against Manticore.

War breaks out again. In a series of coordinated attacks the Havenites succeed in conquering every system the Manticorans took out from them (except San Martin, which is recognized as a part of the Star Kingdom) and in devastating a critical Manticoran shipyard. Even Honor's fleet is attacked, despite the long distance between Haven and Sidemore, but, reinforced by the Protector's Own division of the Grayson Navy, she succeeds in defeating the Havenite forces. Baron High Ridge attempts to spread the blame around by forming a coalition government, but the Queen refuses the "request" of the Baron to convene a government. Because of this, High Ridge and all members of his government are left solely responsible for the criminally negligent handling of the military and the peace talks. The High Ridge administration falls in disgrace, and a new government takes over in the Star Kingdom, composed of the remnants of the earlier Cromarty government with Hamish Alexander's brother William as Prime Minister.

Now Haven is almost the technological equal of Manticore and its fleet of modern warships is significantly larger than the Manticoran navy. Erewhon has broken out of the Manticoran Alliance and has sided with Haven, handing them many of the latest technological developments of the Star Kingdom. The Havenites have the initiative and the Star Kingdom is shocked. However, the Andermani Empire joins the Manticoran side in the new war.

Reviews

 Review by Carolyn Cushman (2002) in Locus, #500 September 2002

External links
 An excerpt of War of Honor is available for download or reading online at the Baen Free Library here.

Baen Books available as e-books
2002 science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
Novels by David Weber
Honorverse books
2002 American novels

War of Honor


Sales are activities related to selling or the number of goods sold in a given targeted time period. The delivery of a service for a cost is also considered a sale. A period during which goods are sold for a reduced price may also be referred to as a "sale".

The seller, or the provider of the goods or services, completes a sale in an interaction with a buyer, which may occur at the point of sale or in response to a purchase order from a customer. There is a passing of title (property or ownership) of the item, and the settlement of a price, in which agreement is reached on a price for which transfer of ownership of the item will occur. The seller, not the purchaser, typically executes the sale and it may be completed prior to the obligation of payment. In the case of indirect interaction, a person who sells goods or service on behalf of the owner is known as a salesman or saleswoman or salesperson, but this often refers to someone selling goods in a store/shop, in which case other terms are also common, including salesclerk, shop assistant, and retail clerk.

In common law countries, sales are governed generally by the common law and commercial codes. In the United States, the laws governing sales of goods are mostly uniform to the extent that most jurisdictions have adopted Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code, albeit with some non-uniform variations.

Definition
A person or organization expressing an interest in acquiring the offered item of value is referred to as a potential buyer, prospective customer, or prospect. Buying and selling are understood to be two sides of the same "coin" or transaction. Both seller and buyer engage in a process of negotiation to consummate the exchange of values. The exchange, or selling, process has implied rules and identifiable stages. It is implied that the selling process will proceed fairly and ethically so that the parties end up nearly equally rewarded. The stages of selling, and buying, involve getting acquainted, assessing each party's need for the other's item of value, and determining if the values to be exchanged are equivalent or nearly so, or, in buyer's terms, "worth the price". Sometimes, sellers have to use their own experiences when selling products with appropriate discounts.

Although the skills required are different, from a management viewpoint, sales is a part of marketing. Sales often form a separate grouping in a corporate structure, employing separate specialist operatives known as salespersons (singular: salesperson). Selling is considered by many to be a sort of persuading "art". Contrary to popular belief, the methodological approach of selling refers to a systematic process of repetitive and measurable milestones, by which a salesman relates his or her offering of a product or service in return enabling the buyer to achieve their goal in an economic way.

While the sales process refers to a systematic process of repetitive and measurable milestones, the definition of the selling is somewhat ambiguous due to the close nature of advertising, promotion, public relations, and direct marketing.

Selling is the profession-wide term, much like marketing defines a profession. Recently, attempts have been made to clearly understand who is in the sales profession, and who is not. There are many articles looking at marketing, advertising, promotions, and even public relations as ways to create a unique transaction.

Many believe that the focus of selling is on the human agents involved in the exchange between buyer and seller. Effective selling also requires a systems approach, at minimum involving roles that sell, enable selling, and develop sales capabilities. Selling also involves salespeople who possess a specific set of sales skills and the knowledge required to facilitate the exchange of value between buyers and sellers that is unique from marketing and advertising.

Within these three tenets, the following definition of professional selling is offered by the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD):

Team selling is one way to influence sales. Team selling is "a group of people representing the sales department and other functional areas in the firm, such as finance, production, and research and development". (Spiro) Team selling came about in the 1990s through total quality management (TQM). TQM occurs when companies work to improve their customer satisfaction by constantly improving all their operations.

Relationships with marketing
Marketing and sales differ greatly, but they generally have the same goal. Selling is the final stage in marketing which puts the plan into effect. A marketing plan includes pricing, promotion, place, and product (the 4 P's). A marketing department in an organization has the goals of increasing the desirability and value of the products and services to the customer and increasing the number and engagement of successful interactions between potential customers and the organization. Achieving this goal may involve the sales team using promotional techniques such as advertising, sales promotion, publicity, and public relations, creating new sales channels, or creating new products. It can also include encouraging the potential customer to visit the organization's website, contact the organization for more information, or interact with the organization via social media channels such as Twitter, Facebook and blogs. Social values play a major role in consumer decision processes. Marketing is the whole of the work on persuasion made for the whole of the target people. Sales is the process of persuasion and effort from one person to one person (B2C), or one person to a corporation (B2B), in order to make a living resource enter the company. This may occur in person, over the phone or digitally.

The field of sales process engineering views "sales" as the output of a larger system, not just as the output of one department. The larger system includes many functional areas within an organization. From this perspective, the labels "sales" and "marketing" cover several processes whose inputs and outputs supply one another. In this context, improving an "output" (such as sales) involves studying and improving the broader sales process, since the component functional areas interact and are interdependent.

Many large corporations structure their marketing departments, so they are integrated with all areas of the business. They create multiple teams with a singular focus, and the managers of these teams must coordinate efforts to drive profits and business success. For example, an "inbound" campaign seeks to drive more customers "through the door", giving the sales department a better chance of selling their product to the consumer. A good marketing program would address any potential downsides as well.

The sales department would aim to improve the interaction between the customer and the sales channel or salesperson. As sales is the forefront of any organization, this would always need to take place before any other business process may begin. Sales management involves breaking down the selling process and increasing the effectiveness of the discrete processes, as well as improving the interactions between processes. For example, in an outbound sales environment, the typical process includes outbound calling, the sales pitch, handling objections, opportunity identification, and the close. Each step of the process has sales-related issues, skills, and training needs, as well as marketing solutions to improve each discrete step.

One further common complication of marketing is the difficulty in measuring results for some marketing initiatives. Some marketing and advertising executives focus on creativity and innovation without concern for the top or bottom lines – a fundamental pitfall of marketing for marketing's sake.

Many companies find it challenging to get their marketing and sales teams to agree. The two departments, although different in nature, handle very similar concepts and have to work together to achieve the business's goals. Building a good relationship between the two teams that encourages communication can be the key to success.

Industrial marketing
The idea that marketing can potentially eliminate the need for salespeople depends entirely on context.  For example, this may be possible in some B2C situations; however, for many B2B transactions (for example, those involving industrial organizations) this is mostly impossible. Another dimension is the value of the goods being sold. Fast-moving consumer-goods (FMCG) require no salespeople at the point of sale to get them to jump off the supermarket shelf and into the customer's trolley. However, the purchase of large mining equipment worth millions of dollars will require a salesperson to manage the sales process – particularly in the face of competitors. Small and medium businesses selling such large ticket items to a geographically dispersed client base use manufacturers' representatives to provide this highly personal service while avoiding the large expense of a captive sales force.

Sales and marketing alignment and integration
Another area of discussion involves the need for alignment and integration of corporate sales and marketing functions. According to a report from the Chief Marketing Officer (CMO) Council, only 40 percent of companies have formal programs, systems or processes in place to align and integrate the two critical functions.

Sales, Digital Marketing and Automated Marketing campaigns. With the increase of the use of the internet today, sales functions of several enterprises are finding traditional methods of marketing quite old fashioned and less efficient. So the use of automated Marketing Applications is on the rise ranging from Customer Relationship Management (CRM) to Sales Force Management.

Traditionally, these two functions, as referred above, have operated separately, left in siloed areas of tactical responsibility. Glen Petersen's book The Profit Maximization Paradox sees the changes in the competitive landscape between the 1950s and the time of writing as so dramatic that the complexity of choice, price, and opportunities for the customer forced this seemingly simple and integrated relationship between sales and marketing to change forever. Petersen goes on to highlight that salespeople spend approximately 40 percent of their time preparing customer-facing deliverables while leveraging less than 50 percent of the materials created by marketing, adding to perceptions that marketing is out of touch with the customer and that sales is resistant to messaging and strategy.

Methods

A sale can take place through face-to-face contact, via mail order, through a vending machine or through online selling. Other methods of selling include:

 Agency-based sales
 Complex sales
 Consignment
 Consultative sales
 Retail or consumer
 Sales agents (for example in real estate or in manufacturing)
 Sales outsourcing through direct branded representation
 Telemarketing or telesales
 Transaction sales
 Business-to-business – Business-to-business ("B2B") sales are likely to be larger in terms of volume, economic value and complexity than business-to-consumer ("B2C") sales. Often the complexity involves one business working closely with the other to define problems, to finding solutions, to supporting after-sale operation. Because of this complexity, there is a need to manage the relationships between the buying and selling organizations, for example using Peter Cheverton's relationship models and the stakeholder map by Anderson, Bryson and Crosby
 Channel sales, an indirect sales model, which differs from direct sales. Channel selling is a way for sellers to reach the "B2B" and "B2C" markets through distributors, re-sellers or value added re-sellers VARS.
 Direct sales, involving person to person contact
 Electronic
Electronic Data Interchange
 Web – Business-to-business ("B2B") and business-to-consumer ("B2C")
 Pro forma sales
 Request for proposal – An invitation for suppliers, through a bidding process, to submit a proposal on a specific product or service; an RFP usually represents part of a complex sales process, also known as "enterprise sales"
 Selling technique:
 Action selling
 Auctions
 Challenger sales
 Cold calling
 Collaborative Selling
 Compass Selling
 Conceptual selling
 Consultative selling
 Cross-selling
 Guaranteed sale
 Hard selling
 Inbound sales
 Needs-based selling
 Paint-the-picture
 Personal selling
 Persuasive selling
 Price based selling
 Professional selling skills
 Relationship selling
 Reverse selling
 Sales enablement
 Sales habits
 Sales negotiation
 Sales outsourcing
 Sandler selling system
 Short Selling
 Side selling
 Social selling
 Solution selling
 SPIN selling
 Strategic selling
 Take-out or take away
 Target account selling
 Transactional selling
 Upselling
 Traveling salesman
 Door-to-door methods
 Hawking

Sales agents
Agents in the sales process can represent either of two parties in the sales process; for example:
 Buyers broker or Buyer brokerage: This is where the salesman represents the consumer making the purchase. This is most often applied in large transactions.
 Disclosed dual agent: This is where the salesman represents both parties in the sale and acts as a mediator for the transaction. The role of the salesman here is to oversee that both parties receive an honest and fair deal.
 Internet Sales Professionals: These people are primarily responsible for ensuring immediate response to the leads generated via social media, website or email campaigns.
 Sales broker, seller agency, seller agent, seller representative: This is a traditional role where the salesman represents a person or company on the selling end of a deal.
 Sales managers aim to implement various sales strategies and management techniques in order to facilitate improved profits and increased sales volume. They are also responsible for coordinating the sales and marketing department as well as oversight concerning the fair and honest execution of the sales process by their agents.
 Sales outsourcing involves direct branded representation where the sales representatives are recruited, hired, and managed by an external entity but hold quotas, represent themselves as the brand of the client, and report all activities (through their own sales management channels) back to the client. It is akin to a virtual extension of a sales force (see sales outsourcing).
 Salesperson: The primary function of salespeople is to generate and close business resulting in profit. The salesperson will accomplish their primary function through a variety of means including phone calls, email, social media, networking, and cold calling. The primary objective of the successful salesperson is to find the consumers to sell to.  Sales are often referred to as a "numbers game" because a general law of averages and pattern of successful closing of business will emerge through heightened sales activity. These activities include but are not limited to: locating prospects, fostering relationships with prospects, building trust with future clients, identifying and filling needs of consumers, and therefore turning prospective customers into actual ones. Many tools are used by successful salespeople, the most important of which is questioning which can be defined as a series of questions and resulting answers allowing the salesperson to understand a customer's goals and requirements relevant to the product they are selling. The creation of value or perceived value is the result of taking the information gathered, analyzing the goals and needs of the prospective customer and leveraging the products or services the salesperson's firm represents or sells in a way that most effectively achieves the prospective client's goals or suits their needs.  Effective salespeople will package their offering and present their proposed solution in a way that leads the prospective customer to the conclusion that they acquire the solution, resulting in revenue and profit for the salesperson and the organization they represent.

vs.
In the United States, the Fair Labor Standards Act defines outside sales representatives as "employees [who] sell their employer's products, services, or facilities to customers away from their employer's place(s) of business, in general, either at the customer's place of business or by selling door-to-door at the customer's home" while defining those who work "from the employer's location" as inside sales. Inside sales generally involves attempting to close business primarily over the phone via telemarketing, while outside sales (or "field" sales) will usually involve initial phone work to book sales calls at the potential buyer's location to attempt to close the deal in person. Some companies have an inside sales department that works with outside representatives and book their appointments for them. Inside sales sometimes refers to upselling to existing customers.

Sales Coaching
Sales Coaching is a one-on-one coaching process by high-performing sales professionals and consultants with salespeople, managers, and executives. The process involves equipping them with the knowledge, abilities, and skills needed to become more effective sales professionals. Unlike sales training, sales coaching is typically an individualized, ongoing endeavor.

Law

In common law countries, sales are governed generally by the common law and commercial codes. In the United States, the laws governing sales of goods are mostly uniform to the extent that most jurisdictions have adopted Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code, albeit with some non-uniform variations.

The European Commission proposed adoption of a Common European Sales Law in 2011 and set out a proposed regulation on this area of law in 2014. Whilst remaining optional, the Commission's intention was to offer traders a means of breaking down barriers occasioned by the different legal systems of its (then) 28 Member States. However, the proposal was withdrawn in December 2014 as the Commission's work plan was rationalised.

See also
 Buzzword
 Choice architecture
 Demand chain
 Financial transaction
 Personal selling
 Sales (accounting)
 Sales contest
 Sales effectiveness
 Sales incentive plan
 Sales territory
 Sales variance
 Trade
 Vendor

References

External links

Business process
Business terms
Distribution (marketing)
Sales occupations

Sales


By-elections to the 4th Canadian Parliament were held to elect members of the House of Commons of Canada between the 1878 federal election and the 1882 federal election. The Conservative Party of Canada led a majority government for the 4th Canadian Parliament.

The list includes Ministerial by-elections which occurred due to the requirement that Members of Parliament recontest their seats upon being appointed to Cabinet. These by-elections were almost always uncontested. This requirement was abolished in 1931.

See also
List of federal by-elections in Canada

Sources
 Parliament of Canada–Elected in By-Elections

1882 elections in Canada
1881 elections in Canada
1880 elections in Canada
1879 elections in Canada
1878 elections in Canada
04th


The ontological argument is an idea in religious philosophy. It is supposed to show that God exists.

There are different versions, but they all argue something like: because we can imagine a perfect being, there must be a god. The idea is that existing makes a good thing better than one that's only imaginary. So the perfect thing we're imagining must exist. Then we call the perfect thing God. The earliest objection was that an argument like that could prove wrong things. You could prove that a perfect island must exist, for example. But no real island is perfect.

Because it starts with imagination, not what you can see or experience, this is a kind of a priori reasoning. David Hume didn't like that way of thinking. He believed that knowledge had to come from experience and called everything else "nothing but sophistry and illusion".

Other versions of the argument start with the idea of the universe, and from that argue that there must be a god.

References

Philosophy

Ontological argument


A motion of no confidence, is a vote on whether a group of people still has confidence in a government or leader. This is mainly a statement or vote which states that a person in a superior position, be it government, managerial, etc., is no longer deemed fit to hold that position.

The first motion of no confidence occurred in March 1782 when, following news of the British defeat at Yorktown in the American Revolutionary War the previous October, the Parliament of Great Britain voted that they "can no longer repose confidence in the present ministers". In modern times, passage of a motion of no confidence is relatively rare in two-party democracies. Party discipline is usually enough to allow a majority party to defeat a motion of no confidence.

There are variations of this in different countries. For example, in Germany, Spain, and Israel, a vote of no confidence requires that the opposition, on the same ballot, propose a candidate of their own whom they want to be appointed as successor by the respective head of state. A motion of no confidence in some countries can be proposed in the government collectively or by any individual member, including the Prime Minister. In Spain it is presented by the Prime Minister after consultation.

Sometimes a party proposes a confidence vote even though it is not likely to pass. The no confidence vote may pressure the government. Or when the government proposes the vote it can embarrass critics who do not vote against the government.

Voting
Parliamentary procedure

Motion of no confidence


Felix Christian Klein (April 25, 1849, Düsseldorf, (then) Prussian Empire – June 22, 1925, Göttingen, Germany) was a German mathematician. He became known for his work in group theory, function theory, non-Euclidean geometry, and on the connections between geometry and group theory. His 1872 Erlangen Program, which ate geometries by their underlying symmetry groups, was a hugely influential synthesis of much of the mathematics of the day.

The Klein bottle is named after him.

Klein, Felix Christian
1849 births
1925 deaths
German algebraists

Felix Klein


Windows Task Manager is a task manager application. It is part of the Microsoft Windows NT family of operating systems. Windows Task Manager gives detailed information about computer performance and applications that are currently running. It also gives information about processes and CPU usage, commit charge and memory information, network activity and statistics, logged-in users, and system services. The application can be used to set process priorities, processor affinity, forcibly terminating (ending) processes. In Windows XP only, the application can be used to shut down, restart, hibernate or log off from Windows.

Other websites
Task Manager information at Computer Hope

Software

Windows Task Manager


The Citroën LN (Hélène) an Citroën LNA (Hélèna) wur supermini automobiles produced bi the French manufacturer Citroën atween 1976 an 1986.

Owerview

LN
The LN wis introduced in 1976 as a rewirked version o Peugeot's 104 Z, an wis pouered bi the economical 602 cc twa-cylinder petrol ingine o the Citroën 2CV. Equipment levels wur law, but the LN's key sellin pynts wur its cheap price an law runnin costs.

Thare wis evidence o defensiveness at the press launch, possibly acause a caur that leuked lik a Peugeot but wis assembled at a Citroën plant an fittit wi a Citroën ingine shairply refutit assurances that the twa marques wad retain thair individuality.  Those assurances haed been providit bi the same press depairtments juist a few months earlier, when Citroën haed again run oot o money Peugeot haed taken control. When pressed, Citroën explained that the LN project haed been rushed throu acause o "the need tae supply customers an the [dealership] netwirk wi a model tae strengthen Citroën's position at the lawer end o the mercat" which wis haurdly a ringin endorsement o a range which at the time includit the Ami an the Dyane as well as the venerable 2CV which wad continue in production lang efter ony o the ithers.

LNA
Citroën sauld the LN in its native Fraunce ae, but its mair powerful replacement, the LNA, wis introduced in November 1978 an wis exportit tae maist o the rest o Europe (includin richt-hand drive versions for Great Breetain). It haed the mair pouerful an modren 652 cc twa-cylinder ingine o the Citroën Visa an later a 1.1 L fower-cylinder ingine wis addit which haed a tap speed o nearly 90 mph (145 km/h) on the LNA 11E an 11RE. But lik the smawer-ingined LN, the LNA wis cheap tae buy an cheap tae run.

At the same time the LNA wis launched, its Peugeot-soorced bodyshell an aa spawned the Talbot Samba which haed square heidlichts an a different, slichtly langer, rear body pairt. LNA production ceased in the simmer o 1986, while the Talbot Samba survived anither year. The Peugeot 104 remained in production till 1988 even tho its successor, the 205, haed been launcht five years earlier.

References

LNA
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Subcompact caurs
Hatchbacks
1970s automobiles
1980s automobiles
Vehicles introduced in 1975
Vehicles wi boxer ingines

Citroën LN


The Battle of Baltimore (September 12–15, 1814) was a battle fought between British and American forces in the War of 1812. American forces repulsed sea and land invasions off the busy port city of Baltimore, Maryland, and killed the commander of the invading British forces.

The British and Americans first met at the Battle of North Point. Though the Americans retreated, the battle was a successful delaying action that inflicted heavy casualties on the British, halted their advance, and allowed the defenders at Baltimore to prepare for an attack.

The resistance of Baltimore's Fort McHenry during bombardment by the Royal Navy inspired Francis Scott Key to compose the poem "Defence of Fort McHenry," which later became the lyrics for "The Star-Spangled Banner," the national anthem of the United States.

Future U.S. President James Buchanan served as a private in the defense of Baltimore.

Background
Until April 1814, Britain was at war against Napoleonic France, which limited British war aims in America. Meanwhile, the British primarily used a defensive strategy and repelled American invasions of the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. The Americans gained naval control over Lake Erie in 1813 and seized parts of western Ontario. In the Mississippi Territory, in an area in modern central Alabama General Andrew Jackson destroyed the military strength of the Creek nation at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814.

Although Great Britain was unwilling to draw military forces from the war with France, it still enjoyed a naval superiority on the ocean, and vessels of North America and West Indies Squadron, based at Bermuda, blockaded American ports on the Atlantic throughout the war, strangling the American economy. Initially, the north-eastern ports were spared this blockade as public sentiments in New York and New England were against the war. The Royal Navy and Royal Marines also occupied American coastal islands and landed military forces for raids along the coast, especially around the Chesapeake Bay, encouraging enslaved blacks to defect to the Crown and recruiting them into the Corps of Colonial Marines.

Following the defeat of Napoleon in the spring of 1814, the British adopted a more aggressive strategy, intended to compel the United States to negotiate a peace that restored the pre-war status quo. Thousands of seasoned British soldiers were deployed to British North America. Most went to the Canadas to re-enforce the defenders. The British Army, Canadian militias, and their First Nations allies drove the American invaders back into the United States. Without naval control of the Great Lakes they were unable to receive supplies, resulting in the British failure to capture Plattsburgh in the Second Battle of Lake Champlain and their withdrawal from US territory.

A brigade under the command of Major General Robert Ross was sent in early July with several naval vessels to join the forces already operating from Bermuda. The combined forces were to be used for diversionary raids along the Atlantic coast, intended to force the Americans to withdraw forces from Canada. Some historians claim that they were under orders not to carry out any extended operations and were restricted to targets on the coast.

However, the British had launched three major operations targeting the three largest ports of America at Baltimore, New York City, via Lake Champlain and the Hudson River, and in New Orleans from August 1814 to February 1815. Each of these three expeditions had over 10,000 British Army troops, many of them the best soldiers and officers from the Peninsular War, so they were not just minor diversionary raids.  Britain had already captured most of modern-day Maine and re-established the Crown colony of New Ireland in September 1814.

An ambitious raid was planned as the result of a letter sent to Bermuda on 2 June by Sir George Prévost, Governor General of The Canadas, who called for retaliation in response to the "wanton destruction of private property along the north shores of Lake Erie" by American forces under Colonel John Campbell in May, the most notable being the Raid on Port Dover. Prévost argued that,

... in consequence of the late disgraceful conduct of the American troops in the wanton destruction of private property on the north shores of Lake Erie, in order that if the war with the United States continues you may, should you judge it advisable, assist in inflicting that measure of retaliation which shall deter the enemy from a repetition of similar outrages.

The letter was considered by Ross and Vice-Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, who had replaced Sir John Borlase Warren earlier that year as the Commander-in-Chief of the North America and West Indies Station of the Royal Navy, headquartered at Admiralty House in Bermuda, in planning how to use their forces. Cochrane's junior, Rear Admiral George Cockburn, had been commanding ships of the squadron in the operations on the Chesapeake Bay since the previous year.

On 25 June he wrote to Cochrane stressing that the defenses there were weak, and he felt that several major cities were vulnerable to attack. Cochrane suggested attacking Baltimore, Washington and Philadelphia. On 17 July, Cockburn recommended Washington as the target, because of the comparative ease of attacking the national capital and "the greater political effect likely to result".

On 18 July, Cochrane ordered Cockburn that to "deter the enemy from a repetition of similar outrages..." You are hereby required and directed to "destroy and lay waste such towns and districts as you may find assailable". Cochrane instructed, "You will spare merely the lives of the unarmed inhabitants of the United States".

In August, the vessels in Bermuda sailed from the Royal Naval Dockyard and St. George's to join those already operating along the American Atlantic coast. After defeating a US Navy gunboat flotilla, a military force totaling 4,370, composed of British Army, Royal Marines, and Royal Navy detachments for shore service, under Ross was landed in Virginia. After beating off an American force of 1,200 on the 23rd, on the 24th they attacked the prepared defenses of the main American force of roughly 6,400 US Army soldiers, militiamen, US Marines, and US Navy sailors in the Battle of Bladensburg.

Despite the considerable disadvantage in numbers, standard military logic dictates that a three-to-one advantage is needed in carrying out an attack on prepared defenses, and sustaining heavy casualties, the British force routed the American defenders and cleared the path into the capital. President James Madison and the entire government fled the city, and went North, to the town of Brookeville, Maryland.

On 24 August 1814, British troops led by Rear Admiral George Cockburn and Major General Robert Ross entered Washington and captured the city with a force of 4,500 "battle-hardened" men, during the burning of Washington. British troops, commanded by Ross, set fire to a number of public buildings, including the White House and the United States Capitol. Extensive damage to the interiors and the contents of both were reported. The British forces returned to their ships.

The British sent a fleet up the Potomac to cut off Washington's water access and threaten the prosperous ports of Alexandria, just downstream of Washington, and Georgetown, just upstream. The mere appearance of the fleet cowed American defenders into fleeing from Fort Warburton without firing a shot, and undefended Alexandria surrendered. The British spent several days looting hundreds of tons of merchandise from city merchants.

They then turned their attention north to Baltimore, where they hoped to strike a powerful blow against the demoralized Americans. Baltimore was a busy port and was thought by the British to harbor many of the privateers who were raiding British shipping. The British planned a combined operation, with Ross launching a land attack at North Point, and Vice-Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane laying siege to Fort McHenry, which was the point defensive installation in Baltimore Harbor.

Baltimore's defenses had been planned in advance and overseen by the state militia commander, Major General Samuel Smith.

Opposing forces

American

10th Military District
 Brigadier General William Winder, U.S. Army

British

 North America and West Indies Station: Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane
 Rear-Admiral Poultney Malcolm
 Rear-Admiral Edward Codrington - Captain of the Fleet

Battle

North Point

The British landed a force of 5,000 troops who marched toward Baltimore and first met heavy resistance at the Battle of North Point, which was fought on September 12 about 5 miles (8 km) from the city. The city's defense was under the overall command of Major General Samuel Smith, an officer of the Maryland Militia. He dispatched roughly 3,000 men under the command of General John Stricker to meet the British in a forward engagement. General Stricker was to stall the British invasion force to delay the British advance long enough for Major General Smith to complete the defenses in Baltimore.

The land invasion force for the British was led by Ross, who was killed in the second shift of the American defense by an American sharpshooter. It has been suggested that either Daniel Wells or Henry McComas of Captain Aisquith's rifle company, of the 5th Maryland Militia regiment was responsible, and both killed shortly afterwards.

After Ross's death, the British army came under the command of Colonel Arthur Brooke. The Americans had already begun to form an organized retreat back to the main defenses of Baltimore, where they awaited a British assault.

Hampstead Hill
Rodgers Bastion, also known as Sheppard's Bastion, located on Hampstead Hill, now part of Patterson Park, was the centerpiece of a 3-mile-wide earthworks from the outer harbor in Canton, north to Belair Road, dug to defend the eastern approach to Baltimore against the British. The redoubt was assembled and commanded by U.S. Navy Commodore John Rodgers, with General Smith in command of the overall line. At dawn on September 13, the day after the Battle of North Point, some 4,300 British troops advanced north on North Point Road, then west along the Philadelphia Road (now Maryland Route 7) toward Baltimore. U.S. troops were forced to retreat to the main defensive line around the city. The British commander, Col. Arthur Brooke, established his new headquarters at the Sterret House on Surrey Farm, now called Armistead Gardens, about two miles east-northeast of Hampstead Hill.

When the British began probing actions on Baltimore's inner defenses, the American line was defended by 100 cannons and more than 10,000 regular troops, including two shadowing infantry regiments commanded by general officers Stricker and Winder as well as a few thousand local militia and irregulars. The defenses were far stronger than the British anticipated. The American defenders at Fort McHenry successfully stopped British naval forces but a few ships were still able to provide artillery support.

Once the British had taken the outer defenses, the inner defenses became the priority. The British infantry had not anticipated how well defended they would be, so the first attack was a failure. However, Brooke's forces managed to outflank and to overrun American positions to the right. After a discussion with lower ranking officers, Brooke decided that the British should bombard the fort instead of risk a frontal assault and, at 3:00 a.m. on September 14, ordered the British troops to return to the ships.

Fort McHenry

At Fort McHenry, some 1,000 soldiers under the command of Major George Armistead awaited the British naval bombardment. Their defense was augmented by the sinking of a line of American merchant ships at the adjacent entrance to Baltimore Harbor in order to further thwart the passage of British ships.

The attack began on September 13, as the British fleet of some nineteen ships began pounding the fort with Congreve rockets (from rocket vessel HMS Erebus) and mortar shells (from bomb vessels Terror, Volcano, Meteor, Devastation, and Aetna). After an initial exchange of fire, the British fleet withdrew to just beyond the range of Fort McHenry's cannons and continued to bombard the American redoubts for the next 25 hours. Although 1,500 to 1,800 cannonballs were launched at the fort, damage was light because of recent fortification that had been completed prior to the battle.

After nightfall, Cochrane ordered a landing to be made by small boats to the shore just west of the fort, away from the harbor opening on which the fort's defense was concentrated. He hoped that the landing party might slip past Fort McHenry and draw Smith's army away from the main British land assault on the city's eastern border. That gave the British a good diversion for half an hour and allowed them to fire again and again.

On the morning of September 14, the  oversized American flag, which had been made a year earlier by local flagmaker Mary Pickersgill and her 13-year-old daughter, was raised over Fort McHenry, replacing the tattered storm flag which had flown during battle. It was responded to by a small encampment of British riflemen on the right flank, who fired a round each at the sky and taunted the Americans just before they too returned to the shore line.

Originally, historians said that the oversized Star Spangled Banner Flag was raised to taunt the British, but that is not the case. The oversized flag was used every morning for reveille, as was the case on the morning of September 14.

Brooke had been instructed not to attack the American positions around Baltimore unless he was certain that there were fewer than 2,000 men in the fort. Because of his orders, Brooke had to withdraw from his positions and returned to the fleet, which would set sail for New Orleans.

Aftermath

Colonel Brooke's troops withdrew, and Admiral Cochrane's fleet sailed off to regroup before his next (and final) assault on the United States, at the Battle of New Orleans. Armistead was soon promoted to lieutenant colonel. Much weakened by the arduous preparations for the battle, he died at 38, only three years after the battle.

Three active battalions of the Regular Army (1-4 Inf, 2-4 Inf and 3-4 Inf) perpetuate the lineages of the old 36th and 38th Infantry Regiments, both of which were at Fort McHenry during the bombardment. The lineage of the 5th Maryland Infantry Regiment, which played a major role in the Battle of North Point, is perpetuated by the Maryland Army National Guard's 175th Infantry Regiment.

The battle is commemorated in the Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine.

Star Spangled Banner
An American lawyer and amateur poet, Francis Scott Key, was on a mercy mission for the release of Dr. William Beanes, a prisoner of the British. Key showed the British letters from wounded British officers praising the care that they received from Dr. Beanes. The British agreed to release Beanes, but Key and Beanes were forced to stay with the British until the attack on Baltimore was over.

Key watched the proceedings from a truce ship in the Patapsco River. On the morning of the 14th, Key saw the American flag waving above Fort McHenry. Inspired, he began jotting down verses on the back of a letter he was carrying. Key's poem, originally named "Defence on Fort McHenry," was printed on pamphlets by the Baltimore American.

Key's poem was later set to the tune of a British song called "To Anacreon in Heaven," the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th-century gentlemen's club of amateur musicians in London. The song eventually became known as "The Star-Spangled Banner." The US Congress made it the national anthem of the United States in 1931.

See also
Defenders Day
The Dawn's Early Light
Bombardment of Lewes
List of conflicts in the United States

References

Sources and further reading

 Crawford, Michael J. (ed.) (2002). The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History, Vol. 3. Washington: United States Department of Defense.

 George, Christopher T., Terror on the Chesapeake: The War of 1812 on the Bay, Shippensburg, Pa.: White Mane, 2001,
 Hildebrand, David K. "Bicentenary Essay: Two National Anthems? Some Reflections on the Two Hundredth Anniversary of 'The Star-Spangled Banner' and its Forgotten Partner, 'The Battle of Baltimore'." American Music 32.3 (2014): 253–271. online

Leepson, Marc. What So Proudly We Hailed: Francis Scott Key, A Life, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
Leepson, Marc. "Flag: An American Biography", New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2005.

 Marine, William M. (1913). The British invasion of Maryland, 1812–1815. Baltimore: Society of the War of 1812 in Maryland

Pitch, Anthony S. The Burning of Washington, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000.

 Sheads, Scott S. The Rockets' Red Glare: The Maritime Defense of Baltimore in 1814 (Tidewater Publishers, 1986).

Whitehorne, Joseph A., The Battle for Baltimore 1814, Baltimore: Nautical & Aviation Publishing, 1997,

External links

"Battle of North Point" by John Pezzola

1814 in the United States
Baltimore
Baltimore
History of Baltimore
History of Maryland
Baltimore
1814 in Maryland
Conflicts in 1814
The Star-Spangled Banner
September 1814 events

Battle of Baltimore


In Spain, the  (; 'designation of origin') is part of a regulatory geographical indication system used primarily for foodstuffs such as cheeses, condiments, honey, and meats, among others. In wines, it parallels the hierarchical systems of France (1935) and Italy (1963), although Rioja (1925) and Jerez (1933) preceded the full system. In foods, it performs a similar role, regulation of quality and geographical origin of products from Spain. There are five other designated categories solely for wine and a further three specifically covering food and condiments, all recognised by the European Union (EU). In Catalonia, two further categories – labelled A and Q – cover traditional Catalan artisan food products, but were not recognised by the EU  In recent decades, the concept of the  has been adopted by other countries, primarily in Latin America. In 2016, the use of the  (DO) for wines was registered as a European Union Protected Designations of Origin/ (PDO/DOP), but the traditional Portuguese term of DO can still be used legally on labels.

Definition

The Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food regulates the quality of Spanish foodstuffs via a labelling system which establishes, among other things, a  for the country's highest-quality produce. There is a semi-autonomous governing body (Consejo Regulador) for each region and for each food type, comprising skilled, impartial members who investigate the quality, ingredients and production process of each product, ensuring they attain specific quality levels. They report to a central council at national government level, but are normally based in the largest population centre of a given region and are responsible for ensuring labelling reflects geographical region. Products labelled , apart from being of superior quality, are expected to carry specific characteristics of geographical region or individual producer and be derived from raw materials originating within the region. Like most of these designations, a fundamental tenet of a DO label is that no product outside of that region is permitted to bear the name.

History

Food and wine are inseparable from Spanish culture, historically bound to the social, economic, literary and even mystical fabric of society over thousands of years, so it is perhaps not surprising that attempts to regulate and normalise activities related to them have proven highly elusive.  It was not until the seventeenth century, when legislative authorities became sufficiently interested in issues such as public health, public order and economic regulation, that laws begin to be formulated with regard to wine, initially prohibiting, later encouraging and ultimately regulating its production, commercialisation and consumption. Food regulation waited even longer, until Spain's entry into the EU and signing up to the Common Agricultural Policy during the latter part of the twentieth century.

A series of Royal Decrees on wine were issued during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, focussing on ad hoc issues which arose due to new tendencies at home and abroad and often dealing more with maverick suppliers than any concern with comprehensive regulation. Gradually though, concern shifted from issues related to supply towards the need to regulate quality, especially for foreign markets. During the 1920s serious attempts were made to formulate some kind of classification along the lines of the French appellation system. Following the establishment of the Rioja as the first Spanish denominación in 1925, the Estatuto de vino ('wine statute') of 1932 coincided with national and international recognition of the sherry-producing region of Jerez.

Despite being thorough and wide-ranging, the Estatuto was quickly overwhelmed by technological advances in agriculture. By the time the EEC became influential in this area. it was clear that the law would require fundamental re-drafting. A new Estatuto, the Ley del Vino y de los Alcoholes (25/1970) came into place in December 1970 but was again undermined, this time by two important events: the new Spanish Constitution (inaugurated in 1978) that restated geographical considerations with the Estado de las Autonomías, and Spain's pending membership of the European Community (1986) that brought about a rapid classification of all Spanish produce in line with other member states.

Finally, in March 1996, the Spanish government unveiled its own multi-tier sub-classifications, consistent with EU regulation but more pertinent to Spanish agriculture. Hence, for example, the EU's Quality Wines Produced in Specified Regions (QWPSR) covers all Spanish wines graded above the basic vino de mesa ('table wine'). The Spanish  forms a subset of the QWPSR. This has coincided with a rise in the perceived quality of Spanish produce generally and has been widely acclaimed, although some areas, like the super-strict denominación de pago, remain controversial and liable to future amendment.

Product types
Denominaciones de origen status can be applied to a wide range of foods and condiments, specifically:

Quality foods may be designated a range of classifications, of which  is the recognition of superior quality, with identifiable characteristics and specific ingredients, derived from an identifiable and verifiable source. Other classifications, not necessarily mutually exclusive, are as follows, under the general heading of  ('foods of distinguished quality'):
 (DOP, literally 'protected denomination of origin') – an EU designation of protected geographical status, referring to food products specific to a particular region or town and conveying a particular quality or characteristic of the designated area.
Indicación geográfica protegida''' (IGP, 'protected geographical indicator') – similar to DOP, but relating to a wider and less specific geographical region.Especialidades tradicionales Garantizadas (ETG, 'traditional specialty guaranteed') – products made using traditional ingredients, recipes or methods.Artisan food product stamp A – recognising small, family-run food businesses with high quality, distinctive produce overseen by a qualified artisan (Catalonia only, not recognised by the EU).Food quality stamp Q – foods with superior quality composition, production methods or presentation (Catalonia only, not recognised by the EU).Producción agricultura ecológica (PAE, 'organic agricultural production' – an organic food designation recognising natural, environmentally friendly production methods.

By 2004, Spain had 250 denominaciones de origen and indicaciones geográficas protegidas, over half of which related to food. The following list of better-known denominaciónes de origen is by no means exhaustive:

Olive oil
The denominaciones de origen for olive oil include:
 Aceite Monterrubio – from Badajoz in Extremadura, mostly Cornezuelo and Picual varieties.
 Baena – Hojiblanca, Picual and Lechín varieties from the south-east of the province of Cordoba.
 Les Garrigues – Arbequina and Verdiell varieties from the province of Lleida in Catalonia.
 Priego de Córdoba – Picado, Hojiblanca and Picual varieties from the province of Córdoba.
 Sierra Magina – Picual variety from the southern part of Jaén province.
 Sierra Segura – mostly Picual from the north-east of Jaén province.
 Siurana – Arbequina, Royal, and Murrot varieties from the province of Tarragona.

 Iberian ham (jamón ibérico)

The famous jamón ibérico has several denominaciones de origen, including:

 Huelva – source of the jamón de Jabugo.
 Teruel Guijuelo – well known for jamón y paleta ibéricos de bellota (from acorn-fed pigs)
 Dehesa de Extremadura Los Pedroches Cheese
 Tetilla unusually shaped cheese from Galicia.
 Cabrales – Asturian blue cheese.
 Picon Bejes-Tresviso – from Liébana region in the province of Cantabria.
 Liebana – from Cantabria, renowned for smoked cheeses.
 Cantabria – "fresh" Cantabrian cheese.
 Idiazábal – Basque cheese; the DO labels includes the cheese output of Alava, Biscay, Gipuzkoa, and Navarre.
 Roncal – from Navarre.
 Zamorano – from Zamora
 Manchego – from La Mancha.
 La Serena – sheep-milk cheese from Badajoz.
 Torta del Casar – sheep-milk cheese from Cáceres.
 Afuega'l pitu – cow-milk cheese from Asturias.

Vinegar
There are just four protected appellations for vinegar in the EU, of which three are in Spain:

 Vinagre de Jerez – sherry vinegar from Jerez
 Condado de Huelva – white wine vinegar from Huelva
 Montilla-MorilesWine

Wine region classification in Spain takes a quite complex hierarchical form in which the  is a mainstream grading, equivalent to the French AOC and the Italian DOC.
As of 2019, Spain has 138 identifiable wine regions under some form of geographical classification (2 DOCa/DOQ, 68 DO, 7 VC, 19 VP, and 42 VT). The Spanish DO is actually a subset of the EU-sponsored QWPSR (Quality Wine Produced in Specific Regions) regulatory code (vino de calidad producido en región determinada (VCPRD) in Spanish) which Spain formally adopted in 1986, upon accession to the (then) EEC. The Spanish appellation hierarchy was most recently updated in 2016, and is as follows:DOP –  ('protected denomination of origin'), is the mainstay of Spain's wine quality control system. Each region is governed by a consejo regulador, which decides on the boundaries of the region, permitted varietals, maximum yields, limits of alcoholic strength and other quality standards or production limitations pertaining to the zone. As of 2019 there are 96 DOPs that are subdivided into DOCa, DO, VP, and VC. The sub-categories can be called DOP, or they can use the traditional terms of DOCa, DO, VP, and VC.DOCa – denominación de origen calificada ('denomination of qualified origin'), is the highest category in Spanish wine regulations, reserved for regions with above-average grape prices and particularly stringent quality controls. Rioja was the first Spanish region to be awarded DOCa status in 1991, followed by Priorat in 2003. Priorat uses the Catalan language DOQ, for denominació d'origen qualificada. These are the only two regions considered "above" DO status.DO – denominación de origin, the mainstay of Spain's wine quality control system. Each region is governed by a consejo regulador, which decides on the boundaries of the region, permitted varietals, maximum yields, limits of alcoholic strength and other quality standards or production limitations pertaining to the zone.VP – vino de pago ('estate wine'), a special term for high-quality, single-estate wines (pago is a Spanish term for a vineyard estate) which in some cases also have DO or VC or IGP appellations. This category was formed in 2003.VC – vino de Calidad con indicación geográfica ('quality wine with geographic indication'), a category formed in 2003 along with VP. The VC category is used for wines that do not fully meet the stringent standards of the DO category, but are above the standards of the IGP category. IGP – indicación geográfica protegida (protected geographical indication (PGI)). This is part of the EU PGI scheme, which includes wines below the DOP level, and is wine originating from a specific place, a region or a country, which has a certain quality, reputation or other characteristic - including production phases - that can be essentially attributed to its geographical origin, at least one of which takes place in the defined geographical area. These can use the traditional term Vino de la Tierra (VT).VdM – vino de mesa ('table wine'), the catch-all at the bottom of the pyramid, for all wine from unclassified vineyards, and wine that has been declassified by blending. This includes both inexpensive jug wines and some expensive wines that are not yet classified due to innovation outside traditional lines.

The two DOCa/DOQ regions are Priorat (Tarragona) and Rioja, the two highest-regarded wine-producing regions in Spain, which carry the special denominación de origen calificada.

The more prominent DO regions include:
 Campo de Borja (Zaragoza) – features a number of cooperatives that produce Garnacha and Tempranillo.
 Málaga and Sierras de Málaga (Málaga) – Sierras de Málaga is in effect a sub-appellation of the Málaga DO, traditionally known for its liquor wines and sweet wines.
 Montilla – Moriles (Córdoba) – produces mainly sweet dessert wines using similar techniques to those used for the production of sherry.
 Navarra (Navarre) – a neighbour of the Rioja, the Navarra DO region used to be renowned only for its rosado wines but in recent years has been producing quality reds and whites as well.
 Penedès (Barcelona) – notable not only for the production of the sparkling wine Cava, but red wines from Tempranillo, Garnacha, and Cariñena grapes.
 Rías Baixas (Galicia) – known for its Albarino varietals, Spain's most popular white wine. Other whites grown here include Treixadura, Loureira, Caino blanco, and Torrontes. Popular red grapes in this region include Caino Tinto and Sousón.
 Ribera del Duero (Castile and León) – challenges Rioja for the most popular red wines produced in Spain. Almost all of its wines are made from the Tempranillo grape.
 Rueda (Castile and León) – located west of Ribera del Duero, producing reds and whites, typically less expensive than those of its more famous neighbours.
 Jerez (Xérès) (Cádiz) – source of the English term "sherry", a fortified wine that can either be dry or sweet.
 Toro (Castile and León) – located between the provinces of Zamora and Valladolid, along the river Duero, producing reds such as Tinta de Toro, the local name for Tempranillo.

Sherry / Jerez
Along with the DO appellations, the Jerez-Xérès-Sherry DO of Spain uses the following categories:
 VOS – Latin:  (and sometimes mistaken to stand for "very old sherry" by English speakers) – applies to sherries with an average age of at least 20 years.
 VORS' -  Vinum Optimu Rare Signatum'', sometimes anglicized as Very Old Rare Sherry

See also

 Traditional food
 Endemic gastronomy
 Appellation d'origine contrôlée, an analogous system in France
 Denominação de Origem Controlada, an analogous system in Portugal
Denominazione di origine controllata, an analogous system for Italian wines
 List of Andalusian food and drink products with protected status

Notes

References

External links
 MAPA website

Appellations
Brand management
Alcoholic drink brands
Spanish cuisine
Spanish wine
Wine classification

Denominación de origen


In economics, an oligopoly is a market form in which the market or industry is controlled by a small number of sellers. Usually, the market has high barriers to entry, which prevents new firms from entering the market or even be able to have a significant market share.

As there are only a few sellers in the market, each seller would take note of the actions made by one another, and thinks about how the other sellers will respond when making decisions  As such, there is a possibility in which an oligopoly can come together to make a common decision that allows them to have less competition and charge higher prices for consumers.

Examples
In many countries, some country-held companies were privatized. Very often, this privatization lead to oligopolies. In many countries, there are only a handful of companies providing networks for mobile phones. They control the prices for accessing the network. That is why using a mobile phone is often much more expensive than using a land line one.

Trains run by private sectors are much costlier than those run by a government. As a government gives rights to private sectors to get a hold of some other sectors, they take advantage of it.

Related pages
Oligarchy
Plutocracy

Other websites
 Microeconomics by Elmer G. Wiens: Online Interactive Models of Oligopoly, Differentiated Oligopoly, and Monopolistic Competition
 Vives, X. (1999). Oligopoly pricing, MIT Press, Cambridge MA. (A comprehensive work on oligopoly theory)

Oligopoly


William Timothy Cape (25 October 1806 – 4 June 1863) was an early school master in Sydney, Australia; several of the Premiers of New South Wales attended his school.

Cape was born at Walworth, Surrey, England, the son of William Cape, a London bank manager who emigrated to Australia with his family in 1821. Cape senior became master of a private school, the Sydney Academy, at the end of 1822 and died in 1847.

William Timothy Cape was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School, London, and was intended for the Church of England ministry. However, on his arrival in Australia, became an assistant master at his father's school. Though just 20 years of age he was made headmaster of the Sydney public school on 1 July 1827 when his father resigned. He had already made a reputation as a teacher and shortly afterwards, when a number of public school teachers from the country were brought into Sydney for training, Cape was given charge of them as he was considered the only qualified person available. In 1829 he opened a private school in King Street, Sydney, and when the Sydney College was founded in 1835 he transferred his own pupils there on being appointed headmaster.

For seven years Cape was a successful headmaster; some of his distinguished pupils included Sir John Robertson, William Forster, William Bede Dalley, Sir James Martin, and T. A. Browne, and the number of students was approaching 300 when Cape came into conflict with the trustees and resigned at the end of 1841. This was disastrous for the school, for though the number of pupils kept up for some time, between 1843 and 1847 there was a drop in numbers from 283 to 62. The colony was passing through bad times, but it is clear that the trustees had not been able to find a successor who could approach Cape in personality and knowledge. Cape in the meantime had opened a private school at Paddington, which was carried on until 1856 when he retired.

In 1859 Cape was elected a member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly for Wollombi, and interested himself in the educational life of the colony as a commissioner of national education, a fellow of St Paul's College of the University of Sydney, and in connexion with the Sydney School of Arts. He visited England in 1855 and was again in England 1860–1863. He died at London on 14 June 1863.

A memorial was placed in St Andrew's cathedral by his former pupils, however it was destroyed in 1941 during renovation.

References

1806 births
1863 deaths
Australian headmasters
Members of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood
Sydney Grammar School headmasters
19th-century Australian politicians

William Timothy Cape


Cape Jervis is a town in the Australian state of South Australia located near the western tip of Fleurieu Peninsula on the southern end of the Main South Road approximately  south of the state capital of Adelaide.

It is named after the headland (also known by its Aboriginal name Parewarangk) at the western tip of Fleurieu Peninsula which was named by Matthew Flinders after John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent on 23 March 1802.

It overlooks the coastline adjoining the following three bodies of water – Gulf St Vincent, Investigator Strait and Backstairs Passage.  It also overlooks the following facilities both located at the headland of Cape Jervis – the Cape Jervis Lighthouse and the port used by Kangaroo Island SeaLink who operates the ferry service to Penneshaw on Kangaroo Island.

The 2016 Australian census which was conducted in August 2016 reports that Cape Jervis had 264 people living within its boundaries.

Cape Jervis is the starting point for the Heysen Trail, a walking track of  length which finishes at Parachilna Gorge in the Flinders Ranges. Venues of interest to visitors to the town include the Deep Creek Conservation Park, the Talisker Conservation Park and two nearby beaches – Morgan's Beach (with the remains of the trawler Ellen) and Fisheries Beach (with remains of an old whaling station). Cape Jervis is also notable as a point of embarkment for fishing charters.

Cape Jervis is located within the federal division of Mayo, the state electoral district of Mawson and the local government area of the District Council of Yankalilla.

References

Coastal towns in South Australia
Fleurieu Peninsula
J
J
J
Ports and harbours of South Australia

Cape Jervis


Fort Ward is a former United States Army coastal artillery fort, and later, a Navy installation located on the southwest side of Bainbridge Island, Washington, along Rich Passage.

History

Early
During the 1880s, the Endicott Board, convened by Secretary of War William C. Endicott made sweeping recommendations for new or upgraded coastal defense installations and weapons systems.  As the 20th century approached, American military strategists realized that heavy, fixed artillery required a very different training program than lighter, mobile field artillery.

Fort Ward was originally known as Beans Point and was established in 1890, as one of several US Army Coastal Artillery Corps installations, including Fort Flagler, Fort Casey and Fort Worden, built to defend Puget Sound from enemy warships. Its primary objective was to protect the nearby Bremerton Naval Shipyard.

In 1903, the Army officially designated Beans Point as a seacoast fort and named it Fort Ward in honor of Colonel George H. Ward. Activity in and around the fort continued as new buildings were constructed and new troops arrived.

The coastal artillery batteries located at Fort Ward were:

 Battery Nash (1903–1918), three  M1888 guns mounted on disappearing carriages, hidden along the bluff, now on private property;
 Battery Warner (1903–1925), two  M1900 pillar mounted guns, now on private property and surrounded by modern homes;
 Battery Thornburgh (1903–1920), four  M1898MI masking parapet mounted guns;
 Battery Vinton (1903–1920), two 3-inch M1898MI masking parapet mounted guns.
  Battery Vinton is one of four batteries at Fort Ward. It had two 3-inch  model guns. These guns, along with the other batteries, guarded an underwater mine field placed across Rich Passage.  The guns were removed on July 19th, 1920 – never having been fired for defense, and were to be shipped to France for use in WWI.

In the 1920s, Fort Ward was placed on inactive status, but a small number of men were still stationed there.  In 1928, the fort was essentially left abandoned.  The fort remained abandoned for several years, until 1935, it served as a state-operated fresh air camp for inner city children from Seattle.

Before and during World War II
In 1938, the U.S. Navy took over Fort Ward from the U.S. Army, and confiscated several surrounding properties and evicted the owners. The U.S. Navy found the fort to be attractive after tests had shown that it was an outstanding location to eavesdrop on radio communication transmitted from the Far East, chiefly Japan. In August 1939, the U.S. Navy relocated the Astoria, Oregon, intercept site to Fort Ward. This was the beginning of the development of Fort Ward as a top-secret military listening post.

In August 1940, the U.S. Navy had five sites with diplomatic targets which were all linked directly, or indirectly through U.S. Army communication circuits, to Washington, D.C., via radio and landline communications. These sites were Winter Harbor, Maine; Amagansett, New York; Cheltenham, Maryland; Jupiter, Florida; and Fort Ward—Bainbridge Island, Washington.

Rhombic antennas were installed on the Parade Ground, and the old post exchange/gymnasium building was converted into a top secret listening post code-named "Station S". Inside "Station S", men and women worked 24 hours a day, listening in on Japanese naval communications, which were transmitted in the Japanese Morse Code. This building is now a private home.

The listening post activities were so top secret that personnel on the base were instructed not to look at the building when they walked by it.

Meanwhile, the Navy developed a "cover story" for what was happening at Naval Radio Station Bainbridge Island. The story—that it was one of the few Naval Reserve Radio Schools in the nation—received a full page of coverage in The Seattle Times on January 11, 1941. Some of the sailors pictured in the article actually worked at "Station S" after their training. Photos show the sailors copying Morse code in a classroom, setting up a Morse code-sending machine, and marching from their school building to noon mess.

In March 1941, a commercial teletype line between the installations at Winter Harbor, Maine, Amagansett, New York, and Fort Ward was inaugurated. Communications between Washington, D.C., and its far-flung resources in the Pacific continued to be primitive. Messages and intercept logs, reports and professional correspondence, if classified, were painstakingly enciphered by the radio intelligence officer himself using special equipment and instructions. If transmitted as messages on manual Morse code circuits or landlines, they were delivered to the communications center where they were again enciphered.  The Fort Ward command also oversaw the construction of the Navy's largest radio transmitter at Battle Point, with a tower 300 feet taller than the Space Needle. This was used to send messages to Navy Command at Pier 91 in Seattle.

The first chapter of David Kahn's book tells about how "Station S" intercepted the communication from Tokyo to the Japanese Ambassador that instructed him to break off negotiations just before the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.

During World War II, a submarine net was placed across Rich Passage.

In November 1942, Fort Ward also assumed control of naval intelligence assignments previously tasked to the Royal Canadian Navy.

During World War II, the U.S. Navy radio station operations consisted of:
 Supplementary Station (School, D/F and Intercept), Bainbridge Island, Port Blakely, Washington
 Naval Radio Transmitting Station, Bainbridge Island, Wash. (located at Battle Point)
 U.S. Naval Radio Direction Finder Station, Bainbridge Island, Port Blakely
 Naval Training School (Radio-Special), Bainbridge Island, Port Blakely
 Naval Radio Activities, Bainbridge Island, Port Blakely
 Supplementary Radio Station, Bainbridge Island, Port Blakely

After World War II, personnel on the base (which was transferred back to the U.S. Army in 1956) continued to listen in on radio transmissions—first Korean and then Soviet.  Activity continued at the radio station until 1956.

Post World War II
The U.S. Army abandoned all operations in 1958.  Upon this second deactivation, the Washington State Park System negotiated for acquisition of part of the fort in 1960, which became Fort Ward State Park.  In 2011, it was transferred to the Bainbridge Island Metro Park & Recreation District and became Fort Ward Park.  The naval radio transmitting station located at Battle Point was deactivated on March 31, 1959, and the equipment was removed in 1971.  The location is now Battle Point Park, administered by the Bainbridge Island Metro Park & Recreation District.

Over the years, some of the buildings have been converted into homes, and the area, the parade ground of the community of Fort Ward has been designated a National Historic Site. Many of the homes are also listed on the City of Bainbridge Island's Historic Register.

References

 Kahn, David. The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing, 1967.
 Lee, Ivan W. The Little Fort at Bean Point.
 Miller, Nathan. Spying for America, 1989.

External links
 Duane Colt Denfeld: Station S (Fort Ward, Bainbridge Island) at HistoryLink

Bainbridge Island, Washington
Ward
Buildings and structures in Kitsap County, Washington
Ward
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Kitsap County, Washington
1890 establishments in Washington (state)

Fort Ward (Washington)


Ferenc Szisz (September 20, 1873 – February 21, 1944), was a Hungarian race car driver and the winner of the first Grand Prix motor racing event on a Renault Grand Prix 90CV on 26 June, 1906.

Early life
Szisz was born in the small town of Szeghalom in Békés county of the Hungarian part the former Austro-Hungarian Empire on September 20, 1873. He was trained to be a locksmith and a coppersmith but in his early twenties the growing proliferation of automobiles fascinated Szisz and he studied engineering along with car design. After time spent in several Austrian and German cities, in the spring of 1900 he ended up in Paris, France where he found work at the new Renault automobile company.

Grand Prix career
At Renault, Szisz's engineering talent made him an integral part of the testing department, and when the company became involved in racing in 1902 he was chosen as the riding mechanic for Louis Renault. Following the death of Marcel Renault in the 1903 Paris-Madrid race, Szisz took over as a driver. In 1905, he finished fifth in the Gordon Bennett Cup elimination race on the Circuit d'Auvergne at Clermont-Ferrand. In October of that same year, along with other French and Italian automobile manufacturers, Renault sent a team to the United States to compete in the Vanderbilt Cup on Long Island, New York. In a field that included Felice Nazzaro and Louis Chevrolet driving for Fiat, Szisz finished fifth behind the winner, fellow Frenchman Victor Hémery driving a Darracq.

Szisz's primary duties as the head of testing at Renault limited the number of races he could compete in. However, in 1906 he achieved a permanent place in the annals of auto racing when he and his riding mechanic M. Marteau drove a Renault AK 90CV to victory in the first Grand Prix race in Le Mans.  He averaged . His victory in the French Grand Prix and the commercial success of the race soon led to the establishing of other Grand Prix races throughout Europe. The following year, Italy's Felice Nazzaro, who had finished second behind Szisz, captured the second French Grand Prix. Szisz competed in the 1908 race but did not finish and suffered a similar fate following mechanical problems in Savannah, Georgia at an American Grand Prize race organized by the Automobile Club of America.

In early 1909, Szisz left Renault to open his own garage in Neuilly-sur-Seine. In July 1914, Fernand Charron lured him out of retirement to drive an Alda in the French Grand Prix at Lyon. In a race won by Christian Lautenschlager in a Mercedes, Szisz was honored with the number 1 for his car, but an injury forced him out just past half distance.

World War I
European automobile racing ended in September with the onset of World War I and Szisz joined the French army, serving as head of the transport troops in Algeria until being hospitalized with typhoid fever.

Later life

At war's end, he went to work for an aircraft company until his retirement to a cottage in the country at Auffargis not far from Paris, where he died in 1944.

Ferenc Szisz and his wife are buried in the churchyard cemetery in Auffargis. The Szisz Museum is part of the Renault Museum located near the Le Mans racetrack.

Complete Grand Prix Results

References

External links

1873 births
1944 deaths
Hungarian racing drivers
Grand Prix drivers
Renault people
French Army officers
French people of Hungarian descent
People from Szeghalom
Sportspeople from Austria-Hungary

Ferenc Szisz


Chicago O'Hare International Airport is an airport on the edge of Chicago, Illinois. It is in the Chicago neighborhood O'Hare. It is one of the largest airports in both the United States and the world. It is a "hub" for both United Airlines (its second largest hub) and American Airlines, meaning that flights from many cities come and go from the airport daily.  It gets the most international flights of any American airport not on the East or West Coast.

The Federal government of the United States reduces the amount of delayed flights in the airport in order to shift the burden of domestic flights at Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport.

United Airlines (including United Express) is the largest airline at O'Hare, carrying over 45% of passengers. O'Hare is the second-largest hub for United, after Houston-Bush. American Airlines (including American Eagle) has the second largest operation at O'Hare, carrying 37.08% of passengers. O'Hare is American Airlines' third-largest hub, after Dallas/Fort Worth and Charlotte-Douglas.

O'Hare has been voted the "Best Airport in North America" for 10 years by two separate sources: Readers of the U.S. Edition of Business Traveler Magazine (1998–2003) and Global Traveler Magazine (2004–2007). Travel and Leisure magazine's 2009 "America's Favorite Cities" ranked Chicago's Airport System (O'Hare and Midway) the second-worst for delays, New York City's airport system (JFK, Newark Liberty, and LaGuardia) being the first. O'Hare currently accounts for over a sixth of the nation's total flight cancellations.

The O'Hare Airport is 668 feet (204 meters) above sea level.

It is operated by the City of Chicago Department of Aviation. Most of O'Hare Airport is in Cook County. However, a section of the southwest part of the airport is in DuPage County. The Cook County portion is located within a section of the city of Chicago contiguously connected to the rest of the city via a narrow strip of land about 200 feet (61 m) wide, running along Foster Ave. from the Des Plaines River to the airport. This land was annexed into the city limits in the 1950s to assure the massive tax revenue associated with the airport being part of the city. The strip is bounded on the north by Rosemont and the south by Schiller Park.

History
The airport was constructed in 1942–43. It was made as a manufacturing plant for airplanes during World War II. The site was chosen for its proximity to the city and transportation. The two-million square-foot (180,000 m²) factory needed easy access to the workforce of the nation's then-second-largest city, as well as its extensive railroad infrastructure. Orchard Place was a small nearby farming community.

Douglas Company's contract ended in 1945 and though plans were proposed to build commercial aircraft, the company ultimately chose to concentrate production on the west coast. With the departure of Douglas, the airport took the name Orchard Field Airport. That was the source of its three-letter IATA code ORD.

In 1945, the facility was chosen by the city of Chicago as the site for a facility to meet future aviation demands. Matthew Laflin Rockwell (1915–1988) was the director of planning for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and responsible for the site selection and design of O'Hare International Airport. He was the great grandson of Matthew Laflin, a founder and pioneer of Chicago. The architect of the airport was Gertrude Kerbis.

The O'Hare is currently undergoing the largest construction projects in the United States.

In March 2014, a Blue Line train was derailed and crashed at the O'Hare train station, injuring 32 people.

Transportation
 Road vehicles enter and exit via I-190, which branches off I-90 (the Kennedy Expressway) leading to downtown Chicago. Cars may also access the airport locally from Mannheim Road, the airport's eastern boundary. Aside from cargo access on its south side, all airport traffic travels through the east side of the airport. Local residents sometimes refer to I-190 as "the world's busiest Cul-de-sac" as a result of the one way access.
 Subway trains from the Blue Line of the Chicago Transit Authority's 'L' depart the terminal from an underground station that opened on September 3, 1984.
 Commuter trains from the Metra North Central Service stop at the O'Hare Transfer station, which is connected to the Airport Transit System via a shuttle bus.
 Taxi and Limo Services also provide transportation to/from Chicago O'Hare Airport.

Accidents
1057 deaths have happened as a result of accidents to or from Chicago O'Hare.

Airlines
The following airlines fly to O'Hare International Airport:

Aer Lingus
Aeroméxico
Air Canada
Air Choice One (hub)
Air France (seasonal)
Air India
Alaska Airlines
Alitalia (seasonal)
All Nippon Airways
American Airlines (hub)
Austrian Airlines
Avianca
British Airways
Cathay Pacific
Cayman Airways (seasonal)
China Eastern Airlines
Copa Airlines
Delta Air Lines
Emirates
Etihad Airways
EVA Air
Finnair
Frontier Airlines (focus city)
Hainan Airlines
Iberia Airlines
Icelandair
Interjet
Japan Airlines
JetBlue Airways
KLM
Korean Air
LOT Polish Airlines
Lufthansa
Qatar Airways
Royal Jordanian
Scandinavian Airlines
Spirit Airlines (focus city)
Turkish Airlines
United Airlines (hub)
Virgin America
Virgin Atlantic Airways (seasonal)
Volaris
WestJet (seasonal)
WOW Air (starts July 13)
XTRA Airways

The following airlines used to fly to O'Hare International Airport:

Aeroflot
Air Florida
Air One
Air Ukraine
Aviacsa
Aviateca
Braniff International Airways
BMI
Canadian Airlines
Continental Airlines
Czech Airlines
Eastern Air Lines
Ecuatoriana
Finnair
Iceland Express
Mexicana de Aviacion
National Airlines
Northwest Airlines
Norwegian Air Shuttle
Pakistan International Airlines
Pan American World Airways
Philippine Airlines
Qantas
Sabena
Swissair
TACA Airlines
TAESA
TAROM Romanian Airlines
TWA
USA3000 Airlines
US Airways
Varig Brazilian Airlines
Virgin Atlantic Airways
Wardair Canada

Statistics

Yearly traffic

Gallery

References

Other websites

 O'Hare International Airport  (official web site)
 O'Hare airport Modernization plan
 O'Hare Modernization Program (official web site)
 41st ward map (official city web site)
 The Northwest Chicago Historical Society's page on O'Hare
 openNav: ORD / KORD charts

Airports in Chicago
1944 establishments in the United States
1940s establishments in Illinois

O'Hare International Airport


The Crows were an American R&B singing group formed in 1951 who achieved commercial success in the 1950s. The group's first single and only hit, "Gee", released in June 1953, has been credited with being the first rock n' roll hit by a rock and roll group. It peaked at position #14 and #2, respectively, on the Billboard magazine pop and rhythm-and-blues charts in 1954. Although Gee fell into the Doo Wop genre, and "was the first 1950s doo-wop record to sell over one million records" in that genre, some (including Jay Warner) consider it as the first of the "rock n' roll records".

History
When The Crows started in 1951, practicing sidewalk harmonies, the original members were Daniel "Sonny" Norton (lead), William "Bill" Davis (baritone), Harold Major (tenor), Jerry Wittick (tenor), and Gerald Hamilton (bass). In 1952, Wittick left the group and was replaced by Mark Jackson (tenor and guitarist).

They were discovered at Apollo Theater's Wednesday night talent show by talent agent Cliff Martinez and brought to independent producer George Goldner, who had just started the Rama Records label.
The Crows were the first group signed and the first to record. The first songs they recorded were as backup to singer Viola Watkins. The song "Gee" was the third song recorded during their first recording session, on February 10, 1953. It was put together in a few minutes by group member William Davis, with Watkins credited as co-writer.

The song was first released as the B-side of the ballad "I Love You So". However, radio stations began playing "Gee," first in Philadelphia and later in New York and Los Angeles. By January 1954, it had sold 100,000 copies, and by April it entered the national R&B and pop charts, rising to #2 R&B and #14 pop. The song was a huge hit a year after it was recorded.

The Crows were a one-hit wonder. While "Gee" was on the charts, the record company released a number of other singles by the group, including "Heartbreaker," "Baby," and "Miss You," but none were successful. Their failures and the inability to perform regularly to support their recordings led to the breakup of the group a few months after "Gee" dropped off the Hit Parade. They maintained the original line up for the entire career of the group, with no hope of a reunion following the deaths of Gerald Hamilton in the 1960s and Daniel Norton in 1972.

References

External links
Biography of The Crows

Doo-wop groups
Musical groups established in 1951
Musical groups disestablished in 1955
1951 establishments in New York City
Musical groups from Harlem

The Crows


The Valentino Castle () is a historic building in the northwestern Italian city of Turin. It is located in Parco del Valentino, and is the seat of the Architecture Faculty of the Polytechnic University of Turin. It is one of the Residences of the Royal House of Savoy included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1997.

History
The ancient castle was bought by Duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy on the advice of Andrea Palladio. The name Valentino, first mentioned in 1275, seems to derive from a saint called Valentine whose relics were venerated in a church which stood nearby.

The current structure is due to Princess Christine of France (1606–1663), wife of Victor Amadeus I, who dwelt here from 1630. Architect Carlo di Castellamonte renovated the construction substantially, with the help of his son Amedeo. Works started around 1633 and lasted until 1660.

It has a horseshoe shape, with four rectangular towers, one at each angle, and a wide inner court with a marble pavement. The ceilings of the false upper floors are clearly in transalpino (i.e. French) style. The façade sports a huge coat of arms of the House of Savoy.

Minor modifications were made in the early nineteenth century; at this time, too, much of the seventeenth-century furniture was carried off by French troops. For the next half century the palace was more or less abandoned and fell into a state of disrepair. Renovations were carried out in 1860 when it was selected as the seat of the engineering faculty of Turin; it has been further restored in recent years.

Today it is the central building of the Architecture faculty of the Polytechnic University of Turin.

The Orto Botanico dell'Università di Torino, a historic botanical garden in the castle grounds.

References

Residences of the Royal House of Savoy
Valentino
Palaces in Turin
Houses completed in 1660
1660 establishments in Italy
Baroque architecture in Turin

Castello del Valentino


The maxilla is the upper jaw. In mammals it is tightly fused to the skull, but in fish and reptiles it is usually not. In snakes, for example, the maxilla is able to move relative to the rest of the skull, and the jaws can separate entirely to swallow prey.

Head (body part)
Bones of the skull

Maxilla


Cottisford is a village and civil parish in Oxfordshire, about  south of Brackley in neighbouring Northamptonshire. The parish's northern and northwestern boundaries form part of the boundary between the two counties. The parish includes the hamlet of Juniper Hill about  northwest of Cottisford. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 216.

The village stands beside Crowell Brook, which is a stream that passes the villages of Hethe, Fringford and Godington before entering Buckinghamshire where it becomes part of Padbury Brook, a tributary of the Great Ouse. Cottisford's toponym refers to a former ford across Crowell Brook. In the 13th century the village was called Wolfheysford or Urlfesford.

Manor
The Domesday Book records that in 1086 Hugh de Grandmesnil was feudal overlord of Cottisford Manor and his son-in-law Roger d'Ivry was the lord of the manor. After d'Ivry's death his widow Adeline gave Cottisford to the Benedictine Abbey of Bec in Normandy. Bec Abbey owned Ogbourne Priory in Wiltshire, which administered many of the abbey's English manors including Cottisford.

Ogbourne was an alien priory, i.e. it belonged to an abbey outside the English realm. In 1404 Henry IV was planning a military campaign in France so he granted Ogbourne Priory and all its manors jointly to his son John of Lancaster, the churchman Thomas Langley and the Prior of Ogbourne: William de Saint Vaast. The Prior died soon afterwards; in 1414 Henry V suppressed the priory and by 1422 Thomas Langley had surrendered his share of the rights to the manors to John of Lancaster, whom Henry V had made Duke of Bedford.

In 1435 the Duke died and in 1438 Henry VI granted Cottisford to his uncle Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. However, in 1440 Henry VI founded Eton College and the following year he granted Cottisford to the new school. For several centuries the school leased out the manor to successive tenants who were lords of the manor. In 1885 the school sold the manor house and Warren Farm, and in 1921–22 it sold the remainder of its Cottisford estate.

By the late part of the 14th century Ogbourne Priory was leasing out Cottisford Manor. Eton College continued the practice, commonly granting leases of 21 or 20 years. Richard Eyre, a son of the Reverend Richard Eyre, Prebendary of Salisbury Cathedral 1710–45, obtained a lease on the manor in 1739 and renewed it in 1752. The younger Richard had spent 28 years working for the East India Company and became "a power in the village life" at Cottisford. In 1760, the year before Richard junior died, the school granted a lease to Thomas Bramston from Skreens in Essex and Richard junior's nephew Sir James Eyre. Bramston was a barrister at the Middle Temple in London; Sir James was Chief Justice of the Common Pleas. However Richard Eyre's widow Martha Eyre remained at the manor house until her death in 1772, and the following year the lease was sold by order of her executors.

The buyer was the Reverend John Russell Greenhill, Rector of Fringford, who held the lease until his death in 1813. His son Robert Greenhill-Russell, Member of Parliament for Thirsk, inherited the lease but gave it up in 1825. A succession of tenants then owned the lease until 1885, when the school sold the freehold of the manor house and Warren Farm to its tenant, Edwards Rousby. His son FR Rousby inherited the estate but later sold it to Robert Brooke-Popham.

Manor Farm is a 14th century manor house built of rubble masonry. Surviving 14th century details include two windows and an octagonal chimneystack. Four more windows date from the 15th century. The house has a solar and originally had a medieval hall, but in the 16th century an intermediate floor was inserted to create upstairs rooms. Also in the 16th century a south wing containing a parlour was added. The house was enlarged again in the 19th century. A 12th-century window in the north gable of the house is not original to the house and must have been salvaged from a building elsewhere. The house is a Grade I listed building. On Crowell Brook just below Manor Farm is a set of fishponds, the earliest record of which is from 1325.

Cottisford House is a newer manor house built before 1707. It is of coursed rubble with ashlar quoins and has a hipped roof with attic dormers. William Turner, who leased the house from 1825, had the house altered and enlarged in about 1830. In its grounds is a square dovecote.

Other estates
The Benedictine Abbey of Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives owned one hide of land at Cottisford until 1237, when it granted the estate to the Cistercian Biddlesden Abbey in Buckinghamshire. Some time after 1266 Biddlesden quitclaimed the hide to the Abbey of Bec, which continued to let it separately from the main manor that it controlled through Ogbourne Priory.

In 1527 a member of the Fermor family of Somerton bought six yardlands of land at Cottisford. The land was later sold but Thomas Fermor (died 1580), lord of the manor of Hardwick retained grazing rights on the land after its sale. Anthony Cope of Hanwell Castle owned the estate by 1606, in which year he also bought another  of land at Cottisford. At some point the Cope baronets sold their land at Cottisford, and by the early part of the 18th century the Fermors, then living at adjacent Tusmore Park, owned 23 yardlands at Cottisford including the former Cope estate. When Henry Howard, 2nd Earl of Effingham bought the Fermors' Tusmore estate in 1857 it included the land at Cottisford. His heir Henry Howard, 3rd Earl of Effingham died in 1898, and between then and 1920 Henry Howard, 4th Earl of Effingham broke up and sold the estate at Cottisford.

Parish church

It has been suggested  that parts of the Church of England parish church of Saint Mary the Virgin may be Saxon. It has proportions like those of a Saxon church: long and narrow, and taller than it is wide. The quoins at all four corners of the building are a puzzle. On the one hand they are a mixture of long flat slabs and tall narrow blocks, like Saxon quoins in many other buildings. On the other hand, the quoins are not laid in the strict long-and-short alternation diagnostic of Saxon work.

All the windows are certainly later work, but in the nave the windows in the west wall and in the western parts of the north and south walls are high up, in positions similar to where Saxon windows would have been positioned. Low down in the east wall is a blocked arch very roughly made of uneven stones. It is of such rough workmanship that it could be from any period, but if it were Saxon it would be the wall of a porticus.

Cottisford certainly had a parish church by 1081, when Hugh de Grandmesnil gave it, along with its tithe income and a hide of land, to the Benedictine Abbey of Saint-Evroul-sur-Ouche. In 1167 St. Evroul Abbey transferred its property, tithes and land at Cottisford to Bec Abbey, which by then owned the manor of Cottisford.

St. Mary's was rebuilt in the 13th century. It is a small building with only a nave, chancel and south porch. The porch is Early English Gothic and has a sundial. The east window of the chancel dates from about 1300. The Gothic Revival architect Charles Buckeridge restored the building in 1861 and the present font was added at the same time. There is no bell tower but there is a belfry in the apex of the roof. The church had two bells in the 16th century. These have not remained but the church now has two bells cast in 1710 and 1858 and a small 17th century sanctus bell. In the churchyard are the base and shaft of a medieval stone cross. St. Mary's is a Grade II* listed building.

St. Mary's is now part of the Shelswell group of parishes.

Social and economic history

A watermill was built in about 1230, presumably on Crowell Brook. In 1292 the parish had both the watermill and a windmill. Neither mill's fate is clear, but by the second half of the 18th century the estate seems to have been using a mill at Fringford instead.

An open field system of farming prevailed in the parish until 1854. Attempts by successive lords of the manor to get Parliament to pass an inclosure act for Cottisford's common lands were defeated in 1761, 1777 and 1809. Parliament finally passed an enclosure act for the parish in 1848 but the enclosure award to redistribute the land was not settled until 1854.

The enclosure award included setting aside a plot of land for a village school. In 1856 the school and adjoining schoolmistress's cottage were built with funds provided by Eton College. The parish church ran it as a National School until it closed in 1920. Oxfordshire County Council reopened it as a county school in 1924 and reorganised it as a junior school in 1929. It was still open in 1954 but has since been closed.

The author Flora Thompson (1876–1947) grew up in Juniper Hill and was a pupil at Cottisford School. She wrote the Lark Rise to Candleford trilogy of novels, in which she modelled the village of "Fordlow" on Cottisford.

References

Sources and further reading

Civil parishes in Oxfordshire
Cottisford

Cottisford