Exodus is an American thrash metal band from Richmond, California. Exodus has five members in the band; the current band members are Steve Souza, Gary Holt, Lee Altus, Jack Gibson and Tom Hunting. Former guitarist Rick Hunolt is currently touring with Exodus and filling in for Gary Holt while Holt is filling in as a guitarist for Slayer after the death of Jeff Hanneman.

Career

The band was formed in 1980 by band member Tom Hunting and now-former band members Kirk Hammett, Tim Agnello, Carlton Melson and Keith Stewart. The band is named after the 1985 novel, Exodus by Leon Uris.

Tim Agnello was later replaced with Gary Holt who has stayed in the band since. Kirk Hammett left in 1983 to join now-famous thrash metal band Metallica, and was eventually replaced by Rick Hunolt. Carlton Melson was eventually replaced by Rob McKillop, with Keith Stewart being replaced by Paul Baloff. With these members They released their debut album, Bonded by Blood, on April 25, 1985, which is considered by many listeners to be the band's best album.

They then fired Paul Baloff and replaced him with Steve 'Zetro' Souza, and released two more albums, Pleasures Of The Flesh and Fabulous Disaster until signing to a major label and replacing Tom Hunting with John Tempesta. The band then released the album Impact Is Imminent, which was considered a disappointing album compared to Fabulous Disaster. Rob McKillop was replaced with Michael Butler and the band then released Force Of Habit. The songs on this album were a little slower than their previous songs. After touring for this album, Exodus broke-up as thrash metal was becoming less popular.

Gary Holt and Rick Hunolt reformed Exodus in 1997 and brought back members Tom Hunting and Paul Baloff, as well as adding new member Jack Gibson. They played shows throughout the year and released a live album called Another Lesson In Violence, and broke up again in 1998.

The band reformed again in 2001 with the same members as the previous reunion. Paul Baloff died from a stroke in 2002. Some people believed Exodus would break up again because of this. Instead, Steve Souza was invited to rejoin the band, and they released the Tempo of The Damned album in 2004 with his vocals.

Over a year, three members were replaced. Steve Souza left the band whilst they were touring in South America and was replaced with Rob Dukes. Rick Hunolt left to concentrate on his family life and was replaced with Lee Altus. Tom Hunting left due to nervous problems that made him leave in 1989 after the Fabulous Disaster album, and was replaced with Paul Bostaph.

Their first album since these replacements was Shovel Headed Kill Machine, in 2007, Paul Bostaph left and Tom Hunting returned to the band again, before releasing another album, The Atrocity Exhibition...Exhibit A. In 2008, the band re-recorded the songs from the Bonded By Blood album and released them on an album called Let There Be Blood. In 2010, the band released their next album, Exhibit B: The Human Condition.

Steve Souza has recently replaced Rob Dukes after his departure in 2014, becoming their frontman indefinitely. With this lineup, the band released the  Blood In Blood Out record in 2014. They are currently touring the world, with the end date scheduled at 11/26/16.

Band members

Current
Gary Holt – guitars (1980–1993, 1997–1998, 2001–present)
Steve Souza - vocals (1986–1993, 2002–2004, 2014-present)
Lee Altus – guitars (2005–present)
Jack Gibson – bass (1997–1998, 2001–present)
Tom Hunting – drums (1980–1989, 1997–1998, 2001–2004, 2007–present)

On tour with the band
Rick Hunolt - guitars (2012-present) (a full time member during the following time periods. 1983-1993, 1997-1998, 2001-2005)

Former
Paul Baloff - vocals (1982–1986, 1997–1998, 2001–2002)
Rob Dukes – vocals (2005–2014)
Steev Esquivel - vocals (2004)
Kirk Hammett - guitars (1980–1983)
Tim Agnello - guitar (1980)
Mike Maung - guitar (1983)
Carlton Melson - bass (1980)
Jeff Andrews - bass (1980-1983)
Doug Williams - bass (1985-1986)
Rob McKillop - bass (1983–1991)
Michael Butler - bass (1992–1993)
John Tempesta - drums (1989–1993)
Paul Bostaph - drums (2005–2007)

Discography

Albums
Bonded by Blood (1985)
Pleasures of the Flesh (1987)
Fabulous Disaster (1988)
Impact Is Imminent (1990)
Force of Habit (1992)
Tempo of the Damned (2004)
Shovel Headed Kill Machine (2005)
The Atrocity Exhibition... Exhibit A (2007)
Let There Be Blood (2008)
Exhibition B: The Human Condition (2010)
 Blood In, Blood Out (2014)
 Persona Non Grata (2021)

References

Other websites
Official website

Musical groups established in 1980
1980s establishments in California
1980 establishments in the United States
1980s American music groups
Musical groups disestablished in 1993
1990s disestablishments in California
1993 disestablishments in the United States
Musical groups established in 1997
1997 establishments in California
Musical groups disestablished in 1998
1998 disestablishments in the United States
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
Musical groups established in 2001
2001 establishments in California
2010s American music groups
Thrash metal bands
Musical groups from California
Richmond, California

Exodus (band)


Old South Church in Boston, Massachusetts, also known as New Old South Church or Third Church, is a historic United Church of Christ congregation first organized in 1669. Its present building was designed in the Gothic Revival style by Charles Amos Cummings and Willard T. Sears, completed in 1873, and amplified by the architects Allen & Collens between 1935–1937. The church, which was built on newly filled land in the Back Bay section of Boston, is located at 645 Boylston Street on Copley Square. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970 for its architectural significance as one of the finest High Victorian Gothic churches in New England. It is home to one of the oldest religious communities in the United States.

History of the congregation

Established in 1669, Old South Church is one of the older religious communities in the United States. It was organized by Congregationalist dissenters from Boston's First Church and was known as the Third Church (to distinguish it from the First and Second Congregational Churches in the city). The Third Church's congregation met first in their Cedar Meeting House (1670), then at the Old South Meeting House (1729) at the corner of Washington and Milk Streets in Boston.

Members of the congregation have included founders Edward Raynsford, Thomas Savage, John Alden, John Hull, Judith Quincy Hull and parishioners Daniel Quincy, John Alden Jr., Samuel Adams, William Dawes, Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Sewall, and Phillis Wheatley. In 1773, Samuel Adams gave the signals from the Old South Meeting House for the "war whoops" that started the Boston Tea Party.

During the Unitarian Movement of the early 19th century, Old South was the sole Congregational Church in Boston to adhere to the doctrine of Trinitarianism. In 1816 Old South Church joined with Park Street Church to form the City Mission Society, a social justice society to serve Boston's urban poor. During the American Civil War, Old South became a recruiting center for the Union Army under minister Jacob Manning. Though the congregation was not entirely abolitionist, it strongly supported the Union cause. The conclusion of the Civil War was followed by an expansive time of increased inclusion for the congregation. Under minister George Angier Gordon the congregation moved from its meeting house at Washington Street to its Back Bay location in 1875, occupying the present church constructed on newly filled land.

Old South's commitment to urban ministry and care continued on into the 20th century becoming a segue for the inclusion of new members increasingly diverse by race, class, and sexual orientation. The congregation has formally adopted a platform of equality, social justice, and peace.

Architecture

The church building was designed between 1870 and 1872 by the Boston architectural firm of Cummings and Sears in the Venetian Gothic style. The style follows the precepts of the British cultural theorist and architectural critic John Ruskin (1819–1900) as outlined in his treatise The Stones of Venice. Old South Church in Boston remains one of the most significant examples of Ruskin's influence on American architecture. The architects, Charles Amos Cummings and Willard T. Sears, also designed the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. The exterior of the church is primarily built of Roxbury Conglomerate commonly called puddingstone. Many arches, and several walls of stone, are striped with alternating courses of yellow-beige and deep red sandstone. The porticos and large open arches in the campanile are decorated with simple plate tracery. The upper arches of the porticos are decorated with screens of ornate wrought iron. The building is roofed in alternating bands of red and dark gray slate and the roofline finished with ornamental iron cresting.

Campanile

A tall tower, or campanile, is the trademark feature of Old South and is visible from several Boston neighborhoods. The tower, on the western end of the church, rises to a height of 246' and houses the church's 2,020-pound bell. This is the second campanile built on the same site, designed by Allen & Collens it is similar to the 1875 design in its use of Moorish arches. The first tower, completed in 1875 along with the present Narthex and sanctuary, had begun to list by the late 1920s. The cause was determined to be the faulty footings and piles anchored in the soft former swampland. They were insufficient for the load of the tower. The congregation engaged the architectural firm of Allen & Collens to design a replacement campanile and a new chapel to be named in memory of the Reverend George Angier Gordon. The tower was dismantled, and early 1930s technology of steam shovel and steel pilings provided a lasting solution. Today, the pitch and height of the tower are tested annually and records attest to its enduring stability. The bell wheel, which by motion of a heavy rope swings the large bell, had deteriorated by the late 20th century requiring that the bell be rung by an external hammer. A faithful reconstruction of the original 1931 bell wheel, installed in early fall 2006, returned Old South's bell to "full swing."

Lantern

Centered above the Sanctuary on the east side of the church is a copper clad cupola surrounded by twelve ornate gothic arched windows. This feature is reminiscent of the cupolas of the Basilica of St. Mark in Venice. While the lantern provides a striking visual presence, it was also built with function in mind. In the days before mechanical fans and air conditioning, a series of mechanically operated louvers allowed for window panels to be opened to help cool the sanctuary inside.

Decorative arts

The interior of Old South is exuberant yet quietly modulates the mix of rich materials: highly carved Italian cherry woodwork, limestone, stenciled plaster, and stained glass. The sanctuary is entered from the narthex through a screen carved in the Venetian Gothic style from French Caen limestone. Hidden among the carved foliage that decorates the screen can be found a squirrel, lizard, owl, and snail. A similar theme of animals is also found in the carving of the building's exterior. The interior of the chancel at the east end of the church, behind the choir, is faced by a running screen of wooden arches with quatrefoil lunettes adapted from the upper arcade of the Doge's Palace in Venice. The stained glass windows are by the English stained glass manufacturers Clayton and Bell and were produced in the style of 15th-century English glass.

1875 Cummings and Sears interior

When Old South's church opened in 1875 it looked very much as it does today, based upon the design of Cummings and Sears. The walls were decorated in polychrome stenciling in shades of complex tertiary colors: a rose madder background with overlays of ochre, bay leaf green, warm gray, and persimmon, and highlights of metallic gold. Most of the interior structure, except for the carved wood frieze along the balconies, was already in place by 1875. High above the crossing of the transepts and nave is the lantern, or cupola. The ceiling of the lantern was painted a deep Prussian blue with a pattern of gilded stars to represent the firmament of God. The limestone tracery of the west wall of the sanctuary, with its foliage and animals, combined with the highly carved foliated woodwork and the overhead representation of the nighttime sky was intended to echo God's creation. Above the doors on the east chancel walls are glass mosaics of the tree of life by Antonio Salviati. A third mosaic by Salviati originally hung in the tympanum above the tower's front doors. That mosaic was relocated to the vestibule when the tower was rebuilt 1922-1937. The combined effect was extremely rich; at once a spiritual and sensuous experience, and in great contrast to the chaste interior of Old South Meeting House on Washington Street. Stylistically the 1875 interior was in harmony with the Ruskinian Gothic exterior, and expressed Ruskin's ideal that it is "in art that the heart, the head, and the hand of a man come together."

1905 Tiffany interior

In 1905 the congregation engaged Louis Comfort Tiffany to redecorate the sanctuary. Tiffany headed a group of artisans called the Associated Artists who worked largely in a style now described as the Aesthetic Movement. Tiffany was a part of an emerging American view of design in the United States, increasingly taking fewer cues from Europe. Tiffany had decorated Mark Twain's home in Hartford, Connecticut, the state rooms at the White House, and several Back Bay homes. In some ways Tiffany was an expected choice to redecorate Old South. He followed many of the ideas of John Ruskin; he believed in the dignity and importance of the human hand and eye in the decorative arts. Yet Tiffany arrived at Old South at a time when his gilded age style had begun a decline. A new wave of neoclassicism called Beaux-Arts, and the Colonial Revival style were replacing Victorian ornament with a simpler classicism. Theodore Roosevelt's 1902 White House renovation removed all of the Tiffany influence. In Tiffany's redecoration, Old South's stained glass windows were covered by insets of translucent tinted purple glass. The original polychrome stenciled plaster walls were painted purple, then stenciled in a series of geometric patterns with metallic silver paint intended to appear as mother of pearl inlay. Similar to Tiffany's work at Mark Twain's Hartford, Connecticut home, or his design for the White House's Red Room. The resulting work at Old South was a highly ornamented visual experience, unified by a limited color palette.

1950s minimalism

In the early 1950s, possibly influenced by the minimalism of the International Style, a second renovation of the Sanctuary took place. The mid-20th-century renovation largely ignored the architectural history of the church. Louis Comfort Tiffany's paint and stenciling was obscured by a coat of light gray paint, and the purple Tiffany glass installed over the stained glass was removed. The oculus of the cupola was closed up. In some ways the removal of decoration recalled the congregation's Puritan roots.

Recognition and restoration

Old South Church's building was designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 1970.

In 1984 a research-driven restoration was begun. The period of the building's construction was adopted, using old photographs and engravings as sources, and paint analysis to replicate original colors, the interior spaces were returned closely to their 1875 appearance. Walls were repainted rose madder and the original Cummings and Sears' stencil patterns were recreated. The cupola was reopened, once more admitting light to the Sanctuary below. Polychrome stenciling repeated the original palette of ochre, bay leaf green, warm gray, and persimmon with metallic gold.

Organ
The church's present organ, Opus 308, was built in 1921 by E. M. Skinner & Company of Boston for the Municipal Auditorium Theater in St. Paul, Minnesota, and brought to the church in 1985 when that building was demolished. Originally 82 ranks and 5,728 pipes, it now has 115 ranks and 7,625 pipes ranging from  to  in length. The church had previously installed another Skinner organ in 1915; its successful inaugural concert series featured organists William C. Hammond, Gaston Dethier, Edwin Arthur Kraft, Charles Heinroth, and T. Tertius Noble.

The organ console is located behind the pulpit and is on a hydraulic platform so that it may be raised for concerts and recessed for worship services. The organ's pipes are located behind and to the right and left of the chancel and also at the back of the rear balcony above the entrance to the Sanctuary (32' and chamade). Ten ornately painted wooden pipes are mounted at the front of each side balcony.

In December 2008, construction at the adjacent MBTA Copley station created a crack in the church's exterior and damage in the sanctuary. Out of fear that its use might cause further damage, the organ was not used from then until just before Easter in 2009.

Bay Psalm Book
Old South Church is the owner of one of eleven remaining first-edition copies of the Bay Psalm Book. The Bay Psalm Book, printed in 1640 by Stephen Daye, "was the first book printed in the what became the United States." Until 2013, when one copy was sold at auction to David Rubenstein, Old South Church owned two of the eleven first-edition copies. Old South Church's copy of the Bay Psalm Book is currently housed in the Rare Books Department of the Boston Public Library.

Senior ministers

To date twenty ministers have served Old South's congregation as Senior Minister; they are:
At Cedar Meeting House
 Thomas Thacher 1670-1678
 Samuel Willard 1678-1707
 Ebenezer Pemberton 1700-1717
 Joseph Sewall 1713-1769
 Thomas Prince 1718-1730
At Old South Meeting House
 Thomas Prince 1730-1758
 Alexander Cumming 1761-1763
 Samuel Blair 1766-1769
 John Hunt/John Bacon 1771-1775
 Joseph Eckley 1779-1811
 Joshua Huntington 1808-1819
 Benjamin B. Wisner 1821-1832 (departed in 1832 to become a Corresponding Secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions)
 Samuel H. Stearns 1834-1836
 George W. Blagden 1836-1872
 Jacob M. Manning 1857-1882
At Old South Church
 George Angier Gordon 1884-1927
 Russell Henry Stafford 1927-1945
 Frederick M. Meek 1946-1973
 James W. Crawford 1974-2002
 Carl F. Schultz Jr. 2002-2005 (Interim)
 Nancy S. Taylor 2005-2022
 Rich Spalding 2022-  (Interim)

See also

 Old South Meeting House
 List of National Historic Landmarks in Boston
 National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts

References

 Aldrich, Megan. Gothic Revival. Phaidon Press Ltd: 1994. .
 Bunting, Bainbridge. Houses of Boston's Back Bay: An Architectural History, 1840-1917. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: 1967. .
 Hitchcock, Henry-Russell. Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Yale University Press, Penguin History of Art, Second edition: 1963. .
 Hill, Hamilton Andrews. History of the Old South Church (Third Church) Boston, 1669–1884. Houghton, Mifflin and Company, The Riverside Press: 1890.
 Bigelow, George Frederick. An Historical Catalogue History of the Old South Church (Third Church) Private Distribution: 1883.
 O'Gorman, James F. On the Boards: Drawings by Nineteenth-Century Boston Architects. University of Pennsylvania Press:1989. .
 Placzek, Adolf K. Macmillan. Encyclopedia of Architects. 4 vols. Free Press: 1982. .
 Shand-Tucci, Douglas. Built in Boston: City and Suburb, 1800–2000. The University of Massachusetts Press: 1999. .
 Waters, Henry Fritz-Gilbert. "Genealogical gleanings in England." The New England Historical and Genealogical Register." Vols. 37-52, 1883-98.
 Withey, Henry F. Biographical Dictionary of American Architects (Deceased). Hennessey & Ingalls: 1970.
 History of the Old South Church of Boston.'' Published for the benefit of the Old South Fund: 1890.

External links

 Old South Church in Boston: official website
 The Diaries of John Hull, Mint-master and Treasurer of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay
 Satellite image of Old South Church
 Boston Old South Church at the site of the United Church of Christ
 High Victorian Gothic architecture in America
 Boston history and architecture
  2007

19th-century United Church of Christ church buildings
Bell towers in the United States
Church buildings with domes
Churches completed in 1874
Churches in Boston
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
Cummings and Sears buildings
Gothic Revival church buildings in Massachusetts
Landmarks in Copley Square
Members of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches
National Historic Landmarks in Boston
National Register of Historic Places in Boston
Stone churches in Massachusetts
Towers in Massachusetts
United Church of Christ churches in Massachusetts
Venetian Gothic architecture in the United States

Old South Church


Human richts in Turkey are theoretically protectit bu a variety o internaitional law treaties, which take precedence ower domestic legislation, accordin tae Airticle 90 o the 1982 Constitution.

The issue of human richts is o hie importance for the negotiations wi the European Union (EU). Acute human richts issues include in particular the status o Kurds in Turkey. The conflict wi the PKK, a militant guerrilla group, haes caused numerous human richts violations ower the years. There is an ongoin debate in the kintra on the richt tae life, tortur, freedom o expression as well as freedoms o releegion, assembly an association.

Politics o Turkey

Human richts in Turkey


The ounce (abbreviated: oz, the old Italian word onza, now spelled oncia) is a unit of mass or of weight in a number of different systems, including various systems of mass that form part of the imperial and United States customary systems. Its size can vary from system to system. The most commonly used ounces used today are the international avoirdupois ounce of about 28.35 grams, and the international troy ounce of about 31.1 grams.

Related pages
 Fluid ounce

Other websites
 Dictionary of Units: Ounce

Imperial units
Units of mass
Units of volume

Ounce


An atmometer or evaporimeter is a scientific instrument used for measuring the rate of water evaporation from a wet surface to the atmosphere. Atmometers are mainly used by farmers and growers to measure evapotranspiration (ET) rates of crops at any field location. Evapotranspiration is a measure of all of the water that evaporates from land surfaces plus the water that transpires from plant surfaces. Based on the amount of water that does evaporate and transpire, the user can water crops correspondingly, which results in less water use and possibly increased crop yields. Companies that currently sell atmometers include C&M Meteorological Supply and Calsense.

Design
An atmometer consists of a porous, ceramic plate connected to a water reservoir by a glass or plastic tube. The device stands around  tall with a diameter of . Water is drawn from the water reservoir through the tube to wet the plate. As the water on the plate evaporates, more water is drawn from the reservoir to re-wet the plate. A canvas cover made of Gore-Tex is placed over the plate to prevent anything from getting in. The canvas cover is important because it simulates the amount of solar radiation a plant absorbs under certain weather conditions and controls the rate of evaporation. Different types of canvas covers simulate different amounts of evapotranspiration rates that various plant surfaces would undergo. For example, alfalfa ET rates are estimated using the No. 54 green canvas cover, while grass ET rates are estimated using the No. 30 green canvas cover. A membrane between the plate and canvas cover prevents rain water from wetting the gauge yet allows water vapor to escape. A gauge that runs up the side of the atmometer measures the level of water (in inches) in the reservoir, which shows how much water has evaporated.

An electronic model of the atmometer is also available, which includes a data logger attached to it. A data logger automatically records the level of water every time a change due to evaporation occurs. The data that the data logger records can be downloaded onto a computer to record the results. The electronic model eliminates possible human error that could occur from reading the gauge, but costs approximately $900 while the manual model costs approximately $300.

Use and maintenance
An atmometer is fairly easy to install and use. It is usually mounted on a wooden post about s above the ground in an area representative of the weather and field conditions. The plate of the atmometer should be placed in direct sunlight so the evaporation rates are not affected. It should not be placed near tall trees or buildings, as they can affect the amount of exposure that the atmometer has to environmental factors, which affect evapotranspiration rates. To measure the amount of water that has evaporated, calculate the change in water level on the gauge by subtracting the final water level from the initial water level.

Advantages (compared to weather stations)
In a 2003 study conducted on the Central Coast of California, the performance of atmometers was compared with that of the more expensive weather stations. Atmometers were placed adjacent to seven weather stations around the area and weekly values were recorded for each method. The results indicated that the atmometers and weather stations yielded very similar results, both producing comparable evapotranspiration (ET) readings. Under conditions of lower evapotranspiration, the atmometers produced slightly lower ET values than those of the weather stations. Studies conducted by Colorado State University and the United States Department of Agriculture in Fort Collins produced similar results. The atmometers produced evapotranspiration values that were very close to the data calculated from weather stations. These studies show that atmometers are especially useful for areas that do not have access to nearby weather stations and/or evapotranspiration data.

 Low cost
 Easy operation
 Convenience
 No computer or power required

Disadvantages (compared to weather stations)
 Potential weather damage can occur to the device
 Constant need to refill water supply
 Gauge must be read manually (only on manual model)

See also
 Pan evaporation

References

External links

 C&M Meteorological Supply
 Calsense Atmometer

Agronomy
Water and the environment

Atmometer


The four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis) is a bovine even-toed ungulate. It is also called by its Hindi name chousingha. It is different from other bovines because it has four horns instead of two.

Four-horned antelope are about 0.60 meters high, and they weigh about 20 kilograms. They have a light yellowish-brown fur with a white underside. They have a black stripe down their forelegs. Males have four horns. The back horns are about 10 centimeters long, and the front horns are up to 4 centimeters long.

Four-horned antelope live in India and Nepal. They live in forests. Four-horned antelopes live alone. They eat grass.

Four-horned antelope are hunted by trophy-hunters because of their four horns, but they are also hunted for their meat. Because of the hunting and also because of habitat loss, there are now fewer than 10,000 four-horned antelopes.

Today, four-horned antelope do not live in Africa, but their ancestors probably did.

References

Bovines
Mammals of Asia

Four-horned antelope


Tallmansville is a small unincorporated community in Upshur County, West Virginia, United States.  The ZIP code of Tallmansville is 26237; its ZCTA had a population of 418 at the 2000 census.  The nearby community of Sago gained international notoriety on January 2, 2006 for the Sago Mine disaster, which killed 12 coal miners.

The community of Tallmansville received its name, honoring their first postmaster Benjamin Tallman, in 1869. According to the Geographic Names Information System, the town has also had the
toponyms Stroder and Strader Station in the past.

References

Unincorporated communities in Upshur County, West Virginia
Unincorporated communities in West Virginia

Tallmansville, West Virginia


A hit record is a recording (either a single or an album) that becomes very popular, through large sales of copies, repeated airplay on the radio. or presence in the media. One aspect usually promotes one or more of the others.

The Beatles, Elvis Presley, The Eagles and Michael Jackson all had many hit records. They are among the biggest-selling musical acts of all time. Not every recording artist has a hit record. Many artists and groups lose their recording contracts, if their records do not become hits.

Not all hit records feature music. Some spoken word records also become hits, including comedy recordings. Bill Cosby, George Carlin, and Cheech & Chong are comedians who have all had hit records. A recording of speeches by the late American President John F. Kennedy became one of the biggest-selling albums of the 1960s.

References

Music industry

Hit record


Lip balm is a product which is put on lips so they will not dry when a person is outside in the sun and wind. Lip balm is usually made from petrolatum. Some types of lip balm also include sunscreen to protect the lips from sunburn. Lip balm comes in tubes and small pots with screw-on lids. Lip balm is often used during the winter, because the cold winter winds can dry out a person's lips so that they are cracked and hurting (this is called having "chapped" lips).

Care

Lip balm


Aaron is a person described in the Bible and the Qu'ran. He was the older brother of Moses. He helped Moses lead the Hebrews out of Egypt. In the Bible, he appeared very much in Exodus.

Moses' helper
Aaron spoke for Moses, when he went to tell Pharaoh the King of Egypt everything God wanted Moses to say. The Lord said to Moses (Exodus 7:1 to 3), "See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet. You are to say everything I command you, and your brother Aaron is to tell Pharaoh to let the Israelites go out of his country...".

Aaron's staff

Aaron's staff was used by the Lord a few times when trying to persuade the Pharaoh to let the Israelites go. The Lord ordered Moses and Aaron, "When Pharaoh says to you, 'Perform a miracle,' then say to Aaron, Take your staff and throw it down before Pharaoh', and it will become a snake." So Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and Aaron did so. Aaron's staff, according to the Bible, really became a snake and ate up all the other snakes that the Pharaoh's magicians had made. Also, Aaron's staff was used to make the Nile River all turn into blood. He "stretched it out", and the fish in the Nile died, and the river smelled; and the Egyptians could not drink the water, as it was recorded in the Bible.

Old Testament people
Ancient Israeli people
15th-century BC deaths

Aaron


Czechoslovak Television (ČST) was a television network. It was the main broadcaster of Czechoslovakia. It closed in 1993 because Czechoslovakia became two new countries, Czech Republic and Slovakia.

In the Czech language, it was called Československá televize.

In the Slovak language, it was called Československá televízia until 1990. In 1990, they changed the Slovak name to Česko-slovenská televízia.

History
Czechoslovak Television started on 1st May 1953. It was just one television programme, which was a few hours long.

Czechoslovak Television was heavily censored by the communist government. In 1968, the government allowed Czechoslovak Television to mention the Prague Spring protests for a few days. However, in 1969, the government started to censor ČST heavily again.

Launch of a second channel
On May 10, 1970, Czechoslovak Television made a second television channel, ČST TV2.

Colour Television
On May 9, 1973, Czechoslovak Television started to show television programmes in colour on ČST TV2. Two years later, they started colour television programmes on the first channel too.

In 1979, a studio was opened in the Kavci mountains, which became the home of Czechoslovak Television's news department.

ČST TV2 is split into two separate channels
In November 1989, Czechoslovak Television renamed the first channel F1, with the 'F' meaning the federal district of Czechoslovakia. The second channel was replaced by two new channels: ČTV, which was in the Czech language and S1, which was in the Slovak language.

They also created a new third channel in Czech on 14 May 1990, called OK3, using technology which used to broadcast Soviet television. Another new third channel was created in Slovak and called TA 3, on 6 June 1991.

Velvet Revolution
During the Velvet Revolution, when protests occurred in Czechoslovakia, the people who worked at Czechoslovak Television helped the protesters to spread their messages.

Velvet divorce ends Czechoslovak Television
Czechoslovakia became two new countries, the Czech Republic and Slovakia on the 31st December 1992. This split is known as the 'Velvet Divorce'. Because of it, Czechoslovak Television was no longer needed. In the Czech Republic, a new television network called Czech television took over, and in Slovakia Slovenská televízia was created.

Directors of Czechoslovak Television
 1953 – 1958 Karel Kohout
 1958 – 1959 Milan Krejčí
 1959 – 1963 Adolf Hradecký
 1963 – 1968 Jiří Pelikán
 1968 Bohumil Švec
 1968 – 1969 Josef Šmídmajer
 1969 – 1989 Jan Zelenka
 1989 Libor Bátrla
 1989 – 1990 Miroslav Pavel
 1990 Jindřich Fairaizl
 1990 – 1992 Jiří Kantůrek

References

Czechoslovakia
Television networks
1992 disestablishments in Europe
1953 establishments in Europe

Czechoslovak Television


The triangle is a musical instrument with three sides and curved corners. There is always one corner where the sides do not join.  This makes it possible for the instrument to vibrate.

The player holds a small piece of string or leather from which the triangle is hanging, and he makes a sound by hitting the triangle with a triangle beater.  In orchestras, where the percussionist may be playing several percussion instruments, the triangle may hang from a stand so that the player can move quickly to another instrument.

Triangles come in different sizes. Smaller ones will sound higher than larger ones.

The triangle can always be heard clearly above the sound of the orchestra or band.

percussion instruments

Triangle (musical instrument)


Marshalls is an American chain of off-price department stores owned by TJX Companies. Marshalls has over 1,000 American stores, including larger stores named Marshalls Mega Store, covering 49 states and Puerto Rico, and 61 stores in Canada. Marshalls first expanded into Canada in March 2011.

Marshalls is one of the largest U.S. off-price family apparel and home fashion retailers, along with its sister company, TJ Maxx. Its slogans are Your Surprise Is Waiting and Never Boring, Always Surprising.

History
Marshalls traces its history to 1956, when Alfred Marshall gathered a band of innovative entrepreneurs on the East Coast, including Bernard Goldston, Norman Barren, and Irving Blitt (Frank Estey and Bernard Ribas joined the entrepreneurs in 1960 by purchasing Bernard Goldston's shares), to collectively start up the "Brand Names For Less" concept. Marshalls did not carry clothing until Irving Blitt (who later handled the sporting goods concession) called his friend Al Marshall letting him know he had the opportunity to purchase factory second Arrow shirts while on a trip to New York.

Contemplating the dual postwar phenomena of a boom in the economy and growth in the suburbs, Marshall and associates came upon a way to meet it profitably. Together, they opened a self-service department store in Beverly, Massachusetts, offering apparel and homewares at alluringly low prices. Additional floor space was "sublet" to offer customers shoes, hardware, and sporting goods from separate sellers, but the separate ownership of those departments was invisible to the shopper. The original store also had a soda fountain/grill, which was another sublet of floor space, the "A & M Luncheonette" (for Alice & Mickey Masters, the proprietors).

The concept proved extremely successful. Ten years later, Marshalls had become the leading off-price retail chain in the nation. Given the volatility of the American economy in the 1970s, with recession affecting the spending habits of most shoppers, the off-price industry gathered speed. By buying up manufacturers' post-season, overrun, and close-out stock, Marshalls was able to offer fashionable, high-quality "designer" items at prices 20 to 60 percent less than those of the department stores.

In 1976, Marshalls was acquired by Melville Corporation. By 1993, Marshalls had expanded throughout 42 states including Hawaii, and had opened several downtown locations. In 1995, Marshalls was purchased by TJX, the parent company of its main rival, TJ Maxx, for $550 million.

Marshalls and T.J. Maxx operate as sister stores, and share a similar footprint throughout the country. While the two offer near-identical prices and have similar store layouts, Marshalls differentiates itself by featuring a larger emphasis on family footwear and larger men's and juniors departments.

In 2019, Marshalls began operating a website for online shopping.

Legal troubles
TJX paid US$100 million settlement in California to settle an employee class-action suit in 2002, which alleged that Marshalls abused exempt/nonexempt classifications to avoid the payment of overtime or compensation time to employees in certain roles performing non-exempt job duties, as required by the federal Fair Labor Standards Act.

Charity
The enterprise has developed national and local partnerships with U.S. charitable organizations. All donations and fund-raising efforts from Marshalls are connected to helping children, families, and their communities with these programs:
Domestic Violence Prevention
Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation
National Youth Anti-Drug Campaign
St. Jude Children's Research Hospital
United Way

Marshalls Canada
Marshalls opened its first locations in Canada in March 2011. As of November 2016, Marshalls Canada had 50 stores with plans to operate approximately 100 stores across the country.

See also
H&M
Ross Stores

References

External links

TJX Companies
American companies established in 1956
Retail companies established in 1956
Clothing retailers of the United States
Clothing retailers of Canada
Discount stores of Canada
Discount stores of the United States
Department stores of Canada
Companies based in Framingham, Massachusetts
1956 establishments in Massachusetts
1976 mergers and acquisitions
1995 mergers and acquisitions

Marshalls


Equatorial Guinea was first at the Olympic Games in 1984.  They have been in every Summer Olympic Games since then.  The nation has never been in the Winter Olympic Games.

As of 2011, no athlete from Equatorial Guinea has ever won an Olympic medal.

The National Olympic Committee for Equatorial Guinea was formed in 1980 and recognized by the International Olympic Committee in 1984.

References

Equatorial Guinea
Nations at the Olympics

Equatorial Guinea at the Olympics


Liquid scintillation counting is an analytical technique. It is used to measure radiation from beta (alpha) - emitting nuclides. It can also detect the auger electrons emitted from Chromium-51 (51Cr) and Iodine-125 (125I) samples. Samples of nuclides are dissolved or suspended in a "cocktail". The "cocktail" is containing an aromatic solvent and small amounts of other additives known as fluors. Beta (alpha) particles emitted from the sample transfer energy to the solvent molecules. The molecules  in turn transfer their energy to the fluors. The excited fluor molecules dissipate the energy by emitting light. Scintillation cocktails often contain additives that shift the wavelength of the emitted light. It makes it more easily detected.

The samples are placed in small transparent (often glass or plastic) vials. They are loaded into a liquid scintillation counter. The counter has two photomultiplier tubes. They are connected in a coincidence circuit. The coincidence circuit assures that genuine light pulses are counted.
Counting efficiencies under ideal conditions is about 30% for tritium. Tritium is a low-energy beta emitter. It is nearly 100% for phosphorus-32 (32P). Phosphorus is a high-energy beta emitter. Some chemical compounds and highly colored samples can interfere with the counting process. This interference is known as "quenching". It can be overcome through data correction or through careful sample preparation. 32P can also be counted in a scintillation counter without the cocktail. This technique is known as Cherenkov counting. It relies on the Cherenkov radiation being detected directly by the photomultiplier tubes. Cherenkov counting in this experimental context is normally used for quick rough measurements.

Physics

Liquid scintillation counting


Max Meili, a Swiss tenor, was born 11 December 1899 in Winterthur and died 17 March 1970 in Zürich, Switzerland. He first trained as a painter then turned to singing, leading to lessons with  Felix von Kraus.

Meili was mainly a concert singer, concentrating on music from the time of Bach and before, then just beginning to experience a revival of public interest; he was recognized as a specialist in medieval vocal music. His appearances at the  Salzburg Festival in 1936 and 1937 were as a recitalist.  Curiously, one of Meili's rare appearances in opera involved music at an extreme remove from his usual repertory; in May 1931 he participated in the premiere of Alois Hába's opera Die Mutter at the Gärtnerplatztheater in Munich, Germany. Ten years later, on 15 January 1941, Meili sang  Addio terra, addio cielo from Monteverdi's L'Orfeo at the funeral service of James Joyce at Zürich's Fluntern Cemetery.

Meili's recordings from the 78 RPM era included Renaissance lute songs recorded for HMV (issued in the United States by Victor) and early music released on L'Anthologie Sonore.  He continued to record into the LP era, among other things appearing in the title role in the first post-World War II recording of Monteverdi's L'Orfeo, taped by the Berlin Radio in the late 1940s and released by American Vox. By this time, however, critics began to note a decline in his voice.

Meili was a founding member of the Schola Cantorum Basiliensis in 1933. In 1955 he founded the  Collegium Cantorum Turicense, which he directed in music of Monteverdi and Heinrich Schütz.

References
Bach Cantatas Website Biographical sketch of Max Meili accessed March 10, 2008
Gruber, Paul: The Metropolitan Opera Guide to Recorded Opera (W.W. Norton & Company, 1993)
Notes to Music of the Renaissance, RCA Victor 78 RPM album MO-495 (Max Meili, tenor; Fritz Worsching, lute)
Pindar, Ian: Joyce (Haus Publishing, 2004)

1899 births
1970 deaths
20th-century Swiss male opera singers
Swiss operatic tenors
People from Winterthur
Academic staff of Schola Cantorum Basiliensis

Max Meili


Open-wheel car describes cars with the wheels outside the car's main body and, in most cases, one seat. Other names include formula car, single-seater car in British English, or Indy car in the United States. Open-wheel cars are different from street cars, sports cars, stock cars, and touring cars. These car have their wheels below or inside the body or fenders. Open-wheel cars are usually built just for racing. Often, they have a higher amount of technological sophistication than in other forms of motor racing.

Design
A typical open-wheeler has a small cockpit. It is only large enough for the driver's body. The head is exposed to the air. In modern cars the engine is often located directly behind the driver, and drives the rear wheels. Depending on the rules of the class, many types of open-wheelers have spoilers or wings. They are very low and have an almost flat bottom. These help add aerodynamic downforce. This pushes the car on to the road and makes it handle better.

Some races, such as the Monaco Grand Prix are held on temporary street circuits. Most open-wheel races are on dedicated road courses, such as the Nürburgring in Germany. In the United States some top-level open wheel events are held on ovals, both short track and superspeedways. The most famous the annual Indianapolis 500 (Indy 500)

Driving
Driving an open-wheel car is very different from driving a car with fenders. Open-wheel vehicles, are light weight, have good aerodynamics, and powerful engines. Wheel-to-wheel contact is dangerous. If the forward edge of one tire contacts the rear of another tire, the vehicle my be flipped into the air and upside down.

Auto racing

Open wheel car


Insomnia is when people cannot sleep for long or short periods. A person with this problem is called an insomniac. Insomnia can mean a problem with getting to sleep or a problem with staying asleep. Insomnia is a symptom and not a disease or illness.

Different kinds of insomnia
There are at least three different types of insomnia:
 Transient Insomnia: this lasts from one night to a few weeks.
 Acute Insomnia: lasts from a few weeks to about six months.
 Chronic Insomnia: lasts for years at a time.

Causes
There are many causes of insomnia. Some of them are:
 As people get older, their sleep patterns change. They will sleep shorter periods of time, but more often. Younger people usually sleep longer. This is normal.
 Some insomnia issues are caused by stimulant drugs, such as amphetamine, cocaine and nicotine. Coffee stimulates the body, and people tend to drink quite a lot of it when they are at work. If they drink too much of it, they will have problems falling asleep in the evening. (The same is true for tea, colas, or any other drink with caffeine in it.)
 Some people worry a lot. Their worries during the day will bother them at night. They might have nightmares, or they may wake up sweating.
 Some substances, like alcohol can have a bad effect. It can be very hard to sleep after drinking a lot of alcohol. The world may spin and there can be an urge to vomit as soon the person closes their eyes. Drugs can also have this effect, even some "sleeping" pills.
 A very rare disease called fatal familial insomnia prevents some people from falling asleep. In this disease, a person can no longer sleep and after a while will die from being so tired. It is caused by a protein similar to the one that causes mad cow disease which is a very bad disease that comes from eating infected meat.
 People with disorders of their circadian rhythms often have trouble sleeping at normal times.
 Insomnia is a common symptom of some mental disorders: bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, dementia and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Treatments
There are drugs available that can help treat the different kinds of insomnia. In some cases, there are also certain herbs that can help. A third way that seems to help is a type of therapy that aims at changing the behaviour of those affected.

References

Sleep disorders

Insomnia


Microtia meaning 'small ear' is a deformation of the outer ear. Over 90% of the time, only one ear is affected, but both ears can be affected. More boys are affected than girls. The right ear is more affected than the left. One in 1000 people have microtia. It can affect hearing. There are four grades of microtia:
Grade I: A slightly small ear with identifiable structures and a small but present external ear canal
Grade II: A partial or hemi-ear with a closed off ("stenotic") external ear canal producing a conductive hearing loss
Grade III: Absence of the external ear with a small peanut vestige structure and an absence of the external ear canal and ear drum
Grade IV: Absence of the total ear {"anotia")
Grade III is most common, and can be corrected by surgery.

Growth disorders

Microtia


In a general sense, locomotion simply means active movement or travel, not only of biological individuals.
 In biology, locomotion is the self-powered movement of limbs or other anatomical parts by which an individual moves itself from place to place.

Forms of locomotion are walking (and knuckle-walking), running, crawling, climbing, swimming and flying.
 In engineering:
 Locomotion No. 1 is the name of an early steam railway locomotive, even older than Stephenson's Rocket.
 Robot locomotion
 Chris Sawyer's Locomotion is a 2004 computer game by Chris Sawyer.
 Locomotion is a 1981 arcade game by Konami.
 Locomotion (puzzle game) is a 1992 puzzle game by Andre Wuthrich published by Kingsoft. Music by Gunnar Gaubatz (info from Gamebase database)
 "The Loco-Motion" is a 1960s hit song, originally performed by Little Eva, and its accompanying dance.
 "Locomotion" is a museum in the town of Shildon, County Durham, England.
 "Locomotion" was a cable TV channel in Latin America.
 Locomotion is a young adult novel in poetic form by Jacqueline Woodson.
 Locomotion is a 9-piece horn band based in Connecticut (USA).  Started in June 1987, the band plays clubs, weddings, fairs, fund raisers, and private functions of all types.
 Locomotion is a 6-piece soul band based in Wiltshire (UK).  Started in 1993, this band also plays clubs, weddings, fairs, fund raisers, and private functions of all types.

Locomotion


In Sumerian mythology, a me (; Sumerian: ; ) is one of the decrees of the divine that is foundational to Sumerian religious and social institutions, technologies, behaviors, mores, and human conditions that made Mesopotamian civilization possible.  They are fundamental to the Sumerian understanding of the relationship between humanity and the gods.

Mythological origin and nature
The mes were originally collected by Enlil and then handed over to the guardianship of Enki, who was to broker them out to the various Sumerian centers, beginning with his own city of Eridu and continuing with Ur, Meluhha, and Dilmun.  This is described in the poem, "Enki and the World Order" which also details how he parcels out responsibility for various crafts and natural phenomena to the lesser gods.  Here the mes of various places are extolled but are not themselves clearly specified, and they seem to be distinct from the individual responsibilities of each divinity as they are mentioned in conjunction with specific places rather than gods. After a considerable amount of self-glorification on the part of Enki, his daughter Inanna comes before him with a complaint that she has been given short shrift on her divine spheres of influence.  Enki does his best to placate her by pointing out those she does in fact possess.

There is no direct connection implied in the mythological cycle between this poem and that which is our main source of information on the mes, "Inanna and Enki: The Transfer of the Arts of Civilization from Eridu to Uruk", but once again Inanna's discontent is a theme. She is the tutelary deity of Uruk and desires to increase its influence and glory by bringing the mes to it from Eridu.  She travels to Enki's Eridu shrine, the E-abzu, in her "boat of heaven", and asks the mes from him after he is drunk, whereupon he complies.  After she departs with them, he comes to his senses and notices they are missing from their usual place, and on being informed what he did with them attempts to retrieve them.  The attempt fails and Inanna triumphantly delivers them to Uruk.

The Sumerian tablets never actually describe what any of the mes look like, but they are clearly represented by physical objects of some sort. Not only are they stored in a prominent location in the E-abzu, but Inanna is able to display them to the people of Uruk after she arrives with them in her boat. Some of them are indeed physical objects such as musical instruments, but many are technologies like "basket weaving" or abstractions like "victory". It is not clarified in the poem how such things can be stored, handled, or displayed.

Not all of the mes are admirable or desirable traits. Alongside functions like "heroship" and "victory" are "the destruction of cities", "falsehood", and "enmity". The Sumerians apparently considered such evils and sins an inevitable part of humanity's experience in life, divinely and inscrutably decreed, and not to be questioned.

List of mes
Although more than one hundred mes appear to be mentioned in the latter myth, and the entire list is given four times, the tablets upon which it is found are so fragmentary that we have only a little over sixty of them.  In the order given, they are:

 ENship
 Godship
 The exalted and enduring crown
 The throne of kingship
 The exalted sceptre
 The royal insignia
 The exalted shrine
 Shepherdship
 Kingship
 Lasting ladyship
 "Divine lady" (a priestly office)
 Ishib (a priestly office)
 Lumah (a priestly office)
 Guda (a priestly office)
 Truth
 Descent into the nether world
 Ascent from the nether world
 Kurgarra (a eunuch, or, possibly, ancient equivalent to modern concepts of androgyne or transgender)
 Girbadara (a eunuch)
 Sagursag (a eunuch, entertainers related to the cult of Inanna)
 The battle-standard
 The flood
 Weapons (?)
 Sexual intercourse
 Prostitution
 Law (?)
 Libel (?)
 Art
 The cult chamber
 "hierodule of heaven"
 Gusilim (a musical instrument)
 Music
 Eldership
 Heroship
 Power
 Enmity
 Straightforwardness
 The destruction of cities
 Lamentation
 Rejoicing of the heart
 Falsehood
 Art of metalworking
 Scribeship
 Craft of the smith
 Craft of the leatherworker
 Craft of the builder
 Craft of the basket weaver
 Wisdom
 Attention
 Holy purification
 Fear
 Terror
 Strife
 Peace
 Weariness
 Victory
 Counsel
 The troubled heart
 Judgment
 Decision
 Lilis (a musical instrument)
 Ub (a musical instrument)
 Mesi (a musical instrument)
 Ala (a musical instrument)

References

Citations

Works cited

Further reading

 Emelianov, Vladimir (2009). Shumerskij kalendarnyj ritual (kategorija ME i vesennije prazdniki) (Calendar ritual in Sumerian religion and culture (ME's and the Spring Festivals)). St.-Petersburg, Peterburgskoje vostokovedenje, Orientalia.
 Farber-Flügge, Gertrud (1973). Der Mythos "Inanna und Enki" unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Liste der me  (The myth of "Inanna and Enki" under special consideration of the list of the me). PhD thesis, University of Munich, Faculty of Philosophy; Rome: Biblical Institute Press. Vol. 10 of Studia Pohl, Dissertationes scientificae de rebus orientis antiqui.

External links
 The Sumerian Mythology FAQ
 Inana and Enki cuneiform source translation at ETCSL (The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, University of Oxford, England)

Mesopotamian mythology

Me (mythology)


Pietro Alessandro Gaspare Scarlatti (2 May 1660 – 22 October 1725) was an Italian Baroque composer, known especially for his operas and chamber cantatas. He is considered the most important representative of the Neapolitan school of opera.

Nicknamed by his contemporaries "the Italian Orpheus", he divided his career between Naples and Rome, where he received his training; a significant part of his works was composed for the papal city. He is often considered the founder of the Neapolitan school, although he has only been its most illustrious representative: his contribution, his originality and his influence were essential, as well as lasting, both in Italy and in Europe.

Particularly known for his operas, he brought the Italian dramatic tradition to its maximum development, begun by Monteverdi at the beginning of 17th century and continued by Cesti, Cavalli, Carissimi, Legrenzi and Stradella, designing the final form of the Da capo aria, imitated throughout Europe. He was also the inventor of the Italian overture in three movements (which was of the highest importance in the development of the symphony), of the four-part sonata (progenitor of the modern string quartet), and of the technique of motivic development. He was a model for the musical theater of his time, as evoked by Händel's Italian works, deeply influenced by his theatrical music. Eclectic, Scarlatti also worked on all the other common genres of his time, from the sonata to the concerto grosso, from the motet to the mass, from the oratorio to the cantata, the latter being a genere in which he was an undisputed master.

He was the father of two other composers, Domenico Scarlatti and Pietro Filippo Scarlatti.

Life
Scarlatti was born in Palermo (or in Trapani), then part of the Kingdom of Sicily.

He is generally said to have been a pupil of Giacomo Carissimi in Rome, and some theorize that he had some connection with northern Italy because his early works seem to show the influence of Stradella and Legrenzi. The production at Rome of his opera Gli equivoci nel sembiante (1679) gained him the support of Queen Christina of Sweden (who at the time was living in Rome), and he became her maestro di cappella. In February 1684 he became maestro di cappella to the viceroy of Naples, perhaps through the influence of his sister, an opera singer, who might have been the mistress of an influential Neapolitan noble. Here he produced a long series of operas, remarkable chiefly for their fluency and expressiveness, as well as other music for state occasions.

In 1702 Scarlatti left Naples and did not return until the Spanish domination had been superseded by that of the Austrians. In the interval he enjoyed the patronage of Ferdinando de' Medici, for whose private theatre near Florence he composed operas, and of Cardinal Ottoboni, who made him his maestro di cappella, and procured him a similar post at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome in 1703.

After visiting Venice and Urbino in 1707, Scarlatti took up his duties in Naples again in 1708, and remained there until 1717. By this time Naples seems to have become tired of his music; the Romans, however, appreciated it better, and it was at the Teatro Capranica in Rome that he produced some of his finest operas (Telemaco, 1718; Marco Attilio Regolò, 1719; La Griselda, 1721), as well as some noble specimens of church music, including a Messa di Santa Cecilia for chorus and orchestra, composed in honor of Saint Cecilia for Cardinal Francesco Acquaviva in 1721. His last work on a large scale appears to have been the unfinished Erminia serenata for the marriage of the prince of Stigliano in 1723. He died in Naples in 1725 and is entombed there at the church of Santa Maria di Montesanto.

Scarlatti's music

Scarlatti's music forms an important link between the early Baroque Italian vocal styles of the 17th century, with their centers in Florence, Venice and Rome, and the classical school of the 18th century. Scarlatti's style, however, is more than a transitional element in Western music; like most of his Naples colleagues he shows an almost modern understanding of the psychology of modulation and also frequently makes use of the ever-changing phrase lengths so typical of the Napoli school.

His early operas—Gli equivoci nel sembiante 1679; L'honestà negli amori 1680, containing the famous aria "Già il sole dal Gange"; Il Pompeo 1683, containing the well-known airs "O cessate di piagarmi" and "Toglietemi la vita ancor," and others down to about 1685—retain the older cadences in their recitatives, and a considerable variety of neatly constructed forms in their charming little arias, accompanied sometimes by the string quartet, treated with careful elaboration, sometimes with the continuo alone. By 1686, he had definitely established the "Italian overture" form (second edition of Dal male il bene), and had abandoned the ground bass and the binary form air in two stanzas in favour of the ternary form or da capo type of air. His best operas of this period are La Rosaura (1690, printed by the Gesellschaft für Musikforschung), and Pirro e Demetrio (1694), in which occur the arias "Le Violette", and "Ben ti sta, traditor".

From about 1697 onwards (La caduta del Decemviri), influenced partly perhaps by the style of Giovanni Bononcini and probably more by the taste of the viceregal court, his opera arias become more conventional and commonplace in rhythm, while his scoring is hasty and crude, yet not without brilliance (L'Eraclea, 1700), the oboes and trumpets being frequently used, and the violins often playing in unison. The operas composed for Ferdinando de' Medici are lost; they might have given a more favourable idea of his style as his correspondence with the prince shows that they were composed with a very sincere sense of inspiration.

Mitridate Eupatore, accounted his masterpiece, composed for Venice in 1707, contains music far in advance of anything that Scarlatti had written for Naples, both in technique and in intellectual power. The later Neapolitan operas (L'amor volubile e tiranno 1709; La principessa fedele 1710; Tigrane, 1714, &c.) are showy and effective rather than profoundly emotional; the instrumentation marks a great advance on previous work, since the main duty of accompanying the voice is thrown upon the string quartet, the harpsichord being reserved exclusively for the noisy instrumental ritornelli. In his opera Teodora (1697) he originated the use of the orchestral ritornello.

His last group of operas, composed for Rome, exhibit a deeper poetic feeling, a broad and dignified style of melody, a strong dramatic sense, especially in accompanied recitatives, a device which he himself had been the first to use as early as 1686 (Olimpia vendicata) and a much more modern style of orchestration, the horns appearing for the first time, and being treated with striking effect.

Besides the operas, oratorios (Agar et Ismaele esiliati, 1684; La Maddalena, 1685; La Giuditta, 1693; Humanita e Lucifero, 1704; Christmas Oratorio, c. 1705; Cain, 1707; S. Filippo Neri, 1714; and others) and serenatas, which all exhibit a similar style, Scarlatti composed upwards of five hundred chamber-cantatas for solo voice. These represent the most intellectual type of chamber-music of their period, and it is to be regretted that they have remained almost entirely in manuscript, since a careful study of them is indispensable to anyone who wishes to form an adequate idea of Scarlatti's development.

His few remaining Masses (the story of his having composed two hundred is hardly credible) and church music in general are comparatively unimportant, except the great Saint Cecilia Mass (1721), which is one of the first attempts at the style which reached its height in the great Masses of Johann Sebastian Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven. His instrumental music, though not without interest, is curiously antiquated as compared with his vocal works.

Operas

Recordings
Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra, Nicholas McGegan. (2016). La Gloria di Primavera. Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra. Diana Moore, Suzana Ograjensek, Nicholas Phan, Clint van der Linde, Douglas Williams, Philharmonia Chorale.
Akademie für alte Musik Berlin, René Jacobs. (2007). Griselda. Harmonia Mundi HMC 901805.07. Dorothea Röschmann, Lawrence Zazzo, Veronica Cangemi, Bernarda Fink, Silvia Tro Santafé, Kobie van Rensburg.
Le Consert de l'Hostel Dieu. (2006). Il martirio di Sant'Orsola. Ligia digital: 0202176-07
Le parlement de musique. (2005). La Giuditta. Ambronay editions: AMY004
Ensemble Europa Galante. (2004). Oratorio per la Santissima Trinità. Virgin Classics: 5 45666 2
Academia Bizantina. (2004). Il Giardino di Rose. Decca: 470 650-2 DSA.
Orqestra barocca di Sevilla . (2003). Colpa, Pentimento e Grazia. Harmonia Mundi: HMI 987045.46
Seattle Baroque. (2001). Agar et Ismaele Esiliati. Centaur: CRC 2664
Sedecia, re di Gerusalemme. 2000 . Gérard Lesne, Philippe Jaroussky, Virginie Pouchon, Mark Padmore, Peter Harvey, Il Seminario musicale. Virgin veritas, Erato
Capella Palatina. (2000). Davidis pugna et victoria. Agora: AG 249.1
Akademie für alte Musik Berlin, René Jacobs. (1998). Il Primo Omicidio. Harmonia Mundi Fr. Dorothea Röschmann, Graciela Oddone, Richard Croft, René Jacobs, Bernarda Fink, Antonio Abete
Ensemble Europa Galante. (1995). Humanita e Lucifero. Opus 111: OPS 30–129
Ensemble Europa Galante. (1993). La Maddalena. Opus 111: OPS 30–96
Allesandro Stradella Consort. (1992). Cantata natalizia Abramo, il tuo sembiante. Nuova era: 7117
I Musici. (1991). Concerto Grosso. Philips Classics Productions: 434 160-2
I Musici. William Bennett (Flute), Lenore Smith (Flute), Bernard Soustrot (Trumpet), Hans Elhorst (Oboe). (1961). 12 Sinfonie di concerto grosso Philips Box 6769 066 [9500 959 & 9500 960 – 2 vinyl discs]
Emma Kirkby, soprano and Daniel Taylor, countertenor, with the Theatre of Early Music. (2005). Stabat Mater. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2237
Francis Colpron, recorder, with Les Boréades. (2007). Concertos for flute. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2521
Nederlands Kamerkoor, with Harry van der Kamp, conductor. (2008). Vespro della Beata Vergine for 5 voices and continuo. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2533

See also
 Messa di Santa Cecilia
 Il Martirio di Santa Cecilia

References

External links

 Associazione Domenico Scarlatti. Italian language (some material in English).
 Free scores by Alessandro Scarlatti at the International Music Score Library Project

  The Madrigals of Alessandro Scarlatti: A lecture/recital by Garrick Comeaux and Consortium Carissimi, with Kelley Harness, 12 February 2009. University of Minnesota Institute for Advanced Studies. Audio and video available.
 The partimenti of Alessandro Scarlatti (D-Hs M/A 251)

1660 births
1725 deaths
17th-century Italian educators
18th-century Italian educators
Italian classical composers
18th-century Italian male musicians
Catholic liturgical composers
Classical composers of church music
Italian Baroque composers
Italian opera composers
Italian classical musicians
Italian male classical composers
Male opera composers
Neapolitan school composers
String quartet composers
17th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian composers
Composers from Sicily
Musicians from Palermo
 01
17th-century male musicians

Alessandro Scarlatti


Christoph Meiners (31 July 1747 – 1 May 1810) was a German racialist, philosopher, historian,  and writer born in Warstade. He supported the polygenist theory of human origins. He was a member of the Göttingen School of History.

Biography
Chistoph Meiners was born in Warstade (now a part of Hemmoor) near Otterndorf. He started at a gymnasium in Bremen in 1763, and was a student at Göttingen from 1767 to 1770. In 1772 he became extraordinary professor, and in 1775 full professor, of Weltweisheit at the University of Göttingen. From 1788 to 1791 he co-edited the anti-Kantian journal Philosophische Bibliothek. He wrote on comparative history and cultural history. He is now known mostly for his critical attitude towards Immanuel Kant, Mary Wollstonecraft and the concept of Enlightenment. He died in Göttingen. He later became the favorite intellectual ancestor of the Nazis.

Polygenism

Meiners was a polygenist: he believed that each race had a separate origin. He was a very early practitioner of scientific racism. Meiners studied the physical, mental and moral characteristics of each race, and built a race hierarchy based on the evidence that was considered common in scientific and anthropological circles at the time. Meiners split humanity into two divisions which he labeled the "beautiful White race" and the "ugly Black race". In Meiners's book The Outline of History of Mankind he claimed that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. He viewed only the white race as beautiful. He considered ugly races as inferior, immoral, and animal-like. He claimed that the black ugly peoples are distinct from the white beautiful peoples by their sad lack of virtue and their terrible vices.

According to Meiners:

The more intelligent and noble people are by nature, the more adaptable, sensitive, delicate, and soft is their body; on the other hand, the less they possess the capacity and disposition towards virtue, the more they lack adaptability; and not only that, but the less sensitive are their bodies, the more can they tolerate extreme pain or the rapid alteration of heat and cold; when they are exposed to illnesses, the more rapid their recovery from wounds that would be fatal for more sensitive peoples, and the more they can partake of the worst and most indigestible foods ... without noticeable ill effects.

Meiners claimed the Negro felt less pain than any other race and lacked in emotions. Meiners wrote that the Negro had thick nerves and thus was not sensitive like the other races, he went as far to say that the Negro has "no human, barely any animal feeling" he described a story where a Negro was condemned to death by being burned alive, halfway through the burning the Negro asked to smoke a pipe and smoked it like nothing was happening while he continued to be burned alive. Meiners studied the anatomy of the Negro and came to the conclusion that the Negro have bigger teeth and jaws than any other race, as the Negro are all carnivores. Meiners claimed the skull of the Negro was larger but the brain of the Negro was smaller than any other race. Meiners claimed the Negro was the most unhealthy race on earth because of the Negro's poor diet, mode of living and lack of morals he said.

Meiners also claimed Native Americans were an inferior stock of people. He claimed that Indians cannot adapt to different climates, different types of food or modes of life and that when they are exposed to these new conditions they lapse into a "deadly melancholy".
Meiners studied the diet of the Indians and said that they can feed off any kind of "foul offal" and that they consume huge amounts of alcohol. According to Meiners the Indians are extremely thick as the Spanish conquerors found out when their blades shattered on them. Meiners also claimed the skin of a Native American is thicker than an ox.

Meiners wrote that the noblest race was the Celts, and they were able to conquer various parts of the world, were more sensitive to heat and cold and their delicacy is shown by the way they are selective about what they eat. Meiners claimed Slavs are an inferior race, "less sensitive and content with eating rough food"; he described stories of Slavs eating poisonous fungi without coming to any harm. He claimed that their medical techniques were also backwards such as the Slavs baking sick people in ovens then making them roll in the snow.

Below the Slavs are the peoples of the Middle East and Asia, all limited in intelligence and of an evil disposition, which goes together with lack of adaptability and insensitivity.

In Meiners large work entitled Researches on the variations in human nature (1815), he studied the sexology of each race and claimed that the African Negroids have unduly strong and perverted sex drives, while only white Europeans have it at appropriately lower levels.

Works

Versuch über die Religionsgeschichte der ältesten Völker besonders der Egyptier (1775)
Geschichte des Ursprungs, Fortgangs und Verfalls der Wissenschaften in Griechenland und Rom (1781) two volumes
Geschichte des Luxus der Athenienser von den ältesten Zeiten an bis auf den Tod Philipps von Makedonien  (1782)
Grundriß der Geschichte der Menschheit (1785)
Beschreibung Alter Denkmäler in Allen Theilen Der Erde (1786)
Grundriß der Theorie und Geschichte der schönen Wissenschafften (1787)
Ueber den thierischen Magnetismus (1788)
Aus Briefen über die Schweiz. Reisen im Sommer 1782 und 1788 (1791)
Leben Ulrichs von Hutten (1797)
Lebensbeschreibungen berühmter Männer aus den Zeiten der Wiederherstellung der Wissenschaften (1797) three volumes
Beschreibung einer Reise nach Stuttgart und Strasburg im Herbste 1801 (1803)
 Allgemeine kritische Geschichte der Religionen. 2 vols (1806–7)
Untersuchungen über die Verschiedenheiten der Menschennaturen (1813) four volumes

References

Further reading

 Britta Rupp-Eisenreich, "Christoph Meiners' 'New Science' (1747–1810)," in Nicolas Bancel, Thomas David, and Dominic Thomas, eds., The Invention of Race; Scientific and Popular Representations (London and New York:  Routledge, 2014), 68–83.
 Morgan Golf-French, "Bourgeois Modernity Versus the Historical Aristocracy in Christoph Meiners's Political Thought," in: The Historical Journal 62(4): 1–24.

External links

1747 births
1810 deaths
18th-century German writers
18th-century German male writers
18th-century philosophers
19th-century German male writers
19th-century German writers
19th-century philosophers
18th-century German historians
German philosophers
People from Cuxhaven (district)
People from the Electorate of Hanover
Proponents of scientific racism
White supremacists

Christoph Meiners


Natore is a district of Rajshahi Division in northern Bangladesh.
It borders the metropolitan city of Rajshahi, and used to be part of Rajshahi district.

Etymology
At first Natore was a beel (a large water body) whose name was Chaivhanga. In 1706 Raja Ramjibon Rai established his capital here by filling the beel. Up until 1821 Natore was the central office of Rajshahi district. In 1845 Natore Mahakuma was established. Natore Municipality was established in 1869. Natore became a fullfledged district in 1984. "Indigo resistance" movements took place in this district during 1859 and 1860.

History
Natore was the District Headquarters of Rajshahi since 1769-1825. Administrative Natore subdivision was established in 1825 under Rajshahi district, on the eve of the shifting of the HQ.

During the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 a direct battle was fought between the Pakistani occupation army and the freedom fighters of Mukti Bahini on 29 March in which about 40 members of the Pakistani army including Major Aslam and Captain Ishaq were killed. On 5 May 1971 Pakistani Army killed 42 employees of North Bengal Sugar Mills (Lalpur) including the then General Manager of the mill, Lieutenant Anwarul Azim; they were killed near a pond in the mill campus. The pond is now known as "Shaheed Sagar" and there is a memorial beside the pond.

Marks of the War of Liberation: Mass grave 5, memorial 1.

Districts in Rajshahi Division

Natore District


Audrey Hepburn (4 May 1929 – 20 January 1993) was a Belgian-born British actress admired for her charm and elegance.

Early life
Born in Brussels, Belgium, to an English father and a Dutch mother who were divorced in 1935. She grew up in Arnhem municipality in the Netherlands during the war, with her mother and two maternal half-brothers. When World War II ended, she and her mother moved to England. There, she studied ballet, and began working as a model and appearing in bit parts in the theatre and in movies.

Career
Hepburn played her first major role in 1951, when she was chosen by French writer Colette to play the lead role in the English version of her play Gigi on Broadway.

This led to her being cast in the lead female part in the movie Roman Holiday (1953), opposite Gregory Peck. The movie  made her an instant international star. Her performance won her the Academy Award, the Golden Globe Award and the BAFTA for best actress. She then appeared in a string of successful romantic comedies, such as Sabrina (1954), Love in the Afternoon (1957), Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961), Charade (1963), How to Steal a Million (1967), etc. She also appeared in two musicals; Funny Face (1957) and My Fair Lady (1964) and tackled more dramatic roles in movies such as War and Peace (1956), The Nun's Story (1959), The Children's Hour (1961), Two for the Road (1967) and the thriller Wait Until Dark (1967).

After an eight years absence from the screen to take care of her family, she returned with Robin and Marian (1976), opposite Sean Connery. She also appeared in Bloodline (1979) and They All Laughed (1981) but retired for good shortly after.

In later life, she worked as a Goodwill Ambassador for UNICEF and hosted a television series The Gardens of the World with Audrey Hepburn.

She was married twice; first to actor/director Mel Ferrer in 1954, with whom she had a son Sean (b. 1960), and second to Italian psychiatrist Doctor Andrea Dotti in 1969, with whom she had a second son Luca (b. 1970). Both marriages ended in divorce.

Death and legacy
Hepburn died of appendix cancer in January 1993. Her elder son, Sean Ferrer, later wrote a book about his mother, called Audrey Hepburn: an elegant spirit. The asteroid 4238 Audrey is named after her.

Other websites

 Official web site by the Audrey Hepburn Children's Fund
 Audrey Hepburn's Gravesite

1929 births
1993 deaths
Deaths from appendix cancer
Actors from Brussels
BAFTA Award winning actors
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Cancer deaths in Switzerland
Deaths from colorectal cancer
English movie actors
English stage actors
English television actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Tony Award winning actors

Audrey Hepburn


No Pruiven (Not proven in Inglis) is a verdict that can be gien bi a coort in Scotland. Unner Scots law, juries decidin creeminal trials haes three verdicts that thay can retour; Guilty, No guilty an No Pruiven.

The No Pruiven verdict states that the coort hauds the procurator didna pit forrit eneuch evidents o pruif, raither nor that the defender wisna connectit ava wi the crime; the coort is statin that thare's eneuch conseederable dout anent the wytit defender's innocence.

The affcome o this aesome verdict is the same as ane o No Guilty, in that the defender is lowsed athoot punishment or creeminal record. It fends protection frae dooble jeopardy an aa. The effect on public opeinion can be gey different, houaniver, as it suggests that the defender is thocht tae be guilty but wis juist lowsed acause the procurator haedna gaithered eneuch evidents.

An example o this can be fund in 19t century Glesca.  Socialite Madeline Smith is braidly seen as haein been fund guilty o murther. The case wis no pruiven, but Smith is aye popularly thocht o as a convict murtheress.

In the een o the law, a No Pruiven verdict is the same as a No Guilty verdict. Houaniver, a No Pruiven verdict, o coorse, can tache the repute of the defender afore the coort.

Senator Arlen Specter votit No Pruiven in the impeachment o Bill Clinton, citin Scots law. This wis byordinar acause No Pruiven isna a verdict that's tae haund unner Unitit States creeminal or ceevil law. Specter later wrat, "History winna say the preses wisna guilty, altho he wis enteitelt tae acqueetal acause the chairges wisna pruiven at a Senate trial, but historians will sling a deifie tae William Jefferson Clinton's brazen conceit that it wis aa Republican politeicians an a richt-wing conspeeracy."

No Pruiven is aften cryed the Scots (or Scottish, or Scotch) Verdict.

Scots law

No pruiven


An alcopop is an alcoholic drink, also known as ready-to-drink (RTD), flavored alcoholic beverage (FAB) or flavored malt beverage (FMB). They are usually available in bottles or cans. They contain about the same amount of alcohol as a beer. Usually, they are very sweet, so that the alcohol can not be tasted.

There are two different kinds of this drinks. In Europe, they are usually spirits mixed with lemonade, like vodka with lemon juice (and a lot of sugar, so the alcohol cannot be tasted),  or rum with fruit juice (also very sweet). In the US, they tend to be beers, which taste very sweet.

Because they are very sweet, alcopops tend to be more popular among young people. Since the fact that they contain alcohol is usually not obvious from the taste, these drinks are considered to be dangerous for young people by many countries. These have either raised the taxes on the drinks, or they have outlawed the sale of these drinks to people under a certain age (usually 18, sometimes 21 years).

Related pages
Mixed drink

Alcoholic drinks

Alcopop


Copper is a chemical element. It is the 29th element in the periodic table. Its atomic weight is 63.55. It is a transition metal in the middle of the periodic table. The symbol for copper is "Cu", which comes from the Latin word cuprum, which, in turn, came from the Latin word for the island of Cyprus, where copper was found.

Properties

Physical properties

Copper is a reddish-orange color when it is pure, but soon gets a reddish tarnish after it is exposed to air.

Copper is one of the few coloured metals. Most metals are gray or silver. Gold, copper, caesium and osmium are the only four coloured metals. Copper is green as copper(II) carbonate and copper(II) hydroxide. It turns green because it oxidises. After a time in the air, copper forms green copper carbonate at the surface, called verdigris. That is why the copper roof of a building looks green.

Copper is very flexible and ductile. It can be stretched into wires easily. Copper is also very soft, it has a Mohs hardness of 2.5 to 3. That means that it is harder than a fingernail but softer than a steel pocketknife.

It reacts with solutions of hydrochloric acid or ammonia containing oxygen. It can also dissolve in a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and hydrochloric acid. This makes copper(II) chloride. It does not dissolve in weak acids. It can dissolve in nitric acid to make copper(II) nitrate and nitrogen dioxide or nitric oxide.

Compounds
Copper forms chemical compounds. In these compounds, it has two normal oxidation states: +1 and +2. +2 is more common. Most +2 copper compounds are blue. +1 copper compounds can be white. Copper compounds are weak oxidizing agents. They corrode many metals. This corrosion takes the metal and puts it in the chemical compound, leaving the copper behind. An example would be iron and copper(II) sulfate reacting to make copper and iron(II) sulfate. +1 copper compounds are reducing agents when in air. They are normally made by reduction of +2 compounds.

Copper compounds can be black, green, reddish, white, blue, or yellow.

Copper(I) compounds
Copper(I) compounds have copper in +1 oxidation state. They are weak reducing agents. They react with air to make copper(II) compounds. They also disproportionate to copper and copper(II) compounds. Most of them do not dissolve in water.
Copper(I) acetylide, reddish brown, explosive
Copper(I) bromide
Copper(I) chloride, white when pure, green when oxidized
Copper(I) iodide, colorless solid
Copper(I) oxide, reddish-brown

Copper(II) compounds
Copper(II) compounds have copper in +2 oxidation state. They are weak oxidizing agents. They are greenish when hydrous (water molecules added). They are more stable in air than copper(I) compounds.
Copper(II) bromide, gray solid
Copper(II) carbonate, greenish, forms on copper when in air
Copper(II) chloride, greenish when hydrous, brown when anhydrous
Copper(II) hydroxide, light blue, turns into copper(II) carbonate easily
Copper(II) nitrate, blue, oxidizing agent, used in demonstration voltaic cells
Copper(II) oxide, black
Copper(II) sulfate, blue, most common copper compound
Paris Green, extremely toxic, bright blue-green

Occurrence

Copper can be found as a metal in the ground. Normally, it is green on the outside. Most copper is not as a metal but in chemical compounds. Chalcopyrite is the most common copper ore. It is a mixture of pyrite and copper sulfide. Copper is found in small amounts in living things. Some mollusks and arthropods have blue blood because they have copper in their blood. Animals such as humans and other mammals have red blood because it contains iron.

Uses
Copper can be used in many ways but one example is wires. Copper is used in making wires as it is easy to stretch and it is not expensive. So that's why large wire companies will use copper as it is cheaper and takes less time to get

Copper may be the oldest metal in use, as very old copper tools have been found. Copper is used in electrical wiring. It can also be shaped into various parts. It can be used in a heat sink. The Statue of Liberty is made of copper. It is also used in pipes carrying water, because it does not corrode.

When people mix copper with tin, bronze is made. Bronze is much harder, and created the Bronze Age. It became less important when people learned to use iron better. When zinc is mixed with copper, brass is made, which is even harder than bronze. Copper with nickel makes cupronickel.

Copper is also used in medical and food production industries. Copper can alter proteins, form radicals, and disrupt enzymes, thereby inactivating or killing bacteria and viruses.

Copper is an easily molded base metal that is often added to precious metals to improve their elasticity, flexibility, hardness, color, and resistance to corrosion.

As chemical compounds
Copper is important in the human body. If a person does not get enough copper, the molecules in the body might not work. Having too much copper, though, can be a problem. Humans get most of the copper they need from food, and vitamins also contain copper to make sure we get enough. Copper compounds are also used to kill fungi and algae.

Safety
Copper is not as toxic as a metal. Copper compounds are toxic, although small amounts are needed to live. Copper is expelled from the body easily, so it does not build up in toxic effects.

Preparation
Copper is sometimes just taken out of the ground and shaped into objects. But most copper is not in a metal form in the ground. Chalcopyrite is the main copper ore. It is heated with air to separate the iron as iron(II) oxide. Some copper(I) oxide is made. Sulfur dioxide is also made. Then silicon dioxide is added, which reacts with the iron(II) oxide to make a liquid which is drained. Now only copper and sulfide are left. The copper sulfide reacts with air to make copper metal and sulfur dioxide. Some copper sulfide reacts with the copper(I) oxide to make copper and sulfur dioxide. This makes impure copper.

Copper is made pure by electrolyzing it. A thin sheet of pure copper is put on the cathode and a thick sheet of impure copper is put on the anode. The electrolyte is copper sulfate. The impure copper gets dissolved in the solution. It then coats the thin sheet of pure copper. This makes the copper pure.

Large amounts of copper are recycled because of its high value and the increasing depletion of worldwide copper reserves.

Related pages
Copper compounds

References

Transition metals

Copper


The Whiskey Rebellion was a rebellion against the federal government of the United States. Some farmers in western Pennsylvania rebelled against the United States government in 1794 because they believed that a new tax on whiskey was not fair. Selling whiskey was how people traded in western Pennsylvania, but farmers elsewhere did not need to sell whiskey.

The United States had borrowed a large amount of money for the American Revolutionary War, and Alexander Hamilton offered the idea to try to pay the war debt. The government under George Washington, with advice from Alexander Hamilton, quickly stopped the rebellion. Washington and Hamilton wanted to ensure that no one would question the power of the federal government and so Washington himself led almost 13,000 troops to stop the rebellion of a few hundred farmers. The rebels went home before the army arrived.

The new federal government became more solid and the president more powerful. Numerous examples of resistance are recorded in court documents and newspaper accounts.

That is the only time in American history that a president has led the army by himself.

References

1794
18th-century rebellions
Whisky
1790s in Pennsylvania

Whiskey Rebellion


The Starks Building is a landmark 14-story building on Fourth Street and Muhammad Ali Boulevard in Downtown Louisville, Kentucky, USA. It was built in 1913 on a site that had been the First Christian Church of Louisville. It was commissioned by local businessman John Starks Rodes and designed by the Daniel Burnham firm of Chicago. It is  tall (62 m).

The Starks Building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.

It was built in the Chicago School of architecture with Beaux Arts details. Cream-colored bricks are one of its signature features. It is decorated with classical motifs, including acanthus leaves, lion's heads and urns. It was originally a "U" shaped structure, but a 1926 addition designed by the firm Graham, Anderson, Probst & White added a new wing to create a rectangular shape with a central sunlight well. At the bottom of the central atrium was a courtyard, and until 1984 it was covered with a Plexiglas skylight.

In 1953, the building was renovated to add a parking garage - the first in the city - to the building. The 700+ space garage was built on an adjoining lot and fronts Third Street. The Starks Building is mixed use, with retail, dining and office space. When it was sold in 1997 the building included about  of leasable space.  In the 1990s and 2000s the owners had trouble finding tenants, with over half of the space vacant in 2006.

Notable long-time tenants include the Colonnade Cafeteria, Seng Jewelers and Rodes Men's and Women's Clothing. Current tenants include the Business First of Louisville news publication, FoodCare, a startup that relocated its headquarters to Louisville from San Francisco in April 2012, and Mediaura, a highly successful digital agency.  Colonnade Cafeteria moved into the Starks Building basement in 1926 and remained until 2006. Rodes Clothing, founded by the building's financier John Starks Rodes himself, was located in the building from 1914 until the company relocated to the suburbs in 2004.

It was owned by the Starks family until the mid-1980s when it was sold to an investment group, which resold the building in 1997 to Empire State Collateral. Empire State defaulted on the mortgage and ownership was taken over by Allstate in 2004. It was listed as the 11th largest office complex in Louisville in 2004 by the newspaper Business First.

The building was sold again in 2006 to the Hertz Investment Group. Since the purchase in 2006, occupancy has risen to 71 percent, as of May 2010, Hertz Investment Group said. The Starks building signed a number of new tenants during 2009, including an  Eddie Merlot's restaurant, part of a Fort Wayne, Ind.-based upscale steakhouse chain. With Eddie Merlot's, all the Starks street-level space has been leased.

It is connected by a skyway to Fourth Street Live!, an entertainment mall adjacent on the North side. On July 2, 2007, the Cordish Company, developers of Fourth Street Live!, announced that it would expand the mall southward by leasing the first floor (street-level) of the Starks Building. The Baltimore-based developer has since abandoned plans to develop  of vacant street-level space in the Starks Building.

References

External links

Starks Building adding high-floor apartments in historic office building -- May 2010
Starks building page with floorplans and photos
Starks Directory - lists tenants within the building

Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Kentucky
Chicago school architecture in Kentucky
Office buildings completed in 1913
Skyscraper office buildings in Louisville, Kentucky
1913 establishments in Kentucky
National Register of Historic Places in Louisville, Kentucky
Office buildings on the National Register of Historic Places

Starks Building


Reginald I (also called "the One-eyed", Reinald I, Renaud I;  – 10 March 1149) was Count of Bar (1105–1149). Barrois, during the Middle Ages, was the territory of the counts and dukes of Bar, in the eastern part of present-day France, bordering Lorraine.

He was the son of Theodoric I, Count of Montbéliard and Ermentrude of Bourgogne, the daughter of William I, Count of Burgundy.

Reginald's first wife is unknown.  He later married Gisele de Vaudémont, widow of Rainard III, Count of Toul, and daughter of Gérard I, Count of Vaudémont, and his wife Heilwig von Egisheim.  Reginald and Gisele had eight children:
 Hugh de Bar (d. 29 September 1141)
 Reginald II, Count of Bar
 Drogo de Bar
 Dietrich III de Bar (d. 8 August 1171), Bishop of Metz
 Agnes de Bar (d. after 1185), married Albert. Count of Chiny
 Clemence de Bar (1123–1183), married first Alberic II, Count of Dammartin, second Renaud, Count of Clermont, and third Thibaut III de Crépy
 Mathilde de Bar, married Konrad I, Count of Wildgraf von Kyrburg
 Stephaine de Bar (d. 1178), married Hugh III, Seigneur of Broyes and Châteauvillain
Reginald was one of the leaders of the Second Crusade in 1145. He was drowned somewhere in the Mediterranean Sea on his return voyage to Europe on or before 10 March 1149.

Reginald I of Bar succeeded Theodoric II of Bar (r. 1092–1105) who was succeeded in turn by Reginald II of Bar (r. 1150–1170) in 1150.

References

Sources

 Ancestral Roots of Certain American Colonists Who Came to America Before 1700 by Frederick Lewis Weis, Line 144–24.

House of Montbelliard
Renaut I
Counts of Verdun
Lords of Mousson
Renaut I
1080s births
1149 deaths

Reginald I, Count of Bar


A gyrocar is a two-wheeled automobile.  The difference between a bicycle or motorcycle and a gyrocar is that in a bike, dynamic balance is provided by the rider, and in some cases by the geometry and mass distribution of the bike itself, and the gyroscopic effects from the wheels. Steering a motorcycle is done by precessing the front wheel. In a gyrocar, balance was provided by one or more gyroscopes, and in one example, connected to two pendulums by a rack and pinion.

The concept was originally described in fiction in 1911 "Two Boys in a Gyrocar: The story of a New York to Paris Motor Race" by Kenneth Brown, (Houghton Mifflin Co). However the first prototype Gyrocar, The Shilovski Gyrocar, was commissioned in 1912 by the Russian Count Pyotr Shilovsky, a lawyer and member of the Russian royal family. It was manufactured to his design by the Wolseley Tool and Motorcar Company in England in 1914 and demonstrated in London the same year. The gyrocar was powered by a modified Wolseley C5 engine of , with a bore of 90 mm and a stroke of 121 mm. It was mounted ahead of the radiator, driving the rear wheel through a conventional clutch and gear box. A transmission brake was fitted after the gearbox – there were no brakes on the wheels themselves. The weight of the vehicle was 2.75 tons and it had a very large turning radius.

In 1927, Louis Brennan, funded to the tune of £12,000 (plus a £2000 per year) by John Cortauld built a rather more successful gyrocar. Two contra-rotating gyros were housed under the front seats, spun in a horizontal plane at 3500 rpm by 24V electric motors powered from standard car batteries. This was the greatest speed obtainable with the electric motors available, and meant that each rotor had to weigh  to generate sufficient forces. Precession was in the vertical fore-aft plane. The car had a Morris Oxford engine, engine mountings, and gearbox. Two sidewheels (light aircraft tailwheels were used) were manually lowered on stopping; if the driver forgot and switched off the gyros and walked away, the car would continue to balance itself using the gyro momentum for a few minutes, and then the wheels would automatically be dropped to stop tipping.

See also
 Ford Gyron
 Gyro monorail
 Segway PT
 Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics
 Bi-Autogo, another 2-wheeled car
 Self-balancing unicycle
 Lit Motors

References

External links

The Schilovski Gyrocar
The Schilovski Gyrocar (better resolution image)
The Schilovski Gyrocar (more detailed article)

Motorcycle technology
Russian inventions
Experimental and prototype gyroscopic vehicles
Two-wheeled motor vehicles

Gyrocar