Hole was an American alternative rock band formed in Los Angeles, California, in 1989. It was founded by singer Courtney Love and guitarist Eric Erlandson. It had several different bassists and drummers, the most prolific being drummer Patty Schemel, and bassists Kristen Pfaff (d. 1994) and Melissa Auf der Maur. Hole released a total of four studio albums between two incarnations spanning the 1990s and early-2010s and became one of the most commercially successful rock bands in history fronted by a woman.

Influenced by Los Angeles' punk rock scene, the band's debut album, Pretty on the Inside (1991), was produced by Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth, and attracted critical interest from British and American alternative press. Their second album, Live Through This, released in 1994 by DGC Records, combined elements of punk, grunge, and pop rock music, and was widely acclaimed, reaching platinum status within a year of its release. Their third album, Celebrity Skin (1998), marked a notable departure from their earlier punk influences, boasting a more commercially viable sound; the album sold around 2 million copies worldwide, and earned them significant critical acclaim.

They disbanded in 2002, and the members individually pursued other projects. Eight years later in 2010, Hole was reformed by Love with new members, despite Erlandson's claim that the reformation breached a mutual contract he had with her. The reformed band released the album Nobody's Daughter (2010), which was conceived as Love's second solo album. In 2013, Love retired the Hole name, releasing new material and touring as a solo artist.

Hole received several accolades, including four Grammy Award nominations. They were also commercially successful, selling over three million records in the United States alone, and had a far-reaching influence on contemporary female artists. Music and feminist scholars have also recognized the band as the most high-profile musical group of the 1990s to discuss gender issues in their songs, due to Love's aggressive and violent lyrical content, which often addressed themes of body image, abuse, and sexual exploitation.

Background

Hole formed after Eric Erlandson responded to an advertisement placed by Courtney Love in The Recycler in the summer of 1989.  The advertisement read: "I want to start a band. My influences are Big Black, Sonic Youth, and Fleetwood Mac." Erlandson recalled of their first meeting: "We met at this coffee shop, and I saw her and I thought 'Oh, God. Oh, no, What am I getting myself into?' She grabbed me and started talking, and she's like 'I know you're the right one', and I hadn't even opened my mouth yet." In retrospect, Love said that Erlandson "had a Thurston  [Moore] quality about him" and was an "intensely weird, good guitarist". In his 2012 book, Letters to Kurt, Erlandson revealed that he and Love had a sexual relationship during their first year together in the band, which Love also confirmed.

Love had been living a nomadic life prior, immersing herself in numerous music scenes and living in various cities along the West Coast. After unsuccessful attempts at forming bands in San Francisco (where she was briefly a member of Faith No More) and Portland, Love relocated to Los Angeles, where she found work as an actress in two Alex Cox films (Sid and Nancy and Straight to Hell). Erlandson, a Los Angeles native and a graduate of Loyola Marymount University, was working as an accountant for Capitol Records at the time he met Love.

Love originally wanted to name the band Sweet Baby Crystal Powered by God, but opted for the name Hole instead. During an interview on Later... with Jools Holland, she claimed the name for the band was partly inspired by a quote from Euripides' Medea that read: "There is a hole that pierces right through me." She also cited a conversation with her mother as the primary inspiration for the band's name, in which her mother told her that she couldn't live her life "with a hole running through her". Love also acknowledged the "obvious" genital reference in the band's name, alluding to the vagina.

Career

1989–1991: Early work and indie success

In the months preceding the band's full formation, Love and Erlandson would write and record in the evenings at a rehearsal space in Hollywood, loaned to them by the Red Hot Chili Peppers; during the day, Love worked as a stripper to support the band and purchase amplifiers and their backline for live shows. Hole's first official rehearsal took place at Fortress Studios in Hollywood with Love, Erlandson and Lisa Roberts on bass. According to Erlandson, "these two girls show up dressed completely crazy, we set up and they said, "okay, just start playing something." I started playing and they started screaming at the top of their lungs for two or three hours. Crazy lyrics and screaming. I said to myself, "most people would just run away from this really fast. But I heard something in Courtney's voice and lyrics." Initially, the band had no percussion until Love met drummer Caroline Rue at a Gwar and L7 concert in Long Beach. The band subsequently recruited a third guitarist, Mike Geisbrecht. Hole's first show took place at Raji's, a small bar in Hollywood, in October 1989. By early 1990, Geisbrecht and Roberts had both left the band, which led to the recruitment of bassist Jill Emery. According to Caroline Rue, Love fired Roberts after she threatened a Long Beach club owner—the wife of mobster Eddie Nash—with a screwdriver when the club refused to pay them for their performance.

Hole released their no wave-influenced debut single "Retard Girl" in April 1990, and followed it with "Dicknail" in 1991, released on Sympathy for the Record Industry and Sub Pop, respectively. According to disc jockey Rodney Bingenheimer, Love would often approach him at a Denny's on Sunset Blvd. where he went for coffee in the mornings, and convinced him to give "Retard Girl" airtime on his station KROQ-FM.

In 1991, the band signed onto Caroline Records to release their debut album, and Love sought Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth to produce the record. She sent a letter, a Hello Kitty barrette, and copies of the band's early singles to her, mentioning that the band greatly admired Gordon's work and appreciated "the production of the SST record" (either referring to Sonic Youth's album Sister or EVOL). Gordon, impressed by the band's singles, agreed to produce the album, with assistance from Gumball's Don Fleming. The album, titled Pretty on the Inside, was released in September 1991 to positive reception from underground critics, branded "loud, ugly and deliberately shocking", and earned a spot on Spins "20 Best Albums of the Year" list. It was also voted album of the year by New York's Village Voice and peaked at number 59 on the UK albums chart. The album spawned one single, "Teenage Whore", which entered the UK Indie Chart at number one, as well as the band's debut music video for the song "Garbadge Man".

Musically and lyrically, Pretty on the Inside was abrasive and drew on elements of punk rock and sludge metal, characterized by overt noise and feedback, chaotic guitar riffs, contrasting tempos, graphic lyrics, and a variation of Love's vocals ranging from whispers to guttural screaming. In later years, Love referred to the album as "unlistenable", despite its critical accolades and eventual cult following. The band embarked on a European tour in the fall of 1991 supporting Mudhoney. They also toured intermittently in the United States between July and December 1991, playing primarily at hard rock and punk clubs, including CBGB and the Whisky a Go Go, where they opened for the Smashing Pumpkins. In a write-up by the Los Angeles Times on the band's final show of the tour, it was noted that Love smashed the headstock of her Rickenbacker guitar onstage.

In mid-1991, the band began to get the attention of the major labels. The first to court them was Maverick — a Warner subsidiary founded by Madonna and music executive Freddy DeMann. Love, however, was uninterested: "[They] would have me riding on elephants. They don't know what I am. For them, I'm a visual, period." She was also uneasy about sharing the spotlight on a label so heavily associated with one of the industry's most iconic female performers. In a 1992 interview with Vanity Fair, Love described Madonna's interest as "kind of like Dracula's interest in his latest victim".

1992–1999: Mainstream success

1992–1995: Live Through This

Love and Erlandson began writing new material for a second Hole album in 1992, in the midst of Love's pregnancy with Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain. Love's desire to take the band in a more melodic and controlled rock format led bassist Emery to leave the band, and drummer Caroline Rue followed. In an advertisement to find a new bass player, Love wrote: "[I want] someone who can play ok, and stand in front of 30,000 people, take off her shirt and have 'fuck you' written on her tits. If you're not afraid of me and you're not afraid to fucking say it, send a letter. No more pussies, no more fake girls, I want a whore from hell." In April 1992, drummer Patty Schemel was recruited after an audition in Los Angeles, but the band spent the remainder of the year without a bassist; Love, Schemel, and Erlandson began to write material together in the interim.

Hole signed to Geffen's subsidiary DGC label with an eight-album contract in late 1992. In the spring of 1993, the band released their single "Beautiful Son", which was recorded in Seattle with producer Jack Endino as a fill-in bass player; Love also played bass on the single's b-side "20 Years In the Dakota", as well as on their contribution to the 1993 Germs tribute album A Small Circle of Friends. In the spring of 1993, Love and Erlandson recruited Janitor Joe bassist Kristen Pfaff, and the band toured the United Kingdom in the summer of that year (including the Phoenix Festival on July 16), mainly performing material from their upcoming major label debut, Live Through This, which they recorded at Triclops Studios in Marietta, Georgia in October 1993.

Live Through This was released on April 12, 1994, one week after Love's husband, Kurt Cobain, was found dead in his Seattle home. In the wake of Love's family tragedy, Live Through This was a critical success. It spawned several popular singles, including "Doll Parts", "Violet", and "Miss World", going multi-platinum and being hailed "Album of the Year" by Spin magazine. NME called the album "a personal but secretive thrash-pop opera of urban nihilism and passionate dumb thinks", and Rolling Stone said the album "may be the most potent blast of female insurgency ever committed to tape".

Despite the critical praise for Live Through This, rumors circulated insinuating that Cobain had actually written the majority of the album, though the band vehemently denies this. The band's drummer Patty Schemel, who had been friends with Cobain since the late 1980s,  said: "There's that myth that Kurt [Cobain] wrote all our songs— it's not true. Courtney and Eric wrote Live Through This." The band did, however, state that Love convinced Cobain to provide backing vocals on "Asking for It" and "Softer, Softest" while visiting the studio, and music producers and engineers present during the recording sessions noted that Cobain seemed "completely unfamiliar" with the songs. According to Rolling Stone rock journalist Gavin Edwards, Love and Cobain had written songs together in the past, but opted to not release them because it was "a bit too redolent of John and Yoko".

In 1994, bassist Kristen Pfaff went into a drug treatment facility to treat her heroin addiction. Pfaff contemplated leaving the band for health reasons. In June 1994, she was found dead of a heroin overdose in the bathroom of her Seattle home, 2 months after the death of Cobain. The band put their impending tour on hold, pulling out of the upcoming Lollapalooza festival.

Recruiting bassist Melissa Auf der Maur over the summer, they commenced their world tour on August 26 at the Reading Festival in England, giving a performance that John Peel described as "teetering on the edge of chaos". The band embarked on a worldwide tour throughout late 1994 and for the duration of 1995, with appearances at the KROQ Almost Acoustic Christmas, Saturday Night Live, the Big Day Out festival, MTV Unplugged, the 1995 Reading Festival, Lollapalooza 1995, and at the MTV Video Music Awards, where they were nominated for the "Doll Parts" music video.

Love's reckless stage presence during the tour became a media spectacle, drawing press from MTV and other outlets due to her unpredictable performances. While touring with Sonic Youth, Love got into a physical fight with Kathleen Hanna backstage at a 1995 Lollapalooza festival and punched her in the face. In an August 1995 band interview with Rolling Stone, drummer Patty Schemel formally came out as a lesbian, saying: "It's important. I'm not out there with that fucking pink flag or anything, but it's good for other people who live somewhere else in some small town who feel freaky about being gay to know that there's other people who are and that it's okay." In a retrospective interview, Schemel said:

Toward the end of the tour, the band released their first EP, titled Ask for It, in September 1995; it featured 1991 Peel session recordings, as well as covers of songs by Wipers and The Velvet Underground. The band performed its last show of the year on September 3, 1995, at the Molson Polar Beach Party in Tuktoyaktuk, Northwest Territories, Canada. The concert was a promotional event for the Molson Brewery, and also featured performances by Metallica, Veruca Salt, and Moist.

1996–1999: Celebrity Skin
In 1996, the band recorded and released a cover of Fleetwood Mac's "Gold Dust Woman" for The Crow: City of Angels (1996) soundtrack, the band's first studio song to feature Melissa Auf der Maur on bass, and produced by Ric Ocasek. Hole released two retrospective albums during this time: firstly, their second  EP, titled The First Session (1997), which consisted of a complete version of the band's first recording session at Rudy's Rising Star in Los Angeles in March 1990, some of which had been bootlegged widely years prior. It featured the group's first ever recorded track, "Turpentine", which had previously been unreleased to the public. The same year, the band released their first compilation album, My Body, The Hand Grenade (1997), featuring early singles, b-sides and recent live tracks.

In 1997, the band entered Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles after attempts to write new material in Miami, New Orleans, London, and New York. Recorded over a ten-month period, Hole's third studio album, Celebrity Skin (1998), adopted a complete new sound for the band, incorporating elements of power pop, and had Love drawing influences from Fleetwood Mac and My Bloody Valentine. According to Erlandson, Love was more focused on song-writing and singing than playing guitar on the record; Love stated that her aim for the album was to "deconstruct the California sound" in the L.A. tradition of bands like The Doors, The Beach Boys and The Byrds. In addition to Hole, Smashing Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan entered the studio and helped perfect five of the album's twelve songs. Love, who felt she was in a creative slump, likened Corgan's presence in the studio to "a math teacher who wouldn't give you the answers but was making you solve the problems yourself".

Upon the album's release, Corgan told CNN that he should have "been given credit [for writing the entire album]". Erlandson responded to Corgan's statements in a Rolling Stone interview, commenting: "We were working on all the stuff that Courtney and I had already written. Billy really facilitated things, in a way ... I would bring in the music, Courtney would start coming up with lyrics right away, and [Billy] would help map it all out." Erlandson also stated: "Courtney writes all her own lyrics. Nobody else is writing those lyrics and nobody ever has." One journalist took note of the controversy when reviewing the album, stating: "Back in 1994, the acclaim for Live Through This was undercut by whispers that Love's late husband wrote the album. Combine those conspiracy theories with the unfounded but persistent rumor that Cobain was actually murdered, and it is no surprise that, in the song 'Celebrity Skin', Love calls herself a walking study in demonology."

Although Schemel is listed as drummer in the liner notes of the record, her drumming does not actually appear on the record; she was replaced by session drummer Deen Castronovo, under pressure from producer Michael Beinhorn. After the replacement, Schemel quit the band. Though Love and Erlandson had authorized Schemel's replacement, both expressed regret in retrospect, and Love stated in 2011 that Beinhorn was notorious for replacing drummers on records, and referred to him as "a Nazi". After Schemel's departure, the band hired drummer Samantha Maloney for their upcoming tours and music videos.

Celebrity Skin was a critical success with strong sales and successful singles, including the title track, "Celebrity Skin", "Malibu", and "Awful". The album received largely positive reviews, with praise from music periodicals such as Rolling Stone, NME, and Blender, as well as a four-star review from the Los Angeles Times, calling it a "wild emotional ride" sure to be "one of the most dissected and debated collections of the year". The album peaked at number 9 on the Billboard 200, and garnered the band its first and only number 1 single, "Celebrity Skin", which topped the Modern Rock Tracks. "Malibu", released December 29, 1998, was the album's second single; it charted at number 3 on the Modern Rock Tracks.

1999–2002: Final tour and disbandment
In the winter of 1998–99, Hole went on tour to promote Celebrity Skin, joining Marilyn Manson, who was promoting his album, Mechanical Animals (1998) on the Beautiful Monsters Tour. The tour turned into a publicity magnet, and Hole dropped out of the tour nine dates in, due to both the majority of the fans being Manson's, and the 50/50 financial arrangement between the groups, with Hole's production costs being disproportionately less than Manson's. Manson and Love often mocked one another onstage, and Love attacked Manson's stage antics, which included tearing up a Bible during performances: "You know, whenever somebody rips up the Bible in front of 40,000 people, I think it's a big deal", she said during a 1999 interview. Hole officially announced that they would be dropping out of the tour after a poorly received concert at the Rose Garden Arena in Portland, Oregon, which ended with Manson fans booing the band.

The band continued to book shows and headline festivals after dropping off Manson's tour, and according to Auf der Maur, it was a "daily event" for Love to invite audience members onstage to sing with her for the last song at nearly every concert performance. On June 17, 1999, during Hole's set at the Hultsfred Festival in Sweden, a 19-year-old girl died after being crushed by the mosh pit behind the mixing board. Hole played its final show at Thunderbird Stadium in Vancouver on July 14, 1999.

In October 1999, Auf der Maur quit Hole and went on to become a touring bassist for The Smashing Pumpkins. Samantha Maloney also quit a few months later. The band's final release was a single for the movie Any Given Sunday (1999). "Be a Man", released in March 2000, was an outtake from the Celebrity Skin sessions. In April 2002, Love called The Howard Stern Show and said she had written nine songs with songwriter Linda Perry, but less than a month later Love and Erlandson officially disbanded Hole via a message posted on the band's website. After the split, the four musicians each took on projects of their own: Erlandson continued to work as a producer and session musician, eventually forming the experimental group RRIICCEE with controversial artist Vincent Gallo. Love began a solo career, releasing her debut, America's Sweetheart, in 2004, featuring several of the songs written with Perry. Melissa Auf der Maur also embarked on a solo career, and released her self-titled debut album in 2004, which included Erlandson performing lead guitar on the track, "Would If I Could". Her second album, Out of Our Minds, was released in March 2010. Hole's body of work from its inception to its first disbandment includes thirteen singles, three LPs, three EPs, and one compilation album.

2009–2013: Reformation
On June 17, 2009, seven years after Hole's disbandment, NME reported that Love was re-forming the band with guitarist Micko Larkin for an upcoming album, on which Melissa Auf der Maur would be providing backup vocals. Days later, Melissa Auf der Maur stated in an interview that she was unaware of any reunion, but said Love had asked her to contribute harmonies to an upcoming album. In response, Eric Erlandson stated in an interview with Spin magazine that a reunion could not take place without his involvement, citing that he and Love "have a contract".

Hole launched a new website and various social media pages on January 1, 2010, and performed on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross in February. On February 17, 2010, they played a full set at the O2 Shepherd's Bush Empire, with support from Little Fish. On March 16, the first Hole single in ten years was released, titled "Skinny Little Bitch"; it peaked at No. 29 on the Billboard Rock Chart, and at No. 21 on the Alternative Singles chart. The track also received airplay on Active rock and alternative radio.

Nobody's Daughter was released on April 26, 2010, worldwide on Mercury Records, and was received moderately well by music critics. Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars, but noted "[while Love] was an absolute monster vocalist in the nineties, the greatest era ever for rock singers ... She doesn't have that power in her lungs anymore – barely a trace. But at least she remembers, and that means something in itself." The magazine also referred to the album as "not a true success", but a "noble effort". Love's voice, which had become noticeably raspier, was compared to the likes of Bob Dylan. NME gave the album a 6/10 rating, and Robert Christgau rated it an "A−", saying, "Thing is, I can use some new punk rage in my life, and unless you're a fan of Goldman Sachs and BP Petroleum, so can you. What's more, better it come from a 45-year-old woman who knows how to throw her weight around than from the zitty newbies and tattooed road dogs who churn most of it out these days. I know—for her, BP Petroleum is just something else to pretend about. But the emotion fueling her pretense is cathartic nevertheless." In support of the release, Hole toured extensively between 2010 and 2012 throughout North America and Europe, as well as performing in Russia and Brazil.

On March 28, 2011, Love, Erlandson, Patty Schemel and Auf der Maur appeared at the New York screening of Schemel's documentary Hit So Hard: The Life and Near-Death Story of Patty Schemel at the Museum of Modern Art. The appearance was the first time in thirteen years that all four members appeared together in public. Schemel had expressed a desire to record with Love, Erlandson and Auf der Maur stating "nothing has been discussed, but I have a feeling." After the screening, the four took part in a Q&A session where Love stated: "For me, as much as I love playing with Patty – and I would play with her in five seconds again, and everyone onstage – if it's not moving forward, I don't wanna do it. That's just my thing. There's rumblings; there's always bloody rumblings. But if it's not miserable and it's going forward and I'm happy with it ... that's all I have to say about that question."

In May 2011, a music video for "Samantha" was shot in Istanbul, although it remained officially unreleased. In September 2011, Scott Lipps joined the band, replacing drummer Stu Fisher. In April 2012, Love, Erlandson, Auf der Maur and Schemel reunited at the Public Assembly in New York for a two-song set, including "Miss World" and the Wipers' "Over the Edge", at an after-party for the Hit So Hard documentary. The performance marked the first time the four members performed together since 1998 after Schemel's departure and the 2002 breakup of the band.

On December 29, 2012, Love performed a solo acoustic set in New York City, and in January 2013, performed at the Sundance Film Festival under her own name. She booked further performances across North America as a solo act, with Larkin, bassist Shawn Dailey, and Lipps as her backing band.

2014–2016: Second disbandment

On December 28, 2013, Love posted two photos of herself with Erlandson on Facebook and Twitter, with a caption reading: "And this just happened ... 2014 going to be a very interesting year." Love also tagged Melissa Auf der Maur as well as Hole's former manager, Peter Mensch, in the post, alluding to a reconciliation with Erlandson and possible reunion in 2014.

On April 2, 2014, Rolling Stone reported that the Celebrity Skin line-up of the band had reunited (with Patty Schemel in lieu of Samantha Maloney). Rolling Stone erroneously reported Love's upcoming solo single, "Wedding Day" to be a product of this reunion. Shortly after, Love curtailed her statement, saying: "We may have made out but there is no talk of marriage. It's very frail, nothing might happen, and now the band are all flipping out on me." On May 1, in an interview with Pitchfork, Love discussed the possibility of a reunion, and also stated it had been "a mistake" releasing Nobody's Daughter as a Hole record in 2010. "Eric was right—I kind of cheapened the name, even though I'm legally allowed to use it. I should save 'Hole' for the lineup everybody wants to see and had the balls to put Nobody's Daughter under my own name." Love further discussed the possibility of reuniting the band, saying:

No one's been dormant. Patty teaches drumming and drums in three indie bands. Melissa has her metal-nerd thing going on—her dream is to play Castle Donington with Dokken. Eric hasn't flipped—I jammed with him, he's still doing his Thurston [Moore]-crazy tunings, still corresponding with Kevin Shields. We all get along great. There are bands who reunite and hate each others' guts.

2019–present: Possible reformation and attempted reunions
In October 2019, Hole rehearsed at the Hollywood Walk of Fame, in Los Angeles. Nothing transpired after the event, since Love had relocated to the United Kingdom afterwards. In March 2020, Love and Auf Der Maur planned a performance at the "Bans Off My Body" event, which was eventually canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Artistry

Composition
Initially, Hole drew inspiration from no wave and experimental bands, which is evident in their earliest recordings, specifically "Retard Girl", but frontwoman Love also drew from a variety of influences. Love cited post-punk group Echo & the Bunnymen and classic rock such as Neil Young and Fleetwood Mac. The band's first album, Pretty on the Inside, was heavily influenced by noise and punk rock, using discordant melodies, distortion, and feedback, with Love's vocals ranging from whispers to guttural screams. Love described the band's earliest songwriting as being based on "really crazy Sonic Youth tunings". Nonetheless, Love claimed to have aimed for a pop sound early on: "There's a part of me that wants to have a grindcore band and another that wants to have a Raspberries-type pop band", she told Flipside magazine in 1991. Both Love and Erlandson were fans of the notorious LA punk band the Germs. In a 1996 interview for a Germs tribute documentary, Erlandson said: "I think every band is based on one song, and our band was based on "Forming" ... Courtney brought it into rehearsal, and she knew, like, three chords and it was the only punk rock song we could play."

The band's second album Live Through This, captured a less abrasive sound, while maintaining the group's original punk roots. "I want this record to be shocking to the people who don't think we have a soft edge, and at the same time, [to know] that we haven't lost our very, very hard edge", Love told VH1 in 1994. The group's third album, Celebrity Skin, incorporated power pop into their hard rock sound, and was heavily inspired by California bands; Love was also influenced by Fleetwood Mac and My Bloody Valentine while writing the album. The group's 2010 release, Nobody's Daughter, featured a more folk rock-oriented sound, utilizing acoustic guitar and softer melodies.

The group's chord progressions by and large drew on elements of punk music, which Love described as "grungey", although not necessarily grunge. Critics described their song style as "deceptively wispy and strummy", combined with "gunshot guitar choruses". Although the group's sound changed over the course of their career, the dynamic between beauty and ugliness has often been noted, particularly due to the layering of harsh and abrasive riffs which often bury more sophisticated arrangements.

Lyrical content
In a 1991 interview, Love stated that lyrics were "the most important" element of songwriting for her. Her lyrics explored a variety of themes throughout Hole's career, including body image, rape, child abuse, addiction, celebrity, suicide, elitism, and inferiority complex; all of which were addressed mainly from a female, and often feminist standpoint. This underlying feminism in Love's lyrics often led the public and critics to mistakenly associate her with the riot grrrl movement, of which Love was highly critical.

In a 1991 interview with Everett True, Love said: "I try to place [beautiful imagery] next to fucked up imagery, because that's how I view things ... I sometimes feel that no one's taken the time to write about certain things in rock, that there's a certain female point of view that's never been given space." Charles Cross has referred to her lyrics on Live Through This as being "true extensions of her diary", and she has admitted that a great deal of the lyrics from Pretty on the Inside were excisions from her journals.

Throughout Hole's career, Love's lyrics were often influenced by literature: The title of the band's second album Live Through This, for example (as well as lyrics from the track "Asking for It") is directly drawn from Gone With the Wind; and the group's single "Celebrity Skin"  (the title track to their 1998 album), contains quotes from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice and  Dante Rossetti's poem A Superscription. Love had had a minor background in literature, having briefly studied English literature in her early twenties.

Performances
Throughout the duration of the 1990s, the band received widespread media coverage due to Love's often rambunctious and unpredictable behavior onstage. The band often destroyed equipment and guitars at the end of concerts, and Love would ramble between songs, bring fans onstage, and stage dive, sometimes returning with her clothes torn off of her or sustaining injuries. In a 1995 New York magazine article, journalist John Homans addressed Love's frequent stage diving during Hole's concerts:

The most shocking, frightening, and fascinating image in rock in the last few years is Courtney Love's stage dive ... When some male performers do it, it looks like muscular, frat-boy fun, controlled aggression ... For obvious reasons, the practice was strictly no-girls-allowed, but Love, typically, decided that she wanted to do it, too. Groped, ravaged, she compared the experience to being raped, wrote a song about it, and now does it just about every show.

Nina Gordon of Veruca Salt, who toured with Hole in 1995, recalled Love's erratic behavior onstage, saying "She would just go off and [the rest of the band] would just kind of stand there." The majority of Love's chaotic behavior onstage was a result of heavy drug use at the time, which she admitted: "I was completely high on dope; I cannot remember much about it." She later criticized her behavior during that time, saying: "I [saw] pictures of how I looked. It's disgusting. I'm ashamed. There's death and there's disease and there's misery and there's giving up your soul ... The human spirit mixed with certain powders is not the person, it's [a] demonic presence."

Love's stage attire also garnered notoriety, influenced in part by Carroll Baker's wardrobe in the film Baby Doll (1956). The style was later dubbed "kinderwhore" by the media, and consisted of babydoll dresses, slips and nightgowns, and smeared makeup. Kurt Loder likened her onstage attire to a "debauched ragdoll", and John Peel noted in his review of the band's 1994 Reading Festival performance, that "[Love], swaying wildly and with lipstick smeared on her face, hands and, I think, her back, as well as on the collar of her dress, ... would have drawn whistles of astonishment in Bedlam. The band teetered on the edge of chaos, generating a tension which I cannot remember having felt before from any stage." Rolling Stone referred to the style as "a slightly more politically charged version of grunge; apathy turned into ruinous angst, which soon became high fashion's favorite pose."

The band's set lists for live shows were often loose, featuring improvisational jams and rough performances of unreleased songs. By 1998, their live performances had become less aggressive and more restrained, although Love continued to bring fans onstage, and would often go into the crowd while singing.

Legacy
Hole was one of the most commercially successful female-fronted alternative rock bands in history, selling over 3 million records in the United States between 1991 and 2010. In spite of Love's often polarizing reputation in the media, Hole received consistent critical praise for their output, and was often noted for the predominant feminist commentary found in Love's lyrics, which scholars have credited as "articulating a third-wave feminist consciousness". Love's subversive onstage persona and public image coincided with the band's songs, which expressed "pain, sorrow, and anger, but [an] underlying message of survival, particularly survival in the face of overwhelming circumstances". Music journalist Maria Raha expressed a similar sentiment in regard to the band's significance to third-wave feminism, stating, "Whether you love Courtney [Love] or hate her, Hole was the highest-profile female-fronted band of the '90s to openly and directly sing about feminism."

While Rolling Stone compared the effect of Love's marriage to Cobain on the band to that of John Lennon and Yoko Ono, they noted that "Love's confrontational stage presence, as well as her gut-wrenching vocals and powerful punk-pop songcraft, made her an alternative-rock star in her own right." Author Nick Wise made a similar comparison in discussion of the band's public image, stating, "Not since Yoko Ono's marriage to John Lennon has a woman's personal life and exploits within the rock arena been so analyzed and dissected."

The band has been cited as a major influence on several contemporary artists, including indie singer-songwriter Scout Niblett, Brody Dalle (of The Distillers and Spinnerette), Sky Ferreira, Lana Del Rey, Tove Lo, Tegan and Sara, Annie Hardy (of Giant Drag), Victoria Legrand (of Beach House), and the British rock band Nine Black Alps. The band ranked at number 77 on VH1's 100 Greatest Hard Rock Artists list.

Materials loss
In 2008 a fire swept through Universal Studios Hollywood destroying buildings belonging to Universal Music Group. News reports said that many artists including Hole had lost recordings in the fire. Love and the band were one of the artists suing UMG for the loss; however, on August 16, 2019, the band was removed from that lawsuit as it was amended "based on UMG's representations that none of Hole's original masters were destroyed (subject to confirmation)".

Members

Timeline

Discography

 Pretty on the Inside (1991)
 Live Through This (1994)
 Celebrity Skin (1998)
 Nobody's Daughter (2010)

Accolades
{| class="wikitable unsortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Award
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Nominated work(s)
! scope="col" | Result
! scope="col" class="unsortable"|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan=4|Grammy Awards
| rowspan=3|1999
| Best Rock Album
| Celebrity Skin
|
|rowspan=3 style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| Best Rock Song
| rowspan=2|"Celebrity Skin"
|
|-
|rowspan=2|Best Rock Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group
|
|-
| 2000
| "Malibu"
|
|style="text-align:center;"|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan=2|MTV Video Music Awards
| 1995
| Best Alternative Video
| "Doll Parts"
|
|style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| 1999
| Best Cinematography
| "Malibu"
|
|style="text-align:center;"|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan=3|NME Awards
| rowspan=3|1999
| Best Band
| Hole
|
|rowspan=3|
|-
| Best Album
| Celebrity Skin
|
|-
| Best Single
| "Celebrity Skin"
|
|-
! scope="row"|Spin Readers' Poll Awards
| 1994
| Album of the Year
| Live Through This
|
|style="text-align:center;"|

References

Sources

External links

 Hole at Billboard

1989 establishments in California
2002 disestablishments in California
2009 establishments in California
2012 disestablishments in California
Alternative rock groups from California
American noise rock music groups
Punk rock groups from California
Musical groups established in 1989
Musical groups disestablished in 2002
Musical groups reestablished in 2009
Musical groups disestablished in 2012
Sympathy for the Record Industry artists
Caroline Records artists
DGC Records artists
Geffen Records artists
Sub Pop artists
Mercury Records artists
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Musical quartets from California
Feminist musicians
Third-wave feminism
Grunge musical groups
Courtney Love
Articles which contain graphical timelines
20th-century American guitarists
City Slang artists
Female-fronted musical groups

Hole (band)


A steam locomotive is a steam powered railway locomotive. It was used a lot between about 1830 and 1970. Afterwards, diesel and electric locomotives were used more often. The first steam locomotive was made by Richard Trevithick for a railway used for moving iron at an Ironworks in Wales. A steam locomotive works by burning a fuel like coal in a special space called a firebox. This produces hot gases that rise and go through tubes in a boiler - a large space with water in it. This heats the water, producing steam. The steam is then taken through another tube to a cylinder. The steam then pushes the piston which in turn pushes a metal rod that is connected to the wheels, making the locomotive move. The steam then rises out through the chimney.

Steam locomotives are still today used in many developing countries where the railways have not yet been electrified.

Other websites

GKB 671:The longest serving steam locomotive in the world (since 1860)
Database of surviving steam locomotives in North America
Information on North American steam railroads in operation
UK heritage railways and preserved locomotives database
Pages for the British project to build a modern steam locomotive. The Advanced Steam Locomotive. (5AT)
International Steam Locomotives
Tracks of Time

Locomotives

Steam locomotive


South Kensington is in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in Lunnon. It is a biggit-up aurie 2.4 mile (3.9 km) wast-sooth-wast o Charing Cross.

It is haurd tae define boondars for South Kensington, but a common definition is the commercial aurie aroond the tube station an the adjacent gairden squares an streets (such as Thurloe Square, opposite the Victoria and Albert Museum).  The smawer neebourheid aroond Gloucester Road tube station can be considered a pairt an aw, an Albertopolis aroond Exhibition Road, which includes the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum an Baden-Powell House. Ither institutions such as the Royal Albert Hall, Imperial College London, the Royal Geographical Society, the Royal College of Art, the Royal College of Music are athin the Ceety o Wastmeenster, but considered tae be in Sooth Kensington. Awtho the postcode SW7 mainly covers South Kensington, some pairts o Knightsbridge are covered an aw.

Neebourin the equally affluent centres o Knightsbridge, Chelsea an Kensington, South Kensington covers some o the maist exclusive real estate in the warld.  It is hame tae lairge nummers o French expatriates (mainly employed in the Ceety, the financial centre), but Spainyie, Italian, American, an Middle-Eastren ceetizens an aw. A significant French presence is evidencit bi the location o the consulate, the Lycée Français Charles de Gaulle - a lairge French seicontar schuil opposite the Natural History Museum - an the French Institute, hame tae a French cinema. Thare are several French beukshops an cafes in the aurie.

The nearest Tube stations are South Kensington an Gloucester Road.

History

The aurie wis lairgely undeveloped till the mid-19t century, bein a agricultural aurie supplyin Lunnon wi fruit an vegetables. Follaein the 1851 Great Exhibition in Hyde Park, an 87-acre (352,000 m²) aurie aroond wha is nou Exhibition Road wis purchased bi the commissioners o the exhibition, in order tae creaut a hame for institutions dedicatit tae the airts an sciences, resultin in the foondation o the museums an varsity here. Adjacent landawners began tae develop thair laund in the 1860s as a result o the creation o new roads an a boom in the development o auries aroond Lunnon, an the absorption o South Kensington intae Lunnon wis sealed bi the arrival o the Underground at Gloucester Road an South Kensington in 1868, linkin the aurie directly tae the main railwey termini an tae the poleetical, commercial an financial herts o the ceety in Wastmeenster, the West End an the Ceety o Lunnon.

Nearbi places
Brompton
Chelsea
Earls Court
Kensington
Knightsbridge
West Kensington

Freemit airtins

 South Kensington Wab steid
 Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea Wab steid
 City of Westminster Wab steid
 Exploring South Kensington  Architecture and history

Auries o Lunnon
Destricts o the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea

South Kensington


During the early modern period, the Holy Roman Empire was divided into imperial circles (, ; singular: , ), administrative groupings whose primary purposes were the organization of common defensive structure and the collection of imperial taxes. They were also used as a means of organization within the Imperial Diet and the Imperial Chamber Court. Each circle had a circle diet, although not every member of the circle diet would hold membership of the Imperial Diet as well.

Six imperial circles were introduced at the Diet of Augsburg in 1500. In 1512, three more circles were added, and the large Saxon Circle was split into two, so that from 1512 until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in the Napoleonic era, there were ten imperial circles. The Crown of Bohemia, the Swiss Confederacy and Italy remained unencircled, as did various minor territories which held imperial immediacy.

Formation
Initially the 1500 Diet of Augsburg set up six imperial circles as part of the Imperial Reform:
 the Bavarian Circle
 the Franconian Circle
 the Saxon Circle
 the Swabian Circle
 the Upper Rhenish Circle
 the Lower Rhenish-Westphalian Circle

Originally, the territories held by the Habsburg dynasty and the electors remained unencircled. In 1512, the Diet at Trier and Cologne organized these lands into three more circles:
 the Austrian Circle, including the Habsburg territories inherited by Maximilian I
 the Burgundian Circle, including the patrimony of Maximilian's late wife, Mary of Burgundy
 the Electoral Rhenish Circle, including the ecclesiastical Electorates of Mainz, Cologne and Trier, and the secular Electorate of the Palatinate.
Also, the Saxon Circle was divided into:
 the Lower Saxon Circle
 the Upper Saxon Circle, including the Electorates of Saxony and Brandenburg

Although the empire lost several western territories after the secession of the Seven United Netherlands in 1581 and during the French annexations of the 1679 Peace of Nijmegen, the ten circles remained largely unchanged until the early 1790s, when the French Revolutionary Wars brought about significant changes to the political map of Europe.

Some of the circles were de facto controlled by a powerful noble house. The Austrian Circle corresponded almost exactly with the Habsburg hereditary lands. The Burgundian Circle encompassed the territory controlled by the Spanish Habsburgs (Franche-Comte and the Habsburg Netherlands). The Bavarian Circle mostly consisted of the Wittelsbach Duchy of Bavaria plus its satellites. The Upper Saxon Circle was dominated by the electorates of Saxony (plus its satellite Ernestine duchies) and Brandenburg.

Unencircled territories

A number of imperial territories remained unencircled, notably the lands of the Bohemian crown, the Old Swiss Confederacy and most of the Italian territories.
Besides these, there were also a considerable number of minor territories which retained imperial immediacy, such as individual Imperial Villages, and the lands held by individual Imperial Knights.

References

 Winfried Dotzauer: Die deutschen Reichskreise in der Verfassung des alten Reiches und ihr Eigenleben. 1500–1806. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1989,
 Peter Claus Hartmann (ed.): Regionen in der frühen Neuzeit. Reichskreise im deutschen Raum, Provinzen in Frankreich, Regionen unter polnischer Oberhoheit. Ein Vergleich ihrer Strukturen, Funktionen und ihrer Bedeutung. (= Zeitschrift für historische Forschung; Beiheft 17). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 1994, .

Literature
Contemporary (1500–1806) literature and source material:
 Wolfgang Wüst (ed.): Die "gute" Policey im Reichskreis. Zur frühmodernen Normensetzung in den Kernregionen des Alten Reiches, edition of primary sources in four volumes, vol. 1: Der Schwäbische Reichskreis, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Bayerisch-Schwabens, Berlin 2001; vol. 2: Der Fränkische Reichskreis, Berlin 2003; vol. 3: Der Bayerische Reichskreis und die Oberpfalz, Berlin 2004; vol.: Die lokale Policey: Normensetzung und Ordnungspolitik auf dem Lande. Ein Quellenwerk, Berlin 2008.
Hernach volgend die Zehen Krayß, 1532.
 Johannes Alhusius: Politica methodice digesta. 3.Aufl., Herborn 1614.
 Martin Zeiller: Von den zehn Kreisen. 1660, 1694.
 Johann Samuel Tromsdorff: Accurate neue und alte Geographie von ganz Teutschland. Frankfurt 1711 (pp. 128ff).
"Creiß" in:  Zedler, Grosses vollständiges Universallexikon aller Wissenschaften und Künste, vol. 6 (Ci – Cz), 1733.

External links
 .

Types of administrative division
States and territories established in 1500
1500s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1500 establishments in Europe
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor

Imperial circle


Erotic photography is a style of photography, between nude photography and pornography.  Erotic photography  wants to show the more or less naked human body in a sexual context.  It can be difficult to make a difference between erotic photography and pornography - in general erotic photography wants to arouse or stimulate the viewer.

This stimulation is generally not done by explicitly showing people having sex.  Instead, the models in the photographs will try to create a sexual impression. For example, female models may try to appear alluring.  Male models will try to convey sexual arousal, though not through a full erection.  In general, erotic photography only suggests, and has a higher artistic value than pornography.

Photography

Erotic photography


The "three angels' messages" is an interpretation of the messages given by three angels in Revelation . The Seventh-day Adventist church teaches that these messages are given to prepare the world for the second coming of Jesus Christ, and sees them as a central part of its own mission.

Messages

Angel One (Rev 14:6–7): "Fear God and give him glory, because the hour of his judgment has come. Worship him who made the heavens, the earth, the sea and the springs of water."
Angel Two (Rev 14:8): "Fallen! Fallen is Babylon the Great, which made all the nations drink the maddening wine of her adulteries."
Angel Three (Rev 14:9–11): "If anyone worships the beast and its image and receives its mark on their forehead or on their hand, they, too, will drink the wine of God's fury, which has been poured full strength into the cup of his wrath. They will be tormented with burning sulfur in the presence of the holy angels and of the Lamb. And the smoke of their torment will rise for ever and ever. There will be no rest day or night for those who worship the beast and its image, or for anyone who receives the mark of its name." (all quotes are NIV)

The Three Angels' messages of Revelation 14 are highly significant to the Seventh-day Adventist Church. In the SDA Church's official mission statement, the Three Angels' Messages are prominent:
The mission of the Seventh-day Adventist Church is to proclaim to all peoples the everlasting gospel in the context of the Three Angels' messages of Revelation 14:6–12.

Adventist interpretations

The Seventh-day Adventist Church has traditionally believed that it is the remnant church of Bible prophecy, and that its mission is to proclaim the three angels' messages which it uses in its signs and logos.

Official views
 "The universal church is composed of all who truly believe in Christ, but in the last days, a time of widespread apostasy, a remnant has been called out to keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus. This remnant announces the arrival of the judgment hour, proclaims salvation through Christ, and heralds the approach of His second advent. This proclamation is symbolized by the three angels of Revelation 14; it coincides with the work of judgment in heaven and results in a work of repentance and reform on earth. Every believer is called to have a personal part in this worldwide witness."
Fundamental Beliefs of the Seventh-day Adventist Church
"In accordance with God's uniform dealing with mankind, warning them of coming events that will vitally affect their destiny, He has sent forth a proclamation of the approaching return of Christ. This preparatory message is symbolized by the three angels' messages of Revelation 14, and meets its fulfillment in the great Second Advent Movement today. This has brought forth the remnant, or Seventh-day Adventist Church, keeping the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus."
Seventh-day Adventist Church Manual

The Mission Statement of the church declares:
"The mission of the Seventh-day Adventist Church is to proclaim to all peoples the everlasting gospel of God's love in the context of the three angels' messages of Revelation 14:6–12, and as revealed in the life, death, resurrection, and high priestly ministry of Jesus Christ, leading them to accept Jesus as personal Saviour and Lord and to unite with His remnant church; and to nurture believers as disciples in preparation for His soon return."

The image of three angels circling a globe is the church's former symbol. The current logo of the Seventh-day Adventist church has three flames encircling the globe, representing the Holy Spirit; the threefold flame is also a symbol of the three angels.

Millerite interpretations
According to the understanding of the Adventist pioneers, the first angel's message occurred during the two decades prior to the spring of 1844. The message of the imminent second coming of Jesus preached by the Millerite movement then fulfilled the prophecy of the first angel's message.

The second angel's message was then preached during the (northern-hemisphere) summer of 1844, which was preceded by a significant number of Millerites leaving the movement, and resulted in large numbers of Christians leaving their churches ("Babylon") and joining the Advent movement.

The third angel's message is based on the idea that the "Seal of God" (Revelation 7:2) is the Sabbath commandment of the decalogue.  Therefore, the "mark of the beast" is the opposite, or the keeping of Sunday as the Sabbath.  Hence the close of the message, "here are they that keep the commandments of God."  It is a point of emphasis among Adventists that the mark of the beast has not yet been given out.

(The Millerites generally interpreted "Babylon" in the Book of Revelation as the papacy, up through summer 1843. This position aligned with that of most Protestants. Millerite preacher Charles Fitch expanded the idea of "Babylon" to include all Catholics and Protestants who rejected the Adventist teaching. His message was "Come out of her, my people" - based on Revelation 18:2,4 (see also 14:8). This had followed a shift in 1843 when the Millerites received more ridicule, and were increasingly disfellowshipped by their churches. The Millerites came to see themselves as a separate group, increasingly so as many of them experienced disfellowshipping.

Most of the eastern leaders did not initially accept Fitch's pronouncements, yet many laypeople did. Eventually and reluctantly Joshua V. Himes came to advocate Fitch's interpretation of the message in autumn 1844. William Miller himself never affirmed it, despite being disfellowshipped from his church.)

Standard view
When Jesus did not return in 1844 as expected by the Millerite movement, the resulting Seventh-day Adventist movement came to see itself as the remnant of God and believed that their mission was to preach the three angels' messages again.

The first angel's message is the "everlasting gospel", namely the "good news of God's infinite love". It is also a warning that the investigative judgment has begun and a call to worship the Creator of the world, specifically in the keeping of the Sabbath commandment. "The first angel's message ... calls for the restoration of true worship by presenting before the world Christ the Creator and Lord of the Bible Sabbath [which is] the sign of God's Creation."

The second angel's message is a call to those in Babylon to "depart from her" (cf. Revelation 18:4). Adventists traditionally believe that Babylon represents the apostate church, which they identify as Roman Catholicism as well as Protestants who have rejected the truth. "This prophecy of Babylon's fall especially finds its fulfillment in the departure of Protestantism at large from the purity and simplicity of the everlasting gospel of righteousness by faith that once so powerfully impelled the Reformation." This explains why Adventists often aim their evangelism at Christians in other churches as well as non-Christians. "The message of the fall of Babylon ... calls on those of God's people who are still in the various religious bodies comprising Babylon to separate from them." However, Adventists have also made it clear that there are currently many true believers in "Babylon" who worship God sincerely, including Roman Catholics.

Theologian Ángel Manuel Rodríguez explains the mission of the remnant in terms of the second angel's message: "The end-time remnant is described in Revelation as having a God-given mission and a particular message to the whole world. They are to call the people of God to come out of Babylon, that is to say, to join the historical, faithful and visible end-time remnant of God.'

The third angel's message is a solemn warning against observance of Sunday as a sacred day, which Adventists have historically interpreted as the mark of the beast. "Those who reject God's memorial of creatorship—the Bible Sabbath—choosing to worship and honor Sunday in the full knowledge that it is not God's appointed day of worship, will receive the 'mark of the beast.'" Adventists believe that the mark of the beast will only be received at a future date, when every person on earth is made aware of their obligation to keep the Sabbath; in other words, Christians who currently worship on Sunday do not have the mark.

Alternate view
Some in the more liberal wing, Progressive Adventists, typically reject the claim that the three angels' messages find a fulfillment in the Seventh-day Adventist Church.

Mainstream Adventists believe that God has led the Christian movements in history, but progressives tend to not hold to that view or at all.

Progressive Adventists such as Steve Daily have challenged the traditional understanding of the Remnant, preferring to widen the concept to include Christians in non-Adventist churches.

Culture
The concept appears in the title of the Three Angels Broadcasting Network (3ABN).

Lutheran interpretation
Siebert Becker of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod explained that some have held the angel in verse 6 to be Martin Luther. This is an example of historicism. Becker preferred the idealistic interpretation that the angel's work was not limited "to one specific time and one specific event." This is in contrast to P. E. Kretzmann, who wrote:

Kretzmann does not give a name to the other two angels.

See also

 Seventh-day Adventist eschatology
 The Pillars of Adventism
 History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church
 List of angels in theology
 Prophecy in the Seventh-day Adventist Church
 Investigative judgment
 Revelation 14

References

Further reading
 "The Remnant and the Three Angels' Messages" by Hans LaRondelle in Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist Theology, vol. 12 of the Seventh-day Adventist Commentary Reference Series

External links
"Prophetic Basis of Adventism " by Hans Karl LaRondelle. Adventist Review, June 1 – July 20, 1989
3ABN official website

Book of Revelation
Seventh-day Adventist theology
Angels in Christianity

Three Angels' Messages


A cake is a type of (usually) sweet dessert which is baked. Originally, it was a bread-like food, but no longer. Cakes are often made to celebrate special occasions like birthdays or weddings. There are many kinds of cakes. It can be baked in an oven. Some savory cakes are made on a griddle or a frying pan.

Construction
Cakes are baked from a batter. Batter is made by mixing wet ingredients (like milk and eggs) with dry ingredients (like sugar and flour). The batter is baked in an oven. This way of baking is known as the muffin method, because muffins are made this way.

Vegan versions of the same cake abstain from using animal products such as dairy or eggs and instead substitute them with plant derived products such as nut milk and alginate-lecithin gel.

Just like bread, cakes rise in the oven because they contain many small air bubbles. As cakes rise, the air bubbles expand. This is why the cake batter expands in the pan (often to twice its original size). There are two ways of forming the air bubbles, which create different types of cakes. Almost every kind of cake belongs to one of these families.

Creamed Fat
These cakes are made with butter or another fat, like vegetable shortening. The common way is to mix the fat and sugar, then add eggs, and then add flour. The fat should be soft. It should not be hard or liquid. Mixing sugar with fat creates many very small air bubbles. Most birthday cakes are made this way. Cupcakes are also made this way.

Egg foam
These cakes are not made with solid butter or vegetable shortening. Some of these cakes are made with melted butter or vegetable oil. The common way is to mix the eggs and sugar, and then add flour. These cakes are often much taller, lighter and often spongier than creamed fat cakes. Angelfood cake and chiffon cakes are egg foam cakes. Most grocery stores with bakeries sell angelfood cakes. Angelfood cakes are made by beating egg whites with sugar. This traps a lot of tiny air bubbles. The eggs and sugar are mixed with other ingredients. Then, the cake is baked.

Decorations
A cake can be decorated with icing (also called "frosting"), chocolate, fruit, and much more. A layer cake is made by stacking cakes with icing or filling between the layers. Birthday cakes are sometimes decorated with candles. Cakes can be served with berries or other kinds of fruit.

A large, rich cake is often called by the French word for "cake": "gâteau" (plural: "gâteaux", both singular and plural pronounced "GA-toe"). It may have a lot of cream. Some cakes can have edible paper on the top.

Gallery

References

Basic English 850 words

Cake


Denial, in ordinary English usage, has at least three meanings: asserting that any particular statement or allegation is not true (which might be accurate or inaccurate); the refusal of a request; and asserting that a true statement is not true.

In psychology, denialism is a person's choice to deny reality as a way to avoid a psychologically uncomfortable truth.

In psychoanalytic theory, denial is a defense mechanism in which a person is faced with a fact that is too uncomfortable to accept and rejects it instead, insisting that it is not true despite what may be overwhelming evidence. The concept of denial is important in twelve-step programs where the abandonment or reversal of denial that substance dependence is problematic forms the basis of the first, fourth, fifth, eighth and tenth steps.

People who are exhibiting symptoms of a serious medical condition sometimes deny or ignore those symptoms because the idea of having a serious health problem is uncomfortable or disturbing. The American Heart Association cites denial as a principal reason that treatment of a heart attack is delayed.  Because the symptoms are so varied, and often have other potential explanations, the opportunity exists for the patient to deny the emergency, often with fatal consequences.  It is common for patients to delay recommended mammograms or other tests because of a fear of cancer, even though on average this worsens the long-term medical outcome.

Psychology
Initial short-term denial can be a good thing, giving time to adjust to a painful or stressful issue. It might also be a precursor to making some sort of change in one's life. But denial can also be harmful; if denial persists and prevents a person from taking appropriate action, it's a harmful response.

In political and economic context
Some people who are known as denialists or true believers have been known to be in denial of historical or scientific facts accepted by the mainstream of society or by experts, for political or economic reasons. Examples of denialism include:

Climate change denial
Denial of evolution
Historical negationism (such as Holocaust denial)
HIV/AIDS denialism
Modern flat Earth societies

See also

References

Further reading

Cognitive biases
Belief
Dissent

eo:Abnegacio

Denial


André Cluytens (, ; born Augustin Zulma Alphonse Cluytens; 26 March 19053 June 1967) was a Belgian-born French conductor who was active in the concert hall, opera house and recording studio. His repertoire extended from Viennese classics through French composers to 20th century works. Although much of his career was spent in France, he was the first French conductor at Bayreuth in 1955; he also conducted The Ring and Parsifal at La Scala.

Life and career

Belgium
Cluytens was born in Antwerp into a musical family: his paternal grandfather, father and uncles were all professional musicians. His mother was a soprano at the opera, and after she died in 1906 his father married another singer. He entered the Royal Conservatoire of Antwerp at the age of 9, graduating at 16 with first prizes in harmony and counterpoint, and piano. His father Alphonse, conductor of the Théâtre Royal Français Opera House, engaged his son as a chorusmaster and coach. He joined his father at the Opera, conducting productions there, making his debut on 14 December 1926 with Les pêcheurs de perles. In January 1927 he married Germaine Gilson, a soprano soloist in the troupe of the Théâtre Royal Français; they had one son, Michel (1943–69). Promoted to house conductor for the 1927–28 season, over the next five years Cluytens built up a broad opera (and ballet) repertoire in Antwerp: Mireille, Madama Butterfly, La traviata, La fille du régiment, La Basoche, Ma mère l'oye, Manon, La poupée de Nuremberg, Resurrection, Lucia di Lammermoor, Werther, Jeux, Le domino noir, Le voyage en Chine, Les Huguenots, Schwanda the Bagpiper, Salome and Angélique.

France
In 1932, he became the principal conductor at the Théâtre du Capitole of Toulouse, adding further to his repertoire, including operas such as Boris Godunov, Lohengrin, Ernani, Tannhäuser, Otello, Die Walküre and The Marriage of Figaro as well as several operettas. In 1935 he moved to the Opéra National de Lyon as principal conductor, adding more Wagner to his repertoire (Das Rheingold and Siegfried) and became the musical director there in 1942.

Cluytens volunteered to serve in the French army in September 1939 and following a medical examination was engaged as a French combatant, although he never saw action; he became a French citizen on 14 May 1940. Following the liberation of France, complaints from Bordeaux concerning his alleged collaboration with Nazi authorities in that city led to him being sentenced as part of the épuration; after appeal, on 24 May 1946 his sentence was revoked.

In 1947, he was appointed musical director at the Opéra-Comique, where he conducted 40 works between 1947–1953, including premieres of La carosse du Saint Sacrement, Marion and Le Oui des jeunes filles. His well-regarded work at the Opéra-Comique included a successful renewal of The Tales of Hoffmann in a fresh production in April 1948; Francis Poulenc was delighted with his part in the recording with Opéra-Comique forces of his Les mamelles de Tirésias. Also notable was the revival after 180 years of Blaise le savetier (which was brought into the Salle Favart repertoire as a curtain-raiser for La boheme, Werther and La traviata), and the French premiere of The Rake's Progress in June 1953. His revival of Manon was highly praised – and representative of what Paris critics saw as a successful tenure at the Opéra-Comique; he also oversaw many all-Ravel evenings. Cluytens resigned from the Opéra-Comique in December 1953 and conducted his last performance there (Manon) on 30 September 1954. He became a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur in 1953.

Having made his debut with the Paris Conservatoire Orchestra on 20 December 1942, he succeeded Charles Munch in 1949 as principal conductor, which post he held until 1960. His contract required him to conduct half of the orchestra's concerts each season; he also led them on foreign tours. Cluytens was due to conduct the first concert to be given by Alfred Cortot in Paris after his disgrace for Vichy activities, in 1947; in the event the concerto was dropped and Cluytens refused to acknowledge Cortot as he and the orchestra left the stage for Cortot to play solo. Cluytens conducted the Paris Conservatoire Orchestra in a Beethoven symphony cycle and then on its tour of Japan in 1964, continuing on his own to conduct the Sydney Symphony Orchestra, South Australian Symphony Orchestra, West Australian Symphony Orchestra, Victorian Symphony Orchestra and Queensland Symphony Orchestra into July that year.

International career
He led a famous performance of Wagner's opera Tannhäuser at the Bayreuth Festival on 23 July 1955, being the first conductor of French nationality to conduct at Bayreuth (and only the third non-German to conduct there, after Toscanini and de Sabata). His other work at Bayreuth up to 1965 consisted of Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (1956, 1957, 1958), Parsifal (1957, 1965) and Lohengrin (1958), returning for Tannhäuser in 1965. According to Wolfgang Wagner, Cluytens was "universally liked for his amiable, open-minded attitude"; Hans Knappertsbusch was delighted when Cluytens requested that the older conductor introduce him to Parsifal.

He was to introduce Régine Crespin to Wieland Wagner, which led to her engagements at Bayreuth from 1958. Having conducted a Ring cycle in Lyon in 1959, Cluytens conducted three cycles at La Scala, Milan in 1963 (with Birgit Nilsson and Hans Hotter).

Cluytens made his debut with the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra in 1948, and later toured the UK, the US and Canada with the orchestra in 1956. He also worked with the Berlin Philharmonic as a guest conductor. Cluytens was well-versed in the German repertoire, and was also noted for authoritative interpretations of Ravel and other modern French composers.

From 1964 he had a close relationship with Anja Silja, whom he had met in Bayreuth and first conducted in Salome at the Paris Opera. His death at the age of 62 occurred coincident with his reputation emerging not just primarily as a conductor of the French classics, but as an interpreter of the standard German/Austrian repertoire.

Cluytens died in 1967 at Neuilly-sur-Seine, France. The German soprano Anja Silja bought his former home in Paris and has resided there ever since.

Recordings

A prolific recording artist, Cluytens signed a contract with the French branch of EMI Pathé-Marconi in 1946. He recorded an extensive series of complete French operas with the forces of the Opéra-Comique and the Opéra National de Paris. He also recorded a wide range of orchestral works by the French masters, two traversals of the orchestral works of Ravel, and a complete cycle of Beethoven's nine symphonies with the Berlin Philharmonic in 1957–1960. Many of his records, and some live performances, have since been re-issued on CD, while film of him conducting Ravel and Tchaikovsky (with Emil Gilels) have been presented on DVD. He may be seen during the overture of the film Le Barbier de Séville.

References

Holomon, D. Kern. The Société des Concerts Du Conservatoire, 1828–1967. page 476-7.

External links

 Société des concerts du Conservatoire
[ Biography] at All Music.com
Short biography, Recordings and discography, Youngrok Lee's Classical Music

1905 births
1967 deaths
Belgian conductors (music)
Belgian male musicians
French male conductors (music)
Music directors (opera)
Knights of the Legion of Honour
Musicians from Antwerp
20th-century French conductors (music)
20th-century French male musicians
Music & Arts artists
Belgian emigrants to France

André Cluytens


Teresa Kubiak (born 26 December 1937) is a Polish operatic soprano.

Born in Ldzań in the Łódź Voivodeship, she studied at the Academy of Music in Łódź. Kubiak is best known for her recording of the role of Tatyana in Georg Solti's recording of Tchaikovsky's Eugene Onegin, which was used for Petr Weigl's 1988 film of the opera. She was also known for her performances of Liza in Tchaikovsky's Pique Dame.

Kubiak made her American debut in 1970 at Carnegie Hall, New York City, as Sulamith in Goldmark's Die Königin von Saba. She sang at the Metropolitan Opera for 15 seasons, appearing in 14 roles.

In 2012 she was awarded the medal Fides Et Ratio (Faith and Reason) by the Warsaw University Association, Poland.

Kubiak was a professor of music and voice at Indiana University's Jacobs School of Music for over 25 years, retiring in 2018.

References

1937 births
Living people
Polish operatic sopranos
Indiana University Bloomington faculty
People from Pabianice County
20th-century Polish women opera singers

Prize-winners of the ARD International Music Competition

Teresa Kubiak


A botanist is a scientist who studies plants, including flowering plants, and plant-like things such as moss and seaweed. Botany is a scientific study of plants along with their growth, structure, evolution, and uses.

Botanists may specialize in certain areas of botany. Some important areas of study include:
 Plant taxonomy
 Plant ecology
 Chemical biology
 Photosynthesis, the process that turns carbon dioxide from the air into food using sunlight
 Apoptosis, what makes a cell "decide" to die. This study area has been important for cancer research.

Notable botanists
 Julien Reverchon

Science occupations

Botanist


The Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland is a learned society based in Ireland, whose aims are "to preserve, examine and illustrate all ancient monuments and memorials of the arts, manners and customs of the past, as connected with the antiquities, language, literature and history of Ireland".  Founded in 1849, it has a countrywide membership from all four provinces of Ireland.  Anyone subscribing to the aims of the Society, subject to approval by Council, may be elected to membership.  Current and past members have included historians, archaeologists and linguists, but the Society firmly believes in the importance of encouraging an informed general public, and many members are non-professionals.

After the Society's move to Dublin in the 1890s, it came eventually to occupy the premises on Merrion Square, where it is still to be found.  It now fulfills its original aims through the maintenance of its library and provision of lectures and excursions, as well as the continued publication of its Journal, which is one of the most respected publications in the field of Irish archaeology and history.

History

Foundation
The Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland was founded in 1849 as the Kilkenny Archaeological Society, by a group of young men with archaeological and historical interests who were based in the Kilkenny area.  The aim of the Society was the preservation and illustration of the antiquities of Kilkenny, city and county, although this later spread to cover a far wider area, with the Society changing its name only five years later to the Kilkenny and South East of Ireland Archaeological Society, both to attract wider membership and to reflect the interests of those who had already joined.  By 1868 it had become the Historical and Archaeological Association of Ireland, reflecting its exponential growth, partly due to the widespread circulation of its Journal.  In 1869 it was granted a Royal Charter, and the right to elect Fellows, and in 1890 it moved to Dublin, changing its name to the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, as it took on what it saw as a national role, becoming in 1891, according to its Honorary Secretary Robert Cochrane, "not only the largest Antiquarian Society in Great Britain and Ireland, but also the largest in the world".

Graves and Prim
The two first, and highly dynamic Honorary General Secretaries, the Revd. James Graves (1815–86), and John G. A. Prim (1821–75), a newspaper man, were responsible for its initial success.  These cousins had had an interest in Kilkenny antiquities from their youngest days, when they had rambled as far afield as Kilfane Church to see the famous tomb sculpture of Cantwell Fada.  Graves had been making sketches of the ancient monasteries of the vicinity since his student days in Trinity College Dublin in the 1830s, while Prim had found time despite his hectic schedule at the 'Kilkenny Moderator' to start collecting Irish ballads and transcribing from medieval manuscripts as early as 1841.  Their knowledge of local antiquities was matched by the idealism of the organisation itself, which was non-sectarian, including the Catholic Robert Cane, later Mayor of Kilkenny, as well as Philip Moore, a Catholic priest who remained a close friend of Prim's to the end of his life.  Its subscription rate, at 5 shillings a year, was also very modest in comparison with most English archaeological societies, many of which adopted high subscription rates with the intention of promoting a socially exclusive and often highly aristocratic membership.

Irish antiquarianism and archaeology in the 1840s
The Society's foundation was no doubt influenced by the general revival of interest in ancient Irish antiquities and history which the Ordnance Survey had sparked off.  George Petrie (1790–1866), who had been actively involved in the OS was also revitalising the Antiquities Committee of the Royal Irish Academy, and opening up critically sound debate on early Christian buildings in Ireland with the publication of his book The Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland: An Essay on the Origins and Uses of the Round Towers of Ireland, in 1845.  Nevertheless, it was a time of increasing danger for the heritage of Ireland, as the Irish language suffered severe setbacks after the Famine of the 1840s, and was vanishing from County Kilkenny even around the time the Society was establishing itself.  As superstitious beliefs died out, people became less cautious of destroying the field monuments such as raths and stone circles, which hitherto had been avoided in cultivation of the land.  Meanwhile many of the standing buildings were in increasing danger from the effects of rain and frost, as much as from wanton vandalism.

Conservation
The Society's early aims therefore included the conservation of endangered buildings, and they carried out valuable work at Clonmacnoise, County Offaly, Jerpoint Cistercian Abbey, County Kilkenny and St. Francis Abbey in Kilkenny city.  However, with the passing of the Church Temporalities Act in 1869, many of these structures came to be vested in the Board of Works, which then took over the duty of conserving them, appointing Thomas Newenham Deane Inspector of National Monuments in March 1875.  This relieved the Society of its responsibilities in active preservation of buildings, although it continued to participate by drawing the Board's attention to individual cases.

Museum
The Society's interest in preservation was also reflected in the museum it built up of objects donated by various members, as well as those objects found during the archaeological excavations it carried out itself.  Many items from the Museum subsequently became part of the collections of the National Museum of Ireland.

Preservation through illustration
The Society achieved its aim of illustration of antiquities, not only through the published Journal, which from its creation contained both lithographs and engravings (and later photographs), but also by a comprehensive effort to photograph the antiquities of the 32 counties of Ireland.

Publications
The RSAI publishes an peer-reviewed Journal, generally abbreviated as JRSAI. A volume appears each year, but this is often published in a 1st and a 2nd part. The parts can however be ignored for the purposes of citation as pages are numbered continuously through the volume. The volumes are numbered consecutively or by series. The volume that appeared in 1921 for example is numbered consecutively as 51 but is also known as volume XI of the VIth series.

Governance
The affairs of the Society are conducted by the elected President, Officers and Council (all of whose services are voluntary).

Presidents
The following have served as Presidents of the Society:

See also
List of Antiquarian Societies

References

External links
Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland
Journal Contents from 1860

1849 establishments in Ireland
Learned societies of Ireland
Historical societies based in the Republic of Ireland

Historiography of Ireland
Antiquarians
Seanad nominating bodies

Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland


The music of Australia is the music made in the area of, on the subject of, or by the people of modern Australia.  This includes its earlier Indigenous and colonial societies. Indigenous Australian music is a part of a 40–60,000 year history which made the didgeridoo. Combinations of Indigenous and Western styles show Australian additions to world music. Some people who do this are Yothu Yindi, Christine Anu and Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu. During its early western history, Australia was made of many British colonies.  Australian folk music and bush ballads such as Waltzing Matilda were influenced by Anglo-Celtic culture. Classical forms came from those of Europe. Current Australian music covers many trends.  They are often similar to those of the US, the UK, and similar nations.  There are oftem similarities in the Australian rock and Australian country music genres.

Notable Australian musicians include: the opera singers Dame Nellie Melba and Dame Joan Sutherland; country music stars Slim Dusty (Australia's biggest selling domestic artist) and John Williamson; solo artists John Farnham and Olivia Newton-John, folk-rocker Paul Kelly; Dance group The Avalanches; jazz guitarist Tommy Emmanuel; pioneer rocker Johnny O'Keefe, global folk-rock band The Seekers, global rock and pop bands Men At Work, The EasyBeats, Bee Gees, Air Supply, Crowded House, AC/DC, INXS, Little River Band, Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, Midnight Oil, Dragon, Silverchair, Youth Group, You Am I and Powderfinger; the "pop princess" Kylie Minogue, Pendulum, Pop Rock duo Savage Garden  and alternative music stars the John Butler Trio and Xavier Rudd. Other popular artists and groups include The Choirboys, Chantoozies, Cheetah, Sharon O'Neill, Marc Williams, Peter Andre, Goanna, Australian Crawl, Rose Tattoo, Colleen Hewett, Keith Urban, The Angels, Ted Mullry Gang, Hush, The Mixtures, Helen Reddy, and Diana Trask.

Music of Australia


Old Major is a character in the book Animal Farm.  He is an award winning elderly Middle White boar. He is twelve years of age, and had 400 piglets. Old Major has a wise and benevolent look but his tushes are never cut. He had given inspiration to the other pigs about the fair rules on the farm once the farmers were gone, before Old Major died. Old Major is based on Marx and Lenin of the Russian Revolution, whose ideas changed into Communism.

Role in the Story
One evening, Old Major said that he had a dream the night before. Because of the dream, a meeting was to be held in the big barn at night. At the meeting, he talked with the other animals about the cause of their suffering, Man. He gave them the way to end their problem, rebellion. Later, he told the farm animals about his dream. In the dream he saw the Earth after Man was no longer on it. He also remembered a song sung by the animals of old, "Beasts of England", which the animals learned very fast.

While the animals were singing "Beasts of England", the sound woke their owner Mr. Jones. He fired his gun six times. This ended the meeting immediately.  Old Major died peacefully in his sleep 3 days later.

Animal Farm characters
Fictional pigs

Old Major (Animal Farm)


The rozhok () is an ancient Russian wooden trumpet, a relative of the cornett, which has remained in continuous use until the present day. It is also known as Vladimirskiy rozhok, (, meaning "Vladimir horn").

Names

The origins of the instrument date to before AD 1600.  The tradition of playing the rozhok in an ensemble probably dates to a much earlier time.  It is possible that the name rozhok was used for the instrument later, and that in the earliest written sources it was simply called a pipe. A rozhok can be called be various names: shepherd's horn (), Russian horn (), or song horn ().  At the end of the 19th century, the name Vladimir was added to this instrument's name (, Vladimirskiy rozhok, "Vladimir horn"), due to the success of a chorus of rozhok players under the leadership of Nikolai Vasilyevich Kondratyev from the Vladimir region.

Structure
A rozhok is a conical straight tube with the six playing holes: five on top and one underneath.  The total length of a rozhok ranges from 320 to 830 mm (13" to 33").  A mouthpiece is cut in the form of a small cup, and the lower end of the tube is shaped like a conical bell. A rozhok is usually made of birch, maple, or juniper.  Musicians say that rozhoks of juniper have the best sound.  In the past they were made in the same manner as a shepherd's rozhok, in which two halves are fastened together with birch bark; today they are turned. The sound of a rozhok is strong, but mellow, having a range of about an octave, or a little more.  There are several types of rozhoks: the shortest one, having the highest sound is called vizgunok (squeaker), typically in F# or G; the longest and thus the lowest one is called bas (bass), in F# or G an octave below, while a mid-size instrument is called a polubasok (half-bass), typically in C. It is polubasok instruments that are most frequently used for solo playing. Rozhok ensembles usually consist of just vizgunok and bas instruments in the ratio 2:1 (twice as many high-pitched horns).

Varieties
Rozhok's folk tunes are divided into four stylistic varieties: signal, song, dancing, and dance, with a large number of songs in all styles.  There are several types of shepherd's signals and more of others.  The main repertoire is song folk-tunes.

As of 2015, rozhok ensembles exist in Moscow, Vladimir and Nerekhta. In addition, rozhoks can sometimes be heard in Russian folk orchestra concerts.

See also
 Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records

References

External links
Sound sample
An article in Russian and photos
A video documentary about Vladimirskiy Rozhok - from a series "Странствия музыканта" by Sergey Starostin

Russian musical instruments
Russian inventions
Russian folk music
Woodwind instruments

ru:Рожок

Rozhok


In organic chemistry and biochemistry, substituent is the name for a single atom or for a group of atoms that take the position of another atom in a molecule. They replace this atom. This reaction is called a substitution reaction. The atom or group of atoms that gets replaced is called the leaving group.

The terms substituent, side chain, group, branch, or pendant group are used in the same way to describe branches from a parent structure. These terms have different meanings in polymer chemistry.  In polymers, side chains extend from a backbone structure, while they are attached to the alpha carbon atoms of the amino acid backbone in proteins.

Organic chemistry has rules for naming compounds with substituent groups. The substituent group is listed first with a suffix to describe how it is attached to the main carbon chain. The suffix -yl is used when naming organic compounds that contain a single bond replacing one hydrogen. -ylidene and -ylidyne are used for double bonds and triple bonds respectively. When naming hydrocarbons that contain a substituent, position numbers may be used. These number will indicate which carbon atom the substituent is attached to. One case where this information is needed is that of isomers.

The phrases most-substituted and least-substituted are often used to describe molecules and predict their products. For example:

  Markovnikov's rule predicts that the hydrogen adds to the carbon of the alkene functional group that has the greater number of hydrogen substituents.
  Zaitsev's rule predicts that the major reaction product is the alkene with the more highly substituted (more stable) double bond.

Structures
In a structural diagram or formula, the letters R or X are used to represent a substituent group. An organic substituent such as methyl, ethyl, aryl can be written as R (or R1, R2, etc.)  This is a generic placeholder. The R derived from radical or rest. The R can represent as many atoms as the author wants. The first to use this symbol was Charles Frédéric Gerhardt in 1844.

The symbol X can represent electronegative substituents such as the halides.

Related pages
Side chain
 Functional groups are a subset of substituents

References

Organic chemistry
Chemical nomenclature

Substituent


David Shea (1777–1836) was an Irish orientalist and translator.

Life
The son of Daniel Shea, a farmer, he was born in County Limerick. He entered Trinity College, Dublin on 3 June 1793, and in 1797 obtained a scholarship in classics. Several of his friends belonged to the Society of United Irishmen. In April 1798 John FitzGibbon, 1st Earl of Clare, vice-chancellor of the university, held a visitation, at which he required students to take an oath that they would inform against anybody whom they knew to be connected with the society. Shea, refusing to comply, was expelled from the university.

He came to England, and found a mastership in a private school. His knowledge of Italian gained him the post of chief clerk in a large mercantile establishment at Malta. While there he mastered Arabic, acquiring a knowledge not only of the classical language, but also of current dialects. A project on the part of his employers to open a factory on the east coast of the Black Sea induced him to study Persian also. But the firm being compelled to withdraw from the Levant altogether, he was recalled to England.

He made the acquaintance of Adam Clarke, who found him employment as a private tutor in the house of Dr. Laurell, and afterwards by his interest procured him an assistant professorship in the oriental department of the East India Company's Haileybury College. On the institution of the Oriental Translation Fund, Shea was made a member of committee, and started by translating Mirkhond's 'History of the Early Kings of Persia,' which was published in London in 1832. He moved on to the translation of the Dabistán. Before finishing however, he died at Haileybury College on 11 May 1836. The translation of the Dabistán was completed by Anthony Troyer, and published in Paris in 1843, and in London in 1844.

References

1777 births
1836 deaths
Writers from County Limerick
Linguists from Ireland
Irish translators
Translators from Persian

David Shea (linguist)


Celilo Village, Oregon is an unincorporated Native American community on the Columbia River in northeastern Wasco County in the U.S. state of Oregon. It is near Lake Celilo, the former site of Celilo Falls; it is just south of the community of Wishram, Washington, across the Columbia River.

In 2003 about 100 permanent residents lived in 14 dwellings. The site was once a major cultural and trading center, until Celilo Falls was inundated by The Dalles Dam in 1957. The 2000 census reported a total resident population of 44 persons living on a land area of 102.11 acres (0.4132 km). The United States Army Corps of Engineers provided funding for construction of a new tribal long house in 2006.

Most residents of Celilo are members of either the Yakama Nation or Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs. Some may be members of the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, or the Nez Perce tribe.  Many residents are fishers engaging in ceremonial, subsistence, and commercial fisheries for salmon, steelhead, and sturgeon in the Columbia River.  While the historic fishing site at Celilo Falls is gone, there is an "in lieu" fishing site provided by the Army Corps of Engineers that provides access for tribal members to the river.  Most tribal fishing is done currently with gillnets or from platforms built along the river.

References

Celilo Village, Oregon United States Census Bureau

External links
Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission

Native American history of Oregon
Columbia River Gorge
Unincorporated communities in Wasco County, Oregon
Unincorporated communities in Oregon

Celilo Village, Oregon


Ambattur is a neighbourhood place of Northern Chennai. It is located in the Ambattur taluk of the Chennai Corporation, Tamil Nadu. It was added in the part of the Chennai Corporation in the year 2011.

It is one of the fast growing residential area in the Chennai Corporation. The area of the place is 45 km2.The neighbourhood is served by the Ambattur Railway Station.

In the time of 1960s Ambattur was a village with large extends of agricultural lands. The Ambattur Lake supported the irrigational purpose.The growth of the village heightened when the Ambattur industrial estate was established in the year 1964.

It was said that the place has got its name of Ambattur from the Tamil words (ஐம்பத்து ஊர்) becvause this place was the colloboration of 50 places.

The population of this area in 2011 is 466,205 with a sex ratio of 985 per 1000 males and literacy rate of 82%.

References

Neighbourhoods of Chennai

Ambattur


Ballet shoes are lightweight shoes designed for and used in ballet dancing. They're usually made from soft leather or satin and have thin and flexible soles. Females are usually given pink colored shoes; males usually get black or white.

Pointe shoes are a special type of ballet shoe. They let dancers stand on their toes.

Related pages
Ballet flat

Footwear
Ballet

Ballet shoe


Tofu (豆腐), sometimes also called doufu (usually used in Chinese recipes) or bean curd (literal translation), is a food made from soybeans. In fact, it is a very complex process. Tofu is made by coagulating soy milk, and then pressing the resulting curds into blocks. The making of tofu from soy milk is similar to the technique of making cheese from milk. Wheat gluten, or seitan, in its steamed and fried forms, is often mistakenly called "tofu" in Asian or vegetarian dishes.

China
China has more kinds of tofu than Japan and various tofu foods.

Japan
In Japan, tofu is a common food, used often in miso soup or as a hot dish. People in Japan has created various kinds of tofu. One of them is 絹こし豆腐 (or soft tofu), 木綿豆腐 (or firm tofu, or solid tofu) and "凍み豆腐" (or dried tofu). It is said that the way to make tofu from soybeans was taught by the Chinese a several hundreds years ago. you can find its very first history in a diary of 奈良春日大社 in 1183 of the Heian period.

America
In the United States, tofu is becoming more popular. Today, Americans buy tofu at the grocery store. The word "tofu" takes root in common use.

Others
In South Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar and Indonesia, tofu is daily food.

Nutrition
Tofu is rich in textured vegetable protein and is relatively low in calories. Dietary fiber is a little for process. More and more Americans and Europeans use it as health food.

Popular tofu dishes
Cold tofu
Boiled tofu
Sukiyaki
Hot dish
Oden

Notes

References

Chinese food
Japanese food

Tofu


Darrell Arlynn Amyx (2 April 1911 – 10 January 1997) was an American classical archaeologist. His principal field of study was the archaic pottery of Corinth. Complementing the pioneering work of John Beazley and Humfry Payne, Amyx applied stylistic analysis to the work of previously unnamed and unstudied Corinthian painters, discerning many otherwise forgotten "hands".

Born in Exeter, California, Amyx studied classics at Stanford University, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1930. He pursued further studies at the University of California, Berkeley; earning first a master's degree in Latin in 1932 and later a Ph.D. in Latin and classical archaeology in 1937. He then studied in Greece as a Fulbright Scholar. He later was the recipient of two Guggenheim Fellowships and four grants from the American Council of Learned Societies. In 1946 he joined the faculty at Berkeley where he taught until his retirement in 1978. In addition to teaching classes at Berkeley he served variously as the art department's chair, assistant dean of the College of Letters and Science, and curator of classical art in the University Art Museum as well as the Lowie Museum of Anthropology. He died after a long illness in 1997 at the age of 85.

Published works
An Amphora with A Price Inscription in the Hearst Collection at San Simeon. Berkeley 1941
Echoes from Olympus: Reflections of Divinity into Small Scale Classical art. Berkeley 1974 (with Barbara A. Forbes (ed.))
Archaic Corinthian Pottery and the Anaploga Well. Princeton, NJ 1975,  (with Patricia Lawrence)
Corinthian Vase Painting of the Archaic Period. 3 vols. Berkeley 1988,
Studies in Archaic Corinthian Vase Painting. Princeton, NJ 1996,  (with Patricia Lawrence)

Secondary literature
Mario A. Del Chiaro (ed.): Corinthiaca. Studies in honor of Darrell A. Amyx, Columbia, Missouri 1986,  (with bibliography).
Evelyn E. Bell, Barbara A. Forbes: "Darrell Arlynn Amyx, 1911–1997". In American Journal of Archaeology 102 (1998) 179-180.
Evelyn E. Bell, Barbara A. Forbes: "Darrell A. Amyx". In Gnomon 70 (1998) 575-576.

References

External links
Dictionary of Art Historians
Nachruf University of California Berkeley

Scholars of ancient Greek pottery
1911 births
1997 deaths
Stanford University alumni
UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science alumni
People from Exeter, California

Darrell A. Amyx


Random forest is a statistical algorithm that is used to cluster points of data in functional groups. When the data set is large and/or there are many variables it becomes difficult to cluster the data because not all variables can be taken into account, therefore the algorithm can also give a certain chance that a data point belongs in a certain group.

Steps of the algorithm
This is how the clustering takes place.

 Of the entire set of data a subset is taken (training set).
 The algorithm clusters the data in groups and subgroups. If you would draw lines between the data points in a subgroup, and lines that connect subgroups into group etc. the structure would look somewhat like a tree. This is called a decision tree.
 At each split or node in this cluster/tree/dendrogram variables are chosen at random by the program to judge whether datapoints have a close relationship or not.
 The program makes multiple trees a.k.a. a forest. Each tree is different because for each split in a tree, variables are chosen at random.
 Then the rest of the dataset (not the training set) is used to predict which tree in the forests makes the best classification of the datapoints (in the dataset the right classification is known).
 The tree with the most predictive power is shown as output by the algorithm.

Using the algorithm
In a random forest algorithm the number of trees grown (ntree) and the number of variables that are used at each split (mtry) can be chosen by hand; example settings are 500 trees, 71 variables.

References

Randomised algorithms

Random forest