For the American sport, see American football. For other sports known as football, see Football

Association football is a sport played between two teams. In the United States, Canada and Australia, it is called soccer. In most other English-speaking countries it is called football. Association football is the most popular sport in the world.

Games like football have been played around the world since ancient times. The game came from England, where the Football Association wrote a standard set of rules for the game in 1863.

The game originated in China, for their army. The players had a very heavy ball and goals high. England took the idea of the Chinese game and changed the rules a bit and now it is the modern game we know today.

Each team has 11 players on the field. One of these players is the goalkeeper, the only player who is okay to touch the ball with their hands. The other ten are known as "outfield players". The players try to kick the ball into their opponents' goal. The team that scores the most goals wins. A match has 90 minutes of play, with a break of 15 minutes during the match. The break in the middle is called half-time. Added time may be added after half time or after 90 minutes to make up for time lost during the game because of fouls, free kicks, corner kicks, injuries, bookings, substitutions or any other time the game is stopped. A match can end in a tie, except in some competition games where one team must win. In that case, extra-time with two halves of 15 minutes each may be played, and if there is still a tie, a penalty shootout decides the winner. Sometimes extra-time is skipped and the game goes right into the penalty shootout.

Rules

Fundamental rules
 The side which scores the most goals wins. If scores are equal, the result is a draw. In cup competitions, there may be extra time and penalties to determine a winner.
 The officials in a football game are a referee and two linesmen.
 Goals are scored by getting the ball into the opponents' goal, more than halfway across the line.
 In big tournaments, referees can use cameras to check whether a goal was scored.
 The offside rule means that there must be at least two defenders between an attacker and the defenders' goal if the attacker's teammate passes the ball to him/her. Usually, one of the two defenders is the goalkeeper. (This rule is complex and has many other details.) Before this rule was added, players would often stand next to their opponents' goal and score an easy goal as soon as the ball was passed to them.
 Players may not use their hands or arms (handball), except the goalkeeper, who may use them within their own penalty area (penalty areas are in front of both goals).
 The ball is out of play if it crosses the field boundaries.
 If a player hits the ball out of play at the side of the field, the other team gets to throw the ball back into play (a throw in).
 If a player hits the ball out of play at their end of the field, the other team kicks the ball back into play from the corner (a corner kick).
 If a player kicks the ball out of play at the other end of the field, the other team kicks the ball back into play from directly in front of the goal (a goal kick).
 Football is a game of two halves. Each half is 45 minutes.  The referee may add time to the end of each half when play is delayed due to injuries or substitutions.  There is an interval of ten minutes between halves.
 Each team is allowed up to three substitutes from the bench during the course of a game. No player substituted can return during the game.

Behaviour rules
 Players may not try to trip, push or hurt other players (a foul).
 Players may not hold each other or stop other players from getting to the ball (obstruction).
 When a player scores he/she is not allowed to jump into the crowd. If he/she does they will get a yellow card. The same applies to lifting or removing their shirt in celebration.
 Players must not try to hurt the referees or say hurtful things to the referee.
 Players who commit bad fouls get shown a yellow card. Players who commit really bad fouls, or get shown two yellow cards in the same game, get shown a red card. Players who get shown a red card get sent off the field and cannot finish playing the game. In some competitions (like the Premier League in England) you miss the next game (suspended) if you get a red card, or pick up 5 yellow cards during the season.

Who plays football
Football is the world's most popular sport. It is played in more countries than any other game. In fact, FIFA (the Federation Internationale de Football Association) has more members than the United Nations. It was originally an all-male sport, but today it is played by both males and females (separately, except sometimes at primary school level).

In Europe, the main competitions to compete are the Champions League for the top teams from the top leagues in each country in Europe. Then there is the UEFA Europa League which is for the next best teams from each member country of the UEFA.

Most successful clubs are FC Barcelona and Real Madrid from Spain; Bayern Munich and Borussia Dortmund from Germany; Galatasaray S.K. from Turkey; Juventus, AC Milan and Inter Milan from Italy; Liverpool, Manchester United and Manchester City from England; Paris Saint-Germain from France and Al Ahly from Egypt.
The most successful club in the world, in terms of domestic league results, is Rangers F.C. from Scotland, who have won more domestic league titles than any other team in the world. They have won the country's league 54 times which is a world record. In May 2000, Rangers became the first team to win 100 trophies.

Competitions

There are many competitions for football, for both football clubs and countries. Football clubs usually play other teams in their own country, with a few exceptions. Here are a list of some of those exceptions:
 Welsh teams  and  play in the EFL Championship (the 2nd tier of English league system) and the FA Cup (the English cup competition)
 Canadian teams , Toronto FC, and CF Montreal play in the MLS (the USA league system)
 Monégasque team A.S. Monaco play in Ligue 1 (the French league system)

Football clubs also play other teams in their continent in competitions such as the CAF Champions League and the UEFA Champions League.

There are 6 associations (CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, CAF, UEFA, AFC, and OFC). Each association has their own continental competition between clubs and national teams. Some examples are the Copa América for CONMEBOL national teams and the Copa Libertadores for CONMEBOL clubs. FIFA organises international competitions between worldwide clubs and countries. Clubs play in the Club World Cup, and countries play for the FIFA World Cup.

The FIFA World Cup takes place every four years between national teams, and is the world's most popular sporting event, even more popular than the Olympic Games. In football, there are two main competition types. In a "league", all of the teams play the same number of games, but in a "cup", teams leave the competition when they lose, until the last two teams play each other to decide the winner.

Related pages
List of football federations
List of national football teams
 List of Argentine football teams
 List of Austrian football teams
List of football teams in Armenia
List of football teams in Azerbaijan
 List of Brazilian football teams
List of Colombian football teams
List of football teams in Chile
 List of Dutch football teams
 List of English football teams
 List of French football teams
 List of German football teams
 List of Indian football teams
 List of Italian football teams
 List of Japanese football teams
List of Mexican football teams
 List of Portuguese football teams
 List of Russian football teams
 List of Scottish football teams
 List of Spanish football teams
List of football teams in Sweden
List of football teams in Turkey
 List of United States soccer teams
 Freestyle football

References

More reading

Summer Olympic sports

Association football


Temple Ewell is a  civil parish and historic village in the county of Kent, England. The village is part of the Dover district of Kent, and forms part of the Dover urban area. It is situated three miles North West of the town of Dover.

Situated in the Dour valley, Temple Ewell is surrounded by nature reserves and conservation areas. The village has a parish church, a village hall and a primary school. It also has a local shop and post office, and an 18th-century public house.

Temple Ewell is served by Kearsney railway station, which is situated between the villages of Temple Ewell, Kearsney and River.

The 2001 Census records a population including Kearnsey, of 1,696 for Temple Ewell, falling to 1,669 at the 2011 Census.

Toponymy
The name Ewell is derived from the Old English word ǣwielm, meaning river source or spring, and is so called because one of the sources of the River Dour rises on the village outskirts at a place called Watersend and flows through the village towards Dover. The prefix Temple indicates that at one time the village was owned by the Knights Templar.

History
The village of Temple Ewell (not to be confused with Ewell village in Surrey) was founded sometime before the 8th century, and is first mentioned by name in a charter of c.772 as Æwille. In the Domesday Book of 1086, it is named Ewelle or Etwelle, and is recorded as having a manor house, five watermills, and about fifty dwellings around a small wooden Saxon church. At this time, the village was owned by Bishop Odo, the half-brother of William the Conqueror.

In 1163, the Knights Templar was granted the manor of Ewell by the crown in recognition of their role in the Holy Land, and the word Temple became prefixed to the village name. The Templars founded a Preceptory in the village, and around 1170 built the Norman church of St.Peter and St.Paul.

In 1213 King John surrendered the crown to the Pope, and it is thought that this may have taken place either at the Preceptory in Temple Ewell, or possibly in Dover.

Following the Templars' dissolution in 1312, Temple Ewell passed out of their possession in 1314. The village was then given to the Knights of St John of Jerusalem, and was retained by them until King Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries in 1540.

During the 18th and 19th and on into the 20th Century (until the 1960s), Temple Ewell had two of several watermills along the stretch of the River Dour. The two mills (which still stand today as private residences) produced flour, and supplied the English troops at Dover during the Napoleonic wars.

The railway station at Kearsney was built in 1861, linking Temple Ewell with Dover and London, and leading to an increase in population and prosperity. Temple Ewell C.E. Primary School, a parochial primary school, was established next to the church in 1871, and the Victorian schoolhouse building was completed in 1872. Major renovation work was carried out on the church in the 1870s, and a parish hall was constructed in 1909.

Between 1940 and 1944, Temple Ewell was victim to several stray shells, which were fired at the Dover area across the English Channel from France during the Second World War. One of these destroyed the church's main stained glass window when it landed outside the school.

Nature Reserve
The Lydden and Temple Ewell Downs are a National Nature Reserve which borders Temple Ewell on one side, stretching up to the neighbouring village of Lydden. The reserve consists of an area of chalk downland which is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna.

Newsletter
TENews Is a monthly village newsletter delivered free to every household.

References

External links

 TENews - Temple Ewell Newsletter
 Temple Ewell Parish Council
 The Knights Templar at Temple Ewell
 Temple Ewell War Memorial

Villages in Kent
Civil parishes in Kent
Dover District

Temple Ewell


Operation Achilles was a NATO operation, part of the War in Afghanistan. Its objective was to clear Helmand province of the Taliban.  The operation began on March 6, 2007. The offensive is the largest NATO-based operation in Afghanistan to date. NATO officials reported that, contrary to  previous operations, Taliban fighters were avoiding direct confrontation in favor of guerilla tactics.

It was led by British ISAF forces and focused on the Kajakai Dam and the towns in the area, which is a major power source for Afghanistan that had not been functioning for a number of years. One part of the mission was Operation Volcano, where British Royal Marines successfully cleared a large Taliban complex near the Kajakai Dam, as well as Operation Kryptonite which actually saw the clearing of the dam by allied forces.

Background
On March 16, U.S. General Dan McNeill reported that NATO forces were battling insurgents in various places in Southern Afghanistan but that most of the rebel fighters were steering clear of Western troops. He also said that NATO would launch new operations against the Taliban during the spring and summer.

Operation
Operation  Volcano, part of Operation Achilles, saw British Royal Marines clear a Taliban base, consisting of 25 compounds, near the Kajaki hydroelectric dam. The Royal Marines received heavy fire from Taliban assault rifles, machine guns and rocket-propelled grenades. The Royal Marines systematically cleared the compounds and buildings, backed up by mortars and air support.

On April 3, United States and Afghan forces raided a compound in the Helmand province, after getting a tip-off that a junior Taliban commander was hiding there. Indeed, Taliban forces were present. Heavy fighting broke out, which left at least 10 Taliban dead and two captured. The coalition had no casualties. The fate of the junior commander remains unknown.

On April 30, 1,000 ISAF troops, alongside Afghan National Army ground forces, pushed northwards through the Sangin Valley driving the Taliban from Gereshk and the surrounding villages. It was reported that coalition troops killed more than 130 Taliban fighters, but thousands of Afghans staged a protest saying the victims were civilians. Backed by air support, the Taliban fighters  were killed in two separate battles in the western province of Herat, according to a US military statement. As part of the operation, British Royal Engineers built company sized patrol bases for the Afghan National Security Forces.

The deaths triggered an angry protest - the second in the country in two days - over what local villagers claimed was the killing of civilians. Herat, bordering Iran, had been relatively safe until recently compared with the south and east where the Taliban are most active. Both battles were in the Zerkoh valley, south of Shindand district, where Western troops have a large base, and running into Farah province further south.

A total of 87 Taliban fighters were killed during a 14-hour battle with US-led troops and Afghan forces on Sunday. Another 49 Taliban, including two of their leaders, were killed two days earlier after a group of Taliban fired at a joint coalition and Afghan patrol in another part of the valley. However, local officials said that up to 51 civilians, including women and children, were among the dead.

February–May timeline
February: Operation Volcano, a British operation to clear a Taliban base near the Kajaki hydroelectric dam.

May 1: southern Afghanistan NATO Commander Major-General Ton van Loon of the Netherlands was succeeded by Major-General Jacko Page of the United Kingdom.

May 13: Mullah Dadullah Lang, 2nd in command of the Taliban was killed in a clash with US, Afghan and NATO forces in Helmand Province. He was killed after coalition forces and Afghan forces found him leaving his hideout. Mullah Dadullah was the most experienced Commander the Taliban had at the time of his death.

May 18: Airstrikes targeted a convoy of suspected Taliban militants who had left a meeting in western Afghanistan, killing 14 and wounding 10, a provincial governor reported.

May 21: Taliban militants ambushed a joint U.S.coalition and Afghan patrol in a southern town near Helmand, sparking a battle and airstrikes that killed 25 suspected insurgents, U.S.officials said.

May 30: Operation Achilles ended and the new Operation Lastay Kulang began.

References

External links
 Commander: Taliban ready to battle NATO; Rahim Faiez; yahoo.com
 NATO launches Taliban offensive - Al Jazeera English On May 6, Taliban said they had kidnapped a Briton and two Afghans in Helmand. Unconfirmed media reports said the kidnapped people were journalists.
 NATO press release about the operation

Conflicts in 2007
2007 in Afghanistan
NATO operations in Afghanistan
Military operations of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) involving the United Kingdom
Military operations of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) involving the United States
Military operations of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) involving the Netherlands
Military operations of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) involving Canada
Military operations of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) involving Denmark

Operation Achilles


Richard Henderson  (born 19 July 1945) is a Scottish molecular biologist and biophysicist. He is a pioneer in the field of electron microscopy of biological molecules.  He shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2017 with Jacques Dubochet and Joachim Frank.

Henderson has worked at the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology (MRC LMB) in Cambridge since 1973, and was its director between 1996 and 2006. He was also a visiting professor at the Miller Institute of the University of California, Berkeley in Spring 1993.

He worked out the structure of bacteriorhodopsin, a molecule in bacteria. The molecule captures energy from light, and uses it to move protons out of the cell. This was the second ever atomic model of a membrane protein. The techniques Henderson developed for electron crystallography are still in use.

Henderson's methods help to solve the structures of several G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs). They are a large protein family of receptors that detect molecules outside the cell. They activate internal signal transduction pathways. This leads to cell responses to the molecules outside the cell.

References

Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners
Scottish biologists
Scientists from Edinburgh
1945 births
Living people
British biophysicists
British molecular biologists

Richard Henderson


Fernando Grostein Andrade, or Fernando Andrade (born January 30, 1981 in São Paulo) is a Brazilian filmmaker, director, producer, screenwriter and director of photography. He is known for the documentaries Wandering Heart, with Caetano Veloso, and Breaking the Taboo, featuring Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Bill Clinton and Jimmy Carter that discusses alternatives to the failed war on drugs. Fernando is also known for his prolific work in advertisement and video clips. In 2009, Fernando founded the production house Spray Filmes. Located in the Jardins neighborhood in São Paulo, Spray Filmes acts in the realm of film, advertisement and internet production.

Early life
Fernando is the son of the PhD urbanist Marta Dora Grostein and the journalist Mario Escobar de Andrade, director of Playboy magazine in Brazil, who died in 1991. He is the brother, on his mother's side, of the TV host Luciano Huck.

Career
Fernando got a degree in Business Administration at the Fundação Getúlio Vargas, in São Paulo. He studied film at CINUSP, USC and UCLA.

Fernando began his career in communications at 15 years of age at the advertisement agency DM9 and the radio station Jovem Pan 2. He also wrote articles for Trip magazine's website and for Playboy magazine.

Film
In 2001, he made his first short film Strawberry, the first shot in HD at 24 frames per second in Brazil. It introduced the actor Guilherme Berenguer in addition to the talent of other actors such as Fernanda Rodrigues and Daniel Dantas. The short film opened the International Brasília Festival, the 27th São Paulo International Film Festival, the Paulista Audio Visual Festival, as well as the Palm Springs International Festival of Short Films. The short tells the tale of a boy whose girlfriend's sexual fantasy is to have sex in a bathtub filled with strawberry jam. Frightened, the boy is advised by his psychiatrist to play along with the girl's fantasies, but at their first family dinner together, he discovers that the shrink is her father.

In 2003, Fernando Andrade went on a journey with Caetano Veloso to São Paulo, New York and Japan. For 42 days, he documented the artist's discomfort with the recent success of his English language album internationally, revealing a new side of the Brazilian music master. With participations from Michelangelo Antonioni, Pedro Almodóvar and David Byrne, the documentary Wandering Heart premiered on the 24th of July in the Brazilian Circuit by way of Paramount. Wandering Heart, directed, photographed and edited by Fernando, was screened at the "It's All True" Festival in 2008  and the Rome Festival of the same year, where it was well received by the audience: according to Eric J Lyman, Hollywood Reporter, it was "one of the highlights of the weekend." The screening took place at the Conciliacione auditorium, Blasco Giurato (Director of Photography of Cinema Paradiso) was there. The film has one of the last registries of the filmmaker Michelangelo Antonioni, right before he died in 2007. The film critic and founder of the "It's All True" festival Amir Labaki, considered the documentary "The most revealing portrait of Caetano. A figure that is here to stay." The critic from O Globo newspaper, Marcelo Janot, considered it "The best film from the recent batch of documentaries of Brazilian musicians."

In 2010, Fernando directed the documentary short Newspaper of the Future. The film documents changes within the newspaper Folha de São Paulo during the integration with its on-line counterpart, Folha.com. It also showcased the new graphic design template being implemented and presented to the newspapers employees. Filmed during 15 days at the newspapers headquarters and printing press in Tamboré, the production interviewed personalities such as Otavio Frias Filho, managing editor of Folha and the columnists: Clóvis Rossi, Juca Kfouri, José Simão and Barbara Gancia, amongst others.

In 2011, he released the documentary Breaking the Taboo, which discusses alternative policies for the failed war on drugs and has the Ex-President of Brazil, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, as its anchor. The film features statements from Bill Clinton, Jimmy Carter, Paulo Coelho, Dráuzio Varella, Gael Garcia Bernal and 4 other former heads of state from countries such as Colombia, Switzerland, Norway and Mexico. The film caused ample repercussions in Brazil, promoting the debate in the media, schools and even in the Brazilian congress, with a speech by senator Eduardo Suplicy. Veja Magazine published a 9-page article on the film calling it "a meticulously crafted report made over two years with 168 interviews from personalities, some of them of the same caliber as mentioned above, and others less known, but no less credible." The television show Fantástico of Rede Globo, Brazil's largest TV network, aired an 8-minute report on the film and later polled the viewers on the subject, 57% voted in favor of legalization. Trip magazine published a cover story on the film. Filmed in 18 cities around the world, the interviewed subjects include premiers, policemen, inmates and rehabilitated addicts who help compose a board that debates and consolidates the films argument. The Result of an ample research process, which includes 168 interviewed subjects, Breaking the Taboo was filmed in 18 cities around the World with the scenery varying from FARC poppy plantations in the Colombian Jungle to Amsterdam Coffeeshops and the American Capital. The Newspaper Folha de São Paulo considered that the film had "A consistent argumentative route, not necessarily aligned with common sense". The film also had repercussions in the English newspaper The Guardian: "The documentary highlights the perils of debating an issue so clouded by ideology and calls for an end to the stigmatization of the debate. It boasts the support of several former world leaders including Bill Clinton and Jimmy Carter." The documentary is currently being adapted for the American and European market in partnership with the production house Current Sponge, led by Sam Branson, son of the entrepreneur Richard Branson.

In 2012, Fernando participated in the "Colors for Love" project of the Italian magazine Colors by directing and as serving as DP, on the short film "Cine Rincão" which tells the story of Paulo Eduardo, who was suddenly shot in the chest then went on to study film at the Criar Institute (an NGO which teaches film related skills to low income teens) and build the community movie theatre Cine Rincão. The soundtrack is by Lucas Lima and Caetano Veloso.

Advertisement

Fernando directs advertisements for Spray Filmes. In 2009 he filmed for ALmap BBDO the Open Cage campaign for the launch of the EOS convertible, an interactive film mixing 3d techniques with helicopter shots which received Gold at the FIAP and Wave Festival awards. In 2010 Fernando directed the Nestlé 90 year anniversary campaign. In 2010 he filmed the Grafiteiros campaign for the launch of Sprites new Can art, the campaign was re-edited in the next year for the X films. For Mitsubishi and Africa Advertisement Agency he filmed the "Make New Friends" campaign. For Arezzo and the art director Giovani Biano, Fernando filmed the "Love and Color" campaign.

References

Other websites

1981 births
Living people
Brazilian movie directors
Brazilian screenwriters
Brazilian movie producers

Fernando Grostein Andrade


Dixit Dominus, George Frideric Handel tarafından 1707 yılında tamamlanmış HWV 232 numaralı eseri olup ayrıca İncil'de 110 numaralı mezmurdur.

Bölümleri
 Chorus the lord said unto my lord: sit thou on my right hand, until i make thine enemies thy foot-stool
 Aria (countertenor solo) The lord shall send the rod of thy power out of sion: be thou ruler, even in the midst among thine enemies.
 Aria (soprano solo) In the day of thy power shall the people offer thee free-will offerings with an holy worship: the dew of thy birth is of the womb of the morning.
 Chorus the lord sware, and will not repent.
 Chorus thou art a priest for ever after the order of melchisedech.
 Soloists and chorus the lord upon thy right hand: shall wound even kings in the day of his wrath. 7)soloists and chorus he shall judge among the heathen: he shall fill the places with the dead bodies: and smite in sunder the heads over diverse countries.
 Soprano and chorus he shall drink of the brook in the way: therefore shall he lift up his head.
 Chorus glory be to the father, and to the son, and to the holy ghost: as it was in the beginning is now, and ever shall be: world without end. amen.

George Frideric Handel kompozisyonları
Mezmur ayarları

Dixit Dominus (Handel)


Arthur Michell Ransome (born 18 January 1884 in Leeds - died 3 June 1967) was an English writer and journalist. He is best known for writing the Swallows and Amazons series of children's books.

Ransome was born in Leeds. His father was Professor of History there. His father's death in 1897 affected Ransome for a long time. He always tried to get past his belief that his father had did not think his abilities were very good.

Ransome got his formal education first in Windermere. He then studied at the Rugby School (where he lived in Lewis Carroll's study room). He did not fully like his time there because of his poor vision, lack of skills at sports, and limited achievement. He attended Yorkshire College, his father's college studying chemistry. After a year there, he stopped going to the college. He went to London to become a writer. He took low-paying jobs as an office assistant in a publishing company. He also worked as editor of a magazine, Temple Bar Magazine, that was not making much money. During this time, he was writing and became a member of the literary scene of London.

Swallows and Amazons
Ransom's most well known book series, Swallows and Amazons, tells the stories of school-holiday adventures of children. The stories are mostly set in the Lake District and the Norfolk Broads. Many of the books involve sailing. Other common things are fishing and camping. The books are so popular that they give a basis of a tourist industry around Windermere and Coniston Water — the two lakes that Ransome used as the basis for his fictional North Country lake.

1884 births
1967 deaths
Writers from Leeds
English journalists
English children's writers

Arthur Ransome


The Reed Research Reactor (RRR) () is a research nuclear reactor located on-campus at Reed College in Portland, Oregon. It is a pool-type TRIGA Mark I reactor, built by General Atomics in 1968 and operated since then under licence from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Maximum thermal output is 250 kW. The reactor has over 1,000 visitors each year and serves the Reed College departments of Physics and Chemistry, as well as other departments.

Operation
RRR is the only research reactor in the world that is owned and operated by an undergraduate educational institution. It is operated and maintained by undergraduate college students under the supervision of a director and operations manager who are members of the college staff. The facility provides scientific irradiation services to a broad community outside the college, but its primary mission is for student initiated research, training, and hands-on education.

The Reed Research Reactor is intended to produce thermal neutrons. It is used primarily for neutron activation to produce radioisotopes or analyze composition of material samples.

Undergraduate leadership
The RRR distinguishes itself from other university research reactors by the fact that it is the only reactor run completely by undergraduate students and serves undergraduate degree programs almost exclusively. In fact, Reed College does not have any nuclear engineering or even any engineering program.

The facility is used in research projects, often conducted by the campus itself. As of November 2018, there are approximately 40 students licensed to operate the reactor. In order to obtain such a license, students must attend a year of seminars on nuclear safety followed by an exam administered by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

When the facilities were visited by ABC's "Radioactive Roadtrip" Primetime special, the fact that the school had no engineering program was purported as evidence that university reactors are sometimes kept as more of a status symbol than as a valid research tool. This is a quote from the ABC website:
University Reaction: The reactor is a "zero-risk facility," and there is no plausible way it is a threat, said Edward Hershey, director of public affairs at Reed College. Although the school has no nuclear engineering department – or any engineering department for that matter – chemistry and physics students use it as a resource. Hershey said the reactor is a "bragging point" for Reed. "It's just a neat facility," he said.

The "zero-risk facility" comment reflects the reactor design which is a pin-type Low Enriched Uranium natural circulation driven LWR, with a very strong negative temperature coefficient. As such, it is impossible to overheat the reactor, even in the case of a sudden reactivity insertion.

Irradiation facilities
Irradiation facilities include equipment that is used to place, move, and organize samples that are to be irradiated.

Pneumatic transfer system
The pneumatic transfer system (known colloquially as the "rabbit system") consists of an irradiation chamber in the outer ring of the core with its associated pump and piping. This allows samples to be transferred in and out of the reactor core very rapidly, while the reactor is at power. Routine use of the pneumatic transfer system involves placing samples into vials, which in turn are placed in special capsules known as "rabbits." The capsule is loaded into the system in the radiochemistry laboratory next to the reactor and is then transferred pneumatically into the core-irradiation position for a predetermined time. At the end of this period, the sample is transferred back to the receiving terminal, where it is removed for measurement. The transfer time from the core to the terminal is less than seven seconds, making this method of irradiating samples particularly useful for experiments involving radioisotopes with short half-lives. The flux in the core terminal is approximately 5x1012 n/cm2/s when the reactor is at full power.

Rotating specimen rack
The rotating specimen rack (lazy susan) is located in a well on top of the graphite reflector which surrounds the core. The rack consists of a circular array of 40 tubular receptacles. Each receptacle can accommodate two TRIGA-type irradiation tubes, so that up to 80 separate samples may be irradiated at any one time. Vials holding up to  ( internal diameter,  long) are routinely used in this system. Depending upon its geometry, a sample up to about  could be irradiated by joining two vials. Samples are loaded in the specimen rack prior to the start-up of the reactor. The rack automatically rotates during irradiation to ensure each sample receives the same neutron flux. Typically, the rotating rack is used by researchers when longer irradiation times (generally greater than five minutes) are required. The average thermal neutron flux in the rotating rack position is approximately 2×1012 n/cm2/s with a cadmium ratio of 6.0 at full power. The specimen rack can also be used for gamma irradiations when the reactor is shut down. The shutdown gamma flux in the specimen rack is approximately 3 R/min.

Central thimble
The central thimble, which is a water-filled irradiation chamber about  in diameter, provides the highest available neutron flux, about 1.4x1013 n/cm2/s. However, it holds only one specially positioned irradiation container, containing a cavity  in length and  in diameter.

Another in-core location is available by replacing one of the fuel elements with an irradiation chamber. The chamber fits into a fuel-element position within the core itself.

Foil-insertion holes,  in diameter, are drilled at various positions through the grid plates. These holes allow inserting special holders containing flux wires into the core, to obtain neutron flux maps of the core.

In-pool facilities
Near core, in-pool irradiation facilities can be arranged for larger samples. Neutron fluxes will be lower than in the lazy susan and will depend on the sample location.

References

External links

1968 establishments in Oregon
Nuclear research reactors
Reed College campus

Reed Research Reactor


The Zuni, also called Zuñi or Ashiwi are a Native American tribe. They live near the Zuni River. This river flows into the Little Colorado River, in western New Mexico, United States.

They are famous for their language, which is not like other Pueblo or Native American languages. It is a language isolate.

Native Americans
People from New Mexico

Zuni


TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time is TV Guides list of the 50 most entertaining or influential television series in American pop culture. It appeared in the May 4–10, 2002 issue of the magazine, which was the second in a series of special issues commemorating TV Guides 50th year (the others were "TV We'll Always Remember", "50 Greatest Covers", "50 Worst TV Shows of All Time", "50 Greatest Cartoon Characters" and "50 Sexiest Stars"). The list was also counted down in an ABC television special, TV Guide's 50 Best Shows of All Time, on May 13, 2002.

The 50 entries, chosen and ranked by the editors of TV Guide, consist of regularly scheduled series spanning more than half a century of television. TV movies, miniseries and specials were not eligible.

The special aired at 10:00 pm and was viewed by 8.9 million people, giving it a 6 rating and a 10 share. Considering the cover story for this special issue of TV Guide, it was the only one of the six to be presented on television.

Summary
The earliest aired show appearing on the list is The Ed Sullivan Show, which first aired in 1948. The most recently premiered show is The Sopranos, which first aired in 1999. The show with the shortest run is An American Family, which aired only twelve episodes and two subsequent special episodes. The longest-running show on the list is The Today Show, which has aired since 1952. 41 of the shows are prime time, five are daytime and four are late-night. NBC has the most shows on the list with 17, counting the final season of Taxi; otherwise, it ties with CBS at 16. ABC has eight, Fox, HBO and PBS each have two and The WB and UPN have a shared entry, Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Three are syndicated.

Top 10
 Seinfeld (NBC, July 5, 1989 – May 14, 1998)
 I Love Lucy (CBS, October 15, 1951 – May 6, 1957)
 The Honeymooners (CBS, October 1, 1955 – September 22, 1956)
 All in the Family (CBS, January 12, 1971 – April 8, 1979)
 The Sopranos (HBO, January 10, 1999 – June 10, 2007)
 60 Minutes (CBS, September 24, 1968 – present)
 Late Show with David Letterman (CBS, August 30, 1993 – May 20, 2015)
 The Simpsons (Fox, December 17, 1989 – present)
 The Andy Griffith Show (CBS, October 3, 1960 – April 1, 1968)
 Saturday Night Live (NBC, October 11, 1975 – present)

See also
TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time

References

External links
TV Guide Magazines 50 Greatest Shows of All Time on TV Insider

Lists of television series
Top television lists
TV Guide
TV Guide lists
2000s American television specials
2002 television specials
21st century-related lists

TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time


The Generic Universal RolePlaying System, or GURPS, is a role-playing game system created by Steve Jackson Games. It emphasizes a set of rules that can be used in any time or world.  Characters are created using a point-based system.  There have been four releases of the GURPS core rules and dozens of game supplements that extend the core rules with genre or setting-specific information.

In 1990, GURPS became the focus of a Secret Service investigation when an as yet unreleased GURPS Cyberpunk game supplement was misconstrued by the Secret service as being a handbook for computer crime.

Role-playing games

GURPS


Human sexual activity, human sexual practice ir human sexual behaviour is the mainer in whilk humans experience an express thair sexuality. Fowk engage in aw teeps o sexual acts, fae acteevities duin alane (e.g., masturbation) tae acts wi anither body (e.g., sexual intercoorse, non-thirle sex, mooth sex, etc.) at different times, fir mony different raisons. Sexual acteevity maist aften leads tae sexual pleisur an physiological chynges in the body bein pleisur't, sum o whilk are obvious while ithers are mair suttle. Sexual acteevity micht include behaviour an acteevities whilk are ettelt tae raise the the sexual interest o anither ir impruive the sex life o anither, sic as weys tae find ir attract pairtners (coortship an kythe behaviour), ir personal connection atween fowk (ex. foreplay ir BDSM).

Fertility
Sexual behaviour
 Human sexual activity
Intimate relationships
Personal life
Sel
Sexual acts

Human sexual acteevity


On March 11, 2008, the rock band Saving Abel released their hit studio album called Saving Abel (the second self-titled album). A song in this particular album is featured on Saving Abel's previous studio album called 18 Days. There are two major singles on this album called "Addicted" and "18 Days". The album has 11 studio tracks on it, and 2 original B-Sides. The album was produced by producer Skidd Mills. The album's songs have some of the songs featured on it from the previous self-titled studio album like "18 Days", "Drowning (Face Down)", "Running Away from You", and "Beautiful You".

Track listing
 "New Tattoo"
 "Addicted"
 "She Got Over Me"
 "18 Days"
 "Drowning [Face Down]"
 "In God's Eyes!"
 "Sailed Away"
 "Beautiful Day"
 "Out Of My Face"
 "Running From You"
 "Beautiful You"

Bonus tracks
 "Goodbye, So Long"
 "After All"

2008 albums

Saving Abel (2008 album)


Alexandra Fyodorovna (; born Princess Alix of Hesse and by Rhine, 6 June 1872 – 17 July 1918) was Empress consort of Nicholas II, the last Tsar of the Russian Empire. She was a granddaughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. The Russian Orthodox Church canonised her as Saint Alexandra in 2000.

Alexandra is best remembered as the last Tsarina of Russia. She is also one of the most famous royal carriers of the haemophilia disease. Her friendship with the Russian mystic Grigori Rasputin was also an important part of her life.

Early life
Alexandra Fyodorovna was born Princess Alix Viktoria Helene Luise Beatrix in Darmstadt, Hesse and by Rhine. That area was a part of the German Empire at the time. Her father was Grand Duke Louis IV. Her mother was the former Princess Alice, the second daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.

In November 1878, diphtheria swept through Hesse. Alix, her sisters, Irene and May and brother, Ernst were infected by the disease. Her sister, May, died shortly before the end of the month but the others got better. Alix's mother became sick after caring for Ernie when he came down with the disease. Princess Alice died on December 14, 1878. Princess Alix became very close to her maternal grandmother. She was often thought to be Victoria's favourite granddaughter. Because of this, Alix spent many of her early years in the United Kingdom. In 1892 when she was twenty, her father died, and her brother, Ernst, became the Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine.

Marriage
When she grew up, Alix was a beautiful woman, with reddish-blonde hair, high cheek bones, pale skin, dark blue eyes, and long dark eyelashes. Alix was married relatively late for a princess in those times. She had already refused to marry Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence (the eldest son of the Prince of Wales), even though her family wanted her to marry him. She had, however, already met a relative by marriage, the Tsesarevich of Russia. His uncle Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich was married to Alix's sister Elizabeth.

At first, Nicholas' father, Tsar Alexander III, told them they could not get married. He later changed his mind as his health began get bad. Alix did not like the need that she had to turn away from her Lutheran faith. The Russian Tsarina had to be an Orthodox. She later changed her mind and in time became a strong convert to the faith. She and Nicholas became engaged in April 1894. Alexander III died in November of that year, and Nicholas became Tsar of Russia at the age of twenty-six. The couple were married 14 November 1894.

Execution of the Royal family

The Tsar and Tsarina and all of their family, along with several family servants, were executed early in the morning during the night of July 17, 1918, by a detachment of Bolsheviks led by Yakov Yurovsky. Alexandra watched the murder of her husband and two servants before Peter Ermakov killed her with a gun shot to the left side of her head before she could finish making the sign of the cross. Ermakov, in a drunken haze, stabbed her dead body and that of her husband's, shattering both their rib cages.

Identification and burial

After the execution of the Romanov family, Alexandra's body, along with Nicholas, their children and some servants who died with them, was stripped and the clothing burnt. At first, the bodies were thrown down an unused mine shaft, 12 miles north of Yekaterinburg. A short time later they were retrieved. Their faces and bodies were badly damaged so they could not be recognized. All of the bodies except for two of the children were later buried again. The bodies missing are believed to be those of a daughter- Maria or Anastasia- and Alexis. In the early 1990s, after the fall of the Soviet Union, what is believed to be the bodies of most of the family were found and identified.

Titles

 6 June 1872 – 26 November 1894: Her Grand Ducal Highness Princess Alix of Hesse and by Rhine
 1 November 1894 – 26 November 1894: Her Imperial Highness Grand Duchess Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia (created prior to marriage)
 26 November 1894 – 15 March 1917: Her Imperial Majesty Tsaritsa Alexandra Feodorovna, Empress of Russia.

References

Other websites

  The Murder of Russia's Imperial Family , Nicolay Sokolov. Investigation of murder of the Romanov Imperial Family in 1918.
 FrozenTears.org, A media library on the Last Imperial Family.
 God in All Things, the Religious Beliefs of Russia's Last Empress by Janet Ashton.
 Marriage Ceremony of Nicholas and Alexandra.
 Nicholas and Alexandra Exhibition.
 Hemophilia A (Factor VIII Deficiency)
 A short biography of the Alexandra

1872 births
1918 deaths
Assassinations in the Russian Revolution
People from Darmstadt
Russian royalty
Russian Orthodox saints

Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse)


Windows NT 3.51 is an operating system developed by Microsoft. It was released on May 30, 1995, nine months after Windows NT 3.5 and two months before Windows 95. It is part of the Windows NT family and Windows NT 3.5x. It is the final version of Windows 3.x. Windows NT 3.51 was the first version of a short line of Windows NT available for the PowerPC architecture. It is the third Windows NT version.

Microsoft operating systems

Windows NT 3.51


The 21st Space Wing (21 SW) was the United States Space Force's ground–based missile warning and space control wing. The 21st Space Wing was assigned to Space Operations Command and headquartered at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado. The 21st Space Wing controlled Peterson Air Force Base, Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station, Thule Air Base, Clear Air Force Station, Cape Cod Air Force Station, and Cavalier Air Force Station.

It was established in 1953 as the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing, deploying to Europe to join NATO's Allied Command Europe, before being inactivated in 1958. It reactivated in 1958 as the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing, executing air defense operations over Japan and deterring North Korea, being inactivated in 1960. It was reactivated in 1966 as the 21st Composite Wing, and in 1979 redesignated the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing, performing air defense, close air support, and a variety of other missions in Alaska, before being redesignated the 21st Wing and being inactivated in 1991.

The 21st Wing was activated as a space wing on 15 May 1992, replacing the 1st Space Wing and 3rd Space Support Wing. It was inactivated on 24 July 2020 and replaced by the Peterson-Schriever Garrison, with the 21st Operations Group being redesignated as Space Delta 2, the 73 Space Group was redesignated as Space Delta 3, and its ground–based missile warning units, combined with overhead persistent infrared units of the 460th Operations Group, was redesignated as Space Delta 4.

Operations
The 21st Space Wing was the United States Space Force's ground–based missile warning and space control wing. It was also the Space Force's, and prior to its transfer the Air Force's, most geographically dispersed wing, with forces spread across 22 locations. Its ground–based radars included the Precision Acquisition Vehicle Entry Phased Array Warning System (PAVE PAWS), Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS), and Perimeter Attack Radar Characterization System (PARCS). At the time of its inactivation on 24 July 2020, the 21st Space Wing had 4,200 space professionals and airmen under its command.

The 21st Space Wing served as the host wing for Peterson Air Force Base, providing base support for the combined United States–Canadian North American Aerospace Defense Command, United States Space Command, United States Northern Command, elements of the United States Army's Space and Missile Defense Command, the United States Air Force's 367th Recruiting Squadron, and Air Force Reserve Command's 302nd Airlift Wing.

Structure in 2020
21st Operations Group (21 OG)
 6th Space Warning Squadron (6 SWS), Cape Cod Air Force Station
 7th Space Warning Squadron (7 SWS), Beale Air Force Base
 10th Space Warning Squadron (10 SWS), Cavalier Air Force Station
 12th Space Warning Squadron (12 SWS), Thule Air Base
 13th Space Warning Squadron (13 SWS), Clear Air Force Station
 18th Space Control Squadron (18 SPCS), Vandenberg Air Force Base
  20th Space Control Squadron (20 SPCS), Eglin Air Force Base
 Detachment 1, 20th Space Control Squadron, White Sands Missile Range
 Detachment 2, 20th Space Control Squadron, Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia
 Detachment 3, 20th Space Control Squadron, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory
 Operating Location – Fylingdales (OL-F), RAF Fylingdales
 21st Operations Support Squadron (21 OSS)
21st Mission Support Group (21 MSG)
  21st Civil Engineer Squadron (21 CES)
  21st Communications Squadron (21 CS)
  21st Contracting Squadron (21 CONS)
  21st Force Support Squadron (21 FSS)
  21st Security Forces Squadron (21 SFS)
 21st Medical Group (21 MDG)
 21st Healthcare Operations Squadron (21 HCOS)
 21st Operational Medical Readiness Squadron (21 OMRS)
721st Operations Group (721 OG)
  4th Space Control Squadron (4 SCS)
 5th Space Control Squadron (5 SCS)
  16th Space Control Squadron (16 SCS)
 721st Operations Support Squadron (721 OSS)
 821st Air Base Group (821 ABG), Thule Air Base
  821st Support Squadron (821 SPTS)
 821st Security Forces Squadron (821 SFS)
 21st Comptroller Squadron (21 CPTS)

Shield

The 21st Space Wing shield was approved for use on 23 July 1957. The blue shield represents the sky, which is the 21st Space Wing's area of operations. The upraised sword represents the strength and readiness of the 21st Space Wing to perform its mission, in both peace and war. The lightning is symbol of the heavens beyond and the power of the 21st Space Wing. The blue, red, and yellow signify the three original fighter squadrons of the 21st Fighter-Bomber wing. The motto of the 21st Space Wing, "Strength and Preparedness" was derived from the original motto of the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing, "Fortitudo et Preparatio."

History

21st Fighter-Bomber Wing (1953–1958)

On 1 January 1953 the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing (21 FBW) was activated as a part of Tactical Air Command's Ninth Air Force at George Air Force Base, California. It directly commanded the 21st Fighter-Bomber Group, which oversaw the 72nd Fighter-Bomber Squadron, 416th Fighter-Bomber Squadron, and the 531st Fighter-Bomber Squadron. All fighter-bomber squadrons initially flew North American F-51 Mustang piston engine fighters, but within six months of activation upgraded to fly the North American F-86F Sabre jet fighter.

In September and October 1953, each of the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing's squadrons rotated through a two-week arctic indoctrination program at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska to prepare it for winter warfare operations. The 21st FBW also participated in defense diplomacy, sending six of its F-86F Sabres to participate in Project Willtour, visiting twelve different Central American, South American, and Caribbean states and performing joint training with their armed forces. In April and May 1954 the 21 FBW conducted Operation Boxkite, an exercise at North Field, South Carolina, which was designed to test the ability of a tactical wing to deploy to a forward base and sustain combat operations for thirty days.

On 22 June 1954 it was announced that the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing would be transferred to Europe to reinforce NATO forces deterring the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact. On 12 December 1954 it was reassigned to United States Air Forces in Europe's Twelfth Air Force and stationed at Chambley Air Base, France, however the airbase was not operational until June 1956. The fighter-bomber squadrons deployed in four tranches between November 1954 and January 1955, with flying units making stopovers at Labrador, Greenland, Iceland, and Scotland. When they arrived in France the fighter-bomber squadrons operated out of alternate airfields until Chambley AB could support flying operations.

In Europe the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing conduced close air support exercises with United States Army Europe, as well as NATO's Northern Army Group and Central Army Group. They also took part in USAFE's gunnery meet at Wheelus Field, Libya and the "Carte Blanche" atomic warfare exercise. In 1956, the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing also took second place at the gunnery meet at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada and won the USAFE Award for Tactical Proficiency for January–June 1957.

Among the pilots of the 21st Fighter-Bomber wing was then First Lieutenant Michael Collins, who would later go on to become a NASA astronaut on Apollo 11, the first crewed mission to the Moon.

On 8 February 1958 the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing was inactivated, with its assets distributed to various USAFE units.

21st Tactical Fighter Wing (1958–1960)

On 1 July 1958 the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing (21 TFW) was reactivated at Misawa Air Base, Japan. Initially directly subordinated to Pacific Air Forces' Fifth Air Force, on 10 November 1958 the 21 TFW was reassigned to Fifth Air Force's 39th Air Division. The 21st Tactical Fighter Wing was composed of the 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 531st Tactical Fighter Squadron, 21st Armament and Electronics Squadron, 21st Field Maintenance Squadron, and the 21st Tactical Hospital.

The 21st Tactical Fighter Wing was tasked, along with the Japan Air Self Defense Force, with the air defense of northern Japan against Soviet Air Forces aircraft. The 21 TFW was also postured to perform strategic bombing against North Korea as enumerated in the Quick Strike contingency plan, if hostilities broke out again. At the time of reactivation both the 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron and 531st Tactical Fighter Squadron flew Republic F-84G Thunderjet fighter-bomber, however, the 531 TFS began transitioning to the North American F-100D Super Sabre, with the 416 TFS performing the warfighting mission in the interim. Once the 531 TFS became fully combat capable in April 1959 it assumed the warfighting mission and the 416 TFS began transitioning to the F-100D.

Even with two units transitioning to different platforms, the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing still managed to achieve an "Excellent" rating in the Fifth Air Force's tactical evaluation and operational readiness inspection in August and September 1959, achieving the best bomb score average in the history of the Fifth Air Force. These training successes were repeated in operations, with the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing regularly intercepting Soviet Air Forces Tupolev Tu-16 Badger and Myasishchev M-4 Bison bombers encroaching on Japanese airspace, with First Lieutenant Charles Ferguson of the 531st Fighter Squadron achieving the first ever interception of a M-4 Bison bomber on 1 October 1959 and others taking valuable air-to-air photos of the Tu-16 Badger bomber for Air Force intelligence.

In addition to conducting air defense operations, the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing also deployed forces to South Korea, deterring North Korea from resuming hostilities. On 7 August 1959, two F-100D's from the 531st Tactical Fighter Squadron conducted the first transpolar flight by American jet aircraft, flying from Weathersfield, England to Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska. On 18 June 1960 the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing was inactivated again, due to the United States placing a limit on the amount of fighter wings in the Air Force, resulting in a reorganization of Fifth Air Force. The assets of the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing were transferred among the rest of the assets of the 39th Air Division.

21st Composite Wing (1966–1979), 21st Tactical Fighter Wing (1979–1991), and 21st Wing (1991)

On 8 July 1966 the 21st Composite Wing (21 CW) was reactivated at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska and assigned to Alaskan Air Command, which also supported Continental Air Defense Command and the Alaskan NORAD Region. As a composite wing, it was assigned the missions of air defense, tactical airlift, and search and rescue.

The air defense mission was carried out by the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, which was equipped with the Convair F-102A Delta Dagger and TF-102 interceptors, two of which were always on alert at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Eielson Air Force Base, King Salmon Airport, and Galena Airport. 317 FIS was considered an elite unit, having been the only squadron to have won the Hughes Achievement Trophy for air defense three times. The 17th Troop Carrier Squadron, which was redesignated the 17th Tactical Airlift Squadron in 1967, conducted the airlift mission with Douglas C-124 Globemaster II and Lockheed C-130 Hercules tactical transports, performing resupply to Alaskan Air Command and Army air defense and space tracking radars. 17 TAS also stationed two cold-weather C-130s at Sondrestrom Air Base, Greenland to support the Distant Early Warning Line. The search and rescue mission was conducted by the 21st Operations Squadron and 5040th Helicopter Squadron, which flew the Piasecki H-21 helicopters. The 21st Operations Squadron also flew the Douglas C-47 Skytrain, Douglas C-54 Skymaster, Douglas C-118 Liftmaster, and Douglas C-124 Globemaster II transports to perform utility airlift. On 1 January 1970, the 21st Operations Squadron was inactivated, and the search and rescue mission was entirely turned over to the 5040th Helicopter Squadron, which also transitioned from the older H-21s to the Sikorsky HH-3E Jolly Green Giant. On 1 October 1971, the 5041st Tactical Operations Squadron was activating, operating a variety of aircraft, including the Douglas C-124 Globemaster II,  Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star, North American T-39 Sabreliner, Douglas EC-118, Douglas VC-118, Martin B-57 Canberra, and Martin EB-57.

The technologically outdated F-102s were starting to become ineffective against Soviet Air Forces intruders, resulting in Alaska Air Command to try to upgrade them to more advanced F-4 Phantom IIs, however Tactical Air Command and Pacific Air Forces fighter squadrons tasked for the Vietnam War got first priority. Air Defense Command augmented Alaska Air Command by sending squadrons equipped with the Convair F-106 Delta Dart to Alaska on a rotational basis. In 1969, due to the age of their F-102 fighters, the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was inactivated. In 1970 the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron was assigned to the 21st Composite Wing and equipped with advanced McDonnell Douglas F-4E Phantom II. The 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron, despite mechanical issues due to the Alaskan winter, also assumed the close air support mission role in support of the Army. Despite these issues the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron proved itself, conducting combat alerts, intercepts against Soviet Air Forces intruders, and combat exercises. In June 1972 the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron sent a detachment to Operation Cool Shoot at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida and was awarded the Hughes Achievement Trophy in December of that year. 21 CW continued to compete in exercised during 1976, including Jack Frost, the Tactical Air Command Weapons System Evaluation Program at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, and the William Tell fighter weapons competition in October and November at Tyndall AFB, where the 21st Composite Wing won the awards for the best F-4 crew, best maintenance crew, the Apple Splitter award for most drones destroyed, and the Top Gun award. 43 TFS won the Hughes Achievement Trophy again in 1977 and went to the Canadian Forces Air Command's Maple Flag in September 1978 and U.S. Air Force's Red Flag in April 1979.

In 1975 the 21st Composite Wing was divested of its helicopter and transport forces and inactivated the 5021st Helicopter Squadron, which were realigned under Military Airlift Command across the Air Force, however the 21 CW gained two airbase wings and responsibility for all of Alaska's air control and missile and space warning sites.

In 1977 the 343rd Tactical Fighter Group and 18th Tactical Fighter Squadron, equipped with F-4Es, was activated under the 21st Composite Wing. The 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron was moved to the 343rd Tactical Fighter Group as well. The 18th Tactical Fighter Squadron assumed responsibility for close air support, while the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron specialized in the air defense mission. In October 1977 the 5041 Tactical Operations Squadron was inactivated as well.

On 1 October 1979 the 21st Composite Wing was redesignated as the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing (21 TFW), reorganizing it along the lines of a standard tactical fighter wing in response to a study initiated by its commander, Colonel Michael Nelson. All of the aircraft from the composite wing were dispersed to other units, except for its 40 F-4E fighters, 12 T-33 trainers, and a Beechcraft C-12 Huron. The F-4Es remained with the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron and 18th Tactical Fighter Squadron, while the T-33s and C-12 were assigned to the newly activated 5021st Tactical Operations Squadron. F-4Es from the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing deployed to Chongju Air Base, South Korea to participate in Exercise Team Spirit with the Republic of Korea Air Force. The 21st Tactical Fighter Wing also practiced dissimilar air combat training starting in March 1980, while also conducting combat air patrols, air interdiction operations, and composite force tactics training.

In March 1980, the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing received its first McDonnell Douglas F-15A Eagles for the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron. The 18th Tactical Squadron was moved to the 343rd Composite Wing, where it was equipped with A-10 Thunderbolt II ground attack planes. The 21st Tactical Fighter Wing became the first unit in the Air Force to reach Initial Operitonal Capability on the F-15 without any outside assistance. On 24 November 1982 it made its first intercept with the F-15A Eagle, intercepting a Soviet Air Forces Tupolev Tu-95. 21 TFW F-15s conducted several deployments and exercises, such as United States Readiness Command's arctic exercise Brim Frost, the 1985 Team Spirit exercises with the Republic of Korea Air Force and Japan Air Self Defense Force, and numerous training exercises with the Canadian Forces Air Command. Three F-15As of the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing also became the first Alaskan single-seat fighters to circle the North Pole.

In May 1987, the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing received its first F-15C and F-15D Eagles, with the D variants replacing the T-33 as the unit's trainer and resulting in the inactivation of the 5021 Tactical Operations Squadron in 1988. The 21st Tactical Fighter Wing also hosted numerous dignitaries, such as President George H. W. Bush on his way to the state funeral of the Emperor of Japan Hirohito. In 1989, F-15Cs of the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing escorted the first two Soviet Air Forces Mikoyan MiG-29s to attend an airshow in North America.

In 1990, Alaskan Air Command became Pacific Air Forces' Eleventh Air Force. In May 1991, the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing activated the 90th Tactical Fighter Squadron which was equipped with McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle strike fighters.

In 1991 the Air Force directed the implementation of the one wing, one base policy resulting in the redesignation of the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing as the 21st Wing (21 WG) on 26 September 1991, in preparation for its inactivation on 19 December 1991. It's flying units were consolidated under the 3rd Wing.

21st Space Wing (1992–present)

On 15 May 1992, the 21st Space Wing (21 SW) was reactivated at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado and assigned to Air Force Space Command. The 21st Space Wing replaced Air Force Space Command's 1st Space Wing, which managed ground and space-based sensors, and the 3rd Space Support Wing, which was the host wing for Peterson Air Force Base and Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station. Replacing the 1st Space Wing and 3rd Space Support Wing with the 21st Space Wing was part of a larger Air Force initiative designed to preserve early Air Force flying heritage, and bestowed upon the 21st Space Wing the history and honors of the World War II-era 21st Fighter Group and 21st Bombardment Group. On 20 September 1993, the 21st Space Wing was assigned to the Air Force Space Command's Fourteenth Air Force.

The 21st Space Wing's primary mission was missile warning, which was conducted via terrestrial and space-based sensors operated by the 21st Operations Group. The 2nd Space Warning Squadron, based at Buckley Air National Guard Base, and the 5th Space Warning Squadron, based Woomera Air Station, Australia, flew the Defense Support Program infra-red missile launch detection satellites. The 4th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Holloman Air Force Base, operated the Defense Support Program's Mobile Ground Station, before having its mission transferred to the Air National Guard's 137th Space Warning Squadron in 1997. On 1 October 1994 the 11th Space Warning Squadron was activated at Falcon Air Force Base to provide accurate and timely missile warning to theater forces through the Attack and Launch Early Reporting to Theater (ALERT) system.

In addition to these space systems, the 21st Space Wing operated a number of terrestrial radar sites, spread across the world. The 6th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Cape Cod Air Force Station, 7th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Beale Air Force Base, 8th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Eldorado Air Force Station, and 9th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Robins Air Force Base all operated the Phased Array Warning System (PAVE PAWS), which had been in operation since the 1980s. The 10th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Cavalier Air Force Station, operated the Perimeter Acquisition Radar Characterization System (PARCS), which served as part of the sea launched ballistic missile warning network for the Arctic region. The 12th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Thule Air Base, Greenland, 13th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Clear Air Force Station, Alaska, and a British detachment out of RAF Fylingdales operated the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) radar network. The Ballistic Missile Early Warning System had been in operation since the 1960s, and was updated to the Solid State Phased Array Radar System (SSPAR), which became operational at Thule Air Base in 1987, RAF Fylingdales in 1992, and at Clear Air Force Station in 2001. Due to budgetary reasons the 8th Space Warning Squadron and 9th Space Warning Squadron, and there radar systems, were inactivated in July 1995.

In April 1995 the 21st Space Wing gained the 721st Space Group, which would later be redesignated the 721st Support Group, and in 2002 the 721st Mission Support Group, which oversaw operations at Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station. On 26 April 1995, the 73rd Space Group, which was stationed at Falcon Air Force Base and conducted space surveillance operations, was inactivated and its mission was assumed by the 21st Space Wing. The assimilation of the 73rd Space Wing brought a number of space surveillance units into the 21st Space Wing. The 19th Space Surveillance Squadron, which was stationed at Pirinclik Air Force Station and operated the AN/FPS-79 radar to monitory space and missile launches from the former Soviet Union, Russian Federation, and Middle East. 19 SPSS, through earlier units, had monitored space and missile launches from the Soviet Union starting in 1955, including the launches of Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1. The 20th Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at Eglin Air Force Base, operated the AN/FPS-85 radar, which was Air Force Space Command's first electronically steered radar. The 21st Space Wing also inherited the Ground-Based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance System from the 73rd Space Group, which it operated through Detachment 1 at Socorro, New Mexico, Detachment 2 at Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia, and Detachment 3 at the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory, which conducted deep-space surveillance and space-object identification. Detachment 4 was activated at Morón Air Base, Spain to operate the Transportable Optical System (TOS) in September 1998, and was renamed the Morón Optical Surveillance System (MOSS) in April 1999. Morón would receive the El Raven telescope in November 2005 and the RO4 high-volume superior resolution camera in June 2006 to enhance its space control mission. The 3rd Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at Misawa Air Base, Japan and the 5th Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at RAF Feltwell operated the Deep Space Tracking System (DSTS). The 1st Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at Griffiss Air Force Base, the 4th Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at Lackland Air Force Base, 17th Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at RAF Edzell, and Detachment 1, stationed at Osan Air Base, South Korea operated the Low Altitude Space Surveillance System (LASS). The 21st Space Wing also inherited a number of command and control units, including the included the 721st Mobile Command and Control Squadron, which operated the mobile command and control center, 1st Command and Control Squadron, which was at Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station and tasked the worldwide space surveillance network and maintained the space catalog, 2nd Command and Control Squadron, which was stationed at Schriever Air Force Base and supported the passive space surveillance network, and the 3rd Command and Control Squadron, which was stationed at Offutt Air Force Base and was the alternate missile warning center.

Due to the obsolescence of passive radar systems, the Deep Space Tracking System and Low Altitude Space Surveillance System was decommission, with 1 SPSS inactivating in 1995, 17 SPSS inactivating in 1996, Detachment 1 at Osan AB inactivating in 1997, 5 SPSS inactivating in January 2002, and 3 SPSS inactivating in February 2002. 19 SPSS and its Turkish radar site was inactivated in 1999. The 721st Mobile Command and Control Squadron was inactivated in 1998, but reactivated as the 153d Command and Control Squadron in support of United States Strategic Command. 2 CACS transferred to 14th Air Force in 1998. 3 CACS was inactivated in 1999 as the upgrades of Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center removed the need for an alternate missile warning center. In June 2008 1 CACS was realigned under the 614th Air and Space Operations Center.

In 1996, the 821st Space Group at Buckley Air National Guard Base was activated under the 21st Space Wing, to run the Defense Support Program satellites, separate from the 21st Operations Group. The Defense Support Program began to draw down as the 821st Space Group transitioned to the Space-Based Infrared System, resulting in the inactivation of the 5th Space Warning Squadron. The 21st Space Wing also lost its last renaming aviation mission with the transition of the 84th Airlift Flight and its Learjet C-21 transports to Air Mobility Command in 1997. In an attempt to achieve greater efficiencies the 21st Medical Group was inactivated and reassigned to the United States Air Force Academy as the 10th Medical Group in 1998.

During the September 11 attacks the 21st Space Wing went to a heightened alert, closing the blast doors at the Cheyenne Mountain Complex for the first time in history. The 21st Space Wing also deployed space forces across the world in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. In May 2001 the 11th Space Warning Squadron was reassigned from the 821st Operations Group to the 21st Operations Group and inactivated in September 2001. The 821st Operations Group and its three remaining component squadrons were inactivated in October 2001, with elements moving to the newly created 460th Air Base Wing, which oversaw Buckley Air Force Base, having transitioned from the Air National Guard to Air Force Space Command in October 2000. The activation of the 460 ABW saw 21 SW cease to be Buckley AFB's host wing. In December 2001, 2 SWS achieved initial operation capability on the Space Based Infrared System. In August 2004, the 21st Space Wing transitioned the Defense Support Program and Space Based Infrared System to the 460th Space Wing, ending the 21st Space Wing's spaceflight mission.

The 21st Space Wing began to focus more on counter-space capabilities, assuming the space control mission. In 2000, it activated the 76th Space Operations Squadron, which operated the Counter Communications System, achieving initial operational capability in September 2004. The 76th Space Operations Squadron was redesignated the 76th Space Control Squadron in recognition of its mission in January 2001, and all former space surveillance squadrons were redesignated as space control squadrons on 1 March 2003. The 4th Space Control Squadron began transitioning into the space control mission in July 2005, activating its first counter communications system in April 2006. In July 2014, 4 SPCS relocated from Holloman AFB to Peterson AFB and consolidated with 76 SPCS into a single squadron, which assumed the name 4th Space Control Squadron. The 16th Space Control Squadron was activated as a defensive space control unit in May 2007 at Peterson AFB.

As the space control mission grew, so did the requirement for space situational awareness. To this end, the four detachments of the 21st Operations Group, worked with the 20th Space Control Squadron at Eglin Air Force Base, 20 SPCS' Detachment 1 at Dahlgren, Virginia, and the Globus II at Vardo, Norway. In June 2002 the 821st Air Base Group was activated to provide base support at Thule Air Base, Greenland, freeing the 12th Space Warning Squadron to focus entirely on its operational mission. On 1 October 2002, the 21st Space Wing was aligned along the standard combat wing structure, redesignated the 21st Support Group as the 21st Mission Support Group and the 721st Support Group as the 721st Mission Support Group. On the same day it activated the 21st Maintenance Group and 21st Logistics Readiness Squadron. It also regained control of the 21st Medical Group from the Air Force Academy in October 2003, expanding it with the activation of the 21st Dental Squadron in July 2005 and the 21st Medical Squadron in June 2012. In February 2004, the 721st Civil Engineer Squadron was inactivated, but later was reactivated in June 2012.

As part of the Air Force's manpower reductions, in July 2004 the 18th Space Control Squadron was inactivated and its detachments were realigned under the 21st Operations Group. In August 2004, Detachment 1, 20th Space Control Squadron, was activated in order to operate the Navy Space System and Alternate Space Control Center. As art of Program Budget Decision 720 the 21st Maintenance Group was inactivated in May 2008. The 21st Communications Squadron was transferred to the 21st Mission Support Group, while other elements were moved into the 21st Operations Group or the 21st Space Wing Director of Staff. Elements of the 21st Mission Support Group also experienced changes, as the 21st Mission Support Squadron was redesignated as the 21st Force Support Squadron, and the 21st Services Squadron merged into the 21st Force Support Squadron on 15 July 2008 as part of a larger Air Force restructuring. Detachment 1, 20 SPCS at Dahlgren inactivated in April 2010, and Detachment 4, 21 OG at Morón AB inactivated in March 2013.

In April 2013, the 13th Space Warning Squadron began oversight of the Cobra Dane radar site in Alaska. Members of the 21st Space Wing were deployed to support Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Inherent Resolve. These included Airman First Class Matthew Seidler, a member of the 21st Civil Engineering Squadron, Explosive Ordinance Disposal Flight, who was killed in action on 5 January 2012 and Captain David Lyon, an officer of the 21st Logistics Readiness Squadron and member of the United States Air Force Academy's class of 2008, was killed in Afghanistan on 27 December 2013.

The 21st Space Wing also earned numerous awards, including the General Robert T. Herres Award for Best Space Wing in and General Thomas S. Moorman, Jr. Award for Air Force
Space Command's Best Operational Wing in 2013. The 21st Space Wing also made increased strides in activating the new Space Fence and Long Range Discrimination Radar. Detachment 4, 21st Operations Group was activated on 8 December 2015, while the remaining GEODSS 21 OG detachments transferred to the 20th Space Control Squadron on 20 April 2016. On 22 July 2016 the 18th Space Control Squadron was reactivated at Vandenberg Air Force Base.

On 20 December 2019 the 21st Space Wing, along with the rest of Air Force Space Command became part of the United States Space Force. The Fourteenth Air Force was redesignated as Space Operations Command, which the 21st Space Wing remained assigned to.  On 21 Oct 2020, Space Operations Command was redesignated back to Fourteenth Air Force and returned to the United States Air Force.  On the same day, Space Operations Command (formerly, Air Force Space Command) was activated on 21 Oct 2020.  On 24 July 2020, the 21st Space Wing was inactivated for a final time, being replaced by the Peterson-Schriever Garrison, while its space domain awareness units were reassigned to Space Delta 2, the 73 Space Group became Space Delta 3, responsible for electronic warfare, and its missile warning squadrons were transferred to Space Delta 4, which used to be the 460th Operations Group at Buckley AFB.

Commanders

Commander, 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing

Commander, 21st Tactical Fighter Wing

Commander, 21st Composite Wing

Commander, 21st Tactical Fighter Wing

Commander, 21st Wing

Commander, 21st Space Wing

References

Wings of the United States Space Force
Space wings of the United States Air Force
Military units and formations in Colorado
Organizations based in Colorado Springs, Colorado
Military units and formations disestablished in 2021

21st Space Wing


Gasherbrum III (; ), surveyed as K3a, is a summit in the Gasherbrum massif of the Baltoro Muztagh, a subrange of the Karakoram on the border between Xinjiang, China and Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. It is situated between Gasherbrum II and IV.

Gasherbrum III fails to meet a  topographic prominence cutoff to be an independent mountain; hence it can be considered a subpeak of Gasherbrum II.

Gasherbrum III was one of the highest unclimbed summits in the world up to its first ascent in 1975, by Wanda Rutkiewicz, Alison Chadwick-Onyszkiewicz, Janusz Onyszkiewicz and Krzysztof Zdzitowiecki, members of a Polish expedition.

See also
 List of mountains in Pakistan
 List of highest mountains

Notes and references

Seven-thousanders of the Karakoram
Mountains of Gilgit-Baltistan

Gasherbrum III


The Uinta Basin (also known as the Uintah Basin) is a physiographic section of the larger Colorado Plateaus province, which in turn is part of the larger Intermontane Plateaus physiographic division. It is also a geologic structural basin in eastern Utah, east of the Wasatch Mountains and south of the Uinta Mountains. The Uinta Basin is fed by creeks and rivers flowing south from the Uinta Mountains. Many of the principal rivers (Strawberry River, Currant Creek, Rock Creek, Lake Fork River, and Uintah River) flow into the Duchesne River which feeds the Green River—a tributary of the Colorado River. The Uinta Mountains forms the northern border of the Uinta Basin. They contain the highest point in Utah, Kings Peak, with a summit  above sea level.
The climate of the Uinta Basin is semi-arid, with occasionally severe winter cold.

History

Father Escalante's expedition visited the Uinta Basin in September 1776. 1822–1840 French Canadian trappers Étienne Provost, François le Clerc, and Antoine Robidoux entered the Uinta Basin by way of the Old Spanish Trail and made their fortunes by trapping the many beaver and trading with the Uintah tribe. The Northern Ute Indian Reservation was established in 1861 by presidential decree. The United States opened the reservation for homesteading by non-Native Americans in 1905. During the early decades of the twentieth century, both Native and non-Native irrigation systems were constructed—the Uinta Indian Irrigation Project, the Moon Lake Project, and the Central Utah Project.

Communities

The largest community in the Utah part of the Uinta Basin is Vernal. According to the U.S. Census, the community's population in 2010 was 9,089. Other communities in the Utah part of the region include Duchesne, Roosevelt, Altamont, Tabiona, and a number of small unincorporated communities. The Uinta Basin is also the location of the Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation, home to the Ute Tribe of the Uintah and Ouray Agency (also known as the Northern Ute Tribe). The Ute Tribe is the source of Utah's state name.

Local attractions include Dinosaur National Monument, Starvation Reservoir State Park, Flaming Gorge National Recreation Area, Raven Ridge and Fantasy Canyon.

The local economy, once based on agriculture and mining, has diversified, and energy extraction and tourism are now major industries as well. In order to move oil out of the region, a new railroad is proposed to be constructed into the basin. In addition, Utah State University operates Branch campuses at Vernal and Roosevelt, expanding educational opportunities in a previously underserved region of Utah.

Physiography
The Uinta Basin is the most northerly section of the Colorado Plateau sections. The basin is  above sea level and corresponding to this depression is a broad east–west strip of higher plateau that rises sharply above the denuded country to the south. On the south side of the plateau the descent of , to the general level of eastern Utah on the south, is made in two steps. The first is the Roan Cliffs and the second, the Book Cliffs. Eastward in Colorado the two lines of cliffs are poorly distinguished. The Green River flows southward out of the Uinta Mountains to the north, crossing the Uinta Basin, and flows in a  deep gorge known as Desolation Canyon. The Colorado River crosses the eastern portion of this section, cutting off an area of some  in diameter in which are preserved fragments of a lofty lava cap forming Grand Mesa and Battlement Mesa.

Geology
The Uinta Basin forms a geologic structural basin, and is the source of commercial oil and gas production. Separated from the Piceance Basin by the Douglas Creek Arch, both basins formed during the Laramide Orogeny, and are bounded by the Charleston-Nebo thrust fault, the Uinta Basin boundary fault, and the Grand Hogback monocline. The Uinta Basin includes the Wasatch Plateau. According to the USGS Uinta-Piceance Assessment Team, "The black-shale facies of the Green River Formation is the main petroleum system of Tertiary age whereas the Mahogany zone of the Green River Formation is a minor component. The Cretaceous Mancos Group and equivalent rocks are the main source of Cretaceous oil and a major contributor of gas in the basin, whereas the Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde is a lesser contributor
of oil but a significant source for gas. Ferron Sandstone coals are known to be a source of coalbed methane.
The most prominent source of oil from Paleozoic rocks is the Permian Phosphoria Formation.

During the Laramide Orogeny along the Wasatch Mountains, the north–south trending coast during the Late Cretaceous was receding eastward, at the same time the area where the basin is located was subsiding, creating a lacustrine environment. A clastic wedge consisting of the North Horn, Colton, and Wasatch was deposited northwards. These sediments interfingered with organic-rich lacustrine clays and carbonate muds of the Green River and Flagstaff facies. Later, deposits originated from the Uinta Mountains from the north, forming a southward-thinning clastic wedge. A carbonate sediment consisting of an organic-rich oil shale was deposited from the middle Eocene into the Oligocene. The basin is also known for solid-hydrocarbon-filled fractures consisting of ozocerite, gilsonite, and wurtzilite.

In 1948, oil was discovered in the Paleozoic portion of the basin at Ashley Valley. Tertiary discoveries followed in 1948 at Roosevelt, and then the Red Wash Field and Duchesne Field in 1951. The Bluebell Field was discovered in 1967 and the Altamont Field in 1970. The Altamont-Bluebell structural trap occurs where the Wasatch sandstone pinches out.

See also
 Billie Untermann

References

External links

Utah – Place. Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density: 2000. U.S. Census Bureau
Utah History to Go
The Uintah Basin Standard
Utah State University, Uintah Basin Campus

Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) documentation, filed under Duchesne, Duchesne County, UT:

Structural basins of the United States
Sedimentary basins of North America
Colorado Plateau
Green River (Colorado River tributary)
Regions of Colorado
Historic American Engineering Record in Utah
Regions of Utah
Landforms of Duchesne County, Utah
Landforms of Daggett County, Utah
Geography of Moffat County, Colorado
Landforms of Uintah County, Utah
Landforms of Wasatch County, Utah
Physiographic sections

Uinta Basin


Sânziană is the Romanian name for gentle fairies who play an important part in local folklore, also used to designate the Galium verum or Cruciata laevipes flowers. Under the plural form Sânziene, the word designates an annual festival in the fairies' honor. Etymologically, the name comes from the Latin Sancta Diana, the Roman goddess of the hunt and moon, also celebrated in Roman Dacia (ancient Romania). Diana was known to be the virgin goddess and looked after virgins and women. She was one of the three maiden goddesses, Diana, Minerva and Vesta, who swore never to marry.

People in the western Carpathian Mountains celebrate the Sânziene holiday annually, on June 24. This is similar to the Swedish Midsummer holiday, and is believed to be a pagan celebration of the summer solstice in June. According to the official position of the Romanian Orthodox Church, the customs actually relate to the celebration of Saint John the Baptist's Nativity, which also happens on June 24.

Sânziene rituals
The folk practices of Sânziene imply that the most beautiful maidens in the village dress in white and spend all day searching for and picking flowers, of which one MUST be Galium verum (Lady's bedstraw or Yellow bedstraw) which in Romanian is also named "Sânziànă". Using the flowers they picked during the day, the girls braid floral crowns which they wear upon returning to the village at nightfall. There they meet with their beloved and they dance around a bonfire. The crowns are thrown over the houses, and whenever the crown falls, it is said that someone will die in that house; if the crown stays on the roof of the house, then good harvest and wealth will be bestowed upon the owners. As with other bonfire celebrations, jumping over the embers after the bonfire is not raging anymore is done to purify the person and also to bring health.

Another folk belief is that during the Sânziene Eve night, the heavens open up, making it the strongest night for magic spells, especially for the love spells. Also it is said that the plants harvested during this night will have tremendous magical powers.

It is not a good thing though to be a male and walk at night during Sanziene Eve night, as that is the time when the fairies dance in the air, blessing the crops and bestowing health on people - they do not like to be seen by males, and whoever sees them will be maimed, or the fairies will take their hearing/speech or make them mad.

In some areas of the Carpathians, the villagers then light a big wheel of hay from the ceremonial bonfire and push it down a hill. This has been interpreted as a symbol for the setting sun (from the solstice to come and until the midwinter solstice, the days will be getting shorter).

In cultural references
The consequences of heavens opening on Sânziene are connected by some to paranormal events reported during that period of each year. According to popular beliefs, strange things, both positive and negative, may happen to a person wandering alone on Sânziene night. Strange ethereal activities are believed to happen especially in places such as the Băneasa forest (near the capital of Bucharest) or the Baciu forest (near the city of Cluj-Napoca).

Mircea Eliade's novel, Noaptea de Sânziene (translated as The Forbidden Forest), includes references to the folk belief about skies opening at night, as well as to paranormal events happening in the Băneasa Forest.

In the form Sânziana ("the sânziană"), the word has also come to be used as a female name. It is notably used as such in Vasile Alecsandri's comedy Sânziana şi Pepelea (later an opera by George Stephănescu).

The fairy Sânziene, "the fairy of the summer solstice", is described in a colinda (Romanian folk song) as the "sister of the Sun".

Moldovan band Zdob şi Zdub recorded a song called Sânziene, which tells the story of a search for one's soulmate over the course of a midsummer night festival.

See also
 Goddess Diana
 Ileana Cosânzeana
 Rusalii

Notes

http://www.romania-insider.com/sanzienedragaica-celebration-in-romania/3003/

http://terradacicaaeterna.blogspot.com/2012/02/sanziene-or-summer-solstice.html

References

Ancient

Modern

Further reading

 Details about the Sânziene tradition
  Details about the Sânziene tradition from the National Museum of Romanian History

External links
 Sânziene in Enciclopedia Dacica
 Sânziene picture and description
 Sânziene celebrated at the National Museum of Romanian History

Fairies
Festivals in Romania
Saint John's Day
June observances
Romanian legendary creatures
Romanian words and phrases
Female legendary creatures
Nature spirits
Summer solstice

Sânziană


The Arado Ar E.340 was a twin-engined dive- and tactical-medium bomber, designed by Arado Flugzeugwerke at the request of the Reich Air Ministry in 1939 to compete for a production contract for the Bomber B fast bomber design competition, but the project was cancelled.

Design and development
The Reich Air Ministry ordered the aircraft to replace the Junkers Ju 88 and Dornier Do 217 bombers by 1943. Four manufacturers submitted plans to the Air Ministry, which chose the Arado design. The engines were positioned in a unique twin-boom arrangement connected only through the wing assembly, a configuration which offered the crew better visibility.

The Arado E.340 was designed with a central fuselage containing all four crew members. The cockpit and rear compartment were glazed and pressurized. The Jumo engines and landing gear were mounted to the load-bearing wing centre-section. The tail of the aircraft was a unique design, where the tailplane did not connect the two booms but was cantilevered outwards instead, each similar to the asymmetric BV 141B booms and tail arrangement. Also similarly, this would have provided the rear gunner with a clear range of fire directly behind. The fuselage extended forwards beyond the engines, with the gunners situated behind the cockpit, ahead of the bomb bay and wing spars. The MG 151 cannon in the tail of the central fuselage would have been controlled with remote aiming through periscopes. There were also two remote-controlled Fernbedienbare Drehlafette FDL 131 13mm gun turrets to be placed above and below the fuselage.

The E.340 was one of the steadily growing number of later-war military airframe designs designed to use the troublesome Junkers Jumo 222 engine. Otherwise an innovative design, these powerful engines were selected because they would have allowed the Arado E.340 to carry the required payload of  within a relatively compact airframe, despite their still-strictly developmental nature. As the engines were cancelled, the project would likely have failed due to the lack of engines of suitable power, and could have struggled with the amount of high grade fuel needed to power them. Ultimately, the entire Bomber B project was cancelled, primarily as a result of the failure to develop the required engines.

Specifications

References

E.340
Abandoned military aircraft projects of Germany
Twin-boom aircraft
High-wing aircraft
Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft

Arado E.340


A gas balloon is a kind of balloon that uses a gas of low density to fly using buoyancy.  Gas balloons sometimes fly very high, very far, and for a very long time.

A gas balloon is different from a hot air balloon.  A hot air balloon uses a fire to lower
the density of air.  A gas balloon does not use fire.

The most common use for gas balloons are to measure the atmosphere.  These are called weather balloons.

Some gas balloons carry people.

Aircraft

Gas balloon


George Pal (György Pál Marczincsak, February 1, 1908 – May 2, 1980) was a Hungarian-American animator, movie director and producer who helped the movie industry grow during the 1950s and 1960s. An award is named after him.

Pal was born in Cegléd, Kingdom of Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Empire, (now Hungary). He was educated at the Budapest Academy of Arts. He was married to Elizabeth Zsoka from 1930 until his death in 1980, they had two children. Pal died on May 2, 1980 in Los Angeles, California from a heart attack. He was 72 years old.

References

Other websites

 NNDB entry
 George Pal

1908 births
1980 deaths
Hungarian movie directors
American animators
American movie producers
American movie directors

George Pal


Diablo II is a fantasy action role-playing  computer game. The game was created by Blizzard Entertainment. It sold more than 1 million copies in the first two weeks after its release. It has sold over 15 million copies worldwide. The developer is remaking the game, with graphical improvements et cetera, known as  Diablo 2: Resurrected .

Storyline and quests
The game is divided into 4 acts. Each act is one part of the story.  There are up to six quests in each act that must be completed before the player can go to the next act.  The last quest is always the one where the player has to beat a boss.  The bosses for each act are:

Act I: Andariel
Act II: Duriel
Act III: Mephisto
Act IV: Diablo

Quests are parts of the story where the player has to complete certain tasks in order to continue on with the game.

Gameplay

Characters Classes
The game has five different types (or classes) of characters to chose from. Each character has a set skill tree, which is listed below.
Amazon - A bow and javelin using female character. She is good at attacking from a distance.
Barbarian - A male fighter who is good with all weapons.
Necromancer - A male magic user who uses the undead as his weapon.
Paladin - A male holy warrior that uses both magic and weapons in a fight.
Sorceress - A female magic user who uses the powers of Lightning, Fire and Ice.

Leveling
To increase a characters level in Diablo II, the player must run the character around killing the monsters that appear in the different areas.  Once a monster is defeated, it sometimes drops items or coins. When a monster is killed, it will not come back until the game is saved and started again.  Each character has a certain amount of experience that they needs to gain before they can become the next level.  This number depends upon what level the character is.  The higher the level, the more experience is needed to level.

Characters gain bonuses when they level:
Each character gets 5 points each level to increase their attributes.  Players usually decide what to increase by what character class they are.  Necromancers and Sorceresses tend to get more Energy than Strength and Defense, while Barbarians and Paladins tend to get the opposite.
Each character gets 1 skill point each level to spend on a particular skill.  Many players choose only one part of the skill tree to train in. That is the only one they put their skill points into.  Others put their points into more than 1 of the skill trees listed above per character.

Diablo II: Lord of Destruction Expansion
Adds Druid and assassin classes
Adds Act 5

Related pages
 Diablo (video game)

References

Other websites
 Official Site
 The Arreat Summit , official Strategy Guide
 DiabloII.net - Diablo, Hellfire, Diablo II Fansite

2000 video games
Blizzard video games
Role-playing video games
Windows games

Diablo II