French Renaissance literature is, for the purpose of this article, literature written in French (Middle French) from the French invasion of Italy in 1494 to 1600, or roughly the period from the reign of Charles VIII of France to the ascension of Henry IV of France to the throne.  The reigns of Francis I (from 1515 to 1547) and his son Henry II (from 1547 to 1559) are generally considered the apex of the French Renaissance.  After Henry II's unfortunate death in a joust, the country was ruled by his widow Catherine de' Medici and her sons Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III, and although the Renaissance continued to flourish, the French Wars of Religion between Huguenots and Catholics ravaged the country.

The word "Renaissance"
The word Renaissance is a French word, whose literal translation into English is "Rebirth". The term was first used and defined by French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874) in his 1855 work Histoire de France (History of France). Michelet defined the 16th-century Renaissance in France as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. As a French citizen and historian, Michelet also claimed the Renaissance as a French movement. His work is at the origin of the use of the French word "Renaissance" in other languages.

Introduction
The 16th century in France was a remarkable period of literary creation (the language of this period is called Middle French).  The use of the printing press (aiding the diffusion of works by ancient Latin and Greek authors; the printing press was introduced in 1470 in Paris, and in 1473 in Lyon), the development of Renaissance humanism and Neoplatonism, and the discovery (through the wars in Italy and through Henry II's marriage with Catherine de' Medici) of the cultivated refinement of the Italian courts (Baldassare Castiglione's book The Courtier was also particularly important in this respect) would profoundly modify the French literary landscape and the mental outlook (or "mentalité") of the period. There is a slow evolution from the rude warrior class to a cultivated noble class (giving rise to the idea of the "honnête homme" in the 17th century).  In all genres, there is a great interest in love (both physical and Platonic) and in psychological and moral analysis.

This period saw a proliferation of pamphlets, tracts, satires, and memoirs; the success of short-story collections ("nouvelles") as well as collections of oral tales and anecdotes ("propos" and "devis"); a public fascination with tragic tales from Italy (most notably those of Bandello); a considerable increase in the translating and publishing of contemporary European authors (especially Italians and Spaniards) compared to authors from the Middle Ages and classical antiquity; an important increase in the number of religious works sold (devotional books would exceed the "belles-lettres" as the most sold genre in France at the beginning of the 17th century); and finally, the publication of important works of moral and philosophical reflection.

The history of literature of the Renaissance is not monolithic: the royal court, the universities, the general public, the "noblesse de robe", the provincial noble, and the humanist all encountered different influences and developed different tastes.  Humanist theater would come slowly to the general public; the old warrior class discovered court etiquette and polished manners only over time; and the extravagance of the Italian-inspired court was frequently criticized by detractors.  Literacy itself is an important issue in the dissemination of the texts of the Renaissance: the culture of the 16th century remains profoundly oral, and the short story, the chivalric novel and Rabelais's works make this orality a central part of their style. Finally, the Renaissance book was a physical and economic object of great scarcity and – depending on its size and illustrations – of great prestige.  A library such as Montaigne's was a rare occurrence for people other than lawyers and members of parliament who had had an elite education in the universities; for the public, the broadsheet or penny press (with woodcut illustrations) sold door to door by colporters would have been their only access to the written word.

Poetry
Poetry in the first years of the 16th century is characterised by the elaborate sonorous and graphic experimentation and skillful word games of a number of Northern poets (such as Jean Lemaire de Belges and Jean Molinet), generally called "les Grands Rhétoriqueurs" who continued to develop poetic techniques from the previous century. Soon however, the impact of Petrarch (the sonnet cycle addressed to an idealised lover, the use of amorous paradoxes, like Jacques LeOriell (1498-1565) much practiced), Italian poets in the French court (like Luigi Alamanni), Italian Neoplatonism and humanism, and the rediscovery of certain Greek poets (such as Pindar and Anacreon) would profoundly modify the French tradition. In this respect, the French poets Clément Marot and Mellin de Saint-Gelais are transitional figures: they are credited with some of the first sonnets in French, but their poems continue to employ many of the traditional forms.

The new direction of poetry is fully apparent in the work of the humanist Jacques Peletier du Mans. In 1541, he published the first French translation of Horace's Ars poetica and in 1547 he published a collection poems Œuvres poétiques, which included translations from the first two cantos of Homer's Odyssey and the first book of Virgil's Georgics, twelve Petrarchan sonnets, three Horacian odes and a Martial-like epigram; this poetry collection also included the first published poems of Joachim Du Bellay and Pierre de Ronsard.

Around Ronsard, Du Bellay and Jean Antoine de Baïf there formed a group of radical young noble poets of the court (generally known today as La Pléiade, although use of this term is debated).  The character of their literary program was given in Du Bellay's manifesto, the "Defense and Illustration of the French Language" (1549) which maintained that French (like the Tuscan of Petrarch and Dante) was a worthy language for literary expression and which promulgated a program of linguistic and literary production (including the imitation of Latin and Greek genres) and purification. For some of the members of the Pléiade, the act of the poetry itself was seen as a form of divine inspiration (see Pontus de Tyard for example), a possession by the muses akin to romantic passion, prophetic fervor or alcoholic delirium.

The forms that dominate the poetic production of the period are the Petrarchan sonnet (developed around an amorous encounter or an idealized woman) and the Horace/Anacreon ode (especially of the carpe diem – life is short, seize the day – variety).  Ronsard also tried early on to adapt the Pindaric ode into French.  Throughout the period, the use of mythology is frequent, but so too is a depiction of the natural world (woods, rivers). Other genres include the paradoxical encomium (such as Remy Belleau's poem praising the oyster), the "blason" of the female body (a poetic description of a body part), and propagandistic verse.

Du Bellay's greatest poems were written during his long stay in Rome; his discovery of the ruined city, dismay at the corruption of the Papal court and loneliness gave rise to a sonnet cycle of remarkable sadness and severity (partially inspired by Ovid's Tristia).

Although Ronsard attempted a long epic poem of the origins of the French monarchy entitled La Franciade (modeled on Virgil and Homer), this experiment was largely judged a failure, and he remains most remembered today for his various collections of Amours (or love poems), Odes and Hymnes.

Jacques Pelletier du Mans later encyclopedic collection L'Amour des amours, consisting of a sonnet cycle and a series of poems describing meteors, planets and the heavens, would influence the poets Jean Antoine de Baïf and Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas (whose Semaine is a Baroque description of the creation of the world).

Several poets of the period – Jean Antoine de Baïf (who founded an "Académie de musique et de poésie" in 1570), Blaise de Vigenère and others – attempted to adapt into French the Latin, Greek or Hebrew poetic meters; these experiments were called "vers mesurés" and "prose mesuré" (for more, see the article "musique mesurée").

Although the royal court was the center of much of the century's poetry, Lyon, the second-largest city in France in the Renaissance, also had its poets and humanists, most notably Maurice Scève, Louise Labé, Olivier de Magny, and Pontus de Tyard. Scève's Délie, objet de plus haulte vertu, composed of 449 ten-syllable ten-line poems (dizains) and published with numerous engraved emblems, is exemplary in its use of amorous paradoxes and (often obscure) allegory to describe the suffering of a lover.

Similarly, Madeleine Des Roches and her daughter Catherine Des Roches were the center of a literary circle based in Poitiers between 1570 and 1587, and which included the poets Scévole de Sainte-Marthe, Barnabé Brisson, René Chopin, Antoine Loisel, Claude Binet, Nicolas Rapin and Odet de Turnèbe.

Poetry at the end of the century was profoundly marked by the civil wars: pessimism, dourness and a call for retreat from the world predominate (as in Jean de Sponde). However, the horrors of the war were also to inspire one Protestant poet, Agrippa d'Aubigné, to write a brilliant poem on the conflict:Les Tragiques.

Principal French poetry collections published in the 16th century:
 Clément Marot Adolescence clémentine (1532)
 Various  Blasons du corps féminin (1536)
 Clément Marot Psaumes (1541) – translation of the Psalms
 Maurice Scève Délie, objet de plus haulte vertu (1544)
 Pernette Du Guillet Rimes (1545)
 Jacques Peletier du Mans Œuvres poétiques (1547)
 Mellin de Saint-Gelais  Œuvres (1547)
 Joachim du Bellay Olive (1549–50) and the manifesto "Défense et illustration de la langue française" (1549)
 Pierre de Ronsard Odes (1550)
 Pontus de Tyard Le Solitaire premier (1552)
 Jean Antoine de Baïf Les Amours (1552)
 Pierre de Ronsard Les Amours (1552)
 Pierre de Ronsard Hymnes (1555–1556)
 Jacques Peletier du Mans "L'Amour des amours" and a manual on poetic composition "Art poétique français" (1555)
 Louise Labé Œuvres (1555)
 Pontus de Tyard Livre de vers lyriques (1555)
 Jean Antoine de Baïf Amour de Francine (1555)
 Remy Belleau Petites inventions (1556)
 Joachim du Bellay Antiquités de Rome (1558)
 Joachim du Bellay Songe (1558)
 Joachim du Bellay Regrets (1558)
 Remy Belleau 'La Bergerie (1565–1572)
 Etienne de La Boétie Vers français (1571)
 Pierre de Ronsard La Franciade (1572)
 Philippe Desportes Premières œuvres (1573)
 Étienne Jodelle Œuvres et mélanges poétiques (1574)
 Agrippa d'Aubigné First draft of Les Tragiques (1575)
 Nicolas Rapin Les Plaisirs du gentilhomme champestre (1575)
 Remy Belleau Pierres précieuses (1576)
 Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas La Semaine (1578)
 Etienne de La Boétie Sonnets (1580)
 Jacques Peletier du Mans "Louanges" (1581)
 Jean Antoine de Baïf Chansonnettes mesurées (1586)
 Jean de Sponde Poèmes chrétiens (1588)
 Jean-Baptiste Chassignet Le Mépris de la vie (1594)
 Marc de Papillon Œuvres (1597)
 Jean de Sponde Poésies posthumes (1597)

Long prose fiction
In the first half of the century, the novel in France was still dominated by the chivalric novels of the Middle Ages (in their prose versions) such as: Les Quatre fils Aymon (or Renaud de Montauban), Fierabras, Ogier le Danois, Perceforest and Galien le Réthoré. From 1540 on however, the genre was dominated by foreign productions, most notably the Hispano-Portuguese multi-volume adventure novels Amadis de Gaule, Palmerin d'Olive, Primaléon de Grèce and others like them. The first of these, Amadis of Gaul – in its celebrated French translation/adaptation by Nicolas de Herberay des Essarts – became the de facto code of conduct of the French court from Francis I through Henry IV and was emulated in jousts and in manners. Of similar tone and content (albeit in verse), the Italian epic poems Roland amoureux (Orlando Innamorato) by Matteo Maria Boiardo and Roland furieux (Orlando furioso) by Ludovico Ariosto (and, at the end of the century, Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered) were also enormous successes (French translations of these works were often in prose). Finally, the Italian Luigi Pulci's Morgant le géant, a comic version of the chivalric novel, was an important model for Rabelais's giants.

The most notable French novels of the first half of the century are François Rabelais's masterpieces Pantagruel, Gargantua and their sequels.  Rabelais's works blend both humanism (Erasmus, Thomas More) and medieval farce (giants, heroic battles, scatological humor) in a manner that is grotesquely extravagant (the language and humor were often viewed as coarse by later centuries), but along with the buffoonery there is a keen satire of religious hypocrisy, political injustice and human doubt.

Alongside the chivalric, French literary tastes of the period were drawn to the amorous and pathetic, especially as depicted in the novels of Spaniards Diego de San Pedro and Juan de Flores, themselves inspired by Boccaccio's Lady Fiammeta and its psychologically insightful portrayal of a woman spurned.  This sentimental vein would find admirable expression in parts of Hélisenne de Crenne's Les Angoisses douloureuses qui procèdent d'amours which blends sentimental and chivalric elements, humanist scholarship, orality and eloquence.

The foreign adventure novel would start to face competition from domestic French production in the second half of the century in the long works of authors Béroalde de Verville and Nicolas de Montreux. These authors (largely unread today) – like the authors of the later volumes of the Amadis cycle – abandoned many of the traditional chivalric modes, replacing them with techniques and incidents borrowed from two new sources of inspiration: the ancient Greek novel (Heliodorus, Longus and Achilles Tatius) and the mixed-form (prose and verse) pastoral novel from Italy and Spain (Jacopo Sannazaro and Jorge de Montemayor).

The novelty and inventiveness of the last years of the century are best seen in the anonymous La Mariane du Filomene (1596) which mixes the frame-tale, amorous sentiment, dreams, and pastoral elements to tell the story of a man wandering through the Parisian countryside trying to forget the woman who betrayed him.

Notable works of long prose fiction, including translations (preceded by an --) published in France in the 16th century:

 Jean Lemaire de Belges Les Illustrations de Gaule (1510)
 --  Diego de San Pedro  La Prison d'Amour laquelle traite l'amour de Leriano et Laureole  (13 editions between 1526–1604)
 -- Juan de Flores Le Judgement d'Amour or Histoire d'Aurelio et d'Isabelle  (1530)
 François Rabelais Pantagruel (1532)
 -- Boccaccio Complainte des tristes amours de Fiammette (1532)
 François Rabelais Gargantua (1534)
 -- Juan de Flores La Déplourable fin de Flamète (translation by Maurice Scève, 1535)
 -- Baldassare Castiglione Le Courtesan (1535)
 Hélisenne de Crenne (Marguerite Briet) Les Angoysses douloureuses qui procedent d'amours (1538)
 -- Diego de San Pedro Les Amours d'Arnalte et de Lucenda or L'amant mal traicté de s'amye (14 editions from 1539–1582)
 -- Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo Amadis de Gaule (first books translated by Nicolas de Herberay des Essarts, starting from 1540; for more on its sequels and translations, see the article on "Amadis of Gaul")
 -- Jacopo Sannazaro Arcadia (1544)
 -- Ariosto Roland furieux (prose translation, 1544)
 François Rabelais Le tiers livre (1546)
 -- Francesco Colonna Songe de Poliphile (with engravings attributed to Jean Goujon, 1546)
 --  L'histoire de Palmerin d'Olive  (translated by Jean Maugin, 1546)
 -- Heliodorus of Emesa  L'histoire aethiopique (translated by Jacques Amyot, 1547)
 François Rabelais Le quart livre (1552)
 "Théodose Valentinian"  L'Histoire de l'amant resuscité par la mort d'amour (partly inspired by Diego de San Pedro, 1555)
 -- Longus Les Amours pastorales de Daphnis et de Chloé (translated by Jacques Amyot, 1559)
 François Rabelais (attributed) Le cinquième livre (1564)
 -- Achilles Tatius Les Amours de Clitophon et de Leucippe (translated by François de Belleforest, 1568)
 François de Belleforest  La Pyrénée (or La Pastorale amoureuse) (1571)
 -- Jorge de Montemayor La Diane  (1578)
 Nicolas de Montreux Les Bergeries de Juliette (1585–98)
 -- Tasso Jérusalem délivrée (prose translation, 1587)
 Béroalde de Verville Les Avantures de Floride (1593–1596)
 Nicolas de Montreux Les chastes et delectables Jardins d'Amour (1594)
 Nicolas de Montreux L'Œuvre de la Chasteté (1595-9)
 (Anon) La Mariane du Filomene (1596)
 (Anon) Les chastes amours d'Helene de Marthe(1597)
 Nicolas de Montreux Les Amours de Cleandre et Domiphille (1597)
 Béroalde de Verville Le Restablissement de Troye (1597)

The short story
The French Renaissance is dominated by the short story (under various names: "conte", a tale; "nouvelle", a short story like the Italian novella; "devis" and "propos", a spoken discussion; "histoire", a story). For the period, part of the attraction of the dialogued short story and the frame tale (with its fictional speakers discussing each other's stories) lies in their "performability" by someone reading out loud to a non-literate public and in their grab-bag and (frequently) digressive structure: these tales are capable of taking on all kinds of material, both sophisticated and vulgar.

The Decameron, the short story collection by the Italian author Boccaccio, with its frame tale of nobles fleeing the plague and telling each other stories, had an enormous impact on French writers. The sister of Francis I, Marguerite of Navarre, who was the center of a progressive literary circle, undertook her own version (the Heptaméron) which, although incomplete, is one of the masterpieces of the century. Other important writers of short stories include Noël du Fail and Bonaventure des Périers. As the century progressed, the use of oral discourse, multiple voices and table talk led to a dialogued form which often seems revolutionary and chaotic to modern ears.

The French reading public was also fascinated by the dark tragic novellas ("histoires tragiques") of Bandello which were avidly adapted and emulated into the beginning of the seventeenth century (Jacques Yver, Vérité Habanc, Bénigne Poissenot, François de Rosset, Jean-Pierre Camus).

Short story collections in France in the Renaissance:
 Anon. Cent nouvelles nouvelles (1462)
 Philippe de Vigneulles  Nouvelles () - most are lost
 Anon. Le Paragon des nouvelles honnestes et délectables  (1531)
 Nicolas de Troyes Le grand paragon des nouvelles nouvelles (c1533-37)
 Bonaventure des Périers Cymbalum mundi (1537)
 Giovanni Boccaccio Le Décaméron -  Antoine Le Maçon, translator  (1545)
 Noël du Fail Propos rustiques de maistre Léon Ladulfi  (1547)
 Noël du Fail Les Baliverneries ou contes nouveaux d'Eutrapel  (1548)
 La Motte-Roullant   (1549) - (109 tales, mostly versions of Cent nouvelles nouvelles)
 Bonaventure des Périers Les Nouvelles récréations et Joyeux devis (90 tales) (1558)
 Pierre Boaistuau, ed. Histoires des Amans fortunez  (1558) - truncated version of l'Heptaméron (67 tales) without dialogues between the stories
 Marguerite de Navarre L'Heptaméron  Claude Gruget, ed. (1559)
 Pierre Boaistuau  (1559) - translation of Bandello.
 François de Belleforest Continuation des histoires tragiques, contenant douze histoires tirées de Bandel.... (1559) - translation of Bandello.
 Pierre Viret  Le Monde à l'empire (date?) satirical pamphlet
 Pierre Viret Le Monde démoniacle (1561) satirical pamphlet
 François de Belleforest and Pierre Boaistuau  Histoires tragiques -  7 vols.  Belleforest's continuation of the translation of Bandello, published with Boaistuau's (1566–1583)
 Jacques Tahureau   (1565)
 Henri Estienne Apologie pour Hérodote  (1566)  (includes 180 tales)
 Estienne Tabourot des Accords Les Bigarrures (1572)
 Jean Bergier Discours modernes et facecieux  (1572) - (13 tales)
 Jacques Yver   (1572)
 Duroc Sort-Manne (pseudo. for Romannet Du Cros)  Nouveaux recits ou comptes moralisez  (1573)
 Jeanne Flore  Comptes amoureux  (1574) (7 tales)
 Antoine Tyron  Recueil de plusieurs plaisantes nouvelles, apaphthegmes et recreations diverses  (1578)
 Bénigne Poissenot  L'été (1583)
 Gabrielle Chappuys  Cent excellentes nouvelles  (1583) - translation of the Hecatommithi by Italian Giovanni Battista Giraldi (also known as Cintio)
 Gabrielle Chappuys  Les facétieuses journées (1584) -  translation of Italian tales
 Antoine du Verdier   (1584) -  mostly lost
 Guillaume Bouchet  Les sérées  (1584, 97, 98)
 Estienne Tabourot des Accords Apophtegmes du Sieur Gaulard  (1585)
 Noël Du Fail Les contes et discours d'Eutrapel  (1585)
 De Cholières Les matinées  (1585)
 Vérité Habanc Nouvelles histoires tant tragiques que comiques (1585).
 Bénigne Poissenot Nouvelles histoires tragiques (1586).
 De Cholières Les après-dînées  (1587)
 Estienne Tabourot des Accords Les Escraignes dijonnaises (1588)

Theatre
16th-century French theater followed the same patterns of evolution as the other literary genres of the period.

For the first decades of the century, public theater remained largely tied to its long medieval heritage of mystery plays, morality plays, farces, and soties, although the miracle play was no longer in vogue. Public performances were tightly controlled by a guild system. The guild "les Confrères de la Passion" had exclusive rights to theatrical productions of mystery plays in Paris; in 1548, fear of violence or blasphemy resulting from the growing religious rift in France forced the Paris Parliament to prohibit performances of the mysteries in the capital, although they continued to be performed in other places. Another guild, the "Enfants Sans-Souci" were in charge of farces and soties, as too the "Clercs de la Basoche" who also performed morality plays. Like the "Confrères de la Passion", "la Basoche" came under political scrutiny (plays had to be authorized by a review board; masks or characters depicting living persons were not permitted), and they were finally suppressed in 1582.  By the end of the century, only the "Confrères de la Passion" remained with exclusive control over public theatrical productions in Paris, and they rented out their theater at the Hôtel de Bourgogne to theatrical troupes for a high price. In 1599, they abandoned this privilege.

It is of note that, alongside the numerous writers of these traditional works (such as the farce writers Pierre Gringore, Nicolas de La Chesnaye and André de la Vigne), Marguerite of Navarre also wrote a number of plays close to the traditional mystery and morality play.

As early as 1503 however, original language versions of Sophocles, Seneca, Euripides, Aristophanes, Terence and Plautus were all available in Europe and the next forty years would see humanists and poets both translating these classics and adapting them. In the 1540s, the French university setting (and especially — from 1553 on — the Jesuit colleges) became host to a Neo-Latin theater (in Latin) written by professors such as George Buchanan and Marc Antoine Muret which would leave a profound mark on the members of La Pléiade. From 1550 on, one finds humanist theater written in French.

The influence of Seneca was particularly strong in humanist tragedy. His plays — which were essentially chamber plays meant to be read for their lyrical passages and rhetorical oratory — brought to many humanist tragedies a concentration on rhetoric and language over dramatic action.

Humanist tragedy took two distinct directions:
 Biblical tragedy : plots taken from the bible — although close in inspiration to the medieval mystery plays, the humanist biblical tragedy reconceived the biblical characters along classical lines, suppressing both comic elements and the presence of God on the stage.  The plots often had clear parallels to contemporary political and religious matters and one finds both Protestant and Catholic playwrights.
 Ancient tragedy : plots taken from mythology or history — they often had clear parallels to contemporary political and religious matters

During the height of the civil wars (1570–1580), a third category of militant theater appeared:
 Contemporary tragedy : plots taken from recent events

Along with their work as translators and adaptors of plays, the humanists also investigated classical theories of dramatic structure, plot, and characterization. Horace was translated in the 1540s, but had been available throughout the Middle Ages. A complete version of Aristotle's Poetics appeared later (first in 1570 in an Italian version), but his ideas had circulated (in an extremely truncated form) as early as the 13th century in Hermann the German's Latin translation of Averroes' Arabic gloss, and other translations of the Poetics had appeared in the first half of the 16th century; also of importance were the commentaries on Aristotle's poetics by Julius Caesar Scaliger which appeared in the 1560s. The fourth century grammarians Diomedes and Aelius Donatus were also a source of classical theory. The 16th-century Italians played a central role in the publishing and interpretation of classical dramatic theory, and their works had a major effect on French theater. Lodovico Castelvetro's Aristote-based Art of Poetry (1570) was one of the first enunciations of the three unities; this work would inform Jean de la Taille's Art de la tragedie (1572). Italian theater (like the tragedy of Gian Giorgio Trissino) and debates on decorum (like those provoked by Sperone Speroni's play Canace and Giovanni Battista Giraldi's play Orbecche) would also influence the French tradition.

In the same spirit of imitation — and adaptation — of classical sources that had informed the poetic compositions of La Pléiade, French humanist writers recommended that tragedy should be in five acts and have three main characters of noble rank; the play should begin in the middle of the action (in medias res), use noble language and not show scenes of horror on the stage. Some writers (like Lazare de Baïf and Thomas Sébillet) attempted to link the medieval tradition of morality plays and farces to classical theater, but Joachim du Bellay rejected this claim and elevated classical tragedy and comedy to a higher dignity.  Of greater difficulty for the theorists was the incorporation of Aristotle's notion of "catharsis" or the purgation of emotions with Renaissance theater, which remained profoundly attached to both pleasing the audience and to the rhetorical aim of showing moral examples (exemplum).

Étienne Jodelle's Cléopâtre captive (1553) — which tells the impassioned fears and doubts of Cleopatra contemplating suicide — has the distinction of being the first original French play to follow Horace's classical precepts on structure (the play is in five acts and respects more or less the unities of time, place and action) and is extremely close to the ancient model: the prologue is introduced by a shade, there is a classical chorus which comments on the action and talks directly to the characters, and the tragic ending is described by a messenger.

Mellin de Saint-Gelais's translation of Gian Giorgio Trissino's La Sophonisbe — the first modern regular tragedy based on ancient models which tells the story of the noble Sophonisba's suicide (rather than be taken as captive by Rome) — was an enormous success at the court when performed in 1556.

Select list of authors and works of humanist tragedy:
 Théodore de Bèze
 Abraham sacrifiant (1550)
 Étienne Jodelle
 Cléopâtre captive (1553)
 Didon se sacrifiant (date unknown)
 Mellin de Saint-Gelais
 La Sophonisbe (performed 1556) - translation of the Italian play (1524) by Gian Giorgio Trissino
 Jacques Grévin
 Jules César (1560) - imitated from the Latin of Marc Antoine Muret
 Jean de la Taille
 Saül, le furieux (1563–1572)
 Guillaume Le Breton
 Adonis (1569)
 Robert Garnier
 Porcie (published 1568, acted in 1573),
 Cornélie (acted in 1573 and published in 1574)
 Hippolyte (acted in 1573 and published in 1574)
 Marc-Antoine (1578)
 La Troade (1579)
 Antigone (1580)
 Les Juives (1583)
 Pierre Matthieu (1563–1621)
 Clytemnestre (1578)
 Esther (1581)
 Vashti (1589)
 Aman, de la perfidie (1589)
 La Guisiade (1589)
 Nicolas de Montreux
 Tragédie du jeune Cyrus (1581)
 Isabelle (1594)
 Cléopâtre (1594)
 Sophonisbe (1601)

(See the playwrights Antoine de Montchrestien, Alexandre Hardy and Jean de Schelandre for tragedy around 1600-1610.)

Alongside tragedy, European humanists also adapted the ancient comedic tradition and as early as the 15th century, Renaissance Italy had developed a form of humanist Latin comedy. Although the ancients had been less theoretical about the comedic form, the humanists used the precepts of Aelius Donatus (4th century A.D.), Horace, Aristotle and the works of Terence to elaborate a set of rules: comedy should seek to correct vice by showing the truth; there should be a happy ending; comedy uses a lower style of language than tragedy; comedy does not paint the great events of states and leaders, but the private lives of people, and its principal subject is love.

Although some French authors kept close to the ancient models (Pierre de Ronsard translated a part of Aristophanes's "Plutus" at college), on the whole the French comedic tradition shows a great deal of borrowing from all sources: medieval farce (which continued to be immensely popular throughout the century), the short story, Italian humanist comedies and "La Celestina" (by Fernando de Rojas).  The most prolific of the French Renaissance comedic authors, Pierre de Larivey, adapted Italian comedies of intrigue by the authors Ludovico Dolce, Niccolò Buonaparte, Lorenzino de' Medici, Antonio Francesco Grazzini, Vincenzo Gabbiani, Girolano Razzi, Luigi Pasqualigo, and Nicolὸ Secchi.

Select list of authors and works of Renaissance comedy:
 Étienne Jodelle
 L'Eugène (1552) – a comedy in five acts
 Jacques Grévin
 Les Ébahis (1560)
 Jean Antoine de Baïf
 L'Eunuque (1565), a version of Terence's Eunuchus
 Le Brave (1567) – a version of Plautus's Miles gloriosus
 Jean de la Taille
 Les Corrivaus (published in 1573) – an imitation of Boccaccio and other Italians
 Pierre de Larivey – Larivey was an important adapter of the Italian comedy
 Le Laquais (1579)
 La Vefve (1579)
 Les Esprits (1579)
 Le Morfondu (1579)
 Les Jaloux (1579)
 Les Escolliers (1579)
 Odet de Turnèbe
 Les Contents (1581)
 Nicolas de Montreux
 La Joyeuse (1581)
 Joseph le Chaste (?)
 François d'Amboise (1550–1619)
 Les Néapolitaines (1584)

In the last decades of the century, four other theatrical modes from Italy — which did not follow the rigid rules of classical theater – flooded the French stage:

 the Commedia dell'arte — an improvisational theater of fixed types (Harlequin, Colombo) created in Padua in 1545; Italian troupes were invited in France from 1576 on.
the Tragicomedy — a theatrical version of the adventurous novel, with lovers, knights, disguises and magic.  The most famous of these is Robert Garnier's Bradamante (1580), adapted from Ariosto's Orlando furioso.
 the Pastoral — modeled on Giambattista Guarini's "Pastor fido" ("Faithful Shepard"), Tasso's "Aminta" and Antonio Ongaro "Alceo" (themselves inspired by Jacopo Sannazaro and Jorge de Montemayor). The first French pastorals were short plays performed before a tragedy, but were eventually expanded into five acts.  Nicolas de Montreux wrote three pastorals: Athlette (1585), Diane (1592) Arimène ou le berger désespéré (1597).
 the Ballet de cour — an allegorical  and fantastic mixture of dance and theater.  The most famous of these is the "Ballet comique de la reine" (1581).

By the end of the century, the most influential French playwright — by the range of his styles and by his mastery of the new forms — would be Robert Garnier.

All of these eclectic traditions would continue to evolve in the "baroque" theater of the early 17th century, before French "classicism" would finally impose itself.

Other literary forms

The French Renaissance was rich in a whole body of moral, literary, philological and philosophical writing.  Michel de Montaigne was the first essayist of modern times (The Essays) and a remarkable writer on the human condition. Étienne Pasquier's Recherches de la France was another monumental compendium of historical, political and cultural observations.

Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme wrote biographical sketches of the men and women of the court.

Jean Bodin wrote a number of important works on political science.

Henri Estienne and his son Robert Estienne were among the most important printers in France in the 16th century, and Robert Estienne's edition of the Bible was the first to use chapter and verse divisions.

The Catholic/Huguenot and civil/political conflicts of the last half of the century—the French Wars of Religion—generated a great deal of political, religious and satirical writing, including the Monarchomachs' libels.

The Satire Ménippée (1593/1594) written by Nicolas Rapin, Jean Passerat and Florent Chrestien, and edited/revised by Pierre Pithou was a political and satirical work in prose and verse which criticized the excesses of the Catholic League during the Wars of Religion.

See also
 Renaissance
 History of France
 Early Modern France
 French Renaissance

Notes

References
 Schmidt, Albert-Marie. ed. Poètes du XVIe siècle.  Collection: Bibliothèque de la Pléiade.  Paris: Gallimard, 1953.
 Simonin, Michel, ed.  Dictionnaire des lettres françaises - Le XVIe siècle.  Paris: Fayard, 2001.

External links

French Renaissance
Renaissance literature
 3

French Renaissance literature


The Packard Station Sedan wis a pseudo station wagon model produced bi the Packard Motor Car Company o Detroit, Michigan atween 1948 an 1950.  Bi offerin the Station Sedan, Packard coud market a vehicle wi station wagon attributes, but athoot the full investment costs associatit wi a full-blown station wagon program development.

The Station Sedan uised a combination o steel framin an body pairts alang wi structural wood panels tae create a "woody" station wagon-like caur.  Unlike ither woody wagons o the day, which uised widden passenger compairtments mountit tae chassis o a particular caur, the Station Sedan uised a steel subframe an steel passenger doors ontae which hard wood panels wur mountit. The ae widden door on the vehicle wis the rear gate assembly.

Neither a sedan, nor true station wagon, the Station Sedan enjoyed limited success an wis discontinued when the 1951 Packard models wur introduced.

Sources

Station Sedan
Rear wheel drive vehicles
Station wagons

Packard Station Sedan


The system partition and the boot partition (also known as the system volume and the boot volume) are computing terms for disk partitions of a hard disk drive or solid-state drive that must exist and be properly configured for a computer to operate. There are two different definitions for these terms: the common definition and the Microsoft definition.

Common definition
In context of every operating system, except those developed by Microsoft, the system partition and the boot partition are defined as follows:
 The boot partition is a primary partition that contains the boot loader, a piece of software responsible for booting the operating system. For example, in the standard Linux directory layout (Filesystem Hierarchy Standard), boot files (such as the kernel, initrd, and boot loader GRUB) are mounted at /boot/. Despite Microsoft's radically different definition (see below), System Information, a utility app included in Windows NT family of operating systems, refers to it as "boot device".
 The system partition is the disk partition that contains the operating system folder, known as the system root. By default, in Linux, operating system files are mounted at / (the root directory).

In Linux, a single partition can be both a boot and a system partition if both /boot/ and the root directory are in the same partition.

Microsoft definition
Since Windows NT 3.1 (the first version of Windows NT), Microsoft has defined the terms as follows:
 The system partition (or system volume) is a primary partition that contains the boot loader, a piece of software responsible for booting the operating system. This partition holds the boot sector and is marked active.
 The boot partition (or boot volume) is the disk partition that contains the operating system folder, known as the system root or %systemroot% in Windows NT.

Before Windows 7, the system and boot partitions were, by default, the same and were given the "C:" drive letter. Since Windows 7, however, Windows Setup creates, by default, a separate system partition that is not given an identifier and therefore is hidden. The boot partition is still given "C:" as its identifier. This configuration is suitable for running BitLocker, which requires a separate unencrypted system partition for booting. As of Windows 11, this nomenclature is still used by the "Disk Management" utility.

See also
 NTLDR
 Windows startup process
 Windows NT startup process
 Windows Vista startup process
 Windows To Go

References

Booting
Disk partitions
Windows administration

System partition and boot partition


The Democratic Party (, ), officially known as the Portuguese Republican Party ( ), was a Portuguese centre-left political party during the Portuguese First Republic. It was also the self-proclaimed successor to the original Portuguese Republican Party, which had been behind the revolution that established the Portuguese First Republic in 1910.

The name "Democratic Party" was never the official name of the party, as the Portuguese Republican Party never ceased to exist. However, the party was de facto different and thus the other parties (that belonged to the PRP before 1910) used the new expression to assert their opposition to the claim of continuation of the PRP by Afonso Costa, the first leader of the Democratic Party. Other names were given to the members of the Democratic Party, like the Afonsists, named after Afonso Costa.

History
When the Evolutionists and Unionists seceded from the Portuguese Republican Party in February 1912, the Democratic Party declared itself the latter party's heir. It soon controlled its electoral and propagandistic structure, a fact that would influence the dominance of the Democratic Party during the First Republic.

During the First Republic, the Democratic Party, led by Afonso Costa, managed to hold power despite suffering several revolutionary attempts, both monarchist and republican. Although some of the coups partially succeeded (Monarchy of the North, Pimenta de Castro, Sidónio Pais) the Democratic Party always managed to retain power.

During World War I, in which Portugal participated, the party entered a coalition government with the Evolutionist Party called "Sacred Union", to face the problems of the war. Following the war, discontent grew and the union was eventually dissolved. Sidónio took advantage of this and established a dictatorial government of his National Republican Party. Sidónio Pais was assassinated 14 December 1918. By 1919 the Democratic Party was again in power.

After 1919, with Afonso Costa in Paris, the party was led by António Maria da Silva. In the next phase of the party's existence, political, popular and syndicalist opposition created a climate of constant revolt. Groups also seceded from the party, with the creation of the Democratic Leftwing Republican Party and the Reformist Party, both on the Left.

Relations with the Republic
The identification of the First Republic with the Democratic Party was so close, as the party dominated all political life between 1911 and 1926, that Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa described it as a "multi-party system with a dominant party" and historian Fernando Rosas called it a "political monopoly" and a "democratic dictatorship".

Prime ministers
 Augusto de Vasconcelos (1911–1912)
 Duarte Leite (1912–1913)
 Afonso Costa (1913–1914; 1915–1916; 1917 — in coalition with the Evolutionists [Sacred Union])
 Bernardino Machado (1914; 1921)
 Victor Hugo de Azevedo Coutinho (1914–1915)
 António José de Almeida — Evolutionists in coalition ([Sacred Union]) — (1916–1917)
 José Relvas (1919)
 Domingos Pereira (1919; 1920; 1925)
 Alfredo de Sá Cardoso (1919–1920; 1920)
 António Maria Baptista (1920)
 José Ramos Preto (1920)
 António Maria da Silva (1920; 1922–1923; 1925; 1925–1926)
 Liberato Pinto (1920–1921)
 Alfredo Rodrigues Gaspar (1924)
 Vitorino Guimarães (1925)

Presidents of the Republic
 Manuel de Arriaga (1911–1915)
 Teófilo Braga (1915)
 Bernardino Machado (1915–1918; 1925–1926)
 Manuel Teixeira Gomes (1923–1925)

See also
Politics of Portugal
History of Portugal
History of Portugal (1834–1910)
  History of Portugal (1910–1926)
History of Portugal (1926–1974)
5 October 1910 revolution
28 May 1926 revolution
Timeline of Portuguese history
List of political parties in Portugal
List of presidents of Portugal
List of prime ministers of Portugal

Defunct political parties in Portugal
Liberal parties in Portugal
Radical parties
Republicanism in Portugal
Republican parties
Political parties established in 1910
Political parties disestablished in 1926
1910 establishments in Portugal
1926 disestablishments in Portugal

Democratic Party (Portugal)


Esztergom is a city in Hungary, 45 kilometers north of Budapest. 30 928 people live in Esztergom. It is the center of the Roman Catholic Church in Hungary, and the Constitutional court is in the city. There are a lot of rich museums in the city.

Geography
Esztergom is on the right side of the river Danube. There are big islands on the Danube. There are mountains to the east, that surround the city. The city is 100,35 km² big.

History

The city was founded in 972 by Géza of Hungary. It is one of the oldest cities in Hungary. Until 1249 it was the capital of the country. The archbishops built many schools, churches, palaces, and the kings of Hungary built castles. In 1242 the city was attacked and destroyed by mongols, but the castle on the hill was not. After the attack king Béla IV. moved to Buda, and gave the city to the archbishop. In 1543 the city was taken by the Turks, who built many spas. The Hungarians tried to take back the city many times, so it was destroyed again in the wars. The Turks left Esztergom in 1683. In 1822 Alexander Rudnay, the archbishop started building a big temple called a basilica. It is the biggest temple and the tallest building in the country, and the third biggest temple in Europe.

Sister cities
  Espoo (Finland) since 1974
  Štúrovo (Slovakia) since 1991
  Bamberg (Germany) since 1992
  Cambrai (France) since 1992
  Ehingen (Germany) since 1992
  Maintal (Germany) since 1993
  Gniezno (Poland) since 1994
  Mariazell (Austria) since 2002
  Canterbury (England) since 2004

Cities in Hungary
10th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Hungary

Esztergom


Halifax is a major bank in the United Kingdom.  It was a building society, but 'demutualised' and became a bank. Halifax then merged with the Bank of Scotland and made up HBOS.  In 2009, HBOS merged with Lloyds TSB and made Lloyds Banking Group.  Until 2010 Halifax was also an estate agent.

History
The Halifax started in 1853 as the Halifax Permanent Benefit Building and Investment Society at the Old Cock Inn in Halifax, West Yorkshire. The building society was created to allow working-class people in Halifax to invest their money in a local and 'mutual' organisation.

In 1928 it merged with the Halifax Equitable Building Society and changed its name to the Halifax Building Society.  In 1973 the Halifax built its headquarters on Trinity Road in Halifax.  By the 1990s the Halifax was the largest building society in Britain; once the Halifax became a bank the largest building society was (and still is) the Nationwide.

In 1995 the Halifax merged with the Leeds Permanent Building Society, this new larger building society then bought out Clerical Medical Find Managers.

In 1997 the Halifax became a bank and registered with the London Stock Exchange.

By 1997 the Halifax was the fifth largest bank in the United Kingdom and had joined the 'big four' to make it a 'big five'.

The Halifax continued to grow and in 1999 the Halifax bought out the Birmingham Midshires Building Society and Comparetheloan.  In 1999 the Halifax set up Intelligent Finance', which was a telephone based bank.

In 2001 the Halifax merged with the Bank of Scotland and formed Halifax Bank of Scotland''' (HBOS).  Both brands were kept although some Halifax branches in Scotland became 'Bank of Scotland' and Bank of Scotland branches in Ireland became 'Halifax' branches.  This was done because the Bank of Scotland was much larger in Scotland than the Halifax, while Halifax was much larger in Ireland than the Bank of Scotland and had spent a lot of money advertising of Irish television.

In January 2009 HBOS was acquired by Lloyds TSB which subsequently became Lloyds Banking Group.  The Halifax is now just a brand name used by this group.

Offices

The bank has its main offices in Halifax town centre.  It also has other major offices in Copley (near Halifax) and Leeds The Leeds offices used to belong to the Leeds Permanent Building Society. There are also offices in Aylesbury, Nottingham and Buckinghamshire.

Now that the Halifax is part of Lloyds Banking Group there are also many former Lloyds, Bank of Scotland and TSB offices. Some services have been centralised, leading to job losses at some offices.

It was announced on June 30th 2010 that the Nottingham office is to close at the end of 2011. It has been confirmed by banking officials from Lloyds that a total of 198 jobs will be lost as a result.

Branches
The Halifax has branches all over the United Kingdom and also has 44 in Ireland (although these are to close).  Many Halifax branches used to belong to the Leeds Permanent Building Society, which was taken-over by the Halifax in 1995.

References

Banks of England
1853 establishments
1850s establishments in the United Kingdom

Halifax (bank)


A lullaby is a song which is sung to help a baby or small child go to sleep. Composers of classical music often wrote pieces for instruments to play (very often for piano solo) which they called "lullaby". They also used the French word Berceuse. Brahms wrote his famous Wiegenlied originally for a young singer, Bertha Faber, when she gave birth to her second son.

Lullabies always have a gentle, rocking rhythm with a simple accompaniment. Frédéric Chopin's Berceuse is a lullaby for piano. Gabriel Fauré wrote one at the beginning of his Dolly Suite for piano duet. There are many other examples.

Mothers sing lullabies to their children at bedtime. Rock-a-bye Baby and Hush Little Baby are two very well-known lullabies.

There is an example of lullaby:

Rock-a-bye baby

On the tree tops,When the wind blows

The cradle will rock.

When the bough breaks

The cradle will fall,

And down will come baby

Cradle and all.

Example
 Tha Tha Thabungton

Song forms

Lullaby


is a traditional school (koryū) of the Japanese martial art of jujutsu. Its syllabus comprises atemi-waza (striking techniques), nage-waza (throwing techniques), kansetsu-waza (joint locking techniques) and shime-waza (choking techniques). The style is focused on throws and sweeps, and many of these techniques are designed to be performed while in full armor.

Origin

Kitō Ryū is translated as "the school of the rise and fall." It is similar to forms of "Aikijutsu,"  including the principle of "ki" (energy) and aiki (Kitō Ryū teaches that "When two minds are united, the stronger controls the weaker"...). Equally, it uses principles such as "kuzushi no ri" or "breaking of balance" now associated with modern judo.

Base art of Judo
Jigoro Kano trained in Kitō-ryū and derived some of the principles that were to form the basis of modern judo from this style. Judo's Koshiki-no-kata is based on Kitō-ryū.
Since Kano Jigoro got the Kitō-ryū densho from his Sensei, Judo is the current Kitō-ryū official successor.
Modified safer versions of Kitō-ryū throws form large part of Judo's Nagewaza (but without joint-locking throws).

Notes

External links
 https://web.archive.org/web/20070928065333/http://kiyojuteryu.org:8084/soke/articles/kitoryu.shtml

Jujutsu
Ko-ryū bujutsu
Japanese martial arts

Kitō-ryū


Savate, also known as boxe française (French boxing) or French kickboxing, is a French martial art - a kind of boxe pieds-poings - which use the hands and the feet as weapons and includes elements of Western boxing, techniques of grappling and techniques of leg (only with the feet: neither knee, nor shin). The persons who perform savate are called savateurs or "tireurs" in case of the men, and savateuses in case of the women.

History
Savate carry its name from the French word for "oldest shoe" (heavy shoes that were used to use during the combats) and is now a combination of the French techniques of fighting from beginning of the century XIX. In that age, savate was a kind of fighting which was common in Paris and in the North of France. In the South, especially in the port of Marseilles, the seamen had developed other style known as jeu marseillais ("the game of Marseilles"), that has obtained a new name chausson ("slipper", that was the shoes that the seamen used). Differently, in that age in England (the place of birth of boxing and the rules of Queensberry), people treated kicking as non-fair in sport or as something what only the cowards used more.

The two persons who have been recorded in the history of changing of street combat into modern savate are Michel Casseux (also known as "le Pisseux") (1794-1869), and Charles Lecour (1808-1894). Casseux opened in 1825 the first building in order to perform and to help in the development of a version of chausson and savate with rules (refusing to allow the strikes with the head, attacks with the fingers to the eyes, etc.). Anyhow, such sport still have been limited by its opinion of street combat. A student of Casseux, Charles Lecour had been exposed to the English art of boxing in the year 1830 and he had felt himself misfit, because he used his hands in order to hit the feet of the opponent and to drive them away in this way, instead of punching as in boxing. By that reason he trained himself in boxing during two years and in 1832 he combined boxing with chausson and savate in order to create such sport of savate boxe française as we know it today.

Probably the more outstanding recognition as soon as to the esteem of savate came in 1924 when had been included as sport of exhibition in the Olympic Games of Paris. In spite of its roots, savate is a sport relatively safe in order to learn. According to USA Savate  , savate is in the lower places of injuries when is compared with the soccer, football, hockey, gymnastics, basketball, baseball and speed skating.

Savate at Present

At present, savate is performed in all the world by interested people: from Australia to United States and from Finlandia to the United Kingdom. Many lands, as is case of United States has national federations very interested for helping in the development of this sport.

The modern savate gives three levels of competition: "assault", "precombat" and "combat". In assault, the competitors need to be concentrated on the technique during they are trying make contact; refrees punish with penatlties the usage of excessive force. Precombat permits fighting without thoughtlessness in the force always and when the fighters wear protection as helmets and shin protectors. Combat, the level more intensified, is similar to the precombat but the usage objects of protection is prohibited (except in case of the genital protectors and the protectors of the teeth).

Many martial arts have systems of judgment of level of the persons who perform them, as the colour of the belts in the karate. In the same way, savate uses different colours in the gloves in order to show the level of a fighter; although, on the contrary that disciplines as the judo or the capoeira, where the fighters obtain new belts in each promotion, every fighter can use the same pair of gloves in several promotions (for that the level is not corresponding directamente with the colour of the gloves that are used but with that is established in the licence). The beginners begin without colour and the different exams of promotion permit them to be promoted to blue, green, red, white and yellow in that order. The competition is restricted for the red gloves and higher; each federation has the possibility to establish the conditions as little as possible for teaching this sport. In France, it is necessary to have the yellow glove in order to being able to gain the degree of instructor (moniteur) and the silver glove in his technical category in order to obtain the title of teacher (professeur). In other lands as Mexico, all technical degrees from the green require an evaluation on subjects of helping in teaching in order to being able to increase the development of that art.

Writings on the subject
 Description de la Savate à partir de ses formes techniques de base par Amorous (Manuel d'Ecucation Physique Tome 1, page 414).
 Défense et illustration de la boxe française. Savate, canne, chausson, Bernard Plasait, 1972, Paris, Sedirep
 L'art de la savate, Michel Casseux.
 Théorique et pratique de la boxe française, Joseph Charlemont, 1878.
 La Boxe Française, historique et biographique, souvenirs, notes, impressions, anecdotes, Joseph Charlemont, 1899.

Other websites
 Techniques  of Savate

European martial arts
Sport in France

Savate


Alexandria Governorate ( Muḥāfẓet El Eskenderiya) is one of the governorates of Egypt. The city of Alexandria was historically the capital of Egypt. Later Fustat was built, and this became Cairo. Today the governorate is considered second in importance to the Cairo Governorate. It is on the northern coast of Egypt, on the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the most important harbours in Egypt.

Tourism
Alexandria has a diverse history. It was occupied by several cultures through the years. Alexandria has many historic sites and several monuments .

Monuments
 Bibliotheca Alexandrina
 Citadel of Qaitbay
 Graeco-Roman Museum
 Alexandria National Museum
 Royal Jewelry Museum
 Serapeum Temple
 Pompey's Pillar
 Roman Amphitheatre
 Lighthouse of Alexandria

Gardens

 Al Montaza Gardens
 Al Shallalat Gardens
 Antoniadis Garden
 El-Nozha Garden
 International Park of Alexandria

Education
Alexandria Governorate follows the Egyptian Educational System in its public schools and universities.

Most important educational institutes

 Bibliotheca Alexandrina ( Alexandria Library)
 Alexandria University
 Arab Academy for Science, Technology, and Maritime Transport
 Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology in New Borg El Arab city.
 The city of scientific research and Technological Applications
 Pharos University

Sports
Alexandria governorate most common sport is football and has three main stadiums which are:

 Borg El Arab Stadium
 Alexandria Stadium
 Haras El-Hedoud Stadium

Transportation

Ports

 Alexandria Port
 Al Dekheila Port. ( The second largest port in Alexandria Governorate after Alexandria Port).
 Abu Qir Port
 Eastern Port. (One of the oldest ports as it was built in 2000 B.C in Racoda village).

Railroads

 Alexandria Tram
 Alexandria Railways

Airports
Alexandria Governorate has two international airports:

 Borg El Arab Airport

Telephone services

Governorate telephone code

 National: 03
 International: +203

References

 Abu-Zeid, Khaled, Alaa Yasseen, Peter Van Der Steen, Phillip Sharp, and Mohamed ElRawady. "Integrated Urban Water Management." Alexandria 2030 (2011): 59. Managing Water for the City of the Future. Switch.  Web. 4 Dec. 2015.
 "About AU: History." Alexandria University. Alexandria University, 2015. Web. 3 Dec. 2015. <https://web.archive.org/web/20160110094656/http://www.alexu.edu.eg/index.php/en/about-au/auhistory%3E.
 "About the BA: Overview." Bibliotheca Alexandrina. Bibliotheca Alexandrina. Web. 7 Dec. 2015. <http://www.bibalex.org/en/Page/overview>.
 "Alexandria." Alexandria Portal. Ministry of State For Administrative Development. Web. 3 Dec. 2015. <http://www.alexandria.gov.eg/alex/english/index.aspx>.
 "Egypt Embassies & Consulates." Egypt. Embassy Pages, 28 Nov. 2015. Web. 3 Dec. 2015. <http://www.embassypages.com/egypt>.
 Khalifa, Alaa. "The City of Alexandria in Egypt - Information & Location of Alexandria." The City of Alexandria in Egypt - Information & Location of Alexandria
 Official portal for Alexandria governorate <http://www.alexandria.gov.eg/MainHome.aspx >

Other websites

 Alexandria Governorate (Arabic)
 Alexandria websites Alex4All website
 Discover Alexandria
 List of Governors of Alexandria with photos (1798-2000)  (Arabic)
 St. Takla Haymnaot the Ethiopian Coptic Orthodox Church - One of the famous Coptic Orthodox Churches of Alexandria

Alexandria Governorate


A coagulation, also known as clot is a semi-solid substance that blood forms, especially when it is in air. When a person bleeds, the blood turns into a clot at the injury.

A blood clot is also called a thrombus. The process is called coagulation.

If a person gets a cut on their body, that person may bleed. To stop the bleeding, the human body does several things. First, the brain orders the liver to produce chemicals that will help the clot to form. When the chemicals released by the liver arrive at the injury, the coagulation begins. In the mean time, the brain also lessens the blood flow near the injury (by tightening the veins and arteries in that area), so that not as much blood is lost.

There is a limit to how quickly a clot can form. If the cut is very deep and the person bleeds too much, a clot may not be able to form and a lot of blood may be lost.

The details

Coagulation begins almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel has damaged the endothelium lining the vessel. When blood is exposed to proteins such as tissue factor it starts changes to blood platelets and the plasma protein fibrinogen, which is a clotting factor. Platelets immediately form a plug at the site of injury. Proteins in the blood plasma, called coagulation factors or clotting factors, respond in a complex cascade to form fibrin strands. These strengthen the platelet plug.

Coagulation is highly conserved throughout biology; that means its genetics is almost the same in all mammal species. In all mammals, coagulation involves both a cellular (platelet) and a protein (coagulation factor) component. The system in humans has been the most extensively researched and is the best understood.

Fibrin
Fibrin is a white insoluble fibrous protein formed by the action of thrombin on fibrinogen when blood clots. it forms a network that traps red cells and platelets.

Vitamin K
Vitamin K is an essential factor in blood clotting. Then, vitamin K is oxidized. Another enzyme, Vitamin K epoxide reductase, (VKORC) reduces vitamin K back to its active form. This reactivation is important as a target of anticoagulant drug warfarin. Vitamin K can be found in green vegetables, such as spinach, lettuce, broccoli or cabbage.

References

Blood

Coagulation


The prime minister of Zimbabwe was a political office in the government of Zimbabwe that existed on two occasions. The first person to hold the position was Robert Mugabe from 1980 to 1987 following independence from the United Kingdom. He took office when Southern Rhodesia gained internationally recognised independence as the Republic of Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980. This position was abolished when the constitution was amended in 1987 and Mugabe became president of Zimbabwe, replacing Canaan Banana as the head of state while also remaining the head of government. The office of prime minister was restored in 2009 and held by Morgan Tsvangirai until the position was again abolished by the 2013 Constitution of Zimbabwe.

History of the office

Original office

Zimbabwe's prime ministerial office owes its origins to the country's predecessor states. The position began with George Mitchell who became prime minister of Southern Rhodesia in 1933. All subsequent predecessor-states continued with the post until Abel Muzorewa who became prime minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 under the Internal Settlement. The Lancaster House Agreement brought an independence constitution which made provision for a parliamentary system, with a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. The presidency was mostly ceremonial; real power was vested with the prime minister.

The 1980 election resulted in a ZANU–PF victory with Robert Mugabe becoming prime minister and Canaan Banana president. Mugabe and Banana were returned to office in the 1985 election.

However, in 1987 the government revised the constitution and made the presidency an executive post. The prime minister's post was abolished, and its functions were effectively merged with those of the president. Mugabe ascended to the presidency.

Restored office

The restoration of the office of prime minister in 2009 was a result of a power-sharing agreement made in September 2008 between Mugabe's ZANU–PF and rival candidate Morgan Tsvangirai's MDC–T after the 2008 presidential election and later run-off. Mugabe remained president while Tsvangirai was sworn into the office of prime minister on 11 February 2009. Executive authority was shared between the president, the prime minister and the cabinet, with ZANU–PF and the MDC–T sharing portfolio ministries. It was the prime minister's role to chair the council of ministers and act as the deputy chairperson of Cabinet and also oversee the formulation of government policies by the Cabinet. In addition, the prime minister was a member of the National Security Council, chaired by the president and sat alongside the heads of the armed forces, intelligence, prison services and police. According to section 20.1.8 of the 1980 Constitution of Zimbabwe (No. 19) Amendment, the prime minister, vice-presidents and deputy prime ministers became ex officio members of the House of Assembly without needing to represent parliamentary constituencies, and the party of a constituency-based MP who concurrently served in any of the above offices held the right to nominate non-constituency members to such offices. The post of prime minister did not hold the full executive powers it held during the 1980s and the president remained head of the cabinet. In 2012 Tsvangirai claimed that the power-sharing agreement was not being honoured and that he was not being consulted by the president over some appointments. The government held a referendum in March 2013 to approve a new constitution. As a result, the post of prime minister was abolished from 11 September 2013. Tsvangirai and Mugabe both contested the general election in July 2013 for the single post of president. Mugabe was elected.

Prime ministers of Zimbabwe (1980–1987; 2009–2013)

|- style="text-align:center;"
| colspan=9| Post abolished (31 December 1987 – 11 February 2009)

|- style="text-align:center;"
| colspan=9| Post abolished (11 September 2013 – present)

Rank by time in office

See also
President of Zimbabwe
Deputy Prime Minister of Zimbabwe
Prime Minister of Rhodesia
Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia

Notes

References

External links
Zimbabwe Prime Minister Online

Zimbabwe, Prime Minister of
Prime Minister
Prime Ministers
1980 establishments in Zimbabwe
1987 disestablishments in Zimbabwe
2009 establishments in Zimbabwe
2013 disestablishments in Zimbabwe

Prime Minister of Zimbabwe


The Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem () is the Latin Catholic ecclesiastical patriarchate in Jerusalem, officially seated in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. It was originally established in 1099, with the Kingdom of Jerusalem encompassing the territories in the Holy Land newly conquered by the First Crusade. From 1374 to 1847 it was a titular see, with the patriarchs of Jerusalem being based at the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura in Rome. Pope Pius IX re-established a resident Latin patriarch in 1847.

The Latin patriarch of Jerusalem is now the archbishop of Latin Church Catholics of the Archdiocese of Jerusalem with jurisdiction for all Latin Catholics in Israel, Palestine, Jordan and Cyprus. The Latin patriarch of Jerusalem also holds the office of grand prior of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre. The office of Latin patriarch of Jerusalem became vacant on 24 June 2016, and the patriarchate was managed by Archbishop Pierbattista Pizzaballa as apostolic administrator. Pizzaballa was appointed Latin patriarch on 24 October 2020. He took possession of the see on 6 November 2020.

It is exempt, being directly subject to the Holy See (and exceptionally its Roman Congregation for the Oriental Churches, which normally handles Eastern Catholics). It is not within an ecclesiastical province, and has no metropolitan functions.

The title of patriarch in the Latin Church is retained by only four archbishops (since Benedict XVI relinquished the papal title of "Patriarch of the West" in 2006): the Latin patriarchs of Jerusalem, of Venice, of Lisbon and of the East Indies. Until 1964, there had also been the honorary patriarchal titles of Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch; still others were abolished earlier.

Outside the Catholic Church, the title of "Patriarch of Jerusalem" is also used by the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, the Armenian Patriarch of Jerusalem, as well as, titularly (along with Alexandria), by the Melkite Patriarch.

History

Jerusalem (in Latin also Hierosolyma) was one of the Apostles' original bishoprics. It was renamed Aelia Capitolina in 135 AD, again Jerusalem in 325. In 451 it was promoted as Patriarchal See. After 649, Pope Martin appointed John of Philadelphia (Amman) as Patriarchal vicar of Jerusalem to replace Sergius of Jaffa.

In 1054, the Great Schism split Christianity into the Eastern Orthodox Church—which consisted of the four Orthodox Christian Patriarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and Alexandria—under the stewardship of Constantinople; and the Catholic Church, which consisted of the Pope of Rome and virtually all of Western Christianity. Apart from the Maronites, most Christians in the Holy Land came under the jurisdiction of the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem.

Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem
In 1099, the Western Crusaders captured Jerusalem, set up the Kingdom of Jerusalem and established a Latin hierarchy under a Latin Patriarch (in communion with Rome), while expelling the Orthodox Patriarch. The Latin Patriarchate was divided into four archdioceses—their heads bearing the titles of Archbishop of Tyre, Archbishop of Caesarea, Archbishop of Nazareth and Archbishop of Petra—and a number of suffragan dioceses. The Latin Patriarch took over control of the Latin quarter of the city of Jerusalem (the Holy Sepulchre and the immediate surroundings) as his Metropolitan see, and had as his direct suffragans the bishops of Lydda-Ramla, Bethlehem, Hebron and Gaza, and the abbots of the Temple, Mount Sion and the Mount of Olives.

The Latin Patriarch resided in Jerusalem from 1099 to 1187, while Orthodox Patriarchs continued to be appointed, but resided in Constantinople. In 1187, the Crusaders were forced to flee Jerusalem, and the Latin Patriarchy moved to Acre (Akka), while the Orthodox Patriarch returned to Jerusalem. The Catholic Church continued to appoint residential Latin Patriarchs. The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem endured almost 200 years until the last vestiges of the Kingdom were conquered by the Muslim Mamluks in 1291, and the Latin hierarchy was effectively eliminated in the Levant.

With the Fall of Acre, the Latin Patriarch moved to the Kingdom of Cyprus in 1291.

Titular Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem

In 1374, the Kingdom of Cyprus underwent a severe upheaval when it was invaded by the Genoese, who conquered Famagusta and held King Peter II captive.

From that time on, the Latin Patriarchs of Jerusalem ceased to reside in Cyprus. The Catholic Church continued to appoint titular Patriarchs of Jerusalem, but from then on they were based at the  in Rome.

In 1342, Pope Clement VI officially committed the care of the Holy Land to the Franciscans and the Franciscan Custos of the Holy Lands (The Grand Masters of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre) held the title ex officio under the Papal bull Gratiam agimus by Pope Clement VI, unless someone was specifically appointed to the honorary office.

Yet in 1570, it gained territories from the suppressed Archdiocese of Nicosia and Diocese of Paphos, and in 1571 it gained more territories from the suppressed Diocese of Limassol and Diocese of Famagosta, all in former Crusader Kingdom of Cyprus, which had fallen to the Ottoman Turks.

Modern Patriarchate of Jerusalem

A resident Latin Patriarch was re-established in 1847 by Pius IX, with Bishop Joseph Valerga being appointed to the office. Though officially superseding the Franciscans, Valerga was also the Grand Master of the Order. On Valerga's death in 1872, Vincent Braco was appointed, and following his death in 1889, the Ottoman Sultan authorised the re-establishment of a Latin hierarchy. The Grand Masters of the Order continued to be named as Latin Patriarchs until 1905.

The Co-Cathedral of the Most Holy Name of Jesus is the principal, or "mother" church of the Latin Patriarchate, the church in which the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem has his official chair (cathedra). However, the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre has the title of cathedral of the patriarchate. The residence of the Patriarch is in the Old City, near the Co-Cathedral, while the seminary, which is responsible for the liturgical education, is in Beit Jala, a town 10 km south of Jerusalem, where it has been since 1936.

In 1987, Michel Sabbah became the first native Palestinian to be appointed Latin Patriarch. The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem is now the diocesan archbishop of Latin Catholics of the Catholic Archdiocese of Jerusalem and has jurisdiction for all Latin Church Catholics in Israel, Palestine, Jordan and Cyprus.

The prerogatives of the Patriarch in his relation with government authorities overlap with the prerogatives of the Apostolic Nuncio to Israel and the Apostolic Delegate to Jerusalem and Palestine.

In 2008, Archbishop Fouad Twal was appointed Patriarch to succeed Patriarch Michel Sabbah. He exercised his mandate from June 21, 2008, until June 24, 2016, when he reached the canonical age of retirement and Pope Francis accepted his resignation. Pope Francis appointed Pierbattista Pizzaballa as apostolic administrator of the Patriarchate and named Patriarch on 24 October 2020.

Pope Paul VI visited in January 1964, Pope John Paul II in March 2000, Pope Benedict XVI in May 2009 and Pope Francis in May 2014.

Organisation and Territory

The Patriarch is supported by bishops and non-bishop patriarchal vicars:

William Shomali, Auxiliary Bishop and Vicar General of Latin Patriarchate, and Patriarchal Vicar for Jerusalem and Palestine

Jamal Khader, Patriarchal Vicar for Jordan, based in Amman

Rafic Nahra, Patriarchal Vicar for Israel, based in Nazareth

Jerzy Kraj, OFM, Patriarchal Vicar for Cyprus based in Nicosia

Piotr Zelasko, Patriarchal Vicar for the Hebrew-speaking Catholics, based in Jerusalem

Matthew Coutinho, SDB, Patriarchal Vicar for the migrants and asylum seekers of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, based in Tel Aviv

Statistics and extent
As per 2015, it pastorally served 293,053 Catholics in 66 parishes with 464 priests (81 diocesan, 383 religious), 9 deacons, 1,652 lay religious (590 brothers, 1,062 sisters) and 55 seminarians.

The proper Archdiocese of the patriarchal see of Jerusalem has jurisdiction over all 'Latin Church' Catholics (not Eastern Catholics) in the Holy Land (Israel, Palestine and Jordan) as well as Cyprus. In Jerusalem, the Latin Catholic community is the largest Christian community, with some 4,500 people out of an estimated Christian population of about 11,000.

Special churches
In Jerusalem, the patriarch has his Cathedral archiepiscopal see, a Minor Basilica and World Heritage Site: the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre, as well as the Co-Cathedral, also a World Heritage Site: Co-Cathedral of the Most Holy Name of Jesus, and four other Minor Basilicas and World Heritage Sites: Basilica of the Agony, Basilica of St. Stephen, Dormition Abbey of the Virgin Mary and St. Anne's Church.

Other cities in the archdiocese have more Minor Basilicas: Basilica of the Annunciation in Nazareth, Basilica of the Transfiguration in Mount Tabor, Carmelite Monastery of Stella Maris in Haifa and St. Cleophas Church in El Qubeibeh, and two other World Heritage Sites, both in Bethlehem : Church of St. Catherine and Church of the Nativity.

List of Latin patriarchs of Jerusalem

Prior to the Great Schism, there were no separate Latin and Greek Orthodox Churches, and thus no separate patriarchs. For patriarchs of Jerusalem of the unified Church prior to the Schism, see Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem.

Arnulf of Chocques (1099)
Dagobert of Pisa (1099–1101)
Maurice of Porto (1101–1102), ad interim
Evremar (1102–1105)
Dagobert of Pisa (restored) (1105)
Ghibbelin of Arles (1107–1112)
Arnulf of Chocques (re-appointed) (1112–1118)
Warmund of Jerusalem (also known as Garmond of Picquigny) (1119–1128)
Stephen of La Ferté (1128–1130)
William of Malines (1130–1145)
Fulk of Angoulême (1146–1157)
Amalric of Nesle (1157–1180)
Heraclius (1180–1191)

Jerusalem itself was lost in 1187; seat of the patriarch moved (with the kingdom in retreat) to Acre.

 Rodolfo (1191–1192)
 Michele de Corbeil (1193–1194)
Aymar the Monk (also known as Aimaro Monaco dei Corbizzi) (1194–1202)
Soffredo (also known as Loffredo Errico Gaetani) (1202–1204)
Albert of Vercelli (also known as Albert Avogadro) (1204–1214)
Raoul of Mérencourt (1214–1225)
Gerold of Lausanne (1225–1238)
vacant (1238–1240); Jacques de Vitry appointed but never served
Robert of Nantes (1240–1254)
Jacques Pantaléon (1255–1261), future Pope Urban IV of Rome
William II of Agen (1261–1270)
 Thomas Agni of Cosenza (1271–1277)
John of Vercelli (1278–1279)
 Elijah of Jerusalem (1279–1287)
Nicholas of Hanapes (fr) (1288–1294)

Acre lost in 1291; see in exile moved to Cyprus, then Rome after 1374; titular patriarchs until 1847.

Landolfo (1295–1304)
Antony Bek (1306–1311), also Prince-Bishop of Durham in England from 1284 to 1310
 Pierre Pleinecassagne (1314–1318)
Pierre (1314–1318)

The Franciscan Custodian of the Holy Land held the title from 1342 to 1830 under the Papal bull Gratiam agimus by Pope Clement VI. The bull declared the Franciscans as the official custodians of the Holy Places in the name of the Catholic Church, "unless someone was specifically appointed in the honorary office".

 Raymond Bequin (Raimondo Beguin), O.P. (1324–1329 Died)
Peter Paludanus (Pierre de Palude or Pietro de la Palude), O.P. (1329–1342 Died)
Élie de Nabinal, O.F.M. (1342)
Pierre de Casa, O. Carm. (1342–1348)
Emanuele de Nabinal, O.F.M. (1345)
Guillaume Amici (Lamy) (1349–1360)
Philippe de Cabassole (1361–1368)
Guglielmo Militis, O.P. (1369–1371)
Guilherme Audibert de la Garde (1371–1374)
Philippe d'Alençon de Valois (1375–1378)
Guglielmo da Urbino, O.F.M. (1379–?)

During the Western Schism, the patriarch was appointed by both popes resulting in overlapping appointments.

Named by the pope of Rome:
Stephanus de Insula (Štefan), O.E.S.A. (1379–1384)
Fernandus (1386–1395)
Ugo Roberti (1396–1409 Died)
Named by the Pope of Avignon:
Lope Fernández de Luna (1380–1382)
Bertrande de Chanac (1382–1385)
Aimone Séchal (1385–1404)
Francesc Eiximenis (Francesco Eximini), O.F.M. (1408–1409)
Francisco Clemente Pérez Capera (1419–1429)
Leonardo Delfino (patriarch), O.F.M. (1430–1434)
Biagio Molino (1434–1447 Died)
Cristoforo Garatoni (Apostolic Administrator 1448–1449)
Bessarion (Apostolic Administrator 1449–1458)
Lorenzo Zanni (Lorenzo Zane) (1458–1460)
Louis de Haricuria (1460–1479)
Bartolomeo della Rovere, O.F.M. (1480–1494)
Giovanni Antonio Sangiorgio (1500–1503)
Bernardino López de Carvajal y Sande (1503–1511 Resigned)
...
Rodrigo de Carvajal (1523–1539)
Alessandro Farnese (1539–1550)
Cristoforo Spiriti (1550–1556 Died)
Antonio Elio (Antonius Helius) (1558–1576)
Gian Antonio Facchinetti de Nuce (1576–1584), future Pope Innocent IX of Rome
Scipione Gonzaga (1585–1588)
Fabio Blondus de Montealto (Fabio Biondi) (1588–1618)
Francesco Cennini de' Salamandri (1618–1621)
Diofebo Farnese (1621–1622 Died)
Alfonso Manzanedo de Quiñones (1622–1627 Died)
Domenico de' Marini (patriarch) (1627–1635 Died)
Giovanni Battista Colonna (1636–1637 Died)
Tegrimus Tegrimi (1638–1641 Died)
Aegidius Ursinus de Vivere (1641–1647 Died)
unknown
Camillo Massimo (1653–1671)
Egidio Colonna (patriarch), O.S.B. (1671–1686 Died)
Bandino Panciatichi (1689–1690)
Niccolo Pietro Bargellini (1690–1694 Died)
Francesco Martelli (1698–1706)
Muzio Gaeta (1708–1728)
Vincent Louis Gotti (1728–1729)
Pompeo Aldrovandi (1729–1734)
Tommaso Cervini (1734–1751)
Tommaso Moncada La Rocca (1751–1762)
Giorgio Maria Lascaris (1762–1795)
vacant (1795–1800)
Michele di Pietro (1800–1821)
Francesco Maria Fenzi (1816–1829)
Paolo Augusto Foscolo (1830–1847), later Latin Patriarch of Alexandria, 1847–1860

Restoration of resident Latin patriarchs of Jerusalem in 1847.

 Joseph Valerga (1847–1872)
 Giovanni Vincenzo Bracco (1872–1889)

Latin patriarchate hierarchy re-established in 1889.
 Luigi Piavi (1889–1905)
 Auxiliary Bishop: Pasquale Appodia (13 Feb 1891  – 7 Nov 1901)
vacant (1905–1906)
 Filippo Camassei (1906–1919)
 Luigi Barlassina (1920–1947)
 Auxiliary Bishop: Godric Kean (14 Jul 1924 – 1928.12)
 Auxiliary Bishop: Francesco Fellinger (26 Feb 1929  – 22 Jul 1940)
vacant (1947–1949)
 Auxiliary Bishop: Vincent Gelat (30 Apr 1948  – 19 Jan 1968)
 Alberto Gori (1949–1970)
 Vicar general: Bishop Pier Giorgio Chiappero, O.F.M. (31 Aug 1959  – 15 Jul 1963)
 Auxiliary Bishop: Hanna Kaldany (4 Jan 1964  – 14 May 1996)
 Auxiliary Bishop: Neemeh Simaan (21 Sep 1965  – 25 May 1981)
 Giacomo Giuseppe Beltritti (1970–1987)
 Auxiliary Bishop: Salim Sayegh (26 Nov 1981  – 19 Jan 2012)
 Michel Sabbah (1987–2008)
 Auxiliary Bishop: Kamal Hanna Bathish (29 Apr 1993  – 9 Jun 2007)
 Fouad Twal (2008–2016)
 Auxiliary Bishop (29 Apr 1993  – 29 Aug 2020): Giacinto-Boulos Marcuzzo, Titular Bishop of Emmaus
 Auxiliary Bishop (31 Mar 2010 – present): William Hanna Shomali, titular Bishop of Lydda
 vacant (24 Jun 2016 – 6 November 2020)
 Pierbattista Pizzaballa (6 November 2020 – present)

See also

 Catholic Church in Israel
 Catholic Church in Palestine
 Catholic Church in the Middle East
 List of Catholic dioceses in the Holy Land and Cyprus
 List of parishes of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem
 Our Lady of Palestine
 Custody of the Holy Land
 Latin Church in the Middle East

References

Sources and external links
 Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem website
 Saint James Vicariate for Hebrew Speaking Catholics
 Listing Latin Patriarchs of Jerusalem at GCatholic.org
 Patriarchate of Jerusalem {Gerusalemme} at the Catholic Hierarchy website
 Homily of John Paul II in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Latin Patriarchs
Lists of patriarchs
Lists of Roman Catholics

Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem


An international organization is an organization, active in more than one country. These organizations can not command countries and citizens in a way a government can. Many are intergovernmental organizations meaning that rather than having people as members, they have individual countries as members. They make rules that the different governments follow. The United Nations is such an organization.

Some International organizations operate in many countries but do not have governments as members. The Red Cross is that kind of organization.

Other page
Cosmopolitan
International law
International relations
Non-governmental organization

International organization


Ultratop 50 Singles, often called Ultratop 50, is the weekly chart of fifty best-selling singles in Flanders, Belgium.  Ultratop 50 and is produced and published by the Ultratop organization.  The chart has existed since March 31, 1995.  It is published in Dutch, French, and English, and is presented on several Belgian radio stations as well as on TMF Flanders television.

Its equivalent in the Wallonia region of Belgium is known as the "Ultratop 40 Singles" chart.

Three other charts from the Ultratop organization bear similar names: two separate and usually different charts named "Ultratop 50 Albums" tracking weekly album performance in the Dutch-speaking Flanders and French-speaking Wallonia regions, respectively; and one chart named "Ultratop 50 Alternative Albums". All of these charts, too, are published in three languages.

Related pages
Ultratop 40

Record charts

Ultratop 50 Singles


The Mediterranean region is the region surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. This includes places from Europe and Africa and Asia. Most of the region has a Mediterranean climate with warm to hot dry summers and cool to mild wet winters. Plants that grow there are short trees and shrubs which survive the yearly drought during summer. It is a popular vacation spot.

Location

The Mediterranean Region is so called because the largest stretch of area here lies along the margins of the Mediterranean Sea.The regions having similarities with the Mediterranean Region are located on the western margins of continents in the latitudinal belt between 30° to 45° North and South latitudes . Therefore, these regions are known by the common name of the Mediterranean Region of the world .

Area

 Europe: The margins of South Portugal, France, Greece, Italy and Spain.
 Asia: Cyprus, Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria and parts of western and southern coastal Turkey.
 Africa: The coastal area of Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Libya.

Regions of Africa
Regions of Asia
Regions of Europe
Mediterranean Sea

Mediterranean region


Australian literature is the written or literary work made in the area or by the people of Australia and its preceding colonies. During its early western history, Australia was many British colonies. Therefore, its literary tradition is linked with English literature. Since 1788, the character of a new continent came into the literature.  Themes included Aboriginality, mateship, egalitarianism, democracy, migrant and national identity, distance from other Western nations and proximity to Asia, the complexities of urban living and the "beauty and the terror" of life in the Australian bush.

Notable Australian writers have included the novelists Marcus Clarke, Miles Franklin, Patrick White, Thomas Keneally, Morris West and Colleen McCullough, the bush poets Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson, historians Manning Clark and Geoffrey Blainey, the playwright David Williamson and leading expatriate writers Barry Humphries, Robert Hughes, Clive James and Germaine Greer.

Australian literature


The Book of Micah (Hebrew: ספר מיכה) is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament.
Scholars believe it was written by Micah the prophet, about 700 years before Jesus was born. Chapter 1 verse 5 says Micah was from Moresheth (a town in southern Judah). He lived during the reigns of Yehotam, Ahaz and Hezekiah, roughly 750–700 BC.

During this time, after a long period of peace, Israel, Judah, and the other nations of the region were threatened by the Neo-Assyrian empire. Micah warns that there would be a military defeat as punishment for worshiping idols and treating poor people badly by the powerful. This happened to the kingdom of Israel (Samaria) in 721 and to the kingdom of Judah (Jerusalem) about 100 years later.  The book contains three cycles of warning about punishment and promise of restoration.

Quotes

The book of Micah is quoted by the New Testament writer Matthew in chapter 2, verses 5 and 6

Bethlehem Ephrathah, you are one of the smallest towns in Judah, but out of you I will bring a ruler for Israel, whose family line goes back to ancient times. (chapter 5 verse 2, Good News version).

Jesus quotes Micah chapter 7 verse 6, to say that families will be divided by His message:

 A man's enemies will be those of his own household. — Matthew chapter 10, verse 36

Modern preachers have often quoted Micah Chapter 6, verse 8

 He has showed you, O man, what is good; and what does the LORD require of you, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with your God? (American King James Version)

References

Books of the Hebrew Bible
Old Testament books
8th-century BC books

Book of Micah


Solid-state chemistry, (also called materials chemistry) is the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials. It focuses on non-molecular solids. It has much in common with solid-state physics, mineralogy, crystallography, ceramics, metallurgy, thermodynamics, materials science and electronics. It focuses on the synthesis of new materials and their characterization.

History
Technology helps solid-state inorganic chemistry. Solid-state chemistry works to make materials used in commerce.  Researchers serve industry, as well as answering academic questions.  There were many important discoveries in the 20th century: zeolite and platinum-based catalysts for petroleum processing in the 1950s, high-purity silicon as a core component of microelectronic devices in the 1960s, and "high temperature" superconductivity in the 1980s.  William Lawrence Bragg invented X-ray crystallography in the early 1900s, which brought further discoveries.

Carl Wagner's worked on oxidation rate theory, counter diffusion of ions, and defect chemistry. This work showed how reactions proceed at the atomic level in the solid state. Because of this, he has sometimes been referred to as the "father of solid state chemistry".

Synthetic methods
A diverse variety of syntheic methods are used to make solid-state compounds.  For organic materials, such as charge transfer salts, the methods operate near room temperature and are often similar to the methods of organic synthesis.  Redox reactions are sometimes conducted by electrocrystallisation. For example, Bechgaard salts can be made from tetrathiafulvalene.

Oven techniques
For materials that can withstand heat, chemists often use high temperature methods.  For example, chemists use tube furnaces to prepare bulk solids. This allows reactions to be conducted up to around . For higher temperatures up to , chemists use special equipment such as ovens made with a tantalum tube through which an electric current is passed. Such high temperatures are at times required to induce diffusion of the reactants. But this depends strongly on the system studied. Some solid state reactions already proceed at temperatures as low as .

Melt methods
Chemists often melt the reactants together and then later anneal the solidified melt. If volatile reactants are involved, the reactants are often put in an ampoule and then all air is removed. Often, the chemists keep the reactant mixture cold (for example, by keeping the bottom of the ampoule in liquid nitrogen) and then seal the ampoule. The sealed ampoule is then put in an oven and given a specified heat treatment.

Solution methods
Solvents can be used to prepare solids by precipitation or by evaporation. At times the solvent is used under pressure at temperatures higher than the normal boiling point (hydrothermally). Flux methods add a salt of relatively low melting point to the mixture to act as a high temperature solvent in which the desired reaction can take place.

Gas reactions
Many solids react readily with reactive gases such as chlorine, iodine, oxygen or others. Others solids form adducts with other gases, (for example CO or ethylene). Such reactions are often carried out in a tube with open ended on both sides and through which the gas flows. A variation of this is to let the reaction take place inside a measuring device such as a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). In that case stoichiometric information can be obtained during the reaction. That information helps identify the products. (By accurately measuring the amount of each reactant, chemists can guess the ratio of the atoms in the final products.)

A special case of a gas reaction is a chemical transport reaction. These are often carried out by adding a small amount of a transport agent (for example, iodine) to a sealed ampoule. The ampoule is then placed in a zone oven. This method can be used to obtain the product in the form of single crystals suitable for structure determination by X-ray diffraction (XRD).

Chemical vapor deposition is also a widely used high temperature method for the preparation of coatings and semiconductors from molecular precursors.

Air and moisture sensitive materials
Many solids attract water (hygroscopic) and/or sensitive to oxygen. For example, many halides absorb water and can only be studied in their anhydrous form if they are handled in a glove box filled with dry (and/or oxygen-free) gas, usually nitrogen.

Characterization

New phases, phase diagrams, structures
Because a new synthetic method produces a mixture of products, it is important to be able to identify and characterize specific solid-state materials. Chemists try changing the stoichiometry to find which stoichiometries will lead to new solid compounds or to solid solutions between known ones. A prime method to characterize the reaction products is powder diffraction, because many solid state reactions will produce polycristalline ingots or powders. Powder diffraction will help the identification of known phases in the mixture. If a pattern is found that is not known in the diffraction data libraries an attempt can be made to index the pattern, that is to identify the symmetry and the size of the unit cell. (If the product is not crystalline the characterization is much more difficult.)

Once the unit cell of a new phase is known, the next step is to establish the ratio of the elements (stoichiometry) of the phase. This can be done in a number of ways. Sometimes the composition of the original mixture will give a clue, if one finds only one product (a single powder pattern) or if one was trying to make a phase of a certain composition by analogy to known materials.  But this is rare.

Often chemist work hard to improve the synthetic methodology to get a pure sample of the new material.
If chemists can separate the product from the rest of the reaction mixture, then chemists can use elemental analysis on the isolated product. Other ways involve Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the generation of characteristic X-rays in the electron beam. The easiest way is to solve the structure is by using single crystal X-ray diffraction.

Improving the preparative procedures requires chemists to study which phases are stable at what composition and what stoichiometry. In other words, the chemists draw the phase diagram of the substance. An important tools in finding the phase diagram data are thermal analysis such as DSC or DTA and increasingly also, thanks to the advent of synchrotrons temperature-dependent power diffraction. Increased knowledge of the phase relations often leads to further refinement in synthetic procedures which repeats the cycle. New phases are thus characterized by their melting points and their stoichiometric domains. Identifying stichiometric domains is important for the many solids that are non-stoichiometric compounds. The cell parameters obtained from XRD are particularly helpful to characterize the homogeneity ranges of non-stoichiometric compounds.

Further characterization
In many cases new solid compounds are further characterized by a variety of techniques  from solid-state physics.

Optical properties
For non-metallic materials, chemists try to get ultra-violet/visible spectra. In the case of semiconductors that will give an idea of the band gap.

Electrical properties
Four-point (or five-point) probe methods are often applied either to ingots, crystals or pressed pellets to measure resistivity and the size of the Hall effect. This gives information on whether the compound is an insulator, semiconductor, semimetal or metal and upon the type of doping and the mobility in the delocalized bands (if present). So, important information is obtained on the chemical bonding in the material.

Magnetic properties
Magnetic susceptibility can be measured as function of temperature to establish whether the material is a para-, ferro- or antiferro- magnet. This tells the bonding in the material. This is particularly important for transition metal compounds. In the case of magnetic order, neutron diffraction can be used to find the magnetic structure.

Notes

References

Other websites
3.091: Introduction to Solid State Chemistry

Branches of chemistry

Solid-state chemistry