The architecture of Houston includes a wide variety of award-winning and historic examples located in various areas of the city of Houston, Texas. From early in its history to current times, the city inspired innovative and challenging building design and construction, as it quickly grew into an internationally recognized commercial and industrial hub of Texas and the United States.

Some of Houston's oldest and most distinctive architecture is found downtown, as the city grew around Allen's Landing and the Market Square historic district. During the middle and late century, Downtown Houston was a modest collection of mid-rise office structures, but has since grown into the third largest skyline in the United States. The Uptown District experienced rapid growth along with Houston during the 1970s and early 1980s. In the late 1990s Uptown Houston saw construction of many mid and high-rise residential buildings. The Uptown District is also home to other structures designed by architects such as I. M. Pei, César Pelli and Philip Johnson.

Houston has many examples of residential architecture of varying styles, from the mansions of River Oaks and Memorial to row houses in the several wards. A number of Houston's earliest homes are  located in  what is now Sam Houston Park. Homes in the Heights have varied architectural styles, including Victorian, Craftsman and Colonial Revival. Post-war housing constructed throughout Houston reflects many architectural styles.

Skyscrapers

Some of Houston's oldest and most distinctive architecture are found in the northern sections of downtown, as the city grew around Allen's Landing and the Market Square historic district, where several representations of 19th-century urban architecture still stand.

The Hilton Houston Post Oak (formerly Warwick Post Oak) Hotel was designed by I. M. Pei. Its twin towers are joined by a spacious lobby with a curved glass ceiling that by day lights up the entire space. The hotel has more than 30,000 sq ft (2,800 m²). of meeting space and 448 guestrooms, including two 3,000 sq ft (280 m²). presidential suites and is only one block from the Galleria. In 2005, the hotel was renovated to reflect a more contemporary style that mirrors the original design.

The Rice Hotel, built in 1912 on the former site of the old Capitol building of the Republic of Texas, was restored in 1998, after years of standing unused. The original building was razed in 1881 by Colonel A. Groesbeck, who subsequently erected a five-story hotel named the Capitol Hotel. William Marsh Rice, the founder of Rice University, purchased the building in 1883, added a five-story annex, and renamed it the Rice Hotel. Rice University then sold the building in 1911 to Jesse Jones, who demolished it and built a 17-story structure on the site. The new Rice Hotel building opened on May 17, 1913. This historic hotel now serves as an apartment building known as The Rice Lofts, designed by Page Southerland Page.

The Texas State Hotel was built in 1926 from a design by architect Joseph Finger, who also created the plans for Houston's City Hall. The hotel has Spanish Renaissance detailing and ornate metal canopies, which remain largely intact even though the building had, until recently, been vacant since the mid-1980s. The hotel is a designated City of Houston landmark, and with refurbished ornate terra cotta detailing on the façade, it has been returned to active use.

The Gulf Building, now called the JPMorgan Chase building, is an Art Deco skyscraper. Completed in 1929, it remained the tallest building in Houston until 1963, when the Exxon Building surpassed it in height. Designed by architects Alfred C. Finn (designer of the San Jacinto Monument), Kenneth Franzheim, and J.E.R. Carpenter, the building is seen as a realization of Eliel Saarinen's acclaimed second-place entry to the Chicago Tribune Tower competition. Restoration of the building was started in 1989, in what is still considered one of the largest privately funded preservation projects in American history.

The Niels and Mellie Esperson buildings are examples of Italian Renaissance architecture in downtown Houston. Designed by John Eberson, the two buildings were built in 1927 and 1941, respectively. They are detailed with massive columns, great urns, terraces, and a grand tempietto at the top, similar to one built in the courtyard of San Pietro in Rome in 1502. Mellie Esperson had the first building constructed for her husband, Niels, a real estate and oil tycoon. His name is carved on the side of the building in large letters at street level. The name "Mellie Esperson" is carved on the accompanying structure, known as the Mellie Esperson building, although it is really just a 19-story annex to the original building.

Designed by Fort Worth architect Wyatt C. Hedrick, the Shamrock Hotel was an 18-story building constructed between 1946 and 1949 with a green tile pitched roof and 1,100 rooms. The hotel was conceived by wildcatter Glenn McCarthy as a city-sized hotel scaled for conventions with a resort atmosphere. The Shamrock was located in a suburban area three miles (5 km) southwest of downtown Houston on the fringes of countryside and was meant to be the first phase of a much larger indoor shopping and entertainment complex called McCarthy Center, anchored alongside the planned Texas Medical Center.  At the hotel's north side was a five-story building containing a 1,000-car garage and  exhibition hall. To the south was the hotel's lavishly landscaped garden designed by Ralph Ellis Gunn, a terrace and an immense swimming pool measuring 165 by  described as the world's biggest outdoor pool, which accommodated exhibition waterskiing and featured a three-story-high diving platform with an open spiral staircase. Despite protests by local preservationists, the Shamrock was demolished June 1, 1987. The Institute of Biosciences and Technology now stands in its former location.

The 18-story Prudential Building, designed by Kenneth Franzheim, was constructed in 1952 in the Texas Medical Center. The ground level walls of the Prudential Building were clad with deep red polished Texas granite; the upper floors on the northwest and northeast sides were clad in Texas limestone. The southwest and southeast sides, though, were faced with full-height aluminum arrangements to "utilize solar rays and air circulation to effect economies in air conditioning." The building was the first local corporate high rise office building in Houston to be located outside of the central business district. The Prudential Building was demolished January 8, 2012.

In the 1960s, Downtown Houston was a modest collection of mid-rise office structures, but has since grown into the third largest skyline in the United States. In 1960, the central business district had 10 million square feet (1,000,000 m²) of office space, increasing to about 16 million square feet (1,600,000 m²) in 1970. Downtown Houston was on the threshold of a boom in 1970 with 8.7 million square feet (870,000 m²) of office space planned or under construction and huge projects being launched by real estate developers.

The largest proposed development was Houston Center, originally planned to encompass a 32-block area.  However, by 1989, when the company that acquired the original developer sold Houston Center, the complex consisted of three office buildings, a shopping center, and a hotel. Other large projects included the Cullen Center, Allen Center, and towers for Shell Oil Company. The surge of skyscrapers mirrored the skyscraper booms in other sunbelt        cities, such as Los Angeles and Dallas. Houston had experienced another downtown construction spurt in the 1970s with the energy industry boom.

The first major skyscraper to be constructed in Houston was the 50-floor,  tall One Shell Plaza in 1971. A succession of skyscrapers were built throughout the 1970s, culminating with Houston's tallest, the 75-floor,  tall JPMorgan Chase Tower (formerly the Texas Commerce Tower), designed by I. M. Pei and completed in 1982. As of 2010, it is the tallest man-made structure in Texas, the 12th-tallest building in the United States and the 48th-tallest skyscraper in the world.

Pennzoil Place, designed by Philip Johnson and built in 1976, is Houston's most award-winning skyscraper and is known for its innovative design. The 46-story One Houston Center, which was built in 1978, is 207 m (678 ft) tall and was designed by S.I. Morris Associates, Caudill Rowlett Scott, and 3D/International.

The Fulbright Tower, built in 1982 and designed by Caudill Rowlett & Scott Architects, is a 52-story tower constructed of steel with suspended concrete on metal deck floor slabs. The exterior wall consists of a ribbon window wall with granite spandrel panels and aluminum framed windows with insulated glazing. The spandrel panels are polished granite supported by a steel truss system. The interior wall surfaces are constructed of Italian flame cut Rosa Beta granite, quarried in Sardinia, mixed with Makore wood and stainless steel trim.

In 1983, the Wells Fargo Bank Plaza was completed, which became the second-tallest building in Houston and in Texas, and the 11th-tallest in the country. It was designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and Lloyd Jones Brewer and Associates and supposedly resembles an abstracted  dollar sign in plan. From street level, the building is 71 stories tall, or 972 ft (296 m) tall. It also extends four more stories below street level.

The Bank of America Center is one of the first significant examples of postmodern architecture built in downtown Houston.  The building, completed in 1984 and designed by Philip Johnson and partner John Burgee, is reminiscent of the Dutch Gothic architecture of canal houses that were once common in The Netherlands. The first section is 21 stories tall, while the whole building reaches a height of 56 stories.

Heritage Plaza is a 53-story, 232 m, tower in downtown. The building, designed by M. Nasar & Partners P.C., was completed in 1986. The building is known for the granite Mayan temple design on the top, which was inspired by the architect's visit to the Mexican Yucatán. Recently renovated at the cost of $6 million, the building was the last major office building completed in downtown Houston prior to the collapse of the Texas real estate, banking, and oil industries in the 1980s.

Houston's building boom of the 1970s and 1980s ceased in the mid-1980s, due to the 1980s oil glut. Building of skyscrapers resumed by 2003, but the new buildings were more modest and not as tall. During that year George Lancaster, a spokesperson for the Hines company, said "I predict the J.P. Morgan Chase Tower will be the tallest building in Houston for quite some time."

In the early 1990s many older office buildings throughout Houston remained unoccupied. At the same time newer office buildings for major corporations opened.

In 1999, the Houston-based Enron Corporation began construction of a 40-floor skyscraper. Designed by Cesar Pelli & Associates and Kendall/Heaton Associates, and completed in 2002, the building was originally known as the Enron Center. The company collapsed in a well-publicized manner in 2001, and the building became officially known by its address, 1500 Louisiana Street

One of Houston's most recent downtown landmarks is Discovery Green, a large public park designed by Page Southerland Page with Hargreaves Associates.

The Uptown District, located on Interstate 610 West (referred to locally as the "West Loop") between U.S. Highway 59 and Interstate 10, boomed along with Houston during the 1970s and early 1980s. During that time the area grew from farm land in the late 1960s to a collection of high-rise office buildings, residential properties, and retail establishments, including the Houston Galleria. The area is an example of what architectural theorists call the edge city. In the late 1990s Uptown Houston saw construction of many mid- and high-rise residential buildings of the tallest being about 30 stories.

The tallest structure in Uptown Houston is the  tall, Philip Johnson-designed, landmark Williams Tower (formerly "Transco Tower"), which was constructed in 1983. At the time, it was to be the world's tallest skyscraper outside of a city's central business district. The building is topped with a rotating spot light that constantly searches the horizon. Williams Tower was named "Skyscraper of the Century" in the December 1999 issue of Texas Monthly magazine.

Landmarks and monuments

The Merchants and Manufacturers Building (M&M Building) was built in 1930 and was the largest building in Houston at the time.  It featured  of floor space and could accommodate one-third of the city's population. The Art Deco–style building is recognized as part of the National Register of Historic Places, is a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark, and considered a Contributing Building in Downtown Houston's Main Street/Market Square Historic District. Since 1974, the M&M Building has been part of the University of Houston–Downtown and was given an official designation as "One Main Building" by the university.

The historic Trinity Church in Midtown on Main Street, which dates from 1919, is a neo-Gothic structure, designed by the architectural firm, Cram and Ferguson, whose Houston work also includes several buildings at Rice University and the Julia Ideson Building of the Houston Public Library. The church's Morrow Chapel was renovated in 2002 and features stained glass, artwork, and liturgical furnishings by artists such as Kim Clark Renteria, Kermit Oliver, Troy Woods, Shazia Sikander, and Selven O'Keef Jarmon.

The Uptown District is home to structures designed by architects such as I. M. Pei, César Pelli and Philip Johnson, including Saint Martin's Episcopal Church (with spires and antennae reaching  into the sky), which was designed by Jackson & Ryan Architects and completed in 2004. St. Martin's was featured on the covers of three national magazines: Civil Engineering (April 2005), Modern Steel Construction (May 2005) and Structure (December 2005).

The San Jacinto Monument is a 570 foot (173.7 m)-high column topped with a 220-ton star that commemorates the site of the Battle of San Jacinto, the decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. The monument, dedicated on April 21, 1939, is the world's tallest monument tower and masonry tower, and is located along the Houston Ship Channel. The column is an octagonal shaft faced with Cordova shellstone. It is the second tallest monument in the United States. The monument was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 19, 1960, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It was also designated an Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1992.

The Williams Waterwall is a multi-story sculptural fountain which sits at the south end of Williams Tower in Uptown. It and its surrounding park were built as an architectural amenity to the adjacent tower. Both the fountain and tower were designed by Pritzker Prize winning architect Philip Johnson. Completed in 1983, the semi-circular fountain is  tall and sits among 118 Texas Live Oak trees. Approximately 11,000 gallons of water per minute cascades down vast channeled sheets on both sides from the narrower top rim of the circle to the wider base below.

Theater District

The Jesse H. Jones Hall for the Performing Arts, commonly known as Jones Hall, is a performance venue in Houston and the permanent home of the Houston Symphony Orchestra and the Houston Society for the Performing Arts.  Completed in October 1966 at the cost of $7.4 million, it was designed by the Houston-based architectural firm Caudill Rowlett Scott. The hall, which takes up a city block, has a white Italian marble exterior with eight-story tall columns. The lobby is dominated by a  high ceiling with a massive hanging bronze sculpture by Richard Lippold entitled "Gemini II." The ceiling of the concert hall consists of 800 hexagonal segments that can be raised or lowered to change the acoustics of the hall. The building won the 1967 American Institute of Architects' Honor Award, which is bestowed on only one building annually.

The present Alley Theatre building opened in November 1968 and contains two stages. The main stage has 824 seats and is called the "Hubbard"; the more intimate, 310-seat stage, is the "Neuhaus." Outside, there are nine towers and open-air terraces. Inside, a staircase spirals from the entrance vestibule to the second-floor lobby. The theatre was constructed in a large part by a $1.4 million grant from the Ford Foundation to support innovative theater architecture, and the prime architect on the project was Ulrich Franzen.

The Wortham Theater Center is a performing arts center that officially opened in Houston on May 9, 1987. The Center was designed by Eugene Aubry of Morris-Aubry Architects and built entirely with $66 million in private funds. The Brown Theater, with 2,423 seats, is named for donors Alice and George Brown. It is used primarily for opera and large ballet productions. The Cullen Theater, with 1,100 seats, is named for donors Lillie and Roy Cullen. It is used for smaller ballet productions and other events. The Wortham's signature arching entryway is made of glass and stands  tall. The grand staircase (which is actually a bank of escalators) is surrounded by a site-specific art piece created by New York sculptor Albert Paley.

The Lyric Centre sits in the heart of the Theater District, just across the street from the Wortham Center and adjacent to the Alley Theatre. The black-and-white striped office building houses dozens of law firms, but the block on which the tower sits is perhaps best known for the giant cellist playing outside. It is the work of sculptor David Adickes, who also created the statue of Sam Houston outside Huntsville, Texas.

The Hobby Center for the Performing Arts is a relatively new addition to the Theatre District. It was designed by architect Robert A. M. Stern and completed in 2002, providing two theaters specifically for theater and musical performances. Sarofim Hall, a 2,600-seat theater acoustically designed for touring Broadway productions, is home to "Theatre Under the Stars." Zilkha Hall, an intimate 500-seat venue with full orchestra pit, showcases smaller touring groups.

Museum District

The original building of the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, designed by William Ward Watkin, was opened in 1924. It was the first art museum built in Texas and the third in the South. The museum building has continued to evolve throughout the years. Cullinan Hall, designed by Mies van der Rohe in the International style, opened in 1958. In the 1970s, that addition received an addition, also designed by van der Rohe. Both additions were statements of modern architecture using an abundance of glass and steel.

In 1968, the present Miller Outdoor Theatre building, designed by Eugene Werlin and Associates, won several awards, including the American Iron and Steel Institute's Biannual Award (1969), the American Institute of Steel Construction's Award of Excellence, and the James E. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation Award. The 1968 theatre building was refurbished starting in 1996, adding a small stage to the east end of the facility that plays to a newly incorporated open plaza area.

Also in the Museum District is the non-denominational Rothko Chapel, founded by John and Dominique de Menil, designed by Mark Rothko and Philip Johnson and completed in 1971. The interior serves not only as a chapel, but also as a major work of modern art. On its walls are 14 black but color-hued paintings by Mark Rothko, who greatly influenced the shape and design of the chapel. Rothko was given creative control, and he clashed with Philip Johnson over the plans. Rothko continued to work first with Howard Barnstone and then with Eugene Aubry, but he did not live to see the chapel's completion. In September 2000, the Rothko Chapel was placed on the National Register of Historic Places.

The Contemporary Arts Museum occupies a stainless-steel building in a prominent site on the corner of Montrose and Bissonnet—the heart of Houston's Museum District. The highly recognizable building was designed for the Museum by Gunnar Birkerts and opened its doors in 1972. In 1997, the museum went through its first major facility renovation in 25 years.

In addition, the Chapel of St. Basil, on the nearby campus of the University of St. Thomas, is a work of art designed by Philip Johnson that has won many awards for its architecture. The Chapel, which was built in 1997, contrasts with all of the other buildings on campus, as it is made of white stucco and black granite, rather than rose-colored brick. It is also composed of three geometric forms: the cube, the sphere, and the plane. The cube makes up the majority of the building, including the main seating area, while a golden semi-sphere dome covered with 23.5 karat gold leaf rises high above the cube. The granite plane bisects the cube and opens the chapel to light. The cube and plane interplay with the dome, creating a sense that the dome is not a cover for the Chapel, but rather an opening to the heavens.

Designed by Renzo Piano, the Menil Collection is a contemporary art museum known for its simplicity, flexibility, open spaces and illumination with natural light located in a small park surrounded by residential housing. Opening in 1986, the -long, two-story-high box of steel, wood and glass contains the artwork collection of John and Dominique de Menil.

Residential architecture

Houston is home to various styles of residential architecture, from the mansions of new york city and Memorial to row houses in the several wards. A number of Houston's earliest homes are now located in Sam Houston Park, including the Kellum-Noble House, which was built in 1847 and is Houston's oldest brick dwelling. During the late 1930s and early 1940s, the Kellum-Noble House served as a public office for the City of Houston's Park Department, and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places.

The Nichols-Rice-Cherry House (which was moved from San Jacinto Street) is also located in Sam Houston Park. It is an example of Greek Revival architecture and was built about 1850 by Ebeneezer B. Nichols from New York. Between 1856 and 1873 it was owned by financier William Marsh Rice, whose estate helped create Rice Institute (now Rice University) in 1912.

Homes in the Heights have varied architectural styles, including Victorian, Craftsman and Colonial Revival. The neighborhood is composed of several large homes and many smaller cottages and bungalows, many built in the late 19th and early 20th century. After 1905, Victorian cottages tended to be replaced by bungalows.

While there are a few examples in the Heights of the columned Colonial Revival, the most popular "elite" house type in the 1910 era, other upscale houses were adapted from specific historical models popular in the 1920s, such as the Shefer House with its Dutch Colonial gambrel roof and the stucco-surfaced, Mediterranean villa-type Tibbott House on Harvard Street, with French doors opening the interior of the house to its site and an east side loggia replacing the old-fashioned front porch. Since deed-restriction enforcement is mandated in the Heights area, a majority of the houses built at the start of the 20th century and early 20th century still retain the old Heights character.

Many of the homes built in the Eastwood neighborhood represent Craftsman, Arts and Crafts, Foursquare and Mission Revival architectural styles. Eastwood was one of Houston's first master-planned subdivisions. Developed in 1913 by William A. Wilson, who also developed its sister neighborhood, Woodland Heights, Eastwood has one of Houston's largest collections of homes designed in these early-20th-century styles. In the newer section of Eastwood (built from the 1920s and 1930s), there are bungalows, prairie, colonial and federal styles.

Post-war housing constructed throughout Houston reflects many architectural styles. Although most houses built for the "baby boomers" reflect designs that had been around for decades, a number of homes were designed in the mid-century modern style, featuring flat or butterfly roofs, open floor plans, walls of glass, atriums and patios. A good example of this style is the William L. Thaxton Jr. House, located in Bunker Hill Village, which was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright and built in 1954.

Memorial Bend is made up of 1950s and early 1960s homes built in the modern (contemporary), ranch, and traditional styles. The neighborhood is considered to have the highest concentration of mid-century modern homes in Houston. Architects who designed homes in this neighborhood include William Norman Floyd, William R. Jenkins, William F. Wortham and Lars Bang. Many of the homes in Memorial Bend were featured in national architecture and design magazines like American Builder, House & Home, Practical Builder, Better Homes & Gardens and House Beautiful.

Starting in the late twentieth century, many traditional homes, townhomes and high-rise condominiums were constructed (or converted) for residents wishing to live in the downtown and inner-loop area, spurred by a focused revitalization effort after years of suburban exodus. These emerging urban dwellings can be found in an eclectic array of styles.

The Commerce Towers, originally developed as an office building in 1928 by Houston businessman Jesse H. Jones, has been converted into condominiums. In addition, many old office buildings and warehouses surrounding downtown have been recently converted to lofts. The Humble Towers Lofts, built in 1921, was originally the headquarters for Humble Oil. The Beaconsfield Lofts are registered with the US Interior Department's National Register of Historic Places.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s decade, there was a mini-boom of mid-rise and high-rise residential tower construction, with several over 30 stories tall. Since 2000 more than 30 high-rise buildings have gone up in Houston; all told, 72 high-rises tower over the city, which adds up to about 8,300 units.

Public facilities

City and county government

The Houston City Hall building, constructed in 1938-1939, is an example of Works Progress Administration architecture. The simply designed structure featured many construction details that have helped to make this building an architectural classic. The design on the lobby floor depicts the protective role of government. The doors feature historical figures including Thomas Jefferson, Julius Caesar, and Moses. Above the lobby entrance is a stone sculpture depicting two men taming a wild horse. The sculpture meant to symbolize a community coming together to form a government to tame the world around them. The plaster cast for this sculpture, and twenty-seven casts for friezes around the building, were done by Beaumont artist Herring Coe and co-designer Raoul Jassett.

The George R. Brown Convention Center was opened on September 26, 1987 on the east side of downtown Houston.  The sleek 100 foot (30 m) high red-white-and-blue building replaced the obsolete Albert Thomas Convention Center, which was later redeveloped into the Bayou Place entertainment complex in the downtown Houston Theater District. The George R. Brown contains nearly a half-million square feet of exhibit space, 41 meeting rooms, a 3,600-seat theater area and a 31,000 square foot (2,900 m²) grand ballroom.

The new Harris County Civil Courthouse, which was completed in early 2006, is 17 stories tall plus a basement. The 660,000 square foot (61,000 m²) building is filled with state-of-the-art technology and has 37 typical courtrooms, 1 tax courtroom, 1 ceremonial courtroom and 6 expansion courtrooms. It also has a three-story atrium lobby with thirteen elevators and two escalators. The courthouse is flood protected to an elevation of  and is accessible via tunnel from the existing downtown tunnel system. Interior finishes include limestone, granite, wood veneers, terrazzo and stainless steel.

Movie theaters

The River Oaks Theatre was built in 1939. It is among only a handful of currently viable retail buildings of its age and historic style in Houston. It was the last of the deluxe neighborhood movie theaters built by Interstate Theatre Corporation and the only one of its kind still operating as a movie theater.

As Houston and the rest of the country recovered from the Great Depression, art-deco style theaters of the late 1930s were built in many residential neighborhoods across the city. In addition to the River Oaks, neighborhood movie theaters like the Alabama, Tower, Capitan, and Ritz-Majestic Metro were several of the venues where Houstonians sought entertainment. The Alabama serves as a prime example of adaptive reuse, the repurposing of architecture considered obsolete in terms of modern usage. Opening as a Bookstop bookstore in 1984 after the original theater closed, the building was later converted into Houston's first Trader Joe's specialty grocery store in 2012. The grocer took pains to preserve much of the building's original architectural splendor, including its original terrazzo-tile front entrance as well as its second-floor balcony.

The Majestic Theater, designed by John Eberson and constructed downtown in 1923, is considered to be the most notable movie theatre built in the city. The design was not of a standard theatre interior, but an outdoor plaza and garden with a starlit sky overhead. The Mediterranean blue ceiling, inset with twinkling lights, featured clouds that floated over the heads of the audience during screenings. The Majestic was the world's first "atmospheric" movie theatre.

Airports

Designed by architect Joseph Finger (who also designed Houston's City Hall), the Houston Municipal Airport Terminal was constructed in 1940 to meet Houston's growing role as a center for air commerce in the 1930s. The terminal building is an example of classic art deco airport architecture from the 1940s. The terminal served as the primary commercial air terminal for Houston until 1954. The terminal, located at William P. Hobby Airport, houses the 1940 Air Terminal Museum which currently exhibits several collections focusing on Houston's aviation history.

Stadia
The 70,000-seat Rice Stadium, designed in 1950 by Hermon Lloyd & W.B. Morgan and Milton McGinty, is of reinforced concrete with  diameter columns supporting the upper decks. Architecturally, the stadium is an example of modernism, with simple lines and an unadorned, functional design. The entire lower seating bowl is located below the surrounding ground level. Intended solely for football games, the stadium has excellent sightlines from almost every seat.

The Astrodome, the world's first domed stadium, was conceived by Roy Hofheinz and designed by architects Hermon Lloyd & W.B. Morgan, and Wilson, Morris, Crain and Anderson. Structural engineering and structural design was performed by Walter P Moore Engineers and Consultants of Houston. It stands 18 stories tall, covering 9½ acres. The stadium is  in diameter and the ceiling is  above the playing surface, which itself sits  below street level. Despite innovations necessitated by the novelty of the design (including the modest flattening of the supposed "hemispherical roof" to deal with environmentally induced structural deformation and the use of a new paving process called "lime stabilization" to deal with soil consistency issues and facilitate paving) the Astrodome was completed in November 1964, six months ahead of schedule.

Located near the Astrodome, NRG Stadium is a wonder of modern sports facility design and engineering. The 69,500-seat stadium has a natural grass playing field and a retractable roof—a first for the NFL. There are also 165 private suites, 8,200 club seats, and more than 400 concession and novelty stands. The playing field is palletized and removable, allowing for the addition of a significant layer of dirt to accommodate the annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo, or use the concrete floor for concerts, trade shows, and conventions.

See also

 Architectural style
 List of tallest buildings in Texas
 Skyscraper
 Urban planning

References

Further reading
Fox, Stephen (1990): Houston Architectural Guide: American Institute of Architects Houston
Mod, Anna (2011): Building Modern Houston
Parsons, J and Bush, D. (2008) Houston deco: modernistic architecture of the Texas coast
Scardin, B et al. (2003): Ephemeral city: Cite looks at Houston

External links
Houston Architecture
Early Architecture of Houston
Modernistic Architecture of the Texas Coast
Houston architecture archive
174 Years of Historic Houston (requires registration)

Buildings and structures in Houston
Houston
History of Houston

Architecture of Houston


Sekolah Kebangsaan St. Aidan (M) atau nama ringkasnya SK St Aidan (M), merupakan sebuah Sekolah kebangsaan yang terletak di Jalan Besar Bahau,.

Pada 2017 Sekolah Kebangsaan St. Aidan (M) memiliki 269 pelajar lelaki dan 252 pelajar perempuan, menjadikan jumlah keseluruhan murid seramai 521 orang. Ia mempunyai seramai 40 orang guru.2017

Sejarah

1958 - 1965

The people of Bahau had for many years wanted an English Medium School. Requests to Government did not seem to meet with much response. A group of people in town therefore got together and formed themselves into a Committee - the Bahau English School Fund Committee and went about raising money so that they could build their own school.

The Rev. T. M. Oliver, who used to visit his friends in Bahau, was approached by members of this Committee and asked if the Church would be prepared to start a school. After examining the situation, the Rev. Oliver recommended to the Bishop that an English School should be built.

The then Diocesan Secretary for Anglican Schools, Canon Dr. D.D. Chelliah, discussed the project with the then Chief Education Officer, Mr. S. Thambiah and Officials of the Ministry of Education and finding that the Government was prepared to support the school, plans were finalised.

Monday 16th December 1957 was therefore a milestone in the development of Bahau when the Venerable Archdeacon of Singapore laid the foundation stone of St. Aidan'; School. The historic occasion was witnessed by a distinguished crowd of people who then adjourned for tea to the Malayan Chinese Association.

The three months prior to the laying of the foundation stone were indeed very busy months. Rev. Oliver was given the job of finding a Headmaster and one or two teachers who would be prepared to be pioneers in the field of English Education in Bahau.

Mr. Lionel van Geyzel, retired Headmaster of the Government English School, Port Dickson, agreed to become the Headmaster; Mr. Devadas Dorairaj, a teacher at the Anglo-Chinese School, Seremban, volunteered to serve at the new school.

A public announcement was made in Bahau that an English School would be opened and that parents with children born in 1950 and 1951 who wished to send them to an English School could register at 16, Main Road, Bahau, the residence of our Board Treasurer, Mr. Lee Poh Seong, on the Saturdays of 16th September 28th, October 5th and 12th.

In November, Mr. Van Geyzel decided to decline the Headship of the new school. The Rev. Oliver was in a quandry; he finally approached Mr. David Gunaratnam who was teaching at the Anglo-Chinese School, Seremban, and fortunately Mr. Gunaratnam agreed.

It must have been indeed quite an experience for him. There were 140 children who had to start school in early January 1958 - just two months away. There was only one teacher; three more had to be employed - Miss Lu Fang from Kuala Pilah, Miss Lily Sundersingh from Bahau Estate and Miss Janet Lim from Bahau. Two classes, Standard 2 Express, were held at the Malayan Chinese Association building, one in the morning and the other in the afternoon. A creche on Taisho Estate was used morning and afternoon for another two classes, Standard 3 Express. The Headmaster, Mr. Gunaratnam had his office at 16 Main Road.

The School was officially opened on 29th November 1958 by his Highness the Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negri Sembilan and dedicated by the Rt. Rev. H. W. Baines, the then Lord Bishop of the Diocese, The cost of $100,000' was met from a Government Grant of $80,000, $4,000 each from the Dunlop Malayan Estates Ltd., Guthries and Harrison & Crosfield, $4,000 each from the Indian and Chinese Communities.

The first batch of candidates were presented in November 1961. These were pupils born in 1949, admitted to school in January 1958 when St. Aidan's began and who completed the six year ordinary course in four years, so that they could be of the right age for the promotion examination; 75 out of 102 pupils gained promotion to Form One.

=The 1962 candidates did the six year primary course in 5 years. Once again the promotion pass was above seventy percent. The attainment continued in the last year of this public exam in 1963, the first group of pupils to do the primary school course in the proper time.

SECONDARY SCHOOL
To cater for our 75 pupils who gained promotion to Form One in January 1962, our first Secondary classes were started. In 1963 and 1964, the Secondary classes progressed to Forms Two and Three. The first set of candidates for the Lower Certificate of Education Examination in 1964 obtained a 65% Pass.

The foundation stone of the Secondary School was laid by the Rt. Rev. S. K. Sansbury on 5th September 1961. An administrative block, toilets and six classrooms were built in 1962 as the first phase of the Secondary School at a cost of $75,000 from a Government Grant of $60,000 and $15,0(}0 Parents' Donation to Building Fund. Unfortunately, plans for development into a full Secondary School had to be shelved in 1964 due to the building of a new Lower Secondary School under the Government's Comprehensive Education System. We record our gratefulness to the Dunlop Malayan Estates Ltd. for a grant of 57,500 towards the Secondary School Development.

As St. Aidan's was not going to be allowed to develop into a full Secondary School, our Form Three graduands had to go elsewhere for their Upper Secondary Education.

The abolition of the Secondary Continuation School System at the end of 1964, resulted in the integration of their 4 classes with secondary classes in January 1965.

In the successful life of St. Aidan's School over the past seven years, thanks be to God for the dedication and guidance given by His faithful servant, Padre Oliver, the keen interest shown by all those who have served on the Board of Managers, for the farsightedness and good foundations laid by its first Headmaster, Mr. David Gunaratnam, for the service that the teachers have given and for the wonderful support from the parents and people of Bahau.

January 10th 1966, the opening of the school for the new year, would begin a fresh page in the history of our school, the march to develop St. Aidan's into one of the finest Primary Schools in the countrt•.Our beloved Chairman, Padre Oliver retired in June 1966 and Bahau bade farewell to the man who was instrumental in bringing English Education to them.

Pencapaian

Alamat
Sekolah Kebangsaan St. Aidan (M)
Jalan Besar Bahau,
72100, Bahau
Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
Telefon =  6064541276
Fax       = 6064540244

Pautan luar

St. Aidan (M)
St. Aidan (M)

Sekolah Kebangsaan St. Aidan


Dental braces are wires that are held together by brackets glued to the permanent teeth. The wires and brackets may be made of metal or other materials. Each week or month (or other time the orthodontist decides) the braces may be checked, cleaned, or changed into a tighter wire.

Braces are an orthodontic device. They are to make the teeth straight, and to correct problems in a person's bite. There are many natural problems which occur to the way teeth fit together, but not everyone needs or will need braces.

However, the use of braces is quite common, even when they are not medically necessary. Their cosmetic use for young females is more common in countries with first world economies. To overcome the visibility of traditional metal braces, there are now nearly transparent braces. Sometimes braces are possible behind the teeth, and so are not in view.

Notes

Orthodontics

Dental braces


Tortoiseshell or tortoise shell is a material produced from the shells of the larger species of tortoise and turtle, mainly the hawksbill sea turtle, which is a critically endangered species according to the IUCN Red List largely because of its exploitation for this trade. The large size, fine color, and unusual form of the hawksbill's scutes make it especially suitable. The distinctive patterning is referred to in names such as the tortoiseshell cat, several breeds of guinea pig, and the common names of several species of the butterfly genera Nymphalis and Aglais, and some other uses.

Uses
Tortoiseshell was widely used from ancient times in the North and in Asia, until the trade was banned in 2014. It was used, normally in thin slices or pieces, in the manufacture of a wide variety of items such as combs, small boxes and frames, inlays in furniture (known as Boulle work carried out by André-Charles Boulle), and other items: frames for spectacles, guitar picks and knitting needles.  Despite being expensive, tortoiseshell was attractive to manufacturers and consumers because of its beautiful mottled appearance, its durability, and its organic warmth against the skin.

The initial processing involved separating the layers of the scutes from the animal's carapace by heating, softening the plates by boiling them in salt water and flattening them under a press. Two pieces could be fused by use of a hot iron, but like the earlier stages, great care had to be taken not to lose the color. Finishing and polishing was done by various techniques mainly in Europe or in the US. Craftsmen in various Asian countries have also perfected this art.

Availability
In 1973, the trade of tortoiseshell worldwide was banned under CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species).  The material was already often imitated in stained horn, plastic like cellulose acetate, and other materials. The synthetic Delrin has been used especially for guitar picks.

Brands of synthetic substitutes for tortoiseshell include Tortoloid and Tor-tis.

History
Tortoiseshell has been used since ancient times, and the ancient Greek chelys or lyre often used a whole shell to form its body. Inlaid veneers of tortoiseshell were popular with wealthy ancient Romans for furniture, especially couches for dining, and for small items. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, probably a work of the 1st century AD, distinguishes between shell from different species, with the best regarded as the hawksbill.

André Charles Boulle (1642-1732), cabinetmaker to Louis XIV of France introduced or perfected marquetry combining thin inlays of tortoiseshell backed with metal, with woods and metal, a style still called after him (Boulle work). Small luxury objects such as snuff-boxes were decorated in piqué work, inlays of precious metals and jewels into tortoiseshell (or other materials).

Hopes of capturing a large store of tortoiseshell led to the Ngatik massacre by Australian "beachcombers" of up to 50 men of Sapwuahfik in Micronesia in July 1837.

Notes

References
 Casson, Lionel, "Periplus Maris Erythraei: Notes on the Text", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 102, (1982), pp. 204–206, JSTOR
 Caunes, Lison de, and Jacques Morabito. 1997. L'écaille [Tortoiseshell]. Dourdan: Vial.
 "Transactions", "On Horn and Tortoiseshell", Transactions of the Society, Instituted at London, for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, Vol. 52, PART II (1838-1876), pp. 334–349, Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, JSTOR

Decorative arts
Materials
Turtle terminology

Tortoiseshell


A sin tax is when the government taxes things that are considered to be bad for society.

For example, if the government increases taxes on alcohol and cigarettes, this will make them more expensive. In economics, if a normal good becomes more expensive, its consumption will drop.

Arthur Pigou was a famous economist who supported the sin tax.

Sin taxes also have problems:
 If there is a large price difference between countries this will encourage smuggling, and may create a black market.
 Sin taxes may provide a reliable income for the government. In such a case, some governments encourage "sinful" behavior to get more taxes.

Taxation

Sin tax


Beat 'em up games are video games where the player beats up bad guys while walking through levels. Sometimes the player has to beat up certain bad guys to progress through the game. Most of the time, these games have level bosses which are usually at the end of the level. Examples of "beat-em up" games are arcade games like Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and The Simpsons. Super Smash Bros. Brawl also has a "beat-em up" part in the game where the player fights bad guys from the Subspace Emissary and fights other characters as well in order to beat the levels.

Types of video games

Video game genres

Beat 'em up games


Unaizah or offeecially The Govrenorate o Unaizah (an aa spelled Onaizah, Onizah, or Unayzah; ) is a Saudi Arabieceety in the Al Qassim Province. It lies sooth o Buraydah (the caipital o the province) an north o Riyadh, the caipital o the Kinrick o Saudi Arabie. It is the seicont lairgest ceety in Al-Qassim Province wi a population o 163,729 (2010 census).

Historically, Unaizah wis an important stoppin pynt for Muslim pilgrims comin frae Mesopotamia (nou Iraq) an Persie (nou Iran) on thair wey tae Makkah. Mony scientists an historians believe that Unaizah wis inhabited hunders o years afore the spread o Islam, citin its reference in numerous poems frae some o the maist important poets o pre-Islamic Arabie sic as Imru Al-Qais.

Location
Unaizah is in the sooth o Al-Qassim Province an at the hert o the historical region o Nejd. It is locatit roughly 30 kilometers frae Buraydah (the caipital o the province) an mair nor 300 kilometers north o the Saudi caipital, Riyadh.

Geography

Unaizah lies in the northren-central region o the Nejd an tae the sooth o the Wadi Al Rumma (Rumma Valley), which is the langest valley on the Arabian peninsula. It is surroondit bi saund dunes tae its north an wast, which are kent locally as the Al-Ghamis Sands. The Al-Ghadha Woods are locatit tae the north o the ceety.Next tae Unaizah is the Al-Aushaziyah saut lake (or Sabkha), which is considered an offeecial pairt o the ceety.

Climate
Unaizah haes a teepical desert climate. Its winters are cauld an semi-rainy, an its simmers are het, aneroid simmers wi laich humidity. The simmer wather o Unaizah is whiles describit as balmy tae nearby farms that surroond the ceety.

Agriculture

Unaizah is an agricultural aurie an produces wheat an baurley o various strains. The region an aa grows grapes, grapefruits, leemons, leeks, mandarins, orangers, pomegranates an dates.

Leeks (kurrat) are a very important pairt o the local cultur o Unaizah. Thay are popular amang the locals an comprise a significant portion o the local agricultural industry.

The 4t annual Date Saison Festival wis held in September 2008, givin Unaizah the distinction o hostin the lairgest date festival in the Persian Gulf an the Middle East. The festival rivals the date festival o neighboring Buraydah's, which is whiles kent as "Buraydah, the Ceety o Dates".

Unaizah's 4t annual Date Festival wis kent as the "Unaizah International Date Festival", tho the ceety's title "Unaizah, the Kinrick o Dates" wis retained as a motto.

Education
Unaizah is home tae some pioneers in eddication; the first Saudi male frae Al-Qassim Province tae earn a PhD. degree wis frae Unaizah, an his name wis Dr. Abdulaziz Al-Khowaiter. The first Saudi female frae Al Qassim Province tae earn a PhD degree wis an aa raised in this ceety.  Her name wis Dr. Ebtisam Al Bassam.

Ane o the first ceeties tae embrace female eddication in Al-Qassim Province an Nejd wis Unaizah. It faced resistance frae neighborin provinces an brocht Unaizah at the forefront o a naitional debate. Efter lengthy negotiations, the caipital ceety o Qassim, Buraidah a sister ceety o Unaizah, offeecially recognised the right o an eddication for females, partly due tae Keeng Abdulaziz's interference in settlin the dispute.

The day, thare are mony public schools in Unaizah for aw three eddicational levels (primary, intermediate, an seicontar). Thare are an aa twa private schools an ane private international school. Thare is an aa a boys' technological seicontar schuil in the ceety an a technological college, as well as a girls' eddicational college. Qassim University is locatit approximately 30 kilometers north o the ceety, an enrolls baith males an females.

Western Travelers
The fowk o Unaizah are weel kent for thair hospitality an acceptance for fowk frae eother races an religions. The famous Charles Montagu Doughty lived in the ceety durin his odyssey an wrote heichly aboot the ceety.

Amin al-Rihani (the famous Franco-Lebanese scholar an traveler) spoke heichly o the ceety's airchitectur an wirks o airt in his beuk "Keengs o Arabie" likenin it tae Paris tharebi coinin the nickname "Paris of Najd" for the ceety.

Tourism

Thare are twal tourist festivals an activities recognised bi the Saudi Commission for Tourism & Antiquities, an a calendar haes been made for thir events.

 (the Governor o Al-Qassim an Chairman o the province's Tourism Council)

The tourist attractions in Unaizah range frae  festivals tae private meetins in faimily ranches. Some o the maist notable venues in which festivals are held are the followin:

 Al Bassam Mansion, a tradeetional hoose an a private museum .
 Al Hajeb Pairks.
 Al Hamdan House, a tradeetional hoose an a private museum.
 Al Subbayyel Grotto.
 Asie Resort an Pairk.
 Dream Land, the lairgest theme pairk in Al Qassim Province an as reportedly the Central Region.
 Judaida Avenue.
 King Fahd Cultural Center.
 The Roman amphitheatre.
 Salih Bin Salih Cultural Center.
 The Unaizah House for Tradeetional Legacy.

Thare are three hottles in Unaizah, ane o which is currently unner construction, in addition tae the rental apartments an suites distributit aw aroond the ceety:

 Al Fahd Crown (unner construction).
 Oasis Hotel.
 Onaizah Hotel.

Awtho Unaizah is thocht tae be relatively mair acceptin o visitors than its neighbors, its tourism industry faces criticism for a nummer o reasons. Ane sic criticism is its disregard for infrastructure maintenance.

Culture

Religion

Aw o the Saudi citizens o Unaizah are Sunni Muslim wi a smaa minority o Dharmic religions, (maistly Hinduism) brocht an practiced in the ceety bi Asie wirkers (mainly Indies), an an aa a smaa minority o Filipino Catholic Christian wirkers. As the rest o Saudi Arabian ceeties, non-Islamic worship hooses are nae allowed.

The majority o the ceety's indwallers are socially conservative. Ane o Saudi Arabia's leadin religious clerics Muhammad ibn al Uthaymeen wis a student o the late Sheikh Abdulrahman Al Se'di, an Unaizah native. Muhammad ibn al Uthaymeen himsel wis born an raised in Unaizah. He lived in Unaizah til he died, whaur mony mosques hae been biggit an named efter him.

Cuisine

The Qassimi cuisine in general, an the cuisine o Unaizah is very famous for its delicious fuid, an for its renowned an tasty tradeetional meals sic as Jereesh, Margoug, Gersan, an Metazeez.

As for sweets, alang wi ether Qassimi sweets, the Qassimi Kleeja is a well-kent sweetie aw ower Saudi Arabie an even the Gulf States.

Lik ether Saudi ceeties, the Nejdi Kabsa is the maist tradeetional lunch. The Yemeni Mandi is an aa popular as a lunch meal.

Fast fuid is an aa popular in the ceety. McDonald's, Starbucks, Domino's Pizza, Herfy, Pizza Hut, Little Caesar's, Hardee's, an KFC amang ethers are widely distributit in Unaizah.

Sports
Unaizah is very active in terms o sports. Fitbaa is the maist popular sport aw ower Saudi Arabie, an it is very popular in Unaizah, it is played in schuil's P.E. (i.e. Physical Eddication) lessons, an it is common tae see a group o kids playin it in the streets.

Thare are twa local clubs in Unaizah, the Saudi Al Najmah club, an the Al Arabi club.

Media
Unaizah is served bi sax major Arabic leid newspapers, Al Jazeera, Alriyadh, Okaz, Al Watan, Al Hayat, Al Yaum, as well as ane Inglis leid newspaper, Arab News. Unaizah haes ane local magazine, that issues every fower month, it is cried Paris Nejd, named efter the widest spread nickname o Unaizah. In addition tae mony ether naitional an internaitional magazines distributit everywhere in the ceety's mercats.

Televeesion stations servin the ceety aurie include Saudi TV1, Saudi TV2, Saudi TV Sports, Al Ekhbariyah, ART channels network an hunders o cable, satellite an ither specialty televeesion providers.

The Rulin Dynasty
The ceety haes been ruled bi the Al Sulaim faimlie syne 1818. Thay came tae pouer when Prince Yehya Al-Sulaim in 1822 killed the govrenor appyntit bi the Ottoman emperor, Abdullah Al-Jamei. This dynasty still rules the ceety accordin tae a written treaty atween them an the Saudi ryal faimily. Some o the maist famous faimlies in Saudi Arabia originate frae Unaizah, includin the Al Ghothami, Al Hatlani, Al Sulaiman, Al Hamdan, Al Tamimi, Al Zamil, Al Olayan, Al Bassam, Al Gadhi,Alsaloom, Al Subaiee, Al Senany, Al Mansour, Al Yahya, Al Thukair, Al Turki, Al Shoshan, Al Shubaili, Al Shebel, Al Damigh, Al Othaimeen, Al Malloohi, Al Marzooki, Al Manei, Al Se'di, Al Abeeki, Al Khwaiter, Al Sowayil, Al Daffaa, Al Jaffali, Al Dukhayyel, Al Dakheel, Al Abdeli, Al Suhaimi, Al Ohali faimlies an mony ethers.

Unaizah in the news
Unaizah made naitional headlines durin the last 60 years acause o its pioneerin spirit. This ceety takes pride in the fact that it produced pioneers an experts in mony professions, tap poets, ambassadors, naitional civil servants an businessmen mair nor maist Saudi ceeties.
The first non-govrenmental literary society/club in the kinrick wis established in Unaizah in 1953, an in 1921, the first public schuil in Najed wis established.
Unaizah is weel kent for its hospitality, hence, thare are a variety o tourism Festivals in the year. Thir include dates, an healthy crops festivals. Thare is an aa a bi-annual cultural festival which is a trademark for this ceety.
It wis the anly ceety o the Nejd region tae invite a Saudi Shiite cleric tae speak in a public event, in a gress-ruits effort tae promote a unitit naitional identity. This drew criticism frae conservatives in neighborin ceeties.

Gallery

See also
 Nejd

References

External links
 Information about the city
 Unaizah unofficial site (ParisNajd)
 Unaizah's Department of Education
 Unaizah's Technological College
 Sheikh Abdulrahman Bin Sedi Secondary School
 Unaizah's largest forums online
 Dakkat Unaizah forums
 Youth of Unaizah forums
 Unaizah's poets forums
 Janah (a district in Unaizah) Forums

Populatit places in Al-Qassim Province
Unaizah

Unaizah


"Start Wearing Purple" is a song by gypsy punk band Gogol Bordello, written by frontman Eugene Hütz. The song was packaged as a double single along with "Sally", and released as the band's second single in February 2006. It appears on their third album Gypsy Punks: Underdog World Strike. This version is a re-recording of the initial one which was featured in the band's first album, 1999's Voi-La Intruder. It also appears in the soundtrack for the 2005 film Everything Is Illuminated, in which Hütz stars as Alex.

Music video
The video starts with Hütz wearing ladies shoes, and singing and dancing in the streets. This is followed by images of the band and many people dancing around while consuming copious amounts of alcohol.

Composition
Hütz said in an interview, "It's one of the very few songs I wrote for a girl. I just moved in with my girlfriend in New York. We had a neighbour: an old woman who was always dressed in purple head to toe. She was clearly bonkers. So whenever my girlfriend and I had an argument and she would start screaming at me, I would say: you might as well start wearing purple now".

Cover versions
 Covered live by Vernian Process
 Covered by the James Madison University Pep Band, its full marching band Marching Royal Dukes, and has become a de facto team song at James Madison Dukes sporting events.
 Has become a de facto team song of Major League Soccer team Orlando City SC.

References

Gogol Bordello songs
2006 singles
2005 songs
Song recordings produced by Steve Albini
Macaronic songs

Start Wearing Purple


Princess Mathilde of Bavaria (Mathilde Marie Theresia Henriette Christine Luitpolda; 17 August 1877 – 6 August 1906) was the sixth child of Ludwig III of Bavaria and his wife, Maria Theresa of Austria-Este. After her early death, Life-Dreams: The Poems of a Blighted Life, a collection of poems she wrote, was published in 1910.

Family and early life
Princess Mathilde was born on 17 August 1877 as the sixth child and third daughter of Ludwig III of Bavaria at the family's summer residence of Villa Amsee in Lindau. Though she was the favorite daughter of her father, she and her mother were not close. Some speculate that she only married as an escape from her home.

Later years

Marriage and issue

Various candidates were rumored to be engaged to Princess Mathilde at different times. These included, in 1896, the Prince of Naples, but he married Princess Elena of Montenegro later that year. Others included Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and Jaime, Duke of Madrid.

On 1 May 1900 in Munich, Mathilde married Prince Ludwig of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, a son of Prince Ludwig August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and his wife Princess Leopoldina of Brazil. He was a captain in the Austrian army, and had been raised in Brazil as a grandson of Emperor Pedro II. The prince was also from the Catholic branch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. They had two children: Prince Antonius of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (17 June 1901 – 1 September 1970); and Princess Maria Immaculata of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (10 September 1904 – 18 March 1940).

Death
Mathilde died of tuberculosis at the age of 28, on 6 August 1906, in Davos, Switzerland. Her remains are buried in the Church of Saints Peter and Paul in the little village of Rieden near her family home at Schloss Leutstetten. Her husband remarried a year later to Countess Anna of Trauttmansdorff-Weinsberg.

In 1910 Mathilde's family anonymously published some of her poems as Traum und Leben: Gedichte einer früh Vollendeten.  In 1913 John Heard translated and published them in English as Life-Dreams: The Poems of a Blighted Life.

Ancestry

References

1877 births
1906 deaths
Bavarian princesses
Burials at the Church of Saints Peter and Paul (Rieden, Swabia)
German women poets
Princesses of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha-Koháry
Tuberculosis deaths in Switzerland
19th-century poets
19th-century German writers
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
19th-century German women writers
Daughters of kings

Princess Mathilde of Bavaria


The River Teifi is a river in west Wales. It starts in the hills above the town of Tregaron and then flows into a large marsh called Tregaron bog. This bog helps to stop flow in the river being too extreme. It stores up flood water when it is raining hard and it lets water go during dry weather.

The water in the River Teifi is very good quality. The river supports lots of wild-life including Salmon and Trout. The wildlife is so special that the whole river has been given special protetion by scientists to stop it being damaged.

The river passes through small towns such as Lampeter and Newcastle Emlyn before it reaches the sea at Cardigan. For the last few miles before it reaches Cardigan, the river runs through a deep gorge called Cigerran Gorge. Some people still fish for Salmon here using a very ancient boat called a Coracle.

References

Rivers of Wales

River Teifi


The history of Armenia and Armenians is very ancient and can go back at least 2000 BC. Archaeologists say the Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the central Transcaucasus region, and Armenia today, as the earliest known prehistoric culture in the area, carbon-dated to around 6000 - 4000 BC. But, a newer discovered tomb has been dated to 9000 BC. Another early culture in the Armenian Highlands and surrounding areas—the Kura-Araxes culture is in the period of ca. 4000 - 2200 BC, and is believed to have to go into the Trialeti culture (ca. 2200 - 1500 BC), and meaning Armenians are one of the oldest Indo-European subgroups.

Urartu
Urartu was an ancient kingdom in the Armenian Highlands.

Some experts say that the Armenians started as a mixture of the different peoples to move through the area in history: The Hurrians, Urarteans, Luvians and Mushki. This last group, also knowns as Phrygians may have brought their Indo-European language to Armenia. The Armenian language today is Indo-European, but shows a lot of influence from the earlier languages, especially Urartean.

Ancient period

The Armenians had friendly relations with the Parthian empire. The fighting between the Roman Empire and Parthia was centered in Armenia. Armenia was in between Parthian and the Roman Empire. The Armenians had already played a role in the early history of the Roman-Parthian relations. Tigranes put military and political relations with Rome and Parthia on an international legal foundation. The Parthians were allies to Armenians in many times. Many Parthian noble families had moved out and they went to Armenia.

Related pages
Hayasa-Azzi
Battle of Rhandeia

References

Other websites
 Armenia at Livius.Org  (ancient history)
 All about Armenia by www.haias.net
 Rulers.org — Armenia list of rulers for Armenia
 History of Armenia
 A book about the history of Armenia from 1827. It was written by a priest.

History of Armenia


Mary Toft (née Denyer) (c. 1701–1763), also called Mary Tofts, was an English woman from Godalming, Surrey. In 1726 she tricked doctors into believing that she had given birth to rabbits. She became famous, and was taken to London. There she was examined by royal doctors. Later she confessed, and was sent to prison.

Toft became pregnant in 1726, but later miscarried. She had developed a strong interest in a rabbit she had seen while working, and claimed to have given birth to parts of animals.  Local surgeon John Howard was called to see if it was true, and upon delivering several animal parts he told other important doctors.  The event came to the attention of Nathaniel St. André, surgeon to the Royal Household of King George I of Great Britain. St. André checked further into the event and decided that Toft was telling the truth. The king also sent surgeon Cyriacus Ahlers to see Toft, but Ahlers did not believe it.  By now quite famous, Toft was brought to London and was studied at length. She was watched closely. She produced no more rabbits, and eventually confessed to the hoax and was sent to prison as a fraud.

The public learned of the fact that the doctors had been fooled, and this created panic in the medical profession. Several important surgeons' careers were ruined. Pamphlets were published which made fun of the doctors, and  William Hogarth was very  critical of the profession. Toft was eventually released without charge and returned to her home.

1700s births
1763 deaths
People from Surrey
Hoaxes

Mary Toft


The Cherokee Nation Warriors Society is a society of Cherokee Nation tribal members who are also military veterans, and who were honorably discharged from military service.  The society is based in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, and is administered by the Cherokee Nation Office of Veterans Affairs.  Most of the society members participate in the Gourd Dance.

Membership in this society is open to all veterans of the Cherokee Nation of any branch of military service.  The Cherokee Nation Warriors Society members and those veterans who gave their lives in military service have bricks with their names inscribed paving the Cherokee Nation Warriors Memorial and Pavilion located at the Cherokee Nation Headquarters in Tahlequah, Oklahoma.  The memorial is dedicated to all Cherokee Citizens and their families who served honorably in the United States Military and to those who gave their lives in defense of the United States and the Cherokee homeland.

References
Cherokee Nation Warriors memorial
Cherokee Nation Veterans Ceremony

American veterans' organizations
Organizations based in the Cherokee Nation
Native American organizations
Organizations based in Oklahoma

Cherokee Nation Warriors Society


Guantanamo is a city in the southeast of Cuba. It is the capital of the province with the same name. About 208.000 people live in the city. Most of them are employed in the production of sugarcane and coffee. The city is 910 km away from Havana, the capital city of Cuba. About 15 km away is Guantanamo Naval Base, on a territory occupied by the United States since 1902.

Cities in Cuba

Guantánamo


The BASIC countries (also Basic countries or BASIC) are a bloc of four large newly industrialized countries – Brazil, South Africa, India and China – formed by an agreement on 28 November 2009.  The four committed to act jointly at the Copenhagen climate summit, including a possible united walk-out if their common minimum position was not met by the developed nations. All are members of BRICS, which also includes Russia.

This emerging geopolitical alliance, initiated and led by China, then brokered the final Copenhagen Accord with the United States. Subsequently, the grouping is working to define a common position on emission reductions and climate aid money, and to try to convince other countries to sign up to the Copenhagen Accord. However, in January 2010, the grouping described the Accord as merely a political agreement and not legally binding, as is argued by the US and Europe.

The four countries also said that they will announce their plans to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 31 January 2010 as agreed in Copenhagen.  Furthermore, the grouping discussed the possibility of providing financial and technical aid to the poorer nations of the G77, and promised details after their Cape Town meeting in April 2010. This move was apparently intended to share richer nations into increasing their funding for climate mitigation in poorer nations.

At the April 2010 meeting in Cape Town, environment ministers from the four countries called for a legally binding global agreement on long-term cooperative action under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol, to be concluded at the next UN Climate Change Conference in Cancun, Mexico in November 2010, or at the latest in South Africa by 2011, saying that slow legislative progress in the United States should not be allowed to dictate the pace of global agreement. The group's post-meeting statement also demanded that developed countries allow developing countries "equitable space for development" as well as providing them with finance, technology and capacity-building support, based on their "historical responsibility for climate change".

Technical cooperation among the countries appears to be following, as in May 2010 South Africa, Brazil and India announced a joint program to develop satellites.

See also
BRICS
Potential superpower
Emerging markets
ABC nations
Politics of global warming
South-South cooperation
Emerging and growth-leading economies
List of country groupings
List of multilateral free-trade agreements

References

Foreign relations of India
Foreign relations of China
Foreign relations of Brazil
Foreign relations of South Africa
2000s economic history
Economic country classifications
World Trade Organization
Brazil–India relations
China–India relations
Politics of climate change

BASIC countries


Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics. Its aim is to summarize a set of statistical data. The data are usually taken by sampling a population. To picture the way the data are distributed, a histogram may be drawn. The data may be summarized by computing some characterising values, like the "center" of the data, and the "spread". In some cases the different items of data will be grouped and the groups will be described, in some way.

Statistics

Descriptive statistics


Benque Viejo del Carmen (usually shortened to "Benque") is a town in the country of Belize. It is in the Cayo District.  The northern edge of the town is along the Mopan River.  The river also forms the border with Guatemala. Benque Viejo is a growing town rich with culture and activities. It is a short 5 minute walk to the famous Xunantunich ruins. It also is home to Actun Chapat, a large underground cave system, popular with tourists. An addition of a new Municipal market in Sept 6 2014 . A new hotel the Benque Resort. The addition of Tropic Air extending flights to Maya Flats, has increased the interest and visitors to Benque. Benque is experiencing a growing expat population of retirees, as it was voted cleanest and safest town in Belize.
Once a bustling center of trade for logwood and chicle, Benque is now experiencing growth in tourism, and the addition of a Free trade zone has contributed to the growth and prosperity of the town. Residents enjoy a variety of activities in the town, one of the most popular is river tubing. Leaving from the dock at the Benque Resort on Riverside, visitors and residents, can enjoy the beautiful greenish/blue waters of the Mopan River and float downstream to the Mayan ruins of Xunantunich, a popular tourist destination, which features one of the largest pyramids in Belize. A popular House of Culture features a Marimba academy,art classes,dance and music classes to residents and visitors alike. A 100-acre Art park Poustinia on the outskirts of Benque features fabulous works, created by groups and students from all over the world. A publishing house, Cubola books, and a recording studio, Stonetree records, have made this town popular amongst artists from all over the world. The addition of Cave Garden coffee house and resident artist and world renowned master flutist Pablo Collado has entertained countless groups and dignitaries.

Towns in Belize

Benque Viejo del Carmen


Foggy dew is een Iers verzetslied dat gaat over de Paasopstand van 24–30 april 1916. Het vertelt over die verzetsstrijders die omkwamen bij deze opstand. Het lied werd geschreven door Charles O'Neill.

Foggy dew

As down the glen one Easter morn to a city fair rode I
There Armed lines of marching men in squadrons passed me by
No fife did hum nor battle drum did sound it's dread tattoo
But the Angelus bell o'er the Liffey swell rang out through the foggy dew

Right proudly high over Dublin Town they hung out the flag of war
'Twas better to die 'neath an Irish sky than at Sulva or Sud El Bar
And from the plains of Royal Meath strong men came hurrying through
While Britannia's Huns, with their long range guns sailed in through the foggy dew

'Twas Britannia bade our Wild Geese go that small nations might be free
But their lonely graves are by Sulva's waves or the shore of the Great North Sea
Oh, had they died by Pearse's side or fought with Cathal Brugha,
Their names we will keep where the fenians sleep 'neath the shroud of the foggy dew

But the bravest fell, and the requiem bell rang mournfully and clear
For those who died that Eastertide in the springing of the year
And the world did gaze, in deep amaze, at those fearless men, but few
Who bore the fight that freedom's light might shine through the foggy dew

Ah, back through the glen I rode again and my heart with grief was sore
For I parted then with valiant men whom I never shall see more
But to and fro in my dreams I go and I'd kneel and pray for you,
For slavery fled, O glorious dead, When you fell in the foggy dew.

zoals gezongen door The Dubliners.

Iers lied

Foggy dew


ISO 7027:1999 is an ISO standard for water quality that enables the determination of turbidity. The ISO 7027 technique is used to determine the concentration of suspended particles in a sample of water by measuring the incident light scattered at right angles from the sample. The scattered light is captured by a photodiode, which produces an electronic signal that is converted to a turbidity.

References

07027
Water quality indicators

ISO 7027


Los Alamitos Army Airfield  is a military airport. It is one mile (2 km) southeast of central Los Alamitos, California, and within its city limits.

Facilities
Los Alamitos Army Airfield has two runways:
 Runway 4L/22R: 5,900 x 150 ft. (1,798 x 46 m), Surface: PEM
 Runway 4R/22L: 8,000 x 200 ft. (2,438 x 61 m), Surface: Asphalt/Concrete

History

In the 1930s the Long Beach Airport was owned by that city and was also used as a Naval Reserve air station. In the late 1930s and early 1940s, the United States Navy perceived as a hostile attitude on the part of the City of Long Beach regarding improvements and maintenance of Long Beach Airport.  Without telling the Long Beach officials, the Navy began looking for a new place for its flight operations. Admiral Ernest J. King, then the Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, and Admirals William D. Leahy, Joseph K. Taussig, and Allen E. Smith pointedly requested that the city of Long Beach repair the runways and reminded the city that the Pacific Fleet, then laying offshore in both Long Beach and San Pedro harbors, had a payroll of more than $1 million a month. Eventually the city complied with the Navy's requests.

Still, the city continued to show a hostile attitude toward approving a lease on any additional land that the Naval Reserve required.

The Navy was fed up with the city of Long Beach. It decided upon the purchase of some property owned by Susanna Bixby Bryant, a fact made known by the commander of the base, Commander Thomas A. Gray, to the Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Admiral John H. Towers. The circumstances behind the purchase were revealed to James V. Forrestal, Under Secretary of the Navy, and by him to the House Naval Affairs committee who approved the purchase. Although Comdr. Gray had offered Mrs. Bryant $350 an acre, in the best patriotic spirit she sold the property at $300 an acre. The land is 4 miles east of the Long Beach Airport.

With the site acquired, in 1941, construction funds soon followed and Naval Reserve Air Base (NRAB) Los Alamitos began to take shape.  The new base provided many jobs and spurred modest growth.  On 1 June 1941, operations moved from Long Beach to Los Alamitos.

By May 1942, Los Alamitos was operating with a complete physical plant including administrative office, sick bay, a synthetic training facility, central files, classroom, and an assembly & repair department. With a station complement of about 2,500 officers and men, the initial aviation cadets began their training. The first graduating class numbered 729 cadets, 180 having washed out. By the end of the year, the base's 36 planes had increased to 140, and in 1943, five outlying fields were acquired, Training was carried out mostly in plywood planes. When changed from the command of the Naval Primary Training Command to that of Naval Air Center, Eleventh Naval District, on 15 August 1943, it was used to station carrier air groups. Renamed a naval air station, its flight operations were conducted by a Fleet Air Detachment, with station complement dropping from about 250 officers and 2000 men to 40 officers and 500 men and the Assembly and Repair Department discontinued but still used by the CASU on board. Many CASUs and ARGUSs (groups to establish forward air bases) were formed at and dispatched from Los Alamitos during the war. With additional construction undertaken after mid-1943, the total investment at the station to 1 January 1945 was $4,827,014.64. Growing from one officer, one man, and one plane in 1928, Los Alamitos in 1945 had become one of the Navy's most important air stations.

On 15 August 1943 it became an operational training base for training of fleet units and was reclassified as a Naval Air Station. In addition to providing training, the base serviced aircraft from the battle fleet, including carrier air groups from USS Lexington, Saratoga, and Langley.

NRAB Los Alamitos was initially under the command of the naval operating base at San Pedro, California. Like other Naval Reserve Air Bases established during the 1930s, it fell under the command of the Naval Air Primary Training Command on 1 October 1942; Naval Air Center, Eleventh Naval District, San Diego, on 15 August 1943; and finally Naval Air Bases, Eleventh Naval District, on 10 August 1944. As an NRAB, the mission of Los Alamitos was to instruct, train and drill Naval Reserve aviation personnel living in the Eleventh Naval District.

Many former military personnel chose to stay on in the City of Los Alamitos after the war, living in such neighbourhoods as Carrier Row, where streets are named for World War II aircraft carriers.

As was the case with other naval air stations retained in operating status following the war, Los Alamitos suffered a period of transitions and changes. Under the command of the Chief of Naval Air Training at NAS Pensacola, its missions were to train reservists and service the fleet. On 1 March 1946, while it provided training, CASU 33 supported Air Group 98, but the devotion of activity could be measured by the fact that, as of 28 February 1946, it had only ninety-seven V-6 personnel on active duty as station keepers, yet until the end of September this group provided proficiency flying for more than 1,500 inactive reserve pilots. Meanwhile, CASU 706 supported Patrol Squadron 908 (VP-908), Escort Carrier Air Groups 779 and 778, and Carrier Air Group 716. On 16 August 1946, the first group of aviation cadets in the Selective Training Program came on board, and after 1 September, the station would be used by the Naval Air Transport Service (NATS). On 13 October, the record-making Truculent Turtle, which had flown nonstop for almost 4,500 miles, paid the station a visit. By the end of 1946, with 243 reserve pilots, 1,375 volunteer reserve pilots, 255 inactive reserve enlisted men, and 368 active duty station keepers, Los Alamitos was one of the busiest Naval Air Reserve Stations. Between January and March 1947, the station became the largest in the entire Naval Reserve air training program.

On 17 May 1947, the administration of NAF Litchfield Park, southwest of downtown Phoenix, Arizona, was placed under Los Alamitos to serve volunteer reserve aviation personnel in the Phoenix-Tucson area. With 1,300 organized reservists, 1,682 inactive reservists, 12 over-aged reservists, 7 women reservists, and 583 station keepers, Los Alamitos remained the largest Naval Air Reserve Station in the United States.

On board during the first quarter of 1948 were a light carrier aircraft group (CLG); two carrier air groups; two escort carrier air groups; two patrol plane squadrons; three transport squadrons; four fleet aircraft service squadrons; two Marine fighting squadrons and a Marine ground control interceptor unit; two volunteer units, one at Litchfield, one on the station proper; a NATS Unit; GCA; and an all-weather station. Until it was decided that there were not enough personnel to continue associated volunteer units at Bakersfield Municipal Airport and Santa Barbara, Los Alamitos assumed administrative responsibilities for them. At the station full operations were carried on for five days a week from 0730 to 1630. Saturday night was reserved for night flying. Operations were limited on Mondays and Thursdays; weekends were madhouses as the "weekend warriors" came on board.

On 7 November 1949, Los Alamitos received its first jet aircraft, an FJ-1 Fury. With all FGs replaced with F6F Hellcats, a reorganisation occurred on 1 December 1950 in which there was provided a wing staff with twenty-five squadrons. During the summer of 1950, 105 midshipmen from the United States Naval Academy reported for four days of an air cruise and 112 seamen reported for eight weeks of training duty. Meanwhile, there was a waiting list for pilots and ground officers. When the naval aviation cadet programme, which had opened on 1 July, closed on 25 October 1950, Los Alamitos had obtained a tenth of the cadets recruited in the entire nation. Meanwhile, in answer to President Truman's request for reservists to volunteer for duty during the Korean War, VG-781 requested mobilization as a complete unit, and was accepted – the first squadron in the nation to do so. Three Marine Corps Organized Reserve units were ordered to active duty, and so was VP-772. To speed up training, on 6 March and again on 16 May 1951 ninety-day trainees reported on board. The third group of trainees came on board for training 16 June and many of them and station personnel helped saved lives and property during heavy rains and floods that damaged the nearby town of Los Alamitos. On 15 January 1952, the first helicopter unit came to the base. Also in 1952, a reserve air intelligence unit came to the base.

On 16 July 1957, then-Major John H. Glenn, Jr., USMC, set the Transcontinental air speed record, flying a F8U-1 Crusader from NAS Los Alamitos to Floyd Bennett Field, New York, in 3 hours, 23 minutes, and 8.4 seconds.  Project Bullet, as the mission was called, provided both the first transcontinental flight to average supersonic speed, and the first continuous transcontinental panoramic photograph of the United States. Glenn was awarded his fifth Distinguished Flying Cross for the mission.

For the next decade, operations at Los Alamitos were routine. In 1970, however, the Navy closed the station as a Naval Air Reserve training facility and let it serve merely as a Naval Air Station. In 1972, helicopter elements of both the California Army National Guard and United States Army Reserve moved from leased facilities at commercial airports to NAS Los Alamitos. Following approval of an environmental impact statement filed in August 1973, the base was designated an Armed Forces Reserve Center for which the Navy was designated host, and the California Army National Guard was charged with operating the airfield.

The senior command on post is the 40th Infantry Division (Mechanized), headquartered in the large, prominent building facing the flagpole and main entrance artery.

On 23 August 1977, 'ownership' of the base was transferred from the U.S. Navy to the U.S. Army. The U.S. Army 'licensed' the operation of the base to the California Army National Guard. The base was commanded by BG James Benson. Los Alamitos Army Airfield was commanded by LTC James C. Ghormley, III.

In July 2000, Los Alamitos Armed Force Reserve Center was renamed Los Alamitos Joint Forces Training Center.

This place served as the starting line for the 14th season of the hit CBS Reality TV Show The Amazing Race. The base's status as an alternate landing area for Air Force One was mentioned in a West Wing episode.

References

Other websites
 Los Alamitos Army Airfield (unofficial page)

Airports in California
Orange County, California

Los Alamitos Army Airfield


A local ordinance is a law usually found in a municipal code.

United States
In the United States, these laws are enforced locally in addition to state law and federal law.  In some states, the state legislature has limited the scope of local ordinances.  This approach was made popular by John Forrest Dillon called the "Dillon Rule". The law in such states says that local governments could only adopt ordinances when the state gives them authority on particular subjects. States that do not follow the Dillon Rule believe that local government has inherent (unstated) powers of self-government. In those states, local government can make ordinances on any subject not prohibited by the state legislature.

Japan

In Japan, any prefecture or municipality may pass  under authority granted by Article 94 of the Constitution.

There must generally be a statutory basis for an ordinance, the ordinance must be in compliance with any overlapping statutes (although it may impose a stricter standard or penalty), and the ordinance must be related to the affairs of the local government in question.

Ordinances must generally be approved by a local assembly and promulgated by the mayor or governor of the local government in question, who may demand a second vote but may not veto the ordinance.

Under the Local Autonomy Law, an ordinance may impose a penalty of up to two years imprisonment and/or 1 million yen in fines, although any penalty under an ordinance must be prescribed in accordance with the Code of Criminal Procedure.  There are even some ordinances, such as bans on smoking on the street, for which the police in some districts state that there is no penalty for failure to obey the ordinance.

British colonies

All laws enacted by the legislature of British colonies are referred to as Ordinances, which sometimes delegate power to other parties (usually government departments) to make subsidiary legislations that supplement the Ordinances. In Hong Kong, all laws enacted by the territory's Legislative Council remain to be known as Ordinances, despite the transfer of the territory to the People's Republic of China in 1997.

References

Legal terms
Local government
Local government in the United States

Local ordinance


Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (or Pachacutec; , whose name means "He who remakes the world" was the ninth Sapa Inca (1438-1471/1472) of the Kingdom of Cuzco, which he transformed into an empire, Tawantinsuyu. He began the era of conquest that, within three generations, expanded the Inca dominion from the valley of Cuzco to nearly the whole of civilized South America. He was the fourth of the Hanan dynasty, and his wife's name is given as Mama Anawarkhi or Coya Anahurque. Their son was Tupac Inca Yupanqui.
Pachacuti reorganized the new empire, the Tahuantinsuyu or "the united four provinces."  Under his system, there were four apos that each controlled one of four provinces (suyu).

Despite Pachacuti's political and military talents, he did not improve upon the system of choosing the next Inca. His son became the next Inca without any known dispute, but in future generations the next Inca had to gain control of the empire by winning enough support from the apos, priesthood, and military to either win a civil war or intimidate anyone else from trying to get control of the empire.

Machu Picchu is believed to date to the time of Pachacuti.

1471 deaths
Inca civilization

Pachacuti


The term carbon footprint is how much carbon goes into the air because of something done by people or that is not done by nature. Doing something that burns fuel will make carbon dioxide gas (CO2).  It is the total amount of greenhouse gases produced to directly and indirectly support human activities, usually expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide.  Just as walking on the sand leaves a footprint, burning fuel leaves carbon dioxide in the air, which is called a carbon footprint.  Total carbon footprint/emission would include energy emissions from human activities - that is, from heat, light, power, and refrigeration and all transport related emissions from cars, freight, and distribution.

The words "carbon footprint" are often seen in the news. They are used with the word sustainability, which means that we can keep doing something without making something bad happen. That is, if there is too much of a carbon footprint, then there is no sustainability. People and businesses are frequently asked to think about how much carbon they are putting into the air, and how this changes the environment and maybe causes global warming. This is typically said about travelling by aeroplane or by car, because burning fuel makes carbon dioxide gas.

Where it comes from
Oil, gas, and coal are called "fossil fuels" because they come from fossils of ancient plants and animals.  Those plants and animals had carbon in them.  When we burn oil, gas, and coal, the carbon becomes carbon dioxide and goes into the air.  This makes the greenhouse effect, which means that the carbon dioxide makes the earth warmer, like a greenhouse. A carbon footprint is the carbon dioxide that is put into the air because of a person, a group of people, an event, or a product.

Remedies
The most common way to reduce the carbon footprint of humans is to Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Refuse. Another easy option is to drive less. By walking or biking to the destination rather than driving, not only is a person going to save money on gas, but they will be burning less fuel and releasing fewer emissions into the atmosphere. However, if walking is not an option, one can look into carpooling to use public transportation options in their area.
Yet another option for reducing the carbon footprint of humans is to use less air conditioning and heating in the home. By adding insulation to the walls and attic of one's home, and installing weather stripping or caulking around doors and windows, one can lower their heating costs more than 25 percent.
Choice of diet is a major influence on a person's carbon footprint. Animal sources of protein (especially red meat), rice (typically produced in high methane-emitting paddies), foods transported long distance and/or via fuel-inefficient transport (e.g., highly perishable produce flown long distance). Heavily processed and packaged foods are among the major contributors to a high carbon diet.

Ecology

Carbon footprint


Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and in the air.  The main job of ATC is to separate aircraft to prevent crashes and to make sure aircraft are running on time and as fast as possible. In some countries, ATC may also play a security or defense role (as in the United States), or actually be run entirely by the military (as in Brazil). Air traffic control was first introduced at London's Croydon Airport in 1921. Archie League, who controlled aircraft using colored flags at what is today Lambert-St. Louis International Airport, is often considered the first air traffic controller.

Preventing crashes is done by what is called separation. This means that the aircraft are kept apart by a minimum distance at all times. Modern aircraft also have collision avoidance systems that see nearby aircraft and warn pilots if other planes are too close. This system is a backup for when air traffic control is not available or if something goes wrong with ATC. Air traffic controllers also can provide information to pilots. But pilots do not have to follow commands of ATC. They can make changes in order to keep plane safe.

Air traffic control service is not provided in uncontrolled airspace. Uncontrolled airspace is usually between ground and 1000 feet except areas near airports. These areas are part of controlled airspace.

Areas for ATC
 "Ground Control" is responsible for all aircraft and vehicles on all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas and aprons.
 "Clearance Delivery" is the position that issues route clearances to aircraft. This is important for safe flying via planned route. Clearance Delivery has to cooperate with the Ground Control and the Area Control centre.
 "Tower Control" gives clearance to arriving and departing aircraft. All aircraft on runways and airfield traffic circuit are directed by Tower Control too.
 "Approach Control" is responsible for airplanes in airspace near airport. There is big density of airplanes. That is reason why approach is the most difficult job in compare to another ATC service.
"Area Control Centre" separates airplanes in controlled airspace between airports.

Other websites
 Air Traffic control -Citizendium

Air traffic control


A nightclub is a type of theatre or bar or club where there are shows, singers and dance girls. Examples of this are the Folies Bergère in Paris, the Tropicana in Havana and the Cotton Club in Harlem, Manhattan.

Also the name is used for places where adults socialize and meet others and drink alcoholic beverages, like wine, beer, and mixed drinks.

Most nightclubs are only open in the evening and in the night. Some are open during the day, but in these cases, the facility usually provides a different service, such as a restaurant service.

Activities
Nightclubs, in the original sense, put on shows which people watched sitting in chairs, often at a table where food and drink was served.

Today, the word is used for venues with a dance floor and a DJ playing pop, rock, and dance music recordings. Some nightclubs have entertainment such as pop bands, rock bands, or comedians. Some nightclubs have a quieter lounge area with couches, sofas, and low tables, so that people can talk together.
They mostly have burgers and wings for the people at the party

Food and drinks
Some nightclubs also serve a small selection of food, usually snacks or finger food. Nightclubs often have a much wider selection of alcoholic drinks than pubs (pubs specialize in beer and ale). Most nightclubs sell a number of different brands of spirits, liquers, wine, sherry,  Some nightclubs have a large selection of expensive brands of alcohol (these are called "premium" brands).

The bartenders (also called "barmen" or "barmaids") at nightclubs often make a much larger variety of mixed drinks than pubs. Mixed drinks and cocktails are alcoholic drinks that consist of one or more types of alcohol (e.g., rum, vodka, whiskey, etc.) mixed with flavorings such as orange juice, cream, chocolate syrup, or soda. Many mixed drinks also include ice, crushed ice, or sliced lemon or lime.

Some well-known mixed drinks include the martini, the "Rum and Coke", and the "screwdriver" (orange juice mixed with vodka).

Staff
Nightclubs hire a variety of staff to do different jobs. Bartenders (also called "barmen" or "barmaids") at nightclubs serve alcohol and mix drinks. Some nightclubs hire servers to bring drinks to people who are sitting at tables or in chairs. Some nightclubs also hire people to take away empty bottles and glasses.

Security in nightclubs is provided by door staff, often called "bouncers". Door staff check the identification of people entering the nightclub, to ensure that people that are too young to drink do not enter the club. Door staff also prevent drunk or aggressive people from entering the nightclub. They also escort people out of the club if they are too drunk, fighting, or taking drugs. Door staff may also call the police if they cannot deal with a situation.

Nightclubs that serve food have cooks, dishwashers, and servers to prepare, cook, and serve the food. Nightclubs also have coat check employees who hang up the patron's coats, sound technicians to maintain the sound system (the CD players, amplifiers, and speakers), and cleaners (to sweep the floors and clean the bathrooms). Some large nightclubs may hire DJs to work in the club every week as employees.

DJs, bands, comedians who entertain patrons during the evening are usually not usually employees of the nightclub. Instead, the nightclub signs a contract with these entertainers, in which the entertainer promises to come to the club on a specified night, in return for a sum of money.

Places where alcohol is served
Entertainment venues

Nightclub


Heitor Villa-Lobos (born 5 March 1887; died 17 November 1959) was a Brazilian composer. He is thought of as the most important 20th century composer of classical music from South America. He wrote a very large amount of music, including works for orchestra, chamber, instrumental and vocal works. His music was influenced by both Brazilian folk music and by classical music from Europe. The music of Johann Sebastian Bach was especially important for him, and he composed several pieces called Bachianas brasileiras by which he meant: Brazilian music in the style of Bach.

1887 births
1959 deaths
20th-century composers

Heitor Villa-Lobos


Nicola Zaccaria (9 March 1923 – 24 July 2007), born Nicholas Angelos Zachariou was a Greek bass.

Career
Born in Piraeus, Zaccaria studied at the Athens Conservatory where he enjoyed his debut in 1949, aged 26. He sang at La Scala in 1953 and his position as a mainstay of the bass operatic repertoire was assured thereafter. He was La Scala's principal bass for almost 15 years. He sang with some of the most famous singers of his generation, such as Maria Callas, Leontyne Price, Franco Corelli, and Marilyn Horne, who was Zaccaria's companion in later life. Despite intimidating competition, he developed an impressive international career and recorded more than 30 operas for major recording companies.
With Callas he recorded nine complete operas:

Aida (1955, as Il re d'Egitto)
Rigoletto (1955, as Sparafucile)
Il trovatore (1956, as Ferrando)
La Boheme (1956, as Colline)
Un ballo in maschera (1956, as Tom)
Il barbiere di Siviglia (1957, as Don Basilio)
La sonnambula (1957, as Il conte Rodolfo)
Turandot (1957, as Timur)
Norma (1960, as Oroveso)

According to John Ardoin in his book The Callas Legacy, Zaccaria also recorded under the pseudonym Giulio Mauri in the complete recordings of Il trovatore and Turandot in which he appeared with the soprano.

Nicola Zaccaria died in Athens on July 24, 2007 from Alzheimer's disease at age 84.

References

External links
http://www.gramophone.co.uk/newsMainTemplate.asp?storyID=2853&newssectionID=1
Interview with Nicola Zaccaria, November 16, 1988

1923 births
2007 deaths
Operatic basses
Deaths from dementia in Greece
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
20th-century Greek male opera singers
Musicians from Piraeus

Nicola Zaccaria