The Bates Battlefield was the scene of an 1874 action in which an Arapaho encampment was attacked by U.S. Army forces under Captain Alfred E. Bates. The battlefield is a narrow valley in Hot Springs County, Wyoming near the junction of the Big Horn Mountains and the Owl Creek Mountains. Variously called the Bates Battle, the Battle of Young's Point, the Battle of Snake Mountain and the Nowood Battle, the action was part of a campaign by forces under the command of Lieutenant General Philip Sheridan to protect the comparatively sedentary Shoshone under Chief Washakie from raids by their traditional enemies, the Northern Cheyenne, the Sioux and the Northern Arapaho.

In June 1874, "Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors decided to attack the Wind River Shoshones. As the invaders crossed the Big Horn Mountains, they had a disagreement about the purpose of their trip. Some claimed it was a raid for murder and the spoils of war; others said it was to steal horses. Because of the disagreement, the Arapahoes refused to participate."

Sheridan ordered Bates to raid the Arapaho camp, reported to comprise between 40 and 112 lodges. On July 1, 1874, Bates set forth leading Company B, 2nd Cavalry with 63 cavalrymen, 20 white and Shoshone scouts under Lieutenant R.H. Young, and a party of 167 Shoshone under Washakie.

Bates led thirty cavalrymen and twenty Shoshone against the encampment, occupied by Black Coal's people, at daybreak on July 4. Lt. Young took his scouts around to the other end of the village. Fighting went well at first for Bates' force, but the Arapaho moved to a nearby height and began to fire down onto Bates' raiders.  Bates withdrew from the village without recovering his own dead., suffering four killed and five or six wounded, while reporting 25 Arapaho killed and 100 wounded. Other reports indicate the Arapaho suffered as few as ten casualties. Bates captured 350 horses of the 1200 to 1400 head associated with the village. Bates blamed his lack of overall success on the noise made by the Shoshone. Accounts of the battle by different parties reveal wide discrepancies in perceptions of the motivation, progress, and outcome of the fight.

The Bates Battlefield was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.

References

External links
 at the National Park Service's NRHP database
Bates Battlefield at the Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office

Geography of Hot Springs County, Wyoming
Battles involving the Arapaho
Conflicts in 1874
1874 in the United States
Battlefields of the wars between the United States and Native Americans
Conflict sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Wyoming
National Register of Historic Places in Hot Springs County, Wyoming
1874 in Wyoming Territory

Bates Battlefield


Pietro Cavallini (1259 – c. 1330) was a painter who lived and worked in Rome in Italy in the Late Medieval period. He may have also worked in Naples. He is thought of as one of the greatest painters of his day, but has never been as well known as Giotto from Florence, who was alive at the same time. This is probably because only two pictures by Cavallini still exist. One of them is a mosaic in the Church of Santa Maria in Trastevere. The other is a fresco in the nearby convent of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. ("in Trastevere" means "in the part of the Rome that is across the Tiber River".)

The fresco at Santa Cecilia's is a large picture of the Last Judgement with Jesus sitting between rows of saints. (see right) Unfortunately, the room, which was quite tall, had a new level added, and the floor cut across the fresco. It is in ruins, but the parts that remain show that Cavallini was trying to make the figures that he painted look solid and three-dimensional like the frescos of Ancient Rome. Pietro Cavallini probably influenced the artists who travelled from Rome to work at the Basilica of St Francis of Assisi. It is not known if he painted any of the frescos there.

Related pages
 Italian Renaissance art
 List of Renaissance artists
 List of Italian painters
 Coppo di Marcovaldo
 Cimabue
 Duccio
 Giotto

References
 Diana Davies (editor), Harrap's Encyclopedia of Art and Artists, (1990),
 Helen Gardner, Art through the Ages, (1970) Harcourt, Brace and World,

1250 births
1330 deaths
13th-century Italian painters
14th-century Italian painters

Pietro Cavallini


Telos Publishing Ltd. is a publishing company, originally established by David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker, with their first publication being a horror anthology based on the television series Urban Gothic in 2001. The name comes from that of the fictional planet Telos from the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who.

History
Since being formed, Telos Publishing Ltd. has published a wide variety of works, from original novellas based on Doctor Who to original horror and fantasy novels. They also produce a variety of unofficial guide books to popular television and film series, as well as the Time Hunter series of novellas. Starburst magazine called them "perhaps the UK's best-known independent publishers of Doctor Who books".

Telos have employed many unknown writers, in addition to works by established and award-winning authors.

Telos, and its co-founders, have been nominated for a variety of awards in their own right, such as the Canadian Prix Aurora Award, and the British Fantasy Awards, where they won the PS Publishing Award for Best Small Press in 2010 and 2011. One of their publications, the Doctor Who novella Small Gods by Jonathan Blum and Kate Orman, won an Aurealis Award for Best Australian Science Fiction Novel, the first television tie-in to receive a major science-fiction award. Christopher Fowler's novella Breathe won the British Fantasy Society Award for best novella in 2005. In 2006, Telos' founders Howe and Walker won the World Fantasy Award for Best Non-Professional for their publishing work.

Authors of note published by Telos
Authors published by Telos Publishing have included Juliette Benzoni, William S Burroughs, Simon Clark, Paul Finch, Christopher Fowler, Neil Gaiman, Hank Janson, Tanith Lee, George Mann, Graham Masterton, Fiona Moore, Simon Morden, Mike Ripley, Alan Stevens, Sam Stone, and co-founders Stephen James Walker and David J. Howe.

List of Doctor Who novellas

Time and Relative by Kim Newman (features the First Doctor and Susan) (November 2001)
Citadel of Dreams by Dave Stone (features the Seventh Doctor and Ace) (March 2002)
Nightdreamers by Tom Arden (features the Third Doctor and Jo Grant) (May 2002)
Ghost Ship by Keith Topping (features the Fourth Doctor) (August 2002)
Foreign Devils by Andrew Cartmel (features the Second Doctor, Jamie and Zoe) (November 2002)
Rip Tide by Louise Cooper (features the Eighth Doctor) (January 2003)
Wonderland by Mark Chadbourn (features the Second Doctor, Ben and Polly (April 2003)
Shell Shock by Simon A Forward (features the Sixth Doctor and Peri Brown (June 2003)
The Cabinet of Light by Daniel O'Mahony (features an Unspecified Doctor, spawned the Time Hunter novels) (July 2003)
Fallen Gods by Jon Blum and Kate Orman (features the Eighth Doctor) (August 2003)
Frayed by Tara Samms (feature the First Doctor and Susan) (October 2003)
The Eye of the Tyger by Paul J. McAuley (features the Eighth Doctor) (November 2003)
Companion Piece by Robert Perry and Mike Tucker (features the Seventh Doctor and Catherine) (December 2003)
Blood and Hope by Iain McLaughlin (features the Fifth Doctor, Peri and Erimem (January 2004)
The Dalek Factor by Simon Clark (features an unspecified incarnation of the Doctor) (February 2004)

Time Hunter novellas

A series focused on "time sensitive" Honoré Lechasseur and "time channeler" Emily Blandish, characters first introduced in Telos' Doctor Who novella The Cabinet of Light.

The Winning Side by Lance Parkin (November 2003)
The Tunnel at the End of the Light by Stefan Petrucha| (March 2004)
The Clockwork Woman by Claire Bott (June 2004)
Kitsune by John Paul Catton (October 2004)
The Severed Man by George Mann (December 2004)
Echoes by Iain McLaughlin and Claire Bartlett (April 2005)
Peculiar Lives by Philip Purser-Hallard (July 2005)
Deus Le Volt by Jon de Burgh Miller (January 2006)
The Albino's Dancer by Dale Smith (June 2006)
The Sideways Door by R.J. Carter and Troy Riser (August 2006)
Child of Time by George Mann and David J Howe (August 2007)

References

External links
 Telos website

Book publishing companies of Wales
Publishers of Doctor Who books
Denbighshire

Telos Publishing


The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was a trade agreement between Mexico, the United States, and Canada. The agreement was signed by U.S. President George H.W. Bush, Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, and Mexican President Carlos Salinas on December 17, 1992 in San Antonio, Texas, and took effect on January 1, 1994. It removed taxes on products traded between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. It also protects copyrights, patents, and trademarks between those three countries. It was updated with the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation, which helped set more environment regulations and helped reduce pollution. It was also updated with the North American Agreement for Labor Cooperation, which helped people fight for better work conditions.

On September 30, 2018, it was announced that the United States, Mexico, and Canada had come to an agreement to replace NAFTA with the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA).

Effects
Since it took away taxes between products traded between the US, Canada, and Mexico. Mexico has been buying more products from the US. It saved U.S. companies on the cost of selling products to Mexico, and it saved Mexican companies on the cost of buying things from U.S. companies.

A benefit of the bill is that labels on products exchanged between the three countries come in French, English, and Spanish. That way, Mexicans and Americans who speak Spanish can read the Spanish label, Americans and Canadians can read the English label, and Canadians who speak French can read the French label.

NAFTA also encourages more immigration from Mexico to the US. Since small businesses can no longer be protected by tariffs, many small business owners in Mexico cannot compete with the prices of subsidized products from the US and therefore many of them have gone under, or they lost more money than they could make. As a result, many Mexicans have gone to the US looking for work. The human rights organization EZLN (Ejército Zapatista de la Liberación Nacional), a revolutionary Mexican grass roots movement, is a strong opponent of NAFTA and points out how its provisions only make the economic situation worse for the poorest in Mexico and better for multi-national corporations.

Job losses
Small Business Chronicle

With the increased ease by which Mexico can import food products from the United States, the role of Mexican farmers is overwhelmed by the output of American farming. This is a notable con of NAFTA. According to Thomas Net Industry Market Trends, over 1 million Mexican farmers have lost their jobs as a result of the agreement.

The American economy lost about 683,000 jobs thanks to NAFTA—more than 60% of which were in the manufacturing sector. Almost 35,000 Ohioans found themselves unemployed, or without jobs, thanks to a free trade agreement that's been a disaster for our nation's industrial base. - Sharrod Brown

Immigration
It was possible that NAFTA would encourage Mexican citizens to stay in their country since their manufacturing work could still reach the American market easily. But since the creation of NAFTA, illegal immigration between Mexico and the United States has only gotten worse. Over the 10-year period between 1990 and 2000, the number of illegal immigrants per year doubled, or increased two times, despite the creation of NAFTA in 1994, according to Thomas Net Industry Market Trends. NAFTA not being more effective in preventing the immigration crisis is a disadvantage to the agreement.

Related pages
 Globalization

1994 in the United States
1994 in Canada
1990s in Mexico
Commerce
1990s treaties
International organizations
Economics organizations
Economy of North America
Economy of Canada
Economy of Mexico
Economy of the United States
1994 works
Treaties of the United States

North American Free Trade Agreement


The Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, Virginia, was the biggest ironworks in the Confederacy during the American Civil War, and a significant factor in the decision to make Richmond its capital.

Tredegar supplied about half the artillery used by the Confederate States Army, as well as the iron plating for CSS Virginia, the first Confederate ironclad warship, which fought in the historic Battle of Hampton Roads in March 1862. The works avoided destruction by troops during the evacuation of the city, and continued production through the mid-20th century. Now classified as a National Historic Landmark District, the site serves as the main building of the American Civil War Museum.

The name Tredegar derives from the Welsh industrial town that supplied much of the company's early workforce.

History

Founding (1836–1841)

In 1836, a group of Richmond businessmen and industrialists led by Francis B. Deane, Jr. set about to capitalize on the growing railroad boom in the United States. The group hired Rhys Davies, then a young engineer, to construct a new facility, brought a number of his fellow iron workers from Tredegar, Wales, to construct the furnaces and rolling mills. The foundry was named in honor of the town of Tredegar, where iron works of the same name were constructed in the early 19th century. The new works opened in 1837, yet the Panic of 1837 and accompanying downturn resulted in hardship for the new company. Davies died in Richmond in September 1838 from stab wounds sustained in a fight with a workman and was buried on Belle Isle in the James River.

Management under Joseph Reid Anderson (1841 – Civil War)

In 1841, the owners turned management over to a 28-year-old civil engineer named Joseph Reid Anderson who proved to be an able manager. Anderson acquired ownership of the foundry in 1848, after two years of leasing the works, and was soon doing work for the United States government. Anderson began introducing slave labor to cut production costs. By the beginning of the Civil War in 1861, half of the 900 workers were slaves, including many in skilled positions. By 1860, Anderson's father-in-law Dr. Robert Archer had joined the business and Tredegar became a leading iron producer in the country.

The commissioning of 900 miles of railroad track in Virginia, largely financed by the Virginia Board of Public Works between 1846 and 1853, offered a further market in steam locomotives and rail stock. One of those attributed with starting the Tredegar Locomotive Works with John Souther was Zerah Colburn, the well-known locomotive engineer and journalist. The company produced about 70 steam locomotives between 1850 and 1860. From 1852 to 1854, John Souther also managed the locomotive shop at Tredegar. Its locomotive production work is sometimes listed with combinations of the names Anderson, Souther, Delaney, and Pickering. Tredegar also produced the steam propulsion plants for the USS Roanoke (1855) and the USS Colorado (1856).

Prior to the Civil War, industry expanded at the Tredegar site under Anderson's direction to include a new flour mill on land leased to Lewis D. Crenshaw and a stove works on land leased to A.J. Bowers and Asa Snyder. By 1860, Crenshaw and Co. had established the Crenshaw Woolen Mill on adjoining land they owned. This enterprise employed more than 50 people. The Crenshaw Woolen Mill became "the principal source of supply for the [Confederate] Army's requirements of uniform material" during the first half of the Civil War. A May 16, 1863 fire on the Tredegar/Crenshaw site damaged the mill, which was not rebuilt, and Tredegar purchased the land from Crenshaw and Co. by 1863.

American Civil War

By 1860, the Tredegar Iron Works was the largest of its kind in the South, a fact that played a significant role in the decision to relocate the capital of the Confederacy from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond in May 1861. Tredegar supplied high-quality munitions to the Confederacy during the war.

Its wartime production included the iron plating for the first Confederate ironclad warship, the CSS Virginia which fought in the historic Battle of Hampton Roads in ; credit for approximately 1,100 artillery pieces during the war, about half of the South's total domestic production of artillery during the war years of 1861–1865, including the development and production of Brooke rifles; large rifled cannons intended for the nascent CSA Navy and an answer to the rifled, armor piercing, Dahlgren Guns favored by the Union. One Brook Rifle was even used as a rail-mounted siege cannon. The company also manufactured railroad steam locomotives in the same period.

As a result of his difficulties competing with Northern industries due to his higher labor and raw material costs, Anderson was a strong supporter of southern secession and became a Brigadier General in the Confederate Army as the war broke out. He was wounded at Glendale during the Seven Days Battles of the Peninsula Campaign in 1862 and served in the Ordnance Department for the duration of the Civil War.

As the war continued with more and more men conscripted into the Confederate armies, Tredegar experienced a lack of skilled laborers. Scarce supplies of metal also hurt the company's manufacturing abilities during the war, and as the conflict progressed it was noticed that Tredegar's products were beginning to lose quality as well as quantity. Even in the summer of 1861, soon after the beginning of the Civil War, metal was so scarce that the iron works failed to produce a single piece of artillery for an entire month.

By 1864, Tredegar was producing nine different types of projectiles for the Confederacy, compounded by the many types of foreign built and captured weapons. Then in June 1864, Hunter's cavalry destroyed the company's best gun iron furnaces, drastically reducing ordinance production by July and August when existing stockpiles ran out. Thus it cast 128 weapons during the first six months of 1864, but only 85 pieces during the last half of the year, and most of those guns were of questionable quality. Worse yet, Anderson noted that because of the depreciated Confederate currency and the government's failure to pay invoices (the Niter and Mining Bureau alone owed the firm $300,000, plus the Ordinance Department had not paid its account since October 4 and the navy and Railroad Bureau were also deeply in arrears). Thus, in December Tredegar on many occasions requested the government take over its blast furnace (and the problem of acquiring and provisioning slaves), but even after extensive negotiations (and a 2 week shutdown for repairs in early January, the company's financial distress only grew, with over $1 million in outstanding bills by February 1, 1865, and Anderson had to borrow $100,000 to meet its first payroll for the month.
During the evacuation of Richmond by the Confederates on the night of April 2–3, 1865, the retreating troops were under orders to burn munitions dumps and industrial warehouses that would have been valuable to the North. The Tredegar battalion defended the works despite widespread looting in the nearby warehouse district. However, despite Gorgas' order not to destroy ordinance facilities, the mob set fire to the arsenal, causing an explosion that shattered nearly every window. Nonetheless, facing resistance at the plant itself, the mob retreated to the town center. As a result, the Tredegar Iron Works is one of few Civil War-era buildings that survived the burning of Richmond.

After the Civil War
At the outset of hostilities, Anderson had wisely secured Tredegar assets overseas for the duration of the Civil War and, therefore, was able to restore his business when the Confederate currency collapsed. He petitioned U.S. President Andrew Johnson for a pardon for himself and Tredegar and was back in business before the end of 1865, regaining full ownership in 1867. That same year, Tredegar incorporated with a stock of $1,000,000.

Francis Thomas Glasgow, the father of Virginia writer and suffragist Ellen Glasgow, was a manager at Tredegar Iron Works, and Joseph Reid Anderson was her maternal uncle.

By 1873, Tredegar Iron Works was employing 1,200 workers and was a profitable business. However, the Panic of 1873 hit the company hard, and as a result of financing difficulties it did not transition to steel, and so faded from national prominence.

The neighborhood of Oregon Hill cropped up as a company town-like development. When Joseph Anderson died on a vacation in New Hampshire in 1892, he was succeeded by his son Colonel Archer Anderson. The Tredegar company remained in business throughout the first half of the 20th century, and supplied requirements of the armed forces of the United States during World War I and World War II. In 1957, Anderson's descendants sold the land to Ethyl Corporation, which began restoration of some of the surviving structures.

Preservation as a Civil War museum site and tourist attraction

In the 21st century, the buildings at the Tredegar site have been preserved through development of the site to commemorate the Civil War. The site is also used for various festivals and public events such as the Richmond Folk Festival.

The Pattern Building is used as the main visitors' center for Richmond National Battlefield Park. The American Civil War Center at Historic Tredegar is a separate museum at the former Tredegar Ironworks.

Valentine Riverside
In the 1990s, the Court End-based Valentine Museum opened a second museum site at the Tredegar Ironworks.  The focus of the museum experience was industrial history.  Interpretive tours to and from the site covered industrial history, African American history, and Civil War history.  The venture, however, was short-lived. The "Valentine on the James" opened on Memorial Day 1994 and closed to the public on Labor Day 1995.

Civil War Visitor Center at Tredegar Iron Works
The main visitor center for Richmond National Battlefield Park opened at the Tredegar Iron Works site in .  The Civil War Visitor Center at Tredegar Iron Works is located in the restored pattern building and offers three floors of exhibits, an interactive map table, a film about the Civil War battles around Richmond, a bookstore, and interpretive NPS rangers on site daily to provide programs and to aid visitors.

Lincoln statue

In 2000, the former Tredegar Iron Works facility overlooking the James River near downtown Richmond became the site of the main Visitor's Center of the Richmond National Battlefield Park. Sculptor David Frech of Newburgh, New York, was commissioned by The United States Historical Society of Richmond to commemorate the historic arrival of Abraham Lincoln and his son Tad Lincoln and their tour of the burnt-out Union-captured Richmond, Virginia, April 4, 1865, 10 days before his assassination.

Funds were raised by the Historical society through donations and the selling of miniature versions of the statue as well as bronzed resin copies. The statue, much like the Arthur Ashe Monument, received a wide array of criticism for its placement. Traditionally reserved for statues of key figures of the Confederacy protests were held at the unveiling April 5, 2003, namely by the Sons of Confederate Veterans. Robert H. Kline, chairman of the historical society, the Richmond-based nonprofit company that commissioned the statue stated that the statue was for the purpose of reconciliation "He came on a mission of peace and reconciliation and I think the statue will serve that purpose for a very long time."

Dignitaries at the installation ceremony included former governors Douglas Wilder and Gerald L. Baliles, former Mayor of Richmond, then-Lt. Governor, and future Governor Tim Kaine, and then-Mayor of Richmond Rudy McCollum. The dedication ceremony was buzzed by a plane trailing a banner proclaiming Sic semper tyrannis, which is not only Virginia's motto (meaning "Thus always to tyrants"), but also what John Wilkes Booth, according to his diary, called out while assassinating Lincoln.

The statue is made of a bronze cast depicting Lincoln and his son Tad on a bench with Lincoln's arm around his son. The bench was deliberately made long enough so that viewers may sit next to either statue on the bench to take photographs. The words "To Bind Up The Nation's Wounds" from Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address are carved into granite behind them.

American Civil War Center at Historic Tredegar
The idea of another museum on the site was realized in 2006 when the American Civil War Center at Historic Tredegar opened to the public.  James M. McPherson described the museum as "a truly comprehensive exhibit and education center weaving together Union, Confederate, and African-American threads ... much needed for future generations to understand how the Civil War shaped the nation."  The Center contains interactive theaters, plasma-screen maps, and artifacts.  The museum's exhibits were put together by a team of historians that included James M. McPherson of Princeton, Bill Cooper of Louisiana State University, John Fleming of the Cincinnati Museum Center, Charles Dew of Williams College, David W. Blight of Yale and Emory Thomas at the University of Georgia. In November 2013 the Civil War Center was merged with the Museum of the Confederacy and became the American Civil War Museum in January 2014.

In Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory Series of alternate history novels, in which the South wins the Civil War, the Confederate Army's standard rifle is called the Tredegar, produced by what is by then called the Tredegar Steel Works.

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in Virginia
National Register of Historic Places listings in Richmond, Virginia

References

External links

The American Civil War Center at Historic Tredegar
Teachinghistory.org Review of American Civil War Center: Educational Web Companion
National Park Service, Richmond National Battlefield Park
National Park Service, Introduction to Tredegar Iron Works
Richmond Enquirer newspaper article (28 September 1861) about the foundry
Detailed history of the foundry by B. Gardner
Confederate Railroads website
Photos
Tredegar Iron Works: Rebuilding Yankee/Rebel History Commonwealth Times April 4, 1978

Historic American Buildings Survey in Virginia
Defunct locomotive manufacturers of the United States
Rolling mills
Richmond, Virginia in the American Civil War
National Historic Landmarks in Virginia
Museums in Richmond, Virginia
History of Richmond, Virginia
American Civil War museums in Virginia
Historic American Engineering Record in Virginia
Industry museums in Virginia
Ironworks in Virginia
Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia
National Register of Historic Places in Richmond, Virginia
Richmond National Battlefield Park
1841 establishments in Virginia
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia
American Civil War on the National Register of Historic Places

Tredegar Iron Works


Charles Ranhofer (November 7, 1836, Saint-Denis, France — October 9, 1899, New York) was the  chef at the famous Delmonico's Restaurant in New York from 1862 to 1876 and 1879 to 1896.  Ranhofer wrote The Epicurean, (1894), a cookbook of over 1,000 pages, similar in scope to Escoffier's Le Guide Culinaire.

Career
Ranhofer was sent to Paris at the age of 12 to begin his training by studying pastry-making, and at 16 became the private chef for the prince d'Hénin, comte d'Alsace. In 1856 he moved to New York to become the chef for the Russian consul, and later worked in Washington, D.C. and New Orleans.

He returned to France in 1860 for a short time, where he arranged balls for the court of Napoleon III at the Tuileries Palace, but then came back to New York to work at what was then a fashionable location, Maison Dorée.  In 1862, Lorenzo Delmonico hired him for Delmonico's Restaurant, and it was there that Ranhofer made his real fame, though others say that he made the fame of the restaurant as well.  At that time, Delmonico's was considered the finest restaurant in the United States.  He was the chef at Delmonico's until his retirement in 1896, except for a short break from 1876 and 1879 when he owned the "Hotel American" at Enghien-les-Bains.

Recipes

Ranhofer invented or made famous a number of dishes that Delmonico's was known for, such as Lobster Newberg, and had a talent for naming dishes after famous or prominent people—particularly those who dined at Delmonico's--as well as his friends, and events of the day.  Examples include:
"Lobster Duke Alexis," named for then Grand-Duke Alexis in 1871.
"Sarah potatoes," named for Sarah Bernhardt.
"Lobster Paul Bert," named for Paul Bert.
"Chicken filets Sadi Carnot," named for Marie François Sadi Carnot.
"Peach pudding à la Cleveland," named for President Grover Cleveland.
"Veal pie à la Dickens" and " Beet fritters à la Dickens," named for Charles Dickens in honor of his 1867 visit to New York.
"Salad à la Dumas," named in honor of Alexandre Dumas, père.
"Lobster Newberg", named in honor of sea captain Ben Wenberg then renamed when Wenberg had a falling-out with the restaurant.
"Marshal Ney", a dessert named in honor of Marshal Ney.
Many others may be found under "List of foods named after people."

Ranhofer did not invent baked Alaska, but he popularized it in 1876 when he named it in honor of the newly acquired Alaskan territory.

Death
Ranhofer and his wife Rose had five children: three sons and two daughters.  He died at home of Bright's Disease in 1899. He was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery.

References
 "Epicurean; Our own Escoffier; One of the 19th century's greatest chefs was American," by Russ Parsons.  Los Angeles Times, December 15, 1999, Food Section, Part H, page 1.
Charles Ranhofer:  Delmonico's chef de cuisine, by Joe O'Connell.
"Obituary: Charles Ranhofer Dead," New York Times, October 11, 1899, page 7.
New York Times, October 3, 1925, page 15.  Rose Ranhofer obituary identifying her as Charles Ranhofer's widow.
The Epicurean by Ranhofer.    Feeding America: Historic American Cookbook Project (Michigan State University Library).
Kamp, David The United States of Arugula, New York: Broadway Books, 2006.

1836 births
1899 deaths
Deaths from Bright's disease
American chefs
French chefs

Charles Ranhofer


William III of Aquitaine (c. 915 – April 3, 963) became the Duke of Aquitaine and Count of Poitiers in 935. He was the son of Ebalus of Aquitaine.

William's nickname was Towhead.

William was married to Adela of Normandy. He was the father of Adelaide of Aquitaine, who became Queen of France when she married Hugh Capet. He was succeeded by his son, William IV of Aquitaine.

915 births
963 deaths

William III of Aquitaine

William III of Aquitaine


Frederic C. Lane (born November 23, 1900, in Lansing, Michigan – October 14, 1984) was a historian who specialized in Medieval history with a particular emphasis on the region of Venice.

Early life, education, and family
The son of Alfred Church Lane and his wife Susanne Foster (Lauriat) Lane, Frederic Lane received his B.A. from Cornell University in 1921, his M.A. from Tufts College in 1922, where he wrote a master's thesis on "The economic history of Europe during the first half of the sixteenth century", and his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1930 with a doctoral thesis on "Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries."  He began his graduate studies at the University of Bordeaux in 1923–1924, then studied at the University of Vienna in 1924, before going to Harvard University in 1925–1926. While a Harvard graduate student he was John Thornton Kirkland Fellow for Research in Italy in 1927–1928. He married Harriet Whitney Mirick on 4 June 1927. The couple had three children.

Academic career
He was appointed instructor in history at the University of Minnesota in 1926,  before being hired at The Johns Hopkins University as an instructor. There, he served as an assistant professor from 1931–1935. Promoted to associate professor in 1936, and full professor in 1946, he retired in 1966 as professor emeritus.

Lane's research interests focused on the Republic of Venice. His research on the city as a maritime trading center, particularly with his research in economic history, helped establish a standard for examining the development and growth of other Italian city-states. He applied his skills and interests in economic and maritime history to write the history of American wartime shipping during World War II.

From 1951–1954, he was assistant director at the Social Science division, Rockefeller Foundation, and advised on European policy. He served as historian of the U.S. Maritime Commission, 1946–1947.
A member of the American Historical Association, he served as a member of council from 1959 to 1962, and was elected President of the American Historical Association for 1964–1965.

Active in a number of other professional organizations, he was editor of the Journal of Economic History, president of the Society for Italian Historical Studies in 1961–1963, president of the American Historical Association in 1965, president of the Economic History Association 1956–1958, and president of the International Economic History Association, 1966–1968. He was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the Medieval Academy of America.

Published works
 Venetian ships and shipbuilders of the Renaissance (1934, 1975, 1979, 1992)
 Andrea Barbarigo, merchant of Venice, 1418–1449 (1944, 1967)
 The world's history, Frederic C. Lane with Eric F. Goldman [and] Erling M. Hunt. Drawings by Robert Velde; maps by Harold K. Faye.(1947, 1950, 1954, 1959)
 Enterprise and secular change: readings in economic history. Edited for the American Economic Association and the Economic History Association by Frederic C. Lane, editor [and] Jelle C. Riemersma, assistant editor. (1953)
 Ships for victory : a history of shipbuilding under the U.S. Maritime Commission in World War II by Frederic C. Lane ; with the collaboration of Blanche D. Coll, Gerald J. Fischer, David B. Tyler; charts by Joseph T. Reynolds (1951; with a new preface by Arthur Donovan, 2001).
 Navires et constructeurs à Venise pendant la Renaissance (Paris, 1965)
 Venice and History: The Collected Papers of Frederic C. Lane, edited by a committee of colleagues and former students. Foreword by Fernand Braudel (1966)
 Studies in Venetian social and economic history by Frederic C. Lane; edited by Benjamin G. Kohl and Reinhold C. Mueller (1987).
 Venice, a Maritime Republic, 1973, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Longitude Books
 Profits from power : readings in protection rent and violence-controlling enterprises (1979)
Money and Banking in Medieval and Renaissance Venice vol. 1, Coins and moneys of account by Frederic C. Lane and Reinhold C. Mueller (1985); vol. 2, The Venetian money market: banks, panics, and the public debt, 1200–1500 by Reinhold C. Mueller (1997).

Recognition
International recognition of his scholarship included:
 The Journal of Economic History dedicated its December 1980 edition to him on the occasion of his 80th birthday.
 In 1980 he received the International Galileo Galilei Prize, awarded annually to a non-Italian scholar for notable contributions to Italian culture and history.
 In 1984 he was awarded the International Prize of the Francesco Saverio Nitti Foundation.

See also

 Gino Luzzatto

References

1900 births
1984 deaths
Writers from Lansing, Michigan
American maritime historians
Economic historians
Cornell University alumni
Tufts University alumni
Harvard University alumni
University of Minnesota faculty
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Historians of Italy
20th-century American historians
20th-century American male writers
Fellows of the Medieval Academy of America
American male non-fiction writers
Historians from Michigan
Historians of the Republic of Venice

Frederic C. Lane


Marius Alexander Jacques Bauer (25 January 1867 – 18 July 1932) was a Dutch painter, etcher and lithographer, best known for his Oriental scenes. His style was largely Impressionistic, although it also derived to some extent from the Hague School. Many of his works were based on photographs he bought during his travels, some of which were by famous photographers such as Félix Bonfils.

Biography
He was born in The Hague. His older brother Willem Cornelius Bauer was an architect. Their father was a stage painter who encouraged his son's early interest in drawing. From 1878 to 1885, he studied at the Royal Academy of Art, under the direction of Jan Philip Koelman, but thought his approach was too conservative and left without graduating. While there, his works were awarded several medals and he received a stipend from King William III, which enabled him to study independently.

In 1888, he made a study trip to Istanbul, financed by the art dealership, Van Wisselingh & Co., and decided to make Orientalism his principal subject. Later, he made numerous trips to Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, India, Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies, sketching and collecting items for Van Wisselingh. He also worked as an illustrator for the short-lived literary journal, , attending the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II on its behalf.

In 1894, he won a first-class medal at the Exposition Internationale d'Anvers. Two years later, he was awarded the Willink van Collenprijs. He received the Grand Prix at the Exposition Universelle (1900). In 1902 he married the painter Jo Stumpff, one of the Amsterdamse Joffers. This was followed by a successful showing at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. He would continue to exhibit regularly throughout Europe and North America.

In 1900, he was named a Ridder in the Order of Orange-Nassau. Six years later, he was upgraded to an Officer for his contributions to the Rembrandt Tri-centennial. In 1911, King Albert I of Belgium awarded him the Order of the Crown and, in 1927, he became a Ridder in the Order of the Netherlands Lion. He was a long-standing member of the Pulchri Studio and Arti et Amicitiae. In 1930, he became an honorary member of the Senefelder Club.  Two years later, he died of a stroke. A street is named after him in the neighborhood of streets dedicated to 19th- and 20th-century Dutch painters in Overtoomse Veld, Amsterdam.

In 1996, the "Bauer Documentatie Stichting" (BDS) was established. Its goal is to raise awareness of his works and do more research on the sources of his paintings.

Selected works

References

See also
 List of Orientalist artists
 Orientalism

Further reading
 André Kraayenga:
 Marius Bauer 1867-1932. Oogstrelend oosters, Waanders, 2007 .
 An Orientalist in Mardin (Exhibition catalog, with Zeynep İnankur), Sakıp Sabancı Museum, 2013
 Michiel Frederik Hennus, Marius Bauer, Becht, 1950

External links

Marius Bauer, official website (BDS)
ArtNet: More works by Bauer.

1867 births
1932 deaths
Dutch printmakers
Artists from The Hague
Knights of the Order of Orange-Nassau
19th-century Dutch painters
Dutch male painters
20th-century Dutch painters
Orientalism
Orientalist painters
Knights of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Recipients of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
20th-century printmakers

Marius Bauer


Programma International was one of the first personal computer software publishers. Established in the late 1970s by David Gordon, it published a line of approximately 300 game, programming utility, and office productivity products for the Apple II, Commodore PET, TRS-80 and other personal computer systems. Hayden Publishing bought Programma International in 1980 and the company went out of business in 1983.

Notable titles published

References

Defunct video game companies of the United States
Software companies disestablished in 1983

Programma International


Realism in the theatre was a general movement that began in 19th-century theatre, around the 1870s, and remained present through much of the 20th century. It developed a set of dramatic and theatrical conventions with the aim of bringing a greater fidelity of real life to texts and performances. These conventions occur in the text, (set, costume, sound, and lighting) design, performance style, and narrative structure. They include recreating on stage a facsimile of real life except missing a fourth wall (on proscenium arch stages). Characters speak in naturalistic, authentic dialogue without verse or poetic stylings, and acting is meant to emulate human behaviour in real life. Narratives typically are psychologically driven, and include day-to-day, ordinary scenarios. Narrative action moves forward in time, and supernatural presences (gods, ghosts, fantastic phenomena) do not occur. Sound and music are diegetic only. Part of a broader artistic movement, it includes Naturalism and Socialist realism.

Russia's first professional playwright, Aleksey Pisemsky, along with Leo Tolstoy (in his The Power of Darkness of 1886), began a tradition of psychological realism in Russia. A new type of acting was required to replace the declamatory conventions of the well-made play with a technique capable of conveying the speech and movements found in the domestic situations of everyday life. This need was supplied by the innovations of the Moscow Art Theatre, founded by Konstantin Stanislavski and Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko. Whereas the subtle expression of emotion in Anton Chekhov's The Seagull through everyday small-talk had initially gone unappreciated in a more traditionally conventional production in St Petersburg, a new staging by the Moscow Art Theatre brought the play and its author, as well as the company, immediate success. A logical development was to take the revolt against theatrical artifice a step further in the direction of naturalism, and Stanislavski, especially in his production of Maxim Gorky's The Lower Depths, helped this movement achieve international recognition. The Moscow Art Theatre's ground-breaking productions of plays by Chekhov, such as Uncle Vanya and The Cherry Orchard, in turn influenced Maxim Gorky and Mikhail Bulgakov. Stanislavski went on to develop his 'system', a form of actor training that is particularly well-suited to psychological realism.

19th-century realism is closely connected to the development of modern drama, which, as Martin Harrison explains, "is usually said to have begun in the early 1870s" with the "middle-period" work of the Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen. Ibsen's realistic drama in prose has been "enormously influential."

In opera, verismo refers to a post-Romantic Italian tradition that sought to incorporate the Naturalism of Émile Zola and Henrik Ibsen. It included realistic – sometimes sordid or violent – depictions of contemporary everyday life, especially the life of the lower classes.

Stanislavski's distinction
As part of a strategic argument in his day, Stanislavski used the term "psychological realism" to distinguish his 'system' of acting from his own Naturalistic early stagings of the plays of Anton Chekhov, Maxim Gorky, and others. Jean Benedetti argues that:
Naturalism, for him, implied the indiscriminate reproduction of the surface of life. Realism, on the other hand, while taking its material from the real world and from direct observation, selected only those elements which revealed the relationships and tendencies under the surface. The rest was discarded.
As used in critical literature today, however, the term Naturalism has a broader scope than that within which all of Stanislavski's work falls. In this broader sense, Naturalism or "psychological realism" is distinct both from Socialist realism and the critical realism developed by the epic theatre of Bertolt Brecht.

See also
 Realism in the arts
 Socialist realism
 Chanson réaliste
 Naturalism (theatre)

References

Sources

 Benedetti, Jean (1999). Stanislavski: His Life and Art. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. London: Methuen. .

 Harrison, Martin (1998). The Language of Theatre. New York: Routledge. .

Drama
Theatrical genres
19th-century theatre
20th-century theatre
 Theatre

th:สัจนิยม

Realism (theatre)


The Ambassador Theater was a theater located at 2454 18th Street and Columbia Road, NW, Washington, D.C. It was most notable for a six-month period in the 1960s when it was a psychedelic concert and dance hall.

History
The Ambassador was located at 2454 18th Street and Columbia Road, NW and was on the site where the Knickerbocker Theater once stood. The Knickerbocker Theatre was designed by Reginald Geare and built in 1915 for Harry Crandall, who owned a small chain of theaters in Washington. It had a curved, three-story facade of limestone on red brick in a Georgian Revival style and seated 1,700. On January 22, 1922, 98 people were killed and 136 injured, when the roof of the Knickerbocker collapsed under the weight of thirty inches of snow in what was then the worst disaster in Washington. In 1923, Thomas Lamb built a new theater in the shell of the Knickerbocker, retaining the facade, which would be called the Ambassador. By the 1950s, the Ambassador was struggling to compete with television and was suffering from low attendance.

In the 1960s, three men in their early 20s, Joel Mednick, Anthony Finestra and Court Rodgers were selling fire extinguishers on college campuses across the country when they decided to go see what was happening in San Francisco. Inspired by the psychedelic scene and dance halls, they came back to DC and decided to open their own dance hall. The first site the three tried to get was a streetcar barn at K Street and Wisconsin Ave, NW, which they named The Psychedelic Power and Light Company. However, the District police would not issue a license for the use of the building. After being turned down they went after the Ambassador Theater. The captain of that ward mailed out letters to all the area merchants that stated that, "The Psychedelic Power and Light Company was moving into the neighborhood with drugs, long hair and loud music."

It frightened the residents in the area and some of the merchants wrote letters to the police department asking them to deny a permit to the owners. The Ambassador group had to cancel the Grateful Dead, who were booked for June 15, 1967, after posters were already made and equipment was already trucked in. On June 29, 1967, The Washington Star said "the hippies and the not so hip tangled over whether a total involvement teenage night spot should open or not in Washington". By the time of the meeting, Finestra, Rodgers and Mednick decided not to change the name, instead just leaving it as The Ambassador Theater.

The trio for the Ambassador was backed by some of the local ministers and a decision was promised by July 12. On July 13, 1967, the owners got their permits. During that time, the trio had lost thousands of dollars. They had already booked and lost the Grateful Dead and The Doors, plus paid the rent on the Ambassador. The Washington Star wrote, "It will be the city's first way out dance hall".

Showgoers at the Ambassador were broken down into three groups: Petal, or children under 15, Flower Children for those 15–30, and Old Flowers for those over 30. The theater had three large screens with 11 projectors to run short films. Three separate slide projectors were used with rotating trays of colored water that were projected on the screens. There were also strobe lights and fans to give dancers a slow motion effect. A stand offered attendees beads, water pipes, psychedelic posters, and underground newspapers. There were a few church pews for seating and also flowers painted on the floor.

The grand opening was on July 27, 1967, with the Peanut Butter Conspiracy and the Mandrake Memorial. The Daily News wrote about the Ambassador on opening night, "Our town's answer to New York's Electric Circus opens tonight." There were more than 1000 hippies there on opening night. An elderly woman from the neighborhood said, "I wouldn't give two cents to see somebody called The Peanut Butter Conspiracy". Tickets were $2.50 each and it was opened from 8:30 pm to 1 am. Sandi Robinson of the Peanut Butter Conspiracy said, "As far as what the Ambassador is trying to follow is groovy." She added that, "[the] Ambassador has a good light show."

In August 1967 The Jimi Hendrix Experience performed from Wednesday the 9th through Sunday the 13th.  There may have been 100 people in attendance for the first show.  Tickets were $1.50 on Wednesday, Thursday and Friday.  They went up to $2.50 for the shows on Saturday and Sunday.  Shows consisted of two sets of about one hour each.  Between sets the band members jumped off the front of the stage to the dance floor and went into the lobby for popcorn, returning to the stage the same way they exited.  They finished the last set by setting a Fender Stratocaster on fire.

On January 10, 1968, the equipment was moved out and the Ambassador officially shut down. It closed because of insufficient funds, but before closing it tried hosting soul music acts without success. Former employees said It closed because of the uptight people of DC. Patrons of the theater faced police harassment, such as receiving parking tickets on legally parked cars and waiting at the exit doors to cite teenagers for violating curfews. According to one of the local newspapers on January 11, 1968, "The psychedelic night spot drops out." On September 29, 1969, the Ambassador Theater fell to the wrecking ball. Many residents felt it had been standing too long then. In July 1974, the land where the Ambassador Theater stood was sold to a land investor in the Adams Morgan area. A bank was constructed on the site in 1978.

On Saturday, November 3, 2007, a 40th anniversary reunion and panel discussion took place in Washington, D.C., as part of the DC Historical Studies Conference. Almost a hundred attended, including founders Joel Mednick and Court Rodgers (Tony Finestra died in 1991), as well as Jerry Marmelstein, Michael Paper, Michael Schreibman, Richard Harrington and Anne Groer (both from The Washington Post). It was moderated by filmmaker Jeff Krulik.

References
This entry uses text that originally appeared in DC Monuments fanzine by Bob Embry 1997.

External links
Ambassador Theater, CrosstownArts

Demolished buildings and structures in Washington, D.C.
Demolished theatres in the United States
Theatres in Washington, D.C.
Adams Morgan

Ambassador Theater (Washington, D.C.)


Surviving Grady is a popular blog, detailing the ongoing and occasionally strained relationship between two passionate fans of the Boston Red Sox and their beloved team.
The blog began at the start of the Red Sox' historic 2004 season and swiftly gathered a devoted following, serving as an outlet for a frustrated fanbase to air and share their grievances, disappointments, and eventual triumph.  Entries from the 2004 season were later collected and published in book form.

History

Disgruntled at the Red Sox's dramatic loss to the New York Yankees in the 2003 American League Championship Series, creators "Red" and "Denton" conceived the blog as a space in which to engage with the angst associated with following a team that seemed destined always to disappoint. Daily entries have continued to date, typically exhibiting an off-kilter, and occasionally surreal sense of humor.

The title refers to Grady Little, manager of the Red Sox from 2002-2003, and to Little's controversial decision not to replace pitcher Pedro Martínez in the eighth inning of Game Seven of the 2003 American League Championship Series. The Yankees tied the game on a hit from the very next batter, and went on to win, costing the Red Sox a chance at the World Series and causing great frustration and consternation among the Red Sox fan base.

Style

Surviving Grady, in essence, is a reflective journal of what it feels like to be a fan of the Red Sox.  There are no box scores and little in the way of statistical analysis.  The charm of the blog lies instead in the contributors' idiosyncratic response to the team's fortunes.  Written with wit and warmth, by fans for fans, the site attracts thousands of readers on a daily basis, and has a lively comments section.

Publications
"Surviving Grady" (2005, AiT/PlanetLar, )

External links
 Boston Globe: "Sports therapy."  URL accessed 7 May 2007.
 ESPN: "Dodgers hire Grady Little as manager."  URL accessed 7 May 2007.
 Deadspin: "Blogdom's Best: Boston Red Sox."
 Boston Phoenix: "Red and Denton Come Clean."
 PopImage.com: "INTERVIEW: Tim McCarney"

Boston Red Sox
American sport websites

Surviving Grady


César-Mansuète Despretz (4 May 1791, Lessines – 15 March 1863, Paris) was a chemist and physicist. He  became a French citizen in 1838.  A street got its name after him in Lessines (rue César Despretz).

Biography

In 1818, Despretz started working as répétiteur in chemistry at Polytechnique, in Paris, under Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850) who mentored his early research.

In 1824, he was appointed to teach at the prestigious Lycée Henri-IV, first as adjunct professor, then as holder of the chair of physics.

In 1831, César Despretz was briefly appointed to the chair of physics at Polytechnique to replace Claude Pouillet (1791-1868) who had resigned for health reasons after only a few months in office.  Despretz was succeeded by Gabriel Lamé (1795-1870) who would hold the position from 1832 to 1844.

In 1837, he was appointed adjunct professor of physics at the Faculté des sciences de Paris.

In 1841, Despretz succeeded Félix Savart (1791-1841) in the physics section of the French Academy of Sciences. He would serve as president in 1858.

In 1847, he became full professor of physics at the Faculté des sciences de Paris.

César Despretz became a foreign member of the Royal Society in 1862, a few months before his death at the age of 71.

External links
 Catholic Encyclopedia article

Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
1863 deaths
1791 births
Belgian Roman Catholics

César-Mansuète Despretz


The Monkees were an American pop-rock band. The band was created originally for a comedy television series of the same name which aired on NBC, from 1966 to 1968. The members of the group were Davy Jones, Michael Nesmith, Peter Tork, and Micky Dolenz. They had hits with "Last Train to Clarksville", "I'm a Believer", and "Daydream Believer". Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart were songwriters and producers who worked with the Monkees. Another writer/producer for the Monkees was Chip Douglas. Many of the songs recorded by the Monkees came from the Brill Building writers in New York City.

The members
Four actors with musical skills were chosen, out of 437 hopefuls who auditioned for the series. Britisher Davy Jones was under contract to Columbia Pictures, had issued records, and performed on British and American television. Columbia was looking for a project for Jones, and Screen Gems, who would produce the show, was their TV division. Nesmith was from Texas, played in country and rock bands, and had published his own songs. Dolenz was a grown-up  from Los Angeles, California, who sang and played in cover bands. Tork had been a working folk musician in New York's Greenwich Village. Each had their own wit and personality, could entertain an audience, and could also sing.

Other young men who auditioned for the show included Stephen Stills (who showed great talent, but looked too old for a role; he referred Tork, an old friend who looked a little like him), Danny Hutton (who later found fame with Three Dog Night), Harry Nilsson (who later met the Monkees, wrote for them, and recorded with them), and Paul Williams (who had lost a role in Circus Boy to Dolenz ten years earlier; the Monkees later recorded his song "Someday Man"). Charles Manson was later rumored to have auditioned, but he was imprisoned at the time.

The concept
Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider wanted to make movies, but had little experience in that. Schneider's father was president of Columbia Pictures, and offered them the chance to make a  for a television series. If the series was sold to a network, they could produce and direct , and gain experience.

Rafelson had already wanted to produce something involving musicians, and their life. When the Beatles appeared in the movies A Hard Day's Night and Help!, people enjoyed watching them onscreen, both playing out their lives and performing  comedy, along with playing music. Rafelson and Schneider adapted what they saw in the Beatles movies, and also in American movies and television. While the Beatles were always shown as a popular, well-known band, their show would be about an unknown band, looking for the chance to become famous.

The pilot episode was filmed in the fall of 1965. A first playing for a test audience did not score well, but a re-edited version scored very well, and the series was sold to NBC. To make sure there was enough music for the series,  Don Kirshner was hired. His Brill Building songwriters were among the best young talent.

Actor James Frawley, the son of William Frawley (from I Love Lucy fame), wanted to become a movie director. He worked with Rafelson and Schneider, then with the Monkees as they were selected. Before the series began filming, Frawley spent six weeks working with the members, teaching them about  in acting and comedy, and helping them learn to play characters.

The series
The Monkees appeared for two seasons on NBC television, with 58 episodes made in all. The show won two Emmy Awards in 1967, for Outstanding Comedy Series, and Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy. The series gave promotion to the Monkees's records, while their music made people interested in watching the show. While the show's natural audience was children and teenagers, there were also jokes and other things that older viewers could enjoy. The band sometimes talked directly to the audience, and made fun of the fact that they were on a television show. Many episodes ended with short interviews with the Monkees, where they talked about their careers and things that were important to them. This made their fans feel like they knew the members of the band.

Each episode featured two songs. One was normally a single side, and the other was a new song. The band lip-synched to recordings on camera, and also filmed unrelated scenes, in random places with whatever objects were there. These were edited together and called "romps". The romps looked much like music videos.

The music
A large problem the Monkees faced was  that none of them could play a musical instrument, because the music on their first records was mostly made by studio musicians. Nesmith and Dolenz played guitar (although Dolenz was primarily a vocalist), and Dolenz took drum lessons, so he could play drums on camera. Tork played guitar, keyboards and banjo. Jones learned to play drums and guitar, and a custom bass guitar was made specially for him. He also played percussion instruments, like tambourine.

The band had little experience playing together though, and were not able to make the music needed to begin the show. The producers planned at first to use prerecorded music, and went ahead with that plan. Don Kirshner had good  for knowing what would sell well, and took charge of the recordings, limiting the input the Monkees themselves had in making the music. For most of the first season's songs, the members only sang, and did not play on the records. Boyce and Hart also noticed that when all four Monkees were together in the studio, they would try to make each other laugh during takes, and things did not get done. They began bringing the band to record in ones and twos. Kirshner also okayed Nesmith to produce two of his own songs, for each Monkees album. Nesmith could choose musicians and sing, but could not play on the records himself.

In time, the band improved musically, and wanted another chance to play on their own recordings. They also began to perform live for audiences. Kirshner would not change his mind, issued a whole album without even telling the band, and planned to issue a new single. Nesmith argued with Kirshner and his attorney (putting his own fist through a wall to show his anger), and called a , telling the media about his unhappiness with how the music was made. Many people thought this proved the Monkees were , and did not deserve to be popular. To prove themselves, the Monkees recorded a new single, then a new album, with each member playing instruments. Their new records did not sell as well as their first ones, but they felt better knowing the music was really theirs, and they still had hit records.

Kirshner issued the single "A Little Bit Me, A Little Bit You" (written by Neil Diamond), without getting an OK first. This was reason enough to fire him from the Monkees production team. Kirshner's career was not harmed, and he went on to produce other music his way, including songs for The Archies. He later hosted a show, Don Kirshner's Rock Concert, which featured bands in a live setting.

End of the series
The Monkees became tired of the same "formula" used in episode after episode of the series (Davy Jones would fall in love with a girl, and the rest of the band would help him get together with her), and wanted to try doing a variety show instead. NBC and the show's producers did not want to change the way the show was done. The two sides could not agree, and the show was cancelled, even though it was still popular.

After the television series ended, the Monkees starred in a movie, Head, and a TV special, 33 1/3 Revolutions per Monkee. Neither was successful, and the band's later records were not hits. The Monkees kept performing for audiences, but fewer and fewer people went to their shows. The band members each quit one by one. Tork left at the end of 1968, saying he was . Nesmith left in 1970, to start his own band. Jones left during 1970, and went back to performing solo.

The Monkees appeared in reruns on CBS from 1969 to 1972, first during lunchtimes and later alongside Saturday morning cartoons. ABC later aired the series, from 1972 to 1973.

The 1970s
Each former Monkee tried different things during the next decade. Tork worked as a musician, teacher and singing waiter. Nesmith pursued a country music career, then began to make videos. Jones and Dolenz both sang on records. Jones did more theater work, while Dolenz made cartoon .

Dolenz and Jones teamed up with Boyce and Hart in 1976, to tour and perform the Monkees' old hits. They also made a new album together. Later Jones and Dolenz went to England, to appear in a production of Harry Nilsson's The Point! Both stayed in England. Jones appeared in Godspell and other musical plays, and retrained as a jockey. Dolenz became a television director and producer. During these same years, Nesmith started his own company, to produce music and videos. Tork went back to performing and sometimes making records.

The Monkees appeared in  from 1975 on, usually playing on local television stations during afternoons. A compilation album, The Monkees Greatest Hits, was issued, and their old hits still played on radio stations. A second Greatest Hits album appeared later.

The 1980s and later
In 1986, Tork, Jones and Dolenz reunited, as part of an "oldies show" tour. MTV aired nearly every episode of their old series one Sunday, to promote the tour, and it became a surprise hit. Twenty years after they started, a new generation of young people were interested in the Monkees. The tour went from a small one to a major one, and the Monkees were back. MTV and the Monkees worked well together. Nickelodeon, a sister network to MTV, aired their series, and the band appeared on Nickelodeon and MTV during the late 1980s. Nesmith mostly did not join the reunion, because of his production career, but he did make a few rare appearances with them. The other members also kept their solo careers, between tours.

During the 1990s, the reunited Monkees continued to tour, and appear as guests on television. Nesmith rejoined them for a new album, Justus, a TV special, and he appeared with them onstage in England. He left when they began to tour the United States, though, and did not return. After 2000, they toured less often. Tork left again in 2001, and Jones and Dolenz last worked together in 2002.

Every episode of the TV series is for sale on DVD (as is their movie Head), and all their record releases are for sale on compact disc. Rhino Records bought the rights to all their works, and still oversees Monkees releases.

Dolenz, Tork and Jones toured the UK and USA throughout 2011. Davy Jones died on February 29, 2012 in Stuart, Florida. The Monkees then continued to tour with Nesmith, Dolenz, and Tork.

Peter Tork died on February 21, 2019, at a family home in Connecticut.   Peter succumbed to a 10-year bout with adenoid cystic carcinoma, a rare cancer of the salivary glands.

Michael Nesmith died from heart failure at his home in Carmel Valley, California on December 10, 2021, at the age of 78.

Discography
 The Monkees (1966)
 More of The Monkees (1967)
 Headquarters (1967)
 Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. (1967)
 The Birds, The Bees & the Monkees (1968)
 Head (1968)
 Instant Replay (1969)
 The Monkees Present (1969)
 Changes (1970)
 Pool It! (1987)
 Justus (1996)
 Good Times! (2016)
 Christmas Party (2018)
 The monkees live: the Mike and Micky show (2020)

Related pages
 The Monkees Tale, Eric Lefcowitz, Last Gasp Press, San Francisco, California
 Monkeemania, Glenn A. Baker, Plexus Publishing, Medford, New Jersey
 I'm A Believer, Micky Dolenz with Mark Bego, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Maryland

References

1960s American music groups
1970s American music groups
1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American boy bands
American pop rock bands
Musical groups established in 1966
Musical groups from Los Angeles
1966 establishments in California

The Monkees


SEAgel (Safe Emulsion Agar gel) is one of a class of high-tech foam materials known as aerogels. It is an excellent thermal insulator and among the least dense solids known. SEAgel was invented by Robert Morrison at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 1992. SEAgel is made of agar, a carbohydrate material that comes from kelp and red algae, and has a density of 200 mg/cm3.
SEAgel can be made lighter than air using hydrogen, causing it to float or hang in the air.  It insulates against temperature, noise, and electric current. SEAgel is also completely biodegradable, as it is made entirely of biological material and can even be eaten.

Initially, SEAgel starts out as a gelatin-like mixture of agar and water. After it is freeze-dried to remove the water, it is left as a honeycomb of dried agar filled with air, with cell sizes two to three micrometers (2-3 µm) in diameter.

SEAgel can have many different uses. Laboratory scientists use SEAgel as targets for x-ray laser experiments because it can be doped with other materials, such as selenium. In order to eliminate the volatile hydrodynamics that occur when a solid-density target explodes before it reaches the density required for lasing, scientists are trying to develop an x-ray laser target with a density that is less than the critical density of laser light (4×1021 electrons/cm3 for 0.53-µm light). SEAgel can help them achieve a more uniform plasma, which will ultimately improve the quality of the x-ray laser beam.

SEAgel could also be used as food packaging or the encapsulating material of timed-release medical pills, as it is safe to digest. SEAgel could also replace balsa wood, to insulate supertankers, and to provide sound damping in high-speed trains.

SEAgel was covered under U.S. patents 5,382,285 ("Biofoam") and 5,360,828 ("Biofoam II").

References

External links
 Physics News Update — (Story #4), August 19, 1992 by Phillip F. Schewe and Ben Stein
 MadSci Network — Re: What exactly are SEAgels?

Aerogels
Brand name materials

SEAgel


Champagne-Ardenne is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Grand Est. Its capital was Chalons-en-Champagne. Another very important city in the region is Reims.

The departments in Champagne-Ardenne were Ardennes, Aube, Marne, and Haute-Marne.

The region is heavily centered on farming. It was the first region of France in the production of barley and alfalfa. Many cereals are also grown here. It is also very important for vegetables and wine. It is nearest to the east border. Sparkling wine is officially allowed to be called champagne if it is from here.

Other websites

Former administrative regions of France

Champagne-Ardenne


In computer programming, a header file can be thought of as a dictionary a compiler uses if it comes across a word it does not understand. Mainly programming languages like C and C++ use this.

As you may know, a computer is really powerful. But it lacks the power to think and learn. As a result, a computer has to be fed each and every instruction for a task you may want done. But it is not practical to type in each and every instruction again and again for a task, especially if you tend to use it a lot. As a solution to this, header files are used. For example, consider the word "cout" which is used by C++ to display outputs on the screen. The computer, however, does not know what "cout" is. So, it checks if "cout" exists in a dictionary file (i.e. the header file) that has been mentioned by the programmer. If it finds what to do when someone says "cout", the program will be compiled properly. Otherwise, it will simply result in an error that so-and-so word has not been understood by the compiler.
A HEADER FILE IN C++ CONTAINS:
function definitions
data type definitions
macros

Computer programming

Header file


Sir Harry Campion, KCB, CBE (20 May 1905 – 24 May 1996) was a British statistician and the first director of what was the Central Statistical Office of the United Kingdom. He was also first director of the United Nations Statistical Office. He played a leading role in the development of official statistics, nationally and internationally, after the Second World War.

Background and early career

Harry Campion (later Sir Harry Campion) was born in Worsley, Lancashire, and was educated at Farnworth Grammar School and Manchester University. After leaving university, Campion joined the newly formed Cotton Trade Statistical Bureau, which collected data on output and sales of the cotton industry in the UK and also data on cotton industries of other countries and principal export markets and where he took part in the preparation of a regular digest of statistics. He spent 1932 in the United States, having been awarded a Rockefeller Foundation scholarship, then returned to Manchester University where he became Robert Ottley Reader in Statistics from 1933 to 1939 and set up an Economic Research Section carrying out applied research. While at Manchester he published research on the distribution of national capital using estate duty data and a book on public and private property. In 1939, Mr Campion joined the Central Economic Intelligence Service (CEIS), part of the War Cabinet Office, whose purpose was to provide economic and statistical material for a continuous survey of financial and economic plans and where Campion's role was to organise the statistics needed.

Career at the Central Statistical Office

In January 1941, the Central Statistical Office was established to co-ordinate all statistics brought before the War Cabinet and soon after, Campion became its first director. The CSO became established as a permanent feature of government focusing on the development of national income accounts. After the war, Campion was seconded to the United Nations for a year to organise the creation of the United Nations Statistical Office. Following this secondment, Campion returned to the CSO until his retirement in March 1967.

Some of the statistical products which first saw the light of day in the Harry Campion era are:

Monthly Digest of Statistics, first published in 1946.
Statistics of Trade Act 1947.
Standard Industrial Classification, completed in 1947 and introduced in 1948.
Annual Abstract, first post-war publication at beginning of 1948.
Index of Industrial Production, first published in February 1948.
Economic Trends, appeared in November 1953.
Development of the National accounts including:
Employment Policy White Paper, first published in 1946.
National Income and Expenditure Blue Book, first produced in September 1952.
Sources and Methods, first edition published in 1956.
quarterly estimates of national expenditure, first published in 1957.
constant price estimates, appeared in 1959.
seasonally adjusted estimates, appeared in 1960.
quarterly balance of payments estimates and the Balance of Payments Pink Book, first published in 1960.
Financial Statistics, first appeared in 1962.

United Nations

After the Second World War, the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) invited a number of prominent national statisticians, including Harry Campion, to form a 'Nuclear' Statistical Commission, which met from 1–14 May 1946 and made recommendations for the composition and terms of a permanent commission on statistics; the organisation of a statistical organisation; the disposition of existing statistical activities conducted by the League of Nations; the relationship between the statistical activities of the UN and specialised agencies; and the relationship between the statistical activities of the UN and other non-governmental organisations.  Shortly afterward, Campion was seconded, at the request of the first Secretary General of the United Nations, Mr Trygve Lie, to the UN for a year to organise the creation of the United Nations Statistical Office.

Death and bequests

Sir Harry Campion died in 1996 aged 91.

On his death, Sir Harry Campion bequeathed half the residue of his estate to the Royal Statistical Society, who decided to commemorate him and the prominent part he played in the development of official statistics through a Fellowship. The Campion Fellowship ia awarded every two years with the maximum sum of money available on any occasion being £10,000, to Fellows of the Society to promote a specific piece of work or project that would make a significant contribution to the development, use or exposition of statistics on the economic or social well being of the population.

The Manchester Statistical Society was also a beneficiary of the estate of Sir Harry Campion and similarly the bequest was placed into a trust fund to provide occasional modest grants to support research consistent with the Society's objective and history.

Posts held

Director, Central Statistical Office, UK, 1941–1967.
Member of the 'Nuclear' United Nations Statistics Commission, 1–15 May 1946.
Director, United Nations Statistical Office, 1946–1947
Chairman, United Nations Statistics Commission, 1951 & 1953.
President, Royal Statistical Society, 1957–1959.
President, International Statistical Institute, 1963–1967.
Vice-President, Manchester Statistical Society.

Awards

CBE (1945).
CB (1949).
RSS Guy Medal in Silver (1950).
KCB (1957).
Fellow of the American Statistical Association (1961)
Honorary LLB, Manchester (1967).

References

Further reading

Ward, R & Doggett, T. (1991). Keeping Score: The First Fifty Years of the Central Statistical Office. London: HMSO.
Obituary: Sir Harry Campion, 1905–96, W. Rudoe, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (Statistics in Society), Vol. 160, No. 1 (1997), pp. 148–151

External links
Report to the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations on the first session of the Statistics Commission held from 27 January to 7 February 1947, paragraph 7, page 4.
United Nations Statistics Division
"Monthly Digest of Statistics", ONS. Retrieved 15 June 2006.
"Statistics of Trade Act 1947", (as amended), ONS library service. Retrieved 15 June 2007.
"Introduction to UK Standard Industrial Classification of Economic Activities UK SIC(92)", ONS. Retrieved 15 June 2007.
"Annual Abstract of Statistics", ONS. Retrieved 15 June 2007.
"Index of Production – UK", ONS. Retrieved 15 June 2007.
"Economic Trends", ONS. Retrieved 15 June 2007.
"United Kingdom National Accounts – The Blue Book", ONS. Retrieved 15 June 2007.
"United Kingdom Balance of Payments – The Pink Book", ONS. Retrieved 15 June 2007.
"Financial Statistics", ONS. Retrieved 15 June 2007.

1905 births
1996 deaths
People from Worsley
English civil servants
English statisticians
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Alumni of the University of Manchester
Directors of the Central Statistical Office (United Kingdom)
Civil servants in the Cabinet Office
Fellows of the American Statistical Association
Presidents of the Royal Statistical Society
Presidents of the International Statistical Institute
People educated at Farnworth Grammar School
20th-century English mathematicians

Harry Campion


The Sauropterygia was a superorder of successful aquatic reptiles that flourished during the Mesozoic era. They are united by an adaptation of their shoulder, designed to support powerful paddle strokes. Some later sauropterygians like the pliosaurs developed a similar mechanism in their pelvis.

Origins and evolution
The earliest sauropterygians appeared about 245 million years ago, at the start of the Triassic period. At first they were small, less than a metre. They were semi-aquatic lizard-like animals with long limbs (called pachypleurosaurs). They developed into a group called the nothosaurs, several meters long. The sauropterygians included another very distinctive group: the placodonts. They were bottom-feeders on shellfish, and possessed flat, crushing teeth to handle their prey.p148–151

The end-Triassic extinction event wiped them all out except for the plesiosaurs. During the earliest Jurassic these diversified quickly into the long-necked small-headed plesiosaurs proper, and short-necked large-headed pliosaurs.

Orders
Nothosaurs
Pachypleurosaurs
Placodonts
Plesiosaurs

Position uncertain
Pistosaurus

References

Other websites
 A review of the Sauropterygia . Adam Stuart Smith. The Plesiosaur Directory. Retrieved April 17, 2006.
 Paleofile taxalist - lists every species and synonyms. Retrieved February 26, 2006

Sauropterygia


Shawn Lane (March 21, 1963 – September 26, 2003) was an American musician. He was a solo guitarist.

At the age of 4, he began taking vocal lessons, cello lessons and piano lessons. By age ten, he picked up a guitar and found out he was better with a guitar than his other instruments. He joined a band at the age of fifteen and played in bars and clubs.

A few years later he started playing shows again. He began to tour with his own band, playing guitar and keyboard. In February 2003, Lane accomplished one of his life long dreams and toured over India with his band. When they left India, they were called "true rock heroes" by the people. In September 2003, when getting ready to make an album with the Swedish bassist Jonas Hellborg and drummer Ginger Baker, Lane had bad breathing problems. He was told by doctors that he would have to remain on medical oxygen for the rest of his life. On Friday, September 23, 2003, he died.

Other websites
Official site
Official discography
Fan forum

1963 births
2003 deaths
Lane, Shawn
Lane, Shawn
Deaths from lung disease
Musicians from Memphis, Tennessee
Warner Bros. Records artists

Shawn Lane


An asymptomatic carrier (healthy carrier or just carrier) is a person or other animal which has become infected with a pathogen, but who shows no signs or symptoms. Although unaffected by the pathogen themselves, carriers can transmit it to others.

Typhoid fever

History
Mary Mallon, known as "Typhoid Mary", was an asymptomatic carrier of Salmonella enterica, the causative agent of typhoid fever. She worked as a cook for several families in New York City at the beginning of the twentieth century and she also cooked for the soldiers. Several cases of typhoid fever in members of those families were traced to her by the Health Department. It appeared that she "carried" the infectious agent without becoming sick. At the time, there was no way of eradicating the disease.

References

Infectious diseases

Asymptomatic carrier


John Robertson Reid (1851–1926) was a Scottish painter who spent his early working life in Surrey, and then from the early 1880s in Cornwall in the wild south-west of England. He became the president of the Society of British Artists in 1886 and the Society of Sculptors, Painters and Gravers in 1898. These posts gave him an entree into London society, and from the early 1900s he made his home in London.  In Reid's later years, the young Sir Winston Churchill used to paint outdoors in the company of Reid.

He trained under George Chalmers and William MacTaggart.  His mature style was influenced by the move in painting toward rural Naturalism (Sir George Clausen) and the French Realists (Jules Bastien-Lepage) and also owes a little to Impressionism.  He first found success with natural outdoor scenes of the Surrey countryside, and was notable at the time for painting his scenes entirely on location, with the use of hired local people posing in the scene. He also painted notable rural cricket match scenes, one of which now contain details of interest to cricketing historians.  This is A Country Cricket Match, painted in the grounds at the rear of The Well House, West Sussex.

His sisters, Lizzie Reid and Flora MacDonald Reid (1879-c.1929), were also exhibiting artists.  Reid was the great-uncle of Sir Norman Reid, Director of the Tate Gallery.

External links

Reid at The Tate website and Reid's A Country Cricket Match at The Tate
Liverpool Museum podcast about Reid's A Country Cricket Match (10 minutes).
Arrest of a Smuggler, now at Looe in Cornwall.

19th-century Scottish painters
Scottish male painters
20th-century Scottish painters
Scottish landscape painters
1851 births
1926 deaths
19th-century Scottish male artists
20th-century Scottish male artists

John Robertson Reid


Johann Sebastian Bach wis a German componer. He wis born on 21 Mairch 1685 in Eisenach, til a faimlie o muisicians. He wrat monie o his muisical warks for uiss in the kirk: Passions frae John an Matthew, oratorios an aboot 300 cantatas, monie o whilk canna be foond. Forbye he wrat muisic for the muisical instruments fiddle, cello, flute, organ, harpsichord and clavichord. For orchestra, he componed amang ithers the weel-kent sax Brandenburg concerti. He wis mairrit twa times an haed 20 bairns, some o them becam muisicians an aa. He dee'd on 28 Julie 1750 in Leipzig.

Atho he haes past awa, his muisic is aye gey influential wi us. His muisic wis unco rich an deep, an wis loved by ane an aa. An atho he wisna widely kent o in his time, he is ane o the warld's maist beloved muisicians in history, the day.

1685 births
1750 daiths
18t-century German fowk
Anglican saunts
Johann Sebastian Bach
Baroque componers
Buirials at St. Thomas Kirk, Leipzig
Classical componers o kirk muisic
Componers for cello
Componers for lute
Componers for pipe organ
Componers for violin
German clessical organists
German componers
German Lutherans
Muisic in Leipzig
Organ improvisers
Organists an componers in the North German tradeetion
Fowk celebratit in the Lutheran leeturgical calendar
Fowk frae Eisenach
Fowk frae Saxe-Eisenach
Thomaskantors
18t-century componers

Johann Sebastian Bach


The Churches of God (Seventh Day) is composed of a number of sabbath-keeping churches, among which the General Conference of the Church of God, or simply CoG7, is the best-known organization. The Churches of God (Seventh Day) observe the Sabbath on Saturday, the seventh day of the week.

History
The Church of God (Seventh Day) represents a line of Sabbatarian Adventists that rejected the visions and teachings of Ellen G. White before the formation of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in 1863. Robert Coulter, ex-president and official historian of the General Conference of the Church of God (Seventh Day), in his book The Journey: A History of the Church of God (Seventh Day) (2014) credits  (1814–1903) of Michigan as being the founder of the church. Cranmer was a Christian Connection minister and a biblical Unitarian. He was introduced to Sabbath keeping in 1852 by Joseph Bates, known as the founder and developer of Sabbatarian Adventism. In 1858, five years before the founding of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, a group led by Cranmer separated from the Adventists who supported James Springer White and Ellen G. White. Another independent Sabbatarian Adventist body formed in Iowa in 1860, and joined with the Church of God (Seventh Day) in 1863.

A publication called The Hope of Israel (now The Bible Advocate) was started in 1863, and this publication extended the influence of the body into other areas. Through this publication, the doctrines of the second advent and the seventh-day Sabbath were promoted, and other Christians were invited to gather for meetings. This extended the movement into Missouri, Nebraska and other places, and in 1884 the General Conference of the Church of God was organized. They incorporated in 1899, and "(Seventh Day)" was added to the name in 1923. Offices were established in Stanberry, Missouri.

A. N. Dugger and C. O. Dodd (1935) wrote a book attempting to trace the Church's history back to the Apostles through various medieval groups that they believed were Sabbath-keeping. In the case of some of these groups, such as the Waldensians and Paulicians, that claim is disputed.

A well-publicized member of the church was evangelist Herbert W. Armstrong (1893–1986). In 1927 Armstrong was challenged by his wife, Loma, to find a biblical justification for keeping Sunday as the Christian Sabbath. Loma had come under the influence of Emma Runcorn, a member of the Seventh Day church in the Willamette Valley of Oregon. Runcorn and her husband Ora were lay leaders in the Oregon conference. Armstrong soon became a minister for that church and a writer for the Bible Advocate journal. Within a few years, Armstrong began teaching the British-Israel Theory – the alternative history that regarded the nations of Western Europe and North America as the literal descendants of the "Lost Ten Tribes" of Israel – and the mandatory keeping of the Feast Days in Leviticus 23. Armstrong disassociated himself from the Church of God (7th Day) - Salem Conference over these two issues, which were not original doctrines of the Churches of God (7th Day); years later, Church of God (7th Day) revoked his ministerial credentials with their Church, but by this time he was well-established in his own church, the Radio Church of God.

The division of 1933
The following information concerning the division of 1933 is taken from an online history book, History of the Seventh Day Church of God, by Richard C. Nickels.

The Church of God (Seventh Day) was unified up until 1933. According to A. N. Dugger a Church of God historian, and leader of one of the factions at the time, many in the Church of God felt the need for a "Bible Organization" for the Church of God. They also wanted to move the church's world headquarters to Jerusalem. They held a conference in Salem, West Virginia, on November 4, 1933.

Pressure was mounting for more unity from roughly half of the membership. While others felt that they were being denied freedom of expression. Dugger and his followers wanted a reorganization of church doctrine. Including clean meats, no tobacco, and observing the Passover on Nisan 14. While Burt F. Marrs led a group of "independents" who were believed pork and tobacco were fine, and that the Passover should be observed on Nisan 15. At this point, Dugger and his followers decided to establish the Salem Conference headquarters in Salem West Virginia, at which point they started printing the Bible Advocate.
As a result, from 1933 to 1949 there were two separate Church of God organizations, one at Stanberry, Missouri, and the other at Salem, West Virginia.

The headquarters in Salem still exists today with members worldwide. They are formally organized under the apostolic model (twelve apostles, seventy elders and seven men to oversee the business affairs of the church). Shortly afterwards, Dugger left the Salem Conference.

1940s reunification
The following information concerning the reunification in the 1940s is taken from History of the Seventh Day Church of God by Richard C. Nickels.

The first attempt for a merger between the Stanberry and Salem Conferences occurred in 1942. A copyright lawsuit concerning the Bible Advocate magazine and the publication of the Bible Home Instructor hindered the merger. In 1947, the Salem Council of Ministers asked Stanberry to appoint a committee to meet with their committee to discuss a new attempt for a merger. The two churches met at Fairview, Oklahoma, on February 12–17, 1948. Because of the laws under which the Stanberry group was incorporated, the earliest possible time the union of the two groups could take place was August 1949. The merger was voted on August 12–20, 1949, and the first issue of the combined Bible Advocate came out on October 3, 1949. Charles Monroe, who wrote A Synoptic History of the Churches of God in the Latter Days, (Facts of Our Faith, January, 1969, pages 12–25) related, "the merger did not unite all of the Church of God."

"Back to Salem" movement
The following information concerning the "Back to Salem" Movement of 1950 are taken from History of the Seventh Day Church of God by Richard C. Nickels.

As early as 1949, ministers F. L. Summers and his son-in-law Chris Royer went back to Salem and established a headquarters there. The "Back to Salem" movement broke into at least three factions: 1. The original Salem people who stayed at Salem with it as headquarters; 2. Dugger and Severson, who went to Jerusalem; and 3. Olson and Groshans, who formed the Seventh Day Church of God in Caldwell, Idaho. The Salem Conference started to publish a magazine, The Advocate of Truth, in February 1950. Salem is purported to believe that the saints will be raptured to the sea of glass while the seven last plagues will be poured out. It differs with the Denver Group in the date for the annual Lord's Supper, which they calculate according to the spring equinox.

In September 1952, Dugger, after returning from an extended trip to Nigeria to visit Church of God groups, decided to move to Jerusalem to start The Mount Zion Reporter in 1953. Possibly doctrinal issues led to Dugger's exit to Israel.

The 1948/49 Stanberry Merger of the Church of God (Seventh Day), also known as the Denver Group, contains the largest number of Church of God people today, but it is not the only significant Church of God center. The Stanberry conference, with headquarters moved to Denver, Colorado, typically uses the name General Conference of the Church of God (Seventh-Day), with "Seventh" spelled out and often with a hyphen.

A number of Churches of God (7th Day) in Salem, West Virginia still stand with locations all across the United States and around the world. These usually follow a set of 40 points of doctrine.

Doctrine and practices
This section mainly uses the General Conference of the Church of God (Seventh Day) [Denver Conference] Statement of Faith as a reference. Although the doctrinal beliefs among the General Council Churches of God, (Seventh-Day), Inc. in Meridian, Idaho and different Churches of God (7th Day) or (Seventh Day) are very similar, some major points of disagreement still remain, either concerning christological beliefs or church organization.

Outlining some beliefs of the Churches of God (7th Day), the Statement of Faith of the General Conference of the Church of God (Seventh Day) - Denver Conference states the following:
 Christology has been a long debated issue in the Churches of God (7th Day). Cranmer, the founder of the Church of God (Seventh Day), left the Methodist Church to join the Christian Connection "over the doctrine of the Trinity". Cranmer was a biblical Unitarian. He did not believe Jesus preexisted his birth and he "believed the Father alone is God." Today, according to the Denver Conference, God is revealed in Scripture as Father and Son. From eternity the Son existed with Father and shared His glory (Section 2). This christological belief is a departure from their long-held doctrinal beliefs in that regard. The Denver Conference, part of the greatest Church of God (7th Day) movement, had an Arian christology for much of the twentieth century, before leaving part of their heritage and reverting to a more classical view of Christ. Nota bene: The Salem Conference, the Churches previously affiliated or linked to the Jerusalem Conference and a number of independent Churches of God (7th Day) still believe that Jesus Christ, as the Word of God, is a created being. Some independent churches or individuals retain a biblical Unitarian christology. A position paper written by the Jerusalem Conference states the following:

According to the Denver Conference, salvation is by God's grace, received by faith in Jesus Christ apart from good works, human merit, or ceremony (Section 4). Obedience to the moral law, while not a means to salvation, is encouraged as an important part of Christian living. Eating of unclean meats such as pork and shellfish is discouraged, as is the observance of Christmas and Easter, due to their pagan roots (Section 10). The Salem Conference and churches associated with the Jerusalem Conference strongly discourage the use of tobacco, alcohol and any other drugs as well. Furthermore, according to the Salem Conference, "There are three basic precepts that we must follow in order to obtain salvation and receive the gift of eternal life" : 1) To love the LORD your God; 2) to accept Jesus Christ as your personal savior, repent of our sins, and become baptized in the name of the "Lord Jesus Christ"; and 3) to continually strive for a better understanding of God's truth. According to this same Conference, "The key point here is that in order to be approved unto God, we must study his word. Our salvation depends upon it.".
Mankind is mortal, and the soul is unconscious in death (Section 3). The wicked who reject Christ until the end will face the judgment of annihilation, not eternal torment in hellfire (Section 12).
Two church ordinances are observed—baptism by immersion and an annual Lord's supper service (with washing of feet), observed annually on the day of Jesus's death, Nisan 14 (Section 6).
On tithing, the Denver Conference differs from the Salem Conference and the churches associated with the Jerusalem headquarters. The Salem and Jerusalem Churches of God (7th Day) still believe tithing to be an obligation for believers today. According to the Salem Conference: "All members of God's church are required to contribute a tenth part of their increase to the work of the church", a statement to which the Jerusalem Churches and other churches more or less related to that conference agree as stated in their 40 Points of Doctrine that reads: "The paying of tithes on all increase is a continued obligation. This portion of our earnings belongs to יהוה, and should be placed in his work. Malachi 3:10; Matthew 23:23".
All three groups object to military service and participation in physical warfare. The Salem and Jerusalem Conferences have a stronger stance on the question, condemning participation in "carnal warfare" rather than simply discouraging it.
 A peculiarity, the Church of God (7th Day) - Salem Conference is organized according to the "apostolic model." They currently have twelve apostles, seventy prophets and seven stewards. This belief may be found on page 13 of their doctrinal statement of beliefs. An article for their FAQs section states:

 Still another group, with headquarters located in Meridian, Idaho, object to the hierarchical form of church governance found in the Denver Conference and in the Salem Conference. This group, the General Council Churches Of God (Seventh Day) Inc., favors a congregationalist polity for the Church. According to them:

The Jerusalem Conference still believe that headcovering is mandatory for women in public worship.

Membership
As of 2010, the Church of God (Seventh Day) has 233 congregations in the United States and Canada, with an estimated 14,000 members. As for the Denver Conference, the worldwide membership in its International Ministerial Congress is over 200,000 members, with affiliated ministries in more than 40 countries. Central offices for the North American conference are in Denver as of 2015, with Elder Loren Stacy serving as its president. The Denver Conference is a member of the Bible Sabbath Association (org. 1943), an organization promoting "fellowship and cooperation between Sabbath-keepers of various groups." The Salem conference has members in South Africa.

See also
 Adventism
 Millerism
 Sabbath in Christianity
 Sacred Name Movement

References

External links
 Church of God
 Church of God (Seventh Day) United States and Canada
 Church of God (Seventh Day) Salem WV
 Church of God 7th Day (Jerusalem)
 Church of God (Seventh Day) Jamaica Conference
 General Council of the Churches of God (Seventh Day) Inc
 British Conference of the Church of God (Seventh Day)
 Meridian Church of God Seventh Day
 Profile of the Church of God (Seventh Day) on the Association of Religion Data Archives website
 Various information, rare literature and grave sites of the Church of God pioneers and wives
 History of the Seventh Day Church of God, compiled by Richard C Nickels

Adventism
Christian denominations established in the 19th century
Protestant denominations established in the 19th century
Nontrinitarian denominations
Seventh-day denominations
1858 establishments in the United States

Church of God (Seventh Day)