Interstellar space travel is manned or unmanned travel between stars. Interstellar travel is much more difficult than travel within the Solar System, though travel in starships is a staple of science fiction. Actually, there is no suitable technology at present. However, the idea of a probe with an ion engine has been studied. The energy would come through a laser base station.

Given sufficient travel time and engineering work, both unmanned and sleeper ship interstellar travel seem possible. Both present considerable technological and economic challenges which are unlikely to be met in the near future, particularly for manned probes. NASA, ESA and other space agencies have done research into these topics for several years, and have worked out some theoretical approaches.

Energy requirements appear to make interstellar travel impractical for "generation ships", but less so for heavily shielded sleeper ships.

The difficulties of interstellar travel
The main challenge facing interstellar travel is the vast distances that have to be covered. This means that a very great speed and/or a very long travel time is needed. The travel time with most realistic propulsion methods would be from decades to millennia.

Hence an interstellar ship would be much more exposed to the hazards found in interplanetary travel, including vacuum, radiation, weightlessness, and micrometeoroids. At high speeds the vehicle would be penetrated by many microscopic particles of matter unless heavily shielded. Carrying the shield would greatly increase the propulsion problems.

Cosmic rays
Cosmic rays are of great interest because there is no protection outside the  atmosphere and magnetic field. The energies of the most energetic ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) have been observed to approach 3 × 1020 eV, about 40 million times the energy of particles accelerated by the Large Hadron Collider. At 50 J, the highest-energy ultra-high-energy cosmic rays have energies comparable to the kinetic energy of a  baseball. As a result of these discoveries, there has been interest in investigating cosmic rays of even greater energies. Most cosmic rays, however, do not have such extreme energies. The energy distribution of cosmic rays peaks at .

Required energy
A significant factor is the energy needed for a reasonable travel time. A lower bound for the required energy is the kinetic energy K = ½ mv2 where m is the final mass. If deceleration on arrival is desired and cannot be achieved by any means other than the engines of the ship, then the required energy at least doubles, because the energy needed to halt the ship equals the energy needed to accelerate it to travel speed.

The velocity for a manned round trip of a few decades to even the nearest star is thousands of times greater than those of present space vehicles. This means that due to the v2 term in the kinetic energy formula, millions of times as much energy is required. Accelerating one ton to one-tenth of the speed of light requires at least 450 PJ or 4.5  J or 125 billion kWh, not accounting for losses.

The source of energy has to be carried, since solar panels do not work far from the Sun and other stars. The magnitude of this energy may make interstellar travel impossible. One engineer stated "At least 100 times the total energy output of the entire world [in a given year] would be required for the voyage (to Alpha Centauri)".

Interstellar medium
interstellar dust and gas may cause considerable damage to the craft, due to the high relative speeds and large kinetic energies involved. Larger objects (such as bigger dust grains) are far less common, but would be much more destructive. .

Travel time
The long travel times make it difficult to design manned missions. The fundamental limits of space-time present another challenge. Also, interstellar trips would be hard to justify for economic reasons.

It can be argued that an interstellar mission which cannot be completed within 50 years should not be started at all. Instead, the resources should be invested in designing a better propulsion system. This is because a slow spacecraft would probably be passed by another mission sent later with more advanced propulsion.

On the other hand, a case can therefore be made for starting a mission without delay, because the non-propulsion problems may turn out to be more difficult than the propulsion engineering.

Intergalactic travel involves distances about a million-fold greater than interstellar distances, making it radically more difficult than even interstellar travel.

Kennedy's calculation
Andrew Kennedy has shown that voyages undertaken before the minimum wait time will be overtaken by those who leave at the minimum, while those who leave after the minimum will never overtake those who left at the minimum.

Kennedy's calculation depends on r, the mean annual increase in world power production. From any point in time to a given destination, there is a minimum to the total time to destination. Voyagers would probably arrive without being overtaken by later voyagers by waiting a time t before leaving. The relation between the time it takes to get to a destination (now, Tnow, or after waiting, Tt, and growth in velocity of travel is

Taking a journey to Barnard's Star, six light years away, as an example, Kennedy shows that with a world mean annual economic growth rate of 1.4% and a corresponding growth in the velocity of travel, the quickest human civilization might get to the star is in 1,110 years from the year 2007.

Interstellar distances
Astronomical distances are often measured in the time it would take a beam of light to travel between two points (see light-year). Light in a vacuum travels approximately 300,000 kilometers per second or 186,000 miles per second.

The distance from Earth to the Moon is 1.3 light-seconds. With current spacecraft propulsion technologies, a craft can cover the distance from the Earth to the Moon in around eight hours (New Horizons). That means light travels approximately thirty thousand times faster than current spacecraft propulsion technologies. The distance from Earth to other planets in the Solar System ranges from three light-minutes to about four light-hours. Depending on the planet and its alignment to Earth, for a typical unmanned spacecraft these trips will take from a few months to a little over a decade. The distance to other stars is much greater. If the distance from Earth to Sun is scaled down to one meter, the distance to Alpha Centauri A would be 271 kilometers or about 169 miles.

The nearest known star to the Sun is Proxima Centauri, which is 4.23 light-years away. The fastest outward-bound spacecraft yet sent, Voyager 1, has covered 1/600th of a light-year in 30 years and is currently moving at 1/18,000th the speed of light. At this rate, a journey to Proxima Centauri would take 72,000 years. Of course, this mission was not specifically intended to travel fast to the stars, and current technology could do much better. The travel time could be reduced to a few millennia using solar sails, or to a century or less using nuclear pulse propulsion.

Special relativity offers the possibility of shortening the travel time: if a starship with sufficiently advanced engines could reach velocities near the speed of light, relativistic time dilation would make the voyage much shorter for the traveller. However, it would still take many years of elapsed time as viewed by the people remaining on Earth. On returning to Earth, the travellers would find that far more time had elapsed on Earth than had for them (twin paradox).

Many problems would be solved if wormholes existed. General relativity does not rule them out, but so far as we know at present, they do not exist.

Communications
The round-trip delay time is the minimum time between a probe signal reaching Earth, and the probe getting instructions from Earth. Given that information can travel no faster than the speed of light, this is for the Voyager 1 about 32 hours, near Proxima Centauri it would be 8 years. Faster reactions would have to be programmed to be carried out automatically. Of course, in the case of a manned flight the crew can respond immediately to their observations. However, the round-trip delay time makes them not only extremely distant but, in terms of communication, extremely isolated from Earth. Another factor is the energy needed for interstellar communications to arrive reliably. Obviously, gas and particles would degrade signals (interstellar extinction), and there would be limits to the energy available to send the signal.

Manned missions
The mass of any craft capable of carrying humans would inevitably be substantially larger than that necessary for an unmanned interstellar probe. The vastly greater travel times involved would require a life support system. The first interstellar missions are unlikely to carry life forms.

Prime targets for interstellar travel
There are 59 known stellar systems within 20 light years from the Sun, containing 81 visible stars. The following could be considered prime targets for interstellar missions: Radiation dangers would rule out any organic beings for an expedition to Sirius. In any event, it is hard to visualise any manned expeditions at all, given the probable journey times.

Perhaps the most likely time for interstellar travel would be when a star comes through our Oort cloud. We should get a good 10,000 years' warning of this, so could plan for the event in some detail. See Scholz's star for the last time one came through.

Existing and near-term astronomical technology is capable of finding planetary systems around these objects, increasing their potential for exploration.

References

Spaceflight

Interstellar travel


Reverse DNS lookup (rDNS) is the process of determining the hostname or the host computer associated with a given IP address or any other type of network address.

Typically, the Domain Name System is used to determine what IP address is associated with a given domain name. So, to "reverse-resolve" a known IP address to determine the hostname is simply the process of searching what host and domain name belongs to that IP address.

A reverse lookup is often referred to as reverse resolving, or more specifically reverse DNS lookup, and is accomplished using a "reverse IN-ADDR entry" in the form of a PTR record.

RFC 1033 in the "INSTRUCTIONS" section, and later, RFC 1912 Section 2.1 states "Every Internet-reachable host should have a name" and "Make sure your PTR and A records match".

Related pages
 Internet protocol suite
 Communications protocol

Internet

Reverse DNS lookup


Katharine Houghton Hepburn (12 Mey 1907 – 29 Juin 2003) wis an American actress kent for her fairce unthirldom an speeritit personality, that wis a leadin leddy in Hollywood for mair nor 60 years. She appeared in a range o genres, from screwball comedy tae leeterar drama, an she received a record (for ony gender) fower Academy Awairds for Lead Actin Performances, plus aicht forder nominations. In 1999, Hepburn wis named bi the American Film Institute the greatest female starn o Clessic Hollywood Cinema.

Raised in Connecticut bi walthy, progressive paurents, Hepburn begoud tae act while studyin at Bryn Mawr College. Favourable reviews o her wark on Broadway brocht her tae the attention o Hollywood. Her early years in film war marked wi success, includin an Academy Awaird for Best Actress for her third pictur, Morning Glory (1933), but this wis follaed bi a series o commercial failyies culminatin in the creetically laudit but commercially unsuccessfu comedy Bringing Up Baby (1938), a pairin wi Cary Grant. Hepburn mastermyndit her awn comeback, buyin oot her contract wi RKO Radio Pictures an acquirin the film richts tae The Philadelphia Story, that she sauld on the condeetion that she be the starn. That comedy film, again co-starnin Cary Grant, wis a box office success an laundit her a third Academy Awaird nomination, plus wan her ither co-starn, James Stewart, his anerly Academy Awaird. Baith movies are nou conseedert amang the greatest comedy films.

In the 1940s, she begoud focusin on a screen an romantic partnership wi Spencer Tracy, that spanned 26 years an nine movies, awtho the romance wi the mairied Tracy wis hidden frae the public. The pairtnership begoud wi Woman of the Year (1942), conteena'd wi Adam's Rib (1949), baith bein "battle o the sexes" romantic comedies, an concludit wi the race-issue drama Guess Who's Coming to Dinner (1967), an aw starnin Sidney Poitier; Tracy dee'd shortly efter the movie's filmin.

Hepburn challenged hersel in the latter hauf o her life, as she tackled Shakespearean stage productions an a range o leeterar roles. She foond a niche playin middle-aged spinsters, sic as in The African Queen (1951), that laundit her anither Academy Awaird nomination an co-star Humphrey Bogart his sole Academy Awaird. Suddenly, Last Summer (1959) wis anither commercial an creetical success an laundit her anither Oscar nomination. Hepburn earned three mair Oscars for her wark in Guess Who's Coming to Dinner (1967), The Lion in Winter (1968), an On Golden Pond (1981), co-starnin Henry Fonda, that wan his anerly Academy Awaird for the movie. In the 1970s, she begoud appearin in telly films, that later becam the focus o her career. She made her feenal screen appearance at the age o 87. Efter a period o inacteevity an ill heal, Hepburn dee'd in 2003 at the age of 96.

Hepburn famously shunned the Hollywood publicity machine, an refuised tae conform tae society's expectations o weemen. She wis ootspoken, assertive, an athletic, an wuir pants afore thay war fashionable for weemen. She wis briefly mairied as a young wumman, but efter leeved independently. Wi her unconventional lifestyle an the independent chairacters she brocht tae the screen, Hepburn epitomised the "modren wumman" in the 20t-century Unitit States, an is remembered as an important cultural feegur.

1907 births
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American fowk o Scots strynd
20t-century American actresses
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Katharine Hepburn


Sobhuza II,  (; also known as Nkhotfotjeni, Mona; 22 July 1899 – 21 August 1982) was Ngwenyama (King) of Swaziland for 82 years and 254 days, the longest verifiable reign of any monarch in recorded history.

Sobhuza was born on 22 July 1899 at Zombodze Royal Residence, the son of Inkhosikati Lomawa Ndwandwe and King Ngwane V. When he was only four months old, his father died suddenly while dancing incwala. Sobhuza was chosen king soon after that and his grandmother Labotsibeni and his uncle Prince Malunge led the Swazi nation until his maturity in 1921. Sobhuza was acknowledged as King by the British in 1967, and Swaziland achieved independence in 1968. Sobhuza continued to reign until his death in 1982. He was succeeded by Mswati III, his young son with Inkhosikati Ntfombi Tfwala, who was crowned in 1986.

Early life and education

Ingwenyama Sobhuza was born in Zombodze on 22 July 1899. He ascended to the throne after the death of his father, Ngwane V, as King of Swaziland on 10 December 1899, when he was only four months old. He was educated at the Swazi National School, Zombodze, and at the Lovedale Institution in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, before assuming the Swazi throne as King at the age of twenty-two. His grandmother, Labotsibeni Mdluli, served as regent throughout his youth, formally transferring power to the Ngwenyama on 22 December 1921. Before assuming his royal duties, he studied anthropology in England.

Kingship

Sobhuza's direct reign would endure more than 60 years (1921–1982), during which he presided over Swaziland's independence from the United Kingdom in 1968, after which the British government recognised him as King of Swaziland (Eswatini). Early in his reign, Sobhuza sought to address the problem of land partition and deprivation instituted by the British authorities in 1907. He did so by first leading a delegation to London to meet with King George V and petition him to restore the lands to the Swazi people. He again took his case on the land issue in 1929 to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. He was defeated by the terms of the Foreign Jurisdictions Act 1890, which effectively placed the actions of British administrations in protectorates beyond the reach of the British courts. Sobhuza's role during this colonial period was for the most part ceremonial, but he still had major influence as a traditional head of the Swazi nation. In 1934, he received the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski. In 1953, he attended the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in London.

In the early 1960s Sobhuza played a major role in events that led to independence for his country in 1968. He opposed the post-colonial Westminster constitution proposed by the British government, in which he was assigned the role of constitutional monarch. As a consequence, acting through his advisory council, he formed the Imbokodvo National Movement, a political party, which contested and won all seats in the 1967 pre-independence elections. He became recognized by the British as King of Swaziland in 1967 when Swaziland was given direct rule. Independence was achieved on 6 September 1968. Following this, Sobhuza skilfully blended appeal to tribal custom with a capacity to manage economic and social change for his kingdom. On 12 April 1973, the king repealed the constitution and dissolved parliament, henceforth exercising power as an absolute ruler. In 1978 a new constitution was promulgated which provided for an elaborate reversion to a tribal mode of rule involving an electoral college of eighty members chosen by forty local councils known as tinkhundla, dominated by tribal elements. The Swazi economy prospered under Sobhuza's leadership. Swaziland is rich in natural resources, and much of the land and mineral wealth originally owned by non-Swazi interests was brought under indigenous control during Sobhuza's reign.

Later life and death

Sobhuza celebrated his Diamond Jubilee in 1981. At this time, he had successfully restored and indeed strengthened the monarch's role as the chief arbiter of decision-making in his kingdom. In the early 1980s King Sobhuza attempted to acquire control over KaNgwane, a Bantustan set up by the South African government in an attempt to reunite all Swazi people separated by the colonial boundary. He died on 21 August 1982 at Embo State house at the age of 83.

Sobhuza's official incumbency of 82 years and 254 days is the longest precisely dated monarchical reign on record and the world's longest documented reign of any sovereign since antiquity. Only Min Hti of the Burmese Kingdom of Arakan, Pepi II Neferkare of Ancient Egypt and Taejo of the ancient Korean kingdom of Goguryeo are claimed to have reigned longer, though these claims are disputed.

Family and succession

Known by the honorific "Bull of Swazi" by virtue of his numerous progeny, King Sobhuza continued the tribal practice of maintaining many consorts. According to the Swaziland National Trust Commission, King Sobhuza II had 70 wives, who gave him 210 children between 1920 and 1970. About 180 children survived infancy, and 97 sons and daughters were reported living as of 2000. At his death he had more than 1,000 grandchildren.

Sobhuza died in 1982, having appointed Prince Sozisa Dlamini to serve as 'Authorized Person', advising a regent. Selection of a successor was confirmed only after King Sobhuza's death, a regent being necessary if the heir remained under age at that time. By tradition, the regent would be one of the queens consort who had borne the late king a son. The first regent was Queen Dzeliwe, but after a power struggle Sozisa deposed her and she was replaced by Queen Ntfombi. During this period Andy Warhol boosted her renown, and that of Swaziland, by including her portrait along with those of Elizabeth II of the Commonwealth Realms, Beatrix of the Netherlands and Margrethe II of Denmark in his Reigning Queens series. Ntombi reigned on behalf of her young son by King Sobhuza, Prince Makhosetive Dlamini, who was designated as Crown Prince or Umntfwana. He was crowned King Mswati III in 1986.

One of Sobhuza's sons-in-law was the late Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu, King of the Zulus of South Africa, who married the Swazi king's daughter, Princess Mantfombi (born at Siteki in 1956, betrothed in 1973), at Nongoma in June 1977. Another in-law is Zenani Mandela, the daughter of former South African President Nelson Mandela, who belonged to a cadet branch of the Thembu dynasty which reigns as paramount chiefs in the Transkei. She wed Sobhuza's son, Prince Thumbumuzi Dlamini who, although an older half-brother of Mswati and Mantfombi, did not inherit the Swazi throne, instead launching, with his wife, an enterprise in the United States.

Honours

National honours

  Grand Master of the Royal Order of the King Sobhuza II (Kingdom of Swaziland, 1975).

Foreign honours

Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire, Civil Division (KBE) (United Kingdom, 1 January 1966).

Honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire, Civil Division (CBE) (United Kingdom, 8 June 1950.)

Honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire, Civil Division (OBE) (United Kingdom, 11 May 1937).
  Supreme Companion of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo [posthumous] (Republic of South Africa, 20 April 2006).

See also

 Politics of Swaziland
 List of people with the most children

References

External links
 History of His Majesty, King Sobuza II
 King Sobhuza II—portrait of Sobhuza II of Swaziland by South African artist Neville Lewis

1899 births
1982 deaths
19th-century monarchs in Africa
20th-century monarchs in Africa
Child monarchs from sub-Saharan Africa
Flag designers
Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Recipients of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo
Swazi monarchs
World War II political leaders

Sobhuza II


The Battle of Brunnbäck Ferry () was the first major battle in the Swedish War of Liberation, between rebels rallied by Gustav Vasa that had marched down from occupied Falun and Danish troops from Västerås. The battle took place by the village Brunnbäck, near the ferry over Dalälven.

Governmental troops led by Henrik Slagheck, the brother of Didrik Slagheck, marched from Västerås to Dalälven, making camp near the Brunnbäck ferry. Shortly afterwards rebel troops under Peder Svensson arrived on the opposite side of the river. The rebels engaged the Danish soldiers by archery, causing many casualties and forcing the enemy to retreat. By then, Peder Svensson had already taken part of his force, and out of sight moved it over the river.

When the Danes left their camp he attacked, while the remaining rebels moved over the river. The battle took place on an open area called Sonnbohed. The governmental troops resisted, but the attack was both surprising and fierce. Those who were not cut down fled either by throwing themselves into the river or on the main road, the latter being chased far into Västmanland. The battle ended as a major Swedish victory.

References

1521 in Europe
Brunnback Ferry
Brunnback Ferry
Brunnback Ferry
16th century in Denmark
1521 in Sweden
1521 in Denmark
Brunnback Ferry

Battle of Brunnbäck Ferry


Riccardo Ventre (born 20 June 1944 in Formicola) is an Italian politician and Member of the European Parliament for Southern with the Forza Italia, part of the European People's Party and is vice-chair of the European Parliament's Committee on Constitutional Affairs.

He is a substitute for the Committee on Regional Development, a member of the Delegation for relations with the Mashreq countries and a substitute for the Delegation to the Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly.

Education
 Graduate in law
 Graduate in political science
 Graduate in philosophy (first class 'cum laude')
 Specialised in administrative law and the science of administration
 Specialised in international law and politics at the Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI) of Milan
 Professor of administrative procedural law at the 'Seconda Università degli Studi' of Naples
 Professor of public and administrative law at the 'Ezio Vanoni' school of higher education, Rome
 Former Provincial Commissioner of the Italian People's Party, Regional Commissioner for Campania and member of the national leadership of the CDU
 Is now national adviser for Forza Italia
 Former member of the Municipal Council and member of the Municipal Executive of the member of the Provincial Council, Mayor, Chairman of 'mountain borough'
 Chairman of Board of Directors of public-private joint enterprises, chairman of banking institution promotion committees, chairman of industrial districts
 Former Member of the Committee on Constitutional Affairs and Governance of the Committee of the Regions
 Chairman of the Provincial Council of Caserta

See also
2004 European Parliament election in Italy

External links

1944 births
Living people
People from Caserta
Forza Italia MEPs
MEPs for Italy 2004–2009
21st-century Italian politicians
Presidents of the Province of Caserta

Riccardo Ventre


Don Giovanni  is an Italian opera in two acts. It is about the character better known as Don Juan. The music was written by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The libretto was written by Lorenzo da Ponte. The opera was first performed at the National Theatre in Prague on 29 October  1787. It was a great success.

Don Giovanni is about a libertine and murderer who refuses to repent when given the chance. He is taken alive to Hell. The story was originally a folktale. Plays, operas, and even a ballet were produced on the theme by the time Mozart and da Ponte started work on their opera.

Don Giovanni was performed across Europe after its success in Prague. It was performed in the United States in 1826, staged by da Ponte himself. In 1979, Joseph Losey made a movie of the opera. In 2013, Don Giovanni was tenth on the Operabase list of the most-performed operas in the world.

Principal characters
 Don Giovanni - baritone
 Donna Anna - soprano
 Donna Elvira - soprano
 Zerlina - soprano
 Don Ottavio - tenor
 Leporello - bass
 Masetto - bass
 Commendatore - bass

Story of the opera

The overture opens with a somber musical passage in D minor. This passage is also played when the statue of the Commendatore calls for Don Giovanni to repent at the end of the opera. A quick, bright section in D major follows this slow passage. It is not related to music in opera. It is spirited, vigorous, and robust. It quietly dies away as the curtain rises on the first act.

Act I.

Scene 1. The garden of the Commendatore's house in Seville, Spain. Night. Don Giovanni has failed to seduce Donna Anna. Her father defends her. Don Giovanni kills him in a duel. He runs away with his servant Leporello. Donna Anna and her fiancé Don Ottavio find the dead Commendatore. They promise to bring the murderer to justice.

Scene 2. A street in Seville. Don Giovanni's wife Donna Elvira has just come to Seville from Burgos. She is looking for Don Giovanni. He married her, and then left her. He enters the street with Leporello. He sees Elvira and leaves. Leporello stays behind.  He tells Elvira about Giovanni's bad behavior with women.

Scene 3. The countryside near Seville. Don Giovanni takes an interest in a peasant girl named Zerlina. He tries to seduce her. Elvira takes Zerlina away with her. Anna and Ottavio meet Don Giovanni. He does not want to talk to them. He hurries away. They know he is the murderer. They promise again to bring him to justice. Giovanni comes back when they leave. He orders Leporello to prepare a party.

Scene 4. A garden at Don Giovanni's palace. Masetto and Zerlina are going to the party. Masetto doubts Zerlina loves him. She tells him to beat her, if that will make him feel better. The two make up. They go into the palace. Anna, Ottavio, and Elvira come into the garden. Their faces are covered with masks. They promise to bring Don Giovanni to justice. They go into the palace.

Scene 5. The ballroom in Don Giovanni's palace. The guests are having a gay time. Don Giovanni pulls Zerlina into another room. She screams. Don Giovanni comes into the room. He tells everyone that Leporello attacked Zerlina. No one is fooled. Anna, Elvira, and Ottavio take off their masks. Ottavio has a pistol. Don Giovanni runs away.

Act II.

Scene 1. Evening on a street in Seville. Don Giovanni wants to seduce Elvira's maid. He changes clothes with Leporello. When Elvira enters, Leporello is sent off with the lady. She thinks he is Don Giovanni. Giovanni sings a serenade. Masetto and his friends come in. They are looking for Don Giovanni. He beats Masetto and runs off. Zerlina finds Masetto and comforts him.

Scene 2. A nearby street. Leporello wants to get rid of Elvira. She may discover he is not Giovanni. The two hear others coming into the street. They hide behind a wall. Anna, Ottavio, Zerlina, and Masetto open a door in the wall, and find Leporello. They want to punish him. He runs away. Ottavio says he will go to the police.

Scene 3. (This scene is cut in modern performances.) A street. Zerlina threatens Leporello with a razor. A servant ties Leporello to a chair. When Leporello is left alone, he escapes. Zerlina comes back with Elvira and Masetto. They believe Don Giovanni must have helped Leporello escape. Elvira is left alone. She thinks of her love for Don Giovanni. She is certain he will be punished.

Scene 4. A cemetery in Seville. Don Giovanni and Leporello make jokes about Elvira. A strange voice is heard. It tells the two that justice is near. The voice is coming from a statue of the murdered Commendatore. Giovanni orders Leporello to invite the statue to dinner. The two leave to get dinner ready.

Scene 5. A room in Donna Anna's house. Anna is feeling great sorrow over her father's death. Ottavio says his love will comfort her. She is shocked with this suggestion. Ottavio says she is cruel to him. She asks him not to say such things. She tells him that her sorrow is so deep that she can think only of her dead father.

Scene 6. A room in Don Giovanni's palace. Don Giovanni is eating dinner. Elvira begs him to repent and change his way of life before it is too late. He laughs at her, and she leaves. Suddenly, the statue comes into the room. It orders Giovanni to repent. He refuses. Flames rise, and demons scream. The statue takes Giovanni's hand. Hell opens. The two disappear in the flames. Anna, Ottavio, Elvira, Zerlina, and Massetto come into the room with the police. They are looking for Don Giovanni. Leporello tells them that Giovanni has met his end. They are pleased, and make plans for happier days.

Background

Don Giovanni is based on a character in European folklore. This character is known as Don Juan. In 1581, the first play about Don Juan was written in Spanish by Juan de la Cueva. Other plays were also written. The most famous Don Juan play was The Playboy of Seville and His Stone Guest by a Spanish monk named Tirso de Molina. This play is the source of all the Don Juan stories and plays that were written after it. Da Ponte even used some words from it when he was writing Don Giovanni.

Traveling actors performed the Don Juan plays in France and Italy . The Don Juan character became well known. There were French, German, and Italian plays. Molière wrote Dom Juan in 1665, and Thomas Shadwell wrote an English play in 1676. Carlo Goldoni wrote an Italian play in 1736. Mozart and da Ponte probably knew the Goldoni play.

The first opera was a French one written in 1713. It was a comic opera. Gluck wrote a ballet for Vienna in 1761. Vincenzo Righini wrote an opera that was performed in Vienna and Prague in 1777  ten years before Don Giovanni. There were other operas written about Don Juan. The best known opera was one by Giovanni Bertati and Giuseppe Gazzaniga. It was performed in Venice in 1787. It was a great success. Da Ponte knew this opera. He made use of Bertati's libretto when he wrote Don Giovanni.

Mozart and da Ponte

Mozart and da Ponte first met in Vienna in 1783. At that time, da Ponte promised to write a libretto for Mozart. Three years later, he adapted a French play called The Marriage of Figaro to an opera libretto for Mozart. In three months, Mozart had completed the music. The Marriage of Figaro had its first performance in Vienna on May 1, 1786. It was a great success.

In January 1787, Mozart went to Prague for the first performance of Figaro in that city. The opera was a wild success. The manager of the opera house hired Mozart to write an opera for Prague. In Vienna, Mozart asked da Ponte for a libretto. Da Ponte gave him Don Giovanni. Mozart started work on this new opera.

Mozart wrote most of Don Giovanni in the summer of 1787 in Vienna. Early in October, he went to Prague. He completed the opera in Prague at the Villa Bertramka, the home of friends. The first performance of the opera was postponed. The curtain rose on the world premiere of Don Giovanni at the National Theatre in Prague on October 29, 1787. The opera was a great success.

One critic wrote: "On Monday the 29th the Italian Opera performed Maestro Mozart's eagerly awaited Don Giovanni ... Music lovers and musicians say that nothing to equal it has every been seen before in Prague ... Mozart himself conducted and he was given three cheers ... The opera is uncommonly difficult to perform ... The crowd of spectators bears witness to its general acclaim."

There are many legends about the making of Don Giovanni. One legend says Luigi Bassi, the 22 year old singer playing Don Giovanni, wanted more music to sing. He was said to have forced Mozart to rewrite a duet five times. Another legend says Mozart flirted with all three sopranos in the opera. When one would reject his passes, he would simply move on to the next. Another legend says Mozart's wife Constanze kept her husband awake with funny stories the night before the first performance so he could complete the overture to the opera.

Vienna performance

Mozart left Prague for Vienna in November 1787. Music lovers in Vienna had heard  good reports of Don Giovanni. The Emperor ordered the opera to be produced at the Burgtheater. Mozart wrote some new music for the characters of Elvira and Ottavio. He also wrote a duet for Zerlina and Leporello. Don Giovanni was first performed in Vienna on May 7, 1788. Mozart's sister-in-law Aloysia Lange sang Donna Anna.

Legend says the performance in Vienna ended with Don Giovanni going to Hell. The final scene for Anna, Elvira, Zerlina, Ottavio, Masetto, and Leporello was probably cut. Mozart wrote some new music for the Vienna performance. He may have had to cut the last scene to keep the performance within a certain length of time. The opera was not as successful in Vienna as it was in Prague. It was dropped at the Burgtheater after fifteen performances.

Other performances
Don Giovanni was performed all over Germany. It was performed in Poland in 1789. It was performed in German in Amsterdam and St Petersburg. The opera was popular in France, in both Italian and French versions. The first performance of Don Giovanni in Italy was at Bergamo in 1811. It was performed in Rome the same year. Its first performance in England may have been an amateur performance. In 1817 though, it was presented in both English and Italian. Lorenzo da Ponte produced the first American performance of Don Giovanni in New York City in 1826.{{sfn|Sadie|2006|pp=155-156}

Joseph Losey's movie

In 1979, Joseph Losey made a movie of the opera. Baritone Ruggero Raimondi played Don Giovanni. Edda Moser, Kiri Te Kanawa and Teresa Berganza played the three ladies in the opera. The movie was made in Venice instead of Spain. It used Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio's Villa Capra near Venice as its setting.

Vincent Canby wrote in the New York Times on November 6, 1979: " ... the climactic confrontation between the Don and the Commendatore is surprisingly tepid visually. I've seen better descents into hell at our own Metropolitan Opera and in any number of Hammer horror pictures. Mr. Losey and his associates haven't destroyed "Don Giovanni," but then they haven't illuminated it either. Their film is a busy, disorienting spectacle, superbly sung ... "

Modern responses to the opera

The Earl of Harewood writes: "Don Giovanni is too full of arias, many of them famous, for its own dramatic good. Perhaps it is a problem with most eighteenth-century opera. Singers demanded them, the public expected them; and of course the aria ... is a potent operatic weapon, the moment for the composer to comment in depth on the drama he has set going. But ... arias hold up the action in a way it is sometimes hard to defend, because you feel it was the singer who wanted it so."

He points to Ottavio's "Il mio tesoro", his "Dalla sua pace", and Anna's "Non mi dir" as each being a "magnificent opportunity for singer", but wonders how much they actually contribute to the drama. But Zerlina's "Batti, batti" and Anna's "Or sai chi l'onore" are quite different. These arias contribute to the drama and move it forward.

Nicholas Kenyon writes: "The power Don Giovanni unleashes is almost too great; if it is an uneven work then it is only imperfect in the way that King Lear is imperfect, from an excess of feeling. As Abert summarized it, in spite of the finale, 'the point of the opera is not to proclaim a universal moral, but to depict the decisive battle between two tremendous forces.

"We sense the ultimate connection between even the most restless, passion-ridden human existence and the whole universe.' Like Figaro, Giovanni has held the stage from its premiere through to the present; it has fitted the nineteenth-century's wish for a Romantic, powerful Mozart and the twentieth-century's for a politicised, critical Mozart".

Notes

References

Other websites
 Metropolitan Opera: Synopsis

1780s operas
Operas by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Don Giovanni


Steven Charles Shields (born July 19, 1972) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender. During his playing career, which lasted from 1994 to 2006, he played ten seasons in the National Hockey League with the Buffalo Sabres, San Jose Sharks, Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, Boston Bruins, Florida Panthers, and Atlanta Thrashers.

Playing career
Shields grew up in North Bay, Ontario, playing minor hockey until bantam level with the local Athletics AA program of the NOHA. At age 16, Shields moved to southern Ontario to play for the St. Marys Lincolns Jr.B. club of the OHA before accepting a scholarship to the University of Michigan.

As a collegiate player, Shields became the first goalie in NCAA history to record 100 career victories and was a two-time All American.

Shields was drafted in the fifth round (#101 overall) in the 1991 NHL Entry Draft by the Buffalo Sabres out of the University of Michigan. Shields was a journeyman NHL goaltender over his tenure. In his NHL career, Shields would play for the Buffalo Sabres, San Jose Sharks, Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, Boston Bruins, Florida Panthers, and Atlanta Thrashers.

1996 AHL Calder Cup champion
After starting the season with only a .500 record, the Rochester Americans rallied late in the season to go on and win the Calder Cup in game seven defeating the Portland Pirates 2-1. Steve Shields set an American Hockey League record with 15 playoff victories.  John Tortorella was the coach.

1997 playoffs
One of his career highlights was during the 1997 playoffs, when Dominik Hašek was injured. Hašek had been the team MVP and the league's best goalie during the regular season and he had been considered crucial to the Sabres' playoff hopes. With Hašek leaving in the midst of game three of the first round, Shields was forced to step in but he helped the Sabres to rally and defeat the Ottawa Senators.

Shields then played the second round series against the Philadelphia Flyers, as Hašek was suspended for three games after an altercation with reporter Jim Kelley. A line brawl between the two teams broke out in game one that resulted in a memorable goaltender fight between Shields and the Flyers' Garth Snow. Hašek was set to return in game four with the team down by three games in the series, but he told the Sabres' coaching staff he felt a twinge in his knee and left the ice after the pregame skate. Shields turned in another season-saving performance as Buffalo staved off the almost inevitable sweeping elimination with a win. Again before the fifth game, Hašek declared himself unfit to play and Shields would finish the series with Buffalo losing 6–3 and being eliminated.

1999–2000 season
Shields's best season was in the 1999–2000 season, when he played in 67 games for the San Jose Sharks while posting respectable goaltending numbers for the team (27 wins, 30 losses, four shutouts, a 2.56 GAA, and a .911 save percentage). San Jose made it to the second round of the playoffs that year.

Goalie mask design
Shields had a notable goalie mask which was designed while he was a member of the Boston Bruins during the 2002-03 season. Shields's mask was a tribute to former Bruins goalie Gerry Cheevers famed "stitch mask". He continued wearing the stitch mask after he was traded to the Florida Panthers, and being signed by the Atlanta Thrashers.

Coaching career
Shields served under Mel Pearson as a volunteer assistant coach at Michigan Tech for two seasons from 2011 to 2013 before joining the Florida Panthers as a goaltending consultant in the summer of 2013.

On May 7, 2015, it was announced that Shields was named a volunteer assistant coach for the Michigan Wolverines men's ice hockey team.

Career statistics

Awards and honours

References

External links

1972 births
Living people
Atlanta Thrashers players
Boston Bruins players
Buffalo Sabres draft picks
Buffalo Sabres players
Canadian ice hockey goaltenders
Chicago Wolves players
Florida Panthers coaches
Florida Panthers players
Houston Aeros (1994–2013) players
Michigan Wolverines men's ice hockey players
Mighty Ducks of Anaheim players
Rochester Americans players
San Jose Sharks players
South Carolina Stingrays players
Ice hockey people from Toronto
Canadian ice hockey coaches
AHCA Division I men's ice hockey All-Americans

Steve Shields (ice hockey)


Means of production (abbreviated MoP; German: Produktionsmittel), also called means of labour are the materials, tools and other instruments used by workers to make products. This includes: machines, tools materials, plant and equipment, land, raw materials, money, energy, and anything else labor needs to make things.

The means of production can be owned by different people in different ways in different societies. Capitalism is when the means of production are owned privately. A capitalist society has a market, where things can be sold and bought. Capitalism also has wage labor. Other societies can be socialist, meaning the means of production are owned in common, either by the workers themselves or by the state. A socialist society may also have a market, depending on the variation of socialism.

Related pages
 Communism
 Capitalism
 Factors of production
 Labor
 Marxism
 Socialism

References

Factors of production

Means of production


Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a way to help organisms change their behavior, and to identify the environmental contingencies that result in this behavior change. ABA, the application of behavior analysis, is based on the scientific approach known as radical behaviorism, which views covert events as behavior that are to be subjected to the same conditions as overt behavior. ABA can be used as a treatment for animals, mental disorders, and developmental disabilities, and is based on the principles of behavior that were discovered using experiments.

History
Scientific experiments and articles about ABA are published in the Journal for Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA.) This journal was founded in 1968. In the first issue of JABA, three people wrote an article explaining what Applied behavior analysis is.

Psychologists who study the way the environment influences behavior are called behaviorists. They study the external causes of behavior instead of a person's feelings. A person's feelings are internal so behaviorists think they cannot be studied scientifically.

Psychologist John B. Watson founded Behaviorism in 1913 and he is regarded as one of the first psychologists to study the applied science of behavior. He thought that internal feelings should not be studied at all. He also thought that behavior is shaped by the environment over time due to the outcome of a person's actions. He believed all behavior is learned and can be changed. If a person gets something good as a result of doing a behavior they are more likely to repeat that behavior. If something bad happens as a result of a behavior a person is less likely to do that thing again. This is an idea that is used a lot in ABA.

One of the most famous behaviorists was the psychologist B.F. Skinner. Skinner first published his ideas about behaviorism in 1938. He wrote a lot about behaviorism throughout his career. He made some of the behavior principles that ABA uses.

ABA emerged when experimental behavior principles were applied to social behavior. There are various people that began the process of applying these principles to social behavior. One of the most famous was Ole Ivar Lovaas. In the 1960s, Lovaas became one of the first people to use applied behavior analysis as a treatment for autism. When Lovaas began using ABA to treat children with autism he changed the way developmental disorders were treated. Lovaas also thought that treatments would be more successful if they are started early in a child's life. The idea of starting treatment with a child as soon as possible is called 'early intervention'. Early intervention is still thought to be very important in ABA.

One of the more recent developments in Applied Behavior Analysis is the founding of the Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACB). The BACB is a non-profit corporation that was started in 1998. The BACB certifies behavior analysts. In order to become a behavior analyst a person must go to a special school and then pass an exam. Once they pass this exam they will be  board certified behavior analysts. The BACB sets standards to make sure board certified behavior analysts (BCBAs) are good at their jobs. The BACB makes sure that the BCBAs are using ethical, legal, and professional practices when they work.

Characteristics
There are seven characteristics of ABA  A treatment that is based on ABA must have all of these things.

 Applied: This means that the behavior being studied must be socially important. Socially important behavior is behavior that happens in everyday life.
 Behavioral: A behavior is anything that a person does. Feelings are not studied because they are internal so they cannot be measured. ABA treatments measure rates of behavior.
 Analytic: For behavior to be analytic a behavior analyst has to have control over it. This means they have to be able to make the behavior happen at certain times. The data from before the experimental variable is applied is called baseline data.
 Technological: The word technological is used to describe the amount of explanation necessary for a treatment. A behavioral intervention must be explained very well. If an intervention is not explained well it is not technological.
 Conceptually systematic: For an ABA treatment to be conceptually systematic it must be related to behavior principles that are already known. Using principles that are already known makes ABA more effective.
 Effective: This means that behavioral interventions must produce good results to be used in ABA. The purpose of applied interventions is to improve an aspect of social behavior.
 Generality: This is used to show how meaningful a behavior change is. A behavior change has high generality if:
 The change keeps happening for a long time after the intervention is over
 The change happens in different environments
 The change causes a change in other behaviors

Definitions and concepts
The following terms and ideas are used in Applied Behavior Analysis. It is important to understand these ideas when using ABA based interventions.

Problem behavior
In ABA, a behavior that is bad is called a problem behavior. Problem behavior is something that hurts the person doing it or hurts other people around them. A problem behavior makes it harder for a person to learn new things.

 Operant behavior is the opposite of respondent behavior. Operant behavior is voluntary and can be changed. A person has control over their own operant behavior. They decide which behaviors they want to do. Respondent behavior cannot be controlled like operant behavior. ABA studies operant behavior more than respondent because it can be controlled. If a behavior can be controlled then it can be changed.
 Three-term contingency is a concept for understanding operant behavior that was first used by B.F. Skinner. It is still used in ABA. The three-term contingency says that every behavior has an antecedent and a consequence. An antecedent is what happens right before the behavior. The antecedent can change the chance that a behavior will happen. Some antecedents make a behavior more likely to happen. Other antecedents make a behavior less likely to happen. The consequence is what happens after the behavior. It is the response to the behavior. ABC data can be used to find things that may be causing behavior. Then these causes can be tested using experimental variables.
 An operational definition tells people exactly what a target behavior looks like. The target behavior is the behavior that is trying to be changed. The operational definition of the target behavior needs to be very good. People that have not seen the target behavior before should be able to tell when it happens based only on the operational definition. A good operational definition makes the study of behavior better.
 Reinforcement: When something increases the likelihood of a response happening again it is called a reinforcement. A reinforcement is often thought of as a reward. A reward is anything that is given after a response happens. A reward can only be a reinforcement if it increases the rate of response in the future. If it does not increase the rate of response then it is not a reinforcement. All reinforcers do not work for all people. So it is important to try different types of reinforcers to find out what works best for a person.

Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that fill a biological need. The four primary reinforcers are food, water, warmth and sex. Reinforcers that do not fill biological needs are called secondary reinforcers. Secondary reinforcers are not naturally reinforcing. A person needs to learn that they are reinforcing. They learn that they are reinforcing because they are paired with other things that are known to be reinforcing. They are also called conditioned reinforcers.

A discriminative stimulus (SD) is something that tells a person that reinforcement is available. The presentation of a SD should cause a response.

Positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement (SR+) is when the addition of a stimulus leads to an increase in responding. There are four different types of positive reinforcement:

 Tangible reinforcers are things that can be held. Toys or food would be tangible reinforcers. Tangible reinforcers can be expensive. They should not be the first choice for positive reinforcement.
 Social reinforcement is one of the best types of positive reinforcement. It is good because it is not expensive. It is also easy to use. Social reinforcers are things that have social value or meaning. Examples of social reinforcers would be awards, praise, or compliments. Social reinforcement can be very effective.
 Activity reinforcers are any events that a person can earn. Examples of some activities would be getting to play games, go to the movies, or earning a break. Activity reinforcers can work really well if the person really wants to earn the activity. But activity reinforcers may not be able to be earned right after the behavior happens. This would result in a delay of reinforcement. The reinforcer will be less effective if it is given a long time after the behavior happens.
 Token reinforcers are any neutral stimulus that can be traded for an object or activity. The objects or activities they can trade tokens for are known as back-up reinforcers. The tokens do not have value by themselves. They are only valuable because the person knows that they can trade them for something they want to earn.

Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement (SR-) happens when the removal of a stimulus increases the likelihood a person will do a behavior in the future. In this case the term negative does not mean bad. The stimulus that is removed from the environment is something aversive. This means that the person does not like it. People will want to do a behavior if they know that something they do not like will be taken away.

Reinforcement schedules
Reinforcements are given based on schedules of reinforcement. The schedule will explain the ways reinforcement is earned. Behavior analysts decide which reinforcement schedule is best. Different schedules are useful for different things. The schedule used depends on the person. It also depends on the behavior that is being reinforced.

Continuous reinforcement schedules
Continuous reinforcement schedules (CRF) reinforce a person every time they do the target behavior. There are a few problems with CRF schedules though. The rates of behavior are not long-lasting. If the person stops being reinforced they may stop doing the target behavior. Another issue is satiation. If the person becomes satiated it means that they do not want the reinforcer anymore.

Intermittent reinforcement schedules
These schedules of reinforcement only reinforce the target behavior sometimes. The four most common types of intermittent schedules are:

 Fixed-ratio schedules (FR) give reinforcement after a certain number of responses.
 Variable-ratio schedules: With variable-ratio (VR) schedules the amount of responses needed for reinforcement changes. The number of responses needed for reinforcement will be different every time.
 Fixed-interval schedules:  With fixed-interval (FI) schedules reinforcement is delivered for the first response that happens after a fixed amount of time passes.
 Variable-interval schedules (VI) give reinforcement after an variable amount of time passes.

Differential reinforcement
A discriminative stimulus (SD) is something that tells a person that reinforcement is available. The presentation of a SD should cause a response. Differential reinforcement teaches a person the difference between a SD and a non-discriminative stimulus (S-delta). A SD signals that reinforcement is available. A S-delta does not tell the person anything about the availability of reinforcement. A S-delta is not likely to produce responses because there is reinforcement is not given.

It is also used to decrease problem behavior. There are four types of differential reinforcement that can be used to decrease a problem behavior.

DRL stands for differential reinforcement of a "low-rate" of response. DRL is helpful when trying to decrease a behavior but not get rid of it completely.
DRO stands for differential reinforcement of "other" behavior. With DRO, a person gets a reinforcer if they do not do the problem behavior for a set amount of time.
DRI stands for differential reinforcement of "incompatible" behavior. A DRI program reinforces behavior that is incompatible with the problem behavior. An incompatible behavior would stop them from being able to do the problem behavior.
DRA stands for differential reinforcement of "alternative" behavior. For a DRA program the person is taught an alternative behavior that they can do instead of the problem behavior.

Extinction
Extinction is a way to decrease rates of problem behavior. A DRA program should be used at the same time as an extinction program. This will make the extinction program more effective.

Punishment
Reinforcement is always the first thing that is tried when trying to change a behavior. Reinforcement produces long-lasting results and is better for the person. However reinforcement does not always reduce problem behavior. If reinforcement does not work it may be necessary to try punishment. Punishment is effective but it can have bad consequences. It can cause emotional harm if it is not used correctly.

Punishment is any response to a behavior that "decreases" the likelihood of a behavior happening in the future. Punishment of a problem behavior should be used with reinforcement of the appropriate behavior. Appropriate behavior should always be reinforced even when using punishment for problem behavior. Just like reinforcement, punishment can be both positive and negative. Positive punishment is the addition of an stimulus that decreases the chances of future responses. This stimulus that is added is something aversive. Negative punishment is the removal of a stimulus that decreases the chance of future behaviors happening. The stimulus that is removed is something that the person likes.

Prompting
Prompting increases the likelihood that a behavior will be done the right way. Using prompts will make the learning process easier and quicker. Someone that is teaching a new behavior can use prompts to help the person that is learning the behavior. The two broad categories of prompts are stimulus and response.

Examples of stimulus prompts would be: lists or pictures that help the learner remember what the correct response is.

Response prompts do not involve a change in the antecedent. There are three types of response prompts.

The first type is verbal prompts.
The second type of response prompt is a gestural prompt. The most common gestural prompt is pointing to the correct response.
The third type of response prompt is a physical prompt. A physical prompt is when the teacher touches the learner in order to help them perform the correct behavior. Physical prompts are often used when teaching new skills that involve movement of the body.

Fading
Fading prompts is a way to increase the independence of the learner. Once the learner can do the behavior on their own they will not need the help of the teacher. However, if a teacher stops using prompts quickly it may confuse the learner. So prompts should be decreased slowly. The process of gradually decreasing prompting is called 'fading'.

Shaping
Shaping is a way to teach new behaviors or improve behaviors that have already been taught. It involves reinforcing steps towards a target behavior.

Chaining
Complex behaviors are made up of smaller simple behaviors. This is what the concept of behavior chains is based on. A behavior chain is when smaller behaviors are combined to form a complex behavior. These smaller behaviors are done in a certain order. Each of the smaller behaviors is a step in the behavior chain. Each step in a behavior chain is a response on its own. There are three different ways to teach a behavior chain:

Forward chaining is the most common way to teach a behavior chain. The chain is taught starting with the first step. Once the learners can do the first step they move on to the second step. This continues until they have completed all of the steps.
Backward chaining is the opposite of forward chaining. With backward chaining the last step is taught to the learners first. Once they can do the last step they move on to the second to last step. This continues until they make it to the first step.
Total task presentation is the third way to teach a behavior chain. With forward and backward chaining only one step in the behavior chain is taught at one time. But with total task the learner completes every step in the chain every time they do the program. They should complete every step in the correct order. Total task requires the learner know how to do all of the steps in the chain before they start the program.

Analyzing behavior
ABA relies on data to make decisions about behavior. Behavior analysts are always collecting data about a person's behavior.

Data collection
Direct observation is when behavior is watched and recorded. Indirect measures compare one person's behavior to other people's behavior. An example would be an intelligence test. One person's score is compared to the scores that other people got.

There are three common methods of data collection. They are frequency, interval, and time sampling. These methods are used for direct observation.

Frequency is how often a behavior happens. So frequency recording just counts the number of times a behavior happens.
Interval recording breaks the observation time into smaller pieces. The total time is divided into smaller intervals. If the behavior happens at any time during one of the smaller intervals it is recorded.
Time sampling methods are a little different from frequency and interval methods. The observer will only look to see if the behavior is happening every once in a while. If the behavior is happening when the observers looks it gets recorded. But if the behavior happens any other time it does not get recorded. So the behavior is only recorded sometimes.

Functional analysis
A functional analysis (FA) is done to find the reason for problem behavior. The reason for problem behavior must be known before a behavioral intervention can be done. Behavior analysts came up with the idea of a functional analysis in 1982. Since then it has become an important part of ABA. The behavior analyst is tries to find the situations that cause the highest rates of problem behavior. The situations that cause the highest rates of problem behavior tell the behavior analyst the reason for the behavior. Once the reasons for problem behavior are known treatment can begin.

Treatments based on the results of a FA are more effective than without a FA.

Use for treatment of autism
Applied behavior analysis is commonly associated with autism. This is because ABA is the only treatment for autism that has been scientifically proven to be effective.

References

Human behavior
Psychology

Applied behavior analysis


Southeast Kansas is a region of the U.S. state of Kansas. It can be generally defined by Woodson County in the northwest, Bourbon County in the northeast, Cherokee County in the southeast, and Montgomery County in the southwest. Geographically it mostly has broad rolling landscape located between the Flint Hills to the west and includes the Ozarks to the southeast. Some notable towns there include Pittsburg, Parsons, Coffeyville, Independence, Chanute, Fort Scott, and Iola.

The first people to live there were some Native American tribes. Others included frontier towns that relied on cattle ranching and mining. They were hurt by violence over the issue of slavery. This happened both before and during the American Civil War (see Bleeding Kansas). The most common type of mining in Southeast Kansas was coal mining. This contributed to the amount of coal found. It also contributed to the quality and thickness of coal in Southeast Kansas.  Southeast Kansas has one of the well-made recreations of early life in the United States Army at Fort Scott National Historic Site.

References

Other websites

SEKInfo
Southeast Kansas, Inc.
Southeast Kansas Wildlife Viewing Sites
Southeast Kansas Library System
LASR, Little Ozarks, Kansas
SKIL, Southeast Kansas Independent Living, Inc.

Regions of Kansas

Southeast Kansas


Appetite is wanting to eat food, the feeling of hunger. Humans and animals have appetite to make sure that they eat enough food to survive. A loss of appetite is also called anorexia (this is not the same as the eating disorder anorexia nervosa).

Appetite can change when people are ill, when they have eating disorders and when they are on different types of medications. A big appetite can make somebody eat more than they need to, and they can put on weight, even becoming obese. A small appetite can make someone eat less than they need to, making them lose weight or become malnourished.

Endocrinology

Appetite


The Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan (CSFP) is an international programme under which Commonwealth governments offer scholarships and fellowships to citizens of other Commonwealth countries.

History
The plan was originally proposed by Canadian statesman Sidney Earle Smith in a speech in Montreal on 1 September 1958 and was established in 1959, at the first Conference of Commonwealth Education Ministers (CCEM) held in Oxford, Great Britain. Since then, over 25,000 individuals have held awards, hosted by over twenty countries. The CSFP is one of the primary mechanisms of pan-Commonwealth exchange.

Organisation
There is no central body which manages the CSFP. Instead, participation is based on a series of bi-lateral arrangements between home and host countries. The participation of each country is organised by a national nominating agency, which is responsible for advertising awards applicable to their own country and making nominations to host countries.

In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, which is the biggest contributor to the Plan, this process is managed by the Commonwealth Scholarship Commission in Britain, a non-departmental public body, and funded by the Department for International Development. Since 2008, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office no longer contributes financially to the plan and the number and type of scholarships available for students from more developed Commonwealth countries (Australia, The Bahamas, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Cyprus, Malta, New Zealand, and Singapore) to study in Britain has been reduced.. Other countries, such as Australia, no longer offer scholarships as part of the CSFP.

New reforms were developed to strategically align scholarships with mutual interests for business and innovation between Commonwealth nations. During the state visit of President Tony Tan to the UK in October 2014, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II announced that the Royal Commonwealth Society of Singapore would be re-established to promote the Commonwealth and to provide new Commonwealth Scholarships and Fellowships in Innovation for Singaporeans. The first Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship for Innovation were presented in August 2017 to Joshua Cheong and Dr Khoo Hsien Hui by the Rt. Hon. Sajid Javid.

Notable past Commonwealth Scholars and Fellows include

Politics
Kenny Anthony, Prime Minister of St. Lucia
George Brandis QC, 36th Attorney-General of Australia
Ross Cranston, Member of Parliament for Dudley North, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Bill English, Prime Minister of New Zealand
Babalola Borishade, Former Minister of Education, Aviation Nigeria
John Alexander Forrest, Member for Mallee, Australia
Leslie Gunawardana, Former Minister of Science, Sri Lanka
Hala Hameed, Maldivian Minister of State
Juma Athuman Kapuya, Minister of Labour, Employment and Youth Development
Kalombo Mwansa, Home Affairs Minister of Zambia
Satendra Nandan, Minister of Health and Social Welfare, Fiji
Rolph Payet, Seychellois Cabinet Minister
Kamla Persad-Bissessar, Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago
Carlos Simons, Member, Interim Advisory Council, Turks and Caicos Islands
Abdullah Tarmugi, Singaporean politician and MP
Michael Tate, Minister for Justice, Australia

Judiciary
Shirani Bandaranayake, 43rd Chief Justice of Sri Lanka
Patrick Keane, Judge of the High Court of Australia
Ross Cranston, Former Solicitor General of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
George W. Kanyeihamba, Judge of the Supreme Court of Uganda
Professor Vijender Kumar, Professor of Family Law, NALSAR University of Law
 Lord Thomas of Cwmgiedd, Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales

Government
Mark Carney, Governor of the Bank of England
Michael Omolewa, Permanent Delegate and Ambassador to UNESCO, Nigeria
Carolyn McMaster, Canadian Deputy High Commissioner to New Zealand
 Manumatavai Tupou-Roosen, Director General of the Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency

Academia
B. K. Misra, Neurosurgeon
U. R. Ananthamurthy, Professor and writer, University of Mysore, Karnataka
Gunapala Amarasinghe, Professor of Ayurvedic Pediatrics, Institute of Indigenous Medicine, University of Colombo
Anisuzzaman, Emeritus Professor of Bengali, University of Dhaka
Richard Alexander Arnold, Professor of English, Alfaisal University in Riyadh
Ishbel Campbell,  British chemist researcher and lecturer. Held one of the first Commonwealth fellowships awarded to a woman.
Robert M. Carter, Director of Australia's Secretariat for the Ocean Drilling Program
Warrick Couch, astronomer, Director of the Australian Astronomical Observatory and President of the Australian Institute of Physics.
John Gallas, poet and educator
Professor Alan Robertson Gemmell Professor of Biology at Keele University (1950-1977)
Germaine Greer, Australian feminist author; former professor of English Literature and Comparative Studies at the University of Warwick
Robert Gavin Hampson, Professor of English, Royal Holloway, University of London.
Charles Jago, President of the University of Northern British Columbia
Karuppannan Jaishankar, Professor of Criminology, Raksha Shakti University, India
Abu Hena Mustafa Kamal, poet, songwriter & professor at University of Dhaka
Will Kymlicka, Canada Research Chair in Political Philosophy, Queen's University at Kingston
Nissim Mannathukkaren, Associate Professor, Dalhousie University Department of International Development Studies
Angus McIntosh, Forbes Professor of English Language and General Linguistics, University of Edinburgh
Lynette Mitchell, Professor in Greek History and Politics, University of Exeter
Bridget Ogilvie, Director of the Wellcome Trust
Pratapaditya Pal, Curator-Emeritus and formerly, Curator, Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Peng Tsu Ann, Professor of Mathematics, National University of Singapore
Raja Ramanna, chairman, Atomic Energy Commission of India
B. N. Suresh, Director, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre
Ghulam Mohammed Sheikh, Professor of Art, Baroda University
Lalji Singh, Director, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad
Sheung-Wai Tam, President Emeritus of The Open University of Hong Kong
Stephen Toope, President and Vice-Chancellor of the University of British Columbia
Sunil Kumar Verma, Principal Scientist, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, India
Jeremy Waldron, Professor of law and philosophy, New York University School of Law
Alexandra Walsham, Professor of Modern History, University of Cambridge
Fiona Williams, Professor of Social Policy, University of Leeds
Kamta Prasad, former professor of economics, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
Najma Akhtar, Vice Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia

Journalists
Edward Greenspon, Editor-in-Chief, The Globe and Mail, Canada
Charles Krauthammer, Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist
Chandan Mitra, Editor and managing director of The Pioneer, New Delhi

Performing Arts
Walter Learning, Founder of Theatre New Brunswick
Shyamaprasad, Leading Indian (Malayalam) film Director, President, Amrita Television

Social Entrepreneurs

 Kirthi Jayakumar, Gender and Peace activist, Founder of The Red Elephant Foundation

References

External links
CSFP website
Commonwealth Scholarship Commission in the United Kingdom website

Government scholarships
Commonwealth Family
Education awards
Student financial aid
Non-departmental public bodies of the United Kingdom government
Department for International Development
Scholarships in the United Kingdom
Education finance in the United Kingdom


San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan started out as an agricultural and population center for the Olmec civilization, which inhabited a region of what is today southeastern Mexico. The Olmecs emerged as early as 1500 BC as the earliest complex society in the Americas. San Lorenzo is best known as the first city established in the Americas.

The main reason San Lorenzo flourished at such an early period is its location within the Coatzacoalcos flood plain, which provided fertile land for farming. Thus, the settlement of San Lorenzo follows the pattern of settlement of the world's very first urban centers, which emerged in the fertile river valleys of Mesopotamia. Because of the high farming value of the surrounding land, San Lorenzo ranked as the Olmecs' most populous settlement from 1200-900 BC. During that period, San Lorenzo had the biggest trade market in all of the Olmec Heartland.

For unknown reasons, many people migrated out of San Lorenzo in 800 BC to the nearby city of La Venta. However, San Lorenzo was repopulated in 600 BC, when it became a center for Olmec ritual sacrifices until the population faded away in 400 BC along with the Olmec civilization. Today, San Lorenzo remains a significant archaeological site because the artifacts found there–including the famous Colossal Heads and jade masks–shed some light on Olmec culture and its profound influence on later Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Aztec and Maya.

Settlements in Mexico

San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan


Pawleys Island is a seaport town in northeastern South Carolina. In 2000, 138 people lived there. This town is near Georgetown.

Many cypress cottages on Pawleys Island were built during the 20th century. That made people call the town arrogantly shabby. In September 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck south of Pawleys Island. Some cottages were totally destroyed.

Towns in South Carolina

Pawleys Island, South Carolina


Little House in the Big Woods is a children's novel. It was written by Laura Ingalls Wilder. It was published in 1932. It is the first book in Wilder's Little House series. The book and the series are based on Wilder's memories of growing up near Pepin, Wisconsin in the 19th century.

20th-century American novels
1932 books
American children's books

Little House in the Big Woods


A touchpad (also called a trackpad) is a type of input device for computers that does the same things as a computer mouse. It is made up of a flat, touch-sensitive surface which the user slides one or more fingers on to move the cursor on the screen. Next to the touchpad are push-buttons that work just like mouse buttons, including left-clicking and right-clicking. In some newer touchpads, there are no actual buttons, and clicking is done by pushing near the button of the touchpad itself.

Unlike computer mice, touchpads stay in one place when they are being used. This makes it easy to build them into hardware. They are mostly found on laptop computers because, when the user is travelling, sometimes he or she cannot use a mouse. But most laptops do allow the user is able to attach (connect) a separate mouse. Besides laptops, touchpads are also more and more used on mobile devices with a GUI, including MP3 players (a well-known one being the iPod) and mobile phones (such as the BlackBerry). However, touchpads on today's mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers have been replaced with the touchscreen, which is used much like a touchpad except the screen is built into the touch-sensitive surface itself so that no mouse cursor is needed. One can just touch anywhere on the surface to choose what is on the screen at that part.

Most touchpads have the function of tapping, which imitates the left-click button on a mouse. New models of touchpads often do more things because they can respond to the pressure of more than one finger. This is called multi-touch and makes it possible to do things like scroll though, zoom in and out, and rotate a page or part of the screen. The user can choose and change which functions happen if the user does certain moves. For example, the normal function for tapping on the pad is the left-click on the mouse. The user can change it in the settings section to the right-click of the mouse, if the user likes it better.

Related pages
 Computer mouse
 Touchscreen
 Input device

Computer hardware
Data input

Touchpad


In aviation, flight attendants — also known as cabin crew, stewards, air hosts/hostesses, or stewardesses, — are members of a cabin crew employed by airlines. They make sure that the passengers on commercial flights (or, sometimes, business jets) are safe and comfortable during the flight.

Occupations in aviation

Flight attendant


The Temple of Hera (Heraion) is a temple dedicated to Hera, the Greek goddess of marriage. She was the wife of Zeus, the greatest of the Greek gods. The temple was built about 600 BC at Olympia, Greece. It is one of the oldest temples in Greece. It measures 50 meters by 18.75 meters. It was about 7.80 meters high. It had six Doric columns at either end and sixteen Doric columns on each side. The columns were originally made of wood, but were replaced with limestone at different times. The temple was destroyed by an earthquake in the early 4th century AD. It was not repaired.

A statue of Hera was seated on a throne at the eastern end of the cella. A stone head that may be Hera survives. Next to Hera stood a statue of Zeus dressed as a warrior. The famous statue of Hermes and the Infant Dionysos of Praxiteles was kept in the temple. At the western end of the temple was kept the table that held the wreaths for the victors of the Olympic Games. Other valuable items were also kept at the western end.

Winners of the ancient all-female Heraia had the right to dedicate their statues to the temple. It was at these footraces that the statue of Hera was dressed every four years in a robe made by the women of Elis. The modern Olympic Flame is lit at the Altar of Hera which stands to the east of the temple. The German Archaeological Institute restored some of the columns in the late 20th century as well as the great circular akroterion of the temple. The akroterion is displayed in the Olympia museum.

Gallery

Other websites

Buildings and structures in Olympia
Greek mythology
Hera at Olympia
1st millennium BC buildings and structures

Temple of Hera at Olympia


Border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia began in 1918 between the Second Polish Republic and First Czechoslovak Republic, both freshly created states. The conflicts centered on the disputed areas of Cieszyn Silesia, Orava Territory and Spiš. After World War II they broadened to include areas around the cities of Kłodzko and Racibórz, which until 1945 had belonged to Germany. The conflicts became critical in 1919 and were finally settled in 1958 in a treaty between the Polish People's Republic and the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic.

Before World War I
Before the First World War both Spiš and Orava were multi-ethnic areas. The inhabitants of the northernmost parts of both lands were predominantly Gorals, whose dialect and customs were in many ways similar to those of the Podhale Gorals. Another area inhabited by Gorals was situated in Čadca area. At the end of 19th century tourism in and around the Tatra Mountains became very popular among the Polish educated public and the folklore of the Podhale Gorals was heavily romanticized by writers and artists. Because of their archaic Polish basis, the Goral dialects became a popular object of study among linguists dealing with the history of the Polish language.

As a result, by the end of the 19th century Polish intellectuals commonly saw the Goral speaking areas in Spiš, Orava and around Čadca as being ethnographically Polish just like Podhale, irrespective of their inhabitants' actual national consciousness (or lack of it). The exception was northeastern Orava, with an influx of Polish or Polish-educated priests into the local Catholic parishes and some circulation of the Polish-language newspaper Gazeta Zakopiańska from nearby Podhale.

Creation of Poland and Czechoslovakia
After the end of World War I, both of the two newly created independent states of the Second Polish Republic and First Czechoslovak Republic claimed the area of Cieszyn Silesia. Czechoslovakia claimed the area partly on strategic and ethnic grounds, but especially on economic and historic grounds. The disputed area was part of the historic Czech lands of Bohemian Crown. The only railway from Czech territory to eastern Slovakia ran through this area (Košice-Bohumín Railway), and access to the railway was critical for Czechoslovakia: the newly formed country was at war with Béla Kun's revolutionary Hungarian Soviet Republic, which was attempting to re-establish Hungarian sovereignty over Slovakia. The area is also very rich in black coal, and it was the most industrialized region of all Austria-Hungary. The important Třinec Iron and Steel Works are also located here. All these raised the strategic importance of this region to Czechoslovakia. On the other hand, most of the population was Polish, despite substantial Czech and German minorities.

The Polish side based its claim to the area on ethnic criteria: a majority of the area's population was Polish according to the last (1910) Austro-Hungarian census.

Two local self-government councils, Polish and Czech, were created. Initially, both national councils claimed the whole of Cieszyn Silesia for themselves, the Polish Rada Narodowa Księstwa Cieszyńskiego in its declaration "Ludu śląski!" of 30 October 1918 and the Czech Národní výbor pro Slezsko in its declaration of 1 November 1918. On 31 October 1918, in the wake of World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, most of the area was taken over by local Polish authorities. The short-lived interim agreement of 2 November 1918 reflected the inability of the two national councils to come to final delimitation, and on 5 November 1918 the area was divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia by another interim agreement. In 1919 the councils were absorbed by the newly created independent central governments in Prague and Warsaw.

The inclusion of Spiš and Orava in the new state of Czechoslovakia was also not welcomed by all of its residents. In early November 1918 National Council of Poles in Upper Orava constituted itself in Jabłonka and pro-Polish Spisz National Council declared its existence in Stará Ľubovňa, both groups being in contact with the Republic of Zakopane – a short (1 month) lived autonomous Polish statelet in Podhale, whose president was Stefan Żeromski. On 6 November 1918, Polish forces entered Spiš, but retreated after a defeat at Kežmarok on 7 December 1918 as well as pressure from the Entente. In June 1919, however, the Poles captured again northern Spiš and in addition northern Orava. In Spiš they demanded the whole northern half of the region down to Poprad, though units were withdrawn after orders from Warsaw in January 1919. Although both governments promised to carry out plebiscites in villages in northern Spiš and northeastern Orava about whether those people want to live in Poland or in Czechoslovakia, the promises were not kept, and both governments agreed to arbitration.

In Poland, the case was advocated by Polish Tatra Society and later by National Committee for Defense of Spisz, Orawa, Czadca and Podhale established in Kraków and led by Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer, a popular writer known for his stories on Tatra mountains and Goral folklore. The whole conflict was seen as Polish-Czech issue rather than Polish-Slovak, with phrases like "Czech invasion" in common use. The Committee organized a delegation, whose members – Ferdynand Machay, a priest born in Jabłonka (Orava), Piotr Borowy from Rabča (Orava) and Wojciech Halczyn from Lendak (Spiš) went to Paris and, during a personal audience, talked to US President Woodrow Wilson.

Czechoslovak offensive in 1919

In January 1919, a war erupted between the Second Polish Republic and the First Czechoslovak Republic over the Cieszyn Silesia area in Silesia. The Czechoslovak government in Prague requested for the Poles to cease their preparations for national parliamentary elections in the area that had been designated Polish in the interim agreement as no sovereign rule was to be executed in the disputed areas. The Polish government declined, and the Czechoslovaks decided to stop the preparations by force.

Czechoslovak troops entered area managed by Polish interim body on January 23. Czechoslovak troops gained the upper hand over the weaker Polish units. Most Polish forces were then engaged in fighting with the West Ukrainian National Republic over eastern Galicia. Czechoslovakia was forced to stop the advance by the Entente, and Czechoslovakia and Poland were compelled to sign a new demarcation line on February 3, 1919, in Paris.

At the Paris Peace Conference (1919), Poland requested the northwestern bit of Spiš, including the region around Javorina.

Negotiations in 1920s
A final line was set up at the Spa Conference in Belgium. On 28 July 1920, the western part of the disputed territory was given to Czechoslovakia while Poland received the eastern part, which created Trans-Olza with a substantial Polish minority.

Edvard Beneš also agreed to cede to Poland 13 villages (especially Nowa Biała, Jurgów and Niedzica; ; pop. 8,747) in northwestern Spiš and 12 villages in northeastern Orava (around Jabłonka; ; pop. 16,133). The Czechoslovak authorities officially regarded their inhabitants as exclusively Slovak, but the Poles pointed out that the dialect used there belonged to the Polish language. The Polish government was not satisfied with that result.

The conflict was resolved only by the Council of the League of Nations (International Court of Justice) on 12 March 1924, which decided that Czechoslovakia should retain the territory of Javorina and Ždiar. That entailed (in the same year) an additional exchange of territories in Orava, and the territory around Nižná Lipnica went to Poland, the territory around Suchá Hora and Hladovka went to Czechoslovakia.

Annexations by Poland in 1938

Munich Agreement
Within the region originally demanded from Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in 1938 was an important railway junction city of Bohumín. The Poles regarded the city as of crucial importance to the area and to Polish interests. On 28 September, Beneš composed a note to the Polish administration offering to reopen the debate surrounding the territorial demarcation in Těšínsko in the interest of mutual relations, but he delayed in sending it in hopes of good news from London and Paris, which failed to come. Beneš then turned to the Soviet leadership in Moscow, which had begun a partial mobilisation in eastern Belarus and Ukraine and threatened Poland with the dissolution of the Soviet-Polish non-aggression pact.

At noon on 30 September, Poland gave an ultimatum to the Czechoslovak government that demanded the immediate evacuation of Czechoslovak troops and police and gave Prague time until noon the following day. At 11:45 a.m. on 1 October the Czechoslovak foreign ministry called the Polish ambassador in Prague and told him that Poland could have what it wanted. The Polish Army, commanded by General Władysław Bortnowski, annexed an area of 801.5 km2 with a population of 227,399 people.

The Germans were delighted with the outcome. They were happy to give up a provincial rail centre to Poland. It was indeed a small sacrifice, spread the blame of the partition of Czechoslovakia, made Poland an accomplice in the process and confused the issue as well as political expectations. Poland was accused of being an accomplice of Nazi Germany.

First Vienna Award
In November 1938, Poland crossed into Slovakia where a minor firefight took place at Spisz, resulting in two fatalities on the Polish side, before the Slovak withdrawal. Poland occupied some northern parts of Slovakia and received territories around Suchá Hora and Hladovka, around Javorina, and in addition the territory around Lesnica in the Pieniny Mountains, a small territory around Skalité and some other very small border regions. Poland officially received the territories on 1 November 1938.

World War II
The First Slovak Republic received back both the territories lost in 1938 and the territories lost in 1920–1924. This re-annexation happened in October 1939 (officially confirmed on 24 November 1939) when Slovakia supported Nazi Germany's attack on Poland in September 1939. The annexation by the puppet state of Slovakia saved the Slovak and a smaller Polish population of the area from the naked terror of Nazi Germany as it was practised in the General Government until Slovakia agreed to take part in the Holocaust, but even then the genocidal policy was directed exclusively against the Jews and the Roma.

In January 1945, these border territories were occupied by the Soviet Red Army. The inhabitants of Orava and Spiš (including the territories "lost" by Czechoslovakia in 1920–1924) created authorities similar to those in the remaining Czechoslovakia (Slovakia ceased to exist as an independent state) and sought to prevent Polish authorities, which were trying to recover the territories they had before World War II, from entering the region. The Czechoslovak President Beneš, however, decided to give the territories regained during World War II (i.e. northern Spiš and northern Orava) to Poland again (the corresponding formal act was signed on 20 May 1945), although a Slovak organised poll in the territories showed support of the population in favour of Czechoslovakia. There were many protests in the form of delegations visiting the president, petitions to Prague and Poland, protests by American Slovaks and protests by the Slovak clergy. Despite these, on 20 May 1945, the pre-World War II borders between Czechoslovakia and Poland were restored.

Aftermath
In 1945 the border between Poland and Czechoslovakia was set at the 1920 line.

Polish troops then occupied northern Orava and Spiš on 17 July 1945. There were armed clashes and fatalities in some villages over the following two years. Slovaks from the Polish part of Spiš settled mainly in the newly created industrial town of Svit near Poprad, Kežmarok, Poprad, and in depopulated German villages (from which the German inhabitants had been previously expelled) near Kežmarok. Slovaks from the Polish part of Orava settled mainly in Czech Silesia, and in depopulated German villages in the Czech lands (Sudetenland).

On 10 March 1947 a treaty guaranteeing basic rights for Slovaks in Poland was signed between Czechoslovakia and Poland. As a result, 41 Slovak basic schools and 1 high school were opened in Poland. Most of these however were shut down in the early sixties because of lack of Slovak teachers.

On June 13, 1958, in Warsaw, the two countries signed a treaty confirming the border at the line of January 1, 1938 (that is, returning to the situation before the Nazi-imposed Munich Agreement transferred territory from Czechoslovakia to Poland), and since then there have been no conflicts regarding this matter.

In March 1975 Czechoslovakia and Poland modified their border along the Dunajec to permit Poland to construct a dam in the Czorsztyn and Niedzica region, southeast of Kraków.

The present era
In 2005, some further minor border adjustments between Poland and Slovakia came into force:

See also
 History of Czechoslovakia
 History of Poland (1918–1939)

References

Further reading
 Gąsiorowski, Zygmunt J. "Polish-Czechoslovak Relations, 1918–1922," Slavonic and East European Review (1956) 35#84 pp. 172–193 in JSTOR
 Gromada, Thaddeus V. "Slovak Nationalists and Poland during the Interwar Period, Jednota Annual Furdek (1979), Vol. 18, pp 241–253.

 Volokitina, T. V. "The Polish—Czechoslovak Conflict over Teschen: The Problem of Resettling Poles and the Position of the USSR," Journal of Communist Studies & Transition Politics (2000) 16#1 pp 46–63
 Woytak, Richard A. "Polish Military Intervention into Czechoslovakian Teschen and Western Slovakia in September–November 1938," East European Quarterly (1972) 6#3 pp 376–387.

History of Silesia
Czechoslovakia–Poland border
Territorial disputes of Poland
Territorial disputes of Czechoslovakia
1918 in Poland
1918 in Czechoslovakia
1919 in Poland
1919 in Czechoslovakia
1958 in Poland
1958 in Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia–Poland relations
Aftermath of World War I in Poland

Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts